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HAYDN'S 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES 
 
 COMPREHENDING 
 
 REMARKABLE OCCURRENCES, ANCIENT AND MODERN, 
 
 THE FOUNDATION, LAWS, AND GOVERNMENTS OF COUNTRIES — THEIR PROGRESS IN ARTS, 
 
 SCIENCE, AND LITERATURE — THEIR ACHIEVEMENTS IN ARMS — AND 
 
 THEIR CIVIL, MILITARY, RELIGIOUS, AND PHILANTHROPIC 
 
 INSTITUTIONS, PARTICULARLY OF 
 
 THE BRITISH EMPIRE. 
 
Hay cL n y JoSt£>A TtmotA y , 
 
 HAYDN'S 
 
 Dictionary of Dates 
 
 AND UNIVERSAL INFORMATION 
 
 RELATING TO ALL AGES AND NATIONS- 
 FOURTEENTH EDITION, 
 
 CONTAINING THE HISTORY OF THE WORLD TO 
 AUGUST, 1873. 
 
 By BENJAMIN VINCENT, 
 
 KEEPER OF THE LIBRARY AND ASSISTANT SECRETARY OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTION OF 
 GREAT BRITAIN 
 
 " Indocti discant et ament meminiss;e periti." 
 
 E. MOXON, SON, & CO. 
 
 LONDON: 1, AMEN CORNER PATERNOSTER ROW 
 
 _ P 
 

 LONDON : 
 BRADBURY, AGNEVv", & CO., PRINTERS, WHfTEl-RIARS. 
 
 (Dibiothes: i ^fotfdiung^ 
 Dec JuDenfcoge 
 
 41/ U9 
 
 FEB 141949 
 
 3 
 
 Copy__ 
 
PEEFACE TO THE FOURTEENTH EDITION. 
 
 When Mr. Joseph Haydn first published this work (in 1841), it was 
 well received, as supplying a public want ; and six editions had been sold, in 
 1855, when I was earnestly requested by Mr. Edward Moxon to superintend 
 the printing of a new edition. This led eventually to my undertaking its 
 thorough renovation, which has been effected by long continued labour in 
 revision and in selection from an abundance of valuable materials ; and 
 now little of the original work remains, although the present edition con- 
 tains fully one-third more matter than the sixth, published in 1858, at the 
 same price. The new features include Chronological Tables at the begin- 
 ning of the volume, innumerable literary, scientific, topographical, and 
 geographical facts inserted in the body of the work, and a Dated Index. 
 To make room for these additions the size of the page has been greatly 
 enlarged, many articles have been condensed or printed in smaller type, 
 and much useless matter has been expunged. 
 
 Encouraged by success, I hope still to maintain the reputation which 
 this work has attained, by sedulously endeavouring to make it, not a mere 
 Dictionary of Dates, but a dated Cyclopeedia, a digested summary of every 
 department of human history, brought down to the eve of publication. I 
 have endeavoured to act under the influence of the old maxims : " Homo 
 sum; Tiumani nihil a me alienum puto" and "Nulla dies sine tinea;'''' and 
 gratefully acknowledge the kindness of those friends who have pointed out 
 some of the errors and omissions, which are almost unavoidable in a work of 
 such scope and magnitude. 
 
 The more important events that have occurred during the printing of this 
 edition are noticed in the Addenda. 
 
 BENJAMIN VINCENT. 
 
 Eoyal Institution, Aug., 1873. 
 
PEEFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 
 
 The design of the Author has been to attempt the compression of the 
 greatest body of general information that has ever appeared in a single 
 volume, and to produce a Book of Reference whose extensive usefulness may 
 render its possession material to every individual — in the same manner 
 that a London Directory is indispensable, on business affairs, to a London 
 merchant 
 
 The Compiler persuades himself that the Dictionaky of Dates will be 
 received as a useful companion to all Biographical works, relating, as it does, 
 to things as those do to persons, and affording information not included in the 
 range or design of such publications. 
 
 Joseph Haydn - . 
 
 LONDON, May, 1841. Pied Jan. 17, 1856.] 
 
TABLE OF CONTEMPORARY 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 1066. Will. I. 
 1087. Will. II. 
 
 1 100. Hen. I, 
 
 ii35.Stcpla. 
 1154. Hen. 2. 
 
 1 1 72. (Ireld. 
 
 annexed.) 
 
 1189. Rich.I. 
 
 1 199. John. 
 
 1216. Hen. 3. 
 
 1272. Ed. I. 
 
 1282. (Wales 
 annexed.) 
 
 1307. Ed. II. 
 1327. Ed.III. 
 
 1377. Rich.2. 
 1399. nen. 4. 
 
 1413. Hen. 5. 
 1422. Hen. 6. 
 
 1461. Ed.IV 
 
 1483. Ed.V. 
 
 Rich. 3. 
 
 1485. Hen. 7. 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 France. 
 
 1057. Male. 3. (1060. Philip I. 
 
 1093. Donald 
 
 1094. Dune. 
 1094. Donald 
 
 again. 
 1098. Edgar. 
 
 1107. Alex. I, 
 1124. Dav. I. 
 
 1153.Mal.IV. 
 1165. Will. 
 
 1 2 14. Alex. 2. 
 
 1249. Alex. 3. 
 
 Interregnum. 
 
 1292. John 
 RalioL 
 
 1306. Robert 
 (Bruce) I. 
 
 1329.Dav.II. 
 1 332. Ed. Bal. 
 1342. Dav. 1 1. 
 
 again. 
 
 1371.R0b.II. 
 
 (Stuart). 
 1390. Rob.3. 
 
 1406. Jas. I. 
 
 1437. Jas. II. 
 1 460. Jas. 1 1 1. 
 
 S. Jas. IV. 
 
 110S. Louis VI. 
 
 1 1 37. Louis VII. 
 
 1 1 80. Philip II. 
 
 1223. Louis VIII. 
 1226. Louis IX. 
 
 1270. Philip III. 
 
 1285. Philip IV. 
 
 1314. Louis X. 
 1316. John II. 
 Phil. V. 
 1321. Chas. IV. 
 1328. Phil. VI. 
 
 1350. John. 
 1364. Chas. V. 
 
 1380. Chas. VI. 
 
 1422. Chas. VII. 
 
 1461. Louis XI. 
 1483. Chas. VIII. 
 1408. Louis XII. 
 
 Peninsula. 
 
 Castile and 
 Leon. 
 
 1066. SauchoII. 
 1072. AlfonsoVI 
 
 1 109. Urracaand 
 
 Alfonso VII. 
 1126. Alfon.VII. 
 
 1157. Sancho III 
 1158.Alfon.VIII 
 
 11 88. Alfon. IX. 
 (Leon.) 
 
 1214. Henry I. 
 
 1217. Ferdin.III. 
 
 (Castile.) 
 1230. (Leon.) 
 
 1252. Alfonso X. 
 
 1284. Sancho IV. 
 1295. Ferdin.IV. 
 
 1312. AlfonsoXI. 
 
 1350. Peter. 
 1369. Henry. 
 1379. John I. 
 
 1390. Henry II. 
 
 Arragon. 
 
 Portugal. 
 
 1065. Sancho. 
 
 1094. Peter. 
 
 1 104. Alfonso I. 
 
 1 134. Ramiro. 
 1 1 37. Petronella 
 and Raymond 
 
 1 163. Alfonso II. 
 
 1 196. Peter II. 
 
 1213. James I. 
 
 '276. Peter III. 
 -285. Alfons.III. 
 1291. James II. 
 
 1327. AlfonsoIV. 
 
 1336. Peter IV. 
 
 1387. John I. 
 1395. Martin. 
 
 1406. John II. 
 
 1454. Henry IV. 
 1474. Isabella. 
 
 1410. Intevregnm. 
 
 1412. Ferdinand 
 
 of Sicily. 
 1416. Alfonso V. 
 
 1458. John II. 
 1479. Ferdin. II. 
 
 1065. Sancho of 
 Castile. 
 
 1072. AlfonsoVI. 
 
 1093. Henry, 
 count. 
 
 1 1 12. Alfonso, as 
 count. 
 
 1 1 39. Alfonso L, 1138. Com- 
 as hintl. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 1056. Hen. 4, 1064. Solom 
 emperor. 
 
 1075. Geisa. 
 
 1076. Lad. 1 
 1098. Colo- 
 man. 
 
 king. 
 
 1185. Sancho I. 1190. Hen. 6. 
 1 198. Philip. 
 
 1212. Alfonso 
 1223. Sancho 
 
 II 
 
 II. 
 
 :. 1208. otho 4. 
 
 215. Fred.2. 
 
 1248. Alfon. III. 
 
 [279. Dionysius 
 or Denis. 
 
 1325. AlfonsoIV. 
 
 1357. Peter. 
 1367. Ferdinand. 
 
 1383. John I. 
 
 Spain. 
 
 1479. Ferdinand and Isabella. 
 
 1433. Edward. 
 1438. Alfonso V. 
 
 1481. John II. 
 
 1495. Emanuel. 
 
 1 1 52. Fred. 
 
 5. 1114. Step.2 
 2. 1131. Bcla 2 
 ii4i.Geisa3 
 1 161. Step. 3 
 1 173. Bela3 
 1 1 96. Emeric 
 
 1250. Con. 4, 
 1254. Will. 
 1257. Rich. 
 
 1273. Ro- 
 dolph. 
 
 ^292. Adolp. 
 
 1298. Alb. 1. 1290. And. 3 
 
 1308. Hen. 7. 1 
 1314. Lou. 5. 
 
 1347. Chas. 4. 
 
 [378. Wen- 
 ceslas. 
 
 Hungary, 
 
 1204. Ladis- 
 lasll. 
 
 1205. An- 
 drew II. 
 
 1235. Bcla 4. 
 
 1270. Ste. 4. 
 1272. Lad. 3. 
 
 ,__-. Charo 
 bert. 
 
 301 
 
 1342. Louis. 
 
 1387 
 
 Mary. 
 Mary& 
 
 13B7. Jiarya 
 400. Rupert Sigismund 
 
 1410. Sigismund. 
 1438. Albert. 
 
 1440. Fred. 3. 
 
 1440. Lad. 4. 
 1445. Lad. 5. 
 1458. Mat- 
 thias. 
 
 Max. 1. 1490. Lad. 6. 
 . SvritB. I 
 depend. I 
 
EUROPEAN SOVEREIGNS. 
 
 1066. Halstan. 
 
 1090. Ingo. 
 
 1112. Philip. 
 1 1 18. Ingo II. 
 1x29. Swerker. 
 
 1155. Eric I.] 
 
 1161. Char. VII. 
 1 1 67. Canute. 
 
 1 199. Swerk. II. 
 
 Scandinavia. 
 
 Sweden. 
 
 1210. Brio II. 
 1216. John I. 
 1222. Eric III. 
 
 1250. Birger Jarl 
 1266. Waldeniar. 
 1275. Magnus I. 
 
 1290. Birger II. 
 
 1319. Magn. II. 
 
 Norway. 
 
 1069. Olaf. 
 
 1093. Magnus. 
 
 1 103. Sigurd I., 
 and others. 
 
 1 122. Sigurd I. 
 
 1 130. MagnusIV, 
 and others. 
 
 Civil war and 
 anarchy. 
 
 1 186. Swcrro. 
 
 Denmark. 
 
 Poland. 
 
 1047. Sweyn II. 
 1076. Harold. 
 1080. Canute IV. 
 1086. OlausIV. 
 1095. Eric I. 
 
 1 105. Eric II. 
 
 1 1 37. Eric III. 
 
 1147. Sweyn III. 
 
 Canute V. 
 
 1 157. Waldeniar. 
 
 1182. Canute VI. 
 
 1202. Hako III. 
 
 and others. 
 1207. Hako IV. 
 
 1263. Magnus VI. 
 
 1280. Eric. 
 
 1299. HakoV. 
 
 1319. United to 
 Sweden. 
 
 1350. Eric IV. 
 1359. Magnus II. 
 1363. Albert.] 
 
 1389. Margaret. 
 
 1389. United to 
 Denmark. 
 
 1412. Eric XIII. 
 
 1440. Christopher III. 
 1448. Chas.VIII. 
 
 1457. Christian I. 
 
 1483. John of Denmark. 
 
 1202. Walde. II. 
 
 1241. Eric IV. 
 250. Abel. 
 1252. Christoph. 
 1259. EricV. 
 
 1320. Christo- 
 pher II. 
 
 1334. Interregnm. 
 
 1340. "Wald. III. 
 
 1375. Interregnm. 
 
 1376. Olaus V. 
 
 1387. Margaret. 
 
 1448. Christian I 
 
 1481. John. 
 
 1058. Boles- 
 las. 
 
 1082. Ladis- 
 las. 
 
 1 102. Boles. 
 
 1138. Lad. 2. 
 1145. Boles. 4 
 
 1 173. Miecis- 
 
 las III. 
 1178. Ca- 
 
 simir II. 
 
 1194. Lesk.5. 
 
 1200. Miec.3. 
 1202. Lad. 3. 
 i227.Boles.5. 
 
 1279. Lesk.6. 
 
 1289. Anarch. 
 i2go.Premis 
 
 las. 
 1296. Ladis.4 
 
 300. Win- 
 ceslas. 
 
 1333. Cas. 3. 
 
 1370. Louis. 
 
 1382. Mary. 
 1384. Hedw 
 1396. Lad. 5. 
 
 1434. Lad. 6. 
 1445. Casi.4, 
 
 1492. Albert 
 
 Eastern 
 Empire. 
 
 1068. Rom. 4 
 
 1071. Mich. 7. 
 io78.Nicep.3 
 1081. Alexius 
 
 11 1 8. John 
 Comnenus. 
 
 1 143. Manuel 
 Comnenus. 
 
 1180. Alex. 2. 
 1183. Andro- 
 
 nicus C. 
 1185. Isaac2. 
 1195. Alex. 3. 
 
 i204.Theodo. 
 
 1222. John 
 
 Ducas. 
 
 i255.Theo.2. 
 
 1258. John 
 Lascaris. 
 
 1259. Mich. 8. 
 
 1282. Andro- 
 nicus II. 
 
 1332. And. 3. 
 1 341. Johns. 
 
 1 39 1. Man- 
 uel VI. 
 
 1425. John 6. 
 1448. Con- 
 stant. 13. 
 
 Turkey. 
 
 1433. Ma- 
 homet II. 
 i48i.Bajaz.: 
 
 Italy. 
 
 1061. Alex. II. 
 
 1073. Greg. VII. 
 1086. Victor III. 
 1088. Urban II. 
 1099. Pascal II. 
 
 1187. 
 
 1271. 
 1276. 
 
 1292-. 
 1294. 
 
 1303 
 i3°S 
 
 -3*4 
 
 1316. 
 
 1334- 
 i34 2 - 
 1352- 
 1362. 
 
 i37°- 
 
 Bened. XI. 
 
 Clement V. 
 
 {Avignon). 
 
 15. Vacant. 
 
 John XXII. 
 
 Bene.Xir. 
 
 Clem. VI. 
 
 Innoc. VI. 
 
 Urban V. 
 (Rome). 
 
 Greg. XL 
 
 Urban VI. 
 
 Bonif. IX. 
 
 1404. Innoc. VII. 
 1406. Greg. XII. 
 
 1409. Alex. V. 
 
 1410. John 23. 
 1417. Martin V. 
 1431. Eugen. IV. 
 1447. NicholasV. 
 1455. Calix. III. 
 1458. Pius II. 
 1464. Paul II. 
 
 1 47 1. SixtusIV. 
 1484. Inno.VIII. 
 1492. Alex. VI. 
 
 Naples and Sicily. 
 
 1131. Roger I. 
 
 1154. William I. 
 1166. William II. 
 
 1189. Tancred. 
 
 1 194. William III. 
 
 1197. Fred. II. of Germany. 
 
 1250. Conrad. 
 
 1254. Conradin. 
 
 1258. Manfred. 
 
 1266. Charles of Anjou. 
 
 Sicily. 
 
 1282. Peter 
 of Arragon. 
 1285. Chas.2. 1285. James. 
 
 1295. Ered.2. 
 
 1309. Robt. 
 
 1337. Peter 2. 
 1343. Joan 2, 1342. Louis. 
 & Andrew 1355. Fred. 3. 
 of Hung. 
 1349. Louis 1376. Maria 
 & Martin. 
 1381.Cb.as. 3. 
 i385.Ladislas. 
 
 1402. Mart. 1. 
 
 1409. Mart. 2. 
 1414. Joan 2. (United to 
 
 Arragon.) 
 
 1410. Ferd. 1. 
 1416. Alfo. 1. 
 
 1435. Alfonso I. 
 i458.Ferd.i. 1458. John. 
 
 1494. Alfo.s. 1 ^- Ferd. 
 
 1495. Ferd. 2. 
 
 1496. Fred. 2. 
 
TABLE OF CONTEMPORARY 
 
 1509. Hen. 8. 
 
 1547. Ed. VI. 
 1553- Mary. 
 1558. Eliz. 
 
 1603. Jas. I. (VI. of Scot.) 
 1625. Charles I. 
 
 1649. Commonwealth. 
 1660. Charles II. 
 
 1685. James II. 
 
 1689. William and Mary. 
 
 1694. William III. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 England. 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 1513. Jas. V. 
 
 1542. Mary. 
 
 1567. Jas. VI 
 
 France. 
 
 1515. Francis I. 
 
 1547. Henry II. 
 
 1559. Francis II. 
 
 1560. Charles IX. 
 
 1574. Henry III. 
 1589. Henry IV. 
 
 1610. LouisXIII 
 
 1643. Louis XIV, 
 
 1702. Anne. 
 1714. George I. 
 
 1727. George II. 
 
 1760. George III. 
 
 17S3. [United States in- 
 dependent.] 
 
 1812. (George, Prince of 
 Wales, regent.) 
 
 1820. George IV. 
 
 1830. William IV. 
 1837. Victoria. 
 
 1715. Louis XV. 
 
 1774. Louis XVI 
 
 1793. Lou. XVII 
 Republic I. 
 
 Peninsula. 
 
 Castile and 
 Leon. 
 
 Are agon. 
 
 1504. Joanna & ! Ferdinand „. 
 Philip I. 
 
 Spain. 
 
 1512. Ferd.V.(Cast.)II. (Arragon). 
 1516. Charles I. (V. of Germ. 1519). 
 
 1556. Philip II. 
 
 ; 59 8. Philip III. 
 
 1579. William of i 57 8. Henry. 
 Orange, stadt- 1580. Annexed to 
 holder. Spuii'. 
 
 1587. Maurice, 
 
 1621. Philip IV. 
 
 1665. Charles II. 
 1700. Philip V. 
 
 1724. (abdicated), 
 „ Louis. 
 Philip V. 
 
 again. 
 
 1746. Ferd. VI. 
 1759. Chas. III. 
 
 1788. Chas. IV. 
 (abdicated) 
 
 1802. Consulate. 
 1804. Napoleon I 
 1814.L0u.XVIH 
 
 1824. Charles X. 
 
 1830. Lou. Philip. 
 1848. Republic II. 
 
 1852. Napol. III. 
 
 1870. Republic 
 
 III. 
 
 1871. L.A.Thiers 
 
 president. 
 1S73. Marshal 
 MacMahon. 
 
 1808. Ferd. VII. 
 (dethroned) 
 Jos. Bonap 
 
 1814. Ferd. VII. 
 (restored). 
 
 1833. Isabella II 
 
 1868. (dethroned). 
 1870. Amadeus. 
 1873. (abdicated). 
 
 1873. Republic. 
 
 Holland. 
 
 Portugal. 
 
 1521. John III. 
 
 1557. Sebastian. 
 
 iSi9.Chas.V. 
 (I. of Sp.) 
 
 162s. Fred. Hen. 
 
 1647. William II. 
 1650-72. No 
 
 stadtholder. 
 
 1672. Will. Hen. 
 (Will. III. oj 
 England.) 
 
 Kingdom restored 
 
 1640. John of 
 
 Braganza. 
 1656. Alfonso VI. 
 1667. Peter, 
 
 regent. 
 1683. Peter II. 
 
 1702-47. No 
 
 stadtholder. 
 
 1747. Will. Hen. 
 1757. Will. IV. 
 
 1795. Annexed to 
 France. 
 
 1706. John V. 
 
 1750. Joseph. 
 
 1777. Maria and 
 Peter III. 
 
 1786. Maria, 
 alone. 
 
 1791. John,regent 
 
 Germany. 
 
 Hungary. 
 
 1516.L0u.II. 
 
 1526. Jn. Za- 
 polski and 
 Ferdin.II. 
 
 (Emperors — Kings of 
 Hungary.) 
 
 1558. Ferdinand. 
 1564. Maximilian II. 
 
 1576. Rodolph II. 
 
 161 2. Mathias. 
 
 1619. Ferdinand II. 
 
 1637. Ferdinand III. 
 
 1658. Leopold I. 
 
 1705. Joseph 
 1711. Chas 6. 
 
 Prussia. 
 
 1 701. Fred. 1. 
 
 1713. Fred.- 
 
 VVilliam 1. 
 
 1742. Chas.7. 1740. Fred.2. 
 
 1745. Francis 
 
 1765. Jos. 2. 
 
 1786. Fred.- 
 William 2. 
 1790.Leop.2- 1797- Fred.- 
 1792. Fran. 2. William 3. 
 
 1806. Louis, L- in g. 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 1814. Will. Fred. 
 king.* 
 
 1840. William II, 
 1849. Will. III. 
 
 1816. John VI. 
 1826. Peter IV. 
 Maria II. 
 1828. Miguel. 
 
 1833. Maria II. 
 
 1853. Peter V. 
 1861. Luis I. 
 
 Austria. 
 
 i8o6.Fran.I, 
 
 1835. Ferd. 2. 
 
 1848. Francis 
 Joseph. 
 
 1840. Fred.- 
 
 William 4, 
 
 !86o. Will. 1. 
 
 1871. emperor 
 o/Germany. 
 
 * Belgium, — 1831. Leopold I. 
 ,, 1865. Leopold II. 
 
EUROPEAN SOVEREIGNS, continued. 
 
 Scandinavia. 
 
 Sweden. 
 
 Norway. 
 
 Denmark. 
 
 1520. Christian II. 
 
 1523. Gustavus 
 Vasa. 
 
 1560. Eric XIV. 
 1568. John III. 
 
 1592. Sigismund 
 
 Russia.* 
 
 1604. Chas. IX. 
 
 161 1. Gustavus 
 
 Adolphus. 
 
 1633. Christina. 
 
 1654. Chas. X. 
 1660. Chas. XI. 
 
 1597. Chas. XII. 
 
 1533. Ivan IV. 
 
 1584. Feodor I. 
 
 1598. Boris. 
 
 1606. Basil. 
 161 3. Michael 
 (Romanoff). 
 
 1645. Alexis. 
 
 1676. Feodor. 
 2. Ivan V. & 
 
 Peter I. 
 q. Peter I. 
 
 1513. Christn. II. 
 
 1523. Fredrick I. 
 and Norway. 
 
 1534. Christ. III. 
 1559. Fred. II. 
 
 1588. Christn.IV 
 
 Poland. 
 
 1719. Ulrica and 1725. Cather. I. 
 Frederick I. 1727. Peter II. 
 1730. Anne. 
 
 1740. Ivan VI. 
 
 1 741. Elizabeth. 
 
 1741. Fred. I. 
 
 1751. Adolphus 
 
 Frederick. 
 
 1771.Gustav.III. 
 
 1792. Gustav. IV. 
 
 1809. Chas. XIII. 
 1814. Norv:ay an- 
 nexed. 
 1818. Chas. XIV. 
 
 1844. Oscar I. 
 
 1859. Chas. XV. 
 
 1872. Oscar II. 
 
 1762. Peter III. 
 Cather. II. 
 
 1796. Paul I. 
 
 1 801. Alexand. I 
 1828. Nicholas. 
 
 1855. Alex. II. 
 
 8. Fred. III. 
 1670. Christn. V. 
 
 1699. Fred. IV. 
 
 1730.Christn.VI. 
 1746. Fred. V. 
 1766. Christ. VII. 
 
 i784.PrinceFred 
 
 regent. 
 
 1501. Alex. 
 1506. Sig. I. 
 
 1548. Sig. II. 
 
 1573. Henry. 
 1575. Steph. 
 1587. Sig. 3. 
 
 Turkish 
 Empire. 
 
 1632. Lad. 7. 
 
 1648. John C. 
 1669. Mich. 
 1674. John 
 
 Sobieski. 
 1697. Fredk. 
 
 August. 1. 
 
 1808. Fred. VI. 
 
 1 814. Norway 
 
 taken away. 
 
 1S39. Chris. VIII. 
 1848. Fred. VII. 
 
 1863. Chrisn. IX. 
 
 1704. Stan. 1. 
 
 1709. Fredk. 
 Augustus, 
 restored. 
 
 1733. Fredk. 
 August. 2. 
 
 1764. Stan. 2. 
 
 1795. Parti- 
 tion. 
 
 1512. Selini, 
 
 1520. Soly- 
 man II. 
 
 1566. Sel. 2. 
 
 1574. Amu- 
 rath III. 
 
 1595. Mah. 3. 
 
 Italy. 
 
 Popes. 
 
 1603. Ach. 1. 
 
 1617. Mus. 1. 
 
 1618. Osm.2. 
 
 1622. Musta- 
 pha, again. 
 
 1623. Am. 4. 
 1640. Ibrah. 
 1648. Mah. 4. 
 1687. Sol. 3. 
 1691. Ach. 2. 
 1695. Mus. 2. 
 
 Greece. 
 
 1832. Othol. 
 
 1863. Geo. I. 
 
 1703. Ach. 3. 
 1730. Mah. 5. 
 
 1754. Osm. 3. 
 1757. Mus. 3. 
 
 1774. Ach. 4. 
 i78g.Selm.3, 
 
 1503 
 
 1513 
 1522. 
 
 1523- 
 IS 34 
 i55o. 
 I5SS- 
 
 1559- 
 1566. 
 1572. 
 1585- 
 1590. 
 
 I5QI- 
 1592. 
 
 Pius III. 
 Julius II. 
 LeoX. 
 Adrian VI 
 Clem. VII. 
 Paul III. 
 Julius III. 
 Marcel. II 
 Paul IV. 
 Pius IV. 
 Pius V. 
 Greg.XIII. 
 Sixtus V. 
 Urban VII. 
 Greg. XIV. 
 Innoc.IX. 
 Clem.VIII. 
 
 Naples and Sicily. 
 
 1605. Leo. XI. 
 Paul V. 
 1621. Greg. XV. 
 i62 3 .UrbanVIII. 
 1644. InnocentX. 
 1665. Alex. VII. 
 667. Clem. IX. 
 1670. Clem. X. 
 1676. Innoc. XI. 
 9. Alex. VIII. 
 1691. Innoc. XII. 
 
 1807. Mus. 4. 
 
 1808. Mah- 
 mud 6. 
 
 1839. Abdul 
 Medjid. 
 
 1861. Abdul 
 Aziz. 
 
 1700. Clem. XI. 
 
 1721. Inno.XIII. 
 1724. Bene.XIII. 
 
 1730. Clem. XII. 
 1740. Bene. XIV. 
 
 1758. Clem.XIII. 
 1769. Clem. XIV. 
 1775. Pius VI. 
 
 1800. Pius VII. 
 
 1501. United to Spain. 
 
 Naples and 
 Sicily 
 
 1823. Leo XII. 
 
 Pius VIII. 
 Greg. XVI. 
 
 1846. Pius IX. 
 
 1713. Chas. 3 
 Naples. 
 Victor- 
 Am. of Sa 
 voy, Sicily. 
 
 1720 Annexed 
 to Germany. 
 
 1738. Chas. 4. 
 Naples. 
 
 1759. Fred. 4 
 Sicily. 
 
 Naples. 
 
 1806. Joseph 
 Bonaparte 
 
 1808. Joach. 
 Murat. 
 
 Naples and 
 Sicily. 
 
 1815. Ferd.i. 
 1825. Fran. 1. 
 1830. Ferd.2. 
 1859. Fran. 2. 
 86oAnnexed 
 to Italy. 
 
 Sardinia.t 
 
 720. Victor- 
 
 Amadeus. 
 
 1 730. Charles 
 
 Emman.i. 
 
 1773. Victor- 
 Amadeus 2. 
 
 1 796. Charles 
 Emman.2. 
 
 1802. Victor- 
 
 Emman.i. 
 iSo^Annexed 
 
 to kingdom 
 
 of Italy. 
 18 14. Victor- 
 
 Emman.i. 
 1821. Charles 
 
 Felix. 
 
 ^3 1. Charles 
 
 Albert. 
 1849. Victor- 
 
 Emman. 2. 
 
 Italy. 
 
 1861. VictoivEmmanuel. 
 
 * See Article Russia for preceding Rulers, 
 t See Article Savoy. 
 
POPULATION AND GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD. 
 (According to the Almanack dc Gothafor 1873.) 
 
 COUNTRIES— RELIGIONS. 
 
 Anhalt, E. Population in Dec. 
 Argentine Confederation, R.C. 
 Austrian Emp. R.C. (after ces- 
 sion 1866) Dec. 
 
 Baden, R.C Dec. 
 
 Bavaria, F*.C. (after cessions 
 
 8-1 
 
 a;. 
 
 S71 
 
 Belgium, R.C. Dec. 
 
 Bolivia, iJ.C 
 
 Brazil, R.C. 
 
 Bremen, P Dec. 
 
 Brunswick, L Dec, 
 
 Chili, R.C 
 
 Chinese Empire (estimated), R. 
 
 Colombia, state, R.C 
 
 Costa Rica, R C 
 
 Denmark <fc colonies, L. (estm.) 
 
 Egypt, M 
 
 Equator, R.C. (estimated) . . 
 France alone, R.C. (estimated) 
 
 Germany, R.C.L.E 
 
 Gt.Britain&colonies,P(estm.) 
 Greece & Ion. Is. B.C. (estim.) . 
 
 Guatemala, R.C. 
 
 Hamburg, P Dec. 
 
 Hayti (estimated) 
 
 Hesse-Darmstadt, L. (estim.) . 
 Holland and colonies, C. . . 
 
 Honduras, R. C 
 
 Italy, R.C. (estimated) . Dec. 
 
 Japan (estimated) 
 
 Liberia, P 
 
 Liechtenstein, R.C 
 
 Lippe, C Dec. 
 
 Lubeck, P 
 
 Mecklenburg-Schwerin, L.Dec. 
 Mecklenburg-Strelitz, L. . . 
 Mexico, R.C. (estimated) . . 
 
 Monaco, R.C. 
 
 Montenegro, G.C. (estim.) . . 
 
 Morocco, M about 
 
 Nicaragua, R. C 
 
 Oldenburg, P. (estimated) . . 
 Papal States annexed to Italy . 
 
 Paraguay, JR. C 
 
 Persia, M. (estimated) . . . 
 
 Peru, R.C. 
 
 Portugal and col., RC. . Dec. 
 
 Prussia, E Dec. 
 
 Reuss, L. 
 
 Roumania (Dan. Prncip. ) estm. 
 Russia, G.C, Poland, (fee. (est.) 
 Sandwich Islands (Hawa'i.&c.) 
 
 San Marino, R.C- 
 
 San Salvador, jR. C 
 
 Saxe-Altenburg, P 
 
 Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, L. . . . 
 
 Saxe-Meiningen, L. 
 
 Saxe- Weimar-Eisenach, L. 
 
 Saxony, P 
 
 Schaumburg-Lippe, L. . . . 
 Schwartzburg-lludolstadt, L. . 
 Schwartzburg-Sondershatis. L. 
 Servia, G.C. (estimated) . . . 
 Spain and colonies, R.C. (est.) . 
 St. Domingo, R.C. (estimated) 
 Sweden, Norway, L. (estimtd.) 
 Switzerland, R.C. and P. Dec. 
 Turkish Empire, M. (estimtd) 
 
 Uruguay, R.C 
 
 Venezuela, R.C. 
 
 Wiirtemberg, L 
 
 United States of America, P. . 
 
 S71 
 
 ;-:• ,- 
 
 a „ 
 
 203,354 
 1.877,490 
 
 35,904,435 
 818,541 
 
 4,861,402 
 5,087,105 
 1,987,352 
 11,780,000 
 
 122,565 
 
 311,715 
 
 1,972,438 
 
 446,000,000 
 
 2,900,633 
 
 165,000 
 
 1,912,142 
 
 7,465,000 
 
 1,040,371 
 
 36,702,921 
 
 41,058,196 
 
 203,400,000 
 
 1,457,894 
 
 1,180,000 
 
 338,974 
 
 572,000 
 
 852,843 
 
 27,003,529 
 
 350,000 
 
 26,716,809 
 
 35 to 40 mil. 
 
 880,000 
 
 8,320 
 
 "i, '53 
 
 52,158 
 
 557,897 
 
 96,982 
 
 9,173,052 
 
 3,127 
 
 196,238 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 400,000 
 
 3i6,34i 
 
 1,337,431 
 
 10,000,000 
 
 2,500,000 
 
 8,241,261 
 
 24,691,203 
 
 134,126 
 
 4,003,000 
 
 81,925,428 
 
 69,800 
 
 , 7,303 
 
 600,000 
 
 141,122 
 
 '74,339 
 
 187,884 
 
 286,183 
 
 2,556,244 
 
 32,051 
 
 75,523 
 
 67,191 
 
 1,306,674 
 
 23,160,319 
 
 136,500 
 
 5,945,778 
 
 2,669,147 
 
 42,500,000 
 
 240,965 
 
 1,565,000 
 
 1,818,541 
 
 38,877,000 
 
 Frederick, duke .... 
 D. F. Sarmiento, president 
 
 Francis-Joseph, emperor . 
 Frederick, grand-duke . . 
 
 Louis II., king, 
 
 Leopold II., king 
 
 A. Morales, piesidcnt . . . 
 Pedro II., emperor . . . . 
 O. Gildemeister, b u rgomaster 
 
 William, duke 
 
 F. Errazuriz, president . . 
 Tsung-chi, emperor .... 
 Murillo Toro, president . . 
 J. M. Guardia, president . 
 Christian IX., king . . . . 
 
 Ismail Pacha 
 
 Q. Garcia Mureno, president 
 Marshal MacMahon . . . 
 William I., emperor. . . . 
 
 Victoria, queen 
 
 George I., king 
 
 M. Garcia Granedos, prsdnt. 
 Burgomasters and Senate . 
 Gen. Nissage-Saget .... 
 Louis III., grand-duke. . . 
 William III., king . . . . 
 C. Arias, president .... 
 Victor-Emmanuel, king . . 
 Moutz Hito, mikado . . . 
 J. J. Roberts, president . ■ 
 
 John II., prince 
 
 Leopold, prince 
 
 Burgomasters and Senate . 
 Frederic Francis, yrund-duke 
 Frederic "William, grnd-dnke 
 S. Lerdo de Tejada, president 
 
 Charles, prince 
 
 Nicholas I., prince .... 
 Sidi Mohamed, sultan . . . 
 Vicente Cuadra. president . 
 Peter, grand-duke . . . 
 Pius IX., pope 
 
 Nassir-ed-Deen, shah . . . 
 M. Pardo, president . . . . 
 
 Louis I., king 
 
 William I., king 
 
 Henry XXII., prince . ■ . 
 (Jhs. of Hohenzollern,/i.sj«7r. 
 Alexander II., c:ar . . . . 
 William Lunalipo, king . . 
 
 < upitani r< ggenli 
 
 J. Gonzales, president ■ ■ ■ 
 
 Ernest, duke 
 
 Ernest II., duke 
 
 George II., duke 
 
 Chas. Alexander, grnd.-dukc 
 
 John, king 
 
 Adolphus, prince 
 
 George, prince 
 
 Gunther, prince 
 
 Milan IV 
 
 Republic 
 
 B. Baez, president .... 
 
 Oscar II., king 
 
 Paul Ceresole, president . . 
 
 Abdul-Aziz, sulta n 
 
 Th. Gomensoro, president . 
 Guzman Blanco, president ■ 
 
 Charles, king 
 
 Ulysses S. Grant, president ■ 
 
 29 April, 1831 . 
 
 18 Aug. 1830 
 9 Sept. 1826 . 
 
 25 Aug. 1845 
 9 April, 1835 
 
 2 Dec. 1825 . 
 25 April, 1806 
 21 April, 1856 
 
 8 April, 1818 
 1830. . . . 
 
 13 July, 1818 
 22 March, 1797 
 24 May, 1819 
 24 Dec. 1845. . 
 
 9 June, 1806 . 
 19 Feb. 1817. 
 
 14 March, 1820. 
 
 5 Oct, 1840 
 1 Sept. 1821 
 
 28 Feb. 1823 
 17 Oct. 1819 . 
 
 8 Dec. 
 1840. 
 
 8 July, 1827 . 
 13 May, 1792 
 
 1829. 
 
 31 Oct. 1838 . . 
 22 March, 1797. 
 
 28 March, 1846 . 
 20 April, 1839 , 
 
 29 April, 1818 . 
 
 16 Sept. 1826 
 21 June, 1818 
 2 April, 1826 
 24 June, 1818 
 12 Dec. 1801. 
 1 Aug. 1817 . 
 
 24 Sept. 1801 
 
 21 Jan. 1829. 
 9 Feb. 1830 . 
 
 6 March, 1823 
 27 April, 1822 
 
 22 May, 1871. 
 
 2 Dec. 1848. 
 24 April, 1852. 
 
 10 March, 1864^ 
 
 10 Dec. 1865. 
 
 1872. 
 
 7 April, 1831. ! 
 
 9 Oct. 1871. 
 
 20 April, 1831. 
 iS Sept. 1871. 
 
 21 Aug. 1861. 
 
 1872. 
 
 15 Nov. 1863 
 
 18 Jan. 1863. 
 
 24 May, 1873. 
 
 18 Jan. 1871. 
 20 June, 1837. 
 
 6 June, 1863. 
 
 1872. J 
 
 19 March, 1870. 
 
 16 June, 1848. 
 
 17 March, 1849. 
 
 17 March, 1861. 
 
 1872. 
 
 12 Nov. 1858. 
 
 1 Jan. 1851. 
 
 7 March, 1842. 
 6 Sept. i860. 
 
 20 June, 1856. I 
 14 Aug. i860. 
 Sept. 1859. 
 
 1 1-eb. 1871. 
 27 Feb. 1853. 
 
 10 June, 1846. 
 Sept. 1862. 
 1848. 
 
 2 .Vug. 1872. 
 
 11 Nov. 1861. ! 
 2 Jan. 1861. 
 
 8 Nov. 1859. 
 20 April, 1866. 
 
 2 March, 1855. 
 Dec. 1872. ; 
 
 1872. 
 
 3 Aug. 1853. 
 29 Jan. 1844. 
 
 20 Sept. i860. 
 
 8 July, 1853. I 
 
 9 Aug. 1854. 
 
 21 Nov. i860. 
 
 19 Aug. 1835. i 
 June, 1868. 
 
 18 Sept. 1872. 
 1 Jan. 1873. 
 
 25 June, 1861. ! 
 1 March, 1872. 1 
 27 April, 1870. 
 25 June, 1864. 
 
 4 Mar. 1869. 
 
 Predominant Religions.— R.C, Roman Catholic; G.C, Greek Church: P., Protestant; L., Lutheran; JE., 
 
 Evangelical Church— a combination of Calvinists and Lutherans ; C, Calvinist or Reformed ; M., Mahometan ; 
 B., Buddhist. 
 
DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 AARGAU. 
 
 ABDICATIONS. 
 
 AARGAU (Switzerland), formerly included in 
 Berne, was made an independent canton in 1803, 
 and settled as such in 1815. It was much disturbed 
 by religious dissensions in 1841 ; and the expulsion 
 of the Jesuits was demanded in 1844. 
 
 ABACUS, the tile on the capital of a column. 
 That on the Corinthian column is ascribed to Calli- 
 machus, about 540 b. c. — This name is also given to 
 a frame traversed by stiff wires, on which beads were 
 strung, used for calculating by the Greeks, Romans, 
 and Chinese. M. Lalanne published an abaccs 
 at Paris in 1845. — The multiplication table has been 
 called the Pythagorean abacus. 
 
 ABANCAY a river in Peru, on the banks 
 of which the Spanish marshal Almagro defeated 
 and took prisoner Alvarado, a partisan of Pizarro, 
 12 July, 1537. 
 
 ABATTOIRS, slaughter-houses for cattle. In 
 1810 Napoleon decreed that five should be erected 
 near Paris, which were opened in 1818. One was 
 erected at Edinburgh in 1851 ; and they form part 
 of the new London metropolitan cattle-market, 
 opened on 13 June, 1855. 
 
 ABBASSIDES, descendants of Mahomet's 
 uncle, Abbas-Ben-Abdui-Motalleb. Merwan II., 
 the last of the Ommiades, was defeated and slain by 
 Abul Abbas in 750, and became caliph. Thirty- 
 seven Abbasside caliphs (including Haroun al Pas- 
 chid, 786-809) reigned from 750 to 1258. They 
 settled at Bagdad, built by Al-Mansour about 762. 
 Their colour was black ; that of the Fatimites being 
 green, and that of the Ommiades white. 
 
 ABB A YE, a military prison near St. Germain 
 des Pres, Paris, where 164 prisoners were murdered 
 by infuriated republicans led by Maillard, 2 and 
 3 Sept. 1792. 
 
 ABBEVILLE, N. France. Here Henry III. 
 met Louis IX. of France and made peace, renounc- 
 ing his right to Normandy and other provinces, 
 20 May, 1259. 
 
 ABBEYS, monasteries for men or women ; see 
 Monachism and Convents. The first abbey founded 
 in England was at Bangor in 560 ; in France, at 
 Poitiers, about 360; in Ireland in the fifth century ; 
 in Scotland in the sixth century, no monasteries 
 and priories were suppressed in England, 2 Henry V. 
 1414. Salmon. The gross disorders in these estab- 
 lishments occasioned their destruction in Britain. 
 After visitations of enquiry, king Henry YIII. com- 
 
 menced the suppression of small monasteries to raise 
 revenues for Wolsey's colleges at Oxford and Ips- 
 wich, 7 June, 1525 ; many small monasteries were 
 suppressed in 1536; and all religious houses were 
 suppressed throughout the realm by parliament, 
 1539 ; viz. : — 186 large monasteries (revenue 104,919?. 
 13s. 3d.), 374 less monasteries (revenue 33,479^ 
 135. 7id.) f and 48 houses of the knights hospitaller*! 
 (revenue 2385?. 12s. 8d. ; total, houses, 608 ; esti- 
 mated revenue, 140,784?. 19s. 6%d.) Tanner. Many 
 abbeys were suppressed in France in 1790, in Spain 
 in 1837 and 1868, and in Italy in 1866-73. 
 
 ABBOT (from Ab, father), the head of an abbey. " 
 In England, mitred abbots were lords of parliament ; 
 twenty-seven abbots and two priors thus distin- 
 guished, 1329 ; the number reduced to twenty-five, 
 1396. Coke. The abbots of Beading, Glastonbury, 
 and St. John's, Colchester, were executed as traitors 
 for denying the king's supremacy, probably for not 
 surrendering their abbeys, 1539 ; see Glastonbury. 
 
 ABC CLUB, a name adopted by certain 
 republican enthusiasts in Paris, professing to re- 
 lieve the abaisses, or depressed. Their insurrection 
 5 June, 1832, was suppressed with bloodshed, 6 June. 
 These events are described by Victor Hugo in " Les 
 Miserables" (1862). 
 
 ABDICATIONS of sovereigns, voluntary or 
 compulsory, have been numerous : — 
 
 Sylla, Eoman dictator . . . . . . b. c. 79 
 
 Diocletian, „ emperor a.d. 305. 
 
 Stephen II. , of Hungary 1131 
 
 Albert, the Bear of Brandenburg 1142- 
 
 Lescov V. of Poland 1200. 
 
 Uladislaus III. of Poland 1206 . 
 
 John Balliol, of Scotland 1306 . 
 
 Otho (of Bavaria), of Hungary 1309 v 
 
 Eric IX. , of Denmark, &c 1439 
 
 Pope Felix V. 1449.' 
 
 Charles V., as emperor .... 25 Oct. 1555 
 ,, as king of Spain . . 16 Jan. 1556 
 
 Christina, of Sweden 16 June 1654 
 
 John Casimir, of Poland 1669 
 
 James II., of England . . . fled 11 Dec. 1688 
 Frederick Augustus II., of Poland . . . . 1704. 
 
 Philip V. of Spain (resumed) 1724 
 
 Victor Ainadeus, of Sardinia 1730 
 
 Charles, of Naples 1759 
 
 Stanislaus, of Poland 1795: 
 
 Charles Emmanuel II., of Sardinia . . 4 June, 1802: 
 Francis II., of Germany, who became emperor of 
 
 Austria 11 Aug. 1804 
 
 Charles IV., of Spain, in favour of his son, 19 March ; 
 
 in favour of Bonaparte ; see Spain . . 1 May 1808 
 Joseph Bonaparte, of Naples (fur Spain) . 1 June, 1808 
 
ABECEDARIANS. 
 
 ABINGDON LAW. 
 
 Gustavus IV., of Sweden 1809 
 
 Louis, of Holland 1 July, 1810 
 
 Jerome, of Westphalia 20 Oct. 1813 
 
 Napoleon I., of Fiance .... 5 April, 1814 
 Victor Emmanuel of Sardinia . . 13 March, 1821 
 Pedro IV. , of Portugal .... 2 Way, 1826 
 
 Charles X. , of France 2 Aug. 1830 
 
 Pedro I. , of Brazil 7 April, 1831 
 
 Dom Miguel, of Portugal (by leaving it) 26 May, 1834 
 
 William I. , of Holland 8 Oct. 1840 
 
 Louis-Philippe, of France ... 24 Feb. 1848 
 Louis Charles, of Bavaria . . . 21 March, 1848 
 Ferdinand, of Austria .... 2 Dec. 1848 
 Charles Albert, of Sardinia . . . 23 March, 1849 
 Leopold II., of Tuscany .... July, 1859 
 Bernhard, of Saxe-Meiningen . . 20 Sept. 1866 
 Isabella II., of Spain .... 25 June, 1870 
 Amadeus, of Spain n Feb. 1873 
 
 ABECEDARIAN'S, followers of Storch, an 
 Anabaptist in the sixteenth century, derive their 
 name from their rejection of all worldly knowledge, 
 even of the alphabet. 
 
 ABELARD, a celebrated teacher of theology 
 and logic, in 11 18 fell in love with Heloise, the 
 niece of Fulbert, a canon of Paris, became her tutor 
 and seduced her. After a compulsory marriage, he 
 placed her temporarily in a convent. Having been 
 cruelly mutilated at the instigation of her relatives, 
 he entered the abbey of St. Denis, from which he 
 was compelled to depart, accused of heresy, on ac- 
 count of bis censuring the dissoluteness of the monks. 
 He then built and lectured at the oratory of the 
 Paraclete (or comforter) which eventually he made 
 a convent, with Heloise for the abbess. He died 
 under the charge of heresy, 21 April, 1 142, and was 
 buried in the Paraclete, where also Heloise was 
 laid, 17 May, 1164. Their ashes were removed to 
 the garden of the Museum Franqais in 1800, and to 
 the cemetery of Pere la Chaise in 181 7. Their 
 epistles, &c., were published in 1616. 
 
 ABENCERRAGES, a powerful Moorish tribe 
 of Granada, opposed to the Zegris. From 1480 to 
 1492 their quarrels deluged Granada with blood and 
 hastened the fall of the kingdom. They were ex- 
 terminated by Boabdil (Abu Abdallah), the last 
 king, who was dethroned by Ferdinand and Isabella 
 in 1492 ; his dominions were annexed to Castile. 
 
 ABENSBERG, Bavaria. The Austrians were 
 here defeated by Napoleon I. 20 April, 1809. 
 
 ABEOKTJTA, see Dahomey. 
 
 ABERDEEN (N. Scotland), said to have been 
 founded in the third century after Christ, and erected 
 into a city, about 893. Old Aberdeen was made a 
 royal burgh in 1 154 ; it was burnt by the English in 
 1336 ; and soon after New Aberdeen was built. A 
 statue of the prince consort was inaugurated by the 
 queen 13 Oct. 1863 ; and one of queen Victoria by 
 the prince of Wales, 20 Sept. 1866. 
 
 The University was founded by bishop William Elphin- 
 stone, who had a bull from pope Alexander VI. in 1494. 
 King's college was erected in 1500-6. Marischal college 
 was founded by George Keith, earl marischal of Scot- 
 land, in 1593 ; rebuilt in 1837. In 1858 the university 
 and colleges were united. By the reform act of 1868, 
 the universities of Aberdeen and Glasgow send one 
 member to parliament. 
 
 Malcolm III. having gained a great victory over 
 the Danes in the year 1010, resolved to found anew 
 Bishopric, in token of his gratitude for his success, 
 and pitched upon Mortlach in Banffshire, where 
 St. Beanus was first bishop, 1015. The see, re- 
 moved to Aberdeen early in the twelfth century, 
 was discontinued at the revolution, 1689, and is 
 
 now a post-revolution bishopric, instituted in 172 1 ; 
 see Bishops in Scotland. 
 
 ABERDEEN ACT, introduced by the earl of 
 Aberdeen, and passed, 1845, to enforce the obser- 
 vance of a convention made with Brazil in 1826 to 
 put down the slave trade. It was repealed in April, 
 1869. 
 
 ABERDEEN ADMINISTRATION, called 
 the Coalition Ministry, as including Whigs, Badi- 
 cals, and followers of sir K. Peel. Formed in con- 
 sequence of the resignation of the first Derby ad- 
 ministration ; sworn in, 28 Dee. 1852; resigned 
 30 Jan. 1855 ; succeeded by the Palmerston ad- 
 ministration, which see. 
 
 Earl of Aberdeen,* first lord of the treasury. 
 Lord Cranworth, lord chancellor. 
 Earl Granville, president of tin wtmctL 
 Duke of Argyll, lord privy seal. 
 Lord John Russell, \ foreign secretary. 
 Viscount Palmerston, home storeta 
 Duke of Newcastle,! colonial and war secretary. 
 William Ewart Gladstone, chancellor of exchequer. 
 Sir James Graham, first lord of the admiralty. 
 Sir Charles Wood, president of the India board. 
 Edward Cardwell, president of board of trade. 
 Hon. Sidney Herbert, seeretary-at-vfor. 
 Sir William Molcsworth, chief commissioner of works. 
 Marquess of Lansdowne (without office). 
 Viscount Canning, Lord Stanley of Alderley, right lion. 
 Edward Strutt, &c. 
 
 ABERDEEN PEERAGE CASE. George, 
 earl cf Aberdeen, grandson of the premier, suc- 
 ceeded his father, 22 March, 1864. After travelling 
 in a yacht, he became a merchant seaman, and chief 
 mate of the Hera ; he was drowned 27 Jan., 1870. 
 His brother John's claim to the succession was 
 allowed by the house of lords, 3 May, 1872. 
 
 ABERGELE (N. "Wales), see Railway Acci- 
 dents, 20 Aug. 1868. 
 
 ABERRATION of Light ; discovered by 
 James Bradley, through his observation of an ap- 
 parent motion of the fixed stars, 1727. 
 
 ABHORRERS, a name given in 1679, (reign 
 of Charles II.) to the court-party in England, the 
 opponents of the Addressers (afterwards Whigs), 
 so called from their address to the king praying 
 for the immediate assembly of the parliament which 
 was delayed on account of its being adverse to the 
 court. The former (afterwards Tories) expressed 
 their abhorrence of those who endeavoured to en- 
 croach on the royal prerogative, 1680. Hume. The 
 commons expelled several members for being Ab- 
 horrers, among them sir Francis Withens (whom 
 they sent to the Tower), and prayed his majesty 
 to remove others from places of trust. They also 
 resolved, "that it is the undoubted right of the 
 subject to petition for tbe calling of a parliament, 
 and that to traduce such petitions as tumultuous 
 and seditious, is to contribute to the design of 
 altering the constitution." Oct. 1680. 
 
 J ABINGDON LAW. In 1645, lord Essex 
 and Waller held Abingdon, an ancient abbey town 
 
 * Born in 1784 ; engaged in foreign diplomacy, 1813 : 
 became foreign secretary, Jan. 1828 ; joined the party of 
 sir R. Peel, 1846 ; died 14 Dec. i860. 
 
 t Lord John Russell was succeeded as foreign secre- 
 tary by the earl of Clarendon (Feb. 1853), but continued 
 a member of the cabinet, without cilice; he afterwards 
 became president of the council, in the room of earl 
 Granville, appointed to the duchy of Lancaster (June, 
 1854). 
 
 J In June, 1S54, the offices were separated ; the duke 
 of Newcastle remained secretary of tear, and sir George 
 Grey was made colonial secretary. 
 
ABJURATION. 
 
 ABYSSINIA. 
 
 in Berks, against Charles I. The town was unsuc- 
 cessfully attacked by sir Stephen Hawkins in 1644, 
 and by prince Rupert in 1645. On these occasions 
 the defenders put every Irish prisoner to death 
 without trial ; hence the terra " Abingdon law." 
 
 AB JURATION of the pope was enjoined by 
 statute in the reigns of Henry VIII., Elizabeth, and 
 James I., and of certain doctrines of the church 
 of Rome by stat. 25 Charles II. 1673. The oath 
 of abjuration of the house of Stuart was enjoined by 
 stat. 13, 14 Will. III. 1702 ; the form was changed 
 in after reigns. By 21 & 22 Vict. c. 48 (1858) one 
 oath for the three oaths of abjuration, allegiance, 
 and supremacy was substituted. See Oaths. 
 
 ABKASIA, a province of the Caucasus, annexed 
 by Russia, the last prince Michael Shervashiji being 
 deposed : an insurrection against the Russian au- 
 thorities, 8 Aug. 1866, was quelled with much 
 bloodshed. 
 
 ABNEY PARK, see Cemeteries. 
 
 ABO, a port of Russia, founded prior to 1 157, 
 was till 1809 capital of Swedish Finland. It has 
 suffered much by fire, especially in 1775 and 1827 ; 
 was seized by the Russians in Feb. 1808 ; ceded to 
 them, 17 Sept. 1809 ; and rebuilt by them after the 
 great fire in 1827. The university erected by Gus- 
 tavus Adolphus and Christina, 1640, et seq., was 
 removed to Helsingfors, 1827. The peace of Abo, 
 by which Sweden ceded part of Finland to Russia, 
 was signed, 18 Aug. 1743. 
 
 ABOLITIONISTS, the party in the northern 
 part of the United States, opposed to slavery. They 
 formed a small society at Boston about 1832 ; which 
 became the nucleus of a great political party, and 
 ultimately attained its object by the war of 1861-4. 
 See Slavery in United States. 
 
 ABORIGINES (without origin), a name given 
 to the earliest known inhabitants of Italy (whence 
 came the Latini) ; now applied to the original in- 
 habitants of any country. — The Aborigines Protec- 
 tion Society was established in 1838. Reports on 
 the condition of the aborigines in the British 
 colonies were presented to parliament in 1834 and 
 1837- 
 
 ABOUKIR (Egypt), the ancient Canopus. In 
 the bay Nelson defeated the French fleet, 1 Aug. 
 1798; see Nile. A Turkish army of 15,000 was 
 defeated here by 5000 French under Bonaparte, 25 
 July, 1799. A British expedition to Egypt under 
 general sir Ralph Abercromby landed here, and 
 Aboukir surrendered to them after an obstinate and 
 sanguinary conflict with the French, 8 March, 1801; 
 see Alexandria. 
 
 ABRAHAM, Era OF, used by Eusebius ; so 
 called from the patriarch Abraham, who died 1822 
 b. c. The era began 1 Oct. 2016 b. c. To reduce 
 this era to the Christian, subtract 2015 years and 
 three months. Nicolas. 
 
 ABRAHAM, Heights of, near Quebec, 
 Lower Canada. The French were defpated and 
 Montcalm, their commander, killed here by general 
 Wolfe, who fell in the moment of victory, 13 Sept. 
 1759 ; see Quebec. 
 
 ABRAHAMITES, a sect holding the errors of 
 Paulus, was suppressed by Cyriacus, the patriarch 
 of Antioch, early in the ninth century. A deistical 
 sect of this name was banished from Bohemia by 
 Joseph II. in 1783. 
 
 ABRANTES (Portugal) . By a treaty between 
 France and Portugal, signed here 29 Sept., 1801, 
 the war was closed, and the French army withdrew ; 
 a money compensation having been agreed to, and 
 territories in Guiana ceded to France. 
 
 ABSALOM'S REBELLION and death 
 (1024 — 23 b. c.) is described 2 Sam. xv. — xix. 
 
 ABSCONDING DEBTORS' ACT, passed 
 
 9 Aug. 1870. 
 
 ABSENTEE TAX (4«- hi the pound), levied 
 in Ireland in 1715 on the incomes and pensions 
 of absentees (long complained of), ceased in 1753. 
 A tax of 2s. in the pound was proposed in vain 
 by Mr. Flood in 1773 and by Mr. Molyneux in 
 I783- 
 
 ABSOLUTION. Till the 3rd century, the 
 consent of the congregation was necessary to abso- 
 lution; but soon after the power was reserved to 
 the bishop ; and in the 12th century the form " I 
 absolve thee " had become general. 
 
 ABSTINENCE. It is said that St. Anthony 
 lived to the age of 105 on twelve ounces of bread 
 and water daily, and J ames the hermit to the age 
 of 104; that St. Epiphanius lived to 115 ; Simeon 
 the Stylite to 112 ; and Kentigern, commonly called 
 St. Mungo, to 185 years of age. Spottiswood. 
 
 Ann Moore, the fasting woman of Tutbury, Staffordshire, 
 was said to have lived twenty months without food ; 
 "but her imposture was detected by Dr. A. Henderson, 
 Nov. 1808. 
 
 A man named Cavanagh at Newry, in Ireland, was 
 reported to have lived two years without meat or 
 drink, Aug. 1840. His imposture was discovered in 
 England, where he was imprisoned as a cheat, Nov. 1841. 
 
 Sarah Jacobs, the Welsh fasting girl, aged 13, said by her 
 father to have lived for more than a year without food, 
 after being closely watched for a week, died from ex- 
 haustion 17 Dec. 1869. Her parents were sentenced at 
 Carmarthen to imprisonment for fraudulent deception, 
 15 July, 1870. See Fasts, Teetotallers. 
 
 Abstinents, ascetics that wholly abstained from wine, 
 flesh, and marriage, appeared in France and Spain in 
 the 3rd century. 
 
 ABYDOS, see Hellespont. The tablet of Aby- 
 dos, dedicated to the memory of his ancestors by 
 Pharaoh Rameses II. (1311-1245 b. c.) a valuable 
 historic record was bought for the British Museum, 
 1837- 
 
 ABYSSINIA, the country of the Habese, 
 N. E. Africa. Its ancient history is very uncer- 
 tain. The kingdom of Auxumitse (from its chief 
 town Auxume) flourished in the 1st and 2nd 
 centuries after Christ. The religion of the Abys- 
 sinians is a corrupt form of the Christianity intro- 
 duced about 329 by Frumentius. About 960, 
 Judith, a Jewish princess, murdered a great part 
 of the royal family, and reigned forty years. The 
 young king escaped : and the royal house was 
 restored in 1268 in the person of his descendant 
 Icon Amlac. In the middle ages it was said to 
 be ruled by Prester John or Prete Janni. The 
 Portuguese missions, commenced in the 15th cen- 
 tury, after much struggling against opposition, 
 were expelled about 1633. The encroachments of 
 the Gallas and intestine disorders soon after broke 
 up the empire into petty governments. From the 
 visits of James Bruce, 1768-73; Henry Salt, 1809- 
 
 10 ; Edward Buppell, 1834-7 ; major Harris, 1841 ; 
 Mansfield Parky ns, 1844-7, much information 
 respecting Abyssinia has been gained. Several • 
 expeditions into Abyssinia have been organised by 
 the French government. The brothers Antoine 
 and Arnauld Abbadie visited the country 1837-45. 
 Abyssinia is now divided into four provinces. Li 
 
ABYSSINIA. 
 
 ACADEMIES. 
 
 " 1847 Has Ali was ruler of Amhara ; Kas Ubie of 
 Tigre and Samien ; and Sahela Selassie of Shoa. 
 Population between 3,000,000 and 4,000,000. 
 
 Treaty of commerce with the king of Shoa concluded by 
 captain Harris, 16 Nov. 1841. 
 
 Mr. Plowden (made British consul at Massowah, 1848), 
 concludes treaty with Ras Ali, ruler of Amhara, 2 Nov. 
 1849. 
 
 Ras Ali deposed by his son-in-law Theodore, who is 
 crowned, and takes the title of iiegus, or king of kings, 
 11 Feb. 1855 
 
 Protestant missionaries received, replacing Roman catho- 
 lics, 1855. 
 
 Mr. Plowden (who had joined the party of Theodore) 
 killed by rebels, Feb. ; his friend Bell killed soon after, 
 when arenging him ; Theodore overcomes the rebels 
 and massacres about 150 prisoners as a sacrifice to 
 their manes, i860. 
 
 heodore sends a letter to the queen of England desiring 
 alliance, which arrived 12 Feb. 1863. 
 
 Stern and Rosenthal, missionaries, beaten and impri- 
 soned for censuring Theodore in letters intercepted, 
 before Sept. 1863. 
 
 Theodore imprisons consul Cameron (on suspicion of his 
 intriguing with the Turks ?) and others, about 22 Nov. 
 1863 ; sends them to Magdala, July, 1864. 
 
 News of the imprisonment arrives in London, May, 1864. 
 
 Mr. Hormuzd Rassam, an Arab Christian, assistant to 
 col. Merewether, British political resident at Aden, 
 sent on mission to Abyssinia, arrives at Massowah 20 
 Aug. 1864. 
 
 Mr. Rassam, lieut. Prideaux, and Dr. Blanc arrive at 
 Matemma from Massowah, 27 Nov. 1865. 
 
 Are well received by Theodore, Jan. 1866. 
 
 They write that they are well treated ; all seized and 
 imprisoned, about 13 April, 1866. 
 
 Mr. Flad sent to England by Theodore to obtain British 
 workmen, April ; arrives, July ; introduced to queen 
 "Victoria, and receives from her an autograph letter, 
 dated 4 Oct. 1866. 
 
 Mr. Flad returned with workmen to Massowah, 29 
 Oct. ; Theodore received the queen's letter about iq 
 Dec. 1866. 
 
 Lord Stanley's ultimatum to Theodore, demanding re- 
 lease of the captives in three months, sent 16 April, 
 1867. (Not received.) 
 
 Mr. Flad received by the king ; and made to join his 
 family in prison, May, 1867. 
 
 Preparations for war ; sir Robert Napier appointed com- 
 mander of an expedition ; pioneer force sails from 
 Bombay, 14 Sept. 1867. 
 
 A formal letter from the British government sent to 
 Theodore, 9 Sept. 1867. (Suppressed for prudential 
 reasons by Mr. Rassam.) 
 
 The king encumbered with baggage, and checked by 
 rebels ; Mr. Flad and the kiug's artisans with him, 11 
 Oct. 1867. 
 
 Advanced brigade (3500) sail from Bombay, 7, 8 Oct. ; 
 land at Zoulla, 21 Oct. 1867. 
 
 Napier's proclamation issued in Abyssinia, 6 Nov. 1867. 
 
 Captives at Magdala reported well, n Nov. 1867. 
 
 Report that the Gallas have joined the revolt against 
 Theodore, 25 Nov. 1867. 
 
 The British parliament meets ; the queen's speech 
 announces the war, 19 Nov. ; 2,000,000/. voted, 26, 27 
 Nov. 1867. 
 
 Arrival of sir R. Napier at Annesley bay, 4 Jan. 1868. 
 
 Telegram : the army reported well ; Theodore hemmed 
 in by rebels, 8 Jan. 1868. 
 
 The captives relieved of their chains . 29 March, 1868 
 
 Sir R. Napier arrives before Magdala . 2 April, „ 
 
 Theodore massacres about 300 native prisoners 
 
 9 April, ,, 
 
 Battle of Arogee or Fahla ; Theodore's troops at- 
 tack the British first brigade ; defeated with 
 much slaughter (Good Friday) . 10 April, „ 
 
 Theodore retires to his stronghold in Magdala, and 
 requests Mr. Rassam to mediate ; lieut. Prideaux 
 sent to sir R. Napier returns with a letter ; Theo- 
 dore receives it indignantly, and sends an insult- 
 ing reply ; lieut. Prideaux returning, meets Mr. 
 Rassam with some of the captives proceeding to 
 the British camp n April, 
 
 Theodore sends a letter of apology offering a present 
 of cattle ; Mr. Rassam understanding this present 
 to have been accepted, tells the king's ministers ; 
 
 the rest of the captives, with their property, sent 
 to the British camp .... 12 April, 
 
 Theodore rejects the terms offered ; Magdala bom- 
 barded and stormed ; Theodore kills himself 
 
 13 April, 
 
 [" I fail to discover a single point of view from 
 which it is possible to regard his removal with re- 
 gret." — Sir R. Napier . . . .18 June,] 
 
 Magdala burnt to the ground . . . 17 April, 
 
 Death of Theodore's queen . . .10 May, 
 
 Henry Dufton of the " Intelligence department" 
 shot by Shosho robbers . . . .28 May, 
 
 Immediate return of the troops ; — all had embarked, 
 
 2 June, 
 
 Troops arrive at Plymouth, 21 June ; sir R. Napier 
 at Dover 2 July, 
 
 [Cattle said to have been employed in the expedi- 
 tion : 45 elephants, 7417 camels, 12,920 mules 
 and ponies, 7033 bullocks, 827 donkeys. Natives 
 also were largely employed in the transport ser- 
 vice.] 
 
 Theodore's son Alamayou, aged 7, arrives at Ply- 
 mouth, 14 July ; presented to queen Victoria, 
 
 16 July, 
 
 Pension of 350?. to col. Cameron [he died 30 May, 
 1870] ; 5000Z. given to Mr. Rassam ; 2000Z. to Dr. 
 Blanc ; 2000Z. to lieut. Prideaux ; announced 
 
 23 Dec, 
 
 Prince Alamayou sailed to India for education (re- 
 turned to England end of 1871) . . 26 Jan., 
 
 Expenses of the war: 5,000,00*^. voted 18 Dec, 
 1868 ; 3,300,000/. more voted . . 4 Mar., 
 
 Report of a commission on the expenses of the ex- 
 peditiou disclosed much waste, attributed to 
 urgency and divided authority . ■ . Aug. 
 
 War between Gobazye, king of Amhara, and Kassa, 
 kingofTigrg; Kassa victor . . . 21 June, 
 
 Gobazye beaten and taken prisoner . n July, 
 
 Kassa proposes to be crowned emperor and negus 
 of all Abyssinia, 21 Nov. ; punishes the Catholic 
 missionaries for partisanship ; and forms alliance 
 with Egypt July, 
 
 Kassa crowned king at Axum . . .14 Jan. 
 
 1868 
 
 1869. 
 
 1870. 
 1871 
 
 1872 
 
 ABYSSINIAN EEA is reckoned from the 
 creation, which the Abyssinians place in the 5493rd 
 year b. c, on 29 Aug. old style; their dates 
 consequently exceed ours by 5492 years, 125 days. 
 To reduce Abyssinian time to the Julian year, sub- 
 tract 5492 years, 125 days. 
 
 ACACIANS. I. Followers of Acacius, bishop 
 of Csesarea, in the fourth century, who held pecu- 
 liar doctrines respecting the nature of Christ. 2. 
 Partisans of Acacius, patriarch of Constantinople, 
 promoter of the Henoticon {which see), 482-4. 
 
 ACADEMICAL STUDY, see Education, 
 
 1872. 
 
 ACADEMIES- Academia was a shady grove 
 without the walls of Athens (bequeathed by Acade- 
 mus for gymnastic exercises), where Plato first 
 taught philosophy, and his followers took the title 
 of Academics, 378 b. c. Stanley. — Rome had no- 
 academies. — Ptolemy Soter is said to have founded 
 an academy at Alexandria, about 314 B. c. Ab- 
 derahman I., caliph of Spain, founded academies 
 about a.d. 773. Theodosius the Younger, Charle- 
 magne, and Alfred are also named as founders of 
 academies. Italy is celebrated for its academies ; 
 and Jarckius mentions 550, of which 25 were in 
 Milan. 
 
 PRINCIPAL ACADEMIES. 
 
 American Academy of Sciences, Boston, 1780. 
 
 Ancona, of the Caliginosi, 1642. 
 
 Basil, 1460. 
 
 Berlin, Royal, 1700; of Princes, 1703; Architecture, 
 
 1799. 
 Bologna, Ecclesiastical, 1687 ; Mathematics, 1690 ; 
 
 Sciences and Arts, 1712. 
 Brescia, of the Errant i, 1626. 
 Brest and Toulon, Military, 1682. 
 Brussels, Belles Lettres, 1773. 
 
ACADIA. 
 
 ACELDAMA. 
 
 Caen, Belles Lettres, 1705. 
 
 Copenhagen, of Sciences, 1743. 
 
 Cortona, Antiquities, 1726. 
 
 Dublin, Arts, 1742 ; Painting, Sculpture, &c, 1823. 
 
 Erfurt, Saxony, Sciences, 1754. 
 
 Faenza, the Philoponi, 1612. 
 
 .Florence, Belles Lettres, 1272 ; Delia Crusca (now united 
 with the Florentine, and merged under that name), 
 1582 ; Del Cimento, 1657 (by cardinal de' Medici) ; 
 Antiquities, 1807. 
 
 Geneva, Medical, 1715. 
 
 Genoa, Painting, <&c, 1751 ; Sciences, 1783. 
 
 Germany, Naturce Curiosi, now Leopoldine, 1662. 
 
 Gottingen, 1734-7. 
 
 Haarlem, the Sciences, 1760. 
 
 Irish Academy, Royal, Dublin, 1782. 
 
 Lisbon, History, 1720; Sciences, 1779. 
 
 London ; see London and Societies. Royal Academy of 
 Fine Arts, 1768 ; of Music, 1734-43 and 1822. 
 
 Lyons, Sciences, 1710 ; Physic and Mathematics added, 
 1758- 
 
 Madrid, the Royal Spanish, 1713 ; History, 1730 ; Paint- 
 ing and the Arts, 1753. 
 
 Manheim, Sciences, 175s ; Sculpture, 1775. 
 
 Mantua, the Vigilanti, Sciences, 1704. 
 
 Marseilles, Belles Lettres, 1726. 
 
 Massachusetts, Arts and Sciences, 1780. 
 
 Milan, Architecture, 1380 ; Sciences, 1719. 
 
 Munich, Arts and Sciences, 1759 ; Sciences, 1779. 
 
 Naples, Rossa,7ia, 1540 ; Mathematics, 1560 ; Sciences, 
 1695 ; Herculaneum, 1755. 
 
 New York, Literature and Philosophy, 1814. 
 
 Nismes, Royal Academy, 1682. 
 
 Padua, for Poetry, 1613 ; Sciences, 1792. 
 
 Palermo, Medical, 1645. 
 
 Paris, Sorbonne, 1253 ; Painting, 1391 ; Music, 1343 and 
 1672 ; French (by Richelieu), 1635 ; Fine Arts, 1648 ; 
 Inscriptions et Belles Lettres (by Colbert), 1663 ; Sciences 
 (by Colbert), 1666 ; Architecture, 1671 ; Surgery, 1731 ; 
 Military, 1751 ; Natural Philosophy, 1796, see Institute. 
 
 Parma, the Innominati, 1550. 
 
 Perousa, Insensati, 156 1 ; Filigirti, 1574. 
 
 Philadelphia, Arts and Sciences, 1749. 
 
 Portsmouth, Naval, 1722 ; enlarged, 1806. 
 
 Rome, Umoristi, 1611 ; Fantascici, 1625 ; Infccondi, 1653 ; 
 Painting, 1665 ; Arcadi, 1690 ; English, 1752 ; Lincei, 
 about 1600 ; Nuovi Lincei, 1847. 
 
 St. Petersburg, Sciences, 1725 ; Military, 1732 ; the School 
 of Arts, 1764. 
 
 Stockholm, of Science, 1741 ; Belles Lettres, 1753 ; Agri- 
 culture, 1781 ; Royal Swedish, 1786. 
 
 Toulon, Military, 1682. 
 
 Turin, Sciences, about 1759 ; Fine Arts, 1778. 
 
 Turkey, Military School, 1775. 
 
 Upsal, Royal Society, Sciences, 1720. 
 
 "Venice, Medical, &c, 1701. 
 
 Verona, Music, 1543 ; Sciences, 1780. 
 
 Vienna, Sculpture and the Arts, 1705 ; Surgery, 1783 ; 
 Oriental, 18 10. 
 
 "Warsaw, Languages, and History, 1753. 
 
 "Washington, United States, America, 1863. 
 
 Woolwich, Military, 1741. 
 
 ACADIA, see Nova Scotia. 
 
 ACANTHUS, the foliage forming the volutes 
 ■of the Corinthian capital, ascribed to Callimachus, 
 about 540 B.C. 
 
 ACAPULCO, Mexico. A Spanish galleon, 
 "from Acapulco, laden with gold and precious wares 
 (estimated at above 1,000,000/. sterling), taken by- 
 commodore Anson, who had previously acquired 
 booty in his voyage amounting to 600,000?., June, 
 1743. He arrived at Spithead in the Centurion, 
 ■after having circumnavigated the globe, 15 June, 
 1744. 
 
 ACARNANIA, N. Greece. The people be- 
 came prominent in the Peloponnesian war, having 
 invited the help of the Athenians against the Am- 
 hracians, 432 B.C. The Acarnanians were subdued 
 "by the Lacedsemonians in 390; they took part 
 with Macedon against the Eomans in 200, by whom 
 they were defeated in 197, and subjugated in 145. 
 
 ACCENTS were first introduced in the Greek 
 language by Aristophanes of Byzantium, a gram- 
 marian and critic who taught at Alexandria about 
 264 B.C. Accents were first used by the French in 
 the reign of Louis XIII. (about 1610). 
 
 ACCESSION, The, i.e., that of the House of 
 Hanover to the throne of Great Britain, in the 
 person of George I., elector of Hanover, son of 
 Sophia, daughter of Elizabeth, daughter of James I. 
 He succeeded, 1 Aug., 17 14, by virtue of the act of 
 settlement passed in the reign of "William III., 
 12 June, 1702, which limited the succession to his. 
 mother (as a Protestant) in the event of queen Anne 
 dying without issue. 
 
 ACCESSOEIES to Crimes. The law re- 
 specting them consolidated and amended in 1861. 
 
 ACCIDENTS, see under Coal, Fires, Railways 
 &c. For compensation for accidents, see Camp- 
 bell's Act and Passengers. In 1865, it was com- 
 puted that, in one year, about 250 persons are 
 killed, and 1200 injured, in the streets of London. 
 
 ACCIDENTAL DEATHS IN ENGLAND AND WALES. 
 
 1856, 
 
 9716 
 
 i860, 
 
 9225 
 
 1864, 
 
 10,997 
 
 1868, 
 
 ",033 
 
 1857, 
 
 8930 
 
 1861, 
 
 9213 
 
 186.5, 
 
 ".397 
 
 1869, 
 
 10,725 
 
 1858, 
 
 8947 
 
 1862, 
 
 9005 
 
 1866, 
 
 11,262 
 
 1870, 
 
 10,906 
 
 1859. 
 
 9241 
 
 1863, 
 
 9952 
 
 1867, 
 
 11,172 
 
 1871, 
 
 11,316 
 
 ACCLIMATISATION of Animals. This 
 has been prosecuted with great vigour since the 
 establishment of the Zoological society of London 
 in 1829, and of the Societe d'Acclimatation in Paris. 
 Numbers of European animals have been naturalised 
 in Australia; the camel has been conveyed to Brazil 
 (1859) ; alpacas are bred at Paris ; and ostriches in 
 Italy (1859). On 6 Oct. i860, the Bois de Boulogne, 
 near Paris, was opened as a zoological garden, con- 
 taining only acclimatised animals. An English ac- 
 climatisation society was founded 10 June, i860, by 
 hon. Grantley Berkeley, Mr. J. Crcckford, Mr. F. 
 Buckland, &c, and the prince of Wales became pre- 
 sident in April, 1865. It was not successful. An 
 acclimatising garden was established at Melbourne, 
 Australia, in Feb. 1861, and efforts made to natu- 
 ralise English birds, fishes, &c. 
 
 ACCORDION, a small wind-instrument with 
 keys, introduced into England from Germany about 
 1828. 
 
 ACCOUNTANT -GENERAL in Chan- 
 cery, &c, an office instituted in 1726, and abolished 
 by an act passed 6 Aug. 1872. In 1841, the office 
 of accountant-general of the court of exchequer was 
 abolished, and the duties transferred to the account- 
 ant in chancery. 
 
 ACCOUNTANTS' INSTITUTE established 
 at a meeting, 30 July, 18 70. William Quilter in 
 the chair. A meeting to establish the " Account- 
 ants' society" was held 11 Jan. 1872. 
 
 ACCUSERS. By occult writers, such as 
 Agrippa, accusers are the eighth order of devils, 
 whose chief is called Asteroth, or Spy. In Revela- 
 tion, ch. xii. 10, the devil is called "the accuser of 
 the brethren." — False accusers were to be hanged 
 by 24 Henry VI. 1446 ; and burnt in the face with 
 an F, by 37 Henry VIII. 1545. Stow. 
 
 ACELDAMA, a field said to have been the one 
 bought with the thirty pieces of silver given to Judas 
 Iscariot for betraying Christ, is still shown to 
 
 travellers. Matthew xxvii. 8; Acts i. 19 This 
 
 name was given to an estate purchased by Juq> 
 Jeffreys after the "bloody assizes" in 16S5. ° 
 
ACEPHALI. 
 
 ACEE. 
 
 ACEPHALI (Greek a, no; cephale, head), a 
 term applied to certain sects who resisted their 
 bishops and met privately, about 450 ; and since to 
 levellers. 
 
 ACETYLENE, a luminous hydrocarbon gas 
 resembling coal gas, discovered by Berthelot, and 
 made known in 1862. 
 
 ACHAIA (N. Peloponnesus), Greece, said to 
 have been settled by Achneus, the son of Xuthus, 
 about 1330 B.C. (?) The kingdom was united with 
 Sicyon or subject to the JEtolians until about 
 284 B.C. The Aehaci, descendants of Achams, origin- 
 ally inhabited the neighbourbood of Argos ; but 
 when the Heraclidaj drove them thence, they re- 
 tired among the Ionians, expelled the natives, and 
 seized their thirteen cities, viz. Pellene, JEgira, 
 JEgium, Bura, Tritaea, Leontium, Rhypes, Cerynea, 
 Olenos, Helice, Patra™, Dyme, and Pharse, forming 
 the Achjean League. 
 
 Achaia invaded by Epaminondas . . . b.c. 366 
 The Achaean league revived by four cities about 
 
 280, and by others 275, 274 
 
 Aratus made praetor 245 
 
 The league joined by Corinth (captured 243), Megara, 
 
 &c 242 — 228 
 
 Supported by Athens and Antigomis Doson . . 229 
 The Achaeans defeated at Ladocea, by the Spartans, 
 
 under Cleomenes III., 226 ; totally defeat them at 
 
 Sellasia. 221 
 
 The Social war begun ; battle of Caphyie in Arcadia ; 
 
 Aratus defeated 220 
 
 The Peloponnesus ravaged by the jEtolians . . 219 
 
 Peace of Naupaetus 217 
 
 Aratus poisoned at JEgium 213 
 
 Philopcemen, leader of the league, defeats the Spartan 
 
 tyrant Machanidas 208 
 
 Alliance of the league with the Romans . . . 198 
 Philopcemen defeated by Nabis iu a naval battle . 194 
 All the Peloponnesus joins the league . . . 191 
 War with Messene : Philopcemen made prisoner and 
 
 slain 183 
 
 The Achfeans overrun Messenia with fire and sword 182 
 The Romans enter Achaia, and carry off numbers, 
 
 including Polybius the historian .... 163 
 War with Rome, 150 ; Metellus enters Greece . . 147 
 The Achfeans defeated by Mummius at Leucopetra, 
 
 147 ; the league dissolved ; Corinth taken ; Greece 
 
 subjected to Rome, and named the province of 
 
 Achaia 146 
 
 Achaia made a Latin principality by William of 
 Champlitte a.d. 1205 
 
 Obtained by Geoffrey Villehardouin, 1210 ; by Geof- 
 frey II. 1218 
 
 By his brother William, 1246 ; who conquers the 
 Moors, 1248 ; makes war with the emperor Michael, 
 
 ■ 1259 ; and gains three fortresses .... 1262 
 
 Succeeded by Isabella, 1277 ; who marries Florenz of 
 Hainault 1291 
 
 Their daughter Maud, princess, 1311 ; thrice married ; 
 forcibly married to John de Gravina, and dies in 
 prison 1324 
 
 Achaia, a fief of Naples .... 1246 — 1430 
 
 Conquered by the Turks .... about 1540 
 
 ACHONEY, SLIGO (N. Ireland), a bishopric 
 founded by St. Finian, who erected the church of 
 Achad, or Achonry, about 520, and conferred it on 
 his disciple Nathy (Dathy, or David), the first 
 bishop. The see, held with Killala, since 161 2, was 
 united with Tuam in 1834. 
 
 ACHEOMATIC TELESCOPES, in which 
 
 colour is got rid of, were invented by John Dollond, 
 and described in Phil. Trans, of the Koyal Society, 
 London, 1 753-8. 
 
 ACIDS (now defined as salts of hydrogen) are 
 generally soluble in water, redden organic blues, 
 decompose carbonates, and destroy the properties of 
 alkalies, forming alkaline salts. The number of 
 
 acids was increased by the Arabs ; Geber (8th cen- 
 tury) knew nitric acid and sulphuric acid. Theories 
 of the constitution of acids were put forth by Becher 
 (1669), Lemery (1675), anu Stahl (1723). After the 
 discovery of oxygen by Priestley, 1 Aug. 1774, 
 Lavoisier (1778), concluded that oxvgen was a con- 
 stituent of all acids; but about i£io Davy, Gay- 
 Lussac, and others, proved the existence of acids 
 free from oxygen. In 1816 Dulong proposed the 
 binary or hydrogen theory of acids, and in 1837 
 Liebig applied the theories of Davy and Dulong to 
 explain the constitution of several organic acids. 
 Oxygen acids were termed anhydrides by Gerhardt 
 (died 1856). Many acids have been discovered 
 through the advance of organic chemistry. Watts. 
 
 ACOLYTES, an inferior order of clergy in the 
 Latin church, unknown to the Greek church for 
 four hundred years after Christ. 
 
 ACOUSTICS (from alcour,.. Greek, I hear), the 
 science of sound, so named by Sauveur in the 17th 
 century. The formation of sound in the air by the 
 vibrations of the atmosphere, strings, &c, was ox- 
 plained by Pythagoras about 500 B.C., and by Aris- 
 totle, 330 B.C. 
 
 The speaking trumpet said to have been used by Alex- 
 ander the Great, 335 B.C. 
 
 Galileo's discoveries, about A.r». 1600. 
 
 His theorem of the harmonic curve demonstrated by Dr. 
 Brook Taylor, in 1714 ; further perfected by D'Alembert, 
 Euler, Bernouilli, and La Grange, at various periods of 
 the eighteenth century. 
 
 Hooke calculated the vibration of sounds by the striking 
 of the teeth of brass wheels, 1681. 
 
 Sauveur determined the number of vibrations belonging 
 to a given note, about 1700. 
 
 Velocity 0/ sound said to be 1473 feet in a second, by 
 Gassendi ; 1172 feet by Cassini, Romer, and others : 
 968 feet by Newton ; 1090 feet, at the temperature of 
 32 Fahrenheit, by Tyndall ; the velocity increases with 
 the rise of temperature. 
 
 Chladni (who raised acoustics to an independent science) 
 published his important discoveries on the figures pro- 
 duced in layers of sand by harmonic chords, <fcc, in 
 1787, and since. 
 
 Cagniard-Latour invented the Sirene (which see) 1819. 
 
 Savart determined the range of the perception of the 
 human ear to be from 7 to 24,000 vibrations a second, 
 1830. 
 
 Biot, Savart, Wheatstone, Lissajous, Helmholtz, Tyndall, 
 and others in the present century have greatly in- 
 creased our knowledge of acoustics. 
 
 ACEE, a land measure, formerly of uncertain 
 quantity, and differing in various parts of the 
 country, was reduced to a standard by Edward I., 
 about 1305. In 1824 the standard acre was ordered 
 by statute to contain 4840 square yards. 
 
 ACEE, Acca, anciently Ptolemais, in Syria, was 
 taken by the Saracens in 638 ; by the crusaders 
 under Baldwin I. in 1104 ; by Saladin in 1 187 ; and 
 again by Richard I. and other crusaders, 12 July, 
 1 191, after a siege of 2 years, with a loss of 6 arch- 
 bishops, 12 bishops, 40 earls, 500 barons, and 300,000 
 soldiers. It was then named St. Jean d'Acrc. It 
 was retaken by the Saracens in 1291, when 60,000 
 Christians perished, and the nuns, who had mangled 
 their faces, to preserve their chastity, were put to 
 death. Acre was gallantly defended by Djezzar 
 Pacha against Bonaparte, till relieved by sir Sidney 
 Smith, who resisted twelve attempts by the French, 
 between 16 March and 20 May, 1 799, when Bonaparte 
 retreated. Acre, as a Turkish pachalic, was seized 
 27 May, 1832, by Ibrahim Pacha, who had revolted. 
 On 3 Nov. 1840, it was stormed by the allied fleet 
 under sir Robert Stopford, and taken after a bom- 
 bardment of a few horns, the Egyptians losing up- 
 wards of 2000 in killed and • wounded, and 3000 
 
ACEOPOLIS. 
 
 7 ADDINGTON ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 prisoners, while the British had but 12 killed and 
 42 wounded ; see Syria and Turkey. 
 
 ACROPOLIS, the ancient citadel of Athens, 
 built on a rock. Near it stood the temple of 
 Minerva, the Parthenon, which see. Other cities 
 had similar fortresses. 
 
 ACROSTIC, a poem in which the first or last 
 letters of each line, read downwards, form a word, 
 is said to have been invented by Porphyrius Optali- 
 anus in the 4th century. Double acrostics became 
 very popular in 1867. 
 
 ACS OR. ACZ (Hungary). The Hungarians 
 under Gorgey were defeated here by the Austrians 
 and Eussians, on 2 and 10 July, 1849. 
 
 ACT OF SETTLEMENT, &c. ; see Accession, 
 Succession, Supremacy, and Uniformity Acts. 
 
 ACTA DIURNA ; see Newspapers. 
 
 ACTA SANCTORUM ("acts of the saints"), 
 a work begun by the Jesuits. The first volume ap- 
 peared in 1643: the publication was interrupted in 
 1734, when the fifty-third volume was published, 
 but was resumed in 1846, and has advanced in the 
 order of months as far as October. The writers have 
 been named Bollandists, from John Bolland, who 
 published the first two volumes. 
 
 ACTINOMETER, an instrument to measure 
 the heating power of the solar rays, invented by 
 sir John F. Herschel, and described by him in 1825. 
 See Sun. 
 
 ACTIUM, a promontory of Acarnania, "W. 
 Greece, near which was fought, 2 Sept. 31 B.C. (the 
 battle between the fleet of Octavius Caesar, and that 
 of Marc Antony and Cleopatra, which decided the 
 fate of Antony; 300 of his galleys going over to 
 Caesar. This victory made Octavius master of the 
 world, and the Roman empire is commonly dated 
 I Jan. 30 B.C. (the Actian Era). The conqueror 
 built Nicopolis (the city of victory), and instituted 
 the Actian games. 
 
 ACTON BURNEL, or Shrewsbury. At the 
 parliament held here by Edward I., Oct. 1283, the 
 "statute of merchants" against debtors was enacted. 
 
 ACTRESSES appear to have been unknown to 
 the ancients ; men or eunuchs performing the female 
 parts. Charles II. is said to have first encouraged 
 the public appearance of women on the stage in 
 England, in 1662; but Anne, queen of James I., had 
 previously performed in a theatre at court. Theat. 
 Biog. Mrs. Colman was the first English public 
 actress ; she performed the part of Ianthe in Dave- 
 nant's "Siege of Ehodes," in 1656. Victor. 
 
 ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, supposed to 
 have been written by Luke in continuation of his 
 Gospel. It terminates A.D. 63. 
 
 ACTS oe Parliament, or Statutes, see 
 
 Parliament. The following are among the most 
 celebrated early statutes :— 
 
 Provisions of Merton, 1235-6. 
 Statute of Marlborough, 1267. 
 
 „ of Bigamy, 1275-6. 
 
 „ of Gloucester, the earliest statute of which any re- 
 cord exists, 6 Edw. I. 1278. 
 
 „ of Mortmain, 1279. 
 Quo "Warranto, Oct. 1280. 
 Statute of Merchants or Acton-Burnel, 1283. 
 Statutes of Wales, 1284. 
 
 „ of Winchester, Oct. 1284. 
 
 ,, of Westminster, 1275, 1285, 1290. 
 Statute forbidding the levying of taxes without the con- 
 sent of parliament, 1297. 
 
 „ of Praemunire, 1306. 
 
 Statutes first printed in the reign of Richard III., 1483. 
 
 Statutes of the Realm, from Magna Charta to George I. , 
 printed from the original records and MSS. in 12 vols, 
 folio, under the direction of commissioners appointed 
 in 1801, 1811-28. 
 
 The statutes passed during each session were formerly 
 printed annually in 4to and 8vo, now in 8vo only. 
 Abstracts are given in the Cabinet Lawyer. 
 
 Between 1823 and 1829, 1126 acts were wholly repealed, 
 and 443 repealed in part, chiefly arising out of the con- 
 solidation of the laws by Mr. (afterwards sir Robert) 
 Peel; of these acts, 1344 related to the kingdom at 
 large, and 225 to Ireland solely ; and in 1856 many 
 obsolete statutes (enacted between 1285 and 1777) were 
 repealed. 
 
 By the Statute Law Revision Act of 1861, 770 acts were 
 wholly repealed, and a great many partially. By the 
 similar act of 1863, a great number of enactments were 
 repealed, commencing with the Provisions of Merton, 
 20 Henry III. (1235-6), and ending with 1 James II. 
 (1685). 
 
 "Acts of parliament abbreviation bill" introduced by 
 Lord Brougham 12 Feb., passed 10 June, 1850. 
 
 1410 acts (passed between 1689 and 1770) partially or 
 wholly repealed, 1867. 
 
 " Chronological Table and Index to the Statutes to the 
 end of 1869," published 1870. 
 
 New Index to acts 1800-65, printed, 1868. 
 
 Publication of the revised edition of the statutes, begun 
 1870. 
 
 The greatest number of acts passed in any one year since 
 1800 was 570, in 1846 (the railway year); 402 were local 
 and personal, 51 private, and 117 public acts. In 1841, 
 only 13 were passed (the lowest number), of which two 
 were private. In three instances only, the annual 
 number was under a hundred. The average number 
 of the first ten years of the present century was 132 
 public acts. In the ten years ending 1850, the average 
 number of acts, of public interest, was 112. 
 
 The number of public general acts passed in 1851 was 106 ; 
 in 1852, 88 ; in 1853, 137 ; in 1854, 125 ; in 1855, 134 ; in. 
 1856, 120 ; in 1857, 86 ; in 1858, 109 ; in 1859, 101 ; in 
 i860, 154 ; in 18615,134 ; in 1862, 114 ; in 1863, 125 ; in 
 1864, 121 ; in 1865, 127 ; in 1866, 122 ; in 1867, 146 ; in 
 1868, 130; in 1869, 117 ; in 1870, 112 ; in 1871, 117 ; in 
 1872, 98. 
 
 ACTS, in dramatic poetry, first employed by 
 the Romans. Five acts are mentioned by Horace 
 (Art of Poetry) as the rule (about 8 B.C.). 
 
 ACTUARY, Acttjaritjs, the Roman ac- 
 countant. The Institute of Actuaries founded in 
 1848, publishes its proceedings in the "Assurance 
 Magazine." 
 
 ADAM AND EVE, Era OF, in the English 
 Bible, 4004 B.C. ; see Creation. 
 
 ADAMITES, a sect said to have existed about 
 130, and to have been quite naked in their re- 
 ligious assemblies, asserting that if Adam had not 
 sinned there would have been no marriages. 
 Their chief was named Prodicus ; they defied the 
 elements, rejected prayer, and said it was not ne- 
 cessary to confess Christ. Eusebius. A sect with 
 this name arose at Antwerp in the 12th century, 
 under Tandemus or Tanchelin, whose followers, 
 3000 soldiers and others, committed many crimes. 
 It became extinct soon after the death of its chief ; 
 but another of the same kind, named Turlupins, 
 appeared shortly after in Savoy and Dauphiuy. A 
 Fleming named Picard, revived this sect in 
 Bohemia, about 1415 ; it was suppressed by Ziska, 
 1420. 
 
 ADDA, a river N. Italy, passed by Suwarrow 
 after defeating the French, "27 April, 1799. 
 
 ADDINGTON ADMINISTRATION. Mr. 
 
 Pitt, having engaged to procure Roman Catholic 
 emancipation to promote the union with Ireland, 
 and being unable to do so as a minister, resigned 
 3 Feb. 1801. A new ministry was formed bv Mr. 
 
ADDISCOMBE COLLEGE. 
 
 ADMINISTRATIONS. 
 
 Addington, March-July, 1801 ; after various changes 
 it terminated about 10 May, 1804. 
 
 Henry Addington,* first lord of the treasury and chan- 
 cellor of the exchequer. 
 
 Lord Eldon, lord chancellor. 
 
 Duke of Portland, lord president. 
 
 Earl of Westmoreland, lord privy seal. 
 
 Lord Pelham, home secretary. 
 
 Mr. R. B. Jenkinson (lord Hawkesbury, 1803 ; and earl 
 of Liverpool, 1808), foreign secretary. 
 
 Lord Hobart, colonial secretary. 
 
 Earl St. Vincent, first lord of admiralty. 
 
 Earl of Chatham, ordnance. 
 
 Charles Yorke, seoretary-at-war. 
 
 Vicount Lewisham, Lord Auckland, &c. 
 
 ADDISCOMBE COLLEGE, near Croydon, 
 Surrey, purchased by the East Indian company in 
 1809, f° r the education of candidates for the scien- 
 tific branches of the Indian army, was closed in 
 1861. 
 
 ADDLED PARLIAMENT, see Parlia- 
 ment. 
 
 ADDRESSERS, see Abhorrers. 
 
 ADELAIDE, the capital of South Australia, 
 was founded in 1836. It contained 14,000 inha- 
 bitants in 1850, and 18,259 in 1855. It was made 
 a bishopric in 1847. It was visited by the duke 
 of Edinburgh, 1 March, 1869. 
 
 ADELPHI (Greek for brothers) several streets 
 on the south side of the Strand, London, erected 
 about 1768 by the brothers, John, Robert, James, 
 and William Adam, after whom the streets are 
 named. Adelphi Theatre, built 1806, rebuilt 
 1858 ; see under Theatres. 
 
 ADEN, a free port on the S. "W. corner of 
 Arabia, where in Dec. 1836 a British ship was 
 wrecked and plundered. The sultan promised 
 compensation, and agreed to cede the place to the 
 English. The sultan's son refusing to fulfil this 
 agreement to captain Haynes, a naval and military 
 force, under captain H. Smith, of the Volage, was 
 dispatched to Aden, which captured it, 19 Jan. 
 1839. It is now a garrison and coal depot for 
 Indian steamers, &c. 
 
 ADIGE, a river in N. Italy, near which the 
 Austrians defeated the French on 26, 30 March, 
 and 5 April, 1799. 
 
 ADMINISTRATIONS or England and 
 
 OF GREAT BRITAIN. Until the Restoration, 1660, 
 there was not any cabinet in the modern sense. 
 The sovereign was aided by privy councillors, vary- 
 ing in number, the men and offices being frequently 
 changed. The separation of the cabinet from the 
 privy council became greater during the reign of 
 William III., and the control of the chief, now 
 termed the " premier," began in the reign of 
 Anne. " The era of ministries may most properly be 
 reckoned from the day of the meeting of the parlia- 
 ment after the general election of 1698." Macau- 
 lay, f For a fuller account of each, since 1700, see 
 
 * Born 1757; became viscount Sidmouth, Jan. 1805 : held 
 various offices afterwards, and died in 1844. His circular 
 to the lords lieutenants, dated 27 March, 1817, directing 
 them to adopt severe measures against the authors of 
 blasphemous and seditious pamphlets, was greatly cen- 
 sured, and not carried into effect. 
 
 t Till 1850 the cabinet council usually consisted of the 
 following twelve members : First lord of the treasury ; 
 lord chancellor ; lord president of the council ; chan- 
 cellor of the exchequer ; lord privy seal ; home, foreign, 
 and colonial secretaries ; first lord of the admiralty ; pre- 
 sident of the board of trade ; president of the board of 
 
 separate articles headed with the name of the Pre- 
 mier, given below in italics 
 
 Henry VIII. — Abp. Warham ; bps. Fisher and 
 Fox ; earl of Surrey, &e. . . . . a.d. 1509 
 
 Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, <fec 1514 
 
 Earl of Surrey ; Tunstall, bishop of London, &C. . 1523 
 
 Sir Thos. More ; bps. Tunstall and Gardiner, and 
 Cranmer (afterwards abp. of Canterbury) . . 1529 
 
 Abp. Cranmer ; lord Cromwell, aft. earl of Essex ; 
 Thos. Boleyn, earl of Wiltshire, &c 1532 
 
 Thomas, duke of Norfolk ; Henry, earl of Surrey ; 
 Thomas, lord Audley ; bishop Gardiner ; sir 
 Ralph Sadler, &c. 1540 
 
 Lord Wriothesley ; Thomas, duke of Norfolk ; lord 
 Lisle ; sir William Petre ; sir William Paget, <fec. 1544 
 
 Edward VI. — Lord Wriothesley, now earl of 
 Southampton, lord chancellor (expelled) ; Edward, 
 earl of Hertford, lord protector, created duke of 
 Somerset ; John, lord Russell ; Henry, earl of 
 Arundel ; Thomas, lord Seymour ; sir Win. Paget ; 
 sir Win. Petre, <fcc 1547 
 
 John Dudley, late lord Lisle and earl of Warwick, 
 created duke of Northumberland ; John, earl 
 of Bedford ; bishop Goodrich, sir William Cecil, 
 &c 1531 
 
 Mary.— Stephen Gardiner, bp. of Winchester ; Ed- 
 mund Bonner, bp. of London ; William, niarq. of 
 Winchester ; sir Edwd. Hastings, <fcc. . . . 1554 
 
 Elizabeth. — Sir Nicholas Bacon ; Edward Ion I 
 Clinton ; sir Robert Dudley, aftds. earl of Lei- 
 cester ; sir William Cecil, aftds. lord Burleigh . 1558 
 
 William, lord Burleigh (minister during nearly all 
 the reign) ; sir N. Bacon, &c. .... 1572 
 
 Lord Burleigh ; sir Thomas Bromley ; Robert 
 Devereux, earl of Essex (a favourite) ; earl of 
 Leicester ; earl of Lincoln ; sir Walter Mildmay ; 
 sir Francis Walsingham, &c 1579 
 
 Lord Burleigh ; Robert, earl of Essex ; sir Chris- 
 topher Hatton, &c. 1587 
 
 Thomas Sackville, lord Buekhurst, afterwards earl 
 of Dorset ; Sir Thomas Egerton, afterwards lord 
 Ellesmere and viscount Brackley ; sir Robert 
 Cecil, &c 1599 
 
 James I. — Thomas, earl of Dorset ; Thomas, lord 
 Ellesmere ; Charles, earl of Nottingham ; Thomas, 
 earl of Suffolk ; Edward, earl of Worcester ; 
 Robert Cecil, afterwards earl of Salisbury, <fec. 1603 
 
 Robert Cecil, earl of Salisbury ; Thomas, lord 
 Ellesmere ; Henry, earl of Northampton ; Charles 
 earl of Nottingham ; Thomas, earl of Suffolk, <fec. 1609 
 
 Henry, earl of Northampton ; Thomas, lord Elles- 
 mere ; Edward, earl of Worcester ; sir Ralph Win- 
 wood ; Charles, earl of Nottingham ; Robert, 
 viscount Rochester, afterwards earl of Somerset, 
 &c 1612 
 
 Thomas, lord Ellesmere ; Thomas, earl of Suffolk ; 
 Charles, earl of Nottingham ; Sir George Villiers 
 (a favourite), afterwards viscount Villiers, ami 
 successively earl, marquis, and duke of Buck- 
 ingham 161 5 
 
 Sir Henry Montagu, afterwards viscount Mande- 
 ville and earl of Manchester 1620 
 
 Lionel, lord Cranfield, afterwards earl of Middle- 
 sex ; Edward, earl of Worcester : John, earl of 
 Bristol ; John Williams, dean of Westminster ; 
 George Villiers, now marquis of Buckingham ; 
 sir Edward Conway, <fec 162 1 
 
 Charles I. — Richard, lord Weston, afterwards earl 
 of Portland ; sir Thomas Coventry, afterwards 
 lord Coventry ; Henry, earl of Manchester (suc- 
 
 control ; chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. In 1850 
 the number was fifteen, and included the secretary -at- 
 war, the postmaster-general, and the chief secretary for 
 Ireland. In the Palmerston-Russell cabinet (which see), 
 the president of the poor-law-board replaced the secre- 
 tary for Ireland. The average duration of a ministry has 
 been set down at four, five, and six years ; but instances 
 have occurred of the duration of a ministry for much 
 longer periods : sir Robert Walpole was minister from 
 1721 to 1742 (21 years) ; Mr. Pitt, 1783 to 1801 (18 
 years) ; and lord Liverpool 1812 to 1827 (15 years). 
 Several ministries have not lasted beyond a few months, 
 as the Coalition, Ministry in 1783, and the " Talents" 
 Ministry in 1806. The "Short-lived" Administration 
 lasted 10 to 12 Feb. 1746. 
 
ADMINISTRATIONS. 
 
 ADMINISTRATIONS. 
 
 ceeded by James, earl of Marlborough, who, in 
 turn, gave place to Edward, lord, afterwards 
 viscount, Conway) ; William Laud, bp. of 
 London ; sir Albert Morton, &c 1628 
 
 William Laud, now archbishop of Canterbury ; 
 Francis, lord Cottington; James, marquis of 
 Hamilton ; Edward, earl of Dorset ; sir John 
 Coke ; sir Francis Windebank, &c 1635 
 
 William Juxon, bishop of London ; sir John Finch, 
 afterwards lord Finch ; Francis, lord Cottington ; 
 Wentworth, earl of Strafford ; Algernon, earl of 
 Northumberland ; James, marquis of Hamilton ; 
 Laud, archbishop of Canterbury ; sir Francis 
 
 Windebank ; sir Henry Vane, <&c 1640 
 
 [The king beheaded, 30 Jan. 1649.] 
 
 Commonwealth. — Oliver Cromwell, protector, 
 named a council, the number not to exceed 21 
 members, or be less than 13 1653 
 
 Bichard Cromwell, son of Oliver, succeeded on the 
 death of his father. A council of officers ruled at 
 Wallingford house 1658 
 
 Charles II. — Sir Edward Hyde, afterwards earl of 
 Clarendon ; George Monk, created duke of Albe- 
 marle ; Edward Montagu, created earl of Sand- 
 wich ; lord Saye and Sele ; earl of Manchester ; 
 lord Seymour ; sir Robert Long, <fec. . . . 1660 
 
 George Monk, duke of Albemarle, made first com- 
 missioner of the treasury, <fcc 1667 
 
 " Cabal " Ministry ; Clifford, Ashley, Buckingham, 
 Arlington, Lauderdale (see Cabal) . . . . 1670 
 
 Thomas, lord Clifford ; Anthony, earl of Shaftesbury ; 
 Henry, earl of Arlington ; Arthur, earl of Angle- 
 sey ; sir Thomas Osborne, created viscount 
 Latimer ; Henry Coventry ; sir George Carteret ; 
 Edward Seymour, &c 1672 
 
 Thomas, viscount Latimer, afterwards earl of Danby, 
 made lord high treasurer. ... 26 June 1673 
 
 Arthur, earl of Essex, (succeeded by Lawrence 
 Hyde, aft. earl of Rochester) ; Bobert, earl of 
 Sunderland, <&c 1679 
 
 ■[The king nominated a new council on 21 April, con- 
 sisting of 30 members only, of whom the princi- 
 pal were the great officers of state and great 
 officers of the household.] ,, 
 
 Sidney, lord Godolphin ; Lawrence, earl of Eo- 
 chester ; Daniel, earl of Nottingham ; Bobert, 
 earl of Sunderland ; sir Thomas Chicheley ; 
 George, lord Dartmouth ; Henry, earl of Claren- 
 don ; earls of Bath and Radnor .... 1684 
 
 James II. — Lawrence, earl of Rochester ; George, 
 marquis of Halifax ; sir George Jeffreys, after- 
 wards lord Jeffreys ; Henry, earl of Clarendon ; 
 sir John Ernley ; viscount Preston, <&c. . . . 1685 
 
 The earl of Rochester was displaced, and John, lord 
 Belasyse, made first commissioner of the treasury 
 in his room, 4 Jan. ; the earl of Sunderland made 
 president of the council ; viscount Preston, sec- 
 retary of state, &c 1687-S 
 
 fThe king left Whitehall in the night of 11 Dec, and 
 quitting the kingdom, landed at Ambleteuse, in 
 France, Dec. 1688.] 
 
 William III. and Mary. — Charles, viscount Mor- 
 daunt ; Thomas Osborne, earl of Danby, created 
 marquess of Carmarthen, afterwards duke of 
 Leeds ; George, marquis of Halifax ; Arthur, 
 Herbert, afterwards lord Torrington ; earls of 
 Shrewsbury, Nottingham, and Sunderland ; earl 
 of Dorset and Middlesex ; William earl (after- 
 wards duke) of Devonshire ; lord Godolphin ; lord 
 Montagu ; lord De la Mere, &c. . . . . 1689 
 
 Sidney, lord Godolphin ; Thomas, earl of Danby ; 
 Richard Hampden ; Thomas, earl of Pembroke ; 
 Henry, viscount Sydney ; Daniel, earl of Notting- 
 ham, &c. 1690 
 
 Sir John Somers became lord Somers in 1697, and 
 lord chancellor ; Charles Montagu, afterwards 
 lord Halifax, was made first commissioner of the 
 treasury, 1 May, 1698, succeeded by Ford, earl of 
 Tanker ville 1699 
 
 Anne. — Sidney, lord (afterwards earl of Godolphin ;) 
 Thomas, earl of Pembroke, &c. . . May, 1702 
 
 Robert Harley, earl of Oxford ; sir Simon Harcourt, 
 &c. . 1 June, 1711 
 
 Charles, duke of Shrewsbury, made lord treasurer, 
 three days before the queen's death, <fec. 30 July, 1714 
 
 George I. — Charles, earl of Halifax (succeeded on 
 his death by the earl of Carlisle), <fec. . . . „ 
 
 Bobert Walpole, first lord of the treasury, and chan- 
 cellor of the exchequer, &c 1715 
 
 James (afterwards earl) Stanhope ; William lord 
 Cowper, <fec 1717 
 
 Charles, earl of Sunderla nd, <fce. . . . . 1718 
 
 Bobert Walpole, afterwards sir Bobert Walpole, and 
 earl of Orford, &c 1721 
 
 George II. — Bobert Walpole continued . . . 1727 
 [Sir Robert remained prime minister twenty-one 
 years ; numerous changes occurring in the time; 
 see Walpole. | 
 
 Earl of Wilmington ; lord Hardwicke, &c. . . 1742 
 
 Henry Pelham, in the room of earl of Wilmington, 
 deceased Aug. 1743 
 
 "Broad-bottom" administration — Henry Pelham; 
 lord Hardwicke, <&c. . . > . .Nov. 1744 
 
 "Short-lived" administration — earl of Bath; lords 
 Winchilsea and Granville . . 10-12 Feb. 1746 
 
 Henry Pelham, &c, again . . . .12 Feb. 1746 
 
 Thos. H. Pelham, duke of Newcastle ; earl of Hol- 
 derness, &c . April, 1754 
 
 Duke of Devonshire ; William Pitt, <fec. . . Nov. 1756 
 
 Duke of Newcastle, and Mr. Pitt, afterwards earl of 
 Chatham, <fec June, 1757 
 
 George III. — Duke of Newcastle, Mr. Pitt's minis- 
 try, continued 1760 
 
 Earl of Bute; lord Henley, <fec. . . . May, 1762 
 
 George Grenville ; earls of Halifax and Sandwich, 
 <fec April, 1763 
 
 Marquis of Rockingham ; earl of Winchilsea, dec. 
 
 July, 1765 
 
 Earl of Chatham; duke of Grafton, <&c. . Aug. 1766 
 
 Duke of Grafton; lord North, &c. . .Dec. 1767 
 
 Frederick, lord North ; earl Gower, <fec. . Jan. 1770 
 [Lord North was minister during the whole of 
 the American war. ] 
 
 Marquis of Rockingham ; lord Camden, C. J. Fox ; 
 Edmund Burke, <fec. . . . March, 1782 
 
 Earl of Shelbume (afterwards marquis of Lans- 
 downe) ; William Pitt, <fec July „ 
 
 " Coalition Ministry," duke of Portland ; lord North; 
 C. J. Fox ; Edmund Burke, <fcc, . . April, 1783 
 
 William Pitt; Henry Dundas, &c. . . Dec. „ 
 
 [During Mr. Pitt's long administration, nu- 
 
 ' merous changes in the ministry took place.] 
 
 Henry Addington ; duke of Portland ; lord Eldon, 
 &c March, et seq. 1801 
 
 William Pitt ; lord Eldon ; George Canning, &c. 
 
 May, et seq. 1804 
 [Mr. Pitt died 23 Jan. 1806.] 
 
 "All the Talents" — lord Grenville; lord Henry 
 Petty ; lord Erskine ; C. J. Fox ; sir Charles 
 Grey (afterwards earl Grey). . . . Feb. 1806 
 
 [Mr. Fox's death, 13 Feb. 1806, led to nu- 
 merous changes.] 
 
 Duke of Portland ; lord Eldon, &c* . March, 1807 
 
 Spencer Perceval ; earl of Liverpool ; viscount Pal- 
 merston, <fec Nov. and Dec. 1809 
 
 Begency. — Mr. Spencer Perceval (shot by Belling- 
 ham, 11 May, 1812), <fec. ... 5 Feb. 1811 
 
 Earl of Liverpool ; lord Eldon ; Mr. Vansittart ; lord 
 Melville ; viscounts Castlereagh, Palmerston, 
 &c May, June, 1812 
 
 George IV. — Earl of Liverpool, &c. . 29 Jan. 1820 
 [During lord Liverpool's long administration 
 numerous changes occurred.] 
 
 George Canning; lord Lyndhurst ; viscount Gode- 
 rich ; William Huskisson ; viscount Palmerston ; 
 duke of Clarence, &c. .... April. 1827 
 [Mr. Canning died 8 August, 1827.] 
 
 Viscount Goderich ; viscount Palmerston ; marquess 
 of Lansdowne ; W. Huskisson, &c. . .Aug. „ 
 
 Duke of Wellington; Bobert Peel ; Mr. Huskisson ; 
 
 &c Jan. 1828 
 
 [The ministry reconstructed on the retirement 
 of the earl of Dudley, lord Palmerston, Mr. Grant, 
 Mr. Huskisson.] May and June, ,, 
 
 William IV. — Duke of Wellington, <fee. 26 June, 1830 
 
 Earl Grey ; marquis of Lansdowne ; lord Brougham : 
 
 Viscount Althorpe ; earl of Durham ; viscounts 
 
 Melbourne, Palmerston, and Goderich ; sir James 
 
 Graham ; lord John Bussell, <fec. . . . Nov. „ 
 
 [Earl Grey resigns, owing to a majority against 
 
 * The duel between lord Castlereagh and Mr. Canning, 
 22 Sept., 1809, led to the breaking up of this adminis- 
 tration. 
 
ADMINISTRATIONS. 
 
 10 
 
 ADMIRALTY. 
 
 liini in the lords, on the Reform Bill, 10 May : but 
 resumes his post i8May, 1S32 
 
 Viscount Melbo unir ; A;c. .... July, 1834 
 
 [Melbourne administration dissolved, Nov. 1834. 
 The duke of Wellington held the seals of office fill 
 the return of sir Robert Peel from Italy, Dec. 
 1834.] 
 
 Sir Robert Peel ; lord Lyndhurst ; duke of Welling- 
 ton ; earl of Aberdeen ; &c. . Nov. and Dec. ,, 
 
 Viscount Melbourne, &c April, 1835 
 
 Victoria. — Viscount Melbourne, fce. . 20 June, 1837 
 [Subsequent accessions, F. T. Baring ; earl of 
 Clarendon ; T. B. Macaulay, &C. Viscount Mel- 
 bourne, resigned, and sir Robert Peel received 
 the queen's commands to form a new administra- 
 tion, 8 May. This command is withdrawn, and 
 lord Melbourne returned to power . . 10 May, 1839 
 
 Sir Robert Peel,- duke of Wellington; lord Lynd- 
 hurst ; sir James Graham ; earl of Aberdeen ; lord 
 Stanley, <fce. .... Aug. and Sept. 1841 
 
 [Accessions, Sidney Herbert ; W. E. Gladstone, 
 &C] 
 
 Lord John Russell ; viscount Palmerston ; earl 
 
 Grey, &c July, 1846 
 
 [Accessions : earl Granville ; Mr. Fox Maule ; 
 earl of Carlisle ; sir Thomas Wilde, created lord 
 Truro, &c.] 
 
 Lord John Russell and the marquis of Lansdowne 
 on the 24 Feb. announced the resignation of 
 ministers, owing to their defeat on Mr. Locke 
 King's motion respecting the franchise ; they in- 
 formed parliament, that it having been found im- 
 possible to construct a coalition ministry, the • 
 queen, by the advice of the duke of Wellington, 
 had called upon her late ministers to resume office. 
 Lord Stanley (since earl of Derby), in the interval, 
 had been unable to form a cabinet, 3 March, 1851 
 
 Earl of Derby ; (late lord Stanley) ; lord St. Leo- 
 nards ; Benjamin Disraeli ; Spencer H. Walpole ; 
 earl of Malmesbury ; sir John Pakington : duke 
 of Northumberland, <fcc. ... 27 Feb. 1852 
 
 Earl of Aberdeen ; lord John Russell ; viscount Pal- 
 merston, <fcc 28 Dec. ,, 
 
 [Various changes of offices took place ; a fourth 
 secretary of state was appointed, by the separa- 
 tion of the war from the colonial department ; see 
 Secretaries of Sta te. The retirement of lord J. Rus- 
 sell, 24 Jan. 1855, and a majority in the commons 
 against ministers of 157 (305 to 148), on Mr. Roe- 
 buck's motion respecting the conduct of the war, 
 led to the resignation of lord Aberdeen and his 
 colleagues, 30 Jan. ; the cabinet was reconstructed 
 
 Viscount Palmerston ; lord Cranworth ; &c. 7 Feb. 1855 
 [Secession of sir J. Graham, Mr. Gladstone, and 
 Mr. S. Herbert. Accession of lord John Russell ; 
 earl of Clarendon ; sir G. Grey ; sir G. C. Lewis ; 
 sir W. Molesworth, <fcc. . . .24 Feb. ,, 
 
 [On the second reading of the Foreign Con- 
 spiracy bill, the government (defeated by a vote of 
 censure being passed by a majority of 19, on the 
 motion of Mr. Milner Gibson) resigned immedia- 
 tely 19 Feb. 1858 
 
 Earl of Derby; B. Disraeli ; Spencer Walpole ; lord 
 Stanley ; sir F. Thesiger (lord Chelmsford), &c. 
 
 26 Feb. ,, 
 [The Derby administration, in consequence of a 
 vote of want of confidence in it being carried by a 
 majority of 13, 10 June, 1859, resigned the next 
 day. Earl Granville failed to form an adminis- 
 tration.] 
 Viscount Palmerston ; lord John (since earl) Russell, 
 
 &e. 18 June, 1859 
 
 [Lord Palmerston died 18 Oct. 1865.] 
 Earl Iiassell; W. E. Gladstone ; earl of Clarendon ; 
 
 &c Oct. 1865 
 
 [Resigned (in consequence of a minority on the 
 Reform Bill, 19 June) . . . .26 June, 1866 
 Earl of Derby, B. Disraeli, lord Stanley, &c. ; for 
 changes see Derby Administrations. . 6 July, 1S66 
 [Earl of Derby resigned through ill health] 
 
 Feb. 25 1868 
 B. Disraeli reconstituted the administration 29 Feb. ,, 
 [Mr. Disraeli resigned in consequence of the 
 elections in November giving a majority of about 
 
 1 14 to the Liberals 2 Dee. ,, 
 
 W. E. Gladstone; earl of Clarendon, Robert Lowe ; 
 John Bright, and others, received seals 9 Dec. ,, 
 
 ADMINISTRATIVE REFORM ASSO- 
 CIATION derived its origin from an opinion 
 that the disasters which occurred to the army in the 
 Crimea in 1854-5 were attributable to the inefficient 
 and irresponsible management of the various de- 
 partments of the state. The association was 
 organised in London, 5 May, 1855. A meeting' 
 was held in Drury-lane theatre, on 13 June, and 
 Mr. Layard's motion on the subject in parliament 
 was negatived 18 June following. The association 
 was reorganised in 1856, Mr. Roebuck, M.P., be- 
 coming chairman, but soon became unimportant ; 
 see Civil Service. 
 
 ADMIRAL. The title does not appear to have 
 been adopted in England until about 1300, but was 
 previously in use in France. Sir Harris Nicolas. 
 Alfred, Athelstan, Edgar, Harold, and other kings, 
 were commanders of their own fleets. The first 
 French admiral is said to have been appointed 1284. 
 The rank of admiral of the English seas was first 
 given to William de Ley bourne by Edward I. in 
 1297. Spelman; Rymer. The first Lord High 
 Admiral in England was created by Richard II. in 
 1385 : there had been previously high admirals of 
 districts — the north, west, and south. The duties 
 have generally been executed by lords commis- 
 sioners ; see Admiralty. A similar dignity existed 
 in Scotland from the reign of Robert III. : In 1673, 
 the king bestowed it upon his natural son Charles 
 Lennox, afterwards duke of Richmond, then an 
 infant, who resigned the office to the crown in 
 1703 : after the union it was discontinued. — The 
 dignity of lord high admiral of Ireland (of brief 
 existence) was conferred upon James Butler by 
 Henry VIII., in May, 1534. The Admiral of the 
 Fleet is the highest rank in the Royal Navy, corre- 
 sponding to that of marshal in the army. We have 
 now 3 admirals of the fleet, 14 admirals, 15 vice-ad- 
 mirals, and 25 rear admirals, 226 captains, (Jan. 
 1873). The first admiral of the United States of 
 America, David G. Farragut, was nominated in 1866. 
 
 ADMIRALTY, Court of, a court for the 
 
 trial of causes relating to maritime aftairs, said to 
 have been erected by Edward III., in 1357. It was 
 enacted in the reign of Henry VIII. , that criminal 
 causes should be tried by witnesses and a jury, some 
 of the judges at "Westminster (or, as now, at the Old 
 Bailey) assisting. The judgeship of the admiralty 
 was constituted in 1514, and was filled by two or 
 more functionaries until the Revolution, when it 
 w r as restricted to one. Beatson. The judge has 
 usually been an eminent doctor of the civil law. In 
 1844 the criminal jurisdiction of this court was re- 
 moved, and by 20 tfc 21 Vict, c 77 (1857), the judge 
 of the Probate court was to be also judge of the 
 Admiralty court. The judge of the Admiralty 
 court, Dr. Stephen Lushington (appointed 
 in 1838), resigned 1 July, 1867, and was suc- 
 ceeded by Sir Robert Phillimore. The jurisdic- 
 tion of this court was extended in 1861. 
 
 ADMIRALTY OFFICE dates from 1512, 
 when Henry VIII. appointed commissioners to in- 
 spect his ships of war. During the Commonwealth 
 the adiniralt}' affairs were managed by a committee 
 of the parliament ; and at the restoration in 1660, 
 James, duke of York became lord high admiral. In 
 1662 the admiralty was first put into commission, 
 the great officers of state being the commissioners ; 
 see succeeding changes below. In 1688-9 the 
 admiralty was put into commission, and the board 
 appears to have assembled at admiral Herbert's 
 lodgings, in Channel-row, Westminster, he being 
 at that time first lord. In 1830, 1832, and 1836 
 various changes were made in the civil depart- 
 
ADMIRALTY. 
 
 11 
 
 ADULTERATION. 
 
 ments, several offices being abolished or conso- 
 lidated with others. In March, 1861, a royal com- 
 mission recommended the abolition of the board of 
 admiralty and the appointment of a minister of the 
 navy department. The board was reconstituted 14 
 Jan. 1869, and 4 May, 1872. 
 
 FIRST LORDS OF THE ADMIRALTY. 
 
 1660. James, duke of York, lord high admiral, 6 June. 
 1673. Kino Charles II., 14 June. 
 ,, Prince Rupert, 9 July. 
 
 1679. Sir Henry Capel, 14 Feb. 
 
 1680. Daniel Finch, esq., 19 Feb. 
 
 1681. Daniel, lord Finch, 20 Jan. 
 
 1683. Daniel, earl of Nottingham, 17 April. 
 
 1684. King Charles II. 
 
 1685. Kino James II., 17 May. Office in commission. 
 
 1689. Arthur Herbert, esq., 8 March. 
 
 1690. Thomas, earl of Pembroke and Montgomery, 
 
 20 Jan. 
 
 1692. Charles, lord Cornwallis, 10 March. 
 
 1693. Anthony, viscount Falkland, 15 April. 
 
 1694. Edward Russel, esq., (aft. earl of Orford), 2 May. 
 1699. John, earl of Bridgewater, 2 June. 
 
 1701. Thomas, earl of Pembroke, 4 April. 
 
 1702. George prince of Denmark, lord high admiral, 
 
 20 May. 
 
 1708. Thomas earl of Pembroke, ditto, 29 Nov. 
 
 Office in commission. 
 
 1709. Edward, earl of Orford, 8 Oct. 
 
 1710. Sir John Leake, 4 Oct. 
 
 1712. Thomas, earl of Strafford, 30 Sept. 
 
 1714. Edward, earl of Orford, 14 Oct. 
 
 1717. James, earl of Berkeley, 19 March. 
 
 1727. George, viscount Torrmgton, 2 Aug. 
 
 1733. Sir Charles Wager, knt., 25 June. 
 
 1742. Daniel earl of Winchilsea, 19 March. 
 
 1744. John, duke of Bedford, 27 Dec. 
 
 1748. John, earl of Sandwich, 10 Feb. 
 
 1751. George, lord Anson, 22 June. 
 
 1756. Richard, earl Temple, 19 Nov. 
 
 1757. Daniel, earl of Winchilsea, 6 April. 
 ,, George, lord Anson, 2 July. 
 
 1762. George M. Dunk, earl of Halifax, 19 June. 
 
 1763. George Grenville, esq., 1 Jan. 
 
 „ John, earl of Sandwich, 23 April. 
 
 ,, John, earl of Egmont, 10 Sept. 
 1766. Sir Charles Saunders, 10 Sept. 
 
 „ Sir Edward Hawke, 10 Dec. 
 1771. John, earl of Sandwich, 12 Jan. 
 
 1782. Hon. Augustus Keppel, 1 April. f 
 „ Augustus, viscount Keppel, 18 July. 
 
 1783. Richard, viscount Howe, 28 Jan. 
 1788. John, earl of Chatham, 16 July. 
 1794. George John, earl Spencer, 20 Dec. 
 1801. John, earl St. Vincent, 19 Feb. 
 
 1804. Henry, viscount Melville, 15 May. 
 
 1805. Charles, lord Barham, 2 May. 
 
 1806. Hon. Charles Grey, 10 Feb. 
 
 ,, Thomas Grenville, esq., 23 Oct. 
 
 1807. Henry, lord Mulgrave, 6 April. 
 1809. Charles Yorke, esq., 10 May. 
 
 1812. Robert, viscount Melville, 25 March. 
 
 1827. William Henry, duke of Clarence, lord high 
 
 admiral, 2 May, resigned 12 Aug. 1828. 
 
 1828. Robert, viscount Melville, 19 Sept. 
 1830. Sir James R. G. Graham, bart., 25 Nov. 
 
 1834. George, lord Auckland, n June. 
 
 ,, Thomas Philip, earl de Grey, 23 Dec. 
 
 1835. George, lord Auckland, 25 April. 
 „ Gilbert, earl of Minto, 19 Sept. 
 
 1841. Thomas, earl of Haddington, 8 Sept. 
 1846. Edward, earl of Ellenborough, 13 Jan. 
 
 ,, George, earl of Auckland, 24 July. 
 1849. Sir Francis Thornhill Baring, 18 Jan. 
 
 1852. Algernon, duke of Northumberland, 28 Feb. 
 
 1853. Sir James Robert George Graham, 5 Jan. 
 1855. Sir Charles Wood, bart., 24 Feb. 
 
 1858. Sir John Pakington, bart., 26 Feb. 
 
 1859. Edward, duke of Somerset, June. 
 
 1866. Sir John Pakington, bart., 6 July. 
 
 1867. Henry Lowry Corry, 8 March. 
 
 1868. Hugh Culling Eardley Childers, 9 Dee. 
 1871. George Joachim Goschen, 9 March. 
 
 ADMIRALTY, Whitehall. "At the south 
 end of Duke-street, Westminster, was seated a large 
 
 house made use of for the admiralty office, until the 
 business was removed to Greenwich, and thence to 
 Wallingford -house, against Whitehall." It was re- 
 built by Kipley about 1726; the screen was erected, 
 to conceal the ugliness of the building, by the 
 brothers Adam, in 1776. — Lord Kelson lay in state 
 in one of the apartments on 8 Jan. 1806 ; and on the 
 next day was buried at St. Paul's. 
 
 "ADMONITION to the Parliament," 
 
 condemning all religious ceremonies but those com- 
 manded by the New Testament, was published by 
 certain Puritans in 1571. Its presumed authors, 
 Field and Wilcox, were imprisoned. A second Ad- 
 monition by Thomas Cartwright was answered by 
 archbishop Whitgift. 
 
 ADORNO AND EREGOSO, two families, of 
 which the doges were frequently members, dis- 
 turbed Genoa from the 14th to the 16th centuries, 
 the former favouring the emperor, the latter the 
 French king. Their power Was annihilated by 
 Andrea Doria about 1528. 
 
 . ADRIAN'S "WALL (to prevent the irrup- 
 tions of the Scots and Picts into the northern coun- 
 ties of England, then under the Roman government) 
 extended from the Tyne to Solway firth, and was 
 eighty miles long, twelve feet high, and eight in 
 thickness, with watch-towers ; built 121. It was 
 repaired and strengthened by Severus, 207 — 210. 
 
 ADRIANOPLE, in Turkey, so named after 
 its restorer the emperor Adrian (who died 10 July, 
 138). Near here Constantine defeated Licinius and 
 gained the empire, 3 July, 323 ; also, near here the 
 emperor Valens was defeated and slain by the Goths, 
 9 Aug. 378. Adrianople was taken by the Turks 
 under Amurath in 1361, and was their capital till 
 the capture of Constantinople in 1453. It was taken 
 by the Russians on 20 Aug. 1829; and restored 
 14 Sept. same year ; see Turkey. 
 
 ADRIATIC. Tbe ceremony of the doge of 
 Venice wedding the Adriatic sea (instituted about 
 1 1 73), took place annually on Ascension-day. The 
 doge dropped a ring into the sea from his bucentaur, 
 or state barge, being attended by his nobility and 
 foreign ambassadors. The ceremony was first 
 omitted in 1797. 
 
 ADULLAM, a cave to which David fled from 
 the persecution of Saul about 1062 B.C. (1 Sam. 
 xxii. 1, 2). Mr. Horsman, Mr. R. Lowe, earl 
 Grosvenor, lord Elcho, and other liberals who 
 opposed the Franchise bill in 1866 were termed 
 " Adullamites." During a debate on this bill on 
 13 March, 1866, Mr. Bright said of Mr. Horsman, 
 that he "had retired into what may be called his 
 political cave of Adullam, to which he invited every 
 one who was in debt, and every one who was dis- 
 contented," &c. On 19 April, lord Elcho said, " No 
 improper motive has driven us into this cave, where 
 we are a most happy family, daily— I may say, 
 hourly— increasing in number and strength, where 
 we shall remain until we go forth to deliver Israel 
 from oppression." Although their opposition led to 
 the defeat and resignation of the Russell ministry, 
 they declined to take office under lord Derby in 
 July, 1866. They did not vote together uniformly 
 in 1867, and (lord Elcho and Mr. Wyld excepted) 
 voted with Mr. Gladstone, for the disestablishment 
 of the Irish church, 1 May, 1868. 
 
 ADULTERATION. That of food was pro- 
 hibited in England in 1267, and punishments for 
 it enacted, 1581, 1604, 1836, 1851, &c. Much 
 attention was drawn to it in 1822, through Mr. Ac- 
 
ADULTERY. 
 
 12 
 
 ^EOLIAN. 
 
 •cum's book, culled " Death in the Pot," and in 1855 
 through Dr. HassaH's book, "Food and its Adulte- 
 rations." By an act for preventing the adulteration 
 of food, passed in i860, parochial chemical analysts 
 may be appointed. An act to prevent the adultera- 
 tion of seeds was passed 16 Aug. 1869 ; and another 
 to prevent the adulteration of food and drugs was 
 passed 10 Aug. 1872. Penalties for adulterating 
 liquors were imposed by the new licensing act passed 
 game time. 
 
 ADULTERY was punished with death by the 
 law of Mose3 (1490 B.c ; Lev. xx. 10) — and by Ly- 
 curgus (884 B.C.). The early Saxons burnt the 
 adulteress, and erected a gibbet over her ashes, 
 "whereon they hanged the adulterer. The ears and 
 nose were cat off under Canute, 1031. Adultery 
 was ordained to be punished capitally by the parlia- 
 ment, May 14, 1650 : but there is no record of this 
 law taking effect ; and it was repealed at the res- 
 toration. In New England the punishment for 
 adultery was made capital to both parties, and 
 several suffered for it, 1662. llardie. Till 1857 the 
 legal redress against the male offender was by civil 
 action for a money compensation ; the female being 
 liable to divorce. By 20 & 21 Vict. c. 85 (1857) 
 the "action for criminal conversation" was abolished, 
 and the Court for Divorce and Matrimonial Causes 
 .established with power to grant divorces for adultery 
 and ill usage ; see Divorce. An act was passed in 
 1869 permitting parties to suits for adultery to give 
 •evidence. 
 
 ADVENT (adveniens, coming). The season 
 includes four Sundays, previous to Christmas, the 
 first the nearest Sunday to St. Andrew's day 
 (Nov. 30), before or after. Homilies respecting 
 Advent are mentioned prior to 378. Advent Sun- 
 day, 1872, 1 Dec; 1873, 30 Nov. ; 1874, 29 Nov. ; 
 1875, 28 Nov. ; 1876, 3 Dec. ; 1877, 2 l> ec - 
 
 ADVENTURE BAY, S.E. end of Van Die- 
 men's Land, discovered in 1773 by capt. Furneaux 
 in his first voyage to the Pacific, and named from 
 .his ship Adventure. It was visited by capt. Cook 
 1 777 ; by capt. Bligh in 1788 and 1792. 
 
 ADVENTURERS, see Merchants. 
 
 ADVERTISEMENTS m Newspapers, 
 
 as now published, were not general in England till 
 the beginning of the eighteenth century. A penalty 
 of 50/. was inflicted on persons advertising a reward 
 with " No questions to be asked" for the return of 
 things stolen, and on the printer, 1754. The ad- 
 vertisement duty, (first enacted, 1712,) formerly 
 •charged according to the number of lines, was after- 
 wards fixed, in England, at 3*. 6d., and in Ireland 
 •at 2s. 6d. each advertisement. The duty (further 
 reduced, in England to is. 6d. and in Ireland to is. 
 •each, in 1833), was abolished in 1853. On i6thOct. 
 i860, the whole libretto of MacFarren's Opera, 
 Robin Hood, was inserted as an advertisement in 
 the Times (4! columns). Advertising Vans, a 
 •great nuisance, were prohibited in 1853. 
 
 ADVOCATE, THE KING'S, (always a doctor 
 of the civil law,) was empowered to prosecute at his 
 ■own instance certain crimes about 1597. The Loud 
 Advocate in Scotland is the same as the attorney- 
 general in England with judicial powers. — It was 
 decided in the parliament of Paris, in 1685, that 
 the king's advocate of France might at the same 
 time be a judge; and in Scotland sir William Oli- 
 phant (1612) and sir John Nesbit (1666) were lord 
 advocates and lords of session at the same time. 
 Beatson. — The Advocates' library in Edinburgh was 
 
 established by sir G. Mackenzie about 1682; see 
 Judge Advocate. 
 
 JEDILES- Roman city officers of three degrees, 
 said to owe their name to having had charge of the 
 cedes or temple of Ceres. 1 . Two plebeian aediles 
 "were appointed with the tribunes, to assist them in 
 looking after buildings, weights, and measures, the 
 supply of provisions and water, &c, 494 B.C. 2. 
 The ardilcs curules, at first patricians, were ap- 
 pointed 365 B.C. 3. Julius Ccesar appointed cedilcs 
 cereales for watching over the supply of corn. The 
 aediles became a kind of police under the emperors. 
 
 JEDUI OR HEDUI, a Celtic people, N.E. 
 France, who were delivered from subjection to the 
 Sequani, by Julius Caesar, B.C. 58 ; but afterwards, 
 opposing him, were subjugated by him, 52. Their 
 insurrection headed by Julius Sacrovir, a.d. 21, was 
 quelled by C. Silius. 
 
 AGATES ISLES, W. of Sicily: near these, 
 during the first Punic war, the Roman consul, C. 
 Lutatius Catulus gained a decisive victory over the 
 Carthaginian fleet under Hanno, 10 March, 241 B.C. 
 Peace ensued, the Romans obtaining Sicily and a 
 tribute of 3200 talents. 
 
 JEGINA, a Greek island, a rival of Athens, was 
 humbled by Themistocles, 485 B.C. ; and taken and 
 its works destroyed 455. Its inhabitants, expelled, 
 431, were restored by the Spartans, 404; they re- 
 newed war with Athens, 388, and made peace, 387. 
 
 A. E. I. O. U., (for "Austria est imperare 
 
 orbi universi," " Austria is to rule all the world.") 
 was the motto of the weak and unfortunate emperor, 
 Frederick III. 1440 — 1493. 
 
 ^GOSPOTAMI, (the Goat-river.) in the 
 Chersonesus, where Lysander, the Lacedaemonian, 
 defeated the Athenian fleet, 405 B.C, and ended the 
 Peloponnesian war. 
 
 ^ELFRIC SOCIETY ; founded 1842 j closed 
 1856; published " Homilies of JElfric, archbishop 
 of Canterbury" and other Anglo-Saxon works. 
 
 iELIA CAPITOLINA, built on the ruins of 
 Jerusalem by the emperor Adrian, 130. 
 
 JEMILIA, the name given to the provinces of 
 Parma, Modena, and the Romagna, united to Sar- 
 dinia in i860, and now part of the kingdom of 
 Italy. 
 
 iENEID, the great Latin epic poem, relating 
 the adventures of JEneas, written about 24 B.C. by 
 Virgil, who died 22 Sept. 19 B.C., before he had 
 finally corrected the poem. It was first printed in 
 1469, at Rome. 
 
 2ENIGMA Samson's riddle (about 1 141 B.C. ; 
 Judges xiv. 12) is the earliest on record. Gale at- 
 tributes ^enigmatical speeches to the Egyptians. 
 The ancient oracles frequently gave responses ad- 
 mitting of perfectly contrary interpretations. In 
 Nero's time, the Romans had recourse to this 
 method of concealing truth. The following epitaph 
 on Fair Rosamond (mistress of our Henry II. about 
 1173) is a mediaeval specimen: — "Hie jacet in 
 tomba Rosa mundi, non Rosa munda ; Non redolet, 
 sed olet, quae redolere solet." 
 
 JEOLIA, in Asia Minor, was colonised by a 
 principal branch of the Hellenic race about 1 124 B.C. 
 The iEolians built several large cities both on the 
 mainland and the neighbouring islands ; Mitylene, 
 in Lesbos, was considered the capital. 
 
 JEOLIAN HARP. Its invention is ascribed 
 to Kircher, 1650, but it was known before. 
 
2E0L0PILE. 
 
 13 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 .ZEOLOPILE, a hollow hall with an orifice in 
 which a tube might be screwed, was used in the 
 17th century as a boiler for experimental steam- 
 engines; a similar apparatus is described by Vi- 
 truvius, first century, a.d. 
 
 JEQTJI, an ancient Italian race, were subdued 
 by the Eomans, and their lands annexed, after a 
 severe struggle, 471-302 B.C. 
 
 .ZERAS, see Eras. 
 
 AERATED WATERS. Apparatus for com- 
 hining gases with water were patented by Thomson 
 in 1807 ; F. C. Bakewell in 1832 and 1847 ; Tylor 
 in 1840, and by others. Aerated bread is made 
 by processes patented by Dr. Dauglish, 1856-7. 
 
 AERIANS, followers of Aerius, a presbyter, in 
 the 4th century, who held that there was no dis- 
 tinction between a bishop and a presbyter; that 
 there was no Pasch to be observed by Christians ; 
 that the Lent and other fasts should not be observed ; 
 and that prayers should not be offered for the dead. 
 Epiphanius. 
 
 AEROLITES, see Meteors. 
 
 AERONAUTICS and AEROSTATICS, 
 
 see Balloons and Flying. The Aeronautical Society 
 of Great Britain was. estahlished by the duke of 
 Argyll and others, 12 Jan. 1866. 
 
 AERO-STEAM ENGINE. The invention 
 of George Warsop, a mechanic of Nottingham, who, 
 by employing compressed air united with steam, is 
 said to have, effected the saving of 47 per cent, of 
 fuel. The plan was reported to the British Associa- 
 tion, at Exeter, in Aug. 1869, and was said to act 
 successfully in a tug steamer (for China) in the 
 Thames, 26 March, 1870. 
 
 AESOP'S FABLES, said to have heen written 
 about 619, 571, or 565 b.c, no doubt by various per- 
 sons. Phsedrus's Latin paraphrases in Iambics 
 (about a.d. 8) are very elegant. 
 
 ESTHETICS (from the Greek aisthesis, per- 
 ception), the science of the beautiful (especially in 
 art) ; a term invented by Baumgarten, a German 
 philosopher, whose work "J^sthetica" was pub- 
 lished in 1750. 
 
 2ETHIOPIA, see Ethiopia. 
 
 " ^THIOPICA," see Romances. 
 
 AETIANS, followers of Aetius, an Arian heretic 
 about 351. 
 
 MTNA, see Etna. 
 
 JETOLIA, in Greece, a country named after 
 JEtolus of Elis, who is said to have accidentally 
 killed a son of Phoroneus, king of Argos, left the 
 Peloponnesus, and settled here. After the ruin of 
 Athens and Sparta, the iEtolians became the rivals 
 of the Achseans, and were alternately allies and 
 enemies of Eome. 
 
 The iEtolians join Sparta against Athens B.C. 455 
 
 The iEtolian league of tribes opposes Macedon . . 323 
 Invaded by Antipater during the Lamian war . . 322 
 Aid in the expulsion of the Gauls .... 279 
 Invade the Peloponnesus, and ravage Messenia (Social 
 
 War), and defeat the Achaians at Caphyse . . 220 
 Philip V., of Macedon, invades iEtolia, and takes 
 
 Thermum— Peace of Naupactus concluded . .217 
 
 Alliance with Rome 211 
 
 Deserted by the Romans, the iEtolians make peace 
 
 with Philip 205 
 
 War with Philip, 200 ; he is defeated at Cynoscephalse 197 
 The .iEtolians invite the kings of Macedon, Syria, and 
 
 Sparta, to coalesce against the Romans . . 193-2 
 
 Defeat of the allies near Thermopylae . . . . 191 
 
 Conquered by the Romans under Fulvius . . 189 
 
 Leading patriots massacred by the Roman party . 167 
 
 iEtolia made a province of Rome . . . .146 
 
 AFFINITY. Marriage within certain degrees 
 of kindred was prohibited in almost every age and 
 country, but has yet taken place to a considerable 
 extent. The Jewish law is given in Leviticus xviii. 
 (1490 b.c). In the English prayer-book the table- 
 restricting marriage within certain degrees was set 
 forth by authority, 1563. Prohibited marriage* 
 were adjudged to be incestuous and unlawful by the 
 99th canon, in 1603. All marriages within the for- 
 bidden degrees are declared to be absolutely void by 
 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 54, 1835 ; see Marriage (of 
 Wife's Sister). 
 
 . AFFIRMATION ; see Quakers. The affirma- 
 tion Avas altered in 1702, 1721, 1837, and in April, 
 1859. — The indulgence was granted to persons who 
 were formerly Quakers, but who had seceded from 
 that sect, 2 Vict. 1838 ; and extended to other dis- 
 senters by 9 Geo. IV. c. 32 (1828), and 18 & 19 Vict, 
 c. 2 (1855). 
 
 AFGHANISTAN, a large couatry in centra! 
 Asia, successively part of the Persian and Greek 
 empires, was conquered by the Tartars about 997. 
 
 The Mahommedan dynasty, the Ghaznevides, said to 
 have ruled from 11 86 to 1206. Overthrown by 
 Genghis Khan about 1221, and by Tamerlane, 1398 
 
 Baber conquered Caubul 1523 
 
 On his death Afghanistan divided between Persia 
 and Hindostan. 
 
 The Afghans revolt in 1720 ; invade Persia and take 
 Ispahan ; repulsed by Nadir Shah in 1728, who 
 subdues the whole of the country . . . . 1737 
 
 On his assassination, one of his officers, Ahmed 
 Shah, an Afghan, made Afghanistan indepen- 
 dent, and reigned prosperously . . . 1747-73, 
 
 His son and successor, Timour, died in 1793 ; whose 
 son, Zemaun, was dethroned and blinded after 
 reigning ten years. Since then the history is a 
 series of broils, crimes, and murders. 
 
 Runjeet Sing, the Sikh chief of Lahore, conquers a 
 large part of the country 1818. 
 
 Dost Mahommed becomes ruler 1829/ 
 
 [For the Afghan war with England, see India, 
 1838-42.] 
 
 Dost Mahommed takes Herat, 26 May ; dies after 
 designating his eldest son, Shere-Ali, his successor, 
 a war of succession ensues. . . .29 May, 1863 
 
 The English remain neutral . . . June, <&c. ,, 
 
 Treachery and anarchy prevailing, June, 1865 — 
 
 April, 1866 
 
 Two rival ameers reigning— Shere-Ali at Candahar ; 
 Afzul Khan, at Cabool .... Sept. „ 
 
 Afzul Khan recognised by the British government, 
 
 Feb. 1867 
 
 Army of Shere-Ali defeated and his general slain, 
 about 21 Sept. „ 
 
 Afzul Khan dies about .... 20 Oct. „ 
 
 The sirdar Mahomed Yakoob Khan defeated troops 
 of the reigning Ameer, took Candahar, and pro- 
 claimed Shere-Ali sovereign of Afghanistan, April, 1868 
 
 Shere-Ali defeats his nephew, Abdul-rahman, 12 or 
 
 13 Nov. „ 
 
 Interview with the viceroy, the earl of Mayo, at 
 Umballah . . . • . . .27 March, 1869 
 
 Insurrection of the ameer's son, Yakoob, about 24 
 Aug. ; it fails, and he retreats, Nov. ; reported 
 as still resisting Dec. 1870 
 
 Yakoob captures Herat, when Feramorz Khan, the 
 ameer's general, is assassinated, June ; by the 
 interposition of lord Mayo is reconciled to his 
 father, meeting him 22 July. 
 
 Yakoob made governor of Herat . . . 16 Sept. 
 
 Aslum Khan, the murderer of Feramorz Khan, as- 
 sassinated in prison ; . . announced 17 Oct. „ 
 
 AFRICA, called Libya by the Greeks, one of 
 the three parts of the ancient world, and the greatest 
 peninsula of the universe ; said to have been first 
 
AFRICA. 
 
 14 
 
 AFEICA. 
 
 peopled by Ham. For its history, see Egypt, 
 Cape, Carthage, Cyrene, Abyssinia, Algiers, Mo- 
 rocco, §c. 
 
 Carthage subdued by the Romans 146 B.C. ; other pro- 
 vinces gained by Pompey, 82. 
 
 Revolts subdued by Diocletian, 296 ; by Theodosius, 
 373. 
 
 N. Africa conquered by the Vandals under Genserie, a. d. 
 4 2 9-35 ; re-conquered by Belisariua, 533-55. 
 
 Tlie Saracens subdue the north of Africa, 637 — 709. 
 
 Cape of Good Hope discovered by Diaz, 1487. 
 
 Vasco de Garaa doubles the Cape and explores the coast, 
 19 Nov. 1497. 
 
 Portuguese settlements begun, 1450. 
 
 English merchants visit Guinea in 1550 ; and Elizabeth 
 granted a patent to an African company in 1588. 
 
 Dutch colony at the Cape founded, 1650. 
 
 Capt. Stubbs sailed up the Gambia, 1723. 
 
 Bruce commenced his travels in 1768. 
 
 Sierra Leone settled by the English, 1787. 
 
 Mungo Park made his first voyage to Africa, 22 May, 
 1795 ; his second, 30 January, 1804, and never returned 
 (see Park). 
 
 Africa visited by Salt, 1805 and 1809 ; Burekhardt, 1812 ', 
 Campbell, 1813 ; Hornemann, 1816 ; Denham and 
 Clappertou, 1822 ; Laing, 1826 ; the brothers Lander, 
 1830. 
 
 The great Niger expedition to start a colony in Central 
 Africa (for which parliament voted 60,000?.), consisting 
 of the Albert, Wilberforce, and Soudan steamships, 
 commenced the ascent of the Niger, 20 Aug. 1841 ; 
 when they reached Iddah, fever broke out among the 
 crews, and they were successively obliged to return, 
 the Albert having ascended the river to Egga, 320 miles 
 from the sea, 28 Sept. The expedition was relinquished 
 owing to disease, heat, and hardships, and all the 
 vessels had cast anchor at Clarence Cove, Fernando 
 Po, 17 Oct. 1841. 
 
 James Richardson explored the great Sahara in 1845-6, 
 and in 1849 (by direction of the Foreign Office) lie left 
 England to explore central Africa, accompanied by 
 Drs. Barth and Overweg. Richardson died 4 March, 
 1851 ; and Overweg died, 27 Sept. 1852. 
 
 Dr. Vogel sent out with reinforcements to Dr. Barth, 
 20 Feb. 1853 ; in April, 1857, said to have been assas- 
 sinated. 
 
 Dr. Barth returned to England, and received the Royal 
 Geographical Society's medal, 16 May, 1856. His 
 travels were published in 5 vols, in 1858. 
 
 Dr. David Livingstone, a missionary traveller, returned 
 to England in Dec. 1856, after an absence of 16 years, 
 during which he traversed a large part of the heart of 
 S. Africa, and walked about 11,000 miles, principally 
 over country hitherto unexplored. His book was pub- 
 lished in Nov. 1857. In Feb. 1858, he was appointed 
 British consul for the Portuguese possessions in Africa, 
 and left England shortly after. 
 
 Du Chaillu's travels in central Africa, 1856-59, created 
 
 much controversy, 1861. 
 Second expedition of Dr. Livingstone, March, 1858. 
 Captains Speke and Grant announce the discovery of 
 a source of the Nile in Lake Nyanza Victoria, 23 Feb. 
 1863. 
 {Capt. Speke was accidentally shot by his own gun while 
 
 alone near Bath, 15 Sept. 1864.] 
 Some Dutch ladies unsuccessfully explore the White 
 Nile, and undergo many privations, July, 1863 — 1864. 
 (One Miss Tinne said to have been killed ; reported 5 
 Sept. 1869.) 
 The " Universities Mission to east central Africa," con- 
 sisting of Charles F. Mackenzie, bishop of central 
 Africa, and six clergymen and others, started Dec. 
 i860, and arrived at the Zambesi, in Feb. 1861. All 
 died from privations and disease except two, who 
 returned in 1864. The bishop died 31 Jan. 1862 ; suc- 
 ceeded by Dr. Tozer. 
 Du Chaillu starts on a fresh expedition, 6 Aug. 1863 ; 
 after being robbed, and undergoing many privations, 
 returned to London near the end of 1865. He gave an 
 account of his journey at a meeting of the Royal 
 Geographical Society, 8 Jan. 1866. 
 Dr. Livingstone returns, 23 July, 1864. 
 Death of Dr. W. B. Baikie, at Sierra Leone, 30 Nov. 1S64. 
 [He was sent as special envoy to the Negro tribes 
 near the Niger by the Foreign Office about 1854. He 
 opened commercial relations with central Africa.] 
 
