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Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 in 2011 with funding from 
 The Library of Congress 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/mindofchildobserOOprey 
 
International Ctattatum Juries 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 WILLIAM T. HARRIS, A. M., LL. D. 
 
 Volume IX. 
 
INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION SERIES. 
 
 Edited by W. T. Harris. 
 
 It is proposed to publish, under the above title, a library for teachers 
 and school managers, and text-books for normal classes. The aim will 
 be to provide works of a useful practical character in the broadest sense. 
 The following conspectus will show the ground to be covered by the series : 
 
 I.— History Of .Education. (a.) Original systems as ex- 
 pounded by their founders, (b.) Critical histories which set forth the 
 customs of the past and point out their advantages and defects, explain- 
 ing the grounds of their adoption, and also of their final disuse. 
 
 II. — Educational Criticism, (a.) The noteworthy arraign- 
 ments which educational reformers have put forth against existing sys- 
 tems : these compose the classics of pedagogy, (b.) The critical histories 
 above mentioned. 
 
 III.— Systematic Treatises on the Theory of Edu- 
 cation, (a.) Works written from the historical standpoint; these, 
 for the most part, show a tendency to justify the traditional course of 
 study and to defend the prevailing methods of instruction, (b.) Works 
 written from critical standpoints, and to a greater or less degree revolu- 
 tionary in their tendency. 
 
 IV.— The Art Of Education. (a.) Works on instruction 
 and discipline, and the practical details of the school-room, (b.) Works 
 on the organization and supervision of schools. 
 
 Practical insight into the educational methods in vogue can not be 
 attained without a knowledge of the process by which they have come to 
 be established. For this reason it is proposed to give special prominence 
 to the history of the systems that have prevailed. 
 
 Again, since history is incompetent to furnish the ideal of the future, 
 it is necessary to devote large space to works of educational criticism. 
 Criticism is the purifying process by which ideals are rendered clear and 
 potent, so that progress becomes possible. 
 
 History and criticism combined make possible a theory of the whole. 
 For, with an ideal toward which the entire movement tends, and an ac- 
 count of the phases that have appeared in time, the connected develop- 
 ment of the whole can be shown, and all united into one system. 
 
 Lastly, after the science, comes the practice. The art of education is 
 treated in special works devoted to the devices and technical details use- 
 ful in the school-room. 
 
 It is believed that the teacher does not need authority so much as in- 
 sight in matters of education. When he understands the theory of edu- 
 cation and the history of its growth, and has matured his own point 
 of view by careful study of the critical literature of education, then he is 
 competent to select or invent such practical devices as are best adapted 
 to his own wants. 
 
 The series will contain works from European as well as American 
 authors, and will be under the editorship of W. T. Harris, A. M., LL. D. 
 The price for the volumes of the series will be $1.50 for the larger 
 volumes, Y5 cents for the smaller ones. 
 
Vol. I. The Philosophy of Education. By Johann Karl 
 Friedrich Rosenkranz. $1.50. 
 
 Vol. II. A History of Education. By Prof. F. V. N. Painter, 
 
 of Roanoke, Virginia. $1.50. 
 
 Vol. III. The Rise and Early Constitution of Univer- 
 sities. With a Survey of Mediaeval Education. By S. S. Laurie, 
 LL. D., Professor of the Institutes and History of Education in the 
 University of Edinburgh. $1.50. 
 
 Vol. IV. The Ventilation and Warming of School 
 Buildings. By Gilbert B. Morrison, Teacher of Physics and 
 Chemistry in Kansas City High-School. 75 cents. 
 
 Vol. V. The Education Of Man. By Friedrich Froebel. 
 Translated from the German and annotated by W. N. Hailmann, 
 Superintendent of Public Schools at La Porte, Indiana. $1.50. 
 
 Vol. VI. Elementary Psychology and Education. By 
 
 Joseph Baldwin, Principal of the Sam Houston State Normal 
 School, Huntsville, Texas. $1.50. 
 
 Vol. VII. The Senses and the Will. Observations concern- 
 ing the Mental Development of the Human Being in the First Years 
 of Life. By W. Preyer, Professor of Physiology in Jena. Trans- 
 lated from the original German, by H. W. Brown, Teacher in the 
 State Normal School at Worcester, Mass. Part I of The Mind of 
 the Child. $1.50. 
 
 Vol. VIII. Memory. What it is and how to improve it. By David 
 Kay, F. R. G. S. $1.50. 
 
 Vol. IX. The Development of the Intellect. Observa- 
 tions concerning the Mental Development of the Human Being in 
 the First Years of Life. By W. Preyer, Professor of Physiology in 
 Jena. Translated from the original German, by H. W. Brown, 
 Teacher in the State Normal School at Worcester, Mass. Part II 
 of The Mind of the Child. $1.50. 
 
INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION SERIES 
 
 THE MIND OF THE CHILD 
 PAKT II 
 
 THE DEVELOPMENT 
 OF THE INTELLECT 
 
 OBSEB VA TIONS CONCERNING 
 
 THE MENTAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE HUMAN BEING 
 
 IN TE% FIBST FEABS OF LIFE 
 
 /BY 
 
 W. PREYER 
 
 PROFESSOR OF PHYSIOLOGY IN JENA 
 TRANSLATED FROM THE ORIGINAL GERMAN 
 
 Br H. W. BROWN" 
 
 TEACHER IN THE STATE NORMAL SCHOOL AT WORCESTER, MASS, 
 
 t> 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 D. APPLETOF AND COMPANY 
 
 1889 
 
L&ins 
 .Pi 
 
 COKTEIGHT, 1889, 
 
 By D. APPLETON AND COMPANY. 
 
EDITOE'S PEEFACE. 
 
 This second volume contains the further investi- 
 gations of Professor Preyer on the mind of the child. 
 The former volume contained the first and second por- 
 tions, devoted respectively to the development of the 
 senses and of the will. The present volume contains 
 the third part, treating of the development of the intel- 
 lect ; and three appendixes are added containing supple- 
 mentary matter. 
 
 Professor Preyer considers that the development of 
 the power of using language is the most prominent 
 index to the unfolding of the intellect. He differs 
 with Professor Max Miiller, however, on the question 
 whether the operation of thinking can be carried on 
 without the use of words (see the recent elaborate 
 work of the latter on u The Science of Thought"). 
 
 At my suggestion, the painstaking translator of this 
 book has prepared a full conspectus, showing the re- 
 sults of Professor Preyer's careful observations in a 
 chronological order, arranged by months. This con- 
 siderable labor will render the book more practical, 
 inasmuch as it will enable each reader to see at a 
 glance the items of development of the child in the 
 
yi EDITOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 several departments brought together in epochs. This 
 makes it possible to institute comparative observations 
 under the guidance of Professor Prayer's method. I 
 think that I do not exaggerate the value of this con- 
 spectus when I say that it doubles the value of the 
 work to the reader. 
 
 William T. Hareis. 
 
 Co^coed, Mass., November, 1888. 
 
CONTEE-TS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Preface by the Editor v 
 
 Conspectus showing the Progress of the Child by Months . is 
 
 THIRD PART. 
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE INTELLECT. 
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 XVI. — Development of the Child's Intellect independ- 
 ent of Language ........ 3 
 
 XVII. — Learning to Speak 33 
 
 1. Disturbances of Speech in Adults . . . .34 
 
 (1) Periphero-Irnpressive or Perceptive Disturb- 
 ances, 36. (2) Central Disturbances, 37. (3) Periph- 
 ero-Expressive or Articulatory Disturbances, 38. 
 
 2. The Organic Conditions of Learning to Speak . . 42 
 
 3. Parallel between the Disturbances of Speech in 
 Adults and the Imperfections of Speech in the Child 45 
 
 I. Lalopathy, 47. A. The Impressive Peripheral 
 Processes disturbed — Deafness, 47. B. The Central 
 Processes disturbed — Dysphasia, 47. (1) The Sensory 
 Processes centrally disturbed, 47. (2) The Sensori- 
 motor Processes of Diction disturbed, 48. (3) The 
 Motor Processes centrally disturbed, 49. C. The 
 Expressive Peripheral Processes disturbed. 54. (1) 
 Dyslalia and Alalia, 54. (2) Literal Pararthria or 
 Paralalia, 56. (3) Bradylalia, or Bradyarthria, 57. 
 II. Dysphasia, 58. III. Dysmimia, 62. 
 
 4. Development of Speech in the Child . . . .64 
 XVIII. — First Sounds and Beginnings of Speech in the 
 
 Case of a Child observed daily during his First 
 Three Years 99 
 
Viii CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 XIX. — Development of the Feeling of Self, the " I " - 
 
 Feeling 189 
 
 XX. — Summary of Results 208 
 
 APPENDIXES. 
 
 Appendix A. — Comparative Observations concerning the Ac- 
 quirement of Speech, by German and Foreign Children . 221 
 
 (a) Diary of: the Child of the Baroness von Taube, of 
 Esthonia, 261. 
 
 Appendix B. — Notes concerning Lacking, Defective, and Ar- 
 rested Mental Development in the First Years of Life . . 272 
 
 Appendix C. — Reports concerning the Process of Learning 
 to See, on the part of Persons born blind, but acquiring 
 Sight through Surgical Treatment, Also some Critical 
 
 Remarks. . 286 
 
 I. The Chesselden Case, 286. II, III. The Ware Cases, 
 288. IV, V. The Home Cases, 296. VI. The Wardrop 
 Case, 300. VII. The Franz Case, 306. Final Remarks, 312, 
 
A CONSPECTUS OF 
 
 THE OBSERVATIONS OF PROFESSOR PREYER ON 
 
 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 ARRANGED CHRONOLOGICALLY BY MONTHS, FOR THE CONVENIENCE OP 
 
 THOSE WHO WISH TO VERIFY THESE OBSERVATIONS, OR TO 
 
 USE THEM AS A GUIDE IN THEIR OWN INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 By IT. W. BBOWN. 
 
 FIRST MONTH. 
 
 SENSES.* 
 
 Sight. — Light. — Five minutes after birth, slight sensibility to 
 light (2). Second day, sensitiveness to light of candle (3). Sixth 
 and seventh days, pleasure in moderately bright daylight (3, 4). 
 Ninth and tenth days, sensitiveness greater at waking than soon 
 afterward (3). Sleeping babes close the eyes more tightly when light 
 falls on the eyes (4). Eleventh day, pleasure in light of candle and 
 in bright object (3). 
 
 Discrimination of Colors. — Twenty-third day, pleasure in sight 
 of rose-colored curtain (6). 
 
 Movements of Eyelids. — First to eleventh day, shutting and 
 opening of eyes (22). Irregular movements (23). Lid closed at 
 touch of lashes from sixth day on (26). Twenty-fifth day, eyes 
 opened and shut when child is spoken to or nodded to (30). 
 
 Pleasure shown by opening eyes wide, displeasure by shutting 
 them tightly ; third, sixteenth, and twenty-first days (31). 
 
 Movements of Eyes. — First day, to right and left (35). Tenth 
 
 * Under " Senses " ancl ""Will " the numbers in parentheses indi- 
 cate pages in Vol. I. 
 
x THE MIND OF TEE CHILD. 
 
 day, non-coordinated movements (36). Third week, irregularity 
 prevails (37). 
 
 Direction of Look. — Eleventh day, to father's face and to the 
 light (43). Upward look (43). Twenty-third day, active looking 
 begins (44). Twenty-third and thirtieth days, a moving light fol- 
 lowed (44). 
 
 Seeing Near and Distant Objects. — Twelfth day, hypermetropia 
 (60). 
 
 Hearing. — First days, all children deaf (72). Fourth day, child 
 hears noises like clapping of hands (81). Eleventh and twelfth days, 
 child quieted by father's voice : hears whistling. Twenty-fifth day, 
 pulsation of lids at sound of low voice. Twenty-sixth day, starting 
 at noise of dish. Thirtieth day, fright at loud voice (82). 
 
 Feeling. — Sensitiveness to Contact. — At birth (97-105). Second 
 and third days, starting at gentle touches. Seventh day, waked by 
 touch on face (105). Eleventh day, lid closed at touch of conjunc- 
 tiva more slowly than in adults (103). 
 
 Perception of Touch. — First gained in nursing (110). 
 
 Sensibility to Temperature. — At birth, cooling unpleasant. 
 Warm bath agreeable. Seventh day, eyes opened wide with pleas- 
 ure from bath (112). First two or three years, cold water disagree- 
 able (114). Mucous membrane of mouth, tongue, lips, very sensitive 
 to cold and warmth (115). 
 
 Taste.— Sensibility.— At birth (116-118). First day, sugar licked 
 (118). Second day, milk licked (119). Differences among newly- 
 born (120). Sensation not merely general (122). 
 
 Comparison of Impressions. — During nursing period child pre- 
 fers sweet taste (123). Second day, child accepts food that on the 
 fourth he refuses (124). 
 
 Smell. — Faculty at Birth. — Strong-smelling substances produce 
 mimetic movements (130). 
 
 Discrimination. — Eighth day, groping about for nipple (134). 
 
 Organic Sensations and Emotions. — Pleasure. — First day, in 
 nursing; in the bath ; in the sight of objects ; in the light (141). 
 
 Discomfort. — First days, from cold, wet, hunger, tight clothing, 
 etc. (147). 
 
 Hunger. — First days, manifested in sucking movements, crying, 
 restlessness (152). Cry differs from that of pain or of satisfaction. 
 Other signs of hunger (153). 
 
 Satiety. — Third to fifth week, the nipple pushed away with the 
 
A CONSPECTUS. x i 
 
 lips : mouth-piece of bottle ditto. Tenth day, smile after eating. 
 Fourth week, signs of satisfaction ; laughing, opening and half 
 shutting eyes ; inarticulate sounds (157). 
 
 Fatigue. — From crying and nursing (159). Second and third 
 weeks, from use of senses (160). First month, sleep lasts two hours ; 
 sixteen of the twenty-four hours spent in sleep (162). 
 
 WILL. 
 
 Impulsive Movements.— Outstretching and bending of arms and 
 legs just after birth ; contractions, spreading and bending of fingers 
 (205). Grimaces (207). Wrinkling of forehead (309). First day, 
 arms and legs take same position as before birth (206). Second 
 week, stretching of limbs after waking (205). 
 
 Reflex Movements. — In case of light-impressions (34-42). First 
 cry (213). Sneezing of newly-born (214). Coughing, ditto. (216). 
 Seventh day, yawning (215). First day, spreading of toes when sole 
 of foot is touched (224). First day, hiccough (219). First five days, 
 choking (218). Wheezing, yawning (215). Seventh day, respiration 
 irregular ,(217). Ninth day, clasping (243). Tenth day, lips pro- 
 truded (283). Fourteenth day, movement of left hand toward left 
 temple (220). Twenty-fourth day, snoring (215). 
 
 Instinctive Movements. — First to third day, hands to face. Fifth 
 day, fingers clasp firmly ; toes do not. Sixth day, hands go into 
 eye (244). Seventh day, pencil held with toes, but no seizing. 
 Ninth day, no clasping by sleeping child (245). Sucking (257-261). 
 At end of first week, lateral movements of head (264). Third 
 week, clasping with fingers, not with thumb (245). 
 
 Expressive Movements. — Twenty-sixth day, smile of contentment 
 (296). Twenty-third day, tears flow (307). Crying, with tears, and 
 whimpering, become signs of mental states (308). 
 
 INTELLECT* 
 
 Memory first active in the departments of taste and of smell ; 
 then in touch, sight, hearing (5). Comparison of tastes (I, 123). 
 Vowel-sounds in first month (67). Sounds in first six months (74). 
 Sounds made in crying and screaming, u-ti (101). Twenty-second 
 day, association of the breast with nursing (I, 260). 
 
 * Under "Intellect" the numbers in parentheses indicate pages 
 from Vol. II, unless otherwise stated. 
 
x ii THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 SECOND MONTH. 
 
 Sight. — Light. — Bright or highly-colored objects give pleas- 
 ure (4). 
 
 Discrimination of Colors. — Forty-second day, pleasure in sight 
 of colored tassels (7). 
 
 Movements of Eyelids. — Fifth week, irregular movements of 
 lids. Eighth week, lid covering iris (23). Twenty-fifth day, open- 
 ing and shutting eyes in surprise (30). Fifty-seventh and fifty- 
 eighth days, winking. Sixtieth day, quick opening and shutting 
 in fright (26). 
 
 Movements of Eyes. — Thirty-first day, strabismus rare. Forty- 
 sixth to fiftieth day, very rare. Fifty-fifth day, irregular move- 
 ments rare, but appearing in sleep till the sixtieth day (37). 
 
 Direction of Look. — Fifth week, toward the Christmas-tree (45). 
 Thirty-ninth day, toward tassels swinging (46). Seventh week, mov- 
 ing lamp or bright object followed (45). 
 
 Hearing. — Fifth week, child does not sleep if persons walk or 
 speak. Starting at noises. Sixth week, starting at slight noises 
 even in sleep ; quieted by mother's singing. Seventh week, fright 
 at noise is greater (83). Sensibility to musical tones, ditto. Eighth 
 week, tones of piano give pleasure (84). 
 
 Touch. — Thirty-eighth day, movements caused by touch of water 
 (107). Forty-first day, reflex movement of arms caused by a general 
 slight agitation (105, 106). Fiftieth and fifty-fifth days, closing of 
 eyelid at touch of eyelash (103). Seventh week, upper lip sensitive 
 (100). 
 
 Organic Sensations and Emotions. — Pleasure in musical sounds 
 (141) ; in sight of human face (142). Reflexive laughing (145). Sixth 
 week, fretfulness and hunger (155). Eighth week, fatigue after hear- 
 ing piano-playing (160). Sleep of three, sometimes of five or six 
 hours (162). 
 
 WILL. 
 
 Impulsive Movements. — Of eyes before waking, also twistings and 
 raisings of trunk (206). Seventh week, number of respirations 
 twenty-eight to the minute (217). 
 
 Reflex Movements,— Of right arm at touch of left temple (220). 
 Forty-third day, sneezing caused by witch-meal (215). Fifth week, 
 vomiting (219). Eighth week, laughing caused by tickling (225). 
 
A CONSPECTUS. xiii 
 
 Instinctive Movements. — Seventh week, clasping not yet with 
 thumb. Eighth week, the four fingers of the child embrace the 
 father's finger (245). 
 
 INTELLECT. 
 
 Speech. — Forty-third day, first consonant ; child says am-ma ; also 
 vowel-sound ao. Forty-fourth day, syllables ta-hu ; forty-sixth day, 
 go, oro ; fifty-first day, ara ; eighth and ninth weeks, orro, arra. fre- 
 quent (102). 
 
 THIRD MONTH. 
 
 Sight. — Movements of the Eyelids. — Eyelid not completely 
 raised when child looked up (23). Irregular movements of eyes 
 appear (though rare) up to tenth week; at three months are no 
 more observed (37). 
 
 Direction of Look. — Sixty-first day, child looked at his mother 
 and gave a cry of joy ; the father's face made the child gay. Sixty- 
 second day, look directed at a swinging lamp (46). 
 
 Seeing Near and Distant Objects. — Ninth week, accommodation 
 apparent (54). 
 
 Hearing. — Ninth week, sound of watch arouses attention ; other 
 noises (84). Eleventh week, head moved in direction of sound (85). 
 Eighty-first day ditto. (47). Twelfth week, sudden turning of head 
 toward sounding body (85). 
 
 Organic Sensations and Emotions. — Pleasure. — Smile at sight 
 of the mother's face (145). 
 
 Unpleasant Peeling. — From some internal cause (151). 
 
 Fatigue. — Sucking tiresome (159). Sleep of four or five hours 
 without waking (162). 
 
 Hunger. — Tenth week, child hungry three times or more in a 
 night (155). 
 
 WILL. 
 
 Reflex Movements. — Respirations, thirteenth week, twenty-seven 
 to the minute (217). Hiccough frequent ; stopped by use of sweet- 
 ened water (219). 
 
 Instinctive Movements. — Eleventh week, pencil held, but mechan- 
 ically; thumb not used in clasping (245). Twelfth week, eighty- 
 fourth day, contra-position of thumb reflexive (245, 246). Thirteenth 
 week, thumb follows fingers more readily (246). Eleventh week, 
 head balanced occasionally. Twelfth week, some gain in holding 
 
x iv THE MIND OF THE CHILD, 
 
 head. Thirteenth week, head tolerably well balanced (264). Seiz- 
 ing merely apparent (246). No voluntary movement (266). 
 
 INTELLECT. 
 
 Eighty-first day, seeking direction of sound (I, 47). 
 
 Speech. — Consonant m frequent (67). Sixty-fourth day, ma (102). 
 Sixty-fifth day, nei nei nei and once a-omb. Sixty-sixth day, la, 
 grei, aho, ma. Sixty-ninth day, momm and ngo. Seventy-first day, 
 ra-a-ao. Seventy-sixth day, na and nai-n. Seventy-eighth day, habu. 
 Twelfth week, a-i and uao, d-o-a, a-a-a and o-a-6 (103). 
 
 Feeling of Self. — Eleventh week, child does not see himself in 
 mirror (197). 
 
 FOURTH MONTH. 
 
 Sight. — Movements of Eyelids. — Ninety-eighth day, brow wrin- 
 kled when look is upward (24). Fifty-seventh day, winking (26). 
 Fifteenth and sixteenth weeks, ditto (27). Seventeenth week, objects 
 seized are moved toward eyes ; grasping at objects too distant (55). 
 
 Movements of Eyes. — No more non-coordinated (37). 
 
 Direction of Look. — Fourteenth week, following person moving. 
 One hundred and first day, following pendulum. Sixteenth week, 
 gazing at sides and ceiling of carriage and at objects (48). 
 
 Hearing. — Sixteenth week, head turned toward sound with cer- 
 tainty of reflex (85). 
 
 Feeling. — Seventeenth week, eyes are closed when a drop of 
 water touches lashes (103). Fourteenth week, sleeping child throws 
 up arms at sudden touch (106). 
 
 Organic Sensations and Emotions. — Pleasure in grasping at 
 objects (142). Fifteenth week, intervals between meals three or four 
 hours (155). Sleep lasts five or six hours (162). Twenty-second 
 week, astonishment at seeing father after separation (173). Four- 
 teenth week, smile of satiety. Seventeenth week, joy in seeing 
 image in mirror (297). 
 
 WILL. 
 
 Reflex Movements. — Fourteenth week, right hand to right eye 
 (220). 
 
 Instinctive Movements. — Fourteenth week, hands hold objects 
 longer and with contra-position of thumb. Fifteenth and sixteenth 
 
A CONSPECTUS. XV 
 
 weeks, no intentional seizing. One hundred and fourteenth day, ditto 
 (246). Seventeenth week, efforts to take hold of ball ; ball moved 
 to mouth and eyes. One hundred and eighteenth day, frequent at- 
 tempts at seizing; following day, grasping gives pleasure (247). 
 Fourteenth week, head seldom falls forward. Sixteenth week, head 
 held up permanently (264), this the first distinct manifestation of 
 will (265). Fourteenth week, child sits, his back supported (267). 
 Seventeenth week, biting (261). 
 
 Imitative Movements. — Fifteenth week, beginnings of imitation ; 
 trying to purse the lips (283). Seventeenth week, protruding tip ot 
 tongue (284). 
 
 Expressive Movements. — Sixteenth week, turnings of head and 
 nodding, not significant ; head turned away in refusal (314). 
 
 Deliberate Jfbwmewfe.— Fourteenth week, attentive looking at 
 person moving ; one hundred and first day, at pendulum swinging 
 (48). Fifteenth week, imitation, pursing lips (283). Sixteenth and 
 seventeenth weeks, voluntary gazing at image in mirror (343). 
 
 INTELLECT. 
 
 Intellect participates in voluntary movements (I, 338). 
 
 Speech. — Fourteenth week, nto, lia, Id, na. Fifteenth week, nan- 
 nana, nd-na, nanna, in refusal (103). Sixteenth week, in screaming, 
 d-u d-u d, Bj-u d-u, u-d u-d, u-u-d-6, amme-a ; in discomfort, ud-ud- 
 ■ud-ud (104). 
 
 Feeling of Self. — Seventeenth week, child gazes at his own hand 
 (193). One hundred and thirteenth day, for the first time regards his 
 image with attention (197). One hundred and sixteenth day, laughs 
 at his image (198). 
 
 FIFTH MONTH. 
 
 SENSES. 
 
 Sight. — Direction of Looh — Looking inquiringly (48). 
 
 Seeing Wear and Distant Objects. — Reaching too short (55). 
 
 Hearing. — Nineteenth week, pleasure in sound of crumpling 
 of paper by himself. Twenty-first week, beating of gong enchains 
 attention (85). Disturbed by noise (86). 
 
 Touch. — Auditory canal sensitive (106). 
 
 Organic Sensations and Emotions. — Pleasure in crumpling 
 paper, tearing newspapers and rolling them into balls, pulling at 
 glove or hair, ringing of a bell (142, 143). Eighteenth week, dis- 
 
xvi THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 comfort shown by depressing angles of mouth (149). Eighteenth 
 week, nights of ten to eleven hours without taking food (155). 
 Eighteenth week, desire shown by stretching out arms (247). 
 
 WILL. 
 
 Instinctive Movements. — Eighteenth week, objects seized are held 
 firmly and carried to the mouth (247).' Nineteenth week, child takes 
 bit of meat and carries to mouth. One hundred and twenty-third 
 day, lips protruded in connection with seizing (248). 
 
 INTELLECT. 
 
 Speech. — Consonant k, go, k'6, aggeggeko. First five months, 
 screaming sounds u, a, o, a, with u and o ; m almost the only con- 
 sonant (104). 
 
 Feeling of Self. — Discovery by child that he can cause sensations 
 of sound (192). Looking at his own fingers very attentively (194). 
 
 SIXTH MONTH. 
 
 SENSES. 
 
 Sight. — Movements of Eyelids. — Twenty-fifth week, winking 
 caused by puff of wind in face (27). 
 
 Interpretation of what is seen.— Child laughs when nodded to 
 by father ; observes father's image in mirror, etc. (62). 
 
 Taste. — Medicine taken if sweetened (124). One hundred and 
 fifty-sixth day, child refuses breast, having had sweeter milk. End 
 of twenty-third week, milk of new nurse taken, also cow's milk, meat- 
 broth (125). 
 
 Organic Sensations and Emotions. — Pleasure in grasping in- 
 creases (142). Arms moved up and down when child is nodded to 
 (144). Twenty-third week, depression of angles of mouth and cry 
 of distress caused by harsh address (149). Hunger apparent in per- 
 sistent gaze at bottle, crying, and opening of mouth (154). Sleep of 
 six to eight hours (162). Astonishment at seeing father after sepa- 
 ration, and at sight of stranger (173). 
 
 Reflex Movements. — Sneezing caused, on one hundred and seven- 
 tieth day, by blowing on the child (215). 
 
 Instinctive Movements. — Twenty-second week, child raised him- 
 
A CONSPECTUS. XVli 
 
 self to sitting posture (267). Twenty-third week, ditto : pleased at 
 being placed upright (275). 
 
 Expressive Movements. — Laugh accompanied by raisings and 
 droppings of arms when pleasure, is great (299). Arm-movements 
 that seemed like defensive movements (314). " Crowing " a sign of 
 pleasure (II, 104). 
 
 INTELLECT. 
 
 Use of means to cause flow of milk (12). 
 
 Speech. — Twenty-second week, bgo, ma-o-e, ha, a, ho-ich. " Crow- 
 ing " and aspirate ha, and brrr-hd, signs of pleasure (104). So aja, 
 brrgb, a-d-i-6-a, eu and oeu (French) and a and b (German), also ija ; 
 i and u rare (105). 
 
 Feeling of Self. — Twenty-third week, discrimination between 
 touch of self and of foreign object (194; I, 109). Twenty-fourth 
 week, child gazes at glove and at his fingers alternately (194). 
 Twenty fourth week, sees father's image in mirror and turns to look 
 at father. Twenty-fifth week, stretches hand toward his own image. 
 Twenty-sixth week, sees image of father and compares it with origi- 
 nal (198). 
 
 SEVENTH MONTH. 
 
 Sight. — Movements of Eyelids. — End of seventh month, opening 
 and shutting of fan causes opening and shutting of eyes (30). 
 
 Direction of Look. — Twenty-ninth week, looking at flying spar- 
 row (48). Thirtieth week, child does not look after objects let 
 fall (49). 
 
 Seeing Near and Distant Objects. — Accommodation is perfect 
 (55). 
 
 Interpretation of what is seen. — Staring at strange face (62). 
 
 Hearing. — Gaze at person singing ; joy in military music (86), 
 
 Feeling. — Child became pale in bath (115)'. 
 
 Taste. — New tastes cause play of countenance (124). One hun- 
 dred and eighty-fifth day, cow's milk boiled, with egg, is liked ; legu- 
 minous food not (125). 
 
 Organic Sensations and Emotions. — Pleasure in his image in 
 mirror (142). Child laughs when others laugh to him (145). Twenty- 
 ninth week, crying with hunger ; spreading out tongue (153). Sa- 
 tiety shown by thrusting mouth-piece out (157). 
 
xviii THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 Impulsive Movements. — Nose becomes mobile. Babes strike 
 about them vigorously (207). 
 
 Reflex Movements. — Sighing appears (216). 
 
 Instinctive Movements. — Thirtieth week, seizing more perfect 
 (249). Child places himself upright on lap, twenty-eighth week (275). 
 
 Imitative Movements. — Imitation of movements of head ; of purs- 
 ing lips (283). 
 
 Expressive Movements. — Averting head as sign of refusal ; thrust- 
 ing nipple out of mouth (313, 314). Astonishment shown by open 
 mouth and eyes (55). 
 
 INTELLECT. 
 
 Child did not recognize nurse after absence of four weeks (7) ; 
 but children distinguish faces before thirtieth week (6). 
 
 Speech. — When hungry, child screams ma, a, ua, ude; when 
 contented, says orr'6 ; la, u-d-u-i-i ; t seldom, 7c only in yawning, p 
 very rarely (106). 
 
 EIGHTH MONTH. 
 
 Sight. — Movements of Eyelids. — Brow not wrinkled invariably 
 in looking upward (24). Play of lid on hearing new noises ; no lift- 
 ing of eyebrows (30, 31). Thirty-fourth week, eyes opened wide 
 with longing (31). 
 
 Direction of Look. — Thirty-first week, gaze turned in direction 
 of falling object. Thirty-third week, objects moved slowly down- 
 ward are followed with close gaze. Thirty-fourth week, objects let 
 fall by him are seldom looked after (49). 
 
 Interpretation of what is seen. — Interest in bottles (62). 
 
 Hearing. — Quick closing of lids at new impressions of sound 
 (86). 
 
 Taste. — Pleasure in the " prepared food " (125). 
 
 Organic Sensations and Emotions. — Discomfort accompanied 
 by square form of the mouth (149). Craving for food shown by 
 cooing sound (155). Strongest feeling connected with appeasing of 
 hunger (157). Eestless nights (162). Astonishment at new sounds 
 and sights ; with fright (86). Thirty-first week, at clapping of fan. 
 Thirty-fourth week, at imitation of voices of animals (173). 
 
A CONSPECTUS. X \ K 
 
 Impulsive Movements. — Accompanying movement of hand (210). * 
 Thirty-fourth week, stretchings of arms and legs accompanying 
 utterance (II, 108). ' 
 
 Instinctive Movements. — Thirty-second week, seizing with both 
 hands more perfect ; attention more active (248). In same week, 
 legs stretched up vertically, feet observed attentively, toes carried 
 to mouth with the hands (249). Pulling objects to him ; grasping 
 at bottle (250). Thirty-fourth week, carrying things to mouth 
 (251). 
 
 Expressive Movements. — Laugh begins to be persistently loud 
 (299). Thirty-second week, child no longer sucks at lips when he is 
 kissed, but licks them (305). Eyelid half closed in disinclination 
 (315). Interest in objects shown by stretching out hands (321). 
 
 INTELLECT. 
 
 Speech. — Variety of sounds made in the first eight months at 
 random (76). Concept of bottle before language (79). Sounds in 
 screaming different (106). Once the sound ha-upp; frequently 
 a-ei, a-au, a-hau-a, horro. Also nte-6, mi-ja mija; once ouaei (107).. 
 
 Feeling of Self. — Thirty-second week, child looks at his legs 
 and feet as if they were foreign to him (194). 
 
 NINTH MONTH. 
 
 Sight. — Movements of Eyes. — Eyes converged easily (38). 
 
 Direction of Look. — Thirty-sixth week, objects that fall are not 
 regularly looked after, but slowly moving objects, e. g., tobacco- 
 smoke, are followed (49). 
 
 Interpretation of what is seen. — Boxes are gazed at (62). More 
 interest shown in things in general (63). 
 
 Hearing. — Winking and starting at slamming noise (86). 
 
 Taste. — Yolk of egg with cane-sugar taken with expression of 
 surprise. Water and bread liked (126). 
 
 Organic Sensations and Emotions. — Striking hands together 
 and laughing for joy (145). Eyes shut when something disagreeable 
 is to be endured ; head turned away also (148). Cooing, as in eighth 
 month (155). Fear of dog (167, 168). 
 
xx THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 Reflex Movements.— Number of respirations (in fever) forty and 
 forty-two in a minute (217). 
 
 Instinctive Movements.— Teeth-grinding (262). Turning over 
 when laid face downward (266). Thirty-fifth week, child places 
 himself on arm and hand of nurse, and looks over her shoulder (275). 
 Thirty-ninth week, likes to sit with support (267). Thirty-ninth 
 week,* stands on feet a moment without support (269). 
 
 Expressive Moveme?its.—hou& laughing at new, pleasing objects 
 (299). Tarns head to light when asked where it is (321). 
 
 Deliberate Movements.— Things brought to mouth are put 
 quickly on tongue (329). 
 
 INTELLECT. 
 
 Question understood before child can speak (I, 321). 
 
 Speech. — Voice more modulated : screaming varies with different 
 causes (107). Delight shown by crowing sounds: ma-ma, ammti, 
 ma, are expressions of pleasure ; d-au-d-d, d-d, a-u-au, na-na ; apa, 
 ga-au-d, acha (108). 
 
 Feeling op Self. — Feet are felt of, and toes are carried to mouth 
 (190). Thirty-fifth week, foot grasped and carried to mouth. Thirty- 
 sixth week, other objects preferred to hands and feet. Thirty-ninth 
 week, in the bath his own skin is looked at and felt of, also his legs 
 (194). Thirty-fifth week, his image in mirror is grasped at gayly 
 (198). 
 
 TENTH MONTH. 
 
 SENSES. 
 
 Sight. — Movements of Eyelids. — Brow invariably wrinkled at 
 looking upward (24). 
 
 Movements of Eyes. — Convergence of lines of vision disturbed 
 (38). 
 
 Direction of LooTc.— Forty-third week, objects thrown down are 
 looked at (49). 
 
 Interpretation of what is seen. — Visual impressions connected 
 with food best interpreted (63). 
 
 Hearing. — Head turned at noise (87). 
 
 Organic Sensations and Emotions. — Joy at lighting of lamp 
 (145). 
 
A CONSPECTUS. X xi 
 
 Reflex Movements, — Inhibition of reflex (229). 
 
 Instinctive Movements. — Forty-third week, carrying objects to 
 mouth (252). Taking a hair from one hand into the other (253). 
 Finger bitten (2G1). Bread crunched and swallowed (262). Turning 
 over when laid on face (266). Fortieth and forty-first weeks, trying 
 to sit without support (267). Forty-second week, sitting up without 
 support in bath and carriage (267, 268). Forty-first week, first at- 
 tempts at walking (275). Forty-second week, moving feet forward 
 and sidewise; inclination to walk. Forty-third week, foot lifted 
 high ; moving forward (276). 
 
 Imitative Movements. — Beckoning imitated (285). 
 
 Expressive Movements. — Laughing becomes more conscious and 
 intelligent (299). Crying in sleep (308). Striking hands together in 
 sleep (319). Object pointed at is carried to mouth and chewed (322). 
 Body straightened in anger (324). This not intentional (326). 
 
 INTELLECT. 
 
 Forty-third week, knowledge of weight of bodies (1, 50). A child 
 missed his parents when they were absent, also a single nine-pin of a 
 set (7, 8). 
 
 Speech. — Child can not repeat a syllable heard (77). In mono- 
 logue, syllables are more distinct, loud, and varied when child is left 
 to himself than when other persons entertain him : ndde, bde-bde, 
 ba ell, arro. Frequent are ma, pappa, tatta, wppapa, babba, tdtd, 
 pa, rrrr, rrra. Hints at imitation (108). 
 
 Feeling of Self. — Forty-first week, striking his own body and 
 foreign objects (191). Forty-first to forty-fourth week, image in 
 mirror laughed at and grasped at (198). 
 
 ELEVENTH MONTH. 
 
 SENSES. 
 
 Sight. — Direction of Look. — Forty-seventh week, child throws 
 down objects and looks after them (49). 
 
 Seeing Near and Distant Objects. — Forty-fourth week, new ob- 
 jects no longer carried to eyes, but gazed at and felt. Forty-seventh 
 week, accommodation perfect (55). 
 
 Interpretation of what is seen. — Trying to fixate objects (63). 
 
 Hearing. — Screaming is quieted by a " Sh ! " or by singing. 
 
Xxii TILE M1XD OF THE CHILD. 
 
 Three hundred and nineteenth day, difference in sound of spoon on 
 plate when plate was touched by hand (87). 
 
 Taste. — Meat-broth with egg taken ; scalded skimmed milk re- 
 jected ; dry biscuit liked (126). 
 
 Organic Sensations and Emotions. — Forty-fourth week, aston- 
 ishment at strange face (173). 
 
 WILL. 
 
 Instinctive Movements. — Forty-fifth week, grasping at flame of 
 lamp ; forty-seventh, at objects behind a pane of glass ; gain in 
 moving muscles of arm ; shreds of paper handled (252). Biting fa- 
 ther's hand (261). Smacking lips (262). Sitting becomes habit for 
 life (268). Standing without support ; stamping ; but standing only 
 for a moment (269). End of forty-seventh week, feet well placed, 
 but lifted too high and put down too hard (276). 
 
 Expressive Movements. — Grasping at his image with laugh ; jubi- 
 lant noise at being allowed to walk (299). 
 
 Deliberate Movements. — Striking spoon against object and ex- 
 changing objects (326, 327). Child takes biscuit, carries it to mouth, 
 bites off a bit, chews and swallows it ; but can not drink from glass 
 (329). 
 
 INTELLECT. 
 
 Syllables correctly repeated ; intentional sound-imitation on the 
 three hundred and twenty-ninth day. Forty-fifth week, response 
 made for diversion : whispering begins (109). Three kinds of 
 r-sounds : new syllables, ta-hee, dann-tee, aa-nee, nga, tai, ha, drill, 
 at-tall, kamm, rifckee, pra'i-jer, tra, a-hee. Some earlier sounds fre- 
 quent ; consonants b, p, t, d, m, n, r ; I, g, fc : vowel a most used, u 
 and o rare, i very rare (110), Accentuation not frequent (111). As- 
 sociation of idea with utterance in one case (111, 122). Forty-fifth 
 week, to word " papa," response rrra (113). 
 
 Feeling of Self.— Forty-fifth to fifty-fifth week, discoveiy of his 
 power to cause changes (192). 
 
 TWELFTH MONTH. 
 
 SENSES. 
 
 Sight. — Seeing Near and Distant Objects. — Fifty-first week, 
 pleasure in seeing men sawing wood at distance of more than one 
 hundred feet (55). 
 
 Hearing.— Screaming quieted by " Sh ! " (87). Three hundred 
 
A CONSPECTUS. xxiii 
 
 and sixty-third day, hears noise in next room and looks in direction 
 of sound (88). 
 
 Taste. — Fastidious about food (126). 
 
 Organic Sensations and Emotions. — Grunting as indication of 
 pleasure (144). Fifty-second week, astonishment at new sound (173). 
 
 WILL. 
 
 Impulsive Mo vements.— Accompanying movement of hand in 
 drinking (209). 
 
 Instinctive Movements. — Child seized father's hand, carried it to 
 mouth and bit it (261). Forty-eighth week, standing without sup- 
 port a moment; stamping; pushing a chair (276). Forty-ninth 
 week, child can not raise himself without help or stand more than 
 an instant. Fiftieth week, can not place himself on his feet, or walk 
 without help (277). 
 
 Imitative Movements. — Trying to strike with spoon on tumbler ; 
 puffing repeated in sleep (287). 
 
 Expressive Movements. — End of year, imitative laughing ; crow- 
 ing (299). Laughing in sleep (300). Opening of mouth in kissing 
 (305). Arms stretched out in desire (322). 
 
 Deliberate Movements. — Biscuit put into mouth with few failures ; 
 drinking from glass, breathing into the water (329). 
 
 intellect. 
 
 Ideas gained before language (78). Logical activity applied to 
 perceptions of sound (I, 88). Abstraction, whiteness of milk (18). 
 
 Speech. — Imitation more successful, but seldom correct. Ar- 
 tiaulate sounds made spontaneously : liaja, jajajajaja, aja, njaja, 
 nam-hopp, ha-a,pa-a, dewdr, han-na, momma, allda, alldal, apa-u-a, 
 gaga, ha, ladn ; atta is varied, no more dada ; iv for the first time. 
 Ability to discriminate between words (112). Fifty-second week, 
 child of himself obeys command, " Give the hand ! " Quieting effect 
 of sounds " sh, ss, st, pst " (113). 
 
 Feeling of Self. — Striking hard substances against teeth ; gnash- 
 ing teeth (189). Tearing of paper continued (192). 
 
 THIRTEENTH MONTH. 
 
 SENSES. 
 
 Hearing.— Child strikes on keys of piano ; pleased with singing 
 of canary-bird (89). 
 
xxiv THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 Organic Sensations and Emotions. — Laughing almost invari- 
 ably follows the laugh of others (145). Sleep, fourteen hours daily 
 (162). 
 
 WILL. 
 
 Instinctive Movements. — Standing some moments without sup- 
 port (270). Fifty-third week, creeping. Fifty-fourth week, walking, 
 with support ; movements in creeping asymmetrical (277). 
 
 Expressive Movements. — No idea of kissing (305). Shaking head 
 in denial (315). Begging sound along with extending of hands 
 in desire (323). 
 
 INTELLECT. 
 
 Trying door after shutting it (15, 16). Hears the vowel-sounds 
 in word (68). 
 
 Speech. — Desire expressed by cl-na, d-nananana (112). Awkward- 
 ness continues ; attention more lively. Tries to repeat words said 
 for him. Three hundred and sixty-ninth day, papa repeated cor- 
 rectly (113, 114). Syllables most frequent, nja, njan, dada, atta, 
 mama, papal, atta'i, na-na-na, hatta, meene-meene-meene, momm, 
 momma, ao-u : na-na denotes desire, mama, mother. Fifty-fourth 
 week, joy expressed by crowing, some very high tones ; first dis- 
 tinct s, three hundred and sixty-eighth day (114). Understanding 
 of words spoken (115). Confusion of associations ; first conscious 
 act of obedience (116). 
 
 Feeling of Self. — Rapping head with hand (191). Finding him- 
 self a cause: shaking keys, etc. (192). Fifty-fifth week, strikes 
 himself and observes his hands ; compares fingers of others with 
 his own (195). 
 
 FOURTEENTH MONTH. 
 
 SENSES. 
 
 Sight. — Seeing Near and Distant Objects. — Fifty-eighth week, 
 grasping at lamp above him (55). 
 
 Organic Sensations and Emotions. — Fear of falling (169). Fifty 
 eighth week, astonishment at lantern (173). 
 
 WILL. 
 
 Instinctive Movements. — Child could be allowed to bite paper to 
 pieces ; he took the pieces out of his mouth (253). Fifty-seventh 
 week, he hitches along on hands and knees ; can not walk without 
 support. Sixtieth week, raises himself by chair (277). 
 
A CONSPECTUS. xxv 
 
 val of time was required (287). Coughing imitated (288). Nodding 
 not imitated (315). 
 
 Expressive Movements. — Confounding of movements (322). Af- 
 fection shown by laying hand on face and shoulders of others (324). 
 
 Deliberate Movements. — Child takes off and puts on the cover 
 of a can seventy-nine times (328). 
 
 INTELLECT. 
 
 Wrong understanding of what is heard (89). 
 
 Speech. — No doubt that atta means " going " ; orrr, practiced and 
 perfected ; daJcJcn, daggn, taggn, attagn, attain ; no special success in 
 repeating vowels and syllables (117). Child tries and laughs at his 
 failures, if others laugh ; parrot-like repetition of some syllables 
 (118). Gain in understanding of words heard ; association of defi- 
 nite object with name (119). More movements executed on hear- 
 ing words (120). Confounding of movements occurs, but grows 
 rare; begging attitude seen to be useful (121). 
 
 Feeling of Self. — Four hundred and ninth day, child bit himself 
 on the arm (189). Pulling out and pushing in a drawer, turning 
 leaves of book, etc. (192). Fifty-seventh week, child looks at his 
 image in hand-mirror, puts hand behind glass, etc. (198). Fifty- 
 eighth week, his photograph treated in like manner ; he turns away 
 from his image in mirror ; sixtieth week, recognizes his mother's 
 image in mirror as image (199). 
 
 FIFTEENTH MONTH. 
 
 SENSES. 
 
 Sight. — Direction of Look. — Sixty-third to sixty-fifth week, ob- 
 jects thrown down and looked after (50). 
 
 Interpretation of what is seen. — Grasps at candle, puts hand into 
 flame, but once only (63). 
 
 Hearing. — Laughing at new noises, as gurgling or thunder (89). 
 
 Smell. — Coffee and cologne make no impression till end of 
 month (134). 
 
 WILL. 
 
 Instinctive Movements. — Sixty-second week, child stands a few 
 seconds when support is withdrawn. Sixty-third week, walks, hold- 
 
xxv i THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 ing on to a support (277). Sixty-fourth week, can walk without 
 support, if he thinks he is supported ; sixty-fifth week, walks hold- 
 ing by one finger of another's hand ; raises himself to knees, stands 
 up if he can hold to something (278). 
 
 Imitative Movements. — Coughing. Learns to blow out candle 
 (288). Opening and shutting of hand (289). 
 
 Expressive Movements. — Laughing at new sounds (299). The 
 words " Give a kiss " produce a drawing near of head and protruding 
 of lips (306). Wrinkling of brow in attempts at imitation (310). 
 Deprecating movement of arm (314). Sixty-fourth week, nodding 
 sometimes accompanies the word " no " ; four hundred and forty-fifth 
 day, an accompanying movement (316). First shrugging of shoul- 
 ders (317). Begging gesture made by child when he wants some- 
 thing (318). Same made in asking for amusement (319). Wish ex- 
 pressed by handing a ring, looking at glasses to be struck, and say- 
 ing hay-uh (323). 
 
 INTELLECT. 
 
 Hunting for scraps of paper, etc. (17). After burning his finger 
 in flame of candle, the child never put it near the flame again, but 
 would, in fun, put it in the direction of the candle. He allowed 
 mouth and chin to be wiped without crying (20). 
 
 Speech. — New sound wa ; astonishment expressed by ha-a-w-e, 
 j°y by crowing in high and prolonged tones, strong desire by had, 
 hd-e, pain, impatience, by screaming in vowels passing over into one 
 another (121). The atta still used when a light is dimmed (122). 
 Advance in repeating syllables. Child is vexed when he can not re- 
 peat a word. One new word, heiss (hot) (123). The s is distinct ; 
 th (Eng.) appears; w; smacking in sixty-fifth week; tongue the 
 favorite plaything (124). Understands words "moon," "clock," 
 " eye," " nose," " cough," " blow," " kick," " light " ; affirmative nod 
 at "ja" in sixty-fourth week ; negative shaking at "no"; holding 
 out hand at words " Give the hand " or " hand " ; more time re- 
 quired when child is not well (125). 
 
 Feeling of Self. — Child bit his finger so that he cried out with 
 pain (191). Sixty-second week, playing with his fingers as foreign 
 objects ; pressing one hand down with the other (195). Sixty-first 
 week, trying to feel of his own image in the mirror (199). 
 
A CONSPECTUS. XXvii 
 
 SIXTEENTH MONTH. 
 
 SENSES. 
 
 Sight. — Seeing Near and Distant Objects. — Sixty-eighth week, 
 reaching too short, too far to left or right, too high or too low (56), 
 
 Interpretation of ivhat is seen. — Grasping at jets of water (63). 
 
 Hearing. — Child holds watch to his ear and listens to the tick- 
 ing (89). 
 
 Smell. — Smell and taste not separated ; a flower is taken into 
 mouth (135). 
 
 Organic Sensations and Emotions.— Fear of high tones (169). 
 
 WILL. 
 
 Impulsive Movements.— Sleeping child raised hand to eye (202). 
 Accompanying movement of fingers in drinking (210). 
 
 Reflex Movements. — Respirations, in sleep, twenty-two to twenty- 
 five a minute (217). 
 
 Instinctive Movements. — Sixty-sixth week, four hundred and fifty- 
 seventh day, child runs alone (278). Next day, stops and stamps. 
 Four hundred and sixty-first day, can walk backward, if led, and can 
 turn round alone. At the end of the week can look at objects while 
 walking. Sixty-seventh week, a fall occurs rarely. Sixty-eighth 
 week, walking becoming mechanical (279). 
 
 Imitative Movements. — A ring put on his head in imitation (289). 
 Waiting attitude (318). 
 
 Expressive Movements. — Lips protruded almost like a snout (302). 
 Shaking head meant ' ; No" and "I do not know" (316). Child 
 shrugs shoulders when unable to answer (317). Waiting attitude 
 becomes a sign (318). 
 
 Deliberate Movements. — Opening and shutting cupboards, bring- 
 ing objects, etc. Holding ear-ring to ear (327). 
 
 intellect. 
 
 Child holds an ear-ring to his ear with understanding (I, 327). 
 A begging movement at seeing box from which cake had come (11). 
 Small understanding shown in grasping at ring (13). 
 
 Speech. — Progress in repeating words spoken for him and in un- 
 derstanding words heard. Desire expressed by lid! lid-'o I lia-e! 
 Jie-e ! More seldom hi, go-go, go, f-pa, cm; more frequently, ta, 
 dohkn, ta-lia, a-bwa-bwa, bud-bud; once dagon. Child "reads" the 
 newspaper (126). Pain expressed by screaming; joy by crowing 
 
xxviii THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 with vowel i; a repeated on command; mo and ma; imitation 
 tried (127). Touches eye, ear, etc., when these are named — not with 
 certainty (128). Understands " bring," " give," etc. (129). 
 
 Feeling of Self. — Putting thumbs against the head and pushing, 
 experimenting (191). Sixty-sixth week, child strikes at his image in 
 mirror. Sixty-seventh week, makes grimaces before mirror ; turns 
 round to see his father, whose image appeared in mirror (199). 
 Sixty-ninth week, signs of vanity (200). 
 
 SEVENTEENTH MONTH. 
 
 Sight. — Interpretation of wliat is seen. — Child grasps at tobac- 
 co-smoke (64). 
 
 Hearing. — Holding watch to ear (89). 
 
 Taste. — Surprise at new tastes (119). 
 
 Smell. — Inability to separate smell and taste (135). 
 
 Organic Sensations and Emotions. — Prolonged sleep ; ten hours 
 at a time (162). 
 
 WILL. 
 
 Reflex Movements. — Right hand moved when right nostril is 
 touched (221). 
 
 Instinctive Movements. — Clasping of finger in sleep (243). Seven- 
 tieth week, child raises himself from floor alone : seventy- first week, 
 steps over threshold (279). 
 
 Expressive Movements. — Shaking head means " I do not wish " 
 (316). Throwing himself on floor and screaming with rage (323). 
 
 INTELLECT. 
 
 Child brings traveling-bag to stand upon in order to reach (12). 
 Play of "hide and seek" (17). 
 
 Speech. — Screaming, whimpering, etc. (101). Increase of dis- 
 crimination : bibi, nd-na-na, t-to, Tiot-tb ; voluntary imitation (129). 
 Associations of words heard with objects and movements (130). 
 
 Feeling of Self. — Making grimaces before mirror (200). 
 
 EIGHTEENTH MONTH. 
 
 SENSES. 
 
 Sight. — Direction of Look. — Seventy-eighth week, throwing away 
 of playthings is rare (50). 
 
A CONSPECTUS. xx i x 
 
 Interpretation of what is seen. — Anxiety on seeing man dressed 
 in black (64). 
 
 Smell. — Objects no longer carried to mouth (135). 
 
 Organic Sensations and Emotions. — Laughing at thunder (170). 
 
 WILL. 
 
 Impulsive Movements. — Holding little finger apart from others 
 (209). 
 
 Instinctive Movements. — Walks over threshold by holding on 
 (275). Seventy-seventh week, runs around table; seventy-eighth, 
 walks over threshold without holding on (280). 
 
 Imitative Movements. — Blowing horn (290). 
 
 Expressive Movements. — Trying to hit With foot, striking, etc. 
 (315). Waiting attitude (318). 
 
 Deliberate Movements. — Full spoon carried to mouth with skill 
 (329). 
 
 INTELLECT. 
 
 Memory of towel (8). Watering flowers with empty pot (16). 
 Plays (17). Giving leaves to stag, etc. (18). Stick of wood put in 
 stove (20). 
 
 Speech.— Understanding of words increases (130). Repeating of 
 syllables is rare ; atta becomes tto, t-tu, ftu ; feeling recognized by 
 tone of voice (131). 
 
 Feeling of Self.— Recognition of himself as cause of changes 
 (192). 
 
 NINETEENTH MONTH. 
 
 SENSES. 
 
 Hearing.— Hearing watch on his head (89). 
 Organic Sensations and Emotions.— Fear of strangers ceases 
 (150). Laugh at thunder and lightning (170). 
 
 WILL. 
 
 Imitative Movements. — Combing and brushing hair, washing 
 hands, etc. (290). 
 
 Expressive Movements.— Fastidious about kissing (306). Pride 
 in baby-carriage (324). 
 
 Deliberative Movements.— Spoon taken in left hand (329). 
 
xxx THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 INTELLECT. 
 
 Father recognized after absence (8). Bringing cloth for wrap 
 and begging for door to be opened (12). Grunting in order to be 
 taken away (13). Induction, watch and clock (18). Crying seen to 
 be useless (20). 
 
 Speech. — Imitation of whistle (91). Spontaneous sound imita- 
 tions more frequent (131). Gazing after objects thrown and whis- 
 pering, reading newspaper (132). Response to pa correctly given 
 (133). Objects correctly pointed out ; memory of tricks (134). 
 
 Feeling of Self. — Attempt to give his foot (190). 
 
 TWENTIETH MONTH. 
 
 Sight. — Discrimination of Colors. — First color-tests. Eighty- 
 fifth week, no discrimination (7). Eighty-sixth and eighty-seventh 
 weeks, no results (8). 
 
 Movements of the Eyes. — Readiness of convergence, pupils very 
 wide open (38). 
 
 Organic Sensations and Emotions. — Prolonged sleep habitual, 
 etc. (163). 
 
 WILL. 
 
 Reflex Movements. — Respirations twenty-two and more (217). 
 
 Instinctive Movements. — Eighty-fifth week, thresholds stepped 
 over quickly ; inclines forward in running (280). 
 
 Imitative Movements. — Use of comb and brush, putting on col- 
 lar (290). Scraping feet, putting pencil to mouth, marking on 
 paper (291). 
 
 Expressive Movements. — Proximity essential in kissing ; bends 
 head when " kiss " is said (306). Antipathy expressed by turning 
 head at approach of women in black (315). 
 
 Deliberate Movements. — Carries spoon with food to mouth cleverly 
 (329). 
 
 INTELLECT. 
 
 As in nineteenth month, grunting (12, 13). 
 
 Speech. — Rodi, otto, rojo (93). Understanding of the word 
 " other " (128, 129). Five hundred and eighty-fourth day, impor- 
 tant advance in repeating words said (135). Imagination ; can not 
 
A CONSPECTUS. xxxi 
 
 repeat three syllables; laughs when others laugh (136). Single 
 words more promptly understood (137). One new concept, expressed 
 by da and nda, or ta and nta. Eighty-seventh week, attah said on 
 railway-train ; papa and bat or bit (for " bitte ") rightly used ; much 
 outcry (138). Crowing tones not so high; loud readings continued 
 (139), 
 
 TWENTY-FIRST MONTH. 
 
 SENSES. 
 
 Hearing. — Dancing not rhythmical (89, 90). 
 
 Organic Sensations and Emotions.— Fear of the sea (170). 
 
 WILL. 
 
 Instinctive Movements. — Eighty-ninth week, running is awk- 
 ward, but falling rare (280). 
 
 Imitative Movements. — Imitation without understanding (290, 
 291). 
 
 Expressive Movements. — Ninetieth week, pointing as expression 
 of wish (321). 
 
 INTELLECT. 
 
 Recognition of father (8). Association of biscuit with coat and 
 wardrobe (11). 
 
 Speech. — Imitations more frequent. Eighty-ninth week, bab- 
 bling different, more consonants ; pto-pto, pt-pt, and verlapp, also 
 dla-dla ; willfulness shown in articulate sounds and shaking head 
 (139). Unlike syllables not repeated, dang~gee and daiik-kee ; tend- 
 ency to doubling syllables, tete, bibi; babbling yields great pleas- 
 ure ; bibi for " bitte " rightly used. New word mimi, when hungry 
 or thirsty (140). Understands use and signification of sound, 
 neinein ; and answers of his own accord jaja to question in ninety- 
 first week. Strength of memory for sounds; points correctly to 
 nose, mouth, etc. (141). Astonishing progress in understanding 
 what is said. Few expressions of his own with recognizable mean- 
 ing, jae excepted. Att, att, att, unintelligible. Tried to imitate 
 sound of steam of locomotive (142). 
 
 Feeling of Self. — Placing shells and buttons in rows (193). Puts 
 lace about him ; vanity ; laughs and points at his own image in mir- 
 ror (200). The same on six hundred and twentieth day (201). 
 3 
 
xxxii THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 TWENTY-SECOND MONTH. 
 
 SENSES. 
 
 Sight. — New impressions enchain attention ; the mysterious more 
 attractive (64). 
 
 INTELLECT. 
 
 Speech. Progress in understanding ; orders executed with sur- 
 prising accuracy (142). Strength of word-memory ; facility of ar- 
 ticulation ; spontaneous utterance of pss, ps, ptsch, pth ; pa-ptl-dd- 
 pt ; greeting with hda-o, ada and ana. Singing, rollo, mama, md?nd, 
 etc. More certainty in reproducing sounds : " pst, anna, otto, lina," 
 etc. Three-syllabled words correctly repeated, a-ma-ma, a-pa-pa 
 (143). Words too hard are given back with tapeta, peta, pta, pto-pto 
 or rateratetat. Jaja and nein nein, with da and bibi and mimi, used 
 properly in request. Cry of pain a strong contrast with the crow- 
 ing for joy (144). 
 
 TWENTY-THIRD MONTH. 
 
 SENSES. 
 
 Sight. — Seeing Near and Distant Objects. — Ninety-sixth week, 
 does not appreciate distance (56). 
 
 WILL. 
 
 Imitative Movements. — Imitative impulse seems like ambition; 
 ceremonious movements imitated (291). 
 
 Expressive Movements. — Kiss given as a mark of favor (306). 
 Striking hands together in applause and desire for repetition (319). 
 Tears of sorrow instead of anger ; tries to move chair to table, etc. 
 (324). 
 
 INTELLECT. 
 
 Joy at seeing playthings after absence of eleven and a half 
 weeks (8). Concept of " cup" not sharply denned (16). Use of ad- 
 jective for the first spoken judgment (96). 
 
 Speech. — Heiss (hot) means "The drink is too hot," and "the 
 stove is hot " (144). Watja and mimi ; mimmi, mdm'd, mama, mean 
 food ; atta, disappearance ; spontaneous articulation, ol, eu, ana, ida, 
 didl, dadl, dldo-dlda; in singing-tone, opoj'o, apojopojum aui,heissa; 
 calls grandparents e-papa and e-mama ; knows who is meant when 
 these are spoken of. Understands words more easily, as " drink, eat, 
 shut, open " (145). Word-memory becoming firm ; imagination. 
 
A CONSPECTUS. xxxiii 
 
 Great progress in reproducing syllables and words (146). Child's 
 name, " Axel," is called Aje, Eja. " Bett, Karre, Kuk," repeated 
 correctly. Echolalia reappears (147). Words are best pronounced 
 by child when he is not called upon to do it (148). 
 
 Feeling of Self.— Child holds biscuit to his toes (190). 
 
 TWENTY-FOURTH MONTH. 
 
 SENSES. 
 
 Sight. — Interpretation of ivhat is seen. — Moving animals closely 
 observed (64). 
 
 Hearing. — Trying to sing, and beating time (90). 
 
 Organic Sensations and Emotions. — Astonishment more seldom 
 apparent (174). 
 
 WILL. 
 
 Instinctive Movements. — Child turns, of himself, dancing in time 
 to music ; beats time (280). 
 
 Imitative Movements. — Ceremonious movements imitated, saluta- 
 tion, uncovering head (291). 
 
 Expressive Movements.— Roguish laughing first observed (299). 
 
 intellect. 
 
 Understanding of actions and of use of utensils more developed 
 than ability to interpret representations of them (I, 64, 65). 
 
 Speech. — Voluntary sound-imitations gain in frequency and 
 accuracy ; genuine echolalia (148). Imperfect imitations (149). 
 Multiplicity of meanings in the same utterance (150). Distinguish- 
 ing men from women. Combination of two words into a sentence, 
 seven hundred and seventh day ; words confounded ; also gestures 
 and movements ; but not in the expression of joy and grief (151, 152). 
 
 TWENTY-FIFTH MONTH. 
 
 SENSES. 
 
 Sight. — Discrimination of Colors. — Color-tests, red and green ; 
 seven hundred and fifty-eighth day, eleven times right, six wrong ; 
 seven hundred and fifty- ninth, seven right, five wrong ; seven hun- 
 dred and sixtieth, nine right, five wrong (8). Does not yet Mow 
 what blue and green signify. Moves and handles himself well in 
 twilight (21). 
 
xxxiv THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 Seeing Near and Distant Objects. — One hundred and eighth 
 week, power of accommodation good ; small photographic likenesses 
 recognized (56). 
 
 INTELLECT. 
 
 Speech. — Progress is extraordinary. Does not pronounce a per- 
 fect " u." All sound-imitations more manifold, etc. ; begins say- 
 ing " so " when any object is brought to appointed place (152). Has 
 become more teachable, repeats three words imperfectly. Evidence 
 of progress of memory, understanding and articulation in answers 
 given. No word invented by himself ; calls his nurse wold, probably 
 from the often-heard " ja wohl." Correct use of single words picked 
 up increases surprisingly (153). Misunderstandings rational ; words 
 better understood ; reasoning developed (154). Inductive reasoning. 
 Progress in forming sentences. Sentence of five words. Pronouns 
 signify objects or qualities (155, 156). 
 
 TWENTY-SIXTH MONTH. 
 
 SENSES. 
 
 Sight. — Discrimination of Colors. — Seven hundred and sixty- 
 third day, 15 right, 1 wrong. Three colors pointed out ; disinclina- 
 tion to continue (8). Seven hundred and sixty-fifth day, green con- 
 founded with yellow. One hundred and tenth week, right 78, wrong 
 22. Blue added. End of one hundred and tenth week to one 
 hundred and twelfth week, right 124, wrong 36. Yellow more surely 
 recognized than other colors. Violet added (9). Colors taken 
 separately. One hundred and twelfth week, right 44, wrong 11. 
 Tests in both ways ; attention not continuous. Gray is added. One 
 hundred and twelfth and one hundred and thirteenth weeks, right 
 90, wrong 27 (10, 11). Child does not know what "green "means 
 in one hundred and twelfth week (21). 
 
 Seeing Wear and Distant Objects. — One hundred and thirteenth 
 week, articles of furniture recognized in pictures at distance of three 
 inches or three feet (56). 
 
 WILL. 
 
 Instinctive Movements. — First attempts at climbing (331). 
 
 INTELLECT. 
 
 Child points out objects in pictures, and repeats names given to 
 3m ; list of results (156). Points out of his own accord, with cer- 
 
A CONSPECTUS. xxxv 
 
 tainty, in the picture-book. Appropriates many words not taught 
 him, tola for " Kohlen," dais for " Salz." Others correctly said and 
 used (157). Some of his mutilated words not recognizable ; " sch " 
 sometimes left out, sometimes given as z or ss. Independent thoughts 
 expressed by words more frequently; "Good-night" said to the 
 Christmas-tree (158). Verb used (in the infinitive) showing growth 
 of intellect ; learning of tricks decreases (159). No notion of num- 
 ber ; does not understand " Thank you," but thanks himself. More 
 names of animals, learned from adults ; no onomatopoeia (160). 
 
 TWENTY-SEVENTH MONTH. 
 
 SENSES. 
 
 Sight. — Discrimination of Colors. — Color-tests, from one hun- 
 dred and fourteenth to one hundred and sixteenth week, four trials, 
 colors mixed ; result, 59 right, 22 wrong (11). Blue especially 
 confounded with violet, also with green. Four trials in one hun- 
 dred and fourteenth and one hundred and 'fifteenth weeks; re- 
 sult, 58 right, 32 wrong (12). Two trials in one hundred and fif- 
 teenth week ; result, 25 right, 16 wrong (13). 
 
 Organic Sensations and Emotions. — Uncomfortable feeling 
 through pity ; child weeps if human forms cut out of paper are 
 in danger of mutilation (150, 151). 
 
 WILL. 
 
 Instinctive Movements. — Pleasure in climbing begins (280). 
 
 INTELLECT. 
 
 Speech. — Activity of thought. Observation and comparison. 
 Gratitude does not appear (161). Wishes expressed by verbs in the 
 infinitive or by substantives. Adverbs ; indefinite pronouns. Seven 
 hundred and ninety-sixth day, makes the word Messen (162). Wold 
 and atta have almost disappeared. Independent applications of 
 words (163). Monologues less frequent. Begs apple to give to a 
 puppet. Echolalia prominent. Tones and noises imitated (164). 
 Laughing when others laugh ; fragments of a dialogue repeated. 
 Feeble memory for answers and numbers. Eight hundred and tenth 
 day, gave his own name for first time in answer to a question (165). 
 No question yet asked by the child. The article is not used. Pro- 
 nunciation slowly becoming correct (166). 
 
XXXvi THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 TWENTY-EIGHTH MONTH. 
 
 SENSES. 
 
 Sight. — Discrimination of Colors. — One hundred and twenty- 
 first week, greater uncertainty (13). 
 
 Organic Sensations and Emotions. — Fear of pigs (108). 
 
 WILL. 
 
 Instinctive Movements. — Going on all-fours ; jumping, climbing 
 gives pleasure (280). 
 
 INTELLECT. 
 
 Speech. — Rapid increase of activity in forming ideas, and greater 
 certainty in use of words. Ambition ; observation and combina- 
 tion ; beginning of self-control ; use of his own name and of names 
 of parents ; independent thinking (167). Increase in number of 
 words correctly pronounced ; attempt to use prepositions ; first in- 
 telligent use of the article (168). Questioning active; first spon- 
 taneous question on eight hundred and forty-fifth day. " Where % " 
 is his only interrogative word. Reproduction of foreign expressions 
 (169). Imagination lively ; paper cups used like real ones. Articu- 
 lation better, but still deficient. Many parts of the body named 
 correctly (170). Child makes remarks for a quarter of an hour at 
 a time concerning objects about him, sings, screams in sleep (171). 
 
 TWENTY-NINTH MONTH. 
 
 Sight. — Discrimination of Colors. — One hundred and twenty- 
 fourth week, right, 58 ; wrong, 49. Eight hundred and sixty-eighth 
 day, child takes colors of his own accord and names them ; con- 
 founding rose, gray, and pale-green, brown and gray, blue and 
 violet. One hundred and twenty-fourth and one hundred and 
 twenty-fifth weeks, right, 80 ; wrong, 34 (14). Red and yellow gen- 
 erally named rightly ; blue and green not. Red and yellow are 
 removed; child is less interested. One hundred and twenty-fifth 
 and one hundred and twenty-sixth weeks, right, 80; wrong, 63. 
 Orange confounded with yellow, blue with violet, green with gray, 
 black with brown. Failure of attempt to induce child to put like 
 colors together, or to select colors by their names (15). 
 
A CONSPECTUS. xxxvii 
 
 Direction of Look. — One hundred and twenty-fourth week, gaze 
 follows ball thrown (50). 
 
 Organic Sensations and Emotions. — Fear of dogs (168). 
 
 INTELLECT. 
 
 Personal pronoun used in place of his own name. Inflection of 
 verbs appears, but the infinitive is generally used for imperative ; 
 regular and irregular verbs begin to be distinguished (171). Desire 
 expressed by infinitive. Numbering active ; numerals confounded. 
 Eight hundred and seventy-eighth day, nine-pins counted " one, 
 one, one," etc. (172). Questioning increases ; " too much " is con- 
 founded with " too little." Yet memory gains (173). Sounds of 
 animals well remembered. Slow progress in articulation (174). 
 
 Feeling of Self. — Personal pronoun in place of his own name ; 
 "me "but not yet "I" (202). 
 
 THIRTIETH MONTH. 
 
 SENSES. 
 
 Sight. — Discrimination of Colors. — One hundred and twenty- 
 sixth, one hundred and twenty-seventh, and one hundred and 
 twenty-eighth weeks, four trials with single color at a time; 75 
 right, 34 wrong. Eight hundred and ninety-eighth day, every color 
 rightly named ; some guessing on blue and green (16). 
 
 Interpretation of what is seen. — Persistent desire daily to 
 " write " locomotives (66). 
 
 Hearing. — While eating, by chance puts hand to ear while kettle 
 of boiling water stood before him ; notices diminution in force of 
 sound (88). 
 
 WILL. 
 
 Instinctive Movements. — Mounting a staircase without help ; ten 
 days later with hands free (280, 281). 
 
 INTELLECT. 
 
 Speech. — Independent activity of thought. When language fails, 
 he considers well (174). Deliberation without words; concepts 
 formed. Intellectual advance shown in first intentional use of lan- 
 guage (175). Only interrogative word is still " Where "? " " I " does 
 not appear, but " me " is used. Sentences independently applied 
 
XXXVlii THE MIND OF TEE CHILD. 
 
 (176). More frequent use of the plural in nouns ; of the article ; of 
 the strong inflection ; auxiliaries omitted or misemployed. Twofold 
 way of learning correct pronunciation (177). Memory for words de- 
 noting objects good ; right and left confounded (178). 
 
 THIRTY-FIRST MONTH. 
 
 Sight. — Discrimination of Colors. — Nine hundred and thirty- 
 fourth day, child says he can not tell green and blue. Green mostly 
 called gray; blue, violet (17). 
 
 Feeling. — Sensibility to Temperature. — Child laughs joyously in 
 cold bath (115). 
 
 WILL. 
 
 Weakness of will shown by ceasing to eat when told that he has 
 had enough (344). 
 
 INTELLECT. 
 
 Speech. — Onomatopoeia; imitation of locomotive- whistle (91). 
 Two new questions. Indefinite article more frequent. Individual 
 formations of words, as comparative of " high " ; " key-watch." 
 Confounding of " to-day " and "yesterday " (178). Forming of sen- 
 tences imperfect. Reporting of faults. Calls things " stupid " when 
 he is vexed by them. Changes occupation frequently. Imitation 
 less frequent. Singing in sleep. " Sch " not yet pronounced (179). 
 
 Feeling of. Self. — Causing change in objects, pouring water into 
 and out of vessels (193). Laughing at image of self in mirror (201). 
 
 THIRTY-SECOND MONTH. 
 
 Sight. — Discrimination of Colors. — One hundred and thirty- 
 eighth and a few previous weeks, six trials, child taking colors and 
 naming them ; right 119, wrong, 38 (16, 17). Green and blue called 
 " nothing at all." Unknown colors named green ; leaves of roses 
 called " nothing," as are whitish colors. One hundred and thirty- 
 eighth and one hundred and thirty-ninth weeks, three trials ; right, 
 93, wrong, 39 (17, 18). Green begins to be rightly named, blue less 
 often (18). 
 
A CONSPECTUS, xxxix 
 
 INTELLECT. 
 
 Speech. — " I " begins to displace the name of child. Sentence 
 correctly applied. Clauses formed. Particle separated in compound 
 verbs. Longer names and sentences distinctly spoken, but the influ- 
 ence of dialect appears (180). Memory improved, but fastidious; 
 good for what is interesting and intelligible to child (181). 
 
 Feeling of Self.— Fourfold designation of self (202). 
 
 THIRTY-THIRD MONTH. 
 
 Sight. — Discrimination of Colors. — One hundred and thirty- 
 ninth, one hundred and forty-first, and one hundred and forty-sixth 
 weeks, took colors of his own accord and named them ; result of 
 three trials, 66 right, 19 wrong (18). 
 
 Organic Sensations and Emotions. — Fear of even smallest dog 
 (168). 
 
 INTELLECT. 
 
 Understanding that violations of well-known precepts have un- 
 pleasant consequences (21). 
 
 Speech. — Strength of memory shown in characteristic remarks 
 Narrative of feeding fowls (181). Interest in animals and other 
 moving objects ; lack of clearness in concepts of animal and ma- 
 chine ; meaning of word " father " includes also " uncle " ; selfhood 
 more sharply manifested. Confounds " too much " with " too little," 
 etc. (182). 
 
 Feeling of Self. — " I " especially used in " I want that," etc. (202). 
 
 THIRTY-FOURTH MONTH. 
 
 SENSES. 
 
 Sight. — Discrimination of Colors. — " Green " rightly applied to 
 leaves and grass (18). Order in which colors are rightly named up 
 to this time ; right, one thousand and forty-four ; wrong, four hun- 
 dred and forty-two : right, 70'3 per cent ; wrong, 29-7. Yellow and 
 red much sooner named rightly than green and blue (19). 
 
 will. 
 Instinctive Movements. — First gymnastic exercises (281). 
 
xl THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 Expressive Movements. — Kissing an expression of thankfulness 
 (306). 
 
 INTELLECT. 
 
 Speech. — Repeating, for fun, expressions heard. Calls, without 
 occasion, the name of the nurse ; calls others by her name, some- 
 times correcting himself. Seldom speaks of himself in third per- 
 son ; gradually uses " Du " in address ; uses " What ? " in a new way. 
 One thousand and twenty-eighth day, " Why ? " first used ; instinct 
 of causality expressed in language (183). Questioning repeated to 
 weariness. Articulation perfected, with some exceptions (184). 
 
 Feeling of Self.— Repeats the " I " heard, meaning by it " you " 
 (202). 
 
 THIRTY-FIFTH MONTH. 
 
 WILL. 
 
 Reflex Movements. — Responsive movement in sleeping child (221). 
 
 INTELLECT. 
 
 Speech. — Fondness for singing increases ; pleasure m compass 
 and power of his voice (185). 
 
 THIRTY-SIXTH MONTH. 
 
 SENSES. 
 
 Hearing. — Musical notes C, D, E, could not be rightly named 
 by child, in spite of teaching (90). 
 
 INTELLECT. 
 
 "When?" not used until close of the third year (184). Great 
 pleasure in singing, but imitation here not very successful, though 
 surprisingly so in regard to speech. Grammatical errors more rare. 
 Long sentences correctly but slowly formed. Ambition manifested 
 in doing things without help (185). 
 
