-^.. ^^^ ^^A v^ ^^ ., > '0,. '^. '" . '• ■ \V^ '^-. .^^^ ,^:^^"V. o^' ,-\- * 8 1 1 "■ \V ,0 0, >0 O^ ,0- 1/ I 1 " V V .^^' V. v. •is A" ^^ ^- : ■^•^' ^/'. ' '■^7 >■> f. ■% o A>\^ c^^^ '• " , ■'^' ,0 a \ y.. ^ c- ^ ^^ ' ' c- "r -^^ ,V||^^ ^' <■ ' o , >. ■* A a -< -A > \'^^ '^. '-'^ ^°^- ^0 -ft r C3 CJ «, 1=>. ^XXa «lo. COI»V 3. ^F ALEXANDER JOHNSTON, LL.D. HISTORY OF AMERICAN POLITICS. Third Edition, Enlarged. Revised by WILLIAM M. SLOANE, Ph.D., L.H.D. New York: HENRY HOLT & CO. i6mo, PP- 355- HIGH-SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. With Maps, Plans, and Illustrations. Revised and Continued by W. M. Daniels. Farther Revised and Continued by WM. MACDONALD. New York: HENRY HOLT & CO. i2mo, pp. 6oo. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. For Schools. With an Introductory History of the Discovery and English Colonization of North America. With Maps, Plans, Illus- trations, and Questions. Revised and Con- tinued by W. M. Daniels. New York: HENRY HOLT & CO. i2mo, pp. 499. A SHORTER HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. For Schools. With an Introductory History of the Discovery and English Cok)nization of North America. With Maps, Plans, and References to Sup- plementary Reading. New York : HENRY Holt & Co. i2mo, pp. 340. AMERICAN ORATIONS. FROM THE COLONIAL PERIOD TO THE PRESENT Time. Selected as specimens of eloquence, and with special reference to their value in throwing light upon the more important epochs and issues of American History. Edited, with introduction and notes, by ALEXANDER JOHNSTON. New York: G.:P._PWnaM'S Sons. Three volumes, i6rh®.' '; : THE UNITED STATES : Its History and Con-stituti-in. New York : CHARLES ScriqNer's Sons. L- •\\ Copyright, 1885, 1894, 1897, 1902, BY HENRY HOLT & CO. c^^ ;1 PREFACE. So many school histories of the United States are already in existence, and their preparation has been so excellent in the d^g^ls^ of idea and execution, that some apology seems to be needed for' this addition to their number. The apology will be found, it is hoped, in the special purpose with which this book has been written. It is submitted that the designs which have usually controlled our school histories are impossible of fulfilment, and, even if possi- ble, would not serve the most useful purpose. There are already in existence books in abundance which tell stories in the manner most attractive to pupils at the most imaginative period of life ; and the pupil's mind, if properly directed by the teacher, will turn to tliem naturally and derive more satisfaction and instruction from them than can be gained from any school history of usable compass. It hardly seems wise for a school history to force itself into a hope- less competition in a field which has already been so fully pre- empted. History is a task and a method of mental discipline; our school histories attempt to relieve it, as no one attempts to relieve grammar or arithmetic, by story-telling. One result has been that the history of the comparatively unimportant colonial period has been assigned an inordinately large space. So much room is given to the stories of Smith and Pocahontas, Putnam and the wolf, and similar episodes, that the real history of the United States is cramped, marred, and brought to a lame and impotent conclusion. Judging from the space usually assigned to each, a reader must con- •clude that the history of the United States deserves a much larg-er iv PBEFAGE. treatment tor the time when the United States did not exist thah for the time of its prominence as a nation — for a time when the population was but 200,000 than for the time when the population was 50,000,000. The reason generally advanced for the transfer of the stirring stories of the past out of the reading book or general reading into the school histories is that they stimulate the minds of pupils to an emulation of the great deeds which are narrated. In isolated cases the reason may be valid; there may have been cases in which the mind of some pupil has been thus stimulated with useful effect/ But the mass of pupils have no opportunity to exhibit any such re- sult ; their need is to learn from the history of the past how best to perform the simple and homely duties of good citizenship. Very few of the boys in our schools will ever have an opjjortunity to ex- hibit, in the foundation of a colony, the patient virtues of the Pil- grim Fathers or the executive ability of John Smith ; almost every one of them will soon be called upon to give his conclusion by vote upon questions which involve some understanding of the political, financial, or economic problems of the past. It seems unfair, as well as unwise, to disregard the needs of the great mass in favor of the desires of the very few, especially as the latter will be certain to gratify their desires in a more natural way elsewhere. In the ordinary school course, no place can well be made for treatises on the duties of citizenship, on political economy, or on finance. Even if they could be introduced, their most valuable portions would consist of deductions from the events recorded in a history such as this. The effort to inculcate the lesson with the facts, if applied to the usual school history, would make it hopelessly bulky. Something must be dropped ; and it seems unwise to retain the stories where they conflict with far more important matters whose omission the ordinary school course will never supply. The typical school-boy must get his political, economic, and financial education from his school history of the United States, if he is to get it at all. The design of this book, then, is not simply to detail the events which make up the history of the United States, but to group those events which seem likely to shed light on the responsibilities of the citizen to the present or future, and to give the student the iight in connection with the event. In this process the effort has PREFACE. V been made, with caution and with a studied simplicity of language, to interest the pupil in the wonderful development of the United States and the difficult economic problems which have grown out of it. If, in so doing, the peculiar province of the story -writer has been abandoned, the abandonment does not seem to the writer a real sacrifice. Wherever further compression has been necessary, it has been applied at the beginning, at the time when there was no " United States," with the design of giving as much space as pos- sible to our national history. And in every place where it has seemed possible, the attention of the pupil has been directed to the peculiar circumstances and limitations of the time under considera- tion, and to the idea of growth to be attained by a comparison with the present. For much the same reasons, other topics, not essential to the main subject, such as the tribal institutions of the abo- rigines, and the Spanish conquests of Mexico and Peru, have been left untouched. And, in narrating the wars of the United States, while the effort has been made to give the pupil a definite idea of the purposes, plans, and results of campaigns, it has not seemed best to cumber the narration with a catalogue of engagements and commanders, whose very names are only a spring of confusion to the mind of the pupil. As the book is not intended to be a story-book, so it is not intended to be a picture-book. Maps in abundance seem to the author the only legitimate embellishment of a school history. While the pictures in this volume have been restricted to illustra- tions of such persons and things as are pertinent to the text, they have been introduced with regret, and only as a yielding to the present prejudice which denies an effective audience to the school history not so illustrated. It is to be hoped that the time will soon come when the space now surrendered to the graphic additions of the average school-boy's pencil will be utilized to better purpose. The special features of treatment in the volume are grouped in the " Suggestions to Teachers," which follow, and the attention of those interested is invited to them. The commanding position already attained by the United States, which can only become more overshadowing in the future, has made it evident that the future American citizen must be taught to think more of the responsibilities of the present than of the pic- turesque events of the past. The enormous political edifice which VI PREFACE. has appeared in central North America is rising with such increas- ing swiftness that every good citizen must feel a sense of personal responsibility for its continuance and good management. This vol. lime is an attempt to lead American youth to be " good citizens," in this sense of the phrase ; and, whatever defects of execution it may show, the writer is confident that the spirit of the attempt will have the sympathy of every friend of education. Princeton, i^f. J., June 1, 1885. PUBLISHERS' NOTE To THE Third Edition (1897). The previous editions of this work have undergone a revision at the hands of Prof. W. M. Daniels of Princeton University. The changes made consist in minor alterations in the body of the text; in the substitution of the returns of the Census of 1890 for the earlier figures ; and in the addition of two chapters covering the last two Administrations, and a Bibliography. PUBLISHERS' NOTE To THE Fourth Edition (1902). The concluding chapter of this edition, on President McKinley's first Administration, is by Professor William MacDonald of Brown University. SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. I. Geography has been applied to the history by the intro- duction of questions on the locations of the places referred to in the text. These have been placed at the end, instead of at the begin- ning, of the chapters, merely because most teachers prefer them in that position. They may be used at the end, at the beginning, or in connection with the text, according to the teacher's preference. II. Maps have been supplied, the author hopes, in abundance. The general map contains most of the geographical names referred to in the text. In addition, the small maps will furnish the special locations called for by the chapter. But, in all cases, the school atlas is a better aid to recitation than any maps which a history can offer. It is recommended that the pupil be allowed and directed to keep his school atlas open before him during recitations, and to answer geographical questions from it. This is no more than is done by adults in reading history. This note will explain the occa- sional introduction of questions, such as the location of Geneva, Switzerland, which can only be answered from a school atlas. III. Geographical Groups. — The text itself has been ar- ranged, as far as possible, with careful attention to geographical unity. In the narrative of the Revolution, for example, the opera- tions in each geographical section have been kept distinct and com- plete in themselves, with only the suggestion, by cross-references, of the connecting links which show the unity of the whole conflict. IV. Chronology has been treated as subordinate, in the text, to the greater importance of geographical unity. It has not seemed proper to sacrifice it altogether ; and an exact chronologi- cal summary has therefore been added to each chapter. Geog- vui SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. raphy and chronology, " the two eyes of history," have thus i>een given, it is hoped, their due and proper places. V. Two Sizes of Type have been used throughout the book. The matter in larger type is itself a complete work. The smaller type is not intended necessarily for recitation, but for reading, for reference, or for comment and amplification by the teach- er. The plan of the work requires the introduction of a consider- able amount of statistics. As a general thing these have been in- troduced in the finer type only. Where it has seemed necessary to introduce them in the coarser type, it is recommended that only round numbers be called for. To many pupils, their school history re- mains in after-life their chief book of reference on the subject. For this reason, it has been necessary to introduce more exact figures than should be demanded in recitation. VI. Cross-References are, as teachers know, one of the most essential features of historical study. Under the current systems it is impossible to induce the average pupil to use them, for they are placed in foct-notes, and expressed in language which requires a technical mode of thought to comprehend. The new feature of this book is that its sections are numbered consecutively from beginning to end, from § 1 to § 953. It is thus easy to introduce the cross-ref- erences, in parentheses, into the body of the text, where the pupil cannot fail to see them and can comprehend them with a single and very slight mental effort. Cross-references are therefore profuse in this book. It is hoped that the teacher will make constant use of them, for they are in themselves the best of reviews. VII. State Histories, in brief summary, have been given for all the new States. No pupil is expected to recite on any of them except that of his own State. This will explain the absence of questions for these portions of the work. VIII. Questions are given at the foot of the page, except m the cases of the State histories just mentioned, and in some of the notes in fine print which are evidently only explanatory. IX. Catch-words, covering the general topic under treat- ment, are printed in heavy type at the beginning of each section. It is recommended that, for each recitation, the pupil be required to write in order the catch-words of all the sections of the lesson, and that his list be used by him in following the recitation through- out. It is well, occasionally and without previous notice, to coT\- SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHEHS. Ix duct the recitation entirely from these lists, the teacher doing nothing more than call up successive pupils for recitation, and each reciting from the catch-word of the section under consideration. X. Under all circumstances, it must be remembered that no school history can do anything more than provide the skeleton, which the teacher must direct the pupil in clothing with flesh and blood. A book which promises or attempts to do the teacher's work for him is a predestined failure and disappointment. The very best that can be hoped for a work of this kind is that it may add a percentage to the eiBciency of the teacher's work If that pur- pose has been attained, the author will feel under personal and pro- fess-ional obligations to teachers who direct his attention to defects or difficulties in execution. TABLE OF CONTENTS, INTRODUCTION. DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION. PAGE Period I. — Discovery 1 Period II. — Settlement 12 Period III. — Colonization to 1750 21 The English Colonies in general 21 Massachusetts Bay Colony 25 New Hampshire 31 Connecticut , 32 Rhode Island 35 Vermont 37 New England in general 37 Virginia 42 Maryland 47 North Carolina 49 South Carolina 52 Georgia 54 The Southern Colonies in general 56 New York. , 57 New Jersey 61 Pennsylvania 62 Delaware 64 The Colonies in general 65 Period IV.— Colonial History, 1750-63 68 French Settlement 68 French and Indian War 72 State of the Colonies in 1763 79 Period V. — Colonial Resistance, 1763-75 82 The Stamp Act and Tea Tax 83 Lexington and Concord 91 State of the Colonies, 1775 95 Xll TABLE OF CONTENTS HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Chapter I.— The Revolution: 1775-83. PAGE The Rise of the Republic 97 Events at Boston * * ' 93 Events in Canada " J02 Events in England aod on the Coast ', lo;^ Independence jq^. Events i u the Middle States, 1776-8 !".!!/.!*."..!.*."..".'!'. 106 Btirgoyne's Expedition, 1777 Ill Aid from France, 1778 114 Events in the North, 1778-83 '.*.!""."!]!!!!!! 116 Events on the Ocean, 1776-83 ._ .......... 122 Events in the Soutli, 1778-81 124 Yorktovt'n, 1781 130 Peace, 1783 133 Chapter II. — The Confederation: 1781-9. Failure of the Confederation 136 Formation of the Constitution 140 State of the Country, 1789 144 Chapter III. — Washington's Administrations: 1789-97. Washington's Administrations 148 Chapter IV.— John Adams's Administration: 1797-1801. John Adams's Administration 161 Chapter V.— Jefferson's Admenistbations: 1801-9. Jefferson's Administrations 166 Domestic Affairs 167 Foreign Affairs 170 Chapter VI.— Madison's Administrations: 1809-17. Madison's Administrations 174 Declaration of War against Great Britain 174 State of the Country, 1812 175 Failures in the North, 1812-14 177 Successes on the Ocean 181 Successes on the Lakes 186 Disasters on the Atlantic Coast 189 Pissatisfaction at Home 191 TABLE OF CONTENTS. XUl PAGE Successes in the North, 1814. . . 192 Successes in the Southwest, 1813-15 194 Peace 196 Internal Affairs 197 Chapter VII. — Monroe's Administrations. 1817-25. Monroe's Administrations 201 Chapter VIII.— J. Q. Adams's Administration: 1825-9. John Quiucy Adams's Administration 209 Chapter IX. — Jackson's Administrations: 1829-37. Jackson's Administrations 214 Internal Affairs 214 Political Affairs 225 Chapter X. — Van Buren's Administration: 1837-41. Van Buren's Administration 233 Chapter XI. — Harrison's and Tyler's Administration: 1841-5. Harrison's and Tyler's Administration 239 Chapter XII. — Polk's Administration: 1845-9. Polk's Administration 247 Internal Affairs 247 War with Mexico, 1846 251 Operations on the Pacific Coast, 1846-7 253 Operations in Northern Mexico, 1846-7 254 Operations in Central Mexico, 1847 256 Peace, 1848 259 Chapter XIII. — Taylor's and Fillmore's Administration: 1849-53. Taylor's and Fillmore's Administration 264 Chapter XIV.— Pierce's Administration: 1853-7. Pierce's Administration 271 Internal Affairs 271 Foreign Affairs 272 Slavery and Politics .... 274 XiV TABLE OF CONTENTS. Chapter XV.— Buchanan's Administration: 1857-61, PA(3E Bucuanan s Administration 280 Internal Affairs 280 Slavery and Politics 286 Sectional Division 289 Secession 292 Chapter XVI.— Lincoln's Administration: 1861-5. Lincoln's Administration 297 Events of 1861 297 Events of 1862 307 In the West 307 On the Coast 313 In the East 317 Internal Affairs 323 Foreign Affairs ^ 324 Events of 1863 326 In the East 326 In the West 323 On the Coast 334 Internal Affairs 335 Foreign Affairs 337 Events of 1864 338 In the East 339 In the West 344 On the Coast 348 On the Ocean 350 Internal Affairs 351 Events of 1865; Conclusion of the War 353 Death of President Lincoln 357 Military Summary of the War 359 Chapter XVII. — Johnson's Administration: 1865-9. Johnson's Administration 365 Internal Affairs 365 Reconstruction 367 Impeachment 372 Chapter XVIII.— Grant's Administrations: 1869-77. Grant's Administrations 375 Foreign Affairs 375 Internal Affairs 377 Tiie End of Reconstruction 380 Political Affairs 383 TABLE OF C0NTI£^T8. XV Chapteb XIX— Hayes's Administration . 1877-81. PAGE ^a^es's Administratioa 887 luteroal Affairs 387 Financial Affairs 389 Foreign Affairs 891 PoUtical Affairs. .0 891 Chapter XX. — Garfield's and Arthur's Administrations ; 1881-5. (jiarfield's and Arthur's Administrations 393 Chapter XXI. — Cleveland's First Administration . 1885-9. Cleveland's Administration „ 898 Chapter XaII. — Harrison's administration: 1889-93. Harrison's Administration . 403 Chapter XXIII. — Cleveland's Second Administration: 1893-7. 'Oievelandd Second Administration 413 Chapter XXIV.— McKinley's First Admin/stration : 1897-1901. 4-21 Chapter XXV. — General Summary. General Summary; State of the Country, 1885; Causes of Growth; The Future 449 Appendix I. — The Declaration of Independence 46 1 Appendix IT. — The Constitution of tue United States (with Questions) , 4g5 Appendix III. — Formation of the States,. , 48i Appendix IV. — Growth of the States , 433 Appendix V. — Growth of the Cities 434 Appendix VI.— Washington's Farewell Address (Extracts).. 435 Appendix VII. — A Select B:bi iocraphy op Works on Ameri- can History , 00 , 437 Index , ,,„....., ., 49;i NOTE OIST THE MAPS In the historical maps, the colors show the political divisions at the time the map refers to; but to aid in impressing^ these '^n the memory, other political divisions and prominent facts that may not strictly belong to the time, are sometimes indicated in black. MAPS. ^^ See note on opposite page. COLOREF. PACINQ PAGE Frontispiece. . 20 The United States in 1891, European Provinces, 1655, ...... British Cessions to 1732, . . , . .67 The United States at the Peace of 1783, . . . 133 The United States, showing Acquisition of Territory, . 167 The United States in l88o, ..... 218 The Areas op Secession, ...... 293 UNCOLORED. ^ORTH AND Central America, The World as Known in 1490, Track op Columbus, Atlantic Discoveries, De Soto's Expedition, Pacific Discoveries, Atlantic Settlements, Massachusetts Bat Colony, New Hampshire Colony, Connecticut Colony, Rhode Island Colony, Early French Wars, Virginia Colony, Carolina, PAOX 2 4 6 7 9 10 12 30 32 84 36 41 46 51 XV 111 MAPS. The Middle Colonies, The French War, .... The Revolution in New England, Battle of Bunker Hill, The Revolution in the Middle States, Burgoyne's Expedition, The British Isles, .... The Revolution in the Southern States The Yorktown Campaign, . Kentucky and Tennessee, . Ohio, ...... Seat of War in the North Washington and Vicinity, . Niagara Frontier, . Seat op War in the West, Arkansas, .... Seminole War. Operations in Northeastern Mexico Scott's March to Mexico, . Operations in Virginia, Operations in the West, . Operations in the East, The Seven Days' Battles, . Operations in the East, The Vicksburgh Campaign, Operations in the Southeast, Operations in the East, Operations in the Southeast, Operations in Virginia, Hawaiian Islands, The Philippine Islands, Porto Rico, .... PAGE . 60 . 77 . 99 . 100 . 106 . 112 . 123 . 125 . 131 . 151 . 168 . 178 . 191 . 193 . 194 . 219 . 223 . 252 . 257 . 302 . 309 . 318 . 320 . 326 . 329 . 331 . 340 . 345 . 354 . 481 . 439 . 442 Arms and Flags of the United Statks, 410 ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE Old Mill at Newport 3 Christopher Columbus 5 Sir Walter Raleigh 14 Henry Hudson . 16 Cavalier and Puritan 18 Ships, showing their Character- istics AND Relative Sizes 25 Seal of Massachusetts 26 Plymouth Rock 27 Governor John Winthrop 28 Site of Boston in 1620 29 Seal of New Hampshire 31 Seal of Connecticut 32 Charter Oak 33 Seal of Rhode Island 35 Seal of Vermont 37 King Philip 39 Captain John Smith 43 Seal of Virginia 43 Pocahontas 44 Seal of Maryland 47 Seal of North Carolina 50 Seal of South Carolina 52 Seal op Georgia 54 Seal of New York 57 Peter Stuyvesant 57 New York City in 1664 59 Seal of New Jersey 61 Seal of Pennsylvania 62 William Penn 63 Seal of Delaware 65 Samuel de Champlain 69 William Pitt 75 Jambs Wolfe 76 British Stamp — 83 PAGE Patrick Henry 84 George III 85 John Hancock 87 The Minute-man 91 Carpenter's Hall 98 Union Flag 101 Rattlesnake Flag 101 Philip Schuyler 102 Liberty Bell 105 JIarquis de La Fayette 109 Gen, John Burgoyne Ill Horatio Gates 113 Benjamin Franklin 115 Prison-ship " Jersey" 117 Continental Money 118 Anthony Wayne 120' John AndrS 121 John Paul Jones 122 Nathaniel Greene 127 Alexander Hamilton 136 State House at Annapolis 140i George Washington 149 Seal of Kentucky 152 Seal of Tennessee 152 Mount Vernon 15ff Fitch's Steamboat 157 Cincinnati in 1787 (Fort Washing- ton) 158 Cotton-gin 159 John Adams 161 The Capitol at Washington 163 Thomas Jefferson 166 Seal of Ohio 168 Robert Fulton. 169 James Madison 174 XX ILLUSTBATI0N8. PAGB Amkeican Gunboat 183 James Lawrence 184 Oliver H. Perry 188 Thomas Macponough 189 Seal op Louisiana 197 Seal of Indiana 197 James Monroe 201 Seal of Mississippi 202 Seal of Illinois 202 Skajl of Alabama 203 Seal op Maine 203 Seal of Missouri 203 John Quincy Adams 209 Andrew Jackson 214 Early Railroad Train 215 Chicago in 1830 (Fort Dearborn) 217 Seal op Arkansas 218 Seal of Michigan 219 William Cullen Bryant 220 J. Fenimoeb Cooper 220 Washington Irving 220 Henry W. Longfellow 231 Nathaniel Hawthorne 221 Edgar A. Poe 221 Daniel Webster 228 John C. Calhoun 228 Henry Clay 228 Martin Van Buren 233 William Henry Harbison 239 John Tyler 239 Seal of Florida 243 Samuel F. B. Morse 244 James K. Polk 247 The Hoe Printing Machine 248 Ancient Hand Printing Press 248 Seal of Texas 249 Seal op Iowa 250 Seal of Wisconsin 250 Winfield Scott 256 Zachary Taylor 264 Millard Fillmore 264 Seal of California 265 Charles Sumner 268 Salmon P. Chase 268 William H. Sbward 368 Franklin Pierce 271 James Buchanan 280 Seal of Minnesota • • - 281 Seal op Oregon 282 page Seal op Kansas 283 King Cotton 286 Secession Hall 292 Secession Cockade 293 Jefferson Davis 294 Alexander H. Stephens 294 Abraham Lincoln 298 Fort Sumter 299 Geo. B. McClellan 303 Ulysses S. Grant, in 1863 307 Albert Sidney Johnston 308 Western Gunboats 31i Confederate Ram 312 John Ericsson 313 The Monitor and the Merrimac. 314 David G. Farragut 315 Robert E. Lee 317 Thomas Jonathan Jackson 317 Ambrose E. Burnside 322 The Alabama 325 George E. Meade 327 Lookout Mountain 333 Drafting Soldiers 336 Seal of Virginia 337 W. T. Sherman 343 Joseph E. Johnston 344 George H. Thomas 346 Seal of Nevada 353 Philip H. Sheridan 355 Signatures op Grant and Lee 356 Andrew Johnson 365 Seal op Nebraska 367 Edwin M. Stanton 373 Ulysses S. Grant, in 1875 375 Seal of Colorado 379 R. B. Hayes 387 W. S. Hancock 392 James A. Garfield 393 Chester A. Arthur 393 Grover Cleveland 398 Seal of North Dakota 400 Seal of South Dakota 400 Seal of Montana 401 Seal op Washington 401 Benjamin Harrison 403 Seal op Idaho 406 Seal of Wyoming 406 Seal of Utah 417 WiLiiAM McKinley ^ 421 INTRODUCTORY. DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION. PERIOD I.— DISCOVERY. 1. The United States of America cover the central portion oi North America, from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific. Four hun- dred years ago this territory was unknown to men of the Eastern Hemisphere. Its lakes, rivers, and mountains were just as we know them now ; and the face of the country has changed very little, ex- cept in the disappearance of the forests. But the great cities, the railroads, the telegraphs, and all the works of civilized man were lacking. The territory has been changed from a wilderness to the abode of one of the most powerful nations of the earth ; and the story of this change is the history of the United States of America. 2. The Inhabitants were then altogether red men, whom we call Indians, Colunabus having first so called them l)ecause he thought that he had struck the east coast of India. They built no cities, made no great inventions, knew nothing of books, and led a rude and wandering life, their chief business and pleasure being war and hunting, while their Avomen worked in the fields. It is supposed that they came originally from eastern Asia, and that they drove out or destroyed another people whom they found already settled in America, a people whom we call Ihe " mound- builders." Of this people we know little, except that the mounds of earth which they built for forts or temples are scattered through the Mississippi valley, and contain curious relics of their builders. Perhaps some of them fled far to the south, and there established the empires of Mexico and Peru, the only Indian coun- t. In what part of the world are the United States ? What was the condition of this territory four hundred years ago ? How has it been changed since ? 2. Who were then the inhabitants ? From what part of the world did they come ? What is said of tbe mouud-builders ? What may have become of them J 2 THE INDIAN INHABITANTS. tries in which the European discoverers found cities, orderly gov- ernments, and attempts to make books. 3. The Indians have been gradually pushed back from the coast by the white settlers, until they are now almost all beyond the Mississippi, controlled aiul cared for by the Government of the United States. When America was discovered the Indians were divided into tribes, though there was no exact boundary-line between the countries of different tribes. The Indians of the Atlantic coast were generally Algonquins; the names North and Central America. of some of theii' tribes are preserved in our names of places, such as Narragansett, Massachusetts, and the Indian names of Maine. The In- dians of the interior or Middle States were Iroquois; their strongest branch was a confederacy in New York, called tlie Six Nations, com- posed of the Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas, Senecas, and Tuscaroras {§ 99). On the other side of the Iroquois, along the Missis- 3. What has become of the Indians ? How were they divided ? What is said of the Indians of the Atlantic coast ? Of the Middle States ? Of the Mississippi ? Of the south ? TEE NORTHMEN. sippi, there were other Algonquins, some of whom, as the Shawnees, Peorias, Pottawatlouiies, Sacs, and Foxes, still survive in the Indian Territory across the Mississippi; while others, as the Illinois, are re- membered only by names of places. The tribes of the south. Creeks, Cherokees, Chickasaws, and others, were kindred to the Iroquois. Their descendants are in the Indian Territory. 4. The Northmen, or people of Norway and Denmark, had pushed their way, about the year 1000, from Norway to Iceland, from Iceland to Greenland, from Greenland to the coast of North Old Mill at Newport. America, and so down the coast as far as Rhode Island, where some of them settled. It is believed by some that the " old mill," which still stands in Newport, Rhode Island, was built by them ; but the story is unfounded. The Norse discoverers sent back de- scriptions of the new country ; but their discoveries were little heard of, and were soon forgotten altogether, because printing had not yet been invented. Almost all men still believed that the earth was flat, and that it contained only Europe, with parts of Asia and Africa. The figure given on next page is that of the earth as it was repre- sented up to the time of Columbus's discovery. The monsters mark unknown regions. 5. Europe had advanced so far in civilization, about the year 1450, that its people were fitted to discover and conquer a new 4. How did the Northmen reach America ? Where did some of them settle ? What is said of the old mill at Newport ? Was there any result from their discov- eries ? What was the common belief in Europe ? CHBI8T0PHEB COLUMBUS. world. They had discovered the use of gunpowder, which made them superior to peoples who did not possess it ; of the mariner's compass, which enabled them to sail out of sight of land, and thus discover new countries ; and of printing by movable types, which made books abundant, and thus spread the news of discoveries. Many of them had come to believe that the earth was round, though nobody suspected that there was a great continent between western Europe and eastern Asia. Portuguese sailors were exploring the west coast of Africa, and one of them, in 1486, succeeded The World as Known in 1490. in reaching the Cape of Good Hope. Everywhere men were be- ginning to think and talk of discovery ; and the man who was to make the greatest of modern discoveries was already planning it. 6. Christopher Columbus, a sailor of Genoa, in Italy, had spent many years in exploration, and had come to the conclusion that the earth was round, and that he could reach the Indies, or eastern Asia, by sailing westward part of the distance around the world. He had no money to fit out ships, and when he asked for money from Genoa, Portugal, England, and Spain, they refused it. Finally Queen Isabella of Spain supplied him with money enough to fit out three small vessels. The largest of them would hardly be thought safe for a sea-voyage at present. The discoverer's name was, in Italian, Cristoforo Colombo, and, in Spanish, Christoval Colon; Christopher Columbus is its form in Latin. 5. What is said of Europe in 1450 ? What discoveries had its people already made ? What had many of them come to believe ? What were Portuguese sailors doing ? 6. What is said of Columbus ? What conclusion had he come to ? What (Jiffl- culties did he meet ? How were bis ships finally fitted out ? COLUMBUS'S VOYAGES. 5 7. Columbus's First Toyage began at Palos, in Spain (August 3, 1492). As far as the Canary Islands the way was well known. Thence he sailed out into the west on a way that no man had ever sailed before. His men became fright- ened and rebellious as the days passed by without the sight of land, but he induced them to press onward. On the morning of October 12, the sailors saw before them one of the Bahamas (Guanahani),to which Columbus gave the name of San Salvador. He had been the first to see a light from the island during the previous night. Sail- ing slowly south and southeast for several months, he explored the West Indies to their northeast corner. Then his little fleet spread its sails and re- turned to Europe, carrying specimens Christopher Columbus. of unknown men and plants as proofs that a new world had been discovered. 8. Columbus's DiscoTery caused a great excitement in Europe, as the printing-press scattered the news of it. Spanish ships, with soldiers and siiilors, at once began to sail boldly westward, now that it was known that there was a new world and wealth across the Atlantic. Their adventures, particularly in Mexico and Peru, make up a wonderful and interesting story, but it does not fall within the limits of our history. Before many years had passed, Spain had conquered for herself nearly all South America and that part of North America which is now called Mexico. But the Spaniards paid little attention to the territory which now belongs to the United States, preferring countries where gold and silver were easily ob- tained. 9. Four Voyages in all were made by Columbus, but without any further great discovery. He was treated unkindly by Ferdinand, king of Spain, and on one occasion was sent liome in chains by one of the king's officials. He never touched on the continent of North America, 7. Describe Columbus's first voyage. His difficulties with his men. His discov- ery. His explorations. 8. What were the results of Columbus's discovery ? Where were the Spanish conquests made ? Why were none made in centr&J North America ? 6 DISCOVERIES. though on his third voyage, in 1498, he landed on the continent of South America, near the Orinoco River. He died without knowing that he had discovered a new world, but still supposing that he had only reached the East Indies. The world which he had discovered was not nained for him. It was culled America from Amerigo Vespucci (in Latin Arnericus Vespudus), a merchant and traveller of Florence, who Track op Columbus. was the first to describe it as a separate continent. Before this happened, the native inhabitants were generally called Indians, from the belief that their country w^as the Indies; and the name has been retained. 10. Spanish Discoyeries soon made known that part of the coast of North America which lies on the Gulf of Mexico and the sotithern Atlantic. In 1512, Ponce de Leon discovered the coast of what is now eastern Florida, giving it the name of Florida be- cause he discovered it on Easter Sunday, called in Spanish Pascua Florida. In 1520, Ayllon explored the coast of what is now South Carolina; and in 1528, Narvaez explored the northwest coast of Florida, along the Gulf of Mexico. There are some proofs that these parts of the coast were really dis- covered before 1502 by forgotten Spanish sailors, but the dates given above are the only ones of which we have a record. 11. English Discoveries were the only ones which had much to do with the country which is now the United States. John 9. How many voyages did Columbus make ? How was he treated ? On which continent did he land ? Did he know the extent of his discovery ? Why was the new world named America ? 10. What is said of Spanish discoveries? Of Ponce de Leon's discovery ? Of Ayllon's discovery ? Of Narvaez's discovery ? ATLANTIC DI8C0VEBIE8. ^m.,,^''''-^'''''''''''''^^ Atlantic Discoveribs. 8 THE CAB0T8. Cabot, a mercliaiit of Venice, in Italy, then living in Bristol, Eng- land, and his. son Sebastian, fitted out a ship, the Matthew, which discovered North America at Cape Breton Island (June 24, 1497). They called it Prima Vista ("first sight"). In 1498, Sebastian Cabot explored the whole Atlantic coast from Cape Breton to Albemarle Sound, and claimed it for England. No attempt to settle the country was made for many years, except an unsuccessful effort by Martin Frobisher to colonize Labrador; but English sail- oi's continued to follow the path of the Cabots across the northern Atlantic, in order to share in the Newfoundland fisheries. 12. French Discoveries, like those of Spain, had very little to do with the future history of the United States. The Newfound- land fisheries attracted French sailors across the Atlantic, and, in 1506, Denys discovered the Gulf of St. Lawrence. In 1524, Ver- razzani, a Florentine sailor in the French service, explored the At- lantic coast, north of what is now South Carolina. In 1534, Cartier discovered the great river St. Lawrence, and this drew the French off in that direction, so that whatever discoveries they made were made in Canada (§ 20). 13. Portug'al and Spain had made an agreement in 1493, by which Portugal was not to interfere with Spain in America and Spain was not to interfere with Portugal in Africa or the East In dies. Portugal, therefore, took no part in American discovery, ex- cept that Cortereal, a Portuguese sailor, explored the Atlantic coast, in 1501, from Maine to Newfoundland. The maritime nations of western Europe were then Spain, England, France, and Portugal; no other nation was at all likely to attempt settle- ments in America. Holland was then subject to Spain, and attempted no settlements until she had become independent (§ 28). Italy and Ger- many were then divided into many weak states; and Sweden was not strong enough to dispute the new continent with the great nations (§29). 14. The Interior of North America was not touched by any of the discoveries above mentioned. Some of the Spanish governors 11. What is said of English discoveries? Who were the Cabots? What did they discover on their first voyage ? On the second voyage ? What was the in- fluence of the Newfoundland flslieries ? 12. What is said of the French discoveries ? Of the discovery of Denys ? Of Verrazzani ? Of Cartier ? 18. What agreement had been made by Portugal and Spain ? What was the only Portuguese exploration ? Why were no explorations made by Holland, Italy. Germany, and Sweden ? 14. Were any discoveries made in the interior ? DE SOTO. of Mexico sent expeditions northward into what is now New Mexico and California ; but they accomplished little. The only effort to explore the interior, before the English colonies began to grow in- ward from the coast, was the remarkable expedition of De Soto. 16. De Soto was the Spanish governor of Cuba. In 1539, he landed at Tampa Bay, in Florida, with a force of 900 men, and marched through the continent for three years, vainly hoping to find and conquer a rich Indian kingdom. He went north nearly to the Tennessee River, then southerly to where Mobile now stands, and thence northwesterly to the Mississippi River, which he crossed in April, 1541, near the present southern bound- ary of Tennessee. He marched westward for several hundred miles across the present State of Arkansas, but found everywhere only savages wandering in a wilderness. All this time, it was De Soto's courage which had kept up the courage of the men, but even De Soto's courage gave out at length, and he began to move southward on the way home. He died, worn out, on the banks of the Mississippi, near the mouth of the Red River, and was buried beneath the waters of the great river whicli he had discovered. His soldiers then built boats, and sailed down the river to the Gulf of Mexico, and so to Mexico, which the Spaniards had conquered in 1521. 16. The Pacific Coast was explored in 1543 by Cabrillo and Ferelo, two Spaniards, as far north as Oregon. In 1579, Drake, an English navigator, sailed along the coast and called it New Albion. In 1593, Juan de Fuca, a Spanish pilot, explored the coast as far as the strait 15. What is said of De Soto and his expedition ? What course did he follow ? What became of De Soto ? Of his men ? 16. W^hat is said of the expeditions of Cabrillo and Ferelo ? Of Drake's discov- eries ? Of Juan de Fuca's exploration ? Were any Spanish settlements made on the Pacific coast t De Soto's Expedition. 10 RECORD OF DI8G0VERIB8. which bears his name. The territory remained under the control of iJpain, and a few settlements were made by Spanish missionaries; but little was kuown about the country until it became a part of the United States in 1848. (§574.) 17. The DiscoTeries of Spain, England, France, and Portugal have been given separately above. They may be collected, as follows : (S., Spanish; E., English; P., French; P., Portuguese.) Atlantic Coast. 1492— Columbus (S.): West Indies § 7 1497— Cabots (E.): Cape Breton Island 11 1498— Sebastian Cabot (E.): Albemarle Sound to Cape Breton Island 11 1501— Cortereal(P.): Maine to Newfoundland 13 1506— Denys (F.): Gulf of St. Lawrence 12 1512— Ponce de Leon (S.): Florida 10 1520— Ayllon (S.): South Carolina 10 1524— Verrazzani(F.): South Carolina to Nova Scotia. . 12 1534— Car tier (F.): River St. Lawrence 12 Scale of mies 3po zpo 890 4() o Pacific Discoveries. 17. Give the dateand place of Columbus's discovery. Of the Cabots'discovery, Of Sebastian Cabot's discovery. Of Cortereal's discovery. Of Denys's discovery Of De Leon's discovery. Of Ayllon's (iiscovery. Of Wirazzani's exploration. Of Cartier's discovt-ry. Of Narvaez's e^yploriitioii. Of the e.xploration of Cabrillo. Oi Drake. Of De Fuca. Of Coronado Of Alargou Of De Soto FRBNCB FAILURES. 11 Gulf of Mexico. 1528 — Narvaez (S.): Northwestern Florida § 10 Pacific Coast. 1543 — Cabrillo (S.): Pacific coast to Oregon 16 1579— Drake (E.): Pacific coast 16 1592 — De Fuca (S.): Pacific coast to British America 16 Interior. 1540 — Coronado (S.): New Mexico 14 1540— Alaryon (S.): Colorado River 14 1541 — De Soto: Mississippi River and Southern States 14 Supplementary Questions. Locations. — (School-map locations in italics.) — Bound the United <6tates of America, excluding Alaska. Locate Icvcand. Greenland. Newport, R. I. (§ 65). Palos, Spain. TJie Canary Islands. The Orinoco Riwr. Florida. South Carolina. Cape Breton Island. Albemarle Sound. The Gulf of St. Lav/rence. The St. Lawrence River. Maine. Newfoundland. New Mexico. California. Tampa Bay. Tennessee River. Mobile. Mississippi Rivver. Oregon. Strait of Fuca. Review. — About what year did the Northmen discover America? When did Columbus discover America? Who discovered the north At- lantic coast of North America, and when? Who discovered the Caro- lina coast, and when? Who discovered the Florida coast, and when? Who discovered the Mississippi, and when? PERIOD II.— SETTLEMENT. 18. The Discoveries which we have been considering had made the Atlantic coast of North America pretty well known before the year 1530, but settlement did not begin until some seventy years later. Spain did not seem inclined to settle this part of the conti- nent; our two oldest towns, at present, St. Augustine, in Florida (founded in 1565), and Santa Fe, in New Mexico (founded in 1582), were originally Spanish settlements, but even these were not in the territory of the United States when our national history began. France and England made a number of unsuccessful attempts to found settlements before England at la^ succeeded in getting con- trol of the coast. We will first consider the failures. 19. French Failures began in 1540, when Cartier, who had discovered the St. Lawrence River in 1534 (§12), made a settle- 18. Did the American discoveries bring settlements at once ? Were any settle- ments made by Spain ? By France and England ? 19. What was the first French failure ? Did the French then give up the St. Lawrence ? What failures were made by the French in Carolina ? What is said of the first of these attempts ? Of the second ? Was there any further French settle- ment here ? n cjai^ada. ment at Quebec ; it was given up after the second winter. French vessels still sailed up the St. Lawrence from time to time, but for sixty years the people in France made no further attempt to found a settlement here. In 1562 and 1564, French settlements were at- tempted on the southern Atlantic coast, but they were failures. The first was at Port Royal, when the colonists became dis- couraged, leftfor home, and came near starving on the voyage. The second, near where St. Augustine now stands, was too near the Spanish possessions, and the Spaniards destroyed it. An- other French expedition took revenge on the Span- iards, but made no further attempt to continue the settlement. 20. Canada finally be- came the seat of successful French settlement in North America. In 1605, De Monts, with a commission from the king of France, made a suc- cessful settlement in Acadia (the French name for Nova Scotia). In 1608, Cham- plain made a settlement at Quebec. Other Frenchmen settled along the St. Law- rence, and took possession of what is now the Domin- ion of Canada. It remained a French possession until Atlantic Settlements. 1703 (§ 157), and the de- scendants of the old settlers are still often called French-Canadians. 1 ImT) \ j7-4«!ne6ec B' '^'^. ^ ^ ^St.Augustine IXaJ\1565 20, Where did the French finally settle ? What is said of He Monts' settlement? Of Champlain's ? Of other French settlements ? Of the French possession of '^Janada ? SIB WALTER BALEiaH. 13 De Monts also made several efforts to settle in New England, but failed in all of them. The French did not begin permanent settlements within the territory of the United States until about 1668 (§ 140). 21. English Failures began in 1576, with a voyage of Martin Frobisher to Labrador, He expected to find gold there, to dis- cover a northwest passage, and to settle the country ; but he failed in all three points. In 1578, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, with a com- mission from Queen Elizabeth, made an unsuccessful effort to settle in North America. In 1583, he sailed again with five ships, and reached Newfoundland. But his men were ungovernable, and he was compelled to return. On the return voyage his own ship was lost with all on board. He had refused to desert the men in his ship, which was the small- est in the fleet, saying manfully, " We are as near heaven by sea as by land." 22. The Northwest Passage continued for a long time to be one of . the great objects of the early English and Dutch voyages. The Portu- guese claimed the sea-road from Europe to the East Indies, around Africa (§ 5). The Spaniards claimed the road around South America, which Magellan had discovered in 1520. It was supposed that North America was not very broad, or that it was a collection of islands, like the West Indies, and the English hoped to find a passage for themselves through it to the Pacific Ocean. In 1609, Hudson (§ 28) sailed up the river which bears his name until he ran aground, hoping every hour to sail out into the Pacific. In 1850, Captain McClure at last found a " northwest pas- sage" through the Arctic Ocean, but the ice makes it useless (§ 864). Long before this, however, the Spaniards and Portuguese had been com- pelled to give up their asserted right to prevent ships of other nations from using the ocean route around Cape Horn and the Cape of Good Hope. 23. Sir Walter Raleigh, Gilbert's half-brother, next took up the work. In 1584, he sent two small vessels, under Amidas and Barlow, who found a suitable place for a colony at Roanoke Island, on the coast, which now belongs to North Carolina. Ra- leigh named the whole coast Virginia, in honor of Queen Elizabeth, who was unmarried and was fond of being called the *' virgin queen," and the name is still given to a part of it, the present State of Virginia. Raleigh sent two colonies to 21. How did the English failures begin ? What is said of Frobisher's expedi- tion ? Of Gilbert's first voyage ? Of his last voyage ? 22. What is said of the Northwest Passage ? Why were the English and Dutch anxious to find it ? Has it ever been discovered ? 23. Who succeeded to Gilbert's work ? What was done by Amidas and Barlow? What name was given to the country, and why ? What is said of Raleigh's first colony ? Of his second colony ? Who was Virginia Dare ? Did Raleigh send any more colonies ? 14 BARTHOLOMEW (fOuJTOLJ^. Roanote Isknd. The first, under Grenville, in 1585, was starved out in a year, and the colonists went back to England. The second, under White, in 1587, had disappeared when it was searched for three years after- ward, and no trace of it has ever since been found. Among the hundred or more persons who perished in it was White's little granddaughter, Virginia Dare, the first child of English parents born within the present limits of the United States. Raleigh attempted no more settlements. Before Raleigh died (in 1618), Virginia was a flourishing colony (§ 82). Raleigh himself never went to North America; but he took a great interest in its settle- ment and its productions. The common story is tliat he introduced tlie practice of smoking tobacco from America into England; and that one of his servants, seeing him smoking and tliinking liim on tire, tlirew a pitcherof beer on him to put out tl)e fire. But it is quite certain tiiat tobacco was used in Europe before Raleigh used it. 24. Bartholomew Gosnold, in 1602, found a new route across the Atlantic, by the Azores Islands, which saved 1500 miles in distance. He made a settlement in what is now called Buz- zard's Bay, in Massachusetts ; but his men lost courage, and he returned with a ship-load of sassafras. At this time, more than a century after Columbus's discovery, there was not an Eng- lish settler in all North America; but English trading and fishing vessels were more often seen along the coast, and their accounts of the country kept alive the English desire for American settlements. 25. Englisli Settlement took a new form in 1606, under King James I. Two great companies were formed, one at London, called Sir Walter Raleigh. 24. What was Gosnold's discovery? His attempt to make a settlement? What was the condition of English settlement at this time? W^iat kept alive the desire for settlement? 25. What is said of English settlement in 1606? What two companies wer<* formed? Give the limits of the grant to the London Company. Of the grant to the Plymouth Company. What was done with the territory between the two grants? What was the westward extent of the grants? ENGLISH SETTLEMENT. 15 the London Company, the other at Plymouth, called the Plymouth Company. To the London Company the king granted the coast of North America from latitude 34° to latitude 38°; that is, from about Cape Fear to the Rappahannock River. To the Plymouth Company he gave the coast from latitude 41° to 45°; that is, from about the mouth of the Hudson River to the eastern point of Maine (see map, page 66). The coast between the Rappahannock and the Hudson was granted to both companies; but neither was tc fix a colony within 100 miles of any colony already planted by the other. There was no western boundary to the grants, which were supposed to extend across the continent to the Pacific Ocean. 26. Successful Settlement began with the formation of the companies, the first successful colony being made at Jamestown in Virginia, in 1607 (§ 80). The first attempts had failed because of natural difficulties. A few people, placed in a wilderness, with 3000 miles of stormy ocean between them and help of any kind, and without protection of any sort from hostile Indians, soon died from accident or disease, or were forced to return to England. But the new companies were richer, and were able to send out colonies large enough and well enough equipped to pro- tect themselves from the beginning; and when this had been done, many of tiie difficulties disappeared at once. Every year a greater number of persons came to America, to get land for nothing and to escape poverty or persecution at home; and it was not long before the coast was dotted with little settlements, and a few persons began to press inland. 27. The Colonization of the United States also begins with the for- mation of tlje companies. The territory granted to the companies was gradually cut up into separate colonies, and new colonies were formed to the southward. Thus there came to be, in time, thirteen English colonies, Virginia and Massachusetts being the remnants of the first grants to the two companies, after the other colonies had been cut out of them. In making these first grants, the king had been careful to avoid the territories of the Spaniards on the south, and the French on the north; and it thus happened that the English colonies in North America were fixed nearly together, and within the present limits of the United States. The advantages of this were that it placed an enterpris- ing and ambitious people in the best part of the continent, where the climate was neither too hot nor too cold ; and that it gave li)em the op- portunity to unite in future and grow into a great nation. The forma- tion of these colonies falls under the next period (§ 36). 28. Holland had rebelled against Spain, about the time of the first English failures (§21), and had become a strong naval power. 26. How did successful settlement begin? What were the difficulties of the first colonies? What advantages had the companies? What were the results? 27. How did colonization begin? How were the colonies formed? How many colonies were formed? How did they fall within the present limits of the United States? What were the advanta^res of this result? 28. What reason had Holland for claiming a part of the coast? How was the Dutch settlement made? How long did it remain Dutch? 16 HOLLAND AND SWEDEN. In 1609, Hendrik (Henry) Hudson, an Englisliman in the service of Holland, discovered the Hudson River, and explored the coast as far as Chesapeake Bay more closely than previous voyagers had done. Dutch traders at once sent vessels to Manhattan Island (now New York City), to trade with the Indians ; and in 1621 Holland granted the terri- tory from Delaware Bay to the Connecticut River to the Dutch West India Company. This com- pany established the city of New Amsterdam (now New York) in 1623, and called the whole terri- tory New Netherlands. For the next forty years, this continued to be a Dutch colony, thrust in be- Hknby Hudson. tween English colonies to the north and to the south of it. It was then conquered by the English (§ 113). The price paid to the Indians by the Dutch for Manhattan Island was 60 guilders (about $24). 29. Sweden, without any claims by discovery, fixed a colony in what is now the State of Delaware, in 1638. Its leader was Peter Minuit, who had been a Dutch governor of New Netherlands, but had gone over to the service of Sweden. The chief town of this colony was Christina, near the present city of Wilmington. In 1655 a Dutch force from New Amsterdam compelled the Swedes to ac- knowledge themselves under the government of Holland ; and it finally passed under English rule, with the rest of New Netherlands (§ 113). It was then transferred to Penn (§ 125). 30. Summary. — We have thus traced the steps by which Eng- land established her colonies on the Atlantic coast of North Amer- ica. Spain had chosen the territory to the south, and France the territory to the north ; while the territory between them fell to Eng- 29. "What is said of the Swedish colony? Of the changes in its government? 30. How did England obtain her position on the Atlantic coast? What were the English failures in Canada? The French failure? The French successes? The French failures in the United States? The Spanish successes? The English fail- ures? The English success? Give the date of the Dutch discovery. Of the Butch settlement. Of the Swedish settlement. 8UMMABT. 11 Jand. At first, slie had Holland and Sweden as rivals ; but these were not strong enough to resist her ; and the whole Atlantic coast, from Florida to Nova Scotia, became English. The dates of the more important steps in the settlement are as follows : (Sp., Spanish; E., English; F., French; D., Dutch; Sw., Swedish.> Canada. 1540— Cartier (F.): Quebec (failure) §19 1576— Frobisher (E.): Labrador (failure) 21 1583— Gilbert (E.): Newfoundland (failure) 22 1605— De Mouts (F.): Acadia, or Nova Scotia (success) 20 1608— Cbamplaiu (F.): Quebec (success) 20 (Here begins the French colonization of Canada, § 139.) The United States. 1562— South Carolina (F.): Port Royal (failure) 19 1564— Florida (F.): Near St. Augustine (failure) 19 1565— Florida (Sp.): St. Augustine (success) 18 1582— New Mexico (Sp.): Santa Fe (success) 18 1585— North Carolina (E.): Roauolie Island (failure) 23 1587— North Carolina (E.): Roauolie Island (failure) 23 1603-Massachusetts (E.): Buzzard's Bay (failure) 24 1607— Virginia (E.): Jamestown (success) 26, 36 (Here begins the English colonization of the United States.) 1609— New York (D.): Hudson's discovery 28 1623— New York(D.): Dutch settlement (became English in 1664) 28 1638 — Delaware (Sw.): Swedish settlement (became Eng- lish in 1664) 29 Supplementary Questions. Locations. — (School-map locations in italics.) — Locate St. Augustine, Fla. ; Santa Fe, N. M. ; Quebec, Canada; Port Royal, S. C. ; Nova Sco- tia; Labrador; Newfoundland; Roanoke Island, N. C. ; tlie Azores Isl- ands; Buzzard's Bay, Mass.; Cape Fear; Rappahannock River; Hud- son River; Maine. Which of the thirteen original States (§ 187) were formed from the London Company's grant? Which from the Plymouth Company's grant? Which from the territory between the two? Review. — Name and give the date of the first successful settlement within the present limits of the United States. Of the second. In what part of the continent were successful Spanisli settlements made? Suc- cessful French settlements? Successful English settlements? Who was the first great leader in English settlement? The second? Why did he call the country Virginia? Name and give the date of the two great companies under which English settlement began? Where and when was the first successful English settlement made? The Dutch settle- ment? The Swedish settlement? 18 TEE ENGLISB COMMONWEALTH. European Affairs. 31. European Affairs. — While English settlement in America was beginning, between the years 1600 and 1690, great events were taking place in Europe ; and it is necessary to bear them in mind while studying the next period, for they had a great influence on the history of the English colonies in America. In England the powers of government were divided between the king, the House of Lords (hereditary nobles, § 46), and the House of Commons (elected by a part of the people). The two Houses together were called the Parliament; and this body had little by little gained for itself the power of taxing the people. When Queen Elizabeth died (^1603), and a new king, James I., came from Scotland, Parliament became bolder in declaring its power. James, and still more his son Charles I., resisted the claim, and even attempted at times to govern and lay taxes without calling the Parliament together. But the people refused to pay such taxes, and after each attempt the king was compelled to call the Parliament together and ask for money. Then the Parliament re- fused to lay taxes, unless the king would give up other powers which were considered objectionable. The king or queen of England has at the present time lost almost all power, and so has the House of Lords. Almost all powers of government now belong to the House of Commons. 32. The Commonwealthc , ~^7j- _yr -^^gaf^H^^FF^^ -^^ 1642, the quarrel broke -- ir^k-J^^sm>. ~ .^d^wT'— ML^ Q^^^ 'y^^Q open war. The ^^ „„ ^^ Parliament was successful, Cavalier and Pceitan. , . , , t ,i defeated and captured the king, Charles I., and in 1649 beheaded him as a traitor and tyrant. Oliver Cromwell, the leader of the Parliamentary army, soon after- si. Why is it necessary to turn to European affairs? How were the powers of government divided in England? What was tho Parliament, and what was its chief power? What happened when Queen Elizabeth died? What did the kings attempt to do? What were the results? 32. What happened in 1642? What was the result of the war ? What is said of Cromwell? What Is this period called? EUROPE AND TBE COLONIES. 19 ward became ruler of England, witli the title of Lord Protector, and held power until his death in 1658. This period is usually called the Commonwealth period of English history. The king's friends were often called Cavaliers, and the supporters of the Commonwealth Puritans or Roundheads, since they cut their hair short, while the Cavaliers wore long, curling wigs. 33. The Restoration. — In 1660, the people, tired of the Com- monwealth and the rule of the army, called back Charles I.'s son, who had been living in exile, and made him king, with the title of Charles II. In 1685, he was succeeded by his brother, who had been Duke of York, but was now called James II. He endeavored, as Charles I. had done, to rule by his own will. In 1688, his sub- jects rebelled, drove him and his son away to France, and called in his son-in-law and daughter, William of Orange and Mary, as king and queen. This event is commonly called the English Revo- lution of 1688. 34. In France, events took an exactly opposite direction. Louis XIII. in 1614 got rid of the body which had made laws, and the French kings ruled by their own will until the opening of the French Revolution in 1789 (§ 306). In 1685, a religious perse- cution was begun in France, and drove many of the Protestants, commonly called Huguenots, out of that kingdom. Many of these came to America. 35. The Colonies were very much neglected under James I. and Charles I.; they enjoyed great freedom from interference under the Commonwealth ; and they were subjected to great an- noyances and interferences under Charles II., and still more under James II. (§ 74)» But all through the century, the troubles in Eng- land were driving great numbers of people across the Atlantic, and increasing the population of the colonies very rapidly. It grew from nothing in 1600 to about 200,000 in lYOO. The following are the leading European events referred to: 1603-1625: Reign of James L 1625-1649: Reign of Charles I. (son of James I.). 1640: The fifth Parliament of the reign meets. 33. What happened in 1660? Who was the next king ? What is said of him f What happened in 1688? 34. What event occurred in France in 1614? In 1685 ? 35. What was the condition of the colonies under James I. and Charles I.? Under the Commonwealth? Under Charles II. and James II.? What was the gen- eral effect of the troubles in England? What is said of the increase of population in the colonies during the century? 20 COLONIZATION BEGUN. 1642: War breaks out. Battle of Edgehill. 1645: Battle of Naseby. The king captured. 1649: The king beheaded. 1649-1660: Tiie Commonwealth. 1653: Cromwell is made Lord Protector. 1658: Death of Cromwell. 1660: Restoration. 1660-1685: Reign of Charles II. (son of Charles I.). 1685-1689: Reign of James II. (son of Charles I.). 1689-1702: Reign of William and Mary. PERIOD III.— COLONIZATION: 1607-1750. THE ENGLISH COLONIES IN GENERAL. 36. The London Company (§25) sent out Captain Christophei Newport, with one hundred and five emigrants, to settle at Roanoke Island. A storm drove him out of his course and into Chesapeake Bay ; he discovered the James River, whicli he named in honor of James I. ; and about fifty miles from its mouth, on the northern bank of the river, he planted the settlement of Jamestown, May 13, 1607. This was the first successful English settlement in the ter- ritory of the United States, and was the beginning of the colony of Virginia (§ 80). Jamestown has since been destroyed (§ 86). 37. The Southern Colonies were in tlie end five in number: Virginia, Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. These were formed out of the grant to the London Company by the king through the following changes : (1) In 1632, the new col- ony of Maryland was formed out of the northeastern part of Vir- ginia (§ 89) ; (2) In 1665, Charles IL took off the southern part of Virginia, the present State of North Carolina, added to it the present territory of Soutli Carolina and Georgia, and called the whole Carolina. Virginia was thus reduced to the limits which she afterward held as a State; (3) In 1729, Carolina was divided into North Carolina and South Carolina (§ 96) ; (4) In 1732, the new colony of Georgia was formed out of South Carolina (§ 107). The London Company could make no objection to these changes, for in 1624 the king had taken away its charter and put an end 36. Describe the settlement at Jamestown. What was its importance ? 37. Name the southern colonies. What was the first change? The second. The third ? The fourth ? What had become of the London Company ? THE NEW ENGLAND AND MIDDLE COLONIES. 21 » the company, which, as he claimed, was not using its charter properly and faithfully. Florida was not an English colony until 1763 (§ 157); nor a part of the United Stales until 1819 (§ 418). The names of the first four Eng- lish colonies on the southern coast were all royal: Virginia, from Eliza- beth, the virgin queen; Maryland, from Henrietta Maria, Charles I.'s queen; Carolina, from Charles II. of England; and Georgia, from George 11. of England. 38. The Plymouth Company (§25) attempted to make a set- tlement in 1607, near the mouth of the Kennebec River, in Maine ; but it was a failure, and the company made no more settlements on its own account. In 1620, the company was broken up, and a new one was formed, " The Council of Plymouth for the governing of New England." To this company the king gave the territory between north latitude 40° and 48° ; that is, from about Philadel- phia to Nova Scotia. Almost the only work done by this company was to grant lands to the various colonies named below ; and in 1635 it also gave back its powers to the king. The name New England was given to this coast in 1614 by Captain John Smith (§ 81). 39. The New England Colonies, formed from the Plymouth Company's grant, were at first seven : Plymouth, Massachusetts Bay, Connecticut, New Haven, Providence, Rhode Island, and New Hampshire. Plymouth was afterward united with Massachusetts Bay, New Haven with Connecticut, and Providence with Rhode Island. There were thus finally four New England colonies: Massachusetts Bay (§49), New Hampshire (§59), Connecticut (§ 61), and Rhode Island (§ 66). Maine was a part of Massachusetts until 1820 (§422). Vermont Was claimed by New Hampshire and New York (§ 69). 40. The Middle Colonies, New York, New Jersey, Pennsyl- vania, and Delaware, were really conquered soil, taken from the Dutch (§ 28). Neither of the two great companies attempted to colonize this part of the coast, and it only came into English pos- session in 1664. 38. Did the Plymouth Company make any settlements 1 What happened in J620 ? What new grant was made ? What was the work done by this company 1 iow did it come to an end ? S9. What colonies were formed from the Plymoth Company's grant ? Which were afterward united ? Name the four New England colonies. 40. What is said of the Middle Colonies ? 22 TSa COLONIES IN QENEHAL. 41. The Governments of these colonies were not all alike ; each had its own peculiarities. But they may be divided into three classes, the charter governments, the proprietary governments, and the royal governments. 42. The Charter Colonies were Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. These had charters from the king, written docu- ments which gave the colonists the power to elect their own offi cers and govern themselves. James II. succeeded in altering the charter of Massachusetts so as to take away from the colonists the election of the principal officers (§ 58). The other two charters were unchanged. 43. The Proprietary Colonies were Maryland and Pennsyl- vania (including Delaware). These were given by the king to proprietors or owners, who formed governments in them. They also had charters, like the charter colonies, but the}' were given to the colonists by the proprietors, not by the king. The proprietors appointed the governors. 44. The Royal Colonies were New Hampshire, New York, New Jersey, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Geor- gia. These had no charters, and their governors were appointed by the king. Almost all of them were at first proprietary govern- ments, and fell into the hands of the king when the proprietors gave them up. This is a convenient division of the colonies, "but cannot always be strictly followed. It is not easy, for example, to say whether Massa- chusetts was really a royal or a charter colony after 1691. 45. The Colonies in General were at first little interfered with by the king, who considered them an annoyance rather than an honor or a benefit. Thus the colonies, even those which had no charters, obtained the power to elect assemblies, which made the laws for the colonies. The governors sent out by the king had the power to forbid the passage of any law which seemed to them wrong or unwise ; but the governors were far from England, and 41. Were the governments of the colonies ahke ? Name the three classes of colonial governments. 42. Name the charter colonies. What was their form of government ? 43. Name the proprietary colonies. Who formed their governments ? What is said of their charters ? Of their governors ? 44. Name the royal colonies. What was their form of government ? How did thev become royal colonies ? "45. WHiat is said of the colonies and the king ? Who made the laws of the col- onies ? What was the power of the governors ? How were the colonies really gov- erned ? In what respects were they alike ? What had English colonization done ? DIFFIGTTLTim OF GOVERNMENT. 23 usually interfered very little. Thus it came to pass that the colo- nies really governed themselves from the beginning. But all of them acknowledged the same king, and were parts of the British Empire. Their inhabitants were Englishmen, who moved, when they wished, from one colony to another, without any notion that they were going to a foreign country. English colonization really gave the king of England a new country to govern. The first assembly was in Virginia in 1619 (§ 80). 46. The New Country was not like the old one, though both had the same king, laws, and language, and many of the same cus- toms. England had a class of nobles (§31), who helped to make the laws simply because they had been born in particular families, and without being elected ; there was no such class in the colonies. In England, only a very few men had the power to vote for members of the Parliament which made English laws; in the colonies, almost all men had the power to vote for members of the assemblies which made their laws. In England, there were a very few rich men and very many poor men, a very few educated men and very many ignorant men ; in the colonies, nearly all the men of each colony were equally poor, though not generally ignorant. 47. These Differences made it much more difficult for the king to govern both countries well, for the laws which suited one of them were quite unsuited to the other. But none of the kings of England seem to have understood this. England was their own country, and they were familiar with it ; America was far away, and they knew little about it. It was therefore difficult for the king, when it was necessary for him to interfere in the government of America, to know what was best for that country ; and there were many cases of bad government in all the colonies, because the king was not able to judge their needs wisely. As the colonies grew richer, these interferences became more troublesome for about one hundred and fifty years, until in 1776 the colonies broke away from England altogether (§ 193). 46. Was the new country like the old one ? What difference was there in re- spect to birth ? In respect to the power to vote ? In respect to wealth and educa- tion ? 47. How did these differences make it difficult to govern both countries? Did the kings understand this? Why not? What was the consequence ? What was the result in the end? 24 THE PLTMOTfTB COLOlfiT. 48. Negro Slavery in tte colonies was one of the worst of these cases of bad judgment. The first mention of it is in Virginia, in 1619, when a Dutch man-of-war exchanged some negro slaves for provisions. Negroes were soon held as slaves in all the colonies, though they increased most rapidly in the warmer southern colo- nies. Labor is the most important thing in a state. But, where laborers are generally known as slaves, no free man likes to labor, because there labor is thought to degrade the laborer to the level of a slave. A wise government would therefore have forbidden slavery in the colonies : the king of England not only did not for- bid it, but became an active partner in the slave trade, and refused to allow the colonies to forbid it. Thus the southern colonies came to believe that slavery and slave labor were absolutely necessary to them. SUPPLEMENTAKY QUESTIONS. Locations. — Locate Roanoke Island, N. C. ; Chesapeake Bay; the James River; the five southern colouies; the Kennebec River; the four New England colonies; the four middle colonies. Review. — Give the place and date of the first successful English settlement within the United States. Name the classes of colonial gov- ernments. The charter colonies. The proprietary colonies. The royal colonies. What is the first mention of slavery within the United States? New England. [Colonization began in Virginia, in the London Company's terri- tory; but, when it had once begun, it went on more rapidly, for a time, in the northern colonies. We take, therefore, (1) the New England col- onies, the Plymouth Company's grant; (2) the southern colonies, the London Company's grant; and (3) the middle colonies, the conquered territory.] (1) Massachusetts Bay Colony. 49. The Plymouth Colony was the irregular southeastern por- tion of the present State of Massachusetts. It was settled by a company of " Separatists," as they were called, who separated 48. What is said of negro slavery? When is it first mentioned? How did it spread? What is said of labor? How does slavery hurt labor? What ought the king to have done? What did he do? What was the result in the southern colonies? 49. Where was the Plymouth colony? By whom was it settled? How had they been treated in England? In Holland ? For what part of America did they set sail? How were they turned aside to Massachusetts? How many did they numberT Wliat name did they give to the spot? What was the date of the landing? - 'f p Jl/l 26 TEE PILGBIM8. themselves from the worship of the church established by law in England. They had been severely persecuted in England under James I. and Charles I. (§ 35); and many of them fled to Holland, where they found peace. After a time, a number of them returned to Plymouth, in England, and thence set sail for New Amsterdam (New York), in order to settle there in the possessions of the Dutch. Storms drove theirship, the J/av/?owcr, from her course, and they landed, one hundred in number, in the present State of Massachusetts, at The date of the landing was December 21, 1620. Seal of Massachdsetts. Plymouth. The rock on which they are said to have landed is still seen, and is called Plymouth Rock, or Forefathers' Rock. Captain John Smith (§ 38, note) had already named the spot Plymouth, 60. The Pilgrims, as the colonists called themselves, suffered terribly during the bitter cold of winter, and only half of them lived through it. But they built houses of logs, using oiled paper instead of glass ; and in the spring obtained corn from the Indians. Other settlers followed them, and the little colony held its ground. It had no charter, but was governed by an agreement which the Pilgrims had made in the cabin of the Mayfloxoer before landing. Its history, until its union with the Massachusetts Bay colony in 1691 (§58), was very quiet and peaceful. It was never a large colony ; and its importance lay in the fact that it brought to New England a great number of other settlers who were in opposition to the Church of England, and gave New England a character of ^ts own, 51. The Leaders of the Pilgrims were John Robinson, Miles Standish, John Carver, and William Bradford, Robinson was their minister in Amsterdam, but did not accompany theni to America. Standish was an old soldier, and was the colony's military leader. He was " a man of a very small stature, yet of a very hot and. 50. What is said of the first winter? How did the colony exist? How was it governed? What is said of its histoiy? What was its importance? 51. Who were the leaders of the colouy? What is said of Robinson? Of Stan- dish? How is he described? What is said of Carver? Of Braflford? Were there any years in which he was not re-elected? TEE MASSACHUSETTS BAT COLONY. 27 angry temper," and was much dreaded by the Indians. On one occasion, he stabbed a hostile chief in the midst of his tribe. Carver was the first governor. He died during the first winter, Bradford was elected in his place, and was re-elected yearly for about thirty years, until his death. The only years in which he was not re-elected were those in which, " by importunity, he got off." 62. The Massachusetts Bay Colony comprised the northern part of the present State of Massachusetts, from about Boston Plymouth Rock. northward. It was founded by Puritans, who had not altogether separated from the Church of England, but disliked some of its ceremonies. They sided with the Parliament against the king and the Cavaliers (§32), and were persecuted as the Separatists had been. In 1628, a company of them bought their territory from the Council of Plymouth and sent out a colony which settled at Salem. The next year, Charles I. gave them a charter, and they sent out more colonists, who settled at Salem and Charles- town. In 1630, a highly important step was taken. The company itself moved over to America, with its officers, charter, and all its powers; and thus the Puritans obtained a 52. Where was the Massachusetts Bay colony ? Who founded it ? How haa they been treated in England? What happened in 1628? In 1629? What important •teo was tV""' *aken ? 28 THE PURITAN LEADERS. colony of their own in America, with little dependence upon England. 53. The Population of the colony increased at once. The great Puritan colony came over in 1630, when Governor John Winthrop and 1500 others emi- grated and settled Boston, Cam- bridge, Lynn, and other towns. For a few years the new settlers suffered severely from cold, hun- ger, and other hardships, but not so much as the Plymouth settlers had suffered. The Massachusetts Bay settlers were richer, and had brought more supplies. There Governor John Winthrop. were more Puritans than Sepa- ratists in England, and so there were more emigrants to Massachu- setts Bay than to the rest of New England. The men brought money and laboring power ; the people worked hard ; and Massa- chusetts Bay soon became one of the most prosperous of the colo- nies. 54. The Leaders of this colony were John Endicott, John Winthrop, Sir Henry Vane, and John Cotton, Thomas Hooker, Samuel Stone, and a great number of other ministers. Endicott, the first governor, was a rigid Puritan, who cut the cross out of the British flags in the colony, and compelled the women to wear veils at church, and the men to cut their hair short. Winthrop was an English lawyer, a highly educated man, and more gentle than Endicott in his religious' feeling. Vane was rich, able, and accom- plished, and was elected governor when only twenty-four years old. He returned to England, helped to overthrow the king, opposed Cromwell, and was beheaded after the restoration (§ 33). The last three named were able ministers; and the colonists said that God had given them " Cotton for their clothing. Hooker for their fish- ing, and Stone for their building." 63. What is said of the population? Of the great Puritan colony? Did the settlers suffer as much as those at Plymouth? Why not? Why did the population increase? What was the result? 54. Who were the leaders of the colony? What is said of Endicott? Of Win- throp? Of Vane? Of Cotton, Hooker, and Stone? TEE QUAEEB8. 29 56. Keligious Feeling marked most of the New England colo. nists. They had fled from religious persecution in the old world, and in the new world they made the building of churches, the founding of religious schools, and the preaching of the gospel a great part of their work. In Massachusetts Bay, particularly, they were determined to found a religious state. Their ministers were their leading men, and no one could vote unless he was a member of the church. They dealt harshly with men of other religious beliefs who came to the colony and annoyed them by disputing with the Puritan ministers. Roger Williams held objectionable views on religious liberty and on the relation of the colony to the crown. He was ordered back to England ; but rather than return, he went into the wilderness and founded the colony of Rhode Island (§ 66). Afterwards, in .i637, Mrs. Anne Hutchinson and her followers were banished for teaching new religious doctrines. She also went to Rhode Island, and thence to New Netherlands, where she was killed in a night attack by the Indians. Site op Boston in 1620. 56. Til© Quakers gave the New England colonists most trouble, for they insisted on freedom of worship, and disobeyed the laws Vihich forbade preaching by any but Puritan ministers. They per- "listed in entering Puritan meetings and arguing with the ministers, md were punished in various ways. In 1656, a law was passed that any Quaker who returned to the colony after banishment should be put to death. The king stopped the execution of the law after the restoration (§ 33) ; but it shows the spirit of the times. 55. What is said of religious feeling ? Why had the colonists come to the new- world ? What were they determined to do '> How did they treat men of other religious beliefs ? How "did they treat the other sects ? Mrs. Hutchinson ? What became of her ? 66. How did the Quakers trouble the colonists ? What law was passed in 1656 ? Was it put into execution ? 30 TEE COLONIES UNITED. 57. The Saiem Witchcraft. — Before this spirit of religious persecution died away, it gave rise to the delusion known as the Salem witchcraft. Most people at the time, and the Puri- tans as strongly as others, believed that there were witches, who had received power from the devil to hurt or kill men and cattle. Both Massachusetts and Connecticut had made laws against witch- craft, and had hanged a number of persons for being witches. In 1692, the whole town of Salem became crazed with the belief that witches were at work there. Two silly or wicked little girls de- clared that different persons had taken the form of black cats or black dogs, and had bitten, pinched, and choked them. The people believed them, and the great minister of the colony, Mr. Cotton Mather, supported them. The supposed witches were pun- ished with religious fury ; and wicked people seized the opportu- nity to charge their enemies with being witches. Before the ter- ror died away, about twenty in- nocent people, mostly old wo- men and Indians, had been put to death. Finally, the magis- trates and people came to their senses; and punishments for witchcraft were stopped. 58. The Colonies United The New England colonists sided with the Parliament against the king ; and during the Common- wealth period (§ 32) the Massa- chusetts Bay Colony was allowed to take possession of all the rest of New England to the north of her ; and this new territory was left to her for some years after 67. What delusion grew out of this spirit? What belief was common at the time? What had Massachusetts and Connecticut already done? 'What happened in 1692? How did the delusion begin? How did it spread? What were its effects? How many were put to death? How was the delusion stopped? 58. Which side did the New England colonists take during the civil war in Eng- land? What did Massachusetts gain during the Commonwealth? What happened in 1684? What new charter was granted? How did it imite the colonies? What right was taken from the people? How were religious persecutions stooped? How long did the colony remain under tbis charter? 26 60 100 aso Massachusetts Bay Colont. imW HAMPSEIRE. 31 the restoration (§ 33). In 1684, the king's judges declared the Massachusetts charter at an end ; and James 11. attempted to make the whole of New England one royal colony (§ 74), when he was driven from the throne in 1689. The new sovereigns, William and Mary, instead of restoring the old charter, granted a new charter in 1691. It united the colonies of Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay, the province of Maine, and the territory of Nova Scotia, into one colony, by the name of Massachusetts Bay; and made New Hampshire a separate colony (§ 60). But the right to elect the governor """ns taken from the people, and all religions except the Roman Catholic were to be permitted. The colony remained under this charter until the colonies finally rebelled against Great Britain (§198). In the charters the name is variously spelled Massawhusetts, Matta- chusetts, and Massathusetts. It is an Indian word, and is said to mean " blue hills." Supplementary Questions. Locations. — (School -map locations in italics.) — Locate Plymouth, Eng. land; New Amsterdam (New York) (§ 121); Plymouth, Mass.; Salem; Charlestown; Boston; Cambridge; Lynn; the original Plymouth col- ony ; the original Massachusetts Bay colony ; the Massachusetts Bay col- ony during the Commonwealth period ; the same colony sfter 1691. Review. — Who settled Plymouth colony? At what date? Who were its leaders? Who settled Massachusetts Bay colony? In what year? In what year did the company remove to the colony? Who were its leaders? What was the date of the Salem witchcraft? When were the two colonies united? (2) Neiu Hampshire. 59. New Hampshire was John Mason's share of a tract of land, granted to him and Sir Ferdinando Gorges, in 1622, by the Council of Ply- mouth (§38). The grant covered the territory between the Merrimac and Ken- nebec rivers. Small settlements were made at Portsmouth and Dover, in 1623 ; and in 1629, the proprietors divided their grant. Mason named his share New Harripshire, from his own county of Hampshire, in England. S*^^ ""^ ^"""^ Hampshire. 59. What was New Hampshire? What was the whole grant? When were set- tlements made, and where? Wheo was the ^ant divided? Why was New Hamp- shire so named? 82 TEE GONNEOTIGUT COLONY. Soalfe ofMiles 60. The Colony was tardly more than a few fishing villages. In 1641, it joined Massachusetts; but the king separated them in 1679, and made New Hampshire a royal colony (§ 44). In 1688, the colony again joined Massachu- setts ; and in 1691, the king again separated them (§ 68). New Hampshire then re- mained a royal colony until the colonies rebelled against Great Britain (§193). It never was a large colony ; its interior set- tlements were farming townships ; and its history was uneventful. See also Vermont (§ 69). SUPPLEMENTAKY QUESTIONS. Locations. — Locate the Merrimac River ; the 26 60 luo 160 Kennebec River; Portsmouth; Dover. New Hampshire Colony. Review.— In what year was New Hamp- shire granted? In what year was its first settlement made? In what year was the grant divided? Who was the first proprietor? When did It finally become a royal colony? (3) Connecticut. 61. The Connecticut Colony consisted of the territory now within the State of Connecticut, with the exception of the few townships on the shore of Long Island Sound, which formed ths New Haven colony (§ 64). It is said to have been granted in 1630 to the Earl of Warwick by the Council of Plymouth (§ 38). In 1631, Warwick transferred it to Lord Say, Lord Brooke, and others. In 1635, they made a set- tlement, which they called Saybrook, at the mouth of the Connecticut River, but made no further attempts to colonize. Their claims were afterward purchased by the Con- necticut settlers. Seal of Connecticut. 60. VS'hat did the colony consist of? What happened in 1641? In 1679? In 1688? In 1691? What was New Hampshire thereafter? What is said of its condi- tion and history? 61. What did the Connecticut colony consist of ? To whom is it said to have been granted In 1630? In 1631? Did they make any settlements? Who purchased tbeir claims? EABLT HISTORY OF CONNECTICUT. 33 62. Settlement had already been begun by immigvaiits from Massachusetts, without permission of the proprietors. Their prin- cipal leader was Thomas Hooker (§ 54). They travelled on foot through the Massacliusetts wilderness to the Connecticut River, driving their cattle before them, and sometimes living chiefly on milk. They settled the towns of Wethersfield in 1634, Windsor in 1635, and Hartford in 1636. In 1639, they formed the first V "^j* !-^ Charter Oak. written constitution in America, and took the name of the Con- necticut colony. Say brook joined them ; new towns were settled; and they retained their separate government throughout the Com- monwealth period. Connecticut, an Indian word, means " the long river." 63. The Early History of the Connecticut colony was not very eventful. The principal Indian difficulties were with the Pequots, a powerful tribe of eastern Connecticut. In 1637, the settlers made war on the tribe, surrounded the Indians in their fort near Groton, and killed many of them. Another defeat near Fairfield put an end to the tribe : its members joined other tribes, or were sold as slaves. The Dutch in New Netherland claimed the terri- 62. Who had begun settlements? Who was their leader? How did they travel? What were their first settlements? What happened in 1639? How did the lolonv increase? "98. What is said of its history? Of the Pequots? What happened in IGSr'- What did the Dutch claim" How was this dispute settled? 34 THE COLONIES VNtTEB. tory up to the Connecticut River ; but this dispute Was settled in 1650 by a treaty at Hartford, fixing the boundary between Con- necticut and New Netherland (New York) very nearly as at pres- ent. 64. The New Hayen Colony was settled in 1638, by a company of English immigrants, under Rev, John Davenport and Theophilus Eaton, who bought lands from the Indians. Otlicr settlers followed them and formed new towns near by, on the shore of Long Island Sound. In 1639, these towns united under the name of the New Haven colony. There were thus two colonies within the present State of Connecticut, neither of them having a charter ; and each tried to gain to itself the new towns as they were formed. These, however, generally preferred to go into the Connecticut colony, for New Haven, like Massachusetts Bay, allowed no one but mem- bers of the church to vote or hold office (§ 55). 65. The Colonies United. — In 1660, when the Commonwealth came to an end in England, and Charles 11. came to the throne (§ 33), the Connec- P^ ticut colony, the stronger of the two set about to obtain a charter. The gover nor, Winthrop, was at once sent to Eng- land for that purpose. In 1662, he obtained a charter covering the territory of both col- onies. It allowed the people to elect their governor as well as their assembly, and to govern themselves. It suited them so well that it remained in force after the Revolution, and until 1818. New Haven unwillingly accepted the charter, and m 1665 the two colonies were united under the name of the Colony Connecticut Colony. 64. How was New Haven settled? How were neigrhboring towns settled? What happened in 1639? What was then the state of affairs in Connecticut? 65. What happened in 1660? Who was sent to England? How did he succeed? What is said of the chai ter? Did New Haven accept it? When were the colonies united? What happened in 1687? How was the charter saved? When was it broutcht out again? nOQEB WILLIAMS. 85 of Connecticut. In 1687, Andros (§ 74) appeared at Hartford and demanded the charter. While the argument was going on in the -evening, the Hghts were suddenly blown out ; and before they could be re-lit, the charter had been taken out and hidden near by, in a hollow oak-tree. When William and Mary came to the throne in 1689, the charter was brought out again, and the government went on as before until the Revolution (§ 193). The tree in which the charter had been hidden, called the Charter Oak, stood and was well cared for until it was blown down in a storm in 1 856. The early division into two colonies was long marked by the fact that Connecticut had two capitals, Hartford and New Haven. Since 1873 Hartford has been the sole capital. Supplementary Questions. Locations. — Locate the Connecticut River; Wethersfield; Windsor; Hartford; Groton; Fairfield; New Haven. Bound the State of Con- necticut. Review. — What were the first settlements in Connecticut? When were thej^ made? When was New Haven settled? Give the date of the Pequot war. In what year were the two governments formed? In what year was the charter granted? In what year were the two colo- nies united? In what year was the charter hidden? (4) Rhode Island. 66. Rog'er Williams, after he had been driven from Massa- chusetts (§ 55), took refuge among the Indians at the head of Nar- ragansett Bay. In 1636, their chief, Ca- nonicus, gave him a large tract of land, which Williams called Providence, in re- membrance of the manner in which he felt that God had guided him tliithcr. Others followed him, and settled on the large island in the bay, called Rhode Island. Portsmouth, in the northern part of the island, was settled in 1638, and Newport in 1639. These two colo- ^"^^^ ^^ ^^"^'^ ^^^^^'°- nies, or " plantations," were separate for several years, havino- no charter, and governing themselves. In 1643, a third and smaller colony was founded at Warwick, on the western shore of the bay. 66. What is said of Roger Williams? How did he obtain lands, and when? Why did he name the place Providence? How was Rhode Island settled? What two towns were first fixed on Rhode Island? What is said of the two colonies? Of the Warwick colony? 36 EABLT HISTORY OF RHODE I8LANL. The name Rhode Island is from the Dutch rame Roodt Eylandt, "red island," given by the New Amsterdam sailors who discovered it. 67. A Charter was obtained by Williams in 1644 from the Parliament, and it was confirmed in 1654. In 1663, anew charter was obtained from Charles II. Under these charters, the d liferent colonies were gathered into one, under the name of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations. The people were to elect their own governors, assenrblies, and other officers, and govern themselves. The charter suited the people so well that they kept it in force after the Revolution until 1842 (§ 530). For the attempt of Andros to destroy it, see § 74. 68. The Early History of Rhode Island was marked by fre- quent controversies, fortunately bloodless, as the laws were tolerant. All denominations were permitted, and the colony became a place of refuge for those W'atertow who were persecuted elsewhere. There were few troubles with the Indians, but often vigorous dis- putes with the neigh boring colonies. Ply- mouth, on the east, claimed the territory up to the eastern shore of the bay. Connecticut, on the west, claimed the territory up to the western shore of the bay. Massachusetts claimed the northern part of the colony. These claims would have left only the islands in the bay to the little colony. Rhode Island resisted stubbornly, and succeeded, in 1741 and 1752, in fixing her boundaries as at present. The legal name is still "The State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations;" and it retains its two capitals, Providence and Newport, the legislature meeting in them alternately. 67. What is said of the first and second charters? Of the third charter? What were its provisions? How longj was it retained? 68. Wliat is said of the history of the colony? Of the laws and people? OJ religion? W^hat territory was claimed by Plymouth? By Connecticut? By Massa- chusetts? What -would have been left to Rhode Island? How were the boundarita teed? Rhode Island Colony. 2rBW ENGLAM) UNION. 37 Supplementary Questions. Locations. — Locate Narragansett Bay; Providence; Rhode Islar.d Portsmouth; Newport; Warwick. Bound the State of Rhode Island. Review. — Who was the founder of the colony? In what year was Providence founded? Newport? In what year was the first charter obtained? The last charter? Until wliat year did it remain in force? (5) Vermont. 69. Terinont was part of the grant to the Duke of Yoik (see Map, p. 66), like western Connecticut and Massachusetts. The grant was given up as to the two lat- ter colonies; and so, about 1750, New Hampshire claimed Vermont and sold it to settlers. For this reason Vermont was long known as the " New Hampshire Grants." New York urged her claim to it, and attempted to make the people pay for their land again. The Green Mountain Boys, as the settlers called themselves, treated the New York officers very roughly, and formed a government of their own. New Connecticut, and then Vermont, a French word meaning Green Mountains. They kept up this separate government through- cut the Revolution. In 1791, Vermont was admitted as a State (§ 300). -^ (6) New England in General. 70. New England Union. — In 1643, Massachusetts Bay and Plymouth united with Connecticut and New Haven in a confede- racy for mutual defence. They refused to admit Rhode Island, whose territory they claimed as their own. This New England Union lasted through the Commonwealth period (§ 32), and was silently allowed to disappear soon after the restoration in 1660. It was given up then because it was well known that the king wished each colony to be weak and to depend on him, and that he would not like any dangerously strong union of colonies, for fear they might set up for themselves. 69. What is said of Vermont? Who claimed its soil? What name was first given to Vermont? What is said of New York's claim? IIow was it resisted? What names were taken for the new government? 70. What union was formed in 1643? Why was not PJiode Island admitted? Bow long did the union last? Why was it given up? Seal op Vermont. At first they called it 38 KING PHILIP'S WAR, While the union lasted, each of the four colonies sent two commis- sioners, who met and decided on affairs of peace and war, and matters in which all were interested. But eacli colony continued to govern itself in matters relating only to its own people. 71. The Navigation Acts. — At first, the colouists everywhere were busied only in agriculture, hunting, and fishing. As they grew richer, they turned to manufactures, ship-building, and com- merce, and their assemblies offered to grant money to persons who would engage in such pursuits. This was not at all pleasant to English merchants, who wished to keep the trade of the colonies in their own hands. In 1651, Parliament passed the first of what were called the Navigation Acts. They forbade the colonies to trade with any other country than England, or to receive foreign ships into their ports. They were particularly aimed at New England, whose people had gone eagerly into commerce ; but they were not well enforced for many years (see also § 84). The reve- nue officers were careless, or took bribes to allow vessels to trade with foreign countries ; and thus most of the Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut merchants were compelled to be smug- glers, and to engage in trade that was forbidden by law. About a hundred years after the passage of these laws, the attempt was at last made to enforce them in earnest; and this, as will be seen, helped greatly to bring about the Revolution (§ 193). As a part of the same system, various acts of Parliament forbade the transportation of manufactures, such as wool, iron, paper, hats, and leather, from colony to colony. These laws were also evaded. 72. Tlie Indians could very soon see plainly that the white strangers were driving them away from the coast and out of their ancient possessions. One of them, Philip, chief of the Warapa- noags, a Rhode Island tribe, was bold enough to strike a blow for his race. He travelled through New England until he had united the Indians from Maine to the Hudson River in a league agamst the English. The war broke out in June, 1675. The Indians attacked Swanzey, Massachusetts, and killed a number of persons ; and, almost at the same time, similar attacks were made on the vil- 71. What were the first occupations of the colonists? What did they afterward engage in? Who were dissatisfied with this? What did Parliament do in 1651? Wiiat did these laws forbid? At whom were they aimed? How were tliey enforced? What trade was built up? What happened a hundred years afterward? 7'2. Why did the Indians become alarmed ? Who was their leader? What league did he form? When did the war break out? Where was the first attack? What other attacks were made? Where was the war most severe? THE ANDB08 GOVERNMENT. 39 lages all along the frontier. The towns of western Massachusetts suflEered most severely. See map, § 68. 73. King Philip's War lasted for nearly two years. About thirteen towns were destroyed ; very many others were attacked ; about six hundred whites were killed in battle ; and an unknown number perished by massacre or starvation. The most severe bat- tle, called " the swamp fight," took place in December, 1675. It was fought by Massachusetts, Plymouth, and Connecticut troops, who surrounded and captured a Narragansett fort, in a swamp near Kingston, Rhode Island, and slaughtered its defenders. The colonies were too strong for the Indians. Philip was beaten out of one place after another ; and in August, 1676, he was finally hunt- ed down to his principal residence at Mount Hope, near Bristol, Rhode Island. Here he was surrounded by a force under Benja- min Church, a Plymouth Indian-fighter. In attempting to break through and escape, Philip was shot and killed. His men were killed or sold into slavery, and the power of the New England Indians was broken forever. 74. The Andros GoTernment. — It has been said that the colo- nies were subjected to great annoyances under James II. (§ 35). This was particularly the case with the New England colonies. The king hated to know that they were governing themselves under their charters, and longed to show that he was their master. King Philip. 78. How long did the war lasf ? What were the losses? Describe the swamp fight? What became of Pliilip? Who attacked him at Mount Hope? Describe his death? What became of his men? 74, Which colonies suffered most under .lames II.? Why? What is said of Mas- sacnusetts? Of Andros's appointment? What did he do in Massachusetts? In Connecticut and Rhode Island? How did the colonists feel toward him ? How did the king feel? How was he sent back to England? Were the charters restored? Did Andros return to America? 40 EABLT FBENCS WARS. The English courts had already decided that the Massachusetts charter was void (§ 58) ; and Sir Edmond Andres, who had lately been governor of New York, was appointed governor of New Eng- land, with orders from the king to demand the charters of the col- onies. He landed at Boston in December, 1686, and Massachu- setts submitted to him for the time. He then went, in 1687, to Hartford and Newport. The charter of Connecticut disappeared (§ 65), and the charter of Rhode Island could not be found ; but he declared both governments at an end. The colonists hated him, for he governed cruelly and tyrannically. But his service pleased the king, who added New York and New Jersey to his govern- ment the next year. Early in 1689, when rumors of the English revolution reached New England (§ 33), he was seized at Boston by the people, and sent back to England. Connecticut and Rhode Island were allowed to resume their old charters, but the charter of Massachusetts was not restored (§ 58). The new government sent Andros back again to America as governor of Virginia. 76. Early French Wars. — When James II. and his son were driven from England (§ 33), the king of France received them and gave them help. For this and other reasons, France and England were frequently at war for the next seventy years, and the French and English colonies in America took part in the wars. The first three of these were called, from the names of the English rulers, King William's war (1689-1697), Queen Anne's war (1702-1713), and King George's war (1744-1748). In America they were waged mainly by New England and New York against Canada ; and the southern colonies took little part in them. But the treaties which ended all these wars agreed that each party should gfve back its conquests, except that, at the end of Queen Anne's war, England kept Port Royal and Nova Scotia. This was the only gain to the colonies from any of these wars. The French and Indian war {§ 146) was the first in which all the colonies took part. 76. The French Strongholds were four : Montreal and Quebec in Canada; Port Royal (now Annapolis), a fine harbor in Nova 76. What was one reason for the early French wars? Name the first three of these. What colonies took part in these wars? What was the only ^Mn from them? 76. Name the French strongholds. 'Which were the most important to New England? What happened in 1690? In 1710? In 1745? What other expedition were made? OBOWTE OF JS-EW ENGLAND. 41 Scotia (or Acadia) ; and Louisbiirgli, a strong fortress on the south- east coast of Cape Breton Island. The New-Englanders were most anxious to capture Port Royal ScaleofJI.lei Early French Wars. and Louisburgh, which were most dangerous to their fish- ing-vessels on the Newfound- land banks. In 1690, Massa- chusetts sent an expedition under Sir William Phips, which captured Port Royal ; but it was given up at the end of the war. In 1710, it was captured again, after one failure, and this time it was kept. In 1745, the New England colonies united and captured Louisburgh, with the assist- ance of a British fleet ; but this was given back at the end of the war. Several land expeditions were made against Montreal and Quebec, but they were entirely unsuccessful (§ 154). 77. The Indians to the northwest, in western New York and Canada, took the side of the French, for the French were always more successful than the English in gaining the liking of the In- dians. Thus the whole frontier was kept in alarm. The secret and savage fashion in which the Indians attacked the border towns, and killed the people or carried them as captives to Canada, embittered the colonists against the French as well, and united them in the final French and Indian war, which will be described hereafter (§ 146). The "Five Nations" of Indians, afterward called the "Six Na- tions" (§3), joined the English at first, but usually refused to take part in the wars. 78. Growth of New England. — No one can do anything more than guess at the population of the colonies before the first census of the United States was taken in 1790 (§ 314). We can only know that, after the colonies were fairly settled, the population of most of them doubled about once in thirty years. In 1715, British 77. Which side was taken by the Indians? Why? What was the effect of the Indian warfare? 78. Is anything known certainly of the population of the early colonies? Of their increase? What was the population believed to be in 1715? In 1750? 42 FIRST SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA. officials estimated the population of this section at 161,650. In 1750, New England contained probably about 430,000 persons. The population in 1715 was supposed to be divided as follows: Massacliuselts, 96,000; New Hampshire, 9,650; Connecticut, 17,000, Rhode Island, 9,000. In 1750: Massachusetts, 210,000; New Hampshire. 50,000; Rhode Island, 40,000, Connecticut, 135,000, These were mere guesses. 79. The People had been made a thrifty and hardy race by constant struggles against a severe climate. They had not only agriculture, but ships, commerce, and fisheries, and had begun to introduce manufactures. None of them were very rich, and few- were very poor. They were accustomed to govern themselves in their towns and by the privileges of their charters. They were therefore always ready to resist any attempt to take away the small- est of their privileges; and the king's officials found no part of America so hard to manage as New England. Education was very general. The first two of the present colleges in America were founded in New England : Harvard, at Cambridge, in Massachu- setts, founded in 1638 ; and Yale, at New Haven, in Connecticut, founded in 1700. Both negroes and Indians were held as slaves in this section. But the climate was not favorable to slavery, and the system showed no signs of increase. Supplementary Questions. Locations. — Locate Swanzey, Mass. ; Kingston, R. I. ; Bristol, R. I. ; Boston, Mass.; Hartford, Conn.; Newport, R. I.; Montreal, Can.; Que- bec, Can.; Annapolis, N. S. ; Cape Breton Island; Louisburgh, Cape Breton I. ; Cambridge, Mass. ; New Haven, Conn. Review. — Give the year of the New England union. The four col- onies which composed it. The year of the first Navigation Act. The year of King Philip's war. The year of the Andros government. Name the three early French wars. When was Port Royal finally captured? The Southern Colonies. (1) Virginia. 80. The First Settlement of Virginia was at Jamestown, in 79. What was the character of the people? What were their occupations? What is said of the rich and poor? Of their self-g:overnment? What were the con- sequences? What is said of education? Of tiie colleges? Of slavery? Of its pros- pects? 80, WTiere and when was the first settlement in Virginia? Did the colony pros- per at first? What is said of the colonists? What was the result? When did thg Bolony become firmly established? What is said of its assembly? CAPTAIN JOSN SMITH. 43 Seal of Virginia. 1607 (§ 36). For several years, the colony had a hard struggle for life. Most of the colonists were broken-down gentlemen, who neither wished to work nor knew how to svork; and the people had quite decided, several times, to return to England, when new supplies of men and food changed their purpose and saved the colony. In about ten years the colony became estab- lished firmly enough to take care of itself. It obtained from the king the power to make its own laws in an assembly, or legislature, elected for that purpose ; and in 1619, the first assembly ever elected in America met at James- town. In the same year we first hear of negro slavery in America (§48). Afterward the other colonies also claimed the privilege of electing assemblies, and thus secured the power of making their own laws. 81. Captain John Smith was the most prominent man in the first two years of the colony's history. He seems to have been a bold and shrewd man, who did the colony good service in con- trolling the Indians and the col- onists, and in exploring the sur- rounding country. He had a vivid imagination, and was a wonderful story-teller; but many of his stories are very doubtful. Among them is that of his cap- ture by the Indians, their deci- sion to beat out his brains with a war-club, and his rescue by Captain John Smith. Pocahontas, the daughter of che chief Powhatan. It is true, however, that there was an Indian girl named Pocahontas, and that she married a white settler, visited 81. Who was at first the most prominent man in the colony? What is saM af him? Of his powers of story-telling? What was his story of Pocahontas ? Wba( became of her? 44 THE TEBBITORY OF VIBQINIA. England, and died there ; and it 5'as during Ler visit that Smitli first told this story. Smith was not liked by tliose colonists wiiom he forced to work. In 1609, he went back to England; he afterward returned to America, and explored and named the coast of New England (§38). 82. The Colony soon be- came prosperous through the cultivation of tobacco. Tobacco was the money of the colony, and everything was paid for in so many pounds of tobacco. One pound was then worth from two to twelve cents of our money, but could buy five or six times as much as at the present time. The settlers built their own vessels, and carried on commerce with England. The population grew steadily. In 1715, it was believed to be about the same as that of Mas- p'lj^kiv^:^^ "^x sachnsetts, 95,000 ; and in l750j ^^^ ' it was estimated at 285,000. Pocahontas. When the Kevolution (§193) broke out, Virginia was the richest and most important of the ihirteen colonies. 83. The Territory of Virginia at first covered nearly all of the present Southern States, north of South Carolina, but was gradu- ally reduced by the formation of new colonies (§ 37). Thus, when the Revolution broke out, Virginia covered the present States of Virginia, West Virginia, and Kentucky. But she claimed that her northern boundary ran northwest, instead of west, so as to take in the western part of Pennsylvania, and the present great northwest- ern States of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin (§2V5). 82. How did the colony become prosperous? What was its money? How did 'ts commerce increase? What was the population in 1715? In 17.50? What is said tVf Virginia in the Revolution? 83. What did the territory of Virginia cover at first? When the Revolution broke out? What further claim did she make? BACON'S BEBELLION. 45 84. Virginia became a royal colony in 1624 (§ 37). The king did not alter the written constitution which the London Company had given to the colonists, and they generally governed themselves. During the Commonwealth period (§ 32), they sided with the ting, until the Parliament threatened to send over a force to conquer them. The Navigation Act (§71) was also intended to punish ■them. They submitted unwillingly, and rejoiced at the restora- tion of Charles II. (§ 33). But the new king showed them no favor. In 1673, he actually presented the colony to one of his court favorites, but took the gift back again nine years afterward. At the restorution, Virginia called herself the new king's "ancient dominion." because of her steady loyalty; and the State is still often called "The Old Dominion." 85. Indian Wars were not numerous. In the first, in 1622, abotit 350 settlers were killed, and there was some danger of the destruction of the colony. In the second, in 1644, about 300 set- tlers were killed. In both of these wars the Virginia Indians were conquered, and after the second they were no more troublesome. In 1675, the year of King Philip's war (§72), the Maryland In- dians became trotiblesome to the Virginia settlers, and this was one of the reasons for the following rebellion. 86. Bacon's Rebellion. — Governor Berkeley and a few of his friends had got all the powers of government into their own hands. They believed that the Maryland Indians had been unjustly treated, and refused to make war on them. In 1676, a young planter, named Nathaniel Bacon, raised troops among the settlers, com- pelled the governor to conquer the Indians, and finally drove him out of Jamestown. In the struggle, Jamestown was burned, and it was never rebuilt; Williamsburgh became the capital. Bacon died suddenly, and his rebellion fell to pieces. The enraged governor hanged twenty-two of the principal rebels, and for a time governed the colony very harshly. " The old fool," said the king, " has taken away more lives in that naked country than I did for the murder of my father." 84. Wliat happened in 16-2 (? Was there any chang:e in the government? Which side did Virginia take during tlie Commonwealth period?" What did Parhament do? With what result? How did the new king act? 85. What is said of the first Indian war? Of the second? What were their results? What happened in 1675? 