 Mr. (afterwards sir) Samuel Baker discovered a lake, 
 supposed to be another source of the Nile, which he 
 named Lake Nyanza Albert, 14 March, 1864. 
 Dr. Livingstone appointed British consul for inner Africa, 
 
 24 March, 1865. 
 Narrative of Livingstone's Zambesi expedition 1858-64, 
 
 published 1866. 
 Livingstone left Zanzibar to continue his search for the 
 sources of the Nile, March, 1866. 
 [See his narrative below. \ 
 Reports of the murder of Livingstone near Lake Nyassa, 
 
 in Sept. 1866— March, 1867 ; doubted, July, 1867. 
 Expedition of E. D. Young in search of Livingstone, 
 sailed 9 July, 1867, returned and reported to the Royal 
 Geographical Society his conviction that living 
 was alive, 27 Jan. 1868. 
 Letter from Dr. Livingstone dated Bembo, 2 Mar. 1867 ; 
 
 heard of down to Dec. J867. 
 His dispatch to lord Clarendon, dated 7 July, 1868 ; read 
 
 to the Royal Geographical Society, 8 Nov.' 1869. 
 Letter dated 30 May, 1869, published Dec. 1869. 
 Uncredited reports of his murder by negroes, Jan ; his 
 probable safety reported by Dr. Kirk, 22 June ; said 
 to be at Mozambique, Nov. 1870. 
 Exi>edition of sir Samuel Baker to put down slave trade 
 on the Upper Nile (see Egypt), Jan. 1870. (Unsuccess- 
 ful, Feb. 1873.) 
 Expedition in search of Livingstone under lieut. Dawson, 
 organised by the Royal Geographical Society ; started 
 9 Feb. 1872. 
 [It returned on hearing that Stanley had found Living- 
 stone.] 
 Dutch Guinea settlements purchased and transferred (see 
 
 Elmina), 6 April, 1872. 
 Reports current that Livingstone is alive, May, June, 
 
 1872. 
 Expedition sent in search of Livingstone by Mr. James 
 Gordon Bennett, proprietor of the New York Herald, 
 at a cost of about 8,000?. : — 
 Mr. Henry M. Stanley, chief of the expedition, left 
 Zanzibar, and, after much opposition from the native 
 chiefs, accidentally fell in with Livingstone at Ujiji, 
 near Unyanyembe, 10 Nov. 1871, and remained with 
 him till 14 March, 1872, when he brought away his 
 diary and other documents. Mr. Stanley reported that 
 Livingstone had arrived at Ujiji in bad condition, 
 having been robbed and deserted by his attendants. 
 Much controversy ensued between Mr. Stanley, the 
 members of lieut. Dawson's expedition, Dr. Living- 
 stone, Dr. Kirk, the Royal Geographical Society, and 
 others, Aug. — Oct. 1872. 
 Letter from Dr. Livingstone, at Ujiji, dated Nov. 
 1871, to Mr. Bennett (printed in New York Herald, 26 
 July, and reprinted in the Times 27 July, 1872). He 
 describes his explorations and his painful journey to 
 Ujiji; his meeting with Mr. Stanley ; and he speaks of 
 the Nile springs being about 600 miles south of the 
 most southerly part of Lake Victoria Nyanza ; and also 
 of about 700 miles of watershed in central Africa, of 
 which he had explored about 600 ; and of the conver- 
 gence of the watershed first into four, and then into 
 two, mighty rivers in the great Nile valley (?) between 
 10° and 12° south latitude. Second letter (dated Feb. 
 1872) describes the horrors of the slave trade in eastern 
 Africa, printed in the Tunes 29 July, 1872. 
 Livingstone's dispatches, dated Nov. 1 and 15, 1871, 
 received by the Foreign Office, 1 Aug. ; letter dated 
 1 July, received 2 Oct. 1872. 
 Mr. Stanley described his discovery of Livingstone to the 
 British Association at Brighton in presence of the 
 emperor and empress of the French, 16 Aug., and re- 
 ceivedagold snuff-box from thequeenabout 30 Aug. 1872. 
 
 Nciv Expedition, under sir Bartle Frere, to Zanzibar, to 
 suppress the east African slave trade : lieut. V. Lovett 
 Cameron's offer to aid in the furtherance of Living- 
 stone's expedition was accepted : sailed 20 Nov. 1872. 
 
 Expedition to explore the upper part of the Congo 
 (Mr. Young, of Kelly, will subscribe 2000?. Royal Geo- 
 graphical Society to supplement it), proposed Nov. 1872. 
 
 African Association, for promoting the exploration of 
 central Africa, was formed in June, 1788, principally 
 by sir Joseph Banks ; and under its aus] dees many addi- 
 tions were made to African geography by Ledyard, 
 Park, Burekhardt, Hornemann, &c. It merged into the 
 Royal Geographical Society, July, 1831. 
 
AGAP^E. 
 
 African Church. In 1866 Kobcrt Gray, bishop of Cape- 
 town (in consequence of a decision of the privy council ; 
 see Church of England), established synods of the 
 '• Church of South Africa." 
 
 African Company (merchants trading to Africa), arose 
 out of an association in London, formed in 1588. A 
 charter was granted to a joint-stock company in 1618 ; 
 a second company was created in 1631 ; a 3rd corporation 
 in 1662 ; another was formed by letters-patent in 1672 ; 
 remodelled in 1695- In 1821 the company was 
 abolished. 
 
 African Institution, founded in London in 1807, for the 
 abolition of the slave trade, and the civilization of 
 Africa. Many schools have been established with suc- 
 cess, particularly at Sierra Leone. 
 
 AGAPJE (agape, Greek for love, charity), 
 " feasts of charity," referred to Jude 12, and de- 
 scribed by Tertullian, of which the first Christians 
 of all ranks partook, in memory of the last 'time 
 when Christ ate with his disciples. Disorders 
 creeping in, these feasts were forbidden to be cele- 
 brated in churches by the councils of Laodicea (366) 
 and Carthage (390). They are still recognised by 
 the Greek church, and are held in their original 
 form weekly by the Glasites or Sandemanians, 
 and in some degree by the Moravians and "Wes- 
 leyans. 
 
 AGAPEMONE (Greek, "the abode of love", 
 an establishment at Charlinch, near Bridgwater) 
 Somersetshire, founded in 1845, where Henry James 
 Prince,* and his deluded followers, formerly per- 
 sons of property, live in common, professing to 
 devote themselves to innocent recreation and to 
 maintain spiritual marriage. The Agapemone. is 
 described by Mr. Hepworth Dixon in his " Spiritual 
 "Wives," published in Jan. 1868. Meetings of the 
 sect were held at Hamp, near Bridgwater, Dec, 
 1872. 
 
 AGE. Chronologers have divided the time 
 between the creation and the birth of Christ into 
 ages. Hesiod (about 850 B.C.) described the 
 Golden, Silver, Brazen, and Iron Ages ; see Bark 
 Ages. 
 
 First Age (from the Creation to the De- b.c. 
 
 luge) 4004 — 2349 
 
 Second Age (to the coming of Abraham into 
 
 Canaan) 2348—1922 
 
 Third Age (to the Exodus from Egypt) . 1921 — 1491 
 Fourth Age (to the founding of Solomon's 
 
 Temple) 1490— 1014 
 
 Fifth Age (to the capture of Jerusalem) . 1014 — 588 
 
 Sixth Age (to the birth of Christ) . . . 588— 4 
 Seventh Age (to the present time) . B.C. 4— a. d. 1873 
 
 AGE. In Greece and Borne twenty-five was 
 full age for both sexes, but a greater age was 
 requisite for the holding certain offices : e g. thirty 
 for tribunes ; forty-three for consuls. In England 
 
 * Prince was bom in 1811 ; educated for the medical 
 profession and licensed to practise, 1832 ; gave it up for 
 the church and entered St. David's college, Lampeter, 
 and there commenced ultra-revivalist movements in 1836 ; 
 and finally claimed to be an incarnation of the Deity, 
 with corresponding authority over his followers. On 22 
 May, 1850, Thomas Robinson sought to recover the pos- 
 session of his child from the care of its mother (from 
 whom he had separated); the application was refused by 
 the vice-chancellor, to " save the child from the pollution 
 of the parent's teaching. "—On 21 Aug. 1858, Miss Louisa 
 Jane Nottidge died, having transferred her property to 
 Mr. H. J. Prince. Her brother, Mr. ISottidge, by an 
 action, recovered from Prince 5728Z., as having been 
 fraudulently obtained. Extraordinary disclosures were 
 made during the trial, 25 July, i860. In the autumn of 
 i860, the Eev. Mr. Price, after several vain attempts, 
 succeeded in rescuing his wife from the Agapemone. 
 They had both been early supporters of it. 
 
 15 AGEA. 
 
 the minority of a male terminates at twenty- one, 
 and of a female in some cases, as that of a queen, 
 at eighteen. In 1547, the majority of Edward VI. 
 was, by the will of his father, fixed at eighteen 
 years ; previously to completing which age, his 
 father, Henry VIII., had assumed the reins of 
 government, in 1509.— A male of twelve may take 
 the oath of allegiance ; at fourteen he may consent 
 to a marriage, or choose a guardian ; at seventeen 
 he may be an executor, aDd at twenty-one he is of 
 age; but according to the statute of wills, 7 "Will. 
 IV. and 1 Vict. c. 26, 1837, no will made by any 
 person under the age of twenty-one years shall be 
 valid. A female at twelve may consent to a mar- 
 riage, at fourteen she may choose a guardian, and at 
 twenty-one she is of age. 
 
 AGINCOUET, OP AzmcoUB (N. France), 
 a village, where Henry V. of England, with about 
 9000 men, defeated about 60,000 French on St. 
 Crispin's day, 25 Oct. 1415. Of the French, there 
 were, according to some accounts, 10,000 killed, in- 
 cluding the dukes of AlenQon, Brabant, and Bar, 
 the archbishop of Sens, one marshal, thirteen earls, 
 ninety-two barons, and 1500 knights, and 14,000 
 prisoners, among whom were the dukes of Orleans 
 and Bourbon, and 7000 barons, knights, and gentle- 
 men. The English lost the duke of York, the earl 
 of Suffolk, and about 20 others. St. Bemy asserts 
 with more probability that the English lost 1600 
 men. Henry V. soon after obtained the kingdom 
 of France. 
 
 AGINCOUE, iron-clad. See Navy, 1851. 
 
 AGITATORS (orAdjutators), officers appointed 
 by the Parliamentary army in 1647, to take care of 
 its interests : each troop or company had two. The 
 protector Cromwell was eventually obliged to re- 
 press their seditious power. At a review he seized 
 the ringleaders of a mutiny, shot one instantly, in 
 the presence of his companions and the forces on the 
 ground, and thus restored discipline. Hume. — 
 Daniel O'Connell, the agitator of Ireland, was born 
 in 1775. He began to agitate at the elections in 
 1826 ; was elected for Clare, 5 July, 1828 ; the 
 election being declared void, he was re-elected 30 
 July, 1829. After the passing of the Catholic 
 emancipation bill, he agitated in vain for the repeal 
 of the union, 1834 to 1843. He died 15 May, 1847. 
 — Bichard Cobden and John Bright were the chief 
 Anti-corn-law agitators, 1841-45. — Mr. Bright be- 
 came a Beform agitator in 1866. 
 
 AGNADELLO (N.E.Italy). Here Louis XII. 
 of France gained a great victory over the Venetians, 
 some of whose troops were accused of cowardice and 
 treachery; 14 May, 1509. The conflict is also 
 termed the battle of the Bivolta. 
 
 AGNOITJE (from agnoia, Greek, ignorance). 
 I. A sect founded by Theophronius of Cappadocia 
 about 370 : said to have doubted the omniscience of 
 God. II. The followers of Themistius of Alexandria, 
 about 530, who held peculiar views as to the body 
 of Christ, and doubted his divinity. 
 
 AGONTSTICA (from agon, Greek,« conflict), 
 also termed circutores, a branch of the Donatists 
 (which see) in the 4th century. They preached 
 with great boldness, and incurred severe persecu- 
 tion. 
 
 AGP A (TS. W". India), founded by Akbar in 
 1566, was the capital of the Great Mogul; see 
 Mausoleums. In 1658 Aurungzebe removed to 
 Delhi. — The fortress of Agra, "the key of Hindo- 
 
AGRARIAN LAW. 
 
 16 
 
 AGRICULTURAL HALL. 
 
 stan," in the war -with the Mahrattas surrendered 
 to the British forces, under general Lake, 17 Oct. 
 1803, after one day's siege : 162 pieces of ordnance 
 and 240,000^. were captured.— In June, 1857, the 
 city was abandoned to the mutineers by the Euro- 
 peans, who took refuge in the fort, from which they 
 were rescued by major Montgomery and colonel 
 Greathed — Allahabad was made capital of the 
 N. W. provinces of India, instead of Agra, in 1861 . 
 
 AGRARIAN LAW (Agraria lex), decreed 
 an equal division among the Roman people of all 
 the lands acquired by conquest, limiting the acres 
 which each person should enjoy. It was first pro- 
 posed by the consul Spurius Casshis, 486 B.C., and 
 occasioned his judicial murder when he went out of 
 office in 485. — An agrarian law was passed by the 
 tribune Liciniu3 Stolo, 376; and for proposing fur- 
 ther amendments Tiberius Gracchus in 133, and 
 his brother Cornelius in 121, were murdered. Livius 
 Drusus, a tribune, was murdered for the same cause, 
 91. Julius Cccsar propitiated the plebeians by pass- 
 ing an agrarian law in 59. — In modern times 
 the term has been misinterpreted to signify a divi- 
 sion of the lands of the rich among the poor, fre- 
 quently proposed by demagogues, such as Gracchus 
 Babeuf, editor of the Tribun du Peuple, in 1794. 
 In 1 796 he conspired against the directory with the 
 view of obtaining a division of property, was con- 
 demned, and killed himself, 27 May, 1797. 
 
 AGRICOLA'S WALL, see Soman Walls. 
 
 AGRICULTURE. "Abel was a keeper of 
 sheep, but Cain was a tiller of the ground," Genesis 
 iv. 2. The Athenians asserted that the art of 
 sowing corn began with them ; and the Cretans, 
 Sicilians, and Egyptians made the same claim. 
 
 Cato the Censor (died 149 B.C.) and Varro (died 28 B.c.) 
 were eminent Roman writers on agriculture. 
 
 Virgil's Georgics, 30 b.c. Agriculture in England im- 
 proved by the Romans after a.d. 44. 
 
 Fitzherbert's " Book of Husbandly," printed 1524. 
 
 Tusser's *' Five Hundred Points of Husbandry," 1562. 
 
 Blythe's " Improver," 1649. 
 
 Hartlib's " Legacy," 1650. 
 
 Jethro Tull's " Horse-hoeing Husbandry," 1701. 
 
 About the end of the 18th century, fallowing was gradu- 
 ally superseded by turnips and green crops. 
 
 In Aug. 1855, a committee presented a report on the best 
 mode of obtaining accurate Agricultural Statistics, 
 which has not been fully acted on. There were, in 1831, 
 1,055,982 agricultural labourers in Great Britain, and 
 in Ireland, 1,131,715. 
 
 Agricultural Societies.— The earliest mentioned in 
 the British Isles was the Society of Improvers of 
 Agriculture in Scotland, instituted in 1723. A Dublin 
 Agricultural Society (1749) gave a stimulus to agricul- 
 ture in Ireland ; its origin is attributed to Mr. Prior of 
 Rathdowney, Queen's County, in 1731. The Bath and 
 West of England Society established, 1777 ; and the 
 Highland Society of Scotland, 1793. County Agricul- 
 tural Societies are now numerous. 
 
 London Board of Agriculture established by act of par- 
 liament, 1793. 
 
 Francis, duke of Bedford, a great promoter of agricul- 
 ture, died 2 March, 1802. 
 
 Jtoyal Agricultural Society of England established in 
 1838, by noblemen and gentlemen, the chief landed 
 proprietors in the kingdom, and incorporated by royal 
 charter, 26 March, 1840. It holds two meetings 
 annually, one in London the other in the country ; the 
 hist country meeting at Oxford in 1839. It awards 
 prizes, and publishes a valuable journal. The London 
 meeting at Battersea in June, 1862, was highly suc- 
 cessful. 
 
 " Chambers of Agriculture " were established in France in 
 1851. In Great Britain, 1868, they had increased from 
 36 to 70. A journal commenced early in 1868. 
 
 Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester organised, 1842; 
 chartered, 1845. 
 
 " History of Agriculture and Prices in England (1259- 
 1400)," by Professor James T. Rogers, published, June, 
 1866. 
 
 Agricultural Chemistry.— Sir Humphry Davy de- 
 livered lectures on this subject (afterwards published), 
 at the instance of the Board of Agriculture, in 1812 ; 
 but it excited little attention till the publication of 
 Liebig's work in 1840, which made a powerful impres- 
 sion. Boussingault's " Economic Rurale," an equally 
 important work, appeared in 1844. The immoderate 
 expectations from this study having been somewhat 
 disappointed, a partial reaction took place. Liebig's 
 " Letters on Agriculture," appeared in 1859. 
 
 Agricultural Gangs. — In the spring of 1867, most 
 painful exposures were made of the prevalence of much 
 cruelty and immorality in the gang system (in which 
 boya and girls are employed) in several of the eastern 
 and midland counties ; and in consequence an act was 
 passed 20 Aug. for regulating these gangs, licensing 
 gang-masters, <fec. 
 
 A Union of Agricultural Labourers, managed chiefly by 
 Joseph Arch, formerly a labourer, afterwards a Metho- 
 dist preacher, was inaugurated at Leamington, War- 
 wickshire, 29 March, 1872. The movement spread, 
 being countenanced by Auberon Herbert, M.P., and 
 others. 
 
 The following table, drawn up by Mr. William Couling, 
 C.E., in 1827, is extracted from the Third Report of 
 the Emigration Committee : — 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Cnlti Wastes 
 {J™ ! capable of 
 nnprove- 
 1 ment. 
 
 Unpro- 
 fitable. 
 
 Total. 
 
 England . 
 Wales . 
 Scotland . 
 Ireland . 
 Brit. Isles 
 
 ACRES. 
 
 25,632,000 
 
 3,117,000 
 
 5,265,000 
 
 12,125,280 
 
 383,690 
 
 ACRES. 
 3,454,000 
 
 530,000 
 5,950,000 
 4,900,000 
 
 166,000 
 
 ACRES. 1 ACRES. | 
 
 3,256,400 32,342,400! 
 
 1,105,000 4,752,000 
 
 8.523.930 19.738.93° 
 
 2,416,664 19,441,944 
 
 569,469 1 1,119,159 
 
 46,522,970 
 
 15,000,000 
 
 15,871,463 77,394,433 
 1 
 
 At that period it was computed that the soil of the 
 United Kingdom was annually cropped in the following 
 proportions : 
 
 ACRES. 
 
 Wheat 7,000,000 
 
 Barley and rye . 1,950,000 
 
 Potatoes, oats and beans .... 6,500,000 
 
 Turnips, cabbages, and other vegetables . 1,150,000 
 
 Clover, rye-grass, &c. 1,750,000 
 
 Fallow . 2,800,000 
 
 Hop-grounds 60,000 
 
 Nursery grounds 20,000 
 
 Inclosed fruit, flower, kitchen and other gardens 1 10,000 
 
 Pleasure grounds 100,000 
 
 Land depastured by cattle .... 21,000,000 
 
 Hedge-rows, copses, and woods . . . . 2,000,000 
 
 Ways, water, &c. 2,100,000 
 
 Cultivated land . 46,540,000 
 It was reckoned by the Agricultural Committee, 
 that the cultivation of waste lands would yield above 
 20,000,000?. a year. It was calculated in 1854 that there 
 was in England 32,160,000 acres in cultivation, of the 
 annual value of 37,412,000?. Since that time, much 
 land has been brought into cultivation ; see Wheat. 
 
 AGRICULTURAL HALL, Islington, N. 
 London, chiefly for the meetings of the Smithfield 
 Club. The foundation stone was laid by the presi- 
 dent, lord Berners, 5 Nov. 1861. The hall has- 
 been much used for industrial exhibitions, public 
 meetings, equestrian performances, &c. 
 
 It was opened for an exhibition of dogs, 24 June, 1862 : 
 
 In uses and donkeys exhibited, July, 1864, and annually 
 
 since. 
 First annual cattle show here, 6 Dec. 1862. 
 A great reform demonstration was made here, 30 July, 
 
 1866. 
 Grand ball to the Belgian visitors, volunteers and garde 
 
 civique; prince of Wales present, 18 July, 1867. 
 
AGRIGENTUM. 
 
 17 
 
 AJNADIN. 
 
 Excellent horse-shows held here May, 1868, 1869, 1870, 
 
 1871. 
 Theatrical hull-fights here stopped, on account of cruelty, 
 
 28 Mar. 1870. 
 "Workmen's International exhibition opened by the 
 
 Prince of "Wales, 16 July, 1870. 
 
 AGRIGENTUM (now Girgenti), a city of 
 Sicily, built about 582 b. c. It was governed by 
 tyrants from. 566 to 470 ; among these were — 
 Phalaris (see Brazen Bull) ; Alcamanes ; Theron 
 who, with his step-father Gelon, defeated the 
 Carthaginians at Himera, 480 : and Thrasydseus, his 
 son, expelled in 470; when a republic was estab- 
 lished. It was taken by the Carthaginians in 405 
 B. C, and held, except during short intervals, till 
 gained by the Romans in 262 B. c. From A. D. 825 
 till 1086 it was held by the Saracens. 
 
 AHMEDNIIGGUR (W. India), once capital 
 of a state founded by Ahmed Shah, about 1493. 
 After having fallen into the hands of the Moguls 
 and the Mahrattas, it was taken from the latter by 
 Arthur "Wellesley, 12 Aug. 1803, and annexed to the 
 British dominions, June, 1817. 
 
 AID, see Ayde. 
 
 AID TO THE SICK AND WOUNDED, 
 
 National Society for. On 4 Aug. 1870, soon 
 
 after the breaking out of the Franco-Prussian war, 
 a meeting was held in London, which established 
 this society, for immediate communication with the 
 international society established at Geneva : see 
 Geneva Convention. The queen became patron and 
 the prince of "Wales president; the duke of Man- 
 chester, the earl of Shaftesbury, lords Overstone and 
 Bury, sir John Burgoyne, and col. Loyd Lindsay 
 being very energetic supporters. The operations 
 were directed chiefly by capt. H. Brackenbury 
 and sir Vincent Eyre. Capt. Douglas Galton and 
 Mr. Henry Bonham Carter went to the seat of war as 
 commissioners, in Sept. A meeting to promote the 
 incorporation of the society was held 1 Aug. 1871. It 
 was then reported that 296,2981?. had been received ; 
 together with stores valued at 45,000^. 
 
 Ool. Loyd Lindsay conveyed to Versailles and Paris 
 from the society 40,000?. , equally divided between 
 the Germans and French (gratefully acknow- 
 ledged) about 11 Oct. 1870 
 
 The crown-prince of Prussia wrote to colonel Loyd 
 Lindsay : — " In this, as on other occasions of 
 distress, the help of the English public has been 
 poured out with a liberal and an impartial hand. 
 The gifts which have been offered in a truly 
 Christian spirit have excited a feeling of heartfelt 
 gratitude among those on whose behalf I speak " 
 
 2 Nov. ,, 
 Subscription Lists published : 
 
 3rd, 17 Aug. 2,377?. 
 
 10th, 25 Aug. ...... 33,339 
 
 20th, 6 Sept. 68,677 
 
 30th, 17 Sept. 153,214 
 
 40th, 29 Sept. 208,147 
 
 5oth( 11 Oct. ...... 243,444 
 
 60th, 26 Oct. 260,849 
 
 70th, 30 Nov. ' 280,598 
 
 78th, 7 Jan. (received to 31 Dec.) . . . 289,674 
 
 AILANTINE, see Silk. 
 
 AIR or ATMOSPHERE. Anaximenes of Miletus 
 (530 b. c.) declared air to be a self-existent deity, 
 and the first cause of everything created. Posidonius 
 (about 79 B. c.) calculated the" height of the atmo- 
 sphere to be 800 stadia. The pressure of air, about 
 15 lbs. to the square inch, was discovered by Galileo, 
 1564, and demonstrated by Torricelli, (who invented 
 the barometer) about A. T>. 1643, and was found by 
 Pascal, in 1647, to vary with the height, llallev, 
 
 Newton, and others, up to the present time have 
 illustrated the agency and influences of this great 
 power by various experiments, and numerous inven- 
 tions have followed; among others, the Air-Guh 
 of Guter of Nuremberg about 1656 ; the Air-pump, 
 invented by Otto von Guericke of Magdeburg about 
 1650 ; improved by Bobert Boyle in 1657, by Robert 
 Hooke about 1659 ; * and the Air-pipe, invented by 
 Mr. Sutton, a brewer of London, about 1756. The 
 density and elasticity of air were determined by 
 Boyle ; and its relation to light and sound by Hooke, 
 Newton, and Derham. The extension of our atmo- 
 sphere above the surface of the earth, has been long 
 considered as about 45 miles. — Its composition, 
 about 77 parts of nitrogen, 21 of oxygen, and 2 of 
 other matters (such as carbonic acid, watery vapour, 
 a trace of ammonia, &c.) was ascertained by Priestley 
 (who discovered oxygen gas in 1774), Scheele 
 (i775)i Lavoisier, and Cavendish; and its laws of 
 refraction were investigated by Dr. Bradley, 1737, 
 The researches of Dr. Schonbein, a German chemist 
 of Basel, between 1840 and 1859, led to his discovery 
 of two states of the oxygen in the air, which he 
 calls ozone and antozone. Dr. Stenhouse's Air-filters 
 (in which powdered charcoal is used) were first set 
 up at the Mansion-house, London, in 1854. In 1858, 
 Dr. R. Angus Smith made known a chemical 
 method of ascertaining the amount of organic matter 
 in the air, and published his "Air and Rain" in 
 1872. See Oxygen, Nitrogen, Ozone, Atmospheric 
 Railway, Balloons, and Pneumatic Despatch. — 
 The force of compressed air lias been employed in 
 boring the Cenis tunnel {which see.) An air- 
 telegraph, in which the waves of air in a tube are 
 employed instead of electricity, invented by sig. 
 Guattari, was exhibited in London in 1870. It 
 obtained a gold medal in Naples. 
 
 AIR-GAS-Light- Company : propose to use 
 
 hydro-carburetted air as a source of light ; estab- 
 lished 1872. 
 
 AIX-LA-CHAPELLE (Aachen), a Roman 
 city, now in Rhenish Prussia. Several ecclesiastical 
 councils held hei-e (799-1165). Here Charlemagne 
 was bom, 742, and died, 814 ; having built the mins- 
 ter (796-804), and conferred many privileges on the 
 city, in which fifty-five emperors have since been 
 crowned. The city was taken by the French in 
 Dec. 1792 ; retaken by the Austrians, March, 1793 ; 
 by the French, Sept. 1794 : ceded to Prussia, 1814. 
 
 First Treaty of Peace signed here was between France and 
 Spain, when France yielded Franche Comte, but re- 
 tained her conquests in the Netherlands, 2 May, 1668. 
 
 The second celebrated treaty between Great Britain, 
 France, Holland, Germany, Spain, and Genoa. (By it 
 the treaties of Westphalia in 1648, of Nimeguen in 1678 
 and 1679, of Ryswiek in 1697, of Utrecht in 1713, of 
 Baden in 1714, of the Triple Alliance in 1717, of the 
 Quadruple Alliance in 1718, and of Vienna in 1738, 
 were renewed and confirmed.) Signed on the part of 
 England by John, earl of Sandwich, and sir Thomas 
 Robinson, 7 Oct. 1748. 
 
 Congress of the sovereigns of Austria, Russia and Prussia, 
 assisted by ministers from England and France, met 
 at Aix-la-Chapelle, and a convention signed, 9 Oct. 
 1818, which led to the withdrawal of the army of occu- 
 pation from France. 
 
 AIX ROADS, see Bochefort. 
 
 AJACCIO, see Corsica. 
 
 AJNADIN or AIZNADIN (Syria). Here 
 the Mahometans defeated the army of the emperor 
 Heraclius, 13 J uly, 633. They took Damascus in 654. 
 
 * Sprengel's air-pump, in which water or mercury is 
 employed, was invented in 1863. 
 
AKERMAN. 
 
 18 
 
 ALBANS, ST. 
 
 AKERMAN (Bessarabia). After being several 
 times taken, it was ceded to Russia in 1812. Here 
 the celebrated treaty between Russia and Turkey 
 was concluded, 4 Sept. 1826, which secured for the 
 former the navigation of the Black Sea, recognised 
 the Danubian principalities, &c. 
 
 AKHALZIKH (Armenia). Near here prince 
 Paskiewitch and the Russians defeated the Turks, 
 24 Aug., and gained the city, 28 Aug. 1828. 
 
 ALABAMA, a Southern state, originally part 
 of Georgia, N. America; made a state in 1819 : 
 commercial metropolis, Mobile. It seceded from 
 the union by an ordinance passed 11 Jan. 1861, was 
 reunited in 1865 ; and readmitted to congress, 1868. 
 
 ALABAMA, a steam vessel of 900 tons, with 
 engines of 300 horse power, constructed by Messrs. 
 Laird at Birkenhead, for the confederate service ; 
 launched 15 May, 1862. During the judicial en- 
 quiries after her character, she sailed from the 
 Mersey, 28 July, the day before the British govern- 
 ment telegraphed to detain her. Under the command 
 of capt. Semmes, she did great damage to the 
 American mercantile shippiug, until her destruc- 
 tion by the federal iron clad Kcarsage, capt "Winslow, 
 off Cherbourg, 19 June, 1864. Several of his crew 
 were saved by Mr. John Lancaster, in his yacht. 
 
 Discussion between the two governments, respecting 
 claims for damage by the Alabama . . 1865 
 
 A fruitless convention for their settlement, by a 
 commission signed at London . . 10 Nov. 1868 
 
 Another convention, signed by the earl of Clarendon 
 and Mr. Eeverdy Johnson, signed 14 Jan. ; rejec- 
 ted by the United States senate . . 13 April 1869 
 
 Joint commission (Britisli, earl de Grey, sir Stafford 
 Northcote ami others ; American, secretary Fisk, 
 general Schenk, and others,) to settle fishery dis- 
 putes ; Alabama claims &c. Announced, -9 Feb., 
 met at Washington 27 Feb., signed a treaty at 
 Washington 8 May 1871 
 
 Commission for Anglo-American claims, met at 
 Washington ... 25 Sept. „ 
 
 Formal meeting of the arbitration commission at 
 Geneva; (adjourns to 15 June) . 18 Dec. ,, 
 
 The British and American cases, presented 20 Dec. 
 Great excitement in England at the introduction 
 of enormous claims for indirect losses into the 
 American case, loss by transfer of trade from 
 American to British ships ; increased rates of 
 marine insurance; and losses incident to the pro- 
 longation of the war Jan. 1872 
 
 Correspondence between the governments ; British 
 despatch, 3 Feb.; reply, 1 March; continued; 
 counter cases presented at Geneva . 15 April 1872 
 
 Continued correspondence, draft for a supplemen- 
 tary treaty ; 1 >y which both nations agree in future 
 to abstain from claims for indirect losses pre- 
 sented to American senate ; approved 25 May ,, 
 
 The British government object to certain modifica- 
 tions ; further correspondence ; great excitement 
 in parliament; proposed adjournment of the 
 meeting of the arbitration commission ; differences 
 about the mode of procedure ; congress adjourns, 
 leaving the affair unsettled . . 10 June „ 
 
 The Arbitration tribunal, consisting of count Fred- 
 eric Sclopis for Italy, president, baron Staempfl 
 for Switzerland ; vicomte d'ltajuba for Brazil ; Mr. 
 G. F. Adams for United States, and sir Alexander 
 E. Cockburn fur Great Britain, meet at Geneva ; 
 The British government presents a note of the ex- 
 isting differences ; the eonfereneeadjourns, 15 June „ 
 
 Further adjournment, 17 June ; the arbitrators 
 voluntarily declare that the indirect claims are 
 invalid, and contrary to international law, 19 
 June ; 1 'resident Grant consents to their with- 
 drawal " 25 June „ 
 
 The British government withdraw their application 
 for adjournment of the conference . 27 June „ 
 
 The Arbitration commission records its decision 
 against the indirect claims, and the proposed long 
 adjournment, and adjourns to 15 July 28 June „ 
 
 Final meeting ; all the arbitrators agree to award 
 damages for the injuries done by the Alabama; 
 
 four, for those done by the Florida ; and three for 
 those done by the Shenandoah. The judgment 
 not signed by sir A. Cockburn, whose reasons 
 will be published ; the damages awarded (including 
 interest), about 3,229,166?. 13s. 4(f., those claimed 
 9,476,166/. 13s. 4rf. (Decision based on the ad- 
 admission of a new ex-post facto international law, 
 by Great Britain by the treaty of Washington.) 
 
 14 Sept. 1872 
 
 The judgment of sir A. Cockburn (a powerful and 
 indignant reply to unjust aspersions, admitting 
 the award for tin opposing the other 
 
 awards; yet counselling submission to the judg- 
 ment), signed 14 Sept. and published in London 
 Gazette with other documents . . 20 Sept. „ 
 
 It is stated, that about 1,250,000/. too much were 
 awarded Feb. 1873 
 
 ALAND ISLES (Gulf of Bothnia), taken from 
 Sweden by Russia, 1809 ; see Bomarsioul. 
 
 ALANI, a Tartar race, invaded Parthia, 75. 
 They joined the Huns in invading the Roman 
 empire, and were defeated by Theodosius, 379-382. 
 They were subdued by the Visigoths, 452, and 
 eventually incorporated with them. 
 
 ALARCOS (Central Spain). Here the Spaniards 
 under Alfonso IX., king of Castile, were totally 
 defeated by the Moors, 19 July, 1195. 
 
 ALASKA, the name given to the Russian pos- 
 sessions in North America, purchased by the United 
 States by treaty, 13 March, 1867, for 7,200,000 
 dollars, received 1 Aug. 1868. Sitka is the prin- 
 cipal station. 
 
 ALBA LONGA, an ancient city of Italy, said 
 to have been founded by Ascanius, son of JEneas, 
 1 152 B. C. Its history is mythical. 
 Ascanius, son of ./Eneas, 1152 b. c. ; Sylvius Post- 
 humus, 1143 ; iEneas Sylvius . . . B.C. 1114 
 Reign of Latinus, 1048 ; Alba, 1038 ; Atys, or Cape- 
 
 tus, 1002 ; Capys, 976 ; Capetus . . .. 916 
 
 Reign of Tiberinus, 903 ; being defeated in battle 
 near the river Albula, he throws himself into the 
 stream, is drowned, and hence this river is 
 
 called the Tiber 895 
 
 Agrippa : Romrdus Silvius, 864 ; Aventinus, 84.5 ; 
 
 Proeas, 808 ; Numitor 795 
 
 Amulius, the brother of Numitor, seizes the throne, 
 794 ; killed by Romulus, who restores his grand- 
 father Numitor 754 
 
 Romulus builds and fortifies Rome (see Rome) 753 
 
 Alba conquered by Tullus HostUius, and incor- 
 porated with Rome (see Horatii) . . 665 
 
 ALBANIA, a province in European Turkey, 
 formerly part of the ancient Epirus. The Albanians 
 became "independent during the decline of the Greek 
 empire. They were successfully attacked by the 
 Turks in 1388. About 1443, under George Castriot 
 (Scanderbeg), they baffled the efforts of Mahomet 
 II. to subdue them till the siege of Scutari in 1478, 
 when they submitted. Ali Pacha, of Janina, in 
 1812, defeated the Turkish pachas, and governed 
 Albania ably, but cruelly and despotically, till Feb. 
 1822, when" he and his two sons were slain, after 
 surrendering under a solemn promise of safety. A 
 revolt in Albania was suppressed in 1843. 
 
 ALBANS, ST. (Hertfordshire), near the Roman 
 Verulam, derived its name from Alban the British 
 protomartyr, said to have been beheaded during the 
 persecution by Diocletian, 23 June, 286. A stately 
 monastery to his memory was erected about 795» 
 by Otl'a, king of Mercia, who granted it many 
 privileges. Its superior sat as premier abbot in 
 parliament till the dissolution in 1539. A meeting 
 "was held 22 June, 1871, to raise a fund for the 
 restoration of the abbey, the earl of Verulam, chair- 
 man. The results were favourable, and the work 
 was confided to Mr. G. Gilbert Scott, who issued a 
 report in June, 1872. Verulam was built on the site 
 
ALBANY. 
 
 19 
 
 ALBUFERA. 
 
 of the capital of Cassivelaunus, taken by Julius 
 Csesar, 54 b. c. It was retaken after much slaughter 
 by Boadicea or Bunduica, queen of the Iceni, A. d. 
 61. 
 
 First Battle of St. Albans, when the Lancastrians were 
 defeated, their leader, Edmund duke of Somerset 
 slain, and king Henry VI. taken prisoner, by the 
 duke of York and his partisans, 22 or 23 May, 1455. 
 
 Second battle, queen Margaret totally defeated the Yorkists 
 under the earl of Warwick, and rescued the king, 
 Shrove Tuesday, 17 Feb. 1461. 
 
 St. Albans incorporated by Edward VI. 1553. 
 
 Disfranchised for bribery, 17 June, 1852. 
 
 St. Alban's Raid, see United States, Oct. 1864. 
 
 ' ALBANY OB AlbAINN, the ancient name of 
 the Scottish Highlands. The brother of Robert 
 III. of Scotland was made duke of Albany in 1398. 
 Frederick, son of George III., was duke of York 
 and Albany. He died 5 Jan. 1827. 
 
 ALBERT MEMORIALS. (See under Miff- 
 land.) The Prince Consort died on 14 Dec. 1861. 
 deeply lamented by the whole civilised world. His 
 remains were transferred to the mausoleum of 
 Frogmore, 18 Dec. 1862. The sarcophagus is com- 
 posed of the largest known block of granite without 
 flaw. A meeting to organise a method of receiving 
 contributions for a great national memorial was 
 held at the Mansion-house, 14 Jan. 1862 ; and a 
 large sum was quickly subscribed. 36,000/. had 
 been received on I March ; 50,220/. on n June, 
 1862 ; and parliament voted 50,000/., in addition 
 to the 60,000/. received by voluntary contributions, 
 23 April, 1863. 
 
 The nature of the memorial was referred to the queen 
 herself. In a letter to the lord mayor, dated 19 Feb. 
 1862, sir Charles Grey says, on behalf of hermajesty, " It 
 would be more in accordance with her own feelings, 
 and she believes with those of the country in general, 
 that the monument should be directly personal to its 
 object. After giving the subject her maturest considera- 
 tion, her majesty has come to the conclusion, that 
 nothing would be more appropriate, provided it is on a 
 scale of sufficient grandeur, than an obelisk to be erected 
 in Hyde-park on the site of the Great Exhibition of 
 1851, or on some spot immediately contiguous to it. 
 Nor would any proposal that could be made be more 
 gratifying to the queen herself personally, for she can 
 never forget that the prince himself had highly ap- 
 proved of the idea of a memorial of this character being 
 raised on the same spot in remembrance of the Great 
 Exhibition." In a second letter the queen expressed 
 her intention of personally contributing towards erect- 
 ing the memorial, that " it might be recorded in future 
 ages as raised by the queen and people of a grateful 
 country to the memory of its benefactor." Shortly 
 after a committee was appointed to fulfil her majesty's 
 desire. As a suitable block of granite could not be 
 obtained, the proposal for an obelisk was given up. 
 
 The queen approved of the design of Mr. Gilbert G. Scott 
 for an Eleanor Cross, with a spire 150 feet high, ac- 
 companied by statues, &c, 22 April, 1863 ; work begun, 
 13 May, 1864. 
 
 The sculptors employed were M'Dowell, Foley, Theed, 
 John Bell, and Armistead : material, Sicilian marble. 
 (Jan. 1865.) 
 
 The memorial, complete, except the statue, by Foley 
 (delayed through illness), was given up to her majesty 
 privately, 1 July, 1872. 
 
 Inscription on the "Memorial Cairn" on a high mountain 
 overlooking Balmoral Palace : — "To the beloved 
 memory of Albert the great and good Prince Consort, 
 erected by his broken-hearted widow, Victoria R., 21 
 Aug. 1862." Upon another dressed slab, a few inches 
 below the above, is this quotation : — " He being made 
 perfect in a short time, fulfilled a long time : for his 
 soul pleased the Lord, therefore hasted he to take him 
 away from among the wicked." — Wisdom of Solomon, 
 chap. iv. 13, 14. 
 
 A statue of the prince-consort (by Theed) inaugurated at 
 Rosenau, his birth-place, in the presence of the queen 
 and the royal family, 19 Aug. 1865. 
 
 " Early years of the Prince Consort ;" edited by the Hon. 
 Chas. Grey ; published 6 July, 1867. 
 
 Another statue by Theed at Balmoral, inaugurated is 
 Oct. 1867. 
 
 Many other memorials of the prince have been set up 
 throughout the empire. 
 
 Royal Albert Hall of Arts and Sciences ; The 
 erection of a great building for congresses, concerts, 
 &c, was proposed by the prince-consort at the close 
 of the exhibition of 1851, and an estate at Kensington 
 was purchased ; a committee, with the prince of Wales 
 at the head, to erect the building, was appointed 6 
 July, 1865 ; circulars soliciting subscriptions were 
 issued April, 1866 ; and the first stone was laid by the 
 queen, 20 May, 1867. 
 
 The building was erected by col. Scott, chiefly after de- 
 signs by capt. Fowke, and cost about 200,000?. The 
 organ, by Willis, is said to be the largest in the world. 
 An experimental concert was given to the workmen 
 25 Feb., and the hall was opened by the queen 29 
 March, 1871, when a grand concert was given. 
 
 Albert Bridoe, Chelsea, opened 31 Dec. 1872. 
 
 Albert Embankment, see Thames, 1869. 
 
 Albert Medal, to be awarded to persons who endanger 
 their lives by saving others from shipwreck, appointed 
 by royal warrant, 3 March, 1866. The first was given 
 to Samuel Popplestone on 14 May, 1866, for saving life 
 on 23 March previous. 
 
 Albert Medal (Gold), awarded by the Society of Arts to 
 sir Rowland Hill, 1864 ; Napoleon III. 1865 ; Michael 
 Faraday, 1866; Charles Wheatstone and William 
 Fothergill Cooke, 1867 ; Joseph Whitworth, 1868 ; 
 Justus Liebig, 1869; Ferdinand de Lesseps, 1870; 
 Henry Cole, C.B., 1871 ; Henry Bessemer, 1872. 
 
 ALBIGENSES, a name given to various per- 
 sons who opposed the doctrines and corruptions of 
 the church of Kome, living at Albi, in Languedoc, 
 and at Toulouse in the 12th century. They were 
 persecuted as Manichscans, 1163, and a crusade 
 (proclaimed by pope Innocent III.) against them 
 commenced in 1207. Simon de Montfort commanded 
 500,000 men andatBezieres, 1209, he and the pope's 
 legate put friends and foes to the sword, saying, 
 " God will find his own ! " At Minerba he burnt 
 150 of the Albigenses alive ; and at La Vaur he 
 hanged the governor, and beheaded the chief people, 
 drowning the governor's wife, and murdering other 
 women. He next defeated the count of Toulouse, 
 but was himself killed in 1218. Louis VIII. and. 
 IX., kings of France, patronised the crusade; 
 count Raymond was subdued, and abdicated in 1229 ; 
 and the heretics were given up to the Inquisition. 
 See Waldenses. 
 
 ALBION. Britain is so called by Aristotle 
 (died 322 b. a). Julius Caesar and others, are said 
 to have given it the name (from albus, white) on 
 account of its chalky cliffs. 
 
 ALBUERA OR AlbtjherA, Estremadura, 
 Spain. Here a battle was fought between the 
 French, commanded by marshal Soult, and the 
 British and Anglo-Spanish army, under marshal, 
 afterwards lord Beresford, 16 May, 1811. The 
 allies obtained a brilliant victory. The French loss 
 exceeded 8000 men previously to then- retreat ; but 
 the allies lost a large number. The chief brunt 
 of the action fell on the British; colonel Inglis, 
 22 officers, and more than 400 men, out of 570 who 
 bad mounted a hill, fell, — out of the 57th regiment 
 alone ; the other regiments were scarcely better off, 
 not one-third being left standing ; " 1500 un- 
 wounded men, the remnant of 6000 unconquerable 
 British soldiers, stood triumphant on this fatal 
 hill." Napier. 
 
 ALBTJFERA (Spain, East Central), a. lagoon, 
 near which the French marshal Suchet (afterwards 
 duke of Albufera) defeated the Spaniards under 
 
 C 2 
 
ALCALA. 
 
 Blake, 4 Jan. 1812 : this led to his capture of 
 Valenciii on 9 Jan. 
 
 ALCALA, Spain, near the Roman Complutum. 
 At the university here was printed the Complu- 
 tensian Polyglott bible, at the expense of cardinal 
 Ximenes, 1502- 1 5. 
 
 ALCANTARA, a town on the Tagus, W. Spain. 
 A fine bridge was built here by Trajan about 104. 
 The duke of Alva acquired Portugal for Spain by 
 defeating the Portuguese army here, 24 June, 1580. 
 The Spanish military order of knighthood of Alcan- 
 tara was established in 1156. The sovereign of 
 Spain has been grand master since 1495. 
 
 ALCAZAR- QUIVER, near Fez, N. W. 
 Africa, where the Moors totally defeated the Portu- 
 guese, whose gallant king Sebastian was slain, 4 
 Aug. 1=578. The Portuguese disbelieved his death 
 and long expected his return ; this led to the ap- 
 pearance of live impostors. 
 
 ALCHEMY, the forerunner of chemistry ; its 
 chief objects being the discovery of the philosopher's 
 stone (which was to effect the transmutation of 
 metals into gold), an alkahest or universal men- 
 struum, and the elixir of life.* The alchemists 
 assert that their founder was Hermes Trismegistus 
 (thrice greatest), an ancient Egyptian king.— Pliny 
 6ays, the emperor Caligula was the first who pre- 
 pared natural arsenic, in order to make gold of it, 
 but left it off, because the charge exceeded the 
 profit. 
 
 SSosimus wrote on the subject about 410. 
 
 !Ehe Arabians cultivated alchemy and were followed (in 
 the 13th century) by Roger Bacon, Albertus Magnus, 
 Aquinas, Raymond Lullius, Basil Valentine (born 1394), 
 Paracelsus (died 1541), and others. 
 
 la 1404 the erat't of multiplying gold and silver was made 
 felony by 5 Hen. IV. e. 4, which aet was repealed in 16S9. 
 
 A licence for practising alchemy with all kinds of metals 
 .and minerals was granted to one Richard Carter, 1476. 
 Burner's Feed. 
 
 Dr. Price, of Guildford, in 1782 published an account of 
 his experiments and brought specimens of gold to 
 the king, affirming that they were made by means of a 
 red and white powder. Being a fellow of the Royal 
 Soeiety, he was required, under pain of expulsion, to 
 repeat his experiments before Messrs. Kirwan and 
 Wolfe (some say Higgins) ; but after much equivoca- 
 tion and delay he took poison and died, Aug. 1783. 
 
 ALCOHOL. Pure spirit of wine or hydrated 
 alcohol is said to have been obtained by the dis- 
 tillation of fermented liquors by Abucasis in the 
 X2th century; and the dehydration of this liquor 
 1o have been partially effected by Raymond Lul- 
 lius in the 13th century by carbonate of potassium. 
 Alcohol has never been reduced to the solid state, 
 but becomes viscid at very low temperatures. In 
 1820, Faraday and Henne'll obtained traces of alco- 
 hol by passing defiant gas (bi-carburetted hydro- 
 gen) through sulphuric acid ; and in 1862 this 
 process was examined and confirmed by Berth elot ; 
 see Distillation, Spirits, Brandt/, Gin, Rum. About 
 250 medical men, including the president of the 
 Royal College of Physicians, and many hospital 
 officials, issued a cautionary declaration concerning 
 the use of alcohol in medicine, Dec. 1871. 
 
 ALCOLEA (Andalusia, S. Spain). Near the 
 bridge a sharp engagement took place between the 
 royalists under general Pavia y Lacy, marquis de 
 
 * M. Martin Ziegler patented a method of pn .dueing a 
 "vital fluid" by combining nitrogen and carbon in a 
 porous cell containing ammonia, immersed in a vessel 
 fdled with molasses. "The current was to flow through 
 silk threads attached to the vessel ; about i£6S. 
 
 20 ALE. 
 
 Novaliches, and the insurgents under marshal Ser- 
 rano, 2" Sept. 1868. The former was defeated, and, 
 being severely wounded, surrendered 28 Sept. About 
 600 were killed on both sides. 
 
 AL-CORAN OR Al-Korax, see Koran, Ma- 
 hometanism, &c. 
 
 ALDERMAN. The Sason earldorman was 
 next to the king and frequently a viceroy; but 
 after the settlement of the Danes the title was 
 gradually displaced by that of carl. Aldermen in 
 corporations are next in dignity to the mayor. 
 They were appointed in London (where there are 
 twenty-six) in 1242 ; and in Dublin (where there 
 are twenty-four) in 1323. Aldermen chosen for life, 
 instead of annually, 17 Rich. II. 1394. Present 
 mode of election established, 11 Geo. 1. 1725. Alder- 
 men made justices of the peace, 15 Geo. 11. 1741. 
 
 ALDERNEY (English Channel), with Jersey, 
 &C, was acquired by William the Conqueror, 1060. 
 The "Race" is celebrated for two fatal occur- 
 rences; "William of Normandy, son of Henry I. of 
 England, and many young nobles (140 youths of 
 the principal families of France and Britain), were 
 overtaken by a storm, and all lost, 25 Nov. 1120. 
 The British man-of-war Victory, of 100 guns and 
 1 160 men, was wrecked here, 5 Oct. 1744; the 
 admiral, sir John Balchen, and all his crew perished. 
 Through this strait the French escaped after their 
 defeat at La Hogue by admirals Russell and Rooke, 
 19 May, 1692. The construction of a breakwater, 
 in order to make Alderney a naval station, was 
 begun in 1852, and after having cost 1,337,100/., 
 was suspended by parliament in 1871. 
 
 ALDERSHOT CAMP, on a moor near Farn- 
 ham, about 35 miles from London. In April, 1854, 
 the War office, having obtained a grant of 100,000/., 
 purchased 4000 acres of land for a permanent camp 
 for 20,000 men. 
 
 Additional land purchased in 1856. 
 
 Barracks since erected for 4000 infantry, 1500 cavalry, 
 and several batteries of artillery. Great improvements 
 in military cookery introduced (see Cookery) under the 
 superintendence of captain John Grant, 1857. 
 
 Visited by the queen, 18, 19 April, 1856. 
 
 The troops returned from the Crimea, reviewed by her, 
 7, 16 July, 1856. 
 
 About 15,000 men were stationed here, 1859. 
 
 Cost of the camp, said to be 1,291,531/- up to Feb. i860. 
 
 An industrial and fine-art exhibition, furnished by officers 
 and men and their wives, opened, 29 June ; closed 14 
 July, 1864. 
 
 Camp set up for 40,000 men to execute military manoeu- 
 vres, Aug. Sept. 1871. Many horses broke away 
 through a fright, 30 Aug. 1871. 
 
 Review of 14,000, &e. by the queen, 5 July, 1872. 
 
 ALDINE PRESS, that of Aldo Manuzio 
 (Aldus Manutius), at Venice, where were printed 
 
 many of the first editions of the Greek, Latin, and 
 Italian classics, commencing in 1494 with Musseus. 
 
 ALE, BEER, and Wine are said to have been 
 invented by Bacchus. Ale was known as a beve- 
 rage at least in 404 B.C. Herodotus ascribes the 
 first discovery of the art of brewing barley-wine to 
 Isis, the wife of Osiris, and a beverage of this kind 
 is mentioned by Xenophon, 401 n.c. The Romans 
 and Germans very early learned from the Egyptians 
 the process of preparing a liquor from corn by means 
 of fermentation. Tacittts. Ale-houses are men- 
 tioned in the laws of Ina, king of Wessex. Booths 
 were set up in England, 728, when laws were passed 
 for their regulation. None but freemen were allowed 
 to keep ale-houses in London, 13 Edw. I. 1285. 
 They were further subjected to regulation by 5 k'b 
 
ALEMANNL 
 
 21 
 
 ALEXANDRIA. 
 
 Edw. VI. c. 25 (1551). By 1 James I. c. 9 (1603), 
 one full quart of the best, and two quarts of small 
 ale were to be sold for one penny. Excise duty on ale 
 and beer was imposed by the parliament in 1643, and 
 continued by Charles II. (1660) ; repealed, 1 Will. IV. 
 c. 51,(1830) ; see Sorter, JFine, Victuallers. 
 
 ALEMANNI, or All Men (i.e. men of all 
 nations), hence Allemand, German. A body of 
 Suevi, who took this name, were defeated by Cara- 
 calla, 214. After several repulses, they invaded the 
 empire under Aurelian, who subdued them in three 
 battles, 270. They were again vanquished by Julian, 
 356, 357; by Jovinus, 368. They were defeated and 
 subjugated by Clovis at Tolbiac (or Zulpich), 496. 
 The Suabians are their descendants. 
 
 ALENCON (N. France) gave title to a count 
 and duke. ' 
 
 1268-82. Peter, made Count by Ms father king Louis IX. 
 1293. Charles I. of Valois, made Count by his brother 
 
 king Philip the Fair. 
 1325. Charles II. his son, killed at Crecy. 
 1346. Charles III. (his son), became a priest. 
 1361. Peter, his brother. 
 1404. John (his son), made Duke in 1414, killed at 
 
 Agincourt, 1415. 
 1415. John II. (his son), prisoner in England, 1424-9 ; 
 
 intrigued against the French king ; died in 
 
 prison, 1470. 
 1476. Charles IV. fled after the battle of Pavia in 1525, 
 
 and died shortly after of chagrin. The duchy 
 
 was annexed by the crown. 
 
 ALEPPO, North Syria, a large town named 
 Bercea by Seleucus Nictator, about 299 B.C. The 
 pachalic of Aleppo is one of the five governments of 
 Syria. It was taken by the Saracens, a.d. 638, who 
 restored its ancient name Haleb or Chaleb ; by Sala- 
 din, 1 193 ; and sacked by Timour, Nov. 1400. Its de- 
 population by the plague has been frequent ; 60,000 
 persons were computed to have perished by it in 
 1797; many in 1827. The cholera raged here in 
 1832. Aleppo suffered severely from the terrible 
 earthquakes in 1822 and 1830; and has often been 
 the scene of fanatical massacres. On 16 Oct. 1850, 
 the Mahometans attacked the Christians, burning 
 everything. Three churches were destroyed, five 
 others plundered, and thousands of persons slain. 
 The total loss of property amounted to about a mil- 
 lion sterling ; no interference was attempted by the 
 pacha. 
 
 ALESSANDRIA, a city of Piedmont, built in 
 1 168 under the name of Csesar by the Milanese and 
 Cremonese, to defend the Tanaro against the em- 
 peror, and afterwards named after pope Alexander 
 III. It has been frequently besieged and taken. 
 The French took it in 1796, but wei-e driven out by 
 Suwarrow, 21 July, 1799. They recovered it after 
 the battle of Marengo, 14 June, 1800, and held it 
 till 1814, when. the strong fortifications erected by 
 Napoleon were destroyed. They have been restored 
 since June, 1856. 
 
 ALEUTIAN ISLES, in the North Pacific 
 Ocean, discovered by Behring, 1741, visited by 
 Cook, 1778, and settled by Bussians, 1785. 
 
 ALEXANDER, Era of, dated from the 
 death of Alexander the Great, 12 Nov. 323 B.C. In 
 the computation of this era, the period of the Crea- 
 tion was considered to be 5502 years before* the 
 birth of Christ, and, in consequence, the year 1 a.d. 
 was equal to 5503. This computation continued to 
 the year a.d. 284, which was called 5786. In the 
 next year (a.d. 285), which should have been 5787, 
 ten years were discarded, and the date became 5777. 
 This is still used in the Abyssinian era (which see) . 
 The date is reduced to the Christian era by sub- 
 
 tracting 5502 until the year 5786, and after that 
 time by subtracting 5492. 
 
 "ALEXANDRA CASE," see Trial* 
 1862-64. 
 
 ALEXANDRA PARK, Muswell Hill, Lon- 
 don, N. purchased by a company, and named after 
 the princess of Wales, was opened with a flower 
 show, 23 July, 1863. A portion of the Exhibition 
 building of 1862 was to be erected here. The work 
 proceeded rapidly in 1864, was suspended in 1865, 
 recommenced in 1866, and completed in 1873. 
 
 Horse-races first held here . . 30 June, 1 July 186B 
 
 The prospectus of a scheme to organise an institu- 
 tion resembling the South Kensington Museum 
 and the Crystal Palace, by means of a tontine (to 
 cease 30 June, 1886), was issued . 22 July 1871 
 
 The affairs were to be managed by " The Alexandra 
 Palace and Muswell hill Estate Management Com- 
 pany (limited)." Public lectures on the subject 
 were given Aug. 187s 
 
 The scheme proved unsuccessful ; the company's 
 affairs were wound up : 17s. 6d. in the pound hav- 
 ing been paid Feb. 1872 
 
 The purchase of the land and buildings for the 
 public was proposed by the lord mayor and others 
 
 July 1872 
 
 The palace was opened with a grand concert, &c. 
 24 May ; destroyed by fire . . .9 June, 1873 
 
 ALEXANDRIA (Egypt), the walls whereof 
 were six miles in circuit, was founded by Alexander 
 the Great, 332 B.C. who was buried here, 322. It 
 became the residence of the Greek sovereigns of 
 Egypt, the Ptolemies, 323 ; seventeen councils were 
 held here, a.d. 231-633. 
 
 Ptolemy Soter erects the Museum, the Serapeum, 
 the Pharos, and other edifices, and begins the 
 library about b.c. 29a 
 
 These works completed by his son P. Philadelphus 
 and his grandson P. Euergetes . . . 283-222 
 
 Alexandria taken by Julius Ceesar ; when a library 
 is burnt b. c. 48 
 
 Which Antony replaces by one brought from Per- 
 gamus 36 
 
 The city restored by Adrian 122 
 
 Massacre of the youth by Caracalla, in revenge for 
 an insult 215. 
 
 Alexandria supporting the usurper Achilleus is 
 taken by Diocletian after a long siege . . . 2gj- 
 
 Alexandria disturbed by the feuds between the 
 Athanasians and Arians . . . . . 32^ 
 
 George of Cappadocia was killed, 362, and Athan- 
 asius finally restored 353 
 
 50,000 persons perish by an earthquake . . . 365 
 
 Paganism suppressed by Theodosius, when a second 
 library is burnt 390 
 
 Alexandria captured by Chosroes II. of Persia . 616 
 
 And by Amrou, the general of the caliph Omar,* who 
 ordered the library to be burnt, whereby the baths 
 were supplied with fuel for six months 22 Dec. 640 
 
 Recovered by the Greeks ; retaken by Amrou. . 644 
 
 Cairo founded by the Saracens ; which tends to the 
 decay of Alexandria 969 
 
 Alexandria plundered by the Crusaders . . . 1365 
 
 The French capture Alexandria . . July, 179S 
 
 Battle of Alexandria or Canopus : the British under 
 gen. Ralph Abercromby defeat the French under 
 Menou 21 March 1801 
 
 Abercromby dies of his wounds, 28 March ; Menou 
 and io,coo French surrender it to Hutchinson 
 
 2 Sept. 1 801 
 
 Alexandria taken by the British under Eraser, 
 20 March ; evacuated by them . . 23 Sept. 1807 
 
 By the convention of Alexandria, Egypt was guaran- 
 teed to Mehemet Ali and his successors . . 184J 
 
 Railway to Cairo formed 1851 
 
 New port, first stone laid by the khedive 15 May 1871 
 
 * The saying of Omar — " That if the books agreed with 
 the book of God, they were useless ; if they disagreed, 
 they were pernicious" — is denied by Mahometans. It is 
 also attributed to Theophilus, archbishop of Alexandria 
 (390), and to cardinal XiF.enes (1500). 
 
ALEXANDRIAN CODEX. 
 
 22 
 
 ALGIERS. 
 
 ALEXANDRIAN CODEX, a MS. of the 
 Septuagint translation of the Bible in Greek, said 
 to have been transcribed by a lad)' named Thecla, 
 in the 6th century, and to have belonged to the 
 patriarch of Alexandria in 1098. It was presented 
 to Charles I. of England in 1628 by Cyrillus Lascaris, 
 patriarch of Constantinople, and was placed in the 
 British Museum in 1753. It was printed in fac- 
 simile, 1 786- 1 82 1. 
 
 ALEXANDRIAN ERA, sec Mundane. 
 
 ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOLS of Philo- 
 sophy- The first school arose soon after the 
 foundation of Alexandria, 332 B.C. It nourished 
 under the patronage of the Ptolemies till about IOO 
 B.C. It included Euclid (300), Archimedes (287- 
 212), Apollonius (250), Hipparchus (150), and Hero 
 (150). The second school arose about a.d. 140, and 
 lasted till about 400. Its most eminent members 
 were Ptolemy, the author of the Ptolemaic system 
 (150), Diophantus the arithmetician (200), and 
 Pappus the geometer (350). 
 
 ALEXANDRINES, verses of twelve sylla- 
 bles, first written by Alexander of Paris, about 1164, 
 and since called after him. The last line of the 
 Spenserian stanza is an Alexandrine. In Pope's 
 JEssa;/ on Criticism, this verse is thus happily ex- 
 emplified : — 
 
 " A needless Alexandrine ends the song. 
 That, like a wounded snake, drags its slow length 
 along." 
 The longest English poem wholly in Alexandrine 
 verse is Drayton's Polyolbion, published 1612-22. 
 
 ALFORD (N. Scotland), BATTLE OF. General 
 Baillie, with a large body of covenanters, was de- 
 feated by the marquis of Montrose, 2 July, 1645. 
 
 ALGEBRA: Diophantus, said to be the in- 
 ventor, wrote upon it probably between the 3rd and 
 5th centuries. It was cultivated in the 9th century 
 by the Arabs, who brought it into Spain ; and in 
 Italy by Leonardo Bonaccio of Pisa, in 1220. In 
 1494 Luca Paciolo published the first printed book 
 on Algebra in Europe. Serret. Some of the alge- 
 braic signs were introduced either by Christophe 
 Eudolph (1522-26) or Michael Stifelius of Nurem- 
 berg, 1544, and others by Francis Vieta, in 1590, 
 whenalgebracameinto general use. Morcri. Jerome 
 Cardan published his " Ars Magna," containing his 
 rule, 1545. Thos. Harriot's important discoveries 
 appeared in his " Artis Analytical Praxis," 1631. 
 Descartes applied algebra to geometry about 1637. 
 The binomial theorem of Newton, the basis of the 
 doctrine of fluxions, and the new analysis, 1668. 
 Dean Peacock's "Algebra" is a first-class work. 
 
 ALGERIA, see Algiers. 
 
 ALGESIRAS,orOLDGlBEALTAIt (S.Spain). 
 Here the Moors entered Spain in 711, and held it 
 till taken by Alfonso XL March, 1344. — Two en- 
 gagements took place here between the English fleet 
 under sir James Saumarez and the United French 
 and Spanish fleets, 6 and 12 July, i8or. In the first 
 the enemy was victorious ; but the British honour 
 was redeemed in the latter conflict, the San Antonio, 
 74 guns, being captured. Two Spanish ships fired 
 on each other by mistake, and took fire ; of 2000 
 men on board, 250 were saved by the English. 
 Alison. 
 
 ALGIERS, now ALGERIA, N.W. Africa ; part 
 of the ancient Mauretania, which was conquered by 
 the Romans, 46 B.C.; by the Vandals, a.d. 439; 
 recovered for the empire by Belisarius, 534; and 
 
 subdued by the Arabs about 690. Population of 
 Algeria in 1866, 2,921,146. 
 
 The town Algiers founded by the Arabs near the 
 site of Icosium about 935 
 
 Becoming the scat of the Barbary pirates captured 
 by Ferdinand of Spam, 1509; retaken byHoruc 
 and Haydreddfn Barbarossa, and made the capi- 
 tal of a state ; governed by a dey, nominally .sub- 
 ject to Turkey 1516-20 
 
 The emperor Charles V. loses a fine fleet and army 
 in an expedition against Algiers . . . . 1541 
 
 Algiers terrified into pacific measures by Blake, 
 1655 ; by Du Quesne 1683-4 
 
 For continued piracy, the city successfully bom- 
 barded by the British fleet, under lord Exmouth 
 
 27 Aug. 1816 
 
 A new treaty followed, and Christian slavery was 
 abolished 
 
 Algiers surrendered to a French armament under 
 
 Bourmont and Duperre, alter seven- conflicts; 
 
 the dey deposed, and the barbarian goven 
 
 wholly overthrown 5 July, 1830 
 
 The Arab chief Abd-el-Kader preaches a holy war, 
 
 becomes powerful, and attacks the French, at first 
 
 successfully 1833 
 
 He is recognised as emir of Mascara, by treaty with 
 
 the French 1834 
 
 The French ministry announce their intention to 
 
 retain Algiers permanently . . .20 May, 1834 
 
 Wai renewed 1835-6 
 
 The French take Mascara ... 5 Dec. 1S35 
 
 Marshal Clause! defeats the Arabs in two battles, 
 
 and enters Mascara. 8 Dec. 1836 
 
 Gen. Damremont killed in taking Constantina 
 
 13 Oct. 1S37 
 
 Abd-el-Kader, thoroughly defeated, recognises the 
 French supremacy 30 May, ,, 
 
 War renewed ; French defeated . . . Dee. 1839 
 
 Algeria annexed to France, and the emir declared a 
 rebel Feb. 1842 
 
 He is defeated by Bugeaud at Isly . . 14 Aug. 1844 
 
 500 Arabs in a cave at Khartani refuse to surren- 
 der ; suffocated by smoke ; said to have been 
 ordered by general Pelissier . . . 18 June, 1845 
 
 After a long struggle Abd-el-Kader surrenders to 
 Lamorieiere 23 Dec. 1847 ~ 
 
 Fresh revolts, 1849 '< subdued .... 1850 
 
 An insurrection of the Kabyles subdued by the 
 French, after several sharp engagements . . 1851 
 
 Another insurrection suppressed .... 1857 
 
 The government entrusted (for a short time) to 
 prince Napoleon 1858 
 
 The Arab tribes attack the French ; defeated, 
 
 31 Oct. and 6 Nov. 1859 
 
 Algiers visited by Napoleon III. . . . Sept. 1S60 
 
 Marsha] Pelissier, duke of Malakhoff, appointed 
 governor-general of Algeria . . . Nov. ,, 
 
 The emperor promises a constitution securing the 
 the rights of the Arabs, saying : " I am as much 
 emperor of the Arabs as of the French." . Feb. 1S63 
 
 Insurrection of the Arabs, May ; submission, June, 1S64 
 
 Deal b of marshal Pelissier, 22 May ; M'Mahon, duke 
 of Magenta, succeeds him . . . 8 Sept. ,, 
 
 Fresh revolts ; insurgents defeated by Jolivet, 
 
 2 Oct. „ 
 
 The emperor well received during his visit. 
 
 3 May — June, 1865 
 
 More rights and privileges promised to the natives, 
 
 July, ,, 
 
 * He, with his suite, embarked at Oran, and landed at 
 Toulon on 28 Dec. following. He was removed to the 
 castle of Amboise, near Tours, 2 Nov. 184s, and released 
 from his confinement by Louis Napoleon, 16 Oct. 1852, 
 after swearing on the Koran never to disturb Africa 
 
 again : he was to reside henceforward at Broussa, in Asia 
 Minor; but in consequence of the earthquake at that 
 place, 28 Feb. 1855, he removed to Constantinople. In 
 July, 1860, Abd-el-Kader held the citadel of Damascus, 
 and there protected many of the Christians whom he 
 had rescued from the massacres then in perpetration by 
 the Turks. He received honours from the English, 
 French, and Sardinian sovereigns. He visited Paris and 
 London in Aug. 1865. He offered to serve in the French 
 army in July, 1S70. 
 
ALHAMBEA. 
 
 23 
 
 ALLIANCE. 
 
 The emperor publishes his letter on the policy of 
 
 France in Algeria (20 July) . . . Nov. 1865 
 Insurrection ; 4000 Arabs defeated by col. Sounis, 
 
 2 Feb. 1869 
 Algeria proclaimed in a state of siege . 15 Aug. 1870 
 The insurrection ended ; state of siege raised, 24 June 1871 
 
 ALHAMBEA, a Moorish palace and fortress 
 near Granada, S. Spain, founded by Mohammed I. 
 of Granada about 1253. It was surrendered to the 
 Christians aboutNov. 1491. The remains have been 
 described in a magnificent work by Owen Jones and 
 Jules Goury, published 1842-5. A fac-simile of a 
 part of this palace in the Crystal Palace at Syden- 
 ham, was destroyed by the fire, 30 Dec, 1866. — The 
 Panopticon (which see) was opened as a circus, &c, 
 under the name of Alhambra, in March, 1858. The 
 Alhambra Palace Company, incorporated in July 
 1863, applied for dissolution in Jan. 1865. 
 
 ALI, SECT OF (Shiites, or Patimites). Ali 
 married Mahomet's daughter Patima, about 632, 
 and became vizier, 613 ; and caliph, 655. All was 
 called by the prophet, " the lion of God, always 
 victorious ; " and the Persians follow the interpre- 
 tation of the Koran according to Ali, while other 
 Mahometans adhere to that of Abubeker and Omar. 
 Ali was assassinated 23 Jan. 661.* 
 
 ALIENS or FOREIGNERS, were banished in 
 1155, being thought too numerous. In 1343 they 
 were excluded from enjoying ecclesiastical benefices. 
 By 2 Rich. II. st. 1, 1378, they were much relieved. 
 When they were to be tried criminally, the juries 
 were to be half foreigners, if they so desired, 1430. 
 They were restrained from exercising any trade or 
 handicraft by retail, 1483, a prohibition which was 
 relaxed in 1663. 
 
 Alien priories (cells and estates belonging to foreign per- 
 sons) suppressed in England, 1414. 
 The Alien Act passed, Jan. 1793. 
 Act to register aliens, 1795. 
 Baron Geramb, a fashionable foreigner, known at court, 
 
 ordered out of England, 6 April, 1812. 
 Bill to abolish naturalisation by the holding of stock in 
 
 the banks of Scotland, June, 1820. 
 New registration act, 7 George IV. 1826. This last act 
 
 was repealed and another statute passed, 6 Will. IV. 
 
 1836. 
 The rigour of the alien laws was mitigated by acts passed 
 
 in 1844 and 1847. 
 "Foreigners have reclaimed our marshes, drained our 
 
 fens, fished our seas, and built our bridges and har- 
 
 "boui-s." Smiles, 1861. 
 Their status defined by the Naturalisation Act, passed 
 
 12 May, 1870. 
 
 ALrWAL, a village N. W. India, the site of a 
 battle, 28 Jan. 1846, between the Sikh army under 
 sirdar Eunjoor Singh Majeethea, 19,000 strong, 
 supported by 68 pieces of cannon, and the British 
 under sir Harry Smith, 12,000 men with 32 guns. 
 The contest was obstinate, but ended in the defeat 
 of the Sikhs, who lost nearly 6000 killed or 
 drowned. 
 
 ALIZAEINE, a crystalline body, the colour- 
 ing principle of madder, discovered in it by Robi- 
 quet and Colin in 1831. Schunck showed that all 
 the finest madder colours contained only alazarine 
 combined with alkalies and fatty acids. Graebe 
 and Liebermann obtained anthracene from alizarine 
 in 1868, and alizarine from anthracene in 1869. 
 
 * The first four successors of Mahomet — Abubeker, 
 Omar, Othman, and Ali, his chief agents in establishing 
 his religion and extirpating unbelievers, and whom on 
 that account he styled the " cutting swords of God" — all 
 died violent deaths ; and his family was wholly extir- 
 pated within thirty years after his own decease. 
 
 The crystalline body anthracene was discovered in 
 coal oils by Dumas and Laurtnt in 1832. See 
 Madder. 
 
 ALJUBAEBOTA, Portugal. Here John I. of 
 Portugal defeated John I. of Castile, and secured 
 his country's independence, 14 Aug. 1385 ; see 
 Batalha. 
 
 ALKALIES (from kali, the Arabic name for 
 the plant from which an alkaline substance was 
 first procured) are ammonia, potash, soda, and 
 lithia. Black discovered the nature of the differ- 
 ence between caustic and mild alkalies in 1736. 
 
 The fixed alkalies, potash and soda, decomposed, and the 
 metals potassium and sodium formed, by Humphry 
 Davy at the Royal Institution, London, 1807. 
 
 Dr. Ure invented an alkalimeter, 1816. 
 
 The manufacture of alkalies, very extensive in Lanca- 
 shire and Cheshire, are based on the decomposition of 
 common salt (chloride of sodium), by a process in- 
 vented by a Frenchman named Le Blanc, about 1792. 
 
 Mr. Losh obtained crystals of soda from brine about 1814. 
 Various modifications of these processes are now in 
 use. 
 
 "Alkali works," are defined as works for the manufacture 
 of alkali, sulphates of soda, sulphate of potash, and in 
 which muriatic gas is evolved. 
 
 Mr. Wm. Gossage's process for condensing muriatic acid 
 gas patented in 1836. 
 
 In consequence of the injury to vegetation prodiiced by 
 the alkali works in Lancashire and Cheshire, the 
 Alkali Works act " for the more effectual condensation 
 [of 95 per cent.] of nruriatie acid gas " (or hydrochloric 
 acid) was passed, 28 July, 1863. It came into opera- 
 tion 1 Jan. 1864, proved successful, and was re-enacted 
 1868. 
 
 ALKMAEE, see Bergen. 
 
 . ALLAHABAD (N."W. Hindostan), the "holy 
 city" of the Indian Mahometans, situated at the 
 junction of the rivers Jumna and Ganges. The 
 province of Allahabad was successively subject to 
 the sovereigns of Delhi and Oude, but in 1801 was 
 partially and in 1803 wholly incorporated with the 
 British possessions. By treaty here, Bengal, &c, 
 was ceded to the English in 1765. — During the 
 Indian mutiny several sepoy regiments rose and 
 massacred their officers, 4 June, 1857 ; colonel Neil 
 marched promptly from Benares and suppressed the 
 insurrection. In Nov. 1861, lord Canning made 
 this city the capital of the N. W. provinces. 
 
 ALLEGIANCE, see Oaths. 
 
 ALLEGOEY abounds in the Bible and in 
 Homer : see Jacob's blessing upon his sons, Genesis 
 xlix. (1689 B.C.), Psalm lxxx., and all the prophets. 
 Spenser's Faerie Queene (1590) andBunyan's Pil- 
 grim's Progress (1678) are allegories throughout. 
 The Spectator (i"] 11), by Addison, Steele, and others, 
 abounds in allegories. The allegorical interpretation 
 of the scriptures is said to have begun with Origen 
 in the 3rd century ; but see Gal. iv. 24. 
 
 ALLIA (Italy), a small river flowing. into the 
 Tiber, where Brennus and the Gauls defeated the 
 Romans, 16 July, 390 B.C. The Gauls sacked Rome 
 and committed so much injury that the day was 
 thereafter held to be unlucky (nefas), and no public 
 business was permitted to be done thereon. 
 
 ALLIANCE, Treaties of, between the high 
 
 European powers. The following are the principal ; 
 see Coalitions, Conventions, Treaties, United King- 
 dom, %c. 
 
 ALLIANCE. 
 
 Of Leipsic 9 April, 1631 
 
 Of Vienna 27 May, 1657 
 
 The Triple 28 Jan. 1668 
 
ALLIANCE. 
 
 24 
 
 ALMENARA. 
 
 ALLIANCE. 
 
 Of Warsaw 31 March, 1683 
 
 The Grand 12 May, 1689 
 
 The Hague 4 Jan. 1717 
 
 The Quadruple 2 Aug. 1718 
 
 Of Vienna 16 March, 1 731 
 
 Of Versailles i-May, 1756 
 
 Germanic 23 July, 1785 
 
 Of Paris 16 May, 1795 
 
 Of St. Petersburg 8 April, 1805 
 
 Austrian 14 March, 1812 
 
 Of Sweden 24 March, ,, 
 
 OfToplitz 9 Sept. 1813 
 
 Holy Alliance 26 Sept. 1815 
 
 Of England, Prance, and Turkey (at Constantinople) 
 
 12 Mar. 1854 
 
 Of England and France ratified . . 3 April, ,, 
 
 Of Sardinia with the Western Powers (at Turin) 
 
 26 Jan. 1855 
 
 Of Sweden with the Western Powers . 19 Dec. ,, 
 
 Of Prussia and Italy . . . . June, 1866 
 
 ALLOTMENTS, see Zand, note. 
 
 ALL SAINTS' DAY (Nov. 1), or All-Hal- 
 lows, a festival said to have been begun by pope 
 Boniface IV. about 607, celebrated in the Pan- 
 theon at Rome, and established by pope Gregory IV. 
 (about 830) for the commemoration of all those 
 saints ana martyrs in whose honour no particular 
 day is assigned. The reformers of the English 
 church, 1549, struck out of their calendar a great 
 number ol anniversaries, leaving only those which 
 at their time were connected with popular feeling or 
 tradition. 
 
 ALL SOULS'. DAY (2 Nov.), a festival of 
 the Roman Catholic church to commemorate the 
 souls of the faithful, instituted, it is said, at Cluny 
 about 993 or 1000. 
 
 ALL SOULS' COLLEGE, Oxford; see 
 Oxford. 
 
 "ALL THE TALENTS" ADMINIS- 
 TRATION, see Grenville Administrations. 
 
 ALLOBROGES, Gauls, defeated by Q. Fabius 
 Maximus, near the confluence of the Rhone and 
 Saone, 121 b.c. 
 
 ALMA, a river in the Crimea, near which was 
 fought a great battle on 20 Sept. 1854. (See 
 Russo- Turkish War and Crimea.) The English, 
 French, and Turkish army (about 57,000 men) 
 moved out of their first encampment in the Crimea 
 on 19 Sept., and bivouacked for the night on the 
 left bank of the Bulganac. The Russians (com- 
 manded by prince Menschikoff), mustering 40,000 
 infantry, had 180 field-pieces on the heights, and on 
 the morning of 20 Sept. were joined by 0000 cavalry 
 from Theodosia (or Kaffa). The English forces 
 under lord Raglan, consisted of 26,000 men; the 
 French of 24,000, under marshal St. Arnaud. At 
 12 o'clock the signal to advance was made ; the 
 river Alma was crossed, while prince Napoleon took 
 possession of the village under the fire of the 
 Russian batteries ; and at 4, after a sanguinary fight, 
 the allies were completely victorious. The enemy, 
 utterly routed, threw away their arms and knap- 
 sacks in their flight, having lost about 5000 men, of 
 whom 900 were made prisoners, mostly wounded. 
 The loss of the British was 26 officers and 327 men 
 killed, and 73 officers and 1539 men wounded 
 (chiefly from the 23rd, 7th, and 33rd regiments) ; 
 that of the French, 3 officers and 233 men killed, 
 and 54 officers and 1033 men wounded. Total loss 
 of the allies about 3400. 
 
 ALMACK'S ASSEMBLY-ROOMS, King- 
 street, St. James's, London, at first very exclusive, 
 were erected by a Scotchman named A I mack, and 
 opened 12 Feb. 1765. They are now termed 
 Willis's rooms from the name of the present pro- 
 prietors. 
 
 ALMANACS (from the Arabic al manah, to 
 count). The Egyptians computed time by instru- 
 ments ; the Alexandrians had almanacs, and log; 
 calendars are ancient. In the British Museum and 
 universities are specimens of early almanacs. Mi- 
 chael Nostradamus the astrologer, wrote an almanac 
 in the style of Merlin, 1556. Dufresnoy. Profes- 
 sor Augustus De Morgan's valuable "Book of 
 Almanacs, with an index of reference, by which the 
 almanac may be found for every year," was pub- 
 lished in March, 1851. Among the earlier and more 
 remarkable almanacs were 
 
 John Somer's Calendar, written in Oxford . . 1380 
 One in Lambeth Palace, written in . . . . 1460 
 First printed one, published at Buda . . . 1472 
 " Shepheard's Kalendar," (first printed in England) 
 
 by Richard Pynson 1497 
 
 Tybalt's Prognostications 1533, 
 
 Almanac Liegeois 163& 
 
 Lilly's Ephemeris 1644. 
 
 Poor Robin's Almanac 1652 
 
 British Merlin 1658 
 
 Edinburgh Almanac 1683 
 
 Connaissance des Temps (by Picard) . . . 1699 
 
 Moore's Almanac 1698 or 1713 
 
 Lady's Diary 1705 
 
 Season on the Seasons 1735 
 
 Gentleman's Diary . . . . ^ . . . 1741 
 Nautical Almanac, begun by Dr. Neville Maskelyne 
 
 (materially improved, 1834) 1767 
 
 British Imperial Kalendar i8c>9> 
 
 Hone's E very-Day Book 1826 
 
 British Almanac and Companion .... 1828 
 Anniversary Calendar, published by W. Kidd . . 1832 
 Chambers' Book of Days 1862-63 
 
 The Stationers' company claimed the exclusive right 
 of publishing almanacs in virtue of letters patent from 
 James I., granting the privilege to them and the two 
 Universities ; but the monopoly was broken up by a 
 decision of the Court of Common Pleas in 1775. A bill 
 to renew the privilege was lost in 1779. 
 
 The Stamp Duty oil English almanacs first imposed in 
 1710, was abolished in August, 1834 ; since when alma- 
 nacs have become innumerable, being issued by trades- 
 men with their goods. Of Moore's (under the management 
 of Henry Andrews, the able computer of the. Nautical 
 Ephemeris) at onetime upwards of 430,000 copies were 
 annually sold. He died in 1820. Of Foreign Almanacs, 
 the principal are the " Almanach de France," first pub>- 
 lished in 1699, and the "Almanach de Gotha," 1764. 
 
 ALMANZA (S. E. Spain). Here on 25 April 
 (0. S. 14), 1707, the English, Dutch, and Portuguese 
 forces under the earl of Galway, were totally de- 
 feated by the French and Spanish commanded by 
 James Fitzjames, duke of Berwiek (illegitimate son 
 of James II.). Most of the English were killed 
 or made prisoners, having been abandoned by the 
 Portuguese at the first charge. 
 
 ALMEIDA (Portugal), a frontier town, cap- 
 tured by Massena, 27 Aug. 1810. The French 
 entered Spain, leaving a garrison at Almeida, 
 blockaded by the English, 6 April, 1811. Almeida 
 was retaken by "Wellington (II May), and Massena 
 retired from Portugal. 
 
 ALMENARA, a village N. E. Spain, whereon 
 28 July, 1 7 10, an English and German army de- 
 feated the Spanish army supporting Philip V., the 
 grandson of Louis XIV. of France. Stanhope, the 
 English general, killed the Spanish general, Ame- 
 zaga, in single conflict ; an act almost unexampled 
 in modern \varfai - e. 
 
ALMOHADES. 
 
 25 
 
 ALPS. 
 
 ALMOHADES, Mahometan partisans, fol- 
 lowers of Mohammed ben Abdalla, surnamed El- 
 Mehedi, in Africa, about 1 120. They subdued 
 Morocco, 1 145; entered Spain and took Seville, 
 Cordova, and Granada, 1146-56; and founded a 
 dynasty and ruled Spain till 1232, and Africa till 
 1278. 
 
 _ ALMONER, an office anciently allotted to a 
 dignified clergyman who gave the first dish from the 
 royal table to the poor, or an alms in money. By an 
 ancient canon all bishops were required to keep 
 almoners. The grand almoner of France was the 
 highest ecclesiastical dignity in that kingdom before 
 the revolution, 1789. Queen Victoria's almoner 
 (Rev. Dr. Wellesley, dean of 'Windsor, appointed 
 28 May, 1870) or sub-almoner distributes the 
 queen's gifts on Maundy Thursday {which see). 
 
 ALMOKAVIDES, Mahometan partisans in 
 Africa, rose about 1050 ; entered Spain by invita- 
 tion, 1086; were overcome by the Almohades in 
 H47- 
 
 ALMSHOUSES for aged and infirm persons 
 have been erected by many public companies and 
 benevolent individuals, particularly since the 
 abolition of religious houses at the Reformation in 
 the 16th century. A list of them, with useful infor- 
 mation, will be found in " Low's Charities of Lon- 
 don," ed. 1862. 
 
 Cornelius Van Dun founded the Red Lion alms- 
 houses, Westminster .... . . 
 
 Emmanuel College, Westminster, founded by Lady 
 Dacre .... .... 
 
 Wliittington's almshouses foinded in 1621, were 
 rebuilt near Highgate-hill by the Mercers' com- 
 pany .... 
 
 The Fishmongers' company founded almshouses 
 in 1618, and rebuilt them on Wandsworth com- 
 mon 
 
 Haberdashers' almshouses, Hoxton, founded by 
 Robert Aske . . ..... 
 
 Dame Owen's almshouses, Islington, built in 1613 
 (in gratitude for her escape from an arrow-shot), 
 were rebuilt by the Brewers' company . 
 
 Bancroft's almshouses, Mile End, were erected . . 
 
 The London almshouses, in commemoration of the 
 passing of the Reform Bill, built at Brixton 
 
 Numerous almshouses since erected for printers, 
 bookbinders, <fec. 
 
 ALNE Y, an island in the Severn, near Glouces- 
 ter. Here a combat is asserted to have taken place 
 between Edmund Ironside and Canute the Great, 
 in sight of their armies, 1016. The latter was 
 wounded, and proposed a division of the kingdom, 
 the south part falling to Edmund. Edmund was 
 murdered at Oxford shortly after, it is said by 
 iEdric Streon ; and Canute obtained possession of 
 the whole kingdom. 
 
 ALNWICK (Saxon Ualnivic), on the river 
 Alne in Northumberland, was given at the eonquest 
 to Ivo de Vesci. It has long belonged to the Percies. 
 Malcolm, king of Scotland, besieged Alnwick, and 
 he and his sons were killed 13 Nov. 1093. It was 
 taken by David I. in 1 136, and attempted in July, 
 1 1 74 by "William the Lion, who was defeated and 
 taken prisoner. It was burnt by king John in 1215, 
 and by the Scots in 1448. Since 1854 the castle has 
 been repaired and enlarged with great taste and at 
 unsparing expense. 
 
 ALPACA (or Paco), a species of the S. Ameri- 
 can quadruped, the Llama, the soft hairy wool of 
 which is now largely employed in the fabrication of 
 cloths. It was introduced into this country about 
 1836, by the earl of Derby. An alpaca factory, &c. 
 
 1577 
 1 594 
 
 1850 
 1692 
 
 1735 
 1833 
 
 26 
 
 Greek .... 
 
 24 
 
 2S 
 
 Hebrew . . . . 
 
 22 
 
 20 
 
 Arabic .... 
 
 28 
 
 27 
 
 Persian . . . . 
 
 32 
 
 26 
 
 Turkish 
 
 28. 
 
 42 
 
 Sanscrit . . . . 
 
 44s- 
 
 Vi 
 
 Chinese radical charac- 
 
 
 22 
 
 ters . . . . 
 
 214. 
 
 (covering 11 acres), was erected at Saltaire, near 
 Shipley, Yorkshire, by Mr. (now sir) Titus Salt in 
 1852. 
 
 ALPHABET- Athotes, son of'Menes, is said 
 to have been the author of hieroglyphics, and to 
 have written thus the history of the Egyptians, 
 2122 B.C. Blair. But Josephus affirms that he had 
 seen incriptions by Seth, the son of Adam : this is 
 deemed fabulous. 
 
 The Egyptian alphabet is ascribed to Memnon 1822 B.C. 
 
 The first letter of the Phoenician and Hebrew alphabet 
 was aleph, called by the Greeks alpha, and abbreviated 
 
 • by the moderns to A. The Hebrew is supposed to be 
 derived from the Phoenician. 
 
 Cadmus the founder of Cadmea, 1493 B.C., is said to have 
 brought the Phoenician letters (fifteen in number) into 
 Greece, viz. .—A, B, T, A, I, K, A, M, N, O, O, P, 2, 
 T, T. These letters were originally either Hebrew, 
 Phoenician, or Assyrian characters, and changed 
 gradually in form till they became the ground of the 
 Roman letters, now used all over Europ e. Palamedes 
 of Argos invented the double characters, ©, X, *, H, 
 about 1224 B.C. ; and Simonides added, Z, Y, H, Si, 
 about 489 b. c Arundelian Marbles. — When the E was 
 introduced is not precisely known. The Greek alphabet 
 consisted of 16 letters till 399 (or 403) B.C., when the 
 Ionic of 24 characters was introduced. The smaU. 
 letters are of later invention. The alphabets of the 
 different nations contain the following number of 
 letters : — 
 
 English. 
 
 French . 
 
 Italian . 
 
 Spanish . 
 
 German. 
 
 Slavonic . 
 
 Russian 
 
 Latin. 
 
 ALPHONSINE TABLES, astronomical 
 tables, composed by Spanish and Arab astronomers, 
 and collected in 1253 under the direction of Alphon- 
 so X. of Castile, surnamed the Wise, who is said 
 to have expended upwards of 400,000 crowns in 
 completing the work ; he himself wrote the preface. 
 The Spanish government ordered the work of Al- 
 phonso to be reprinted from the best MSS. ; the 
 publication begun in 1863. 
 
 ALPS, European mountains. Those between 
 France and Italy were passed by Hannibal, 218 
 B.C., by the Romans, 154 B.C., and by Napoleon I. 
 May, 1800. Roads over Mont Cenis and the 
 Simplon, connecting France and Italy, were con- 
 structed by order of Napoleon, between 1801-6 ; see 
 Simplon. The "Alpine Chub," which consists 
 of British travellers in the Alps, was founded 
 in 1858, and published their first work, " Peaks, 
 Passes, and Glaciers," 1859 ; see Matterhom. 
 
 Mont Cenis or Col de Frejus Tunnel. — A tunnel, 7 J miles. 
 
 long, through mount Cenis, connecting Savoy and 
 
 Piedmont, was proposed by M. Medail, and, after long 
 
 lying dormant, was discussed and plans drawn up in 
 
 1848. The execution was prevented by the war of 
 
 1849. 
 The work of excavation was begun by king Victor 
 
 Emmanuel, 31 Aug. 1857. 
 The boring was at first effected by ordinary piercing 
 
 machinery ; steam power was employed in i860 ; anil 
 
 latterly compressed air. 
 Engineers — Grattoni, Grandis, and Sommeiller; the 
 
 boring was completed, 25 Dec. 1870. 
 The total cost was about 2,6oo,oooL As the Italians had 
 
 executed the work within the given time, the French 
 
 government bore the chief expense. 
 The first experimental trip was made in 40 minutes, 13 
 
 Sept. , and the tunnel was solemnly inaugurated by the 
 
 passage of 22 carriages in 20 minutes, 17 Sept. 1871 ; 
 
 regular trains pass through, 16 Oct. 1871. 
 About ten miles of railway are yet to make on the French 
 
 side of the mountain (1872). 
 
ALSACE. 
 
 2(3 
 
 AMAZON. 
 
 A railway for Locomotives over mount Cenis was con- 
 structed upon Mr. Fell's plan in 1867 (see Railways), 
 and opened for traffic, 15 June, 1868. 
 
 The overland mail first travels through the tunnel to 
 Brindisi, saving 24 hours, 5 Jan. 1872. 
 
 ALSACE, ELSASS (N. E. France), formerly 
 part of the kingdom of Australia, now the depart- 
 ments of the Upper and Lower Khine. It was 
 incorporated with the German empire in the 10th 
 century. A portion was restored to France, 1648, 
 and the whole, including Strasburg, in 1697. Alsace 
 was re-conquered by the Germans, Aug.-Sept. 1870; 
 and annexed to their empire, May, 1 87 1; by law, 
 9 June, 1871. The Alsatians were permitted to 
 choose then- nationality, before 30 Sept. 1872. Many 
 emigrated into France, with much regret. — Alsace- 
 Lorraine was constituted a province of the Ger- 
 man empire, having been ceded by France by the 
 treaty of peace concluded 10 May, 1871. It will be 
 governed by imperial officers. The present dicta- 
 torial rule will cease 1 Jan. 1874. 
 
 ALSATIA, a name given to the precinct of 
 Whitefriars, London, is described in Scott's "For- 
 tunes of Nigel." Its privilege of sanctuary was 
 abolished in 1697. 
 
 ALSEN (Denmark), besieged by the Prussians, 
 and heroically defended, 26 June; taken, 29 June, 
 1864. 
 
 ALTAR. One was built by Noah, 2348 B.C. 
 (Gen. viii. 20) ; others by Abraham, 1921 (Gen. xii. 
 8) . Directions for making an altar are given, Exod. 
 xx. 24, 1491 B.C. Altars were raised to Jupiter, in 
 Greece, by Cecrops, 1556 B.C. He introduced among 
 the Greeks the worship of the deities of Egypt. 
 Herodotus. The term "altar" was applied to the 
 Lord's table fortbe first three centuries after Christ 
 (Heb. xiii. 10). Christian altars in churches were 
 instituted by pope Sixtus I. a.d. 135 ; and were 
 first consecrated by pope Sylvester. The Church of 
 England terms the table on which the elements are 
 placed an altar. Since the time of Elizabeth there 
 has been much controversy on the subject, and the 
 Puritans in the civil war destroyed many of the 
 ancient stone altars, substituting wooden tables. In 
 Jan. 1845 it was decided in the Arches Court that 
 stone altars were not to be erected in English 
 churches. 
 
 ALTENKIRCHEN (Prussia). The French, 
 who had defeated the Austrians here, 4 June, 1796, 
 were themselves defeated, and their general, Mar- 
 ceau killed, 19 Sept. following. 
 
 ALTER EGO {another or second I), a term 
 applied to Spanish viceroys when exercising regal 
 power ; used at Naples when the crown prince was 
 appointed vicar-general during an insurrection in 
 July, 1820. 
 
 ALTONA (Holstein, N. Germany), acquired by 
 the Danes, 1660, and made a city, 1664. It was 
 occupied first by the German federal troops, 24 Dec. 
 1863, and then by the Prussians (the federal diet 
 protesting) 12 Feb. 1864. 
 
 ALT-RANSTADT (Prussia), where the treaty 
 of peace dictated by Charles XII. of Sweden, to Frede- 
 rick Augustus of Poland, was signed 24 Sept. 1 706, 
 o.s. Frederick, deposed in 1704, regained the throne 
 of Poland after the defeat of Charles XII., in 1709. 
 
 ALUM, a salt is said to have been first dis- 
 covered at Iloccha, in Syria, about 1300; it was 
 found in Tuscany about 1470 ; its manufacture was 
 brought to perfection in England by sir T. Chal- 
 
 loner, who established large alum works near Whitby 
 in 1608 ; it was discovered in Ireland in 1757 ; and 
 in Anglesey in 1 790. Alum is used as a mordant in 
 dyeing; to harden tallow, to whiten bread, and in 
 the paper manufacture. 
 
 ALUMBAGH, a palace with other buildings 
 near Lucknow, Oude, India, taken during the mu- 
 tiny from the rebels, 23 Sept. 1857, and heroically 
 defended by the British under sir James Out ram. 
 He defeated an attack of 30,000 sepoys on 12 Jan. 
 1858, and of 20,000 on 21 Feb., and was relieved by 
 sir Colin Campbell in March. 
 
 ALUMINIUM, a metal, the base of the earth 
 alumina, which is combined with silica in clay, and 
 which was shown to be a distinct earth by Marg- 
 graff in 1754, having been previously confounded 
 with lime. Oerstedt in 1826 obtained the chloride 
 of aluminium ; and in 1827 the metal itself was got 
 from it by F. Wohler, but was long a scientific 
 curiosity, the process being expensive. The mode 
 of production was afterwards simplified by Bunsen 
 and others, more especially by H. Ste. - Claire 
 Deville, who in 1856 succeeded in procuring con- 
 siderable quantities of this metal. It is very light 
 (sp. g. 2 - 25), malleable, and sonorous; when pure 
 docs not rust, and is not acted en by sulphur or 
 any acid except hydrochloric. In March, 1856, it 
 was 3^. the ounce; in June, 1857, lis. or 12*., and 
 it is now much cheaper (1873). The eagles of the 
 French colours have been made of it, and many other 
 ornamental and tiseful articles. Deville's work, 
 " De 1' Aluminium," was published in 1859. An 
 aluminium manufactory was established at New- 
 castle in i860, by Messrs. Bell. They obtain the 
 metal from a French mineral, bauxite. Their alu- 
 minium bronze, an alloy of copper and aluminium, 
 invented by Dr. John Percy, F.R.S., was made into 
 watch cases, &c, by Messrs. Keid of Newcastle, in 
 1862. 
 
 AMADIS OF GATJX, a Spanish or Portuguese 
 romance, stated to have been written about 1342 by 
 Vasco de Lobeira. It was enlarged by De Mont- 
 alvo, about 1485 ; and first printed (in Spanish) 
 1519; in French, 1540-56. 
 
 AM ALE KITES (descendants of Amalek, 
 grandson of Esau, brother of Jacob) attacked the 
 Israelites, 1491 B.C., when perpetual war was de- 
 nounced against them. They were subdued by Saul 
 about 1079, by David, 1058 and 1056; and by the 
 Simeonites about 715 B.C. 
 
 AMALFI, a city on the gulf of Salerno, Naples, 
 in the 8th century become the seat of a republic, 
 and flourished by its commerce till 1075, when it 
 was taken by Eoger Guiscord, and eventually incor- 
 porated with Naples. The Pisans, in their sack of 
 the town in 1135, are said to have found a copy of 
 the Pandects of Justinian, and thus to have induced 
 the revival of the study of Roman law in Western 
 Europe ; the story is now doubted. Flavio Gioia, 
 a native of Amalfi, is the reputed discoverer of the 
 mariner's compass, about 1302. 
 
 AMAZON, "West India mail steam ship, left 
 Southampton on her first voyage, Friday, 2 Jan. 
 1852, and on Sunday morning, Jan. 4, was destroyed 
 by fire at sea, about 1 10 miles W.S.W. of Scilly 
 (ascribed to the spontaneous ignition of combustible 
 matter placed near the engine-room). Out of 161 
 persons on board, 102 persons must have perished 
 by fire or drowning. 21 persons were saved by the 
 life-boat of the ship; 25 more were carried into 
 Brest harbour by a Dutch vessel passing by; and 
 
AMAZON. 
 
 27 
 
 AMEEICA. 
 
 13 others were picked up in the bay of Biscay, also 
 by a Dutch galliot. Eliot Warburton, a distin- 
 guished writer in general literature, was among 
 those lost. 
 
 AMAZON, a river (S. America), was discovered 
 by Pinzon, in 1500, and explored by Francisco Orel- 
 lana, in 1 540. Coming from Peru, he sailed down the 
 Amazon to the Atlantic, and observing companies 
 of women in arms on its bank, he called the country 
 Amazonia, and gave the name of Amazon to the 
 river, previously called Mararion. 
 
 AMAZONS- Three nations of Amazons have 
 been mentioned — the Asiatic, Scythian, and African. 
 They are said to have been the descendants of 
 Scythians inhabiting Cappadocia, where their hus- 
 bands, having made incursions, were all slain, being 
 surprised in ambuscades by their enemies. Their 
 widows formed a female state, and decreed that 
 matrimony was a shameful servitude. Quintus Cur- 
 tius. Thej r were said to have been conquered by 
 Theseus, about 1231 B.C. The Amazons were con- 
 stantly employed in wars; and that they might 
 throw the javelin with more force, their right breasts 
 were burned off, whence their name from the Greek, 
 a, no, inazos, breast. Others derive the name from 
 maza, the moon, which they are supposed to have 
 worshipped. About 330 B.C. their queen, Thalestris, 
 visited Alexander the Great, whilst he was pursuing 
 his conquests in Asia, with three hundred females 
 in her train. Herodotus. 
 
 AMBASSADOBS. Accredited agents, and 
 representatives from one court to another, are re- 
 ferred to early ages. In most countries they have 
 great privileges; and in England, they and their 
 servants are secured against arrest. England usually 
 has twenty- five ambassadors or envoys extra- 
 ordinary, and about thirty-six chief consuls, resi- 
 dent at foreign courts, exclusive of inferior agents ; 
 the ambassadors and other chief agents from abroad 
 at the court of London in 1865, were 47; in 1868, 
 43; in 1872,42. 
 
 "The Russian ambassador's being imprisoned for debt by 
 a lace-merchant, 27 July, 1708, led to the passing the 
 statute of 7 Anne, for the protection of ambassadors, 
 1708. 
 
 Two men, convicted of arresting the servant of an am- 
 bassador, were sentenced to be conducted to the house 
 of the ambassador, with a label on their breasts, to ask 
 his pardon, and then one of them to be imprisoned 
 three months, and t the other fined, 12 May, 1780. 
 
 The first ambassador from the United States of America 
 to England, John Adams, presented to the king, 1 June, 
 1785 ; the first from Great Britain to America was 
 Mr. Hammond, in 1791. 
 
 AMBER, a carbonaceous mineral,* principally 
 found in the northern parts of Europe, of great 
 repute in the world from the earliest time ; esteemed 
 as a medicine before the Christian era : Theophrastus 
 wrote upon it; 300 B.C. Upwards of 150 tons of 
 amber have been found in one year on the sands of 
 the shore near Pillau. Phillips. 
 
 AMBLEF, near Cologne, Germany. Here 
 Charles Martel defeated Chilperic II., and Eagen- 
 froi, mayor of the Neustrians, 716. 
 
 AMBOISE (Central France). A conspiracy 
 of the Huguenots against Francis II., Catherine de 
 
 * Much diversity of opinion still prevails among 
 naturalists and chemists respecting the origin of amber. 
 It is considered by Berzelius to have been a resin dis- 
 solved in volatile oil. It often contains delicately-formed 
 insects. Sir D. Brewster concludes it to be indurated 
 vegetable juice. When rubbed it becomes electrical, and 
 from its Greek name, elektron, the term Electricity is 
 derived. 
 
 Medicis, and the Guises, was suppressed at this 
 place in Jan. 1560. On 19 March 1563, the Paci- 
 fication of Amboise was published, granting tole- 
 ration to the Huguenots. The civil war was 
 however soon renewed. 
 
 AMBOYNA, chief of the Molucca isles, dis- 
 covered about 1512 by the Portuguese, but not 
 wholly occupied by them till 1 580. It was taken 
 by the Dutch in 1605. The English factors at this 
 settlement were cruelly tortured and put to death, 
 17 Feb. 1623-4, by the Dutch, on an accusation of a 
 conspiracy to expel them from the island, where the 
 two nations jointly shared in the pepper trade of 
 Java. Cromwell compelled the Dutch to give a sum 
 of money to the descendants of the sufferers. Am- 
 boyna was seized by the English, 16 Feb. 1796, but 
 was restored by the treaty of Amiens, in 1802. It 
 was again seized by the British, 17-19 Feb. 1810; 
 and again restored at the peace of May, 1814. 
 
 AMBBOSIAN CHANT, see Chant, Liturgy, 
 &c. 
 
 AMEN, an ancient Hebrew word meaning true, 
 faithful, certain, is used in the Jewish and Chris- 
 tian assemblies, at the conclusion of prayer : see 
 1 Cor. xiv., 16 (a.d. 59). It is translated "verily" 
 in the Gospels. 
 
 AMENDE HONORABLE, in France, in the 
 9th century, was a punishment inflicted on traitors 
 and sacrilegious persons : the offender was delivered 
 to the hangman : his shirt was stripped off, a rope 
 put round his neck, and a taper in his hand ; he 
 was then led into court, and was obliged to beg 
 pardon of God and the country. Death or banish- 
 ment sometimes followed. 
 
 AMEECEMENT, in Law, a fine assessed for 
 an offence done, or pecuniary punishment at the 
 mercy of the court : thus differing from a fine di- 
 rected and fixed by a statute. By Magna Charta, 
 1215, a freeman cannot be amerced for a small fault, 
 but in proportion to the offence he has committed; 
 the mode was determined by 9 Hen. III., 1225. 
 
 AMEEICA,* the great "Western Continent, is 
 about; 9000 miles long, with an area of about 
 13,668,000 square miles. It is now believed to have 
 been visited by the Norsemen or Vikings in the 10th 
 and nth centuries; but the modern discovery is due 
 to the sagacity and courage of the Genoese navigator, 
 Christopher Columbus. f 
 
 * The name is derived from Amerigo Vespucci, a Floren- 
 tine merchant, who died in 1512. He accompanied O.jeda 
 in his voyage on the eastern coast in 1498 ; and described 
 the country in letters sent to his friends in Italy. He is 
 charged with presumptuously inserting "Tierra de Ame- 
 rigo " in his maps. Irving discusses the question in the 
 Appendix to the Life of Columbus, but comes to no con- 
 clusion. Humboldt asserts that the name was given to 
 the continent in the popular works of Waldseemuller, a 
 German geographer, without the knowledge of Vespucci. 
 To America we are indebted, among other things, for 
 maize, the turkey, the potato, Peruvian bark, and 
 tobacco. 
 
 f Christophoro Columbo was born about 1445 ; first 
 went to sea about 1460 ; settled at Lisbon in 1470, where 
 he married Felipa, the daughter of Perestrello, an Italian 
 navigator ; whereby he obtained much geographical know- 
 ledge. He is said to have laid the plans of his voyage of 
 discovery before the republic of Genoa, in 1483, and 
 other powers, and finally before the court of Spain, where 
 at length the queen Isabella became his patron. After 
 undergoing much ingratitude and cruel persecution from 
 his own followers and the Spanish court, he died on 
 20 May, 1506 ; and was buried with much pomp at Valla- 
 dolid. His remains were transferred, in .1513, to Seville ; 
 in 1536 to San Domingo ; and in Jan. 1796 to the Havanna, 
 
AMERICA. 
 
 28 
 
 AMETHYST. 
 
 CollimbllS sailed on his first expedition from Palos 
 in Andalusia on Friday, with vessels supplied by 
 the sovereigns of Spain .... 3 Aug. 1492 
 He lands on the Guanahani, one of the Bahamas ; 
 takes possession of it in the name of Ferdinand 
 and Isabella of Castile, and names it San Salvador 
 
 Friday, 12 Oct. 1492 
 He discovers Cuba, 28 Oct. ; and Hispaniola (now 
 Hayti), where he builds a fort, La Navidad 
 
 6 Dec. „ 
 
 He returns to Spain 15 March, ,, 
 
 He sails from Cadiz on his second expedition, 
 25 Sept. ; discovers the Caribbee Isles, — Dominica, 
 3 Nov. ; Guadaloupe, 4 Nov. ; Antigua, 10 Nov. ; 
 founds Isabella in Hispaniola, the first Christian 
 city in the New World .... Dec. 1493 
 He discovers Jamaica, 3 May : and Evangelista (now 
 Isle of Pines), 13 June ; war with the natives of 
 
 Hispaniola 1494 
 
 lie visits the various isles, and explores their coasts 
 
 M95-6 
 Returns to Spain to meet the charges of his enemies 
 
 11 June, 1496 
 Cabot (sent out by Henry VII. of England) discovers 
 Labrador on the coast of North America [he is 
 erroneously said to have discovered Florida, and 
 also Newfoundland, and to have named it Prima 
 Vista] ....:.. 24 June, 1497 
 Columbus sails on his third voyage, 30 May ; dis- 
 covers Trinidad, 31 July ; lands on Terra Firma, 
 without knowing it to be the new continent, 
 
 naming it Isla Santa 1 Aug. 1498 
 
 Ojeda discovers Surinam, June; and the gulf of 
 
 Venezuela 1499 
 
 Vicente Yaiiez Pinzon discovers Brazil, South Ame- 
 rica, 26Jan. ; and the river Mara&on (the Amazon); 
 Cabral the Portuguese lands in Brazil (see Brazil) 
 
 3 May, 1500 
 Gaspar Cortereal discovers Labrador . . . . ,, 
 Columbus is imprisoned in chains at San Domingo 
 by Bobadilla, sent out to investigate into his con- 
 duct, May ; conveyed to Spain, where he is honour- 
 ably received 17 Dec. „ 
 
 Columbus sails on his fourth voyage, 9 May ; dis- 
 covers various isles on the coast of Honduras, 
 and explores the coast of the isthmus, July, 
 (fcc. ; discovers and names Porto Bello . 2 Nov. 1502 
 Negro slaves imported into Hispaniola . . 1 501-3 
 Worried by the machinations of his enemies, he re- 
 turns to Spain, 7 Nov. ; his friend, queen Isabella, 
 
 dies 20 Nov. 1504 
 
 He dies while treated with base ingratitude by the 
 
 Spanish government .... 20 May, 1506 
 Solis and Pinzon discover Yucatan . . . . ,, 
 Ojeda founds San Sebastian, the first colony on the 
 
 mainland 1510 
 
 Subjugation of Cuba by Velasquez . . . . 1511 
 The coast of Florida discovered by Ponce de Leon . 1512 
 Vasco de Balboa crosses the isthmus of Darien, and 
 
 discovers the South Pacific Ocean. . . . 1513 
 Mexico discovered by Fernando de Cordova . . 1517 
 Grijalva penetrates into Yucatan, and names it New 
 
 Spain 1518 
 
 Passage of Magellan's Straits by him . . . . 1520 
 Conquest of Mexico by Fernando Cortes . . 1519-21 
 Pizarro discovers the coast of Quito . . . . 1526 
 He invades and conquers Peru .... 1532-5 
 Cartier, a Frenchman, enters the Gulf of St. Law- 
 rence, and sails up to Montreal . . . 1534-5 
 Grijalva's expedition, equipped by Cortes, discovers 
 
 California 1535 
 
 Mendoza founds Buenos Ayres, and conquers the 
 
 adjacent country ,, 
 
 Chili conquered by Valdivia 1541 
 
 Orellana sails down the Amazon to the sea . . . ,, 
 Louisiana conquered by De Soto ....,, 
 Rebellion in Peru — tranquillity established by 
 
 Gasca . 1548 
 
 Davis's Straits discovered by him .... 15S5 
 Raleigh establishes the first English .settlement— at 
 
 Roanoke, Virginia , 
 
 Falkland isles discovered by Davis .... 1592 
 
 Cuba. The original inscription on his tomb is said to 
 have been : " A Castilla y a Leon Nuevo Mundo dio 
 Colon." "To Castile and Leon Colon gave a New World." 
 Humboldt says beautifully, that the success of Columbus 
 was " a conquest of reflection I" 
 
 De Monts, a Frenchman, settles in Acadia, now 
 
 Nova Scotia 1604 
 
 Jamestown, in Virginia, the first English settlement 
 on the mainland, founded by lord de la Warr . 1607 
 
 Quebec founded by the French 1608 
 
 Hudson's bay discovered by him .... 1610 
 The Dutch build Manhattan, or New Amsterdam 
 
 (now New York) on the Hudson . . . . 1614 
 Settlement in New England begun by capt. Smith . „ 
 New Plymouth built by the English nonconformist 
 
 exiles 1620 
 
 Nova Scotia settled by the Scotch under sir Win. 
 
 Alexander 1622 
 
 Delaware settled by the Swedes and Dutch . . 1627 
 Massachusetts, by sir H. Boswell . . . . 1628 
 
 Maryland, by lord Baltimore 1633 
 
 Connecticut granted to lords Say and Brooke in 
 1630 ; but no English settlement was made here 
 
 till 1635 
 
 Rhode Island settled by Roger Williams and his 
 
 brethren, driven from Massachusetts . . . ,, 
 New Jersey settled by the Dutch, 1614, and Swedes, 
 1627 ; granted to the duke of York, who sells it to 
 
 lord Berkeley 1664 
 
 New York captured by the English , 
 
 South Carolina settled by the English . . . . 1669, 
 Pennsylvania settled by William Penn, the cele- 
 brated Quaker 1682 
 
 Louisiana settled by the French ,, 
 
 The Mississippi explored ...... 1699 
 
 The Scotch settlement at Darien (1698-9) abandoned 1700 
 
 New Orleans built 1717 
 
 Georgia settled by general Oglethorpe . . . 1732 
 
 Kentucky, by colonel Boon 1754 
 
 Canada conquered by the English, 1759-60 ; ceded to 
 
 Great Britain 1703 
 
 American war — declaration of independence by the 
 
 United States, 1776; recognised by Great Britain 1783 
 Louisiana ceded to Spain, 1763 : transferred to 
 
 France, 1800 ; sold to the United States . . . 1803 
 Florida ceded to Great Britain, 1763 ; taken by 
 Spain, 1781 ; to whom it is ceded, 1783 ; ceded to 
 
 the United States 1820. 
 
 Revolution in Mexico— declaration of independence 1821 
 Revolutions in Spanish America ; independence 
 established by Chili, 1810 ; Paraguay, 1811 ; 
 Buenos Ayres, and other provinces, 1816 ; Peru . 1826 
 [See United States, Mexico, and other states, through- 
 out the volume. ] 
 
 AMERICA, BRITISH, see British America. 
 
 AMERICA, CENTRAL, includes the republics 
 of Guatemala, San Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, 
 and Costa Rica {which tee). They declared their in- 
 dependence Sept. 21, 1S21, and separated from the 
 Mexican confederation, 21 July, 1823. The states 
 made a treaty of union between thomselves2i March, 
 1847. There has been among them since much anarchy 
 and bloodshed, aggravated greatly by the irruption of 
 American filibusters under Kenny and Walker, 
 1854-5. I n ^ an - *863, a war began between Guate- 
 mala (afterwards joined by Nicaragua) and San 
 Salvador (afterwards supported by Honduras). The 
 latter were defeated at Santa Rosa 16 June, and San 
 Salvador was taken 26 Oct. ; the president of San 
 Salvador, Barrios, fled; and Carrera, the dictator 
 of Guatemala, became predominant over the con- 
 federacy. — Population, 1869, about 2,700,000; see 
 Nicaragua, Darien, and Panama. 
 
 AMERICA, Russian, sold to the United 
 States for about 400,000/., March, 1867. See Alaska. 
 
 AMERICA, SOUTH, see Brazil, Argentine, 
 Peru, Paraguay, Uruguay, §c. 
 
 " AMERICA," see Yacht. 
 
 AMERICANISMS : a dictionary of these ex- 
 pressions was compiled by John 11. Bartlett, and 
 first published in 1848. 
 
 AMETHYST, the ninth stone upon the breast- 
 plate of the Jewish high priest, 1491 B.C. It is of a 
 rich violet colour. One worth 200 rix-dollars, having 
 
AMIENS. 
 
 29 
 
 ANABAPTISTS. 
 
 heen rendered colourless, equalled a diamond in 
 lustre, valued at 18,000 gold crowns. De Boot. — 
 Amethysts discovered at Kerry, in Ireland, in 1775. 
 
 AMIENS, a city in Picardy (N. France) • the 
 cathedral was built in 1220. It was taken by the 
 Spanish, 11 March, and retaken by the French, 
 25 Sept. 1597- The preliminary articles of the 
 peace between Great Britain, Holland, France, and 
 Spain, were signed in London by lord Hawkesbury 
 and M. Otto, on the part of England and France, 
 E Oct. 1801; and the definitive treaty was subscribed 
 at Amiens, on 27 March, 1802, by the marquis of 
 Cornwallis for England, Joseph Bonaparte for 
 France, Azara for Spain, and Schimmelpenninck 
 for Holland. War was declared again in 1803. — 
 After a conflict, in which the French were defeated, 
 27 Nov. 1870, the German general, Von Goeben 
 entered Amiens, 28 Nov. 
 
 AMMEEGAU Passion Play, sec Drama. 
 
 AMMONIA, the volatile alkali, mainly pro- 
 duced by the decomposition of organic substances. 
 Its name is ascribed to its having been procured 
 from heated camels' dung near the temple of Jupiter 
 Ammon in Libya. The discovery of its being a 
 compound of nitrogen and hydrogen is ascribed to 
 Joseph Priestley in 1774. -By the recent labours of 
 chemists both the oxide of the hypothetical metal 
 ammonium, and ammonium amalgam, have been 
 formed ; and specimens of each Avere shown at the 
 Soyal Institution in 1856 by Dr. A. W. Hofmann, 
 •who has done very much for the chemical history of 
 ammonia. 
 
 AMMONITES, descended from Ben-Ammi, 
 the son of Lot (1897 B.C.), invaded Canaan and 
 made the Israelites tributaries, but were defeated by 
 Jephthah, 1 143 B.C. They again invaded Canaan, 
 intending to put out the right eye of all they sub- 
 dued ; but Saul overthrew them, 1095 B - c - They 
 were afterwards many times vanquished ; and 
 Antiochus the Great took Kabbah their capital, 
 and destroyed the walls, 198 B.C. Joscphus. 
 
 AMNESTY (a general pardon after political 
 •disturbances, &c.) was granted by Thrasybulus, the 
 Athenian patriot, after expelling the thirty tyraDts, 
 403 B.C. Acts of amnesty were passed after the 
 civil war in 165 1, and after the two rebellions in 
 England in 1715 and 1745. — After his victorious 
 campaign in Italy, Napoleon III. of France granted 
 an amnesty to all political offenders, 17 Aug. 1859. 
 An amnesty, with certain exemptions, was granted 
 to the vanquished southern states of North America 
 by president Johnson, 29 May, 1865. An amnesty 
 for political offences was granted by the emperor of 
 Austria at his coronation as king of Hungary, 
 •8 June, 1867; a rather sweeping amnesty bill was 
 passed in the United States regarding the rebellion, 
 10 April, 187 1. 
 
 AMOY, see China, 1853-5. 
 
 AMPHICTYONIC COUNCIL, asserted 
 traditionally to have been established at Ther- 
 niopyla? by Amphictyon, for the management of all 
 affairs relative to Greece. This celebrated council, 
 composed of twelve of the wisest and most virtuous 
 men of various cities of Greece, began 1498 [11 13, 
 Clinton] B.C., and existed 31 B.C. Its immediate 
 office was to attend to the temples and oracles of 
 Delphi. Its calling on the Greek States to punish 
 the Phocians for plundering Delphi caused the 
 Sacred wars, 595-586, and 356-346. 
 
 AMPHION, a British frigate, of 38 guns, blown 
 lip while riding at anchor in Plymouth Sound, and 
 the whole of her crew then on board, consisting of 
 more than two hundred and fifty persons, officers 
 and men, perished, 22 Sept. 1796. 
 
 AMPHIPOLIS, Macedon (N. Greece) . A city 
 founded here by the Athenians, 437 B.C. ; was seized 
 by Brasidas the Spartan, 424; both he and the 
 Athenian general, Cleon, were killed in a fruitless 
 attempt at the capture of the city by the Athenians, 
 422. 
 
 AMPHITHEATRES, round or oval buildings, 
 said to have been first constructed by Curio, 76 B.C., 
 and by Julius Caesar 46 B.C. In the Roman amphi- 
 theatres, the people witnessed the combats of gladia- 
 tors with wild, beasts, &c. They were generally 
 built of wood, but Statilius Taurus made one of 
 stone, under Augustus Ca3sar ; see Coliseum. The 
 amphitheatre of Vespasian (capable of holding 
 87,000 persons) was built between a.i>. 70 and 80; 
 and is said to have been a fortress in 1312. The 
 amphitheatre at Verona was next in size, and then 
 that of Nismes. 
 
 AMPHITEITE, The Ship, see Wrecks, 
 30 Aug. 1833. 
 
 AMPUTATION, in surgery was greatly aided 
 by the invention of the tourniquet by Morel, a French 
 surgeon in 1674, and of the flap-method by Lowd- 
 ham of Exeter in 1679. 
 
 AMSTERDAM (Holland) . The castle of Am- 
 stel was commenced in 1100; the building of the 
 city in 1203. Its commerce was greatly increased 
 by the decay of that of Antwerp after 1609. The 
 exchange was built in 1634 ; and the noble stadt- 
 house in 1648; the latter cost three millions of 
 guilders, then a large sum. It was built upon 
 x 3>659 piles. Amsterdam surrendered to the king 
 of Prussia, when that prince invaded Holland, in 
 favour of the stadtholder, in 1787. The French 
 were admitted without resistance, 18 Jan. 1795. 
 The Dutch government was restored in Dec. 1813. 
 A crystal palace for an industrial exhibition was 
 opened by prince Frederick of the .Netherlands 16 
 Aug. 1864. 
 
 AMULETS OR Charms, employed from the 
 earliest times. Amulets "were made of the wood of 
 the true cross, about 328. 
 
 AMYL, a chemical alcohol radical (first isolated 
 by professor Edward Frankland in 1849.) 
 
 AMYLENE, a colourless, very mobile liquid, 
 first procured by M. Balard of Paris in 1844, by 
 distilling fusel oil (potato-spirit) with chloride of 
 zinc. The vapour was employed instead of chloro- 
 form first by Dr. Snow in 1856. It has since been 
 tried in many hospitals here and in France. The 
 odour is more unpleasant than chloroform, and more 
 vapour must be used. 
 
 ANABAPTISTS, those who baptize at full ' 
 age, and reject infant baptism ; see Baptists. The 
 name "was first given to Thomas Miinzer Storck 
 and other fanatics who preached in Saxony in 1521' 
 and excited a rebellion of the lower orders in Ger- 
 man y, which was quelled with bloodshed in 1525. 
 A similar insurrection took place in "Westphalia' 
 headed by Matthias 1533, and, after his assassina- 
 tion, by John Boccold of Leyden, who was crowned 
 "king of Sion" in Minister, 24 June, 1534. Mini- 
 ster was taken in June, 1535; and John was executed 
 
ANACHORETS. 
 
 30 
 
 ANDERNACH. 
 
 13 Feb. 1536. Several anabaptists were executed in 
 England in 1535, 1538, and 1540. On 6 Jan. 1661, 
 about 80 anabaptists in London appeared in arms, 
 headed by their preacher, Thomas Venner, a wine- 
 cooper. They fought desperately, and killed many 
 of the soldiers brought against them. Their leader 
 and sixteen others were executed, 19 and 21 Jan. 
 Annals of England. 
 ANACHORETS, see Monachism. 
 
 ANACREONTIC VEESE, of the baccha- 
 nalian strain, named after Anacreon ot Teos, the 
 Greek lyric poet, whose odes are much prized. He 
 is said to have been choked by a grape-stone in his 
 eighty-fifth year, about 514 B.C. His odes have 
 been frequently translated ; Thomas Moore's version 
 was published in 1800. 
 
 ANAESTHETICS, see Opium, Chloroform, 
 Ether, Amylene, Kerosolene, Nitrous acid. Intense 
 cold has been also employed in deadening pain. 
 
 ANADOLIA (Asia Minor), comprises the an- 
 cient Lycia, Caria, Lydia, Mysia, Bithynia, Paph- 
 lagonia and Phrygia {which see) . 
 
 ANAGRAMS, formed by the transposition of 
 the letters of a word or sentence (as army from 
 Mary), are said to have been made by ancient 
 Jews, Greeks, &c. On the question put 'by Pilate 
 to Our Saviour, "Quid est Veritas?" (what is 
 truth ?) we have the anagram, " Est vir qui adest " 
 (" The man who is here " ) ; from "Horatio Nelson," 
 is " Honor est a Nilo" (Honour from the Nile "). 
 
 AN AM, see Annum. 
 
 ANASTATIC PRINTING, see Printing, 
 1841. 
 
 ANATHEMA, the sentence of excommunica- 
 tion (1 Cor. xvi. 22), used by the early churches, 
 365 ; see Excommunication. Pope Pius IX. pro- 
 pounded a series of anathemas, Feb. 1870. 
 
 ANATOMY (Greek, cutting up). The human 
 body was studied by Aristotle about 350 B.C., and 
 became a branch of medical education under Hippo- 
 crates, about 420 B.C. Erasistratus and Herophilus 
 first dissected the human form, having been previ- 
 ously confined to animals: it is said that they 
 practised upon the bodies of living criminals, about 
 300 and 293 B.C. Galen, who died a.d. 193, was a 
 great anatomist. In England, the schools were long 
 supplied with bodies unlawfully exhumed from 
 graves ; and until 1832, the bodies of executed 
 murderers were ordered for dissection.* Pope Boni- 
 face VIII. forbade the dissection of dead bodies, 
 1297. — The first anatomical plates, designed by 
 Titian, were employed by Vesalius, about 1538. 
 Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and Michael Angelo, 
 studied anatomy. The great discoveries of Harvey 
 were made in 1616. William and John Hunter 
 
 * By 32 Hen. VIII. c. 42 (1540), surgeons were granted 
 four bodies of executed malefactors for " waathomyes," 
 which privilege wis extended in fcllawing reigns : but in 
 consequence of the crimes committed by resurrection- 
 men in order to supply the surgical schools (robbing 
 churchyards and even committing murder, see Burking), 
 a new statute was passed in 1S32, which abated the 
 ignominy of dissection by prohibiting that of executed 
 murderers, and made provision for the wants of surgeons 
 by permitting, under certain regulations, the dissection 
 of persons dying in workhouses, <fce. The act also ap- 
 pointed inspectors of anatomy, regulated the schools, 
 and required persons practising anatomy to obtain a 
 licence. It repealed the clauses of the act of 1828, 
 which directed the dissection of the body of an executed 
 murderer. 
 
 were great anatomists: William died 1783, and 
 John, 1793. Quain's and "Wilson's large anatomical 
 plates were published 1842, and Bourgerv's great 
 work b}' Jacob, 1830-55. Comparative anatomy has 
 been treated systematically in the present century 
 by Cuvier, Owen, Muller, Huxley, and others. — 
 The anatomy of plants has been studied since 1680; 
 see Botany. 
 
 ANCHORITES, see Monachism. 
 
 ANCHORS were invented by the Tuscans. 
 riiny. The second tooth, or fluke, was added by 
 Anacharsis the Scythian (592 B.C.). Strabo. 
 Anchors said to have been forged in England 
 a.d. 578. The Admiralty anchor was introduced 
 about 1841. Improved anchors were made by Pering 
 and Rodgers about 1828; by Porter, 1838; by Costell, 
 1848 ; by Trotman, 1853 ; and by several other per- 
 sons. Trot man' s is attached to the Queen's yacht 
 the Fairy. The anchors of the Great Eastern are 
 of enormous size. Acts for the proving and sale of 
 chain cables and anchors were passed in 1864 and 
 1871. 
 
 ANCIENT HISTORY commences in the 
 Holy Scriptures 4004 B.C. and in the history of 
 Herodotus about 1687 B.C., and is considered to end 
 with the destruction of the Roman empire in Italy, 
 A.D. 476. Modern history begins with Mahomet 
 (a.d. 022), or with Charlemagne (768). 
 
 ANCIENTS, see Councils, French. 
 
 ANCONA, an ancient Roman port on the 
 Adriatic. The mole was built by Trajan, 107. 
 After many changes of rulers (Lombards, Saracens, 
 Greeks, and Germans) Aneona was annexed to the 
 papal states in 1532. It was taken by the French, 
 1797; retaken by the Austrians, 1799; reoecupied 
 by the French, 1801 ; restored to the pope, 1802. It 
 was occupied by the French in 1832 ; evacuated in 
 1838, and after an insurrection was bombarded and 
 captured by the Austrians, June 18, 1849. The 
 Marches (comprising this city) rebelled against the 
 Papal government in Sept. i860. Lamoricierc, the 
 papal general, fled to Aneona after his defeat at 
 Castelfidardo, but was compelled to surrender him- 
 self, the city, and the garrison, on 29 Sept. The 
 king of Sardinia entered soon after. 
 
 ANCYRA, now Angora or Engour, a town in 
 ancient Galatia, Asia Minor. Councils were held 
 here 314, 358, 375. It was taken by the Persians, 
 616; by the Saracens, 1085 ; by the crusaders, 1102. 
 Near this city, on 28 July, 1402, Timour or Tamer- 
 lane defeated and took prisoner the sultan Bajazet, 
 and is said to have conveyed him to Samarcand in 
 a cage. ^ 
 
 ANDALUSIA (S. Spain), a province once 
 part of the ancient Lusitania and Bsetica. The 
 name is a corruption of Vandalitia, it having been 
 held by the Vandals from 419 to 429, when it was 
 acquired by the Visigoths. The latter were expelled 
 by the Moors in 711, who established the kingdom 
 of Cordova, and retained it till 1236. 
 
 ANDAMAN ISLANDS, in the Bay of Bengal. 
 The inhabitants are dwarfs, and in the lowest state 
 of barbarism. At Port Blair, on South Island, made 
 a penal settlement for the Sepoy rebels in 1858, 
 the earl of Mayo, viceroy of India, was assassinated 
 by Shere Alee, a convict, 8 Feb. 1872, when going 
 on board the Glasgow. 
 
 ANDERNACH, Rhenish Prussia, once an im- 
 perial city. Near here, the emperor Charles I., 
 while attempting to deprive his nephews of their 
 
ANDOEEA. 
 
 31 
 
 ANHALT. 
 
 inheritance, was totally defeated by one of them, 
 Louis of Saxony, 8 Oct. 876. 
 
 ANDOEEA, a small republic in the Pyrenees, 
 bearing the title of " the valleys and sovereignties 
 of Andorra," was made independent by Charlemagne 
 about 778, certain rights being reserved to the 
 bishop of Urge I. The feudal sovereignty, which 
 long appertained to the counts of Foix, reverted to 
 the French king, Henry IV., in 1589; but was 
 given up in 1790. On 27 March, 1806, an imperial 
 decree restored the old relations between Andorra 
 and France. The republic is now governed by a 
 council elected for four years; but the magistrates 
 are appointed alternately by the French govern- 
 ment and the Spanish bishop of Urgel, to both of 
 whom tribute is paid. The population is about 
 12,000. 
 
 ANDEE'S EXECUTION", see United States, 
 
 1780. 
 
 ANDEEW, ST., said to have been martyred 
 by crucifixion, 30 Nov. 69, at Patrse, in Achaia. 
 His festival was instituted about 359. The Koyal 
 Society's anniversary is kept on St. Andrew's day. 
 The Russian order of St. Andrew was instituted m 
 1698 by Peter I. For the British order, see Thistle. 
 
 ANDEEW' S,St. (E.Scotland), made a royal 
 burgh in 1140. Here Robert Bruce held his first 
 parliament in 1309; and here "Wishart was burnt 
 by archbishop Beaton, 1545, who himself was mur- 
 dered here in 1546. The university was founded in 
 141 1 by bishop Wardlaw. The cathedral (built 
 1159-1318), was destroyed by a mob, excited by a 
 sermon of John Knox, June, 1559. Sir R. Sibbald's 
 list of the bishops commences with Killach, 872. 
 The see became archiepiscopal in 1470, ceased soon 
 after 1689 ; was re-instituted in 1844 ; see Bishops. 
 
 ANDEUSSOV, Peace of (30 Jan. 1667), 
 
 between Russia and Poland, for 13 years, with mutual 
 concessions, although the latter had been generally 
 victorious. 
 
 ANEMOMETEE (Greek, aminos, the wind), 
 a measurer of the strength and velocity of the wind, 
 was invented by "Wolfius, in 1709. The extreme 
 velocity was found by Dr. Lind to be 93 miles per 
 hour. Osier's and "Whewell's anemometers were 
 highly approved of in 1844. " Robinson's anemo- 
 meter is the simplest and best,'' Buchan, 1867- 
 
 ANEEOID, see Barometer. 
 
 ANGEL, a gold coin, impressed with an angel, 
 weighing four pennyweights, valued at 6s. 8d. in 
 the reign of Henry VI., and at ios. in the reign of 
 Elizabeth, 1562. The Angelot, a gold coin, value 
 half an angel, was struck at Paris when held by the 
 English, 1431. Wood. 
 
 ANGELIC BLIGHTS of St. George. 
 
 This order is said to have been instituted by Constan- 
 tine who died 337. The Angelici were instituted by 
 the emperor Angelus Conrnenus, 1191. — The Ange- 
 lica, an order of nuns, was founded at Milan by 
 Louisa Torelli, 1534. 
 
 ANGEES (W. Central France), the Roman 
 Juliomagus, possessing an amphitheatre ; afterwards 
 Andegarum, the capital of Anjou (ivhich see). It 
 was frequently besieged, and many councils were 
 held in it between 453 and 1448, relating to ecclesi- 
 siastical discipline. 
 
 ANGEESTEIN GALLEEY, see National 
 Gallery. 
 
 ANGLESEY, called by the Romans Mona 
 (N. Wales), the seat of the Druids, who were 
 massacred in great numbers, when Suetonius 
 Paulinus ravaged the isle, 6r. It was conquered 
 by Agricola in 78 ; occupied by the Normans, 1090 ; 
 and with the rest of Wales annexed by Edward I. 
 in 1284. He built the fortress of Beaumaris in 
 1295. The Menai suspension bridge was erected 
 1818-25, and the Britannia tubular bridge 1849-50. 
 
 ANGLICAN CHTJECH, see Church of Eng- 
 land. 
 
 ANGLING. Allusion is made to it in the 
 Bible ; Amos iv. 2 (787 B.C.). 
 
 Oppian wrote his " Halieutics," a Greek epic poem on 
 
 Pishes and Fishing, about a.d. 198. 
 In the book on " Hawkynge and Huntynge," by Juliana 
 
 Berners or Barnes, prioress of Sopwith, near St. 
 
 Albans, "emprinted at Westmestre by Wynkyn de 
 
 Worde," in 1496, is " The treatise of fysshyng with an 
 
 Angle." 
 Izaac Walton's " Conipleat Angler" was first published in 
 
 1653. 
 
 ANGLO-AMEEICAN ASSOCIATION, 
 
 to cultivate more cordial relations between Great 
 Britain and the United States, established 25 Jan. 
 1871. 
 
 ANGLO-SAXONS or Angles, derive their 
 
 name from a village near Sleswick, called Anglen, 
 whose population (called Angli by Tacitus) joined 
 the first Saxon freebooters. East Anglia was a 
 kingdom of the heptarchy, founded by the Angles, 
 one of whose chiefs, Uffa, assumed the title of king, 
 571 ; Ihe kingdom ceased in 792. See Britain. 
 Csedmon paraphrased part of the Bible in Anglo- 
 Saxon about 680 ; a translation of the gospels was 
 made by abbot Egbert, of Iona, 721 ; of Boethius, 
 Orosius, &c, by Alfred, 888. The Anglo-Saxon 
 laws were printed by order of government, in 1840. 
 
 ANGOLA (S. "W. Africa), settled by the Portu- 
 guese soon after the discovery, by Diego Cam, 
 about 1484. Loando, their capital, was built 1578. 
 
 ANGOEA, see Ancyra. 
 
 ANGOULEME, (the Roman Iculisma,) capi- 
 tal of the province of Angoumois, Central France, 
 ~W., was a bishopric in 260. Angouleme became 
 an independent country about 856 ; was united to 
 the French crown in 1308 ; was held by the Eng- 
 lish, 1360 to 1372, in the reign of Edward III. 
 The count of Angouleme became king of France as 
 Francis I. in 1515. 
 
 ANGEIA'S FORT, see India, 1756. 
 
 ANGUILLA, Snake Island, West Indies, set- 
 tled by the British, 1666. Valuable deposits of 
 phosphate of lime were found here in 1859. 
 
 ANHALT, HOUSE OF, in Germany, deduces- 
 its origin from Berenthobaldus, who made war upon 
 the Thuringians in the sixth century. In 1606, 
 the principality was divided among the four sons of 
 Joachim Ernest, by the eldest, John-George. Thus 
 began the four branches — Anhalt-Dessau (de- 
 scended from John- George) ; Zerbst, extinct, 1793; 
 Plotsgau or Coethen, extinct, 1847 ; and Bernburg, 
 extinct, 1863 ; (the last duke died without issue, 
 22 Aug. 1863.) The princes of Anhalt became 
 dukes in 1809. Anhalt is an hereditary constitu- 
 tional monarchy ; population in 1871, 203,354. 
 
 Anhalt joined the North German Confederation, 18 Aug. 
 1866. 
 
 Leopold (born Oct. 1, 1794), became duke of Anhalt- 
 Dessau, 9 Aug. 18 1 7, and of Anhalt-Bernburg, 30 Aug. 
 1863 ; died 22 March, 1871. 
 
ANHOLT. 
 
 :yi 
 
 ANNUAL REGISTER. 
 
 Frederic, duke of Anhalt : l)nrn 29 April, 1831. 
 Heir: Leopold, l»>ni 18 July, 1G55. 
 
 ANHOLT. ISLAND of, Denmark, was taken 
 possession of by England, 18 May, 1809, in the 
 French war, on account of Danish cruisers injuring 
 British commerce. The Danes made a fruitless 
 attempt to regain it, 27 March, 181 1. 
 
 ANILINE, an oily alkaline body, discovered 
 in 1826 by Unverdorbcn among the products of 
 distillation of indigo. From benzole [which see) 
 Bechamp, in 1S56, obtained it by successive treat- 
 ment with concentrated nitric acid and reducing 
 agents. The scientific relations of aniline have 
 been carefully examined by several chemists, 
 especially by Dr. A. W. Hofmann. It was long 
 known to yield a scries of coloured compounds, but 
 it was not till 1856 that Mr. W. A. Perkin showed 
 how a violet oxidation-product (mauve) could be 
 applied in dyeing. Aniline is now manufactured on 
 a large scale for the commercial production of 
 "Mauve" and "Magenta" (rosaniline) (which 
 see), and several other colouring matters, (aniline 
 blue, 1861 ; violet, 1863; "night" green, &c. 
 After much litigation, the patent of Simpson, 
 Maule, and Nicholson, for aniline colours, was an- 
 nulled by the house of lords, 27 July, 1866. 
 
 ANIMALCULES, Leeuwenhoek's remarkable 
 
 microscopical discoveries were published in his 
 ■'Arcana Naturae," at Leyden, 1696. The great 
 works of Ehrenberg of Berlin on the Infusorial 
 Animalcule, &c, were issued 1838-57. Pritchard's 
 Infusoria, ed. 1861, is a valuable summary of our 
 present knowledge of animalcules. 
 
 ANIMAL MAGNETISM (to cure diseases 
 by sympathetic affection) was introduced by father 
 FJ fhl, a Jesuit, at Vienna, about 1774, and "had its 
 dupes in France and England about 1788-89. 
 Ilehl for a short time associated with Mesmer, but 
 they soon quarrelled.— Mr. Perkins (who died in 
 1799) invented " Metallic Tractors for collecting, 
 condensing, and applying animal magnetism;" 
 but Drs. Falconer and Haygarth put an end to his 
 pretensions by performing many wonders with a 
 pah- of wooden tractors. Brande. See Mesmerism. 
 
 ANIMALS, CRFFLTY TO. Mr. Martin, 
 M.P., as a senator, zealously laboured to repress 
 it; and in 1824, the Royal Society for the Preven- 
 tion of Cruelty to Animals was instituted. Its 
 new house in Jermyn -street, London, was founded 
 4 May, 1869. It opposed vivisection in i860, in 
 unison with' a French society. Mr. Martin's act 
 was passed 1822, and similar acts were passed rh 
 1827, 1835, 1837, 1849, and 1854. Dogs were for- 
 bidden to be used for draught in 1839. 
 
 ANJOU, a province, W. France, was taken by 
 Henry II. of England from his brother Geoffrey, 
 in 1 1 56; their father Geoffrey Plantagenet, count of 
 Anjou, having married the empress Matilda in 1 127. 
 It was taken from king John by Philip of France 
 in 1205 ; was reconquered by Edward III. ; relin- 
 quished by him at the peace of Bretigny in 1360, 
 and given by Charles V. to his brother Louis with 
 the title of duke. The university was formed in 
 1349- 
 
 (360. Louis I. duke, invested by the pope with the 
 dominions of Joanna of Naples, 1381 ; Ids invading 
 army destroyed by the plague, 1383 : he dies, 1384. 
 
 1384. Louis 11., his son, receives the same grant, but is 
 also unsuccessful. 
 
 Louis III., adopted by Joanna ; dies 1434. 
 
 1434. Regnier or Rene le bon (a prisoner) declared king 
 of Naples, 143^ ; his daughter, Margaret, married 
 Henry VI. of England, 1445 ; he was expelled from 
 Anjou by Louis XI., 1474, and his estates confiscated. 
 
 Francis, duke of Alencon, brother to Henry III. of 
 France, became duke of Anjou ; at one time he 
 favoured the Protestants, and vainly offered marriage to 
 Elizabeth of England, 1581-82 ; died 1584. 
 
 ANJOU or BEArGE, BATTLE OF, between 
 the English and French ; the latter commanded by 
 the dauphin of France, 22 March, 1421. The Eng- 
 lish were defeated : the duke of Clarence was slain 
 by sir Allan Swinton, a Scotch knight, and 1500 
 men perished on the field ; the earls of Somerset, 
 Dorset, and Huntingdon were taken prisoners. 
 Beangl was the first battle that turned the tide of 
 success against the English. 
 
 ANNAM or AXAM, an empire of Asia, to the 
 east of India, comprising Tonquin, Cochin China, 
 part of Cambodia, and various islands in the Chinese, 
 Sea; said to have been conquered by the Chinese, 
 234 B.C., and held by them till a.d. 263. In 1406 
 they reconquered it, but abandoned it in 1428. 
 After much anarchv, bishop Adran, a French mis- 
 sionary, obtained the friendship of Louis XVI. for 
 his pupil Gia-long, the son of the nominally reign- 
 ing monarch, and with the aid of a few of his 
 countrymen established Gia-long on the throne, 
 who reigned till his death in 1821, when his son 
 became king. In consequence of the persecution of 
 the Christians, war broke out with the French, 
 who defeated the army of Annam, 10,000 strong, 
 about 22 April, 1859, when 500 were killed. On 3 
 June, 1862, peace was made ; three provinces were 
 ceded to the French, and toleration of the Christians 
 granted. An insurrection in these provinces against 
 the French, begun about 17 Dec. 1862, was sup- 
 pressed in Feb. 1863. Ambassadors sent from An- 
 nam with the view of regaining the ceded provinces 
 arrived at Paris in Sept. 1863, had no success. Three 
 provinces were annexed to the French empire by 
 proclamation, 25 June, 1867. Several native 
 Christians were massacred by order of a bonze, 
 July, 1868. 
 
 ANNAPOLIS, see Fort Royal. 
 
 ANNATES, see First Fruits. 
 
 ANNO DOMINI, A.D., the year of Our 
 Lord, of Grace, of the Incarnation, of the Circum- 
 cision, and of the Crucifixion (Trabeationis). The 
 Christian era commenced 1 Jan. in the middle of 
 the 4th year of the 194th Olympiad, the 753rd year 
 of the building of Rome, and in 4714 of the Julian 
 period. This era was invented by a monk, Diony- 
 sius Exiguus or Denys le Fetit, about 532. It was 
 introduced into Italy in the 6th century, and 
 ordered to be used by bishops by the council of 
 Chelsea, in 816, but was not generally employed 
 for several centuries. Charles III. of Germany was 
 the first who added "in the year of our Lord" to 
 his reign, in 879. It is now held that Christ was 
 bom Friday, 5 April, 4 B.C. 
 
 "ANNOYANCE JURIES," of Westmin- 
 ster, chosen from the householders in conformity 
 with 27 Eliz. c. 17 (1585), were abolished in 1861. 
 
 ANNUAL REGISTER, a summary of the 
 history of each year (beginning with 1758, and 
 continued to the present time), was commenced by 
 P. & J. Dodsley. (Edmund Purke at first wrote 
 the whole work, but afterwards became only an 
 occasional contributor. Prior.) A similar work, 
 the " Annuaire des Deux Moudes," began in Paris 
 in 1850. 
 
ANNUALS. 
 
 33 
 
 ANTIETAM. 
 
 ANNUALS, a name given to richly bound 
 volumes, containing poetry, tales, and essavs, by 
 eminent authors, illustrated by engravings," pub- 
 lished annually, at first in Germany, and also in 
 London in 1823. The duration of the' chief of these 
 publications is here given : 
 
 Forget-me-not (Aekerman's) .... 1823-48 
 
 Friendship's Offering 1824-44 
 
 Literary Souvenir (first as " the Graces ") . . 1824-34 
 
 Amulet 1827-34 
 
 Keepsake 1828-56 
 
 Hood's Comic Annual 1830-42 
 
 ANNUITIES or Pensions. In 1512, 20I. a 
 
 year were given to a lady of the court for services 
 done ; and 61. 13s. qd. for the maintenance of a 
 gentleman, 1536. 13^. 6s. 8d. deemed competent 
 to support a gentleman in the study of the law, 
 1554. An act was passed empowering the govern- 
 ment to borrow one million sterling upon an an- 
 nuity of fourteen^er cent., 4-6 Will. &Mary,i69i-3. 
 This mode of borrowing soon afterwards became 
 general among governments. An annuity of 
 il. 25. lid. per annum, accumulating at 10 per cent., 
 compound interest, amounts in 100 years to 20,000^. 
 The Government Annuities and Life Assurances 
 Act was passed in 1864, for the benefit of the 
 working classes ; since it enables the government 
 to grant deferred annuities for sums payable in 
 small instalments. "Works on annuities were pub- 
 lished by De Witt, 1671 ; De Moivre, 1724; Simp- 
 son, 1742; Tables by Price, 1792; Milne, 1815 ; 
 Jones, 1843 ; Farre, 1*864. 
 
 ANNUITY TAX : a tax levied to provide 
 stipends for ministers in Edinburgh and Montrose, 
 and which caused much disaffection, was abolished 
 in i860, and other provisions made for the pur- 
 pose. These, however, proved equally unpalatable, 
 and its abolition was provided for by an act passed 
 9 Aug. 1870. 
 
 ANNUNCIATION of the Virgin Mahy, 
 
 25th of March, Lady-day {which see), a festival 
 commemorating the tidings brought to Mary by the 
 angel Gabriel {Luke i. 26) : its origin is referred 
 to the 4th or 5th century. The religious order of 
 the Annunciation was instituted in 1232, and the 
 military order, in Savoy, by Amadeus, count of 
 Savoy, in memory of Amadeus I., who had bravely 
 defended Ehodes against the Turks, 1355. 
 
 ANOINTING, an ancient ceremony observed 
 at the inauguration of priests, kings, and bishops. 
 Aaron was anointed as high priest, 1491 B.C. ; and 
 Saul, as king, 1095 B.C. Alfred the Great is said 
 to have been the first English king anointed, A. p. 
 871 ; and Edgar of Scotland, 1098. — The religious 
 rite is derived from the epistle of James v. 14, about 
 a.d. 60. Some authors assert that in 550, dying 
 persons, and persons in extreme danger of death, 
 were anointed with consecrated oil, and that this 
 was the origin of Extreme Unction (one of the 
 sacraments of the Eoman Catholic Church). 
 
 ANONYMOUS LETTEES, see Threatening 
 Letters. 
 
 ANOETHOSCOPE, a new optical apparatus, 
 described by Dr. Carpenter in 1868. In it distorted 
 figures lose their distortion when put into rapid 
 motion. 
 
 ANTALCIDAS, Peace of. In 387 b.c. 
 
 Antalcidas the Lacedemonian made peace with 
 Artaxerxes of Persia, on behalf of Greece, but prin- 
 cipally in favour of Sparta, giving up the cities of 
 Ionia to the king. 
 
 ANTAECTIC POLE, the opposite to the 
 north or arctic pole; see Southern Continent. 
 
 ANTEDILUVIAN HISTOEY, Genesis iv., 
 v., vi. According to the tables of Mr. Whiston, 
 the number of people in the ancient world, previous 
 to the Flood, reached to 549, 755 millions in the year 
 of the world 1482. 
 
 ANTHEMS. Hilary, bishop of Poictiers, and 
 St. Ambrose composed them about the middle of 
 the 4th century. Lenglet. They were introduced 
 into the church service in 386. Baker. Ignatius 
 is said to have introduced them into the Greek, and 
 St. Ambrose into the Western Church. They were 
 introduced into the Eeformed churches in queen 
 Elizabeth's reign, about 1565. T. Tallis and K. 
 Tarrant, early English anthem writers, died 1585. 
 
 ANTHEACENE, see Alizarine. 
 
 ANTHEOPOLOGICAL SOCIETY (««- 
 thropos, Greek for man), for promoting the science 
 of man and mankind, held its first meeting on 24 
 Feb. 1863; Dr. James Hunt, president, in the 
 chair. The " Anthropological Review " first came 
 out in May, 1863. The Anthropological and Ethno- 
 logical Societies were amalgamated 17 Jan. 1871, 
 and styled "The Anthropological Institute," Sir 
 John Lubbock, president. 
 
 ANTHEOPOPH AGI (eaters of human flesh) , 
 see Cannibals. 
 
 ANTIBUEGHEES, see Burghers. 
 
 ANTICHEIST (opposed to Christ), 1 John ii. 
 18, termed the "Man of sin," 2 Thess. ii. 3 ; of 
 these passages many interpretations have been given,, 
 and many myths were current in the middle ages.,, 
 respecting the incarnation of the devil, &c. The- 
 term is applied to each other by Eoman Catholics- 
 and Protestants. 
 
 ANTI-COEN-LAW LEAGUE, for pro- 
 curing the repeal of the laws charging duty on the 
 importation of corn, sprung from various metro- 
 politan and provincial associations, was founded at 
 Manchester, 18 Sept. 1838, and supported by Messrs, 
 Charles Villiers, Eichard Cobden, John Bright, &c.;, 
 see Com Laivs, and Protectionists. 
 