 Invention in language rare. Participles well used (186). 
 
 THIRTY-SEVENTH MONTH. 
 
 SENSES. 
 
 Sight. — Discrimination of Colors. — Colors named correctly ex- 
 cept very dark or pale ones (21). 
 
A CONSPECTUS. x ]i 
 
 Organic Sensations and Emotions. — Night's sleep from eleven 
 to twelve hours ; day-naps no longer required (163). Fear (in sleep) 
 of pigs (168). 
 
 intellect. 
 
 Speech. — Child's manner of speaking approximates more and 
 more rapidly to that of the family (186). 
 
 FORTIETH MONTH. 
 
 INTELLECT. 
 
 Feeling of Self. — Fortieth month, pleased with his shadow (201). 
 
THE MIND OF THE CHILD, 
 
 THIRD PART. 
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE INTELLECT. 
 
 The development of the intellect depends in so 
 great measure upon the modification of innate endow- 
 ments through natural environment and education, even 
 before systematic instruction begins, and the methods 
 of education are so manifold, that it is at present impos- 
 sible to make a complete exposition of a normal intel- 
 lectual development. Such an exposition would neces- 
 sarily comprise in the main two stages : 
 
 1. The combination of sensuous impressions into 
 perceptions (Wahrnehmungen) ; which consists essen- 
 tially in this — that the sensation, impressing itself di- 
 rectly upon our experience, is by the intellect, now be- 
 ginning to act, co-ordinate in space and time. 
 
 2. The combination of perceptions into ideas ; in 
 particular into sense-intuitions and concepts. A sense- 
 intuition (Anschauung) is a perception together with its 
 cause, the object of the sensation ; a concept (Begrifl) 
 results from the union of the previously separated per- 
 ceptions, which are then called separate marks or qualities. 
 
 The investigation of each of these stages in the child 
 
2 THE MIND OF TIIE CHILD. 
 
 is in itself a great labor, which an individual may indeed 
 begin upon, but can not easily carry through uniformly 
 in all directions. 
 
 I have indeed tried to collect recorded facts, but have 
 found only very little trustworthy material, and accord- 
 ingly I confine myself essentially to my own observa- 
 tions on my child. These are not merely perfectly trust- 
 worthy, even to the minutest details (I have left out 
 everything of a doubtful character), but they are the 
 most circumstantial ever published in regard to the in- 
 tellectual development of a child. But I have been ac- 
 quainted with a sufficient number of other children to be 
 certain that the child observed by me did not essentially 
 differ from other healthy and intelligent boys in regard 
 to the principal points, although the time at which de- 
 velopment takes place, and the rapidity of it, differ a 
 good deal in different individuals. Girls often appear 
 to learn to speak earlier than boys ; but further on they 
 seem to possess a somewhat inferior capacity of develop- 
 ment of the logical functions, or to accomplish with less 
 ease abstractions of a higher order ; whereas in boys the 
 emotional functions, however lasting their reactions, 
 are not so delicately graduated as in girls. 
 
 Without regard to such differences, of which I am 
 fully aware, the following chapters treat exclusively of 
 the development of purely intellectual cerebral activity 
 in both sexes during the first years. I acknowledge, 
 however, that I have found the investigation of the in- 
 fluence of the affectional movements, or emotions, upon 
 the development of the intellect in the child during the 
 first years so difficult, that I do not for the present enter 
 into details concerning it. 
 
THINKING WITHOUT WORDS. 
 
 The observations relate, first, to the non-dependence 
 of the child's intellect upon language ; next, to the ac- 
 quirement of speech ; lastly, to the development of the 
 feeling of self, the " I "-feeling. 
 
 CHAPTEK XVI 
 
 OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 A wide-spread prejudice declares, " Without lan- 
 guage, no understanding " ! Subtile distinctions between 
 understanding and reason have limited the statement to 
 the latter term. But even in the restricted form, " With- 
 out verbal language, no reason," it is at least unproved. 
 
 Is there any thinking without words f The ques- 
 tion takes this shape. 
 
 Now, for the thinker, who has long since forgotten 
 the time when he himself learned to speak, it is difficult, 
 or even impossible, to give a decided answer. For the 
 thinking person can not admit that he has been thinking 
 without words ; not even when he has caught himself 
 arriving at a logical result without a continuity in his 
 unexpressed thought. A break occurred in the train. 
 There was, however, a train of thought. Breaks alone 
 yield no thought ; they arise only after words have been 
 associated with thoughts, and so they can by no means 
 serve as evidence of a thinking without words, although 
 the ecstasy of the artist, the profundity of the meta- 
 physician, may attain the last degree of unconscious- 
 ness, and a dash may interrupt the thought-text. 
 
4 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 But the child not yet acquainted with verbal lan- 
 guage, who has not been prematurely artificialized by 
 training and by suppression of his own attempts to 
 express his states of mind, who learns of himself to 
 think, just as he learns of himself to see and hear — 
 such a child shows plainly to the attentive observer 
 that long before knowledge of the word as a means of 
 understanding among men, and long before the first suc- 
 cessful attempt to express himself in articulate words — 
 nay, long before learning the pronunciation of even a 
 single word, he combines ideas in a logical manner — i. e., 
 he thinks. Thinking is, it is true, "internal speech," 
 but there is a speech without words. 
 
 Facts in proof of this have already been given in 
 connection with other points (Yol. I, pp. 88, 327, 328) ; 
 others are given further on. 
 
 It will not be superfluous, however, to put together 
 several observations relating to the development of the 
 childish intellect without regard to the acquirement of 
 speech ; and to present them separately, as a sort of in- 
 troduction to the investigation of the process of learning 
 to speak. 
 
 Memory; a causative combination of the earliest 
 recollections, or memory-images ; purposive, deliberate 
 movements for the lessening of individual strain — all 
 these come to the child in greater or less measure inde- 
 pendently of verbal language. The, as it were, embry- 
 onic logic of the child does not need words. A brief 
 explanation of the operation of these three factors will 
 show this. Memory takes the first place in point of 
 time. 
 
 "Without memory no intellect is possible. The only 
 
THINKING WITHOUT WOEDS. 5 
 
 material at the disposal of the intellect is received from 
 the senses. It has been provided solely ont of sensa- 
 tions. JSTow a sensation in itself alone, as a simple fun- 
 damental experience affecting primarily the one who 
 has the sensation, can not be the object of any intel- 
 lectual operation whatever. In order to make such 
 activity possible there must be several sensations : two 
 of different kinds, of unequal strength ; or two of dif- 
 ferent kinds, of the same strength ; or two of the same 
 kind unequally strong ; in any case, two unlike sensa- 
 tions (cf. my treatise " Elemente der reinen Empfin- 
 dungslehre," Jena, 1876), if the lowest activity of the 
 intellect, comparison, is to operate. But because the 
 sensations that are to be compared can not all exist 
 together, recollection of the earlier ones is necessary 
 (for the comparison) ; that is, individual or personal 
 memory. 
 
 This name I give to the memory formed by means 
 of individual impressions (occurrences, experiences) in 
 contrast with the phyletio memory, or instinct, the 
 memory of the race, which results from the inheritance 
 of the traces of individual experiences of ancestors ; of 
 this I do not here speak. 
 
 All sensations leave traces behind in the brain ; weak 
 ones leave such as are easy to be obliterated by others ; 
 strong ones, traces more enduring. 
 
 At the beginning of life it seems to be the depart- 
 ment of taste (sweet) and of smell (smell of milk) in 
 which memory is first operative (YoL I, p. 124). Then 
 comes the sense of touch (in nursing). Next in order 
 the sense of sight chiefly asserts itself as an early pro- 
 moter of memory. Hearing does not come till later. 
 
6 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 If the infant, in the period from three to six months 
 of age, is brought ' into a room he has not before seen, 
 his expression changes ; he is astonished. The new sen- 
 sations of light, the different apportionment of light and 
 dark, arouse his attention ; and when he comes back to 
 his former surroundings he is not astonished. These 
 have lost the stimulus of novelty — i. e., a certain remi- 
 niscence of them has remained with the child, they have 
 impressed themselves upon him. 
 
 Long before the thirtieth week, healthy children dis- 
 tinguish human faces definitely from one another ; first, 
 the faces of the mother and the nurse, then the face of 
 the father, seen less often ; and all three of these from 
 every strange face. Probably faces are the first thing 
 frequently perceived clearly by the eye. It has been 
 found surprising that infants so much earlier recognize 
 human faces and forms, and follow them with the gaze, 
 than they do other objects. But human forms and 
 faces, being large, moving objects, awaken interest 
 more than other objects do ; and on account of the 
 manner of their movements, and because they are the 
 source from which the voice issues, are essentially dif- 
 ferent from other objects in the field of vision. " In 
 these movements they are also characterized as a co- 
 herent whole, and the face, as a whitish-reddish patch 
 with the two sparkling eyes, is always a part of this 
 image that will be easy to recognize, even for one who 
 has seen it but a few times " (Helmholtz). 
 
 Hence the memory for faces is established earlier 
 than that for other visual impressions, and with this the 
 ability to recognize members of the family. A little 
 girl, who does not speak at all, looks at pictures with 
 
THINKING WITHOUT WORDS. f 
 
 considerable interest in the seventh month, " and points 
 meantime with her little forefinger to the heads of the 
 human figures " (Frau von Striimpell). 
 
 My child in the second month could already localize 
 the face and voice of his mother, but the so-called 
 knowing (" Erkennen ") is a recognition (Wiedererken- 
 nen) which presupposes a very firm association of the 
 memory-images. This fundamental function attached 
 to the memory can have but a slow development, be- 
 cause it demands an accumulation of memory-images 
 and precision in them. 
 
 In the second three months it is so far developed, at 
 least, that strange faces are at once known as strange, 
 and are distinguished from those of parents and nurse ; 
 for they excite astonishment or fear (crying) while the 
 faces of the latter do not. But the latter, if absent, are 
 not yet, at this period, missed by most children. Hence 
 it is worthy of note that a girl in her twelfth month 
 recognized her nurse after six days' absence, immediate- 
 ly, " with sobs of joy," as the mother reports (Frau von 
 Striimpell) ; another recognized her father, after a 
 separation of four days, even in the tenth month 
 (Lindner). 
 
 In the seventh month my child did not recognize 
 his nurse, to whom he had for months been accustomed, 
 after an absence of four weeks. Another child, how- 
 ever, at four months noticed at evening the absence of 
 his nurse, who had been gone only a day, and cried 
 lustily upon the discovery, looking all about the room, 
 and crying again every time after searching in vain 
 (Wynia, 1881). At ten months the same child used to 
 be troubled by the absence of his parents, though he 
 
8 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 bore himself with indifference toward them when he 
 saw them again. At this period a single nine-pin out 
 of the whole set could not be taken away without his 
 noticing it, and at the age of a year and a half this child 
 knew at once whether one of his ten animals was missing 
 or not. In the nineteenth and twenty-first months my 
 boy recognized his father immediately from a distance, 
 after a separation of several days, and once after two 
 weeks' absence ; and in his twenty-third month his joy 
 at seeing again his playthings after an absence of eleven 
 and a half weeks (with his parents) was very lively, great 
 as was the child's forgetfulness in other respects at this 
 period. A favorite toy could often be taken from him 
 without its being noticed or once asked for. But when 
 the child — in his eighteenth month — after having been 
 accustomed to bring to his mother two towels which he 
 would afterward carry back to their place, on one occa- 
 sion had only one towel given back to him, he came 
 with inquiring look and tone to get the second. 
 
 This observation, which is confirmed by some similar 
 ones, proves that at a year and a half the memory for 
 visual and motor ideas that belong together was already 
 well developed without the knowledge of the correspond- 
 ing words. But artificial associations of this sort need 
 continual renewing, otherwise they are soon forgotten ; 
 the remembrance of them is speedily lost even in the 
 years of childhood. 
 
 It is noteworthy, in connection with this, that what 
 has been lately acquired, e. g., verses learned by heart, 
 can be recited more fluently during sleep than in the 
 waking condition. At the age of three years and five 
 months a girl recited a stanza of five lines on the occa- 
 
THINKING WITHOUT WORDS. 9 
 
 sion of a birthday festival, not without some stumbling, 
 but one night soon after the birthday she repeated the 
 whole of the rhymes aloud in her sleep without stum- 
 bling at all (Frau yon Striimpell). 
 
 L[t is customary, generally, to assume that the memory 
 of adults does not extend further back than to the fourth 
 year of life. Satisfactory observations on this point are 
 not known to exist. But it is certainly of the first con- 
 sequence, in regard to the development of the faculty of 
 memory, whether the later experiences of the child 
 have any characteristic in common with the earlier 
 experiences. For many of these experiences no such 
 agreement exists ; nothing later on reminds us of the 
 once existing inability to balance the. head, or of the 
 former inability to turn around, to sit, to stand, to walk, 
 of the inborn difficulty of hearing, inability to accom- 
 modate the eye, and to distinguish our own body from 
 foreign objects ; hence, no man, and no child, remembers 
 these states. But this is not true of what is acquired 
 later. My child when less than three years old remem- 
 bered very well — and would almost make merry over 
 himself at it — the time when he could not yet talk, but 
 articulated incorrectly and went imperfectly through the 
 first, often-repeated performances taught by his nurse, 
 " How tall is the child % " and " Where is the rogue \ " 
 If I asked him, after he had said " Friihstiicken " correct- 
 ly, how he used to say it, he would consider, and would 
 require merely a suggestion of accessory circumstances, 
 in order to give the correct answer Friticlc, and so with 
 many words difficult to pronounce. The child of three 
 and even of four years can remember separate experi- 
 ences of his second year, and a person that will take 
 
10 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 the pains to remind him frequently of them will be able 
 easily to carry the recollections of the second and third 
 years far on into the more advanced years of childhood. 
 It is merely because no one makes such a useless experi- 
 ment that older children lose the memory-images of 
 their second year. These fade out because they are not 
 combined with new ones. 
 
 At what time, however, the first natural association 
 of a particular idea with a new one that appears weeks 
 or months later, takes place without being called up by 
 something in the mean time, is very hard to determine. 
 On this point we must first gather good observations 
 out of the second and third half-years, like the follow- 
 ing: 
 
 " In the presence of a boy a year and a half old it 
 was related that another boy whom he knew, and who 
 was then in the country far away, had fallen and hurt 
 his knee. ISTo one noticed the child, who was playing as 
 the story was told. After some weeks the one who had 
 fallen came into the room, and the little one in a lively 
 manner ran up to the new-comer and cried, ( Fall, hurt 
 leg!' "(Stiebel, 1865). 
 
 Another example is given by Gr. Lindner (1882) : 
 " The mother of a two-year-old child had made for it out 
 of a postal-card a sled (Schlitten), which was destroyed 
 after a few hours, and found its way into the waste- 
 basket. Just four weeks later another postal-card 
 comes, and it is taken from the carrier by the child and 
 handed to the mother with the words, ( Mamma, Litten ! ' 
 This was in summer, when there was nothing to remind 
 the child of the sled. Soon after the same wish was 
 expressed on the receipt of a letter also." 
 
THINKING WITHOUT WOKDS. H 
 
 I have known like cases of attention, of recollection. 
 
 and of intelligence in the third year where they were 
 not suspected. The child, unnoticed, hears all sorts of 
 things said, seizes on this or that expression, and weeks 
 after brings into connection, fitly or unfitly, the memory- 
 images, drawing immediately from an insufficient num- 
 ber of particular cases a would-be general conclusion. 
 
 Equally certain with this fact is the other, less known 
 or less noticed, that, even before the first attempts at 
 speaking, such a generalizing and therefore concept- 
 forming combination of memory -images regularly takes 
 place. 
 
 All children in common have inborn in them the 
 ability to combine all sorts of sense-impressions con- 
 nected with food, when these appear again individually, 
 with one another, or with memory-images of such im- 
 pressions, so that adaptive movements suited to the ob- 
 taining of fresh food arise as the result of this associa- 
 tion. In the earlier months these are simple and easier 
 to be seen, and I have given several examples (Vol. I, 
 pp. 250, 260, 329, 333). Later such movements, through 
 the perfecting of the language of gesture and the growth 
 of this very power of association, become more and more 
 complicated : e. g., in his sixteenth month my boy saw 
 a closed box, out of which he had the day before re- 
 ceived a cake; he at once made with his hands a beg- 
 ging movement, yet he could not speak a word. In the 
 twenty-first month I took out of the pocket of a coat 
 which was hanging with many others in the wardrobe a 
 biscuit and gave it to the child. When he had eaten it, 
 he went directly to the wardrobe and looked in the 
 right coat for a second biscuit. At this period also the 
 
12 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 child can not have been thinking in the unspoken words, 
 " Get biscuit — wardrobe, coat, pocket, look," for he did 
 not yet know the words. 
 
 Even in the sixth month an act of remarkable 
 adaptiveness was once observed, which can not be called 
 either accidental or entirely voluntary, and if it was 
 fully purposed it would indicate a well-advanced devel- 
 opment of understanding in regard to food without 
 knowledge of words. When the child, viz., after con- 
 siderable experience in nursing at the breast, discovered 
 that the flow of milk was less abundant, he used to place 
 his hand hard on the breast as if he wanted to force out 
 the milk by pressure. Of course there was here no in- 
 sight into the causal connection, but it is a question 
 whether the firm laying on of the little hand was not 
 repeated for the reason that the experience had been 
 once made accidentally, that after doing this the nursing 
 was less difficult. 
 
 On the other hand, an unequivocal complicated act 
 of deliberation occurred in the seventeenth month. The 
 child could not reach his playthings in the cupboard, 
 because it was too high for him ; he ran about, brought 
 a traveling-bag, got upon it, and took what he wanted. 
 In this case he could not possibly think in words, since 
 he did not yet know words. 
 
 My child tries further (in the nineteenth and twen- 
 tieth months) in a twofold fashion to make known his 
 eager wish to leave the room, not being as yet able to 
 speak. He takes any cloth he fancies and brings it to 
 me. I put it about him, he wraps himself in it, and, 
 climbing beseechingly on my knee, makes longing, piti- 
 ful sounds, which do not cease until after I have opened 
 
THINKING WITHOUT WORDS. 13 
 
 a door through which he goes into another room. Then 
 he immediately throws away the cloth and runs about 
 exulting. 
 
 r — The other performance is this : When the child 
 feels the need of relieving his bowels, he is accustomed 
 to make peculiar grunting sounds, by means of a strain 
 of the abdomen, shutting the mouth and breathing loud, 
 by jerks, through the nose. He is then taken away. 
 Now, if he is not suited with the place where he hap- 
 pens to be, at any time, he begins to make just such 
 sounds. If he is taken away, no such need appears at 
 all, but he is in high glee. Here is the expectation, "I 
 shall be taken away if I make that sound." 
 
 Whether we are to admit, in addition, an intentional 
 deception in this case, or whether only a logical process 
 takes place, I can not decide. In the whole earlier and 
 later behavior of the child there is no ground for the 
 first assumption, and the fact that he employs this arti- 
 fice while in his carriage, immediately after he has been 
 waited on, is directly against it. 
 
 To how small an extent, some time previous to this, 
 perceptions were made use of to simplify his own exer- 
 tions, i. e., were combined and had motor effect, appears 
 from an observation in the sixteenth month. Earlier 
 than this, when I used to say, " Give the ring," I always 
 laid an ivory ring, that was tied to a thread, before the 
 child, on the table. I now said the same thing — after 
 an interval of a week — while the same ring was hang- 
 ing near the chair by a red thread a foot long, so that 
 the child, as he sat on the chair, could just reach it, but 
 only with much pains. He made a grasp now, upon 
 getting the sound-impression " ring," not at the thread, 
 
14 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 which would have made the seizure of the ring, hang- 
 ing freely, very easy for him, but directly at the ring 
 hanging far below him, and gave it to me. And when 
 the command was repeated, it did not occur to him to 
 touch the thread. 
 
 It is likewise a sign of small understanding that the 
 mouth is always opened in smelling of a fragrant flower 
 or perfume (Yol. I, p. 135). Deficiencies of this kind 
 are, indeed, quite logical from the standpoint of childish 
 experience. Because, at an earlier period the pleasant 
 smell (of milk) always came in connection with the 
 pleasant taste, therefore, thinks the child, in every case 
 where there is a pleasant smell there will also be some- 
 thing that tastes good. The common or collective con- 
 cept taste- smell had not yet (in the seventeenth month) 
 been differentiated into the concepts taste and smell. 
 
 In the department of the sense of hearing the differ- 
 entiation generally makes its appearance earlier ; mem- 
 ory, as a rule, later. Yet children whose talent for 
 music is developed early, retain melodies even in their 
 first year of life. A girl to whom some of the Froebel 
 songs were sung, and who was taught appropriate move- 
 ments of the hands and feet, always performed the prop- 
 er movement when one of the melodies was merely 
 hummed, or a verse was said (in the thirteenth month), 
 without confounding them at all. This early and firm 
 association of sound-images with motor-images is pos- 
 sible only when interest is attached to it — i. e., when the 
 attention has been directed often, persistently, and with 
 concentration, upon the things to be combined. Thus, 
 this very child (in the nineteenth month), when her fa- 
 vorite song, " "Who will go for a Soldier ? " (" Wer will 
 
THINKING WITHOUT WORDS. 15 
 
 nnter die Soldaten ? ") was sung to her, could not only 
 join in the rhyme at the end of the verse, but, no mat- 
 ter where a stop was made, she would go on, in a man- 
 ner imperfect, indeed, but easily intelligible (Fran Dr. 
 Friedemann). 
 
 Here, however, in addition to memory and atten- 
 tion, heredity is to be considered ; since such a talent is 
 wholly lacking in certain families, but in others exists 
 in all the brothers and sisters. 
 
 In performances of this kind, a superior understand- 
 ing is not by any means exhibited, but a stronger mem- 
 ory and faculty of association. These associations are 
 not, however, of a logical sort, but are habits acquired 
 through training, and they may even retard the devel- 
 opment of the intellect if they become numerous. For 
 they may obstruct the formation, at an early period, of 
 independent ideas, merely on account of the time they 
 claim. Often, too, these artificial associations are almost 
 useless for the development of the intellect. They are 
 too special. On this ground I am compelled to cen- 
 sure the extravagancies, that are wide-spread especially in 
 Germany, of the Froebel methods of occupying young 
 children. 
 
 The logic of the child naturally operates at the be- 
 ginning with much more extensive, and therefore less 
 intensive, notions than those of adults, with notions 
 which the adult no longer forms. But the child does 
 not, on that account, proceed illogically, although he 
 does proceed awkwardly. Some further examples may 
 illustrate. 
 
 The adult does not ordinarily try whether a door 
 that he has just bolted is fast ; but the one-year-old 
 
IQ THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 child tests carefully the edge of the door he has shut, 
 to see whether it is really closed, because he does not 
 understand the effect of lock and bolt. For even in 
 the eighteenth month he goes back and forth with a 
 key, to the writing-desk, with the evident purpose of 
 opening it. But at twelve months, when he tries 
 whether it is fast, he does not think of the key at all, 
 and does not yet possess a single word. 
 
 An adult, before watering flowers with a watering- 
 pot, will look to see whether there is water in it. The 
 child of a year and a half, who has seen how watering 
 is done, finds special pleasure in going from flower to 
 flower, even with an empty watering-pot, and making 
 the motions of pouring upon each one separately, as if 
 water would really come out. For him the notion 
 "watering-pot" is identical with the notion "filled 
 watering-pot," because at first he was acquainted with 
 the latter only. 
 
 Much of what is attributed to imagination in very 
 young children rests essentially on the formation of 
 such vague concepts, on the inability to combine con- 
 stant qualities into sharply defined concepts. When, in 
 the twenty-third month, the child holds an empty cup 
 to his mouth and sips and swallows, and does it repeat- 
 edly, and with a serene, happy expression, this " play " 
 is founded chiefly on the imperfect notion " filled cup." 
 The child has so often perceived something to drink, 
 drinking-vessel, and the act of drinking, in combination 
 with one another, that the one peremptorily demands 
 the other when either appears singly ; hence the pleas- 
 ure in pouring out from empty pitchers into empty 
 cups, and in drinking out of empty cups (in second to 
 
THINKING WITHOUT WORDS. 17 
 
 fifth years). When adults do the same in the play of 
 the theatre, this action always has a value as language, 
 it signifies something for other persons; but with the 
 child, who plays in this fashion entirely alone, the 
 pleasure consists in the production of familiar ideas to- 
 gether with agreeable feelings, which are, as it were, 
 crystallized with comparative clearness out of the dull 
 mass of undefined perceptions. These memory-images 
 become real existences, like the hallucinations of the 
 insane, because the sensuous impressions probably im- 
 press themselves directly — without reflection — upon 
 the growing brain, and hence the memory-images of 
 them, on account of their vividness, can not always be 
 surely distinguished from the perceptions themselves. 
 Most of the plays that children invent of themselves 
 may be referred to this fact ; on the other hand, the play 
 of hide-and-seek (especially in the seventeenth and eight- 
 eenth months), and, nearly allied to this, the hunting 
 after scraps of paper, bits of biscuit, buttons, and other 
 favorite objects (in the fifteenth month), constitute an 
 intellectual advance. 
 
 By practice in this kind of seeking for well-known, 
 purposely concealed objects, the intelligence of little 
 children can easily be increased to an astonishing de- 
 gree, so that toward the end of the second year they al- 
 ready understand some simple tricks of the juggler; for 
 example, making a card disappear. But after I had 
 discontinued such exercises for months, the ordinary 
 capacity for being duped was again present. 
 
 This ease with which children can be deceived is to 
 be attributed to lack of experience far more than to 
 lack of intelligence. When the child of a year and a 
 
18 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 half offers leaves to a sheep or a stag, observes the 
 strange animal with somewhat timid astonishment, and 
 a few days after holds out some hastily plucked grass- 
 blades to a chaffinch he sees hopping across the road, 
 supposing that the bird will likewise take them from 
 his hand and eat them — an observation that I made on 
 my child exactly as Sigismund did on his — it is not 
 right to call such an act " stupid " ; the act shows igno- 
 rance — i. e., inexperience — but it is not illogical. The 
 child would be properly called stupid only in case he 
 did not learn the difference between the animals fed. 
 When, on the other hand, the child of two and a half 
 years, entirely of his own accord, holds a watch first to 
 his left ear, then to his right, listens both times, and then 
 says, " The watch goes, goes too ! " then, pointing with 
 his finger to a clock, cries with delight, " The clock goes 
 too," we rightly find in such independent induction a 
 proof of intellect. For the swinging of the pendulum 
 and the ticking had indeed often been perceived, but 
 to connect the notion of a " going clock " with the visi- 
 ble but noiseless swinging, just as with the audible but 
 invisible ticking of the watch, requires a pretty well 
 advanced power of abstraction. 
 
 That the ability to abstract may show itself, though 
 imperfectly, even in the first year, is, according to my 
 observations, certain. Infants are struck by a quality of 
 an object — e. g., the white appearance of milk. The 
 " taking away " or " abstracting " then consists in the iso- 
 lating of this quality out of innumerable other sight-im- 
 pressions and the blending of the impressions into a 
 concept. The naming of this, which begins months 
 later, by a rudimental word, like mum, is an outward 
 
THINKING WITHOUT WORDS. 19 
 
 sign of this abstraction, which did not at all lead to the 
 formation of the concept, but followed it, as will be 
 shown in detail further on (in the two following chap- 
 ters). 
 
 It would be interesting to collect observations con- 
 cerning this reasoning power in the very earliest pe- 
 riod, because at that time language does not interfere 
 to help or to hinder. But it is just such observations 
 that we especially lack. When a child in the twelfth 
 month, on hearing a watch for the first time, cries out, 
 " Tick-tick," looking meantime at the clock on the wall, 
 he has not, in doing this, "formed," as G. Lindner sup- 
 poses, " his first concept, although a vague and empty 
 one as yet," but he had the concept before, and has now 
 merely given a name to it for the first time. 
 
 The first observation made in regard to his child by 
 Darwin, which seemed to him to prove " a sort of prac- 
 tical reflection," occurred on the one hundred and forty- 
 fourth day. The child grasped his father's finger and drew 
 it to his mouth, but his own hand prevented him from 
 suckiug the finger. The child then, strangely enough, 
 instead of entirely withdrawing his hand, slipped it along 
 the finger so that he could get the end of the finger into 
 his mouth. This proceeding was several times repeated, 
 and was evidently not accidental but intentional. At 
 the age of ^.Ye months, associations of ideas arose inde- 
 pendently of all instruction. V Thus, e. g., the child, being 
 dressed in hat and cloak, was very angry if he was not 
 at once taken out of doors. 
 
 How strong the reasoning power without words may 
 be at a later period, the following additional observa- 
 tions show : 
 
20 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 From the time when my child, like Sigismund's 
 (both in the fifteenth month), had bnrned his finger in 
 the flame of the candle, he conld not be induced to pnt 
 his finger near the flame again, but he would sometimes 
 put it in fun toward the flame without touching it, and 
 he even (eighteen months old) carried a stick of wood 
 of his own accord to the stove-door and pushed it in 
 through the open slide, with a proud look at his par- 
 ents. There is surely something more than an imita- 
 tion here. 
 
 Further, my child at first never used to let his 
 mouth and chin be wiped without crying; from the 
 fifteenth month on he kept perfectly quiet during the 
 disagreeable operation. He must have noticed that this 
 was finished sooner when he was quiet. 
 
 vThe same thing can be observed in every little child, 
 provided he is not too much talked to, punished, yielded 
 to, or spoiled. In the nineteenth month it happened 
 with my child that he resisted the command to lie down 
 in the evening. I let him cry, and raise himself on his 
 bed, but did not take him up, did not speak to him, did 
 not use any force, but remained motionless and watch- 
 ful near by. At last he became tired, lay down, and fell 
 asleep directly. Here he acquired an understanding of 
 the uselessness of crying in order to avoid obedience 
 to commands. 
 
 The knowledge of right (what is allowed and com- 
 manded) and of wrong (what is forbidden) had been 
 long since acquired. In the seventeenth month, e. g., 
 a sense of cleanliness was strongly developed, and later 
 (in the thirty-third month) the child could not, without 
 lively protest, behold his nurse acting contrary to the 
 
THINKING WITHOUT WOKDS. 21 
 
 directions that had been given to himself — e. g., putting 
 the knife into her month or dipping bread into the milk. 
 Emotions of this kind are less a proof of the existence of 
 a sense of duty than of the understanding that violations 
 of well-known precepts have unpleasant consequences 
 — i. e., that certain actions bring in their train pleasant 
 feelings, while other acts bring unpleasant feelings. 
 How long before the knowledge of words these emotions 
 began to exist I have, unfortunately, not succeeded in 
 determining. 
 
 But in many of the above cases — and they might 
 without difficulty be multiplied by diligent observation 
 — there is not the least indication of any influence of 
 spoken words. Whether no attempt at speaking has 
 preceded, or whether a small collection of words may 
 have been made, the cases of child-intelligence adduced 
 in this chapter, observed by myself, prove that with- 
 out knowledge of verbal language, and independently 
 of it, the logical activity of the child attains a high 
 degree of development, and no reason exists for ex- 
 plaining the intelligent actions of children who do 
 not yet speak at all — i. e., do not yet clothe their ideas 
 in words, but do already combine them with one an- 
 other — as being different specifically from the intelli- 
 gent (not instinctive) actions of sagacious orangs and 
 chimpanzees. The difference consists far more in this, 
 that the latter can not form so many, so clear, and so 
 abstract conceptions, or so many and complicated com- 
 binations of ideas, as can the gifted human child in the 
 society of human beings — even hef ore he has learned to 
 speak. When he has learned to speak, then the gap 
 widens to such an extent that what before was in some 
 
22 THE HIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 respects almost the equal of humanity seems now a 
 repulsive caricature of it. 
 
 In order, then, to understand the real difference be- 
 tween brute and man, it is necessary to ascertain how a 
 child and a brute animal may have ideas without words, 
 and may combine them for an end : whether it is done, 
 e. g., with memory-images, as in dreaming. And it is 
 necessary also to investigate the essential character of 
 the process of learning to speak. 
 
 Concerning the first problem, which is of uncommon 
 psychogenetic interest and practical importance, a solu- 
 tion seems to be promised in the investigation of the 
 formation of concepts in the case of those born deaf, the 
 so-called deaf and dumb children. On this point I offer 
 first the words of a man of practical experience. 
 
 The excellent superintendent of the Educational In- 
 stitute for the Deaf and Dumb in Weimar, C. Oehl- 
 wein (1867), well says : 
 
 " The deaf-mute in his first years of life looks at, 
 turns over, feels of objects that attract him, on all sides, 
 and approaches those that are at a distance. By this 
 he receives, like the young child who has all his senses, 
 sensations and sensuous ideas ; * and from the objects 
 themselves he apprehends a number of qualities, which 
 he compares with one another or with the qualities of 
 other objects, but always refers to the object which at 
 the time attracts him. Herein he has a more correct or 
 less correct sense-intuition of this object, according as 
 he has observed, compared, and comprehended more or 
 less attentively. As this object has affected him through 
 
 * Empfindungsvorstellungen. 
 
THINKING WITHOUT WORDS. 23 
 
 sight and feeling, so he represents it to other persons 
 also by characteristic signs for sight and indirectly for 
 feeling also. He shapes or draws a copy of the object 
 seen and felt with life and movement. For this he 
 avails himself of the means that Nature has placed di- 
 rectly within human power — the control over the move- 
 ment of the facial muscles, over the nse of the hands, 
 and, if necessary, of the feet also. These signs, not ob- 
 tained from any one's suggestion, self -formed, which 
 the deaf-mute employs directly in his representation, 
 are, as it were, the given outline of the image which he 
 has found, and they stand therefore in the closest rela- 
 tion to the inner constitution of the individual that 
 makes the representation. 
 
 " But we find not only that the individual senses of 
 the deaf-mute, his own observation and apprehension, 
 are formative factors in the occurrences of sensation and 
 perception, as is of course the case, but that the quali- 
 ties of the objects observed by him, and associated, ac- 
 cording to his individual tendencies, are also raised by 
 him, through comparison, separation, grouping — through 
 his own act, therefore — to general ideas, concepts, al- 
 though as yet imperfect ones, and they are named and 
 recognized again by peculiar signs intelligible to himself. 
 
 "But in this very raising of an idea to a general 
 idea, to a concept — a process connected with the form- 
 ing of a sign — is manifested the influence of the lack of 
 hearing and of speech upon the psychical development 
 of the deaf-mute. It appears at first to be an advantage 
 that the sign by which the deaf-mute represents an idea 
 is derived from the impression, the image, the idea, 
 which the user of the sign himself has or has had ; he 
 
24: THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 expresses by the sign nothing foreign to him, but only 
 what has become his own. But this advantage disap- 
 pears when compared with the hindrance caused by this 
 very circumstance in the raising of the individual idea 
 to a general idea, for the fact that the latter is desig- 
 nated by the image, or the elements of the image in 
 which the former consists, is no small obstacle to it in 
 attaining complete generality. The same bond that 
 unites the concept with the conceiver binds it likewise 
 to one of the individual ideas conceived — e. g., when, by 
 pointing to his own flesh, his own skin, he designates 
 the concept flesh, skin (in general also the flesh or the 
 skin of animals) ; whereas, by means of the word, which 
 the child who has all his senses is obliged to learn, a 
 constraint is indeed exercised as something foreign, but 
 a constraint that simply enforces upon his idea the claim 
 of generality. 
 
 " One example more. The deaf-mute designates the 
 concept, or general idea, • red ' by lightly touching his 
 lips. With this sign he indicates the red of the sky, of 
 paintings, of dress-stuffs, of flowers, etc. Thus, in how- 
 ever manifold connection with other concepts his con- 
 cept i red ' may be repeated, it is to him as a concept 
 always one and the same only. It is common to all 
 the connections in which it repeatedly occurs." 
 
 But before the thinking deaf-mute arrived at the 
 concept " red," he formed for himself the ideas " lip, 
 dress, sky, flower," etc. 
 
 For a knowledge of intellectual development in the 
 child possessed of all the senses, and of the great extent 
 to which he is independent of verbal language in the 
 formation of concepts, it is indispensable to make a col- 
 
THINKING WITHOUT WORDS. 25 
 
 lection of such concepts as uneducated deaf-mutes not 
 acquainted either with the finger-alphabet or with ar- 
 ticulation express by means of their own gestures in 
 a manner intelligible to others. Their language, how- 
 ever, comprises " not only the various expressive changes 
 of countenance (play of feature), but also the varied 
 movements of the hands (gesticulations), the positions, 
 attitudes, bearing, and movements of the other parts of 
 the entire body, through which the deaf-mute naturally, 
 i. e., untouched hy educational influences, expresses his 
 ideas and conceptions. 1 ' But I refrain from making 
 such a catalogue here, as we are concerned with the fact 
 that many concepts are, without any learning of words 
 whatever, plainly expressed and logically comoined with 
 one another, and their correctness is proved by the con- 
 duct of any and every untaught child born deaf. Be- 
 sides, such a catalogue, in order to possess the psychoge- 
 netic value desired by me, needs a critical examination 
 extremely difficult to carry through as to whether the 
 " educational influences " supposed to be excluded are 
 actually wholly excluded in all cases as they really are 
 in some cases, e. g., in regard to food. 
 
 Degerando (1827) has enumerated a long list of con- 
 cepts, which deaf-mutes before they are instructed rep- 
 resent by pantomimic gesture. Many of these forms 
 of expression in French deaf-mutes are identical with 
 those of German. It is most earnestly to be wished 
 that this international language of feature and gesture 
 used by children entirely uninstructed, born deaf, may 
 be made accessible to psycho-physiological and linguistic 
 study by means of pictorial representations — photo- 
 graphic best of all. This should be founded on the ex- 
 
96 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 periences of German, French, English, Russian, Italian, 
 and other teachers of deaf-mutes. 
 
 For there is hardly a better proof that thinking is 
 not dependent on the language of words than the con- 
 duct of deaf-mutes, who express, indeed, many more 
 concepts of unlike content in the same manner than 
 any verbal language does — just as children with all their 
 senses do before they possess a satisfactory stock of 
 words — but who, by gesticulation and pantomime before 
 receiving any instruction, demonstrate that concepts are 
 formed without words. 
 
 With reference to the manner in which uneducated 
 deaf-mutes speak, the following examples are charac- 
 teristic performances in gesture-language : 
 
 One deaf-mute asks another, " Stay, go you % " (look 
 of inquiry). Answer : " Go, I " (i. e., " Do you stay or 
 go ? " "I go "). " Hunter hare shoots." 
 
 "Arm, man, be strong," means, "The man's arm is 
 strong." 
 
 "E\, spectacles, see," means, "£T. sees with the 
 spectacles." 
 
 " Run I finished, go to sleep," means, " When I had 
 finished running, I went to sleep." " Money, you ? " 
 means, " Have you money ? " 
 
 One of the most interesting sights I know of, in a 
 psychological and physiological point of view, is a con- 
 versation in gesture and pantomime between two or 
 three children born totally deaf, who do not know that 
 they are observed. I am indebted to Director Oehlwein, 
 of Weimar, for the opportunity of such observations, as 
 also for the above questions and answers. Especially 
 those children (of about seven years) not yet instructed 
 
THINKING WITHOUT WORDS. 27 
 
 in articulation employ an astonishing number of looks 
 and gestures, following one upon another with great 
 rapidity, in order to effect an understanding with one 
 another. They understand one another very easily, but, 
 because their gestures, and particularly their excessively 
 subtilized play of feature, do not appear in ordinary 
 life, these children are just as hard to understand for 
 the uninitiated as are men who speak a wholly foreign 
 language without any gestures. Even the eye of the 
 deaf-mute has a different expression from that of the 
 person who talks. The look seems more " interested," 
 and manifestly far fewer unnecessary movements of the 
 eyes and contractions of the facial muscles are made by 
 the deaf-mute than by the child of the same age who 
 has his hearing. 
 
 Further, deaf-mutes, even those of small ability, imi- 
 tate all sorts of movements that are plainly visible much 
 better, in general, than do persons with all their senses. 
 I made, in presence of the children, several not very 
 easy crossings of the fingers, put my hands in different 
 positions, and the like — movements that they could not 
 ever have seen — and I was surprised that some of the 
 children at once made them deftly, whereas ordinary 
 children first consider a long time, and then imitate 
 clumsily. It is doubtless this exaltation of the imitative 
 functions in deaf-mute children which makes it appear 
 as if they themselves invented their gestures (see above, 
 p. 23). Certainly they do not get their first signs through 
 " any one's suggestion," they form them for themselves, 
 but, so far as I see, only through imitation and the he- 
 reditary expressive movements. The signs are in great 
 part themselves unabridged imitations. The agreement, 
 
28 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 or "convention," which many teachers of deaf-mutes 
 assume, and which would introduce an entirely cause- 
 less, not to say mysterious, principle, consists in this, 
 that all deaf-mutes in the beginning imitate the same 
 thiug in the same way. Thus, through this perfectly 
 natural accord of all, it comes to pass that they under- 
 stand one another. When they have gained ideas, then 
 they combiue the separate signs in manifold ways, as 
 one who speaks combines words, in order to express new 
 ideas ; they become thereby more and more difficult to 
 be understood, and often are only with difficulty under- 
 stood even among themselves ; and they are able only in 
 very limited degree to form concepts of a higher order. 
 " Nothing, being dead, space " — these are concepts of a 
 very high order for them. 
 
 For this reason it is easy to comprehend that a deaf- 
 mute child, although he has learned but few words 
 through instruction in articulation, weaves these con- 
 tinually into his pantomimic conversation in place of 
 his former elaborate gestures. I observed that individ- 
 ual children, born totally deaf, preferred, even in con- 
 versation with one another, and when ignorant of the 
 fact that I was observing them, the articulate words just 
 learned, although these were scarcely intelligible, to their 
 own signs. 
 
 Thus mighty is the charm of the spoken word, even 
 when the child does not himself hear it, but merely feels 
 it with his tongue. 
 
 But the schooling the deaf-mute must go through in 
 order to become acquainted with the sensations of sight, 
 touch, and movement that go with the sound, is un- 
 speakably toilsome. 
 
THINKING WITHOUT WORDS. 29 
 
 "W". Glide says in his treatise, remarkable alike for 
 acuteness and clearness, "Principles and Outlines of 
 the Exposition of a Scheme of Instruction for an Insti- 
 tution for Deaf- Mutes " (" Grundsatze und Grundziige 
 zur Auf stellung eines Lehrplans f iir eine Taubstummen- 
 Anstalt," 1381) : " The utterances of tones and of ar- 
 ticulate sounds called forth by involuntary stimulus 
 during the first years, in deaf-mutes, are such unimpor- 
 tant motor phenomena that they are not immediately fol- 
 lowed by a motor sensation. But when the deaf-mute 
 child is more awake mentally, he perceives that his rela- 
 tives make movements of the mouth in their intercourse, 
 and repeated attempts of those about him to make 
 themselves intelligible by pronouncing certain words to 
 him are not entirely without effect upon the deaf-mute 
 that is intellectually active. When such deaf-mutes 
 now direct their attention to the matter, they succeed 
 in regard to only a part of the sounds — those that are 
 conspicuous to the eye in their utterance — in getting a 
 tolerable imitation. Individual deaf-mutes go so far, in 
 fact, as to understand various words correctly without 
 repeating them ; others succeed gradually in repeating 
 such words as c papa, mamma,' so that one can understand 
 what is meant. Those who are deaf-mutes from birth 
 do not, however, of themselves, succeed in imitating 
 accurately other vocal sounds in general." 
 
 A deaf-mute, who had not been instructed, explained 
 to Romanes, at a later period when he had learned the 
 sign-language, that he had before thought in " images," 
 which means nothing else than that he, in place of the 
 words heard (in our case) and the digital signs seen (in 
 his case), had made use of memory-images gained from 
 
30 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 visual impressions, for distinguishing his concepts., 
 Laura Bridgman, too, a person in general the subject of 
 very incorrect inferences, who was not blind and deaf 
 from birth, could form a small number of concepts that 
 were above the lowest grade. These originated from 
 the materials furnished by the sense of touch, the mus- 
 cular sense and general sensibility, before she had learned 
 a sort of finger-language. But she had learned to speak 
 somewhat before she became dumb and blind. Children 
 with sight, born deaf, seem not to be able to perform 
 the simplest arithmetical operations, e. g., 214 — 96 and 
 908x70 (according to Asch, 1865), until after several 
 years of continuous instruction in articulate speaking. 
 They do succeed, however, and that without sound- 
 images of words, and perhaps, too, without sight-images 
 of words ; in mental arithmetic without knowledge of 
 written figures, by help of the touch-images of words 
 which the tongue furnishes. 
 
 In any case uneducated persons born deaf can count 
 by means of the fingers without the knowledge of fig- 
 ures ; and, when they go beyond 10, the notched stick 
 comes to their aid (Sicard and Degerando). 
 
 The language of gesture and feature in very young 
 children, born dumb and not treated differently from 
 other children, shows also, in most abundant measure, 
 that concepts are formed without words. The child 
 born deaf uses the primitive language of gesture to the 
 same extent as does the child that has his hearing ; the 
 former makes himself intelligible by actions and sounds 
 as the latter does, so that his deficiency is not suspected. 
 This natural language is also understood by the child 
 born deaf, so far as it is recognizable by his eye. In 
 
THINKING WITHOUT WORDS. 31 
 
 the look and the features of his mother he reads her 
 mood. But he very early becomes quiet and develops 
 for himself, " out of unconscious gesticulation, the gest- 
 ure language, which at first is not conventional, nay, 
 is not in the - strict sense quite a sign-language, but a 
 mimetic-plastic representation of the influences experi- 
 enced from the external world," since the deaf-mute 
 imitates movements perceived, and the attitude of per- 
 sons and the position of objects. Upon this pantomime 
 alone rests the possibility of coming to an understanding, 
 within a certain range, with deaf-mutes that have had 
 no instruction at all. It can not, therefore, in its ele- 
 mentary form be conventional, as Hill, to whom I owe 
 these data, rightly maintains. He writes concerning the 
 child born deaf : " His voice seems just like that of other 
 children. He screams, weeps, according as he feels un- 
 comfortable ; he starts when frightened by any noise. 
 Even friendly address, toying, fun, serious threats, are 
 understood by him as early as by any child." But he 
 does not hear his own voice ; it is not sound that fright- 
 ens him, but the concussion ; it is not the pleasant word 
 that delights him, but the pleasant countenance of his 
 mother. " It even happens, not seldom, that through 
 encouragement to use the voice, these children acquire a 
 series of articulate sounds, and a number of combina- 
 tions of sounds, which they employ as the expression 
 of their wishes." They not only point out the object 
 desired, not only imitate movements that are to procure 
 what they want, but they also outline the forms of ob- 
 jects wished for. They are able to conduct themselves 
 so intelligently in this, that the deaf-mute condition is 
 not discovered till the second year, or even later, and 
 
32 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 then chiefly by their use of the eye, because in case of 
 distant objects only those seen excite their attention. 
 
 From this behavior of infants born deaf it manifest- 
 ly follows that even without the possibility of natural 
 imitation of sounds, and without the knowledge of a 
 single word, qualities may be blended with qualities into 
 concepts. Thus, primitive thinking is not bound up 
 with verbal language. It demands, however, a certain 
 development of the cerebrum, probably a certain very 
 considerable number of ganglionic cells in the cerebral 
 cortex, that stand in firm organic connection with one 
 another. The difference between an uninstructed young 
 deaf-mute and a cretin is immense. The former can 
 learn a great deal through instruction in speaking, the 
 latter can not. This very ability to learn, in the child 
 born deaf, is greater than in the normal child, in respect 
 to pantomime and gesture. If a child with his hearing 
 had to grow up among deaf-mutes, he would undoubted- 
 ly learn their language, and would in addition enjoy his 
 own voice without being able to make use of it ; but he 
 would probably be discovered, further on, without test- 
 ing his hearing, by the fact that he was not quite so 
 complete a master of this gesture-language as the deaf- 
 mutes, on account of the diversion of his attention by 
 sound. 
 
 The total result of the foregoing observations con- 
 cerning the capacity of accomplishment on the part of 
 uneducated deaf-mutes in regard to the natural language 
 of gesture and feature, demonstrates more plainly than 
 any other fact whatever that, without words and with- 
 out signs for words, thought-activity exists — that think- 
 ing takes place when both words and signs for words 
 
LEARNING TO SPEAK. 33 
 
 are wanting. "Wherefore, then, should the logical com- 
 bination of ideas in the human being born perfect begin 
 only with the speaking of words or the learning to 
 speak ?' Because the adult supposes that he no longer 
 thinks without words, he easily draws the erroneous 
 conclusion that no one, that not even he himself, could 
 think before the knowledge of verbal language. In 
 truth, however, it was not language that generated the 
 intellect y it is the intellect that formerly invented lan- 
 guage : and even now the new-horn human oeing orings 
 with him into the world far more intellect than talent 
 for language. 
 
 CHAPTEE XVII. 
 
 LEARNING TO SPEAK. 
 
 a 
 
 No human being remembers how he learned his 
 mother-tongue in early youth, and the whole human 
 race has forgotten the origin of its articulate speech as 
 well as of its gestures ; but every individual passes per- 
 ceptibly through the stage of learning to speak, so that 
 a patient observer recognizes much as conformable to 
 law^ 
 
 1 The acquisition of speech belongs to those physio- 
 logical problems which can not be solved by the most 
 important means possessed by physiology, vivisection. 
 And the speechless condition in which every human 
 being is born can not be regarded as a disease that may 
 be healed by instruction, as is the case with certain 
 forms of acquired aphasia. A set of other accomplish- 
 ments, such as swimming, riding, fencing, piano-play- 
 
34 TIIE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 ing, the acquirement of which is physiological, are 
 learned like articulate speech, and nobody calls the 
 person that can not swim an anomaly on that account. 
 The inability to appropriate to one's self these and 
 other co-ordinated muscular movements, this alone is 
 abnormal. But we can not tell in advance in the case 
 of any new-born child whether he will learn to speak or 
 not, just as in the case of one who has suffered an ob- 
 struction of speech or has entirely lost speech, it is not 
 certain whether he will ever recover it. 
 
 In this the normal child that does not yet speak per- 
 fectly, resembles the diseased adult who, for any cause, 
 no longer has command of language. And to compare 
 these two with each other is the more important, as at 
 present no other empirical way is open to us for inves- 
 tigating the nature of the process of learning to speak ; 
 but this way conducts us, fortunately, through pathology, 
 to solid, important physiological conclusions. 
 
 1. Disturbances of Speech in Adults. 
 
 The command of language comprises, on the one 
 hand, the understanding of what is spoken ; on the other 
 hand, the utterance of what is thought. It is at the 
 height of its performance in free, intelligible, connected 
 speech. Everything that disturbs the understanding 
 of words heard must be designated disturbance of speech 
 equally with everything that disturbs the product ion of 
 words and sentences. 
 
 By means of excellent investigations made by many 
 persons, especially by Broca, Wernicke, Kussmaul, it 
 has become possible to make a topical division of most 
 of the observed disturbances of speech of both kinds. 
 
LEARNING TO SPEAK. 35 
 
 In the first class, which comprises the impressive pro- 
 cesses, we have to consider every functional disturbance 
 of the peripheral ear, of the auditory nerve and of the 
 central ends of the auditory nerve ; in the second class, 
 viz., the expressive processes, we consider every func- 
 tional disturbance of the apparatus required for articu- 
 lation, including the nerves belonging to this in their 
 whole extent, in particular the hypoglossals, as motor 
 nerve of the tongue, and certain parts of the cerebral 
 hemispheres from which the nerves of speech are ex- 
 cited and to which the sense-impressions from without 
 are so conducted by connecting fibers that they them- 
 selves or their memory-images can 
 call forth expressive, i. e., motor 
 processes. The diagram, Fig. 1, 
 illustrates the matter. 
 
 The peripheral ear o, with the 
 terminations of the auditory nerve, 
 is by means of sensory fibers a, that 
 are connected with the auditory F t 
 
 nerve, in connection with the store- 
 house of sound-impressions, K. This io connected by 
 means of the intercentral paths v with the motor speech- 
 center M. From it go out special fibers of communica- 
 tion, h, to the motor nerves of speech which terminate 
 in the external instruments of articulation, z. 
 
 The impressive nerve-path, o a K, is centripetal ; the 
 expressive, M h 2, centrifugal ; v, intercentral. 
 
 When the normal child learns to speak, receives 
 the sound-impressions ; by a the acoustic-nerve excita- 
 tions are passed along to K, and are here stored up, every 
 distinctly heard sound (a tone, a syllable, a word) leav- 
 
36 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 ing an impression behind in K. It is very remarkable 
 here that, among the many sounds and noises that impress 
 themselves upon the portions of the brain directly con- 
 nected with the auditory nerve, a selection is made in 
 the sound-field of speech, K, since all those impressions 
 that can be reproduced, among them all the acoustic 
 images necessary for speech, are preserved, but many 
 others are not, e. g., thunder, crackling. Memory is in- 
 distinct with regard to these. From K, when the 
 sound-images or sound-impressions have become suffi- 
 ciently strong and numerous, the nerve-excitement goes 
 farther through the connecting paths v to M, where it 
 liberates motor impulses, and through h sets in activity 
 the peripheral apparatus of speech, z. 
 
 Now, speech is disturbed when at any point the path 
 o z is interrupted, or the excitation conducted along the 
 nerve-fibers and ganglionic cells upon the hearing of 
 something spoken or upon the speaking of something 
 represented in idea (heard inwardly) is arrested, a thing 
 which may be effected without a total interruption of 
 the conduction, e. g., by means of poison and through 
 anatomical lesions. 
 
 On the basis of these physiological relations, about 
 which there is no doubt, T divide, then, all pure disturb- 
 ances of speech, or lalopathies, into three classes : 
 
 (1) Peripliero-Impressive or Perceptive Disturbances. 
 The organ of hearing is injured at its peripheral ex- 
 tremity, or else the acusticus in its course ; then occurs 
 difficulty of hearing or deafness. "What is spoken is 
 not correctly heard or not heard at all : the utterance is 
 correct only in case the lesion happened late. If it is 
 
LEARNING TO SPEAK. 37 
 
 inborn, then this lack of speech, alalia, is called deaf- 
 mutism, although the so-called deaf and dumb are not 
 in reality dumb, but only deaf. If words spoken are in- 
 correctly heard on account of acquired defects of the 
 peripheral ear, the patient mis-hears, and the abnormal 
 condition is called paracusis. 
 
 (2) Central Disturbances. 
 
 a. The higher impressive central paths are dis- 
 turbed : centro-sensory dysphasia and aphasia, or word- 
 deafness. Words are heard but not understood. The 
 hearing is acute. " Patients may have perfectly correct 
 ideas, but they lack the correct expression for them ; 
 not the thoughts but the words are confused. They 
 would understand the ideas of others also if they only 
 understood the words. They are in the position of per- 
 sons suddenly transported into the midst of a people 
 using the same sounds but different words, which strike 
 upon their ear like an unintelligible noise." (Kuss- 
 maul.) Their articulation is without defect, but what 
 they say is unintelligible because the words are mutilated 
 and used wrongly. C. Wernicke discovered this form, 
 and has separated it sharply from other disturbances of 
 speech. He designated it sensory aphasia. Kussmaul 
 later named this abnormal condition word-deafness 
 (sarditas verbalis). 
 
 h. The connections between the impressive sound- 
 centers and the motor speech-center are injured. Then 
 we have intercentral conductive dysphasia and aphasia, 
 "What is spoken is heard and understood correctly even 
 when v is completely interrupted. The articulation is 
 not disturbed, and yet the patient utters no word of 
 
38 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 himself. He can, however, read aloud what is written. 
 (Kussmaul.) The word that has just been read aloud 
 by the patient can not be repeated by him, neither can 
 the word that has been pronounced to him ; and, not- 
 withstanding this, he reads aloud with perfect correct- 
 ness. In this case, then, it is impossible for the patient 
 of his own motion, even if the memory of the words 
 heard were not lost, to set in activity the expressive 
 mechanism of speech, although it might remain unin- 
 jured. 
 
 c. The motor speech-center is injured. Then we 
 have centro-motor dysphasia and aphasia. If the center 
 is completely and exclusively disturbed, then it is a case 
 of pure ataxic aphasia. Spontaneous speaking, saying 
 over of words said by another, and reading aloud of 
 writing, are impossible. (Kussmaul.) On the other 
 hand, words heard are understood, although the con- 
 cepts belonging with them can not be expressed aloud. 
 The verbal memory remains ; and the patient can still 
 express his thoughts in writing and can copy in writing 
 what he reads or what is dictated to him. 
 
 (3) Periphero-Expressive or Articulatory Disturbances. 
 
 The centrifugal paths from the motor speech-center 
 to the motor nerves of speech and to their extremities, 
 or else these nerves themselves, are injured. Then oc- 
 curs dysarthria, and, if the path is totally impassable at 
 any place, cmarthria. The hearing and understanding 
 of words are not hindered, but speaking, repeating the 
 words of others, and reading aloud are, as in the last 
 case (2, c), impossible. In general this form can not be 
 distinguished from the foregoing when both are devel- 
 
LEARNING TO SPEAK. 39 
 
 oped in an extreme degree, except in cases of periph- 
 eral dysarthria, i. e., dyslalia, since, as may be easily 
 understood, it makes no difference in the resulting phe- 
 nomena whether the motor center itself is extirpated or 
 its connections with the motor outlet are absolutely cut 
 oft' just where the latter begins ; but if this latter is in- 
 jured nearer to the periphery, e. g., if the hypoglossus 
 is paralyzed, then the phenomena are different (par- 
 alalia, mogilalia). Here belongs all so-called mechanical 
 dyslalia, caused by defects of the peripheral speech-ap- 
 paratus. 
 
 Of these live forms each occurs generally only in 
 connection with another ; for this reason the topical diag- 
 nosis also is often extraordinarily difficult. But enough 
 cases have been accurately observed and collected to 
 put it almost beyond a doubt that each form may also 
 appear for a short time purely by itself. To be sure, 
 the anatomical localization of the impressive and ex- 
 pressive paths is not yet ascertained, so that for the 
 present the centripetal roads from the acusticus to the 
 motor speech-center, and the intercentral fibers that 
 run to the higher centers, are as much unknown as the 
 centrifugal paths leading from them to the nuclei of the 
 hypoglossus ; but that the speech-center discovered by 
 Broca is situated in the posterior portion of the third 
 frontal convolution (in right-handed men on the left, in 
 left-handed on the right) is universally acknowledged. 
 
 Further, it results from the abundance of clinical 
 material, that the acoustic-center K must be divided 
 into a sound-center L, a syllable-center S, a word-center 
 W, each of which may be in itself defective, for cases 
 have been observed in which sounds were still recog- 
 
40 
 
 THE MIXD OF THE CHILD. 
 
 nized and reproduced, but not syllables and words, also 
 cases in which sounds and syllables could be dealt with 
 but no words ; and, finally, cases in which all these were 
 wanting. The original diagram is thereby considerably 
 complicated, as the simple path of connection between 
 K and M has added to it the arcs L S M and L S W 
 M (Fig. 2). 
 
 The surest test of the perfect condition of all the 
 segments is afforded by the repetition of sounds, sylla- 
 bles, and words pronounced by others. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 Syllables and sounds, but no words, can be pro- 
 nounced if W is missing or the path S ¥ or ¥ 1 is 
 interrupted ; no syllables if S is missing or L S or S M 
 is interrupted. If L is missing, then nothing can be re- 
 peated from hearing. If L M is interrupted, then sylla- 
 bles and words are more easily repeated than simple 
 sounds, so far as the latter are not syllables. If L S is 
 
LEARNING TO SPEAK. 41 
 
 interrupted, then simple sounds only can be repeated. 
 All these abnormal states have been actually observed. 
 The proofs are to be found in Kussmaui's classic work 
 on the disturbances of speech (1877). Even the 
 strange case appears in which, L M being imprac- 
 ticable, syllables are more easily repeated than simple 
 sounds. 
 
 If a is interrupted before the acquirement of speech, 
 and thus chronic deafness is present in very early child- 
 hood, articulation may still be learned through visual 
 and tactile impressions ; but in this case the sound-cen- 
 ter L is not developed. Another, a sound-touch-center, 
 comes in its place in deaf-mutes when they are in- 
 structed, chiefly through the tactile sensations of the 
 tongue ; and, when they are instructed in reading (and 
 writing), a sound- sight- (or letter) center. This last is, 
 on the contrary, wanting to those born blind ; and both 
 are wanting to those born blind and deaf. Instead is 
 formed in them through careful instruction, by means 
 of the tactile sensations of the finger-tips, a center for 
 signs of sound that are known by touch (as with the 
 printed text for the blind). 
 
 Accordingly, the eye and ear are not absolutely in- 
 dispensable to the acquirement of a verbal language; 
 but for the thorough learning of the verbal language in 
 its entire significance both are by all means indispensa- 
 ble. For, the person born blind does not get the sig- 
 nificance of words pertaining to light and color. For 
 him, therefore, a large class of conceptions, an extensive 
 portion of the vocabulary of his language, remains 
 empty sound. To the one born deaf there is likewise 
 an extensive district of conceptions closed, inasmuch as 
 
42 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 all words pertaining to tone and noise remain unintel- 
 ligible to him. 
 
 Moreover, those born blind and deaf, or those born 
 blind and becoming deaf very early, or those born deaf 
 and becoming blind very early, though they may possess 
 ever so good intelligence, and perhaps even learn to 
 write letters, as did the famous Laura Bridgman, will 
 invariably understand only a small part of the vocabu- 
 lary of their language, and will not articulate cor- 
 rectly. 
 
 Those born deaf are precisely the ones that show 
 plainly how necessary hearing is for the acquirement of 
 perfectly articulate speech. One who is deaf from birth 
 does not even learn to speak half a dozen sounds cor- 
 rectly without assistance, and the loss of speech that 
 regularly follows deafness coming on in children who 
 have already learned to speak, shows how inseparably 
 the learning and the development of perfect articula- 
 tion are bound up with the hearing. Even the deafness 
 that comes on in maturer years injures essentially the 
 agreeable tone, often also the intelligibility, of the ut- 
 terance. 
 
 2. The Organic Conditions of Learning to Speak. 
 
 How is it, now, with the normal child, who is learn- 
 ing to speak ? How is it as to the existence and practi- 
 cability of the nervous conduction, and the genesis of 
 the centers ? 
 
 In order to decide these questions, a further exten- 
 sion of the diagram is necessary (Fig. 3). 
 
 For the last diagram deals only with the hearing 
 and pronouncing of sounds, syllables, and single words, 
 
LEARNING TO SPEAK. 
 
 43 
 
 not with the grammatical formation and syntactical 
 grouping of these ; there must further be a center of 
 higher rank, the dictorium, or center of diction (Kuss- 
 maul), brought into connection with the centers L S and 
 W. And, on the one hand, the word-image acquired 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 (by hearing) must be at the disposition of the diction- 
 center, an excitation, therefore, passing from W to D 
 (through m); on the other hand, an impulse must go 
 out from the diction-center to pronounce the word that 
 is formed and placed so as to correspond to the sense 
 (through n). The same is true for syllables and sounds, 
 whose paths to and from are indicated by Jc and I, as 
 well as by g and i. These paths of connection must be 
 of twofold sort. The excitement can not pass off to the 
 
u 
 
 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 diction-center D on the same anatomical path as the 
 return impulse from D, because not a single case is 
 known of a nerve-fiber that in natural relations conducts 
 both centrif ugally and centripetally, although this possi- 
 bility of double conduction does occur under artificial cir- 
 cumstances. Apart, then, from pathological experience, 
 which seems to be in favor of it, the separation of the 
 two directions of the excitement seems to be justified 
 anatomically also. On the contrary, it is questionable 
 
 whether the impulse proceeding from D does not arrive 
 directly at the motor speech-center, instead of passing 
 through W, S, or L. The diagram then represents it as 
 follows (Fig. 4). Here the paths of direct connection 
 i, I, and n from D to M represent that which was just 
 
LEARNING TO .SPEAK. 45 
 
 now represented by i L d and I S e and n Wf, respect- 
 ively ; in Fig. 4, * conducts only sound-excitations com- 
 ing from L, I only excitations coming from S, and n 
 only those coming from W, as impulses for M. For 
 the present, I see no way of deciding between the two 
 possibilities. They may even exist both together. All 
 the following statements concerning the localization of 
 the disturbances of speech and the parallel imperfections 
 of child-speech apply indifferently to either figure ; it 
 should be borne in mind that the nerve-excitement al- 
 ways goes only in the direction of the arrows, never in the 
 opposite direction, through. -the nervous path correspond- 
 ing to them. Such a parallel is not only presented, 
 as I have found, and as I will show in what follows, by 
 the most superficial exhibition of the manifold devia- 
 tions of child-speech from the later perfect speech, 
 but is, above all, necessary for the answering of the 
 question : what is the condition of things in learning 
 to speak? 
 
 3. Parallel between the Disturbances of Speech in Adults and the 
 Imperfections of Speech in the Child. 
 
 In undertaking to draw such a parallel, I must first 
 of all state that in regard to the pathology of the subject, 
 I have not much experience of my own, and therefore 
 I rely here upon K/assmaul's comprehensive work on 
 speech- disturbances, from which are taken most of the 
 data that serve to characterize the individual deviations 
 from the rule. In that work also may be found the ex- 
 planations, or precise definitions, of almost all the names 
 — with the exception of the following, added here for 
 the sake of brevity — skoliophasia, skoliophrasia, and pa- 
 
46 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 limphrasia. On the other hand, the statements con- 
 cerning the speech of the child rest on my own obser- 
 vations of children — especially of my own son — and 
 readers who give their attention to little children 
 may verify them all ; most of them, indeed, with ease. 
 Only the examples added for explaining mogilalia and 
 paralalia are taken in part from Sigismund, a few others 
 from Yierordt. They show more plainly (at least con- 
 cerning rhotacism) than my own notes, some imperfec- 
 tions of articulation of the child in the second year, 
 which occur, however, only in single individuals. In 
 general the defects of child-speech are found to be very 
 unequally distributed among different ages and individ- 
 uals, so that we can hardly expect to find all the speech- 
 disturbances of adults manifested in typical fashion in 
 one and the same child. But with very careful obser- 
 vation it may be done, notwithstanding ; and when sev- 
 eral children are compared with one another in this 
 respect, the analogies fairly force themselves upon the 
 observer, and there is no break anywhere. 
 
 The whole group into which I have tried to bring 
 in organic connection all the kinds of disturbances and 
 defects of speech in systematic form falls into three di- 
 visions : 
 
 1. Imperfections not occasioned by disturbance of 
 the intelligence — pure speech-disturbances or lalopa- 
 thies. 
 
 2. Imperfections occasioned solely by disturbances 
 of the intelligence — disturbances of continuous speech 
 or discourse (Rede) — dysphrasies. 
 
 3. Imperfections of the language of gesture and 
 feature — clysmimies. 
 
LEARNING TO SPEAK. 47 
 
 I. LALOPATHY. 
 A. The Impressive Peripheral Processes disturbed. 
 
 Deafness. — Persons able to speak but who bare be- 
 come deaf do not understand what is spoken simply be- 
 cause they can no longer hear. The newly born do not 
 understand what is spoken because they can not yet 
 hear. The paths o and a are not yet practicable. All 
 those just born are deaf and dumb. 
 
 Difficulty of Hearing. — Persons who have become 
 hard of hearing do not understand what is spoken, or 
 they misunderstand, because they no longer hear dis- 
 tinctly. Such individuals easily hear wrong (paracusis). 
 
 Very young infants do not understand what is 
 spoken, for the reason that they do not yet hear distinct- 
 ly ; o and a are still difficult for the acoustic nerve-ex- 
 citement to traverse. Little children very easily hear 
 wrong on this account. 
 
 33. The Central Processes disturbed. 
 
 Dysphasia. — In the child that can use only a small 
 number of words, the cerebral and psychical act through 
 which he connects these with his ideas and gives them 
 grammatical form and syntactical construction in order 
 to express the movement of his thought is not yet com- 
 plete. 
 
 (1) The Sensory Processes centrally disturbed. 
 
 Sensory Aphasia (Wernicke), Word - Deaf ness 
 (Kussmaul). — The child, in spite of good hearing and 
 sufficiently developed intelligence, can not yet under- 
 stand spoken words because the path m is not yet 
 
48 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 formed and the storehouse of word-images W is still 
 empty or is just in the stage of origination. 
 
 Amnesia, Amnesic Dysphasia and Aphasia, Par- 
 tial and Total Word-Amnesia, Memory- Aphasia. — 
 The child has as yet no word-memory, or only a weak 
 one, utters meaningless sounds and sound-combinations. 
 He can not yet use words because he does not yet have 
 them at his disposal as acoustic sound-combinations. In 
 this stage, however, much that is said to him can be re- 
 peated correctly in case "W" is passable, though empty or 
 imperfectly developed. 
 
 (2) The Sensori-motor Processes of Diction disturbed. 
 
 Acataphasia (Steinthal). — The child that has al- 
 ready a considerable number of words at his disposal is 
 not yet in condition to arrange them in a sentence syn- 
 tactically. He can not yet frame correct sentences to 
 express the movement of his thought, because his dic- 
 tion-center D is still imperfectly developed. He ex- 
 presses a whole sentence by a word ; e. g., hot! means as 
 much as " The milk is too hot for me to drink," and 
 then again it may mean " The stove is too hot ! " Man ! 
 means " A strange man has come ! " 
 
 Dysgrammatism (Kussmaul) and Agrammatism 
 (Steinthal). — Children can not yet put words into correct 
 grammatical form, decline, or conjugate. They like to use 
 the indefinite noun-substantive and the infinitive, like- 
 wise to some extent the past participle. They prefer the 
 weak inflection, ignore and confound the articles, conjunc- 
 tions, auxiliaries, prepositions, and pronouns. In place 
 of " I " they say their own names, also tint (for " Kind " 
 — child or "baby"). Instead of "Du, er, Sie" (thou, 
 
LEARNING TO SPEAK. 49 
 
 he, you), they use proper names, or man, papa, mamma. 
 Sometimes, too, the adjectives are placed after the nouns, 
 and the meaning of words is indicated by their position 
 with reference to others, by the intonation, by looks 
 and gestures. Agrammatism in child-language always 
 appears in company with acataphasia, often also in in- 
 sane persons. When the imbecile Tony says, " Tony 
 flowers taken, attendant come, Tony whipped " (Tony 
 Blumen genommen, Warterin gekommen, Tony ge- 
 haut), she speaks exactly like a child (Kussmaul), with- 
 out articles, pronouns, or auxiliary verbs, and, like the 
 child, uses the weak inflection. The connection m of 
 the word-image-center W with the diction-center D, 
 i. e., of the word-memory with grammar, and the cen- 
 ters themselves, are as yet very imperfectly developed, 
 unused. 
 
 Bradyphasia. — Children that can already frame 
 sentences take a surprising amount of time in speaking 
 on account of the slowness of their diction. In D and 
 W m in the cerebral cortex the hindrances are still great 
 because of too slight practice. 
 
 (3) The Motor Processes centrally disturbed. 
 
 a. Centro-moior Dysphasia and Aphasia, Aphe- 
 mia, Asyinbolia, Asemia. — Children have not yet 
 learned, or have hardly learned, the use of language, 
 although their intelligence is already sufficient. There 
 is no longer any deficiency in the development of the 
 external organs of speech, no muscular weakness, no im- 
 perfection of the nervous structures that effect the ar- 
 ticulation of the separate sounds, for intelligence shows 
 itself in the child's actions; he forms the separate 
 
50 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 sounds correctly, unintentionally ; his hearing is good 
 and the sensory word-memory is present, since the child 
 already obeys. His not yet speaking at this period 
 (commonly as late as the second year) must accordingly 
 be essentially of centro-motor character. 
 
 In the various forms of this condition there is in- 
 jury or lack of sufficient relative development either in 
 the centro-motorium M or in the paths that lead into it, 
 d, e, f, as well as i, I, n. 
 
 a. Central Dysarthria and Anarthria. — In the 
 child at the stage of development just indicated articula- 
 tion is not yet perfect, inasmuch as while he often unin- 
 tentionally pronounces correctly sounds, syllables, and 
 single words, yet he can not form these intentionally, 
 although he hears and understands them aright. He 
 makes use of gestures. 
 
 Ataxic Aphasia {Verbal Anarthria). — The child 
 that already understands several words as sound-combi- 
 nations and retains them (since he obeys), can not yet 
 use these in speech because he has not yet the requisite 
 centro-motor impulses. He forms correctly the few 
 syllables he has already learned of his future language, 
 i. e., those he has at the time in memory as sound- 
 combinations (sensory), but can not yet group them 
 into new words ; e. g., he says hi and te correctly, 
 learns also to say "bitte" but not yet at this period 
 "tibe," "tebi." He lacks still the motor co-ordination 
 of words. 
 
 At this period the gesture-language and modulation 
 of voice of the child are generally easy to understand, 
 as in case of pure ataxic aphasia (the verbal asemia or 
 asymbolia of Finkelnburg) are the looks and gestures 
 
LEARNING TO SPEAK. 51 
 
 of aphasie adults. Chiefly n, f, and M are as yet im- 
 perfectly developed. 
 
 Central Stammering and Lisping {Literal Dysar- 
 thria). — Children just beginning to form sentences stam- 
 mer, not uttering the sounds correctly. They also, as a 
 rule, lisp for a considerable time, so that the words 
 spoken by them are still indistinct and are intelligible 
 only to the persons most intimately associated with 
 them. 
 
 The paths d and i, and consequently the centro-mo- 
 torium M, come chiefly into consideration here ; but L 
 also is concerned, so far as from it comes the motor im- 
 pulse to make a sound audible through M. 
 
 The babbling of the infant is not to be confounded 
 with this. That imports merely the unintentional pro- 
 duction of single disconnected articulate sounds with 
 non-coordinated movements of the tongue on account 
 of uncontrolled excitement of the nerves of the tongue. 
 
 Stuttering {Syllabic Dysarthria). — Stutterers articu- 
 late each separate sound correctly, but connect the conso- 
 nants, especially the explosive sounds, with the succeed- 
 ing vowels badly, with effort as if an obstacle were to be 
 overcome. The paths i and I are affected, and hence M 
 is not properly excited. S, too, conies nnder considera- 
 tion in the case of stuttering, so far as impulses go out 
 from it for the pronunciation of the syllables. 
 
 Children who can not yet speak of themselves hut 
 can repeat what is said for them, exert themselves un- 
 necessarily, making a strong expiratory effort (with the 
 help of abdominal pressure) to repeat a syllable still un- 
 familiar, and they pause between the doubled or tripled 
 consonant and vowel. This peculiarity, which soon 
 
52 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 passes away and is to be traced often to the lack of 
 practice and to embarrassment (in case of threats), and 
 which may be observed occasionally in every child, is 
 stuttering proper, although it appears more seldom than 
 in stutterers. Example : The child of two years is to 
 say " Tischdecke," and he begins with an unnecessary 
 expiratory effort, T-t-itt-t, and does not finish. 
 
 Stuttering is by no means a physiological transition- 
 stage through which every child learning to speak 
 must necessarily pass. But it is easily acquired, in 
 learning to speak, by imitation of stutterers, in frequent 
 intercourse with them. Hence, stutterers have some- 
 times stuttering children. 
 