86. Who controlled Virginia at the time? What was their feeling as to the Indians? What is said of Bacon? What happened to Jamestown? How did the rebellion come to aa end? What was the governor's vengeance? What did the king say of it? 46 THE VIRGINIAN COLONISTS. 87. The Tirginian Colonists generally lived on large planta- tions, for they liad plenty of fertile land at command, and were not afraid of Indians. There were thus very few towns in the colony. The people were not so nearly equal in wealth as in New England : there were more very rich men, and more very poor ones ; and the rich men were generally able to get most of the powers of government to themselves. Most of them were mem- bers of the Church of England, and their assemblies passed severe laws against the entrance of men of other religious beliefs to the colony. In this respect it was like most of the other colonies (§ 55). It was not until after the Revolution that this spirit of religious persecution altogether died away. 88. Education. — The Virginians were so scattered that schools were very few, and ed- ucation -was confined to the rich, who could send their sons to Eng- land. Governor Berke- ley said, " I thank God there are no free schools, nor printing, and I hope we shall not have them these hundred vears." In 60 100 200 ttt'mi- Virginia Colony. 1692, William and Mary College, the second college in the United States, was founded at Williamsburgh, It has suffered much from the ravages of war, both in the Revolution and in the Civil War, but after having been closed several times, it has of late been reorganized and is now in operation. SUPPLEMENTART QUESTIONS. Locations. — Locate Jamestown; Williamsburgh. Name the States ■which were a part of Virginia in 1776 (§83). Bound the present State of Virginia. Review. — When and where was the first settlement in Virginia? Give the date of the first legishilive assembly. Of the first mention of slavery. Wlien did Virginia become a royal colony? Give the date of Bacon's rebelHon. 87. How did the Virginians generally live? Were there many towns? How were they divided as to wealth? As to religion? AVhat laws did the assemblies enact? Was Virginia the only colony tliat did so? 88. What is said of schools and education? What was Governor Berkeley's feeling? What is said of William and Mary College? TEyyES?t^/y O R T H CAROLINA Scale of Miles THE ROMAN CATHOLIC COLONY. 4^2 (2) Maryland. 89. Eoman Catholics were persecuted by the laws of England, as the Puritans and Quakers were persecuted, and the colony of Maryland was founded as the Catholic place of refuge. One of the leading English Catholics was Sir George Calvert, Lord Baltimore, lie at first tried to found a Catholic colony in Newfoundland, Imt the unfavorable cliuiate defeated it. lie then fixed on that part of Virginia east of the Potomac River. Virginia had already explored it, and was preparing to settle it; but Charles I. granted it to Baltimore Seal of Maryland. without asking Virginia's consent. Baltimore died, but the patent for what is now the State of Maryland was given to his son, Cecil Calvert, in 1632. The name of Maryland was given by the king in honor of the queen, Henrietta Maria (or Mary). Calvert meant to call it Grescentia, the " growiug" colony. 90. Settlement was begun in 1634, by Leonard Calvert, a brother of the new Lord Baltimore. He settled, with 200 immi- grants, at a little Lidian village near the mouth of the Potomac, and called the place St. Mary's. The town of Annapolis was founded about 1683, and Baltimore in 1729. In 1635, the pro- prietor called a legislative assembly ; and from that time the people governed themselves, paying the proprietor some small taxes. The proprietor, in 1691, was a supporter of James K. (§33); and the new kmg, William, deprived him of his colony, and appointed the governors himself. Li I7l6, the proprietor's rights were restored to him. The family of Calvert died out in 1771, and the people of Maryland became proprietors in 1776. 89. How were Roman Catholics then treated in England? What is said of Sir George Calvert? Of his Newfoundland colony? What territory did he then fix on? Wh^t had Virginia done? To whom was it granted? To whom was the patent given? Why was the name of Maryland given? 90. What is said of the first settlement? Wlien was it made? What is said of the two principal towns? W^hat is said of the government? What happened io 1691 ? In 1716? What became of the iamUy of Calvert iu 1771 ? 48 THE MAETLAND COLONISTS. 91. Mason and Dixon's Line. — The territory of Maryland, as it "was granted to Lord Baltimore, included also the present State of Delaware and the southern part of Pennsylvania. When Penn- sylvania was granted to Penn, in 1681 (§ 125), a long dispute fol- lowed between Penn and Lord Baltimore as to the boundary be- tween their grants. It was settled in 1763, and the boundary- line vpas run as at present. This was called " Mason and Dixon's line," from the names of the surveyors who marked it, and was long considered the boundary between the Northern and the South- ern States. 92. Religious Persecution was not allowed in Maryland while the Catholics retained control of it: in this respect the Bap- tist colony of Rhode Island, the Catholic colony of Maryland, and the Quaker colony of Pennsylvania deserve equal credit above the other colonies. Other settlers soon came into Maryland, and they were not so liberal. Some were from Virginia, and disliked the Maryland government ; others were Puritans, and disliked the Ro- man Catholics. In 1692, Maryland became an Episcopalian colony, like Virginia (§ 87). Laws were passed to support the Church of England by taxes, and religious toleration was checked. The un- fortunate Roman Catholics, who had founded the colony and ad- mitted others to it, were now harshly treated, forbidden to vote, and forced to pay taxes for the support of another church. This state of things lasted until the Revolution, and then this religious intolerance came to an end. There were hardly any serious Indian wars in Maryland. 93. Tlie Maryland Colonists lived very much like those of Virginia (§§ 87, 88). Chesapeake Bay furnished great advantages for ships engaged in foreign commerce, and the Susquehannah River at its head opened up the Indian trade to the merchants of Maryland. Baltimore became one of the busiest towns on the coast, and the population of the colony grew from 200 in 1634 to 30,000 in 1700, 50,000 in 1715, and about 150,000 in 1750. 91. What, did Baltimore's grant include? How did a dispute follow the grant of Pennsylvania? How was it settled? What is said of the boundary? 92. What is said of religious persecution? What three colonies did not allow persecution? How was this changed? What happened in 1692? What laws were passed? How were the Roman Catholics treated? How long did this state of things last? 93. What is said of the Maryland colonists? Of Chesapeake Bay and tlje Sus- quehannah River? Of Baltimore? Of the colouy's population? THE CAROLINA PLAN OF OOVEBNMENT, 49 Supplementary Questions. Locations. — Locate Newfoundland (§ 76); the Potomac River (§ 88); Annapolis; Baltimore; Cliesapeake Bay; the Susquehanuah River. Bound the State of Maryland. Review. — Name the founder of Maryland. Give the date of the grant. Of the first settlement. Of the establishment of the Church o>' England. When did the Calvert family come to an end? (3) North Carolina. 94. Carolina was granted in 1663 and 1665, by Charles IL, to eight proprietors. It included the territory now in the States o/ North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia, westward to th( Pacific Ocean. The French at Port Royal had called the countrj Carolina, a hundred years before (§ 19), in honor of their king, Charles IX. ( Carolus, in Latin) ; and the English now retained the name, in honor of their king, Charles II. The country had re- mained uninhabited since the failure of the French colony, except that a few Virginians liad pushed down the coast and settled the northern shore of Albemarle Sound. Among the proprietors were Hyde, Lord Clarendon; Monk, Duke of Albemarle, who had been a leader in restoring Charles II. ; Lord Ashley Cooper, afterward Earl of Shaftesbury ; Governor Berkeley, of Virginia (^86); and his brother and Carteret, afterward of Nevi Jersey (§ 122). 95. The Plan of Crovernment, which the proprietors formed for their new colony, was very remarkable. There were to be no- bles, called barons, landgraves, and caziques, each with a certain number of acres of land. The rest of the people were to have no share in the government, and were to be bought and sold with the soil, just as the serfs were, until recently, in Russia. The plan was ridiculous for an American settlement ; the settlers would not obey it ; and the proprietors gave it up, after trying it about twenty years. This was the only colony in which there was an attempt to have a nobility (§ 46). John Locke, a very great philosopher, who was at one time Cooper's secretary, drew up the plan. 96. The Proyince remained united for about seventy years. But it Avas found from the beginning that North Carolina and 94. What is said of the grant of Carolina? What territory was included within it? How had it received its name? Was it inhabited? 95. What is said of the plan of government? Of the nobility? Of the rest of the people? Why did the plan fail? 96. How long did the province remain united? What was the difificulty in goy- eming it? How were its two parts governed? What happened in 1729? How were the two colonies governed thereafter? 50 NORTH CAROLINA. South Carolina covered too much space to be easily governed as one colony. They were therefore considered two counties of the same province, and each had its own assembly and governor. In 1 729, the proprietors gave up their rights to the king. Both North Carolina and South Carolina then remained royal colonies until the Revolution (§ 193). 97. In North Carolina the proprietors adopted the Virginian settlement (§ 94) as their own, and called it the Albemarle colony. In 1665, a colony from Barbadoes settled near the Cape Fear River. It was called the Clarendon colony, but was soon removed into South Carolina. The population of the whole colony grew very slowly for a time. There were a few settlers from New England, and more fled to North Carolina from Virginia after the failure of Bacon's rebellion (§ 86). New Berne was settled by a colony of Swiss in 1*7 11. After 1740, there was an increase of set- tlement, because of rebellions in Scotland. Seal of North Carolina. Those who had been engaged in them were allowed by the British Government to leave Scotland, and many of them settled in North Carolina. Fayetteville was settled by Scotch immigrants in 1746. The population of the colony was estimated at 11,200 in 1715, and about 90,000 in 1750. 98. The Government was generally very bad. Hardly any col- ony had such a remarkable succession of bad men sent out as gov- ernors ; and the early history of North Carolina is mainly one of resistance by the people to the governors' illegal taxation. In 1677, one governor attempted to enforce the Navigation Act (§ 71); and the people imprisoned him and made a new government for them- selves. In 1688, another governor was driven away from the col- ony. In l77l. Governor Tryon collected an army, fought a pitched battle with his people, who called themselves Regulators, and de- feated them. The cruel manner in which he punished the leaders 97. What is said of the Albemarle colony? Of the Clarendon colony? Of the growth of population? Whence did the early settlers come? What is said of New Heme? How did the population increase after 1740? What is said of Fayetteville? What was the population in 1T15? In 1T50? In 1776? 98. How was the colony governed? What is said of its governors? Of its his- tory? What happened in 1677? In 1688? In 1771? How did this lead to the settle meDt of Tennessee? SCATTERED POPULATION OF NORTH CAROLINA. 51 KENTUCKY^- yi K G I N I A drove many of them across the mountains, and thus helped to set- tle Tennessee (§ 303). 99. Indian Wars were few. The most important was with the Tuscaroras, in 1711. With the help of South Carolina, the colony defeated the Indians, and drove most of them away to New York, where they became one of the Six Nations (§ 3). 100. Scattered Population. — The North Carolina colonists were at first more widely scattered than in any other colony. The great pine woods along the coast had no good roads ; and the peo- ple were mainly engaged in making tar and turpentine from the trees. As they explored the country farther from the coast, they found it much more open and fertile, and here they engaged in farming and hunting. But they were still very much scattered, and were unable to introduce schools in any great number, or the conveniences of settled life. Nevertheless, the colony became firmly established. It refused to allow relig- ious persecution, defeat- ed the attempt to make the Church of England the colony church, and became a place of ref- uge for those who were persecuted in neighbor- ing colonies. But the spirit of independence which marked the peo- ple was not pleasant to the governors, who often called them " a turbulent people." SxiPPIiEMENTARY QUESTIONS. Locations.— Locate the States of North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Tennessee, Alabama, and Mississippi (§10); Port Royal; Al- bemarle Sound; Cape Fear River; New Berne; Fayetteville. 99. What is said of Indian wars? Of the Tuscarora war? What was its result? 100. What is said of the people? Of the country along the coast? Of the oc- cupation of the people? Of the country in the interior? Of the condition of the people? What course did the colony take in religious matters? What did the gov- ernors think of the people? lUO 200 Carolina. SOUTH CAROLINA. Review. — Name the present States included in the province of Carolina. When was it granted? When was it divided? What was the first colony located in North Carolina? What was the year of the Tuscarora war? (4) South Carolina. 101. The First English Settlement in South Carolina was made in 16*70. A colony, sent out by tbe proprietors, reached the coast at Port Royal, then sailed north to the Ashley River, and on the first highland above the mouth of the river established a settlement, which was afterward called Old Charlestown. The location was found to be a poor one, and in 1680 the settlement was moved down to the point of land between the Ashley and Cooper rivers, where Charleston now stands. The Clarendon colony from North Carolina soon joined it (§ 97). Seal op South Carolina. Dutch families, dissatisfied with English rule in New York (§ 115), also came to South Carolina, and so did a number of French Huguenot settlers, driven from home by reli- gious persecution. As in North Carolina, there were many Scotch settlers. The population of the colony was estimated at 16,750 in 1715, and about 80,000 in 1750. Charleston was the only important town. It was known as Charles- town until after the Revolution. 102. The Colony first became prosperous through the cultiva- tion of rice, which began in 1693. For a time, rice was the money of the colony, as tobacco was in Virginia and Maryland (§ 82). In 1740, it required two hundred and fifty-seven British vessels to ca.ry the coiony's produce to Europe. In 1754, indigo was intro- duced with still more success. These two articles made South Carolina one of the richest of the colonies. Cotton was not successfully cultivated until after 1793 (§317). 103. Two Districts, the uplands and the lowlands, were formed in the colony as population grew. The uplands, toward the 101. When was the fii-st English settlement made? What is sairl of it? How was it removed? What other colony joined it? What is said of Dutch settlers? Of French settlers? Of Scotch settlers? Of the population of the colony? 102. What is said of the cultivation of rice? Of money? Of foreign commerce? Of indigo? Of the colony's prosperity? 103. What two districts were formed? What is said of the uplands? Of the lowlands? Of its laborers? What negro insurrection took place? EARLY SOUTHERN WARS. 53 mountains, were settled by foreign immigrants and mountaineers, who cultivated small farms or engaged in hunting. This part of the colony had little money and few negro slaves. The low- lands, where the rice, indigo, and cotton grew, contained the wealthy people and the large plantations. This part of the colony was cultivated by negro slaves, for it was unhealthy for white laborers ; and before many^ years there were more than twice as many negroes as whites. In 1Y40, there was a small negro insur- rection. 104. The People were thus very poor in the uplands, and very much scattered in the lowlands. There were hardly any schools except in Charleston ; but the rich planters of the lowlands sent their sons to England to be educated. The people of the lowlands were generally members of the Church of England, and in 1706 they made it the established church of the colony. But there can hardly be said to have been any religious persecution in this colony. 105. Early Wars. — None of the southern colonies took part in the early French wars, with the exception of Queen Anne's war (§75). In 1702, South Carolina, then the southernmost colony, sent an expedition to the Spanish territory of Florida. It captured St. Augustine, but was driven away by the arrival of two Spanish war- vessels. In l706, a French and Spanish expedition from Cuba appeared before Charleston, but the South Carolinians fought so well that it was beaten off with the loss of half its men. Before the next war took place, Georgia had become the -southernmost colony, and did most of the fighting (| 110). 106. Indian Wars. — The Indian allies of France and Spain were always troublesome. In 1715, they formed a confederacy to destroy the white settlers. The colony was aided by Virginia and North Carolina; and the Indians were defeated, and their power was broken. The proprietors refused to pay their share of the expense of these wars; and in 1719, before they had given up their rights, the people overturned their government, and obtained 104. What was the condition of the people? Of education? Of the established church? Of religious persecution? 105. What is said of tlie early French wars? What happened in 1702? In 1706? What colony did most of the fighting thereafter? 106. What is said of the Indians? W^hat happened in 1715? What was the re- sult of the war? How did it overturn the government of the proprietors? 64 GEORGIA. a governor from the king. South Carolina then remained a royal colony until the Revolution. Supplementary Questions. locations (§ 100). — Locate Port Royal; Charleston; St. Augustine. Bound the State of South Carolina. Review. — When was the first French settlement made in South Carolina (§ 19)? The first English settlement? When was it removed to Charleston? When was rice introduced? Indigo? Give the date of the attack on St. Augustine. Of the attack on Charleston. Of the Indian war. (5) Georgia. 107. The English Poor suffered terribly at the beginning of the last century. Those who could not pay their debts were imprisoned in jails, whose condition was filthy beyond de- scription. Their sufferings, and those of the English poor generally, touched the heart of James Oglethorpe, an English officer and a kindly man. In 1732, he obtained from King George 11. a grant of that part of South Carolina west of the Seal op Georgia. Savannah River. He named this terri- tory Georgia, in honor of the king. The English Parliament made grants of money to assist those who wished to emigrate. As the territory of South Carolina had been surrendered to the king in 1729 (§ 96), its people could make no objection to tlie king's formation of a new colony within their territory. Indeed, thej'^ favored it, in order to phice a new colony as a barrier between themselves and the Spaniards in Florida (§ 105). 108. The First Settlement was made in 1733, at Savannah, when Oglethorpe himself fixed a colony of one hundred and four- teen persons. Colonies of Germans and Scotch followed. Darien and Augusta were founded in 1736. But the colony increased so slowly that in 1750 there were but five thousand inhabitants, living in these three towns, and on a few scattered plantations. Its terri- tory extended to the Mississippi River, covering the present States 107. What is said of the condition of the Eng:lish poor? Of imprisonment for debt? Who rook up tlieir cause? What grant did he obtain? What name did he give to it? How did the Pariiament assist the colony? 108. What was the first settlement? What colonies followed? What towns were next founded? How did the colony increase? What was its territory? SPANISH DEFEAT IN OEOBQIA. 66 of Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi ; but most of it was still in the hands of the Indians. Oglethorpe treated the Indians justly, and bought from them the land that he needed. The Indians gave the colonists very little trouble. 109. Georgia was tlie hitest and the weakest of the colonies. Slavery was at iirst forbidden in it, and many of the colonists be- lieved that this was the reason for their lack of prosperity. In 1747, the trustees yielded to the wishes of the colonists, and allowed negro slaves to be brought into the colony. In 1752, the trustees gave up the colony to the king, and Georgia became a royal colony. 110. The Spanish War. — England declared war against Spain in 1739, and the whole burden of the war in America fell on the southernmost colonies. Early in 1740, Oglethorpe attacked Florida with Georgia troops and captured two towns. He went again to Florida some months afterward, with fresh troops from South Car- olina, and laid siege to the principal town, St. Augustine. Sick- ness in his army broke up the siege, and he retired to Georgia. In 1742, a Spanish expedition returned the attack. Oglethorpe met it near the mouth of the Altamaha River, and defeated the Spaniards in one battle. They then retired to Cuba, and warlike operations ceased. Oglethorpe returned to England in 1743 and remained there. While he lived he continued to be a warm friend to the colonies. He died in 1785, at the age of 97, having seen the independence of the United States acknowledged by Great Britain (§ 364). Supplementary Questions. Locations (§100). — Locate Savannah ; Darien; Augusta; St. Augus- tine; the Altamaha River; the three States which were included in the colony of Georgia (§ 108). Review. — When was Georgia granted? Who was its founder? When and where was the first settlement made? When did Oglethorpe attack Florida? When did the Spaniards attack Georgia? Wlien waii slavery introduced? When did Georgia become a royal colony? 109. What is said of Georiscia? Of slavery? What happened in 1747? In 1752? 110. What is said of the Spanish war? Of Oglethorpe's first attack in Florida? Of his second attack? Why did it fail? What happened in 1742? What was done by Oglethorpe? What was the result? 56 TEE souther:^ colonies in general. (6) The Southern Colonies in General. 111. Their Independent Position. — The southern colonies, in their early history, did not generally act together as the New Eng- land colonies did (§ VO). New England was not a large territory. Its people were more closely settled, were nearly all of the same blood, and were thus very likely to act together. The territory covered by the southern colonies- was very large, and was crossed by very many large rivers flowing into the Atlantic Ocean. Most of the people were English, but there were many colonies of Scotch, Irish, French, Germans, and Dutch. Each planter lived at a dis- tance from others, on a great plantation. For all these reasons, life in the southern colonies was quiet, and had little to do with neigh- boring colonies, so that their early history has no such example of united action as the New England union (§ 70). 112. The People of the southern colonies lived generally as in Virginia (§ 87). There were many large plantations, and few large towns or attempts at manufactures. Many of the planters owned their own vessels, and sent them directly to Europe from their plantations. Many of them also kept their accounts very carelessly, and were hopelessly in debt to the agents in Europe who sold their cargoes and bought goods in return for them. There were very few schools; the children of the planters were educated in Europe or at home on the plantation, while poorer children were educated very little or not at all. As a general rule, it may be said that neighboring colonies and neighboring people had most to do with one another in New England, less in the middle colonies, and least of all ir the southern colonies. This separation of life in the Southern States has influenced their history very strongly down to recent times. The people of each State, separated from the rest of the country by long distances and poor com- munication, were apt to tliink the State the most important and power- ful part of the country (§ 485). 111. What was a difference between the southern colonies and New England? What is said of the territory covered by New England? Of its people? Of the ter- ritory covered by the soiithern colonies? Of their people? Of their planters? What were the consequences? 112. What was the manner of life in the south? What is said of commerce? Of education? Of intercourse with one anotherT WUW YORK UNDER THE DUTCH 57 The Middle Colonies. (1) New York. 113. The Dutch Settlement of New Netherlands has already been narrated (§ 28). Four governors, named Peter Minuit,Wouter ran Twiller, William Kieft, and Peter Stuyvesant, sent out by the Dutch West India Company, ruled New Netherlands successively from 1626 until 1664. By that time, the English colonies to the north and south had grown so strong that they began to feel it to be troublesome and dangerous to have a foreign colony between them. In 1664, King Charles II., claiming that the territory of New ^^^^ ^^ New York. Netherlands belonged to England by discovery, and that the Dutch were only intruders, granted the territory to his brother, the Duke of York. The duke sent out a force, the same year, under Colonel Nichols, who compelled Stuyvesant, the last Dutch governor, to give up possession. The territory then became the English colonies of New York and New Jersey (§ 122). "Knickerbocker's History of New York," by Washington Irving, gives such a delightful picture of life in New Netherlands that people have almost come to take his romance as a reality. 114. New York became a royal colony, for its owner, the Duke of York, succeeded to the throne almost immediately. A large part of Long Island was settled by Connecticut people, who claimed it as part of their colony ; but the duke's power was too great for them to resist, and Long Island became a part of New York. But New York was no such important power as Petbk Stuyvesant. 113. Name the four Dutch governors. What claim and grant were made by- Charles II. ? What was done by the Duke of York? 114. What was the form of New York's government? How did Long M»na "^ come a part of New York? What is said of New York's importance? 58 ENGLISH GOVERNMENT OF NEW TORE. it has since become. To the north, it covered both banks of the Hudson to Albany, Beyond Albany, there were a few scattered settlements, such as Schenectady, but almost the whole territory belonged to the Indians or to the French, and could hardly be considered a part of New York at all. New York was thus a small colony, a narrow strip of land on the Hudson, with a fine harbor and island at the south, and at the northwest an excellent opportunity for growth. It was in reality one of the small colo- nies and States until the opening of the Erie Canal in 1825 (§ 430). 115. Holland had good reason to complain of the conquest of New York, and in 1673, while at war with England, she sent a fleet and reconquered it. Many of the people were not sorry for the change ; but the colony was given back to the English when peace was made in 1674. 116. The Settlement of the colony, under the Dutch, had been accomplished by granting large tracts of land to " patroons," that is, leaders who brought over a number of settlers for their estates. New York was thus different from New England ; instead of little townships, divided into farms owned by the farmers, it had large tracts of land owned by patroons, and the farmers were only ten- ants. On the other hand, it was also different from the Southern colonies ; the people lived rather closer together, and had more to do with one another. The patroon system was not changed under the English, and traces of it have remained until our own day (§ 531). 117. The Eng'lish GoYernmeut of New York was almost al- ways bad. The Duke of York did not allow the people to elect an assembly until 1683, and as soon as he became king, in 1685, he took the privilege away. It was restored by William and Mary in 1691, and was not taken away again. Very many of the govern- ors were men unfit to govern. The people drove one of them away m 1689, and put one of their own number, Jacob Leisler, into his place. Leisler was not altogether respectful to the new governor, Sloughter, sent out by William and Mary in 1691, and the gov- ernor arrested him for high treason. When Leisler had been con- 11.5. What was done by Holland? How was the colony restored? 116. What is said of the patroons? How did New York differ from the other colonies? 117. What was the character of the English government? What is said of the assembly? Of the governor?? Of the case of Leisler? Of other governors? NEW YORK CITY. 69 victed, the governor hesitated to sign the death-warrant ; but Leis- ler's enemies made Sloughter drunk, got his signature to the death- warrant, and hanged Leisler before the governor became sober again. Other governors were no better than Sloughter. One was believed to be a partner of the pirates who infested the coast ; an- other swindled the colony and robbed its treasury ; and another cheated the people by making them pay illegal fees. 118. Pirates, or buccaneers, were very troublesome to all the colonies in their early history, particularly to New York. They made navigation so dangerous that, in 1697, Captain Robert Kidd, a New York ship-master, was sent against them by the governor. He ran away with the vessel and turned pirate himself. He returned some New York City in 1664. three years afterward, was arrested, tried in England and hanged. Piracy in American waters was finally put down about 1720. Kidd's name is variously given as William or Robert. He is sup- posed to have buried his money somewhere on Long Island. 119. Negro Slavery existed in the colony, though there were not so many slaves as in the southern colonies. In 1740, it was believed that the negroes in New York City had made a plot to kill all the whites. Before the excitement ceased, 4 whites and 18 negroes were hanged, 14 negroes were burned at the stake, and 7] negroes were banished. It is almost certain now, however, that there was in reality no such plot. 120. New York City had become one of the most important places on the coast before 1750. Its great advantages were its 118. What is said of the pirates? Who was sent against them? What was his career? When was piracy put down? 119. Wiiat is said of lie^i"© slavery? Of the negro plot in New York City? 120. What is said of New York City? What were its advantages? VVhat was the disadvantage of other towns on the coast? What service did the Hudson River render to New York? What was the population of the city in 1697? Its extent? Its population in 1730? In 1750? 60 GROWTH OF NEW YORK. fine harbor, and the noble river which emptied into it. The othei towns on the coast were shut oflF from the far west by the Appa- lachian or Alleghany Mountains, which follow the Atlantic coast, at a distance of one or two hundred miles from it, from Georgia to Maine. But the Hudson River broke through this barrier, and gave New York easy access to Canada and the profitable Indian trade. In 1697, the city contained about 4,300 inhabitants, about one third being slaves. It extended from the Battery to a pali- saded wall, where Wall Street now runs. All above Wall Street was in the country. The population grew to about 8,500 in 1730, and about 12,000 in 1750. Its population in 1890 was 1,513,501 ; and Brooklyn, with a population (in 1890) of 806,343, and Jersey City, with a popula- tion of 163,987, which were not theia in exist- ence, are now really to be considered a part of New York City. (See Appendix V.) 121. The Growth of the Colony was slow but steady. The population was about 31,000 in 1715, and about 90,000 in 1750. The princi- pal towns were New York City, Albany (called by the Dutch Fort Orange), and Kingston. Brooklyn was only a ferry sta- To the north and west It was but a frontier The Middle Colonies. tion from New York City to Long Island of Albany, Schenectady was founded in 1661 village, and was captured and plundered by the French and Indians in 1690, and again in 1748. 121. What is said of the colony's growth? What was its population in 1715? In 1750? Its principal towns? What is said of Brooklyn? Of Schenectady? I NBW JERSEY. 61 The population of the State of New York in 1890 was 5,997,853, and seven of its cities had a population of over 60,000 each. Of these, Syracuse, which was but a villag-e in 1825, had about the same popula- tion in 1880 as the whole colony had 150 years before. SUPPLEMENTAKY QUESTIONS. Locations. — Locate New York City; Long Island; the Hudson River; Albany; the Appalachian or Alleghany Mountains; Kingston; Brook lyn; Sclieuectady. Bound the Stale of New York. Review. — When was the Hudson River discovered (§28)? When was the colony seized by tlie English? Who was its lirsi proprietor? What were its larger laud owners called? When was Leisler hanged? What was the dale of Kidd's piracy? Of the negro plot? (2) JVciv Jersey. 122. New Jersey was a part of New Netherland under the Dutch (§28), In 1664, the Duke of York granted it to Lord John Berkeley and Sir George Carteret, In 1676, it was divided: East Jersey be- longed to Carteret, and West Jersey to a company of Quakers, who had bought out Berkeley's interest. In 1702, all the pro- prietors gave up their rights to the queen, and New Jersey became a royal colony. It had the same governor as New York until 1738 ; but in that year it became an entirely separate colony. Seal of New Jersey. The name New Jersej^ was given in compliment to Carteret, for- merly governor of the islnnd of Jersey in the English Channel. 123. The First Settlement was made in 1664 at Elizabeth- town (now Elizabeth), by Puritans from Long Island. Newark was settled by Connecticut people in 1666. Burlington, a Quaker town, founded in 1677, was one of the capitals of the colony. Perth Amboy was the other, and it was thought for a long time that it was to be a greater city than New York. The population of the colony was estimated at 22,500 in 1715, and at about 75,000 in 1750. 122. What was New Jersey at first? What happened in 1664? In 1676? In 1703? When did \t become a separate colony? 123. What is said of the settlement of Flizabethtown? Of Newark? Of BiU"' liogton? Of Perth Amboy? What was the jxjpulation in 1715? la 1760? 62 PENNSYLYANIA. 124. The Governnient was at first very satisfactory. The pro- prietors, in 1665, granted to the people certain " concessions," which were in fact a charter. The colony was to be governed by an assembly elected by the people, and a governor and council ap- pointed by the proprietors. When New Jersey became a royal colony, the governors often attempted to overrule the assembly, and frequent disputes took place. But the people were very little annoyed by these disputes. Most of them were prosperous farm- ers, and the mild laws and freedom of the colony attracted many immigrants, particularly Dutch from New York and Long Island. In 1746, the College of New Jersey, the fourth American college, was founded at Elizabethtown ; it was removed to Princeton in 1756, and has since remained there. Supplementary Questions. Locations (§121). — Locate Elizabeth; Newark; Burlicgton; Amboy; Princeton. Bouud the State of New Jersey. Review. — When was New Jersey granted? To whom? When was the first settlement made, ami where? When did New Jersey be- come a royal colony? When did it become a separate colony? (3) Pennsylvania. 125. The Quakers were persecuted in England, and they, too, longed for an American place of refuge. It was for this reason that some of them had bought a part of New Jersey (§ 122). In 1681, their most influential leader, William Penn, obtained from Charles II., in payment of a debt which the British Government owed to his father, a grant of the territory which is now the State of Pennsylvania. Al- though he meant this to be a Quaker colony, he did not shut out persons of Seal of Pennsylvania. other religious beliefs, and he did not allow religious persecution of any kind. In 1682, he bought from the Duke of York what is now the State of Delaware, and added it to his colony (§ 132). 124. What is said of the government? What were the "concessions"? How was the colonv to be governed? Wliat disputes took place afterward? What is said cC the people? Of the immigrants? Of the College of New Jersey? 125. What is said of the Quakers in England? What grant did Penn obtain? T)id he shut out persons of other religious beliefs? What addition of territory did be iHake to his colony? 1 WILLIAM PENN. 63 The name Pennsylvania means " Penn's woods" or " Penn's forest country." It was given by the king, not by Penn. Tlie southern boundary was only settled after loug disputes wiih Lord Baltimore (§ 91). The charter is still in existence at Harrisburgh. 126. The Quakers differed from the Church of England in many respects, but particularly in their refusal to serve as soldiers, or to encourage war in any way. Further, they made it a point of conscience to take no oaths, and not to take their hats off in the presence of other men. Such ideas and practices were considered highly disrespectful by English magistrates, and the harmless Quakers were sent to jail for persisting in them. 127. Settlement had been begun already by the Swedes and Dutch, principally in Delaware. Chester (then called Uplandt) was founded by them in 1643. Penn at once sent out a company of emigrants, and in 1682 came over himself with a still stronger company. He met the Indians under a great elm-tree, by the side of the Delaware River, bought the land from them, and made with them a treaty of peace and good-will which was not broken for seventy years. Early in 1683, he laid out a capital city for the colony, calling it Philadelphia. The name Philadelphia means " brotherly love." 128. The GrOTernment of the new colony v/as unusually good. The governor was to be ap- pointed by the proprietor; the assembly was to be elected by the people ; and the governor and assembly were to make the laws. No one believing " in one Almighty God " was to be annoyed for his I'eligious belief. Christians of every sect could vote or hold office. All this was due to Penn, who made out the plan of government and offered it to the colonists. With William Penn. some changes, this plan of government remained in force until 1776. 126. How did the Quakers differ from the Church of England? What other pecuh'arities had they? Why were they punished for them? 127. How had settlement been begun? How did Penn increase it? What course did he take with the Indians? What is said of his capital? 128. What is said of the government? What were its provisions? How were religious differences treated? To whom was the form of government due? How long did it last? 64 VISLAWAHJS. 199. P»au ami his Proviaoe. I'tnm wws iloprlveil of his piovince in tOy;^. IxH'JVUso ho was susikh'UhI i>f siiliu^ vvilh Jiuucs II. (§SS); but it ^Y^ls givtMi biU'k lo l>im iu u short lime. In UU>y, lio ukuIo iinolhtn- visit to tUo ooloiiy. Uy {.Wvd iu 1718, fuul iiis sous Ihi-uuu* proprietors. Vnvl i>f ilvo huui'hiul been uwervtHl for Uit'iu, nud us iho coiouy grow oKlor, Iho pooplo biTiiuio nu>ro discouloultHl with Iho \)!uuit'ut of reul.s. 'rhoro woio uuiuy viispulos Hud u»mh ill tVoliug bolvvoou iho pooolo aiui the pivpiiolors, Hud during' llu' lu'vohition llio t^Uito nl>olishou tho rouls. pavuig iho propriiioisViyo.OOO ^|(>rH).000) for llioiu, 130. VhllaUolpllla i;rovv rnpivUy, aud whs larger ihau Now York Oity until ttt'tor tho Kovohitiou. Iu 1740, it hud about liJ.OOO iu habitants, and whs hs thriving h plaoo hs any on tho oonst. It was liotod abovo othor oitios for its oxoollout buiKUugs, its oU'iHuliues.s and its onvy for oUucntion. Tho printing-jMvss whs iutroduood in Iti8t5, Hud H piiblio high-soluiol in U>sy. Tho llnivorsitv of IVnu- svlvHuiH datos from 1779, huU hns absorbed oortain onrlior oduoa- tional institutions ostablishovl in rhih»dol[>hia as oarlv as 1749. 'Tho pi>putation i>f I'hihuU'lphiu iu ISIK> was l,W4,Sy-l. 181. Tho (JwHth of the t\>loii> whs stondv. Its populntion (with IK'lawaro) was osiiuuitod at 4v\S0(.) in 17 15, and nbout :iOO,- 000 in 1750. Most of those woiv faruuMs, nnd ThilndolphiH whs tho only iniportant oity. Tho wostorn pnrt of tho Stato, whoro I'ittsburgh now stnnds, was for many yoars unsottlod (§ 80v^) ; and the ootU ami irv>n v>f tho eastern part, whioh now support thriving towns, wore ipiite unknown. Nv> ooK>uy had anioiig its setth>rs sueh a variety of poopUvs and langUHges. As a genoral ruU\ tho Knglish kept to the sv>uthoHstern part v>f tho eoh>ny,tho Ihitoh ami (rorniHiis to the east and northoast, auvl tfto Sootoh and Irish to the central piut. Tho i>opuhitiou of IVuusylvania iu lSi>0 was 5,ii5{<,0l4. (4) l>t'Uwi(tv. m, Uela>\ai>\ or Now Sweden, was settled by the Swedes in 1U38, and oouviuored by tho Ihitoh iu ttJ55 (^ i}9). It passed with 14». What w»>i Whh's furthw c>ouuM<(iou with the (.vtoayy What disputt* *i\vso with his s^msY lU>w wiis it t^iultnlY 150. WhHl issiviil I't! J'hiltult'li>lii»y Of its iH»pul«tU>u* Fi.>r what was it iiottxl^ >Vliat iDipufius.! iu Ukstiy Ui UkS}>v \vhi»t is siiia t>f th«» l'i>iv«u-sity of tVni«.s>'lv»iiiar 151. What was tht< (K>|.>ulHtioi> in l?l^'' li> t7fn»r What wus tht>ir ^^'cu^>aliv>ll" What v>iiits ol' tho Statt* \v«^l\^ still uiist^ltltHly What is st»i^l of lh«> j>oi.>j>lw aiul Ian- KuaK<"s aiiu>ii>; tlio ooloiiists!' Hi>vv vvtiif they j«>i;iw(irt'" t\ow ilivl it <.\>iu(?i into IVuii's haiiU'sy NVtiat was its s*-'* <''<>"'<■'" ^ Wtion wft.s .1 siaio govtM'iimeut foriutxl, aj>\l Uuaoi w liiit luviiio' W ticii tuul Pvl^wftiv ^?t>«U v,'*Ui<^i luwiou.sly 1 Wm VOl.OiMKs i.\ <;/i,,\ /.;/,•.(/ 60 Now NolllorlMM.I to Iho hill t' \ ..|K, ull,. ;h.|.| iI Io I'.'IIII III IliS'J (J^ I'Ja), ll;s |nni|ilo won* nllo\V(ul ii Mt<|iiiliili' ii^r,('iiili|\ III IVO.'I, ImiI Ii.'hI till' Miimo M(i\(liM^\'l\'.'iina iiiilil llio K(\VM, ill lil'U lllliltM' lllt> lUllllC III" till' I >i'l)| WMi'o Stiito," Mini llioii iiiiilor tliiil o\' lli(< Sliilo ol' hoJiiWMi'o. Tlioir coloiiN liail |>rc vioiislv lu'i'ii Known miU as ••llic 'l\iiil.i rios," «>r "llic lliicc Iowit I'.iiiiilnvi on Ihc I >i>lii\viirt'." l><'la\\i\ro liiKcM iIm nnino Ironi lln' river w liicli IronlH il. itiul llili' wiiN iiimuHJ lioin Lonl l>('lii\vait\ wlm ilifil olV llio cumsI In 1(110. !~*i I'n.iaiiiiN'rAitv (,).iiii;h'I'ionh, l.ooutioiiB ^;'^ CM) iionnil llio Hlillo (»!' I't'iinsylvaniM, llic Slain dI' .Di'ltiwiuo. I.ociilo l'li('Ml(M-; l'lillinlol|il\iii. ltiflVini\v.--\Vlit'n wiiM llio f^riinl di rcmiMvlvMniu iiunlcV 'To wliomV Wlial torrllorv was inldoil by iHiiclmsoY Wlicn wiih Pliilii(li'i|ililti i'ltuniloilV Wiion wiiM l>j>lawart' allowtui a NcpaiMli* aMHcmlilvY 'rilli; ("olONIKM IN (ili'.NHKAl,. IrtJl. Tlio r<»|>iilii(l(Mi .'I' tli(< ctijonios litnl ^rown fr.un tmlliiiijj; in hlOli to alxMit l.'.'iiO.OiMi 111 iViiO. Wo \\n\c oiilv islinialt's of tilt* |io|iiilalioii at ililVoriMit limes, luit lln\so ostinuiton, iiiailc li\ caro- fiil tiii'ii, arc prolialilv in»t far I'loiii I In- tnitli. In IliSS, llic rolonioH ha. I alu.iil •'00.(10(1 iiilial>ilaiils ; in IVII, alunit I:;,'., 000; in I7'J7, nl>oiit (iOO.OOO; ami in iVaO, til>oiil l,'J(Ul,OO0. I'lvidontly llit^so woro >;ro\\iiii;' coionit^H, ."'rowini;' I'm" raster llian lMii;laml was .•tow- uii>;, or llian any oilier eoiiiilr\ liati e\ er oiow n. .\|| iheso |»(>o[>lo eoiiHi.lort*.! IIitMiiS(>lv(roml ol' llm name. M.>s| .tl' tliciii hail never se.Mi llie Kiiii.';, I'lil all wen' |>r.>ii.l of I'einy; liis snlijiuMs. 'Pin* kiii^' of (Jreat IWitain lia.l thus a fair ohnnet* of heeomiiii;' more |>o\verfiil than .>tlier kind's in luiropo, f«>r he hnd a m>\v ami fas! orowinn" kingdom «eri>ss the .\tlantii\ l?aniM'ofl. divides tli(> |»o|inlall.>n in I'JT*! as I'oll.tws: New Mnf^laml, 4!m.OOO; nilddio eolonies, ;!S(),00(1; s..iillierii I'oionies, (lOK.OOO (Vj'iJ'J.OOO boinj; slaves); total. 1,-I\).'>,(U)0. Ifttl. Wluit Is Hultl i o.iloiilHHy Olvo, uh nt<(vrly AH you etiii. llio |i.>|r (h'n ooloiilosr Ol' (U.'ii lu'iipii'- (>r ih<> uiiifi'M now liiiiKiloiiiy 66 anOWTH OF TEE COLONIES. 134. The Industry of the Colonies was remarkable. Tlie people grew tobacco, rice, indigo, and other products, which the people of Great Britain were glad to take and pay for with their own manufactures. A great trade with the colonies had thus grown up, and it made both Great Britain and the colonies richer. The colonies were now so much richer and stronger that they were already able to vote money, ships, and men to help the king in his wars. All this increase of wealth and power had hardly cost Eng- land or the king anything. The colony of Georgia, the weakest of all, was the only one which had ever received help in money from the British Government. 135. Great Britain's Feeling seemed to be more one of alarm than of pleasure at the rapid growth of the colonies, for the king and the government began to fear that the colonies would learn to unite and form a government of their own. In 1696, a department of the British Government had been formed, and called the Board of Trade and Plantations. Its business was to watch the colonies, and to see that they obeyed the Navigation Acts (§ 71). It found its task continually growing harder as the colonies grew richer. And, in the same way, the colonies found the Navigation Acts con- tinually growing more annoying to them. But they still had no thoughts of independence. 136. The Scattered Settlements along the coast were at first widely separated. There was a long stretch of forest between each colony and its nearest neighbor ; and it was easier for a man at Boston to get to London than to get to New York or Jamestown. The colonies, except in New England, had very little to do with their neighbors ; and it is for this reason that the history of each colony has so far been given separately. In 1750, things had changed very much. The spaces between the original colonies were now pretty well filled with settlements ; and men might travel overland along 134. What is said of the occupations of the colonies? Of the grrowth of trade with Great Britain? Of the power of the colonies? Had all this cost Great Britain very much? 135. How did Great Britain feel as to the growth of her colonies? Why was the Board of Trade and Plantations formed? How did it succeed? How did the colo- nies feel as to the Navigation Acts? ''■ 136. Why was travel from one colony to another difficult at first? Why has the history of each colony been given separately? Was the state of the case the same in 1750? How had travel become easier? What is said of George Wliitefleld's travels? Was travel as easy as it is now? Why is the history of the colomes now to be given as one? SUMMARY. 67 the whole coast, without running any great danger from Indians, wild beasts, or starvation. In 1740, George Whitefield, the great revivalist preacher, travelled with little difficulty through the whole of the new country, from Georgia to New England. A journey in America was a far more arduous affair than now, for the roads were very bad, there were not enough bridges, and steam was not yet used for travel ; but it was far easier than it had been at first. In- tercourse between the colonies had become more common. It was now easier for them to act together than to act separately ; and, as they did act together from this time, their history must henceforth be given as one. (1) The New England colonies bad already often acted togctlier, and even formed a union in 1643 (§ 70). (2) Nearly all tlie colonies were now to act together in the French and Indian War. (3) All the colonies finally united in resisting the king and Parliament, in begin- ning the Revolution, and in making a new nation, the United States of America. 137. Summary, — It has seemed best, so far, to give the history of the different colonies in geographical groups. The leading events in their history, in order of time, are as follows : 1606 : English colonization begun § 25 1607 : Virginia first settled at Jamestown 36 1619: First legislative assembly 80 Slavery first mentioned 48 1676: Bacon's Rebellion 86 1620: Massachusetts first settled at Plymouth 49 1680: Massachusetts Company transferred to America 53 1691: The two colonies united 58 1692: Tlie Salem witchcraft 57 1623: New Hampshire first settled at Dover and Ports- mouth 59 1641 : Became part of Massachusetts 60 1691 : Became a separate colony 60 1623: New York settled at New Amsterdam by the Dutch 28 1664: Conquered by the English 28 1691: Leisler's execution 117 1740: Negro plot 119 137. When did English colonization begin? Give the leading events in the his- tory of Virginia. Of Massachusetts. Of New Hampshire. Of New York. Of Maryland. Of Connecticut. Of Rliode Island. Of Delaware. Give the date of the New England union. Of the first Navigation Act. Give the leading events in the history of North Carolina. Of New Jersey. Give the date of King Philip's War. Give the leading events in the history of South Carolina. Of Pennsylvania. Give the date of the Andros government. Give the leading dates of Queen Anne's War. Of the history of Georgia. Of King George's War. 68 FRENCH SETTLEMENT. 1634: Maryland first settled at St. Mary's § 90 1693: Toleration ceased 93 1763: INhison and Dixon's Line settled 91 1634-6: Connecticut lirst settled at Wetherstield, Wind- sor, anil Hartford 62 1638: New Haven settled 64 1689: Tiie first constitution was adopted 62 1665: The two colonies united 65 1636: Rhode Island first settled at Providence 66 1644: Its plantations united 67 1638: Delaware first settled by the Swedes 29 1655: Conquered by the Dutch 29 1664: Conquered by the English 29 1682: Sold to Penn 125 1703 : Became a separate colony 132 1643 : The New Knuland Union formed 70 1651 : The Navigation Acts begun 71 1663: North Cauolina first settled at Albemarle 94 1711 : The Tuscarora War 99 1729: The colony transferred to the king 96 1664: New Jersey first settled at Eiizabethtowu 123 1702: Becomes a royal colony 122 1738: Becomes a separate colony 122 1670: South Carolina first settled at old Charleston 101 1729: Became a royal colony 96 1675 : King Philip's War begun 72 1683: Pennsylvania settled near Philadelphia 127 1683: Philadelphia founded 127 1701 : The new charter given 128 1686: The Andros Government begun 74 1702: Queen Anne's War begun 75 1710: Port Royal (Annapolis) taken 76 1713: Queen Anne's War ended 75 1733: Georgia first settled at Savannah 108 1740: The Spanish War 110 1752: Georgia became a royal colon j' 109 1744: King George's War begun 75 1745: Louisburgh captured 76 1748: King George's War ended 75 PERIOD IV.— COLONIAL HISTORY: 1750-1763. (1) French Settlement. 138. English Colonization had now seized firmly on the At- laritic coast of North America, between Canada and Florida, and had there formed thirteen colonies. These colonies were most of 138. Where was English colon iz.ition firmly fixed? How far westward did the colonies exteud? What was their real western boundary? Whatvas r'aimed by the French? CANADA. 69 them supposed to extend westward to the Pacific Ocean ; but their actual population did not extend half as far westward as did their boundaries when they became States. From New England to Georgia the Appalachian or Alleghany Mountains were a western boundary for all the colonies, beyond which population liad not yet passed. Between the Alleghanies and the Mississippi River, the whole country was now claimed by the French, who had passed into it from Canada, and called it New France, or Louisiana. Tlie claim really included the whole of western New York also. Properly, the name New Fniiice included Canada and all the French possessions in North America. Tlie name Louisiana was given to such French possessions as are now within the United States. After 1763, tiie name was given to the territory west of the Mississippi (^ 158). 139. Canada fell into the hands of the French after 1605, without any opposition from the English ( § 20 ). Champlain pushed on westward and ex- plored western Canada and northern New York : Lake Champlain was named after hiin. Other Frenchmen follow- ed him, the most enterprising- being French missionaries to the Indians. In 1673, one of them, named Marquette, with a trader named Joliet, entered what is now the United States, in search of a great river of which the -<: i. ,~ Indians had told them. They Samuel de Champlain. found the Mississippi, and sailed down that river to about the place where De Soto had crossed it (§ 15). In much the same way, French explorers made known the surface of what are now the northwestern States. In 1682, La Salle sailed down the Mis- sissippi to its mouth, and named the whole region Louisiana. In 1684, La Salle attempted to fix a colony, whicli lie brought from France, at tlie mouth of the Mississippi, but could not find the river, and sailed on to Texas. Here he was murdered, and his colony was broken up by sickness and starvation. 139. What is said of the French conquest of Canada? Of Champlain's explora- tions? Of other explorers? Of the discovery of Marquette and Joliet? Of fehe ex- ploration of the northwestern country? Of La SeJle's discovei-y ? 70 FRENCH POSSESSION'S. 140. The First French Settlement within tte n or tli western United States was the mission of St. Mary, near Sault Ste. Marie, now in Micliigan. It was established in 1668 (§ 20). Other French missions were gradually establislied at different })oints in the northwest, but none of them came to be important places. 141. French Colonization within the United States really began in 1699, when D'Iberville was sent through the Gulf of Mexico to find the mouth of the Mississippi. He found it, and fixed a settlement at Biloxi, within the present State of Mississippi. In 1702, he removed it to Mobile, which became his capital. In 1716, a French company, the Mississippi Company, obtained a grant of Louisiana; and in 1718, it sent a colony and founded the city of New Orleans, which soon became the principal place of the Mississippi valley. 142. The French Possessions in North America had thus be- come very large before 1750. To secure them, the French had erected a chain of some sixty forts, stretching from New Orleans to Montreal, many of which have since become important towns. The present cities of New Orleans, Natchez, Vincennes, Fort Wayne, Toledo, Detroit, Ogdensburgh, and Montreal are near enough to the sites of some of these old forts to mark out the general course of the chain. Back of it, toward the Mississippi 'nd the great lakes, were other forts, as at Mackinaw and Peoria. Not all of these forts have grown into cities : some of them have entirely disappeared. One of these is Kaskaskia, on the river of the same name, which was long the most important place in what is now the State of Illinois. 143. The Weakness of the French Empire in America was in the fewness of its inhabitants. The whole population of New France, including Canada, was only about 100,000 jn 1750, while the population of the English colonies was nearly fifteen times as large (§ 133). Within the present territory of the United States, 140. What was the first French settlement in the northwest? What other set- tlements were made? 141. How did French colonization hegrin? What is said of Biloxi? Of Mobile? Of the Mississippi Company? Of New Orleans? 142. WHiat is said of the French possessions? Of the chain of French forts? Name some of the cities which have taken their places? What other forts were built? What has become of Kaskaskia? 143. What was the weakness of the French Empire? What was the population of New France? Of the English colonies? Of Louisiana within the United States? What danger was approaching? THE OHIO COMPANY. 71 east of the Mississippi, there were probably not more than 7,500 Frenchmen, and most of these were fur-traders or adventurers, strong enough to keep the Indians in check, but not to settle the country. There was coming toward them, over the Alleghanies, a wave of English settlement which moved very slowly, but could not be stopped. The weakness of the French population was chiefly due to the fact that the restless spirit of adventure and willingness to wander abroad was nuicli less common in France than it had become in England. The French colonies received few reinforcements from liome, and were apt to mix with the native population. 144. The Ohio Company. — Just as Raleigh's unsuccessful colo- nies came before the successful settlement of the coast (§ 23), a number of unsuccessful English land companies came before the successful settlement of the great West. Their object was to buy up vast tracts of land at a low price, induce settlers to move thither by giving them part of the land, and thus make the rest of the land so valuable as to richly repay all expenses. One of the earli- est of these land companies, the Ohio Company, was organized in 1749 by some London merchants and some leading Virginians. Its lands lay in western Pennsylvania, which was then claimed by Virginia (8 83). The company at once sent out surveyors and traders, and then began opening roads for emigrants. 145. The French took the alarm as soon as the Ohio Company was formed, and sent men to sectire the country between the Alle- ghanies and their chain of forts. In 1753, they erected a strong fort at Presque Isle, where Erie now stands, and prepared to build a new chain of forts southward, toward the Ohio River. Governor Dinwiddre, of Virginia, determined to send an agent to remonstrate with the French ^commander. George Washington (§ 296) was then a Virginia land-surveyor, not quite twenty-two years old, but already known for his prudence and clearheadedness, and he was selected as the agent. He made his way through the wintry wil- derness up the Potomac River to the Monongahela, down that river to its junction with the Alleghany, and up the Alleghany 144. What is said of English iand companips? What was their object? What is said of the Ohio Company? Where were its lands? W^iat were its first steps? 145. What was done bv the French? What fort was built in 175.3? What did Dinwiddle determine to do? What is said of Washington? What was the course of his journey ? What was its result: 72 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. until he met the French commander. That officer refused to quit the disputed territory, and Washington returned with what was really a declaration of war. The " French and Indian War" which followed was at first entirely an American war: it did not extend to Europe until 1756 (§ 150). Supplementary Questions. Locations. — Locate the Appalachian or Alleghany Mountains; the Mississippi River; Lake Chainplaiu; Sault Ste. Marie, JMicli. ; Biloxi, Miss.; Mobile, Ala.; New Orleans, La.; Natchez, Miss.; Viucennes, Ind. ; Fort Wayne, Ind. ; Toledo, O. ; Detroit, Mich. ; Ogdensburgh, K Y. ; Montreal; Mackinaw, Mich.; Peoria, 111.; Erie, Pa.; the Poto- mac River; the Monongahela River (§ 156); the Alleghany River. Review. — How far westward did the English colonies extend ? What was the country called thence to the Mississippi River? Who claimed it? When and where was the first French settlement made in it? When did Marquette find the Mississippi? When was DTberville sent out? What towns did he found? Wlien was New Orleans founded? When was the Ohio Company formed? When did the French build a fort at Erie? Who was sent to remonstrate with them? (2) The French and Indian War. 146. "Virginia had raised about 400 troops in the mean time, and Washington had taken such pains to know the country well that he was put in command of them, with the rank of lieutenant- colonel. He turned back with them on the road which he had just travelled, for the purpose of protecting a fort which the Ohio Company was building at the junction of the Alleghany and Monongahela rivers, where Pittsburgh now stands. Both parties knew very well the importance of this place, and were pushmg to secure it. The Frenchmen won in the race, and captured and Btrengthened the fort, which they named Fort Duquesne. They then passed on to attack Washington, who was coming down the Monongahela River. At first the colonel in command was a man named Frye. But he died on the road, leaving the command to Washington. 147. The First Fight of the war followed their meeting. Washington, with a part of his force, met an advance-party of the 146 What troops had been raised? To whom were they given? What fort was he to secure? What race followed? Who won in it? What did they then do? 147. What followed their meeting? What success was gained by Washington? Why did he then retreat? What is said of his surrender? What position was giver him? I THE ENGLISH COLONIES UNITED. 73 French and Indians, and killed or captured nearly all of them. But the Fr^^nch main body was so much superior in numbers that he moved back a few miles up the Monongahela to a fort which he named Fort Necessity. Here he surrendered, July 4, 1754, on condition that he and his men might return to Virginia. He had done so well with the small force at his command, that he became Virginia's principal military ofhcer for the rest of the war. 148. The English Colonies were now all acting together for the first time in their history. There were South Carolina troops with Washington at Fort Necessity ; and all the colonies voted money, men, and arms to help Virginia. Heretofore the colonies had been dragged into wars by England ; now they were disposed to make war on their own account, for they all knew that this western territory was necessary to their future growth. The Brit- ish Government was at first disposed to let them fight it out for themselves, and advised them to form a plan of united action. Accordingly, in 1754, Maryland, Pennsylvania, New York, and the New England colonies sent delegates to a meeting at Albany. Here the " Albany plan of union," proposed by Benjamin Franklin, was agreed upon. But it looked so much like an American govern- ment, independent of Great Britain, that the British Government rejected it ; while it gave the king so much power that the colo- nies rejected it also. It is interesting, ho\V«Aiei\ as a sign of union. The Albany plan proposed a congress of not rnbre^ than seven or less than two deleirates from each colony, according to tlie-colouy^s pro- portion of taxes paid; and a ffovernor general, appointed by t!ie king, with the power to veto (forbid) any law of Congress which he should consiiier wrong or unwise. 149. England and France both began to send troops to America, for both knew that war must soon come. The colonies also were everywhere stirring with warlike preparations. In J'^ne, 1755, a force of British regulars and provincial (colonial) troops sailed from Boston, and captured the few remaining French forts 148 What is said of the union of the English colonies? What was ,he differ- ence between this and former wars'? What did the British Govern me at advise? What meeting of colonial delegates took place? What plan did it adopt? Why tvas the plan rejected by both parties? Why is the plan interesting? 149. What was now done by England and France? By the colonies? What is said of the Kova Scotia expedition? What is said of Braddock's march? Of his clefeat? Of the Crown Point expedition? Of the events of 175§? 74 PR0ORE88 OF TEE WAR. in Acadia (Nova Scotia). In the same month, General Braddock, a brave, obstinate, and self-contident British officer, marched from Virginia through Pennsylvania against Fort Duquesne. He ex- pected to fight the French and Indians in line of battle, and refused to heed the advice of Washington, who was one of his aides, to send scouts in advance. Within a few miles of Fort Duquesne, a few French and Indians completely surprised Braddock's long line, killed him and more than half his men, and chased the rest for miles on the road back to Virginia. The only real resistance was made by Washington and his Virginians, who fought from behind trees in Indian fashion, and checked the pursuit, A month later, a New York expedition against Crown Point, under Sir William Johnson, defeated the French and Indians, under Baron Dieskau, near the southern end of Lake George, but did no more. The year 1755 thus closed badly for the English. The expedition to Acadia, above referred to, only completed the previous conquest of this section of the country (§ 76). From this time the whole of Acadia (Nova Scotia and New Brunswick) became an Eng- lish province, as it still remains. The expedition was disgraced by a gross act of cruelty and treachery on the part of the English. The French inhabitants were ordered to assemble at their churches. They were then seized and sent southward along the coast to different English colonies; and their houses and crops were burned to prevent their return to their homes. Longfellow's "Evangeline" tells a touching story of the unhappy exiles. 150. Declaration of War was made by both England and France in the spring of 1756, so that the war was no longer con- fined to America. The British Government was at first very inefii- cient, and sent out worthless oflficers to America, so that little was accomplished during the two years 1756 and 1757. The English and provincial forces marched hither and thither, fighting little, and gradually drawing back before their enemies. The French were now commanded by a great soldier, Montcalm. His forces were not large, but he made the most of them. Each English force acted for itself, while he used all his men together against one point after another. He thus, for two years, held the English out of the disputed territory, captured the few forts which they 150. When was war declared? What was done by the British Government? By the Enghsh and provincial troops? Who was the French commander? AVhat did he accomplish? What successes did he gain? WILLIAM PITT. 75 had built along the northern border of New York, and gained all the Indians to his support. By provincial troops are meant the soldiers furnished by the prov- inces or colonies. The British troops in America in 1758 numbered about 50,000. Of these, 28,000 were provincials, and 23,000 were regulars. 151. The Year 1758 changed all this. One of the greatest men in English history, Wil- liam Pitt, was called to the head of the British Govern- ment, and everything felt his influence. Inefficient officers were got out of the way, and the whole English force was thrown upon the French at three points. In July, a sea expedition captured Louis- burgh, on Cape Breton Island (§ 76). In November, a land expedition captured Fort Du- quesne without resistance, and renamed it Fort Pitt (now Pittsburgh). The only fail- ure of the year was that of an expedition against Ticonderoga, where Montcalm commanded in person. It assaulted the French works, and was defeated after losing about 1,600 men. But a part of the English force drove the French out of northwestern New York, and captured Fort Frontenac, on the Canada side of Lake Ontario, where Kingston now stands. 152. These Successes were greatly due to the manner in which Pitt brought in the colonies to help the regular troops. Provincial troops took part in all these expeditions, and thus learned to make war and to have confidence in themselves. Many of the American officers who afterward took part in the Revolution received their training in the campaigns of the French and Indian War. William Pitt. 151. When were affairs clianged? What is said of Pitt? What did he do in America? What is said of the capture of Louisburgh? Of Fort Du Qiiesne? What was the only failure of tlie year? Describe it. What success did it gain? 152. To what were these successes greatly due? What is said of the provincial troops? Of American ofljcers? 76 JAMES WOLFE. 153. The Tear 1759 was still more successful. It was known that the English intended to attack Quebec this year, and Montcalm was forced to draw off most of his troops to de- fend that city. Consequently, Ticonderoga, Crown Point, and a strong French fort, Fort Niagara, fell into the hands of the English without much resistance. From Louis- burgh the English, under Gen- eral Wolfe, sailed up the St. Lawrence River to attack Que- bec. Their ships gave them command of the river, but above them rose the lofty Jamfs Wolfe cliffs on whose top the fortifi- cations of Quebec had been built. The French could not be tempted to come out of their stronghold ; and, after a siege of nearly three months, the English were very much discouraged. Finally Wolfe decided to climb the cliffs and find the enemy. 154. Quebec. — On the appointed night, Wolfe's army floated down the river in boats, and was landed on the little river-beach at the foot of the cliffs. All through the night the men were clambering up the precipice, which the French had not taken the trouble to guard ; the sailors dragged up eight or ten small cannon with them; and, in the morning of September 13, the English army was drawn up on the Plains of Abraham, in front of the upper city. There were still walls to be attacked ; but Montcalm, startled by the sudden appearance of the English, moved his army out, and fought a battle on the open plain. Both Wolfe and Montcalm were killed, but the French were completely defeated. Five days afterward, the city was surrendered. 153. What is said of the year 1759? What was Montcalm forced to do? What were the consequences? What route was talceri by Wolfe's army? What was the great difficulty in attacking Quebec? What is said of the siege? What did Wolfe decide to do? 154. Describe the landing. The ascent of the c'.ififs. The position of Wolfe's army in the morning. What did Montcalm do? What was the result of the bftttle? Wben did the city surrender? THE CONQUEST OF CANADA. 77 Both generals lived long enough to know the result of the battle. Wolfe, when told of it, said, "Then I die happy." Montcalm, when toid that he must die, said, " So much the better; I shall not live to see the surrender of Quebec." 155. The Conquest of Canada followed in 1760. Montreal surrendered to the English. Then the other French forts were given up as rapidly as English troops could be sent to take them. The French troops were sent home to France, atnd the French do- minion in North America was over. Many of the Indians disliked to see the British troops holding the forts in their territory. In 1763, Pontiac, an Ottawa chief living near Detroit, formed a league of Indian tribes to destroy the new-comers. But the plan was re- vealed by a friendly Indian ; the attack on Detroit was beaten back ; and the Indians, after some hard fighting, begged for peace. Though the war was over on the con- tinent of North Am- erica, it continued elsewliere for about three years. England and France were still fighting on the ocean, and wherever eiiher could reach theother's dominions. 156. Spain en- tered the war, in 1762, to assist France. In that year, an English expedi- tion, with many pro- vincial troops in it, sailed to the Spanish island of Cuba, and captured the rich city of Havana. The people of the colonies now sent out privateers against Spanish commerce ; and the growth of the colonies was shown by the fact that their privateers in this Scale oOIilcs 60 lOO 200 3i The French War. 155. What followed? What became of the French forts? Of the French troops? Of the French dominion? How did the Indians like the change? What was Pouti- ac's conspiracy? Wliat was its result? 156. What, is said of Spain? Of the capture of Havana? Of colonial privateers? What shows something of the growth of the colonies? 78 CLOSE OF THE WAR. war outnumbered, in vessels, guns, and men, the whole English navy of 150 years before, when the colonies were founded. 157. The Peace of Paris closed the war in 1763, Great Britain had completely conquered both France and Spain, and the two conquered nations consented to surrender to her the whole of North America east of the Mississippi. Spain gave up Florida to Great Britain in exchange for Havana (§ 156). France gave up all her possessions in North America, giving her conqueror, Great Britain, all the portion east of the Mississippi River, and her ally, Spain, the portion west of that river, including the city of New Orleans. 158. Louisiana. — Spain kept the name of Louisiana for the territory west of the Mississippi River, which she had received from France. It covered, in general, the great region between the Rocky Mountains and the Mississippi River, from British America to the Gulf of Mexico (§ 332). Almost all this region, however, was then a wilderness, excepting small portions of the present States of Louisiana and Missouri. New Orleans was the only im- portant city. St. Genevieve was the oldest settlement in Missouri. St. Louis was founded in 1764. One of the founders of St. Louis, Pierre Chouteau, lived in the city until his death in 1849, uud wituessed the enormous changes in its con- dition. 159. The Leading Events of the war are as follows : 1754-7: French Success. 1754: Surrender of Fort Necessity § 147 Albany Plan of Union " 148 1755: Braddock's Defeat 149 Conquest of Nova Scotia (Enijlish success). . 149 Battle of Lake George (English success) 149 1756: War declared 148 1756-7: General French success 149 1758-63: English Success. 1758: Pitt becomes head of the British Govern- ment 151 Capture of Louisburgh 151 Capture of Fort Duquesne 1 54 Battle of Ticonderoga (French success) 151 157. Wliat closed the war? What we e its advantages to Great Britain? What was sriven tip by Spain? By France? 158. What is said of Louisiana? What did it cover? What was its condition? What is said of New Orleans? Of St. Genevieve? Of St Louis? 159. What were the years of French success? What were the leading events Oi 17.54? Of 1755. Of 1756-7? What were the years of English success? What were the leading events of 1758? Of 1759? Of 1760? Of 1763? Of 1763? STATE OF THE COLONIES. 79 1758-63: English Success. 1759 : Capture of Ticonderoga, Crown Point, and Niagara § 153 Capture of Quebec 154 1760: Conquest of Canada 155 1762: Capture of Havana 156 1763 : Pontiac's Couspiracy 155 Peace of Paris 157 SUPPLEMENTAKY QUESTIONS. Locations. — (Scliool-map locations in italics). — Locate Pittsburgh, Pa.; the Monougaliela River; Albany, N. Y. ; Boston, Mass.; Nova Scotia or Acadia (§76); Lake George, N. Y. ; Cape Breton Island {§ 76); Ticonderoga, N. Y.\ Fort Frouteaac, Canada; Fort Niagara, N. Y. ; Quebec; Montreal; Detroit, Micii. ; Havana; New Orleans, La.; St. Louis, Mo. Bound the territory then called Louisiana. Review. — In what year did the French and Indian War begin? What fort did Wasliington surrender? Give the date of Braddock's de- feat. Of the declaration of war. Of the capture of Louisburgh, and battle of Ticonderoga. Of the capture of Quebec. Give the name of the English commander. Of the French commander. Give the date of the conquest of Canada. Of the conspiracy of Pontiac, and the peace of Paris. What did Spain give up to Great Britain ? What did France give up to Spain? What was its principal city? (3) State of the Colonies. 160. The Population of the colonies was about 2,000,000 in 1760; and the colonies had grown not only in numbers but in strength and confidence. Their men had fought beside British regulars, and had sovnetimes held their ground when the regulars had run away. Thirty thousand of them had given up their lives in the war, and many of the colonists were inclined to feel and say that the colonies had done more than their share of the fighting. None of the colonies had yet spread beyond the Allegnanies, but a few adventurous hunters were in the habit of crossing the mountains yearly ; and they brought back such favorable reports of the beauty and fertility of the new country that settlements there were begun within a few years. The first settlement in Tennessee, led by James Robertson, was made in 1768; tlie first in Kentucky, led by Daniel Boone, in 1769. There was no effort to settle the country north of the Ohio River for nearly twenty years to come. 160. W}iat was the population of the colonies? Had they grown in numbers only? What had their men done in the war? Had population spread beyond the Alleghanies? What effect did the reports of the western hunters have? 80 UNION OF THE COLONIES. 161. In Wealth, the colonies were growing still faster, and they began to look like a well-settled country. The people had become comfortable and even prosperous, and some of them were consid- ered wealthy. Agriculture had improved, and a great variety of crops was grown. The Navigation Acts (§71) had not destroyed their trade. In 1*700, the colonies had sent to England about $1,300,000 worth of produce, and received about the same amount of English manufactures. In 1760, they sent about four times as much, and received nearly seven times as much. All trade to other countries than England was strictly illegal, bat was nevertheless carried on largely. Newspapers and books had become common since the first American printing-press had been setup at Cambridge in 1639. The establishment of King's College (now Columbia) in New York City, in 1754, increased the number of colleges to six. Tlift six colleges were Harvard, in Massachusetts, founded in 1638; William and Mary, in Virginia, in 1692; Yale, in Connecticut, in 1701; the College of New Jersey (now at Princeton), in 1746; King's (now Columbia), in New York, in 1754 ; and the University of Pennsylvania, at Philadelphia, in 1779 (§ 130). 162. The Union of the colonies had grown still more rapidly. During the war, they had at first called themselves provincials, to distinguish themselves from the British. Now, for the first time, some of them began to call themselves Americans, instead of Eno-- lishmen, Virginians, or New-Englanders. The colonies were no longer altogether separate peoples. They had come to have com- mon interests and a common spirit, and they were now very certain to unite against any enemy that was dangerous to all of them, just as they had united against tlie French power of the north and west. There was no longer any need to unite against the French ; but it was certain that they would act toward any new enemy, even their mother-country, just as they had acted toward the French. It ought to have been evident in England that her colonies m North America had come to be so strong and so united that it was now needful for the British Government to be very wise and prudent, in order that it might not make itself appear to be their enemy, 161. What is said of the grrowth in \\ yJXthl Of the condition of the people'/ Of agriculture? Of trade? Of their trade in 1700? In 1760? Of trade to other coun- tries than Kngrland? Of newspapers and boolis? Of colleges? 162. What is said of the union of the colonies? What name had at first been used during the war? What name began to be used now? How had they become united? How was it certain that they would act toward any new enemy? What was needful for the British Government? THE COLONIES TAXED BY QBEAT BRITAIN. 81 163. The British GoTernment was neither wise nor prudent- Most of its power was in the hands of the Parliament, which was not elected by the whole people. By artful contrivance or by acci- dent, the laws of election were such that a few rich men, nobles or landowners, controlled the election of most of the members of the House of Commons (§§ 31, 46). In most matters, these richer men were divided into two parties, which opposed one another. In regard to American affairs, they were now united by reason of heavy taxes in a claim which could not help making them the enemy of the colonies. 164. Taxes in Great Britain were now very heavy, and most of them fell on the richer men. Heretofore they had thought little about America, considering it only a wilderness, from which no money could be obtained. Now they saw the colonies voting large sums of money to carry on the war, and they at once began to think of lightening their own taxes by laying taxes on the colonies. The Parliament had forced the kings to yield to it the power to lay taxes in Great Britain : it now began to claim a right to lay taxes on the colonies, even against the will of the colonies them- selves. A nation very often provides for wars or other unexpected expenses by borrowing money. Tlie written promises to pay are called bonds, and tlie nation pays interest on them yearly, raising the money for the payments by taxes. The English debt had steadily increased from about $3,300,000 in 1689 to about $700,000,000 in 1763, and the taxes for payment of annual interest had become very burdensome. Great Britain claimed that much of the debt had arisen in defending the colo- nies from the French, and that the colonies ought to be willing to be taxed for a part of the interest. The colonies clainu'd that neither they nor the French colonies had desired war, that they had been dragged into war by France and England, and that the English colonies had fully paid their share of the expense. At any rate, they were determined not to submit to be taxed by another people. 165. The Feeling of the Colonies was that this claim of the Parliament was highly unjust. Each colony was ruled by its own 163. What is said of the British Government? Of the Parliament? Of the laws of election? How were the richer men divided in most matters? How were they united in American affairs? 164. What is said of taxes in Great Britain? Why had America been little thought of heretofore? Why was it now thought of? What new claim was made by Parliament? 165. What was the feeling of the colonies? What bodies made laws and laid taxes for the colonies? Why were the colonists unwilling to be taxed by the Parlia- mout? What then was the reason for quarrel? 82 BRITISH REGULATION OF THE COLONIES. assembly, or legislature, elected by nearly the whole people, not by a few rich men. As the representatives of the people, these assemblies alone had always taxed the people ; and the kino-'s o-ovx ernors had only named the amount which they desired. The colo- nists had thus always taxed themselves, through their assemblies, as the people of Great Britain had taxed themselves, through their Parliament. The colonists were not allowed to send representa- tives to Parliament. No men will submit willingly to be taxed by a body in which they are not represented, and the colonists were already too strong to be forced to submit. On this question, of "•Taxation without Representation," the Parliament and the colo- nies were now to quarrel for twelve years until /orce was used: then came the Revolutionary War (§ 193). PERIOD v.— COLONIAL RESISTANCE: 1763-1775. (1) The Stamp Act. 166. British Regulation of the Colonies. — Laws to regulate the colonies and their affairs had frequently been passed by Parliament. Some of these, such as the act to establish a post-office system, were useful to the colonies, and were accepted by them willingly. Others, such as the Navigation Acts and the acts to forbid manu- factures in the colonies (§ 71), they had not been strong enough to resist openly, but had evaded or disobeyed them as far as possible. Of late years, whenever the British Government had tried to enforce these laws, it had failed. In 1761, when the customs officers in Massachusetts tried to obtain writs of assistance from the courts empowering them to search houses and stores, practically at their pleasure, whenever these officials chose to pretend that they were looking for smuggled goods, James Otis (§ 172) made an impas- sioned plea against such a violation of the hereditary liberties of Englishmen. In 1764, soon after peace was made. Parliament first declared that it had a right to tax the colonies. It went no further at the time, but waited to see how the colonies would re- ceive this claim. But the colonies were, as usual, very busy with their own affairs, and paid little attention to the declaration of Parliament. 1G6. What laws had frequently been passed by Parliament? Which did the colonies accept willingly? Which did they disobey? Were these laws enforced? What were the writs of assistance? What happened in 1764? Was anything further done at the time? Did it excite much attention in the colonies? TEE STAMP ACT. 83 167. The Stamp Act was passed by Parliament in the spring of 17 (J 5. It had been prepared by the head of the British Government, George Gren- ville, and was to go into force in the follow- ing November. From that time, no news- papers or almanacs could be published in the colonies, no marriage-certificate could be given, and no documents could be used in law-suits, unless stamps, bought from British government agents, were placed on them. Laws were also passed to enforce the Navigation Acts, and to send soldiers to Briti&h hTAJip. Amarica. The expenses of the soldiers were to be paid out of the money received from the sale of stamps, so that the colonists were really called upon to pay the British soldiers who were to force them to submit to taxation by Parliament. Such stamp duties are one of the easiest ways of paying taxes. They have been used since in this country, and are still used to a less extent. We submit to such taxes now because ihe}^ are laid by our- selves through our representatives, and. if the people think the taxes unjust, they can change the taxes by changing their representatives. The colonists resisted the taxes, because they were laid by the represen- tatives of anotlier people. They knew that, if they submitted in this little matter, they would soon be taxed in far heavier ways, and yet would never be able to change the representatives or the taxes. 168. In America, when the news of the Stamp Act reached it, there was no longer any want of attention. All the colonies hummed with the signs of resistance. Able and eloquent men, like James Otis in Massachusetts, and Patrick Henry in Virginia, only spoke for the whole people in declaring that the colonies would never submit. The assemblies, as fast as they met, declared that Parliament had no right to tax the colonies. Associations, called Sons of Liberty, were formed to help the resistance. As soon as the stamps were sent over, mobs seized and burned them ; and the stamp-officers were frightened into resigning. 167. What is said of the Stamp Act? Who had prepared it? When was it to go into force? What did it provide? What other laws were passed? How were the expenses of the soldiers to be paid? 168. What was the effect of the news in America? What declarations were made for the people? What declarations were made by the assemblies? What associations were formed? What was done by mobs? What was the result on the day when the act was to have gone into force? 84 THE ST AMP- ACT CONGRESS. When the day came for the act to go into force, there were no stamps to be bought, and no officers to sell them. The Stamp Act had failed. Patrick Henry, a young law- yer and brilliant orutor, was a member of the Virginia assem- bly. In his speecli on the Stamp Act, he named several tyrants who had been killed. " CjBsar," said he, "had his Brutus. Charles I. liis Cromwell, and George HI. — "; he was inter- rupted by cries of "Treason!" When the noise died away, he concluded: "George III. may profit by their example. If this be treason, make the most of it." His resolutions, adopted by the assembly, were the bold- est declaration of colonial rights that had yet been made. 169. The Stamp-Act Congress, the first sign of united resist- ance (§162), met at New York City, October 7, 1765. It had been proposed by Virginia and Massachusetts about the same time. AH but four of the colonies sent delegates to it ; and all the colo- nies supported it. It had no authority to make laws ; but it agreed on a declaration of the rights of the colonies, and sent petitions to the king and Parliament to respect those rights. The language of the congress was carefully made as gentle as possible ; but its meet- ing was evidently a sign of danger, if the attempt should be made to punish any one for resisting the Stamp Act. 170. The British Government was taken aback by the stir in America. English manufacturers petitioned for the repeal of the Stamp Act, for the American merchants and people had agreed not to buy any more English goods until the repeal should take place. Pitt and other friends of the colonies in Parliament urged the repeal. Finally, there was a change of government in Great Patrick Henry. 169. What is said of the Stamp-Act Congress? Who had proposed it? Who sent delegates to it? Who supported it? What were its proceedings? What is said of its language? How was it a sign of danger? 170. What is said of tlie Britisli Government? Of English manufacturers? Of Pitt? How did the repeal take place? What did Parliament declare? How did the Americans regard this declaration? What did they endeavor to do? What difficul- ties still remained? What were the colonists anxious to do? A YEAH OF QUIET. 85 Britain, another political party came into power, and early in 1*766 the act was repealed. Parliament still declared its ririht to tax the colonies, if it should wish to do so ; but the Americans were con- vinced that it would never again attempt to do so, and were willing to make the repeal pleasant for Great Britain. And so, for more than a year, they endeavored in every way to show their affection for the mother-country. Some difficulties yet remained. The New York assembly refused to furnish supplies to the British troops, as Parliament had directed ; and the assemblies of some of the other colonies engaged in small quarrels with their governors ; but the colonists in general were very anxious to show that they were " loyal subjects of the king — God bless him !" 171. The Ri^ht of P.arliament to regulate the trade of the colonies had not hitherto been denied by the colonists (§Vl). They had not thought very much about the matter, but they knew that Parliament paid for a large navy to protect trade, and they agreed that Parliament had the right to regulate the trade which was thus protected. They had therefore submitted to the Navigation Acts, though they obeyed them as little as possible. But the unfortunate Stamp Act had compelled the colonists to think about the matter, and many of them began to see that a Parlia- ment in which they were not represented had no more right to interfere with their property on the ocean than on the land. At first, they only suggested different means by which members from the colonies might be admitted to Parliament. Many eminent men in Great Britain desired such an arrangement, and it is possible that it might have George HE. 171. What is said of the right of Parliament to regulate trade? Why had the colonists acltnowledged it? What did they submit to? What effect did the Stamp Act have? What remedy was at first suggested? Who supported it in Great Britain? What is said of the king? Of his friends in Parliament? 86 COMMERCIAL TAXATION: been successful. But the king, an honest but very obstinate man, had lofty ideas of his own dignity, and was determined to make the colonies submit without debate. His friends in Parliament now began a new scheme, which increased all the previous diffi- culties a hundredfold. 172. Commercial Taxation. — In 1767, Parliament passed an act to lay taxes on tea and a few other articles exported to Amer- ica; another to send revenue commissioners to America, to punish any refusal to pay the tax ; and another ordering the New York assembly to pass no more laws until it should furnish supplies to the soldiers (§ 170). These acts left the colonists no choice. They had now no time to devise plans for being represented in Parlia- ment. Their first business was to resist what they now began to consider a foreign tyranny. As Massachusetts was the leading commercial colony, much of the first resistance centred there. Its leaders were James Otis, a most elo- quent speaker, who afterward became insane ; John Hancock, a Boston merchant; John Adams, a young lawyer, afterward President; Samuel Adams, one of the first advocates of independence; and Benjamin Franklin, the colony's agent and adviser in London. The leading roy- alists were Governor Thomas Hutchinson, a native of the colony, and his brother-in-law Andrew Oliver, one of his council. 173. Whigs and Tories. — For nearly six years the colonists kept up a peaceable resistance to the taxing acts of Parliament. The resistance took the shape of a general agreement by the people not to buy, sell, or use the articles on which the taxes had been laid, so as to avoid paying the taxes. Those who adopted this plan willingly, and who supported the colonies against the mother- country, took the name of Whigs. Those who refused to resist the mother-country in any way were called Tories. As the Whigs were nearly all the people, and were very much in earnest, the few Tories were compelled by bodily fear to join in the general agree- ment. Whig and Tory had for many years been the names of the two great political parties in England (§ 491). 174. The Six Years' Struggle, though it was meant to be peace- 172. What tliree acts were passed by Parliament in 1767? What was their effect on the colonists? What was the first business of the colonists? 173. What was done for the next six years? How was resistance made? Who were the Wliigs? Wiio were the Tories? Why did the Tories join in the agreement? 174. Was the struggle always peaceable? What is said of the seizure of the Liberty? Of the occupation of Boston? What was the feeling between the towns- people and the soldiers? How did this result? What happened in New York? In North Carolina? In Rhode Island? How were all these affairs leading to war? PARLIAMENT AND TBE ASSEMBLIES. 87 aole, was continually turning toward open violence. In 1768, the revenue commissioners in Boston seized John Hancock's sloop Liberty^ and a mob chased them to a British frigate in the harbor. Four British regiments, under General Gage, then took possession of Boston. There was constant bad feeling between the Boston people and the soldiers, or "redcoats;" insulting language was used on botli sides ; and there were a number of street-fights with sticks, fists, or snow-balls. All this resulted in the "Boston Massacre," March 5, 1770, in which the soldiers fired on the people, killed three, and wounded many others. In New York, a little earlier, the people beat the soldiers in a street-fight. In North Carolina, the governor defeated a part of the people in a pitched battle (§98). In 1772, a number of the Rhode Island people captured and burned a king's vessel, the Maspee, which had been unpleasantly active in collecting duties from vessels belonging to Providence. Those who took part in such affairs were evidently growing bolder, and any attempt to punish them, if they had been caught, would have met with resistance from the colonies, and that would have been war. 175. Parliament and the Assemblies. — All these affairs occa- sioned much anger in Parliament, though it was not easy to see what was to be done to prevent or punish them. Angry resolutions were passed, declaring the Massachusetts people rebels, and acts to make the collection of taxes more certain. The assemblies an- swered by declaring their own rights, and denying the right of Parliament to pass any such laws. The colonists cared very much more for the resolutions of their own assemblies than they did for chose of Pai'liament, and their resistance became so much the bolder. In 1772, Parliament ordered those who had burned the Gaspee to be sent to England for trial, if they should be caught. 175. How did Parliament feel as to these affairs? W^hat resolutions and acts were passed? How did the assemblies answer them? EJ^ 'did this increase the re sistance of the colonists? W^hat did Parliament do in 1772? How did the assemblieg answer it? What had come to be the question? ?*-§^>. John Hancock. 88 TME TMA TAX. Again the assemblies denied the right of Parliament to pass such a law ; and the colonists were ready to resist the enforcement of the law. The plain question had come to be whether Parliament was or was not to govern the colonies as it saw lit. 176. The Tea Tax.— In 1770, Parliament tried a change of plan. The taxes were taken off all the articles except tea, and the tax on tea was fixed at only threepence, or about six cents, a pound. Arrangements were made with English tea-merchants, in 1773, to send cargoes of tea to America at a price threepence lower than that which had always been paid, so that the price would be no greater than it had always been, even after the tax was paid. It was hoped that in this way, when the tea was distributed through the colonies, not only the Tories, but the women, and all who liked to drink tea, would buy it at the old price, without seeing that they were really paying the taxes and obeying Parliament. 177. This Plan may have been a very cunning way to meet the difficulty, but it was certainly not a brave or honest way, and the Americans now resisted it with a kind of angry contempt. At Charleston they stored the cargoes of tea in damp cellars, where the tea was soon spoiled. At New York, Philadelphia, and other places, they refused to allow the tea ships to land their cargoes, and sent them back to England. At Boston they tried to do the same thing, but the British ofiicers would not allow the ships to leave the harbor. The Boston people therefore took a more violent means, which is commonly called the "Boston Tea Party." A very orderly mob, disguised as Indians, boarded the ships, De cember 16, 1773, and threw thei? 340 chests of tea into the har- bor. In one way or another, at all the towns on the coast, the colonists were successful in their efforts to prevent the tea from being distributed through the colonies to tempt the people to buy it. Parliament was again defeated. 178. The Four Intolerable Acts. — Parliament now so com- 176. What change of plan was made by Parliament in 1770? "What arrange- ments were made with English tea-merchants in 1773? What was it hoped would be the result? 177. What is said of this plan? What was done at Charleston? At New York, Philadelphia, and other places? Why did this plan fail at Boston? What is said of the Boston Tea Party? How had the plan of Parliament failed? 178. What did Parliament now do? What was the Boston Port Bill? What was its object and efi'ect? What was the Massachusetts Bill? What was its ef- fect? What was the Transportation Bill? What was the Quebec Act? What was ts effect? How were these acts to be enforced ? THE FOUR INTOLERABLE ACTS. 89 pletely lost its temper that it took the last steps to open conflict. It passed, among others, four acts which the colonies could not help resisting. The first vvas the Boston Port Bill : it forbade all vessels to leave or enter Boston harbor. Its object was to punish the Boston people by destroying their trade; its effect was to anger aU the colonists against Parliament. The second was the Massachusetts Bill : it changed the charter of that colony so as to take away the government from the people, and give it to the king's agents. The effect of this was to unite all the colonies in resistance, for they all felt that they would soon meet the same treat- ment themselves if they allowed Massachusetts to be so treated. The third was the Transportation Bill : it ordered that Americans who should commit murder in resisting the laws should be sent to England for trial. The fourth was the Quebec Act: it made the country north of the Ohio and east of the Mississippi a part of Canada. Its effect was also to unite the colonies, for they felt that this territory belonged to them ; that the king had given it to them (§25), and they had helped to conquer it from the French; and that the Parliament had no right to take it away. Parliament ex- pected to enforce these acts bv its standing army in the colonies (§ 16V). 179. The Excitement in America now rose higher than it had ever done before. The assemblies passed resolutions severely con- demning Parliament, and many of them requested the people to keep the day of the shutting up of Boston as a day of fasting and prayer. In most of the royal colonies the assemblies spoke so boldly that the governors dismissed them, and they did not meet again as part of the royal government. The excitement was so great, and the calls for a Continental Congress were so numerous, that its delegates were chosen almost by common consent, and without a summons. Georgia alone took no part in it, though her people sympathized with it. "Continental" had already come to have very much the same meaning that " American" has now. It meant general, belonging to the ■whole continent, not to one colony or a part of them. Thus the Stamp- Act Congress (§ 169), from only nine of the colonies, was not a " Conti- 179. What is said of the excitement in America? What was done by the assem- blies? By the governors? What gave rise to the Continental Congress? What colony took no part in it? 90 THE FIRST CONTINENTAL CONGRESS. nental " Congress. Georgia was prevented by her governor from appointing delegates. 180. The First Continental Congress met at Philadelphia, September 5, 1774. It agreed upon a new declaration of rights: it asserted the right of the colonies to govern and tax themselves, and named eleven acts of Parliament which were attacks upon these rights. It sent an address to the people of Great Britain and a petition to the king, but did not now petition Parliament. It drew up an agreement, called the Articles of Association, which was signed by the people everywhere, not to buy goods from Great Britain, or to sell to her, until the objectionable acts were repealed by Parliament. It commended the people of Massachu- setts for their peaceable resistance, and declared that, if Parliament should use force to make Massachusetts submit, all the other colo- nies would use force to he'p her. Finally, it called a new Congress for the following May, and adjourned. 181. Representation as a question had now taken a new form. At first, the colonies had demanded that Parliament should not tax the colonies while the colonies were not represented in it; that there should be " No Taxation without Representation." Now they demanded that Parliament should pass no laws whatever about the colonies while the colonies were not represented in it ; that there should be " No Legislation without Representation." 182. The People of the colonies were much more warlike in temper than their Congress, whose language had been very mild in spite of its firmness. They were everywhere collecting and making powder and weapons, preparing for war, and forming provincial assemblies to govern each colony instead of the assemblies under the king's authority. The feeling was most intense in Massachu- setts, where the first conflict was likely to take place. General Gage had been appointed governor, with additional troops; but, while he was in Boston, the rest of the colony governed itself without any attention to him, and had little to do with its capital town. 180. What is said of the first Continental Congress? Of its declaration of rights? Of its address and petition? Of its general agreement? How did it treat the Massachusetts people? What was its last proceeding? 181. What had been the first demand of the colonies? What was their demand now? 182. What is said of the temper of the people? What were they doing? What was the state of affairs in Massachusetts? Who was its governor? Who really governed the colony ? OUTBREAK OF THE REVOLUTION. 91 (2) Lexington a-nd Concord. 183. Massachusetts, at the opening of the year 1775, was much like a powder-magazine, which the first spark would explode. The provincial assembly, which now governed the colony, had collected powder and arms, and had ordered 20,000 "minute-men" to be en- rolled and to be ready to march at a minute's warning. Gage, in Bos- ton, felt so insecure that he began to erect fortifications on the neck of land which joins the town to the n^ainland, and sent out spies into the surrounding country to find out what the people were doing. Finally, he discovered that military stores had been collected at Concord, a village about twenty miles from Boston. He ordered out 800 men to destroy them, and this was the spark which brought on the Revo- lutionary War. Secret as the move- ment was meant to be, signals of it were sent by the Boston people to the mainland; and, all through the night, men were riding through the country, rousing the min- ute-men. Longfellow's " Midnight Ride of Paul Revere" gives the best story of the warning to the minute-men. 184. Lexing'ton is a village on the road between Boston and Concord. As the British marched into it, just before sunrise, April 19, 1775, they found about sixty half-armed minute-men The Minute-man. 183. What was the condition of Massachusetts at the beginning: of 1775? What had been done by the provincial assembly? By Gage? What discovery was made by Gage? What orders did he issue? What was their result? How did it become known on the mainland? 184. What is said of Lexington? Whom did the British find here? What was done by the British? What was the result? What is said of the flght? What was done at Concord? Why was it now time to retreat? 92 LEXINGTON.— CONCORD.— BOSTON. assembled on the village green. There was a hasty order from h British officer, Major Pitcairn/ a volley from his men, and a few answering shots. Eight of the minute-men were killed, many were wounded, and the rest dispersed. This was the first blood of the Revolution, the " shot heard round the world." The British then marched on to Concord, dispersed the minute-men who had collected there, and destroyed the supplies. They then prepared to return to Boston. It was high time for them to do so: by this time the whole country was up; for miles around the church-bells were ringing wildly ; and the minute-men were hurrying toward Con- cord like bees from an overturned hive. 185. The British Retreat was orderly at first, and they stead- ily returned the fire which met them from every house, fence, and rock along tlie roadside. But the numbers of the minute-men were increasing; their fire was deadly; and the retreat became more disorderly. Before the regulars reached Lexington, they were actually running along the road, chased by the minute-men. At Lexington they met 900 fi'csh troops fi'om Boston, with cannon, who sheltered them for a few minutes, while they lay on the ground and rested, " their tongues hanging out of their mouths, like dogs after a chase." The whole British force then set out for Boston. The minute-men kept up the pursuit as hotly as ever un- til, toward night, the worn-out regulars found shelter on the water- side, under the guns of the ships of war. The British loss was 273 iu killed, wounded, and missing. The rebels, as the British called the minute-men, lost 88. There were not more tlian 400 of the minute-men engaged at any one time. 186. Boston was now besieged. Many of the minute-men, who had kept up the pursuit, remained in front of Boston to attack any of the regulars who should venture to come out. As the news of the fight spread abroad, men from the different New England colo- nies started for Boston, and within a few days the town was closely shut up, except by sea. This state of affairs was nothing else than war. The agents of Parliament had used force ; the Massachusetts men had used force in return ; and the other colonies were now to 185. How was the retreat made at first? How did it become more disorderly? What was the state of affairs before Lexington was reached? What happened at Lexington ? Describe the rest of the reti-eat. 186. How did the siege of Boston begin? How was it kept up? What was this state of affairs? How had it come about ? What had begun? POPULATION OF THE COLONIES IN 1775. 93 use force to help Massacliusetts, as tliey had already declared they would do. The American Revolution had begun, and with it the national history of the United States of America (§ 193). (3) State of the Colonies. 187. The Population of the Colonies was about 2,600,000 in 1775. If this seems small, compared with the 62,000,000 now dwelling in the United States, we must bear in mind that England and Wales contained only 6,400,000 persons in 1750. And the English population increased very slowly, while that of the colonies was doubling steadily every twenty-five years. Population has been wonderfully changed since 1775. The popu- lation of the " old thirteen" in 1775, and of the first thirteen State= in 1890, was as follows : 1775. Virginia 560,000 Massachusetts 360,000 Pennsylvania 300.000 North Carolina 260,000 Maryland 220,000 Connecticut 200,000 South Carolina 180,000 New York 180,000 New Jersey 130,000 New Hampshire 80. 000 Rhode Island 50,000 Delaware 40,000 Georgia 30,000 1890. New York 5,997,853 Pennsylvania 5,258,014 Illinois 3,826,351 Ohio 3,672,316 Missouri 2.679,184 Massachusetts 2,238,943 Texas 2,235,523 Indiana.. 2,192,404 Michigan 2,093,889 Iowa 1,911,896 Kentucky 1,858,635 Georgia 1,837,353 Tennessee 1,767,518 Only four of the thirteen of 1775 appear in the first thirteen of 1890. The population of the other States in 1890 will be found in Appendix IV. 188. The Difficulty of (JoTerning such a growing populatijan, without allowing it any share in the government, would have been exceedingly great, even if nature had placed it close to Great Brit- ain. It was far more difficult to govern it across a stormy ocean, 3,000 miles wide, over which troops had to be carried in sailing- vessels, often taking months to make the passage, or waiting weeks 187. What was the population of the colonies? Of England and Wales? What is said of the increase of population? 188. Was it easy to soyern the colonies without givins: them a share in the gov- ernment? How did the interyenins: ocean make the difficulty greater? Why did Great Britain disregard the difficulty? What were they anxious to do? What wa§ the result? Was this the work of the people of Qreat Brit?^io? 94 STATE OF THE COLONIES. for fair weather. But Great Britain was governed at the time by a small number of selfish, greedy, and rather ignorant men (§ 163), who were very anxious to lighten their own expenses, and gratify their self-importance, by forcing the colonies to submit to be gov- erned. They made the attempt, added $600,000,000 to their na- tional debt, and finally lost the larger part of the British Empire. But the people of Great Britain had no voice in the matter. 189. In Wealth, the colonies were still growing. Their trade with Great Britain and other countries had been injured by the troubles of the past twelve years. The British vessels on the coast no longer allowed foreign trade, but seized every vessel that took part in it ; and the colonists had ceased to trade with Great Britain in many articles. To make up for this, there was a great increase in their manufactures at home. Enterprising men began to make silk and other goods, which Great Britain had forbidden to be manufactured in the colonies (§ 71, note) ; and the different colo- nies encouraged them by voting money to help them. During the Revolution, they even began to make powder and other munitions of war. 190. In Literature, the productions of the colonists were as yet almost entirely political ; and in this field their work was certainly admirable. Their addresses and petitions, their declarations of rights, and their declaration of independence (§ 207) cannot well be read without being admired. Poetry, music, and the drama hardly existed ; but two fine painters, Copley and West, had ap- peared. New colleges were appearing : Rhode Island College (now Brown University) was founded at Providence in 1764 ; Dartmouth College, at Hanover, N. H., in 1769; and Queen's College (now Rutgers College), at New Brunswick, N. J., in 1770. There were but 14 newspapers in all New England, 4 in New York, 9 in Pennsylvania, 2 each in Maryland, Virginia, and North Carolina, 3 in South Carolina, and 1 in Georgia: 37 in all. 191. Slavery had grown much faster in the South than in the 189. What is said of the wealth of the colonies? Of their trade? How had it been injured? What is said of manufactures? How were they increased? What was done during the Revolution? 190. What is said of the literature of the colonies? Of their political writings? Of the flue arts? What new collegres appeared? 191. What is said of the growth of slavery? Of slavery in New England? In Vermont? What had the First Continental Congress recommended? How wa3 tbis recoiomendation followed? Whfit happened after the Revolutioo? SLAVERY, NOBTH AND SOUTH. 95 North. In New England, there were signs that it would not last much longer; and some of the courts began to declare it illega\, and to give the slaves their freedom. Vermont (§ 69) never per- mitted slavery. The first Continental Congress recommended that the slave-trade should be stopped, and all the colonies agreed. For a time — perhaps all through the Revolution — no slaves were brought into the country. As soon as the Revolution was ended, commerce revived, and the slave-trade with it ; but by this time it was confined to the Southern States, for the Northern States had forbidden it for themselves. In 1715, there were 13,000 negro slaves north of Mason and Dixon's line (§91), and 47,000 south: 60,000 in all. In 1775, there were 50,000 north, and 450,000 south: 500,000 in all. Supplementary Questions. Locations. — Locate New York City; Boston; Providence, R. I. (§68); Charleston, S. C; Philadelphia; Concord, Mass. (§183);Lex- iugton, Mass.; Hanover, N. H. (§60). Review. — Give the date of the Stamp Act and the Stamp Act Congress. Of the repeal of the Stamp Act. Of the first commercial taxation by Parliament. Of the Boston Massacre. Of the burning of the Gaspee. Of the Boston Tea Party. Of legislation for punishment. Name the four Acts of Parliament intended to punish the colonies. Give the date of the First Continental Congress. Of the fights at Lexington and Concord. 192. The Leading Events of this twelve years' struggle against Parliament were as follows : 1763-6: Internal Taxation § 166 1764: Parliament claims the right to tax the colonies 166 1765: The Stamp Act passed 167 Stamp- Act Congress 169 1766: The Stamp Act repealed 170 1767-73: Commercial Taxation 171 1767: Parliament lays taxes on commerce 172 The Americans give up trade in the articles taxed 173 1768: Boston occupied by British troops 174 1770: The Boston massacre 174 The taxes removed, except that on tea 176 192. What were the years of Internal Taxation ? The leading' events of 1764? Of 1765? Of 1766? Wliat were the years of Commercial Taxation? The leading events of 1767? Of 1768? Of 1770? Of 1772? Of 1778? What were the years of leg- islation? The leading events Qf 1774? Of 1775? 9Q LEADING EVENTS, 1763-75. 1767-73 : Commercial Taxation § 171 1773: Burning of the Gaspee 174 1773: Tea sent to America 177 The colonies refuse to receive it 177 Boston Tea Party 177 1774-5 : Legislation 178 1774: Boston Port Bill; Massachusetts Bill; Trans- portation Bill; and Quebec Act passed. . . 178 First Continental Congress 180 Articles of Association 180 i"?75: War 184 1775 : Lexington and Concord fights 184 Siege of Boston - « . . . . , 186 HISTOET OF THE UNITED STATES. CHAPTER I. THE REVOLUTION: 1775-81. 