 Meetings held in various places . March <& April, 1841 
 Excited meeting at Manchester . . 18 May, „ 
 A bazaar held at Manchester, at which the League 
 
 realised io,oooL 2 Feb. 1842.. 
 
 About 600 deputies connected with provincial asso- 
 ciations assemble in London. . Feb. -Aug. „ 
 The League at Manchester proposed to raise 
 5o,oooZ., to depute lecturers throughout the 
 country, and to print pamphlets . 20 Oct. ,, 
 First meeting at Drury-lane Theatre . 15 March, 1843 ■ 
 Monthly meetings at Covent-Garden, commenced 
 28 Sept. ; great free-trade meetings at Manchester 
 
 14 Nov. 1843, and 22 Jan. 1845 
 Bazaar at Covent-Garden opened . . 5 May, ,, 
 Great Manchester meeting, at which the League 
 proposed to raise a quarter of a million sterling 
 
 23 Dec. „ 
 The Corn Importation Bill having passed, 26 June, 
 the League is formally dissolved ; Mr. Cobden was 
 rewarded by a national subscription, nearly 
 
 8o,oooi 2 July, 1846 
 
 On the accession of the Derby ministry, a revival of 
 the Anti-Corn-Law League was proposed at Man- 
 chester, and a subscription was opened, which 
 produced within half an hour 27,520^. (soon proved 
 unnecessary) 2 Mar. 1852. 
 
 ANTIETAM CEEEK, near Sharpsburg, 
 Maryland, U. S. Here was fought a terrible battle 
 on 17 Sept. 1862, between the Federals under gene- 
 
ANTIGUA. 
 
 34 
 
 ANVAE-I-SUHAIH. 
 
 ral M'Clellan and the Confederates under Lee. 
 After his victory at Bull Run or Manassas, 30 Aug., 
 Lee invaded Maryland, and was immediately fol- 
 lowed by M'Clellan. On 16 Sept. Lee was joined 
 by Jackson, and at five o'clock next morning the 
 conflict began. About 100,000 men were engaged, 
 and the battle raged till night. The Federals were 
 repeatedly repulsed ; but eventually the Con- 
 federates retreated and repassed the Potomac on 
 18 and 19 Sept. The loss of the Federals was 
 estimated at 12,469; of the Confederates, 14,000. 
 
 ANTIGUA, a West Indian Island, discovered 
 by Columbus inNov. 1493; settled by the English 
 in 1632 ; made a bishopric, 1842. Population in 
 1861, 36,412. Governor, Sir B. C. C. Pine, 1869. 
 
 ANTILLES, or Caribbee Islands, an early 
 name of the West Indies {which see) . 
 
 ANTIMONY, a white brittle metal, com- 
 pounds of which were early known. It was, and 
 is still, used to blacken both men's and women's 
 eyes in the east (2 Kings ix. 30, and Jeremiah iv. 
 30) . Mixed with lead it forms printing type metal. 
 Basil Valentine wrote on antimony about 1410. 
 Priestley. 
 
 ANTINOMIANS (from the Greek anti, 
 against, and nomas, law), a name given by Luther 
 (in 1538) to John Agricola, who is said to have 
 held "that it mattered not how wicked a man was 
 if he had but faith." (Opposed to Rom. iii. 28, & 
 vi. I, 2.) He retracted these doctrines in 1540. The 
 Antinomians were condemned by the British par- 
 liament. 1648. 
 
 ANTIOCH, now ANTIAKEH, Syria, built by 
 Seleucus, 300 B.C. after the battle of Ipsus, 301, 
 acquired the name " Queen of the East." Here the 
 disciples were first called Christians, A.n. 42 (Acts 
 xi. 26). Antioch was taken by the Persians, 540 ; 
 by the Saracens about 638 ; recovered for the Eastern 
 emperor, 966; lost again in 1086; retaken by the 
 Crusaders in June, 1098, and held by them till June, 
 1268, when it was captured by the sultan of Egypt. 
 It was taken from the Turks "in the Syrian war, 1 
 Aug. 1832, by Ibrahim Pacha, but restored at the 
 peace. Antioch suffered much by an earthquake, 
 and about 1600 persons were killed, 3 April, 1872. 
 — The Era of Antioch is much used by the early 
 Christian writers of Antioch and Alexandria ; it 
 placed the Creation 5492 years B.C. 31 councils were 
 held at Antioch, 252-1 161. 
 
 ANTIPODES. Plato is said to be the first 
 
 who thought it possible that antipodes existed 
 (about 388 B.C.). Boniface, archbishop of Mentz, 
 legate of pope Zachary, is said to have denounced 
 a bishop as a heretic for maintaining this doc- 
 trine, a.d. 741. The antipodes of England lie to 
 the south-east of New Zealand, near Antipodes 
 Island. 
 
 ANTI-POPES, rival popes elected at various 
 times, especially by the French and Italian factions, 
 from 1305 to 1439. In the article Popes, the Anti- 
 popes are printed in italics. 
 
 ANTIQUAEIES. A college of antiquaries is 
 said to have existed in Ireland, 700 B.C. The annual 
 International Congress of Prehistoric Archaeology, 
 originated at La Spczzia in 1865 ; annual meetings 
 have been held since at Paris, Norwich, &c. 
 
 A society was founded by archbishop Parker, Camden, 
 
 Stow, and others in 1572. Spelman. 
 Application was made to Elizabeth for a charter, but 
 
 her death ensued, and her successor, James I., was far 
 
 from favouring the design. 
 The Society of Antiquaries revived, 1707 ; receive 1 its 
 
 charter of incorporation from George II., 1751 ; and 
 
 apartments in Somerset-hoi d to it in 1777. 
 
 Its Memoirs, entitled " Archseologia," first published 
 
 in 1770 ; present president, earl Stanhope, elected, 
 
 1846. 
 British Archaeological Association founded Dec. 1843. 
 Archaeological Institute of Great Britain formed by B 
 
 seceding part of the Association, 1845. 
 Society of Antiquaries of Edinburgh founded in 1780. 
 Since 1845 many county archaeological societies have 
 
 been formed in the United Kingdom. 
 The Society of Antiquaries of France (1814) began in 1805 
 
 as the Celtic Academy. 
 
 ANTI - TEINITAEIANS. Theodotus of 
 Byzantium, at the close of the 2nd century, is sup- 
 posed to have been the first who advocated the sim- 
 ple humanity of Jesus. This doctrine, advocated by 
 Arius about 318, spread widely after the Reforma- 
 tion, when it was adopted by Loelius and Faustus 
 Socinus. Bayle. See Avians, Socinians, Uni- 
 tarians. 
 
 ANTIUM, maritime city of Latiuni, now Porto 
 d'Anzio, near Rome, after a long struggle for inde- 
 pendence, became a Roman colony, at the end of the 
 great Latin war, 340-338 B.C. It is mentioned by 
 Horace, and was a favourite retreat of the emperors 
 and wealthy Romans, who erected many villas in 
 its vicinity. The treasures deposited in the temple 
 of Fortune here were taken by Oetavius Csesar during 
 his war with Antony, 41 B.C. 
 
 ANTONINUS' WALL, see Roman WaUi. 
 
 ANTWEEP (French, Anvers), the principal 
 port of Belgium, is mentioned in history in 517. It 
 was a small republic in the nth century, and it was 
 the first commercial city in Europe till the wars of 
 the 1 6th and 17th centuries. 
 
 Its fine exchange built in 1531 
 
 Taken after 14 months' siege by the prince of Parma 
 
 17 Aug. 15S5 
 Truce of Antwerp (between Spain and United Pro- 
 vinces) for 12 years, concluded . . 29 Mar. 1609 
 Much injured by the imposition of a toll on the 
 
 Scheldt by the treaty of Minister . . . . 164S 
 After Marlborough's victory at Bamillies, Antwerp 
 
 surrenders at once .... 6 June, 1706 
 
 The Barrier treaty concluded here . 16 Nov. 1715 
 Taken by marshal Saxe .... 9 May, 1746 
 Occupied by the French . . . 1792-3,1794-1814 
 Civil war between the Belgians and the House of 
 
 Orange. (See Belgiwn.) .... 1830-31 
 The Belgian troops, having entered Antwerp, were 
 opposed by the Dutch garrison, who, alter a 
 dreadful conflict, being driven into the <i; 
 cannonaded the town with red-hot balls and shells 
 
 27 Oct. 1S30 
 The citadel bombarded by the French, 4 Dec. ; sur- 
 rendered by gen. Chasse . . . . 23 D 
 The exchange burnt; archives, &c, destroyed 
 
 2 Aug. .1S58 
 Proposal to strengthen the fortifications adopted 
 
 Aug. 1859 
 
 A fine art fete held 17-20 Aug. 1861 
 
 Great Napoleon wharf destroyed by lire; loss 25 
 
 Lives and about 400,0002. . . . 2 Dec. „ 
 
 Great fete at the opening of the port by the aboli- 
 tion of the Scheldt dues . . . 3 Aug. 1863 
 Fortifications begun i860 ; completed. . . . 1865 
 Statue of Leopold I. uncovered . . * a Aug. 1868 
 
 ANVAE-I-SUHAIH, or the Lights of Cano- 
 pus, the ancient Persian version of the ancient 
 Fables of l'ilpay, Bidpai, or Vishnu Sarma, made 
 by Husain Yaiz, at the order of Nushirv.-in, king of 
 Persia. The English translation bv E. B. Ea.tuiek, 
 published 1854. See Fables. 
 
APATITE. 
 
 APATITE, mineral phosphate of lime. About 
 1856 it began to be largely employed as manure. It 
 is abundant in Norway, and in Sombrero, a small 
 TVest India Island. 
 
 APOCALYPSE or EEVELATION, written by 
 St. John in the isle of Patmos about A.D. 95.* 
 
 APOCEYPHA. In the preface to the Apo- 
 crypha it is said, " These books are neyther found in 
 the Hebrue nor in the Chalde." Bible, 1539. The 
 history of the Apocrypha ends 135 B.C. The books 
 were not in the Jewish canon, were rejected at the 
 council of Laodicea about a.d. 366, but were re- 
 ceived as canonical by the Eoman Catholic church 
 at the council of Trent on 8 April, 1546. Parts of 
 the Apocrypha were admitted to be read as lessons 
 by the church of England, by the 6th article, 1563. 
 Many of these were excluded by the act passed 1871. 
 
 1 Esdras .... from about b.c. 623-445 
 
 2 Esdras „ * * 
 
 Tobit „ . 734-678 
 
 ■Judith. „ 656 
 
 Esther ,, 510 
 
 Wisdom of Solomon * * 
 
 Ecclesiasticus (John) .... b.c. 300 or 180 
 
 Baruch * * 
 
 Song of the Three Children * * 
 
 History of Susannah * * 
 
 Bel and the Dragon * * 
 
 Prayer of Manasses b.c. 676 
 
 1 Maccabees about 323-135 
 
 •2 Maccabees from about 187-161 
 
 There are also Apocryphal writings in connection with 
 the New Testament. 
 
 APOLLINAEISTS, followers of Apollinaris, 
 a reader in the church of Laodicea, who taught 
 (366) that the divinity of Christ was instead of a 
 soul to him ; that his flesh was pre-existent to his 
 appearance upon earth, and was sent down from 
 heaven, and conveyed through the Virgin; that 
 there were two sons, one born of God, the other of 
 the Virgin, &c. These opinions were condemned 
 by the council of Constantinople, 381. 
 
 APOLLO, the god of the fine arts, medicine, 
 music, poetry, and eloquence, had many temples 
 and statues, particularly in Greece and Italy. His 
 most splendid temple at Delphi was built 1263 B.C. ; 
 see Delphi. His temple at Daphne, built 434 B.C., 
 during a period in which pestilence raged, was burnt 
 a.d. 362, and the Christians were accused of the 
 crime. Lenglet. The statue of Apollo Belvedere, 
 discovered in the remains of Antium, in Italy, in 
 1503, was purchased by pope Julius II., who placed 
 it in the Vatican. 
 
 APOLLONICON, an elaborate musical in- 
 strument, constructed on the principle of the organ, 
 was invented by Messrs. Flight and Eobson, of St. 
 Martin's lane, Westminster, and exhibited by them 
 first in 1817. Timbs. 
 
 APOLOGIES FOB, CHRISTIANITY were ad- 
 dressed by Justin Martyr to the emperor Antoninus 
 Pius about 139, and to the Eoman senate about 164. 
 
 * Some ascribe the authorship to Cerinthus, the here- 
 tic, and others to John, the presbyter, of Ephesus. In 
 the first centuries many churches disowned it, and in the 
 4th century it was excluded from the sacred canon by 
 the council of Laodicea, but was again received by other 
 councils, and confirmed by that of Trent, held in 1545, 
 et seq. Although the book has been rejected by Luther, 
 Michaelis, and others, and its authority questioned in 
 all ages, from the time of Justin Martyr (who wrote his 
 first Apology for the Christians in a.d. 139), yet its 
 canonical authority is still almost universally acknow- 
 ledged. 
 
 35 
 
 APPEALS. 
 
 Other apologies were written by the early fathers of 
 the Church. 
 
 APOSTLES (Greek, apostolos, one sent forth). 
 Twelve were appointed by Christ, a.d. 31 ; viz. 
 Simon Peter and Andrew (brothers), James and 
 John (sons of Zebedee), Philip, Nathanael (or Bar- 
 tholomew), Matthew (or Levi), Thomas, James the 
 Less (son of Alphams), Simon the Canaanite and 
 Jude or Thaddeus (brothers), and Judas Iscariot. 
 Matthias was elected in the room of Judas Iscariot, 
 a.d. 33 (Acts i.) ; and Paul and Barnabas were 
 appointed by the Holy Spirit, a.d. 45 (Acts xiii. 2). 
 
 APOSTLES' CEEED, erroneously attributed 
 to the apostles, is mentioned as the Eoman creed by 
 Euffinus, 390. Irenseus, bishop of Lyons (177), 
 gives a creed resembling it. Its repetition in public 
 worship was ordained in the Greek church at 
 Antioch, and in the Eoman church in the nth 
 century, whence it passed to the church of England. 
 
 APOSTOLICI, a sect, at the end of the 2nd 
 century, which renounced marriage, wine, flesh, &c. 
 A second sect, founded by Segarelli about 1261, 
 wandered about, clothed in white, with long beard, 
 dishevelled hair, and bare heads, accompanied by 
 women called spiritual sisters, preaching against 
 the growing corruption of the church of Eome, and 
 predicting its downfall. They renounced baptism, 
 the mas% purgatory, &c, and by their enemies 
 were accused of gross licentiousness. Segarelli was 
 burnt alive at Parma in 1300, and his followers 
 were dispersed in 1307, and extirpated about 1404. 
 
 APOTHECAEY (literally, a keeper of a store- 
 house). On 10 Oct. 1345, Edward III. settled six- 
 pence per diem for life on Coursus de Gangeland, 
 Apothecarius Zondon', for taking care of him 
 during his severe illness in Scotland. Bymefs 
 Fcedera; see Pharmacy. 
 
 Apothecaries exempted from serving on juries or 
 
 . other civil offices 1712 
 
 London Apothecaries' Company separated from the 
 
 Grocers' and incorporated, 1617 ; hall built . . 1670 
 Their practice regulated and their authority ex- 
 tended over all England, 55 Geo. III. c. 19 (1815), 
 amended by 6 Geo. IV. c. 133 . . . . 1825 
 Botanical Garden at Chelsea left by sir Hans Sloane 
 to the company, Jan. 1753, on condition of 
 their introducing every year fifty new plants, 
 until their number should amount to 2000 Jan. 1755 
 The Dublin guild incorporated 1745 
 
 APOTHEOSIS, a ceremony of the ancient 
 nations of the world, by which they raised their 
 kings and heroes to the rank of deities. The deify- 
 ing a deceased emperor was begun at Eome by 
 Augustus, in favour of Julius Caesar, 13 B.C. Tille- 
 vnont. 
 
 APPEAL or Assize of Battle. By the 
 
 old law of England, a man charged with murder 
 might fight with the appellant, thereby to make 
 proof of his guilt or innocence. In 1817, a young 
 maid, Mary Ashford, was believed to have been 
 violated and murdered by Abraham Thornton, who, 
 in an appeal, claimed his right by his wager of 
 battle, which the court allowed ; but the appellant 
 (the brother of the maid) refused the challenge, and 
 the accused escaped, 16 April, 1818. This law was 
 immediately afterwards struck off the statute-book, 
 by 59 Geo. III. (1819). 
 
 APPEALS. In the time of Alfred (869-901), 
 appeals lay from courts of justice to the king hi 
 council ; but being soon overwhelmed with appears 
 from all parts of England, he framed the body of 
 
 d2 
 
APPENZELL. 
 
 36 
 
 AQUEDUCT. 
 
 laws which long served as the hasis of English 
 jurisprudence. The house of lords is the highest 
 court of appeal in civil causes. Courts of appeal at 
 the Exchequer Chamber, in error from the judg- 
 ments of the superior and criminal courts, were 
 regulated by statutes in 1830 and 1848. Appeals 
 from English tribunals to the pope were first intro- 
 duced about 1 151, were long vainly opposed, and 
 were abolished by Henry VIII. 1534; restored by 
 Mary, 1554; again abolished by Elizabeth, 1559. A 
 proposition for establishing an imperial court of 
 appeal submitted to the house of lords by the lord 
 chancellor Hatherley, 15 April ; was referred to a 
 select committee, 30 April, 1872. A similar proposi- 
 tion by lord chancellor Selborne, 13 Feb. 1873. See 
 Privy Council, and Justices, Lord. 
 
 APPENZELL, a Swiss canton, threw off the 
 supremacy of the abbots of St. Gall early in the 15th 
 century, and became the thirteenth member of the 
 Swiss confederation, 1513. 
 
 APPIAN WAY, a Roman road, made by 
 Appius Claudius Caecus, while censor, 312 B.C. 
 
 APPLES. Several kinds are indigenous to 
 England ; but those in general use have been 
 brought at various times from the continent. 
 Richard Harris, fruiterer to Henry VIII., is said to 
 have planted a great number of the orchards in 
 Kent, and lord Scudamore, ambassador to France in 
 the reign of Charles I., planted many of those in 
 Herefordshire. Ray reckons 78 varieties of apples 
 in his day (1688). In 1866 there were 1500 varieties 
 in the collection of the Royal Horticultural Society, 
 many not worth cultivation. 
 
 APPOETIONMENT ACT (for rents) passed 
 I Aug. 1870. 
 
 APPEAISEES. The valuation of goods for 
 another was an early business in England ; and so 
 early as 1283, by the statute of merchants, or of 
 Acton Burnel, ' ' it was enacted that if they valued 
 the goods of parties too high, the appraisers should 
 take them at such price as they have limited." In 
 1845 their annual licence was raised from 10*. 
 to 40s. 
 
 APPEENTICES. Those of London were 
 obliged to wear blue cloaks in summer, and blue 
 gowns in winter, in the reign of queen Elizabeth, 
 1558. Ten pounds was then a great apprentice fee. 
 From twenty to one hundred pounds were given in 
 the reign of James I. Stow' s Survey. The appren- 
 tice tax enacted 43 Geo. III. 1802. The term of 
 seven years, not to expire till the apprentice was 
 24 years old, required by the statute of Elizabeth 
 ( I 5 6 3)> was abolished in 1814. An act for the pro- 
 tection of apprentices, &c, was passed in 1851. The 
 apprentices of London have been at times very riot- 
 ous ; they rose into insurrection against foreigners 
 on Evil May -clay [which see) . 
 
 APPEOPEIATION CLAUSE, of the Irish 
 Tithe Bill of 1835, brought forward by lord John 
 Russell, whereby any surplus revenue that might 
 accrue by the working of the act was to be appro- 
 priated for the education of all classes of the people. 
 The principle was adopted by the commons, but 
 rejected by the lords in 1835 and 1836, and was 
 abandoned. 
 
 APPEOPEIATIONS (property taken from 
 the church), began in the time of William I. I he 
 parochial clergy, then commonly Saxons, were im- 
 poverished by the bishops and higher clergy (gene- 
 rally Normans) to enrich the monasteries possessed 
 
 by the conqueror's friends. Where the tithes were 
 so appropriated, the vicar had only such a compe- 
 tency as the bishop or superior thought fit to allow. 
 Pope Alexander IV. complained of this as the bane 
 of religion, the destruction of the church, and a 
 poison that had infected the whole nation. Lay 
 appropriations began after the dissolution of the 
 monasteries, 1536. 
 
 APRICOT, Primus Armeniaca, from Asia 
 Minor, said to nave been first planted in England 
 about 1540, by the gardener of Henry VIII. 
 
 APEIL, the fourth month of our year, the 
 second of the ancient Romans. 
 
 APTEEYX (wingless), a bird, a native of New- 
 Zealand, first brought to this country in 1813, and 
 deposited in the collection of the earl of Derby. 
 Fossil specimens of a gigantic species of this bird 
 (named Dinornis) were discovered in New Zealand 
 by Mr. Walter Mantell in 1843 and since. 
 
 APULIA, a province in S.E. Italy. The people 
 favoured Hannibal, and were severely punished by 
 the Romans at his retreat, 207 B.C. Apulia was con- 
 quered by the Normans, whose leader Guiscard re- 
 ceived the title of duke of Apulia from pope Nicho- 
 las II. in 1059. After many changes of masters, it 
 was absorbed into the kingdom of Naples, in 1265. 
 
 AQUAEII, a sect said to have been founded by 
 Tatian in the 2nd century, who forebore the use of 
 wine even in the sacrament; during persecution 
 they met secretly at night. For this they were 
 censured by Cyprian (martyred, 258) . 
 
 AQUAEIUM or AQUAVIVAIUUM, a vessel 
 containing water (marine or fresh) in which animals 
 and plants may co-exist, mutually supporting each 
 other ; snails being introduced as scavengers. In 
 1849, Mr. N. B. Ward succeeded in growing sea- 
 weeds in artificial sea- water; in 1850, Mr. R. 
 Warington demonstrated the conditions necessary 
 for the growth of animals and plants in jars of 
 water ; and in 1853 the glass tanks in the Zoological 
 Gardens, Regent's Park, were set up by Mr. D. 
 Mitchell. In 18^4, Mr. Gosse published "The 
 Aquarium." Mr. W. Alford Lloyd, late of Portland- 
 road, London, by his enterprise in collecting speci- 
 mens did much to increase the value and interest of 
 aquaria. The great aquarium (50 yards long and 
 12 wide) at the Jardin d'Acclimatation at Paris, 
 was constructed under his direction in i860. He 
 also constructed the aquarium at Hamburg. That 
 at Brighton was inaugurated by prince Arthur, 30 
 March, and publicly opened by the mayor, 10 Aug. 
 1872. The great aquarium at the Crystal Palace was 
 opened, Jan. 1872. 
 
 AQUATINT, see Engraving. 
 
 AQUEDUCT, an artificial watercourse on an 
 inclined plane. Appius Claudius advised and con- 
 structed the first Roman aqueduct, as well as the 
 Appian way, about 312 B.C. There are now some 
 remarkable aqueducts in Europe : that at Lisbon is 
 of great extent and beauty ; that at Segovia has 
 129 arches; and that at Versailles is three miles 
 long, and of immense height, with 242 arches in 
 three stories. The stupendous aqueduct on the 
 Ellesmere canal, in England (1007 feet in length, 
 and 126 feet high) was completed by T. Telford, 
 and opened 26 Dec. 1805. The Lisbon aqueduct 
 was completed in 1738, and the Croton aqueduct, 
 near New York, was constructed between 18^7 and 
 1842. The aqueduct to supply Marseilles with 
 water was commenced in 1830. An aqueduct to 
 
AQUILA. 
 
 37 
 
 ABCADIA. 
 
 supply London with water from the Welsh lakes 
 was proposed by Mr. J. t'. Bateman in 1865. 
 
 AQUILA, S. Italy. Near here the Ai-ragonese 
 under the condottiere Braccio Forte-Braccio were 
 defeated by the allied Papal, Neapolitan, and 
 Milanese army under Jacob Caldora, 2 June, 1424. 
 Braccio, a wounded prisoner, refused to take food, 
 and died, 5 June. 
 
 AQUILEIA (Istria), made a Koman colony 
 about 180 B. c. and fortified a. jx 168. Constantine 
 II. was slain in a battle with Constans, fought at 
 Aquileia towards the close of March 340. Maximus 
 defeated and slain by Theodosius, near Aquileia, 28 
 July, 388. Theodosius defeated Eugeuius and 
 Arbogastes, the Gaul, near Aquileia, and remained 
 .sole emperor, 6 Sept. 394. Eugeuius was put to 
 death, and Arbogastes died by his own hand, mor- 
 tified by his overthrow. St. Ambrose held a synod 
 here in 381. In 452 Aquileia was almost totally 
 destroyed by Attila the Hun, and near it in 489 
 Theodoric and the Ostrogoths totally defeated 
 Odoacer, the king of Italy. 
 
 AQUITAINE, the Boman province Aquitania 
 (S. W. France), conquered by the Bomans 28 B. c; 
 fcy the Visgoths, a.d. 418; taken from them by 
 Clovis in 507. Henry II. of England' obtained it 
 with his wife Eleanor, 1 152. It was erected into a 
 principality for Edward the Black Prince in 1362; 
 but was annexed to France in 1370. The title of 
 duke of Aquitaine was taken by the crown of 
 England on the conquest of this duchy by Henry V. 
 in 1418. The province was lost in. the reign of 
 Henry VI. 
 
 ARABIA ("W.Asia). The terms Petrma (stony), 
 Felix (happy), and Deserta are said to have been 
 applied to its divisions by Ptolemy, about A. r>. 140. 
 The Arabs claim descent from Ishmael, the eldest 
 son of Abraham, born 1910 b. c. Gen. xvi. Arabia 
 was unsuccessfully invaded by GalLus, the Boman 
 governor of Egypt, 24 B. C. In A. D. 622, the 
 Arabians under the name of Saracens, followers of 
 Mahomet (born at Mecca, 570), their general and 
 prophet, commenced their course of conquest ; see 
 Mahometanism. Arabia was conquered by the 
 Ottomans 1518-39. The Arabs greatly favoured 
 literature and the sciences, especially mathematics, 
 astronomy, and chemistry. The Koran was written 
 in Arabic (622-632). The Bible was printed in 
 Arabic in 167 1. See Wahabees. 
 
 ARABIAN NIGHTS' ENTERTAIN- 
 MENTS (or IOOI Tales) were translated into 
 French by Galland, and published in 1 704; but 
 their authenticity was not acknowledged till many 
 years after. The best English translation from the 
 Arabic is that of Mr. E. W. Lane, published in 
 1839, with valuable notes and beautiful illustra- 
 tions. 
 
 ARABIC FIGURES, (1, 2, 3, &c.) see Arith- 
 metic. 
 
 ARABICI, a sect which sprung up in Arabia, 
 ahout 207, whose distinguishing tenet was, that the 
 soul dies with the body, and will rise again with it. 
 
 ARAGON, part of the Boman Tarraconensis, a 
 kingdom, N.E. Spain, was conquered by the Car- 
 thaginians, who were expelled by the Bomans about 
 200 b. c. It became an independent monarchy in 
 A. d. 1035 ; see Spain. 
 
 ARAM, the ancient name of Syria (which see). 
 
 ARANJUEZ (Central Spain), contains a fine 
 royal palace, at which several important treaties 
 were concluded. On 17 March, 1808, an insurrec- 
 tion broke out here against Charles IV. and his 
 favourite, Godoy, the prince of peace. The former 
 was compelled to abdicate in favour of his son, 
 Ferdinand VII., 19 March. 
 
 ARAUCANIA, a province in S. America. Its 
 inhabitants maintained almost unceasing war with 
 the Spaniards from 1537 to 1773, when their inde- 
 pendence was recognised. They are now nominally 
 subject to Chili. 
 
 ARAUSIO (now Orange), S. E. France. 
 Through the jealousy of the Boman proconsul 
 Q. Servilius Cffipio, who would not wait for the 
 arrival of the army of the consul C. Manlius, both 
 were defeated here by the Cimbri with much 
 slaughter, 105 B. c. 
 
 ARBELA. The third and decisive battle be- 
 tween Alexander the Great and Darius Codomanus 
 decided the fate of Persia, 1 Oct. 331 B.C., on a 
 plain in Assyria, between Arbela and Gaugamela. 
 The army of Darius consisted of 1,000,000 foot and 
 40,000 horse; the Macedonian army amounted to 
 only 40,000 foot and 7000 horse. Arrian. The gold 
 and silver found in the cities of Susa, Persepolis, 
 and Babylon, which fell to Alexander from this 
 victory, amounted to thirty millions sterling ; and 
 the jewels and other precious spoil, belonging to 
 Darius, sufficed to load 20,000 mules and 5000 
 camels. Plutarch. 
 
 ARBITRATION. Submission to arbitration 
 was authorised and made equivalent in force to the 
 decision of a jury, by 9 & 10 Will. III. (1698). 
 Submissions to arbitration may be made rules of 
 any court of law or equity, and arbitrators may 
 compel the attendance of witnesses, 3 & 4 "Will. IV. 
 c. 42 (1833) ; see Ouzel Galley. The Common Law 
 Procedure Act (1854) authorises the judges of 
 superior courts to order compulsory arbitration; 
 and, by an act passed in 1859, railway companies 
 may settle disputes with each other by arbitration. 
 The Arbitration (Masters and Workmen) Act was 
 passed 6 Aug. 1872. See Prud'hommes. 
 
 ARBUTUS. The Arbutus Andrachne, oriental 
 strawberry-tree, was brought to England from the 
 Levant about 1724. 
 
 ARCADES, or walks arched over. The princi- 
 pal in London are the Burlington-arcade, opened 
 20 March, 1819; and the Lowther-arcade, Strand, 
 opened 1831 ; see Strand, and Exeter Change. The 
 Boyal-arcade, Dublin, opened June, 1820, was burnt 
 to the ground, 25 April, 1837. 
 
 ARCADIA, in the centre of the Peloponnesus, 
 Greece, named after Areas, a king. The Arcadians 
 regarded their nation as the most ancient of Greece, 
 and older than the moon (Proseleni, which word 
 Doderlein conjectures to mean Pre -Hellenic). 
 Pelasgus is said to have ta'ught them to feed on 
 acorns, as being more nutritious than herbs, their 
 former food ; for which they honoured him as a 
 god, 1521 b.c. Arcadia had twenty-five kings, 
 whose history is altogether fabulous. 
 
 Magna Graecia, in S. Italy, said to have been 
 colonised by Arcadians under CEnotrus, about 
 1710B.C. ; and under Evander . . . B.C. 1240 
 
 Pelasgus begins his reign 1521 
 
 Supposed institution of the Lupercalia, in honour 
 of Jupiter by Lycaon, who reigned . . . . 1514 
 
 Areas taught bis subjects agriculture and to spin 
 wool . . ... 1514 
 
ARCADIANS. 
 
 38 
 
 ARCHERY. 
 
 Lycaean games instituted, in honour of Pan . b.c. 1320 
 Agapenor appears at the head of the Arcadians at 
 
 the siege of Troy (Homer) 1194 
 
 The Lacedaemonians invade Arcadia, and are beaten 
 
 by the women of the country in the absence of 
 
 their husbands (?) 1102 
 
 Aristocrates I. (of Orchomentis) put to death for 
 
 offering violence to the priestess of Diana . . 715 
 Aristocrates II. stoned ; a republic founded . . 681 
 Supremacy of Sparta (acknowledged 560) abolished 
 
 by the Thebans ; Megalopolis founded by Epami- 
 
 nondas 371 
 
 The Arcadians make alliance with Athens, and are 
 
 defeated by Archidamus 367 
 
 Arcadia, having joined the Achaean league, on its 
 
 suppression, is annexed by Rome . . . 146 
 
 ARCADIANS, an ultra-conservative French 
 political club, composed of a section of the majority 
 in the chambers, and opposed to liberal measures, 
 even when emanating; from the emperor (such as 
 the new press law). It derived its name from Rue 
 de 1' Arcade, where its meetings were held: Feb. 
 1868. 
 
 ARCH. It appears in early Egyptian and As- 
 syrian architecture. The oldest arch in Europe is 
 probably in the Cloaca Maxima, at Rome, con- 
 structed under the early kings, about 588 B.C. 
 The Chinese bridges, which are very ancient, are of 
 great magnitude, and are built with stone arches 
 similar to those that have been considered a Roman 
 invention.* — The Triumphal arches of the Romans 
 formed a leading feature in their architecture. The 
 arch of Titus (a.d. 80), that of Trajan (114), and 
 that of Constantino, (312), were magnificent. The 
 arches in our parks in London were erected about 
 1828. The Marble Arch, which formerly stood be- 
 fore Buckingham Palace (whence it was removed 
 to Cumberland-gate, Hyde Park, in 1851) was 
 modelled from the arch of Constantine ; see Hyde 
 Park. 
 
 ARCHAEOLOGY, the science of antiquities ; 
 see Antiquaries. 
 
 ARCH3EOPTERYX (ancient bird); the 
 name given to the earliest known remains of a bird, 
 found in the lithographic slate of Solenhofen, by 
 Herman von Meyer and Dr. Haberlern in 1861. Its 
 structure approximated more to that of a reptile 
 than that of modern birds does. It was described 
 by Owen in 1863. 
 
 ARCHANGEL (X. Russia), a city, is thus 
 named from a monastery founded here, and dedi- 
 cated to St. Michael in 1584. The passage to Arch- 
 angel was discovered by the English navigator 
 Richard Chancellor in 1553, and it was the only 
 seaport of Russia till the formation of the docks at 
 Cronstadt, and foundation of St. Petersburg in 1703. 
 The dreadful fire here, by which the cathedral and 
 upwards of 3000 houses were destroyed, occurred 
 in June, 1793. 
 
 ARCHBISHOP (Greek arcliiepiscopos), a title 
 given in tire 4th and 5th centuries to the bishops 
 of chief cities, such as Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, 
 and Constantinople, who presided over the other 
 metropolitans and bishops in the districts attached 
 
 * The bridge of Chester, whose span is 200 feet, was 
 commenced in 1829. The central arch of London Bridge 
 is 152 i'eet ; and the three cast iron arches or Southwark 
 Bridge, which rest 011 massive stone piers and abutments 
 are, the two side ones 210 feet each, and the centre 240 
 feet : thus the centre arch exceeds the admired 
 bridge of Sunderland by four feet in the span, and the 
 long-famed Rialto at Venice, by 167 feet ; see Bridges. 
 
 to these places. The word is first found in the 
 Apology against the Arians by Athanasius, who 
 died 373. The Eastern archbishops have since been 
 styled patriarchs. Riddle. 
 
 Before the Saxons came to England, there weri 
 
 archbishops : London, York, and Caerleon-upon-Usk ; 
 but soon after St. August in settled the metropolitan 
 see at Canterbury, 602 ; see Cant 
 
 York continued archiepiscopal : but London andCaerleon 
 lost the dignity ; see St. J >■ 
 
 J h. bi:.l: pri s 111 s.- v ■ •• ' WSTC under tic. juncdl: inn f 
 the archbishop of York until the erection of the archi- 
 epiSCOpal sees of St. Andrew's and t.lasgowin 1470 and 
 1491 ; these last were discontinued at the Revolution ; 
 see Glasgow and St. Andrew's. 
 
 The bishop of Moray, <fcc, is now (1873) styled Pi 
 
 The rank of archbishop was early in 
 
 Four archbishops were constituted, Armagh, Cashel, 
 Lublin, and Tuam ; (until then the archbishop of 
 Canterbury had jurisdiction over the Irish as well as 
 English bishops, in like manner as the archbishop of 
 York had jurisdiction over those of Scotland), 1151. 
 
 Of these four archbishoprics two were reduced to bish- 
 oprics (Cashel and Tuam) comformably with 1 1 
 3 & 4 Will. IV. by which also the number of sees in 
 Ireland was to lie reduced from twenty-two to twelve 
 
 (see Bishops, Cashel, Twin; Pallium, &c.), 1833. 
 
 ARCH- CHAMBERLAIN. The elector of 
 Brandenburg was appointed the hereditary arch- 
 t ■hnmherlain of the German empire by the golden 
 bull of Charles IV. in 1356, and in that quality he 
 bore the sceptre before the emperor. 
 
 ARCH-CHANCELLORS were appointed 
 under the two first races of the kings of France 
 (418-986), and when their territories were divided, 
 the archbishops of Mentz, Cologne, and Treves be- 
 came arch-chancellors of Germany, Italy, and 
 Aries. 
 
 ARCHDEACON, a name early given to the 
 first or eldest deacon, who attended on the bishop 
 without any power ; but since the council of Nice, 
 his function has become a dignity above a priest. 
 The appointment in these countries is referred to 
 the eighth century. There are seventy-one arch- 
 deacons in England (1868), and thirty-three in Ire- 
 land. The archdeacon's court is the lowest in 
 ecclesiastical polity ; an appeal lies from it to the 
 consistorial court, by 24 Henry VIII. (1532). 
 
 ARCHERY is ascribed to Apollo, who com- 
 municated it to the Cretans. 
 
 Ishmael " became an archer" (Gen. xxi. 20), B.C. 1892 
 
 The Philistine archers overcame Said (1 Sam. xxxi. 3). 1056 
 
 David commanded the use of the bow to be taught 
 (2 Sam. i. 18) 1055 
 
 Aster of Amphipolis, having been slighted by Philip, 
 king of Macedon, at the sie,ue of Methone, shot an 
 arrow, on which was writtten " Aimed at Philip's 
 right eye," which put it out; Philip drew back 
 the arrow with these words : "if Philip take the 
 town, Aster shall be hanged," and kept his word 353 
 
 Archery introduced into England previous to a.d. 440 
 
 Harold and his two brothers were killed by arrows 
 shot from the cross-bows of the Norman soldiers 
 at the battle of Hastings 1066 
 
 Richard I. revived archery in England in 1190, and 
 was himself killed by an arrow . . . 1199, 
 
 The victories of C'reey (1346), Poietiers (1356), and 
 Agincourt (1415), were won chiefly by archers. 
 
 Four thousand archers of the king surrounded the 
 houses of Parliament ready to shoot ; pacified by 
 the king, 21 Richard II. (Stow.) .... 1397 
 
 The citizens of London formed into companies of 
 archers in the reign of Edward III. ; and into a 
 Corporate body by the style of " The Fraternity of 
 St. George," 29 Henry VIII 153S 
 
 Roger Ascham's " Toxophihts, the School of Shooting," 
 published 1571 
 
AECHES. 
 
 39 
 
 AEGENTAEIA. 
 
 The long how was six feet long, and the arrow three 
 feet ; the usual range from 300 to 500 yards. 
 Robin Hood is said to have shot from 600 to 800 
 yards. The cross-bow was fixed to a stock, and 
 discharged with a trigger. 
 See Artillery Company, Toxophilites, &c. 
 
 AECHES, COURT OP, the most ancient con- 
 sistory court, chiefly a court of appeal from inferior 
 jurisdictions within the province of Canterbury ; it 
 derives its name from the church of St. Mary-le- 
 Bow (Sancta Maria de Arcubus), London, where it 
 was formerly held, and whose top is raised on stone 
 pillars built archwise. Coivell. Appeals from this 
 court lie to the judicial committee of the privy 
 council, by statute, 1832. The judge, Dr. Stephen 
 Lushington, (appointed in 1828) resigned 1 July, 
 1867 ; succeeded by sir Robert J. Phillimore. 
 
 AECHITECTUEE (from the Greek archi- 
 tektdn, chief artificer) . The five great orders are, 
 — the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian (Greek) ; — the 
 Tuscan and Composite (Roman). Gothic began to 
 prevail in the 9th century. See the Orders and 
 Gothic. 
 The Pyramids of Egypt, begun . . about B.C. 1500 
 
 Solomon's Temple, begun 1004 
 
 Birs Nimroud, in Assyria .... about 900 
 
 The Doric order begins about 650 
 
 Doric Temple at iEgina . . . " . . . 550 
 Temple of Jupiter and Cloaca Maxima, at Rome 
 
 founded . . . 616 
 
 Babylon built 600 
 
 The Ionic order begins .... about 500-420 
 
 The Corinthian order begins 335 
 
 Choragic Monument of Lysicrates . . . . 335 
 Architecture flourishes at Athens . . . 480-320 
 
 Erechtheum at Athens 450-420 
 
 The Parthenon finished 438 
 
 The Pantheon, <&c, built at Rome . . a.d. 13 
 
 The Colosseum (or Coliseum) 70 
 
 Hadrian builds temples at Rome, &c 117 
 
 Diocletian's palace at Spalatro 284 
 
 Basilicas at Rome 330-900 
 
 St. Sophia, at Constantinople, begun . . . . 532 
 Rock-cut temples in India — Caves of Ellora . 500-800 
 Canterbury cathedral, founded . . . ' . . 602 
 
 Mosque of Omar at Jerusalem 637 
 
 York Minster, (present building) begun . about 1171 
 
 St. Peter's, Rome 1450-1626 
 
 St. Paul's, London 1675-1710 
 
 EMINENT ARCHITECTS. 
 
 Born. Lied. 
 Vitruvius, about b.c. 27 
 
 A.D. 
 
 William of Wickliam 1324 — 1405 
 
 Michael Angelo Buonarotti . . . . 1474 — 1564 
 
 A. Palladio 1518 — 1580 
 
 Inigo Jones 1572— 1652 
 
 Bernini 1598 — 1680 
 
 Christopher Wren 1632 — 1723 
 
 J. Vanbrugh 1670 — 1726 
 
 James Gibbs 1674 — 1754 
 
 R. and J. Adams 1728— 1794 
 
 Sir William Chambers 1726 — 1796 
 
 Augustus W. Pugin 181 1 — 1852 
 
 Sir Charles Barry ...... 1795 — 1860 
 
 An Architectural Clu.b was formed in 1791. An Archi- 
 tectural Society existed in London in 1808. The Royal 
 Institute of British Architects was founded in 1834 — 
 Earl de Grey, president, 1835-61. The Architectural 
 Society, established in 1831, was united to the Institute 
 in 1842. The Architectural Association began about 
 1846. The Architectural Muse osi, Westminster, opened, 
 21 July, 1869. 
 
 AECHONS. "When royalty was abolished at 
 Athens, in memory of king Codrus, killed in battle, 
 1044 or 1068 B.C., the executive government was 
 vested in elective magistrates called archons, whose 
 office continued for life. Medon, eldest son of 
 Codrus, was the first archon. The office was limited 
 to ten years, 752 B.C., and to one year 683 B.C. 
 
 AECOLA (Lombardy), the site of battles be- 
 tween the French under Bonaparte, and the Aus- 
 trians under field-marshal Alvinzi, fought 14- 1 7 
 Nov. 1796. The Austrians lost 18,000 men in 
 killed, wounded, and prisoners, four flags and 
 eighteen guns. The French lost about 15,000, and 
 became masters of Italy. In one contest Bonaparte, 
 in most imminent danger, was rescued by the 
 impetuosity of his troops. 
 
 AECOT (East Indies). This city (founded 17 16) 
 was taken by colonel Clive, 31 Aug. 1751; was 
 retaken, 1758, but again surrendered to colonel 
 Coote, 10 Feb. 1 760; besieged and taken by Hyder 
 Ali, when the British under colonel Baillie suffered 
 severe defeat, 31 Oct. 1780. Arcot has been subject 
 to Great Britain since 1801 ; see India. 
 
 AECTIC EXPEDITIONS, see North West 
 Passage, and Franklin's Expedition. 
 
 AEDAGrH, an ancient prelacy in Ireland, 
 founded by St. Patrick, who made his nephew, 
 Mell, the first bishop, 454. This see, held with 
 Kilmore since 1742, was held in commendam with 
 Tuam (which see). It was united with Kilmore in 
 1839, and with Elphin in 1841. 
 
 AEDEEET AND AGHADOE,' bishoprics in 
 Ireland long united ; the former was called the 
 bishopric of Kerry; Ert presided in the 5th century. 
 William Fuller, appointed in 1663, became bishop 
 of Limerick in 1667, since when Ardfert and Agha- 
 doe have been united to that prelacy. Near the 
 cathedral an anchorite tower, 120 feet high, the 
 loftiest and finest in the kingdom, suddenly fell, 
 1770. 
 
 AEDOCH, see Grampian. 
 
 AEDEES, see Field of Cloth of Gold. 
 
 AEEIOPAGUS or Areopagus, a Greek 
 
 tribunal, said to have heard causes in the dark, 
 because the judges should be blind to all but facts, 
 instituted at Athens about 1507 B.C. ; also ascribed 
 to Cecrops, 1556. The name is derived from the 
 Greek Areios pagos, the hill of Mars, through the 
 tradition that Mars was the first who was tried 
 there for the murder of Halirrhotius, who had 
 violated his daughter Alcippe. The powers of this 
 court were enlarged by Solon, about 594 B.C., and 
 diminished by Pericles, 461 B.C. Paul preached on 
 Mars' hill a.d. 52. (Acts xvii.) 
 
 AEEQUIPA, Peru, founded by Pizarro, 1539; 
 was destroyed by an earthquake, 13 Aug. 1868. 
 
 AEEZZO, near tbe ancient Arretium or Areti- 
 num, an Etrurian city, which made peace with 
 Eome for 30 years, 308 b.c, was besieged by 
 the Galli Senones, about 283 B.C., who defeated the 
 Eoman army Metellus sent to its relief— a disgrace 
 avenged signally by Dolabella. Arezzo was an 
 ancient bishopric : the cathedral founded in 1277. 
 It is renowned as the birthplace of Msecenas, 
 Petrarch, Yasari, and other eminent men. Michael 
 Angelo was born in the vicinity. 
 
 AEGAUM, in the Deccan, India, where sir 
 Arthur Wellesley, on 29th Nov. 1803, thoroughly 
 defeated and subjugated the rajah of Berar and the 
 Mahratta chief Scindiah. 
 
 AEGENTAEIA, Alsace (now Colmab, N. E. 
 France) , where the Eoman emperor Gratian totally 
 defeated the Alemanni, and secured the peace of 
 Gaul, May, 378. 
 
ARGENTINE. 
 
 ■10 
 
 ARITHMETIC. 
 
 AEGENTINE for La Plata), CONFE- 
 DERATION, S. America, 14 provinces (Buenos 
 Ayres, one). This country was discovered by the 
 Spaniards in 1515* settled by them in 15=53, and 
 formed part of the vice-royalty of Peru till 1778, 
 when it became that of Rio de la Plata. It joined 
 the insurrection in 181 1, and became independent 
 in 1816. It was at war with Brazil from 1826 to 
 1828, for the possession of Uruguay, which became 
 independent as Monte-Yideo ; and at war with 
 France from 1838-40. — Population, in 1869, 
 1,877,490. See Buenos Ayres. 
 
 Buenos AjTes seceded in 1853 ; reunited . . . 1859 
 
 An insurrection in San Juan in Nov. i860 ; sup- 
 pressed in ...... Jan. 1S62 
 
 J. Urquiza, elected president, 20 Nov. 1853, was 
 succeeded by Dr. S. Derqiii . . .8 Feb. i860 
 
 Gen. Bartholomew Mitre, elected for six years, as- 
 sumed the president's office . . .12 Oct. 1862 
 
 Lopez, president of Paraguay, declared war against 
 Mitre, and invaded the Argentine territories. 
 May. Mitre declared war against Paraguay, 16 
 April ; and made alliance with Brazil and Uru- 
 guay 4 May, 1865 
 
 See Buenos Ayres for the disputes with that state, 
 and Brazil for the war with Paraguay. 
 
 Col. Dominicpie F. Sarmiento elected president for 
 six years 12 Oct. 1868 
 
 He suppresses the insurrection of Corrientes, Nov. ,, 
 
 Urquiza murdered 12 April, 1870 
 
 ARGINUSJE, isles between Lesbos and 
 Asia Minor; near these Conon and the Athenian 
 fleet defeated the Spartan admiral Callicratidas, 
 406 B.C. 
 
 ARGONAUTIC EXPEDITION, 1263 b.c. 
 
 (1225, Clinton), said to have been undertaken by 
 Jason, to avenge the death of his kinsman Phryxus, 
 and to recover the treasures seized by his murderer, 
 JEetes, king of Colchis. The ship in which Phryxus 
 had sailed to Colchis having been adorned with the 
 figure of a ram, led to the fiction that the journey 
 was to recover the golden fleece. This is the first 
 naval expedition on record. Many kings and 
 heroes accompanied Jason, whose ship was called 
 Argo, from its builder. 
 
 ARGOS, the most ancient city of Greece, said 
 to have been founded either by Inachus, 1856 B.C., 
 or his son, Phoroneus, 1807, received its name from 
 Argus, the fourth of the Inachida?, 171 1 B.C. 
 
 Keign of Triopas ; Polycaon seizes part of the king- b. c. 
 dom and calls it after his wife, Messenia . . 1552 
 Gelanor, last of the Inachida?, deposed by Danaus, 
 
 an Egyptian 1475 
 
 Feast of the Flavibeaux, instituted in honour of 
 Hypermnestra, who saved her husband, Lynoeus, 
 son of yEgyptus, on his nuptial night, while her 
 forty-nine sisters sacrificed theirs, at the com- 
 mand of their father, Danaus .... 1425 
 
 Lynceus dethrones Danaus 1425 
 
 The kingdom divided by the brothers Aerisius and 
 
 Proetus 1344 (1313 CI.) 
 
 Perseus, grandson of Aerisius, leaves Argos and 
 
 founds Mycenae (which see) 1313 
 
 The Heraclidse retake the Peloponnesus, and Teme- 
 
 nus seizes Argos 1102 
 
 Pheidon's prosperous rule 770-730 
 
 War with Sparta : combat of 300 on each side . . 547 
 The Argives fine Sicyon andiEgina for helping their 
 
 enemy, Cleomenes of Srarta 514 
 
 Sparta becomes superior to Argos . . .495-490 
 
 Themistocles an exile at Argos 471 
 
 The Argives destroy Mycciuc and regain their 
 
 superiority 468 
 
 Peloponnesi in war — Argos long neutral, joins 
 
 Athens 420 
 
 The aristocratieal party makes peace with Sparta, 
 
 and overthrows the democracy .... 417 
 A reaction— alliance with Athens resumed . . . 395 
 Pyrrhus of Macedon besieging Argos, slain . ' . 272 
 
 Argos governed by tyrants supported by Macedon ; 
 
 freed ; joins the Achamn league .... 229 
 
 Subjugated by the Romans 146 
 
 Argos taken from the Venetians . . . a.d. 1686 
 
 Taken by the Turks 1716, who held it until . . 1826 
 United to Greece under king Otho (see Greece) 25 
 
 Jan. 1833 
 
 ARGYLE (W. Scotland), bishopric of, founded 
 about 1200, Evaldus being the first bishop; the 
 diocese, previously united with Dunkeld, ended 
 1688. Argyle and the Isles is a post-revolution 
 bishopric, 1847 ; see Bishoprics. 
 
 ARIAN or ARYAN (in Sanskrit signifying 
 noble, warlike), a term now frequently applied to 
 the hypothetical Indo-Germanic family of nations, 
 including the Greek, Roman, and Teutonic races. 
 
 ARIANS, followers of Arius of Alexandria, who 
 preached against the divinity of Christ, about 315, 
 and died in 336. The controversy was taken up by 
 Constantine, who presided at the council of Nice, 
 June to Aug. 325, when the Arians were condemned ; 
 but their doctrine long prevailed. It was favoured 
 by Constantius II. 341 ; and earned into Africa by 
 the Vandals in the 5th century, and into Asia by 
 the Goths. Servetus published his treatise against 
 the Trinity, 1531, and was burnt, 1553. Leggatt, an 
 Arian, was burnt at Smithfield in 1614; see Atha- 
 nasian Creed, Socinians, and Unitarians. 
 
 ARICA, Peru, destroyed by an earthquake, and 
 inundated by waves of the sea, 13 Aug. 1868. 
 
 ARIKERA, near Seringapatam. Here lord 
 Comwallis defeated Tippoo Sahib, 15 May, 1 791. 
 
 ARISTOTELIAN PHILOSOPHY: the 
 most comprehensive ever devised by man. Aristotle 
 was born at Stagyra (hence termed the Stagy rite), 
 384 B.C. ; was a pupil of Plato from 364 to 347 ; 
 became preceptor of Alexander, son of Philip of 
 Macedon, in 34.2 ; and died in 322. He divided the 
 circle of knowledge into metaphysics and logic, 
 physics (including part of the science of mind), and 
 ethics. His philosophy was too much exalted by 
 the schoolmen during the middle ages, and too 
 much depreciated after the reformation. His works 
 on natural science contain a vast collection of facts 
 and an extraordinary mixture of sound and chi- 
 merical opinions. To him is attributed the asser- 
 tion that nature abhors a vacuum, an opinion now 
 maintained by eminent modern philosophers. 
 
 ARITHMETIC is said to have been intro- 
 duced from Egypt into Greece by Thales, about 
 600 B.C. The Chinese used the abacus, or swan- 
 pan, at an early period. It is asserted that the 
 ancient Hindus adopted a system having ten as a 
 basis. 
 
 The oldest treatise upon arithmetic is by Euclid 
 (7th, 8th, and 9th books of his Elements), about 
 
 B. C. 300 
 
 The sexagesimal arithmetic of Ptolemy was used 
 
 A.D. 130 
 
 Diophantus, of Alexandria, was the author (if thir- 
 teen books of arithmetical questions (of which six 
 are now extant) about 156 
 
 Notation by nine digits ami zero (Arabic figures), 
 known at least as early as the 6th century in Hiii- 
 dostan — introduced from thence into Arabia, 
 about 900 — into Spain, about 9S0 — into France, 
 by Gerbert, 991— into England 1253 
 
 The date in Caxton's Mirrour of (he World, Arabic 
 characters, is 1480 
 
 Arithmetic of decimals invented .... 1482 
 
 John Sherwood, bishop of Durham's L ml us* i rithmo- 
 Machince, printed at Borne ,, 
 
 First work printed in England on arithmetic (<U: 
 Arte Supputandi) was by Tonstall, bishop of 
 Durham 1522 
 
AEITHMOMETEE. 
 
 41 
 
 ARMENIA. 
 
 The theory of decimal fractions perfected by Napier 
 
 in his Hhabdologia 1617 
 
 Cocker's Arithmetic appeared in ... . 1677 
 Nystrom's Tonal system with 16 as a basis, pub- 
 lished 1863 
 
 AEITHMOMETEE, see Calculating Ma- 
 chines. 
 
 AEIZONA, a territory of the United States, 
 originally part of New Mexico, was organised 24 
 Feb. 1863 ; capital, Tucson. It was colonised by 
 the Jesuits in the 17th century. 
 
 AEK. Mount Ararat is venerated by the Arme- 
 nians, from a belief of its being the place on which 
 Noah's ark rested, after the universal deluge, 2347 
 B.C.; see Gen. vi. vii. Some assert Apamea, in 
 Phrygia, to be the spot; and medals have been 
 struck there with a chest on the waters, and the 
 letters NOE, and two doves ; this place is 300 miles 
 west of Ararat. The Ark of the Covenant, made by 
 Moses to contain the two tables of the law, 1491 
 B.C. (Exod. xxv.), was placed in Solomon's temple, 
 1004 B.C. (1 Kings viii). 
 
 AEKADI, a Greek blockade -runner during the 
 Cretan insurrection, was destroyed by the Turkish 
 vessel Izeddin, off Crete, 19 Aug. 1867, after at least 
 22 successful voyages. 
 
 AEKANSAS, originally part of Louisiana, 
 ceded by Spain to France, 1763 ; and purchased by 
 the United States in 1803, was made a territory, 
 1819 ; and a state, 1836 ; seceded from the union 
 6 May, 1861 ; conquered, 1865. Several battles 
 were fought in this state in 1862. Capital, Little 
 Rock. 
 
 AEKLOW (in Wicklow), where a battle was 
 fought between the insurgent Irish, amounting to 
 31,000, and a small regular force of British, which 
 signally defeated them, 10 June, 1798. The town 
 was nearly destroyed by the insurgents in May 
 previous. — Native gold was discovered in Arklow, 
 in Sept. 1795. Phil. Trans, vol. 86. 
 
 AELES (Arelatum, from the Celtic Ar-lait, 
 near the waters), S. France (said to have been 
 founded 2000 B.C.), a powerful Roman city, was 
 made capital of the kingdom of Provence by Boson 
 in 879 a.d. ; and of the kingdom of Aries or Trans- 
 jurane Burgundy by Rodolph II. in 933. He was 
 succeeded by Conrad I. 937 ; and by Rudolph III. 
 993 ; who at his death, 1032, transmitted his king- 
 dom to the emperor Conrad II. After various 
 changes it was annexed to France in i486. Many 
 councils (314-1275) were held at Aries; the most 
 •celebrated in 314, when British bishops were 
 present. 
 
 AEMADA, the Invincible, collected and 
 
 equipped by Philip II. king of Spain, for the subju- 
 gation of England. The following particulars are 
 taken from Morant's historical account (accom- 
 panying Pine's engravings of the tapestries formerly 
 in the house of lords), printed 1739. 
 
 It consisted of 132 ships (besides caravels), 3165 
 cannon, 8766 sailors, 2088 galley-slaves, 21,855 
 soldiers, 1355 volunteers (noblemen, gentlemen, 
 and their attendants), and 150 monks, with Martin 
 Alarco, vicar of the Inquisition, — the whole under 
 the command of the duke of Medina-Sidonia . 1587 
 
 The English fleet under lord Charles Howard, sir 
 Francis Drake, and sir John Hawkins, ready for 
 sea, and three armies on land . . Dee. ,, 
 
 The Armada sailed from Lisbon ; soon after dis- 
 persed by a storm .... 19 May, 1588 
 
 Be-collected, entered the Channel off Cornwall, 
 
 13 July, „ 
 
 Suffered in a series of engagements (the sharpest 
 on 25 July) 21-27 J^y. 1588 
 
 Dispersed by fire-ships sent into the midst, 28 July, ,, 
 
 Many vessels sunk or taken by the English, 
 
 29 July, ,, 
 
 The remainder retreat northward to Spain, suf- 
 fering much loss by severe storms, Aug. and Sept. ,, 
 
 Computed Spanish loss — 35 ships ; 13,000 men. 
 
 The queen attended a most solemn thanksgiving 
 at St. Paul's 24 Nov. ,, 
 
 AEMAGH, N. Ireland, of which it was the 
 metropolis from the 5th to the 9th century, the seat 
 of the first ecclesiastical dignity in Ireland, founded 
 by St. Patrick, its first bishop, about 444, and said 
 to have built the first cathedral, 450. Six saints of 
 the Roman calendar have been bishops of this see. 
 In the king's book, by an extent taken 15 James I., 
 it is valued at 400/. sterling a year ; and until lately 
 was estimated at 15,000?. per annum. The see was 
 re-constituted (see Pallium) in 1 151. Beatson. 
 Armagh was ravaged by the Danes on Easter-day, 
 852, and by O'-Neil in 1564. 
 
 AEMAGNACS, a political party in France, 
 followers of the duke of Orleans, murdered by the 
 Burgundians, 23 Nov. 1407, derived their name 
 from his father-in-law, the count of Armagnac. 
 About 3500 of this party were massacred at Paris 
 in June, 1418, by their opponents, the followers of 
 the duke of Burgundy. 
 
 ARMED NEUTEALITY, the confederacy 
 against England, formed by Russia, Sweden, and 
 Denmark, 1780 ; ended, 1781 ; renewed, and atreaty 
 ratified in order to cause their flags to be respected 
 by the belligerent powers, 16 Dec. 1800. The prin- 
 ciple that neutral flags protect neutral bottoms being 
 contrary to the maritime system of England, the 
 British cabinet remonstrated, war ensued, and Nel- 
 son and Parker destroyed the fleet of Denmark before 
 Copenhagen, 2 April, 1801. This event and the 
 murder of the emperor Paul of Russia led to the 
 dissolution of the Armed Neutrality. 
 
 AEMENTA, Asia Minor. Here Noah is said to 
 have resided when he left the ark, 2347 B.C. Arme- 
 nia, after forming part of the Assyrian, Median, and 
 Persian empires, became subject to the Greek kings 
 of Syria, after the defeat of Antiochus the Great, 
 190 B.C. The Romans established the kingdoms of 
 Armenia Major and Minor, but their influence over 
 them was frequently interrupted by the aggressions 
 of the Parthians. In all their political troubles the 
 Armenians have maintained the profession of Chris- 
 tianity, and their church is governed by patriarchs, 
 not subjectto Rome. Since 1715 an Armenian con- 
 vent has existed at Venice, where books on all 
 subjects are printed in the Armenian language. 
 
 City of Artaxarta built b.c. 186 
 
 Antiochus Epiphanes invades Armenia . . . 165 
 
 Tigranes the Great reigns in Armenia Major . . 95 
 Becomes King of Syria, and assumes the title of 
 
 " King of Kings " 83 
 
 Defeated by Lucullus, 69 ; he lays his crown at the 
 
 feet of Pompey 66 
 
 His son, Artavasdes, reigns, 54 ; he assists Pompey 
 
 against Julius Csesar, 48 ; and the Parthians 
 
 against Marc Antony 36 
 
 Antony subdues, and sends him loaded with silver 
 
 chains to Egypt . . . ... . . . 34 
 
 Artaxias, his son, made king by the Parthians . 33 
 
 Deposed by the Bomans, who enthrone Tigranes II. 20 
 
 Armenia subjected to Parthia . . . .a.d. 15 
 
 Beconquered by G-ermanicus, grandson of Augustus 18 
 After many changes Tiridates is made king by the 
 
 Bomans 58 
 
 The Parthian conquerors of Armenia are expelled 
 
 by Trajan n 5 
 
 Severus makes Volagarses king of part of Armenia . 199 
 
ARMENIAN. 
 
 i-2 
 
 ARMY. 
 
 Christianity introduced, between . . . a.d. 100-300 
 Armenia added to the Persian empire . . . 232 
 .Tiridates obtains the throne through Diocletian, 
 
 286; is expelled by Narses, 294; restored by 
 
 GaleriuB 298 
 
 On his death, Armenia becomes subject to Pea 
 
 342; is made neutral by Rome and Persia, 384; 
 
 who divide it by treaty 443 
 
 Armenia conquered and reconquered by the Greek 
 
 and Persian sovereigns 577-687 
 
 And by the Greek emperors and Mahommedans 
 
 693-1065 
 The Armenian church reconciled to flume, about . 1330 
 I.' 'ii VL, last king of Armenia, taken prisoner by 
 
 the Saracens, 1375 ; released : he dies at Paris . 1393 
 Overrun by the Mongols, 1235: by Timour, 1383; 
 
 by the Turks, 1516; by the Persians, 1534; bythe 
 
 Turks 1583 
 
 Shah Abbas, of Persia, surrenders Armenia to the 
 
 Turks, but transports 22,000 Armenian families 
 
 into his own states 1604 
 
 Armenia overrun by the Russians .... 1828 
 Surrender of Erzeroum .... 9 July, 1829 
 
 (See Syria and Russo-Turkish War.) 
 
 ARMENIAN ERA, commenced on 9 July, 
 552; the ecclesiastical year on 11 Aug. To reduce 
 this last to our time, add 551 years and 221 days; 
 and in leap years subtract one day from 1 March to 
 10 Aug. The Armenians used the old Julian style 
 and months in their correspondence with Euro- 
 peans. 
 
 ARMILLARY SPHERE, an astronomical 
 instrument composed of brass circles disposed in 
 such a manner that the greater and lesser circles of 
 the sjiliere may be seen in their natural position and 
 motion. It is said to have been invented by Era- 
 tosthenes, about 255 B c. ; and was employed by 
 Tycho Brahe and others. 
 
 ARMINIANS, or Remonstrants, derive 
 
 their former name from James Arminius (or Har- 
 mensen), a Protestant divine of Leyden, Holland 
 (died 19 Oct. 1609) ; the latter name from his fol- 
 lowers having presented a Remonstrance to the 
 states-general in 1610. They separated from the 
 Calvinists, objecting to their views respecting pre- 
 destination, <Scc. Their doctrines were condemned 
 in 1619, at the synod of Dort (ivhich see); they were 
 exiled till 1625. The Calvinists were sometimes 
 styled Gomarists, from Gomar, the chief oppo- 
 nent to Arminius. James I. and Charles I. favoured 
 the Arminian doctrine. 
 
 ARMORIAL BEARINGS became here- 
 ditary in families at the close of the 12th century. 
 They were employed by the crusaders, 1 100. The 
 lines to denote colours in arms, by their direction or 
 intersection, were invented by Columbiere in 1639. 
 The armorial bearings of the English sovereigns are 
 given under the article England. Armorial bearings 
 were taxed in 1798, and again in 1808. The tax 
 produced 64,515/. in the year ending 31 March, 
 1868; 64,228/., 1872. The tax is now 2/. 28. ; if 
 not on carriages, it is il. is. annually (1873). 
 
 ARMORICA, now Brittany, N. France, was 
 conquered by Julius Caesar, 56' B.C. Many Gauls 
 retired there and preserved the Celtic tongue, a.d. 
 584 ; see Brittany. 
 
 ARMOUR. That of Goliath is described (about 
 1063 B.C.) 1 Sam. xvii. 5. Skins and padded hides 
 were early used, and brass and iron armour, in 
 plates or scales, followed. The body armour of the 
 
 Britons was skins of wild beasts, exchanged, after 
 the Roman conquest, for the well-tanned leathern 
 cuirass. Tacitus. Hengist is said to have had 
 scale armour, a.d. 449. 
 
 The Norman armour funned breeches and jacket . 1066 
 
 The hauberk had its hood of the same piece . . 1100 
 John wore a surtout over a hauberk of rings 
 
 edgeways 1199 
 
 The heavy cavalry covered with a coat of mail 
 
 Some horsemen had vi/ors and BCUll-CapS, about. 1216 
 
 Armour exceedingly splendid, about . . . . 1350 
 
 Armour of plate commenced 1407 
 
 Black armour, used not only for battle, but for 
 
 mourning, Henry V 1413 
 
 Armour of Henry VII. consisted of a cuirass of 
 
 steel, in the form of a pair of stays, about . . 1500 
 Armour ceased to leach below the knees, Charles I. 1625 
 
 In the reign of Charles II. officers wore no other 
 armour than a large gorget, which is commemo- 
 rated in the diminutive ornament known at the 
 present day. Meyrick. 
 
 ARMOUR PLATES, see Iron, and Navy of 
 England. 
 
 ARMS. The club was the first offensive wea- 
 pon ; then followed the mace, battle-axe, pike, 
 spear, javelin, sword and dagger, bows and arrows. 
 Pliny ascribes the invention of the sling to the 
 Phoenicians; see articles on the various weapons 
 throughout the volume. 
 
 ARMS, see Armorial bearings, and Heraldry. 
 
 ARMS BILLS, for the repression of crime and 
 insurrection in Ireland were passed, 1807, 1810, 
 1823, 1829, and 15 Oct. 1831. The guns registered 
 under the last act at the close of the first year 
 scarcely amounted to 3000, and the number was 
 equally small of all other kinds of arms. The new 
 Arms' bill, passed 22 Aug. 1843, has been since re- 
 newed, but was not rigidly enforced till 1867. 
 
 ARMSTRONG GUN, see under Cannon. ■ 
 
 ARMY. Ninus and Semiramis had armies 
 amounting to nearly two millions of fighting men, 
 2017 B.C. The first guards and regular troops as a 
 standing army- were formed by Saul, 1093 B.C. 
 Euscbius. The army of Xerxes invading Greece is 
 said to have been 1,700,000 foot and 80, OOO horse : 
 480 B.C. One of the first standing armies of which 
 we have any account, is that of Philip of Macedon. 
 The army which Darius opposed to Alexander the 
 Great (332 B.C.) is set down as between 750,000 and 
 a million. The first standing army which existed 
 as Mich, in modern times, was maintained in France 
 by Charles VII. in 1445. The chief European 
 nations have had in their service the following 
 armies: Spain, 150,000 men; Great Britain, 310,000; 
 Prussia, 350,000 ; Turkey, 450,000; Austria, 500,000 ; 
 Itussia, 560,000 ; and France, 1,000,000. Estimated 
 number in Europe in 1863, 6,000,000 soldiers, 
 1,000,000 horses, 11,000 guns. The European 
 powers still increasing their armies, 1873. 
 
 ARMY, BRITISH, mainly arose in the reign of 
 Charles II. in l66l,in consequence of the extinction 
 of feudal tenures. The first five regiments of 
 British infantry were established between 1633 and 
 1680. James II. established several regiments of 
 dragoon guards (1685-8). In 1685 the army con- 
 sisted of 7000 foot and 1700 cavalry. Standing 
 armies were introduced by Charles I. in 1638 ; they 
 were declared illegal in England, 31 Char. II. 1679; 
 but one was then gradually forming, which was 
 maintained by William III. 1689, when' the Mutiny 
 Act was passed. Grose's " History of the British 
 
AEMY. 
 
 Army" was published in 1801. See Regiments, 
 Militia, and Volunteers. 
 
 BRITISH ARMY. 
 
 Men. Sum voted. 
 17S0, Time of war : troops of the 
 
 line ..... 110,000 £7,847,000 
 
 1800, War . .... 168,082 17,973,000 
 1810, War: army including foreign 
 
 troops .... 300,000 26,748,000 
 1815, Last year of the war . . 300,000 39,150,000 
 1820, Time of peace ; war incum- 
 brances .... 88,100 18,253,000 
 1830, Peace .• . . . . 89,300 6,991,000 
 1840, Peace . . . . 93,471 6,890,267 
 
 1850, Peace 99,118 6,763,488 
 
 1852, Peace (except Kaffir war) . 101,937 7,018,164 
 
 1854, War with Russia . . . 112,977 7,387,000 
 
 Sum voted 
 
 Total In India* (including 
 
 men. men. ordnance, 
 
 &c.) 
 
 i855-6,t War with Eussia. 223,224 29,629 £32,006,603 
 
 1856-57, War with Persia. 265,466 26,363 20,811,242 
 
 1857-58, Indian Mutiny . 175,858 30,197 14,405,850 
 
 1858-59, 222,874 92,739 13,294,814 
 
 1859-60, Chinese War . 229,551 91,897 14,915,243 
 
 1860-61, 228,854 71.5=8 18,013,896 
 
 1861-62, ... . . 212,773 60,041 16,854,299 
 
 1862-63, 228,973 83,523 16,264,790 
 
 1863-64, 220,918 72,676 14,723,976 
 
 1864-65, ..... 219,450 72,684 14,382,672 
 
 1865-66, .... . 213,521 71,044 14,569,279 
 
 1866-67, ..... 203,404 65,827 14,675,540 
 
 1867-68, Abyssinian War . 204,455 65,292 15,418,582 
 
 1868-69, ..... 203,157 64,466 15,000,000 
 
 1869-70, ... . . 191,073 63,907 13,565,400 
 1870-71, Franco - German 
 
 War . . . 178,000 62,963 13,430,400 
 
 1871-72, . . ... 197,911 62,864 16,450,000 
 
 1872-73, ..... 196,606 62,957 14,824,500 
 
 Volunteers in Great Britain, in 1862, 167,921 , in 1872, 
 
 172,891. 
 Militia, 1872, 139,018 ; yeomanry, 15,455. 
 Recruits of all classes in 1871, 23,198. 
 
 The Mutiny Act is passed annually since 16S9 ; al- 
 terations made in this act and in the Articles of 
 War 1855 
 
 Army Service Acts : 12 & 13 Vict. c. 37 (21 June, 
 1847), and l8 Vict. c. 4 . . . .27 Feb. 1855 
 
 Officers in the service of the East India Company 
 to have the same rank and precedence as those in ' 
 the regular army . . . . .25 April ,, 
 
 The office of Master-General of the Ordnance abol- 
 ished, and the civil administration of the Army 
 and Ordnance vested in the hands of lord 
 Panmure, the Minister of War . . 25 May, „ 
 
 Examination of staff officers previous to their ap- 
 pointment ordered .... 9 April, 1857 
 
 The army largely recruited for Indian war . . 1857-8 
 
 The East India Company's army was transferred to 
 the Queen 1859 
 
 Much dissatisfaction arose in that army in conse- 
 quence of no bounty being granted ; and threaten- 
 ings of mutiny appeared, which subsided after an 
 arrangement was made granting discharge to those 
 who desired it ,, 
 
 Examination of candidates for the Military Aca- 
 demy, previously confined to pupils from Sand- 
 hurst, was thrown open, 1855 ; the principle of 
 this measure was affirmed by the house of com- 
 mons by vote 26 April, 1S5S 
 
 By 22 & 23 Vict. c. 42, provision made for a reserve 
 force, not to exceed 20,000 men, who had been in 
 her majesty's sendee 1859 
 
 Flogging virtually abolished in the army: First 
 class soldiers to be degraded to second class be- 
 fore being liable to it . . . .9 Nov. ,, 
 
 A report of a commission in 1858 causes great sani- 
 tary improvements in the army, barracks, &c, 
 under direction of Mr. Sidney Herbert . . 1S59-60 
 
 * Supported by the Indian government, 
 t Eliding March 31. 
 
 43 AEMY. 
 
 A commission recommend the establishment of a 
 recruiting department, increase of pensions, <fec. 
 
 31 Oct. 
 
 Flogging restricted to insubordination (with vio- 
 lence) and indecency . . . March (?) 
 
 New Army Enlistment Act (limiting period of 
 enlistment to 12 years, &c.) passed . 20 June, 
 
 Increased pay to all soldiers (except to life-guards) 
 from 1 April, 1867 ; by warrant, dated . 29 June,. 
 
 Act to form a reserve of men in the militia to join 
 the army in the event of war, passed . 20 Aug. 
 
 " War Department Stores " Act passed . 20 Aug. 
 
 Sir Henry Storks appointed Controller-in-Chief 
 
 1 Jan. 
 
 Flogging abolished in time of peace, by an amend- 
 ment in the Mutiny Act . ... . Mar. 
 
 Royal commission on military education appointed, 
 23 June, 1868 ; report with recommendations 
 issued about Oct. 
 
 Army Service Corps, to be composed of volunteers 
 commanded by regular officers, established by 
 ■royal warrant 12 Nov. 
 
 Royal commission on the purchase system, &c, 
 appointed 5 April ; report recognises the " over 
 regulation payments " hitherto ignored . Aug. 
 
 Regulations under the new "Army Enlistment 
 Apt "issued 12 Aug. 
 
 2,ooo,ooW. voted to increase the army by 20,000 
 men 1 Aug. 
 
 Deaths in the army reduced from 17 per 1000 to 9-J, 
 in consequence of sanitary improvements, &c, 
 (out of 175,460 men, 33,797 under 20, 18,614 under 
 19) ; Lord Northbrook June, 
 
 Army Regulation bill (the abolition of the purchase 
 system, &c.) passed in the commons, 289-231, 
 early 4 July ; introduced in the lords, 13 July ; 
 able speech of the duke of Cambridge in its 
 favour, 14 July ; rejected (155-130), 2 a.m., 18 July, 
 
 Purchase system abolished by royal warrant (in 
 pursuance of acts 5 & 6 Edw. VI. c. 16, and 49 
 Geo. III. c. 126) on and after 1 Nov. 1871. 
 
 20 July, 
 
 Regulation of the Forces Act passed . . 17 Aug. 
 
 Autumn Campaign in Hampshire; about 40,000 
 men engaged ; the duke of Cambridge and others 
 umpires ; the prince of Wales and prince Arthur 
 engaged ; foreign officers present. 
 
 Manoeuvres according to the Prussian system ; 
 field days, <&c 8-12 Sept. 
 
 Invading force of 24,000, under Staveley and Carey; 
 marching towards London, opposed by sir Hope 
 Grant 13 Sept. 
 
 Series of battles near the Hog's Back, Aldershot ; 
 Grant declared victor .... 16-19 Sept. 
 
 Battle uf Fox's-hill ; Carey defeats Staveley, 21 Sept. 
 
 [Reported results : artillery magnificent ; cavalry 
 superb ; infantry very good ; transport insuffi- 
 cient ; greater distribution of responsibility 
 among officers needed.] 
 
 Sham fight ; Chatham stormed . . .24 Oct. 
 
 Warrant published, 30 Oct., inaugurating the new 
 system of promotion of officers (partly by senior- 
 ity and partly by selection) on . . . 1 Nov. 
 
 New organisation of the army proposed by Mr. 
 Cardwell : brigade districts, England, 49 ; Scot- 
 land, 8 ; Ireland 8 ; = 65 . . . . Feb. 
 
 The duke' of Cambridge's favourable report was 
 laid before parliament early in . . March, 
 
 Army estimates passed in commons (234-63) 12 Mar. 
 
 Review of 14,000 men by the queen at Aldershot, 
 
 5 July, 
 
 Autumn Manoeuvres in Wiltshire : 50,000 men com- 
 manded by sir John Mitchell supposed to land at, 
 Weymouth, and march towards London, opposed 
 by sir R. Walpole ; campaign begins ; skirmishes 
 near Blandford 21 Aug. 
 
 Sir A. Horsford repulses gen. Brownrigg at Winch- 
 ampton 27 Aug. 
 
 Prince of Wales arrives at Salisbury. . . 3 Sept. 
 
 Battle of Wishford, 7 Sept. ; battle of' the Avon, 10 
 Sept. ; grand march past near Beacon Hill 12 Sept. 
 
 The new drill and tactics for the army were pub- 
 lished 23 Nov. 
 
 Mr. Cardwell's estimates ; proposes increasing pay 
 of soldiers ; and establishment of a chief of the 
 staff ... ... 24 Feb. 
 
 1872 
 
 1873 
 
ARMY. 
 
 44 
 
 ARTESIAN. 
 
 ARMY OF OCCUPATION. By treaty, signed 
 20 Nov. 1815, the allied powers established the 
 boundaries of France, and stipulated for the occu- 
 pation of certain fortresses by foreign troops for 
 three years. — The departure of the German army of 
 occupation began about 20 Sept. 1871. 
 
 AROGEE, Abyssinia. Here sir Robert (after- 
 wards lord) Napier defeated the Abyssinians, who 
 lost about 700 killed and wounded, 10 April, 1868. 
 The British had 20 wounded. 
 
 AROMATICS. Aeron of Agrigcntum is said 
 to have been the first who caused great fires to be 
 made, and aromati.es to be thrown into them, to 
 purify the air, by which means he put a stop to the 
 plague at Athens, 429 B.C. 
 
 ARPAD DYNASTY, see Hungary. 
 
 ARPINUM (now Arpino, S. Italy), the birth- 
 place of Cicero, 3 Jan. 106 B.C. ; many remains still 
 bear his name. 
 
 ARQUEBUS, see Fire Arms. 
 
 ARQUES (N. France). Near here the league 
 army, commanded by theduc de Mayenne, was de- 
 feated by Henry IV". 21 Sept. 1589. 
 
 ARRACAN, a province of N.E. India. Arracan, 
 the capital, captured by the Burmese, 17S3, was 
 taken from them by general Morrison, 1 April, 1825. 
 The subjugation of the whole province followed in 
 1826. 
 
 ARRAIGNMENT consists in reading the 
 indictment by the officer of the court, and calling 
 upon the prisoner to say whether he is guilty or not 
 guilty. Formerly, persons who refused to plead in 
 cases of felony were pressed to death by weights 
 placed upon the breast. A person standing mute 
 was declared convicted by an act passed 1772 ; but 
 in 1827, the court was directed to enter a plea of 
 "not guilty" in such cases ; see Mute. 
 
 ARRAS (N. E. France), the country of the 
 ancient Atrebates, the seat of a bishop since' 390. 
 Here a treaty was concluded between the king of 
 France and duke of Burgundy, when the latter 
 abandoned his alliance with England. 21 Sept. 1435. 
 Another treaty was concluded by Maximilian of 
 Austria with Louis XL of France, whereby Bur- 
 gundy and Artois were given to the dauphin as a 
 marriage portion, 23 Dec. 1482. Velly. Arras was 
 held by the Austrian s fiom 1493 till 1640, when it 
 was taken by Louis XIII. 
 
 ARRAY. On 23 Dec. 1324, Edward II. directed 
 the bishop of Din-ham to make " arraier " his men 
 of arms, horse and foot, and cause them to proceed 
 to Portsmouth ; thence to proceed to the war in 
 Gaseony. Jii/mcr's Fcedera. Hallam says that 
 this was the earliest commission of array that he 
 could find, and that the latest was dated 1557. The 
 attempt of Charles I. to revive commissions of array 
 in 1642, founded on a statute of Henry IV., was 
 strenuously opposed as illegal. 
 
 ARREST FOR Debt. The persons of peers, 
 members of parliament, &c, are protected from 
 arrest; see Ambassadors. JJibt, Ferrari Arrest. 
 
 Clergyman performing divine service privileged, 50 
 
 Edw. Ill 1375 
 
 Seamen privileged from debts under 20?., by 30 
 
 Ceo. Ill i 75 6 
 
 Barristers are privileged from arrest while going to, 
 
 attending upon, and returning from court, on the 
 
 business of their clients. 
 
 By stat. 29 Char. II. no arrest can be made, nor 
 
 process served, upon a Sunday; this law was ex- 
 
 tended by Will. III. 
 Vexatious anc-sts prevented by act, Hay, 1733. 
 
 Prohibited for less than 10/. on process, 1779; and 
 
 than 20L July, 1827 
 
 Arrests for less than 10I. were prohibited on mesne 
 
 process in Ireland, in June 1829 
 
 Statute abolishing anest for debt on mesne proi 
 
 except in eases wherein there is ground to Show 
 
 that the defendant designs to leave the country, 
 
 2 Viet Aug. 1838 
 
 By 7 i: 8 Viet. c. 96, the power of imprisonment 
 even upon final process, that is judgment debts, 
 is abolished if the sum does not exceed 20/. ex- 
 elusive of costs, 1844 ; and by 9 & 10 Vict. e. 95, 
 the judge has no power to punish, except in ease 
 of fraud or contempt of court .... 1846 
 By the Absconding Debtors' Arrest Act, absconding 
 debtors owing 20I. and upwards are liabli 
 
 arrest 1851 
 
 See Debt. 
 
 ARRETIUM, see Arezzo. 
 
 ARSACID.E, a Parthian dynasty, began with 
 Arsaces about 250 b.c, and ended with Artabanus, 
 killed in battle with Artaxerxes, the founder of the 
 Bassanidae, a.d. 226. 
 
 ARSENAL, a great military or naval reposi- 
 tory ; see Woolwich. 
 
 ARSENIANS, partisans of Arsenius, patriarch 
 of Constantinople, who excommunicated the emperor 
 Michael Pakeologus for blinding his colleague the 
 young John Lascaris, 1261, and was deposed 1264. 
 
 ARSENIC, a steel-gray coloured brittle mine- 
 ral, extremely poisonous, known in early times. 
 Brandt, in 1733, made the first accurate experiments 
 on its chemical nature. The heinous crimes com- 
 mitted by its means induced the legislature to enact 
 regulations for its sale, 1851. In 1858 Dr. A. S. 
 Taylor asserted that green-paper-hangings and 
 dresses prepared from arsenic are injurious to health; 
 which is doubted by some chemists. 
 
 ARSON, punished with death by the Saxons, 
 long remained a capital crime on the consolidation 
 of the laws in 1827 and 1837. By the act of 1MO1 it 
 is punishable by penal servitude for life and minor 
 degrees of imprisonment. William Anthony was 
 convicted of arson, having set many houses on fire, 
 for the sake of obtaining the reward for giving 
 alarm, 13 Dec. 1871. 
 
 ARSOUF (Syria). At a battle here Richard I. 
 of England, commanding the Christian forces, re- 
 duced to 30,000, defeated Saladin's army of 300,000 
 Saracens and other infidels, 0116 Sept. 1191. Ascalon 
 surrendered, and Richard marched towards Jeru- 
 salem, 1 192. 
 
 ART ACT, facilitating the public exhibition of 
 works of art, (lent to the president of the privy 
 council), passed April, 1866. See Arts, Exhibitions, 
 and National Portrait Gallery. 
 
 ARTEMISIUM, a promontory in Eubcea, 
 near which indecisive conflicts took place between 
 the Greek and Persian fleets for three days; 480 
 B. c. The former retired on hearing of the battle of 
 Thermopylae. 
 
 ARTESIAN WELLS (from Artesia, now 
 Artois, in France, where they frequently occur) are 
 formed by boring through the upper soil to strata 
 containing water which has percolated from a 
 higher level, and which rises to that level through 
 the boring tube. The fountains in Trafalgar-square 
 and government offices near have beeu supplied 
 
AETICHOKES. 
 
 45 
 
 ARTS. 
 
 since 1844 by two of these wells (393 feet deep). 
 At Paris the Grenelle well (1798 feet deep), was 
 completed in 1841, after eight years of exertion, by 
 M. Mulot at an expense of about 12,000^., and the 
 well at Passy, which it is said will supply sufficient 
 water for nearly 500,000 persons, was begun in 1855, 
 and completed in i860 by M. Kind. Messrs. Amos 
 and Easton completed an Artesian well for the 
 Horticultural Society's garden in 1862, which 
 yielded 880,000 gallons of water, at the temperature 
 of 8l° Fahr., in twenty-four hours. The well at 
 Kissingen was completed in 1850. Artesian wells 
 are now common. 
 
 ARTICHOKES are said to have been intro- 
 duced from the East into Western Europe in the 
 15th century, and to have reached England in the 
 16th. 
 
 ARTICLES of Religion. On 8 June, 1536, 
 
 after much disputing, the English clergy in convo- 
 cation published "Articles decreed by the king's 
 highness" Henry VIII., who published in 1539 the 
 "Statute of Six Articles," decreeing the acknow- 
 ledgment of transubstantiation, communion in one 
 kind, vows of chastity, private masses, celibacy of 
 the clergy, and auricular confession. Offenders 
 were punishable as heretics. In 1551 forty-two 
 "were prepared, and published in 1553. These were 
 modified by the convocation, and reduced to Thirty- 
 nine in Jan. 1563 ; and they received the royal 
 authority and the authority of parliament in 1571. 
 The Lamieth Articles, of a more Calvinistic charac- 
 ter, proposed by archbishop "Whitgift, were with- 
 drawn in consequence of the displeasure of queen 
 Elizabeth, 1595. One hundred and four Articles 
 were drawn up for Ireland by archbishop Usher in 
 1614; but in 1635 the Irish church adopted the 
 English articles. See Perth Articles. The 39 
 Articles were ordered to be removed from the 
 studies at Oxford in Nov. 1871. 
 
 ARTICLES OF "WAR. were decreed in the time 
 of Eichard I. and John. Those made by Eichard 
 II. in 1385 appear in " Grose's Military Antiquities." 
 The articles of war now in force are based upon an 
 act, passed by William III. in 1689, to regulate the 
 army about to engage in his continental warfare. 
 
 ARTIFICERS and Manufacturers. 
 
 Their affairs were severely regulated by the statutes 
 of labourers, 1349, 1350, 1360, 1549, and espe- 
 cially of 1562. They were prohibited from leaving 
 England, and those abroad were outlawed, if they 
 did not return within six months after the notice 
 given them. A fine of 100?., and imprisonment for 
 three months, were the penalties for seducing them 
 from these realms, by 9 Geo. II. (1736) and other 
 statutes. The law was modified in 1824; see Work- 
 men, &c. 
 
 ARTILLERY, a term including properly all 
 heavy missiles, now restricted to cannon. A small 
 piece was contrived by Schwartz, a German cordelier, 
 soon after the invention of gunpowder, in 1330. 
 Artillery was used, it is said, by the Moors of 
 Algesiras, in Spain, in 1343 ; and according to some 
 historians, at the battle of Crecy, in 1346, when 
 Edward III. had four pieces of cannon. We had 
 artillery at the siege of Calais, 1347. The Venetians 
 employed artillery against the Genoese at sea, 1377. 
 Voltaire. Said to have been cast, with mortars for 
 bomb-shells, by Flemish artists, in Sussex, 1543. 
 Jtymer's Feeder a. Made of brass 1635; improve- 
 ments by Browne, 1728; see Cannon, "Bombs, Gar- 
 ronades (under Carron), Mortars, Howitzers, 
 
 Petard, Rockets, Fire-arms. The Royal Artillery- 
 regiment was established in the reign of Anne. 
 
 Honourable Artillery Company of London, insti- 
 tuted in 158s, having ceased, was revived in 1610. 
 It met for military exercise at the Artillery ground, 
 Fins bury, where the London archers had met since 
 1498 ; (see Archery). In the civil war, 1642-8, the 
 company took the side of the parliament and 
 greatly contributed towards its success. The com- 
 pany numbered 1200 in 1803 and 800 in 1861. 
 Since 1842 the officers have been appointed by the 
 queen. On the decease of the duke of Sussex in 
 1843, the prince consort became colonel and captain 
 general. He died 14 Dec. 1861, and the prince 
 of Wales was appointed his successor, 24 Aug. 1863. 
 
 National Volunteer Artillery Association, 
 held its first annual meeting for shooting for prizes 
 given by the queen and others : at Shoeburyness, 
 July, 1865. Meetings were held and prizes dis- 
 tributed in July, 1866 ; July,i867; Aug. 1868-72. 
 
 Royal Artillery Institution established at Wool- 
 wich, proposed by lieuts. F. Bardley-Wilmot, and 
 J. H. Lefroy, Feb. 1838 ; approved June, 1838 ; 
 building completed Sept. 1840. Proceedings, vol. 
 I., published ..... 1858 
 
 The alleged great deficiency of artillery in the British 
 army, much discussed Sept. 1870 ; Artillery 
 brought to the camp at Aldershot, reported to 
 be very fine . . . Sept. 1870 
 
 ARTISANS' AND LABOURERS' 
 DWELLINGS ACT, " to provide better dwel- 
 lings," passed 31 Jul)', 1868. 
 
 ARTISTS' FUND, was established in 1810 to 
 provide allowances for sick, and annuities for in- 
 capacitated, members. Artists' General Benevolent 
 Institution, established 1814. 
 
 ARTOIS (N. France), a province once held by 
 the Atrebates, conquered by the Franks in the fifth 
 century, given by Charles the Bold, with Flanders, 
 as a dowry to his daughter Judith, on her marriage 
 with Baldwin Bras-de-fer in 863. Louis XV. created 
 his grandson, Charles Philippe, count of Artois, who 
 became king as Charles X. , 16 Sept. 1824. 
 
 Re-united to the crown by Philip Augustus . .1180 
 Formed into a county for his brother Robert, by 
 
 Louis IX. . . - 1237 
 
 Acquired, with Flanders, through marriage, by the 
 
 duke of Burgundy 1384. 
 
 Passed, by marriage of Mary of Burgundy to Maxi- 
 milian, to the house of Austria .... 1477 
 
 Restored to France 1482 
 
 Reverted to Austria 1493 
 
 Conquered for France 1640 
 
 Finally confirmed to it by the treaty of Nimeguen, 
 
 10 Aug. 1678 
 
 ARTS. In the 8th century, the circle of sciences 
 was composed of seven liberal arts — the trivium 
 (grammar, rhetoric, logic), the quadrivium (arith- 
 metic, music, geometry, and astronomy). Harris. 
 The Eoyal Society of England {which see) obtained 
 its charter, 2 April, 1663. 
 
 The Society of Arts, to promote the polite arts, com- 
 merce, manufactures, and mechanics, originated 
 in the patriotic zeal of Mr. Wm. Shipley, and its 
 first president, lord Folkstone .... 1754 
 
 FINE ARTS. 
 
 First public exhibition by the artists of the British 
 metropolis took jilace at the rooms of the Society 
 of Arts 1760 
 
 Repeated there for several years, till the Royal 
 Academy was founded I? 68 
 
 Society of British Artists was instituted 21 May . . 1823 
 
 Their first exhibition opened 19 April . . . 1824 
 
 Society for the Encouragement of the Fine Arts 
 founded in Dec 
 
 Art Unions began in France and Germany early in 
 the present century. 
 
 The first in Britain was established at Edinburgh. 
 
ARUNDEL. 
 
 40 
 
 ASHMOLEAN. 
 
 The Art Union of London, 444, West Strand, was 
 
 founded 14 Feb: 1837 ; and chartered 1 Dee. 1846. 
 
 The Art Union indemnity act was passed 3 Aug. 
 
 1844. Subscription for 1S72, 11,930'. 12s. 6d. 
 xabon Fine Arts Club, for exhibition of works 
 
 of art,<fcc\, founded 1868 
 
 A memorial of a convention for promoting univer- 
 - sally reproductions of works of art for the bene- 
 
 tit of museums of all countries, signed by the 
 
 prince of Wales, and the Crown princes Gf Prussia, 
 
 "Kussia, Denmark, Bweden, Italy, Baxony, and 
 others, was sent to the duke of Marlborough, 
 
 12 March, 1868 
 
 See British institution ; National GaUery; Royal 
 Academy .•jAlbert Hull. 
 
 ARUNDEL CASTLE (Sussex), built by the 
 Saxons about 8oo.» The duke of Norfolk enjoys the 
 
 earldom of Arundel, as a feudal honour, by inherit- 
 ance and possession of the castle, without any other 
 creation. ■ Philip Howard, son of the attainted 
 duke of Norfolk, was made earl of Arundel, by 
 summons, as possessor of this castle, 1 580. It was 
 thoroughly repaired by a late duke at a vast ex- 
 pense. 
 
 ARUNDELIAN MARBLES, called also 
 Oxford Marbles ; one containing the chronology of 
 ancient history from 1582 to 355 B.C., and said to 
 have been sculptured 264 b.c. They consist of 37 
 statues, 128 busts, and 250 inscriptions, and were 
 found in the isle of Paros, in the reign of James I., 
 about 1610. They were collected by Mr. W. Petty, 
 purchased by lord Arundel, and given by his grand- 
 son Henry Howard, afterwards duke of Norfolk, to 
 the university of Oxford in 1667 ; and are therefore 
 called also Oxford Marbles. The characters of 
 the inscriptions are Greek. A variorum edition of 
 the inscriptions, by Maittaire, appeared in 1732, 
 and a fine one by Chandler in 1763 ; and. transla- 
 tions by Selden, 1628; by Prideaux, 1676; see 
 Kidd's Tracts; and Porson's Treatise, 1789. 
 
 ARUNDEL SOCIETY, for the promotion 
 of the knowledge of art, was established in 1848. It 
 publishes fac-similes and photographs. 
 
 ARUSPICES, see Haruspices. 
 
 AS, a Eoman weight and coin : as a weight, it 
 was a pound ; as a coin, it had differenj^-eights, 
 hut the same value. In the reign of Servius, the 
 as weighed a pound of brass ; in the first Punic war, 
 it weighed two ounces, 264 B.C.; in the second Punic 
 war, one ounce, 218 B.C. ; and afterwards half an 
 ounce"; its value was about three farthings ster- 
 ling. 
 
 ASAPH, St. (N. Wales), a bishopric said to 
 have been founded by Kentigern, bishop of Glasgow. 
 On returning into Scotland about 560, he left St. 
 Asaph his successor, from whom the see is named. 
 It is valued in the king's books at 1S7'. lis. bd. 
 The present Cathedral was erected by bishop Eed- 
 man, 1472-95. By an order in council, 1838, the 
 sees of St. Asaph and Bangor were to have been 
 united on the next vacancy in either, and the 
 bishopric of Manchester created. This order was 
 annulled in 1846. Present income 4,200/. ; see 
 Manchester. 
 
 1802. 
 1806. 
 1815. 
 1830. 
 
 1870. 
 
 BISHOPS OF ST. ASAPH. 
 
 Samuel Horsley, died 4 Oct. 1806. 
 William Cleaver, died 15 May, 1S15. 
 John Luxmoore, died 21 Jan. 1830. 
 William Carey, died 13 Sept 1846. 
 Thomas Vowier Short, resigned Feb. 1S70 ; 
 
 13 April, 1872. 
 Joshua Hughes. 
 
 died 
 
 ASBESTOS, a native fossil stone, which may 
 he split into threads and filaments, and which is 
 
 endued with the property of remaining unconsumed 
 by fire. Cloth was made of it by the Egyptians 
 (Merodotus), and napkins in the time of Pliny, 74 ; 
 and also paper. The spinning of asbestos known at 
 Venice, about 1500. Porta. 
 
 ASCALON (Syria), a city of the Philistines, 
 shared the fate of Phoenicia and Judea. The 
 
 Egyptian army was defeated here by the crusaders 
 under Godfrey of Bouillon, 12 Aug\ 1099. Ascalon 
 was besieged by the latter in 1148, taken in 1 153; 
 and again in 1191. Its fortifications were de- 
 stroyed for fear of the crusaders by the sultan in 
 1270. 
 
 ASCENSION, an island in the Atlantic ocean, 
 800 miles N. W. of St. Helena, discovered by the 
 Portuguese on Ascension day, 20 May, 1^01 ; and 
 taken possession of by the English, Oct. 1815. 
 
 ASCENSION DAY, also called Holy Thurs- 
 day, when the church celebrates the ascension of 
 our Saviour, the fortieth day after his resurrection 
 from the dead, 14 May, 33 ; first commemorated, it 
 is said, 68. Ascension dav, 1872, 9 May ; 1873, 
 22 May; 1874, 14 May ; 1875, 6 May. 
 
 ASCHAFFENBURG, on the Maine, Bavaria, 
 S. W. Germany. Here, on 14 July, 1866, the Prus- 
 sians defeated the German Federal army, captured 
 the town, and took 2000 prisoners. 
 
 ASCOT RACES, see Paces. 
 
 ASCULUM, now ASCOLI, Apulia, S. Italy. 
 Near it, Pyrrhus of Epirus defeated the Romans, 
 279 B.C. Asculum, a city of the Piceni, with all 
 their country, was conquered by the consul Scm- 
 pronius, 268 B.C. Here Andrea, general of the em- 
 peror Henry VI., endeavouring v . to wrest Naples 
 from Tailored, was defeated and slain, a.d. 1 190. 
 
 ASHANTEES, warlike negroes of West Africa. 
 In 1807 they conquered Fantee, in which the 
 British settlement Cape Coast Castle is situated. 
 On the death of their king, who had been friendly 
 to the English, hostilities be°an ; and on 21 Jan. 
 1824, the Ashantees defeated about 1000 British 
 under sir Charles M'Carthy at Accra, and brought 
 away his skull with others as trophies. The}' were 
 totally defeated, 27 Aug. 1826, by col. Purdon. The 
 governor of Cape Coast Castle began a war with the 
 Ashantees in spring of 1863. The British troops 
 suffered through disease ; and the war was suspended 
 in May, 1864. War broke out in 1873. 
 
 ASHBURTON TREATY, concluded at 
 
 Washington, 9 Aug. 1842, by Alexander lord Ash- 
 burton, and John Tyler, president of the United 
 States: it defined the boundaries of the respective 
 countries between Canada and the state of Maine, 
 settled the extradition of criminals, &c. 
 
 ASHDOD, or AZOTTTS, seat of the worship of 
 the Phoenician god, Dagon, which fell down before 
 the ark of the Lord, captured by the Philistines 
 from the Israelites, about 1141 B.C. (1 Sriin. v.) 
 Ashdod was taken by the Egyptians after 29 years 
 siege, the longest recorded. 
 
 ASHDOWN, or ASSEXDTJ]YE, now thought 
 to be Aston, Berks, where Ethelred and his brother 
 Alfred defeated the Danes in 871. At Ashdown, 
 near Saffron- Walden, Essex, Canute defeated Ed- 
 mund Ironside with great slaughter, 1016. 
 
 ASHMOLEAN MUSEUM (books, manu- 
 scripts, coins, &c), was presented to the university 
 of Oxford by Elias Ashmole, the herald and anti- 
 quary, and opened r682. It included the collections 
 of the Tradeseants, to whom he was executor. He 
 
ASHTAEOTH. 
 
 47 
 
 ASSAYE. 
 
 died at Lambeth in 1692. The Ashmolecm Society, 
 Oxford (scientific), was established in 1828. 
 
 ASHTAEOTH, a Phoenician goddess, occa- 
 sionally worshipped by the Israelites (see Judges 
 ii. 13) about 1406 B.C., and even by Solomon, about 
 984 B.C. (1 Kings xi. 5.) 
 
 ASH- WEDNESDAY, the first day of Lent, 
 which in early times began on the Sunday now 
 called the first in Lent. It is said that pope 
 Felix III., in 487, first added the four days pre- 
 ceding tbe old Lent Sunday, to raise the number of 
 fasting days to forty ; tbat Gregory the Great (pope, 
 590) introduced the sprinkling of ashes on the first 
 of the four additional days, and hence the names of 
 Dies Cinerum, or Ash- Wednesday. At the Refor- 
 mation this practice was abolished, "as being a 
 mere shadow, or vain show." Ash -Wednesday, 
 1872, 14 Feb. ; 1873, 26 Feb. ; l8 74; 18 Feb.; 1875, 
 10 Feb. 
 
 ASIA, the largest division of the globe, so called 
 by the Greeks from the nymph Asia, daughter of 
 Oceanus and Tethys, and wife of Japhet. Asia was 
 the first quarter of the world peopled : here the law 
 of God was first promulgated ; here many of the 
 greatest monarchies of the earth had their rise ; and 
 hence most of the arts and sciences have been de- 
 rived. Its early history is derived from tbe Bible 
 and from Herodotus, who relates the wars of Croesus, 
 Cyrus, and others. See Jews, China, India, Persia, 
 and the other countries. 
 
 ASIA MINOE, now ANADOLIA, comprised 
 the Ionian colonies on the coast, the early seats of 
 Greek civilisation, and the countries My sia, Phrygia, 
 Lycia, Bithynia, Caria, Lydia, Cappadocia, Galatia, 
 &c, with the cities Troy, Ephesus, Smyrna, {all 
 which see) . From the time of the rise of the As- 
 syrian monarchy, about 2000 B.C., to that of the 
 Turks under Osman, Asia Minor was the battle- 
 field of the conquerors of the world. 
 
 First settlement of the Ionian Greeks . about b.c. 1043 
 Asia Minor subdued by the Mecles . . about 711 
 
 Conquered by Cyrus about 546 
 
 Contest between the Greeks and Persians begins 544 
 Asia Minor conquered by Alexander . . . . 332 
 
 Contended for by his successors ; separate king- 
 doms established . . . . . . 321-278 
 
 Gradually acquired by the Romans, B.C. 188 to a.d. 15 
 
 Possessed by the Persians 609 
 
 Partially recovered by the emperor Basil. . . 874 
 
 Invaded by Timour , 1402 
 
 Taken from the Greek emperor, and established as 
 an empire by the Turks under Mahomet I. . . 1413 
 
 . ASIATIC .SOCIETIES. The "Asiatic So- 
 ciety of Bengal," at Calcutta, was established by 
 sir William Jones in 1784, "the bounds of its in- 
 vestigation to be the geographical limits of Asia." 
 The "Royal Asiatic Society," which has several 
 branches in India, was founded in 1823. It estab- 
 lished the "Oriental Translation Fund," in 1828, 
 which had published 83 volumes of Eastern litera- 
 ture in 1865. The " Literary Society of Madras," 
 1845. 
 
 . ASKESIAN SOCIETY (from the Greek aste- 
 sis, exercise), instituted in March, 1796, by some 
 young men for discussing philosophical subjects. Its 
 founders were Wm. Allen, Wm. Phillips, Alex. Til- 
 loch, Luke Howard, W. H. Pepys and others. In 
 1806 it merged into the Geological Society. 
 
 ASPEENE, GPEAT, a town, and Essling, a 
 village near the Danube and Vienna, where a series 
 of desperate conflicts took place between the Austrian 
 army under the archduke Charles, and the French 
 
 undec. Napoleon, Massena, &c, on 21-22 May, 1809, 
 ending in the retreat of .Napoleon. The Austrian 
 loss exceeded 20,000 men, and the French 30,000. 
 Marshal Lannes, mortally wounded 22 May, died 
 31 May. The bridge of the Danube was destroyed, 
 and Napoleon's retreat endangered; but the success 
 of the Austrians was fruitless to them. 
 
 ASPHALT, a solid bituminous substance, pro- 
 bably derived from decayed vegetable matter. It 
 was used as a building material in ancient Babylon. 
 Its application for this purpose was revived by 
 Eirinus, a Greek physician, who discovered beds of 
 it near Neufchatel in 1712. Asphalt stone was 
 found at Seyssel near Geneva in 1802; and after 
 several failures, count Sassenay brought it into use 
 for pavement about 1832. The artificial asphalt 
 obtained from gas-works began to be used as pave- 
 ment about 1838. Claridge's patent asphalt was 
 laid down in Trafalgar- square, Jan. 1864. 
 
 ASPEOMONTE, Naples. Here Garibaldi was 
 defeated, wounded, and taken prisoner 29 Aug. 1862, 
 having injudiciously risen against the French occu- 
 pation of Borne. 
 
 ASSAM (N. E. India) acquired by the British 
 in 1825, and surrendered by the king of Ava in 
 1826. The tea-plant was discovered here by Mr. 
 Bruce in 1823. A superintendent of the tea-forests 
 was_ appointed in 1836, the cultivation of the plant 
 having been recommended by lord William Ben- 
 tinck, in 1834. The Assam Tea Company was es- 
 tablished in 1839, by whom Chinese labourers and 
 coolies were introduced. After several years, the 
 plantations suffered severely, it is said through over 
 speculation and neglect of the labourers; as a 
 remedy a labour act was passed at Calcutta, about 
 July, .1867. 
 
 ASSASSINATION PLOT, said to have been 
 formed by the earl of Aylesbury and others to assassi- 
 nate William III., near Richmond, Surrey, and re- 
 store James II. , 14 Feb. 1695-6. It was discovered 
 by Prendergast. 
 
 ASSASSINS, or AsSASSESTIA]Srs, fanatical 
 Mahometans, collected by Hassan-ben-Sabah, and 
 settled iii Persia about 1090. In Syria they pos- 
 sessed a large tract of land among the mountains of 
 Lebanon. They murdered the marquis of Mont- 
 ferrat in 1192, Lewis of Bavaria in 1213, and the 
 khan of Tartary in 1254. They were extirpated in 
 Persia about 1258 and in Syria about 1272. The 
 chief of the corps was named " Ancient of the 
 mountain," and " Old Man of the Mountain:' 
 They trained up young people to assassinate such 
 persons as their chief had devoted to destruction. 
 Renault. From them came the word assassin. 
 
 ASSAY OP GOLD AND SlXVEIt, originated 
 with the bishop of Salisbury, a royal treasurer in 
 the reign of Henry I. Die Cange. But certainly 
 some species of assay was practised as early as the 
 Roman conquest. Assay early established in Eng- 
 land was regulated by statutes, 1238, 1700, and 
 1705. Assay masters appointed at Newcastle, 1701 ; 
 Sheffield and Birmingham, 1773. The laws re- 
 specting assay were amended in 1854 and 1855. 
 The alloy of gold is silver and copper, that of silver 
 is copper. Standard gold is 2 carats of alloy to 22 of 
 fine gold. Standard silver is 18 dwts. of copper 
 to 11 ozs. 2 dwts. of fine silver; see Goldsmiths' 
 Company and Pyx. 
 
 ASSAYE (E. Indies) . The British army, under 
 general Arthur Wellesley (afterwards duke of Wei- 
 
ASSEMBLY. 
 
 4S 
 
 ASSYEIA. 
 
 lington), entered the Mahratta states on the 6outh ; 
 took the fort of Ahmednuggur, 12 Aug. ; and de- 
 feated Scindiah and the rajah of Berar at AflBaye, 
 23 Sept. 1803. This was Wellesley's first great 
 hattle, in which he opposed 50,000 with only 4500 
 men. The enemy fled, leaving their artillery, &c. 
 
 ASSEMBLY of (130) Divines, held at 
 
 "Westminster, 1 July, 1643, convoked by order ot 
 parliament to consider the liturgy, government, and 
 doctrines of the church . Two members were elected 
 for each county. The presbyterian majority adopted 
 the Scottish covenant, and drew up the directory 
 for public worship, a confession, and the catechisms 
 now used by the church of Scotland. The last 
 (1163rd) meeting was on 22 Feb. 1649; see Church 
 of Scotland. 
 ASSENT, see Royal Assent. 
 
 ASSESSED TAXES. The date of their in- 
 troduction has been as variously stated as the taxes 
 coming under this head have been defined— all 
 things have been assessed, from lands and houses 
 to dogs and hair-powder. By some the date is re- 
 ferred to Ethelbert, in 991 ; to Henry VIII. 1522; 
 and to William III. 1689, when a land-tax was im- 
 posed ; see Land Tax. The assessed taxes yielded 
 in 1815 (the last year of the war), exclusively of the 
 land-tax, 6,524, 766^., their highest amount. These 
 imposts have varied in their nature and amount, 
 recording to the exigenciesof the state. They were 
 considerably advanced in 1797 and 1801, ct seq., but 
 reduced in 1816, and in subsequent years. An act 
 for the repeal of certain assessed taxes was passed 
 16 & 17 Vict. c. 90, 20 Aug. 1853, explained and 
 amended by 17 & 18 Vict. c. I, 17 Feb. 1854.— Acts 
 for the better securing and accounting for the As- 
 sessed and Income Taxes, 10 Aug. 1854; see Taxes, 
 and Income Tax. Changes were made in the as- 
 sessed taxes, their time of collection, &c, by the 
 Eevenue act, passed 24 June, 1869. Licences for 
 servants, dogs, and armorial bearings were also in- 
 troduced. An act to provide for uniformity in the 
 assessment of rateable property in the metropolis 
 was passed 9 Aug. 1869. The "Court of General 
 Assessment" first met 19 May, 1870. Amount 
 received in the year ending 31 March, 1870, about 
 4,500,000^. Since then the assessed taxes include 
 the land-tax and house duty only. 
 
 ASSIENTO, a contract between the king of 
 Spain and other powers, for furnishing the Spanish 
 dominions in America with negro slaves, began with 
 the Flemings. By the treaty of Utrecht, 13 July, 
 1713, the British'government engaged to furnish 
 4800 negroes annually to Spanish America for thirty 
 years. The contract was renewed in 1748, but given 
 up in 1750 ; see Guinea. 
 
 ASSIGN ATS, a forced paper currency, ordered 
 by the National Assembly of France to support 
 public credit during the revolution, April, 1790. 
 At one period, eight milliards, or nearly 350 millions 
 of pounds sterling, of this paper were in circulation 
 in France and its dependencies. Alison. Assignats 
 were superseded by mandats in 1 796. 
 
 ASSIZE of Battle, see Appeal. 
 
 ASSIZE of BREAD, &c, see Bread, and Wool. 
 
 ASSIZE of Jerusalem, a valuable code of 
 
 laws compiled under the direction of Godfrey of 
 Bouillon, king of Jerusalem, in 1100. 
 
 ASSIZE COURTS (from assideo, I sit) are 
 very ancient in England, and in old law books are 
 defined to be an assembly of knights and other sub- 
 
 stantial men, with the justice, to meet at a certain 
 time and place: regulated by Magna Charta, 1215. 
 The present justices of assize and Nisi Prim are 
 derived from the statute of Westminster, 13 Edw. I. 
 1284. Coke; Blackstone. "The king doth will 
 that no lord, or other of the country, shall sit upon 
 the bench with the justices to take assize in their 
 sessions in the counties of England, upon great for- 
 feiture to the king." 20 Bich. II. 1396. Statutes, 
 Brough Act. Assizes are general or special ; general 
 when the judges go their circuits, and special when 
 a commission is issued to take cognisance of one or 
 more causes ; see Bloody Assize. 
 
 ASSOCIATIONS, see National Associations. 
 ASSUMPTION, Feast of tiie, 15 Aug. 
 
 It is observed by the church of Borne in honour of 
 the Virgin Mary, said to have been taken up te 
 heaven in her corporeal form, body and spirit, on 
 this day, a.d. 45, in her 75th year. The festival 
 was instituted in the 7th century, and enjoined by 
 the council of Mentz, 813. 
 
 ASSURANCE, see Insurance. 
 
 ASSYRIA, an Asiatic country between Meso- 
 potamia and Media, was the seat of the earliest 
 recorded monarchy. Its history is mainly derived 
 from Ctesias, an early Greek historian of doubtful 
 authenticity, Herodotus, and the Holy Scriptures. 
 The discovery by Mr. Layard of the Ninevite 
 antiquities, now in the British Museum, and the 
 deciphering of many ancient cuneiform inscriptions, 
 by (jrotefend, sir H. Eawlinson, and other scholars, 
 have drawn much attention to the Assyrians. The 
 chrouologers, Blair, Usher, Hales, and Clinton, 
 differ much in the dates they assign to events in 
 Assyrian history. 
 
 Nimrod or Belus reigns . . b.c. [2554 H. 2235 C.\ 224s 
 " Asshur builded Nineveh " (Gen. x. 11) about . 2218 
 Ninus, son of Belus, reigns in Assyria, and names 
 
 his capital Nineveh [2182 ('.] 2069 
 
 Babylon taken by Ninus, who having subdued the 
 Armenians, Persians, Bactlians, and all Asia 
 Minor, establishes what is properly the Assyrian 
 monarchy, of which Nineveh was the seat of em- 
 pire. Blair [2233 C] 2059 
 
 Ninyas, an infant, succeeds Ninus . . . 2017 
 
 Semiramis, mother of Ninyas, usurps the govern- 
 ment, enlarges and embellishes Babylon [2130 C] 2007 
 She invades Libya, Ethiopia, and India . Lengkt 1975 
 She is put to death by her son Ninyas . . . 1965 
 
 Ninyas put to death, and Alius reigns . . . 1927 
 Reign of Aralius .... ... 1897 
 
 Beloehus, the last king of the race of Ninus . . 1446 
 He makes his daughter Atossa, surnamed Semiramis 
 II., bis associate on the throne . . . . 1433 
 
 At' issa procures the death of her father, and marries 
 Belatores (or Belaperes) who reigns . . . 1421 
 
 The prophet Jonah appears in Nineveh, and foretells 
 its destruction. Blair 840 
 
 Nineveh taken by Arbaees. [Sardanapalus, the king, 
 is mythically said to have enclosed himself, his 
 court, and women, in ids palace, and to have 
 perished in the lire kindled by himself] . . 820 
 
 Phul raised to the throne. Blnir . . about 777 
 
 He invades Israel, but departs without drawing a 
 sword. Blair ; 2 Kings xv. 19, 20 . . . 770 
 
 Tiglath-Pileser invades Syria, takes Damascus, and 
 makes great conquests 744-740 
 
 Shalmaneser takes Samaria, transports the people, 
 whom he replaces by a colony of Cutheans and 
 others, and thus finishes the kingdom of Israel. 
 Blair 721 
 
 He retires from before Tyre, after a siege of five 
 years. Blair 713 
 
 Sennacherib invades Judea, and his general, Rab- 
 shakeh, besieges Jerusalem, when the angel of the 
 Lord in one night destroys 180,000 of his army. 
 Isaiah xxxvii. 710 
 
ASTEEOIDS. 
 
 49 
 
 ASYLUMS. 
 
 Esar-haddon invades Judea . . . . b.c. 680 
 8arac (Sardanapalus II.) besieged, kills his wife 
 and children, and burns himself in his palace 
 
 625 or 621 
 Nineveh razed to the ground, and Assyria becomes 
 
 a Median province 605 
 
 Assyria subdued by Alexander the Great . . . 332 
 It subsequently formed part of the kingdoms of 
 
 Syria, Parthia, and Persia. 
 It was conquered by the Turks . . . a.d. 1637 
 Explored by col. Chesney and the Euphrates ex- 
 ploring expedition 1835-37 
 
 ASTEEOIDS, see under Planets. 
 
 ASTLEY'S AMPHITHEATBE, see under 
 Theatres. 
 
 ASTOEGA (N. W. Spain), the ancient Asturica 
 Augusta, was taken by the French in 1810, and 
 treated with great severity. 
 
 ASTEACAN (S. E. Eussia), a proyince ac- 
 quired from the Mogul's empire in 1554; visited 
 and settled by Peter the Great in 1722. 
 
 ASTEOLABE, an instrument for observing 
 the stars, said to have been employed by Hipparchus 
 about 130 B.C. ; and by Ptolemy about 140 a.d. 
 The modern astrolabe was described by Fabricius in 
 
 ASTEOLOGY. Judicial astrology was culti- 
 vated by the Chaldeans, and transmitted to the 
 Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. It was much in 
 vogue in Italy and France in the time of Catherine 
 de Medicis (married to Francis I. of France, 1533). 
 Henault. It is said that Bede, 673-735, "Was ad- 
 dicted to it; and Roger Bacon, 1214-1292. Lord 
 Burleigh is said to have calculated the nativity of 
 Elizabeth, and she, and other princes, were dupes of 
 Dee, the astrologer. It is stated that Lilly was 
 consulted by Charles I. respecting his projected 
 escape from Carisbrook castle in 1647. Ferguson. 
 Astrological almanacs are still published in London. 
 
 ASTEONOMEE-EOYAL, see Greenwich. 
 
 ASTEONOMY. The earliest astronomical 
 observations were made at Babylon it is said about 
 2234 B. c. The study was much advanced in Chaldaoa 
 under Nabonassar ; was known to the Chinese about 
 1 100 B.C.; some say many centuries before; see 
 Eclipses, Planets, Comets, Sun, Moon, Jupiter, 
 Saturn, Neptune, §c. 
 
 Lunar eclipses observed at Babylon, and recorded b. c. 
 
 by Ptolemy about 720 
 
 Spherical form of the earth, and the true cause of 
 
 lunar eclipses, taught by Thales . . about 600 
 Eurther discoveries by Pythagoras, who taught the 
 doctrine of celestial motions, and believed in the 
 plurality of habitable worlds, died . .about 470 
 Meton introduces the lunar-solar cycle . . . 433 
 Treatises of Aristotle " concerning the heavens," 
 and of Autolycus " on the motion of the sphere " 
 (earliest extant works on astronomy) . about 350 
 Aratus writes a poem on astronomy . . . . 2S1 
 
 Archimedes observes solstices, <fcc 212 
 
 Hipparchus, greatest of Greek astronomers, deter- 
 mines mean motion of sun and moon ; discovers 
 
 precession of eq uinoxes, &c 160-125 
 
 The precession of the equinoxes confirmed, and the 
 places and distances of the planets discovered, .by 
 
 Ptolemy a.d. 139-161 
 
 Astronomy and geography cultivated by the Arabs 
 
 about 760 ; brought into Europe . . about 1200 
 Alphonsine tables {which see) composed . about 1253 
 Clocks first used in astronomy . . . about 1500 
 True doctrine of the motions of the planetary bodies 
 revived by Copernicus, founder of modern astro- 
 nomy ; his " Revolution of the Heavenly Bodies" 
 published 1543 
 
 Astronomy advanced by Tycho Brake, who yet ad- a.d. 
 heres to the Ptolemaic system . . . about 1582 
 True laws of the planetary motions announced by 
 
 Kepler ; 1st and 2nd, 1609 ; 3rd .... 1618 
 Galileo constructs a telescope, 1609 ; and discovers 
 
 Jupiter's satellites, <&c 8 Jan. 1610 
 
 Various forms of telescopes and other instruments 
 
 used in astronomy invented .... 1608-40 
 Cartesian system published by Des Cartes . . .1637 
 The transit of Venus over the sun's disc first ob- 
 served by Horrocks . . . .24 Nov. 1639 
 Cassini draws his meridian line, after Dante ; see 
 
 Bologna 1655 
 
 The aberration of the light of the fixed stars dis- 
 covered by Horrebow 1659 
 
 Huyghens completes the discovery of Saturn's ring 1654 
 Gregory invents a reflecting telescope . . . . 1663 
 
 Discoveries of Picard 1669 
 
 Charts of the moon constructed by Schemer, Lan- 
 
 grenus, Hevelius, Riccioli, <&c. . . about 1670 
 
 Discoveries of Romer on the velocity of light, and 
 his observation of Jupiter's satellites . . . 1675 
 
 Greenwich Observatory founded ,, 
 
 Motion of the sun round its own axis proved by 
 
 Halley 1676 
 
 Newton's Principia published ; and the system, as 
 
 now taught, demonstrated 1687 
 
 Catalogue of the stars made by Plamsteed . . 1688 
 Cassini's chart of the full moon executed . . . 1692 
 Satellites of Saturn, &c, discovered by Cassini . 1701 
 Halley predicts the return of the comet (of 1758) . 1705 
 Plamsteed's Historia Ccelestis published . . . 1725 
 Aberration of the light of the stars discovered and 
 
 explained by Dr. Bradley 1727 
 
 John Harrison produces chronometers for deter- 
 mining the longitude, 1735 et seq., and obtains the 
 
 . reward '.'.,. 1764 
 
 " Nautical Almanac " first published . . . . 1767 
 Celestial inequalities found by La Grange . 1780 
 
 Uranus and satellites discovered by Herschel ; see 
 
 Georgvwni Sidus 13 March 1781 
 
 Micanique Celeste,, by La Place, published . . 1796 
 Royal Astronomical society of London founded, 
 
 1820 ; chartered 1831 
 
 Beer and Madler's map of the moon published . . 1834 
 Lord Rosse's telescope constructed . . . 1828-45 
 The planet Neptune discovered . . 23 Sept. 1846 
 Bond photographs the moon (see Photography, 
 
 celestial) 1851 
 
 Hansen's table of the moon published at expense of 
 
 the British government ... . . 1857 
 
 Trustees of the rev. Richard Sheepshanks present 
 io.oooi. stock to Trinity College, Cambridge, for 
 promotion of the study of astronomy, meteorology, 
 
 and magnetism 2 Dec. 1858 
 
 Spectrum analysis applied in astronomy (see Spec- 
 trum) 1861 
 
 Large photograph of the moon by Warren De la 
 Rue 1863 
 
 ASTUEIAS (Oviedo, since 1833) N. W. Spain, 
 an ancient principality. Here Pelayo collected the 
 Gothic fugitives, about 713, founded anew kingdom, 
 and by his victories checked Moorish conquest. For 
 his successors, see Spain. The heir-apparent of the 
 monarchy has borne the title " prince of Asturias " 
 since 1388, when it was assumed by Henry, son of 
 John I. king of Leon, on his marriage with a de- 
 scendant of Peter of Castile. In 1808, the junta of 
 Asturias began the organised resistance to the French 
 usurpation. 
 
 ASYLUMS, or Privileged Places, at 
 
 first were places of refuge for those who by acci- 
 dent or necessity had done things that rendered 
 them obnoxious to the law. God commanded the 
 Jews to build cities of refuge, 1451 b.c , Numbers 
 xxv. — The posterity of Hercules are said to have 
 built one at Athens, to protect themselves against 
 such as their father had irritated. Cadmus is said 
 to have built one at Thebes, 1490 B.C., and Romu- 
 lus one at Mount Palatine, 751 b.c. ; see Sanctu- 
 aries. 
 
ATELIERS NATIONATJX. 
 
 50 
 
 ATHENS. 
 
 ATELIERS NATIONAUX (National Work- 
 shops), were established by the French provisional 
 government in Feb. 1848. They interfered greatly 
 with private trade, as about 100,000 workmen threw 
 themselves upon the government for labour and 
 payment. The breaking-up of the system led to 
 the fearful conflicts in June following ; and the 
 system was abolished in July. 
 
 ATHANASIAN CREED. Athanasius, of 
 Alexandria, was elected bishop, 326. He firmly op- 
 posed the doctrines of Arius (who denied Christ's 
 divinity), was several times exiled, and died in 
 373. The creed which bears his name is supposed 
 to have been written about 340 ; or to be the com- 
 pilation of Vigilius Tapsensis, an African bishop 
 m the 5th century. It was commented on by 
 Venatius Fortunatus, bishop of Poictiers in 570, 
 and authorised by Charlemagne, 802. Dr. "Water- 
 land's history of this creed (1724) is exhaustive; 
 see Avians. 
 
 Much agitation against the general use of this creed lias 
 arisen in the Church of England among both clergy 
 and laity, 1870-73. 
 
 Modifications approved by several bishops were negatived 
 by the lower house in convocation, (62-7) early in May, 
 1872. The vote was rejected by the bishops, and the 
 agitation continued. 
 
 In a letter to the earl of Shaftesbury, 22 July, 1872, the 
 archbishops of Canterbury and York expressed their 
 hope of devising a way for rendering the reading of the 
 creed during public worship not compulsory. 
 
 Great meeting of laity at St. James's Hall in defence of 
 the creed, 31 Jan. 1873. 
 
 ATHEISM (from the Greek a, without, 
 T/ieos, Cod, see Psalm xiv. 1). It was professed by 
 Epicurus, Lucretius, and other philosophers. 
 Spinoza was the defender of a similar doctrine 
 (1632-1677). Lucilio Vanini publicly taught athe- 
 ism in France, and was condemned to be burnt at 
 Toulouse in 1619. Mathias Knutzen, of Holstein, 
 openly professed atheism, and had upwards of a 
 thousand disciples in Germany about 1674; he travel- 
 led to make proselytes, and his followers were called 
 Conscicnciaries, because they held that there is no 
 other deity than conscience. " Though a small 
 draught of philosophy may lead a man into atheism, 
 a deep draught will certainly bring him back again 
 to the belief of a God." Lord Bacon. Atheism was 
 the. ruling doctrine of the French republic, 1794 till 
 1804 ; see Materialism. 
 
 ATHEN2EA were great festivals celebrated at 
 Athens in honour of Minerva. One was called 
 Panathenaea, the other Chalcea ; they are said to 
 have been instituted by Erechtheus or Orpheus, 
 1397 or 1495 rt.c. ; and revived by Theseus, who 
 caused them to be observed by all the Athenians, 
 the first every fifth year, 1234 B.C. Plutarch. 
 
 ATHENAEUM, a place at Athens, sacred to 
 Minerva, where the poets and philosophers recited 
 their compositions. That of Rome, of great beauty, 
 was erected by the emperor Adrian, 12$. — The 
 Athen.hum Club of London was formed m 1823, 
 for the association of persons of scientific and literary 
 attainments, and artists, and noblemen and gentle- 
 men, patrons of learning, &c., by the earl of Aber- 
 deen, marquis of Lansdowne, Dr. T. Young, 
 Moore, Davy, Scott, Mackintosh, Faraday, Croker, 
 Chantry, Lawrence, and others ; the clubhouse was 
 erected in 1829-30 on the site of the late Carlton- 
 palace ; it is of Grecian architecture, and the 
 frieze is an exact copy of the Panathenaic pro- 
 cession which formed the frieze of the Parthenon. 
 — The Liverpool Athenoeum was opened 1 Jan. 
 1799. — At Manchester, Bristol, and many other 
 
 places, buildings under this name, and for a like 
 purpose, have been founded. — The Atheneeum, a 
 weekly literary and scientific journal, first appeared 
 in 1828. 
 
 ATHENRY (Gal way). Near here the Irish 
 were totally defeated, and a gallant young chief, 
 Feidlim O'Connor, slain 10 Aug. 1316. 
 
 ATHENS, the capital of ancient Attica, and of 
 modern Greece. The first sovereign mentioned is 
 Ogyges, who reigned in Boeotia, and was master of 
 Attica, then called Ionia. Tradition states that in 
 his reign (about 1764 B.C.) a deluge laid waste the 
 country, which so remained till the arrival of the 
 Egyptian Cecrops and a colony, by whom the land 
 was re-peopled, and twelve cities "founded, 1556 B.C. 
 The city, said to have been first called Cecropia, 
 was afterwards named Athens in honour of Minerva 
 (Athene), her worship having been introduced by 
 Erechtheus, 1383 B.C. Athens was ruled by seven- 
 teen successive kings (487 years), by thirteen 
 2)erpehtal archons (316 years), seven decennial ar- 
 chons (70 years), and lastly by annual archons (76a 
 years) . It attained great power, and no other city 
 has had, in a short space of time, so great a number 
 of illustrious citizens. The ancients called Athens 
 Astu, the city, by eminence, and one of the eyes of 
 Greece ; see Greece. 
 
 Arrival of Cecrops B.C. [1558 Hales, 1433 Clinton] 
 
 Usher 1556 
 
 The Areopagus established 1507 
 
 Deucalion arrives in Attica 1502- 
 
 Reign of Amphictyon .... [1499 7f.] '497 
 
 The Panathenasan Games . . . [1481 H.] 1495 
 
 Erichthonius reigns ...'... 1487 
 
 Erechtheus teaches husbandry 1383 
 
 Eleusinian mysteries introduced by Eumolpus . . 1356 
 
 Erechtheus killed in battle with the Eleusinians . 1347 
 
 jEgeus invades Attica, and ascends the throne . . 1283 
 He throws himself into the sea, and is drowned ; 
 
 hence the name of the JEgean Sea. Eusebius. . 1235. 
 
 Theseus, his son, succeeds, and reigns 30 years . ,, 
 He collects his subjects into one city, and names it 
 
 Athens 1234 
 
 Reign of Mnestheus, 1205; ofDeniophoon . . . 1182 
 
 Court of Ephetes established 1179- 
 
 The Prianepsse instituted n 78 
 
 Melanthus conquers Xuthus in single combat and is 
 
 chosen king 1128 
 
 Reign of Codrus, his son, the last king . . . 1092 
 In a battle with the Heraelidse, Codrus is killed : he 
 
 had resolved to perish ; the oracle having declared 
 
 that the victory should be with the side whose 
 
 leader was killed 107& 
 
 Royalty abolished ; — Athens governed by archons, 
 
 Medon the first (1070!/.) 1044 
 
 Alcmeon, last perpetual archon, dies . . . . 753 
 
 Cherops, first decennial archon .... 752 
 
 Hippomenes deposed for his cruelty . . . . 713 
 
 Erixias, 7th and last decennial archon, dies . . 684 
 
 Creon, first mutual archon . . . . . . 683 
 
 Draco, the 12th annual archon, publishes bis laws 
 
 said " to have been written in blood " . . . 621 
 
 Solon supersedes them by his excellent code . . 594 
 Pisistratus, the " tyrant," seizes the supreme 
 
 power, 560; flight of Solon, 559. Pisistratus 
 
 establishes his government, 537 ; collects a public 
 
 library, 531; dies 527 
 
 First tragedy acted at Athens, on a waggon, by 
 
 Thespis 535 
 
 Hipparchus assassinated by Harmodius and Aristo- 
 
 geiton 514 
 
 The law of ostracism established ; Hippias. and the 
 
 PisistratkUc banished 510 
 
 Lemnos taken by Miltiades 504 
 
 The Persian invaders defeated at Marathon. . . 490 
 
 Death of Miltiades 489. 
 
 Aristides, surnamed the Just, banished . . . 483 
 
 Athens taken by the Persian Xerxes . . . 480 
 
 Burnt to the ground by Mardonius . . . 479 
 Rebuilt and fortified by Themistocles ; Piraeus 
 
 built 478 
 
ATHENS. 
 
 51 
 
 ATEEBATES. 
 
 Themistocles banished b.c. 471 
 
 Cimon, son of Miltiaclcs, overruns all Thrace . . 469 
 Pericles takes part in public affairs, 469 ; he and 
 
 Cimon adorn Athens, 464 ; the latter banished . 461 
 Athens begins to tyrannise over Greece . . . 459 
 
 The long wall built 457 
 
 Literature, philosophy, and art flourish . . . 448 
 The first sacred (or social) war ; (which see) . . ,, 
 Tolmidas conducts an expedition into Boeotia, and 
 
 is defeated and killed near Coronea . . . . 447 
 The thirty years' truce between the Athenians and" 
 
 Lacedaemonians 445 
 
 Herodotus said to have read his history in the 
 
 council at Athens ,, 
 
 Pericles obtains the government .... 444 
 
 Pericles subdues Samos 440 
 
 Satirical comedies prohibited at Athens . . „ 
 
 Alliance between Alliens and Corcyra, then at war 
 with Corinth, 433 ; leads to the Peloponnesian war 
 
 (lasted 27 years) ; it began 431 
 
 A dreadful plague, which had ravaged Ethiopia, 
 Libya, Egypt, and Persia, extends to Athens, and 
 
 continues for five years 430 
 
 Death of Pericles of the plague 429 
 
 Disastrous expedition against Sicily ; death of the 
 commanders, Demosthenes and Nicias ; Athenian 
 fleet destroyed by Gylippus .... 415-413 
 Government of the " four hundred " . . . . 411 
 Alcibiades defeats the Lacedaemonians at Cyzicus ; 
 
 (which see) . . . < 410 
 
 Alcibiades, accused of aspiring to sovereign power, 
 
 banished 407 
 
 Athens victorious in a sea fight at Arginusse . . 406 
 Athenian fleet destroyed by Lysander at iEgospo- 
 
 tami 405 
 
 He besieges Athens by land and sea ; its walls are 
 destroyed, and it capitulates, and the Pelopon- 
 nesian war terminates 404 
 
 Rule of the thirty tyrants, who are overthrown by 
 
 Thrasybulus . ■ 403 
 
 Socrates (aged 70) put to death 399 
 
 The Corinthian war begins 39s 
 
 Conon rebuilds the long walls, and fortifies the 
 
 Piraeus 393 
 
 Plato founds the academy 388 
 
 War against Sparta ....;.. 378 
 The Lacedaemonian fleet defeated at Naxus by 
 
 Chabrias . , 376 
 
 General peace 371 
 
 Philip, king rjf Macedon, opposes the Athenians ; 
 
 see Macedon 359 
 
 Second sacred (or social) war ... . . 357-355 
 
 First Philippic of Demosthenes 352 
 
 Peace with Macedon 346 
 
 Battle of Cheronaea (which see) ; the Athenians and 
 
 Thebans defeated by Philip . . .7 Aug. 338 
 Philip assassinated by Pausanias .... 336 
 Athens submits to Alexander, who spares the 
 
 orators 335 
 
 Death of Alexander 323 
 
 The Lamiau war ; the Athenians and others rise 
 against Macedon, 323 ; defeated at Cranon ; 
 
 Demosthenes poisons himself 322 
 
 Athens surrenders to Cassander, who governs well, 
 
 318; execution of Phocion 317 
 
 Demetrius Poliorcetes expels Demetrius Phalereus, 
 and restores the Athenian democracy, 307 ; the 
 latter takes the chair of philosophy . . . . 296 
 A league between Athens, Sparta, and Egypt . . 277 
 Athens taken by Antigonus Gonatas, king of Mace- 
 don, 268 ; restored by Aratus 256 
 
 The Athenians join the Achaean league . . . 229 
 They join the iEtolians against Macedon, and send 
 
 for assistance to Rome 215 
 
 A Roman fleet arrives at Athens . . . .211 
 The Romans proclaim liberty at Athens . . . 196 
 
 Subjugation of Greece 144 
 
 The Athenians implore assistance against the 
 Romans from Mithridates, king of Pontus, whose 
 general, Archelaus, makes himself master of 
 
 Athens '88 
 
 Athens besieged by Sylla, the Roman general ; it is 
 
 reduced to surrender by famine . . .86 
 Cicero studies at Athens, 79 ; and Horace . . . 42 
 The Athenians desert Pompey, to follow the inte- 
 rests of Caisar 47 
 
 Athens visited by the apostle Paul . . a. p. 52 
 Many temples, &c, erected by Hadrian . 122-135 
 
 Athens taken by Alaric, and spared from slaughter a. d. 396 
 
 By Mahomet II . . 1456 
 
 By the Venetians 1466 
 
 Restored to the Turks 1479 
 
 Athens suffered much during the War of Indepen- 
 dence, 1821-7. Taken by the Turks (see Greece) 
 
 17 May, 1827 
 Becomes the capital of the kingdom of modern 
 
 Greece 1833 
 
 Population, 41,298, 1861 ; 44,510 1871 
 
 ATHLONE, Eoscommon, Ireland, was burnt 
 during the civil war in 1641. After the battle of 
 the Boyne, colonel K. Grace held Athlone for 
 James II. against a besieging army, but fell when 
 it was taken by assault by Ginckel, 30 June, 1691 ; 
 see Aughrim. 
 
 ATLANTA, see United States, 1864. 
 
 ATLANTIC TELEGBAPH, see Electric 
 Telegraph, under Electricity. 
 
 ATMOLYSIS, a method of separating the 
 constituent gases of a compound gas (such as at-- 
 mospheric air) by causing it to pass through a vessel 
 of porous material (such as graphite) ; first made 
 known in Aug. 1863, by the discoverer, the late 
 professor T. Graham, F.E.S., master of the mint. 
 
 ATMOSPHEEE, see Air. 
 
 ATMOSPHEEIC BAILWAYS. The idea v 
 
 of producing motion by atmospheric pressure was 
 conceived by Papin, the French engineer, about 
 1680. Experiments were made on a line of rail, 
 laid down across Wormwood Scrubs, London, be- 
 tween Shepherd's Bush and the Great "Western 
 railroad, to test the efficacy of atmospheric tubes, 
 the working of the air-pump, and speed of carriages 
 upon this new principle on railroads in June, 1840, 
 and then tried for a short time on a line between 
 Crojrdon and London, 1845. Atmospheric pressure 
 was also tried and abandoned, in 1848, on the South 
 Devon line. An atmospheric railway was com- 
 menced between Dalkey and Killiney, in the vicinity 
 of Dublin, in Sept. 1843; opened 29 March, 1844; 
 discontinued in 1855. A similar railway was pro- 
 posed to be laid down in the streets of London by Mr. 
 T. W. Kammell, in 1857. Mr. Kammell's Pneumatic 
 Eailway was put in action successfully at the Crystal 
 Palace on 27 Aug. 1864, and following days. An 
 act for a pneumatic railway between the Waterloo 
 railway station and Whitehall was passed in July, 
 1865. Atmospheric pressure was proposed for a 
 submarine railway from Dover to Calais, in 1869 ; see 
 Pneumatic Despatch. 
 
 ATOMIC THEOEY, in chemistry, deals with 
 the indivisible particles of all substances. The 
 somewhat incoherent labours of his predecessors 
 (such as Wenzel, in 1777) were reduced by John 
 Dalton to four laws of combining proportion, which 
 have received the name of ''Atomic Theory." His 
 "Chemical Philosophy," containing the exposition 
 of his views, appeared in 1808. Dr. C. Daubeny's 
 work on the Atomic Theory was published in 1850. 
 In his standard of Atomic weights Dalton takes 
 hydrogen as 1. Berzelius, who commenced his elabo- 
 rate researches on the subject in 1848, adopts oxygen 
 as 100. The former standard is used in this country, 
 the latter on the continent. The theory is ac- 
 cepted by some, and rejected by other chemists. In 
 1855 Hinrichs propounded a new hypothetical 
 science, Atomechanics, in which pantogen, composed 
 of panatoms, is regarded as the primary chemical 
 principle. 
 
 ATEEBATES, a Belgic people, subdued by 
 Ceesar, 57 b.c. ; see Artois. 
 
 e 2 
 
ATTAINDER. 
 
 52 
 
 AUBAINE. 
 
 ATTAINDER, ACTS OF, whereby a person 
 not only forfeited his land, but his blood was at- 
 tainted, have been numerous. Two witnesses in 
 cases of high treason are necessary where corruption 
 of blood is incurred, unless the party accused shall 
 confess, or stand mute, 7 & 8 Will. III. 1694-5. 
 Blackstone. The attainder of lord Russell, who was 
 beheaded in Lincoln' s-inn- fields, 21 July, 1683, was 
 reversed under William, in 1689. The rolls and re- 
 cords of the acts of attainder passed in the reign of 
 James II. were cancelled and publicly burnt, 2 Oct. 
 1695. Amongst the last acts reversed was the attaint 
 of the children of lord Edward Fitzgerald (who was 
 implicated in the rebellion in Ireland of 1798), 
 1 July, 1819. In 1814 and 1833 the severity of at- 
 tainders was mitigated. Several attainders reversed 
 about 1827, and one in 1853 (the earl of Perth). 
 
 ATTICA, see Athens. 
 
 ATTILA, suniamcd the " Scourge of God," and 
 thus distinguished for his conquests and his crimes, 
 having ravaged the eastern empire from 445 to 450, 
 when he made peace with Theodosius. He invaded 
 the western empire, 450, and was defeated by Aetius 
 at Chalons, 451; he then retired into Pannonia, 
 where he died through the bursting of a blood vessel 
 on his nuptials with Ildico, a beautiful virgin, 453. 
 
 ATTORNEY (from tour, turn), a person quali- 
 fied to act for another at law. The number in 
 Edward III.'s reign was under 400 for the whole 
 kingdom. In the 32nd of Henry VI., 1454, a law 
 reduced the practitioners in Norfolk, Norwich, and 
 Suffolk, from eighty to fourteen, and restricted their 
 increase. The number of attorneys now practising 
 in the United Kingdom is said to be 13,824 (1872). 
 The qualifications and practice of attorneys and 
 solicitors are now regulated by acts passed in 1843, 
 1861, and 1870. 
 
 ATTORNEY- GENERAL, a law officer of 
 the crown, appointed by letters patent. He has to 
 exhibit informations and prosecute for the king in 
 matters criminal, and to file bills in exchequer, for 
 any claims concerning the crown in inheritance or 
 profit. Others may bring bills against the king's 
 attorney. The first attorney -general was William 
 Bonneville, 1277. 
 
 1660. 
 1670. 
 1673- 
 1675. 
 1679. 
 1681. 
 1687. 
 
 1692. 
 1693. 
 1695. 
 1 701. 
 1707. 
 1708. 
 1710. 
 
 1 7 18. 
 1720. 
 1724. 
 1734- 
 1737- 
 1754- 
 1756. 
 1757- 
 1762. 
 1763. 
 1765. 
 
 1766. 
 
 Sir Jeffrey Palmer. 
 
 Sir Heneage Finch, afterwards earl of Nottingham. 
 
 Sir Francis North, lent., afterwards lord Guildford. 
 
 Sir William Jones. 
 
 Sir Cresvel Levinz, or Levinge, knt. 
 
 Sir Robert Sawyer, knt. 
 
 Sir Thomas Powis, knt. 
 
 Henry Pollexfen, esq. 
 
 Sir George Treby, knt. 
 
 Sir John Summers, knt. , afterwards lord Somers. 
 
 Edward Ward, esq.. 
 
 Sir Thomas Trevor, knt., afterwards lord Trevor. 
 
 Edward Northey, esq. 
 
 Sir Simon Hareourt, knt. 
 
 Sir James Montagu, knt. 
 
 Sir Simon Hareourt, again ; aft. lord Hareourt. 
 
 Sir Edward Northey, knt. 
 
 Nicholas Leehmere, esq., aft. lord Leehmere. 
 
 Sir Robert Raymond, aft. lord Raymond. 
 
 Sir Philip Yorke, after, earl of Hardwicke. 
 
 Sir John Willes, knt. 
 
 Sir Dudley Ryder, knt. 
 
 Hon. William Murray, aft. earl of Mansfield. 
 
 Sir Robert Henley, knt., aft. earl of Northington. 
 
 Sir Charles Pratt, knt., afterwards lord Camden. 
 
 Hon. Charles Yorke. 
 
 Sir Fletcher Norton, knt. , aft. Lord Grantley. 
 
 Hon. Charles Yorke, again ; afterwards lord Morden, 
 
 and lord chancellor'; see Chancellors. 
 William de Grey, afterwards lord Walsingham. 
 
 771. Edward Thurlow, esq., afterwards lord Thurlow. 
 778. Alex. Wedderburn, aft. lord Loughborough. 
 780. James Wallace, esq. 
 
 782. Lloyd Kenyon, esq. 
 
 783. James Wallace, esq. 
 „ John Lee, esq. 
 
 Lloyd Kenyon, again ; afterwards Lord Kenyon. 
 
 784. Sir Richard P. Arden, aft. lord Alvanley. 
 788. Sir Archibald Macdonuld. 
 
 793. sir John Scott, afterwards hud Eldon. 
 799. Sir J. Mitford, afterwards' Lord Redesdale. 
 
 801. Sir Edward Law, alt. lord Ellenborough, 14 Feb. 
 
 802. Hon. Spencer Percival (murdered by Bellingham, 
 
 11 May, 1812), 15 April. 
 
 806. Sir Arthur Pigott, 12 Feb. 
 
 807. Sir Vicary Gibbs, afterwards chief justice of the 
 
 common pleas, 7 April. 
 
 812. Sir Thomas Plumer, afterwards first vice-chancellor 
 
 of England, 26 June. 
 
 813. Sir William Garrow, 4 May. 
 817. Sir Samuel Shepherd, 7 May. 
 
 819. Sir Robert Gifford.aft. lord Glffard, 24 July. 
 824. Sir John Singleton Copley, afterwards lord Lynd- 
 hurst, 9 Jan. 
 
 826. Sir Charles Wetherell, 20 Sept. 
 
 827. Sir James Scarlett, 27 April. 
 
 828. Sir Charles Wetherell, again, 19 Feb. 
 
 829. SirJas. Scarlett, again ; aft. lord Abinger, 29 June. 
 
 830. SirThos. Deiiman, aft. lord Denman, 26 Nov. 
 S32. Sir William Home, 26 Nov. 
 
 834. Sir John Campbell, 1 March. 
 ,, Sir Frederick Pollock, 17 Dec. 
 
 835. Sir John Campbell, again, afterwards lord Camp- 
 
 bell (and, 1859, lord chancellor), 30 April. 
 841. Sir Thomas Wilde, 3 July. 
 
 ,, Sir F. Pollock, again ; aft. chief baron, 6 Sept. 
 844. Sir William W. Follett, 15 April. 
 S45. Sir Frederick Thesiger, 4 July. 
 846. Sir Thomas Wilde, again ; afterwards lord Truro, 
 and lord chancellor, 6 July. 
 ,, Sir John Jervis, afterwards chief justice of the 
 common pleas, 13 July. 
 
 1850. Sir John Romilly, aft. master of the rolls, 11 July. 
 
 1851. Sir Alex. James Edmund Cockburn, 28 March. 
 
 1852. Sir Frederick Thesiger, again ; afterwards lord 
 
 Chelmsford, and lord chancellor, 2 March. 
 ,, Sir Alexander Cockburn, again ; aft. chief justice 
 of common pleas and queen's bench, 28 Dec. 
 1856. Sir Richard Bethell, 15 Nov. 
 
 1858. Sir Fitzroy Kelly, 27 Feb. 
 
 1859. Sir R. Bethell (since lord Westbury, and lord chan- 
 
 cellor), 18 June. 
 1861. Sir William Atherton, 27 July. 
 1863. Sir Roundell Palmer, 2 Oct. 
 
 1866. Sir Hugh M. Cairns, aft. lord chancellor, 13 July. 
 ,, Sir John Rolt (made justice of appeal;, 28 (Jet. 
 
 1867. Sir John Karslake, 1 July. 
 
 1868. Sir Robert Porrett Collier, 12 Dec. 
 1871. Sir John Duke Coleridge, 10 Nov. 
 
 ATTORNEYS' AND SOLICITORS' 
 ACT, passed 14 July, 1870. 
 
 ATTRACTION, described by Copernicus. 
 
 about 1520, as an appetence or appetite which the 
 Creator impressed upon all parts of matter ; by 
 Keplerasa corporeal affection tending to union, 160^. 
 In 1687, sir I. Newton published his " Prineipia, 
 containing his important researches on this subject. 
 There are the attractions of Gravitation, Magnetism, 
 and Electricity (which see) . 
 
 ATTWOOD'S MACHINE, for proving the 
 laws of accelerated motion by the falling of weights, 
 invented by George Attwood ; described 1784: he 
 died 11 July, 1807. 
 
 AUBAINE, a right of the French kings, which 
 existed from the beginning of the monarchy, where- 
 by they claimed the property of every stranger who 
 died in their country, without having been na- 
 turalised, was abolished by the national assembly 
 fu 1790-91; re-established bv Napoleon in 1804, 
 and finally annulled 14 July 1819. 
 
AUBEEOCHE. 
 
 53 
 
 AULIC COUNCIL. 
 
 AUBEEOCHE, Guienne, S. France. The 
 earl of Derby defeated the French, besieging this 
 place, 19 Aug. 1344. 
 
 AUCKLAND, capital of New Zealand (north 
 island), was founded Sept. 1840. The population 
 of the district, in 1857, was estimated at 15,000 
 Europeans, and 35,000 natives. The seat of govern- 
 ment was removed to Wellington on Cook's Strait, 
 Dec. 1864. 
 
 AUCTION, a kind of sale known to the Ro- 
 mans, mentioned by Petronius Arbiter (about a.d. 
 66). Tbe first in Britain was about 1 700, by 
 Elisha Yale, a governor of Fort George, now 
 Madras, in the East Indies, who thus sold the goods 
 he had brought home. Auction and sales' tax 
 began, 1779. Various acts of parliament have 
 regulated auctions and imposed duties, in some 
 cases as high as five per cent. By 8 Vict. c. 15 
 (1845), the duties were repealed, and a charge im- 
 posed "on the licence to be taken out by all auc- 
 tioneers in the United Kingdom, of 10/." In 1858 
 there were 4358 licences granted, producing, 43,580/. 
 The abuses at auctions, ..termed "knock-outs," 
 caused by combinations of brokers and others, ex- 
 cited much attention in Sept. 1866. An act regu- 
 lating sales of land by auction was passed 15 July, 
 1867. Certain sales are no w exempt from being con- 
 ducted by a licensed auctioneer, such as goods and 
 chattels under a distress for rent, and sales under 
 the provisions of the Small Debts' acts for Scotland 
 and Ireland. 
 