 /3. Stumbling at Syllables. — Children that already 
 articulate correctly separate sounds, and do so inten- 
 tionally, very often put together syllables out of the 
 sounds incorrectly, and frame words incorrectly from 
 the syllables, where we can not assume deficient develop- 
 ment of the external organs of speech ; this is solely be- 
 cause the co-ordination is still imperfect. The child ac- 
 cordingly says beti before he can say bitte j so too gre- 
 fessen instead of gefressen. 
 
 The tracts I and n are still incompletely developed ; 
 also S and W, so far as impulses come thence to utter 
 syllables by means of M. 
 
 b. Paraphasia. — Children have learned some ex- 
 pressions in their future language, and use them inde- 
 pendently but wrongly ; they put in the place of the 
 appropriate word an incorrect one, confounding words 
 because they can not yet correctly combine their ideas 
 with the word-images. They say, e. g., Kind instead of 
 " Kinn," and Sand instead of " Salz " ; also Netz for 
 
LEARNING TO SPEAK. 53 
 
 "Nest" and Billard for " Billet," Matrons f or " Pa- 
 trone." 
 
 The connection of D with M through n is still im- 
 perfect, and perhaps also M is not sufficiently developed. 
 
 Making Mistakes in Speaking (Skoliophasia). — In 
 this kind of paraphasia in adults the cause is a lack of 
 attention ; therefore purely central concentration is 
 wanting, or one fails to " collect himself " ; there is dis- 
 traction, hence the unintentional, frequently uncon- 
 scious, confounding of words similar in sound or con- 
 nected merely by remote, often dim, reminiscences. 
 This kind of mis-speaking through carelessness is dis- 
 tinguished from skoliophrasia (see below) by the fact 
 that there is no disturbance of the intelligence, and the 
 correction easily follows. 
 
 Skoliophasia occurs regularly with children in the 
 second and third years (and later). The child in gen- 
 eral has not yet the ability to concentrate his attention 
 upon that which is to be spoken. He wills to do it but 
 can not yet. Hence, even in spite of the greatest effort, 
 occur often erroneous repetitions of words pronounced 
 for him (aside from difficulties of articulation, and also 
 when these are wanting) ; hence confounding (of words), 
 wrong forms of address, e. g., Mama or Helens instead 
 of " Papa," and Papa instead of " Marie." 
 
 c. Taciturnity (Dumbness). — Individual human be- 
 ings of sound physical condition who can speak very well 
 are dumb, or speak only two or three words in all for 
 several years, because they no longer will to speak (e. g. ? 
 in the belief that silence prevents them from doing 
 wrong). 
 
 This taciturnity is not to be confounded with the 
 1 
 
54: THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 paranoic aphrasia in certain insane persons — e. g., in 
 catatonia, where the will is paralyzed. 
 
 It also occurs — seldom, however — that children who 
 have already learned to speak pretty well are dumb, or 
 speak only a few words — among these the word no — 
 during several months, or speak only with certain per- 
 sons, because they will not speak (out of obstinacy, or 
 embarrassment). Here an organic obstacle in the motor 
 speech-center is probable. For voluntary dumbness re- 
 quires great strength of will, which is hardly to be at- 
 tributed to the child. The unwillingness to speak that 
 is prompted by fun never lasts long. 
 
 C. The Expressive Peripheral Processes dis- 
 turbed. 
 
 (1) By si alia and Alalia (Peripheral Dysarthria and Anarthria). 
 
 The infant can not yet articulate correctly, or at all, 
 on account of the still deficient development, and after- 
 ward the lack of control, of the nerves of speech and 
 the external organs of speech. The complete inability 
 to articulate is called alalia. The newly born is alalic. 
 Dyslalia continues with many children a long time even 
 after the learning of the mother-tongue. This is always 
 a case simply of imperfections in h and 2. 
 
 . a. BnZbo-nuclear Stammering {Literal Balbo-nib- 
 clear Dysarthria and Anarthria). — Patients who have 
 lost control over the muscles of speech through bulbo-nu- 
 clear paralysis, stammer before they become speechless, 
 and along with paralysis and atrophy of the tongue oc- 
 cur regularly fibrillar contractions of the muscles of the 
 tongue. The tongue is no longer regulated by the will. 
 
LEARNING TO SPEAK. 55 
 
 The child that has not yet gained control over his 
 vocal muscles stammers before he can speak correctly, 
 and, according to my observations, regularly shows 
 fibrillar contractions of the muscles of the tongue along 
 with an extraordinary mobility of the tongue. The 
 tongue is not yet regulated by the will. Its movements 
 are aimless. 
 
 o. Mogilalia. — Children, on account of the as yet 
 deficient control of the external organs of speech, es- 
 pecially of the tongue, can not yet form some sounds, 
 and therefore omit them. They say, e. g., in for 
 " bin," atz for " Herz," eitun for " Zeitung," ere for 
 "Schere." 
 
 Gammaeism. — Children find difficulties in the vol- 
 untary utterance of K and Ks (x), and indeed of G, and 
 therefore often omit these sounds without substituting 
 others ; they say, e. g , atsen for " Klatschen," atten for 
 " Garten," asse for " Gasse," all for " Karl," ete for 
 " Grete " (in the second year), wesen for " gewesen," 
 <^/for"Kopf." 
 
 Sigmatism. — All children are late in learning to pro- 
 nounce correctly S, and generally still later with Sch, 
 and therefore omit both, or in a lisping fashion put S in 
 place of Sch ; more rarely Sch in place of S. They say, 
 e. g., saf in place of "Schaf," int for "singt," anz 
 for " Salz," lafen and slafen for "schlafen," iss for 
 " Hirsch," jpitte for " Splitter," tod for " Stuhl," wein 
 for " Sch wein," Tuttav for " Gustav," torch for " Storeh" 
 (second year), emele for " Schemel," webenau for " Fle- 
 dermaus," but also Kitsch for " Kuss." But in no case 
 have I myself heard a child regularly put "sch" in 
 place of s, as Joschef for " Josef." This form, perhaps, 
 
56 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 occurs in Jewish families; but I have no further ob- 
 servations concerning it as jet. 
 
 Photacism. — Many children do not form R at all 
 for a long time and put nothing in place of it. They 
 say duch for " dureh," hot for " Brot," unte for " herun- 
 ter," tautech for " traurig," ule for " Ruhe," tanen for 
 " Thranen," ukTca for " Zucker." On the contrary, 
 some form early the R lingual, guttural, and labial, but 
 all confound now and then the first two with each 
 other. 
 
 Pambdacism. — Many children are late in learning 
 to utter L, and often omit it. They say, e. g., icht for 
 " Licht," voge for " Yogel," atenne for " Laterne," batn 
 for " Blatt," mante for " Mantel." 
 
 (2) Literal Parartkria or Paralalia. 
 
 Children who are beginning to repeat intention- 
 ally what is said, often put another sound in place 
 of the well-known correct (no doubt intended) one ; 
 this on account of deficient control of the tongue or 
 other peripheral organs of speech. E. g., they say t in 
 place of p, or b for w (basse for " Wasser " and for 
 " Flasche "), e for i and o for u, as in bete for " bitte," 
 and Ohr for " Uhr." 
 
 Paragammacism. — Children supply the place of 
 the insuperably difficult sounds G, K, X by others, es- 
 pecially D and T, also 1ST, saying, e. g., itte for " Rike," 
 finne for " Finger," tein for " Klein," toss for " gross," 
 atitte for " Karnickel," otute for " Kuk," attall for 
 " Axel," wodal for " Yogel," tut for " gut," tatze for 
 "Katze." 
 
 Parasigmatism. — Children are late in learning to 
 
LEARNING TO SPEAK. 57 
 
 utter S and Sch correctly. They often snpply the place 
 of them, before acquiring them, by other sounds, saying, 
 e. g., tule for " Schule," ade for " Hase," webbe for 
 " "Wasser," beb for " bos," bebe for " Besen," gigod for 
 " Schildkrote," baubee for " Schwalbe." 
 
 Pararhotacism. — Most children, if not all, even 
 when they have very early formed R. correctly (invol- 
 untarily), introduce other sounds in place of it in speak- 
 ing — e. g., they say moigjen for " morgen," matta for 
 " Martha," annold for " Arnold," jeiben for " reiben," 
 amum for " warum," welfen for " werfen." 
 
 Paralambdacism. — Many children who do not learn 
 until late to utter L put in its place other sounds ; say- 
 ing, e. g., bind for " Bild," bamjpe for " Lampe," tinne 
 for " stille," degen for " legen," wewe for " Lowe," 
 ewebau for " Elephant." 
 
 (3) Bradylalia or Bradyarthria. 
 
 I Children reciting for the first time something 
 learned by heart speak not always indistinctly, but, on 
 account of the incomplete practicability of the motor- 
 paths, slowly, monotonously, without modulation. 
 Sounds and syllables do not yet follow one another 
 quickly, although they are already formed correctly. 
 The syllables belonging to a word are often separated 
 by pauses like the words themselves — a sort of dyspha- 
 sia-of-conduction on account of the more difficult and 
 prolonged conduction of the motor-impulse. I knew a 
 boy (feeble-minded, to be sure) who took from three to 
 eight seconds for answering even the simplest ques- 
 tion ; then came a regular explosion of utterance. Yet 
 he did not stutter or stammer. "When he had only yes 
 
58 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 or no to answer, the interval between question and an- 
 swer was shorter. 
 
 Here belong in part also the imperfections of speech 
 that are occasioned by too large a tongue (macroglos- 
 sia). When a child is born with too large a tongue, he 
 may remain long alalic, without the loss of intellectual 
 development, as was observed to be the case by Paster 
 and O. von Heusinger (1882). 
 
 II. DYSPHRASIA (DYSLOGICAL DISTURBANCES OF 
 SPEECH). 
 
 The child that can already speak pretty correctly de- 
 forms his speech after the manner of insane persons, 
 being moved by strange caprices, because his under- 
 standing is not yet sufficiently developed. 
 
 Logorrhom {Loquaciousness). — It is a regular occur- 
 rence with children that their pleasure in articulation 
 and in vocal sound often induces them to hold long 
 monologues, sometimes in articulate sounds and sylla- 
 bles, sometimes not. This chattering is kept up till the 
 grown people present are weary, and that by children 
 who can not yet talk ; and their screaming is often in- 
 terrupted only by hoarseness, just as in the case of the 
 polyphrasia of the insane. 
 
 Dysjphrasia of the Melancholy. — Children exert 
 themselves perceptibly in their first attempts to speak, 
 answer indolently or not at all, or frequently with em- 
 barrassment, always slowly, often with drawl and mono- 
 tone, very frequently coming to a stop. They also 
 sometimes begin to speak, and then lose at once the in- 
 clination to go on. 
 
 Dysphrasta of the Delirious ( Wahnsinnigen). — 
 
LEARNING TO SPEAK. 59 
 
 Children that have begun to speak often make new 
 words for themselves. They have already invented 
 signs before this ; they are also unintelligible often- 
 times because they use the words they have learned in 
 a different sense. 
 
 Dysphrasia of the Insane ( Verruckteii). — The child 
 is not yet prepared to speak. He possesses only non- 
 co-ordinated sounds and isolated rudiments of words, 
 primitive syllables, roots, as the primitive raw material 
 of the future speech. 
 
 In many insane persons only the disconnected re- 
 mains or ruins of their stock of words are left, so that 
 their speech resembles that of the child at a certain stage. 
 
 Dysphrasia of the Feeble-minded. — The child at 
 first reacts only upon strong impressions, and that often 
 indolently and clumsily and with outcry ; later, upon 
 impressions of ordinary strength, without understanding 
 — laughing, crowing, uttering disconnected syllables. 
 
 So the patient reacts either upon strong impressions 
 only, and that indolently, bluntly, with gestures that 
 express little and with rude words, or he still reacts 
 upon impressions of ordinary strength, but in flat, silly, 
 disconnected utterances. 
 
 Dysphrasia of Idiots. — Children have command at 
 the beginning of no articulate sounds ; then they learn 
 these and syllables ; after this also words of one syllable ; 
 then they speak short words of more than one syllable 
 and sentences, but frequently babble forth words they 
 have heard without understanding their meaning, like 
 parrots. 
 
 Imbeciles also frequently command only short words 
 and sentences or monosyllabic words and sounds, or, final- 
 
60 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 ly, they lack all articulate sound. Many microcephalous 
 idiots babble words without understanding their mean- 
 ing, like little children. 
 
 Echo-speech or JEcholalia {Imitative Reflex Speech). 
 — Children not yet able to frame a sentence correctly 
 like to repeat the last word of a sentence they have 
 heard ; and this, according to my observations and re- 
 searches, is so general that I am forced to call this echo- 
 lalia a physiological transition stage. Of long words 
 said to them, the children usually repeat only the last 
 two syllables or the last syllable only. The feeble- 
 minded also repeat monotonously the words and sen- 
 tences said by a person in their neighborhood without 
 showing an awakened attention, and in general without 
 connecting any idea with what they say. (Romberg.) 
 
 Inter jectional Speech. — Children sometimes have a 
 fancy for speaking in interjections. They express vague 
 ideas by single vowels (like a), syllables (e. g., na, da), 
 and combinations of syllables, and frequently call out 
 aloud through the house meaningless sounds and sylla- 
 bles. D and W are as yet undeveloped. 
 
 Often, too, children imitate the interjections used by 
 members of the family — hop ! patsch, bauz ! an inter- 
 jectional echolalia. Many deranged persons express 
 their feelings in like manner, in sounds, especially 
 vowels, syllables, or sound-combinations resembling 
 words, which are void of meaning or are associated 
 merely with obscure ideas (Martini). Then D is con- 
 nected with M only through L and S, and so through i 
 and e. 
 
 Emoolophrasia. — Many children, long after they 
 have overcome acataphasia and agrammatism, delight 
 
LEARNING TO SPEAK. 01 
 
 in inserting between words sounds, syllables, and words 
 that do not belong there; e. g., they double the last 
 syllable of every word and put an eff to it : ich-ich-eff, 
 bin-in-eff, etc., or they make a kind of bleat between 
 the words (Kussraaul) ; and, in telling a story, put extra 
 syllables into their utterance while they are thinking. 
 
 Many adults likewise have the disagreeable habit of 
 introducing certain words or meaningless syllables into 
 their speech, where these do not at all belong ; or they 
 tack on diminutive endings to their words. The syllables 
 are often mere sounds, like eh, uh / in many cases they 
 sound like eng, ang (angophrasia — Kussmaul). 
 
 Palimphrasia. — Insane persons often repeat single 
 sounds, syllables, or sentences, over and over without 
 meaning ; e. g., " I am-am-am-am." 
 
 " The phenomenon in mauy cases reminds us of 
 children, who say or sing some word or phrase, a rhyme 
 or little verse, so long continuously, like automata, that 
 the by-standers can endure it no longer. It is often the 
 ring of the words, often the sense, often both, by which 
 the children are impressed. The child repeats them 
 because they seem to him strange or very sonorous." 
 (Kussmaul.) 
 
 Bradyphrasia. — The speech of people that are sad 
 or sleepy, and of others whose mental processes are in- 
 dolent, often drags along with tedious slowness ; is also 
 liable to be broken off abruptly. The speaker comes to 
 a standstill. This is not to be confounded with brady- 
 phasia or with bradyarthria or bradylalia (see above). 
 
 In children likewise the forming of the sentence 
 takes a long time on account of the as yet slow rise and 
 combination of ideas, and a simple narrative is only 
 
62 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 slowly completed or not finished at all, because the in- 
 tellectual processes in the brain are too fatiguing. 
 
 jParaj?hrasia. — Under the same circumstances as in 
 the case of bradjphrasia the (slow) speech may be 
 marred and may become unintelligible because the train 
 of thought is confused — e. g., in persons " drunk " with 
 sleep — so that words are uttered that do not correspond 
 to the original ideas. 
 
 In the case of children who want to tell something, 
 and who begin right, the story may be interrupted easily 
 by a recollection, a fresh train of thought, and still they 
 go on ; e. g., they mix up two fairy tales, attaching to 
 the beginning of one the end of another. 
 
 Skoliqphrasia. — Distracted and timid feeble-minded 
 persons easily make mistakes in speaking, because they 
 can not direct their attention to what they are saying 
 and to the way in which they are saying it, but they 
 wander, allowing themselves to be turned aside from 
 the thing to be said by all sorts of ideas and external 
 impressions ; and, moreover, they do not notice after- 
 ward that they have been making mistakes (cf. p. 53). 
 
 Children frequently put a wrong word in place of a 
 right one well known to them, without noticing it. 
 They allow themselves to be turned aside very easily 
 from the main point by external impressions and all 
 sorts of fancies, and often, in fact, say the opposite of 
 what they mean without noticing it. 
 
 III. DYSMIMIA. 
 
 Disturbances of Gesture-Language (Pantomime). 
 
 Perceptive Asemia. — Patients have lost the ability 
 to understand looks and gestures (Steinthal). 
 
LEARNING TO SPEAK. 63 
 
 Children can not yet understand the looks and gest- 
 ures of persons about them. 
 
 Amnesic Amimia. — A phasic persons can sometimes 
 imitate gestures, but can not execute them when bid, but 
 only when the gestures are made for them to imitate. 
 Children that do not yet speak can imitate gestures if 
 these are made for them to see, but it is often a long 
 time before they can make them at the word of com- 
 mand. 
 
 Ataxic Dysmimia and Amimia {Mimetic Ase- 
 mia). — Patients can no longer execute significative looks 
 and gestures, on account of defective co-ordination. 
 
 Children can not express their states of desire, etc., 
 because they do not yet control the requisite co-ordina- 
 tion for the corresponding looks and gestures. 
 
 Paramiinia {Paramimetic Asemia). — Many pa- 
 tients can make use of looks and gestures, but confound 
 them. 
 
 Children have not yet firmly impressed upon them 
 the significance of looks and gestures ; this is shown in 
 their interchanging of these ; e. g., the head is shaken in 
 the way of denial when they are affirming something. 
 
 Emotive Language (Affectsprache) in Aphrasia. — 
 In Aphrasia it happens that smiling, laughing, and 
 weeping are no longer controlled, and that they break 
 out on the least occasion with the greatest violence, like 
 the spinal reflexes in decapitated animals. (Hughlings- 
 Jackson.) 
 
 Emotive language may continue when the language 
 of ideas (Begriffssprache) is completely extinguished, 
 and idiotic children without speech can even sing. 
 
 In children, far slighter occasions suffice normally 
 
64 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 to call forth smiles, laughter, and tears, than in adults. 
 These emotional utterances are not yet often voluntarily 
 inhibited by the child that can not yet speak ; on the 
 contrary, they are unnecessarily repeated. 
 
 Apraxia. — Many patients are no longer in condition, 
 on account of disturbed intellect, to make right use of 
 ordinary objects, the use of which they knew well for- 
 merly ; e. g., they can no longer find the way to the 
 month ; or they bite into the soap. 
 
 Children are not yet in condition, on account of de- 
 ficient practice, to use the common utensils rightly ; e. g., 
 they will eat soup with a fork, and will put the fork 
 against the cheek instead of into the mouth. 
 
 4. Development of Speech in the Child. 
 
 We may now take up the main question as to the 
 condition of the child that is learning to speak, in re- 
 gard to the development and practicability of the nerve- 
 paths and of the centers required for speech. For the 
 comparison of the disturbances of speech in adults with 
 the deficiencies of speech in the child, on the one 
 hand, and the chronological observation of the child, on 
 the other hand, disclose to us what parts of the apparatus 
 of speech come by degrees into operation. First to be 
 considered are the impressive and expressive paths in 
 general. 
 
 All new-born human beings are deaf or hard of 
 hearing, as has already been demonstrated. Since the 
 hearing but slowly grows more acute during the first 
 days, no utterances of sound at this period can be re- 
 garded as responses to any sound-impressions whatever. 
 The first cry is purely reflexive, like the croaking of the 
 
LEARNING TO SPEAK. 65 
 
 decapitated frog wlien the skin of his back is stroked 
 (Yol. I, p. 214). The cry is not heard by the newly-born 
 himself and has not the least value as language. It is 
 on a par with the squeaking of the pig just born, the 
 bleating of the new-born lamb, and the peeping of the 
 chick that is breaking its shell. 
 
 Upon this first, short season of physiological deaf- 
 mutism follows the period during which crying ex- 
 presses bodily conditions, feelings such as pain, hunger, 
 cold. Here, again, there exists as yet no connection 
 of the expressive phenomena with acoustic impressions, 
 but there is already the employment of the voice with 
 stronger expiration in case of strong and disagreeable 
 excitations of other sensory nerves than those of general 
 sensation and of the skin. For the child now cries at a 
 dazzling light also, and at a bitter taste, as if the un- 
 pleasant feeling were diminished by the strong motor 
 discharge. In any case the child cries because this loud, 
 augmented expiration lessens for him the previously ex- 
 isting unpleasant feelings, without exactly inducing 
 thereby a comfortable condition. 
 
 "Not until later does a sudden sound-impression, 
 which at first called forth only a start and then a quiv- 
 ering of the eyelids, cause also crying. But this loud 
 sign of fright may be purely reflexive, just like the 
 silent starting and throwing up of the arms at a sudden 
 noise, and has at most the significance of an expression 
 of discomfort, like screaming at a painful blow. 
 
 It is otherwise with the first loud response to an 
 acoustic impression recognized as new. The indefinable 
 sounds of satisfaction made by the child that hears mu- 
 sic for the first time are no longer reflexive, and are not 
 
66 TIIE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 symptoms of displeasure. I see in this reaction, which 
 may be compared with the howling of the dog that for 
 the first time in his life hears music — I see in this reac- 
 tion of the apparatus of voice and of future speech, the 
 first sign of the connection noio just established between 
 impressive (acoustic) and expressive (having the character 
 of emotive language) paths. The impressive, separately, 
 were long since open, as the children under observation 
 after the first week allowed themselves to be quieted by 
 the singing of cradle-songs, and the expressive, separate- 
 ly, must likewise have been open, since various condi- 
 tions were announced by various sorts of crying. 
 
 Everything now depends on a well-established inter- 
 central communication between the two. This is next 
 to be discussed. 
 
 The primitive connection is already an advance upon 
 that of a reflex arc. The sound-excitations arriving 
 from the ear at the central endings of the auditory nerve- 
 are not directly transformed into motor excitations for 
 the laryngeal nerves, so that the glottis contracts to utter 
 vocal sound. When the child (as early as the sixth to 
 the eighth week) takes pleasure in music and laughs 
 aloud, his voice can not in this case (as at birth) have 
 been educed by reflex action, for without a cerebrum he 
 would not laugh or utter joyous sounds, whereas even 
 without that he cries. 
 
 From this, however, by no means follows the exist- 
 ence of a speech-center in the infant. The fact that 
 he produces sounds easily articulated, although without 
 choice, like tahu and amma, proves merely the func- 
 tional capacity of the peripheral apparatus of articulation 
 (in the seventh week) at a period long before it is inten- 
 
LEARNING TO SPEAK. 67 
 
 tionallj used for articulation. The unintentionally ut- 
 tered syllables that make their appearance are, to be 
 sure, simple, at least in the first half-year. It is vowels 
 almost exclusively that appear in the first month, and 
 these predominate for a long time yet. Of the conso- 
 nants in the third month m alone is generally to be 
 noted as frequent. This letter comes at a later period 
 also, from the raising and dropping of the lower jaw in 
 expiration, an operation that is besides soon easy for the 
 infant with less outlay of will than the letter b, which 
 necessitates a firmer closing of the lips. 
 
 But in spite of the simplicity of all the vocal utter- 
 ances and of the defectiveness of the articulatory appa- 
 ratus, the child is able (often long before the seventh 
 month) to respond to address, questions, chiding, either 
 with inarticulato sounds or with vowels or by means of 
 simple syllables, like pa, ta, ma, na, da, ma, mo, go, 
 to [a as in father / a as in fate ; 6 like i in bird^\ 
 Since these responses are entirely, or almost entirely, 
 lacking in microcephali and in children born deaf, they 
 are not purely reflexive, like sneezing, e. g. ; therefore 
 there must be in the case of these a cerebral operation 
 also, simple indeed, but indubitably intellectual, in- 
 terposed between sound-perception and vocal utter- 
 ance, especially as the infant behaves differently accord- 
 ing to what he hears, and he discriminates very well 
 the stern command from the caress, forbidding from 
 allowing, in the voice of the person speaking to him. 
 Yet it is much more the timbre, the accent, the pitch, 
 the intensity of the voice and the sounds, the variation 
 of which excites attention, than it is the spoken word. 
 In the first half-year the child hears the vowels much 
 
08 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 better than he does the consonants, and will imperfectly 
 understand or divine the sense of a few sounds only — 
 e. g., when his name is uttered in a threatening tone he 
 will hear merely the accented vowel, for at the first 
 performance tanght him, purposely postponed to a very 
 late period (in his thirteenth month), it made no differ- 
 ence to my child whether we asked without changing a 
 feature, " Wie gross \ " (how tall ?) or " ooss ? " or " oo % " 
 In all three cases he answered with the same movement 
 of the hand. 
 
 K"ow, although all infants in normal condition, be- 
 fore they can repeat anything after others or can under- 
 stand any word whatever, express their feelings by vari- 
 ous sounds, even by syllables, and distinguish vowels 
 and many consonants in the words spoken to them, yet 
 this does not raise them above the intelligent animal. 
 The response to friendly address and loud chiding by 
 appropriate sounds is scarcely to be distinguished as to 
 its psychical value from the joyous barking and whining 
 of the poodle. 
 
 The pointer-dog's understanding of the few spoken 
 utterances that are impressed upon him in his training 
 is also quite as certain at least as the babe's understand- 
 ing of the jargon of the nurse. The correctly executed 
 movements or arrests of movement following the sound- 
 impressions " Setz dich ! Pfui ! Zuriick ! Yorwarts ! 
 Allez ! Fass ! Apporte ! Such ! Yerloren ! Pst ! Lass ! 
 Hierher ! Brav ! Leid's nicht ! Puhig ! "Wahr Dich ! 
 Hab Acht! "Was ist das! Pfui Yogel! Pfui Hase! 
 Halt ! " prove that the bird-dog understands the mean- 
 ing of the sounds and syllables and words heard as far 
 as he needs to understand them. The training in the 
 
LEARNING TO SPEAK. 69 
 
 English language accomplishes the same result with 
 "Down! Down charge! Steady! Toho! Fetch! Hold 
 up!" as the training in the French language, with yet 
 other words — so that we can by no means assume any 
 hereditary connection whatever between the quality of 
 the sound heard and the movement or arrest of move- 
 ment to be executed, such as may perhaps exist in the 
 case of the chick just hatched which follows the cluck- 
 ing of the hen. Rather does the dog learn afresh in 
 every case the meaning of the words required for hunt- 
 ing, just as the speechless child comprehends the mean- 
 ing of the first words of its future language without 
 being able to repeat them himself — e. g., " Give ! Come ! 
 Hand ! Sh ! Quiet ! " Long before the child ? s mechan- 
 ism of articulation is so far developed that these ex- 
 pressions can be produced by him, the child manifests 
 his understanding of them unequivocally by correspond- 
 ing movements, by gestures and looks, by obedience. 
 
 'No doubt this behavior varies in individual cases, 
 inasmuch as in some few the imitative articulation may 
 be to some extent earlier developed than the under- 
 standing. There are many children who even in their 
 first year have a monkey-like knack at imitation and re- 
 peat all sorts of things like parrots without guessing the 
 sense of them. Here, however, it is to be borne in mind 
 that such an echo-speech appears only after the first 
 understanding of some spoken word can be demon- 
 strated ; in no case before the fourth month. Lindner 
 relates that when he one day observed that his child of 
 eighteen weeks was gazing at the swinging pendulum 
 of the house-clock, he went with him to it, saying, 
 " Tick-tack," in time with the pendulum ; and when he 
 8 
 
70 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 afterward called out to the child, who was no longer 
 looking at the clock, " Tick-tack ! " this call was an- 
 swered, at first with delay, a little later immediately, by 
 a turning of the look toward the clock. This proved 
 that there was understanding long before the first imi- 
 tation of words. Progress now became pretty rapid, so 
 that at the end of the seventh month the questions, 
 " Where is your eye ? ear ? head ? mouth ? nose ? the 
 table? chair? sofa?" were answered correctly by move- 
 ments of hand and eyes. In the tenth month this child 
 for the first time himself used a word as a means of ef- 
 fecting an understanding, viz., mama (soon afterward, 
 indeed, he called both parents papa). The child's ina- 
 bility to repeat distinctly syllables spoken for him is 
 not to be attributed, shortly before the time at which 
 he succeeds in doing it, to a purely psychical adynamy 
 (impotence), not, as many suppose, to " being stupid, 3 ' 
 or to a weakness of will without organic imperfections 
 determined by the cerebral development, for the efforts, 
 the attention, and the ability to repeat incorrectly, show 
 that the will is not wanting. Since also the peripheral 
 impressive acoustic and expressive phonetic paths are 
 intact and developed, as is proved by the acuteness of 
 the hearing and the spontaneous formation of the very 
 syllables desired, the cause of the inability to repeat 
 correctly must be solely organic-centro-motor. The 
 connecting paths between the sound-center and the 
 syllable-center, and of both these with the speech mo- 
 torium, are not yet or not easily passable ; but the imi- 
 tation of a single sound, be it only a, can not take place 
 without the mediation of the cerebral cortex. Thus in 
 the very first attempt to repeat something heard there 
 
LEARNING TO SPEAK 71 
 
 exists an unquestionable advance in brain development ; 
 and the first successful attempt of this kind proves not 
 merely the augmented functional ability of the articu- 
 lator apparatus and of the sound-center, and the practi- 
 cability of the impressive paths that lead from the ear 
 to the sound-center — it proves, above all, the establish- 
 ment of intercentral routes that lead from the sound- 
 center and the syllable-center to the motorium. 
 
 In fact, the correct repeating of a sound heard, of a 
 syllable, and, finally, of a word pronounced by another 
 person, is the surest proof of the establishment and prac- 
 ticability of the entire impressive, central, and expressive 
 path. It, however, proves nothing as to the understand- 
 ing of the sound or word heard and faultlessly repeated. 
 
 As the term "understanding" or "understand" is 
 ambiguous, in so far as it may relate to the ideal con- 
 tent (the meaning), and at the same time to the mere 
 perception of the word spoken (or written or touched) — 
 e. g., when any one speaks indistinctly so that we do 
 not " understand " him — it is advisable to restrict the use 
 of this expression. Understand shall in future apply 
 only to the meaning of the word ; hear — since it is sim- 
 ply the perceiving of a word through the hearing that 
 we have in view — will relate to the sensuous impression. 
 It is clear, then, that all children who can hear but can 
 not yet speak, repeat many words without understand- 
 ing them, and understand many words without being 
 able to repeat them, as Kussmaul has already observed. 
 But I must add that the repeating of what is not under- 
 stood begins only after some word (even one that can 
 not be repeated) has been understood, 
 
 Now it is certain that the majority, if not all, of 
 
72 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 the children that have good hearing develop the under- 
 standing more at first, since the impressive side is prac- 
 ticed more and sooner than the expressive-articulatory. 
 Probably those that imitate early and skillfully are the 
 children that can speali earliest, and whose cerebrum 
 grows fastest but also soonest ceases to grow ; whereas 
 those that imitate later and more sparingly, generally 
 learn to speak later, and will generally be the more in- 
 telligent. For with the higher sort of activity goes the 
 greater growth of brain. "While the other children culti- 
 vate more the centro-motor portion, the sensory, the in- 
 tellectual, is neglected. In animals, likewise, a brief, 
 rapid development of the brain is wont to go along 
 with inferior intelligence. The intelligence gets a bet- 
 ter development when the child, instead of repeating 
 all sorts of things without any meaning, tries to guess 
 the meaning of what he hears. Precisely the epoch at 
 which this takes place belongs to the most interesting 
 in intellectual development. Like a pan tomi mist, the 
 child, by means of his looks and gestures, and further 
 by cries and by movements of all sorts, gives abundant 
 evidence of his understanding and his desires, without 
 himself speaking a single word. As the adult, after 
 having half learned a foreign language from books, can 
 not speak (imitate) it, and can not easily understand it 
 when he hears it spoken fluently by one that is a perfect 
 master of it, but yet makes out single expressions and 
 understands them, and divines the meaning of the whole, 
 so the child at this stage can distinctly hear single words, 
 can grasp the purport of them, and divine correctly a 
 whole sentence from the looks and gestures of the speak- 
 er, although the child himself makes audible no articulate 
 
LEARNING TO SPEAK. Y3 
 
 utterance except his own, for the most part meaningless, 
 variable babble of sonnds and syllables and outcries. 
 
 The causes of the slowness of the progress in ex- 
 pressing in articulate words what is understood and 
 desired, on the part of normal children, is not, however, 
 to be attributed, as it has often been, to a slower devel- 
 opment of the expressive motor mechanism, but must 
 be looked for in the difficulty of establishing the con- 
 nection of the various central storehouses of sense- 
 impressions with the intercentral path of connection 
 between the acoustic speech - centers and the speech- 
 motorium. For the purely peripheral articulatory acts 
 are long since perfect, although as yet a simple " a " or 
 "pa " can not be repeated after another person ; for 
 these and other sounds and syllables are already uttered 
 correctly by the child himself. 
 
 The order of succession in which these separate 
 sounds appear, without instruction, is very different in 
 individual cases. With my boy, who learned to speak 
 rather late, and was not occupied with learning by 
 heart, the following was the order of the perfectly 
 pure sounds heard by me : 
 
 On the left are the sounds or syllables indicated by 
 one letter ; on the right, the same indicated by more 
 than one letter ; and it is to be borne in mind that the 
 child needs to pronounce only fourteen of the nineteen 
 so-called consonants of the German alphabet in order to 
 master the remaining five also ; for 
 
 c = ts and k 
 v = f and w 
 x = ks and gs 
 q = ku and kw 
 z = ts and ds 
 
74: THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 and of the fourteen four require no new articulation, 
 because 
 
 p is a toneless b 
 t is a toneless d 
 f is a toneless w 
 k is a toneless g 
 
 Of the ten positions of the mouth required for all 
 the consonants of the alphabet, nine are taken by the 
 child within the first six months : * 
 
 Months. 
 
 1. Indefinite 
 vowels ; a u, ua. 
 
 2. a, o, o ; m, 
 
 g, r, t ; h, am, ma, ta, hu, or, ro, ar, ra, go. 
 
 3. i ; b, 1, n, ua, oa, ao, ai, el, oa, ao, aa, ao ; om, in, ab, om ; la, ho, 
 
 mo, na, na, ha, bu ; ng, mb, gr. 
 
 4. e, au, a-u, ao, ea ; an ; na, to, la, me ; nt. 
 
 5. ii (y) ; k, ag, eg, ek, ge, ko. 
 
 6. j ; the lin- oi (eu, au), io, oe, eu (French) ; ij, aj, og, ich; ja, ja; 
 gual - labial rg, br, ch. 
 
 sound, 
 
 7. d, p, ae, ui ; ma. 
 
 8. eo, ae, ou, au; up; ho, mi, te. 
 
 9. ap, ach, am ; pa, ga, cha. 
 
 10. el, ab, at, at ; da, ba, ta, ta ; nd. 
 
 11. ad, al, ak, er, ej, 6d ; da, ga, ba, ka, ke, je, he, ne ; 
 
 pr, tr. 
 
 12. w, an, op, ew, ar ; de, wa ; nj, Id. 
 18. s (ss), en ; hi ; dn. 
 
 14. mu ; kn, gn, kt. 
 
 15. z, oo, oa, is, iss, es, ass, th (English), ith (Engl.), it ; ha, 
 
 di, wa, sse. 
 
 16. f (v), ok, on ; do, go ; bw, fp. 
 
 17. ib, 5t, an; bi. 
 
 18. ai, ia; ap, im ; tu, pit; ft. 
 
 19. on, et, es ; sa, be ; st, tth (Engl.), s-ch, sj. 
 
 * Pronounce the letters in the tabular view as in German. 
 
LEARNING TO SPEAK. Y5 
 
 Months. 
 
 20. ub, ot, id, od, oj, uf, at; bo, ro, jo ; dj, dth (Engl). 
 
 21. op ; fe ; rl, dl, nk, pt. 
 
 22. ol ; lo ; ps, pt, tl, sen, tsch, pth (Engl.). 
 
 23. q, uo ; id, op, urn, em, us, un, ow, ed, uk, ig, il ; jo, ju, 
 
 po, mo, wo, fa, fo, fi, we, ku (qu), li, ti ; tn, pf , gch, 
 gj, tj, schg. 
 
 24. ut, esch ; pu, wi, schi, pi. 
 
 25. oe, ul, il, och, iw, ip, ur ; It, rb, rt. 
 
 26. nl, ds, mp, rm, fl, kl, nch, ml, dr. 
 
 27. x, kch, cht, lch, Is, sw, si. 
 
 Every sucli chronological view of the sequence of 
 sounds is uncertain, because we can not observe the 
 child uninterruptedly, and hence the first appearance of 
 a new sound easily escapes notice. The above synopsis 
 has a chronological value only so far as this, that it an- 
 nounces, concerning every single sound, that such sound 
 was heard in its purity by me at least as early as the 
 given month. The sound may, however, have been ut- 
 tered considerably earlier without my hearing it. I know 
 from personal experience that in other children many 
 sounds appear much earlier ; in my child, e. g., nga was 
 observed too late, and I have no doubt that the first ut- 
 terance of f and w was unobserved, although I was on 
 the lookout for them. When it is maintained, on the 
 contrary, that m is not heard from a normal child until 
 the tenth month, then the am and m'6 which appear uni- 
 versally in the first half-year have escaped notice. Ear- 
 lier tabular views of this sort, which have even served 
 as a foundation for instruction of deaf-mutes in speak- 
 ing, do not rest exclusively on observation. Besides, in 
 this matter, even two children hardly agree. According 
 to my observations, I am compelled in spite of this dis- 
 agreement to lay down the proposition as valid for all 
 
76 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 healthy children, that the greatly preponderating ma- 
 jority of the sounds the child makes use of after learn- 
 ing verbal language, and many other sounds besides 
 these, are correctly formed by him within the first eight 
 months, not intentionally, but just as much at random 
 as any other utterance of sound not to be used later in 
 speech, not appearing in any civilized language. I will 
 only mention as an example the labio-lingual explosive 
 sound, in which the tip of the tongue comes between 
 the lips and, with an expiration, bursting from its con- 
 finement is drawn back swiftly (with or without tone). 
 All children seem to like to form this sound, a sound 
 between p, b, and t, d : but it exists in few languages. 
 
 Among the innumerable superfluous, unintentional, 
 random, muscular movements of the infant, the move- 
 ments of the muscles of the larynx, mouth, and tongue 
 take a conspicuous place, because they ally themselves 
 readily with acoustic effects and the child takes delight 
 in them. It is not surprising, therefore, that precisely 
 those vibrations of the vocal cords, precisely those shap- 
 ings of the cavity of the mouth, and those positions of 
 the lips, often occur which we observe in the utterance 
 of our vowels, and that among the child-noises produced 
 unconsciously and in play are found almost all our con- 
 sonants and, besides, many that are used in foreign lan- 
 guages. The plasticity of the apparatus of speech in 
 youth permits the production of a greater abundance of 
 sounds and sound-combinations than is employed later, 
 and not a single child has been observed who has, in 
 accordance with the principle of the least effort (prin- 
 cipe du moindre effort) applied by French authors to 
 this province, advanced in regular sequence from the 
 
LEARNING TO SPEAK. ft 
 
 sounds articulated easily — i. e., with less activity of will 
 — to the physiologically difficult ; rather does it hold^ 
 good for all the children I have observed, and probably 
 for all children that learn to speak, that many of the 
 sounds uttered by them at the beginning, in the speech- 
 less season of infancy, without effort and then forgotten, 
 have to be learned afresh at a later period, have to be 
 painstakingly acquired by means of imitation. 
 
 Mobility and perfection in the technique of sound- 
 formation are not speech. They come into consideration 
 in the process of learning to speak as facilitating the 
 process, because the muscles are perfected by previous 
 practice ; but the very first attempts to imitate volun- 
 tarily a sound heard show how slight this advantage is. 
 Even those primitive syllables which the child of him- 
 self often pronounces to weariness, like da, he can not 
 at the beginning (in the tenth month in my case) as yet 
 say after any one, although he makes manifest by his ef- 
 fort — a regular strain — by his attention, and his unsuc- 
 cessful attempts, that he would like to say them, as I 
 have already mentioned. The reason is to be looked 
 for in the still incomplete development of the sensori- 
 motor central paths. In place of tatta is sounded ta or 
 ata / in place of jpa/pa even ta'i, and this not once only, 
 but after a great many trials repeated again and again 
 with the utmost patience. That the sound-image has 
 been correctly apprehended is evident from the certainty 
 with which the child responds correctly in various cases 
 by gestures to words of similar sound unpronounceable 
 by him. Thus, he points by mistake once only to the 
 mouth (Mund) instead of the moon (Mond), and points 
 correctly to the ear (Ohr) and the clock (Uhr) when 
 
78 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 asked wliere these objects are. The acuteness of hear- 
 ing indispensable for repeating the sounds is therefore 
 present before the ability to repeat. 
 
 On the whole, the infant or the young child already 
 weaned must be placed higher at this stage of his men- 
 tal development than a very intelligent animal, but not 
 on account of his knowledge of language, for the dog 
 also understands very well single words in the speech 
 of his master, in addition to hunting-terms. He divines, 
 from the master's looks and gestures, the meaning of 
 whole sentences, and, although he has not been brought 
 to the point of producing articulate sounds, yet much 
 superior in this respect is the performance of the cocka- 
 too, which learns all articulate sounds. A child who 
 shows by looks and gestures and actions that he under- 
 stands single words, and who already pronounces cor- 
 rectly many words by imitation without understanding 
 them, does not on this account stand higher intellectu- 
 ally than a sagaciously calculating yet speechless ele- 
 phant or an Arabian horse, but because he already forms 
 many more and far more complex concepts. 
 
 The animal phase of intellect lasts, in the sound, 
 vigorous, and not neglected child, to the end of the 
 first year of life at the farthest; and long before the 
 close of this he has, by means of the "feelings of pleas- 
 ure and of discomfort, very definitely distinguishable 
 by him even in the first days of life, but for which 
 he does not get the verbal expressions till the second 
 and third year, formed for himself at least in one prov- 
 ince, viz., that of food, ideas more or less well defined. 
 Romanes also rightly remarks that the concept of food 
 arises in us through the feeling of hunger quite inde- 
 
LEARNING TO SPEAK. ?9 
 
 pendently of language. Probably tliis concept is the 
 very first that is formed by the quite young infant, only 
 he would not name it " food," if indeed he named it at 
 all, but would understand by it everything that puts an 
 end to the feeling of hunger. It is of great importance 
 to hold firmly to this fact of the origination of ideas, 
 and that not of sensuous percepts only but of concepts, 
 without language, because it runs contrary to prevailing 
 assumptions. 
 
 He who has conscientiously observed the mental de- 
 velopment of infants must come to the conclusion that 
 the formation of ideas is not hound up with the learn- 
 ing of words, but is a necessary prerequisite for the 
 understanding of the words to he learned first, and 
 therefore for learning to speak. Long before the child 
 understands even a single word, before he uses a single 
 syllable consistently with a definite meaning, he already 
 has a number of ideas which are expressed by looks and 
 gestures and cries. To these belong especially ideas 
 gained through touch and sight. Associations of objects 
 touched and seen with impressions of taste are probably 
 the first generators of concepts. The child, still speech- 
 less and toothless, takes a lively interest in bottles ; sees, 
 e. g., a bottle that is filled with a white opaque liquid 
 (Goulard water), and he stretches out his arms with 
 desire toward it, screaming a long time, in the belief 
 that it is a milk-bottle (observed by me in the case of 
 my child in the thirty-first week). The bottle when 
 empty or when filled with water is not so long attractive 
 to him, so that the idea of food (or of something to 
 drink, something to suck, something sweet) must arise 
 from the sight of a bottle with certain contents without 
 
80 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 the understanding or even utterance of any words, The 
 formation of concepts without words is actually demon- 
 strated by this ; for the speechless child not only per- 
 ceived the points of identity of the various bottles of 
 wine, water, oil, the nursing-bottle and others, the sight 
 of which excited him, but he united in one notion the 
 contents of the different sorts of bottles when what was 
 in them was white — i. e., he had separated the concept 
 of food from that of the bottle. Ideas are thus inde- 
 pendent of words. 
 
 Certain as this proposition is, it is not, however, 
 supported by the reasons given for it by Kussmaul, viz. 3 
 that one and the same object is variously expressed in 
 various languages, and that a new animal or a new ma- 
 chine is known before it is named ; for no one de- 
 sires to maintain that certain ideas are necessarily con- 
 nected with certain words, without the knowledge of 
 which they could not arise — it is maintained only that 
 ideas do not exist without words. Now, any object 
 has some appellation in each language, were it only 
 the appellation " object," and a new animal, a new ma- 
 chine, is already called " animal," " machine," before it 
 receives its special name. Hence from this quarter the 
 proof can not be derived. On the other hand, the 
 speechless infant certainly furnishes the proof, which is 
 confirmed by some observations on microcephalous per- 
 sons several years old or of adult age. The lack of the 
 power of abstraction apparent in these persons and in 
 idiots is not so great that they have not developed the 
 notion " food " or " taking of food." 
 
 Indeed, it is not impossible that the formation of 
 ideas may continue after the total loss of word-memory, 
 
LEARNING TO SPEAK. 81 
 
 as in the remarkable and much-talked-of case of Lordat. 
 Yet this case does not by any means prove that the 
 formation of concepts of the higher order is possible 
 without previous mastery of verbal language ; rather is 
 it certain that concepts rising above the lowest abstrac- 
 tions can be formed only by him who has thoroughly 
 learned to speak : for intelligent children without speech 
 are acquainted, indeed, with more numerous and more 
 complex ideas than are very sagacious animals, but not 
 with many more abstractions of a higher sort, and where 
 the vocabulary is small the power of abstraction is wont 
 to be as weak in adults as in children. The latter, to be 
 sure, acquire the words for the abstract with more diffi- 
 culty and later than those for the concrete, but have 
 them stamped more firmly on the mind (for, when the 
 word-memory fails, proper names and nouns denoting 
 concrete objects are, as a rule, first forgotten). But it 
 would not be admissible, as I showed above, to conclude 
 from this that no abstraction at all takes place without 
 words. To me, indeed, it is probable that in the most 
 intense thought the most abstract conceptions are ef- 
 fected most rapidly without the disturbing images of the 
 soundaftof words, and are only supplementarily clothed 
 in words. In any case the intelligent child forms many 
 concepts of a lower sort without any knowledge of words 
 at all, and he therefore performs abstraction without 
 words. 
 
 When Sigismund showed to his son, not yet a year 
 old and not able to speak a word, a stuffed woodcock, 
 and, pointing to it, said, " Bird," the child directly after- 
 ward looked toward another side of the room where 
 there stood upon the stove a stuffed white owl, repre- 
 
82 TEE MIND OF TIIE CHILD. 
 
 sented as in flight, which he must certainly have ob-' 
 served before. Here, then, the concept had already 
 arisen ; but how little specialized are the first concepts 
 connected with words that do not relate to food is 
 shown by the fact that in the case of Lindner's child 
 (in the tenth month) up signified also down, warm sig- 
 nified also cold. Just so my child used too much also 
 for too little; another child used no also for yes; a 
 third used / for you. If these by no means isolated 
 phenomena rest upon a lack of differentiation of the 
 concepts, "then the child already has a presentiment 
 that opposites are merely the extreme terms of the same 
 series of conceptions " (Lindner), and this before he can 
 command more than a few words. 
 
 But to return to the condition of the normal child, 
 as yet entirely speechless. It is clear that, being filled 
 with desire to give expression in every way to his feel- 
 ings, especially to his needs, he will use his voice, too, 
 for this purpose. The adult likewise cries out with 
 pain, although the " Oh ! " has no direct connection 
 with the pain, and there is no intention of making, by 
 means of the outcry, communication to others. JNbw, 
 before the newly-born is in condition to seek that which 
 excites pleasure, to avoid what excites displeasure, he 
 cries out in like fashion, partly without moving the 
 tongue, partly with the sound a dominant, repeated over 
 and over monotonously till some change of external 
 conditions takes place. After this the manner of cry- 
 ing begins to vary according to the condition of the in- 
 fant ; then come sounds clearly distinguishable as indi- 
 cations of pleasure or displeasure ; then syllables, at first 
 to some extent spontaneously articulated without mean- 
 
LEARNING TO SPEAK. 83 
 
 ing, afterward such as express desire, pleasure, etc. ; not 
 until much later imitated sounds, and often the imperfect 
 imitation of the voices of animals, of inorganic noises, 
 and of spoken words. The mutilation of his words 
 makes it seem as if the child were already inventing new 
 designation^ which are soon forgotten ; and as the child , 
 like the lunatic, uses familiar words in a new sense after 
 he has begun to learn to talk, his style of expression 
 gets an original character, that of " baby-talk." Here 
 it is characteristic that the feelings and ideas do not 
 now first arise, though they are now first articulately 
 expressed ; but they were in part present long since and 
 did not become articulate, but were expressed by means 
 of looks and gestures. In the adult ideas generate new 
 words, and the formation of new words does not cease 
 so long as thinking continues ; but in the child without 
 speech new feelings and new ideas generate at first only 
 new cries and movements of the muscles of the face 
 and limbs, and, the further we look back into child- 
 development proper, the greater do we find the num- 
 ber of the conditions expressed by one and the same 
 cry. The organism as yet has too few means at its 
 disposal. In many cases of aphasia every mental state 
 is expressed by one and the same word (often a word 
 without meaning). Upon closer examination it is 
 found, however, that for the orator also, who is com- 
 plete master of speech, all the resources of language are 
 insufficient. No one, e. g., can name all the colors that 
 may be perceived, or describe paiu, or describe even a 
 cloud, so that several hearers gain the same idea of ita. 
 form that the speaker has. The words come short, but 
 the idea is clear. If words sufficed to express clearly 
 
g4 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 clear conceptions, then the greater part of our philo- 
 sophical and theological literature would not exist. This 
 literature has its basis essentially in the inevitable fact 
 that different persons do not associate the same concept 
 with the same word, aud so one word is used to indi- 
 cate different concepts (as is the case with the child). If 
 a concept is exceptionally difficult — i. e., exceptionally 
 hard to express clearly in words — then it is wont to re- 
 ceive many names, e. g., "die," and the confusion and 
 strife are increased ; but words alone render it possible 
 to form and to make clear concepts of a higher sort. 
 They favor the formation of new ideas, and without 
 them the intellect in man remains in a lower stage of 
 development just because they are the most trustworthy 
 and the most delicate means of expression for ideas. If 
 ideas are not expressed at all, or not intelligibly, their 
 possessor can not use them, can not correct or make 
 them effective. Those ideas only are of value, as a gen- 
 eral thing, which continue to exist after being com- 
 municated to others. Communication takes place with 
 accuracy (among human beings) only by means of 
 words. It is therefore important to know how the 
 child learns to speak words, and then to use them. 
 
 I have above designated, as the chief difficulty for 
 the child in the formation of words, the establishment 
 of a connection between the central storehouse for sense- 
 impressions — i. e., the sensory centers of higher rank — 
 with the intercentral path of connection between the 
 center-for-sounds and the speech-motorium. After the 
 establishment of these connections, and long after ideas 
 have been formed, the sound-image of the word spoken 
 by the mother, when it emerges in the center-for-sounds 
 
LEARNING TO SPEAK. 85 
 
 directly after the rise of a clear idea, is now repeated 
 by the child accurately, or, in case it offers insurmount- 
 able difficulties of articulation for pronunciation, inac- 
 curately. This fact of sound-imitation is fundamental. 
 Beyond it we can not go. Especially must be noted 
 here as essential that it appears to be an entirely indif- 
 ferent matter what syllables and words are employed 
 for the first designation of the child's ideas. Were one 
 disposed to provide the child with false designations, he 
 could easily do it. The child would still connect them 
 logically. If taught further on that two times three are 
 five, he would merely give the name five to what is six, 
 and would soon adopt the usual form of expression. In 
 making a beginning of the association of ideas with ar- 
 ticulate syllables, such syllables are, as a rule, employed 
 (probably in all languages) as have already been often 
 uttered by the child spontaneously without meaning, 
 because these offered no difficulties of articulation ; but 
 only the child's family put meaning into tbem. Such 
 syllables are pa, ma, with their doubled form papa, 
 mama, for "father" and "mother," in connection with 
 which it is to be observed that the meaning of them is 
 different in different languages and even in the dialects 
 of a language. For mamdn, mama, mama, mamme, 
 mammeli, momme, mam, mamma, mammeken, memme, 
 memmehen, mammele, mammi, are at the same time 
 child-words and designations for "mother" in various 
 districts of Germany, whereas these and very similar 
 expressions signify also the mother's breast, milk, pap, 
 drink, nursing-bottle ; nay, even in some languages the 
 father is designated by J/<z-sounds, the mother by Ba- 
 and Pa-sounds. 
 
g£ THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 It is very much the same with other primitive syl- 
 lables, of the babe's utterance, e.g., atta. Where this 
 does not denote the parents or grandparents it is fre- 
 quently used (tdta, tatta, tatd, also in England and 
 Germany) in the sense of "gone" ("fort") and "good- 
 
 by." 
 
 These primitive syllables, pa-pa, ma-ma, tata and 
 apa, ama, ata, originate of themselves when in the ex- 
 piration of breath the passage is stopped either by the 
 lips (p, m) or by the tongue (d, t) ; but after they have 
 been already uttered many times with ease, without 
 meaning, at random, the mothers of all nations make 
 use of them to designate previously existing ideas of 
 the child, and designate by them what is most famil- 
 iar. Hence occurs the apparent confounding of " milk " 
 and "breast" and "mother" and "(wet-) nurse" or 
 "nurse" and "bottle," all of which the child learns to 
 call mam, amma, etc. 
 
 But just at this period appears a genuine echolalia, 
 the child, unobserved, repeating correctly and like a 
 machine, often in a whisper, all sorts of syllables, when 
 he hears them at the end of a sentence. The normal 
 child, before he can speak, repeats sounds, syllables, 
 words, if they are short, " mechanically," without un- 
 derstanding, as he imitates movements of the hands 
 and the head that are made in his sight. Speaking is 
 a movement-making that invites imitation the more be- 
 cause it can be strictly regulated by means of the ear. 
 Anything more than regulation is not at first given by 
 the sense of hearing, for those born deaf also learn to 
 speak. They can even, like normal children, speak 
 quite early in dreams (according to Gerard van Asch). 
 
LEARNING TO SPEAK. 87 
 
 Those born deaf, as well as normal children, when one 
 turns quietly toward them, often observe attentively 
 the lips (and also tonch them sometimes) and the tongue 
 of the person speaking ; and this visual image, even 
 without an auditory image, provokes imitation, which 
 is made perfect by the combination of the two. This 
 combination is lacking in the child born blind, pure 
 echolalia prevailing in this case ; in the one born deaf, 
 the combination is likewise wanting, the reading-off of 
 the syllables from the mouth coming in as a substitute. 
 "With the deaf infant the study of the mouth-move- 
 ments is, as is well known, the only means of under- 
 standing w T ords spoken aloud, and it is sight that serves 
 almost exclusively for this, very rarely touch ; and the 
 child born deaf often repeats the visible movements of 
 lips and tongue better than the hearing child that can 
 not yet talk. It is to be observed, in general, that the 
 hearing child makes less use, on the whole, of the 
 means of reading-off from the mouth than we assume, 
 but depends chiefly on the ear. I have always found, 
 too, that the child has the greatest difficulty in imitating 
 a position of the mouth, in case the sound belonging to 
 it is not made, whereas he easily achieves the same po- 
 sition of the mouth when the acoustic effect goes along 
 with it. 
 
 Accordingly, the connection between the ear and the 
 speech-center must be shorter or more practicable in 
 advance (hereditarily) than that between the eye and 
 the speech-center. With regard to both associations, 
 however, the gradually progressive shortening or con- 
 solidating is to be distinguished in space and time. 
 "With the child that does not yet speak, but is beginning 
 
88 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 to repeat syllables correctly and to associate them with 
 primitive ideas, the act of imitation takes longer than 
 with the normal adult, but the paths in the brain that 
 he makes use of are shorter, absolutely and relatively — 
 absolutely, because the whole brain is smaller ; rela- 
 tively, because the higher centers, which at a later peri- 
 od perform their functions with consciousness and ac- 
 cessory ideas, are still lacking. Notwithstanding this, 
 the time is longer than at a later period — often amount- 
 ing to several seconds — because the working up of 
 what has been heard, and even the arrangement of it 
 in the center for sound-images, and of what has been 
 seen in the center for sight-images, takes more time 
 apart from a somewhat less swift propagation of the 
 nerve-excitement in the peripheral paths. The child's 
 imitation can not be called fully conscious or deliberate. 
 It resembles the half-conscious or unconscious imitation 
 attained by the adult through frequent repetition — i. e., 
 through manifold practice — and which, as a sort of rem- 
 iniscence of conscious or an abbreviation of deliberate 
 imitation, results from frequent continuous use of the 
 same paths. Only, the child's imitations last longer, and 
 especially the reading-off from the mouth. The child 
 can not distinguish the positions of the mouth that be- 
 long to a syllable, but can produce them himself very 
 correctly. He is like the patients that Kussmaul calls 
 " word-blind," who can not, in spite of good sight, read 
 the written words they see, but can express them in 
 speech and writing. For the same word, e. g., acta, 
 which the child does not read off from the mouth and 
 does not repeat, he uses himself when he wants to be 
 taken out; thus the inability is not expressive-motor, 
 
LEARNING TO SPEAK. 89 
 
 but central or intercentral. For the child can already 
 see very well the movement of mouth and tongue ; the 
 impressive sight-path has been long established. 
 
 Herein this sort of word-blindness agrees fully with 
 the physiological word-deafness of the normal child 
 without speech, whose hearing is good. For he under- 
 stands wrongly what he hears, when, e. g., in response 
 to the order, " ~Eo ! no ! " he makes the affirmative 
 movement of the head, although he can make the right 
 movement very well. Here too, then, it is not cen- 
 trifugal and centripetal peripheral lines, but intercen- 
 tral paths or centers, that are not yet sufficiently devel- 
 oped — in the case of my child, in the fourteenth 
 month. The path leading from the word-center to the 
 dictorium, and the word-center itself, must have been 
 as yet too little used. 
 
 From all this it results, in relation to the question, 
 how the child comes to learn and to use words, that in 
 the first place he has ideas ; secondly, he imitates 
 sounds, syllables, and words spoken for him ; and, 
 thirdly, he associates the ideas with these. E. g., the 
 idea " white -f- wet -\- sweet + warm " having arisen out 
 of frequent seeing, feeling, and tasting of milk, it de- 
 pends upon what primitive syllable is selected for 
 questioning the hungry infant, for talking to him, 
 or quieting him, whether he expresses his desire for 
 food by mom, mimi, nana, ning, or maman, or mam, or 
 mem, or mima, or yet other syllables. The oftener he 
 has the idea of food (i. e., something that banishes 
 hunger or the unpleasant feeling of it), and at the same 
 time the sound-impression " milk," so much the more 
 will the latter be associated with the former, and in 
 
90 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 consideration of the great advantages it offers, in being 
 understood by all, will finally be adopted. Thus the 
 child learns his first words. But in each individual 
 case the first words acquired in this manner have a 
 wider range of meaning than the later ones. 
 
 By means of pure echolalia, without associating ideas 
 with the word babbled in imitation, the child learns, to 
 be sure, to articulate words likewise ; but he does not 
 learn to understand them or to use them properly unless 
 coincidences, intentional or accidental, show him this 
 or that result when this or that word is uttered by him. 
 If the child, e. g., hearing the new word " Schnee," 
 says, as an echo, nee, and then some one shows him 
 actual snow, the meaningless nee becomes associated 
 with a sense-intuition ; and later, also, nothing can take 
 the place of the intuition — i. e., the direct, sensuous 
 perception — as a means of instruction. This way of 
 learning the use of words is exactly the opposite of that 
 just discussed, and is less common because more labori- 
 ous. For, in the first case, the idea is first present, and 
 only needs to be expressed (through hearing the appro- 
 priate word). In the second case, the word comes first, 
 and the idea has to be brought in artificially. Later, 
 the word, not understood, awakens curiosity, and there- 
 by generates ideas. But this requires greater maturity. 
 
 The third way in which the first words are learned 
 is this : The idea and the word appear almost simultane- 
 ously, as in onomatopoetic designations and interjections. 
 Absolutely original onomatopoetic w^ords are very rare 
 with children, and have not been observed by me ex- 
 cept after the children already knew some words. The 
 names of animals, how-wow, moo-moo, j?eep-peep (bird), 
 
LEARNING TO SPEAK. 91 
 
 hotto (horse, from the expression of the carter, " hott- 
 ho (tt" instead of Haut (the skin), i. e., "left," in 
 contrast with " aarr " — Haar, Mahne (the mane) — i. e., 
 "right"), are spoken for the child by the members 
 of his family. Some names of animals, like kukuk 
 (cuckoo), also kikeriki (cock) and kuak (duck, frog), 
 are probably formed often without having been heard 
 from others, only more indistinctly, by German, English 
 (American), and French children. Ticktack (tick-tick) 
 has also been repeated by a boy of two years for a watch. 
 On the other hand, weo-weo-weo (German, uio) for the 
 noise of winding a watch (observed by Holden in a boy 
 of two years) is original. Hut, as an unsuccessful imi- 
 tation of the locomotive-whistle by my boy of two and 
 a half years, seems also noteworthy as an onomatope 
 independently invented, because it was used daily for 
 months in the same way merely to designate the whistle. 
 The voice of the hen, of the redstart, the creaking of 
 a wheel, were imitated by my child of his own accord 
 long before he could speak a word. But this did not 
 go so far as the framing of syllables. It is not easy in 
 this to trace so clearly the framing of a concept as at- 
 taching itself directly to onomatopoetic forms as it is 
 in a case communicated by Romanes. A child that was 
 beginning to talk, saw and heard a duck on the water, 
 and said quack. Thereafter the child called, on the 
 one hand, all birds and insects, on the other hand, all 
 liquids, quack. Finally, it called all coins also quack, 
 after having seen an eagle on a French sou. Thus the 
 child came, by gradual generalization, to the point of 
 designating a fly, wine, and a piece of money by the 
 same onomatopoetic word, although only the first per- 
 
92 THE MIND OF TIIE CHILD. 
 
 ception contained the characteristic that gave the 
 name. 
 
 Another case is reported by Ednard Schulte: A 
 boy of a year and three quarters applied the joyous 
 ontcry ei (which may be an imitated interjection), modi- 
 fying it first into eiz, into aze, and then into ass, to his 
 wooden goat on wheels, and covered with rough hide ; 
 eiz, then, became exclusively a cry of joy ; ass, the 
 name for everything that moved along — e. g., for ani- 
 mals and his own sister and the wagon ; also for every- 
 thing that moved at all ; finally, for everything that 
 had a rough surface. Now, as this child already called 
 all coverings of the head and covers of cans huta, when 
 he saw, for the first time, a fur caj), he at once chris- 
 tened it ass-huta. Here took place a decided subordina- 
 tion of one concept to another, and therewith a new 
 formation of a word. How broad the comprehensive- 
 ness of the concept designated huta was, is perceived 
 especially in this, that it was used to express the wish 
 to have objects at which the child pointed. He liked 
 to put all sorts of things that pleased him upon his 
 head, calling them huta. Out of the huta, for "I 
 should like to have that as a hat," grew, then, after fre- 
 quent repetition, "I should like that." There was in 
 this case an extension of the narrower concept, after it 
 had itself experienced previously a differentiation, and 
 so a limitation, by means of the suffix ass. These ex- 
 amples show how independent of words the formation 
 of concepts is. "With the smallest stock of words the 
 concepts are yet manifold, and are designated by the 
 same word when there is a lack of words for the com- 
 position of new words, and so for fresh word-formation. 
 
LEARNING TO SPEAK. 93 
 
 The formation of words out of interjections without 
 imitation lias not been observed. Here belongs the 
 rollu, rollolo, nttered by my boy, of his own accord, on 
 seeing rolling balls or wheels ; and (in the twentieth 
 month) rodi, otto, rojo, where the rotation perceived by 
 the child occasions at once the one or the other exclama- 
 tion containing I or r. In the case of Stein thai, it was 
 lu-lulu; in the case of a boy a year and a half old, ob- 
 served by Kussmaul, it was golloh. In these cases the 
 first interjection is always occasioned by a noise, not 
 simply by the sight of things rolling without noise. 
 The interjection must accordingly be styled imitative. 
 A combination of the original — i. e., inborn — interjec- 
 tional sounds into syllables and groups of syllables, with- 
 out the assistance of members of the family, and with- 
 ont imitation, for the purpose of communicating an 
 idea, is not proved to exist. 
 
 On the whole, the way in which the child learns to 
 speak not merely resembles the way in which he learns 
 at a later period to write, but is essentially completely in 
 accord with it. Here, too, he makes no new inventions. 
 First are drawn strokes and blurs without meaning ; 
 then certain strokes are imitated ; then signs of sounds. 
 These can not be at once combined into syllables, and 
 even after the combination has been achieved and the 
 written word can be made from the syllables it is not 
 yet understood. Yet the child could see, even before 
 the first instruction in writing or the first attempt at 
 scribbling, every individual letter in the dimensions in 
 which he writes it later. So, too, the speechless child 
 hears every sound before he understands syllables and 
 words, and he understands them before he can speak 
 
94 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 tliem. The child commonly learns reading before 
 writing, and so understands the sign he is to write be- 
 fore he can write it. Yet the sign written by himself is 
 often just as unintelligible to him as the word he himself 
 speaks. The analogy is perfect. 
 
 If the first germs of words, after ideas have begun 
 to become clear by means of keener perception, are 
 once formed, then the child fashions them of his own 
 effort, and this often with surprising distinctness ; but 
 in the majority of cases the words are mutilated. In 
 the first category belongs the comparative Tiocher for 
 holier in the sentence Tiocher oauen (build higher) ! (in 
 the third year uttered as a request when playing with 
 building-stones). The understanding of the compara- 
 tive is plainly manifest in this. When, therefore, the 
 same child in his fifth year, to the improper question, 
 " Whom do you like better, papa or mamma ? " answers, 
 " Papa and mamma," we should not infer a lack of that 
 understanding, as many do (e. g., Heyfelder) ; but the 
 decision is impossible to the child. Just so in the case 
 of the question, " Would you rather have the apple or 
 the pear ? " 
 
 Other inventions of my child were the verb messen 
 for "mit dem Messer schneiden" (to cut with the 
 knife) ; sehiffem, i. e., " das Schiff bewegen " (move 
 the ship), for " rudern," (row). And the preference of 
 the weak inflection on the part of all children is a proof 
 that after the appropriation of a small number of 
 words through imitation, independent — always logical — 
 changes of formation are undertaken. Gegeot, gegeht, 
 getrinkt (gived, goed, drinked), have never been heard 
 by the child ; but "gewebt, geweht, gewinkt " (as in Eng- 
 
LEARNING TO SPEAK. 95 
 
 lish, waved, wafted, beckoned), have been known to him 
 as models (or other formations corresponding to these). 
 Yet this is by no means to say that every mutilation or 
 transformation the child proposes is a copy after an er- 
 roneously selected model ; rather the child's imagina- 
 tion has a wide field here and acts in manifold fashion, 
 especially by combinations. " My teeth-roof pains me," 
 said a boy who did not yet know the word " palate." 
 Another in his fourth year called the road (Weg) the 
 "go" (Grehe). A child of three years used the ex- 
 pression, "Just grow me" (wachs mich einmaV) for 
 "Just see how I have grown" (Sieh einmal wie ich 
 gewachsen bin) (Lindner). Such creations of the child- 
 ish faculty of combination, arising partly, through blend- 
 ing, partly through transference, are collected in a neat 
 pamphlet, " Zur Philosophic der Kindersprache," by 
 Agathon Keber, 1868. The most of them, however, 
 are from a later time of life than that here treated of. 
 So it is with the two " heretical " utterances communi- 
 cated by Rosch. A child said unterblatte (under-leaf) 
 for " Oblate," because he saw the wafer (Oblate) slipped 
 under the leaf of paper (Blatt) ; and he called the 
 "American chair," " Herr - Decaner - chair," because 
 somebody who was called "Herr Decan" used to sit 
 in it. Here may be seen the endeavor to put into the 
 acoustic impression not understood a meaning. These 
 expressions are not inventions, but they are evidence of 
 intellect. They can not, of course, appear in younger 
 children without knowledge of words, because they are 
 transformations of words. 
 
 On the other hand it is of the greatest importance 
 for the understanding of the first stage of the use of 
 
96 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 words in their real significance, after the acquirement 
 of them has once begun, to observe how many different 
 ideas the child announces by one and the same verbal 
 expression. Here are some examples : Tuhl (for Stuhl, 
 chair) signifies — 1. " My chair is gone " ; 2. " The chair 
 is broken"; 3. "I want to be lifted into the chair"; 
 4. " Here is a chair." The child (Steinthal's) says (in 
 the twenty-second month), when he sees or hears a bark- 
 ing dog, belli (barks), and thinks he has by that word 
 designated the whole complex phenomenon, the sight- 
 perception of the dog and of a particular dog, and the 
 sound-perception ; but he says belli also when he merely 
 hears the dog. No doubt the memory-image of the 
 dog he has seen is then revived for him. 
 
 Through this manifold significance of a word, which 
 is a substitute for a whole sentence, is exhibited a much 
 higher activity of the intellect than appears in the mu- 
 tilation and new formation of words having but one 
 meaning to designate a sense-impression, for, although 
 in the latter is manifested the union of impressions into 
 perceptions and also of qualities into concepts, wherein 
 an unconscious judgment is involved, yet a clear judg- 
 ment is not necessarily connected with them. The 
 union of concepts into conscious clear judgments is rec- 
 ognized rather in the formation of a sentence, no matter 
 whether this is expressed by one word or by several words. 
 
 - In connection with this an error must be corrected 
 
 that is wide-spread. It consists in the assumption that 
 all children begin to speak with nouns, and that these 
 are followed by verbs. This is by no means the case. 
 The child daily observed by me used an adjective for 
 the first time in the twenty-third month in order to ex- 
 
LEARNING TO SPEAK. 97 
 
 press a judgment, the first one expressed in the language 
 of those about him. He said "hot" for " The milk is 
 too hot." In general, the appropriation and employ- 
 ment of words for the first formation of sentences de- 
 pends, in the first instance, upon the action of the adults 
 in the company of the child. A good example of this 
 is furnished by an observation of Lindner, whose daugh- 
 ter in her fourteenth month first begged with her hands 
 for a piece of apple, upon which the word "apple " was 
 distinctly pronounced to her. After she had eaten the 
 apple she repeated the request, re-enforcing her gesture 
 this time by the imitated sound ajym, and her request 
 was again granted. Evidently encouraged by her suc- 
 cess, the child from that time on used apjpn for " eat, I 
 want to eat," as a sign of her desire to eat in general, 
 because those about her " accepted this signification and 
 took the word stamped by her upon this concept for 
 current coin, else it would very likely have been, lost." 
 This also confirms my statement (p. 85) that a child 
 easily learns to speak with logical correctness with 
 wrong words. He also speaks like the deaf-mute with 
 logical correctness with quite a different arrangement 
 of words from that of his speech of a later period. Thus 
 the child just mentioned, in whom " the inclination to 
 form sentences was manifest from the twenty-second 
 month," said, " hat die Olga getrinkt," when she had 
 drunk! 
 
 .jBut every child learns at first not only the language 
 I of those in whose immediate daily companionship he 
 grows up, but also at first the peculiarities of these per- 
 sons. He imitates the accent, intonation, dialect, as 
 well as the word, so that a Thuringian child may be 
 
98 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 surely distinguished from a Mecklenburg child even in 
 the second and third year, and, at the same time, we 
 may recognize the peculiarities of the speech of its 
 mother or nurse, with whom it has most intercourse. 
 This phenomenon, the persistence of dialects and of 
 peculiarities of speech in single families, gives the im- 
 pression, on a superficial observation, of being some- 
 thing inherited ; whereas, in fact, nothing is inherited 
 beyond the voice through inheritance of the organic 
 peculiarities of the mechanism of phonation. For every- 
 thing else completely disappears when a child learns to 
 speak from his birth in a foreign community. 
 
 Hereditary we may, indeed, call the characteristic 
 of humanity, speech ; hereditary, also, is articulation in 
 man, and the faculty of acquiring any articulate lan- 
 guage is innate. But beyond this the tribal influence 
 does not reach. If the possibility of learning to speak 
 words phonetically is wanting because ear or tongue 
 refuses, then another language comes in as a substitute 
 — that of looks, gestures, writing, tactile images — then 
 not Broca's center, but another one is generated. So 
 that the question whether a speech-center already exists 
 in the alalic child must be answered in the negative ; the 
 center is formed only when the child hears speech, and, 
 if he does not hear speech, no center is developed. In 
 this case the ganglionic cells of the posterior third of 
 the third frontal convolution are otherwise employed, 
 or they suffer atrojDhy. In learning to speak, on the 
 contrary, there is a continuous development, first of the 
 sound-center, then of the syllable- center, then of the 
 word-center and the dictorium. The brain grows, 
 through its own activity. 
 
SPEECH IN THE FIRST THREE YEARS. 99 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 FIRST SOUNDS AND BEGINNINGS OF SPEECH IN THE CASE 
 OF A CHILD OBSERVED DAILY DURING HIS FLRST 
 THREE YEARS. 
 
 The observations bearing upon the acquirement of 
 speech recorded by me in the case of my boy from the 
 day of his birth, the 23d of November, 1877, are here 
 presented, so far as they appear worthy of being com- 
 municated, in chronological order. They are intended 
 to serve as authenticated documents. 
 
 The points to which the attention is to be directed 
 in these observations are determined by the organic con- 
 ditions of the acquirement of speech, which have been 
 treated previously. First, the expressive processes, next 
 the impressive, last the central processes, claim the atten- 
 tion. (1) To the expressive beginnings of speech belongs 
 the sum total of the inarticulate sounds — crying, whim- 
 pering, grunting, cooing, squealing, crowing, laughing, 
 shouting (for joy), modulation of the voice, smacking, 
 and many others, but also the silent movement of the 
 tongue ; further, articulation, especially before imitation 
 begins ; the formation of sound, and so the gradual per- 
 fecting of the vowels, aspirates, and consonants ; at the 
 same time the forming of syllables. The last is espe- 
 cially easy to follow in the babbling monologues of the 
 infant, which are often very long. The reduplication 
 of syllables, accentuation, and inflection, whispering, 
 singing, etc., belong likewise here. (2) The impressive 
 processes are discerned in the looks and gestures of the 
 
100 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 child as yet speechless ; later, the ability to discriminate 
 in regard to words and noises, and the connection of the 
 ear with the speech-center, are discerned in the first imi- 
 tations of sounds and in the repeating after others — 
 i. e., in word-imitation. Here belong also the onomato- 
 poetic attempts of children, which are simply a sort of 
 imitation. Later, are added to these the answers to 
 simple spoken questions, these answers being partly in- 
 terjectional, partly articulate, joined into syllables, words, 
 and then sentences. The understanding of words heard 
 is announced especially by the first listening, by the 
 association of certain movements with certain sound- 
 impressions, and of motionless objects with other sound- 
 impressions, before speaking begins. Hereby (3) the 
 central processes are already shown to be in existence. 
 The childish logic, especially induction from too few 
 particulars, the mutilation of words reproduced, the 
 wrong applications of expressions correctly repeated, the 
 confounding of opposites in the verbal designation of 
 concepts of the child's own formation, offer an abun- 
 dance of noteworthy facts for the genesis of mind. More- 
 over, the memory for sounds and words, the imagina- 
 tion, especially in filling out, as well as the first acts 
 of judging, the forming of propositions, questioning — 
 all these are to be considered. As for the order in 
 which the separate classes of words appear, the training 
 in learning-by-heart, speculations as to which spoken 
 word is first perfectly understood, to these matters I 
 have paid less attention, for the reason that here the dif- 
 ferences in the child's surroundings exert the greatest 
 influence. My report must, in any event, as a rough 
 draft of the history of the development of language in 
 
SPEECH IN THE FIRST THREE TEARS. 101 
 
 the child, be very imperfect. It, however, contains 
 nothing but perfectly trustworthy matter of my own 
 observation. 
 