193. Rise of the Republic. — The history of the United States. as a separate country, begins with the fight at Lexington, though the name of the United Colonies was kept up until July 4, 1776 (§206). During this period of more than a year, the colonists still claimed to be loyal subjects of the king, fighting only against the attempts of Parliament to govern them by its own will. But, as the king refused to govern the colonies with the aid of their Congress, the Congress did all the governing itself, and the colonies became at once, in reality, a separate country. 194. The Second Continental Congress met at Philadelphia, May 10, 1775. The business of tlie First Congress (in 1774) had been only to pass resolutions : the Second Congress had to make laws. Men like to feel that they are acting under some lawful authority, and all such authority in the colonies had almost disap- peared. Most of the royal governors had run away as soon as open fighting began, and no new governments had been formed. Con- gress became, by common consent, the general governing body of the country. It adopted the forces around Boston as a continen- tal army, appointed Washington to command it, and raised money to support the war. Toward the end of the year, it began 193. When does the history of the United States begin? What did the colonists still claim to be? What was the real governing body of the country? 194. What is said of the meeting of the Second Congress? What was the dif- ference between it and the First Congress? What is said of lawful authority in the colonies? Of the royal governments? How did Congress become a general govern- ing body? What steps did it take to form an army? A navy? Between whom was the war waged at first? What was done afterward? 98 THE SECOND CONTINENTAL C0NGBE88. [1775 to form a navy (§ 241). At first, therefore, the war was between the British Parliament and the American Congress, both acknowl- edging the same king. When it was found that the king sided altogether with the Parliament, Congress made war on the king Carpenter's Hall, where the First Continental Congress met. also, and, in 1776, declared the colonies independent of him as well as of Parliament (§ 206). This Second Congress was a body of most distinguished and able men. Among them were John Adams, Samuel Adams, and John Hancock, of Massachusetts; Roger Sherman and Oliver Ellsworth, of Connecticut; John Jay, of New York; Benjamin Franklin and Robert Morris, of Pennsylvania; George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Patrick Henry, Richard Henry Lee, and Peyton Randolph, of Virginia; and Henry Laurens and Christopher Gadsden, of South Carolina. (1) At Boston. 195. British Reinforcements, under three Generals, Howe, 195. What fresh British troops arrived? How many men did Gage now have? Wliat was their position? What was the position of the Americans? What position was north of Boston? What party was sent to occupy it? What position was finally occupied? 1775] FORTIFICATION OF BREED'S HILL. 99 Clinton, and Burgoyne, arrived at Boston soon after the fight at Lexington. Gage had now about 10,000 men. These occupied the town of Boston, wliich lay on a peninsula covering the middle of the harbor. Around them, on the hills of the mainland, there were about twice their number of undisci- plined and poorly-armed Americans, without cannon and almost without food. Just north of Boston, another peninsula ran out into the harbor. On it there were several hills over- looking the city, and the Americans determined to seize and fortify one of them, called Bunker Hill. About 5 so loo a thousand men, under Colonel Pros- The Revolution in New England. cott, were sent into the peninsula for this on a suitable night. For some reason, they passed beyond Banker Hill and seized Breed's Hill, much closer to Boston. Breed's Hill is now usually called Bunker Hill, and the Bunker Hill monument is erected upon it. 196. The American Fortiflcation was continued silently and swiftly through the night. In the morning of June 17, 1775, the British in Boston woke to see a long line of intrenchments running across the hill above them, and an American working-party busily streno'thening it. For a time, tlie British frigates in the harbor kept up a slow and distant fire, to wliich the working-party paid no attention ; but at noon the work was stopped, for the British troops were coming across the harbor in boats. Three thousand well armed, uniformed, and drilled soldiers, who had never known defeat in equal fight, landed near Charlestowm, under General Howe. Here they formed at the water-side, and in a long, steady line began to move upward to scatter the 1,500 farmers »vho were watching them from the top of the hill. From the roofs of the houses in Boston, the rest of the British army and the townspeople 196. How was the fortiflcation made? What was the state of affairs in the morniiigy What was done by the British frigates? What stopped the work? What is said of the landing of the" British? Of their advance? Who were watching it? What did most of the watchers expect? L.ciC. 100 BTINKEB HILL BATTLE. [1775 were watching, anxious to see "whether the Yankees would fight." Most of the watchers expected to see the untrained soldiers in the fort fire a few hasty shots at a safe distance, and run. 197. Bunker Hill Battle. — The fort held a threatening silence until the attacking column was within 150 feet. Then, at the word, came a sheet of fire from the marksmen within; and, when the smoke lifted, part of the British line was lying dead or wounded, and the rest were retreating hastily down the hill. The Brit- ish were not cowards: the offi- cers re-formed the line at the bottom of the hill, and, after setting fire to Charlcstown, again advanced to the attack. Again there was a steady silence in the fort, a close and deadly fire, and the British line was driven down the hill again. The British then moved up the hill for the third time. The powder in the fort y^^^^: lity h 1 I I i Battle of Bunker Hill. was now gone, and the garrison fought for a few minutes with gun- stocks and stones against the British bayonets. But such a strug- gle was hopeless, and the British gained the fort. They were too tired to pursue the garrison, who escaped to the mainland. The American loss was 449, out of 1,500 men in the battle. Among the killed was General Joseph Warren, a Boston physician, one of the leading Whigs of JVIassaciiusetts. The British loss was 1.054, one third of their number. Tliis tremendous loss iiad its effect all through the war, for the British regulars would no longer fight except in the open field. On several occasions. American armies were relieved from dan- gerous positions because the British did not like to attack intrenchments. 198. Washington (§ 194), early in July, took command of the Americans who had gathered around Boston, and began the difficult task of forming them into a real army. Supplies of powder, arms. 197. What is said of the first advance ag^ainst tlie fort, and its result? Describe the second advance, and its result. The third advance, and the final struggle. The capture of the fort, and the escape of the garrison. 198. What was done by Washington? Hove were materials of war obtained? What difficulty was found "with the men? When was an army formed? What is said of its uniform? Of its flag? 1775] BRITISH EVACUATION OF BOSTON. 101 and other materials of war grew more abundant, as the American privateers (§241) captured supply-ships from England. But the men were not willing to re- main in camp for a long time, and had been so accustomed to independence that they disliked strict military discipline. This difficulty lasted throughout the war, and sometimes drove Wash- ington almost to despair. In the spring of 1776, he had formed something like an army. The Union Flag. color of its uniform, when it could afford one, was blue and yellow (or buff), and these were the " rebel " colors throughout the Revo- lution. Usually, however, the soldiers Avore hunting-shirts, dyed brown, as the best available substitute. The flag was unfurled for the first time on New-Year's Day, 1776, at Cambridge. It had the stripes as at present, and the double cross of the British flag in- stead of the stars. The stars were added in 1777. At first there had been flags of all kinds, the commonest having a rattlesnake upon it, with the motto, " Don't tread on me." It is probable that there were no flags in Bunker Hill fort. 199. British ETacnation of Boston. — Washington's new army was now ready to renew the attempt which had been made at Bunker Hill. This time a peninsula on the south side of Boston, called Dorchester Heights, was se- lected. It was silently seized by night, and before Howe, who had succeeded Gage, could attack it, the fortifications had been made very strong. The British commander therefore decided not to attack them, but to leave Boston. He embarked his men on the fleet, March 17, and set sail for Halifax. The American army then entered the town. From this time the British made hardly any serious effort to conquer New England ; and for a few Rattlesnake Flag. 199. What was Washington's army ready to do? What point was selected? How was it fortified? What did tlie British commander decide to do? Describe the evacuation. What was then the state of affairs? 102 mVABlON OF CANADA. [1775 months, until they attacked the Middle States, there were no longer any British forces within the United States (§ 208). (2) Operations in Canada. 200. Canada, it was hoped, would join the other colonies, and the first thought of the colonists was to drive the British troops out of that province. The easiest road into Canada was through northeastern New York, along Lake Champlain and the St. Lawrence River. On this road the British held the strong fort of Ticonderoga ; but this was taken by surprise, three weeks after the fight at Lexington, by Ethan Allen and a few men from Vermont. The captured stores were sent to the army before Bos- ton, where they were very welcome. 201. The Invasion of Canada was now begun. During the summer of 1775, American troops, led by Schuyler and Montgomery, two New York officers, pushed into Canada. They captured Montreal in November. Here they were joined by fresh troops, under Benedict Arnold, who had forced their way through the Maine wilderness, up the Ken- nebec River, and across into Canada. The whole force - now numbered about 1,000 men, and these found Quebec too strong for them (§ 153), In an attack upon it, Mont- gomery was killed, and his troops were beaten back. Arnold held the army before Quebec until the spring of 1776, when the Americans were finally driven Philip Schuylke. 200. What was the reason for invading Canada? What was the easiest road thither? Wliat fort guarded it, and how was it captured? 201. How was the invasion of Canada begun? What city was captured? What fresh troops arrived there? How many men were in the army? What is said of the attack upon Quebec? Of the final retreat? What did Canada continue to be? 1775] m ENGLAND. 103 out of Canada, back to Ticonderoga. Canada remained a British province. Montgomery had been a distinguished British officer, but had mar^ ried and settled in New York. His bones were brought to New York City in 1818, and again buried witli appropriate ceremonies. (3) In England and on the Coast. 202. The People in England had offered many expressions of sympathy for the colonies. A number of officers in the army had resigned their commissions rather than serve in America. Peti- tions against the war had been offered to the king and Parliament from many towns. The city of London had declared its abhor- rence of the measures designed to oppress " our fellow-subjects in the colonies," and had begged the king to change his government. But none of these expressions had any influence upon those who had power in Great Britain ; and, as the war grew angrier, English expressions of sympathy for the colonies became fewer. 203. Parliament proposed, early in 1775, that, if any colony would promise to lay taxes sufficient to support a royal government, no Parliamentary taxes should be imposed on that colony. When this offer was refused, and the battle of Bunker Hill was fought, Par- liament was as angry as the king. It voted to send 25,000 men to America; to hire and send over 17,000 soldiers from Hesse-Cassel, in Germany ; to forbid all trade with the colonies ; and to declare American ships lawful prize, that is, to permit them to be captured by English or foreign ships. Congress answered by opening American harbors to ships of all nations, and declaring British ships lawful prize. All this time. Congress was very honestly de- claring that it had no desire for independence ; and the different colonies were directing their delegates not to vote for a separation. This state of things could not last long. The king's loyal subjects could not go on shooting the king's soldiers without soon learning to detest the king himself. The hired soldiers from Hesse Cassel, called Hessians, who could Bpeak no English, were particularly hated by the colonists, , and were accused of numberless cruelties during the war. * 202. Was there any sympathy for the colonies in England? What had been flone by officers in the ai-my? By many of the towns? By the city of London? Did these expi'essions have any intluence? 203, What had Parliament proposed? Was the offer accepted? What was ' oted by Parliament? How did Congress mswei ? Was there yet a desire for in- dependence? Why could not this state of things last? 104 TBE DESntE FOR INDEPENDENCE. [1776 204. Along the Coast, -where the British frigates commanded the ocean, the exposed towns were harshly treated. Any refusal by the people to supply the ships with provisions was answered by a cannonade. In this manner, in 1775, the towns of Gloucester, Bristol, and Falmouth (now Portland) were bombarded and de- stroyed ; and early in 1 776, Norfolk met the same fate. Charleston was attacked, June 28, by a squadron of ten British ships, with 2,500 troops on board, under General Clinton. They were hand Bomely beaten ofE by the South Carolina troops under Moultrie, one of the ships being burned. The fleet then sailed for New York, and the Southern States for nearly three years felt little of the war. I The name of Fort Sullivan was cbauged to Fort Moultrie in honor lof the commander. One of the heroes of the defence was Sergeant Jasper, who climbed the parapet during the hottest of the fire, and re- stored the flag-staff, which had been shot away. Supplementary Questions, Locations.— Locate Boston, Mass. ; Cambridge. Mass.(§ 198); Halifax, N. S. (§76); Lake Champlain, N. Y. ; the St. Lawrence River; Ticon- deroga,"^ N. Y. (S221): Montreal; the Kennebec River (§60); Quebec; Gloucester, Mass' (g 195): Bristol, R.L (§195); Portland, Me. ; Norfolk, Ya. ; Charleston, S. C. ; New York City. Review. — Give the year of the second Continental Congress. Of the battle of Bunlier Hill. Of the invasion of Canada. Of the retreat from Canada. Of the evacuation of Boston. Of the attack on Charleston. (4) Independence. 205. The Desire for Independence began to grow in the spring of 1776. The king was wholly on the side of the enemies of the colonists, had declared the colonists to be rebels, and had allowed his ships to burn their towns. The colonists were therefore begin- ning to forget that they were his loyal subjects. Just at this time, a pamphlet called Common Sense was published, written by Thomas Paine : it urged these considerations with great force and effect. The first strong sign of the change of feeling was a recommenda- 204. How were the towns alonsr the coast treated? What towns were bom- barded in 1TT5-6? Describe the attack on Charleston. Its repulse. How long was it before the Southern States asrain felt the war? 205. When did the desire for independence begin to grow? What had the king doiif ? 'What influence did these acts have on the colonists? What pamphlet had great iafluence? What was the first strong sign of a change of feeling? 1776] DECLABATION OF im)EPEm)ENGE. 105 tion by Congress, in May, 1776, that the different colonies should form governments of their own, in place of those which had been overthrown. This was done, and the colonies now took the name of States. 206. Independence. — Virginia led the way in instructing her delegates in Congress to vote for independence, and the other States gradually followed. June 8, a resolution that the colonies were free and independent States was offered in Congress; and a committee of five was appointed to draw up a fitting declaration. The committee finished its work, June 28. July 2, the resolution was adopted; and the Declaration of Inde- pendence was adopted July 4, 1776. The United Colonies were now the United States, claiming to be independent of both king and Parliament. 207. The Declaration of Inde- pendence is in Appendix I. It was drawn up by Jeffersoa (§ 3'28). Liberty Bell. Tlie other members of the commit- tee, John Adams, Frauklin, Sherman, and Livingston, did little of the work; but Adams did most of the speaking: in its favor, as Jefferson was not a good public speaker (§439). Parliament is not mentioned in the Declaration, except as a body of men whom the king had aided in "acts of pretended legislation" over the colonies. The new idea in the Declaration is that governments are to be made and changed by the people; elsewhere, up to that time, it was held that the people "were bound to obey the government, as long as it protected them. The suc- cess of the American Revolution aided to bring about the Fren h Revo- lution in 1789 and the following j'ears. It was based on the same idea, which now- controls every government whose people care to assert it. 206. What was done bv Virginia? What resolution was offered in Congress? What committee was appointed? WTien was the resolution adopted? When was the Declaration adopted? What was its effect? 207. Who drew up the Declaration? What is said of the other members of the committee? Of Parliament? Of the new idea in the Declaration? Of its influence on other peoples? 106 THE MIDDLE STATES. [1776 Cherry TallejTo / ^llJanT" W /o ^ I (5) In the Middle States: 1776-78. 208. The Middle States were now, for nearly three years, to be the theatre of the war. For the time, Great Britain had given up New England, because of its stormy coast in winter, and the stub- born temper of its people. The Southern States were not yet rich enough to be a great prize. The Middle States seemed to be a better point of attack. Their people were of mixed races, not all of one blood as in New Eng- land. Many of them were tenants and cared little about taxes, while the owners of great tracts of land, like most rich and comfortably- settled people, disliked sudden changes, and were apt to sympathize with the government. Most of the Tories were in the Middle States, and the British could expect assistance from them. Above all, the British frigates could control the harbor of New York and the Hudson River, thus opening up the road to Canada (§ 200), and at the same time, by forts and garrisons along the river, cutting oflf New England from the rest of the Union. Late in June, 1776, a British army from Halifax, under General Howe, landed on Staten Island, near New York City ; and the dangerous part of the war began. The fighting in New England at the beginning of the Revolution, and in the South at the end of it, is interesting; but the real decisive struggle was in the Middle States from 1776 until 1778. 50 100 The Revolution in the Middle States. 208. What was now to be the theatre of war? What is said of New England? Of the South? Of the Middle States? Of their people? Of the Hudson River? When was the attack on New York begun? What is said of the fighting for the next three years? 1776] BATTLE OF LONG ISLAND. 107 209. Washington had hurried to New York with his troops imiuediately after tlie evacuation of Boston (§ 199), and had begun to erect fortifications. He had succeeded in getting together about 20,000 men. But they were poorly armed, equipped, and drilled, and were to be beaten again and again by the British before they could be trained to win victories in their turn. The great distinc- tion of Washington, in the war, is the patient courage with which he submitted to being beaten until his army was formed and trained. 210. Battle of Long Island. — During the next two months of 1776, Howe's force was increased to about 30,000 well-trained soldiers. With half of these he crossed to Long Island, where about 5,000 Americans were posted near Brooklyn, then only a ferry station. Howe nearly surrounded them, and completely de- feated them in the battle of Long Island (August 27, 1776). Only 3,000 of the Americans escaped to Brooklyn, where a fort had been built. For two days the British hesitated about attacking the fort, and then a heavy fog enabled Washington to bring the garrison over to New York. Howe followed slowly to New York. Washington retreated before him, skirmishing at Harlem and White Plains, thus reaching the hills east of the present town of Peekskill, where he halted and faced about. Again Howe refused to attack him, but moved back to enter New Jersey. On his way he captured Fort Washington, now in the upper part of New York City, where Washington had left 3,000 men. It was during this retreat that the British captured aud hanged a young American officer. Captain Nathan Hale. He was a spy, like Andre (§ 239), but was not treated as was Andre. He was not given time to write a letter, or prepare for deatli, aud was shown no sym- pathy. 211. Washington's Retreat. — Washington left General Charles Lee to hold the position near Peekskill, and with 5,000 men crossed the Hudson River, and moved down to a point nearly opposite 209. What is said of Washingrton's movements? How many men had he? What was their condition? What is the great distinction of W^ashin'gton? 210. What was Howe's force? Describe his attack on Long Island. The battle of Long Island. How did the Americans escape to Brooklyn? To New York? De- scribe the retreat to Peekskill. Howe's return to New York. The capture of Fort Washington. 211. Who was left at Peekskill? What movement was made by Washington? By the British? Describe Washington's retreat. How were bis forces diminished? What was the feehng of the British? 108 TRENTON AND PRINCETON. [1776 New York City. Early in December, the British, under Lord Cornwailis, crossed the Hudson River. Washington retreated be- fore them through New Brunswick, Princeton, and Trenton, across New Jersey, and finally put the Delaware River between him and his pursuers. The cold weather, the hasty retreat, and other dis- couragements, decreased his forces so much that he had but 3,000 men ; and the British were confident that they would " catch him and end the war" as soon as the Delaware River should freeze over so that they could cross. Washington summoned Lee from Peekskill to his help, but Lee was treacherous, moved slowly, and allowed himself to be captured in New Jersey. 212. Congress abandoned Philadelphia and went to Baltimore. Before leaving, it gave Washington almost supreme power, author- izing him to seize property and arrest persons as he should judge best. There was terror everywhere through the Middle States, and many persons hastened to put themselves under British pro- tection and again become loyal subjects of the king. Washington, at least, had not lost courage, and lie revived the courage of others by an unexpected blow, 213. Trenton and Princeton. — On Christmas night of 1776, Washington recrossed the Delaware River into New Jersey, with 2,500 picked men, and before daylight, December 26, he had sur- rounded Trenton. The garrison, 1,000 Hessian soldiers, was sur- prised and captured with the loss of but four Americans. Washing- ton took his prisoners to Philadelphia and returned to Trenton. As this news spread, the British forces in New Jersey marched for Trenton, where Washington was for the moment hemmed in be- tween his enemies and the Delaware River. Another quick move- ment saved him. During the night he broke camp, marched around the British forces to Princeton in their rear, and there, January 3, 1777, defeated and scattered three British regiments. Cornwailis instantly turned and pursued him. But Washington was soon safe in the mountains of northern New Jersey, at Morris- town, where the British did not venture to attack him. 212. What removal was made by ConKress? What powers were given to Washington? What was the feeHiig in the Middle States? How was it changed? 213. What unexpected movement was made by Washington? What took place at Treutou? What was the danger of Wasliinsrton's position? By what movement did he save himself? What took place at Princeton? What was dooe by Coro- walUs? Where had Washington placed bis army ? 1777] WINTER QUABTEB8. 109 214. Winter Quarters. — The American army passed the win- ter of 1776-7 in a long line stretching from the Hudson River to the Delaware, as the mountains run. The British line at first faced Washington in a corresponding line through the flat country below ; but the country people were so hostile that the whole British force gradually drew in around New Brunswick and near Sandy Hook. The winter thus passed without much advantage to either side, except that the British had failed to capture Phila- delphia. 215. During the Winter, plundering expeditions were sent out by the Britisli from New York City to the towns in the neigh- borhood. In December, 1776, Newport, Rhode Island, was captured by the British, and was held for three years. In April, 1777, an expedition landed at Norwalk, Couuecli- cut, marched inland, and burned the supplies at Dan- bury. A number of officers from the conlinent of Europe crossed the ocean during the year to euter tlie American army. The most important of these was the Marquis de La Fayette, a youth of nineteen, wlio had secretly fitted out a ship and sailed for America against the orders of the French Government. Others were the Baron de Kalb, an experienced German officer; Kosciusko and Pulaski, two Polish patriots; and Conway, a troublesome Irish officer (§234). In 1778 came the Baron von Steuben, a veteran German officer, who first instructed the American troops in the tactics used in Europe. 216. Howe tried in vain to bring the Americans out of their stronghold in noi'thern New Jersey. He did not venture to attack Philadelphia by marching his army across New Jersey in front of the Americans, lest they shotild strike his army in flank on the Marquis de La Fayette. 214. Where was the hne of the American winter quarters? Where was the British line? Why was it changredf What was the result of the winter? 215. What was done by the British during the winter? What was done in Rhode Island? In Connecticut? WHiat is said of La Fayette? Of other foreig-n officers? 216. What did Howe try to do? Why did he not cross New, lersey? W^hatplan did lie finally adopt? Why did Washington wait in New Jersey? What course did Howe take? Wlw did he avoid the Delaware River? no BBANDTWINE AND OEBMANTOWN. \\lTl march. In July, lYVV, lie embarked 18,000 men on transports at Staten Island, and put out to sea, leaving a suiBcicnt garrison to hold New York City. No one knew where he was going, and Washington Avas compelled to wait in New Jersey until he heard that the British vessels had been seen in Chesapeake Bay. He then hurried his army to Philadelphia to defend that city. Howe sailed up Chesapeake Bay, and landed near Elkton. He avoided thi Delaware River, because the Americans had filled it with obstruc- tions. 217. Brandywine and Germantown. — Between Elkton and Philadelphia, the Brandywine River crosses the road. Here, at Chad's Ford, Washington met Howe, and was defeated with a loss of 1,200 men. But the American army did better fighting than it had yet done; and, though Howe captured Philadelphia, Washing- ton did not hesitate to attack him again at Germantown (now a part of Philadelphia). The Americans were again repulsed after hard fighting. 218. Winter Quarters. — The British troops in Philadelphia enjoyed every comfort which a large city could give them. The Americans went into winter quarters at Valley Forge, a little place on the Schuylkill River, just above Norristown. Here they passed a horrible winter, half starved, poorly clothed, and many of them without shoes to protect their feet against the snow and ice. In spite of the horrors of the winter, Washington held his army at Valley Forge, because it was the best possible position from which to attack the enemy \i they should move out of Philadelphia in anv direction. Congress had fled to Lancaster and then to York, again leaving Washington in almost supreme command. But things were not quite so dark as during the previous winter ; for, while Washington had been fighting around Philadelphia, a whole British army had been captured at Saratoga in northeastern New York (§223). In October, 1777, after a long siese acd hard fighting, the British drove the Americans out of Forts Mercer and Mifflin, opposite each other, on the banks of the Delaware, just below Philadelphia. 217. Where is the Brandywine River? What is said of the battle of Brandy- wine? Of the battle of Gerniantown? 218. Wliat is said of the British winter quarters? Of the American winter quar- ters? Of the American distress? Where was Congress? What new encourage- meut had the Americans received? 1777] BUBGOTNE'S EXPEDITION. in Supplementary Questions, Locations. — Locate New York Citv; the Hudson River; Staten Island, N. Y. ; Long Island, N. Y. ; Brooklyn, N. Y. ; Peekskill, N. Y.; New Brunswick. N. J.; Princeton, N. J.; Trenton, N. J.; the Dela. ware River; Philadelphia; Baltimore, Md.; Morristown, N. J.; Sandy Hook, N. J.; Chesapeake Bay; Elkton, Md. ; Norristown, Pa.; Lancas- ter, Pa. Review. — Give the date of the Declaration of Independence. The year of the battle of Long Island. Of the retreat through New Jersey. Of tlie battle of Trenton. Of the battle of Princeton. Of the battles of Brandywine and Germautown. (6) Burgoyne's Expedition, 1777. 219. The Hudson River (§ 208) was of great importance as a water-way (with Lake Cham- plain) to Canada, and as a di- viding; line between New Eno;- land and the other States. The British had found Washington's position on the Hudson, near Peekskill, so strong that they could not capture it from the south : they were now to try it from the north. Daring the summer of 1777, while Howe was getting ready to sail for Philadelphia, Gen. John Bur- goyne was moving from Can- ada to Lake Champlain with an ^^- Gen. John Burgoyne. army of about 10,000 men. Of these, 7,000 were regular troops whicli he had brought from England, and tlie rest Canadians and Indians. In July, he reached Ticonderoga, which he captured without difficulty. 220. Scliuyler, the American general (§201), had but 4,000 men, and could only retreat through Skenesboro toward Albany. 219. What was the importance of the Hudson River? How was the British plan changed? What is said of Burgoyne? Of his army? Of Ticonderoga? 2'20. What was Schuyler's force? Describe his retreat. The position which h* finally took u-p. Why did the two armies halt? 112 FORT SCHUYLER AND BENNINOTON. [1777 But lie did so slowly, destroying the bridges behind him, felling trees across the roads, and delaying the passage of the British as much as possible. Finally, he took up a position on some islands at the mouth of the Mohawk River, where it empties into the Hudson. Here both armies halted for a time. Schuyler was waiting for reinforcements. Burgoyne thought Schuyler's position too strong to be at- tacked, and was also searching for pro- visions, of which he was now in need. 221. Fort Schuyler and Benning- ton. — Burgoyne had sent a detachment to the west, to capture Fort Schuyler (now the city of Rome). The detach- ment routed a militia force at Oriska- ny ; but the garrison of Fort Schuyler held out stoutly until Arnold, with an American detachment, arrived and drove the British back to Canada in great confusion. To the eastward was Ver- mont, whose people claimed to be a State separate from New Hampshire, though Congress as yet refused to recognize them (§ 69). Partly in the hope of bring- ing the Vermonters to the British side, Burgoyne sent 800 men to Bennington, under Colonel Baum. They were met by Col- onel John Stark and 400 militia, who entirely defeated them. Burgoyne had sent reinforcements, under Colonel Breyman, to support Baum ; but, before they could reach the battle-field, the Americans also received reinforcements, under Colonel Seth War- ner, and the second detachment was defeated as completely as the first had been. The British loss was about 800 iu botli battles; that of the Ameri- cans, 54. Stark's speech to las men, before the battle, is said to liave been, " There they are, boys; we must beat them to-day, or this night Molly Stark's a widow." Burgoyne 's Expedition. 221. What is said of the expedition to Fort Schuyler? Of the condition of Ver- mont" Of the expedition to Beuuingtou? Of the battle of Bennington? Of the second ijattje? 17771 BEMIS HEIGHTS AND STILLWATER. 113 222. Burgoyne's Position was by this time very dangerous. His Indians were leaving him ; many of his best men had been killed or captured ; and he was getting short of pro- visions. The army opposed to him was increasing : Con- gress was hurrying men up the Hudson ; and the country militia were coming in rapid- ly. Burgoyne, therefore, des- perately attempted to force his way through the American army. He crossed the Hud- son, and moved slowly down its west bank toward the Mohawk. About the same time, Gates, who had been sent by Congress to take Schuyler's place, felt strong enough to move up the west bank of the Hudson, away from the Mohawk, 223. Beiuis Heights. — The two armies met at Bemis Heights, between Saratoga Lake and the Hudson. The battle which followed was not decisive: the British held the ground; but the Americans had shown that Burgoyne could not bieak throuo;h. He was soon forced to make a last desperate attempt to do so; but was defeated again and gave up hope of escaping southward. He now tried to retreat to Canada; but the triumphant Americans pressed on and surrounded his camp. At Saratoga, the pivotal point of the war (§ 227), he surrendered his remaining army of 6,000 men. Clinton, in the mean time, was endeavoring to come to Burgoyne's relief with troops from New York City. He captured some of the forts on tlie Hudson, but retreated on learning of Burgoyne's surrender. 224. The Conway Cabal. — Most of the glory of these victories was due to the careful preparations of Schuyler, and the personal daring of 222. What is said of Burgoyne's position? Of the army opposed to him? What did Burgoyne decide to do? What movement was make by him? What movement was made by Gates? 223. Where did the two armies meet? What is said of the battle of Bemis Heights? Of the battle of Stillwater? What stopped Burgoyne's retreat? What is said of his surrender? 224. To what were these victories due? What did Gates endeavor to do? Why did the plan fail? What name was given to it? 114 AID FROM FRANCE. YlllS Arnold; but Gates took all the glory to himself. During the winter, an effort was made by him and a number of leading men in Congress and in the army to make him commander-in-chief, instead of Washington. It failed on account of the general indignation when it became known. It is generally known as the " Conway cabal," from the name of one of its leaders (§ 215, note); but there were many others engaged in it, whose sliare has been more carefully covered over. Almost all the meannesses of the Revolution centred in this " time that tried men's souls." Some public men were afraid that the war would be afailure, and were anxious to make their peace with the Britisli; others were jealous of one another or of the army; others were anxious only to make money. Their mean- ness made the task of Washington and the great men of the Revolution far more difficult, and their success far more brilliant, than if all had been patriots. (7) Aid from France. 225. France had been waiting patiently since 1763 for the time when Great Britain also should be deprived of her territory in North America by the growing strength of her colonies. The French Government was therefore not at all sorry to see the Eng- lish colonies rebel, and supplied them with arms and clothing from the beginning. But, in order to avoid war with Great Britain, the supplies were sent secrctiv, and the American agents were not publicly recognized. Openly, the French Government was all on the side of Great Britain. It declared that, as it still had colonies, outside of North America, it would not encourage them to rebe2 by helping the United States. The first American agent in France was Silas Deane, appointed in 1776. Franklin, Deane, and Arthur Lee were made agents later in 1776. In 1778, Benjamin Franklin was made sole minister to France. 226. The Appointment of Franklin as minister to France was a most fortunate selection. He was one of the shrewdest and busiest managers that ever served any country ; and yet he took care to seem only a plain and simple colonist. His plain dress, his modest manners, and his homely wit captivated the French, and he was the favorite of Paris. lie brought French public opinion over to the side of the colonies; but for a long time he could get no recognition from the government. When other French officers followed La Fayette to America, to enter the army of the United 225. For what had Fiance been waiting:? What was done by the French Gov- ernment? Why was this done secretly? What side did the French Government profess to take? 226. What is said of Franklin's appointment? What were his ?ood qualities as an agent? Why was he liked in France? What success had he? How did the French Government act? 1778] THE FRENCH TREATY. 115 States, the French Government took care that the British ministers should know how angry it was, but it never succeeded in arresting the officers. Franklin was born at Boston, in 1706, removed to Pennsylvania, and there became a printer and newspaper editor. He was fa- mous in his own country for his wonderful common-sense, and abroad for his discovery, by means of a kite, that the light- ning of the clouds was the same thing as electricity. He died at Philadelphia, in 1790, full of years and honors. 227. The French Treaty. — The Declaration of Inde- pendence had convinced the French Government that the Americans intended to sepa- rate from Great Britain for- ever ; but it required some further evidence that, if France should help, France would not have to do all the fighting. This doubt was removed by Burgoyne's surrender, and Franklin was made happy by a treaty of alliance between France and the United States, early in 1778. France wss, to send to the assistance of the United States a fleet of 16 war-vessels, under D'Estaing, and an army of 4,000 men. 228. Great Britain at once declared war against France, and invited the United States to help her in it. She now offered all that the colonies had asked three years before, freedom from taxa- tion, and representation in Parliament. But the offer came too late. Independence had become the settled purpose of the Ameri- cans, and the war was to last nearly five years longer before Great Britain would consent to this. The ruling families of France and Spain were related, and Spain joined France in the war against Great Britain in 1779. Holland joined them in 1780, for commercial reasons. 227. What was the effect of the Declaration of Independence? Of the surren- der of Burg-oyne? What was ajrreed on in the treaty? 228. What was done by Great Britain? What offer was made? Why was it re jected? Benjamin Franklin. 116 THE BATTLE OF MONMOUTE. [1778 229. The Battle of Monmouth.— We left Howe in Philadel- phia, and Washington at Valley Forge, near Norristown. Clinton succeeded Howe during the winter. When the news of the French alliance reached Clinton, he left Philadelphia and started across New Jersey, in order to unite all the British forces at New York City before the French fleet and army should arrive. Washington hurried after him, intending to keep him busy in New Jersey until the French should come. The van of the American army over- took the British rear at Monmouth Court-house (Freehold), in June, 1778, and the battle lasted until nightfall without any decided re- sult. The British drew off during the night, and embarked at Sandy Hook for New York City. General Charles Lee, who has since been discovered to have been a traitor, was disgraced at Monmouth. Instead of attacking, as he was ordered to do, he allowed his men to retreat. Washington spoke to him hastily and passionately as he sent the men back into the fight, and Lee afterward wrote Washington several very disrespectful letters. For this and other acts of the kind he was disinissetl from the service. At the beginning of the war, he had been considered the best of the Amer- ican generals. 230. Washington moved farther toward the north, crossed the Hudson above New York City, and took his former position near Peekskill. From this he could operate with effect if Clinton should make any movement toward New England, toward Canada, or toward Philadelphia. These positions in the Middle States were maintained for the rest of the war, the British occupying New York City, Staten Island, and a part of Long Island, and Washington's line running from Peekskill to Morristown. The British had failed in the Middle States as they had done in New England, and were now about to attack the Southern States. (8) In the North after 1778. 231. The French Fleet and Army arrived in July, 1778, soon after the British retreat from Philadelphia. The heavier ves- 229. In what positions did we leave Howe and Washington? Who was now the British commander? Why did he leave Philadelphia? What was done by Wash- ington? WHiat is said of the battle of Monmouth? What was its result? 230. What course did Washington take? What was the advantage of his posi- tion? What is said of the positions of the two armies? What had been the results of the war thus far? 231. What is said of the French fleet and army? Why was not New York at- tacked? What arrangements were made to attack Newport? Why did they fail? Whither did the French forces go? 1778] ARRIVAL OF THE FRENCH FLEET. 117 sels were unable to enter New York harbor, so that no attack was made on that city. The French therefore sailed for Newport, which was still in the hands of the British (§ 215). An American army, under Greene, Sullivan, and La Fayette, was sent to assist in the attack. But a storm blew the French fleet ofi the coast, and the attack was given up. The whole French force then sailed to the West Indies, where France had possessions to defend. The French forces were never of any great assistance to the United States until the Yorktowu campaign (§258). Whenever they were most needed, they were certain to be called off to the West Indies, to defend the French colonies tliere. But France alwaj's helped the United Slates most liberally with money and supplies. 232. The British now held but two cities in the United States. Newport and New York, with Staten Islaud and part of Long Island. Prison-Ship "Jersey." These were all the results of their three years' war against the colonies alone. Now they were struggling on every sea with their old enemy, France, and had still less attention to spare for America. As their chances of success grew less, their manner of fighting grew more savage. Plundering expeditions along the coast of New England and New Jersey burned the houses and alarmed the country, but made no attempt to hold any place. 233. Instances of the new manner of warfare are numerous. Wyom- ing, a Connecticut settlement in northern Pennsylvania, was captured 232. What were the British possessions in fche United States? Why had the British less hopes of success now? How did their warfare change? 233. What is said of the capture of Wyoming? Of the treatment of the inhab- itants? Of the capture of Cherry Valley? Wliat was done by Congress? By Sul- livan? What was the treatment of prisoners by the British at New York? What is said of the Jersey f 118 CONTINENTAL MONET. [1778 in Ou\v, 1778, by a force of British and Indians from western New York, commanded by a Toiy, Colonel John Butler, and Brant, an Indian chief. The inliabitanls were cruelly treated, and most of llie men were killed. In November, tlie village of Cherry Valley, in New York, met a like fate. But the Indians were now to learn for the first time that a new power had risen, and that it could strike, and strilie hard. In the following year, 1779, Congress sent an army, under General Sullivan, into western New York, to punisli the Indians. Sullivan killed, burned, and destroyed until lie had left the Indian country a desert. The British treatment of prisoners at New York was particularly cruel. The prisoners were placed in worn-out war-vessels in the East River, near the Brooklyn shore, and were so scantily supplied with food, water, clothing, and medicine, that they died in great numbers. The most notorious of these " hulks," or prison-ships, was the Jersey. 234. Paper Money was one of the severest discouragements under which the Americans labored. It had been issued by Con- gress to pay the expenses of the war, and had increased largely. When a country has more paper money than it can use for business purposes, two or more dollars are made to do the work of one, and each " dollar" decreases in value. The loss, of course, falls most severely on the poor. By 1778, Congress had issued so much paper money that eight paper dollars would buy only as much as one gold dollar. This made the difficulty worse, for Congress now had to issue eight times as much paper money as at first, and its value fell faster than ever. The British in New York counterfeited it skilfully, and passed off their counterfeits on the farmers. Before the war ended, the "continental money" was worthless: no one would take it, and a worthless thing was said to be "not worth a conti- nental," meaning a continental dollar. 235. Congress itself was not so much respected as at first, and the States did not submit to its authority as willingly as when they Continental Money. 234 What is said of issues of paper money? What is the result of :in over- Issue of such money? How did the decrease in value increase the issues? How did the British assist tlie fall? What was the result? 23» What was the position of Congress? Of the government? Of the army? Of the people generally? On whom did most of the burden fall? 1778] DIFFICULTIES OF CONGRESS. 119 were all in terror of the British. No regular government for the whole people had yet been formed, and Congress could only go on begging the States for soldiers, issuing paper money, and running into debt in France and Holland, witliout the power to lay taxes (§ 240) or redeem the debt. The pay of the army was small, and toward the end of the war the men were not paid at all ; so that it was difficult to obtain recruits, except when a British force entered la State and frightened the people into the army. The people gen- erally were beginning to rely on France, and to think the war really over. Most of the burden of these difficulties fell on Washington, and taxed his patience to the utmost. After the war, the soldiers were partly paid by giving them west- ern lands. Those who lived until the people and ^overumeut grew richer were supported in their old age by pensions. 236. The West. — Settlements had already been begun, in 1768- 69, in Kentucky and Tennessee (§ 160, note), but they were not large, and were just beginning to feel secure against the Indians. North of the Ohio, there were only the remnants of the French settlements (§ 142), with a few British officers and soldiers. In 1778 and 1779, George Rogers Clarke crossed the Ohio with a Kentucky force, captured Vincenncs, and conquered the territory now in the States of Illinois and Indiana. Virginia claimed it (§ 83), and made it the county of Illinois. But no American settlements were undertaken in it for many years. 237. The British OoTerninent seems to have become con- vinced, when France entered the war, that in the end the inde- pendence of the United States must be acknowledged. But it wislied to save some of its former territory. It had failed in New England and in the Middle States. It now determined to attack the Southern States, since they had fewer white iidiabitants than the North, and more negro slaves, who would not count as soldiers. During the next five years, 1779-83, the fighting was mainly in the South, while the armies elsewhere watched one another. Three noteworthy events took place in the North, and these we will give at once. 2S6. Where were tlie western settlements? W^hat settlements were there north of the Ohio? What is said of their conquest? Wei'e any new settlements made in the conquered country? 237. What was now the feeling of the British Government? Where had i; failed? Why did it determine to attack the South? What is said of events in tb© North? 120 8T0NT POINT.—ARNOLD'S TKEASOK [1780 238. Stony Point: 1779 A rocky hill, called Stony Point, ran out into the Hudson, nearly opposite Peekskill, and the British had taken possession of it and fortified it. Washington sent General Anthony Wayne, an officer of distinguished cour- age and skill, to recapture it. Just before midnight in July, 1779, Wayne silently formed his men in two col- umns on opposite sides of the foot of the hill, giving them orders not to fire, but to trust to the bayonet. The charge was completely successful ; the two columns met in the centre l^tj of the fort, and captured it '^^/ and the garrison without firing a shot. The fort was too near New York to be held, and the Americans, after destroying the works, retired. The object of the movement was mainly to encourage the men, by showing them that they were now so well trained that they could trust to the bayonet as well as the British. Wayne's daring gave liim the popular name of " Mad Anthony;" but he was really as prudent as he was brave (§ 309). 239. Arnold's Treason: 1780.— In September, 1780, the coun- try was shocked by the discovery that Benedict Arnold, one of its bravest generals, and commander of the important fortress of West Point, had agreed to betray his post to the British in return for a large sum of money and a brigadier-general's commission in the British army. He had been reprimanded for misusing the public money, and took this road to revenge. The British agent in making the bargain was Major John Andre, an amiable young Anthony Wayne. 288. What is said of Stony Point? Who was sent to recapture it? What arrangements did he make for the attack? What was the result? Why was not the fort held? What was the object of the movement? 239. What discovery was made in 1780? What was the reason of Arnold's treachery? Who was tlie British agent? How was he captured ? How did Arnold escape? What was Andr6's fate? 1781] REVOLT OF THE AMERICAN TROOPS. 121 John ANDRfi. (Drawn by himself.) oflBcer, Clinton's aide-de-camp. On his return down the Hudson River from an interview with Arnold, he was made prisoner, near Tarrytown, by three militiamen. He was allowed by an Ameri- can ofBcer to send warning to Arnold, who escaped to the British lines and re- ceived his reward, though the plot had failed. Andre was hanged as a spy, since he had been caught in disguise within the American lines. The fate of Andre was lamented by the whole American army; but Wasbington felt that it was necessary as a warning to other British otiiceis not to engage in such affairs. Efforts were made to capture Arnold, in order to hang him also, but they failed. At the end of the war, be went to England, where he lived and died despised by English- men as well as by Americans. 240. Revolt of the Troops: 1781. — Tn January, 1781, the mis- ery of the unpaid and half-starved American soldiers at Morristown became unbearable. The Pennsylvania troops revolted, and set out for Philadelphia to demand pay from Congress, which was in session there. On tlie march, British agents attempted to bring them over to Clinton's army, but were arrested by the soldiers. A committee of Congress met them at Princeton, and by fair prom- ises induced them to disband peaceably. A few weeks later, the New Jersey troops also revolted, but Washington surrounded their camp and forced them to return to duty. At the end of the war, there were serious fears of a more extensive mutiny among the officers and soldiers at Newburgh, N. Y.. because of failure to pay them; but it was stopped by Washington's influence. SOPPLEMENTARY QUESTIONS. Locations.— Locate the Hudson River; Peeksliill, N. Y. (§208); Lake Champlain, K Y.; Ticonderoga, N. Y. (§ 231); the Mohawk River: 240. What was the condition of the army? What was done bv the Pennsyl- vania troops? By British agents? How was thiiS revolt settled^ 'Vj^'jlJ.t further re- volt was attempted? How was it suppressed? ' ' 122 TEE AMERICAN WAR-VE88EL8. [1778 Rome, N. Y. ; Bennington, Vt. ; Saratoga, N. Y. ; Philadelphia; Norris- town, P;i. ; Monmouth (Freehold), N. J. ; Sandy Hook, N. J. ; Newport, R. I. (§68); New York City; Staten Island, N. Y. ; Long Island, N. Y.; Viuceiines, lud.; West Point, N. Y. ; Morristown, N. J. Review. — Give the year of Burgoyue's surrender. Name three battles which preceded it. Give the year of the French treaty of alli- ance. The name of the American agent who concluded it. The year of the battle of Monmouth. Name the places held by the British in 1778. Give the year of the battle of Stony Point. Of Arnold's treason. Of the revolt of the troops. (9) On the Sea. 241. The American War-Yessels were mainly privateers, that is, vessels owned by private persons, but commissioned by Congress, or by one of the States, to capture British vessels. Late in 1775, Congress ordered fourteen vessels to be built as a public navy (§ 194). Most of these were of small size, but they and the privateers cap- tured a great number of mer- chant-vessels and small war-ves- sels, and seriously injured the commerce of Great Britain. Two of them, the Reprisal and ; .'jf the Revenge, cruised around the British Islands in 1777, and almost put a stop to commerce for the time. In 1778, Cap- tain John Paul Jones, in the Ranger, repeated the exploit, and even landed to attack various places on the coast of England and Scotland. The number of vessels captured from the British is not exactly known, but has been estimated at about 700. The Reprisal is said to have been the first vessel that carried the stars and stripes (§ 198). John Paul Jonks. 241. What is meant by privateers? How did Congress begin to form a navy? What snceess did the American vessels have? What is said of the cruise of the Reprisal and the Revengef Of John Paul Jones's cruise? Of the number of British vessels captured? 1779] THE RICHARD AND 8ERAPI8. 123 Scale of W ilea , '■.'■.•mm 242, The American Nary was not successfully formed, owing to the poverty of Congress and the number of British vessels on the coast. A number of vessels were built, but they were cap- tured by heavier British vessels, or burned in the Delaware and Hudson rivers to prevent their falling into the hands of the enemy. The alliance with France, in 1778, gave Franklin an opportunity to purchase vessels which became American cruisers. 243. The Richard and Serapis.— In 1779, Franklin fitted out a fleet of five vessels, under command of Paul Jones. Only one of them, an old and rotten mer- chant-vessel, was of respectable size, and Jones named it the Bonhomme Richard. The crew was disorderly and disobedient, and Jones had the greatest diffi- culty in controlling it. The captains of the other vessels were fully as troublesome. For a month the fleet kept the eastern coast of Scotland and England in alarm, and made many prizes. September 23, 1779, it fell in with two British frigates, the Serapis, of forty guns, and the Countess of Scarborough, of twenty-two guns, ofi P'lamborougli Head, and one of the most des- perate sea-fights in history followed. The Richard and the Serapis were of equal force, and Jones succeeded in tying them together. After two hours of frightful slaughter, in which both vessels were on fire several times, the Serapis surrendered. The Richard was so badly injured that she sank next morning. The Countess of Scarborough was captured by the rest of the fleet, and this was the only assistance given to the Richard. Jones was a native of Scotland. He afterward entered the Russian The British Isles. 242. What were the hindrances to the formation of an American navy? What became of the vessels that were built? How were new vessels obtained abroad' 243. What fleet was fitted out in 1770? What is said of tlie Richard? Of its crew? Of the other captains? Where did the fleet cruise? What war-vessels were rnet? Describe the battle between the Richard and the Serapis? What assistance was given by the rest of the fleet? 124 THE WAR IN THE SOUTH [1778 navy, but died in poverty and neglect. The name of his ship (" Good- man Richard") was given in compliment to Franklin, who, while a Pennsylvania printer, had for many years published "Poor Richard's Almanac." See Cooper's novel " The Pilot." 244. The French Fleets on the American coast did little ex cept to protect the French islands in the West Indies, until De Grasse, in 1781, gave great assistance in capturing Cornwallis (§ 259). During the last three years of the war there were but two American frigates in active service, and both were of small size. One large vessel, the America, of seventy-four guns, was built, but Congress presented it to the king of France. The New England States did not cease to send out privateers. In 1779, a fleet of nineteen armed vessels and twenty -four transports, from Boston, attacked Castine, then held by the British. During the attack; a British fleet arrived and captured all the vessels. The men escaped by land. Supplementary Questions. Locations. — Locate Flamborough Head, Eng. ; Castine, Me. (§58). Review. — Give the year of the cruise of the Reprisal and the Re- venge. Of the cruise of the Ranger. Of the battle between the Richard and the Serapis. Of the affair at Castine. (10) In the South: 1778-81. 245. Sayannah was attacked by a British expedition from New York, late in 1778, and was easily captured. British troops from Florida then joined the expedition. Augrusta was captured, and the whole State of Georgia soon fell under British control. General Benjamin Lincoln, the American commander, could do little except to keep the British out of South Carolina, and to keep the South Carolina Tories from escaping to Georgia. In Septem- ber, 1779, he crossed into Georgia, ?iid, with the help of the French , fleet under D'Estaing (§227), attacked Savannah. He was re- pulsed with heavy loss, and D'Estaing sailed awav to the West Indies. Among the dead was Pulaski (§ 215). The British then 244. AVhat was done bvthe French fleets on the Amerioan coast? What Amer- ican war- vessels were on the ocean? Describe the affair at Castine. 245. What is said of fhe capture of Savannali? What reinforcements were re- ceived by the British? What farther conqviests were made? What was done bv Lincoln? What is said of his attack on Savannah? Of its result? How did botlj parties then return to their former positions?. 1779] MINOR MOVEMENTS. 125 re-established the king's authority throughout Georgia with very Uttle resistance, and Lincohi retired to South Carolina. 246. Minor Movements.— In February, 1779, a body of 700 Tories from Norlli Carolina, while marching to Georgia, were defeated and scattered in South Carolina by the militia under Colonel Pickens. Tlie next month, a force of 3,000 Americans crossed into Georgia and were The Revolution in the Southern States. defeated at Briar Creek. In April, the British in their turn made a move- ment toward Charleston, but found Lincoln ready for battle, and with- drew to Geoi-gia. Operations in the south then ceased for the summer of 1779. Elsewhere, the British sent plundering expeditions from New York into Connecticut and Virginia, in order to prevent the sending of American reinforcements to the south. In this way the towns of New Haven and Norwalk, in Connecticut, and Portsmouth and Norfolk, in Virginia, were plundered. 246. What is said of the defeat of the North Carolina Tories? Of the American defeat at Briar Creek? Of the British movement on Charleston? Of British move- qients elsewhere? Wto.i towiis were plupdered ? 126 GEORGIA.— SOUTH CAROLINA. [1780 247. Georgia was the first State which the British had com- pletely conquered, and they treated the Whigs (§173) most cruelly. The Tories in the State were allowed to injure their Whig neighbors as they pleased. In the neighboring States of South Carolina and North Carolina, the Whigs were quick to in- flict similar cruelties on their Tory neighbors. Thus the war in the south immediately became more ferocious on both sides than it had ever been in the north. As each army gained new territory, its enemies among the inhabitants were treated as traitors. Thus nearly all the people were forced to take part in the war, either against the regular armies or against their neighbors. For the next two years there was no peace, no work, and no good feeling in the south. And the hanging or shooting of men by their neigh- bors, and even of brother by brother, made the results of the war more horrible than open battle. 248. Charleston. — In October, 1779, Clinton ordered Newport to be evacuated, and collected all his available forces at New York. Then, leaving only enough troops in New York to defend it against W^ashington, he sailed late in December with the rest to Charleston. Here the British from Georgia met him ; the fleet forced its way through tlie harbor to the city ; and in May, after a vigorous defence, Lincoln was compelled to surrender Charleston and his array of 6,000 men. Clinton refused to allow the garrison to surrendei unless it would go through a public ceremony of laying down its arms (§ 262). He then sent out expeditions to various parts of the State, under his best cavalry officer, Tarleton, and scattered every American force that made its appearance, Tarleton was for a long time very successful. During the siege of Charleston lie surprised a body of Americans at Monk's Corner, thirty miles from Charleston, and routed them. Soon after, he scattered another American force at the Waxhaws, near the North Carolina line. 249. South Carolina was now under British control. Clinton considered his work done, and sailed back to New York with part of his troops, leaving Cornwallis in command of the rest. But 247. What was done by the British in Georgia? By the Tories? By the Whigs in the neighboring States? What was the character of the war in the south? How were the people forced into it? What was tlie result? 248. Flow did Clinton collect troops for a new movement? What is said of his expedition to Charleston? Of the capture of that city? What terms did Clinton insist upon? How did he finish the conquest of the State? 249. What was now the condition of South Carolina? What change of com- Blunders was wad?? What resistapqe was still made against tbe Britigh? 1780] CAMDEN. 127 the State was never entirely quiet, even when the British seemed to control it. Sumter, Marion, and other South Carolina leaders found places of refuge in the great swamps which are found in parts of the State ; and from these they kept up an active warfare witli the British. Their desperate battles, night-marches, sur- prises, and hair-breadth escapes make this the most exciting and interesting period of the Revolution. For the stories connected with it see Lossing's Field Book of the Remlution, vol. 2; Garden's Anecdotes of the Revolution; Raymond's Women of the South ; and W, G. Simms's novels, and Life of Marion. 250. Camden. — Congress sent Gates, the victor of Saratoga, to take command of the forces in the south. He passed across North Carolina with nearly three times as many men as the British, and met them at Camden in August, 1780. Most of Gates's mcu were untrained militia, who at the first fire from the British fled without firing a shot in return. The few Continental troops from Maryland fought obsti- nately, but finally retreated, losing their commander, De Kalb (§215). Gates fled ahead of his army to Hills- boro (near the present city of Raleigh), and South Caro- lina was left still more com- pletely at the mercy of the British. Gates had been so- unsuccessful that Congress re- moved him, and sent one of the most cautious and successful of the American generals, Na- thaniel Greene, of Rliode Island, to take his place. 251. King's Mountain. — After the battle of Camden, Cornwallis sent Colonel Ferguson, with 1.100 men, to arouse the Tories in North Caro- lina. He was not successful, and soon found it advisable to fortify him- self on King's Mountain, between the Broad and Catawba rivers. Here, NATHAMI I (i\ \ FNE. 2.50. Wliat new commander was sent bv Congress? What route did he take? Describe the battle of Camden. What was its result? What change of American commanders was made? 2.51. What is said of Ferguson's expedition? Of his position? Of the battle of King's Mountain? Of the battle of Fishing Creek? 128 TEE COWPENS.—OUILFORB C0UBT-E0V8E. [1781 ia October, 1780, he was attacked and utterly defeated by a force of about a thousand riflemen hastily gathered from western North Caro- lina and eastern Tennessee. About tlie same time, Turleton surprised Sumter at Fishing Creek, and scattered liis men for a time. 252. The Cowpens. — Greene sent Morgan, a Virginia officer of riflemen, into South Carolina with a thousand men, to gather re- cruits. Tarleton was sent after him with about an equal number, and attacked him in January, 1781, at the Cowpens, a pasture-field near Spartanburgh. For the first time, Tarleton was completely beaten, losing, nearly all his men. Cornwallis immediately moved with all his force after Morgan, who had begun to retreat with his prisoners. Morgan and Greene together were too weak to meet Cornwaliis, and they managed a skilful and fortunate retreat across North Carolina into Virginia. As they crossed the Catawba, the Yadkin, and the Dan rivers, Cornwallis was just behind them ; but in each case a sudden rise of the river prevented him from crossing in time to overtake them. At the Dan, Cornwallis gave up the chase, and turned back to Hillsboro. 253. Benedict Arnold (§ 239) was now a general in the Brit- ish service. In January, 1781, he was sent from New York, with 1,600 men, to ravage Virginia, and prevent reinforcements from being sent to Greene. The Americans were naturally very anxious to capture him. La Fayette was sent by AVashington to oppose him by land, while a few French vessels were to cut off his retreat by sea. A British fleet drove the French vessels back to Newport. Reinforcements under General Phillips were sent to Arnold, who plundered Virginia without mercy, while La Fayette could do little more than watch him. Arnold soon afterward left the army in Virginia, and went back to New York. 254. Guilford Court-house. — Greene soon obtained recruits enough to enable him to turn back into North Carolina, and the two armies met at Guilford Court-house (now Greensboro), in March, 1781. A part of the American militia again gave way at 252. Who was sent by Greene into South Carolina? Who was sent against him? What is said of the battle of the Cowpens? Of Cornwallis's pursuit? Of Greene's retreat? Where did Cornwallis give up the chase? 253. What is said of Arnold's expedition? Of I.a Fayette's attempt to capture him? How did it fail? What were the operations of the British in Virginia? 254. What was Greene's next movement? Describe the battle of Guilford Court-house. Did the British pursue? Were there any further battles between these two armies? 1781] SOUTH CAROLINA.— VIRGINIA. 129 the first fire, but the rest of Greene's army held its ground stub- bornly, and at last retreated in excellent order. The British loss was so heavy that Cornwallis did not venture to pursue, but retired to Wilmington to obtain supplies from his ships. There were no further battles between these two armies, for during the next two months they passed one another, Greene moving south into South Carolina, and Cornwallis moving north into Virginia. 255. South Carolina. — As soon as Cornwallis retired to Wi]» mington, Greene moved across North Carolina into South Carolina, where the British were under command of Lord Rawdon. Battles followed, in April and May, 1781, the principal one being fought at Hobkirk's Hill (near Camden). Greene was again forced to retreat, but inflicted heavy loss upon his enemy. He spent the summer at the hills of the Santee, near Camden. In September he again moved down toward the coast, and fought the last battle of the war in this State, at Eutaw Springs, near Charleston. Again the British had the advantage, but their loss was so heavy that they retreated during the night, and took refuge in Charleston. Greene had finished his work. By sheer caution, activity, and per- severance, and without winning a single victory, he had almost cleared the south of the enemy. He now held every part of South Carolina and Georgia, excepting Charleston and Savannah, to which cities he kept the British closely confined for the rest of the war. In August, 1781, Rawdon hanged Colonel Isaac Hayne, of South Carolina, as a deserter. Hayne liad been forced to join the Britisli, had escaped, and was again captured in battle. His execution was consid- ered a gross piece of injustice. 256. Virginia.— Cornwallis at Wilmington knew nothing of Greene's movement until it was too late to intercept him. Then, thinking that Rawdon was strono; enough to defeat Greene, he de- cided to move north into Virginia, join the British troops already there, and endeavor to conquer that State. He met no great oppo- sition on his march, and Tarleton's cavalry plundered the country at will. On reaching Virginia, Cornwallis found that he had about 255. What is said of Greene's marcli into South Carolina ? Of the battle of Hobkiric's Hill ? Of tlie battle of Eutaw Springs ? What was-its result ? What had Greene done ? What was now the state of affairs in the south ? 256. What is said of Cornwallis? What did he decide to do? What opposition did he meet? What force had he? What was he ordered to do? What place did he select? 130 roRKToym. [1781 8,000 men, twice as many as the force under La Fayette which was opposed to him. Orders were sent from New York by CHn- ton to seize and fortify some strong place on the coast, which could be reached easily by the British vessels. Yorktown, on the penin- sula between the James and York rivers, appeared to Cornwallis to be the best location ; and here he fixed the headquarters of hi# army. r Cornwallis and Clinton had quarrelled, and did not help or agree with one another very well. Supplementary Questions. Locations. — Locate Savannah, Ga. ; Augusta, Ga.; Newport, R. I.; Charleston, S. C. ; Camden, S. C. ; Hillsboro, N. C. ; Spartanburgh, S. C. ; the Catawba River; the Yadkin River; the Dan River; Guilford Court-house, N. C. ; Wilmington. N. C. ; Yorktown, Va. Review. — Give the year of the capture of Savannah. Of Lincoln's repulse at Savannah. Of the capture of Charleston. Of the battle of Camden. Of the battle of the Cowpens. Of the battle of Guilford Court-house. Of the battle of Hobkirk's Hill. Of the battle of Eutaw Springs. (11) Yorktown: 1781. 257. Washington had not yet himself won a victory, unless we are to consider the smaller battles of Trenton, Princeton, and Mon- mouth as such. He had surmounted the very greatest difficulties ; he had gone into battle knowing that defeat was almost certain, and yet he had made each defeat a training-school for his men; he had shown the best qualities of a general in camp and battle-field; he had been worth more than an army in keeping resistance alive; and he had well earned the universal and unfailmg confidence of the people. But it certainly seemed fitting that he should also have the crowning glory of a great victory to close the war. 258. Bocliambeau, with a French army of 6,000 men, had landed at Newport in the summer of 1780. They were after- ward marched to Washington's camp near Peekskill and Morris- town. With these soldiers to help him, Washington, early in 1781, began active operations around New York, and kept Clin- 267. Had Washington yet won any great victory? What had he done? What seemed fitting? 258. What French army arrived in 1780? To what places were they brought? How did Washington use their assistance? How was his plan changed? What did he decide to do? Did the change of plan become known? 1781] TEE MARGE TO TORKTOWN. 131 ton in a state of constant alarm. In August liis plan was clianged by tlie arrival of a French frigate with the news that a strong French fleet and anny would soon arrive in Chesapeake Bay, and cut off Cornvvallis from all assistance. Washington at once decided to leave New York for a time, march rapidly southward, and capture Yorktown and Cornwallis before the British fleets 3ould reach the Chesapeake and drive the French fleet away. The change of plan was kept a profound secret. Clinton was kept in daily expectation of an attack on New York, and did not discover the truth for several days after Washington and Rochambeau had started for Virginia. The French fleet was sent from the "West Indies to Chesapeake Bay, to remain about four months. It was stronger than any single Brit- ish fleet then on the coast of the United States, and the British admi- rals did not work together well enough to unite their fleets and beat it off. 259. The March to Yorktown. — The French fleet, under De Grasse, arrived in Chesapeake Bay (August 30). It not only blocked up Cornwallis's escape by sea, but landed soldiers enotagh to enable La Fayette to prevent his escape by land. On the same day, Washington and Rocham- beau, who had been moving slowly down the west bank of the Hudson River, as if to attack Staten Island, suddenly struck off through New Jer- sey to Philadelphia, and thence to Elkton. Here they took shipping and sailed down Chesapeake Bay to the James River, where they joined La Fayette's army before Yorktown. While the march was taking place, a British fleet had tried to relieve Cornwallis, but had been beaten off by the French fleet. The Yorktown Campaign. 259. What is said of the arrival af the French fleet? What did it accomplish? What movement was made by Washington and Rochambeau the same day? What course did they take toward Yorktown? What had the French fleet done in the mean time? 132 SURRENDER OF C0RNWALLI8. [1781 260. New London. — Tlie march southward was as much of a sur. prise to the American and French soldiers as to Clinton. When Clin- ton discovered its purpose, lie tried to draw off a part of tlie American troops by sending the traitor Arnold to attack New London, Conn. Fort Griswoid, which defended tlie town, was captured, September 6, and its commander and most of the garrison were killed after they had surrendered. Tliis useless butchery had no effect on Washington's march to Yorktown. 261. The Siege of Yorktown. — The allied armies of France and the United States formed a half-circle in front of Yorktown, and the siege began, September 30, 1781. The French troops were brilliant with new and bright uniforms, while the dress of the Americans was faded and ragged. But there was no difference in the fighting power of the two armies, and there was a constant ri- valry between them for the lead in the attacks. After three weeks of siege and hard fighting, Cornwallis found that it was impossible to resist longer. He made one attempt to take his army across the York River and hurry northward before the allies could follow him ; but a sudden storm scattered his boats and defeated his plan. He then decided to surrender. 262. The Surrender took place October 19, 1781, in a large field near Yorktown. The British troops, 8,000 in number, went through the same public ceremony of surrender which had been imposed on the Americans at Charleston ; and Lincoln, who had commanded at Charleston, was appointed to receive Cornwallis's sword (§ 248). Cornwallis, however, was worn out by long work and fighting, and sent a subordinate to make the surrender. It had hardly taken place, when an expedition sailed from New York, with 7,000 men, to relieve Cornwallis, but it returned on finding that the surrender had taken place. The allied forces then separated. De Grasse sailed for the West Indies. The French troops remained in Virginia. The Americans marched back to New York, except a detachment which went southward and recaptured Wilmington. For the centennial celebration of the surrender, see § 911. 260. Was the march southward a surprise? How did Clinton try to check it? What is said of the capture of Fort Griswoid? Did it have any effect on Washing- ton's march? 261. How was the siege formed ? What was the appearance of the two armies? Their flgiiting qualities? How long did the siege last? What new plan was attempt- ed by Cornwallis? Why did it fail? 262. What is said of the surrender? Of the ceremony which took place? Who was appointed to conduct it? What is said of Cornwallis? What attempt was made to relieve him? What became of the French fleet? Of the French army? Of the American army? 1783] PEACE. 133 Supplementary Questions. Locations. — Locate Newport, R. I. ; Peekskill, N. Y. ; Morristown, N. J.; Staten Island, N. Y. ; Philadelphia; Elkton, Md. ; Chesapeake Bay; James River; Yorktown, Va. ; York River; Wilmington, N. C. (§ 345). Review. — Give the year of the arrival of the French army. The date of the surrender at Yorktown. (12) Peace: 1783. 263. The Terms of Peace were not at once arranged. It was difficult and expensive for the British Government to obtain men to serve in America, and the loss of Cornwallis's army could not be made up. When the news reached London the ministry resigned, and Parliament demanded peace so decidedly that the king gave way. Both parties agreed to cease hostilities and ap- point commissioners to agree on terms. The British still held New York, Charleston, and Savannah, and the Americans were en- camped near those places ; but there were no more battles. 264. The Final Treaty of peace was made in 1783. Great Britain acknowledged the United States to be free and independ- ent, with Canada as a boundary on the north, the Mississippi River on the west, and Florida, extending west to the Mississippi, on the south. Spain owned the territory west of the Mississippi, called Louisiana (§ 158); and Great Britain now transferred to her Florida also. The United States thus had Great Britain as a neighbor on the north, and Spain on the south and west. The treaty also secured the right of Americans to fish on the New- foundland Banks. 265. The American Army was now disbanded, having been paid principally in promises. Officers and men retired to their homes very much dissatisfied with their unjust treatment bv Congress and the country. Washington then appeared before Congress at An- napolis and resigned his commission. The British evacuated Savan- nah in July, 1782, Charleston in the following December, and New 2C3. Wliat is said of Cornwallis's surrender? "Why could it not be made up? What was tlie effect of the news in London? What agreement was made? What were the positions of the British and Americans? 264. When was the treaty of peace made? What did Great Britain acknowl- edge? "What were the boundaries of the United States? What is said of Louisiana and Florida? What were the neigrhbors of the United States? 265. What is said of the disbanding of the army? Where did Washington resign his commission? What cities were evacuated by the British? What posts did they refuse to evacuate? 134 THE TORIES. [1783 York City, their last post on the coast, November 25, 1783. But they refused to evacuate the forts north of the Ohio River, and held them for some twelve years longer (§ 310). 266. The Expenses of the war cannot be exactly stated. Those of the United States liave been estimated at $135,000,000 in specie. Tlie debt of Great Britain was increased during the war about $610,000,000. The British forces in the whole of North America probably never at any one time exceeded 40,000 men; and the American regular troops were about the same number. Most of the larger American armies were made up of minute-men or militia, who remained in the service but a short time. 267. The Tories. — During the war, most of the States had passed laws to confiscate the estates of persons who had taken the British side. Therefore, at the end of the war, many of the Tories retired from the United States with the British troops ; those from the North going to Canada and Nova Scotia, and those from the South to the West Indies, Some of them returned, years after- ward, without hindrance, after the angry feelings excited by the war had died away. 268. The Leading Events in the war of the American Revolution were as follows: 1775-6: Principally in New England and Canada. §195 1775: Lexington; American success (April 19). . . 184 Ticonderoga; American success (May 10). . 200 Bunker Hill; British success (June 17) 197 Quebec; British success (December 31). .. . 201 1776: Evacuation of Boston; American success (March 17) 199 Fort Moultrie, S. C. ; American success (June 28) 204 Declaration of Independence, July 4. . 206 1776-7- Principally in the Middle States 210 1776: Long Island; British success (August 27)... 210 Evacuation of New York; British success (September 16) 210 Washington's New Jersey retreat; British success 211 Trenton; American success (December 26). 213 1777; Princeton; American success (January 3). . 213 British army transferred to Chesapeake Bay 216 266. What is said of the American expenses? Of the British expenses? Of the armies on both sides? 267. What laws had been passed by the States? Whither did the Tories retire? Did any of them return? 268. [Locate the places named.] Give the leading events of 1775. Of 1776. The location of the war in 1776-8. The leading events of 1776 in the Middle States. Of 1777, outside of Burgoyne's invasion. Of Burgoyne's invasion in 1777. Of 1778. The location of the war in 1778-81. The leading event of 1778. The leading events of 1779. Of 1780. Of 1781 in the Carolinas. Of 1781 in Virginia. Of 1783. Of 1783, 1783] LEADING EVENTS IN THE WAB. 135 1777-8: Principally in the Middle States § 210 1777: Brandywine; British success (September 11) ''217 Germantown; British success (October 4). . 217 Burgoyue's invasion 219 Bennington; American success (August 16) 221 Bemis Heights; drawn battle (September 19) 223 Stillwater; American success (October 7). . 223 Burgoyne's surrender; American success (October 17) 223 American winter quarters at Yalley Forge. 218 1778 : Treaty with France (February 6) 227 British retreat from Philadelphia; American success (June 18) 229 Monmouth ; drawn battle (June 28) 229 Wyoming; massacre by the British (July 4). 233 1778-81 : Principally in the SoutJiern IStates 245 1778: Capture of Savannah; British success (De- cember 29) 245 1779: Conquest of Georgia; British success 247 • Attack on Savannah; British success (Sep- tember) 345 Stony Point, N. Y. ; American success (July 15) 238 1780: Capture of Chai'leston ; British success (May 12) 248 Conquest of South Carolina; British success 249 Arrival of the French army at Newport, R. I. (July 10) 258 Camden ; British success (August 16) 250 Arnold's treason, N. Y. (September) 239 King's Mountain; American success (Octo- Jber7) 251 Greene takes command in the South 250 1781: Cowpens; American success (January 17). . 252 Greene's retreat across North Carolina 252 Guilford Court-house ; British success (March 15) 254 Hobkirk's Hill; British success (April 25). . 255 Eutaw Springs; British success (Septem- ber 8) 255 End of the war in the South 255 Invasion of Virginia by Arnold and Corn- waHis 256 Washington's army transferred to Virginia 261 Capture of Yorktown; American success (October 19) 262 1782: Suspension of hostilities 263 1783: Peace (September 3) 264 CHAPTER 11. THE CONFEDERATION: 1781-8 269. Alexander Hamilton, of New York, was born in the West Indies in 1757. He was noted for his mental powers from a very eaily age. He had hardly left col- lege when he became aide-de-camp and trusted friend of Washington, and one of the most brilliant of political writers. He was but liiuty-two years of age when he was recognized as the ablest mem- ber of the Federal Convention, and wrote in the Federalist those papers on the Constitution which all lawyers have since taken as masterpieces. He was Washing- Ion's Secretary of the Treasury, and brought the country out of its money troubles. In 1804, he was '-hot and killed, at Weehawken, N J., in a duel which Aaron Burr, ^'~X//^^j@J§^5^^^^T'/y \\\Gi\ Vice-President, had forced . "^ „ ' upon him. Alexander Hamilton. (1) The Failure of the Confederation. 270. The Continental Congress had managed the affairs of the Union throughout the war. It had never received any author- ity to govern the country ; as far as it governed at all, it did so because the mass of the people consented to allow it to govern, and because those who disliked its government were not strong enough to resist it. The people had given authority to their State governments, by forming State constitutions, and thus the State 269. What were the leading events in the life of Hamilton? 270. What is said of the Continental Cong:ress? How did it have the power of governing the country? What was the only direct authority which the pt'ople had given for governing? What were the evils of such a government? How did the power of Congress grow less? How was it that the States were able to seize power? What was the result? 1781] ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION. 137 governments had something to show for their claims to govern their States. Congress had nothing to show ; it only existed be- cause the States had sent delegates to it, and it was hoped that they would continue to do so. Now, such a government was really no government; and, as Hamilton once said, " a nation with- out a national government is an awful spectacle." People obeyed it when they chose to obey it, and disobeyed it when they chose to disobey it, which was more commonly the case; and no one felt safe in thinking of the future. Congress was the only means to unite the States, and for this reason it was obeyed cheerfully as long as the danger from the British was pressing ; but, as that danger grew less, the State governments began to seize more and more of the power, until very little was left to Congress. As the State governments appointed the delegates to Congress, and could recall them at any time, the delegates soon came to do nothing more than obey their State governments. Thus the Continental Congress became almost powerless after 1778. 271. A Plan of Government, called the Articles of Confedera- tion, was agreed upon by (!ongress in 1777. The Articles stated exactly what powers were to be given to Congress, so as to prevent any further interferences by the State governments. They were not to go into force until all the States should agree to them. Twelve of the States agreed within the next two years, but Mary- land refused to do so until March 1, 1781. The Articles of Con- federation then went into force. The cause of this long delay was in disputes about the western territory. Franklin had laid a plan of government before Congress in 1775, but it was not adopted. 272. The Boundaries of the States were a constant source of trouble. The king had given western boundaries to six of them, New Hampsliire, Rhode Island, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Dela- ware, and Maryland ; and these could not expect to extend farther westward. New York claimed to have no western boundary; but was willing to be bounded as at present. The remaining six 271. What plan of government was agreed upon by Congress? What was its object? When was it to go into force? What was the delay in the agreement of the States? What was the cause of it? 272. What is said of State boundaries? Which States had fixed western boun- daries? What is said of New York? Of the remaining six- States? How did the Mississippi River cut off their claims? What did they still cl^inq? 138 WESTERN CLAIMS OF THE STATES. [1781 States, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia, were at first supposed to extend westward to the Pacific (§ 25). When Louisiana (§ 158) was transferred to Spain in 1763, the western claims of these colonies were cut ofi by the Mississippi River. But they still claimed that they extended west as far as the Mississippi. 273. The Claim of Virginia was the most extraordinary of all (§ 83). The other Stales which claimed to extend to the Mississippi were bounded by parallel lines on the north and south, so that they grew no wider as they extended westward. Put Virginia claimed that her northern boundary ran northwest instead of west, so that her territory coustanlly widened as it left the coast. She thus claimed the whole of the territory now in the States of Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Micliigan, and Wisconsin. Tlie claims of Massachusetts and Connecti- cut crossed tliose of Virginia and conflicted with them. 274. These Western Claims seemed unfounded and highly unjust to the States whose western boundaries were fixed already. Those States asserted, first, tliat the king by forbidding the sale of lands west of the Alleghanies had fixed those mountains as a west- ern boundary for all the colonies not formerly bounded ; and, sec- ond, that all the States had together won this western territory from Great Britain, and should all own it together. The result was a general confusion, some of the States selling lands in the west, and quarrelling with each other where their sales conflicted, and the rest of the States crying out against the wrongfulness of such sales. Maryland, the State most determined in resistance, refused to agree to the Articles of Confederation until assurances were given that these western claims would be surrendered. £^5. Land Cessions. — New York gave up her western claims to ihe United States in 1 7 80, and Congress earnestly requested the other States to do likewise. In 1784 Virginia gave up her claim north of the Ohio, Massachusetts in 1785, Connecticut in 1786. South Carolina gave up her western claims in 1787, North Carolina in 1790, and Georgia in 1802. These cessions gave the United States a large western territory (§ 294), Connecticut retained and sold a 273. What is said of the claim of Virgrinia ? How diil it differ from those of other States ? What States did it cover ? What otlier claims crossed it ? 274. How did the other States look on these claims ? Whnt was tlieir first ob- jectioQ ? Their second objection ? What was the result ? What action was taken by Marylanil ? 275. How did land cessions begin ? What other States made cessions ? Wbat is said of these cessions ? Of Connecticut's reserve ^ 1787] 8RAYS'' BEBELLION. 139 large strip of land in northeastern Ohio, along Lake Erie, which has ever since been spoken of as the Western Reserve. Massachusetts also claimed a part of New York, and New York bought off the claim. Counecticut also claimed the northern part of Peunsylvania, the Wyoming settlement, but this claim was given up. 276. The Articles of Confederation were found to be worthless as soon as they were put into effect. There was to be one gov- ernino- body, Congress, and it was to have no power to lay taxes, regulate commerce, or punish law-breaking. It could only advise the States to do so, and the States soon came to pay little attention to the advice of Congress, so that Congress could get no money to pay the debts of the country, or even the interest. Strong States passed laws which injured the people of weaker States, and there was no power to hinder them. Great Britain injured and oppressed American commerce, and Congress had no power to take any means to oblige her to stop her offensive measures. 277. Shays' Rebellion. — The people had expected prosperity to come with peace, but they were bitterly disappointed. Little business was done ; every one was trying to collect debts, and no one had money to pay ; and the people were growing poorer and desperate. In the winter of 1786-7, Massachusetts had great diffi- culty in suppressing an insurrection of the poorer farmers in the western part of the State, around Worcester and Springfield. They wished to stop the further collection of debts by the courts. The affair is usually called Shays' Rebellion, from the name of the leader, Daniel Shays. Other States were afraid of similar out- breaks, and they knew that CongTess had no power to help them. 278. A Change of Goyernment was often proposed, but at first there seemed to be little hope of it. The agreement had been made that the Articles of Confederation were not to be changed in the least unless all the States should consent. Whenever a change was proposed, in order to give Congress more power, some State refused to consent, and the plan fell through. Men became dis- 276. What is said of the Articles of Confederation? Of Cong:ress and its lack of power? Of its inability to get money? Of State laws? Of Great Britain and American commerce? 27V. How had the people been disappointed? What was their condition after the wai ? What is said of Shays' Rebellion and its object? What was the feelins: in other States? 278. What is said of a change of government? What agreement had been made? How did this Ijinder any change of government? What was the general Jpcling? 140 THE FEDERAL CONVENTION. [1787 couraged; many began to regret the Revolution; and some even fell to talking of a monarchy, with Washington as king. This notion of a monaicliy had been proposed to Washington in 1782 by some of the army officers; but he had rejected it with indignation, (2) Formation of the Constitution. 279. The Leading Men of the Country, Washington, Hamil- ton, Madison, and others, were busily writing letters to one another, and comparing views. They all agreed that some new way of forming a government must be tried, and that a convention of State, delegates would do the work better than Con- gress or the State legislatures had done it. The first attempt was made to hold a conven- tion at Annapolis, in 1786, at the call of Virginia; but only five States sent delegates, and nothing was done. The next year brought better success. Congress approved the call for a conven- tion, and twelve States appointed delegates to it, Rhode Island alone refusing. 280. The Federal Conyention met at Philadelphia in May, 1787, and chose Washington, who was a delegate from Virginia, as its presiding ofiicer. Each State seems to have taken care to State-house at Annapolis. 279. What were the leading- meu doing? In what did they agree? What ia aaid of the first attempt to hold a convention? Of the second? What State re- fused to appoint delegates? 280. When and wliere did the convention meet? Who presided over it? What is said of its membership? Of its proceedings? Of tbeir results? When was tb? Constitution to go into force? 1787] TEE CONSTITUTION. 141 send as representatives its ablest men, and the convention must be considered one of the most distinguished bodies of men that ever met. For four months it held meetings, argued, and settled diffi- culties in secret session, and many limes it almost broke up with- out accomplishing anything. Finally, however (September 17, 1787), it agreed upon the Constitution of the United States, and adjourned. The Constitution was to go into force when approved by the conventions of nine States (§ 287). Most of the difBculties came from what were then "small States" — New York, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Delaware, and Mary- land. They wished to give as little power as possible to the general government, for fear it should oppress and injure them. Tliis difHculty was removed by providiug for a Senate, in which each State should have an equal representation, and by making the consent of the Senate neces- sary for the passage of laws. Tne States south of Virginia also wished to continue the slave-trade, and this was agreed to for twenty years. 281. The Constitution provided for a general government which should have power to act, and not to simply advise the States. It was to be in three departments : a legislative depart- ment, or Congress, to make laws ; an executive department, the President and his officers, to carry out and enforce the laws made by Congress; and a judiciary department, the Federal courts, to decide disputed questions under the laws. The Constitution was to be the supreme law of the land, to be obeyed by the general government, State governments, and people. If the laws passed by Congress were disobeyed, the general government was to punish the offence: Congress was to determine the punishment; the President's officers were to arrest the offender; and the Federal courts were to try him. But the punishment was always to be de- termined by Congress, before the offence was committed. 282. The Legislative Department, or law-making power, was given to Congress, composed of two branches, tlie Senate and the House of Representatives. Senators were to serve for six years, and each State, large or small, was to clioose two. Representatives were to serve for two years, and were to be chosen by the States according to population, large States choosing more, and small States fewer. The two Houses together were to lay taxes, borrow money, regulate commerce, coin money, establish post-offices, declare war, raise and support armies and 281. What did the Constitution provide for? What were its three departments? What was to be the supreme law? How were ofifences against it to be punished? When was the punishment to be determined? 282. What is said of the legislative department? Of Senators? Of Represen- tatives? What were the two Houses to do? What were tbe States forbidden to (Jo? What was the effect of the President's veto of a bill? 142 FORMATION OF PARTIES. [1788 navies, and employ militia to suppress insurrections; and the States were now forbidden to do any of these things, except to lay their own taxes, borrow for themselves, and employ their own militia. As a gen- eral rule, a majority of each House was to be enough to pass a law; but, when the President sliould veto (object to) a bill within ten days after its passage, a two-thirds vote of each House was necessary to make it a law (§478). Treaties made by the President were to be approved by two tliirds of the Senate befoie going into effect. 283. The Executive Departmeat, or power to execute the laws made by Congress, w;is given to a President, cliosen for four years by electors whom the people were to choose (§298). He was to be commander-in- chief of the army and navy, and to appoint most of the public olficers: but most of the appointments were not to be good until confirmed by the Senate. If he himself should misbehave, he was to be impeached (accused) by the House of Representatives, and tried by the Senate. If he should be convicted and removed, or should die, resign, or be unable to perform his duties, the Vice President was to take his place, and be- come President. Except in this case, the Vice President was merely to preside over the Senate, without voting, except in case of a tie. 284. The Judiciary Department, or power to interpret the laws made by Congress, was given lo one Supreme Court, and such inferior courts as Congress sliould establish. The judges were to be appointed by the President and Senate, and were to hold office for life, except in case of misconduct. Wiieiiever an offence should be committed against a law of Congress, or whenever the meaning of a law should be in doubt, or whenever it was claimed that the Constitution ^ave Congress no power to pass the law, the cnse was, generally, to be tried first and decided by tbe inferior courts. If eitlier party was dissatisfied with the decision, he could appeal to the Supreme Court, whose decision was to be final. 285. Other Features. — Three fifths of the slaves were to be counted in calculating the population for Representatives. Runaway slaves were to be arrested in the States to which they should flee. Congress was to govern the territory of the United States, and admit new States to be formed from it. Three fourths of the States could change the Constitution by Amendments. Each State was to be guaranteed by the United States a republican form of government. 286. Formation of Parties. — When the Constitution came to be discussed by the people, before the election of the conventions to decide upon it, two opposing political parties were at once formed. The people had hitherto known very little of any gov- 283. What is said of the executive department? Of the President's powers? What was to be done if he sliould misbehave? If he should be removed in any way? What was the Vice-President's usual duty? '284. What is said of the judiciary department? Of the appointment of the judfres? Of the duties of the courts? Of the right of appeal? 285. What part of the slaves was to be counted in population? What is said of runaway slaves? Of the territory of the United States? Of Amendments? What was to he guaranteed to each State? 286. How were parties formed? What change of power was made by the Con- stitution? Who were the Federalists? The A nti- Federalists? How long did the contest last? What is said of the leading men? Of the influence of Washington ttnd Franklin? I 1788] ADOPTION OF THE CONSTITUTION. 143 ernments except those of their States, and the Constitution certain- ly cut down the powers of the States very much in giving power to the Federal Government. Those who felt that the new Federal Government was absolutely necessary took the name of Federalists, and supported the new Constitution. Those who liked the old State governments better took the name of Anti-Federalists, and op- posed the new Constitution. The contest lasted for nearly a year. Most of the leading men were Federalists at this time, and the Anti-Federalists had but two great leaders, Samuel Adams and Patrick Henry, But the final success of the Federalists was main- ly due to the fact that they were supported heartily by Washing- ton and Franklin, in whom the people had great faith. 287. The Adoption of the Constitution was assured by the ratification of the ninth State, New Hampshire, in June, 1788. There were still four States left. Two of them, New York and Virginia, ratified soon afterward ; the other two, Rhode Island and North Carolina, refused to ratify, and the Constitution went into force without their assent. The last two States had issued paper money, and disliked the Constitution, which forbade any State to do so in future. The opposition in other States came from a fear that the new Federal Government was given too much power. To remove this objection, the first ten Amendments to the Constitu- tion were adopted and ratified in 1791 (^ 300). 288. Preparations for Inauguration. — As soon as the ninth State had ratified the Constitution, the Congress of the Confeder- ation appointed March 4, 1789, as the day on which the new gov- ernment should go into operation, and New York City as the place. It also named a day on which the people should choose electors, and another day on which the electors should meet in their States and vote for President and Vice-President. When the votes of the electors were opened and counted, it was found that each of them, sixty-nine in number, had cast one of his two votes for Washington, so that Washmgton became President by a unanimous vote. Thirty-four of the electors had cast their second vote for 287. How was the adoption of the Constitution assured? What was done by the remaining four States? What was the objection in two of them? In most of them? How was this objection removed? 288. Where and when was the new gjovernment to go into operation? How were the President and Vice-President chosen? Wlio was chosen President? Victs* President? What is said of the Congress of the Confederatjojj'if 144 CONDITION OF TEE PEOPLE. [1787 Jolin Adams, and lie became Vice-President, as this was the next largest vote to Washington's. From this time, the Congress of the Confederation did little or nothing further. All men were waiting anxiously to see whether the new government was to be good or bad. The manner of voting for President and Vice-President was slightly- changed in 1804 (§ 324). (3) State of the Country. 289. The Country was still very poorly settled, and the whole of it did not contain as many inhabitants as the single State of New York in 1880. There were hardly any important towns ex- cept on the coast, and none of these were such as we are accus- tomed to call cities. The largest American cities of that time, Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston, had hardly more than 20,000 persons in any of them, and other towns were only small collections of houses. The streets were poorly paved, dirty, and hardly lighted at night. Some of the houses were large and well furnished, but none of them had the conveniences that are so common now. There were no lucifer-matches, no gas, none of the modern oil-lamps, and water was everywhere carried from the town pump or well. The richest people labored under diffi- culties which are hardly known now, and the life of the poor was very hard. The life of the poor man was made still harder than now because of the law of imprisonment for debt. He who owed money and was unable to pay could be arrested and kept in prison, while his wife and children were left to care for themselves as well as they could. 290. The People generally lived outside of the cities, on farms, where life was still harder than in the cities. It was not easy to work with wooden ploughs, and without any of the farming tools and machinery which have since been introduced ; and the farmer who raised more than he wanted found it difficult to sell. Every- thing used by the farmer and his family, even their clothing, was made at home ; and a New England farmer usually spent very 289. What is said of the population of the country? Of its towns and cities? Of the streets? Of the houses? Of their conveniences? Of life in general? 290. Where did most of the people live? What were some of the diflficulties of farming? What did the farm produce? What is said of life in the Middle States and the South? Of life in general in tbe Uoite^ St^teg? 1787] STATE OF THE COUNTRY. 145 little money during the year for things not produced on his farm. In the Middle States and the South life was easier, for crops cost less labor, and were easily sold for ready money ; but even here the farm or plantation grew almost everything that was used. Newspapers and books were very scarce ; there were hardly any amusements, except hunting and fishing ; and life consisted mainly in work and rest. 291. Travelling was slow, difficult, and often dangerous. Along the coast, sailing-vessels were the usual means of travel, and the least difficulty with the wind might delay the traveller for weeks. The voyage from New York to Albany often required two weeks. The stage-coaches were slow and clumsy. They took from two to three days (as many days as the railroad takes hours) to go from New York to Philadelphia, and a week to go from New York to Boston. The roads were exceedingly bad ; there were hardly any bridges ; and the rivers were crossed by means of clumsy and dangerous flat-boats. There was more danger then in a voyage from New York City to Brooklyn or New Jersey than there is now in a voyage of some considerable length. 292. Settlement had not yet spread far from the coast. Be- yond Schenectady, the whole State of New York was still an In- dian hunting-ground. The great coal and iron fields of Pennsyl- vania were almost unknown. Along the coast to the southward, the country was settled only up to the headwaters of the rivers that flow into the Atlantic. Between the Alleghanies and the Missis- sippi, the whole country was a wilderness, excepting the few settle- ments in Kentucky and Tennessee (§160). The northwest was almost entirely an Indian territory ; and Ohio and the present States northwest of it were less known than our Pacific Territories are now. 293. Land Companies led tlie way in the settlement of the northwest. Most of them were made up of former soldiers of the Revohition, who wished to settle in Ohio and found it safer to unite for mutual protection against the Indians. One of the first of these, the Ohio Company, was 291. What is said of travelling? Of sailing-vessels? Of stage-coaches? Of roads and bridges? Of ferries? 292. What is said of settlement in general? In New York? In Pennsylvania? To the southward? Between the Alleghanies and the Mississippi? In the north- west? 293. What is said of land companies? Of the Ohio Company? How did Con- gress give it encouragement? 146 THE ORDINANCE OF 1787. [1787 formed in 1787; and, in order to give it encouragement, llie Congress of the Confederation passed the Ordinance of 1787, which was confirmed by Congress under the Constitution. The company began the settle- ment of Oliio in the following year, at Marietta. Cincinnati, at first called Losantiville, was founded in the same year (1788). 294. The Ordinance of 1787 provided for tte government of the Territory northwest of the Ohio River (§ 275). Slavery was for- ever forbidden in this Territory. All the inhabitants were to enjoy entire religious freedom, trial by jury, and equal political and civil privileges; and common schools wer3 to be supported and en- couraged. The Territory v?as to be governed by persons appointed by Congress while the population was small ; but was to be formed into five States as population should increase. These States were then to govern tliemselves, and to be equal witli the original thirteen States in the government of the United States. This was the ordi- dance (or law) on which have been gradually formed the five pow- erful and growing States of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin. Its provisions have been the rule for other Territories also, except that until 1820 slavery was not forbidden in any other Territory (§426). The people of the United States had had such an unpleasant experience as colonists that they seem to have learned to deal wisely and generously with their own colonists. The result has been that they have had no such difficulties with their western colonists as Great Britain had with her American colonies. SUPPLEMENTAEY QUESTIONS. Locations. — Locate the Mississippi River; the Alleghany Mountains; Worcester, Mass.; Springfield, Mass.; Annapolis, Md.; Pliiladelphia; New York City; Boston, Mass.; Charleston, S. C. ; Albany, N. Y. ; Schenectady, N. Y. Review. — When were the Articles of Confederation agreed upon by Congress? When did they go into force? What State caused the delay? What was tlie year of Shays' Rebellion? Of the Federal Con- vention? Of the adoption of the Constitution? Of the inauguration of the new government? Who was chosen President? Vice President? Name tlie States since formed out of the Northwest Territory? Under what ordinance? 294. For what did the Ordinance of 17S7 provide? What did it provide as to slavery? As to the privileges of the inhabitants? As to tlie government of the Territory? As to the new States? What States have been formed under this ordi- nance? How has it been imitated? How did the United States and Great Britain differ in their treatment of colonists? I LBADINQ EVENTS, 1781-9. 141' 295. The leading Events of this perfod were as follows: 1781-9: The Confederation §270 1781 : The Articles of Confederation go into force 371 1783: Peace with Great Britain 264 1784: Land cession by Virginia 275 1786: The Annapolis Convention 279 Shays' Rebellion 277 ■ 1787: The Federal Convention forms the Constitution. . 280 The Ordinance of 1787 adopted 294 1788: Ratification of the Constitution 287 Settlement begun in Ohio 293 1789: The Constitution goes into force 288 295. In what years did the Confederation begin and end? What were the lead- ing events of 1781? Of 1783? Of 1784? Of 1786? Of 1787? Of 1788? Of 1789? CHAPTER III, WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATIONS: 1789-1797. Gkorse Washington, Va., President. John Adams, Mass., Vice-President. 296. George Waskington, of Virginia, was born February 22, 1732, and died al Mount Vernon, near Alexandria, Va., December 14, 1799 (§ 326). He was in his youth a land-surveyor, but was soon called into the service of his State (§ 145). From that time his life was a part of our history. He was in succession commander-in-chief of the Revolu- tionary armies, President of tiie Federal Convention, and President of the United States. In all these positions it is evident now that the country could not have spared him; and yet he took each of them with the greatest unwillingness, and with the anxious fear that be wovild prove a failure. His political opponents were always dissatisfied that the people would obstinately accept his decision rather than their argu- ments. No man ever received a more confiding affection from his people, or better deserved it. 297. Inauguration. — The new government was to have been organized at New York City, March 4, 1789; but travelUng was so slow and difficult that the members of Congress from distant States did not arrive for several weeks. When a sufficient number of them had arrived, the votes of the electors were counted, and Washington was notified of his election as President. He jour- neyed slowly northward from Virginia to New York City, receiv- ing hearty greetings from the towns on the way ; and was sworn into office, April 30, 1789, by the chief judge of the State of New York, in the presence of Congress and a great number of other spectators. The building (" Federal Hall ") in which Washington was sworn into office was on Wall Street, where the Sub-Treasury now stands. 298. The Electoral System. — The President and Vice-President of the United States are not elected by the people. When we read that 296. Wliat were the leading events in Washington's life? 297. Why was the inauguration delayed? When were the electoral votes counted? What is said of Washington's journey? Of his inauguration? 298. Is the President elected by a majority of the popular vote? How are the electors chosen ? How do they vote? How was the system changed in 1804? What is its disadvantage? What is its advantage? GeORQE WASmNQTOK. 150 CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT. [1789 a candidate has received a majority of several hundred thousand votes for the Presidency, it means nothing; if he receives a majority of the electoral votes, he is elected, even though his opponent should have more popular votes than he. Each State chooses as many electors as it has Senators and Representatives together; and whichever party gains a majority of these electors secures the President and Vice-President. At first, each elector merely named two persons, and the highest two names on the list of those voted for became President and Vice-President. In 1804 (§ 334), this was changed so that each elector votes for one name for President and one for Vice-President. At first, too, the electors voted for whom they chose; but after the first two elections, it would have been considered extremely dishonorable for an elector to vote for any one but the men nominated by his party. The disadvantage of the electoral system is that it is not easy for young people to understand it. Its advantage is that cheating in one State caimot succeed in gain- ing more than the electoral votes of that Slate; if the President were elected by popular vote, frauds in a single State might make its majority large enough to change the whole vote of the country. 