 AUDIANI, followers of Audseus of Mesopo- 
 tamia, who had been expelled from the Syrian 
 church on account of his severely reproving the 
 vices of the clergy, about 338, formed a sect and 
 became its bishop. He was banished to Scythia, 
 where he is said to have made many converts. His 
 folio wers celebrated Easter at the time of the Jewish 
 passover, attributed the human figure to the Deity, 
 and had other peculiar tenets. 
 
 AUDIT-OFFICE, Somerset House. Com- 
 missioners for auditing the public accounts were 
 appointed in 1785, and many statutes regulating 
 their duties have since been enacted. 
 
 AUDLEY'S EEBELLION, see Rebellions, 
 1497. 
 
 AUEESTADT (Prussia). Here on 14 Oct. 1806, 
 the .French, under Davoust, signally defeated the 
 Prussians, under Blucher ; see Jena. 
 
 AUGHBIM, near Athlone, in Ireland, where 
 on 12 July, 1691, a battle was fought between the 
 Irish, headed by tbe French general St. Ruth, and 
 the English under general Ginckel. The former 
 were defeated and lost 7000 men; the latter lost 
 only 600 killed and 960 wounded. St. Ruth was 
 slain. This engagement proved decisively fatal to 
 the interest of James II., and Ginckel was created 
 earl of Athlone. 
 
 AUGMENTATION of Poor Livings' 
 
 OFFICE, established in 1704. 5597 clerical livings, 
 not exceeding 50/. per annum, were found by the 
 commissioners under the act of Anne capable of 
 augmentation, by means of the bounty then 
 established. 
 
 AUGMENTATIONS COUET, established 
 m 1535 by 27 Hen. VI11. c. 27, in relation to cap. 28 
 same session, which gave the king the property of 
 all monasteries having 200/. a year. The court was 
 abolished by Mary, 1553, and restored by Elizabeth, 
 I.S58. 
 
 AUGSBUEG (Bavaria), originally a colony 
 settled by Augustus, about 12 B.C. ; became a free 
 city, and flourished during the middle ages. Here 
 many important diets of the empire have been held.. 
 In A.d. 952, a council confirmed the order for the 
 celibacy of the priesthood. Augsburg has suffered 
 much by war, having been frequently taken by 
 siege, — in 788, 1703, 1 704, and, last, by the French, 
 10 Oct. 1805, who restored it to Bavaria in March, 
 1806. 
 
 Augsburg Diet, summoned by the emperor Charles 
 V., to settle the religious disputes of Germany, 
 met 20 June, and separated . . . Nov. 1530 
 
 Confession of Augsburg, compiled by Melanchthon, 
 Luther and others, signed by the Protestant 
 princes, presented to the emperor Charles V. , and 
 read to the diet 25 June, 1530 
 
 Interim of Augsburg, a document issued "by 
 Charles V. : an attempt to reconcile the Catholics 
 and Protestants : (it was fruitless and was with- 
 drawn) read 15 May, 1548 
 
 "Peace of Religion" signed at Augsburg, 25 Sept. 1555 
 
 League of Augsburg, for maintenance of the treaties 
 of Minister, Nimeguen : a treaty hetween Holland 
 and other powers against France, signed 9 July, 1686 
 
 AUGUEY. Husbandry was in part regulated 
 by the ;coming or going of birds, long before the 
 time of Hesiod. Three augurs, at Rome, with ves- 
 tals and several orders of the priesthood, were 
 formally constituted by Numa, about 710 B.C. The 
 number increased, and was fifteen at the time of 
 Sylla, 81. The college of augurs was abolished by 
 Theodosius about a.d. 390. 
 
 AUGUST, the eighth Roman month of the 
 year (previously called Sextilis, or the sixth from 
 March), by a decree of the senate received its pre- 
 sent name in honour of Augustus Csesar, in the 
 year 8 B.C., because in this month he was created 
 consul, had thrice triumphed in Rome, added Egypt 
 to the Roman empire, and made an end of the 
 civil wars. He added one day to the month, making 
 it 31 days. The appearance of shooting stars on 
 the 10th of Aug. was observed in the middle ages, 
 when they were termed " St. Lawrence's tears." 
 Their periodicity was noticed by Mr. Forster early 
 in the present century. 
 
 AUGUSTAN EEA began 14 Feb. 27 B.C., 
 or 727 years after the foundation of Rome. 
 
 AUGUSTIN or Austin Friars, a religious 
 
 order, which ascribes its origin to St. Augustin, 
 bishop of Hippo, who died 430. They first appeared 
 about the nth century, and the order was consti- 
 tuted by pope Alexander IV., 1256. The rule re- 
 quires poverty, humility, and chastity. Martin 
 Luther was an Augustin monk. The Augustins 
 held the doctrine of free grace, and were rivals of 
 the Dominicans. The order appeared in England 
 soon after the conquest, and had 32 houses at the 
 suppression, 1536. One of their churches, at Austin 
 Friars, London, erected 1354, and since the Re- 
 formation used by Dutch protestants, was partially 
 destroyed by fire, 22 Nov. 1862. It was restored, 
 and reopened, 1 Oct. 1865. A religious house of 
 the order, dedicated to St. Monica, mother of 
 Augustin, was founded in Hoxton-square, London, 
 1864. 
 
 AULIC COUNCIL, a sovereign court in 
 Germany, established by the emperor Maximilian I., 
 being one of the two courts, the first called the 
 Imperial Chamber civil and criminal, instituted at 
 Worms, 1495, and afterwards held at Spires and 
 Wetzler, and the other the Aulic council at Vienna, 
 1506. These courts having concurrent jurisdiction, 
 
AURAY. 
 
 54 
 
 AUSTRALIA. 
 
 were instituted for appeals in particular cases from 
 the courts of the Germanic states. 
 
 AURAY (N. W. France). Here, on 29 Sept. 
 1364, the English, under John Chandos, defeated 
 the French and captured their leader Du Guesclin. 
 Charles of Blois, made duke of Brittany hy the 
 king of France, was slain, and a peace was made in 
 April, 1365. 
 
 AURICULAR CONFESSION. The con- 
 fession of sin at the ear (Latin, auris) of the priest 
 was an early practice, since it is said to have been 
 forbidden in the 4th century by Nectarius, arch- 
 bishop of Constantinople. It was enjoined by the 
 council of Lateran in 12 15, and by the council of 
 Trent in 1551. It was one of the six articles of 
 faith enacted by our Henry VIII. in 1539, but was 
 abolished in England at the Reformation. Its re- 
 vival here has been attempted by the church party 
 called Puseyites, Tractarians, or Ritualists.* 
 
 AURIFLAMMA or ORIFLAMME, the national 
 golden banner mentioned in French history, belong- 
 ing to the abbey of St. Denis, and suspended over 
 ihe tomb of that saint. Louis le Gros was the first 
 king who took this standard from the abbev to 
 battle, 1 124. Hinault. It appeared for the last 
 time at Agincourt, 25 Oct. 1415. Tillet. Others 
 say at Montlhery, 16 July, 1465. 
 
 ; AURORA FRIGATE, sailed from Britain 
 in 1 77 1, to the East Indies, and was never again 
 heard of. 
 
 AURORA BOREALES and AUS- 
 
 TRALES (Northern and Southern Polar Lights), 
 though rarely seen in central Europe, are frequent 
 in the arctic and antarctic regions. In March, 17 16, 
 an aurora borealis extended from the west of Ire- 
 land to the confines of Russia. The whole horizon 
 lat. 57 N. was overspread with continuous haze of 
 a dismal red during a whole night, Nov. 1765. — 
 Mr. Foster, the companion of captain Cook, saw 
 the aurora in lat. 58 S. The aurora is now attri- 
 buted to the passage of electric light through the 
 rarefied air of the polar regions. In August and 
 September, 1859 (and about 24 Oct. 1870), when 
 brilliant aurorse were very frequent, the electric 
 telegraph wires were seriously affected, and com- 
 munications interrupted. Aurora were seen at Rome 
 and Basel, and also in Australia. 
 
 AUSCULTATION, see Stethoscope. 
 
 AUSTERLITZ, a town in Moravia, where a 
 battle was fought between the French and the 
 allied Austrian and Russian armies, 2 Dec. 1805. 
 Three emperors commanded : Alexander of Russia, 
 Francis of Austria, and Napoleon of France. The 
 killed and wounded exceeded 30,000 on the side of 
 the allies, who lost forty standards, 150 pieces of 
 cannon, and thousands of prisoners. The decisive 
 victory of the French led to the treaty of Presburg, 
 signed 26 Dec. 1805 ; see Presburg. 
 
 AUSTIN FRIARS, see Augustin Friars. 
 
 AUSTRALASIA, the fifth great division of 
 the world. This name originally given it by De 
 Brosses, includes Australia, Van Diemcn'sTLand, 
 New Guinea, New Zealand, New Britain, New 
 
 * The rev. Alfred Poole, a curate of St. Barnabas, 
 Knightsbridge, was suspended by his bishop from his 
 office for practising auricular confession in June, 1858, 
 and the suspension was confirmed in Jan. 1S59. Much ex- 
 citement was created by a similar attempt by the rev. 
 Temple West at Boyue Hill, in Sept. 1858. 
 
 Caledonia, &c, mostly discovered within two 
 centuries. Accidental discoveries were made by the 
 Spaniards as early as 1526; but the first accurate 
 knowledge of these southern lands is due to the 
 Dutch, who in 1606 explored a part of the 1 
 Papua or New Guinea. Torres, a Spaniard . 
 through the Btraits which now bear bis name, Between 
 that island and Australia, and gave the first correct 
 report of the latter, 1606. The Dutch continued 
 their discoveries. Grant in 1800, and Flinders again 
 (1801-5) completed the survey. M'Oulloch. 
 
 AUSTRALIA (formerly New Holland), the 
 largest island and smallest continent ; estimated 
 area about three million square miles, including 
 five provinces — New South Wales. Victoria (formerly 
 Port Phillip), South Australia, West Australia (or 
 Swan River), and Queensland {all which sec). 
 Population, with Tasmania and New Zealand, in 
 1871, about 1,958,650. 
 
 Mr. R. H. Major, in 1872, alleged that Australia was 
 
 known to the French prior to .... 1531 
 Alleged discovery by Manuel G'idinlio de Eredia, a 
 
 Portuguese 1601 
 
 The Dutch also discover Australia . . March, 1606 
 The coast surveyed by Dutch navigators ; north, by 
 
 Zeachen, 1618 ; west, by Edels, 1619 ; south, 
 
 Nuyts, 1627 ; north, by Carpenter . . . 1627 
 Wm. Dampier explores the W. and X. \Y. coa 
 
 1684-90 
 Tasman coasts S. Australia, and Van Biemen's 
 
 Land ......... 1642-4 
 
 Terra Australia (Western Australia) named New 
 
 Holland by order of the States-General . . 1665 
 William Dampier lands in Australia . . Jan. 1686 
 Explorations of Willis and Carteret . t . 1763-6 
 Capt, Cook, sir Joseph Banks, and others, land at 
 
 Botany Bay, and name the country " New Smith 
 
 Vales" 28 April, 1770 
 
 Exploration of Furneaux 1773 
 
 Governor Phillip founds Sydney near Port Jacl 
 
 with 1030 persons 26 Jan. 17SS 
 
 [The 82nd anniversary of this event was kept with 
 
 much festivity, 26 Jan. 1870.] 
 Great distress in consequence of the loss of the 
 store ship " Guardian, captain Biou . . . xygo 
 
 Voyages of Bligh 1789-92 
 
 First church erected Vug. 1793 
 
 Government gazette first printed . . . . 1795 
 
 Bass's straits discovered by Bass and Flinders . 1798 
 
 First brick church built 1802 
 
 Colony of Van Diemen's land (now Tasmania) estal >- 
 
 lished 1803 
 
 Grant, 1800, and Flinders survey the coasts of Aus- 
 tralia . 1801-5 
 
 Insurrection of Irish convicts quelled . . 1S04 
 
 Governor Bligh for his tyranny deposed and 
 
 home .... ' . . . . 180S 
 Superseded by governor Macquarie . . . . 1809 
 Expeditions into the interior by Wentworth, Law- 
 son, Bloxland, 1813 ; Oxley, &c. . . . 1817-1823 
 Population, 29,783 (three-fourths convicts) . . 1821 
 West Australia formed into a province . . . 1829 
 
 Legislative council established ,, 
 
 Start's expeditions into South Australia . . 1828-31 
 Smith Australia erected into a province . Aug. 1834 
 Sir T. MitcheU's expeditions into B. Australia . 1831-6 
 First Roman Catholic bishop (Polding) arrives, 
 
 Sept, 1835 
 Port Phillip (now Victoria) colonised . . Nov. ,, 
 First Church of England bishop Of Australia 
 
 (Broughton) arrives June, 1836 
 
 Colony of South Australia founded . . . Dec. ,, 
 Eyre's expedition overland from Adelaide to King 
 
 1 ''s Sound 1836-7 
 
 Melbourne founded Nov. 1837 
 
 Capt. Grey explores N. W. Australia . . . 1837-9 
 Count Strzeleeki explored New South Wales and 
 Tasmania, 1838-43: discovered gold-fields in Bath- 
 urst, Wellington, &c. (kept secret by sir George 
 
 Gipps) 1839 
 
 Suspension of transportation „ 
 
 Strzeleeki explores the Australian Alps ; discovers 
 Gipps' laud ; Eyre explores west Australia . . 1840 
 
AUSTEALIA. 
 
 55 
 
 AUSTEIA. 
 
 Great exertions of Mrs. Chisholm ; establishment 
 
 of " Home for Female Emigrants " . . . 1841-6 
 Census — 87,200 males; 43,700 females . . . 1841 
 Very numerous insolvencies .... 1S41-2 
 
 Incorporation of city of Sydney .... 1842 
 Leiclihardt's expedition (never returned) . , . 1844 
 Start proceeds from South. Australia to the middle 
 
 of the continent . 184s 
 
 Census (including Port Phillip) — 114,700 males; 
 
 74,800 females 1846 
 
 Kennedy's expedition, 1847 ; killed . . . 1848 
 
 Great agitation against transportation, which had 
 
 been revived by earl Grey 1849 
 
 Port Phillip erected into a separate province as 
 
 Victoria 1850 
 
 Gold discovered by Mr. Hargraves, &c* . . . 1851 
 Census — males, 106,000 ; females, 81,000 (exclusive 
 
 of Victoria, 80,000) ,, 
 
 Mints established . .... March, 1853 
 
 Transportation ceased ,, 
 
 Gregory's explorations of interior . . 1848, 1855-8 
 Death of archdeacon Cowper (aged 80), after about 
 
 fifty years' residence July, 1858 
 
 Queensland made a province . . .4 Dec. 1859 
 J. M'Douall Stuart's expeditions . . . 1858-62 
 Expedition into the interior under Mr. Landells 
 
 organised Aug. i860 
 
 Robert O'Hara Burke, Win. John Wills, and others, 
 
 start from Melbourne . . . .20 Aug. „ 
 Burke, Wills, and two others, cross the Australian " 
 continent to the gulf of Carpentaria ; all perish 
 on their return, except John King, who arrives 
 
 at Melbourne Nov. 1861 
 
 Stuart, M'Kinlay, and Landsborough cross Aus- 
 tralia from sea to sea 1861-2 
 
 Remains of Burke and Wills recovered ; public 
 
 funeral 21 Jan. 1863 
 
 Strong and general resistance throughout Australia 
 to the reception of British convicts in West Aus- 
 tralia ...... about June, 1864 
 
 Cessation of transportation to Australia in three 
 
 years announced amid much rejoicing . 26 Jan. 1865 
 Morgan, a desperate bushranger and murderer sur- 
 rounded and shot April, ,, 
 
 Boundary disputes between New South Wales and 
 Victoria, in summer of 1864 ; settled amicably 
 
 19 April, ,, 
 Total population of Australia, exclusive of natives, 
 
 1,298,667 Jan. 1866 
 
 Meeting of ministers from the Australian colonies 
 at Melbourne to arrange postal communication 
 with Europe March, 1867 
 
 * Gold Discovery. — Mr. Edward Hargraves went to 
 California in search of gold, and was struck with the 
 similarity between the rocks and strata of California and 
 those of his own district of Conobolas, some thirty miles 
 west of Bathurst: On his return home, he examined the 
 soil, and after one or two months' digging, found a 
 quantity of gold, 12 Feb. 1851. He applied to the colonial 
 government for a reward, which he readily obtained, 
 with an appointment as commissioner of crown lands. 
 The excitement became intense throughout the colony of 
 New South Wales, rapidly spread to that of Victoria and 
 other places ; and in the first week of July, 1851, an 
 aboriginal inhabitant, formerly attached to the Welling- 
 ton mission, and then in the service of Dr. Kerr, of Wal- 
 lawa, discovered, while tending his sheep, a mass of gold 
 among a heap of quartz. Three blocks of quartz (from 
 two to three hundred weight), found in the Murroo 
 Creek, fifty miles to the north of Bathurst, contained 
 112 lb. of pure gold, valued at 4000Z. The "Victoria 
 nugget," a magnificent mass of virgin gold, weighing 340 
 ounces, was brought to England from the Bendigo dig- 
 gings ; and a piece of pure gold of 106 lb weight was also 
 found. From the gold fields of Mount Alexander and 
 Ballarat, in the district of Victoria, up to Oct. 1852, there 
 were found 2,532,422 ounces, or 105 tons 10 cwt. of gold ; 
 and the gold exported up to the same date represented 
 8,863,4771 sterling. In Nov. 1856, the "James Baines " 
 and " Lightning " brought gold from Melbourne valued 
 as i,2oo,oooZ. The "Welcome nugget" weighed 2019I 
 ounces ; value, 8376?. 10s. 100I. ; found at Baker's Hill, 
 Ballarat, 11 June, 1858. Between May, 1851, and May 
 t86i, gold to the value of 96,000,000?. had been brought 
 to England from New South Wales and Victoria, 
 
 Exploration of South Australia ; capt. Cadell dis- 
 covers mouth of the river Roper, and fine pas- 
 toral country, lat. 14° S Nov. 1867 
 
 Despatch from lord Kimberley objecting to the 
 complex tariffs between the Australian colonies, 
 
 13 July, 1871 
 
 Meeting of delegates from New South Wales, Vic- 
 toria, South Australia, and Tasmania ; they object 
 to imperial interference with their mutual fiscal 
 arrangements 27 Sept. ,, 
 
 Synod of the church of Australia and Tasmania 
 held at Sydney 25 Oct. 1872 
 
 GOVERNORS. 
 
 Captain Arthur Phillip 1788 
 
 Captain Hunter 1795 
 
 Captain Philip G. King 1800 
 
 Captain William Bligh 1806 
 
 Colonel Lachlan Macquarie (able and successful 
 
 administration) 1809 
 
 General sir Thomas Brisbane 1821 
 
 Sir Richard Bourke 1831 
 
 Sir George Gipps 1838 
 
 Sir Charles Fitzroy, governor-general of all the Aus- 
 tralian colonies, with a certain jurisdiction over 
 the lieutenant-governors of Van Diemen's Land, 
 Victoria, and South and Western Australia . . 1846 
 
 Sir William T. Denison 1854 
 
 Sir John Young, of New South Wales only . . i860 
 
 See New South Wales. 
 Acts for the government of Australia, 10 Geo. IV. 
 c. 22, 14 May (1829), 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 68, 13 Aug. 
 (1836), 13 & 14 Vict. c. 59, 5 Aug. (1850). Act for 
 regulating the sale of waste lands in the Austra- 
 lian colonies, 5 & 6 Vict. c. 36, 22 June (1842). 
 
 AUSTEASIA, (Esterreich (Eastern Kingdom), 
 also called Metz, a French kingdom which lasted 
 from the 6th to the 8th century. It began with the 
 division of the territories of Clovis by his sons, 511, 
 and ended by Caiiornan becoming a monk and sur- 
 rendering his power to his brother Pepin, who thus 
 became sole king of France, 747. 
 
 AUSTEIA, a Hamburg company's steamship, 
 sailed from Southampton to New York 4 Sept. 1858, 
 with 528 persons on board. On 13 Sept. in lat. 
 45 N., long. 41 30' W., it caught fire through the 
 carelessness of some one in burning some tar to 
 fumigate the steerage. Only. 67 persons were saved 
 — upwards of 60 by the Maurice, a French barque ; 
 the rest by a Norwegian barque. A heartrending 
 account was given in the Times, 11 Oct. 1858, by 
 Mr. Charles Brews, an English survivor. 
 
 AUSTEIA, (Esterreich (Eastern Kingdom), 
 anciently Noricuni and part of Pannonia, was an- 
 nexed to the Roman empire about 33 ; was overrun 
 by the Huns, Avars, &c, during the 5th and 6th 
 centuries, and taken from them by Charlemagne, 
 791-796. He divided the government of the country, 
 establishing margraves of Eastern Bavaria and 
 Austria. Louis the German, son of Louis le Debon- 
 naire, about 817, subjugated Eadbod, margrave of 
 Austria ; but in 883 the descendants of the latter 
 raised a civil war in Bavaria against the emperor 
 Charles the Fat, and eventually the margraves of 
 Austria were declared immediate princes of the 
 empire. In 1 156 the margraviate was made an 
 hereditary duchy by the emperor Frederic I. ; and 
 in 1453 it was raised to an archduchy by the emperor 
 Frederic III. Bodolph, count of Hapsburg, elected 
 emperor of Germany in 1273, acquired Austria in 
 1278 ; and from 1493 to 1804 his descendants were 
 emperors of Germany. On 11 Aug. 1804, the em- 
 peror Francis II. renounced the title of emperor of 
 Germany, and became hereditary emperor of Austria. 
 The condition of Austria is now greatly improving 
 under the enlightened rule of the present, emperor. 
 The political constitution of the empire is based 
 upon — 1. The pragmatic sanction of Charles VI., 
 1734, which declares the indivisibility of the empire 
 
AUSTRIA. 
 
 56 
 
 AUSTRIA. 
 
 and rules the ordei of succession. 2. The pragmatic 
 sanction of Francis II., i Aug. 1804, when he became 
 emperor of Austria only. 3. The diploma of Francis 
 Joseph, 20 Oct. i860, whereby he imparted legisla- 
 tive power to the provincial states and the council 
 of the empire (Reichsrath). 4. The law of 26 Feb. 
 1861, on the national representation. Self-govern- 
 ment was granted to Hungary, 17 Feb. 1867. The 
 empire was ordered to be named henceforth the 
 Austro-Hungarian monarchy, by decree, 14 Nov. 
 1868. Population of the empire* in Oct. 1857, 
 33,018,988; reduced to 32,530,000 by the loss of 
 Venetia, &c., in 1866 (about 16,000,000 Slavs of 
 different dialects). Population (31 Dec. 1869) : 
 Austria and other Cis-Leithan provinces, 20,394,980 ; 
 Hungary and Trans-Leithan provinces, 15,509,455. 
 
 Frederic II., the last male of the house of Bam- 
 berg, killed in battle with the Hungarians 
 
 15 June, 1246 
 
 Disputed succession : the emperor Frederic II. se- 
 questered the provinces, appointing Otto, count 
 of Eberstein, governor in the name of th$ em- 
 peror ; they are seized by Ladislaus, margrave of 
 Moravia, in right of his wife, Frederic's niece, 
 Gertrude : he died childless 1247 
 
 Herman, margrave of Baden, marries Gertrude, and 
 holds the provinces till his death . . . . 1250 
 
 Premislas Ottocar, of Bohemia, acquires the pro- 
 vinces 1254 
 
 Compelled to cede Styriato Hungary, he makes war 
 and recovers it, in consequence of a great victory 1260 
 
 He inherits Carinthia, 1263 ; refuses to become em- 
 peror of Germany, 1272 ; and to render homage to 
 Rodolph of Hapsburg, elected emperor . . . 1273 
 
 War against Ottocar as a rebel : he is compelled to 
 cede Austria, Carinthia, and Styria to Rodolph . 1274 
 
 The war renewed : Ottocar perishes in the battle of 
 Marchfeld 26 Aug. 1278 
 
 Albert I. assassinated by his nephew while attempt- 
 ing to enslave the Swiss . . . .1 May, 1308 
 
 Successful revolt of the Swiss .... 1307-9 
 
 They totally defeat the Austrians under duke Leo- 
 pold, at Morgarten .... 16 Nov. 1315 
 
 The Tyrol acquired 1363 
 
 The duke Leopold imposes a toll on the Swiss ; 
 which they resist with violence : he makes war 
 on them, and is defeated and slain at Sempach 
 
 July, 1386 
 
 Duke Albert V. obtains Bohemia and Hungary, and 
 is elected emperor of Germany 1437 
 
 The emperor Frederic III. , as head of the house of 
 Hapsburg, creates the archduchy of Austria with 
 sovereign power 6 Jan. 1453 
 
 Austria divided between him and his relatives, 
 1457 ; war ensues between them till . . . . 1463 
 
 The Low countries accrue to Austria by the mar- 
 riage of Maximilian with the heiress of Burgundy 1477 
 
 Also Spain, by the marriage of Philip I. of Austria, 
 with the heiress of Arragon and Castile . . 1496 
 
 Bohemia and Hungary united to Austria under 
 Ferdinand 1 1526 
 
 Austria harassed by Turkish invasions . . 1529-45 
 
 Charles V., reigning over Germany, Austria, Bo- 
 hemia, Hungary, Spain, the Netherlands, and 
 their dependencies, abdicates (see Spain) . . 1556 
 
 The destructive 30 years' war .... 1618-48 
 
 War of Spanish succession 1701-14 
 
 Mantua ceded to the emperor . . . 3 Jan. 170S 
 
 By treaty of Utrecht he obtains part of the duchy 
 
 of Milan 11 April, 1713 
 
 By treaty of Rastadt he acquires the Netherlands . 1714 
 Naples, &c, added to his dominions . 15 Nov. 1715 
 Further additions on the east (Temeswar, <fec.) by 
 
 the peace of Passarowitz 1718 
 
 Naples and Sicily given up to Spain . . . 1735 
 
 * The empire is now divided into two parts, separated 
 by the river Leithe. The Cis-Leithan section comprises 
 14 provincial diets : Galicia, Bohemia, Silesia, Moravia, 
 lower and upper Austria, Styria, the Tyrol and Voral- 
 burg, Salzburg, Carinthia, Carniola, Trieste, and Istria, 
 Dalmatia, and the Bukovina. The Trans-Leithan section 
 comprises Hungary, Transylvania, Croatia, Slavonia, and 
 the city of Fiume. 
 
 Death of Charles VI., the last sovereign of the male 
 line of the house of Hapsburg ; his daughter, 
 Maria Theresa, becomes queen of Hungary 
 
 20 Oct. 1740 
 
 Silesian wars 1740-2; 1744-5 
 
 Maria Theresa is attacked by Prussia, France, Ba- 
 varia, and Saxony ; but supported by Great Britain 174L 
 Francis, duke of Lorraine, who had married Maria 
 
 Theresa in 1736, elected emperor . . . 1745 
 
 Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle : Parma, Milan, &c. ceded 
 
 to Spain 1748 
 
 Bevep. years' war ; Silesia ceded to Prussia . . 1745-63 
 Galicia, ie., acquired from Poland .... 1772 
 War with France (see Unities) .... 1792-7 
 By the treaty of Campo Fonnio, the emperor gives 
 up Loiubardy (which sec) and obtains Venice 
 
 15 Oct. 1797 
 Treaty of Luneville (more losses) .... 1801 
 Francis II., emperor of Germany, becomes Francis I. 
 of Austria: declared hereditary emperor of Austria 
 
 11 Aug. 1804. 
 His declaration against France . . .5 Aug. 1805 
 Capitulation of his army at Uliu . . 20 Oct. ,, 
 "War : Napoleon enters Vienna . . 14 Nov. „ 
 
 Austrians and Russians defeated at Austerlitz, 
 
 2 Dec. „ 
 By treaty of Presburg, Austria loses Venice and the 
 
 Tyrol 1 Jan. 1806 
 
 Vienna evacuated by the French . . .12 Jan. ,, 
 Dissolution of the Germanic confederation, and 
 
 formal abdication of the emperor . . 6 Aug. ,, 
 The French again take Vienna . . .13 May, 1809 
 But restore it at the peace ... 24 Oct. „ 
 Napoleon marries the archduchess Maria Louisa, 
 tie daughter of the emperor . . . 1 April, 1810 
 
 Congress at Vienna 2 Oct. 1814 
 
 Treaty of Vienna 25 Feb. 1815 
 
 [Italian provinces restored with additions — Lom- 
 
 bardo-Venetian kingdom established, 7 April.] 
 Francis I. dies ; Ferdinand I. succeeds . 2 March, 1835 
 New treaty of commerce with England . 3 July, 1838 
 Insurrection at Vienna ; flight of Metternich, 
 
 13 March, 1842 
 Insurrection in Italy, see Milan, Venice, and Sar- 
 dinia 18 March, ,, 
 
 Another insurrection at Vienna ; the emperor flees 
 
 to Inspruck 15-17 May. >, 
 
 Archduke John appointed vicar-general of the 
 
 empire 29 May, ,, 
 
 A constituent assembly meet at Vienna . 22 July, , r 
 Insurrection of Vienna ; murder of count Lati iur, 
 
 6 Oct. „ 
 Revolution in Hungary, see Hungary . 11 Sept. ,, 
 The emperor abdicates in favour of his nephew, 
 
 Francis-Joseph 2 Dec. ,, 
 
 Convention of Olmiitz . . . -29 Nov. 1850 
 The emperor revokes the constitution of 4 March, 
 
 1849 3 1 Dec. 18511 
 
 Trial by jury abolished in the empire . 15 Jan. 1852 
 Death of prince Schwartzenburg, prime minister, 
 
 4 April, ,, 
 Attempted assassination of the emperor by Libenyi, 
 
 18 Feb. ; who was executed . . .28 Feb. 1853 
 Commercial treaty with Prussia . . 19 Feb. ,, 
 Austrians enter Danubian principalities . Aug. 1854 
 Alliance with England and France relative to 
 
 eastern question . . . . ' . 2 Dec. ,, 
 Great reduction of the army . . .24 June, 1855 
 By a concordat the pope acquires great power in the 
 
 empire 18 Aug. ,, 
 
 Amnesty for political offenders of 1848-9, 12 July, 18561 
 Austrians quit the principalities . . March, 1857 
 Austria remonstrates against the attacks of the free 
 
 Sardinian press 10 Feb. ,, 
 
 Firm reply 01 count Cavour . . . 20 Feb. ,, 
 Diplomatic relations between Austria and Sardinia 
 
 broken off in consequence . . 23-30 March, ,, 
 Emperor and empress visit Hungary . May, ,, 
 Death of marshal Radetzky (aged 92) . .5 Jan. 1858 
 Excitement throughout Europe, caused by the 
 address of the emperor Napoleon III. to the 
 Austrian ambassador : — "I regret that our rela- 
 tions with your government are not as good as 
 formerly, but I beg of you to tell the emperor 
 that my personal sentiments for him have not 
 
 changed " 1 Jan. 18591 
 
 The emperor of Austria replied in almost the same 
 words 4 Jan. ,, 
 
AUSTEIA. 
 
 57 
 
 AUSTEIA. 
 
 Prince Napoleon Bonaparte marries princess 
 Clotilde of Sardinia .... 30 Jan. 1S59 
 
 Austria prepares for war ; enlarges her armies in 
 Italy ; and strongly fortiiies the banks of the 
 Ticino, the boundary of her Italian provinces, and 
 Sardinia Feb. <fc March, „ 
 
 Lord Cowley at Vienna on a "mission of peace," 
 
 27 Feb. „ 
 
 Intervention of Russia — proposal for a congress ; 
 disputes respecting the admission of Sardinia 
 — Sardinia and France prepare for war, 
 
 March <& April, ,, 
 
 Austria demands the disarmament of Sardinia and . 
 the dismissal of the volunteers from other states 
 within three days .... 23 April, „ 
 
 This demand rejected . . . .26 April, „ 
 
 The Austrians cross the Ticino . . 26 April, ,, 
 
 The French troops enter Piedmont . . 27 April, ,, 
 
 The French emperor declares war (to expel the 
 Austrians from Italy) 3 May, „ 
 
 Resignation of count Buol, foreign minister ; ap- 
 pointment of count Rechberg . 13-18 May, „ 
 
 The Austrians defeated at Montebello, 20 May ; at 
 Palestro, 30-31 May ; at Magenta, 4 June ; at 
 Malegnano (Marignano) . . . .8 June, „ 
 
 Prince Metternich dies, aged 86 (he had been 
 actively engaged in the wars and negotiations of 
 Napoleon I.) it June, „ 
 
 Austrians defeated at Solferino (near the Mincio) ; 
 the emperors of Austria and France and king of 
 Sardinia present .... 24 June, ,, 
 
 Armistice agreed upon, 6 July ; the emperors meet, 
 
 11 July ; the preliminaries of peace signed at Villa 
 Franca (Lombardy given up to Sardinia, and 
 an Italian confederation proposed to be formed), 
 
 12 July, ,, 
 Manifesto justifying the peace issued to the army, 
 
 12 July ; to the people . . . .15 July, „ 
 Patent issued, granting greatly increased privileges 
 
 to the Protestants, — announced . . Sept. ,. 
 
 Conference between the envoys of Austria and 
 
 France at Zurich ... 8 Aug. to Sept. „ 
 Many national reforms proposed . . . Sept. „ 
 Treaty of Zurich, confirming the preliminaries of 
 
 Villa Franca, signed . . . .10 Nov. ,, 
 Decrees removing Jewish disabilities, 
 
 6, 10 Jan. 18 Feb. 1S60 
 Patent issued for the summoning the great imperial 
 council (Reichsrath), composed of representatives 
 elected by the provincial diets . . 5 March, ,, 
 Discovery of great corruptions in the army financial 
 arrangements, adeficiency of about 1,700,000^. dis- 
 covered ; general Eyuatten commits suicide ; 82 
 persons arrested . . . . . March, „ 
 Austria protests against the annexation of Tuscany, 
 
 &c, by Sardinia March, „ 
 
 Baron Brlick, suspected of complicity in the army 
 frauds, dismissed 20 April; commits suicide, 
 
 23 April, „ 
 The Reichsrath assembles, 30 May ; addressed by 
 
 the emperor 1 June, „ 
 
 Liberty of the press further restrained. . July, ,, 
 Unsettled state of Hungary (which see) . July-Oct. „ 
 Friendly meeting of the emperor and the regent of 
 
 Prussia at Toplitz .... 26 July, „ 
 Free debates in the Reichsrath ; strictures on the 
 concordat, the finances, <fcc. ; proposals for sepa- 
 rate constitutions for the provinces, Aug. <fe Sept. ;, 
 The Reichsrath adjourned ... 29 Sept. „ 
 Diploma conferring on the Reichsrath legislative 
 powers, the control of the finances, <fcc, a mani- 
 festo issued to the populations of the empire (not 
 
 well received) 20 Oct. ,, 
 
 Meeting of the emperor with the emperor of Russia 
 and prince regent of Prussia at Warsaw : no im- 
 portant result . ... 20-26 Oct. ,, 
 The government professes non-intervention in 
 Italy, but increases the army in Venetia, 
 
 Oct. & Nov. „ 
 The empress goes to Madeira for health . Nov. ,, 
 Sale of Venetia, publicly spoken of, is repudiated in 
 
 Dec. „ 
 Ministerial crisis : M. Schmerling becomes minister 
 
 — more political concessions . . .13 Dec. ,, 
 The proscribed Hungarian, count Teleki, at Dres- 
 den, is given up to Austria, which causes general 
 indignation, about 20 Dec. ; he is released on parole 
 
 31 Dec. „ 
 
 Amnesty for political offences in Hungary, Croatia, 
 
 <fec, published 7 Jan. 1861 
 
 Reactionary policy of the court leads to increased 
 
 general disaffection . . . Jan. & Feb. ,, 
 The statutes of the new constitution for the 
 
 Austrian monarchy published . . . 26 Feb. ,, 
 Civil and political rights granted to Protestants, 
 throughout the empire, except in Hungary and 
 
 Venice 8 April, ,, 
 
 Meeting of Reichsrath — no deputies present from 
 Hungary, Croatia, Transylvania, Venetia, or Istria 
 
 29 April, „ 
 Ministry of marine created .... Jan. 1862 
 Inundation of the Danube, causing great distress, 
 
 4 Feb. „ 
 Increased taxation proposed . . . March, ,, 
 At an imperial council, the emperor present, the 
 principle of ministerial responsibility is resolved 
 
 on 26 April, ,, 
 
 Deficiency of 1,400,000^. in financial statement; — 
 
 indignation of the Reichsrath . . . June, ,, 
 Amnesty to condemned political offenders in Hun- 
 gary proclaimed 18 Nov. ,, 
 
 Reduction in the army assented to ; and a personal 
 liberty law (resembling our habeas corpus act) 
 
 passed Dec. ,, 
 
 Insurrection in Russian Poland, Jan. ; Austria joins 
 
 in the intercession of England and France April 1863. 
 Meeting of the German sovereigns (except kings of 
 Prussia, Holland, and Denmark) with the emperor 
 of Austria at Frankfort, by his invitation ; the 
 draft of a reform of the federal constitution 
 
 agreed to 16-31 Aug. 
 
 Transylvanian deputies accept the constitution, 
 
 and take seats in the Reichsrath . . 20 Oct. 
 
 Austria joins Prussia in war with Denmark (see 
 
 Denmark) Jan. 
 
 Galicia and Cracow declared to be in a state of siege 
 
 29 Feb. 
 
 The Archduke Maximilian becomes emperor of 
 
 Mexico (see Mexico) .... April, 
 
 The emperor and the king of Prussia meet at Carlsbad 
 
 22 June, 
 
 Resignation of count Rechberg, foreign minister, 
 
 succeeded by count Mensdorff-Pouilly 27 Oct. 
 
 Peace with Denmark, signed at Vienna . 30 Oct. 
 
 Emperor opens Reichsrath, 14 Nov. ; great freedom 
 
 of debate ; the state of siege in Galicia censured 
 
 Dec. 
 Austria supports the confederation in the dispute 
 
 respecting the duchies Dec. 
 
 Apparent reunion between Austria and Prussia 
 
 Jan. 1865 
 Great financial difficulty ; proposed reduction in the 
 army by the chambers .... Jan. 
 Contest between the government and the chambers 
 
 April, 
 Reported failure of Mr. Hutt's mission to Vienna, 
 to promote free trade .... June, 
 New ministry formed ; count Mensdorff as nominal 
 premier ; counts Belcredi and Esterhazy as minis- 
 ters : conciliatory measures towards Hungary, 
 
 proposed 27 July, 
 
 Convention of Gastein (see Gastein) signed 14 Aug. 
 
 Emperor's rescript suppressing the constitution, 
 
 with the view of giving autonomy to Hungary 
 
 (which see) 20 Sepc. 
 
 Rejoicings in Hungary, but dissatisfaction in Aus- 
 tria, Croatia, &c Nov., Dec, 
 
 Treaty of commerce with Great Britain, signed 
 
 16 Dec. 
 Amnesty for Italy issued . . . . 1 Jan. 
 Warm disputes with Prussia (aggressive), respecting 
 the settlement of Holstein . . Jan., Mar. 
 Preparations for war begin . . . March, 
 The archduke Albrecht made commander of the 
 southern army, 6 May ; Benedek of the Northern 
 
 12 May, 
 War declared by Prussia, 18 June ; by Italy (which 
 
 see) 20 June, 
 
 The Austrians enter Silesia, 18 June ; and the Prus- 
 sians Bohemia 23 June 
 
 The Italians defeated by the archduke Albrecht, at 
 
 Custozza 24 June, 
 
 Prussian victories at Nachod, <fce. . 27-29 June, 
 Benedek totally defeated at Kbniggratz or Sadowa 
 
 3 July, 
 (For details of the war see Prussia and Italy.) 
 
AUSTRIA. 
 
 58 
 
 AUSTRIA. 
 
 The emperor cedes Venel la to1 he emperor Napoleon, 
 and requests intervention . . . 4 July, 
 Preliminaries of peace signed ai Nikolsburg, 26 July, 
 Treaty of peace with Prussia signed at Pi 
 
 23 Au- 
 Treaty of peace with [taly signed at Vienna, ceding 
 Venetia, 3 Uet. ; the iron crown given up 11 Oct. 
 The Quadrilateral and Venice surrendered to the 
 
 Italians 11-19 Oet. 
 
 Baron Ferdinand von Beust, late Saxon minister 
 of f orsvjn aCiir c made Lustran foreign num. t 1 
 
 30 Oct. 
 
 Meeting of the Reichsrath . . . 19 Nov. 
 
 Commercial treaty with France (to commence 1 Jan. 
 1867), signed 11 Dec. 
 
 Great dissension among the nationalities of the em- 
 pire Dec. 
 
 Extraordinary diet convoked (for 25 Feb.). 3 Jan. 
 
 Establishment of autonomy for Hungary announced ; 
 resignation of Belcredi, 4 Feb. ; Von Beust made 
 president of the council .... 7 Feb. 
 
 Rescript restoring a separate ministry for Hungary, 
 count Andrassy president . . .* 17 Feb, 
 
 Death of archduke Stephen (palatine of Hungary is 
 1848). . . .... Feb. 
 
 Commercial treaty with Italy, signed . 23 April, 
 
 Reichsrath opened at Vienna . . .20 Maj , 
 
 The Czechs (of Bohemia and Moravia), Croats, Sla- 
 vonians, Serbs, Roumans (of Transylvania), and 
 Russinians (of Galicia), protest against absorp- 
 tion, and demand national legislative powers 
 May <fc July, 
 
 Painful death of the archduchess Matilda' through 
 burns 6 June, 
 
 The emperor and empress crowned king and queen 
 of Hungary at Buda . . . . 8 J une, 
 
 Von Beust made chancellor of the empire. 23 June, 
 
 The sultan visits Vienna. . . 27 July— 1 Aug. 
 
 The emperors of Austria and France meet at Salzburg 
 
 1 8-2 3 Aug. 
 
 Arrangements for the dividing the financial affairs 
 of Austria and Hungary, signed . . 13 Sept. 
 
 Changes (respecting marriage and education) in the 
 concordat, proposed Sept. 
 
 2S bishops demand the maintenance of the concordat 
 
 28 Sept. 
 
 Letter from the emperor to cardinal Rausch, de- 
 claring for complete liberty of conscience in oppo- 
 sition to the concordat : the concordat almost 
 annulled by the lower house .... Oct. 
 
 Emperor of Austria and king of Prussia meet at 
 Oos, near Baden-Baden . . . .22 Oct. 
 
 Emperor arrives at Paris. 23 Oct. ; leaves 5 Nov. 
 
 Dualism accepted by the Reichsrath at Vienna. 
 
 Nov. 
 
 New Austrian ministry under prince Auersperg 
 constituted 30 Dec. 
 
 Civil marriages bill (annulling clerical jurisdiction 
 over them)passed by the upper house, alter sharp 
 resistance, 21-23 March ; received the emperor's 
 assent 25 May, 
 
 German sharp-shooting match, held at Vienna, 
 
 26 July, 
 
 Von Beust justifies the maintenance of an army of 
 800,000, 11 Oct. ; is made a count . . Dec. 
 
 Continued opposition 1 >f the clergy to the government 
 
 Jan. 
 
 The frigate Radetsky blown up, about 340 lives lost 
 
 20 Feb. 
 
 The crown prince of Prussia visits Vienna 7 Oct, 
 
 The emperor visits the East ;— at Jerusalem, 10 
 Nov. ; present at the opening of the Suez canal 
 
 17 Nov. 
 Successful insurrection against the conscription in 
 
 Dalmatia, Oct. ; ceased .... Nov. 
 The Reichsrath opened by the emperor at Vienna 
 
 13 Dec. 
 Ministerial crisis, Jan. : the Cis-Leithan ministry 
 
 resigns ; count Potoeki, prime minister 4 April, 
 Neutrality in the Franco-Prussian war announced 
 
 18 July, 
 The concordat with Rome declared to be sus- 
 pended in consequence of tie: promulgation of 
 the doctrine of papal infallibility . . 30 July. 
 
 The Reichsrath opened by the emperor; uo deputies 
 
 from Bohemia 17 Sept. 
 
 Dissension between the federal and national parties 
 
 ag Sept., Oct, 
 
 1S69 
 
 1S70 
 
 The Reichsrath adjourned . . . .22 Nov. 1870 
 The ministry support Great Britain in opposing the 
 
 Russian repudiation of the treaty of Paris (see 
 
 Russia) Nov, 
 
 Austrian army, 864,869 regulars ; 187,527 landwehr 
 
 (militia) 1). 
 
 The new German empire recognised by the emperor 
 
 Jan. 1871 
 Dismissal of Potoeki ; count Ilohenwart, minister 
 
 Feb. „ 
 Meeting of the Reichsrath . . . . 20 Feb. 
 Death of adm. Tegethoff, much lamented 7 April, ,, 
 First meeting of "Old Catholics" at Vienna, 
 
 26 July, ,, 
 An international exhibition at Vienna in 1S73, 1"'"- 
 
 posed Sept, ,, 
 
 Meeting of 17 provincial diets; straggle between 
 tie- (Slavonian) conservatives and the (German) 
 constitutionalists renewed . . . 14 Sept. ,, 
 
 Meeting of emperor with emperor William 6-8 Sept 
 
 Politieal crisis : dissmsioii between German and 
 Slavonian parties, I >ct. ; resignation of the Ilohen- 
 wart ministry 25 Oct. ,, 
 
 A ministry formed under baron Kellersperg 4 No 
 
 Resignation of count Beust. the arch-chancellor; 
 much excitement 6 Nov. ,, 
 
 Count Andrassy appointed minister of the imperial 
 household and of foreign affairs ; Von Beust to be 
 ambassador at London ; Lonyay, premier of Hun- 
 garian ministry 13-14 Nov. ,, 
 
 New ministry formed by prince Auersperg, about 
 
 21 Nov. ,, 
 
 The Reichsrath opened by the emperor with 'speech 
 announcing political and educational reforms 
 
 28 Dec. „ 
 
 New constitutional law promulgated, giving the 
 emperor power to order new elections of the 
 chambers 13 March, 1872 
 
 Meeting of the emperor with the emperor of Ger- 
 
 many and other sovereigns at Berlin 6-12 Sept. 
 Reform bill passed changing the Reichsrath into a 
 
 national representative assembly . 6th March, 1873 
 Great international exhibition at Vienna ; proposed 
 
 opening 1 May, ,, 
 
 (See Germany, Hungary, Vienna, <£c.) 
 
 Marcraves of Austria. 
 Leopold I., 928; Albert I., 1018 ; Ernest, 1056; Leo- 
 pold II., 1075 ; Leopold III., 1096; Albert II., 1136; Leo- 
 pold IV., 1136 ; Henry II., 1142 (made a duke 1156). 
 
 Dukes. 
 
 1 156. Henry II. 
 
 1177. Leopold V. He made prisoner Richard I. of Eng- 
 land when returning incognito from the crusade, 
 and was compelled to surrender him to the em- 
 peror Henry VI. 
 
 1 194. Frederic I., the catholic. 
 
 1198. Leopold VI., the glorious. Killed in battle. 
 
 1230. Frederic II., the warlike. Killed in a battle with 
 the Hungarians, 15 June, 1246. 
 Interregnum. 
 
 1276. Rodolph I. 
 
 1282. Albert I. and his brother Rodolph II. Albert 
 becomes emperor of Germany, 1298. 
 
 1308. Frederic I. and Leox>oId I. 
 
 1326. Frederic I. 
 
 1330. Albert II. and Otho, his brother. 
 
 1339. Albert II. 
 
 135S. Rodolph IV. 
 
 1365. Albert III. and Leopold II. or III. (killed at 
 Sempaeh). 
 
 1395. William I. and brothers, ami their cousin Albert IV. 
 
 1411. The same. The provinces divided into the duchies 
 of Austria and Carinthia, and the county of 
 Tyrol. 
 
 1411. Albert V., duke of Austria ; obtains Bohemia and 
 Moravia ; elected king of Hungary and emperor, 
 1437; dies, 1439; succeeded by his posthumous 
 son. 
 
 1439. Ladislaus, who dies childless, 1457. 
 
 1457. The emperor Frederic III. ami Albert VI. 
 
 1493. Maximilian I., son of Frederick III. (archduke), 
 emperor ; see Gem 
 
 Emperors. 
 1804. Francis I. (late Francis II. of Germany), styled 
 emperor of Austria only, 11 Aug. 1804 ; resigned 
 empire of Germany, 6 Aug. 1806 ; died 2 Mar. 1835. 
 
AUTHORS. 
 
 59 
 
 AZOFF. 
 
 1835. Ferdinand, his son, 2 March ; abdicated in favour 
 of his nephew (his brother Francis-Charles having 
 
 renounced Ids rights). 
 1848. Francis-Joseph (son of Francis-Charles), horn 18 
 
 Aug. 1830 ; succeeded, 2 Dec. 1848 ; married 
 
 24 April, 1854, to Elizabeth of Bavaria ; crowned 
 
 king of Hungary, 8 June, 1867. 
 {Heir: their son, the archduke Rodolph, born 21 Aug. 
 
 1858.] 
 
 AUTHOES. For the law securing copyright, 
 see Copyrights. 
 
 AUTO DA FE (Act of faith), the term given 
 to the punishment of a heretic, generally burning 
 alive, inflicted by the Inquisition (which see). 
 
 AUTOMATON FIGURES (or Aw- 
 
 DEOEDES), made to imitate living actions, are of 
 early invention. Archytas' flying dove was formed 
 about 400 B.C. Friar Bacon is said to have made a 
 brazen head which spoke, a.d. 1264. Albertus 
 Magnus spent thirty years in making another. A 
 coach and two horses, with a footman, a page, a 
 lady inside, were made by Camus for Louis XIV. 
 when a child ; the horses and figures moved na- 
 turally, variously, and perfectly, 1649. Vaueanson, 
 in 1738, made an artificial duck, which performed 
 many functions of a real one — eating, drinking, 
 and quacking ; and he also made a flute-player. 
 The writing automaton, exhibited in 1769, was a 
 pentagraph worked by a confederate out of sight. 
 The automaton chess-player, exhibited the same 
 year, was also worked by a hidden person, and so 
 was the "invisible girl," 1800. Maelzel made a 
 trumpeter about 1809. Early in this century, an au- 
 tomaton was exhibited in London which pronounced 
 several sentences with tolerable distinctness. The 
 " anthropoglossus," an alleged talking-machine, 
 exhibited at St. James's hall, London, July 1864, 
 was proved to be a gross imposition. The exhi- 
 bition of the talking-machine of professor Faber 
 of Vienna, in London, began 27 Aug. 1870, at the 
 Palais Royal, Argyll-street, W. 
 
 AUTOTYPOGRAPHY, a process of pro- 
 ducing a metal plate from drawings, made known 
 by Mr. "Wallis, in April, 1863 ; it resembled Nature- 
 printing (which see). 
 
 AUXERRE DECLARATION", see France, 
 May, 1866. 
 
 A"VA in 1822 became the capital of the Burmese 
 empire, it is said, for the third time. A British 
 embassy was received here in Sept. 1855. 
 
 AVARS, barbarians who ravaged Pannonia, 
 and annoyed the eastern empire in the 6th and 7 th 
 centuries, subdued by Charlemagne about 799, after 
 an eight years' war. 
 
 AVESBURY, or ABHRY (Wiltshire). Here 
 are the remains of the largest Celtic or Druidical 
 work in this country. They have been surveyed 
 by Aubrey, 1648 ; Dr. Stukeley, 1720 ; and sir R. C. 
 Hoare, in 1812, and by others. Much information 
 may be obtained from Stukeley's " Abury " (1743). 
 and Hoare' s "Ancient Wiltshire" (1812-21), 
 Many theories have been put forth, but the object 
 of these remains is still unknown. They are con- 
 sidered to have been set up during the " stone age," 
 i.e., when weapons and implements were mainly 
 formed of that material. 
 
 A VEIN, or AvAENTE (Luxemburg, Belgium). 
 Here the French and Dutch defeated the Spaniards, 
 20 May, 1635. 
 
 " AVE MARIA ! " the salutation of the 
 angel Gabriel to the Virgin (Lukei. 28), was made 
 a formula of devotion by pope John XXI. about 
 1326. In the beginning of the 15th century Vin- 
 centius Ferrerius used it before his discourses. 
 Bingham. 
 
 AVIGNON, a city, S. E. France, ceded by 
 Philip III. to the pope in 1273. The papal seat 
 was removed by Clement V. to Avignon, in 1309. 
 In 1348 Clement VI. purchased the sovereignty from 
 Jane, countess of Provence and queen of Naples. 
 In 1408, the French, wearied of the schism, ex- 
 pelled Benedict XIII. , and Avignon ceased to be 
 the seat of the papacy. Here were held nine 
 councils (1080-1457). Avignon was seized and re- 
 stored several times by the French kings ; the last 
 time restored, 1773. It was claimed by the national 
 assembly, 1791, and was confirmed to France by 
 the congress of sovereigns in 1815. In Oct. 1791- 
 horrible massacres took place here. See Fopes, 
 I309-94- 
 
 AXE, WEDGE, LEVER, and various tools 
 in common use, are said to have been invented by 
 Dsedalus, an artificer of Athens, to whom also is 
 ascribed the invention of masts and sails for ships, 
 1240 B.C. Many tools are represented on the 
 Egyptian monuments. 
 
 AXUM, or AlTXTTME, a town in Abyssinia 
 said to have been the capital of a kingdom whose 
 people were converted to Christianity by Frumen- 
 tius about 330, and to have been allies of Justinian, 
 533- 
 
 AYACUCHO (Peru). Here the Peruvians 
 finally achieved their independence by defeating 
 the Spaniards, 9 Dec. 1824. 
 
 AYDE, or AlDE, the tax paid by the vassal to 
 the chief lord upon urgent occasions. In France 
 and England an aide was due for knighting the 
 king's eldest son. One was demanded by Philip 
 the Fair, 1313. The aide due upon the birth of a 
 prince, ordained by the statute of Westminster 
 (Edward I.) 1285, was not to be levied until he 
 was fifteen years of age, for the ease of the subject. 
 The aide for the marriage of the king's eldest 
 daughter could not be demanded in this country 
 until her seventh year. In feudal tenures there 
 was an aide for ransoming the chief lord ; so when 
 our Richard I. was kept a prisoner by the emperor 
 of Germany, an aide of 20s., to redeem him, was 
 enforced upon every knight's fee ; see Benevolence. 
 
 AYLESBURY, Buckinghamshire, was reduced 
 by the West Saxons in 571. St. O'Syth, beheaded 
 by the pagans in Essex, was buried there, 600. 
 William the conqueror invested his favourites with 
 some of its lands, under the tenure of providing 
 " straw for his bed-chambers ; three eels for his use 
 in winter ; and in summer, straw, rushes, and two 
 green geese thrice every year." Incorporated by 
 charter in 1554. 
 
 AYLESFORD (Kent). Here, it is said, the 
 Britons were victorious over the Saxon invaders, 
 455, and Horsa was killed. 
 
 AZINCOUR, see Agincourt. 
 
 AZOFF SEA OF, the Palus Mseotis of the 
 ancients, communicates by the strait of Yeni- 
 kale (the Bosporus Cimmerius) with the Black 
 Sea and is entirely surrounded by Eussian terri- 
 tory; Taganrog and Kertch being the principal 
 places. An expedition, composed of British, French, 
 
AZORES. 
 
 60 
 
 BABYLONIA. 
 
 and Turkish troops, commanded by sir G. Brown, 
 arrived at Kertch, 24 May, 1855, when the Russians 
 retired, after blowing up the fortifications. On the 
 25th the allies marched upon Yenikale, which also 
 ottered no resistance. On the same evening the 
 allied fleet entered the Sea of Azof!', and hi a few 
 days completed their occupation of it, after captur- 
 ing a large number of merchant vessels, &c. An 
 immense amount of stores was destroyed by the 
 Russians to prevent them falling into the hands of 
 the allies. 
 
 AZORES, or Western Isles (N. Atlantic), 
 
 belonging to Portugal, the supposed site of the 
 ancient Atlantis, are said to have been discovered 
 in the 15th century by Vanderberg of Bruges, who 
 was driven on their coasts by the weather. Cabral, 
 sent by the Portuguese court, fellin with St. Mary's 
 in 1432, and in 1457 they were all discovered and 
 named Azores from the number of goshawks found 
 on them. They were given by Alfonso V. to the 
 duchess of Burgundy in 1460 and colonised by 
 Flemings. They were subject to Spain 1580-1640. 
 
 The isle Terceira, during the usurpation of dom 
 Miguel, declared for Donna Maria, 1829, and a 
 government was established at the capital Angra, 
 1830-33. A volcano at St. George's destroyed the 
 town of Ursulina, May, 1808; and in 181 1 a volcano 
 appeared near St. Michael's, in the sea, where the 
 water was eighty fathoms deep ; an island then 
 formed gradually disappeared. A destructive earth- 
 quake lasting 12 days, happened in St. Michael's, 
 1591- 
 
 AZOTE, the name given by French chemists 
 to nitrogen (which see). 
 
 AZOTUS, see Ashdod. 
 
 AZTECS, the ruling tribe in Mexico at the time 
 of the Spanish iuvasion (1519). In June, 1853, two 
 pretended Aztec children were exhibited in London. 
 They were considered by professor Owen to be 
 merely South American dwarfs. They were married 
 in London, 1 April, 1867, and exhibited for some 
 time after. 
 
 B. 
 
 BAAL (Lord), the male deity of the Phoenician 
 nations, frequently worshipped by the Israelites, 
 especially by Ahab, 918 B.C. His priests and 
 votaries were massacred by Jehu and his temple 
 defiled, 884 B.C. 
 
 BAALBEC, HELIOPOLIS (both meaning 
 "City of the Sun"), an ancient city of Syria, of 
 which magnificent ruins remain, visited by Wood 
 (in 1 75 1), and others. Its origin is lost in antiquity. 
 Here Septimius Severus built a temple to the sun, 
 200. The city was sacked by the Moslems, 748, and 
 by Timour Beg, 1400. 
 
 BABBAGE, see Calculating Mac/tines. 
 
 BABEL, TOWER of, built by Noah's posterity, 
 2247 b.c. (Genesis, ch. xi.) The magnificent 
 temple of Belus, asserted to have been originally 
 this tower, is said to have had lofty spires, and 
 many statues of gold, one of them forty feet high. 
 In the upper part of this temple was the tomb of 
 the founder, Belus (the Nimrod of the sacred scrip- 
 tures), who was deified after death. Blair. The 
 Birs Nimroud, examined by Rich, Layard, and 
 others, is considered by some persons to be the 
 remains of the tower of Babel. 
 
 BABEUF'S CONSPIRACY, see Agrarian 
 Law. 
 
 BABY-FARMING, see Infanticide. 
 
 BABYLONIA, * an Asiatic empire (see Assy- 
 ria), founded by Belus, supposed to be the A'imrod of 
 
 * The eity of Babylon was at one time the most magni- 
 ficent in the world. The Hanging Gardi ns are described 
 as having been of a square form, and in terraces one 
 above another until they rose as high as the walls of the 
 city, the ascent being from terrace to terrace by steps. 
 
 The Whole pile was sustained by vast arehes raised on 
 other arehes ; and on the top were Hat stones closely 
 cemented together with plaster of bitumen, and that 
 covered with sheets of lead, upon whieh lay the mould 
 of the garden, where there were large trees, shrubs, and 
 flowers, with various sorts of vegetables. There were 
 
 five of these gardens, each containing about four English 
 acres, and disposed in the form of an amphitheatre. 
 Strabo; Diodorus. Pliny said that in his time it. was 
 but a desolate wilderness. Mr. Rich visited the ruins in 
 
 holy writ, the son of Chus, and grandson of Ham, 
 2245 B.C. Lenglet. Nanus of Assyria seized 011 
 Babylon, and established what was properly the 
 Assyrian empire, by uniting the two sovereignties, 
 2059 B.C. 2233 CI. The second empire of Babylon 
 commenced about 747 B.C. 
 
 Earliest astronomical observations at Babylon, 
 
 b.c. 2234, [2230, H. 2233, Cl.1 
 
 Nabonassar governs 747 
 
 Merodach Baladan king, 721 ; his embassy to Heze- 
 kiah of Judah about 712 
 
 Nebuchadnezzar invades Syria, 606 ; Judea, 605 ; 
 defeats Pharaoh Necho, and annihilates the Egyp- 
 tian power in Asia 604 
 
 He returns to Babylon with the spoils of Jerusalem. 
 Blair ; Lenglet „ 
 
 Daniel interprets the king's dream of the golden- 
 headed image. Daniel i\ 602 
 
 Nebuchadnezzar goes a third time against Jerusa- 
 lem, takes it and destroys the temple. Blair; 
 Usher 589 to 5S7 
 
 The golden image set up, and Shadrach, Meshaeh, 
 and Abed-nego thrown into the furnace for refus- 
 ing to worship it. Daniel Hi 570 
 
 Daniel interprets the king's second dream, and 
 Nebuchadnezzar is driven from among men. 
 Da it id iv. ........ 569 
 
 The king recovers his reason and his throne, 562 ; 
 dies 561 
 
 Evil Merodach, 561 ; Neriglissar, king . . . 559 
 
 Labynetus, 556 ; Nabonadius, 551 ; Belshazzar king 539 
 
 Babylon taken by the Medes and Persians, under 
 Cyrus, and Belshazzar slain 538 
 
 Daniel thrown into the lions' den. Daniel vi. . 537 
 
 Babylon revolts, and is taken by Darius . . . 518 
 
 Taken by Alexander, 331 : lie dies lure . . . 323 
 Seleucus Nicator, who died 280 B.C., transfers tin- 
 seat of government to Seleueia, and Babylon is 
 
 deserted. 
 
 1811, and sir R. Kerr Porter in 181S. The laborious re- 
 Searches of Mr. Layard, sir II. liawliuson, M. Botta, and 
 Others, ami the interesting relics excavated and brought 
 In this country between the years 1849 an 'l 1855, have- 
 caused very much attention to be given to the history of 
 Babylon. Many of the inscriptions in the cuneiform or 
 wedge-like character have been translated, principally by 
 col. (now sir Henry) Bawlinson, and published in the 
 Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. In the spring of 
 1855, he returned to England, bringing with him many 
 valuable relics, drawings, &c., which are now in the 
 British Museum, lb- gave discourses on the subject a| 
 tie- Royal Institution, London, in 1S51, 1855, and 1865. 
 
BABYNGTON'S CONSPIRACY. 
 
 61 
 
 BAGPIPE. 
 
 BABYNGTON'S CONSPIEACY, to as- 
 sassinate queen Elizabeth, and make Mary of 
 Scotland queen, was devised by John Savage, a 
 soldier of Philip of Spain, and approved by Wm. 
 Gifford and John Ballard, catholic priests. Anthony 
 Babyngton and others joined in the scheme. They 
 were betrayed by Pooley Aspy, and fourteen were 
 executed, 20, 21 Sept. 1586. 
 
 BABYSM, a new sect in Persia, founded in 
 1843 by Mirza Ali Mahomed, an enthusiast, at 
 Shiraz. He termed himself the "Bab," or "gate," 
 of knowledge, and, giving a new exposition of the 
 Koran, claimed to be the incarnate Holy Spirit. 
 The destruction of himself and the greater number 
 of his followers was due to Hossein, one of his 
 disciples, combining political and warlike principles 
 with their spiritual dogmas. The sect was tolerated 
 "by the shah Mohammed, but neaidy exterminated 
 by his successor in 1848-9. The Bab himself was 
 executed 15 July, 1849. The present head of the 
 sect, still numerous, Beheyah Allah, imprisoned in 
 a Turkish fortress, is said to be well conversant 
 with the Bible, and to propound a doctrine based on 
 it, termed " Bab el Huk," gate of truth. 
 
 BACCHANALIA (games in honour of 
 Bacchus) arose in Egypt, and were brought into 
 Greece by Melampos, and called Dionysia, about 
 1415 B.C. Diodorns. In Borne the Bacchanalia 
 were suppressed, 186 B.C. The priests of Bacchus 
 were called Bacchanals. 
 
 BACCON or BACON, see Orleans. 
 
 BACHELORS. The Boman censors frequently 
 imposed fines on unmarried men ; and men of full 
 age were obliged to marry. The Spartan women 
 at certain games laid hold of old bachelors, dragged 
 them round their altars, and inflicted on them 
 various marks of infamy and disgrace. Vossius. 
 A tax laid upon bachelors in England, twenty-five 
 years of age (varying from 12I. 10s. for a duke, to is. 
 for a common person), lasted from 1695 to 1706. 
 Bachelors (Romanist priests excepted) were sub- 
 jected to an extra tax on their male and female 
 servants in 1785. 
 
 BACKGAMMON. Palamedes of Greece is the 
 reputed inventor of this game, about 1224 B.C. It 
 is said to have been invented in Wales before its 
 conquest. Henry. 
 
 BACTBTANA, a province in Asia, was subju- 
 gated by Cyrus and formed part of the Persian 
 empire, when conquered by Alexander, 330 B.C. 
 About 254 B.C., Theodotus or Diodotus, a Greek, 
 threw off the yoke of the Seleucidse, and became 
 king. Eucratides I. reigned prosperously about 
 181 B.C., and Menander about 126 B.C. The Greek 
 kingdom appears to have been broken up by the 
 irruption of the Scythians shortly after. 
 
 BADAJOZ (S. W. Spain). An important barrier 
 fortress, surrendered to the French, under Soult, 
 II March, 1811; invested by the British, under 
 lord Wellington, on 16 March, 1812, and stormed 
 .and taken on 6 April following. The French re- 
 treated in haste. 
 
 BADDESDOWN HILL, or Mount Badon, 
 near Bath, where Bede says the Britons defeated 
 the Saxons in 493 ; others say in 511 or 520. 
 
 BADEN (S. W. Germany). The house of 
 Baden is descended from Hermann, regarded as the 
 first margrave (1052), son of Berthold I., duke of 
 gahringen; but Hermann II. assumed the title, 
 
 1714 
 1806 
 
 Feb. 1 130. From Christopher, who died 1527, pro- 
 ceeded the branches Baden-Baden and Baden-Dour- 
 lach, united in 1771. Baden is an hereditary con- 
 stitutional monarchy ; it joined the German empire 
 by treaty, 15 Nov. 1870. Population, Dec. 1867, 
 1,434-970. 
 
 Louis William, margrave of Baden-Baden, a great 
 general, born 1665 ; sallied out from Vienna and 
 defeated the Turks, 1683 ; died 1707. 
 
 Charles William, margrave of Baden-Dourlach, born 
 1679, died 1746 ; succeeded by his son, 
 
 Charles Frederic, born 1728 ; margrave of Baden- 
 Dourlach, 1738 ; acquired Baden-Baden, 1771, 
 made grand-duke by Napoleon, 1806. 
 
 Treaty of Baden .-—Landau ceded to France, 7 Sept. 
 
 Baden made a grand-duchy, with enlarged terri- 
 tories 
 
 A representative constitution granted by charter, 
 
 18 Aug. 
 
 Republican agitation during 
 
 Insurrection ; joined by the free city Rastatt ; the 
 grand-duke flees May, 
 
 The Prussians enter Baden, 15 June ; defeat the in- 
 surgents commanded by Mierolawski ; Rastatt 
 surrenders, 23 July ; the grand-duke re-enters 
 Carlsruhe x s Au°\ 
 
 Arrests for political offences ... 9 July, 
 
 Concordat with the pope signed . . .28 June' 
 
 Greatly opposed by the chambers ; annulled by the 
 grand-duke by a manifesto, securing autonomy to 
 the Catholic, and Protestant churches ; signed 
 
 7 April, 
 
 Interview at Baden-Baden of the emperor Napo- 
 leon III. the prince regent of Prussia, and the 
 German kings and princes . . .16 June, 
 
 The new ecclesiastical law (adopted by the cham- 
 bers) promulgated x (j Oct. 
 
 Opposition of the archbishop of Friburg and the 
 clerical party x 3. 
 
 Disputes in the German diet; the grand-duke 
 vainly endeavours to obtain a reconciliation ; and 
 remains neutral June, 
 
 Baden joins the Zollverein (which see) . . July,' 
 
 Meeting of the chambers ; liberal measures pro- 
 mised, 24 Sept. ; universal suffrage adopted by 
 the second chamber 29 Oct. 
 
 Civil marriage made obligatory . . 17 Nov. 
 
 Baden joins Prussia in the war with France, about 
 
 20 July, 
 
 Gambling houses suppressed ; finally closed 31 Oct. 
 
 GRAND-DUKES. 
 
 1806. Charles Frederic ; dies 1811 ; succeeded by his 
 grandson. 
 
 1811. Charles Louis Frederic, who died without issue in 
 1818 ; succeeded by his uncle. 
 
 1818. Louis William, died without issue in 1830 ; suc- 
 ceeded by his brother. 
 
 1830. Leopold, died in 1852 ; succeeded by his second 
 son (the first being imbecile). 
 Frederic (born 9 Sept. 1826), regent 24 April, 1852 ; 
 
 declared grand-duke, 5 Sept. 1856. 
 : his son Frederic William, born 9 July, 1857. 
 
 BAFFIN'S BAY (N. America), discovered by 
 William Baffin, an Englishman, 1616. The extent 
 of this discovery was much doubted, until the 
 expeditions of Ross and Parry proved that Baffin 
 was substantially accurate in his statement. Parry 
 entered Lancaster Sound, and discovered the islands 
 known by his name, in 1818 ; see North- West 
 Passage. 
 
 BAGDAD, in Asiatic Turkey, built by Al 
 Mansour, and made the seat of the Saracen empire, 
 about 762. Taken by the Tartars, and a period 
 put to the Saracen rule, 1258. Often taken by the 
 Persians, and retaken by the Turks, with great 
 slaughter : the latter have held it since 1638. 
 
 BAGPIPE, an ancient Greek and Roman in- 
 strument. On a piece of ancient Grecian sculp- 
 ture, now in Rome, a bagpiper is represented 
 
 1857 
 1859 
 
 i860 
 
 i860 
 i860 
 S0-65 
 
 1866 
 1867 
 
 1869 
 
 1S70 
 
 1S52. 
 Heir 
 
BAHAMA ISLES. 
 
 62 
 
 BALLARAT. 
 
 dressed like a modern highbinder. Nero is said 
 to have played upon a bagpipe, 51. Our highland 
 regiments retain their pipers. 
 
 BAHAMA ISLES (N. America) were the 
 first points of discovery by Columbus. San Sal- 
 vador was seen by him on the night of 1 1 Oct. 1492. 
 New Providence was settled by the English in 1629. 
 They were expelled by the Spaniards, 1641 ; re- 
 turned, 1666; again expelled in 1703. The isles 
 were formally ceded to the English in 1783. Popu- 
 lation in 1861, 35,287 ; in 1867, about 38,000. The 
 Bahamas profited by blockade-running during the 
 American civil war, 1862-5. Governors, "William 
 Eawson, 1864; sir James Walker, 1868 ; John Pope 
 Hennessy, 1871. 
 
 BAHAR (N. India), a province (conquered by 
 Baber in 1530), with Bengal and Orissa, a princely 
 dominion, became subject to the English East India 
 company in 1765 by the treaty of Allahabad for a 
 quit-rent of about 300,000^. 
 
 BAIL. By ancient common law, before and 
 since the conquest, all felonies were bailable, till 
 murder was excepted by statute ; and by the 
 3 Edward I. (1275) tne power of bailing in trea- 
 son, and in divers instances of felony, was taken 
 away. Bail was further regulated in later reigns. 
 It is now accepted in all cases, except felony ; and 
 where a magistrate refuses bail, it may be granted 
 by a judge. Acts respecting bail passed 1826, and 
 1852. 
 
 BAILIFF, or Sheriff, said to be of Saxon 
 origin. London had its shire-reve prior to the con- 
 quest, and this officer was generally appointed for 
 counties in England in 1079. Hen. Cornehill and 
 Rich. Reynere were appointed bailiffs or sheriffs in 
 London in 1 189. Stow. Sheriffs were appointed in 
 Dublin under the name of bailiffs, in 1308 ; and the 
 name was changed to sheriff in 1548. There are 
 still places where the chief magistrate is called 
 bailiff, as the high bailiff of Westminster. Bum- 
 bailiff is a corruption of bound-bailiff, every bailiff 
 being obliged to enter into bonds of security for his 
 good behaviour. Blackstonc. 
 
 BAIBAM, or BEIRAM, Mahometan festivals. 
 In 1865 the Little Bairam, following the fast of 
 Ramadan {which ace), fell on 28 Eeb., 1 and 2 
 March; in 1868, on 26, 27,28 Jan.; the Great 
 Bairam in 1865, began on 10 May; in 1868, on 
 10 April. 
 
 BAIZE, a species of coarse woollen manufac- 
 ture, was brought into England by some Flemish 
 or Dutch emigrants who settled at Colchester, in 
 Essex, and had privileges granted them by parlia- 
 ment in 1660. The trade was under the control of 
 a corporation called the governors of the Dutch 
 baize-hall, who examined the cloth previous to sale. 
 Anderson. 
 
 BAKER axd Bakehouses ; see Bread. 
 
 BAKERIAN LECTURES, .Royal society, 
 originated in a bequest of 100/. by Henry Baker, 
 F.R.S., the interest of which was to be given to 
 one of the fellows, for a scientific discourse to be 
 delivered annually. Peter Woulfe gave the first 
 lecture in 1765. Latterly it has been the custom 
 to nominate as the lecture a paper written by one 
 of the fellows. Davy, Faraday, Tyndall, and other 
 eminent men have given the lecture. 
 
 BALAKLAVA, a small town in the Crimea, 
 with a fine harbour, 10 miles S. E. from Sebastopol. 
 
 After the battle of the Alma, the allies advanced 
 upon this place, 26 Sept. 1854. 
 
 Battle of Balaklava : — About 12,000 Russians, com- 
 manded by general Laprandi, attacked ami took 
 some redoubts in the vicinity, which had 1 
 
 entrusted to about 250 Turks. They next as- 
 saulted tlic English, by whom they were compel- 
 led to retire, mainly through tin' charge of the 
 heavy cavalry, led by bri lett, andei 
 the orders of lord Lucan. After this, from an 
 unfortunate misconception of lord Raglan's order, 
 lord Lucan ordered lord Cardigan, with the liglri 
 cavalry, to charge the Russian army, which had 
 reformed on its own ground with its artillery in 
 front. The order was most gallantly obeyed, and 
 great havoc was made on the enemy; but of 670 
 British horsemen, only 198 returned. (Termed 
 by Tennyson " The Charge of the Six Hundred.") 
 The linfantry engaged were termed a " thin red 
 line" 25 Oct. 1S54 
 
 A sortie from the garrison of Sebastopol led to a 
 desperate engagement here, in which the Russians 
 were vigorously repulsed, with the loss of 2000 
 men killed and wounded ; the allies losing about . 
 600 22 March, 1855 
 
 The electric telegraph between London and Bala- 
 klava completed April, ,, 
 
 A railway between Balaklava and the trenches 
 completed June, ,, 
 
 BALANCE OF POWER, to assure the inde- 
 pendency and integrity of states, and control the 
 ambition of sovereigns; a principle said to have 
 been first laid down by the Italian politicians of 
 the 15th century, on the invasion of Charles VIII. 
 of France, 1494. Robertson. It was recognised by 
 the treaty of Minister, 24 Oct. 1648. The arrange- 
 ments for the balance of power in Europe made in 
 1815, without the consent of the people of the 
 countries concerned, have been nearly all set aside 
 since 1830. 
 
 BALEARIC ISLANDS, in the Mediter- 
 ranean, called by the Greeks Balearides, and by 
 the Romans Baleares, from the dexterity of the 
 inhabitants at slinging : they include "Majorca, 
 Minorca, Ivicja, Formentera, Cabrera, Conejera, 
 and other islets. They were conquered by the 
 Romans, 123 B.C. : by the Vandals, about a.d. 426, 
 and formed part of Charlemagne's empire in 
 799. They were conquered by the Moors about 
 1005, and held by them till about 1286, when 
 they were annexed by Arragon ; see Majorca and 
 Minorca. 
 
 BALIZE, see Honduras. 
 
 BALKAN, the ancient Hamius, a range of 
 mountains extending from the Adriatic to the 
 Euxine. The passage, deemed impracticable, was 
 completed by the Russians under Diebitsch, during 
 the Russian and Turkish war, 26 July, 1829. An 
 armistice was the consequence; and" a treaty of 
 peace was signed at Adrianoplc, 14 Sept. following. 
 
 BALLADS maybe traced in the British history 
 to the Anglo-Saxons. Turner, Adhelme, who died 
 709, is mentioned as the first who introduced ballads 
 into England. "The harp was sent round, and 
 those might sing who could." Bcde. Alfred sung 
 ballads. Malmesbury. Canute composed one. 
 Turner. Minstrels were protected by a charter of 
 Edward IV.; but by a statute of Elizabeth they 
 were made punishable among rogues and vaga- 
 bonds, and sturdy beggars. Tti/cr. " Give me the 
 writing of the ballads, and you may make the laws." 
 Fletcher of Saltoun. The sea-ballads of Dibdin 
 were verv popular in the French war ; he died 
 20 Jan. 1S33. 
 
 BALLARAT, see Australia, 1851. 
 
BALLETS. 
 
 63 
 
 BALLOONS. 
 
 BALLETS began through the meretricious taste 
 of the Italian courts. One performed at the inter- 
 view between our Henry VIII. and Francis I. of 
 France in the field of the Cloth of Gold, at Arches, 
 1520. Giiicciardini. Ballets became popular in 
 France, and Louis XIV. bore a part in one, 1664. 
 They were introduced here with operas early in the 
 18th century. 
 
 B ALLINAMUCKj Longford. Here, on 8 Sept. 
 1798, the Irish rebels and their French auxiliaries 
 were defeated and captured. 
 
 BALLOONS.* A just idea of the principle of 
 the construction of balloons was formed by Albert 
 of Saxony, an Augustine monk in the 14th century, 
 and adopted by a Portuguese Jesuit, Francesco 
 Mendoza, who died at Lyons in 1626. The idea is 
 also attributed to Bartolomeo de Gnzmao, who died 
 1^1724. The principles of aeronautics include : — 
 I, the power of a balloon to rise in the air; 2, the 
 velocity of its ascent ; and 3, the stability of its 
 suspension at any given height. The application 
 of sails and rudders has been duly considered, and 
 judged to be futile; but in 1872 Helmholtz thought 
 they might be steered, if moving slowly. Fatal 
 accidents to the voyagers have been estimated at 
 2 or 3 per cent. The Aeronautical Society of Great 
 Britain, founded with the object of fostering and 
 developing aeronautics and aerology, by the duke 
 of Argyll, Mr. James Glaisher, sir Charles Bright, 
 and others, 12 Jan. 1866. 
 
 Francis Lana, a Jesuit, proposed to navigate the 
 air by means of a boat raised by four hollow balls 
 made of thin copper, from which the air had 
 been exhausted 1670 
 
 Joseph Galien suggested the filling a bag with the 
 fine diffuse air of the upper regions of the atmo- 
 sphere . > 1755 
 
 Henry Cavendish discovered that hydrogen gas is 
 10 '8 times lighter than common air . . . 1766 
 
 And soon after Black of Edinburgh filled a bag 
 with hydrogen, which rose to the ceiling of the 
 room 1767 
 
 Cavallo filled soap bubbles with hydrogen . . 1782 
 
 Joseph Montgolfier made a silken bag ascend with 
 heated air (first fire balloon) . . . Nov. ,, 
 
 Joseph and Stephen Montgolfier ascend and descend 
 safely by means of a fire balloon at Annonay, for 
 which they received many honours . 5 June, 1783 
 
 First ascent in a balloon filled with hydrogen, at 
 Paris, by MM. Robert and Charles . 27 Aug. ,, 
 
 Joseph Montgolfier ascends in a balloon inflated 
 with smoke of burnt straw and wool 19 Sept. „ 
 
 First aerial voyage in a fire balloon — Pilatre de 
 Eozier and the marquis d'Arlandes . 21 Nov. ,, 
 
 Second ascent of Charles in a hydrogen balloon to 
 the height of 9770 feet . . . . 1 Dec. ,, 
 
 Mr. Tytler ascended in a Montgolfier balloon at 
 Edinburgh 27 Aug. 1784 
 
 Ascents become numerous : Andreani, 25 Feb. ; 
 Blanchard, 2 March ; Guyton - Morveau, the 
 chemist, 25 April and 12 June ; Fleurant and 
 Madame Thible (the first female aeronaut), 
 28 June; the duke of Chartres (Philip Egalite) 
 
 19 Sept. „ 
 
 The first ascent in England, made by Lunardi, at 
 Moorfields, London .... 15 Sept. „ 
 
 Blanchard and Jeffries ascend at Dover ; cross the 
 Channel ; alight near Calais . 7 Jan. 178s 
 
 The first ascent in Ireland, from Banelagh gardens, 
 Dublin 19 Jan. ,, 
 
 Rozier and Romain killed in their descent near 
 Boulogne ; the balloon took fire . .15 June, ,, 
 
 Parachutes constructed and used by Blanchard, 
 
 Aug. „ 
 
 Garnerin's narrow escape when descending in one 
 in London 2 Sept. 1802 
 
 * "Astra Castra ; Experiments and Adventures in the 
 Atmosphere ; by Hatton Turnor," a copious work, ap- 
 peared in 1865. 
 
 Sadler, who made many previous expeditions in 
 England, fell into the sea, near Holyhead, but 
 was taken up 9 Oct. 
 
 Madame Blanchard ascended from Tivoli at night ; 
 the balloon, being surrounded by fireworks, took 
 fire, and she was precipitated to the ground and 
 killed 6 July, 
 
 Mr. Charles Green's first ascent ; (he introduced coal 
 gas in ballooning) 19 July, 
 
 Lieut. Harris killed in a balloon descent 25 May, 
 
 Sadler, jun., killed, faUing from a balloon 
 
 The great Nassau balloon, which had for some time 
 previously been exhibited to the inhabitants of 
 London in repeated ascents from Vauxhall gar- 
 dens, started from that place on an experimental 
 voyage, having three individuals in the car, and 
 after having been eighteen hours in the air 
 descended at "Weilberg, in the duchy of Nassau, 
 
 7 Nov. 
 
 Mr. Cocking ascended from Vauxhall to try his 
 parachute ; in its descent from the balloon it 
 collapsed, and he was thrown out and killed, 
 
 24 July, 
 
 An Italian aeronaut ascended from Copenhagen, 
 in Denmark ; his corpse was subsequently found 
 on the sea-shore in a contiguous island, dashed to 
 pieces 14 Sept. 
 
 J. B. Lassie's model of an "aerial ship," in which 
 the screw was used, was submitted to the academy 
 of sciences at Paris, 1859 ; an d exhibited at Wash- 
 ington, U.S. 
 
 Mr. Wise and three others ascended from St. Louis 
 (after travelling 1150 miles they descended in 
 Jefferson county, New York, nearly dead) 23 June, 
 
 Nadar's great balloon (largest ever made) when fully 
 inflated contained 215,363 cubic feet of gas; the 
 car, a cottage in wicker work, raised 35 soldiers 
 at Paris ; Nadar hoped by means of a screw to 
 steer a balloon in the heavens ; his first ascent, 
 with 14 persons, successful . . 4 Oct. 
 
 His second ascent ; voyagers injured ; saved by 
 presence of mind of M. Jules Godard ; descend 
 at Nieuburg, Hanover - 12 Oct. 
 
 Nadar and his balloon at the Crystal Palace, 
 Sydenham Nov. 
 
 Society for promoting aerial navigation formed 
 at M. Nadar's, at Paris ; president, M. Barral, 
 
 15 Jan. 
 
 Godard's great Montgolfier or fire balloon ascends, 
 28 July and 3 Aug. 
 
 Ascent of Nadar and others in his great balloon at 
 Brussels 26 Sept. 
 
 Mr. Coxwell ascends from Belfast in a new balloon; 
 several persons are injured by the balloon be- 
 coming uncontrollable ; it escapes . . 3 July, 
 
 Mr. Coxwell said to have made 550 successful 
 ascents up to April, 
 
 An aerial screw machine (helicopteric) suggested, 
 in Paris, 1863 ; described by Dr. J. Bell Petti- 
 grew, in London, at the Royal Institution, 
 
 22 March, 
 
 Mr. Hodsman crossed the Channel from Dublin, 
 and descended in Westmoreland . 22 April, 
 
 A great balloon exhibited at Ashburhham-park, 
 London, escaped, and was captured at Bouldon, 
 Bucks. 25 May, 
 
 Charles Green, aeronaut, said to have made about 
 600 ascents, died aged 84 . . -27 Mar. 
 
 Dupuy de Lome at Vincennes ascended with his 
 "navigable" balloon, with 13 persons; experi- 
 ment reported to be successful . . 2 Feb. 
 
 MILITARY AND POSTAL APPLICATIONS. 
 
 Guyton Morveaux ascended twice during the battle 
 of Fleurus, and gave important information to 
 Jourdain 17 June, 
 
 The use of balloons for postal purposes invented by 
 Mr. G. Shepherd, C.E 
 
 Balloons were used during the battle of Solferino, 
 24 June, 1859 ; and by the Federal army near 
 Washington July, 
 
 M. Duruof conveyed the mail bags from Paris to 
 Tours during the siege . . . .23 Sept. 
 
 Postal balloons sent up from Metz and Paris, 
 
 Sept. — Dec. 
 
 Postal balloon sent up from Crystal Palace, Syden- 
 ham (successfully) . . .6 Oct. 
 
 M. Gambetta escaped from Paris in a balloon, and 
 arrived at Rouen r - . 8 Oct. 
 
 1SJ21 
 1824 
 1825 
 
 1837 
 
 1865 
 1867 
 
 J 794 
 1851 
 
 1S61 
 1870 
 
BALLOT. 
 
 64 
 
 BALTIC SEA. 
 
 Many balloons despatched from Paris andotberplaeea 
 
 Oct 1870— Feb. 1871 
 
 E8TRIAN ASCENTS. 
 
 3Ir. Green affirms that he ascended from London, 
 on a horse attached to a balloon, though few per- 
 sons seem to be aware that the experiment was 
 made May, 1828 
 
 He did so from Vauxhall gardens with a very 
 diminutive pony July, 1850 
 
 Lieut. Gale, an Englishman, made an ascent with 
 a horse from the Hippodrome of Vincennes, near 
 Bordeaux. On descending and detaching the 
 animal from tic balloon, the people who held its 
 ropes, from some misconception, prematurely let 
 them go, and the unfortunate aeronaut was rapidly 
 borne in the air before he was quite ready to 
 resume his voyage. (He was discovered next 
 morning dashed to pices in a field a mile from 
 where the balloon jvas found) . . 8 Sept. ,, 
 
 The ascent of Madame Poitevin from Cremome 
 
 gardens, near London, as " Europa on a bull " 
 (a feat she had often performed in France), and 
 several ascents on horses, brought the parties 
 concerned before the police-courts on a charge of 
 cruelty to animals, ami put an end to experiments 
 that outraged public feeling . . . .Aug. 1S52 
 M. Poitevin ascended on a horse in the vicinity of 
 Paris, about the time just mentioned ; was nearly 
 drowned in the sea, near Malaga, while descending 
 from his balloon in 1858, and died soon after. 
 
 SCIENTIFIC ASCENTS. 
 
 Gay-Lussac and Biot at Paris, 23 Aug. ; Gay-Lussac 
 (to the height of 22,977 feet) . . 15 Sept. 1804 
 
 Bixio and Barral at Paris (to the height of 19,000 
 feet. They passed through a cloud 9000 feet 
 thiclO ' 1850 
 
 Mr. Welsh ascends, 17, 26 Aug. ; 21 Oct. and 
 
 10 Nov. 1852 
 
 Scientific balloon ascents having been recom- 
 mended by the British Association and funds 
 provided, Mr. James Glaisher commenced his 
 series of ascents, provided with suitable appa- 
 ratus, in Mr. Cox well's great balloon, at Wolver- 
 hampton: he reached the height of 5 miles, 
 
 17 July, 1862 
 
 He ascended to the height of about 7 miles at 
 Wolverhampton: at 5} miles high he became 
 insensible : Mr. t'oxwell lost the use of his hands, 
 but was able to open the valve with his teeth ; 
 they thus descended in safety . . 5 Sept. „ 
 
 He ascended at Newcastle during the meeting of 
 the British Association ... 31 Aug. 1863 
 
 His 16th ascent ; surveys London . . 9 Oct. „ 
 
 His 17th ascent at Woolwich; descends at Mr. 
 Brandon's, Suffolk (1st winter ascent this cen- 
 tury) 12 Jan. 1864 
 
 He ascends from Woolwich (24th time) . 30 Dec. ,, 
 
 His 25th ascent 27 Feb. 1865 
 
 Other ascents 2 Oct., 2 Dec. 1865 ; and in May, 1866 
 
 Nadar ascended in his " Geant " balloon at Paris, 
 
 23 June, ,, 
 
 Glaisher's " Travels in the Air" published Jan. 1871 
 
 BALLOT (French ballotte, a little ball). 
 Secret voting was practised by the ancient Greeks 
 and Romans, and the modern Venetians, and is 
 now employed in France, in the United States of 
 North America, and, since 1872, in Great Britain. 
 
 A ballot-box used in the election of aldermen of 
 London in 1526 
 
 Its use by the company of merchant adventurers, 
 in electing an agent, was prohibited by Charles I. 
 
 17 Dec. 1637 
 
 The ballot-box used by the " Rota," a political club 
 at Miles's coffee-house, Westminster . . . 1659 
 
 A tract entitled "The Benefit of the Ballot," said 
 to have been written by Andrew Marvell, was pub- 
 lished in the " State Tracts" 1693 
 
 Proposed, in a pamphlet, to be used in the election 
 of members of parliament 1705 
 
 A bill authorising vote by ballot passed the com- 
 mons, but rejected by the lords . . . . 1710 
 
 George Grote introduced into the commons a ballot 
 bill six times J 833"39 
 
 The ballot an open cpiestion in whig governments 
 
 1835-7 2 
 
 The ballot adopted in Victoria, Australia . . 1856 
 
 Secret voting existed in the chamber of deputies in 
 France: from 1840^)1845. It has been emplo 
 since the coup d'etat in .... Dec. 1851 
 
 The house of commons rejected the ballot— 257 
 being against, and 180 for it . . 30 June, 1S51 
 
 For many years it was annually proposed by Mr. 
 Henry Berkeley ; it was rejected (by 161 to 112, 
 12 July, 1867). He died . . 10 March, 1S70 
 
 A test-ballot was adopted at Manchester, and 
 Ernest Jones was thus chosen as a candidate 
 for re] 'resenting the city in parliament. He died 
 the next day . . . 22, 23 Jan. 1869 
 
 Mr. E. Leatham introduced a ballot bill into par- 
 liament, March ; and Mr. Gladstone spoke in 
 favour of the ballot. The bill was withdrawn 
 
 27 July, 1870 
 
 The ballot was employed in electing the London 
 school board in 9 districts . . . 29 Nov. ,, 
 
 The ballot recommended in the queen's speech, 9 
 
 Feb. ; a bill for it introduced, passed by the com- 
 mons : rejected by the lords (97 to 48) . 10 Aug. 1871 
 
 Bill to amend the law relating to procedure at 
 parliamentary and municipal elections, including 
 the ballot, read in the commons, 2nd time, 109-51, 
 15 Feb.; passed the commons, 271-216, 30 May: 
 read second time in the lords (36-56), important 
 amendments carried in committee, making secret 
 voting optional (162-91) ; read a third time, and 
 passed, 25 June : lords' amendments mostlj re- 
 jected by the commons ; the optional clause given 
 up by the lords, 8 July ; royal assent (to continue 
 in force till 31 Dec. 1880) . . . 13 July, 
 
 The first election by ballot was at Pontefract, when 
 Mr. H. E. Childers was re-elected very peacefully, 
 
 15 Aug. 
 
 Reported to work well at several elections 
 
 Dec. 1872-Feb. 
 
 1872 
 
 1873 
 
 BALL'S BLUFF, Virginia, on the banks of 
 the Potomac, North America. On 21 Oct. 1861, by 
 direction of the Federal general C. P. Stone the 
 heroic col. Baker crossed the river to reconnoitre. 
 He attacked the Confederate camp at Leesburg, and 
 was defeated with great loss. The disaster was 
 attributed to mismanagement, and in Feb 1862, 
 general Stone was arrested on suspicion of treason. 
 
 BALLYNAHINCH (Ireland), when; a san- 
 guinary engagement took place between a large 
 body of the insurgent Irish and the British troops, 
 under gen. Nugent, 13 June, 1798. A large part 
 of the town was destroyed, and the royal army suf- 
 fered very severely. 
 
 BALMORAL CASTLE, Deeside, Aberdeen- 
 shire; visited by her majesty in 1848, 1849, 1850. 
 The estate was purchased for 32,000/. by prime 
 Albert in 1852. In 1853 the present building, in the 
 Scotch baronial style, was commenced, from designs 
 by Mr. W. Smith "of Aberdeen. 
 
 BALTIC SEA, Ostsee, or Eastern Sea, 
 
 separates Sweden and the Danish isles from Russia, 
 Prussia, and Germany. Declared neutral for com- 
 merce by treaty between Russia and Sweden, 1759, 
 and Denmark, 1760. It is often partially frozen. 
 Charles X. of Sweden, with an army, crossed the 
 Belts in 1658, and the Russians passed from Finland 
 to Sweden on the ice in 1809. 
 
 BALTIC EXPEDITIONS. 
 
 Against Denmark. See Armed Neutrality. — 1. Under 
 
 lord Nelson and admiral Parker, Copenhagen was 
 bombarded, and twenty-eight sail of the Danish 
 fleet taken or destroyed ... 2 April, 1S01 
 
 2. Under admiral Gambier and lord Cathcart, 
 eighteen sail of the line, fifteen frigates, and thirl y- 
 oue brigs and gunboats surrendered to the British, 
 
 26 July, 1807 
 
 Against Russia. — 1. The British fleet, commanded 
 by sir Charles Napier, sailed from Spithead in 
 presence of the queen, who led it out to sea in her 
 yacht, the Fairy 11 March, 1854 
 
BALTIMORE. 
 
 65 
 
 BANK. 
 
 It arrived in Wingo Sound, 15 March ; and in the 
 Baltic 20 March, 1854 
 
 The gulf of Finland blockaded . .12 April, „ 
 
 10,000 French troops embarked at Calais for the 
 Baltic in English ships of war, in presence of the 
 emperor 15 July, ,, 
 
 Capture of Bomarsund, one of the Aland islands, 
 and surrender of the garrison ; see Bomarsund, 
 
 16 Aug. „ 
 
 .English and French fleets begin to return homeward 
 to winter 15 Oct. „ 
 
 II. Expedition sailed . . 20 March — 4 April, 1855 
 
 It consisted ot 85 English ships (2098 guns), com- 
 manded by admiral R. S. Dundas ; 16 French 
 ships (40S guns), under admiral Pernand, joined it, 
 
 June, „ 
 
 Three vessels silenced the Russian batteries at 
 Hogland island 21 July, „ 
 
 The fleet proceeded towards Cronstadt. Many in- 
 fernal machines* were discovered. Sveaborgwas 
 attacked (see Svcaborg) . . .9 Aug. „ 
 
 Shortly after the fleet returned to England. 
 
 BALTIMORE, a maritime city in Maryland, 
 United States, founded in 1729. On 12 Sept. 1814, 
 the British army under col. Ross advanced against 
 this place. He was killed in a skirmish ; and the 
 command was assumed by col. Brooke, who attacked 
 and routed the American army, which lost 600 
 killed and wounded and 300 prisoners. The pro- 
 jected attack on the town was, however, abandoned. 
 Alison. See United States, 1861. 
 
 BAMBERGr (Bavaria), said to have been 
 founded by Saxons, in 804, and endowed with a 
 church by Charlemagne. It was made a bishopric 
 in 1007, and the bishop was a prince of the empire 
 till the treaty of Luneville, 1801, when Bamberg 
 was secularised. It was incorporated with Bavaria 
 in 1803. The noble cathedral, rebuilt in 11 10, has 
 been recently repaired. Bamberg was taken and 
 pillaged by the Prussians in 1759. 
 
 BAMBOROUG-H, or Bamburg, Northumber- 
 land, according to the " Saxon Chronicle," was 
 built by king Ida about 547, and named Bebban- 
 burgh. The castle and estate, the property of the 
 Forsters, and forfeited to the crown, through their 
 taking part in the rebellion in 1715, were purchased 
 by Nathaniel lord Crewe, bishop of Durham, and 
 bequeathed by him for various charitable purposes. 
 The valuable library was founded by the trustees 
 in 1778- The books are lent to persons residing 
 within 20 miles of the castle. 
 
 . BAMPTON LECTURES (Theologica.), de- 
 livered at Oxford annually, began in 1780, with a 
 lecture by James Bandinel, D.D. The lecturer is 
 paid out of the proceeds of an estate bequeathed for 
 the purpose by the rev. John Bampton (died 1751) 
 and the lectures are published. Among the more 
 remarkable lectures were those by White (1784), 
 Heber (1815), Whately (1822), Milman (1827), 
 Hampden (1832), and Mansel (1858). 
 
 BANBURY, Oxfordshire, a Saxon town. The 
 castle, erected by Alexander de Blois, bishop of 
 Lincoln, 1125, has been frequently besieged. In 
 1646 it was taken by the parliamentarians and de- 
 molished. At Edgecot or Danesmore, near Banbury, 
 king Edward IV. defeated the earl of Pembroke and 
 his army, 26 July, 1469, and their leader and his 
 brother were soon after taken prisoners and executed. 
 Banbury cakes were renowned in the time of Ben 
 
 .•* These were cones of galvanised iron, 16 inches in 
 diameter, and 20 inches long. Each contained 9 or 10 lb. 
 of powder, with apparatus for firing by sulphuric acid. 
 Little damage was done by them. They were said to be 
 the invention of the philosopher Jacobi. 
 
 Jonson, and Banbury Cross was destroyed by the 
 Puritans. Cakes Avere presented to the queen at 
 Banbury, 30 Nov. 1866. 
 
 BAND of GENTLEMEN PENSION- 
 ERS, see Gentlemen-at-Arms. 
 
 .BANDA ISLES (ten), Eastern Archipelago, 
 visited by the Portuguese in 151 1, who settled on 
 them, 11521, but were expelled by the Dutch about 
 1600. Rohun island was ceded to the English in 
 1616. The Bandas were taken by the latter in 1796 ; 
 restored in 1801 ; retaken in 181 1 ; and restored in 
 Aug. 1816. 
 
 BANDA ORIENTAL (South America), a 
 portion of the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres, one part 
 of which, in 1828, was incorporated with Brazil, 
 while another part became independent, as the 
 republic of Uruguay. 
 
 BANGALORE (S. India) was besieged by the 
 British under lord Cornwallis, 6 March, and taken 
 by storm, 21 March, 1791. Bangalore was restored 
 toTippoo in 1792, when he destroyed the strong fort, 
 deemed the bulwark of Mysore. 
 
 BANGOR (Banchor Iskoed, or Monachorum), 
 Flintshire, the site of an ancient monastery, very 
 populous, if it be true that 1200 monks were slain 
 by Ethelfrid, king of the Angles, for praying for 
 the Welsh in their conflict with him in 607. 
 Tanner. 
 
 BANGOR (N. Caernarvonshire). The church 
 is dedicated to St. Daniel, who was a bishop, 516. 
 Owen Glendower greatly defaced the cathedral; 
 and the bishop Bulkeley alienated many of the 
 lands, and even sold the bells of the church, 1553. 
 The see is valued in the king's books at 131I. 16s. qd. 
 An order in council directing that the sees of Ban- 
 gor and St. Asaph be united on the next vacancy in 
 either, was issued in 1838 ; but rescinded in 1847. 
 Present income, 4200^. 
 
 BISHOPS OP BANGOR. 
 
 1800. Wm. Cleaver, translated to St. Asaph, 1S06. 
 1806. John Randolph, translated to London, 1809. 
 1809. Henry William Majendie, died 9 July, 1830. 
 1830. Christopher Bethell, died 19 April, 1859. 
 1859. James Colquhoun Campbell. 
 
 BANGORIAN CONTROVERSY was oc- 
 casioned by Dr. Benjamin Hoadley, bishop of Ban- 
 gor, preaching a sermon before George I., 31 March, 
 1717, upon the text, " My kingdom is not of this 
 world" {John xviii. 36), in which he demonstrated 
 the spiritual nature of the church and kingdom of 
 Christ. He thereby drew upon himself the indig- 
 nation of almost all the clergy, who published hun- 
 dreds of pamphlets. 
 
 BANISHMENT, an ancient punishment. By 
 39 Eliz. c. 4 (1597) dangerous rogues were to be 
 banished out of the realm, and to be liable to death 
 if they returned ; see Transportation. 
 
 BANK. The name is derived from banco, a 
 bench, erected in the market-place for the exchange • 
 of money. The first was established in Italy, 808, 
 by the Lombard Jews, of whom some settled in , 
 Lombard-street, London, where many bankers still, 
 reside. The Mint in the Tower of London was 
 anciently the depository for merchants' cash, until' 
 Charles I. laid his hands upon the money and. 
 destroyed the credit of the Mint in 1640. The 
 traders were thus driven to some other place of 
 security for their gold, which, when kept at home 
 their apprentices frequently absconded with to the 
 
BANK. 66 
 
 army. In 1645, therefore, they consented to lodge 
 it with the goldsmiths in Lombard-street, who were 
 provided with strong chests for their own valuable 
 wares ; this became the origin of banking in Eng- 
 land ; see Bank of England ; Savings Banks. 
 
 Samuel Lamb, a London banker, recommended the 
 Protector Cromwell to established a public bank, 
 
 1656 and 1658 
 Francis Child, a goldsmith, established a bank 
 
 about 1663 ; he died .... 4 Oct. 1713 
 Run on the London bankers (said to be the first) . 1667 
 Charles II. arbitrarily suspends all payments to 
 bankers out of the exchequer of monies deposited 
 there by them ; they lost ultimately 3,321,313?. 
 
 2 Jan. 1672 
 
 Hoare's bank began about 1680 
 
 Bank of England established (see next article) . . 1694 
 Wood's bank at Gloucester, the oldest county bank, 
 
 established 1716 
 
 A list of bankers given in the " Royal Kalendar " . 1765 
 Forgeries of Henry Fauntleroy, banker ; executed, 
 
 30 Nov. 1824 
 Act passed permitting establishment of joint-stock 
 
 banks, which see '1826 
 
 Rogers's bank robbed of nearly 50,000?. (bank notes 
 
 afterwards returned) . . . .24 Nov. 1844 
 Rowland Stephenson, M.P., banker and treasurer 
 of St. Bartholomew's hospital, absconds : defaulter 
 to the amount of 200.000/. ; 70,000?. in exchequer 
 bills ; (caused a great depression among bankers) 
 
 27 Dec. 1828 
 Establishment of joint-stock banks (see p. 67). . 1834 
 Failure of Strahan, Paul, and Bates (securities 
 unlawfully used) ; private banking much injured, 
 
 11 June, 1855 
 
 Batiks in 1855. . Notes allowed to be issued. 
 
 Bank of England 1 14,000,000 
 
 English private banks .... 196 4,999,444 
 English joint-stock banks (which see) . 67 3,418,277 
 
 264 22,417,721 
 
 Banks in Scotland 18 3,087,209 
 
 Banks in Ireland 8 6,354,494 
 
 Bank of 
 Venice formed 
 Geneva 
 Barcelona 
 
 290 31,859,424 
 
 "57 
 
 1345 
 
 1401 
 
 Genoa 1407 
 
 Amsterdam . 1607 
 
 Hamburg . 1619 
 
 Rotterdam . 1635 
 
 Stockholm 1688 
 
 England 1694 
 
 Scotland 1695 
 
 Copenhagen 1736 
 
 Berlin i7°5 
 
 Caisse d'Escompte, France 1776 
 
 Ireland 1783 
 
 St. Petersburg 1786 
 
 In the East Indies 1787 
 
 In North America . 179* 
 
 France* 1S03 
 
 BANK OF ENGLAND was projected by William 
 Paterson, a Scotch merchant (see Darien), to meet 
 the difficulty experienced by William III. in raising 
 the supplies for the war against France. By the 
 influence of Paterson and Michael Godfrey, 40 mer- 
 chants subscribed 500,000?. towards the sum of 
 1,200,000?. to be lent to the government at 8 per 
 cent., in consideration of the subscribers being in- 
 corporated as a bank. The scheme was violently 
 opposed in parliament, but the bill obtained the 
 royal assent 25 April, 1694, and the charter was 
 granted 27 July following, appointing sir John 
 Houblon the first governor, and Michael Godfrey 
 the first deputy-governor. The bank commenced 
 
 * Instituted by laws passed 14 April, 1803, and 22 
 April, 1S06. The statutes were approved 16 Jan. 1S08. 
 In 1810 Napoleon said that its duty was to provide money 
 at all times at 4 per cent, interest. 
 
 BANK. 
 
 active operations on I Jan. 1695, at Grocers' Hall, 
 Poultrv,* issuing notes for 20?. and upwards, and 
 discounting bills for 4i to 6 per cent. The charter 
 was renewed in 1697, 1708, 1713, 1716, 1721, 1742, 
 1746, 1749, 1764, 1781, 1800, 1808, 1816, 1833, 1844. 
 atvson. 
 
 1 
 
 Run on the bank : its notes at 20 per cent, discount ; 
 
 capital raised to 2,201,171?. 10s. . . Nov. 1696 
 The bank monopoly established by the prohibition 
 of any company exceeding six persona acting as 
 bankers (Scotland not included in the act) . . 1708 
 
 Capital raised to 5,559,995'. 10s 1710 
 
 Bank post bills issued (1st record) 14 Dec. 1738 
 
 Run for gold through rebellion in the North ; bank 
 
 mils paid in silver; the city support the bank, Sept. 1745 
 Rd. Vaughan hanged for forging notes . 1 May, 1758 
 
 10?. notes issued 1759 
 
 Gordon riots ; since then the bank has been pro 
 
 tected by the military 1780 
 
 5?. notes issued . 1793 
 
 Cash payments suspended, in conformity with an 
 
 order in council 26 Feb. 1797 
 
 1?. and 2?. notes issued .... March, ,, 
 Bank restriction act passed ... 3 May, „ 
 Voluntary contribution of 200,000?. to the govern- 
 ment 1798 
 
 Loss by Aslett's frauds (see Exchequer) 342,697?. . 1803 
 Resignation of Abraham Newland, 50 years cashier, 
 
 18 Sept. 1807 
 Bramah's machine for numbering notes adopted . 1809 
 The bank issues silver tokens for 3s. and is. 6<?. 
 
 9 July, 181 1 
 Peel's act for the gradual resumption of cash pay- 
 ments July, 1819 
 
 Cash payments for notes to be in bullion at. the mint 
 price, 1 May, 1821 ; in the current coin of the realm, 
 
 1 May, 1823 
 Great commercial panic — many 1?. notes (acciden- 
 tally found in a box) issued with most beneficial 
 
 effects Dec. 1825 
 
 The act for the establishment of joint-stock banks 
 
 breaks up the monopoly 1826 
 
 By the advice of the government, branch banks 
 opened at Gloucester, 19 July ; Manchester, 21 
 
 Sept.; Swansea, 23 Oct. ,, 
 
 And at Birmingham, 1 Jan. ; Liverpool, 2 July ; 
 Bristol, 12 July ; Leeds, 23 Aug. ; Exeter, 17 
 
 Dec. . 1827 
 
 The bank loses 360,000?. by Fauntleroy's forgeries . 1830 
 Statements of the bank affairs published quar- 
 terly 1833 
 
 Peel's bank charter act, (7 <fe 8 Vict. c. 32) ; renews 
 charter till 1 Aug. 1855, and longer, if the debt 
 due from the public to the bank (11,015,100?.), 
 with interest, <fcc, be not paid after due notice ; 
 established the issue department ; requires 
 weekly returns to be published ; limited the issue 
 of notes to 14,000,000?., <fcc. . . . 19 July, 1844 
 Commercial panic : lord John Russell authorises 
 relaxation of restriction of issuing notes (not acted 
 on) ; bank discount 8 per cent. . . 25 Oct. 1847 
 Bank clerks establish a library and fidelity guaran- 
 tee fund March, 1850 
 
 Gold bullion in the bank (consequent on discovery 
 
 of gold in Australia), 21,845,390?. . . 10 July, 1852 
 Branch bank, Burlington-gardens, London, W. 
 
 opened 1 Oct. 1S56 
 
 Committee on the bank acts appointed . July, 1857 
 Bank discount 9 per cent. : lord Palmerston autho- 
 rises addition to issue of notes [to the amount of 
 2,000,000?. were issued] . . . .12 Nov. ,, 
 Committee on the bank acts appointed, 1 Pec. 1857; 
 report recommending continuance of present 
 state of things . . • 1 July, 1858 
 
 Much alarm through the announcement of the bank 
 solicitor that a quantity of bank paper had been 
 
 * The foundation of the building in Threadnccdle-street 
 was laid 1 Aug. 1732, by sir Edward Bellamy, governor, 
 and the bank removed there 5 June, 1734 ; it was erected 
 by G. Sampson, architect. Great additions have been 
 made from time to time by successive architects : sir 
 Robert Taylor, sir John Soane, and Mr. C. R. CockerelL 
 It now occupies the site of the church, and nearly all the 
 parish of St. Christopher-Ie-Stocks. The churchyard is 
 now termed " the garden." 
 
BANK. 
 
 stolen from the makers (forged notes soon ap- 
 peared), 16 Aug. 1862 
 
 The culprits, soon detected, were tried and con- 
 victed (see Trials) .... 7 — 12 Jan. 1863 
 See Bills, 1873. 
 
 Bank Discount. 
 1858, 3 per cent. Feb. 1. 
 i860, (Demand for gold in France), 6, Nov. 15. 
 1861, 7, Jan. 7 ; 8 (demand for money in France, India, 
 
 United States, <fec.) Feb. 14 ; 3, Nov. 7. 
 1S62, 2^-, Jan. ; 3, April ; 2^, July ; 2, July 24 ; 3, Oct. — 
 
 Dec. " 
 
 1863, raised to 4 per cent. , Jan. 16 : to 5, Jan. 28 ; re- 
 duced to 4, Feb. ; to 3^ and 3, April ; raised to 4, May ; 
 raised to 5, 6, in Nov. ; to 7 and 8, and reduced to 7 in 
 Dec. 
 
 1864, raised to 8, Jan. 20 ; reduced to 7, Feb. 12 ; to 6, 
 Feb. 25 ; raised to 7, April 16 ; to 8, May 2 ; to 9, May 
 S ; reduced to 8, May 19 ; to 7, May 26 ; to 6, June 16 ; 
 raised to 7, July 25 ; to 8, Aug. 4 ; to 9, Sept. 5 ; re- 
 duced to 8, Nov. 10. ; to 7, Nov. 24. 
 
 1865, reduced to 5J, Jan. 12 ; to 5, Jan. 20 ; raised to 5J, 
 March 2 ; reduced to 4, March 30 ; raised to 4J, May 
 4 ; reduced to 3J, June 1 ; to 3, June 15 ; raised to 3^, 
 July 27 ; to 4, Aug. 3 ; to 4^, Sept. 28 ; to 5, Oct. 2 ; 
 to 6, Oct. 5; to 7, Oct. 7 ; {three times in one week) ; re- 
 duced to 6, Nov. 23 ; raised to 7, Dec. 28. 
 
 i%66, raised to 8, Jan. 4 ; reduced to 7, Feb. 22 ; to 6, 
 March 15 ; raised to 7, May 3 ; to 8, May 8 ; to 9, May 
 11 (panic — suspension of Bank Act authorised by Go- 
 vernment) ; to 10, May 12 ; reduced to 8, Aug. 16 ; to 
 7, Aug. 23 ; to 6, Aug. 30 ; to 5, Sept. 6 ; to 4J, Sept. 
 27 ; to 4, Nov. 8 ; to 3J, Dec. 20. 
 
 1867, reduced to 3, Feb. 7 ; to 2J, May 30 ; to 2, July 25. 
 
 1868, raised, to 2^ per cent. Nov. 19 ; to 3, Dec. 3. 
 
 1869, raised- to 4, April 1 ; to 4J, May 6 ; reduced to 4, 
 June 10 ; to 3^, June 24 ; to 3, July 15 ; to 2 J, Aug. 19 ; 
 raised to 3, Nov. 4. 
 
 67 BANK. 
 
 1870, raised to 3I, July 21 ; to 4, July 23 ; to 5 (Franco- 
 Prussian War), July 28 ; to 6, Aug. 4 ; reduced to 5J, 
 Aug. 11 ; to 4 J, Aug. 18 ; to 4, Aug. 25 ; to 3 J, Sept. 1 ; 
 to 3, Sept. is ; to 2J, Sept. 29. 
 
 1871, raised to 3, March 2 ; reduced to 2J, April 13 ; to 
 2J, June 15 ; to 2, July 13 ; raised to 3, Sept. 21 ; to 4, 
 Sept. 28 ; to 5, Oct. 7 ; reduced to 4, Nov. 16 ; to 3J, 
 Nov. 30 ; to 3, Dec. 14. 
 
 1872, raised to 3^, April 4 ; to 4, April n ; to 5, May 9 ; 
 reduced to 4, Slay 30 ; to 3J, June 13 ; to 3, June 20 ; 
 raised to 3J, July 18 ; to 4, Sept. 18 ; to 4J, Sept. 26 ; 
 to s, Oct. 2 ; to 6, Oct. 10 ; to 7, Nov. 9 ; reduced to 6, 
 Nov. 28 ; to 5, Dec. 12. 
 
 1873, reduced to 4^, Jan. 9 ; to 4, Jan. 23 ; to 3^, Jan. 30 ; 
 raised to 4, March 26 ; to 4J, May 7 ; to 5, May 10 ; to 
 6, May 17 ; to 7, June 4 ; reduced to 6, June 12. 
 
 AVERAGE AMOUNT OF BANK OF ENG. NOTES IN CIRCULATION. 
 
 1718 . 
 
 £1,829,930 
 
 1835 . . . 
 
 £18,215,220 
 
 1778 . 
 
 7,030,680 
 
 1840 
 
 17,231,000 
 
 1790 . 
 
 10,217,000 
 
 - 1845 . 
 
 19,262,327 
 
 1800 
 
 15,450,000 
 
 1850 . 
 
 19,776,814 
 
 1810 . 
 
 23,904,000 
 
 1855 . 
 
 19,616,627 
 
 1815 . 
 
 26,803,520 
 
 1857 . 
 
 21,036,430 
 
 1820 . 
 
 27,174,000 
 
 1859 • 
 
 22,705,780 
 
 1830 . 
 
 20,620,000 
 
 
 
 Dec. 27, 1856. 
 
 Assets — Securities . . £20,484,000) „ „ 
 
 Bullion . . . lo.io^ooo J - £39,589,000 
 
 Liabilities • 36,329,000 
 
 Balance £3,260,000 
 Nov. 11, 1857 (Time of Panic). 
 
 Assets — Securities . . £35,480,281 ) „ - 
 
 BuUion . . . 7,i 7 i; 5 o8} £42,650,789 
 
 Liabilities 39,286,433 
 
 Sept. 14, 
 Aug. 30, 
 Aug. 9, 
 Mar. 14, 
 Sept. 26. 
 June 19, 
 March 5, 
 Dec. 29, 
 June 2, 
 Jan. 5, 
 June 29, 
 Jan. 3, 
 July 3, 
 Mar. 12, 
 
 1694 . 
 1708 . 
 
 1859 
 1862 
 1865 
 
 1870 
 1871 
 
 1872 
 
 1873 
 
 Assets.— Securities. 
 . . £30,099,179 
 
 . 30,106,295 
 . . 31,823,066 
 
 ■ 29,415,059 
 . . 34,418,382 
 
 . 31,849,662 
 . . 31,226,793 
 
 • 34,°4o,94i 
 . . 32,402,200 
 
 • 32,274,967 
 . . 34,100,342 
 
 • 36,393,708 
 . . 37,090,281 
 
 . 38,202,671* 
 
 Coin and Bullion 
 . £17,120,822 
 . 17,678,698 
 
 14,223,390 
 . 14,327,618 
 . 16,929,262 
 
 21,882,770 
 . 21,136,192 
 
 19,196,622 
 . 20,494,392 
 . 22,382,934 
 . 26,609,540 
 . 25,291,761 
 . 24,065,094 
 . 24,778,223 
 
 Liabilities. 
 £43,503,214 
 44,453,778 
 42,528,577 
 39,934,i5o 
 47,039,390 
 50,612,342 
 48,752,291 
 50,134,262 
 49,799,528 
 51,512,339 
 57,594,133 
 58,497,293 
 57,894,811 
 59,264,695 
 
 £1,200,000 I 1716 
 2,175,027 I 1721 
 
 PUBLIC DEBT TO THE BANK OF ENGLAND. 
 
 4,175,027 I 1742 . . . £10,700,000 I 1816 
 
 9,100,000 I 1746 . . . 11,686,000 I 1844 
 
 BANK of Ireland. On 9 Dec. 1721, the 
 
 Irish house of commons rejected a bill for establish- 
 ing a national bank. Important failures in Irish 
 banks occurred in 1727, 1733, and 1758 : this led 
 gradually to the establishment of the Bank of Ire- 
 land at St. Mary's abbey, Dublin, 1 June, 1783. 
 The business was removed to the late parliament 
 house, in College-green, in May, 1808. Branch 
 hanks of this establishment have been formed in 
 most of the provincial towns in Ireland, all since 
 1828. Irish banking act passed, 21 July, 1845. 
 
 BANKS OF SCOTLAND. The old bank of Scot- 
 land was set up in 1695, at Edinburgh, and began 
 I Nov., the second institution of the kind in the 
 empire : lending money to the crown was pro- 
 hibited. 
 Royal bank of Scotland chartered . . 8 July, 1727 
 
 British Linen company bank 1746 
 
 Commercial bank 1810 
 
 National bank 1825 
 
 Union bank 1830 
 
 First stone of present bank of Scotland laid 3 June, 1801 
 
 * Government securities, 13,360,633?. ; other securities, 
 2 4,395,o38Z. 
 
 Balance £3,364,356 
 
 Balom.ce. 
 £3,716,787 
 3,331,215 
 3,517,879 
 3,808,527 
 4,108,254 
 3,120,090 
 3,610,694 
 3,103,301 
 3,097,069 
 3,145,562 
 
 3,n5,749 
 3,188,176 
 3,250,564 
 3,716,209 
 
 14,686,000 
 11,015,100 
 
 Western bank of Scotland and the Glasgow bank 
 
 stopped, causing much distress . . . Nov. 1857 
 Scotch banking act passed . • . .21 July, 1845 
 
 BANK OF SAVINGS, see Savings' Banks. 
 
 BANKS, Joint Stock. Since the act of 
 
 1826, a number of these banks have been estab- 
 lished. In 1840, the amount of paper currency 
 issued by joint-stock banks amounted to 4, 138,618^. ; 
 the amount in circulation by private banks, same 
 year, was 6,973,613?". — the total amount exceeding 
 eleven millions.* In Ireland similar banks have 
 
 * The Royal British Bank was established in 1849, 
 by Mr. John McGregor, M.P., and others, under sir R. 
 Peel's joint-stock banking-act, 7 & 8 Vict. e. 113 (1844) ; 
 as an attempt to introduce the Scotch banking system of 
 cash credits into England. On 3 Sept. 1856, it stopped 
 payment occasioning much distress and ruin to many 
 small tradesmen and others. In consequence of strong 
 evidence of the existence of fraud in the management of 
 the bank, elicited during the examination before the 
 court of bankruptcy, the government instructed the at- 
 torney-general to file ex-offlcio informations against the 
 manager, Mr. H. Innes Cameron, and several of the 
 directors. They were convicted 27 Feb. 1858, after 13 
 days' trial, and sentenced to various degrees of imprison- 
 ment. Attempts to mitigate the punishment failed 
 
 . F 2 
 
BANK. 
 
 68 
 
 BANNOCKBURN. 
 
 been instituted, the first being the Hibernian bank, 
 in 1825. The note-circulation of joint-stock banks, 
 on 1 Oct. 1855, was, in England, 3,990,800*; in 
 Scotland, 4,280,000;. ; and in Ireland, 6,785,000*. ; 
 total, with English private banks, about 19,000,000?. ; 
 and with the bank of England, above 39,000,000?. 
 
 Chief London flanks. Founded. 
 
 London and Westminster 1834 
 
 London Joint-Stock 1836 
 
 Union Bank of London 1839 
 
 Commercial Bank of London ,, 
 
 London and County ,, 
 
 City Bank 1855 
 
 Bank of London ,, 
 
 Joint Stock Banks, Jan. i860: — 
 England and Wales (including London) ... 94 
 
 Scotland 15 
 
 Ireland 8 
 
 British and foreign colonial banks with offices in 
 London 18 
 
 BANK HOLIDAYS ACT passed 25 May, 
 1871. 
 
 Bank Holidays. — England and Ireland: Easter Mon- 
 day ; Monday in Whitsun-week ; first Monday in 
 August; 26 December (if a week day). — Scotland: 
 New Year's day ; Christmas day (if either falls on Sun- 
 day, the following Monday to be a bank holiday) ; Good 
 Friday ; first Monday in May and August. 
 
 BANKRUPT (signifying either bank or bench 
 broken), a trader declared to be unable to pay his 
 just debts. The laws on the subject (1543, 1571 et 
 seq.) were consolidated and amended in 1825, 1849, 
 1852, 1854, 1861, 1868, and 1869. See Debtors. 
 
 Lord Chancellor Thurlow refused a bankrupt his 
 certificate, because he had lost five pounds at one 
 time in gaming 17 July, 1788 
 
 Enacted that members of the house of commons 
 becoming bankrupt, and not paying their debts 
 in full, should vacate their seats .... 1812 
 
 New Bankruptcy Court erected by 2 Will. IV. c. 56. 1831 
 
 Bills for reforming bankruptcy law were in vain 
 brought before parliament. . . . 1859, i860 
 
 Bill by the lord chancellor Westbury (formerly sir 
 R. Bethell), 24 <fe 25 Vict. c. 134, passed (1861) ; 
 great changes made ; the court for relief of insol- 
 vent debtors abolished, and increased powers 
 given to the commissioners in bankruptcy, &c. ; 
 the new orders issued .... 12 Oct. 1S61 
 
 By the BankWiptcy Act passed 9 Aug. 1869, a new 
 "bankruptcy court was established in place of the 
 commissioners', which sat last time, when above 
 300 petitions of bankruptcy were received, 31 
 Dec. 1869. The new judge, the hon. James Bacon, 
 sat 1 Jan. 1S70 
 
 Justice Ciffard, the judge of the Bankruptcy Appeal 
 Court, decided (in the case of the duke of New- 
 castle) that a peer can be made a bankrupt, Nov. 
 1S69, which decision was affirmed on appeal to 
 the house of lords in the following year : other 
 petitions against peers have been filed. It was 
 decided that bankrupts cannot sit in the house 
 of peers 10 Feb. 1S71 
 
 Bankruptcy Disqualification Act disqualifies a 
 peer from sitting or voting in parliament, passed 
 
 13 July, „ 
 
 Irish bankruptcy laws consolidated in 1836, and 
 
 further amended In 1857 
 
 Scotch bankruptcy laws consolidated in 1856, and 
 
 (May, 1858) ; but all were released except Cameronand 
 Esdaile, in July, 185S. In April, i860, dividends had 
 been paid to the amount of 15s. in the pound. The at- 
 torney-general brought in a bill called the Fraudulent 
 Trustees' Act, 20 & 21 Vict, c. 5+, to prevent the recur- 
 rence of such transactions. — On 19 April, 1S60, a defi- 
 ciency of 263,000?. was discovered in the Union Bank of 
 London. Mr. George Pullinger, a cashier, confessed him- 
 self guilty of forgery and fraud, and was sentenced to 20 
 years' imprisonment.— On iS Feb. 1861. it was discovered 
 that John Burden, a clerk of the Commercial Haul; of 
 London, had robbed his employers of 67,000?., of which 
 46,000?. might be recovered.— In Dec. 1864, J. W. Terry 
 and Thomas Bureh, manager and secretary of the Unity 
 Hank, were committed on a charge of conspiracy for 
 fabric itmg accounts but a quitted on thiir trial. 
 
 New Bankruptcy Act for Ireland, passed . 
 
 6 Aug 
 
 1872 
 
 NUMBER 
 
 OF BANKRUPTS IN GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 
 1700 . 
 
 • ■ 38 
 
 184s 
 
 England 
 
 
 . 1028 
 
 1725 
 
 . . 416 
 
 1850 
 
 ditto . 
 
 
 . 1298 
 
 1750 . 
 
 • 432 
 
 i8s7 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 . 1488 
 
 *775 
 
 . . 52° 
 
 i860 
 
 ditto . 
 
 
 . 1268 
 
 1800 
 
 • 1339 
 
 1863 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 • 8470 
 
 1810 
 
 about 2000 
 
 1864 
 
 ditto . 
 
 
 • 7224 
 
 1820 . 
 
 • 1358 
 
 1867 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 • 8994 
 
 1825* . 
 
 . . 2683 
 
 1868 
 
 ditto . 
 
 
 ■ 9195 
 
 1830 . 
 
 . 1467 
 
 1869 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 10,396 
 
 1840 
 
 . . 1308 
 
 
 
 
 
 In 1857 there were in Scotland 
 
 
 
 • 453 
 
 
 „ Ireland . 
 
 
 
 73 
 
 
 ,, United King 
 
 lorn 
 
 
 . 2014 
 
 i860 „ 
 
 ,, Scotland . 
 ,, Ireland 
 
 
 
 • 445 
 
 _. ,, 
 
 „ United Kingdom . 
 
 
 . 1826 
 
 BANNATYNE CLUB, named after George 
 Banuatyne (the publisher), was established in 1823 
 by sir Walter Scott and others, for printing works 
 illustrative of the history, antiquities, and litera- 
 ture of Scotland, of which about 113 volumes were 
 issued: dissolved, i860. 
 
 BANNERET, KNIGHT, a dignity between 
 baron and knight, anciently conferred by the king 
 under the royal standard on the field of battle. Its 
 origin is of uncertain time : Edmondson dates it 
 736; but it was probably created by Edward I. 
 John Chandos is said to have been made a banneret 
 by the Black Prince and the king of Castile at Na- 
 jara, 3 April, 1367. The dignity was conferred on 
 John Smith, who rescued the royal standard at 
 Edgehill fight, 23 Oct. 1642. It fell into disuse, 
 but was revived by George III. for sir William 
 Erskine, in 1 764. 
 
 BANNERS were common to all nations. The 
 Jewish tribes had standards or banners — Num. ii. 
 (1491 B.C.) The standard of Constantine bore the in- 
 scription, In hoc sigito rinces — "By this sign thou 
 shalt conquer," under the figure of the cross. See 
 Cross. The magical banner of the Danes (said to have 
 been a black raven on a red ground) was taken by 
 Alfred when he defeated Hubba, 878. St. Martin's 
 cap, and afterwards the celebrated auritiamma, or 
 oriflamme, were the standards of France about 
 1 100 ; see Auriflamma, Standards, &c. 
 
 BANNOCKBURN (Stirlingshire), the site of 
 two battles : (1) between Robert Bruce of Scotland 
 and Edward II. of England, 24 June, 1314. The 
 army of Bruce consisted of 30,000 ; that of Edward 
 of 100,000 men, of whom 52,000 were archers. The 
 English crossed a rivulet to the attack, and Bruce 
 having dug and covered pits, they fell into them, 
 and were thrown into confusion. The rout was 
 complete : the English king narrowly escaped, and 
 50,000 were killed or taken prisoners. (2) At 
 Sauchieburn, near here, James III. was defeated 
 and slain on n June, 1488, by his rebellious 
 nobles. 
 
 * According to a return to parliament made at tin- 
 close of Feb. 1826, there had become bankrupt in the 
 finer months preceding, 59 banking-houses, comprising 144 
 partners ; and 20 other banking establishments had been 
 declared insolvent. Every succeeding week continued 
 to add from seventy to a hundred merchants, traders, 
 and manufacturers to the bankrupt list. This was the 
 period of -bubble speculation, and of unprecedented com- 
 mercial embarrassment and ruin. 
 
BANNS. 
 
 69 
 
 BAEDS. 
 
 BANNS, in the feudal law, were a solemn 
 proclamation of any kind : hence arose the present 
 custom of asking banns, or giving notice before 
 marriage ; said to have been introduced into the 
 English church about 1200. The proper time of 
 publishing banns in the church was the subject of 
 much discussion in 1867. 
 
 BANQUETING--HOTTSE, Whitehall, Lon- 
 don, built by Inigo Jones, about 1619. 
 
 BANTAM (Java) . Here a British factory was 
 established by captain Lancaster, in 1603. The 
 English and Danes were driven from their factories 
 by the Dutch in 1683. Bantam surrendered to the 
 British in 181 1, but was restored to the Dutch at 
 the peace in 1814. 
 
 BANTINGISM, see Corpulence. 
 
 BANTBY BAY (S. Ireland), where a French 
 ifleet, bringing succour to the adherents of James 
 II., attacked the English under admiral Herbert, 
 1 May, 1689 : the latter retired to form in line and 
 were not pursued. A French squadron of seven 
 sail of the line and two frigates, armed en flute, 
 and seventeen transports, anchored here for a few 
 days, without effect, Dec. 1796. Mutiny of the 
 Bantry Bay squadron under admiral Mitchell was 
 in Dec. 1801. In Jan. 1802, twenty-two of the 
 mutineers were tried on board the Gladiator, at 
 Portsmouth, when seventeen were condemned to 
 death, of whom eleven were executed ; the others 
 were sentenced to receive each 200 lashes. The 
 executions took place on board the Majestic, Cen- 
 taur, Formidable, Temeraire, and L' Achille, 8 to 
 18 Jan. 1802. 
 
 BAPAUME, N. FRANCE, the site of severe 
 indecisive engagements between the French army 
 of the north under Faidherbe, and the Germans 
 under Manteuff'el ; the French retreated, 2, 3 Jan. 
 1871. 
 
 BAPTISM, the ordinance of admission into 
 the church, practised by all Christian sects except 
 Quakers. John the Baptist baptized Christ, 30. 
 (Matt, iii.) Infant baptism is mentioned by Ire- 
 useus about 97. In the reign of Constantine, 319, 
 baptisteries were built and baptism was performed 
 fey dipping the person all over. In the west sprink- 
 ling was adopted. Much controversy has arisen 
 since 1831 (particularly in 1849 and 1 850), in the 
 <church of England, respecting baptismal regenera- 
 tion, which the Arches' Court of Canterbury 
 decided to be a doctrine of the church of England. 
 See Trials, 1849, and note. Demanding fees for 
 baptisms was made unlawful by an act passed 18 
 July, 1872. 
 
 BAPTISTS (see Anabaptists). A sect dis- 
 tinguished by their opinions respecting (1) the 
 proper subjects, and (2) the proper mode of baptism : 
 the former they affirm to be those who are able to 
 make a profession of faith ; the latter to be total 
 immersion. There are seven sections of Baptists — 
 Arminian, Calvinistic (or Particular), &c. The 
 first Baptist church formed in London was about 
 1608. They published their confession of faith in 
 1643; revised in 1689. In 1851 they had 130 
 chapels in London and 2789 (with sittings for 
 752,353 persons) in England and Wales. Ehode 
 Island, America, was settled by Baptists in 1635. 
 
 BAE SITE, AlJBE, N. E. France. Here the 
 French, under Oudinot and Macdonald, were de- 
 feated by the allies, 27 Feb. 1814. 
 
 BAEBADOS, a West India Island, one of the 
 Windward isles discovered by the Portuguese about 
 1600, taken possession of by the English 1605, and 
 settled by sir Wm. Courteen, who founded James- 
 town, 1625. As many royalists settled here, the 
 island was taken by the parliamentarians in 1652. 
 
 A dreadful hurricane, more than 4000 inhabitants 
 
 perished 10 Oct. 1780 
 
 A large plantation with all its buildings destroyed, 
 by the land removing from its original site to 
 another, and covering everything in its peregrina- 
 tion 17 Oct. 1784 
 
 An inundation, Nov. 1795 ; and two great fires, 
 
 May and Dec. 1796 
 
 Bishopric established 1824 
 
 Awful devastation, with the loss of thousands of 
 lives, and of immense property, by a hurricane 
 
 10 Aug. 1831 
 Nearly 17,000 persons died of cholera . . . 1854 
 Property to the amount of about 300,000?. destroyed 
 
 by a fire at Bridgetown . . . .14 Feb. i860 
 Great increase in growth of cotton, 1864-5 ; — ■ 
 
 Governor, James Walker 1861 
 
 „ Rawson W. Bawson .... 1868 
 
 BAEBAEY, in N. Africa, considered to com- 
 prise Algeria, Morocco, Fez, Tunis, and Tripoli, 
 with their dependencies. Piratical states (nomi- 
 nally subject to Turkey) were founded on the coast 
 by Barbarossa, about 1518. 
 
 BAEBEES lived in Greece in the 5th century, 
 and at Borne in the 3rd century B.C. In England, 
 formerly, the business of a surgeon was united to 
 the barber's, and he was denominated a Barber- 
 Surgeon. A London company was formed in 
 1308, and incorporated, 1462. This union was 
 partially dissolved in 1540, and wholly so in 1745. 
 '•No person using any shaving or barbery in Lon- 
 don shall occupy any surgery, letting of blood, or 
 other matter, except only drawing of teeth." 32 
 Hen. YLIL 1540. 
 
 BAECA (N. Africa), the Greek Barce, a colony 
 of Cyrene. It was successively subjugated by the 
 Persians, Egyptians, and Saracens. In 1550 the 
 sultan Solyman combined Barca with the newly 
 conquered pashalik of Tripoli. 
 
 BAECELONA (N. E. Spain), an ancient 
 maritime city, said to have been rebuilt by Hamil- 
 car Barca, father of the great Hannibal, about 233 
 B.C. It was held by the Bomans, Goths, Moors, 
 and Franks, and, with the province of which it is 
 the capital, was made an independent country 
 about a.d. 864, and incorporated with Aragon, 
 1 164, the last count becoming king. The city has 
 suffered much by war. The siege by the French 
 in 1694, was relieved by the approach of the Eng- 
 lish fleet, commanded by admiral Bussell ; but the 
 city was taken by the earl of Peterboroiigh in 1706. 
 It was bombarded and taken by the duke of Ber- 
 wick and the French in 1714, and was taken by 
 Napoleon in 1808, and retained till 1814. It re- 
 volted against the queen in 1841, and was bom- 
 barded and taken in Dec. 1842, by Espartero. 
 
 BAECLAY, CAPTAIN, see Pedestrianism. 
 
 BAEDESANISTS, followers of Bardesanes, 
 of Mesopotamia, who embraced the errors of Yalen- 
 tinus, after refuting them, and added denial of the 
 incarnation, resurrection, &c, about 175. 
 
 BAEDS. Demodocus is mentioned as a bard 
 by Homer ; and we find bards, according to Strabo, 
 among the Eomans before the age of Augustus. 
 The Welsh bards formed an hereditary order, regu- 
 lated, it is said, by laws, enacted about 940 and 
 
BAEEBONE'S. 
 
 70 
 
 BAEONETS. 
 
 1078. They lost their privileges at the conquest 
 by Edward I. in 1284. 1 he institution was revived 
 by the Tudor sovereigns ; and their Eisteddfodds 
 (or meetings) have been and are frequently held ; 
 at Swansea, Aug. 1863 ; at Llandudno, Aug. 1864 ; 
 in the vale of Conway, 7 Aug. 1865 ; at Chester, 4 
 Sept. 1866 ; at Carmarthen, 3 Sept. 1867 ; at Ruthin, 
 5-7 Aug. 1868; at Rhyl, 8-12 Aug. 1870 ; at Port- 
 madoc, Aug. 1872. The Gwyneddigion Society of 
 Bards was founded in 1770. Turlogh O'Carolan. 
 the last of the Irish bards, died in 1737. Chambers. 
 
 BAEEBONE'S PAELIAMENT. Crom- 
 well, supreme in the three kingdoms, summoned 
 122 persons, such as he thought he could manage, 
 who, with six from Scotland, and five from Ireland, 
 met, as a parliament, 4 July, 1653. It obtained its 
 appellation from a nickname given to one of its 
 members, a leather-seller, named " Praise-God 
 Barbon." The majority evinced much sense and 
 spirit, proposing to reform abuses, improve the ad- 
 ministration of the law, &c. The parliament was 
 suddenly dissolved, 13 Dec. 1653, and Cromwell 
 made lord protector. 
 
 BAEEILLY, province of Delhi (N. W. India), 
 ceded to the East India company by the ruler of 
 Oudeini8oi. A mutiny at Bareilly, the capital, 
 was suppressed in April, 1816. On 7 May, 1858, 
 it was taken from the cruel sepoy rebels. 
 
 BAEFLEUE (N. France), where William, 
 duke of Normandy, equipped the fleet by which he 
 conquered England, 1066. Near it, "William, duke 
 of Normandy, son of Henry 1., in his passage from 
 Normandy, was shipwrecked, 25 Nov. 1 120, when 
 the prince, his bride, and many others perished. Bar- 
 fleur was destroyed by the English in the campaign 
 in which they won the battle of Crecy, 1346. The 
 French navy was destroyed near the cape by 
 admiral Russell, after the victory of La Hogue, 19 
 May, 1692. 
 
 BAEI (S. Italy), the Barium of Horace, was, 
 in the 9th century, a stronghold of the Saracens, 
 and was captured by the emperor Louis II., a 
 descendant of Charlemagne, in 871. In the 10th 
 century it became subject to the eastern empire, 
 and remained so till it was taken by Robert Guis- 
 card, the Norman, about 1060. A great ecclesiastical 
 council was held here on 1 Oct. 1098, when the 
 JUioque article of the creed and the procession of the 
 Holy Spirit were the subjects of discussion. 
 
 BAEING ISLAND, Arctic Sea, discovered 
 by captain Penny in 1 850-1, and so named by him 
 after sir Francis Baring, first lord of the admiralty 
 in 1849. 
 
 BAEIUM (Greek, barys, heavy), a metal found 
 abundantly as carbonate and sulphate. The oxide 
 baryta was first recognised as an earth distinct from 
 lime by Scheele, in 1774; and the metal was first 
 obtained by Humphry Davy, in 1808. Waits. 
 
 BAEK, see Jesuits' Bark. 
 
 BAELAAMITES, followers of Barlaam, a 
 learned Calabrian monk of the order of St. Basil, 
 who maintained various peculiar tenets, attacked 
 the Greek monks, supported the Latin against the 
 Greek church in a controversy at Constantinople, 
 I337i an d acted as the emperor's envov in an attempt 
 to reconcile the churches in 1339. He died about 
 1348. 
 
 BAEMECIDES, a powerful Persian family, 
 celebrated for virtue and courage, were massacred 
 through the jealousy of the caliph Haroun-al- 
 
 Raschid, about 802. His visir Giafar was a Bar- 
 mecide. The phrase Barmecide (or imaginary) 
 feast originated in the story of the barber's sixth 
 brother, in the Arabian Nights' Entertainments. 
 
 BAENABITES, an order of monks, established 
 in Milan about 1 530, were much engaged in in- 
 structing youth, relieving the sick and aged, and 
 converting heretics. 
 
 BAENAED'S, Sir John, Act (7 Geo. II., 
 
 c. 8), entitled, "an act to prevent tbe infamous 
 practice of stock -jobbing," was passed in 1734? and 
 repealed in i860. Sir John Barnard (bom 1685, 
 died 1764) was an eminent lord mayor of London. 
 
 BAENET, Hertfordshire. Here, at Gladsmore 
 heath, Edward IV. gained a decisive victory over 
 the Lancastrians, on Easter-day, 14 April, I47l» 
 when the earl of Warwick and his brother the mar- 
 quis of Montacute, or Montague, and 10,000 men 
 were slain. A column commemorative of this battle 
 has been erected at the meeting of the St. Alban's- 
 and Hatfield roads. 
 
 BAROMETERS. Torrieelli, a Florentine, 
 knowing that water did not rise in a pump through 
 what was supposed to be nature's abhorrence of a 
 vacuum, imitated the action of a pump with mer- 
 cury, and made the first barometer, about 1643. 
 Pascal's experiments (1646) enhanced tbe value of 
 the discovery by applying it to the measurement of 
 heights. "Wheel barometers were contrived in 1668 ; 
 pendent barometers in 1695 ; marine in 1700 ; and 
 many improvements have been made since. In the 
 aneroid barometer (from a, no, and ncros, watery) 
 no liquid is employed; the atmospheric pressure 
 being exerted on a metallic spring. Its invention 
 (attributed to Con te , in 1 798, but due to Vidi, who died 
 in April, 1866), excited much attention in 1848-9. 
 Barometers were placed at N.E. coast stations in 
 i860, by the duke of Northumberland and others. 
 
 BAEON, formerly the only title in our peerage, 
 now the lowest. Its original name in England, 
 Vavasour, was changed by the Saxons into Thane, 
 and by the Normans into Baron. Many of this 
 rank had undoubtedly assisted in, or been sum- 
 moned to parliament (in 1 205) ; but the first pre- 
 cept found is of no higher date than the 49 Hen. 
 III. 1265. The first raised to this dignity by patent 
 was John de Beauchamp, created baron of Kidder- 
 minster, by Richard II., 1387. The barons took 
 arms against king John, and compelled him to sign 
 the great charter of our liberties, and the charter of 
 our forests, at Runnyniede, near Windsor, June, 
 121 5. Charles II. granted a coronet to barons on 
 his restoration, 1660. 
 
 BAEONETS, the first in rank among the gen- 
 try, and the only knighthood that is hereditary, 
 were instituted by James I., 161 1. The rebellion 
 in Ulster seems to have given rise to this order, it 
 having been required of a baronet, on his creation, 
 to pay into the exchequer as much as would main- 
 tain "thirty soldiers three years at eightpence a 
 dav in the province of Ulster in Ireland." It was 
 further required that a baronet should be a gentle- 
 man born, and have a clear estate of IOOOJ. per 
 annum. The first baronet was sir Nicholas Bacon 
 (whose successor is therefore styled Primus Baronet- 
 toram Angliai), 22 May, 1611. The baronets of 
 Ireland were created in 1619; the first being sir 
 Francis Blundell. — Baronets of Nova Scotia were 
 created. 1625; sir Robert Gordon the first baronet. 
 — All baronets created since the Irish union in 1801 
 are of the United Kingdom. 
 
BAEONS. 
 
 71 
 
 BAETHOLOMITES. 
 
 BABONS' WAB, arose in consequence of the 
 faithlessness of Henry III. and the oppression of his 
 favourites in 1258. The barons, headed by Simon de 
 Montfort, earl of Leicester, and Gilbert de Clare, earl 
 of Gloucester, met at Oxford in 1262, and enacted 
 statutes to which the king objected. In 1263 their 
 disputes were in vain referred to the decision of 
 Louis IX. of France. War broke out, and on 14 May, 
 1264, the king's party was totally defeated at Lewes ; 
 and De Montfort became the virtual ruler of the 
 kingdom. The war was renewed ; and at the battle 
 of Evesham, 4 Aug. 1265, De Montfort was slain, 
 and the barons were defeated ; but they did not 
 render their final submission till 1268. A history 
 of this war was published by Mr. W. H. Blaauw, 
 in 1844; 2nd ed., -1871. 
 
 BAEOSSA, see Barrosa. 
 
 BAEEACKS (trom" Baroque — Suite que font 
 les soldats en campagne pour se tnettrc d couvert") 
 were not numerous in these countries until about 
 1789. A superintendent-general was appointed in 
 1793, since when commodious barracks have been 
 built in the various garrison towns and central 
 points of the empire. — A report, censuring the con- 
 dition of many barracks, was presented to parlia- 
 ment in 1858 ; and great improvements were 
 effected under the direction of Mr. Sidney (after- 
 wards lord) Herbert ; see Aldershot. 
 
 BABBICADES, mounds formed of trees and 
 earth, for military defence. During the wars of 
 the League in France, in 1588, the people made 
 barricades by means of chains, casks, &c, and com- 
 pelled the royal troops to retire. During the war 
 of the Fronde, a barricade was erected in Paris on 
 27 Aug. 1648. Barricades composed of overturned 
 vehicles, &c, were erected in Paris in the insur- 
 rections of 27-30 July, 1830, and 23-26 June, 1848, 
 when sanguinary conflicts took place. 
 
 BAEEIEE TEEATY, by which the Low 
 Countries were ceded to the emperor Charles "VI., 
 was signed by the British, Imperial, and Dutch 
 ministers, 15 Nov. 1715. 
 
 BAEEISTEES are said to have been first 
 appointed by Edward I., about 1291, but there is 
 earlier mention of professional advocates. They are of 
 various ranks, as king's or queen's counsel, Serjeants, 
 &c, which see. Students for the bar must keep a 
 certain number of terms at the inns of court, pre- 
 viously to being called ; and by the regulations of 
 1853 must pass a public examination. Irish 
 students must keep eight terms in England. 
 
 BAEEOSA, or BAROSSA (S. Spain). The 
 British army, commanded by major-general sir 
 Thomas Graham, afterwards lord Lynedoch, totally 
 defeated the French under marshal Victor, 5 March, 
 181 1. The French leaving nearly 3000 dead, six 
 pieces of cannon, and an eagle, the first that the 
 British had taken ; the loss of the British was 1169 
 men killed and wounded. 
 
 BAEEOW ISLAND (Arctic Sea), discovered 
 by Captain Penny in 1850-51, and named by him 
 in honour of John Barrow, Esq., son of sir John. 
 
 BABEOW-ON-FUENESS (Lancashire), in 
 1847, was a village with a population of about 330, 
 which, in 1867, had increased to above 17,000, in con- 
 sequence of the large manufacture of iron from the 
 ore (luematite) found there. On 19 Sept. 1867, 
 new docks were opened in the presence of the dukes 
 of Devonshire and Buccleuch, Mr. Gladstone, and 
 others. 
 
 BAEEOW S STEAITS (N. Arctic Sea), ex- 
 plored by Edwd. Parry, as far as Melville island, 
 tat. 74 26' N., and long. 113° 47' W. The strait, 
 named after sir John Barrow, was entered on 
 2 Aug., 1819. The thermometer was 55° below 
 zero of Fahrenheit. • 
 
 BAEEOWISTS, a name given to the 
 Brownists, which see. 
 
 BABBOWS, circular or oblong mounds, found 
 in Britain and other countries, were ancient sepul- 
 chres. Sir Richard Hoare caused several barrows 
 near Stonehenge to be opened ; in them were found 
 Celtic ornaments, such as beads, buckles, and 
 brooches, in amber, wood, and gold: Nov. 1808. 
 Many barrows were opened and discoveries made 
 in Yorkshire, 1866-70, under the superintendence of 
 the Rev. Wm, Greenwell. 
 
 BAES in music appear in the madrigals of 
 Bonini, 1607. Their common use in this country 
 is attributed to Henry Lawes, about 1653. JEng. 
 Cyc. 
 
 BAETHOLOMEW, ST., the Apostle, 
 martyred 71. The festival (24 Aug. 0. s., 3 Sept. 
 n. s.) is said to have been instituted 1130. 
 
 Monastery of St. Bartholomew (of Austin Friars) 
 
 founded by Rahere, a minstrel of Henry II. . 1102 
 The hospital founded by him .... about 1123 
 Refounded after the dissolution of monasteries (it 
 then contained 100 beds, with 1 physician and 3 
 surgeons), 1544 ; incorporated .... 1346 
 William Harvey, the physiologist, physician here 
 
 1609-43 
 Earliest record of medical school . . . . 1662 
 Hospital rebuilt by subscription .... 1729 
 
 Medical college founded 1843 
 
 The hospital (since enlarged) contained 580 beds, 
 and relieved about 70,000 patients . . . 1861 
 
 Improvements suggested 1869 
 
 Bartholomew the Great, St., near Smithneld. The 
 building of the church, said to have begun 1102, 
 restored by subscription and reopened 29 March, 1868 
 Bartholomew Fair. The charter was granted by 
 Henry I., 1133, and was long held in Smithfleld, 
 which see. The shows were discontinued in 1850, 
 and the fair was proclaimed for the last time in 
 1855. In 1858 Mr. H. Morley published his " His- 
 tory of Bartholomew Fair," with many illustra- 
 tions. 
 The Massacre of St. Bartholomew commenced 
 
 at Paris on the night of the festival . 24 Aug. 1572 
 According to Sully, 70,000 Huguenots, or French 
 Protestants, including women and children, were 
 murdered throughout the kingdom by secret orders 
 from Charles IX. , at the instigation of his mother, 
 the queen dowager, Catherine de Medicis. 
 La Popelionere calculates the victims at 20,000 ; 
 Adriani, De Serres, and De Thou say 30,000 ; 
 Davila states them at 40,000 ; and Perefixe makes 
 the number 100,000. Above 500 persons of rank, 
 and 10,000 of inferior condition, perished in Paris 
 alone, besides those slaughtered in the provinces. 
 Pope Gregory XIII. ordered a Te Deum to be per- 
 formed, with other rejoicings. 
 