 During the first weeks the child often cried long 
 and vigorously from discomfort. If one were to try to 
 represent by written vowels the screaming sounds, these 
 would most nearly resemble, in the majority of cases, a 
 short u (oo in book), with a very quickly following pro- 
 longed a (ai in fair) ; thus, ua, ua, ua, ud, were the first 
 sounds that may be approximately expressed. They 
 were uttered after the lapse of ~Q.ye months exactly as at 
 the beginning, only more vigorously. All the other 
 vowel-sounds were at first undefined. 
 
 Notwithstanding this uniformity in the vowel- 
 sounds, the sounds of the voice are so varied, even 
 within the first five weeks, that it may be told with 
 certainty from these alone whether the child feels hun- 
 ger or pain or pleasure. Screaming with the eyes firmly 
 closed in hunger, whimpering in slight indisposition, 
 laughing at bright objects in motion, the peculiar grunt- 
 ing sounds which at a later period are joined with ab- 
 dominal pressure and with lively arm-movements, as the 
 announcement of completed digestion and of wetness 
 (retained for the first of these states even into the seven- 
 teenth month), are manifold acoustic expressions of vi- 
 tality, and are to be looked upon as the first forerunners 
 of future oral communication, in contrast with the loud- 
 sounding reflex movements of sneezing and of hiccough, 
 and with the infrequent snoring, snuffling (in sucking), 
 and other loud expirations observed in the first days, 
 which have just as little linguistic value as have cough- 
 ing and the later clearing of the throat. 
 10 
 
102 THE MIND OF TIIE CHILD. 
 
 The voice is very powerful as early as the sixth day, 
 especially when it announces feelings of discomfort. 
 Screaming is much more frequent, persistent, and vigor- 
 ous also when diluted cow's milk is given instead of 
 that from the breast. If one occupies himself longer 
 than usual with the infant (in the first two months), the 
 child is afterward more inclined to cry, and cries then 
 (as in the case of hunger) quite differently from what 
 he does when giving notice of something unpleasant — 
 e. g., wetness. Directly upon his being made dry, the 
 crying ceases, as now a certain contentment is attained. 
 On the other hand, the inclination to cry serves very 
 early (certainly from the tenth week on) as a sign of 
 well-being (or increase in the growth of the muscles). 
 At least a prolonged silence at this season is wont to be 
 connected with slight ailment. But it is to be remarked 
 that during the whole period no serious illness, lasting 
 more than one day, occurred. 
 
 On the forty-third day I heard the first consonant. 
 The child, in a most comfortable posture, uttering all 
 sorts of obscure sounds, said once distinctly am-ma. Of 
 vowels, ao was likewise heard on that day. But, on the 
 following day, the child surprised me and others by the 
 syllables, spoken with perfect distinctness, ta-hu. 
 
 On the forty-sixth day, in the otherwise unintelligi- 
 ble babble of the infant, I heard, once each, go (o nearly 
 like * in bird), oro, and, five days later, ara. 
 
 In the eighth and ninth weeks, the two utterances, 
 orro, arm, became frequent, the 6 and a being pure and 
 the r uvular. 
 
 The syllable ma I heard by itself (it was during his 
 crying) for the first time on the sixty-fourth clay. But 
 
SPEECH IN TEE FIRST THREE YEARS. 103 
 
 on the following day was sounded, during persistent, 
 loud crying, often and distinctly (it returned in like 
 manner months after), nei, nei, nei, and once, during 
 his babbling, a-omb. 
 
 On the day after, distinctly, once each, la, gvei, aho, 
 and, besides, ma again. 
 
 On the sixty-ninth day, the child, when hungry, 
 uttered repeatedly and very distinctly, momm and 
 ngo. 
 
 Of the syllables earlier spoken, only otto is distinctly 
 repeated in the tenth week. On the seventy-first day, 
 the child being in the most comfortable condition, there 
 comes the new combination, ra-a-ao, and, five days 
 later, in a hungry and uncomfortable mood, n'd, and 
 then nai-n. 
 
 The manifest sign of contentment was very distinct 
 (on the seventy-eighth day) : hdbu, and likewise in the 
 twelfth week a-i and iido, as well as a-o-a, alternating 
 with d-a-a, and o-d-o. 
 
 It now became more and more difficult to represent 
 by letters the sounds, already more varied, and even 
 to distinguish the vowels and repeat them accurately. 
 The child cries a good deal, as if to exercise his respir- 
 atory muscles. To the sounds uttered while the child 
 is lying comfortably are added in the fourteenth week 
 nto, ha. The last was given with an unsually loud cry, 
 with distinct aspiration of the h, though with no indi- 
 cation that the child felt any particular pleasure. At 
 this period I heard besides repeatedly Id, na, the latter 
 along with screaming at disagreeable impressions more 
 and more frequently and distinctly; in the fifteenth 
 week, nannana* nd-nd, nanna, in refusal. On the 
 
10 £ THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 other hand, the earlier favorite drro has not been heard 
 at all for some weeks. 
 
 Screaming while waiting for his food to be prepared 
 (milk and water) or for the nurse, who had not suffi- 
 cient nourishment for the child, is marked, in the 
 sixteenth week — as is also screaming on account of un- 
 pleasant feelings — in general by predominance of the 
 vowels, d-u, d-u d, d-u, d-u, u-d, u-d, u-ib-d-o, but mean- 
 time is heard amme-a, and as a sign of special discom- 
 fort the persistent ill-sounding ud-ud-ud-ud (u=Eng. oo). 
 
 Screaming in the first five months expresses itself in 
 the main by the vowels u, d, o, a, with u and o occur- 
 ring more seldom, and without other consonants, for 
 the most part, than m. 
 
 In the fifth month no new consonants were devel- 
 oped except h / but a merely passive go, Jed, aggeggeko, 
 the last more rarely than the first, was heard with per- 
 fect distinctness during the child's yawning. 
 
 "While in this case the ^-sound originates passively, 
 it was produced, in connection with o, evidently by the 
 position of the tongue, when the child was in a con- 
 tented frame, as happens in nursing ; ogo was heard in 
 the twenty-second week, as well as ma-o-e, ha, a, ho-ich. 
 The i here appeared more distinct than in the third 
 month. The soft ch, which sounded like the g in 
 " Honig," was likewise quite distinct. 
 
 About this time began the amusing loud " crowing " 
 of the child, an unmistakable expression of pleasure. 
 The strong aspirate sound ha, and this sound united 
 with the labial r in hrrr-hd, corresponding in force to 
 the voice, which had become exceptionally powerful, 
 must likewise be regarded as expressions of pleasure. 
 
SPEECH IN THE FIRST THREE YEARS. 105 
 
 So with the sounds aja, orrgo, ci-a-i-d-d, which, the 
 child toward the end of the first half-year utters as if 
 for his own gratification as he lies in comfort. With 
 these belongs also the frequently repeated " eu " of the 
 French " heure," and the " ceu " of the French 
 " cceur," which is not found in the German language, 
 also the primitive sounds a and o (German). The lips 
 contract very regularly, and are protruded equally in 
 the transition from a to o. I heard also ija cried out 
 by the child in very gay mood. In the babbling and 
 crowing continued often for a long time without inter- 
 ruption, consonants are seldom uttered, pure vowels, 
 with the exception of a, less often than a and o ; i and 
 u are especially rare. 
 
 "When the child lies on his back, he moves his arms 
 and legs in a lively manner even without any external 
 provocation. He contracts and expands all the muscles 
 he can command, among these especially the muscles of 
 the larynx, of the tongue, and of the aperture of the 
 mouth. In the various movements of the tongue made 
 at random it often happens that the mouth is partly or 
 entirely closed. Then the current of air that issues 
 forth in breathing bursts the barrier and thus arise 
 many sounds, among them some that do not exist in 
 the German language, e. g., frequently and distinctly, 
 by means of labio-lingual stoppage, a consonant- sound 
 between p and t or between h and d, in the production 
 of which the child takes pleasure, as he does also in 
 the labial hrr and m. By far the greater part of the 
 consonant-sounds produced by the exercises of the 
 tongue and lips can not be represented in print ; just as 
 the more prolonged and more manifold movements of 
 
106 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 the extremities, movements made by the child when he 
 has eaten his fill, and is not sleepy and is left to him- 
 self, can not be drawn or described. It is noteworthy 
 that all the utterances of sound are expiratory. I 
 have not once observed an attempt to form sounds while 
 drawing in the breath. 
 
 In the seventh month the child at one time screamed 
 piercingly, in very high tones, from pain. When hun- 
 gry and desiring milk, he said with perfect distinctness, 
 ma, a, ua, uae / when contented he would say orro too, 
 as at an earlier period. The screaming was sometimes 
 kept up with great vigor until the child began to be 
 hoarse, in case his desire, e. g., to leave his bed, was not 
 granted. When the child screams with hunger, he 
 draws the tongue back, shortens it and thereby broadens 
 it, making loud expirations with longer or shorter in- 
 tervals. In pain, on the other hand, the screaming is 
 uninterrupted and the tones are higher than in any 
 other screaming. During the screaming I heard the 
 rare I distinctly in the syllable Id. The vowels Vrd-u-i-i 
 also appeared distinctly, all as if coming by accident, 
 and not often pure. The t also was seldom heard ; f, s, 
 sch, st, sp, sm, ts, ks, w, not once yet; on the other 
 hand, b, d, m, n, f, often ; g, h, more seldom ; Jc, only in 
 yawning ; p, but very rarely, both in screaming and in 
 the child's babble to himself or in response to friendly 
 address. 
 
 In the eighth month the screaming sounds were for 
 the most part different from what they had been ; the dis- 
 agreeable screaming no longer so intense and prolonged, 
 from the time that the food of the child consisted exclu- 
 sively of pap (Kindermehl) and water. Single vowels, 
 
SPEECH IN THE FIRST THREE YEARS. 107 
 
 like u and &, are very often not to be heard pure. Often 
 the child does not move the lips at all when with mouth 
 shut he lifts and drops the larynx, and with eager desire 
 for the pap howls ; or coos like a dove, or grunts. The 
 prattling monologues become longer when the child is 
 alone, lying comfortably in bed. But definite consonants 
 can only with difficulty be distinguished in them, with 
 the exception of r in the orro, which still continues to 
 be uttered, though rarely and unintentionally. Once the 
 child, while in the bath, cried out as if yawning, hd-upp, 
 and frequently, when merry, a-ei, a-au, d-hau-d, horro. 
 "When he babbles contentedly in this manner, he moves 
 the tongue quickly, both symmetrically, e. g., raising 
 the edges equally, and asymmetrically, thrusting it for- 
 ward to right or left. He often also puts out the tongue 
 between the lips and draws it back during expira- 
 tion, producing thereby the before-mentioned labio-lin • 
 gual explosive sounds. I also heard nte-o, mi-ja, mija 
 (j like Eng. y), and once distinctly oudei. 
 
 In the ninth month it is still difficult to recognize 
 definite syllables among the more varied utterances of 
 sound. But the voice, often indeed very loud and inar- 
 ticulate, is already more surely modulated as the ex- 
 pression of psychical states. "When the child, e. g., 
 desires a new, especially a bright object, he not only 
 stretches both arms in the direction of it, indicating the 
 direction by his gaze, but also makes known, by the 
 same sound he makes before taking his food, that he 
 wants it. This complex combination of movements of 
 eye, larynx, tongue, lips, and arm-muscles appears now 
 more and more ; and we can recognize in his scream- 
 ing the desire for a change of position, discomfort 
 
108 THE MIND OF THE CIIXLD. 
 
 (arising from wet, heat, cold), anger, and pain. The 
 last is announced by screaming with the mouth in the 
 form of a square and by higher pitch. But delight at 
 a friendly expression of face also expresses itself by 
 high crowing sounds, only these are not so high and are 
 not continued long. Yiolent stretchings of arms and 
 legs accompany (in the thirty-fourth week first) the 
 joyous utterance. Coughing, almost a clearing of the 
 throat, is very rare. Articulate utterances of pleasure, 
 e. g., at music, are ma-ma, dm-md, ma. 
 
 Meantime the lip-movements of the m were made 
 without the utterance of sound, as if the child had per- 
 ceived the difference. Other expressions of sound with- 
 out assignable cause are d-au-d-a, d-d, a-u-au, na-na, the 
 latter not with the tone of denial as formerly, and often 
 repeated rapidly in succession. As separate utterances 
 in comfortable mood, besides orr'6 came apa, gaau-a, 
 acha. 
 
 The tenth month is marked by the increasing dis- 
 tinctness of the syllables in the monologues, which are 
 more varied, louder, and more prolonged when the child 
 is left to himself than when any one tries to entertain 
 him. Of new syllables are to be noted ndae, bde-bde, 
 ba ell, arro. 
 
 From the forty-second week on, especially the sylla- 
 bles ma and pappa, tatta, appapa, labia, tdtd, pa, are 
 frequently uttered, and the uvular rrrr, rrra, are re- 
 peated unweariedly. The attempts to make the child 
 repeat syllables pronounced to him, even such syllables 
 as he has before spoken of his own accord, all fail. In 
 place of tatta he says, in the most favorable instance, td 
 or ata ; but even here there is progress, for in the pre- 
 
SPEECH IN THE FIRST THREE YEARS. 1Q9 
 
 vious month even these hints at imitating or even re- 
 sponding to sound were almost entirely lacking. 
 
 In the eleventh month some syllables emphatically 
 pronounced to the child were for the first time correctly 
 repeated. I said " ada " several times, and the attentive 
 child, after some ineffectual movements of the lips, re- 
 peated correctly ada, which he had for that matter often 
 said of his own accord long before. But this single 
 repetition was so decided that I was convinced that the 
 sound-imitation was intentional. It was the first un- 
 questionable sound-imitation. It took place on the three 
 hundred and twenty -ninth day. The same day when I 
 said "mamma," the response was nanna. In general, 
 it often happens, when something is said for imitation, 
 and the child observes attentively my lips, that evident 
 attempts are made at imitation ; but for the most part 
 something different makes its appearance, or else a silent 
 movement of the lips. 
 
 In the forty-fifth week everything said to the child, 
 in case it received his attention, was responded to with 
 movements of lips and tongue, which gave the impres- 
 sion of being made at random and of serving rather for 
 diversion. 
 
 Further, at this period the child begins during his 
 long monologues to whisper. He produces sounds in 
 abundance, varying in force, pitch, and timbre, as if he 
 were speaking an unknown tongue ; and some single 
 syllables may gradually be more easily distinguished, al- 
 though the corresponding positions of the mouth pass 
 into one another, sometimes quite gradually, sometimes 
 rapidly. The following special cases I was able to es- 
 tablish by means of numerous observations : 
 
HO THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 In crying rrra, there is a vibration on both sides of 
 the edges of the tongue, which is bent to a half -cylinder 
 with the ridge upward. In this way the child produces 
 three kinds of r-sounds — the labial, the uvular, and this 
 bilateral-lingual. 
 
 New syllables of this period are ta-hee, dann-tee, aa- 
 nee, nga, tai, ha, dall, at-tall, hamm, akkee, pra'i-jer, 
 tra, a-hee. Among them tra and pra are noteworthy 
 as the first combination of t and p with r. The surpris- 
 ing combinations attall and akTcee and praijer, which 
 made their appearance singly without any occasion that 
 could be noticed, like others, are probably the first at- 
 tempts to reproduce the child's own name (Axel Preyer) 
 from memory. Of earlier sounds, syllables, and combi- 
 nations of these, the following are especially frequent : 
 Mammam, apapa, orr'6, papa, tata, tatta, naa, rrra, 
 pata, m?nm, na, a, a, au, anna, attapa, dadada, ja, ja- 
 ja, eja, jae. The last syllables are distinguished by the 
 distinct e, which is now more frequent. 
 
 All the pains taken to represent a babbling mono- 
 logue perfectly by letters were fruitless, because these 
 distinct and oft-repeated syllables alternated with indis- 
 tinct loud and soft ones. Still, on the whole, of the 
 consonants the most frequent at this period are b, p, t, 
 d, m, n, and the new r / I, g, h, not rare. Of vowels 
 the a has a decided preponderance. Both u and o are 
 rare ; i very rare. Yet a vowel is not repeated, either 
 by itself or in a syllable, more than five times in succes- 
 sion without an interval. Commonly it is twice or three 
 times. I have also noticed that the mechanical repeti- 
 tion of the same syllable, e. g., papapa, occurs far more 
 often than the alternation of a distinctly spoken syllable 
 
SPEECH IN TIIE FIRST THREE YEARS. m 
 
 witli another distinctly spoken one, like jpata. In the 
 mean time it is certain that the child during his various 
 movements of lips and tongue, along with contraction 
 and expansion of the opening of the mouth, readily 
 starts with surprise when he notices such a change 
 of acoustic effect. It seems as if he were himself 
 taking pleasure in practicing regularly all sorts of 
 symmetrical and asymmetrical positions of the mouth, 
 sometimes in silence, sometimes with loud voice, then 
 again with soft voice. In the combinations of sylla- 
 bles, moreover, palpable accentuation somewhat like 
 this, wppdpapa atdtata, is by no means frequent. The 
 surprisingly often repeated dadada has generally no 
 accent. 
 
 With regard to the question whether in this period, 
 especially important for the development of the appara- 
 tus of speech, any articulate utterance of sound stands 
 in firm association with an idea, I have observed the 
 child under the most varied circumstances possible with- 
 out disturbing him; but I have ascertained only one 
 such case with certainty. The atta, hodda, hatta, hata% 
 showed itself to be associated with the perception that 
 something disappeared, for it was uttered when some 
 one left the room, when the light was extinguished, and 
 the like ; also, to be sure, sometimes when such remark- 
 able changes were not discoverable. Thus, the eleventh 
 month ends without any other indubitable firm associa- 
 tion of articulation and idea. 
 
 In the next four weeks, up to the end of the first 
 year of life, there was no progress in this respect to 
 record ; but, from this time on, an eager desire — e. g., 
 for a biscuit seen, but out of reach — was regularly an- 
 
112 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 nounced by a-na, a-nananana, uttered loudly and with 
 an expression of indescribable longing. 
 
 The attempts at imitation, too, are somewhat more 
 successful, especially the attention is more strained. 
 When, e. g., in the fifty-first week, I sang something 
 for the child, he gazed fixedly more than a minute, with 
 immovable countenance, without winking, at my mouth, 
 and then moved his own tongue. Correct repetition of 
 a syllable pronounced to him is, however, very rare. 
 When I laugh, and the child observes it, he laughs like- 
 wise, and then crows, with strong abdominal pressure. 
 This same loud expression of joy is exhibited when the 
 child unexpectedly sees his parents at a distance. This 
 peculiar pressure, with strong expiration, is in general 
 associated with feelings of pleasure. The child almost 
 seems to delight in the discovery of his own abdominal 
 pressure, when he produces by means of it the very 
 high crowing sounds with the vowel i or a genuine 
 grunt. 
 
 Of articulate sounds, syllables, and combinations, 
 made without suggestion from others in the twelfth 
 month, I have caught the following particularly with 
 accuracy : haja, jajajajaja, aja, njaja, na'in-hopp, ha-a, 
 jpa-a, dewar, han-na, momma, allda, allda'i, apa-u-a, 
 gaga, ha, ladn. Besides, the earlier atta variously 
 modified ; no longer dada. 
 
 More important than such almost meaningless sound- 
 formations, among which, by the way, appears for the 
 first time w, is the now awakened ability to discrimi- 
 nate between words heard. The child turns around 
 when his name is spoken in a loud voice ; he does this, 
 it is true, at other loud sounds also, but then with a dif- 
 
SPEECH IN THE FIRST THREE YEARS. H3 
 
 ferent expression. When lie hears a new tone, a new 
 noise, he is surprised, opens his eyes wide, and holds 
 his month open, without moving. 
 
 By frequent repetition of the words, " Give the 
 hand," with the holding out of the haud, I have brought 
 the child, in the fifty-second week, to the point of obey- 
 ing this command of himself — a sure proof that he dis- 
 tinguishes words heard. Another child did the same 
 thing in the seventh month. In this we can not fail to 
 see the beginning of communication by means of ordi- 
 nary language, but this remained a one-sided affair till 
 past the third half-year, the child being simply recep- 
 tive. During this whole period, moreover, from birth 
 on, special sounds, particularly "sch (Eng., sh), ss, st, 
 pst," just the ones not produced by the child, had a re- 
 markable effect of a quieting character. If the child 
 heard them when he was screaming, he became quiet, 
 as when he heard singing or instrumental music. 
 
 In the first weeks of the second year of life, the 
 child behaves just as awkwardly as ever in regard to 
 saying anything that is said to him, but his attention 
 has become more lively. When anything is said to him 
 for him to say — e. g., papa, mama, atta, tatta — he 
 looks at the speaker with eyes wide open and mouth 
 half open, moves the tongue and the lips, often very 
 slightly, often vigorously, but can not at the same time 
 make his voice heard, or else he says, frequently with 
 an effort of abdominal pressure, atta'i. Earlier, even 
 in the forty-fifth week, he had behaved in much the 
 same way, but to the word " papa," pronounced to him, 
 he had responded rrra. Once only, I remember, papa 
 was repeated correctly, in a faint tone, on the three 
 
114 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 hundred and sixty-ninth day, almost as by one in a 
 dream. "With this exception, no word could be repeated 
 on command, notwithstanding the fact that the faculty 
 of imitation was already active in another department. 
 The syllables most frequently uttered at this stage were 
 nja, njan, dada, atta, mama, jpapa'i, atta'i, na-na-na, 
 hatta, meene-meene-meene, momm, momma, ao-u. 
 
 Of these syllables, na-na regularly denotes a desire, 
 and the arms are stretched out in connection with it ; 
 mama is referred to the mother perhaps in the fifty- 
 fourth week, on account of the pleasure she shows at the 
 utterance of these syllables, but they are also repeated 
 mechanically without any reference to her; atta is ut- 
 tered now and then at going away, but at other times 
 also, His joy — e. g., at recognizing his mother at a dis- 
 tance — the child expresses by crowing sounds, which 
 have become stronger and higher than they were, but 
 which can not be clearly designated ; the nearest approach 
 to a representation of them is ahija. Affirmation and 
 negation may already be recognized by the tone of voice 
 alone. The signification of the cooing and the grunting 
 sounds remains the same. The former indicates desire 
 of food; the latter the need of relieving the bowels. 
 As if to exercise the vocal cords, extraordinarily high 
 tones are now produced, which may be regarded as 
 signs of pleasure in his own power. An imperfect lan- 
 guage has thus already been formed imperceptibly, al- 
 though no single object is as yet designated by a sound 
 assigned to it alone. The articulation has made prog- 
 ress, for on the three hundred and sixty-eighth day 
 appeared the first distinct s, in the syllable ssi ; quite 
 incidentally, to be sure. 
 
SPEECH IN THE FIRST THREE YEARS. H5 
 
 The most important advance consists in the now 
 awakened understanding of spoken words. The ability 
 to learn, or the capability of being trained, has emerged 
 almost as if it had come in a night. 
 
 For it did not require frequent repetition of the 
 question, " How tall is the child ? " along with holding 
 up his arms, in order to make him execute this move- 
 ment every time that he heard the words, " Wie gross ? " 
 (" How tall ? ") or " ooss," nay, even merely " oo." It 
 was easy, too, to induce him to take an ivory ring, lying 
 before him attached to a thread, into his hand, and reach 
 it to me prettily when I held out my hand and said, 
 " Where is the ring ? " and, after it had been grasped, 
 said, "Give." In the same way, the child holds the 
 biscuit, which he is carrying to his mouth, to the lips 
 of the person who says pleasantly to him, " Give " ; and 
 he has learned to move his head sidewise hither and 
 thither when he hears " No, no." If we say to him, 
 when he wants food or an object he has seen, " Bitte, 
 bitte " (say " Please "), he puts his hands together in a 
 begging attitude, a thing which seemed at first some- 
 what hard for him to learn. Finally, he had at this 
 time been taught to respond to the question, " Where 
 is the little rogue ? " by touching the side of his head 
 with his hand (a movement he had often made of him- 
 self before). 
 
 From this it appears beyond a doubt that now 
 (rather late in comparison with other children) the as- 
 sociation of words heard with certain movements is es- 
 tablished, inasmuch as upon acoustic impressions — at 
 least upon combined impressions of hearing and of sight, 
 which are repeated in like fashion — like movements 
 
116 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 follow, and indeed follow invariably with the expres- 
 sion of great satisfaction on the countenance. Yet this 
 connection between the sensorium and the motorium is 
 not yet stable, for there follows not seldom upon a com- 
 mand distinctly uttered, and without doubt correctly 
 understood, the wrong movement — paramimy. Upon 
 the question, " How tall ? " the hands are put together 
 for " Please," and the like. Once when I said, " How 
 tall ? " the child raised his arms a moment, then struck 
 himself on the temples, and thereupon put his hands 
 together, as if " rogue," and then "please," had been 
 said to him. All three movements followed with the 
 utmost swiftness, while the expression of face was that 
 of a person confused, with wavering look. Evidently 
 the child haA forgotten which movement belonged with 
 the " tall," and performed all the three tricks he had 
 learned, confounding them one with another. This 
 confounding of arm-raising, head-shaking, giving of the 
 ring, putting the hands together, touching the head, is 
 frequent. It is also to be noticed that some one of these 
 five tricks is almost invariably performed bj the child 
 when some new command is given to him that he does 
 not understand, as he perceives that something is re- 
 quired of him — the first conscious act of obedience, as 
 yet imperfect. 
 
 In the fourteenth month there was no great increase 
 in the number of independent utterances of sound that 
 can be represented by syllables of the German language. 
 Surprising visual impressions, like the brilliant Christ- 
 mas-tree, and the observation of new objects, drew 
 from the pleasurably excited child, without his having 
 touched anything, almost the same sounds that he at 
 
SPEECH IN THE FIRST THREE YEARS, H7 
 
 other times made when in discontented mood, ud, mud, 
 only softer ; momo and mama, and also papa are fre- 
 quent expressions of pleasure. When the child is 
 taken away, he often says ta-ta loudly, also, aita in a 
 whisper. There can no longer be a doubt that in these 
 syllables is now expressed simply the idea of " going." 
 The labial hrrr, the so-called " coachman's JR" was 
 practiced by the child, of his own accord, with special 
 eagerness, and indeed was soon pronounced so cleverly 
 that educated adults can not produce it in such purity 
 and especially with so* prolonged an utterance. The 
 only new word is dakku and daggn, which is often ut- 
 tered pleasantly with astonishing rapidity, in moments 
 of enjoyment, e. g., when the child is eating food that 
 tastes good. But it is also uttered so often without 
 any assignable occasion, that a definite meaning can 
 hardly be attributed to it, unless it be that of satisfac- 
 tion. For it is never heard when the least thing of a 
 disagreeable sort has happened to the child. The 
 probability is obvious that we have here a case of imita- 
 tion of the " Thanks " (Danke) which he has not sel- 
 dom heard. But the modifications taggn, attagn, at- 
 tain, pass over into the word, undoubtedly the original 
 favorite, tai, ata'i. 
 
 Among all the indistinct and distinct sounds of the 
 babbling monologues, no inspiratory ones appeared at 
 this time either ; but such did make their appearance 
 now and then, in a passive manner, in swallowing and 
 in the coughing that followed. 
 
 I spent much time in trying to get the child to 
 
 repeat vowels and syllables pronounced to him, but 
 
 always without special success. When I said plainly 
 11 
 
118 THE MIXI) 0F THE CHILD. 
 
 to him " pa-pa-pa," he answered loudly ta-ta'i, or with 
 manifest effort and a vigorous straining, t-ta'i, k-ta'i, at- 
 tdi, hatta'i, and the same when " ma-ma " was said for 
 him by any one, no matter whom. He also moved lips 
 and tongue often, as if trying to get the sound in vari- 
 ous ways ; as if the will of the child, as he attentively 
 observed the mouth of the speaker, were present, but 
 not the ability to reproduce the sound-impression. 
 Evidently he is taking pains to repeat what he has 
 heard; and he laughs at the unsuccessful effort, if 
 others laugh over it. The earliest success is with the 
 repetition of the vowels " a-u-o," but this is irregular 
 and inaccurate. 
 
 In contrast with these halting performances stands 
 the precise, parrot-like repetition of such syllables as 
 the child had uttered of his own accord, and which I 
 had immediately after pronounced to him. Thus attdi, 
 ta'i, atta, were often easily and correctly repeated, but, 
 strangely enough, frequently in a whisper. The a-e, 
 d-d, a-e, accompanied by oscillatory movements of the 
 hand, when imitated directly by me was also produced 
 again ; in like manner, regularly, the ddfckn, but this 
 course did not succeed in the case of other primitive 
 syllables or words, even under the most favorable cir- 
 cumstances : here it is to be borne in mind that the 
 last-named utterances were precisely the most frequent 
 at this period. "When he was requested with emphasis 
 to say papa, mama, tata, he would bring out one of 
 the tricks he had been taught in the previous month ; 
 among others, that of moving the head to one side and 
 the other as if in negation ; but this it could not be, for 
 this significance of the gesture was wholly unknown to 
 
SPEECH IN THE FIRST THREE YEARS. H9 
 
 Lim at that time. Rather had the child received the 
 impression from my voice that he was to do something 
 that he was bidden, and he did what was easy to him 
 just at the moment, " mechanically," without knowing 
 which of the movements that he had learned was re- 
 quired (cf. p. 116). 
 
 In regard to the understanding of words heard, 
 several points of progress are to be noted; above all 
 a change of place in consequence of the question, 
 " Where is yonr clothes-press ? " The child, standing 
 erect, being held by the hand, at these words turns his 
 head and his gaze toward the clothes-press, draws the 
 person holding him through the large room by the 
 hand, although he can not walk a step alone, and then 
 opens the press without assistance. Here, at the begin- 
 ning of the fourteenth month, is the idea of a definite 
 stationary object associated with a sound heard, and so 
 strongly that it is able to produce an independent act 
 of locomotion, the first one ; for, although before this 
 the clothes-press had often been named and shown, the 
 going to it is still the child's own performance. 
 
 It is now a matter of common occurrence that 
 other words heard have also a definite relation to ob- 
 jects seen. The questions, " "Where is papa ? mamma ? 
 the light ? " are invariably answered correctly, after brief 
 deliberation, by turning the head (at the word " light," 
 occasionally since the ninth month) and the gaze in the 
 proper direction, and by lifting the right arm, often also 
 the left, to point, the fingers of the outstretched hand 
 being at the same time generally spread out. In the 
 previous month, only the association of the word mama 
 with the appearance of the mother was established. 
 
120 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 The following are now added to the movements exe- 
 cuted upon hearing certain words. The child likes to 
 beat with his hands upon the table at which he is sit- 
 ting. I said to him, " Play the piano," and made the 
 movement after him. Afterward, when I merely said 
 the word " piano " to the child (who was at the time 
 quiet), without moving my hands, he considered for a 
 few seconds, and then beat again with his hands on the 
 table. Thus the recollection of the sound was sufficient 
 to bring out the movement. Further, the child had ac- 
 customed himself, of his own accord, to give a regular 
 snort, contracting the nostrils, pursing up the mouth, 
 and breathing out through the nose. If now any 
 one spoke to him of the " nose," this snorting was sure 
 to be made. The word put the centro-motors into a 
 state of excitement. The same is true of the command 
 " Give ! " since the child reaches out the object he is 
 holding or is about to take hold of, in case any one puts 
 out the hand or the lips to him. Some weeks ago this 
 took place only with the ring and biscuit ; now the 
 word " give " has the same effect with any object capa- 
 ble of being grasped, but it operates almost like a re- 
 flex stimulus, " mechanically," without its being even 
 once the case that the act of giving is a purely volun- 
 tary act or even occasioned by sympathy. 
 
 In these already learned co-ordinated movements 
 made upon hearing the words " Please, How tall ? 
 rogue ! no ! piano 1 ring ! give ! " all of which are now 
 executed with shorter intervals of deliberation as if by a 
 well-trained animal, there is in general absolutely no 
 deeper understanding present than that to this and the 
 other sound-impression belong this and the other move- 
 
SPEECH IN TEE FIRST THREE YEARS. 121 
 
 ment. By means of daily repetition of both, the time 
 required for the production of the movement after the 
 excitement of the anditory nerve becomes less and less, 
 the doubt as to which movement follows this or that 
 sound withdrawing more and more. At last the respon- 
 sive movements followed without any remarkable strain 
 of attention. They became habitual. 
 
 Now and then, however, the movements are still 
 confounded. Upon "no! no!" follows the touching 
 of the head ; upon " please," the shaking of the head ; 
 upon " rogue," the putting of the hands together, etc. 
 These errors become frequent when a new impression 
 diverts the attention. They become more and more 
 rare through repetition of the right movements made 
 for the child to see and through guiding the limbs of 
 the child. A further evidence of the increased ability 
 to learn toward the end of the month is the fact that 
 the hands are raised in the attitude of begging not only 
 at the command "Please," but also at the question, 
 " How does the good child behave ? " Thus, the expe- 
 rience is beginning to become a conscious one that, in 
 order to obtain anything, the begging attitude is useful. 
 
 The fifteenth month brought no new definite inde- 
 pendent utterances of sound with the exception of wa. 
 Sensations and emotions, however, are indicated more 
 and more definitely and variously by sounds that are 
 inarticulate and sometimes unintelligible. Thus, aston- 
 ishment is expressed by Jia-a ed-e ; joy by vigorous 
 crowing in very high tones and more prolonged than 
 before; further, very strong desire by repeated had, 
 hd-e / pain, impatience, by screaming in vowels which 
 pass over into one another. 
 
122 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 The only word that is unquestionably used of the 
 child's own motion to indicate a class of perceptions is 
 still atta, ha-atta, which during the following month 
 also is uttered softly, for the most part, on going out, 
 and which signifies "away" or " gone" (weg), and still 
 continues to be used also as it was in the eleventh 
 month, when a light is dimmed (by a lamp-shade). Be- 
 yond this no syllable can be named that marked the 
 dawn of mental independence, none that testified to the 
 voluntary use of articulate sounds for the purpose of 
 announcing perceptions. For the brrr, the frequent 
 dakhi, mamam, momo, and papa]), are without signifi- 
 cance in the monologues. Even the saying of atta, 
 with turning of the head toward the person going away, 
 has acquired the meaning of " away " (fort) only through 
 being repeatedly said to the child upon his being car- 
 ried out ; but no one said the word when the lamp was 
 extinguished. Here has been in existence for some 
 time not only the formation of the concept, but also the 
 designation of the concept by syllables. The similarity 
 in the very different phenomena of going away and of 
 the dimming of the light, viz., the disappearance of a 
 visual impression, was not only discovered, but was named 
 by the child entirely independently in the eleventh 
 month, and has kept its name up to the present time. 
 He has many impressions ; he perceives, he unites quali- 
 ties to make concepts. This he has been doing for a long 
 time without words ; but only in this one instance does the 
 child express one of his concepts in language after a par- 
 ticular instance had been thus named for him, and then 
 the word he uses is one not belonging to his later language, 
 but one that belongs to all children the world over. 
 
SPEECH IN THE FIRST THREE YEARS. 123 
 
 In regard to the repeating of syllables pronounced 
 to him a marked advance is noticeable. The child can 
 not, indeed, by any means repeat na and pa and o or e 
 and le. He answers a, ta'i, ta-a-o-o-a, and practices all 
 sorts of tongue- and lip-exercises. But the other sylla- 
 bles uttered by him, especially anna, ta'i, dakhn, a, he 
 says in response to any one who speaks them distinctly 
 to him, and he gives them easily and correctly in parrot 
 fashion. If a new word is said to him, e. g., " kalt " 
 (cold), which he can not repeat, he becomes vexed, turns 
 away his head, and screams, too, sometimes. I have 
 been able to introduce into his vocabulary only one naw 
 word. In the sixty-third week he seized a biscuit that 
 had been dipped in hot water, let it fall, drew clown the 
 corners of his mouth, and began to cry. Then I said 
 "heiss" (hot), whereupon the child, speedily quieted, 
 repeated ha'i and ha'i-s (with a just discernible s). Three 
 days later the same experiment was made. After this 
 the ha'is, ha'isses, with distinct s, was often heard with- 
 out any occasion. Some days later I wanted him to 
 say "hand." The child observed my mouth closely, 
 took manifest pains, but produced only ha-iss, then 
 very distinctly hass with sharp ss, and ha-ith, hadith, 
 with the English th • at another time distinctly ha-its. 
 Thus, at a time when ts = z can not be repeated, there 
 exists the possibility of pronouncing z. When I said 
 to him " warm," ass was pronounced with an effort and 
 distinctly, although the syllable wa belonged to the 
 child's stock of words. This was evidently a recollec- 
 tion of the previous attempts to repeat " heiss " and 
 "hand." 
 
 Corresponding to this inability to say words after 
 
124: THE MIND OF THE CHILD, 
 
 another's utterance of them is an articulation as yet very 
 imperfect. Still, there is indication of progress in the 
 distinctness of the s, the frequent English th with the 
 thrusting out of the tip of the tongue between the in- 
 cisors, the w 3 which now first appears often, as well as 
 in the smacking first heard in the sixty-fifth week (in 
 contented mood). The tongue is, when the child is 
 awake, more than other muscles that in the adult are 
 subject to cerebral volition, almost always in motion 
 even when the child is silent. It is in various ways 
 partly contracted, extended, bent. The lateral bending 
 of the edges of the tongue downward and the turning 
 back of the tip of the tongue (from left to right) so that 
 the lower surface lies upward, are not easily imitated 
 by adults. The mobility of my child's tongue is at any 
 rate much greater than that of my tongue, notwith- 
 standing the fact that, in consequence of varied practice 
 from an early period in rapid speaking, the most diffi- 
 cult performances in rapid speaking are still easily exe- 
 cuted by mine. The tongue is unquestionably the 
 child's favorite plaything. One might almost speak of 
 a lingual delirium in his case, as in that of the insane, 
 when he pours forth all sorts of disconnected utterances, 
 articulate and inarticulate, in confusion ; and yet I often 
 saw his tongue affected with fibrillar contractions as if 
 the mastery of the hypoglossus were not as yet com- 
 plete. Quite similar fibrillar movements seem to be 
 made by the tongue in bulbar paralysis, and in the case 
 of dogs and guinea-pigs whose hypoglossus has been 
 severed. 
 
 To the number of words heard that already produce 
 a definite movement are added the following new ones. 
 
SPEECH IN THE FIRST THREE YEARS. 125 
 
 The child is asked, " Where is the moon \ the clock % 
 the eye? the nose?" and he raises an arm, spreads the 
 lingers, and looks in the proper direction. If I speak 
 of " coughing," he coughs ; of " blowing," he blows ; 
 of " kicking," he stretches out his legs ; of " light," he 
 blows into the air, or, if there is a lamp in sight, toward 
 that, looking at it meantime — a reminiscence of the 
 blowing out of matches and candles often seen by him. 
 It requires great pains to get from him the affirmative 
 nod of the head at the spoken " ja, ja." Not till the 
 sixty-fourth week was this achieved by means of fre- 
 quent repetition and forcible direction, and the move- 
 ment was but awkwardly executed even later — months 
 after. On hearing the " no, no," the negative shake of 
 the head now appeared almost invariably, and this was 
 executed as by adults without the least uncertainty. 
 
 The holding out of his hand at hearing " Give the 
 hand," occurs almost invariably, but is not to be re- 
 garded as a special case of understanding of the syllable 
 "give," for the word "hand" alone produces the same 
 result. 
 
 All these accomplishments, attained by regular train- 
 ing, do not afford the least evidence of an understanding 
 of what is commanded when the sound-impression is 
 converted into motor impulse. It is rather a matter of 
 the establishment of the recollection of the customary 
 association of both during the interval of deliberation. 
 The words and muscular contractions that belong to- 
 gether are less often confounded, and the physiological 
 part of the process takes less time, but its duration is 
 noticeably prolonged when the child is not quite well. 
 He deliberates for as much as twelve seconds when the 
 
126 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 question is asked him, " "Where is the rogue ? " and then 
 responds with the proper gesture (p. 115). 
 
 The sixteenth month brought few new articulate 
 utterances of sound, none associated with a definite 
 meaning ; on the other hand, there was a marked prog- 
 ress in repeating what was said to the child, and espe- 
 cially in the understanding of words heard. 
 
 Among the sounds of his own making are heard — 
 along with the ha / hd-'o ! ha-e ! he-e ! that even in the 
 following months often expresses desire, but often also 
 is quite without meaning — more seldom hi, go-go, go, 
 f-pa (they for the first time), an, and more frequently 
 ta, dolckri, td-ha, a-bwa-bwa, bua-bu-a, and, as if by ac- 
 cident, once among all sorts of indefinable syllables, 
 dagon. Further, the child — as was the case in the pre- 
 vious month — likes to take a newspaper or a book in 
 his hands and hold the print before hi& face, babbling 
 a-e, a-e, a-e, evidently in imitation of the reading aloud 
 which he has often observed. By giving the command, 
 " Read ! " it was easy to get this performance repeated. 
 Besides this, it is a delight to the child to utter a sylla- 
 ble — e. g., bwa or ma — over and over, some six times 
 in succession, without stopping. As in the previous 
 month, there are still the whispered atto and hatto, at 
 the hiding of the face or of the light, at the shutting of 
 a fan, or the emptying of a soup-plate, together with 
 the dahkn, with the combinations of syllables made out 
 of ta, pa, ma, na, at, ap, am, an, and with moin'o. The 
 papa and mama do not, however, express an exclusive 
 relation to the parents. Only to the questions, " Where 
 is papa ? " " "Where is mamma ? " he points toward them, 
 raising his hand with the fingers spread. Pain is an- 
 
SPEECH IN TEE FIRST THREE YEARS. 127 
 
 nounced by loud and prolonged screaming; joy by 
 short, high-pitched, piercing crowing, in which the 
 vowel i appears. 
 
 Of isolated vowels, a only was correctly repeated 
 on command. Of syllables, besides those of the pre- 
 vious month, mo and ma / and here the child's exces- 
 sive gayety over the success of the experiment is worthy 
 of remark. He made the discovery that his parrot-like 
 repetition was a fresh source of pleasure, yet he could 
 not for several weeks repeat again the doubled syllables, 
 but kept to the simple ones, or responded with all sorts 
 of dissimilar ones, like attob, or said nothing. The syl- 
 lable ma was very often given back as homd and homo ; 
 pa was never given back, but, as had been the case pre- 
 viously, only ta and ta'i were the responses, made with 
 great effort and attention, and the visible purpose of 
 repeating correctly. To the word " danke," pronounced 
 for him with urgency innumerable times, the response 
 is dakJcn, given regularly and promptly, and this in the 
 following months also. If all persuasion failed, and the 
 child were then left to himself without any direction of 
 his attention, then not infrequently new imitations of 
 sounds would be given correctly— e. g., when I said 
 " bo " — but these, again, would no longer succeed when 
 called for. Indeed, such attempts often broke down 
 utterly at once. Thus the child once heard a hen mak- 
 ing a piteous outcry, without seeing the creature, and 
 he tried in vain to imitate the sound, but once only, and 
 not again. On the other hand, he often succeeds in re- 
 peating correctly movements of the tongue made for 
 him to see, as the thrusting out of the tongue between 
 the lips, by reason of the extraordinary mobility of his 
 
128 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 tongue and lips ; lie even tries to smack in imitation. 
 The more frequent partial contractions of the tongue, 
 without attempts at speaking, are especially surprising. 
 On one side, toward the middle of the tongue, rises a 
 longitudinal swelling; then the edges are brought to- 
 gether, so that the tongue almost forms a closed tube ; 
 again, it is turned completely back in front. Such flexi- 
 bility as this hardly belongs to the tongue of any adult. 
 Besides, the lips are often protruded a good deal, even 
 when this is not required in framing vocables. 
 
 The gain in the understanding of words heard is 
 recognizable in this, that when the child hears the ap- 
 propriate word, he takes hold, with thumb and forefin- 
 ger, in a most graceful manner, of nose, mouth, beard, 
 forehead, chin, eye, ear, or touches them with the thumb. 
 But in doing this he often confounds ear and eye, chin 
 and forehead, even nose and ear. " O " serves in place 
 of " Ohr " (ear) ; " Au " in place of " Auge " (eye). In 
 both cases the child soon discovered that these organs 
 are in pairs, and he would seize with the right hand the 
 lobe of my left and of my right ear alternately after I 
 had asked "Ear?" How easily in such cases a new 
 sound-impression causes confusion is shown by the fol- 
 lowing fact : After I had at one time pointed out one 
 ear, and had said, " Other ear," I succeeded, by means 
 of repetition, in getting him to point out this other one 
 also correctly every time. Now, then, the thing was to 
 apply what had been learned to the eye. "When one 
 eye had been pointed out, I asked, " Where is the other 
 eye ? " The child grasped at an ear, with the sight of 
 which the sound " other " was now associated. Eot till 
 long after (in the twentieth month) did he learn to apply 
 
SPEECH IN THE FIRST THREE YEARS. 129 
 
 this sound of himself to different parts of the body. On 
 the other hand, he understands perfectly the significance 
 
 of the. commands, " Bring, fetch, give " ; he brings, 
 
 fetches, gives desired objects, in which case, indeed, the 
 gesture and look of the speaker are decisive; for, if 
 these are only distinctly apprehended, it does not make 
 much difference which word is said, or whether nothing 
 is said. 
 
 In the seventeenth month, although no disturbance 
 of the development took place, there was no perceptible 
 advance in the utterance of thoughts by sounds, or in 
 the imitation of syllables pronounced by others, or in 
 articulation, but there was a considerable increase of the 
 acoustic power of discrimination in words heard and of 
 the memory of sounds. 
 
 Of syllables original with the child, these are new : 
 Bibi, na-na-na — the first has come from the frequent 
 hearing of " bitte " ; the last is an utterance of joy at 
 meeting and an expression of the desire to be lifted up. 
 Otherwise, longing, abhorrence, pleasure and pain, hun- 
 ger and satiety, are indicated by pitch, accent, timbre, 
 intensity of the vocal sounds, more decidedly than by 
 syllables. A peculiar complaining sound signifies that 
 he does not understand ; another one, that he does not 
 wish. In place of atta, at the change of location of an 
 object perceived, comes often a t-to and hot-to, with the 
 lips much protruded. But, when the child himself 
 wishes to leave the room, then he takes a hat, and says 
 atta, casting a longing look at his nurse, or repeatedly 
 taking hold of the door. 
 
 J Of voluntary attempts to imitate sounds, the most 
 noteworthy were the efforts to give the noise heard 
 
130 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 on the winding of a time-piece, and to repeat tones 
 sung. 
 
 The associations of words heard with seen, tangi- 
 ble objects on the one hand, and, on the other hand, 
 with definite co-ordinated muscular moyements, have 
 become considerably more numerous. Thus the fol- 
 lowing are already correctly distinguished, being very 
 rarely confounded : Uhr (clock), Ohr (ear) ; Schuh (shoe), 
 Stuhl (chair), Schulter (shoulder), Fuss (foot) ; Stirn 
 (forehead), Kinn (chin) ; Nase (nose), blasen (blow) ; 
 Bart (beard), Haar (hair) ; heiss (hot), Fleisch (meat). 
 
 In addition to the above, eye, arm, hand, head, cheek, 
 mouth, table, light, cupboard, flowers, are rightly pointed 
 out. 
 
 The child so often obeys the orders he hears— " run," 
 "kick," "lie down," "cough," "blow," "bring," "give," 
 "come," "kiss" — that when he occasionally does not 
 obey, the disobedience must be ascribed no longer, as 
 before, to deficient understanding, but to caprice, or, as 
 may be discerned beyond a doubt from the expression 
 of his countenance, to a genuine roguishness. Thus the 
 spoken consonants are at last surely recognized in their 
 differences of sound. 
 
 ~ In the eighteenth month this ability of the ear to 
 discriminate, and with it the understanding of spoken 
 words, increases. " Finger, glass, door, sofa, thermome- 
 ter, stove, carpet, watering-pot, biscuit," are rightly 
 pointed out, even when the objects, which were at first 
 touched, or merely pointed at, along with loud and re- 
 peated utterance of those words, are no longer present, 
 but objects like them are present. Say " Finger," and 
 the child takes hold of his own fingers only ; " Of en n 
 
SPEECH IN THE FIRST THREE YEARS. 131 
 
 (stove), then lie invariably at first looks upward 
 (" oben "). Besides the earlier commands, the following 
 are correctly obeyed: "Find, pick np, take it, lay it 
 down." Hand him a flower, saying, " Smell," and he 
 often carries it to his nose without opening his mouth. 
 
 The repeating of syllables spoken for him is still 
 rare; "mamma" is responded to by ta. The voluntary 
 repeating of syllables heard by chance is likewise rare ; 
 in particular, "jaja" is now repeated with precision. 
 
 The atta, which used to be whispered when anything 
 disappeared from the child's field of vision, has changed 
 to Mo and t-tu and ftu, with pouting of the lips. 
 
 In the monologues appear nai, mimi, papa, mimia, 
 pata, rrrrr, the last uvular and labial for minutes at a 
 time. But these meaningless utterances are simply signs 
 of well-being in general, and are gladly repeated from 
 pleasure in the exercise of the tongue and lips. The 
 tongue still vibrates vigorously with fibrillar contrac- 
 tions when it is at rest, the mouth being open. 
 
 Characteristic for this period is the precision with 
 which the various moods of feeling are expressed, with- 
 out articulate sounds, by means of the voice, now be- 
 come very high and strong, in screaming and crowing, 
 then again in wailing, whimpering, weeping, grunting, 
 squealing ; so that the mood is recognized by the voice 
 better than ever before, especially desire, grief, joy, 
 hunger, willfulness, and fear. But this language can 
 not be represented by written characters. 
 
 -^The same holds good of the nineteenth month, in 
 which bawling and babbling are more rare, the spon- 
 taneous sound-imitations are more frequent, the vocal 
 cords are strained harder, the mechanism of articulation 
 
132 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 works with considerably more ease ; the understanding 
 and the retention of spoken words have perceptibly in- 
 creased, bnt no word of the child's own, nsed always in 
 the same sense, is added. 
 
 When the child has thrown an object from the table 
 to the floor, he often follows it with his gaze and whis- 
 pers, even when he does not know he is obseiwed, atta 
 or t-ta, which is here nsed in the same sense with tiff or 
 ft orftU) for " fort " (gone). 
 
 When he had taken a newspaper out of the paper- 
 basket and had spread it on the floor, he laid himself 
 flat upon it, holding his face close to the print, and said 
 — evidently of his own accord, imitating, as he had done 
 before, the reading aloud of the newspaper, which had 
 often been witnessed by him — repeating it for a long 
 time in a monotonous voice, e-jd-e-e-jd nanana dna-nd- 
 na atta-dna dje-jd sa ; then he tore the paper into many 
 small pieces, and next turned the leaves of books, utter- 
 ing pa-pa-ab ta ho-o-e momdmom lid-one. 
 
 Such monologues are, however, exceptional at this 
 period, the rule being uniform repetitions of the same 
 syllable, e. g., liabb habb habb habb habbwa habbua. 
 .-- Screaming when water of 26° C. was poured over 
 him in the bath appeared, a few days after the first 
 experiment of this sort, even before the bathing, at 
 sight of the tub, sponge, and water. Previously, fear 
 had only in very rare cases occasioned screaming, now 
 the idea of the cold and wet that were to be expected 
 was enough to occasion violent screaming. After about 
 three weeks of daily bathing with water from 18 to 24° 
 C, however, the screaming decreased again. The ex- 
 perience that a pleasant feeling of warmth succeeded, 
 
SPEECH IN THE FIRST THREE YEARS. 133 
 
 may have forced the recollection of the unpleasant feel- 
 ing into the background. But the screaming can not at 
 all be represented by letters ; a and o do not suffice. 
 The same is true of the screaming, often prolonged, 
 before falling asleep in the evening, which occurs not 
 seldom also without any assignable occasion, the child 
 making known by it his desire to leave the bed. As 
 this desire is not complied with, the child perceives the 
 uselessness of the screaming, and at length obeys the 
 command, "Lie down," without our employing force 
 or expedients for soothing him. 
 
 How far the power of imitation and of articulation 
 is developed, is shown especially by the fact that now, 
 at \&st,pa is correctly pronounced in response ; in the 
 beginning ta was still frequently the utterance, then ha, 
 finally pa almost invariably given correctly. 
 
 Further, these results were obtained : 
 
 Words said to him. Kespon.se. 
 
 bitte . . . his, hits, hit, hets, beesi, he, hi, hit-th 
 
 (Eng., th). 
 hart . . . hatt, ait, haat. 
 Fleisch . . dcc-ich, dai-s-cli, ddi-s-j. 
 ma .... mo, ma. 
 
 In hits appears with perfect distinctness (as already in 
 the fifteenth month) the very rare ts=z. The "hart" 
 was once only confounded with "haar," and responded 
 to by grasping at the hair. The hits soon served to add 
 force to the putting together of the hands in the atti- 
 tude of begging ; it is thus the first attempt at the em- 
 ployment of a German word to denote a state of his 
 own, and that the state of desire. The other words 
 
 12 
 
134: TEE MIXD OF THE CIIILD. 
 
 said to him, and illustrated by touching and putting the 
 hands upon objects, could not be given by him in re- 
 sponse. When he was to say "weich" (soft), "halt" 
 (cold), "nass" (wet), he turned his head away in repug- 
 nance, as formerly. To "nass" he uttered in reply, 
 once only, na. Smacking, when made for him, was 
 imitated perfectly. The early morning hours, in which 
 the sensibility of the brain is at its highest, are the best 
 adapted to such experiments ; but these experiments 
 were not multiplied, in order that the independent de- 
 velopment might not be disturbed. 
 
 The progress in the discrimination of words heard, 
 and in the firm retention of what has been repeatedly 
 heard, is shown particularly in more prompt obedience, 
 whether in abstaining or in acting. 
 
 To the list of objects correctly pointed out upon re- 
 quest are added " leg, nail, spoon, kettle," and others. 
 It is noteworthy, too, that now, if the syllables pa and 
 ma, or papa and mamma, are prefixed to the names of 
 the known parts of the face and head, the child points 
 these out correctly ; e. g., to the question " Where is 
 Mamma-ear," the child responds by taking hold of the 
 ear of his mother, and to " papa-ear," of that of his 
 father; so with "nose, eye," etc. But if asked for 
 " mamma-beard," the child is visibly embarrassed, and 
 finally, when there is a laugh at his hesitation, he 
 laughs too. 
 
 The old tricks, " How tall is the child ? " and 
 " Yfhere is the little rogue ? " which have not been 
 practiced for months past, have been retained in 
 memory, for when in the eighty - second week I 
 brought out both questions with urgency, the child be- 
 
SPEECH IN THE FIRST THREE YEARS. 135 
 
 thought himself for several seconds, motionless, then 
 suddenly, after the first question, raised both arms. 
 After the other question he likewise considered for 
 several seconds, and then pointed to his head as he 
 used to do. His memory for sound-impressions often 
 repeated and associated with specific movements is con- 
 sequently good. 
 
 i In the twentieth month there was an important ad- 
 vance to be recorded in his manner of repeating what 
 was said to him. Suddenly, on the five hundred and 
 eighty-fourth day, the child is repeating correctly and 
 without difficulty words of two syllables that consist 
 either of two like syllables — for the sake of brevity I 
 will call these like-syllabled — or of syllables the second 
 of which is the reverse of the first — such I call reverse- 
 syllabled. Thus of the first class are papa, mama, bebe, 
 baba, neinei, jaja, bobo, bubu ; of the second class, otto, 
 enne, anna / these are very frequently given back quick- 
 ly and faultlessly at this period, after the repetition of 
 the single syllables jpa, ma, and others had gone on con- 
 siderably more surely than before, and the child had 
 more often tried of himself to imitate what he heard. 
 These imitations already make sometimes the impres- 
 sion of not being voluntary. Thus the child once — in 
 the eighty-third week — observed attentively a redstart 
 in the garden for two full minutes, and then imitated 
 five or six times, not badly, the piping of the bird, turn- 
 ing round toward me afterward. It was when he saw 
 me that the child first seemed to be aware that he had 
 made attempts at imitation at all. For his countenance 
 was like that of one awaking from sleep, and he could 
 not now be induced to imitate sounds. After five days 
 
136 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 the spectacle was repeated. Again the piping of the 
 bird was reproduced, and in the afternoon the child 
 took a cow, roughly carved out of wood, of the size of 
 the redstart, made it move back and forth on the table, 
 upon its feet, and chirped now as he had done at sight 
 of the bird ; imagination was here manifestly much 
 excited. The wooden animal was to represent the bird, 
 often observed in the garden, and nesting in the veranda ; 
 and the chirping and piping were to represent its voice. 
 
 On the other hand, words of unlike syllables, like 
 " Zwieback" (biscuit), " Butterbrod," are either not given 
 back at all or only in unrecognizable fashion, in spite of 
 their being pronounced impressively for him. " Trock- 
 en " (dry) yields sometimes tokke, toJcko, otto. Words of 
 one syllable also offer generally great difficulties of articu- 
 lation : thus " warm " and " weich " become wdi, " kalt " 
 and "hart" become hatt. Although "bi" and "te" 
 are often rightly given each by itself, the child can not 
 combine the two, and turns away with repugnance when 
 he is to reproduce " bi-te." The same thing frequently 
 happens, still, even with " mamma " and " papa." But 
 the child, when in lively spirits, very often pronounces 
 of his own accord the syllables " bi " and " te " together, 
 preferring, indeed, bidth (with English th) and beet to 
 " bitte." In place of " ad jo " (adieu) he gives back ode 
 and adje. Nor does he succeed in giving back three 
 syllables ; e„ g=, the child s&yspapa, but not "papagei," 
 and refuses altogether to repeat "gei" and "pagei." 
 The same is true of " Gut," " Nacht," although he of 
 himself holds out his hand for " Gute K"acht." 
 
 When others laugh at anything whatsoever, the child 
 laughs regularly with them, a purely imitative movement. 
 
SPEECH IN THE FIRST THREE YEARS. 137 
 
 It is surprising that the reproducing of what is said 
 to him succeeds best directly after the cold bath. in the 
 morning, when the child has been screaming violently 
 and has even been shivering, or when he is still screaming 
 and is being rubbed dry, and, as if resigned to his fate, 
 lies almost without comprehension. The will, it would 
 seem, does not intrude here as a disturbing force, and 
 echolalia manifests itself in its purity, as in the case 
 of hypnotics. The little creature is subdued and power- 
 less. But he speedily recovers himself, and then it is 
 often quite hard to tell whether he will not or can not 
 say the word that is pronounced to him. 
 
 The understanding of single words, especially of 
 single questions and commands, is considerably more 
 prompt than in the previous month. Without there 
 being any sort of explanation for it, this extraordinary 
 understanding is here, manifesting itself particularly 
 when the child is requested to fetch and carry all sorts 
 of thingSo He has observed and touched a great deal, 
 has listened less, except when spoken to. All training 
 in tricks and performances, an evil in the modern edu- 
 cation of children hard to avoid, was, however, sup- 
 pressed as far as possible, so that the only new things 
 were " making a bow " and " kissing the hand." 
 The child practices both of these toward the end of 
 the month, without direction, at coming and going. 
 Many new objects, such as window, bed, knife, plate, 
 cigar, his own teeth and thumbs, are correctly nointed 
 out, if only the corresponding word is distinctly pro- 
 nounced. Yet " Ofen " and " oben " are still con- 
 founded. 
 
 To put into written form the syllables invented by 
 
138 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 the child independently, and to get at a sure denotation 
 of objects by them, is exceedingly difficult, particularly 
 when the syllables are merely whispered as the objects 
 are touched, which frequently occurs. At the sight of 
 things rolled noisily, especially of things whirling in a 
 circle, the child would utter rodi, otto, rojo, and like 
 sounds, in general, very indistinctly. Only one new 
 concept could with certainty be proved to be associated 
 with a particular sound. "With da and nda, frequently 
 uttered on the sudden appearance of a new object in 
 the field of vision, in a lively manner, loudly and with 
 a peculiarly demonstrative accent — also with td and ntd 
 — the child associates, beyond a doubt, existence, com- 
 ing, appearing, shooting forth, emerging, in contrast 
 with the very often softly spoken, whispered atta, f-tu, 
 tuff, which signifies " away" or "gone." If I cover my 
 head and let the child uncover it, he laughs after taking 
 off the handkerchief, and says loudly da ; if I leave the 
 room, he says atta or hatta, or ft or t-ta, generally soft- 
 ly ; the last of these, or else hata, he says if he would 
 like to be taken out himself. In the eighty-seventh 
 week we went away on a journey, and on the railway- 
 train the child, with an expression of terror or of 
 anxious astonishment, again and again said attah, but 
 without manifesting the desire for a change of place 
 for himself, even by stretching out his arms. 
 
 Two words only— papa for father, and hat or bit for 
 "bitte," are, besides, rightly applied of the child's own 
 accord. The prolonged screaming, from wantonness, of 
 nandndnd, nom-nom, halxd, laid, chiefly when running 
 about, has no definite meaning. The child exercises 
 himself a good deal in loud outcry, as if he wanted to 
 
SPEECH m THE FIRST THREE YEARS. 139 
 
 test the power of his voice. These exercises evidently 
 give him great pleasure. Still the highest crowing 
 tones are no longer quite so high and piercing as they 
 were formerly. The vocal cords have become larger, 
 and can no longer produce such high tones. The 
 screamiug sounds of discontent, which continue to be 
 repeated sometimes till hoarseness appears, but rarely in 
 the night, have, on the contrary, as is the case with the 
 shrill sounds of pain, scarcely changed their character, 
 hd-e, hd-d-d-e, e. They are strongest in the bath, dur- 
 ing the pouring on of cold water. 
 
 The child, when left to himself, keeps up all the 
 time his loud readings (" Lesestudien "). He "reads" 
 in a monotonous way maps, letters, newspapers, draw- 
 ings, spreading them out in the direction he likes, and 
 lies down on them with his face close to them, or hold- 
 ing the sheet with his hands close to his face, and, as 
 before, utters especially vowel-sounds. 
 
 In the twenty-first month imitative attempts of this 
 kind became more frequent ; but singularly enough the 
 babbling — from the eighty-ninth week on — became 
 different. Before this time vowels were predominant, 
 now more consonants are produced. When something 
 is said for the child to reproduce that presents in- 
 superable difficulties of articulation, then he moves 
 tongue and lips in a marvelous fashion, and often 
 says pto-pto, pt-pt, and verlapp, also dla-dla, without 
 meaning, no matter what was the form of the word 
 pronounced to him. In such practice there often ap- 
 pears likewise a wilfulness, showing itself in inarticu- 
 late sounds and the shaking of the head, even when it is 
 merely the repetition of easy like-syllabled words that is 
 
140 TIIE MIND OF THE CHrLD. 
 
 desired. Hence, in the case of new words, it is more 
 difficult than before, or is even impossible to determine 
 whether the child will not or whether he can not re- 
 produce them. Words of unlike syllables are not re- 
 peated at all, not even " bitte." In place of " danke " 
 are heard dang-gee and danh-Jcee / the former favorite 
 dakkn is almost never heard. In most of the attempts 
 at sound imitation, the tendency to the doubling of syl- 
 lables is worthy of notice. I say " bi," and the answer 
 is bibi / then I say " te," and the answer is te-te. If 
 I say "bi-te," the answer is likewise bibi; a single time 
 only, in spite of daily trial, the answer was bi-te, as if 
 by oversight. 
 
 This doubling of syllables, involuntary and sure- 
 ly contrary to the will of the child, stands in re- 
 markable contrast with the indolence he commonly 
 shows in reproducing anything said, even when the 
 fault is not to be charged to teasing, stubbornness, or 
 inability. The child then finds more gratification in 
 other movements than those of the muscles of speech. 
 The babbling only, abounding in consonants, yields him 
 great pleasure, particularly when it is laughed at, al- 
 though it remains wholly void of meaning as language. 
 Yet bibi, like b'dbd, for " bitte," is correctly used by the 
 child of his own accord. 
 
 A new word, and one that gives notice of a con- 
 siderable advance, is the term used by the child when 
 hungry and thirsty, for " milk " or " food." He says, 
 viz., with indescribable longing in his voice, mimi, 
 more rarely than before mama and momom (page 85). 
 The first appellation was certainly taken from the 
 often-heard " milk " by imitation, and applied to biscuit 
 
SPEECH IN THE FIRST THREE YEARS. 141 
 
 and other kinds of food. If the child, when he has 
 eaten enough, is asked, " Do yon want milk ? " he says 
 without direction, neinein ; he has thus grasped 
 and turned to use already the signification of the 
 sound. The same is, perhaps, true also of " ja." For 
 previously, when I asked the child as he was eat- 
 ing, " Does it taste good ? " he was silent, and I would 
 say, " Say jaja, 5 ' and this would be correctly repeated. 
 But in the ninety-first week he, of his own accord, an- 
 swers the question with jaja — " yes, yes." This, too, 
 may rest simply on imitation, without a knowledge of 
 the meaning of the ja, and without an understanding 
 of the question ; yet there is progress in the recollection 
 of the connection of the sound " schmeckt's " with, jaja, 
 the intermediate links being passed over. 
 
 In other cases, too, the strength of the memory for 
 sounds is plainly manifested. To all questions of an 
 earlier period, "Where is the forehead, nose, mouth, 
 chin, beard, hair, cheek, eye, ear, shoulder \ " the child 
 now at once pointed correctly in every instance, al- 
 though he might not have answered them for anybody 
 even once for two weeks. Only the question, (i Where 
 is the thumb % " made him hesitate. But when the 
 thumb had been again shown to him (firmly pressed), he 
 knew it, and from that time pointed it out invariably 
 without delay. To the question, " Where is the eye? '' 
 he is accustomed to shut both eyes quickly at the same 
 time and to open them again, and then to point to my 
 eye ; to the question, " Axel's eye ? " he responds by 
 pointing to his own ; to the question, " The other eye ? ,5 
 by pointing to the one not touched. 
 
 In the understanding of what is spoken astonishing 
 
142 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 progress lias been made — e. g., if I say, " Go, take the 
 hat and lay it on the chair ! " the child executes the or- 
 der without considering more than one or two seconds. 
 He knows the meaning of a great number of words that 
 no one has taught him — e. g., "whip, stick, match, 
 pen." Objects of this sort are surely distinguished by 
 the child, for, upon receiving orders, he gets, picks up, 
 brings, lays down, gives these things each by itself. 
 
 This understanding of spoken words is the more 
 surprising, as his repetition of them continues still to 
 be of a very rudimentary character. With the excep- 
 tion of some interjections, especially joe as a joyous 
 sound and of crowing sounds, also screaming sounds, 
 which, however, have become more rare, the child has 
 but few expressions of his own with a recognizable 
 meaning ; ndd, ndd, da is demonstrative " da " (" there ") 
 at new impressions. 
 
 Att, att, att, is unintelligible, perhaps indicative of 
 movement. 
 
 Attah means "we are off" (upon setting out) and 
 " I want to go " (" ich will fort ") ; tatass, tatass is unin- 
 telligible, possibly a sound-imitation. 
 
 When traveling by rail the child tried several times 
 to imitate the hissing of the steam of the locomotive. 
 
 In the twenty-second month again there are several 
 observations to record, which show the progress in un- 
 derstanding, the strengthening of the memory, and the 
 greater facility in articulation. The child executes the 
 orders given him with surprising accuracy, although 
 the words spoken have not previously been impressed 
 on him separately. Here, indeed, it is essential to con- 
 sider the looks and gestures of those who give the or- 
 
SPEECH IN TEE FIRST THREE YEARS. 143 
 
 ders; but tlie child also does what I request of him 
 without looking at me. Instances of confusion among 
 the words known to him are also perceptibly more rare. 
 Once I asked him very distinctly, " Where's the moon ? " 
 (Mond), and for answer the child pointed to his mouth 
 (Mund). But the error was not repeated. 
 
 The strength of the word-memory appears particu- 
 larly in this, that all the objects learned are more quick- 
 ly pointed out on request than they were previously, 
 and the facility of articulation is perceived in the mul- 
 tiplying of consonants in the monologues and in the 
 frequent spontaneous utterance of joss, ps, ptsch (once), 
 and irth (Engl.). The child says, without any occasion, 
 pa-ptl-dd, pt, and gives a loud greeting from a distance 
 with had-o, with ada, and ana. 
 
 It seemed to me remarkable that the boy began sev- 
 eral times without the least incitement to sing tolerably 
 well. When I expressed my approval of it, he sprang 
 about, overjoyed. At one time he sang, holding his 
 finger on his tongue, first rollo, rollo, innumerable 
 times, then mama, mama, mama, mama. 
 
 The progress in the sound-mechanism is most plainly 
 discerned in the greater certainty in reproducing what 
 is spoken. Thus, " pst " is correctly given, and of re- 
 verse-syllabled words, very accurately, " anna, otto, alia, 
 appa, enne " ; of unlike-syllabled words, " lina," but 
 still, notwithstanding many trials, not yet '"bitte." For 
 the first time three-syllabled words also, plainly pro- 
 nounced to him, were correctly given bach, viz., a-ma- 
 ma and a-papa, as the child names his grandparents. 
 Hitherto the vowels e, i, o, u, could not be correctly 
 given every time, but " a " could be so given as before. 
 
144: THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 When the reproduction of any new word that is too 
 hard is requested — e. g., "gute Nacht" — the child at 
 this period regularly answers tapeta, peta, pta, and pto- 
 jpto, also rateratetat, expressing thereby not merely his 
 inability, but also, sometimes roguishly, his disinclina- 
 tion to repeat. 
 
 Jaja and nein nein, along with da and bibi (with 
 or without folding of the hands, for " bitte "), and mimi, 
 continue still to be the only words taken from the lan- 
 guage of adults that are used by the child in the proper 
 sense when he desires or refuses anything. Apart from 
 these appear inarticulate sounds, uttered even with the 
 mouth shut. The intense cry of pain, or that produced 
 by cold or wet or by grief at the departure of the par- 
 ents (this with the accompaniment of abundant tears 
 and the drawing of the corners of the mouth far down), 
 makes the strongest contrast with the crowing for joy, 
 particularly that at meeting again. 
 
 The twenty-third month brought at length the first 
 spoken judgment. The child was drinking milk, carry- 
 ing the cup to his mouth with both hands. The milk 
 was too warm for him, and he set the cup down quickly 
 and said, loudly and decidedly, looking at me with eyes 
 wide open and with earnestness, heiss (hot). This single 
 word was to signify " The drink is too hot ! " In the 
 same week, at the end of the ninety-ninth, the child of 
 his own accord went to the heated stove, took a position 
 before it, looked attentively at it, and suddenly said with 
 decision, hot (heiss) / Again, a whole proposition in a 
 syllable. In the sixty-third week for the first time the 
 child had reproduced the word " hot " pronounced to him. 
 Eight and a half months w r ere required for the step from 
 
SPEECH IN THE FIRST THREE YEARS. 145 
 
 the imitative hot to the independent hot as expressive of 
 his judgment. He progressed more rapidly with the 
 word " Wasser," which was reproduced as watja, and was 
 called out longingly by the thirsty child a few weeks 
 afterward. He already distinguishes water and milk in 
 his own fashion as watja and mimi. Yet mim?ni, 
 momo, and mama still signify food in general, and are 
 called out often before meal-times by the impatient and 
 hungry child. The primitive word atta is likewise fre- 
 quently uttered incidentally when anything disappears 
 from the child's field of vision or when he is himself 
 carried away. The other sound-utterances of this period 
 proceeding from the child's own impulse are interesting 
 only as exercises of the apparatus of articulation. Thus, 
 the child not seldom cries aloud oi or eu (an) ; further, 
 unusually loud, ana, and for himself in play, ida, didl, 
 dadl, dldo-dlda, and in singing tone opojo, apojopojum 
 aid, heissa. With special pleasure the child, when 
 talking to himself, said papa, mama, mama, mimi, 
 momo, of his own accord, but not " mumu " ; on the 
 other hand, e-mama-ma-memama, mi, ma, mo, ma. 
 His grandparents he now regularly designates by e-papa 
 and e-mama. He knows very well who is meant when 
 he is asked, "Where is grandmamma? Grandpapa?" 
 And several days after leaving them, when asked the 
 question, e. g., on the railway -train, he points out of the 
 window with a troubled look. The understanding of 
 words heard is 3 again, in general more easy. The child 
 for the most part obeys at once when I say, " drink, eat, 
 shut, open, pick it up, turn around, sit, run ! " Only 
 the order " come ! " is not so promptly executed, not, 
 however, on account of lack of understanding, but from 
 
146 THE MIND OF TITE CHILD. 
 
 willfulness. That the word-memory is becoming firm 
 is indicated particularly by the circumstance that now 
 the separate parts of the face and body are pointed out, 
 even after pretty long intervals, quickly and upon re- 
 quest, on his own person and that of others. "When I 
 asked about his beard, the child (after having already 
 pointed to my beard), in visible embarrassment, pointed 
 with his forefinger to the place on his face correspond- 
 ing to that where he saw the beard on mine, and moved 
 his thumb and forefinger several times as if he were 
 holding a hair of the beard between them and pulling 
 at it, as he had had opportunity to do with mine. Here, 
 accordingly, memory and imagination came in as supple- 
 mentary to satisfy the demand made by the acoustic 
 image. 
 
 ' The greatest progress is to be recorded in this month 
 in regard to the reproduction of syllables and words. A 
 perfecting of the process is apparent in the fact that 
 when anything is said for him to repeat, his head is not 
 turned away in unwillingness so often as before, in case 
 the new word said to him is too difficult, nor are all 
 sorts of incoherent, complicated sounds (paterateratte) 
 given forth directly upon the first failure of the attempt 
 at imitation. Thus, the following words were at this 
 period, without systematic exercises, incidentally picked 
 up (give, as before, the German pronunciation to the let- 
 ters) : 
 
 Spoken to him. 
 
 Eeproduced. 
 
 Spoken to him. 
 
 Eeproduced. 
 
 Ohr, 
 
 Oa(r). 
 
 Wasser, 
 
 Wass, Watja. 
 
 Tisch, 
 
 Tiss. 
 
 Hand, 
 
 Mann. 
 
 Haus, 
 
 Hausesess. 
 
 Heiss, 
 
 Ha'lss. 
 
 Hemd, 
 
 Hem. 
 
 Auge, 
 
 Autschge. 
 
 Pcitsche, 
 
 Paitsch, Paitse. 
 
 Butter, 
 
 Buoto. 
 