299. The Cabinet. — The chief officers of the principal departments are called the Cabinet, though there is no such word in the Constitution, In Washington's time, there were four of these offices, which he filled as follows : Secretary of State, 'I'homas Jefferson (§ 328) ; Secretary of the Treasury, Alexander Hamilton (§ 269) ; Secretary of War, Henry Knox, of Massachusetts ; Attorney-General, Edmund Randolph, of Vir- ginia. The Navy Department was added in 1798 (§ 321); it had pre- viously been a part of the War Department. The Post-office Depart- ment was added in 1829 ; it had previously been a part of the Treasury Department. In 1849, the Department of the Interior was organized (§ 539). In 1870, the Department of Justice was made an independent department. The eighth and last department, that of Agriculture, was added in 1889, so that there are now eight members of the Cabinet. 300. Congress then proceeded to pass the laws necessary to put the new form of government into active operation. This was a work of the greatest difficulty, for everything had to be done anew ; but it was done so skilfully that it has since been necessary to change it very little, except by enlarging its operation. While this work was going on, the new Constitution was ratified by North Carolina in 1789, and by Rhode Island in 1790 (§ 287) ; so that the original thirteen States were now unanimous. Twelve Amendments to the Constitution were proposed by Congress: and ten of them, having been ratified by three fourths of the States, became a part of the 299. What is meant by the Cabinet ? Who composed Washington's Cabinet ? Wliat is said of the Navy Department ? Of the Post-oflfice Department? Of the De- partment of the Interior ? Of the Department of Justice ? Of the Department of Agriculture ? 300. What did Congress proceed to do ? Wliat is said of its work ? Of its con- tinuance ? What States ratified the Constitution ? What Amendments were adopted ? What new States were admitted ? 1791J FIRST LA WS OF CONGRESS. 151 Constitution. Three new States were admitted during Washing- ton's administrations: Vermont in 1791, Kentucky in 1792, and Tennessee in 1796. For the outline liistory of Vermont, see § 69; of Kentucky, § 302; of Tennessee, S 303. TJ)e ten Amendments are in Appendix 11. 301. The Laws passed by the first two Congresses were principally for tlie organization of the government. The three departments, State, Treas- ury and War (§299), were organized in 1789, and the duties of their officers and of the Attorney-General were carefully marked out. Taxes were laid on goods brought into the country, in order to provide money for the sup- port of the government. The United States courts, inferior to the Su- preme Court, were organized, and their powers and duties were declared (60 lou 200 auu Kentucky and Tennessee. (§284). In the next year (1790) a law was passed to pay in full all the debts of the Confederation, and also those of the States. Tiie national capital was fixed for ten years at Philadelphia, and was then to be placed on the Potomac River, where Washington City now stands (§ 325). In the next year (1791), a National Bank was established at Philadelphia, to re- ceive and pay out the money of the goveri-iment. In 1792, a mint was established at Philadelphia, to coin United States money; and laws were passed to improve the workings of the Post-office Department. By this 301. What was the object of the laws of the first two Congresses? What is said of the departments? Of taxes? Of the courts? Of the debt? Of the national capi- tal? Of the National Banli? Of the mint? Of the post-ofifice? What was the re- sult of all these laws? 152 KENTUGKT.—TENNE88EK [1792 time, the wheels of the new government were fairly in motion; and for the first time the people of the United States were really governing themselves. 302. Kentucky was admitted to the Union in 1792. Kentucky had been part of Virginia. The first account of it was given by Thos. Walker, of Virginia, in 1758. In 1769 (§ 160), Boone led the way in settling it. Others followed, and in 1775 settlements were begun at Boones- borough and Harrodsburgh. The settlements were at first merely forts, or a few log-housfs surrounded by a stockade, to keep off the In- dians. Kentucky was the hunting-ground of the northwestern Indians; and they fought fiercely agaiust the while settlers, but unsuc- cessfully. Louisville was founded in 1778, Lexingiou in 1779, and Maysville in 1784. Population grew rapidly, and in 1792, with the consent of Virginia, the "dark and bloody ground " of Kentucky became a sepa- Seal of Kentucky. ^ate State. The Virginia settlers had taken their slaves with them, and thus Kentucky entered the Union as a slave- State. Its population has iucreased from 73,677 in 1790 to 1,858,635 in 1890. Its people have always been engaged mainly in agriculture. Its capital is Frankfort, and its most important city is Louisville, one of the great cities of the Union, having a population of 161,005 in 1890. 303. Tennessee was admitted to the Union in 1796. Tennessee had been part of North Carolina. In 1756, the British built Fort Loudoun, near where Knoxville now stands, and a few settlers ga- thered around it. Troubles in North Carolina, about 1771 (§ 100), drove more settlers over the mountains into eastern Tennessee. These settled along the Watauga and Holston rivers, and formed a government of their own. A few pressed farther on into middle Tennessee, and Nashville was founded in 1784. In the same year, the Tennessee settlers, under the lead of John Sevier, revolted and formed the separate State of Franklin, orFrankland; but North Carolina succeeded in re-establishing her authority. In 1790, she ceded Tennessee to the United States (§ 275); and it was formed into the Southwest Territory. In 1796, it entered the Union as a slave-State. The population of the State has in- creased from 35,691 in 1790 to 1,767.518 in 1890. The Slate is divided into three parts by the Tennessee Eiver and the Cumberland Mountains, which cross it. The leading cities are Nashville (the capital), in middle Tennessee; Memphis, in western Tennessee; and Chattanooga, in east- ern Tennessee. The people are mainly engaged in agriculture; but eastern Tennessee has large mineral resources, which are not yei fully known, and have not been properly developed. Seal op Tennessee. 802. What State was admitted in 1792J' 303. What State was admitted in 1796-° 1792] FORMATION OF PARTIES. 153 304. Political Contest did not occur for some time. The Anti-Federalists (§ 286) had broken up, for the sudden peace and quiet which followed the adoption of the Constitution had silenced all opposition to it. But many of those who had been Federalists began to be alarmed by the strength shown by the new govern- ment. They were anxious to keep the State governments strong and vigorous, for they believed that good government was in most cases surer from the States, each of which best knew the needs of its own people ; and they began to fear that the new Federal Gov- ernment would grow so strong as to destroy the States. About 1792, they took the name of the Republican party. Washington himself tried to be of no party, but was really a Federalist. It was not long before his Cabinet (§299) was divided by the new feel- ing : Jefferson and Randolph became the Republican leaders, and Hamilton and Knox the Federalist leaders. Jefferson and Hamilton were two of the ablest men that our coun- try has yet produced. Hamilton planned most of the laws for organiz- ing the government. 305. The Two Parties were thus the Federal and the Repub- lican parties. Both parties desired good government : the Federal- ists thought that this could best be obtained through the Federal Government ; the Republicans, through the State governments. The Federalists wished the laws to give as much, and the Republicans as little, power as possible to the Federal Government. The Federalists were more numerous in the North, the Republicans in the South. The Federalists were more numerous among the mer- chants, business men, and commercial classes; the Republicans, among the farmers. Finally, the Federalists inclined somewhat toward English ideas of government; the Republicans, a great deal toward France, and the right of all men to share in the govern- ment. When the time came for the second Presidential election, in 1792, the Republicans had not grown sufficiently to contest the election warmly. All the electors again voted for Washington ; 304. What is said of political contest? Of the Anti-Federalists? What was the feeUn^ of many of those who had been Federalists? What name did they take? To which party did Washington belong? How was his Cabinet divided? 305. What were the two parties? How did tliey differ in their desire for good government? For good laws? In their sections? in their membership? In their friendship for foreign countries? What was the state of parting at the Presidei^itiHjJ election of 1793? Wbat was the result of the election? -■■■■■'■■- 154 TEE FRENCH BEVOLUTION [1793 and JoHn Adams, who was a Federalist, received the next largest number, and was re-elected Vice-President. The name Republican was gradually changed, in the next twenty years, to Democratic, which is still the name of the party. The present Republican party, in 1894, is not the original party of that name, but is more like the Federal party. 306. The French ReYolution began in 1789. For more than 150 years, the French kings had ruled by their own will (§ 34). All this time the people of France were dreadfully misgoverned, and were taxed so heavily, for the luxurious support of the king and nobles, that they could hardly find means to live., Afiairs finally became so bad that the king was compelled to call the States General together again, to consult about raising money. When it met, it gradually began to take all the power to itself ; and in the next few years it abolished the former government, drove the nobles out of the country, put the king and queen to death, and engaged in a general war against the neighboring kingdoms of Europe. Great Britain was its principal enemy, and there was very little peace between the two countries until 1815. 307. Genet's Mission. — France, as it was now a republic, ex- pected help in its war against England from the United States. The British navy was far the most powerful in the world, and was able to shut up the French vessels in their own ports; but France hoped to attack her enemy from America. In 1793, the French Government sent a minister. Genet, to the United States, to fit out privateers (§ 241) in American ports against British commerce. It was impossible for the United States to allow this to be done with- out joining in the war against Great Britain, and Wasiiington firmly prevented it. Genet was troublesome and insolent all through the year, and was then recalled by France, at Washington's request. 308. The Whiskey Insurrection. — One of the laws passed by Congress laid a tax on whiskey. The roads in the United States were at that time so bad that the settlers in the western part of 306. When did tbe French Revolution begin ? How had the kings ruled pre- viously ? What was the condition of the people ? Why were the States General called together ? What did it do ? What was the state of affairs between France and Great Britain ? 307. What did France expect? Why did she need help? What minister was orn in 1833, there was no town there; six years afterward. Chioago IK 1830.— Fort Dearborn. it had become tue flourishing town of Chicago, and a line of eight splendid steamers was running to it from Buffalo and Detroit. 457. The Eastern States were growing almost as rapidly as the West, and their cities no longer looked like overgrown villages. A "great fire" in New York City, in 1835, destroyed $20,000,000 worth of property, more than the whole yearly receipts of the Fed- eral Government had been before the war of 1812; but the loss did not permanently injure the city. In the same year. New York City began the construction of the Croton Aqueduct, which was fin- ished seven years afterward, and supplies it with water from a dis- tance of forty miles. Because of the increase of manufactures, new cities, like Lowell and Paterson, were appearing ; and the older cities felt the same influence. 4.56. What is said of the Western States? How were settlements and trade in- creased? What is said of the ^reat western cities? Of the western steamboats? Of the change of Fort Dearborn into Chicago? 457. What is said of the growtli of the Eastern States? Qt the great flrtj ia -New York City? Of the Crotou Aqueduct? Of new cities? 218 TEE NATIONAL DEBT. [1835 458. The Map of the United States in 1835 was very mucli tlie same as at present, east of Pittsburgh, though the cities have since grown far larger, and the railroads more numerous. West of Pittsburgh such cities as Chicago, Milwaukee, Minneapolis, St. Paul, Atlanta, and Montgomery were not yet on the general maps: they were then either small villages or frontier forts. North and west of Missouri, the country was still a wilderness. Beyond the Rocky Mountains, on the Pacific coast, the country belonged to Mexico or to no one, and was still almost unknown (§ 552). 459. The Population of the United States in 1830 was 12,866,- 020, an increase of 3,000,000 in ten years (§ 428), and nearly four times as many as in 1790 (§ 314). In I'ZOO, there had been only 75 post-offices in the United States: in 1830, there were 8,450, more than a hundred times as many. Immigration from Europe had begun, and the steamboats and railroads made it eapy for the immigrants to reach the fertile West. The receipts of tlie Federal Government from the sales of its western lands rose rapidly from $1,000,000 to $25,000,000 a year. 460. The National Debt was all paid off in 1835; and, for the first time in its experience, the Federal Government found that it was receiving more money than it could use. The amount not needed was divided among the States. But the States were as prosperous as the Federal Government. They borrowed and spent money freely foi the construction of railroads and canals ; and, though many of their plans were not wise, they aided immigration and settle- ment. Private prosperity was also gene- ral. The crops were abundant ; manu- factures were increasing ; the banks doubled their number and capital ; and every one seemed to expect to become rich in a day. 461. Arkansas was admitted to the Seal op Arkansas. Union in 1836. 458. What is said of the map of the United States in 1835, east of Pittsburgh? West of Pittsburgh? North and west of Missouri? Beyond the Rocky Moun- tains? 4,59. How had the population increased? The post-offices? What is said of immigration? Of sales of government lands? 460. What is said of the national debt? What was done with the receipts that were not needed? What was done by the States? What is said of private prosper- ity? 461. What State was admitted in 1836? isTille y 60 Ipo Ooiigitiide'West 15 from Wasliingtou 10 1837] ABKAN8A8.— MICHIGAN. 219 The number of States had noH Arkansas was a part of the Louisiana purchase (§ 333). Its first settlement was by the Frencli, in 1685, at Arkansas Post, on the Arkansas River. When Louisiana was admitted as a State, Arkansas became a part of Missouri Territory; When Missouri formed a State government, in 1819, Arkan- sas was made a separate Ter- ritory. Now it was admitted as a slave State. Its popula- tion has increased Irnm 14,255 in 1820 to 1,128,179 in 1890. As yet, its people are mainly engaged in agriculture, though the Slate has gient mineral re- sources, which will be valuable in the future. 462. Michigan was ad- mitted to the Union in 1837 doubled, and was 26. Michigan was the fourth State formed from the Northwest Territory, and slavery was forbidden in it by the Or- dinance of 1787 (§ 294). It had been a sepa- rate Territory since 1805, and would have been admitted as a State several years before 1837 but for a difficulty in settling the boun- dary between Michigan and Ohio. Its first settlement was by the French, in 1668, at Sault Ste. Marie. Detroit, settled 1701, was for a long time almost the only settlement in the Territory (§ 357). Agriculture is a great industry of the people, but not the only one. In the southern peninsula there are great forests which yearly yield millions of feet of lumber. In the northern peninsula are the great copper mines of the United States, and iron mines which rival those of Pennsylvania. Manufactures are also numerous. The popu- lation has increased from 4,762 in 1810 to 2,093,889 in 1890. Its most important city is Detroit (see general map). 463. Education. — Public schools had now been established in almost all the States, and the public-school system had come to be recognized as a necessary part of American life. It was realized that where every man votes, the State must, in self-defence, see 462. What State was admitted in 1837? How many States were then in the Union? 463. What is said of public schools? Of normal schools? Of colleges? Of geo- logical surveys? Seal of Michigan. 220 AMERICAN LITERATURE. [183( that, so far ab possible, every man is taught enough to enable hiin to vote wisely. Massachusetts now made the system still better by beginning the normal-school system, for training public-school teachers. There were at this time 64 colleges in tlie United States. J. Fknimore Cooper. William Cullen Bryant. Washington Irvino. During this period most of the States began geological surveys. They have been followed up by the Coast Survey, and other gov- ernment surveys, until the whole surface of the country has been thoroughly mapped out. 1833] NEWSPAPEB8. 221 464. Newspapers began to change their form about this time. In 1833 appeared the first issue of the New York Sun, the first of the newspapers of small price and large circulation. It was fol- lowed, two years afterward, by the New York Herald, which in- HENRY WADSWORTH LoKGFELLdW. Nathaniel Hawthorne. Kduar Allan Poe. troduced the activity and enterprise in collecting news which niai-k modern newspapers. 464. What is said of newspapers? Of the New York Sun f Of the New York Uerald f 222 AMEBIC AN LITERATURE AFTER 1830. [1830 465. American Literature before 1830. — An English writer had asked, with some contempt, "Who reads an American book?" Tlie question was hardly a fair one, for before 1830 there were American books well worth reading. Bryant, Dana, Halleck, and Drake, the advance-guard of the American poets, iiad made their appearance; Washington Irving had been recognized as a master of prose writ- ing. Fenimore Cooper had published 'The Last of tlw Mohicans ; and Noah Webster had issued tiie first edition of his English dictionary. And yet it must be confessed that American literature before 1830 was still weak. 466. American Literature after 1830. — These eight years of Jackson's administrations were the beginning of a real Ameri- can branch of English Hterature. Three poets made their appear- ance, Whittier (1831), Longfellow (1833), and Oliver Wendell Holmes (1837). Poe was still a Southern magazine editor, but was soon to be recognized as both a poet and prose-writer of genius. Hawthorne published his first important work, Twice- Told Tales (1837). Bancroft published the first volume of his Hktor)/ of the United States (1834). Prescott published his Fer- dinand and Isabella (1837). For music, sculpture, and the drama the country still depended upon foreigners. 467. Political Writing had lost something of the force for which Americans had formerly been remarkable (§ 190). But oratory had improved : Webster was probably the greatest of all the orators that have used the English language ; Clay was not much inferior to Webster ; and Calhoun, though not a great orator, could hardly be surpassed as a master of pure argument (§481). In law, Marshall, Story, and Kent were the best-known names ; but the number of able lawyers was very great. 468. The Washingtonian Movement, the parent of the present tem- perance societies, gained its greatest strength during this period. Drunkenness had been an enormous vice, though no greater in the United Stales than in other countries. It had been considered quite proper for a gentleman to get drunk after dinner, and not very im- proper for a clergyman to own a distillery. New England rum and other strong liquors were expected to be offered to visitors, callers, or workmen; and drunkenness was too common to be good reason for 465. What question had been asked by an English writer? What poets had al- ready appeared? What prose writer? What novelist? What dictionary had ap- peared? 466. What is said of these eight years? What poets appeared? What is said of Poe? Of Hawthorne? Of Bancroft? Of Prescott? Of music, sculpture, and the drama? 467. What is said of political writing and oratory? Of Webster? Of Clay? Of Calhoun ? Who were the leading lawyers? 468. What is said of the Washingtonian movement? Of its pledge? Of itf idea? 1831] THE ABOLITIONISTS. 223 surprise. As a remedy, the Washingtonian societies did not usually demand a pledge of totMl abstinence, as is now the case. But their pledge had the same idea as those of the present temperance societies — the solemn promise of the drunkard to reform, and of others, not drunkards, to set him a good example. 469. The Prisons, in most of the States, had hitherto been conducted on the brutal system which was then common in other countries. One State had used an old copper-mine as a State prison; and most of the States used whipping and torture, under which criminals grew worse. About this time, the penitentiary system was introduced: under it. labor took the place of whipping, and some real effort was made to reform the criminals. The foolish and cruel system of imprisonment for debt also began to be abolished. 470. The Abolitionists. — Negro slavery came in for its first serious attack In 1831, William Lloyd Garrison, a Boston news- paper editor, called for the immedi- ate abolition of slavery ; and those who agreed with him formed an Anti-Slavery Society. They were usually called Abolitionists. Other societies of the kind were formed ; and the South was very much alarmed by these societies, and, in 1831, by an unsuccessful but bloody negro insurrection in Virginia. From this time, the ill feeling be- tween the two sections (§425) grew steadily more angry, until in 1861 it came to open war (§ 652). 471. Indian Difficulties were numerous during this period. The Georgia Cherokees were at last moved across the Mississippi (§ 438). The Indians in Illinois, Wisconsin, and Iowa, led by Black Hawk, revolted, and were only put down after hard fighting, Seminole War. As a result, they gave up most of their 469. What had been the condition of the prisons? What new system was introduced? What other system was abolished? 470. What was the first serious attack on slavery? What name was given to the anti slavery men? What was the effect on the South? On the two sections? 471. What is said of Indian difficulties? Of the Georgia Cherokees? Of the Black Hawk war? What was the main cause of the Seminole war? How did it begin? What were its difficulties? How did it result? 224 FOREIGN AFFAIRS. [1832 lands. The most serious war was with the Seminole Indians, in Florida, who were led by Osceola. Many negro slaves had fled to them from neighboring- States, and the Indians refused to give them up as the price of peace. The war began in 1835, with the massacre of Major Dade and about 100 men, near the Withlacoo- chee River, and lasted for about seven years. The Indians took refuge in the swamps and Everglades, where it was very diflS- cult for the soldiers to find them. Nevertheless, they were beaten m many small battles, and in one great battle, by Taylor, near Lake Okechobee; and finally they, too, were removed beyond the Mis- sissippi. Osceola was taken prisoner treacherously, in the second year of the war, while he was carrying a flag of truce. He was then imprisoned in a fort until his death. 472. In Foreig'n Affairs, the Federal Government was able to take a firmer tone than it had ever done before. For thirty years it had been endeavoring to obtain payment from France for injuries done to American commerce (§ 320). France was slow in paying; and President Jackson recommended to Congress, without any ap- pearance of anger, that enough French vessels should be captured to make up the amount due. France was exceedingly angry, and threatened war unless the President would apologize, which he positively refused to do. Peaceful feeling was restored by the mediation (§ 403) of Great Britain ; and France then paid the amount due. Similar claims were then promptly paid by Portugal and other nations ; and it has never since been difficult for the govei'nment of the United States to obtain respect and attention to its claims against other nations. The United States has since been able to accomplish the settlement of such claims by arbitration; that is, by umpires (^ 855). 473. This Period of eight years was, as will have been seen, one of the most important in the history of the United States. It was like the opening of spring, when everything leaps into growth. From that time, the people of the United States have been growing in wealth, but not in wealth alone. They have grown in education, 472. What is said of foreign aflfaiis? What were the claims against France? What course was recommended by the President? What was the effect? How was peaceful feeling restored? What was the effect on other nations? 473. What is said of this period? Of the subsequent growth of the peopl*!? Wbat may be said of thepi? 1832] POLITICAL AFFAIRS. 225 in morals, and in all those tilings that make a people more kindly and useful to the world. Their public-school system, their prison arrangements, and many of their other experiments have been imi- tated by other nations. They have failed in some things, but in all things it may be said with truth that they have done what they oould. Supplementary Questions. Locations. — Locate the Ohio River; tlie Mississippi River; Lake Erie; Lake Michigan ; Lowell, Mass.; Palersou, N. J.; Pittsburgh, Pa.; Clii- cago, 111. ; Milwaukee, Wis. ; Minneapolis, Miuu. ; St. Paul, Minu. ; At- lanta, Ga. ; Montgomery, Ala. ; Detroit, Mich. ; the Wilhiacoochee River, Fla. ; the Everglades, Fla. ; Lake Okechobee, Fla. Review. — What inventions can you name which came into use in this period? What States were admitted to the Uiiiou? What poets appeared? What historians? Who were the great orators of the coun- try? The great lawyers? What great Indian war marked this period? (2) Political Affairs. 474. President Jackson was a man of great natural powers of mind. He was uneducated and had violent passions ; but he was absolutely honest and sincere, and did not know what fear or hesi- tation meant. When he believed that anything was doing harm to the people, he struck at it as if it were an enemy of his own, re- gardless of the feelings of his opponents, who were just as confi- dent that they were right in tlieir views. He was far more anxious to crush opposition than to convince and convert his opponents. It thus came about that the political history of these eight years was one of almost continuous excitement; and Jackson's friends and enemies accused one another of almost every crime imaginable. The four principal enemies attacked by Jackson were the former office-holders, the United States Bank, the " American System," and the Southern nullificationists. These were only the four principal struggles. The smaller political contests of these eight years were so many and so angry that it would need a volume to tell of them. 475. Office-Holders under the United States — postmasters, clerks, marshals, and others — had not hitherto been expected to take 474. What is said of Jackson's powers of mind? Of his education and charac- ter? How did political contest come to be especially bitter during this period? Name the four principal enemies attacked by Jackson. 475. What is said of the duties of office-holders hitherto? What was done by Jackson? What is said of the eflfects? S26 THE BANK OF THE TTNITED STATES. [1832 part in political contests. They did their work for the United States, and were paid for it. Jackson began by removing all the office-holders who were not his supporters, no matter how faithful they had been as public servants. Since then, every new adminis- tration has done the same thing. It has come to be generally seen that the effects on the public service are exceedingly bad, and hopeful efforts are now making to stop it (§ 910). 476. The Bank of the United States (§411) was, in Jackson's opinion, a most objectionable institution. He believed that the government's revenues, which were deposited in the Bank, were used for the enrichment of its managers, to the injury of the people ; and that the Bank tried to punish or reward public men in and out of Congress for opposing or helping it. He therefore declared war on the Bank, and stated his opinion of it very plainly in his Messages to Congress. His supporters sided with him, and the country was soon divided by the question of " Bank or no Bank." 477. A New Charter for the Bank was passed by Congress in 1832. Jackson vetoed it, and the friends of the Bank in Congress were not numerous enough to pass the charter over the veto (§ 478). The next year, he ordered the Secretary of the Treasury to cease depositing the public revenues in the Bank; and now the friends of the Bank in Congress were not numerous enough to forbid this " removal of the deposits." Little by little, Jackson gained a ma- jority in Congress ; and when the twenty years of the Bank's first charter came to an end (in 1836), it ceased to exist as a govern- ment institution. This was the longest and severest struggle of Jackson's Presidency, and he came out of it in triumph. The public revenues were now deposited in various State banks, selected by the Secretary of the Treasury (§ 499). 478. The Veto Power of the President is his power to object to bills before tliey become laws (§ 282). Wlien tbe President vetoes a bill, a vote of two thirds in its favor in each House is needed to make it a law; and this is generally not easy to obtain. Former Presidents bad not used the veto power often : .Jackson used it freely, and his use of it seemed to bis opponents most unfair and tyrannical. 476. What is said of the Bank of the United States? What did Jackson believe? What did he do? How did this divide the country? 477. What is said of the new charter? Of the veto? Of the removal of the deposits? Of Jackson's final victory? What was done thereafter with the public revenues? 478. What is the veto power? What vote does it make necessary? Had the veto power been used as freely by foririer Presidents? 1832] THE president's OPPONENTS. 227 479. The American System of high tariffs and internal improve- ments (§441) also seemed to Jackson highly objectionable. He believed that it gave Congress too much money to spend ; that it made Congress extravagant and wasteful in its expenditures ; and that it took money uselessly out of the pockets of the people for the benefit of a single class, the manufacturers. But, instead of attack- ing the tariff, he used the veto power against a number of bills ap- propriating money for internal improvements, and they generally failed to become laws. In this contest, also, the President was finally successful in obtaining ■ the support of a majority of the people and of Congress. 480. The President's Opponents were mainly the former National Republicans (§ 445), now led by Clay and Webstei They supported the Bank and the American System, because they believed them to be of the highest advantage to the country. They supported the Bank mainly because it had branches in every State, and its notes were good all over the country. Without the Bank, there was then, except gold and silver, no money which could be used in every part of the United States. They supported the American System as profitable to the country (§432). They felt that they were as honest in their beliefs as Jackson was in his, and that he had no right to speak of them and their plans in the terms which he was in the habit of using. It is very probable that Jack- son had warmer friends and bitterer enemies than almost any other President. 481. Henry Clay was born in Virginia in 1777. He studied law, and removed to Kentucky, where he soon rose to distinction. He was sent to the United States Senate for a year in 1806 and 1810. He was a member of the House of Representatives, 1811-14, 1815-20, and 1823-5, during most of which time he was Speaker. He was Secretary of State under John Quincy Adams, and United States Senator, 1831-42 and 1849-52. He was a candidate for the Presidency three times, in 1824, 1832, and 1844; but was each time defeated. He held a high rank as an orator, but was still more successful in gaining the hearts of his follow- ers. "Harry of the West" was almost worshipped by his party (§ 491). He died July 29, 1852. Daniel Webster was born in New Hampshire in 1782. Heljecame a lawyer, and was a member of the House of Representatives, 1813-17. 479. What is said of the American System? What did Jaclcson believe? What did he do? What was the result? 480. Who were Jackson's principal opponents? Why did they support the Bank? Why did they support the American System? How did they feel toward Jackson? 481. What were the leading events in the life of Clay? Of Webster? Of Cal- aoun? 228 WEBSTER.— CALHOUN.— CL A Y. [1832 He thea removed to Boston, and was a member of flie House of Repre- sentatives from Massacliuselts, 1833-7, and United tSi.ites St-nator^ 1827-41 and 1845-50. He was Secretary of State under Tyler, 1841-3, and Fillmore, 1850-2. He died at Marshfield, Mass., ia 1852. He was the srreatest of our orators; some think, tlie greatest orator that has yet lived. His speech in the Senate in 1880, in reply to Hayiie, the advo- cate of Nullitication, made " Blacic Dan," a name brouglit upon him by the darkness of his complexion, the great man of the North untd Ihe troul)lous times of 1850; then he was suspected of bidding for Ibe Southern vote for the Presidency, and fell back from his place of leader. Daniel Webster. John C. Calhoun. Henry Clay. John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina, was born in 1782, studied law, and ivas a member of the House of Representatives (Democrat). 1811-(7. He was Secretary of War under Monroe. 1817-25, Vice-President, 1825-33, and United States Senator, 1883-50, except the year 1844-45, when he was Secretary of State under Tyler, He died at Washington in 1850. His chief energies were devoted to the advocacy of State sov- ereignty (§485). Though he was not a great orator, fie was famous for his skill in arransmg his arguments, so that he was an exceedingly dangerous opponent. In this respect, he stands above others who were greater orators than he. 1832J BE-ELEGTION OF JACKSON. 229 482. An Anti-Masonic Party had grown up in New York and the neighboiiug States. It believed that, in 1826, the society of Freema- sons had curried away and raurdere(l a citizen of New York, named William Morgan, who had revealed its secrets; and it opposed the elec- tion of any Freemason to office. Both Jackson and Clay were Free- masons, and the new party opposed them both. It disappeared after the election of 1833. 483. The Presidential Election in 1832 took place in the midst of the excitement which followed Jackson's veto of the new charter of the Bank (§ 477). The National Republicans, who sup. ported the Bank, nominated Clay for President, and John Seu geant, of Pennsylvania, for Vice-President. The Democrats, who opposed the Bank, nominated Jackson for President, and Martin Van Buren (§ 495) for Vice-President. They had lost confidence in Calhoun, the late Vice-President, who had become a leader of Nullification (§ 487), and took Van Buren instead of him. After an angry contest, the Democrats were successful, and Jackson and Van Buren were elected. Out of 288 electoral votes, the Democratic candidates received 219, the National Republicans 49, and the Auti-]\Iasonic candidates 7. Soutii Carolina's 11 votes were cast for candidates of her own. 484. The South had not ceased its opposition to a high tariff (§443). When a new protective tariff was adopted (in 1832), this feeling grew stronger tlian ever. It was strongest in South Carolina, where Calhoun was an honored and trusted leader. He argued that the Constitution gave Congress no power to enact a protective tariff; that such a tariff was contrary to State rights; and that each State ought to protect its citizens from it. 485. State Sorereignty. — It has been finally settled that the Union rests on the support of the whole nation, divided into States out of necessity ; that it is right, just, and most wise to respect the equal rights of the States, as most excellent instruments of good government ; but that the national government in its allotted sphere has the right to compel all persons to obey its laws, in spite of State laws, and to prevent any State from leaving the Union, But it was 482. What is said of the An ti -Masonic party? Why was it formed? What be- came of it? 488. WhntiBsaid of the Presidential election in 1832? Who were nominated by the Nationnl Republicans? By the Democrats? Why was not Calhoun nomi- nated hv the Democrats? How did the election result? 484. What was the feelins: in the South in regard to the tariff? How was the feeline increased ? Where was it strongrest? 485. What do we believe as to the Union? As to the States? As to the national Jrovemment? What was the doctrine of State sovereignty? 230 NULLIFICATION. [1832 the general belief in the South that the Union rested entirely on the support of the States ; that each State was altogether its own mas- ter; and that each State stayed in the Union only because it cliose to do so. This was the doctrine of State Sovereignty (§ 928). It was often called State Rights, but very improperly. 486. Secession. — Of course, it followed from the doctrine of State sovereignty that, if any State believed its people to be un- bearably wronged by the Union, it had the right to secede, or withdraw, from the Union. This was the doctrine of Secession. It was upheld by most men in the South, even by those who had not the slightest desire to put it in force. They would argue, work, and vote against secession ; but, if their State should vote to secede, they would have admitted the right to do so, and would have feh. bound to " follow their State" (§ 662). 487. Nullification. — Calhoun, like most other Southerners, be- lieved in State sovereignty and the right of secession, but loved the Union, and did not wish to have any secession. To prevent it, he proposed that his State, still remaining in the Union, should de- clare that it had never given the Federal Government the power to pass any protective-tariff law, should declare the law null (without force) in South Carolina, and should forbid her citizens to obey it or pav the duties. This was called Xullifioation. It was adopted bv South Carolina, but the other Southern States took no part in it. 488. Action of South Carolina. — Late in 1832, South Carolina called a convention which declared the tariff law null and void, forbade the collection of the duties at Charleston or any other port in the State, and threatened to secede if the law was enforced. It also took steps to prepare an army for resistance. 489. The President disliked the tariff law as much as Calhoun did, and he was then trying to have it repealed. But he had sworn to enforce it, while it was a law ; and he had no notion of yielding to the nulliticationists. He sent a naval force to occupy Charleston harbor, and collect the duties from any vessels entering it. He 4S6 "What was the doctrine of secession? What was the feeling in the South in reeard to it? .^.^ 4S7. What was Calhoun's feeling? What course did he propose? What name was siven to it? What State adopted it? 4SS. What was done bv the South Carolina convention? 4S9. How did the President feel in regard to the tariflf ? Why did he enforce it? How did he collect the duties? What proclamation did he issue? What was its effect? 1836] VAN BUBEN ELECTED PRESIDEXT. 231 issued a proclamation, warning the people of Soutli Carolina that he intended to enforce the law at all hazards, and that blood would flow if they should resist it. All men knew that Jackson meant exactly what he said, and the warning was taken. It was agreed in South Carolina to "suspend" nullification until after the adjourn- ment of Congress. 490. Confess had no desire to push South Carolina to extremes, and many of its members who disliked protection made the nulli- fication difficulty an excuse to vote against the tariff. A new tariff act, the "Compromise Tariff," was passed (in 1833), under which the duties were to be diminished every year untU 1842. South Carolina claimed this as a victory, and repealed her ordinance ot nullification. This was the last time that nullification was at- tempted by any State ; the next effort was a secession bv a num- ber of States in 1861 (^'656). 491. The Whig Party of England had been distinguished, among other things, for its opposition to the king. About 1833 the name of Whigs was adopted by Jackson's opponents, because they considered him a tyrant, who used the favor o' the people to make himself in fact a king, without any regard to Congress or the laws. The name was taken by the supporters of the Bank and the American System, and by the Southern nullifiers, who felt Jack- son's proceedings as an attack on themselves. 492. The Presidential Election in 1836 resulted in an easy victory for the Democrats. They nominated Yan Buren (§ 495) for President, and Richard M. Johnson, of Kentuckv, for Vice- President. The Whigs were in great confusion, and made no nominations. Clay was their real leader; but many of them thought Harrison (§513) a better candidate; others preferred Webster ; and Southern Whigs preferred Hugh L. White, of Ten- nessee, or other candidates. Out of the 294 electoral votes, Yan Buren received 170, Harrison 73, White 26, Webster 14, and W. P. Mangum 11 (? 298). Xo one received a majority of votes for Vice- President7 and Jolinson was chosen by the Senate. 490. What was the feeling in Congress? What act was passed:- What was its effect ■? 491. What is said of the Whisr partv of England? Why was it adopted in the United States? By whom was it adopted? 492. Hon did the Presidential election result in 1836? Who wpre the Demo- cratic candidates? What was the condition of the AVhigs? Who were their lead- ers? Who were elected? 232 LEADING EVENTS, 1829-37. 493. The Successes of the President were thus complete. He had won all his political battles. He had kept his oath that, "by the Eternal," he would put down nullification and maintain the Union, He had driven Calhoun and his friends out of the Democratic party. He had driven the Bank of the United States almost out of existence. He had succeeded in making Van Buren, who had supported him in all his struggles. President. He had succeeded in making Taney, who had supported him in his strug- gle with the Bank, Chief Justice. At the end of his second term, having beaten all his enemies, and rewarded all his friends, Jackson retired from public life to his home in Tennessee. Supplementary Questions. liocations. — Locate the State of South Carolina; Charleston, S. C. Review. — Give the years in which Jackson's terms began and .,flded. The names of the Vice-Presidents. What new charter was passed by Congress in 1833? How did Jackson defeat it? Give the year of the removal of the deposits. Who proposed Nullification? In what year? In what year was the Compromise Tariff Act passed? Name the two parties that were in existence at the end of Jackson's second term. 494. The Leading Events of Jackson's administrations were as fol- lows: 1829-1833: Jackson's First Term § 448 1830: General removal of office-holders 475 1831 : Abolition of slavery proposed 470 1832: Black Hawk War 471 Bank charter vetoed 477 New protective-tariff act passed 484 Nullification 487 1833: Compromise Tariff 490 1833-1837: Jackson's Second Term 483 1833 : Removal of the deposits 477 First American locomotive 450 1834: McCormick's reaping-machine 455 1835: Great fire in New York City 457 Seminole War begins 471 1836: Anthracite coal used in steamboats 453 Screw propeller invented 454 Arkansas admitted 461 1837: Michigan admitted 462 493. What is said of the successes of the President? How had he beaten riilli- flcation? Calhoun? The Bank? How had he rewarded Van Buren? Taney? How did lie retire? 494. What were the years in which Jackson's first term began and ended? The leading event of 1830? Of 1831? Tlie leading events of 1832? Of ia33? What were the years in which Jackson's second term began and ended? The leading ^.veuts of 1834? Of 1835? Of 1836? Of 1837? CHAPTER X. VAN BURENS ADMINISTRATION: 1837-41. ilARTtN Van Buren, N. Y., President. R. M. Johnson, Ky., Vice-President /" -'/^-^ f^ "0 495. Martin Van Buren, of New York, was born in 1783, studied law, and was elected to various State oftices by the Democratic par- ty. He was United States Senator, 1831-8, governor for three months, 1838-9, and Secretary of State under Jackson, 1839-31. His opponents in the Senate rejected liis nomination as minister to England in 1833, wliereupon he was elected Vice- President, and presided over tlie Senate until 1837. He was elected President in 1836, but was defeated in 1840. He was not nominated by the Democrats m 1844, and was the Free-soil candidate for President in 1848, but was defeated (§ 579). He died in 1863. 496. Wildcat Banks.— Dur- ing Jackson's straggle with tlie Bank of the United States, many Martin Van buren. new banks had been formed in various States, generally with little or no capita] to pay the notes which they issued. They bought large quantities of cheaply printed bills. As these bills had cost them very little, they coukl afford to offer a higher price in paper money for lands in distant States and Territories than others could afford to offer in gold and silver. Having bought the lands for this worthless money, the wildcat bankers sold them for good money/hoping that their own bills would not soon find their way back for payment. If they were disappointed in this hope, the bank 495. What were the leading events in the life of Van Buren? 496. What new banks had been formed? How did they pass off their notes? How did this affect the government? 234 THE SPECIE CIBCULAB. [1836 "failed," and the managers started a new one. Very many of these wildcat bank-notes were paid to government agents in the West for the public lands which the government wished to sell at a low price to settlers. Such "wildcat" banks were a deliberate fraud upon the people, on whom all the losses fell. They cannot exist at present, while the national banking law is in force (§725). A national bank cannot issue notes until it has deposited bonds at "Washington with which to pay them, if necessary; and all other banks that issue bills are taxed out of existence. 497. The Specie Circular was issued by the government in 1836. It ordered government agents to take only gold and silver in payment for lands. Wildcat bank-notes were now of no use in the West, and began to be sent back for payment. The banks had not the money with which to pay them. When the more honest of the bankers began to try to raise money by offering what property they had at lower prices, they threw business into confusion. Prices (in paper money) had been high. As prices fell, every one became frightened and anxious to sell before prices should fall quite to the bottom. Thus every one wanted to sell, and nobody cared to buy. Business men everywhere became con- tinually more frightened as they found themselves unable to pay their debts to others, or to get payment of what others owed them. Such a state of affairs is called a panic, and is a terrible experience for a country in which it occurs. 498. The Panic of 1837 began just after Van Buren's inaugu- ration, and lasted for more than a year. The banks suspended specie payments; that is, they declared that they had not the gold to pay their notes. Men who had been rich were made poor in a day ; and a pile of bank-notes became as worthless as so much waste paper. There was hardly any work to be had; and men who had not before been rich suffered distress, and sometimes starvation. During the first two months of the panic, the business failures in New York City alone amounted to more than $100,- 000,000. 499. The Federal Government, which had lately had so much 497. What is meant by the Specie Circular? How did it affect the new bank- notes? What was the effect on banks and business? What is meant by a panic? 498. How long did the panic of 183'^ last? What was done by the banks? What was the effect on rich men? On others? What is said of failures in New York City? 1840] TEE 8UB-TREA8UBT SYSTEM. 235 money that it was compelled to divide a part of it among the States (§ 460), could now get no money at all. All its revenues had been deposited in the State banks (§477) ; and these banks were unable to pay them over. President Van Buren called a special session of Congress. It passed a law allowing the Treasury to issue its own notes to the amount of $10,000,000, and this gave the government some relief. The Whigs urged the establishment of a new United States Bank, as the best means of avoiding any such difficulties for the future ; but Van Buren and his party resisted the demand steadily, and proposed an entirely new plan, called the Sub-Treasury System. 600. The Sub-Treasury System provided that the public rev- enues were not to be deposited in any bank. They were to be kept by the collecting officers, who were to pay over the money in their possession when ordered by the Treasury Department at Washington. They were to give bonds ; that is, legal promises by responsible men to make good any loss of money by the collecting officers. For about three years, it was not possible to get a major- ity of both Houses of Congress to make this a law. In 1840, it became a law, and the government was cut loose from banks. The Sub Treasury law was repealed by the Whigs in 1841 (§515), re-established by the Democrats iu 1846 (§ 540), and is still la force. 501. Repudiation. — Many of the States had borrowed money for internal improvements (§ 460) ; and they now found it difficult to pay their debts. Some of them refused to pay altogether ; and, as States cannot be sued by private persons, this " repudiation" of their debts was successful. Some of the repudiating States after- ward paid their debts, when they became more prosperous. 502. The Population of the country in 1840 was 17,069,453, an increase of more than 4,000,000 in ten years (§459). In spite of the panic, there were very many evidences of real growth and prosperity among the people. After the first effects of the panic passed over, business settled down to firmer foundations. Railroad 499. What was the difficulty of the Federal Government? Why? What was done by the President? By Coiigrress? What did the Whigs propose? What did Van Buren and his party propose? 50C. What did the Sub-Treasury system provide? How did it become law? 501. What were the difficulties of some of the States? What is meant by " re- pudiation"? Were the debts ever paid? 502. What is said of the increase of population? Of the grt^wth and prosperity pf the country? Of the railroad system? 336 THE ABOLITIONISTS. [1840 building had gone on steadily, and in 1841 there were nearly 4,000 miles in operation. 503. Inventions. — Goodyear, in 1839, patented his plan of " vulcan- izing" India-rubber, by wbicli it was made hard enough to resist wear and tear, and to be moulded into the iiinuuierable articles for which it is now used. In the same year, W. F. Harndeu began carrying parcels between Boston and New York. Out of this little enterprise have since grown all the great express companies which now do such excellent service. 604. The Abolitionists (§ 470) were preaching against negro slavery more zealously than ever. They were not allowed to enter the slave States, but their books and newspapers went there and excited the most intense anger. Southern governors and legisla- tures tried to get possession of leading Abolitionists, in order to punish them; and Southern speakers and newspapers began to declare plainly that their section would not remain long in a Union in which men were allowed to stir up the negroes to rebellion (§ 649). In the North, people as yet cared very little about slavery, considering it a matter for which the Southern States alone were responsible. But they felt angry that these few Aboli- tionists shoul,d make strife between North and South, and disliked the Abolitionists as much as the Southerners disliked them. 605. Slavery Riots were common for a time in the North, whenever an Abolitionist meeting was announced. The Abolition- ist speakers were mobbed, pelted with stones and eggs, and chased awav. In one of these riots, at Alton, in Illinois, one of the lead- ing Abolitionists, named Lovejoy, was killed. In another, in Phila- delphia, a large hall, called Pennsylvania Hall, built by the Aboli- tionists, was destroyed. But, toward the end of this period, the Abolitionists became more numerous, and the riots became less common. Besides, Congress had done a very foolish thing, which roused more Northern sympathy for the Abolitionists. 606. The Rig'ht of Petition is looked upon as a very sacred thing. Congress is not bound to obey any petition that may be offered to it; but every man feels that Congress is bound to receive any respectful petition that is offered to it, from any per- 605. What is said of Goodyear's patent? Of Harnden's express? 504. What is said of the Abolitionists? How did they reach the South? What was the effect in the South? In the North? 50.5. What is said of slavery riots? At Alton? At Philadelphia? Why did they become less common? 606. How is the right of petition regarded? Why did Congress refuse to re- ceive Abolitionist petitions? What was the effept in the North? Sow was the mat ter settled? 1840] TEE MORMONS. 237 son, or on any subject. The Abolitionist petitions were very disagreeable to Southern members, and Congress decided not to receive any more of them. This decision was disliked by the people of the North, even by those who did not favor the Aboli- tionists. Great numbers of petitions to change the decision poured in upon Congress ; and, after a struggle of four years. Congress decided to receive any petitions that were sent to it. 507. The Mormons began to be a source of trouble about this time. They were followers of a man named Joseph Smith, who had given them what he called a new Bible. They regarded him as a prophet, and Christians as heathens. At first, they gathered into a settlement near Independence, in western Missouri, where they made themselves unpleasant to their neiglibors, and were driven away by mobs. They then settled at Nauvoo, in Illinois, near Burlington, Iowa. Here they became still more annoying to their neighbors, and began to teach that a man may have anv number of wives at the same time. In 1844, Smith was shot by a mob, and the Mormons moved away from Nauvoo to Utah (§628). 508. Canada was the scene of a rebellion against the 13ritisli Government m 1837. Many persons in the State of New York were inclined to help the Canadian Patriots, as they were called, and endeavored to cross into Canada, near Niagara Falls, for that purpose. President Van Buren took care that all such attempts should b 3 stopped ; and nothing was done by the United States of which Great Britain could rightfully complain. 509. The Boundary of Maine, in its eastern and northern por- tions, had never been exactly settled. There was a strip of land which was claimed by Maine and by New Brunswick ; and about this time the two parties became so angry that affairs looked war- like. Forts were built, and troops sent to the disputed territory. General Scott (§ 562) was sent to the spot by the President ; and he managed to keep the peace until the matter was settled by treaty in 1842 (§519). 510. Political Affairs in 1840 took an unusual turn. The 507. Wliat were the beliefs of the Mormons? Where "'as their first settlement' Their second settlement? What new doctrine did they teaeli? What happened in 1844? ^' 608. What happened in Canada in 1837? What attempts were made in New York? What was done by President Van Buren? 509. What is said of the disputed boundary of Maine? How far did the dispute go? How was it settled? 510. What business troubles influenced the election of 1840? What effect did they have? What did the Whigs yiuiui&o); 238 HABBI80N ELECTED PRESIDENT. [1840 panic of 1837 had passed by, but raany of its effects remained; and a smaller panic took place just before the election of 1840. In such times of business trouble, many persons are likely to vote against the party in power ; and the Whigs promised general prosperity if their candidates were elected. 511. The Presidential Election in 1840 was a singular con- test. The Democrats renominated Van Buren and Johnson. The Whigs nominated Harrison and Tyler (§513). Americans are apt to like a candidate who has been poor and has worked his way to prominence by honesty and trustworthiness; and the Whigs managed to excite a great popular enthusiasm for Harrison. They ouilt large log-cabins, such as he had lived in, and gathered in them to make speeches, drink hard cider like Western settlers, and sing songs about Tippecanoe (§ 350). Their public meetings were measured by the acre, and their processions by the mile. The Democrats could excite no such feeling about Van Buren, and Harrison and Tyler were elected. The Abolitionists, or Liberty party aiso nominated candidates, but only a very few persons voted for them. Out of 294 electoral votes, Harrison and Tyler received 284, and the Democratic candidates 60 (§298). 512. The Leading Events of Van Buren's administration were as follows: 1837-41: Van Buren's Term § 495 1837: The panic begins 498 The Alton riot 505 The Patriot rebellion in Canada 508 1838 : Repudiation of State debts 501 The Philadelphia riot 505 Abolition petitions refused hy Congress 506 1839: Mormons settle at Nauvoo 507 Boundary dispute in Maine 509 1840: Sub-Treasury law passed 500 Supplementary Questions. Locations. — Locate Alton, 111. ; Philadelphia, Pa. ; Burlington, Iowa; Niagara Falls; the State of Maine; the Province of New Bruns- wick. Review. — Give the years in which Van Buren's term began and ended. The name or the Vice-President. The year of the panic. Of the Patriot war in Canada. Of tlie passage of the Sub-Treasury law 611. Who were the Democratic candidates in 1840? The Whi^ candidates? De- scribe the way in which the Whigs managed their campaiga What was the result? What is said of the Liberty party? 612. What were the years in which Van Buren's term begar and ended? T'fl leading events of 1837? Of 1836? Of 1»39? Of 1840? CHAPTER XI. HARRISON'S AND TYLER'S ADMINISTRATIONS: 1841-5. Wm. H. Harrison, O., President. John Tyler, Va., Vice-President and President. 513. "William H. Harrison was born in Virginia in 1773. He became a captain in the United States army, and settled in the Northwest Terri- tory in 1797. He was governor of Indiana Territory, 1801-13, and major-general in the army, and took a leading part in the war of 1812 (§350). He was a representative in Congress, 1816-19, United States William Henry Harrison, John T\ler. Senator, 1825-8, and minister to Colombia, 1828-9. In 1840, he was elected President, but died soon after his inauguration, in 1841. John Tyler, of Virginia, was born in 1790, studied law, and was elected representative in Congress (1816-21), governor (1825-7), and United States Senator (1827-36). All this time he had been an ardent State-sovereignty Democrat, and only called himself a Whig because he supported i'le nulliflcationists of South Carolina against Jackson. The Whigs nominated him for Vice-President in 1840, in order to get South- ern votes; and, at Harrison's death, they found that they had really made a Democrat President. Tyler became a member of the Confede- rate Congress in 1861, and died in 1862. dl3. What were the leading events in the life of Harrison? Of Tyler.' 240 TYLER SUCCEEDS TO TEE PRESIDENCY. [1841 514. President Harrison called a special session of Congress to consider the financial needs of the country. Before it could meet, Harrison died suddenly, April 4, 1841, only a little more than a month after las inauguration. Vice-President Tyler thus became President. He had only been a Whig because of his oppo- sition to Jackson (§ 480) ; and he was known to be opposed to most of the measures which the Whigs desired. They had nominated him to get votes in the South, and now found themselves opposed by the troublesome veto power of the new President (§ 4V8). 515. Congress met in May, 1841. The Whigs had in each House a majority to pass laws, but not large enough to defeat the veto. They began by repealing the Sub-Treasury law (§ 500), and Tyler allowed the repeal to become law. They then passed two acts to establish a National Bank, but Tyler vetoed them both. No more was done at this session in this matter, and no serious attempt has ever since been made to establish a single great National Bank, though a national banking system has been estab- lished (§ 496, note). 516. Tlie Wliigs were exceedingly indignant at the conduct of the President, but could do nothing. The members of the Cabinet resigned, except Webster, who was negotiating a treaty with Great Britain (§ 518). For the first two years of this administration, the Whig majority in Congress did little more than quarrel with Tyler. Then the Democrats obtained a majority in the House of Repre- sentatives, and Congress and the President agreed better. 517. A New Tariff was adopted in 1842, to take the place of the compromise tariff of 1838, which had now come to an end (§ 490). It was so arranged as to protect American manufactures, and therefore the South was opposed to it; but there was no attempt to resist or nullify it. 518. Extradition of criminals between the United States and Great Britain was secured by a treaty which was made in 1842-. 514. What was doue by Harrison ? What is said of his death ? Of his successor? What was now the position of the Whigs? 515. What is said of the Whig majority in Congress? What was their first action? Their next action? What became of the plan of a National Bank? 516. What was the feeling of the Whigs? What was done by the Cabinet? By the Whig majority in Congress? What change then took place? 617. What new tariff was adopted? Was there any resistance in the South? 618. What was secured by treaty in 1842? What is meant by extradition? What has been done since? What have been the effects of ocean telegraphs? 1842] TREATY WITH ENGLAND. 241 Each country agreed to arrest and send back criminals wlio should escape to it from the other country. It was thus no longer pos- sible for a criminal to find safety by simply crossing the Atlantic. Similar treaties have since been made with most other countries, so that there is now hardly a corner of the civilized world in which a criminal can find safe refuge. This is still more the case since ocean telegraphs have come into use: the runaway generally finds the offi- cers waiting for him when his steamer arrives. 519. The Northern Boundary, between the United States and Canada, from Maine to the Rocky Mountains, was settled by the same treaty. This put an end to the Maine difficulty (§ 509). West of the Rocky Mountains, in what was then called the Oregon Country, the boundary could not be agreed upon, and both coun- tries had long before arranged to occupy the country together un- til it should be necessary to decide the matter. This treaty con- tinued this arrangement for a time. American emigration to Ore- gon had already begun ; and Fremont, of the regular army, was now beginning explorations to find passes through the Rocky Mountains (§ 553). 520. The Oregon Country covered what are now the States of Idaho, Washington, and Oregon. It was claimed by the United States, partly on the ground that it was a part of the Louisiana purchase (§ 332), though this was exceedingly doubt- ful ; and partly because it had been first explored by Lewis and Clarke (§ 333). Great Britain denied both of these reasons, but could not give any very good reasons for her own claim to the country. The truth seems to liave been that the United States had very little claim to Oregon, and Great Britain none at all. After all, the very best reason why the United States should have the country was that the American settlements there were increasing rapidly, while there were hardly any English settlements, and no prospect of any. The question was not settled until 1846 (§ 544). 621. Texas was then southwest of the United States, of which 519. How was the northern boundary settled? What difficulty was thus ended? What was the arrangement as to the Oregon Country? What is said of emigration thither? 520. What was meant by the Oregon Country? Why did the United States claim it? What was the claim of Great Britain? What .seems to have been the real state of the case? What was the best claim of the United States? 621. What was the location of Texas? How did it become a part of Mexico? How was slavery introduced into it? 242 TEXAS. [1844 it was not yet a part. The United States had at first claimed it as a part of the Louisiana purchase (§ 332), note; but the claim had been given up, in 1819, in exchange for Florida (§ 418), and Texas remained a part of Mexico. Soon American settlers beg?.n to enter Texas; and, as most of these were from southern States, they brought their negro slaves with them. The new settlers had little liking for Mexico, and did not obey when the Mexican Gov- ernment forbade slavery within its limits. 522. Mexico had rebelled against Spain, and become indepen- dent. But it had a most disorderly government, in which generals of the army were in the habit of seizing supreme power and forc^ ing the people to obey them ; while the American settlers were not in the habit of obeying any one whom they had not helped to elect. In 1835, they openly rebelled, and drove the Mexican troops out of Texas. The next year, Santa Anna, the Mexican ruler, invaded Texas in a most cruel manner, murdering prisoners, sick, and wounded ; but the Texans, under General Sam Houston, met him with far fewer men at San Jacinto, near Houston, and beat his army thoroughly. Mexico made no further attempt to conquer Texas, which remained an independent republic. 523. The Annexation of Texas was very much desired, espe- cially by the South ; and all these four years were spent in forming plans to bring Texas into the Union. They were not successful at first, for the annexation was not desired by the Whigs in the South, or by either party in the North, and only Southern Demo- crats were in favor of it. Tyler made a treaty of annexation with Texas in 1844, but it failed because the Senate refused to ratify it (§ 282). The annexation was not completed until after the Presi- dential election at the close of Tyler's term of office (§ 533). 524. Slave State Representation was the reason for the desire of the Southern Democrats to annex Texas, in order to have an equal share iu the Senate. Laws are made by the Senate and House of Representa- tives together. The South was always the weaker party in the House of 522. Why did the American settlers in Texas dislike the Mexican Government? What is said of their rebellion? Of Santa Anna's invasion? Of the battle of San Jacinto? What was its result? 523. What is said of the annexation of Texas? Why was it not successful at first? What was done in 1844? When was annexation accomplished? 524. Why was the annexation of Texas desired by the South? What was the position of the South in the Senate and House of Representatives? What were the prospects of the two sections for new States? Why was this state of affairs dan- gerous to slavery? What was hoped from Texas? 1845] FLORIDA. 243 Representatives, for its population was smaller than that of the North. But each State is equally represented in the Senate; and, so far, a new slave State had always beeu admitted to balance a new free State. In 1845, when Florida was admitted (§525), there were 27 States in the Union, 13 free States and 14 slave States. All the Southern territory was then used up, and no more slave-States could be formed; while the North had still a vast amount of Western territory, from which new free States could be formed. It was thus certain that the South would soon be in a minority in both Houses of Congress, so tliat laws might be passed which would injure the system of slavery. Texas was so vast a territory that it was hoped that it might be cut up into four or live slave-States. All the reasons above stated apply also to secession in 1861 (§ 644). 625. Florida was admitted to the Union in 1845, Florida was bought from Spain in 1819 (§ 418). Its first settlement, St. Augustine, is now the oldest town in the United States (§18). The State has not yet developed any large cities. Its population has in- creased from 34,730 in 1830 to 391,422 in 1890. The people are engaged chiefly in the cultivation of oranges and other agricul- tural products. The great impediment to the advancement of the Slate has always been its enormous swamps, which were the scene of the Seminole war (§471). Promis- ing efforts are now making to drain tliese swamps, and give the State a vast addition of fertile territory. 526. The Screw Propeller (§454) had now been introduced into tlie United States navy, and the sailing-vessels of the past Seal^^^I^rida. were no longer built. The first of these steam war- vessels, the Princeton, was the scene of a terrible accident during a pleasure-trip on the Potomac in 1844. One of the large guns burst when it was fired a tliird time, and killed two members of the Cabinet, a commodore in the navy, and a number of other persons. Many others had narrow escapes. 527. The Electro-Magnetic Telegraph came into practical use in 1844. There had been " telegraphs" for many years before; but these were only long lines of signal-posts, at some distance from one another, which sent messages altogether by sight, one letter at a time. In 1837, Samuel F. B. Morse took out his first patent for applying electricity as a force for telegraph- ing through wires. Six years afterward. Congress appropriated 525. What State was admitted in 184,5? 6'26. Wtiat is said of the excursion on the Princeton ? Of the accident wliich took place? 627. What great invention came into practical use in 1844? What was the na- ture of the telegraphs hitherto in use? What force was put to use in telegraphing by Morse? How was it tried? What were the results? 244 MINERAL RESOURCES. [1844 Samuel F. B. Morse. money to try the invention. Tn the following year, 1844, the first line was constructed from Baltimore to Washington, and it proved to be a success. Tele- graph companies were at once formed, and new lines were con- structed. There are in 1894 about 200,- 000 miles of telegraph in the Unit- ed States. 528. The Mineral Resources of the United States were not yet de- veloped. Salt was produced near Syracuse, in New York. Pennsyl- vania and northern New Jersey had long produced iron, and the Pennsylvania beds of anthracite coal were now coming into know- ledge and use (§ 453). There were lead-mines in northern Illi- nois and eastern Iowa; and a few small copper-mines had been worked without mucli success in Connecticut and New Jersey. Gold was found in Virginia, North Carolina, and Georgia; but tiie total amount produced by these mines in all tlie years up to 1846 was not equal to a lialf-year's product after- ward from the California mines. Tlie wonderful mineral resources of Missouri (§423) and Tennessee were hardly known. No one knew that there was a wealth of petroleum under the surface of Pennsylvania and other States. California, New Mexico, and Nevada still belonged to Mexico; and there was no knowledge of the mineral resources of this region, or of those of the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains, which undoubtedly belonged to the United States. 529. Copper became one of the great mineral productions of the United States in 1844. In that year the Indians at last gave up the country along Lake Superior, in northern Michigan (§ 462) ; and exploration soon found it to be rich in copper. Companies were formed at once, and copper-mining became a productive in- dustry. It was found, also, that some of these mines had been worked cen- turies before, probably by tlie " mound-builders" (§2). 530. The Dorr Rebellion. — The power to vote had now been 528. What is said of the mineral resources of the United States? Of iron? Of anthracite coal? Of lead? Of copper? Of gold? Of the mineral resources of Missouri and Tennessee? Of petroleum? Of the Pacific coast? 629. What is said of copper? Describe its discovery. 530. How did Rhode Island differ from other States in regard to the rigrht of .voting? What attempt was made to change this? What was it called, and why? What were its results? 1844] POLK t^LECTED PHESIDENT. 245 given, in almost all tbe States, to all men over 21 years of age. Rhode Island, however, still confined tlie riglit of voting to those who owned a certain amount of property. This, and some other features of the government, were very unsatisfactory to many of the people ; and in 1842 an attempt was made to change these fea- tures of the government by force. The attempt was called the Dorr Rebellion, from the name of its leader. It was put down by the State government, and its leader was imprisoned for a time ; but most of its objects were accomplished peaceably within a few years. 631. The Anti-Renters. — The descendants of the old Dutch " patroons" (§ 11(3) still held their lands along the Hudson River, and refused to sell them. The rents were low ; .but the tenants ■wished to buy and own their lands, the leases of which had come down to them from their fathers. About 1844, many of the tenants refused to pay rent any longer; and there were so many disturbances that the governor of New York was obliged to call out the militia to restore order. Most of the " patroon lands" were tben gradually sold to the tenants, and the great estates exist no longer. 532. The Presidential Election in 1844 turned on the pro- posed annexation of Texas (§ 523). For President and Vice- President, the Whigs nominated Clay (§481), and Theodore Fre- lingbuysen, then of New York, both of whom were opposed to the annexation. It was expected that the Democrats would again nominate Van Buren (§ 495) ; but he was also opposed to the an- nexation, and the Southern Democrats succeeded in preventing his nomination. The Democrats then nominated James K. Polk (§ 535), and George M. Dallas, of Pennsylvania, who were in favor of an- nexation. Clay's opposition to annexation was not quite hearty enough to suit the Abolitionists, who hated it; and they nominated candidates of their own. Clay did not lose many votes by this, but he lost enough to lose the great State of New York and the election. Polk and Dallas were elected. .531. What was the reason of the Anti-Rent troubles? How did they begin? How did they result? .5S*2. What is said of the Presidential election of 1844? Who were the Whig candidates? Why was not Van Buren nominated? Who were the Democratic can- didates? How did Clay lose the election? Who were elected? 246 LEADING EVENTS, 1841-5. There were 275 electoral votes, of which Polk and Dallas received 170, and Clay and Frelinghuysen 105. If New York's 36 votes had gone to Clay and Frelinghuysen, tliey would have been elected by 141 votes to 134 (§ 298). 533. The Result of the Election was the annexation of Texas. When Congress met in December after the election, it took the success of the Democrats as a verdict by the people in favor of annexation, and in the following spring it passed a resolution con- senting to the annexation. Tyler at once sent it to Texas, whose government agreed to it, and in the following December the State of Texas was admitted to the Union (§541). Texas was the last slave-State admitted to the Union; but from the time of her ad- mission there was hardly any peace on the subject of slavery until slavery was abolished in 1865. 534. The Leading Events of Harrison's and Tyler's administrations were as follows: 1841-45: Harrison's and Tyler's terms § 513 1841: Death of Harrison, and succession of Tyler 514 Tyler and the Whigs quarrel 516 1842: New tarifj act passed 517 Treaty with Great Britain 518 The Dorr Rebellion 530 1844: The Princeton explosion 526 The first electric telegraph 527 Copper discovered in Michigan 529 Anti-Rent troubles in New York 531 1845 : Florida admitted to the Union 525 Texas annexed to the United States o33 Supplementary Questions. Locations. — Locate the Rocky Mountains; the Territory of Idaho; the Territory of Washington; the State of Oregon; the State of Texas; Houston, Texas; the State of Florida; the Potomac River; Baltimore, Md. ; Washington, D. C. ; Lake Superior; the State of Rhode Island; the Hudson River. Retiew. — Give the years in which Harrison's and Tyler's terms began and ended. The year of Harrison's death. The year of the ex- tradition and boundary treaty with Great Britain. The year of tlie first electric-telegraph line. The year of the annexation of Texas to the United States. 533. What was the result of the election? How did the annexation of Texas take place? M^hat is said of slavery after the admission of Texas? 584. What were the years in which Harrison's and Tyler's terms began and ended? The leading events of 1841 ? Of 18^2? Of 1844? Of 1845? CHAPTER XII. POLK'S ADMINISTRATION: 1845-9. James K. Polk, Tenn., President. George M. Dallas, Penn., Vice-President. 535. James K. Polk was born in North Carolina in 1795, and removed to Tennessee in 1806. Here he studied law, became a Democratic Representative in Congress, 1825-39, and governor, 1839-43. He was elected Presi- dent in 1844 by tlie Democrats, and served one term. He died in 1849, a little more tlian three months after leaving office. (1) Internal Affairs. 536. DiscoTcries and Inven- tions were numerous during this period. One of the most important was the sewing-ma- chine, for whicli a patent was taken out by Ellas Howe, of Massachusetts (1846). It has since been improved, and has made household life and work far easier than when all sewing was done by hand. Another great step was the use of ether to produce unconsciousness during surgical operations, by Dr. Morton, of Boston, in 1846. 537. Newspapers. — R. M. Hoe, of New York, patented his cylinder printing-press (184'7) : it, with its improvements, has made James K. Polk. 53.5. What were the leading events in the life of Polk? 636. What is said of discoveries and inventions? Of the sewing-machine? Of the use of ether? 587. What is said of the cylinder printing-press? Of press associations? 348 EDVOATIOK [1845 it possible to print the enormous number of copies issued by tlie newspapers of the present day. It will now print a 4-page news- ThE Hoe PRrNTINO-MACHINE. paper at the rate of seventy thousand per hour, including cutting them apart and folding them. A press association was also formed in New York City (1849): its business was to gather news for all the news- papers belonging to it. There are now a number of such as- sociations in the country. 538. Education. — A naval school was formed at Annapo- lis (1845); before that time, the officers of the navy had received their training on board ship. The Smithso- Ancient Hand Printing-Press. nian Institution was founded at Washington (1846), by a legacy left to the United States by 688. What is said of the naval school? Of the Smithsonian Institution'/ 1845] TEXAS ADMITTED TO THE UNION. 249 James Smithson, an Englishman. Its purpose is to aid in increas- ing knowledge; and it has done so by forming valuable museums, and by printing and issuing to the people many valuable, books and papers on subjects which are of special importance, but would involve great expense and no profit for publishers. The plan of the Snuthsoniau Institution was the work of John Quiucy Adams. 539. The Department of the Interior was organized as one of the departments of the government (§ 301). The country had increased very much in wealth ; and the government business relat- ing to the country itself had become so large that the departments of State and the Treasury were no longer well fitted to attend to it. It was therefore determined to form this new department for that purpose. 640. In Political AlTairs, the Democrats had obtained entire control of the government by the election of 1844. In 1846, they re-established the Sub-Treasury system (§ 515), and it has remained in force ever since. In the same year, the last remnant of the "American System" (§441) was swept away. A new tariff act was passed, which paid no attention to the protection of manufac- tures, and aimed only to raise revenue for the government. This system remained in force until 1861, when protection was again begun (§754). 541. Texas was admitted to the Union in 1845. Texas had been a part of Mexico (§§521, 522); and it had been annexed to the United States, after its suc- cessful rebellion from Mexico (§ 533). It was now admitted as a State. It is larger than any foreign country, excepting Russia; larger than the whole of Austria, of Germany, of France, or of Sweden. It about equals in size the combined States of New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, South Caro- lina, and Georgia. The so-called Staked Plain, in llie nortiiwest, is poorly watered, but the rest of the State is excellent for graz- ing and agricultural industries. It is also rich in copper and other minerals. Its popu- ^^^^ '^^ Texas. latiou has increased from 212,592 in 1850 to 2,235,523 in 1890. The .539. What new department was organized? Why had it become necessary? 640. What party now controlled the government? \Vhat ^s sgjid. laf the Sub- Treasury system? Of the tariff of 1846? o41. What Stat,3 was admitted in 1845? 250 10 WA.— WISCONSIN. [1848 Seal of Iowa. State and its cil ies are lately growing very rapidly. The population of the State nearly doubled in the ten years 1870-80. 642. Iowa was admitted to the Union in 1846. Iowa was a part of the Louisiana purchase (§ 332), and was the fourth State formed from it. There are some lead-mines in the eastern part of the State, and here a French Canadian named Dubuque formed a little settlement in 1788. It soon disappeared, and settlement did not begin again until after the Black Hawk war in 1832 (§471). In 1833, the former settlement at Dubuque was renewed by settlers from Illi- nois, and a new settlement was formed at Burlington. Population then increased with wonderful rapidity: it has increased from 43,112 in 1840 to 1,911,896 in 1890. Iowa has few forests or minerals: her wealth is in her wonderfully fertile soil, and in the high intelligence of her people. In forty years these have built up one of the most prosperous States of the Union. 543. Wisconsin was admitted to the Union in 1848. Wisconsin was the fifth and last State formed from the old North- west Territory (§ 294) Some French settle- ments had been made within its territory about 200 years before (§ 140); but they were not important. The first real settlement be- gan after the Black Hawk ^yar in 1832 (§471). Population has since inci'eased from 30,945 in 1840 to 1,686,880 in 1890. Milwaukee is one of the great cities of the Union, contain- inu: 203,979 persons in 1890. The people of llie State are mainly engaged in agriculture and lumbering; but the State is also rich in copper and lead, and .has many important manufactures. 544. The Oregon Country was secured to the United States in 1846, by a treaty with Great Britain, which fixed the boundary between British America and the United States, west of the Rocky Mountains, as at present. The United States had claimed some territory north of this line as far as Alaska, lati- tude 54° 40'; and Great Britain had claimed the territory south of this line to the Columbia River. A large party in the United States preferred war with Great Britain to giving up the American claim : they demanded " Fifty-four Forty or Fight." But by this Seal of Wisconsin. 542. What State was admitted in 1846? 643. What State was admitted hi 1848? 644. How >Vft§ the Oregon Country secured to the United States? 1846] OBIQIN OF THE MEXICAN WAR. 251 treaty both Great Britain and the United States now gave up part of their claims, and took a middle line as the boundary. There was some further dispute as to the course of the northern boundary-line after it reached the Pacific inlets; but this was settled by another treaty in 1871 (§857). (2) Origin of the Mexican War. 645. Texas was still claimed by Mexico as a part of her terri- tory ; and she was naturally displeased when, without her consent, Texas was annexed to the United States. Nevertheless, she showed no signs of intention to make war, and some signs of a disposition to settle the matter by treaty. Before this could be done, steps were taken which made war unavoidable. 546. The Western Boundary of Texas was unsettled. Mexico asserted that it was the Nueces River ; Texas, that it was the Rio Grande. Between the Nueces and the Rio Grande was a strip of territory which was claimed by both parties; and in this was the origin of the Mexican war. Early in 1846, General Taylor, who commanded in Texas, was ordered by President Polk to take pos- session of the disputed territory. Taylor crossed the Nueces at Corpus Christi, marched his army to the Rio Grande, and took post at Brownsville (then called Fort Brown). 547. The First Bloodshed. — Taylor found that Mexican troops were crossing the Rio Grande ; and he sent a scouting party of dragoons, under Captain Thornton, up the river from Brownsville. Thornton's party was surprised and captured by a superior force of Mexicans. Several men were killed and wounded, so that this was the first bloodshed of the war. 548. Palo Alto. — So many Mexicans had now crossed the river that Taylor moved back toward the Nueces River, with about 2,000 men, to secure a part of his supplies. Having made every- thing secure, he set out on his return to Brownsville. On his road he met the Mexican army, three times his own number, at Palo Alto, near Brownsville, and beat them after a whole afternoon's battle. 545. What was the feeling in Mexico in regard to the annexation of Texas? Why was not the difficulty settled by treaty? 546. What boundary of Texas was unsettled? What was the dispute in regard to it? What orders were given to Taylor? What did he do? 647. VVhy was a scouting party sent out? What was its result? 648. What was Taylor's next movement? Describe the battle of Palo Alto. 252 WAIi DECLARED. [1846 Operations in Northeastern Mexico. 549. Resaca de la Palma. — The next morning, Taylor again set out for Brownsville, and found the Mexicans strongly posted behind a ravine called Resaca de la Pahna. He attacked them again, beat them, and this time drove them across the Eio Grande into Mexico. He followed leisurely across the river, took possession of Matamoras, and there waited for reinforcements (§557). It is only fair to notice that the Mexicans were under great disadvantages throughout the war, though tliey were themselves to blame for them. Their men were untraiued; their arms and equipments were bad; their, government was inefficient, and had lillle money; and tlieir generals were usually igno- rant and worthless. But, even with this ad- mission, the manner in which the armies of the United States constantly defeated superior numbers throughout the war must be considered remarkable. 550. War Declared. — As soon as the news of the capture of Thornton's scouting party (§ 547) reached Washington, the Presi- dent sent it to Congress for consideration. Congress declared that war "existed by the act of the Republic of Mexico," May 13, 1846. Money was appropriated in abundance, and the President was authorized to accept 50,000 volunteers. The war excitement rose high in the country, and over 200,000 volunteers offered their services. The date usually given for the declaration, May 11, is wrong. 651. The Whigs opposed the declaration of war, for they be- lieved that the war existed by the act of President Polk, not of the Republic of Mexico. But they voted for the appropriations, be- cause they considered that the American troops had been sent into danger by the President, and must be rescued. In New England, there were hardly any volunteers, and the war was looked on with great dislike. Supplementary Questions. Locations. — Locate the State of Texas: the State of Iowa; the State of Wisconsin; the Nueces River, Tex.; Corpus Christi, Tex.; the Rio Grande; Brownsville, Tex.; Matamoras, Mexico. 549. Describe the battle of Resaca de la Palma. What is said of Taylor's pursuit ? 550. Why was war declared? How was war declared? What steps were taken to carry it on ? 65i. Why did the Whigs oppose the war? Why did they vote for appropria- tions? What was the feeling in New Englanl? 1847] OPERATIONS ON THE PACIFIC. 253 Review. — Give the year of the admission of Texas. Of Iowa. Of Wisconsin. Between what rivers was the disputed territory which brought on the war with Mexico? Who was the first American com- mander? What was his first battle? His second bailie? In what year were these battles fought, and war declared? (3) Operations on the Pacific. 552. The Mexican Territory, at the opening of the war, in- cluded what are now the States of California, Utah, and Nevada, the Territories of Arizona and New Mexico, and parts of Colorado and Wyoming. Mexico had hardly done anything to settle this territory, which was little more than a wilderness. No one sus- pected that it contained a wealth of gold, silver, and other minerals; but it was known to be fertile, and it contained the finest harbor on the coast, San Francisco Bay. When war became probable, preparations were made to conquer it, by sending a fleet to the Pacific coast. 553. California was conquered in the summer of 1846 by the fleet under Commodores Sloat and Stockton, aided by Fremont, whe had moved into California from his explorations in Oregon (§ 519). The towns of San Francisco, Monterey, and Los Angeles were captured with little resistance; and before the end of the year all California was under American control. The Mexicans rose once in revolt, but were finally overthrown, early in 1847, in the battle of San Gabriel, near Los Angeles. 554. New Mexico was conquered, during the same summer, by an overland expedition from Fort Leavenworth (now the city of Leavenworth), under General S. W. Kearney. Kearney, with a little army of about 1,800 men, crossed the plains, captured Santa Fe, and conquered New Mexico without a battle. He then left the army, and set off for California, leaving Colonel Doniphan in com- mand. 555. Doniphan's Marcli. — Doniphan left a force at Santa Fe to hold New Mexico, and moved south with the rest of his force 552. What part of the present United States then belonged to Mexico? What was the condition of the territory? AVhv was it desired by the United States? 553. How was California conquered? What were its principal towns? What was the final battle 554. How was New Mexico conquered? Give an account of Kearney's march. Of his subsequent movements. 565. Give an account of Douiphan's rnarcti into JJexico. Of tlje ^iscbarg^ Qf bis troops, 254 OPERATIONS IN NORTHERN MEXICO. [1846 into Mexico. Two sharp and successful battles against superior numbers gave him possession of the city of Chihuahua and the country around it. But the time for which his men were enlisted was over, and he could advance no farther. He therefore turned aside into Texas, and thence to New Orleans, where he discharged his troops. 656. Acquisition of Territory. — The result of these move- ments was that all the territory named above (§ 552) was in pos- session of the United States. It was believed in the United States that Americans could make a far better use of all this territory than the Mexicans had ever done ; and that it would be an excel- lent thing for the territory and for the United States if the con- quest should be retained. It was therefore decided to keep it at the end of the war, if possible, but to pay Mexico for it (§ 572). All the following battles of the war were fought in Mexico, for the purpose of keeping the Mexicans away from the conquered territory, and forcing them to make a peace. Supplementary Questions. Locations. — Locate the State of California; the State of Nevada; the Territory of Utah; the Territory of Arizona; the Territory of New Mex- ica; San Francisco. Cal. ; Monterey, Cal. ; Los Anjreles, Cal. ; Leaven- worth, Kan.; Santa Fe, N. M. ; Chihuahua, Mex. ; New Orleans, La. Review. — Give the year in which the Pacitic territory of Mexico was conquered. Name the States which have since been formed out of it. The Territories. (4) Operations in Northern Mexico. 657. Monterey. — In the autumn of 1846, Taylor, with about 6,000 men, moved forward into Mexico from Matamoras (§ 549), The main Mexican force, nearly twice as large as Taylor's, took refuge in Monterey, a city which was very difficult to attack and strongly fortified. The Americans were obliged to storm the walls, and then to carry on a desperate struggle within the town. Many of the streets had to be cleared of the enemy by fighting from house to house, or by breaking down the walls between the houses, 556. What was the result of these movements? Why was it desired to retain it? What was decided? What is said of the remaining battles of the war? 557. What was Taylor's next movement? Where did the Mexican army take refuge? What is said of Monterey? Of the battle which took place? W^hat was its result? What reinforcement did Taylor receive? 1847] BTIENA VISTA. 255 for the streets were barricaded or commanded by artillery. The work was done in four days, and the Mexican army surrendered. At Monterey, Taylor was joined by General Wool, with 3,000 men. They had set out from San Antonio, in Texas, to attack Chihuahua ; but the expedition had been given up. 658. Taylor's Position becaine very unsafe before the end of the year. He had pressed on beyond Monterey as far as Saltillo, when many of his best men and ofBcers were taken from him to strengthen General Scott in central Mexico (§ 561). He then had less than 5,000 men, most of them new recruits and poorly disci- plined, and was forced to give up any farther advance. Santa Anna (§ 522) was now again at the head of the Mexican Govern- ment; and he seized this opportunity to march against Taylor with over 20,000 men. In spite of the tremendous odds against him, Taylor marched toward his enemy until he found a battle- ground that suited him at Buena Vista, and there waited. The Mexican army reached him, February 22, 1847, and battle was joined next day. 659. Buena Vista. — Taylor had placed his army at the upper end of a long and narrow pass in the mountains, with high cliffs on one side and deep ravines on the other, so that the Mexicans could not pass him, but must attack him in front. All day long the Mexicans charged up the pass ; but their charges were beaten steadily back, and at nightfall they hastily retreated. 560. Northeastern Mexico was thus left in the hands of the Americans, and there was no further serious fighting in that quar- ter. Taylor soon afterward returned to the United States, where he was honored as the hero of the war, and was elected President the next year (§ 579). Supplementary Questions. Locations.— Locate Matamoras, Mex. (§549); Monterey; Saltillo; Buena Vista. Review. — What was the year of the battle of Monterey? Of the battle of Buena Vista? Who was the American commander in both? 558. How far did Taylor advance? Why was his advance stopped? What was done by Santa Anna? How did Taylor prepare to receive him? When did the armies meet? 559. What position had Taylor taken? Describe the battle. 560. What was the result of the battle? What is said of Taylor? 256 OPERATIONS IN CENTRAL MEXICO. [1847 (5) Operations in Central Mexico. 661. A Change of Plan had been decided upon by the authori- ties at Washington. General Scott was to be sent with a selected force, in more than 150 vessels, to attack Vera Cruz, from which there was the shortest road from the coast to the city of Mexico. If he could capture the capital, he was to hold it until the Mexi- cans were willing to make peace. All the other American armies were merely to hold what they had already gained. All the fight- ing by Scott's army, which ended the war, took place in 1847. 562. Winfield Scott was born in Virginia in 1786. He obtained a commission as captain in the army in 1809, and in the war of 1812 fought his way rapidly up to the rank of major - general. He acted as peace-maker during the nullification troubles at Charleston (§489), and again during tne quarrel between Maine and the British provinces (§509). His services in the Mexican war are given ill tbe following sections. Tlie Whigs nominated him for the Presidency in 1852, but he was defeated. In 1859, he was made lieu- tenant-geneial, and he Winfield Scott. commanded the armies of the United States until October, 1861 (§682). He died at West Point in 1866. 663. Vera Cruz was attacked early in March, 1847. Scott landed before the city, with 12,000 men ; and, after a bombard- ment of nine days, the city and its great fort of San Juan de Ulloa, the strongest in Mexico, surrendered. The army prepared for an immediate march toward Mexico, for the coast of Vera Cruz was so hot and sickly that it would have been dangerous for an army to remain there during the summer months. The navy took pos- 561. What change of plan had been made? What was to be done with the capital? What were the other American armies to do? 562. What were the leading events in the life of Scott? 568. Describe the capture of Vera Cruz. What was then done by the army? By the navy ? --' 1847] SCOTT'S CAMPAIGN. 257 session of the Mexican ports on the coast, and the duties were col- lected for the benefit of the United States. 564. Cerro Oordo. — Soon after leaving Vera Cruz, the road to Mexico begins to rise, and abounds in mountains and narrow passes, which are natural fortifications. At one of these passes, called Cerro Gordo, near Jalapa, Santa Anna had collected an army of about 12,000 men. Early in April, Scott's army, now number- ing but 9,000 men, reached Cerro Gordo, and attacked it. The battle was a complete victory for the Americans : five Mexican generals and 3,000 prisoners were captured, and the rest of the Mexicans were pushed into headlong retreat. Santa Anna nar- rowly escaped, losing his cork leg in the chase. 665. The March to Mexico met with little further resistance until August. Scott passed on through Jalapa to Pueb- la. As this was high, cool, and more healthy ground, iie kept his army here during the summer, waiting for reinforcements. Santa Anna, also, was busily collecting troops for the final struggle. 666. The Yalley of Mex- ico. — In August, with 11,000 men, Scott again set out, and reached the edge of the valley of Mexico without a battle. Before him lay the valley, like a great bowl sunk into the mountains. In the middle of it was Mexico, a city of 200,000 inhabitants, surrounded by strong walls and extensive lakes ; and before reaching it, the little American army was to capture many strongholds, and dis- perse a Mexican army of three times its own number. So many forts had been built on the regular roads that the Americans cut a new road around them for themselves, and came into the valley at an undefended point, 564. What is the nature of the road from Vera Cruz to Mexico? Where had Santa Anna collected an army? Describe the battle of Cerro Gordo. What be- came of Santa Anna? .565. What is said of the march to Puebla? Of the halt there? Of SantaAnna's preparations? 566. What is said of the march to Mexico? Of the valley of Mexico? What difiiculties were in the way of the Americans? How did they avoid a part of them? Scott's March to BIexico. 258 A DAY OF VICTORIES. [1847 567. A Day of Tictories. — Scott's army moved down the mountain-side to a point about ten miles from the city. Here the fighting began, and in a single day (August 20) five victories were won. (1) Before sunrise the main American force stormed the fortified camp of Contreras, taking but 1 7 minutes to do the work. (2) A little later in the day, another division stormed the fortified village of San Antonio. (3) About the same time, one division stormed one of the fortified heights of Cherubusco, and (4) an- other division stormed the other. (5) While these assaults were being made, Santa Anna moved out of the city to assist his garri- sons. The American reserve force attacked him, beat him, and chased him up to the walls of the city. Before night, almost the whole Mexican force was inside of the city of Mexico. 568. Negotiations for peace were now proposed by Santa Anna, and Scott agreed. They went on for three weeks, until Scott found that Santa Anna was only using the time to strengthen the defences of the city. He then broke off negotiations, and re- newed the war. 569. Chapultepec, a strong castle perched on the top of a very steep hill, was now the principal Mexican stronghold outside of the city. Below it was a smaller fortification called Molino del Rey, which was first captured. Nearly a week afterward, the grand as- sault was made on Chapultepec. The Americans had to climb the cliff, and then use scaling-ladders to get into the windows of the castle. The Mexicans resisted bravely, and even attempted to blow up the castle with every one in it ; but the men who were to light the trains were shot down as the Americans swarmed in, and Cha- pultepec was captured. Immediately afterward, the whole Ameri- can army moved around to a side of the city where no attack had been expected ; and before night it had won two of the gates, and was inside of the city. 670. Capture of Mexico. — During the night, Santa Anna fied from the city with the remainder of his army ; and in the morfl- ing of September 14, 1847, Scott's army, now reduced to 6,000 567. When did the fighting begin? What is said of the first victory, at Contre- ras? Of the second, at San Antonio? Of the third and fourth, at Cherubusco? Of the flftli, over Santa Anna? 568. What is said of Santa Anna's peace negotiations? 569. What is said of Chapultepec? Of Molino del Rey, below it? Describe the Captiire of Chapultepec. The attack on the city. 670. What is said of the capture of Mexico? 1848] PEACE. 259 men, marched through the main street, and raised the flag of the United States over the national palace. 671. The End of the War was reached by the fall of Mexico. There was some fighting by irregular Mexican troops, called guerrillas ; and the American sick and wounded at Puebla beat off a Mexican force which tried to besiege them. But the real fighting of the war was over, and the only difficulty was to arrange the terms of peace. Supplementary Questions. Locations. — Locate Vera Cruz, Mex. ; Jalapa; Puebla; Mexico. Review. — Who commanded the American army iu central Mexico? In what year did the operations take place? What was the first city captured? What was the first battle fought on the road? What were the two principal cities captured on the road? What battle led to the capture of Mexico? (6) Peace. 572. Conditions of Peace were not easy to arrange. The United States insisted that Mexico should give up her northern territory (§ 552), as a punishment for having provoked the war. Mexico was very unwilling to agree, and it was not until February, 1848, that a new Mexican government consented to make peace on these terms. 573. The Treaty of Peace was called the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, from the little town in which it was agreed upon. Mex- ico was to receive $15,000,000 in return for the ceded territory, and her debts of $3,000,000, due to American citizens, were to be paid for her. The Senate of the United States ratified the treaty ; peace was restored ; and the American armies evacuated Mexico. 574. Territorial Additions. — The annexation of Texas, the cession by Mexico, and the Gadsden purchase, south of the Gila River, for$10,000,000, in 1853, added 967,451 square miles to the United States. This was more than the area of the United States in 1783, and almost as much as the Louisiana purchase (§332). The additions gave the United States the form and boundaries which are still retained, with the exception of the pur- chase of Alaska in 1867 (§831). The territorial growth of the United States may be divided into four great divisions: (1) the United States, 571. What further figrhtinp: took place? What was the only difficulty? 572. What couditions of peace were offered by the United States? When did Mexico accept them ? 573. Why was the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo so named? What was Mexico to receive? How was peace restored? 574. What were the three territorial additions at this time? How did they com- pare with other additions? What are the four great divisions of territorial growth? How do they compare in size? 260 SLAVERY AND THE WILMOT PROVISO. [1846 as left by the Revolution, altogether east of the Mississippi, with Florida added iu 1819: (2) Louisiana, west of the Mississippi, with Oregon added in 1846; (3) Texas and the Mexican cessions; and (4) Alaska. Of these, the second was the largest, the third next, the first next, and the fourth smallest. 675. Slavery, — The Mexican cession has evidently been an ex- cellent thing for the ceded territory ; but at first it gave the United States so much trouble that it was seriously proposed by many per- sons to beg Mexico to take it back again. It brought up again the question of slavery in the Territories, which had been settled with so much difficulty in 1820 (§426). The question was now to be settled over again as to this new territory ; and the two sections were now so much stronger, and so much more in earnest, that a settlement was much more difficult than in 1820. 576. The Two Sections. — The South demanded that slavery should be permitted in the new territory, since Southern immi- grants would not be able to settle there unless they were allowed to take their slaves with them. The North demanded that slavery should be forbidden, since the territory was already free by Mexi- can law (§521), and any introduction of slavery would keep free- State immigrants from going thither. There was no middle ground : free labor and slave-labor could not use the same territory. It was proposed by some to divide the ter:-itory by the Missouri Com- promise line, the parallel of 36° 30', which would reach the Pacific at about the middle of California; and to forbid slavery north of the line, and allow slavery south of it. Neither party was willing to agree to this sacrifice. 677. The Wilmot ProTiso. — In 1846, when it was first sug- gested to make Mexico give up territory, David Wilmot, a member of Congress from Pennsylvania, introduced that which was called from him the AVilmot Proviso. It appropriated money to buy the territory, provided that slavery should not be allowed in it. The South proved to be opposed to it ; it never became law ; and the new territory was acquired without it. Thus, when this adminis- tration ended, the United States owned ^ vast amount of new 575. What was proposed, and why? What difflcnlty was brought up by the ceded territory? Why was it harder to settle it than in 1820? 570. What did the South demand? What did the North demand? Was there any middle ground? What unsuccessful proposal was made? 677. What was the origin of the Wilmot Proviso? What was its nature? What became of it? In what position did this result leave the United States? 1848] TAYLOR ELECTED PRESIDENT. 261 territory, without being able to decide whether slavery was to be allowed or forbidden in it. 578. The Free-Soil Party came into existence in 1848. It was composed of former Democrats and Whigs who supported the Wilmot Proviso, together with the Abolitionists, or Liberty party (§511). The old parties, the Democrats and the Whigs, had Southern members whom they were afraid of losing, and they both refused to support the Wilmot Proviso. Thus the " Free-soilers" were compelled to form a new party of their own. 679. The Presidential Election in 1848 was decided by the new party. The Democratic candidates were Lewis Cass, of Michi- gan, for President, and William O. Butler, of Kentucky, for Vice- President. The W^hig candidates were General Zachary Taylor and Millard Fillmore (§ 583). Neither of these parties said anything about slavery in the new territory. The Free-soilers proposed to forbid slavery in the new territory, and nominated ex-President Van Buren (§ 495), and Charles Francis Adams, of Massachusetts. The vote for the Free-soil candidates was not very large, but it de- cided the Presidential election, as in 1844 (§532), It took so many votes from the Democrats in New York as to give the vote of that great State to the Whigs ; and Taylor and Fillmore were elected. The electoral votes were 163 for Taylor and Fillmore to 127 for Cass and Butler (§ 298). If New York's 36 votes liad been given to Cass and Butler, tliey would have been elected by 163 votes to 127. 580. California, lately conquered from Mexico, proved to be a treasure-house. Gold was discovered on the Sacramento River, early in 1848, just before the treaty with Mexico was agreed upon (§572). While a saw-mill and mill-dam were being constructed, some shining particles were found in the sand. They proved to be gold, and it was soon found that the sod was rich in the metal. No such gold-mines had been seen in the world before. Other mines had produced a little gold with a great deal of labor : these 578. What new party came into existence In 1848? Who composed it? Wliy did they form a new paitv? 679. How was the- Prpsiilential election in 1848 decided? Who were the Demo- cratic candidates? Tlie Wilis' candidates? In what respect were these two parties alike? 'What did the Free-soilTS propose? Who were their candidates? How did they influence the election? Who were elected? .580. W^liat is said of the discovery of srold in California? How was it discov- ered? AVhat was the nature of the mines? What excitement did they cause in California? 262 THE GOLD-FEVER. [1849 gave a great deal of gold with little labor. The few Americans in California crowded to the " diggings ;" and lucky finders worked for a few weeks or months, and then went home rich, or spent their fortunes in San Francisco or New York. 581. The Grold-Fever. — The news of the discovery was hardly believed at first in the older settled parts of the country; but early in 1 849, when CaUfornia gold was brought to the mint at Phila- delphia, and was pronounced genuine, a great excitement broke out. Men from all parts of the country flocked to California: they went by steamer to the Isthmus of Panama, crossed it, and sailed up the coast to Francisco ; they bought sailing-vessels, and went around Cape Horn ; they travelled overland across the plains. The fever was not confined to the United States, but spread to Europe. Within two years there were 100,000 persons in Califor- nia, and San Francisco was a rapidly growing city of 20,000 in- habitants. Supplementary Questions. Locations. — (School-map locations in italics.) — Locate the Sacra- mento River, Cal. ; Wi& Isthmus of Panama; Cape Horn; San Francisco, Cal. Review. — Give the years in which Polk's administration began and ended. The name of the Vice-President. The year of the treaty of peace. What present States and Territories were ceded by Mexico (§552). What question was brought up for settlement by the cession? Give the year of the lirst introduction of the Wilmot Proviso. The year of the discovery of gold in California. 582. The Leading Events of Polk's administration were as follows; 1845-9 : Polk's Term of Office §535 1845: Texas admitted to the Union 541 1846: Iowa admitted to the Union 543 Sewing-machine invented 536 Smithsonian Institution founded 538 Sub-Treasury system reestablished 540 New tariff act passed 540 Treaty with Great Britain 544 War declared against Mexico (May 13) 550 Battle of Palo Alto (May 8) .' 548 Battle of Resaca de la Palma (May 9) , . . 549 Conquest of California (summer) 553 581. How was the news received elsewhere? What excitement followed? What was the effect on the population of California? 582. What were the years in which Polk's term be^an and ended? What was the leading event of 1845? The leading: civil events of 1846? The leading events of the war in 1846? The leading events of the war iu 1847? The leading events of 1848? Of 1849? LEADING EVENTS, 1846-0. 263 1846: Conquest of New Mexico (summer) § 554 Battle of Monterey (September 24) ^557 1847: Battle of Bueua Vista (February 23) 559 Capture of Vera Cruz (March 27) 563 Battle of Cerro Gordo (April 18). . . , 564 Battle of Contreras (August 20) 567 Battle of Cliapultepec (September 13) 569 Capture of Mexico (September 14) 570 1848: Gold discovered in California (January 19). ... 580 Treaty of peace signed with Mexico (Feb. 2).. 572 Wisconsin admitted to the Union 548 1849: The "gold-fever" 581* CHAPTER XIII. TAYLOR'S AND FILLMORE'S ADMINISTRATIONS: 1849-53. Zachary Taylor, La., Pres. Millard Fillmore, N. Y., Ylee-Pres. and Pres. 683. Zachary Taylor was born in Virginia in 1784. He was appointed a lieutenant in tlie army in 1808, and rose to tlie ranlv of major in the war of 1812. He distiuguislied himself in the Blacic Hawk and Semi- Zachart Taylor. Millard Fillmore. nole wars (§471). and was made major-genernl. In 1841, he fixed his home at Baton Rouge, La. His services in the Mexican war have al- ready been slated (|§548, 559). It was thought in the United States that Taylor had not been fairly treated by the government; and, when the Whigs nominated him for the Presidency, he was elected. He died in 1850. Millard Fillmore, of New York, was born in 1800. He became a lawyer, and was a Wliig Representative in Congress, 1833-5 and 1837- 43. In 1847, lie was elected Comptroller of New York State. He was elected Vice-President in 1848, and succeeded to the Presidency when 683. What were the leading events in the life of Taylor? Of Fillmore? 1849] POLITICAL I>IFFICULTIE8. 265 Taylor died, in 1850. In 1856, he was nominated for the Presidency by the American party, but was defeated. He died at Buffalo, N. Y., in 1874. 584. Slavery in the Territories had now become a question which could no longer be put off; and almost all the political in- terest of this administration centres in the manner in which this question was settled for the time. 685. Tlie Condition of California had become alarming. Congress had not been able to establish any government for it, because it could not be decided whether slavery was to be allowed or forbidden in it (§ 577). Among the immigrants there were thieves and cut-throats from every part of the world, and they made California unbearably law- less. In the summer of 18-49, the people took the matter into their own hands, formed a State government of their own, ^^^ ^^ California. and applied to Congress for admission. Their constitution forbade slavery, and for this reason many Southern members were deter- mined to resist the admission of the new State. 586. Other Difficulties. — Texas claimed a part of New Mexico, and was preparing to send armed men to enforce her claim. The North complained that the selling of slaves in the national capital was a national disgrace. The South complained that the laws for returning runaway slaves (§ 285) were disobeyed or resisted in the North. Most of the national difficulties were mixed up, in one way or other, with the matter of slavery. 