 BAETHOLOMEW, ST., a West Indian 
 island, held by Sweden. It was colonised by the 
 French in 1648 ; and has been several times taken 
 and restored by the British. It was ceded to Sweden 
 by France in 1785 ; captured by the English and 
 restored, 1801. 
 
 BAETHOLOMITES, a religious order ex- 
 pelled from Armenia, settled at Genoa 1307, where 
 is preserved in the Bartholomite church the image 
 which Christ is said to have sent to king Abgarus. 
 The order was suppressed by pope Innocent X. 
 i6qo. 
 
BARTON AQUEDUCT. 
 
 BATH. 
 
 BARTON AQUEDUCT (near Manchester) 
 
 was constructed bv James Brmdley, to carry the 
 Bridgwater canal over the Irwell, at a height of 
 39 feet above the river ; completed in 1761. 
 
 BASEL (Basle, French Bale), a rich city in 
 Switzerland. The iSth general council sat here 
 from Dec. 1431 to May, 1443. Many important 
 reforms in the church were proposed, but not 
 carried into effect : among others the union of the 
 Greek and Roman churches. The university was 
 founded in 1460. Treaties of peace between France, 
 Spain, and Prussia were concluded here in 1795. It 
 was made a free imperial city 1392, but joined the 
 Swiss confederation 1501. 
 
 BASHI-BAZOUKS, irregular Turkish troops, 
 partially employed in the Crimean war, 1854-6. 
 
 BASIENTELLO (S. Naples). Here the army 
 of Otho II., in an ambuscade, was nearly cut to 
 pieces by the Greeks and Saracens 13 July, 982 ; 
 the emperor barely escaped. 
 
 BASILIANS, an order of monks, which ob- 
 tained its name from St. Basil (who died 380) ; was 
 reformed by pope Gregory, in 1569. — A. sect, founded 
 by Basil, a" physician of Bulgaria, which rejected 
 the books of Moses, the eucharist, and baptism, and 
 are said to have had everything in common, 11 10. 
 Basil was burnt alive in 11 18. 
 
 BASILICA, a body of law, in Greek, in- 
 cluding the Institutes of Justinian, the Pandects, 
 &c, arranged by order of the emperor Basil the 
 Macedonian, and his son Leo the Philosopher, 
 875—911. The term basilica (a palace) was applied 
 to places of worship by the early Christian em- 
 perors. 
 
 BASILIKON DORON (Royal Gift), pre- 
 cepts on the art of government, composed by 
 James I. of England for his son Henry, and first 
 published at Edinburgh in 1599. The collected 
 works of this monarch were published at London, 
 1616-20, in one vol. fol. 
 
 BASQUE PROVINCES, N. W. Spain (Bis- 
 cay, Guipuecoa, and Alava). The Basques, con- 
 sidered to be descendants of the ancient Iberi, were 
 termed Yasconcs by the Romans, whom they suc- 
 cessfully resisted. They were subdued with great 
 difficulty by the Goths about 580, and were united 
 to Castile in the 13th and 14th centuries. Their 
 language is conjectured to be of Tartar origin. 
 
 BASQUE ROADS (W. France). Four French 
 6hips of the line, riding at anchor here, were 
 attacked by lords Gambier and Cochrane (the latter 
 commanding the fireships), and all, with a great 
 number of merchant and other vessels, were de- 
 stroyed, 11, 12 April, 1809. Cochrane accused 
 Gambier of neglecting to support him, and thereby 
 allowing the French to escape. At a court-martial, 
 26 July — 4 Aug., lord Gambier was acquitted. 
 
 BASSANO (N. Italy). Here the Austrians, 
 under Wurmser, were defeated by the French under 
 Massena, 8 Sept. 1796. 
 
 BASSETT, or BASSETTE, or Pour et Contrc, 
 a game at cards, said to have been invented by a 
 noble Venetian, in the 15th century ; introduced 
 into France, 1O74. 
 
 BASSETERRE-ROADS, St. Christopher's, 
 West Indies. Here the French admiral, the comte 
 
 attacks on the British fleet, commanded by sir 
 Thomas Graves, 25, 26 Jan. 1782. 
 
 BASSORAH, Bussorah, or Basrah (Asia 
 
 Minor), a Turkish city, founded by the caliph 
 Omar, about 635. It has been several times taken 
 and retaken by the Persians and Turks. 
 
 BASS ROCK, an isle in the Firth of Forth 
 (S. Scotland), was granted to the Lauders, 13 16 ; 
 purchased fur a state prison, 1(171 ; taken by the 
 Jacobites, 1690 ; surrendered, 1O94 ; granted to the 
 Dalrymples, 1706. 
 
 BASS'S STRAIT, Australia. Mr. Bass, 
 
 surgeon of the lUlkutcc, in an open boat from Port 
 Jackson, in 1796, penetrated as far as Western 
 Port, and affirmed that a strait existed between 
 New South Wales and Van Biemen's Land. Lieu- 
 tenant Flinders circumnavigated Van Diemen's 
 Land, and named the strait after Mr. Bass, 1799. 
 
 BASTARD, a child not born in lawful wedlock. 
 An attempt in England, in 1236, to legitimate bas- 
 tard children by the subsequent marriage of the 
 parents, failed. The barons assembled in the par- 
 liament of Merton answered : Nolumus leges Anglia 
 mutari ("We will not have the laws of England 
 changed.") Women concealing their children's 
 birth deemed guilty of murder, 21 James I., 1624. 
 In Scotland bastard children could not dispose of 
 their moveable estates by will until 1836. A new 
 act, facilitating the claims of mothers, and making 
 several provisions for proceeding in bastardy eases, 
 was passed 1845. The Bastard)- Laws Amendment 
 Act was passed 10 Aug. 1872. 
 
 BASTARNiE, a Avarlike tribe in Podolia and 
 Moldavia, hired by Perseus, king of Macedon, in 
 his wars with Rome, 168 B.C. They were driven 
 across the Danube by M. Crassus for their encroach- 
 ments, 30. 
 
 BASTILLE, Paris, a castle built by Charles 
 V., king of France, in 1369, for the defence of Paris 
 against the English ; completed in 13S3, and after- 
 wards used as a state prison. Henry IV. and his 
 veteran army assailed it in vain in the siege of 
 Paris, during the war (1587 — 1594)- u 'lhe man 
 with the iron mask," the most mysterious prisoner 
 known, died here, 19 Nov. 1703 ; see Iron Mush. On 
 14-15 July, 1789, the Bastille was pulled down 
 by the populace ; the governor and other officers 
 were conducted to the Place de Greve ; their hands 
 and heads were cut off, and the heads carried on 
 pikes through the streets. 
 
 BATALHA, Portugal. The monastery here 
 was built by John I., of Portugal, as a token of gra- 
 titude for his victory over John I. of Castile, at 
 Aljubarrota, 14 Aug. 1385, securing the inde- 
 pendence of his kingdom. The restoration of the 
 monastery began in 1839. 
 
 BATAYIA akd Bataviax Republic, see 
 Holland. 
 
 BATAYIA, the capital of Java, and of all the 
 Dutcli settlements in the Fast Indies, built by that 
 people about 1619. Taken from the French (who had 
 seized it) by sir Samuel Auchmuty, 26 Aug. 181 1 ; 
 restored to the Dutch in 1814. 
 
 BATH (Somerset), named "Aqua solis" by 
 the Romans about 44 A.D., then remarkable for its 
 
 de Grasse, was repulsed with loss in three desperate hot springs. Coel, a British king, is said to have 
 
BATH AND WELLS. 
 
 73 
 
 BATTLE- ABBEY. 
 
 given this city a charter, and the Saxon king Edgar 
 was crowned here, 973. 
 
 Bath plundered and burnt in the reign of 'William 
 
 Ruins, and again in 1137 
 
 The abbey church commenced in 1405 ; finished . 1609 
 
 Present assembly-rooms built . . . . 1771 
 
 Pump-room erected 1704 ; rebuilt . . . . 1797 
 
 Theatre, Beaufort-square, opened . . . . 1S05 
 
 Bath philosophical society formed .... 1817 
 
 Victoria park opened by Princess Victoria . . 1830 
 
 Theatre burnt 18 April, 1862 
 
 British association met here . . 14 Sept. 1864 
 
 Museum destroyed, by fire . . . 20 J an. 1867 
 
 BATH and WELLS Bishopric op. The 
 
 see of Wells, whose cathedral church was built by 
 Ina, king of the West Saxons, in 704, was estab- 
 lished in 905, Adeline first bishop. John de 
 Villula, bishop, transferred his seat from Wells to 
 Bath in 1091. Tanner. Disputes between the 
 monks of Bath and the canons of Wells about the 
 election of a bishop, were compromised in 1 135. 
 Henceforward the bishop was to be styled from both 
 places ; the precedency to be given to Bath. The 
 see is valued in the king's books at 53^- 1S - 3^- P er 
 annum. Present income, 5000^. 
 
 Recent Bishops. 
 1802. Richard Beadon, died . . .21 April, 1824 
 1824. George Henry Law, died . . 22 Sept. 1845 
 1845. Richard Bagot, died . . .5 May, 1854 
 
 1854. Robert John, baron Auckland resigned 6 Sept. 1869 
 1869. Lord Arthur Charles Hervey, elected 10 Nov. 1S69 
 
 BATH ADMINISTBATION- Mr. Pelham 
 and his friends having tendered then- resignation to 
 king George II., 10 Feb. 1746, the formation of a 
 new ministry was undertaken by William Pulteney, 
 earl of Bath. This expired on 12 Peb., while yet 
 incomplete, and received the name of the " Short- 
 lived" administration. The members of it were : 
 the earl of Bath, first lord of the treasury ; lord 
 Carlisle, lord privy seal; lord Winchelsea, first lord 
 <i[f the admiralty ; and lord Granville, one of the 
 secretaries of state, with the seals of the other 
 in his pocket, "to be given to whom he might 
 choose." Mr. Pelham and his colleagues returned 
 to power. 
 
 BATH, ORDER OF THE, said to be of early 
 origin, but formally constituted II Oct., 1399, by 
 Henry IV., two days previous to his coronation in 
 the Tower ; when he conferred the order upon 
 forty-six esquires, who had watched the night 
 before, and bathed. After the coronation of Charles 
 II. the order was neglected until 18 May, 1725, 
 when it was revived by George I., who fixed the 
 number of knights at 37. 
 
 The prince regent (afterwards George IV.) created 
 classes of knights grand crosses (72), knights com- 
 manders (180), with an unlimited number of com- 
 panions 2 Jan. 1815 
 
 By an order, the existing statutes of this order 
 were annulled ; and by new statutes, the order, 
 hitherto exclusively military, was opened to 
 civilians 25 May, 1847 
 
 Dr. Lyon Playfair and other promoters of the Great 
 Exhibition received this honour . . . 1851 
 
 Constitution. Military. Civil. 
 
 1st Class. Knights grand cross, 50 25 
 
 2nd Class. Knights commanders, 100 50 
 
 3rd Class. Conrpanions, 525 200 
 
 BATHS were early used in Asia and Greece, 
 and introduced by Agrippa into Bome, where many 
 were constructed by Augustus and his successors. 
 The thermaB of the Bomans and gymnasia of the 
 Greeks (of which baths formed merely an appendage) 
 were sumptuous. The marble group of Laocoon 
 
 was found in 1506 in the baths of Titus, erected 
 about 80, and the Farnese Hercules in those of 
 Caracalla, erected, 211. 
 
 In London, St. Agnes Le Clere, in Old -street-road, 
 was a spring of great antiquity ; baths said to 
 have been formed in 1502. 
 
 St. Chad's-well, Gray's-in-road, derives its name 
 from St. Chad, the tifth bishop of Lichfield 667. 
 
 A bath opened in Bagnio-court, now Bath-street, 
 Newgate-street, London, is said to have been the 
 first bath in England for hot bathing . . 1679 
 
 Old Bath-house, C'oldbath-square, in use . . . 1697 
 
 Peerless (Perilous) Pool, Baldwin-street, City-road, 
 mentioned by Stow (died 1605) ; enclosed as a 
 bathing place 1743 
 
 Turkish sweating baths became popular . . . i860 
 
 The Oriental baths in Victoria-street, Westminster, 
 completed 1862 
 
 PUBLIC BATHS AND WASH-HOUSES. 
 
 The first established by Mr. Bowie in the neighbour- 
 hood of the London docks 1844 
 
 The public baths and wash-houses in Liverpool 
 founded (through the instrumentality of Catherine 
 Wilkinson, who in 1832 began to lend her room 
 and appliances to poor people for washing) . . 1844 
 
 Acts passed to encourage the establishment of public 
 baths and wash-houses, "for the health, comfort, 
 and welfare of the inhabitants of populous towns 
 and districts," in England and Ireland . . . 1846 
 
 537,345 bathers availed themselves of the baths in 
 London, and in this period there were 85,260 
 ■w ashers in the quarter ending . . . Sept. 1854 
 
 Public baths and wash-houses have since been estab- 
 lished throughout the empire. 
 
 BATON, a truncheon borne by generals in the 
 French army, and afterwards by the marshals of 
 other nations. Henry III. of Prance, before he 
 ascended the throne, was made generalissimo of the 
 army of his brother Charles IX., and received the 
 baton as the mark of the high command, 1569. 
 Henault. 
 
 BATON BOUGIE, Louisiana, United States, 
 was captured by the Federals, 5 Aug. 1862, after a 
 fierce conflict ; see United States, 1862. 
 
 BATTEBIES along the coasts were constructed 
 by Henry VIII. (who reigned 1509-47). The ten 
 floating batteries with which Gibraltar was attacked, 
 in the siege of that fortress, were invented by 
 D'Arcon, a French engineer. They resisted the 
 heavy shells and 32-pound shot, but ultimately 
 yielded to red-hot shot, 13 Sept. 1782; see 
 Gibraltar. Formidable floating batteries are now 
 erected. See Navy. 
 
 BATTEBING-BAM, Testudo Arietaria, with 
 other military implements, are said to have been 
 invented by Artemon, a Lacedaemonian, and em- 
 ployed by Pericles, about 441 b. c. Sir Christopher 
 Wren employed a battering-ram in demolishing the 
 walls of old St. Paul's cathedral, 1675. 
 
 BATTEESEA PAEK; an act of parliament 
 passed in 1846, empowered her majesty's com- 
 missioners of woods to form a royal park in Battersea- 
 fields. Acts to enlarge their powers were passed 
 in 1848, 1851, and 1853. The park and the new 
 bridge connecting it with Chelsea were opened in 
 April, 1858. 
 
 BATTLE- ABBEY, Sussex, founded by 
 William I., 1067, on the plain where the battle of 
 Hastings was fought, 14 Oct. 1066. It was dedica- 
 ted to St. Martin, and given to Benedictine monks, 
 who were to pray for the souls of the slain. The 
 original name of the plain was Hetheland; see 
 Hastings. After the battle of Hastings, a list was 
 taken of William's chiefs, amounting to 629, and 
 
BATTLE. 
 
 74 
 
 BATTLES. 
 
 called the Battel-roll ; and among these chiefs 
 the lands and titles of the followers of the defeated 
 Harold were distributed. 
 
 BATTLE, "WAGER OF, a trial by combat 
 formerly allowed by our laws, where the defendant 
 in an appeal of murder might fight with the 
 appellant, and make proof thereby of his guilt or 
 innocence ; sec Appeal. 
 
 BATTLE-AXE, a weapon of the Celts. The 
 Irish were constantly armed with an axe. Bunts. 
 At the battle of Baiiiiockbum king Robert Bruce 
 clove an English champion down to the chine at 
 one blow with a battle-axe, 13 14. The battle-axe 
 guards, or beaufetiers, vulgarly called beef-eaters, 
 and whose arms are a sword and lance, were first 
 raised by Henry VII. in 1485. They were originally 
 attendants upon the king's buffet; see Yeoman of 
 the Guard. 
 
 BATTLEFIELD, Battle of, see Shrews- 
 bury. 
 
 BATTLES. Palamedes of Argos is said to 
 have been the first who ranged an army in a regular 
 line of battle, placed sentinels round a camp, and 
 excited the soldier's vigilance by giving him a watch- 
 word. See Naval Battles, British. The following 
 are the most memorable battles, arranged in chrono- 
 logical order; further details of the greater part 
 are given in separate articles ; n. signifies naval. 
 
 The following are the battles described by Professor 
 Creasy in his " Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World": — 
 
 
 B.C. 
 
 
 A.D. 
 
 Marathon . 
 
 . 490 
 
 Hastings . 14 Oct. 
 
 1066 
 
 Syracuse 
 
 • • 413 
 
 Orleans . 29 April, 
 
 I4 2 9 
 
 Ai'bela 
 
 i Oct. 331 
 
 Spanish Armada July 
 
 isS8 
 
 Metauras 
 
 207 
 
 Blenheim . 13 Aug. 
 
 1704 
 
 
 A.D. 
 
 Pultowa . 8 July 
 
 170Q 
 
 Teutoburg 
 
 9 
 
 Saratoga . 17 Oct. 
 
 1777 
 
 Chalons . 
 
 • • 451 
 
 Valmy . 20 Sept. 
 
 1792 
 
 Tours 
 
 to Oct. 732 
 
 Waterloo . 18 June 
 
 1815 
 
 BEFORE CHRIST. 
 
 Abraham defeats kings of Canaan (Gen xiv.) . . 1913 
 Joshua subdues live kings of Canaan (Josh, x.) . 1451 
 Gideon defeats the Midianites (Judges vii.) . . 1245 
 
 Trojan war commenced 1193 
 
 Troy taken and destroyed 1184 
 
 Jephthah defeats Ammonites 1143 
 
 Ethiopians defeated by Asa (2 Chron. xiv.) . . 941 
 Horatii vanquish Curiatii .... . 669 
 
 Halys (Medea and Lydiana stopped by eclipse) 584 or 585 
 
 Thymbra (Cyrus defends Crecsus) 548 
 
 Lake Regillus (Romans defeat Latins) . . . 499 
 Marathon (Greeks defeat Persians) 28 or 29 Sept. 490 
 Thermopylae (heroism ofLeonidas) . 7-9 Aug. 4S0 
 Salamis n. (Greeks defeat Persians) . . 20 Oct. ,, 
 Himera (Geum defeats Carthaginians) . . . 480 
 Mycale (Greeks defeat Persians) . . 22 .-'opt. 479 
 Platsea (ditto : Pausanias) . . . 22 Sept. ,, 
 
 Eurymedon n. (ditto : Ciinon) 466 
 
 Tanagra (Spartans defeat Athenians) . . . . 437 
 CEaophyia. (Athenians defeat Bcnot ians). . . . 456 
 Coronea (Boeotians defeat Athenians). . . . 447 
 
 Romans totally defeat Veientes 437 
 
 Tanagra (Athenians defeat Sparta us). . . . 426 
 Deli um (JJiCutiaus defeat Atlteu inns) . . . . 424 
 
 Amphlpolis (Spartam repulse Athenians: Clean and 
 
 Brasidas killed) 422 
 
 Mantinea (Spartans defeat Athenians) . . . . 418 
 Athenians defeated before Syracuse .... 413 
 Cyzicus it. (Aloibiades defeats Spartans) . . . 410 
 Arginusae n. (Conon defeats Spartan, fleet) . . . 406 
 JSgospotamos m. (Athenian fleet destroyed) . . . 405 
 Cunaxa (Cyrus defeated and I. itted by Artaxerxes) . 401 
 
 Corinthian War 395-387 
 
 Haliaitus (Lysander hilled) 395 
 
 Gmdua n. (Coiwn defeats Spartans) . . . . 394 
 Coronea (Argesilaus defeats Athen Urns and allies) . ,, 
 Allia (Brennus and the Gauls defeat Romans) 16 July 390 
 Volsci defeated by Camillus 381 
 
 teat the Romans 379 
 
 Naxus (Chabrias defeats Lacedaemonians) . 376 or 377 
 Tegyra (Thebans defeat Spartans) .... 375 
 
 Leuctra (Thebans defeat Spartans) 371 
 
 "Tearless Victory" of Archidamus over Argives, 
 
 (fee 
 
 Camillus defeats the Gauls ... . . 
 
 Cynoscephalee (Thebans defeat Thessalians) 
 Mantinea (Thebans victors: Epam <<) . . 
 
 Tainyuii' (Mschi/nes there) 
 
 Crimisus (Timoleon defeats ( *) . ■ ■ 
 
 Chaaronea (Philip defeats At ). . Aug. 
 
 Thebes destroyed by Alexander 
 
 Granicus (Alexander defeats Darius) . 22 May, 
 
 Issus (ditto) Oct. 
 
 Albela (Alexander defeats Darius) . . I Oct 
 
 Pandosia (Alexander ofEpii Med) . 
 
 CTaa.on.(Antipater defeats Creels) .... 
 Caudine Forks (Soman army captured). . . . 
 Gaza. (Ptolemy defeats Demetrius) .... 
 Ecnomusor Himera (Cartho atAgatliocles) 
 
 Fabius defeats the Tuscans 
 
 Vadimonian Lake .(/■■■ feated) . . . . 
 
 Ipsus (Seleucus defeats Antigonus, who is slain) 
 Sentinxun. (Romans defeat Samnites) . . . . 
 Gauls defeat Romans at Arretium, 284 ; defeated by 
 
 Dolabella 
 
 Vadimonian Lake (Etruscans defeated) . . . . 
 
 Corus (Lysimaeh iis defeated a nd hilled). 
 
 Pandosia (Pyrrhus defeats Ramans) . . . ■ 
 
 Asculum (ditto) 
 
 Beneventum (Romans defeat Pyrrhus) . . . . 
 
 First runic War begins 
 
 MyUe n. (Romans defeat Carthaginians) . . . 
 
 Xantippos defeats Kegulus 
 
 Panormus (Asdrubal defeated by Metellus) . . . 
 Drepanum «. (Carthotji nia us defeat Romans) . 
 
 Lilybaeum taken by Romans 
 
 jEgates n. (Romans defeat Carthaginians). 
 
 Ladocea (Achceans defeated) 
 
 Clusium or Pisse (Cauls defeated) .... 
 Sellasia (Macedonians defeat Spartans) . . . 1 
 
 Oaphya- (Achnu us di [nil • .Etolians) . . . . 
 
 Sagontum (taken by Hannibat) 
 
 Second Punic War. — Ticinus (Hannibal defeats 
 
 I'oul'ius 
 
 Ticinus and Trebia (ditto) ... . . 
 
 Thrasyniene (ditto) 
 
 Raphia (Autiuch us defeated hi/ Ptol. l'lulopater. 
 Cannse (Victory of Hannibal) . . . 2 Aug. 
 Munda (Scipio defeats Hasdrubal) .... 
 Marcellus and Hannibal (former hilled) . . . 
 Metauras (Nero defeats Hasdrubal, who is hilled) 
 
 Z:un;i (Scipio defeats Jlanuibal) 
 
 Abydos (siege of) 
 
 Paneas (Antiochus defeats J'jvrptians, ,0.) . . . 
 Cynoscephalse (Romans defeats Macedonians) . 
 Boii defeated at the Vadimonian lake . . . . 
 
 Thermopyk* (Greeks defeated) 
 
 Magnesia (Scipio defeats Antiochus) . . . . 
 Pydna (Romans defeat Perseus) . . . 22 June, 
 
 Eleasa (Judas MaCCabOBUS hilled) 
 
 Third Punic War 
 
 Leueopetra (Mwmmius defeats Achaians) . . . 
 Carthage taken by Publius Scipio .... 
 
 MummhlS takes Corinth 
 
 Allobroges defeated by Q. Fabius Maximus. . 
 
 Metellus defeats Jugurtha 
 
 Arausici (Ci/mbri defeat Romans) .... 
 Aquae Seziaae (Aix ; Marina defeats the Teutoncs) . . 
 Ciinbii and Romans (defeated by Marius) . 
 Cheeronea (SyUa defeats MUhridates' army) . . . 
 Sacriportus (Marius defeated by Sylla) 
 
 Cabeiia (Lueullus defeats MUhridates) . . . . 
 
 Petelia (Spartacus defeated by Crassus) 
 
 Tigranoeel'ta (Lueullus defeats T'ajraues) . . . 
 
 Pistoria (Catiline defeated) 
 
 Csesar defeats Cassivelaunus in Britain . . . 
 Carrhae (Crassus defeated by Parthians) . 9 June, 
 Pharsalia (Cxsar defeats Pompey) . . . 9 Aug. 
 Zela (Caesar defeats Pharnaces; writes, "Veni, vidi, 
 
 viei ") 
 
 Tliapsus (Gcesar defeats Pompey' s friends) . . . 
 
 Munda (ditto) 17 March, 
 
 Mutina (Hirtius defeats Antony) . . 27 April, 
 Philippi (llrutusauil Cassi us defeated) 
 Mylse, a. (Agrippa defeats Pompey the Younger) . . 
 Actium n. (Oetaoivs defeats Antony) . . 2 Sept. 
 
 367 
 
 364 
 362 
 358 
 339 
 338 
 335 
 334 
 333 
 33i 
 326 
 322 
 321 
 312 
 311 
 310 
 309 
 301 
 295 
 
 283 
 283 
 
 279 
 275. 
 264 
 260 
 255 
 250 
 
 249 
 241 
 241 
 226 
 225 
 221 
 220 
 219 
 
 218 
 
 217 
 
 216 
 
 209 
 207 
 202 
 200 
 198 
 J 97 
 191 
 191 
 190 
 168 
 161 
 149 
 147 
 146 
 
 121 
 109 
 105 
 102 
 101 
 86 
 82 
 71 
 
 69 
 62 
 54 
 53 
 
 47 
 46 
 45 
 43 
 42 
 36 
 3i 
 
BATTLES. 
 
 75 
 
 BATTLES. 
 
 Teutoburg (Varus defeated by Herman) 
 
 Shropshire (Caractacvs taken) . 
 
 Sunbury (Romans defeat Boadicea) 
 
 Jerusalem taken by Titus .... 
 
 Agrioola conquers Mona or Anglesea . ■ . 
 
 Ardoch (he defeats Galgacus and Caledonians) 
 
 Dacians defeated and Decebalus slain . . . . 106 
 
 Issus (Niger slain) . 194 
 
 Lyons (Severus defeats Albinus) 197 
 
 Naissus (Claudius defeats Goths, many slain) 
 
 Verona (emperor Philip defeated and killed) . . . 249 
 
 Decius defeated and slain by Goths .... 251 
 
 Valerian defeated and captured by Sapor . . . 260 
 
 Chalons (Amebian victor over rivals) .... 274 
 
 Alectus defeated in Britain . 
 
 Constantine def. Maxentius (see Cross) . 27 Oct. 
 
 Adrianople (Constantine defeats Licinius) . 3 July, 323 
 
 Aquileia (Constantine II. slain). . . March, 340 
 
 Julian defeats Alemanni 356, 357 
 
 Thyatira and Nacolea (Procopius defeated). 
 
 Argeutaria (Gratian defeats Alemanni) . May, 378 
 
 Adrianople (Gauls defeat Valens) . 9 Aug. 378 
 
 Aquileia (Maximus slain) . . . .28 July, 388 
 
 Aquileia (Eugenius slain) .... 6 Sept. 394 
 
 Pollentia (Stilicho defeats Alaric) . . .29 Mar. 403 
 
 Rome taken by Alaric .... 24 Ang. 410 
 
 Ravenna taken by Aspar 425 
 
 Pranks defeated by Aetius 428 
 
 Genseric takes Carthage 439 
 
 Chalons-sur-Marne (Attila defeated by Aetius) . . 451 
 
 Aylesford (Britons defeat Saxons ; Horsa killed) . . 455 
 
 Crayford, Kent (Hengist defeats Britons) . . . 457 
 
 Soissons (Clovis defeats Syagrius and Romans) . . 486 
 
 Verona (Theodoric defeats Udoaeer) . 27 Sept. 489 
 
 Tolbiach or Zulpich (Clovis defeats Alemanni) . . 496 
 
 Vougle (Clovis defeats Visigoths) 507 
 
 Baddesdown hill (Britons defeat Saxons) . ? 493, 511 
 
 Veseronce (Gondemar 'defeats Clodomir) . . . 524 
 Victories of Belisarius in Africa, &c. . . . 533-4 
 
 Narses defeats Totila, 552 ; and Teiaa . . . 553 
 
 Heraclius defeats the Persians (Chosroes) . . . 622 
 
 Beder (first victory of Mahomet). .... 623 
 
 Muta (Mahometans defeat Christians) , . . . 629 
 
 Hatfield (Heathneld ; Penda defeats Ediuin) . . 633 
 
 Ajnadin (Saracens defeat Heraclius) . 13 July, 633 
 
 Yerrnuk (Saracens victors) ... 23 Aug. 634 
 
 Yermuk (Saracens defeat Heraclius) . . Nov. 636 
 
 Saracens subdue Syria 636-8 
 
 Kadseah (Arabs defeat Persians) 638 
 
 Saracens take Alexandria 640 
 
 Near Oswestry (Penda defeats Oswald of Northum- 
 berland) 5 Aug. 642 
 
 Leeds (Osioy defeats Penda, ivho is slain) . . . 655 
 
 Day of the Camel (Ali victor) . . . 4 Nov. 656 
 
 Saracens defeated by Wamba, in Spain . . . 675 
 
 Testri (Pepin defeats Thierry) 687 
 
 Xeres (Saracens defeat Roderic) . 19-26 July, 711 
 Amblef and Vincy (Chas. Martel def. Neustrians) 716-17 
 
 Tours (Charles Martel defeats the Saracens) 10 Oct. 732 
 
 Victories of Charlemagne 775-800 
 
 Roncesvalles (deai/i of Roland) 778 
 
 Clavijo (Moors defeated) 
 
 Albaida (Musa and Moors defeated) .... 852 
 
 Hafsfiord (Harold Hdrfager's final victory) . . . 872 
 
 83S 
 
 Hengestdown (Danes defeated by Egbert) . 
 Charmouth (Ethelwolf defeated by the Danes) 
 Danes defeat King Edmund of East Anglia 
 Assendon or Ashdown (Danes defeated) 
 Basing and Merton (Danes victorious) 
 Wilton (Danes victorious over Alfred) . 
 Andernach (Charles the Bald defeated) . 8 Oct. 
 Ethandun (Alfred defeats Danes) . 
 
 Parnham (Danes defeated) 
 
 Zamora (Alfonso defeats Moors) .... 
 Bury (Edward defeats Ethelwald and Danes) 
 Tettenhall (Danes defeated) ... 6 Aug, 
 
 Soissons (king Robert, victor, killed) 
 Merseburg (Germans defeat Hungarians) . 
 Brunanburg (Northmen defeated) .... 
 Simincas (Spaniards defeat Moors) . . 6 Au, 
 Nicephorus Phocas defeats Saracens . 
 Basientello (Otho II. defeated by Greeks) . 13 July, 
 
 870 
 871 
 
 872 
 876 
 
 901 
 9°5 
 910 
 
 923 
 
 934 
 937 
 938 
 962 
 
 Clontarf (Danes defeated in Ireland) . 23 April, 1014 
 Zetunium (Bulgarians defeated) . . 29 July, 1014 
 Brentford (Edmund defeats Danes) . . . May, 1016 
 
 Assingdon, Ashdon (Canute defeats Edmund) . . 1016 
 Sticklestadt (Olaf defeated by Swedes) . 29 July, 1030 
 Civitella (Normans defeat Leo IX.) . . . . 1053 
 
 Dunsinane (Maclietli defeated) 1054 
 
 Fulford (Norwegians defeat English) . 20 Sept. 1066 
 Stanford Bridge (Harold defeats Tostig) . 25 Sept. 1066 
 Hastings (William I. defeats Harold) . . 14 Oct. ,, 
 Fladenheim (emperor Henry defeated) . . . 1080 
 Alnwick (Scots defeated, Malcolm slain) 13 Nov. 1093 
 
 Crusades commence 1096 
 
 Dorylseum (Crusaders defeat Turks) . . 1 July, 1097 
 Ascalon (Crusaders victorious) . . 12 Aug. 1099, 
 
 Tinchebray (Robert of Normandy defeated) . . . 1106 
 Brenneville (Henry I. defeated French) . .Aug. 11 19 
 Fraga (Moors defeat Spaniards) . . 17 July, 1134 
 Northallerton, or Battle of the Standard (David I. 
 
 and Scots defeated) 22 Aug. 1138 
 
 Ourique (Portuguese defeat Moors) . . 25 July, 1130, 
 Lincoln (Stephen defeated) ... 2 Feb. 1141 
 Jaen (Moors defeated by Spaniards) .... 1157 
 Carcano (Frederic I. defeated by Italians) 9 Aug. 1160 
 Alnwick (William the Lion defeated) . . 12 July, 1174 
 Legnano (Italians defeat emperor) . . 29 May, 1176 
 Tiberias (Saladin defeats Crusaders) . 3, 4 July, 1187 
 Ascoli (Taucred' defeats emperor Henry VI.'s army) . 1190. 
 Acre taken by Crusaders . . . . 12 July, 1191 
 Arsouf (Richard I. defeats Saracens) . . 6 Sept. ,, 
 Freteville (Richard I. defeats Philip II.). 15 July, 1194 
 Arcadiopolis (Bulgarians defeat emperor Isaac) . „ 
 Alarcos (Moors defeat Spaniards) . . .19 July, 1195 
 Gisors (Richard I. defeats French) . . 20 Sept. 1 198 
 
 Tolosa (Moors defeated) 16 July, 1212 
 
 Muret (Albigenses defeated) ... 12 Sept. 1213 
 Bouvines (French defeat Germans) . . 27 July, 1214 
 Lincoln (French defeated) . . ■■■'.- 20 May, 1217 
 Corte Nuova (Frederick II. defeats Milanese) 27 Nov. 1237 
 Taillebourg (French defeat Henry III.) . 20 July, 1242 
 
 Carizmians defeated twice 1247 
 
 Fossalta (Ghibelines defeated) ... 26 May, 1249 
 Mansourah (Louis IX. and Crusaders defeated). . 1250 
 Largs (Scots defeat Northmen) ... 3 Oct. 1263 
 Lewes (English barons victorious) . . 14 May, 1264 
 Evesham (Barons defeated; De Montfort killed) 
 
 4 Aug. 1265 
 Benevento (Chas. of Anjou defeats Manfred) 26 Feb. 1266 
 Tagliacozzo (Charles defeats Conradin) . 23 Aug. 1268 
 Marchfeld (Austrians defeat Bohemians) . 26 Aug. 1278 
 Llandewyer (Llewellyn of Wales defeated) . 11 Dec. 1282 
 Zagrab (defeat of Charles Martel) .... 1292 
 Dunbar (king of Scots defeated and taken) 27 April, 1296 
 Cambuskenneth (Wallace defeats English) 10 Sept. 1297 
 Goelheim (Adolphus of Nassau defeated) . 2 July, 1298 
 Falkirk (Wallace defeated) . . . 22 July, ,, 
 Courtray (Flemings defeat count of Artois) 11 July, 1302 
 Roslin, Scotland (Comyn defeats English) 24 Feb. 1303 
 Cephisus (Brienne, duke of Athens defeated) March, 1311 
 Bannockburn (Bruce defeats English) . 24 June, 1314 
 Morgarten (Swiss defeat Austrians) . . 15 Nov. 1315 
 Athenry (Irish defeated) . . . .10 Aug. 1316 
 Foughard or Dundalk (Ed. Bruce defeated) 5 Oct. 1318 
 Boroughbridge (Edward III. defts. Barons) 16 Mar. 1322 
 Miihldorf (Bavarians defeat Austrians) . 28 Sept. „ 
 Duplin (Edward Baliol defeats Mar) . 11 Aug. 1332 
 Halidon Hill (Edward III. defts. Scots) . 19 July, 1333 
 Tarifa (Moors defeated) .' . . . 28 or 30 Oct. 1340 
 Auberoche (eccrl of Derby defeats French). 19 Aug. 1344 
 Crecy (English defeat French) . . .26 Aug. 1346 
 Durham, Nevil's Cross (Scots defeated) . 17 Oct. ,, 
 La Roche Darien (Charles ofBlois defeated) . . 1347 
 Poitiers (English defeat French) . . 19 Sept. 1356 
 Cocherel (Du Guesclin defeats Navarre) . 16 May, 1364 
 Auray (Du Guescl in defeated). . . 29 Sept. „ 
 Najara (Navarrete, Logrono) (Black Prince defeats 
 
 Henry of Trastamare) .... 3 April, 1367 
 Montiel (Peter of Castile defeated) . 14 March, 1369 
 Rosbecque (French defeat Flemings) . 27 Nov. 1382 
 Al.jubarrota (Portuguese defeat Spaniards) . 14 Aug. 1385 
 Se'mpach (Swiss defeat Austrians) . . 9 July, 1386 
 Otterburn (Chevy Clmse; Scots victors).. . 10 Aug. 1388 
 Nafels (Swiss defeat Austrians) .... „ 
 
 Cossova (Turks defeat Albanians, and Amurath. I. 
 
 killed) Sept. 1389 
 
 Nieopolis (Turks defeat Christians) . . 28 Sept. 1396 
 
 Nesbit (Scots defeated) 7 May, 1402 
 
 Ancyra (Timour defeats Bajazet) . . 28 July, „ 
 Homeldon Hill (English defeat Scots) . 14 Sept. „ 
 
 Shrewsbury (Percies, &c. defeated) . . 23 July, 1403 
 Bramham moor (Henry IV. defeats rebels) . 19 Feb. 1408 
 
BATTLES. 
 
 76 
 
 BATTLES. 
 
 Tannenberg (Poles defeat Teuton knights). 15 July, 1410 
 Harlaw (Lord of the Isles defeated) . .24 July, 1411 
 Agincouxt (English defeat French) . . 25 Oct. 1415 
 Prague (Hussites under Zisko victors) . .14 July, 1420 
 Anjou, Beauge (English deft, by Scots) . 22 March, 1421 
 Crevant (English deft. French and Scots) . n June, 1423 
 Aquila (Arragonese defeated by Italians) . 2 June, 1424 
 Verneuil (English defeat French and Scots) . 17 Aug. ,, 
 Herrings (English defeat French). . . xa Feb. 1429 
 Orleans (siege relieved) .... 29 April, ,, 
 Patay (English defeated by Joan of Arc) 18 June, „ 
 Lippau, or Bdhmischbrod (Hussites deftd.) 28 May, 1434 
 Kunohitza (Hunniealcs defeats the Turks) 24 Dec. 1443 
 St. Jacob (French defeat Smiss) . . 26 Aug. 1444 
 
 Varna (Turks defeat Hungarians) . . 10 Nov. 
 
 CoSSOVa (Tu W.'x defeat '■ Hu unhides) ■ . 17 Oct. 1448 
 
 Forniigni (English defeated by French) . 15 April, 1450 
 Sevenoaks (Jack Cade defeats Stafford) . 27 June, ,, 
 
 Aibar (Agra monts defeat Ilea 11 uanils) . . 23 Oct. 1452 
 
 Brechin, Scotland (Huntley defts. Crawford) 18 May, ,, 
 Castillon, Chatillon (French defeat Talbot) 
 
 17 or 23 July, 1453 
 
 WAR OF THE ROSES — YORKISTS AND LANCASTRIANS. 
 
 St. Alban's (Yorkists victorious) . . 22 or 23 May, 1455 
 
 Belgrade (Mahomet II. repulsed) . . 4 Sept. 1456 
 
 Bloreheath (Yorkists victors) . . . 23 Sept. 1459 
 
 Northampton (ditto, Henry VI. taken) . 10 July, 1460 
 AVakefield (Lancastrians victors) . . . 31 Dec. 
 
 Mortimer's Cross (Yorkists victorious) . . 2 Feb. 1461 
 
 St. Alban's (Lancastrians victors) . . 17 Feb. ,, 
 
 Towton (Yorkists victorious) . . 29 March, ,, 
 
 Hexham (Yorkists victors) .... 15 May, 1464 
 
 Montlhery (Louis XI. and nobles; indee.) 16 July, 1465 
 
 Edgecote or Banbury (Edward I V. victor) 26 July, 1469 
 
 Stamford (Lancastrians defeated) . . 13 March, 1470 
 
 Barnet (ditto) 14 April, 1471 
 
 Tewkesbury (ditto) 4 May, ,, 
 
 Granson (Siviss defeat Charles the Bold) 
 
 Morat (ditto) 
 
 Nancy (Charles the Bold killed) 
 Bosworth (Richard III. defeated) 
 Stoke (Lambert Simnel taken) 
 St. Aubin (Orleans defeated) 
 
 3 March, 
 22 June, 
 . 5 Jan. 
 22 Aug. 
 16 June, 
 28 July, 
 
 1476 
 
 1477 
 1485 
 1487 
 
 Sauchieburn, near Bannockbum (James III. deftd. 
 
 by rebels) „ 
 
 Fornovo (French defeat Italians) . . 6 July, 1495 
 Seminara (French defeat Spaniards) . . . . ,, 
 
 Blackheath (Cornish rebels defeated) . . 22 June, 1497 
 Seminara (Gonsalvo defeats French) . 21 April, 1503 
 Cerignola (Gonsalvo defeats French) . . 38 April, „ 
 Garigliano (Gonsalvo defeats French) . . 27 Dec. ,, 
 Agnadello (French defeat Venetians) . 14 May, 1509 
 
 Ravenna (Gaston de Fair, victor, killed) 11 April, 1512 
 Novara (Papal Swiss defeat French) . .6 June, 1513 
 Guinegate (Spurs) (French defeated) . . 16 Aug. ,, 
 Flodden (English defeat Scots) . . . 9 Sept. 
 Marignano (French defeat Swiss) . 13-15 Sept. 
 Bicocca, near Milan (Lautrec defeated) . 29 April, 
 Pavia (Francis I. defeated). . . .24 Feb. 
 
 Frankenhausen (Anabajitists defeated) . 15 May, 
 Mohacz (Turks defeat Hungarians) . . 29 Aug. 
 Cappel (Zwinglius slain) . . . . u Oct. 
 
 Assens (Christian III. defeats Danish rebels) 
 Lauffen (Hessians defeat Austrians) . . 13 May, 
 Abancay (Almagro defeated Alvavado) . 12 July, 
 Solway Moss (English defeat Scots) . . 25 Nov. 
 Ceresuola (French defeat Imperialists) . 14 April, 
 Muhlberg (Chas. V. defeats Protestants) . 24 April, 
 Pinkey (English defeat Scots) . . . 10 Sept. 
 Ket's rebellion suppressed by Warwick . Aug. 
 Marciano (Florentines defeat French) . . 3 Aug. 
 St. Quentin (Span. & Eug. deft. French) . 10 Aug. 
 Calais (taken) . . . . . . .7 Jan. 
 
 Gravelines n. (Span. & Eng. deft. French). 13 July, 
 Dreux, in France (Huguenots defeated) . 19 Dec. 
 
 St. Denis (ditto) 10 Nov. 
 
 Carberry Hill (Mary of Scotland defeated) 15 June, 
 
 Langside (ditto) 13 May, 
 
 Jarnac (Huguenots defeated) . . 13 March, 
 Moncontour (Coligny defeated) . . . 3 Oct. 
 Lepanto, n. (Don John defeats Turks) . 7 Oct. 
 Dormans (Guise defeats Huguenots) . . 10 Oct. 
 Alcazar-quiver (Moors defeat Portuguese) . 4 Aug. 
 Alcantara (Spaniards defeat Portuguese) ■ 24 June, 
 Zutphen (Dutch dt English def. Spaniards), 22 Sept. 
 Coutras (Hewry I V. defeats League) . . 20 Oct. 
 Spanish Armada defeated, n. . . July, Aug. 
 
 1515 
 1522 
 1525 
 
 1526 
 1531 
 
 1535 
 1534 
 1537 
 1542 
 1544 
 1547 
 
 1549 
 1554 
 
 J 557 
 1558 
 
 1562 
 IS07 
 
 1569 
 
 1371 
 1575 
 1578 
 i=;So 
 15S6 
 1587 
 
 Arques (Henry IV. deft . 21 Sept. 1589 
 
 Ivry or Yvres (ditto) .... 14 March, 1590 
 
 Epernay taken by Henry IV. of France . 26 July, 1592 
 Fontaine Frangaise (Henry II'. beats Spaniards) 
 
 5 June, 1595 
 
 Blackwater (Tyrone and rebels def. Bagnal), 14 Aug. 1598 
 
 Nieuport (Maurice defeats Austrians) . . . . 1600 
 
 Kiasale (Tyrone reduced by Mountjoy) . . . 1601 
 
 Kirchholiu (I'nles defeat Swedes) 1605 
 
 Gibraltar (Dutch defeat Spaniards) .... 1607 
 
 Prague (kimg of Bohemia defeated). . . 8 Nov. 1620 
 
 Dessau (Wallenstevn defeats Mansfeld) . 25 April, 1626 
 
 Rochelle (taken) 28 Oct. 1628 
 
 Stuhm (Gusta ens defeats Poles) ,, 
 
 Leipsic or Breitenfeld (Gustavus def. Tilly), 7 Sept. 1631 
 
 Lech (Imperialists defeated ; Tilly killed) 5 April, 1632 
 Lippstadt, Lutzingen, or Lutzen (Swedt 
 
 Gustavus slain) .... (n.s.) 16 Nov. .. 
 
 Nordlingen (Swedes defeated) . . . 27 Aug. 1634 
 
 Arras (taken by the French) . . . 10 Aug. 1640 
 
 Leipsic (Swedes defeat Austrians) . . 23 Oct. 1642 
 
 Eocroy (French defeat Spaniards) . . 19 May, 1643 
 
 Friedburg (Condi victor) .... 3-5 Aug. 1644 
 
 Nordlingen (Turenne defeats Austrians) . . . 1645 
 
 CIVIL WAR IN ENGLAND. 
 
 JVorcester (prince Rupert victor), . . 23 Sept. 
 Edgehill fight (issue doubtful) . . 23 Oct. 
 Bradock-down (Parliamentarians defeated) . Jan. 
 Bramham Moor (Fairfiu deputed) . 29 March, 
 Stratton (Royalists victorious) . . 16 May, 
 Chalgrove (Hampden kitted) . . . 18 June, 
 Atherton Moor (Royalists victorious) . 30 June, 
 Landsdown (Royalists victorious) . . 5 July, 
 Devizes or Koundaway-down (ditto) . 13 July, 
 Gainsborough (Cromwell victor). . . 27 July, 
 Newbury (far. to Royalists) ... 20 Sept. 
 Cheriton or Alresford (ditto) . . 29 March, 
 Cropredy Bridge (Charles I. victor) . 29 June, 
 Marston Moor (prince Rupert defeated) . 2 July, 
 Newbury {indecisive) .... 27 Oct. 
 Tippermuir (Montrose defeats Covenanters) . 1 Sept. 
 Naseby (Charles I. totally defeated) . 14 June, 
 
 Alford (Montrose defeats Covenanters) . . 2 July, 
 
 Kilsyth (ditto) 15 Aug. 
 
 Philiphaugh (Covenanters defeat Montrose) 13 Sept. 
 Benburb (O'Neill defeats English) . . 5 June, 
 Dungan-hill (Irish defeated) ... 8 Aug. 
 Preston (Cromwell victor) . . . 17 Aug. 
 Rathmines (Irisii Royalists defeated) . . 2 Aug. 
 Drogheda (taken by storm) . . . 12 Sept. 
 Corbiesdale (Montrose defeated) . . . 27 April, 
 Dunbar (Cromwell defeats Scots) . . 3 Sept. 
 Worcester (Cromwell defeats Charles II.) . 3 Sept. 
 
 Galway (surrendered) 
 
 Daventry (Lambert defeated by Monk) . 21 April, 
 
 Arras, France (Turenne defeats Condi) . 
 
 Dunkirk (ditto) 
 
 Estrenioz (Don John def. by Schomberg) . 
 St. GotthardfMOTOteciic"/; defeats 'Turks) . 
 Villa Viciosa (Portuguese defeat span Saras) 
 Pentland hills (Covenanters defeated) . 
 Candia (token by Turks) .... 
 
 Choczim (Sobieslci defeats Turks) . 
 
 Seneffe (French and Dutch, iialecisire) 
 Ensisheim (Turenne defeats Imperialists) 
 
 Mulhausen (ditto) 
 
 Turckheim (ditto) 
 
 Salzbach (Turenne killed) . . 
 Drumclog (Covenanters defeat Claverhoust ) 
 
 Bothwell Brigg (Monmouth defeats Co 
 
 Vienna (Turks defeated hi/ Snaieski) 
 
 Sedgemoor (Monmouth defeated). 
 Mohacz (Turks defeated) 
 Killieci-ankie (Highlanders def. Madkay) 
 Newtown-butler (Jacobites defeutal) 
 Boyne (WiUiam III. defeats James II.) 
 Fleurus (Charleroi, Luxembourg victor) 
 Athlone taken by Ginckel . 
 Aughrini (James II. 's cause ruined) 
 Salenckemen (fta/is of Baden def. Turks) 
 Enghein or Steenkirk (William III. 
 
 Landen (WiUiam III. defeated) 
 Marsaglia (Pignerol) (French victors) 
 Zeiita (prince Eugene defeats Turks) 
 
 14 June, 
 8 June, 
 
 1 Aug. 
 
 . 28 Nov. 
 6 Sept. 
 11 Nov. 
 
 11 Aug. 
 . 4 ( >Ct. 
 31 Dec. 
 
 . 5 Jan. 
 27 July, 
 
 I June, 
 ■renanters) 
 
 22 June, 
 
 12 Sept. 
 6 July, 
 
 12 Aug. 
 27 July, 
 30 July, 
 1 July, 
 . 1 July, 
 30 June, 
 12 July, 
 19 Aug. 
 defeated) 
 24 July, 
 19 July, 
 . 4 Oct. 
 
 II Sept. 
 
 1642 
 1643 
 
 1644 
 
 1645 
 
 1646 
 1647 
 1648 
 1649 
 
 1650 
 
 1651 
 1652 
 1660 
 
 1654 
 1658 
 1663 
 1664 
 1665 
 1666 
 1669 
 1673 
 1674 
 
 1675 
 1679 
 
 1685 
 1687 
 
 1690 
 1691 
 
 1692 
 1693 
 
 1697 
 
BATTLES. 
 
 77 
 
 BATTLES. 
 
 Narva (Charles XII. defeats Russians) . 30 Nov. 
 
 Carpi, Modena (Allies defeat French) . 9 July, 
 
 Chiari (A ustrians defeat French) . . 1 Sept. 
 
 Clissau (Charles XII. defeats Poles) . 20 July, 
 
 Santa Vittoria (French victors) . . 26 July, 
 
 Fi'iedlingen (French defeat Germans) . 14 Oct 
 
 Pultusk (Swedes defeat Poles) . . .1 May, 
 
 Hoclistadt (French defeat Anstrians) . 20 Sept. 
 
 Donauwerth (Marlborough victor) . . 2 July, 
 
 Gibraltar (taken by Rooke) ... 24 July, 
 Blenheim or Hochstadt (Marlborough victor), (o. s.) 
 
 2 Aug. 
 Mittau (taken by Russians) 
 Cassano (prince Eugene ; indecisive) . 
 Tirlemont (Marlborough successful) . 
 Bamillies (Marlborough defeats French) 
 Turin (French defeated by Eugene) . 
 Kalitsch (Russians defeat Swedes) 
 
 1700 
 1701 
 
 1703 
 1704 
 
 i7°S 
 
 1706 
 
 Almanza (French defeat Allies) 14 (o. s.) or 25 April, 1707 
 
 14 Sept. 
 . 16 Aug 
 
 18 July, 
 
 . 23 May, 
 
 7 Sept. 
 
 . 19 Nov. 
 
 Oudenarde (Marlborough victor) . . . 11 July, 
 Liesna, Lenzo (Russians defeat Swedes) . autumn, ,, 
 Lisle (taken by the Allies) .... Dec. ,, 
 Pultowa (Peter defeats Charles XII. ) . 8 July, 1709 
 Dot>ro (Russians defeat Siuedes) . . .20 Sept. „ 
 Malplaquet (Marlborough victor) . . 11 Sept. ,, 
 Almenara (Anstrians defeat French) . . 28 July, 1710 
 
 Saragossa (ditto) 20 Aug. ,, 
 
 Villa Viciosa (Anstrians defeated) . . 10 Dec. ,, 
 Avleux (Marlborough forces French lines) 5 Aug. 1711 
 Bouchain (taken by Marlborough) . . 13 Sept. ,, 
 Denain (Villars defeats Allies) . . 24 July, 1712 
 Friburg (taken by French) .... 7 Nov. 1713 
 Preston (rebels defeated) . . . . 12, 13 Nov. 1715 
 Dumblane or Sheriff-Muir (indecisive) . 13 Nov. ,, 
 Peterwardein (Eugene defeats Turks) . . 5 Aug. 1716 
 
 Belgrade (ditto) 16 Aug. 1717 
 
 Bitonto (Spaniards defeat Germans) . 27 May, 1734 
 Parma (Anstrians and French, indecisive) . 29 June, ,, 
 Guastalla (Anstrians defeated) . . 19 Sept. „ 
 Erivan (Nadir Shah defeats Turks) . . June, 1735 
 Krotzka (Turks defeat Anstrians) . . 22 July, 1739 
 Molwitz (Prussians defeat Anstrians) . 10 April, 1741 
 Dettingen (George II. defeats French) . 16 June, 1743 
 Pontenoy (Saxe defeats Cumberland) . . 30 April, 1745 
 Hohenfreiburg (Prussians defeat Austrians) 4 June, „ 
 
 SCOTS REBELLION. 
 
 Preston Pans (rebels defeat Cope) 
 Clifton Moor (rebels defeated) 
 Falkirk (rebels defeats Hawley) . 
 Culloden (Cumberland defeats rebels) 
 
 21 Sept. 1745 
 
 18 Dee. „ 
 
 17 Jan. 1746 
 
 16 April, „ 
 
 4 June, ,, 
 
 16 June, ,, 
 
 11 Oct. „ 
 
 15 Sept. 1747 
 
 2 July, „ 
 
 . 19 July, ,, 
 
 9 July, 1755 
 
 20 June, 1756 
 
 St. Lazaro (Sardinians defeat French) 
 Placentia (Anstrians defeat French) 
 Eaueoux (Saxe defeats Allies) . 
 Bergen-op-Zoom (taken) 
 Laffeldt (Saxe defeats Cumberland) . 
 Exilles (Sardinians defeat French) 
 Fort du Quesne (Braddock killed) . 
 Calcutta (taken by Surajah Dowlah) . 
 
 SEVEN YEARS' WAR, 1 756-63. 
 
 Prague (Frederick defeats Allies) . . 6 May, 
 Kollin (Frederick defeated) ... 18 June, 
 
 Plassey (dive's victory) .... 23 June, 
 Norkitten (Russians defeated) . . 13 Aug. 
 
 Rosbach (Frederick defeats French) . . 5 Nov. 
 Breslau (Austrians victors) . . . 22 Nov. 
 Lissa (Frederick defeats Austrians) . . 5 Dec. 
 Creveldt (Ferdinand defeats French) . 23 June, 
 
 ZomiorS (Frederick defeats Russians) 25, 26 Aug. 
 Hoehkirchen (Austrians defeat Prussians) 14 Oct. 
 Bergen (French defeat Allies) . . .13 April, 
 Zullichau (Russians defeat Prussians) 23 July, 
 
 Niagara (English take Fort) . . .24 July, 
 Minclen (Ferdinand defeats French) . 1 Aug. 
 Cunnersdorf (Russians defeat Prussians) 12 Aug. 
 Quebec (Wolfe, victor, killed) . . .13 Sept. 
 Wandewash (Coote defeats Lally) . . 22 Jan. 
 Landshut, Silesia (Prussians defeated) . 23 June, 
 Warburg (Ferdinand defeats French) . 31 July, 
 Pfaffendorf (Frederick defeats Austrians) . 15 Aug. 
 Campen (French defeat Russians) . . 15 Oct. 
 
 Torgau (Frederick defeats Austrians) . . 3 Nov. 
 Kirchdenkern (Allies defeat French) . 15 July, 
 Schweidnitz (Frederick II. clef. Austrians) 16 May, 
 Johannisberg (French defeat Prussians) 30 Aug. 
 
 Freiberg (Prussians defeat Austrians) . 29 Out. 
 
 1758 
 1759 
 
 1760 
 
 1 761 
 1762 
 
 Buxar (Munro defeats army of Ouclc) . . 23 Oct. 1764 
 Choczim (Russians defeat Turks) 30 April & 13 July, 1769 
 Galatz (Russians defeat Turks) . . . Nov. ,, 
 Bender taken by Russians . . .28 Sept. 1770 
 Brailow (Russians defeat Turks) . . 19 June, 1773 
 Silistria (taken) 1774 
 
 AMERICAN WAR. 
 
 Lexington (Gage victor, with great loss) . 19 April, 1775 
 
 Bunker's Hill (Americans repulsed) . 17 June, ,, 
 
 Long Island (Americans defeated) . . 27 Aug. 1/76, 
 
 White Plains (Hoivc defeats Americans) . 28 Oct. ,, 
 
 Rhode Island (taken by Royalists) . . 8 Dec. ,, 
 
 Princeton (Washington defeats British) . 3 Jan. 1777 
 
 Brandywine (Howe defeats Washington) . n Sept. ,, 
 
 Germanstown (Burgoyne's victory) . 3, 4 Oct. ,, 
 
 Saratoga (he is compelled to surrender) . 7 Oct. „ 
 
 Briar's Creek (Americans defeated) . 3 March, 1779 
 
 Camden (Cornivallis defeats Gates) . . 16 Aug. 1780 
 
 Arcot (Hyder defeats British) . . . 31 Oct. ,, 
 
 Guildford (Cornwallis defeats Gates) . 15 March, 1781 
 
 Camden (Americans defeated) . . 25 April, ,, 
 
 Porto Novo (Coote defeats Hyder) . . 1 July, ,, 
 Eutaw Springs (Arnold defeats Americans) . 8 Sept. „ 
 
 York Town (Cornwallis surrenders) . 19 Oct. „ 
 
 [Many inferior actions with various success.] 
 
 Rodney's victory over De Grasse, n. . 12 April, 1782 
 Arnee (Coote defeats Hyder) ... 2 June, ,, 
 
 Attack on Gibraltar fails . . . 13 Sept. ,, 
 
 Bednore (taken by Tippoo Sahib) . . 30 April, 1783 
 
 Martinesti (Austrians defeat Turks) . . 22 Sept. 1789 
 
 Ismail (taken by storm by Suwarrow) . 22 Dec. 1790 
 
 Bangalore (taken by storm) . . . 21 March, 1791 
 
 Arikera (Tippoo defeated) . . . . 15 May, ,, 
 
 Seringapatam (ditto) 6 Feb. 1792 
 
 FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WAR BEGINS. 
 
 Quievrain (French repulsed) . . .28 April, 1792 
 
 Valmy (French defeat Prussians) . . 20 Sept. ,, 
 
 Jemappes (French victorious) ... 6 Nov. „ 
 
 Neerwinden (French beaten by Austrians) 18 March, 1793 
 
 St. Amand (French defeated by English). . 8 May, ,, 
 
 Valenciennes (ditto) . . .23 May, 26 July, „ 
 
 Lincelles (Lcdce defeats French) ... 18 Aug. „ 
 
 Dunkirk (duke of York defeated) . . 7, 8 Sept. ,, 
 
 Quesnoy (reduced by Austrians) . . n Sept. „ 
 
 Pirmasens (Prussians defeat French) . 14 Sept. „ 
 
 Wattignies (French defeat Coburg) . 14, 15, 16 Oct. „ 
 
 Toulon (retaken by British) . 19 Dec. ,, 
 
 Cambray (French defeated) . . .24 April, 1794 
 
 Troisville, Landrecy (taken by Allies) . 30 April, „ 
 
 Tourcoing (Moreau defeats Allies) . 18-22 May, ,, 
 
 Bspierres (taken by Allies) ... 22 May, ,, 
 
 Howe's naval victory . . . . 1 June, ,, 
 
 Charleroi or Fleuxus (French defeat Allies) 26 June, ,, 
 
 Misdon (Vendeans defeated) . . .28 July, ,, 
 
 Bois-le-Duc (duke of York defeated) . 14 Sept. ,, 
 
 Boxtel (ditto) 17 Sept. „ 
 
 Maciejowice (Poles defeated) . . . .10 Oct. ,, 
 
 Nimeguen (French victorious) 28 Oct., (clef.) 4 May, ,, 
 
 Praga (Warsaw taken by Suwarrow) . . 4 Nov. ,, 
 
 Bridport's victory off l'Orient, n. . . 22 June, 1795 
 
 Quiberon (Emigrants defeated) . . 21 July, ,, 
 
 Mannheim (taken by Pichegru) . . 20 Sept. ,, 
 
 Loano (French defeat Austrians) . . 23, 24 Nov. ,, 
 
 Montenotte (Bonaparte victorious) . . 12 April, 1796 
 
 Mondovi (ditto) 22 April, ,, 
 
 Lodi (ditto) 10 May, ,, 
 
 Altenkirchen (Austrians defeated) . . 4 June, ,, 
 
 Radstadt (Moreau, defeats Austrians) . 5 July, ,, 
 
 Altenkirchen (Austrians victors) . . 16 Sept. „ 
 
 Roveredo (French defeat Austrians) . 4 Sept. ,, 
 
 Bassano (ditto) 8 Sept. ,, 
 
 Biberach (ditto) 2 Oct. „ 
 
 Lonato and Castiglione (ditto) .. . . 3-5 Aug. ,, 
 
 Neresheim (Moreau clef archduke Charles) 10 Aug. ,, 
 
 Areola (Bonaparte victorious) . . 14-17 Nov. ,, 
 
 Castelnuovo (ditto) 21 Nov. ,, 
 
 Rivoli (ditto) 14, 15 Jan. 1797 
 
 Cape St. Vincent, n. (Spaniards defeated) 14 Feb. „ 
 
 Tagliamento (Bonaparte def Austrians) 16 March, ,, 
 
 Camperdown, n. (Duncan defeats Dutch) n Oct. ,, 
 
 IRISH REBELLION BEGINS . . . May, 1 798 
 
 Kilcullen (rebels successful) . . .23 May, 
 Naas (rebels defeated) .... 24 May, 
 
 Tara (rebels defeated) 2 6 May, ,' y 
 
 Oulart (rebels successful) ... 27 May, 
 
BATTLES. 
 
 78 
 
 BATTLES. 
 
 Gorey or New Hos&(rebels defeated) . . 4 June, 1798 
 
 Antrim (reliels defenteil) . . . . 7 June, ,, 
 
 Arkiow (rebels beaten) .... 10 June, ,, 
 
 Ballynahinch (Nugent defeats rebels) . 13 June, ,, 
 
 Vinegar Hill (Lake defeats rebels) . . 21 June, ,, 
 
 Castlebar (French auxiliaries defeated) . 27 Aug. ,, 
 
 BaUinamuck (French and rebels defeated) . 8 Sept. ,, 
 
 . 1 Aug. 
 
 13, 21 July, 
 
 . 18 Feb. 
 
 7-10 March, 
 
 25 March, 
 
 28-30 March, 
 
 . 5 April, 
 
 16 April, 
 
 27 April, 
 
 1805 
 
 Nile, n. (Nelson defeats French fleet) 
 Pyramids (Bonaparte def. Mamelukes) 
 
 El Arisch (French defeat Turks) 
 Jaffa (stormed by Bonaparte) . 
 Stokach (Austrians defeat French) . 
 Verona (Austrians defeat French) . 
 Magnano (Kray defeats French). 
 Mount Thabor (Bonaparte defeats Turks) 
 Cassano (Suwarrow defeats Moreau) . 
 Adda (Suwarrow defeats French) . . ,, 
 
 Seringapatam (Tippoo killed) ... 4 May, 
 Acre (relieved by sir Sidney Smith) . . 20 May, 
 Zurich (French defeated) .... 5 June, 
 Trebia (Suwarrow defeats French) . 17-19 June, 
 Alessandria (taken from French) . . 21 July, 
 Aboukir (Turks defeated by Bonaparte) 25 July, 
 
 Novi (Suwarrow defeats French) . . 15 Aug. 
 Bergen and Alkmaer (Allies defeated) . 19 Sept. 
 
 26 Oct. 
 Zuyper Sluys (French defeated) . . 9 Sept. 
 Zurich (Massena defeats Russians) . 25 Sept. 
 
 Heliopolis (Kleber defeats Turks) . . 20 Mar. 
 Engen (Moreau defeats Austrians) . . 3 May, 
 
 Mceskirch (ditto) 5 May, 
 
 Biberach (ditto) 9 May, 
 
 Montebello (Austrians defeated) . . 9 June, 
 Marengo (Bonaparte defeats Austrians) . 14 June, 
 Hochstadt (Moreau defeats Austrians) . 19 June, 
 
 Hohenlinden (ditto) 3 Dec. 
 
 Mincio (French defeat Austrians) . . 25-27 Dec. 
 Aboukir (French defeated) . . . .8 March, 
 Alexandria (Abercromby's victory) . . 21 March, 
 Copenhagen (bombarded by Nelson) . . 2 April, 
 Ahmednuggur (Welleslcy victorious) . 12 Aug. 
 Assaye (ditto, his first great victory) . . 23 Sept. 
 Argaum (Welleslcy victor) . . . 29 Nov. 
 Furruckabad (Lake defeats Holkar) . -17 Nov. 
 Bhurtpore (taken by Lake) ... 2 April, 
 Elchingen (Ney defeats Austrians) . . 14 Oct. 
 Ulm surrenders (Ney defeats Austrians) 17-20 Oct. 
 Trafalgar (Nelson destroys Fren. fleet ; killed) 21 Oct. 
 Austerlitz (Napioleon defeats A ustrians A Ruse.) 2 Dec. 
 
 Buenos Ayres (taken by Popham) . . 27 June, 1800 
 
 Maida (Stuart defeats French) . . . 4 July, ,, 
 
 Saalfeld (French defeat Prussians) . . 10 Oct. ,, 
 
 Jena' 8 * 8,4 * } ( French de f eat Prussians) . 14 Oct. „ 
 
 Halle stormed by French . . . 17 Oct. ,, 
 
 Pultusk (French and Allies, indecisive) . 26 Dec. ,, 
 
 Mohrungen (French def. Russ. & Pruss.). 25 Jan. 1807 
 
 Montevideo (taken) 3 Feb. ,, 
 
 Eylau (indecisive) 7, 8 Feb. ,, 
 
 Ostrolenka (French defeat Prussians) . . 16 Feb. ,, 
 
 Friedland (French defeat Russians) . 14 June, ,, 
 
 Buenos Ayres (Whitelock defeated) . . 5 July, „ 
 
 Copenhagen (bombarded by CaJhcart) . 2-5 Sept. „ 
 Medina de Rio Seco (French defeat Spaniards) 
 
 15 July, 1808 
 
 Baylen (Spaniards defeat French) . . 20 July, ,, 
 
 PENINSULAR CAMPAIGN BEGINS. 
 
 Vimiera (WeUesley defeats Jnnot) . . 21 Aug. 1808 
 
 Tudela or Ebro (French defeat Spaniards) 23 Nov. ,, 
 
 Corunna (Moore defeats French) . . 16 Jan. 1809 
 
 Abenberg (Austrians defeated) . . .20 April, ,, 
 
 Landshut (ditto) .' . . . . 21 April, „ 
 
 Eekmuhl (Davoust defeats Austrians) . 22 April, ,, 
 
 Ebersberg (French defeat A ustrians) . . 4 May, ,, 
 
 Oporto (taken). ... 29 March, 12 May, ,, 
 
 Essfi™ } ( Na Polcon defeated) . 
 Wagram (Austrians defeated) 
 Talavera ( Welleslcy defeats Victor) . 
 Silistria (Turks defeat Russians) . 
 Ocana (Mortier defeats Spaniards) . 
 Busaco (Wellington repulses Massena) 
 Barrosa (Graham defeats Victor) 
 Badajoz (taken by the French) 
 
 21, 22 May, 
 
 ,, 
 
 S, 6 July, 
 
 27, 28 July, 
 
 26 Sept. 
 
 19 Nov. 
 
 " 
 
 27 Sept. 
 . s March, 
 
 1810 
 181 1 
 
 11 March, 
 
 „ 
 
 Fuentes de Onoro (Wellington defeats Massena) 
 
 3, s May, 1811 
 
 Albuera (Beresford defeats Sovlt) . . 16 May, ,, 
 
 Ximena (Spaniards defeat French) . . 10 Sept. ,, 
 
 Merida (Hill defeats French) . . . .28 Oct. ,, 
 
 Albufera (Suchet defeats Spaniards) . . 4 Jan. 1812 
 
 Ciudad Bodrigo (stormed by English) . 19 Jan. ,, 
 
 Badajoz (taken by Wellington) . . . 6 April, ., 
 
 Llerena (Cotton defeats Soult) . . 11 April, ,, 
 
 Salamanca (Welmigton defts. Martnont) . 22 July, ,, 
 
 Mohilow (French defeat Russians) . 23 July, , 
 
 Polotzk (French and J!nssians) . 30, 31 July, ,, 
 
 Krasnoy, Smolensko (French defeat Russians) 
 
 15, 19 Aug. ,, 
 
 Moskwa ) , 7;( »„\ q * 
 
 Borodino / ( <h "°> 7 ^P 4 - " 
 
 Moscow (burnt by Russians) . . .15 Sept. „ 
 
 Queenstown (Americans defeateil) . . 13 Oct. ,, 
 
 Polotzk (retaken by Russians) . . 19, 20 Oct. ,, 
 
 Malo-Jaroslawatz (French victors) . . 24 Oct. ,, 
 
 Witepsk (French defeated) . . . .14 Nov. „ 
 
 Krasnoi (ditto) 16-18 Nov. ,, 
 
 Beresina (ditto) 25-29 Nov. ,, 
 
 French Town (taken by Americans) . 22 Jan. 1813 
 
 Kalitsch (Saxons defeated) . . . . 13 Feb. ,, 
 
 Mockern (Eugene defeats Russians) . 5 April, ,, 
 
 Castalla (sir J. Murray defeats Suchet) . 13 April, ,, 
 
 Lutzen (Napoleon checks Allies) . . . 2 May, ,, 
 
 Bautzen (Na p. and A llies; indecisive) . 20 May, „ 
 
 Wurschen (ditto) 21, 22 May, „ 
 
 Hochkirchen (French deft. Aust. and Russ.), 22 May, ,, 
 
 Vittoria (Wellington defts. king Joseph) . 21 June, „ 
 
 Pyrenees (Wellington defeats Soirft) . 28 July, ,, 
 
 Katzbach (Bliicher defeats Ney) . . .26 Aug. „ 
 
 Dresden (Napoleon checks Allies) . . 26, 27 Aug. „ 
 
 St. Sebastian (stormed by Graham) . . 31 Aug. „ 
 
 Dennewitz (Ney defeated) . . . 6 Sept. „ 
 
 Mockern (French defeated) . . . . 16 Oct. „ 
 
 Leipzic (Napoleon defeated) . . . 16-18 Oct. ,, 
 
 Hanau (Napoleon defeats Bavarians) . . 30 Oct. ,, 
 
 St. Jean de Luz (Wellington defts. Soult) 10 Nov. „ 
 Passage of the Nive, 9 Dec. ; several engagements 
 
 between the Allies and French . 10 to 13 Dec. ,, 
 
 St. Dizier, France (French victors) . . 26 Jan. 1814 
 
 Brienne (Allies defeated). . . . 29 Jan. ,, 
 
 La Rothiere (Napoleon defeats Allies). . 1 Feb. ,, 
 
 Bur-sur-Aube (Allies victors) . . . . 7 Feb. ,, 
 
 Mincio (pr. Eugene defeats Austrians) . 8 Feb. ,, 
 
 Champ Aubert (French defeat Allies) . 10-12 Feb. „ 
 
 Montmirail (ditto) 11 Feb. ,, 
 
 Vanchamp (ditto) 14 Feb. „ 
 
 Fontainebleau(di'Mo) 17 Feb. „ 
 
 Montereau (ditto) 18 Feb. „ 
 
 Orthez (Wellington defeats Soult) . . 27 Feb. „ 
 
 Craonne (French victors) . . . 7 March, ,, 
 
 Bergen-op-Zoom (Graham defeated) . . 8 March, ,, 
 
 Laon (French defeated) .... 9-10 March, „ 
 
 Rheims (Napoleon defeats St. Priest) . 13 March, , 
 
 Tarbes (Wellington defeats Soult) . . 20 March, ,, 
 
 Fere Champenoise (French defeated) . 25 March, ,, 
 
 St. Dizier (French victors) . . . 28 March, ,, 
 
 Paris, Montmartre, Romainville (ditto) 30 Mar. ,, 
 
 Battle of the Barriers, 30 March ; Marmont evacuates 
 
 Paris, and the Allies enter it) . . 31 March, „ 
 
 Toulouse (Wellington defeats Soult) . 10 April, ,, 
 Tolentino (Murat defeated) .... 3 May, 
 Ligny (Bliicher repulsed) .... 16 June, 
 Quatre Bras (Ney repulsed). . . . 16 June, 
 Waterloo (Napoleon finally beaten). . 18 June, 
 
 AMERICAN WAR. 
 
 Fort George (take n by Americans) 
 Burlington Heights (Americans routed) . 
 Chrystler's Point, Canada .... 
 Black-rock, America .... 
 Longwood (English defeated) 
 Chinrnwi {(British defeated) 
 L-nippawa j ^g,^^^ defeated) 
 
 Fort Erie (British repulsed) . 
 Bladensburg (Americans defeated) 
 Bellair (British repulsed) 
 Baltimore (British victors) .... 
 New Orleans (British repulsed) . 8, 12, 
 
 1815 
 
 Algiers (bombarded by Exmouth) . 
 Chacabuco (Chilians defeat Spaniards) 
 Kirklee (Hastings defeats Pindarrees) . 
 Mehadpore (Hislop defeats Holkar) . 
 
 27 May, 
 
 1813 
 
 6 June, 
 
 .. 
 
 11 Nov. 
 
 
 28 Dec. 
 
 
 4 May, 
 
 1814 
 
 s July, 
 
 ,, 
 
 25 July, 
 
 ,, 
 
 15 Aug. 
 
 ,, 
 
 24 Aug. 
 
 ,, 
 
 30 Aug. 
 
 ,, 
 
 12 Sept. 
 
 ,, 
 
 & 13 Jan. 
 
 1815 
 
 27 Aug. 
 
 1816 
 
 12 Feb. 
 
 1817 
 
 . 5 Nov. 
 
 
 21 Dec. 
 
 „ 
 
BATTLES. 
 
 BATTLES. 
 
 Dragaschan (Ipsilanti defeated) . . .19 June, 
 Valtezza (Turks defeated). ... 27 May, 
 Tripolitza (stormed by Greeks) 5 Oct. 
 
 Thermopylae (Greeks defeat Turks) . . 13 July, 
 
 Corinth (taken) 16 Sept. 
 
 Accra (Ashantces defeat sir G. Macarthy) 21 Jan. 
 Ayacucho (Peruvians defeat Spaniards) . 9 Dec. 
 
 Bhurtpore (taken by Combermere) . . 18 Jan. 
 Ashantees (defeated) .... 27 Aug. 
 
 Athens (taken) 17 May, 
 
 Navarino (Allies destroy Turkish fleet) . . 20 Oct. 
 Brahilow (Russians and Turks) . . .18 June, 
 
 Akhalzikh (ditto) 24 Aug. 
 
 Varna (surrenders to Russians) . . .11 Oct. 
 
 Silistria (ditto) 30 June, 
 
 Kainly (Russians defeat Turks) . . . 1 July, 
 Balkan (jya.ssed by Russians) ... 26 July, 
 Aclrianople (Russians enter) . . .20 Aug. 
 Algiers (captured by French) ... 5 July, 
 Paris (Days of July) ... 27, 28, 29 July, 
 Grochow (Poles defeat Russians) . . 19, 20 Feb. 
 Praga (Poles defeat Russians) . . .25 Feb. 
 Wawz (Skrzynecki defeats Russians) . 31 March, 
 Seidlice (Poles defeat Russians) . . .10 April, 
 
 Ostrolenka (ditto) 26 May, 
 
 Wilna (Poles and Russians) . . .18 June, 
 Warsaw (taken by Russians) ... 7 Sept. 
 Horns (Egyptians defeat Turks) ... 8 July, 
 Beylau (Ibrahim defeats Turks) . - 29 July, 
 Konieh (Egyptians defeat Turks) . .21 Dec. 
 Antwerp citadel taken by Allies . . 23 Dec. 
 Hernani (Carlists defeated) .... 5 May, 
 
 St. Sebastian (ditto) 1 Oct. 
 
 Bilboa (siege raised; British Legion) . . 24 Dec. 
 Hernani (Carlists repulsed) . . .16 March, 
 Iran (British Legion defeats Carlists) . .17 May, 
 Valentia (Carlists attacked) ... 15 July, 
 Herera (Don Carlos defeats Buereno) . . 24 Aug. 
 Constantina (Algiers; taken by French) 13 Oct. 
 
 St. Eustace (Canadian rebels defeated) . . 14 Dec. 
 Pennecerrada (Carlists defeated) . . 22 June, 
 Prescott (Canadian rebels defeated) . 17 Nov. 
 
 Aden (taken) 19 Jan. 
 
 Ghiznee (taken by Keane) ... 23 July, 
 Sidon (taken by Napier) . . . .27 Sept. 
 Beyrout (Allies defeat Egyptians) . . .10 Oct. 
 
 Afghan war. (See India.) 
 Acre (stormed by Allies) .... 3 Nov. 
 Kotriah (Scinde ; English victors) . . .1 Dec. 
 Chuen-pe (English victors) ... 7 Jan. 
 Canton (English take Bogue forts) . . . 26 Feb. 
 
 Amoy (taken) 27 Aug. 
 
 Chin-hae, &c. (taken) . . . . 10, 13 Oct. 
 Candahar (Afghans defeated) . . .10 March, 
 Ningpo (Chinese defeated) ... 10 March, 
 Jellalabad (Khyber Pass forced) . . 5, 6 April, 
 Chin-keang (taken) . . . . 21 July, 
 Ghiznee (Afghans defeated by Nott) . . 6 Sept. 
 Meeanee (Napier defeats Ameers) . . .17 Feb. 
 Maharajpoor (Gough defeats Mahrattas) . 29 Dec. 
 Isly (French defeat Abd-el-Kader) . . .14 Aug. 
 Moodkee (Hardinge defeats Sikhs) . . 18 Dec. 
 
 Ferozeshah (ditto) 21, 22 Dec. 
 
 Aliwal (Smith defeats Sikhs) ... 28 Jan. 
 Sobraon (Gough defeats Sikhs) . . .10 Feb. 
 Montery (Mexicans def. by Americans) 21-23 Sept. 
 Palo Alto (Taylor defeats Mexicans) . . 8, 9 May, 
 Bueno Vista (Americans defeat Mexicans) . 22 Feb. 
 
 St. Ubes (Portugal) 9 May, 
 
 Ozontero (Americans defeat Mexicans) . 19, 20 Aug. 
 Flensborg (Danes defeat rebels) . . 9 April, 
 
 Dannawerke (Prussians defeat Danes) . 23 April, 
 Curtatone (Austrians defeat Italians) . 29 May, 
 
 Custozza (ditto) 23 July, 
 
 Velencze (Croats and Hungarians) . . 29 Sept. 
 Mooltan (Sikhs repulsed) . ... 7 Nov. 
 Chilianwallah (Gough defeats Sikhs) . . 13 Jan. 
 
 Goojerat (ditto) 21 Feb. 
 
 Gran (Hungarians victors) ... 27 Feb. 
 Novara (Radetzky defeats Sardinians) . 23 March, 
 Pered (Russians "defeat Hungarians) . 21 June, 
 Acs (Hungarians repulsed) . . . 2 & 10 July, 
 Waitzen (taken by Russians) . . .17 July, 
 Schassberg (Russians defeat Bern) . .31 July, 
 Temeswar (Haynau defeats Hungarians) . 10 Aug. 
 Idstedt (Danes defeat Holsteiners) . . 25 July, 
 Nankin taken by imperialists ... 19 July, 
 
 1S27 
 1828 
 
 1830 
 1831 
 
 1841 
 
 1843 
 
 1844 
 1845 
 
 1S50 
 1853 
 
 KUSSO-TURKISH WAR. 
 
 Oltenitza (Turks repulse Russians) . . 4 Nov. 1853 
 
 Sinope, n. (Turkish fleet destroyed) . . 30 Nov. ,, 
 
 Citate (Turks defeat Russians)' . . .6 Jan. 1854 
 
 Silistria (ditto) 13-15 June, ,, 
 
 Giurgevo (ditto) 7 July, ,, 
 
 Bayazid (Russians defeat Turks) . 29, 30 July, ,, 
 
 Kuruk-Derek (ditto) 5 Aug. ,, 
 
 Alma (English and French defeat Russians) 20 Sept. ,, 
 
 Balaklava (ditto) 25 Oct. „ 
 
 Inkermann (ditto) 5 Nov. „ 
 
 Eupatoria (Turks defeat Russians) . . 17 Feb. 1855 
 Malakhoff tower (Allies and Russians ; inclec. night 
 
 combats) 22, 23, 24 May, „ 
 
 Capture of the Mamelon, <fcc. . . .7 June, „ 
 Unsuccessful attempt on Malakhoff tower, and 
 
 Redan (Allies and Russians) . . 18 June, ,, 
 Tchernaya or Bridge of Traktir (Allies def. Russians) 
 
 16 Aug. „ 
 
 Malakhoff taken by the French . . 8 Sept. ,, 
 
 Ingour (Turks defeat Russians) . . 6 Nov. ,, 
 
 Baidar (French defeat Russians) . . .8 Dec. ,, 
 
 PERSIAN WAR. 
 
 Bushire (English defeat Persians) . . 10 Dec. 1856 
 
 Kooshab (ditto) 8 Feb. 1857 
 
 Mohammerah (ditto) .... 26 March, „ 
 
 Indian mutiny. (See India.) 
 Conflicts before Delhi. 30, 31 May 3 8 June ; 
 
 4, 9, 18, 23 July, 1857 
 Victories of General Havelock, near Futtehpore, 
 
 11 July, Cawnpore, &c. 12 July to 16 Aug. ,, 
 
 Pandoo Nuddee (victory ofNeill) . . 15 Aug. ,, 
 
 Nujuffghur (death of Nicholson, victor) . 25 Aug. ,, 
 
 Assault and capture of Delhi . . 14-20 Sept. „ 
 
 Conflicts before Lucknow, 25, 26 Sept. ; 18, 25 Nov. ,, 
 
 Victories of Col. Greathed . 27 Sept ; 10 Oct. ,, 
 
 Cawnpore (victory of Co/mpbell) . . . 6 Dec. ,, 
 
 Futteghur (ditto) 2 Jan. 1858 
 
 Calpi (victory of Inglis) .... 4 Feb. „ 
 
 Alumbagh (victories ofOutro.m) 12 Jan. and 21 Feb. „ 
 
 Conflicts at Lucknow (taken) . . 14-19 March, „ 
 
 Jhansi (Rose victorious) . . . . 4 April, ,, 
 
 Kooneh (ditto) 11 May, „ 
 
 Gwalior (ditto) 17 June, „ 
 
 Bajghur (Mitchell defeats Tamtia Topee) . 15 Sept. ,, 
 
 Dhoodea Khera (Clyde defeats Beni Mahdo) 24 Nov. „ 
 Gen. Horsford defeats the Begum of Oude and 
 
 Nana Sahib 10 Feb. 1859 
 
 Italian war. (See Italy.) 
 
 Austrians cross the Ticino . . .27 April, 1859 
 
 French troops enter Piedmont . . . May, „ 
 
 Montebello (Allies victorious) . . .20 May, ,, 
 
 Palestro (ditto) 30, 31 May, ,, 
 
 Magenta (ditto) 4 June, ,, 
 
 Malegnano (ditto) 8 June, ,, 
 
 Solferino (ditto) 24 June, ,, 
 
 (Armistice agreed to, 6 July, 1859. 
 
 Taku, at the mouth of the Peiho or Tien-Tsin-ho 
 (English attack on the Chinese Forts defeated) 
 
 25 June, iS 
 Taku forts taken (see China) . . .21 Aug. 18 
 Chang-kia-wan, 18 Sept. ; and Pa-li-chiau (Chinese 
 defeated) 21 Sept. , 
 
 Castillejo (Spaniards defeat Moors) 
 
 Tetuan (ditto) 
 
 Guad-el-Ras (ditto) 
 
 . 1 Jan. 
 
 4 Feb. 
 
 23 March, 
 
 Calatiflmi (Garibaldi defeats Neapolitans) 15 May, 
 Melazzo (Garibaldi defeats Neapolitans) 20, 21 July, 
 Castel Fidardo (Sardinians defeat Papal troops), 
 
 18 Sept. 
 Volturno (Garibaldi defeats Neapolitans) . 1 Oct. 
 Isernia (Sardinians defeat Neapolitans) . 17 Oct. 
 Garigliano (Sardinians defeat Neapolitans) 3 Nov. 
 Sardinians defeat Neapolitan re-actionists 22 Jan. 
 Gaeta taken by the Sardinians ... 13 Feb. 
 
 Insurrection in New Zealand ; English repulsed, 
 
 14, 28 March ; 27 June ; 10, 19 Sept. ; 9, 12 Oct. i860 
 Maohetia (Maories defeated) ... 6 Nov. ,, 
 
BATTLES. 
 
 80 
 
 BAUTZEN. 
 
 1862 
 
 CIVIL WAR IH UNITED STATES'— WAR IN MEXICO. 
 
 Big Bethel (Federals repulsed) ■ ■ loJune, 1861 
 Booneville (Lyon defeats Confederates) . r8Jnne, ,, 
 Carthage (Federal victory) . ■ ■ ■ 5 J" ]>', >> 
 Rich Mountain (ditto) .... nJuly, „ 
 Bull Run or Manassas (Federal defeat and panic) 
 
 21 July, „ 
 Springfield or Wilson's Creek (Feds, victors) 10 Aug. ., 
 Oarnifex ferry (Bosencrans defeats Floyd, Confederate) 
 
 10 Sept. ,, 
 Lexington (taken by Confederates) ■ • 20 Sept. „ 
 Pavon, South America (Mitra def. Urguiza) 17 Sept. „ 
 Turks defeat Montenegrins . 19 Oct., 21 Nov. „ 
 Ball's Bluff (Federals defeated) . ■ 21 Oct. . 
 Mill Springs, Kentucky (Confederates defeated and 
 their general Xallicnfcr filled) . . 19 Jan. 
 
 Roanoke Island, N.C. (Federals victors) 7, 8 Feb. 
 Sugar Creek, Arkansas (Confederates defeated) 
 
 8 Feb. 
 Fort Donnelson (taken by Federals) . 16 Feb. 
 Pea Ridge, Arkansas [Federals victors) 6-8 March, 
 Hampton roads n. (Merrimat repulsedby Monitor) 
 
 9 March, 
 Pittsburg Landing, or Shiloh (favourable to Con- 
 federates) . ■ ■ ■ • • 6, 7 April, 
 Williamsburg (Federals repulsed) . . 5 May, 
 Puebla (Mexicans defeat French) . .5 May. 
 Richmond (succeed sorties of Confederates) 14 May, 
 Orizaba (Me.ri runs defeat French) . . 18 May, 
 Winchester (Federals repulsed) . . 18 May, 
 Near Orizaba (French defeat Mexicans) 13 June, 
 
 Fairoaks (before Richmond, indecisive) . 31 May, 
 
 1 June, 
 Chickahominy (severe conflicts before Richmond; 
 Confederate's retreat) ■ ■ 25 June to 1 July, 
 Baton Rouge (taken by Federals) . .5 Aug. 
 Cedar Mountain (favourable to ' '■onfederates) 9 Aug. 
 Severe conflicts on the Rappahannock 23-29 Aug. 
 Bull Run (defeat of Federals) . ■ 29. 30 Aug 
 Aspromonte (Garibaldi and his volunteers eaptrwred 
 hi/ 'Roi/al Italian, Troops) . . . 29 Aug. 
 Antietam (severe ; Confederates retreat) 17 Sept, 
 
 Perryville (Confederates worsted) . . 8, 9 Oct. 
 Fredericksburg (Federals defeated hy Lee) 13 Dec. 
 Murfreesburgh (indecisive) 29 Dec. 1862—3 Jan. 
 
 ! Jan. 
 
 2-4 May, 
 
 . 14 June, 
 
 1-3 July, 
 
 19-20 Sept. 
 
 23-26 Nov. 
 
 Nashville (Confederates defeated) 
 
 Chaw-er\ora\'\he (Confederates victors) 
 
 Winchester (Ewell defeats Federals) . 
 
 Gettysburg (severe but indecisive) 
 
 Chicamauga (Confederates victorious) 
 
 Chattanooga (Confederates defeated) 
 
 Spottsylvania, &c, in the Wilderness, near Chan- 
 
 cellorsville (indecisive) . ■ ■ 10-12 May, 1864 
 Petersburg near Richmond (indecisive, but Grant 
 
 advances) 15-18 June, „ 
 
 Winchester (Confederates defeated) . . 19 hept. „ 
 
 Cedar Creek (ditto) 19 Oct. „ 
 
 Franklin (ditto). . • • • -■ 3° Nov. „ 
 Nashville (Thomas, Federal, defeats Hood) 14-16 Dec. „ 
 Five Forks (Lee totally defeated) . ■ 1 April, 1865 
 Farmvffle (Lee finally defeated) . . 6ApriL „ 
 
 Oeversee (Danes and Allies) 
 Diippel (taken by the Prussians) . 
 
 Alsen (ditto) 
 
 Rendsburg (ditto) 
 
 SOUTH AMERICAN WAR. (See 
 
 Santaynna (Allies defeat Paraguayans ; 
 
 taken) . ■ ■ ■ ■ 
 Paso de la Patria (indecisive) 
 Parana (Allies victors) 
 Estero Velhaco (ditto) 
 Tuyutv (Allies defeated) . 
 Curupaiti (ditto) .-...• *7j 
 Tuyuty (Allies victors) 
 Corumba (taken by Brazilians) . 
 
 6 Feb. 
 
 18 April, 
 
 . 29 June, 
 
 21 July, 
 
 Brazil.) 
 Uruguyana 
 
 18 Sept. 
 
 . 25 Feb. 
 
 . 16 April, 
 
 . 2 May, 
 
 16, 18 July, 
 
 19, 22 Sept. 
 
 30 Oct. 
 
 13 June, 
 
 1865 
 1866 
 
 1867 
 
 seven weeks' war (Austria and Prussia.) 
 Custozza (Amstrians defeat Italians) . 24 June, 1866 
 Lissa (ditto, naval battle) . . ■ 20 July, ,, 
 Prussian victories (as inscribed on shield exhi- 
 bited at Berlin. 20 Sept, 1S66, see Prussia). 
 Liebenau, Tumau, Podoll • • • 26 June, 
 
 - There were many smaller conflicts, of which the 
 accounts were very uncertain. 
 
 Nachod, Langensalza (which see), Oswiecin, Hfhner- 
 
 wasser 27 June, 1866 
 
 Miinehengratz, Sour, Trautenau, Skalitz, 28 June, „ 
 Gitschin, Kdnigiuhof, Jaromier, Schweinschadel, 
 
 29 June, 
 Koniggratz or Sadowa .... 3 July, ,, 
 Dermbach, 4 July ; Hiinfeld . . . 5 July, ,, 
 Waldaschach, Hansen, Hammelburg, Friederics- 
 
 hall, lvissingen 10 July, ,, 
 
 Laufach, 13 July : Aschaffenburg . 14 July, ,, 
 Tobitschau, 15 July; Blumenau, 22 July: Hot, 
 
 23 July, „ 
 Tauber - Bischofsheim, Werbach, Hochhausen, 
 
 24 July, „ 
 Ncubrnnn, Helmstadt, Oerchsheim . 25 July, ,, 
 Roszbrunn, Wurzburg, Baireuth . . 28 July, ,, 
 
 Monte Rotondo (Garibaldians victors) . 27 Oct. 
 
 Montana (Harihaldi defeated) . . .3 Nov. 
 
 Arogee or Fahla (Abyssinians defeated) . 10 April, 
 Magdala stormed .... 13 April, 
 
 Russians defeat Bokharians and occupy Samarcand, 
 
 25 May, 
 Alcolea (Spanish royalists defeated) . 27, 2S Sept. 
 Villeta (Lopez defeated by Brazilians), <fcc. #11 Dec. 
 Lopez defeated ... 12, 16, 18, 21 Aug. 
 Aquidaban (Lopez defeated and killed) . 1 March, 
 
 franco-prussian war (which sec.) 
 Saarbriick, taken by the French, and Prussians re- 
 
 1867 
 
 1869 
 1870 
 
 31 An 
 
 pulse. 1 
 
 Wissembonrg (French defeated) 
 
 Worth (ditto) 
 
 Saarbriick or Forbach (ditto) . 
 Courcellea or Pange (ditto) . 
 Strasburg (ditto) 
 
 Vionville or Mars-la-Tour (ditto) 
 
 Gravelotte or Rezonville (ditto) 
 
 Beaumont (ditto) . 
 
 Carignan (ilitto) 
 
 Metz(ditto) .... 
 
 Sedan (ditto) .... 
 
 Before Paris (French defeated) 
 
 Thorny (Germans surprised and repulsed) 
 
 St. Remy (French defeated) 
 
 Before Metz (ditto) . . . 
 
 Artenay (ditto) 
 
 Cherizy (Germans repulsed) 
 Orleans (French defeated) . 
 
 Ecouis (indecisi/ve) 
 
 Chateaudun (French defeated) . 
 Coulmiers, near Orleans (Germans 
 
 Near Amiens (French defeated) . 
 Villiers, before Paris (French retreat) 
 
 Before Orleans (French defeated) 
 
 Beaugency (ditto) 
 
 Nuits (French defeated) 
 
 Pont a Noyelles (French claim a victory) 
 
 Bapaume (indecisive) .... 
 
 Le Mans (indecisive) .... 
 
 Le Mans (Chanzy def. by pr. Fred. Chas.), 10-12 Jan. 
 
 Belfort (Bourbaki defeated) . . 15-17 Jan. 
 
 St. Quentin (Faidhcrhe defeated) . . 19 Jan. 
 
 Paris (Trochu's grand sortie repulsed) . 19 Jan. 
 
 (For numerous skirmishes see Franco-Prussian War, and 
 for details of important engagements see 
 articles.) 
 
 Oroquieta (Carlists defeated) . . . 4 May, 1872 
 BAUGE, see Anjou. 
 
 BAUTZEN, a town in Saxony, near which 
 desperate battles were fought 20, 21, and 22 May, 
 1813, between the French, commanded by Napoleon, 
 and' the allies under the emperor of Russia and the 
 king of Prussia. The struggle commenced on the 
 19th, with a contest on the outposts, which cost 
 each army a loss of above 2000 men. On the 20th 
 (at Bautzen) the French were more successful ; and 
 on the 2 rst (at Wurschen) the allies were com- 
 pelled to retire ; but Napoleon obtained no perma- 
 nent advantage. Durpc was killed at Reichenbach 
 by a cannon-ball, on 22 May. 
 
 2 Aug. 1870 
 
 4 Aug. 
 
 6 Aug. 
 
 6 Aug. 
 14 Aug. 
 16 Aug. 
 16 Aug. 
 18 Aug. 
 
 30 Aug. 
 
 31 Aug. 
 31 Aug. 
 
 , 1 Sept. 
 
 30 Sept, 
 
 5 Oct. 
 
 . 6 Oct. 
 
 7 Oct. 
 
 . 10 Oct. 
 
 10 Oct. 
 
 . 11 Oct. 
 
 14 Oct. 
 
 . 18 Oct. 
 
 defeated), 
 
 9, 10 Nov. 
 
 . 27 Nov. 
 
 30 Ni pv. 
 
 2 Dec. 
 
 4 Dec. 
 
 7, 8 Dec. 
 
 1 3 Dec. 
 
 23 Deo. 
 
 , 3 Jan. 187* 
 
 6 Jan. 
 
BAVAEIA. 
 
 81 
 
 BAYONNE. 
 
 BAVARIA (part of ancient Noricum and Vin- 
 •delicia), a kingdom in South Germany, conquered 
 from the Celtic Gauls (Boii) by the Franks between 
 630 and 660. The country was afterwards governed 
 by dukes subject to the French monarchs. Tasil- 
 lon II. was deposed by Charlemagne, who established 
 margraves in 788. The margrave Leopold, 895, 
 father of Arnulph the Bad, is % styled the first duke. 
 
 Bavaria supports Austria in the contest with 
 Prussia June, 1866 
 
 Took part in the war, and made peace with Prussia, 
 
 22 Aug. ,, 
 
 Population (after cessions, 1866), 4,824,421 (see 
 Munich) Dec. 1867 
 
 An international exhibition in a crystal palace 
 opened 20 July, 1869 
 
 The chambers dissolved, as, through a party struggle, 
 no president was elected . . . .6 Oct. „ 
 
 ■Resignation of the ministry, 25 Nov. ; only partially 
 accepted by the king 9 Dec. ,, 
 
 Vote of want of confidence in prince Hohenlohe, 
 the president, 12 Feb. ; he resigns . 14 Feb. 1870 
 
 The king announces his intention of joining Prussia 
 in the war with France . . about 20 July, „ 
 
 The Bavarian contingent highly distinguishes itself 
 in the war ; Otho, duke of Bavaria, killed near 
 
 Beglie 27 Jan. 1871 
 
 [See Franco-Prussian tuar.] 
 
 The king, in a letter to the king of Saxony, proposes 
 that the king of Prussia should be made emperor 
 of Germany about 5 Dec. „ 
 
 Dr. Dollinger excommunicated for opposing papal 
 infallibility, 18 April ; elected rector of the uni- 
 versity of Munich .... 29 July, „ 
 
 Government protests against papal infallibility (see 
 Germany) 27 Sept. „ 
 
 •"Old Catholic" church opened at Munich, 
 
 end of Sept. „ 
 
 The king charges Von Gasser to form an Ultramon- 
 tane ministry, opposed to German unity, 3 Sept. ; 
 he fails Sept. 1872 
 
 1071. Guelf I., an illustrious warrior. 
 
 1101. Guelf II. ; son ; married the countess Matilda, 
 1089. 
 
 1 120. Henry the Black ; brother. 
 
 1 126. Henry the Proud ; son. (He competed with Conrad 
 of Hohenstaufen for the empire, failed, and was 
 deprived of Bavaria.) 
 
 3138. Leopold, margrave of Austria; d. 1142. 
 
 j 142. Henry of Austria ; brother ; d. 1177. 
 
 1 154. Henry the Lion (son of Henry the Proud), an- 
 cestor of the Brunswick family, restored by the 
 emperor Frederick Barbarossa, but expelled by 
 him 1 180 ; (see Brunsioick) ; d. 1195. 
 
 1 180. Otho, count of Wfttelsbach, made duke ; d. 
 1183. 
 
 3183. Louis ; son. 
 
 3231. Otho II., the Illustrious ; son; gained the palati- 
 nate ; assassinated 1231. 
 
 3253. Louis II., the Severe; son ; d. 1294. 
 
 1294. Louis III. ; son (without the palatinate) emperor ; 
 d. 1347. 
 
 3347. Stephen I. ; son ; d. 1375. 
 
 T 375- John ; brother ; d. 3397. 
 
 3397. Ernest ; brother ; d. 1438. 
 
 1438. Albert I. ; son ; d. 3460. 
 
 3460. John II. (d.) and Sigismund ; sons ; resigned to 
 
 3465. Albert II. ; brother ; d. 3508. 
 
 3508. William I. ; son ; opposed the reformation, 3522 ; 
 d. 1550. 
 
 3550. Albert III. ; son ; d. 3573. 
 
 3579. William II. ; son ; abdicated, 1596 ; d. 1626. 
 
 1596. Maximilian the Great ; son ; the first Elector of 
 Bavaria, 25 Feb. 1623 ; the palatinate restored, 
 3648 ; d. 27 Sept. 3653. 
 
 3653. Ferdinand-Mary ; d. 26 May, 3679. 
 
 1679. Maximilian Emanuel ; son ; allies with France, 
 1702; defeated at Blenheim, 3704; restored to 
 his dominions, 3714 ; d. 26 Feb. 3726. 
 
 3726. Charles Albert ; son ; elected emperor, 3742 ; de- 
 feated, 1744 ; d. 20 Jan. 3745. 
 
 1745. Maximilian-Joseph I. ; son ; as elector ; d. 30 Dec. 
 1777 ; end of younger line of Wittelsbach. 
 
 1778. Charles Theodore (the elector palatine of theBhine 
 since 3743). The French take Munich ; he treats 
 with them, 3796 ; d. 3799. 
 
 1799. Maximilian-Joseph II. ; elector ; territories changed 
 by treaty of Limeville. 1801 : enlarged when 
 made king, by treaty of Presburg. Dec. 1805. 
 
 KINGS OF BAVARIA. 
 
 3805. Maximilian-Joseph I. He deserted Napoleon, and 
 
 had his enlarged territories confirmed to him. 
 
 Oct. 3833 ; grants a constitutional charter, 22 
 
 Aug. 1838 ; d. 13 Oct. 3825. 
 3825. Louis I., 33 Oct. ; abdicated 23 March, 3848 ;*died 
 
 29 Feb. 1868. 
 3848. Maximilian-Joseph II. ; son; born 28 Nov. 1833 ; 
 
 died 10 March, 3864. 
 1864. Louis II. (son) ; born 23 Aug. 3845 ; heir : his 
 
 brother Otho, born 27 April, 1848. 
 Bavaria, a hereditary constitutional monarchy, joined 
 
 the German empire, 15 Nov. 3870. 
 
 BAT ISLANDS (the chief, Euatan), in the 
 bay of Honduras, central America, belonged to 
 Spain till 182 1 ; then to Great Britain, which 
 formed them into a colony in 1852, but ceded 
 them to Honduras, 28 Nov. 1859 , see Honduras. 
 
 BAYEUX TAPESTBY, said to have been 
 wrought by Matilda, queen of AVilliam I. It is 
 19 inches wide, 214 feet long, and is divided into 
 compartments showing the events from the visit 
 of Harold to the Norman court to his death at 
 Hastings ; it is now preserved in the public lib- 
 rary of Bayeux near Caen. A copy, drawn by C. 
 Stothard, and coloured after the original, was pub- 
 lished by the Society of Antiquaries in 1821-3. 
 
 BAYLEN (S. Spain), where on 20 July, 1808, 
 the French, commanded by generals Dupont and 
 Wedel, were defeated by the Spaniards under Bed- 
 ing, Coupigny, and other generals. 
 
 BAYONET, the short dagger fixed at the end 
 of fire-arms, said to have been invented at Bayonne, 
 in France, about 1647, 1670, or 1690. It was used 
 at Eilliecrankie in 1689, and at Marsaglia by the 
 French, in 1693, " with great success, against the 
 enemy unprepared for the encounter with so for- 
 midable a novelty." The ring-bayonet was adopted 
 by the British, 24 Sept. 1693. 
 
 BAYONNE (S. France), an ancient city. It 
 was held by the English from 1295 till it was taken 
 by Charles VII. The queens of Spain and France 
 met the cruel duke of Alva here, June, 1556, it 
 is supposed to arrange the massacre of St. Bar- 
 tholomew. Charles IV. of Spain abdicated here in 
 favour of "his friend and ally " the emperor Napo- 
 leon, 4 May, and his sons, Ferdinand prince of 
 Asturias, don Carlos, and don Antonio renounced 
 their rights to the Spanish throne, 6 May, 1808. 
 In the neighbourhood of Bayonne was much des- 
 perate fighting between the French and British 
 armies, 9-13 Dec. 1813. Bayonne was invested by 
 the British, 14 Jan. 1814; on 14 April, the French 
 made a sally, and attacked the English with suc- 
 cess, but were at length driven back. The loss of 
 the British was considerable, and lieut.-gen. sir 
 John Hope was wounded and taken prisoner. — A 
 Franco- Spanish industrial and fine arts exhibition 
 was opened at Bayonne in July 1864. 
 
 * The abdication of Charles-Louis was mainly caused 
 by his attachment to an intriguing woman, known 
 throughout Europe by the assumed name of Lola Montes. 
 who, in the end, was expelled the kingdom for her inter- 
 ference in state affairs, and afterwards led a wandering 
 life. She delivered lectures in London, in 1859 : thence 
 proceeded to the United States ; and died at New York, 
 37 Jan. 3863. 
 
 G 
 
BAYREUTH. 
 
 82 
 
 BEAUMONT. 
 
 BAYREUTH (X. Germany), a margraviate, 
 held formerly by a branch of the Brandenburg 
 family, was with that of Anspach abdicated by the 
 reigning prince in favour of the king of Prussia, 
 1790. The archives were brought (in 1783) from 
 Plassenburg to the city of Bayreuth, which was 
 incorporated with Bavaria by Napoleon in 1806. 
 
 BAZAAR, or covered market, a word of Arabic 
 origin. The magnificent bazaar of Ispahan was ex- 
 celled by that of Tauris, which has held 30,000 
 men in order of battle. In London the Soho-square 
 bazaar was opened by Mr. Trotter in 1816 to relieve 
 the relatives of persons killed in the war. The 
 Queen's Bazaar, Oxford-street, a very extensive 
 one, was (with the Diorama) burnt down, and the 
 loss estimated at 50,000/., 27 May, 1829. It was 
 rebuilt, and converted into the Princess's Theatre, 
 opened 30 Sept. 1841. The St. James's bazaar (built 
 by Mr. Crockford) in 1832. The Pantheon, made a 
 bazaar in 1834 ; see Pantheon. The London Crystal- 
 palace bazaar, 1858. The most imposing sale termed 
 a bazaar was opened for the benefit of the Anti- 
 Corn-Law League, in Covent-garden theatre, 5 May, 
 1845 ; in six weeks 25,000/. were obtained, mostly 
 by admission money. The Corinthian bazaar, 
 Argyll-street, Oxford-street (to replace the bazaar 
 at the Pantheon) opened 30 July, 1867 ; closed in 
 1868. 
 
 BAZEILLES, a village in the Ardennes, X.E. 
 France. During the dreadful battle of Sedan, 
 1 Sept. 1870, Bazeilles was burnt by the Bavarians, 
 and atrocious outrages are said to have been com- 
 mitted. Of nearly 2000 inhabitants scarcely fifty 
 remained alive, and these indignantly denied having 
 given provocation. Much controversy ensued, and 
 in July, 1871, gen. Von der Tann asserted that the 
 number of deaths had been exaggerated, that there 
 had been much provocation, and denied the alleged 
 cruelties. 
 
 BAZOCHE-DES-HAUTES, near Orleans, 
 central Fiance. Here a part of the army of the 
 Loire, under gen. D'Aui-elle de Paladines, were 
 defeated after a severe action, by the Germans 
 under the grand-duke of Mecklenburg, 2 Dec. 1870. 
 See Orleans. 
 
 BE ACHY HEAD, a promontory, S.E. Sussex, 
 near which the British and Dutch fleet, commanded 
 by the earl of Torrington, was defeated by a supe- 
 rior French force under admiral Tourville, 30 June, 
 1690 ; the allies suffered very severely. The Dutch 
 lost two admirals, 500 men, and several ships — 
 sunk to prevent them from falling into the hands 
 of the enemy ; the English lost two ships and 400 
 men. The admirals on both sides were blamed ; 
 ours, for not fighting ; the French for not pursuing 
 the victory. 
 
 BEACONS, see Lighthouses. 
 
 BEADS were early used in the cast for reckon- 
 ing prayers. St. Augustan mentions them 366. 
 About 1690, Peter the Hermit is said to have made 
 a series of 55 beads. To Dominic de Guzman is 
 ascribed the "invention of the Rosary (a series of 
 15 large and 150 small beads), in honour of the 
 Blessed Virgin, about 1202. Beads soon after were 
 in general use. The Bead-roll was a list of de- 
 ceased persons, for the repose of whose souls a 
 certain number of prayers was recited. Beads have 
 been found in British barrows. 
 
 BEAM AND SCALES. The apparatus for 
 weighing goods was so called, "as it weighs so 
 much at the king's beam.'' A public beam was set 
 
 up in London, and all commodities ordered to be 
 weighed by the city officer, called the weigh- 
 master, who was to do justice between buyer and 
 seller, stat. 3 Edw. II. 1309. Stow. Beams and 
 scales, with weights and measures, were ordered to 
 be examined by the justices at quarter sessions, 
 35 Geo. III. 1794; sec Weights and Measures. 
 
 BEANS, Black axd White, were used by 
 
 the ancients in gathering the votes of the people for 
 the election of magistrates. A white bean signified 
 absolution, and a black one condemnation. The 
 precept of Pythagoras to abstain from beans, abstine 
 a fabis, has been variously interpreted. " Beans 
 do not favour mental tranquillity." Cicero. The 
 finer kinds of beans were brought here with other 
 vegetables, in Henry VIII. 's reign. 
 
 BEAR-BAITING, an ancient popular English 
 sport, prohibited by parliament in 1835. 
 
 BEARDS.* .The Egyptians did not wear 
 beards; the Assyrians did. They have been worn 
 for centuries by the Jews, who were forbidden to 
 mar their beards, 1490 B.C. Lev. xix. 27. The 
 Tartars waged a long war with the Pe:"sians, de- 
 claring them infidels, because they would not cut 
 their beards, after the custom of Tartary. The 
 Greeks wore their beards till the time of Alexander, 
 who ordered the Macedonians to be shaved, lest 
 the beard should give a handle to their enemies, 
 330 B.C. Beards were worn by the Romans, 390 B.C. 
 The emperor Julian wrote a diatribe (entitled 
 " Misopogon ") against wearing beards, a.d. 362. — 
 In England, they w r ere not fashionable after the 
 conquest, 1066, until the 13th century, and were 
 discontinued at the Restoration. Peter the Great 
 enjoined the Russians, even of rank, to shave, but 
 was obliged to keep officers on foot to cut off the 
 beard by force. Since 185 1 the custom of wearing 
 the beard gradually increased in Great Britain. 
 
 BEARN, S. France, the ancient Benccharnuni, 
 was held successively by the Romans, Franks, Goths, 
 and Gascons, and became a hereditary viscounty in 
 819, under Centule I., son of Loup, duke of Gas- 
 cony. From his family it passed to the houses — of 
 Gabaret, 1134; of Moncade, n 70; of Foix, 1290; 
 and of Bourbon, 1550. Its annexation to France 
 was decreed by Henry IV., 1594 ; affirmed by Louis 
 XIII. , 1620. 
 
 BEAUGE, see Anjou. 
 
 BEAULIEU, ABBEY OF, (reformed Bene- 
 dictines) founded by king John, in the Xew Forest, 
 Hampshire, in 1204, and dedicated to the Blessed 
 Virgin, had the privilege of sanctuary. It afforded 
 an asylum to Margaret, queen of Henry VL, after 
 the defeat of the earl of Warwick at Barnet, 
 14 April, 1471 ; and also to Perkin "Warbeck, Sept. 
 1497. 
 
 BEAUMONT, a village near Sedan, depart- 
 ment of Ardennes, X.E. Fiance. Near here a part 
 of the army of marshal MacMahon under De Failly, 
 
 * A bearded woman was taken by the Russians at the 
 battle of Poltowa, and presented to the Czar, Peter I. 
 1724: her beard measured ii yard. A woman is said t" 
 have been seen at Paris with a bushy beard, and her 
 whole body covered with hair. Diet, ilc Trevov.r. The 
 great Margaret, governess of the Netherlands, had a very 
 long stiff beard. In Bavaria, in the time of Wolfing, a 
 virgin had a long black beard. Mdlle. Bois de Chene, 
 born at Geneva (it was said) in 1834, was exhibited in 
 London, in 1852-3, when, consequently, eighteen years 
 of age ; she had a profuse head of hair, a strong black 
 heard, large whiskers, and thick hair on her arms and 
 down from her neck on her back, and masculine features. 
 
BEAUNE-LA-BOLLANDE. 
 
 S3 
 
 BEET-BOOT. 
 
 Avhich, after vainly endeavouring to reach Metz, 
 was retreating before the Germans under the crown 
 prince of Prussia, was surprised, defeated, and 
 driven across the Meuse at Mouzon, 30 Aug. 1870. 
 The French loss included about 7000 prisoners, 
 many guns, and much camp equipage. The victory 
 was chiefly gained by the Bavarians. 
 
 BEAUNE-LA-BOLLANDE, a village in 
 the Loiret, France. Here the French army of the 
 Loire, under general D'Aurelle de Paladines, was 
 defeated by the Germans, under prince Frederick 
 Charles, in an attempt to march in the direction of 
 Fontainebleau to relieve Paris, 28 Nov. 1870. The 
 French loss was reported hy the Germans to be 
 1000 dead, 4000 wounded; above 1700 prisoners. 
 Then- own loss was heavy. 
 
 BEAUVAIS (N. France^ the ancient Bello- 
 vaci, formerly capital of Picardy. "When besieged 
 by Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, with 
 8o,000 men, the women under Jeanne Fourquet or 
 Laine, also de la Hachette, from her using that 
 weapon, particular^ distinguished themselves, and 
 the duke raised the siege, 10 July, 1472. In 
 memory of this the women of Beauvais walk first 
 in the procession on the anniversary of their 
 deliverance. 
 
 BECKET' S MUBDEB.* Thomas Becket, 
 archishop of Canterbury, was murdered at the 
 altar, 29 Dec. 1170. The king was absolved of 
 guilty knowledge of the crime in 1 172, and did 
 penance at the tomb in 1174. The bones of Becket 
 were enshrined in gold and jewels in 1220 ; but 
 were burned in the reign of Henry VIII. 1539. 
 The Merchant Adventurers were at one time termed 
 " the Brotherhood of St. Thomas a, Becket." 
 
 BED. The ancients slept on skins. Beds were 
 afterwards made of loose rushes, heather, or straw. 
 The Romans are said to have first used feathers. 
 An air-cushion is said to have been used by Helio- 
 gabalus, 2T8-222 ; air-beds were in use in the 16th 
 century. Feather-beds were in use in England in 
 the reign of Henry VIII. The bedsteads of the 
 Egyptians and later Greeks, like modem couches, 
 became common among the Roman upper classes. 
 
 The ancient great bed at Ware, Herts, capable of hold- 
 ing twelve persons, was sold, it is said, to Charles 
 Dickens, 6 Sept. 1864. 
 
 A bedstead of gold was presented to the queen on 2 Nov. 
 1859, by the Maharajah of Cashmere. 
 
 Air-beds and water-beds have been made since the manu- 
 facture of india-rubber cloth by Clark in 1813 ; and by 
 Macintosh in 1823. 
 
 Dr. Arnott's hydrostatic bed invented in 1830. 
 
 BED OF JUSTICE, a French court presided 
 over by the king, whose seat was termed a " bed." 
 It controlled the ordinances of the parliament. 
 The last was held by Louis XVI. at Versailles, 
 19 Nov. 1787, to raise a loan. 
 
 * Thomas Becket was born in 1119. His father Gilbert 
 was a London trader, and his mother is stated to have 
 been a convert from Mahomedanism. He was educated 
 at Oxford, and made archdeacon by Theobald, archbishop 
 of Canterbury, who introduced him to the king, Henry II. 
 He became chancellor in 1155, but on being elected arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury in 1162, he resigned the chancellor- 
 ship, to the great offence of the king. He opposed 
 strenuously the constitutions of Clarendon in 1164, and 
 fled the country ; and in 1166, excommunicated all the 
 clergy who agreed to abide by them. He and the king 
 met at Fretville, in Touraine, on 22 July, 1170, and were 
 formally reconciled. On his return he re-commenced 
 his struggle with the king, which led to his tragical 
 death. 
 
 BEDEB (Arabia) . Here Mahomet gained his 
 first victory (over the Koreish of Mecca), 623. It 
 was considered to be miraculous. 
 
 BEDFOBD, a town, N.N.Vf. London, re- 
 nowned for its many free educational establish- 
 ments, endowed in 1561 by sir Wm. Harpur, a 
 London alderman. Here John Bunyan preached, 
 and wrote " The Pilgrim's Progress." 
 
 BEDFOBD LEVEL, a portion of the great 
 fen districts in the eastern counties, drained in the 
 early part of the 17th century by the earl of Bed- 
 ford, aided by the celebrated Dutch engineer, sir 
 Cornelius Vermuyden, amid great opposition ; see 
 Levels. 
 
 BEDLAM, see Bethlehem. 
 
 BEDOUINS, wandering tribes of Arabs, living 
 on the plunder of travellers, &c. They profess a 
 form of Mahomedanism, and are governed by 
 sheikhs. They are said to be descendants of Ish- 
 mael, and appear to fulfil the prophecy respecting 
 him, Gen. xvi. 12, 191 1 B.C. 
 
 BEEF-EATEBS, see Battle-axe. 
 
 "BEEF STEAKS, the Sublime Society of," 
 was established in 1735 by Rich, an actor at Covent 
 Garden Theatre, in the painting-room of which the 
 members dined upon ' beef-steaks. The society 
 became fashionable, and long included among its 
 members the prince of "Wales, royal dukes, and 
 other eminent persons, who submitted to its some- 
 what, ludicrous regulations. It became extinct in 
 1867, its last place of meeting being a room in the 
 Lyceum theatre. Its history was published by 
 Brother Arnold in 1871. 
 
 BEEB, see Ale, Porter, Victuallers. 
 
 BEEB-HOUSES. Law respecting (11 Geo. 
 IV. and 1 Will. IV., c. 64, 1830), &c, amended in 
 1869. 
 
 BEES. Mount Hybla, on account of its odori- 
 ferous flowers, thyme, and abundance of honey, has 
 been poetically called the "empire of bees." Hy- 
 mettus, in Attica, was also famous for its bees and 
 honey. The economy of bees was admired in the 
 earliest ages ; and Eumelus, of Corinth, wrote a 
 poem on bees, 741 b.c. Bees were introduced 
 into Boston, New England, in 1670, and have 
 since spread over the continent. Mandeville's 
 satirical " Fable of the Bees " appeared in 1723. 
 Huber published his observations on bees in 1792. 
 The Apiarian Society had an establishment at Mus- 
 well Hill, near London (1860-2). The Ligurian 
 variety of the honey-bee was successfully introduced 
 into England in i860. 
 
 BEES', ST., Cumberland. A monastery was 
 founded here by St. Bega, 650 ; a grammar school 
 by abp. Grindall, 1583 ; a clerical training college 
 by bp. Law, 181 7. 
 
 BEET-BOOT is of recent cultivation in Eng- 
 land. Beta vulgaris, red beet, is used for the table 
 as a salad. Margraff first produced sugar from the 
 white beet-root in 1747. M. Achard produced ex- 
 cellent sugar from it in 1799 ; and the chemists of 
 France, at the instance of Bonaparte, largely ex- 
 tracted sugar from the beet-root in 1800. 60,000 
 tons of sugar, about half the consumption, are now 
 manufactured in France from beet. It is also 
 largely manufactured in other countries. A refinery 
 of sugar from beet-root has been erected at the 
 
BEGGAES. 
 
 84 
 
 BELGIUM. 
 
 Thames bank, Chelsea. The cultivation of beet- 
 root in England and Ireland much advocated, 1871. 
 
 BEGGARS were tolerated in ancient times, 
 being often musicians and ballad-singers. In 
 modern times severe laws have been passed against 
 them. In 1572, by 14 Eliz., c. 5, sturdy beggars 
 were ordered to be " grievously wnipped and burnt 
 through the right ear ; " punished capitally for the 
 third offence. By the Vagrant Act (1824), 5 Geo. IV. 
 c. 83, all public beggars are liable to a month's im- 
 prisonment. About 30,000 tramps in England and 
 "Wales. Judicial Statistics, 1865. See Poor Laics 
 and Mendicity Society. The " Beggar's Opera," 
 by John Gay, a satire against the government of 
 sir Eobert Walpole, was produced at the Lincoln' s- 
 inn-fields theatre, 1728, and had a run of 63 nights; 
 see Gueux. 
 
 BEGUINES, a congregation of nuns first 
 established at Liege, and afterwards at Nivelle, in 
 1207, some say, 1226. The "Grand Beguinage " 
 of Bruges was the most extensive. Some of these 
 nuns imagined that they could become sinless. The 
 council of Yienue condemned this error, and 
 abolished a branch of the order in 1311. They still 
 exist in Germany and Belgium, acting as nurses to 
 the sick and wounded, &c. 
 
 BEHEADING, the Dccollatio of the Romans, 
 introduced into England from Normandy (as a less 
 ignominious mode of putting high criminals to 
 death), by "William the Conqueror, 1076, when 
 Waltheof, earl of Huntingdon, Northampton, and 
 Northumberland, was first so executed. Since then 
 this mode of execution became frequent, particu- 
 larly in the reigns of Henry VIII., Mary, and 
 Elizabeth, when even women of the noblest blood 
 thus perished.* 
 
 BEHISTUN, in Persia. At this place is a 
 rock containing important inscriptions in three 
 languages, in cuneiform (or wedge-shaped) cha- 
 racters, which were deciphered and translated by 
 sir H. Rawlinson in 1844-6, and published in the 
 Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. Each para- 
 graph commences with "I am Darius the Great 
 Eing." 
 
 BEHKLTSTG'S STEAIT, discovered by captain 
 Vitus Behring, a Danish navigator in the service of 
 Russia. He thus proved that the continents of 
 Asia and America are distant from each other about 
 thirty-nine miles, 1728. He died at Behring' s 
 island in 1741. In 1778 captain James Cook sur- 
 veyed the coasts of both continents. 
 
 BELFAST, capital of Ulster, N. Ireland. Its 
 castle, supposed to have been built by John de 
 Courcy, was destroyed by the Scots under Edward 
 Bruce, 1315 ; see Orange. 
 
 Belfast granted by James I. to sir Arthur Chichester, 
 then lord deputy, 1612 ; and erected into a corpo- 
 ration 1613 
 
 The long bridge (21 arches, 2562 feet long) built . 1682-6 
 The first edition of the Bible in Ireland, printed here 1704 
 
 The castle burnt 4 April, 1708 
 
 The bank built ........ 1787 
 
 The mechanics' institute established . . . 1825 
 The Queen's bridge (5 arches) built on site of the 
 long bridge 1841 
 
 * Lady Jane Grey was beheaded 12 Feb. 1554. The 
 venerable countess of Salisbury was executed 27 May, 
 1541. When directed to lay her head on the block, she 
 refused to do it : saying that she knew of no guilt, and 
 ■would not submit to die like a criminal. The executioner 
 pursued her round the scaffold, aiming at her hoary head, 
 and at length took it off, after mangling the neck and 
 shoulders in a horrifying manner. She was daughter of 
 George, duke of Clarence. Hume. 
 
 Of three colleges established in Ireland in 1845, one 
 
 inaugurated in Belfast (see Colleges) . . Oct. 1849 
 Much rioting at Belfast through Mr. Ilanna's open- 
 air preaching July— Sept. 1857 
 
 "Victoria chambers" burnt down; the loss esti- 
 mated at ioo,ooo£ 1 July, 1859 
 
 Exciting religious revivals . . . Sept. „ 
 
 Fierce conflicts between Roman Catholics and Pro- 
 testants on account of the foundation of the 
 O'Connell monument at Dublin — 9 lives lost and 
 150 persons injured .... 10-27 Aug. 1864 
 
 Rioting again 30 April, 1865 
 
 Election riots July, ,, 
 
 Visit of the lord lieutenant the marquis of Abercorn 
 
 2-4 Oct. 1867 
 Severe rioting; much destruction of property and 
 many persons injured. Civil war raging between 
 Catholics and Protestants, 15-21 Aug. Peace re- 
 stored 22 Aug. 1872 
 
 BELGIUM, the southern portion of the Nether- 
 lands, and anciently the territory of the Belga?, who 
 were finally conquered by Julius Cresar, 51 B.C. Its 
 size is about one-eighth of Great Britain. Its 
 government is a liberal constitutional monarchy, 
 founded in 1831. For previous history, see Flanders, 
 Netherlands, and Holland. The population (31 Dec.) 
 1862, 4,836,566; 1865, 4,984,451 ; 1866, 4,829,320 ; 
 1870,5,087,105. 
 
 The revolution commences at Brussels 25 Aug, 1830 
 The provisional government declares Belgium inde- 
 pendent 4 Oct. ,, 
 
 Antwerp taken (except the citadel). . 23!'' 
 Belgian independence acknowledged by the allied 
 
 ] towers 26 Dec. ,, 
 
 Duke de Nemours elected king (his father, the 
 
 French king, refused his consent) . 3 Feb. 1831 
 Surlet de Chokier is elected regent . . 24 Feb. ,, 
 Leopold, prince of Saxe-Coburg, elected king, 12 July, 
 
 enters Brussels 19 July, ,, 
 
 War with the Netherlands commences . 3 Aug. „ 
 France sends 50,000 troops to assist Belgium, and 
 
 an armistice ensues Aug. ,, 
 
 Conference of ministers of the five great powers held 
 
 in London : acceptance of 24 articles of pacification 
 
 15 Nov. ,, 
 Convention between England and France against 
 
 Holland 22 Oct. 1832 
 
 Antwerp besieged, 30 Nov. ; the citadel taken by the 
 
 French 23 Dec. ,, 
 
 The French army returns to France . . 27 Dec. ,, 
 Riot at Brussels (see Brussels) . . . 6 April, 1834 
 Treaty* between Holland and Belgium signed in 
 
 London 19 April, 1839 
 
 Queen of England visits Belgium . . . Aug. 1852 
 The king and his son visit England . . Oct. ,, 
 Increase of army to 100,000 men voted . 10 May, 1S53 
 Opposition to religious charities' bill t . June, 1857 
 A new ministry under M. Charles Rogier 9 Nov. ,, 
 The chambers dissolved ; re-assembled . 10 Dec. ,, 
 The king proclaims Belgium neutral in the Italian 
 
 war May, 1859 
 
 Birth of prince Leopold Ferdinand . 12 June, 
 
 Death of M. Potter 22 July, ,, 
 
 The king visits England June, i860 
 
 Vague rumours of annexation to France produce 
 
 warm loyal addresses to the king . . 13 June, ,, 
 The octrois abolished .... 21 July ,, 
 Successful military volunteer movement . Aug. ,, 
 Commercial treaty with France signed . . 1 May, 1861 
 
 * This treaty arose out of the conference held in Li indi >n 
 on the Belgian question; by the decision of which, the 
 treaty of 15 Nov. 1831, was maintained, and the pecu- 
 niary compensation of sixty millions of francs offered by 
 Belgium for the territories adjudged to Holland was 
 declared inadmissible. 
 
 f At the revolution in 1830, the Roman Catholic clergy 
 lost the administration of the public charities, which 
 they have struggled to recover ever since. In April, 
 1857, M. Decker, the head of the ministry, brought in a 
 bill for this purpose, the principle of which was carried. 
 This led, however, to so much agitation, that the minis- 
 try were compelled to withdraw the bill, and eventually 
 to resign. 
 
BELGRADE. 
 
 85 
 
 BELLOWS. 
 
 Continued illness of the king, with occasional 
 amendment May, June, 1862 
 
 Commercial treaty with Great Britain adopted by 
 the chamber. ..... 22 Aug. ,, 
 
 Great distress through decay of trade . Aug. „ 
 
 Fierce dissensions through Roman Catholics, Jan. ; 
 the ministry resigns,' but resumes office, 4 Feb. ; 
 dissolution of the chambers, 17 July; the Pro- 
 testants superior in the election . . . Aug. 1864 
 
 Death of Leopold 1 10 Dec. 1865 
 
 The new king and queen visit England, 5 July ; and 
 Ghent and other Belgian cities . . . July, 1866 
 
 National rifle meeting (tir) . . 12-16 Oct. „ 
 
 Mr. Phillips, lord mayor of London, and 1 100 English 
 volunteers visit Belgium under col. Loyd Lind- 
 say ; other foreigners attend ; grand banquet given 
 by the king at Brussels . . . .20 Oct. ,, 
 
 Opening of the chambers, with a re-assuring speech 
 from the king 13 Nov. ,, 
 
 Violent rioting in mining districts (Marchienne-au- 
 Pont) on account of reduction in wages ; sup- 
 pressed by the military ... 1-2 Feb. 1867 
 
 About 2400 Belgians (of the garde civique and volun- 
 teers) visit England ; arrive, 10 July ; received by 
 lord mayor, 12 July ; by prince of Wales at Wim- 
 bledon, 13 July ; dine at Windsor, 16 July ; at a 
 ball at Agricultural Hall, 18 July ; received by 
 Miss Burdett-Coutts, 19 July ; attend the review 
 at Wimbledon, 20 July ; leave London 22 July, ,, 
 
 New ministry (under M. Frere-Orban) ; liberal ; 
 
 3 Jan. 1868 
 
 Serious riots in the mining districts ; put down by 
 the military ; 10 lives lost . . 25-29 March, „ 
 
 Monument to Charlemagne at Liege, inaugurated 
 
 26 July, ,, 
 
 International congress of workmen at Brussels 
 
 6-13 Nov. ,, 
 
 The crown prince Leopold Ferdinand, duke of Bra- 
 bant, died 22 Jan. 1869 
 
 Concession of a Luxembourg railway to a French 
 railway company, without the assent of the state, 
 prohibited by the assembly, 13 Feb. ; dispute with 
 the French government arranged . . May, 1869 
 
 International rifle meeting held at Liege 19 Sept. ,, 
 
 Resignation of the Frere-Orban ministry, 
 
 about 19 June, 1870 
 
 M. D'Anethan's ministry announced . 3 July, ,, 
 
 Treaty for the neutrality of Belgium between Great 
 Britain and Prussia, signed 9 Aug. ; and France, 
 signed 11 Aug. „ 
 
 Warm gratitude to Great Britain expressed by the 
 king and people 8 Aug. „ 
 
 After the surrender of Sedan many French soldiers 
 enter Belgium, and are disarmed and interned, 
 
 1-2 Sept. „ 
 
 Strong opposition to the ministry by M. Barra and 
 others ; riots at Brussels . . . 22-25 Nov. „ 
 
 Resignation of D' Anethan ; M. de Theux de Meylandt 
 (a moderate) forms a ministry . . 7 Dec. 1871 
 
 The comte de Chambord arrives at Antwerp, 
 17 Feb. ; compelled to quit Belgium through popu- 
 lar demonstrations 27 Feb. 1872 
 
 The French government denounce the treaty of 
 commerce with Belgium . . .29 March, ,, 
 
 KINGS. 
 
 1831. Leopold,* first king of the Belgians ; bom 16 Dee. 
 1790 ; inaugurated 21 July, 1831, at Brussels ; 
 married, 9 Aug. 1832, Louise, eldest daughter of 
 Louis Philippe, king of the French (she died 
 11 Oct. 1850). He died 10 Dec. 1865. 
 
 1865. Leopold II., son ; born 9 April, 1835 ; married 
 archduchess Maria of Austria, 22 Aug. 1853. 
 
 Heir. Princess Louise, born 18 Feb. 1858. 
 
 BELGRADE, an ancient city in Servia, on 
 the right bank of the Danube. It was taken from 
 the Greek emperor by Solomon, king of Hungary, 
 in 1086 ; gallantly defended by John Huniades 
 against the Turks, under Mahomet II., July to 
 Sept. 1456, when the latter was defeated, with the 
 loss of 40,000 men. Belgrade was taken by sultan 
 Solyman, Aug. 1521, and retaken by the Im- 
 perialists in 1688, from whom it was again taken by 
 
 * Leopold married, in May, 1816, the princess Char- 
 lotte of Wales, daughter of the prince regent, afterwards 
 George IV. of England ; she died in childbed, 6 Nov. 1817. 
 
 the Turks, 1690. It was besieged in May, 1716, by 
 prince Eugene. In that year the Turkish army, 
 200,000 strong, approached to relieve it, and on 5 
 Aug. a sanguinary battle was fought at Peterwara- 
 dein, in which the Turks lost 20,000 men. Eugene 
 defeated the Turks here, 16 Aug. 1717, and Bel- 
 grade surrendered 18 Aug. In 1739 it was ceded to 
 the Turks, after its fine fortifications had been de- 
 molished. It was retaken in 1789, and restored at 
 the peace of Beichenbacli, in 1790. The Servian 
 insurgents had possession of it, 1806-13. In 1815 
 it was placed under prince Milosch, subject to 
 Turkey. The fortifications were restored in 1820. 
 On 19 June, 1862, the Turkish pasha was dismissed 
 for firing on the town during a riot. The university 
 was established by private munificence, 1863. The 
 fortress was surrendered by the Turks to the Ser- 
 vians, 18 April, 1867 ; see Servia. 
 
 BELGRAVIA, a south-western district of the 
 metropolis, built between 1826 and 1852 upon land 
 belonging to the marquis of Westminster, who is 
 also viscount Belgrave. 
 
 BELIZE, see Honduras. 
 
 BELL, Book, and Candle : in tha Eomish 
 
 ceremony of excommunication (which see), the 
 bell is rung, the book is closed, and candle extin- 
 guished; the effect being to exclude the excom- 
 municated from the society of the faithful, divine 
 service, and the sacraments. Its origin is ascribed 
 to the 8th century. 
 
 BELL ROCK LIGHTHOUSE, nearly in 
 front of the Erith of Tay, one of the finest in Great 
 Britain; it is 115 feet high, is built upon a rock 
 that measures 427 feet in length, and 200 feet in 
 breadth, and is about 12 feet under water.* It was 
 erected in 1806-10. It is provided with two bells 
 for hazy weather. 
 
 BELLAIR, North America. The town was 
 attacked by the British forces under sir Peter 
 Parker, who, after an obstinate engagement, was 
 killed, 30 Aug. 1814. 
 
 BELLEISLE, an isle on the south coast of 
 Brittany, France, erected into a duchy for marshal 
 Belleisle, in 1742, in reward of his military and 
 diplomatic services, by Louis XV. Belleisle was 
 taken by the British forces under commodore 
 Keppel and general Hodgson, after a desperate 
 resistance, 7 June, 1761, but was restored to Erance 
 in 1763. 
 
 BELLES-LETTRES, or Polite Learn- 
 ing, see Academies, and Literature. 
 
 BELLEVILLE, the red republican stronghold 
 of Paris, defended by seven barricades, was cap- 
 tured by L'Admirault and Vinoy, 27, 28 May, 
 1871, when the insurrection was suppressed. 
 
 BELLMEN, appointed in London to proclaim 
 the hour of the night before public clocks became 
 general, were numerous about 1556. They were to 
 ring a bell at night, and cry, "Take care of your 
 fire and candle, be charitable to the poor, and pray 
 for the dead." 
 
 BELLOWS. Anacharsis, the Scythian, is 
 said to have been the inventor of them, about 569 
 B.C. ; and to him is ascribed the invention of tinder, 
 the potter's wheel, anchors for ships, &c. Bellows 
 
 * Upon this rock, tradition says, the abbots of the 
 ancient monastery of Aberbrothock fixed a bell (the 
 Inchccqie ball) in such a manner that it was rung by the 
 impulse of the sea, thus warning mariners of their im- 
 pending danger. Tradition also tells us that this appa- 
 ratus was carried away by a Dutchman, who was after- 
 wards lost upon the rock, with his ship and crew. 
 
BELLS. 
 
 86 
 
 BENEDICTINES. 
 
 were not used in the furnaces of the Romans. The 
 great hellows of our foundries must have heen early 
 used ; see Blowing Machines. 
 
 BELLS were used among the Jews, Greeks, and 
 Eomans. The responses of the Dodomean oracle 
 were in part conveyed by bells. Strabo. The 
 monument of Porsenna was decorated with pin- 
 nacles, each surmounted by bells. I J /">;/. Said to 
 have been introduced by Paulinus, bishop of Kola, 
 in Campagna, about 400; and first known in France 
 in 550. The army of Clothaire II., king of France, 
 was frightened from the siege of Sens by the ringing 
 of the bells of St. Stephen's church. The second 
 excerption of our king Egbert commands every 
 priest, at the proper hours, to sound the bells of his 
 church. Bells were used in churches by order of 
 pope John IX., about 900, as a defence, by ringing 
 then), against thunder and lightning. Bells are said 
 to have been cast by Turkotul, abbot of England, 
 about 941. The celebrated " Song of the Bell," by 
 Schiller (died 1805), has been frequently translated. 
 The following list is that given by Mr. E. Beckett 
 Denison in his discourse on bells at the Koyal In- 
 stitution, 6 March, 1857. 
 
 Weight. 
 TonsCwt. 
 Moscow, 1736;* broken, 1737 .... 250 ? 
 
 Another, 1817 no ? 
 
 Three others 16 to 31 
 
 Novgorod 31 o 
 
 Olmiitz 17 18 
 
 Vienna, 1711 17 14 
 
 Westminster, 1856, t " Big Ben " . . . 15 85 
 
 Erfurt, i4g7 13 15 
 
 Westminster, 1858, X " St. Stephen " . . . 13 ioj 
 
 Sens 13 ? 
 
 Paris, 1680 12 16 
 
 Montreal, 1847 12 15 
 
 Cologne, 1448 11 3 
 
 Breslau, 1507 no 
 
 Gbrlitz 10 17 
 
 York, 1845 10 15 
 
 Bruges, 1680 10 5 
 
 St. Peter's, Rome 80 
 
 Oxford, 1680 7 12 
 
 Lucerne, 1636 7 n 
 
 Halberstadt, 1457 7 IO 
 
 Antwerp 73 
 
 Brussels 7 ij 
 
 Dantzic, 1453 61 
 
 Lincoln, 1834 58 
 
 St. Paul's, 1716! 54 
 
 Ghent 4 18 
 
 Boulogne, new 4 18 
 
 Exeter, 1675 4 10? 
 
 Old Lincoln, 1610 48 
 
 Fourth quarter-bell, Westminster, 1857 . .40 
 
 * The metal has been valued at the lowest estimate, at 
 66,565?. Gold and silver are said to have been thrown in 
 as votive offerings. 
 
 t The largest bell in England (named Big Ben, after 
 sir Benjamin Hall, the then chief commissioner 1 if wi >rks), 
 cast at Houghton-le-Spring, Durham, by Messrs. Warner, 
 underthe superintendence of Mr. E. Beckett Denison, and 
 the Rev. W. Taylor, at an expense of 3343?. 14s. or'. The 
 composition was 22 parts copper and 7 tin. The diameter 
 was 9 ft. 5J in. ; the height, 7 ft. loh in. The clapper 
 weighed 12 e.wt. Bev. W. Taylor. 
 
 { The bell "Big Ben " having been found to be cracked 
 on 24 Oct. 1857, it was broken "p ni "l another bell east 
 with the same metal, in May, 1858, by Messrs. Mears, 
 Whitechapel. It is rather different 'in shape from its 
 predecessor, "Big Ben," and about 2 tons lighter. Its 
 diameter is 9 ft. 6 in. ; the height 7 ft. 10 in. It was 
 struck for the first time, iS Nov. 1858. The clapper 
 weighs 6cwt. — half that of the former bell. The note of 
 the bell is E natural : the quarter-bells being G, B, E, F. 
 On 1 Oct. 1859, this bell was also found to lie cracked, 
 
 § The clapper of St Paul's bell weighs 180 lbs. ; the 
 diameter of the bell is 10 feet (Mr. Walesby says 6 ft. 
 ojin.), and its thickness 10 in. The hour strikes upon 
 this bell, the quarters upon two smaller ones; see Clocks. 
 
 Baptism of Bells.— They were anointed and baptized 
 
 in churches, it is said, from tie' 10th century, h" 
 Fresnoy. The bells of the priory of Little Dunmow, in 
 Essex, were baptized by the names of St Michael, St. 
 
 John, Virgin Alary, Holy Trinity. &c, in 1501. II'- ■ 
 The great bell of Notre Dame, of Paris, was baptized by 
 the name of duke of AngOUlSme, 1816. 1 >u the continent, 
 
 in Roman Catholic 
 
 ships, but with religious solemnity. .: 
 
 Ringing: or Bclls, in changes of regular peals, is 
 almost peculiar to the English, who boast of having 
 brought the practice to an art. There are societies of 
 ringers in London. A sixth bell was added to the peal 
 of five, in the church of St. Michael, 1430. Stow. Nell 
 Gwynne leftthe ringers of the bells of St. Martin's-in the- 
 n-Ms money tor a weekly entertainment, 16S7, and many 
 others have done the same. 
 
 BELOOCHISTAN, the ancient Gedrosia 
 (S. Asia). Kelat, the capital, was taken by the 
 British in the Afghan war, 1839; abandoned, 1840; 
 taken and held a short time, 1840. 
 
 BELVIDERE EXPLOSION, see Gun- 
 powder (note). 
 
 BENARES, in India, a holy city of the Hin- 
 doos, abounding in temples. It was ceded by the 
 nabob of Oude, Asoph-ud-Dowlah, to the, English 
 in 1775- An insurrection took place here, which 
 had nearly proved fatal to the British interests in 
 Hindostau, 1781. The rajah, Cheyt Sing, was de- 
 posed in consequence of it, in 1783. Mr. Cherry, 
 capt. Conway, and others, were assassinated at 
 Benares, by vizier Aly, 14 Jan. 1799. In June, 
 1857, col. Neil succeeded in suppressing attempts 
 of the native infantry to join the mutiny ; see 
 India. 
 
 BEISTBURB, near Armagh (N. Ireland). Here 
 O'Neill totally defeated the English under Monroe, 
 5 June, 1646. Moore says that it was "the only 
 great victory since the days of Brian Boru, achieved 
 by an Irish chieftain in the cause of Ireland." 
 
 BENCOOLEN (Sumatra). The English East 
 India company made a settlement here which pre- 
 served to them the pepper trade after the Dutch had 
 dispossessed them of Bantam, 1682. Anderson. York 
 fort was erected by the East India company, 1690. 
 In 1693 a dreadful mortality raged her-c, occasioned 
 by the town being built on a pestilent morass; 
 among others the governor and council perished. 
 The French, under count D'Estaign, destroyed the 
 English settlement, 1760. Bencoolen was reduced 
 to a residency under the government of Bengal, in 
 1801, and was ceded to the Dutch, in 1824, in ex- 
 change for their possessions in Malacca ; see India. 
 
 BENDER, Bessarabia, European Russia. Near 
 it was the asylum of Charles XII. of Sweden, after 
 his defeat at Pultowa by the czar Peter the Great, 
 8 July, 1709. The peace of Bender was concluded 
 in 171 1. Bender was taken by storm, by the Russians, 
 28 Sept. 1770; was taken by Potemkin in 1789, and 
 again in 1809. It was restored at the peace of 
 Jassy, but retained at the peace of 181 2. 
 
 BENEDICTINES, an order of monks founded 
 by St. Benedict (lived 480-543), who introduced the 
 monastic life into Western Europe, in 529, when he 
 founded the monastery on Monte Casino in Cam- 
 pania, and eleven others afterwards. His Rcgula 
 Monachorum (rule of the monks) soon became the 
 common rule of western monuchism. No religious 
 order lias been so remarkable for extent, wealth, 
 and, men of note and learning, as the Benedictine. 
 Among its branches the chief were the Cluniacs, 
 founded in 912; the Cistercians, founded in 1098, 
 
BENEFICE. 
 
 BEBGEN. 
 
 and reformed by St. Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux, in 
 II 16; and the Carthusians, from the Chartreux 
 (hence Charter-house), founded by Bruno about 
 1080. The Benedictine order was introduced into 
 England by Augustin, in 596 ; and "William I. built 
 an abbey for it on the plain where the battle of 
 Hastings was fought, 1066 ; see Battle- Abbey. 
 William de Warrenne, earl of Vf arrenne, built a 
 convent at Lewes, in Sussex, in 1077. Of this 
 order it is reckoned that there have been 40 popes, 
 200 cardinals, 50 patriarchs, 1 16 archbishops, 4600 
 bishops, 4 emperors, 12 empresses, 46 kings, 41 
 queens, and 3600 saints. Their founder was canon- 
 ised. Baronius. The Benedictines have taken 
 little part in politics, but have produced many 
 valuable literary Avorks. The congregation of St. 
 Maur published the celebrated " 1' Art de Verifier les 
 Dates," in 1750, and edited many ancient authors. 
 
 BENEFICE (literally a good deed or favour), 
 or Fief. Clerical benefices originated in the 12th 
 century, when the priesthood began to imitate the 
 feudal lay system of holding lands for performing- 
 certain duties : till then the priests were supported 
 by alms and oblations at mass. Vicarages, rectories, 
 perpetual curacies, and chaplaincies, are termed 
 benefices, in contradistinction to dignities, such as 
 bishoprics, &c. A rector is entitled to all the tithes ; 
 a vicar, to a small part or to none. — All benefices that 
 should become vacant in the space of six months, 
 were given by pope Clement VII. to his nephew, in 
 1534. Notitia Monastica. An act for the aug- 
 mentation of poor benefices by the sale of some of 
 those in the presentation of the lord chancellor, was 
 passed in 1863, and an act respecting the seques- 
 tration of benefices and their- union was passed, 
 1871. 
 
 BENEFIT OF CLEBGY, see Clergy. 
 
 BENEFIT SOCIETIE.S, see Friendly 
 Societies. 
 
 BENE VENTUM (now Benevento), an ancient 
 city in South Italy, said to have been founded by 
 Diomedes the Greek, after the fall of Troy. Pyr- 
 rhus of Macedon, during his invasion of Italy, was 
 totally defeated near Beneventum, 275 B.C. Near 
 it was erected the triumphal arch of Trajan, a.d. 
 114. Benevento was formed into a duchy by the 
 Lombards, 571. At a battle fought here, 26 Feb. 
 1266, Manfred, king of Sicily, was defeated and slain 
 by Charles of An j ou, who thus became virtually niaster 
 of Italy. The castle was built 1323 ; the town was 
 nearly destroyed by an earthquake, 1688, when the 
 archbishop, afterwards pope Benedict XIII., was 
 dug out of the ruins afike, and contributed to its sub- 
 sequent rebuilding, 1 703. It was seized by the 
 king of Naples, but restored to the pope on the 
 suppression of the Jesuits, 1773- Talleyrand de 
 Perigord, Bonaparte's arch-chancellor, was made 
 prince of Benevento, 1806. Benevento was taken 
 by the French, 1798, and restored to the pope in 
 1815. 
 
 BENEVOLENCES (Aids, Free Gifts, actually 
 Forced Loans) appear to have been claimed by our 
 Anglo-Saxon sovereigns. Special ones were levied 
 by Edward IV., 1473, by Bichard III., 1485 (al- 
 though a statute forbidding them was enacted 
 in 1484), by Henry VII., 1492 ; and by James 
 I., in 1613, on occasion of the marriage of the 
 princess Elizabeth with Frederick, the elector 
 palatine, afterwards king of Bohemia. In 1615 
 Oliver St. John, M.P., was fined 5000^., and chief 
 justice Coke disgraced, for severely censuring- such 
 
 modes of raising money. Benevolences were de- 
 clared illegal by the bill of rights, Feb. 1689. 
 
 BENGAL, chief presidency of British India, 
 containing Calcutta, the capital. Its governors 
 were appointed by the sovereigns of Delhi, till 
 1340, when it became independent. It was added 
 to the Mogul empire by Baber, about 1529; see 
 India and Calcutta. 
 
 The English first permitted to trade to Bengal. . 1534 
 They establish a settlement at Hooghly . about 1652 
 Factories of the French and Danes set up . . 1664 
 
 Bengal made a distinct agency 1680 
 
 The English settlement removed to Fort William . 1698 
 Imperial grant vesting the revenues of Bengal in the 
 
 company, by which it gained the sovereignty of 
 
 the country 12 Aug. 1765 
 
 India Bill ; Bengal made chief presidency ; supreme 
 
 court of judicature established . . 16 June, 1773 
 Bishop of Calcutta appointed . . 21 July, 1813 
 
 Railway opened 15 Aug. 1854 
 
 Awful famine in Orissa (which see) . . . 1865-66 
 Lieut. -governor, Hon. Wm. Grey .... 1867 
 
 „ ,, Geo. Campbell 1871 
 
 BENZOLE, or Benzine, a compound of 
 
 hydrogen and carbon, discovered by Faraday in oils 
 (1825), and by C. B. Mansfield in coal tar (1849) 
 the latter of whom unfortunately died in con- 
 sequence of being severely burnt while experi- 
 menting on it (25 Feb. 1855). Benzole has become 
 useful in the arts. Chemical research has pro- 
 duced from it aniline (which see), the source of the 
 celebrated modern dyes, mauve, magenta, &e., and 
 others ; see Alizarine. 
 
 BEOWULF, an ancient Anglo-Saxon epic 
 poem, describing events which probably occurred 
 in the middle of the 5th century, supposed to have 
 been written subsequent to 597. An edition by 
 Kemble was published in 1833. It has been trans- 
 lated by Kemble, Thorpe, and AVackerbarth. 
 
 BEBBICE (S. America), settled by the Dutch, 
 1626, who surrendered it to the British, 23 April, 
 
 1796, and 22 Sept. 1803; and finally in 1814. It 
 was united to Demerara and named British Guiana, 
 1831. 
 
 BEBENGARIANS, followers of Berengarius, 
 archdeacon of Angers, who about 1049, opposed the 
 Komish doctrine of transubstantiation, or the real 
 presence in the Lord's supper. Several councils 
 of the church condemned his doctrine, 1050-79. 
 After much controversy he recanted about 1079, and 
 died grieved and wearied in 6 Jan. 1088. 
 