SPEECH IN TEE FIRST THREE YEARS. 
 
 147 
 
 Spoken to him. 
 
 Eeproduced. 
 
 Spoken to him. 
 
 Reproduced. 
 
 Eimer, 
 
 Alma. 
 
 Alle, 
 
 Alia. 
 
 Bitte, 
 
 Bete, Bite. 
 
 Leier, 
 
 Laijai. 
 
 Blatt, 
 
 Batn. 
 
 Mund, 
 
 Munn. 
 
 Tuch, 
 
 Tuhs. 
 
 Finger, 
 
 Finge. 
 
 Papier, 
 
 Pain, Pal. 
 
 Pferd, 
 
 Pfoived, Fowid. 
 
 Fort, 
 
 Wott. 
 
 Gute Naeht 
 
 , Nag-ch Na. 
 
 Vater, 
 
 Fa-ata. 
 
 Guten Tag, 
 
 Tatdch. 
 
 Grete, 
 
 Deete. 
 
 Morgen, 
 
 Moigjen. 
 
 Karl, 
 
 Kara. 
 
 Axel, 
 
 Akkes, Aje, Eja. 
 
 The four words, Paitsch or Paitse, Bite, Waija, 
 and Pa'iss, are uttered now and then by the child with- 
 out being said to him, and their use has regard to the 
 meaning contained in them. His whip and his pail he 
 learned to name quickly and correctly. His own name, 
 Axel, on the contrary, he designates by the favorite in- 
 terjections Aje, Eja. On the whole, variety of articu- 
 lation is on the increase as compared with the previous 
 month, but the ability to put syllables together into 
 words is still but little developed. Thus, e. g., the 
 child reproduces quite correctly "je," and a ja,' ? and 
 " na." Eut if any one says to him " Jena " or " Jana," 
 the answer runs regularly nena or nana, and only ex- 
 ceptionally, as if by chwace,jena. Further, he repeats 
 correctly the syllables " bi " and " te " when they are 
 given to him, and then also hi-te ; afterward, giving up 
 the correct imitation, he says beti, but can not reproduce 
 ti-be or tebi. "Bett, Karre, Kuk," are correctly re- 
 peated. 
 
 Finally, echolalia, not observed of late, appears 
 again. If the child hears some one speak, he often re- 
 peats the last syllable of the sentence just finished, if 
 the accent were on it — e. g., " What said the man ? " 
 
148 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 man / or " Who is there ?" there f "Nun ? " (now) nou 
 (nod). Once the name " "Willy " was called. Immediate- 
 ly the child likewise called uile, with the accent on the 
 last syllable, and repeated the call during an hour sev- 
 eral dozens of times ; nay, even several days later he en- 
 tertained himself with the stereotyped repetition. Had 
 not his first echo-play produced great merriment, doubt- 
 less this monotonous repetition would not have been 
 kept up. In regard to the preference of one or another 
 word the behavior of those about the child is not merely 
 influential, but is alone decisive. I observed here, as I 
 had done earlier, that urgent exhortations to repeat a 
 new word have generally a much worse result than is 
 obtained by leaving the child to himself. The correct, 
 or at any rate the best, repetitions were those made 
 when the child was not spoken to. Even adults can 
 imitate others in their manner of speaking, their dia- 
 lect, even their voice, much better when not called upon 
 to do it, but left entirely to their own inclination. The 
 wish or command of others generates an embarrassment 
 which disturbs the course of the motor processes. I re- 
 solved, consequently, to abandon in the following month 
 all attempts to induce the child to reproduce sounds, 
 but to observe so much the more closely what he might 
 say of his own accord. 
 
 In the last month of the second year of his life this 
 leaving of him to himself proved fruitful in results to 
 this extent — that voluntary sound-imitations gained con- 
 siderably in frequency and accuracy. Particularly, 
 genuine echolalia manifested itself more at this period 
 in the repeating of the last syllables of sentences heard, 
 the meaning of which remained unintelligible to the 
 
SPEECH IN THE FIRST THREE YEARS. 149 
 
 child ; and of single words, the sense of which became 
 gradually clear to him by means of accompanying gest- 
 ures. Thus, the word " Herein ! " (Come in !) was re- 
 peated as an empty sound, and then arein, harrein, ha- 
 arein, were shouted strenuously toward the door, when 
 the child wanted to be let in ; ab (off) was uttered when 
 a neck-ribbon was to be loosened. Moigen signified 
 " Guten Morgen ! " na, " Gute Nacht ! " To the ques- 
 tion, " "Was thun wir morgen % " (What shall we do to- 
 morrow ?) comes the echo-answer moigen. In general, 
 by far the greater part of the word-imitations are much 
 distorted, to strangers often quite unintelligible. Ima and 
 Imam mean " Emma," dakkngaggngaggn again means 
 " danke," and betti still continues to signify " bitte." 
 Only with the utmost pains, after the separate syllables 
 have been frequently pronounced, appear dangee and 
 bittee. An apple (Apfel) is regularly named apfeCeelee 
 (from Apfelgelee) ; a biscuit (Zwieback), wita, then 
 wijaJc; butter, on the contrary, is often correctly named. 
 Instead of " Jawohl," the child almost invariably says 
 wolja / for " Licht " list and lists / for " Wasser," watja 
 still as before ; for " pfui " he repeats, when he has been 
 awkward, ui, and often adds a jpott or putt in place of 
 "caput." "Gut" is still pronounced ut or tut, and 
 " fort," okh or ott. All the defects illustrated by these 
 examples are owing rather to the lack of flexibility in 
 the apparatus of articulation — even stammering, tit-t-t-t, 
 in attempting to repeat " Tisch," appears — than to im- 
 perfect ability to apprehend sounds. For the deficiency 
 of articulation shows itself plainly when a new word 
 is properly used, but pronounced sometimes correctly 
 and sometimes incorrectly. Thus, the " tsch " hitherto 
 13 
 
150 THE MIND OF TEE CIIILD. 
 
 not often achieved (twentieth month), and the simple 
 u sch" in witschi and wesch, both signifying "Zwet- 
 schen," are imperfect, although both sounds were long 
 ago well understood as commands to be silent, and Zwet- 
 schen (plums) have been long known to the child. Fur- 
 ther, the inability to reproduce anything is still ex- 
 pressed now and then by raterateratera ; the failure 
 to understand, rather by a peculiar dazed expression of 
 countenance, with an inquiring look. 
 
 With regard to the independent application of all 
 the words repeated, in part correctly, in part with dis- 
 tortions, a multiplicity of meanings is especially note- 
 worthy in the separate expressions used by the child. 
 The primitive word atta, used with uncommon fre- 
 quency, has now among others the following significa- 
 tions : " I want to go ; he is gone ; she is not here ; not 
 yet here ; no longer here ; there is nothing in it ; there 
 is no one there ; it is empty ; it is nowhere ; out there ; 
 go out." To the question "Where have you been?" 
 the child answers, on coming home, atta, and when he 
 has drunk all there was in the glass, he likewise says 
 atta. The concept common to all the interpretations 
 adduced, " gone," seems to be the most comprehensive 
 of all that are at the child's disposal. If we choose to 
 regard a word like this atta as having the force of a 
 whole sentence, we may note many such primitive sen- 
 tences in this month. Thus, mann means, on one occa- 
 sion, " A man has come," then almost every masculine 
 figure is named mann; avff, accompanied with the 
 offering of a key, signifies the wish for the opening of 
 a box, and is cried with animation after vain attempts 
 to open a watch. The concepts "male being" and 
 
SPEECH IN" THE FIRST THREE YEARS. 151 
 
 " open " are thus not only clear, but are already named 
 with the right words. The distinguishing of men from 
 women appears for months past very strikingly in this, 
 that the former only are greeted by reaching out the 
 hand. The manifold meaning of a single word used 
 as a sentence is shown particularly in the cry of papa, 
 with gestures and looks corresponding to the different 
 meanings of it. This one word, when called out to his 
 father, means (1) "Come play with me"; (2) " Please 
 lift me up"; (3) "Please give me that"; (4) "Help 
 me get up on the chair " ; (5) " I can't," etc. 
 
 The greatest progress, however, is indicated by the 
 combination of two words into a sentence. The first 
 sentence of this sort, spoken on the seven hundred and 
 seventh day of his life at the sight of the house that was 
 his home, was haim, mimi, i. e., " I would like to go 
 home and drink milk." The second was papa, mimi, 
 and others were similar. Contrasted with these first 
 efforts at the framing of sentences, the earlier meaning- 
 less monologues play only a subordinate part ; they be- 
 come, as if they were the remains of the period of in- 
 fancy, gradually rudimentary: thus, pipapapdi, breit, 
 lara'i. A more important fact for the recognition of 
 progress in speaking is that the words are often con- 
 founded, e. g., watja and buoto (for butter). In gest- 
 ures also and in all sorts of performances there are bad 
 cases of confusion almost every day ; e. g., the child tries 
 to put on his shoes, holding them with the heel- end to 
 his toes, and takes hold of the can out of which he pours 
 the milk into his cup by the lip instead of the handle. 
 He often affirms in place of denying. His joy is, how- 
 ever, regularly expressed by loud laughing and very 
 
152 TEE MIND OT THE CIIILD. 
 
 high tones; his grief by an extraordinarily deep de- 
 pression of the angles of the month and by weeping. 
 Quickly as this expression of conntenance may pass 
 over into a cheerful one — often on a sudden, in conse- 
 quence of some new impression — no confusion of these 
 two mimetic movements takes place. 
 
 In the first month of the third year of life the prog- 
 ress is extraordinary, and it is only in regard to the ar- 
 ticulatory mechanism that no important new actions are 
 to be recorded. The child does not prononnce a per- 
 fect "u," or only by chance. Generally the lips are not 
 enongh protruded, so that "u" becomes " on" ; "Uhr" 
 and "Ohr" often sound almost the same. The "i" 
 also is frequently mixed with other vowel-sounds, par- 
 ticularly with " e." Probably the corners of the month 
 are not drawn back sufficiently. With these exceptions 
 the vowels of the German language now oifer hardly 
 any difficulties. Of the consonants, the "sch" and 
 " cht " are often imperfect or wanting. " Waschtisch " 
 is regularly pronounced waztiz, and "Gute I^acht" 
 gna. 
 
 The sound-imitations of every kind are more mani- 
 fold, eager, and skillful than ever before. Once the 
 child even made a serious attempt to reproduce ten 
 words spoken in close succession, but did not succeed. 
 The attempt proves all the same that the word-imitation 
 is now far beyond the lower echo-speech ; yet he likes 
 to repeat the last words and syllables of sentences heard 
 by him even in the following months. Here belongs 
 his saying so when any object is brought to the place 
 appointed for it. When the reproduction is defective, 
 the child shows himself to be now much more amenable 
 
SPEECH IN THE FIRST THREE YEARS. 
 
 153 
 
 to correction. He has become more teachable. At the 
 beginning of the month he used to say, when he wanted 
 to sit, ette, then else, afterward itse ; but he does not 
 yet in the present month say " setzen " or " sitzen." 
 Hitherto he could repeat correctly at the utmost two 
 words said for him. Now he repeats three, and once 
 even four, imperfectly : papa, heene, delle, means " Papa, 
 Birne, Teller," and is uttered glibly ; but " Papa, Birne, 
 Teller, bitte," or "Papa, Butter, bitte," is not yet re- 
 peated correctly, but pata, hulte, hetti, and the like ; 
 only very seldom, in spite of almost daily trial, papa, 
 heene, delle, hittee. 
 
 Evidence of the progress of the memory, the under- 
 standing, and the articulation, is furnished in the an- 
 swers the child gave when I asked him, as I touched va- 
 rious objects, " What is that % n He replied : 
 
 Autse, 
 
 for 
 
 Auge (eye). 
 
 Mai, for 
 
 Haar (hair). 
 
 Nana, 
 
 « 
 
 Nase (nose). 
 
 Ulter, " 
 
 Sch ulter (shoulder). 
 
 Ba, 
 
 a 
 
 Backe (back). 
 
 Aam, " 
 
 Arm (arm). 
 
 Baat, 
 
 " 
 
 Bart (beard). 
 
 Ann, " 
 
 Hand (hand). 
 
 OS, Oa, 
 
 " 
 
 Ohr (ear). 
 
 WiSr, " 
 
 Finger (finger). 
 
 Qpf, 
 
 " 
 
 Kopf (head). 
 
 Daima, " 
 
 Daumen (thumb). 
 
 Tenn, 
 
 " 
 
 Kinn (chin). 
 
 Ann, " 
 
 Handschuh (glove). 
 
 Tane, 
 
 " 
 
 Zahne (teeth). 
 
 Bain, " 
 
 Bein (leg). 
 
 But not one word has the child himself invented. 
 When a new expression appears it may be surely traced 
 to what has been heard, as uppe, oppee, appee, appei, to 
 " Suppe." The name alone by which he calls on his 
 nurse, wold, seemed hard to explain. If any one says, 
 " Call Mary," the child invariably calls wold. It is 
 probable, as he used to call it ivolja, that the appellation 
 has its origin in the often-heard " ja wohl." 
 
 The correct use of single words, picked up, one 
 
151 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 might say, at random, increases in a surprising manner. 
 Here belong ftaden, reiputtse, for " Reissuppe," la-ock 
 for " Schlafrock," hater for " Butter," Butterbrod, Uhr, 
 Buch, Billerbooch for " Bilderbuch." In what fashion 
 such words now incorporated into the child's vocabulary 
 are employed is shown by the following examples : Tul 
 (for " Stuhl ") means— (1) " I should like to be lifted up 
 on the chair ; (2) My chair is gone ; (3) I want this chair 
 brought to the table ; (4) This chair doesn't stand right." 
 If the chair or other familiar object is broken, then it 
 is still styled putt (for " caput," gone to smash) ; and 
 if the child has himself broken anything he scolds 
 his own hand, and says oi or oui, in place of " pfui " 
 (fie) ! He wants to write to his grandmother, and asks 
 for Papier, a daiti-pf (for " Bleistift," pencil), and says 
 raitoe (for " schreiben," write). 
 
 That misunderstandings occur in such beginnings of 
 speech seems a matter of course. All that I observed, 
 however, were from the child's standpoint rational. 
 Some one says, " Schlag das Buch auf " (Open the book, 
 but meaning literally " Strike upon the book "), and the 
 child strikes upon the book with his hands without 
 opening it. He does the same when one says, " Schlag 
 auf das Buch" (Strike upon the book). Or we say, 
 "Will you come? one, two!" and the child, without 
 being able to count, answers, " Three, four." He has 
 merely had the sequence 1, 2, 3, 4, said over to him fre- 
 quently. But, on the whole, his understanding of words 
 heard, particularly of commands, has considerably ad- 
 vanced ; and how far the reasoning faculty has developed 
 is now easily seen in his independent designations for 
 concepts. For example, since his delight at gifts of all 
 
SPEECH IN THE FIRST THREE YEARS. 155 
 
 sorts on his birthday, he says burtsa (for Geburtstag, 
 birthday) when he is delighted by anything whatever. 
 Another instance of childish induction was the follow- 
 ing : The child's hand being slightly hurt, he was told to 
 blow on his hand and it would be better. He did blow 
 on his hand. In the afternoon he hit his head against 
 something, and he began at once to blow of his own ac- 
 cord, supposing that the blowing would have a soothing 
 effect, even when it did not reach the injured part. 
 
 In the forming of sentences considerable progress is 
 to be recorded. Yet only once has the child joined more 
 than four words in a sentence, and rarely three. His sen- 
 tences consisting of two words, which express a fact of 
 the present or of the immediate past, are often, perhaps 
 generally, quite unintelligible to strangers. Thus, donna 
 ku/ia signifies " Aunt has given me cake ?? ; Koffee na'in, 
 " There is no coffee here " ; and mama etsee or etse is in- 
 telligible only by means of the accompanying gesture as 
 the expression of the wish, " Mamma, sit by me." Helle 
 pumme signifies the wish to help (heZferi) in pumping, 
 and is uttered at the sight of persons pumping water. 
 
 The following sentence consisting of five words is 
 particularly characteristic of this period, because it ex- 
 hibits the first attempt to relate a personal experience. 
 The child dropped his milk-cup and related mimi atta 
 teppa papa o'i, which meant " Milch fort [auf den] 
 Teppich, Papa [sagte] pfui." (Milk gone [on] carpet, 
 Papa [said] " Fie ! ") The words adopted by the child 
 have often a very different meaning from that which 
 they have in the language of adults, being not entirely 
 misunderstood but peculiarly interpreted by the imita- 
 tor. Thus, pronouns, which are not for a long time yet 
 
156 
 
 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 His imitation. 
 ba-a-bats, blasabalitz. 
 laze. 
 
 understood in their true sense, signify objects themselves 
 or their qualities. Dein bett means " the large bed." 
 
 In the twenty-sixth month a large picture-book, 
 with good colored pictures, was shown to the child by 
 me every day. Then he himself would point out the 
 separate objects represented, and those unknown to him 
 were named to him, and then the words were repeated 
 by him. Thus were obtained the following results : 
 
 Said to him. 
 Blasebalg (bellows), 
 Saugflasche (nursing-bottle), 
 Kanone (cannon), nanone. 
 
 Koffer (trunk), 
 Fuchs (fox), 
 
 Kaffeekanne (coffee-urn), 
 Frosch (frog), 
 Klingel (bell), 
 Besen (broom), 
 Stiefel (boot), 
 Nest (nest), 
 Storeh (stork), 
 Giesskanne (watering-pot), 
 Fisch(fish), 
 Zuekerhut (sugar-loaf), 
 Vogel (bird), 
 Kuchen (cake), 
 Licht (light), 
 Schlitten (sled), 
 Tisch (table), 
 Nuss (nut), 
 
 Kaffeetopf (coffee-pot), 
 Hund (dog), 
 Brief (letter), 
 Elephant, 
 Fledermaus (bat), 
 Kamm (comb), 
 Schwalbe (swallow), 
 Staar (starling), 
 
 towiver, toffer, pfoffa, poffa, toff-wa. 
 
 fulits. 
 
 taffeetanne, pfafee-tanne. 
 
 frotz. 
 
 linli (learned as ingeling and UnUn). 
 
 besann, beedsen, beedsenn. 
 
 tiefel, stibbell, tihbell, tibl. 
 
 netz. 
 
 toich. 
 
 tietstanne, ihtsta?me, ziesstanne. 
 
 fiz. 
 
 ukkahut. 
 
 wodal. 
 
 tuche, tucMn (hitherto kuliti). 
 
 Wits, lits. 
 
 Ufa, litta. 
 
 tiss. 
 
 nulmss, nuss. 
 
 pqfee-topf. 
 
 und. 
 
 dief. 
 
 elafant. 
 
 lebamaunz, fleedermauz. 
 
 damm, lamm, namm. 
 
 baubee. 
 
 tahr. 
 
SPEECH IN THE FIRST THREE YEARS. 
 
 157 
 
 Of his own accord the child pointed out with cer- 
 tainty in the picture-book — 
 
 ham, hd-em, hemm 
 
 horz 
 
 tawell 
 
 lompee, lampe 
 
 lotz 
 
 benne 
 
 torb 
 
 onne-erm 
 
 flatse 
 
 clawelier 
 
 littl, litzl, lilizl 
 
 lowee 
 
 ofa 
 
 ud 
 
 tint, hint 
 
 naninchd 
 
 manne 
 
 tomml, tromml 
 
 tulil 
 
 for Helm (helmet). 
 
 " Hirseh (stag). 
 
 " Tafel (table). 
 
 " Lampe (lamp). 
 
 " Schloss (castle). 
 
 " Birne (pear). 
 
 " Korb (basket). 
 
 " Sonnenschirm (parasol). 
 
 " Flasche (bottle). 
 
 " Zwetschen (plums). 
 
 " Clavier (piano). 
 
 " Schliissel (key). 
 
 " Lowe (lion). 
 
 " Ofen (stove). 
 
 " Uhr (watch). 
 
 " Kind (child). 
 
 " Kaninchen (rabbit). 
 
 " Pfanne (pan). 
 
 " Trommel (drum). 
 
 " Stuhl (chair). 
 
 With these words, the meaning of which the child 
 knows well, though he does not yet pronounce them 
 perfectly, are to be ranked many more which have not 
 been taught him, but which he has himself appropriated 
 Thus, tola for Kohlen (coals), dais for Salz (salt). Other 
 words spontaneously appropriated are, however, already 
 pronounced correctly and correctly used, as Papier (pa- 
 per), Holz (wood), Hut (hat), Wag-en (carriage), Tep- 
 jpich (carpet), Deckel (cover), Milch, Teller (often telle), 
 Frau, Mann, Mause. These cases form the minority, 
 and are striking in the midst of the manifold mutila- 
 tions which now constitute the child's speech. Of these 
 mutilations some are, even to his nearest relatives who 
 
158 TEE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 are in company with the child every day, unintelligible 
 or only with great pains to be unriddled. Thus, the 
 child calls himself Attall instead of Axel ; says also 
 Trans Aisl for " heraus Axel," i. e., " Axel wants to 
 go out." He still says "bita for " bitte," and often mima 
 or mami for Marie ; apf for "Apf el." The numerous 
 mutilations of the words the child undertakes to speak 
 are not all to be traced to defect of articulation. The 
 "sell" is already perfectly developed in Ilandscliuh ; 
 and yet in other words, as appears from the above ex- 
 amples, it is either simply left out or has its place sup- 
 plied by z and ss. Further, it sounds almost like wan- 
 tonness when frequently the surd consonant is put in 
 place of the sonant one or vice versa/ when, e. g., 
 pitch (for Buch) pucherr is said on the one hand, and 
 wort instead of " fort " on the other. Here belongs 
 likewise the peculiar staccato manner of uttering the 
 syllables, e. g., pil-ter-jpuch (Bilder-bueh — picture-book). 
 At other times is heard a hasty biUerbuch or piller- 
 jpuch. 
 
 The babbling monologues have become infrequent 
 and more of a play with words and the syllables of 
 them, e. g., in the frequently repeated jpapa-u-Orua. 
 
 On the other hand, independent thoughts expressed 
 by words are more and more multiplied. Here is an 
 example : The child had been extraordinarily pleased 
 by the Christmas-tree. The candles on it had been 
 lighted for three evenings. On the third evening, 
 when only one of its many lights was burning, the child 
 could not leave it, but kept taking a position before it 
 and saying with earnest tone, gimnd-itz-boum, i. e., 
 " Gute nacht, Christbaum ! " The most of his sentences 
 
SPEECH IN THE FIRST THREE YEARS. 159 
 
 still consist of two words, one of which is often a verb 
 in the infinitive. Thus, lielle mama, helle ma?ni, i. e., 
 " h elf en (help) Mama, Marie ! " and hibah tommen, i. e., 
 " der Zwieback soil kommen " (let the biscuit come) ; 
 or tsee machen (make c) — on the piano the keys c, d, e, 
 had often been touched separately by the little fingers 
 accidentally, and the applause when in response to the 
 question, " Where is c f " the right key was touched, 
 excited the wish for • repetition ; roth, driln machen 
 (make red or green) — the child was instructed by me in 
 the naming of colors; and dekhn pilen, i. e., "Yer- 
 stecken spielen " (play hide and seek). In quite short 
 narratives, too, the verbs appear in the infinitive only. 
 Such accounts of every-day occurrences — important to 
 the child, however, through their novelty — are in gen- 
 eral falling into the background as compared with the 
 expression of his wishes in words as in the last-men- 
 tioned cases. Both kinds of initiatory attempts at speak- 
 ing testify more and more plainly to awakening intel- 
 lect, for, in order to use a noun together with a verb 
 in such a way as to correspond to a wish or to a fact 
 experienced, there must be added to the imitation of 
 words heard and to the memory of them something 
 which adapts the sense of them to the outward experi- 
 ences at the time and the peculiar circumstances, and as- 
 sociates them with one another. This something is the 
 intellect. In proportion as it grows, the capacity for 
 being taught tricks decreases and the child is already 
 ashamed to answer by means of his former gestures the 
 old questions, " Where is the little rogue ? " " How 
 tall ? " etc. 
 
 But how far from the intellect of the older child is 
 
160 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 that of the child now two years and two months old 
 appears from this fact, that the latter has not the re- 
 motest notion of number. He repeats mechanically, 
 many times over, the words said for him, one, two, 
 three, four, five / but when objects of the same sort are 
 put before him in groups, he confounds all the numbers 
 with one another in spite of countless attempts to bring 
 the number 2 into firm connection with the sound two, 
 etc. Nor does he as yet understand the meaning of the 
 frequently repeated " danke " (thanks), for, when the 
 child has poured out milk for himself, he puts down 
 the pitcher and says dankee. 
 
 One more remark is to be made about the names of 
 animals. These names are multiplying in this period, 
 which is an important one in regard to the genesis of 
 mind. Ask, " What is the animal called ? " and the an- 
 swer runs, mwnu, MJcerihi, bauwau, piep-piep, and 
 others. No trace of onomatopoetic attempts can be dis- 
 covered here. The child has received the names pro- 
 nounced to him by his nurse and has retained them ; 
 just so hotto for " Pf erd " (horse), like lingeling for 
 " Klingel " (bell). None the less every healthy child 
 has a strong inclination to onomatopeia. The cases al- 
 ready reported prove the fact satisfactorily. The echo- 
 lalia that still appears now and then really belongs to 
 this. Inasmuch as in general in every onomatopoetic 
 attempt we have to do with a sound-imitation or the 
 reproducing of the oscillations of the tympanum as 
 nearly as possible by means of the vocal cords, all at- 
 tempts of the speechless child to speak are ultimately 
 of onomatopoetic character in the earliest period ; but 
 from the present time on sound-imitation retires before 
 
SPEECH IN THE FIRST THREE YEARS. 161 
 
 the reasoning activity, which is now shooting forth vig- 
 orously in the childish brain. 
 
 In the twenty-seventh month the activity of thought 
 manifests itself already in various ways. The inde- 
 pendent ideas, indeed, move in a narrowly limited 
 sphere, but their increasing number testifies to the 
 development of the intellect. Some examples may be 
 given : 
 
 The child sees a tall tree felled, and he says as it 
 lies upon the ground, pick up/ Seeing a hole in a 
 dressing-gown, he says, naen (sew) ! In his play he 
 sometimes says to himself, dib acht (take care) ! To the 
 question, " Did it taste good \ " the child answers while 
 still eating, mekh noch (schmeckt noch), " It does taste 
 good," thus distinguishing the past in the question from 
 the present. The development of observation and com- 
 parison is indicated by the circumstance that salt is 
 also called sand. On the other hand, the feeling of 
 gratitude is as yet quite undeveloped. The child, as in 
 the previous month, says daiikee to himself when, e. g., 
 he has opened his wardrobe-door alone. The word is 
 thus as yet unintelligible to him, or it is used in the 
 sense of " so " or " succeeded." His frequent expres- 
 sions of pity are striking. When dolls are cut out of 
 paper, the child weeps violently in the most pitiful man- 
 ner, for fear that in the cutting a head (Top/) may be 
 taken off. This behavior calls to mind the cries of 
 arme wiehalc (armer Zwieback — poor biscuit) ! when a 
 biscuit is divided, and arme hols (poor wood) ! when a 
 stick of wood is thrown into the stove. Nobody has 
 taught the child anything of that sort. 
 
 The independent observations which he expresses 
 
162 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 correctly but very briefly in a form akin to the style of 
 the telegraphic dispatch are now numerous, e. g. : 
 
 Tain milch : There is no milk here. 
 
 Lammee aus, lampee aus : The flame, the lamp, is 
 gone out. 
 
 Dass la-ohk: That is the dressing-gown (Schlaf- 
 rock). 
 
 Diss nicht la-okh : This is not the dressing-gown. 
 
 His wishes the child expresses by means of verbs in 
 the infinitive or of substantives alone. Thus, papa auf- 
 tehen (papa, get up), fru-tukhen (breakfast), aus-taigen 
 (get out), nicht blasen (not blow — in building card- 
 houses), pieldose aufziehn (wind up the music-box), and 
 biback (I should like a biscuit). Into these sentences of 
 one, two, and three words there come, however, single 
 adverbs not before used and indefinite pronouns, like 
 een and e in tann een nicht or tanne nicht, for " kann 
 er nicht " or " kann es nicht." Butter drauf (butter 
 on it). Mama auch tommen (mamma come, too), noch 
 mehr (more), bios Wasser (only water), hier (here), are 
 the child's own imperatives. Schon wieder (again) he 
 does indeed say of his own accord on fitting occasions ; 
 but here he is probably repeating mechanically what 
 he has heard. In all, the forming of a word that had 
 not been heard as such, or that had not come from what 
 had been heard through mutilation, has been surely 
 proved in only a single instance. The child, viz., 
 expressed the wish (on his seven hundred and ninety- 
 sixth day) to have an apple pared or cut up, by means 
 of the word messen. He knows a knife (Messer) and 
 names it rightly, and while he works at the apple with 
 a fork or a spoon or anything he can get hold of, or 
 
SPEECH IN TIIE FIRST THREE YEARS. 163 
 
 merely points at it with his hand, he says repeatedly 
 messen ! Only after instruction did he say Messer 
 neiden (mit dem Messer schneiden — cut with the knife). 
 Here for the first time a wholly new word is formed. 
 The concept and the word "knife" (" Messer ") and the 
 concept, " work with the knife," were present, but the 
 word " schneiden " (cut) for the last was wanting, as 
 also was " schalen " (pare). Hence, both in one were 
 named messen (for " messern," it may be). The two 
 expressions that used to be heard many times daily, the 
 name wold for the nurse Mima (Mary) and atta, have 
 now almost disappeared. Atta wesen for " draussen 
 gewesen " (been out) is still used, it is true, but only 
 seldom. In place of it come now weg, .fort, aus, and 
 allall, in the sense of " empty," " finished." The too 
 comprehensive, too indefinite concept atta has broken 
 up into more limited and more definite ones. It has 
 become, as it were, differentiated, as in the embryo the 
 separate tissues are differentiated out of the previously 
 apparently homogeneous tissue. 
 
 In the period of rapid development now attained, 
 the child daily surprises us afresh by his independent 
 applications of words just heard, although many are 
 not correctly applied, as toclien haiss (boiling hot), said 
 not only of the milk, but also of the fire. 
 
 When words clearly comprehended are used in a 
 different sense from that in which adults use them — 
 incorrectly used, the latter would say — there is, how- 
 ever, no illogical employment of them on the part of 
 the child. For it is always the fact, as in the last ex- 
 ample, that the concept associated with the word is 
 taken in a more extended sense. The very young child 
 
164 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 infers a law from a few, even from two observations, 
 which present some agreement only in one respect, and 
 that perhaps a quite subordinate respect. He makes 
 inductions without deliberation. He has heard milk 
 called " boiling hot," he feels its warmth, and then feels 
 the warmth of the stove, consequently the stove also is 
 " boiling hot " ; and so in other cases. This logical ac- 
 tivity, the inductive process, now prevails. The once 
 favorite monologues, pure, meaningless exercises of ar- 
 ticulation, of voice and of hearing, are, on the contrary, 
 falling off. The frequent repetition of the same sylla- 
 ble, also of the same sentence (lampee aus\ still survives 
 particularly in animated expressions of wish, erst essen 
 (first eat), viel milch (much milk), mag-e-nicht (don't 
 like it). Desire for food and for playthings makes the 
 child loquacious, much more than dislike does, the latter 
 being more easily manifested by means of going away, 
 turning around, turning away. The child can even beg 
 on behalf of his carved figures of animals and men. 
 Pointing out a puppet, he says tint din tikche ajofi! 
 Fur das kind ein Stuckchen Apfel ! (A bit of apple 
 for the child.) 
 
 Notwithstanding these manifold signs of a use of 
 words that is beginning to be independent, the sound and 
 word imitation continues to exist in enlarged measure, 
 Echolalia has never, perhaps, been more marked, the 
 final words of sentences heard being repeated with the 
 regularity of a machine. If I say, " Leg die Feder hin " 
 (Lay the pen down) ! there sounds in response a feder 
 hin. All sorts of tones and noises are imitated with 
 varying success ; even the whistle of the locomotive, an 
 object in which a passionate interest is displayed ; the 
 
SPEECH IN TEE FIRST THREE YEARS. 165 
 
 voices of animals ; so also German, French, Italian, and 
 English, words. The French nasal " n " (in fton, orange), 
 however — even in the following months — as well as the 
 English " th," in there (in spite of the existence of the 
 right formation in the fifteenth month), is not attained. 
 The child still laughs regularly when others laugh, and 
 on his part excites merriment through exact reproduc- 
 tion of separate fragments of a dialogue that he does not 
 understand, and that does not concern him ; e. g., da 
 hastn (da hast Du ihn) (there you have him), or aha 
 siste (siehst Du) (do you see) ? or um Gottes willen (for 
 God's sake), the accent in these eases being also imitated 
 with precision. But in his independent use of words 
 the accentuation varies in irregular fashion. Such an 
 arbitrary variation is lute and bite. JBeti no longer 
 appears. 
 
 As a noteworthy deficiency at this period is to be 
 mentioned the feeble memory for often-prescribed an- 
 swers to certain questions. To the question of a stranger, 
 " What is your name ? " the child for the first time gave 
 of his own accord the answer Attsell (Axel), on the eight 
 hundred and tenth day of his life. On the other hand, 
 improper answers that have been seriously censured re- 
 main fixed in his recollection. The impression is stronger 
 here. The weakness of memory is still shown most 
 plainly when we try to make intelligible to the child the 
 numerals one to five. It is a failure. The sensuous 
 impression that one ball makes is so different from that 
 which two balls make, the given words one and two 
 sound so differently, that we can not help wondering 
 how one and two, and likewise three, four, five, are con- 
 founded with one another. 
 U 
 
166 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 A question has not yet been uttered by the child. 
 The frequent ist das signifies merely " das ist," or it is 
 the echo of the oft-heard question, " Was ist das ? " and 
 is uttered without the tone of interrogation. The arti- 
 cles are not used at all yet ; at any rate, if used, they are 
 merely imitated without understanding. 
 
 The defects of articulation are now less striking, but 
 only very slowly does the correct and distinct pronun- 
 ciation take the place of the erroneous and indistinct. 
 We still have regularly : 
 
 bucher-rank for Biicherschrank (book-case). 
 
 frai taJckee " Fraulein Starke (Miss Starke). 
 
 ere, tseer " Schere (shears). 
 
 raibe, raiben " Schreiben (u. Zeichnen) (write or draw). 
 
 nur " Schnur (string). 
 
 neiderin " Schneiderin (tailoress). 
 
 dson (also schori) " schon (pretty). 
 
 lafen " schlafen (sleep). 
 
 pucJcen " spucken (spit). 
 
 dsehen (also sehen) " seken (see). 
 
 The sounds " sch " and " sch " in the " st " as well 
 as in the " sp " (" schneiden, Spiel ") are often omitted 
 without any substitute (naidd, taign, pieT) ; more sel- 
 dom their place is supplied by " s," as in swer= u schwer " 
 for " mude." Yet ks, ts are often given with purity in 
 hex, hux, Axl. The last word is often pronounced Atsel 
 and Atsli (heard by him as " Axeli "), very rarely AMI ; 
 in " Auf ziehen " the " z " is almost always correctly re- 
 produced. Further, we still have 
 
 locotiwe for Locomotive. ann-nepf for anknopfen. 
 
 nepf " Knopfe (buttons). nits " nickts (nothing). 
 
 "Milch "is now permanently named correctly; no 
 longer mimi, mich y "Wasser, wassa, no longer watja. 
 
SPEECH IN THE FIRST THREE YEARS. 167 
 
 But " gefahrlich " is called fahrlich ; " getrunken," 
 tricnhen. 
 
 The twenty- eighth month is characterized by a rapid 
 increase of activity in the formation of ideas, on the one 
 hand, and by considerably greater certainty in the use 
 of words, on the other. Ambition is developed and 
 makes itself known by a frequent la'inee (allein, alone). 
 The child wants to undertake all sorts of things without 
 help. He asks for various objects interesting to him, 
 with the words Ding haben (have the thing). That the 
 faculty of observation and of combination is becoming 
 perfected, is indicated by the following : The child sees 
 an ox at the slaughter-house and says rnurnu (moo-moo) ; 
 I add "todt" (dead); thereupon comes the response 
 mumu todt,, and after a pause the child says, of his own 
 accord, lachtett (geschlachtet, slaughtered) ; then JBlut 
 heraus (blood out). The beginning of self-control is 
 perceived in this, that the child often recollects, of him- 
 self, the strict commands he has received to refrain 
 from this and that. Thus, he had been accustomed to 
 strike members of the family in fun, and this had been 
 forbidden him. JSTow, when the inclination seizes him 
 still to strike, he says emphatically nicht lagen (schlagen, 
 — not strike), Axel hrav (good). In general the child 
 names himself only by his name, which he also tells to 
 strangers without being asked. His parents, and these 
 alone, are mostly named Pajpa and llama, but often 
 also by their names. 
 
 The following is a proof of independent think- 
 ing while the understanding of language is still im- 
 perfect : At breakfast I say, "Axel is breakfasting 
 with papa, is he not (nicht wahr) % " He replies 
 
168 THE MIXD OF THE CHILD. 
 
 earnestly, with genuine child-logic, dock wahr (but 
 he is) ! 
 
 The earlier appellation swer and wer (schwer — 
 heavy) for miide (tired) is preserved. This transference, 
 like the other one, locotiwe wassa trinkt, when the en- 
 gine is supplied with water, is the intellectual peculium 
 of the child. The number of such childish conceptions 
 has now become very large. On the other hand, the 
 words independently formed out of what has been heard 
 are not numerous : 
 
 beisst for gebissen (bitten), 
 reit " geritten (ridden), 
 esst " gegessen (eaten), 
 
 wesen for gewesen (been), 
 austrinkt " ausgetrunken (drunk up), 
 tschulter " Schulter (shoulder), 
 
 mast be considered as mutilations, not as new forma- 
 tions. The great number of words correctly pro- 
 nounced and used continues, on the other hand, to in- 
 crease. There are even decided attempts to use single 
 prepositions : Wepfe ( Knopf e) fur Mama (buttons for 
 mamma) may be simple repetition, like Axel mit Pajpa / 
 but as utterances of this kind were not formerly re- 
 peated by him, though just as often made in his hear- 
 ing, the understanding of the " fur " and " mit " must 
 now be awakened. From this time forth the under- 
 standing of several prepositions and the correct use of 
 them abide. In addition there come into this period 
 the first applications of the article. However often 
 this part of speech may have been reproduced from the 
 speech of others, it has never been said with under- 
 standing ; but now in the expressions uyrin Hals and 
 fui^m Axel (around the neck and for (the) Axel) there 
 lies the beginning of right use of the article, and, in- 
 
SPEECH IN TEE FIRST THREE YEARS. 169 
 
 deed, also in the months immediately succeeding, almost 
 solely of the definite article. 
 
 But more significant psychogenetically than all 
 progress of this kind in the manipulation of language is 
 the questioning that becomes active in this month. Al- 
 though I paid special attention to this point from the 
 beginning, I first heard the child ask a question of his 
 own accord on the eight hundred and forty-fifth day of 
 his life. He asked, " Where is Mima ? " From that 
 time on questions were more frequent ; but in the time 
 immediately following this his question was always one 
 relating to something in space. The word " Where ? " 
 continued for a long time to be his only interrogative. 
 He has also for a long time understood the " Where ? " 
 when he heard it. If, e. g., I asked, "Where is the 
 nose ? " without giving any hint by look or otherwise, 
 this question has for months past been correctly an- 
 swered by a movement of the child's arm to his nose. 
 It is true that my question, " What is that ? " a much 
 more frequent one, is likewise answered correctly, al- 
 though the word " What ? " has never been iised by the 
 child. 
 
 His cleverness in reproducing even foreign expres- 
 sions is surprising. The words pronounced for him by 
 Italians (during a pretty long sojourn on Lake G-arda), 
 e. g., uno, due, tre, are given back without the least 
 German accent. " Quattro," to be sure, became wattro, 
 but ancora piccolo was absolutely pure. The imitation 
 of the marching of soldiers, with the frequent cry hate- 
 Ion eins suai (battalion, one, two), already gives him the 
 greatest pleasure. The imagination that is active in it 
 is to be discerned, however, rather in gestures than in 
 
170 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 words. How lively the child's power of imagination is 
 appears also in the fact that flat figures rudely cut out 
 of newspaper, to represent glasses and cups, are carried 
 to the mouth like real ones. 
 
 The articulation has again become a little more per- 
 fected, but in many respects it is still a good deal de- 
 ficient ; thus, in regard to the " sch," he says : 
 
 abneiden for abschneiden (cut off). 
 
 Mm " Stirn (forehead). 
 
 verbrochen " versprochen (promised). 
 
 lagn " schlagen (strike). 
 
 runtergelucld " heruntergeschluckt (swallowed). 
 
 einteign " einsteigen (get in). 
 
 On the other hand, aus-teign (Aussteigen) (alight). 
 
 Other defects of articulation are shown by the fol- 
 lowing examples : 
 
 top/ for klopfen (knock). 
 ilffte " liif ten (take the air). 
 
 leben " kleben (adhere). 
 
 viloa, viloja, " Viola. 
 dummi " Gummi (gum). 
 
 The I mouille can not be at all successfully given at 
 the beginning of this month (hatelon for u bataillon "), 
 and the nasal sounds in " orange " and " salon " offer 
 insuperable difficulties (up to the second half of the 
 fourth year). At the end of this month, however, I 
 heard a ganzee hataljohn (j like English y). " Orange" 
 continued to be, after oraanjee had been given up, or- 
 ohse. The softening (mouilliren — nj = ft) was incon- 
 venient in this case. 
 
 Quite correctly named at this period were eye, nose, 
 cheek, tongue, mouth, ear, beard, hair, arm, thumb, 
 finger. 
 
SPEECH IN THE FIRST THREE YEARS. 171 
 
 Meaningless chatter has become much more rare. 
 On the other hand, the child is in the habit of making 
 all sorts of remarks, especially in the morning early 
 after waking, for a quarter of an hour at a time and 
 longer without interruption, these remarks for the most 
 part consisting of a noun and verb and relating to ob- 
 jects immediately about him. Monologues also are 
 given in a singing voice, syllables without meaning, 
 often a regular singing, the child meantime running 
 many times around the table ; besides, his strong voice 
 is not seldom practiced in producing high tones with- 
 out any outward occasion ; and, finally, it is worthy of 
 note that sometimes in sleep, evidently when the child 
 has a vivid dream, a scream is uttered. Talking in his 
 sleep first appeared in his fourth year. 
 
 The greatest advance in the twenty-ninth month 
 consists in the employment of the personal pronoun in 
 place of his own name : hitte gib mir Brod (please give 
 me bread) was the first sentence in which it appeared. 
 " Ich " (I) is not yet said, but if I ask " Who is ' me ' ? " 
 then the child names himself with his own name, as 
 he does in general. Through this employment, more 
 and more frequent from this time forth, of the pronoun 
 instead of the proper name, is gradually introduced the 
 inflection of the verbs he has heard ; but at this time 
 the imperative has its place generally supplied by the 
 infinitive : Papa sagn and Ssooss sitzen. Sentences 
 composed by himself, or heard and then used by him, 
 like das meckt (schmeckt) sehr gut (that tastes very 
 good), are rare ; yet the discrimination between regular 
 and irregular verbs has already begun to be made. To 
 be sure, the question " Where have you been ? " is an- 
 
172 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 swered with paziren gegeht (goed to walk), and atisge- 
 zieht is said for ausgezogen (drawed out), also geseht 
 (seed) instead of gesehen (seen) ; but at the same time 
 frequently eingetigen and ausgetigen^ instead of ein- and 
 aus-geteigt. An interesting, rare misformation was 
 grefessen for " gefressen." The verbs most frequently 
 used seem to be " haben " (have) and " kommen " 
 (come), and the forms u hat " and "kommt " are indeed 
 correctly used sometimes, e. g., viel Ranch kommt 
 heraus (much smoke comes out), and gleich kommt 
 Kaffee (the coffee is coming). While the infinitives 
 " haben " and " kommen " are uttered several times a 
 day, the infinitive " sein " (to be) is never heard ; but of 
 this auxiliary verb " ist " and " wesen " are used, the lat- 
 ter for " gewesen." In every instance where the child 
 expresses a desire by means of a verb, he simply takes 
 the infinitive ; e. g., he hears, as he sits in the room, the 
 noise of the railway-train at a distance, and he says, 
 Locotiwe sehen. 
 
 Further, numbering begins to be active to a note- 
 worthy degree. Although the numerals are already well 
 known to the child, he still confounds them on all occa- 
 sions, and in view of the absolute failure of the many 
 attempts to teach the child the significance of the num- 
 bers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, one might infer that he has not yet 
 perceived the difference between, e. g., 3 matches and 
 4: matches ; yet counting is already taking place, though 
 in very unexpected fashion. The child began, viz., on 
 the eight hundred and seventy-eighth day, suddenly, of 
 his own accord entirely, to count with his nine-pins, put- 
 ting them in a row, saying with each one, eins (one) ! 
 eins ! eins ! eins ! afterward saying eins ! noch eins 
 
SPEECH IN THE FIRST THREE YEARS. 173 
 
 (one more) ! noch eins ! noch eins ! The process of 
 adding is thus performed without the naming of the 
 sums. 
 
 The questioning that appeared in the previous 
 month, the surest sign of independent thought in 
 the child, is somewhat more plainly manifest; but 
 a Where " alone serves as the interrogative word, and 
 that in its proper sense : Where is hat ? " Which, who, 
 why, when " are not spoken by the child and doubtless 
 not understood, for, although succession in time is in 
 many eases clear to him (" first eat," " then, 5 ' " now "), 
 yet in many other cases he does not know how to ex- 
 press distinctions of time ; just as in comparing many 
 and few, large and small objects, the quantity is wrongly 
 given. Thus he says correctly, when many counters 
 are to be brought together, Zuviel (too many), but says 
 Zuviel wrongly for Zuwenig (too little) when there is 
 too little butter on his bread. In this case the Zuviel 
 (too much) sounds almost like irony, which, of course, 
 is out of the question at his age. a Too much " and 
 " too little " are confounded in the same way as 5 and 
 2. Yet, in another respect the memory has made a con- 
 siderable gain. Expressions long since forgotten by 
 those about the child are suddenly without assignable 
 occasion sometimes uttered again with perfect distinct- 
 ness, and the child even applies fitly what he has ob- 
 served. Thus, he brings matches when he sees that 
 some one wants to light a candle. I say to him, "Pick 
 up the bread-crumbs." Upon this the child comes for- 
 ward, though very slowly, cries out suddenly, Get 
 droom, recollecting that he has seen the carpet swept, 
 goes and gets the broom, and sweeps the crumbs away. 
 
174 THE HIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 His memory for the utterances of animals as they have 
 been made for him is very good. If I ask, e. g., " What 
 does the duck say % " the answer is Kuak kuak. He 
 has gained also in certainty in naming the separate parts 
 of a drawing, especially of a locomotive, so that one 
 chief condition of speech, in the full sense of the word 
 — memory — may be said to be well developed. 
 
 Articulation, on the contrary, makes slow progress. 
 " Hirsch " is called Hirss, " Schwalbe" Walhe, "Flasche" 
 Flassee. The following are generally correctly pro- 
 nounced : Trepjie, Fenster, Krug, Kraut, Kuchen, 
 Helm, Besen, Cigarre, Hut, Giesskanne, Dinte, Buch, 
 Birne. For " barometer, thermometer," he says mome- 
 ter, for " Schrauben " raiibn, for " fruhstucken " (to 
 breakfast) still often fri-ticken. 
 
 In the thirtieth month the independent activity of 
 thought develops more and more. When the child is 
 playing by himself, e. g., he often says to himself : 
 Himerehen ausleeren (make pail empty) ; Hackemesser 
 (chopping-knife). Thus his small vocabulary serves 
 him at any rate for making clear his own ideas. Al- 
 ready his thinking is often a low speaking, yet only in 
 part. When language fails him, he first considers well. 
 An example : The child finds it very difficult to turn 
 crosswise or lengthwise one of the nine-pins which he 
 wants to put into its box, and when I say, " Round the 
 other way ! " he turns it around in such a way that it 
 comes to lie as it did at the beginning, wrongly. He 
 also pushes the broad side of the cover against the small 
 end of the box. The child evidently understands the 
 expression " Round the other way " ; but as the expres- 
 sion is ambiguous (the head of the nine-pin may go to 
 
SPEECH IN THE FIRST THREE YEARS. 175 
 
 the left, to tlie right, up, down, back, forward), we can 
 understand that the pin should be turned now one way 
 and again another way, and even brought back to its 
 original position. Then appears the child's own delib- 
 eration without words — without any speaking at all, low 
 or loud — until after frequently repeated packing and 
 unpacking hardly any hesitation is shown. Many ut- 
 terances show how easily at this period objects that 
 have only a slight resemblance to one another or only a 
 few qualities in common are included in one concept. 
 When a roasted apple is peeled, the child sees the peel 
 and says (thinking of his boiled milk, which he saw sev- 
 eral hours previous, but which is not now present), 
 Milch audi Haut (milk skin too). Similar is the ex- 
 pression Kirche lauiet (church rings) when the tower- 
 clock strikes. 
 
 The child forms concepts which comprehend a few 
 qualities in unity, and indeed without designating the 
 concept always by a particular word, whereas the de- 
 veloped understanding more and more forms concepts 
 with many qualities and designates them by words. 
 Hence the concepts of the child have less content and 
 more extent than those of adults. For this reason they 
 are less distinct also, and are often ephemeral, since 
 they break up into narrower, more distinct concepts ; but 
 they always testify to activity of thought. 
 
 A greater intellectual advance, however, is mani- 
 fested at this time in the first intentional use of lan- 
 guage in order to bring on a game of hide-and-seek. A 
 key falls to the floor. The child picks it up quickly, 
 holds it behind him, and to my question, " Where is the 
 key % " answers nicht rnehr da (no longer there). As 
 
176 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 I found in the following months no falsehood, in the 
 proper sense of the word, to record, but rather that the 
 least error, the most trivial exaggeration, was corrected 
 at once by the child himself, with peculiarly naive seri- 
 ousness, in a little story, with pauses between the sepa- 
 rate words, so, too, in the present case the answer nicht 
 mehr da is no falsehood, but is to be understood as 
 meaning that the key is no longer to be seen. The ex- 
 pression of the face was roguish at the time. 
 
 The sole interrogative wwd continues still to be 
 " Where 1 " e. g., Where is hall f The demonstratives 
 da (there) and dort (yonder) (dort ist nass — wet) were 
 more frequently spoken correctly in answer. 
 
 The ".I " in place of his own name does not yet ap- 
 pear, because this word does not occur frequently 
 enough in conversation with the child. The bad cus- 
 tom adults have of designating themselves in their talk 
 with little children, not as in ordinary conversation by 
 the word " I," but by the proper name, or as " aunt," 
 " grandma," etc., postpones the time of saying " I" on 
 the part of children. Me is pretty often used at this 
 period, for the reason that it is frequently heard at meal- 
 times in " Give me ! " 
 
 Bitte, Hebe Mama, gib mirmekr Svqype (Please, dear 
 mamma, give me more soup) is, to be sure, learned by 
 heart; but such sentences are at the proper time and 
 in the proper place modified and even independently 
 applied. Noch mehr, immer nock mehr, vielleicht, fast 
 (more, more yet, perhaps, almost), are also expressions 
 often properly employed, the last two, however, with 
 uncertainty still. Fast gef alien (almost fell) the child 
 says when he has actually fallen down. 
 
SPEECH IN THE FIRST THREE YEARS. Iff 
 
 Although, declension and conjugation are as jet ab- 
 solutely lacking, a transition has become established 
 from the worst form of djsgrammatism to the begin- 
 ning of correct diction by means of the more frequent 
 use of the plural in nouns {Bad, Udder), the more fre- 
 quent employment of the article {for de Papa), the not 
 very rare strong inflection {gegangen instead of the ear- 
 lier gegeht ; genommen instead of the earlier genehmt). 
 To be sure, the infinitive still stands in the place of the 
 participle and the imperative in by far the great majori- 
 ty of cases. The auxiliaries are often omitted or em- 
 ployed in strange misformations, e. g., "Where have 
 you been ? 55 Answer, jpaziren gewarent [something like 
 they wented 'allc] (wir waren spazieren, spazieren ge- 
 wesen). 
 
 In articulation no perceptible progress is to be re- 
 corded. The objects known from the picture-book are 
 indeed for the most part rightly named, but new 
 ones often have their names very much distorted — 
 e. g., "Yioline" is persistently called wilo'ine. The 
 "sch" is occasionally given correctly, but s-trilmpfe, 
 auf-s-tehen is the rule. The answer that has been 
 learned to the question, "How old are you?" "Seit 
 November zwei Jahre," is given wember waijahr. The 
 way in which the child learns the correct pronunciation 
 is in general twofold : 1. Through frequent hearing of 
 the correct words, since no one speaks as he himself does ; 
 thus, e. g., genommen took the place of genehmt without 
 instruction. 2. Through having the words frequently 
 pronounced on purpose for him to imitate with the ut- 
 most attention. Thus, e. g., the child up to this time 
 always said Locotiwe and Zocojiotiwe. I exhorted him 
 
178 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 a few times earnestly to say " Locomotive." The result 
 was Loco-loco-loco-mo-tiwe, and then Zocomotiwe, with 
 exact copying of the accent with which I spoke. Sing- 
 ing also is imitated. 
 
 His memory for words that denote objects is very 
 good ; but when expressions designating something not 
 very apparent to the senses are to be learned, he easily 
 fails. Thus, the left and the right foot or arm, the left 
 and the right cheek or hand, are very often correctly 
 named, but often falsely. The difference between left 
 and right can not be exactly described, explained, or 
 made imaginable to the child. 
 
 In the thirty-first month two new questions make 
 their appearance : The child asks, Welches Papier 
 nehmen f (What paper take ?) after he has obtained 
 permission to make marks with the pencil, i. e., to 
 raiben (write and draw), and Was Tcost die Trommel f 
 (What does the drum cost ?) 
 
 ISTow the indefinite article appears oftener ; it is dis- 
 tinctly audible in Halt n biss-chen Wasser ! More sur- 
 prising are individual new formations, which disappear, 
 however, soon after their rise ; thus, the comparative of 
 " hoch." The child says with perfect distinctness hocher 
 bauen (build higher) in playing with wooden blocks ; he 
 thus forms of himself the most natural comparative, like 
 the participle gegebt for " gegeben." In place of " Uhr- 
 schlussel " (watch-key) he says Slussl- TJhr (key-watch), 
 thus placing the principal thing first. 
 
 He makes use of the strange expression heitgestern 
 in place of " hente " (to-day), and in place of " gestern " 
 (yesterday). The two latter taken singly are confounded 
 with each other for a long time yet. 
 
SPEECH IN THE FIRST THREE YEARS. 179 
 
 Sentence-forming is still very imperfect: is .smoke 
 means "that is smoke" and "there is smoke"; and 
 kommt Locomotiwe stands for " da kommt eine oder die 
 Locomotive " (There comes a, or the, engine). At sight 
 of the bath-tub, however, the child says six times in 
 quick succession Da kommt kalt Wasser rein, Marie 
 (Cold water is to go in here, Mary). He frequently 
 makes remarks on matters of fact, e. g., warm out there. 
 If he has broken a flower-pot, a bandbox, a glass, he says 
 regularly, of his own accord, Frederick glue again, and 
 he reports faithfully every little fault to his parents. 
 But when a plaything or an object interesting to him 
 vexes him, he says, peevishly, stupid thing, e. g., to the 
 carpet, which he can not lift ; and he does not linger 
 long over one play. His occupation must be changed 
 very often. 
 
 The imitations are now again becoming less frequent 
 than in the past months, and expressions not understood 
 are repeated rather for the amusement of the family 
 than unconsciously; thus, Aeh Gott (Oh God!) and 
 wirklich grossartig (truly grand). Yet the child some- 
 times sings in his sleep, several seconds at a time, evi- 
 dently dreaming. 
 
 The pronunciation of the " sch," even in the favorite 
 succession of words, Games Batalljohn marss (for 
 " marsch ") eins, zwei, is imperfect, and although no per- 
 son of those about him pronounces the " st " in " Stall, 
 stehen " otherwise than as " scht," the child keeps per- 
 sistently to 8-tall, s-tehen. The pronunciation " scht " 
 began in the last six months of the fourth year of his 
 life, and in the forty-sixth month it completely crowded 
 out the " st," which seems the more remarkable as the 
 
180 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 child was taken care of by a Mecklenburg woman from 
 the beginning of the f onrth year. 
 
 In the thirty-second month the " I " began to dis- 
 place his own name. Mir {gib mir) and mich (bitte heb 
 mich herauf, please lift me up) had already appeared in 
 the twenty-ninth to the thirty-first month ; ich homme 
 gleich, Geld mocht ich haben (I am coming directly, I 
 should like money), are new acquirements. If he is 
 asked " Who is If " the answer is, der Axel. But he still 
 speaks in the third person frequently; e. g., the child 
 says, speaking of himself, da ist er wieder (here he is 
 again), Axel auch haben (Axel have, too), and mag-e 
 nicht, thus designating himself at this period in fourfold 
 fashion, by i", he, Axel, and by the omission of all pro- 
 nouns and names. Although bitte setz mich auf den 
 Stuhl (Please put me on the chair) is learned from hear- 
 ing it said for him, yet the correct application of the 
 sentence, which he makes of himself daily from this 
 time on, must be regarded as an important advance. 
 The same is true of the forming of clauses, which is 
 now beginning to take place, as in Weiss nicht, wo es 
 ist (Don't know where it is). New also is the separa- 
 tion of the particle in compound verbs, as in fdllt im- 
 mer um (keeps tumbling over). 
 
 Longer and longer names and sentences are spoken 
 with perfect distinctness, but the influence of the dialect 
 of the neighborhood is occasionally perceptible. His 
 nurse is the one who talks most with him. She is from 
 the Schwarzwald, and from her comes the omission of 
 the " n " at the end of words, as in Kdnnche, troche. 
 Besides, the confounding of the surd, " p," with the 
 sonant, " b " (plotter), is so frequent that it may well be 
 
SPEECH IN THE FIRST THREE YEARS. 181 
 
 taken from the Tlmringian dialect, like the confound- 
 ing of " en " and " ei " (heit). The only German 
 sounds that still present great difficulties are " sch " and 
 " chts " (in " nichts "). 
 
 The memory of the child has indeed improved, but 
 it has become somewhat fastidious. Only that which 
 seems interesting and intelligible to the child impresses 
 itself permanently ; on the other hand, nseless and un- 
 intelligible verses learned by rote, that persons have 
 taught him, though seldom, for fun, are forgotten after 
 a few days. 
 
 In the thirty -third month the strength of memory 
 already mentioned for certain experiences shows it- 
 self in many characteristic remarks. Thus the child, 
 again absent from home with his parents for some 
 weeks, says almost every evening, gleich olasen die 
 Soldaten (the soldiers, i. e., the band, will play directly), 
 although no soldier is to be seen in the country far and 
 wide. But at home the music was actually to be heard 
 every evening. 
 
 At sight of a cock in his picture-book the child says, 
 slowly, Das ist der Hahn — Icommt immer — das game 
 Stuck fortnehmt — von der Hand— -tend lauft fort 
 (" That is the cock — keeps coming — takes away the 
 whole piece — out of the hand — and runs off "). This 
 narrative — the longest yet given, by the way — has ref- 
 erence to the feeding of the fowls, on which occasion 
 the cock had really carried off a piece of bread. The 
 doings of animals in general excited the attention of 
 the child greatly. He is capable even of forgetting 
 to eat, in order to observe assiduously the movements 
 
 of a fly. Jetzt geht in die Zeitung — geht in die Milch ! 
 15 
 
182 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 Fort Thier ! Geh fort ! Unier den Kaffee ! (Now 
 he is going into the newspaper — going into the milk ! 
 Away, creature ! go away ! into the coffee !) His 
 interest is very keen for other moving objects also, 
 particularly locomotives. 
 
 How little clearness there is in his conceptions of 
 animal and machine, however, appears from the fact 
 that both are addressed in the same way. When his 
 father's brother comes, the child says, turning to his 
 father, neuer (new) Papa / he has not, therefore, the 
 slightest idea of that which the word " father " signifies. 
 Naturally he can have none. Yet selfhood (Ichheit) has 
 come forth at this period in considerably sharper mani- 
 festation. He cries, Das Ding haben ! das will ich, 
 das will ich, das will ich, das Spiel mocht ich haben ! 
 (Have the thing ! I want it, I should like the game.) 
 To be sure, when one says " komm, ich knopfs dir zu " 
 (come, I will button it for you), the child comes, and 
 says, as an echo, ich hwpfs dir zu (I will button it for 
 you), evidently meaning, " Button it for me " ! He 
 also confounds 2U viel (too much) with zu wenig (too 
 little), nie (never) with immer (always), heute (to-day) 
 with gestem (yesterday) ; on the contrary, the words 
 und, sondern, noch, mehr, nur, Ms, wo (and, but, still, 
 more, only, till, where) are always used correctly. The 
 most striking mistakes are those of conjugation, which 
 is still quite erroneous (e. g., getrinht and getrunkt along 
 with getrunlcen), and of articulation, the " sch " (dsen 
 for " schon ") being only seldom pure, mostly given as 
 " s " or " to." " Toast " is called Toos and Dose. 
 
 After the first thousand days of his life had passed, 
 the observation of him was continued daily, but not the 
 
SPEECH IN THE FIRST THREE YEARS. 183 
 
 record in writing. Some particulars belonging to the 
 following months may be noted : 
 
 Many expressions accidentally heard by the child 
 that excited the merriment of the family when once 
 repeated by him, were rehearsed times without num- 
 ber in a laughing, roguish, obtrusive manner, thus, 
 du Hebe Zeit. The child also calls out the name of his 
 nurse, Marie, often without meaning, over and over 
 again, even in the night. He calls others also by this 
 name in manifest distraction of mind, often making the 
 correction himself when he perceives the mistake. 
 
 More and more seldom does the child speak of him- 
 self in the third person, and then he calls himself by 
 his name, never saying "he" any more. Usually he 
 speaks of himself as " I," especially " I will, I will have 
 that, I can not." Gradually, too, he uses Du in ad- 
 dress, e. g., Was fur hubsen Booh hast Du (What a 
 handsome coat you have) ! Here the manner of using 
 the " Was " is also new. 
 
 On the ten hundred and twenty-eighth day warum 
 (why?) was first used in a question. I was watching 
 with the closest attention for the first appearance of 
 this word. The sentence ran, Warum nach Hause 
 gehen f ich will nicht nach Hause (Why go home ? I 
 don't want to go home). When a wheel creaked on 
 the carriage, the child asked, Was macht nur so (What 
 makes that) \ Both questions show that at last the in- 
 stinct of causality, which manifested itself more than a 
 year before in a kind of activity of inquiry, in experi- 
 menting, and even earlier (in the twelfth week) in giv- 
 ing attention to things, is expressed in language / but 
 the questioning is often repeated in a senseless way till 
 
134 THE MIND OE THE CHILD. 
 
 it readies the point of weariness. Warum wird das Holz 
 gesnittenf (for "gesagt" — Why is the wood sawed?) 
 Warum mackt der Fredrick die \Blumen\ To_pfe rein f 
 ("Why does Frederick clean the flower-pots ?) are exam- 
 ples of childish questions, which when they receive an 
 answer, and indeed whatever answer, are followed by 
 fresh questions just as idle (from the standpoint of 
 adults) ; but they testify plainly to a far-reaching inde- 
 pendent activity of thought. So with the frequent 
 question, ~Wie macht man das nur f (How is that done ?) 
 
 It is to be said, further, that I found the endeavor 
 impracticable to ascertain the order of succession in 
 which the child uses the different interrogative words. 
 It depends wholly on the company about him at what 
 time first this or that turn of expression or question is 
 repeated arid then used independently. " Why " is 
 heard by him, as a rule, less often than " What ? " and 
 "How?" and "Which?" Still, it seems remarkable 
 that I did not once hear the child say " When ? " until 
 the close of the third year. The sense of space is, to 
 be sure, but little developed at that time, but the sense 
 of time still less. The use of the word "forgotten" 
 (ich hale vergessen) and of " I shall " (do this or that) 
 is exceedingly rare. 
 
 The articulation was speedily perfected ; yet there 
 was no success at all in the repetition of French nasal 
 sounds. In spite of much pains "salon" remained 
 solo, "orange" orose ; and the French "je" also pre- 
 sented insuperable difficulties. Of German sounds, 
 "sch" alone was seldom correct. It was still repre- 
 sented by s / for example, in sloss for " Schloss," ssooss 
 for " Schooss." 
 
SPEECH IN THE FIRST THREE YEARS. 185 
 
 His fondness for singing increases, and indeed all 
 sorts of meaningless syllables are repeated with pleasure 
 again and again, much as in the period of infancy, only 
 more distinctly ; but, just as at that time, they can not 
 all be represented on paper or even be correctly repro- 
 duced by adults. For a considerable time he was fend 
 of e-la, e-la, la, la, la, la, in higher and higher pitch, 
 and with unequal intervals, lalla-ldlla, lilalula. In 
 this it was certainly more the joy over the increasing 
 compass and power of his voice that stimulated him to 
 repetition than it w T as the sound of the syllables ; yet in 
 the thirty-sixth month he showed great pleasure in his 
 singing, of which peculiar, though not very pleasing, 
 melodies were characteristic. The singing over of songs 
 sung to him was but very imperfectly successful. On 
 the other hand, the copying of the manner of speaking, 
 of accent, cadence, and ring of the voices of adults was 
 surprising, although echolalia proper almost ceased or 
 appeared again only from time to time. 
 
 Grammatical errors are already becoming more rare. 
 A stubborn fault in declension is the putting of am in 
 place of dem and der, e. g., das am Mama geben. Long 
 sentences are formed correctly, but slowly and with 
 pauses, without errors, e. g., die Blume — ist gam dur- 
 stig — mocht auch n bischen Wasser haben (The flower 
 is quite thirsty — would like a little water). If I ask 
 now, " From whom have you learned that ? " the answer 
 comes regularly, das hob ich alleine gelernt (I learned 
 it alone). In general the child wants to manage for 
 himself without assistance, to pull, push, mount, climb, 
 water flowers, crying out repeatedly and passionately, 
 ich mocht gam alleine (I want to [do it] all alone). In 
 
186 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 spite of this independence and these ambitious inclina- 
 tions, there seldom appears an invention of his own in 
 language. Here belongs, e. g., the remark of the child, 
 das Bett ist zu holzhart (the bed is too wooden-hard), 
 after having hit himself against the bed-post. Further, 
 to the question, "Do you like to sleep in the large 
 room \ " he answered, ja ganz lieberich gem • and 
 when I asked, " Who, pray, speaks so ? " the answer 
 came very slowly, with deliberation and with pauses, 
 nicht-nicht-nicht-nicht-nicht-niemand (not — nobody). 
 
 How far advanced is the use of the participles, 
 which are hard to master, is shown by the sentence, die 
 Milch ist schon keiss gemacht worden (the milk has al- 
 ready been made hot). 
 
 The child's manner of speaking when he was three 
 years old approximated more and more rapidly to that 
 of the family through continued listening to them and 
 imitation of them, so that I gave up recording it ; be- 
 sides, the abundant — some may think too abundant — 
 material already presented supplies facts enough to sup- 
 port the foundations of the history of the development 
 of speech in the child as I have attempted to set it 
 forth. A systematic, thorough-going investigation re- 
 quires the combined labor of many, who must all strive 
 to answer the same questions — questions which in this 
 chronological survey are, in regard to one single indi- 
 vidual, in part answered, but in part could merely be 
 proposed. 
 
 To observe the child every day during the first thou- 
 sand days of his life, in order to trace the historical de- 
 velopment of speech, was possible only through self- 
 control, much patience, and great expenditure of time ; 
 
SPEECH IN THE FIRST THREE YEARS. 187 
 
 but such observations are necessary, from the physio- 
 logical, the psychological, the linguistic, and the peda- 
 gogic point of view, and nothing can supply their 
 place. 
 
 In order to secure for them the highest degree of 
 trustworthiness, I have adhered strictly, without excep- 
 tion, to the following rules : 
 
 1. I have not adopted a single observation of the 
 accuracy of which I was not myself 'most positively con- 
 vinced. Least of all can one rely on the reports of 
 nurses, attendants, and other persons not practiced in 
 scientific observing. I have often, merely by a brief, 
 quiet cross-examination, brought such persons to see for 
 themselves the erroneous character of their statements, 
 particularly in case these were made in order to prove 
 how "knowing" the infants were. - On the other hand, 
 I owe to the mother of my child, who has by nature a 
 talent for observation such as is given to few, a great 
 many communications concerning his mental develop- 
 ment which have been easily verified by myself. 
 
 2. Every observation must immediately be entered 
 in writing in a diary that is always lying ready. If this 
 is not done, details of the observations are often forgot- 
 ten ; a thing easily conceivable, because these details in 
 themselves are in many ways uninteresting — especially 
 the meaningless articulations — and they acquire value 
 only in connection with others. 
 
 3. In conducting . the observations every artificial 
 strain upon the child is to be avoided, and the effort is 
 to be made as often as possible to observe without the 
 child's noticing the observer at all. 
 
 4. All training of the one-year-old and of the two- 
 
188 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 year-old child must be, so far as possible, prevented. I 
 have in this respect been so far successful that my child 
 was not until late acquainted with such tricks as children 
 are taught, and was not vexed with the learning by 
 heart of songs, etc., which he was not capable of under- 
 standing. Still, as the record shows, not all unnecessary 
 training could be avoided. The earlier a little child is 
 constrained to perform ceremonious and other conven- 
 tional actions, the meaning of which is unknown to him, 
 so much the earlier does he lose the poetic naturalness 
 which, at any rate, is but brief and never comes again ; 
 and so much the more difficult becomes the observation 
 of his unadulterated mental development. 
 
 5. Every interruption of one's observation for more 
 than a day demands the substitution of another observer, 
 and, after taking up the work again, a verification of 
 what has been perceived and noted down in the interval. 
 
 6. Three times, at least, every day the same child is 
 to be observed, and everything incidentally noticed is 
 to be put upon paper, no less than that which is me- 
 thodically ascertained with reference to definite ques- 
 tions. 
 
 In accordance with these directions, tested by my- 
 self, all my own observations in this book, and particu- 
 larly those of this chapter, were conducted. Comparison 
 with the statements of others can alone give them a 
 general importance. 
 
 "What has been furnished by earlier observers in re- 
 gard to children's learning to speak is, however, not 
 extensive. I have collected some data in an appendix. 
 
DEVELOPMENT OF THE FEELING OF SELF. 189 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE FEELING OF SELF, THE 
 " I "-FEELING. 
 
 Befoee the child is in a condition to recognize as 
 belonging to him the parts of his body that he can feel 
 and see, he must have had a great number of experi- 
 ences, which are for the most part associated with pain- 
 ful feelings. How little is gained for the development 
 of the notion of the " I " by means of the first move- 
 ments of the hands, which the infant early carries to the 
 mouth, and which must give him, when he sucks them, 
 a different feeling from that given by sucking the finger 
 of another person, or other suitable objects, appears 
 from the fact that, e. g., my child for months tugged at 
 his fingers as if he wanted to pull them off, and struck 
 his own head with his hand by way of experiment. At 
 the close of the first year he had a fancy for striking 
 hard substances against his teeth, and made a regular 
 play of gnashing the teeth. When on the four hundred 
 and ninth day he stood up straight in bed, holding on 
 to the railing of it with his hands, he hit himself on his 
 hare arm, and that the upper arm, so that he immedi- 
 ately cried out with pain. The marks of the incisors 
 were to be seen long afterward. The child did not a 
 second time bite himself in the arm, but only bit his 
 fingers, and inadvertently his tongue. 
 
 The same child, who likes to hold a biscuit to the 
 mouth of any member of the family to whom he is 
 favorably disposed, offered the biscuit in the same way, 
 entirely of his own accord, to his own foot — sitting on 
 
190 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 the floor, holding the biscuit in a waiting attitude to his 
 toes — and this strange freak was repeated many times in 
 the twenty-third month. The child amused himself 
 with it. 
 
 Thus, at a time when the attention to what is around 
 is already very far developed, one's own person may not 
 be distinguished from the environment. Yierordt thinks 
 that a discrimination between the general feelings [i. e., 
 those caused by bodily states] and the sensations that 
 pertain to the external world exists in the third month. 
 From my observations I can not agree with him ; for, al- 
 though the division may begin thus early, yet it does not 
 become complete until much later. In the ninth month 
 the feet are still eagerly felt of by the little hands, though 
 not so eagerly as before, and the toes are carried to the 
 mouth like a new plaything. Nay, even in the nine- 
 teenth month it is not yet clear how much belongs to 
 one's own body. The child had lost a shoe. I said, 
 " Give the shoe." He stooped, seized it, and gave it to 
 me. Then, when I said to the child, as he was standing 
 upright on the floor, " Give the foot," in the expectation 
 that he would hold it out, stretch it toward me, he 
 grasped at it with both hands, and labored hard to get 
 it and hand it to me. 
 
 How little he understands, even after the first year 
 of his life has passed, the difference between the parts of 
 his own body and foreign objects is shown also in some 
 strange experiments that the child conducted quite in- 
 dependently. He sits by me at the table and strikes 
 very often and rapidly with his hands successive blows 
 upon the table, at first gently, then hard ; then, with 
 the right hand alone, hard ; next, suddenly strikes him- 
 
DEVELOPMENT OF THE FEELING OF SELF. 191 
 
 self with the same hand on the mouth ; then he holds 
 his hand to bis month for a while, strikes the table again 
 with the right hand, and then on a sudden strikes his 
 own head (above the ear). The whole performance gave 
 exactly the impression of Lis having for the first time 
 noticed that it is one thing to strike oneself, one's 
 own hard head, and another thing to strike a foreign 
 hard object (forty-first week). Even in the thirteenth 
 month the child often raps his head with his hand to 
 try the effect, and seems surprised at the hardness of 
 the head. Jn the sixteenth month he used not unfre- 
 quently to set the left thumb against the left side of the 
 head, and at the same time the right thumb against the 
 right side of the head, above the ears, with the fingers 
 spread, and to push at the same time, putting on a strange, 
 wondering expression of face, with wide-open eyes. 
 This movement is not imitated and not inherited, but 
 invented. The child is doubtless making experiments 
 by means of it upon the holding of the head, head- 
 shaking, resistance of his own body, perhaps also upon 
 the management of the head, as at every thump of the 
 thumbs against the temporal bones a dull sound was 
 heard. The objectivity of the fingers was found out 
 not much before this time by involuntary, painful biting 
 of them, for as late as the fifteenth month the child bit 
 his finger so that he cried out with pain. Pain is the 
 most efficient teacher in the learning of the difference 
 between subjective and objective. 
 