587. Probable Danger. — Congress held its usual session in the winter of 1849-50, with a great deal of difficult work to do. For months the session went on ; there was a torrent of talk ; and nothing was done. Both sections were becoming angrier with the delay. There were new suggestions at the South of secession (§ 486), if slavery should be forbidden in California or in any of 584. "What was the great political difficulty of this administi-ation? 685. Why was there no government at first in California? What was the state of affairs there? What was done by the people? Why was the admission of the State resisted? , 686. What was the claim of Texas? The complaint of the North? The com- plaint of the South? With what were most of these difficulties mixed up? 587. What was done by Congress? What was the feeling in the South? la tbe North? What was the danger? 266 THE COMPROMISE OF 1850. [1850 the Territories. California began to be provoked by the delay in admitting her ; and the North sympathized with her. It seemed possible that Congress would go on talking until some unexpected occurrence should plunge the country into worse difficulties. 588. The Omnibus Bill Clay (§ 481) was a great settler of difficulties of the kind. He had contrived the Missouri Compro- mise in 1820 (§ 426), and the compromise tariff in 1833 (§ 490). He was in the Senate at this time, and he contrived a third com- promise, or settlement of difficulties. In May, 1850, all the mat- ters above stated were referred to a committee of which he was chairman. This committee proposed a general plan of settlement, covering so many difEerent measures that it was commonly called the Omnibus Bill. All its parts were passed and became laws in September ; and they are called, together, the Compromise of 1850. 689. The Compromise of 1850 included five parts, (1) Cali- fornia was admitted without slavery (§ 590). (2) Texas was to receive $10,000,000 for giving up her claims to New Mexico. (3) The rest of the Mexican cession, outside of California, was to be divided into two Territories, Utah (including Nevada) and New Mexico (including Arizona) ; and slavery was neither forbidden nor permitted in them (§ 613). (4) Slavery was still to be per- mitted in the District of Columbia, but there was to be no buying or selling of negroes. (5) A new fugitive-slave law was passed (§591). 690. California was thus admitted as a State in 1850. California was couquered in 1846 (§ 553), and the first rush of popu- lation came from the discovery of gold in 1848 (§ 580). For a long time, California produced more gold every six months than all the rest of the United States had produced up to 1846; and, since 1848, has probably produced nearly as much gold as the world had in circulation in 1846. Since 1860, the agricultural resources of the State have been more at- tended to; and the gold production has not been so large as at first. The soil produces grain, vegetables, and fruits in large quantities and of fine quality and size; and the people are yearly turning more to their culti- vation, which is more steadily profitable than gold-mining. The com- pletion of the first Pacific Railroad (§864) joined the State firmly to the Eastern States, and has increased tlie State's wealth and growth. The population has increased from 92,597 in 1850 to 1,308,130 in 1890. San 588. What had Clay done already? What did he do now? How was the Om- nibus Bill prepared? What was it called when it was passed ? * 589. What was the first point in the Compromise of 1850. as to California? The second, as to Texas? The third, as to the Territories? The fourth, as to the Dis- trict of Columbia? The fifth, as to fugitive slaves? 680. What State was admitted in 1850? 1850] THE FUGITIVE-SLAVE LAW. 267 Francisco is one of the great cities of tlie United States, having a popu- lation of 297,990 in 1890. 691. The Fugitive-Slave Law provided for the arrest of run- away slaves in the Northern States by United States officers. If a person was arrested as a runaway, his testimony was not to be taken ; and for this reason there were cases of great cruelty, arrests and convictions of persons who probably never had been slaves. As soon as the law began to be enforced, it excited the only strong opposition that met any part of the Compromise of 1850. The Abolitionists had always considered slavery " a sin against God and a crime against man." Others, who had thought little about the matter, were brought to the same opinion by the cases of cruelty in the chase after runaway slaves in the North. Nothing had yet done so much to increase the number of anti-slavery men in the North as this new fugitive-slave law. 592. President Taylor died July 9, 1850, and Vice-President Fillmore became President instead of him. 593. A Change of Leaders marks this administration. During its four years, Clay, Webster, Calhoun, Polk, and Taylor died ; and a number of less prominent leaders either died or left public life. There appeared in Congress a number of able anti slavery leaders, the most prominent being Charles Sumner, of Massachusetts, Wil- liam H. Seward, of New York, and Salmon P. Chase, of Ohio. There had been anti-slavery men in Congress before ; but none of them, excepting John Quincy Adams and John P. Hale, of New Hampshire, were as able as these new men. There were new Southern leaders also, who were very warm in their support of slavery, Davis (§661) being the most prominent. 594. A Change of Parties also marks this administration. Many of the Northern Whigs were inclined to oppose slavery ; and therefore many of the Southern Whigs began to leave their party, and vote and act with the Democrats. Stephens (§ 661) was the most prominent of these. The result was that the Whig party 591. What were the provisions of the Fugitive-Slave T,aw? Whaf was its worst provision? What change of opinion did it bring about? What was its general effect? .592. What is said of Taylor's death? 593. What change of leaders took place? What anti-slavery leaders appeared? What is said of anti-slavery leaders hitherto? Of Southern leaders? 694. How did the Northern and Southern Whigs separate? What was tb» result? 268 SUMNER.— CEA8E.— SEWARD [1850 went all to pieces after the Presidential election of 1852 (§ 598) ; and for about two years there was really but one great party, the Democratic party. Charles Sumner. Salmon P. Chase. William H. Seward. 595. The Population of the United States in 1860 was 23,- 191,876, an increase of 6,000,000 since 1840 (§ 502). Railroads, 595. What increase of population took place? What is said of the prosperity of the country in other (Jirectipos? 1852] PIERCE ELECTED PRESIDENT. 269 telegraphs, steamers, banks, and commerce were increasing as rapidly as the population. Prosperity was universal ; but the only new direction it had taken was the gold production of Cali- fornia. 696. A Pacific Railroad, to connect California to the Eastern States, was evidently needed ; but there were many difficulties in the way of it. Between Missouri and California the whole coun- try was a wilderness, where railroad-building would be extremely expensive. Private persons could not build it without help from Congress; and Congress, in 1853, ordered surveys to be made, in order to find passes for the road through the Rocky Mountains. The work was not begun until nearly ten years later (g 864). 597. The Maine Law, so called, was adopted by the State of Maine in 1851. It forbade the making or selling of intoxicating drinks within the State, except for medical purposes. It is still in force in Maine, and has been tried at various times, by other States. as a method of checking or abolishing the unbearable evils of drunkenness. 598. The Presidential Election in 1852 put an end to the Whig })arty. The Democratic candidates for President and Vice- President were Franklin Pierce (§ 600), and William R. King, of Alabama. The Whig candidates were General Winfield Scott (§ 562), and William A. Graham, of North Carolina. The Free- soil candidates were John P. Haie, of New Hampshire, and George W. Julian, of Indiana. The vote for the Free-soil candidates was less than in 1848. Many of the Northern Whigs disliked the Fugitive-Slave Law, and refused to vote because their convention approved it. Many of the Southern Whigs had left their party (§ 594). The Whigs thus lost votes on both sides, and Pierce and King were elected, carrying all but four States. Tlicre were 254 clertoral votes for Pierce and King, and 42 for Scott and Grnliam (§ 298). Some attempts were made to revive the Whig parly, hut they did not succeed. It was conimouly said that the Whig party was killed by attempting to swallow the Fugitive-Slave Law. .596. What is raid of a Pacific railroad? Of tiie diflfieulties in the way? What was done by Congress in 18.53? 597. What was tlie Maine Law? Wliat was its object? 598. What was the effect of the Presidential election in 18.52? Who -were the Democratic candidates? The Whig: candidates? The Free-soil candidates? What ih said of the Free-soil vote? How did the Whigs lose votes? Who were elected? 270 LEADING EVENTS, 1849-53. 599. The Leading Events of Taylor's and Fillmore's administrationa were as follows: 1849-53: Taylor's aud Fillmore's Term §583 1850: Death of Taylor, and succession of Fillmore 592 Compromise of 1850 589 Admission of California 590 Fugitive-Slave Law passed 591 1851: Tlie Maine Law passed 597 1853: Pacific Railroad surveys ordered 590 SUPPLEMENTAKY QUESTIONS. Locations. — Locate the State of California; Utah and Nevada {— Utah in 1850); New Mexico and Arizona (= New Mexico in 1850); Sac B'rancisco, Cal. ; the State of Maine. REVIEW. — Give the years iu which Taylor's and Fillmore's admin istrations began and ended. The year ot Taylor's death. The tive parts of the Compromise of 1850. 599. What were the year.i in whioh Ta.yloi'"s and Fillmore's terms began and ended* The leading events of 1850? Of 1851? Of 1853? CHAPTER XrV. PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION: 1853-7. Tranklin Pierce, N. H., President. Wm. R. King, Alabama, Vice-President 600. Franklin Pierce, of New Hampshire, was born in 1804. H; became a lawyer, and was elected Repre- sentative in Congress (Democratic), 1838-7, and United States Senator, 1837-43. At the outbreak of the Mexican war, he en- tered the army, and became brigadier- general. At the end of his term of the Presidency, he retired to private life, and died in 1868. (1) Internal Affairs. 601. Exhibitions.— In 1851, there had been held at London a " World's Fair," the first of the great exhibitions of arts and manufactures which have since become so common. American inventions had taken a high place in it. ' In 1853, a similar exhibition was Franklin Pierce. opened at the Crystal Palace, a large structure of glass and iron, on Reservoir Square, in Nevv York City. Railroads and steamers have made such exhibitions possible, and their present frequency shows that all parts of the world are growing nearer together. 602. Clearing-Houses. — The banking business m New York City had by this time grown so large that a clearing-house was opened there (1853). Its business is to balance daily the accounts of the different banks with one another, so as to avoid the trouble 600. What were the leading events in the life of Pierce? 601. What is said of the London Exhibition of 1851? Of the New York Exhi- bition of 1853? 602. What is scid of the New York City Clearing-house? Of the growth of its business? 272 FOREIGN AFFAIRS. [185B of paying large suras of money back and forth. Houses of this kind have since been opened in other cities ; and the business of the New York City Clearing-house has grown to be the largest in the world. In the clearing-house, each bank exchanges the checks it holds against other banks for their checks against it, paying or receiving only the differeuce in money. The business of the New York Clearing- house in 1880 was nearly $39,000,000,000; that of the London Clear- ing house in the same year, about $21,000,000,000. 603. Roads and Bridges. — The condition of the ordinary roads of the country was now far better than it had been thirty years before ; and it has been improving ever since. The growth of the railroad system had also forced the country to attend to the build- ing of bridges, and particularly of suspension-bridges. A bridge of this kind had been thrown over the Niagara River with much dif- ficulty in 1848. Since then they had increased in number; and in 1856 the first of them over the Mississippi River was erected at Minneapolis. The American suspension-bridges are now exceed- ing'ly numerous, and among the most beautiful of their class. One of the most important, though not the largest, is that over the East River, between New York and Brooklyn, finished in 1883, (2) Foreign Affairs. 604. Naturalization. — A person born and living in a country owes obedience to its government, and is said to be one of its sub- jects. When he changes his residence to another country, and de- clares that he chooses that for his own in future, he is said to become its subject by naturalization, and then he ceases to owe obedience to the country in which he w^as born. This right of naturalization had always been asserted by the United States, and had been one of the causes of the war of 1812, as Great Britain would not admit that her subjects could become naturalized in the United States (§ 342). The growing power of the United States now made it possible to support the right effectively. 605. Martin Eoszta was an Austrian subject by birth. He 603. What is saifi of the condition of roads? Of suspension -bridges? Of the bridge over the Niagara? Over the Mississippi? Of the present condition of Amer- ican bridges? 604. What is meant by a subject by birth? By naturahzation? What country had always asserted the right of naturalization? Why was it now able to support it effectively? 605. Who was Martin Koszta? How was he arrested? How was he released? What were the results? 1854] FILIBU8TEMNQ EXPEDITIONS. 278 had headed a rebellion in Austria, had been defeated, and had then taken steps to become a naturalized American citizen. In 1853, the Austrians caught him in Asia Minor, and placed him on board a frigate, claiming that he was still an Austrian subject. Thereupon a United States war-vessel ranged up alongside of the Austrian vessel, threatened to fire on her, and compelled her to give Koszta up. Austria complained, but the American Govern- ment supported its ofiicer and gave him a medal. Since then, foreign governments have not denied that their subjects might be- come American citizens by naturalization, and thus cease to owe obedience to their former governments. 606. Japan had hitherto refused to have any dealings with foreign nations. In 1854, Commodore M. C. Perry, with an American fleet, pushed his way into Japan, and induced its gov- ernment to agree to a commercial treaty. Japan has since gone on rapidly in the road to an acceptance of our civilization. 607. Greytown, in Nicaragua, was bombarded in the same year for ill-treatiug an American vessel. 608. Filibustering Expeditions against the Spanish possessions in the West Indies were attempted daring this period. Their ob- ject was to conquer Cuba, and then obtain its admission to the Union as a slave-State. Such expeditions are against the laws of the United States, and they had to be begun secretly. They were all failures, and many of their leaders were executed by the Span- ish authorities. The American Government offered to buy Cuba from Spain, but Spain refused to sell it. There was some talk, also, of annexing the SandwiLh Islands as a slave-State. 609. William Walker, a Southerner, began his filibustering expedi- tions against Central America during tliis period. They continued until 1860, when he was captured and shot by a Central American govern ment. 610. The Ostend Circular. — In 1854, the three leading American ministers in Europe met at Ostend, in Belgium, and issued a circular, or general letter. It claimed that the possession of Cuba was a necessi- ty for the United States. Many persons in Europe and America consid- ered it a tlireat to attack Cuba, and blamed the ministers for issuing it. 606. Describe the opening of .Japan to foreign commerce. 607. What is said of the bombardment of Greytown? 608. What is said of filibvistering expeditions and their object? Were thev successful? What offer was made to buy Cuba? What is said of the Saudwica Islands? 609. What is said of Walker's expeditions? 610. What is said of the Ostend circular? 274 SLAVERY AND POLITICS. [1864 Supplementary Questions. Locations. — (School-map locations la italics.) — Locate London, Eng.; Austria ; Asia Minor; Japan; Cuba; tlie Sandwich Islands; Central America; Ostend, Belgium. (3) Slavery and Politics. 611. Slavery had now split the great religious denominations, ex- ,cepting the Episcopalians and Catholics, into Northern and Southern churches. It had split the Whig party into two parts (§ 594). It seemed to split everything it could reach. It had formed two sections (§ 425), which were every year becoming more opposed to each other, against the will of their people. Every one could see that there were signs of terrible danger to the country, though no one could see exactly from what quarter the danger was to come. 612. The American Party sprung up during this period, to take the place of the Whig party ; but it only lived for a few years. Its members were sworn not to say anything of its proceed- ings, and they were therefore often called " Know Nothings." It tried to bring in a new question, instead of the dangerous question of slavery. Troubles in Europe had enormously increased the immi- gration into the United States, and many of the immigrants were very ignorant men. The American party wished to prevent foreign- born citizens from liolding office, and from voting, except after a very long residence. It came to an end soon after the Presidential election of 1856 (§62.3). 613. The Democratic Party had been kept together in 1850 by the agreement that Congress should neither forbid nor permit slavery in the new Territories of Utah and New Mexico, but should leave their people to settle the matter (§589). In 1854, it became necessary to form Territorial governments for Kansas and Nebraska, for settlements were spreading to that quarter. In both of these Territories, Congress had " forever" forbidden slavery in 1820, when Missouri was admitted as a slave State (§426). But Stephen A. Douglas, of Illinois, and other new Democratic 611. What instances are given of the influence of slavery in splitting national organizations? In forming sections? What was the consequence? 612. What is said of the American party? Of its members? What were its objects? How did it come to an end? 613. How had the Democratic party been kept together in 1850? What new Territories were to be organized in 1854? What had been done as to slavery in them? What was the belief of Douglas? 1854] THE KANSAS-NEBRASKA ACT. 275 leaders, thought that the Compromise of 1850 had changed all this, and that Congress was bound to act in the case of Kansas and Nebraska as it had done in the case of Utah and New Mexico. 6x4. Kansas-Nebraska Act. Douglas therefore put into the bill a declaration that Congress had had no right to forbid slavery in Kansas and Nebraska in 1820; that slavery was now neither forbidden nor allowed in those Territories ; and that their people were to settle the matter. In this form the Kansas-Nebraska Act was passed, by the votes of Northern and Southern Democrats and Southern Whigs, and became law in 1854. It proved to be the coming source of danger,, and there was thereafter no more peace on the subject of slavery ; for it had reopened a question which had once been settled, but which could not now be settled again peaceably. * 615. In the North there was more excitement and anger than had been caused by any previous action of Congress. People were reminded that slavery had been forbidden in Kansas and Nebraska as part of a bargain between the North and the South, and it was said that the South, liaving received its share in the admission of Missouri, had now broken its agreement as to the rest of the Loui- siana purchase. It soon came to be believed that Southerners cared less for the Union, or for anything else, than they did for the extension of slavery ; and the North began to unite against them. 616. The Republican Party. — -At the first election of Congress- men after the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act, every one in the North who was opposed to the extension of slavery, whether he had been called a Democrat, a Whig, a Free-soiler, or an American, dropped his former party and voted for candidates opposed to the Kansas-Nebraska Act. At first tliey were called " x\nti-Nebraska Men," and under this name they elected, in the autumn of 1854, a .majority of the House of Representatives for the next Congress. Before the new Congress met, they had taken 614. What declaration was put into the bill ? How was the bill passed? What were the consequences? 615. What was the feeling in the North? What bargain was referred to? What was believed of the South? 616. What took place at the next election? What was the result of the elec- tion? What was the new party called? Who composed it? Did it extend to the South? 276 THE STRUGGLE FOR KANSAS. [1855 the name of the Republican party, which is still retained. The membership of the new party was mainly of former Northern Whigs, with a smaller number of former Democrats. It was con- fined to the Northern States, and had no members in Southern States, except in Missouri, among the German settlers, and in western Virginia, which had been largely settled by Ohio people. 617. In the South the feeling was as much astonishment as anger. People thei-e were so accustomed to slavery that they could see no reason for this excitement in the North ; and they concluded that it had been contrived by new men, who wanted only to get into power. They felt that the South was attacked without reason ; and Southerners of all parties began to unite against the North as against a common enemy. 618. The Struggle for Kansas began at once. Money was raised in the North to fit out parties of immigrants, who were to settle Kansas and by their votes make it first a free Territory and finally a free State. In the same way, Soatliern parties were fitted out to take slaves to Kansas, and by their votes to make it first a slave Territory and finally a slave State. In such a struggle the South was at a disadvantage, for no man liked to take to Kansas his slaves, which had cost him money, under the risk of losing his slaves and money if his party should be beaten. So it happened that the Southern parties were chiefly young men, who went to Kansas for excitement's sake ; while the Northern parties were real settlers, who went to stay and to make homes for themselves and their children. As very few of the Southern parties took slaves with them, one might suppose that there was little or no reason for quarrel between the settlers from the two sections. Quarrels arose because the settlers from each section voted together for one object, claimed to have won a victory, and attempted to force the other party to submit. In the end, the Northern immigrants com- pletely outnumbered their opponents, and made Kansas a free State after a five years' struggle. 619. The Koad to Kansas from the Northern States went 617. What was the feeling: in the South? What did the people of the South believe about the excitement in the North? What did they do? 618. What parties of settlers were formed in the two sections? What was the disadvantagre of the South? What was the difference between the two classes of settlers? What was the final result? 619. What was the direct road to Kansas? How was it blocked up? How was Kansas made a slave Territory? What road was taken by the free-State settlers' 1856] ASSA ULT ON SXTMNER. 277 straight across the slave State of Missouri. The people of western Missouri refused to allow free State parties to cross their State into Kansas, and forced them to turn back. When the first election- day came, parties of men from Missouri moved into Kansas, voted, and made it a slave Territory. Then the free-State parties took the roundabout road through Iowa, entering Kansas from the north ; and the struggle in the Territory itself began. 620. The Struggle in Kansas, between free-State and slave State settlers began, at once. The Southern settlers formed one government, the Northern settlers formed another; and each con- sidered the opposite party rebels against a lawful government. As each side attempted to put its laws into execution, and was resisted by force, the struggle soon became an open war. Men were shot ; parties of immigrants were robbed and dispersed; and towns were plundered and burned. Small armies, with cannon, were formed on both sides ; and the newspapers all over the country w^ere filled with news from Kansas. The President sent out one governor after another; but none of them could do anything to keep order until the free-State settlers became so numerous that their oppo- nents gave up the struggle. This did not take place until after the end of this administration, about 18.58. 621. The Debates in Congress were of the angriest sort. Duels were threatened, and many members regularly carried pistols or knives, expecting to be attacked by some of their opponeivts. Tlie Republicans usually controlled the House of Representatives, while the Democrats controlled the Senate ; and many laws failed to be passed, for want of agreement between the two branches of Congress. Kansas had formed a State government, forbidding slavery, and applied for admission, with the support of tlie Re{)ub- licans ; but the Senate refused to admit her. 622. Assault on Sumner. — Sumner was one of the most effect- ive Republican speakers in Congress; and many of his speeches were very unpleasant to Southern members. In 1856, he made a speech in the Senate which was particularly unpleasant to one of the South Carolina Senators. Thereupon, the Senator's nephew, 620. Describe the struiargrle in Kansas. How did it end? 621. What is said of the debates in Congress? Why did many laws fail to pass? Why was not Kansas admitted as a State? 622. What is said of Sumner's speeches? Of the assault upon him? What was its effect? 278 THE PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION IN 1856. [1856 Preston S. Brooks, a South Carolina representative, entered the Senate chamber, attacked Sumner unexpectedly, and beat him with a club so cruelly that his life was despaired of. This scandalous affair added fuel to the flame, for it shocked the North, while it was not disapproved at the South. 623. The Presidential Election in 1856 was remarkable for the sudden increase of the new Republican party. The Demo- cratic candidates were James Buchanan and John C. Breckinridge (§ 626). The Republican candidates were John C. Fremont, of California, and William L. Dayton, of New Jersey. The Ameri- can, or " Know-Nothing," candidates were ex-President Fillmore (§ 583), and Andrew J. Donelson, of Tennessee. One State (Mary- land) voted for the American candidates ; eleven of the free States voted for the Republican candidates ; and Buchanan and Breckin- ridge received the votes of the remaining nineteen States, and were elec-ted. There were 296 electoral votes: of these, Buchanan and Breckin- ridge received 174, Fremont and Dayton 114, and Fillmore and Donel- son 8 (§ 298). 624. The Result of the Election was anything but pleasant to the South. Up to this time, no open opponent of slavery had ever received the vote of any State in a Presidential election : now an anti-slavery party, not yet two years old, had carried nearly all the free States, and had come dangerously near electing their can- didates. It is quite certain that secession would not have taken place, even if Fremont and Dayton had been elected, for the South was not ready for it. But there was already a strong party of secessionists in the South (§ 657) ; and they spent the next four years in trying to prepare the South for secession in 1860, if the Republicans should then carry all the free States and elect their candidates. Supplementary Questions. Locations.— Locate tlie State of Kansas; the State of Nebraska; the State of Missouri ; the State of Iowa. Revievv^. — Give the years in which Pierce's administration began i.nd ended. The name of the Vice-President. The year of the Koszta 623. For what was the Presidential election in 1856 remarkable? V\'ho were the Democratic candidates? The Republican candidates? The American candidates? What was the result of the election? 624. What is said of this residt? What was the new feature in the election? Was t,liere any probability of secession then* How was secession prepared in the next four years? LEADING EVENTS, 1853-7. 279 case. Of the Kausas-Nebraska Act. Tlie fir.st year of the struggle iu Kausas. The year of the assault ou Sumner. 625. The Leading Events of Pierce's administration are as follows: 1853-7: Pierce's Term of Office § 600 1858: Crystal Palace Exhibition 601 'I'he Koszta case 605 1854. The Japan treaty 606 The Kansas-Nebraska Act 614 1855: liise of the Republican party 616 Tbe struggle in Kansas begun 618 1856: Assault on Sumner 622 625. What were the years in which Pierce's term of office liegan and ended? What were the leading events of 1853? Of 1854? Of 1855? Of 185G' CHAPTER XV. BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION: 1857-61, James Buchanan, Pa., President. John C. Breckinridge, Ky., Vice-President. (1) Internal Affairs. 626. James Buchanan, of Pennsylvania, was born in 1791. He be- came a lawyer, and served as a Representative in Congress (Democratic), 1821-31 ; minister to Russia, 1832-4; United States Senator, 1834-45; Secretary of State under Polli, 1845-9; and minister to Great Britain, 1853-6. At tlie end of his term of the Presidency, he retired to his home at Wheatland, near Lan- caster, Pa., where he died in 1868. John C. Breckinridge, of Kentucl 650 1860: Lincoln elected President 655 South Carolina secedes (December 20) 656 1861: Six other States secede 659 Steamer Star of the West fired on (January 9) 664 The Confederate States formed (February 4). . . . 660 Kansas admitted 631 Supplementary Questions. Locations. — (General map, § 657.) — Locate Harper's Ferry, W. Va ; the State of Soutli Carolina; Mississippi; Alabama; Florida; Georgia; Louisiana; Texas; Montgomery, Ala.; Key West, FJa. ; Peusacola, Fla. ; Charleston, S. C. Review. — Give the year of the Dred Scott decision. Of John Brown's " raid." Name the four candidates for President in 1860. The successful candidate. What was the platform of his party. Give the year of the secession of South Carolina. Of the secession of other States. Of the formation of the Confederate States. Name the Presi- dent of the Confederate States. The Vice-President. 665. What was done by the Federal Government? By Congress? By the President? What was tlie state of the departments? What was the general con- dition of the South at Lincoln's inauguration? 666. In what years did Buchanan's term of office begin and end? What were the leading events of 1857? Of 1858? Of 1859? Of 1860? Of 1861? CHAPTER XVI. LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION: 1861-65. Abraham Lincoln, 111., President. Hannibal Hamlin, Me., Vice-President. I. Events of 1861. 667. Abraham Lincoln is the central figure of this i^eriod. Born in Kentucky, February 12, 1809, of poor parents, he emigrated with them to Indiana, and thence to Illinois, where he found work as a farm-hand, rail-splitter, and Mississippi boatman. By hard work and perseverance, he educated himself, became a lawyer, and served as Kepresentative in Congress (Whig), 1847-49. In 1858, he had become known as one of the ablest men in Illinois, and was nominated by the Republicans for United States Senator against Douglas; and, though Illinois was then a Democratic State, Douglas barely escaped defeat. Lincoln was still little known outside of Illinois; and, when he was elected President in 1860, there was a very wide belief in the North that the "rail-splitter" was a wild, reckless, and dangerous man. In the South, it was even reported that he was a mulatto (and Hamlin a full-blooded negro), elected as an insult to Southerners. The people of both sections learned to know him better before his death in 1865 (§811). His best-known writings are the Emanciijation Proclamation and the Gettysburgh Address. 668. The New Administration began under every sort of dii3i- culti". The seven Gulf, or cotton, States were altogether hostile. The slave States north of theni were opposed to forcing the seceded States to return. Nobody felt quite certain that even the Northern States would go to war to preserve the Union. President Lincoln and his Cabinet were all new men who were without experience in managing the Federal Government ; and this general uncertainty added greatly to their difficulties. 669. Fort Sumter (§ 664) was almost ready to surrender when Lincoln became President, March 4, 1861, for its garrison had hardly any provisions left. Early in April, the President ordered 667. What are the leading events in the life of Lincoln ? 668. What was the position of the new adniinislration ? The feeling: in the cotton States ? In thf> slave States nortli of them ? In the free States ? How did all this increase the difficulties of the administration ? 669. What was the state of affairs in tort Sumter ? What order was given by the President ? What was its effect ? Describe the surrender. What became of the fleet ? ^ " 'i.-l= Abraham Lincoln. 1861] FOBT SUMTER. 299 i fleet to leave New York for Charleston, carrying provisions for the fort. As soon as this became known, the Confederate batteries were ordered to attack the fort. After a heavy fire of thirty hours, the ammunition in the fort was ahuost exhausted, and its wooden buildings were on fire; and Major Anderson surrendered the fort and garrison with the honors of war (April 13). The fleet returned to the North, having been unable to give any assistance. No one was killed on either side during the fire; but one Federal soldier was killed, and several wounded, by the explosion of a gun with which the garrison was saluting the flag before leaving for New York. Fort Sumter. 670. In the North and West, the news of the fall of Fort Sum- ter roused such an intense excitement as had not been known there eince the Revolution against Great Britain. Political differences were dropped, and the whole people was united in support of the governm.ent. When the President called for 75,000 volunteer soldiers (April 15), to put down the rebellion, four times as many *ere offered. Money and help of every kind were offered in great abundance by States and private persons; and every effort was made to pnt the city of Washington, the national capital, into a condition of security. 671. Washington was at first a very unsafe place for the gov- ernment, for it was so near the Confedeiate States that it was ex- posed to immediate attack. Soldiers at once began to gather for 670. What was the feeling: in the North and West? Wliat is said of the call for volunteers? Of other offers of help? 671. Why was Washington insecure? How was the first blood of the war sbedi Thy was the day memorable? How was Washington made secure? 300 ' CIVIL WAR. [1861 its defence. To reach it, they had to pass through Baltimore, where the secessionists were then very strong. Here, in a street' fiffht between a Massachusetts regiment and the mob which was trying to stop its march, tlie first blood of the war was shed on April 19, the anniversary of the fight at Lexington (§184). Other regiments passed by water from Havre de Grace on the Susquehan- nah through Annapolis, and Washington was soon made secure. 672. In the South the excitement was as great as in the North, and the people were now as much united. Even those who had not wislied to secede did not believe that the government had any right to force the seceding States back into the Union. When the Confederate Government called for 35,000 volunteer soldiers, several times the number were offered. 673. Civil War had fairly begun. President Lincoln pro- claimed a blockade of the Southern ports; that is, he forbade all vessels to enter or leave them, or to engage in commerce with them. The Confederate Government then issued " letters of marque," that is, permission to private persons to capture merchant-vessels belonging to the United States ; and the Confederate Congress de- clared war against the United States. There was thus a difference between the parties to the war. The Confederate States claimed to be an independent nation, at war with the United States. The United States Government refused to recognize the existence of the Confederate Government, or to consider its people as anything else than rebellious citizens. The United States Government had at first but three vessels with which to enforce the blockade; but others were rapidly bought or built, and the navy soon became very large (§ 821). Other calls were made for soldiers, and before July 300,000 men were under arms. 674. The Border States, between the Gulf States and the free States, did not desire to secede ; but they generally believed that the Gulf States had a right to secede if they wished to do so, and that the government of the United States had no right to force them back into the Union. When they received President Lin- 672. What was the feeling in the South? What is said of the Confederate call for volunteers? 673. What is said of war? Of the blockade? Of letters of marque? What did the Confederate States claim to be? How did the United States Government re- gard them ? 674. What was meant by the border States? What was their feeling? Which of them seceded, and why? What was the state of affairs io Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri? In Delaware? 1861] FOREIGN OPINION OF THE REBELLION. 301 coin's call for volunteers to force the seceding States back into the Union, the southern row of border States, North Carolina, Tennes- see, and Arkansas, refused to obey it, seceded themselves, and joined the Confederacy. In the northern row of border States, only Virginia seceded. There were many secessionists in Maryland^ Kentucky, and Missouri ; but the Union men were in the majority, and held their States to the support of the government. In Dela- ware there were hardly any secessionists: in all the other border States there were many persons who went into the Confederate army. lu Kentucky the State officers at tirst tried to be neutral, but the people forced lliem to support the government. In Missouri the State officers were open secessionists, but the Union majority of the people rose in arms, and, after some bard figliting, drove tliem out of the State. The people of the western part of Virginia refused to recognize the secession of their Stale, and formed a separate State, under the name of West Virginia (§757). 675. Foreig'n Nations generally considered it impossible for the United States to put down so extensive a rebellion, and believed that there would in future be two nations where the United States had been. They were not yet inclined to recognize the Confede- rate States as an independent nation, for it was known that the United States would declare war against any nation which should do so. Instead of doing so, they declared the Confederate States a belligerent power, that is, a power entitled to make war and have war-vessels. This gave Confederate cruisers the right to take refuge in i^orsign harbors. These vessels at first escaped from Southern ports through the blockade, but were not very successful. Little damage was done to American commerce until Confederate agents began secretly to build swift vessels in Great Britain (§ 727). Great Britain recognized the Confederate States as belligerents in May, 1861, and other nations followed the example at once. 676. The Confederate States, in June, 1861, were eleven in number: Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Flor- ida, Alabama, Mississippi, Tennessee, Arkansas, Louisiana, and 675. What was the feelinsc of foreign nations? Did they recognize the indepen- dence of the Confederate States? What course did they talce? How did this help the Confederate States? Wliat is said of Confederate cruisers? 676. Name the Confederate States as they were in Jiuie. 1861. What was their capital? The position of their troops in eastern Virginia? In western Virginia? In southern Kentucky? On the Mississippi? On the coast? How was the Confederacy protected? 302 THE FEDERAL TROOPS. [1861 ^ o Yorlc P E N X S -Yj*b^W\A N Texas. Their capital was changed from Montgomery to Rich- mond as soon as Virginia seceded. Their troops poured into eastern Virginia, which was to be the great battle-ground of the war, and held an ir- regular curved line from Harper's Ferry to Norfolk. They also had troops in the mountains of western Virginia, to repel at- tacks from Ohio. They moved troops into southern Kentucky to defend Tennessee, ^bey had built many batteries along the Mississippi, so as to stop navigation on that river; and they were busily building forts along the coast of the Atlantic and Operations in Virginia. ^be Gulf of Mexico, for protection against the blockading fleets. The whole Con- federacy was thus soon surrounded by a line of defences. 677. The Federal Troops were at first under the general com- mand of General Scott (§ 562). They held the eastern side of the Potomac, from Harper's Ferry to Fortress Monroe, and that small part of the western side which is directly opposite Washingt£>n. Of the other parts of tlie exposed country they attempted only to hold Kentucky and Missouri until the new soldiers should be trained and formed into armies. In this they were successful. The armies were formed and placed; and, within three months ifter the suvrcnd^r of Fort Sumter, the people of eleven States, 677. Who commanded the Federal troops? What was their line in eastern firginia? In other parts of the country? How had they surrounded the Confed a-acy? 1861] GEOBGE B. McGLELLAN. 303 9,000,000 in number, were surrounded by a line of hostile fleets and armies which was never broken until the end of the war. During these three months, while the two lines were settling down into their places, there was constant skirmishing from Virginia to Mis- souri. The most important conflict of this kind was at Big Bethel, near Fortress Monroe (June 10), in which the Union forces were defeated. 678. IVest Vir§:inia. — Serious fighting began early in July, in West Virginia, where General George B. McClellan had crossed the Ohio River with a force of Western troops. He first secured the country along the river, and then moved into the mountains between eastern and western Virginia. Here he beat the enemy in the bat tie of Eich Mountain and in several other battles; and before the end of the month, the Confederates were driven out of West Vir- ginia. In September, the Confederate General Robert E. Lee attempted to reconquer the lost ground, but he was beaten back by McCleilan's successor, General Rosecrans. 679. George B. McClellan was born in Pennsylvania in 1820. and was gniduaied from West Point in 1846. He became a captain in the Mt eean. Great Britain and France had built such vessels as experiments, but they had never been tried in war. At Norfolk the Confederates had been turning the frigate Merri- mac^ which they had captured in the navy yard there in 1861, into an ironclad ram. They called her the Virginia., but she was better known by her original name, the Merrimac. At New York, Captain John Ericsson (§454) had alfo been building an ironclad vessel, which he called the Monitor. 702. The Merrimac was finished early in the year. She sailed out (March 8) from Norfolk into Hampton Roads, where there was a fleet of five of the finest vessels then in the United States navy, besides a number of smaller vessels. The battle was soon over, for the Federal fleet could do nothing with the Merri- mac. They poured on her a storm of heavy shot, but these bounded from her iron roof like India-rubber balls. She rammed and sunk the Ctimherland, chased the others into shallow water, and there fired at them at her pleasure. Before she could finish the work, it became dark. When she went back to Norfolk for the night, there was apparently nothing to stop her from sailing to Washington the next morning or along the Atlantic coast. The blockade and the great Eastern cities were at the mercy of the monster, and the telegraph carried the alarming news everywhere. 703. The Monitor unexpectedly arrived in Hampton Roads two hours after the Merrimac went back to Norfolk, and while the 701. AVhat is said of the use of ironclad vessels in war? Of the building of the Merrimac? Of the building of the Monitorf 702. Give an account of the damage done by the Mei-nmac in Hampton Roads. Why did she not finish her worlf? What results seemed likely to follow? 70S. What vessel unexpectedly arrived in Hampton Roads? Give an account of the battle between the Monitor and the Merrimac^ Hqw did it result? 814 TEE MONITOR AND THE MEBRIMa \ ^1862 alarm was at its highest. No one expected rcuch. from her for she looked far smaller and weaker than the Merrimac. When the Merrimac sailed out into Hampton Roads the next morning, to finish her work, the little Monitor moved out between her and the wooden frigates, and a desperate combat followed. After four hours of firing and ramming, neither vessel was seriously injured*, The Monitor and the Merrimac. but the Merrimac could do nothing with her antagonist. Finally, she gave up the fight and steamed back to Norfolk, from which, she never again came out (§ 715). The telegraph carried the joy- ful news everywhere that " the Monitor had whipped the Merrimac^^ and the danger was over. 704. Changes in the Nary. — The events of these two days proved that the day of wooden war-vessels was past. The Federal Government soon had a great number of monitors afloat, suflicient to defend the whole coast. The Confederates also began to build ironclads, in order to break the blockade. Other nations at once began to give up wooden ships and form ironclad navies, so that this fight m Hampton Roads has since changed the navies of the world. 705. On the Coast there were further conquests. In February, a great naval expedition, under Commodore Goldsborough and General Ambrose E. Burnside, captured Roanoke Island, the scene 704. What did these events prove? What did the Federal Government do? The Confederates? Other nations? 706. What conquests vi^ere made in North Carohna? In Florida? In Greorgia? WTiat was the effect of these conquests? 1862] FABBAGUT AT NEW 0BLEAN8. 315 of Raleigh's colonies (§23). Soon afterward, St. Augustine and several other places in Florida were captured by troops from Port Royal ; and Fort Pulaski, at the mot.th of the Savannah River, was besieged and captured. These captures made the work of tha blockading vessels much easier, for most of the good harbors on the Atlantic coast were now in the hands of the Union forces. Charleston and Wilmington were almost the only good harbors left for blockade-runners. 706. New Orleans was a place of great importance to the Con federates, for while they held it they controlled the lower Missis- sippi. Thirty miles above the mouth of the river v/ere two strong forts, Forts Jackson and St. Philip, on opposite sides of the river, each mounted with heavy guns. Across the river between them six heavy chains were stretched, supported by a great raft of cypress logs, so that the river was completely closed. Behind the raft there were thirteen gunboats, an ironclad floating battery, a ram, and fire-rafts to burn an enemy's vessels. Between the forts and New Orleans there were many batteries along the river-banks, and in the city there was an army of about 10,000 men. 707. A Naval Expedition against New Orleans, under Commo- dore David G. Farragut and General Benjamin F. Butler, sailed from Hampton Roads in February for Ship Island (§685). Here the troops, 15,000 in number, landed, until the navy could open the passage up the river. Farra- gut bombarded the forts for a week, and then determined to force his way up the river. Some of his gunboats ran up to the forts on a dark night, cut the raft and chains, and opened a way for the vessels. The frigates, which were David G. Farragut. 706. Why was New Orleans important to the Confederates? What were its forts? Its defences in the river? Its defences above the forts? 707. What naval expedition was undertalten in February? What dia Farragut determine to do? What preparations (li»i be make? 316 OPENING THE MISSISSIPPI BIVER. [1862 wooden, were carefully protected with sand-bags inside, and chains outside; and at two o'clock in the morning of April 23 the fleet moved up the river. 708. The Fleet, numbering thirteen vessels, passed the forte after one of the most desperate battles of the war. Great bonfires were blazing on the banks, but the smoke was so thick that littlo could be seen. Each vessel fought for itself, firing at the forts, the gunboats, and the ironclads as they came near her; and none of them knew very much about the result until the smoke cleared away, and they found themselves above the forts. The Confede- rate fleet had been destroyed in the battle. 709. New Orleans surrendered to the fleet (April 25), and the forts surrendered soon after. General Butler then took command at New Orleans, and the fleet sailed on up the Mississippi until it met the western gunboat fleet from Memphis (§ 700). During the summer the western gunboats attacked and destroyed, near Batoi' Rouge, a powerful Confederate ironclad ram, the Arkansas. She had been built in the Yazoo River, and had passed out into the Mississippi to offer battle to the fleet. 710. The Mississippi River was now open through nearly all its course. The Confederates still had strong forts at Vicksburgh and Port Hudson ; but they were placed on bluffs high above the river, so that the gunboats could not capture them, though they could run past them by night. There was no army at hand to give assistance; and the capture of these two places was left until the next year (§ 735). In the mean time, Farragut left the Mississippi, to take command in the Gulf of Mexico. Supplementary Questions. Locations. — Locate Norfolk Va. : Fortress Monroe, Va. ; Roanoke I-laiid, N. C. ; St. Augustine. Fla. ; Port Royal S. C. ; the Savannah River; Charleston, S. C. ; Wilmington. N. C. ; New Orleans, La., Raton Rouge, La. ; the Yazoo River, Miss. ; Vicksburgh, Miss. ; Port Hudson, La. Revtew. — What great naval battle was fought in 1862? What great city was captured by the naval forces? What erieat river was nearly opened? What two Confederate forts on the Mississippi were not yet taken? 70S. Describe the passing: of the forts. What \ieeanie of the Confederate fleet? 709. What were the results of Farragut's exploit? Where did the fleet go next? What is said of the Arknnxas? 710. What is said of the Mississippi River? Of Vicksburgh and Port Hudsonj' Of Farragut's movements? 1862] LEE.— JACKSON. 817 Jn the East. 711. Bobert E. Lee, of Virginia, was borcr in J 807, and graduated from West Point in 1829. He be- came colonel and chief engineer in the Mexican war, and Super- intendent of West Point in 1852. He commanded the force which captured John Brown in 1859 (§650). When Vilginia seceded in 1861, he "followed his State," though he was not a thorough se- cessionist and had been offered tlie command of the United States forces in Virginia. He was badly beaten in West Virginia by Rose crans(§678), but this year's cam- paign made liim the leading Con- federate general. He retained the respect of Ids opponents through- out the war, became President of Washington and Lee University, at Lexington, Va., in 1866, and died in 1870. Robert E. Leb. Thomas Jonathan Jackson, of Virginia, was born in 1824, and graduated from West Point in 1846. He became a major in the Mexican war, and resigned in 1852 to become professor of mathematics in the Virginia Military Institute. He was not considered an able man in 1861, but was an ardent seces- sionist, and obtained a colonel's commission. At Bull Run. he held his position so obstinately that the men gave him the name of " Stone- wall" Jackson. In this year's campaign, he came to the front as Lee's ablest subordinate, to whom much of Lee's success was due. lie was killed by mistake by his own men in 1863 (^729). He was a man of simple character, so intensely religious as to be con- sidered a fanatic. He was also a consummate soldier. 712. In Virginia this was a battle-year. There was almost constant fighting, and four dis- Itinct campaigns: (1) McClellan's Peninsular campaign ; (2) Pope's ?11. What were the leading events in the life of Lee? Of Jackson? Slg. What four campaigns were fought in Virginia this year? Thomas Jonathan Jackson. 318 THE AEMT OF THE POTOMAC. [1862 -■ oTork 3: N Jf S T fy^Vr xA N J. ^^^ campaign in front of Washington ; (3) the Confederate invasion of the North ; and (4) Burnside's Fredericksburgh campaign. 713. The Army of the Potomac had been increased to nearly 200,000 men, well drilled and armed, and in excellent condition. The authorities at Washington were very anxious that McClel- lan should move the army directly south- west toward Rich- mond, so as to keep it always between the enemy and Washing- ton. But the country on this route was very rough, was crossed by many rivers, and had been strongly fortified by the Confederates, so that McClellan pre- ferred to carry his army by water to Por- tress Monroe, and then move it up the penin- sula between the York and James rivers to Richmond. The ob- jection to this was that it opened the way to the Confederates for a sudden rush on Washington, a more valuable prize than Rich- mond. It was finally decided to follow McClellan's plan, but to keep a part of his army, under McDowell, in front of Washington, at Fredericksburgh, and an army, under General N. P. Banks, in the Shenandoah valley. This need of protecting Washington interfered with the plans of all the Union generals during the war. In the same way, the Confederate generals had to think first of protecting Richmond. Lee once said that he had "got a crick in his neck, from always having to look back over his shoulder at Richmond." 713. What had MeClellan done with the Army of the Potomac? What was the government's plan of action? What wer'e the objections to it? What was McCleJ- lan's plan' Wbat was the objection to iVi What plan was finally followed? fiS 60 ■ JOO Operations in the East. 1862] TOBKTOWlf —SEVEN PINES AND FAIR OAKS. 319 714. The Confederate Army was at Manassas Junction (§ 681). It was commanded by General Joseph E. Johnston. As fast as McClellan's army was moved to Fortress Monroe, Johnston's army was moved to the Peninsula, so as to hold position between McClellan and Richmond. Johnston was wounded in one of the early battles, and Lee took his place. Jackson, commonly called " Stonewall" Jackson, was Lee's ablest assistant (§ 711). 715. Torktown, on the Peninsula, the scene of Washington's capture of Cornwallis (§ 262), was the first fortified place on the road from Fortress Monroe to Richmond. Early in April, ifc was attacked by McClellan's army, and after a siege of a month the Confederates evacuated it and retired toward Richmond. At Wil- Uamsburgh they were overtaken by the Union forces, and an in- decisive battle took place. The Confederates were now inside of the lines of intrenchments close around Richmond. The Union forces were divided into two parts by a little stream called the Chickahominy, which passes Richmond on the north and empties into the James. It is a dangerous thing thus to divide an army. McClellan risked it because he wished to push his line far enough north to join McDowell at Fredericksburgh, and get the assistance of his army without uncovering Washington (§713). The Union gunboats controlled the James River to within eight miles of Richmond; and the Confederates had destroyed the Merrimac, because she drew too much water to make her escape from Nor- folk to Richmond. 716. Seyen Pines and Fair Oaks. — Late in May there were heavy rains. The Chickahominy rose rapidly and carried away the bridges; the whole country on its banks became a great swamp ; and McClellan's army was badly divided. Johnston's army at once attacked the weaker division, on the Richmond sido of the Chickahominy, at Seven Pines and Fair Oaks (see map, § 718). After two days' heavy fighting, Johnston was badly wounded, and his army retired again toward Richmond. Lee took 714. What was the position of the Confederate army? Who were its com- manders? 715. Give an account of the capture of Yorkto\vn. Of the battle of Williams- burgh. What was now the position of the Confederate forces? Of the Union forces? Why did McClellan take such a risk? What had the Union gunboats done? What liad become of the Merrimac?' 716. What was the effect of the rains in May? Give an account of the battle of Fair Oaks. What did McClellan do th^ai 320 THE SEVEN DAYS' BATTLES. [1862 his place. McClellan spent several weeks in rebuilding the bridges; but, while he was doing so, Lee and Jackson were operating else- where with great success. 717. The Raids of Jackson and Stuart. — Johnston had al- ready sent Jackson north to the Shenandoah, where Banks was in command of the Union forces (§713). Jackson beat Banks with a rush, and chased him to the Potomac. Indeed, it seemed as if the road to Washington was open to him; and the authorities there were so much alarmed that they called McDowell back from Frodericksburgh to defend the city. This was just what the Con- federates wanted. They had balked McClellan's plan (§ 715). In the middle of June, General J. E. B. Stuart, an active cavalry officer, was sent on another raid. Stuart's force rode completely around McClellan's army, burning provisions and cars, and tearing up railroads, so as to interfere very much with McClellan's opera- tions. 718. Seyen Days' Battles. — Lee now had to deal only with McClellan, for he had got his other enemies out of the way. He hurried Jackson back to Richmond, and crossed the Chickahominy to meet him. He thus had about 90,000 men, nearly as many as McClellan ; but his troops were united, while McClellan's were still divided by the river. The terrible series of battles known as the Seven Days' Battles began (June 26) at Mechanicsville, a little place just north of Richmond, where Lee attacked that part of McClellan's army Scale of Miles The Seven Days' Battles. 717. Give an account of Jackson's raid. What were its results? Give an ac- count of Stuart's raid. 718. What movement was next made by Lee? How many men had he? How did the Seven Days' Battles begin ? What was the effect of the battle of Gaines's Mill? Why did McClellan retreat? What were the principal battles of the retreat f Pow did the retreat end? 1862] LEE'S INVASION OF TEE NORTH. 321 nojth of the Cbickaliominy, and was repulsed. The next day he wou a victory at Gaines's Mill, and cut off McClellan from his supplies on the York River, Then McClellan began a retreat to the James River on the south, in order to reunite his forces. Lee followed, and for the rest of the week there was desperate fighting every day, the principal battles being those of Savage's Station (June 29), Glendale, or Frazier's Farm (June 30), and Malvern Hill (July 1). The last-named battle ended the series, for Lee was repulsed, and McClellan had reached the James River. This ended McClellan's Peninsular campaign, and his army was soon needed for the defence of Washington. The losses were about the same for both armies, 15,000 men each. 719. Pope's Campaign. — The Union forces between Fredricks- burgh and Washington, 40,000 in number, were now put under command of General John Pope. Lee kept enough men to hold Richmond, and sent the rest, under Jackson, north to attack Pope. Jackson completely defeated Pope in the battle of Second Bull Run (August 29), on the old Bull Run battle-field (§681), and drove his army through Chantilly and Fairfax Courthouse back to Washington. The authorities there had already ordered McClellan to bring his army back by water ; and, as fast as this was done, the rest of Lee's army was moved north to join Jackson. Thus, early in September, the two armies w^ere again about wheris they had been at the beginning of the year. 720. Lee's Invasion of the North. — While McClellan's army was still at Washington, Lee crossed the Potomac, took possession of Frederick City, and apparently intended to move right on to Philadelphia or Baltimore. McClellan, who now commanded all the forces around Washington, marched through Maryland and covered Baltimore, so that Lee was compelled to turn to the northwest, through the mountains. While he held the mountain-passes, Jack- son had stopped long enough to capture Harper's Ferry, with a garrison of 12,000 men, and a large amount of supplies. 721. Antietam. — McClellan overtook the Confederates, and 719. Where was Pope's army? How was the attack on him be^nn? What was its effect on McClellan's army? What were then the positions of the opposing armies? 720. What movement was now made by Lee? By McClellan? How did this change Lee's course? What was done by Jackson? 721. How was the battle of Antietam brought on? What was its result? What change of command was made in the Union army, and why? 322 BURNSIDE'S CAMPAIGN. [1862 foaght the indecisive battle of South Mountain (Sep. 14), Lee was compelled to give up his invasion of the north, and turn and fight. He took position along Antietam Creek, near Sharpsbargh, and here was fought the great battle of Antietam, or Sharpsburgh (September 17). It was a drawn battle, but the re- sult was against the Confederates, for they had to give up the in- vasion of the North and recross the Potomac into Virginia. McClellan followed them slowly, and by November the armies were back again not far from the positions they had held at the begin- ning of the war, McCleuan was blamed for his slowness, and the command of the army was taken from him and given to General Ambrose E, Burnside, The Confederate forces at Antietam numbered 40,000; the Union foices 55,000, though tbere were about 25,000 others who look no part in the battle. Each side lost about the same number, 13,500. McClellan held no further command during the war. 722. Biirnside's Campaign. — Burnside marched his array, which now numbered 125,000 men, to Fredericksburgh, in- tending to cross the Rappa- hannock there, and move straight for Richmond, Lee and Jackson reached their side of the Rappahannock first, and fortified the hills behind Freder- icksburgh. Nevertheless, Burn- side crossed the river and at- tempted to storm the hills (December 13). He was de- feated, with heavy loss, and was driven back to the north side of the Rappahannock, The command of the army was then taken from him, and given to General Joseph E, Hooker, The Union loss was about 13,000; the Confederate loss, 5,500. Ambrosk E. Burnside. 722. What was Bumside's plan of campaign? What was done by Lee? De- scribe the battle of Fredericksburgh. What were its results? 1862] EMji.NCIPATIOK 323 723. Military Summary. — In the spring of 1862, the advan- tages were all with the Union forces. Mill Spring, Forts Henry and Donelson, Pea Ridge, Pittsburgh Landing, and Corinth, in the West, the naval battle at Hampton Roads, Roanoke Island, Fort Pulaski, and New Orleans, on the coast, were all important Union victories. The disasters in Virginia during the summer, and Bragg's raid into Kentucky, were not so favorable. But, on the whole, the year was marked by long steps forward. No territory had been lost in Virginia; the Union lines had been advanced across the whole State of Tennessee ; the Mississippi had been almost opened ; and great pieces haa been taken out of the Confederacy in every direction. The blockade v/as growing stricter constantly, so that the Southern people were in want of such common medicines as quinine ; and the two great attempts, by Bragg and Lee, to burst through the besieging line of armies had been beaten back. But there was no notion now that the war was to be an easy matter. At the end of the year, 1,300,000 volunteers had been called for, and the number of vessels in the navy was nearly 600. The expenses of the government were nearly $3,000,000 a day. 724. Emancipation. — Slavery was not interfered with by the government at the beginning of .the v»'ar. But there was a strong feeling at the North that slavery was the real cause of the war; and, as the struggle grew hotter, many who had never been Abolition- .[sts began to wish that Congress and the President would, as a war- •.vieasure, attack slavery. Just after the battle of Antietam, Presi- dent Lincoln issued his first Emancipation Proclamation. It warned the seceding States that he would declare their slaves free unless they returned to the Union before the first day of the next year. No seceding State returned, and the final Emancipation Proclamation was issued, January 1, 1863. From that time, the army and navy of the United States considered all negroes free men, and refused to allow their former masters to treat them as slaves; and, as fast as the army and navy gained control of the 723. What Union victories had been won in the springy? What were the disas- ters of the summer? What had been gained during the whole year? How had the besieging lines around the Confederacy been kept:' What exertions was the gov- ernment making? 724. Was the government fighting against slavery at first? Why was its policy changed? What is said of the first Emancipation Proclamation? Of the second Emancipation Proclamation? What were its consequences? 324 FINANCIAL AFFAIRS. [1862 South, tte masters were obliged to surrender control of the negroes. Colored men were also enlisted as soldiers and sailors. It was not until 1865 that the Constitution was amended so as to for- ever forbid slavery (§ 838). 725. Financial Affairs. — The support of such enormous armies and navies required the expenditure of money on an equally large scale, and the revenue of the government was not at all equal to it. In 1862, the government decided to issue paper money in bills, which were often called " greenbacks" from the color of the ink with which their backs were printed. This was made a legal ten- der ; that is, any one who owed a debt had the right to pay it in paper money, no matter how much the paper might ^jave decreased in value. From this time until 1879 (§ 902), the government paid out its own paper money for its expenses. It would not have been safe to issue too much of this kind of money, for it decreases in value rapidly when too much is issued (§ 2o4) ; and a large part of the expense of the war was paid by loans, by selling bonds, or promises to pay, with interest, in the future. In order to encour- ao-e the sale of the bonds, the National Banking system was estab- lished in 1863. Banks were not allowed to issue currency, with- out depositing a slightly larger amount of bonds at Washington. All the banks which issued currency were thus compelled to buy bonds, that is, to take part in the loaning of moiioy to the govern- ment (§ 496). 726. Foreign Affairs. — The Confederates had always expected that Great Britain and France would intervene in the war ; that is, that they would agree to consider the Confederate States an inde- pendent nation, and attempt to force the United States to follow their example. They expected this because the cotton-factories in those two countries were in great difficulties for want of the South- ern cotton, which was cut off by the blockade (§ 673). The Emancipation Proclamation put an end to any such expectation ; the people of Great Britain would not have allowed their govern- ment to attempt to force the United States to stop abolishing slavery, and the French Government would not have ventured to intervene alone. 725. What is said of the greenbacks? Of bonds and loans? Of the National Banking system? 726. What had the Confederates expected from abroad? Why? What was the efEe<;t of the Emancipation Proclamation? 1862] CONFEDERATE PRIVATEERS. 325 The Alabama. 727. Confederate PriTateers. — New reasons arose for ill-feel- ing against the British Government. Confederate agents in Eng- land built and armed two fast-saiHng steamers, the Alabama and the Florida. The British Govern- ment was not suffi- ciently careful to seize them ; they escaped to sea, and soon almost entire- ly drove American commerce from the ocean. Whenever they were closely chased by Ameri- can frigates, they found a friendly refuge in British harbors, until they could again get out to sea and renew their work of destruction. And, as they were British built, British armed, and manned mostly by British sailors, it looked to the people of the United States as if the building of these vessels were a British trick to destroy the com- merce of a friendly nation (§ 854). 728. The Sioux War. — Daring the summer of 1862, the Sioux Indians, in western Minnesota, revolted. They had made many com- plaints of their treatment by the government, and in August they burst suddenly upon the outlying settlements, killing men, women, and children without mercy. Troops were hurried back from the western armies, and the Indians were driven out of the State. Thirty-eight r.f them were tried, convicted of murder, and hanged. Supplementary Questions. Locations. — Locate Washin2;toii, D. C. (§ 713); Richmond, Va. : Fort- ress Monroe, Va. ; tlie James River, the York River; Fredericksburgh, Va. ; tlie Shenaudnah River; Manassas Junction, Va. ; Williamsburgh, Va. ; Frederick, Md. ; Philadelphia (general map); Baltimore; Harper's Ferry. W. Va. ; Sharpsburgh, Md. Review. — What were the four Virginia and Maryland campaigns of 1863? Name three of the Seven Days' Battles. What battle stopped the Confederate invasion of the North? What great battle ended the 727. What is said of the Alabama and the Florida? Why were they looked upon as British vessels in disg:uise? 728. What is said of the Sioux war in Minnesota? How was it ended? 326 CHANCELLORS VILLS. [1863 year? Who was the Confederate commander? His ablest assistant? Who was the Union commander in most of the battles? What procla- mation of the President attaclied negro slavery? What English-built privateers escaped during the year? What Indian war took place? III. Events of 1863, In the East. 729. ChaneellorsTille. — For some months the Army of the Potomac, under Gen- y oYort P E N JT S Y/b-^V-\A N eral Hooker, lay quiet on the north side of the Rappahannock (§722). Then Hook- er again led the army across the Rappahan- nock, keeping to the north of the strong defences behind Fred- ericksburgh, and thus forced his way about ten miles toward Rich- mond. He was then met by Lee's army at a little place called Chancellorsville, and one of the great bat- tles of the war fol- lowed (May 2-3). By skilful generalship, Lee and Jackson in- flicted heavy loss oh the Union army, and drove it back across the Rappahannock. But the Confederates suffered a heavier loss in the death of " Stonewall " Jackson. He was shot, through mistake, by some of his own men, during the night after the first day's battle. Lee said, very truly, that he had lost his right arm in losing Jackson. The Union forces engaged numbered 90,000, and their loss was 17,000; the Confederate forces numbered 45,000, and their loss was 12,000. TinTc i Co.iy.r: Scale of 3lne3 Operations in the East. 729. Describe Hooker's advance toward Richmond. ville. What is said of " Stonewall " Jackson's deaih:- The battle of Chancellors- 1863 SECOND INVASION OF THE NOUTH. 327 730. Second Inyasion of the North. — Daring the month of June, Lee made preparations for a second invasion of the North. His army, now numbering 70,000 men, was moved around tlie west of Hooker's army, until it reached the Slienandoah valley. At the same time. Hooker was drawing back his army of about 100,000 men toward Washington, to protect that city. Soon the movement changed into a race between the two armies for the North. Lee's array moved through the Shenandoali valley, crossed the Potomac at Harper's Ferry, marched across Maryland, and en- tered Pennsylvania. The main body was at Chambersburgh, but parts of it held York and came within a few miles of Harrisburgh. The invasion caused great alarm in the North. All business was stopped in Philadelphia, and militia regiments were hurried for ward from all the States to aid the Army of the Potomac. 731. The Army of the Potomac had crossed the Potomac be- tween Lee and Washington, and moved north through Maryland so as to protect Bal- timore and Philadelphia. Gen- eral George G. Meade had now taken Hooker's place as com- mander. Just as Lee turned his course east from Cham- bersburgh to attack Philadel- phia, the Army of the Potomac moved up between him and the city, and the two armies met at Gettysburgh. 732. The Battle of Get- tysburgh was fought July 1, 2, and 3. The Union army was on the crest of a line of hills called Cemetery Ridge; the Confederate army was on the crest of a line of hills opposite. 730. How did Lee begin his invasion? What was his line of inarch? What was the feeling in the North? 731. What was the Army of the Potomac doing? How did the two armies meet? 732. When was the battle of Gettysburgh fought? Describe the positions ol tlip two armies. What was the result of the first day's fighting? Of the second day's fighting? How did the final struggle take place? What was its result? George G. Meade. 328 OPERATIONS IN THE WEST. [1863 called Seminary Ridge ; between them, in the valley, was the town of Gettysburgh. The first day's fighting was rather in favor of the Confederates. On the second day they even gained one of the Union positions. The final struggle came on the third day. After a tre- mendous fire of two hours from 150 cannon, the Confederates made their last charge in a line more than a mile long. It was gallantly made, and gallantly repulsed after a three hours' struggle. When the sun set, the battle of Gettysburgh was over, and Lee was defeated^ The Union loss was about 23,000; the Confederate loss, about 30,000. While the last charge was being repulsed, the arraugements were being made for the surrender of Vicksburgh (i^ 738). 733. Lee's Retreat was begun during the night, and his army moved southward through Maryland and Virginia to the Rapidan, a branch of the Rappahannock. The Army of the Potomac fol- lowed slowly until it reached the opposite bank of the Rapidan. Here the two armies remained in position until Grant came to take command in Virginia the following year (§761). But Lee's army never fully recovered from the terrible losses of Gettysburgh, ?nd it made no further effort to break through the Union line, or invade the North. SXTPPLEMENTAKY QUESTIONS. Locations. — Locate the Rappahannock River; Fredericksburgh, Ya. ; the Shenandoah River; Harper's Ferry, W. Va. ; Chambersburgh, Pa.; York, Pa.; Carlisle, Pa.; Philadelphia; Gettysburgh, Pa. Review. — Name the two great battles of 1863 in tlie East. "Which was marked by the death of Stonewall Jackson? Which stopped Lee'3 second invasion of the North? In the West. 734. Union Positions. — In the beginning of the year 1863 there were four LTnion armies in the West. One was near Mur- freesboro, under Rosecrans (§ 697) ; another was in northern Mis- sissippi, near Holly Springs, under Grant (§ 698) ; a third was in Louisiana, under Banks, who had succeeded Butler (§ 709) ; and a fourth was in Arkansas (§ 699). The leading object of these armies was to open up the Mississippi, and thus split the Confed- eracy ; and as Grant was operating close to the line of the river, 733. What is said of Lee's retreat? Of the pursuit? Of the positions -ot the opposing armies? How had Lee's army been weakened ? 734. How many Union armies were in the West? Name them. What waa ■Jhei r leading object? Who was to do the works' 1863J CONFEDERATE POSITIONS. 329 the burden of the work fell first on liim. His ablest assistant was Sherman (§ T73). 735. Confederate Positions. — The river was still blocked by- strong Confederate fortifications at Vicksburgh and Port Hudson (8 710). Between Vicksburgh and Grant was a Confederate army under Pemberton ; and all the Confederate forces in the West were under J. E. Johnston (§714), who had suc- ceeded Bragg. But Pem- berton and Johnston did not work well together. When Grant had begun hia inarch toward Vicks- burgh the year before, Pemberton had sent cav- tlry around to the rear of Grrant's army, captured Holly Springs and its supplies, and thus com- pelled Grant to return unsuccessful. He was so elated by this success that the Vicksburgh Campaign. he overrated his own skill, and gave but a half-hearted obedience to Johnston's directions. Johnston wished to have no siege of Vicksburgh, but to fight Grant in the open field : Pemberton pro- ceeded to strengthen the fortifications in every way, and to get ready for a siege. Early in the year 1863, Slierman led an expedition up the Arkansas Rirer, and captured Fort Hiiidman, or Arkansas Post, a fortification which threatened the flank of any attack on Vicksburgh. 73G. Grant's First Plan was to lead his army across the Missis- sippi, near Memphis, and move down the west bank of the river until he should be opposite Vicksburgh. Here he endeavored to 735. What were the chief Confederate fortifications? What was Pemberton's command? Johnston's command? What success liad Pemberton gained in the previous year? What effect did it have on him? How did Johnston and Pember- ton disagree? 736. What was Grant's first plan? What did he endeavor to ao? How did his plan fail? 330 VICK8BUBGE. [1863 cut a canal across a great bend in the Mississippi, and thus leave Vicksburgh at a distance from the river. But the river refused to run through the canal, and the plan failed. After two months' hard work, he found that Vicksburgh was too strong to be taken from this side. 737. (Jrant's Second Flan. — Grant, having given up this mode of 'attack, moved his army in April still farther south, past Vicksburgh, through a low, flat, and terribly swampy country. At the same time, the gunboat fleet ran past the batteries without much injury, and these ferried Grant's army across the Mississippi, at Grand Gulf, near Port Gibson, so that it w^as now again on the Vicks- burgh side of the river, but below the city. Sherman, with a part of the army, kept up a noisy attack on the northern side of the city, on the Yazoo River, to distract Pemberton's attention. John- ston was gathering a force at Jackson, to aid Pemberton. 738. Vicksburgh. — After crossing the Mississippi, Grant moved northeast, fighting five successful battles as he went, until he reached Jackson. He thus drove Pemberton into his fortifications at Vicksburgh on one side, while he drove away Johnston on the other. Then, turning back from Jackson, he rejoined Sherman, and the whole army formed a close siege of Vicksburgh. From that time, his grip on the place could not be loosened. He- threatened Johnston in his rear, while he besieged Pemberton in his front ; and, after a siege of six weeks, the place surrendered, with 32,000 prisoners (July 4). 739. Port Hudson surrendered (July 9) to the Louisiana army under Banks. By the captures of Vicksburgh and Port Hudson, the whole Mississippi River passed under the control of the Uniop armies and fleets. The Confederates could no longer bring grain and cattle across the Mississippi from Texas and Arkansas, to feed their armies east of the Mississippi. 740. In Arkansas the Confederates attacked the post at Helena, July 4, and were badly defeated. After the fall of Vicks' burgh. Grant sent a force into the State and took possession of 737. What was Grant's next movement? How did the gunboats aid him? What was Sherman doing? What was Johnston doing:? 738. What was Grant's next hne of march? What was its eflfect? How was the siegre formed? How did it end? 739. Wliat is said of the surrender of Port Hudson? What were the effects rtj these victories? 740. What was done in Arkansas this year? 1863] CAVALRY RAIDS. 331 nearly all of it, though there wae ■still some fighting by Confederate guerrillas (§ 699). 741. Caralry Raids had now become commi,n on both sides. A cs,valry force, if it could get into the rear of an opposing army, could inflict more damage, by tearing up railroads and barning supplies, than could be made up by the capture of the raiders. One of the boldest of these raiders Avas the Confederate John Mor- gan. In July he passed through Tennessee and Kentucky with 4,000 horsemen, crossed the Ohio River into Indiana, and moved eastward into Ohio, fighting the militia as he went. The whole State was alarmed, and he was captured before he could return into Kentucky. He escaped from prison, but was killed soou afterward in a Kep- tucky skirmish. Toward the end of the war, the Union cavalry forced became fuliy as good soldiers as their oppoueuts, and much more suc- cessful. /Tranklin f KlUurfroeaboro T eV U E S Chattanooga , . ^ CS,^ Chirljamaugd Baleigh 5U 100 160 200 250 Operations in the Southeast. 742. Chattanooga was a most important point for both sidec. rhe army which held it could control all east Tennessee, and at the same time could attack the mountamous region to the south ot it, in northern Georgia. In June, Rosecrans moved his army south 741. What is said of cavalry raids? Describe Morgan's raid. 74'2. Why was Chatranooga an important pointy What movement did Rose- orans make in June? What movement did he make d"ariug the siunmer? Where did the Confederate army halt? '332 CHATTANOOGA. [1863 from Murfreesboro, and Bragg retired slowly before him to Chat- tanooga. During the summer, Rosccrans moved part of his army so far around Bragg's army that the Confederates evacuated Chat- tanooga, and retired into Georgia. 743. Chickainauga. — Rosecrans thought that Bragg was re- treating, and hurried to pursue him. The two armies came together at a little creek called the Chickamauga, about twelve miles south of Chattanooga. Bragg had received reinforcements from Lee's army, and defeated the Union army (September 19-20). Part of Rosecrans's men fled in confusion to Chattanooga, but the rest, under General George H. Thomas, held their ground obstinately, and covered the retreat. Bragg followed and shut up the Union army in Chattanooga so closely that it was almost starved. The Union forces numbered about 55,000; the Confederate forces, about 60,000. The loss of each was about equal, 17,000. 744. The Siege of Chattanooga was kept up for about two months. But one road, and that a bad one, was open to the Union troops. The others were controlled by the Confederates, who held Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge, both looking down upon Chattanooga, and so strongly fortified as to seem to defy attack. The Union army could neither advance nor retreat, and there seemed to be a chance, at one time, that it would have to surrender. Brafo- was so sure of an easy success that he sent a part of his army, under Longstreet, up the Tennessee River to besiege Knox- ville, which was held by Burnside (§ 722). 745. Grant was now, since his success at Vicksburgh, one of the most prominent Union generals, and he was sent to Chatta- nooo-a. All the western armies east of the Mississippi were put under his command, and he drew men from all of them, as well as others from the Army of the Potomac, under Hooker, He also brouo-ht Sherman, and several other generals in whom he had con- fidence. He then made quiet preparations for that which hardly seemed possible, the storming of the lofty positions held by the Confederates. 743. What is said of the battle of Chickamauga? Wlio covered the retreat? What was Bragg's next movement? 744. What is said of the siege of Chattanooga? What was the position of the Union army? What is said of the siege of Knoxville? 745. Who was sent to Chattanooga? What command was fiven him f What preparations did he make? 1863] LOOKOUT MOUNTAIN. 333 746. Lookout Mountain and Missionary Kidge were taken by sudden assaults (November 24 and 25). The Confederates ex- pected no such result, and the Union troops were almost as much Lookout Mountain. surprised at their own success. Part of the fighting was so high up the mountain-side that the troops were hidden by the clouds, and for this reason the battle of Lookout Mountain is often called "the battle above the clouds." The Union forces numbered nbout 60,000 ; their loss was 5,800. The Confederate forces numbered about 35,000 ; their loss was 6,600. 747. The Confederate Retreat. — Bragg's army retreated to Dalton, where Johnston was put in command of it. At the same 746. What is said of the hattles of Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge? What is the battle of Lookout Mountain often called, and why? 747. What became of Bragg's army/ Of Lon^stroet's arnxy? 534 OPERATIONS ON TEE COAST [1863 time, Longstreet gave up the siege of Knoxville, and retreated across the mountains into Virginia. For the rest of the year military operations in the West ceased. Supplementary Question-*, Locations. — Locate Mnrfreesboro, Tenn. ; Holly Springs, Miss.; Vicksburgh, Miss.; Port Hudson, La..; Memphis, Tenn.; Port Gibson, Miss.; the Yazoo River; Jackson, Miss.; Helena, Ark.; Chattanooga, Tenn.; Knoxville, Tenn.; Dalton, Ga. Review. — What two stroug posts on the Mississippi were captured by the Union forces in 1863? What victory was won by the Confed- erate forces in the West? What place did they then besiege? Who broke up the siege? By what battles? On the Coast. 748. Fort Sninter was attacked in April by a fleet of iron- clads from Port Royal ; but, after half an hour's firing, one of the vessels was lost, and the rest retired. 749. Charleston was besieged for the last half of the year by a land-force from Port Royal, under General Q. A. Gillmore, aided by gunboats and ironclads. Gillmore, after hard fighting, cap- tured an earthwork called Fort Wagner. He battered Fort Sumter into ruins, and destroyed about half of Charleston by firing shells into it from a distance of about five miles. But he failed to cap- *ure Fort Sumter, or to get any nearer to Charleston than the island at the motith of the harbor. 750. The Ironclad Atlanta had been built by the Confederates in the Savannah River. She was much like the Merrimac, but larger and stronger. In June she steamed down the river to drive away the blockading fleet. The Weehaivken, a monitor, met her and captured her after a fight of fifteen minutes, in which the Weehaivken fired but five shots. 751. In Texas, Sabine Pass and Brownsville were captured during the year by expeditions from New Orleans. Supplementary Questions. Locations. — Locate Charleston, S. C. (general map); the Savannah River; Sabine Pass, La.; Brownsville, Tex. Review. — What battle between ironclads was fought in 1863? What fort was ruined? 748. What attack -was made on Fort Sumter? What was its result? 749. What is said of the siege of Charleston? What did Gillmore accomplish? What did he fail to do? 750. What is said of the Atlanta f How was she cantured' 751. What was done in Texas? 1863] MILITARY SUMMARY. 335 752. Military Summary. — The year 1863 was one of great advantage to the forces of the United States in the West. Ken- tucky, Tennessee, Missouri, and Arkansas had been finally secured, and the seat of war had been changed to their southern border. The Mississippi had been opened, and the Confederacy divided into two parts, each of which in future had to fight for itself, while the Federal Government could send troops from the North to either side of the river. A new set of generals had appeared, Grant, Sherman, Sheridan, and others, who were very hard and fast fight- ers, and cared little for politics or anything else than the war. In the East less had been done, and Lee was still more than a match for his opponents. But even here advantages had been gained. Lee's army had been so badly shattered by the terrible slaughter at Gettysburgh that it was never again quite equal to what it had been before; and his last and strongest attempt to burst through the attacking line and carry the war into the North had been a fail- ure. It seems now that July, 1863, was the turning-point of the war, after which the Confederacy grew steadily weaker. During that month occurred the battle of Gettysburgh, the surrender of Vicksburgh and Port Hudson, the conquest of Arkansas, and the movement on Chattanooga. The results were so evident that in August a day of thanksgiving was proclaimed by President Lincoln, and a day of fasting and prayer by the Confederate authorities. Internal Affairs. 753. In the Confederacy there was now great and general dis- tress. The government forced all men between the ages of 18 and 45 into the army, so that women and children had to do men's work. The soldiers were badly fed, clothed, and armed. Food was scarce and dear, for the people could now get no cattle from beyond the Mississippi, no grain from Virginia and Tennessee, no sugar from Louisiana, and no salt or fish from the coast. Cotton could not be sold, for the blockade was too strict. The railroads were fast wearing out, and there were no great iron-works to replace 752. What successes were won this year in the AVest? What new generals had appeared? What liad been done in the East? What advantages liad been gained? VVhat was tlie turning-point of the war? What events occurred during this month? What was done in August? 753. What was the state of affairs in the Confederacy? What is said of th^? men? Of food? Of cotton? Of the railroads? Of common articles? Of paper money? 336 AFFAIRS IN TEE NORTH. [1863 them. It was almost impossible to get such common articles as paper, and printing was sometimes done on one side of wall-paper. The government had issued so much paper money that it was almost worthless. One dollar in gold was worth twenty dollars in Confederate money. Butter sold for $5 a pound; beef, $1.50 a pound; coffee, $10 a pound; corn and potatoes, $14 a bushel. 754. In the North and West there was no such distress. Food, manufactures, and wealth were abundant. Taxes were high, but the people paid them willingly and easily. The tariff had been made very high in 1861, so as to offset the high internal taxes, and restrict foreign competition. Paper money had been issued (§ 725), and had decreased in value so that one dollar in gold was worth one and a half dollars in paper; but wages had increased somewhat but not enough to make this good. 765. The Army was well fed, armed, and clothed; and the Drafting Soldiers. people formed Sanitary Commissions and other associations to care for the comfort of the soldiers in the field. These associations built hospitals, distributed food, medicines, and assistance of every kind, and aided the sick and wounded. To help pay their ex- 754. What was the state of affairs in the North and West? What is said of taxes? Of the tariff and manufactures? Of paper money? 766. What is said of the army? Of popular associations and their work? Of the fairs? 1863] THE DBAFT. 337 penses, great fairs were held all over the country, on a scale never equalled before or since. The New York City fair brought in $1,200,000; the Philadelphia fair, $1,080,000; and the Brooklyn fair, $400,000. 756. Drafts were used this year to fill up the armies, for vol- unteering had become slow. Names were drawn by lot from lists of able-bodied men all over the country, and those whose names were drawn were forced to enter the army or pay for a substitute. The first draft in New York City, in July, was stopped by a great mob, which held control of the city for several days, and burned houses and murdered negroes at its will. Finally it was scattered by soldiers hurried back from Gettysburgh (§ 732), and drafting went on unopposed. Drafts never brought many soldiers, but they hurried volunteering. 757. West Yirginia was admitted to the Union in 1863. West Virginia was the mountainous western part of Virginia. It had been settled in great part by immigrants from Ohio; there were not many slaves in it; and, when Vir- ginia seceded in 1861, the people of this sec- tion refused to obey {§ 674). At first they claimed that their legislature was the legisla- ture of Virginia; but tliey soon formed a separate Stalie which was admitted by Con- gress in 1863. The State is rich in minerals — iron, coal, salt, and petroleum; and its popu- lation in 1890 was 762,794. Seal of West Virginia. Foreign Affairs. 758. Mexico. — France, aided at first by Great Britain and Spain, had overturned the republican government of Mexico as soon as the troubles in the United States began. The United States considered this an unfriendly act (§427), but could do nothing just then to resist it. France now made Mexico an em- pire, with Maximilian, an Austrian archduke, as emperor. Maxi- milian accepted the throne in the following year (§ 829). 756. What is said of drafts? How were they held? What riot took place in New York City? How was it suppressed? 7.57. W^ha't State was admitted in 1863? 768. What had France done in. Mexico? Why did not the United States inter- fere? What did France do this year? 338 CONFEDERATE AND UNION POSITIONS. [1864 ;59. The Confederate Privateers Alabama and Florida (§ 727) continued their destruction of American commerce ; and a new vessel, the Georgia, was sent out on the same work. This vessel, like the others, was built in Great Britain. Confederate agents also built two powerful ironclad rams in Great Britain, declaring that they were intended for the emperor of China; but the United States threatened to declare war against Great Britain if they were allowed to go to sea, and the British Government at the last moment seized them. Confederate agents also tried to build iron- clads in France, but the French Government refused to permit them to do so. IV. Events of 1864. 760. Confederate Positions. — There were now but two great Confederate armies east of the Mississippi. ^ Lee's army, 62,000 strong, held the Rapidan River, near Fredericksburgh. Johnston's army, 75,000 strong, held Dalton, in Georgia. Around it and behind it, to the south, there were great mountains, which con- tinued beyond Atlanta. They gave Johnston a great number of strong defensive positions, and made it extremely difficult to drive him out of the mountains into the flat country to the south, be- tween Atlanta and the sea. 761. Union Positions (East). — Grant had now become the most prominent Union general, and he was given command of all the armies of the United States, with the rank of lieutenant-gene- ral. He left Sherman (§ 773) to command the army before Dalton, while he himself went to Virginia to meet Lee, taking Sheridan with him. When he took his new place with the Army of the Potomac, it numbered 116,000 men, about twice as many as Lee's army. Nothing was so important an assistance to the successful conclusion of the war as the complete confidence which the people of the North and West now gave to Grant, unless it was the frank, hearty, and com plete confidence which Grant always gave to his assistants, Sherman, Sheridan, Thomas, and others. 759. "What is said of the Confederate privateers? Of the building of Confede- rate ironclads in Great Britain? In France? 760. What were the positions of the two great Confederate armies? "What was the strengrth of Johnston's position? 761. What is said of Grant? Who were the two Union commandersr How many were in the Army of the Potomac? 1864] OPERATIONS IN TEE EAST. 9^9 762. Union Positions (West). — Three armies had been acting in the West : the Army of tlie Mississippi, which had captured Vicksburgh ; the Army of the Tennessee, which liad fought at Murfreesboro ; and the Army of the Oliio, which had forced its way through eastern Tennessee to Knoxville (§ 744). All three were now united at Chattanooga under Sherman, so that he had about 100,000 men. His object was to drive Johnston's weaker army southward through the mountains to the open country be- ynrvl Atlanta, and there overthrow and destroy it. To make certain that there should be no interference by other Con- federate armies in ihe West, Sherman led an army eastward to Meridian, Miss., early in llie year. He destroyed the railroads for miles in every direction so completely that uo army or supplies could be moved against him (§ 788). 763. Plan of United Action.— It was agreed by Grant and Sherman that both should begin the forward movement on the same day (May 5) ; and that each should keep his opponent so busy that the two Confederate armies would not be able to send assistance to one another, as they had been in the habit of doing. When the fighting began, the Confederate armies were allowed no time for rest. Supplementary Questions. Locations.— Locate Fredericksburgli, Va. (§ 713); D:dton,Ga.(§ 742); Atlanta, Ga. ; Vicksburgh, Miss. ; Murfreesboro, Teun. ; Knoxville Tenn. ; Chattanooga, Tenn. Review. — What two generals were in command of the United States and Confederate armies in Virginia in 1864? At Chattanooga? What was the date fixed for the forward movement? In the East. 764. Grant and Lee. — Grant had won his western victories by " constant hammering," and he set out to do the same thing in Virginia. But he had now to meet an enemy very different from Pemberton or Bragg. Lee had already won the reputation of being one of the most skilful generals of modern times ; and " constant 762. Name the three western armies of the United States? Where were they now united, and under whom? What was Sherman's object? 768. What plan of action was agreed upon by Grant and Slierman? 764. What had been Grant's method of warfare? What is said of Lee's reputa- tion? What was Grant at last forced to do? 340 GRANT AND LEE. [1864 iiiammering" at him was a very perilous undertaking. It was like a battle between a man with a sword and a man with a club ; and it was not until Grant laid down the club, and used his own military skill, that his superiority in strength gave him the advan- tage. 765. Grant's Plan. Grant had decided to take the overland route from the Rappahan- nock River to Rich- mond (§V13). An army of 30,000 men, under Butler, was sent up the James River, to a point near Peters- burgh, to attack Ricli- mond from that side. Another army, under Sigel and Hunter, was sent up the Shenan- """ doah valley to at- tack Lynchburgh and threaten Richmond from the west. 766. The Wilderness, as it was called, between Frederickshurgh and Richmond, was crossed from west to east by many rivers, and Lee had filled it with fortifications. From behind these he fough*,. Grant successfully for two weeks, repulsing his stubborn attempts to storm the works. The fighting was the bloodiest of the war. In the first three days of the Wilderness battles the T^nion loss was 14,000 ; and in the next eleven days, at Spottsylvania Court-house, Scale ofMilea Operations in the East. 765. What was Grant's route? Where was Butler sent? Where were Sigel and Hunter sent? 766. What was the nature of the Wilderness? How did Lee make use of it! What is said of the fighting? Of tlie Union losses? Of Lee'p loss? 1864] FLANK MOVEMENTS. 341 it was 14,000 more: a total loss in two weeks of 28,000 men, Lee's loss is not certainly known. But in the losses are included wounded men who afterward returned to duty, so that Grant did not really lose all of the numbers above stated. 767. Flank Movements. — Grant now resorted to his military skill, with more success. At each of Lee's defences he attacked lightly in front, at the same time pushing part of his force to the left, attacking the rear of Lee's army, and so forcing him to retreat to a new position. In this manner Grant worked his way south- ward to the Chickahominy (§ 715). Lee's army was now inside of the main defences of Richmond, the centre of which was at Cold Harbor. Once more Grant tried the " hammering" process. The whole Union army was ordered to assault the Confederate works at once; but the assault was hopelessly repulsed in twenty minutes. These two weeks' fighting had cost the Union army more than 10,000 men, and the Confederates less than 2,000. 768. The Auxiliary Movements had not been successful. Butler had been forced by the Confederates into a peninsula on the James River; and then they had built fortifications in front of him and " bottled him up." Sigel and Hunter had been defeated ; and their array was driven off into West Virginia, so as to leave the Shenandoah valley unprotected. Lee was quick to take advan- tage of this. In July he sent part of his army, under Early, through the Shenandoah valley, to pass down through Maryland and attack Washington. But he found the forts around Washing- ton too strong for him, and returned to Virginia, having succeeded only in frightening the authorities at the capital. 769. The Defences of Richmond on the north and east had now been found too strong to be taken by assault ; and Grant deter- mined to move his army around, cross the James River, and at- tack the city from the south. In carrying out this movement, the 7fi7. How did Grant change his method? How did he force Lee back? Where did the advance stop? What is said of the assault on Cold Harbor? 768. What is said of the auxiliary movements? What had become of Butler? Of Sierel and Hunter? What 1'; said of Early's raid? Did it accomplish anything? 769. How did Grant change his plan, and why? What was the line of march? When did it take place? What new obstacle appeared? What army defended it? 342 PBTEnsBURGB. [1864 army followed nearly the line of the Seven Days' Battles of 1862 (§ Vl8), but with very little fighting. The movement was accom- plished successfully in June; but the army had no sooner crossed the James River than it came up against the fortifications of Peters- burgh, which were too strong to be taken by assault. Within them was Lee's army, which had moved across from Richmond as Grant had moved. 770. Petersburg'h is about 20 miles south of Richmond. The Confederate fortifications ran in an irregular curve from below Petersburgh around to the north of Richmond, a distance of about 30 miles. To defend this line Lee had about 60,000 men. Before him was Grant, with about twice as many men, attacking him at different places, and keeping him so busy that he could not inter- fere with the operations in the West. This was the situation of affairs during the rest of this year and until the end of the war in the following spring. Both armies were strongly fortified. But Grant's constant effort was to push his lines farther around to the southwest, so as to attack Lee's railroad communications. When- ever he succeeded in doing so, Lee had to face him with new for- tifications. Thus Lee's line was always growing weaker as it grew longer, for he could hardly get any fresh troops, while Grant had as many as he needed. The Union loss daring the rest of the year was about 40,000; the Confederate loss, about 20,000. 771. The Petersburgh Mine. — But one direct attempt was made to storm Lee's line during the year. A mine was dug under one of the Confederate forts, and filled with four tons of gun- powder. It was exploded (July 30), and the fort and garrison were blown to pieces. But the assault which was to follow was badly managed, and the Union troops were driven back with heavy loss. 772. The Shenandoah Valley, into which Early had retired (§ 768), was now guarded by a Union army under Sheridan. In September, Sheridan defeated Early in the battle of Winchester. 770. Where is Petersburgh? "Where were the Conferierate Hnes? What was Grant's position? What was his principal object? How did this weaken Lee's line? 771. What is said of the Petersbursrh mine? What was its result? 772. How was the Shenandoah valley guarded? What is said of the battle of Winchester? Of the battle of Cedar Creek? 1864] W. T. aBEBMAN. 343 In the following month, Early surprised the Union army at Cedar Creek, about twenty miles southwest of Winchester, and defeated it while Sheridan was absent at Winchester. In the afternoon, Sheri- dan rejoined his defeated array, rallied the men, and defeated Early, driving him far up the valley. The story is told in Read's poem of " Sheridan's Ride." During this campaign, Sheridan laid waste the whole Shenandoah valley, burning barns and destroying crops and farming implements. Over 2,000 barns were burned. The object of the destruction was to make the valley so desolate that no Confederate troops could operate in it. Supplementary Questions. Locations. — Locate the Rappahannock River; Richmond, Va. ; the James River; Petersburgh, Va. ; the Shenandoah River; Lynchburgh, Va. ; Fredericksburgh, Va. ; Wincliester, Va. Review. — Name the tliree great battles of Grant's overland route to Richmond. The town wliicli was besieged for the rest of the war. Sheridan's two battles in the Shenandoah valley. 773. William Tecumseh Sherman was born in Ohio in 1820, and gra- duated at West Point in 1841. He became a captain in the Mexi- can war, and then entered busi- ness. He became a major-gen- eral in the United States army, 1861-5, and general command- ing, 1869-83. His abilities were not properly estimated at the beginning of the war, and it was even commonly reported that he was crazy. Grant knew him better, and supported him as he himself had been supported by Lincoln ; it liad been reported to Lincoln that Grant drank whis- key excessively, but Lincoln re- plied tliat he would be glad to send a barrel of ' ' Grant's whis- key" to each of the other gener- als. Grant's hearty support gave Sherman the opportunity to prove his ability, and Sherman came out of the war with the reputation of one of the ablest of its gea- erals. Having retired from the army, he spent the rest of his life in New York City. He died February 14, 1891. W. T. Sherman. 7 73. What were the leading events in the life of Sherman ? Of Johnston f 544 OPERATIONS IN TEE WEST. [1864 Joseph E. Johnston, of Virginia, was born in 1807, and graduated from West Point in 1829. He became colonel in the Mexican war, and major-general in the Confederate army in 1861. His operations at Bull Run (§681), Vicksburgh (§ 738), in Georgia (§ 774), and ir North Carolina (§ 802) are a part of our history. Next to Lee, he seems to have been the ablest of the Confederate generals, but Lee had the advantage of the confi- dence of Davis, who disliked Johnston extremely, and was always happy to turn him out of service, if he could find a fair excuse for doing so. In the West. 774. Sherman's Advance osKPH . oHNSTo . from Chattanooga against Dal- ton and Atlanta was through a country of lofty mountains, with strong defensive positions ; but there was no " hammering." Both Sher- man and Johnston were masters of their art; and the contest be- tween them was as scientific as a skilful game of chess or a fencing- match. Johnston held each position until Sherman's forces began to lap around toward his rear ; then he retired cautiously to an- other position, and the same process was gone through again. Neither general was careless enough to give the other the slightest advantage. In this manner Johnston was slowly driven back from one position to another, until he was forced to cross the Chatta- hoochee River, and take his strongest position, Atlanta. Beyond Atlanta he could not go much farther south (§ 762). The princi- pal battles were Resaca, Dallas, and Kenesaw Mountain. But there was no such slaughter as in Virginia. Sherman's loss during his whole two months' march to the Chattahoochee was about the same as the Union loss in the two weeks' battles around Cold Harbor (§ 767). 775. Johnston's Plan had been to bring Sherman just far 774. What is said of the country in which Sherman was operating? Of the contest between Sherman and Johnston? How far did Johnston's retreat continue? Which were the principal battles? Wliat is said of the losses? 775. What had been Johnston's object? How had Sherman's force been weak- ened? What was Johnston ready tocl 1864] JOHNSTON^ 8 REMOVAL. 345 enough from Chattanooga to be able to meet him on equal terms. All Sherman's supplies were brought by the single I'ailroad behind him. As he advanced, it was necessary for him to leave guards to pro- tect the railroad : otherwise the Confederate cavalry would work around to his rear, tear up the railroad, and starve his army (§ 741). But every guard thus left weakened his force, and made it more nearly equal to Johnston's. Johnston had pbyed his game of war so successfully that he was now ready to fight the long= delayed battle, and had begun arrangements to do so. 60 aOO 150 200 250 Operations in the Southeast. 776. Johnston's Renio.val. — Johnston's long retreat had been skilfully conducted, but the people of the Confederacy did not quite understand the skill of it. They were startled as Sherman's storm of war came rolling up toward the edge of the Georgia mountains above them ; and Jefferson Davis, who always disliked Johnston, made this feeling an excuse for removing him. General J. B. Hood was appointed in his place. The results were that he threw away all the advantages still retained by Johnston ; one of the two great Confederate armies was lost before the end of the year; and the Confederacy itself fell in the following spring. 777. Hood had a great reputation as a hard fighter, and was 776. How had the people of the Confedeiacy felt about Johnston's retreat? What was done by Jefferson Davis? Who was appointed in Johnston's place? What were the results? 777. What is said of Hood? What did he do'( How wais the capture of Atlanta accomplished? 346 hood's defeat. [1864 anxious to support it. He made three furious attacts on Sher- man's army in July, which were the severest battles yet fought iu Georgia. He wa? beaten in all three. Early in September, Sher- man fought his way around toward the rear of Atlanta, and Hood was compelled to leave the city, which was then occupied by the Union forces (September 2). So far, both armies had lost about the same number of men, 30,000. More than half of the Confederate loss had been sustained in Hood's battles Both armies had been reinforced to about their original strength (§§ 760. 762). 778. Hood's Plan. — Early in October, Hood moved his whole army past Atlanta, and marched northwest toward the country from which Sherman had set out. He hoped to compel Sherman to follow him, and thus to change the seat of war again to Tennes- see or the North. Sherman made a show of pursuing him until he saw him fairly started for Tennessee, and then returned to Atlanta, tearing up the railroad behind him as he came (§ 780). He had already sent nearly half of his army to Tennessee, under Thomas, hoping that Hood would take the course he did. 779. Hood's Tennessee Campaign. — Thomas gathered all the Union troops in Tennessee at Nashville, so that he was rather the superior in num- bers as Hood drew near the city. At Franklin, a few miles south of Nash- ville, a battle was fought (November 30), and the Confederate army suffered severely. But it pressed on and tried to invest Nashville. After long pre- paration, Thomas attacked Hood and completely de- feated him (December ir> and 16). The j)ursuit was scattered in every direction. George H. Thomas. so vigorous that his troops 778. What new plan did Hood adopt? What did he hope to do? What did Sherman do? What had he already done? , ,. „ t^ .. .^v, « i 779. What is said of Thomas? Of the battle of Frankhn? Describe the flnaJ battle and pursuit? What was its result? 1864] MARCH THROUGH GEORGIA. 347 One of the Confederacy's two great armies had tluis faded into nothing (§ 760). 780. Sherman's New Plan. — Sherman, on his return to Atlanta, had before him a country in which there was not an organized Con- federate army between him and Virginia, nor the material to make one. Hood's mistake had put the whole Confederacy at Sherman's mercy. He had an army of 60,000 picked veteran troops, with abundant supplies, and with States before him which had not felt the war, and were the richest part of the Confederacy. In the middle of November, he burned Atlanta, cut the telegraph-wires to the North, and set out on his march southeast to the sea. But the sea was not his final destination: his real aim was at the back of Lee's army, far away in Virginia. 781. The March through Georgia was finished in a little less than a month, and during all this time it was not certainly knowr; at the North what had become of Sherman's army. Its route was through Milledgeville and Millen, down the peninsula between the Savannah and Ogeechee rivers, to Savannah. It marched in four columns, covering a strip of country about 60 miles wide, all of which was made desolate. The railroads were destroyed, the de- pots and bridges were burned, and the army lived on the country. There was hardly any resistance to the march : indeed, it is doubt- ful whether, on open ground, any army of the war could have suc- cessfully resisted this army of Sherman's. 782. Sayannah. — The army reached Ossabaw Sound, at the mouth of the Ogeechee River (December 13). Fort McAllister, which guarded Savannah, was stormed with a rush in fifteen minutes, by General Hazen with part of the 15th corps, and communication was opened with the blockading fleet. After a siege of eight days, Savannah was captured. Its garrison blew up two ironclads which had been built at this city, and escaped to Charleston. Sherman's army remained at Savannah until February, 1865. Supplementary Questions. Locations. — Locate Chattanooga, Tenn.; Dalton. Ga. ; Atlanta, Ga. ; the Chattahoochee River; Franklin, Tenn.; Nashville, Tenn. ; Milledge 780. What was Sherman's position ? What were his advantages? What did he do in November? What was liis real aim? 781. What is said of Sherman's march through Georgia? What was its route? What was done on the march? 782. Where did the army reach the sea? Bow was communication opened with t-he fleet? How was Savannah captured? 348 OPERATIONS ON TEE COAST. [1864 ville, Ga. ; Millen, Ga. ; the Savannah River; the Ogeechee River; Sa- vannah; Ossabaw Sound, Ga. Review. — Name the three leading battles of Sherman's march to Atlanta. The Confederate commander who succeeded Johnston. The two battles of his Tennessee campaign. The city at which Sherman's march to the sea began. The citj' at which it ended. On the Coast. 783. Operations on the Coast, during this year, consisted of a number of attacks intended either to keep the Confederates busy and prevent them from sending assistance to Hood and Lee, or to capture Mobile and Wilmington, the last ports of the Confederacy for blockade-running. 784. In Florida, an expedition from Port Royal landed at Jacksonville in February, and marched west into the interior. The army was defeated by the Confederates in the battle of Olus- tee, and the expedition was given up. 785. In Louisiana, an expedition under Banks was sent up the Red River from New Orleans early in the year. Its object was to capture Shreveport and conquer the western part of the State, which was still held by the Confederates. It was defeated in April at Sabine Cross-roads and Pleasant Hill, near Shreveport, and returned without accomplishing anything. 786. In North Carolina, the Union troops were driven from some of their positions, early in the year, by the Confederates, aided by a powerful ironclad, the Albemarle. In October, Lieu- tenant Cushing, of the blockading fleet, blew up the Albemarle at Plymouth with a torpedo, one dark night, and the Union forces recovered their positions. Cushing's exploit was one of the most heroic of the war. Out of his crew of thirteen volunteers, only himself and one other escaped. 