 BEBESINA, a river in Bussia, crossed by the 
 French main army after its defeat by the Bussians, 
 25-29 Nov. 1812. The French lost upwards of 
 20,000 men, and their retreat was attended by 
 great calamity and suffering. 
 
 BEBG ("W. Germany), on the extinction of its 
 line of counts, in 1348, was incorporated with 
 Juliers. Napoleon I. made Murat grand-duke in 
 1806. The principal part is now held by Prussia. 
 
 BEBGAMO (N. Italy), a Lombard duchy, was 
 annexed to Venice, 1428 ; which chiefly held it till 
 it revolted, and was joined to the Cisalpine republic, 
 
 1797. It was awarded to Austria in 1814, and 
 ceded to Sardinia, 1859. 
 
 BEBGEN (Norway), founded 1070; was the 
 royal residence during the 12th and 13th centuries. 
 
 BEBGEN (in Germany), BATTLE OF, be- 
 tween the French and allies, the latter defeated, 
 13 April, 1752. — (In Holland) i. The allies under 
 
BERGEN-OP-ZOOM. 
 
 BESSEMER STEEL. 
 
 the duke of York were defeated by the French, 
 under gen. Brune, with great loss, 19 Sept. 1799. 
 2. In another battle, fought 2 Oct. same year, the 
 duke gained a victory over Brune ; but on the 
 6th, the duke was defeated, before Alkmaer, and on 
 the 20th entered into a convention, by which his 
 army was exchanged for 6000 French and Dutch 
 prisoners in England. 
 
 BERGEN - OP - ZOOM, in Holland. This 
 place, whose works were deemed impregnable, was 
 taken by the French, 16 Sept. 1747, and again in 
 1795. An attempt, made by the British under 
 general sir T. Graham (afterwards lord Lynedoch), 
 to carry the fortress by storm, was defeated ; after 
 forcing an entrance, their retreat was cut off, and 
 a dreadful slaughter ensued ; nearly all were cut to 
 pieces or made prisoners, 8 March, 1814. 
 
 BERGERAC, France. Here John of Gaunt, 
 then earl of Derby, defeated the French, in 1344, 
 and here a temporary treaty of peace between the 
 Catholics and Protestants, establishing liberty of 
 conscience, was signed 17 Sept. 1577. 
 
 BERKELEY CASTLE, Gloucestershire, was 
 begun by Henry I. in 1108, and finished in the next 
 reign. Here Edward II. was cruelly murdered by 
 the contrivance of his queen Isabella (a princess of 
 France), and her paramour, Mortimer, earl of 
 March, 21 Sept. 1327. Mortimer was hanged at the 
 Elms, near London, 29 Nov. 1330 ; and Edward III. 
 confined his mother in her own house at Castle 
 Eising, near Lynn, in Norfolk, til) her death, 1357. 
 
 BERLIN (capital of Prussia, in the province 
 of Brandenburg), alleged to have been founded by 
 the margrave Albert the Bear, about 1163. Its five 
 districts were united under one magistracy, in 17 14 ; 
 and it was subsequently made the capital of Prussia 
 and greatly improved by the sovereigns. It was 
 taken and held by the Russians and Austrians, 9-13 
 Oct. 1760. Establishment of the Academy of 
 Sciences, 1702; of the university, 1810. On 27 
 Oct. 1806, after the battle of Jena (14 Oct.), the 
 French entered Berlin ; and from this place Napo- 
 leon issued the famous Berlin decree, an interdict 
 against the commerce of England, 20 Nov. It de- 
 clared the British islands to be in a state of block- 
 ade, and ordered all Englishmen found in countries 
 occupied by French troops to be treated as prisoners 
 of war. On 5 Nov. 1808, Napoleon entered into a 
 convention with Prussia, by which he remitted to 
 Prussia the sum due on the war-debt, and withdrew 
 many of his troops to reinforce his armies in Spain. 
 
 The railway to Magdeburg opened . . 10 Sept. 1841 
 The first constituent assembly held here 21 June, 1842 
 An insurrection commenced here . . March, 1848 
 Berlin was declared in a state of siege . 12 Nov. ,, 
 The continuation of this state was declared to be 
 
 illegal without its eonciurence by the lower 
 
 chamber 25 April, 1849 
 
 A treaty of peace between Prussia and Saxony waa 
 
 signed 21 Oct. 1866 
 
 The victorious army entered Berlin, 20 Sept, 1866 ; 
 
 and 16 June, 1871. 
 
 See Prussia, 1866, 1871. 
 
 BERLIN ."WORK, see Embroidery. 
 BERMUDAS or Summers' Isles, a group 
 
 in the North Atlantic ocean, discovered by Juan 
 Bermudas, a Spaniard, in 1522, but not inhabited 
 until 1609, when sir George Summers was cast 
 away upon them. They were settled by stat. 9 
 James I., 1612. Among the exiles from England 
 during the civil war was Waller, the poet, who 
 
 wrote, while resident here, a poetical description of 
 the islands. There was an awful hurricane here, 
 3 1 Oct. 1 780, and by another, a third of the houses was 
 destroyed, and the shipping driven ashore, 20 July, 
 1813. A large iron dry dock here, which cost 
 250,000^., was towed from the Med way to the Ber- 
 mudas, in June and July, 1869. Governors, sir Fred. 
 E. Chapman, 1867; gen. J. H. Lefroy, March, 
 1871. 
 
 BERNAL COLLECTION of articles of 
 taste and virtu, formed by Ralph Bernal, Esq., many 
 years chairman of committees of ways and means- 
 in the house of commons. He died 26 Aug. 1854. 
 The sale in March, 1856, lasted 31 days, and enor- 
 mous prices were given. The total sum realised was 
 62,680^. 6s. 8d. 
 
 BERNARD, MOUNT ST., so called from a 
 monastery founded on it by Bernardine Menthon in 
 962. Velan, its highest peak, is about 8000 feet 
 high, covered with perpetual snow. Hannibal, it is 
 said, conducted the Carthaginians by this pass into- 
 Italy (218 B.C.) ; and by the same route, in May, 
 1800, Bonaparte led his troops to Italy before the 
 battle of Marengo, 14 June. On the summit of 
 Great St. Bernard is the ancient monastery still 
 held by a community of monks, who entertain 
 travellers. 
 
 BERNARDINES, or White Moxks, a 
 strict order of Cistercian monks, established by St. 
 Bernard of Clairvaux, about 1 1 15. He founded 
 many monasteries. 
 
 BERNE, the sovereign canton of Switzerland, 
 joined the Swiss League, 1352 ; the town Berne was 
 made a free city by the emperor Frederick, May, 
 12 1 8 ; it successfully resisted Rudolph of Hapsburg, 
 1288. It surrendered to the French under general 
 Brune, 12 April, 1798. The town has bears for its- 
 arms, and some of these animals are still maintained 
 on funds specially provided for the purpose. It was 
 made capital of Switzerland, 1848. 
 
 BERRY (the ancient Biturigum regis), central 
 France, held by the Romans since the conquest by 
 Csesar (58-50 b.c.) till it was subdued by the Visi- 
 goths ; from whom it was taken by Clovis in a.d. 
 507. It was erected into a duchy by John II. in 
 1360, and was not incorporated into the royal do- 
 mains till 1601. 
 
 BERSAGLIERI, the sharpshooters of the Sar- 
 dinian army, first employed about 1848. 
 
 BERWICK-ON-TWEED, a fortified town 
 on the north-east extremity of England, the theatre 
 of many bloody contests while Eugland and Scot- 
 land were two kingdoms ; it was claimed by the> 
 Scots because it stood on their side of the river. Here- 
 John Baliol did homage fbr Scotland, 30 Nov. 1292. 
 It was annexed to England in 1333 ; and after hav- 
 ing been taken and retaken many times, was finally 
 ceded to England in 14S2. In 1551 it was made 
 independent of both kingdoms. The town sur- 
 rendered to Cromwell in 1648, and to general Monk 
 in 1659. Since the union of the crowns (James I. 
 1603), the strong fortifications have been neglected. 
 
 BESSARABIA, afrontier province of European 
 Russia, part of the ancient Dacia. After being 
 possessed by the Goths, Huns, inc., it was conquered 
 by the Turks, 1474, seized by the Russians, I770„ 
 and ceded to them in 18 12. 
 
 BESSEMER STEEL, see Steel. 
 
BETHLEHEM. 89 
 
 BETHLEHEM now contains a large convent) 
 enclosing, as is said, the very birthplace of Christ ; 
 a church erected by the empress Helena in the form 
 of a cross, about 325 ; a chapel, called the Chapel of 
 the Nativity, where they pretend to show the manger 
 in which Christ was laid ; another, called the Chapel 
 of Joseph ; and a third, of the Holy Innocents. 
 Bethlehem is much visited by pilgrims. — The Beth- 
 lehemite monks existed in England in 1257. 
 
 BETHLEHEM HOSPITAL (so called from 
 having been originally the hospital of St. Mary of 
 Bethlehem), a royal foundation for the reception of 
 lunatics, incorporated by Henry VIII. in 1547. The 
 old Bethlehem Hospital, Moorfields, erected in 1676, 
 pulled down in 1814, was built in imitation of the 
 Tuileries at Paris. The present hospital in St. 
 George' s-fields was begun April, 1812, and opened 
 in 1815. In 1856 extensive improvements were 
 completed under the direction of Mr. Sydney Smirke. 
 
 BETHJSTAL GREEN, E. London, a poor, 
 populous parish ; said to have been the seat of Henry 
 de Montfort, hero of the " Blind Beggar of Bethnal 
 Green" {Percy Ballads) . Many churches have been 
 recently erected by the instrumentality of bishop 
 Blomfield and others, and the district has been much 
 favoured by the baroness Burdett-Coutts. The East 
 London Museum here, a branch of that at South 
 Kensington, was opened by the prince of "Wales, 24 
 June, 1872. Sir Richard Wallace lent to it for a 
 year a collection of fine pictures and valuable curio- 
 sities. 
 
 BETHUNE, Erance, an independent lordship 
 since the 1 ith century, was annexed to the monarchy 
 by the treaty of Utrecht, 1713, after several changes. 
 
 BETTING-HOUSES, affordingmuch tempta- 
 tion to gaming, and consequent dishonesty, in the 
 lower classes, were suppressed by an act passed in 
 1853 (16 & 17 Vict. c. 119). A Pari-mutuel, or 
 mutual betting machine, in Aug. , and the ' ' Knights- 
 bridge Exchange," a betting company, 2 Nov., 1870, 
 were declared illegal, see Paces. 
 
 BEVERLEY, E. Yorkshire, the Saxon Bever- 
 lac, or Beverlega. St. John of Beverley, arch- 
 bishop of York, founded a stately monastery here, 
 and died 721 ; and on his account the town received 
 honours from Athelstane, William I., and other 
 sovereigns. It was disfranchised for corruption in 
 1870, after a long investigation. 
 
 BEYROUT (the ancient Berytus), a seaport of 
 Syria, colonised from Sidon. It was destroyed by 
 an earthquake, 566; was rebuilt, and was alter- 
 nately possessed by the Christians and Saracens ; 
 and after many changes, fell into the power of Amu- 
 rath IV. It was taken during the Egyptian revolt 
 by Ibrahim Pacha, in 1832. The total defeat of the 
 Egyptian army by the allied British, Turkish, and 
 Austrian forces, and evacuation of Beyrout (the 
 Egyptians losing 7000 in killed, wounded, and pri- 
 soners, and twenty pieces of cannon), took place 10 
 Oct. 1840. Sir C. Napier was the English admiral 
 engaged. Beyrout suffered greatly in consequence 
 of the massacres in Syria in May i860. In Nov. 
 i860 above 27,000 persons were said to be in danger 
 of starving ; see Syria. 
 
 BHOOTAN, a country north of Lower Bengal, 
 with whom a treaty was made 25 April, 1774. After 
 fruitless negotiations, Bhootan was invaded by the 
 British in Dec. 1864, in consequence of injurious 
 treatment of an envoy see India, 1864-5. 
 
 BIBLE. 
 
 BHURTPORE (India), capital of Bhurtpore, 
 was besieged by the British, 3 Jan. 1805, and at- 
 tacked five times up to 21 March, without success. 
 After a desperate engagement with Holkar, the 
 Mahratta chief, 2 April, 1 805, the fortress was sur- 
 rendered to general Lake. By a treaty, the rajah 
 of Bhurtpore agreed to pay twenty lacs of rupees, 
 ceded territories that had been granted to him, and 
 delivered his son as hostage, 17 April, 1805. On 
 the rajah's death, during a revolt against his son, 
 Bhurtpore was taken by storm, by lord Combermere, 
 18 Jan. 1826 ; see India. 
 
 BIANCHI (Whites), a political party at Flo- 
 rence, in 1300, in favour of the Ghibelines or impe- 
 rial partj r , headed by Vieri de' Cerchi, opposed the 
 Neri (or Blacks), headed by Corso de' Donati. The 
 latter banished their opponents, among whom was- 
 the poet Dante, in 1302. "Bianchi" were also 
 male and female penitents, clothed in white, who 
 travelled through Italy in Aug. 1399 ; and were 
 suppressed by pope Boniface IX., 1400. 
 
 BIARCHY. When Aristodemus, king of Sparta, 
 died, he left two sons, twins, Eurysthenes and 
 Procles ; and the people not knowing to whom pre- 
 cedence should be given, placed both upon the 
 throne, and thus established the first biarchy, 1102 
 b.c. The descendants of each reigned for about 
 800 years. Herodotus. 
 
 BIARRITZ, a bathing-place near Bayonne. 
 Here resided the comtesse de Montijo and her 
 daughter Eugenie, empress of the French, till her 
 marriage, 29 Jan. 1853. It was frequently visited 
 by the emperor and empress. 
 
 BIBERACH (W r urtemberg). Here Moreau. 
 twice defeated the Austrians, — under Latour, 2 Oct. 
 1796, and under Kray, 9 May, 1800. 
 
 BIBLE (from the Greek biblos. a book), the 
 name especially given to the Holy Scriptures, The 
 Old Testament is said to have been collected and 
 arranged by Ezra between 458 and 450 B.C. The 
 Apocrypha are considered as inspired writings by 
 the Roman Catholics, but not by the Jews and Pro- 
 testants; * see Apocrypha. 
 
 OLD TESTAMENT, t 
 
 Genesis coutaius the history of the world 
 
 from b.c. 4004 — 1635 
 
 Exodus 1635 — 1490 
 
 Leviticus 1490 
 
 Numbers . . . . 1490 — i45r 
 
 Deuteronomy 1451 
 
 Job about 1520 
 
 Joshua from 1451 — 1420 
 
 Judges 14.25 — 1120 
 
 Ruth 1322 — 1312 
 
 1st and 2nd Samuel 1171 — 1017 
 
 1st and 2nd Kings ...... 1015 — 562 
 
 1st and 2nd Chronicles 1004 — 536 
 
 Book of Psalms (principally by David) . . 1063 — 1015 
 
 * In April, 1865, was published a proposal for raising 
 a fund for exploring Palestine in order to illustrate the 
 Bible by antiquarian and scientific investigation. The 
 first meeting was held 22 June, 1865, the archbishop of 
 York in the chair ; see Palestine. 
 
 t The division of the Bible into chap ters has been 
 ascribed to archbishop Lanfranc in the 1 ith, and to arch- 
 bishop Langton in the 13th century ; but T. Hartwell 
 Home considers the real author to have been cardinal 
 Hugo de Sancto Caro, about the middle of the 13th cen- 
 tury. The division into sections was commenced by 
 Rabbi Nathan (author of a Concordance), about 1445, and. 
 completed by Athras, a Jew, in 1661. The present divi- 
 sion into verses was introduced by the celebrated printer, 
 Robert Stephens, in his Greek Testament (155 1) and in 
 his Latin Bible (1556-7)- 
 
90 
 
 IOOO 
 
 700 
 
 1014 
 
 
 977 
 862 
 
 
 800 
 
 
 785— 7 2 5 
 
 787 
 
 760 — 698 
 
 750— 710 
 
 713 
 630 
 629 — 
 588 
 626 
 
 5S8 
 
 607 — 
 
 534 
 
 595— 574 
 587 
 536— 456 
 
 521— 
 
 495 
 
 520 
 
 
 520— 
 
 518 
 
 446— 
 
 434 
 
 397 
 
 
 BIBLE. 
 
 Proverbs written . . . about b.c. 
 
 Song of Solomon .... .about 
 
 Ecclesiastes about 
 
 Jonak about 
 
 Joel about 
 
 Hosea aboul 
 
 Amos about 
 
 Isaiah about 
 
 Micah about 
 
 Nahum about 
 
 Zephaniah about 
 
 Jeremiah about 
 
 Lamentations about 
 
 Habakkuk about 
 
 Daniel &< im 
 
 Ezekiel .... . from 
 
 Obadiab about 
 
 Ezra about 
 
 Esther about 
 
 Haggai about 
 
 Zechariah about 
 
 Nekemiah about 
 
 Malachi about 
 
 NEW TESTAMENT. 
 
 Gospels by Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, 
 
 B.C. 5— A.D. 33 
 
 Acts of the Apostles a.d. 33—65 
 
 Epistles— 1st and 2nd of Paul to Thessalonians abt. 54 
 
 Galatians 58 
 
 1st Corinthians 59 
 
 2nd Corinthians 60 
 
 Romans 60 
 
 Of James 60 
 
 1st of Peter 60 
 
 To Ephesians, Philippians, Golossians, Hebrews, 
 Philemon ... .... 64 
 
 Titus, and 1st to Timothy 65 
 
 2nd to Timothy 66 
 
 2nd of Peter 66 
 
 Of Jude 66 
 
 1st, and, and 3rd of John after . . . .90 
 Revelation 96 
 
 The most ancient copy of the Hebrew Scriptures existed 
 at Toledo, called the Codex of Hillel ; it was of very 
 early date, probably of the 4th century after Christ ; 
 some say about 60 years before Christ. The copy of 
 Ben Asher, of Jerusalem, was made about noo. 
 
 The reputed oldest copy of the Old and New Testament 
 in Greek, is that in the Vatican, which was written in 
 the 4th or 5th century. Mai's edition appeared in 1857. 
 The next in age is the Alexandrian Codex (referred to 
 the 5th century) in the British Museum, presented by 
 the Greek patriarch to Charles I. in 1628. It has been 
 printed in England, edited by Woide and Baber, 1786— 
 1821.— Codes Ephraemi, or Codex Regius, ascribed to 
 the 5th century, in the Royal Library, Paris : published 
 by Tischendorf in 184^. 
 
 The Codex Sinaiticus, probably written in the 4th cen- 
 tury, was discovered by 'M. Constantine Tischendorf, 
 at St. {Catherine's monastery in 1844 and 1859, and pre- 
 sented to the present czar of Russia, at whose cost a 
 splendid edition was published in 1862. 
 
 The Hebrew Psalter was printed at Bologna in 1477. The 
 complete Hebrew Bible was first printed by Soncinoin 
 Italy in 1488, and the Greek Testament (bdited by 
 Erasmus) at Rotterdam, in 1516. Aldus's edition was 
 printed in 1518 ; Stephens' in 1546 ; and the textus re- 
 ceptus (or received text) by the Elzevirs in 1624. 
 
 TRANSLATIONS. 
 
 The Old Testament, in Greek, termed the Septuagint 
 (which see), generally considered to have been made by- 
 order of Ptolemy Philadelphia, kin- of Egypt, about 
 286 or 2S5 B.C.; of this many fabulous accounts are 
 given. 
 
 Origen, after spending twenty-eight years in collating 
 MBS., commenced his polyglot Bible at Csesarea in a.d. 
 231 ; it contained the Greek versions of Aquila, Sym- 
 machus, and Theodotion, all made in or about the 2nd 
 century after Christ. 
 
 The following are ancient versions :—Syrtoc, 1st or 2nd 
 century; the old Latin version, early in the 2nd cen- 
 tury, revised by Jerome, in 384; who, howei 
 pleted a new version in 405, now called the Vulgate, 
 {which see) ; the first edition was printed (without date) 
 
 BIBLE. 
 
 about 1456 ; the first dated 1462 ; — Coptic, 2nd or 3rd 
 ■century ; Ethiopia; Armenian, 4th or 5th century; 
 ". 9th century; and the Meeso-Goihic, by Ultilas, 
 the Goths, about 360, a manuscript copy 
 of which, called the Codex Argenteus, is at UpsaJL 
 The Psalms were translated into Saxon by bishop 
 Aldhelm, about 706 ; Caedmon's metrical paraphrase 
 
 Of a portion Of the Bible, about 6S0 ; and the I 
 
 by bislmp Egbert, about 721 ; parts of the Bible by 
 
 Bede, in the Sth century. 
 
 ENGLISH VERSIONS AND EDITIONS. 
 
 MS. paraphrase of the whole Bible at the Bodleian 
 Library, Oxford, dated by Usher .... 1290 
 
 Versions (from the Vulgate) by Wlckliffe and, his 
 followers (above 170 MS.' copies extant) . . 1356-84 
 
 [ Part published by Lewis, 1731 ; by Baber, 1810 ; 
 the whole by Madden and Forshall, at Oxford 1850.] 
 
 William Tyndale's version of Matthew and Mark 
 from the Greek printed, 1524 ; of the whole New 
 Testament, 1525 ; 6 editions .... 1525-30 
 
 Miles Coverdale's version of the whole Bible ; print- 
 ing finished 4 Oct. 
 
 [Ordered by Henry VIII. to be laid in the choir of 
 every church, " for every man that will to look 
 and lead therein."] 
 
 T. Matthews' (said to be fictitious name for John 
 Rogers) version (partly by Tyndale* and Cover- 
 d " 
 
 1535 
 
 lale) 
 
 537 
 
 Cranmer's Great Bible (Matthews' revised), the first 
 printed by authority 1539 
 
 [Bible reading prohibited] .... 1542-57 
 
 Geneva version, "Breeches Bible," (the first with 
 figured verses), 1540-1557 : published . . . 1560 
 
 Archbishop Parker's, called "The Bishops' Bible " 
 (eight of the fourteen persons employed being 
 bishops) 1563 
 
 King James' Bible, the present authorised version 
 — revision began 1604 ; published . . . . 1611 
 
 [Br. Benjamin Blayney's revised edition, 1769.] 
 
 Roman Catholic authorised version : New Testa- 
 ment, at Rheims, 1582 ; Old Testament, atDouay, 
 
 1609-10 
 
 Authorised Jewish English version . . . 1851-61 
 Ion of the English version now in use was re- 
 commended by the bishops in convocation, 10 Feb. 
 1870. The committee, including eminent scholars of 
 various denominations, appointed in May, held their 
 first meeting at Westminster Abbey 22 June,- 1870. 
 
 MODEF.N TRANSLATIONS, t 
 
 N. TEST. 
 
 Flemish 
 
 Spanish (Valencian) 
 
 German 1522 
 
 1526 
 
 1526 
 
 1524 
 
 1543 
 15 19 
 1567 
 
 BIBLE. 
 
 1477 
 1478 
 1530 
 1535 
 1487 
 1541 
 1550 
 1475 
 1471 
 1569 
 1822 
 
 English 
 French 
 Swedish 
 
 Danish 
 Dutch . 
 Italian 
 Spanish 
 Russian (parts) 
 Welsh . 
 
 Hungarian 1574 1589 
 
 Bohemian 1488 
 
 Polish 1551 1561 
 
 Virginian Indians 1661 1663 
 
 Irish 1602 1686 
 
 Georgian 1743 
 
 Portuguese 1712 1748 
 
 Manks 1748 1767 
 
 Turkish 1666 1814 
 
 Sanscrit 1808 1822 
 
 Modern Greek 1638 1821 
 
 Chinese 1814 1S23 
 
 The British and Foreign Bible Society continue to 
 make and print translations of the Bible in all the 
 dialects of the world ; see Polyglot. 
 
 lie was strangled at Antwerp, 6 Oct. 1536, at the 
 instigation of Henry VIII. and his council. His last 
 words were, " Lord, open the king of England's eyes ! " 
 mis of his Testament had then been published. 
 t " The Bible of Every Land," ed. i860, published by 
 Messrs. Bagsters, London, is full of information respect- 
 ing ancient and modern versions of the Bible. 
 
BIBLE DICTIONARIES. 
 
 91 
 
 BILLS OE MOETALITY. 
 
 BIBLE DICTIONARIES- The most re- 
 markable are Calmefs "Dictionary of the Bible," 
 1722-8 ; Kitto's " Cyclopa?diaof Biblical Literature," 
 1843 and 1851; and Smith's "Dictionary of the 
 Bible," i860 ; see Concordances.* 
 
 BIBLE SOCIETIES. Among the principal 
 and oldest societies which have made the dissemina- 
 tion of the Scriptures a collateral or an exclusive 
 object, are the following : — 
 
 Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge . . 1698 
 Society for Propagating the Gosjiel in Foreign 
 
 Parts 1701 
 
 Society in Scotland, for Promoting Christian. Know- 
 ledge 1709 
 
 Society for Promoting Religious Knowledge among 
 
 the poor 1750 
 
 Naval and Military Bible Society . . . .1780 
 
 Sunday School Society 1785 
 
 French Bible Society 1792 
 
 British and Foreign Bible Society, t began 1803 ; or- 
 ganised 1804 
 
 Hibernian Bible Society 1806 
 
 City of London Auxiliary Bible Society . . . 1812 
 A bull from the pope, Pius VII., against Bible 
 Societies appeared in 18 17 
 
 BIBLIA PATJPERTJM (the Bible for the 
 
 poor) , consisting of engravings illustrating scripture 
 history, with texts, carved in wood, a "block book," 
 printed early in the 15th century, was compiled by 
 Bonaventura, general of the Franciscans, about 1260. 
 A fac-shnile was published by J. Bussell Smith, in 
 1859. 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY, the Science of Books. 
 
 Gesner's " Bibliotheca Universale " appeared . . 1545 
 De Bure's " Bibliographie Instructive " . . . 1763 
 Peignot, Manuel. . . • 1823 
 Home, Introduction to the Study of Bibliography . 1814 
 Brunei's Manuel du Libraire, 1st edit. 1810 ; 5th ed. 1862-5 
 Scriptural, Orme, Bibliotheca Biblica, 1824 ; Dar- 
 ling, Bibliographica 1854-8 
 
 Classical, the works of Fabricius, Clarke, and 
 
 Dibdin. 
 English, "Watt's Bibliotheca Britannica . . . 1824 
 Lowndes, Bibliographer's Manual, 1834 ; new ed. by 
 
 Bohn 1857-62 
 
 British Catalogues, by Sampson Low . . 1835-62 
 French, Querard 1828-64 
 
 BIBLIOMANIA (or book madness) very much 
 prevailed in 1811, when Dr. Dibdin's work with this 
 title was published ; see Boccaccio. 
 
 BICOCCA, N. Italy. Lautrec and the French 
 were here defeated by Colonna and the Imperialists, 
 29 April, 1522, and Francis thereby lost his con- 
 quests in Milan. 
 
 BID ASSO A. The'allied army under lord Wel- 
 lington, having driven the French from Spain, 
 effected the passage of this river 8 Oct. 1813^ and 
 entered France. 
 
 BIDDENDEN MAIDS. A distribution of 
 bread and cheese to the poor takes place at Bidden- 
 den, Kent, on Easter Mondays, the expense being 
 defrayed from the rental of twenty acres of land, 
 
 * An " Index to the Persons, Places, and Subjects oc- 
 curring in the Holy Scriptures," compiled by B. Vincent, 
 editor of the present work, was published by the queen's 
 printers in 1848. 
 
 t This society had issued 24,247,667 copies of the 
 Bible or parts of ic up to Jan. 1851 ; in May, 1863, the 
 number had risen to 43,044,334 ; and in 1867 to 52,669,089. 
 In 1857 they published a catalogue of their library, which 
 contains a large number of remarkable editions of the 
 Bible. The foundation-stone ef their new Central hall, 
 Queen Victoria-street, London, was laid by the prince of 
 Wales, 11 June, 1866. 
 
 the reputed bequest of the Biddenden maids, two 
 sisters named Chulkhurst. In 1656, fm. Horner, 
 the rector, was non-suited in an attempt to add the 
 " Bread and Cheese lands " to his glebe. 
 
 BIGAMY. The Komans branded the guilty 
 party with an infamous mark ; and in England the 
 punishment, formerly, was death. An act respect- 
 ing it was passed 15 Edw. I. 1276. Viner's Statutes. 
 Declared to be felony, without benefit of clergy, I 
 James I. 1603. Punishable, by imprisonment or 
 transportation, 35 Geo. III. 1794. 
 
 BIG BETHEL (Virginia, U.S.). On 10 June, 
 1861, the Federals were defeated in an attack on 
 some Confederate batteries at this place. 
 
 BILBOA (N.E. Spain), founded about 1300; 
 was taken by the French and held a few days July 
 1795. It was delivered from the Carlists by Espar- 
 tero, assisted by the British, 24 Dec. 1836. 
 
 BILL OE EXCEPTIONS. The still exist- 
 ing right of tendering such a bill to a judge, either 
 to his charge, to his definition of the law, or to other 
 errors of the court, at a trial between parties, was 
 provided by the 2nd statute of Westminster, 13 Edw. 
 I. 1284. 
 
 BILL OF PAINS, &c. ; see Queen Caroline. 
 
 BILL OF RIGHTS, &e. ; see Rights. 
 
 BILLIARDS- The French ascribe their inven- 
 tion to Henrique Devigne, an artist, about 1571. 
 Slate billiard tables were introduced in England in 
 1827. 
 
 BILLINGSGATE, the fish-market in London, 
 is said to have derived its name from Belinus Mag- 
 nus, a British prince, the father of king Lud, 400 B.C., 
 but Stow thinks from a former owner. It was the 
 old port of London, and the customs were paid here 
 under Ethelred IT., a.d. 979. Stow. Billingsgate 
 was made a free market, 1699. Chamberlain. Fish 
 by land- carriage, as well as sea-borne, now arrives 
 daily .here. In 1849, the market was extended and 
 improved, and a new one was erected in 1852, Mr. 
 Bunning, architect. 
 
 BILLS OF EXCHANGE were invented by 
 the Jews as a means of removing their property from 
 nations where they werepersecuted, 1160. A.nderson. 
 Bills are said to have been used in England, 1307. 
 The only legal mode of sending money from England, 
 4 Bichard II. 1381. Begulated, 1698 ; first stamped, 
 1782; duty advanced, 1797; again, June 1801 ; and 
 since. It was made capital to counterfeit bills of 
 exchange in 1734. In 1825, the year of disastrous 
 speculations in bubbles, it was computed that there 
 were 400 millions of pounds sterling represented by 
 bills of exchange and promissory notes. The present 
 amount is not supposed to exceed 50 millions. The 
 many statutes regarding bills of exchange were con- 
 solidated by act 9 Geo. IV. 1828. An act regulating 
 bills of exchange passed 3 Vict. July, 1839. _ Great 
 alterations were made in the law on the subject by 
 17 & 18 Vict. c. 83 (1854), and 18 & 19 Vict. c. 67 
 (1855) . Days of grace were abolished in the case of 
 bills of exchange payable on sight in Aug. 1871. 
 Forgery of bills to a large amount to obtain discount 
 was detected by the bank of England, I March, 1873. 
 
 BILLS OF MORTALITY foe, London. 
 These bills were first compiled by order of Cromwell, 
 about 1538, 30 Hen. VIII., but in a more formal and 
 recognised manner in 1603, after the great plague 
 of that year. No complete series of them has been 
 preserved. They have been superseded by the 
 weekly returns of the registrar-general, since 1837. 
 
BINARY ARITHMETIC. 
 
 92 
 
 BIRMINGHAM. 
 
 The following show the numbers for London at de- 
 cennial periods: — 
 
 1780 
 1790 
 1800 
 1810 
 1820 
 1830 
 
 Christ 1 
 ■ 16,634 
 
 . 19,176 
 . . 19,930 . 
 . 26,158 
 27,028 . 
 
 1840 30.387 
 
 1850 39.973 • 
 
 IN ENGLAND AND WALES. 
 
 Births. 
 
 1840 502,303 
 
 1845 543-521 • 
 
 1S49 578,159 
 
 1853 612,391 . 
 
 1856 657,453 
 
 1858 655,481 . 
 
 1859 689,881 
 
 1S61 ..... 696,406 
 
 1862 . . ... 712,684 . 
 
 1S63 7 2 7,4i7 
 
 1864 ... . . 740,275 . 
 
 1865 748,069 
 
 ENGLAND AND 
 
 WALES. 
 
 SCOTLAND. 
 
 
 Births. 
 
 Deaths. 
 
 Births. 
 
 Deaths. 
 
 1865, 
 
 748,069 
 
 490,909 
 
 113,126 
 
 70,821 
 
 1866, 
 
 753.870 
 
 500,689 
 
 "3.639 
 
 7 I > 2 73 
 
 1867, 
 
 768,349 
 
 471.073 
 
 114,115 
 
 69,024 
 
 1 868, 
 
 786,858 
 
 480,622 
 
 115.673 
 
 69,386 
 
 1869, 
 
 773.38i 
 
 494,828 
 
 H3.395 
 
 75,789 
 
 1870, 
 
 792,129 
 
 515,544 
 
 115.423 
 
 74.067 
 
 1871, 
 
 797.H3 
 
 515,096 
 
 116,127 
 
 74.644 
 
 1872, 
 
 824,646 
 
 492,065 
 
 
 
 United Kingdom, 1872 
 
 Births, 1 
 
 092,616 
 
 Burials. 
 
 20,507 
 . 18,038 
 
 23,068 
 . 19,892 
 
 ■ 19.348 
 
 • 23.524 
 
 ■ 26,774 
 
 • 36,947 
 
 Deaths. 
 
 • 356,634 
 
 • ■ 349.366 
 
 • 440,839 
 . . 421,097 
 
 . 390,506 
 
 . . 449.656 
 
 • 441.790 
 . 422,721 
 . 436,114 
 
 • • 436,573 
 
 • 473,837 
 
 • • 495.531 
 . 490,909 
 
 IRELAND.* 
 
 Births. Deaths. 
 144,970 93,154 
 146,237 93, 598 
 144,318 93,911 
 
 146,108 86,803 
 
 145,659 89,573 
 
 150,151 90,695 
 
 151,665 88,720 
 
 ; Deaths, 665,208 
 
 IN LONDON AND SDB1 
 
 1854 .... 
 1856 
 
 1858 (Females, 43,400) 
 1862 
 
 Births. Deaths. 
 
 84,684. . . . 73,697 
 
 86,833 • • • 57,786 
 
 88,620 (Females, 31,319) 63,882 
 
 97,114 . . . . 66,950 
 
 102,187 .... 77,723 
 
 112,264 • • • • 70.588 
 
 113,937 .... 73,798 
 
 1867 (Females, 54,862) 
 
 1868 ( „ 56,127) 
 
 BINARY ARITHMETIC, that which counts 
 by twos, for expeditiously ascertaining the property 
 of numbers, and constructing tables, was invented 
 by Leibnitz of Leipsic, about 1703. For the Binary 
 theory in chemistry, see Compound Radical. 
 
 BINOMIAL ROOT, in Algebra, composed of 
 only two parts connected with the signs jdus or 
 minus; a term first used by llecorda, about 1550, 
 •when he published his Algebra. The celebrated 
 binomial theorem of Newton was first mentioned in 
 1688. Mutton. 
 
 BIOGRAPHY (from the Greek bios, life, and 
 grapho, 1 write), defined as "history teaching by 
 example." The book of Genesis contains the bio- 
 graphy of the patriarchs ; aud the Gospels that of 
 Christ. Plutarch wrote the Lives of Illustrious 
 Men ; Cornelius Nepos, Lives of Military Com- 
 manders ; and Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve 
 Caesars (all three in the first century after Christ) ; 
 Diogenes Laertius, Lives of the Philosophers (about 
 205). — Boswell's Life of Johnson (published in 
 1 790) is the most remarkable English biography. 
 
 BIOLOGY, termed the science of life and living 
 things, by Treviranus, of Bremen, in his work on 
 Physiology, published 1802-22. Biology includes 
 zoology, anthropology, aud ethnology [which see). 
 Herbert Spencer's "Principles of Biology," pub- 
 lished 1865-67. 
 
 * Approximative : registration defective. 
 
 BIRCH TREE. The black {Betula nigra), 
 brought from North America, 173O. The birch tree 
 known as the Betula pumila, introduced into Kew 
 gardens, England, by Sir. James Cordon, from 
 North America, 1762. Hardy's Annals. 
 
 BIRDS were divided by Linnaeus into six orders 
 (1735) ; by Blumenbach into eight (1805) ; and by 
 Cuvier, into six (1817). The most remarkable works 
 are those published by John Gould, F.R.S. ; they 
 are to consist of about 31 folio volumes of coloured 
 plates, &c. They now include the birds of Europe, 
 Asia, Australia, and Great Britain, besides mono- 
 graphs of the humming-birds, kc 
 
 BIRKENHEAD (Cheshire), a modern town 
 on the Mersey, opposite to Liverpool. The great 
 dock here was projected by Mr. John Laird, con- 
 structed by Mr. Bendell, and opened in Aug. 1847 
 by lord Morpeth. In 1861 Birkenhead was made a 
 parliamentary borough, and Mr. Laird was elected 
 first representative. Population in 1831, 200; in 
 1861, 51,649; in 1871, 65,971. See 11 recks, 1852. 
 
 BIRMAN EMPIRE or Empire of Ava, 
 
 see Burmese Empire and India. 
 
 BIRMINGHAM, formerly Bromwieham and 
 Brummegem (Warwickshire), existed in the reign 
 of Alfred, 872; and belonged to the Bermengehams, 
 at Domesday Survey, 1086. There were "many 
 smythes" here in the time of Henry VIII. (Belaud), 
 but its great importance commenced iu the reign of 
 William III. 
 
 Grammar school founded by Edward VI. . . 1552 
 
 Besieged and taken by prince Rupert . . . . 1643 
 Button manufactures established .... 1689 
 Bono works established by Matthew Boulton about 
 1764 ; and steam engine works about . . . 1774 
 
 Birmingham Canal originated 1767 
 
 Blots against persons commemorating the French 
 
 Revolution 14 July, 1791 
 
 Theatre destroyed by fire . . . 7 Aug. 1792 
 
 Mure commotions Nov. 1800 
 
 Theatre burnt 7 Jan. 1820 
 
 Political Union, T. Attwood, formed by . Feb. 1831 
 
 Birmingham made a borough by Reform Act (2 
 
 members) 1832 
 
 Town-hall built 1833 
 
 Political Union dissolved itself . . 10 May, 1834 
 Birmingham and Liverpool railway opened as the 
 
 Grand Junction 4 July, 1837 
 
 London and Birmingham railway opened its entire 
 
 length * 17 Sept. 1838 
 
 Great Chartist riot ; houses burnt . . 15 July, 1839. 
 Town incorporated, and Police Act passed . . „ 
 Meeting of British Association . . 29 Aug. ,, 
 
 Queen's College incorporated 1843 
 
 Corn Exchange opened .... 27 Oct. 1847 
 British Association (meet again) . . 12 Sept. 1849 
 
 Queen's College organised Jan. 1853 
 
 Public park opened (ground virtually given by 
 
 Mr. Adderley) 3 Aug. 1856 
 
 New music-hall opened .... 3 Sept. ,, 
 Another park opened by the duke of Cambridge, 
 100,000 persons present (ground given by lord 
 
 Calthorpe) 1 June, 1857 
 
 Death of G. P. Muntz, M.P. . . . 30 July, „ 
 John Bright elected M. P. 10 Aug. 1857, and April, 1859 
 The queen and prince consort visit Birmingham, 
 Warwick, &C, lor the first time, and open Aston 
 
 park 14-16 June, 1858 
 
 The Free Library opened .... 4 April, 1861 
 Factory explosion : 9 killed . . . 23 June, 1862 
 People's park purchasea by corporation . Sept. 1864. 
 
 New Exchange opened 2 Jan. 1865 
 
 The bank of Attwoods and Spooner stops payment 
 
 and causes much distress . . 10 March, ,, 
 Meeting of British Association (3rd) . 6 Sept. ,, 
 (Stoppage of tlie " Banking Company " 13 July, 1866 
 
 First annual horse show ,, 
 
 Great Reform meeting ,, 
 
BIETHS. 
 
 Violent riots through the lectures of Murphy, an 
 anti-popery orator, at a tabernacle 17, 18 June, 1867 
 
 An additional M.P. given to Birmingham by 
 Reform Act 15 Aug. „ 
 
 Meeting of Nat. Social Science Association, 7 Oct. 1868 
 
 First club house here opened . . .3 May, 1869 
 
 Erdington orphan houses, endowed by Josiah 
 Mason, a manufacturer of steel-pens ; begun 1858 ; 
 finished July, „ 
 
 National Education League meet . . 12, 13 Oct. „ 
 
 Explosion at Kynoch's cartridge-factory, Witton, 
 many deaths and injuries . . . 17 Nov. 1870 
 
 Explosions at Messrs. Ludlow's cartridge-factory at 
 Witton, 17 killed and 53 injured, several dying 
 soon after: noon, 9 Dec. ; 33 dead up to 13 Dec. ; 
 51 up to 26 Dec „ 
 
 Prince Arthur opens Eoyal Horticultural Exhibi- 
 tion 25 June, 1872 
 
 Mr. Josiah Mason endows a college for the study of 
 practical science 1873 
 
 BIETHS. The births of children were taxed 
 in England, viz. : birth of a duke, 30^. ; of a common 
 person, 2s., 7 "Will. III. 1695. Taxed again, 1783. 
 The instances of four children at a birth are 
 numerous ; but it is recorded that a woman of 
 Konigsberg (3 Sept. 1784), and the wife of Nelson, a 
 tailor, of Oxford-market, London (Oct. 1800), had 
 five children at a birth. The queen usually pre- 
 sents a small sum of money to a poor woman giving 
 bh'th to three or more children at one time. See 
 Bills of Mortality and Registers. 
 
 BISHOP (Greek episcopos, overseer), a name 
 given by the Athenians to those who had the in- 
 spection of the city. The Jews and Eomans had 
 also like officers. St. Peter, styled the first bishop 
 of Borne, was martyred 65. The presbyter was the 
 same as a bishop. Jerome. The episcopate became 
 an object of contention about 144. The title of 
 pope was anciently assumed by all bishops, and 
 was exclusively claimed by Gregory VII. (1073-85). 
 
 BISHOPS IN ENGLAND* were coeval with 
 the introduction of Christianity. The see of London 
 is mythically said to have been founded by Lucius, 
 king of Britain, 179. 
 
 Bishops made barons 1072 
 
 The Conge d'Elire of the king to choose a bishop 
 
 originated in an arrangement by king John. 
 Bishops were elected by the king's Conge d'Elire, 
 
 25 Henry VIII 1534 
 
 Bishops to rank as barons by stat. 31 Hen. VIII. . 1540 
 Seven were deprived for being married . . . 1554 
 Several suffered martyrdom under queen Mary, see 
 
 Cranmer 1555-6 
 
 Bishops excluded from voting in the house of peers 
 
 on temporal concerns, 16 Charles I. 1641 
 
 Several protest against the legality of acts of parlia- 
 ment passed while they are deprived of votes, 
 28 Dec. ; committed to the tower . 30 Dec. 1641 
 
 The order of archbishops and bishops abolished by 
 
 the parliament 9 Oct. 1646 
 
 Bishops regain their seats .... Nov. 1661 
 Seven bishops (Canterbury, Bath, Chichester, St. 
 Asaph, Bristol, Ely, and Peterborough) sent to 
 the tower for not reading the king's declaration 
 for liberty of conscience (intended to bring the 
 Roman Catholics into ecclesiastical and civil 
 power), 8 June ; tried and acquitted, 29-3oJune, 1688 
 The archbishop of Canterbury (Dr. Sancroft) and 
 five bishops (Bath and Wells, Ely, Gloucester, 
 Norwich, and Peterborough) suspended for refus- 
 ing to take the oaths to William and Mary, 1689 ; 
 
 deprived 1690 
 
 Retirement of bishops : The bishops of London and 
 Durham retired on annuities 1856 
 
 * Bishops have the titles of Lord and Right Rev. Father 
 in God. The archbishops of Canterbury and York, taking 
 place of all dukes, have the title of Grace. The bishops 
 of London, Durham, and Winchester have precedence of 
 all bishops ; the others rank according to seniority of 
 consecration. 
 
 93 
 
 BISHOPS. 
 
 The bishop of Norwich resigned .... 1S57 
 The Bishops' Resignation (for Infirmity) Act, (author- 
 ising ^the appointment of bishop coadjutors), 
 
 11 Aug. i860 
 
 Sees. 
 
 London (abpc.) 
 
 York (abpc.) 
 
 Sodor and Man 
 
 Llandaff . 
 
 St. David's 
 
 Bangor* 
 
 St. Asaph 
 
 Canterbury . 
 
 London (see above) . , 
 
 Rochester . 
 
 EastAnglia(afterwards 
 Norwich, 109 1) . . 
 
 Lindisfarne, or Holy 
 Island (afterwards 
 Durham, 995) . 
 
 West Saxons, (after- 
 wards Winchester, 
 705) .... 
 
 Mercia (afterwards 
 Lichfield, 669) . 
 
 ENGLISH BISHOPRICS. 
 
 Founded. 
 
 (?) 179 
 4th cent. 
 4th cent. 
 5th cent. 
 5th cent, 
 about 5 16 
 about 560 
 
 630 
 
 634 
 
 Sees. 
 
 Hereford 
 
 Worcester . . . 
 
 Lindisse (afterwards 
 Lincoln, 1067). 
 
 Sherborne (afterwards 
 Salisbury, 1042) . . 
 
 Cornwall (afterwards 
 Devonshire, after- 
 wards Exeter, 1050) qoq 
 
 Wells . . . 
 
 Bath 
 
 Ely 
 
 Founded. 
 . 676 
 680 
 
 7°5 
 
 Carlisle . 
 Peterborough 
 Gloucester t 
 Bristol! 
 Chester . 
 Oxford 
 Rip on . 
 Manchester 
 
 1088 
 1 108 
 1132 
 1541 
 
 1542 
 
 1836 
 1847 
 
 BISHOPS IN IRELAND are said to have been 
 consecrated in the 2nd century ; see Church of Ire- 
 land. 
 
 Prelacies were constituted, and divisions of the 
 bishoprics in Ireland made, by cardinal Paparo, 
 
 legate from pope Eugene III II5I 
 
 Several prelates deprived by queen Mary . . \ 1554 
 Bp. Atherton suffered death ignominiously . .1640 
 Two bishops deprived for not taking the oaths to 
 
 William and Mary jfoz 
 
 Church Temporalities Act, for reducing the' number 
 of bishops in Ireland, 3 & 4 Will. IV., c. 37, passed 
 
 14 Aug. 1833 
 [By this statute, of the four archbishoprics of Armagh, 
 Dublin, Tuam, and Cashel, the last two were to be 
 abolished on the decease of the then archprelates 
 which has since occurred ; and it was enacted that 
 eight of the then eighteen bishoprics should, as they 
 became void, be henceforth united to other sees, which 
 was accomplished in 1850 ; so that the Irish church at 
 present consists of two archbishops and ten bishops.] 
 
 Ossory 
 
 Killala 
 
 Trim . 
 
 Armagh, 
 
 Emly 
 
 Elphin 
 
 Ardagh 
 
 Clogher 
 
 Down 
 
 founded 
 . about 
 
 ; abpc. . 
 . about 
 
 about 
 
 501; 
 
 before 
 _ about 
 Ardfert and Aghadoe 
 
 before 
 Connor 
 Tuam, about 
 
 abpc. . 
 Dromore 
 Kildare 
 Meath. 
 
 Achonry . . . 
 Louth .... 
 Clonmacnois . . . 
 Clonfert 
 Ross . . about 
 
 402 
 434 
 432 
 1152 
 448 
 45o 
 454 
 493 
 499 
 
 about 
 before 
 
 1152 
 510 
 
 519 
 520 
 530 
 
 534 
 548 
 558 
 57° 
 
 Feme . 
 
 Cloyne . 
 
 Cork . 
 
 Glandalough 
 
 Derry 
 
 Kilmacduach 
 
 Lismore 
 
 Leighlin 
 
 Mayo 
 
 Raphoe 
 
 Cashel, before 
 
 abpc. 
 Killaloe, abpc. 
 Waterford . 
 Limerick . 
 Kilmore 
 Dublin, abpc. . 
 Kilfenora 
 
 about 
 . before 
 
 about 
 . before 
 . before 
 
 about 
 . about 
 
 . about 
 
 . 'before 
 
 901 ; 
 
 598 
 604 
 606 
 612 
 618 
 620 
 631 
 632 
 665 
 
 1152 
 1019 
 
 before 1106 
 
 • 1136 
 
 • • 1152 
 
 before 1254 
 
 (For the new combina 
 tions, see the sepa- 
 rate articles.) 
 
 BISHOPS in Scotland were 
 
 nominated in the fourth century. 
 
 probably 
 
 The Reformers, styling themselves " the Congrega- 
 tion of the Lord," having taken up arms and 
 
 * An order in council, Oct. 1838, directed the sees of 
 Bangor and St. Asaph to be united on the next vacancv 
 m either, and Manchester, a new see, to be created 
 thereupon ; this order, as regarded the union of the sees 
 was rescinded 1846. * 
 
 t The sees of Bristol and Gloucester were united 
 1856. ' 
 
BISHOPS. 
 
 94 
 
 BITHYNIA. 
 
 defeated the queen-mother, Mary of Guise, caUeda 
 parliament, which set up a newform of ohuTOh 
 polity on the Genevese model, in which bishops 
 
 were replaced by "superintendents" . . . 1561 
 
 Three prelates for Scottish sees consecrated at 
 Lambeth (John BpottiSWOOd. Gawin ilannlton, 
 and Andrew Lamb) for Glasgow, Galloway, and 
 Brechin 21 Oct. 1610 
 
 Episcopacy abolished, the bishops in a body de- 
 
 posed, and four e» imunicated, by a parliament, 
 
 elected by the people (covenanters), which met 
 
 at Glasgow Dec. 1638 
 
 Episcopacy restored ; an archbishop (James Sharp) 
 and three bishops consecrated by Sheldon, bishop 
 of London 15 Dec. 1661 
 
 The Scottish convention expelled the bishops; 
 abolished episcopacy ; declared the throne vacant : 
 drew up a claim of right ; and proclaimed William 
 and Mary « April, 1689 
 
 Episcopacy formally abolished, and the bishops 
 revenues sequestrated .... 19 Sept. ,, 
 
 The Episcopal church was thus reduced to the 
 condition of a Non-coni'ormist body, at first barely 
 tolerated. 
 
 Bishop Rose connected the established episcopal 
 church of Scotland with that form of it which is 
 now merely tolerated, he having been bishop of 
 Edinburgh from 1687 till 1720, when, on hi* death. 
 Dr. Fullarton became the first post-revolution 
 bishop of that see. Fife (now St. Andrews, so 
 called in 1844) now unites the bishopric of 
 Dunkeld (re-instituted in 1727) and that of Dun- 
 blane (re-instituted in 1731). Ross (of uncer- 
 tain date) was united to Moray (re-instituted in 
 1727) in 183S. Argyll and the Isles never existed 
 independently until 1847, having been conjoined 
 to Moray and Ross, or to Ross alone, previously 
 to that year. Galloway has been added to the see 
 of Glasgow. 
 
 functions in the United Kingdom, but have no juris- 
 diction. 
 
 Orkney, founded. 
 
 
 
 Uncertain. 
 
 Isles 
 
 
 360 
 
 Galloway . 
 
 before 
 
 500 
 
 St. Andrews, 
 
 800; 
 
 
 ahpe. . 
 
 
 1470 
 
 Glasgow, about 560; 
 
 
 dbpe. 
 
 
 1488 
 
 Caithness 
 
 about 1066 
 
 Brechin ' . 
 
 before 
 
 iiss 
 
 Moray . 
 
 
 1115 
 
 Ross . 
 
 
 1 124 
 
 Aberdeen 
 
 
 1125 
 
 Dunkeld 
 
 
 1 130 
 
 Dunblane 
 
 before 
 
 "53 
 
 Argyll . 
 
 
 1200 
 
 Edinburgh 
 
 • i633 
 
 POST-REVOLUTION" 
 BISHOPS. 
 
 Edinburgh . . . 1720 
 
 Aberdeen and the 
 Isles . . . . 1721 
 
 Moray (and Ross), 
 primus . . -1727 
 
 Brechin . . . . 1731 
 
 Glasgow (and Gallo- 
 way) 
 
 St. Andrews (Dun- 
 keld, Dunblane, <fec.) 1733 
 
 Argyll and the Isles . 1847 
 
 BISHOPS, AMERICAN. The first was Samuel 
 Seabury, consecrated bishop of Connecticut by four 
 nonjuring prelates, at Aberdeen, in Scotland, 14 
 Nov. 1784. The bishops of New York and Penn- 
 sylvania were consecrated in London, by the arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury, 4 Feb. r/87, and the bishop 
 of Virginia in 1790. Several American bishops 
 formed part of the Pan-Anglican synod, atLambeth, 
 24-27 Sept. 1867. Thefirst Roman Catholic bishop 
 of the United States was Dr. Carroll, of Maryland, 
 in 1780. 
 
 BISHOPS, Colonial, &c* By 15 and 16 
 
 Vict. c. 52 (1852), and 16 and 17 Vict. c. 49 (1853), 
 the colonial bishops may perform all episcopal 
 
 * Between 1847-59, Miss (now baroness) Burdett-Coutts 
 gave 6o,oooZ. to endow colonial bishoprics. In 1866 she 
 petitioned parliament, on account of some of the bishops 
 proteasing independence of the church of England. 
 Since then, colonial bishops have been appointed with- 
 out intervention of the Civil power. Much discussion 
 
 took place in 1867, through the deposition of Dr. Colenso, 
 
 bishop of Natal, by his metropolitan. Dr. Gray, bishop of 
 Capetown, and the attempts of the latter to consecrate a 
 new bishop, in opposition to the law ; see under Africa, 
 and Church of England, 
 
 Nova Scotia 
 Quebec . . . . 
 Calcutta . 
 Barbados . . . 
 Jamaica 
 
 Madras . . . . 
 Australia . 
 Montreal . . . 
 Bombay 
 
 Newfoundland . . 
 Toronto 
 
 Gibraltar. . . . 
 New Zealand 
 Antigua . . . . 
 Guiana, S. America . 
 Huron, Canada . . 
 Tasmania . 
 Colombo, Ceylon . . 
 Fredericton, N. Brans. 
 Adelaide, S. Australia 
 
 Cape Town . 
 Melbourne . . . 
 Newcastle, N. S. W. . 
 Sydney (formerly Aus- 
 tralia), N. S. W. . 
 Rupert's Land . . 
 Victoria, Hong Kong . 
 Sierra Leone 
 Graham's-town . . 
 Natal, S. Africa . 
 Mauritius . . . 
 Lai man 
 
 Christchurch, N. Z. . 
 
 Perth, W. Australia . 
 
 1787 
 1793 
 1814 
 1824 
 
 1835 
 1836 
 
 1837 
 1839 
 
 1842 
 
 1845 
 1847 
 
 1853 
 
 1854 
 1855 
 1856 
 
 Wellington, N. Z. 
 
 N. Z. . . 
 Brisbane, Queensland. 
 British Columbia . . 
 Goulbourn, N. S. W. . 
 St. Helena . 
 Waiapu, N. Z. . . 
 Kingston, Canada 
 
 1, Canada . . 
 , Bahamas 
 Grafton, Australia. . 
 Dunedin, New Zealand 
 Maritzburg, s. Africa. 
 Auckland, New Zea- 
 land 
 
 mpton, 
 
 Qnp.AtialB.Tnl 
 Bloi mfontain, Orange 
 
 Free State . . . 
 Norfolk, Huron . 
 Zululand . . . 
 Trinidad . 
 Ballarat. . . . 
 
 1858 
 1859 
 
 1861 
 
 1863 
 1866 
 
 1870 
 
 1871 
 1872 
 
 MISSIONARY BISHOPS. 
 
 Jerusalem, estab- 
 lished . . . . 1841 
 -ia . . . i860 
 Honolulu . . . 1861 
 Central Africa, Orange 
 River . . . 1863 
 rritory . . 1864 
 Falkland Isles . . 1869 
 Madagascar . . . 1870 
 
 BISHOPS, SUFFRAGAN, to assist metropoli- 
 tans, existed in the early church. Twenty -six, 
 appointed by Henry VIII. 1534, were abolished by 
 Mary, 1553, and restored by Elizabeth, 1558. The 
 last appointed is said to have been Sterne, bishop of 
 Colchester, 1606. The appointment of suffragan 
 bishops was revived in 1869, and archdeacon Henry 
 Mackenzie, suffragan bishop of Nottingham (diocese 
 of Lincoln) was consecrated 2 Feb. 1870, and arch- 
 deacon Edward Parry, suffragan bishop of Dover 
 (diocese of Canterbury) , 23 March, 1870. 
 
 BISMUTH was recognised as a distinct metal 
 by Agricola, in 1529. It is very fusible and brittle, 
 and of a yellowish white colour. 
 
 BISSEXTILE, sec Calendar and Leap Year. 
 
 BITHYNIA, a province in Asia Minor, pre- 
 viously called Bebricia, is said to have been invaded 
 by the" Thracians under Bithyuus, son of Jupiter, 
 who gave it the name of Bithynia. It was subject 
 successively to the Assyrians, Lydians, Persians, 
 and Macedonians. Most of the cities were rebuilt 
 by Grecian colonists. 
 
 Dydalsus revolted and reigned, about 
 
 Botyras, his son, succeeds . 
 
 Las, or Bias, son of Botyras, 376; repulses the 
 Greeks . 
 
 Zipcetas, son of Bias, resists Lysimachus . . . 
 
 He dies, leaving four sous, of whom the eldest, 
 Nicomedes I., succeeds (he invites the Gauls into 
 Asia) 
 
 He rebuilds Astacus, and names it Nicomedia . . 
 
 Zielas, son of Nicomedes, reigns . . . about 
 
 Intending to massacre the chiefs of the Gauls at a 
 feast, Zielas is detected in his design, and is him- 
 self put to death, and his son Prusias I. made 
 king, about 
 
 Prusias defeats the Gauls, and takes cities 
 
 Prusias allies with Philip of Macedon, and marries 
 Apan.ea, his daughter 208 
 
 He receives and employs Hannibal, then a fugitive, 
 1S7; who poisons himself to escape betrayal to 
 the Romans 183 
 
 B.C. 430-440 
 378 
 
 326 
 
 278 
 264. 
 250 
 
 22S 
 223 
 
BITONTO. 
 
 9.5 
 
 BLACKS. 
 
 74 
 
 103 
 
 1231 
 
 Prusias II. succeeds 
 
 Nicomedes II. kills liis father Prusias and reigns 
 Nicomedes III., surnamed Philopator 
 Deposed by Mitliridates, king of Pontus 
 
 Eestored by the Romans 
 
 Bequeaths liis kingdom to the Romans 
 Pliny, the younger, pro-consul .... a.d. 
 The Oghusian Tartars settle in Bithynia 
 The Othman Turks take Prusa, the capital (and 
 make it the seat of their empire till they possess 
 Constantinople) 1327 
 
 BITONTO (Naples) . Here Montemar and the 
 Spaniards defeated the Germans, 27 May, 1734, and 
 thereby acquired the kingdom of the Two Sicilies 
 for Don Carlos. 
 
 BLACK ACT, 9 Geo. I. c. 22 (1722), was 
 passed to punish armed persons termed blacks, going 
 about in disguise with their faces blacked, robbing 
 warrens and fish-ponds, cutting down plantations, 
 killing deer, &c. By this act, sending anony- 
 mous letters demanding money, &c, was made 
 felony. 
 
 BLACK ASSIZE, see under Oxford. 
 
 BLACK BOOK* (liber Niger), a book kept in 
 the exchequer, which received the orders of that 
 court. It Avas published by Hearn in 1728. 
 
 BLACKBURN, Lancashire, so called in 
 Domesday-book. The manufacture of a cloth called 
 Blackburn cheque, carried on in 1650, was super- 
 seded by Blackburn greys. In 1767, James Har- 
 greaves, of this town, invented the spinning-jenny, 
 for which he was eventually expelled from the 
 county. About 1810 or -1812, the townspeople 
 availed themselves of his discoveries, and engaged 
 largely in the cotton manufacture, now their staple 
 trade. 
 
 BLACK DEATH, seeFlagues, 1340 and 1866. 
 
 BLACK FRIARS, see Dominicans. 
 
 BLACKFRIARS BRIDGE, London. The 
 first stone of the late bridge was laid 31 Oct. 1 760, 
 and it was completed by Mylne, in 1770. It was 
 frequently repaired, 1834-50, and began to sink. In 
 1864 it was pulled down, and a temporary bridge 
 erected. The foundation of a new five-arched 
 bridge, designed by Mr. Joseph Cubitt was laid by 
 lord mayor Hale, 20 July, 1867, and tbe bridge was 
 opened by the queen 6 Nov. 1869. The first railway 
 train (London, Chatham, and Dover) entered the 
 city of London over the new railway bridge, Black- 
 friars, 6 Oct. 1864. 
 
 BLACK FEIDAY, 11 May, 1866, the height 
 of the commercial panic in London, through the 
 stoppage of Overend, Gume3 r , & Co. (limited), on 10 
 May. Messrs. John Henry and Edmund Gurney, 
 and their partners, committed for trial for conspiracy 
 to defraud, 21 Jan. 18G9, were tried and acquitted, 13- 
 23 Dec. 1869. 
 
 BLACKHEATH, Kent, near London. Here 
 Vat Tyler and his followers assembled 12 June, 
 1381 ; and here also Jack Cade and his 20,000 
 Kentish men encamped, 1 June, 1450; see Tyler 
 and Cade. Here the Cornish rebels were defeated 
 and Elammock's insurrection' quelled, 22 June, 
 1497. The ancient cavern, on the ascent to Black- 
 
 * A book was kept in the English monasteries, wherein 
 details of the scandalous enormities practised in religious 
 houses were entered for the inspection of visitors, under 
 Hen. VIII. 1535, in order to blacken them and hasten 
 their dissolution; hence possibly the phrase, "I'll set 
 you down in the black book. " 
 
 heath, popularly termed "the retreat of Cade," and 
 of banditti in the time of Cromwell, was re- dis- 
 covered in 1780. 
 
 BLACK-HOLE, see Calcutta. 
 
 BLACK LEAD, see Graphite. 
 
 BLACK LETTER, employed in the first 
 printed books in the middle of the 15th century. 
 The first printing types were Gothic ; but they were 
 modified into the present Roman type about 1469 : 
 Pliny's Natural History was then printed in the 
 new characters. 
 
 BLACK-MAIL, a compulsory payment for 
 protection of cattle, &c, made in the border counties, 
 was prohibited by Elizabeth in 1601. It was exacted 
 in Scotland from the lowlanders by the highlanders, 
 till 1745. It checked agricultural improvement. 
 
 BLACK MONDAY, Easter Monday, 14 April, 
 1360, " so full dark of mist and hail, and so bitter 
 cold that many men died on their horsebacks with 
 the cold." Stow. In Ireland, Black Monday was 
 the day on which a number of the English were 
 slaughtered at a village near Dublin, in 1209. 
 
 BLACK MONEY, base foreign coin so termed, 
 1335- 
 
 BLACK MONKS, see Dominicans. 
 
 BLACK ROD has a gold lion at the top, and is 
 carried by the usher of the order of the knights of the 
 garter (instituted 1349), instead of the mace. He 
 also keeps the door when a chapter of the order is 
 sitting, and during the sessions of parliament 
 attends the house of lords and acts as their messen- 
 ger to the commons. 
 
 BLACK SEA, THE EtrxrNE (Pontus Euxinus- 
 of the ancients), a large internal sea between the 
 S. W. provinces of Russia and Asia Minor, con- 
 nected with the sea of Azoff by the straits of Yenikale , 
 and with the sea of Marmora by the channel of 
 Constantinople. 
 
 This sea was much frequented by the Greeks and 
 Italians, till closed to all nations by the Turks 
 after the fall of Constantinople in 1453. 
 
 The Russians obtained admission by the treaty of 
 Kainardji. IO July, 1774 
 
 It was partially opened to British and other traders, 
 (since which time the Russians gradually obtained 
 the preponderance). 1779 
 
 Entered by the British and French fleets, at the 
 requisition of the Porte, after the destruction of 
 the Turkish fleet at Sinope by the Russians, 
 30 Nov. 1853 3 Jan. 1854. 
 
 A dreadful storm in this sea raged, and caused 
 great loss of life and shipping, and valuable stores 
 for the allied armies. See Russo-Turlcish War. 
 
 13 to 16 Nov. 1854 
 
 The Black Sea was opened to the commerce of all 
 nations by the treaty of 1856. 
 
 The article of the treaty of Paris, 30 March, 1856, 
 by which the sea was opened to the commerce of 
 all nations, and interdicted to any ships of war ; 
 and the erection of military maritime arsenals for- 
 bidden, was repudiated by a Russian circular, 
 dated 31 (19) Oct. 1S70 
 
 After some correspondence, the meeting of a con- 
 ference on the subject, in London, was agreed to 
 by all the powers concerned in the treaty. 
 
 The conference met in London 17 Jan. 1871, and a. 
 treaty was signed by which the neutralization of 
 the sea was abrogated : but it was agreed by a 
 special protocol, that no nation shall liberate itself 
 from the obligations of a treaty without the con- 
 sent of the others who signed it . 13 March, 1871 
 
 BLACKS or Neri ; see Bianchi. 
 
BLACKWALL. 
 
 96 
 
 BLOCKADE. 
 
 BLACKAVALL (London), the site of fine 
 commercial docks and warehouses, bee Docks. 
 The Blackwall railway was opened to the public, 4 
 July, 1840 ; the eastern terminus being at Black- 
 wall wharf, and the western in Fenchurch street. 
 
 BLACK WATCH, armed companies of the 
 loyal clans (Campbells, Monros, &c.) employed to 
 watch the Highlands from about 1725 to 1739, 
 when they were formed into the celebrated 42nd 
 regiment, enrolled as "The Royal Highland Black 
 "Watch." Their removal for foreign service probably 
 facilitated the outbreak in 1745. They wore dark 
 tartans, and hence were called Black Hatch. 
 
 BLACKWATER,- Battle of, in Ireland, 
 
 14 Aug. 1598, when the Irish chief O'Neil defeated 
 the English under sir Henry Bagnall. Pope 
 Clement VIII. sent O'Neil a consecrated plume, 
 and granted to his followers the same indulgence as 
 to crusaders. 
 
 BLACKWOOD'S Edinburgh Magazine estab- 
 lished, 181 7. 
 
 BLADENSBTJRG, see Washington, 1814. 
 
 BLANDFORD'S ACT, 19 and 20 Vict. c. 104, 
 for augmentation of benefices, &c. passed, 1856. 
 
 BLANK VEBSE, see Verse. 
 
 BLANKETEERS- A number of operatives 
 who on 10 March, 1817, met in St. Peter's field, 
 near Manchester, many of them having blankets, 
 rugs, or great coats rolled up and fastened to their 
 backs, this was termed the Blanket meeting. 
 They proceeded to march towards London, but were 
 dispersed by the magistracy. It is stated that their 
 object was to commence a general insurrection. 
 See Derby. Eventually the ringleaders had an 
 interview with the cabinet ministers, and a better 
 understanding between the working classes and the 
 government ensued. 
 
 BLANKETS are said to have been first made 
 at Bristol by Thos. Blanket, in the 14th century. 
 
 BLASPHEMY was punished with death by 
 the law of Moses {Lev. xxiv.) 1491 B.C. ; and by the 
 code of Justinian, a. d. 529. It is punishable by 
 the civil and canon law of England, regulated by 60 
 Geo. III. c. 8 (1819). Daniel Isaac Eaton was 
 tried and convicted in London of blasphemy, 6 
 March, 1812. Robert Taylor, a protestant clergyman, 
 was tried twice for the same crime. He was sen- 
 tenced to two years' imprisonment, and largely 
 fined, July, 1831. In Dec. 1840, two publishers of 
 blasphemous writings were convicted. 
 
 BLAZONRY. Bearing coats-of-arms was in- 
 troduced and became hereditary in France and 
 England about 1192, owing to the knights painting 
 their banners with different figures, thereby to dis- 
 tinguish them in the crusades. Dugdale. 
 
 BLEACHING was known in Egypt, Syria, 
 India, and Gaul. Pliny. An improved chemical 
 system was adopted by the Dutch, who introduced 
 it into England and Scotland in 1768. There were 
 large bleach-fields in Lancashire, Fife, Forfar, and 
 Renfrew, and in the vale of the Leven, in Dumbar- 
 ton. The application of the gas chlorine to bleaching 
 is due to Berthollet's discovery about 1785. Its 
 combination with lime (as chloride of lime) was 
 devised by Mr. Tennant, of Glasgow, who took out 
 a patent for the process in 1798, and by his firm it 
 is still extensively manufactured. In 1822 Dr. Ure 
 
 published an elaborate series of experiments on this 
 substance. In i860 bleaching and dyeing works 
 were placed under the regulations of the Factories 
 Act. 
 
 BLENHEIM (or Plintheim) a village in 
 Bavaria on the left bank of the Danube, near the 
 town of Hochstett, the site of a battle fought 2 Aug. 
 (new style, 13), 1704, between the English and 
 confederates, commanded by the duke of Marl- 
 borough, and the French and Bavarians, under 
 marshal Tallard and the elector of Bavaria. The 
 latter were defeated with the loss of about 12,000 
 killed, and 13,000 prisoners (including Tallard). 
 Bavaria became the prize of the conquerors. The 
 British parliament gave Marlborough the honour of 
 "Woodstock and hundred of "Wotton, and erected for 
 him the house of Blenheim.* 
 
 BLIND. The first public school for the blind 
 was established by Valentine Haiiy, at Paris in 
 1784. The first in England was at Liverpool, in 
 1 791 ; in Scotland, at Edinburgh, in 1792 ; and the 
 first in London in 1799. , Printing in raised or 
 embossed characters for the use of the blind was 
 begun at Paris by Haiiy in 1786. The whole Bible 
 was printed at Glasgow' in raised Roman characters 
 about 1848. A sixpenny magazine for the blind, 
 edited by the late rev. "W. Taylor, F.R.S., so 
 eminent for his forty years' exertions on behalf of 
 these sufferers, was published in 1855-6. He aided 
 the establishment of a college for the blind of the 
 upper classes at "Worcester, in 1866. There is 
 hardly any department of human knowledge in 
 which blind persons have not obtained distinction. f 
 Laura Bridgman, bom in 1829, became dumb and 
 blind two years after ; she was so well taught by 
 Dr. Howe, of Boston, U.S., as to become an able 
 instructor of blind and dumb persons. By the 
 census of 1851, there were in Great Britain, 21,487 
 blind persons ; 11,273 males, 10,214 females; a °out 
 one in 975 blind. 
 
 BLINDING by consuming the eyeballs with 
 lime or scalding vinegar, was a punishment inflicted 
 anciently on adulterers, perjurers, and thieves. In 
 the middle ages the penalty was frequently changed 
 from total blindness to a diminution of sight. A 
 Avhole amiy of Bulgarians was deprived of sight by 
 the emperor Basil, 104. Several of the eastern 
 emperors had their eyes torn from their heads. 
 
 BLISTERS, used by Hippocrates (460-357 
 B.C.), made, it is said, of cantharides, {which see). 
 
 BLOCKADE is the closing an enemy's ports 
 to all commerce; a practice introduced by the Dutch 
 about 1584. The principle recognized by the 
 European powers is that every blockade, in order to 
 be binding, must be effective. The Elbe was 
 blockaded by Great Britain, 1803 ; the Baltic, by 
 Denmark, 1848-49 and 1864 ; the gulf of Finland 
 by the Allies, 1854 ; and the ports of the Southern 
 
 * On 5 Feb. 1861, a fire broke out at this place, which 
 destroyed the "Titian Gallery" and the pictures; the 
 latter, a present from Victor Amadeus, king of Sardinia, 
 to John, the great duke of Marlborough. 
 
 t James Holman, the "blind traveller" (bom 1786, 
 died 1857), visited almost every place of note in the 
 world. His travels were published in 1825. In April, 
 1858, a Wind clergyman, rev. J. Sparrow, was elected 
 chaplain to the Mercers' Company, London, and read the 
 
 service, &e. , from embossed 1 ks. Viscount Cranborne 
 
 (blind) was the author of many interesting historical 
 essays. He died in June, 1865. On 13 July, 1865. 
 Henry Fawcett, the blind professor of political economy 
 at Cambridge, was elected M.P. for Brighton. 
 
BLOCK BOOKS. 
 
 97 
 
 BOATS. 
 
 ■States of North America by president Lincoln, April 
 19, 1861. See Orders in Council, and Berlin. 
 
 BLOCK BOOKS, see Printing. 
 
 BLOCKS employed in the rigging of ships were 
 much improved in their construction by Walter 
 Taylor, about 1781. In 1801, Mark I. Brunei in- 
 vented a mode of making blocks by machinery 
 which "was put into operation in 1808, and in 1815 
 was said to have saved the country 20,000^. a year. 
 
 BLOIS, France, the Roman Blesum. The 
 count Guy II. sold it with his domains to Louis 
 ■duke of Orleans in 1391, and eventually it accrued 
 to the crown. The states-general were held here 
 1576 and 1588, on account of the religious wars; 
 and here Henry duke of Guise was assassinated by 
 order of the king, Henry III., 23 Dec. 1588. The 
 empress Maria Louisa retired here in 1814. 
 
 BLOOD. The circulation of the blood through 
 the lungs was known to Michael Servetus, a Spanish 
 physician, in 1553. Caesalpinus published an ac- 
 count of the general circulation, of which he had 
 some confused ideas, improved afterwards by 
 experiments, 1569. Paul of Venice, or Father 
 Paolo (real name Peter Sarpi), discovered the valves 
 which serve for the circulation ; but the honour of 
 the positive discovery of the circulation belongs to 
 "William Harvey, between 1619 and 1628. Freind. 
 
 Eating Blood was prohibited to Noah, Gen. ix., to the 
 Jews, Lev. xvii., &c, and to the Gentile converts by 
 the apostles at an assembly at Jerusalem, a.d. 52, 
 Acts xv. 
 
 Blood-Drinking was anciently tried to give vigour to 
 the system. Louis XI. in his last illness, drank the 
 warm blood of infants, in the vain hope of restoring his 
 decayed strength, 14.83. Hinault. 
 
 In the 15th century an opinion prevailed that the de- 
 clining vigour of the aged might be repaired by trans- 
 fusing into their veins the blood of young persons. 
 It was countenanced in France by the physicians 
 about 1668, and prevailed for many years, till the most 
 fatal effects having ensued, it was suppressed by an 
 edict. "An English physician (Louver, or Lower) 
 practised in this way; he died in 1691." Freind. It 
 was attempted again in France in 1797, and more 
 recently there, in a few cases, with success ; and in 
 England (but the instances are rare) since 1823. Med. 
 Joum. 
 
 BLOOD'S CONSPIRACY. Blood, a dis- 
 carded officer of Oliver Cromwell's household, with 
 his confederates, seized the duke of Ormond in his 
 ■coach, intending to hang him, and had got him to 
 Tyburn, when he was rescued by bis friends, 6 Dec. 
 1670. Blood afterwards, in the disguise of a clergy- 
 man, attempted to steal the regal crown from the 
 Jewel-office in the Tower, 9 May, 1671 ; yet, not- 
 withstanding these and other offences, he was not 
 only pardoned, but had a pension of 500^. per annum 
 settled on him by Charles II. 167 1. He died in 
 1681, when in prison for a libel on the duke of 
 Buckingham. 
 
 "BLOODY ASSIZES," held by Jeffreys in 
 the west of England, in Aug. 1685, after the defeat 
 of the duke of Monmouth in the battle of Sedgmoor. 
 Upwards of 300 persons were executed after short 
 trials; very many were whipped, imprisoned, and 
 fined ; and nearly 1000 were sent as slaves to the 
 American plantations. 
 
 BLOOMEB COSTUME, see a note to article 
 Dress. 
 
 BLQOMSBUEY GANG, a cant term applied 
 to an influential political party in the reign of 
 George III., who met at Bloomsbury-house, the 
 
 residence of the duke of Bedford. The marquis of 
 Stafford, the last survivor, died 26 Oct. 1803. 
 
 BLOEEHEATH (Staffordshire), where, 23 
 Sept. 1459, the earl of Salisbury and the Yorkists 
 defeated the Lancastrians, whose leader, lord 
 Audley, was slain with many Cheshire gentlemen. 
 A cross commemorates this conflict. 
 
 BLOWING-MACHINES, the large cylin- 
 ders, used in blowing machines, were erected by 
 Mr. Smeaton at the Carron iron works, 1 760. One 
 equal to the supply of air for forty forge fires was 
 erected at the king's dockyard, Woolwich. The 
 hot-air blast, a most important improvement, causing 
 great economy of fuel, was invented by Mr. James 
 B. Neilson, of Glasgow, and patented in 1828. He 
 died 18 Jan. 1865. 
 
 BLOW-PIPE. An Egyptian using one is 
 among the paintings on the tombs at Thebes. It 
 was employed in mineralogy, by Andrew Von Swab, 
 a Swede, about 1733, and improved by Wollaston 
 and others. In 1802, professor Robert Hare, of 
 Philadelphia, increased the action of the blow-pipe 
 by the application of oxygen and hydrogen. By the 
 agency of Newman's improved blow-pipes, in 1816, 
 Dr. E. D. Clarke fused the earths, alkalies, metals, 
 &c. The best work on the blow-pipe is by Plattner 
 and Muspratt, 1854. 
 
 BLUE was the favourite colour of the Scotch 
 covenanters in the 17th century. Blue and orange 
 or yellow, became the whig colours after the revolu- 
 tion in 1688 ; and were adopted on the cover of the 
 whig periodical, the "Edinburgh Review," first 
 published in 1802. The Prussian blue dye was dis- 
 covered by Diesbach, at Berlin, in 1710. Fine 
 blues are now obtained from coal-tar ; see Aniline. 
 Blue-coat Schools, so called in reference to the 
 costume of the children. The Blue-coat school in 
 Newgate-street, London, was instituted by Edward 
 VI. in 1552; see Christ's Hospital. Blue-stocking, 
 a term applied to literary ladies, was originally 
 conferred on a society comprising both sexes (1760, 
 et seq.). Benjamin Stillingfleet, the naturalist, an 
 active member, wore blue worsted stockings; hence 
 the name. The beautiful Mrs. Jeminghani is said 
 to have worn blue stockings at the conversaziones of 
 Mrs. Montague. 
 
 BLUE-BOOKS, reports and other papers 
 printed by order of parliament, are so named on ac- 
 count of their wrappers ; 70 vols were printed for 
 the lords, and 76 vols for the commons in 1871. 
 
 BLUMENAU, Lower Austria ; on 22 July, 1866, 
 the Austrians in possession of this place were 
 attacked by the Prussians on their march towards 
 Vienna, a severe conflict was interrupted by the 
 news of the armistice agreed to at Nikolsburg"; and 
 the same evening Austrians and Prussians bivouacked 
 together. 
 
 BOAED OF ADMIEALTY, Control, 
 Green-Cloth, Health, Trade, &c, see 
 
 under Admiralty, &c. 
 
 BOATS. Flat-bottomed boats, made in England 
 in the reign of William I. ; again brought into use 
 by Barker, a Dutchman, about 1690 ; see Life-Boat. 
 A mode of building boats by the help of the steam- 
 engine was invented by Mr. Nathan Thompson of 
 New York in i860, and premises were erected for its 
 application at Bow, near London, in 1861. Charles 
 Clifford's valuable Boat-lowering apparatus was in- 
 vented 1856. 
 
BOAT-RACES. 
 
 98 
 
 BOHEMIA. 
 
 BOAT-RACES; see Dogget, and Umeerstty. 
 The London rowing club beat the Atalanta rowing 
 club in a four-oared race on the Thames, 10 June, 
 1872. 
 
 BOCCACIO'S DECAMERONE, a col- 
 lection of a hundred storres or novels (many very 
 immoral), severely satirising the clergy, feigned to 
 have been related' in ten days, during the plague of 
 Florence in 1348. Boccacio lived 1313-75- A C0 P V 
 of the first edition (that of Valdarfer, in 1471) was 
 knocked down at the duke of Koxburgh's sale, 
 to the duke of Marlborough, for 2260^., 17 June, 
 1812. This copy was afterwards sold by public 
 auction, for 875 guineas, 5 June, 1819. 
 
 BODLEIAN LIBRARY, Oxford, founded 
 in 1598, and opened in 1602, by sir Thos. Bodley 
 (died, 28 Jan. 1612). It is open to the public, and 
 claims a copy of all works published in this country. 
 In 1868, it contained about 250,000 volumes For 
 rare works and MSS. it is said to be second only to 
 the Vatican. Mr. Macraes " Annals of the Bodleian 
 library," published 1868. 
 
 BQEOTIA, a division of Greece, north of Attica, 
 known previously as Aonia, Messapia, Hyantis, 
 Ogygia, and Cadmeis. Thebes, the capital, was 
 celebrated for the exploits and misfortunes of its 
 kings and heroes. The term Boeotian was used by 
 the "Athenians as a synonym for dulness ; but un- 
 justly,— since Pindar, Hesiod, Plutarch, Deuiocritus, 
 Epaminondas, and Corinna, were Boeotians. The 
 early history and dates are mythical ; see Thebes. 
 
 Arrival of Cadmus, founder of Cadmea (Hales, 1494 ; 
 
 Clinton, 1313) BC - J 493 
 
 Reign of Polydore 1459 
 
 Labdachus ascends the throne . . . . . 1430 
 Amphion and Zethus besiege Thebes, and dethrone 
 
 Laius ...■••■• 138° 
 
 Myth of CBdipus ; he kills in an affray his father 
 
 Laius : confirming the oracle foretelling his death 
 
 by the hands of his son, 1276 ; resolves the 
 
 Sphinx's enigmas Iz66 
 
 "War of the Seven Captains .... . 1225 
 
 Thebes besieged and taken 1213 
 
 Thersander reigns 1 198 ; slain . . • . "93 
 
 The Thebans abolish royalty (ages of obscurity 
 
 follow) . • • • • . • . a b ? ut 1I2 ° 
 
 The Thebans fight with the Persians against the 
 
 Greeks at Plataa . . • ■ • - 479 
 
 The Spartans aiding the Thebans defeat the Athe- 
 nians near Tanagra . . . . - • ■ 456 
 Battle of Coronea, in which the Thebans defeat the 
 
 Athenians . • • • ■ _ • , ■ . , • 4*7 
 The Thebans, under Epaminondas and Pelopidas, 
 
 enrol their Sacred Band, and join Athens against 
 
 Sparta . • • , • _ • , • .• -377 
 
 Epaminondas defeats the Lacedaanomans at 
 
 Leuctra, and restores Thebes to independence 371 
 
 Pelopidas killed at the battle of Cynoscephalse . 364 
 Epaminondas gains the victory of Mantmea, but is 
 
 nlain 362 
 
 Philip, king of Maeedon, defeats the Thebans and 
 
 Athenians near Cha-ronea . . • • 33^ 
 
 Alexander destroys Thebes, but spares the house of 
 
 Pindar ..•••■•• 335 
 
 The Boeotian confederacy dissolved by the Romans 1 70 
 Bceotia henceforth partook of the fortunes ot 
 
 Greece ; and was conquered by the Turks under a.d. 
 
 Mahomet II '456 
 
 BOGOTA, SANTA Fe DE, capital of New 
 Grenada {which see). 
 
 BOGS probably the remains of forests, covered 
 with peat and loose soil. An act for the drainage 
 of Irish bogs, passed March, 1830. The bog-land of 
 Ireland has been estimated at 3,000,000 acres ; that 
 of Scotland at upwards of 2,000,000 ; and that of 
 
 England at near 1,000,000 of acres. In Jan. 1849, 
 Mr. Eees Reece took out a patent for certain, 
 valuable products from Irish peat. Candles and 
 various other articles produced from peat have been 
 since sold in London. Fuel for railway engines and 
 other purposes is now made from peat (April, 1873)- 
 
 BOGUE FORTS, see China, 1841. 
 
 BOHEMIA, formerly the Ilercynian forest 
 (Boiemum, Tacitus), derives its name from the Boii_ r 
 a Celtic tribe. It was governed by dukes (Borzivoi 
 the first, 891), till Ottocar assumed the title of king r 
 1 198. The kings at first held their territory from 
 the empire : and the crown was elective till it came 
 to the house of Austria, in which it is now here- 
 ditary. The original Bohemians term themselves 
 Czechs, and, following the example of Hungary, 
 now call for autonomy. Prague, the capital, is- 
 famous for sieges and battles. Population in 1857, 
 4,705.525; in 1870, 5,140,544; see Prague. 
 
 The Czechs (Slavonians) seize Bohemia about . 550 
 
 City of Prague founded 79s 
 
 Introduction of Christianity .... . 894. 
 
 Bohemia conquered by the emperor Henry III. who 
 
 spreads devastation through the country . . 104 1 
 Ottocar (Premislas) I., first king of Bohemia . 1198 
 
 Ottocar II. rules over Austria, and obtains Styria, 
 
 <fec, 1253 ; refuses the imperial crown . . 1272 
 
 Ottocar vanquished by the emperor Rudolph and 
 deprived of Austria, Styria, and Carniola, 1277 ; 
 killed at Marehfeld .... 26 Aug. 1278. 
 King John (blind), slain at the battle of Crecy . 1346 
 John Huss and Jerome of Prague, two of the first 
 reformers, burnt for heresy ; which occasions an 
 
 insurrection 1415. M 1 ^ 
 
 Ziska, leader of the Hussites, takes Prague, 1419 ; 
 
 dies of the plague 1424, 
 
 Albert, duke of Austria, marries the daughter of the 
 
 late emperor and king, and receives the crowns of 
 
 Bohemia and Hungary .... . 1437 
 
 The succession infringed by Ladislas, son of the 
 
 king of Poland, and George Podiebrad, a protes- 
 
 tant chief 1440-1458 
 
 Ladislas, king of Poland, elected king of Bohemia, 
 
 on the death of Podiebrad ... . 1471 
 
 The emperor Ferdinand I. marries Anne, sister of 
 
 Louis the late king, and obtains the crown . 1527 
 
 The emperor Ferdinand II. , oppressing the protes- 
 tants, is deposed, and Frederic the elector-pala- 
 tine, elected king .... 5 Sept. 1619- 
 Frederic, totally defeated at Prague, flees to 
 
 Holland 9 Nov. 1620 
 
 Bohemia secured to Austria by treaty . . . 1648 
 Silesia and Glatz ceded to Prussia . . . 1742: 
 
 Prague taken by the Prussians .... 1744 
 
 Prussians defeat Austriaus at Prague . 6 May, 1757 
 Revolt of the peasantry .... . 1775 
 
 Edict of Toleration promulgated . . . 1781 
 
 The French occupy Prague .... . 1806 
 
 Insurrection at Prague, 12 June ; submission, state 
 
 of siege raised 20 July, 1848 
 
 The Prussians enter Bohemia, which becomes the 
 
 seat of war (see Germa ny, 1866) . . 24 June, 1866 
 Agitation of the Czechs, who require the emperor 
 to be crowned king of Bohemia with the crown of 
 St. Wenceslas at Prague, . . autumn, 1867 
 
 Riots at Prague ; habeas corpus act suspended, 
 
 10 Oct. 1868 
 Bohemian agitation for self-government ; addresses 
 
 to the emperor . . 14 Sept. and 5 Oct. 187c 
 
 Manifesto of the emperor ... 14 Sept. 1871 
 Bohemian deputies absent from the reichsrath, 
 
 Dec. „ 
 
 KINGS. 
 
 1 198. Premislas Ottocar I. 
 
 1230. Wenceslas III. 
 
 1253. Premislas Ottocar II. 
 
 1278. Wenceslas IV., king of Poland. 
 
 1305. Wenceslas V. 
 
 1306. Rudolph of Austria. 
 
 1307. Henry of Carinthia. 
 
 1310. John of Luxemburg (killed at Crecy). 
 1346. Charles I., emperor (1347). 
 1378. Wenceslas VI. emperor. 
 
BOHEMIAN BRETHREN". 
 
 99 
 
 BOMBAY. 
 
 1419. Sigismund I. , emperor. 
 1438. Albert of Austria, emperor. 
 1440. Ladislas V. 
 1458. George von Podiebrad. 
 1471. Ladislas VI., king of Hungary (in 1490). 
 1516. Louis, king of Hungary (killed at Mokatz). 
 1526. Bohemia united to Austria under Ferdinand I. 
 elected king. See Germany, emperors. 
 
 BOHEMIAN BRETHREN, a body of 
 Christians in Bohemia, appear to have separated 
 from the Calixtines (which see), a branch of the 
 Hussites in 1467. Duphi says " They rejected the 
 sacraments of the church, were governed by simple 
 laics, and held the scriptures for their only rule of 
 faith. They presented a confession of faith to king 
 Ladislas in 1504 to justify themselves from errors 
 laid to their charge." They appear to have had 
 communication with the "Waldenses, but were dis- 
 tinct from them. Luther, in 1533, testifies to their 
 purity of doctrine, and Melanchthon commends 
 their discipline. They were dispersed during the 
 religious wars of Germany in the 17th century. 
 
 BOII, a Celtic people of N. Italy, who emigrated 
 into Italy, and were defeated at the Vadimonian 
 lake, 283 b.c. They were finally subdued by Scipio 
 Nasica, 191 B.C. 
 
 . BOILING OF LIQUIDS. Dr. Hooke, about 
 1863, ascertained that liquids were not increased in 
 heat after they had once begun to boil, and that a 
 fierce fire only made them boil more rapidly. The 
 following boiling points have been stated : — 
 
 Ether 
 
 93° Fakr. 
 
 Phosphorus . 554 Fahr. 
 
 Alcohol 
 
 173 „ 
 
 Oil of turpentine 312 ,, 
 
 Water 
 
 212 ,, 
 
 Sulphur . . 822 „ 
 
 Nitric acid . 
 
 187 „ 
 
 Mercury . . 662 ,, 
 
 Sulphuric acid 
 
 600 ,, 
 
 
 BOILING TO DEATH, made a capital 
 punishment in England, by stat. 22 Hen. VIII., 
 1 53 1 (repealed in 1547). This act was occasioned 
 by seventeen persons having been poisoned by 
 Eichard Eoose, otherwise Coke, the bishop of 
 Eochester's cook, two of whom died. Margaret 
 Davy, a young woman, suffered in the same manner 
 for a similar crime, 28 March, 1542. Stow. 
 
 BOIS-LE-DUC, Dutch Brabant, the site of a 
 battle between the British and the French repub- 
 lican army, in which the British were defeated, and 
 forced to abandon their position and retreat to 
 Schyndel, 14 Sept. 1794. This place was captured 
 by the French, 10 Oct. following ; it surrendered 
 to the Prussian army, under Bulow, in Jan. 1814. 
 
 BOKHARA, the ancient Sogdiana, after suc- 
 cessively forming part of the empires of Persia, of 
 Alexander, and Bactriana, was conquered by the 
 Turks in the 6th century, by the Chinese in the 7th, 
 and by the Arabs about 705. After various changes 
 of masters it was subdued by the Uzbek Tartars, its 
 present possessors, in 1505. The British envoys, 
 colonel Stoddart and captain Conolly, were mur- 
 dered at Bokhara, the capital, by the khan, about 
 June, 1843. In the war with Eussia, begun in 1866, 
 the emir's army was defeated several times in May, 
 et seq. Peace was made 11 July, 1867. The 
 Eussians were again victors, 25 May, 1868, and 
 occupied Samarcand the next day. Further con- 
 quests were made by the Eussians, and Samarcand 
 was secured by treaty, Nov. 1868. 
 
 BOLIVIA, a republic in South America, for- 
 merly part of Peru, population in 1858, 1,987,352. 
 
 The insurrection of the ill-used Indians, headed by 
 Tupac Amaru Andres, took place here . . 1780-2 
 
 The country declared its independence, . . 6 Aug. 1824 
 Secured by the victory of Ayacucho, . . 9 Dec. ,, 
 Took the name of Bolivia, in honour of general 
 
 Bolivar n Aug. 1825 
 
 First congress met 25 May, 1826 
 
 Slavery abolished 1836 
 
 General Sucre governed ably .... 1826-8 
 
 Santa Cruz rilled 1828-34 
 
 Free-trade proclaimed 1853 
 
 General Cordova, president 1855-7 
 
 Succeeded by the dictator Jose Maria Linares 
 
 31 March, 1859 
 George Cordova, constitutional president. . . i860 
 Succeeded by Jose M. de Acha . ... May, 1861 
 General Melgarejo defeats the troops of president 
 
 Be Acha .28 Dec. 1864 
 
 Becomes dictator of the republic . . Feb. 1865 
 Puts down an insurrection under Belzu, March, 1865 
 Totally defeats Arguedas at Viacha and publishes 
 
 an amnesty 24 Jan. 1866 
 
 Suppresses a revolt 17 Oct. „ 
 
 Proclaims an amnesty .... 21 Dec. 1867 
 The president, A. Morales, 1871 ; said to have been 
 
 murdered Jan. 1873 
 
 BOLLANDISTS, see Acta Sanctoruii}. 
 
 BOLOGNA (central Italy) the ancient Fel- 
 sina, afterwards Bononia, a city distinguished for 
 its architecture, made a Eoman colony, 189 B.C. 
 
 A university said to have been founded by Theo- 
 
 dosius, about 433 ; really in 1116 
 
 Bologna joins the Lombard League . . . . 1167 
 Pope Julius II. takes Bologna ; enters in triumph 
 
 11 Nov. 1506 
 It becomes part of the states of the Church. . . 1513 
 In the church of St. Petronius, remarkable for its 
 pavement, Cassini drew his meridian line (over 
 one drawn by Father Ignatius Dante in 1575) . 1653 
 Bologna was taken by the French, 1796 ; by the 
 Austrians, 1799 ; again by the French, after the 
 battle of Marengo, in 1800 ; and restored to the 
 
 pope in 1815 
 
 A revolt suppressed by Austrian interference . . 1831 
 Rebellion, 1848 ; taken by Austrians . 16 May, 1849 
 The Austrians evacuate Bologna : and cardinal Fer- 
 retti departs : the citizens rise and form a pro- 
 visional government 12 June, 1859 
 
 Which decrees that all public acts shall be headed 
 " Under the reign of king Victor Emmanuel," &c. 
 
 1 Oct. „ 
 He enters Bologna as sovereign . . . 2 May, i860 
 
 BOMARSUND, a strong fortress on one of the 
 Aland isles in the Baltic sea, taken by sir Charles 
 Napier, commander of the Baltic expedition, aided 
 by the French military contingent under general 
 Baraguay d'Hilliers, 15 Aug. 1854. The governor 
 Bodisco, and the garrison, about 2000 men, became 
 prisoners. The fortifications were destroyed. 
 
 BOMBAY, the most westerly and smallest of 
 our Indian presidencies, was visited by the Portu- 
 guese in 1509, and acquired by them in 1530. It 
 was given (with Tangier in Africa, and 300,000^. in 
 money) to Charles II. as the marriage portion of the 
 infanta Catherine of Portugal, 1662. In 1668, it 
 was granted to the East India company, who had 
 long desired it, "in free and common socage," as 
 cf the manor of East Greenwich, at an annual rent 
 of KM. Confirmed by William III. 1689. The 
 two principal castes at Bombay are the Parsees 
 (descendants of the ancient Persian fire-worship- 
 pers) and the Borahs (sprung from early converts 
 to Islamism). They are both remarkable for com- 
 mercial activity. 
 
 First British factory established at Ahmednuggur . 1612 
 Mr. Gyfford, deputy-governor, 100 soldiers, and 
 other English, perish through the climate, 
 
 Oct. 1675— Feb. 1676 
 Captain Keigwin usurps the government . . 1681-84 
 Bombay made chief over the company's settlements 1687 
 
 H 2 
 
TV* 
 
 BOMBS. 
 
 100 BOOK. 
 
 The whole island, except the fort, seized and held 
 
 for a time liy the mogul's admiral. . . . 1690 
 Bombay becomes a distinct presidency . . . 1708 
 Additions to the Bombay territory :— Bancot river, 
 
 1756 ; island of Salsette 1775 
 
 Bishopric established 1837 
 
 Lord Elphinstone governor, 1853 
 
 Population of the presidency, 12,034,483 . . . 1858 
 The benevolent sir Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy, a Parsee 
 
 (who erected several hospitals, etc.), dies 15 April, 1859 
 His son sir Curset.jee, visits England . . . i860 
 
 Sir G. R. Clerk, governor „ 
 
 Rioting against the income-tax suppressed Nov. and 
 
 Dec. ,, 
 Sir Henry Bartle Frere, governor . . March, 1862 
 Greatly increased prosperity through the cotton 
 
 trade, leads to immense speculation. . . Nov. 1864 
 Reported failure of Mr. Byramjee Cama, a Parsee, 
 for 3,300,000!. ; other failures, and great depres- 
 sion ; the projected international exhibition in 
 
 1867 abandoned May, 1865 
 
 Recovering from commercial crisis . . Aug. ,, 
 Mr. (after sir) W. R. Seymour Fitzgerald, appointed 
 
 governor, Nov. 1866 ; arrived . . 28 Feb. 1867 
 Held a durbar of native princes, at Poona . 6 Oct. 1868 
 Grand reception of the duke of Edinburgh, 11 March, 1870 
 Sir Philip Wodehouse, governor . . April, 1S72 
 
 BOMBS (iron shells filled with gunpowder), 
 said to have been invented at Venlo, in 1495, and 
 used by the Turks at the siege of Rhodes in 1522. 
 They came into general use in 1634, having been 
 previously used only by the Dutch and Spaniards. 
 Bomb-vessels were invented in France in 1681. 
 Voltaire. The shrapnel shell (invented by colonel 
 Henry Shrapnel, who died in 1842) is a bomb filled 
 with balls, and a lighted fuse to make it explode 
 before it reaches the enemy. 
 
 BONA, Algeria ; an early station of the French 
 African company, till 1789. It was taken by the 
 French from the Arabs, 6 May, 1832. 
 
 BONAPABTE FAMILY. The name ap- 
 pears at Florence and Genoa in the 13th century ; 
 in the 15 th a branch settled in Corsica. 
 
 Charles Bonaparte, bom 29 March, 1746, died 24 Feb., 
 1785. He married in 1767, Letitia Ramolina (born 
 24 Aug., 1750, died Feb. 1836) ; issue, 
 
 1. Joseph, born 7 Jan. 1768, made king of Two Sicilies, 
 1805 ; of Naples alone, 1806 ; of Spain, 1808 ; resides 
 in United States, 1815 ; comes to England, 1832 ; 
 settles in Italy, 1841 ; dies at Florence, 28 July, 1844. 
 
 2. Napoleon I., emperor, born 15 Aug. 1769 (see 
 France.. ) 
 
 3. Lucien, prince of Canino, born 1775 : at first aided 
 his brother Napoleon, but opposed his progress towards 
 universal monarchy. He was taken by the English on 
 his way to America, and resided in England till 1814. 
 He died at Viterbo, 30 June, 1840. His son Charles 
 (born 1803, died 1857) was an eminent naturalist. 
 
 4. Louis, born 2 Sept. 1778 ; made king of Holland, 1806; 
 died 15 July, 1846. By his marriage with Hortense 
 Beauharnais (daughter of the empress Josephine), in 
 1802, he had three sons : 1. Napoleon Louis (born 1803, 
 died 1807) ; 2. Louis Napoleon (bom 1804, died 1831) ; 
 
 and 
 3. Charles-Louis-Napoleon, born 20 April, 1808 
 
 educated under the care of his mother at Aremberg, 
 
 Switzerland, and at Thun, under general Dufour ; 
 
 took part in the Carbonari insurrection in the Papal 
 
 States in March, 1831 
 Attempted a revolt at Strasbourg, 30 Oct. 1836. 
 Sent to America, 13 Nov. 1836. 
 Repairs to London, 14 Oct. 1838. 
 Lands at Boulogne with fifty followers, 6 Aug. 1840. 
 Condemned to imprisonment for life, 6 Oct. 1840. 
 Escapes from Ham, 25 May, 1846. 
 Arrives at Boulogne, 2 March, 184S. 
 Elected deputy, 8 June ; and takes his seat, 27 Aug. ; 
 
 see France 1848-71 : died at Chiselliurst, 9 Jan. 1873. 
 
 5. Jerome, born 15 Nov. 1784 ; king of Westphalia, 
 1 Dec. 1807-1814 ; made governor of the Invalides, 1848 ; 
 
 and marshal, 1850 ; died 24 June, 1S60 ; his children 
 are 
 Mathilde, born 27 May, 1820 ; married to prince 
 
 A. Demidoffin 1841. 
 Napoleon, born 9 Sept. 1822 ; married princess Clo- 
 tilde of Savoy, 30 Jan. 1S59 : is-;uc, Victor, born 
 18 July, 1862 ; Louis, born 16 July, 1864 ; Marie, 
 bom 20 Dec. 1866. 
 
 BONDAGE, see Villeinage. 
 
 BONES. The art of softening bones was dis- 
 covered about 1688, and they were used in the 
 cutlery manufacture, &c, immediately afterwards. 
 The declared value of tne bones of cattle and of 
 other animals, and of fish (exclusive of whale-fins) 
 imported into the United Kingdom from Russia, 
 Prussia, Holland, Denmark, &c, amounted to 
 363,613?. in 1851, and to 628,535?. in 1870. Bone- 
 dust has been extensively employed in manure 
 since the publication of Liebig's researches in 1840. 
 
 BONE-SETTING cannot be said to have 
 been practised scientifically until 1620. Bell. 
 
 BONHOMMES, hermits of simple and gentle 
 lives, appeared in France about 1257 ; in England 
 about 1283. The prior of the order was called 
 le boil homme, by Louis VI. 
 
 BONN, atownon the Rhine (the Roman Bonna), 
 was in the electorate of Cologne. It has been 
 frequently besieged, and was assigned to Prussia 
 in 1 8 14. The academy founded by the elector in 
 1777, made a university, 1784 ; abolished by Napo- 
 leon; re-established and enlarged 1818. Here 
 Albert, our late prince consort, was entered as a 
 student, May, 1837. 
 
 BOOK (Anglo-Saxon, boc ; German, buck). 
 Books were originally made of boards, or the inner 
 bark of trees : afterwards of skins and parchment. 
 Papyrus, an indigenous plant, was adopted in 
 Egypt. Books with leaves of vellum were invented 
 by Attalus, king of Pergamus, about 198 B.C., at 
 which time books were in volumes or rolls. The 
 MSS. in Herculaneum consist of papyrus, rolled 
 and charred and matted together by the fire, and 
 are about nine inches long, and one, two, or three 
 inches in diameter, each being a separate treatise. 
 The most ancient books are the Pentateuch of Moses 
 and the poems of Homer and Hesiod. The first 
 Printed Books (see Printing) were printed on one 
 side only, the leaves being pasted back to back. 
 
 Books of astronomy and geometry were ordered to 
 be destroyed in England as being infected with 
 magic, 6 Edw. VI. Stow 1552 
 
 Anne's act, 1709, relating to the price of books, 
 repealed 1739 
 
 2032 volumes of new works, and 773 of new editions, 
 were published in London in .... 1839 
 
 3359 new works, and 1159 new editions, exclusive of 
 908 pamphlets, were published in . . . . 1852 
 
 3553 volumes were published in .... 1864 
 
 In Great Britain, 4575 books and pamphlets were 
 
 published in 1870; 3547 new 1 ks, and 1288 new 
 
 editions, in 1871 ; 3419 new books, and 1100 new 
 editions, in 1872 
 
 In Paris, 6445 volumes were published in 1842 ; and 
 7350 in 1851. Bee Bibliography. 
 
 Prices of Books. — Jerome (who died 420) states that 
 he had ruined himself by buying a copy of the works of 
 Origen. A large estate was given by Alfred for a book 
 on cosmography, about 872. The Roman de la Rose was 
 sold for about 30J. ; and a homily was exchanged for 
 200 sheep and five quarters of wheat. Books frequently 
 fetched double or treble their weight in gold. They sold 
 at prices varying from 10I. to 40^. each in 1400. A copy 
 of Macklin's Bible, ornamented by Mr. Tomkins, was 
 declared worth 500 guineas. Butler. A yet more superb 
 copy was insured in a London office for 3000?: See 
 Boccacio's Decamerone. 
 
BOOK-KEEPING. 
 
 101 
 
 BOENEO. 
 
 Book-Binding. — The book of St. Cuthbert, a very- 
 early ornamental book, is supposed to have been 
 bound about 650 
 
 A Latin Psalter was bound in oak boards, 9th 
 
 century. 
 
 A MS. copy of the four Evangelists, the book on 
 which our kings from Henry I. to Edward VI. 
 took their coronation oath, was bound ill oaken 
 boards, nearly an inch thick 1100 
 
 Velvet was the covering in the 14th century ; and 
 silk soon after. Vellum was introduced early in 
 the 15th century ; it was stamped and orna- 
 mented about 1510 
 
 Leather came into use about the same time. 
 
 The rolling machine, invented by Mr. Wm. Burr, 
 was substituted for the beating-hammer, and gas 
 stoves began to take the place of the charcoal 
 fires used to heat the gilder's finishing tools, 
 
 about 1830 
 
 Cloth binding superseded the common boards 
 generally about 1831 
 
 Caoutchouc or India-rubber backs to account-books 
 and large volumes were introduced in . . . 184 1 
 
 Book-Hawking Societies (already in Scotland) 
 begun in England in 1851 by archdeacon Wigram 
 (afterwards bishop of Rochester). The hawkers 
 vend moral and religious books in a similar man- 
 ner to the French colporteurs. 
 
 BOOK-KEEPING-. The system by _ double- 
 entry, called originally Italian book-keeping, was 
 taken from the course of algebra published by 
 Burgo, in the 15th century, at Venice. John 
 Gowghe, a printer, published a treatise " on the 
 kepyng of the famouse reconynge . . . Debitor 
 and Creditor," London, 1543. This is our earliest 
 work on book-keeping. J ames Peele published his 
 Book-keeping in 1569. John Mellis published " A 
 Briefe Instruction and Manner how to Keepe Bookes 
 of Accompts," in 1588. Improved systems were 
 published by Benjamin Booth in 1789 and by Edw. 
 Thos. Jones in 1821 and 1831. 
 
 BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER, see 
 
 Common Prayer. 
 
 BOOK POST, see Post. 
 
 BOOK OF SPOBTS, see Sports. 
 
 BOOKSELLERS, at first migratory like 
 hawkers, became known as stationarii, from their 
 practice of having booths or stalls at the corners of 
 streets and in markets. They were long subject to 
 vexatious restrictions, from which they were freed 
 in 1758. 
 
 BOOKSELLER* ASSOCIATION. The 
 
 chief publishers in London formed themselves into 
 an association and fixed the amount of discount to 
 be allowed, 29 Dec. 1829, and for some years re- 
 stricted the retail booksellers from selling copies of 
 works under the full publishing price. A dispute 
 arose as to the right of the latter to dispose of books 
 which had become theirs by purchase, at such less 
 profit as they might deem sufficiently remunerative. 
 The dispute was referred to lord chief justice Camp- 
 bell, at Stratheden House, 14 April, 1852. His 
 lordship gave judgment against the association, 
 which led to its dissolution, 19 May following. 
 
 BOOTHIA FELIX, a large peninsula, N.W. 
 point of America, discovered by sir John Boss in 
 1830, and named after sir Felix Booth, who had 
 presented him with 20,000^. to fit out his polar 
 expedition. Sir Felix died at Brighton in Feb. 1850. 
 
 BOOTS, said to have been the invention of the 
 Carians, were mentioned by Homer, 907 B.C., and 
 frequently by the Boman historians. A variety of 
 forms m-.y be seen in Fairholt's " Costume in Eng- 
 land." An instrument of torture termed " the 
 
 boot " was used in Scotland upon the covenanters 
 about 1666. 
 
 BOB. AX (Boron), known to the ancients, used 
 in soldering, brazing, and casting gold and other 
 metals, was called chrysocolla. Borax is produced 
 naturally in the mountains of Thibet, and was 
 brought to Europe from India about 1713. Hom- 
 berg in 1702 discovered in borax boracic acid, which 
 latter in 1808 was decomposed by Gay-Lussac, 
 Thenard, and H. Davy, into oxygen and the pre- 
 viously unknown element, boron. Borax has lately 
 been found in Saxony. It is now largely manu- 
 factured from the boracic acid found by Hoefer to 
 exist in the gas arising from certain lagoons in 
 Tuscany ; and an immense fortune has been made 
 by their owner M. Lardarel since 1818. 
 
 BORDEAUX (W. France), the Boman Bur- 
 
 digalla, in Aquitania, was taken by the Goths, 412 ; 
 by Clovis, 508. It was gained by Henry II. on his 
 marriage with Eleanor of Aquitaine, 1151. Edward 
 the Black Prince brought John, king of France, 
 captive to this city after the battle of Poictiers, 
 19 Sept. 1356, and here held his court eleven 
 years: his son, our Bichard II., was bom at Bor- 
 deaux, 1366. After several changes Bordeaux finally 
 surrendered to Charles VII. of France, 14 Oct. 1453. 
 The fine equestrian statue of Louis XV. was erected 
 in 1743. Bordeaux was entered by the victorious 
 British army after the battle of Orthes, fought 
 27 Feb. 1814. — 13 vessels were burnt and others 
 injured in the port, through the ignition and 
 explosion of petroleum spirit, 28 Sept. 1869. The 
 French delegate government and the represen- 
 tatives of foreign powers removed here from Tours, 
 II Dec. 1870. M. Gambetta remained for a time 
 with the army of the Loire. By the " pacte de 
 Bordeaux," between the different parties of the 
 national assembly, M. Thiers became chief of the 
 executive power, 17 Feb. 1871. The French Asso- 
 ciation for the Advancement of Science held its 
 first meeting here, 5 Sept. 1872 ; M. Quatrefages, 
 president. 
 
 BORNEO, an island in the Indian Ocean, the 
 largest in the world except Australia, was dis- 
 covered by the Portuguese about 1518. 
 
 The Dutch trade here in 1604 ; establish factories, 
 1609 ; abandon them, 1623 ; re-establish them . 
 
 Sarawak settled by sir James Brooke ; appointed 
 rajah ■ . ■ 
 
 The pirates of Borneo chastised by the British m 
 1813, and by captain Keppel in . . March, 
 
 By a treaty with the sultan, through the instru- 
 mentality of sir J. Brooke, the island of Labooan, 
 or Labuan (N. W. of Borneo), and its dependen- 
 cies, incorporated with the British empire, and 
 formally taken possession of in presence of the 
 Bornean chiefs 2 Dec. 
 
 James Brooke, rajah of Sarawak (1846), governor of 
 Labuan and consul-general of Borneo, visits 
 England and receives many honours . . Oct. 
 
 He destroys many of the Bornean pirates . . . 
 
 Labuan made a bishopric ; the bishop (P. J. Mac- 
 Dougall) consecrated at Calcutta, the first English 
 bishop consecrated out of England . 18 Oct. 
 
 The Chinese in Sarawak rise in insurrection and 
 massacre a number of Europeans ; sir J. "Brooke 
 escapes by swimming across a creek ; he speedily 
 returns with a force of Malays, &c, and chas- 
 tises the insurgents, of whom 2000 are killed, 
 
 17, 18 Feb. 
 
 He conies to England to seek help from the govern- 
 ment, without success . . . • 
 
 His health being broken up, an appeal for a sub- 
 scription for him made . . - •■• 
 
 Deputation of merchants waits on the earl of Derby 
 recommending the purchase of Sarawak, which 
 is declined . ... 30 Nov. 
 
 1776 
 1841 
 1843 
 
 1847 
 1849 
 
 1855 
 1857 
 
BORNOU. 
 
 102 
 
 BOTANY. 
 
 Sir J. Brooke returns to Borneo . .. 20 Nov. i860 
 Returned to England ; died . . .11 June, 1868 
 The rajah of Sarawak, with an expedition of Malays 
 and Dyaks, defeats and punishes a marauding 
 decapitating tribe of Dyaks . . . June, 1870 
 
 BORNOU, an extensive kingdom in central 
 Africa, explored by Denham and Clapperton (sent 
 out by the British government), in 1822. The 
 population is estimated by Denham at 5,000,000, 
 by Barth at 9,000,000. 
 
 BORODINO, a Russian village on the river 
 Moskwa, near which a sanguinary battle was fought, 
 7 Sept. 1812, between the French under Napoleon, 
 and the Eussians under Kutusoff; 240,000 men 
 being engaged. Each party claimed the victory ; 
 but the Russians retreated, leaving Moscow, which 
 the French entered, 14 Sept. ; see Moscow. 
 
 BORON, see Borax. 
 
 BOROUGH or BURGH, anciently a company 
 of ten families living together, now such towns as 
 send members to parliament, since the election of 
 burgesses in the reign of Henry III. 1265. Charters 
 were granted to towns by Henry I. 1132; which 
 were remodelled by Charles II. in 1682-4, but re- 
 stored in 1688-. 22 new English boroughs wei-e 
 created in 1553. Burgesses were first admitted into 
 the Scottish parliament by Robert Bruce, 1326; and 
 into the Irish, 1365. Acts to amend the Represen- 
 tation of the People in England and "Wales passed 
 7 June, 1832, and 15 Aug. 1867; and the Act for 
 the Regulation of Municipal Corporations, 9 Sept. 
 1835 ; Bee Constituency. 
 
 BOROUGH-BRIDGE (W.R.of York). Here 
 Edward II. defeated the earls of Hereford and Lan- 
 caster, 16 March, 1322. Lancaster was mounted on 
 a lean horse, led to 'an eminence near Pontefract, 
 and beheaded. 
 
 BOROUGH-ENGLISH, an ancient tenure 
 by which the younger son inherits, is mentioned as 
 occurring 834. It was abolished in Scotland by 
 Malcolm III. in 1062. 
 
 BOSCOBEL, near Donington, Shropshire. 
 Charles II. (after his defeat at Worcester, 3 Sept. 
 1651), disguised in the clothes of the Pendrills, 
 remained from 4 to 6 Sept. at "White Ladies; on 
 7 and 8 Sept. he lay at Boseobel house, near which 
 exists an oak, said to be the scion of the Royal Oak 
 in which the king was part of the time hidden with 
 col. Careless, tiharpe. The "Boseobel Tracts" 
 were first published in 1660. In 1861 Mr. F. Man- 
 ning published " Views," illustrating these tracts. 
 
 BOSNIA, in European Turkey formerly part of 
 Pannonia, was governed by chiefs till a brother-in- 
 law of Louis king of Hungary was made king, 1376. 
 He was defeated by the Turks in 1389, and became 
 their vassal. Bosnia was incorporated with Turkey 
 in 1463. Many efforts have been made by the 
 Bosnians to recover their independence. The last 
 rebellion, begun in 1849, was quelled by Omar 
 Pasha in 1 85 1. 
 
 BOSPHORUS, TnRACIAN (now Channel of 
 Constantinople). Darius Hystaspes threw a bridge 
 of boats over this strait when about to invade 
 Greece, 493 b.c. See Constantinople. 
 
 BOSPORUS (improperly BOSPHORUS), now 
 called Circassia, near the Bosphorus Cimmerius, 
 the straits of Kertch or Yenikale. The history of 
 the kingdom is involved in obscurity, though it 
 continued for 350 years. It was named Cimmerian, 
 
 from the Cimmeri, who dwelt on its borders, about 
 750 B.C. 
 
 The Archsenactidae from Mitylene rule . . B.C. 502-480 
 They are dispossessed by Spartacus I. 438 
 
 Seleucus, 431 ; Satyrus 1 407 
 
 Leueon, 393 ; Spartacus II., 353 ; Parysades . . 348 
 Eumelus, aiming to dethrone his brother Saty- 
 rus II., is defeated ; but Satyrus is killed . . 310 
 Prytanis, his next brother, ascends the throne, but 
 
 is murdered by Eumelus 309 
 
 Eumelus puts to death all his relations, 309 ; and is 
 
 killed 304 
 
 The Scythians conquer Bosporus .... 285 
 Mithridates VI., of Pontus, conquers Bosporus . . 80 
 lie poisons himself ; and the Romans make his sun, 
 
 Pharnaces, king 63 
 
 Battle of Zela, gained by Julius Caesar over Phar- 
 naces II. (Caisar writes home, Vciii, vidi, rici, " I 
 
 came, I saw, I conquered ") 47 
 
 Asander usurps the crown ,, 
 
 Cffisar makes Mithridates of Pergamus king . . „ 
 Polemon conquers Bosporus, ami favoured by 
 
 Agrippa, reigns 14 
 
 Polemon killed by barbarians of the Palus Msbi itia 
 
 A.D. 33 
 
 Polemon II. reigns, 33 ; Mithridates II. reigns . 41 
 Mithridates conducted a prisoner to Rome, by 
 
 order of Claudius ; Cotys I. king . . . . 49 
 A list of kings given by some writers ends with 
 
 Sauromates VII 344 
 
 BOSTON, Lincolnshire ; a trading town, made 
 a staple for wool, 1357 ; St. Botolph's church with a 
 lofty tower, was erected about 1309. 
 
 BOSTON, Massachusetts, United States, built 
 about 1627. Here originated that resistance to the 
 British authorities which led to American inde- 
 pendence. The act of parliament laying duties on 
 tea, papers, colours, &c. (passed June, I7(>;) so 
 excited the indignation of the citizens of Boston, 
 that they destroyed several hundreds of chests of 
 tea, Dec. 1773. 
 
 Boston seaport shut by the English parliament, 
 until restitution should lie made to the East 
 India Company for the tea lost . . 25 March, 1774 
 
 The town besieged by the Americans, and 400 
 houses destroyed 1775 
 
 Battle of Bunker's Hill, between the royalists and 
 independent troops ; the latter defeated, 
 
 17 June, 1775 
 
 The city evacuated by the king's troops . April, 1776 
 
 Industrial exhibition opened . . . Oct. 1856 
 
 Great peace jubilee ; concert of about 10,371 voices 
 and 1094 instruments, with anvils, bells, 4fc., 
 begun 15 June, 1869 
 
 International peace jubilee ; chorus about 20,000; 
 orchestra, 1000; with military bands and other 
 performers of different nations, including the 
 British grenadier guards' band ; a day allotted to 
 each nation .... 17 June — 4 July, 1872 
 
 Tremendous tire ; great loss of life and property ; 
 about 80 acres of buildings burnt ; 959 houses 
 (125 dwellings) ; 35 persons killed . 9, 10, 11 Nov. ,, 
 
 BOSWORTH FIELD, Leicestershire, the 
 site of the thirteenth and last battle between the 
 houses of York and Lancaster, 22 Aug, 1485, when 
 Richard III. was defeated by the earl of Richmond, 
 afterwards Henry VII., and slain, through the 
 desertion of sir Win. Stanley. It is said that 
 Henry was crowned on the spot with the crown of 
 Richard found in a hawthorn bush near the field. 
 
 BOTANY. Aristotle is considered the founder 
 of the science (about 347 B.C.) . Historia Pkmtarum 
 of Theophrastus was written about 320 B.C. Authors 
 on botany became numerous at the close of the 15th 
 century. Fuchsius, Bock, Bauhin, Crcsalpiuus, and 
 others, wrote between 1535 and 1600. The system 
 and arrangement of the great Linnasus was made 
 known about 1 735 ; and Jussieu's system, founded 
 
BOTANY BAY. 
 
 103 
 
 BOURBON. 
 
 on Tournefort's, and called "the natural system," 
 in 1758. At Linnasus's death, 1778, the species of 
 plants actually described amounted in number to 
 1 1,800. The number of species now recorded cannot 
 fall short of 100,000. J. C. Loudon's " Encyclo- 
 paedia of Plants," a most comprehensive work, first 
 appeared in 1829. De Candolle's "Prodromus 
 JSystematis Naturalis Eegni Vegetabilis" (of which 
 Vol. I. appeared in 1818), is still incomplete (1873). 
 An International Botanical congress was opened in 
 London, 23 May, 1866, professor A. De Candolle 
 president. Robert Brown, who accompanied Flin- 
 ders in his survey of New Holland in 1803, died 
 10 June, 1858, aged 85, was long acknowledged to be 
 the chief of the botanists of his day (facile princeps) . 
 
 BOTANIC 
 
 Established about 
 Padua . . . . 1545 
 Montpellier 
 Leyden . 
 Leipsic 
 Paris (Jardin des 
 
 Plantes) 
 Jena . 
 Oxford . 
 Upsal . 
 Chelsea . 
 Edinburgh . 
 
 "Vienna . . . . 1753 
 Madrid . . . 1755 
 
 ■ iS58 
 
 • 1577 
 . 1580 
 
 . 1624 
 . 1629 
 
 • 1632 
 
 • 1657 
 1673-S6 
 
 41-65 
 !7<53 
 1773 
 178S 
 1793 
 
 Established about 
 
 Kew, 1760 ; greatly im- 
 proved . . ii 
 
 Cambridge . 
 
 Coimbra. . . . 
 
 St. Petersburg . 
 
 Calcutta. . . . 
 
 Dublin 
 
 Horticultural Society's, 
 Chiswick . . . 1821 
 
 Royal Botanic Society's, 
 Regent's Park. . 1839 
 
 Royal Horticultural 
 Society's, S. Ken- 
 sington . . . i860 
 
 BOTANY BAY, Australia, discovered by 
 captain Cook, 28 April, 1770, received its name 
 from the great variety of plants growing on the 
 .shore. It was fixed on for a colony of convicts 
 from Great Britain. The first governor, captain 
 Arthur Phillip, who sailed from England in May, 
 1787, arrived at the settlement in Jan. 1788. The 
 colony was eventually established at Port Jackson, 
 about thirteen miles to the north of the bay ; see 
 New South Wales, and Transportation. 
 
 BOTHWELL BRIDGE, Lanarkshire. The 
 Scotch covenanters, who took up arms against the 
 intolerant government of Charles II., and defeated 
 the celebrated Claverhouse at Druraclog, 1 June, 
 1679, were totally routed by the earl of Monmouth 
 at Bothwell Bridge, 22 June, 1679, and many pri- 
 soners were tortured and executed. 
 
 BOTTLE-CONJURER. A conjurer having 
 advertised that he would jump into a quart bottle 
 at the Haymarket theatre, on 16 Jan. 1749, the 
 house was densely crowded and besieged by thou- 
 sands anxious to gain admittance. The rogue 
 carried off the receipts, the pickpockets had a rich 
 harvest, and the duped crowd nearly pulled down 
 the edifice. 
 
 BOTTLES in. ancient times were made of 
 leather. The art of making glass bottles and 
 drinking-glasses was known to the Romans at least 
 before 79 ; for these articles and other vessels have 
 been found in the ruins of Pompeii. Bottles were 
 made in England about 1558. A bottle which con- 
 tained two hogsheads was blown, we are told, at 
 Leith, in Scotland, in Jan. 1747-8; see Glass. 
 
 BOUILLON, Belgium, formerly a duchy, was 
 sold by Godfrey its ruler, to Albert, bishop of Liege, 
 to obtain funds for the crusade, 1095. ^ was 
 seized by the French in 1672, and held by them till 
 1815, when it was given to the king of the Nether- 
 lands, as duke of Luxemburg. It was awarded to 
 Belgium after the Revolution of 1830. 
 
 BOULOGNE, a seaport inPicardy, N. France, 
 added to Burgundy, 1435 ; to France, 1447., Here 
 
 1805 
 
 Henry VIII. and Francis I. concluded a treaty to 
 oppose the Turks, 28 Oct. 1532. Boulogne was 
 taken by Henry VIII. on 14 Sept. 1544, but restored 
 for a sum of money, 1550. 
 
 Lord Nelson attacked a flotilla here, disabling ten 
 vessels and sinking five .... 3 Aug. 1801 
 
 In another attempt he was repulsed with great loss, 
 and captain Parker of the Medusa and two-thirds 
 of his crew were killed . . . 18 Aug. 
 
 Bonaparte assembled 160,000 men and 10,000 horses, 
 and a flotilla of 1300 vessels and 17,000 sailors to 
 invade England in 1804 ; the coasts of Kent and 
 Sussex were covered with martello towers and 
 lines of defence ; and nearly half the adult popu- 
 lation of Britain was formed into volunteer corps ; 
 sir Sidney Smith unsuccessfully attempted to 
 burn the flotilla with fire machines called cata- 
 marans 2 Oct ~°~ ■ 
 
 The army removed on the breaking out of war witli 
 Austria . . . . 
 
 Congreve-rockets used in another attack, 'and 'set 
 the town on fire 8 Oct. 1806 
 
 Louis Napoleon (afterwards emperor) made a fruit- 
 less descent here with about 50 followers, 6 Aug. 1840 
 
 As emperor, he reviewed the French troops destined 
 for the Baltic, 10 July, 1854 ; and entertained 
 prince Albert and the king of the Belgians, 5 Sept. 1854 
 
 ihe statue of Edward Jenner here inaugurated, 
 
 11 Sept. 1865 
 
 BOUNDARY ACT. Commissioners were ap- 
 pointed by the Reform Bill, passed 15 Aug. 1867. 
 Viscount Eversley, Russell Gurney, sir John T. B. 
 Duckworth, sir Francis Crossley, and John Walter, 
 first sat 16 Aug. England and Wales were divided 
 into 18 districts, and other arrangements made. 
 Another boundary act was passed 13 July, 1868. 
 
 BOUNTIES, premiums granted to the producer, 
 exporter, or importer of certain articles ; a principle 
 introduced into commerce by the British parliament. 
 The first granted on corn, in 1688, were repealed in 
 18 15. _ They were first legally granted in England 
 for raising naval stores in America, 1703, and have 
 been granted to the herring fishery, on sail-cloth, 
 linen, and other goods. 
 
 BOUNTY MUTINY, took place on board the 
 Bounty, an armed ship which quitted Otaheite, with 
 bread-fruit trees, 7 April, 1789. The mutineers 
 put theh captain, Blign, and nineteen men into an 
 open boat, with a small stock of provisions, near 
 Annamooka, one of the Friendly isles, 28 April, 
 1789; these reached the island of Timor, south of 
 the Moluccas, in June, after a voyage of nearly 
 4000 miles. Some of the mutineers were tried 
 15 Sept. 1792 ; six were condemned and three 
 executed. For the fate of the others, see Fitcairn's 
 Island. 
 
 BOURBON, HOUSE OF (from which came 
 the royal houses of France, Spain, and Naples), 
 derives its origin from the Archam bauds, lords of 
 Bourbon in Berry. 
 
 Robert, count of Clermont, son of Louis IX. of 
 France, married the heiress Beatrice in 1272 ; died 
 1317 ; and their son Louis I. created duke of 
 Bourbon and peer of France by Charles IV. . . 1327 
 
 The last of the descendants of their elder son Peter 
 I., Susanna, married Charles, duke of Montpen- 
 sier, constable of Bourbon, who, offended by his 
 sovereign Francis I., entered into the service of 
 the emperor Charles V., and was killed at the 
 siege of Rome 6 May, 1527 
 
 From James, the younger son of Louis I., descended 
 Antony, duke of Vendome, who married (1548) 
 Jeanne d'Albret, daughter of Henry, king of Na- 
 varre. Their son, Henry IV., born at Pau, 23 
 Dec. 1553, became king of France . 31 July, 1589 
 
 The crown of Spain was settled on a younger 
 branch of this family, 1700, and guaranteed by 
 the peace of Utrecht (Bapin) 17*3 
 
BOURBON. 
 
 104 
 
 BRABANT. 
 
 Bourbon Family Compact (a defensive alii EU 
 between Frame, Spain, and the Two Sicilies) 
 concluded by M. de Choiseul) . . 15 Aug. 1761 
 
 The Bourbons expelled France, 1791 ; restored 
 1814 ; again expelled on the return of Bonaparte 
 from Elba, and again restored after the battle of 
 Waterloo, 1815. The elder branch was expelled 
 once more, in the person of Charles X. and his 
 family, in 1830, in consequence of the revolu- 
 tion of the memorable days of July in that year. 
 •Orleans branch ascended the throne in the person 
 of the late Louis Philippe, as -'king of the 
 French," 9 Aug. 1830 ; deposed, 24 Feb. 1848 ; and 
 his family also was expelled. 
 
 The Bourbon family fled from Naples (6 Sept. i860), 
 and Francis II. lost his kingdom; and from 
 Spain, Sept. 1868 ; see France, Spain, Naples, 
 Orleans, Parma, Condi, and Legitimists. 
 
 The fusion of the parties supporting the comte de 
 Chambord with the Orleanists, stated 26 .Tan. ; 
 not yet accomplished, April, 1873. 
 
 BOURBON, ISLE OF (in the Indian ocean), 
 discovered by the Portuguese about 1542. The 
 French are said to have first settled here in 1642. 
 It surrendered to the British, under admiral Kowley, 
 21 Sept. 1809, and was restored to France in 1815. 
 Alison. An awful hurricane in Feb. 1829, did 
 much mischief. Bourbon was named " He de la 
 Reunion" in 1848 ; see Mauritius. 
 
 BOURDEAUX, see Bordeaux. 
 
 BOURIGNONISTS, a sect founded by An- 
 toinette Bourignon, who, in 1658, took the Augus- 
 tine habit and travelled in France, Holland, Eng- 
 land, and Scotland; in the last she made many 
 converts about 1670. She maintained that Chris- 
 tianity does not consist in faith and practice, but in 
 inward feeling and supernatural impulse. A disciple 
 named Court left her a good estate. She died in 
 1680, and her works, 21 volumes 8vo, were pub- 
 lished 1686. 
 
 BOURNOUS, the Arabic name of a hooded 
 garment worn in Algeria, which has been introduced 
 in a modified form into England and France since 
 1847. 
 
 BOUVINES (N. France), the site of a despe- 
 rate battle, 27 July, 1214, in which Philip Augustus 
 of France was victorious over the emperor Otho and 
 his allies, consisting of more than 150,000 men. The 
 counts of Flanders and Boulogne were taken pri- 
 soners, and the earl of Salisbury brother of king 
 John. 
 
 BOVILL'S ACT, 23 & 24 Yict. c. 34, i860, 
 relates to petitions of right. 
 
 BOWLS or BOWLING, an English game as 
 early as the 13th century. Henry VIII. , Charles I. 
 played at it, and also Charles II. at Tunbridge. 
 Grammont. 
 
 BOW-STREET, see Magistrates. 
 BOWS AND ARROWS, see Archery. 
 
 BOXING, or Prize-Fightlng, the pugi- 
 latus of the Romans, once a favourite sport with the 
 British, who possess strong arms, giving them 
 superiority in battles decided by the bayonet. 
 Broughton's amphitheatre, behind Oxford-road, 
 
 built 1742 
 
 Schools opened in England to teach boxing. . . 1790 
 Mendoza opened the Lyceum in the Strand in . 1791 
 Boxing was much patronised from about 1820 to 1830 
 Tom Winter (nicknamed Spring), beside other vic- 
 tories, beat Langan (for 1000/.), 8 June, 1824. 
 
 (The story that the prince regent drove Tom in 
 
 the streets of London is contradicted.) 
 John Gully, originally a butcher, afterwards a 
 
 prize-fighter, acquired wealth, and became M.P. 
 
 for Pontefract in 1835, died . . .9 March, 1863 
 
 Desperate conflict at Farnborongh between Thomas 
 Bayers, the Champion of England, a light Sussex 
 man, about 5 feet S inches high, and John Heenan, 
 the"Benicia Boy," a huge American, in height 
 6 feet 1 inch. Strength, however, was matched 
 by skill ; and eventually the fight was interrupt 
 17 April. Both men received a silver belt 
 
 31 May i860 
 
 Tom King beat Maee, and obtained the champion's 
 belt, &c 26 Nov. 1862 
 
 He beat Goss, 1 Sept., and Heenan (nearly to death) 
 
 10 Dec. 1863 
 
 A trial, to consequence of the last fight, ensued : 
 the culprits were discharged, on promising not 
 to offend again 5 April, 1864 
 
 Wormald obtained the championship after a con- 
 test with Marsden 4 Jan. 1865 
 
 Contest for championship between Mace and Bald- 
 win, a giant ; prevented by the arrest of Mace, 
 
 15 Oct. 1867 
 
 Railways prohibited carrying persons going to a 
 prize-fight, 30 & 31 Vict. c. 119 .... 1868 
 
 BOXTEL (in Dutch Brabant), where the 
 British and allied army, commanded by the duke 
 of York, was defeated by the French republicans, 
 who took 2000 prisoners and eight pieces of cannon, 
 17 Sept. 1794. 
 
 BOX-TREE, indigenous to this country, and 
 exceedingly valuable to wood-engravers. > In 1815. 
 a large box-tree at Box-hill, Surrey, was cut down, 
 and realised a large sum. Macculloch says, that 
 "the trees were cut down in 181 5, and produced 
 upwards of \o,oool." About 1820 the cutting of all 
 the trees on the hill produced about 6000I. 
 
 BOYDELL'S LOTTERY for his Shaks- 
 peare gallery of paintings got up (1786), by 
 alderman Boydell, lord mayor of London. Every 
 ticket was sold at the time the alderman died, 12 
 Dec. 1804, before the decision of the wheel. 
 
 BOY-BISHOP. During the middle ages a 
 choir-boy was frequently elected on St. Nicholas' 
 day, 6 Dec., and held office till the 28th. The cus- 
 tom was suppressed in England in July, 1542 ; but 
 
 lingered for some time after. 
 
 BOYLE LECTURES, instituted by his wili 
 (18 July, 1691), by Robert Boyle (son of the great 
 earl of Cork), a philosopher, distinguished by his- 
 genius, virtues, and benevolence, who died 30 Dec. 
 1691. Eight lectures (in vindication of the Chris- 
 tian religion) are to be delivered. The office of 
 lecturer is tenable for three years. 
 
 BOYNE, a river in Ireland, near which "Wil- 
 liam III. defeated his father-in-law, James II., 
 1 July, 1690. The latter lost iroo (out of 30,000) 
 men ; the Protestant army lost about a third of that 
 number (out of 30,000). James fled to Dublin, 
 thence to Waterford, and escaped to France. The 
 duke of Scliomberg was killed by mistake by his 
 own soldiers as he was crossing the river, and here 
 also was killed the rev. George Walker, who de- 
 fended Londonderry, in 1689. Near Drogheda is a 
 splendid obelisk, 150 feet in height, erected in 1 736 
 by the Protestants of the empire in commemoration 
 of this victory. 
 
 BOYNE, man-of-war of 98 guns, destroyed by 
 fire at Portsmouth, 4 May, 1795, by the explosion 
 of the magazine ; numbers perished. Portions were 
 recovered June, 1840. 
 
 BRABANT, part of Holland and Belgium, an 
 ancient duchy, part of Charlemagne's empire, fell 
 to his son Charles, 806. It became a separate 
 duchy (called at first Lower Lorraine) in 959. It 
 descended to Philip II. of Burgundy, 1429, and in 
 regular succession to the emperor Charles V. In 
 the 17th century it was held by Holland and 
 
BEACELETS. 
 
 105 
 
 BEAZIL. 
 
 Austria, as Dutch Brabant and the "Walloon pro- 
 vinces, and underwent many changes through the 
 wars of Europe. The Austrian division was taken 
 by the French in 1746 and 1794. It was united to 
 the Netherlands in 1814, but South Brabant was 
 given to Belgium, 1830. The heir of the throne of 
 Belgium is styled duke of Brabant ; see Belgium. 
 
 BRACELETS were worn by the ancients, and 
 armillce were Roman military rewards. Those of 
 pearls and gold were worn by the Roman ladies. 
 
 BEADEIELD BESEBYOIE, see Sheffield, 
 1864. 
 
 BEADFOBD, see Poison. 
 
 BEADSHAWS EAILWAY GUIDE was 
 
 first published by Mr. G. Bradshaw in Dec. 1841. 
 He had previously published occasionally a Railway 
 Companion. 
 
 BEAGANZA, a city in Portugal, gave title to 
 Alfonso, natural son of John I. of Portugal (in 
 1422), founder of the house of Braganza. When 
 the nation, in a bloodless revolution in 1640, threw 
 off the Spanish yoke, John, duke of Braganza, was 
 called to the throne as John IV., and his descen- 
 dants now reign over Portugal and Brazil {which 
 see). 
 
 BEAHMINS, Hindoo priests, the highest of 
 the four castes. Pythagoras is thought to have 
 learned from them his doctrine of the Metempsycho- 
 sis ; and it is affirmed that some of the Greek philo- 
 sophers went to India on purpose to converse with 
 them. The Brahmins derive their name from 
 Brahmah, one of the three beings whom God, ac- 
 cording to their theology, created, and with whose 
 assistance he formed the world. See Veclas. 
 
 ; BEAINTEEE CASE (in Essex), was decided 
 in 1842 by Dr. Lushington, who determined that a 
 minority in a parish vestry cannot levy a church 
 rate. 
 
 BEAMHAM (W. R. York) : near here the earl 
 of Northumberland and lord Bardolf were defeated 
 and slain by sir Thomas Rokeby, the general of 
 Henry IV., 19 Feb. 1408 ; and Fairfax was defeated 
 by the royalists under the earl of Newcastle, 29 
 March, 164.3. 
 
 BBANDENBUEGr, a city in Prussia, founded 
 by the Slavonians, who gave it the name of Banber, 
 which signified Guard of the Forest, according to 
 some ; others explain the name as Burg, or city, 
 of the Brenns. Henry I., surnamed the Fowler, 
 after defeating the Slavonians, fortified "Bran- 
 nibor," 926, as a rampart against the Huns, and 
 bestowed the government on Sigefroi, count of 
 Ringelheim, with the title of margrave, or protector 
 of the marches or frontiers. The emperor Sigis- 
 mund gave perpetual investiture to Frederick IV. 
 of Nuremburg, of the house of Hohenzollern, 
 ancestor of the royal family of Prussia, made 
 elector in 1417. For a list of the margraves since 
 1 134, see Prussia. 
 
 BEANDENBUEG HOUSE, Hammersmith, 
 see Queen Caroline. 
 
 BBANDY (German Branntwein, burnt wine), 
 the spirit distilled from wine. Alcohol appears to 
 have been known to Raymond Lully in the 13th 
 century, and to have been manufactured in France 
 early in the 14th. It was at first used medicinally, 
 and miraculous cures were ascribed to its influence. 
 In 1852, 3,959,452 ; in 1866, 5,621,930 ; and in 1870, 
 7,942,965 gallons were imported into the United 
 
 Kingdom. It is now largely manufactured in 
 Britain. 
 
 BBANDYWINE, a river in N. America, near 
 which a battle took place between the British, under 
 Howe, and the Americans under "Washington, in 
 which the latter (after a day's fight) were defeated 
 with great loss, 11 Sept. 1777. Philadelphia fell 
 into the possession of the victors. 
 
 BEASS. That mentioned in the Bible was 
 most probably bronze. When Lucius Mummius 
 burnt Corinth to the ground, 146 B.C., he found 
 immense riches, and dming the conflagration, it is 
 said, all the metals in the citj r melted, and running 
 together, formed the valuable composition described 
 as Corinthian Brass. This is well doubted, for the 
 Corinthian artists had long before obtained great 
 credit for their method of combining gold and 
 silver with copper. Du Fresnoy. Some of the 
 English sepulchral engraved brasses are said to be 
 as old as 1277. 
 
 BEAUEONIA, festivals in Attica, at Brauron, 
 where Diana had a temple. The most remarkable 
 that attended these festivals were young virgins in 
 yellow gowns, dedicated to Diana. They were about 
 ten years of age, and not under five ;, and therefore 
 their consecration was called " dekateuein," from 
 deka, ten; 600 B.C. 
 
 BEAY, Berks. Fuller says that its vicar, 
 Symon Symonds, was twice a papist and twice a 
 Protestant— in the reigns of Henry VIII., Ed- 
 ward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth (1533— 1558). Upon 
 being called a turn-coat, he said he kept to his 
 principle, that of " of living and dying the vicar of 
 Bray." The modern., song refers to "the political 
 changes of the 17th and 18th centuries. 
 
 BBAZEN BULL, said to have been contrived 
 by Perillus, at Athens, for Phalaris, tyrant of Agri- 
 gentum, 570 B.C. It had an opening in the side to 
 admit the victims, and a fire was kindled under- 
 neath to roast them to death ; their groans resem- 
 bled the roaring of a bull. Phalaris admired the 
 invention, but ordered the artist to make the first 
 experiment. The Agrigentes revolted against Phal- 
 aris, cut his tongue out, and roasted him in the 
 brazen bull, 549 B.C. 
 
 BEAZIL, an empire in South America, was 
 discovered by Vincent Pinzon in Feb. 1500. Pedro 
 ALvarez de Cabral, a Portuguese, driven upon its 
 coasts by a tempest, April following, called it the 
 land of the Holy Cross ; but it was subsequently 
 named Brazil, on account of its red wood. The 
 French having seized on Portugal in 1807, the 
 royal family and nobles embarked for Brazil, and 
 landed 7 March, 1808. The dominant religion is 
 Roman Catholic ; but others are tolerated. Popu- 
 lation, Aug. 1872, 10,093,978 (above ij million 
 slaves and aborigines) ; see Portugal. 
 
 Brazil explored by Amerigo Vespucci . . about 1504 
 
 Divided into captaincies by the king of Portugal . 1530 
 Martin de Souza discovers Rio, and founds the first 
 
 European colony at San Vincente . . . . 1531 
 
 Jews banished from Portugal to Brazil . . . i 54 s 
 
 San Salvador (Bahia) founded by Thome de Souza . 1549 
 French protestants occupy bay of Rio Janeiro . 1555-60 
 
 Sebastian founded j 5 6 7 
 
 Brazil, with Portugal, becomes subject to Spain . 1580 
 
 James Lancaster captures Pernambuco . . . 1593 
 
 The French establish a colony at Maranham . . 1594 
 
 Belem founded by Calderia 161$ 
 
 The French expelled 
 
 The Dutch seize the coast of Brazil, 1630 ; and hold 
 
 Pernambuco . 1:630 
 
BEAZIL. 
 
 106 
 
 BEEAD. 
 
 Defeated at Guararapes, 1646 ; give up Brazil . . 1661 
 
 Gold mining commences 1693 
 
 Destruction of Palmares 1697 
 
 The French assault and capture Bio Janeiro . 1710-11 
 Diamond mines discovered in Sezzo Frio . . . 1739 
 
 Jesuits expelled 1758-60 
 
 Capital transferred from Bahia to Rio Janeiro . 1763 
 Royal family of Portugal arrive at Brazil, 7 March, i8o3 
 First printing-press established . . . . „ 
 
 Brazil becomes a kingdom 1815 
 
 King John VI. returns to Portugal, and dom Pedro 
 
 becomes regent 1821 
 
 Brazil declares its independence . . .7 Sept. 1822 
 Pedro I. crowned emperor . . . 1 Dec. ,, 
 New constitution ratified . . . 25 March, 1824 
 Independence recognised by Portugal . 29 Aug. 1825 
 Revolution at Rio Janeiro ; abdication of dom 
 
 Pedro 1 7 April, 1831 
 
 Reform of the constitution 1834 
 
 Pedro II. declared of age .... 23 July, 1840 
 Steam-ship line to Europe commenced . . . 1850 
 Suppression of the .slave-trade ; railways eom- 
 
 menced 1852 
 
 Rio Janeiro lit with gas 1854 
 
 The British ship "Prince of Wales" wrecked at 
 Albardas, on coast of Brazil, is plundered hy 
 some of the natives, and some of the crew killed, 
 
 about 7 June, 1861 
 Reparation long refused : reprisals made ; live 
 Brazilian merchant shijis being seized by the 
 
 British 31 Dec. 1862 
 
 The Brazilian minister at London pays 3,200/. as an 
 
 indemnity, under protest .. . . 26 Feb. 1S63 
 The Brazilian government request the British to 
 express their regret for reprisals ; declined ; diplo- 
 matic intercourse suspended . , 5-28 Slay, ,, 
 Dispute between the governments respecting the 
 arrest of some British officers at Rio Janeiro (17 
 June, 1S62) referred to the arbitration of the king 
 of the Belgians, who decides in favour of Brazil, 
 
 18 June, ,, 
 New ministry formed; F. J. Furtado, president — 
 prospect of reconciliation with Great Britain, 
 
 30 Aug. 1864 
 U. S. war-steamer "Wachusett" seizes the con- 
 federate steamer " Florida," in the port of Bahia, 
 while under protection of Brazil, 7 Oct. ; after 
 remonstrance, Mr. Seward, U. S. foreign minister, 
 apologises. [The " Florida" (inadvertently) sunk?] 
 
 26 Dec. 1864 
 The comte d'Eu and princess Isabella (on marriage 
 
 tour) land at Southampton ... 7 Feb. 1865 
 War with Uruguay — the Brazilians take Paysandu, 
 
 and march upon Monte Video . . .2 Feb. „ 
 Lopez, president of Paraguay, declares war against 
 
 the Argentine Republic . . . April, ,, 
 
 Treaty between Brazil, Uruguay, and the Argentine 
 Republic agaiust Paraguay, governed by Lopez, 
 
 signed 1 May, ,, 
 
 Scientific expedition under Agassiz favoured by the 
 
 emperor July, ,, 
 
 Amicable relations with England restored . Aug. ,, 
 The emperor joins the army against Lopez Aug. „ 
 The allies under Flores defeat the Paraguayans at 
 
 Santayuna on the Uruguay . . 18 Sept. ,, 
 Uraguayana surrenders to the allies . 18 Sept. ,, 
 Indecisive battle between the allies and the Para- 
 guayans, at Paso de la Patria . about 25 Feb. 1866 
 Paraguayans defeated on the Parana 16, 17 April, ,, 
 Victory of the allies at Estero Velhaco, 2 May ; in- 
 decisive battle there . . . .24 May, ,, 
 Bombardment of the allied camp on the Parana 
 
 14 June, ,, 
 Two days' fight at Tuyuty ; allies defeated, 
 
 16, 18, July, ,, 
 Fruitless meeting of president Lopez with the chiefs 
 
 on proposals of peace .... 12 Sept. ,, 
 The allies attack the fortress of Curupaiti ; defeated 
 
 with severe loss .... 17-19, 22 Sej>t. ,, 
 The allies' camp bombarded, 18 Oct. ; the Para- 
 guayans re) raised at Tuyuty . . . 30 Oct. ,, 
 The Brazilians take Corumba . . . 13 June, 1867 
 The duke of Edinburgh visits Rio de Janeiro 
 
 15-22 July. ,, 
 The Paraguayans victors, 24 Sept. ; severely defeated 
 
 3 and 21 Oct. ,, 
 Proposals for peace by Lopez declined . . Oct. „ 
 Severe defeat of Paraguayans before Tuyuty, 3 Nov. ,, 
 
 Freedom decreed to slaves belonging to the nation 
 who shall become soldiers . . . 6 Nov. 1867 
 
 Three monitors pass Curupaiti, on the Paraguay, 
 17 Feb. ; 6 ironclads force the passage of Humaita ; 
 they find Asuncion abandoned . . 21 Feb. 1868 
 
 Fierce resistance of the Paraguayans ; Lopez sail to 
 have armed 4000 women . . . June, ,, 
 
 After several conflicts Lopez is totally defeated at 
 Villeta, and flies 11 Dec. ,, 
 
 The comte d'Eu appointed general of the allied army 
 
 24 March, 1869 
 
 The allies surprise and capture Rosorio and garrison 
 
 8 May, „ 
 
 Lopez defeated in severe conflicts, 12, 16, 18, 21 Aug. „ 
 
 Lopez defeated and killed near the Aquidaban, 
 
 1 March, 1370 
 
 Treaty of peace with Paraguay, quite subdued 
 
 20 June, „ 
 
 The count and countess d'Eu arrive in England, 
 
 13 Sept. ,, 
 
 New ministry under viscount St. Vincent, 29 Sept. ,, 
 
 The emperor and empress come to Europe, and visit 
 public and scientific institutions, manufactories 
 in Great Britain and other countries, June — Aug. 1871 
 
 Gradual slave emancipation bill passed by the 
 senate ; great rejoicings . . 27, 28 Sept. 1872 
 
 The emperor and empress, after visiting the conti- 
 nent, return to Brazil . . . 31 March, ,, 
 
 Census — population, 10,093,978 . . . Aug. ,, 
 
 EMPERORS OF BRAZIL. 
 
 i322. Dom Pedro (of Portugal) ; abdicated in favour of his 
 infant son, 7 April, 1831 : died 24 Sept. 1834. 
 
 1831. Dom Pedro II. (born 2 Dec. 1825) ; assumed the 
 government, 23 July, 1840 ; crowned, 18 July, 
 1841 ; married, 4 Sept. 1S43, princess Theresa of 
 Naples (born 14 March, 1822). 
 
 Heiress. Isabella, born 29 July, 1S46 ; married (15 Oct. 
 1864) Louis comte d'Eu, son of the due dc 
 Nemours (born 28 April, 1842). 
 