 Another important factor is the perception of a 
 change produced oy one's own activity in all sorts of 
 familiar objects that can be taken hold of in the neigh- 
 borhood ; and the most remarkable day, from a psycho- 
 
192 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 genetic point of view, in any case an extremely signifi- 
 cant day in the life of the infant, is the one in which he 
 first experiences the connection of a movement executed 
 by himself 'with a sense-impression following upon it. 
 The noise that conies from the tearing and crumpling 
 of paper is as yet unknown to the child. He discovers 
 (in the fifth month) the fact that he himself in tearing 
 paper into smaller and smaller pieces has again and 
 again the new sound-sensation, and he repeats the ex- 
 periment day by day and with a strain of exertion until 
 this connection has lost the charm of novelty. At pres- 
 ent there is not, indeed, as yet any clear insight into the 
 nexus of cause; hut the child has now had the experi- 
 ence that he can himself be the cause of a combined 
 perception of sight and sound regularly, to the extent that 
 when he tears paper there appears, on the one hand, the 
 lessening in size ; on the other hand, the noise. The pa- 
 tience with which this occupation — from the forty-fifth 
 to the fifty-fifth week especially — is continued with pleas- 
 ure is explained by the gratification at being a cause, at 
 the perception that so striking a transformation as that 
 of the newspaper into fragments has been effected by 
 means of his own activity. Other occupations of this 
 sort, which are taken up again and again with a persist- 
 ency incomprehensible to an adult, are the shaking of a 
 bunch of keys, the opening and closing of a box or 
 purse (thirteenth month) ; the pulling out and empty- 
 ing, and then the filling and pushing in, of a table- 
 drawer ; the heaping up and the strewing about of gar- 
 den-mold or gravel ; the turning of the leaves of a book 
 (thirteenth to nineteenth month) ; digging and scraping 
 in the sand ; the carrying of footstools hither and thither ; 
 
DEVELOPMENT OF THE FEELING OF SELF. 193 
 
 the placing of shells, stones, or buttons in rows (twenty- 
 first month); pouring water into and out of bottles, 
 cups, watering-pots (thirty-first to thirty-third months) ; 
 and, in the case of my boy, the throwing of stones into 
 the water. A little girl in the eleventh month found her 
 chief pleasure in " rummaging " with trifles in drawers 
 and little boxes. Her sister " played " with all sorts of 
 things, taking an interest in dolls and pictures in the 
 tenth month (Fran, von Striimpell). Here, too, the ea- 
 gerness and seriousness with which such apparently aim- 
 less movements are performed is remarkable. The sat- 
 isfaction they afford must be very great, and it probably 
 has its basis in the feeling of his own power generated 
 by the movements originated by the child himself 
 (changes of place, of position, of form) and in the proud 
 feeling of being a cause. 
 
 This is not mere playing, although it is so called ; 
 it is experimenting. The child that at first merely 
 played like a cat, being amused with color, form, and 
 movement, has become a causative being. Herewith 
 the development of the "1" -feeling enters upon a new 
 phase ; but it is not yet perfected. Vanity and ambi- 
 tion come in for the further development of it. Above 
 all, it is attention to the parts of his own oody and the 
 articles of his dress, the nearest of all objects to the 
 child's eye, that helps along the separation in thought 
 of the child's body from all other objects. 
 
 I therefore made special observation of the directing 
 of his look toward his own body and toward the mir- 
 ror. In regard to the first I took note, among other 
 facts, of the following : 
 
 17th week. — In the seizing movements, as yet im- 
 
194 THE MIND OF TIIE CHILD. 
 
 perfect, the gaze is fixed partly on the object, partly on 
 his own hand, especially if the hand has once seized 
 successfully. 
 
 18th week. — The very attentive regarding of the 
 fingers in seizing is surprising, and is to be observed 
 daily. 
 
 23d week. — "When the infant, who often throws his 
 hands about at random in the air, accidentally gets hold 
 of one hand with the other, he regards attentively both 
 his hands, which are often by chance folded. 
 
 ftlfth week. — In the same way the child fixes his 
 gaze for several minutes alternately upon a glove held 
 by himself in his hands and upon his own fingers that 
 hold it. 
 
 32d week. — The child, lying on his back, looks very 
 frequently at his legs stretched up vertically, especially 
 at his feet, as if they were something foreign to him. 
 
 35th week. — In every situation in which he can do 
 so, the child tries to grasp a foot with both hands and 
 carry it to his mouth, often with success. This monkey- 
 like movement seems to afford him special pleasure. 
 
 36th week. — His own hands and feet are no more 
 so frequently observed by him without special occasion. 
 Other new objects attract his gaze and are seized. 
 
 39th week. — The same as before. In the bath, how- 
 ever, the child sometimes looks at and feels of his own 
 skin in various places, evidently taking pleasure in do- 
 ing so. Sometimes he directs his gaze to his legs, which 
 are bent and extended in a very lively manner in the 
 most manifold variety of positions. 
 
 55th week. — The child looks for a long time atten- 
 tively at a person eating, and follows with his gaze every 
 
DEVELOPMENT OF TIIE FEELING OF SELF. 195 
 
 movement ; grasps at the person's face, and then, after 
 striking himself on the head, fixes his gaze on his own 
 hands. He is fond of playing with the fingers of the 
 persons in the family, and delights in the bendings and 
 extensions, evidently comparing them with those of his 
 own fingers. 
 
 6 2d week. — Playing with his own fingers (at which 
 he looks with a protracted gaze) as if he would pnll 
 them off. Again, one hand is pressed down by the 
 other flat upon the table until it hurts, as if the hand 
 were a wholly foreign plaything, and it is still looked 
 at wonderingly sometimes. 
 
 From this time forth the gazing at the parts of his 
 own body was perceptibly lessened. The child knew 
 them as to their form, and gradually learned to distin- 
 guish them from foreign objects as parts belonging to 
 him ; but in this he by no means arrives at the point of 
 considering, " The hand is mine, the thing seized is 
 not," or " The leg belongs to me," and the like ; but 
 because all the visible parts of the child's body, on ac- 
 count of very frequently repeated observation, no longer 
 excite the optic center so strongly and therefore appear 
 no longer interesting — because the experiences of touch 
 combined with visual perceptions always recur in the 
 same manner — the child has gradually become accus- 
 tomed to them and overlooks them when making use of 
 his hands and feet. He no longer represents them to 
 himself separately, as he did before, whereas every new 
 object felt, seen, or heard, is very interesting to him and 
 is separately represented in idea. Thus arises the defi- 
 nite separation of object and subject in the child's 
 intellect. In the beginning the child is new to him- 
 
196 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 self, namely, to the representational apparatus that gets 
 its development only after birth. ; later, after he has be- 
 come acquainted with himself, after he, namely, his 
 body, has lost the charm of novelty for him, i. e., for 
 the representational apparatus in his brain, a dim feel- 
 ing of the " I " exists, and by means of further abstrac- 
 tion the concept of the " I " is formed. 
 
 The progress of the intellect in the act of looking 
 into the mirror confirms this conclusion drawn from 
 the above observations. 
 
 For the behavior of the child toward his image in 
 the glass shows unmistakably the gradual growth of the 
 consciousness of self out of a condition in which objec- 
 tive and subjective changes are not yet distinguished 
 from each other. 
 
 Among the subjective changes is, without doubt, the 
 smiling at the image in the tenth week, which was prob- 
 ably occasioned merely by the brightness (Sigismund). 
 Another boy in the twenty-seventh week looked at him- 
 self in the glass with a smile (Sigismund). 
 
 Darwin recorded of one of his sons, that in the fifth 
 month he repeatedly smiled at his father's image and 
 his own in a mirror and took them for real objects ; but 
 he was surprised that his father's voice sounded from 
 behind him (the child). " Like all infants, he much en- 
 joyed thus looking at himself, and in less than two 
 months perfectly understood that it was an image, for 
 if I made quite silently any odd grimace, he would sud- 
 denly turn round to look at me. He was, however, 
 puzzled at the age of seven months, when, being out of 
 doors, he saw me on the inside of a large plate-glass 
 window, and seemed in doubt whether or not it was an 
 
DEVELOPMENT OF THE FEELING OF SELF. 197 
 
 image. Another of my infants, a little girl, was not 
 nearly so acute, and seemed quite perplexed at the image 
 of a person in a mirror approaching her from behind. 
 The higher apes which I tried with a small looking- 
 glass behaved differently. They placed their hands be- 
 hind the glass, and in doing so showed their sense ; but, 
 far from taking pleasure in looking at themselves, they 
 got angry and would look no more. 5 ' The first-men- 
 tioned child, at the age of not quite nine months, asso- 
 ciated his own name with his image in the looking- 
 glass, and when called by name would turn toward the 
 glass even when at some distance from it. He gave to 
 " Ah ! " which he used at first when recognizing any per- 
 son or his own image in a mirror, an exclamatory sound 
 such as adults employ when surprised. Thus Darwin 
 reports. 
 
 My boy gave me occasion for the following obser- 
 vations : 
 
 In the eleventh week he does not see himself in the 
 glass. If I knock on the glass, he turns his head in the 
 direction of the sound. His image does not, however, 
 make the slightest impression upon him. 
 
 In the fourteenth and fifteenth weeks he looks at 
 his image with utter indifference. His gaze is directed 
 to the eyes in the image without any expression of pleas- 
 ure or displeasure. 
 
 In the sixteenth week the reflected image is still 
 either ignored or looked at without interest. 
 
 Near the beginning of the seventeenth week (on the 
 
 one hundred and thirteenth day) the child for the first 
 
 time regards his image in the glass with unmistakable 
 
 attention, and indeed with the same expression with 
 
 18 
 
198 THE MIXD 0F THE CHILD. 
 
 which he is accustomed to fix his gaze on a strange face 
 seen for the first time. The impression appears to awaken 
 neither displeasure nor pleasure ; the perception seems 
 now for the first time to be distinct. Three days later 
 the child for the first time undoubtedly laughed at his 
 image. 
 
 When, in the twenty-fourth week, I held the child 
 again before the glass, he saw my image, became very 
 attentive, and suddenly turned round toward me, mani- 
 festly convincing himself that I stood near him. 
 
 In the twenty -fifth week he for the first time 
 stretched out his hand toward his own image. He there- 
 fore regarded it as capable of being seized. 
 
 In the twenty -sixth week the child is delighted 
 at seeing me in the glass. He turns round toward 
 me, and evidently compares the original with the 
 image. 
 
 In the thirty-fifth week the child gayly and with in- 
 terest grasps at his image in the glass, and is surprised 
 when his hand comes against the smooth surface. 
 
 In the forty-first to the forty-fourth week, the same. 
 The reflected image is regularly greeted with a laugh, 
 and is then grasped at. 
 
 All these observations were made before a very large 
 stationary mirror. 
 
 In the fifty-seventh week, however, I held a small 
 hand-mirror close to the face of the child. He looked 
 at his image and then passed his hand behind the glass 
 and moved the hand hither and thither as if searching. 
 Then he took the mirror himself and looked at it and 
 felt of it on both sides. When after several minutes I 
 held the mirror before him again, precisely the same 
 
DEVELOPMENT OF TIIE FEELING OF SELF. 199 
 
 performance was repeated. It accords with what was 
 observed by Darwin in the case of anthropoid apes men- 
 tioned above (p. 197). 
 
 In the fifty-eighth week I showed to the child his 
 photograph, cabinet-size, in a frame under glass. He 
 first turned the picture round as he had turned the 
 hand-mirror. Although the photographic image was 
 much smaller than the reflected one, it seemed to be 
 equally esteemed. On the same day (four hundred and 
 second) I held the hand-mirror before the boy again, 
 pointing out to him his image in it ; but he at once 
 turned away obstinately (again like the intelligent ani- 
 mal). 
 
 Here the incomprehensible — in the . literal sense — 
 was disturbing. But very -soon came the insight which 
 is wanting to the quadrumana, for in the sixtieth week 
 the child saw his mother in the mirror, and to the ques- 
 tion, "Where is mamma?" he pointed to the image in 
 the mirror and then turned round, laughing, to his 
 mother. Now, as he had before this time behaved 
 roguishly, there is no doubt that at this time, after four- 
 teen months, original and image were distinguished with 
 certainty as such, especially as his own photograph no 
 longer excited wonder. 
 
 Nevertheless, the child, in the sixty-first week, is still 
 trying to feel of his own image in the glass, and he licks 
 the glass in which he sees it, and, in the sixty-sixth week, 
 also strikes against it with his hand. 
 
 In the following week for the first time I saw the 
 child make grimaces before the glass. He laughed as he 
 did it. I stood behind him and called him by name. 
 He turned around directly, although he saw me plainly 
 
200 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 in the glass. He evidently knew that the voice did not 
 come from the image. 
 
 In the sixty-ninth week signs of vanity are per- 
 ceived. The child looks at himself in the glass with 
 pleasure and often. If we put anything on his head 
 and say, " Pretty," his expression changes. He is grati- 
 fied in a strange and peculiar fashion ; his eyebrows are 
 raised, and the eyes are opened wide. 
 
 In the twenty-first month the child puts some lace 
 or embroidered stuff about him, lets it hang down from 
 his shoulders, looks round behind at the train, advanc- 
 ing, stopping, eagerly throwing it into fresh folds. 
 Here there is a mixture of apish imitation with vanity. 
 
 As the child had, moreover, even in the seventeenth 
 month, been fond of placing himself before the glass 
 and making all sorts of faces, the experiments with the 
 mirror were no longer continued. 
 
 They show the transition from the infant's condition 
 previous to the development of the ego, when he can 
 not yet see distinctly, to the condition of the developed 
 ego, who consciously distinguishes himself from his 
 image in the glass and from other persons and their 
 images. Yet for a long time after this step there ex- 
 ists a certain lack of clearness in regard to names. In 
 the twenty-first month the child laughs at his image 
 in the glass and points to it when I ask, "Where is 
 Axel ? " and at my image when asked, " Where is pa- 
 pa ? " But, being asked with emphasis, the child turns 
 round to me with a look of doubt. I once brought a 
 large mirror near the child's bed in the evening after 
 he had gone to sleep, so that he might perceive himself 
 directly upon waking. He saw his image immediately 
 
DEVELOPMENT OF THE FEELING OF SELF. 201 
 
 after waking, seemed very much surprised at it, gazed 
 fixedly at it, and when at last I asked, " Where is Axel ? " 
 he pointed not to himself but to the image (six hundred 
 and twentieth day). In the thirty-first month it still 
 afforded him great pleasure to gaze at his image in the 
 glass. The child would laugh at it persistently and 
 heartily. 
 
 Animals show great variety of behavior in this re- 
 spect, as is well known. A pair of Turkish ducks, that 
 I used to see every day for weeks, always kept them- 
 selves apart from other ducks. "When the female died, 
 the drake, to my surprise, betook himself by preference 
 to a cellar-window that was covered on the inside and 
 gave strong reflections, and he would stand with his 
 head before this for hours every day. He saw his image 
 there, and thought perhaps that it was his lost com- 
 panion. 
 
 A kitten before which I held a small mirror must 
 surely have taken the image for a second living cat, for 
 she went behind the glass and around it when it was 
 conveniently placed. 
 
 Many animals, on the contrary, are afraid of their 
 reflected image, and run away from it. 
 
 In like manner little children are sometimes fright- 
 ened by the discovery of their own shadows. My child 
 exhibited signs of fear at his shadow the first time he 
 saw it ; but in his fourth year he was pleased with it, 
 and to the question, "Where does the shadow come 
 from ? " he answered, to our surprise, " From the sun " 
 (fortieth month). 
 
 More important for the development of the child's 
 ego than are the observation of the shadow and of the 
 
202 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 image in the glass is the learning of speech, for it is not 
 until words are used that the higher concepts are first 
 marked- off from one another, and this is the case with 
 the concept of the ego. Yet the wide-spread view, that 
 the " I "-feeling first appears with the beginning of the 
 use of the word " I," is wholly incorrect. Many head- 
 strong children have a strongly marked "I "-feeling 
 without calling themselves by anything but their names, 
 because their relatives in speaking with them do not 
 call themselves " I," but " papa, mamma, uncle, mam- 
 ma," etc., so that the opportunity early to hear and to 
 appropriate the words " I " and " mine " is rare. Others 
 hear these words often, to be sure, especially from chil- 
 dren somewhat older, and use them, yet do not under- 
 stand them, but add to them their own names. Thus, 
 a girl of two and a half years, named Use, used to say, 
 Use mein Tuhl (Use, my chair), instead of "mem 
 Stuhl " (Bardeleben). My boy of two and three fourths 
 years repeated the " I " he heard, meaning by it " you." 
 In the twenty-ninth month mir (me) was indeed said 
 by him, but not " ich " (I), (p. 171). Soon, however, he 
 named himself no more, as he had done in the twenty- 
 third and even in the twenty-eighth month (pp. 147- 
 167), by his first name. In the thirty-third month es- 
 pecially came das will ich! das rnocht ich! (I wish 
 that, I should like that) (p. 183). The fourfold desig- 
 nation of his own person in the thirty-second month 
 (p. 180)— by his name, by "I," by "he," and by the 
 omission of all pronouns — was only a brief transition- 
 stage, as was also the misunderstanding of the " dein " 
 (your) which for a time (p. 156) meant "gross " (large). 
 These observations plainly show that the " I "-feel- 
 
DEVELOPMENT OF THE FEELING OF SELF. 203 
 
 ing is not first awakened by the learning of words, for 
 this feeling, according to the facts given above, is pres- 
 ent much earlier ; but by means of speech the concept- 
 ual distinction of the " I," the self, the mine, is first 
 made exact; the development, not the origin, of the 
 " I "-feeling is simply favored. 
 
 How obscure the " I "-concept is even after learning 
 the use of the personal pronouns is shown by the utter- 
 ance of the four-year-old daughter of Lindner, named 
 Olga, die hat mich nass gemacht (she has made me 
 wet), when she meant that she herself had done it ; and 
 du sollst mir dock folgen, Olga (but you must follow 
 me, Olga), the latter expression, indeed, being merely 
 said after some one else. In her is noteworthy, too, the 
 confounding of the possessives "his" and "her," e. g., 
 dem Pajpa ihr Buck auf der Mama semen Platz ge- 
 legt (her book, papa's, laid in his place, mamma's) (Lind- 
 ner) ; and yet in these forms of speech there is an ad- 
 vance in the differentiation of the concepts. 
 
 All children are known to be late in beginning to 
 speak about themselves, of what they wish to become, 
 or of that which they can do better than others can, 
 and the like. The ego has become an experience of 
 consciousness long before this. 
 
 All these progressive steps, which in the individual 
 can be traced only with great pains, form, as it were, 
 converging lines that culminate in the fully developed 
 feeling of the personality as exclusive, as distinct from 
 the outer world. 
 
 Thus much the purely physiological view can admit 
 without hesitation ; but a further unification or indivisi- 
 bility or unbroken permanence of the child's ego, it can 
 
204 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 not reconcile with the facts, perfectly well established 
 by me, that are presented in this chapter. 
 
 For what is the significance of the fact, that " to the 
 child his feet, hands, teeth, seem a plaything foreign to 
 himself"? and that "the child bit his own arm as he 
 was accustomed to bite objects with which he was not ac- 
 quainted " % " Seem " to what part of the child ? What 
 is that which bites in the child as in the very young 
 chick that seizes its own toe with its bill and bites it as 
 if it were the toe of its neighbor or a grain of millet ? 
 Evidently the " subject " in the head is a different one 
 from that in the trunk. The ego of the brain is other 
 than the ego of the spinal marrow (the "spinal-marrow- 
 soul" of Pfiuger). The one speaks, sees, hears, tastes, 
 smells, and feels ; the other merely feels, and at the be- 
 ginning, so long as brain and spinal marrow have only 
 a loose organic connection and no functional connection 
 at all with each other, the two egos are absolutely iso- 
 lated from each other. Newly-born children with no 
 brain, who lived for hours and days, as I myself saw in 
 a case of rare interest, could suck, cry, move the limbs, 
 and feel (for they stopped crying and took to sucking 
 when something they could suck was put into their 
 mouths when they were hungry). On the other hand, 
 if a human being could be born with a brain but with- 
 out a spinal marrow and could live, it would not be able 
 to move its limbs. When a normal babe, therefore, 
 plays with its feet or bites itself in the arm as it would 
 bite a biscuit, we have in this a proof that the brain 
 with its perceptive apparatus is independent of the 
 spinal marrow. And the fact that acephalic new-born 
 human beings and animal embryos deprived of brain, 
 
DEVELOPMENT OF THE FEELING OF SELF. 205 
 
 as Soltmann and I found, move their limbs just as sound 
 ones do, cry just as they do, suck and respond to re- 
 flexes, proves that the functions of the spinal marrow 
 (inclusive of the optic thalami, the corpora quadrigemina 
 and the cervical marrow) are independent of the cere- 
 bral hemispheres (together with the corpus striatum, 
 according to Soltmann). 
 
 Now, however, the brainless living child that sucks, 
 cries, moves arms and legs, and distinguishes pleasure 
 from displeasure, has indisputably an individuality, an 
 ego. We must, then, of necessity admit two egos in the 
 child that has both cerebrum and spinal marrow, and 
 that represents to himself his arm as good to taste of, as 
 something to like. But, if two, why not several ? At 
 the beginning, when the centers of sight, hearing, smell, 
 and taste, in the brain are still imperfectly developed, 
 each of these perceives for itself, the perceptions in the 
 different departments of sense having as yet no connec- 
 tion at all with one another. The case is like that of 
 the spinal marrow, which at first does not communicate, 
 or only very imperfectly communicates, to the brain 
 that which it feels, e. g., the effect of the prick of a 
 needle, for the newly born do not generally react upon 
 that. Only by means of very frequent coincidences of 
 unlike sense-impressions, in tasting-and-touching, seeing- 
 and- feeling, seeing - and - hearing, seeing - and - smelling, 
 tasting-and-smelling, hearing-and-touching, are the inter- 
 central connecting fibers developed, and then first can 
 the various representational centers, these " I "-makers, 
 as it were, contribute, as in the case of the ordinary for- 
 mation of concepts, to the formation of the corporate 
 " I," which is quite abstract. 
 
206 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 This abstract " I "-concept, that belongs only to the 
 adult, thinking human being, comes into existence in 
 exactly the same way that other concepts do, viz., by 
 means of the individual ideas from which it results, as 
 e. g., the forest exists only when the trees exist. The 
 subordinate " I's," that preside over the separate sense- 
 departments, are in the little child not yet blended 
 together, because in him the organic connections are 
 still lacking ; which, being translated into the language 
 of psychology, means that he lacks the necessary power 
 of abstraction. The co-excitations of the sensory centers, 
 that are as yet impressed with too few memory-images, 
 can not yet take place on occasion of a single excitation, 
 the cerebral connecting fibers being as yet too scanty. 
 
 These co-excitations of parts of the brain function- 
 ally different, on occasion of excitation of a part of the 
 brain that has previously often been excited together 
 with those, form the physiological foundation of the 
 psychical phenomenon of the formation of concepts in 
 general, and so of the formation of the " I "-concept. 
 For the special ideas of all departments of sense have in 
 all beings possessed of all the senses — or of four senses, 
 or of three — the common quality of coming into exist- 
 ence only under conditions of time, space, and causality. 
 This common property presupposes similar processes in 
 every separate sense-center of the highest rank. Excita- 
 tions of one of these centers easily effect similar co- 
 excitations of centers that have often been excited to- 
 gether with them through objective impressions, and it 
 is this similar co-excitement extending itself over the 
 cerebral centers of all the nerves of sense that evokes 
 the composite idea of the " I." 
 
DEVELOPMENT OF THE FEELING OF SELF. 207 
 
 According to this view, therefore, the " I " can not 
 exist as a unit, as undivided, as uninterrupted ; it ex- 
 ists only when the separate departments of sense are 
 active with their egos, out of which the " I " is abstract- 
 ed ; e. g., it disappears in dreamless sleep. In the 
 waking condition it has continued existence only where 
 the centro-sensory excitations are most strongly in force ; 
 i. e., where the attention is on the strain. 
 
 Still less, however, is the " I " an aggregate. For 
 this presupposes the exchangeability of the component 
 parts. The seeing ego, however, can just as little have 
 its place made good by a substitute as can the hearing 
 one, the tasting one, etc. The sum-total of the separate 
 leaves, blossoms, stalks, roots, of the plant does not, by 
 a great deal, constitute the plant. The parts must be 
 joined together in a special manner. So, likewise, it is 
 not enough to add together the characteristics common 
 to the separate sense-representations in order to obtain 
 from these the regulating and controlling " I." Rather 
 there results from the increasing number and manifold- 
 ness of the sense-impressions a continually increasing 
 growth of the gray substance of the child's cerebrum, a 
 rapid increase of the inter-central connecting fibers, and 
 through this a readier co-excitement — association, so 
 called — which unites feeling with willing and thinking 
 in the child. 
 
 This union is the " I/ J the sentient and emotive, the 
 desiring and willing, the perceiving and thinking " I." 
 
208 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 CHAPTEE XX. 
 
 SUMMARY OF RESULTS. 
 
 Of all the facts that have been established by me 
 through the observation of the child in the first years 
 of his life, the formation of concepts without language 
 is most opposed to the traditional doctrines, and it is 
 just this on which I lay the greatest stress. 
 
 It has been demonstrated that the human being, at 
 the very beginning of his life, not only distinguishes 
 pleasure and discomfort, but may also have single, dis- 
 tinct sensations. He behaves on the first day differently, 
 when the appropriate sense-impressions exist, from what 
 he does when they are lacking. The first effect of these 
 feelings, these few sensations, is the association of their 
 traces, left behind in the central nervous system, with 
 inborn movements. Those traces or central impressions 
 develop gradually the personal memory. These move- 
 ments are the point of departure for the primitive ac- 
 tivity of the intellect, which separates the sensations 
 both in time and in space. When the number of the 
 memory-images, of distinct sensations, on the one hand, 
 on the other, of the movements that have been associ- 
 ated with them — e. g., "sweet" and "sucking" — has 
 become larger, then a firmer association of sensation- 
 and-movement- memories, i. e., of excitations of sensory 
 and motor ganglionic cells takes place, so that excite- 
 ment of the one brings with it co-excitement of the 
 other. Sucking awakens the recollection of the sweet 
 taste; the sweet taste of itself causes sucking. This 
 
SUMMARY OF RESULTS. 209 
 
 succession is already a separation in time of two sensa- 
 tions (the sweet and the motor sensation in sucking). 
 The separation in space requires the recollection of two 
 sensations, each with one movement ; the distinction 
 between sucking at the left breast and sucking at the 
 right is made after one trial. With this, the first act of 
 the intellect is performed, the first perception made, 
 i. e., a sensation first localized in time and space. The 
 motor sensation of sucking has come, like the sweet 
 taste, after a similar one, and it has come between two 
 unlike relations in space that were distinguished. By 
 means of multiplied perceptions (e. g., luminous fields 
 not well defined, but yet defined) and multiplied move- 
 ments with sensations of touch, the perception, after 
 considerable time, acquires an object ; i. e., the intellect, 
 which already allowed nothing bright to appear without 
 boundary-lines, and thus allowed nothing bright to ap- 
 pear except in space (whereas at the beginning bright- 
 ness, as was the case even later with sound, had no 
 limitation, no demarcation), begins to assign a cause for 
 that which is perceived. Hereby perception is raised 
 to representation. The often-felt, localized, sweet, 
 warm, white wetness, which is associated with sucking, 
 now forms an idea, and one of the earliest ideas. When, 
 now, this idea has often arisen, the separate perceptions 
 that have been necessary to its formation are united 
 more and more firmly. Then, when one of these latter 
 appears for itself, the memory-images of the others will 
 also appear, through co-excitement of the ganglionic 
 cells concerned ; but this means simply that the concept 
 is now in existence. For the concept has its origin in 
 the union of attributes. Attributes are perceived, and 
 
210 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 the memory-images of them, that is, accordingly, mem- 
 ory-images of separate perceptions, are so firmly associ- 
 ated that, where only one appears in the midst of en- 
 tirely new impressions, the concept yet emerges, because 
 all the other images appear along with it. Language 
 is not required for this. Up to this point, those born 
 deaf behave exactly like infants that have all the senses, 
 and like some animals that form concepts. 
 
 These few first ideas, namely, the individual ideas, or 
 sense-intuitions that are generated by the first percep- 
 tions, and the simple general ideas (of a lower order), or 
 concepts, arising out of these — the concepts of the child 
 as yet without language, of microcephali also, of deaf- 
 mutes, and of the higher animals — have now this pecul- 
 iarity, that they have all been formed exactly in this 
 way by the parents and the grandparents and the rep- 
 resentatives of the successive generations (such notions 
 as those of "food," "breast"). These concepts are not 
 innate ; because no idea can be innate, for the reason 
 that several peripheral impressions are necessary for 
 the f orcnation of even a single perception. They are, 
 however, inherited. Just as the teeth and the beard 
 are not usually innate in man, but come and grow 
 like those of the parents and are already implanted, 
 piece for piece, in the new-born child, and are thus 
 hereditary, so the first ideas of the infant, his first con- 
 cepts, which arise unconsciously, without volition and 
 without the possibility of inhibition, in every individual 
 in the same way, must be called hereditary. Different 
 as are the teeth from the germs of teeth in the newly- 
 born, so different are the man's concepts, clear, sharply 
 defined by words, from the child's ill-defined, obscure 
 
SUMMARY OF RESULTS. 211 
 
 concepts, which arise quite independently of all lan- 
 guage (of word, look, or gesture). 
 
 In this wise the old doctrine of " innate ideas " be- 
 comes clear. Ideas. or thoughts are themselves either 
 representations or combinations of representations. They 
 thus presuppose perceptions, and can not accordingly be 
 innate, but may some of them be inherited, those, viz., 
 winch at first, by virtue of the likeness between the 
 brain of the child and that of the parent, and of the 
 simiJarity between the external circumstances of the 
 beginnings of life in child and parent, always arise in 
 the same manner. 
 
 The principal thing is the innate aptitude to per- 
 ceive things and to form ideas, i. e., the innate intellect. 
 By aptitude (Anlage), however, can be understood noth- 
 ing else at present than a manner of reacting, a sort of 
 capability or excitability, impressed upon the central 
 organs of the nervous system after repeated association 
 of nervous excitations (through a great many genera- 
 tions in the same way). 
 
 The brain comes into the world provided with a 
 great number of impressions upon it. Some of these 
 are quite obscure, some few are distinct. Each ances- 
 tor has added his own to those previously existing. 
 Among these impressions, finally, the useless ones must 
 soon be obliterated by those that are useful. On the 
 other hand, deep impressions will, like wounds, leave 
 behind scars, which abide longer ; and very frequently 
 used paths of connection between different portions of 
 the brain and spinal marrow and the organs of sense 
 are easier to travel even at • birth (instinctive and re- 
 flexive processes). 
 
212 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 Now, of all the higher functions of the brain, the 
 ordering one, which compares the simple, pure sensa- 
 tions, the original experiences, and first sets them in an 
 order of succession, viz., arranges them in time, then 
 puts them side by side and one above another, and, not 
 till later, one behind another, viz., arranges them in 
 space — this function is one of the oldest. This order- 
 ing of the sense-impressions is an activity of the intellect 
 that has nothing to do with speech, and the capacity for 
 it is, as Immanuel Kant discovered, present in man " as 
 he now is " (Kant) before the activity of the senses 
 begins ; but without this activity it can not assert 
 itself. 
 
 Now, I maintain, and in doing so I take my stand 
 upon the facts published in this book, that just as little 
 as the intellect of the child not yet able to speak has 
 need of words or looks or gestures, or any symbol 
 whatever, in order to arrange in time and space the 
 sense-impressions, so little does that intellect require 
 those means in order to form concepts and to perform 
 logical operations ; and in this fundamental fact I see 
 the material for bridging over the only great gulf that 
 separates the child from the brute animal. 
 
 That even physiologists deny that there is any pas- 
 sage from one to the other is shown by Vierordt in 
 his " Physiology of Infancy" (1877). 
 
 The fundamental fact that a genuinely logical activi- 
 ty of the brain goes on without language of any sort, in 
 the adult man who has the faculty of speech, was dis- 
 covered by Helmholtz. The logical functions called by 
 him " unconscious inferences " begin, as I think I have 
 shown by many observations in the newly-born, imme- 
 
SUMMARY OF RESULTS. 213 
 
 diately with the activity of the senses. Perception in 
 the third dimension of space is a particularly clear ex- 
 ample of this sort of logical activity without words, 
 because it is developed slowly. 
 
 In place of the expression u unconscious," which, 
 because it has caused much mischief, still prevents the 
 term " unconscious inferences " from being naturalized 
 in the physiology of the senses and the theory of per- 
 ception, it would be advisable, since "instinctive" and 
 " intuitive " are still more easily misunderstood, to say 
 " wordless." Wordless ideas, wordless concepts, word- 
 less judgments, wordless inferences, may be inherited. 
 To these belong such as our progenitors often experi- 
 enced at the beginning of life, such as not only come 
 into existence without the participation of any medium 
 of language whatever, but also are never even willed 
 (intended, deliberate, voluntary), and can not under any 
 circumstances be set aside or altered, whether to be cor- 
 rected or falsified. An inherited defect can not be put 
 aside, and neither can the inherited intellect. When 
 the outer angle at the right of the eye is pressed upon, 
 a light appears in the closed eye at the left, not at the 
 right ; not at the place touched. This optical illusion, 
 which was known even in Newton's day, this wordless 
 inductive inference, is hereditary and incorrigible ; and, 
 on the other hand, the hereditary wordless concejit of 
 food can neither be prevented from arising nor be set 
 aside nor be formed otherwise than it was formed by 
 our ancestors. 
 
 Innate, to make it once more prominent, is the facul- 
 ty (the capacity, the aptitude, the potential function) of 
 forming concepts, and some of the first concepts are 
 17 
 
214 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 hereditary. New (not hereditary) concepts arise only 
 after new perceptions, i. e., after experiences that asso- 
 ciate themselves with the primitive ones by means of 
 new connecting paths in the brain, and they begin in 
 fact before the learning of speech. 
 
 A chick just out of the shell possesses the capacity to 
 lay eggs — the organs necessary — in fact the future eggs 
 are inborn in the creature ; but only after some time 
 does it lay eggs, and these are in every respect similar 
 to the first eggs of its mother. Indeed, the chicks that 
 come from these eggs resemble those of the mother her- 
 self ; thus the eggs have hereditary properties. New 
 eggs originate only by crossing, by external influences 
 of all sorts, influences, therefore, of experience. 
 
 So, too, the new-born child possesses the capacity of 
 forming concepts. The organs necessary for that are in- 
 born in him, but not till after some time does he form 
 concepts, and these are in all nations and at all times quite 
 similar to the first concepts formed by the child's mother. 
 Indeed, the inferences that attach themselves to the first 
 concepts will resemble those which were developed in 
 the mother or will be identical with them ; these con- 
 cepts have, then, hereditary properties. New concepts 
 originate only through experience. They originate in 
 great numbers in every child that learns to speak. 
 
 If the fact that children utterly ignorant of speech, 
 even those born deaf, already perform logical operations 
 with perfect correctness, proves the intellect to be inde- 
 pendent of language, yet searching observation of the 
 child that is learning to speak shows that only by means 
 of verbal language can the intellect give precision to its 
 primitive indistinct concepts and thereby develop itself 
 
SUMMARY OF RESULTS. 215 
 
 further, connecting ideas appropriately with the cir- 
 cumstances in which the child lives. 
 
 It is a settled fact, however, that many ideas must 
 already be formed in order to make possible the ac- 
 quirement of speech. The existence of ideas is a neces- 
 sary condition of learning to speak. 
 
 The greatest intellectual advance in this field con- 
 sists in this, that the specific method of the human race 
 is discovered by the speechless child — the method of 
 expressing ideas aloud and articulately, i. e., by means 
 of expirations of breath along with various positions of 
 the larynx and the mouth and various movements of 
 the tongue. "No child invents this method, it is trans- 
 mitted ; but each individual child discovers that by 
 means of sounds thus originating one can make known 
 his ideas and thereby induce feelings of pleasure and do 
 away with discomfort. Therefore he applies himself to 
 this process of himself, without instruction, provided 
 only that he grows up among speaking people ; and 
 even where hearing, which serves as a means of inter- 
 course with them, is wanting from birth, a life rich in 
 ideas and an intelligence of a high order may be devel- 
 oped, provided that written signs of sound supply the 
 place of sounds heard. These signs, however, can be 
 learned only by means of instruction. The way in which 
 writing is learned is the same as the way in which the 
 alalic child learns to speak. Eoth rest upon imi- 
 tation. 
 
 I have shown that the first firm association of an 
 idea with a syllable or with a word-like combination of 
 syllables, takes place exclusively through imitation ; but 
 a union of this sort being once established,, the child 
 
210 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 then f reel y invents new combinations, although to a 
 mnch more limited extent than is commonly assumed. 
 No one brings with him into the world a genius of 
 such quality that it would be capable of inventing 
 articulate speech. It is difficult enough to compre- 
 hend that imitation suffices for the child to learn a 
 language. 
 
 What organic conditions are required for the imita- 
 tion of sounds and for learning to speak I have endeav- 
 ored to ascertain by means of a systematic collection, 
 resting on the best pathological investigations, of all the 
 disturbances of speech thus far observed in adults ; and 
 the daily observation of a sound child, who was kept 
 away from all training as far as possible, as well as the 
 frequent observation of other children, has brought me 
 to the following important result : 
 
 That every known form of disturbance of speech 
 in adults finds its perfect counterpart in the child that 
 is learning to speak. 
 
 The child can not yet speak correctly, because his 
 impressive, central, and expressive organs of speech are 
 not yet completely developed. The adult patient can 
 no longer speak correctly, because those parts are no 
 longer complete or capable of performing their func- 
 tions. The parallelism is perfect even to individual 
 cases, if children of various ages are carefully observed 
 in regard to their acquirement of speech. As to facts 
 of a more general nature, we arrive, then, at the three 
 following : 
 
 1. The normal infant understands spoken language 
 much earlier than he can himself produce through imi- 
 tation the sounds, syllables, and words he hears. 
 
SUMMARY OF RESULTS. 217 
 
 2. The normal child, however, before he begins to 
 speak or to imitate correctly the sounds of language, 
 forms of his own accord all or nearly all the sounds that 
 occur in his future speech and very many others besides, 
 and delights in doing it. 
 
 3. The order of succession in which, the sounds of 
 speech are produced by the infant is different with dif- 
 ferent individuals, and consequently is not determined 
 by the principle of the least effort. It is dependent 
 upon several factors — brain, teeth, size of the tongue, 
 acuteness of hearing, motility, and others. Only in 
 the later, intentional, sound -formations and attempts 
 at speaking does that principle come under consid- 
 eration. 
 
 In the acquirement of every complicated muscular 
 movement, dancing, e. g., the difficult combinations 
 which make a greater strain on the activity of the will 
 are in like manner acquired last. 
 
 Heredity plays no part in this, for every child can 
 learn to master perfectly any language, provided he 
 hears from birth only the one to be learned. The plas- 
 ticity of the inborn organs of speech is thus in the earli- 
 est childhood very great. 
 
 To follow farther the influence that the use of 
 speech as a means of understanding has upon the intel- 
 lectual development of the child lies outside the prob- 
 lem dealt with in this book. Let me, in conclusion, sim- 
 ply give a brief estimate of the questioning-activity that 
 makes its appearance very early after the first attempts 
 at speech, and also add a few remarks on the develop- 
 ment of the u 1" -feeling. 
 
 The child's questioning as a means of . his culture is 
 
218 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 almost universally underrated. The interest in causali- 
 ty that unfolds itself more and more vigorously with 
 the learning of speech, the asking why, which is often 
 almost unendurable to parents and educators, is fully 
 justified, and ought not, as unfortunately is too often 
 the case, to be unheeded, purposely left unanswered, 
 purposely answered falsely. I have from the beginning 
 given to my boy, to the best of my knowledge invari- 
 ably, an answer to his questions intelligible to him and 
 not contrary to truth, and have noticed that in conse- 
 quence at a later period, in the fifth and the sixth and es- 
 pecially in the seventh year, the questions prove to be 
 more and more intelligent, because the previous answers 
 are retained. If, on the contrary, we do not answer at 
 all, or if we answer with jests and false tales, it is not 
 to be wondered at that a child even of superior endow- 
 ments puts foolish and absurd questions and thinks il- 
 logically — a thing that rarely occurs where questions 
 are rightly answered and fitting instruction is given, to 
 say nothing of rearing the child to superstition. The 
 only legend in which I allow my boy to have firm 
 faith is that of the stork that brings new babes, and 
 what goes along with that. 
 
 With regard to the development of the " I "-feeling 
 the following holds good : 
 
 This feeling does not awake on the day when the 
 child uses for the first time the word " I " instead of his 
 own name — the date of such use varies according as those 
 about it name themselves and the child by the proper 
 name and not by the pronoun for a longer or a shorter 
 period; but the "I" is separated from the "not-I" 
 after a long series of experiences, chiefly of a painful 
 
SUMMARY OF RESULTS. 219 
 
 sort, as these observations have made clear, through the 
 becoming accustomed to the parts of one's own body. 
 These, which at first are foreign objects, affect the 
 child's organs of sense always in the same manner, and 
 thereby become uninteresting after they have lost the 
 charm of novelty. JSTow, his own body is that to which 
 the attractive objective impressions (i. e., the world) are 
 referred, and with the production by him of new im- 
 pressions, with the changes wrought by him (in the ex- 
 perimenting which is called " playing "), with the expe- 
 rience of being- a-cause, is developed more and more in 
 the child the feeling of self. "With this he raises him- 
 self higher and higher above the dependent condition 
 of the animal, so that at last the difference, not recog- 
 nizable at all before birth and hardly recognizable at the 
 beginning after birth, between animal and human being 
 attains a magnitude dangerous for the latter, attains it, 
 above all, by means of language. 
 
 But if it is necessary for the child to appropriate to 
 himself as completely as possible this highest privilege 
 of the human race and through this to overcome the 
 animal nature of his first period ; if his development re- 
 quires the stripping off of the remains of the animal 
 and the unfolding of the responsible " I"— then it will 
 conduce to the highest satisfaction of the thinking man, at 
 the summit of his experience of life, to go back in thought 
 to his earliest childhood, for that period teaches him 
 plainly that he himself has his origin in nature, is inti- 
 mately related to all other living creatures. However 
 far he gets in his development, he is ever groping vain- 
 ly in the dark for a door into another world ; but the 
 very fact of his reflecting upon the possibility of such a 
 
220 TIIE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 door shows how high the developed human being tow- 
 ers above all his fellow-beings. 
 
 The key to the understanding of the great enigma, 
 how these extremes are connected, is furnished in the 
 history of the development of the mind of the child. 
 
APPENDIXES 
 
 A. 
 
 COMPARATIVE OBSERVATIONS CONCERNING THE ACQUIRE- 
 MENT OE SPEECH BY GERMAN AND FOREIGN CHILDREN. 
 
 Among the earlier as among the later statements con- 
 cerning the acquirement of speech, there are several that 
 have been put forth by writers on the subject without a 
 sufficient basis of observed facts. ISTot only Button, but 
 also Taine and his successors, have, from a few individual 
 cases, deduced general propositions which are not of gen- 
 eral application. 
 
 Good observations were first supplied in Germany by 
 Berthold Sigismund in his pamphlet, " Kind und Welt " 
 (" The Child and the World ") (1856) ; but his observa- 
 tions were scanty. 
 
 He noted, as the first articulate sounds made by a child 
 from Thuringen (Rudolstadt), ma, la, bu, appa, ange, anne, 
 brrr, arrr : these were made about the middle of the first 
 three months. 
 
 Sigismund is of the opinion that this first lisping, or 
 babbling, consists in the production of syllables with only 
 two sounds, of which the consonant is most often the 
 first ; that the first consonants distinctly pronounced are 
 labials ; that the lips, brought into activity by sucking, are 
 the first organs of articulation ; but this conjecture lacks 
 general confirmation. 
 
222 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 In the second three months (in the case of one child in 
 the twenty-third week, with other healthy children consid- 
 erably earlier) were heard, for the first time, the loud and 
 high crotving -sounds, uttered by the child spontaneously, 
 jubilantly, with lively movements of the limbs that showed 
 the waxing power of the muscles : the child seemed to 
 take pleasure in making the sounds. The utterance of 
 syllables, on the other hand, is at this period often dis- 
 continued for weeks at a time. 
 
 In the third quarter of the first year, the lisping or 
 stammering Was more frequent. ]New sounds were added : 
 M, fbu, fu j and the following were among those that were 
 repeated without cessation, bdbdbd, ddddcld ; also adad, 
 eded. 
 
 In the next three months the child manifested his 
 satisfaction in any object by the independent sound ei, ei. 
 The first imitations of sounds, proved to be such, were 
 made after the age of eleven months. But it is more 
 significant, for our comprehension of the process of learn- 
 ing to speak, that long before the boy tried to imitate 
 words or gestures, viz., at the age of nice months, he dis- 
 tinguished accurately the words "father, mother, light, 
 window, moon, lane " ; for he looked, or pointed, at the 
 object designated, as soon as one of these words was 
 spoken. 
 
 And when, finally, imitation began, musical tones, e. g., 
 F, C, were imitated sooner than the spoken sounds, although 
 the former were an octave higher. And the ei, ei, was 
 repeated in pretty nearly the same tone or accent in which 
 it had been pronounced for the child. Sneezing was not 
 imitated till after fourteen months. The first word imi- 
 tated by the child of his own accord (after fourteen months) 
 was the cry "JSCeuback" (fresh-bake), as it resounded 
 from the street ; it was given back by the child, unsoli- 
 
APPENDIX A. 223 
 
 cited, as ei-a. As late as the sixteenth month he replied 
 to the word papa, just as he did to the word Ida, only 
 with atta ; yet he had in the mean time learned to under- 
 stand " lantern, piano, stove, bird, nine-pin, pot " — in all, 
 more than twenty words — and to indicate by a look the 
 objects named ; he had also learned to make the new 
 imperfect sounds pujeh, pujeh, tupe tupe teh, ammdm, 
 atta, ho. 
 
 In the seventeenth month came in place of these 
 sounds the babbled syllables mam, mam, mad-am, a-dam, 
 das ; in the case of other children, syllables different from 
 these. Children often say several syllables in quick suc- 
 cession, " then suddenly stop as if they were thinking of 
 something new — actually strain, as if they must exert 
 themselves to bring their organs to utterance, until at last 
 a new sound issues, and then this is repeated like the clack 
 of a mill." Along with this appears the frequent doub- 
 ling of syllables, as in papa, mama. 
 
 The boy, at twenty months, told his father the follow- 
 ing, with pretty long pauses and animated gestures : atten — 
 heene — titten — bach — eine — puff — anna, i. e., " Wir waren 
 im Garten, haben Beeren und Kirschen gegessen, und in 
 den Bach Steine geworf en ; dann kam Anna " (we were 
 in the garden, ate berries and cherries, and threw stones 
 into the brook ; then Anna came). 
 
 The observations of Sigismund are remarkable for 
 their objectivity, their clearness of exposition, and their 
 accuracy, and they agree with mine, as may easily be 
 seen, in many respects perfectly. Unfortunately, this 
 excellent observer (long since deceased) did not finish 
 his work. The first part only has appeared. Moreover, 
 the statements as to the date of the first imitations (see 
 pp. 83, 108, 109, 118, 121) are not wholly in accord with 
 one another. 
 
224 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 I. E. Lobisch, likewise a physician, in his " Entwickel- 
 ungsgeschichte der Seele des Kindes " (" History of the 
 Development of the Mind of the Child," Vienna, 1851, p. 
 68), says : " Naturally the first sound formed in the mouth, 
 which is more or less open, while the other organs of 
 speech are inactive, is the sound resembling a, which ap- 
 proximates sometimes more, sometimes less, nearly to the 
 e and the o* 
 
 " Of the consonants the first are those formed by clos- 
 ing and opening the lips : m, b, p ; these are at first in- 
 distinct and not decidedly differentiated till later ; then 
 the m naturally goes not only before the a but also after 
 it ; b and p for a long time merely commence a syllable, 
 and rarely close one until other consonants also have been 
 formed. A child soon says pa, but certainly does not say 
 ab until he can already pronounce other consonants also 
 (p. 79). 
 
 " The order in which the sounds are produced by the 
 child is the following : Of the vowels, first a, e, o, u, of 
 course not well distinguished from a at the beginning ; 
 the last vowel is i. Of the consonants, m is the first, and 
 it passes by way of the w into b and p. But here we may 
 express our astonishment that so many writers on the sub- 
 ject of the order of succession of the consonants in the 
 development of speech have assigned so late a date to the 
 formation of the w ; Schwarz puts it even after t, and 
 before r and s. Then come d, t; then I and n; n is 
 easily combined with d when it precedes d ; next f and 
 the gutturals 7i, ch, g, &, the g and h often confounded 
 with d and t. S and r are regarded as nearly simultaneous 
 in their appearance; the gutturals as coming later, the 
 latest of them being ch. Still, there is a difference in this 
 
 * The vowels have the Continental, not the English, sounds. 
 
APPENDIX A. 225 
 
 respect in different children. For many produce a sound 
 resembling r among the first consonant sounds; so too 
 a, b, ii ; the diphthongs proper do not come till the 
 last." 
 
 These statements of Lobisch, going, as they do, far be- 
 yond pure observation, can not all be regarded as haying 
 general validity. For most German children, at least, 
 even those first adduced can scarcely claim to be well 
 founded. 
 
 H. Taine (in the supplement to his book on " Intelli- 
 gence," which appeared in a German translation in 1880) 
 noted, as expressions used by a French child in the fif- 
 teenth month, papa, maman, tete (nurse, evidently a word 
 taken from the word titer, " to nurse or suck at the 
 breast "), oua-oua (dog, in all probability a word said for 
 the child to repeat), JcoJco (cock, no doubt from coq-coq, 
 which had been said for the child), dada (horse, carriage, 
 indicating other objects also, no doubt ; a demonstrative 
 word, as it is with many German children). Tern was 
 uttered without meaning for two weeks ; then it signified 
 " give, take, look, pay attention." I suspect that we have 
 here a mutilation of the strongly accentuated tiens, which 
 had probably been often heard. As early as the fourteenth 
 month, ham signified "I want to eat" {Jiamm, then am, 
 might have had its origin in the echo of / aim, as-tufaim ? 
 (are you hungry ?)). At the age of three and a half months 
 this child formed only vowels, according to the account ; 
 at twelve months she twittered and uttered first m-m, then 
 hraaau, papa, with varying intonation, but spoke no word 
 with a recognizable meaning. In the tenth month there 
 was an understanding of some questions. For the child, 
 when asked " Where is grandpapa ? " smiled at the por- 
 trait of the grandfather, but not at the one of the grand- 
 mother, which was not so good a likeness. In the eleventh 
 
226 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 month, at the question " Where is mamma ? " the child 
 would turn toward her mother, and in like manner toward 
 the father at the question, " papa " ? 
 
 A second child observed by Taine made utterances 
 that had intellectual significance in the seventh week, for 
 the first time. Up to the age of five months ah, gue, 
 gre (French) were heard ; in the seventh month, also 
 ata, ada. 
 
 In his reflections, attached to these and a few other 
 observations of his own, Taine rightly emphasizes the 
 great power of generalization and the peculiarity the very 
 young child had of associating with words it had heard 
 other notions than those common with us; but he as- 
 cribes too much to the child's inventive genius. The child 
 guesses more than it discovers, and the very cases adduced 
 {liamm, tern), on which he lays great weight, may be traced, 
 as I remarked above parenthetically, to something heard 
 by the child; this fact he seems to have himself quite 
 overlooked. It is true, that in the acquirement of speech 
 one word may have several different meanings in succes- 
 sion, as is especially the case with the word hebe (corre- 
 sponding to the English word baby), almost universal with 
 French children ; it is not true that a child without imi- 
 tation of sounds invents a word with a fixed meaning, and 
 that, with no help or suggestion from members of the 
 family, it employs its imperfectly uttered syllables (Lall- 
 sylben) consistently for designating its ideas. 
 
 Among the notes of Wyma concerning an English 
 child (" The Mental Development of the Infant of To- 
 day," in the " Journal of Psychological Medicine and 
 Mental Pathology," vii, Part I, pp. 62-69, London, April, 
 1881), the following, relating to the acquisition of speech, 
 are to be mentioned : 
 
 At five months the child began to use a kind of Ian- 
 
APPENDIX A. 227 
 
 guage, consisting of six words, to indicate a desire or in- 
 tention. Ning signified desire for milk, and was employed 
 for that np to the age of two years. (The word may pos- 
 sibly have been derived from the word milk* frequently 
 heard.) At nine months the child made use of the words 
 pretty things for animals ; at ten months it formed many 
 small sentences. 
 
 The child practiced itself in speaking, even without 
 direct imitation of words just spoken, for at the age of 
 two years it began to say over a number of nursery rhymes 
 that nobody in the house knew, and that could not have 
 been learned from other children, because the child had 
 no intercourse with such. At a later period the child 
 declared that the rhymes had been learned from a former 
 nurse, whom it had not seen for nearly three months. 
 Thus the articulation was perfecting itself for weeks before 
 it was understood. The exercises of the child sounded like 
 careless reading aloud. 
 
 The book of Prof. Ludwig Strumpell, of Leipsic, 
 " Psychologische Padagogik" (Leipsic, 1880, 368 pages), 
 contains an appendix, " Notizen uber die geistige Entwicke- 
 lung eines weiblichen Kindes wahrend der ersten zwei 
 Lebensjahre " (" Notes on the Mental Development of 
 a Female Child during the First Two Years of Life ") ; 
 in this are many observations that relate to the learn- 
 ing of speech. These are from the years 1846 and 
 1847. 
 
 In the tenth week, ah ! ah ! was an utterance of joy ; 
 in the thirteenth, the child sings, all alone ; in the nine- 
 teenth comes the guttural utterance, grrr, but no conso- 
 nant is assigned to this period. In the first half-year are 
 
 * Or possibly for the word drink, which a child of my acquaint- 
 ance called ghing. — Editor. 
 
228 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 heard distinctly, in the order given, ei, aga, eigei, ja, ede, 
 dede, eds, edss, emme, meme, nene, nein. In the eighth 
 month, there is unmistakable understanding of what is 
 said ; e. g., " Where is the tick-tack ? " In the ninth, am, 
 amine, op, pap, are said ; she sings vowels that are sung 
 for her. In the eleventh month, imitation of sounds is 
 frequent, hiss, hiss ; at sight of the tea-kettle, ssi, ssi ; 
 she knows all the people in the house ; calls the birds by 
 the strange name tibu. Echolalia. In the fourteenth 
 month, needles are called tick (sticli = prick or stitch). 
 To the question, "Where is Emmy?" the child points, 
 correctly, to herself ; says distinctly, Kopf (head), Bucli 
 (book), roth (red), Tanie (&xmt),gut (good), Mann (man), 
 Baum (tree) ; calls the eye (Auge) oh, Pruscinsky prrti, 
 the dog uf, uf. In the seventeenth month, simple sen- 
 tences are spoken; she speaks to herself. In the nine- 
 teenth month, she calls herself by her name, and counts 
 twei, drei, iwipf, exe, ibene, atte, neune (zwei, drei, fiinf, 
 sechs, sieben, acht, neun — 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) ; in the twenty- 
 second month, she talks a good deal to herself, and makes 
 very rapid progress in the correct use of words and the 
 formation of sentences. 
 
 From the diary kept by Fran von Strumpell concern- 
 ing this daughter and a sister of this one, and kindly 
 placed at my disposal in the original, I take the following 
 notes : In the eighth month, mamma, in the tenth, papa, 
 without meaning. In the eleventh month, the child's 
 understanding of what is said to her is surprising, and so 
 is her imitation. To " G-uten Tag " (good-day) she re- 
 sponds, tata; to "Adieu," adaa. A book, which the 
 child likes to turn the leaves of, she calls ade (for a b c). 
 The first certain association of a sound learned with a con- 
 cept seems to be that of the ee, which has often been said 
 to her, with wet, or with what is forbidden. Amme am 
 
APPENDIX A. 229 
 
 om, "Amme komm" (nurse come) (both imitative), is 
 most frequently repeated, papa seldom. The r guttural, 
 or rattled, is imperfectly imitated. In the thirteenth 
 month, the little girl says, tippa tappa, when she wants to 
 he carried, and responds te te to " steh ! steh " (stop) ! She 
 now calls the hook a-be-te (for a b c). Pigeons she calls 
 kurru ; men, in the picture-book, mann mann. When 
 some one asked, " Where is the brush ? " the child made 
 the motion of brushing.. To the questions, "Where is 
 your ear, your tooth, nose, hand, your fingers, mamma's 
 ear, papa's nose ? " etc., she points correctly to the object. 
 On her mother's coming into the room, mamam ; her 
 father's, papap. When the nurse is gone, amme om, 
 amme am. The mother asked some one, " Do you hear ? " 
 and the child looked at her and took hold of her own 
 ears. To the question, "How do we eat?" she makes 
 the motion of eating. She says nein when she means 
 to refuse. " Dank " (thank) is pronounced dalchn. 
 " Bitte " (I beg, or please) is correctly pronounced. She 
 understands the meaning of spoon, dress, mirror, mouth, 
 plate, drink, and many other words, and likes to 
 hear stories, especially when they contain the words 
 already known to her. In the fifteenth month " Ma- 
 thilde" is' given by her as tilda and tida. At sight of a 
 faded bouquet she said Mom (for Blume, flower). She 
 says everything that is said to her, though imperfectly ; 
 produces the most varied articulate sounds ; says ta, papa, 
 ta when she hands anything to a person ; calls the foot 
 (Fuss) pss, lisping and thrusting out the tongue. She 
 often says omama and opapa. In the seventeenth month, 
 Eing is called ning, Wagen (carriage), uagen, Sophie, 
 dsofi, Olga, olla, krank (ill), hank, Pflaume (plum), pluma, 
 satt (satisfied, as to hunger), datt, Hande-waschen (wash- 
 ing the hands), ander-uaschen, Schuh and Tuch (shoe 
 18' 
 
230 THE MIXD OF THE CHILD. 
 
 and cloth), tu, Strumpf (stocking), titmpf, Hut (hat), ut, 
 Suppe (soup), duppe. Mama hum bild dat bank, is for 
 " Mama komm, ich habe das Bilderbuch, erzahle mir dazu 
 etwas, dort setz' Dich zu mir " (M., come, I have the 
 picture-book ; tell me something in it ; sit there by me). 
 In the eighteenth month, "Where is Omama?" is an- 
 swered with im garten ; " How are Omama and Opapa ? " 
 with sund (for gesund, well) ; " "What is Omama doing ? " 
 with naht (she is sewing). The black Apollo is called 
 polio icarz (schwarz, black). 
 
 The sister of this child, in the tenth month, applied 
 the word mama to her mother, pap pap and papap to her 
 father, but was less sure in this ; tje-te were favorite syl- 
 lables. When asked, " Where is Tick-tack ? " she looks at 
 the clock on the wall. A piercing scream is an utterance 
 of joy. In the fifteenth month, Apapa is her word for 
 grandfather, and is roguishly used for grandmother. She 
 says aben for "haben" (have), tatta for "Tante" (aunt), 
 apa (for uppd) means " I want to go up." Her imitation 
 of what is said is very imperfect, but her understanding 
 of it is surprising. In the nineteenth month she makes 
 much use of her hands in gesture instead of speaking. 
 Kuker is her word for " Zucker " (sugar), bildebu for " Bil- 
 derbuch " (picture-book). But she habitually calls a book 
 omama or opapa (from the letters of her grandparents). 
 Clara is pronounced clala, Christine, titine. In the twen- 
 tieth month, her mother, after telling her a story, asked, 
 " Who, pray, is this, I ? " and the child replied, "Mamma." 
 " And who is that, you ? " " Bertha, Bertha " (the child's 
 name) was the answer. At this period she said, Bertha 
 will ; also paren (for fahren, drive), pollen (fallen, fall), 
 bot, (Brot, bread), atig (artig, good, well-behaved), mal 
 (noch einmal, once more), muna (Mund, mouth), aujen 
 (Augen, eyes), ol (Ohr, ear), tirn (Stirn, forehead), ivanne 
 
APPENDIX A. 231 
 
 (Wange, cheek, and Wanne, bath-tub), aua (August), 
 dute (gute) mama, pdsche (Equipage), ivasar tinken (Was- 
 ser trinken, drink water) ddbel (Gabel, fork), Missel 
 (Schliissel, key), is nits (ist nichts, is nothing), mala 
 (Milch, milk), ass (heiss, hot). 
 
 Another remarkable observation is the following from 
 the fifteenth month. It reminds one of the behavior of 
 hypnotized adults. On her grandmother's birthday the 
 child said some rhymes that she did not easily remember 
 (there were six short verses, thirty-four words). One night 
 soon after the birthday festival the little girl said off the 
 verses, " almost for the first time without any stumbling, 
 in her sleep." 
 
 From this we see how much more quickly in regard 
 to articulation and independent use of words both these 
 girls (the first of whom weighed only six pounds at birth) 
 learned to speak than did Sigismund's boy, my own boy, 
 and others. 
 
 Darwin observed {A Biographical Sketch of an Infant 
 in " Mind, a Quarterly Eeview of Psychology and Philoso- 
 phy," July, 1877, pp. 285-294) in a son of his, on the 
 forty-seventh day of his life, a formation of sounds with- 
 out meaning. The child took pleasure in it. The sounds 
 soon became manifold. In the sixth month he uttered 
 the sound da without any meaning ; but in the fifth he 
 probably began to try to imitate sounds. In the tenth 
 month the imitation of sounds was unmistakable. In the 
 twelfth he could readily imitate all sorts of actions, such 
 as shaking his head and saying "Ah." He also under- 
 stood intonations, gestures, several words, and short sen- 
 tences. When exactly seven months old, the child associ- 
 ated his nurse with her name, so that when it was called out 
 he would look round for her. In the thirteenth month 
 the boy used gestures to explain his wishes ; for instance, 
 
232 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 he picked up a bit of paper and gave it to his father, 
 pointing to the fire, as he had often seen and liked to see 
 paper burned. At exactly the age of a year he called 
 food mum, which also signified " Give me food," and he 
 used this word instead of beginning to cry as formerly. 
 This word with affixes signified particular things to eat ; 
 thus shu-mum signified sugar, and a little later licorice 
 was called Made- shu-mum. "When asking for food by the 
 word mum he gave to it a very strongly marked tone of 
 longing (Darwin says an " interrogatory sound," which 
 should mean the same thing). It is remarkable that my 
 child also, and in the tenth week for the first time, said 
 m'omm when he was hungry, and that a child observed by 
 Fritz Schulfcze (Dresden) said mam-mam. Probably the 
 syllable has its origin from the primitive syllable ma and 
 from hearing the word "mamma" when placed at the 
 breast of the mother. 
 
 Of the facts communicated by the physiologist Vier- 
 ordt concerning the language of the child ("Deutsche 
 Eevue" of January, 1879, Berlin, pp. 29-46) should be 
 mentioned this, that a babe in its second month expressed 
 pleasure by the vowel a, the opposite feeling by a. This 
 is true of many other children also. In the third and 
 fourth months the following syllables were recognizable : 
 mam, amma,fu, pfu, ess, dng, anglca, aclia, erra, hah. A 
 lisping babe said, countless times, hob, hob, ha. These 
 syllables coincide in part with those given by other ob- 
 servers. The pf and ss only have not been heard by me 
 at this age, and I doubt whether /, for which teeth are 
 needed, was produced with purity so early. In the second 
 and third years a child pronounced the following words : 
 lei (for bos, naughty) ; bebe (Besen, beesann, broom) ; 
 webbe (Wasser, ivatja, water) ; wewe (Lowe, loivee, lion) ; 
 ewebau (Elephant, elafant) ; webenau (Fledermaus, leba- 
 
APPENDIX A. 233 
 
 rnaunz, bat) ; babaube (Blasebalg, ba-abats, bellows) ; ade 
 (Hase, hare) ; emele (Schemel, footstool) ; gigod (Schild- 
 krote, tortoise). 
 
 These examples illustrate very well the mogilalia and 
 paralalia that exist in every child, bnt with differences in 
 each individual. Sigmatism and parasigmatism and para- 
 lambdacism are strongly marked. At the same time the 
 influence of dialect is perceptible (Tubingen). The pro- 
 nunciations given in parentheses in the above instances 
 were regularly used by my boy in his twenty-sixth month 
 when he saw the pictures of the objects named in his 
 picture-book. (In Jena.) One would not suppose before- 
 hand that watja and webbe have the same meaning. From 
 the ten examples may be seen, further, that /, I, r, s, t pre- 
 sent more difficulties of articulation than b, w, m, g, and 
 d ; but neither must this be made a general conclusion. 
 The w (on account of the teeth) regularly comes later than 
 the b, m, and r. 
 
 In the third year Vierordt noted down the following nar- 
 ration. I put in brackets the words omitted by the child : 
 
 id. mama . . papa gage [Es] ist [eine] mama [und ein] papa 
 
 gewesen 
 unn die hale wai didi gait und diese haben zwei Kinder gehabt, 
 unn. didi . . . icaud. und [die] Kinder [sind in den] Wald 
 
 [gegangen] 
 unn habe olid duh und haben Holz geholt ; 
 
 na . . an e gugeeide guju dann [sind sie] an ein Zuckerhauschen 
 
 gegangen 
 unn habe gctg und haben gegessen ; 
 
 no ad die egg gag dann hat die Hexe gesagt : 
 
 nag nag neidi " Nueker, Nucker Neisle 
 
 wie. immi. eidi wer [krabbelt] mir am Hausle 1 " 
 
 no habe die didi gag dann haben die Kinder gesagt : 
 
 die wid, de immi immi wid [" Der Wind, der Wind, das himmlisehe 
 
 Kind"] Der Wind, der himmlisehe, 
 
 himmlisehe Wind. 
 
234 THE MIND OF TILE CHILD. 
 
 (There were once a mama and a papa, and they had two children. 
 And the children went into the woods and fetched wood. Then 
 they came to a little sugar house and ate. Then the witch said : 
 "Nucker, Nucker Neisle, who is crawling in my little house?" 
 Then the children said : " The wind, the wind, the heavenly child " 
 — The wind, the heavenly, heavenly wind.) 
 
 I told the same story to my boy for tlie first time when 
 he was two years and eighteen days old. He repeated, 
 with an effort : 
 
 Uss ets aine mama unn ain papa edam (toesen). 
 
 unn (uni) diesa afoi wais (twai) kinna {tinder') gliatf 
 (dehappt). 
 
 unn die hinna sint (dsint) in den limit tegang (gan- 
 gen). 
 
 unn-daben (Jidbn) holz (olz) gehol (olilt). 
 
 dann sint (dsint) sie an ain utsom-lidndom (zuke- 
 hanssn) zezan (gangn). 
 
 unn (unt) liabn (aim) ge . . . (dessen). 
 
 dann hatt die lietse (hekksee) dsa (tsaht). 
 
 nanuck {mike nuke) nana nainle (naisle). 
 
 wer . . (drabbelt) mir am liaultje (dusle). 
 
 dann baben (habn) die . . . (tinder) ze-a (dsagt). 
 
 der tuieds (wind) . . . (der fint). 
 . dser ivenn daz (das) himmeld (immlis) kliint (tint). 
 
 Where the periods are, his attempts were all vain. 
 At any rate, he would say pta-pta as he usually did in 
 fruitless efforts at imitating sounds. Just two months 
 after these first attempts, the same child recited for me 
 the narrative, using the expressions in the parentheses; 
 this indicated a distinct progress in articulation. A year 
 after the first attempt, he easily repeated the whole, with 
 only a single error. He still said himmeld^ and then 
 himmliss, for "himmlische." 
 
APPENDIX A. 
 
 235 
 
 A third boy (Dusseldorf) repeated the narrative much 
 better, as early as his twenty-fifth month. He made only 
 the following errors, which were noted by his mother, and 
 kindly communicated by her to me : 
 
 geivesa 
 
 for gewesen 
 
 fed 
 
 geliat 
 
 " gehabt 
 
 kinner 
 
 gehat ) 
 gehaJd ) 
 
 " gesagt 
 
 ivlad 
 hol-l-l-t 
 
 gegannen 
 
 " gegangen 
 
 uckerha 
 
 hamen 
 
 " haben 
 
 hekes 
 
 hind hie 
 
 " sind sie 
 
 neissel 
 
 Jcabbell 
 
 " krabbelt 
 
 haussel 
 
 himmli-he 
 
 " himmlisehe 
 
 
 for zwei 
 " kinder 
 " Wald 
 " Holz 
 ucTcerhdussen " Zuckerhausehen 
 " Hexe 
 " neisle 
 " Hausle 
 
 The ss between two vowels was imperfect, reminding 
 one of the English " th " and the German " sch " and " s." 
 The child could not at this time be brought to learn by 
 heart. 
 
 We see, from these three versions, how unequal the 
 capacity for articulation is in its development, and how 
 varied it is in regard to the omission of difficult conso- 
 nants and the substitution of others in place of them, as 
 well as in regard to transposition, e. g., in wand, wait, 
 wlad (Wald), ivenn, wid, wieds, fint (Wind) — and this 
 even in the same individual. 
 
 As no one thus far has instituted comparisons of this 
 sort, one more example may be given. The verses 
 taught by Sigismund to his child (for whom I use the 
 sign S) of twenty- one months, were often repeated by 
 my boy (A), of twenty-five months, to me, and by the 
 boy from Dusseldorf (D), in his twenty-fifth month, to 
 his mother : 
 
238 
 
 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 S. 
 
 A. 
 
 D. 
 
 Guter 
 Mond 
 
 21st month, 
 tute 
 bohnd 
 
 25th month, 
 tuten 
 
 monn 
 
 27th month. 
 tuter 
 mond 
 
 25th month, 
 guter 
 Mund 
 
 Du gehst 
 so stille 
 
 du tehz 
 so tinne 
 
 du gehts 
 so tilte 
 
 du dehst 
 so tille 
 
 du gehs 
 ho tille 
 
 durch die 
 
 duch die 
 
 durch die 
 
 durch die 
 
 durch die 
 
 Abendwolken aten-bonten 
 
 aben-woltn 
 
 abend vvolkn abehtwolken 
 
 bin 
 
 in 
 
 in 
 
 in 
 
 hin 
 
 gehst so 
 traurig 
 und ich 
 
 tehz so gehts so 
 tautech (atich) treuja 
 und ich nnn ich 
 
 dehst so 
 trauig 
 und ich 
 
 gehs so 
 terauhig 
 und ich 
 
 flihle 
 
 biine 
 
 felam 
 
 flihle 
 
 fiihle 
 
 dass ich 
 
 dass ich 
 
 dess ich 
 
 dass ich 
 
 dass ich 
 
 ohne Ruhe 
 
 one ule 
 
 ohno ruhge 
 
 ohne ruhe 
 
 ohni ruhe 
 
 bin 
 
 bin 
 
 bin 
 
 bin 
 
 bin 
 
 Guter 
 Mond 
 
 tute 
 bohnd 
 
 hotten 
 mohn 
 
 tuter 
 mond 
 
 guter 
 mond 
 
 du darfst 
 
 du atz 
 
 du daf p 
 
 du darfst 
 
 du darf 
 
 es wissen 
 
 es bitten 
 
 es witsen 
 
 es wissen 
 
 es wissen 
 
 weil du so 
 
 bein du so 
 
 leil du so 
 
 weil du so 
 
 weil du ho 
 
 verschwiegen 
 
 bieten 
 
 wereidsam 
 
 verwiegen 
 
 werwiegen 
 
 bist 
 
 bitz 
 
 bits 
 
 bist 
 
 bits 
 
 warum 
 
 amum 
 
 wa-um 
 
 warum 
 
 wahum 
 
 meine 
 
 meine 
 
 meine 
 
 meinhe 
 
 meine 
 
 Thranen 
 
 tanen 
 
 tanen 
 
 thranen 
 
 tanen 
 
 fliessen 
 
 bieten 
 
 flietjam 
 
 fliessen 
 
 fliessen 
 
 und mein 
 
 und mein 
 
 nnd mein 
 
 und mein 
 
 nnd mein 
 
 Herz so 
 
 atz so 
 
 hetz so 
 
 erst so 
 
 hetz ho 
 
 traurig ist 
 
 atich iz 
 
 treutjam its 
 
 i trauig ist 
 
 taudig ist 
 
 Errors 
 
 24 
 
 26 
 
 13 
 
 18 
 
 The errors are very unlike, and are characteristic for 
 each child. The fact that in the case of A the errors 
 diminished by half within two months is to be explained 
 by frequency of recitation. I may add that the inclina- 
 tion to recite was so often lacking that a good deal of 
 pains was required to bring the child to it. 
 
 From the vocabulary of the second year of the child's 
 
APPENDIX A. 
 
 237 
 
 life, according to the observations of Sigismund and my- 
 self, the following words of freqnent nse are also worthy 
 of notice : 
 
 f Vater 
 
 Mutter 
 
 Anna 
 
 Milch 
 
 Kuh 
 
 Pferd 
 
 (father) 
 
 (mother) 
 
 
 (milk) 
 
 (cow) 
 
 (horse) 
 
 c J atte 
 1 atte 
 
 amme 
 
 anne 
 
 minne 
 
 mull 
 
 hotto 
 
 dmme 
 
 
 
 
 dodo 
 
 1 tate 
 
 dmmam 
 
 
 
 
 pad 
 
 I fatte 
 
 mamme 
 matte 
 
 
 
 
 
 ( va-ata 
 
 mama 
 
 anna 
 
 mimi 
 
 mumuh 
 
 otto 
 
 P 
 
 ' ( papa 
 
 
 
 
 mukuh 
 
 pfowed 
 fowid 
 
 Yogel 
 
 Mund 
 
 Nase 
 
 Ohr Haare Finger 
 
 Da 
 
 (bird) 
 
 (mouth) 
 
 (nose) 
 
 (ear) (hair) 
 
 (there) 
 
 S. piep-piep 
 
 mund 
 
 ase 
 
 ohn ale 
 
 jinne 
 
 da 
 
 P. piep, pipiep mum 
 
 nane 
 
 o-a lia-i 
 
 ( wi-er 
 
 da 
 
 Adieu 
 
 Guten Tag 
 
 Fort Ja 
 
 
 Nein 
 
 
 (good-day) 
 
 (away) (yes) 
 
 (no) 
 
 S. ade 
 
 tag 
 
 fot ja 
 
 
 nein 
 
 P. adjee 
 
 tatach 
 
 wott ja 
 
 ; jaja 
 
 neinein 
 
 Grossmutter Kuk 
 
 Zueker 
 
 Karl 
 
 Grete 
 
 (grandmother) 
 
 
 (sugar) 
 
 
 
 t tosuite 
 S. -j abutte 
 ( osmutte 
 
 o-tute 
 
 zucke 
 
 all 
 
 ete 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ( a-mama 
 ' 1 e-mama 
 
 kuk 
 
 ucka 
 
 kara 
 
 dete 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sigismund noticed the following names of animals (in 
 imitation of words given to the children) : M, put, gih- 
 gak, wakioak, liulm, iliz (Hinz). I did not find these 
 with my child. Sigismund likewise observed baie-haie for 
 Wiege (cradle), which my child was not acquainted with ; 
 papa for verborgen (hidden) ; eichonten for Eichhornchen 
 
238 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 (squirrel) ; dpften for Apfelchen (little apple) ; mddsen 
 and mddis for Madchen (girl) ; atatt for Bernhard ; liun- 
 dis for Hundchen, the Thiiringian form of Hiindchen 
 (little dog) ; pot for Topf (pot) ; dot for dort (yonder). 
 On the other hand, both children used wehweh for Schmerz 
 (pain) ; caput for zerbrochen (broken to pieces) ; schoos, 
 sooss for " auf den Schooss mocht ich " (I want to get up 
 in the lap) ; auf for " hinauf mochte ich gehoben werden " 
 (I want to be taken up) ; toicli for Storch (stork) ; tul for 
 Stuhl (chair). A third child in my presence called his 
 grandmother mama-mama, i. e., twice-mamina, in distinc- 
 tion from the mother. This, however, does not necessarily 
 imply a gift for invention, as the expression " Mamma's 
 Mamma" may have been used of the grandmother in 
 speaking to the child. 
 