787. Fort Fisher guarded the entrance to Wilmington. In December, a land and naval expedition, under General Butler and Admiral Porter, was sent from Fortress Monroe to capture it. The navy bombarded the fort, but the army failed to capture it, and the expedition returned. Grant sent it back again under another 788. What were the objects of the operations on the coast? 784. What is said of the Florida expedition? What was its result? 785. What expedition was begun in Louisiana? What was its object? What was its result? 786. What is said of operations in North Carolina? Of the destruction of the Albemarle ? 787. Where is Fort Fisher? What is said of the first expedition against it? 01 the second? What were the results^ 1864] MOBILE BAY. 349 commander, Terry, who assaulted and captured the fort in January, 1865. Wilmington was captured soon after. The Confederates had now but one harbor on the Atlantic coast, Charleston, and that was blockaded very closely. 788. Forrest's Raid. — Before taking command of the army opposed to Johnston, Sherman led an expedition east from Vicks- burgh (§ 762). It was intended finally to attack Mobile from the land side. It reached Meridian, bnt its cavalry column, which was coming from Tennessee, was defeated by the Confederate General N. B. Forrest, and Sherman returned to Vicksburgh, after destroy- ing an immense amount of property. Forrest passed on into Ten- nessee on a raid, and captured Fort Pillow, near Memphis. Its garrison was mostly negro troops, and Forrest's men killed nearly all of them. 789. Mobile Bay was defended by two strong forts. Fort Gaines and Fort Morgan, on opposite sides of the entrance. Inside of the entrance there were a great number of torpedoes, three gun- boats, and a powerful ironclad ram, the Tennessee, commanded by Admiral Buchanan, formerly captain of the Merrimac (§ 702). Outside was the blockading fleet, consisting of fourteen wooden vessels and four monitors, under Farragut (§ 707). Farragut fought his way through the obstructions and past the forts into the harbor (August 5). He then fought and captured the Tennes- see, much of the fighting being done by the wooden frigates. The forts then surrendered, and there was no more blockade-running at Mobile. The city itself was not captured until the following year (§801). The passage of the forts, during which Farragut stationed himself in the rigging of liis vessel, in order to see over the smoke, is the most celebrated part of the day's work. When cautioned to avoid the tor- pedoes which lined the entrance, the admiral expressed his contempt for the torpedoes in strong language and gave the order " Go ahead !" One vessel was sunk by a torpedo, but it was not Farragut's. The fight in the bay was fully as noteworthy. The Tennessee was the strongest of the Confederate ironclads, and yet Farragut attacked her with wooden vessels. These rammed her until their bows were broken off, and helped materially in capturing her. 788. What expedition did Sherman organize? What was its object? How was it defeated ? What is said of the capture of Fort Pillow? 789. What were the defences at the entrance of Mobile Bay? Inside of the en- trance? What was the attacking force? How did Farragut force his way into the idarbor? Describe the battle that followed? What were its results? 350 OPEBATIONS ON THE OCEAN. [1864 790. Military Summary. — The year's operations had crushed in the shell of the Confederacy. The battle of Nashville had destroyed one of the two Confederate armies. There was but one important Confederate army left, that of Lee, in Virginia. Lee could do nothing to help the States farther south, for any weaken- ing of his line would be followed by an instant attack from Grant, who was watching him vigilantly. Sherman, at Savannah, could go where he pleased, for there was nothing to resist him ; and it was evident that he meant to go to Virginia, and crush Lee be- tween two armies. Everywhere the people of the Confederacy seemed to be worn out and discouraged by the terrible distresses which they had endured for four years ; and so many of the able- bodied men had been killed or crippled, that it was not easy to find men to form new Confederate armies. Supplementary Questions. Locations. — Locate (general map) Jacksonville, Fla. ; the Red River, La. ; Slireveport, La. ; Plymouth, N. C. ; Wilmington, N. C. ; Meridian, Miss. ; Memphis, Teim. ; Mobile, Ala. Review. — Against wliat two cities were the coast operations of 1864 directed? Who destroyed the naval defences of Mobile? What fort was captured at Wilmington? On the Ocean. 791. Confederate Priyateers continued to destroy American commerce during the year. Three of them, the Alabama^ the Florida, and the Georgia, were captured or destroyed, but others took their places. 792. The Alabama, Captain Semmes, had put into the harbor of Cherbourg to refit, and was there watched by the Kearsarge, Captain Winslow. The two vessels were of equal strength, and Semmes sent Winslow a challenge to a sea-fight, which was just what Winslow desired. It took place (June 19) seven miles off the coast, and was watched by many spectators on the shore. The 790. What had been done by the year's operations? What is said of Lee's army? Of Sherman's army? Of the people of the Confederacy? 791. What is said of the Confederate privateers? Name those that were cap- tured or destroyed? 792. Where had the Alabama taken refuge? What vessel was watching her? What is sevid of the two vessels? Describe the battle. What was its result? 1864] INTERNAL AFFAIBS. 351 fire of the Alabama was fast and wild ; that of the Kearsarge was slower and sure. In an hour the Alabama raised the white flag, and twenty minutes afterward slie sank. Her captain was picked up by an English yacht, and carried to England. The superiority of the Kearsarge's fire caused particular satisfaction in the United States, for the Alabama's gunners were from British war- vessels (§ 370, note). 793. The Florida was surprised and captured in the neutral port of Bahia by the Wachusett, Captain Collins. Her capture was not legal ; but before anything could be done, she was acci- dentally sunk near Fortress Monroe. Her capture in a neutral port was much like that of the Essex in 1814 by the British (§ 374). 794. The Georgia had been sold, and had become an English merchant-vessel. The sale was illegal, and the Georgia was cap- tured on her first voyage, off Lisbon, by the Niagara. Supplementary Questions. Locations. — (School-map.) — Locate Cherbourg, France; Bahia, Bra- til; Lisbon, Portugal. Review. — Name the three Confederate privateers captured or destroyed in 1864. Which was destroyed in battle? Internal Affairs. 795. In the Confederacy, the distress of the preceding year had only grown worse (§ 753). Confederate money had become almost worthless. One dollar in gold would buy fifty dollars of it, so that a one-dollar bill was really worth but two cents. Hardly any business was done ; and every one was waiting for the inevi- table end of the war. Women and children of course suffered most by the destruction of property and the scarcity of food ; but they exhibited a wonderful patience under suffering. 796. In the North and West, comfort and prosperity had 793. How was the Florida captured? What became of her? 794. How was the Georgia captured? 795. What was the state of affairs in the Confederacy? What is said of Con- federate money? Of business? Who were the greatest sufferers? 796. What was the state of affairs in the North and West? What calls had been made for troops? What effect did they have? 852 LINCOLN RE-ELECTED. [1864 hardly been checked (§754). But, in spite of prosperity, the long severity of the war had begun to tell on the people. At different times in the year, the President had called out a total of about 1,200,000 new men, and many persons began to be alarmed by the apparent necessity for such numbers of fresh soldiers. It be- gan to be believed that there must have been enormous losses in the war which had not been made public. In fact, the government never received half the number of men it called for. Desertions and evasions made up for the rest, and this was the fact which was not made public. 797. In the Presidential Election of 1864, the Democrats nominated General McClellan (§ 679) and George H. Pendleton, of Ohio, and declared that the war ought to cease. The Repub- licans nominated President Lincoln and Andrew Johnson, of Ten- nessee (§ 826), and declared that the war ought to go on until successfully ended. Lincoln and Johnson were elected, receiving the electoral votes of all the States that voted, excepting New Jersey, Delaware, and Kentucky. Of the 233 electoral votes, Lincoln and Johnson received 213, and McClellan and Pendleton 21 (^ 298). 798. Canada had become a refuge for a number of Confederate agents, who contrived various means of annoying the Northern States. They endeavored to release the Confederate prisoners who were shut up in camps in the North and West, and even to set fire to New York City ; but they failed. In October a number of them rode into the little town of St. Albans, in Vermont, and robbed the bank tliere. 799. Exchange of Prisoners had ceased, for the Confederate authorities refused to exchange negro soldiers. The Union pris- oners, shut up amid the misery of the Confederacy, suffered horribly, particularly at Andersonville, a prison near Macon, in Georgia. 800. Nevada was admitted to the Union in 1864. 797. "What is said of the Democratic nominations in 1864? Of the Republican nominations? Who were elected ? 798. What is said of Canada? What did the Confederate agents endeavor to do? 799. Why had exchange of prisoners ceased? What was the condition of the Union prisoners? 800. What State was admitted in 1864? 1865] CONCLUSION OF TEE WAR. 353 Nevada is a part of the Mexican cession of 1848 (§ 574). Its soil ia extremely arid, only one thirtieth of it being fit for cultivation. It cannot be said to have any agriculture, and its outlook for manu- factures is hardly worth considering. Its "wealth is in its mines, particularly those of silver (§635). Its production of this metal since 1859 has been so enormous as to throw the prices and business of the world into considerable confusion. The future of the silver-mines is uncertain. The fall in the gold price of silver has resulted in closing some of the mines, and the population has largely decreased in the last decade. The gg^L of Nevada. population in 1890 was 45,761. The capital is Carson City; and the principal town is Virginia City. V. Events of 1865. Conclusion of the War. 801. In Mississippi and Alabama several Union columns were already moving from place to place, seizing Confederate supplies and arms, and scattering any body of Confederate troops that at- tempted to make head against them. The only serious resistance was at Mobile ; and that city surrendered in April, after a siege. This really ended the war in this section ; but early in May, when the war had ended in Virginia and North Carolina, a general sur- rend-er of the Confederate troops in Mississippi and Alabama was made by General Richard Taylor (§ 809). 802. Sherman's Nortliward March began from Savannah (Feb- ruary 1). He moved directly north to Columbia, which was burned while he held possession of it. Each side accuses the other of having burned the city. From Columbia, Sherman moved northeast to Fayetteville, following nearly the same route as that taken by Cornwallis in 1781 (§252). So far, he had met little armed resistance, and his principal difficulty had been the winter rains and the swollen rivers and swamps. Now he had to move more cautiously, for he had his old enemy again before him. 801. What was done in Mississippi and Alabama? What is said of Mobile? How did the general surrender take place? 802. Where did Sherman's northward march beerin? What route did he fol- low? What resistance did he meet? What enemy met him in North Carolina? 354 RECALL OF JOHNSTON. [1865 Davis had been forced to call Johnston back to service, and he had gathered 40,000 men to dispute Sherman's farther advance. As Sherman marched north through the Carolinas, the Confederate garrisons in Charleston and other coast-towns were forced to leave tlieir posts and hurry northward ahead of him. Thus the whole Atlantic coast was seized by the Union forces. 803. Johnston's Army was composed of some fragments of the scattered Western armies, and of the gar- risons of Charleston and other coast cities which had been evac- uated as Sherman's army passed them. The whole had been gathered up by John- ston, and formed into an army. He attack- ed Sherman furiously near Goldsboro (March 19), and for a time the battle was doubtful. But Sherman finally drove Johnston back, and reached Golds- boro. Here he was joined by fresh troops from Wilmington, and both armies waited for the results of opera- tions in Virginia. 804. Grant's Opening Movement It has already been seen that Grant's general plan was to push his line farther to the south- west around Petersburgh, thus, while he had men enough to keep his own line strong, forcing Lee to lengthen and weaken his line Operations in Virginia. 803. How had Johnston's army been formed? What attack did he make on Sherman? What was its result? 804. What was Grant's general plan? What is said of Hatcher's Run? For whom did he then wait? 1865] THE FINAL ADVANCE. 35S (§ 770). He made another movement in this direction the day before Sherman started from Savannah, reaching a little stream called Hatcher's Run, and holding his ground. He then waited for Sheridan to join him from the Shenandoah valley. 805. Sheridan, with 10,000 picked cavalry, moved up the Shenandoah valley to Staunton, near Lynch- burgh. There he turned eastward to Charlottes- ville, scattering Early's army on the way. He then moved eastward, passing to the north of the defences of Rich- mond, and joined Grant. He had destroyed the canal, the railroad, and bridges all the way from Lynchburgh to Rich- mond, and thus cut o£E much of Lee's supplies. Just before Sheridan the line before him. He captured Fort Steadman, but was soon driven out again. 806. The Final Advance began (March 29) while Sherman was resting at Goldsboro. Sheridan made another movement to the southwest, across Hatcher's Run, to Five Forks, and held his ground. Lee again lengthened his line to meet this new danger ; but it was now so long that his 50,000 men could no longer guard it. Grant at once advanced his whole line, 100,000 strong, and burst his way through Lee's line of intrenchments (April 2). Lee retreated westward during the night, and Richmond and Petersburgh were entered by the Union troops. Davis and the Confederate govern- ment escaped by railroad to North Carolina. Davis was captured in Georgia tlie next month, and was imprisoned in Fortress Monroe for two years. He was ilien released without trial. The United States did not put any one to death for treason. Philip H. Sheridan. reached Grant, Lee assaulted the centre of 805. Describe Sheridan's route. What did he accomplish? 806. When did the final advance begin? What is said of Five Forks? What Mvas its result? What is said of Grant's advance? Of the f all of Kichmond ? 356 LEE'S 8URRENDEB. [1865 807. Lee's Surrender. — Lee's line of retreat was westv?ard, be- tween the James and Appomattox rivers, toward Lynchburgh. From tbis place be boped to make bis way soutb into Nortb Caro- lina, and join Jobnston. But Grant's army was in bot pursuit ; and, before Lee could reacb Lyncbburgb, Sberidan bad passed bim and interposed between bim and tbat place. Lee's retreat was cut off ; bis men were few, bungry, and worn out ; and be surrendered tbe Confederate forces in Virginia, at a little place called Appo- mattox Court-bouse (April 9). Grant asked no terms of surrender tbat were not generous. Lee's troops were only to promise to bear arms no longer against tbe United States. Tbey were to give up pubttc prop- erty, except tbat tbey were to keep tbe horses for use in tbe spring ploughing. Signatures of Grant and Lee. 808. Jolinston's Surren- der. — Sherman at once pushed forward from Goldsboro, and occu- pied Raleigh. Here Johnston surrendered bis army (April 26). His men, like Lee's, were dismissed on giving their word to do no further act of war. 809. General Surrender. — The other Confederate forces east of the Mississippi surrendered early in May (§ 801), and toward the end of the same month those west of the Mississippi surrendered. They received tbe same terms as ibose given to the armies of Lee and Jobnston. Tbe war was over, and the soldiers of tbe Confed- eracy went quietly back to their desolated homes, there to begin a new struggle against poverty. 810. The Tictorious Armies of Grant and Sherman, numbering about 150,000 men, were reviewed in Washington, near the end of May, by their commanders and the officers of the government. For two days the long line of sunburnt veterans marched through 807. What was Lee's line of retreat? What was his pui-pose? How was it defeated? What is said of his surrender? 808. What movement did Sherman now malse? What is said of Johnston's sarrender? 809. What is said of the general surrender? What became of the Confederate soldiers? 810. What is said of the grand review of the victorious armies? Of the return of the Union soldiers? 1865] PUBLIC BEJoicmm. SS7 the principal street, accompanied by the music of military banc^ flowers, and the cheers of spectators from all parts of the country. The disbanding of the army then began (§827). The regiments were given similar triumphal receptions on their arrival in their own States, and the companies on their arrival at their towns. The veterans still maintain an association, under the name of "The Grand Army of the Republic." Supplementary Questions. Locations.— Locate Mobile, Ala.; Savannah, Ga. ; Columbia. S. C.; Fayettevilie, N. C. ; Charleston, S. C. ; Goldsboro, N. C. ; Wilming- ton, N. C; Petersburg!!, Va. ; the Shenandoah River; Charlotteville, Va. ; Lynchburgh. Va. ; Richmond, Va. ; Appomattox Court-house, Va. ; Raleigh, N. C; Washington, D. C. Review. — What Union general marched through the Carolinas in. 1865? What battle ended Lee's defence of Petersbi.rgh? Where did Lee's surrender take place? Where did Johnston's surrender take place? During what month did the general surrender take place? Death of President Lincoln. 811. Public Rejoicings were continued in the North and West for nearly a week after Lee's surrender. The firing of cannon, public meetings, processions, and the illumination of houses showed the joy of the people that the war was over and successfully over. In it all there was a general feeling of gratitude to President Lin- coln for his share in the work. He had entered Washington, four years before, almost unknown : now he was recognized as a wise, prudent, and great-hearted leader of men. In all the ups and downs of the war, he had not lost his temper, his courage, or his self-control, and he had always done the sensible thing at the fit time. The more that the people had come to know him, the more they had liked and trusted him. In spite of Lincoln's lack of early education, his speeches and docu- ments are among the finest iu our history. Examples are his Emanci- pation Proclamation, his Gettysburgh Address, and his second Inaugu- ral Address. In the latter occurs the sentence: "With malice toward none, with charity for all, with firmness in the right as God gives us to see the right, let us finish the work we are in, to bind up the nation's wounds, to care for him who shall have borne the battle and for his widow and orphans, to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and a lasting peace among ourselves and with all nations." 811. How was the joy of the people shown? What was theu* feelinjj toward the President? What work had be done? 358 ASSASSmATIOli' OF LtNCOLN. [1865 812. The Assassination of the President. — A conspiracy had been formed by a number of persons in and near Washington to kill the leading officers of the government, in order to throw the national affairs into confusion and give the Confederacy a last chance. Its leader, John Wilkes Booth, seems to have been crazed by a desire to be talked about, and some of his associates were at least feeble-minded. The President had avoided military guards and protection throughout the war, and his fearlessness made him an easy victim. One of his few pleasures, when tired out, was to attend the theatre. On the appointed night. Booth stole into the private box where the President was sitting, and shot him through the head from behind, so that he died the next day (April 15, 1865), Another conspirator had attacked Secretary Seward, who was ill and in bed, but only wounded him. Booth was chased into Virginia, and killed in a barn in which he had hidden hinist-lf. The other conspirators were arrested, four of them hanged and four imprisoned. After firing the shot, Booth leaped from the box to tbe stage, raised a dagger above his head, and shouted, " Sic semper tyrannis!" ("May this always be the fate of tyrants!" — the motto of Virginia.) He then ran off through a side door, mounted a horse, and escaped for a time. 813. The Funeral of the President lasted for about three weeks. The body was taken slowly to New York City, and thence westward to his home in Springfield, Illinois. All business was stopped in the cities on the route, and the whole people joined in the ceremonies. His late enemies in the seceding States lamented his death, for they had come to see that he had never had any hatred to them, and that his murder was the worst calamity that could have befallen them. 814. Andrew Johnson, the Vice-President (§826), became President at Lincoln's death. As Lincoln had served but little more than a month of his second four years, his second term will be considered Johnson's administration. 812. What conspiracy had been formed? What is said of its leader and mem- bers? How did the President expose himself to danger? How was the murder manaeed? What other success had tlie conspirator^;? What became of them? 813. Describe the funeral of the President. What was the feeling in the seced Ing States? 814. Who became President at Lincoln's death? 1865] MILITABT SUMMARY OF THE WAB. 359 Militar]/ Summary/ of the War. 815. The Course of the War seems to fall naturally into two parts. For the first two years the Federal Government was busied in fixing- its encircling lines and in winning territory piecemeal from the Confederacy. For the last two years its energies were bent on seeking and defeating the principal Confederate armies. The turning-point of the war was in July, 1863 (§ 752); and the leading Union generals at the end were not those who had led at the beginning. 816. Events of 1861 (§ 681).— The principal battles of 1861 were those of Bull Run (July 21) and Wilson's Creek (August 10), in both of which the Union forces were defeated. But the Union armies had seized and held a vast extent of doubtful terrri- tory, so that the Confederacy was much smaller than had been ex- pected ; and operations on the Atlantic coast had been fairly com- menced at Port Royal. 817. Events of 1862 (§ 688).— Two attempts were made this year by the Confederate armies to break through the encircling line, by Bragg in August and by Lee in September. Both were defeated. The great battles in the East were the Seven Days' Battles in June and July, Antietam (September 17), and Freder- icksburgh (December 13). Of these, Antietam was the only de- cided Union victory. The great battles in the West were Fort Donelson (February 16), Pittsburgh Landing (April 6-7), and Murfreesboro (December 31), all Union victories. The capture of New Orleans (April 28) was also a most important Union suc- cess. The result of the year's operations was the winning of a great amount of territory in the West, but the Confederate armies were still as strong and as confident as ever. 818. Events of 1863 (§ 729).— In the East the principal battles were Chancellorsvijie (May 2-3), a Confederate victory ; and Get- 815. How may the course of the war be divided? What was the work of the first two years? Of the last two years? When was the turuing-point? What is said of the Union generals? 816. What were the principal battles of 1861 ? What had the Union armies done? 817. What two attempts were made by the Confederates to break through? What were the great battles of 186:2 in the East? In the West? What were the re- sults of the year's operations? 818. W^hat were the principal battles of 1863 in the East? In the West? Which side was more successful in the West? What was the condition of the Confederate amies there? 360 MILITARY STIMMART OF TEE WAR. [1865 tysburgh (July 1-3), a Union victory, whicli defeated the last great attempt, by Lee, to break through the encircling line. In the West, a Confederate army was captured at Vicksbnrgh (July 4), the Mississippi was opened, and the Confederacy was divided. The Confederate victory of Chickamauga (September 19-20) was followed by the Union victories of Lookout Mountain and Mission- ary Ridge (November 23-25). The advantages of the year's operations in the West were altogether with the Union forces, and the Confederate armies in that section for the first time began to show a falling off in strength and confidence. 819. Events of 1864 (§ Y60).— The great battles of the East were the Wilderness battles and Cold Harbor in May and June, ending in the siege of Petersburgh, which lasted until the end of the war. While it was going on, the western army of the Confed- eracy was blotted out at Nashville (December 15); and Sherman, with hardly an enemy before him, had reached Savannah on his way northward to crush Lee. 820. Events of 1865 (§801). — Sherman's march northward from Savannah in February swept up before it all the available forces of the Confederacy into a great trap, from which there was no escape. But Sherman took care not to push fast or far enough to drive Johnston and Lee close together. The operations of the two Union generals were so timed as to prevent the scattered Con- federate forces from uniting into one army. One by one they were forced to surrender (Lee April 9, and Johnston April 26) ; and the war was over. 821. The Armies on both sides were large. The number of men called into the Union armies during the war was 2,943,748; and 2,690,401 of these entered the army, some for tliree mnntlis, .some for six months, and some for one year, two years, or three years. Tlie largest number in service at oue time was in May, 1865; it was then 1,000,516, of whom 650,000 were fit for active service. The Union navy grew steadily larger until the end of the war, when it numbered 700 vessels, 60 of them ironclads, and 50,000 sailors. The Confederacy did not need so many men as the Federal Government, for it had no conquered territory to garrison, and could move its men quickly from one army to another. 819. What were the great battles of 1864 in the East? What was being done in the West? 820. What was the effect of Sherman's march in 1865? Wliy did he stop where he did? How was the war ended? 821. What is said of tlie number of men in the Union armies? Of the greatest number at one time? Of the size of the navy? Of the number of men in the Cod- federate armies? Of the greatest number at one time? 1865] STATISTICS OF THE WAR. 361 The total was probably about 1,300,000, and the largest number at one time was in January, 1863. The following table is given from a careful writer, as the number at the dates named. The Southern figures are estimates. United States. Confederacy. January 1. 1861 16,367 July 1,1861 186,751 150,000 January 1, 1862 575,917 350,000 January 1, 1863 918,191 690,000 January 1, 1864 860,737 400,000 January 1, 1865 959,460 250,000 March 31, 1865 980,086 175,000 May 1, 1865 1,000,516 822. The Dead numbered about 300,000 on each side. The (Jnion losses are known, and are given below : the Southern losses can only be guessed at. National cemeteries have been laid out on the battle-fields, in which the bodies of the dead are collected ; and many of the cities and towns have their soldiers' monuments. Lib- eral pensions are paid to wounded Union soldiers, and to the fami- lies of the dead. In the Union armies there were killed in battle, 44,238; died of wounds, 49,205; died of disease, 186.216; suicide, homicide, and execu- tions, 526; unknown causes, 24,184: total, 304.369. Of these there were only 7 executions. In Confederate prisons, 26,168 are known in have died, but thousands of others have since died of disease contracted in them. There are buried in the national cemeteries 318,870 bodies, but some of these were Confederate soldiers. 823. The Cost of the War cannot be figured up. The tax receipts of the United States, 1861-65, were about $780,000,000, most of which was spent on the war; and, in addition to this, there was at the end of the war a national debt of |2,850,000,000. If we try to add to this (1) the expenses and debts of States, cities, and towns; (2) the payments for pensions; (3) the expenses of the Confederacy, which cannot be fully known; (4) the destruction of private property in the South by Union armies, and on the ocean by Confederate privateers ; and the destruc- tion of productive ^nergy in the loss of men; the total cost of the war passes ijeyond possibility of estimate. 824. The Object of this enormous expenditure of blood and money by the national people was not to show which section was the stronger, for every one knew beforehand that the North was 822. What was the number of the dead? What is said of national cemeteries? Of soldiers' monuments? Of pensions? 823. What were the receipts of the United States during the war? What was the debt? What other expenses were there? 824. Was it the object of the war to show which section was the stronger? To show which had the braver men? To satisfy Northern hatred of the South? To abolish slavery? What was the object of the war? 362 LEADING EVENTS, 1861-2. the stronger. It was not to show which had the braver men, for the soldiers on both sides came out of the war with an equal re- spect for each others' bravery. It was not to satisfy any hatred of the North against the South, for there was no such thing. It was not to abolish slavery, though slavery was abolished as a part of the war. The object of the war was to keep the nation one, to pre- vent any future attempt to secede, and to see to it that there should not be two nations in place of one, waging wars with one another and taxing men, women, and children to carry them on. This was the object for which the Union men fought and, when necessary, died : to secure perpetual peace and a united nation to their chil- dren and their children's children forever. 825. The Leading Events of Lincoln's administration, including the war for the Union, are as follows: (U., Union victory; C, Confederate victory; Ind., indecisive.) 1861-5: Lincoln's Term of Office § 668 1861: Fort Sumter. S. C, evacuated, April 13 (C.).. 669 Volunteers called for by the President, April 15 670 First bloodshed at Baltimore, April 19 671 Capture of Norfolk navy yard, April 20 (C.).. 701 Secession of four border States, May and June 674 Meetino- of Congress, July 4 680 Battle of Rich Mountain, W. Va. July 11 (U.) 678 Battle of Bull Run, Va., July 31 (C.) 681 Battle of Wilson's Creek, Mo., August 10 (C.) 684 Capture of Fort Hatteras, N. C, Aug. 29 (U.) 685 Battle of Ball's Bluflf, Va., 'October 21 (C.).. . . 683 Capture of Port Royal, S. C, Nov. 7 (U.). ... 685 Trent affair, November 8 687 1862: Battle of Mill Spring, Ky.. January 19 (U.). . . 690 Capture of Fort Henry, Tenn., Feb. 6 (U.). .. 691 Capture of Roanoke Island, N. C, Feb. 8(U). 705 Capture of Fort Donelson, Tenn., Feb. 16 (U.) 692 Battle of Pea Ridge, Ark., March 5-8 (U.). . . 699 Battle of Monitor and Merrimac, March 9 (U.) 703 Battle of Pittsburgh Landing or Shiloh, Tenn. , April 6-7 (U.) 694 Capture of Island Number Ten, April 7 (U.). 700 Capture of Fort Pulaski, Ga., April 11 (U.). .. 705 Capture of New Orleans, La.. April 25 (U.). .. 709 Capture of Yorktown, Va., May 4 (U.) 715 Battle of Williamsburgh, Va., May 5 (Ind.). . 715 Capture of Corinth, Miss., May 30 (U.) 695 826. What years were covered by Lincoln's term of office? State the leading ■jvents (1861) of April. Of May and June. Of July. Of August. Of October. Of November. State the leading events (1863) of February. Of March. Of April. Of LEADING EVENTS. 1863-4. 363 1862: Battle of Fair Oaks, Va., May 31 (U.) § 716 Jackson's raid on Banks, Va., June (C.) = 717 Seven Days' Battles, Va. , June 25-July 1 (Ind.) 718 Pope's campaign, Va., August (C.) 719 Second battle of Bull Bun, Va., Aug. 30 (C). 719 Capture of Harper's Ferry, W.Va., Sept. 15(C.) 720 Battle of Antietam, Md., September 17 (U.).. 721 Bragg's invasion of Kentucky, September — 696 Battle of Perryville. Ky., October 8 (Ind.). . . 696 Battle of Fredericksburgb, Va., Dec. 13 (C). 722 First attempt on Vicksburgb, Miss., Dec. 29 (C.) 735 Battle of Murfreesboro, Tenn., Dec. 31 to Jan.'^(U.) 697 jfiOS: Emancipation Proclamation, January 1 72^ Capture of Arkansas Post, Ark., Jan. 11 (U.) (note) 735 Draft Act passed, March 3 756 Fort Sumter, S. C, attacked by ironclads, April7(C.) 748 Grant's campaign before Vicksburgli, Miss., Mayl tol7(U.) 738 Battle of Cbancellorsville, Va., May 2-3 (C). . 729 Battle of Weehawken and Atlanta, June 17 (U.). 750 Admission of West Virginia, June 20 757 Lee's second invasion of the North, June. . . . 730 Battle of Geltysburgii, Pa , July 1-3 (U.) 732 Capture of Vicksburgb, Miss., July 4 (U.) 738 Battle of Helena, Ark., July 4 (U.) 740 Capture of Port Hudson, La., July 9 (U.) 739 Draft Riots, New York City, July 13-16 756 Morgan's Ohio raid, July 741 Battle of Chickamauga. Ga., Sept. 19-20 (C). . 743 Siege of Chattanooga, Tenn.. Oct. and Nov. . 744 Siege of Kuoxville, Tenn., Nov. 18-29. ... 744, 747 Battle of Lookout Mountain, Tenn , Nov. 24- 25(U.) 746 1864: Expedition to Meridian, Miss., February (note) 762, 788 Grant made lieutenant-general, March 3 761 Red River expedition. La., April (C.) 785 Capture of Fort Pillow, Tenn., April 12 (C.).. 788 Battles of the Wilderness, Va., May 5-7 (Ind.) 766 Battles at Soottsylvania Court-house, Va., May 8-18 (Ind.) 766 Battle of Resaca, Ga., May 14-15 (U.) 774 Battle of Dallas, Ga., May 25-28 (U.) 774 Battle of Cold Harbor, Va., June 3 (C.) . . 767 Siege of Petersburgh, Va., begun, June 770 May. Of June and July. Of August. Of September. Of October. Of December. State the leading events (1863) of January. Of March. Of April. Of May. Of June. Of July. Of September and October. Of November. State the leading events (1864) of Februr-ry and March. Of April. Of May. Of June. Of July. Of dM LEADINQ EVENTS, 1864-5 1864: Battle of Kearsarge and Alabama, June 19 (U.) § 793 Battle of Kenesaw Mountain, Ga. , June 37 (U.) 774 Battles before Atlanta, Ga., July 20-28 (U.). . 777 Early's raid on Washington. July 768 Petersburg!! mine, July 30 (C.) 771 Battle of Mobile Bay, Ala., August 5 (U.) 789 Capture of Atlanta, Ga., September 2 (U.) 777 Battle of Winchester, Va., September 19 (U.). 773 Battle of Cedar Creek, Va., October 19 (U.). . 773 Admission of Nevada, October 31 800 Sherman's march to the sea. Nov. and Dec. .. 781 Battle of Franklin, Tenn., November 30 (U.) T79 Capture of Fort McAllister, Ga., Dec. 13 (U.) 783 Battle of Nashville, Tenn., Dec. 15, 16 (U.). . 779 Capture of Savannah, Ga., December 21 (U.). 783 1865: Capture of Fort Fisher, N. C, Jan. 15 (U.). . . 787 Sherman's march northward, Feb. and March 808 Columbia, S. C, captured, February 17 (U.).. 803 Charleston, S. C, captured, Feb. 18 (U.) 803 Wilmington, N. C, captured Feb. 21 (U.)... 787 Battle ot Goldsboro, N. C, March 19 (U.). . . 803 Sheridan's raid on Lynchburgh, Va.. March. . 805 Battle of Five Forks, Va., April 1 (U.) 806 Petersburgh, Va., captured, Aoril 2 (U.) 806 Richmond, Va., captured, April 3 (U.) 806 Surrender of Lee. April 9 807 Assassination of Lincoln. April 14 813 Surrender of Johnston, April 26 808 Jefferson Davis captured. May 11 (note) 806 General surrender, April and May 809 August. Of September. Of October. Of November. Of December. State th' fading events (1865) of January. Of February and March. Of April. Of May. CHAPTER XVIL JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION: 1865-9. Andrew Johnson, Tennessee, Vice-President and President. 826. Andrew Johnson was born in North Carolina ia 1808, and re moved to Tennessee in 1826. He served as Congressman (Demo- cratic), 1843-58; governor, 1853-7; United States Senator, 1857-62 and 1875; and Vice-President and President, 1865-69. He died in 1875. His early years were passed under many disadvantages. He is said to have been taught to read and write, after his marriage, by his wife. He was at first a tailor, but was soon drawn into politics. He was an outspoken Unionist, and was the only Southern Senator who refused to leave his place when his State seceded. He was always ready to struggle for what he believed to be right, and seldom willing to believe that he himself was wrong. (1) Internal Affairs. 827. The Armies were paid off and sent Lome at the rate of 300,000 a month until nearly all had retired to private life. About 50,000 were retained as a standing army for the Southern States. Many persons had thought that it would be very dangerous to turn a million soldiers adrift so suddenly ; that they would not find work, but would unite in hiwless companies for plunder. Nothing of the kind followed. The old soldiers turned out to be better lawyers, editors, workmen, and managers than they were be- fore the war, through the habits of prompt obedience learned in Andrew Johnson. 826. What was Johnson's life and character? 827. How were the armies disbanded'' What force was retained? What fear of disorder had existed? Was there any such result? 366 INTERNAL AFFAIRS. [1868 the army. A man must usually learn what obedience is before he can make others obey. 828. The Fenians were a body of men of Irish birth who felt that they h;id grievauces agaiust Great Britam. Most of them had served in the army, had grown fond of soldiering, and now wanted "a brush with the British " As Canada was a part of the British Empire, about 1,500 of them invaded it in 1866 from Buffalo. As there was no war betw^er the United States and Great Britain, Americans could not be allowed to make war on then- own account; and the President inter- fered, and stopped the movement. 829. Mexico was, at the end of the war, still occupied by French troops, against the will of the Mexicans (§ 758). The United States now began to urge their withdrawal in more decided lan- guage, and France consented to take them away. The United States had no objection to Maximilian's remaining as emperor, if the Mexicans wished it. He refused to leave with the French troops, and, in 1867, was captured and shot by the Mexicans. The United States asked that his life should be spared, but the re- quest was refused. Maximilian's wife, Carlotta, became insane through grief. 830. The Atlantic Telegraph, which had several times failed (§ 641), was successfully laid from Ireland to Newfoundland in 1866. Other cables of the kind have since been laid, so that it is now hardly possible that any accident should entirely break ofi telegraphic communication between the United States and Europe. 831. Alaska was bought from Russia in 1867 for $7,200,000. As it is the last addition up to 1894, a table is given below, show- ing the original territory of the United States, and the successive additions. Square miles. United States in 1783 (§ 264) 827,844 Louisiana, 1803 (§ 332) 1,171,931 Florida, 1819 (^ 41 8) 59,268 Texas, 1845 (§533) 376,133 Mexican Cession, 1848 (§ 573) 545,783 Gadsden Purchase, 1853 (i^ 574) 45,535 Alaska, 1867 (§ 831) 577,390 Total in 1894 3,603,884 828. Who were the Fenians? What enterprise did they undertake? How was It stopped? 829. What was the state of affairs in Mexico? Why were the French troops withdrawn? What became of Maximilian? 830. What is said of the Atlantic telegraph? Of other cables? S81. What is said of the purchase of Alaska? Wbntdoes the table contain? Which addition was larger than the original United Slates? 1866] BE'^JONSTR UGTION. 367 832. The National Debt, at the end of the war, was about 12,850,000,000 (§ 823). Other governments have debts as large, or larger ; but they make little attempt to pay them. The Ameri- can people, on the contrary, now attacked their debt as vigorously as if it had been a hostile army in the field. Taxes on imported goods were not decreased for fear of foreign competition in manu- factures ; and whatever money could be spared out of the large receipts of the government was applied to paying off the debt. Before the armies were quite disbanded, |30, 000,000 had been paid ; and this beginning has since been perseveringly followed up (§ 1021). 833. Nebraska was admitted to the Union in 1867. Nebraska is a part of the Louisiana purchase (§ 332). It became a Territory in 1854 (§ 614), by the Kansas-Nebraska Act. It bad been very little explored; and it was believed to be quite worthless. It has since proved to be one of the richest agricultund districts of the United States; its soil will grow wiUi profit almost any product of tem- perate latitudes. Its minerals and ores, ex- cepting coal, are of little importance; but its soil is richer than any mines. Tlie whole eastern half of tlie State is a well-watered, rolling prairie, whose streams give promise of manufactures in tlie future. The western half is still dry; but the rains seem to move westward with the popuhition. It seems probable that the whole State will in time be equally profitable for agriculture. The gg^^ of Nebraska. popuhition increased from 4,494 in 1855 to 1,058.910 in I890;and immigrants are pouring in faster than ever. And yet. in 1880, only one twenty-fifth part of the State had been brought under cultivation. The people have been very liberal in edueationa! matters; their university and public schools rank high among institu tions of the kind; and few States liave better reasons than Nebraska/ for confident expectation of prosperity and usefulness. (2) Reconstruction. 834. The Problem of Reconstrnction. — We come now to some of the most difficult questions of American history, those of the six years from 1865 to 1871, in which the American people tried to straighten out a state of affairs which had been completely tangled 832. What is said of the national debt? How did the American people deal with it? What was their success? 883. What State was admitted in 1867? 834. What is said of this period? What was the first question? What was the difference between North and South? What result was possible? Was there any tew to prevent it? 368 THE PBESIBENT^S FEELING. [I860 by tlie Civil War and its results. The first question was, What should be done with the voters of the seceding States? The Northern States were each divided into two nearly equal parties, so that one party controlled some States and the other party con- trolled the others. But Southern voters had for years thought of hardly anything in politics except the defence of slavery. All the Southern States were thus in the habit of acting together : they formed what is now often called a " solid South." They were so nearly a majority of both Houses of Congress that a very little help from parts of the North would at once give them control of the government, and the power to make laws as to the national debt, pensions, and other expenses of the war. And yet there was no express law to prevent them from taking part at once in the gov- ernment. It was, in fact, equally hard to let them in or to keep them out. 835. The President's Feeling'. — President Johnson was always a hearty Union man. He had expressed great anxiety to hang some of the Confederate leaders, and his first act as President was to offer large rewards for the capture of Davis and other leaders, on the charge of planning Lincoln's murder. But Johnson had been a Southern " poor white" : his feeling was altogether one of dislike to the richer Southerners who had brought about the war ; and he had no great anxiety for the protection of the " freedmen." He was altogether a War Democrat : he was anxious to maintain the Union, but equally anxious that the States should each be free from interference by the Union. It was certain from the begin- ning that he would never consent " to keep the seceding States out;' "Freedmen" was the usual name for the former slaves, set free by the war. During the war they were often called " contrabands," a name said to have been invented by General Butler. Runaway slaves had come into his camp, and the law directed him to return them to their owners, a thing which he was determined not to do. He got over the difficulty by declaring the slaves " contraband of war," like gun- powder, or any other valuable war material, which must not be allowed to pass into the enemy's possession. 836. The Southern State GoTernments, when Johnson be- 835. What was the President's feeling as a Unionist? As a " poor white" ? Aa a War Democrat? 836. How had the Southern governments been broken up by the war? Why were they not reorganized by the Southern people ? 1865] THE THIRTEENTH AMENDMENT. 369 came President, were in complete confusion. The Union cavalry forces were ranging through the South, capturing governors and other leading men, and sending them to forts for safe-keeping. They were released after a short imprisonment ; but at the time no one was quite sure that the Confederate leaders would not all be hanged or shot for treason. Every Southern man who could have been of service in government was only anxious to keep out of the jvay, and almost all semblance of government disappeared. The first business was to get some form of government that would main- tain order. 837. The President's Plan of reconstruction was, first, to ap- point provisional, or temporary, governors for each State. These governors called conventions of delegates, elected by the white people, the former voters. These conventions, when they met, did three things : they repealed or declared void the ordinances of se- cession, promised never to pay any debt incurred in supporting the Confederacy, and ratified the Thirteenth Amendment, abolishing slavery, which Congress had proposed early in 1S65. Before the end of the year 1865, all the governments of the seceding States had been reorganized according to the President's plan, or " my policy," as he often called it. Virginia, Tennessee, Louisiana, and Arkansas had already been re- organized, in much the same manner, under President Lincoln, and were not interfered with. 838. The Thirteenth Amendment, forever abolishing slavery, having been ratified by three fourths of the States, was declared a part of the Constitution in December, 1865. It was necessary be- cause the Emancipation Proclamation (§ 724) h^^ only freed the slaves, and did not prevent a new establishment oi slavery. 839. The Treatment of the Freedmen was a difficult matter to manage. The Southern people did not believe that the freedmen would willingly work now that they no longer had the slave-driver to force them to it. The laws passed by the new governments of the seceding States were therefore usually designed to force the freedmen to work under penalty of being declared vagrants and 837. What was the first point of the President's plan? What was done by the governors? By the conventions? What was the resnit? 838. What Amendment was ratified in 1865? Why was it necessary? 839. What was the Southern plan of treatment of the freedmen? How did the North look upon this? What was the result? 370 A NEW ISSUE m POLITICS. [1866 sent to jail and hard labor. To most of the Northern people this looked very much like setting up slavery again under a new name; and their Representatives in Congress, when Congress met in De- cember, 1865, refused for the time to admit any members from the seceding States. 840. A New Issue was thus brought into politics. The Presi- dent thought that the Republican majority in Congress had no more right to keep out members from the seceding States than those States had to attempt to leave the Union. He was supported by the Northern Democrats, and by the Southern people, who did not count for much, however, so long as their Representatives were not admitted. The Republicans had a two-thirds majority in both Houses of Congress, sufficient to pass laws over the President's veto (§ 478). They had not yet formed any plan : they were only determined not to admit the Southern members until the safety of the freedmen should be made certain. In this they were supported by the Republican party of the North ; and the whole struggle turned upon the elections in 1866 for the Congress which was to meet in 1867. 841. Tennessee was readmitted to the Union in 1866, and her members were received by Congress. The State had been reor- ganized in such a manner that the freedmen seemed quite secure. 842. The Congressional Elections of 1866 resulted in the com- plete success of the Republicans. They were to have the same two-thirds majority in the next Congress, and for the next two years could pass such laws as they thouuht best, without any ob- struction from the President's veto. Tliey had now fully formed their plan of reconstruction, and were able to carry it into effect. 843. The Plan of Congress had two leading purposes: the freedmen were to vote ; and the Confederate leaders were not to vote. These purposes were to be reached by putting all the seced- ing States under military governors, who should call new conven- tions to form State governments. The power to vote for delegates 840. What was the feeling of the President? Who supported him? W^hat ad- vantage had the Republicans? What was their plan? What was the turning-point of the struggle? 841. What is said of the readmission of Tennessee? 842. What was the result of the Congressional elections? 843. What were the two leading purposes of Congress? How were they to be i-eached? Who were to vote? When were Senators and Representatives to be re Jidraitted? 1867] CONGBESSIONAL PLAN OF RECONSTRUGTIOK 3r71 to these conventions was given to the freedraen, but not to the lead- ing Confederates. If the new forms of government should allow freedmen to vote, and if the new governments should ratify the Fourteenth Amendment, which denied to the leading Confederates the power to hold office, Congress would admit the Southern Sena- tors and Representatives. 844. The Reconstruction Acts were passed by Congress in March, 1867, over the veto of the President. They contained tne plan of Congress, as just explained; and the President executed them by appointing the military governors. These governors, sup- ported by portions of the army, took care that in forming the new governments freedmen should be allowed to vote, and leading Con- federates sliould be forbidden to vote. 845. The Work of Reconstruction went on through the years 1867 and 1868; and in June, 1868, six States were readmitted to Congress : Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Louisiana, North Carolina, and South Carolina. It is not difficult to understand that the Re- construction Acts were bitterly disliked by the Southern whites, for they made the negroes, who had been slaves but two years be- fore, equal or superior to their former masters. It was hoped in the North that the freedmen would be made secure by having the right to vote for representatives in the State governments. We shall see hereafter how this resulted (§ 873). But for the first few years, the whites were powerless, and the freedmen had their full share in the government. Four States, Georgia, Mississippi, Texas, and Virginia, refused to yield, and were not readmitted until 1870 (§ 871). Tennessee had been admitted in 1866 (§ 841). 846. The Fourteenth Amendment, proposed by Congress in 1866, was ratified and became a part of the Constitution in July, 1868. It provided that no State should take away the privileges of citizens of the United States ; that the higher class of Confede- rate office-holders should hold no office until pardoned by Congress ; that the debt of the United States should be paid in full ; and that the Confederate debt should never be paid. By " privileges of 844. What is said of the Reconstruction Acts? How were they executed? 845. What States were first readmitted? Why were the Reconstruction Acts disliked bv the Southern whites? What was the hope in the North? 846. What Amendment was ratified in 186b? What did it provide? What was meant by " privileges of citizens"? 372 IMPEACHMENT OF JOHNSON. [1868 citizens" was meant the right of the freedmen to be treated exactly like whites in making and enforcing laws. 847. The Reconstructed GoTernments at once took control of iheir States. Their State constitutions, as has been stated, allowed the freedmen to vote, while they forbade the leading Confederates to vote or hold office until pardoned by Congress. The negroes, with a few v/hite leaders, voted together; the whites also voted together ; and thus the voting population of the seceding States was divided on " the color line." The unhappy results were very sooE visible (§ 873). (3) Impeachment. 848. The President and Congress. — While Congress was thus successfully carrying out its plan of reconstruction, its quarrel with the President was steadily growing angrier. Bill after bill was passed by Congress, vetoed by the President, and at once passed over the veto. The President was a passionate man and hasty of speech. He believed that the Republican majority in Congress Ivas keeping the Southern members oat only in order to be able to >ass bills over his veto ; and he did not hesitate to express his dis- Jike of Congress in public speeches. Of course this made Congress still more ready to pass bills which were disagreeable to him. 841). The Tenure of Office Act was passed by Congress, iri March, 1867, over the President's veto. It forbade the President to remove the higher classes of office-holders without asking and receiving the consent of the Senate (§ 920). Johnson, believinix tlft the Constitution gave Congress no power to pass such an act, de- termined to disobey it. He removed Stanton, the Secretary of War, and when the Senate refused to consent to the removal, the President paid no attention to the refusal, and ordered Stanton's successor to take possession of the office. 847. Who were the voters in the reconstructed States? How were they dividedl 848. What is said of the quarrel between Congress and the President? What Bras the President's belief? What were the results? 849. What is said of the Tenure of Office Act? What did it forbid? 'Why did (he President decide to disobey it? How did he disobey it? 1868] ACQUITTAL OF THE PRESIDENT. 373 850. Edwin M. Stanton was born in Ohio in 1814. General, 1860-1, under Buch- anan, and Secretary of War, 1862-8. He was a man of unbounded energy, and his enormous amount of work in the War Department dur- ing the Civil War broke down his health. His services to the country were very great, but it was often difficult for his associates to get on with him peaceably. He died at Wasiiington in 1869. 851. The Impeachment of the President followed The House of at once. Representatives voted to im- peach him ; that is, to ac- cuse him of liaving diso- beyed the laws, and of being He was Attorney Edwin M. Stanton. unfit to be President. An impeachment must be tried by the Senate, and it is necessary that two thirds of the Senators should vote guilty in order to convict the accused. In this case there was a long trial before the Senate, and the vote was 35 guilty to 19 not guilty. This was not a two-thirds vote, and the Presi- dent was acquitted. 852. The Presidential Election of 1868 turned on Reconstruc- tion, as it had been managed by Congress. The Republicans sup- ported it, and nominated Grant (§ 688), and Schuyler Colfax, of Indiana. The Democrats opposed it, and nominated Horatio Sey- mour, of New York, and Frank P. Blair, of Missouri. The Re- publicans were successful, and Grant and Colfax were elected. Of the 294 electoral votes. Grant and Colfax received 214, and Sey- mour and Blair 80 (§298). Mississippi, Texas, and Virginia were not allowed to vote, as they had not yet been reconstructed and readmitted Supplementary Questions. Locations. — (School-map locations in italics.) — Where is Ireland? Newfoundland? The State of Nebraska? Buffalo, N. Y.? Alaska? Review. — Give the years in which Johnson's administration began 850. What is said of Stanton? 851. How was the President impeached? Why was he not convicted? 852. What was the issue in the Presidential election of 1868? Who were nomi- nated? Who were elected? 374 LEADING EVENTS, 1865-68. and ended. The year in which the Thirteenth Amendment was rati- fied. The year in which tlie Atlantic telegraph was successfully laid. The year in which the Reconstruction Acts were passed. The year of the acJmission of Nebraska. Of the purchase of Alaska. Of the im- peacLjkient of President Johnson. Of the ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment. 853. The Leading Events of Johnson's administration were as fol- lows: 1865-«9: Johnson's Term of Office §836 1865; Disbanding of the armies 827 Southern State governments reorganized 837 Thirteenth Amendment ratified 838 1866: Tennessee readmitted 841 Atlantic telegraph laid 830 Fenian invasion of Canada 828 1867: Reconstruction Acts passed by Congress 844 Tenure of Office Act passed by Congress 849 Nebraska admitted 833 Maximilian sliot 829 Alaska purchased 831 1868: Removal of Stanton 849 Impeachment of the President 851 Six States readmitted 845 Fourteenth Amendment ratified 846 853. In what years did Johnson's administration begin and end? What were the ..(Sling events of 1865? Of 1866? Of 1867? Of 1868? CHAPTER XVIII. GRANT'S ADMINISTRATIONS : 1869-77, TT, „^„„ Q r^,,.*™ Til TJ-^oi^^^f ( Schuyler Colfax, Ind., Vice-President, 1869-73. Ulysses S. Grant, 111., President. -J ^j^^^j^y Wilson, Mass., Vice-President, :b73-77. (1) Foreign Affairs. 854. The Alabama Claims were an outgrowth of the Civil War. That every nation was bound to prevent persons living in its territory from waging war against a friendly nation was the claim of the United States. Great Britain had not been properly cai'eful to prevent the Alabama and other Confed- erate privateers from escaping to sea (§ 727). Hence our government maintained that she ought now to pay for at least part of the damage done by them. The answer of Great Britain was that there had been no laws, at that time, under which the government could seize the privateers; but Ulysses S. Grant, about 1875. that matters would be better arranged in future. To this the United States answered that Great Britain was still bound to pay damages for her neglect to pass the needful laws in due season. 855. The Treaty ofWashington, in 1871, ended the long dis- pute between the two countries. It referred all matters in dispute between Great Britain and the United States to arbitrators, or 854. What is said of the Alabama claims ? AVhat was the claim of the United States ? What defence did Great Britain offer ? How did the United States an- swer it ? 855. How was the dispute ended ? What was the agreement of the treaty of Washington « How were the Alabama claims to be decided 2 ©76 FOBEIGIf AFFAIRS. [1873 umpires. The Alabama claims were to be decided by five arbi- trators, to be appointed by Great Britain, the United States, ttaly, Switzerland, and Brazil. 856. The Alabama Arbitrators met at Geneva, in Switzerland, in 1872, heard the evidence and arguments on both sides, and decided that Great Britain should pay $15,500,000 to the United States, for the damage done. 857. The Northwestern Boundary, between Vancouver's Island and the United States, was still doubtful and disputed (§ 544) ; and the treaty of Washington left the decision to the Emperor of Germany. He decided in favor of the boundary as the United States had claimed it. 858. The Canadian Fisheries had also caused disputes. Great Britain claimed that American fishermen made use of the shores near the fisheries, and that the United States ought to pay for this privilege. The treaty of Washington referred this question to another board of arbitrators, v.'hose decision was that the United States should pay $5,500,000 to Great Britain (§ 922). 859. San Domingo, the eastern half of the island of Hayti, is a re public, iuhabited cliiefly by negroes. Its rulers were anxious, and it; people were willing, to be annexed to the United States. A treaty ol annexation was agreed upon in 1869, but it provoked great opposition in the United States, for it would have brouglit in a great number of ignorant voters, of whom the country had already enough to take care of. The United States Senate refused to confirm the treaty, and it fell ihrough. 860. The Virginius was an American vessel which, in 1873, was carrying supplies to Cuba, to help insurgents against Spain. Her busi- ness was unlawful, and she was captured on the ocean by a Spanish war-vessel and taken to Cuba. The Spanish authorities at once put the crew and passengers on trial, and shot them as fast as they could be found guilty. This ferocity of punishment excited great anger in the United States, and there was some danger of war; but the government c.f Spain succeeded in stopping the bloody work of its agents in Cuba. I'hose of the prisoners who were still alive were sent to Spain, and were released after an imprisonment. SUPPLEMENTART QUESTIONS. Locations. — (School-map locations in italics.) — Locate Geneva. Van- couver's Island. Hayti. Cuba. Review. — In what year was the treaty of Washington agreed 856. What was the result of the Alabama arbitration? 8.57. W^hat was the result of the Northwestern boundary arbitration? 858. What was the result of the Canadian fisheries arbitration? 869. What is said of the San Domingo treaty? Why did it fail? 860. What was the case of the Virginius? How was war avoided? j870] INTERNAL AFFAIRS. 377 upon? What were the three questions referred to arbitration? How much did Great Britain pay under the first? How much did the United States pay under the third? (2) Internal Affairs. 861. Grant's First Administration (Iseg-VS) was marked by general prosperity. The production of gold and silver from the Pacific States and Territories increased rapidly. Agriculture was prosperous, for wars and bad harvests in Europe made temporarily a great market for American grain and cattle. New agricultural regions in the far West began to be settled. Raih'oads were build- ing in every direction. More miles of railroad wei'e built in the United States during these four years than had been built in any other country of the world during all the years past. Indeed, more were built than were yet necessary, for every man who had money to use was eager to share in the profits of railroad-building. 862. Grant's Second Administration (1873-77) was the oppo- site of the first. Extravagant railroad-building brought on a financial panic, which began in 1873 and did not come to an end until about 1879 (§ 891). Many railroads had been built in parts of the country where they did not pay interest on the expense of building them. As soon as those who had built them began to wish to sell, nobody wished to buy. Money became scarce ; many great fortunes were lost; and there was general distress. In addi- tion to financial troubles, there was a great number of political scandals (§ 879), ending in a dangerous disputed election (§ 883). so that there have been few periods in our history when the gen- eral feeling about the future has been more gloomy than during this administration. 863. Tlie Census of 1870 showed a population of 38,558,371, an increase of 7,000,000 since 1860 (§ 632). At previous rates, in time of peace, the increase should have been about 10,000,000 ; but the war, with its loss of life, decrease of immigration, and o-en- eral confusion, had made the difference. Most of the Southern States had hardly any increase. 861. What is said of Grant's first administration? Of gold and silver? Of agri- culture? Of railroad-building? 862. What is said of Grant's second administration? Of the financial panic of 1873? Of political scandals? 863. What was the increase by the census of 1870? Why was it smaller than usual? 378 TEE CENTBAL PACIFIC RAILROAD. [1869 864. The Central Pacific Railroad, from Omaha to San Fran- cisco, was completed in 1869. It had been begun in 1862, during the heat of the war, and Congress had assisted it by giving the company public lands, and promising to pay the interest on its bonds if it should be unable to dp so. The completion of this railroad made it possible for the traveller to cross the continent in a week ; and an easy passage was provided for mails and merchan- dise betw ^3n Europe and Asia. Americans had made a substitute for the " northwest passage," sought for by early discoverers (§ 22). 865. The Importance of the Pacific railroad system is very largely that it is oue of tlie forces which make it possible to keep so large a country under one goverument. An Oregon Congressman can now reach Washington within a week's time: in 1842(§5'20), the journey would have cost him from three to six mouths. If a foreign enemy should at- tack the Pacific coast, the whole power of the country could be brought to its defence almost at once. In addition to all tliis, the Pacific rail- roads have rapidly built up the territory through which tiiey pass, by encouraging settlements. Great States, like Kansas, Nebraska, and J7olorado, owe very much of their wonderful growth to the fact tliat the Pacific railrond system has passed through them. 866. Other Pacific Railroads. — The Northern Pacific Railroad was completed in 1883. It runs from Duluth and St. Paul, through Dakota, to Puget's Sound, where it meets the lines run- ning down the coast. A number of other lines running to the Pacific have since then been constructed, so that the railway inter- communication between east and west has been greatly facili- tated. 867. Great ■fires were numerous during the years 1871 and 187'3, Chicago was burned in October, 1871. This was the great- est fire in mod'^rn times. It began in the poorer part of the city, and was hurriod by a high wind into the richest portion, among banks, business houses, and the handsomest of the private resi- dences. When it ceased burning on the third day, 100,000 people were homeless, $200,000,000 in property had been destroyed, and for miles along the lake-front there were only ruins. In the same month 864. What is said of the Central Pacific Railroad? How had Congress assisted it? What are its advantages? 865. What is the importance of the Pacific railroad system? How has it built up the States through which it passes? 806. What is said of the Northern Pacific Railroad ? Of other Pacific Rail- roads ? 867. Wliat is said of the burning of Chicago ? Of the Wisconsin fires ? Of the Boston flie ? Of public benevolence ? Of the rebuilding of the cities f 1876] COLORADO. 379 great forest-fires swept over Wisconsin, and more than 1,500 per- sons were burned to death. In November, 1872, a large part ot Boston was burned, with a loss of $70,000,000. The news of each of these disasters had hardly been telegraphed when train-loads of provisions and supplies were started from all parts of the country to the place where they were needed. Rebuilding began at once ; and Chicago and Boston soon rose from their ruins, finer cities than before their misfortune. 868. Indian Troubles were quite numerous during Grant's second administration. The Modoc Indians, living near Klamath Lake, in southern Oregon, were ordered by the government to go to another res- ervation; but they refused to go, and killed llie peace commissioners sent to them. Tiieir country, the " lava-beds," was a region of old vol- canoes, with underground passages miles in length ; and it was not until 1873, after nearly a year's fighting, that the troops could drive them out of their hiding-places. The Sioux Indians, under Sitting Bull, were also troublesome. In 1876, they were gradually driven toward the Big Horn River, in southern Montana. Here General Custer, with a single cavalry regiment, rashly charged the whole tribe, and he and all his men were killed. Fresh troops afterward arrived, and drove the Indians into British America. 869. Colorado was admitted to the Union in 1876. Colorado, named from its principal river, is formed partly from the Louisiana purchase of 1803 (§ 332), and part- ly from the Mexican cession of 1848 (§ 573). X'Q^^ ^ ^"^ . Gold was discovered at Pike's Peak in 1858, /^* ' -9f and silver at Leadville in 1877. The leading / II/,- /^, >, - industry is still mining, but cattle-raising, a / ^= ^^es^rsgea^ surer road to wealth, has increased steadily. Agriculture is much hindered by the eleva tion of a great part of the State, but this is no hindrance to grazing. In 189U, the popu- \^-^l lation of the State was 412,198, antl its de- ^"^^^^^^^P^J velopment has been very rapid. In 1870 it ^^^^^^^^^^ had not a mile of railroad ; in 1892 it had over 4000 miles. ^ . . , , Seal of CoLORAr.o, 870. The Centennial, or hundredth, anniversary of the Declaration, of Independence was celebrated in 1876 (§206). As a part of the celebration, an International Ex- position was held at Philadelphia from May until November. In its great buildings were collected specimens of the productions, 868. Give an account of the Modoc war. Of the Sioux war. 869. What State was admitted in 1876? 870. Wliat celebration took place in 1876? What is said of the InternaUonal Exptosition ? 380 THE END OF RECONSTRUCTION, [1870 manufactures, and arts of every country. It was visited by nearly ten million people, and served excellently as a general educator. Supplementary Questions. Locations. — Locate Omaha, Neb.; San Francisco, Cal.; Duluth, Minn.; Minneapolis, Minn.; Puget's Sound, Or.; Shreveport, La.; Los Angeles, Cal.; Chicago, 111.; Boston, Mass.; Klamath Lake, Or.; Big Horn River, Mont. ; Colorado. Review. — Give the years in which Grant's administrations began °nd ended. Tlie names of the Vice-Presidents. The year of the com- pletion of the Central Pacific railroad. Of the burning of Chicago. Of the Centennial celebration. (3) The End of Reconstruction. 871. Reconstruction was completed in 1870, by tbe rcadmis- sion of Georgia, Mississippi, Texas, and Virginia (§ 845). Early in 1871 all the States were represented in Congress for the first time since 1861. Hitherto these four States had not been willing to change their forms of government so as to meet tlie wishes of Congress. 872. The Fifteenth Amendment was ratified by three fourths of the States, and became a part of tbe Constitution in 1870. It bad been proposed by Congress the year before. It forbade the United States, or any State, to prevent any person from voting because of bis '' race, color, or previous condition of servitude." 873. Negro Suffrage was thus made the law of the land. It was hoped that the Southern negroes, having by national law the right to vote, would be able to take care of themselves by electing representatives in their State governments. Unfortunately, tbe freedmen were tbe most ignorant part of the population. It bad been part of the law of slavery to keep them ignorant and to make them afraid of their masters. They were still so ignorant and timid that they knew but one way yf voting, to vote together and vote against the whites. State legislatures have tbe power to lay taxes, and all the Southern property on which taxes were laid be- longed to the whites. The whites therefore used every means to 871. How was reconstruction completed? 872. What is said of the Fifteenth Amendment? What did it forbid? 878. What was hoped from tiegro suffrage? What were the reasons for its failure? Why did the whites oppose negro suffrage? How did they at first op pose it? 1871] DI80BDER IN THE SOXTTB. 381 keep the negroes from voting, for fear negro legislatures would make the taxes unbearably heavy. Sometimes they paid their negro workmen to stay at home on election-day ; sometimes they threatened to discharge them if they voted ; and thus, in several of the States, the whites soon got control of the State governments again. 874. Carpet-bagger was a name given by Southern whites to North- ern men who settled in the South and voted with the negroes. The name was given to them because tliey were said to have brought nothing but their carpet-bags with them from the North. Manj^ of them were former Union soldiers. A " scalawag" was a native Soutiiern white who voted with the negroes, and was considered a traitor by tlie wliites. 875. Disorder in the South soon became very common in those States in which the bribes or tl.reats above mentioned were not enough to keep the legislatures out of the control of the freedmen. The whites asserted that the reconstructed governments made bad laws and stole the public moneys. The reconstructed governments asserted that the whites resisted the laws by violence, and whipped or killed negroes, in order to prevent them from voting. Both assertions seem to have been correct. The disorders were worst in South Carolina, Mississippi, Arkansas, and Louisiana, but they extended more or less to all the seceding States. 876. The Reconstructed Grovernments appealed to the Presi- dent for help. The Constitution and laws provide that a State government which cannot put down disorder within its limits may obtain support from the President. President Grant sent troops to the assistance of the States which asked for it, and thus kept their governments in existence. Nevertheless, in one State after another, the whites succeeded in carrying the elections and getting quiet control of the State government: the Federal troops were then no longer asked for. In this manner, before the end of Grant's second term, the whites had obtained control of all the Southern State gov- ernments excepting those of South Carolina, Florida, and Louisiana. Even in these three States, they claimed to have carried the elec- tions, but the Federal troops still prevented them from turning out the reconstructed governments. 874. What was meant by a carpet-bag:grer? By a " scalawag"? 875. Where was the disorder in the South? What was the charg-e made by the whites? By the reconstructed governments? Whers were the disorders worst? 876. What right had the reconstructed governments to ask the President for help? What support did he give them? Did this save the reconstructed govern- luentB? 382 POLITICAL AFFAIRS. [1875 877. The Ku-Klux-Klan was a secret society of wbites, extending all through the Southern States. It operated originally as a sort of poUce to keep the freedmen in subjection. It then attacked the white Kepubli- cans, the "carpet- baggers" or "scalawags" (§874). Finally it seems to have gone into the work of committing murders for pay or spite, so that the better class of whites were compelled to aid in putting it down. Before this took place, Congress passed a number of severe laws, in- tended to put an end to the society and its practices of riding by night in masks and disguises to terrify, whip, or murder freedmen and white Republicans. 878. Reconstruction, so far as it aimed to make freedmen voters, was thus a failure in all but three States before 1876; and even in these three States, South Carolina, Florida, and Louisiana, it became a failure in 1877 (§ 888). And yet, in spite of this failure, it has been a success in other respects. As a slave, the negro had been only a thing, a piece of property, without any rights. Re- construction has given him every right but that of voting; and even this right is being obtained slowly but surely, as the negro shows himself worthy of it. (4) Political Affairs. 879. Political Scandals were unhappily numerous during this period. A Whiskey Ring was discovered in the West in 1875, composed of distillers and revenue officers, and formed for the pur- pose of swindling the government out of the taxes on the manufac- ture of whiskey. Many of the Indian troubles came from the frauds of government agents who swindled the Indians out of their allowances. It was charged that the scheme for annexing San Domingo (§ 859) was contrived by government agents who owned land in San Domingo, and wished to increase its value by annexa- tion. One of the President's Cabinet was impeached for taking bribes, but escaped by resigning ; and several members of Congress were charged with accepting shares of Credit Mobilier stock, given them as inducements to buy their votes. Very many of these scandals were the result of the system of appointing men to office for political services, which had been begun under Jackson (§ 475). 877. What was the Ku-Klux-Klan? What were its objects? What laws were passed by Congress in relation to it? 878. What was the failure of reconstruction? What was its success? 879. What is said of political scandals? Of the Whiskey Ring? Of the In- illan troubles? Of the San Domingo scheme? Of offlcial corruption and bribery? What was the reason for many of these scandals? 1872J LIBERAL BEPUBLICANS. 383 The Credit Mobilier was organized to talis contracts for work on the Pacific Railroad. It wished to have certain bills passed by Congress: and it secured votes iu Congress by giving stock to members. 880. Liberal Republicans. — A few of these political scandals had come out to public view during Grant's first administration. As those who were engaged in them were mainly Republicans, the Democrats used them as arguments that the whole Republican party was equally bad, and some of the Republicans began to feel very much inclined to leave their party. Moreover, many of the Republicans were not satisfied that Federal troops should be used so constantly to support the reconstructed governments : they thought that if these governments were not able to sustain them- selves, they were not fit to exist. These two reasons caused the formation of the "Liberal Republican" party in 1871-2. 881. The Presidential Election of 1872 was influenced largely by the state of affairs in the South. Tlie Liberal Republicans nominated Horace Greeley, of New York, and B. Gratz Brown, of Missouri, and the Democrats accepted these nominations as their own. The Republicans nominated President Grant and Henry Wilson, of Massachusetts, and approved the President's use of Federal troops at the South. The Republicans were successful, and Grant and Wilson were elected President and Vice-President. Grant and Wilson received 286 of the 366 electoral votes. Greeley died soon after the election. His mind had been overthrown by the ex- citement of the struggle. 882. Grant's Second Term was marked by a great increase in the scandals which became public. No one ever suggested or sus- pected that the President was implicated in them in the least, but they were used as political arguments against the party which had elected him. In 1876, the Democrats nominated SamuelJ. Tilden. of New York, and Thomas A. Hendricks, of Indiana, declaring their purpose to " reform the government." The Republicans nominated Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio, and William A. Wheeler, of New York, declaring that the government would be safe if left under their control. At this election there seemed to be no great 880. What was the first reason for Republican dissatisfaction? The second? What new party grew out of them? 881. Who were nominated by the Liberal Republicans and Democrats in 1872? By the Republicans? What was the result of the election? 882. What is said of Grant's second term? Who were nominated by the Demo- crats? By the Republicans? What was the diflference between the parties? 384 THE PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION OF 1876. [1876 disputed principles between the two parties : one party wished to get in, and the other to stay in. The Independent, Greenback, or National party also nominated candidates, but they obtained no electoral votes. The object of the party was to have all paper money issued by the government, and none by banks. The objection is that a government will be very apt to issue too much; and that the more of it is issued the less it will buy, and the less men will get for their wages. National banks are not tempted tc issue too much, for they cannot issue paper money without buying and depositing bonds to make it secure. 883. The Presidential Election of 1876 was thrown into complete confusion by the state of affairs at the South. It must be remembered that when the people at large vote, they do not vote for President and Vice-President : they v®te for electors, and these electors afterward vote for the President and Vice-President (§ 298). When the election by the people was over, it was found that, outside of Florida and Louisiana, each party had obtained nearly the same number of electors, and that both parties claimed to have carried the two deciding States, Florida and Louisiana. There were other points of dispute, but these two States were the most important. 884. Returning Boards. — The reconstructed governments, on ac- count of violence in their Stales, had usually appointed "returning boards," of about tive men, whose duly was to examine the vote of the Stale, and throw out the votes of any counties or parts of counties in whicii voters had been kept away from the polls by terror or violence. In Florida and Louisiana, the Democrats had a majority of the votes cast; the Republicans had a majority after the returning boards had thrown out the votes of those counties which tliey decided agninst. The Democrats protested that this was illegal, as it made the retundiig boards masters of the election; the Republicans defended it, as any other arrangement would make force and fraud masters of the election. 885. Congress had for about fifty years claimed and exercised the power to decide disputes about electoral votes (§ 922). But now the Deuiocrats had a majority in the House of Representatives; the Republicans had a majority in the Senate ; and it was certain that the two bodies would not agree in any decision about Florida and Louisiana. When Congress met in December, 1876, the danger was plain to all men that Congress would argue the matter 883. How are the President and Vice-President elected? What States were dis- puted in 1876? 884. What is meant by returning boards? How did they decide in Florida and Louisiana? How did the parties like the arrangement? 885. What power had Congress claimed? What was the difiQculty in ISTef What was the danger? 1876] TEE ELECTORAL COMMISSION. 385 without any result until March, that then two Presidents would claim the office, and that civil war between their supporters would follow. 886. The Electoral Commission. — Congress argued the matter until it was found that no agreement could be reached by the two Houses, and then the moderate men of both parties united in pass- ing a special law to create an Electoral Commission. This com- mission was to be composed of fifteen members, five of them judges of the Supreme Court, five Senators, and five Representa- tives. The commissioners were to consider the disputed points, and to decide what seemed to them the true votes. Their decision was to hold good, unless the two Houses should agree to overrule it, and every one knew that the two Houses could not agree in anything. The decision was therefore really with the commission. 887. The Decision. — It had been intended that seven of the commissioners should be Republicans, seven Democrats, and the fifteenth one who was not an adherent of either party. This fif- teenth member was unable to serve, and a Republican took his place. It was then found that on disputed questions the seven Democrats and the eight Republicans voted unitedly, so that all the important points were decided in favor of the Republicans by steady votes of eight to seven. The Houses did not agree in changing any of the commission's decisions ; and R. B. Hayes be- came President, and W. A. Wheeler Vice-President. There were 185 electora' votes thus declared for Hayes and Wlieeier, ana 164 for Tilden and Hendricks. 888. The Result was not pleasant to many of the Democrats, but the country was glad to find any means of escape from a press- ing danger. One result was that the remaining reconstructed gov- ernments in the South were left to their fate. Unable to support themselves, and supported only by Federal troops, it was seen that their control of important electoral votes had thrown the whole country into a position of extreme peril. Even before the new administration came into office. President Grant had withdrawn 886. What law was passed? How was the commission to be composed? How was the decision to be made? 887. What had been the intention in forming the commission? How was the decision made? 888. What was the feeling in regard to the decision? What was its result in Southern affairs? 386 LEADING EVENTS, 1869-77. the Federal troops from the support of the reconstructed govern- ments, and his action met general approval. Within two months, the last of the reconstructed governments disappeared, and a "solid South" took their place (§ 834). All the Southern States were controlled by the white voters, and all were Democratic. Supplementary Questions. Locations. — Where is Florida? Louisiana? REViEv^r. — In what year was reconstruction completed (|871)? What Amendment was adopted during these administrations? Wliicli were the most important States claimed by both parties in 1876? Whiit body was appointed to decide the dispute? Who were declared elected? 889. The Leading Events of Grant's administrations were as follows: 1869-73: Grant's First Term § 861 1869: Pacific Railroad completed 864 San Domingo treaty 859 1870: Reconstruction completed 871 Fifteenth Amendment ratified 873 1871: KuKkix disorders 877 Burning of Chicago 867 Treaty of Washington 855 1873: Burning of Boston 867 Modoc war 868 1873-77: Grant's Second Term 863 1873: Beginning of the panic 862 The Virginius case 860 1876: Centennial celebration 870 Admission of Colorado 869 Sioux war 868 1877: Electoral Commission 886 889. What were the leading events of 1869? Of 1870? Of 16V1? Oj: 1378? Ot 1878? OflS76? Of 1877? CHAPTER XIX. HAYES'S ADMINISTRATION: 1877-81. R. B. HAfES, Ohio, President. Wm. a. Wheeler, N. Y., Vice-President 890. Kutherford Birchard Hayes was born in Ohio in 1822. He became a lawyer; entered the Union army during the Civil War, and became a brigadier- general; was a Republican Con- gressman, 1865-7, and governor of Ohio, 1868-72 and 1876-7. Ohio has a large electoral vote, and is an important State to both parties. Hayes's success in two elections for govei-nor led to his nomination for President. He served as President 1877-81, and difd Jan. 17, 1893. (1) Internal Affairs. 891. Hayes's Administra- tion proved to be a period of calm and contentment, such as the country had not known since 1860. The war was over, and its passions were dying away. Reconstruction had done ^- ^- Hayes. all that it could do, and had shown what it could not do. The panic of 1873 was passing off gradually, as the growth of the country brought into use and profit the railroads which had been useless and unprofitable. The country's history during these four years is only the story of the daily labor of fifty millions of people who were working busily, filling new regions like Dakota, and sell- ing the produce of their labor in enormous quantities to other na- 890. Give the leading incidents in the life of Haves. 891. What is said of Hayes's administration? Of the war? Of reconstruction? Of the panic? Of the general history of this period? 388 DOMESTIC AFFAIBS. [1877 tions. The history of such a period offers very little that can be written about. It is an old saying: "Happy is the nation which has no history." 892. The Census of 1880 showed a population of 50,155,783, an increase of 11,000,000 since 1870 (§ 863). The highest rates of increase were now in the Southern States. 898. Electricity was brought into use, during this period, in many new and wonderful ways. It had already been put to use in the telegraph (§ 527). Now the telephone was perfected: it has already enabled men to converse when they are a thousand miles apart. The electric light was brought into use for lighting houses and streets. The first promising attempts were made to use elec- tricity as a means of transmitting power, in driving ordinary machinery and locomotive engines. 894. Elevated Bailroads were introduced in New York City, where the surface of the streets was too crowded to allow rapid travel. The elevated roads have enabled men to live in the upper part of the city and do business in the lower part, and they have thus made New York a still more rapidly growing city. Some other cities have adopted the same idea. In San Francisco and Cliicago a different plan is used for rapid street travel. The rail- road is on the surface of the street; and the cars are drawn by a mov- ing cable just below the surface, run by a stationary engine. The citiea of Europe still depend mainly on horse-railroads. 895. The Nez Perce Indians were ordered to remove, in 1877, from one reservation to another. They refused, and began war. They were pursued for 1,500 miles, from Idaho through Montana, and were finally compelled to surrender. But their skilful retreat was much admired by the officers opposed to them : they marched and fought like white troops, did no scalping, and killed no women or children. 896. Railroad Strikes were numerous during the summer of 1877. The railroads attempted to lower the wages of the men; most of the men refused to work for the new wages, and some of 892. What was shown by the census of 1880? 898. What is said of electricity? Of the telephone? Of the electric light? Of electricity as a power? 894. What is said of elevated railroads? Of their effect on New York City? 896. What difRculty arose as to the Nez Perc6 Indians? What is said of their retreat? Of their manner of fighting? 89fi. How did the railroad strikes begin? What riots took place? How were they eode4? 1878] IMPROVEMENT OF THE MISSISSIPPI. 389 them refused to allow the trains to run. In some cases they resisted the troops which were protecting the railroads; and there •were dangerous riots at Pittsburgh, Chicago, St. Louis, and other places. After nearly two weeks of general confusion, the riots were suppressed, and the trains began running regulai'ly again. The worst riot took place at Pittsburgh, wliere iLe rioters held con- trol of the city for several days. Nearly 100 lives were lost, and $3,000,- 000 worth of property was destioyed, before order was restored. 897. Yellow Ferer attacked the Southern States in 1878, and nearly 15,000 persons died of it. The attack was worst at Mem- phis and New Orleans, and those cities were at one time abandoned by every one who could leave them. Assistance of every kind, medicines, money, and nurses, was sent to the ajfflicted region from all parts of the country. 898. The Mississippi River had for a long time been hard to control. It brings with it vast quantities of mud, which gradually drops to the bottom of the river. Great shallows are thus formed at the mouth of the river, so as to hinder navigation ; and the level of the river is raised, so that any freshet pours over the banks, and drowns the neighboring country. The first difficulty was removed, during this period, by narrowing the mouth of the river. The cur- rent was thus made swift enough to scour out the mud and carry it into the Gulf of Mexico ; and ocean steamers can now pass up the Mississippi to New Orleans. The second difliiculty has not yet been overcome (§912). Supplementary Questions. Locations. — Locate Idaho; Montana; Pittsburgh, Pa.; Chicago, II].; St. Louis, Mo.; Memphis, Tenn. ; New Orleans, La.; the Missis- sippi River. Review. — In what years did Hayes's administration begin and end? Name the Vice-President. What was the year of the railroad strikes? The city in which the worst of the riots took place? (2) Finances. 899. Silver had for some years been decreasing in value all over the world, partly because of the enormous production of the silver- 897. What is said of the yellow-fever epidemic? Where was it worst? What assistance was given? 898. Why is the Mississippi River hard to control? What is the first difficulty? The second? How was the first difficulty removed? What is said of the second? 899. What is said of silver? Of what does the value of gold or silver depend? W6y was the value of silver decreasing? 390 DEMONETIZATION' OF SILVER. [1873 mines of Nevada and other Pacific States and Territories. The value of gold or silver, like that of anything else, depends not only on the use that people have for it, but on the cost of getting it. About this time silver began to be used less as a money metal, Germany in particular largely discarding it. At the same time in Nevada the miners had found new and cheaper ways of getting the silver out of the ore; and the mines there were yearly sending out larger quantities of silver. Its price, as compared with gold, was steadily falling for both reasons. 900. Demonetization of Silver. — The laws of the United States allowed both gold and silver to be coined into dollars. As the amount required to make a silver dollar was then worth more than the amount required to make a gold dollar, few silver dollars were coined, for the owner of silver could exchange it for gold, and have the gold coined into more dollars than the amount of silver would have made when coined^ Hence, in 1873, Congress •* demonetized " silver, e.e., no longer allowed silver to be coined into dollars. 901. Remonetization of Silver. — After 1873 the silver previ- ously required to make a silver dollar became worth less than a gold dollar. Had silver not been demonetized, no one would now have had go.d coined into dollars, for reasons just the opposite of those given above (§ 900)^ Thus debts contracted in gold dollars could have been paid in silver dollars of less value. Owing lo the de- mands of the debtor class, Congress in 1878 partially remonetized silver, i.e., spent monthly a certain amount for silver, and coined the purchased silver into dollars. This law is called the Bland- Allison Bill. From 1789 until 1873 only 8,000,000 silver dollars were coined. From 1878 until 1890 about 400,- 000,000 silver dollars were coined. Most of them are still in the Treas- ury, for the people do not find them as convenient as paper currency. 902. Resumption. — Ever since 1862 (§ 725), paper money, issued by the government or by national banks, had been the only money in general use. It had been the only money used by the government, except that it demanded coin for the duties on imports, and paid coin for the interest on the public debt. It had been worth less, and sometimes much less, than gold, partly because such 900. Why was silver demonetized in the United States ? 901. What was the objection to demonetization ? Was it just ? What was the result ? 902. What is said of paper money ? Of its previous value ? Of the resumption of specie payments ? Wba^ was the result ? 1880J CHINESE IMMIGRATION. 891 large amounts of it had been issued, and partly because it bad sometimes been doubtful whether the government would be able finally to pay coin for it. It had been decided to resume specie payments; and the government was prepared, January 1, 1879, to pay in gold or silver any of its notes that were brought to it for payment. But the notes were by this time equal in value to gold, and more valuable than silver, so that most people preferred to keep the paper money, on account of its convenience. 903. Refunding' was also accomplished during this [teriod. For a long time, a liigli rate of interest had been paid on the public debt, so that the United States paid between one hundred and one hundred and fifty million dollars a year for interest. It was now so certain that the debt would be paid, that men who had money to lend were willing to lend it to the government at a lower rate of interest. As fast as possible, new bonds were sold at low interest, and the money was used to pay the old bonds. The annual saving in interest was about $30,000,000. The total amount of the debt was now about $2,000,000,000 (§ 916). (3) Foreign Affairs. 904. Chinese Immigrants to the Pacific States had become very numerous. They had been accustomed to live far more meanly than white laborers had been used to do and could there- fore work for less wages. White laborers alleged that they had to bid for work at lower wages than they had been used to. The consequence was that there were riots, attacks on the Chinese, and a general hatred of them in California. In 1880, a treaty was made with China which allowed the United States to stop Chinese immigration for a time (§ 920). (4) Political Affairs. 905. Congress and the President were often in conflict during this administration. The Democrats generally controlled Con- gress, and they wished to repeal certain laws which had been 903. What is said of the previous interest ? Of the new interest ? How was refunding aecomplished ? What was the saving ? 904. Wliat were the objections to Chinese immigrants f What was tlie feeling toward them ? What tieaty was made with Cliina ? 905. What conflicts took place ? What was the reason for these conflicts? How were the repealing acts defeated ? 392 W. 8. HANCOCK. [1880 passed by former Kepublican Congresses. The repealing acts were vetoed by the President, and the majority in Congress was not- large enough to pass them over the veto (§478). The result was that there was a great deal of excitement, and very little was done. 906. In the Presidential Election of 1880 the Democrats nominated Winfield S. Han- cock, of New York, and Wil- liam H. English, of Indiana ; and the Republicans nomi- nated James A. Garfield, of Ohio, and Chester A. Arthur, of New York (§908). The result was the election of the Eepublican candidates : they received 214 electoral votes to 155 for their opponents. The popular vote was nearly equally divided. Tlie National, or Greenback, party also nominated candidates, but tliey received no electoral votes. W. S. Hancock. Supplementary Questions. Review. — What was the year of the demonetization of silver? Of the remonetization of silver? Of the resumption of specie payments? "Who were elected President and Vice-President in 1880? 907. The Leading Events of Hayes's administration were as follows: 1877-81: Hayes's Term of Office ^890 1877: Nez Perce war 895 Railroad strikes 896 1878: Yellow-fever epidemic 897 Remonetization of silver 901 1879: Resumption of specie payments 902 1880: Treaty with China 904 906. What nominations were made in 1880? Who were elected? What wa's the state of the vote? 907. What were the years in which Hayes's administration began and ended? What were the leading events of 1877? Of 1878? Of 1879? Of 1880? CHAPTER XX. GARFIELD'S AND ARTHUR'S ADMINISTRATIONS: 1881-5. James A. Garfield, O., Pres. Chester A. Arthur, N. Y., Vice-Pres. and Pres. 908. James Abram Garfield was born in Ohio in 1831. He became a lawyer, after filling a college profes.sorship for a time, entered the Union army, and rose to the rank of major-general. He served as Congress- man (Republican), 1863-81 ; was elected United States Senator in 1881, and President in 1881. He died by assassination in 1881 (g 909). James A. Garfield. Chester A. Arthur. Chaster Alan Arthur, of New York, was born in Vermont in 1830. He became a lawyer, and was Collector of the Port of New York, 1871-8. He was elected Vice-President in 1880. and became President at the death of Garfield. He was the fourth Vice-President who has thus been called to the Presidency, and his administration was decidedly the most successful of all of the four. He died in 1886. 909. Death of Grarfleld. — Garfield was iiiauo-urated March 4, 908. What were the leading: events in the life of Garfield ? Of Artliur ? 909. What is said o'" the assassination and deatli of Garfield ? Wlio became President in his stead / How is the succession to the Presidency now regulated t 393 394 CIVIL-SERVICE REFORM. [1881 1881. Four months afterward (July 2), he was shot and mortallv wounded by a disappointed villain whom he had refused to ap- point to office. After an illness of eighty days, the President died (Sept. 19) at Elberon (near Long Branch), New Jersey, to which place he had been removed from Washington. Vice-President Arthur became President at Garfield's death. Congress has since (§ 922) provided that in case of the death or disability of both President and Vice-President, the members of the Cabinet (§§ 295, 922) shall succeed to the Presidency, in the order of the establish- ment of their offices, 910. CiTil-service Reform. — Since Jackson's time (§ 475), every President had been expected to appoint men to office be- cause they had worked for his party, rather than because they were good public servants. Garfield's death, which was mainly the result of this system of appointment, brought a larger number of the people to think of the evils involved in it, and to call for a better system. Congress (1883) passed the Civil-service Act, allowing the President to select examiners and to make appoint- ments on their examination and recommendation of candidates. This method of appointment has been very successful in other countries; aiid in ours it has been applied to a steadily larger part of the civil service by Presidents Arthur, Cleveland, and Harrison, since it relieves the President of needless work and annoy- ance. It has even been adopted by some of our States and cities. 911. The Yorktown Celebration. — The hundredth anniver- sary of Cornwallis's surrender (§ 262) was celebrated at Yorktown 1881. But, in order to show tlie country's friendship at present for Great Britain, President Arthur ordered that the celebration should end with a general salute to the British flag. 912. Natural Disasters.— Just after the Civil War, the gov- ernment had established a Weather Bureau, to give warning by telegraph of the movements of storms. It had been of great ser- vice ; but it could do nothing to guard against such misfortunes 910. How had appointments to office been made ? What was the effect of Garfield's death ? The Civil-service Act ? Has it been a success ? 911. How was the Yorktown surrender celebrated ? 912. What was the design of the Weather Bureau ? What natural disasters were beyond its foresight ? 1883] TBE TARIFF COMMISSION OF 1883. 395 as tlie overflow of the Mississippi (§ 898), which drove 100,000 persons from their liomes in 1882, and the cyclones, or revolving windstorms, which do great damage every year in the South and West. 913. The Mormons. — Congress passed a stringent law in 1882, intended to put an end to the polygamy of the Mormons in Utah (§ 628). The practice of polygamy thereafter decreased (§ 954). 914. The Cincinnati Riots. — The country was startled in 1884 by a n::ob-outbreak in Cincinnati, which burned the court-house and other public buildings, and kept control of the city for several days untd dispersed by the militia. It was then found that the reason for the mob's existence was that justice had been badly executed and criminals had escaped punishment. 915. General Prosperity. — The country had now fully re- covered from the panic of 187,3 (§ 862). AYork was plenty for everybody, and agriculture, trade, and manufactures were flourish- ing. This was especially noticeable, and for the first time, at the South. That section had found free labor far more profitable than slave labor (§ 643). Its crops were very large; railroads were now building in every direction ; rich iron-mines were open- ing; and manufactures were appearing as they had never done while the workmen were slaves. Successful expositions at Atlanta (1881) and New Orleans (1884-5) showed the great resources of the "New South" and its wonderful advance since 1865. 916. The Tariflf of 1883.— The payment of the debt had gone on so rapidly that the debt was now only about half as large as at the end of the Civil War (§ 832). It was no longer possible to use so much of the government revenues in paying the debt, for bond-holders who had consented to take lower rates of interest (§ 903) had done so on the government's promise not to pay off 913. What law was passed as to tlie Mormons ? 914. What was tlie Cincinnati riot ? What was the reason for it ? 915. Wliat was the state of the country ? Of the South ;■ What expositions ■were held there ? 916. Why was the payment of the debt checked? What was the Tariflf of 1883? Was there any further attempt to reduce the revenue? How was it defeated? 896 TBE PRSJStDENTlAL ELECTION OF 1884. [1884 their bonds for a number of years to come. It was then proposed to decrease the duties on imports, in order to make the govern- ment revenues smalleh For that purpose, a new tariff was adopted by Congress, in 1883, on the report of a Tariff Commission, com- posed of business men familiar witli the subject. As it turned out, this new tariff made very little reduction in the duties; and the Democrats in Congress made another attempt to reduce tliem the next year. This brought up tlie okl question of Free Trade or Protection (§ 432). Duties had been made higli in 1861, partly to obtain needed revenue, partly to encourage American manufac- tures, which would pay new taxes; and they had not been de- creased since. To decrease them now would be to have less Pro- tection, and the Republicans and Protectionist Democrats voted down the proposal to lower the duties. The question of reducing the " surplus revenue" then passed into the Presidential election. 917. Presidential Election of 1884 The Republicans, declar- ing in favor of Protection, nominated for President James G. Blaine, of Maine, and for Vice-President John A. Logan, of Illi- nois. The Democrats, declaring in favor of a reduction of the government's surplus revenue, but saying as little as possible about the general question of Free Trade or Protection, nominated Grover Cleveland, of New York, and Thomas A. Hendricks, of Indiana. The election was decided by the 36 electoral votes (§ 298) of New York, which were cast for Cleveland and Hendricks, and they were elected. The electoral votes were 219 for Cleveland and Hendricks and 182 for Blaine and Logan. The Prohibition party, aiming to ])robibit the sale of intoxicating liquors, nominated John P. St. John, of Kansas, and William Daniel, of Maryland, and the former Greenback party (§ 882) Benj. F. Butler, of Massachusetts, and A. M. West, of Mississippi ; but none of these received any electoral votes. Supplementary Questions. Locations. — Locate Long Branch, N. J.; Washington, D. C. ; York- town, Va.; the Mississippi River; Utah; Cincinnati, O. ; Atlanta, Ga. ; New Orleans, La. Review. — Give the year in whicli Garfield's and Arthur's adminis- traiLjns began. The dates of Garfield's assassination and death. Who 917. What were the platform and candidates of the Republicans in 1884? Of the Democrats? What was the result of the electiou ? 1884] LEADING EVENTS, 1881-5. 397 succeeded liim ? Give tlie year of tlie Yorktown celebration. Of the Mississippi floods. Of the Cincinnati riot. 918. The Leading Events of the administrations of Garfield and Arthur were as follows: 1881-5: Garfield's and Arthur's Terms of Office § 908 1881: Death of President Garfield 909 Vice-President Arthur succeeds him 909 Atlanta Exposition 915 Yorktown celebration 911 1883: Mississippi floods 912 Anti-polygamy Act 913 Tariff Commission 916 1883: New Tariff Act passed 916 Civil-service Act passed 910 1884: Cincinnati riot 914 New Orleans Exposition 915 »18. In what years did Garfield's and Arthur's terms begin and end? What Adre tilt, leading events of 1881? Of 1882? Of 1883? Of 1884? CHAPTER XXL CLEVELAND'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION: 1885-9. Grover Cleveland, N. Y., President. T. A. Hendricks, Ind., Vice-President 919. Grover Cleveland was born in New Jersey in 1837. Removing in infancy to the State of New York, lie finally became a lawyer in Buffalo, of wbicli city he was elected Mayor in 1881. The Democratic party of the State elected hiii< '-ov ernor in 1883 by an enormous majority. In 1884 he was nominated and elected Presi- dent, serving until 1889. He then resumed the practice of law in New York City. He was again elected President in 1893. 920. Labor Troubles.— The wealth of the country was increasing enormously (§ 1015), and the number of very rich men was increasing with it. If all their wealth should be divided among their fellow-citizens, it would give very little to each ; but the sight of their easy and pleasant life was enough to persuade many workingmen that they were working harder than was neces- sary. Great numbers of them formed associations which refused to work except for higher wages and shorter hours, as they had a perfect right to do. But some of them tried to keep other men from taking their })laces, threatening, injuring, and in some cases killing them; and there was bad feeling when police protec- 919. Give an account of the life of Cleveland. 920. How did the labor troubles arise? What wrong was done \)y the labor as- sociations? By the employers? What was the Contract Labor Act? What is said of the Anarchists! Of immigration ? 898 Grover Cleveland. 1887 1 TEE INTER-STATE COMMERCE ACT. 399 tion was given to the injured parties. Sonic employeis made " black-lists " of men whom they did not like ; and these rae.\ could find employment nowhere. The early years of Cleveland's term were full of these " labor troubles," and of efforts to make laws to settle them. Some rich employers brought large numbers of workmen from Europe at very low wages; and Congress passed a Contract Labor Act, hoping to stop this practice, and a still stronger Act against Chinese immigration (§ 904). Some violent men, called Anarchists, mostly from Europe, who wished to destroy all government, made loud threats of disorder, and rose in riot in Chicago. When they had been put down, there were many proposals to check immigration in some way, but they came to nothing. 921. The President's Policy. — President Cleveland had a de- cided belief that there was a disposition to pass too many Acts of Congress, and too hastily ; and he had no fear of putting his belief in practice. He vetoed (§ 478) a number of Acts, particularly for special grants of pensions, and thus made the opposition to him more intense. He enforced the Civil-service Act (§ 910), but the old system of appointment continued as to many of the offices to which that Act did not apply ; and for this he was warmly attacked. 922. The Presidential Succession. — Several important changes, however, were made in regard to the office of President. The Presidential Succession Act provided for successors in case of the death of both President and Vice-President (§ 909). The Presidential Election Act provided for the settlement by the States of disputes as to choice of electors, such as occurred in 1876 (§ 885). The Tenure of Office Act (§ 849) was repealed. 923. Inter-State Commerce Act. — One of the most important laws passed was the Inter-State Commerce Act (1887), intended to prevent railroads operating in more than one State from chain- ing unfair rates for their services. Such practices were for- bidden, and a Commission of five persons was appointed to- hear and try complaints against any railroad disobeying the law. Each 921. What is said of the President's vetoes ? Of his civil-service policy ? 922. What was the Presidential Succession Act ? The Presidential Election Act T What is said of tiie Tenure of Office Act ' 923. What is said of the Inter-State Commerce Act ? 400 ADMISSION OF NEW STATES. ri889 State, however, continued to control the railroads operated only within its own territory. 924. Foreign and Naval Affairs. — A French company had been digging a canal across the Lsthnius of Panama, while an American company proposed to dig another across Nicaragua. It was felt by many Americans that the United States ought to have control of the successful canal, as an important route for commerce between our Atlantic and Pacific coasts ; and yet other nations would not take this kindly. The French company, however, proved a failure : it broke down in the midst of its work (1889). There were disputes with Great Britain about the right of Ameri- can fishermen to buy ice and bait in Canadian ports, and with Germany about a group of islands in the Pacific called Samoa. All these misunderstandings were settled peacefully, but they led to the appropriation of large sums for the construction of improved and more powerful and swift ironclads for the navy. 925. North Dakota was admitted into the Union iii 1889. North Dakota was originally a part of the Louisiana purchase (§ 332). With the present State of South Dakota it constituted the Territory of Dakota from 1861 to 1889. It is one of the greatest grain- producing States, and mining is prosecuted to some extent. Much of the arid land may ulti- mately be reclaimed for farms by artificial ir- rigation. The population in 1890 was 182,- 719. The area is 75,000 square miles. Bis- marck is the capital. 926. Soutli Dakota was admitted into the Union in 1889. For its history prior to 1889 see § 925. South Dakota is also a great grain-producing State. Its area is 76,620 square miles. Its population in 1890 was 328,808. Pierre is the capital. 924. What is said of the Panama Canal ? Of the Canadian fisheries ? Of ths new navy ? 925. What is said of North Dakota ? When was it admitted ? 926. What is said of South Dakota ? When was it admitted ? 1889] BALLOT REFORM. 40i 927. Montana was admitted into the Union in 1S89. Montana was originally a part of the Louisiana purchase (§ 332). In 1864 it was organized as a Territory (§ 939). Mining is the chief industry. Its joint annual output of gold, silver, lead, and copper exceeds in value that of any other State. Its popula- tion in 1890 was" 132,159. Its area covers 146,080 square miles. Helena is the capital. 928. Washington was admitted into the Union in 1889. The State was originally part of the dis- puted Oregon Country (§§ 520, 544). It was established as a Territorv in 1853. The pop- ulation in 1890 was 349,390. The area is 69,180 square miles. Olympia is the capital. Seattle, on Puget Sound.'is a rapidly growing city, whose population in 1890 was 42,837. The manufacturing industry of the State has attained considerable importance. 929. Trnsts. — In many branches of industry, the producers tried to stop the competition which lowers prices, by entrusting many of their interests, especially the regulation of prices, to one management. These combinations, called " trusts," it was asserted, kept prices high, and were aided in so doing by the tariff, Avhich kept out foreign goods from competing in price. 930. Ballot Reform.— During 1887 and 1888, promising ef- forts began to be made in the different States to change the method of voting to that wliich had been remarkably successful in Australia, Great Britain, and other countries in stopping bribery and interference with voters, and securing an absolutely secret ballot. 931. Presidential Election of 1888.— The "trusts" and tlje increasing surplus (§ 91G) brought up the question of Protection 927. What is said of Montana ? When was it admitted ? 928. When was Washington admitted into the Union ? 929. What is said of Hie " trusts " ? 930. What is said of ballot reform ? 931. What were the platform and candidates of the Democrats in 1888? Of the Republicans? What was the result of the election? 