 BEEAD. Ching-Noung, the successor of Fohi, 
 is reputed to have been the first who taught men 
 (the Chinese) the art of husbandry, and the method 
 of making bread from wheat, and wine from rice, 
 1998 B.C. Univ. Hist. Baking of bread was known 
 in. the patriarchal ages: see Exodus xii. 15. It 
 became a profession at Borne, 170 B.C. After the 
 conquest of Macedon, 148 B.C., numbers of Greek 
 bakers came to Borne, obtained special privileges, 
 and soon obtained a monopoly. During the siege of 
 Paris by Henry IV., owing to famine, bread, which 
 had been sold whilst any remained for a crown a 
 pound, was at last made from the bones of the 
 charnel-house of the Holy Innocents, a.d. 1594. 
 llenault. In the time of James I., barley bread was 
 used by the poor; and now in Iceland, cod-fish, 
 beaten to powder, is made into bread; potato-bread 
 is used in Ireland. The London Bakers' Company 
 was incorporated in 1307. Bread-street was once 
 the London market for bread. Until 1302, the 
 London bakers were not allowed to sell any in their 
 own shops. Stow. Bread was made with yeast by 
 the English bakers in 1634. In 1856 and 1857 Dr. 
 Dauglish patented a mode of making "aerated 
 bread," in which carbonic acid gas is combined with 
 water and mixed with the flour, and which is said 
 to possess the advantages of cleanliness, rapidity, 
 and uniformity. In 1862 a company was formed to 
 encourage Stevens' bread-making machinery. An 
 act for regulating bakehouses was passed in July, 
 1863. A strike of the journeyman bakers of the 
 metropolis, 23 Sept., was settled by concessions, 
 9 Oct. 1872. 
 
 Quartern Loaf (rib. 5502.) 
 1735 . . Price sjof. 
 1745 • • • • 4f 
 1755 .... 5 
 1765 • • • ■ 7 
 
 1800 . . Price 17W. 
 1800 . [For 4 weeks, 22W.] 
 1805 . . . . 12^ 
 1810 .... 15$ 
 1812 Aug. . . . 2i^ 
 
 1775 . . . . 6J 
 1785 • ■ . . 6i 
 
 1795 . . . .12^ 
 
 1814 . . .. .12$ 
 
 1820 . . . . 11 
 
BEEAD-EBTTIT TEEE. 
 
 107 
 
 BEEST. 
 
 
 
 
 
 June 
 
 Dec 
 
 Four 
 
 -pound Loaf ( best J. 
 
 1859 . 
 
 . . 8 
 
 7* 
 
 1822 . 
 
 
 iod. 
 
 i860 
 
 . 8J 
 
 9 
 
 1825 
 
 
 11 
 
 1861 . 
 
 • • 9 
 
 9 
 
 1830 . 
 
 
 10* 
 
 1862 
 
 • 9 
 
 8 
 
 1835 
 
 
 7 
 
 1863 . 
 
 . . 8 
 
 7 
 
 1840 . 
 
 
 9 
 
 1864 
 
 • 7 
 
 7 
 
 
 June 
 
 Dee. 
 
 1865 . 
 
 • • 7 
 
 8 
 
 1845 
 
 . . 7hd. 
 
 7hd. 
 
 1866 
 
 . 8£ 
 
 9 
 
 1850 
 
 ■ ■ 7 
 
 SI- 
 
 1S67 . 
 
 . 10 
 
 IOj 
 
 1854 
 
 . 10 
 
 ii 
 
 1868 
 
 . 10 
 
 8j 
 
 1855 
 
 . 11 
 
 ioj- 
 
 1869 . 
 
 . . 8 
 
 7i 
 
 1856 
 
 . 11 
 
 loi 
 
 1870 
 
 • 7* 
 
 8| 
 
 1857 
 
 • • 9* 
 
 8| 
 
 1871 . 
 
 • • 9 
 
 9 
 
 1858 
 
 . 8 
 
 7 
 
 1872 
 
 ■ 9* 
 
 10 
 
 Assize or Bread. The first statute for the regulation 
 of the sale of bread was 3 John, 1203. The chief justi- 
 ciary, and a baker commissioned by the king, had. the 
 inspection of the assize. Matthew Paris. The assize 
 was further regulated by statute in 51 Hen. III. 1266, 
 and 8 Anne, 1710. Bread Act, Ireland, placing its sale 
 on the same footing as in England, 1 Viet. 1838. Bread 
 was directed to,be sold by weight in London in 1822 ; the 
 statute " Assessa Panis " was repealed in 1824 ; and the 
 sale of bread throughout the country was regulated in 
 1836. 
 
 BEEAD-FEUIT TEEE, a native of the 
 South Sea islands. A vessel under captain Bligh 
 •was fitted out to convey some of these trees to 
 various British colonies in 1789 {see. Bounty), and 
 again in 1791. The number taken on board at 
 Otaheite was 1151. Some were left at St. Helena, 
 352 at Jamaica, and five were reserved for Kew 
 Gardens, 1793. The tree was successfully culti- 
 vated in French Guiana, 1802. 
 
 BBEAKWATEBS. The first stone of the 
 Plymouth breakwater was lowered 12 August, 1812. 
 It stretches 5280 feet across the sound, is 360 feet 
 in breadth at the bottom and more than 30 at the 
 top, and consumed 3,660,000 tons of granite blocks, 
 from one to five, tons each, up to April, 1841, and 
 cost a million and a half sterling. The architects 
 were Mr. John Rennie and his son sir John. The 
 first stone of the lighthouse on its western extremity 
 was laid 1 Feb. 1841. Breakwaters have been con- 
 structed at Holyhead, Portland, Dover, &c. 
 
 BEE AST-PLATE. One was worn by the 
 Jewish high priest, 1491 B.C. (Exod. xxxix.) 
 Goliath " was armed with a coat of mail," 1063 
 B.C. (r Sam. xvii.) Breast-plates dwindled to the 
 diminutive gorgets. Ancient breast-plates are men- 
 tioned as made of gold and silver. 
 
 BEECHIN, Scotland ; sustained a siege against 
 the army of Edward III., 1333. The battle of 
 Brechin or Huntly-hill was fought between the 
 earls of Huntly and Crawford, the latter defeated, 
 18 May, 1452. The see of Brechin was founded by 
 David I. in 1150. One of its bishops, Alexander 
 Campbell, was made prelate when but a boy, 1556. 
 The bishopric, discontinued soon after the revolu- 
 tion in 1688, was revived in 1731. 
 
 BEEDA, Holland, was taken from the 
 Spaniards by prince Maurice, of Nassau, in 1590 ; 
 retaken by the Spaniards, under Spinola, June, 
 1625 ; and by the Dutch, Oct. 1637. The " Com- 
 promise of Breda" was a proposal to Philip II., de- 
 precating his harsh measures in the Netherlands, 
 presented and refused in 1566. Our Charles II. 
 resided here at the time of the restoration, and here 
 he issued his declaration of a free general pardon, 
 4 April, 1660 ; see Restoration. Breda was taken 
 by the French in 1793. The French garrison was 
 expelled by the burgesses in 1813. 
 
 BEEECHES. Among the Greeks, this gar- 
 ment indicated slavery. It was worn by the 
 
 Dacians, Parthians, and other northern nations; 
 and in Italy, it is said, was worn in the time of 
 Augustus Caesar. In the reign of Honorius, about 
 394, the braccarii, or breeches-makers, were ex- 
 pelled from Kome. The " Geneva Bible," termed 
 the "Breeches Bible" (from the rendering in 
 Gen. iii. 7), published 1570. 
 
 BEEECH-LOADEES, see under Cannon 
 and Firearms. 
 
 BBEHONS, ancient judges in Ireland, are said 
 to have administered justice with religious im- 
 partiality, but in later times with a tendency to 
 love of country. It was enacted by the statute of 
 Kilkenny, that no English subject should submit to 
 the Brehon laws, 40 Edw. III., 1365. These laws, 
 however, were recognised by the native Irish till 
 1650. A translation of them was proposed in 1852, 
 and a commission appointed. The publication of 
 the " Ancient Laws of Ireland " by the government, 
 began 1865. 
 
 BEEITENFELD, see Leipsic. 
 
 BEEMEN (N. Germany), said to have been 
 founded in 788, and long an archbishopric, and one 
 of the leading towns of the Hanseatic League, was 
 allowed a seat and a vote in the college of imperial 
 cities in 1640. In 1648 it was secularised and 
 erected into a duchy and held by Sweden till 1712, 
 when it was taken possession of by Denmark, by 
 whom it was sold to Hanover in 1731. It was 
 taken by the French in 1757, who were expelled 
 by the Hanoverians in 1758. Bremen was annexed 
 by Napoleon to the French empire in 1810 ; but its 
 independence was restored in 1813, and all its old 
 franchises in 1815. It became a member of the 
 North German Confederation in 1866. Population 
 of the province, 1871, 123,088 ; see Kanse 
 Towns. 
 
 BEENNEVILLE, N."W. France. Here 
 Henry I. of England defeated Louis VI. of France, 
 who supported William Cliton, son of Robert, duke 
 of Normandy, 20 Aug. 1119. 
 
 BBENTEOBD, county town of Middlesex. 
 Here Edmund Ironside defeated the Danes, May, 
 1016. It was taken by Charles I., after a sharp 
 fight, 12 Nov. 1642. 
 
 BEESCIA, N. Italy (the ancient Brixia), be- 
 came important under the Lombards, and suffered 
 by the wars of the Italian Republics, being attached 
 to Venice, It was taken by the French under 
 Gaston de Foix, Feb. 1512, when it is said 40,000 
 of the inhabitants were massacred. It was retaken 
 26 May, 1516. It surrendered to the Austrian 
 general Haynau, 30 March, 1849, on severe terms. 
 It was annexed to Sardinia in 1859. 
 
 BBESLATJ, in Silesia, was burnt by the Mon- 
 gols in 1241, and conquered by Frederick II. of 
 Prussia, Jan. 1 741. A fierce battle took place here 
 between the Austrians and Prussians, the latter 
 under prince Bevem, who was defeated 22 Nov. 
 1757. Breslau was taken ; but was regained 21 Dec. 
 same year. It was besieged by the French, and 
 surrendered to them Jan. 1807, and again in 1813. 
 
 BEEST, a seaport, N. "W. France, was besieged 
 by Julius Ca?sar, 54 B.C. — possessed by the English, 
 a.d. 1378 — given up to the duke of Britanny, 
 139O. Lord Berkeley and a British fleet and army 
 were repulsed here with dreadful loss in 1694. The 
 magazine burnt, to the value of some millions of 
 pounds sterling, 1744. The marine hospitals, with 
 
BRETAGNE. 
 
 108 
 
 BRIDGES. 
 
 fifty galley slaves, burnt, 1766. The magazine 
 again destroyed by fire, 10 July, 1784. From this 
 great depot of "the French navy, numerous 
 squadrons were equipped against England during 
 the late war, among them the fleet which lord 
 Howe defeated on 1 June, 1794. England main- 
 tained a large blockading squadron off the harbour 
 from 1793 to 1815; but with little injury to r' ranee. 
 It is now a chief naval station, and is considered 
 impregnable. The British fleet visited Brest, Aug. 
 1865- 
 BRETAGXE, see Brittany. 
 
 BRETHREN, see Bohemian and Plymouth 
 Brethren. 
 
 BRETIGNY, Peace of, concluded with 
 
 France, 8 May, 1360, by which England retained 
 Gascony and Guienne, and acquired other provinces; 
 renounced her pretensions to Maine, Anjou, Tou- 
 raine, and Normandy ; was to receive 3,000,000 
 crowns, and to release king John, long a prisoner. 
 The treaty not being carried out, the king remained 
 and died in England. 
 
 BRETON, see Gape Breton. 
 
 BRETWALDA (wide-ruling chief), one of 
 the kings of the Saxon heptarchy, chosen by the 
 others as a leader in war against their common 
 enemies. The following are mentioned by Bede 
 (492 to 642), Ella, king of Sussex; Ceawlin of 
 Wessex; Ethelbert of Kent; Eedwald of East 
 Anglia; Edwin, Oswald, and Oswy of Northumber- 
 land. The title was bestowed upon Egbert, 828; 
 see Britain. 
 
 BREVIARY (so called as being an abridgment 
 of the hooks used in the Roman Catholic service), con- 
 tains the seven canonical hours, viz., matins or lauds 
 (began about 3 a.m.), primes (about 6), tierce 
 (about 9), sexte (about 12), nones (about 2 p.m.), 
 vespers (about 4), complines (about 7). The 
 breviary is ascribed to pope Gelasius I. about 492. 
 It was first called the cantos, and afterwards the 
 breviary ; came into use among the ecclesiastical 
 orders about 1080 ; and was reformed by the coun- 
 cils of Trent and Cologne, and by Tius V., Urban 
 VIII., and other popes. The quality of type in 
 which the breviary was first printed gave the name 
 to the printing type called brevier. 
 
 BREWERS are traced to Egypt. Brewing was 
 known to our Anglo-Saxon ancestors. Tindal. 
 " One William Murle, a rich maltman or bruer, of 
 Dunstable, had two horses all trapped with gold, 
 1414." Stow. In Oct. 1851, there were 2305 
 licensed brewers in England, 146 in Scotland, and 
 97 in Ireland ; total, 2548 : these are exclusive of 
 retail and intermediate brewers. There were 
 40,418 licensed brewers in the United Kingdom in 
 1858 ; the revenue from whom to the state was in 
 that year 81,030^. In 1858 in England there were 
 205 great brewers ; see Ale, Porter. 
 
 BRIAR'S CREEK (N. America), near which 
 the Americans, 2000 strong, under general Ashe, 
 were totally defeated by the English under general 
 Prevost, 3 March, 1779. 
 
 BRIBERY forbidden (Beut. xvi. 19) . Samuel' s 
 sons were guilty of it, 1112 B.C. (1 Sam. viii. 3.) Thos. 
 do Weyland, a judge, was banished for bribery in 
 1288; he was chief justice of the common pleas. 
 William de Thorpe, chief justice of the kind's 
 k e nch, was hanged for bribery in 135 1. Another 
 
 judge was fined 20,000^. for the like offence, 1616. 
 Mr. Walpole, secretary-at-war, was sent to the 
 Tower for bribery in 1712. Lord Strangford was 
 suspended from voting in the Irish house of lords, 
 for soliciting a bribe, Jan. 1784. 
 
 BRIBERY at Elections. In 1854 an im- 
 portant act was passed consolidating and amending 
 previous acts relating to this offence, from 7 
 Will. III. (1695) to 5 & 6 Vict. c. 184. 
 
 Messrs. Sykes and Rnmbold fined and imprisoned 
 for bribery 14 March, 1776 
 
 Messrs. Davidson, Parsons, and Hopping, impri- 
 soned for bribery at Ilchester . . 28 April, 1804 
 
 Mr. Swan, M.P. forPenryn, fined and imprisoned, 
 and sir Manasseh Lopez sentenced t<' a line of 
 
 io,ooo(. and two years' imprisonment for bribery 
 
 at Grampound Oct. 1819 
 
 The members for Liverpool and Dublin unseated 1831 
 The friends of Mr. Knight, candidate f< >r Cambridge, 
 
 convicted of bribery 20 Feb. 1835 
 
 Elections for Ludlow and Cambridge made void . 1840 
 Budbury disfranchised, 1848 ; St. Alban's. also . . 1852 
 Elections at Derby and other places declared void 
 
 tor bribery 1853 
 
 In the case of Cooper v. Slade, it was ruled that 
 the payment of travelling expenses was bribery, 
 
 17 April, 1858 
 Gross bribery practised at Gloucester, Wakefield, 
 
 and Berwick 1859 
 
 Mr. Win. II. Leatnam convicted of bribery at "Wake- 
 field 19 July, i860 
 
 Government commissions of inquiry 
 
 bribers, sat at Great Yarmouth, Totnes, Lancas- 
 ter, and Reigate; and disgraceful disclosures 
 
 were made Vug. -Nov. 18C6 
 
 The boroughs were disfranchised by the Reform Vail, 
 passed "" 15 Aug. 1867 
 
 The Parliamentary Elections Act enacted that elec- 
 tion petitions should be tried by a court ap- 
 pointed for the purpose, passed . 31 July, 1868 
 
 First trials under this act ; Mr. Roger Eykyn (at 
 Windsor) was declared duly elected, 15 Jan., and 
 sir H. Btracey (at Norwich) was unseated, 
 
 18 Jan. 1869 
 
 Dr. Kinglake, Mr. Fenelly, and others, were sen- 
 tenced to be fined for bribery' in parliamentary 
 elections 10 May, 1870 
 
 Beverley, Bridgwater, Sligo, and Cashel disfran- 
 chised for bribery and corruption . . . 1870 
 
 BRICKS were used in Babylon, Egypt, Greece, 
 and Rome ; in England by the Romans about 44. 
 Made uuder the direction of Alfred the Great, 
 about 886. Saxon Chron. The size regulated bv 
 order of Charles I., 1625. Taxed, 1784. The 
 number of bricks which paid duty in England in 
 1820 was 949,000,000 ; in 1830, above 1,100,000,000 ; 
 in 1840, 1,400,000,000; and in 1850, 1,700,000,000. 
 The duties and drawbacks of excise on bricks were- 
 repealed in 1850. In 1839 Messrs. Cooke and Cun- 
 ningham brought out their machinery by which, 
 it is said, l8,000 bricks may be made in ten hours. 
 Messrs. l)ixon and Corbett, near Newcastle, in 1861, 
 were making bricks by steam at the rate of 1500 
 per hour. The machinery is the invention of Clay- 
 ton & Co., London. 
 
 BRIDEWELL, once a palace of king John, 
 near Fleet-ditch, London, 1210, was given to the 
 city for a workhouse by Edward VI., 1553. The 
 New Bridewell prison, erected in 1829, was pulled 
 down in 1864 ; that of Tothill-fields was rebuilt in 
 1831- 
 
 BRIDGES were first of wood. There are 
 
 ancient stone bridges in China. Abydos is famous 
 for the bridge of boats which Xerxes built across 
 the Hellespont, 480 n.c. Trajan's magnificent 
 stone bridge over the Danube, 4770 feet in length, 
 was built m a.d. 105. Brotlnrhoods for building 
 
BEIDGEWATEE. 
 
 109 
 
 BEISTOL. 
 
 bridges existed in S. France about 1180. The Devil's 
 bridge in the Canton of Uri was built on two high 
 rocks ; and many stories have been invented to ac- 
 count for it. At Schaffhausen an extraordinary 
 bridge was built over the Rhine, 400 feet wide : there 
 was a pier in the middle of the river, but it is doubt- 
 ful whether the bridge rested upon it ; a man of 
 the lightest weight felt the bridge totter under him, 
 yet waggons heavily laden passed over without 
 danger. The bridge was destroyed by the French 
 in 1799. 
 
 Triangular bridge at Croyland abbey referred to in 
 a charter dated g43 
 
 A stone bridge erected at Bow, near Stratford, by 
 queen Matilda about 1100-18 
 
 Bishop's bridge, Norwich 1295 
 
 London bridge : one existed about 978 ; one built 
 of wood, 1014 ; one by Peter of Colechurch, 1176- 
 1209 ; new bridge finished 1831 
 
 The first large iron bridge erected over the Severn, 
 Shropshire 1777 
 
 Sunderland bridge by "Wilson, 100 feet high, an 
 arch, with a span of 236 feet 1796 
 
 The chain suspension bridge at Menai Strait . . 1825 
 
 Old Westminster, opened, 1750 ; old Blackfriars, 
 1769 ; Waterloo, 1817 ; Southward, 1819 ; Hunger- 
 ford, 184s ; Chelsea, 1858 ; "Vauxhall, 1816. 
 
 A railway bridge i\ miles long projected over the 
 Firth of Forth (not executed) . . . Dec. 1864 
 
 The very wide Victoria bridge, over the Thames (by 
 which the London, Chatham and Dover railway 
 enters the Victoria station, Pimlico) ; founded by 
 lord Harris 22 Feb. 1865 
 
 For details see separate articles, and also Tubular 
 bridge, Niagara, Victoria bridge, &c. 
 
 New York and Brooklyn bridge, 5862 feet long ; 
 1600 central span ; 130 feet high ; (erecting) July, 1872 
 
 BEIDGEWATEE, Somersetshire, was incor- 
 porated by king John, in 1200. In the war between 
 Charles I. and the parliament, the king's forces 
 burnt part of the town, 1643. Here stood an an- 
 cient castle in which the ill-advised duke of Mon- 
 mouth lodged when proclaimed king in 1685. The 
 town was disfranchised for bribery, 1870. 
 
 BEIDGEWATEE CANAL, the first great 
 work of the kind in England, was begun by the 
 duke of Bridgewater, the father of canal navigation 
 in this country, in 1759, and opened 17 July, 1761. 
 James Brindley was the engineer. It commences 
 at Worslej r , seven miles from Manchester; and at 
 Barton Bridge is an aqueduct which, for upwards 
 of 200 yards, conveys the canal across the river 
 Irwell. The length of the canal is about twenty- 
 nine miles. 
 
 BEIDGEWATEE TEEATISES. The rev. 
 Francis, earl of Bridgewater, died in April, 1829, 
 leaving by will 8,000^. to be given to the author or 
 authors, appointed by the president of the Royal 
 Societj', who should write an essay " on the power, 
 wisdom, and goodness of God, as manifested in the 
 creation." The essays (by sir Charles Bell, Drs. T. 
 Chalmers, John Kidd, William Buckland, William 
 Prout, Peter M. Roget, and the revs. William 
 Whewell and William Kirby) were published 1833- 
 35- 
 
 BEIEFS are the letters of the pope despatched 
 to princes and others on public affairs, and usually 
 written short, without preface or preamble, and on 
 paper ; in which particulars they are distinguished 
 from bulls. The latter are ample, and written on 
 parchment. Briefs are sealed with red wax and 
 the seal of the fisherman, or St. Peter in a boat, 
 and alway in the presence of the pope. The queen' s 
 letters, called "briefs," authorising collections in 
 
 churches for charitable purposes are now discon- 
 tinued. A lawyer's brief is an abridgment of his 
 client's case. 
 
 BBIENNE (N. E. France). Here the allied 
 armies of Russia and Prussia, under Blucher, were 
 defeated by the French, 29 Jan. 1814. 
 
 BEIGANDAGE : for recent cases, see Italy, 
 1861-71; Greece, 1870; Spain, 1870. 
 
 BEIGHTON, formerly Brighthelmstone, a 
 fishing town, Sussex, was made a place of fashion- 
 able resort by the prince of Wales, afterwards 
 George IV." 
 
 Here Charles II. embarked for France after the 
 
 battle of Worcester 3:651 
 
 Visit of the prince of Wales ! 1782 
 
 He founded the Pavilion i 7 8 4 
 
 It was greatly enlarged and made to resernlle the 
 Kremlin at Moscow, 1784-1823 ; sold to the town 
 
 for 53,000* J849 
 
 The Block-house swept away . . .26 March, 1786 
 Part of the cliff fell ; great damage . . 16 Nov. 1807 
 Chain-pier, 1134 feet long, 13 wide, completed . 1823 
 Brighton made a parliamentary borough . . 1832 
 
 The railway to London opened . . .21 Sept. 1841 
 Collision of trains in Clayton tunnel, 23 persons 
 
 killed and many wounded ... 25 Aug. 1861 
 Volunteer reviews here on Easter Mondays, 1862-6— 1870-2 
 
 New pier erected 1865-6 
 
 Great aquarium inaugurated by prince Arthur, 30 
 
 Mar. ; and formally opened by the mayor, 10 Aug. 1872 
 British Association meet here . . 14 Aug. 
 
 BEILL or BETEL, Holland. A seaport, seized 
 by the expelled Dutch confederates, became the 
 seat of their independence, 1572. Brill, given up 
 to the English in 1585 as security for advances 
 made by queen Elizabeth to Holland, was restored 
 in 1616. 
 
 BEISSOTINS, see Girondists. 
 
 BEISTOL (W. England), built by Brennus, a 
 British prmce, 380 B.C., is mentioned in a.d. 430 as 
 a forti6ed city. It was called Caer Oder, a city in 
 the valley of Bath ; and, sometimes Caer Brito, the 
 British city, and by the Saxons Brightstowe, plea- 
 sant place. Gildas and Nennius speak of Bristol in 
 the 5th and 7th centuries. From the 12th to the 
 18th century it was, next to London, the most 
 flourishing port in England ; it has since been sur- 
 passed by Liverpool. See under Orphan-houses. 
 
 Taken by the earl of Gloucester, in his defence 
 of his sister Maud, the empress, against king 
 
 Stephen ll; ,g 
 
 Eleanor of Brittany (daughter of Geoffrey^ son of 
 Henry II.) dies in the castle after 39 years' im- 
 prisonment I2 .j. 
 
 St. Mary's church built. . .'.".'..' 1202 
 Bristol made a distinct county by Edward III. ' .' 1373 
 
 Bishopric founded by Henry VIII 15 A 
 
 Taken by prince Kupert, 26 July, 1643 ; by Cromwell', 
 _,,„,'. I ° Sept. 1645 
 
 Edwd. Colston s hospital, a free school, and other 
 charities established [his birthday, 14 Nov kept 
 
 annually] 3 
 
 New charter ' IO 
 
 Act passed for new exchange, 1723 ; erected . .1741 
 
 Bread riots ' • 
 
 Bridge built M ay ' 'jg 
 
 Attempt to set the shipping on lire . . 22 Jan' 1777 
 Biot on account of a toll ; the troops fire on the 
 populace, and many are wounded . 25 Oct 170-3 
 
 Docks built 1804-0 
 
 Riot on the entrance of sir Charles Wetherell, the 
 recorder, into the city, he being opposed to' the 
 reform bill ; the mansion house, the bishop's 
 palace, several merchants' stores, some of the 
 prisons (the inmates liberated), nearly 100 houses 
 burned, and above 500 persons killed by the mili- 
 tary or perished .... 29-31. Oct. 1831 
 
BRISTOL. 
 
 110 
 
 BRITAIN. 
 
 1803. 
 1807. 
 
 1834- 
 
 Trial of rioters (four executed); 22 transported, 
 2 Jan.; suicide of col. Brereton, during trial by 
 
 court-martial 9 Jan. 1832 
 
 Meeting of British Association . ... Aug. 1836 
 Railway to Loudon completed . . 30 June, 1841 
 Clifton suspension-bridge opened . . 8 Dec. 1864 
 Industrial Exhibition opened . . 19 Sept. 1865 
 
 BRISTOL, SEE OF, one of the six bishoprics 
 erected by Henry VIII. out of the spoils of the dis- 
 solved monasteries, 1542. The cathedral was the 
 church of the abbey of St. Austin, founded here by 
 Eobert Fitz-Harding, son to a king of Denmark, and 
 a citizen of Bristol, 1 148. The see is valued in the 
 king's books at 338^. 8s. <\d. Paul Bushe, provincial 
 of the Bons-hommes, was the first bishop, in 1542 — 
 deprived for being married, 1554. The see of Bris- 
 tol was united by an order in council with that of 
 Gloucester, in 1836. The cathedral (under repair 
 since 1844) was reopened in 1861. 
 
 BISHOPS OF BRISTOL. 
 
 Hon. G. Pelham, translated to Exeter, 1807. 
 
 John Luxmoore, translated to Hereford, 1808. 
 
 Wm. Lort Mansell, died, 27 June, 1820. 
 
 John Kaye, translated to Lincoln, 1827. 
 
 Robert Gray, died 28 Sept. 1834. 
 
 Joseph Allen, the last bishop, translated to Ely 
 
 in June, 1836. (In October the diocese was 
 
 united with Gloucester.) 
 
 BRITAIN (called by the Eomans Britannia,* 
 from its Celtic name Prydhain, Camden). The 
 earliest records of the history of this island are the 
 manuscripts and poetry of the Cambrians. The 
 Celts, the ancestors of the Britons and modern 
 Welsh, were the first inhabitants of Britain. It is 
 referred to as the Cassiterides or tin-islands by 
 Herodotus, 450 B.C. ; as Albion and Ierne (England 
 and Ireland) by Aristotle, 350 B.C., and Polybius, 
 260 B.C. Britain, including England, Scotland, 
 and Wales, was anciently called Albion, the name 
 of Britain being applied to all the islands collec- 
 tively — Albion to only one. Pliny ; see Albion, 
 England, Scotland, and Wales. 
 
 Divitiacus, king of the Suessones, in Gaul, said to b.c. 
 have supremacy over part of Britain 57 
 
 First invasion of Britain by the Romans, under 
 Julius Csesar 26 Aug. 55 
 
 Second invasion ; lie defeats Cassivelaunus, British 
 general 54 
 
 Cymbeline (Cunobelin), king of Britain . . . 4 
 
 Aulus Plautus defeats the Britons . . . a.d. 43 
 
 He and Vespasian reduce S. Britain . . . . 47 
 
 Caractacus defeated by Ostorius, 50 ; carried in 
 chains to Rome 51 
 
 Romans defeated by Boadicea, queen of the Iceni ; 
 70,000 slain, and London burnt : she is defeated 
 by Suetonius ; 80,000 slain 61 
 
 Agricola, governor, conquers Anglesey, and over- 
 runs Britain in seven campaigns, and reforms the 
 government 78-S4 
 
 He defeats the Caledonians under Galgacus ; sur- 
 renders the islands 84 
 
 The emperor Adrian visits Britain, 120 ; and builds 
 a wall from the Tyne to the Sohvay . . .121 
 
 Lucius, king of the Britons, said to have sent an 
 embassy on religious affairs to pope Eleutherius, 
 
 about 181 
 
 The Britons (allies of Albinus) defeated at Lyons by 
 Severus 197 
 
 Southern Britain subdued and divided by the 
 Romans into two provinces 204 
 
 Severus keeps his court at York, then called Ebora- 
 cum, 208 ; finishes his wall, and dies at York, 
 
 4 Feb. 211 
 
 * The Romans eventually divided Britain into Britan- 
 nia Prima (country south of the Thames and Severn) ; 
 Britannica Secunda (Wales) ; Flavia Ca-saHensis (between 
 the Thames, Severn, and Humber) ; Maxima Ccesariensis 
 (between the Humber and Tyne) ; and Valentia (between 
 the Tyne and Firth of Forth). 
 
 Carausius usurps the throne of Britain . a.d. 286 
 
 He is killed by Allectus, another usurper . . 294 
 
 Constantius recovers Britain and kills Allectus . 296 
 
 St. Albanand 17,000 Christians martyred (Jiede) . 304 
 
 Constantius, emperor of Rome, dies at York, 
 
 25 July, 306 
 
 British bishops at the council of Axles . . . 314 
 Scots and Picts invade Britain, 360 ; routed by 
 
 Theodosius 368 
 
 Romans gradually withdraw from Britain . 402-436 
 
 Reign of Vortigern 425 
 
 The Saxons and Angles aid in expelling the Picts 
 
 and Scots 429 
 
 The Romans quit Britain 436 
 
 The Anglo-Saxon invaders drive the Britons into 
 
 Wales 449-455 
 
 Many Britons settle in Armorica (Brittany) . 388-457 
 Ella invades South Britain, 477 ; founds kingdom 
 
 of Sussex 491 
 
 The Saxon Heptarchy ; Britain divided into seven 
 
 or more kingdoms 457 
 
 Supposed reigns of Vortimer, 464 ; Vortigern again, 
 471 ; Aurelius Ambrosius, 481 ; and Arthur Pen- 
 dragon . , ' . . 500 
 
 Great Saxon invasion under Cerdic . . . . 495 
 The renowned king Arthur said to reign . . 506-542 
 Arrival of St. Augustin (or Austin), and re-establish- 
 ment of Christianity 597 
 
 CadwaUader, last king of the Britons, reigns . . 678 
 
 Lindisfarne church destroyed by the Northmen . . 794 
 
 Egbert, king of Wessex, virtually king of England 827 
 
 kings of the heptarchy,* see Bretivalda. 
 
 Kent. [Tlie shire of Kent.] 
 454. Hengist. [473, Saxon Chronicle.] 
 488. itisc, Esca, or Escus, son of Hengist ; in honour of 
 
 whom the kings of Kent were for some time called 
 
 iEscings. 
 512. Octa, son of JDsc. 
 542. Hermenric, or Ermenric, son of Octa. 
 560. St. Ethelbert ; first Christian king (styled Rex 
 
 Anglorum). 
 616. Eadbald, son of Ethelbert. 
 640. Ercenbert, or Ercombert, son of Eadbald. 
 664. Ecbert, or Egbert, son of Ercenbert. 
 773. Lothar, or Lothair, brother of Ecbert. 
 
 685. Edric ; slain in 687. [The kingdom now subject to 
 
 various leaders.] 
 694. Wihtred, or Wihgtred. 
 
 760. Alric, ) 
 
 794. Edbert, or Ethelbert Pryn ; deposed. 
 
 796. Cuthred, or Guthred. 
 
 805. Baldred ; who lost his life and kingdom to 
 
 823. Ecbert, king of Wessex. 
 
 South Saxons. [Sussex and Surrey.] 
 491. Ella, a warlike prince, succeeded by 
 514. Cissa, his son, whose reign was long and peaceful, 
 exceeding 70 years. 
 [The South Saxons then fell into an almost total de- 
 pendence on the kingdom of Wessex.] 
 648. Edilwald, Edilwach, Adelwach, or Ethelwach. 
 
 686. Authun and Berthun, brothers ; reigned jointly ; 
 
 vanquished by Ina, king of Wessex, 689 ; kingdom 
 conquered in 725. 
 
 West Saxons. [Berks, Hampshire, Wilts, Somerset, 
 
 Dorset, Devon, and port of Cornwall.] 
 519. Cerdic. 
 
 534. Cynric, or Kenrie, son of Cerdic. 
 560. Ceawlm, son of Cynric ; banished ; dies in 593. 
 591. CeoMc, nephew to Ceawlm. 
 597. Ceolwulf. 
 611. ) Cynegils, and in 
 614. jCwichelm, his son, reigned jointly. 
 643. Cenwal, Cenwalh, or Cenwald. 
 672. Sexburga, his queen, sister to Penda, king of Mer- 
 
 cia ; of great qualities ; probably deposed. 
 674. Escwine, with Centwine ; on his death, 
 676. Centwine rules alone. 
 
 * The term "Octarchy" is sometimes used; North- 
 umbria being divided into Bernicia and Deira, separate 
 
 kingdoms. 
 
BRITAIN. 
 
 Ill 
 
 BRITISH ASSOCIATION. 
 
 728. 
 740. 
 
 754- 
 
 755- 
 784. 
 
 Csedwallo : went to Rome, to expiate his deeds of 
 
 blood, and died there. 
 Ina or Inas, a brave and wise ruler ; journeyed to 
 
 Rome ; left an excellent code of laws. 
 Ethelheard, or Ethelard, related to Ina. 
 Cuthred, brother to Ethelheard. 
 Sigebright, or Sigebert, having murdered his friend 
 
 Cumbran, governor of Hampshire, was slain by 
 
 one of his .victim's retainers. 
 Cynewulf, or Kenwulf, or Cenulpe, a noble youth 
 
 of the line of Cerdie ; murdered. 
 Bertric, or Beorhtric ; poisoned by drinking of a 
 
 cup his queen had prepared for another. . 
 Egbert, afterwards sole monarch of England, and 
 
 Bretwalda. 
 
 East Saxons. [Essex, Middlesex, and part of Herts.] 
 526, 527, or 530, Erchenwin, or Erchwine. 
 587. Sledda ; his son. 
 
 597. St. Sebert, or Sabert ; son ; first Christian king. 
 614. Saxred or Sexted, or Serred, jointly with Sigebert 
 
 and Seward ; all slain. 
 623. Sigebert II. surnamed the little ; son of Seward. 
 655. Sigebert III. surnamed the good; brother of Sebert: 
 
 put to death. 
 661. Swithelm (or Suidhelm), son of Sexbald. 
 663. Sigher, or Sigeric, jointly with Sebbi, or Sebba, who 
 
 became a monk. 
 693. Sigenard, or Sigehard, and Suenfrid. 
 700 Offa ; became a monk at Rome. 
 709. Suebricht, or Selred. 
 738. Swithred, or Swithed ; a long reign. 
 792. Sigeric ; died in a pilgrimage to Rome. 
 799. Sigered. 
 823. Kingdom seized by Egbert of Wessex. 
 
 Northumbria. [Lancaster, York, Cumberland, Westmore- 
 land, Durham, and Northumberland.] 
 %* Northumbria was at first divided into two govern- 
 ments, Bernicia and Deira; the former stretching 
 from the Tweed to the Tyne, and the latter from the 
 Tyne to the Humber. 
 547. Ida, a valiant Saxon. 
 560. Adda, his eldest son ; king of Bernicia. 
 ,, Ella, king of Deira; afterwards the sole king of 
 
 Northumbria (to 587). 
 567. Glappa, Clappa, or Elapea : Bernicia. 
 
 572. Heodwulf ; Bernicia. 
 
 573. Freodwulf ; Bernicia. 
 580. Theodoric ; Bernicia. 
 588. Ethelric ; Bernicia. 
 
 593. Ethelfrith, surnamed the Fierce. 
 617. Edwin, son of Ella, king of Deira in 590 ; a great 
 prince. Slain in battle with Penda, of Mercia. 
 
 634. Eanfrid rules in Bernicia, and Osric in Deira ; both 
 
 put to death. 
 
 635. Oswald slain in battle. 
 
 642. Osweo, or Oswy ; a reign of great renown. 
 
 670. Ecfrid, or Egfrid, king of Northumbria. 
 
 685. Alcfrid, or Ealdferth. 
 
 705. Osred, or Ealdferth. 
 
 716. Cenric ; sprung from Ida. 
 
 718. Osric, son of Alcfrid. 
 
 729. Ceolwulf ; died a monk. 
 
 737. Eadbert, or Egbert ; retired to a monastery. 
 
 757. Oswulf, or Osulf ; slain in a sedition. 
 
 759. Edilwald, or Mollo ; slain by Aired. 
 
 765. Aired, Ailred, or Alured ; deposed. 
 
 774. Ethelred, sou of Mollo ; expelled. 
 
 778. Elwald, or Celwold ; deposed and slain. 
 
 789. Osred, son of Aired ; fled. 
 
 790. Ethelred restored ; afterwards slain. 
 794. Erdulf, or Ardulf ; deposed. 
 
 806. Alfwold. 
 
 808. Erdulf restored. 
 
 809. Eanred. 
 
 841. Kingdom annexed by Egbert. 
 
 East Angles. [Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridge, Ely.] 
 526. Uffa lands. 
 
 571 or 575. Uffa ; a German, said to be first king. 
 578. Titilus, or Titulus ; son of Uffa. 
 599. Redwald, son of Titilus ; the greatest prince of the 
 
 East Angles. 
 624. Erpwald, Eorpwald, or Eordwald. 
 627. Richbert. 
 
 629. Sigebert, half-brother to Erpwald. 
 632. Egfrid, or Egric ; cousin to Sigebert. 
 635. Anna, or Annas ; a just ruler ; killed. 
 
 654. Ethelric, or Ethelhere ; slain in battle. 
 
 655. Ethelwald ; his brother. 
 664. Aldulf, or Aldwulf. 
 713. Selred, or Ethelred. 
 746. Alphwuld. 
 
 749. Beorna and Ethelred, jointly. 
 
 758. Beorna alone. 
 
 761. Ethelred. 
 
 790. Ethelbert, or Ethelbryght ; treacherously put to 
 death in Mercia in 792, when Offa, king of Mercia 
 overran the country, which was finally subdued by 
 Egbert. 
 St. Edmund (vassal king) slain by the Danes. 
 
 870. 
 
 Mercia. [Gloucester, Hereford, Cluster, Stafford, Worces- 
 ter, Oxford, Salop, Warwick, Derby, Leicester 
 Bucks, Northampton, Notts, Lincoln, Bedford, Rut- 
 land, Huntingdon, and part of Herts.] 
 
 586. Crida, or Cridda, a noble chieftain. 
 
 593. [Interregnum— Ceolric] 
 
 597. Wibba, a valiant prince, his son. 
 
 615. Ceorl, or Cheorl ; nephew of Wibba. 
 
 626. Penda ; fierce and cruel ; killed in battle. 
 
 655. Peada, son of Penda ; killed to make way for 
 
 656. "Wulfhere (brother) ; slew his two sons. 
 675. Ethelred ; became a monk. 
 
 704. Cenred, or Cendred ; became a monk at Rome 
 709. Ceolred, Celred, or Chelred ; son of Ethelred. 
 716. Ethelbald ; slain in a mutiny by his successor 
 755. Beornred, or Bernred ; himself slain. 
 
 „ Offa ; formed the great dyke near Wales 
 794. Egfrid, or Egferth, son of Offa ; died suddenly 
 
 „ Cenulph, Cenwulf, or Kenulph ; slain. 
 819. Kenelm, or Cenelm, a minor ; reigned five months - 
 killed by his sister Quendreda. 
 
 „ Ceolwulf, uncle to Kenelm ; expelled. 
 821. Beornwulf ; killed by his own subjects. 
 823. Ludeean ; a valiant ruler ; slain 
 825. Withlafe, or Wiglaf. 
 838. Berthulf, or Bertulf. 
 852. Burhred, or Burdred. 
 874. Ceolwulph ; deposed by the Danes, 877. 
 
 [The kingdom merged into that of England.] 
 
 BRITANNIA TUBULAR BRIDGE, see 
 
 lubular Bridge. 
 
 BRITANNY, see Brittany. 
 
 BRITISH, see Architects; Antiquaries, -Banks 
 Joint Stock; Guiana, Honduras, National, Medi- 
 cal, Orphans, Societies. 
 
 BRITISH AMERICA (see America) com- 
 prises the dominion of Canada, Nova Scotia, New 
 Brunswick, Newfoundland and Prince Edward's- 
 Island, Labrador, British Columbia and Vancouver's 
 Island. Population about 3,648,000 (1871). 
 Delegates from the first six provinces met at Quebec on 
 10 Oct., and agreed to the basis of a Federal union 
 with the queen as the executive (represented by the 
 governor-general), a legislative council of 96 members 
 for life, and a house of commons of 194 members 20 
 Oct. 1864. ' 
 
 The secretary for the colonies, Mr. Cardwell, expressed 
 
 his approval of the plan, 3 Dec. 1864. 
 The plan opposed by New Brunswick, 7 March, 1865 
 Messrs. Carrier and Gait came to England to advocate it 
 
 April, 1865. 
 Act for the union of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New 
 Brunswick, under the name of " the dominion of 
 Canada," brought into parliament by the earl of Car- 
 narvon, 19 Feb., passed 29 March, r867. 
 (The British government guaranteed a subsidy of 
 
 3,ooo,oooZ. to complete the intercolonial railway ) 
 By the British North America act, the parliament of 
 Canada may establish new provinces, 29 June, 1871. 
 
 BRITISH ASSOCIATION for the Advance- 
 ment of Science, was established by sir David 
 Brewster, sir B. I. Murchison, &c, in 183 1. Pro- 
 fessor John Phillips was secretary till 1863. It holds 
 
BRITISH COLUMBIA. 
 
 112 
 
 BRITISH MUSEUM. 
 
 annual meetings; the first of which was held at 
 York on 27 Sept. 1831. One of its main objects is 
 " to promote the intercourse of those who cultivate 
 science with each other." It appoints commissions 
 and makes pecuniary grants for scientific research ; 
 and publishes annually a volume containing Reports 
 of the proceedings. Kew observatory presented to 
 the association bv the queen in 1842. Superinten- 
 dents, Francis Ronalds, the first; John "Walsh, 
 1852; Balfour Stewart, 1859. It was purchased for 
 the Royal Society by Mr. J. P. Gassiot, in 187 1. 
 
 23. Hull 
 
 24. Liverpool (2nd) 
 
 25. Glasgow (2nd) . 
 
 26. Cheltenham . 
 
 27. Dublin (2nd) . 
 
 28. Leeds . 
 
 29. Aberdeen. 
 
 30. Oxford (3rd) . 
 
 31. Manchester (2nd). 
 
 32. Cambridge (3rd) 
 
 33. Newcastle (2nd) 
 
 34. Bath . . . 1864 
 
 35. Birmingham (3rd) 1865 
 
 1832 
 1833 
 1834 
 1835 
 1836 
 1837 
 
 1840 
 
 1847 
 1848 
 1849 
 1850 
 
 1853 
 1854 
 1855 
 1856 
 i8 S7 
 1858 
 1859 
 i860 
 1861 
 1862 
 
 Nottingham . 
 
 Dundee . . . 
 
 Norwich 
 
 Exeter . . . 
 
 Liverpool (3rd) . 
 
 Edinburgh (3rd) . 
 
 Brighton 
 
 1866 
 :86 7 
 
 1870 
 1871 
 1872 
 
 43. Bradford (to be) . 1873 
 
 1. York Meeting 
 
 2. Oxford . 
 
 3. Cambridge 
 
 4. Edinburgh . 
 
 5. Dublin . 
 
 6. Bristol . 
 ' 7. Liverpool. 
 
 8. Newcastle . 
 
 9. Birmingham 
 
 10. Glasgow 
 
 11. Plymouth 
 
 12. Manchester . . 1842 
 
 13. Cork . . • 1843 
 
 14. York (2nd time) . 1844 
 
 15. Cambridge (2nd) . 1845 
 j6. Southampton 
 
 17. Oxford (?nd) . . 
 
 18. Swansea 
 
 19. Birmingham (2nd) 
 
 20. Edinburgh (2nd) . 
 
 21. Ipswich . . . 
 
 22. Belfast . 
 BRITISH COLUMBIA (N. America). In 
 
 June, 1858, news came to California that in April 
 wold had been found in abundance on the mainland 
 of North America, a little to the north and east of 
 Vancouver's Island. A great influx of gold-diggers 
 (in a few weeks above 50,000) from all parts was 
 the consequence ; and Mr. Douglas, governor of 
 Vancouver's Island, evinced much ability in pre- 
 serving order. The territory with adjacent islands 
 was made a British colony with the above title, and 
 placed under Mr. Douglas. The colony was nomi- 
 nated and the government settled by 21 & 22 Vict. 
 c. 99 (Aug. 1858), and a bishop nominated in 1859. 
 
 tor a dispute in July, 1859, see United States. 
 
 Vancouver's Island was incorporated with the 
 «olony in 1866, and Victoria was made the capital, 
 24 May, 1868. Recent governors : Frederick Sey- 
 mour, 1864; Anthony Musgrave, 1869; J. W.Trutch, 
 1 87 1. The colony was annexed to Canada, 187 1. 
 
 BRITISH INSTITUTION (for the encour- 
 agement of British artists, Pall-mall, founded in 
 1805) opened 18 Jan. 1806, on a plan formed by sir 
 Thomas Bernard. In the gallery (erected by alder- 
 man Boydell, to exhibit the paintings executed for 
 his edition of Shakspeare) , were annually exhibited 
 pictures by the old masters and deceased British 
 artists till 1867, when the lease of the premises 
 expired. 
 
 BRITISH LEGION, raised by lord John Hay, 
 col. De Lacy Evans, and others to assist queen Isa- 
 bella of Spain against the Carlists in 1835, defeated 
 them at Hernani, 5 May, 1836, andat St. Sebastian's, 
 1 Oct. 
 
 BRITISH MUSEUM, originated with the 
 grant by parliament (5 April, 1753) of 20,000^. to the 
 daughters of sir Hans Sloane, in payment for his 
 fine library, and vast collection of the productions of 
 nature and art, which had cost him 50,000^. The 
 library contained 50,000 volumes and valuable MSS., 
 and 69,352 articles of virtu enumerated in the cata- 
 logue. Montagu-house was obtained by government 
 as a place for their reception. The museum (includ- 
 ing the Cottonian, Harleian, and other collections) 
 
 was opened 15 Jan. 1/59, an( ^ nas smce heen enor- 
 mously increased by gifts, bequests, and purchases.* 
 The old royal library was given by George II. 
 1757. A list of the more important additions is given 
 below. 
 
 New buildings erected by sir R. Smirke . . 1823-47 
 
 Iron railing completed 1852 
 
 The great reading-room erected by Sydney Smirke, 
 according to a plan by Mr. Antonio Panizzi, the 
 librarian (cost about 150,000/. ; height of dome, 
 106 feet ; diameter, 140 feet ; contains about 
 80,000 volumes, and accommodates 300 readers), 
 opened to public .... 18 May, 1857 
 
 Incorporation of the four library catalogues into one 
 
 alphabet begun ; three copies made . . . 1861 
 The proposed separation of the antiquarian, literary, 
 and scientific collections, was disapproved by a 
 commission in i860 ; and a bill to remove the 
 natural history collections to South Kensington 
 rejected by the commons . . .19 May, 1862 
 A refreshment room for readers opened . 21 Nov. 1864 
 6000/. voted for a Natural History Museum at South 
 
 Kensington 2 Aug. 1870 
 
 Number of books (estimated) 1,600,000 . Jan. 1870 
 Photographs of above 5000 objects of antiquity 
 (supplying evidence of man's progress iu civilisa- 
 tion), published for about 11 61. . . .Aug. 1872 
 
 Important Additions (bought or given). (Edwards.) 
 
 Those marked * were gifts or bequests. 
 *Solomon Da Costa, Hebrew Library • . . . 1759 
 *G. Thomason, collection (political) from Geo. III. 1762 
 
 *Solander, fossils 1766 
 
 *Birch, library and MSS ,, 
 
 Hamilton vases, <fcc 1772 
 
 *Musgrave library 1790-99 
 
 *Cracherode library 1799 
 
 Hatchett minerals ,, 
 
 * Alexandrian collection (from Geo. III.) . . . 1802 
 
 Townley marbles 1805-14 
 
 Lansdowne MSS 1807 
 
 Greville minerals 1810 
 
 Roberts, English coins 1810 
 
 Hargrave library 1813 
 
 Phigaleian marbles 1815 
 
 Elgin marbles 18 16 
 
 Burney hbrary 18 18 
 
 ^Banks' archaeological collections ....,, 
 *King George III.'s library, given by George IV. 1823-5 
 
 *Payne Knight's collections 1824 
 
 *Sir J. Banks' library and collections . . . . 1827 
 
 *Egerton MSS 1829 
 
 *Arundelian MSS 183 1 
 
 Mantell, fossils 1839 
 
 Syriac MSS 1841-7 
 
 *Lyeian marbles (by Sir C. Fellows) . . . 1845 
 
 *Grenville library, collected by right hon. Thos. 
 
 Grenville (20,240 vols.) 1847 
 
 Morrison's Chinese library ,, 
 
 Assyrian collections (by A. Layard) . . . 1851-60 
 Halicarnassian and Cnidian marbles (by C. T. New- 
 ton) 1855-60 
 
 Carthaginian antiquities (by N. Davis) . . . 1859 
 Cyrene marbles (by Smith and Porcher) . . . i860 
 
 Cureton, Oriental MSS 1864 
 
 Duke of Blacas' museum (bought for 48,000/.) . . 1866 
 *Abyssinian antiquities ... . 1868 
 *Slade collection (glass, &c.) „ 
 
 Principal Librarians. 
 
 Dr. Gowin Knight 1753 
 
 Dr. Matthew Maty 1772 
 
 Dr. Charles Morton 1776 
 
 Joseph Planta . 1799 
 
 Henry Ellis 1827 
 
 Antonio Panizzi 1856 
 
 J. Winter Jones , 1866 
 
 * The total expenditure by the government on the 
 British Museum for the year ending 31 March, i860, was 
 78,445/. ; 1861, 92,776/. ; 1864, 95,500/. ; 1867, 110,756/. : 
 1873 (estimate, 102,061/,); the number of visitors to the 
 general collection in 1851 (exhibition year), 2,524,754 ; 
 in 1859, 517,895 ; in 1862 (exhibition year), 895,007 ; in 
 1863, 440,801 ; in 1866, 516,550; 1871, 418,094. 
 
BRITTANY. 
 
 113 
 
 BRUNDISIUM. 
 
 BRITTANY, or BRETAGNE (N. "W. France), 
 the ancient Armorica {which see,) formed part of the 
 kingdom of the Franks. 
 
 Nomenoe revolts and becomes the first count . . 841 
 Brittany ravaged by the Northmen, 907 ; ceded to 
 
 them 921 
 
 Geoffroy I., the first duke 992 
 
 Alan V., 1008 ; Conan II 1040 
 
 Hoel V. , 1066 ; Alan VI 1084 
 
 Conan III 1112 
 
 Hoel VI. expelled ; Geoffroy of Anjou duke . . 1155 
 Conan IV. duke, 1156 ; on the death of Geoffroy, 
 cedes Brittany to Henry II. of England, and 
 betroths his daughter, Constance, to Henry's son, 
 
 Geoffroy (both infants) 1159 
 
 Geoffroy succeeds, 1171 ; killed at a tournament . 1185 
 His son, Arthur, murdered by his uncle, John of 
 England ; his daughter, Eleanor, imprisoned at 
 Bristol (for 39 years) .... April, 1203 
 Alice, daughter of Constance, and her second hus- 
 band, Guy de Thours, proclaimed duchess, 1203 ; 
 marries Peter of Dreux, made duke . . . . 1213 
 
 John I., duke, 1237 ; John II 1286 
 
 John III., 1312 ; dies without issue . . . . 1341 
 The succession disputed between John of Montfort 
 (John IV.) supported by Edward of England, and 
 Charles of Blois, made duke by Philip VI. of 
 France. John is made prisoner ; his wife, Jane, 
 besieged at Hennebonne, holds out, and is re- 
 lieved by the English, 1343 ; John of Montfort 
 
 dies 1345 
 
 Charles of Blois defeated and slain at Auray, 29 Sept. ; 
 John V. , son of Montfort, duke . . . . 1364 
 
 John VI., duke, 1399 ; Francis 1 1442 
 
 Peter II., 1450 ; Arthur III 1457 
 
 Francis II., 1458 ; takes part with the Orleanists in 
 
 France ; defeated at St. Aubin, 28 July, 1488 ; dies 1488 
 Anne, his daughter, and heiress, marries 1st, 
 Charles VIII. of France, 1491 ; 2nd, Louis XII., 
 1499 ; her eldest daughter, Claude (born 1499), 
 marries Francis, count of Angouleme, 1514 ; king 
 
 of France 1 Jan. 1515 
 
 Brittany formally united to the monarchy . . . 1532 
 Brittany held by the Spaniards, 1591 ; recovered by 
 
 Henry IV 1594 
 
 The Bretons take part in the Vendean insurrection 
 (see La Vendee) in 1791 
 
 BRITTON, an ancient treatise on English law 
 ■written in French by or in the name of king Edward 
 I. about 1291. Coke attributed the work to John le 
 Breton, bishop of Hereford, who died in 1275. An 
 edition of "Britton," with a translation in English 
 by Mr. F. Nicholls, was published in 1865. 
 
 BROAD ARROW, a mark for goods belonging 
 to the royal dockyards or navy, is said to have been 
 ordered to be used in 1698, in consequence of rob- 
 beries. 
 
 "BROAD BOTTOM" ADMINISTRA- 
 TION. The Pelham administration {which see) 
 was so called because formed by a coalition of parties, 
 Nov. 1744. 
 
 BROCADE, a silken stuff, variegated with gold 
 or silver, and enriched with flowers and figures, 
 originally made by the Chinese ; the manufacture 
 was established at Lyons in 1757. 
 
 BROCCOLI, said to have been brought to Eng- 
 land from Italy in the 16th century. 
 
 BROKERS, both of money and merchandise, 
 were known early in England. See Appraisers. 
 They are licensed, and their dealings regulated by 
 law in 1695-6, 1816, and 1826. The dealings of 
 stockbrokers were regulated in 1719, 1733, and 1736, 
 and subsequently; see Pawnbroker, and Barnard's 
 Act. Brokers in the city of London placed under 
 the supervision of the lord mayor and aldermen, 
 in 1707, were relieved from it by an act passed 9 
 Aug. 1870. 
 
 BROMINE (from the Greek bromos, a stink), 
 a poisonous volatile liquid element discovered in 
 salt water by M. Balard in 1826. It is found in 
 combination with metals and mineral waters. 
 
 BRONZE was known to the ancients, some of 
 whose bronze statues, vessels, &c, are in the British 
 Museum. The bronze equestrian statue of Louis 
 XIV., 1699, in the Place Vendome at Paris (demol- 
 ished 10 Aug. 1792), the most colossal ever made ; 
 it contained 60,000 lbs. Bronze is composed of 
 copper and tin, with sometimes a little zinc and 
 lead. Tire. The present bronze coinage, penny, 
 halfpenny, and farthing (composed of 95 parts of 
 copper, 4 tin, 1 zinc), came into circulation Dec. 
 i860. 
 
 BROOKES'S CLUB (Whig), established by 
 Brookes, a wine merchant, Oct. 1778. 
 
 BROUGHAM, a popular vehicle said to have 
 been invented in 1839, and so named in consequence 
 of its adoption by lord Brougham. Brougham! 's Act, 
 13 & 14 Vict. c. 21 ; see Acts. 
 
 BROWN INSTITUTION, Battersea, with a 
 hospital for quadrupeds and birds useful to man, esta- 
 blished by means of a bequest of John Brown of 
 Dublin ; first professor, Dr. Burdon Sanderson - T 
 opened 2 Dec. 187 1. 
 
 BROWN'S INSURRECTION; see VnitaZ 
 
 States, 1859. 
 
 BROWNIAN MOTION. So called from 
 Bobert Brown, the celebrated botanist, who in 1827, 
 by the aid of the microscope, observed in drops of 
 dew a motion of minute particles which at first was 
 attributed to rudimentary life, but was afterwards 
 decided to be due to currents occasioned by inequali- 
 ties of temperature and evaporation. 
 
 BROWNISTS or BARROWISTS, the first In- 
 dependents (which see), named after Bobert Brown, 
 a schoolmaster in Southwark, about 1580. Henry 
 Penry, Henry Barrow, and other Brownists, were 
 cruelly executed for alleged sedition, 29 May, 1593. 
 
 BRUCE' S TRAVELS. James Bruce, the 
 " Abyssinian traveller," set out in June, 1768, to 
 discover the source of the Nile. Proceeding first to. 
 Cairo, he navigated the Nile to Syene, thence crossed 
 the desert to the Bed Sea, and, arriving at Jedda, 
 passed some months in Arabia Felix, and after 
 various detentions reached Gondar, the capital of. 
 Abyssinia, in Feb. 1770. On 14 Nov. 1770, he ob- - 
 tained a sight of the sources of the Blue Nile. He - 
 returned to England in 1773, and died 27 April, 1794. . 
 
 BRUGES, Belgium, in the 7th century was . 
 capital of Flanders, and in the 13th and 14th cen- 
 turies almost the commercial metropolis of the world . 
 It suffered much through an insurrection in 1488, 
 and the consequent repression. It was subjected to ■. 
 France in 1794, to the Netherlands in 1814, and to -. 
 Belgium in 1830. 
 
 BRUMAIRE REVOLUTION, see Direc- 
 tory. 
 
 BRUNANBURG (supposed by some to be near - 
 Ford, Northumberland). Anlaf, with an army of*' 
 Northmen from Ireland and Constantine III. king ■ 
 of Scots landed at the mouth of the Humber, an<L 
 were defeated with very great slaughter at Brunan- 
 burg by Athelstan, 937. 
 
 BRUNDISIUM (now Brindisi), S. Italy, a 
 Greek city, taken by the Bomans, B.C. 267; and 
 made a colony, 244. Here Yirgil died 22 Sept. 
 19 B.C. 
 
BRUNN. 
 
 114 
 
 BUCCANEERS. 
 
 BRUNN, capital of Moravia, since 1641 ; was 
 entered by the French under Murat, 18 Nov. 1805; 
 and by the Prussians, 13 July, 1866. 
 
 BRUNSWICK CLUBS, established to main- 
 tain the house of Hanover and the Protestant as- 
 cendancy in church and state, began in England at 
 Maidstone, 18 Sept. 1828 ; in Ireland at the Rotunda 
 in Dublin, 4 Nov. same year. Other cities formed 
 similar clubs. 
 
 BRUNSWICK, House of. The duchy of 
 
 Brunswick, in Lower Saxony, was conquered by 
 Charlemagne, and governed afterwards by counts 
 and dukes. Albert-Azzo II. marquis of Italy and 
 lord of Este, died in 1097, an< l l eft by his wife Cune- 
 gonde (the heiress of Uuelph duke of Carinthia in 
 Bavaria), a son, Guelph, who was invited into Ger- 
 many by Imitza, his mother-in-law, and invested 
 with all the possessions of his wife's step-father, 
 Guelph. of Bavaria ; see Bavaria. His descendant, 
 Henry the Lion, married Maud, daughter of Henry 
 II. of England, and was the founder of the Bruns- 
 wick family. His dominions were very extensive ; 
 but having refused to assist the emperor Frederick 
 Barbarossa in a war against pope Alexander III., 
 through the emperor's resentment he was proscribed 
 at the diet at "VVurtzburg, in 1180. The duchy of 
 Bavaria was given to Otho of "Wittelsbach, ancestor 
 of the family of Bavaria ; the duchy of Saxony to 
 Bernard Ascanius, founder of the house of Anhalt ; 
 and his other territories to different persons. On 
 this, he retired to England ; but at the intercession 
 of our Henry II. Brunswick and Lunenburg were 
 restored to him. The house of Brunswick in 1409 
 divided into several branches. Brunswick was in- 
 cluded by Napoleon in the kingdom of Westphalia 
 in 1806, but was restored to the duke in 1815. — 
 Population of the duchy of Brunswick in 187 1, 
 311,819. Brunswick joined the North German Con- 
 federation, 18 Aug. 1866. 
 
 DUKES OF BRUNSWICK. 
 
 1136. Henry, duke of Bavaria. 
 
 1 139. Henry the Lion (son). 
 
 1 195. Henry the Long and William (sons). 
 
 1213. Otho I. (son of William). 
 
 1252. Albert I. (son of preceding). 
 
 1278. Albert II. (son). 
 
 1318. Otho, Magnus I., and Ernest (sons). 
 
 1368. Magnus II. (Torquatus) (son of Magnus I.) 
 
 DUKES OF BRUNSWICK-WOLFENEUTTEL. 
 
 First Branch. 
 Henry I. (son of Magnus II.) 
 William I. and Henry II. (sons). 
 Frederic and William II. j f wffl . T 
 
 Henry III. and Erie ) 
 
 Henry IV. (son of Henry II.) 
 Julius (son of preceding). 
 Henry Julius (son). 
 Prederic-Ulric (son), died without issue. 
 
 Second Branch. 
 
 Augustus (son of Henry of Luneburg). 
 
 Rodolph-Augustus ; who associated his next brother, 
 Anthony-Ulric, in the government, from 1685 ; 
 died, 1704. 
 
 Anthony-Ulric now ruled alone ; became a Roman 
 Catholic in 1710 ; died in 1714. 
 
 Augustus-William (son). 
 
 Lewis-Rodolph (brother). 
 
 Ferdinand-Albert, duke of Brunswiek-Bevem, 
 married Antoinette-Amelia, daughter of Lewis- 
 Rodolph, and succeeded him. 
 
 Charles (son). 
 
 Charles-William-Ferdinand (son) ; a great general 
 (served under his uncle Ferdinand in the Seven 
 Years' War, 1756-1763); married princess Augusta 
 of England ; was mortally wounded at the battle 
 of Auerstadt, 14 Oct., anil died 10 Nov. 1806; suc- 
 ceeded by his fourth son (his elder sons being 
 blind abdicated). 
 
 1409. 
 1416. 
 1482. 
 1495- 
 1514. 
 
 1613. 
 
 1634. 
 1666. 
 
 1714. 
 
 1731- 
 1735- 
 
 I73S' 
 1780, 
 
 1409. 
 
 1434. 
 1478. 
 1532- 
 1546. 
 
 1592. 
 1611. 
 1633. 
 1636. 
 1648. 
 1665. 
 
 est II. -\ 
 
 stian. f 
 
 ustus. 1 
 
 leric II. J 
 
 William-Frederick, whose reign may be dated from 
 the battle of Leipsic in Oct., 1813; fell at Quatre- 
 Bras, commanding the avantgarde under the duke 
 of Wellington, 16 June, 1815 ; succeeded by his 
 eldest sun 
 
 Charles-Fredcriek-William : assumed government 
 30 Oct. 1823. [Revolution at Brunswick ; the 
 duke (declai by the Ger- 
 
 man dirt) retired to England, 7 Sept. 18*30.] 
 
 William, brother; born 25 April, 1806; succet 
 provisionally, 7 .Sept. 1830; and, on the demand 
 of the Germanic diet, definitively, 20 April, 1831 ; 
 the present duke : unmarried. (His magnificent 
 palace was destroyed by fire, 24 Feb. 1865.) 
 
 DUKES OF BRUNSWICK-LUNEBURO. 
 
 Bernard (son of Magnus II., duke of BnmBWick, 
 see aboi-e). 
 
 Otho and Frederic (his sons). 
 
 Henry (son of Otho). 
 
 Ernest I. (son of Otho). His sons were 
 
 Henry (founder of second branch of Brunswiek- 
 Wolfenhuttel) and William, whose seven sons cast 
 lots to determine who should main'. The lot fell 
 on George, sixth son. Four oi' the brothers 
 reigned, viz. :- 
 
 Ernest II. 
 
 Christian. 
 
 August 
 
 Frederi 
 
 Christian-Lewis (son of the George loned.) 
 
 George-William (brother of Christian-Lewis), dies 
 in 1705 ; leaving as heiress Sophia-Dorothea, his 
 daughter, who married in 1682 her cousin, prince 
 George-Lewis of Hanover, afterwards Geo] 
 of England (son of Ernest of Hanover, youngest 
 son of the above-mentioned Geoi 
 
 (See Hanover and England.) 
 
 BRUNSWICK THEATRE, Well-street, 
 East London, built toreplace the Royal ty (burnt down 
 II April, 1826), was opened 25 Feb. 1828. On the 
 29th the building was destroyed by the falling in of 
 the walls, too much weight being attached to the 
 heavy iron roof. Fortunately the catastrophe hap- 
 pened in the day-time (during a rehearsal of " Guy 
 Mannering"), and only twelve persons perished. 
 
 BRUSSELS, once capital of Austrian Brabant, 
 now of Belgium (since 1831), was founded by St. 
 Gery, of Canibray, in the 7th century. It is cele- 
 brated for its fine lace, carpets, and tapestry. The 
 Hotel de Yille has a turret 364 feet in height ; and 
 on its top is a copper figure of St. Michael, 17 feet 
 high, which turns with the wind; see Belgium. 
 
 Cathedral of St. Gudule (began 1010?) completed . 1273 
 Made capital of the Low Countries .... 1507 
 
 Ruled tyrannically by Alva ^67 
 
 " Union of Brussels " to expel the Spaniards' 1 . 1577-78 
 Bombarded by marshal Villeroi ; 14 churches and 
 10,000 houses destroyed .... -Vug. 
 Taken by the French, 1701 ; by Marlborough, 1706; 
 
 by Saxe, 16 Feb. 1746 ; and by Dumouriez, Xov. 1792 
 The revolution commences . . .25 Aug. 1830 
 The costly furniture of 16 houses demolished in con- 
 sequence of a display of attachment to the house 
 
 of Orange 5 April, 1834 
 
 Maritime conference to obtain uniform meteoro- 
 logical observations held here .... 1853 
 International philanthropic congress . . Sept. 1856 
 International association for social science meet 
 
 22-25 Sept. 1862 
 
 BRUTTIUM (now Calabria Olta), S. Italy. 
 The Bruttians and Lucanians defeated and slew 
 Alexander of Epirus at Pandosia, 326 B.C. They 
 were conquered by Rome, 277. 
 
 BUBBLE COMPANIES, see Companies, 
 
 Zaiv's Bubble, and South-sea Bubble. 
 
 BUCCANEERS, cruel piratical adventurers, 
 French, English, and Dutch, who commenced their 
 depredations on the Spaniards of America soon after 
 
 1695 
 
BUCENTAUE. 
 
 115 
 
 BUENOS AYEES. 
 
 the latter had taken possession of that continent and 
 the West Indies. Their numbers were much in- 
 creased by a twelve years' truce between the Span- 
 iards and Dutch in 1609, when many of the discharged 
 sailors joined the buccaneers. The first levy of 
 ship-money in England in 1635 was to defraj r the 
 expense of chastising these pirates. The principal 
 commanders of the first buccaneers were Montbar, 
 Lolonois, Basco, and Morgan. Van Horn, of Ostend, 
 captured Vera Cruz, 1603; Morgan took Panama, 
 1670; Gramont seized Campeachy, 1685; andPointis 
 took Carthagena, 1697 ; all gained enormous booty. 
 The buccaneer confederacy was broken up through 
 the peace of Eyswick, 10 Sept. 1697. 
 
 BUCENTAUE, the vessel in which the doge of 
 Venice used to proceed to wed the Adriatic, from the 
 12th to the 18th century. 
 
 BTTCHANTTES (in Scotland) : followers of 
 Mrs. Buchan, who about 1779 pretended to be the 
 woman of Rev. xii., and promised to conduct them 
 to the new Jerusalem, &c. She died in 1791, and 
 her followers dispersed. 
 
 BUCHAEEST (in Wallachia). Preliminaries 
 of peace were ratified at this place between Bussia 
 and Turkey, it being stipulated that the Pruth 
 should be the frontier of the two empires ; signed 
 28 May, 1812. The subsequent war between these 
 powers altered many of the provisions of this treaty. 
 Bucharest was occupied by the Bussians, Turks, and 
 Austrian s successively in the Crimean war. The 
 last quitted it in 1856. 
 
 BUCKINGHAM PALACE,, the London 
 residence of the sovereign. Old Buckingham-house 
 was built on the "Mulberry-gardens," by John 
 Sheffield, duke of Buckingham, in 1703. In 1761 it 
 was bought by George III., who in 1775 settled it 
 on his queen, Charlotte. She made it her town 
 residence; and here all her children, except the 
 eldest, were born. Here were married the duke of 
 York and princess Frederica of Prussia, in 1791; 
 the duke of Gloucester and princess Mary, 1816 ; 
 the prince of Hesse-Homburg and princess Eliza- 
 beth, 1818 ; and the duke of Cambridge and princess 
 of Hesse the same year. The house was pulled down 
 in 1825, and the present palace commenced on its 
 site. After an expenditure of nearly a million 
 sterling, it was completed, and occupied by queen 
 Victoria, 13 July, 1837. Further improvements 
 were made in 1853. The marble arch, taken down 
 from the exterior of this palace, was re-erected at 
 Cumberland-gate, Hyde-park, 29 March, 1851. 
 
 BUCKLEES, used in single combat, are said 
 to have been invented by Prcetus and Acricius of 
 Argos, about 1370 B.C. When Lucius Papirius 
 .defeated the Samnites, he took from them bucklers 
 of gold and silver, 309 B.C. 
 
 BUCKLES were worn instead of shoe-strings 
 in the reign of Charles II., and soon became fashion- 
 able and expensive ; about 1791 they fell out of use. 
 Buckles continue to be used in court dress by ladies 
 (1873)- 
 
 BUD A (or Open), the ancient Aquincum, on 
 the "W. bank of the Danube opposite Pesth, and with 
 it (termed Buda-Pesth) the capital of Hungary. It 
 was taken by Charlemagne in 799 ; and sacked by 
 Solyman II. after the battle of Mohatz, when the 
 Hungarian king, Louis, was killed, and 200,000 of 
 his subjects carried away captives, 1526. Budawas 
 
 sacked a second time, when the inhabitants were put 
 to the sword, and Hungary was annexed to the 
 Ottoman empire, 1541 . Betaken by the Imperialists, 
 under the duke of Lorraine, and the Mahometans 
 delivered up to the fury of the soldiers, 1686. It 
 suffered much in 1848, and was entered without 
 resistance by the Austrians, 5 Jan. 1849. Here the 
 emperor Francis Joseph was crowned king of Hun- 
 gary, 8 June, 1867 ; see Hungary. 
 
 BUDDHISM, the chief religion in Asia beyond 
 the Ganges, and in China, Japan, and Ceylon, is con- 
 sidered to have originated with Buddha, or "the 
 enlightened, v a prince of Kapalivastu in Central 
 India in the 7th century, B.C. Disgusted with the 
 behaviour of the Brahmins, he retired from the 
 world for a time, and on coming forth, preached a 
 new religion so successfully that it predominated in 
 India till the 10th century, a.d. Buddhism incul- 
 cates strict morality; it forbids killing, stealing, 
 adultery, lying, and drunkenness, and every shade of 
 these vices, and asserts charity or love to be the 
 source of all virtues. Some writers assert that 
 Bhuddism includes belief in the transmigration of 
 souls, and the absorption of good souls into God 
 himself, from whom they have emanated; others 
 reckon annihilation or eternal sleep among Bud- 
 dhist tenets. A form of Buddhism, termed the reli- 
 gion of Fo, exists in China, beside the system of 
 Confucius and Laot-se. It is said to have been intro- 
 duced in the reign of Ming-ti, A.D. 68-81. " Le 
 Bouddha et ses Religions," by M. J. B. St, Hilaire, 
 was published in i860. The Buddhists in the world 
 are estimated at 455,000,000. 
 
 BUDE LIGHT (so named from Bude in Corn- 
 wall, the residence of Mr. now sir Goldsworthy Gur- 
 ney, its inventor), consists of two or more concentric 
 argand gas-burners, one rising above another, which 
 produce a most brilliant flame, like the petals of a 
 rose. The illuminating powers were increased by 
 subjecting manganese, &c, to the action of the 
 flame, in order to produce oxygen and hydrogen 
 gas. This light was patented 1839 and 1841. 
 
 BUDGET (from the French bougette, Latin 
 bulga, a small bag), a term applied to the English 
 chancellor of exchequer's annual statement of the 
 finances of the country, from the documents having 
 been formerly presented in a leather bag. The 
 budgets of sir B. Peel in 1842 (including the income- 
 tax) and 1846 (free trade), and of Mr. Gladstone in 
 i860 (in connection with the treaty with France), 
 are the most important in recent times. 
 
 BUENOS AYEES, a province of S. America, 
 now part of the Argentine republic. The country 
 was explored by Sebastian Cabot in 1526, and the 
 capital, Buenos Ayres, founded by don Pedro de 
 Mendoza in 1535. In 1585 the city was rebuilt and 
 recolonised; and made a bishopric, 1620; and a 
 viceroyalty, 1775. Population of the province in 
 1868, 550,000 ; see Argentine Confederation. 
 
 A British fleet and army, under sir Home Pophani 
 and general Beresford, take the city with slight 
 resistance, 27 June ; it is retaken by the Spaniards, 
 12 Aug. ; by the British ... 29 Oct. 1806 
 
 Monte Video taken by storm by sir Samuel Auch- 
 muty, 3 Feb. ; evacuated . . . .7 July, 1807 
 
 General Whitelock and 8000 British enter Buenos 
 Ayres ; severely repulsed ... 5 July ,. 
 
 Independence of the province declared 19 July. 1816 
 
 Recognised as forming part of the Argentine coil 
 federation Feb. 1822 
 
 [A prey to civil war through the violent intrigues of 
 
 I 2 
 
BUFFOONS. 
 
 116 
 
 BUNHILL-FIELDS. 
 
 Rosas, Oribe, Urquiza, and others, for many 
 years.] . . 
 
 Urquiza overthrows Rosas, and is made provisional 
 
 dictator '• • • • l8 5 r 
 
 Oribe defeated by general Urquiza, to whom Buenos 
 
 Ayres capitulates 3 Feb - l8 52 
 
 Rosas flees, arrives at Plymouth . . 25 April, „ 
 Urquiza deposed, 10 Sept.; invests the city; alter 
 some successes he retires .... Dec. 1852 
 
 C< institution voted 23 May, 1853 
 
 Buenos Ayres secedes from the Argentine confede- 
 ration, and is recognised as an independent state; 
 the first governor, Dr. U. Pastor Obligado, elected 
 
 12 Oct. ,, 
 Dr. Valentin Alsina elected governor . . May, 1857 
 War breaks out; Urquiza, general of the forces ol 
 the Argentine confederation, has an indecisive 
 conflict with the Buenos Ayres general Mitre 
 
 23 Oct. 1859 
 A treaty signed, by which Buenos Ayres is re-united 
 
 with the Argentine confederation . . 11 Nov. ., 
 Fresh contests : Mitre defeats Urquiza in an almost 
 bloodless contest at Pavon ; Urquiza retires 
 
 17 Sept. 1861 
 National congress at Buenos Ayres . 25 May, 1862 
 Mitre installed president . . . . 12 Oct. ,, 
 
 BUFFOONS were originally mountebanks in 
 the Roman theatres. Their shows were discouraged 
 by Domitian, and abolished by Trajan, 98; see 
 Jesters. 
 
 BUILDING. In early times men dwelt in 
 caves ; wood and clay were the first building mate- 
 rials. Building with stone was early among the 
 Tyrians. In Ireland a castle was built of stone at 
 Tiiani by the king of Conuaught, in 1161 ; and it 
 was "so new and uncommon as to be called the 
 Wonderful Castle." Building with brick was intro- 
 duced by the Romans into their provinces. Alfred 
 encouraged it in England in 886. It was adopted 
 by the earl of Arundel, about 1598, London being 
 then almost wholly built of wood; see Architecture. 
 
 Building acts were passed by Elizabeth in 1562. 1 580, 
 and 1592; and by Charles II. in 1667. Recent 
 acts are very numerous. The Building Act for 
 the Metropolis, 7 & 8 Vict. c. 84 (1844), was 
 amended in 1855, i860, 1869, and 1871. 
 
 Bit 'Ming societies, formed to enable a person to pur- 
 chase a house by paying money periodically to a 
 society for a certain number of years, instead of 
 paying rent to a landlord, began about 1836, when 
 an act was passed for their regulation. 
 
 BULGARIA, the ancient Moesia Inferior, now 
 part of European Turkey. The Bulgarians were a 
 Slavonian tribe, who harassed the Eastern empire 
 and Italy from 499 to 678, when they established a 
 kingdom. They defeated Justinian- II., 687 ; but 
 were subdued, after several conflicts, by the emperor 
 Basil, in 1018. After defeating them in 1014, and 
 taking 15,000 Bulgarian prisoners, he caused their 
 eyes to be put out, leaving one eye only to every 
 hundredth man, to enable him to conduct his 
 countrymen home. The kingdom was re-established 
 in 1 1 86; but after several changes was conquered 
 for the Ottoman empire, 1396. In Jan. 1861, it 
 was stated that the Bulgarians had seceded from the 
 Greek to the Roman church. 
 
 BULL, or Edict of the Pope. The bulla 
 
 is properly the seal, either of gold, silver, lead, or 
 wax. On one side are the heads of Peter and Paul ; 
 and on the other the name of the pope, and year of 
 his pontificate. A bull against heresy was issued 
 by Gregory IX. in 1231. Pius V. published a bull 
 against Elizabeth, 25 April, 1570; in 1571 bulls 
 were forbidden to be promulgated in England. The 
 bull Unigenitus (beginning with this word) against 
 the Jansenists was issued by Clement XL, 17 13; 
 confirmed by Benedict XIlL, 1725. The Golden 
 
 Bull of the emperor Charles IV., so called from it* 
 golden seal, was made the fundamental law of the 
 German empire, at the diet of Nuremburg, 1356 ; 
 see Brazen Bull. Pius IX. published an encyclical 
 letter censuring modern errors, 8 Dec. 1864; see 
 under Rome. 
 
 BULL-BAITING or Bull Fighting, was 
 
 an amusement at Stamford in the reign of John, 
 1209; and at Tutbury, 1374. In the Sports of 
 England, we read of the " Easter fierce hunts, when 
 foaming boars fought for their heads, and lusty bulls 
 and huge bears were baited with dogs'," and near 
 the Clink, London, was the Paris, or Bear Garden, 
 so celebrated in the time of Elizabeth for the exhi- 
 bition of bear baiting, then a fashionable amuse- 
 ment. A bill to abolish bull-baiting was thrown 
 out in the commons, chiefly through the influence 
 of the late Mr. Windham, who made a speech in 
 favour of the custom, 24 May, 1802. It was made 
 illegal in 1835 ; see Cruelty to Animals. Bull- 
 fights were introduced into Spain about 1260 : 
 abolished there, " except for pious and patriotic 
 purposes," in 1784. Bull-fights are very common in 
 Spain. A bullfight at Lisbon, attended by 10,000 
 spectators, on Sunday, 14 June, 1840; one took 
 place at Havre, 5 July, 1868. Somewhat theatrical 
 fights with Spanish bulls, at the Agricultural Hall, 
 London, were stopped 28 March, 1870, for cruelty. 
 
 BULLETS of stone were in use, 1514. Iron 
 ones are mentioned in the Feedera, 1550. Leaden 
 bullets were made before the close of the 16th 
 century. The conoidal cup rifle-ball was invented by 
 capt. Minie, about 1833 ; a modification of this 
 (conoidal but without cup), by Mr. Pritchett (1853), 
 is used with the Enfield rifle. Other bullets have 
 been since devised. 
 
 BULLION, uncoined gold and silver. The 
 " Bullion Report " of a parliamentary committee in 
 1810, principally guided by Mr. Horner and Mr. 
 (afterwards sir R.) Peel, established the conclusion, 
 that paper money is always liable to be over-issued, 
 and consequently depreciated, unless it be at all 
 times immediately convertible into gold. This prin- 
 ciple has been adopted in British monetary arrange- 
 ments. Value of bullion imported into Great Britain 
 in 1858: gold, 22,793,126/.; silver, 6,700,064/.; 
 total, 29,493,190/.; — in 1868: gold, 17,136,177/.; 
 silver, 7,716,418/.; total, 24,852,595/.— in 1870 : 
 gold, 18,806,728/.; silver, 10,648,940/. 
 
 BULL-RUN BATTLES, see Manassas. 
 
 BULWER-CLAYTON TREATY, ratified 
 4 July, 1850, by which sir Henry Lytton Bulwer on 
 behalf of the British, and Mr. Clayton on behalf of the 
 American government, declared that neither should 
 obtain exclusive control over the proposed ship canal 
 through Central America, or erect any fortification 
 on any part of the country. Disputes afterwards- 
 arose with respect to this treaty, and the connection 
 of Great Britain witli the Mosquito territory (which 
 see), which were settled in 1857. 
 
 BUNDSCHUH, see Jacquerie. 
 
 BUNHILL - FIELDS (originally Bonhill- 
 
 Field), a burial-ground near Finsbury-square, 
 E. London, termed by Southey the " Campo Santo 
 of the Dissenters; " first used in 1665. Here were 
 interred Thomas Goodwin (1679), John Owen (1683), 
 Isaac Watts (1748), John Bunvan (1688), George 
 Fox, the Quaker (1690), general Fleetwood, son-in- 
 law of Cromwell (1692), and Daniel De Foe (1731). 
 Cunningham. An act for the preservation of the 
 
BUNKEE'S HILL. 
 
 117 
 
 BUELINGTON HEIGHTS. 
 
 ground as an open space was passed, 15 July, 1867, 
 and it was re-opened by the lord mayor, 14 Oct., 
 1869; and a monument to De Foe, subscribed for 
 .by boys and ghis, was inaugurated, 16 Sept. 1870. 
 
 BUNKEE'S HILL (near Boston, U.S.). Here 
 the British (nearly 3000) compelled the revolted 
 Americans (about 5000) to retreat, after a desperate 
 conflict, 17 June, 1775. Balph Farnham, who was 
 present at the battle, died on 28 Dec. i860, aged 
 104I years. He was introduced to the prince of 
 Wales when in America. 
 
 BUONAPABTE, see Bonaparte. 
 
 BUBFOBD CLUB, the appellation given 
 ■(according to Mr. Layer, the barrister, a conspira- 
 tor, see Layer) by the Pretender and his agents to a 
 pretended Jacobite club, of which lord Orrery was 
 chairman, and lord Strafford, sir Henry Goring, 
 carl Cowper, Mr. Hutcheson, the bishop of Bochester, 
 sir Constantine Phipps, general "Webb, lordBingley, 
 lord Craven, Mr. Dawkins, lord Scarsdale, lord 
 Bathurst, Mr. Shippen, and lord Gower, were mem- 
 bers. This story was set aside by the solemn decla- 
 rations of lord Cowper and lord Strafford. The list 
 ■of this club was published in the Weekly Journal, 
 printed in Whitefriars ; but when Bead, the printer, 
 was ordered to appear at the bar of the house, he 
 absconded. March 1722. Salmon. 
 
 BURGESSES, from the French Bourgeois, a 
 distinction coeval in England with corporations. 
 They were called to parliament in England, 1265 ; 
 in Scotland in 1326 ; and in Ireland about 1365. 
 Thirgesses to be resident in the places they repre- 
 sented in parliament, 1 Hen. V. (1413) ; see 
 JBorough. 
 
 BUEGHEES and Anti-Burghers. In 
 
 1732 Ebenezer Erskine and others seceded from the 
 church of Scotland. Differing in regard to the in- 
 terpretation of the burgess oath, they divided into 
 two sections with the foregoing names in 1747. In 
 1820 they were reunited as the United Associate 
 Synod of the Secession church, which, on 13 May, 
 1847, joined the Belief church, together forming the 
 United Presbyterian church. 
 
 BUEGLAEY was a capital offence till 1829. 
 Formerly he who convicted a burglar was exempted 
 from parish offices, 1699; Statute of Bewards, 5 Anne, 
 1706 ; and 6 Geo. I. 1720. Beceivers of stolen plate 
 and other goods to be transported, 10 Geo. III. 177°- 
 Persons having upon them picklock-keys, &c, to be 
 ■deemed rogues and vagabonds, 13 Geo. III. 1772-3. 
 The laws with respect to burglary were amended by 
 Mr. (afterwards sir Bobert) Peel's acts between 1823 
 and 1829, and by the criminal laws of 1 86 1. 
 
 BUEGOS (Spain), the burial place of the Cid, 
 1099. Lord Wellington entered Burgos on 19 Sept. 
 after the battle of Salamanca (fought 22 July, 1812). 
 The castle was besieged by the British and aUied 
 army, but the siege was abandoned 21 Oct. same 
 year. The fortifications were blown up by the 
 French, 12 June, 1813. 
 
 BUBGUNDY, a large province in France, 
 derives its name from the Burgundians, a Gothic 
 tribe who overran Gaul in 275, and were driven out 
 by the emperor Probus : they returned in 287, and 
 were defeated by Maximin. In 413 they established 
 a Kingdom, comprising the present Burgundy, 
 large parts of Switzerland, with Alsace, Savoy, 
 Provence, &c. Gondicar, their leader, the first 
 king. It was conquered by the Franks, 534.— The 
 ■second kingdom, consisting of a part ot the first, 
 began with Gontran, son of Clotaire I. of France, in 
 
 561. The kingdom of Aries, Provence, and Trans- 
 jurane Burgundy, were formed out of the old king- 
 dom. — Duchy. In 877 Charles the Bald made his 
 brother-in-law Bichard the first duke of Burgundy. 
 In 938, Hugh the Great, count of Paris, founder of 
 the house of Capet, obtained the duchy. His de- 
 scendant, Henry, on becoming king of France, con- 
 ferred it on his "brother Bobert, in whose family it 
 remained till the death of Philippe de Bouvre, 
 without issue, in 1361. In 1363, _ king John of 
 France made his fourth son, Philip, duke ; see 
 Austria and Germany. 
 
 DUKES. 
 
 1363. Philip the Bold ; marries Margaret, heiress of 
 Flanders, 1369. 
 
 1404. John the Fearless (son) ; joined the English inva- 
 ders of France ; privy to the assassination of the 
 duke of Orleans in 1407 ; himself assassinated at 
 Montereau, in presence of the dauphin, Sept. 
 1419. 
 
 1419. Philip the Good (son), the most powerful duke. 
 
 1467. Charles the Bold ; married to Margaret of York, 
 sister to Edward IV., 9 July, 1468 ; invaded 
 France, 1472 ; Switzerland, 1476 ; killed in an 
 engagement with the Swiss, before Nancy, 4 
 Jan. 1477. 
 
 1477. Mary (daughter) ; married, 19 Aug. 1477, to Maxi- 
 milian of Austria ; died, 27 March, 1482. 
 
 1479. Louis XI. annexed Burgundy to France. The other 
 dominions fell to Austria. 
 
 BURIALS. Abraham buried Sarah at Mach- 
 pelah, i860 B.C., Gen. xxiii. Places of burial were 
 consecrated under pope Calixtus I. in a.d. 210. 
 Eusebius. The Greeks had their burial-places at a 
 distance from their towns ; the Bomans near the 
 highways; hence the necessity for inscriptions. 
 The first Christian burial-place, it is said, was in- 
 stituted in 596 ; burial in cities, 742 ; in conse- 
 crated places, 750 ; in churchyards, 758. Many of 
 the early Christians are buried in the catacombs at 
 Borne ; see Catacombs and Cemeteries. 
 
 Vaults erected in chancels first at Canterbury . . 1075 
 
 Woollen shrouds only permitted to be used in Eng- 
 land 1666 
 
 Linen scarfs introduced at funerals in Ireland, 
 1729 ; and woollen shrouds used . . . . 1733 
 
 Burials taxed 1695 
 
 A tax enacted on burials in England — for the burial 
 of a duke 50Z. , and for that of a common person 
 4.9. — under Will. III. 1695, and Geo. III. . . . 1783 
 
 Acts relating to Metropolitan burials passed 1853, 
 
 1854, 1855, and 1857 
 
 Parochial registers of burials, births, and marriages, 
 instituted in England by Cromwell, lord Essex, 
 about 1538. Stow. 
 
 BUSKING, a new species of murder, com- 
 mitted in Britain, thus named from Burke, the first 
 known criminal by whom it was perpetrated. His 
 victims were killed by pressure or other modes of 
 suffocation, and the bodies, which exhibited no 
 marks of violence, were sold to the surgeons for 
 dissection. He was executed at Edinburgh, 28 
 Jan. 1829. A monster named Bishop was appre- 
 hended in Nov. 1831, and executed in London 
 5 Dec. with Williams, one of his accomplices, for 
 the murder of a poor friendless Italian boy, named 
 Carlo Ferrari. They confessed to this and other 
 similar murders. 
 
 BURLINGTON AECADE, Piccadilly, 
 opened 20 March, 1819. 
 
 BUELINGTON FINE AETS CLUB, for 
 exhibiting works of art, and promoting intercourse 
 between artists, amateurs, &c, founded about 1868. 
 
 BUELINGTON HEIGHTS. After a fierce 
 contest here between the British and the United 
 States American forces, 6 June, 1813, the British 
 carried the heights. 
 
BURLINGTON HOUSE. 
 
 118 
 
 BUSHIRE. 
 
 BURLINGTON HOUSE, Piccadilly, Lon- 
 don, was built by Dcnliam for lord Burlington, 
 about 1664; and rebuilt by lord Burlington, the 
 architect, about 1731. It was bought for 140,000/. 
 by the government, authorised by vote of the house 
 of commons, on 27 July, 1854. In 1857, it became 
 the home of the Royal, Linnean, and Chemical 
 societies. In 1866, sites for buildings for the Uni- 
 versity of London and the Royal Academy {which see) 
 were granted in the grounds of Burlington House. 
 The entrance, colonnade, &c, were removed in 
 1868, and the exhibition of the Royal Academy was 
 first opened here 3 May, 1869. 
 
 BURMAH, or BURMESE EMPIRE, 
 
 founded in the middle of the 18th century by 
 Alompra, the first sovereign of the present dynasty. 
 Our first dispute with this formidable power in 1 795 
 was amicably adjusted by general Erskine. Hos- 
 tilities were commenced by the British in 1824, and 
 they took Rangoon on May II. The fort and 
 pagoda of Syriam were taken in 1825. After a short 
 armistice, hostilities were renewed, 1 Dec. same 
 year, and pursued until the successive victories 
 of the British led to the cession of Arracan, 
 and to the signature of peace, 24 Feb. 1826. For 
 the events of this war, and of the war in 1851, sec 
 India. Pegu was annexed to our Indian empire, 
 20 Dec. 1852. The war ended 20 June, 1853. In 
 Sept. 1866, the Burmese sovereign was said to have 
 been deposed ; there being four claimants for his 
 throne. A rebellion was soon suppressed. Another 
 treaty with the British was concluded, 2$ Oct. 
 1867. A Burmese embassy arrived in England 6 June, 
 1872, and was introduced to the queen 21 June. 
 
 BURNETT PRIZES, to be awarded every 
 40 years to the authors of the two best essays on 
 " The evidence that there is a Being all powerful, 
 wise, and good, by whom everything exists, &c," 
 were founded by Mr. Burnett, a Scottish gentleman, 
 who died 1784, bequeathing monies for the pur- 
 pose. Various amounts have been paid to Dr. 
 W. L. Brown, to rev. J. B. Sumner, afterwards 
 archbishop of Canterbury, 1815 ; to rev. R. A. 
 Thompson, and to Dr. J. Tulloch, 1855. 
 
 BURNING ALIVE was inflicted among the 
 Romans, Jews, and other nations, and was counte- 
 nanced by bulls of the pope ; see Witches. Many 
 persons have been burned alive as heretics. Sir 
 William Sawtre, priest of St. Osyth, London, 
 suffered 12 Feb. 1401. In the reign of Mary num- 
 bers were bm - ned ; see Protestants. Elizabeth 
 Gaunt, an Anabaptist, was burnt at Tyburn for 
 treason (concealing rebels under Monmouth), 23 
 Oct. 1685. 
 
 BURNING THE DEAD was practised 
 
 among the Greeks and Romans, and Homer gives 
 descriptions. It was very general about 1225 B.C., 
 and was revived by Sylla about 78 B.C. It is still 
 practised in parts of the East Indies ; see Suttees, 
 Barrows. 
 
 BURNING-GLASS AMD Concave. Mir- 
 rors. Their power was known to Archimedes, 
 and it is even asserted that by their aid he burnt a 
 fleet in the harbour of Syracuse, 214 B.C. Their 
 powers were increased by Settalla ; Tschimhausen, 
 1680 ; Buffon, 1747 ; and Parker and others more re- 
 cently. The following experiments were made about 
 1800, with Mr. Parker's lens or burning mirror, 
 which cost 700/., and is said to have been the 
 
 largest ever made, It was sold to capt. Mackenzie, 
 who took it to China, and left it at Pekin. 
 
 Weight. Titoc. 
 
 Pure gold 20 grains 4 seconds. 
 
 Silver 20 „ 3 „ 
 
 Copper 33 „ 20 „ 
 
 Platlna 10 ,, 3 ,, 
 
 Cast iron (a cube) . . . . 10 ,, 3 ,, 
 
 Steel 10 „ 12 „ 
 
 A topaz 3 „ 45 ,„ 
 
 An emerald 2 „ 25 ,, 
 
 A crystal pebble 7 ,, 6 „ 
 
 Flint 10 ,, 30 ,. 
 
 Cornelian 10 ,, 75 „ 
 
 Pumice stone 10 ,, 24 ,, 
 
 Green Wood takes fire instantaneously ; water boils im- 
 mediately ; bones arc calcined ; and things not ca- 
 pable of melting at once become red-hot, like iron. 
 
 BURSE, see Exchange. 
 
 BURWELL FIRE. A number of persons 
 assembled to see a puppet-show in a barn at Bur- 
 well, near Newmarket, 8 Sept. 1727. A candle 
 having set fire to a heap of straw, seventy-six indi- 
 viduals perished, and others died of their wounds. 
 
 BURY ST. EDMUND'S, Suffolk, named 
 from St. Edmund, king of East Anglia, who was 
 murdered by the Danes on 20 Nov. 870, and buried 
 here, and to whose memory its magnificent abbey 
 was founded. Magna Charta was prepared here by 
 the barons on 20 Nov. 1214. Henry VI. summoned 
 a parliament in Feb. 1447, when Humphry, duke 
 of Gloucester, was imprisoned, and died here, it is 
 supposed by poison. It was almost consumed by 
 fire in 1608, and was desolated by plague in 1636. 
 
 BURYING ALIVE. In Bceotia, Creon 
 ordered Antigone, the sister of Polynices, to be 
 buried alive, 1225 B.C. The Roman vestals were 
 subjected to it for any levity that excited suspicion 
 of their chastity. The vestals buried alive on a 
 charge of incontinence, were Miuutia, 337 B.C. ; 
 Sextilla, 274 B.C. ; Cornelia, a.d. 92. Lord Bacon 
 gives instances of the resurrection of persons who 
 had been buried alive ; Duns Scotus being of the 
 number. The two assassins of Capo dTstria, presi- 
 dent of Greece, were sentenced to be immured in 
 brick walls built around them up to their chins, 
 and to be supplfed with food in this species of tor- 
 ture until they died, Oct. 1831. 
 
 BUSACO, or BuZACO (Portugal). Here the 
 British, under lord Wellington, repulsed the French 
 under Massena, 27 Sept. 1810. The latter lost one 
 general and 1000 men killed, two generals and about 
 3000 men wounded, and several hundred prisoners , 
 the loss of the allies did not exceed 1300; the 
 British retreated to the lines of Torres Vedras, too 
 strong for Massena to force, and the armies re- 
 mained in sight of each other to the end of the 
 year. 
 
 BUSHEL. This measure was ordered to con- 
 tain eight gallons of wheat, 12 Henry VIII., 1520 ; 
 the legal Winchester bushel was regulated 9 Will. 
 III. 1697; the imperial corn bushel of 22i8'i92 
 cubic inches is to the Winchester of 2150-42 as 32 
 to 31. Regulated by act 5 Geo. IV., June, 1824, 
 which act came into operation 1 Jan. 1826. 
 
 BUSHIRE (on the Persian Gulf) , attacked by sea 
 by sir H. Leeke, and by land by general Stalker, was 
 taken 10 Dec. 1856. The place proved stronger than 
 was expected, and was bravely defended. Brigadier 
 Stopford and col. Malet were killed in a previous 
 attack on the fort at Reshire, 9 Dec. The loss of 
 
BUSSOEAH. 
 
 119 
 
 CABBALA. 
 
 the British was four officers killed, and one 
 wounded ; five men killed, and thirty-five Avounded. 
 
 BUSSOEAH, see Bassorah. 
 
 BUSTS. Lysistratus, the statuary, was the 
 inventor of moulds, from which he cast wax 
 figures, 328 B.C. Pliny. Busts from the face in 
 plaster of paris, were first taken by Andrea Verrochi, 
 about A.D. 1466. Smaller busts and statuettes are 
 now accurately produced from larger ones by 
 machinery. 
 
 BUTCHEES. Among the Romans there were 
 three classes : the Suarii provided hogs, the Boarii 
 oxPecuarii oxen and sheep, which the Lanii or Cami- 
 jfices killed. The butchers' company in London is 
 ancient, though not incorporated till 1604. 
 
 BUTE ADMINISTBATION. John earl 
 of Bute, tutor of prince George (afterwards George 
 III.), formed an administration in May, 1762, 
 which, after various changes, resigned 8 April, 1763. 
 It was severely attacked by Junius and John 
 Wilkes. 
 
 John earl of Bute, first lord of the treasury. 
 
 Sir Francis Dashwood, chancellor of the exchequer. 
 
 Earl Granville, president of the council. 
 
 Duke of Bedford, prwy seal. 
 
 Earl of Halifax, admiralty. 
 
 Earl of Egreniont and George Granville, secretaries of 
 
 state. 
 Lord Ligonier, ordnance. 
 Henry Pox, afterwards lord Holland, paymaster of the 
 
 forces. 
 Viscount Barrington, treasurer of the Navy. 
 Lord Sandys, first lord of trade. 
 Duke of Marlborough, earl Talbot, lord Huntingdon, 
 
 lord Anson, lord North, &c. 
 
 BUTTEE. It was late before the Greeks had 
 any notion of butter, and by the early Romans it 
 was used only as a medicine — never as food. The 
 Christians of Egypt burnt butter in their lamps 
 instead of oil, in the 3rd centuiy. Butter forming 
 an important article of commerce as well as food in 
 these countries, various statutes have passed respect- 
 ing its package, weight, and sale ; the principal of 
 which are the 36th & 38th Geo. III. and 10 Geo. IV. 
 1829. In Africa, vegetable butter is made from the 
 fruit of the shea tree, and is of richer taste, at 
 Kebba, than any butter made from cow's milk. 
 Mungo Park. The import duties of 5s. per cwt. on 
 foreign butter (producing in 1859, 104,587^. on 
 421,354 cwts.) Avas repealed in i860. Butter im- 
 ported, 1846, 257,385 cwt. ; 1856, 513,392 cwt. ; 
 1866, 1,165,081 cwt. ; 1870, 1,159,210 cwt. 
 
 BUTTONS, an early manufacture in England ; 
 those covered Avith cloth Avere prohibited, to en- 
 courage the manufacture of metal buttons, 8 Geo. I. 
 1721. 
 
 BUXAE, a town in Bengal, near which, on 
 23 Oct. 1764, major, afterwards sir Hector Monro 
 (Avith 857 Europeans and 6215 Sepoys) gained a 
 great victory over the troops of the nabob of Oude 
 &c, 50,000 in number ; 6000 of these Avere killed, 
 and 130 pieces of cannon were taken. The loss of 
 the English Avas trifling. 
 
 BY-LAWS, or BYE-LAWS, private ordi- 
 nances, made by subordinate communities, such as 
 corporations. These laAvs must not militate against 
 the laAV of the land. By 5 & 6 Will. IV. 1834, 
 those made by corporate bodies become valid, if not 
 disallowed by the king's council within forty days 
 after their enactment. 
 
 BYE PLOT, of lord Grey of Wilton and 
 others, to imprison James I., and compel him to 
 grant liberty of worship to Roinanists, was sup- 
 pressed 1603. It Avas called also the "surprise 
 plot." 
 
 BYNG, Hon. Admiral John, Avas charged 
 
 with neglect of duty in an engagement AA r ith the 
 enemy off Minorca, 20 May, 1756, condemned for 
 an error of judgment, and shot on board the 
 Monarch at Spithead, 14 March, 1757. 
 
 BYEON'S VOYAGE. Commodore Byron 
 left England on his voyage round the globe, 21 
 June, 1764, and returned 9 May, 1766. He dis- 
 covered the populous island in the Pacific Ocean 
 which bears his name, 16 Aug. 1765. Though 
 brave and intrepid, such was his general ill-fortune 
 at sea, that he was called by the sailors of the fleet 
 " Pouhveather Jack." 
 
 BYZANTIUM, now Constantinople, and 
 Stamboul, in the ancient Thrace, founded by a 
 colony of Megarians, under Byzas, 667 B.C. ; but 
 various dates and persons are given. It was taken 
 successively by the Medes, Athenians, and Spar- 
 tans. In 340 b.c, in alliance with the Athenians, 
 the Byzantines defeated the fleet of Philip of 
 Macedon. During the wars Avith Macedon, Syria, 
 &c, it became an ally of the Romans, by whom it 
 Avas taken, a.d. 73. Rebelling, it was taken after 
 two years' siege, and laid in ruins by Severus in. 
 196. It was refounded by Constantine in 324, and 
 dedicated on 22 May, 330, all the heathen temples 
 being destroyed ; and from him it received its name ; 
 see Constantinople. Byzantine Art flourished 
 from the time of Constantine to about 1204. The 
 Byzantine or Eastern empire really commenced 
 in 395, when Theodosius divided the Roman em- 
 pire; see Bast. The "Byzantine Historians," 
 from 325 to 1453, were published at Paris, 1645 — 
 1711 ; and atVenice, 1722-33. 
 
 C. 
 
 CAABA, a sacred black stone, kept in a temple 
 at Mecca, and venerated by the Arabs, long before 
 the Christian era. Its guardians, the tribe of 
 Koreish, Avere defeated by Mahomet and the Avor- 
 ship abolished, 623-630. 
 
 CABAL. In English history the term has 
 been applied to the cabinet of Charles II. in 1670 ; 
 the word Cabal being formed from the initials of 
 then- names : sir Thomas, aftenvards lord Clifford 
 (C) ; the lord Ashley (A), ' (afterwards earl of 
 Shaftesbury) ; George Villiers, duke of Bucking- 
 
 ham (B) ; Henry, lord Arlington (A) ; and John, 
 duke of Lauderdale (L). 
 
 CABBAGES. Some new kinds were brought 
 to England from Holland about 1 5 10, it is said by 
 sir Arthur Ashley of Dorset, and introduced into 
 Scotland by Cromwell's soldiers. 
 
 CABBALA, a Jewish system of philosophy or 
 theosophy, deriving its name from a Hebrew word, 
 signifying reception or tradition, said to have been 
 given by God to Adam, and transmitted from father 
 
CABEIEA. 
 
 120 CADIZ. 
 
 to son by his descendants. It is said to hare been 
 lost at the Babylonian captivity (587 B.C.), but to 
 have been revealed again to Ezra. Its supporters 
 assert that the cabbalistic book " Soliar," or 
 " Splendour," a mystic commentary on the Penta- 
 teuch, was first committed to writing by Simon 
 Ben Jochai, a.d. 72-1 10. The true date of the books 
 containing the cabbala is now considered to range 
 from 9th to the 14th centuries, and their origin to 
 be the mingling of talmudism with the Greek 
 philosophy termed Neo-Platonism. Some of their 
 dogmas are akin to Christian tenets, such as the 
 trinity, the incarnation, &c. The cabbala exercised 
 much influence upon the mental development of 
 the Jews, and even captivated the greatest thinkers 
 of the 1 6th and 17th centuries. 
 
 CABEIEA (Asia Minor). Here Mithridates, 
 king of Pontus, was defeated by Lucullus, 71 B.C. 
 
 CABINET COUNCIL. There were councils 
 in England as early as the reign of Ina, king of 
 the West Saxons, 690 ; Oft'a, king of the Mercians, 
 758 ; and in other reigns of the Heptarchy. State 
 councils are referred to Alfred the Great. Sj)el- 
 man ; see Administrations. Cabinet Noir, or 
 "Dark Closet," the chamber in which letters en- 
 trusted to the French pest were opened for state 
 purposes. The system, which began with Louis XL, 
 was organised under Louis XV. ; and was said to 
 have been recently discontinued in 1868. 
 
 CABLES. A machine was invented in 1792 
 for making them, by which human labour was re- 
 duced nine-tenths. Chain cables were introduced 
 into the British navy about 18 1 2. 
 
 CABOCHIENS, an anned Burgundian faction, 
 including 500 butchers, named from their leader 
 Simonet Caboche, a skinner, 1412. They ruled 
 Paris with violence, and constrained the doctors of 
 the Sorbonne to become their allies and the dau- 
 phin to recognise them as the "White Hoods," and 
 reformers. They were exterminated by the citizens, 
 in 1418. 
 
 CABRIOLETS (vulgo Cabs), one-horsed 
 vehicles, were introduced into the streets of London 
 in 1823, when the number plying was twelve. In 
 183 1 they had increased to 165, and then the 
 licences were thrown open. The number in 1862 
 running in the metropolis exceeded 6000 (of which 
 about 1800 only plied on Sunday). Previous to 
 throwing open the trade, the number of hackney 
 carriages was limited to 1200, when there were few 
 omnibuses. See Hackney Coaches. 
 
 Coh Strike. — On 28 Jane, 1853, an act (called Mr. 
 FitzRoy's act) was passed for " the better regula- 
 tion of metropolitan stage and hackney carriages, 
 and for prohibiting the use of advertising 
 vehicles," by which the cab fares were reduced 
 to 6d. a mile. It came into operation 11 July, 
 and on the 27th a general strike of the London 
 cabmen took place. Much inconvenience was 
 felt, and every kind of vehicle was employed to 
 supply the deficiency. Some alterations having 
 been made in the act, the cabs re-appeared on the 
 stands on the 30th. 
 
 Cabmen's clubs began at Paddington in . . Feb. 1859 
 
 A London General Cab Company published its 
 prospectus, professing a reformed system, July, 1862 
 
 Cabs running in London : in 1855, 3296 ; in 1867, 
 6149. 
 
 Cab Tragedy. — B. H. Hunt, a sen-ant of Butler and 
 McCulloch's, seedsmen, Covent-garden, London, 
 poisoned his wife and children in a cab, on 7 Nov. 
 1863 ; and himself on 9 Nov. at his own house, 
 just before his apprehension. 
 
 The cabmen in Paris strike against a company ; 
 above 3000 vehicles stopped, 16 June ; fierce 
 
 attack on men who give in ; strike subsi 
 
 23 June, 1865 
 Metropolitan Streets Act, 30 ft 
 31 Viet. e. 17 (passed 20 Aug.) required hackney 
 carriages to cany lamps : and changed lowest 
 fare from 6d to i». The cab-propnetors and 
 drivers struck at 4 p.m., 3 Dec. ; but by the 
 intervention of lord Elcho, an arrangement was 
 made with .Mr. Gathorne Hardy, the home secre- 
 tary, and the strike ceased ". . . 4 Dec. 1867 
 
 Licences on cabs reduced from 19/. and 17/. to 42s. 
 by act of i860 iJan. 1870 
 
 Third Cab Strike to compel railway companies to dis- 
 continue privileged cabs ; unsuccessful, 5-9 Sept. 1868 
 
 CABUL, or CABOOL, a city of Afghanistan, 
 taken 977 by Subuctajoon, grandfather of Mahomed, 
 founder of the Gaznevide dynasty, and by Nadir 
 Shah in 1738. It was the capital of theDurani 
 empire at the end of the last century. In 1809 
 the sovereign Shah Soojah was expelled by Futteh 
 Khan ; in 1818 Cabul came into the hands of Dost 
 Mahomed, a clever and ambitious chieftain. In 
 1839 the British restored Shah Soojah ; but in 
 Nov. 1841 a dreadful outbreak took place. '1 he 
 chief British civil officer, sir Wm. M'Naghten, was 
 massacred, and the British commenced a most 
 disastrous retreat. Of 3849 soldiers, and about 
 12,000 camp followers, only one European, Dr. 
 Brydone, and four or five natives escaped death or 
 captivity. On 16 Sept. 1842, general, afterwards 
 sir George Pollock, retook the town, and rescued 
 lady Sale and many of the prisoners. After 
 destroying many public buildings, he left Cabul 12 
 Oct. See Afghanistan. 
 
 CACHET, see Lettrcs de Cachet. 
 
 CADDEE, or League of God's House, 
 
 the league of independence in Switzerland, formed 
 by the Grisons to resist domestic tyranny, 1400 to 
 1419. A second league of the Grisons was called 
 the Grise or Gray League (Graubundten), 1424. 
 A third league, the League of Ten Jurisdictions, 
 was formed in 1436; see Grisons. They united in 
 1471. 
 
 CADE'S INSURRECTION. In 1450 Jack 
 Cade, a fugitive Irishman, assumed the name of 
 Mortimer, and headed about 20,000 Kentish men, 
 who anned " to punish evil ministers, and procure 
 a redress of grievances." He defeated and slew 
 sir Humphry Stafford, at Sevenoaks, 27 June, 
 entered London in triumph, and beheaded the lord 
 treasurer, lord Save, and several other persons of 
 consequence, 3 July. When the insurgents lost 
 ground, a general pardon was proclaimed, and Cade, 
 deserted by his followers, fled. A reward having 
 been offered for his apprehension, he was discovered, 
 and refusing to surrender, was slain by Alexander 
 Iden, sheriff of Kent, 11 July. 
 
 CADET'S COLLEGE, see Sandhurst. 
 
 CADIZ (W. Spain), anciently Gadiz, the Eo- 
 man Gades ; said to have been built by the Phoeni- 
 cians, about 1 100 B.C. 
 
 One hundred vessels of the Spanish armada des- 
 troyed in the port by sir Francis Drake . . 1587 
 Cadiz was taken by the English under the earl of 
 
 Essex, and plundered . . . .15 Sept. 1596 
 Vainly attacked by sir George Booke . . . . 1702 
 Bombarded by the British .... July, 1797 
 Blockaded by lord St. Vincent for two years . 1797-9 
 Again bombarded by the British . . . Oct. 1800 
 A Fveneh squadron of five ships of the line and a 
 frigate surrender to the Spanish and British, 
 
 14 June, 1808 
 Besieged by the French, but the siege was raised 
 after the battle of Salamanca . . . July, 1812 
 
CADMIUM. 
 
 121 CALCULATING MACHINES. 
 
 Insurrection, 1819 ; massacre of many inhabitants 
 
 by the soldiery 9, 10 March, 1820 
 
 Taken by the French in Oct. 1823, and held till . 1828 
 
 Declared a free port 1829 
 
 Insurrection against the queen began with the fleet 
 
 here (see Sjmin) 17 Sept. 1868 
 
 Republican insurrection suppressed with bloodshed, 
 
 5-13 Dec. 1868 
 
 CADMIUM, a metal, discovered by Stroineyer 
 and Hermann in 181 8. 
 
 CAEN (N. France), a place of importance before 
 912, when it became the capital of the possessions 
 of the Normans, under whom it nourished. It was 
 taken by the English in 1346 and 141 7 ; but was 
 finally recovered by the French I July, 1450. Here 
 were buried William the conqueror (1087), and his 
 queen (1083). 
 
 CAEBLEON, Monmouthshire, a Roman station, 
 and made the seat of an archbishopric by Dubritius. 
 His disciple and successor, St. David (522), removed 
 it to Menevia, now St. David's, 577. 
 
 CAERNARVON (N. Wales). In the castle 
 (founded in 1282) Edward II. was born, 25 April, 
 1284 ; and the town was then chartered by Edward I. 
 The town suffered by the civil war of Charles, but 
 was finally retained for the parliament. 
 
 GZESAREA, the Roman capital of Judea, built 
 by Herod the Great, 10 B.C. Eusebius the historian 
 was bishop about 315. 
 
 CESAREAN SECTION, which, it is said, 
 first gave the name of Caesar to the Roman family. 
 is performed by cutting the child out of the womb. * 
 
 GZESARS, see Home ; Emperors. The Era of 
 the Caesars or Spanish Era, is reckoned from I Jan. 
 38 B.C., being the year following the conquest of 
 Spain by Augustus. It was much used in Africa, 
 Spain, and the south of France ; but by a synod 
 held in 1 180 its use was abolished in all the churches 
 dependent on Barcelona. Pedro IV. of Arragon 
 abolished the use of it in his dominions in 1350. 
 John of Castile did the same in 1383. It was used 
 in Portugal till 1415, if not till 1422. The months 
 and days of this era are identical with the Julian 
 calendar ; and to turn the time into that of our era, 
 subtract thirty-eight from the year ; but if before 
 the Christian era, subtract thirty-nine. 
 
 CZESIUM (Latin, bluish), a rare alkaline 
 metal, found in some mineral waters by Bunsen 
 in 1861, by means of the " Spectrum analysis," 
 which see. 
 
 CAFFRARIA, and Caffre "War, see 
 Kafraria. 
 
 CAGLIARI, see Naples, note. 
 
 CAGOTS, an outcast race in the Pyrenees, sup- 
 posed to be descendants of the ancient Goths. They 
 have been subjected to superstitious persecution so 
 lately as 1755. 
 
 * The case of Alice O'Neal, an Irishwoman, who sur- 
 vived the section, which was performed by a female, is 
 authenticated by Dr. Gabriel King, of Armagh, and sur- 
 geon Duncan Stewart, of Dungannon. In Jan. 1847, the 
 operation was performed in St. Bartholomew's hospital, 
 London, on a young woman of diminutive stature, under 
 the influence of ether : but she died the next day. On 9 
 Dec. i860, a similar operation was successfully performed 
 by Dr. James Edmunds at Bethnal Green. On the conti- 
 nent the operation is said to have been more frequent 
 and more successful. Cooper's Surgical Dictionary (ed. 
 j86i) contains a table, which, out of 2009 cases, gives a 
 mortality of 55-4 per cent, of the mothers and 29-45 per 
 cent, of the children. 
 
 CA IRA ! the burden of a popular song, during 
 the French revolution, 1791 : 
 
 "Ah! 5a ira, ga ira, ga ira! Les Aristocrates a la 
 
 lanterne ! " 
 (" It will proceed ! &e. Hang the aristocrats ! ") 
 
 CAI-FONG, the old capital of China, was be- 
 sieged by 100,000 rebels, in 1642. The commander 
 of the relieving forces, in order to drown the enemy, 
 broke down its embankments. All the besiegers 
 and 300,000 of the citizens perished. 
 
 CAIRO, or GRAND CAIRO, the modem capital 
 of Egypt, remarkable for its mosques, and the sepul- 
 chres of its Fatimite caliphs ; see Egypt. 
 
 Partially built by the Saracens .... 969 
 
 Taken by the Turks from the Egyptian sultans . . 1517 
 Ruined by an earthquake and a great tire, when 
 
 40,000 persons perished .... June, 1754 
 Taken by the French under Napoleon Bonaparte ; 
 
 they enter the city . . . -23 July, 179S 
 Taken by the British and Turks, when 6000 French 
 
 capitulated 27 June, 1801 
 
 Massacre of the Mamelukes . . . 1 March, 181 1 
 Visit of the prince of Wales . . . March, 1862 
 
 CALABRIA (the ancient Messapia of S. E. 
 Italy), was conquered by the Romans, 266 B.C. It 
 formed part of the kingdom of the Ostrogoths under 
 Theodoric, A. l). 493 ; was re-conquered (for the 
 Eastern empire) by Belisarius, 536 ; subdued by the 
 Lombards and joined to the duchy of Benevento, 
 572. After various changes, it was conquered by 
 Robert Guiscard, the Norman, 1058, who obtained 
 the title of duke of Calabria, and eventually that of 
 king of Naples ; see Naples. 
 
 CALAIS (N. W. France), fortified by Baldwin 
 IV., count of Flanders, 997 ; taken by Edward III. 
 after a year's siege, 4 Aug. 1347. It was retaken by 
 the duke of Guise, in the reign of Mary, 7 Jan. 
 1558, and its loss so deeply touched the queen's 
 heart, as to cause some to say it occasioned her death, 
 which occurred soon afterwards, 17 Nov. same year. 
 " When I am dead," said the queen, " Calais will 
 be found written on my heart." It was taken by 
 the Spaniards, April 1596, restored, 1598. Here 
 LouisXVIII. landed after his long exile from France, 
 April, 1814; see Tunnels. 
 
 CALATRAVA, see Knighthood. 
 
 CALCIUM, the metallic base of lime, was dis- 
 covered at the Royal Institution, London, by Hum- 
 phry Davy in 1808. 
 
 CALCULATING MACHINES- To avoid 
 errors in computing and printing logarithms and 
 tables of figures, machines to calculate and print 
 have been devised. Pascal, when nineteen years of 
 age, invented one about 1650. The construction of 
 Mr. C. Babbage's differential machine was com- 
 menced at the expense of government in 1821, and 
 continued till 1833, when the work was suspended 
 after an expenditure of above 15,000/. The portion 
 completed was placed in the library of King's Col- 
 lege, London ; it is now at South Kensington. Pro- 
 fessor Clifford, in his lecture at the Royal Institu- 
 tion, 24 May 1872, stated that Babbage expended 
 20,000/. upon his machines, and that the analytical 
 machine was nearly finished, and would eventually 
 be much used. In 1857, Messrs. E. and G. Scheutz, 
 two Swedish engineers, published in London speci- 
 men tables, calculated and printed by machinery 
 constructed between 1837 and 1843, after a study of 
 the account of Mr. Babbage's machine. Messrs. 
 Scheutz brought then- machine to England in 1854. 
 It was bought for 1000Z. by Mr. J. F. Rathbone, an 
 
CALCUTTA. 
 
 122 
 
 CALICO. 
 
 American merchant, to be presented to Dudley ob- 
 Bervatory in Lis own town, Albany. In 1857, Messrs. 
 Scheutz were engaged to make one for the British 
 government, which is now completed. Mr. Wibcrg's 
 machine, exhibited at Paris, Feb. 1863, was much 
 commended. Tables constructed by means of 
 Seheutz's machine, and edited by Dr. W.Farre, were 
 published by the government in 1864. Thomas's 
 arithmometer, exhibited at the International exhi- 
 bitions, 1851 and 1862, is said to be in use in assur- 
 ance offices. 
 
 CALCUTTA, capital of Bengal and British 
 India ; the first settlement of the English here was 
 made in 1689. 
 
 Purchased as a zemindary, and Fort William built 1698 
 Made the head of a separate presidency . . . 1707 
 The fort attacked and taken by an army of 70,000 
 horse and foot, and 400 elephants (146 of the 
 British crammed into the " Black-bole prison," a 
 dungeon, about 18 feet square, from whence 
 23 only came forth the next morning alive) 
 
 20 June, 1756 
 Calcutta retaken by Clive . . . 2 Jan. 1757 
 Supreme court of judicature established . . . 1773 
 
 Asiatic Society founded 1784 
 
 College founded 1801 
 
 Bishopric of Calcutta instituted by act . July, 1813 
 
 Bishop's College founded 1820 
 
 Cathedral founded 1840 
 
 An industrial exhibition opened . . .25 Jan. 1855 
 Great cyclone, followed by a " bore " or spring tide 
 in the Hooghly ; water rises 30 feet high ; immense 
 damage done to shipping and houses ; (see 
 
 Cyclone) 5 Oct. 1864 
 
 Another cyclone ; about 30,000 small houses un- 
 roofed, much small shipping injured ; and the 
 crops in Lower Bengal destroyed . 1 Nov. 1867 
 
 Visited by the king of Siam . . . Jan. 1872 
 Population in 1S50, 413,582. 
 
 See Bengal and India. 
 
 CALEDONIA (now Scotland). The name is 
 supposed by some to be derived from Gael, or Gael- 
 men or Gadel-doine, corrupted by the Romans. 
 Tacitus, who died 99, distinguishes this portion of 
 Britain by the appellation of Caledonia. Venerable 
 Bede says that it retained this name until 258, when 
 it was invaded by a tribe from Ireland, and called 
 Scotia. The ancient inhabitants appear to have been 
 the Caledonians and Ficts, tribes of the Celts, who 
 passed over from the opposite coast of Gaul. About 
 the beginning of the 4th century of the Christian 
 era they were invaded (as stated by some authorities) 
 by the Seuyths or Scythins (since called Scots), who, 
 having driven the Plots into the north, settled in the 
 Lowlands, and gave then name to the whole country ; 
 see Scotland. 
 
 Caledonian monarchy, said to have been founded 1 ly 
 
 Fergus I., about B.C. 330 
 
 The Picts from England settle in the south . . 140 
 Agricola, the Roman, invades Caledonia . a.d. 79 
 He defeats Galgacus, and builds a wall between the 
 
 Forth and Clyde 84 
 
 Wall of Antoninus built 140 
 
 Ulpius Marcellus repels their incursions . . . 184 
 Christianity introduced in the reign of Donald I. . 201 
 The Caledonians invade South Britain, 207 ; repelled 
 by the emperor Severus, who advances to the 
 
 Moray Frith 209 
 
 Caledonia invaded by the Scuths, or Scotti, from 
 
 Ireland, about 306 
 
 Caledonian monarchy revived by Fergus II. . . 404 
 Kenneth 11., king of the Scotti, subdues the Cale- 
 donians and l'icts, and founds one monarchy, 
 named Scotland 83810843 
 
 CALEDONIAN ASYLUM for children of 
 
 indigent respectable Scotch parents, Islington, Lon- 
 don, established in 1813. 
 
 CALEDONIAN CANAL, from the North 
 Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. The act for its construc- 
 tion received the royal assent 27 July, 1803; and 
 the works were commenced same year. 'The nautical 
 intercourse between the western ports of Great 
 Britain and those also of Ireland to the North Sea 
 and Baltic, is shortened in some instances 800, and 
 in others 1000 miles. A sum exceeding a million 
 sterling was granted by parliament from time to 
 time ; and safe navigation for ships was opened 1 
 Nov. 1822. It has not been successful commercially. 
 Annual income from tonnage, 1 May, 1859, 5080/.; 
 expenditure, 6951^.; annual income, 1S66-7, 6541/.; 
 expenditure, 6698^. 
 
 CALENDAR, see Jewish Era and Calendar. 
 The Roman calendar was introduced by Komulus, 
 who divided the year into ten months, comprising 
 304 days, 738 B.C. This year was of fifty days' less 
 duration than the lunar year, and of sixty-one less 
 than the solar year, and its commencement did not 
 correspond with any fixed season. Numa Ponipilius, 
 713 B.C., added two months ; and Julius Cffisar, 45 
 B.C., to make it more correct, fixed the solar year at 
 365 days 6 hours, every fourth year being bissextile 
 or leap year; see Leap-year. This calendar was 
 defective, as the solar year consists of 365 days, 5 
 hours, 49 minutes, and not of 365 days 6 hours. 
 This difference, in the 16th century amounted to 10 
 entire days, the vernal equinox falling on nth 
 instead of 21st March. To obviate this error, pope 
 Gregory XIII. ordained, in 1582, that that year 
 should consist of 356 days only (5 Oct. became 15 
 Oct.) ; and to prevent further irregularity, it was 
 determined that a year beginning a century should 
 not be bissextile, with the exception of that begin- 
 ning each fourth century ; thus 1700 and 1800 have 
 not been bissextile, nor will 1900 be so : but the 
 year 2000 will be a leap year. In this manner three 
 days are retrenched in 400 years, because the lapse 
 of eleven minutes makes three days in about that 
 period. The year of the calendar is thus made as 
 nearly as possible to correspond with the true solar 
 year, and future errors of chronology are avoided. 
 See New Style and French Revolutionary Calendar. 
 
 CORRESPONDENCE OF CALENDARS WITH A.D. 1 873. 
 
 Year of the world (Jewish year) 3 Oct. 1872 ; 
 21 Sept 1873 5633 
 
 Hegira (11 March, 1S72— 28 Feb. 1873) . . . 1289 
 Foundation of Rome (Varro) ... . . . 2626 
 
 United States' Independence 97-98 
 
 Year of Queen Victoria 36-37 
 
 CALENDER, a machine used in glazing vari- 
 ous kinds of cloth, was introduced into Fngland by 
 the Huguenots, who were driven by persecution 
 from France, Holland, and the Netherlands to these 
 countries, about 1685. Anderson. 
 
 CALENDS were the first day of the Roman 
 months. The Nones of March, May, July, and Oct., 
 fell on the 7th; and their Ides on the 15th. The 
 other months had the Nones on the 5th and the Ides 
 on the 13th. As the Greeks had no Calends, " on 
 the Greek Calends," ad Grcecas Calendas, meant 
 never. 
 
 CALICO, cotton cloth, named from Calicut, a 
 city of India, visited by the Fortuguese in 1498. 
 Calico was first brought to England by the Fast 
 India Company in 163 1. Calico-printing and the 
 Dutch loom engine were first used in 1676, when a 
 Frenchman established a factory at Richmond, near 
 London. Anderson. Calicoes were prohibited to 
 be printed or worn in 1700; and again in 1721, a 
 penalty of 5/. was laid on the wearer, and 20I. on the 
 
CALICUT. 
 
 123 
 
 CALVAEY. 
 
 seller of calico. In 1831, by the exertions of Mr. 
 Poulett Thompson, afterwards lord Sydenham, and 
 others, the consolidated dnty of T,hd. on the square 
 yard of printed calico was taken off. Since 1834, 
 the manufacture has been greatly increased by the 
 applications of science. Cylinders for printing are 
 now engraved by galvanism, and many new dyes 
 have been introduced by the discoveries of Liebig, 
 Hofmann, Perkin, &c. ; see Cotton and Dyeing. 
 
 CALICUT (now Kolikod), S.W. India, the first 
 Indian port visited by Vasco de Gama, 20 May, 1498. 
 It was seized by Hyder Ali, 1766, taken by the 
 English, 1782; destroyed by Tippoo Saib, 1789; 
 ceded to the English, 1792. 
 
 CALIFORNIA (from the Spanish, Caliente 
 Fornalla, hot furnace, in allusion to the climate), 
 was discovered by Cortez in 1537; others say by 
 Cabrillo in 1542 ; and visited by sir Francis Drake, 
 who named it New Albion, in 1579. California was 
 admitted into the United States in 1 850. It is 
 advancing rapidly in Avealth and importance, but 
 society is still in a very disorganised state. The 
 population in 1856 was 506,067 ; in i860, 700,000. 
 
 The Spanish establish missionary and military 
 
 stations 1698 
 
 California becomes subject to Mexico . . . 1823 
 After a bloodless revolution, it becomes virtually 
 
 independent 1836 
 
 Occupied by the army of the United States . . 1846 
 Gold discovered in great abundance by capt. Sutter 
 
 and Mr. Marshall Sept. 1847 
 
 Ceded to the United States 1848 
 
 Made a sovereign state 1850 
 
 Numerous murders in San Francisco — Lynch law 
 
 prevailing 1853-60 
 
 Adhered to the union 1861-2 
 
 Suffered much damage by an earthquake, 21 Sept. 1868 
 
 CALIPER COMPASS, whereby the bore of 
 cannon, small arms, &c. is measured, is said to have 
 been invented by an artificer of Nuremberg in 1540! 
 
 CALIPH (Arabic), Vicar, or Lieutenant, the 
 title assumed by the sophi of Persia, as successor of 
 Ali, and, since 15 17, by the sultan of Turkey, as 
 successor of Mahomet. The caliphat began with 
 Abubeker, the father of the prophet's second wife. 
 The Fatimite caliphs ruled in Egypt, 908-1171. 
 
 CALIPHS OF ARABIA. 
 
 632. Abubeker. 
 
 634. Omar I. 
 
 644. Othman. 
 
 655 Ali. 
 
 661. Hassan. 
 
 The Ommiades ruled 661-750. 
 
 The Abbasides ruled 750-1258. 
 
 In 775 they were styled caliphs of Bagdad. 
 
 Haroun-al-Easchid ruled 786-809. 
 
 See Ommiades and Abbasides. 
 
 CALIPPIC PERIOD, invented by Calippus, 
 about 330 B.C., to correct the Metonic cycle, consists 
 of four cycles, or of seventy-six years, at the expira- 
 tion of which he incorrectly imagined the new and 
 full moons return to the same day of the solar y r ear. 
 This period began about the end of June, third year 
 or 112th Olympiad, year of Rome 424, and 330 B.C. 
 
 . CALIXTINS, 1. A sect derived from the Hus- 
 sites, about 1420 demanded the cup (Greek, Kalix) in 
 the Lord's supper. They were also called Utraquists 
 as partaking of both elements. They were recon- 
 ciled to the Roman church at the council of JJasle, 
 1433. 2. The followers of George Calixtus, a Lu- 
 theran, who died in 1656. He wrote against the celi- 
 bacy of the priesthood, and proposed a re-union of Ca- 
 tholics and Protestants based on the Apostles' creed. 
 
 CALI YUGA, the Hindoo era of the Deluge, 
 dates from 3101 B.C. (according to some, 3102), and 
 begins with the entrance of the sun into the Hindoo 
 sign Aswin, now on 11 April, N.S. In 1600 the 
 year began on 7 April, N.S., from which it has now 
 advanced four days, and from the procession of the 
 equinoxes, is still advancing at the rate of a day in 
 sixty years. The number produced by subtracting 
 3102 from any given year of the Cali Yuga era will 
 be the Christian year in which the given year 
 begins. 
 
 CALLAO (Peru). After an earthquake, the 
 sea retired from the shore, and returned in moun- 
 tainous waves, which destroyed the city in 1687, and 
 on 28 Oct. 1746. The attempt of the Spanish ad- 
 miral Nunez to bombard Callao, 2 May, 1866, was- 
 defeated by the Peruvians. 
 
 CALLIGRAPHY (beautiful writing) . Calli- 
 crates is said to have written an elegant distich on 
 a sesamum seed, 472 B.C. In the 16th century 
 Peter Bales wrote the Lord's Prayer, Creed, and 
 Decalogue, two short Latin prayers, his own name, 
 motto, day of the month, year of our Lord, and of 
 the reign of queen Elizabeth (to whom he presented, 
 them at Hampton Court), all within the circle of a 
 silver pemry, enchased in a ring and border of gold, 
 and covered with crystal, so accurately done, as to- 
 be plainly legible. Holinshed. 
 
 CALMAR, UNION OE. The treaty whereby 
 Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, were united under 
 one sovereign, Margaret, queen of Sweden and Nor- 
 way, " the Semiramis of the north;" June, 1397, see 
 Sweden. This union was dissolved by Gustavus 
 Vasa in 1523. 
 
 CALMUCKS, see Tartar!/. 
 
 CALOMEL ("beautiful black") a compound 
 of mercury, sulphuric acid, and chloride of sodium, 
 first mentioned by Crollius early in the 17th century. 
 The first directions given for its preparation were by 
 Beguin in 1608. 
 
 CALORESCENCE. In Jan. 1865 Professor 
 Tyndall rendered the ultra-red rays of the spectrum 
 of the electric light visible by causing them to im- 
 pinge on a plate of platinum, which they raised to a 
 white heat. He termed the phenomenon Calores- 
 cence ; see Fluorescence. 
 
 CALORIC, see Seat. 
 
 CALOTYPE PROCESS (from the Greek 
 kalos beautiful), by which negative photographs 
 are produced on paper, is the invention of Mr. Henry 
 Fox Talbot about 1840. 
 
 CALOYERS (meaning good old men). The 
 monks of the Greek church, of the order of St. Basil. 
 Their most celebrated monastery in Asia is at Mount 
 Sinai, endowed by Justinian (died 565) ; the Eu- 
 ropean one is at Mount Athos. 
 
 CALPEE, India. Sir Hugh Pose defeated the 
 mutineers here, and took the town, 22, 23 May, 1858. 
 
 CALVARY, MOUNT, the place where the Re- 
 deemer suffered death, 5 April, a.d. 30 ; {Hales, 31 ; 
 Clinton, 29 ; others 38) ; see Luke xxiii. 33. Adrian, 
 at the time of his persecution of the Christians, 
 erected a temple of J upiter on Mount Calvary, and. 
 a temple of Adonis on the manger at Bethlehem, 
 142. The empress Helena built a church here about 
 326 ; see Holy Places. 
 
CALVES' HEAD CLUB. 
 
 124 
 
 CAMBRIDGE. 
 
 CALVES' HEAD CLUB, noblemen and 
 gentlemen, who are said to hare exposed raw calves' 
 heads at the windows of a tavern, 30 Jan. 1735, the 
 anniversary of the execution of Charles I. An in- 
 censed mob was dispersed, and the club was sup- 
 pressed. 
 
 CALVI (Corsica). The British forces besieged 
 the fortress of Calvi, 12 June, 1794. After fifty-nine 
 days it surrendered on 10 Aug-. It surrendered to 
 the French in 1 796. 
 
 CALVINISTS, named after John Calvin (or 
 Chauvin), who was born at Noyon, in Picardy, 10 
 July, 1509. Adopting the reformed doctrines he tied 
 to Angouleme, where he composed his Institutio 
 Christiana Religionis in 1533; published in 1536. 
 He retired to Basle, and settled in Geneva, where 
 he died, 27 May, 1564. He was instrumental in 
 •burning Servetus for denying the Trinity in 1553. 
 A formal separation between the Cafvinists and 
 Lutherans took place after the conference of Poissy 
 in 1561, where the former expressly rejected the 
 tenth and other articles of the confession of Augs- 
 burg, and took the name of Calvinists. In France 
 (see Huguenots) they took up arms against their 
 persecutors. Henry IV., originally a Calvinist, on 
 becoming king, secured their liberty by the Edict of 
 Mantes in 1598 {which see). Calvinistic doctrines 
 appear in the articles of the Church of England and 
 in the confession of the Church of Scotland, and are 
 held by many protestant sects. 
 
 CAMALDULES or CAMALDOLITES, a reli- 
 gious order founded at Camaldoli near Florence, by 
 Komuald about 1022. 
 
 CAMBIUM REGIS ; see Royal Exchange. 
 
 CAMBODIA, Central Asia; a kingdom, divided 
 between the emperor of Annam and the Icing of 
 Siam, 1820. 
 
 CAMBRAY (N. France), the ancient Camara- 
 •cum, was in the middle ages the capital of a prince 
 bishop subject to the emperor. It gives its name to 
 cambric. Councils held here, 1064, 1303, 1383, 
 1565- 
 Held by Louis XI. of France .... 1477-8 
 
 Taken by Charles V. 1544 
 
 By the Spaniards ........ 1595 
 
 By the French and annexed 1667 
 
 Fenelon made archbishop • . 1695 
 
 It was invested by the Austrians, 8 Aug., when the 
 republican general, Declay, replied to the sum- 
 mons to surrender, that " he knew not how to do 
 that, but his soldiers knew how to light." It 
 was taken by Clairfait, the Austrian general, 
 
 10 Sept. 1798 
 The French were defeated at Caesar's camp, in the 
 neighbourhood, by the allied army under the duke 
 of York ...... 24 April, 1794 
 
 Cambray seized by the British, under sir Charles 
 
 Colville 24 June, 18 15 
 
 League of Cambray against the republic of Venice, 
 comprising pope Julius II., the, emperor Maxi- 
 milian, and Louis XII. of France, and Ferdinand 
 of Spain, entered into ... 10 Dec. 1508 
 
 Treaty between Francis I. of France, and Charles V. 
 of Germany, (called PciV desDames, because nego- 
 tiated by Louisa of Savoy, mother of the French 
 king, and Margaret of Austria, aunt of the 
 
 emperor) 1529 
 
 Treaty between Ihe emperor Charles VI. and 
 Philip V. of Spain 1724-5 
 
 CAMBRIA, ancient name of Wales (ivhichsce). 
 
 CAMBRIC first made at Cambray; worn in 
 England, and accounted a great luxury, 1580. St>w. 
 
 Its importation restricted in 1745; prohibited in 
 1758; re-admitted, 1786; prohibited 1795. 
 
 CAMBRIDGE, the Boman Camboricum and 
 the Saxon Granta oricsir, frequently mentioned by 
 
 tin- earliest British historians, was burnt by the 
 Danes in 870 and 1010. 
 
 Tin' university, said to have been commenced by 
 Sigebert, king of the Fast Angles, about a. d. 630; 
 
 was neglected during the Danish invasions, from 
 which it suffered much ; was restored by Edward 
 the elder in 915 ; and began to revive about . . 1110 
 
 Plundered by the barons 1088 
 
 Henry I. bestows many privileges . . . . mo 
 Henry til. granted a charter to the university, 
 
 1230 or 1231 
 In Wat Tyler's and Jack Straw's rebellion, the 
 rebels entered the town, seize the university 
 records and burn them in the market-place . . 1381 
 
 University press was set up 1534 
 
 Letters patent granted by Henry VIII. ,, 
 
 Incorporated by Elizabeth 1571 
 
 The university authorised to send two members to 
 
 parliament 1603 
 
 Garrisoned by Cromwell . ... 1642 
 
 The university refuses the degree of M.A. to father 
 
 Francis, a Benedictine monk, recommended by 
 
 the king ; and the presidency of Magdalen college 
 
 to Farmer, a Roman Catholic, notwithstanding 
 
 the king's mandate 1687 
 
 Cambridge Philosophical Society established in 1819, 
 
 and chartered 1832 
 
 Railway to London opened . . . June, 1845 
 Commissioners were appointed for the government 
 and extension of this university and Eton college, 
 
 by 19 <fc 20 Vict. c. 88 1856 
 
 New statutes confirmed by the Queen . . . 1858 
 British Association met here . . 1833, 1845, 1862 
 Fitzwilliam museum, endowed 1816 ; founded 1837 ; 
 
 completed 1847 
 
 Visit of prince and princess of Wales . 2-4 June. 1864 
 University Tests act passed . . .16 June 1870 
 Royal commission of inquiry respecting university 
 property appointed .... 6 Jan. 1872 
 
 FOURTEEN COLLEGES. 
 
 Peterhouse College, by Hugo de Balsham, bishop of 
 
 Ely, founded 1257 
 
 Pembroke College, founded by the countess of 
 
 Pembroke 1347 
 
 Gonville and Caius, by Edmund Gonville . . . 1348 
 
 Enlarged by Dr. John Caius 1558 
 
 Corpus Christi, or Benet 1352 
 
 King's College, by Henry VI 1441 
 
 Christ's College, founded 1442 ; endowed by Mar- 
 garet, countess of Richmond, mother of Henry 
 
 VII 1505 
 
 Queen's College, by Margaret of Anjou, 1448 ; and 
 
 Elizabeth Woodville 1449 
 
 Jesus College, by John Aleoek, bishop of Ely . . 1496 
 St. John's College, endowed by Margaret, countess 
 
 of Richmond 1511 
 
 Magdalen College, by Thomas, baron Audlcy . . 1519 
 
 Trinity College, by Henry VIII 1546 
 
 Emmanuel College, by sir Walter Mildmay . . 1584 
 
 Sidney-Sussex College, founded by Frances Sidney, 
 
 countess of Sussex 1598 
 
 Downing College, by sir George Downing, by will, 
 in 1717 ; its charter 1800 
 
 THREE HALLS. 
 
 Clare Hall, or College, first founded by Dr. Richard 
 Baden in 1326 ; destroyed by lire and re-estab- 
 lished by Elizabeth de Bourg, sister to Gilbert, 
 
 earl of Clare about 1342 
 
 Trinity Hall, by Wm. Bateinan, bishop of Norwich, 1350 
 
 St. Catherine's College or Hall, founded . . . 1473 
 
 [Cambridge University Calendar.'] 
 
 CHANCELLORS. 
 
 Charles, duke of Somerset, elected . . . . 1688 
 
 Thomas, duke of Newcastle 1748 
 
 Augustus Henry, duke of Grafton . . . . 1768 
 H. R. H. William Frederick, duke of Gloucester . 1811 
 
 John, marquis Camden 1834 
 
 Hugh, duke of Northumberland .... 1840 
 The Prince Consort [died Dee. 14, 1861.] 28 Feb. 1847 
 Duke of Devonshire .... 31 Dec. 1861 
 
CAMBUSKENNETH. 
 
 12.5 
 
 CAMPO SANTO. 
 
 PRINCIPAL PROFESSORSHIPS. FOUNDED 
 
 Divinity (Margaret) 1502 ; Keghis .... 1540 
 Laws, Hebrew, Greek, and Physic . . . . ,, 
 
 Arabic 1632 
 
 Mathematics (Lucasian) 1663 
 
 Music 1684 
 
 Chemistry 1702 
 
 Astronomy 1704, 1749 
 
 Anatomy 1707 
 
 Modern History, Botany 1724 
 
 Natural and experimental Philosophy . . . . 1783 
 
 Mineralogy .... ... 1808 
 
 Political Economy 1863 
 
 CAMBUSKENNETH (Central Scotland). 
 Here Wallace defeated trie English under Warrenne 
 and Cressingham, 10 Sept. 1297. 
 
 CAMDEN (N. America). Here 16 Aug. 1780, 
 lord Cornwallis defeated the revolted Americans, 
 under Gates. At a second battle (also called Hob- 
 kirk's hill), between general Greene and lord Raw- 
 don, the Americans were again defeated, 25 April, 
 1 78 1. Camden was evacuated and burnt by the 
 British, 13 May, 1781. 
 
 CAMDEN SOCIETY, established 1838, pub- 
 lishes British historical documents. 
 
 CAMEL, DAY OF THE, 4 Nov. 656 (according 
 to some 658 or 659) when Talha and Zobeir, rebel 
 Arab chiefs, were defeated and slain by the caliph 
 Ali. Ayesha, Mahomet's widow, friend of the 
 chiefs, was present in a litter, on a camel, hence the 
 name. 
 
 CAMERA LUCID A, invented by Dr. Hooke 
 about 1674; another by Dr. Wollaston in 1807. 
 Camera Obsctjka, or dark chamber, constructed, 
 it is said, by Roger Bacon in 1297 ; improved by 
 Bap tista Porta, about 1 500; and remodelled by sir 
 Isaac Newton. By the invention of M. Daguerre, 
 in 1839, the pictures of the camera are fixed ; see 
 Photography. 
 
 CAMERONIANS, a name frequently given 
 to the Reformed Presbyterian church of Scotland, 
 the descendants of the covenanters of the 17 th cen- 
 tury, the established church, 1638-50.* Charles II. 
 signed the League and Covenant in 1650, in hopes 
 of recovering his kingdoms, but renounced it in 1661, 
 and revived episcopacy. A revolt ensued in 1666, 
 when many covenanters were slain in battle (in the 
 Pentland hills, &c), and many refusing to take the 
 oaths required, and declining to accept the king's 
 indulgence, died on the scaffold, after undergoing 
 cruel tortures. The name Cameronian is derived 
 from Richard Cameron, one of then ministers, who 
 was killed in a skirmish, in 1680. In 1689 they 
 raised a body of soldiers to support William III., 
 who enrolled them under the command of lord 
 Angus, as the 26th regiment, since so famous. In 
 1712 they renewed their public covenants, and are 
 described in one of their tracts as " the suffering 
 anti-popish, and anti-prelatical, anti-erastian, true 
 presbyterian church of Scotland." They have now 
 between thirty and forty congregations in Scotland. 
 — The 79th regiment {Cameron High landers), raised 
 in 1793 by Allan Cameron, has no connection with 
 the Cameronians. 
 
 * They were frequently called Mil-men or mountain men, 
 and society peojvZe (front the places and modes of worship 
 to which they were frequently reduced), and McMillanites, 
 from John McMillan, their first minister, after their 
 secession from the church of Scotland on account of its 
 subserviency to the English government, and its declining 
 from its original rigid principles. 
 
 CAMISABDS (from chemise, Latin camisa, a. 
 shirt, which they frequently wore over then dress in- 
 night attacks), a name given to the French Pro- 
 testants in the neighbourhood of the Cevennes 
 (mountain chains in S. France), who after enduring 
 much severe persecution in consequence of the 
 revocation of the edict of Nantes, 22 Oct. 1685, took 
 up arms in July, 1702, to rescue some imprisoned 
 brethren. They revenged the cruelties of their 
 enemies, and maintained an obstinate resistance 
 against the royalist armies commanded by marshal 
 Montrevel, and other distinguished generals, till 
 1705, when the insurrection was suppressed by 
 marshal Villars. After futile conciliatory efforts, 
 several of the heroic leaders suffered death rather 
 than surrender. Cavalier, an able general, unable 
 to carry out a treaty made with Villars, seceded in 
 1704, entered the British service, and died governor 
 of Jersey, 1740. 
 
 CAMLET, formerly made of silk and camel's 
 hair, but now of wool, hair, and silk. Oriental 
 camlet first came here from Portuguese India, in 
 1660. Anderson. 
 
 CAMP. The Hebrew encampment was first 
 laid out by divine direction, 1490 B.C. {Numbers ii.). 
 The Romans and Gauls had intrenched camps in 
 open plains ; and vestiges of such exist to this day 
 in England and Scotland. A camp was formed in 
 Hyde Park in 1745 and ^H! see Chobham and 
 Aldershott. 
 
 .CAMPANIA (S. Italy), was occupied by Han- 
 nibal and various cities declared in his favour 216 
 B.C. ; conquered by the Romans, 213. Its capital 
 was Capua {which see). 
 
 CAMPBELL'S ACTS, introduced by John 
 Campbell, lord chancellor. 1. Against libels and. 
 slanders, 6 & 7 Vict. c. 96 (1843), and 8 & 9 Vict. c. 
 75 (1845).. 2. To compel railway companies to make 
 compensation for injuries by culpable accidents, 9 & 
 10 Vict. c. 93 (1846). 3. Against obscene publica- 
 tions, prints, &c, 20 & 21 Vict. c. 8^ (1857). In 
 accordance with the second act, the family of a 
 gentleman killed through the breaking of a rail, 
 obtained a verdict for 13,000^. from the Great 
 Northern Railway Company. On appeal the sum 
 was reduced. 
 
 CAMPEACHY-BAY (Yucatan, Central 
 America), discovered about 1517, and settled by 
 Spaniards in 1540; taken by the English in 1659; 
 by the buccaneers, in 1678 ; and by the freebooters 
 of St. Domingo, in 1685. These last burnt the town 
 and blew up the citadel. The English logwood- 
 cutters made their settlement here about 1662. 
 
 CAMPEEDOWN : south of the Texel, Hol- 
 land, nearwhich admiral Duncan defeated the Dutch 
 fleet, commanded by admiral De Winter ; the latter 
 losing fifteen ships, either taken or destroyed, n 
 Oct. I797- The British admiral was made lord Dun- 
 can of Camperdown. He died suddenly on his way 
 to Edinburgh, 4 Aug. 1804. 
 
 CAMPO FOEMIO (N. Italy). Here a treaty 
 was concluded between France and Austria; the 
 latter yielding the Low Countries and the Ionian 
 Islands to France, and Milan, Mantua, and Modena 
 to the Cisalpine republic, 17 Oct. 1797. By a secret 
 article the emperor gained the Venetian dominions. 
 
 CAMPO SANTO (Holy Field), a burial-place 
 at Pisa, surrounded by an arcade erected by arch- 
 bishop Ubaldo, about 1300, which is celebrated for 
 
CAMPS. 126 
 
 the frescoes painted on the walls by Giotto, Memnii, 
 and others. 
 CAMPS, see Aldershott, Chobham, eMKUdare. 
 
 CAMPUS KAUDIUS, near Verona, N. Italy. 
 Here the Cimbri were defeated with great slaughter 
 by Marius and Catulus, 101 n.c. 
 
 CANAAN (Palestine), is considered to have 
 been settled by the Canaanites, 1965 B.C. (Clinton, 
 2088). The land was divided among the Israelites 
 by Joshua, 1445 (Hales, 1602). 
 