 Other children of the same age do very much the same. 
 The boy D, though he repeated cleverly what was said, 
 was not good at naming objects when he was expected to 
 do this of himself. He would say, e. g., pilla for Spiegel 
 (mirror). At this same period (twenty-five months) he 
 could not yet give the softened or liquid sound of conso- 
 nants (mouilliren). He said n and * and a very plainly, 
 and also i-a, but not nja, and not once " ja " ; but, on 
 the contrary, always turned away angrily when his father 
 or I, or others, required it of him. But as late as the 
 twenty-eighth month echolalia was present in the highest 
 degree in this very vigorous and intelligent child, for he 
 would at times repeat mechanically the last word of every 
 sentence spoken in his hearing, and even a single word, 
 e. g., when some one asked "Warum?" (why) he likewise 
 said ivarum without answering the question, and lie con- 
 tinued to do it for days again and again in a vacant way, 
 with and without the tone of interrogation (which he did 
 not understand). From this we see again plainly that the 
 
APPENDIX A. 239 
 
 imitation of sounds is independent of the understanding 
 of them, but is dependent on the functions of articu- 
 lation. 
 
 These functions are discussed by themselves in the 
 work of Prof. Fritz Schultze, of Dresden, " Die Spraclie 
 des Kindes " (" The Language of the Child," Leipsic, 
 1880, 44 pp.). The author defends in this the " principle 
 of the least effort." He thinks the child begins with the 
 sounds that are made with the least physiological effort, 
 and proceeds gradually to the more difficult sounds, i. e., 
 those which require more " labor of nerve and muscle." 
 This " law " is nothing else than the " loi du moindre ef- 
 fort " which is to be traced back to Maupertuis, and 
 which was long ago applied to the beginnings of articula- 
 tion in children : e. g., by Buffon in 1749 (" (Euvres com- 
 pletes," Paris, 1844, iv, pp. 68, 69), and, in spite of Littre, 
 again quite recently by B. Perez * (" Les trois premieres 
 Annees de 1'Enfant," Paris, 1878, pp. 228-230, seq.) But 
 this supposed " law " is opposed by many facts which have 
 been presented in this chapter and the preceding one. 
 The impossibility of determining the degree of " physio- 
 logical effort " required for each separate sound in the 
 child, moreover, is well known. Besides, every sound may 
 be produced with very unequal expenditure of force ; but 
 the facts referred to are enough for refutation of the the- 
 ory. According to Schultze, e. g., the vowels ought, in 
 the process of development of the child's speech, to appear 
 in the following order, separated in time by long intervals : 
 1.1; 2. A; 3. IT; 4. 0; 5. E; 6. I; 7. 0; 8. U. It is 
 correct that a is one of the vowels that may be first plainly 
 distinguished; but neither is it the first vowel audible 
 
 * « The First Three Years of Childhood," edited and translated 
 by Alice M. Christie ; published in Chicago, 1885. 
 
240 THE MIND OF TIIE CHILD. 
 
 —on the contrary, the first audible vowel is indistinct, 
 and imperfectly articulated vowels are the first — nor can 
 we admit that a is produced with less of effort than is 
 a. The reverse is the case. Further, o is said to present 
 " enormous difficulties," and hence has the place next to 
 the last ; but I have often heard the o, short and long, per- 
 fectly pure in the second month, long before the i, and 
 that not in my child alone. From the observations upon 
 the latter, the order of succession appears to be the follow- 
 ing : Indeterminate vowels, u, a, a, o, 0, ai, ao, i, e, il, oeu 
 (French sound in coeur), cm, oi. Thus, for the above 
 eight vowels, instead of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, the order 3, 1, 
 2, 7, 4, 6, 5, 8, so that only i and il keep their place. But 
 other children give a varying order, and these differ- 
 ences in the order of succession of vowels as well as of con- 
 sonants will certainly not be referred to the " influence of 
 heredity." Two factors of quite another sort are, on the 
 contrary, to be taken into account here in the case of every 
 normal child without exception, apart from the unavoid- 
 able errors in every assigned order growing out of incom- 
 plete observation. In the earliest period and when the 
 babbling monologues begin, the cavity of the mouth takes 
 on an infinitely manifold variety of forms — the lips, tongue, 
 lower jaw, larynx, are moved, and in a greater variety of 
 ways than ever afterward. At the same time there is ex- 
 piration, often loud expiration, and thus originates entire- 
 ly at random sometimes one sound, sometimes another. 
 The child hears sounds and tones new to him, hears his 
 own voice, takes pleasure in it, and delights in making 
 sounds, as he does in moving his limbs in the bath. It is 
 natural that he should find more pleasure in some sounds, 
 in others less. The first are more frequently made by him 
 on account of the motor memories that are associated with 
 the acoustic memories, and an observer does not hear the 
 
APPENDIX A. 241 
 
 others at all if he observes the child only from time to 
 time. In fact, however, almost all simple sounds, even the 
 most difficult, are formed in purity before they are used 
 in speaking in the first eight months — most frequently 
 those that give the child pleasure, that satisfy his desires, 
 or lessen his discomfort. It is not to be forgotten that 
 even the a, which requires effort on account of the drawing 
 back and spreading out of the tongue, diminishes discom- 
 fort. The fretful babe feels better when he cries u-a than 
 when he keeps silent. The second factor is determined by 
 the surroundings of the child. Those sounds which the 
 child distinctly hears he will be able to imitate correctly 
 sooner than he will other sounds : but he will be in condi- 
 tion to hear most correctly, first of all, the sounds that are 
 most frequent, just "because these most frequently excite 
 the auditory nerve and its tract in the brain ; secondly, 
 among these sounds that are acoustically most sharply de- 
 fined, viz., first the vowels, then the resonants (m, n, ng) ; 
 last, the compound " friction-sounds " (fl, schl). But it is 
 only in part that the surroundings determine this order 
 of succession for the sounds. Another thing that partly 
 determines and modifies this order is the child's own un- 
 wearied practice in forming consonant-sounds. He hears 
 his own voice now better than he did at an earlier period 
 when he was forming vowels only. He most easily retains 
 and repeats, among the infinitely manifold consonants 
 that are produced by loud expiration, those which have 
 been distinctly heard by him. This is owing to the asso- 
 ciation of the motor and the acoustic memory-image in 
 the brain. These are the most frequent in his speech. 
 Not until later does the mechanical difficulty of articula- 
 tion exert an influence, and this comes in at the learning 
 of the compound sounds. Hence there can not be any 
 chronological order of succession of sounds that holds 
 
242 THE MIND OF THE CniLD. 
 
 good universally in the language of the child, because each 
 language has a different order in regard to the frequency 
 of appearance of the sounds ; but heredity can have no in- 
 fluence here, because eyery child of average gifts, though 
 it may hear from its birth a language unknown to its an- 
 cestors, if it hears no other, yet learns to speak this lan- 
 guage perfectly. What is hereditary is the great plas- 
 ticity of the entire apparatus of speech, the voice, and with 
 it a number of sounds that are not acquired, as m. An 
 essential reason for the defective formation of sounds in 
 children born deaf is the fact that they do not hear their 
 own voice. This defect may also be hereditary. 
 
 The treatise of F. Schultze contains, besides, many good 
 remarks upon the technique of the language of the child, 
 but, as they are of inferior psychogenetic interest, they need 
 not be particularly mentioned here. Others of them are 
 only partially confirmed by the observations, as is shown 
 by a comparison with what follows. 
 
 G-ustav Lindner (" Twelfth Annual Report of the 
 Lehrer-seminars at Zschopau," 1882, p. 13) heard from 
 his daughter, in her ninth week, arra or drrd, which was 
 uttered for months. Also dckn appeared early. The 
 principle of the least effort Lindner finds to be almost ab- 
 solutely refuted by his observations. He rightly remarks 
 that the frequent repetitions of the same groups of sounds, 
 in the babbling monologues, are due in part to a kind of 
 pleasure in success, such as urges adults also to repeat 
 their successful efforts. Thus his child used to imitate 
 the reading of the newspaper (in the second half-year) by 
 degattegattegatte. In the eleventh and twelfth months 
 the following were utterances of hers in repeating words 
 heard : omama, oia (Eosa), batta (Bertha), dchard (Eich- 
 ard), wiwi (Friedchen), agga (Martha), olla olla (Olga, her 
 own name). Milch (milk) she called mimi, Stuhl (chair) 
 
APPENDIX A. 243 
 
 tichl, Laterne (lantern), Jcatonne, the whistle of an engine 
 in a neighboring factory, wuh (prolonged, onomatopoetic), 
 Paul, gouch, danke (thank you), dagn or dagni, Baum (tree), 
 maum. Another child substituted u for i and e, saying 
 hund for " Kind," and uluwant for " Elephant " ; thus, ein 
 fomme hund lass wade much for " ein frommes Kind lass 
 werden mich " (let me become a pious child). Lindner's 
 child, however, called "werden" not wade but wegen ; 
 and " turnen " she called tung, " blau " balau. At the end 
 of the second year no sound in the German language pre- 
 sented difficulties to the child. Her pronunciation was, 
 however, still incorrect, for the correct pronunciation of 
 the separate sounds does not by any means carry with it 
 the pronunciation of them in their combinations. This 
 remark of Lindner's is directly to the point, and is also 
 confirmed, as I find, by the first attempts of the child of 
 four years to read a word after having learned the separate 
 letters. The learning of the correct pronunciation is also 
 delayed by the child's preference of his original incorrect 
 pronunciation, to which he is accustomed, and which is 
 encouraged by imitations of it on the part of his relatives. 
 Lindner illustrates this by good examples. His child con- 
 tinued to say mimela after " Kamilla " was easy for him. 
 Not till the family stopped saying it did " Kamilla " take 
 its place. At the age of three and a half years the child 
 still said gebhalten for " behalten " and vervloren for " ver- 
 loren," as well as gebhute for " behute." " Grosspapa " 
 was called successively opapa, gropapa, grosspapa. Gross- 
 mama had a corresponding development. " Fleisch " 
 (meat) was first called jeich, then leisch ; " Kartofieln " 
 (potatoes) kaffom, then haftoffehi ; " Zschopau " sopau, 
 schodau, tschopau ; " Sparbiichse " (savings-box) iaMchse, 
 spabiclise, spassiilchse, sparzMchse ; " Haring " (herring, 
 also gold-fish) hanging. A sound out of the second sylla- 
 
244 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 ble goes into the first. The first question, isn das ? from 
 " Was ist denn das ? " (what is that, pray ?) was noticed in 
 the twentieth month ; the interrogative word was ? (what) 
 in the twenty-second month. Wo ? (where) and Wohin ? 
 (whither) had the same meaning (that of the French oil ?), 
 and this as late as in the fourth year. The word " Ich " 
 (I) made its appearance in the thirtieth month. As to 
 verbs, it is to be mentioned that, with the child at two 
 years of age, before the use of the tenses there came the 
 special word denoting activity in general : thus he said, 
 when looking at a head of Christ by Guido Reni, thut 
 beten, instead of " betet " (" does pray," instead of " prays "). 
 The verb " sein " (be) was very much distorted : Warum 
 warst du nicht fleissig gebist ? (gebist for gewesen) (why 
 have you not been industrious?). (Of., pp. 172, 177.) He 
 inflected bin, Must (for bist), bint (ist), binn (sind), bint 
 (sind and seid), #i'?m (sind). Further, wir isn (wir sind, 
 we are), and nun sei ich ruhig (sei for bin) (now I am 
 quiet), and ich habe nicht ruhig geseit (habe for " bin " 
 and geseit for " gewesen ") (I have not been quiet), are 
 worthy of note, because they show how strong an influence 
 in the formation of words during the transition period is 
 exerted by the forms most frequently heard — here the im- 
 perative. The child used first of all the imperative ; last 
 the subjunctive. The superlative and comparative were 
 not used by this child until the fourth year. 
 
 The observations of Lindner (edited anew in the peri- 
 odical " Kosmos " for 1882) are among the best we have. 
 
 In the case of four brothers and sisters, whose mother, 
 Frau Dr. Friedemann, of Berlin, has most kindly placed 
 at my disposal trustworthy observations concerning them, 
 the first articulate sounds heard were ard, hdgd, ache, and 
 a deep guttural, rattling or snarling sound (Schnarren) ; 
 but the last was heard from only one of the children. 
 
APPENDIX A. 245 
 
 The above syllables contain three consonants (r, h, ch) that 
 are declared by many, wrongly, to be very late in their ap- 
 pearance. These children in their first attempts at speak- 
 ing often left out the first consonant of a word pronounced 
 for them, or else substituted for it the one last heard, as 
 if their memory were not equal to the retaining of the 
 sounds heard first : e. g., in the fifteenth month they 
 would say te, t for Hut (hat), Bale for Rosalie ; in the 
 twenty-fourth, Tcanhe for danke (thank you), hecke for 
 Deche (covering), Jcucker for Zucher (sugar), huch, liuclie 
 for Schuh, Schuhe (shoe, shoes), fifteenth month. In the 
 last two cases comes in, to explain the omission, also the 
 mechanical difficulty of the Z and Sch. The oldest of 
 these children, a girl, when a year old, used to say, when 
 she refused anything, ateta, with a shake of the head. 
 She knew her own image in the glass, and pointed at it, 
 saying taU (for Kate). In the following table the Roman 
 figures stand for the month ; F 1? F 2 , F 3 , F 4 , for the four 
 children in the order of their ages. No further explana- 
 tion will be needed : 
 
 VIII. papa distinctly (F t ) ; dada, da, deda, first sylla- 
 bles (F 4 ) ; derta for Bertha (F t ). 
 
 X. dada, name for all possible objects (F 2 ) ; papa (F 3 ) ; 
 ada, mama, detta (F 4 ). 
 
 XII. puppe (doll) correctly ; tdte for Kate (F t ) ; ida, 
 papa, tata for Tante (aunt) ; tdte (F 4 ). 
 
 XIII. mama, detta for Bertha ; wauwau (F 2 ) ; lata (F 4 ). 
 
 XIV. la for laden (bathe) (F 2 ). 
 
 XV. hia for Ida ; ate for artig (well-behaved) ; da for 
 danhe ; lappen for essen (eat) ; piep ; ja, nein (yes, no) 
 correctly (Fj). 
 
 XVI. ei (egg) correctly ; feisch for Fleisch (meat) ; 
 waffer for Wasser (water); wuffe for Suppe (Fj) ; tatte 
 for Tante; tittak ; Hut (F 3 ). 
 
 19 
 
246 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 XIX. at for Katze (cat) ; dull for Kuh (cow) ; wan for 
 Schiuan (swan) ; nine for Kaninchen (rabbit) ; betta for 
 Blatter (leaves) ; butta for Butterblume (buttercup) ; fiede- 
 mann for Friedemann ; tati for Kati (F a ) ; gad for gerade 
 (straight) ; humm for hrumm (crooked) (F 3 ). 
 
 XX. fidat for Zivieback (biscuit) ; tierdatten for Thier- 
 garten (zoological garden) ; waden for wagen (carriage) ; 
 nahnaden for Nahnadel (needle) ; wetuette for serviette 
 (napkin) ; teid for Kleid (dress) ; weife for Seife (soap) ; 
 famm for Schiuamm (sponge) ; tonnat for Konrad ; potne 
 for Portemonnaie ; hauf for lierauf (up here) ; limit a for 
 herunter (down here) ; Mfa& ^?a/?a for &e#er (dear) papa 
 (F t ) ; M for Thilr (door) ; ban for bauen (build) ; teta for 
 Kate ; manna for Amanda ; ta for ^rwfow- T«^ (good-day) ; 
 leu for Kugel (ball) (F 2 ) ; appudieJi for Apfelmuss (apple- 
 sauce) ; m&A for Milch (milk) ; ule pomm for Ulrich 
 homm (Ulrich come) ; hu for Kuclien (cake) ; lilte for 
 Matliilde (F 3 ). 
 
 XXI. teine for Steine (stones) ; bimelein for Bliime- 
 lein (little flowers) ; mamase for Mamaclien (little mama) ; 
 tettern for Met tern (climb) ; P«/j« wern^ %£g (Papa doesn't 
 cry), first sentence (F a ) ; Mamase, Tate artig — T^ss (means 
 Mamaclien, Kate ist wieder artig, gib ihr einen Kuss) 
 (Mamma, darling, Katy is good again, give her a kiss) 
 (Fj) ; Amanda's Hut, Mamases Hirm (for Schirm) (Aman- 
 da's hat, mamma's umbrella), first use of the genitive case 
 (F t ) ; Mein Bucli (my book) ; dein Ball (thy ball) (F^ ; 
 das f for teas ist das 9 (what is that ?) in the tone of in- 
 terrogation (Fj) dida for Ida ; lata for Rosalie ; fadi for 
 Falme (flag) ; bikla for Briiderchen (little brother) ; liu-e 
 for Scliulie (shoes) ; mai maicli, for meine Milch (my milk) 
 
 XXII. husch for Kuss (kiss) ; s<?7i generally used in- 
 stead of s for months (F 3 ). 
 
APPENDS a. 247 
 
 XXIII. koka for Cacao ; batt for Bett (bed) ; emmu 
 for Hellmatli (light-heartedness) ; nanna mommom (Bon- 
 bon) ; papa, appel for Papa, bitte einen Apfel (Papa, 
 please, an apple) (F 2 ) ; petsclier for Schtvester (sister) ; till 
 for still ; Mis for Ililch ; liiba vata for lieber Vater (dear 
 father) (F 3 ). 
 
 XXIV. pija eine for eine Fliege (a fly) ; pipik for 
 Musik. Sentences begin to be formed (F 3 ). 
 
 XXV. pater for Vater (father) ; appelsine for Apfel- 
 sine (orange) (F 2 ). 
 
 All these observations confirm my results in regard to 
 articulation, viz., that in very many cases the more diffi- 
 cult sounds, i. e., those that require a more complicated 
 muscular action, are either omitted or have their places 
 supplied by others ; but this rule does not by any means 
 hold good universally : e. g., the sound preferred by F 3 , 
 sch, is more difficult than s, and my child very often 
 failed to produce it as late as the first half of the fourth 
 year. 
 
 In the twenty-second month, in the case of the intelli- 
 gent little girl F 1? numbering began suddenly. She took 
 small stones from a table in the garden, one after another, 
 and counted them distinctly up to the ninth. The per- 
 sons present could not explain this surprising perform- 
 ance (for the child had not learned to count) until it was 
 discovered that on the previous day some one had counted 
 the stairs for the child in going up. My child did not be- 
 gin to count till the twenty-ninth month, and, indeed, al- 
 though he knew the numbers (their names, not their 
 meaning), he counted only by adding one to one (cf. 
 above, p. 172). Sigismund's boy, long before he formed 
 sentences, on seeing two horsemen, one following the other 
 at a short interval, said, eite (for Reiter) ! nodi eins I This 
 proves the activity of the faculty of numbering. 
 
248 THE HI1\ T D OF THE CHILD. 
 
 The boy F 3 , at the age of two and two thirds years, still 
 said scliank for Sclirank and nopf for Knopf, and, on be- 
 ing told to say Sch-r-ank plainly, he said rrr-sclicmk. 
 This child from the thirty-first month on made mnch nse 
 of the interrogative words. Warum ? weshalb ? he asked 
 at every opportunity; very often, too, was? werf too? 
 (Why ? wherefore ? what ? who ? where ?) ; sometimes was ? 
 four or five times when he had been spoken to. When 
 the meaning of what had been said was made plain, then 
 the child stopped asking questions. 
 
 The little girl F 4 , in her thirteenth month, always says, 
 when she sees a clock, didda (for " tick-tack," which has 
 been said to her), and imitates with her finger the move- 
 ment of the pendulum. It was noticed of this child that, 
 when not yet five months old, she would accompany a 
 song, sung for her by her mother, with a continuous, 
 drawling ah-ali-ah ; but, as soon as the mother stopped, 
 the child became silent also. The experiment was one 
 day (the one hundred and forty-fifth of the child's life) 
 repeated nine times, with the same result. 
 
 I have myself repeatedly observed that babes in the 
 fourth month respond to words spoken in a forcible, pleas- 
 ant manner with sounds indeterminate often, with 6-e 
 and other vowels. There is no imitation in this, but a re- 
 action that is possible only through participation of the 
 cerebrum, as in the case of the joyous sounds at music at 
 an earlier period. 
 
 The date at which the words heard from members of 
 the family are for the first time clearly imitated, and the 
 time when the words of the mother-tongue are first used 
 independently, depends, undoubtedly, with children in 
 sound condition, chiefly upon the extent to which people 
 occupy themselves with the children. According to Heinr. 
 Feldmann (Be statu normali functionum corporis hu~ 
 
APPENDIX A. 249 
 
 mani. Inaugural dissertation, Bonn, 1833, p. 3), thirty- 
 three children spoke for the first time {prima verba fece- 
 runt) as follows : 
 
 14 15 16 17 18 19 Month. 
 
 1 8 19 3 1 1 . Children. 
 
 Of these there could walk alone 
 
 8 9 10 11 12 Month. 
 
 3 24 - G Children. 
 
 According to this, it is generally the case (the author 
 presumably observed Khenish children) that the first inde- 
 pendent step is taken in walking several months earlier 
 than the first word is spoken. But the statement of Hey- 
 felder is not correct, that the average time at which sound 
 children learn to walk (" laufen lernen ") comes almost ex- 
 actly at the completion of the twelfth month. The greater 
 part of them are said by him to begin to walk a few days 
 before or after the 365th day. E. Demme observed that 
 the greater part began to walk between the twelfth and 
 eighteenth months, and my inquiries yield a similar result. 
 Sigismund's boy could run before he imitated words and 
 gestures, and he did not yet form a sentence when he had 
 more than sixty words at his command. Of two sisters, 
 the elder could not creep in her thirteenth month, could 
 walk alone for the first time in the fifteenth month, step 
 over a threshold alone in the eighteenth, jump down alone 
 from a threshold in the nineteenth, run nimbly in the 
 twentieth; the younger, on the other hand, could creep 
 alone cleverly at the beginning of the tenth month, even 
 over thresholds, could take the first unsteady steps alone 
 in the thirteenth, and stride securely over the threshold 
 alone in the fifteenth. In spite of this considerable start 
 the younger child was not, by a great deal, so far advanced 
 
250 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 in articulation, in repeating words after others, and in the 
 use of words, in her fifteenth month, as the elder was in 
 her fifteenth. The latter spoke before she walked, the 
 former ran before she spoke (Frau von Strumpell). My 
 child could imitate gestures (beckoning, clinching the fist, 
 nodding the head) and single syllables (heiss), before he 
 could walk, and did not learn to speak till after that; 
 whereas the child observed by Wyma could stand firmly at 
 nine months, and walk soon after, and he spoke at the 
 same age. Inasmuch as in such statistical materials the 
 important thing is to know what is meant by " speaking 
 for the first time," whether it be saying mama, or imitat- 
 ing, or using correctly a word of the language that is to 
 be spoken later, or forming a sentence of more than one 
 word — and yet on these points data are lacking — we can not 
 regard the laborious inquiries and collections as of much 
 value. Children in sound condition walk for the most 
 part before they speak, and understand what is said long 
 before they walk. A healthy boy, born on the 13th of 
 July, 1873, ran alone for the first time on the 1st of No- 
 vember, 1874, and formed his first sentence, Ma muta ji 
 (" Marie ! die Mutter ist ausgegangen," /{ = adieu) (Mary, 
 mother has gone out), on the 21st of November, 1875, thus 
 a full year later (Schulte). 
 
 More important, psychogenetically, are observations 
 concerning the forming of new words with a definite 
 meaning before learning to speak — words not to be con- 
 sidered as mutilations, imperfectly imitated or onomato- 
 poetic forms (these, too, would be imitations), or as original 
 primitive interjections. In spite of observations and in- 
 quiries directed especially to this point, I have not been 
 able to make sure that any inventions of that sort are 
 made before there has taken place, through the medium 
 of the child's relatives, the first association of ideas with 
 
APPENDIX A. 251 
 
 articulate sounds and syllables. There is no reason for 
 supposing them to be made by children. According to 
 the foregoing data, they are not thus made. All the in- 
 stances of word-inventions of a little boy, communicated 
 by Prof. S. S. Haldemann, of the University at Philadel- 
 phia, in his " Note on the Invention of Words " (" Pro- 
 ceedings of the American Philological Association," July 
 14, 1880) are, like those noted by Taine, by Holden (see 
 below), by myself, and others, onomatopoetic (imitative, 
 pp. 160, 91). He called a cow m, a bell tin-tin (Holden's 
 boy called a church-bell ling-dong-mang [communicated 
 in correspondence]), a locomotive tsJiu, tshu, the noise 
 made by throwing objects into the water doom, and he ex- 
 tended this word to mean throw, strike, fall, spill, without 
 reference to the sound). But the point of departure here, 
 also, was the sound. In consideration of the fact that a 
 sound formed in imitation of it, that is, a repetition of the 
 tympanic vibrations by means of the vibrations of the 
 vocal cords, is employed as a word for a phenomenon asso- 
 ciated with the sound — that this is done by means of the 
 faculty of generalization belonging to children that are 
 intelligent but as yet without speech — it is perfectly allow- 
 able, notwithstanding the scruples and objections of even 
 a Max Miiller, to look for the origin of language in the 
 imitation of sounds and the repetition of our own inborn 
 vocal sounds, and so in an imitation. For the power of 
 forming concepts must have manifested itself in the primi- 
 tive man, as is actually the case in the infant, by move- 
 ments of many sorts before articulate language existed. 
 The question is, not whether the roots of language origi- 
 nated onomatopoetically or interjectionally, but simply 
 whether they originated through imitation or not. For 
 interjections, all of them, could in no way come to be 
 joined together so as to be means of mutual understand- 
 
252 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 ing, i. e., words, unless one person imitated those of an- 
 other. Now if the alalic child be tested as to whether 
 he forms new words in any other way than by imitation 
 and transformation of what he imitates, i. e., whether he 
 forms them solely of his own ability, be it by the combi- 
 nation of impulsive sounds of his own or of sounds acci- 
 dentally arising in loud expiration, we find no sure case of 
 it. Sound combinations, syllables — and those not in the 
 least imitated — there are in abundance, but that even a 
 single one is, without the intervention of the persons about 
 the child, constantly associated with one and the same 
 idea (before other ideas have received their verbal designa- 
 tion — likewise by means of the members of the family — 
 and have been made intelligible to the child), can not be 
 shown to be probable. My observations concerning the 
 word atta (p. 122 et al.) would tend in that direction, were 
 it not that the atta, uttered in the beginning without 
 meaning, had first got the meaning of " away," through 
 the fact that atta was once said by somebody at going 
 away. 
 
 So long as proof is wanting, we can not believe that 
 each individual child discovers anew the fundamental fact 
 of the expression of ideas by movements of the tongue ; 
 but we have to admit that he has inherited the faculty for 
 such expression, and simply manifests it when he finds 
 occasion for imitations. 
 
 The first person that has attempted to fix the number 
 of all the words used by the child, independently, before 
 the beginning of the third year of life (and these only), is 
 an astronomer, E. S. Holden, director of the Observatory 
 of the University at Madison, Wisconsin. His results in 
 the case of three children have been recently published 
 (in the " Transactions of the American Philological Asso- 
 ciation," 1887, pp. 58-68). 
 
APPENDIX A. 253 
 
 Holden found, by help of Webster's " Unabridged Dic- 
 tionary," his own vocabulary to consist of 33,456 words, 
 with a probable error of one per cent. Allowing a prob- 
 able error of two per cent, his vocabulary would be com- 
 prised between the limits of 34,125 words and 32,787 
 words. A vocabulary of 25,000 words and over is, accord- 
 ing to the researches of himself and his friends, by no 
 means an unusual one for grown persons of average intel- 
 ligence and education. . 
 
 Holden now determined in the most careful manner 
 the words actually used by two children during the twenty- 
 fourth month of their lives. A friend in England ascer- 
 tained the same for a third child. All doubtful words 
 were rigidly excluded. For example, words from nursery 
 rhymes were excluded, unless they were independently 
 and separately used in the same way with words of daily 
 and common use. In the first two cases the words so ex- 
 cluded are above 500 in number. Again, the names of 
 objects represented in pictures were not included unless 
 they were often spontaneously used by the children. The 
 lists of words are presented in the order of their initial 
 letters, because the ease or difficulty of pronouncing a 
 word, the author is convinced, largely determines its early 
 or late adoption. In this I can not fully agree with him, 
 on the ground of my own experience (particularly since I 
 have myself been teaching my child English, in his fourth 
 year; he learns the language easily). It is not correct 
 that the pronunciation rather than the meaning makes 
 the learning of a word difficult. Thus, in all three of 
 Holden's cases, the words that have the least easy initial (s) 
 predominate ; the child, however, avoided them and substi- 
 tuted easy ones. Holden makes no mention of this ; and in 
 his list of all the words used he puts together, strangely, 
 under one and the same letter, without regard to their 
 
254 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 sound- (phonic) value, vocables that begin with entirely 
 different sounds. Thus, e. g., under c are found corner 
 (k), chair (tsch), cellar (s) ; under k, actually knee (n) 
 and keep (k), and, under s, words that begin with the same 
 s-sound as in cellar, e. g., soap, and also words beginning 
 with the sch-souii&, sugar, and with st, siv, sm, and many 
 others. As the words of the three children are grouped, 
 not according to the sounds with which they begin, but 
 according to their initial letters, into twenty-six classes, the 
 author's conclusions can not be admitted. The words 
 must first all be arranged according to their initial sounds. 
 When this task is accomplished, which brings no and 
 1cnow, e. g., into one class, ivrap and rag into a second — 
 whereas they were put in four different classes — then we 
 find by no means the same order of succession that Holden 
 gives. The author wrote to me, however, in 1882, that 
 his oldest child understood at least 1,000 words more than 
 those enumerated here, i. e., than those published by him, 
 and that with both children facility of pronunciation had 
 more influence in regard to the use of words than did 
 the ease with which the words could be understood ; this, 
 however, does not plainly follow from the printed state- 
 ments before me, as he admits. When the first-born child 
 was captivated by a new word, she was accustomed to 
 practice it by herself, alone, and then to come and em- 
 ploy it with a certain pride. The second child did so, too, 
 only in a less striking manner. The boy, on the contrary, 
 who was four years old in December, 1881, and who had 
 no ear for music and less pride than his sisters, did not do 
 as they did. 
 
 Further, the statements of the number of all the nouns, 
 adjectives, verbs, and adverbs used by a child of two years 
 are of interest, although they present several errors : e. g., 
 supper makes its appearance twice in the case of the same 
 
APPENDIX A. 
 
 255 
 
 child under s, and enough figures as an adjective. For 
 the three girls, in their twenty-fourth month, the results 
 were : 
 
 Parts of Speech. 
 
 First child. 
 
 Second child. 
 
 Third child. 
 
 Nouns 
 
 285 
 
 107 
 
 34 
 
 29 
 
 28 
 
 230 
 90 
 37 
 17 
 25 
 
 113 
 
 Verbs , 
 
 30 
 
 Adjectives 
 
 13 
 
 Adverbs 
 
 6 
 
 Other parts of speech .... 
 
 11 
 
 Total 
 
 483 
 
 399 
 
 173 
 
 
 
 A fourth child, brother of the first and second, made 
 use (according to the lists kindly communicated to me by 
 the author), in his twenty-fourth month, of 227 nouns — 
 some proper names among them — 105 verbs, 22 adjectives, 
 10 adverbs, and 33 words of the remaining classes (all 
 these figures being taken from the notes of the child's 
 mother). 
 
 From these four vocabularies of the twenty-fourth 
 month it plainly results that the stock of words and the 
 kinds of words depend primarily on the words most used 
 in the neighborhood of the child, and the objects most 
 frequently perceived ; they can not, therefore, be alike in 
 different children. The daughters of the astronomer, be- 
 fore their third year, name correctly a portrait of Galileo, 
 and one of Struve. A local " tone," or peculiarity of this 
 sort, attaches to every individual child, a general one to 
 the children of a race. I may add that the third child 
 (in England) seems to have been less accurately observed 
 than the others (in Madison, Wisconsin). Great patience 
 and attention are required to observe and note down every 
 word used by a child in a month. 
 
 Without mentioning the name of Holden, but refer- 
 
256 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 ring to his investigations, which, in spite of the defects 
 mentioned, are of the very highest merit, M. W. Humph- 
 reys, Professor of Greek in Vanderbilt University, Nash- 
 ville, has published a similar treatise, based on observa- 
 tions of his own (" A Contribution to Infantile Linguistic," 
 in the " Transactions of the American Philological Asso- 
 ciation," 1880, xi, pp. 6-17). He collected, with the help 
 of a dictionary, all the words that a little girl of just two 
 years " had full command of," whether correctly pro- 
 nounced or not, and whether they appeared exactly in the 
 twenty-fourth month or earlier. He simply required to 
 be convinced that every one of the words was understood 
 and had been spontaneously used, and could still be used. 
 He did not include proper names, or words (amounting 
 to hundreds) from nursery-rhymes, or numerals, or names 
 of the days of the week, because he was not sure that 
 -fche child had a definite idea associated with them. The 
 vocabulary thus numbered 1,121 words : 592 nouns, 283 
 verbs, 114 adjectives, 56 adverbs, 35 pronouns, 28 preposi- 
 tions, 5 conjunctions, and 8 interjections. In this table 
 irregular verb- and noun-forms are not counted as sepa- 
 rate words, except in the case of defective verbs, as am y 
 was, been. The author presents the 1,121 words according 
 to their classification as parts of speech, and according to 
 initial letters, not according to initial sounds, although he 
 himself declares this an erroneous proceeding, as I did in 
 discussing Holden's paper. The only reason for it was 
 convenience. 
 
 In the adoption of a word by the child, difficulty of 
 utterance had some influence in the first year ; when the 
 little girl was two years old, this had ceased to have any 
 effect whatever. She had by that time adopted certain 
 substitutes for letters that she could not pronounce, and 
 words containing these letters were employed by her as 
 
APPENDIX A. 257 
 
 freely as if the substitutes had been the correct sounds. 
 In regard to the meaning, and the frequency of use de- 
 pendent upon it, it is to be observed that the simplest 
 ideas are most frequently expressed. When two words are 
 synonymous, one of them will be used exclusively by a 
 child, because of the rarer employment of the other by- 
 persons speaking in the child's presence. Here, too, the 
 local " tone " that has been mentioned made itself felt ; 
 thus, the little girl used the word " crinoid " every day, 
 to designate sections of fossil crinoid stems which abounded 
 in neighboring gravel walks. 
 
 As to parts of speech, nouns were most readily seized ; 
 then, in order, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns. Prepo- 
 sitions and conjunctions the child began to employ early, 
 but acquired them slowly. Natural interjections — tuali, 
 for instance — she used to some extent from the beginning ; 
 conventional ones came rather late. 
 
 The following observations by Humphreys are very 
 remarkable, and are, in part, up to this time unique : 
 
 When about four months old the child began a curious 
 and amusing mimicry of conversation, in which she so 
 closely imitated the ordinary cadences that persons in an 
 adjacent room would mistake it for actual conversation. 
 The articulation, however, was indistinct, and the vowel- 
 sounds obscure, and no attempt at separate words, whether 
 real or imaginary, was made until she was six months old, 
 when she articulated most syllables distinctly, without any 
 apparent effort. 
 
 When she was eight months old it was discovered that 
 she knew by name every person in the house, as well as 
 most of the objects in her room, and the parts of the body, 
 especially of the face. She also understood simple sen- 
 tences, such as, " Where is the fire ? " " Where is the baby 
 in the glass ? " to which she would reply by pointing. In 
 
258 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 the following months she named many things correctly, 
 thus using words as words in the proper sense. The 
 pronunciation of some final consonants was indistinct, but 
 all initial consonants were distinctly pronounced, except 
 th, t, U, n, I These the child learned in the eleventh 
 month. At this period she could imitate with accuracy 
 any sound given her, and had a special preference for ng 
 (ngang, ngeng), beginning a mimicry of language again, 
 this time using real or imaginary words, without reference 
 to signification. But an obscurity of vowel-sounds had 
 begun again. After the first year her facility of utterance 
 seemed to have been lost, so that she watched the mouths 
 of others closely when they were talking, and labored pain- 
 fully after the sounds. Finally, she dropped her mimicry 
 of language, and, at first very slowly, acquired words with 
 the ordinary infant pronunciation, showing a preference 
 for labials (p, b, m) and Unguals (t, d, n, not I). Present- 
 ly she substituted easy sounds for difficult ones. In the 
 period from eighteen months to two years of age, the fol- 
 lowing defects of articulation appeared regularly : v was 
 pronounced like b, th (this) like d, th (thin) like t, z like 
 d, s like t, r like w, j like d, ch like t, sh like t ; further : 
 
 Initial. Final. 
 
 / like to, f like p, 
 
 I not at all, I correctly, 
 
 g like d, g correctly, 
 
 h like t, h correctly, 
 
 and in general correctly, m, J, p, n, d, t, h, ng, w. On the 
 other hand, the initial sounds lit, br, pi, pr, fl, fr, dr, tr, 
 thr, sp, st, became b, b, p, p, w, iv, d, t, t, p, t ; and the ini- 
 tial sounds sh, sw, sm, sn, si, gl, gr, hw, hi, hr, hw, became 
 t, w, m, n, t (for s), d, iv, id, t, w, hw (h weak). The let- 
 ter y was not pronounced at all, at first. 
 
 From this table, as Humphreys rightly observes, may 
 
APPENDIX A. 259 
 
 be drawn the following conclusions in regard to the initial 
 sounds of words : 
 
 "When a letter which could be pronounced correctly 
 preceded another, the first was retained, but, if both were 
 represented by substitutes, the second was retained. If, 
 however, the second was one which the child made silent, 
 then she pronounced the first. Thus, tr = t, kr = w (for 
 r), hl—t (for &, I being one of her silent letters). With 
 these results should be compared those presented in regard 
 to German children, in the paper of Fritz Schultze (p. 239 
 above) (which likewise are not of universal application). 
 
 The accent was for the most part placed on the last 
 syllable. Only one case of the invention of a new word 
 could be established. When the child was about eighteen 
 months old, a fly flew all about her plate when she was 
 eating, and she exclaimed, " The old fly went wiggely- 
 waggely." But at this time the child had already learned 
 to speak; she knew, therefore, that perceptions are ex- 
 pressed by words. Notwithstanding, the original inven- 
 tion remains remarkable, unless there may be found in it 
 a reminiscence of some expression out of nursery-talk (cf., 
 p. 238). Until the eighteenth month, " no " signified both 
 " yes " and " no." 
 
 At the end of two years subordinate propositions were 
 correctly employed. This was the case also with a Ger- 
 man girl in Jena, who, for instance, said, "The ball 
 which Puck has" (P. Fiirbringer). In the case of my 
 boy such sentences did not make their appearance till 
 much later. 
 
 I had hoped to find trustworthy observations in several 
 other works besides those mentioned. Their titles led one 
 to expect statements concerning the acquirement of speech 
 by little children ; thus, " Das Kind, Tagebuch eines 
 Vaters" ("The Child, A Father's Diary "), by II. Sem- 
 
260 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 mig (second edition, Leipsic, 1876), and the book of B. 
 Perez, already named (p. 239). But inasmuch as for the 
 former of these writers the first cry of the newly-born is a 
 " triumphal song of everlasting life," and for the second 
 author "the glance" is associated with "the magnetic 
 effluvia of the will," I must leave both of these works out 
 of consideration. The second contains many statements 
 concerning the doings and sayings of little children in 
 France ; but these can not easily be turned to account. 
 
 The same author has issued a new edition, in abridged 
 form, of the "Memoirs," written, according to him, by 
 Dietrich Tiedemann, of a son of Tiedemann two years of 
 age (the biologist, Friedrich Tiedemann, born in 1781). 
 (Tliierri Tiedemann et la science cle V enfant. Mes deux 
 chats. Fragment de psycliologie comparee par Bernard 
 Perez. Paris, 1881, pp. 7-38 ; Tiedemann, 39-78. " The 
 First Six Weeks of Two Cats.") But it is merely on ac- 
 count of its historical interest that the book is mentioned 
 here, as the scanty (and by no means objective) notes of 
 the diary were made a hundred years ago. The treatises 
 of Pollock and Egger, mentioned in the periodical " Mind " 
 (London, July, 1881, No. 23), I am not acquainted with, 
 and the same is true of the work of Schwarz (mentioned 
 above, p. 224). 
 
 Very good general statements concerning the child's 
 acquisition of speech are to be found in Degerando 
 (" L'education des sourds-muets de naissance," 1 vol., Paris, 
 1827, pp. 32-57). He rightly maintains that the child 
 learns to speak through his own observation, without at- 
 tention from other persons, far more than through sys- 
 tematic instruction ; the looks and gestures of the mem- 
 bers of the family when talking with one another are es- 
 pecially observed by the child, who avails himself of them 
 in divining the meaning of the words he hears. This 
 
APPENDIX A. 261 
 
 divining, or guessing, plays in fact a chief part in the 
 learning of speech, as I have several times remarked. 
 
 New comprehensive diaries concerning the actions of 
 children in the first years of life are urgently to be de- 
 sired. They should contain nothing but well-established 
 facts, no hypotheses, and no repetitions of the statements 
 of others. 
 
 Among the very friendly notes that have been sent to 
 me, the following particularly conform to the above re- 
 quirements. They were most kindly placed at my disposal 
 by the Baroness von Taube, of Esthonia, daughter of the 
 very widely and honorably known Count Keyserling. 
 They relate to her first-born child, and come all of them 
 from the mother herself : 
 
 In the first five months I heard from my son, when he cried, all 
 the vowels. The sound a was the first and most frequent. Of the 
 consonants, on the other hand, 1 heard only g, which appeared after 
 seven weeks. When the child was fretful he often cried gege ; when 
 in good humor he often repeated the syllables agu, ago, clou, ogo, 
 eia ; then I came in, ul. 
 
 The same sounds in the case of my daughter ; but from her I 
 heard, up to her tenth month, in spite of all my observation, no 
 other consonants than g, b, w, rarely I, and finally m-sounds. With 
 my son at the beginning of the seventh month an It-sound appeared 
 — grr, grrr, plainly associated with d in dirr dirr. These sounds 
 were decidedly sounds of discomfort, which expressed dissatisfaction, 
 violent excitement, sleepiness ; and they are made even now by the 
 boy at four years of age when, e. g., he is in pain. In the ninth 
 month dada and b, bab-a, bdb-d are added. Ago also is often said, 
 and o still more often. This o is already a kind of conscious at- 
 tempt at speaking, for he uses it when he sees anything new, e. g., 
 the dog Caro, which he observes with eager attention, as he does 
 the cat, uttering aloud meanwhile o, 6. 
 
 If any one is called, the child calls in a very loud voice, 0, oe ! 
 
 First imitation. (Gestures have been imitated since the eighth 
 
 month, and the making of grimaces in the child's presence had to be 
 
 strictly forbidden.) Understanding for what is said is also present, 
 
 20 
 
262 TIDE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 for when one calls " Caro, Caro," in his hearing, he looks about him 
 as if he were looking for the dog. In the tenth month he often re- 
 peats Pap-ba, but it has no significance. 
 
 If " Backe backe kuchen " (" bake cakes," corresponding to our 
 " pat-a-cake "•) is said to him, he immediately pats his hands as if 
 preparing bread for baking. In the eleventh month Pap-ba is 
 dropped. He now says often dddddddd, and, when he is dull or ex- 
 cited (erregt) or sleepy, drin, drin. These r-sounds do not occur with 
 my daughter ; but since her tenth month she uses m-sounds, mamma 
 when she is sleepy or dull. The boy now stretches out his hand 
 and beckons when he sees any one at a distance. At sight of any- 
 thing new, he no longer says 6, but dda (twelfth month). He likes 
 to imitate gestures with his arms and mouth; he observes atten- 
 tively the movements of the lips of one who is speaking, sometimes 
 touching at the same time the mouth of the speaker with his finger. 
 
 At ten months the first teeth came. In the eleventh month the 
 child was for the first time taken out into the open air. Now the 
 ^-sounds again become prominent — aga, ga, gugag. The child be- 
 gins to creep, but often falls, and while making his toilsome efforts 
 keeps crying out in a very comical manner, dch, dch, dch I 
 
 At eleven and a half months a great advance. The child is now 
 much out of doors, and enjoys seeing horses, cows, hens, and ducks. 
 When he sees the hens he says gog, gog, and even utters some croak- 
 ing sounds. He can also imitate at once the sound prrr when it is 
 pronounced to him. If papa is pronounced for him (he has lost 
 this word), he responds regularly wawa or wawawa. I have only 
 once heard wauwau from him. If he hears anybody cough, he im- 
 mediately gives a little imitative cough in fun (vol. i, p. 288), and 
 this sounds very comical. 
 
 He makes much use of od, ado, and ad, and this also when he 
 sees pictures. When the boy had reached the age of a year, he was 
 weaned ; from that time his mental development was very rapid. If 
 any one sings to him gi ga gack, he responds invariably gack. 
 
 He begins to adapt sounds to objects : imitation of sound is the 
 chief basis of this adaptation. He calls the ducks with gdk, gdh, 
 and imitates the cock, after a fashion, names the dog aua (this he 
 got from his nurse), not only when he sees the animal, but also when 
 he hears him bark. E. g., the child is playing busily with paste- 
 board boxes ; the dog begins to bark outside of the house ; the child 
 listens and says aua. I roll his little carriage back and forth ; he 
 
APPENDIX A. 263 
 
 immediately says brrr, pointing to it with his hand ; he wants to 
 ride, and I have to put him in (he had heard hurra, as a name for 
 riding, from his nurse). When he sees a horse, he says prr (this has 
 likewise been said for him). 
 
 I remark here that the notion that the child thinks out its own 
 language — a notion I have often met with, held by people not 
 well informed in regard to this matter — rests on defective observa- 
 tion. The child has part of his language given to him by others ; 
 part is the result of his own sound-imitations — of animals, e. g. — and 
 part rests on mutilations of our language. At the beginning of the 
 thirteenth month he suddenly names all objects and pictures, for 
 some days, dodo, toto, which takes the place of his former o ; then 
 he calls them niana, which he heard frequently, as it means " nurse " 
 in Russian. Everything now is called niana : dirr continues to be 
 the sign of extreme discomfort. 
 
 Papba is no more said, ever ; on the other hand, mamma ap- 
 pears for the first time, but without any significance, still less with 
 any application to the mother. 
 
 The word niana becomes now the expression of desire, whether 
 of his food or of going to somebody or somewhere. Sometimes, also, 
 under the same circumstances, he cries mamma and mamma ; the 
 dog is now decidedly called aua, the horse prr. 
 
 14th Month. — He now names also single objects in his picture- 
 book : the dog, aua, the cats, tith (pronounced as in English), kiss 
 kiss having been said for him ; horses, prr, all birds, gock or gack. 
 In the house of a neighbor he observes at once the picture, although 
 it hangs high up on the wall, of the emperor driving in a sleigh, 
 and cries prrr. Animals that he does not know he calls, whether in 
 the book or the real animals, aua or ua, e. g. cows. 
 
 His nurse, to whom he is much attached, he now calls decidedly 
 niania, although he continues to use this word in another sense 
 also. If she is absent for some time, he calls, longingly, niania, 
 niania. He sometimes calls me mamma ; but not quite surely yet. 
 He babbles a good deal to himself ; says over all his words, and 
 makes variations in his repertory, e.g., niana, Tcanna, danna; re- 
 peats syllables and words, producing also quite strange and unusual 
 sounds, and accumulations of consonants, like mba, mpta. As soon 
 as he wakes in the morning he takes up these meaningless language- 
 exercises, and I hear him then going on in an endless babble. 
 
 When he does not want a thing, he shakes his head as a sign of 
 
264 TIIE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 refusal ; this no one has taught him. Nodding the head as a sign of 
 assent or affirmation he is not yet acquainted with, and learns it 
 much later. 
 
 The nurse speaks with me of Caro ; the child attends and says 
 aua ; he knows what we were talking about. If his grandmother 
 says, " Give the little hand," he at once stretches it out toward her. 
 He understands what is said, and begins consciously to repeat it. 
 His efforts to pronounce the word Grossmama (grandmamma) are 
 comical ; in spite of all his pains, he can not get beyond the gr ; says 
 Gr-mama, and finally Goo-mama, and makes this utterance every 
 time he sees his grandmother. At this time he learns also from his 
 nurse the word koppa as a name for horse, instead of prr, hurra, 
 which, from this time forth, denotes only going in a carriage. 
 Koppa is probably a formation from " hoppa koppati," an imitation 
 of the sound of the hoofs. 
 
 /~ At the end of the fourteenth month, his stock of words is much 
 enlarged. The child plays much in the open air, sees much, and 
 advances in his development ; words and sounds are more and more 
 suited to conceptions. He wakes in the night and says appa, which 
 means "Give me some drink." The ball he calls Ball; flower, 
 Bume (for Blume) ; cat, katz and kotz (Katze) — what kalla, kanna, 
 kotta signify we do not know. He imitates the barking of the dog 
 with auauauau. He says teine for Steine (stones); calls Braten 
 (roast meat) pdati and pda, and Brod (bread) the same. If he hits 
 against anything in creeping, he immediately says ha (it hurts). If 
 he comes near a dangerous object, and some one says to him, ha, he 
 is on his guard at once. 
 
 A decided step in advance, at the end of the fourteenth month, 
 is his calling me Mama. At sight of me he often cries out, in a 
 loud voice and in a coaxing tone, ei-mamma / just as he calls the 
 nurse ei-niana. His father he now calls Papa, too, but not until 
 now, although this sound, papba, made its appearance in the tenth 
 month, after which time it was completely forgotten. His grand- 
 mother, as he can not get beyond the gr, is now called simply grrru ; 
 not until later, Go-mamma. 
 
 15th Month. — He now says Guten Tag (good-day), but not always 
 at the right time ; also Guitag. He likes to see pictures, and calls 
 picture-books ga or gock, probably because a good many birds are 
 represented in them. He likes to have stories told to him, and to 
 have pictures explained or rather named. 
 
APPENDIX A. 265 
 
 " Hinauf " (up) he calls uppa, e. g., when he is to be lifted into 
 his chair. For " unten, hinab " (below, down), he says patz. Not 
 long ago he repeated unweariedly pica, pta (pp. 139, 144), moa, mbwa. 
 
 At this period he begins to raise himself erect, holding on by 
 chairs and such things. 
 
 Of horses he is passionately fond ; but he begins to use the word 
 koppa, as the Chinese do their words, in various meanings. He calls 
 my large gold hair-pins koppa. Perhaps in his imagination they rep- 
 resent horses, as do many other objects also with which he plays. 
 Berries he now calls mamma. He has a sharp eye for insects, and 
 calls them all putika, from the Esthonian puttuhas (beetle), which 
 he has got from the maid. 
 
 All large birds in the picture-book he now calls papa, the word 
 being probably derived from Papagei (parrot), which he also pro- 
 nounces papagoi. The smaller birds are called gog and gack. 
 
 His image in the glass he calls titta (Esthonian designation for 
 child, doll). Does he recognize himself in it (p. 196, et seq.) 1 
 
 Once he heard me in the garden calling some one in a loud voice. 
 He immediately imitated me, and afterward when he was asked 
 " What does mamma do ? " he understood the question at once, put 
 out his lips, and made the same sound. He is very uneasy in strange 
 surroundings, in strange places, or among strangers. 
 
 My bracelet, too, he now calls kopita. Mann is a new word. 
 O-patz means "playing on the piano," as well as "below, down 
 there." When the piano is played he sings in a hoarse voice, with 
 lips protruded, as well as he can, but does not get the tune. He 
 likes to dance, and always dances in time. 
 
 Nocho (noch, yet) is a new word, which he uses much in place of 
 mehr (more), e. g., when he wants more food. 
 
 He often plays with apples, which for this reason, and very likely 
 because they are round, he calls Ball, as he does his rubber ball. 
 Yesterday he had baked apples, mashed, with milk. He recognized 
 the apple at once in this altered form, and said as he ate, Ball ! At 
 this time he was not yet sixteen months old. 
 
 r 16th Month. — He is often heard to beg, or rather order, Mamma 
 epatz (play the piano). If I do not at once obey, he moves his little 
 hands like a piano-player and begs tatata, tatata, imitating the mu- 
 sic. He likes also to hear songs sung, and can already tell some of 
 them, as GigagacJc, Tcucha tralla. He joins in singing the last of 
 these. 
 
266 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 17th Month. — He speaks his own name correctly, and when asked 
 " Where is Adolph % " he points to his breast. As he is always ad- 
 dressed in the third person, i. e., by his name, he does not know any 
 personal pronouns. 
 
 The syllable ei he often changes to al ; e. g., he says Papagal in- 
 stead of " Papagei." 
 
 He had some grapes given to him for the first time, and he at 
 once called them mammut (berries). Being asked, "How do you 
 like them f " he pressed his hand on his heart in an ecstasy of de- 
 light that was comical, crying ach ! ach ! 
 
 18th Month. — He comprehends and answers questions ; e. g., 
 " Where are you going % " Zu Tuhl (to the chair). " What is that 1 
 Bett tuddu, i. e., a bed for sleeping. "Who gave you this 1 ?" Mam- 
 ma, Pappa. 
 
 He can now say almost any word that is said to him, often muti- 
 lating it ; but, if pains be taken to repeat it for him, he pronounces 
 it correctly. He often tacks on the syllable ga, as if in endearment, 
 mammaga, pappaga, nianiaga. The forming of sentences is also 
 beginning, for he joins two words together, e. g., Mamma Jcommt 
 (comes), Papa gut (good), Ferd (for Pferd) halt (horse stop). He says 
 wiebacka for Zwieback (biscuit), Brati for Braten (roast meat), Gooss- 
 mama for Grossmama (grandmamma). He pronounces correctly 
 " Onkel Kuno, Suppe, Fuchs, Rabe, Kameel." 
 
 When others are conversing in his presence, he often says to him- 
 self the words he hears, especially the last words in the sentence. 
 The word " Nein " (no) he uses as a sign of refusal ; e. g., " Will you 
 have some roast meat?" Nein. J a (yes), on the other hand, he 
 does not use, but he answers in the affirmative by repeating fre- 
 quently with vehemence what he wants, e. g., " Do you want some 
 roast % " Brati, Brati (i. e., I do want roast). 
 
 He gives names to his puppets. He calls them Grandmamma, 
 Grandpapa, Uncle Kuno, Uncle Grunberg, gardener, cook, etc. The 
 puppets are from his Noah's ark. 
 
 Now appear his first attempts at drawing. He draws, as he im- 
 agines, all kinds of animals : ducks, camels, tigers. He lately made 
 marks, calling out Torch und noch ein Torch (a stork and another 
 stork). (Cf. pp. 172, 247.) 
 
 - The book of birds is his greatest delight. I have to imitate the 
 notes of birds, and he does it after me, showing memory in it. He 
 knows at once stork, woodpecker, pigeon, duck, pelican, siskin, and 
 
APPENDIX A. 267 
 
 swallow. The little verses I sing at the same time amuse him, e. g., 
 "Zeislein, Zeislein, wo ist dein Hauslein?" (Little siskin, where is 
 your little house %) ; and he retains them when he hears them often. 
 Russian words also are repeated by him. 
 
 For the first time I observe the attempt to communicate to others 
 some experience of his own. He had been looking at the picture- 
 book with me, and when he went to the nurse he told her, Mamma, 
 JBilder, Papagei (Mamma, pictures, parrot). 
 
 - 19th Month, — From the time he was a year and a half old he has 
 walked alone. 
 
 ^ He speaks whole sentences, but without connectives, e. g., Niana 
 JBraten holen (nurse bring roast) ; Caro draussen wauwau (Caro out- 
 side, bow-wow) ; Mamma tuddut (sleeps, inflected correctly) ; Decke 
 um (cover over) ; Papa koppa Stadt (Papa driven to city) ; Mamma 
 sitzt tuhl (Mamma sits chair) ; Adolph bei Mama bleiben (Adolph 
 stay with mamma) ; Noch tanzen (more dance) ; Pappa Fuchs 
 machen (Papa make fox). 
 
 Certain words make him nervous. He does not like the refrain 
 of the children's song of the goat. If I say " Darum, darum, meek, 
 meek, meek," he looks at me indignantly and runs off. Sometimes 
 he lays his hand on my mouth or screams loudly for the nurse. He 
 gives up any play he is engaged in as soon as I say " darum, darum." 
 Pax vobiscum has the same effect. 
 
 The songs amuse him chiefly on account of the words, particu- 
 larly through the imitations of the sounds of animals. 
 
 He knows the songs and asks of his own accord for Kucku Esaal, 
 Kater putz, Kucku tralla. but commonly hears only the first stanza, 
 and then wants a different song. Lately, however, he listened very 
 earnestly to the three stanzas of " Mopschen," and when I asked 
 " What now? " he answered Noch Mops (more Mops). Playing with 
 his puppets, he hummed to himself, tu, tu, errsen, tu tu errsen. I 
 guessed that it was "Du, du liegst mir im Herzen," which he had 
 on the previous day wanted to hear often and had tried to repeat. 
 
 20th Month. — Now for the first time ja is used for affirmation, 
 chiefly in the form ja wohl (yes, indeed, certainly), which he retains. 
 " Do you want this f " J a wohl. 
 
 Being asked "Whose feet are these f" he answers correctly, 
 Mine; but no personal pronouns appear yet. He often retains a 
 new and difficult word that he has heard only once, e. g., " Choco- 
 lade." 
 
268 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 To my question, after his grandfather had gone away, " Where 
 is Grandpapa now % " he answers sorrowfully, verloren (lost). (Cf . p. 
 145.) 
 
 In his plays he imitates the doings and sayings of adults, puts a 
 kerchief about his head and says, Adolpli go stable, give oats, 
 
 Not long ago, as he said good-night to us, he went also to his 
 image in the glass and kissed it repeatedly, saying, Adolph, good- 
 night ! 
 
 24th Month. — He knows a good many flowers, their names and 
 colors ; calls pansies " the dark flowers." 
 
 He also caught the air and rhythm of certain songs, e. g. 5 Kommt 
 a Vogel angeflogen, .Du, du, liegst mir im Rerzen, machst mir viel 
 Serzen, and used to sing to himself continually when he was on a 
 walk. Now that he is four years old, on the contrary, he hardly ever 
 sings. 
 
 25th Month. — Beetles have a great interest for him. He brings a 
 dead beetle into the parlor, and cries, " Run now ! " His astonish- 
 ment is great that the creature does not run. 
 
 If he sees something disagreeable (e. g.. he saw the other day an 
 organ-grinder with a monkey), he covers his face with his hands 
 weeping aloud and crying, Monkey go away. So, too, when he sees 
 strangers. 
 
 The Latin names of flowers and insects are easily retained by 
 him. They are not taught him, he simply hears them daily. 
 
 26th and 27th Months. — Of his childish language he has retained 
 only the term mammut, for berries. Milk, which he used to call 
 mima, is now called milch (cf., pp. 140, 157). 
 
 The child's use of the personal pronoun is strange. During my 
 absence an aunt of his took my place, and she addressed him for the 
 first time with the word " Du " (thou), and spoke of herself as " I," 
 whereas I always called myself " Mama." The consequence was that 
 the boy for a long time used " thou " as the first person, " 1 " as the 
 second person, with logical consistency. He hands me bread, say- 
 ing, I am hungry, or, when I am to go with him, i" come too. 
 Referring to himself, he says, You want flowers ; you ivill play with 
 Niania. All other persons are addressed with " I " instead of " you." 
 
 He tells his uncle, There's an awfully pretty geritian in the yard % 
 He gets the nurse occasionally to repeat the Latin names, because 
 they are difficult for her, and his correction of her is very comical. 
 
 28th Month, — He speaks long sentences. Papa, come drink coffee, 
 
APPENDIX A. 269 
 
 phase do. Papa, I drive (for " you drive ") to town, to Reval, and 
 bring some parrots (Bellensittiche). 
 
 He often changes the form of words for fun, e. g., guten Porgen 
 (for guten Morgen). On going out, he says, with a knowing air, 
 " Splendid weather, the sun shines so warm." He alters songs also, 
 putting in different expressions : e. g., instead of Lieber Vogel fliege 
 weiter, nimm a Kuss und a (truss, Adolph sings, Lieber Vogel fliege 
 weiter in die Wolken hinein (dear bird, fly farther, into the clouds, 
 instead of take a kiss and a greeting). It is a proof of logical think- 
 ing that he asks, at sight of the moon, The moon is in the sky, has 
 it wings ? 
 
 I had been sick ; when I was better and was caressing him again, 
 he said, Mama is well, the dear Jesus has made mama well with 
 sealing-wax. "With sealing-wax % " I asked, in astonishment. Yes, 
 from the writing-desk. He had often seen his toys, when they had 
 been broken, " made well," as he called it, by being stuck together 
 with sealing-wax. 
 
 He now asks, Where is the dear Jesus ? " In heaven." Can he 
 fly then ; has he wings ? 
 
 Religious conceptions are difficult to impart to him, even at a 
 much later period : e. g., heaven is too cold for him, his nose would 
 freeze up there, etc. 
 
 He now asks questions a good deal in general, especially What is 
 that called 9 e. g., What are chestnuts called f " Horse-chestnuts." 
 What are these pears called ? " Bergamots." He jests : Nein, Ber- 
 gapots, or, What kind of mots are those ? He will not eat an apple 
 until he has learned what the name of it is. 
 
 He would often keep asking, in wanton sport, What are books 
 called 9 or ducks ? or soup ? 
 
 He uses the words " to-day, to-morrow," and the names of the 
 days of the week, but without understanding their meaning. 
 
 Instead of saying " zu Mittag gehen " (go to noon-meal), he says, 
 logically, " zu Nachmittag gehen " (go to afternoon-meal). 
 
 The child does not know what is true, what is actual. I never 
 can depend on his statements, except, as it appears, when he tells 
 w T hat he has had to eat. If riding is spoken of, e. g., he has a vivid 
 picture of riding in his mind. To-day, when I asked him " Did you 
 see papa ride!" he answered, Yes, indeed, papa rode away of into 
 the woods. Yet his father had not gone to ride at all. 
 
 fin the same way he often denies what he has seen and done. He 
 
270 TEE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 comes out of his father's room and I ask, " "Well, have you said good- 
 night to papa? " No. His father told me afterward that the child 
 had done it. 
 
 In the park we see some crested titmice, and I tell the nurse that, 
 in the previous autumn, I saw for the first time Finnish parrots or 
 cross-bills here, but that I have not seen any since. "When the child's 
 father asked later, " Well, Adolph, what did you see in the park % " 
 Crested titmice, with golden crests (he adds out of his own invention) 
 and Finnish parrots. He mixes up what he has heard anct'seen with 
 what he imagines. 
 
 Truth has to be taught to a child. The less this is done, the 
 easier it is to inoculate him with religious notions, i. e., of miracu- 
 lous revelation ; otherwise one must be prepared for many questions 
 that are hard to answer. 
 
 29th month. — Sad stories affect him to tears, and he runs away. 
 
 Names of animals and plants he remembers often more easily 
 than I do, and informs me. He reasons logically. Lately, when he 
 asked for some foolish thing, I said to him, " Sha'n't I bring the 
 moon for you, too ? " No, said he, you can't do that, it is too high up 
 in the clouds. 
 
 30th to 33d months. — He now often calls himself " Adolph," and 
 then speaks of himself in the third person. He frequently confounds 
 " I " and " you," and does not so consistently use the first person for 
 the second, and the reverse. The transition is very gradually taking 
 place to the correct use of the personal pronoun. Instead of my 
 mamma, he repeats often, when he is in an affectionate mood, your 
 mamma, your mamma. 
 
 Some new books are given to him. In the book of beetles there 
 are shown to him the party-colored and the gray, so-called " sad," 
 grave-digger (necrophorus). The latter now becomes prominent in 
 his plays. " Why is he called the sad % " I asked the child yesterday. 
 Ah ! because he has no children, he answered, sorrowfully. Prob- 
 ably he has at some time overheard this sentence, which has no mean- 
 ing for him, from a grown person. Adult persons' ways of speaking 
 are thus employed without an understanding of them ; pure verbal 
 memory. 
 
 In the same way, he retains the names, in his new book, of but- 
 terflies (few of them German) better than I do, however crabbed and 
 difficult they may be. 
 
 This (pure) memory for mere sounds or tones has become less 
 
APPENDIX A. 271 
 
 strong in the now four-year-old boy, who has more to do with ideas 
 and concepts, although his memory in other respects is good. 
 
 In the thirty-seventh month he sang, quite correctly, airs he had 
 heard, and he could sing some songs to the piano, if they were fre- 
 quently repeated with him. His fancy for this soon passed away, 
 and these exercises ceased. On the other hand, he tells stories a 
 great deal and with pleasure. His pronunciation is distinct, the 
 construction of the sentences is mostly correct, apart from errors 
 acquired from his nurse. The confounding of the first and second 
 persons, the " I " and " you," or rather his use of the one for the 
 other, has ceased, and the child designates himself by I, others by 
 thou and you. Men are ordinarily addressed by him with thou, as 
 his father and uncle are ; women with you, as are even his mother 
 and nurse. This continues for a long time. The boy of four years 
 counts objects, with effort, up to six ; numbers remain for a long 
 time merely empty words (pp. 165, 172). In the same way, he has, 
 as yet, but small notion of the order of the days of the week, and 
 mixes up the names of them. To-day, to-morrow, yesterday, have 
 gradually become more intelligible to him. 
 
 Notwithstanding the aphoristic character of these ex- 
 tracts from a full and detailed diary of observations, I 
 have thought they ought to be given, because they form a 
 valuable supplement to my observations in the nineteenth 
 chapter, and show particularly how far independent 
 thought may be developed, even in the second and third 
 years, while there is, as yet, small knowledge of language. 
 The differences in mental development between this child 
 and mine are no less worthy of notice than are the agree- 
 ments. Among the latter is the fact, extremely impor- 
 tant in a pedagogical point of view, that, the less we 
 teach the child the simple truth from the beginning, so 
 much the easier it is to inoculate him permanently with 
 religious notions, i. e., of " miraculous revelation." Fairy 
 tales, ghost-stories, and the like easily make the childish 
 imagination, of itself very active, hypertrophic, and cloud 
 the judgment concerning actual events. Morals and na- 
 
272 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 ture offer such an abundance of facts with which we may 
 connect the teaching of language, that it is better to dis- 
 pense with legends. iEsop's fables combine the moral and 
 the natural in a manner unsurpassable. My child tells me 
 one of these fables every morning. 
 
 B. 
 
 NOTES CONCEENING LACKING, DEFECTIVE, AND AEEESTED 
 MENTAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE FIEST YEAES OF LIFE. 
 
 The data we have concerning the behavior of chil- 
 dren born, living, without head or without brain, and of 
 microcephalous children, as well as of idiots and cretins 
 more advanced in age, are of great interest, as helping us 
 to a knowledge of the dependence of the first psychical 
 processes upon the development of the brain, especially of 
 the cerebral cortex. Unfortunately, these data are scanty 
 and scattered. 
 
 Very important, too, for psychogenesis, are reports 
 concerning the physiological condition and activity of 
 children whose mental development has seemed to be 
 stopped for months, or to be made considerably slower, or 
 to be unusually hastened. 
 
 Scanty as are the notes I have met with on this mat- 
 ter, after much search, yet I collect and present some of 
 them, in the hope that they will incite to more abundant 
 and more careful observation iu the future than has been 
 made up to this time. 
 
 A good many data concerning the behavior of cretin 
 children are to be found in the very painstaking book, 
 " Neue Untersuchungen iiber den Kretinismus oder die 
 Entartung des Menschen in ihren verschiedenen Graden 
 
APPENDIX B. 273 
 
 und Formen " ( a New Investigations concerning Cretin- 
 ism, or Human Deterioration, in its Various Forms and 
 Degrees "), by Maffei and Kosch (two vols, Erlangen, 1844). 
 But, in order that these data should be of value, the ob- 
 served anomalies and defects of the cerebral functions 
 ought to be capable of being referred to careful morpho- 
 logical investigations of the cretin brain. As the authors 
 give no results of post-mortem examinations, I simply refer 
 to their work here. 
 
 I once had the opportunity myself of seeing a heini- 
 cephalus, living, who was brought to the clinic of my 
 respected colleague, Prof. B. Schultze, in Jena. The child 
 was of the male sex, and was born on the 1st of July, 
 1883, at noon, along with a perfectly normal twin sister. 
 The parents are of sound condition. I saw the child for 
 the first time on the 3d of July, at two o'clock. I found 
 all the parts of the body, except the head, like those of 
 ordinary children born at the right time. The head had 
 on it a great red lump like a tumor, and came to an end 
 directly over the eyes, going down abruptly behind ; but, 
 even if the tumor were supposed to be covered with skin, 
 there would by no means be the natural arched formation 
 of the cranium of a newly-born child. The face, too, ab- 
 solutely without forehead, was smaller in comparison than 
 the rest of the body. I found now, in the case of this 
 child, already two days old, a remarkably regular breath- 
 ing, a very cool skin — in the forenoon a specific warmth 
 of 32° C. had been found — and slight mobility. The eyes 
 remained closed. Yfhen I opened them, without violence, 
 the pupil was seen to be immobile. It did not react in the 
 least upon the direct light of the sun on either side. The 
 left eye did not move at all, the right made rare, convul- 
 sive, lateral movements. The conjunctiva was very much 
 reddened. The child did not react in the least to pricks 
 
274: THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 of a dull needle tried on all parts of the body, and reacted 
 only very feebly to pinches ; not at all to sound-stimuli, 
 but regularly to stronger, prolonged cutaneous stimuli ; 
 in particular, the child moved its arms after a slap on the 
 back, just like normal new-born children, and uttered 
 very harsh, feeble tones when its back was rubbed. When 
 I put my finger in its mouth vigorous sucking movements 
 began, which induced me to offer the bottle — this had not 
 yet been done. Some cubic centimetres of milk were 
 vigorously swallowed, and soon afterward the breast of a 
 nurse was taken. While this was going on I could feel 
 quite distinctly with my finger, under the chin, the move- 
 ments of swallowing. It was easy to establish the further 
 fact that my finger, which I laid in the hollow of the 
 child's hand, was frequently clasped firmly by the little 
 fingers, which had well-developed nails. Not unfrequent- 
 ly, sometimes without previous contact, sometimes after it, 
 the tip of the tongue, and even a larger part of the tongue, 
 was thrust out between the lips, and once, when I held the 
 child erect, he plainly gave a prolonged yawn. Finally, 
 the fact seemed to me very noteworthy that, after being 
 taken and held erect, sometimes also without any assign- 
 able outward occasion, the child inclined its head forward 
 and turned it vigorously both to the right and to the left. 
 When the child had sucked lustily a few times, it opened 
 both eyes about two millimetres wide, and went on with 
 its nursing. An assistant physician saw the child 
 sneeze. 
 
 These observations upon a human child, two days old, 
 unquestionably acephalous, i. e., absolutely without cere- 
 brum, but as to the rest of its body not in the least abnor- 
 mal, prove what I have already advanced (vol. i, p. 203), 
 that the cerebrum takes no part at all in the first move- 
 ments of the newly-born. In this respect the extremely 
 
APPENDIX B. 275 
 
 rare case of an acephalous child, living for some days, sup- 
 plies the place of an experiment of vivisection. Unfortu- 
 nately, the child died so early that I could not carry on 
 further observations and experiments. The report of the 
 post-mortem examination will be published by itself. 
 
 Every observer of young children knows the great vari- 
 ety in the rapidity of their development, and will agree 
 with me in general that a slow and steady development of 
 the cerebral functions in the first four years, but especially 
 in the first two years, justifies a more favorable prognosis 
 than does a very hasty and unsteady development; but 
 when during that period of time there occurs a complete 
 and prolonged interruption of the mental development, 
 then the danger is always great that the normal course 
 will not be resumed. So much the more instructive, 
 therefore, are the cases in which the children after such a 
 standstill have come back to the normal condition. Four 
 observations of this kind have been published by K. Dem- 
 me ("19. Bericht iiber das Jenner'sche Kinderspital in 
 Bern, 1882," S. 31 bis 52). These are of so great interest 
 in their bearing on psychogenesis, and they confirm in so 
 striking a manner some of the propositions laid down by 
 me in this book, that I should like to print them here 
 word for word, especially as the original does not ap- 
 pear to have found a wide circulation; but that would 
 make my book altogether too large. I confine myself, 
 therefore, to this reference, with the request that further 
 cases of partial or total interruption of mental develop- 
 ment during the first year of life, with a later progress in 
 it, may be collected and made public. 
 
 It is only in rare cases that microcephalous children 
 can be observed, while living, for any considerable length 
 of time continuously. In this respect a case described by 
 Aeby is particularly instructive. 
 
276 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 A microcephalous boy was born of healthy parents— 
 he was their first child — about four weeks too soon. His 
 whole body had something of stiffness and awkwardness. 
 The legs were worse off in this respect than the arms ; 
 they showed, as they continued to show up to the time of 
 his death, a tendency to become crossed. The boy was never 
 able to stand or walk. He made attempts to seize striking 
 objects, white or party-colored, but never learned actually 
 to hold anything. The play of feature was animated. 
 The dark eyes, shining and rapidly moving, never lingered 
 long upon one and the same object. The child was much 
 inclined to bite, and always bit very sharply. Mentally 
 there was pronounced imbecility. In spite of his four 
 years the boy never got so far as to produce any articulate 
 sounds whatever. Even simple words like "papa" and 
 " mamma " were beyond his ability. His desire for any- 
 thing was expressed in inarticulate and not specially ex- 
 pressive tones. His sleep was short and light ; he often 
 lay whole nights through with open eyes. He seldom 
 shed tears ; his discomfort was manifested chiefly by shrill 
 screaming. He died of pulmonary paralysis at the end of 
 the fourth year. 
 
 The autopsy showed that the frontal lobes were sur- 
 prisingly small, and that there was a partial deficiency of 
 the median longitudinal fissure. The fissure did not be- 
 gin till beyond the crown of the head, in the region of the 
 occiput. The anterior half of the cerebrum consequently 
 lacked the division into lateral hemispheres. It had few 
 convolutions also, and the smoothness of its surface was 
 at once obvious. The corpus callosum and the fornix 
 were undeveloped. " The gray cortical layer attained in 
 general only about a third of the normal thickness, and 
 was especially weakly represented in the frontal region." 
 The cerebellum not being stunted, seemed, by the side of 
 the greatly shrunken cerebrum, surprisingly large. 
 
 In this case the microcephalus of four years behaves, 
 as far as the development of will is concerned, like the 
 normal boy of four months. The latter is, in fact, 
 superior to him in seizing, while the former in no 
 way manifests any advantage in a psychical point of 
 view. 
 
APPENDIX B. 277 
 
 Two cases of microcephaly have been described by 
 Fletcher Beach (in the " Transactions of the International 
 Medical Congress," London, 1881, iii, 615-626). 
 