402 PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION OF 1888. [1889 again in 1888. President Cleveland, who had attacked the Pro- tective system warmly in liis Annual Message, was renominated by the Democrats, with Allan G. Thurman, of Ohio, for Vice-President. The Republicans, supporting Protection more warmly than ever, nominated Benjamin Harrison, of Indiana, and Levi P. Morton, of New York. The 36 electoral votes of New York again decided the election (§ 91 V), and elected Harrison and Morton. This completed the first century of the republic under the Constitution (§ 297). The electoral votes were 233 for Harrison and Morton to 168 for Cleveland and Thurman. The Prohibition candidates, Clinton B. Fisk, of New Jersey, and John A. Brooks, of Missouri, received no electoral votes. Supplementary Questions. Locations. — Locate Chicago, 111.; the Isthmtis of Panama; Nitara- gua ; the Dominion of Canada ; Samoa. Review^. — Give the year in which Cleveland's administration began. Of the passage of the Inter-State Commerce Act. Of the failure of the Panama Canal Company. Who was elected to succeed Cleveland ? 932. The Leading Events of Cleveland's administration were as fol- lows : 1885-9 : Cleveland's Term of Office § 919 1885: "Labor troubles" began 920 Contract Labor Act 920 1886 : Presidential Succession Act , 923 1887 : Canadian fisheries dispute 924 Inter-State Commerce Act 923 Presidential Election Act 922 Tenure of Office Act repealed 922 Anarchist riot at Chicago 920 1888 : Ballot reform 930 Four new States admitted 925-8 Chinese Immigration Act 920 1889 : Panama Canal Company fails 924 Samoan dispute 924 Election of Harrison 931 End of the first century under the Constitution.. 931 932. When did Cleveland's first term begin and end ? What were the labor h-oubles? What were the leading events of 1885? Of 1886? Of 1887 ? Of imi* Of 1889 i CHAPTER XXII. HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION : 1889-93. Benjamin Harrison, lad., President. Levi P. Morton, N. Y., Vice-President. 933. Benjamin Harrison was born in Oliio in 18R8, tho grandson of President. W. II. Harrison (§ 513). He studied law, and settled in In- diana. During the Civil War he reached the rank of brigadier- general in the Union army. He was elected United States Senator in 1881 by the Republicans of In- diana. After his presidential term he resumed the practice of law in Indianapolis, Ind. 934. The Struggle over the Rules. — Wlien Congress met in December, 1889, it was pro- posed in the House of Repre- sentatives, where the Republican majority was small, to change the rules governing the House, so as to prevent dilatory motions and exp(>(]it(^ business. Pre- viously it liad been possil)le for meml)ers to defer action on a measure by a policy of delay known as Jjlihustering, which consisted essentially cither in making irrelevant motions which took precedence of tlie pending business, or in simply refrain- ing from answering to their names when the roll was called. Unless a majority of the members answered to their names, the progress of business was temporarily suspended until a majority of the whole House answered to the roll-call. Both parties in the past had resorted to this plan of delaying action, and had claimed that such delay was a right to which the minority was entitled in 933. What were the leading events in the life of Harrison? 934. Give an account of the struggle in the House of Representatives over the proposed change in the rules. 403 Benjamin Harrison. 404 THE McKINLEY BILL. [1890 order to prevent hasty and ill-considered legislation on the part of the majority. The proposed change in the rules allowed the Speaker to count as helping to make a quorum members who were present but who did not answer to the roll, and also authorized him to disregard dilatory motions. After an angry debate, the new rules were adopted. 935. The McKinley Tariff Bill. — The Presidential election liad turned upon the principle of Protection. The Republicans had been completely victorious, and liad elected the President and a majority in both branches of Congress. In his first Message to Congress President Harrison liad recommended the maintenance of the Protective policy. Accordingly, in April, 1890, Mr. McKinley of Ohio introduced into the House a tariff bill which sought at the same time to maintain the Protective system and to reduce the rev- enues of the Federal Government, which were then in excess of its expenditures. The bill laid high duties on foreign goods which came into competition with home products, and put on the free list many goods which were produced exclusively abroad. In the Senate the bill was so amended as to embrace the principle of Reciprocity. This form of Reciprocity consisted in authorizing the President to impose duties on certain goods imported free from other countries, in case these countries imposed duties " reciprocally unequal and unreasonable " upon certain of our exports to them. In this amended form the bill became Jaw. 936. Silver Legislation. — There were many in Congress who were dissatisfied with the law of 1878 (§§ 900, 901) which author- ized a monthly purchase of silver by the government. Thoy claimed that any owner of silver bullion ought to be allowed to take the metal to the Mint and have it coined into dollars, each dollar to contain 371:^ grains of pure silver and to be a legal tender in payment of debt. Such a law, they claimed, would make the silver dollar exchange in the bullion market for the gold dollar. As the outcome of this feeling the Bland-Allison Law was repealed ; and as a compromise, and in the line of further concession to the 935. What was the principle of the McKinley Bill? What articles were taxed? What articles were admitted free? Wliat is meant by Reciprocity? 936. Why was the Bland-Allison Law repealed? What were the provisions of the Silver Bill of July 14, 1890? What were the effects of the bill? 1890] INCBEA8BD EXPEWmTVUm. 405 advocates of the more extended use of silver, a law was passed which required the government to huy eacli month, at the market price, 4,500,000 ounces of silver. The law further provided that for every gold dollar's worth of silver so purchased an equivalent amount in treasury notes of the United States should he issued and that these notes should be a legal tender in payment of debt. The effect of the law was to increase the circulation of money by about 150,000,000 annually. It failed, however, to raise tlie price of silver, or even to maintain the price at its former level. This law was popularly called the Sherman I.aw, because Senator Sherman, although an opponent of the free coinage of silver, was the chairman of the committee which reported the bill in its final form to the Senate. The agitation of the question of silver led to an inter- national conference at Brussels (§ 94^) in 1892-3, which failed to arrive at any conclusions acceptable to all participants. The Sherman Law was repealed November 1, 1893. 937. Increased Expenditures by Congress. — There was at this time a very noticeable increase in the appropriations of money made by Congress. Many people were alarmed at what seemed to them the sudden and undue extravagance on the part of their rep- resentatives at Washington. President Harrison in his first Message to Congress had advocated a more liberal expenditure upon pensions to the former soldiers of the Union. In accordance with this sug- gestion the Dependent Pension Bill was passed by Congress. This increased very materially the number of those entitled to pensions, and made the securing of pensions much easier than it had been hitherto. The effect of this law has been rapidly to increase the expenditure upon pensions until now over 1160,000,000 are annu- ally paid out for this purpose — a sum not far from half the total expenses of the Federal Government. Besides this, heavy appro- priations were made to increase the navy and to refund a tax which had been levied on the loyal States during the Civil War. The Fifty-first Congress spent more than its predecessor by $1 70,000,000, and the heavier rate of expenditure has been since maintained. 938. The World's Fair at Chicago. — In the early part of 1890 Chicago was designated by Congress as the site of the Columbian 9S7. Upon what objects did Congress expend an unusual amount of money ? 988. Where was the World's Fair held ? 406 ADMISSION OF NEW STATES. [1890 Exposition which was to be held in celebration of the four-hun- dredth anniversary of the discovery of America by Columbus (8 7) ; moreover, a commission was appointed to supervise the enterprise. In December, 1890, the President issued a proclama- tion inviting all nations to take part in the exposition. The great fair was formally opened May 1, 1893, and closed October 30, 1893. 939. Idaho was admitted into the Union in 1 890. Idaho originally embraced Montana and a great part of Wyoming, which were parts of the Louisiana purchase (§ 332). The present State of Idaho Avas formerly a part of the Oregon Country (§ 333), and for a time con- stituted part of the Territory of Washington. In 1863 it was made a separate Territory. Its area ct)vers 84,800 square miles, and its popu- lation in 1890 was 8-1, 385. Boise City is the capital. The mining of gold and silver is the main industry, both of these metals being found in great abundance. The arid lands of the State have been ])artly reclaimed by artificial irrigation. Upon the extension of this process the agricultural future of the State depends. 940. "Wyoming' was admitted into the Union in 1890. Wyoming was included in the territory ceded in the Louisiana purchase (§ 332), ex- cept the southwestern part of the State, which was embraced in the first Mexican cession (§ 574). Mining, cattle-raising, and agriculture are the main industries. The population in 1890 was 60,705. The area covers some 97,890 square miles. Cheyenne s the capital. 941. The Territories. — Oklahoma Territory was organized in 1890. Its area had previously been included in Indian Territory, the greater part of which fell under the Louisiana purchase (§ 332), although the extreme western part was covered by the Mexican cession of 1850 (§ 574). Oklahoma was opened to settlers by proclamation of the President, and on September 22, 1891, about sixty thousand immigrants swarmed 939. WHien wa^j Idaho admitted ? 940. When was Wyoming admitted ? 941. AVhere and how was Olilahoma settled? Territories ? What are the remaining 1890] THE ELEVENTH CENSUS. 407 in and took possession of tlie fertile farm land. The population in 1890 was (31,834. Guthrie is the capital. New Mexico has applied, in vain as vet, for admission into the Union. New Mexico together with Arizona" Oklahoma, Indian Territory, and Alaska are the only remaining Territories. 942. The Eleventh Census. — The final count as given by the Eleventh Census (§ 892) made the population of the United States on June 1, 1890 (exclusive of Alaska, the whites in Indian Territory, and Indians on reservations), 62,622,250. The actual total was not far from 63,000,000. Several facts of importance were made known by the census. First, while the population is increasing, it is not increasing as rapidly as formerly. Between 1870 and 1880 the increase was thirty per cent; from 1880 to 1890 it was less than twenty-five per cent. Second, it is a note- worthy fact that the rate of increase among the colored population in the South is markedly less than among the white population in the same States. While the negroes increased in the last decade less than fourteen per cent, the whites in the same States increased twenty-five per cent. Third, the geographical centre of population is in southern Indiana, though it is moving slowly but surely towards the Mississippi River. 943. Foreig'n Affairs. — The administration of President TTarri- son was marked bv a number of complications with foreign powers, some of which seemed at times to render war not im- possible. A long-standing wrong to foreigners was redressed when Congress passed the International Copyright Act, which secured their property in their literary productions, provided cer- tain conditions were firstcomplied with. The efforts of the Inter- national Monetary Conference whicli met in Brussels in December, 1892 (§ 936), to secure some international co-operation in regard to the use of silver as a money-metal proved unavailing. With England we had a dispute as to our respective rights in the 942. What was the population of tlie United States in 1890 ? Is tlie population increasing as rapidl.v as ever ? What is said of the increase of tlie white and colored populations in the South ? Where is tlie geographical centre of the popula- tion of the United Stares ? 943. What is the International Copyright Law ? What was the object of the Brussels Conference of 189:i ? What was the nature of our dispute with England about Bering Sea ? What was the cause of our trouble with Italy in 1891 ? How was it settled ? What was the origin of our dispute with Chili in 1891 ? How was it settl d ? What is the Chinese Exclusion Act ? Describe the revolution in Hawaii. # 408 mOT IN NEW ORLEANS. [1891 waters of Bering Sea off the coast of Alaska, where our vessels and those of Canada were engaged in taking seals. In June, 1891, both nations agreed to declare a close season, to have English and American ships jointly patrol these waters, and to submit the disputed points to an international commission for arbitration. On March 14, 1891, there was a riot in New Orleans in which eleven persons of Italian birth were taken from jail and hanged. It was alleged that they belonged to a secret, oath- bound association which had perpetrated certain crimes, and which had attempted to shield certain of their number from the punishment which the law denounced against the crimes so committed. The Federal Government expressed to Italy its deep regret at the occurrence, but disclaimed all responsibility for the affair. It was proved that most of the unfortunates were natural- ized American citizens. On behalf of the others Italy demanded reparation in money and a pledge that those engaged in the mob's undertaking should be tried for their crime. This promise the Federal Government refused to give, whereupon the Italian min- ister left Washington. The matter was finally settled by our pay- ing to Italy $25,000 as an indemnity to the families of the dead Italian citizens and as a token of our good will to the Italian people, October 16, 1891, a number of American sailors from the United States ship Baltimore while wearing the uniform of the American navy were assaulted by a mob in Valparaiso, Chili, and were badly maltreated, one being killed outright. The demands of our government for an apology and reparation were practically ignored until the President in January, 1892, made a peremptory demand upon Chili, to which they promptly acceded, offering a money indemnity, which was accepted. The efforts which had been making to exclude the Chinese from the United States (§§ 904, 920) culminated in a law passed in the spring of 1892 which prohibited Chinese immigration for a further period of ten years and required Chinese residents already in this country, under heavy penalties, to provide themselves with certificates of residence. 1892] LABOR DIFFICULTIES. 409 The Hawaiian Islands were formerly a constitutional monarchy with a queen at their head. The queen, Liliuokalani, had thi'eat- ened to abolish the constitution and to take more power into her own hands. This threat was followed in January, 1893, by a revo- lution which set up a provisional government and declared the monarchy at an end. The minister of the United States landed a number of marines from an American war-ship in the harbor of Honolulu. Ilis avowed object was the protection of the property of American residents. The queen declared that the forces of the United States were employed really to aid the revolutionists. She protested against the acts of the provisional government, and declared that she yielded only to the superior force of the United States. On February 1, 1893, Minister Stevens raised the flag of the United States over the islands, and established a protectorate by which the islands were temporarily in the status of a colony. A treaty of annexation was submitted to the Senate, but was speedily withdrawn by President Harrison's successor, and the protectorate came to an end in April, 1893. 944. Labor Difficulties. — The strife between employer and employee (§ 920) broke out with violence in the summer of 1892. The Carnegie Company at Homestead, Pa., in order to protect their property against violence on the part of striking em- ployees, employed a number of Pinkerton detectives and moved them up the Monongahela River on barges, intending to land them at the works. A battle ensued between the detectives on the barges and the workmen on the river-bank, in which 7 detectives and 11 of their opponents were killed. The militia were ordered to the scene, and for a while the district was placed under martial law. This conflict, with other riots, especially in western New York, drew general attention to the gravity of the question. While lawlessness and disorder must be repressed by armed force if necessary, it is generally admitted that some different and more peaceful method of settling these disputes must eventually be found. 945. Presidential Election of 1892.— The election of 1892 944. Describe the Homestead riots. What question did tliey raise ? 945. What was the nature of the issue in the Presidential election of 1893 ! 410 PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION OF 1893. [1892 again centred about the axial question of Protection. The politi- cal problems which were the legacy of the Civil War had almost entirely given place to problems of an economic nature. In the earlier part of this administration the Republicans attempted to pass an election law providing for federal supervisors at the polls. It was aimed especially at some of the Southern States, where, it was alleged, voters were intimidated. Certain Republican Sena- tors from the Western States, deeming the co-operation of Southern Senators in the struggle for silver (§ 936) of more importance than this election law (the so-called Force Bill), were apathetic in their support of the measure, and the bill failed to become law. Business interests had become more important than former politi- cal issues. In the Presidential campaign of 1892 the Republicans forcibly reaffirmed the doctrine of Protection, and renominated President Harrison for President, and Whitelaw Reid, of New York, for Vice-President. The Democrats as emphatically de- nounced the Protective policy, and again nominated Grover Cleveland for President, and Adlai E. Stevenson, of Illinois, for Vice-President. The People's party, the successor of the Green- back or National party (§ 906), declared in favor of the free coinage of silver, a graduated income tax, state control of rail- roads, and state loans to the farming class. The nominees of the People's party were General James B. W^eaver, of Iowa, for Presi- dent, and James G. Field, of Virginia, for Vice-President. The Prohibition party (§ 931) again put candidates in the field — John Bidwell, of California, for President, and James B. Cranfill, of Texas, for Vice-President. The election resulted in a sweeping victory for the Democrats. Cleveland and Stevenson obtained 277 of the 444 electoral votes. Of the popular vote no ticket received a clear majority, over a million votes being cast for the candidates of the People's party, which controlled 22 votes in the electoral college, the remaining 145 going to the Republican candidates. The Democrats at the same time gained control of both branches of Congress. Who were the candidates of the four parties ? State the platforms of the four parties. ARMS AND FLAGS OF THE UNITED STATES. 1893] LEADING EVENTS, 1889-93. 411 Supplementary Questions. Locations. — Locate Chicago; Valparaiso; New Orleans, La.; Idalio; ,¥yoming; Bering Sea; Homestead, Pa. ; Hawaii. Review.— What was the effect of the Silver Law ? What was the McKinley Bill ? With what foreign countries did the United States have disputes during Harrison's administration'? Who were the Presi- dential candidates in 1892 ? What were their respective party plat- forms ? 946. The Leading Events of Harrison's administration were as follows : 1889-1893: Harrison's Term , §933 1889: Struggle over the rules 934 1890: Chicago designated as the site of the World's Fair 938 Dependent Pension Bill passed ... 937 Idaho admitted 939 Wyoming admitted 94O The Silver Law passed 936 The McKinley Bill passed 935 1891 : Close season declared in Bering Sea 943 Riot in New Orleans 943 Riot in Valparaiso, Chili 943 1892 : Chinese Exclusion Act passed 943 Homestead riots 944 Presidential election 945 1893 : Revolution in Hawaii 943 946. In what years did Harrison's term of office be^fn and end ? What were the leading events of 1889 ? Of 1890 ? Of 1891 ? Of 1893 ? Of the early part of 1893? CHAPTER XXIII. CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION : 1893-'i. Grover Cleveland, N. Y., President, Adlai E. Stevenson, 111., Vice-President 947. The Industrial Depression. — The Democrats had won a decided victory in the Presidential election of 1892 ; and as they had a majority in Congress, they were prepared speedily to revise the tariflE and lower the duties on imports. A severe business crisis beginning in May, 1893, compelled them, however, first of all to attend to financial measures. The panic among business men came very suddenly. During the summer of 1893 banks and many business houses failed daily, money was hoarded and became abnormally scarce, factories were shut down, and thousands of workmen were thrown out of employment. Even the brilliant success of the World's Fair at Chicago (§ 938) was not sufficient to remove the gloomy apprehensions prevalent among the people generally. The President called Congress to meet in special ses- sion on August 7, and urged upon that body the necessity of speedily passing laws to remove the fear and distrust felt in busi- ness circles. He pointed out in particular the necessity for the immediate repeal of portions of the Sherman Law (§ 936). 948. The Repeal of tlie Sherman Law. — There were conflicting opinions as to the cause of the troubles in business, but there was a tolerably general agreement upon the necessity for the repeal of the law requiring the purchase of silver (§ 936). The government gave its notes for the silver which it got under this law. These notes circulated as money, and their holders could exchange them for coin at the United States Treasury. The Treasury officials felt obliged to give gold coin in exchange for these notes when 947. Why did the President call an extra session of Congress? 948. What did the government give in exchange for the silver it bought? What effect did such purchases have on the gold reserve? What action did Congress take? 413 1894] BOND ISSUES. 413 asked to do so. Thus the inoiithiy purchase of silver resulted in putting out a number of notes, many of which were ultimately pre- sented for payment in gold coin. In this and in other ways the stock of gold coin at the disposal of the Treasury was being de- pleted, and there were fears that if the process continued the gov- ernment could not continue to redeem its notes in gold. Moreover the silver which had been obtained was not available for redeeming these notes, so long as the note-holders preferred gold, and so long- as the Treasury continued to redeem the notes in gold. It also happened that the value of the silver in the government's vaults suddenly fell, upon the announcement, on June 26, that thereafter the owners of silver in British India could not have that metal coined into money. Under the pressure of public opinion the House of Representatives speedily repealed the silver purchase clause of the Sherman Law on August 28, The debate in the Senate was long and wearisome, but on November 1 the Senate voted for repeal. The intensity of the business crisis had by this time considerably abated, but industry showed few signs of reviv- ing, and an era of hard times set in, 949. Bond Issues. — The government's promises, or notes, are used very generally as a substitute for coins in buying and selling. A dollar bill is thus in reality nothing but the government's pledge to give to the holder of the bill a dollar coin. Only such coins are "dollars" in fact. In order to make these promises good, the government has to keep on hand a stock of coin. The stock of gold coin (§ 948) was getting very low when the Secre- tary of the Treasury decided, in January, 1894, to replenish it by selling the bonds of the government for gold. When governments need more money than they can get immediately by taxing the people, they frequently borrow money and give the lender a bond. Such a bond, when issued by our government, is the government's promise to pay a certain amount of money every year to the lender or bond-owner as interest u{)on the loan, until tinally the principal of the loan also is repaid. The amounts thus promised the bond- holders are obtained from the taxes to be raised in the futuri^, 949. What are bonds? What were t)ie two reasons for selling bonds? How much was the nation's debt ipcreased? Why were the bond sales unpopular? 414 THE GREAT RATLIiOAD STRIKE. [1894 Thus the issue of bonds makes taxes heavier in the future, and is a wise policy only when the immediate need for more revenue is very urgent. While the sale of bonds was due in the first place to the necessity of getting an ample stock of coin to redeem the government's notes, tlie money obtained from the sale of bonds was used in part to pay some of the ordinary expenses of running the government, inasmuch as the revenue from taxes had fallen off. There were subsequent sales of bonds on three occasions (Novem- ber, 1894, February, 1895, January, 1896), and thus the nation's debt was increased by over 1262,000,000. The gold obtained in exchange for the bonds enabled the Treasury to continue to re- deem its notes in gold, but the increase thus caused in the national debt made the bond sales very unpopular in many sections, while most of those who believed in the policy of redeeming government notes in gold regarded the bond sales as necessary under the cir- cumstances. 950. The Great Railroad Strike. — The strife between employer and employee (§§ 920, 944) in the early part of 1894 gave rise to several memorable contests, which in the summer culminated in the railroad strike centring in Chicago. In May. the workmen in the shops at Pullman, near Chicago, demanded higher wages, which were refused, whereupon they stopped work. In order to aid the Pullman workmen, tlie American Railway Union, an organization of railroad employees, threatened to withdraw their members from the service of the companies running Pullman cars unless the em- ployers at Pullman consented to arbitrate with their workmen. This threat was not heeded ; and the American Railway Union, aided by other labor organizations, began a contest with the rail- road companies to whose trains Pullman cars were attached. The contest thus resolved itself into a struggle between the Gen- eral Managers' Association at Chicago on the one side, who con- trolled the railroad interests, and the various labor organizations engaging in the strike on the other side. By the end of June the railway traffic which centred in Chicago, and especially traffic on the lines west of Chicago, was paralyzed. Trains were forcibly 950. Explain how the great railroad strike cftme ftbout. Why did the Federal Ooyerpment interfere? 1894] THE WILSON BILL. 415 stopped, Pullman coaclica were detached by mobs, and much rail- road property was destroyed. This forcible interference witli trains delayed the mails, wiiich arc under control of the Federal Govern- ment. As the United States marshals could not afford the needed protection to the mail trains, a part of the regular army was de- spatched to the scene of disorder. Only after the appearance of these forces was riotinp; checked and peace restored. 951. The Wilson Bill. — Tn accordance with the proo-ranime outlined by the Democrats in the Presidential election (§ 945), there was introduced into Congress in the closing days of 1893 a tariff measure, called from its author the Wilson Bill, which reduced the rates of duty upon many imports and largely abolished duties on raw material brought in from abroad. There was afterwards added to the measure a proposal to tax incomes, and in this form the bill was adopted by the House of Eepresentatives, and was sent to the Senate. The Senate proceeded to modify many sec- tions of the House measure, and made smaller reductions in exist-, ing duties than had been contemplated in the original bill. In this modified form the bill passed the Senate on July 3, 1894. The House refused to accede to the changes proposed by the Sen- ate, and for a time it looked as though no new tariff measure might be passed. In the struggle between tho two bodies the President expressed his sym[iatliy with the House as against the Senate. Finally, on August 13, the House reluctantly acceded to the bill in the form in which it had passed the Senate, and ten days there- after it became law without the signature of the President, who chose thus, by withholding his signature, to express his disapproval of the action of certain Democratic senators. The bill as passed removed all duty from the imports of raw wool, but still imposed duties on many other raw materials. The House, after accepting the changes made in the measure by the Senate, immediately passed acts which put many of these raw materials on the list free of duty, but these bills failed to pass the Senate. 952. The Income Tax Decision. — The struggle over the tari£ 951. What was the design of the original Wilson Bill? How was it modified in the Senate? Why did the President not sign the bill? 9.52. Why was there much ill feeling within the Democratic party? AVhat did the Sucreme Court decide about the Income Tax? What effect did this decision havef 416 TEE VENEZUELA DISPUTE. [1895 measure had already stirred up much ill feeling among the Demo- crats. The various financial measures continually debated in Con- gress, as well as the policy of the Treasury (§ 949), tended also rapidly to create two distinct factions within the party, when in the spring of 1895 the Supreme Court rendered a decision which abolished the Income Tax (§ 951), the favorite device of one wing of the party, and the last financial reliance of the other wing. The Income Tax had been grafted upon the original Wilson Bill (§ 951) at the demand of many of the Southern and Western Democrats in Congress, who thought that such a tax would appor- tion the burden of Federal taxation more justly than heretofore. In a lawsuit which had been appealed to the Supreme Court (§ 284), that tribunal decided that the Income Tax provision of the Wilson Bill was not constitutional. The Constitution gives certain powers to Congress, and in some cases prescribes how such powers are to be exercised. In case the Supreme Court decides that a law passed by Congress violates a provision of the Constitu- tion, the law ceases to exist. This was the case with the Income Tax. The Treasury was thus cut off from obtaining very consider- able amounts of money which it had counted upon receiving, and was forced again and again to sell bonds (§ 949). 953. The Venezuela Dispute. — The country was startled oi^ Dec. 17, 1895, by a special message sent by the President to Congress upon Great Britain's refusal to arbitrate certain disputed points with Venezuela. The territory of British Guiana in South America is contiguous to Venezuela, and the boundary line between the two countries had long been in dispute. British subjects occupied certain lands claimed by Venezuela, and Great Britain refused to submit to arbitration the question of the rightful ownership of the territory in question. The United States insisted that Great Britain should submit these territorial claims to arbitration, and based its demand upon the Monroe Doctrine (§§ 427, 758, 829). As this demand by the United States had been refused, the President suggested the creation of a commission to determine the true divisional line, and asserted the necessity of resisting by every 953. What was the Venezuela dispute about? How was the dispute finally settled? What is the Monroe Doctrine? 1896] CUBA. 417 means in our power the future occupation or control by Great Britain of any territory which the commission might determine belonged of right to Venezuela. The implied possibility of war with England caused deep excitement generally, and great commo- tion in commercial circles. Congress authorized the President to name the commission, which when duly appointed began its investigation. Meanwhile diplomatic negotiations between the governments of the United States and Great Britain continued, and resulted finally, in November, 1896, in the draft of a treaty between Venezuela and Great Britain for the settlement of the question. An impartial tribunal was to be named, and was to de- cide upon the true boundary, but it was agreed that fifty years' con- tinuous holding of disputed territory by settlers should constitute a valid title to territory so occupied. Upon the conclusion of this treaty, the Venezuelan Commission of the United States deter- mined not to render a decision upon the location of the true boundary line, and ceased their investigation, 954. Utah was admitted into the Union in 1896. The State was oriijinally a part of the territory ceded by Mexico to the United States in 1848 (§ 556). It was or- ganized as a Territory in 1850. It became famous as the final seat of the Mormons (§ 913). In 1893 a bill passed the House of Kepresentatives to admit Utah as a State. The committee reporting the bill declared that "polygamy is virtually suppressed and there need be no fear of its revival." The bill ad- mitting Utah passed the Senate July 10, 1894, and was signed by the President, who by pr iclamation announced its admission into the Union in January, 1896. Its area is 84,970 square miles. Its population in 1890 was 207,905. Salt Lake City is the capital. Its mines of gold, silver, lead, and copper are very rich, and parts of the State are devoted to agriculture. 955. Cnba. — In February, 1894, there began in the Island of Cuba a rebellion against Spain, which owned the island and gov- erned it harshly (§§ 608, 610, 860). Much sympathy was felt in the United States for the insurgents, and filibustering expeditions 954. 'What State was admitted in 189G? ^dbo. Wbat caused the war iu Cuba? Why did the war threaten to beconje a contest between the United States and Spain? 418 EXTENSION OF TEE MERIT SYSTEM. [1896 were fitted out in the United States or off its coasts to aid the re- bellion. These efforts were unlawful, and were suppressed where possible by the Federal officials. War between the United States and Spain seemed not unlikely. Both houses of Congress, early in 1896, declared in favor of recognizing the struggle to be a revo- lutionary war rather than a mere insurrection. On July 30 the President issued a proclamation of neutrality, warning all persons against unlawfully making war on the Spanish forces in Cuba. In December, 1896, it looked for a time as though Congress might pass resolutions purporting to recognize the independence of Cuba. At this juncture the Secretary of State, Richard Olney, declared publicly that the power to recognize an independent state rested exclusively with the President, and announced, with thinly veiled contempt, that the resolution pending in the Senate, if passed, would be only " an expression of opinion by the eminent gentle- men who might vote for it." The resolution never came to a vote, and the danger of war with Spain diminished. 956. Extension of the Merit System. — There arc two theories held about appointment to ordinary positions under the govern- ment (§ 910). One theory is that public offices are rewards for political work and should be given to useful party men. This is the " spoils system." The other theory is that public offices are positions which should be filled by the most capable men irrespec- tive of their political leanings, and that where there are numerous applicants for office, fitness should be determined by business tests. This is the " merit system," which was largely extended by President Cleveland by an order of May 6, 1896, whereby 30,000 additional positions were put under the merit system. 957. The Presidential Campaign. — The Presidential election of 1896 was one of the most memorable political contests in our history. The hard times had given rise to great discontent, and many people advocated the free coinage of silver (§§ 900, 901, 936, 948) as the remedy for the business depression. The " silver question " thus became the issue of the hour, 956. What is the meiit system? The spoils system? 957. What was the issue in tt)p Presidential C3.mpaig|i of JSgg? WbQ were DOmiDated? Who were elected? 1896] TBE PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGN. 4lO and the tariff was little discussed. Advocates of the free coin- age of silver were at first to be found in both of the great parties. In the Republican nominating convention at St. Louis a small party of silver men " bolted," that is, left the organization, inasmuch as the convention declared against the free coinage of silver unless by arrangement with other nations. William Mc- Kinley, of Ohio (§ 935), was nominated for President, and Garret A. Hobart, of New Jersey, for Vice-President. The advocates of the free coinage of silver were relatively more numerous in the Democratic party than in the Republican ranks. The Democratic convention at Chicago therefore declared for the free coinage of silver at the present ratio (10 to 1) withoiit "waiting for the aid or consent of any other nation," and nominated William J. Bryan, of Nebraska, for President, and Arthur Sevvall, of Maine, for Vice- President. The People's party (§ 945), or Populists, approved of free silver coinage, and nominated Bryan for President, and Thomas E. Watson, of Georgia, for Vice-President. Many Democrats, espe- cially in the East and Central West, who were opposed to the Chicago platform, held an independent convention at Indianapolis in September. Here they declared against the free coinage of sil- ver, indorsed the administration of President Cleveland (whose financial policy had been repudiated by the Chicago convention), and named General John M. Palmer, of Illinois, and General Simon B. Buckner, of Kentucky, for President and Vice-President, re- spectively. The Prohibitionists and the Socialist Labor party also put tickets in the field. The struggle centred around the silver issue, and after certain combination tickets had been arranged be- tween the Populists and the Democrats, it became plain that Mc- Kinley or Bryan must be elected. At the end of an exciting cam- paign, one of whose features was the breaking up of the exclusive Democratic sway in the Southern States (§ 888), McKinley and Hobart were elected. The Republican candidates obtained a large popular majority, and 271 out of the 447 electoral votes. 958. The Arbitration Treaty. — Towards the close of his term 958. What is arbitration? What was the purpose of the arbitration treaty with Great Britain? 420 LEADING EVENTS, 1898-7. [1897 of office President Cleveland sent, with his approval, to the Senate a general treaty of arbitration with Great Britain. In 1890 Con- gress hy unanimous vote had requested the President to open nego- tiations for this purpose with all nations. The purpose of this proposed treaty with Great Britain was to provide courts or tri- bunals to settle difEerences which might arise between tlie two nations, in case a settlement of such differences could not be reached by ordinary diplomatic processes. The existence of such an arrangement, it was felt, would be an additional guarantee of peace between the two great English-speaking nations, and would tend to substitute for the barbarous expedient of war and carnage a peaceful, a reasonable, and a Christian method of deciding inter- national quarrels. The treaty was rejected by the Senate shortly after at the expiry of President Cleveland's term of office. Supplementary Questions. Locations. — Locate Chicago; Venezuela; British G\iiana ; Pullman; Utah ; Ouha. Review. — What were th" results of the hard times? What was the effect of the Sherman Law? What are bonds? Why did the Federal Government interfere in the railroad stiike in Chicago? What was the Wilson Bill? What was the effect of the Income Tax decision? What was the cause of trouble between (ireat Britain and Venezuela? How was it settled? What was the cause of the war in Cuba? What is the merit system? Explain the issue in the Presidential election of 1896. What is the object of an arbitration treaty ? 959. The Laading Events of Cleveland's second administration were as follows : 1893-7: Cleveland's Term of Office. 1893: Industrial depression § 947 World's Fair at Chicago 947 Repeal of the Sherman Law 948 1894: First bond issue 949 Railroad strike 950 Wilson Bill passed 951 1895: Income Tax decision 952 Venezuelan Message 953 1896: Utah admitted 954 Cuban question 955 The merit system extended in the civil service 956 Presidential election 957 1897: Arbitration treaty negotiated 958 959. What were the leading events of 1893? Of 189-1? Of 1895? Of 1896? Of ISQT? CHAPTER XXIV. McKINLEY'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION : 1897-1901. Wm. McKinlet, O., President. Garrkt a. Hobart, N. J., Vice-President.* 960. William McKinley was l)orn in Ohio the Civil War, aud rose from tiie ranks to be a niajor. Alter the war he studied law, was admitted to the bar in 1SG7, and i^ractised in Canton, Ohio. From 1877 to 1891 lie vfiifi a Republican member of Congress, l)ecame the leader of his party in tlie House, and cliair- man of the Ways and Means Com- mittee which originated tlie tariff bill called after him the " McKin- ley bill." In 1891 and in 1893 he was elected governor of Ohio, and in 1896 and in 1900 President. He died by assassination in 1901. in 1844. He served in 961. President McKinley.— The President owed liis elec- tion, not to Republicans alone, but also to Democrats and In- dependents who, while unable to indorse Republican policy in general, were alarmed lest finan- cial disaster should follow the election of Mr. Bryan, and felt that a sound and stable currency was the paramount issue of the campaign. Mr. McKinley had had administrative experience as governor of Ohio, and was well known 960. What were the leadinfc events in the life of McKinley ? 961. To what classes of voters did McKinley owe his election ? Of what cause had he been the champion ? What did he promise in his inaugural address ? Who were the principal members of his Cabinet V William ^IcKim.ky. ♦Vice-President Hobart died November 21, 1899. 422 THE DINQLET TARIFF. [1897 througliont the country as the foremost cliainpion of protection, and the official sponsor for the tariff act of 1890. His inaugural address, while containing a promise to do wliat he could for inter- national bimetallism, announced his purpose to use every effort to keep gold and silver at a parity. He insisted that adequate provi- sion, on the protective principle, should be made for tlie revenue, in order to put an end to the deficit, which had increased during the last months of Mr. Cleveland's administration. An extra session of Congress was called to deal with the tariff. In the construction of the cabinet, John Sherman, of Ohio, was made Secretary of State, Lyman J. Gage, of Illinois, Secretary of the Treasury, John D. Long, of Massachusetts, Secretary of the Navv and Russell A. Alger, of Michigan, Secretary of War. 962. The Diug-ley Tariff. — Congress met in extra session March 15, 1897. As the opposition of the silver Republicans in the Senate bade fair to make tariff legislation in that body difficult, the AVays and Means Committee of the House, of which Nelson Dingley, of Maine, was chairman, had already taken the matter in hand, and prepared a revision of the tariff designed to secure increased rev- enue. The J)ill was introduced on the day Congress met, and consideration of it was facilitated by an agreement of the Repub- lican leaders, under which Speaker Reed, who had been re-elected, appointed only such committees as would enable the House to organize, and consider the tariff and appropriation bills. The esti- mated increase of revenue, as stated by Mr. Dingley, was from seventy to one hundred million dollars. The rates were, in general, a compromise between those of 1890 and tliose of 1894; but the increase of rates in some schedules, the transfer of a number of articles from the free to the dutiable list, and the substitution of specific for ad valorem duties, operated to make tlie actual increase, in many cases, very considerable. The bill was passed March 31, by a large majority, and the House then kept in nominal session, without transacting other business, by adjournment for successive periods of three days, while the bill was under consideration in the Senate. The organization of the Senate was delayed by the oppo- 902. What measures were taken to secure tariff legislation? What was the gen- eral character of the Dingley bill? When was it passed? 1897] RELATIONS WITH CUBA. 423 sition of tlic I'opulists and Silver RepuMieans, who lield the halance of power ; and it was July 24 before the hill, with some modili- cations, passed the Senate and reeeive■<-) 1 V^;- To Bo,,j:oj,,._mimiU$ To Xjn.h.^is'j-jl'J _ _ MOLOKAI A\** To A^o.¥u in restraint of trade or commerce, whether the restraint were reasonable or not, made a deep impres- sion. During 1899, however, trusts and industrial combinations were formed on an extraordinary scale, many of them under the laws of Delaware and New Jersey, which are particularly favorable to such incorporation. The result was a revival of popular oppo- sition to great aggregations of capital, and a renewed demand for State and national action. Conferences on the subject were held at Chicago and St. Louis, and it was thought by some that the question of trusts would be a leading issue in the coming presiden- tial campaign. Just before the adjournment of Congress, in June, 1900, a proposed anti-trust amendment to the Constitution was debated in the Senate, but failed to receive the necessary two- thirds vote; while a bill to amend the act of 1890, so as to give the United States increased powers of control over trusts, was passed by the House of Representatives, but disposed of in the Senate by reference to a committee. 984. The Civil Service. — In his inaugural address. President McKinley announced his adherence to the letter and spirit of civil- service reform ; and this, together with his previous record in Con- gress, inspired much confidence among those who had most at heart the complete overthrow of the spoils system in national administration. It was further given out that fourth-class, or " presidential," postmasters, not shown to be unfit, would be allowed to serve out their four-year terms. In July, 1897, an executive order directed that removals from places filled by com- petitive examination should be made only for cause, and that the removed official should be given a hearing in his own defence. Violations of the rule, however, soon began to multiply. Attempts to enforce observance by judicial process failed, the courts holding that the enforcement of the rules was a matter within the jurisdic- 984. What was McKinley's attitude toward the civil service? What " back- ward steps " were taken? 434 THE KLONDIKE OOLD-FIELDS. [1899 tion of the President. The policy of the President in following the advice of senators from the State concerned, in making appoint- ments to oftice, resulted in the selection of many unfit and highly objectionable persons for important positions ; but protests were generally disregarded. In tlie departments at Washington, par- ticularly the Treasury Department, the observance of the civil- service rules was lax ; while an executive order of July 29, 1899, withdrawing several thousand places from the classified service, was regarded by reformers as a serious " backward step." In Con- gress there was some display of hostility to reform, and the com- petitive principle was disregarded in the act making provision for the twelfth census. A considerable number of commendable appointments did something to excuse, in the public mind, the conduct of the Administration in reference to other positions; but the net effect of President McKinley's course in the matter of the civil service was discouraging. 986. The Klondike tiold-flelds. — In the summer of 1897, the report of the discovery of gold in the Klondike region, on the border between Alaska and the British possessions, reached the United States. The news was followed by a rush of emigration to the region, which continued through the following year. The suffering and loss of life, caused by the severity of the climate and the hardships of the overland route, served but little to discourage the gold-seekers. The deposit proved to be exceedingly rich, and the experiences of miners in California, in 1848-9, were repeated; while the discovery of the new supi)lies of gold was of political importance, as tending to offset some of the arguments of free- silver advocates. The attcuipt of the Canadian government, within whose territory the principal deposits lay, to exact royalties on gold exported, and otherwise to secure the interests of its own people in the gold-fields, occasioned some ill-feeling among the Americans. Notwithstanding its rapidly growing population and important commercial interests, Alaska remained without effective governmental organization until June, 1900, when an Act of Con- gress erected it into a civil and judicial district, with a governor, a system of courts, and a special code of laws. 985. Describe the rush to the Klondike ffold fields. What action of the Cana- dian Government caused ill feeling? ISO 9] SA3I0A. 435 986. Samoa. — The relations of tlio United States witli Samoa nnderwent a radical change dnring President McKinley's adminis- tration. By the Berlin treaty of 18S9 the affairs of Samoa were placed nnder the joint supervision of the United States, Great Britain, and Germany. On the death of King Malietoa, in Angust, 1898, a dispute arose over the choice of his successor. The Ger- mans supported Mataafa, vvliile the English and Americans favored Malietoa Tanu, a son of the late king. The election of Mataafa by the native chiefs was set aside by a decision of the chief- justice, an American ; but the German consul refused to recognize Malietoa as king. In January, 1899, the Malictoan government was overthi'own, and a provisional government sot up. Disputes and complications led rapidly to war, and in March British and American vessels bombarded a number of vSamoan villages. At the suggestion of Germany, which disapproved of the course taken by the other Powers, a joint commission was created to deal with the matter. The commissioners succeeded in having the ofhce of king abolished, and a provisional government, composed of the consuls of the three Powers, set up. In November a partition of the islands was agreed upon. In return for the cession by Ger- many of some islands in the south Pacific, Great Britain relin- quished to the United States and Germany its claims in the Samoan group, and the two powers then divided the islands between them. The United States received the island of Tutuila, with the important harbor of Pago-Pago, and the other islands east of longitude 171° west. 987. The Proposed Isthmian Canal. — The agitation in favor of national aid in the construction of an interoceanic canal across Central America (§ 924), which had not been allowed to decline, received new impetus as a result of the war with Spain, and the sudden rise of important American interests in the I'acific. In July, 1897, a Nicaragua Canal Commission was appointed, to re- port on the feasibility and cost of a canal across Nicaragua, that 9S6. Describe the events that led to the partition of the Samoan group of islands. What share did the United States receive? 987. What effect did the war with Spain have on the proposed Nicaragua Canal? What commissions were appointed by Congress to investigate the ques- tion, and what reports did they make? 436 THE CLAJTON-BULWER TREATY. [1890 country at the same time apparently witlulrawing certain opposi- tion it had hitely shown. In his annual message in December, 1898, President McKinlcy recommended the construction of a canal to be controlled by the United States; but a bill to give effect to the recommendation failed to pass both houses of Con- gress. An appropriation of 11,000,000 was made, however, for the further investigation of practicable routes. The report of the Commission, submitted in May, 1899, recommended the adoption of the route by way of Lake Nicaragua, and estimated the cost of the canal at $118,000,000. Another commission, appointed in June, reported in favor of the same route, but estimated the cost at 1200,000,000. 988. The Clayton-Bulwer Treaty. — In connection with the movement for a canal exclusively under American control, the desirability of abrogating the Clayton-Bulwer treaty of 1850, be- tween Great Britain and the United States, by which the two Powers had agreed that neither should attempt to exercise exclusive control over any canal across the isthmus of Tehuantepec, was much discussed. In February, 1900, a treaty was signed by repre- sentatives of the two countries, by which Great Britain "renounced all right to joint construction, ownership, or maintenance" of an isthmian canal, while agreeing to join with the United States in guaranteeing the neutrality of the canal. In the guarantee of neutrality other nations were to be asked to unite. Opposition to neutralization resulted in an amendment to the treaty in the Senate, providing that the treaty should not operate to prevent " measures which the United States may find it necessary to take for securing by its own forces the defence of the United States and the main- tenance of public order." The treaty was ratified by the Senate December 20, but with this amendment and a further one declar- ing the Clayton-Bulwer treaty superseded. Great Britain refused to accept the treaty with these amendments, 989, The Hague Conference,— In August, 1898, Count Mura- vieff, tlie Russian foreign minister, proposed to the representatives fW8. Describe the treaty with Great Britain that vvas to supersede the Clayton- Bulwer treaty. Why was it not ratified by Great Britain? 989. What was the Hague Conference? and what did it accomplish? 1899] WAB DEPARTMENT INVESTIGATION. 437 of other governments at St. Petersburg the hoUling of an inter- national congress, to consider means of stopping the increase of armaments among nations, and of bringing about permanent peace. Tlic proposal, renewed in more definite form in January, 1899, awakened world-wide interest. The conference, comprising dele- gates from 27 countries, including the United States, met at The Hague, May 18, and remained in session until July 29. The con- clusions reached were embodied in a number of declarations and resolutions, tlie most important of whicli pledged the Powers agreeing to it to resort to mediation or arbitration, wherever possi- ble, for the settlement of international disputes, and provided for a permanent international tribunal to deal with arbitration cases. The arbitration proposals were ratified by the Senate of the United States February 5, 1900. 990. War Department Inyestig'ation. — The reports of priva- tion and disease among the American troops, both at home and in Cuba, during the war with Spain, led to general public criticism of the management of tlie war, and to charges of incompetency, favoritism, and corruption in the War Department. Indignation was especially aroused by the alarming prevalence of typhoid fever in the liome camps. The reply of friends of the Administration that the charges were grossly exaggerated, and that such unfavor- able conditions as existed were largely the result of ignorance and neglect on the part of the troops themselves, failed to satisfy the public; and in September, 1898, the Secretary of War asked for an investigation of his department. The commission of inquiry, after taking considerable testimony and visiting the camps in the United States, made their report in February, 1899. The report dismissed tlie charges of dishonesty as not proven, and pronounced the general conduct of the war " highly creditable to the depart- ment and to the country"; but tlie War Department was criticised for lack of judgment in specific instances, as well as for its imper- fect organization and " red tape." In July, Secretary Alger re- signed, liis place being taken by Elihu Root, of New York. 990. W'hat was said about tbe bad management of tbe war? AVbat was the report of the commission of inquiry? 438 THE WAB IN TEE PHILIPPIXES. [1899 991. The Beef Episode. — The assertion of General Miles, in tlie conrsc of the investigation, that the canned beef furnislied the troops was unfit for food, coupled with the description of the refrigerated beef as "embalmed," or chemically preserved, made a great sensation, and led to a scandalous denunciation of General Miles by Commissary-General Eagan. Eagan was court-martialled and sentenced to dismissal from the army ; but the President com- muted the sentence to six years' suspension from rank and dutv, without loss of pay. A military court of inquiry sustained General Miles's criticism of the canned beef, and pronounced the purchase of 7,000,000 pounds of it " a colossal error," but reported that the charge concerning refrigerated beef was not borne out by the evidence. 992. The War in the Philippines. — The transfer of the I'hilip- pines to the United States, at the close of the war with Spain, was deeply resented by Aguinaldo and his followers, who desired inde- pendence. The instructions issued to General Otis, in command of the American forcis at Manila, asserted the sovereignty of the United States over the islands, and declared the policy of the United States to be one of " benevolent assimilation " ; but they further stated that those who resisted were to be dealt with by " the strong arm of authority." In January, 1899, three civil com- missioners were appointed to act with General Otis and Admiral Dewey in the administration of affairs. Before their arrival, how- ever, hostilities began between the Tagalos, on the island of Luzon, and the Americans, the latter being reinforced by about 10,000 troops from the United States. In such regular engagements as took place, the Americans were generally successful, and gradually pushed their way into remote parts of the island, and the contest, on the part of the natives, assumed more and more of a guerilla character, but was for some time without substantial results so far as the general pacification of the island was concerned. Various neofotiations with the American commissioners failed because of 991. What was said about the canned beef furnislied to soldiers by the War Department? What was the result of the inquiry? 99'2. What was the attitude of the United States government toward the Fili- pinos at the close of the war with Spain? Describe the efforts of the Americans to pacify the Philippines. 1899] THE WAR IN THE rilTLIPPINES. 489 tlie insistence of the F'ilipinos upon independence. A proclamation of amnesty to such as should, within ninety days, take the oath of ■*^Hoiigrkong slthV^ MAP OF THE Bas/.«-cta»m.?..._ PHILIPPINE ISLANDS Bolinao-, Cojijarang N ) O Bbugabong I vj^>maMla t?2 •■' ir.^r---\ r-«Si"'^^^->,, ^IcATANDUANE ..&! •V^i Albay ^::( iBorougan tq 0" S U L U ~"3I^IND0R \ ^ 1 balapairX4;£t/?> ^. MINDORO)' ' X.s.1. i PiiuavJ^-3 K^ (PAN ay; f^ ,, \ f^'^S I ,,'41 BOHpL'^^J J fl NEGROS I.i7n u-^o' .--x . V V-''^ '' -\A' i Surigao J^ '^'■M y <:& e,*t e, 1 1 ^ ^> ^ ' ftX^iButian Dapitan'"*Cagayan ,^. ,. , Siadangaiii L -' , -, MINDANAO SEA (' / -iliridauao ,„, r Car:Vf,'a Zamboangat/ ( 'S,*" jJ 7 BASILAN IS. a ^\~2/' \ \ { \? ^ ^^ ^ CELEBES \Cnuin \c.s.a.,.„.. _^ 125_^SARANGANr 18. R Sta. Maria! allegiance to the United States was issued in June 1900, hut failed of general acceptance, and hostilities shortly increased in 440 THE OOVERNMBNT OF THE PHILIPPINES. [1899 seriousness. By the end of the year, however, it became evident that the strength of the insurrection liad been broken ; and, in March 1901, Aguinaldo was captured. lie soon took the oath of allegiance and issued a manifesto advising his followers to accept the rule of the United States. Elsewhere than in Luzon, American rule had from the first been accepted with comparatively little op[)osition. 993. The Groyerninent of the Philippines. — The failure of Congress to make provision for the government of the Philippines left the control of the islands in the hands of the President. A provisional organization, under a military governor, was effected in Negros, and municipal governments were nominally established at several places in the provinces of Manila and Cavite. The city of Manila, however, remained under martial law, though the public schools were opened, and a native police system was inaugurated. The Sultan of the Siilu Archipelago made an agreement recog- nizing the sovereignty of the United States, but retaining practical independence in internal affairs. In February, 1900, the I*hilip- pine Commission made a report and outlined a scheme of govern- ment. In the same month a new commission was sent out, en- trusted with the sole power of appointment and legislation, the military governor continuing to be the executive liead. Under the direction of the commission a civil service board was shortly established. In January, 1901, President McKinley, in a special message, urged Congress to make immediate provision for the establishment of civil government in the Philippines, but no action was taken save the adoption of an amendment to the Army Bill, leaving the control of the islands, pending further legislation, in the hands of the President. 994. Cuba. — The control of Cuba passed formally into the hands of the United States January 1, 1899, and the last of the Spanish soldiers shortly afterward embarked for Spain. The administration of the island was placed in charge of a military governor-general, with army officers as governors of the several 993. Describe the first steps in the establishment of American government in the Philippines. 994. What form of government was established by the Americans in Cuba? What was accomphshed in the way of reformsy 1900] PORTO RICO. 441 provinces and the city of Havana. In the course of the next few niontlis a form of civil government was gradiiallv put in operation, under the supervision of the military autliorities. Administrative reforms followed rapidly; the system of taxation was rciiiodelled, a new customs tariff put in operation, and the Cuban coasting trade opened to American vessels. The disbandment of tlie Cuban army was also effected, after some delay and opposition, $3,000,- UOO liaving been appro[)riated by the United States for the pay- ment of the troops. Save for occasional outbreaks of disorder in different parts of the island, peace and quiet in general prevailed. The cleaning of the cities, especially Havana and Santiago, oper- ated greatly to reduce the amount of yellow fever. The appoint- ment, in December, of Major-General Leonard Wood to succeed General Brooke as governor-general, was followed by further legal and administrative reforms, and the introduction of a public-school system on the American model, 995. Porto Rico. — Porto Rico passed formally under the con- trol of the United States October 18, 1898, and General Brooke was appointed governor-general. A customs tariff, in which no preference was given to American goods, had already been drawn up, at the direction of the War Department. Under General Guy V. Henry, who succeeded General Brooke in December, the policy of giving the Porto Ricans as large representation as possible in official appointments was followed, and numerous administrative and legal reforms were inaugurated. An Insular Commission, ap- pointed by the President to investigate affairs in the island, re- ported in August, 1899, recommending various reforms, and sub- mitting a draft of a code of laws. A reorganization of the civil government, in the interest of simplicity and economy, was effected by General George AV. Davis, who had succeeded General Henry in April. A liurricane which swept over the island in August caused great destruction of property, including the fruit and coffee plantations, killed more than 2600 people, and left 250,000 per- sons destitute. A call for aid met with quick response in the 995. What was done for Porto Rico when it came under American control? What disaster occurred in Aufjust. 1S99? What form of government was adopted by Congress for Porto Rico in 1900? 442 THE PORTO ItlCAN TARIFF. [lOOO United States. In April, 1900, Congress established a form of government for Porto Rico. The act provided for a governor and council — one half of the latter to be Porto Ricans — appointed by the President, and an elected House of Delegates. Most of the laws of the United States, so far as applicable, were extended to the island, and the United States was to be represented by a resi- A T j^ A N T I C \SM^ if Aguaditl 0A8ECHE0 I. Rincin. , Alr, MAYAQUEZ (J 10 20 30 40 Porto Rico. dent commissioner. Mr. Charles H. Allen, of Massacliusetts, Assistant Secretary of the Navy, was appointed the first governor. A census of Porto Rico taken in November and December, under the direction of the War Department, showed a population of 953,243, of whom 589,426 were whites. 996. The Porto Bican TariflF. — To meet the expenses of the civil government, the Porto Rican act of April 12 further provided for the imposition of tariff duties on commerce between Porto Rico and the United States, of fifteen per cent, of existing rates- This provision was to be in force for two years. The discussion of this portion of the act attracted the attention of the wliole coun- try. In his message of December, 1899, President McKinley had declared it to be " our plain duty " to " abolish all customs tariffs between the United States and Porto Rico" ; and the bill as first 990. Describe the controversy over the Porto Rican tariff. What action was finally taken? 1900J EXPANSION AND IMPERIALISM. 443 drawn provided for free trade between the two regions. Strong opposition was immediately manifested by friends of protected industries, on the ground not only of danger to American inter- ests, but of the dangerous precedent which such action would establish for later treatment of the Philippines. A proposition which the President, notwithstanding his previous declaration, was now known to favor, fixing the tariff rates at twenty-five per cent. of existing rates, on the ground that the revenue was needed in Uie island, was vigorously opposed by the Democrats and by a small but influential group of Republicans, popularly known as "insurgents." Aside from the constitutional argument, which was elaborated at great length, the opponents of the measure insisted* that it would violate good faith with Porto Rico, and would be interpreted as a surrender to the demands of protected interests in the United States. To conciliate the " insurgents," the propor- tionate rates were reduced to fifteen per cent., and the operation of the provision limited to two years. The final vote in each Uouse was close, being 40 to 31 in the Senate, and 161 to 153 in the House of Representatives. As a further concession. Congress, on the recommendation of the President, had already })assed an act appropriating to the immediate needs of the island " all money collected or to be collected as duties on products of l*orto Rico in the ports of the United States." The reduction of the tariff between Porto Rico and the United States was followed by a large increase in both the exports and the imports of the island. 997. Expansion and Imperialism. — The decision of the Presi- dent to retain the Philippines at the close of the war with Spain, together with the failure to give any assurance of ultimate inde- pendence to the conquered territories, precipitated a general and absorbing discussion of the policy which the course of the Admin- istration seemed to favor. On the side of " expansion " were arrayed not only many radical politicians, who wished the United States to adopt " an aggressive foreign policy," and take an active part in " world politics," but many conservative leaders as well, who argued that circumstances liad compelled us to take charge of 997. What was the issue of " Imperiahsm "? and what was MpKinley's attitude on this question? 444 TEE ELECTION OF 1900. [1900 the territory won from Spain, and that the new rcsponsilnlities, however unwelcome, could not be evaded. On the other hand, the opponents of expansion, or the anti-imperialists, as they were gen- erally called, denied the necessity or propriety of exercising any- thing more than a temporary protectorate over the Philippines, and insisted that the United States ought plainly to declare its purpose to give the people of the islands their independence. They further urged that nothing but danger could attend a de- parture from the historic policy of the United States in its inter- national relations, pointed out the unfitness of our form of govern- ment for the administration of colonies and dependencies, and cited the increased military and naval expenses as the logical accompaniments of an imperialistic programme. The discussion, everywhere earnest, and in reality involving the whole question of the future of the United States, was embittered by extreme acts and expressions on both sides; while the failure of President McKinley to take a definite stand exposed him to the charge of weakness and vacillation, and of following rather than leading public opinion. 998. The Election of 1900. — The presidential campaign of 1900 turned mainly on the question of expansion, to which policy the Republican party was regarded as committed. The selection of the principal candidates for President was long foreseen. The Republican national convention met at Philadelphia in June, and renominated President McKinley, with Theodore Roosevelt, gov- ernor of New York, as the candidate for Vice-President. The platform indorsed the McKinley administration, declared allegiance to protection and the gold standard, approved the annexation of Hawaii, and called for the construction and control of an isthmian canal by the United States. The policy of the Administration in " maintaining the efficiency of the civil service" was commended. In regard to the new possessions, the platform accepted the respon- sibilities following from the war with Spain, promised to the people of the acquired territory " the largest measure of self-government 998. Who were tbe candidates for President in 1900? and what were the prin- cipal points of the Bepublican and Democratic platforms? Which party was vic- torious? 1900] LEADING EVENTS, 1897-1898. 445 consistent with tlieir welfare and our duties," and pledged inde- pendence and self-government to Cuba. Tlie Democratic conven- tion at Kansas City, in July, nominated William J. Bryan, of Nebraska (§ 957), for President, and Adlai E. Stevenson, of Illi- nois (§ 944), for Vice-President. The platform declared against imperialism, but not against territorial expansion, " when it takes in desirable territory which can be erected into States in the Union, and whose people are willing and fit to become American citizens" ; denounced the policy of the Republican Administration in the Philippines; and reaffirmed the principles of the Chicago platform of 1896, including the free coinage of silver at the ratio of 16 to 1. The Democratic candi(hites were indorsed by the silver Repub- licans and the Populists, and Mr. Bryan liad also the endorsement of the Anti-imperialistic League. The gold Democrats, while making no nomination for President, declared against the election of Mr. Bryan. The Republican candidates, McKinley and Roose- velt, received 292 electoral votes out of a total of 447. 999. The Leading Events of President McKinley's first admin- istration were as follows: 1897-1901 : McKinley's Term of Office § 961 1897 : Anti-Trust decision 983 Monetary commission appointed... 964 Arbitration treaty rejected 958 Senate recognition of Cuban bel- ligerency 965 Nicaragua canal commission ap- pointed 987 Dingley tariff 962 Order extending the classified ser- vice 984 Klondike gold excitement 985 Spain decrees autonomy for Cuba and Porto Rico 966 Sale of Union Pacific Railway 982 1898 : Monetary conference at Indian- apolis 981 Sale of Kansas Pacific Railwav .... 982 446 LEADING EVENTS, 1898. [1900 1898 : Dc Lome letter § 968 Loss of the Maine 909 President McKiiiley offers mediation between Spain aird the Cubans . . OTO $50,000,000 appropriated for tlie natioiial defence 971 Armistice in Cuba j)roclaiined by S[)ain 970 McKinley's war message 970 Blockade of Cuba 974 Call for 125,000 volunteers 972 Declaration of war against Spain. . . 971 Battle of Manila Bay 97:^ Cervera blockaded at Santiago 974 Anglo-American commission 979 Landing of American force at Dai- quiri 974 La Quasima taken by Americans. . . 974 Guantanamo taken by Americans and Cubans 976 War revenue act 978 San Jnan and Caney taken by Americans 974 Cervera's fleet destroyed 974 Surrender of Santiago 974 Occupation of Porto Rico by Amer- icans 975 Russian peace proposals. 989 Peace preliminaries signed 977 Hawaii annexed 980 Manila taken by Americans 973 Porto Rico transferred to the United States 995 Treaty of peace 977 Secretary Gage's report on currency reform 981 1000] LEADING EVENTS, 1899-1900. 447 1899 : Cuba transferred to control of the United States § 994 First Philippine coniinission ap- pointed 992 Treaty of peace ratified by the Senate 977 Gen. George AV. Davis appointed governor of Porto Rico 995 Report of the Nicaragua canal com- mission 987 Peace conference at The Hague. . . . 989 New Nicaragua canal commission appointed 987 Order removing places from the classified service 984 Report of the Porto Rico insular commission 995 War Department investigation 996 Samoan settlement 986 Gen. Leonard Wood appointed governor of Cuba 994 President McKinley recommends free trade with Porto Rico 996 1900 : I'roposed abrogation of Clayton- Bulwer treaty 988 Hague arbitration proposals ratified by the Senate 989 Report on the War Department in- vestigation 990 Report of the Philippine commis- sion 993 Second Philippine commission ap- pointed 993 Act establishing the gold stanchuxl . 981 Act appropriating customs revenues to Porto Rico 996 Porto Rico government act 995 448 SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTIONS. [1900 1900 : Hawaiian government act § 980 Tlie election of 1 900 998 Supplementary Questions. Locations. — 'Loc&iQ Spain ; Philippine Islands ; Cape Verde Islands ; Cuba ; Porto Rico ; Hatcaiian Islands ; Samoa. Review. — Give the years in wliicli McKinley's first Administration began and ended. Wlio was the Vice-President? In what year did the war with Spain begin, and how long did it last? What were the terms of peace? What was the date, anci what the result of the Hague Conference? Who was elected to succeed McKinley? CHAPTER XXV. (1) General Summary. 1000. The History which we have been studying is that of a great nation. The rise of other great nations has been long and slow, and many things in their early history are very uncer- tain ; but it is not so with the United States of America. It is just about four hundred years since the discovery of America (§ 8), and less than three hundred years since the English colonies in x\merica were begun {§ 25). During this period there are not many things that are very doubtful : the student can see quite clearly the birth and growth of the nation. 1001. The States were the first to appear, and they have always been a necessary part of the nation. Thirteen of them were founded, one by one, along the Atlantic coast, and thirty- one others have since been founded as they have been needed. They have made the United States different from any of the other great nations. France, for example, is everywhere alike, and all parts of it are governed, as far as possible, by the government at Paris. In the United States, each State is left, as far as possible, to govern itself; and it is only in matters relating to the whole people that laws are made by the government at Washington. This is the only wise system by which so large a country as the United States could be kept under one government (§ 485). If the government at Washington attempted, as in France, to make laws for the whole country in small as well as in great matters, it would not know what would be best for distant parts of the country. The result would be bad laws, discontent, rebellion, and finally the splitting 960-1000. What is the history which we have been studying? How does it differ from that of other great nations ? How long a time does it cover ? Are its events doubtful ? 1001. What is said of the States ? Of their number? Of their effect on the United States ? Compare the United States vfitb France. What is the advantage w* itoe g^^stem of the United States 7 449 450 THE STATES AND THE NATION. of the country into different countries. All this is avoided Iiy leaving each State to make laws which relate particular/ to its own people and territory. 1002. The Nation was born of the union ot the colonies or States against Great Britain. They had always been glad to acknowledge the King of Great Britain as their king ; but they would not be governed by a distant Parliament, which could know nothing of their needs. Bad laws were made by Parliament, and were resisted peaceably by the colonies. At last the resistance came to force in the fight at Lexington (§ 184), and that made the new nation. It still acknowledged the same king ; but, when it found that the king was determined to be on the side of ParKa- ment, it abolished his authority, and declared its independence of him also (§ 206). The States were independent colonies without the nation ; the nation could not long maintain its existence with- out the State organizations. Each is necessary to the other ; and the two have made the country what it is. 1003. Growth of the Nation. — This history has been told to very little purpose if it has not kept before the mind of the reader the wonderful growth of the nation ; a growth which was wonderful even in its small beginnings, and which is now taking such leaps that it is even more talked about and thought about in other countries than in our own. Every year brings to our shores thinking men from other countries, who do not come to settle here, or merely to look at Niagara or the big trees of California, but to see with their own eyes a growth such as has never been seen on earth before. It is proper, then, for us to conclude by considering the present state of the country, the reasons for its wonderful growth, and the possibilities of its future. (2) State of the Country. 1004. The Extent of Territory of the United States (§ 831) is not the largest in the world. The Chinese Empire, the British lOOi. How was tlie nation born ? How did it become independent ? What is said of the States and the nation ? 1003. What is said of the srowtli of the nation? Of foreign observers ? What three tilings are we to consider in conclusion ? 1004. Is the territory of the United States the largest of the nations ? How does it compare with Italy or Great Britain ? With France, Spain, Qernviny, or 4ustrov Hungary ? What is said of Texas ? California f NATURAL ADVANTAGES. 451 Empire, including its various dependencies, and the Russian Em- pire are larger than the United States, But these are not really single nations, like the United States: each of them is a union of a great number of nations, under the control of a single government. If we compare our own country with the single nations that we are accustomed to read of in history, the United States (not including Alaska) would make about twenty-five such countries as Italy or Great Britain, or fifteen such countries as France, Spain, Germany, or Austro-Hungary. Texas alone is lai'ger than any of the four last named (§ 541) ; and California than either of the two former, 1005. Natural Advautages. — The country is almost a world in itself. If the rest of the world were blotted out, the soil of the United States could still produce almost everything needed by its inhabitants. The American may experience almost every variety of climate without leaving his own country : some of the Dakota farmers regularly spend their winters among the orange-groves of Florida. The ferti'ity of the soil is remarkable almost everywhere : regions like Nebraska, which were at first thought to be desert, have been found to be remarkably productive. Most other nations use more wheat than they produce : the United States has pro- ducec 'iver 600,000,000 bushels of wheat in a single year, and often has 150,000,000 bushels to sell to other nations. Coal, iron, gold, silver, copper, lead, oil, all the metals and minerals needed by man, are stored away for his use beneath the surface of the United States in abundance. The American may get almost anything he wishes from his own cnintry by working for it. In modern times, when machinery counts for so much, the wealth of a country depends very much on its supply of coal. Great Britain's coal supply may be used up in a century, and it is hard to say Avliat she will do then. We know already of 200,000 square miles of coal terri- tory in the United States — forty times as much as in Great Britain, and twenty times as much as in all Europe together. 1006. The Population of the United States was over 62,000,. 000 in 1890 (§ 942). This is already greater than that of any other thoroughly civilized nation. It is not so large as the pop- 1005. What is said of variety of production? Of variety of climate? Of the fertility of the soil ? Of the production of wheat ? Of metaW and minerals ? lOOiS. What was the population in 1890 ? How does it compare with other coun- tries ? How often dops it double ? What does this natural increase mean ? What are the possibilities of the future f 452 MATERIAL ADVANTAGES. ulation of China, British India, or Russia; but these people are strong only in numbers, while the people of the United States are strong in all the forces of civilization. But it is not the present alone that is remarkable : it is the possibilities of the future. It was noticed long ago that the American people doubled every twenty- five years (§ 942). Now a doubling when the population was only about 2,000,000 was not so striking an event ; but a doubling when the population is already 04,000,000 is something which must attract attention. It means that, by natural increase, a regi- ment of fighting men is added to the strength of the United States every day, or a great army of fighting men every year. It means that the population may be 100,000,000 fifteen years from now, in 1910, and possibly 200,000,000 in 1935. Good judges think that the territory of the United States will support 800,000,000 persons ; that, then, may be the j^opulation of the United States before the end of the next centur}'. 1007. Material Advantages. — Numbers, or extent of territory, would be but poor things if they were all the country could boast of. But the power of the country grows far faster in some respects than its numbers grow. Every year a million sewing-machines are produced; they can do more work than twelve million women could do by hand; and thus the working power of the country grows faster even than its women increase. It is the same with steam machinery in regard to men. When the population numbers 200,- 000,000, with all the powers of machinery, steam, and electricity to help it, it will be a power such as the world has never seen and will probably not see elsewhere. Tlie people of Great Britain and other civilized countries Lave the same advantages of machinery, but their territory is so small that they can never api)roach the future numbers of the United States. 1008. Peace is the natural condition of the American people. They have no neighbors strong enough to annoy them ; and they have no desire to war on others, for their territory is already as large as they can manage. Since the disappearance of slavery, 1007. What is said of the growth of the power of the country ? W^hat instances made of sewing-machines ? Of machinery ? What will be the state of affairs when the population is 200,000,000 ? 1008. Why are the American people lilcely to remain at peace ? PEACE. 453 there is nothing within the country to make war necessary. Other countries may perhaps have wars, battles, wholesale destruction of life and property : the people of the United States liavc no de- sire for sucli things, and should resist having them forced upon them. 1009. Armies are not needed here. Russia must keep a million of men constantly in her army, and France and Germany half a million each, for their neighbors will plunder them if they do not. The American people have an army of 25,000 men, and yet the people often, grumble as if that were too many. They are fearless of attack from their neighbors, for other countries know that in a just war Congress can have for the asking three million soldiers. And so the people arc not taxed, or workingmen taken away from work, in order to keep up a monstrous army in time of peace. 1010. Railroads and Telegraphs. — Tliere were more miles of railroad in the United States in 1895 (180,000 miles) than in all Europe, and nearly as many as in all the world outside of the United States. The number is increasing at the rate of many thousand miles each year. There were three times as many miles of telegraph in the United States in 1894 (more than 190,000 miles) as in any other country. This quantity shows a continuous tendency to increase. 1011. The National Debt was about |1, 250,000,000 in 1897, deducting cash in the treasury. About |400,000,000 of this is in tlie form of paper money: the rest pays interest. That part which bears interest cannot be paid for some years to come. The United States would be glad to go on paying it, but those to whom it is due will not take their money until it falls due : they would rather leave it where they know it is safe. In 1865 the govern- ment was weiglied down by a debt of nearly three thousand mill- Ions (§ 832). The surpluses derived from taxation went to pay the debt as fast as possible. In less than thirty years about 1009. What is said of the armies of foreign countries? Of the United States? Why is so small an army possible ? What is the result 'i iOlO. What is said of railroad lines ? Of their increase ? Of telegraph lines ? Of their increase ? 1011. What was the debt in 1894? How was it divided? Why has payment grown slack f What is said of payment in the past 7 454 RELIGION AND BENEVOLENCE. $2,000,000,000 has been paid, and furtlier payment only stopped because the nation's creditors would, not consent to be fully paid at present. 1012. Education. — There were in tlie United States in 1890 about thirteen million cliildren in attendance on the public schools, and about one million in attendance on other schools. The expenses of the public schools are paid by the people, by taxation, and tlie results have been so excellent that other countries are rapidly fol- lowing the same plan. There were in 1890 nearly 450 colleges (442) in addition to schools of medicine, law, and theology. There were in 1893 about 19,000 newspapers exclusive of periodicals. Of the newspapers, 1,759 were publislied daily, issuing' over three billion copies per year. 1013. Religion. — It was for a very long time a settled belief of most Christian denominations that the state should aid the church, by taxing the people for its support. Nearly every nation had its state church, and most of the States wliile they were colonies fol- lowed the rule. Since they have become a nation they have changed it. The churches are supported by the free-will offerings of those who belong to them, and they have prospered by the change. It is believed that there are about 165,000 congregations in the United States, belonging to the various denominations, and they are more generally prosperous than if they depended on govern- ment aid. They not only carry on their own work, but aid others. In the South, in the frontier towns of the far West, and in the evil places of the large cities, there are great numbers of missionaries, supported by churches. 1014. Benevolence. — Private and public benevolence is exceed- ingly common ; so much so as to be sometimes unwisely directed. Hospitals, asylums, charitable associations of every kind, show the kindly spirit of the people for misfortune. That kind of public spirit which is sliown by giving money to public uses is exceedingly common in the United States. There arc not many cities or town* 1012. What is said of public schools? How is the expense paid ? What is said of colleges ? Of newspapers ? 1013. What was formerly believed to be the duty of the state to the church ? How has the practice been changed in the United States ? What is the number of congregations ? How do they aid the work of others ? 1014. What is said of benevolence f Of public spirit ? AVhat is the general feel- ing of the people in this respect ? TEE NATIONAL WEALTH. 455 whicli cannot show a hospital, a park, a library, a college, or some similar public institution, presented to the public by some one who has prospered in the place. There is a general feeling of contempt for the rich man who dies without "leaving some of his money to the place where he made it." 1015. National Wealth. — The country is probably the richest in the world, though in per-capita wealth surpassed by Great Britain. In 1870 the United States stood third in wealth; in 1880 it had passed France and stood second. In its yearly income and increase of wealth it now surpasses Great Britain and all other countries. The following table will give rough estimates of the wealth, the an- nual income, tlie manufactures, and the total industries of (ireat Brit- ain and the United States, and the increase of each from 1870 to 1880. It is taken from an English writer (Mr. Mixlhall), considering the pound sterling as five dollars. Wealth, total Increase in ten years, Annual Income Increase in ten years. Manufactures Increase in teu years. Total Industries Increase in ten years. Great Britain. {Millions of Dollars.) 44,800 3,250 5,780 975 3,790 580 10,120 1,685 United States. {Millions of Dollars.) 39,400 7,800 7,030 1,720 4.440 1,030 10,020 2,625 1016. State of the Country. — Here, then, is a country in which there was not a settler 290 years ago, and now (1894) it has over one sixth of the wealth of the world. It has territory sufficient to accommodate almost any number of people, and the people who inhabit it are, to say the least, as active, as intelligent, and as civil- ized as any in the world. The sunlight, as it passes every day from 1015. What is said of tlio wealth of the United States ? Of its increase in ten years ? Of its anmial iticmne and increase ? 1016. How much of the world's wealth is in the United States ? What is said of the people '! What ])art of the world's work is done by them ? What is said of their daily growth ? What is Mr. Mulhall's remark ? What is said of the future ? 456 CAUSES OF GROWTH. the Atlantic to the Pacific, wakes a population of 64,000,000, whose workers labor very hard. They already do one third of all the mining in the world, one fourth of all the manufacturing, and one fifth of all the agriculture. Every night they are stronger by a regiment of fighting men, and richer by millions of dollars, than the night before. " It would be impossible," said Mr. Mulhall in 1882^ " to find in history a parallel to the progress of the United States in the last ten years." And yet all this is very little, compared with what the future is to see. (3) Causes of Growth, 1017. Other Countries have had as fair opportunities as the United States, bat have made no such use of them. The Spanish colonies in South America and Mexico had a far larger territory and richer soil than the Er^glish colonies of North America, but they have never formed a great nation, or become powerful sepa- rately. There must be reasors why these English colonies have prospered so amazingly, and it would be well for us to consider them, that we may do no worse, at least, than our fathers have done. 1018. The Institutions of the country have had much to do with its progress. From the beginning the country has had no priv- ileged classes or noble families ; no man has been able to claim an office or a support from the people as his right, merely because his father had won a victory or gained wealth. Every man has known that, no matter how poor he might be at first, he could go just as high as he was able to overcome the natural difficulties in the way : there were few artificial ones. When a whole people have ambition, and have hopes of success for themseUjs and their children, they are certain to do far harder and better work for it. The boy cutting rails on the prairie knows that his poverty cannot of itself prevent him from reaching the highest position the coun- try affords ; the children of the President know that the dignity 1017. What is said of other countries? Of the Spanish colonies? Why should we consider the reasons of the coiuitry's growth ? 1018. What is said of the institutions of the country ? What encouragement have men had to work ? What has been the effect on the people ? WORK AND ENERGY. 457 of his position cannot of itself prevent tlicni from falling to the lowest class, if they should prove unworthy. 1019. Education has always been a purpose of the American people. They have set apart a large portion of their wealth to take care that the children of every man, rich or poor, shall have the opportunity, at least, to obtain an education. They have thus made their farmers, mechanics, and miners more intelligent than those of other countries, more quick to hit on new and useful in- ventions, and more handy in managing the inventions already in use. They have also helped their voters to vote more intelligently, and have helped to diminish crime, for it is not quite so likely that a man will become a criminal if he has the power to vote and a fair share of education. 1020. Work. — Americans have always been a hard-workmg people, and their hard work has done very much to make their country great. They have always been anxious to make inven- tions, not for the purpose of avoiding work, but for the purpose of making their work still more effective. The young man who goes from the country to the city, because he has or seeks the oppor- tunity to work harder or more effectively, aids in the growth of the country : but he who goes for the purpose of avoiding hard work is really doing all he can to injure the country which should be dear to him. He who gives up farming or a trade lo work harder or more effectively in some other way does well : but he who does so only for the purpose of living more easily does fool- ishly, and will live and die a failure, for he has none of the Ameri- can spirit in him, and will be beaten in the race by others who have it. 1021. Energy. — This power of hard work has come largely from the energy of the people: they have never been afraid of difficulties. The greater the difficulty has seemed, the greater has been the fury with wliich they have attacked it again and again until it has gone down before them. From the starving time in 1019. What have Americans done for education ? What has been the effect on their workiiiginen ? On their voters ? 1020. What is said of the worl^ing power of tlie people ? Of their inventions ? Of tlie desire to so fi-om country to city ? Of the desire to g-ive up fanning or a trade ? 1021. What is said of the energy of the people ? How did the experience of 1861 show the nature of their energy ? 458 NATIONAL GOOD FAITM. Virginia, and the first bitter winters of New England, until now, the American has always been ready to do or endure anything if ho can see that it is of any use to himself or others. Until 1861, the people of other countries believed that all this energy was simple greed, and that Americans were '* dollar-hunters," who thought only of getting money. In 1861 the danger of a tremen- dous civil war fell on them, and they showed the tame energy in granting their money, in taxing themselves unmercifully, and in fighting as stubbornly as men can fight. At the end of the war, they attacked their debt in the same spirit and paid it in the same way. Americans believe that there is ncf difficulty that they can- not master in time ; and their children must be taught the same belief. 1022. Honesty and Good Faith. — Many men in other countries believe that, in a country where every man, good or bad, rich or poor, has a vote, the people will vote for evil measures because they seem to be to their own profit. This has not been so in the United States. It would have been to the profit of the people for a time, if they had refused to pay their debt; and there wa no power which could have made them pay. Instead of refusing or hesitating, their representatives in Congress were urged to tax the people steadily until the debt was mastered. And now, if the United States should wish to borrow money, the rich men of other countries would contend with one another for the privilege of lending it, for they know that the honesty and good faith of the American people would make it absolutely safe. Americans have made mistakes; but they have regularly meant and tried to do the thing which was rio-ht and honest. 1023. The Natural Advantages of the country, its soil, mines, rivers, and harbors, are groat ; but it is the qualities above named that have enabled the Americans to make such wonderful use of their advantages. If their children learn to think, feel, and act as their fathers did not ; if they forget the honesty, the en rgy, the 1022. What belief is common in otiier countries? Is it true of the United States? What instance is made of tlie debt? What is said of tlie credit of the United States ? Of the intentions of tlie people ? 1023. Have natural advantages alone made the United States great ? Will they alone make the country great iu future i THE RESPONSIBILITY OF AMERICANS. 450 love of work, the cultivation of education, and the religious feeling which marked their ancestors, the natural advantages of the country will help them no more than those of Brazil or Mexico have helped their people. It is the people that make the land great: tlie laud alone will never make the people great. (4) The Future. 1024. Fifty Years Hence, when we number two hundred mill. ions or more, there will be no power on earth to be compared with the United States of America. For the two hundred millions will not be such as live in China, Ilindostan, or Russia, but civilized men, helped by steam, electricity, and machinery, so that each of them can do the work of a score of Chinese. They can, if they should be foolish or wicked enough to wish to do so, maintain fleets and armies sufficient to overawe the rest of the world. They can make other nations dread their anger and yield to their slightest demand. They can make their country a bully and a nuisance among the nations. 1025. Such a Power, so managed, would be the most terrible evil the world has yet seen. It would bring its own punishment upon the guilty people. If the moral forces which have made the country what it is should be lost, national decay would soon rid the earth of the evil, and free other nations from anxiety. North Am«rlca has been the graveyard of other races before ours (§ 2) ; and it may yet be the graveyard of our own. 1026. Responsibility of the People. — It is the bounden duty of those who are growing up to manhood and womanhood to take care that no such evil shall come to pass. Each of them is, to some extent, an engineer to whose care has been entrusted an engine whose explosion would injure the whole human race. Wherever he sees an ignorant voter, a wicked voter, or a man who makes voters ignorant or wicked, he sees an enemy of himself, of 10'24. What will be the state of the country fifty years hence ? What will be the jwwer of the people 1 How can they use it ? 1025. What would be the meaning of such a power ? What would be its punish- ment ? 1020. What is the duty of the young ? What is their position ? Who are their enemies ? Where is their battle-field ? What may bp tbeir reward 1 460 THE RESPONSIBILITY OF AMERICANS. his country, and of humanity. Wherever he finds evil, even in himself, he sees his proper battle-ground; and he can there fight for his country as truly as witli rifle or sabre. If he lives out man's allotted time of life, he will be rewarded in seeing his country re- spected and honored by all other nations as no nation has yet been respected or honored, and in feeling that he has done his part in the work. APPENDIX I. DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. In Congress, July 4, 1776. A DECLARATION BY THE REPRESENTATIVES OF THE UNI- TED STATES OF AMERICA, IN CONGRESS ASSEMBLED. When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume, among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's God en- title them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. We hold these truths to be self-evident: — That all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. That, to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, de- riving their just powers from the consent of the governed; that, when- ever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute a new government, laying its foundation on such principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safely and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate, that governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shown that mankind are more dis- posed to suffer while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abol- ishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide new guards for their future security. Sucli has been the patient sufferance of these colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former systems of government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these states. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world. He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary for the public good. He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and press- ing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his assent 462 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to tliem. He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of representation in the legislature — a right inestimable to them, and formidable to tyrants only. He has called togetlier legislative bodies at places unusual, uncom- fortable, and distant from the depository of their public records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing, with manly firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected, whereby the legislative powers, incapable of an- nihilation, have returned to the people at large for their exercise; the State remaining, in the mean time, exposed to all the dangers of in- vasions from without, and convulsions within. ' He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States; tor that purpose obstructing the laws for the naturalization of foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the conditions of new appropriations of lands. He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his as- sent to laws for establishing judiciary powers. He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of officers to harass our people and eat out their substance. He has kept among us in times of peace, standing armies, without the consent of our Legislatures. He has affected to render the military independent of, and superior to, the civil power. He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitutions, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his assent to their acts of pretended legislation : For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us; For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any mur- ders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these States; For cutting off our trade witii all parts of the world; For imposing taxes on us without our consent; For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury; For transporting us beyond seas, to be tried for pretended offences; For abolishing'the free system of English laws in a neighboring province, establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging its boundaries, so aslo render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these colonies; For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and altering, fundamentally, the forms of our governments; For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves in- vested with power to legislate for us in ail cases whatsoever. He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his pro- tection, and waging war against us. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burned our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people. He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to DEGLABATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 4G3 complete the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the head of a civilized nation. He has constrained our fellow- citizens, taken captive on the high seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. He has excited domestic insurrection among us, and has endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian sav- ages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions. In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress in the most humble terms; our repeated petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A prince whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. Nor have we been wanting in our attentions to our British brethren. We have warned them, from time to time, of attempts by their legisla- ture to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have re- minded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity; and we have conjured them, by the ties of our common kindred, to disavow these usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They, too, have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity which denounces our separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, enemies in war, in peace friends. We, therefore, the Representatives of the United States of America, in General Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name and by the authority of the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish and de- clare, That these united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connection between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved; and that, as free and independent states, they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and to do all other acts and things which independent states may of right do. And, for the sup- port of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. The foregoing Declaration was, by order of Congress, engrossed, and signed by the following members: — JOHN HANCOCK. NEW HAMPSHIKE. Robert Treat Paine, Samuel Huntington, Josiah Bartlett, Elbridge Gerry. William Williams, William Whipple, __ _._^ Oliver Wolcott. Matthew Thornton. RHODE ISLAND. Stephen Hopkins, new york. William Ellery. William Floyd MASSACHUSETTS BAY. Philip Livingstou, Samuel Adams, Connecticut. Francis Lewis, John Adams, Roger Sherman, Lewis Morris. 464 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. NEW JEKSEY. Richard Stockton, Jolia Witherspoon Francis Hopliinson, John Hart, Abraham Clark. PENNSYLVANIA. Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benjamin Franklin, John Morton, George Clymer, James Smith, George Taylor, James Wilson, George Ross. DELAWARE. Ca3sar Rodney, George Read, Thomas M'Kean. MARYLAND. Samuel Chase, William Paca, Thomas Stone, Charles Carroll, [rollton, of Car VIRGINLA.. Francis Lightfoot Lee, Carter Braxton. NORTH CAROLINA. William Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John Penn. SOUTH CAROLINA. Edward Rutledge, Thomas Heyward, Jr., Thomas Lynch, Jr., Arthur Middleton. George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Harrison, Thomas Nelson, Jr., Button Gwinnett, Lyman Hall, George Walton. Resolved, That copies of the Declaration be sent to the several assem blies, conventions, and committees, or councils of safety, and to the several commanding officers of the continental troops; that it be pro claimed in each of the United States, and at the head of the army APPENDIX II. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, PREAMBLE. WE, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defence, promote the general welfare, ami secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish tliis Constitution for the United States of America. ARTICLE I. Section I. 1. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress ' of the United States, which shall consist of Legislative a senate and house of representatives. powers. Sec. II. 1. Tlie house of representatives shall be composed of mem- bers chosen every second year, by the people of the sev- House of eral states; and the electors in each state shall have the representa- qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous tives. branch of the state legislature. 2. No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citi- Qualiflca- zen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, tions of rep- be an inhabitant of that state in which he shall be chosen, resentatives. 3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several states which may be included within this Union, according to their respective numbers,^ which shall be determined by Apportion- adding to the whole number of free persons, including mentofrep- those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding resentatives. Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other persons.* The actual enu- 1 The body of senators and representatives for each term of two years for wliich representatives are chosen is called one Congress. Each Congress expires at noon of the 4th of March next succeeding the beginning of its second regular session, when a nein Congress begins. 2 The appoi-tionment under the census of 1890 is one representative to every 173.901 persons. 3 This refers to slaves, and is no longer in force (see Amendment XIII.). What nation is governed by this Constitution? Preamble: Who formed the Constitution? For what purposes? Article I. Section 1. To what body are legislative (law-making) powers given (§ 282)? What are its branches? Section 2. How often are representatives chosen? By whom? What are the qual- ifica^ionsof a representative? Can any State be left without representatives? How are vacancies filled? How are the officers of the House of Bepresentfttives cjaoseg? Wbat body has the power of impeachment (.§ S88)? 466 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. meration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each state shall have at least one representative; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three; Massachusetts, eight; Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, one; Connecticut, five; New York, six; New Jersey, four; Pennsylva- nia, eight; Delaware, one; Maryland, six; Virginia, ten; North Caro- lina, five; South Carolina, five; and Georgia, three.- . 4. Wlien vacancies happen in the representation from Vacancies. any state, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. Officers, how 5. The house of representatives shall choose their appointed. speaker and other offlcers,i and shall have the sole power of impeachment. Sec. III. 1. The senate of the United States shall be composed of Senate ^^^ senators from eacli state, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six years ; and each senator shall have one vote. 2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election, they shall be divided, as equally as may be, of senators"'^ into three classes. The seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year; of the second class, at the expiration of the fourth year; and of the third class, at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one third may be chosen every second year; and if vacancies happen, by resignation or otherwise, during the recess of the legislature of any state, the execu- tiye thereof may make tem[)orary appointments untd the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. 3. No person shall be a senator who §hall not have attained to the age Qualifications of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United of senators. States; and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of thai state for which he shall be chosen. President of 4. The vice-president of the United States shall be pres- the senate ident of the senate; but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 5. The senate shall choose their other officers, 2 and also a president ^9r The salary of the president was $25,000 a year until 1872, when It was increased to $50,000. That of the vice-president is $8,00C) a year. Section 2. What rank does the president hold in the army and navy? How does he consult his cabinet (§ 299)? What is the president's pardoning power? How are treaties made? Appointments to office (§ 9'J2)? How are vacancies filled? Section 3. What messages does the pi-esident send to Congress? How are extra sessions of Congress called? What further power has the president? CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 473 such meiisiires as lie sliall judge necessary and expedient ;i he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both houses, or either of May convene them, and, in case of disagreement between tliem with Congress, respect to llie time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall tliink proper; he shall receive ambassadors and other pub- lic ministers; he shall lake care that the laws be faithfully executed; and shall commission all the officers of the United States. Sec. IV. 1. The president, vice president, and all civil officers of the United States, shall be removed from office on impeach- How officers ment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other may be re- high crimes and misdemeanors. moved. ARTICLE III. Section I. 1. The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts judicial as the Congress may, from time to time, ordain and estab power, how lish. The judges, both of the supreme and inferior courts, vested, shall hold their offices during good behavior; and shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compensation which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office. Sec. XL 1. The judicial power shall extend to all cases in law and equity, arising under this constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their to wliat authority; to all cases affecting ambassadors, otlier public cases it ministers, and consuls; to all cases of admiralty and niari- extends, time jurisdiction; to controversies to which the United States shall be a party; to controversies between two or more states; between a state and citizens of another state ;^ between citizens of different states; between citizens of the same state claiming lands under grants of different states; and between a state, or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens, or subjects. 