 E. R. was, in May, 1875, received into his institution 
 at the age of eleven years. She had at the time of her 
 birth a small head, and had at no time manifested much 
 intelligence. She could not stand or walk, but was able 
 to move her arms and legs. Her sight and hearing were 
 normal. She was quiet and obedient, and sat most of the 
 time in her chair. She paid no attention to her bodily 
 needs. She could not speak and had to be fed with a 
 spoon. After six months she became a little more intelli- 
 gent, made an attempt to speak, and muttered something 
 indistinctly. She would stretch out her hand when told 
 to give it, and she recognized with a smile her nurse and 
 the physician. Some four months later she would grind 
 her teeth when in a pleasant mood, and would act as if she 
 were shy when spoken to, holding her hand before her 
 eyes. She was fond of her nurse. Thus there was ca- 
 pacity of observation, there were attention, memory, affec- 
 tion, and some power of voluntary movement. She died 
 in January, 1876. Her brain weighed, two days after her 
 death, seven ounces. It is minutely described by the au- 
 thor — but after it had been preserved in alcohol for six 
 years, and it then weighed only two ounces. The author 
 found a number of convolutions not so far developed as in 
 the foetus of six months, according to Gratiolet, and he is 
 of opinion that the cerebellum was further developed after 
 the cerebrum had ceased to grow, so that there was not an 
 arrest of the development but an irregularity. The cere- 
 bral hemispheres were asymmetrical, the frontal lobes, cor- 
 responding to the psychical performances in the case, be- 
 ing relatively pretty large, while the posterior portion of 
 the third convolution on the left side, the island of Reil, 
 and the operculum were very small, corresponding to the 
 inability to learn to speak. The author connects the 
 slight mobility with the smallness of the parietal and 
 frontal ascending convolutions. 
 
 The other case is that of a girl of six years (E. H.), 
 w r ho came to the institution in January, 1879, and died in 
 21 
 
278 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 July of the same year. She could walk about, and she 
 had complete control of her limbs. She was cheerful, 
 easy to be amused, and greatly attached to her nurse. She 
 associated with other children, but could not speak a 
 word. Her hearing was good, her habits bad. Although 
 she could pick up objects and play with them, it did not 
 occur to her to feed, herself. She could take notice and 
 observe, and could remember certain persons. Her brain 
 weighed, two days after death, 20|- ounces, and was, in 
 many respects, as simple as that of an infant ; but, in re- 
 gard to the convolutions, it was far superior to the brain 
 of a monkey — was superior also to that of E. E. The 
 ascending frontal and parietal convolutions were larger, 
 corresponding to the greater mobility. The third frontal 
 convolution and the island of Reil were small on both 
 sides, corresponding to the alalia. The author is of opin- 
 ion that the ganglionic cells in this brain lacked processes, 
 so that the inter-central connections did not attain devel- 
 opment. 
 
 A more accurate description of two brains of micro- 
 cephali is given by Julius Sander in the "Archiv fur 
 Psychiatrie und Nerven-Krankheiten " (i, 299-307 ; Ber- 
 lin, 1868), accompanied by good plates. One of these 
 cases is that of which an account is given by Johannes 
 M tiller (in the " Medicinische Zeitung des Vereins f tir 
 Heilkunde in Preussen," 1836, Kr. 2 und 3). 
 
 In the full and detailed treatises concerning micro- 
 cephali by Karl Vogt (" Archiv fur Anthropologic," ii, 2, 
 228) and Von Flesch (" Wiirzburger Festschrift," ii, 95, 
 1882) may be found further data in regard to more recent 
 cases. 
 
 Many questions of physiological and psychological im- 
 portance in respect to the capacity of development in cases 
 of imperfectly developed brain are discussed in the " Zeit- 
 schrift fur das Idioten-Wesen " by W. Schroter (Dresden) 
 and E. Reichelt (Hubertusburg). 
 
APPENDIX B. 279 
 
 But thus far the methods of microscopical investi- 
 gation of the brain are still so little developed that we 
 can not yet with certainty establish a causal connection, 
 in individual cases, between the deviations of microce- 
 phalic brains from the normal brain and the defects of 
 the psychical functions. The number of brains of mi- 
 crocephali that have been examined with reference to 
 this point is very small, although their scientific value, 
 after thorough-going observation of the possessors of them 
 during life, is immense. For microcephalous children of 
 some years of age are a substitute for imaginary, because 
 never practicable, vivisectory experiments, concerning the 
 connection of body and mind. 
 
 To conclude these fragments, let me add here some 
 observations concerning a case of rare interest, that of the 
 microcephalous child, Margarethe Becker (born 1869), 
 very well known in Germany. These observations I re- 
 corded on the 9th of July, 1877, in Jena, while the child 
 was left free to do what she pleased. 
 
 The girl, eight years of age, born, according to the 
 testimony of her father, with the frontal fontanelle (fon- 
 ticulus anterior) closed and solid, had a smaller head than 
 a child of one year. The notes follow the same order as 
 that of the observations. 
 
 Time, 8.15 A. M. — The child yawns. She grasps with 
 animation at some human skulls that she sees on a table 
 near her, and directs her look to charts on the walls. She 
 puts her fingers into her nostrils, brushes her apron with 
 both hands, polishes my watch, which I have offered her 
 and she has seized, holds it to one ear, then to one of her 
 father's ears, draws her mouth into a smile, seems to be 
 pleased by the ticking, holds the watch to her father's 
 other ear, then to her own other ear, laughs, and repeats 
 the experiment several times. Her head is very mobile. 
 
280 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 The child now folds a bit of paper that I have given 
 her, rolls it up awkwardly, wrinkling her forehead the 
 while, chews up the paper and laughs aloud. Saliva flows 
 from her mouth almost incessantly. Then the child be- 
 gins to eat a biscuit, giving some of it, however, to her 
 father and the attendant, putting her biscuit to their lips, 
 and this with accuracy at once, whereas in the former case 
 the watch was held at first near the ear, to the temple, and 
 not till afterward to the ear itself. 
 
 The girl is very lively ; she strikes about her in a lively 
 manner with her hands, sees charts hanging high on the 
 walls, points to them with her finger, throws her head 
 back upon her neck to see them better, and moves her 
 fingers in the direction of the lines of the diagrams. At 
 last weariness seems to come on. The child puts an arm 
 around the neck of her father, sits on his lap, but is more 
 and more restless. 
 
 8.50. — Quiet. To appearance, the child has fallen 
 asleep. 
 
 8.55. — Awake again. The child sees well, hears well, 
 smells well; obeys some few commands, e. g., she gives 
 her hand. But with this her intellectual accomplishments 
 are exhausted. She does not utter a word. 
 
 Kollmann, who saw this microcephalous subject in Sep- 
 tember, 1877, writes, among other things, of her (" Cor- 
 respondenzblatt der Deutschengesellschaft fur Anthro- 
 pologic," iNr. 11, S. 132) : 
 
 " Her gait is tottering, the movements of the head and 
 extremities jerky, not always co-ordinated, hence unsteady, 
 inappropriate and spasmodic ; her look is restless, objects 
 are not definitely fixated. The normal functions of_ her 
 mind are far inferior to those of a child of four years. 
 The eight-year-old Margaret speaks only the word Mama ; 
 no other articulate sound has been learned by her. She 
 makes known her need of food by plaints, by sounds of 
 
APPENDIX B. 281 
 
 weeping, and by distortion of countenance; she laughs 
 when presented with something to eat or with toys. It is 
 only within the last two years that she has become cleanly ; 
 since then her appetite has improved. Her nutrition has 
 gained, in comparison with the first years of life, and with 
 it her comprehension also ; she helps her mother set the 
 table, and brings plates and knives, when requested to do 
 so, from the place where they are kept. Further, she shows 
 a tender sympathy with her microcephalous brother ; she 
 takes bread from the table, goes to her brother's bedside 
 and feeds him, as he is not of himself capable of putting 
 food into his mouth. She shows a very manifest liking 
 for her relatives and a fear of strangers. When taken into 
 the parlor she gave the most decided evidences of fear ; 
 being placed upon the table she hid her head in her father's 
 coat, and did not become quiet until her mother took her 
 in her arms. This awakening of mental activity shows 
 that, notwithstanding the extremely small quantity of 
 brain-substance, there exists a certain degree of intellect- 
 ual development with advancing years. With the fourth 
 year, in the case of M., independent movements began ; 
 up to that time she lay, as her five-year-old brother still 
 lies, immovable in body and limbs, with the exception of 
 slight bendings and stretchings." 
 
 Richard Pott, who (1879) likewise observed this micro- 
 cephalous subject, found that she wandered about aim- 
 lessly, restlessly, and nimbly, from corner to corner [as if], 
 groping and seeking; yet objects held before her were 
 only momentarily fixated, scarcely holding her attention ; 
 often she did not once grasp at them. " The girl goes 
 alone, without tottering or staggering, but her locomotive 
 movements are absolutely without motive, having no end 
 or aim, frequently changing their direction. Notwith- 
 standing her size, the child gives the impression of the 
 most extreme helplessness." She was fed, but was not 
 indifferent as to food, seeming to prefer sour to sweet. 
 She would come, indeed, when she was called, but seemed 
 
282 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 not to understand the words spoken to her ; she spoke no 
 word herself, but uttered shrill, inarticulate sounds ; she 
 felt shame when she was undressed, hiding her face in her 
 sister's lap. The expression of her countenance was harm- 
 less, changeable, manifesting no definite psychical pro- 
 cesses. 
 
 The statements contradictory to those of Kollmann are 
 probably to be explained by the brevity of the observa- 
 tions. 
 
 Virchow '(" Correspondenzblatt," S. 135), in his re- 
 marks upon this case, says : " I am convinced that every 
 one who observes the microcephalic child will find that 
 psychologically it has nothing whatever of the ape. All 
 the positive faculties and qualities of the ape are wanting 
 here ; there is nothing of the psychology of the ape, but 
 only the psychology of an imperfectly developed and de- 
 ficient little child. Every characteristic is human ; every 
 single trait. I had the girl in my room a few months 
 since, for hours together, and occupied myself with her ; 
 I never observed anything in her that reminds me even 
 remotely of the psychological conditions of apes. She is 
 a human being, in a low stage of development, but in no 
 way deviating from the nature of humanity." 
 
 From these reports it is plain to be seen that for all 
 mental development an hereditary physical growth of the 
 cerebrum is indispensable. If the sensuous impressions 
 experienced anew in each case by each human being, and 
 the original movements, were sufficient without the de- 
 velopment of the cerebral convolutions and of the gray 
 cortex, then these microcephalous beings, upon whom the 
 same impressions operated as upon other new-born chil- 
 dren, must have had better brains and must have learned 
 more. But the brain, notwithstanding the peripheral im- 
 pressions received in seeing, hearing, and feeling, could 
 
APPENDIX B. 283 
 
 not grow, and so the rudimentary human child could not 
 learn anything, and could not even form the ideas requisite 
 for articulate voluntary movement, or combine these ideas. 
 Only the motor centers of lower rank could be developed. 
 In peculiar contrast with these cases of genuine micro- 
 cephaly stands the exceedingly remarkable case, observed 
 by Dr. Kudolf Krause (Hamburg), of a boy whose brain 
 is not at all morbidly affected or abnormally small, but 
 exhibits decidedly the type of the brain of the ape. The 
 discoverer reported upon it to the Anthropological Society 
 (" Correspondenzblatt a.a. 0., S. 132-135) the following 
 facts among others : 
 
 " The skull and brain belonged to a boy who was born 
 on the 4th of October, 1869, the last of four children. 
 Paul was scrofulous from his youth. He did not get his 
 teeth until the end of his second year, and they were quite 
 brown in color and were soon lost. According to the state- 
 ment of Paul's mother, he had several successive sets of 
 teeth. It was not until the fifth year that he learned to 
 walk. He was cleanly from the third year, but not when 
 he felt ill. His appetite was always good up to his last 
 sickness of four weeks. His sleep was habitually undis- 
 turbed. He was of a cheerful temperament, and inclined 
 to play ; as soon as he heard music he would dance, and 
 sing to the music in rather unmelodious tones. When 
 teased he could be very violent ; he would throw anything 
 he could lay his hands on at the head of the offender. He 
 liked the company of others, especially of men. By the 
 time he was four years old he had learned to eat without 
 help. Paul was very supple, was fond of climbing, and 
 had great strength in his arms and hands especially ; these 
 had actually a horny appearance, and thus reminded one 
 of the hands of the chimpanzee. He could sit on the 
 ground with his legs wide apart. His gait was uncertain, 
 and he was apt to tumble ; he ran with knees bent forward 
 and legs crooked ; he was fond of hopping, and seemed 
 particularly ape-like when doing so. The great-toe of 
 each foot stood off at an angle from the foot, and thus 
 
284 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 gave the impression of a prehensile toe. I thought at first 
 that this deviation had its origin in the fact that the child, 
 on account of his uncertainty in walking, wanted to get a 
 broader basis of support; but I afterward gave up that 
 opinion, because I have never found an instance of a simi- 
 lar habit in other children with diseased heads, e. g., hydro- 
 cephalus children. Paul could speak but little, could say 
 hardly any words except Papa and Mama, and even these 
 he did not until late learn to pronounce in two syllables ; 
 he uttered for the most part only sounds that resembled a 
 grunt. He imitated the barking of a dog by the sound 
 rrrrrr. He frequently stamped with feet and hands, 
 clapped his hands together, and ejaculated a sort of grunt- 
 ing sound, just as I have observed in the case of gorillas 
 and chimpanzees. 
 
 " Paul was smaller than children of his age ; on his 
 right eye he had from his youth a large leucoma ; the eye- 
 lids had generally a catarrhal affection, and were in a state 
 of suppuration. The head looked sore ; the forehead was 
 small. Paul had a strongly marked tendency to imita- 
 tion. His whole being, his movements, were strikingly 
 ape-like. He was decidedly neglected by his parents, was 
 generally dirty in appearance, and I really think the early 
 death of the child was induced by the slight care taken 
 of him. Paul was taken sick at the beginning of Decem- 
 ber, 1876, with an acute bronchial catarrh, and died on 
 the 5th of January, 1877, at the age of seven and a quarter 
 years. 
 
 " If you look at the cranium and the brain here, which 
 belonged to the child just described, there are lacking in 
 the first place all the characteristics of microcephaly. The 
 cranium possesses a capacity of 1,022 cubic centimetres, 
 and the brain weighs 950 grammes ; they do not deviate, 
 therefore, from the normal condition. But let the cra- 
 nium, where it is laid open by the saw, be observed from 
 within, and we notice an asymmetry of the two hemi- 
 spheres of the train ; the cranium is pushed somewhat for- 
 ward and to the right. The partes orbitales of the frontal 
 bone are higher and more arched than is usual, in con- 
 sequence of which the lamina cribrosa of the ethmoid 
 bone lies deeper, and room is given for the well-knoAvn 
 
APPENDIX B. 285 
 
 conformation of the ethmoidal process in the brain. The 
 cerebral convolutions are plainly marked upon the inner 
 surface of the cranium. The facial cranium shows no 
 deviations. There is no prognathism. The formation of 
 the teeth alone is irregular ; one pre-molar tooth is lack- 
 ing above and below in the jaw, and, in fact, there is no 
 place for it. The incisors and the pre-molar teeth are 
 undergoing change. 
 
 " The two cerebral hemispheres are asymmetrical ; in 
 the region where the parieto-occipital fissure is situated on 
 the left hemisphere, the two hemispheres diverge from 
 each other and form an edge which curves outward and 
 backward, so that the cerebellum remains uncovered. On 
 the lower surface of the frontal lobes there exists a strongly 
 marked ethmoidal prominence. Neither of the fissures of 
 Sylvius is quite closed, the left less so than the right ; the 
 operculum is but slightly developed, and the island of Eeil 
 lies with its fissures almost entirely uncovered. This con- 
 formation reminds us throughout of the brain of the an- 
 thropoid apes. The two sulci centrales sive fissurm Bo- 
 landi run straight to the border of the hemisphere, less 
 deeply impressed than is normally the case, without form- 
 ing an angle with each other. Very strongly and deeply 
 impressed sulci prmcentrales seem to serve as substitutes 
 for them. The sulcus interparietal , which begins farther 
 outward than in the ordinary human being, receives the 
 sulcus parieto-occipitalis — a structure in conformity with 
 the typical brain of the ape. The sulcus occipitalis trans- 
 versus, which is generally lightly stamped in man, extends 
 here as a deep fissure across over the occipital lobe, thus 
 producing a so-called simian fissure, and the posterior part 
 of the occipital lobe has the appearance of an operculum. 
 Tlaejissvira calcarina has its origin directly on the surface 
 of the occipital lobe, does not receive until late thefissura 
 parieto-occipitalis, and goes directly, on the right side, 
 into the fissura hippocampi. This abnormal structure 
 also is typical for the brain of the ape. 
 
 " The gyrus occipitalis primus is separated from the 
 upper parietal lobe by the sulcus parieto-occipitalis, a for- 
 mation that, according to Gratiolet, exists in many apes. 
 The gyrus temporalis superior is greatly reduced on both 
 
286 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 sides, and has an average breadth of only five millimetres ; 
 it is the one peculiarity that recalls emphatically the brain 
 of the chimpanzee, which always has this reduced upper 
 temporal convolution. 
 
 " We have here, then, a brain that scarcely deviates 
 from the normal brain in volume, that possesses all the 
 convolutions and fissures, seeming, perhaps, richer than 
 the average brain in convolutions, and that is in every 
 respect differentiated ; and notwithstanding all this it ap- 
 proximates, in its whole structure, to the simian rather 
 than to the human type. Had the brain been placed be- 
 fore me without my knowing its origin, I should have 
 been perfectly justified in assigning this brain to an an- 
 thropoid ape standing somewhat nearer to man than does 
 the chimpanzee." 
 
 ~No second case of this sort has thus far been observed. 
 
 C. 
 
 EEPOETS CONCERNING THE PEOCESS OF LEARNING TO 
 SEE, ON THE PAET OF PEESONS BOEN BLIND, BUT AC- 
 QUIRING SIGHT THROUGH SURGICAL TREATMENT. ALSO 
 SOME CRITICAL REMARKS. 
 
 I. The Chesselden Case. 
 
 The following extracts are taken from the report pub- 
 lished by "Will. Chesselden in the " Philosophical Trans- 
 actions for the Months of April, May, and June, 1728 " 
 (No. 402, London, pp. 447-450), or the "Philosophical 
 Transactions from 1719 to 1733, abridged by J. Eames 
 and J. Martyn " (vii, 3, pp. 491-493, London, 1734) : 
 
 " Though we say of the gentleman that he was blind, 
 as we do of all people who have ripe cataracts, yet they 
 are never so blind from that cause but that they can dis- 
 cern day from night, and, for the most part, in a strong 
 light distinguish black, white, and scarlet ; but they can 
 
APPEXDIX c. 287 
 
 not perceive the shape of anything. . . . And thus it was 
 with this young gentleman, who, though he knew these 
 colors asunder in a good light, yet when he saw them after 
 he was couched, the faint ideas he had of them before 
 were not sufficient for him to know them by afterward, 
 and therefore he did not think them the same which he 
 had known before by those names. . . . 
 
 " When he first saw, he was so far from making any 
 judgment about distances, that he thought all objects 
 whatever touched his eyes (as he expressed it) as what he 
 felt did his skin, and. thought no objects so agreeable as 
 those which were smooth and regular. He knew not the 
 shape of anything nor any one thing from another, how- 
 ever different in shape or magnitude ; but upon being told 
 what things were, whose form he before knew from feel- 
 ing, he would carefully observe, that he might know them 
 again. But, having too many objects to learn at once, he 
 forgot many of them, and (as he said) at first he learned 
 to know and again forgot a thousand things in a day. 
 Having often forgot which was the cat and which the dog, 
 he was ashamed to ask ; but catching the cat (which he 
 knew by feeling), he was observed to look at her stead- 
 fastly, and then, setting her down, said, ' So, puss, I shall 
 know you another time.' He was very much surprised that 
 those things which he had liked best did not appear most 
 agreeable to his eyes, expecting those persons would appear 
 most beautiful that he loved most, and such things to be 
 most agreeable to his sight that were so to his taste. We 
 thought he soon knew what pictures represented which 
 were showed to him, but we found afterward we were mis- 
 taken, for about two months after he was couched he dis- 
 covered at once they represented solid bodies, when to that 
 time he considered them only as party-colored planes or 
 surfaces diversified with variety of paint ; but even then 
 he was no less surprised, expecting the pictures would feel 
 like the things they represented, and was amazed when he 
 found those parts, which by their light and shadow ap- 
 peared now round and uneven, felt only flat like the rest, 
 and asked which was the lying sense, feeling or seeing ? 
 
 " Being shown his father's picture in a locket at his 
 mother's watch and told what it was, he acknowledged a 
 
238 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 likeness, but was vastly surprised, asking how it could be 
 that a large face could be expressed in so little room. 
 
 " At first he could bear but very little sight, and the 
 things he saw he thought extremely large ; but, upon see- 
 ing things larger, those first seen he conceived less, never 
 being able to imagine any lines beyond the bounds he saw. 
 The room he was in he said he knew to be but part of the 
 house, yet he could not conceive that the whole house 
 could look bigger. Before he was couched he expected 
 little advantage from seeing, except reading and writing. 
 Blindness, he observed, had this advantage, that he could 
 go anywhere in the dark much better than those who 
 could see, and after he had seen he did not soon lose this 
 quality nor desire a light to go about the house in the 
 night. 
 
 " A year after first seeing, being carried upon Epsom 
 Downs and observing a large prospect, he was exceedingly 
 delighted with it and called it a new kind of seeing ; and 
 now being lately couched of his other eye, he says that ob- 
 jects at first appeared large to this eye but not so large as 
 they did at first to the other, and, looking upon the same 
 object with both eyes, he thought it looked about twice as 
 large as with the first couched eye only, but not double, 
 that we can anywise discover." 
 
 Remark on the First Case. 
 
 Although this Ohesselden case is the most famous of 
 all, and the most frequently cited, it belongs, nevertheless, 
 to those most inaccurately described. It is, however, not 
 only the first in the order of time, but especially impor- 
 tant for the reason that it demonstrates in a striking man- 
 ner the slow acquirement of space-perception by the eye, 
 and also the acquirement of the first and second dimen- 
 sions of space (cf. vol. i, p. 57). 
 
 II., III. The Ware Cases. 
 
 One of these cases is that of a boy, who at the age of 
 seven years recovered his sight which he had lost in the 
 
APPENDIX C. 289 
 
 first half-year of his life. The surgeon who performed the 
 operation, James Ware, writes ("Philosophical Transac- 
 tions of the Royal Society for 1801," ii, London, 1801, pp. 
 382-396) : 
 
 " The young W. appeared to be a healthy, perfect 
 child ; his eyes in particular were large and rather promi- 
 nent. About the end of his first year, a number of per- 
 sons passing in procession near his father's house, accom- 
 panied with music and flags, the child was taken to see 
 them ; but, instead of looking at the procession, it was ob- 
 served that, though he was evidently much pleased with 
 the music, his eyes were never directed to the place from 
 whence the sound came. His mother, alarmed by this 
 discovery, held silver spoons and other glaring objects be- 
 fore him at different distances, and she was soon convinced 
 that he was unable to perceive any of them. A surgeon 
 was consulted, who, on examining the eyes, pronounced 
 that there was a complete cataract in each. All thoughts of 
 assisting his sight were (for the present) relinquished. As 
 soon as he could speak it was observed that when an ob- 
 ject was held close to his eyes he was able to distinguish 
 its color if strongly marked, but on no occasion did he 
 ever notice its outline or figure. I performed the opera- 
 tion on the left eye on the 29th of December, 1800. The 
 eye was immediately bound up, and no inquiries made on 
 that day with regard to his sight. On the 30th I found 
 that he had experienced a slight sickness on the preceding 
 evening. On the 31st, as soon as I entered his chamber, 
 the mother with much joy informed me that her child 
 could see. About an hour before my visit he was stand- 
 ing near the fire, with a handkerchief tied loosely over his 
 eyes, when he told her that under the handkerchief, which 
 had slipped upward, he could distinguish the table by the 
 side of which she was sitting. It was about a yard and a 
 half from him, and he observed that it was covered with a 
 green cloth (which was really the case), and that it was a 
 little farther off than he was able to reach. . . . Desirous 
 to ascertain whether he was able to distinguish objects, I 
 held a letter before him at the distance of about twelve 
 inches, when he told me, after a short hesitation, that it 
 
290 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 was a piece of paper ; that it was square, which he knew 
 by its corners; and that it was longer in one direction 
 than it was in the other. On being desired to point to 
 the corners, he did it with great precision and readily car- 
 ried his finger in the line of its longest diameter. I then 
 showed him a small oblong bandbox covered with red 
 leather, which he said was red and square, and pointed at 
 once to its four corners. After this I placed before him 
 an oval silver box, which he said had a shining appear- 
 ance, and presently afterward that it was round, because it 
 had not corners. A white stone mug he first called a 
 white basin, but soon after, recollecting himself, said it 
 was a mug because it had a handle. I held the objects at 
 different distances from his eye and inquired very particu- 
 larly if he was sensible of any difference in their situation, 
 which he always said he was, informing me on every 
 change whether they were brought nearer to or carried 
 farther from him. I again inquired, both of his mother 
 and himself, whether he had ever before this time dis- 
 tinguished by sight any sort of object, and I was assured 
 by both that he never had on any occasion, and that when 
 he wished to discover colors, which he could only do when 
 they were very strong, he had always been obliged to hold 
 the colored object close to his eye and a little on one side 
 to avoid the projection of the nose. ]STo further experi- 
 ments were made on that day. On the 1st of January I 
 found that he felt no uneasiness on the approach of light. 
 I showed him a table-knife, which at first he called a 
 spoon, but soon rectified the mistake, giving it the right 
 name and distinguishing the blade from the handle by 
 pointing to each as he was desired. He called a yellow 
 pocket-book by its name, taking notice of the silver lock in 
 the cover. I held my hand before him, which he knew, 
 but could not at first tell the number of my fingers nor 
 distinguish one of them from another. I then held up his 
 own hand and desired him to remark the difference be- 
 tween his thumb and his fingers, after which he readily 
 pointed out the distinctions in mine also. Dark-colored 
 and smooth objects were more agreeable to him than those 
 which were bright and rough. On the 3d of January he 
 saw from the drawing-room window a dancing bear in the 
 
APPENDIX C. 291 
 
 street and distinguished a number of boys that were stand- 
 ing round him, noticing particularly a bundle of clothes 
 which one of them had on his head. On the same even- 
 ing I placed him before a looking-glass and held up his 
 hand. After a little time he smiled and said he saw the 
 shadow of his hand as well as that of his head. He could 
 not then distinguish his features; but on the following 
 day, his mother having again placed him before the glass, 
 he pointed to his eyes, nose, and mouth. The young W., 
 a remarkably intelligent boy (of seven years), gave the 
 most direct and satisfactory answers to every question that 
 was put to him, and, though not born blind, certainly had 
 not any recollection of having ever seen. The right eye 
 was operated upon a month after the left, but without the 
 least success." 
 
 In regard to the other case, Ware writes : " In the 
 instance of a young gentleman from Ireland, fourteen 
 years old, from each of whose eyes I extracted a cataract 
 in the year 1794, and who, before the operation, assured 
 me, as did his friends, that he had never seen the figure 
 of any object, I was astonished by the facility with which, 
 on the first experiment, he took hold of my hand at dif- 
 ferent distances, mentioning whether it was brought 
 nearer to or carried farther from him, and conveying his 
 hand to mine in a circular direction, that we [Ware and 
 another physician] might be the better satisfied of the 
 accuracy with which he did it." In this case, as in others 
 of like nature, Ware could not, "although the patients 
 had certainly been blind from early infancy," satisfy him- 
 self " that they had not, before this period, enjoyed a suf- 
 ficient degree of sight to impress the image of visible ob- 
 jects on their minds, and to give them ideas which could 
 not afterward be entirely obliterated." 
 
 Ware found, moreover, that, in the case of two chil- 
 dren between seven and eight years of age, both blind 
 from birth, and on whom no operation had been per- 
 formed, the knowledge of colors, limited as it was, was 
 sufficient to enable them to tell whether colored objects 
 were brought nearer to or carried farther from them ; for 
 
292 TEE MIND OF TIIE CHILD. 
 
 instance, whether they were at the distance of two inches 
 or four inches from their eyes ; and he himself observes 
 that they were not, in strictness of speech, blind, though 
 they were deprived of all useful sight. 
 
 Remarks on the Second and Third Cases. 
 
 It is a surprising thing, in the account of the former case, 
 that nothing whatever is said of the behavior of the patient 
 on the first and on the fourth day after the operation. We 
 must assume that he passed the first day wholly with his 
 eyes bandaged. Further, the boy pointed out four corners 
 of a box, while the box had eight ; yet no inference can be 
 drawn from this, for possibly only one side of the box was 
 shown to him. The most remarkable thing is the statement 
 of the patient that he saw the shadoio of his hand in the 
 glass. This circumstance, and the astonishing certainty, at 
 the very first attempts to estimate space-relations, in the dis- 
 crimination of round and angular, and in the observation 
 that the table was somewhat farther from him than he 
 could reach, show what influence the mere ability to per- 
 ceive colors has upon vision in space. Before the opera- 
 tion, W. distinguished only striking colors from one an- 
 other; but he could perceive nearness and distance of 
 colored objects, within narrow limits, by the great differ- 
 ences in the luminous intensity of the colors. He distin- 
 guished with certainty dimness from brightness. Accord- 
 ingly, when he noticed a decrease in the brightness of a 
 color, he inferred the distance of the colored object from 
 the eye, regulating his judgment also by touch. Thus the 
 boy had, before the operation, some perception of space 
 with the eye, and it is not much to be wondered at, con- 
 sidering his uncommon intelligence, that he, soon after 
 the operation (probably attempts at seeing were secretly 
 made by the patient on the first day) learned to judge 
 
APPENDIX C. 293 
 
 pretty surely of space-relations — much more surely than a 
 person born blind learns to judge in so short a time. Be- 
 sides, it is not to be forgotten that, while it is true that the 
 cataract had become completely developed at the end of 
 the first year of life, there is no proof that the child was un- 
 able to see during the first months. At that time images, 
 as in the second case, may have unconsciously impressed 
 themselves, with which, at a later period, more accurate 
 space-ideas may have been associated, through the sense 
 of touch, than is the case with persons born completely 
 blind. Ware concludes, from his observations — 
 
 1. " When children are born blind, in consequence of 
 having cataracts in their eyes, they are never so totally 
 deprived of sight as not to be able to distinguish colors ; 
 and, though they can not see the figure of an object, nor 
 even its color, unless it be placed within a very short dis- 
 tance, they nevertheless can tell whether, when within 
 this distance, it be brought nearer to or carried farther 
 from them. 
 
 2. " In consequence of this power, whilst in a state of 
 comparative blindness, children who have their cataracts 
 removed are enabled immediately on the acquisition of 
 sight to form some judgment of the distance, and even of 
 the outline, of those strongly defined objects with the color 
 of which they were previously acquainted." 
 
 Both these conclusions are simply matter of fact. It 
 only needs explanation how the distance and outlines of 
 objects can be known after the operation in consequence 
 of the ability described in the first proposition. That dis- 
 tance is actually estimated at once in consequence of this 
 power, is clear ; not so with the outlines. How can round 
 and angular be distinguished, when only colors and gross 
 differences of intensity and saturation are perceived? 
 Ware gives no solution of the difficulty, but thinks that, 
 because the colors appeared more intense, the previously 
 22 
 
294: THE MIND OF THE CUILD. 
 
 imperfect ideas concerning distances might be improved 
 and extended, so that they would even give a knowledge of 
 the boundary-lines and of the form of those things with 
 the color of which the patients were previously acquainted. 
 But this improvement of the ideas concerning distance 
 can not lead directly to discrimination of the limits of ob- 
 jects, and is itself hypothetical, inasmuch as we might 
 expect, immediately after the operation, on account of the 
 enormous difference in the luminous intensity, an uncer- 
 tainty in the judgment. But such uncertainty appeared 
 only in a slight degree in both the cases, a thing possible 
 only because there had already been sufficient experiences 
 with the eye. But these experiences, as is frequently 
 stated, were absolutely lacking in regard to the limits and 
 the form of objects. Here another thing comes in to help. 
 Evidently, an eye that distinguishes only colors sees these 
 colors always only as limited ; even if it saw only a single 
 color that occupied the whole field of vision, the field 
 would still be a limited one. But the colored field may 
 be small or large, and this difference may be noticed before 
 the operation. If the object — one of vivid coloring — is 
 long and narrow, the patient, even before the operation, 
 will see it otherwise than if it is, with the same coloring, 
 short and broad. And suppose he merely observes that 
 not the whole field of vision is colored. If the whole field 
 is colored, there is, of course, an entire lack of angles ; on 
 the other hand, if the whole field of vision is not filled by 
 the colored object, then it is — however faintly — divided, 
 and the lines of division, i. e., the indistinct boundary-lines 
 of the objects whose color is perceived, may be either like 
 the natural limits of the entire field of vision, i. e., "round," 
 or unlike them, i. e., " angular." If, now, the obstacle is 
 suddenly removed, the patient (even if he did not before 
 the operation distinguish angular and round by the eye) 
 
APPENDIX C. 295 
 
 must yet perceive which of the objects before him resem- 
 ble in contour the previous field of vision, i. e., are round, 
 and which do not ; for the round contour of his field of 
 vision is familiar to him. But W. had learned, through 
 the sense of touch, that what is not round is angular. He 
 would, therefore, even if he could perceive colors when the 
 whole field of vision was filled — a matter on which we have 
 no information — be able to guess the outlines of some ob- 
 jects soon after the operation, merely on the ground of his 
 experiences before it. It was guess-work every time, as 
 appears from the confounding of kuife and spoon, mug 
 and basin. The boy must have thought, " How would it 
 be if I felt of it ? " and, as he had before the opera- 
 tion frequently observed that whatever had the same 
 contour as his field of vision, or a contour similar to 
 that, was round, he could, after the operation, distin- 
 guish round and not round — a thing which a person 
 born blind, on the other hand, and knowing nothing 
 of his field of vision, because he has never had any, can 
 never do. 
 
 On the whole, the two Ware cases are by no means so 
 important as the Franz (see below) and Chesselden cases, 
 because the boy, "W., had ample opportunity up to his sev- 
 enth year for learning to distinguish different colors ac- 
 cording to their quality and luminous intensity ; because 
 he must have known the limits of his field of vision, and 
 could in any case, by means of touch, correct and relatively 
 confirm his very frequent attempts to guess at forms and 
 distances by the eye. Finally, it is not known whether he 
 became blind before or immediately after his birth, or, as 
 is most probable, not till some months after birth. The 
 same is true of the second case. 
 
296 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 IV, V. The Home Cases. 
 
 Everard Home makes the following statement in the 
 " Philosophical Transactions of the Eoyal Society," Lon- 
 don, 1807, i, pp. 83-87, 91 : 
 
 " 1. William Stiff, twelve years of age, had cataracts 
 in his eyes, which, according to the account of his mother, 
 existed at the time of birth. From earliest infancy he 
 never stretched out his hand to catch at anything, nor 
 were his eyes directed to objects placed before him, but 
 rolled about in a very unusual manner. The eyes were 
 not examined till he was six months old, and at that time 
 the cataracts were as distinct as when he was received into 
 the hospital. He could at that time (July 17, 1806) dis- 
 tinguish light from darkness, and the light of the sun 
 from that of a fire or candle ; he said it was redder and 
 more pleasant to look at, but lightning made a still stronger 
 impression on his eyes. All these different lights he called 
 red. The sun appeared to him the size of his hat. The 
 candle-flame was larger than his finger and smaller than 
 his arm. When he looked at the sun, he said it appeared 
 to touch his eye. When a lighted candle was placed be- 
 fore him, both his eyes were directed toward it, and moved 
 together. When it was at any nearer distance than twelve 
 inches, he said it touched his eyes. When moved farther 
 off he said it did not touch them, and at twenty-two inches 
 it became invisible. 
 
 " On the 21st of July the operation of extracting the 
 crystalline lens was performed on the left eye. Light be- 
 came very distressing to his eye. After allowing the eye- 
 lids to remain closed for a few minutes, and then opening 
 them, the pupil appeared clear, but he could not bear ex- 
 posure to light. On my asking him what he had seen, he 
 said, ' Your head, which seemed to touch my eye,' but he 
 could not tell its shape. On the 22d the light was less 
 offensive. He said he saw my head, which touched his 
 eye. On the 23d the eye was less inflamed, and he could 
 bear a weak light. He said he could see several gentlemen 
 round him, but could not describe their figure. My face, 
 while I was looking at his eye, he said was round and red. 
 
APPENDIX C. 297 
 
 From the 25th of July to the 1st of August there was in- 
 flammation. On the 4th of August an attempt was made 
 to ascertain the powers of vision ; it became necessary to 
 shade the glare of light by hanging a white cloth before 
 the window. The least exertion fatigued the eye, and the 
 cicatrix on the cornea, to which the iris had become at- 
 tached, drew it down so as considerably to diminish the 
 pupil. The attempt had therefore to be postponed. 
 
 " On the 16th of September the right eye was couched. 
 The light was so distressing to his eye that the lids were 
 closed as soon as it was over. The eyes were not examined 
 with respect to their vision till the 13th of October ; the 
 boy remained quiet in the hospital. On this day he could 
 discern a white, red, or yellow color, particularly when 
 bright and shining. The sun and other objects did not 
 now seem to touch his eyes as before, they appeared to be 
 at a short distance from him. The right eye had the most 
 distinct vision, but in both it was imperfect. The distance 
 at which he saw best was five inches. When the object 
 was of a bright color, and illuminated by a strong light, 
 he could make out that it was flat and broad ; and when 
 one corner of a square substance was pointed out to him, 
 he saw it, and could find out the other, which was at the 
 end of the same side, but could not do this under less 
 favorable circumstances. When the four corners of a 
 white card were pointed out, and he had examined them, 
 he seemed to know them ; but when the opposite surface 
 of the same card, which was yellow, was placed before him, 
 he could not tell whether it had corners or not, so that he 
 had not acquired any correct knowledge of them, since he 
 could not apply it to the next colored surface, whose form 
 was exactly the same with that, the outline of which the 
 eye had just been taught to trace. . . . 
 
 " 2. John Salter, seven years of age, was admitted into 
 St. George's Hospital on the 1st of October, 1806, with 
 cataracts in both eyes, which, according to the accounts of 
 his relations, had existed from his birth. The pupils con- 
 tracted considerably when a lighted candle was placed be- 
 fore him, and dilated as soon as it was withdrawn. He 
 was capable of distinguishing colors with tolerable accu- 
 racy, particularly the more bright and vivid ones. On the 
 
298 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 6th of October the left eye was couched. The eye was 
 allowed ten minutes to recover itself; a round piece of 
 card, of a yellow color, one inch in diameter, was then 
 placed about six inches from it. He said immediately 
 that it was yellow, and, on being asked its shape, said, 
 4 Let me touch it, and I will tell you.' Being told that he 
 must not touch it, after looking for some time, he said it 
 was round. A square, blue card, nearly the same size, be- 
 ing put before him, he said it was blue and round. A 
 triangular piece he also called round. The different colors 
 of the objects placed before him he instantly decided on 
 with great correctness, but had no idea of their form. He 
 saw best at a distance of six or seven inches. He was asked 
 whether the object seemed to touch his eye ; he said, ' No,' 
 but when desired to say at what distance it was, he could 
 not tell. The eye was covered, and he was put to bed and 
 told to keep himself quiet; but upon the house-surgeon 
 going to him half an hour afterward, his eye was found 
 uncovered, and he was looking at his bed-curtains, which 
 were close drawn. The bandage was replaced, but so de- 
 lighted was the boy with seeing, that he again immediately 
 removed it. The house-surgeon could not enforce his in- 
 structions, and repeated the experiment about two hours 
 after the operation. Upon being shown a square, and 
 asked if he could find any corners to it, the boy was very 
 desirous of touching it. This being refused, he examined 
 it for some time, and said at last that he had found a 
 corner, and then readily counted the four corners of the 
 square; and afterward, when a triangle was shown him, 
 he counted the corners in the same way ; but in doing so 
 his eye went along the edge from corner to corner, nam- 
 ing them as he went along. Next day he told me he had 
 seen ' the soldiers with their fifes and pretty things.' The 
 guards in the morning had marched past the hospital with 
 their band ; on hearing the music, he had got out of bed 
 and gone to the window to look at them. Seeing the 
 bright barrels of muskets, he must in his mind have con- 
 nected them with the sounds which he heard, and mis- 
 taken them for musical instruments. Twenty-four hours 
 after the operation the pupil of the eye was clear. A pair 
 of scissors was shown him, and he said it was a knife. On 
 
APPENDIX C. 299 
 
 being told lie was wrong, he could not make them out ; 
 but the moment he touched them he said they were scis- 
 sors, and seemed delighted with the discovery. 
 
 " From this time he was constantly improving himself 
 by looking at, and examining with his hands, everything 
 within his reach, but he frequently forgot what he had 
 learned. On the 10th I saw him again. He went to the 
 window and called out, ' What is that moving ? ' I asked 
 him what he thought it was. He said : ' A dog drawing 
 a wheelbarrow. There is one, two, three dogs drawing 
 another. How very pretty!' These proved to be carts 
 and horses on the road, which he saw from a two-pair-of- 
 stairs window. 
 
 " On the 19th the different colored pieces of card were 
 separately placed before his eye, and so little had he gained 
 in thirteen days that he could not, without counting their 
 corners one by one, tell their shape. This he did with 
 great facility, running his eye quickly along the outline, 
 so that it was evident he was still learning, just as a child 
 learns to read. He had got so far as to know the angles, 
 when they were placed before him, and to count the num- 
 ber belonging to any one object. The reason of his mak- 
 ing so slow a progress was, that these figures had never 
 been subjected to examination by touch, and were unlike 
 anything he had been accustomed to see. He had got so 
 much the habit of assisting his eyes with his hands, that 
 nothing but holding them could keep them from the 
 object. 
 
 " On the 26th the experiments were again repeated on 
 the couched eye. It was now found that the boy, on look- 
 ing at any one of the cards in a good light, could tell the 
 form nearly as readily as the color." 
 
 From these two instructive cases Home concludes : 
 
 " That, where the eye, before the cataract is removed, 
 has only been capable of discerning light, without being 
 able to distinguish colors, objects after its removal will 
 seem to touch the eye, and there will be no knowledge of 
 their outline, which confirms the observations, made by 
 Chesselden. 
 
 " That where the eye has previously distinguished 
 colors, there must also be an imperfect knowledge of dis- 
 
300 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 tances, but not of outline, which, however, will be very 
 soon acquired, as happened in Ware's cases. This is proved 
 by the history of the first boy, who, before the operation 
 had no knowledge of colors or distances, but after it, when 
 his eye had only arrived at the same state that the second 
 boy's was in before the operation, he had learned that the 
 objects were at a distance and of different colors. 
 
 " That when a child has acquired a new sense, nothing 
 but great pain or absolute coercion will prevent him from 
 making use of it." 
 
 VI. The Wardrop Case. 
 
 James Wardrop reports (" Philosophical Transactions 
 of the Royal Society for 1826," iii, 529-540, London, 
 1826) : 
 
 " A girl who was observed, during the first months of 
 her infancy, to have something peculiar in the appearance, 
 of her eyes and an unusual groping manner which made 
 her parents suspect that she had defective vision, had an 
 operation performed on both eyes at the age of about six 
 months The right eye was entirely destroyed in conse- 
 quence. The left eye was preserved, but the child could 
 only distinguish a very light from a very dark room with- 
 out having the power to perceive even the situation of the 
 window through which the light entered, though in sun- 
 shine or in bright moonlight she knew the direction from 
 which the light emanated. In this case no light could 
 reach the retina except such rays as could pass through 
 the substance of the iris. Until her forty-sixth year the 
 patient could not perceive objects and had no notion of 
 colors. On the 26th of January I introduced a very 
 small needle through the cornea and the center of the 
 iris ; but I could not destroy any of the adhesions which 
 had shut up the pupillar opening. After this operation 
 she said she could distinguish more light, but she could 
 perceive neither forms nor colors. On the 8th of Febru- 
 ary the iris (a portion of it) was divided. The light be- 
 came offensive to her. She complained of its brightness, 
 and was frequently observed trying to see her hands ; but 
 
APPENDIX C. 301 
 
 it was evident that her vision was very imperfect, for, al- 
 though there was an incision made in the iris, some opaque 
 matter lay behind the opening, which must have greatly 
 obstructed the entrance of light. 
 
 " On the 17th of February a third operation. The 
 opening was enlarged and the opaque matter removed. 
 The operation being performed at my house, she returned 
 home in a carriage, with her eye covered only with a loose 
 piece of silk, and the first thing she noticed was a hackney- 
 coach passing, when she exelaimed, ' What is that large 
 thing that has passed by us ? ' In the course of the even- 
 ing she requested her brother to show her his watch, con- 
 cerning which she expressed much curiosity, and she 
 looked at it a considerable time, holding it close to her 
 eye. She was asked what she saw, and she said there was 
 a dark and a bright side ; she pointed to the hour of 
 twelve, and smiled. Her brother asked her if she saw any- 
 thing more. She replied, ' Yes,' and pointed to the hour 
 of six and to the hands of the watch. She then looked at 
 the chain and seals, and observed that one of the seals was 
 bright, which was the case. The following day I asked 
 her to look again at the watch, which she refused to do, 
 saying that the light was offensive to her eye and that she 
 felt very stupid, meaning that she was much confused by 
 the visible world thus for the first time opened to her. 
 
 " On the third day she observed the doors on the op- 
 posite side of the street and asked if they were red, bat 
 they were, in fact, of an oak-color. In the evening she 
 looked at her brother's face and said that she saw his nose. 
 He asked her to touch it, which she did. He then slipped 
 a handkerchief over his face and asked her to look again, 
 when she playfully pulled it off and asked, 'What is 
 that?' 
 
 " On the sixth day she told us that she saw better than 
 she had done on any preceding day ; ' but I can not tell 
 what I do see. I am quite stupid.' She felt disappointed 
 in not having the power of distinguishing at once by her 
 eye objects which she could so readily distinguish from 
 one another by feeling them. 
 
 " On the seventh day she observed that the mistress of 
 the house was tall. She asked what the color of her gown 
 
302 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 was, to which she was answered that it was blue. * So 13 
 that thing on your head,' she then observed, which was the 
 case; 'and your handkerchief, that is a different color, 5 
 which was also correct. She added, ' I see you pretty well, 
 I think.' The teacups and saucers underwent an exam- 
 ination. 'What are they like?' her brother asked her. 
 ' I don't know,' she replied, ' they look very queer to me, 
 but I can tell what they are in a minute when I touch 
 them.' She distinguished an orange, but could form no 
 notion of what it was till she touched it. She seemed now 
 to have become more cheerful, and she was very sanguine 
 that she would find her newly acquired faculty of more 
 use to her when she returned home, where everything was 
 familiar to her. 
 
 "On the eighth day she asked her brother ' what he 
 was helping himself to ? ' and when she was told it was a 
 glass of port wine, she replied, ' Port wine is dark, and 
 looks to me very ugly.' She observed, when candles were 
 brought into the room, her brother's face in the mirror as 
 well as that of a lady who was present ; she also walked 
 for the first time without assistance from her chair to a 
 sofa which was on the opposite side of the room and back 
 again to the chair. When at tea she took notice of the 
 tray, observed the shining of the japan- work, and asked 
 ' what the color was round the edge ? ' she was told that 
 it was yellow, upon which she remarked, ' I will know that 
 again.' 
 
 " On the ninth day she came down-stairs to breakfast 
 in great spirits. She said to her brother, ' I see you very 
 well to-day,' and came up to him and shook hands. She 
 also observed a ticket on a window of a house on the op- 
 posite side of the street ('a lodging to let'), and her 
 brother, to convince himself of her seeing it, took her to 
 the window three several times, and to his surprise and 
 gratification she pointed it out to him distinctly on each 
 trial. 
 
 " She spent a great part of the eleventh day looking 
 out of the window, and spoke very little. 
 
 " On the twelfth day she went to walk with her 
 brother. The clear blue sky first attracted her notice, 
 and she said, ' It is the prettiest thing I have ever seen 
 
APPENDIX C. 303 
 
 yet, and equally pretty every time I turn round and look 
 at it.' She distinguished the street from the foot-pave- 
 ment distinctly, and stepped from one to the other like a 
 person accustomed to the use of her eyes. Her great curi- 
 osity, and the manner in which she stared at the variety of 
 objects and pointed to them, exciting the observation of 
 many by-standers, her brother soon conducted her home, 
 much against her will. 
 
 " On the evening of the thirteenth day she observed 
 that there was a different tea-tray, and that it was not a 
 pretty one, but had a dark border, which was a correct 
 description. Her brother asked her to look in the mirror 
 and tell him if she saw his face in it, to which she an- 
 swered, evidently disconcerted : ' I see my own ; let me go 
 away.' 
 
 " On the fourteenth day she drove in a carriage four 
 miles, and noticed the trees, and likewise the river Thames 
 as she crossed Vauxhall Bridge. At this time it was bright 
 sunshine, and she said something dazzled her when she 
 looked on the water. 
 
 " On the fifteenth day she walked to a chapel. The 
 people passing on the pavement startled her, and once 
 when a gentleman was going past her who had a white 
 waistcoat and a blue coat with yellow buttons, which the 
 sunshine brought full in her view, she started so as to 
 draw her brother, who was walking with her, off the pave- 
 ment. She distinguished the clergyman moving his hands 
 in the pulpit, and observed that he held something in them. 
 This was a white handkerchief. 
 
 "On the sixteenth day she went in a coach through 
 the town, and appeared much entertained with the bustle 
 in the streets. On asking her how she saw on that day, 
 she answered : ' I see a great deal, if I could only tell what 
 I do see ; but surely I am very stupid.' 
 
 " On the seventeenth day, when her brother asked her 
 how she was, she replied : ' I am well, and see better ; but 
 don't tease me with too many questions till I have learned 
 a little better how to make use of my eye. All that I can 
 say is, that I am sure, from what I do see, a great change 
 has taken place, but I can not describe what I feel.' 
 
 " On the eighteenth day, when pieces of paper one inch 
 
304 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 and a half square, differently colored, were presented to 
 her, she not only distinguished them at once from one an- 
 other, but gave a decided preference to some colors, liking 
 yellow most, and then pale pink. When desirous of ex- 
 amining an object, she had considerable difficulty in di- 
 recting her eye to it and finding out its position, moving 
 her hand as well as her eye in various directions, as a per- 
 son when blindfolded or in the dark gropes with his hands 
 for what he wishes to touch. She also distinguished a 
 large from a small object when they were both held up 
 before her for comparison. She said she saw different 
 forms in various objects which were shown to her. On 
 asking what she meant by different forms, such as long, 
 round, and square, and desiring her to draw with her 
 finger these forms on her other hand, and then presenting 
 to her eye the respective forms, she pointed to them ex- 
 actly ; she not only distinguished small from large objects, 
 but knew what was meant by above and below. A figure, 
 drawn with ink, was placed before her eye, having one end 
 broad and the other narrow, and she saw the positions as 
 they really were, and not inverted. 
 
 " She could also perceive motions, for, when a glass of 
 water was placed on the table before her, on approaching 
 her hand near it, it was moved quickly to a greater dis- 
 tance, upon which she immediately said : i You move it ; 
 you take it away.' 
 
 " She seemed to have the greatest difficulty in finding 
 out the distance of any object ; for, when an object was 
 held close to her eye, she would search for it by stretching 
 her hand far beyond its position, while on other occasions 
 she groped close to her own face for a thing far removed 
 from her. 
 
 " She learned with facility the names of the different 
 colors, and two days after the colored papers had been 
 shown to her, on coming into a room the color of which 
 was crimson, she observed that it was red. She also ob- 
 served some pictures hanging on the red wall of the room 
 in which she was sitting, distinguishing several small fig- 
 ures in them, but not knowing what they represented, and 
 admiring the gilt frames. On the same day she walked 
 round a pond, and was pleased with the glistening of the 
 
APFENDIX C. 305 
 
 sun's rays on the water, as well as with the blue sky and 
 green shrubs, the colors of which she named correctly. 
 
 " She had as yet acquired, by the use of her sight, but 
 very little knowledge of any forms, and was unable to ap- 
 ply the information gained by this new sense, and to com- 
 pare it with what she had been accustomed to acquire by 
 her sense of touch. When, therefore, a silver pencil-case 
 and a large key were given her to examine with her hands, 
 she discriminated and knew each distinctly; but when 
 they were placed on the table, side by side, though she 
 distinguished each with her eye, yet she could not tell 
 which was the pencil-case and which was the key. 
 
 " On the twenty-fifth day after the operation she drove 
 in a carriage for an hour in the Kegent's Park, and asked 
 more questions, on her way there, than usual, about the 
 objects surrounding her, such as, ' What is that ? ' ' It is 
 a soldier,' she was answered. 'And that? See, see!' These 
 were candles of various colors in a tallow-chandler's win- 
 dow. ' Who is that that has passed us just now ? ' It 
 was a person on horseback. ' But what is that on the 
 pavement, red ? ' It was some ladies who wore red shawls. 
 On going into the park she was asked if she could guess 
 what any of the objects were. ' Oh, yes,' she replied, 
 ' there is the sky ; that is the grass ; yonder is water, and 
 two white things,' which were two swans. 
 
 " When she left London, forty-two days after the opera- 
 tion, she had acquired a pretty accurate notion of colors 
 and their different shades and names. She had not yet 
 acquired anything like an accurate knowledge of distance 
 or of forms, and, up to this period, she continued to be 
 very much confused with every new object at which she 
 looked. Neither was she yet able, without considerable 
 difficulty and numerous fruitless trials, to direct her eye 
 to an object ; so that, when she attempted to look at any- 
 thing, she turned her head in various directions, until her 
 eye caught the object of which it was in search." 
 
 Remarks on the Sixth Case. 
 
 This case has been adduced as a proof that the sense of 
 sight is sufficient, without aid from the sense of touch, to 
 
306 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 perceive whether an object is brought nearer the eye or 
 carried farther from it. But John Stuart Mill rightly 
 observes, in opposition to this (" Dissertations and Discus- 
 sions," ii, 113 ; London, 1859), that the observation we are 
 concerned with was not made "till the eighteenth day 
 after the operation, by which time a middle-aged woman 
 might well have acquired the experience necessary for dis- 
 tinguishing so simple a phenomenon." Besides, she was 
 very uncertain in her judgment of distances, and, in her 
 attempts to seize with the hand new and distant objects, 
 she frequently acted exactly like an infant. 
 
 VII. The Franz Case. 
 
 J. C. A. Franz, of Leipsic, communicates the following 
 to the " Philosophical Transactions of the Eoyal Society " 
 (by Sir Benjamin C. Brodie), (London, 1841 ; i, pp. 
 59-69) : 
 
 " F. J. is the son of a physician. He is endowed with 
 an excellent understanding, quick power of conception, 
 and retentive memory. At his birth, both eyes were 
 found to be turned inward to such an extent that a por- 
 tion of the cornea was hidden by the inner canthus, and 
 in both pupils there was a yellowish-white discoloration. 
 That the strabismus and cataract of both eyes in this case 
 were congenital is evident from the testimony both of the 
 parents and of the nurse. The latter held a light before 
 the eyes of the child when he was a few months old, of 
 which he took no notice. I ascertained also from her that 
 the eyeballs did not move hither and thither, but were 
 always turned inward, and that but rarely either the one 
 or the other was moved from the internal canthus. 
 
 " Toward the end of the second year, as was stated to 
 me, the operation of keratonyxis was performed on the 
 right eye, upon which a severe iritis ensued, terminating 
 in atrophy of the eyeball. Within the next four years two 
 similar operations were performed on the left eye without 
 success. The color of the opacity became, however, of a 
 
APPENDIX C. 307 
 
 clearer white, and the patient acquired a certain sensation 
 of light, which he did not seem to have had before the 
 operation. 
 
 " At the end of June, 1840, the patient, being then sev- 
 enteen years of age, was brought to me. I found the con- 
 dition of things as follows : Both eyes were so much in- 
 verted that nearly one half the cornea was hidden. The 
 left eye he could move voluntarily outward, but not with- 
 out exertion; it returned immediately inward when the 
 influence of the will had ceased. The left eyeball was of 
 the natural size and elasticity. The patient had not the 
 slightest perception of light with the right eye ; the stimu- 
 lus of light had no effect on the pupil. The pupil of the 
 left eye, which was not round, but drawn angularly down- 
 ward and inward, did not alter in dimension with the 
 movements of the eye nor from the stimulus of light. On 
 examining the eye by looking straight into it through the 
 pupil, the anterior wall of the capsule appeared opaque in 
 its whole extent, and of a color and luster like mother-of- 
 pearl. On looking from the temporal side in an oblique 
 direction into the pupil, there was visible in the anterior 
 wall of the capsule a very small perpendicular cleft of 
 about one line and a quarter in length. 
 
 " This cleft was situated so far from the center of the 
 pupil that it was entirely covered by the iris. With this 
 eye the patient had a perception of light, and was even 
 capable of perceiving colors of an intense and decided 
 tone. He believed himself, moreover, able to perceive 
 about one third of a square inch of any bright object, if 
 held at the distance of half an inch or an inch from the 
 eye, and obliquely in such a direction as to reflect the light 
 strongly toward the pupil. But this, I am convinced, was 
 a mere delusion, for all rays of light falling in the direc- 
 tion of the optic axis must have been intercepted and re- 
 flected by the opaque capsule. By these rays, therefore, 
 a perception of light, indeed, might be conveyed, but cer- 
 tainly no perception of objects. On the other hand, it 
 seems probable that the lateral cleft in the capsule per- 
 mitted rays of light to pass into the interior of the eye, 
 But as this small aperture was situated entirely behind 
 the iris, those rays only would have permeated which came 
 
308 THE MIXD OF THE CHILD. 
 
 in a very oblique direction from the temporal side. Ad- 
 mitting, then, these rays of light to pass through the cleft, 
 still on account of their obliquity they could produce but 
 a very imperfect image, because they impinged upon an 
 unfavorable portion of the retina. Moreover, I satisfied 
 myself by experiments, that the patient could not in the 
 least discern objects by sight. My experiments led me to 
 the conclusion that his belief that he really saw objects 
 resulted solely from his imagination combined with his 
 power of reasoning. In feeling an object and bringing it 
 in contact with the eyelids and the cheek, an idea of the 
 object was produced, which was judged of and corrected 
 according to the experience he had gained by constant 
 practice. 
 
 " The patient's sense of touch had attained an extraor- 
 dinary degree of perfection. In order to examine an ob- 
 ject minutely he conveyed it to his lips. 
 
 " On the 10th of July, 1840, I performed an operation 
 on the left eye. The light was so painful to him that I 
 could not try any experiments immediately after the opera- 
 tion. Both eyes were closed with narrow strips of court- 
 plaster, and treated with iced water for forty-eight hours. 
 The patient suffered from muscce volitantes, and could not 
 bear even a mild degree of light falling on the closed lids. 
 After the lapse of a few weeks, the muscce volitantes were 
 greatly mitigated, and the intolerance of light ceased. 
 
 " On opening the eye for the first time on the third 
 day after the operation, I asked the patient what he could 
 see; he answered that he saw an extensive field of light, 
 in which everything appeared dull, confused, and in mo- 
 tion. He could not distinguish objects. The pain pro- 
 duced by the light forced him to close the eye imme- 
 diately. 
 
 " Two days afterward the eye, which had been kept 
 closed by means of court-plaster, was again opened. He 
 now described what he saw as a number of opaque watery 
 spheres, which moved with the movements of the eye, but 
 when the eye was at rest remained stationary, and then 
 partly covered each other. Two days after this the eye 
 was again opened. The same phenomena were again ob- 
 served, but the spheres were less opaque and somewhat 
 
APPENDIX c. 309 
 
 transparent ; their movements more steady ; they appeared 
 to cover each other more than before. He was now 
 for the first time able, as he said, to look through the 
 spheres, and to perceive a difference, but merely a differ- 
 ence, in the surrounding objects. When he directed his 
 eye steadily toward an object, the visual impression pro- 
 duced by the object was painful and very imperfect, be- 
 cause the eye, on account of its intolerance of light, could 
 not be kept open long enough for the formation of the 
 idea as derived from visual sensation. The appearance of 
 spheres diminished daily; they became smaller, clearer, 
 and more pellucid, allowed objects to be seen more dis- 
 tinctly, and disappeared entirely after two weeks. The 
 muscm volitantes, which had the form of black, immov- 
 able, and horizontal stripes, appeared, every time the eye 
 was opened, in a direction upward and inward. When 
 the eye was closed he observed, especially in the evening, 
 in an outward and upward direction, an appearance of 
 dark blue, violet, and red colors ; these colors became gradu- 
 ally less intense, were shaded into bright orange, yellow, 
 and green, which latter colors alone eventually remained, 
 and in the course of five weeks disappeared entirely. As 
 soon as the intolerance of light had so far abated that the 
 patient could observe an object without pain, and for a 
 sufficient time to gain an idea of it, the following experi- 
 ments were made on different days. 
 
 " First Experiment. — Silk ribbons of different colors, 
 fastened on a black ground, were employed to show the 
 complementary colors. The patient recognized the differ- 
 ent colors, with the exception of yellow and green, which 
 he frequently confounded, but could distinguish when both 
 were exhibited at the same time. He could point out each 
 color correctly when a variety was shown him at the same 
 time. Gray pleased him best ; the effect of red, orange, 
 and yellow was painful ; that of violet and brown not pain- 
 ful, but disagreeable. Black produced subjective colors, 
 and white occasioned the recurrence of muscce volitantes 
 in a most vehement degree. 
 
 " Second Experiment. — The patient sat with his back 
 to the light, and kept his eye closed. A sheet of paper on 
 which two strong black lines had been drawn, the one 
 23 
 
310 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 horizontal, the other vertical, was placed before him, at the 
 distance of about three feet. He was now allowed to open 
 the eye, and after attentive examination he called the lines 
 by their right denominations. When I asked him to point 
 out with his finger the horizontal line, he moved his hand 
 slowly, as if feeling, and pointed to the vertical ; but after 
 a short time, observing his error, he corrected himself. 
 The outline in black of a square [six inches in diameter], 
 within which a circle had been drawn, and within the lat- 
 ter a triangle, was, after careful examination, recognized 
 and correctly described by him. When he was asked to 
 point out either of the figures, he never moved his hand 
 directly and decidedly, but always as if feeling, and with 
 the greatest caution ; he pointed them out, however, cor- 
 rectly. A zigzag and a spiral line, both drawn on a sheet 
 of paper, he observed to be different, but could not describe 
 them otherwise than by imitating their forms with his 
 finger in the air. He said he had no idea of those figures. 
 "«. Third Experiment. — The windows of the room were 
 darkened, with the exception of one, toward which the 
 patient, closing his eye, turned his back. At the distance 
 of three feet, and on a level with the eye, a solid cube and 
 a sphere, each of four inches diameter, were placed before 
 him. I now let him open his eye. After attentively ex- 
 amining these bodies, he said he saw a quadrangular and 
 a circular figure, and after some consideration he pro- 
 nounced the one a square and the other a dish. His eye 
 being then closed, the cube was taken away, and a disk of 
 equal size substituted and placed next to the sphere. On 
 again opening his eye he observed no difference in these 
 objects, but regarded them both as disks. The solid cube 
 was now placed in a somewhat oblique position before the 
 eye, and close beside it a figure cut out of pasteboard, 
 representing a plane outline prospect of the cube when in 
 this position. Both objects he took to be something like 
 flat quadrates. A pyramid, placed before him with one of 
 its sides toward his eye, he saw as a plane triangle. This 
 object was now turned a little, so as to present two of its 
 sides to view, but rather more of one side than of the other ; 
 after considering and examining it for a long time, he said 
 that this was a very extraordinary figure ; it was neither a 
 
APPENDIX C. 311 
 
 triangle, nor a quadrangle, nor a circle ; lie had no idea of 
 it, and could not describe it. ' In fact,' said lie, ' I must 
 give it up.' On the conclusion of these experiments I 
 asked him to describe the sensations the objects had pro- 
 duced, whereupon he said that immediately on opening 
 his eye he had discovered a difference in the two objects, 
 the cube and the sphere, placed before him, and perceived 
 that they were not drawings ; but that he had not been 
 able to form from them the idea of a square and a disk, 
 until he jjwceived a sensation of ivliat lie saw in the points 
 of his fingers, as if he really touched the objects. When 
 I gave the three bodies, the sphere, cube, and pyramid, 
 into his hand, he was 'much surprised that he had not 
 recognized them as such by sight, as he was well ac- 
 quainted with them by touch. These experiments prove 
 the correctness of the hypothesis I have advanced else- 
 where on the well-known question put by Mr. Molyneux 
 to Locke, which was answered by both these gentlemen in 
 the negative. 
 
 "Fourth Experiment. — In a vessel containing water to 
 about the depth of one foot was placed a musket-ball, and 
 on the surface of the water a piece of pasteboard of the 
 same form, size, and color as the ball. The patient could 
 perceive no difference in the position of these bodies ; he 
 believed both to be upon the surface of the water. Point- 
 ing to the ball, I desired him to take up this object. He 
 made an attempt to take it from the plane of the water ; 
 but, when he found he could not grasp it there, he said he 
 had deceived himself, the objects were lying in the water, 
 upon which I informed him of their real position. I now 
 desired him to touch the ball which lay in the water with 
 a small rod. He attempted this several times, but always 
 missed his aim. He could never touch the object at the 
 first movement of his hand toward it, but only by feeling 
 about with the rod. On being questioned with respect to 
 reflected light, he said that he was always obliged to bear 
 in mind that the looking-glass was fastened to the wall in 
 order to correct his idea of the apparent situation of ob- 
 jects behind the glass. 
 
 " When the patient first acquired the faculty of sight, 
 all objects appeared to him so near that he was sometimes 
 
312 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 afraid of coming in contact with them, though they were 
 in reality at a great distance from him. He saw every- 
 thing much larger than he had supposed from the idea 
 obtained by his sense of touch. Moving and especially 
 living objects, such as men, horses, etc., appeared to him 
 very large. If he wished to form an estimate of the dis- 
 tance of objects from his own person or of two objects 
 from each other without moving from his place, he exam- 
 ined the objects from different points of view by turning 
 his head to the right and to the left. Of perspective in 
 pictures he had, of course, no idea ; it appeared to him 
 unnatural that the figure of a man represented in the 
 front ota picture should be larger than a house or mount- 
 ain in the background. All objects appeared to him per- 
 fectly flat. Thus, although he very well knew by his 
 touch that the nose was prominent and the eyes sunk 
 deeper . in the head, he saw the human face only as a 
 plane. Though he possessed an excellent memory, this 
 faculty was at first quite deficient as regarded visible ob- 
 jects : he was not able, for example, to recognize visitors, 
 unless he heard them speak, till he had seen them very 
 frequently. Even when he had seen an object repeatedly 
 he could form no idea of its visible qualities without hav- 
 ing the real object before him. Heretofore when he 
 dreamed of any persons, of his parents, for instance, he 
 felt them and heard their voices, but never saw them ; but 
 now, after having seen them frequently, he saw them also 
 in his dreams. The human face pleased him more than 
 any other object. Although the newly-acquired sense af- 
 forded him many pleasures, the great number of strange 
 and extraordinary sights was often disagreeable and wea- 
 risome to him. He said that he saw too much novelty 
 which he could not comprehend; and, even though he 
 could see both near and remote objects very well, he would 
 nevertheless continually have recourse to the use of the 
 sense of touch." 
 
 Final Remarks. 
 
 To the seven reports upon cases of persons born blind 
 and afterward surgically treated, which are here presented 
 in abridged form from the English originals, may be 
 
APPENDIX C. 313 
 
 added some more recent and more accessible ones, one by 
 Hirschberg (" Archiv fur Opthalmologie," xxi, 1. Abth., S. 
 29 bis 42, 1875), one by A. von Hippel (ibid., xxi, 2. Abtli., 
 S. 101), and one by Dufour (" Archives des Sciences phy- 
 siques et naturelles," lviii, No. 242, April, 1877, p. 420). 
 The cases reported here are those most discussed. I have 
 given them considerably in detail in order that the reader 
 may form an independent judgment concerning the be- 
 havior of persons born blind and then operated upon, as 
 that behavior is described before the modern physiological 
 controversy over empiricism and nativism. Helmholtz 
 (" Physiologische Optik," § 28) mentions, besides those 
 of Chesselden and Wardrop and Ware, which he gives in 
 abridged form, some other cases also. Others still may 
 be found in Froriep's " Notizen " (xi, p. 177, 1825, and iv, 
 p. 243, 1837, also xxi, p. 41, 1842), partly reported, partly 
 cited (the latter according to Franz). 
 
 In addition to the cases here given of persons born 
 blind and then surgically treated — persons not able to see 
 things in space-relations before becoming blind — one more 
 case is to be mentioned ; it is that of a girl who in her sev- 
 enth year (probably in consequence of the effect of dazzling 
 sunlight) lost her sight completely, but recovered it again 
 at the age of seventeen years after being treated with elec- 
 tricity. She had to begin absolutely anew to learn to 
 name colors like a child; all measure of distance, per- 
 spective, size, had been lost for her by lack of practice (as 
 0. Heyf elder relates in his work " Die Kindheit des Men- 
 schen," second edition, Erlangen, 1858, pp. 12-15). He 
 says, p. 12, that the patient had been eight years blind ; p. 
 13, that she had been ten years so. Such cases prove the 
 great influence of experience upon vision in space, and 
 show how little of this vision is inborn in mankind. 
 
 When we compare the acquirement of sight by the 
 
314 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 normal newly-born child and the infant with that of those 
 born blind, we should, above all, bear in mind that the lat- 
 ter in general could make use of only one eye, and also 
 that on account of the long inactivity of the retina and the 
 absence of the crystalline lens, as well as in consequence 
 of the numerous experiences of touch, essential differences 
 exist. Notwithstanding this, there appears an agreement 
 in the manner in which in both cases vision is learned, the 
 eye is practiced, and the association of sight and touch is 
 acquired. The seventh case in particular shows plainly 
 how strong the analogies are. 
 
 These cases are sufficient to refute some singular asser- 
 tions, e. g., that all the newly-born must see objects re- 
 versed, as even a Buffon (" (Euvres completes," iv, 136 ; 
 Paris, 1844) thought to be the fact. My boy, when I had 
 him write, in his fifth year, the ordinary figures after a 
 copy that I set for him, imitated the most of them, to my 
 surprise, always in a reversed hand (Spiegelschrif t, " mir- 
 ror-hand ") ; the 1 and the 4 he continued longest to 
 write thus, though he often made the 4 the other way, 
 too, whereas he always wrote the 5 correctly. This, how- 
 ever, was, of course, not owing to imperfect sight, but to 
 incomplete transformation of the visual idea into the 
 motor idea required for writing. Other boys, as I am 
 given to understand, do the same thing. For myself, I 
 found the distinction between " right " and " left " so dif- 
 ficult in my childhood, that I remember vividly the trouble 
 I had with it. 
 
 Singularly enough, Buffon assumed, in 1749, that the 
 neglect of the double images does not yet take place at the 
 beginning of life. Johannes Mittler, in 1826, expresses 
 the same view. But, inasmuch as in the first two or three 
 weeks after the birth of a human being, in contrast with 
 many animals, nothing at all can as yet be distinctly seen, 
 
ArPENDIX c. 315 
 
 it is not allowable to maintain that everything must be 
 seen double. Rather is it true that everything is seen 
 neither single nor double, since the very young child per- 
 ceives, as yet, no forms (boundary-lines) and no distances, 
 but merely receives impressions of light, precisely as is the 
 case with the person born blind, in the period directly 
 after an operation has been performed upon his eyes. 
 
 Schopenhauer (in his treatise on " Sight and Colors," 
 first edition, Leipsic, 1816, p. 14) divined this truth. He 
 says, " If a person who was looking out upon a wide and 
 beautiful prospect could be in an instant wholly deprived 
 of his intellect, then nothing of all the view would remain 
 for him except the sensation of a very manifold reaction 
 of his retina, which is, as it were, the raw material out of 
 which his intellect created that view." 
 
 The new-born child has, as yet, no intellect, and there- 
 fore can not, as yet, at the beginning, see ; he can merely 
 have the sensation of light. 
 
 This opinion of mine, derived from observation of the 
 behavior of newly-born and of very young infants (cf. the 
 first chapter of this book), seems to me to be practically 
 confirmed in an account given by Anselm von Feuerbach 
 in his work on Kaspar Hauser (Anspach, 1832, p. 77). 
 
 " In the year 1828, soon after his arrival in Nurem- 
 berg, Kaspar Hauser was to look out at the window in the 
 Vestner Tower, from which there was a view of a broad 
 and many-colored summer landscape. Kaspar Hauser 
 turned away ; the sight was repugnant to him. At a later 
 period, long after he had learned to speak, he gave, when 
 questioned, the following explanation : 
 
 " ' When I looked toward the window it always seemed 
 to me as if a shutter had been put up close before my eyes, 
 and that upon this shutter a colorer had wiped off his 
 brushes of different colors, white, blue, green, yellow, and 
 
316 THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 
 
 red, all in motley confusion. Individual things, as I now 
 see them, I could not, at that time, perceive and distin- 
 guish upon it ; it was absolutely hideous to look upon.' " 
 
 By this, as w ell as by the experiences with persons born 
 blind and afterward surgically treated, it is clearly demon- 
 strated that colors and degrees of brightness are severally 
 apprehended before forms and distances can be perceived. 
 The case must be the same with the normal human child 
 in the first weeks after birth. 
 
 After discrimination of the luminous sensations, the 
 boundary-lines of bright plane surfaces are next clearly 
 discerned ; then come forms, and, last of all, the distances 
 of these. 
 
 With reference to this progress of the normal infant 
 in learning to see, the accounts of persons born blind and 
 afterward surgically treated are again of great value. 
 After the famous question put by Molyneux to Locke, 
 whether an intelligent person, blind from birth, would be 
 able immediately after an operation to distinguish a sphere 
 from a cube by means of the eye alone, had been answered 
 in the negative, the opinion was accepted as satisfactory 
 that such a person learns the distinction only by means of 
 the sense of touch. Thus, the perception of difference 
 would come later, after the sight of different forms, only 
 by means of the tactual memory. 
 
 In truth, however, very many forms are discerned as 
 different purely by means of the eye, without the possi- 
 bility of aid from any other sense. Phenomena exclusively 
 optical, which, like the rainbow, can not be apprehended 
 by touch or by hearing, are distinctly perceived by the child 
 at a very early period. Without touching, the different 
 forms of objects would be perceived by means of sight 
 alone, and that even by a child unable to touch, through 
 movements of the eyes and head, changes of bodily posi- 
 
APPENDIX C. 317 
 
 tion, of attitude and posture, and through practice in 
 accommodation and in the observation of differences of 
 brightness. 
 
 The fact correctly predicted by Molyneux, that those 
 born blind but afterward surgically treated can not, by 
 means of the eye alone, distinguish the form of a sphere 
 from that of a cube, must accordingly be supplemented to 
 this extent, viz., that such persons are capable, just as are 
 normal children who can see, of learning this difference 
 of form by means of the eye alone without the direct in- 
 tervention, of the sense of touch ; for the co-ordination of 
 the retinal excitations in space and time by means of the 
 intellect, quite independently of all impressions from other 
 departments of sense, is possible, and is in countless cases 
 actual, just as is the learning of differences of form solely 
 by means of the sense of touch in children who are born 
 blind and never learn to see. 
 
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