2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and con- suls, and those in which a state shall be a party, the su- jurisdiction preme court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other of the su- cases before mentioned, tlie supreme court shall have ap- Pi"eme court, pellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions, and under such regulations, as the Congress shall make. 1 The president does this in messages at the opening of each session. Washing- ton and John Adams read their messages in penson to both houses of Congress. Jefferson introduced the present practice of sending to the two houses a written message by his private secretary. * See Amendments, Art. XI. Section 4. What is said of impeachment (§851)? Article III. Section 1. In wliat is tlie judicial power of the United States vested? How long do the judges hold office? What is said of their salaries? Section 3. What cases may be brought before the United States courts? What cases maybe begun in the Supreme Coui-t? Wliat cases must be begun in lower courts, with power of appeal to the Supreme Court? How and where are trials to take place? How is the place fixed when the offence is committed in a Territory or at sea? 474 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be bj Rules Ju'T. ^'^^ such trial shall be held in the state wliere the respecting said crimes sliall liave been committed; but when not corn- trials, mitted within any state, the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by law have directed. Sec. III. 1. Ti'eason against the United States shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their ene- deflned" mies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason, unless on the testimony of two wit- nesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court. 2. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of trea- son; but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of ^iiLhed blood, or forfeiture, except during the life of the person attainted. ARTICLE IV. Section I. 1. Full faith and credit shall be given in each state to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every st^tes^ °^ otlier state. And tlie Congress may, by general laws, pre- scribe the manner in which sucli acts, records, and pro- ceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. Sec. II. 1. The citizens of each state shall be entitled of cit^eus ^^ ^^^ privileges and immunities of citizens in the several states. 2. A person charged in any state with treason, felony, or other crime. Executive who sliall flee from justice, and be found in another state, requisitions, sliall, on demand of the executive authority of the state from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the state having jurisdiction of the crime.^ 3. No person held to service or labor in one state, under the laws Lawregulat- thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any ing service law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor. qj. labor; but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due.^ Sec. III. 1. New states may be admitted by the Congress into this Nevr states, Union; but no new states shall be formed or erected how formed within the jurisdiction of any other state, nor any st.ate be and admitted, formed by the junction of two or more states, or ii;vi'ts of states, without the consent of the legislature of the states concerned, as well as of the Congress. 2. The Congress shall have power to dispose of, and make all need- See also § 518. « See §§ 285, 591. Section 3. In what does treason consist? How must it be proved? How is it to be punished? Article IV. Section 1. What credit is given in each State to the records of other States? How are the records proved? Section 2. What rights liave citizens when they remove to another State? How are escaped criminals brouglit back to the State where the crime was committed? How were escaped slaves brought back to their owners' States? Section 3. How are new States admitted? How are the Territories governed? CONSTITUTION OF TEE UNITED STATES. 475 ful rules and regulations respecting, the territory or other p^^gr of property belonging to the United States; and nothing in congress this constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any over public claims of the United States, or of any particular state. lands. Sec. IV. 1. The United States shall guarantee to every state in this Union a republican form of government, and shall protect Republican each of them against invasion; and on application of the fcovernment legislature, or of the executive (when the legislature cannot guarauteed. be convened), against domestic violence. ARTICLE V. 1. The Congress, whenever two thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this constitution; or, on the application of the legislatures of two thirds of the several Constitution, states, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, bow to be which, in either case, shall be valid to all intents and pur- amended, poses, as part of this constitution, when ratified by the legislatures of three fourths of the several states, or by conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress; provided, that no amendment which may be made prior to the j'ear one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article; and that no state, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suf- frage in the senate. ARTICLE VI. 1. All debts contracted and engagements entered into Validity of before the adoption of this constitution, shall be as valid debts recog« against the United States under this constitution as under ^'zed. the Confederation. 2. This constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or supreme law which shall be made, under the authority of the United of the land States, shall be the supreme law of the land; and the judges defined. in every state shall be bound thereby, anything in the constitution or laws of any state to the contrary notwithstanding. 3. The senators and representatives before mentioned, and the mem bers of the several state legislatures, and all executive and judicial offi- cers, both of the United States and of the several states, o^th; of shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this whom re- constitution; but no religious test shall ever be required as quired, and a qualification to any office or public trust under the Uni- °^^ ^ ' ted States. Section 4. How are the States protected? Article V. How are Amendments proposed? How may a convention of States be called? How are Amendments ratified, so as to become part of the Constitu- tion? Can a State be deprived of its Senators? Article VI. Who paid the debts of the Confederation? What is the supreme law of the land? Can a State resist it? What do ofiBcers of the States and of the Hujited States swear to do? Can any reli^ous test be required of them? 476 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. ARTICLE VII. 1. The ratification of the conventions of nine states shall be sutflcient for the establishment of this constitution be- Ratification, tween the states so ratifying the same.^ Done in convention by the unanimous consent of the states present, the seventeenth day of September, in the year of our Lord one thou- sand seven liundred and eighty-seven, and of the independence of the United States of America the twelfth. In witness whereof, v/e have hereunto subscribed our names.^ GEO. WASHINGTON, Presidt. and deputy from Virginia. NEW HAMPSHIRE. John Langdon, Nicholas Gilman. MASSACHUSETTS. Nathaniel Gorham, Rufus King. CONNECTICUT. Wm. Saml. Johnson, Roger Sherman. NEW YORK. Alexander Hamilton. NEW JERSEY. Wil. Livingston, David Brearley, Wm. Paterson, Joua. Dayton. PENNSYLVANIA. B. Franklin, Thomas Mifflin, Robt. Morris, Geo: Clymer, Tho: Fitzsimons, Jared Iiigersoll, James Wilson, Gouv: Morris. VIRGINIA. John Blair, James Madison, Jr. NORTH CAROLINA. Wm. Blount, Rich'd Dobbs Spaight, Hu. Williamson. DELAWARE. SOUTH CAROLINA, Geo. Read, j ^^^^^^ Gunning Bedford,Junr,cj^^^l c'otesworth John Dickmson, pincknev Richard Bassett, ^^^^^^^ Pi^ckney. Pierce Butler. Jaco: Broom. MARYLAND. James M'Henry, Georgia. Dan:of St.Tlios.Jenifer, William Few, Danl. Carroll. Abr. Baldwin, Attest: WILLIAM JACKSON, Secretary. AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION. *Art. I. Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of Freedom in religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridg- religion, ing the freedom of speech, or of the press ; or the right of the speech,press. people peaceably to assemble and to petition the govern- ment for a redi'ess of grievances. 1 See § 287. 2 The number of delegates chosen to the convention was sixty-five; ten did not attend; sixteen declined to sign the Constitution, or left the convention before it vs'as ready to be signed. Thirty-nine signed. 3 The first ten amendments were proposed in 1789, and declared adopted in 1791. Article VII. How many State ratifications were necessary to establish the Con- stitution? How many States finally ratified it (§ 300)? Amendments: ARTiciyB J. IJow is freedom of religion, speech, *»cl the press protected? CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 477 Art, II. A well regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free state, the rit^ht of the people to lieep and bear arms ,,.,•*• Ill I. \ ■ e ■ A f I i- Milltia. shall not be infrmged. Art. III. No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house, without tlie consent of the owner; nor in time of war „ i j- ,..' ., Mill Soldiers, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. Art. IV. The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches Search- and seizures, shall not be violated; and no warrants shall warrants. issue but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. Art. V. No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service, in time of war or public danger; nor Capital shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice crimes, put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled, in any criminal case, to be a witness against himself; nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation. Art. VI. In all criminal prosecutions the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the state and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to he Trial by informed of the nature and cause of the accusation ; to be Ju''y- confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor; and to have the assistance of counsel for his defence. Art. VII. In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall Suits at com- be preserved; and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise moi law. re-examined, in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law. Art. VIII. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor Bail, fines, excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments etc. inflicted. Art. IX. The enumeration in the constitution, of cer- Certain tain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage rights, others retained by the people. Art. X. The powers not delegated to the United States Powers by the constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved, reserved to the states respectively, or to the people. Article II. How is the right to bear arms protected ? Article III. May house-owners be compelled to receive soldiers into their houses? Article IV. How are the people protected against vexatious search-warrants? Article V. How are the people protected against vexatious charges of crime? Against the seizure of private property? Article VI. How are criminal trials to be conducted? What rights has the defendant? Article VII. In what civil suits must trial by jury be maintained? Article VIII. How are the people protected against excessive bail and fines? Article IX. Who retain rights which are not mentioned? Articls X. Wbo retain rights not given to the United States, or forbidden to tbf States? 478 CONSTITUTION OF TEE UNITED STATES. Judicial ^Art. XI. The judicial power of the United States l)ower shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or limited. equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States, by citizens of another state, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign state. '^Akt. XII. The electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot for president and vice-president, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves: f^T't'^u^"'' ^^^y. shall name in their ballots tiie person voted for as Sec. 4, ' president, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as respecting vice-president; and they shall make distinct lists of all per- election of gons voted for as president, and of all persons voted for as and^ice-*^ vice-president, and of the nusnber of votes for each, which president. lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit, sealed, to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the president of the senate; the president of the senate shall, in the presence of the senate and house of representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted; the person having the greatest number of votes for president shall be the president, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers, not exceed- ing three, on the list of those voted for as president, the house of repre- sentatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the president. But, in choosing the president, the votes shall be taken by states, the represen- tation from each state having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the house of representatives shall not choose a president, whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the vice-president shall act as president, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the president. Tiie person having the greatest number of votes as vice-president, shall be the vice- president, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list the senate shall choose the vice-president; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two thirds of the whole number of sena- tois, and a majority of the whole number shall be neces.sary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of president, shall be eligible to that of vice-president of the United States. „ , s^j^T. XIII. Sec. I. Neither slavery nor involuntary avery. servitude, except as a punishment for crime, whereof the 1 The eleventh amendment was proposed in 1794, and declared adopted in 1798. ^ The twelfth amendment was proposed in 1803, and declared adopted in 1804. * The thirteenth amendment was proposed and adopted in 1865 (§ 838). Article XI. Can a State be sued by citizens of another State? By citizens of a foreign state? Article XII. For whom do the electors vote? Can they take both from their own State? Where do they send their lists of votes? Who opens the certificates? In whose presence? What part of the electoral votes must a President have? If no one has a majoriry, how is the President chosen? If no President is chosen, who acts as President? What part of the electoral votes must a Vice-President have? If no one has a majority, how is the Vice-President chosen? Article Xl'll. Section 1. Can slavery exist in the United States? Section 2. Who has power to prevent it? CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 470 party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. Sec. II. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appro- priate legislation. ^Art. XIV. Sec. I. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the state wherein they reside. No state shall make or en- force any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citi- zens of the United States; nor shall any state deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law, nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. Sec. II. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several states according to their respective numbers, counting the whole num- ber of persons in each state, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for president and vice-president of the United States, representatives in Congress, the executive or judicial officers of a state, or the members of the legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such stale, being twenty-one years of age and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion in which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such state. Sec. III. No person shall be a senator or representative in Congress, or elector of president or vice-president, or hold any office, civil or mili- tary, under the United States, or under any state, who, having previously taken an oath as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any state legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any state, 10 support tlie constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebelliou against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may, by a vote of two thirds of each house, remove sucli disability. Sec. IV. The validity of the public debt of the United States, au- thorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pension and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any state shall assume or paj'^ any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations, and claims shall be held illegal and void. Sec. V. Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legis- lation, the provisions of this article. 1 The fourteenth amendment was proposed in 1866, and adopted in 1868 (§ 846). Article XIV. Section 1. Who are citizens of the United States? May a Statfe abridge the privilegres of citizens of the United States? Section 2. How are representatives apportioned among the States? Section 3. What persons are forbidden to hold office under a State or the United States? How may this disability be removed? Section 4. How is the public debt of the United States orotected? What debts are illegal and void? Section 5. Who has power to enforce this amendment? 480 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 'Art. XV. Sec. I. The rights of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States, or by any state, on accouut of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. Sec. II. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appro- priate legislation. 1 The fifteenth amendment was proposed in 1869, and adopted in 1870 (§ 872). Article XV. Section 1. May the United States or a State pass laws to prevent citizens from voting, on account of race, color, or previous slavery? Section 2, Who has power to enforce this amendment? APPENDIX III, FORMATION OF STATES. 1. Delaware ratified the Constitution Dec. 7, 2. Penusylvania " " Dec. 12 3. New Jersey " " Dec. 18 4. Georgia " " Jan. 2 5. Connecticut " " Jan. 9 6. Massachusetts " " Feb. 6 7. Maryland " " Apr. 28 8. South Carolina " " May 23^ 9. New Hampshire" " June 21 10. Virginia " " June 25 11. New York " " ...July 26 12. North Carolina " " Nov. 21 13. Rhode Island " " May 29 14. Vermont admitted to the Union Mar. 4 15. Kentucky " " June 1 16. Tennessee " " June 1 17. Ohio " " Nov.29 18. Louisiana " " Apr. 30 19. Indiana " " Dec. 11 30. Mississippi " " ' Dec. 10 21. Illinois " " Dec. 3 22. Alabama " " Dec. 14 23. Maine « ♦* Mar. 15 24. Missouri " ** Aug. 10 25. Arkansas " " Junel5 26. Michigan " ** Jan. 26 27. Florida " *' Mar. 3 28. Texas " ** Dec. 29 29. Iowa " ** Dec. 28 30. Wisconsin " ** May 29 31. California « " Sept. 9 33. Minnesota " ** May 11 33. Oregon " " Feb. 14 34. Kansas '* « Jan. 29 35. West Virginia " " June 19 36. Nevada " «* Oct. 31 37. Nebraska " ** Mar. 1 38. Colorado '* ** Aug. 1 39. North Dakota " " Nov. 3 40. South Dakota " " , Nov. 3 41. Montana " " Nov. 8 42. Washington " " Nov. 11 43. Idaho " " July 3 44. Wyoming " " July 10 45- UtaU •• " ,..,... Jan. 1787 1787 1787 1788 1788 1788 1788 1788 1788 1788 1788 1789 1790 1791 1792 1796 1803 1813 1816 1817 1818 1819 1820 1821 1836 1837 1845 1845 1846 1848 1850 1858 1859 1861 18G3 1864 1867 1876 1889 1889 1889 1889 1890 1890 1896 482 GROWTH OF THE STATES. rn H nj H P <^ H a If) o W n W •a H o o FlH ^ O -a - co~ ?d of en 00_^ OC i- to CD_ Tl» c-; OJ 0J_ rH in in co' co" OJ of OJ Oi OJ '"' '~' '"' *"* *"* '"' ''"' '"^ ^^ *"* ^~* ,_, ,_, ,-4 OJ ~o in "m 1-1 "T^ in "0 cn i- in "in to CO "co I- Ttl i- 05 to 00 CO "^ TO OS oc OS to ^ t- O » & 00 0, co_ 0^ i- TO CB 5 to TO ■* 1-, in i- in tD_^ 00 M £-^ Qo' 'P to S 00" OJ of in of os' of to d T-T TjT 00 GO i- to 00 01 i' TO -^ ■^ '^ OS to TO OS 00 TO to O} o. in OS CO to to lO_ *", CO *", TO__ "H OS i> T-1^ 00 l-( in ■* so' co' of ^ "' -' ■■^ '^ "' "-' """' " "' '"•' —' '-"'" Oi iO "Oi l- "oT "0 "oj OS "to OJ I- in lO 05 s a> in 1- m OJ i- to S 01 OS s? ^ o i- o5 00_ OJ "l CO in to c to CO TO i~ 1- 00 of 05' in i- oc Ttl 'i' 00 '^ in to' to' Oi I- do 0? 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GO T-. -r CO ^ O Ci T-* c?_i- o in *n oo' £-' T-T <>f I-.' -a"" O T-l 1-1 ■^QOT- £'i a ^^a = ^ t^ oi !- o o - = cb c. ^ -g s-^z I.J -^ .'-' "^ I' 5 1* "^^ 1/j u 2 j3 S X! .H ^ o t ^ £ ,cs o o ~ V oj aj . ■= o ^j C5 X . .- 3 O ^; commerce in 1860, 633; injury to commerce by Confeder- ate privateering, 727, 759, 791 ; revival of commerce, 861 ; inter-State, 923. Commission, Electoral, 886-8. Commission, Inter-State Commerce, 923. Commission, Tariff, 916. Common schools. See Public schools. "Common Sense," title of Paine's pam- phlet in favor of independence, 205. Commons, House of, claims taxing powf r in England, 31 ; in the colonies, 163 (see Parliament). Commonwealth, the English. 32. Compromises, the Missouri CJompro. mise passed, 426; unsuccessful at- tempt to apply its principle to the Mexican acquisition, 576; the Missouri Compromise repealed, 615-16; the re- peal sustained by the Supreme Court, 645-6: the Tariff Compromise of 1833, 490; the Compromise of 1850, 589. Concessions, the, the charter of New Jersey, 124. Concord (kong'kurd), Mass., 183-4. Confederate States, the, organized in 1861, 660; declares war against the United States. 673; enlarged by new secessions, 676; its difficulties, 686, progress of the war, 815-20; distress within the Confederacy, 723, 753, 790, 795; downfall of the Confederacy, 809; its armed forces, 821; loss in men, 822; in money, 823. Confederation, the. See Articles of Coij- federation. Confirmation by the Senate, 883. PEONOUNCINO INDEX. ' The references are to Sections, not to pages. 499 Congress of the United States, powers, 283-4; first meets and counts the elec- toral votes, ^97; organizes the govern- ment by legislation, 300; proposes twelve Amendments, 300; character of the laws passed, 301; charters the first Bank of the United States, 301 ; begins taxation by excise, 308; author- izes hostilities against France, 321; passes the Alien and Sedition laws, 323; comes under the control of the Republicans, 330; passes the Embargo Act (see Commerce), 34-1; passes the Non-Intercourse Act, 345; revives the Non-Intercourse Act against Great Britain, 349; declares war against Great Britain, 351; becomes more dis- posed to favor the navy, 370 ; charters the second Bank of the United States, 411; the two sections in Congress, 425, 442, 524; passes the Missouri Compro- mise, 426; receives La Fayette, 428; ap- propriates money for "internal im- provements, 429; begins the National Road, 431 ; adopts a policy of Protec- tion, 432; carries it further, 441; di- vides surplus revenue among the States, 460; asserted influence of the Bank on Congress, 476; renews char- ter of the Bank, but is defeated by the veto, 477; Congress and Protection, 479, 484; passes Compromise Tariff of 1833, 490; special session of 1837. 499; passes Sub-Treasury law, 500; attempt to suppress antislavery petitions to Congress, 506; special session of 1841, 514; passes a third Bank charter, but is defeated by the veto, 515; quarrels with the President, 516; passes the Tariff of 1842, 517; appropriates money to test the electric telegraph, 527; passes the resolution annexing Texas, 533; abandons Protection and passes a revenue tariff, 540; declares war against Mexico, 550; discusses the Wilmot Proviso, 577; and the admis- sion of California, 585, 587; passes the Compromise of 1850,588-9; new lead- ers appear in Congress, 593; Congress orders surveys for a Pacific Railroad, 596; repeals the Missouri Compromise by passing the Kansas-Nebraska Act, 614; the Republican party appears in Congress, 616; Congress discusses Kansas affairs, 621 ; its relations to the Supreme Court, 645; remains inactive through the secession winter, 665; special session of 1861 votes men and money for the war. 680; orders the is- sue of bonds and legal-tender paper money in 1862, 725; establishes a na- tional banking system in 1863, 725; re- turns to the protective system, 754; orders a draft, 756; passes the 13th Amendment, 837; refuses to admit members from the seceding States, 839; is controlled by a two-thirds Re- publican majority, 840; a.lopts a plan of reconstruction, 843-4; readmits Congress— Con-finwed. the reconstructed States, 845; passes the 14th Amendment. 846; quarrels with the President. 848; passes the Tenure of Office Act, 849; assists the Pacific Railroad, 864; passes the 15th Amendment, 872; investigates the Credit Mobilier scandals. 87t); asserts a right to decide disputes about elec- toral votes, 885; passes the Electoral Commission Act, 886; denKmetizeK silver, 900; remouetizes silver, 901 orders specie payments to be resum ed. 902; engages in conflicts with " President, 905; passes the Civil Service Reform Act. 910; fails to suppress polygamy, 913; orders appointment of a Tariff Commission, 916; demonetizes silver, 948; passes the Wilson bill, 951. Connecticut (kon-net'i-kut). part of the Plymouth grant, 39; history, 61; its western claims, 272. they are trans- ferred to the United States, 275. Constellation, the, captures Vlnswr- gente, .321. Co7iiititution,the. chased by the British4 367; captures the Guerriere, 368; the Java, 369; the Cyane and Levant, 376. Constitution of the United States, its formation, 280; its terms, 281-5; its ratification, 287; its inauguration, 297 (see Amendments, and Appendix U.). " Continental," meaning of the term, 179, 234. Continental Congress, first meeting, 179-80; second meeting, 194; resists Parliament by force, 194; recom- mends the colonies to become States, 205; adopts the Declaration of Inde- pendence, 206; retires to Baltimore, 212; to Lancaster and York, 218; issues paper money, 234; begins to lose pub- . lie respect, 235; has difficulties with the army, 240; fails to form a navy, 242; its work in the war, 270; gives way to the Confederation, 271 (see Articles of Confederation). Contract Labor Act, 920. Contreras (kon-tra'ralis), battle of, 667. Convention , Federal, 280. (jooper, Fenimore, his literary work, 465 Copley, John Singleton, a painter, par- ticularly excellent in portraits, 190. Copper, in Michigan, 462; in Connecticut and New Jersey, 528; discovery of the Lake Superior copper region, 529; in Wisconsin, 543. Corinth (kor'inth). Miss., captured by Halleck, 695; defended by Grant, 698. Comwallis (korn-wol'lis). Lord, in com- mand of the British in New Jersey, 211 ; beaten at Trenton and Princeton, 213; in command in South Carolina, 249; beats Gates at Camden, 250; chases Greene across North Carolina, 252; fights a drawn battle at Guilford Court-house, 254; retires to Wilming ton, 254; moves north into Virginia S56; caught at Yorktowu by inc 500 PRONOUNCINO INDEX. ■ The references are to Sections, not to pages. Cor n wal I is— Co?i h'mted. French and Americans, 259; surren- ders, 263; results of the surrender, 263; centennial anniversary of the sur- render. 911. Ooronado (ko-ro-nah'do), an early Span- ish explorer, 17. Corpus Christi (kor'-pus kris'ti), Tex., 546. Cortereal (kor-ta-ra-ahl'), a Portuguese sailor, 14. Cotton, little profit in its cultivation be- fore 1793. 317; invention of the saw- gin by Whitney, 317; cotton in Ala- bama, 421; in South Carolina, 103; cot- ton crop of 1860, 633; " King Cotton," 642; importance of the cotton supply during the Civil War, 726; effect of the blockade, 753; cotton under free labor, 915. Cotton, John, a Massachusetts minister, 54. Courts, Federal, 284, 301. Cowpens (kow'penz), battle of the, 252. Crawford, William H., nominated for President, but defeated, 433. Credit Mobilier (kra'de mo-be'le-a), the construction company of the Pacific Railroad, 879. Creeks, an Indian tribe, 3 ; hostile to the United States, 396; make war, 397; overthrown by Jackson, 398; effects on settlement, 408. Criminals, their extradition, 518. Croghan (kro'han), Lieut. George, his defence of Fort Stephenson, 361. Cromwell (krim'well), Oliver, Protector of England, 32. Crotou Aqueduct, 457. Crown Point, N. Y., 149, 153. C'ry-stal Palace, the, 601. Cuba, attempts to obtain it from Spain, 608; theOstend manifesto, 610; Virgin- ius affair, 060; acute relations, 965-6; military operations, 974; freed from Spain, 977; under control of U. S., 994. Cumberland Island, Ga., 389. Cumberland, Md., 431. Cumberland, the, sunk by the Merri- mac, 702. Currency, Paper. See Paper Money. Cushing (koosh'ing), Lieut. Wm. B., blows up the Albemarle, 786. Custer, Gen. George A., killed by In- dians, 868. Cyane (si'ane), the, captured by the Constitution, 376. Cyclones, 912. Dade's Massacre, 471. Dallas, battle of, 774. Dallas, George M., elected Vice-Presi- dent, 532. Dalton (dawl'tun), Ga., held by John- ston, 760; taken by Sherman. 774. Dana. Richard H., an early American poet, 465. Danbnry (dan'ber-ri), CoQn., destroyed by Lhe British, S15. Daniel, Wm., nominated for Vice-Pi esi- dent, 917. Dare, Virginia, first child born of Eng- lish parents in America, 23. Darien (da-ri-en'), Ga., 108. Dartmouth College founded. 190. Davenport (d&v' en-port), Joim 61 Davis, Gen. Geo. W,, 995. Davis, Jefferson, a Southern leader, 593; President of the Confederate States, 660; biography, 661; removes John- ston, 776; is compelled to recall him, 802. Dayton, O., 334. Dayton, Wm. L., nominated for Vice- President, 623. Deane (deen), Silas, envoy to France, 225. Dearborn (deer'burn). Gen. Henry, in command in northeastern New York, 358; fails in an invasion of Canada, 363. Debt, Imprisonment for, cruelty of the system, 289; its general abandonment, 469. Debt of Great Britain, 188, 266. Debt of the United States, hopelessness of paying it under the Confederation, 276; provided for in 1790, 301; nearly paid off in 1809, 331: anxiety of the Republicans to pay it off, 343; increase on account of the War of 1812, 410; aU paid off in 1835, 460; Civil War debt put into bonds and paper money, 725; amount at the end of the war, 823; promptness in beginning to pay it off, 832; interest rate reduct-d by refunding, 903; the general reduc- tion of the debt, 916, 949; the American method of dealing wlib a national debt, 1011, 1017. Decatur (de-ka'tur). Commodore Ste- phen, burns the Philadelphia, 340; in command of the United States, SGS; forces the Barbary States to conclude peace without payment of tribute, 412. Declaration of Independence, its adop- tion, 206; its terms, 207; its effect on France, 227; its authorship, 439; its hundredth anniversary, 870 (see Ap- pendix I.). Delaware (del'a-wur), settled by the Swedes, 29; taken by the Dutch, 29; taken by the English from the Dutch, 40; bought by Penn, 125; history, 132; its western boimdary, 272; a "small" State, 280; freedom from secession- ists, 674 (see Appendix IV.). Delaware River, the, crossed by Wash- ington, 211; obstructed by the Ameri- cans to defend Philadelphia, 216. Democratic Party, the, known at first as the Republican Party (see Repub- lican Party of 1792), 305; often known as the Democratic Party after the war of 1812, 413; regularly called so after 3828. 444; supports Jackson. 445: defeated in 1840, ,"511; Kucces.sfnl in 1844, 532; gets control of the govern- PRONOUNCII^O IXDEX. B^° The references are to Sections, not to pages. 501 Democratic Vixvly— Continued. nient and puts an end to Protection, 540; defeated in 1848, 579; the only sreat party left entire by slavery, 594; successful in 1852, 598; how it was held together. 613 ; supports the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 614; part of its Northern members ?o into the Re- publican Party {see Republican Party of 1846), 616; successful in 1856, 623; Northern members refuse fo support the Dred Scott decision, 648; splits into two parts, 654; defeated in i860, 655; opposes the management of the war, and is defeated in 1864, 797; sup ports Johnson, 840; is defeated in 1868, 852; adopts the Liberal Repub- lican ticket in 1872, and is defeatetl, 881 ; its nominations in 1876, 882; in con- trol of Congress,, 905; defeated in 1880, 906; successful in 1884, 917; defeated in 1888, 931; successful in 1892, 947; de- feated in 1896, 957; and in 1890. Demonetization of silver, 900. Denmark, 4. Deiiys Cda-nes*''), 12 Deposits, removal of, 477. Detroit, Mich., an early French settle- ment, 142; transferred to the English, 155; transferred to the United States, 310; captured by the British, 357; re- captured by the Americans, 362; lead- ing city of Michigan, 462 (see Appen- dix V). Dewey, Admiral Geo., at battle of Manila Bay, 973; in the Philippines, 992. Dieskau (dl-es-ko'). Baron, in command of a French force, 149. Diiigley tariff bill, 962-3, 978. Dinwiddle (din-wid'dl). Gov., 145 District of Columbia (see Capital), slav- ery in the, 586, 589. Oonelson, Andrew J., nominated for Vice-President. 623. Doniphan (don'i-frtn), Col., his march into Mexico, 5,54-5. Dorchester (dor'ches-ter) Heights, 199. Dorr Rebellion, 530. Douglas (dug'las), Stephen A., a North- ern Democratic leader, 613; intro- duces the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 614; separates from the Southern Demo- crats, 648; nominated for President, 654; is defeated, 6.55; his Senatorial campaign against Lincoln, 667. Dover, N. H., 59. Downie (dow'ni), Commodore G., in command of the British fleet on Lake Champlain, 383. Draft, the, 756. Drake, Joseph Rodman, an American poet, 465. Drake, Sir Francis, an early English ex- plorer, 16. Dred Scott Case, the, 645-7. Drunkenness, its former prevalence in America, 468. Dubuque (du-booke')> Iowa, its settle- ment, 543. Duluth (doo-loothO, Minn., 866. Early, Gen. Jubal A., sent by Lee to raid Washington, 768; defeats Sheri- dan's army at Cedar Creek, but is de- feated by Sheridan, 772. East Indies, 13. Eaton, Theophilus, one of the founders of New Haven, 64. Eckford, Henry, an American sbip. builder, .381. Education. See Public Schools; Normal Schools; Colleges. Elba, the island to which Napoleon was banished, 399. Elberon (el'be-ron), a New Jersey water- ing-place, 909. Electors, their duty to choose the Presi- dent and Vice-President, 283; their first meeting, 288 ; the first count of their votes, 297; the electoral system in general, 298, how it was changed in 1804, 324; failure of the electors to choose a President in 1824, 433; dis- pute over their votes in 1876, 883; how the dispute was settled, 885-7. 932. Electricity, Franklin's discovery, 236; application to telegraphing, 527; to the telephone, light, heat, and ma- chinery, 893. Elevated Railroads, 894. Elizabeth, N. J., settlement, 123. Elizabeth, Q».een, commissions Gilbert, 81 ; Raleigh, 33. Elkton, Md., Howe disembarks there, 316; Washington embarks there for Yorktown, 259. Ellsworth, Oliver, member of the Con- tinental Congress, 194. Emancipation Proclamation, the, its issue and terms, 724; its influence on foreign affairs, 726; completed by the 13th Amendment, 838. Embargo, the, its passage and failure, 344 (see Commerce). Emerson. Ralph Waldo, his literary work, 637. Endicott (en'dl-kQt), John, a Massa- chusetts leader, 54. England, refuses to help Columbus, 6; sends Cabot, who claims part of North America for her, 11; preliminary fail- ures, 21, 33-4; organizes two coloniza- tion companies, 35; liow her colonies came to lie together, 27; struggle be- tween the king and the Parliament, 31; the Commonwealth, 33; the Res- toration, 33; the first successful Eng- lish settlement, 36; her relations with her colonies, 45-7; her encouragement of the slave-trade, 48; her passage of restrictions on colonial commerce, 71; her wars with France after the Res- toration, 75; how England seized the middle Atlantic coast, 113 (see Great Britain)., English, Wm. H., nominated for Vice- President. 906. t Enterprise, the, captures the Boxer, 371 502 PRONOUNCING INDEX. ' The references are to Sections, not to pages. Efpenner (a-p5r'vg-a), the, captured by the Peacock, 375. Era of Good Feeling, 417, 440. Ericsson (er'ik-sen), John, invents the screw proiJeller, 454; builds the Moni- tor, 701. Erie, Lake, battle of, 383. Erie Canal, 430. Erie, Pa., a French fort, 145; Perry's ship-yard, 383. Essex, the, captures the Alert, 367; cap- tured by the Phoebe and Cherub, 374. Estaing, Count d' (des-tan(g)'), sent to the United States in command of a French fleet, 337; aids in the attack on Savannah, 345. Ether, its application to surgery, 536. Europe, why its people turned to dis- covery, 5; what nations of Europe took part in the discoveries, 13: affairs in Europe, 31-5 (see Great Britain, France, Spain, Austria, Portugal); immigration from Europe after 1848, 613, 930. Eutaw (u'taw) Springs, battle of, 355. Everett (ev'er-et), Edward, nominated for Vice-President, 654. Exchange of prisoners during the Civil War, 799. Executive Department, its duties, 383; the succession in case of death or dis- ability, 909, 933. Exhibitions, World's, Crystal Palnce, 001; Centennial, 870; Southern, 915; Woi-ld's Fair, 938. Expense of wars, of Revolutionary War, 366: of the War of 1813, 410; of the Civil War, 735, 833, 863. Express companies, their origin, 503. Extradition of criminals, 518. Fairfield, Conn., scene of the Pequot defeat, 63. Fair Oaks, battle of, 716. Falmouth, Me., destroyed by the Brit- ish, 304. Farewell Address, 311 (see Appendix VI. . Farragut (far'«-gut). Admiral David G., fights his way up the Mississippi and takes New Orleans, 707-8; returns to the Gulf of Mexico, 710; destroys the Confederate fleet in Mobile Bay, 789. Fayetteville (fa-et'vll), N. C, settle- ment. 97; taken by Sherman, 803. Federal Convention, 380. Federal Government, established by the Constitution, 381 ; its three depart- ments, 383^; its inauguration, 397; its success, 304: its relations to the States, 485, 1002. , Federal Hall, 297. Federalist, the, 269. Federal Party, the, its origin, 286; its success, 304; its purposes, 305; suc- cessful in 1796, 313; its great mistake, 323; defeated in 1800, .334; the excel- lence of its work, 330; defeated in 1804, 837; defeated in 1808. 346: defealttd Federal Party— CoM^nwett. in 1812, 356: supports the Hartfoicl Convention, 391 ; becomes extinct, 413. Fenians, the, 838. Ferdinand, king of Spain, 9. Ferelo (fa-ra'lo), Spanish explorer, 16. Ferguson, Col. Patrick, in command of the British at King's Moimtain. 351. Filibusters, their attacks on Cuba and Central America, 608,609. Filibustering, 934. Fillmore, Millard, elected Vice-Presi pent, 579; biography, 583; succeeds to the Presidency, 593; nominated for President, 623. Fires, in New York, 457; in Chicago and Boston, 867. Fisheries, the Newfoundland, disputes as to them, 858. 923. Fishing Creek, skirmish at, 351. Fisk, C. B., nominated for President. 931. Fitch, John, attempts to propel vessels by steam, 313. Five Forks, battle of, 806. Flag, the, as it appeared at Cambridge, and its changes, 198; its first use on the ocean, 241. Flamboro' Head. 343. Florida, its discovery and exploration, 10; De Soto lands in it, 15; the south- ern boundary of the English colonies, 30; not an English colony until 1763, 37; then transferred by Spain to Great Britain, 157; British troops from Flor- ida attack Savannah, 345; transferred by Great Britain to Spain in 1783, 364; the Spanish governors aid the British in 1814, 400; Jackson seizes Pensacola, 418; Florida transferred to the United States by Spain, 418; admission and history, 525; secedes, 659; attacked by an expedition from Port Royal, 784; reconstructed and readmitted. 845; its electoral votes disputed in 1876, 883; its returning Board, 884 (see Appendix IV.). Florida, the, a Confederate privateer, 727,759; captured hy theWachusett,7QS. Foote, Commodore Andrev.- H., in com- mand of the W^estern fleet, 691. Forrest, Gen. N. B., a Confederate cav- alry officer, 788. Fort Brown, 546. Fort Dearborn, now Chicago, 430, 456. Fort Donelson, captured by Grant, 689, 693. Fort Duquesne (du kane), seized by the Frencn, i46; repels the British, 149; capttu-ed by the British. 151. Fort Erie, captured by the Americans, 393; repels the British, 395. Fort Fisher, its capture by Gen. Terry, 787. Fort Frontenac,now Kingston, Can., 151. Fort Qriswold (griz'wuld), massacre by Arnold, 360. Fort Henry, captured by gunboats, 689; its garrison escapes to Fort Donelson, PRONOUNCING INDEX. ' The references are to Sections, not to pages. 503 fort Hindman, captured by Sherman, 735. Fort Jackson, passed by Farragut, 706; surrenders, 709. Fort Leavenworth (lev'n-wurth), 554. Fort Loudoun (loo'dn), established by the British, 303. Fort McAllister, taken by Gen. Hazen, 783. Fort McHenry, repels the British, 388. Fort Meigs (megz), repels the British, 36L Fort Mims, scene of a massacre by the Creeks, 397. Fort Necessity, surrendered by Wash- ington, 147. Fort Niagara, captured by the British, 153. Fort Orange, now Albany, 121. Fort Pickens, saved from capture by the Confederates, 664. Fort Pillow, taken by the Confederates, 788. Fort Pulaski, taken by Gen. Gillmore, 705. Fort St. Philip, passedby Farragut, 706; surrenders, 709. Fort Schuyler, now Rome, N. Y., 221. Fort Stephenson, repulses the liritish, 361. Fort Sumter, held by the Union forces, 664; captiu-ed by the Confederates, 669; attacked by iron-clads, 748; bat- tered into ruins, 749. Fort Wagner, captured by Gen. Gill- more, 749. Fort Washington, captured by the Brit- ish, 210. Fortress Monroe, the southern end of the Union line in Virginia, 677. Forts Mercer and Mifflin, captured by the British, 218. Fort Wayne, Ind., 309. France, early discoveries in Canada, 12; early failures in attempts to colonize, 19; successful settlement, 20; events in France affecting emigration, 34; early French wars, 75; the French strongholds in Canada, 76; influence of the French over the Indians. 77; their claims in New York, 114; their explorations beyond Canada, 139; set tlement within the United States, 140- 1 ; their possessions in North America in 1750, 142; the weakness of their em- pire, 143; their efforts to keep the Eng- lish back beyond the Alleghanies, 145; they capture Fort DuQuesne. 146; and Fort Necessity, 147; France sends troops to America, 149; declares war against Great Britain. 150; loses Can- ada, 155; gives up all her American possessions in 1763, 157; secretly aids the colonies, 225; makes a treaty of alliance with the United States. 227; sends a fleet and army to America. 231, 2.58; sends a fleet to Chesa- peake Bay, 259; the Fresch forces aid in capturing Cor nwallis, 261-2; France France — Continued. becomes a republic, 306; demands aid from the United States, 307; acts in a most unfriendly manner, 320: is answered with war, 321; Napoleon concludes a peace, 322; sells Louisi- ana to the United States, 332; op- presses American commerce, 341-2; succeeds in bringing the United States into war with Great Britain, 349; in feriority of France to Great Britain in naval warfare, 370; France is con- quered and Napoleon banished, 399; pays for damages to American com- merce, 472; refuses to intervene in the Civil War, 728; establishes an empire in Mexico, 758; refuses to permit the building of Confederate iron-clads, 759; withdraws her troops from Mexi- co, 829; comparison of the French and American systems, 1011. Frankfort (frangk'furt), Ky., 302. Franklin, battle of, 779. Franklin, Benjamin, proposes a plan of union, 148; agent of Massachusetts at Louut defeated, 433; nominated again by the Democrats and elected, 445; biography, 448; change of manners during his Administrations, 449; his foreign policy, 472; liis political con- tests, 474; changes the civil service, 475; overthrows the Bank of the United States, 476-7; attacks the American System, 479; re-elected Pre- sident, 483; resists Nullification, 489; his general success, 493. Jackson, Gen. Thomas Jonathan (Stone- wall), biography, 711; his raid on Banks, 717; returns to the Peninsula, 718; overwhelms Pope, 719; captures Harper's Ferry, 720; aids in defeat- ing Burnside at Fredericksburgh, 722; killed at Chancellorsville, 729. Jackson, Miss., held by Johnston, 737- 8. Jacksonville, Fla., taken by the Union forces, 784. Jalapa (Hah-lah' pa), Mex., occupied by Scott, 564-5. James I., king, charters two coloniza- tion companies, 25; difficulties with his Parliament, 31. James II., king, his reign in England, 33; annoys the colonics, 35; takes away the charter of Massachusetts, 58; attempts to do so in the other New England colonies, 74. James River, the, why the name was given, .36; McClellan's campaign on the James. 713-18; Grant's campaign on the James, 708-70, 805. Jamestown, Va., settled, 26, 36, 80; de- stroyed. 86. Japan, opened to American commerce, 606. Jasper, Sergeant William, 204. Java, the, taken by the Constitution, 69. Jay, John, member of the Continental Congress, 194: concludes a treaty witjj Great Britaiu, 310. 508 PRONOUNCmo INDEX. 1^" The references are to Sections, not to pages. Jefferson, Thomas, member of the Con- tinental Congress, 194; author of the Declaration of Independence, 207; Secretary of State, 299; a leader of the Republican Party, 304; nominated for President, but defeated, 312; nomi- nated again and elected, 324; biogra- phy, 328; change of manners during his Administrations. 329-30; acquires Louisiana, 332; orders the Oregon country to be explored, 333 ; re-elected President, 337; death, 439. Jersey, the, a notorious prison-ship, 233. Joliuson, Andrew, Senator from Tennes- see, 663; military governor of Tennes- see, 693; elected Vice-President, 797; succeeds to the Presidency, 814; bi- ography, 826; his feeling in regard to the States, 835 ; his plan of recon- struction, 837; vetoes the plan of Con- gress, but is defeated, 844; quarrels with Congress, 848; removes Stanton, 849; is impeached, but not convicted, 851. Johnson, Herschel V., nominated for Vice-President, 654. Johnson, Richard M., nominated for Vice-President and elected, 493; re- nominated and defeated, 511. Johnson, Sir William, defeats the French and Indians near Lake George, 149. Johnston, Gen. Albert Sidney, in com- mand of the Confederate armies in the West, 689; killed at Shiloh, 694. Johnston, Gen. Joseph E., decides the battle of Bull Run, 681 ; in command of the Confederate army on the Penin- sula, 714; wounded and retires, 716; succeeds Bragg In the West, 735; tries to aid Pemberton, 737; is driven out of Jackson, '33; takes command at Dalton, 747; his position, 760; biogra- phy, 7i'3; his retreat from Dalton to Atlanta, 774; the reasons for it, 775; his removal, 776; recalled to service, 802; attacks Sherman, 803; surrenders, 808. Joliet (zho-le-a'), Louis, finds the Missis- sippi, 139. Jones, Capt. Jacob, in command of the Wasp. 369. Jones, Capt. John Paul, in command of the Ranger, 241; of the Richard. 243. Judiciary Department, its duties, 284. Julian, George W., nominated for Vice- President, 598. Kalb (kalb). Baron de, arrives from Eu- rope, 215; killed at Camden, 250. Kansas-Nebraska Act, its passage and consequences, 614. Kansas, becomes a Territory, 614; the two sections struggle for it, 618-19; the free-State settlers win, 620; admission and history, 631 ; influence of the Paci- , fie Railway, 865 (see Appendi> iV.j. Kaskaskia (kas-kas'ke-a), 111., a formei French town, 142. Kearney (kar'ni). Gen. S. W., conquers New Slexico, 554. Kearsarge (ke'ar-sarj), the, sinks the Alabama, 792. Kenesaw (ken-e-saw') Mountain, battle of, 774. Kennebec (ken-e-bek') River, the, early settlement, 38; route to Cauana, 201. Kent, James, a great American lawyer, 467. Kentucky, Boone's settlement, 160; fol- lowed by others, 236; the Territory belongs to Virginia, 273; admission, 300; history, 302; massacre of her troops, 360; sends men to defend New Orleans, 400; supports the Union, 674; Confederates in Kentucky, 689; they are driven out, 693; raided by Bragg, 696; by John Morgan, 741 (see Appendix IV.). Key, Francis S., writes the song "Star- Spangled Banner," 388. Key West, Fla., saved from the Confed- erates. 664. Kidd, Capt. Robert, a New York pirate, 118. Kieft (keeft). Sir William, governor of New York, 113. King, Rufus, nominated for Vice-Presi- dent, 337, 346; for President, 414. King's Mountain, battle of, 251. Kingston, Can., taken from the French by the British, 151. Kingston, N. Y., 121. Kingston, R. I., scene of the swamp fight, 73. King, W. R., nominated for Vice-Presi- dent, 598. Klondike, gold-fields, the, 985. Knox, Gen. Henry, Sec. of War, 299. Knoxville, Tenn., settlement, 303; be- sieged by the Confederates, 744, 747. "Know Nothings," 612. Kosciusko (kossi-us'ko), Thaddeus, ar- rives from Europe, 215. Koszta (kos' ta), Martin, the case of, 605. Ku Klux Han, 877. Labrador (lab-ra-dore'). 11, 21. Lafayette (lah-fa-ef), Ind., 350. La Fayette, Marquis de, arrives from Europe, 215; attacks Newport, 231; fights Arnold and Phillips, 253; pre- vents Cornwallis from escaping, 259; revisits the United States, 428. Lancaster (langk'as-ter), Pa., 218. Land Companies, 144, 293. Lane, Joseph, nom. for Vice-Pres., 654. La Salle (lah salil), Robert de, 139. Laurens, Henry, 194. Lava Beds, 630, 868. Lawrence, Capt. J., in command of the Hornet, 371; of the Chesax>eahe, 373. Lawrence, the, Perry's flag-ship, 383. Lawience, the river St., 13, 19, 364. PRONOUNCING INDEX. H^" The references are to Sections, not to pages. 509 Laws of tlie United States, under the Constitution, 28] ; by whom made, 282; by wliom executed, 283: by whom in- terpreted, 284; laws passed by Con- gress, 301 (see Congress); how affected by the veto, 478; by the question of slavery, 524. Lead, at Galena, 420; in Missouri, 423; in Iowa, ,'j28, 543; in Wisconsin, 543; in the United States, 952. Leavenworth (lev'n-wurth), Kan., 554. Lee, Arthur, ajjent in France, 225. Lee, Gen. Charley 210, 229. Lee, Gen. R. E , in West Virginia, 678; takes conunand of the Confederate Army, 714; seven days' battle, 718; .i lins .Jackson, 719; invades the North, 720; at Antietam, 721 ; defeats Burn- side, 722 ; defeats Union Army at Chancellorsville, 729; second invasion of the North, 730; defeated at Gettys- burg, 732-3; flglits Wilderness battles, 7fi6; forced back on Richmond, 767- 770; retreats from Richmon4, 806; surrenders at Appnmattox. 807. Legal Tender, meaning of, 725. Legislative department, 282. Leisler (lise'ler), Jacob, 117. Leon, Ponce de (pone'tha da. hVone), 10. Leopard, the, insults the Chesapeake, 342. Levant (le-vanf), the, captured by the Constitution, 376. Lewes (lu'ess), Del., destroyed, 385. Lexington, Ky., settlement, 302. Lexington, Mass., fight at, 184. Liberal Republicans, why they left the Republican Party, 880; are joined by the Democrats and defeated, 881. Liliuokalani, 943. Lincoln, Abraham, nominated for Pres- ident. 654; elected, 655; biography, 667; his disadvantages, 668; orders Fort Sumter to be provisioned. 669; calls for volunteers, 670; proclaims a blockade of Southern ports, 673; calls a special session of Congress, 680; begins the appointment of mili- tary governors, 693; issues the Emancipation Proclamation, 724; pro- claims a day of thanksgiving for Union victories, 7.52; re-elected Pres- ident, 797; the public estimation of him, 811; his assassination and death, 812; his funeral, 813. Lincoln, Gen. Benjamin, in command of the American forces in South Car- olina, 245; surrenders at Charleston, 248; receives the surrender of the British at Yorktown, 262. Literature, in 1775, 190; from 1790 until 1830, 465; after 1830, 466; in its matu- rity, 637. Littie Belt, the, beaten by the Presi- dent, .349. Lisbon (liz'bun), 794. Livingston, Robert, member of the Con- tinental Congress, 807. Locke, John, an English philosopher, 95. Locomotive engine, Trevithick's and Stephenson's locomotives, 436; the new machine introduced into the United States, 449; Americans make their own locomotives, 450 (see Rail- ways) ; possible use of electricity, 893. Logan, Jonn A., 917. Lome, De, letter, 968. London Company, the, chartered, 25; sends out colonists, 36; colonies form- ed from its territory, 37; loses its charter. 37, 84. London, Eng., 25, 202. Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, an American poet, 466. Long Island, battle of, 210. Long Island, N.Y., claimed by Connec- ticut, but taken by New York, 114; held by the British, 232. Longstreet, Gen. James, in command of the Confederate forces at Knox- ville, 747. Lookout Mountain, battle of, 744, 746. Lords, House of, 31. Los Angeles (los ahng'Ha-lez), Cal., the last battle with the Mexicans in California, .553; terminus of the Southern Pacific Railroad, 866. Louisburgh (loo'is-bm-g), a French stronghold on Cape Breton Island, 76; taken by the British, 151. Louisiana, State of, admission and his- tory, 406; secedes, 659: operations in the State, 706-10, 7.34, 739, 785; recon- structed and readmitted, 845; dis- orders in the State, 875; electoral votes disputed, 883; the Returning Board, 884; the decision, 887 (see Ap- pendix IV.). Louisiana territory, its original exrem;, 138; so named by I-a Salle, 139; grant- ed to a French company, 141 ; Franco surrenders that portion east of the Mississippi to Great Britain, and it loses the name Louisiana, 157; France transfers the portion west of the Mississippi to Spain, and it keeps the name Louisiana, 158; Spain's terri- tory of Louisiana becomes the western boilndary of the United States, 264; transferred by Spain to France in 1800, 332; by France to the United States in 1803, 332; attacked without success by Great Britain, 399; slavery in Louisiana, 424 ; the territory divid- ed by the Missouri Compromise line, 426 (see Compromise, Missouri); did not cover the Oregon country, 520; or Texas, 521. Louisville, Ky., settlement and growth, 302 (see Appendix V ). Lovejoy. E. P., killed by a mob at Al- ton, 505. Lowell (lo'el), Mass., growth, 457 (see Appendix v.). Lowell, James BusselJ, his literary work, 637 510 PRONOUNCING INDEX. ' The references are to Sections, not to pages. Lucifer-match, not known in 1790, 289; its invention, 455. Lumber, in Michigan, 462; in Wiscon- sin, 543. Lundy's Lane, battle of, 394. Lyncliburgh (linch'burg), Va., attacked unsuccessfully from the Shenandoah valley, 765; cut off from Richmond by Sheridan, 805 ; Lee tries to reach it. 807. Lynn (lin), Mass., settlement, 53. Lyon, Gen. Nathaniel, in command of the Union forces in Missouri, 684. Macdonough, Commodore Thomas, in command of the American fleet on Lake Champlain, 383. Macedonian, the, taken by the United States, 369. Mackinaw (mak'in-aw), Mich., a^i early French fort, 143. Macon (ma'kon), Ga., 799. Madeira (ma-dee'ra), 369. Madison, James, one of the leaders in forming the Constitution, 379; elected President, 346; biography, 348; re- elected, 356. Magellan (ma-jel'lan), Fernando, dis- covers tlie way around South Ameri- ca, from Europe to the East Indies, 33. Maine, its Indian names, 3; sighted by Cortereal, 13; attempt to settle it, 38; forms part of the Plymouth Com- pany's grant, 39: becomes a part of Massachusetts, 58; a large part of it conquered by the British in 1814-1.5, 386; admission and history. 433; boundary dispute, 509 ; settled by treaty, 519 (see Appendix IV.). Maine Law, the, 597. Maine, the. blown U)), 969. Malvern (mawl'vein) Hill), 718. Manassas (ma-nas'sas) Junction, Va., 681, 714. Manhattan (man-hat'tan) Island, bought by the Dutch, 28. Manila Bay, battle of, 973. Manufactures, begun in New England, 79; efforts of Parliament to prohibit them, 71, 166; encouragement of nian- ufactures by the colonies, 189; in- fluence of the patent system, 313 (see Patents); decline of manufactures after 1815, 409; in order to revive them. Congress turns to Protection, 433 (see Protection); rise of manufacturing cities, 457, 634: manufactures in the United States^ 976, Marietta (ma-re-et'ta), O., settlement, 293, 334. Marion (ma'ri-un), Gen. Francis, 249. Marque (mark), letters of, 673. Marquesas (mar-ka-sas') Islands, 374. Marquette, Jacques (zhahk mar-kef), finds the Mississippi, 139. Marshall, John, a great lawyer and judge, 467. Maryland, part of the London Com- pany's graut, 37; a proprietary col- Maryland — Continued. ony, 43; its first proprietor and name, 89; settlement, 90; forces the transfer of the western territory to the United States, 371,374; one of tlie "small'' States in 1787, 280; holds to the Union, 674; operations in Maryland, 720, 730 (see Appendix IV.). Mason and Dixon's Line, 91. Mason, John, proprietor of New Hamp- shire, 59. Massachusetts, its Indian names, 3; the remnant of the Plymouth Company's grant, 37; originally two colonies, 39; a charter colony, 43; settlement of the Plymouth colony, 49; its leaders, 51; settlement of the Massachusetts Bay colony, 52; its leaders, 54; reli- gious persecution, .55-6; witchcraft,57; union of the two colonies, 58; takes part in the war against Philip, 73; loses the charter. 58, 74; captures Port Royal, 76; proposes the Stamp A^ Congress, 169; resists commercial taxation, 172; resistance ceases to be peaceable, 174; Parliament declares the Massachusetts people rebels, 175; and attempts to alter the charter, 178; Congress jsromises to support Massa- chusetts, 180; state of the colony in 1775, 183; the Massachusetts people fight the British. 184-5; and besiege Boston, 186; stands second in popula- tion in 1775 8Dd seventh in 1880, 187; operations in Massachusetts, 195-9; Massachusetts claims western terri- tory, 372; cedes it to the United States, 275; rebellion in, 277; consents to the separation of Maine, 423; introduces the normal-school system, for train- ing public-school teachers, 463 (see Appendix IV.). Matamoras (mat-a-mo'ras), Mex., 549, 557. Mather (math'er). Cotton, a Massa- chusetts minister, 57. Mauch Chunk (mawk clnuik). Pa., 436. Maximilian, made emperor of Mexico, 758; taken and shot by the Mexicans, 829. Mayfloicer, the, 49. Maysville, Ky., settlement, 302. McClellan, Gen. George B., enters West Virginia, 678; biography, 679; called to command the Armyof the Potomac, 682; transfers theArmy of the Potomac to the Peninsula, 713; "takes Yorktown and tries to make a junction with McDowell, 715; the army is divided by the Chickahominy, 716; McClellan loses connection with McDowell, 717; fights the Seven Days' Battles and reaches the James River, 718; re- called to aid Pope, 719; leads his armj across Maryland to cover Baltimore, 720; fights the battle of Antietani, and is succeeded by Burnside, 721; nominated for President, but defeat- ed. 79?. PRONOUNCINO INDEX. t^ The references are to Sections, not to pages. 511 McClure, Capt. R. J. M., S2. MoDuwell, Gen. Irvin, in command at Bull Run, 681- covering Washington, 715; cut off from McClellan, 717. McKiuley Tariff Bill, 93.5. McKinley, Wm., elected President, 957; causes of his election, 8(i0; his Cuban policy, 967; asks authority from Con- gress to intervene, 970; Philippine pol- icy, 993; appoints Porto Rican Com- mission, 995; re-elected, 998. Meade, Gen. George G., in command at Gettysburgh, 7.31-2. Mechanicsvilie, battle of, 718. Mediation of Russia, 403; of Great Bri- tain, 472. Memphis, Tenn., location, 303; visited by yellow-fever, 897. Meridian (me-rld'i-an). Miss., occupied by Sherman, 76a, 788. Merrimac, the. turned into a Confede- rate iron-clad, 701; destroys the Union fleet in Hampton Roads, 70-.^; fights the Monitor. 703; results of the battle, 704; destruction of Merrimac, 715. Merritt, Gen. W., at Manila, 973. Mexico, its Indian empire, 2; Spanish adventure in it. 8; conquered by the Spaniards in 1521, 15; perhaps aimed at by Burr, 338; rebels against Spain and becomes an independent repub- lic, 532; claims Texas, 545; claims the Nueces River as the western bound- ary of Texas, 546 ; her disadvantages in war, 549; war declared, 550; loses California, 553; and New Mexico, 554; Taylor's operations, 557-60; Scott's operations, 561-70; peace concluded, 572-3; Maximilian becomes emperor, 7.58; shot by the Mexicans, 839. Michigan, claimed by Virginia. 37-^; cov- ered by the Ordinance of 1787, 394; sur- rendered bj' Hull, 3,57; reconquereil by Harrison, 363; made a Territory, 408; admission and history, 463; copper in, .539 (see Appendix IV.). Milan (mi-lau') Decree, the, 341. Miles, Ma.ior-Gen. N. A., 975, 991. Militia, in the Revolutionary armies, 266; power of Congress over, 282 ; em- ployed in the Whiskey Insurrection, :-i08; against the "Anti-renters," 531. Mill, the Old, at Newport, 4. Milledgeville, Ga., 781. Millen, Ga , 781. Miller, Col. James, 394. Mill Spring, battle of, 690. Milwaukee (mil-waw'kee). Wis., not on the map in 1835, 458; location, 543; growth, 634 (see Appendix V.). Minerals, mineral wealth of Tennessee, 303; of Missouri, 423; of the United States, 528, 1005; of the South. 915. Minneapolis (mln-neap'o-lis), Minn., not on the map in 1835, 458; location and growth, 639; terminus or the Nortii- ern Pacific Railroad, 866. Minnesota, part of the Lom'siaiia pur- chase, 332; admission and history. Minnesota — Continued. 629; Sioux war in, 728 (see Appendix: IV.). Mint, the, established, 301; first coins issued, 313. Minuit (min'u-it), Peter, governor of New Netherland, 29; of Delaware, 113. Minute-men, in Massachusetts, 183; in the Revolutionary armies, 266. Missionary Ridge, battle of, 746. Mississippi, claimed by Georgia, 272; ceded to the United States, 275; made a Territory, 335; part of the South- west Territory, 396 ; admission and history, 419; secedes, 659; opera- tions in, 695, 698, 734-8, 763, 788,801; refuses the first terms of reconstruc- tion, 845; electoral votes not receiv- ed in 1868, 852; reconstructed and re- admitted, 871; disorders in, 875 (see Appendix IV,). Blississippi River, the, crossed by De Soto. 15; upper part found by Mar- quette and Joliet. 139; its mouth found by d'Iberville, 141; becomes the boundary between Spanish Louis- iana and the British colonie.s, 157-8; some of the States claim to extend west to the Mississippi, 272; treaty with Spain as to its use. 316; steam- boat used on it, 408, 456; Indians re- moved beyond it, 437; fortified by the Confederates, 676; opened up as far south as Memphis, 695; gunboat op- erations on it, 700; opened up throughout, except at Vicksburgh and Port Hudson. 710; the completion of the work falls to Grant, 7.34; he oper- ates at first on the west side of the river. 736; afterward on the east side, 737; Vicksburgh and Port Hudson surrender and the river is opened, 738-9; results, 752, 753; surrender of the Confederate forces west of the river, 809; dilficulties in its navi- gation, 898, 912. Missouri, part of the Louisiana pur- chase, 332; admission and history, 423; manner of its admission. 426; State officers secessionists, 674 ; oper- ations in Missouri, 684, 686, 699 (see Appendix IV.). Missouri Compromise. See Compro- mise, Missouri. Mobile (mo-beeP), Ala., originally an Indian town, 15; settled by the French, 141; location and importance, 421 ; one of the last Confederate ports, 783 ; how Farragut forced his way into the bay, 789; surrender of the city, 801 . Modoc War, the, 868. Mohawk River, the, 220. Mohawks, an Indian tribe, 3. Molino del Rey (mo-le'no del ra), battle of. 569. Money or Currency, tobacco, 82; rice, 102; paper, 234, 735; coin, 283; State paper, 287; lack of money in 1812, 355. 512 PMONOUNCING INDEX. tW The references are to Sections, not to paees. Monitor, the, built by Ericsson, 701 ; her battle with the Merriniac. 703; its ef- fects on naval construction, 704. Monk's Corner, battle of, 248. Monmouth (mon'muth). battle of, 229. Monongahfla (mo-uon-ga-he'lu) River, the, 145, 944. Monroe Doctrine, the, its announce- ment, 427; violation by France, 758; the United States again enforces it, «29, 953, Monroe (mun-ro'), James, elected Presi- dent, 414; biography, 416; re-elected, 417. Montana, 927. Montcalm (mont-kahm'), Marquis de, in command of the French forces in Canada, 150 ; defends Ticonderoga, 151 ; draws all his forces to defend Quebec, 153; defeat and death, 154. Monterey (mon-te-ra'), Cal., 553. Monterey, Mex., occupied by Taylor, 557. Montgomery, Ala., location, 421 ; capital of the Confederate States, 660; capital changed to Richmond, G76. Montgomery, Gen. Richard, killed at Quebec, 201. Montreal imont-re-awl'), a French town, 76, 142; taken by the English, 155; taken and lost by the Americans, 201 ; an object of American attack, 358. Monts (mawn(g)), de, a successful French colonizer, 20. Morgan, Gen. Daniel, in command of the Americana at the Cowpens, 253. Morgan, John, a Confederate cavalry officer, 741. Morgan, William, his abduction and Its consequences, 482. Mormons, the, tlieir origin and settle- ment in Illinois, 507; remove to Utah, 628; still resist the laws against polyg- amy, 913; renounce polygamy, 941,954. Morris, Robert, a member of tlie Conti- nental Congress, 194. Morristown, N. J., the American head- quarters during the latter part of the Revolution, 213. 230, 240. [527. Morse, S.F.B., and the electric telegraph, Morton, Levi P., elected Vice-Presi- dent, 931. [536. Morton, Dr. W. T. G.. and anaesthetics, Motley, John Lothrop, his literary work, 637. Moultrie (mole'tri), William, defends Charleston against the British, 204. Mound-builders, the, a race which pre- ceded the Indians, 2, 529. Mount Hope, R. I., King Philip's head- quarters, 73. Mount Vernon,Va., Washington's home, 296, 811, 326. Murfreesboro (mur-freez-bur'ro), battle of, 697. Napolbon Bonaparte. See France. Narragansett (nar-ra-gan'set),an Indian name, 3. Narvaez (nar-vah'eth), a Spanish ex- plorer, 10. Nashville, battle of, 779. Nashville, Tenn., settlement, 303; taken by the Union forces, 693. Natchez (nach'ez). Miss., a forzner French post. 143 ; Burr arrested there, 338; in the Southwest Territory, 396; Tennessee volunteers marched thith- er. 397. National Banks, their superiority to the old State banks, 496; institution of the system 725. National Party. See Greenback Party. National Republicans, 444, 480 (see Whig Party). National Road, appropriations for it,431. Naturalization, position of the United States, 604. Nautilus, the, taken by the Peacock aft6r the treaty of peace, and restored to the British, 376. Nauvoo, 111., the Mormon settlement, 507. Naval School, the, established at Annap- olis, 538. Navigation Acts, the, their passage and purpose, 71 ; aimed particularly at Vu*- ginia, 84; the Board of Trade tries to enforce tiiem, 135; they are evaded or disobeyed, 101, 166; why the colonies submitted to them, 171; violent at- tempts to enforce them, 189. Navy, the, the privateer navy of the colonies in 1763, 156; Congress at- tempts to form one, 194; successes of the vessels built, 241; the poverty of Congress defeats the attempt, 342; purchase of vessels in France, 243; under the Constitution, Congress regu- lates the navy, 282; and the President is its commander-in-chief, 283; the poverty of the United States still in- terferes with its navy, 314; France forces Congress to increase the navy, 321 ; its success, 321 : the navy chastises the Barbary States, 339, 340; why the Republicans did not favor a navy, 343; the navy in 1812. 352; very little ex- pected from it, 366; its brilliant suc- cesses, 367-378; their effects, 370; the lake navies and their success, 379-383; first attempts to use torpedoes and steam-vessels, 385; subsequent effects of the naval successes, 404; the navy brings the Barbary States to a lasting peace, 412; change of the navy by the introduction of steam war-vessels, 454; a naval force occupies Charleston harlior, 489; the navy occupies the Pacific coast of Mexico. 553; and the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, 563; rescues Koszta, 605; opens up Japan, 606; bombards Greytown. 607; its offi- cers generally hold to the Union in 1861. 663; attempts to provision Fort Sumter. 669; blockades the Southern ports, 673; captures the forts at Hat- teras Inlet, Port Royal, and Shiplsl' I PRONOUNCING INDEX. l^" The references are to Sections, not to pages. 513 Uavy — Continued. and, 685; takes Mason and Slidell, 687; a Western river navy formed, TOO; the wooden vessels give way to iron- clads, 704 ; the navy captures Roanoke Island, 705; forces its way up the Mis- sissippi, 707-8; taljes New Orleans, 709; controls the James River. 715; pursues Confederate privateers, 7S7 ; runs the Vicksburgh batteries and ferries Grant's army fiver the Mississippi, 737; attacks Fort Sumter without suc- cess, 748; captures the Atlanta. 750; blows up the Albemarle, 786; joins in the attacks on Fort Fisher, 787; de- stroys the Confederate fleet at Mo- bile, 789; takes the Alabama, 79d; the Florida, 793; and the Georgia, 794; size of the navy during the Civil War, 821; in 1889, 9S2. 937. Nebraska, part of the Louisiana pur- chase, 332; admission and history, 833; influenced by the Pacific Rail- roads, 866 (see Appendix IV.). Nevada (ne-vah'da), part of the Mexi- can cession, 574; silver discovered in it, 635; admission and history, 800; in- fluence of its silver production on tne business of the world, 899 (see Ap- pendix IV.). New Albion, Drake's name for vi^estern North America, 16. New Amsterdam, the Dutch name for New York l^ity, 28. Newark, N. J., settlement, 123 (see Ap- pendix V.). New Berne. N. C, settlement, 97. New Brunswick, N. J., Washington re- treats through it, 21 1 ; becomes the British headquarters, 214. New Brunswick, province of, boundary dispute with Maine, .509. New England, when the name was giv- en, 38; its colonies, 39 (see Massachu- setts, New Hampshire, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Vermont, Maine); the religious feeling of its people, .55; their dealings with the Quakers, 56; the New England Union, 70; their commercial difQculties (see Navigation Acts); with the Indians, 72-3; with Andros, 74; with the French, 75-7; growth and character, 78-9; their flrst colleges, 161 ; its colonies join in the siege of Boston, 186; slavery decays in it, 191; military operations in it during the Revolution, 19.5-9, 204, 208, 215, 221. 231, 244, 246, 260; holds to the Federal Party, 330; dissatisfaction with the Embargo, 344; and with the War of 1812, 355: its coast blockaded, 384; part of it taken by the British, 386; the Hartford Convention. 390-1 ; dislike to the Mexican War, 551. Newfoundland (nu'fund-land), its fish- eries, 11, 12; Gilbert visits it, 21; Cal- vert tries to colonize it, 89; the right to the fisheries secured to Americans, 264; disputes arbiti:ated, 830, 924. New Hampshire (hamp'shur), part of the Plymouth Company's grant, 39; a royal colony, 44; assigned to John Mason, 59; history, 60; one of the " small " States in 17'87, 280; the ninth State to ratify the Constitution, 287 (see AppendixIV.). New Haven (havu). Conn., at flrst a separate colony, 39; settlement, 64; joined to Connecticut, 65 ; plundered by the British, 246 (see Appendix V.). New Jeisey, part of the Dutch terri- tory, 28; taken froBi the Dutch by the English, 113; becomes a royal colony, 122; settlement and history, 123-4; Washington retreats through it, 211; the British occupy a part of it, 214; the British retreat across it, 229; send plundering expeditions into it, 232; one of the " small " States in 1787, 280 (see Appendix IV.). New Jersey, College of, 124. New London, Conn., attacked by Ar- nold. 260. New Madrid (mad'rid). Mo., 700. New Mexico, explored by the Spaniards, 14; taken from Mexico, 554; part of it claimed by Texas, 586; organized as a Terrify, 589; applies for admission, 941. New Netherlands, settled by the Dutch, 28; taken by theEnglish, 113. New Oi'leaus (or'le-auz). La., settled by the French, 141 (see Louisiana); a Spanish city in 1795, .316; the British expedition against it, 396; the city fortified, 400; the expedition defeated, 401-2; growth of the city. 406; impor- tance of the city to the Confederates, 706; surrender to Farragut. 709; the yellow-fever epidemic, 897; exposi- tion, 915 (see Appendix V.); mob, 943. Newport, Capt. Christopher, an agent of the London Company. 36. Newport, R. L, the Old Mill, 4; settle- ment, 66; taken by the British. 215; at- tacked bv the Americans and Fi'ench, 231; held' by the British, 232; evacu- ated by the British, 248; arrival of a French army, 258. Newspapers, in 1760, 161; in 1775, 190; in 1790, 290; the flrst in the Northwest, 315; changes about 1835, 464; improve- ments in printing and news-collecting, 537; in 1860. 637; in 1890, 1012. New York City, settled by the Dutch, 28; the negro plot, 119; growth of the city, 120; meeting of the Stamp Act Congress. 169; Washington arrives at, 209; taken by the British, 210; part of the British leave it for Philadelphia, 216; return to it, 229; held by the Brit- ish for the rest of the war, 230; evac- uated by them, 205: the city in 1787, 289; inauguration of the new govern- ment, 297; ceases to be the capital, 301; fear of an attack on the city, 385; the "great fire," and the Croton Aqueduct, 457; W^^irld's Fair, 601; the Clearing-house, 602; the Brooklyn 514 PRONOUNCING INDEX. ' The references are to Sections, not to pages. New York City — Continued. Bridge, 603; tlie Central Park and As- tor Library. 640; the draft riots, 756; the elevated railroads, 894 (see Appen- dix v.). New York State, settled by the Dutch as New Netherlands, 28; conquered by the English, 40, 113; a royal colony, 44; its name changed to New "Vork, 113; size of the colony, 114; reconquered by Holland, but given back, 115; the patroon system, 116; history under the English, 117-121; the French driven out of northwestern New York, 151 ; iefuses to obey Parliament, 170; Par- liament attempts to punish it, 172; the road into Canada, 200; the Tories in New York, 208; Burgoyne's expedi- tion, 219-223; the whole State, except New York City and part of Long Isl- and, held by the Americans for the rest of the war, 230; the western boundary, 272; cession of the western claims, 375; a " small State " in 1787, 280; ratifies the Constitution, 287; the State in 1790, 292; in 1812, 354; military operations in the Stale, 363-5, 381, 383, 392; western New York after the war, 408; the Erie Canal, 430; at- tempt to aid the rebellion in Canada, 508; the "anti-rent " disturbances, 531; the electoral vote of the State in 1844, 532; in 1848, 579; its electoral vote in 1884 and 1888, 917, 931 (see Ap- pendix IV.). Nez Percys (na pare'saz), an Indian tribe, 895. Niagara, the, Perry's new flag-ship, 382. Niagara, the, captures the Georgia, 794. Nicaragua, 23. Nichols (nik'uls). Col. Richard, first English governor of New York, 113. Non-Intercourse Act, the, takes the place of the Embargo, 345; revived against Great Britain, 349. Norfolk (nor'fuk), Va , attacked by the British, 204, 246, the southern end of the Confederate line, 676; a Con- federate navy yard, 701, 715. Noi-mal-sehools, their institution, 463. Norristown, Pa., 218. North Carolina, possibly sighted by Ca- bot, 11; Raleigh's attempts to colonize, 23; part of the London Company's grant, 37; a royal colony, 44, 96 (see Carolina); settlement of North Caro- lina, 97; its government. 98; manner of Ufe of its people, 100; military operations in it during the Revolu- tion, 251, 252, 254; western claims, 272, 303; ceded to the United States. 275; refuses at first to ratify the Constitu- tion, 287; ratifies it in 1790, 300; secedes, 674; one of the Confederate States, 676; military operations in, 685, 705, 786, 787, 802-3, 808; reconstructed and readmitted, 845 (see Appendix IV,). North Dakota, 9^5. North Point, battle of, 388. Northmen, the, 4. Northwest Passage, the, anxiety of our forefathers to find it, 22; what has taken its place, 864. Northwest Territory, the, claimed by Virginia for herself, 273; by the other States for the United States, 271; ceded to the United States, 275; unset- tled in 1786, 292; settlement begun by land companies, 293; Congress ar- ranges a government for it, 294; the Indian title got rid of, 309: the British possession abandoned, 310; the In- dians defeated, 350; its population in 1812, 353; roads, 3.54; the whole Terri- tory surrendered by Hull, 357; re- gained by the Americans, 362. Norwalk (nor'wak). Conn., attacked by the British, 215, 246. Norway, 4. Nova Scotia, settled by the French, 20 (see Acadia); taken and held by the English. 75,76, 149; a refuge for the Tories, 267. Nueces (noo-a'sez) River, the, 546. Nullification, 486-9. Ocean steamers, one crosses the Atlan- tic in 1819, 335; no more until 1838, 454. Ocean telegraph, first failure, 641 ; final success, 830. Office-holders, Federal, dischai-ged un- der Jackson for not belonging to the successful party, 475; the Tenure of Office Act. 849; the natural results of the system, 879; reforms in it, 910. Ogdensburgh,_N. Y , 142, 364. Ogeechee (o-ge'che) River, the, 781. Oglethorpe (o'gl-thorp),C4en. James, the founder of Georgia. 107; death, 110. Ohio, claimed by Virginia. 273; settle- ment. 292, 315; under the Ordinance of 1787, 294; the Indian title got rid of, 309; growth of the State. 314; difficul- ties of early settlement in it, 315; ad- mission and history, 334 (see Appendix IV.). Ohio Company, of 1750, 141; of 1787, 293. Oil. See Petroleum Okechobee (o-ke-cho'be), battle of, 471. "Old Dominion," the, a name for Vir- ginia, 84. Oklahoma, 941. "Old Hickory," a name for Jackson, 448. " Old Ironsides," a name for the Consti- tution. 367. Oliver, Andrew, 172. Oliiey, Richard, 955. Olustee (o-lus'te), battle of. 784. Omaha (o'ma-haw), Neb., 864. Omnibus Bill, the, 588. Oueidas (o-ni'doz), an Indian tribe, 3. Onondagas (o-non-daw'gaz), an Indian tribe, 3. Orders in Council, adopted, 341; not openly surrendered by the treaty of Gheot, 404. PRONOriNClNQ INDEX. 515 E^ The references are to Sections, not to pages. drdinance of 1787, the, 294. Oregon (or'e-gon) (see Oreg:on Country), admission and history, 630; influenced by the Pacinc railroads, 865; Indian war in it, 868 (see Appendix IV.). Oregon Country, the, explored by Lewis and Clarke, 33:3; Americans begin to settle in it, 519; Great Britain claims it, 520; the claim compromised, 544. Orinoco (o-ri-no'ko) River, the, 9. Oriskany (o-ris'ka-ni), battle of, 221. Osceola (os-e-o'lo), a chief, 471. Ossabavv Souud, 782. Ostend (os-tend') Circular, the, 610. ('tis, Gen. E. S., 992. Otis (o'tis), James, a Massachusetts or- ator, 168; becomes insane, 172. Pacific Railro.\ds, Congress orders surveys in 1853, 596; the work on the Central begun in 1862 and finished in 1869, 864; the Northern and Southern Pacific, 866; effects of the system on the Pacific coast. 590; on Kansas, 631; on the States of the West, 865; scandals connected with it, 879; sale of, 982. Packenham (pak'n-om). Sir Edward, in command of the British expedition against New Orleans, 401; defeated and killed, 402. Paine (pane), Thomas, 205. Palmer, Gen. John M., nominated for President, 957. Pali> Alto (pah'lo ahl'to), battle of, 548. Palos (pah'los), Columbus's point of de- parture, 7. Panama (pan-a-mah') Canal, 924. Panic, meaning of the term, 497; the panic of 1837, 498; of 1857, 627: of 1873, 862, 879,891; of 1893,947. Paper Money or Currency, danger 'of excessive issues, 2.34; excessive issues by the Continental Congress, 234,236; State paper, 287; State banks, 496; re- sults of their issues, 497; paper in the Civil War, 725; in the Confederacy, 753, 795; in the North and West, 754; demands of the Greenback Party, 882; abandonment of an exclusively paper currency, 902. Parliament, the governing body of Eng- land, 31 ; abolishes the monarchy for a time, 46; defects of its membership, 163; claims the right to tax the colo- nies, 164; gives no representation to the colonies, 165; its regulation of the colonies, 166; passes the Stamp Act, 167; repeals it, 170; still refuses repre- sentation to the colonies, 171 ; lays a commercial tax on the colonies, 172; provoked with the resistance to it, 175; reduces the tax to a tea tax, 176; tries to punish resistance, 178; war between Parliament and Congress, 193: pro- poses conciliation, 20.3: not mentioned in the Declaration of Independence, 207; offers reuresentation to the colo- nies, •^Z6\ ciunpels the king to make peace with the United States, 263. Parties, formation of parties in 1787, 286, only one party left in 1789, 304; first great change in party conti-ol of the government, 329; only one party left in 1S16, 413, 4-33; it begins to split, 440; divides into two parties, 444; party excitement under Jackson, 474; party changes about 1850, 594; re-formation of parties, 616; the parties in 1860, 654; on the war, 797; on reconstruction, 852; on support of reconstructed gov ernments, 881 ; decadence of party dif- ferences, 882; on Free Trade and Pro- tection, 917, 929, 045; on Silver, see party names: Democratic, Republican, Federalist,Wbig, National Republican, Liberty, Free-Soil, American, Liberal Repubiican, Greeiil a -k. People's Patents, issue of, 313; tlieii- effect on invention, 336; on the wealth of the country, 636. Paterson, N. J., growth from manufac- tures, 4.57 (see Appendix V.). Patriot War, the, in Canada, 508. Patroons, the system introduced by the Dutch. 116; its effects in the Revolu- tion, 208; end of the system, 531. Peacock, the, an English war-vessel, sunk by the Hornet, 371 ; an American war-vessel, takes the Epervier, 375; and the Nautilus, 376. Pea Ridge, battle of, 699. Peekskill, N. Y., the end of Washing- ton's retreat from New York, 210; Lee left in charge of it, 211 ; too strong for the British, 219; Washington holds it throughout the war, 2.30. Peel, Sir Robert, and the police, 640. Pelican, the, takes the Argus, 373. Pemberton, Gen. J. C, in command at Vicksburgh, 735 ; sm-renders to Grant, 738. Pendleton, George H., nominated for Vice-President. 797. Penguin, the, taken by the Hornet, 376. Peninsular Campaign, the, 715-18. Penitentiaries, a reform in the punish- ment of criminals, 469. Penn, William, obtains a grant of lan(i for a colony, 125; comes to America and settles Philadelphia, 127; settles the government, 128; connection ol his family with the colony and State, 129. Pennsylvania, soil conquered from ths Dutch, 40; a proprietary colony, 43j granted to Penn. 125; settlement of the colony, 127; the government set- tled, 128; growth of the colony, 131; Braddock's march throtigh the colony, 149; militaiy operations during the Revolution, 211, 217-18,233; insurrec- tion in the western part of the State 308; coal, 292. 336; railroads, 436; iron, 292, 528; military operations during the Civil War, 730-2; railroad riots, 896, 944 (see Appendix IV.). Penn.sylvania Hall, destroyed by a mob, 505. 516 pRONouNcma index. V^" The references are to Sections, not to pages. Pennsylvania, University of, founded, 130. Pensacola (pen-sa-ko' la), Fla., seized by Jackson, 400, 418; fort saved. 664. Pensions, to Revolutionary soldiers, 235; to Union soldiers, 8-'3; amount of, 823; vetoes, 919; Dependent Pension Bill, 937. "People's Party," 917, 95?. Peoria (pe-o'ri-a). 111., a French post, 142; taken by the Americans, 362; lo- cation and growth, 420. Peorias, an Indian tribe, 3. Pequots (pe'kwotz), a Connecticut tribe of Indians, 63. Perry, Commodore M. C, opens up Ja- pan, 606. Perry, Commodore O. H., captures a British fleet off Sandusky, on Lake Erie, 382. Perryville, battle of, 696. Perth Amboy, N. J., settlement of, 123. Peru (pe-roo'), an Indian empire, 2; con- quered by Spain, 8. Petersburgh, Va., threatened by Butler, 765; reached by Grant, 769; its fortifi- cations, 770; the mine experiment, 771 ; besieged by Grant, 804 ; captured, 806. Petition, right of, impeded by Congress, 506. Petroleum, not known in 1790. 289; in Ohio, 334; in Missouri, 423: in Pennsyl- vania, .528, 635; in West Virginia, 757. Philadelphia, settlement, 127; growth, 130; the taxed tea, 177; First Conti- nental Congress, 180; Second Conti- nental Congress. 194; abandoned by Congress, 212; Howe moves toward it by sea, 216; takes it, 217; makes it his winter-quarters, 217; Clinton, his suc- cessor, leaves it for New York, 229; the revolted troops set out for it, 240; Washington and Rochambeau pass through it, 259; the Convention of 1787, 280; the city in 1787, 289; time of travel to New York, 291; made the national capital for ten years, 301 ; the Bank of the United States and the mint are located at Philadelphia. .301; capital removed to Wasliington, 325; slavery riot, 505; threatened by Lee, 720; relieved by the battle of Antie- tam, 721; again threatened by Lee, 730; relieved by the battle of Gettys- burgh. 732; the Centennial celebra- tion, 870 (see Appendix V.). Philndeiphia, the, Durned, 340. Philip, King, his struggle, 72. Philippines, the, transferred to the U.S., 977, 992; government, 993, 996. Phillips, Gen., in commana of the Brit- ish forces in Virginia, 253. Phoe.be (fe'be), the, aids in capturing the Essex, 374. Pickens. Col. Andrew, an American officer in South Carolina, 246. Pierce (peerse or purse), Franklin, elect- ed President, 598; biography, 600 Pike's Peak, discovery of gold, 63.5. Pilgrims, the, the first settlers of Ply- mouth, .50. Pinckney, Charles Cotesworth, nomi- nated for President, 324, 337, 346. Pirates in New York, 118. Pitcairn (pit'karn). Major John, at Lex- ington. 184. Pitt, William, his management of the French and Indian War, 151; favors colonial representation in Parliament. 170. Pittsburgh Landing, battle of, 694. Pittsburgh, Pa., unsettled in 1745, 131; originally a fort of the Ohio Company, taken by the French, 146; retaken by the English and renamed Pittsburgh, 151; the Whiskey Insurrection, 308; the first steamboat on the Ohio River, 335; the railroad riots, 896 (see Ap- pendix v.). Plattsburgh, battle of, 383. Pleasant Hill, battle of, 785. Ploughs, in 1787, 290 (see Agricultural Machinery). Plymouth (plim'uth), part of the Ply- mouth Company's grant, 89; location and settlement, 49; history, 50; lead- ers, 51; union with Massachusetts Bay, 58, Plymouth Company, the, chartered, 25? loses its charter, 38. Plymouth, N. C, the Albemarle blown up, 786. Pocahontas (po-ka-hon'tas), daughter of Powhatan, 80. Poe, Edgar A., his literary work, 466. Poictiers (poi-teei-z'), the, captures the Wasp and Frolic, 369. Police, a new system introduced, 640. Polk(poke), James K., elected President, 532; biography, 535; orders Taylor to the Rio Grande, 546; blamed by the Whigs for the Mexican War, 551; death, 593. Polygamy, having more than one wife at the same time, pi-actised by the Mormons, 507; contrary to law in the Territories, 628; not suppressed, 913; renounced, 911. Pontiac (pon'ti-ak), an Indian chief, 1.55. Pope's Campaign. 719. Population. See Census; Appendix IV., Porter, Admiral D. D., at New Orleans, 787. Porter, Capt. David, in command of the Essex, 367, 374. Port Hudson, La., its fortifications, 710; its surrender. 739. Port Royal, N. S., a French stronghold, taken and kept by the English, 76. Port Royal, S. C, the French colony, 19; reached by an English colony, 101,' captured by the Union fleet, 685; a harbor for the blockaders, 686; an ex- pedition sent from it to Florida. 784. Portsmouth, N. H., settlement, 59. PROmtTNCING INDEX. ' The references are to Sections, not to pages. 517 Portsmouth, R. I., settlement, 66. I'ortsmouth, Va., j)hinilere. Porto Rico, plan of KOV(M-nment, 966: oc- cupation of, H75; ceded to tlieU.S., 977. Poriugal, explores the west coast of Africa, 5; refuses aid to CoUunl)Us, 6; agreement witli Spain, 13; pays for injuries to American commerce, 472. I'ost-oflfice, in the colonies. 166; under direction of Congress, 282, 299, 301, ■J.59. Potomac (po-to'mak) River, the, the first Maryland settlement, 90; its up- per country unsettled in 17.50, 14.5; the Union line in 1861, 677; Banks driven up to it, 717; Lee and McClellan cross it into Maryland, 720; recross it into Virginia, 721 ; Lee again crosses it, 730 ; recrosses it into Virginia, 733. Potomac, Army of the, organized, 682; transferred to the Peninsula, 713; c> vided by the Chickahoniiny, 715; fights the Seven Days' Battles, 718; trans- ferred back to the front of Washing- ton, 719; fights the battle of Antietam, 721; Fredericksburgh, 722; Chanccl- lorsville, 729; Gettysburgh, 732; Grant takes command, 761 : lights the battles of the Wilderness, 766; besieges Pe- tersburgh, 770-1, 801; takes it, 806; pursues and captures Lee's army, 807; is reviewed at Washington, 810. Pottawattomies (pot-a-wof a-miz), an Indian tribe, 3. Powhatan (pow-ha-tan'), an Indian chief of Virginia, 80 Prescott, Col. William, in command of Bunker Hill. 195. Prescott, William H., his literary work, 466. President, the, his legislative power, 282; executive powers, 283; appoint- ing power, 284 (see Tenure of Office Act, Civil Service); mode of election, 898, 920; veto power, 478; succession, 909, 922 (see Impeachment). (For list of Presidents see Table of Contents.) President, the, disciplines the Little Belt, 349; captured by a British fleet, 376. Presqtie Isle (presk eel). Pa., a French post, 145. Press Associations, introduced, 537. Prima Vista (pre'ma vees'tn), 11. Princeton College, founded, 124. Princeton, N. J., W^ashington passes through it in retreat, 211 ; returns and takes it, 213. Printing, in Virginia, 88; in Philadel- phia, 1.30; first press in America, 161; improvements in, 5.37. Prisoners of war, their sufferings in the Revolution, 233; in Confederate prisons, 799; deaths, 822. Prisons, the former brutal system, 469; reformation, 473. Prison-ships, 2.33. Privateers, in 1760, 156; in the Revolu- tion, 198, 841, 244; deflnition, 341; re- Privateers — Continued. fusal to allow France to fit out, 307; in the War of 1812, 377. Privateers, Confederate, why they were allowed to make captures, 673, 675; their destruction of American com- merce, 727, 759, 791 ; captiu-e of three of them, 792-4 (see Alabama Claims). Proctor, Gen. Henry, in command of tlie British forces in the West, 360-1 ; defeated, 362. Prohibition Party, 917, 945. Proprietors, 43. Protection, why it was first demanded, 409 (see Free Trade, Tariff); defini- tion, and argument for, 432; Congress adopts it in 1824, 432; supported by Claj- and Adams (see American Sys- tem); opposed bj^ Jackson, 479, 487; supported by the Whig Party, 480; op- posed by the South, 443, 484,^651 ; grad- uallv abandoned by Congress after 1833^ 490; again adopted in 1842, 517; again abandoned in 1846, 540; resumed in 1861, 7.54; still maintained, 916; atti- tude of the parties in 1888, 924; in 1892, 945: reduced by the Wilson bill, %t. Providence, R. I., part of the Plymouth Company's grant, 39; settlement, 66; the (?ospeeaffair,I74(see Appendi.xV.). Public Schools, provision for them in Ordinance of 1787, 294; established in the States, 463, 473; in I860, 638; in 1880, 1012; importance of the system, 1019. Puebla (poo-a'blah), Mex., taken by Scott, 571. Puget's (pu'jet's) Sound, 866. Pulaski (pu-las'kl), Casimir, joins the American army, 215; death, 245. Pullman, 111., 95(j. Puritans the, support the Common- wealth, 32; not separated from the Church of England, 52; found the colony of Massachusetts Bay, 52. Quakers, the, why they were persecuted in Massachusetts, 56; Penn obtains a colony for them, 125; why they had been persecuted in England, 126. Quebec (kwe-bek'), attempt to settle it, 19; successful, 20: a French strong- hold. 76: taken by Wolfe, 154; repulses the Americans, 201. Quebec Act, the. 178. Queenstown Heights, battle of, 358. Raids, of Jackson and Stuart, 717; of Morgan, 741 ; against Sherman, 775. Railroads, how they have given value to the Louisiana purchase. 3.32 ; to Illinois, 420; put an end to the National Road, 431; Trevithick's and Stephenson's en- gines, 436; their effect on the Amer- ican people, 449; American engines, 450; increase of railroads, 451; their advantages, 452; use of anthracite '■oal, 452; assist immigration, 4.59 (see Pacific Railroads); effects in improving roads and bridges, 603; the panic of 518 PRONOUNCINO INDEX. ■ The references are to Sections, not to pages. Railroads — Continued. 1857, 627; effects of railroads on Kan- sas, 631: increase in thirty years, 633; effects on the West, 634 ; defects in the South. 642; damage in the Civil War, 753, 805 (see Raids ) ; railroad-building in Grant's first administration, 861, panic of 1873, 862; the Pacific Railroad sys- tem, 864-6; end of the panic, 891; ele- vated railroads. 894; railroad strikes and riots, 896; railroads in the United States, 1010. Raisin, battle of the river, 360. Raleigh (raw'li). Sir Walter, attempts to colonize North Carolina, 23. Randolph, Edmund, Attorney-General, 299. Randolph, John, on the terrors of slave insurrection, 649. Randolph, Peyton, a member of the Continental Congress, 194. Ranger, the, an American war-vessel, 241. Rapidan (rap-id-an') River, the, 760. Rawdon, Lord, in command of the British in South Carolina, 255. Reaping-machine, 336, 455. Reciprocity, 935. Reconstruction, its difficulties, 834; the President's plan, 835-7; the treatment of the freedmen, 839; Southern mem- bers not admitted to Congress, 840; Tennessee reconstructed and read- mitted, 841; the Republicans retain control of Congress, 842; form their plan of reconstruction, 843; and pass it, 844; six additional States recon- structed and readmitted, 845; the four remaining States reconstructed and readmitted, 871 ; disorder in the reconstructed States, 873-5; use of Federal troops to suppress it, 876: what reconstruction had done for the freedmen. 878; the parties on re- construction 880-1 ; the use of Federal troops abandoned, 888; how far the plan of reconstruction has failed, 891. Red River, the, visited by De Soto, 15; by Banks, 785. Regulatois, the,fight Governor Tryon,98. Reid, Capt. S. C, in command of the General Armstrong, 377. Reid, Whitelaw, 915. Reindeer, the, taken by the Wasp, 375. Remonetization of silver, 901 . Removal of the deposits, 477. Representation of the States in Con- gress, 280, 283. Representation, slave, adopted into the Constitution, 885; effects, 5r24. Representatives, House of, legislative powers 282; powers of impeachment, 283; elects a President, 324, 433; im- peaches Johnson, 851 . Reprisal, the, an American war-vessel, 241. Republican Party (of 1792), the, its form- ation, 304; its purposes, 305; opposes the Alien and Sedition laws S'?-'? Republican Party — Continued. elects Jefferson and Burr, 324; ob- tains control of the government in 1801, 330; re-elects Jefferson, 337; op- poses a navy. 343; successful in 1808, 346; in 1812, 356; in 1816, 414; the only party left in 1820, 417 (see Deriiocratic Party), Republican Party (of 1856), the, its form- ation, 616; obtains control of the House of Representatives, 621; defeated in 18.56, 623; its attitude in 1860, 654; suc- cessful in 1860, 655; in 1864, 797; its attitude on reconstruction, 840; suc- cessful in 1868, 852; in 1872, 880; in 1876-7, 887; in 1888, 924; defeated in 18>-<4, 917; in 1892, 945: successful la 1890, 957. Repudiation, meaning of the'term,501. Resaca de la Palma (ra-sah'kah da hlh paiil'mali), battle of, 549. Resaca, battle of, 774. Restoration, the English. 33. Resumption of Specie Payments, 902, Returning Boards, 884. Revenge, tlie, war-vessel, 241. Revenue, the Federal, its trifling amount under the Articles of Con- federation, 276; provided for in the Constitution, 282; raised by duties on imported goods, 301 ; b.y a whiskey tax, 308; increase of, 331; decrease during the War of 1812, 3.54-5; increase after the peace. 410; deposited in the Bank of the United States, 411; in- crease, 1831-5, 459; more than the needs of government required, 460; removal from the Bank, 477; the panic of 1837 destroys the revenue, 499 (see Sub-Treasury) ; during the Civil War, 823; influence on the tariff question, 916. Revere, Paul, his midnight ride, 183. Revolt of the American troops, 240. Revolution, the American, its first blood, 184; the results, 186;thewarat first against Parliament. 19:3-4; in New England; 195: independence, 205-7; in the North, 208-24, 229-33, 2:38-40; aid from France, 225-8; the war on the ocean, 241-3; in the Sou.h, 245-62; peace, 263-7. Revolution, the English, .33. Revolution, the French, 34, 306. Rhode Island, part of the Plymouth Company's grant. 39: a charter colony, 42, 67; the banishment of Williams, 55; settlement, 66; history, 68; refused admission to tlie New England Union, 70; the "swamp fight," 73; the Gas- pee affair, 174; the College of, 190; military operations in, 215, 231-3, 248, 260; no western claims, 872; not rep- resented in the Federal Convention, 279: refuses to ratify the Constitution, 287; ratifies, 300; the Dorr Rebellion, 530 (see Appendix, IV.). Rice, in South Carolina, 102; aSoutbert product, 317. PRONOXTNCmO INDEX. t^" The references are to Sections, not to pages. 519 Richard, the, 546. Richmond, Va., Burr's trial, 368; capital of the Confederate States, 676; threat- ened by McDowell, 681 ; its fortifica- tions, 682, 769; threatened by way of the Peninsula, 713; relieved by the Seven Days' Battles, 718; again threat- ened by way of Fredericksbui'gh. 722; by way of Chancellorsville, 729; by Butler, 765; cut off from Lynchburgh by Sheridan, 805; captured by Grant, 806 (see Appendix V.). Rich Mountain, battle of. 678. Rio Grande (re'o grahn'da), the, 546. Riots, draft, 756; railroad, 896; Cliinese, 904; Cincinnati, 914. Ripley, Gen. James W., an oflQcer in the American Army, 365; at Lundy 's Lane, 398. Rivers and harbors, 441. Roads, in 1750, 136; in 1787. 291; turnpike roads, 313; roads in Ohio in 1790, 315; roads in 1812, 3.54; on the great lakes, 380; in 1824, 429; the National Road, 431; the American System, 441; how railroads have influenced them, 449, 603. Roanoke (ro-a-noke') Island, N. C, the scene of Raleigh's colonies, 23; New- port sent thither, 36; Confederate forts captured, 705. Robertson, James, a Tennessee pioneer. 160. Robinson, John, pastor of the Pilgrims in Holland, 51. Rochambeau (ro-shahn(g)-bo'). Count de, lands with an army at Newport, 258; takes part in the capture of Corn- •wallis, 261. Rochester, N. Y., noton the maps in 1812, 354; its growth, 408 (see Appendix V.). Rome, N. Y.,221. Koosevelt, Theodore, 998. Rosecrans (roze'krans). Gen. W. S., in command in West Virginia, 678; at Murfreesboro, 697, 734; pursues Bragg, 742; at Chickamauga, 743. Ross, (jen. Robert, killed at Baltimore, 388. Rule.'*, Struggle over the, 934, Rush, Richard, nominated for Vice- President, 445. Russia, mediates between Great Britain and the United States,403 ; sells Alaska to the United States, 831. Rutgers College, 190. Sasine (sa-been') Cross Roads, battle of, 785. Sabine Pass, Tex., 751. Sackett's Harbor, N. Y., attacked by the British, 363. Sacramento (sak-ra-men'to River, dis- covery of gold on, 580. Sacs and Foxes, 3. St. Alban's, Vt., plundered by a party from Canada, 798. St. Augustine (aw-gus-teen'), Fla . founded. 18; captured by aforceixoiu St. Augustine — Continued. South Carolina, 105; besieged by Ogle- thorpe, 110; the oldest town in the United States. 525; captured by the Union forces, 705. St. Clair's defeat, 309. St. Genevieve (jen-e-veev'). Mo., 158. St. Jolm, J. P., nominated for President 917. St. Kitt's, W. I., 321. St. Lawrence, the river, discovered, 12; held by the French, 19-20. St. Louis (loo'is). Mo., founded, 158; growth, 423; riots.SWb (see Appendix V.) St. Paul,.Minn., 458. Salem (sa'Iem), Mass., 52, 57. Salt, found at Syracuse, N. Y., .528; in West Virginia, TOT Saltillii (sahl-leel'vo), Mex., 558. Salt Lake City, founded, 628, 954. Samoa, 924, 9S0. Sampson, Kear-Admiral W. T., at Sant- iago, 974; bombards San Juan, 975. San Autonio, .Mex., S'iT; Tex., 557. San Domingo, attempt to annex It^ 859, 879. Sandusky (san-dus'ki), O., location, 334; Fort Stephenson, 361 ; Perry's victory, 382. Sandwich Islands, proposed annexa- tion of, 608, 943. Sandy Hook, N. J., 214, 229. San Francisco, Cal., its fine harbor, 552; taken by the American fleet. 553; sud- den growth of the city, 589 634; the Pacific Railroad system, tj64; cable railroads in, 894 (see Appendix V.). San Gabriel, battle of, 554. Sanitary Commission, the, 755. San Jacinto (jo,-sin't6), battle of, 522. San Jacinto, the, arrests the Trent, 686. San Juan de Ulloa (sahn Hoo-ahn' da ool-yo'ah), 563. San Salvador (sahn sahl-vah-dore'), 7. Santa Anna, commands the Mexican troops in Texas, 522; at Buena Vista, 558; at Cerro Gordo, 564; flees from the city of Mexico, 570. Santa Fe (san'ta fe), N. M., founded, 18; taken by the American forces, 554. Saratoga, Burgoyne's surrender at, 223. Sault Ste. Marie (soo san(g) mah-re), French settlement, 140. Savage's Station, battle of, 718. Savannah, Ga. , settled, 108; taken by the British, 245; held by them through the Revolution. 255; evacuated, 265; taken by Sherman, 782; he leaves it on his niarch northward, 802. Savannah, the, steams across the At. Ian tic, 335. Saybrook. Conn., settlement. 61. Scarhoro, The Countess of, taken, 243. Schenectady (sken-ek'ta-di), N. Y., a frontier settlement, 114; foimded, 121; Still on the frontier in 1787, 292. Schley (shli), Rear-Adm. W. S., 974, Schools, See Public Schools, 520 PRONOUNCING INDEX. ' The references are to Sections, not to pages. Schuyler (ski'ler), Gen. Philip, in com- mand of the American forces in Can- ada. 201; against Burgoyue, 219; suc- ceeded by Gates, 222; tlie credit due to him goes to Gates, 224. Scott, Winfield, his services in 1814, 365; at the battle of Chippewa, 393; wounded at Lundy's Lane, 394; ser- vices ill Maine, 509: sent to Mexico, 561; biography, 562; takes Vera Cruz, 563; marches to the city of Mexico, 565; takes Mexico, 570; nominated for President, 598; in command of the Union armies, 677; retired, 682. Screw propeller, invented, 454; used in the navy, 526. Seals, taking of, in Bering Sea, 943. Search, the right of, asserted by Great Britain, 342; not expressly given up in 1S15, 404; resisted by Great Britain in 1861. 687. Secession, the argument for it, 486; threatened in 18.50. 587; not probable in 1856. 624; South Carolina secedes in 1860, 656; the secessionists in other States, 657; their arguments for seces- sion, 6.58; the first secession of 1861, 659; the second, or border State, seces- sion of 1861, 874. Sections, the, produced by slavery, 485; their positions on the American Sys- tem, 442; as to Abolition, 504; as to Texas, 523; as to slave representation, 524; as to the Mexican acquisition, 576; as to California, 587; increasing influ- ence of slavery, 611; their positions as to the Kansas-Nebraska Act. 615; as to Kansas. 618: tlieir final positions. 651-3; as to the Civil War, 824; as to recon- struction, 834. Sedition Law, the, 323. Seminoles (sem'I-nolz), the, a Florida tribe, 418. Semmes (semz), Capt. Raphael, 792. Senate, the its formation, 280; its legis- lative powers, 282; its executive pow- ers, 283; increased by the Tenure of Office Act, 849; impeachment of John- son, 8;.l. Senecas (sen'e-k^z), 3. Separatists, a name for the Pilgrims, 49. Serapis (se-ra'pis), the, taken by the Richard, 243. Sergeant (sahr'jent), John, 483. Sewall, Arthur, nominated for Vice- Piesident, and defeated, 957. Seward (soo'erd',, William H., an antl slavery leader, 593; wounded, 812. Sewing-machine, 536, 934. Seven Days' Battles, 718. Seven Pines, battle of, 716. Sevier (se vere'). John, 303. Seymoui- (t;e'miir), Horatio, nominated tor President, 8.52. Shatter, Gen. W. R.. 974. Shannon, the, takes the Chesapeake, 373. Sliarpsburgh, battle of, 721. bliMWiiees (shaw-neez'), 3. Shays's Rebellion, 277. Shenandoah (shen-an-do'ah) valley, the, held by Johnston, 681 ; Jackson drives Banks out of it, 717; Lee passes, through it, 730; Early passes through it, 768; is beaten by Sheridan, 772; Sheridan passes through it on his way to Grant, 805. Sheridan, Gen.Philip H., beats Early, 772; cuts off Richmond from its western supports and joins Grant, 805. Sherman, Roger, a member of the Con- tinental Congress, 194; on the com- mittee to draft the Declaration, 207. Sherman, Gen. Wm. T., one of G'-ant's trusted officers, 734; takes Arkansas Post, 736; at the Yazoo River, 737; at Chattanooga, 745; at Dalton, 761; in command of the Western armies, 762; biography, 773; moves toward At- lanta, 774; leaves Hood to Thomas, 778; burns Atlanta. 780; marches through Georgia, 781; takes Savan- nah. 782; marches northward to Golds- boro, 802-3; seizes Raleigh, and re- ceives Johnston's surrender, 808; re- sults of his march, 820. Shiloh. battle of, 694. Ship Island, Miss.. 685, 707. Shreveport, La., 785, 866. Sigel (se'gel). Gen. Franz, in the Shen- andoah valley, 765; defeated, 768. Sigsbee, Capt. Chas. D., 969. Silver, discovered in Nevada, 6.35, 800; large yield, 861; in Colorado, 869; de- cline in its value, 899; demonetized, 900; remonetized, 901; Act of July 14, 1890, 930; again demonetized, 948. Sioux (soo) wars, 728, 868. Sirius, the, 454. Sitting Bull, 868. Six Nations. 3, 77. Skenesboro, N. Y., 220. Slavery, introduced in Virginia and maintained by the English kings, 48; forbidden in Vermont. 69; slavery in New England, 79; in Georgia, 109; in New York, 119; in 1775, 191; an ele- ment of weakness in the South in the Revolution. 237; slavery provisions in the Constitution, 285; forbidden in the Northwest Territory, 294; slavery in Kentucky, 302: in Tennessee, 303; ef- fects of the cotton-gin, 317; in the two sections in 1820. 424-5; in Louisiana, 424; in Missouri, 425; in the Territo- ries, 426 ; effects of slavery on manu- factures, 442, 643; in Arkansas, 461; proposal to abolish slavery (see Aboli- tionists); riots, 505; petition, 506; slav- ery in Texas, 521; State representation in Congress, 524; the slavery question becomes more pressing, 533; in the Mexican acquisition, 575; positions of the sections, 576; attempt to prohibit, 577; rise of the Free-Soil Party, 578; slavery in California, 585; political questions of 1850, 586; compromised, 589; tae Fugitive Slave Law. 591 ; anti PRONOUNCING INDEX. ' The references are to Sections, not to pages. 521 ^avery— Continued. slavery leaders, 593; influence of slavery on public affairs, 611 ; how the Democratic Party escaped it for the time, G13; the Kansas-Nebraska Act, 614; the Republican Party, 610; slavery in Kansas, 618-21; election of 1856, 624; effects of slavery on the South, 643, 651; in the Territories, 644; the Dred Scott decision, 646; the effect on the Democratic Party, 648, 654; the John Brown raid, 650; the sections in 1860, 652-3, 658; parties, 654; emancipation, 724; results abroad, 726; the object of the war, 824 ; abolition by Amendment, 838; after-effects, 839; free labor in the South, 915. Slave-trade, the foreign, in 1775, 191; in 1787, 280; abolished, 331. Sloughter (slaw'ter), Gov. Henry, 117. Smith, John, 80. Smith, .Joseph, ,507. Smithsonian Institution, the, 538. "Sons of Liberty," 168. Soto, Hernando de, 15. South Carolina, discovered, 10; part of the London Company's grant, 37; set- tled, 101; products, 102; districts. 103; early wars, 105-6; has troops at Fort Necessity, 148; in 1775 and 1880, 187; military operations in the State during the Revolution, 205, 246-52, 255f 265; Western claims. 27ti ; ceded to the United States, 275; nullification, 487-9; secedes, 6.56; military operations in, 669. 685. 748-9, 784, 802; reconstructed and readmitted. 845 ; disorders in, 875. South Dakora. 923. Spain, aids Columbus, 6: secures his dis- coveries, 8; further Spanish discov- eries, 10; agreement with Portugal, 13; explorations in the interior of North America, 14, 15; conquers Mex- ico, 15; explores the Pacific coast, 16; drives the French from St. Au- gustine, 19; colonies .south of the United States. 30; early wars with, 105, 110; enters the war in 1762, 1.56; gives up Florida and receives Louisiana, 157-8; enters the Revolu- tionary War against Great Britain, 228; regains Florida, 264; agrees by treaty to the free navigation of the Mississippi, 316; transfers Louisiana to France, 382; the Spanish in Florida aid the British, 400; Spain transfers Florida, 418; refuses to sell Cuba, 608; joins France against Mexico, 758; the Virginius case, bOO; war with Cuba. 955; war with the United States, 971; signs treatj' of peace at Paris, 977. Specie Circular, the, 497. Specie Payments resumed, 1879, 902. Spotfsvlvania Court-house, battle of ,766. .Springfield, III., 813. Springfield, Mass., 277. Springfield, O., 334. Stamp Act, the, 167, 169, 170. Stamp Act Congress, the, 169. Stamp duties, 167. Staudish, Miles, the soldier of the Ply- mouth Colony, 51. Stanton. E. M.. removed by Johnson, 849; biography. 8,50. Stark, John, at Beninngton, 221. Star of the West, the, driven back from Fort Sumter, 664. Star-Spangled Banner, the, 388. State Department, the, 3U1. Staten (stat'n) Island, N. Y., occupied by the British, 208; held by them dur- ing the war, 230, 232; threatened by Washington, 259. States, the, the formation of State gov- ernments. 205; whence they derived their authority, 270; boundary dis putes, 272-4 ; send delegates to a Fed- eral Convention. 280; restrictions of their action under the Constitution, 282; new States and Amendments, 285; their ratification of the Constitu- tion, 287; the great States of the Northwest, 294; the electoral system, 298; the Republicans incline to favor the States, 305; slave States, 424; the Western States in 1835, 456; the East- ern States, 457; the States go into internal improvement, 460; the num- ber of States doubled, 462; distinction between State Rights and State Sov- ereignty, 485; the right of the States to secede, 486; to nullify the laws of the United States. 487, 281 ; how State representation in Congress was related to slavery, 524; the right of voting in the States, 530; proposed annexation of slave States, 608; the Kansas strug- gle between free and slave States, 618-21; secession of a part of the States, 656 (see Secession) ; the work of the State conventions, 660; of the doc- trine of State Sovereignty, 662; action of the border States. 674; the South- ern State governments overtlirown, 836; reconstructed, 845 (see Recon- struction); equal importance of the Federal and the State systems,928 (see Appendix IV.). Steamboat, the. Fitch's attempt to pro- duce one, 313; need of a steamboat on Western rivers, 316; in the Louisiana purchase, 332; Fulton's success, 335; put to use on American rivers, 408, 429; builds up Western towns. 456; put to use on the ocean, 335, 454; facili- tates migration, 459. Steam war-vessels. Fulton's attempt, 385; the screw propeller, 4.54. Stephens. Alexander H., leaves the Whig Party, .594; elected Vice-Presi- dent of the Confederate States, 660; biography, 661 ; not a secessionist, 662, Stevenso'n, Adiai E.. Vice-Pres., 945, 998. Steuben (stoi'ben). Baron vun, 215. Stewart, Capt. Charles, in command of the Constat uti n, ;i';6. 522 PRONOUNCINO INDEX. B^~ The references are to Sections, not to pages. Stone River, battle of, 697. Stone, Samuel, a Connecticutpioneer,54. Stonington, Conn , attacked by the British, 3S5. Stony Point, capture of, 238. Story. Wilham, a distinguished Ameri- can lawyer, 4t)7. Strikes, the Railroad, 896, 944, S.- Stuart, Gen. J. E. B., a Confederate cav- alry officer, 7!7. Stuyvesant (sti've-sant), Peter, the last Dutch governor of New Netherlands, 113. Suffrage (or vote), the right of, 873. Sugar, in Louisiana, 406. Sullivan, Gen. John, in command of the attack on Newport, 231 ; scourges the hostile Indians, 233. Sumner, Charles, an antislavery leader, 593; assault upon him, 622. Sumter, Gen. Thomas, a Revolutionary leader in South Carolina, 249, 251. Supreme Court, the, its duties, 284, 645; decides the question of slavery in the Territories, 646; its decision rejected, 6J7; the income tax decision, 952. Susquehannah (sus-kwe-han'na) River, the, 93. Swamp Fight, the, 73. Swanzey (swon'zi), Mass., attacked by the Indians, 72. Syracuse, N. Y., 354 (see Appendix V.). Tampa Bay, Fla., 15. Taney (taw'ne), Roger B., Chief Justice, 493. Tariff (see Revenue, Free Trade, Pro- tection), the province of the States under the Confederation, 276; trans- ferred to Congress by the Constitu- tion, 282; the first Tariff, .301; the Pro- tective Tariff of 1824, 432; increased in 1838, 441 ; the Compromise Tariff of 1833, 490; the semi-protective Tariff of 1842, .517; the Revenue Tariff of 1846. 540; the Protective Tariff of 1861, 7.54; receipts from it, 823; still maintained, 832,916; reduced, 951. Tariff Commission, the, 916. Tarleton, Major, a British cavalry offi- cer, 248; beaten at the Cowpens, 252; plunders Virginia, 256. Tarry town, N. Y., 239. Taxes, in Great Britain, 164; inthecolo- nies. 165; commercial taxation, 172 (see Parliament) ; under the Confederation, 276; under the Constitution, 282; dur- ing the Civil War, 754; in the recon- structed States, 873. Taylor, Gen. Richard, surrenders, 801. Taylor, Zachary, beats the Seminoles at Lake Okechobee. 471 ; ordered to the Rio Grande, 546; beats the Mexicans and drives them across the Rio Grande, 548-9; follows to Monterey, .5.57; de- prived of part of his army, 5.58; wins the battle of Buena Vista, 559; returns to the United States, 560; elected Presi- dent, 579; biography. 583: death. 59* Tea Tax, the, 176. Tecumseh (te-kum'se), defeated, 350; killed at the Thames, 362. Tehuantepec (te-hoo-ahn'te-pek), 988. Telegraph, the, its invention, 527; in- crease, 937. Telephone, its invention, 89.3. Tennessee, the first settlers jfrom Nortli Carolina, 98, 160, 236; North Carohi.a'i? claim ceded to the United States, a7.5; admitted as a State, 300; history. '6(Ki: secedes, 674; occupied by the Union forces, 693; military operations in, 690-5, 697, 700, 742-7, 779; reconstructed, 841 (see Appendix IV.). Tennessee River, the, reached by De Soto, 15; military operations on, 693, 700. Tennessee, the, taken by Farragut, 789. Tenure of Office Act, the, its passage and purpose, 849: repealed, 920. Territories, the. first cessions by the States to the United States, 275; their government under the Constitution, 285; the Ordinance of 1787, 294; acqui- sition of Louisiana, 332; of Florida, 418; slavery in the Territories, 424-6 (see Compromises, Slavery) ; the Mexi- can acquisition, 552, 556, 572-3; polyg- amy in the Territories, 628, 919; acqui- sition of Alaska, and summary, 831. Texas, supposed at first to be a part of the Louisiana purchase, 332; the claim of the United States exchanged for Florida, 418; becomesa part of Mexico, but is settled by American citizens, 521; secedes from Mexico, .522; its an- nexation desired by the South, 523; reasons for the desire, 524; annexa- tion, 533; admission and history. 541; boundary, 546; claim to New Mexico, 586; compromised, 589; secedes, 659; military operations in, 751, 809; refuses the first terms of reconstruction, 845; reconstructed and readmitted, 871 (see Appendix IV.). Thames (temz), battle of the river, .362. Third term, refused by Washington, 311. Thomas, Gen. George H., at Mill Spring, 690; at Chickamauga, 743; sent back to Tennessee, 778; defeats Hood, 780. .Thornton, Capt., capture of, 547. Thurman, A. G., nominated for Vice- President, 931. Ticonderoga (ti-kon-de-ro'ga), held by Montcalm, 151 ; taken by the English, 153; by E. Allen, 200; by Burgoyne. 219. Tilden, Samuel J., nominated for Presi- dent, 882; his election disputed, 883; the decision, 887. Tippecanoe (tip-pe-ka-noo'), battle of, 350. Titusville. Pa.. 635. Tobacco. 23, 82. Tohopeka, to-ho-pe'ka), battle of, 398. Toledo, O., a French post. 142; Wayne's victory, 809; growth, 334 (see Appen- dix V.) PRONouNcma index. P?" The references are to Sections, not to pafeeiL 523 Tompkins, Daniel D., elected Vice-Presi- dent, 414; re-elected, 417. Tories, meaning of the term, 173, 491; in the Middle States, 208; in the South, 247; after the war, 267. Toronto (to-ron'to). Can., 363. Torpedoes, their first use, 385; against the Albemarle, 786; in Mobile Bay, 789. Transportation Bill, the. 178. Travel, difficulties of. See Roads. Treasury Department, the, 301. Treaties, the treaty power, 282; Jay's treaty, 310; treaty of Ghent, 403; ex- tradition treaties, 518; treaty of Wash- ington, 855; the San Domingo treaty, 859; the Chinese treaty, 904. Trent, the, arrested by the San Jacinto, 687. Trenton, N. J., Washington's retreat through, 211; breaks camp at, 213. Trevithick (trev'Ith-ik), Richard, his lo- comotive, 436. Tripolitan War, the, 340, 412. Trusts, 929, 983. Truxton, • ./ ,0 o. ^ v 'O 0' xO°^. ..^^ v"-"/ ■^OO^ ^^^" "^^- .<^' .^^<^. V O 0^ \ ^ .v^' P. vis ,0 o. o 0' ,. ,.5 -:> '/- "^'^ y ' '' ^^- V *» '^' \\ V-v \' ^^ %■ .# = ^