 CANADA (N. America), was discovered by Jobn 
 and Sebastian Cabot, 24 June, 1497. In 1524, a 
 French expedition under Verazani formed a settle- 
 ment named New France, and in 1535 Jacques 
 Cartier (a Breton mariner), ascended the St. Law- 
 rence as far as the site of Montreal ; see Montreal 
 and Quebec. Canada has been termed "the Do- 
 minion," since its incorporation with the other 
 American colonies, 1 July, 1867. 
 
 First permanent settlement : Quebec founded . .1608 
 Canada taken by the English, 1629 ; restored . . 1632 
 War begins in 1756 ; Canada conquered by the Eng- 
 lish, 1759 (see Quebec), confirmed to them by the 
 treaty of Paris, signed . . . 10 Feb. 1763 
 
 Legislative council established ; the French laws 
 confirmed, and religious liberty given to Roman 
 
 Catholics 1774 
 
 The Americans under Montgomery invade Canada, 
 and surprise Montreal, Nov. 1775 ; expelled by 
 
 Carleton March, 1776 
 
 Canada divided into Upper and Lower . . . 179 1 
 The "clergy reserves" established by parliament — 
 one seventh of the waste lands of the colony ap- 
 propriated for the maintenance of the Protestant 
 clergy (during the debates on this bill the quarrel 
 between Mr. Burke and Mr. Fox arose) . . . ,, 
 
 Canada made a bishopric 1793 
 
 "United States army, under general Hull, invade 
 Canada ; defeated at Brownstown, near Toronto, 
 8 Aug. ; surrender .... 16 Aug. 18 12 
 
 Americans take York, 27 April ; Fort George, 27 
 May ; defeated at Chippewa, 25 July; peace 
 signed at Ghent . . . . 24 Dec. 18 14 
 
 Opposition to Canada clergy reserves . . 1817 et scq. 
 First railway in Canada opened . . July, 1836 
 
 The Papineau rebellion commences at Montreal by 
 
 a body called Fits at la Liberie 1837 
 
 The rebels defeated at St. Eustace . . 14 Dec. ,, 
 Repulsed at Toronto by sir F. Head . . 5 Jan. 1838 
 Earl 0/ Dwrham appointed gov. -gen. . 16 Jan. ,, 
 Lount and Mathews (rebels) hanged . 12 April, ,, 
 Lord Durham resigns his government . 9 Oct. ,, 
 Rebellion appears in Beauharnais, 3 Nov. ; the in- 
 surgents at Napierville, under Nelson, routed 
 6 Nov. ; rebellion suppressed . . .17 Nov. ,, 
 Sir John Colborne, governor .... Dec. „ 
 Acts relating to government of Lower Canada, 
 
 passed in Feb. 1838, and . . . Aug. 1839 
 
 Chas. PowUtt Thompson (afterwards lord Sydenham), 
 
 governor Sept. ,, 
 
 Upper and Lower Canada re-united . 10 Feb. 1840 
 
 Sir Chas. Banot, governor .... Oct. 1841 
 Sir Chas. T. (aft. lord) Metcalfe, governor Feb. 1843 
 
 Earl Cathcart, governor . . . March, 1846 
 
 Riots in Montreal; parliament house burnt 
 
 26 April, 1850 
 Canada clergy reserves abolished by the British 
 
 parliament 9 May i l8 53 
 
 Earl of Elgin, gov. -general .... Oct. 1846 
 Concluded an important treaty with United States, 
 
 7 June, 1854 
 The grand trunk railroad of Canada (850 miles), 
 
 from Quebec to Toronto, opened . 12 Nov. 1856 
 On reference made to the queen, Ottawa, formerly 
 , Bytown, appointed the capital ; this decision 
 
 unpopular Aug. 1858 
 
 Canada raises a regiment of soldiers (made one of 
 
 the bne, and called the 100th) . . . . ,, 
 The prince of Wales presents the colours at Shorn- 
 cliff ... ... 10 Jan. 1859 
 
 CANADA. 
 
 The prince of Wales, the duke of Newcastle, Are., 
 arrived at St. John's, Newfoundland, 24 July ; 
 visit Halifax, 30 July ; Quebec, iS Aug. ; Montreal, 
 25 Aug. : Ottawa, 1 Sept. ; leave Canada, 20 Sept.; 
 after visiting the United States embark at Port- 
 land, 20 Oct. ; and arrive at Plymouth 15 Nov. i860 
 Lord Monck assumes office as gov. -gen. . 28 Nov. 1861 
 In consequence of the " Trent " affair (see Un 
 States, 1861), 3000 British troops suit to Canada ; 
 warlike preparations made . . . Dee. „ 
 
 British N. American Association founded in London 
 
 Jan. 1862 
 Carrier's ministry defeated on Militia bill ; Mr. J. 
 
 Sandfleld Macdonald, premier . 20-23 May, ,, 
 The assembly vote only 5000 militia and 5000 re- 
 serve towards the defence of the country; this 
 causes discontent in England . . . July, 
 Mr. J. Macdonald again premier . . 20 May, 1863 
 
 New militia bill passed Sept. ., 
 
 Military measures in progress . . Sept. 1864 
 
 Meeting of about 20,000 volunteers ; delegates from 
 N. American colonies at Quebec, to deliberate on 
 the fonnation of a confederation, 10 Oct. ; agree 
 
 on the bases 20 Oct. „ 
 
 Between 20 and 30 armed confederates quit Canada 
 and enter the little town of St. Alban's, Vermont ; 
 rob the banks, steal horses and stores, fire, and 
 kill one man, and wound others, and return to 
 Canada, 19 Oct ; 13 are arrested, 21 Oct. ; but are 
 discharged, on account of some legal difficulty, 
 by Judge Coursol .... 14 Dec. ,, 
 Great excitement in United States, general Dix 
 proclaims reprisals ; volunteers called out in 
 Canada to defend the frontiers ; president Lin- 
 coln rescinds Dix's proclamation . . Dec. ,, 
 The confederation scheme rejected by New Bruns- 
 wick 7 March, 1865 
 
 The British parliament grant 50,000?. for defence of 
 
 Canada 23 March, „ 
 
 The St. Alban's raiders discharged, 30 March ; 
 Mr. Seward gives up claim for their extradition, 
 
 April, ,, 
 Messrs. Gait and Cartier visit England to advocate 
 
 confederation April, ,, 
 
 The threatened invasion of the Fenians, 9 March ; 
 
 10,000 volunteers called out . . 15 March. 1866 
 The Canadian parliament opened, for the first time, 
 at Ottawa ; the Habeas Corpus act suspended ; 
 many Fenians flee ; 35,000 men under arms (see 
 
 Fenians) 8 June, „ 
 
 Discovery of gold in Hastings county, Canada west, 
 
 Nov. ,, 
 Act for the union of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New 
 Brunswick under the name of the Dominion of 
 Canada, with parliament, to consist of the Queen, 
 a senate of 72 members, and a house of commons 
 of 181 members, passed . . .29 March, 1867 
 Canada Railway loan act passed . 12 April, ,, 
 
 Lord Monck sworn in as viceroy of Canada, by 
 virtue of the act for the union of the British 
 provinces in North America . . 2 July, ,, 
 New parliament meets at Ottawa . . 6 Nov. ,, 
 Reported agitation against the new confederation in 
 
 Nova Scotia Jan. 1868 
 
 Murder of Mr. Darcy McGhee . . . 7 April, ,, 
 Sir John Young (now lord IAsgar) appointed gover- 
 nor-general in room of lord Monck (resigned), 
 
 arrives 27 Nov. ,, 
 
 A Fenian raid into Canada vigorously repelled by 
 
 the militia .... about 24 May, „ 
 Visit of prince Alfred . . . Sept. et seq. „ 
 Hudson's Bay territories purchased, subject to 
 
 conditions, for 300,000?., (see Hud Nov. 1869 
 
 In consequence of the resistance of some of the 
 settlers (see .Rupert's lentil), an expedition, under 
 colonel Wolseley, arrived at Fort Garry, and 
 
 ac ■iliatary proclamation was issued . 23 July 1870 
 
 Rupert's land formed into a province, named Mani- 
 toba ; Mr. Adams G. A. Archibald named the first 
 governor . .... Aug. ,, 
 
 Canada defences loan act passed , . 9 Aug. ,, 
 Disputes with the United States respecting fishing, 
 
 Nov. ,, 
 Opposition to the fishery clauses in the treaty of 
 
 Washington June, 1871 
 
 By the British North America act, the parliament 
 
 of Canada may establish new provinces, 29 June, ,, 
 British Columbia united to the " Dominion . . ,, 
 
CANALS. 
 
 127 
 
 CANDIA. 
 
 Departure of last battalion of royal troops . Nov. 1871 
 
 A liberal ministry constituted under Mr. Edward 
 Blake 23 Dec. „ 
 
 Lord (now earl of) Dufferin appointed governor- 
 general ; inaugurated . . . -25 June, 1872 
 
 Population in 1857 : Lower Canada, 1,220,514 ; 
 Upper Canada, 1,350,923 ; of the Dominion in 
 1870, 3,484,322. 
 
 CANALS (artificial -watercourses). The im- 
 perial canal in China, commenced in the 13th 
 century, is said to pass over 2000 miles, and to 41 
 cities ; see Ganges and Suez. 
 
 The canal of Languedoc (Canal du Midi) which joins 
 the Mediterranean with the Atlantic Ocean, was 
 
 completed 1681 
 
 That of Orleans from the Loire to the Seine, com- 
 menced 1675 
 
 Burgundy canal 1775 
 
 That between the Baltic and the North Sea, at Kiel, 
 
 opened 1785 
 
 That of Bourbon, between the Seine and Oise, 
 
 commenced 1790 
 
 Seine and Loire, opened 1791 
 
 That from the Cattegat to the Baltic . . 1794-1800 
 The great American Erie canal, 363 miles in'length, 
 
 was commenced 1817 
 
 That of Amsterdam to the sea . . . . 1819-25 
 
 Ganges canal completed 1854 
 
 (See Ganges and Sues canal.) 
 
 BRITISH CANALS. 
 
 The first was by Henry I., when the Trent was joined 
 
 to the Witham, 1134. 
 Francis Mathew in 1656, and Andrew Yarranton in 1677, 
 
 in vain strongly urged improvement in internal navi- 
 gation. 
 In England there are said to be 2800 miles of canals, and 
 
 2500 miles of rivers, taking the length of those only 
 
 that are navigable— total, 5300 miles. (Mr. Porter, in 
 
 1851, says 4000 miles.) 
 In Ireland there are 300 miles of canals ; 150 of navigable 
 
 rivers ; and 60 miles of the Shannon, navigable below 
 
 Limerick ; in all, 510 miles. Williams. 
 The prosperity of canals, for a time largely checked by 
 
 the formation of railways, is now greatly revived ; and. 
 
 railways are connected with them. 
 
 INLAND NAVIGATION. 
 
 New river commenced 1608 
 
 Brought to London 1613 
 
 Thames made navigable to Oxford . . . . 1624 
 
 Kennett navigable to Reading 1715 
 
 Caermarthenshire canal 1756 
 
 Droitwich to the Severn ,, 
 
 Duke of Bridgewater's navigation (first great canal), 
 
 commenced (see Bridgeivater) 1759 
 
 Northampton navigation 1761 
 
 Dublin to the Shannon (the Grand) . . 1 765-1 788 
 
 Stafford and Worcester, commenced . . . „ 
 Grand Trunk (Trent and Mersey) commenced by 
 
 Brindley 1766 
 
 Forth to Clyde, commenced 1768 
 
 Birmingham to Bilston ,, 
 
 Oxford to Coventry, commenced .... 1769 
 Lea made navigable from Hertford to "Ware, 1739 ; 
 
 to London . . . 1770 
 
 Leeds to Liverpool ,, 
 
 Monkland (Scotland), commenced . . . . ,, 
 
 Ellesmere and Chester 1772 
 
 Basingstoke canal begun ,, 
 
 Liverpool to Wigan 1774 
 
 Stroud to the Severn 1775 
 
 Staffordshire canal, begun 1776 
 
 Stourbridge canal, completed „ 
 
 Runcorn to Manchester ,, 
 
 Mersey, opened 1777 
 
 Chesterfield to the Trent ,, 
 
 Belfast to Lough Neagh 1783 
 
 Severn to the Thames, completed .... 1789 
 
 Forth and Clyde, completed 1790 
 
 Bradford completed . . ■ . . . . ,, 
 
 Grand Junction, begun ,, 
 
 Birmingham and Coventry ,, 
 
 Monastereven to Athy 1791 
 
 Worcester and Birmingham . . . . . ,, 
 
 Manchester, Bolton, and Bury 1791 
 
 Warwick and Birmingham 1793 
 
 Barnsley, cut 1794 
 
 Rochdale, act passed „ 
 
 Huddersfield, act passed „ 
 
 Derby, completed ,, 
 
 Hereford and Gloucester 1796 
 
 Paddington Canal begun 1798 
 
 Kennet and Avon, opened 1799 
 
 Peak-forest canal, completed 1800 
 
 Thames to Fenny Stratford ,, 
 
 Buckingham canal 1801 
 
 Grand Surrey, act passed ,, 
 
 Brecknock canal 1802 
 
 Caledonian canal begun 1803 
 
 Ellesmere aqueduct 1805 
 
 Ashby-de-la-Zoueh, opened ,, 
 
 Royal Military canal, Hythe to Rye .... 1807 
 
 Aberdeen, completed ,, 
 
 Glasgow and Ardrossan, opened . . . .1811 
 
 Leeds and Liverpool, opened 1816 
 
 Wye and Avon , 
 
 Edinburgh and Glasgow Union 1818 
 
 Sheffield, completed 1819 
 
 Regent's canal opened 1820 
 
 Caledonian canal completed ... 30 Oct. 1822 
 Birmingham and Liverpool, begun . . . . 1826 
 Gloucester and Berkeley, ship-canal completed . 1827 
 Norwich and Lowestoft navigation opened . . .1831 
 
 CANAEY ISLANDS (K "W. Africa), known 
 to the ancients as the Fortunate Isles. The first 
 meridian was referred to the Canary Isles by Hip- 
 parchus, about 140 B.C. They were re-discovered 
 by a Norman named Bethencourt, about 1400 ; his 
 descendants sold them to the Spaniards, who became 
 masters, 1483. The canary-bird, a native of these 
 isles, brought to England about 1500. Teneriffe is 
 the largest island. 
 
 CANCEE HOSPITAL, West Brampton,' 
 near London, was founded by Miss (now baroness) 
 Burdett Coutts, 30 May, 1859. A temporary hospital 
 begun in 1851. 
 
 CANDIA, the ancient Crete, an island in the 
 Mediterranean Sea, celebrated for its 100 cities, its 
 centre Mount Ida; the laws of its king Minos, 
 and its labyrinth to secure the Minotaur (about 
 1300 B.C.). It was conquered by the Bomans 
 68 B.C. 
 
 Seized by the Saracens a.d. 823 
 
 Re-taken by the Greeks . .• . . . 961 
 
 Sold to the Venetians .... Aug. 1204 
 Rebelled ; reduced . . . .-.,.. 1364 
 Gained by the Turks, after a twenty-four years' 
 siege, during which more than 200,000 men 
 
 perished 1669 
 
 Ceded to the Egyptian pacha 1830 
 
 Restored to Turkey 1840 
 
 Insurrections suppressed, 1841 ; by conciliation. . 1858 
 Persecution of the Christians . ... 31 July, 1859 
 The Christians demand redress of grievances, June, 1866 
 They establish a " sacred battalion " . 12 Aug. „ 
 Publish an address to the powers protecting Greece, 
 
 21 Aug. „ 
 The Cretan general assembly proclaim the abolition 
 of the Turkish authority in Candia, and union 
 
 with Greece 2 Sept. „ 
 
 Commencement of hostilities : the Turkish army 
 
 commanded by Mustapha Pacha . .11 Sept. „ 
 Greeks victorious in several conflicts, Sept. and Oct. „ 
 The Greek steamer Panliellenion begins to convey 
 
 volunteers, <fec, to Candia . . . Oct. „ 
 Monastery of Arkadi besieged ; blown up by the 
 
 defenders ; great loss on both sides . 26 Nov. „ 
 Proposition of Austria, Prussia, Italy, and Switzer- 
 land to the sultan to give up Candia, 28 March ; 
 
 declined 31 March, 1867 
 
 Many defenceless villages said to be burnt June, ,, 
 Collective note from Russia and other powers urging 
 
 the Porte to suspend hostilities . 15 June,' „ 
 Indecisive conflicts July, „ 
 
CANDLEMAS DAY. 
 
 128 
 
 CANNON. 
 
 The Arkadi Greek steamer, after running the block- 
 ade 22 times, landing Greek volunteers, ami 
 bringing away women and children, destroyed by 
 the Turkish vessel Izeddin . . .19 Aug. 1867 
 Assembly of delegates meet the vizier . 22 Sept. „ 
 Insurrection subsides ; the grand vizier arrives, 28 
 Sept. ; proclaims an amnesty, and promises re- 
 forms 5 Nov - » 
 
 Successful blockade running by the Greeks ; Omar 
 Pasha, the Turkish general, resigns his command 
 
 in the island Nov. ,, 
 
 The delegates' demands granted . . 11 Dec. ,, 
 The war renewed (indecisive) . . . Feb. 186S 
 The Petropaulakes landed about 2500 men on oppo- 
 site sides of the isle, 10 Dee., but failed in their 
 attempt to unite ; after several skirmishes, in 
 which they lost about 650 men, all surrendered, 
 (and were sent to Greece) . . .26 Dec. ,, 
 The provisional government surrendered 30 Dec. ,, 
 The new Turkish governor, Omer Fenizi, arrived, 
 and the blockade ended . . .8 March, 1S69 
 
 CANDLEMAS DAY,. 2 Feb. is kept in the 
 church in memory of the purification of the Virgin, 
 who presented the infant Jesus in the Temple. 
 From the nnmber of candles lit (it is said in 
 memory of Simeon's song, Luke ii. 32, "a Light to 
 lighten the Gentiles," &c), this festival was called 
 Candlemas, as well as the Purification. Its origin 
 is ascribed by Bede to pope Gelasius in the 5th 
 century. The practice of lighting the churches was 
 forbidden by order of council, 2 Edw. VI. 1548; but 
 is still continued in the church of Rome. 
 
 CANDLES. The Eoman candles were com- 
 posed of string surrounded by wax, or dipped in 
 pitch. Splinters of wood fatted were used for light 
 among the lower classes in England, about 1300. 
 Wax candles were little used, and dipped candles 
 were usually burnt. The "Wax Chandlers' com- 
 pany was incorporated 1484. Mould candles are 
 said to be the invention of the sieur Le Brez, of 
 Paris. Spermaceti candles are of modern manu- 
 facture. The Chinese make candles from wax ob- 
 tained from the candleberry-tree (myrica cerifera). 
 The duty upon candles made in England, imposed 
 in 1709, amounted to about 500,000/. annually 
 "when it was repealed in 1831. "V ery great improve- 
 ments in the manufacture of candles are due to the 
 researches on oils and fats, carried on by " the 
 father of the fatty acids," Chevreul, since 1811, 
 and published in 1823. At Price's manufactory at 
 Lambeth, the principles involved in many patents 
 are carried into execution ; including "those of 
 Gwynne (1840), Jones and Price (1842), and "Wil- 
 son in 1844, for candles which require no snuffing 
 (termed composite). Palm and cocoa-nut oils are 
 now extensively used. In i860, at the Belmont 
 works 900 persons were employed, and in winter 
 100 tons (7000/, worth) of candles are manufactured 
 weekly. Candles are manufactured at Belmont 
 from the mineral oil of tar brought from Rangoon 
 in the Burmese empire and from Trinidad. In 
 1870 the manufacture of candles from a mineral 
 substance named ozokerit began. 
 
 CANDLESTICKS (or lamp-stands) with 
 seven branches were regarded as emblematical of 
 the priest's office, and were engraven on their seals, 
 cups, and tombs. Bezaleel made " a candlestick of 
 pure gold" for the tabernacle, B.C. 1491 {Exod. 
 xxvii. 17). Candlesticks were used in Britain in 
 the davs of king Edgar, 959 ("silver candelabra 
 and gilt candelabra well and honourably made "). 
 
 CANDY (Ceylon), was taken by a British de- 
 tachment, 20 Feb. 1803, who capitulated 23 June 
 following, on account of its unhealtliiness, and 
 many were treacherously massacred at Colombo, 
 
 26 June. The war was renewed in Oct. 1814; the 
 king was made prisoner by general Brownrigg, 
 19 Feb. 1815 ; and the sovereignty was vested in 
 Great Britain, 2 March, 1815. 
 
 CANICULAR PEEIOD, see Bog-star. 
 
 CANNJE (Apulia). Here, on 2 Aug. 216 Ti.<\, 
 Hannibal with 50,000 Africans, Gauls, and Spaniards, 
 defeated Paulus JEmilius and Terentius Varro, with 
 88,000 Romans, of whom 40,000 were slain. The- 
 victor sent to Carthage three bushels of rings, taken 
 from the Roman knights. The place is now deno- 
 minated by some " the field of blood." 
 
 CANNIBAL, an Indian term, thought to be 
 a form of Carribal ; as Columbus, in 1493, found 
 the Caribs of the West Indies gross cannibals. 
 Anthropophagi (man-eaters) are mentioned by 
 Homer and Herodotus ; and the practice still exists 
 in some of the South Sea Islands and other savage 
 countries. Cannibals are said to have been detected 
 in Perthshire, about 1339. 
 
 CANNING ADMINISTRATION.* The 
 
 illness of lord Liverpool, Feb., led to the formation 
 of this administration, 24-30 April, 1827. Mr- 
 Canning died 8 Aug. following : see Goderieh. 
 
 George Canning, first lord of the treasury and chancellor 
 
 of the exchequer. 
 Karl of Harrowby, president of the council. 
 Duke of Portland, lord privy seal. 
 Viscount Dudley, viscount Goderich, and Mr. Sturges 
 
 Bourne, foreign, colonial, anil home secretaries. 
 W. W. Wynn, president of the Italian board. 
 Win. Huskisson, board of trade. 
 Lord Palmerston, secretary at war. 
 Lord Bexley, chancellor if tin- dychy of Lancaster. 
 Duke of Clarence, lord high admii 
 Lord Lyndhurst, lord claim; Uor, d 
 Marquis of Lansdowne, without office; afterwards home 
 
 secretary. 
 Earl of Carlisle, woods ami forests. 
 
 CANNON. Gibbon describes a cannon em- 
 ployed by Mahomet II. at the siege of Adrianople 
 1453; see Artillery. 
 
 The first cannon cast in England was by Hugget, at 
 Uckfield, Sussex, 1543. 
 
 Morns Meg, a large cannon (above 13 ft. long, 20 
 inches calibre) in Edinburgh castle, said to have 
 been cast at Moms in Hainault, in i486, but more 
 probably forged at Castle Douglas, Calloway, by 
 three brothers named M'Kim. and presented by 
 them to James II. at the siege of Thrieve castle. 
 1455. It was removed to London, 1754; but, at 
 the request of sir Walter Scott, restored to Edin- 
 burgh, 1829. 
 
 A cannon of Mahomet II. , dated 1464, presented to 
 the British government by the sultan of Turkey, 
 and placed in the Artillery Museum, Woolwich, 
 1868. 
 
 MooUc-e-Maedan, an Indian bronze gun of Beejapoor, 
 calibre 23 inches ; 17th century. 
 
 At Ehrenbreitstein castle, opposite Coblentz on the 
 Rhine, is a cannon, eighteen feet and a half long. 
 a foot and a half in diameter in the bore, ami 
 three feet four inches in the breech ; the ball for 
 it weighs i8ott>., and its charge of powder 94th. 
 It was made by one Simon 1529 
 
 In Dover castle is a brass gun (called queen Eliza- 
 beth's pocket pistol), 24 feet long, a present from 
 Charles V. to Henry VIII. 
 
 Fine specimens in the Tower of London. 
 
 * George Canning was born 11 April, 1770; became 
 foreign secretary in the Portland administration, 1807; 
 fought a duel with Castlereagh and resigned in 1809; 
 presidi nt of the India board in 1S20 ; disapproved of the 
 queen's trial and resigned in 1821 ; appointed governor- 
 general of India in 1S22. but became soon after foreign 
 secretary, and remained such till 1827, when he became 
 premier. He died 8 Aug. same year. 
 
CANNON. 
 
 129 
 
 CANONS. 
 
 A leathern cannon fired three times in the King's 
 park, Edinburgh — Phillips. . . 23 Out. 1788 
 
 The Turkish piece, now in St. James's park, was 
 taken by the French at Alexandria ; but was re- 
 taken, and placed in the park . . March, 1803 
 
 Messrs. Horsfall's monster wrought-iron gun was 
 completed in May, 1856, at Liverpool. Its length 
 is 15 feet 10 inches, and its weight 21 tons 17 cwt. 
 1 qr. 14ft. Its cost was 3500Z. With a charge of 
 251b. it struck a target 2000 yards' distance. It 
 has been since presented to government. 
 
 Billed ordnance committee appointed . 20 Aug. 1858 
 
 Recently great improvements have been made in 
 the construction of cannon, by Messrs. Whit- 
 worth, Mallet, Armstrong, and others. Mr. Wm. 
 Gr. Armstrong knighted ... 18 Feb. 1859 
 
 He had been working for four years on gun-making, 
 and had succeeded in producing "a breech-load- 
 ing rifled wrought-iron gun of great durability 
 and of extreme lightness, combining a great ex- 
 tent of range and extraordinary accuracy." The 
 range of a 32-lb. gun, charged with 51b. of powder, 
 was a little more than 5 miles. The accuracy of 
 the Armstrong gun is said at equal distances to 
 be fifty-seven times more than that of our com- 
 mon artillery, which it greatly exceeded also in 
 destructive effects. The government engaged the 
 services of sir W. Armstrong for ten years (com- 
 mencing with 1855) for 20,000?., as consulting 
 engineer of rifled ordnance . . . 22 Feb. 1859 
 
 A parliamentary committee on ordnance was ap- 
 pointed 20 Feb. , and reported . . 23 July, i860 
 
 Sir W. Armstrong resigned his appointment 5 Feb. 1863 
 
 His gun said to be very effective in the attack on 
 the Chinese forts at Taku . . .21 Aug. i860 
 
 Mr. Whitworth's guns and rifles greatly commended 
 
 1860-70 
 
 An American cannon, weighing 35 tons, stated to 
 be the largest in the world, cast . . . . i860 
 
 Great endeavours made to improve the construction 
 of cannon, to counterbalance the strength given 
 to ships of war by iron plates ; trials at Shoe- 
 buryness, Essex 1862 
 
 Targets of the thickness of the iron sides of the 
 Warrior, three 5-inch plates of wrought iron 
 bolted together, pierced three times by 156ft. 
 shot from an Armstrong gun smooth bore, 300th. , 
 muzzle-loaded with charges of 40ft. of powder, 
 twice, and once of solb. ... 8 April, ,, 
 
 The Horsfall gun, mentioned above, with a charge 
 of 7stb. of powder and a shot of 270th. , smashed a 
 Warrior target 16 Sept. ,, 
 
 Mr. Whitworth's shells sent through 5^ inch iron 
 plates and wood-work behind . . 12 Nov. ,, 
 
 Armstrong's gun " Big Will" tried and pronounced 
 to be perfect ; weight, 22 tons ; length, 15 feet ; 
 range with shot weighing 510ft)., 748 to 4187 yards 
 
 19 Nov. 1863 
 
 Clark's target destroyed . . . .7 July, ,, 
 
 Reed's target tried successfully . . 8 Dec. „ 
 
 The competitive trial between the Armstrong and 
 Whitworth guns began 1 April, 1864 
 
 Iron-plate commission experiments close 4 Aug. ,, 
 
 Capt. Palliser, by experiment, has shown that iron 
 shot cast in cold iron moulds instead of hot sand, 
 is much harder and equals steel ; he also sug- 
 gested the lining cast iron guns with wrought 
 iron exits, which is stated to be successful . , , 
 
 The competitive trials of Armstrong's and Whit- 
 worth's cannon upon the Alfred target-ship at 
 Portsmouth closed .... 15 Nov. ,, 
 
 " Hercules target," 4 ft. 2 in. thick, nj- inches of 
 iron, resists 300 pounders . . . June, 1865 
 
 National Artillery Association (see Artillery) . . ,, 
 
 Duel between the Belleroption, with a 123- ton 9-inch 
 rifled naval service gun with steel bolts (250 ft.), 
 and powder charge of 48ft., and the single gun 
 turret of the " Royal Sovereign " by capt. Cowper 
 Coles : the equilibrium of the turret base undis- 
 turbed by any amount of pounding . 15 June, 1866 
 
 At Shoeburyness Palliser's chilled metal shot 
 (250ft.) by 43ft). of powder in a q-inch muzzle- 
 loading wrought-iron Woolwich rifle gun, is sent 
 through a target of 8 inches rolled iron, 18 inches 
 teak, and J inch iron, and about 20 feet beyond, 
 
 13 Sept. „ 
 
 [His patent is dated 27 May, 1863. Mr. James 
 
 Nasmyth had previously suggested the use of 
 chilled iron. ] 
 
 Many experiments made with cannon and targets at 
 Shoeburyness . . • 1867 
 
 The American 15-ineh naval gun, with a cast-iron 
 spherical shot 453ft., greatly damages an 8-inch 
 target ; other experiments at Shoeburyness, 
 
 23 July, „ 
 
 Continued experiments at Shoeburyness ; Ply- 
 mouth model fort, with 15-inch solid shield- 
 plates, tried with 23 ton gun of 12-inch bore, 
 bearing 6ootb. Palliser shot ; exterior of fort de- 
 stroyed ; interior intact ; — the 10-inch English 
 gun shown to be superior to American and Prus- 
 sian great guns .... 16-24 June, iS63 
 
 Capt. Moncrieff's protected barbette gun-carriage 
 (in which the recoil is utilized for reloading), 
 tried at Shoeburyness and proved successful, 
 
 2 Oct. „ 
 
 Contest at Shoeburyness : the iron targets of 
 Brown of Sheffield resist the Whitworth guns, 
 
 2 March, 1870 
 
 Palliser shot said to have failed in the Hercules, 
 
 20 Jan. ,, 
 
 " Woolwich Infant," 35 tons ; largest gun then ever 
 made ; length 16 feet 3 inches ; formed of a steel 
 tube with coiled breech piece ; designed to fire a 
 700ft. projectile, with 120ft. charge ; made at 
 Woolwich in 1870 ; when tried in Dee. 1871, the 
 inner tube cracked ; others made .... 1372 
 
 Duel between the Hotspur (with 25 ton 12-inch rifle 
 gun, heaviest afloat, with Palliser's 600ft. shot, 
 and 85ft. of powder), and the Glatton iron clad, 
 whose turret plates successfully resisted the 
 attack (animals in the turret uninjured), 5 July, 1872 
 
 CANOE. In the "Rob Roy" a very lightly 
 constructed canoe, " giving the pleasure of a yacht 
 without the expense," Mr. J. Macgregor, in 1865, 
 travelled about a thousand miles on the rivers and 
 lakes of Europe. His second cruise was on the 
 Baltic. He explored the Suez canal, Nov. and the 
 rivers of Syria, Dec. 1868, and the canals and lakes 
 of Holland in the summer of 1 87 1 . The ' ' Octoroon ' ' 
 (16 feet long, 23 inches broad) crossed the channel 
 from Boulogne to Dover, in 1 1 hours ; 19 Aug. 
 1867. The canoe club founded, 1866. 
 
 CANONICAL HOUES, see Breviary. 
 
 CANON of SCBIPTUEE, see Bible. 
 
 CANONISATION of pious men and martyrs 
 as saints, was instituted by pope Leo III., 800. 
 Tallent. Every day in the calendar is now a 
 saint's day. The first canonisation by papal autho- 
 rity was of St. Udalricus, Ulric, in 993. Previously 
 canonisation was the act of the bishops and people. 
 Senault. On 8 June, 1862, the pope canonised 27 
 Japanese, who had been put to death on 5 Feb. 
 i<597, near Nagasaki, and 25 others, on 29 June, 
 1867. Among the persons canonised by the pope 
 Pius IX. in Oct. 1872, was the late queen of 
 Naples. 
 
 CANONS, Apostolical, ascribed to the 
 
 Apostles by Bellarmin and Baronius, by others to 
 St. Clement, are certainly of much later date (since 
 325) . The Greek church allows 85, the Latin 50 of 
 them. The first Ecclesiastical Canon was promul- 
 gated 380. Usher. Canon law of the church was 
 introduced into Europe by Gratian about 1 140, and 
 into England in 1 154. Stoiv ; see Decretals. The 
 present Canons and Constitutions of the Church of 
 England, collected from former ordinances, were 
 established in 1603 by the clergy in convocation, 
 and ratified by king James I., 1604. A new body 
 of canons formed by the convocation in 1640, were 
 declared unlawful by the commons, 16 Dec. 1641. — 
 An intermediate class of religious, between priests 
 
CANOPUS. 
 
 130 
 
 CANTERBURY. 
 
 and monks, in the 8th century, were termed canons, 
 as living by a rule. Canons in some of our cathedrals 
 and collegiate churches resemble the prebendaries 
 in others. 
 
 CANOPUS, see Alexandria. 
 
 CANOSSA, a castle in Modena. Here the 
 emperor Henry IV. of Germany, submitted to 
 penance imposed by Ms enemy, pope Gregory VII. 
 (Hildebrand), then living at the castle, the resi- 
 dence of the great countess Matilda. Henry was 
 exposed for several days to the inclemency of 
 winter, Jan. 1077, till the pope admitted him, and 
 granted absolution. Matilda greatly increased the 
 temporal power of the papacy by bequeathing to it 
 her large estates, to the injury of her second hus- 
 band, Guelph, duke of Bavaria. 
 
 CANTERBURY (Kent), the Durovemnm of 
 the Romans, and capital of Ethelbert, king of Kent, 
 who reigned 560-616. He was converted to Chris- 
 tianity by Augustin, 596, upon whom he bestowed 
 many favours, giving him land for an abbey and 
 cathedral, dedicated to Christ, 602. St. Martin's 
 church is said to be the oldest Saxon church in 
 Britain. The riot at Boughton, near Canterbury, 
 produced by a, fanatic called Tom or Thorn, who 
 assumed the name of sir William Courtenay, oc- 
 curred 28-31 May, 1838; see Thomites. The rail- 
 way to London was completed in 1846. — The Arch- 
 bishop is primate and metropolitan of all England, 
 and the first peer in the realm, having precedency 
 of all officers of state, and of all dukes not of the 
 blood royal. Canterbury had formerly j urisdiction 
 over Ireland, and the archbishop was styled a 
 patriarch. This see has yielded to the Church of 
 Rome 18 saints and 9 cardinals ; and to the civil 
 state of England, 12 lord chancellors, and 4 lord trea- 
 surers. This see was made superior to York, 1073 i 
 see York. The revenue is valued in the king's 
 books at 2816^. "]s. gd. Beatson. Present income, 
 15,000/. The Cathedral was sacked by the Danes, 
 ion, and burnt down 1067; rebuilt by Lanfranc 
 and Anselm, and the choir completed by the prior 
 Conrad in 1 130, and in which Becket was mur- 
 dered, 1170, was burnt 1174. It was rebuilt by 
 William of Sens (1174-78), and by " English 
 William," 1178-84. A new nave was built and 
 other parts, 1378-1410. The great central tower 
 was erected by prior Goldstone about 1495. The 
 gorgeous shrine of Becket was stripped at the 
 reformation, and Ms bones burnt. Here were in- 
 terred Edward the Black Prince, Henry IV., car- 
 dinal Pole, and other distinguished persons. Part 
 of the roof was destroyed by an accidental fire, 
 and the edifice narrowly escaped, 3 Sept. 1872. 
 
 Arclihislwps of Ca nterb u ry. 
 
 602-605. St. Augustine, or Austin, died 26 May. 
 
 605-619. St. Lawrence. 
 
 619-624. St. Mellitus. 
 
 624-630. Justus. 
 
 631-653. St. Honorius. 
 
 655-664. Deusdedit (Adeodatus). 
 
 668-690. Theodore of Tarsu3. 
 
 693-731. Berhtuald. 
 
 731-734. Taetwine. 
 
 735-74 1 - Nothelm. 
 
 741-758. Cuthbert. 
 
 759-762. Breogwine. 
 
 763-790. Jaenbehrt, or Lambert. 
 
 790-803. jEthelheard. 
 
 803-829. Wulfred. 
 
 829. Fleogild. 
 
 830-870. Ceobioth. 
 
 870-889. -ZEthelred. 
 
 891-923. Plegemund. 
 
 923 (?) .Etholm. 
 
 928-941. Wulfelrn. 
 
 Odo. 
 
 St. Dunstan, d. 19 May. 
 
 /Ethelgar. 
 
 Sigeric. 
 
 yKlfric. 
 
 St. iElphage, murdered by the Danes, 19 April. 
 Lyiing, or JSlfstun. 
 iBthelnoth. 
 St. Eadsige. 
 Robert of Jumieges. 
 Stigand : deprived. 
 St. Lanfranc, d. 24 May. 
 Anselm. 
 [See vacant. 5 years.] 
 
 Radulphus de Turbine. 
 
 William de Curbellio. 
 
 Theobald. 
 
 Thomas a Becket : murdered 29 Dee. 
 [See vacant] 
 
 Richard. 
 
 Baldwin. 
 
 Reginald Fitz-Joceline, died 26 Dee. 
 [See vacant.] 
 
 Hubert Walter. [Reginald the sub-prior, and 
 John Grey, bishop of Norwich, were suc- 
 cessively chosen, but. set aside.] 
 
 Stephen Langton, died 6 July. 
 
 Richard Weathershed. 
 
 Edmund de Abingdon. 
 
 Boniface of Savoy. 
 
 Robert Kilwarby (resigned). 
 
 John Peckham. 
 
 Robert Winehelsey. 
 
 Walter Reynolds. 
 
 Simon de Mepham. 
 
 John Stratford. 
 
 John de Uffbrd. 
 
 Thomas Bradwardin. 
 
 Simon Ialip. 
 
 Simon Langham (resigned). 
 
 Wm. Whittelsey. 
 
 Simon Sudbury, beheaded by the rebels, 14 
 June. 
 
 William Courtenay. 
 
 Thos. Fitzalan or Arundel (attainted). 
 
 Roger Walden (expelled). 
 
 Tho. Arundel (restored). 
 
 Henry Chicheley. 
 
 John Stafford. 
 
 John Kemp. 
 
 Thomas Bouchier. 
 
 John Morton. 
 
 Henry Deane or Denny. 
 
 Wm. Warham. 
 
 Thus. Cranmer (burnt 21 March). 
 
 Reginald Pole, d. 17 Nov. 
 
 Matt. Parker, d. 17 May. 
 
 Edm. Grindal, d. 6 July. 
 
 John Whitgilt, d. 29 Feb. 
 
 Rd. Bancroft, d. 2 Nov. 
 
 Geo. Abbot, d. 4 Aug. 
 
 Wm. Laud (beheaded, 10 Jan). 
 [See vacant 16 years.] 
 
 Wm. Juxon, d. 4 June. 
 
 Gilb. Sheldon, d. 9 Nov. 
 
 Wm. Bancroft (deprived 1 Feb.), d. 24 Nov. 
 1693. 
 
 John Tillotson, d. 22 Nov. 
 
 Thos. Tenison, d. 14 Dec. 
 
 Win. Wake. d. 24 Jan. 
 
 John Potter, d. 10 Oct. 
 
 Thos. Herring, d. 13 Mar. 
 
 Matt. Hutton, d. 19 Mar. 
 
 Thos. Seeker, d. 3 Aug. 
 
 Fred. Cornwallis, d. 19 Mar. 
 
 John Moore, d. iS .Ian. 
 
 Chas. Manners Sutton, d. 21 July. 
 
 Wm. Howley, d. n Feb. 
 
 John Bird Sumner, d. 6 Sept. 
 
 Chas. Thos. Longley, d. 27 Oct. 
 
 Archibald Campbell Tait, elected 4 Dee. 
 
 CANTERBURY (New Zealand), a Church of 
 England settlement founded in 1850. Population 
 in 1854, 6000, in 1868, 54,000; during that period, 
 1,800,000/. expended on public works, principally 
 from the current revenue. 
 
 941-958. 
 
 959-988. 
 
 988-989. 
 
 990-995. 
 
 995-1006. 
 1006-1011. 
 1013-1020. 
 1020-1038. 
 1038-1050. 
 1050-1052. 
 1052-1070. 
 1070-1089. 
 1093-1109. 
 
 1114-1122. 
 1123-1136. 
 1139-1161. 
 1162-1170. 
 
 1174-1184. 
 1184-1190. 
 1191. 
 
 1206-1228. 
 1229-1231. 
 1233-1240. 
 1240-1270. 
 1272-1278. 
 1279-1292. 
 1293-1313. 
 1313-1327. 
 1327-1333- 
 1333-1348. 
 1348-1349. 
 
 1349- 
 
 1349-1366. 
 
 1366-1368. 
 
 1368-1374. 
 
 1375-1381. 
 
 1381-1396. 
 
 1397-1398. 
 
 1398. 
 
 1399-1414. 
 
 1414-1443. 
 
 1443-1452. 
 
 1452-1454. 
 
 1454-1486. 
 
 1486-1500. 
 
 1501-1503. 
 
 1503-1532. 
 
 1533-1556. 
 
 1556-1558. 
 
 '559- I 575- 
 
 1576-1583. 
 
 1583-1604. 
 
 1604-1610. 
 
 1611-1633. 
 
 1633-1645. 
 
 1660-1663. 
 1663-1677. 
 
 1691-1694. 
 1695-1715. 
 I7 1 5-i737- 
 i737-!747' 
 1747-1757' 
 I757-I758. 
 1758-1768. 
 176S-1783. 
 1783-1805. 
 1805-1828. 
 1828-1848. 
 1848-1862, 
 1862-1868. 
 
CANTEEBUBY TALES. 
 
 131 
 
 CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. 
 
 CANTEBBUEY TALES, by Geoffrey 
 Chaucer, were wi-itten about 1364 ; and first printed 
 about 1475 or 1476 (by Caxton) . Chaucer Society 
 established 1867. 
 
 CANTHABIDES, venomous green beetles 
 (called Spanish flies), employed to raise blisters. 
 This use is ascribed to Aretseus of Cappadocia, 
 about 50 B.C. 
 
 Dutch 1643 ; demolished by admiral Holmes in 
 1 66 1. All the British factories and shipping along 
 the coast were destroyed by the Dutch admiral, 
 De Euyter, in 1665. Jt was confirmed to the 
 English by the treaty of Breda, in 1667. See 
 Ashantees. 
 
 CAPE DE VEEDE ISLANDS (N. At- 
 lantic Ocean), belonging to Portugal, were known to 
 the ancients as Gorgades, but not to the modems till 
 discovered by Antonio de Noli, a Genoese navigator 
 
 CANTON, founded about 200 B.C., the only 
 city in China with which Europeans were allowed { in the service of Portugal, 1446, 1450, or 1460' 
 to trade, till the treaty of 29 Aug. 1842. Merchants 
 arrived here in 1517. English factory established, 
 1680. A fire destroying 15,000 houses, 1822. An 
 inundation swept away 10,000 houses and 1000 
 persons, Oct. 1833 . Canton was taken by the British 
 in 1857 ; restored, 1861. See China 1835, 1839, 
 1856, 1861. Population estimated at 1,000,000. 
 
 CANTOE LECTUEES, courses given an- 
 nually at the rooms of the Society of Arts. The 
 expenses are defrayed by a legacy from Dr. Theo- 
 dore Edward Cantor, of the Indian civil service; 
 who died about 18W. The lectures began 7 Dec. 
 1863. 
 
 . CANULEIAN LAW, permitting the patri- 
 cians and plebeians to intermarry, was passed at 
 Eome 445 B.C. 
 
 CAOUTCHOUC or India Etjbber, an 
 
 elastic resinous substance that exudes by incisions 
 from several trees that grow in South America, 
 Mexico, Africa, and Asia, especially Castilloa 
 Sevea or Siphonia elastica, and Ficus elastica. 
 
 Observed, at Hayti by Columbus (Herrera) . . . 1493 
 
 Described by Torquemada 1615 
 
 Discovered by La Condamine in Quito (termed by 
 natives cahout-chou) and brought to Europe 
 
 about 1735 
 
 Dr. Priestley said that lie had seen "a substance 
 excellently adapted to the purpose of wiping from 
 paper the marks of a black lead pencil." It was 
 sold at the rate of 3s. the cubic half- inch . . 1770 
 
 India rubber cloth was made by Samuel Peal and 
 patented . .... 1791 
 
 Caoutchouc discovered in the Malay Archipelago, 
 1798 ; in Assam i8 IO 
 
 Vulcanised rubber formed by combining India rub- 
 ber with sulphur, which process removes the sus- 
 ceptibility of the rubber to change under atmos- 
 pheric temperatures, was patented in America, 
 by Mr. C. Goodyear 1839 
 
 Invented also by Mr. T. Hancock (of the firm of 
 Mackintosh & Co.), and patented . . . . 1843 
 
 Mr. Goodyear invented the hard rubber (termed 
 Ebonite) as a substitute for horn and tortoise- 
 shell ... 1849 
 
 A mode of retaining India rubber in its natural 
 fluid state (by applying to it liquid ammonia) 
 patented in England for the inventor, Mr. Henry 
 Lee Norris, of New York 1853 
 
 African caoutchouc imported into England . . 1856 
 
 Caoutchouc imported in 1850, 7617 ewts. ; in 1856, 
 28,765 cwts. ; in 1864, 71,027 ewts. ; in 1866, 
 72,176 cwts. ; in 1870, 152,118 cwts. 
 
 CAPE BEETON, a large island, E. coast of 
 N. America, said to have been discovered by Cabot, 
 1497 ; by the English in 1584 ; taken by the French 
 in 1632, but was afterwards restored ; and again 
 taken in 1745, and re-taken in 1748. The fortress 
 Louisburg, was captured by the English 26 July, 
 1758, when the garrison were made prisoners, and 
 eleven French ships were captured or destroyed. 
 The island was ceded to England, 10 Feb. 1763. 
 
 CAPE -COAST CASTLE (S. W. Africa). 
 Settled by the Portuguese in 1610 ; taken by the 
 
 CAPE FINISTEEEE (N. W. Spain). Off 
 this cape admirals lord Anson and AVarren de- 
 feated and captured a French fleet under De la 
 Jonquiere, 3 May, 1747. 
 
 CAPE LA HOCUE, see la llogue. 
 
 CAPEL COUET, see under Stocks. 
 
 CAPE OF GOOD HOPE, a promontory on 
 the S. "W. point of Africa, called " Cabo Tormen- 
 toso" (the stormy cape), the " Lion of the Sea," 
 and the " Head of Africa," discovered by Bar- 
 tholomew de Diaz in 1487. Its present name was 
 given by John II. of Portugal, who augured favour- 
 ably of future discoveries from Diaz having reached 
 the extremity of Africa. Population in 1856, 
 267,096; in 1871, 682,600. 
 
 The cape was doubled, and the passage to India 
 
 discovered by Vasco de Gama . .19 Nov. 1497 
 Cape Town, the capital, founded by the Dutch . 1650 
 Colony taken by the English under 'admiral Elphin- 
 
 stone and general Clarke . .16 Sept. 1795 
 
 Restored at the peace of Amiens . . 25 March, 1802 
 Taken by sir D. Baird and sir H. Popham 9 Jan. 1806 
 Finally ceded to England ... 13 Aug. 1814 
 British emigrants arrive .... March, 1820 
 The Kaffres make irruptions on the British settle- 
 ments, and ravage Grahamstown ; see Kaffraria, 
 
 ^. , 0ct - J 834 
 
 Bishopric of Cape Town founded ; Dr. Robert Gray, 
 
 first bishop x g^ 7 
 
 The inhabitants successfully resist the attempt to • 
 
 make the cape a penal colony . . 19 May, 1849 
 
 Territories north of Great Orange river placed under 
 
 British authority, 3 Feb. 1848 ; annexed as the 
 
 Orange river territory .... March, iSc, 
 
 The constitution granted to the colony promulgated 
 
 and joyfully received .... 1 July, 
 
 General PrEetorius, chief of the Trans- Vaiil republic, 
 
 died Aug. 
 
 The British jurisdiction over the Orange river 
 territory abandoned, 30 Jan. ; a free state was 
 formed ; see Orange river . . . March, 1854 
 The first parliament meets at Cape Town 1 July, „ 
 The Kaffres much excited by a prophet named 
 Umhla-kaza ; by the exertions of sir George Grey, 
 the governor, tranquillity maintained . Aug. 1856 
 The cape visited by prince Alfred in . July, i860 
 
 The first railway from Cape Town, about 58 miles 
 
 long, opened about Dec. „ 
 
 Governor, sir Philip E. "Wodehouse .... 1861 
 Disputes between bishops of Cape Town and Natal ; 
 
 see Church of England 1863-5 
 
 Cape Town visited by the duke of Edinburgh, 
 
 17 Aug. 1867 
 Discovery of diamonds ; leads to disputes between 
 
 the free states and the tribes ; see Diamonds 1867-70 
 
 Large tracts of territory devastated by fire Feb. i860 
 
 Death of Moshesh, an eminent chief of the Basutos, 
 
 friendly to the British . . . 11 March, 
 
 New harbour, breakwater, and docks at Cape 
 
 Town inaugurated by the duke of Edinburgh, 
 
 12 July, 
 
 Sir Henry Barkly appointed governor . Aug. 
 
 Energetic conduct of sir Henry Barkly. repressing 
 
 aggressions of the president of the Orange river 
 
 territory March, 
 
 The British flag erected amidst the diamond fields 
 with great acclamation . 17 Nov. 
 
 K 2 
 
 1853 
 
 1853 
 
 1870 
 
CAPE ST. VINCENT. 
 
 132 
 
 CAPUA. 
 
 Great success in the diamond fields : robbery of 
 diamonds valued between 35,000/. and 40,000*. ; 
 oppression of the natives stopped by sir H.Barkly, 
 
 Aug. 1872 
 
 Death of bishop Gray, deeply lamented . 1 Sept. „ 
 
 CAPE ST. VINCENT (S. W. Portugal). 
 Sir George Kooke, with twenty-three ships of war, 
 and the Turkey fleet, was attacked by Tourville, 
 with 160 ships, off Cape St. Vincent, when twelve 
 English and Dutch men of war, and eighty mer- 
 chantmen, were captured or destroyed by the 
 French, 16 June, 1693.— Sir John Jervis, with the 
 Mediterranean fleet of fifteen sail, defeated the 
 Spanish fleet of twenty-seven ships of the line off 
 this cape, taking four ships and sinking others, 
 14 Feb. 1797. For this victory sir John was raised 
 to the peerage, as earl St. Vincent. Nelson was 
 engaged in this battle. Near this cape the fleet of 
 dom Pedro, under admiral Charles Napier, captured 
 dom Miguel's fleet, 5 July, 1833. 
 
 CAPETIANS, the third race of the kings of 
 France, named from Hugo Capet, count of Paris 
 and Orleans, who seized the throne on the death of 
 Louis V., called the Indolent, 987. Henault. The 
 first line of the house of Capet ended with Charles 
 IV., in 1328, when Philip VI. of Valois ascended 
 the throne ; see France. 
 
 CAPILLAEITY (the rising of liquids in 
 small tubes, and the ascent of the sap in plants) 
 is said to have been first observed by Niccolo 
 Aggiunti of Pisa, 1600-35. Tne theory has been 
 examined by Newton, La Place, and others. Dr. 
 T. Young's theory was put forth in 1805, and 
 Mr. Wertheim's researches in 1857. 
 
 CAPITAL PUNISHMENT, see Death. 
 
 CAPITATION TAX, see Foil-tax. 
 
 CAPITOL, said to have been so called from 
 a human head (caput) found when digging the 
 foundations of the fortress of Rome, on Mons Tar- 
 peius. Here a temple was built to Jupiter Capito- 
 linus. The foundation was laid by Tarquinius 
 Prisons, 616 B.C. ; the building was continued by 
 Servius Tullius ; completed by Tarquinius Super- 
 bus, but not dedicated till 507 B.C. by the consul 
 Horatius. It was destroyed by lightning 6 July, 
 183 ; burnt during the civil wars, 83 ; rebuilt by 
 Sylla, and dedicated again by Lutatius Catulus, 69; 
 again burnt a.d. 69, 80 ; rebuilt 70, 82 ; sacked by 
 Genseric, June, 455. The Eoman consuls made 
 large donations to this temple, and the emperor 
 Augustus bestowed on it 2000 pounds weight of 
 gold, of which metal the roof was composed : its 
 thresholds were of brass, and its interior was de- 
 corated with shields of solid silver. The Capitoline 
 games, instituted 387 B.C. to commemorate the de- 
 liverance from the Gauls, were revived by Domitian, 
 A.D. 86. The Campidoglio contains palaces of the 
 senators, erected on the site of the Capitol by 
 Michael Angelo soon after 1546. 
 
 CAPITULARIES, the laws of the Frankish 
 kings, commencing with Charlemagne (801). Col- 
 lections have been published by JJaluze (1677) and 
 others. 
 
 CAPITULATIONS: a name given to the 
 judicial rights granted by treaties to foreign consuls 
 in Turkey. After many years' opposition, the 
 sultan addressed a memorial to the sovereigns of 
 Europe, in June, 1869; and modifications were 
 agreed to, April, 1870. The sultan decided on the 
 
 abolition of the capitulations in Egvpt about July, 
 1872. 
 
 CAPPADOCIA, Asia Minor. Its early history 
 is involved in obscurity. 
 
 Pharnaces said to have.founded the kingdom B.C. 744 
 Cappadocia conquered by Perdiccas, regent of 
 Macedon ; the king, Ariarathes I., aged 82, 
 
 crucified 3 22 
 
 Recovers its independence 3'5 
 
 Conquered by Mithridatea of Pontes . . . 291 
 Hfeld by Seleucus 288 ; independent . . . . 28S 
 Ariarathes V., Philopator, reigns 162 ; dethroned 
 by Holophemes, 130, but restored by the Bo- 
 mans, 158 : killed with Crassus in the war against 
 
 Aristonicus 13° 
 
 His queen, Laodice, poisons five of her sons ; the 
 sixth (Ariarathes VI.) is .saved ; she is put to 
 
 death. 
 
 Ariarathes VI. murdered by Mithridates Eupator ; 
 who sets up various pretenders ; the Roman 
 senate declares the country free, and appoints 
 
 Ariobarzanes I. king 93 
 
 He is several times expelled by Mithridates, (fee., 
 
 but restored by the Romans ; dies ... 64 
 Ariobarzanes II. supports Pompey, and is slain by 
 
 Crassus 42 
 
 Ariarathes VII. deposed by Antony . ... 36 
 Arehelaus is favoured by Augustus, 20 B.C. ; but 
 accused by Tiberius, he comes to Home and dies 
 there oppressed with age .... a.d. 15 
 Cappadocia becomes a Roman province . . 17 
 
 Invaded by tie Huns 515 
 
 And by the Saracens 717 
 
 Recovered by the emperor Basil 1 876 
 
 Conquered by Soliman and the Turks. . . . 1074 
 Annexed to Turkish Empire 1360 
 
 CAPPEL (Switzerland). Here the reformer 
 TJlric Zwinglius was slain in a conflict between, 
 the catholics and the men of Zurich, 11 Oct. 1531. 
 
 CAPRI (Caprea^), an island near Naples, the 
 sumptuous residence of Augustus, and particularly 
 of Tiberius, memorable for the debaucheries he 
 committed during his last years, 27-37. Capri was 
 taken by sir Sydney Smith, 12 May, 1806. 
 
 CAPS, see Hats. 
 
 CAPS AKD HATS. About 1738, Sweden was 
 much distracted by two factions thus named, the 
 former in the interest of the Eussians, and the latter 
 in that of the French. They were broken up and 
 the names prohibited by GustavusIII. in 177 1, who 
 desired to exclude foreign influence. His assassina- 
 tion by Ankarstrom, 16 March, 1792, set aside all 
 his plans for the improvement of Sweden. 
 
 CAPSTAN, used to work ships' anchors, is 
 said to have been invented, but more probably was 
 only improved, by sir Samuel Morland, who died 
 30 Dec. 1695. 
 
 CAPTAIN, H.M.'s iron-clad turret ship, 
 capsized during a squall, 12.15 a.m., 7 Sept., 1870. 
 capt. Hugh Burgoyne, capt. Cowper Coles, who 
 designed the vessel, and 469 persons perished. See 
 under Nary of England. Subscriptions for relief 
 of the widows and orphans of the lost up to 17 Nov., 
 34,894/. ; 3 Dec, 38,004/. ; 31 Dec, about 46,000/. ; 
 May, 1871, about 55,000/. ; 25 June, 1871, about 
 55.700/. 
 
 CAPUA (Naples), capital of Campania, took the 
 part of Hannibal when his army wintered here 
 after the battle of Cannae, 216 B.C., and it is said 
 became enervated. La 211, when the Eomans re- 
 took the city, they scourged and beheaded all the 
 surviving senators ; the others had poisoned them- 
 selves after a banquet previous to the surrender of 
 the city. Only two persons escaped; one woman 
 
CAPUCHIN FRIARS. 
 
 133 
 
 CARIGNAN. 
 
 who had prayed for the success of the Romans, and 
 another who succoured some prisoners. During the 
 middle ages Capua was successively subjugated by 
 the Greeks, Saracens, Normans, and Germans. It 
 was restored to Naples in 1424, and captured by 
 Caesar Borgia, 24 July, 1501; was taken by Garibaldi 
 2 Nov. i860. 
 
 CAPUCHIN. FRIARS, Franciscans, so 
 named from wearing a Capuchon, or cowl hanging 
 down upon their backs. The order was founded by 
 Matthew Baschi, about 1525; and established by 
 the pope Clement VII. 1529. The capuchin con- 
 fessors of the queen Henrietta introduced here 1630, 
 ■were imprisoned by the parliament, 1642. 
 
 CAR. The invention is ascribed to Erichthonius 
 of Athens, about i486 B.C. Covered cars (eurrus 
 arcuatl) were used by the Romans. The lectica (a 
 soft cushioned car) , next invented, gave place to the 
 carpentum, a two-wheeled car, with an arched 
 covering, hung with costly cloth. Still later were 
 the carructs, in which the officers of state rode. 
 Triumphal cars, introduced by Tarquin the Elder, 
 were formed like a throne. 
 
 CARACAS (S. America), part of Venezuela, 
 discovered by Columbus 1498. It Avas reduced by 
 arms, and assigned as property to the "VVelsers, 
 German merchants, by Charles V. ; but for their 
 tyranny, they were dispossessed in 1550, and a 
 crown governor appointed. The province declared 
 its independence, 9 May, 1810. In the citjr Leon 
 de Caracas, on 26 March, 1812, nearly 12,000 per- 
 sons perished by an earthquake ; see Venezuela. 
 
 CARBERRY HILL (S. Scotland). Here 
 lord Hume and the confederate barons dispersed the 
 royal army under Both well, and took Mary queen 
 of Scots prisoner, 15 June, 1567. Bothwell lied. 
 
 CARBOLIC ACID (or phenic acid), obtained 
 by the distillation of pit-coal, is a powerful anti- 
 septic. It is largely manufactured for medical pur- 
 poses, and has been advantageously used at Carlisle 
 and Exeter in the deodorisation of sewage (1860-1) ; 
 and as a disinfectant during the prevalence of cholera 
 in London in 1866. It was successfully used for 
 embalming by professor Seely in 1868. 
 
 CARBON" was shown to be a distinct element 
 by Lavoisier in 1788. He proved the diamond to 
 be its purest form, and converted it into carbonic 
 acid gas by combustion. 
 
 CARBONARI (charcoal-burners), a powerful 
 secret society in Italy, which derived its origin, 
 according to some, from the Waldenses, and which 
 became prominent early in the present century. It 
 aimed at the expulsion of foreigners from Italy, and 
 the establishment of civil and religious liberty. In 
 March, 1820, it is said that 650,000 joined the so- 
 ciety, and an insurrection soon after broke out in 
 Naples, general Pepe taking the command. The 
 king Ferdinand made political concessions, but the 
 influence of the allied sovereigns at Laybach led 
 Ferdinand to annul them and suppress the liberal 
 party, Jan. 1821, when the Carbonari were denounced 
 as traitors. The society spread in France, and doubt- 
 less hastened the revolutions in 1830 and 1848. 
 
 CARBONIC ACID GAS, a gaseous com- 
 pound of carbon and oxygen, found in the air, and a 
 product of combustion, respiration, and fermentation. 
 The Grotto del Cane yields 200,000 lbs. per annum. 
 No animal can breathe this gas. The briskness of 
 champagne, beer, &c, is due to its presence. It 
 was liquefied by atmospheric pressure by Faraday i n 
 
 1823. On exposing the liquid to the air it becomes 
 solid, resembling snow, through vaporisation. 
 
 CARDIFF CASTLE (S. Wales). Here 
 Robert, duke of Normandy, eldest son of William I., 
 is said to have been imprisoned from 1 106 till his 
 death 10 Feb. 1135. 
 
 CARDIGAN BAY, see Fishguard. 
 
 CARDINALS, princes in the church of Rome, 
 the council of the pope, and the conclave or " sacred 
 college," at first were the principal priests or in- 
 cumbents of the parishes in Rome, and said to have 
 been called cardinales in 853. They began to as- 
 sume the exclusive power of electing the popes 
 about 1 179. They first wore the red hat to remind 
 them that they ought to shed their blood for re- 
 ligion, if required, and were declared princes of the 
 church by Innocent IV., 1243 or 1245. Paul II. 
 gave the scarlet habit, 1464 ; and Urban VIII. the 
 title of Eminence in 1623 or 1630. In 1586 Sixtus V. 
 fixed their number at 70 ; but there are generally 
 vacancies. In i860 there were 69 cardinals ; in 
 1864, 59 ; in Nov. 1867, 52 ;— in 1873, 5 of tne or(i - ei ' 
 of bishops; 34 priests; 6 deacons; 45 m all. Nine 
 cardinals (one a Bonaparte) were made, 13 March, 
 1868.* 
 
 CARDROSS CASE, see Trials, 1861. 
 
 CARDS (referred to the Chinese, Hindoos, and 
 Romans), are said to have been invented in France 
 in 1391, to amuse Charles IV. when depressed. 
 Piquet and all the early names are French. — Cards 
 first taxed in England 1710. 428,000 packs were 
 stamped in 1775, and 986,000 in 1800. In 1825, 
 the duty being then 2s. del. per pack, less than 
 150,000 packs were stamped ; but in 1827 the stamp 
 duty was reduced to is., and 310,854 packs paid 
 duty in 1830. Duty was paid on 239,200 packs in 
 the year ending 5 Jan. 1840 ; and on near 300,000, 
 year ending 5 Jan. 1850. By an act passed in 1862 
 the duty on cards was reduced to 3^. per pack, and 
 the sellers were required to take out a licence. 
 
 CARIA (Asia Minor), was conquered by Cyrus, 
 546 B.C. ; by Dercyllidas, a Lacedaemonian, 397 ; 
 his successor Hecatomnus became king, 385 B.C. ; 
 for his son Mausolus the Mausoleum was erected 
 {which see). Caria was annexed by the Romans, 
 129 B.C. It is now part of the Turkish empire. 
 
 CARIBBEE ISLANDS, see West Indies. 
 
 CARICATURES. Bufalmaco, an Italian 
 painter, about 1330, drew caricatures and put labels 
 to the mouths of his figures with sentences. The 
 modern caricatures of Gilray, Rowlandson, H. B. 
 
 (John Doyle ™ = B3), Richard Doyle, John 
 
 Leech, and John Tenniel are justly celebrated. 
 The well-known " Punch" was first published in 
 1841. The most eminent writers of fiction of the 
 day and others (Douglas Jerrold, Thackeray, 
 A'Becket, Professor E. Forbes, &c.) contributed to 
 this amusing periodical. See Punch. 
 
 CARIGNAN, a small town about twelve miles 
 from Sedan, department of Ardennes, N.E. France. 
 At the plain of Douzy near this place and the en- 
 campment of Vaux, a part of MacMahon's army, 
 retreating before the Germans, turned round and 
 made a stand, 31 Aug. 1870. After a long severe 
 engagement, in -which the same positions were 
 
 * English Cardinals: Henry Stuart, created 1747: 
 Charles Erskine, 1S01 ; Thomas Weld, 1830 ; Charles 
 Acton, 1S39 ; Nicholas Wiseman, 30 Sept. 1850—65. 
 
CABINTHIA. 
 
 134 
 
 CARNIVAL. 
 
 taken and retaken several times, the Germans 
 turned the flank of their enemies, who were com- 
 pelled to fall back upon Sedan, where they were 
 finally overcome, i Sept. 
 
 CABINTHIA, a Bavarian duchy, annexed to 
 the territories of the duke of Austria, 1336. 
 
 CAEISBROOKE CASTLE (Isle of Wight), 
 said to have been a British and Roman fortress, was 
 taken 530 by Cerdic, founder of the kingdom of the 
 West Saxons. Its Norman character has been as- 
 cribed to William Fitz-Osborne, earl of Hereford in 
 William I.'s time. Here Charles I. was imprisoned 
 Nov. 1647 to Nov. 1648 ; and here his daughter 
 Elizabeth, aged fifteen, died, too probably of a 
 broken heart, 8 Sept. 1650. 
 
 CABIZMIANS (fierce shepherds living near 
 the Caspian), having been expelled by the Tartars, 
 invaded Syria in 1243. The union of the sultans 
 of Aleppo, Hems, and Damascus was insufficient to 
 i-tem the torrent, and the Christian military orders 
 were nearly exterminated in a single battle in 1244. 
 In Oct. they took Jerusalem. They were totally 
 defeated in two battles in 1247. 
 
 CAELAVEEOCK CASTLE (S. Scotland), 
 taken by Edward I., July, 1300, the subject of a 
 contemporary poem published, with illustrations, 
 by sir Harris Nicolas in 1828. 
 
 CARLISLE (Cumberland), a frontier town of 
 England, wherein for many ages a strong garrison 
 was kept. Just below this town the famous Picts' 
 wall began, which crossed the whole island to New- 
 castle-upon-Tyne, and here also ended the great 
 Eoman highway. Of the great church, called St. 
 Mary's, a large part was built by David, king of 
 Scotland, who held Cumberland, Westmoreland, 
 and Northumberland, from the crown of England. 
 The castle, destroyed by the Danes, 875, restored in 
 1092 by William II., was the prison of Mary queen 
 of Scots in 1568. — Taken by the parliamentary forces 
 in 1645, and by the young" Pretender, 15 Nov. 1745: 
 retaken by the duke" of Cumberland, 30 Dec. same 
 year. — The see was erected by Henry I. in 1132, 
 and made suffragan to York. The cathedral had 
 been founded a short time previously, by Walter, 
 deputy for William Kufus. It was almost ruined 
 by Cromwell, 1648, and partially repaired after the 
 Restoration. It was reopened in 1856 after renova- 
 tion, costing 15,00c/. The see has been held by 
 one lord chancellor and two lord treasurers ; it is 
 valued in the king's books at 530/. 4s. lid. per 
 annum. Present income 450O1?. 
 
 BISHOPS OF CARLISLE. 
 
 1791. Edward Venables Vernon, trans, to York, 1S07. 
 
 1808. Samuel Goodenough, died 12 Aug. 1S27. 
 
 1827. Hugh Percy, died Feb. 1856. 
 
 1856. Hon. H. Montagu Villiers, trans, to Durham, 
 
 May, i860. 
 i860. Hon. Samuel Waldegrave, (lied 1 Oct. 1869. 
 1869. Harvey Goodwin ; consecrated Jan. 1870. 
 
 CAELISLE ADMINISTBATION, see 
 Halifax. 
 
 CAELISTS, see Spain, 1830-40 and 1872-3. 
 
 CAELOVINGIANS, or CAEOLIN- 
 GIANS, the second dynasty of the French kings, 
 752-987. Charles Martel (715-741) and Pepin his 
 son (741-752), were mayors of the palace. The 
 latter became king 752 ; see France. 
 
 CAELOW (S. E. Ireland) . The castle, erected 
 by John, 1180, surrendered after a desperate siege to 
 
 Eory Oge O'Moore, in 1577; again to the parlia- 
 mentary forces, in 1650. Here the royal troops 
 routed the insurgents 24 May, 1798. 
 
 CAELOWITZ, Austria. Here was concluded 
 a treaty of peace between Turkey and the allies, 
 Germany, Russia, Poland, and Venice, 26 Jan. 1699, 
 in consequeuce of the great defeat of the Turks by 
 prince Eugene at Zenta, 11 Sept. 1697, D 7 which 
 Hungary was finally secured to Austria. 
 
 CAELSBAD (or Charles's Bath), in Bohemia, 
 the celebrated springs, said to have been discovered 
 by the emperor Charles IV. in 1370. — On 1 Aug. 
 1819, a congress was held here, when the great 
 powers decreed measures to repress the liberal 
 press, &c. 
 
 CAELSEUHE, capital of Baden, built by 
 margrave Charles William, 1715. A revolution 
 here was suppressed by Prussian aid, June 1849, 
 and the grand-duke returned 18 Aug. 
 
 CABLTCXN" CLUB, Pall Mall (Conservative), 
 established by the duke of Wellington and others, 
 1 83 1 -2 ; present house opened 1855. 
 
 CABMAGNOLE, a Piedmontese song and 
 dance, popular in France during the reign of terror, 
 1793-4. Th* 3 chorus was " Dansons la Carmagnole : 
 vive le son du canon ! " 
 
 CAEMATHIANS, a Mahometan sect. Car- 
 math, a Shiite, about 890, assumed the title of "the 
 guide, the director," &c, including that of the 
 representative pf Mahomet, St. John the Baptist, 
 and the angel Gabriel. His followers subdued 
 Bahrein in 900, and devastated the east. Dissen- 
 sions arose amongst themselves, and their power 
 soon passed away. 
 
 CAEMELITES, or White Friars, of 
 
 Mount Carmel, one of the four orders of mendi- 
 cants with austere rules, founded by Berthold about 
 1 156, and settled in France in 1252. Henaitlt. 
 Their rules were modified about 1 540. They claimed 
 succession from Elijah. They had numerous mon- 
 asteries in England, and a precinct in London 
 without the Temple, west of Blackfriars, is called 
 Whitefriars to this day, after a community of their 
 order, founded there in 1245. A Carmelite church 
 at Kensington was founded by archbishop Manning, 
 July, 1865. 
 
 CAENA.TIC, a district of Southern Hindostan, 
 extending along the whole coast of Coromandel. 
 Hyder Ali entered the Carnatic with 80,000 troops, 
 in 1780, and was defeated by the British under 
 sir Eyre Coote, 1 July, and 27 Aug. 1781 ; and de- 
 cisively overthrown 2 June, 1782. The Carnatic 
 was overrun by Tippoo in 1790. The British ac- 
 quired entire authority over the Carnatic \>y treaty, 
 31 July, 1801 ; see India. 
 
 CAENATION, so called from the original 
 species being of a flesh colour (cam is, of flesh). 
 Several varieties were first planted in England by 
 the Flemings, about 1567. Stow. 
 
 CAENEIAN GAMES, observed in many 
 Grecian cities, particularly at Sparta (instituted 
 about 675 B.C. in honour of Apollo, surnained 
 Cameus), lasted nine days. 
 
 CAENIVAL, (Garni vale), Italian, i. c. Flesh 
 farewell!), a festival time in Italy and other 
 catholic countries at Shrove tide, or ' beginning of 
 Lent. 
 
CAROLINA. 
 
 135 
 
 CARTHAGE. 
 
 CAROLINA (N. America). Said to have been 
 discovered by Sebastian Cabot in 1498, or by De Leon 
 in 15 1 2. Kaleigh formed a settlement at Eoanoke 
 in June, 1585, which was broken up in 1586 . About 
 850 English settled here about 1660 ; and Carolina 
 was granted to lord Clarendon and others in 1663. 
 The cultivation of rice was introduced by governor 
 Smith in 1695, and subsequently cotton. A con- 
 stitution drawn up by John Locke was abandoned. 
 The province was divided into North and South in 
 1729; see America. The Carolinas being slave 
 states, great excitement prevailed in them in Nov. 
 i860, on account of Abraham Lincoln's election to 
 the presidency of the United States, he being 
 strongly opposed to slavery. South Carolina began 
 the secession from the United States, 20 Dec. i860 : 
 North Carolina followed, 21 May, 1861 ; see United 
 States, 1861-5. Both readmitted to the Union 
 25 June, 1868. 
 
 CAROLINE ISLANDS were discovered by 
 the Spaniards in the reign of Charles II. 1686. 
 
 CARP, a fresh-water or pond fish, was, it is 
 said, first brought to these countries about 1525. 
 Walton. It is mentioned by lady Juliana Berners 
 in her book printed 1496. 
 
 CARPETS are of ancient use in the East. The 
 manufacture of woollen carpets was introduced into 
 France from Persia, in the reign of Henry IV., 
 between 1589 and 1610. Some artisans who had 
 quitted France in disgust established the English 
 carpet manufacture, about 1750. A cork-carpet 
 company was formed in 1862. 
 
 CARPI (N. Italy). Here prince Eugene and 
 the Imperialists defeated the French 9 July, 1701. 
 
 CARPOCRATIANS, followers of Carpocrates, 
 a Gnostic, in the 2nd century. 
 
 C ARRACK or KARRACK (Italian, Caracca), 
 a large ship in the middle ages. The Santa Anna, 
 the property of the knights of St. John, of about 
 1700 tons, sheathed with lead, was built at Nice 
 about 1530. It was literally a floating fortress, and 
 aided Charles V. in taking Tunis in 1535. It con- 
 tained a crew of 300 men and 50 pieces of artillery. 
 
 CARRIAGES. Erichthonius of Athens is said 
 to have produced the first chariot about i486 B.C. 
 Rude carriages were known in France in the 
 reign of Henry II. a.d. 1547 ; in England in 1555, 
 Henry IV. of France had one without straps or 
 springs. They were made in England in the reign 
 of Elizabeth, and then called whirlicotes. The 
 duke of Buckingham, in 1619, drove six horses ; 
 and the earl of Northumberland, in rivalry, drove 
 eight. Carriages were let for hire in Paris, in 1650, 
 at the Hotel Fiacre : hence the name, fiacre ; see 
 Car, Cabriolets, Coaches and Licence duty. Annual 
 licence duty for carriages ; 4 wheels, 2I. 2s. ; under 
 4 cwt. or less than 4 wheels, 15s. 
 
 CARRICKFERGUS (Antrim, Ireland). Its 
 castle is supposed to have been built by Hugh de 
 Lacy in 1178. The town surrendered to the duke 
 of Schomberg 28 Aug. 1689. The castle, surrendered 
 to the French admiral Thurot, Feb. 1760; see 
 Thurot. 
 
 CARRIERS' ACT, n Geo. IV. & 1 Will. IV. 
 c. 68, 1830. 
 
 CARROCIUM, a vehicle containing a crucifix 
 and a banner, usually accompanied Italian armies in 
 the middle ages. The Milanese lost theirs at Cor- 
 tenuova, 27 Nov. 1237. 
 
 CARRON IRONWORKS, on the banks of 
 the Carron, in Stirlingshire, established in 1760. 
 The works in 1852 employed about 1600 men. 
 Here since 1776 have been made the pieces of ord- 
 nance called carronades or smashers. 
 
 CARROTS and other edible roots were im- 
 ported from Holland and Flanders, about 1510. 
 
 CARTES DE VISITE. The small photo- 
 graphic portraits thus termed are said to have been 
 first taken at Nice, by M. Ferrier, in 1857. The 
 duke of Parma had his portrait placed upon his 
 visiting cards, and his example was soon followed in 
 Paris and London. 
 
 CARTESIAN DOCTRINES, promulgated 
 by Bene des Cartes, the French philosopher, in 
 1637. His metaphysical principle is, "I think, 
 therefore I am;" his physical principle, "Nothing 
 exists but substance." He accounts for all physi- 
 cal phenomena on his theory of vortices, motions 
 excited by God, the source of ail motion. He was 
 born 1596, and died at Stockholm, the guest of 
 queen Christina, in 1650. 
 
 CARTHAGE (N. coast of Africa near Tunis), 
 founded by Dido or Elissa, 878 B.C. (869, Blair; 
 826, Niebuhr). She fled from her brother Pyg- 
 malion, king of Tyre, who had killed her husband, 
 and took refuge in Africa. Carthage disputed the 
 empire of the world with Borne, which occasioned 
 the Punic wars. The Carthaginians bore the charac- 
 ter of a faithless people, hence the term Punic 
 faith. Cato the censor (about 146 B.C.) ended his 
 speeches in the senate with Carthago delenda ! 
 "Carthage must be destroyed!" Many councils 
 held here, a.d, 200-535. 
 
 First alliance of Carthaginians and Romans . B.C. 503 
 The Carthaginians in Sicily defeated at Himera by 
 
 Gelo ; the elder Hamilcar perishes . . . 480 
 
 They send 300,000 men into Sicily . . . ■ 4°7 
 
 Take Agrigentum 4°6 
 
 The siege of Syracuse 396 
 
 The Carthaginians land in Italy . . . -379 
 
 Their defeat by Timoleon at the Crimesus . . . 339 
 Defeated by Agathocles, they immolate their children 
 
 on the altar to Saturn 3 10 
 
 The first Punic war "begins (lasts 23 years) . . 264 
 The Carthaginians defeated by the Roman consul 
 Duilius in a naval engagement . . . .260 
 
 Xantippus defeats Eegulus 255 
 
 Hasdrubal defeated by Metellus at Panormus . .231 
 
 Regulus put to death 25° 
 
 Romans defeated before Lilybseum .... 250 
 
 The great Hannibal born 247 
 
 Hasdrubal founds New Carthage (Carthagena) . 242 
 End of first Punic war ; Sicily lost by Carthage . . 241 
 War between the Carthaginians and African merce- 
 naries ■ B 4 I 
 
 Hamilcar Bareas sent into Spain : takes his son, 
 Hannibal, at the age of nine years, having first 
 made him swear an eternal enmity to the Romans 238 
 
 Hamilcar killed 229 
 
 Hasdrubal assassinated 220 
 
 Hannibal conquers Spain, as far as the Iberus . .219 
 The second Punic war begins (lasts 17 years) . . 218 
 Hannibal crosses the Alps, and enters Italy . . 218 
 He defeats the Roman consuls at the Ticinus and 
 Trebia, 218 ; at the lake Thrasymenus, 217 ; and at 
 
 Cannae (which see) 2 Aug. 216 
 
 Publius Scipio carries war into Spain and takes New 
 
 Carthage 210 
 
 Hasdrubal, Hannibal's brother, arrives with an army ; 
 
 defeated and slain at the Metaurus . . .207 
 Carthaginians expelled from Spain by Scipio . . 206 
 Scipio arrives in Africa, and lays siege to Utica . 204 
 Hannibal recalled to Carthage . . ... 203 
 Totally defeated at Zama (which see) . . . .202 
 
 End of the second Punic war 201 
 
 The third Punic war ; Scipio invades Africa . . 149 
 
CARTHAGENA. 
 
 136 
 
 CASTLES. 
 
 Carthage taken and burned, by order of the Senate 
 
 July, 146 
 Colony settled at Carthage by C. Graeelms . . . 122 
 Its rebuilding planned by Julius Caesar ... 46 
 
 And executed by his successors . . . 19 et seq. 
 
 A Christian bishopric ad. 200 
 
 Cyprian holds a council here 252 
 
 Taken by Genserio the Vandal . . .9 Oct. 439 
 
 Betaken by Belisarius 533 
 
 Ravaged by the Arabs . . .... 647 
 
 Taken and destroyed by Hassan, the Saracenic 
 
 governor of Egypt . 698 
 
 Carthaginian antiquities brought to the British 
 
 Museum 1861 
 
 CARTHAGENA, or New Carthage (S.E. 
 
 Spain), built by Hasdrubal, the Carthaginian 
 general, 242 B.C. ; taken by Scipio, 210. The 
 modern Carthageua was taken by a British force under 
 sir John Leake, June, 1706; retaken by the duke 
 of Berwick, Nov.— Carthagena, in Columbia, 
 South America, was taken by sir Francis Drake in 
 1585 : pillaged by the French buccaneers in 1697 ; 
 bombarded by admiral Vernon in March, 1741 ; 
 and unsuccessfully besieged, April, 1741. 
 
 CARTHUSIANS, a religious order (springing 
 from the Benedictines) founded by Bruno of 
 Cologne, who retired with six companions about 
 1084, to Chartreuse {which see), in the mountains 
 ofDauphine. Their austere rules were formed by 
 Basil VII., their general. They appeared in Eng- 
 land about 1 180, and a monastery was founded by 
 sir William Manny, 1371, on the site of the present 
 Charter-house, London; see Charter-house. The 
 Carthusian powder, of father Simon, at Chartreuse, 
 was first compounded about 1715. 
 
 CARTOONS, large chalk drawings preparatory 
 to oil painting. Those of Raphael (twenty-five 
 in number) were designed (for tapestries) in the 
 chambers of the Vatican under Julius II. and 
 Leo X. about 1 5 10 to 1 516. The seven preserved 
 were purchased in Flanders by Rubens for Charles I. 
 of England, for Hampton-court palace in 1629. 
 They were removed to South Kensington 28 April, 
 1865. — The tapestries executed at Arras from these 
 designs are at Rome. They were twice carried 
 away by invaders, in 1526 and 1798, and were re- 
 stored in 1815. — The Cartoons for the British 
 Houses of Parliament were exhibited in July, 1843. 
 
 RAPHAEL'S CARTOONS. 
 
 1. The Miraculous draught of Fishes. 
 
 2. The Charge to Peter. 
 
 3. Peter and John healing the Lame at the Gate of tin 1 
 
 Temple. 
 
 4. The Death of Ananias. 
 
 5. Elymas the Sorcerer, struck with blindness. 
 
 6. The Sacrifice to Paul and Barnabas, at Lystra. 
 
 7. Paul preaching at Athens. 
 
 CARVING, see Sculptures. 
 
 CASH-PAYMENTS, see Banlc of England. 
 
 CASHEL (Tipperary, Ireland). Cormack Cuil- 
 linan, king and bishop of Cashel, was the reputed 
 founder or restorer of the cathedral, 901. In 1152, 
 bishop Donat O'Danergan was invested with the 
 pall; see Pallium. Cashel was valued in the 
 king's books, 29 Henry VIII. at 661. 13*. $d. Irish 
 money. By the Church Temporalities act, 1833, ** 
 ceased to be archiepiscopal, and was joined to 
 Waterford and Lismore. 
 
 CASHMERE, in the valley of the Himalayas ; 
 ■was subdued by the Mahometans under Akbar, in 
 1586 ; by the Aft'ghans in 1752 ; by the Sikhs, 1819 ; 
 and ceded to the British in 1846, who gave it to 
 the Maharajah Gholab Singh, as sovereign. The 
 true Cashmere shawls, first brought to England in 
 
 1666, are well imitated at Bradford and Hudders- 
 field. Shawls of Tbibetian wool, for the omrahs, 
 cost 150 rupees each, about 1650. 
 
 CASSANO (N. Italy). Site of an indecisive 
 conflict between prince Eugene of Savoy and the 
 French, 16 Aug. 1705. 
 
 CASSATION, Court of, the highest court 
 
 of appeal in France, was established 10 Nov. 1790, 
 by the national assembly. 
 
 CASSEL, formerly the capital of Hesse-Cassel, 
 Central Germany, acquired importance through be- 
 coming the refuge of French protestants after the 
 revocation of the edict of Nantes, 1685. It was the 
 capital of Jerome Bonaparte, king of Westphalia, 
 1807-13, and Wilhelnishohe, a neighbouring castle, 
 became the residence of Napoleon III. after his 
 surrender to the king of Prussia, 2 Sept. 1870, ar- 
 riving at 9.35 p.m. 5 Sept. He went to England 
 in 1871. 
 
 CASSITERIDES ; sec SciUy Isles. 
 
 CASTEL FLDARDO, near Ancona, Central 
 Italy. Near here general Lamoriciere and the 
 papal army of 11,000 men were totally defeated by 
 the Sardinian general, Cialdini, 18 Sept. i860. 
 Lamoriciere with a few horsemen fled to Ancona, 
 then besieged. On 29 Sept. he and the garrison 
 surrendered, but were shortly after set at liberty. 
 
 CASTES, a distinct section of society in India. 
 In the laws of Menu (see Menu), the Hindus are 
 divided into the Brahmans, or sacerdotal class; 
 the Kshatrya or Chuttree, military class; the 
 Vaisya, or commercial class ; and the Sudras, or 
 sooders, servile class. 
 
 CASTIGLIONE (N. Italy). Here the French 
 under Augercau defeated the Austrians, commanded 
 by "Wurmser, with great loss, 5 Aug. 1796. 
 
 CASTILE (Central Spain). A Gothic govern- 
 ment was established here about 800. — Roderick, 
 count of Castile, 860 ; Ferdinand, a count, became 
 king, 1035. Ferdinand, king of Arragon, married 
 j Isabella, queen of Castile, in 1474, and formed one 
 monarchy, 1479; see Spain. 
 
 CASTILLEJOS (X. Africa). Here on 1 Jan. 
 i860, was fought the first decisive action in the 
 war between Spain and Morocco. General Prim, 
 after a vigorous resistance, repulsed the Moors 
 under Muley Abbas, and advanced towards Tetuan. 
 
 CASTILLON, Guienne (S. France). Here 
 the army of Henry VI. of England was defeated 
 by that of Charles "VII. of France, and an end put 
 to the English dominion in France, Calais alone 
 remaining, 17 or 23 July, 1453. Talbot, earl of 
 Shrewsbury, was killed. 
 
 CASTLEBAR (Ireland). About UOO French 
 troops, under Humbert, landed at Killala, and as- 
 sisted by Irish insurgents here, compelled the king's 
 troops under Lake to retreat, 27 Aug. 1798; but 
 were compelled to surrender at Balliuamuck, 
 8 Sept. 
 
 CASTLEPOLLARD (Ireland). At an affray 
 at a fair here between some peasantry and a body 
 of police, thirteen persons lost their lives, and many 
 were wounded, 23 May, 1831. 
 
 CASTLES. The castle of the Anglo-Saxon 
 was a tower keep, either round or square, and 
 ascended by a flight of steps in front. William I. 
 erected 4S strong castles. Several hundreds, built 
 
CAT. 
 
 137 
 
 CATO. 
 
 by permission of Stephen, between 1135 and 1154, 
 were demolished by Henry II., 1154. Many were 
 dismantled in the civil wars. Richborough, Stud- 
 fall, and Burgh are existing specimens of Eoman 
 
 castles. 
 
 CAT. The generally received opinion that our 
 domestic cat is derived from the European wild cat 
 is doubted by Mr. T. Bell (1827). Biippell (died 
 1794) found a wild cat in Nubia, whose conforma- 
 tion agreed with that of the Egyptian cat mummies. 
 Cats fetched high prices in the middle ages, and 
 were protected by law in Wales, about 948. Great 
 cat shows were held at the Crystal Palace 13 July 
 and 2 Dec. 1871 ; and 26-29 O ct - 1872. 
 
 CATACOMBS. The early depositories of the 
 dead. The first Christians at Rome met for wor- 
 ship in the catacombs ; and here are said to have 
 been the tombs of the apostles Peter and Paul. 
 Belzoni in 1815-18 explored many Egyptian cata- 
 combs, built 3000 years ago. He brought to Eng- 
 land the sarcophagus of Psammetichus, formed of 
 oriental alabaster, exquisitely sculptured. In the 
 Parisian catacombs (formerly stone quarries), human 
 remains from the cemetery of the Innocents were 
 deposited in 1 785 ; and many of the victims of the 
 revolution in 1792-4, are interred hi them. — On 
 31 May, 1578, some labourers digging on the Via 
 Salaria, two miles from Rome, discovered the cele- 
 brated catacombs of which an account with engrav- 
 ings was published by Antonio Bosio, in his " Roma 
 Sotteranea" (1632), and by Ariughi (1659), and 
 others. John Evelyn saw them in 1645. Elaborate 
 accounts have been published recently by De Rossi ; 
 an abstract of whose researches will be found in the 
 " Roma Sotteranea " of the Rev. J. S. Northcote 
 and W. R. Brownlow, 1869. 
 
 CATALONIA (E. Spain), was settled by the 
 Goths and Alani, about 409 ; conquered by the 
 Saracens, 712 ; recovered by Pepin, and by Charle- 
 magne (788). It formed part of the Spanish marches 
 and the territory of the count of Barcelona (which 
 see). The Siatives were able seamen: being fre- 
 quently unruty, their peculiar privileges were 
 abolished in 1714. 
 
 CATALYTIC FORCE. The discovery in 
 
 1819 by Thenard of the decomposition of peroxide 
 of hydrogen by platinum, and by Dobereiner in 
 1825 of its property to ignite a mixture of hydro- 
 gen and oxygen, formed the groundwork of the 
 doctrine of catalytic force, also termed " action of 
 contact or presence," put forth by Berzelius and 
 Mitscherlich. Their view has not been adopted by 
 Liebig and other chemists. 
 
 CATAMARANS (or carcases), fire-machines 
 for destroying ships ; tried in vain by sir Sydney 
 Smith, 2 Oct. 1804, on the Boulogne flotilla destined 
 by Bonaparte to invade England. 
 
 CATANIA (the ancient Catana), a town near- 
 Etna, Sicily, was founded by a colony from Chalcis, 
 about 753 B.C. Ceres had a temple here, open to 
 none but women. Catania was almost totally over- 
 thrown by an eruption of Etna in 1669 and in 1693 
 was nearly swallowed up by an earthquake : in a 
 moment more than 18,000 of its inhabitants were 
 buried in the ruins. An earthquake did great 
 damage, 22 Feb. 1817. In Aug. 1862, the town 
 was held by Garibaldi and his volunteers, in op- 
 position to the Italian government. He was cap- 
 tured on 29 Aug. 
 
 CATAPHRYGIANS, heretics in the second 
 century, who followed the errors of Montanus. 
 
 They are said to have baptized their dead, forbidden 
 marriage, and mingled the bread and wine in the 
 Lord's supper with the blood of young children. 
 
 CATAPTJLT.ZE, military engines of the cross- 
 bow kind, for throwing huge stones as well as 
 darts and arrows ; invented by Dionysius, the tyrant 
 of Syracuse, 399 B.C. 
 
 CATEATJCAMBRESIS (N. France), where, 
 on 2, 3 April, 1559, peace was concluded between. 
 Henry II. of France, Philip II. of Spain, and 
 Elizabeth of England. France ceded Savoy, Corsica, 
 and nearly 200 forts in Italy and the Low Countries 
 to Philip. 
 
 CATECHISMS are said to have been com- 
 piled in the 8th or 9th century. Luther's were 
 published 1520 and 1529. The catechism of the 
 church of England in the first book of Edward VI. 
 7 March, 1549, contained merely the baptismal 
 vow, the ereed, the ten commandments, and the 
 Lord's prayer, with explanations ; but James I. 
 ordered the bishops to add an explication of the 
 sacraments, 1612. The catechism of the council of 
 Trent was published in 1566 ; those of the Assem- 
 bly of Divines at Westminster 1647 and 1648. 
 
 CATHARI (from the Greek katharos, pure), 
 a name given to the Novatians (about 251), Mon- 
 tanists, and other early Christian sects, See Puri- 
 tans. 
 
 CATHAY, an old name for China. 
 
 CATHEDRAL, the chief church of a diocese, 
 as containing the cathedra, or seat of the bishop, 
 obtained the name in the 10th century. A confer- 
 ence of the higher clergy to consider cathedral 
 institutions, was held at Lambeth, I March, 1872. 
 
 CATHERINE. The order of knights of St. 
 Catherine was instituted in Palestine 1063. An 
 order of ladies of the highest rank in Russia was 
 founded by Peter the Great, 17 14, in honour of the 
 bravery of his empress Catherine. They were to 
 be distinguished, as the name implied (from 
 katharos, pure), for purity of life and manners; 
 see Docks. 
 
 CATHOLIC MAJESTY. This title was 
 given by pope Gregory III. to Alphonso I. of Spain, 
 739, and to Ferdinand V. and his queen in 1474 by 
 Innocent VIII. on account of their zeal for religion, 
 and thek establishment of the Inquisition. 
 
 CATHOLICS, see Roman Catholics. 
 
 CATILINE'S CONSPIRACY. Lucius Ser- 
 gius Catiline, a dissolute Roman noble, having been 
 refused the consulship (65 B.C.), conspired to kill 
 the senate, plunder the treasury, and set Rome on 
 fire. This conspiracy was timely discovered and 
 frustrated. A second plot (hi 63), was detected by 
 the consul Cicero, whom he had resolved to murder. 
 Catiline's daring appearance in the senate-house, 
 after his guilt was known, drew forth Cicero's cele- 
 brated invective, " Quousque tandem, Catilina!" 
 on 8 Nov. On seeing five of his accomplices ar- 
 rested, Catiline fled to Gaul, where his partisans 
 were assembling an army. Cicero punished the 
 conspirators at home, and Petreius routed their 
 forces; Catiline being killed in the engagement, 
 Jan. 62 B.C. 
 
 CAT ISLE, see Salvador. 
 
 CATO, SUICIDE OF. Considering freedom as 
 that which alone " sustains the dignity of man," 
 and unable to survive the independence of his 
 country, Cato stabbed himself at Utica, 46 is.c. 
 
CATO-STEEET CONSPIEACY. 
 
 138 
 
 CAVALRY. 
 
 CATO-STEEET CONSPIEACY : a gang 
 of desperate men, headed by Arthur Thistlewood, 
 assembled in Cato-street, Edgware-road, and pro- 
 posed the assassination of the ministers of the 
 crown, at a cabinet dinner. They were betrayed 
 and arrested 23 Feb. 1820, and Thietlewood, Brunt, 
 Davidson, lugs, and Tidd, were executed as traitors, 
 on 1 May. 
 
 CATTI, a German tribe, attacked but not sub- 
 dued by the Romans a.d. 15, and 84 ; absorbed by 
 the Franks, 3rd century. 
 
 CATTLE. The importation of homed cattle 
 from Ireland and Scotland into England was pro- 
 hibited by a law, 1663; but the export of cattle 
 from Ireland became very extensive. In 1842 the 
 importation of cattle into England from foreign 
 countries was subjected to a moderate duty, and in 
 1846 they were made duty free ; and since then the 
 numbers imported have enormously increased. 
 Horned cattle imported into the United Kingdom 
 ^49, 53.4^0; 1853, 125,523; 1855 (war), 97,527; 
 i860, 104,569; 1865, 283,271 ; 18O6, 237,739; 1867, 
 177,948; 1 868, 136,688; 1869, 220,190; 1870, 
 202,172. See SmitAjield, Metropolitan Cattle-mar- 
 ket, and Fdreign Cattle-market. 
 
 A cattle plague began in Hungary ; extended over 
 Western Europe, destroying ih million cattle 1711-14 
 
 A severe cattle plague raged in England and west 
 Europe (about 3 million cattle perish) . . 1745-56 
 
 The privy council ordered diseased beasts to Tie 
 shot, and their skins destroyed ; granting mode- 
 rate compensation . . . .12 March, 1746 
 
 Great disease among foreign cattle ; excluded from 
 this country by prohibitions . . . April, 1857 
 
 The cattle plague appears at Laycoek's daily, 
 Barnsbury, London, N. ; rapidly spreads, about 
 
 24 June, 1865 
 
 27,432 beasts had been attacked ; 12,680 dieil ; 
 8,998 slaughtered, up to . . . . 21 Oct. 1865 
 
 A royal commission to inquire into the causes of 
 cattle plague' and suggest remedies met first, 10 
 Oct. ; report of majority considered the disease 
 to have been imported, and recommend slaughter 
 of animals, and stringent prohibition of passage 
 of cattle across public roads, &c, 31 Oct. 1865; 
 second report, 6 Feb. ; 3rd report . 1 May, 1866 
 
 Orders in council for regulating the cattle plague 
 (in conformity with the act of 1850), 23 Nov. and 
 16 Dec. 1865 ; and 20 Jan. 1866 
 
 Disease raging ; official report ; cattle attacked, 
 120,740 ; killed, 16,742 ; died, 73,750 ; recovered, 
 14,162 ; unaccounted for, 16,086 . . 1 Feb. „ 
 
 Cattle disease acts passed 20 Feb. and 10 Aug. ,', 
 
 Orders in council making uniform repressive mea- 
 sures throughout the country . . 27 March, ,, 
 
 The disease materially abates . . . April, ,, 
 
 Privy council return : cattle attacked, 248,965 ; 
 killed, 80,597; died, 124,187; recovered, 32,989; 
 unaccounted for, 11,192 .... 22 June, ,, 
 
 The disease nearly " stamped out '' . 27 Oct. ,, 
 
 Order in council directing that foreign cattle lie 
 landed only at certain parts (after 13 Nov.), there 
 to be subjected to quarantine . . .10 Nov. ,, 
 
 Cattle plague re-appears in Cheshire and Lanca- 
 shire and Yorkshire Dec. 
 
 He-appears at Barnsbury (see 24 June, 1865), 46 
 animals slaughtered .... 2 Feb. 1867 
 
 Ke-appearance of the plague in various places, 
 
 June, July, ,, 
 
 Contagious diseases (animals) act amended and 
 continued Aug. 
 
 No case reported to the privy council , 3 Aug. ', 
 
 Order of council permitting cattle to be removed 
 from the metropolis . . . .25 July, 1868 
 
 New general orders issued .... Aug. 1869 
 
 Prevalence of "foot and mouth disease" in 
 England Aug. 1869— Dee. 1870 
 
 Increase June, J 1UV , ^71 
 
 Disease appears at Kaiserslautern, rear of the Ger- 
 man army; cautionary regulations promulgated 
 by the privy council .... 9 Sept. 1870 
 
 New foreign cattle market, detemuned on, Nov. 
 
 1870; opened Dec. 1871 
 
 Foot and mouth disease increasing in England, 
 
 July, Aug. 1872 
 Appearance of the plague in German cattle ; further 
 
 importation suspended, . . about 3 Aug. ,, 
 Cattle plague appears at Pocklington, Yorkshire; 
 OUSlj treated, 3 Sept. ; stringent order from 
 the privy council 7 Sept, ,, 
 
 CATTLE SHOW, see Smithfeld. 
 
 CAUCASUS, a lofty mountain, a continuation 
 of the ridge of Mount Taurus, between the Euxine 
 and Caspian seas. In Mythology, Prometheus was 
 said to have been tied 011 the top of Caucasus by 
 Jupiter, and continually devoured by vultures 
 (1548 B.C.) The passes near the mountain were 
 called Cancasue Porta, and it is supposed that 
 through them the Sarmatians or Huns invaded the 
 provinces of Rome, a.d. 447 ; see Cireasnia. 
 
 CAUCUS. An American term applied to a 
 private meeting of the leading politicians of a party 
 to agree upon the plans to be pursued during an 
 election or session of congress. This institution is 
 now a very powerful antagonist to public opinion. 
 The word is said to be derived from "ship" -caulkers' 
 meetings. A " caucus club " is mentioned by John 
 Adams, in 1763. Bartlett. Similar meetings are 
 occasionally held in London by conservatives and 
 liberals ; one was held by Mr. Gladstone respecting 
 the ballot bill, 6 July, 187 1. 
 
 CAUDINE FOEKS, according to Livy, the 
 Fureulce Caudinee (in Samnium, S. Italy), were two 
 narrow defiles or gorges, united by a range of moun- 
 tains on each side. The Romans went through the 
 first pass, but found the second blocked up ; on re- 
 turning they found the first similarly obstructed. 
 Being thus hemmed in by the Samnites, under the 
 command of C. Pontius, they surrendered at discre- 
 tion, 321 B.C. (after a fruitless contest, according 'to 
 Cicero). The Roman senate broke the treaty. 
 
 CAULIFLO "WEE, said to have been brought 
 from Cyprus to England about 1603. 
 
 CAUSTIC IN PAINTING, a method of burn- 
 ing colours into wood or ivory, invented by Gausias 
 of Sicyon. He painted his mistress Glycere sitting 
 on the ground making garlands with "flowers ; the 
 picture was hence named Stephanoplocon. It was 
 bought by Lucullus for two talents, 335 B.C. Pliny. 
 
 CAUTIONAEY TOWNS (Holland), (the 
 Briel, Flushing, Rammekins, and Walcheren), 
 were given to queen Elizabeth in 1585 as security 
 for their repaying her for assistance in their struggle 
 with Spain. They were restored to the Dutch 
 republic by James I. in 1616. 
 
 CAVALIEE. The appellation given to the 
 supporters of the king during the civil war, from a 
 number of gentlemen forming themselves into a 
 body-guard for the king in 1641. They were 
 opposed to the Roundheads, or parliamentarians. 
 
 CAVALEY. Used by the Canaanites in war, 
 1450 b.c. (Josh. xi. 4). Attached to each Roman 
 legion was a body of 300 horse, in ten turiua- ; the 
 commander always a veteran. — The Persians had 
 10,000 horse at Marathon, 490 B.C. ; and 10,000 
 Persian horse were slain at the battle of Issus, 333 
 B.C. Plutarch. In the wars with Napoleon I. the 
 British cavalry reached to 3 1 ,000 men. Our cavalry 
 force, in 1840, was, in household troops, 1209; 
 dragoons, hussars, and lancers, 9524 ; total, 10,733. 
 In 1867, horse guards, 1317; cavalry of the line, 
 
CAVENDISH. 
 
 139 
 
 CENTBAL AMEEICA. 
 
 10,023; i- n depots, 838; in India, 5421; total, 
 17,599 ; see Horse Guards, §-c. 
 
 CAVENDISH EXPERIMENT. In 1798 
 the Hon. Henry Cavendish, described his experi- 
 ment for determining the mean density of the 
 earth, by comparing the force of terrestrial attrac- 
 tion with that of the attraction of leaden spheres of 
 known magnitude and density, by means of the 
 torsion balance. Brande. The Cavendish Society, 
 for the publication of chemical works, was estab- 
 lished 1846. 
 
 CAWNPOBE, a town in India, on the Doab, 
 a peninsula between the Ganges and Jumna. During 
 the mutiny in June, 1857, it was garrisoned by na- 
 tive troops under sir Hugh Wheeler. These broke 
 out into revolt. An adopted son of the old Peishwa 
 Bajee Eao, Nana Sahib, who had long lived on 
 friendly terms with the British, came apparently to 
 their assistance, but joined the rebels. He took the 
 place after three weeks' siege, 26 June ; and in 
 spite of a treaty massacred great numbers of the 
 British, without respect to age or sex, in the most 
 cruel manner. General Hav clock defeated Nana 
 Sahib, 16 July, at Futtehpore, and retook Cawn- 
 pore, 17 July. Sir Colin Campbell defeated the 
 rebels here on 6 Dec. following. A column was 
 erected here, in memory of the sufferers, by their 
 relatives of the 32nd regiment. In Dec. i860, 
 Nana was said to be living at Thibet ; and in Dec. 
 1861 was incorrectly said to have been captured at 
 Kurrachee ; see India, 1857. 
 
 CANTON SOCIETY, established for the 
 publication of chronicles and literature of the Mid- 
 dle Ages, published sixteen volumes, 1844-54. 
 
 CAYENNE, French Guiana (S. America), 
 settled by the French 1604-35. ^ afterwards came 
 successively into the hands of the English (1654), 
 French, and Dutch. The last were expelled by the 
 French in 1677. Cayenne was taken by the British, 
 12 Jan. 1809, but was restored to the French in 
 1814. Here is produced the capsicum baccatum, or 
 cayenne pepper. Many French political prisoners 
 were sent here in 1848. 
 
 CECILIAN SOCIETY, see under Music. 
 
 CEDAE CEEEK and MOUNTAIN, 
 
 Virginia, U.S. On 19 Oct. 1864, gen. Sheridan 
 converted the defeat of the Federals by the Con- 
 . federates under Longstreet into a complete victory. 
 At Cedar Mountain gen. Stonewall Jackson 
 defeated Banks, 9 Aug. 1862. 
 
 ^CEDAE TEEE. The red cedar (Juniperus 
 Tirginiana) came from North America before 
 1664; the Bermudas cedar from Bermudas before 
 1683 ; the Cedar of Lebanon {Finns Cedrus) from 
 the Levant before 1683. In 1850 a grove of vener- 
 able cedars, about 40 feet high, remained on 
 Lebanon. The cedar of Goa (Cupressus Lusitanica) 
 was brought to Europe by the Portuguese about 
 1683 ; see Cypress. 
 
 CELEEY is said to have been introduced into 
 England by the French marshal, Tallard, during 
 his captivity in England, after his defeat at Blen- 
 heim by Marlborough, 2 Aug. 1 704. 
 
 CELESTIAL GLOBE, see Globes. 
 
 CELIBACY (from ccelebs, unmarried), was 
 preached by St. Anthony in Egypt about 305. His 
 early converts lived in caves, &c, till monasteries 
 were founded. The doctrine was rejected in the 
 council of Kice, 325. Celibacy was enjoined on 
 
 bishops only in 692. The decree was opposed in 
 England, 958-978. The Bomish clergy generally 
 were enjoined a vow of celibacy by pope Gregory 
 VII. in 1073-85, and its observance was established 
 by the council of Placentia, held in 1095. Mar- 
 riage was restored to the English clergy in 1547. 
 The marriage of the clergy was proposed, but nega- 
 tived at the council of Trent (1563). 
 
 CELL THEOEY (propounded by Schwann. 
 in 1839) supposes that the ultimate particles of all 
 animal and vegetable tissues are small cells. Some 
 of the lowest forms of animal and vegetable life- 
 are said to be composed of merely a single cell, as the 
 germinal vesicle hi the egg and the red-snow plant.. 
 
 CELTIBEEI, see Mmantine War. 
 
 CELTS, or KELTS, a group of the Aryani 
 
 family; see Gauls. 
 
 CEMETEEIES. The burying-places of the 
 Jews, Greeks, Komans, were outside their towns 
 (3/atf. xxvii. 60). Many public cemeteries re- 
 sembling " Pere La Chaise" * at Paris, have been 
 opened in all parts of the kingdom since 1856 ; see 
 Catacombs, Bunhill- fields. 
 
 Kensal-green cemetery, 53 acres; consecrated, 2 Nov. 183a 
 
 South Metropolitan and Norwood cemeteiy, 40 
 acres ; consecrated 6 Dec. 1837 
 
 Highgate and Kentish-town cemeteiy, 22 acres; 
 opened and consecrated ... 20 May, 1839* 
 
 Abney Park cemeteiy, Stoke Newington, 30 acres ; 
 opened by the lord mayor ... 20 May, 1840. 
 
 Westminster, or West London cemetery, Kensing- 
 ton-road; consecrated . . . 15 June, 1840. 
 
 Nunhead cemetery, about 50 acres ; consecrated, 
 
 29 July, 1840 
 
 City of London and Tower Hamlets cemetery, 
 30 acres ; consecrated 1341 
 
 London Necropolis and National Mausoleum, at 
 Woking, Surrey, 2000 acres ; the company incor- 
 porated in July, 1852 ; opened . . Jan. 1855 
 
 City of London cemetery, Ilford; opened, 24 June, 1856. 
 
 Acts respecting burials passed .... 1850-57 
 
 CENIS, MOUNT, see under Alps. 
 
 CENSOES, Eoman magistrates, to survey 
 and rate the property, and correct the manners of 
 the people. The two first censors were appointed 
 443 B.C. Plebeian censors were first appointed 131 
 B.C. The office, abolished by the emperors, was- 
 revived by Decius, a.d. 251 ; see Press. 
 
 CENSUS. The Israelites were numbered by 
 Moses, 1490 B.C. ; and by David, 1017 B.C. ; Deme- 
 trius Phalereus is said to have taken a census of 
 Attica, 317 B.C. Servius Tullius enacted that a 
 general estimate of every Roman's estate and per- 
 sonal effects, should be delivered to the govern- 
 ment upon oath every five years, 566 b.c. In the 
 United Kingdom the census is now taken at decen- 
 nial periods since 1801 ; 1811, 1821, 1831, 1841, 1851,. 
 1861 (7 April), 1871 (3 April). See Population. 
 For the latest census of other countries, see Table, 
 facing page 1. 
 
 CENTEAL AMEEICA, see America. A 
 
 large American steamer of this name was wrecked 
 during a gale in the gulf of Mexico, 12 Sept. 1857. 
 Of about 550 persons only 152 were saved ; several 
 of these after drifting on rafts above 600 miles. 
 The loss of about 2 J million dollars in specie aggra- 
 
 * Pere La Chaise was the favourite and confessor of 
 Louis XIV. , who made him superior of a great establish- 
 ment of the Jesuits on this spot, then named Mont 
 Louis. The house and grounds were bought for a national 
 cemetery, which was laid out by M. Brongniart, and first 
 used on 21 May, 1804. 
 
CENTEAL CRIMINAL COUET. 
 
 140 
 
 CHALCEDON. 
 
 vated the commercial panic in New York shortly 
 after. The captain and crew behaved heroically. 
 
 CENTRAL CEIMINAL COUET, estab- 
 lished in 1834. Commissions are issued to the 
 tifteen judges of England (of whom three attend in 
 rotation at the Old Bailey) for the periodical de- 
 livery of the gaol of Newgate, and the trial of 
 otfences of greater degree, committed in Middlesex 
 and parts of Essex, Kent, and Surrey; the new 
 district is considered as one county. 
 
 CENTEAL HALL OF SCIENCES, see 
 
 ainder Albert. 
 
 CENTUEION, the captain, head, or com- 
 mander of a subdivision of a lloman legion, which 
 consisted of 100 men, and was called a centuria. 
 By the Eoman census each hundred of the people 
 was called a centuria, 556 B.C. 
 
 CENTUEY. The Greeks computed time by 
 the Olympiads, beginning 776 B.C., and the Roman 
 church by Indictions, the first of which began 24 
 Sept., a.d. 312. The method of computing time 
 by centuries commenced from the incarnation of 
 'Christ, and was adopted in chronological history 
 first in France. Unpin. 
 
 CEPHALONIA, one of the Ionian islands, 
 was taken from the iEtolians by the Romans, 189 
 B.C., and given to the Athenians by Hadrian, a.d. 
 1135 ; see Ionian Isles. 
 
 CEPHISUS, a river in Attica, near which 
 "Walter de Brienne, duke of Athens, was defeated 
 md slain by the Catalans, 131 1. 
 
 CEEBEEE, a French gun-brig, with a crew 
 ■of 87 men, and seven guns, in the harbour of 
 L' Orient, within pistol-shot of three batteries, was 
 captured in a most daring manner by lieut. Jeremiah 
 •Coghlan, in a cutter with 19 companions aided by 
 two boats, one of which was commanded by mid- 
 shipman Paddon. The prize was towed out under 
 a heavy but ineffectual fire from the batteries, 
 .26 July", 1800. Nicolas. 
 
 CEEEMONIES, Master of the, an office 
 
 instituted for the more honourable reception of 
 ^ambassadors and persons of quality at court, 
 1 James I. 1603. The order maintained by the 
 master of the ceremonies at Bath, "Beau Nash," 
 the "King of Bath," led to the adoption of the 
 office in ordinary assemblies ; he died in his 88th 
 year, 1761. Ashe. 
 
 CEEES, a planet, 160 miles in diameter, was 
 discovered by M. Piazzi, at Palermo, 1 Jan. 1801 ; 
 lie named it after the goddess highly esteemed hy 
 the ancient Sicilians. 
 
 CEEESUOLA (N. Italy). Here Francis de 
 Bourbon, count d'Enghien, defeated the imperialists 
 under the marquis de Guasto, 14 April, 1544. 
 
 CEEIGNOLA (S. Italy). Here the great 
 captain Gousalvo do Cordova and the Spaniards 
 defeated the due de Nemours and the French, 
 -28 April, 1503. 
 
 CEEINTHIANS, followers of Cerinthus, a 
 •Jew, who lived about a.d. 80, are said to have com- 
 bined Judaism with pagan philosophy. 
 
 r CEEIUM, a very rare metal, discovered by 
 Klaproth and others in 1803. 
 
 CEUTA (the ancient Septa), a town on N. coast 
 •of Africa, stands on the site of the ancient Abyla, 
 the southern pillar of Hercules. It was taken 
 
 from the Vandals by Belisarius for Justinian, 534 ; 
 by the Goths, 618 ; by the Moors about 709, from 
 whom it was taken by the Portuguese, 141 5. With 
 Portugal, it was annexed in 1580 to Spain, which 
 power still retains it. 
 
 CEYLON (the ancient Taprobane), an island 
 in the Indian Ocean, called by the natives the seat 
 of paradise. It became a seat of Buddhism, 307 
 B.C., and was known to the Romans about 41 A.D. 
 
 Invaded by the Portuguese Almeyda . . 1505 
 
 Tlie Dutch landed in Ceylon, 1802; and captured 
 
 the capital, Colombo, . . . . 1603 
 
 Frequent conflicts ; peaceful commercial relations 
 
 established 1664 
 
 Intercourse with the British begun . . . . 1713 
 A large portion of the country taken by them in 
 
 1782 ; was restored 1783 
 
 The Dutch settlements seized by the British : Trin- 
 
 comalee, 26 Aug. ; Jaflnapatam . . Sept. 1795 
 Ceylon was ceded to Great Britain by the peace of 
 
 Amiens 1802 
 
 British troops treacherously massacred or im- 
 prisoned by the Adigar of Candy, at Colombo; 
 
 see Candy 26 June, 1803 
 
 Complete sovereignty of the island assumed by 
 
 England 1815 
 
 Bishopric of Colombo founded . . . . 1845 
 The governor, lord Torrington, absolved from a 
 charge of undue severity in suppressing a rebel- 
 lion May, 185 1 
 
 Prosperity of Ceylon greatly increased under the 
 
 administration of sir H. Ward . . . 1855-60 
 
 Sir J. E. Tennent's work, " Ceylon," appeared . 1859 
 Sir Hercules G. Kobinson appointed governor, 
 
 7 .March, 1S65 
 The duke of Edinburgh visited Ceylon . April, 1870 
 "\V111. H. Gregory, M.P., appointed governor, 9 Jan. 1872 
 
 CH^EEONEA (Bccotia) . Here Greece was 
 ruined by Philip ; 32,000 Macedonians defeating 
 30,000 Thebans, Athenians, &c, 6 or 7 Aug. 338 B.C. 
 Here Archelaus, lieutenant of Mithridates, was 
 defeated by Sylla, and 1 10,000 Cappadocians were 
 slain, 86 B.C. ; see Coronca. 
 
 CHAIN BEIDGES. The largest and oldest 
 chain bridge in the world is said to be that at King- 
 tung, in China, where it forms a perfect road from 
 the top of one mountain to the top of another. 
 Mr. Telford constructed the first chain-bridge on a 
 grand scale in England, over the strait between 
 Anglesey and the coast of Wales, 1818-25; see 
 Mcnai Straits. 
 
 CHAIN-CABLES, Pumps, and Shot. 
 
 Iron chain-cables were in use by the Veneti, a people 
 intimately connected with the Belgx' of Britain in 
 the time of Caesar, 57 b. c These cables came into 
 use, generally in the navy of England, in 1812. 
 Acts for tbe proving and sale of chain-cables and 
 anchors were passed in 1864 and 1871. — Chain- 
 Shot, to destroy the rigging of an enemy's ship, 
 were invented by the Dutch admiral, l)e 'Witt, in 
 1666. — Chain-Pumps were first used on board the 
 Flora, British frigate, in 1787. 
 
 CHAINS, Hanging in. By 25 Geo. 11. 
 
 1752, it was enacted that the judge should direct 
 the bodies of pirates and murderers to be dissected 
 and anatomised, or hung in chains. The custom of 
 hanging in chains was abolished in 1834. 
 
 CHALCEDON, Asia Minor, opposite Byzan- 
 tium, colonised by Megarians, about 684 B.C. It 
 was taken by Darius, 505 B.C. ; by the Eomans, 
 74 ; plundered by the Goths, a.d. 259 ; taken by 
 Chosroes, the Persian, 609; by Orchan, the Turk, 
 1338. Here was held the "Synod of the Oak," 
 403 ; and the fourth general council, which annulled 
 the act of the "Bobber Synod," 8 Oct. 451. 
 
CHALCLS. 
 
 141 CHANCELLOE OF ENGLAND. 
 
 CHALCIS, see Eubwa. 
 
 CHALD.ZEA, the ancient name of Babylonia, 
 but afterwards restricted to the S. W. portion. The 
 Chaldeans were devoted to astronomy and astrology ; 
 see Dan. ii. &c. — The Chaldean Registers of 
 celestial observations, said to have commenced 
 2234 B.C., were brought down to the taking of 
 Babylon by Alexander, 331 B.C. (1903 years). 
 These registers were sent to Aristotle by Callisthenes. 
 — Chaldtean Characters : the Bible was tran- 
 scribed from the original Hebrew into these charac- 
 ters, now called Hebrew, by Ezra, about 445 B.C. 
 
 CHALGEOVE (Oxfordshire). At a skirmish 
 here with prince Rupert, 18 June, 1643, John 
 Hampden, of the parliament party, was wounded, 
 and died 24 June. A column was erected to his 
 memory 18 June, 1843. 
 
 CHALONS-SUE-MAENE (N.E. France). 
 Here the emperor Aurelian defeated Tetricus, the 
 last of the pretendei-s to the throne, termed the 
 Thirty Tyrants, 274; and here in 451 Aetius 
 defeated Attila the Hun, compelling him to retire 
 into Pannonia. 
 
 CHAMBEELAIN, early a high court officer 
 in Prance, Germany, and England. The office of 
 chamberlain of the exchequer was discontinued in 
 1834. 
 
 Hereditary Lord Great Chamberlain of England. 
 — The sixth great officer of state, whose duties, among 
 others, relate to coronations and public solemnities. 
 The office was long held by the De Veres, earls of Oxford, 
 granted by Henry I. in 1101. On the death of John De 
 Vere, the sixteenth earl, Mary, his sole daughter, 
 marrying lord Willoughby de Eresby, the right was 
 established in that nobleman's family by a judgment of 
 the house of peers, 2 Charles I. 1625. On the death of 
 his descendant, unmarried, in July 1779, the house of 
 lords and twelve judges concurred that the office de- 
 volved to lady Willoughby de Eresby, and her sister the 
 lady Georgina Charlotta Bertie, as heirs to their brother 
 Robert, duke of Ancaster, deceased ; and that they had 
 powers to appoint a deputy to act for them, not under 
 the degree of a knight, who, if his majesty approved of 
 him, might officiate accordingly. Seatson. This dignity 
 was for some time held jointly by the lord "Willoughby 
 D'Eresby and the marquis of Cholmondeley, descendants 
 of John de Vere, earl of Oxford. Lord Willoughby 
 D'Eresby died without issue 27 Aug. 1870, and lord 
 Aveland, his sister's son, was appointed to act. 
 
 Lord Chamberlain of the Household.— An ancient 
 office. The title is from the French Chambrtlan, in 
 Latin Camtrarius. Sir William Stanley, knt., afterwards 
 beheaded, was lord chamberlain, 1 Henry VII. 1485. 
 A vice-chamberlain acts in the absence of the chief ; the 
 offices are co-existent. Beatson. 
 
 The Chamberlain of London is an ancient office. 
 
 CHAMBEES, see Commerce, Agriculture. 
 
 CHAMBEES' JOUENAL was first published 
 at Edinburgh in Feb. 1832. 
 
 CHAMBEE AEDENTE (fiery chamber), an 
 extraordinary French tribunal so named from the 
 punishment frequently awarded by it. Francis I. 
 in 1535, and Henry II. in 1549, employed it for the 
 extirpation of heresy, which led to the civil war 
 with the Huguenots in 1560; and in 1679 Louis 
 XIV. appointed one to investigate the poisoning 
 cases which arose after the execution of the mar- 
 chioness Brinvilliers. 
 
 CHAMBEE INTEOUVABLE, . a name 
 
 given to the chamber of deputies, elected in France 
 in 181 5, on account of its ignorance, incapacity, and 
 bigoted reactionary spirit. 
 
 CHAMPAGNE, an ancient province, N. E. 
 France, once part of the kingdom of Burgundy, was- 
 governed by counts from the 10th century till it 
 was united to Navarre, count Thibaut becoming, 
 king, in 1234. The countess Joanna married 
 Philip IV. of France in 1284; and in 1361 Cham- 
 pagne was annexed by their descendant king John. 
 The effervescing wine termed Champagne, became- 
 popular in the latter part of the 18th century. 
 
 CHAMP DE MAES, an open square in front 
 of the Military school at Paris, with artificial 
 embankments on each side, extending nearly to the- 
 river Seine. The ancient assemblies of the Frankish 
 people, the germ of parliaments, held annually in 
 March, received this name. In 747, Pepin changed? 
 the month to May. Here was held, 14 July, 1 790 
 (the anniversary of the capture of the Bastile), the- 
 "federation," or solemnity of swearing fidelity tc- 
 the "patriot king" and new constitution: great 
 rejoicings followed. On 14 July, 1791, a second 
 great meeting was held here, directed by the Jacobin 
 clubs, to sign petitions on the ' ' altar of the country, ' '" 
 praying for the abdication of Louis XVI. A com- 
 memoration meeting took place 14 July, 1792. 
 Another constitution was sworn to here, under the 
 eye of Napoleon I., 1 May, 1815, at a ceremony 
 called the Champ de Mai. The prince president 
 (afterwards Napoleon III.) had a grand review in 
 the Champ de Mars, and distributed eagles to the- 
 army, 10 May, 1852. Here also was held the Inter- 
 national Exhibition of 1867, opened 1 April. 
 
 CHAMPION of the King of England. 
 an ancient office, since 1377 has been attached to> 
 the manor of Scrivelsby, held by the Marmion 
 family. Their descendant, sir Henry Dymoke, the- 
 seventeenth of his family who has held the office, 
 died 28 April, 1865, and was succeeded by his- 
 brother John. At the coronation of the English 
 kings, the champion used to challenge any one that 
 should deny their title. 
 
 CHAMPLAIN, see Lake Champlain. 
 
 CHANCELLOE OF ENGLAND, Lord* 
 
 HlGH, the first lay subject after the princes of the 
 blood royal. Anciently the office was conferred 
 upon some dignified ecclesiastic termed Cancel- 
 larius, or doorkeeper, who admitted suitors to the- 
 sovereign's presence. Arfastus or Herefast, chaplain 
 to the king (William the Conqueror) and bishop of 
 Elmham, was lord chancellor in 1067. Hardy.. 
 Thomas a Beckct was made chancellor in 1 154. 
 The first person qualified by education, to decide 
 causes upon his own judgment, was sir Thomas- 
 More, appointed in 1529, before which time the 
 officer was rather a state functionary than a judge. 
 Sir Christopher Hatton, appointed lord chancellor 
 in 1587, was very ignorant, on which account the 
 first reference was made to a master in 1588. The- 
 great seal has been frequently put in commission ; 
 in 1813 the office of Vice- Chancellor was estab- 
 lished; see Keeper, and Vice- Chancellor. 
 
 LORD HIGH CHANCELLORS. 
 
 1487. John Moreton, archbishop of Canterbury. 
 
 1504. William Warham, aft. archbshp. of Canterbury, 
 
 151s. Thomas Wolsey, cardinal and abp. of York. 
 
 1529. Sir Thomas More. 
 
 1532. Sir Thomas Audley, keeper. 
 
 1533. Sir Thomas Audley, chancellor, aft. lord Audley. 
 1544. Thomas, lord Wriothesley. 
 
 1547. William, lord St. John, keeper. 
 
 ,, Richard, lord Rich, lord chancellor. 
 
 1551. Thomas Goodrich, bishop of Ely, keeper. 
 
 1552. The same ; now lord chancellor. 
 
 1553. Stephen Gardiner, bishop of Winchester. 
 
CHANCELLOR OF ENGLAND. 142 CHANCELLOR OF IRELAND. 
 
 1556. 
 1558. 
 
 1579- 
 1587- 
 I59 1 - 
 1592. 
 1596. 
 1603. 
 1617. 
 1618. 
 1621. 
 1625. 
 
 1640. 
 1641. 
 
 1643. 
 
 1645. 
 1646. 
 1649. 
 1653- 
 1654. 
 1660. 
 
 1667. 
 1672. 
 
 1673. 
 i675- 
 
 1682. 
 1685. 
 
 1689. 
 1690. 
 
 1693. 
 1697. 
 1700. 
 
 1707. 
 1710. 
 
 1713- 
 1714. 
 1718. 
 
 1725- 
 
 '733- 
 x 737- 
 I756- 
 1757- 
 
 1761. 
 
 1766. 
 1770. 
 
 1778. 
 1783. 
 
 1792. 
 1793- 
 
 1806. 
 1807. 
 
 1830. 
 1834. 
 
 Nicholas Heath, archbishop of York. 
 
 Sir Nicholas Bacon, keeper. 
 
 Sir Thomas Bromley, lord chancellor. 
 
 Sir Christopher Hatton. 
 
 The great seal in commission. 
 
 Sir John Puckering, lord keeper. 
 
 Sir Thomas Egerton, lord keeper. 
 
 Sir T. Egerton, lord Ellesmere, chancellor. 
 
 Sir Francis Bacon, lord keeper 
 
 Sir Francis Bacon, it. Id. Yerulam, Id. chancellor. 
 
 The great seal in commission. 
 
 John, bishop of Lincoln, lord keeper. 
 
 Sir Thomas Coventry, afterwards lord Coventry, 
 lord keeper. 
 
 Sir John Finch, afterwards lord Finch. 
 
 Sir Edward Lyttclton, afterwards lord Lyttelton, 
 lord keeper. 
 
 The great seal in the hands of commissioners. 
 
 Sir Richard Lane, royal keeper. 
 
 In the hands of commissioners. 
 
 In commission for the commonwealth. 
 
 Sir Edward Herbert, king's lord keeper. 
 
 In commission during the commonwealth. 
 
 Sir Edward Hyde, lord chancellor, afterwards 
 created lord Hyde, and earl of Clarendon. 
 
 Sir Orlando Bridgman, lord keeper. 
 
 Anthony Ashley, earl of Shaftesbury, lord chan- 
 cellor. 
 
 Sir Heneage Finch, lord keeper. 
 
 Heneage, now lord Finch, lord chancellor, after- 
 wards earl of Nottingham. 
 
 Sir Francis North, ex. lord Guilford, lord keeper. 
 
 Francis, lord Guilford ; succeeded by 
 
 George, lord Jeffreys, lord chancellor. 
 
 In commission. 
 
 Sir John Trevor, knt., sir William Rawlinson, kut., 
 and sir George Hutchins, knt., commissioners 
 or keepers. 
 
 Sir Johu Somers, lord keeper. 
 
 Sir John Somers, cr. lord Somers, chancellor. 
 
 Lord chief justice Holt, sir George Treby. chief 
 justice C. P., and chief baron sir Edward Ward, 
 lord keepers. 
 
 Sir Nathan Wright, lord keeper. 
 
 Right hon. William Cowper, lord keeper, after- 
 wards lord Cowper. 
 
 William, lord Cowper, lord chancellor. 
 
 In commission. 
 
 Sir Simon Harcourt, cr. lord Harcourt, keeper. 
 
 Simon, lord Harcourt, lord chancellor. 
 
 William, lord Cowper, lord chancellor 
 
 In commission. 
 
 Thomas, lord Parker, lord chancellor; alto wards 
 earl of Macclesfield. 
 
 In commission. 
 
 Sir Peter King, cr. lord King, chancellor. 
 
 Charles Talbot, created bird Talbot, chancellor. 
 
 Philip Yorke, lord Hardwicke, lord chancellor. 
 
 In commission. 
 
 Sir Robert Henley, afterwards lord Henley, last lord 
 keeper. 
 
 Lord Henley, lord chancellor, afterwards earl of 
 Northington. 
 
 Charles, lord Camden, lord chancellor. 
 
 Hon. Charles Yorke, lord chancellor. 
 
 [Created hud Morden; died by suicide within 
 three days, and before the seals were put to his 
 patent of peerage.] 
 
 In commission. 
 
 Henry Bathurst, lord Apsley ; succeeded as earl 
 Bathnrst. 
 
 Edward Thurlow, created lord Thurlow. 
 
 Alexander, lord Loughborough, and others, com- 
 missioners. 
 
 Edward, lord Thurlow, again. 
 
 In commission. 
 
 Alexander Wedderbuine, lord Loughborough, lord 
 chancellor. 
 
 John Scott, lord Eldon. 
 
 Hon. Thomas Erskine, created lord Erskine. 
 
 John, lord Eldon, again. 
 
 John Singleton Copley, created lord Lyndliurst. 
 
 Henry Brougham, created lord Brougham. 
 
 Lord Lyndliurst. again. 
 
 Sir Charles Christopher Pepys, master of the rolls, 
 vice-chancellor Shadwell, and Mr. justice- Bosan- 
 quet, C. P., commissioners. 
 
 1836. Sir Charles Christopher Pepys, created lord Cot- 
 tenham, lord chancellor. 16 Jan. 
 
 1841. Lord Lyndliurst, a third time. 3 Sept. 
 
 1846. Lord Cottenham, again lord chancellor, 6 July. 
 
 [His lordship on signifying his intention to 
 retire, ig June, 1850, was cr. rated earl of Cotten- 
 ham. | 
 
 1850. Lord Langdale, master of the rolls, sir Launcelot 
 Shadwell. vice-chancellor of England, and sir 
 Robert Monsey Rolfe, B.E., commissioners of 
 the great seal. 19 June. 
 ,, Bir Thomas Wilde, lord Truro. 15 July. 
 
 1852. Sir Edward Sugden, lord St. Leonard's. 27 Feb. 
 ,, Robt. Monsey Rolfe, lord Cranworth. 2S Dec. 
 
 1858. Sir Frederic Thesiger, lord Chelmsford. 26 Feb. 
 
 1859. John, lord Campbell, 18 June ; died 23 June, 1861. 
 1861. Richard Bethell, lord Westbury. 26 June. Re- 
 signed 4 July, 1865. 
 
 1865. Thomas lord Cranworth, again. 6 July. Resigned 
 
 June, 1866. 
 
 1866. F. Thesiger. lord Chelmsford, again. 6 July. Re- 
 
 signed Feb. 1868. 
 1868. Hugh Cairns, lord Cairns. 29 Feb. 
 
 ,, William Page Wood, lord Hatherley. 
 1872. Roundell Palmer, lord Selborne. 15 Oct. 187?. 
 
 CHANCELLOR OF IRELAND, Lord 
 HIGH- The earliest nomination was by Richard 
 I., 1 189, when Stephen Ridel was elevated to this 
 rank. The office of vice-chancellor was known in 
 Ireland in 1232, Geoffrey Turvillo, archdeacon of 
 Dublin, being so named. The Chancery and Com- 
 mon Law Offices (Ireland) act was passed 20 Aug. 
 1867. 
 
 LORD HIGH CHANCELLORS OF IRELAND. 
 
 Patent. 
 
 1690. Sir Charles Porter. 29 Dec. 
 
 1697. Sir John Jeffreyson, Thomas Coote, md Nehemiah 
 Donellan, lords keepers. 12 Jan. 
 ,, J. Methuen. 11 March. 
 
 ,, Edward, earl of Meath, Francis, earl of Longford, 
 and II in-rough, viscount Blessington.h >rd keepers. 
 
 21 Dec. 
 
 1702. Lord Methuen, lord chancellor. 26 Aug. 
 
 1705. Sir Richard Cox, bart. 6 Aug. ; resigned in 1707. 
 
 1707. Richard Freeman. June. 
 
 1710. Robert earl of Kildaiv. archbishop (Hoadley) of 
 
 Dublin, and Thomas Keightlev, commissioners. 
 28 Nov. 
 
 1711. Sir Constantino Phipps. 22 Jan. Resigned Sept. 
 
 1714. 
 1714. Alan Brodrick, afterwards viscount Middleton. 
 11 Oct. Resigned May, 1725. 
 
 1725. Richard West. June. 
 
 1726. Thomas Wyndham, afterwards lord Wyudhaiu of 
 
 Finglas. " 21 Dec. 
 1739. Robert Jocelyn, afterwards lord Newport and viset. 
 
 Jocelyn. 7 Sept. ; died 25 Oct. 1756. 
 1757. John Bowes, afterwards lord Bowes of Clonlyon. 
 
 22 March ; died 1767. 
 
 1768. James Hewitt, afterwards viscount Lifford. 9 Jan. 
 
 died 28 April, 1780. 
 1789 John, baron Fitzgibbon, afterwards earl of Clare. 
 
 20 June ; died 28 Jan. 1802. 
 1S02. John, baron Redesdale. 15 March. Resigned Feb. 
 
 1806. 
 
 1806. George Ponsonby. 25 March ; resigned April, 1807. 
 
 1807. Thomas Manners Sutton, hud Manners, previously 
 
 an English baron of the exchequer. May. Re- 
 signed Nov. 1827. 
 1827. Sir Anthony Hart, previously vice-chancellor of 
 
 England. 5 Nov. Resigned Nov. 1830. 
 1830. William, baron Plunket. 23 Dec. Resigned Nov. 
 
 1834- 
 1835. Sir Edward Burtenshaw Sugden. 13 Jan. Resigned 
 
 April 1S35. 
 ,, William, baron Plunket, a second time. 30 April. 
 
 Resigned June, 1841. 
 1841. John Campbell. June. Resigned Sept. 1841. 
 ,, Sir Edward Sugden, afterwards lord St. Leonard's, 
 
 a second time. Oct. Resigned July, 1846. 
 1846. Maziere Brady. 16 July. Resigned Feb. 1852. 
 
 1852. Francis Blackburne. March. Resigned Dec. 
 
 1853. Maziere Brady, again. Jan. 
 
 1858. Joseph Napier. Feb. • 
 
CHANCELLOR OF SCOTLAND. 143 
 
 CHARIOTS. 
 
 1859. Maziere Brady, again. June. 
 
 1866. Francis Blackburne. July. Resigned March, 1867. 
 
 1867. Abraham Brewster. 24 March. 
 
 1868. Thomas, lord O'Hagan. 
 
 CHANCELLOR OF SCOTLAND, Loud. 
 The laws of Malcolm II. (1004) says: — "The 
 ■chancellar sail at al tymes assist the Icing in giving 
 him counsall mair secretly nor the rest of the 
 nobility. . . The chancellar sail be ludgit neir 
 unto the kingis grace, for keiping of his bodie, and 
 the seill, and that he may be readie, baith day and 
 nicht, at the kingis command." Sir James Half our. 
 Evan was lord chancellor to Malcolm III. , Canmore, 
 1057 ; and James, earl of Seafield, afterwards 
 Findlater, was the last lord chancellor of Scotland, 
 the office having been abolished in 1708; see 
 Keeper. 
 
 . CHANCELLOR of the EXCHEQUER. 
 
 see Exchequer. 
 
 CHANCELLOR'S AUGMENTATION 
 ACT, passed 1863, enabled the lord chancellor to 
 sell the advowson of certain livings in his gift for 
 augmenting poor benefices. 
 
 CHANCELLORSVILLE, Virginia, U.S., a 
 large brick hotel, once kept by a Mr. Chancellor, 
 was the site of severe sanguinary conflicts between 
 the American federal army of the Potomac under 
 general Hooker, and the confederates under general 
 Lee. On 28 April, 1863, the federal army crossed the 
 Eappahannock ; on 2 May, general "Stonewall" 
 Jackson furiously attacked and routed the right 
 wing, but was mortally wounded by his own partj r 
 firing on him by mistake. Gen. Stuart took his 
 command, and after a severe conflict on 3 and 4 
 May, with great loss to both parties, the federals 
 were compelled to recross the Eappahannock. The 
 .struggle was compared to that at Hougomont 
 during the battle of Waterloo. Jackson died 10 
 May. 
 
 CHANCERY, Court of, is said to have 
 
 teen instituted either in 605, or by Alfred, 887; 
 refounded by "William I., 1067 (Stow) or 1070. 
 This court had its origin in the desire to render 
 justice complete, and to moderate the rigour of 
 other courts that are bound to the strict letter of the 
 law. It gives relief to or against infants, not- 
 withstanding their minority ; and to or against 
 married women, notwithstanding then- coverture; 
 and all frauds, deceits, breaches of trust and confi- 
 dence, for which there is no redress at common 
 law, are relievable here. Blachstone : see Chan- 
 cellors of England. The delays in chancery pro- 
 ceedings having long given dissatisfaction, the 
 subject was brought before parliament in 1825, and 
 frequently since ; which led to the passing of im- 
 portant acts in 1852, 1853, 1855, 1858, and 1867, to 
 amend the practice in the court of chancery. See 
 Accountant, County Courts. 
 
 CHANDOS CLAUSE, see Counties. 
 
 CHANNEL TUNNEL COMPANY, regis- 
 tered 15 Jan. 1872 ; see Tunnels. 
 
 CHANTINGr the psalms was adopted by 
 Ambrose from the pagan ceremonies of the Eomans, 
 about 350. Lenglet. About 602, Gregory the Great 
 added tones to the Ambrosian chant, and established 
 singing schools. Chanting was adopted by some 
 dissenters about 1859. 
 
 CHANTRY, a chapel endowed with revenue 
 for priests to sing mass for the souls of the donors ; 
 see Chanting. Chantries were abolished in England 
 in 1545- 
 
 CHAPEL. Thei-e are free chapels, chapels of 
 ease, the chapel royal, &c. Coioell. The gentlemen 
 pensioners (formerly poor knights of "Windsor, who 
 were instituted by the direction of Henry VIII. in 
 his testament, 1546-7) were called knights of the 
 chapel; see Poor Knights of Windsor. — The Private 
 Chapels act passed 14 Aug. 1871. The place of con- 
 ference among printers, and the conference itself, 
 are by them called a chap>el, it is said, because the 
 first work printed in England by Caxton was exe- 
 cuted in a ruined chapel in "Westminster-abbey. 
 
 CHAPLAIN, a clergyman who performs divine 
 service in a chapel, for a prince or nobleman. About 
 seventy chaplains are attached to the chapel royal. 
 The chief personages invested with the privilege of 
 retaining chaplains are the following, with the 
 number that was originally allotted to each rank, 
 by 21 Hen. VIII. c. 13 (1529) :— 
 
 Archbishop . 
 Duke 
 Bishop 
 Marquis . 
 Earl . 
 Viscount . 
 Baron . 
 Chancellor 
 
 Knight of the Garter 
 Duchess , 
 Marchioness 
 Countess . 
 Baroness 
 
 Master of the Bolls 
 Royal Almoner 
 Chief Justice 
 
 CHAPLETS, the string of beads used by the 
 Eoman Catholics in reciting the Lord's prayer, Ave 
 Maria, &c. ; see Beads. 
 
 , CHAPTER. Anciently the bishop and clergy 
 lived in the cathedral, the latter to assist the former 
 in performing holy offices and governing the church, 
 until the reign of Henry VIII. The chapter is now 
 an assembly of the clergy of a collegiate church or 
 cathedral. Cowell. The chapter-house of "West- 
 minster-abbey was built in 1250. By consent of 
 the abbot, the commoners of England held their 
 parliaments there from 1377 until 1547, when 
 Edward VI. granted them the chapel of St. Stephen. 
 
 CHARCOAL AIR-FILTERS were devised 
 by Dr. John Stenhouse, P.E.S., in 1853. About 
 the end of the last century Lowitz, a German 
 chemist, discovered that charcoal (carbon) possessed 
 the property of deodorising putrid substances, by 
 absorbing and decomposing offensive gases. Air- 
 filters, based on this property, have been success- 
 fully applied to public buildings, sewers, &c. Dr. 
 Stenhouse also invented charcoal respirators. See 
 Fireman's Bespirators. 
 
 CHARING CROSS. At the village of Charing 
 stood the last of the memorial crosses erected in 
 memory of Eleanor, queen of Edward L, in con- 
 formity with her will. She died, 28 Nov. 1290. 
 The cross remained till 1647, when it was destroyed 
 as a monument of popish superstition. The present 
 cross was erected for the South Eastern Eailway 
 Company in 1865 by Mr. E. M. Barry. The houses 
 at Charing-cross were built about 1678 ; alterations 
 began in 1829. The first stone of Charing-cross 
 hospital was laid by the duke of Sussex, 15 Sept. 
 1 83 1. Hungerford-bridge (or Charing-cross bridge) 
 was opened 1 May, 1845 '■> taken down July, 1862, 
 and the materials employed in erecting Clifton sus- 
 pension bridge, beginning March, 1863; see Clifton. 
 Charing-cross Eailway. The first train passed 
 over it 2 Dee. 1863, and it was opened to the public 
 on 11 Jan. 1864. The new railway bridge, built 
 of iron with brick piers, was constructed by Mr. 
 Hawkshaw. 
 
 CHARIOTS. Chariot racing was a Greek 
 exercise. The chariot of an Ethiopian officer is 
 mentioned, Acts viii. 27. Cajsar relates that Cassi- 
 
CHARITABLE BEQUESTS. 
 
 144 
 
 CHARTISTS. 
 
 belaimus, after dismissing his other forces, retained 
 no fewer than 4000 war-chariots about his person ; 
 see Carriages, &c. 
 
 CHARITABLE BEQUESTS, &c. Boards 
 for their recovery were constituted in 1764 and 
 1800, and a board for Ireland (chiefly prelates 
 of the established church), in 1825. The Roman 
 Catholic Charitable Bequests act passed in 1844, 
 and an act for the better administration of Chari- 
 table Trusts in 1853, when commissioners were ap- 
 pointed, who have from time to time published 
 voluminous reports. Amendment acts were passed 
 1855 and 187 1. 
 
 CHARITABLE BRETHREN, an order 
 founded by St. John of God, and approved by pope 
 Pius V. 1572; introduced into France, 1601; settled 
 at Paris, 1602. H4nau.lt. 
 
 CHARITABLE FUNDS INVESTMENT 
 
 ACT passed I Aug. 1870. 
 
 CHARITABLE TRUSTEES' INCOR- 
 PORATION ACT passed 27 June, 1872. 
 
 CHARITABLE TRUSTS ACTS amended 
 in 1869. 
 
 CHARITABLE USES, statute of, 43 Eliz. 
 c. 4 (1601), passed u to redresse the niisemploymcnt 
 of landes, goodes, and stockes of money, heretofore 
 given to charitable uses." The law respecting the 
 conveyance of land for charitable uses was amended 
 in 1861. 
 
 CHARITIES aot CHARITY SCHOOLS, 
 
 see Education. The Charity Commission reported 
 to parliament that the endowed charities alone of 
 Great Britain amounted to 1,500,000/. annually, in 
 1840. Charity schools were instituted in London to 
 prevent the seduction of the infant poor into Roman 
 Catholic seminaries, 3 James II., 1687-8. Mr. Low's 
 "Charities of London" (third edition) was pub- 
 lished 1873. 
 
 CHARITY ORGANISATION SOCIETY, 
 
 see under Poor. 
 
 CHARLEROI, in Belgium; fortified and 
 named by the Spanish governor Rodrigo, 1666. 
 Several great battles have been fought near this 
 town, especially in 1690 and 1794; see Fleurus. 
 Charleroi was besieged by the prince of Orange, 
 1672 and 1677 ; but he was soon obliged to retire. 
 Near here, at Ligny, Napoleon attacked the Prus- 
 sian line, making it fall back upon "Wavres, 16 June, 
 1815. 
 
 CHARLES et GEORGES, two French 
 vessels, professedly conveying free African emi- 
 grants (but really slaves), seized by the Portuguese, 
 in Conducia bay, 29 Nov. 1857, sent to Lisbon, and 
 condemned as slavers. The French government 
 sent two ships of war to the Tagus, and the vessels 
 were surrendered under protest ; but the emperor of 
 France gave up the free emigration scheme. 
 
 CHARLESTON (South Carolina), founded by 
 people from old Charlestown, 1680. The English 
 fleet here was repulsed with great loss, 28 June, 
 1776. It was besieged by the British troops at the 
 latter end of March, 1780, and surrendered 13 May, 
 following, with 6000 prisoners ; it was evacuated 
 14 Dec. 1782. Great commotion arose here in Nov. 
 i860, through the election of Mr. Lincoln for the 
 presidency, he being opposed to slavery. On 
 12, 13 April, 1861, the war began by the confede- 
 
 rates bombarding Fort Sumter ; see United States. 
 In Dec. 1861, the federals sank a number of vessels 
 laden with stone in order to choke up the entrance 
 to Charleston harbour. Unsuccessful attacks were 
 made on Charleston by the federals between April, 
 1863, and 17 Feb. 1865, when the confederates were 
 compelled to retire ; and the federals replaced their 
 standard on fort Sumter, 14 April, the day on which 
 president Lincoln was assassinated. 
 
 CHARLESTOWN (Massachusetts) was burnt 
 by the British forces under general Gage, 17 June, 
 1775. Charlestown taken by the British, 7 May, 1779. 
 
 "CHARTE CONSTITUTIONNELLE," 
 
 the French political constitution acknowledged by 
 Louis XVIII., 4-10 June, 1814. The infraction of 
 this constitution led to the revolution of 1830. The 
 amended "Charte" was promulgated by Louis- 
 Fhilippe, 14 Aug. 1830 ; and set aside by the revo- 
 lution of 1848. 
 
 CHARTER-HOUSE (a corruption of Chart- 
 reuse, which see), London, formerly a Carthusian 
 monastery, founded in 137 1 by sir Walter de Manny, 
 one of the knights of Edward III., now an extensive 
 charitable establishment. The last prior, John 
 Houghton, was executed as a traitor, for denying 
 the king's supremacy, in May, 1535. After the 
 dissolution of monasteries in 1539, the charter- 
 house passed through various hands till 1 Nov. 
 161 1, when it was sold by the earl of Suffolk to 
 Thomas Sutton for 13,000/., who obtained letters 
 patent directing that it should be called " the hos- 
 pital of king James, founded in the Charter-house," 
 and that " there should be for ever 16 governors," 
 &c. On the foundation are 80 poor brothers and 
 44 poor scholars. Sutton died 12 Dec. 1611. The 
 expenditure for 1853-4 was 22,396/. ; the receipts, 
 28,908/. This school was affected by the Public 
 Schools' Act, 1868. In Sept. 1872, the school was 
 opened in new buildings, at Godalmiug, Surrey; 
 the old buildings having been adapted for the 
 Merchant Taylors' (day) School. The buildings 
 for the " poor brethren " were also modified, and 
 in Nov. entirely new arrangements for them were 
 proposed. 
 
 CHARTER-PARTY, a covenant between 
 merchants and masters of ships relating to the ship 
 and caigo, said to have been first used in England 
 about 1243. 
 
 CHARTERS, granted to corporate towns to 
 protect theh manufactures by Henry I. in 1 132; 
 modified by Charles II. in 1682 ; the ancient charters 
 restored in 1698. Alterations were made by the 
 Municipal Reform Act in 1835. See Magna Charta 
 and Boroughs. Ancient Anglo-Saxon charters are 
 printed in Kemble's " Codex Diplomaticus," 1829. 
 
 CHARTISTS, the name assumed by large 
 bodies of the lower classes, shortly after the passing 
 of the Reform Bill in 1832, from their demanding 
 the people's Charter, the six points of which were 
 Universal Suffrage, Tote by Ballot, Annual Parlia- 
 ments, Payment of the Members, the abolition of the 
 Property Qualification (which was enacted, June, 
 1858), and Equal Electoral Districts. In 1838 the 
 chartists assembled in various parts of the country, 
 anncd with guns, pikes, and other weapons, and 
 carrying torches and flags. A proclamation was 
 issued against them, 12 Dec. Their petition (agreed 
 to at Birmingham, 6 Aug. 1838) was presented to 
 parliament by Mr. T. Attwood, 14 June, 1839. 
 They committed great outrages at Birmingham, 
 15 July, 1839, and at Newport {which see), 4 Nov. 
 
CHAETEEUSE. 
 
 145 
 
 CHAUVINISM. 
 
 1839. They held for some time a sort of parliament 
 called the "National Convention," the leading 
 men being Feargus O'Connor, Henry Vincent, Mr. 
 Stephens, &c. On 10 April, 1848, they proposed to 
 hold a meeting of 200,000 men on Ivennington 
 common, London, to march thence in procession to 
 Westminster, and present a petition to parliament ; 
 hut only about 20,000 came. The bank and other 
 establishments were fortified by military, preventive 
 measures adopted, and not less than 150,000 persons 
 of all ranks (including Louis Napoleon, afterwards 
 emperor) were voluntarily sworn to act as special 
 constables. The chartists dispersed after slight en- 
 counters with the police, and the monster petition, 
 in detached rolls, was sent in cabs to the house of 
 commons. From this time the proceedings of the 
 chartists became insignificant. 
 
 CHAETREUSE, La Grande, chief of the 
 
 monasteries of the Carthusian order, situated among 
 the rugged mountains near Grenoble, in France, 
 •was founded by Bruno of Cologne, about 1084. At 
 the revolution in 1792, the monks were expelled and 
 their valuable library destroyed. They returned to 
 the monastery after the restoration of 181 5. 
 
 CHARTS AND MAPS. Anaximander of 
 Miletus is said to have been the inventor of geo- 
 graphical and celestial charts, about 570 B.C. 
 Modern sea-charts were brought to England by 
 Bartholomew Columbus to illustrate his brother's 
 theory respecting a western continent, 1489. The 
 first tolerably accurate map of England was drawn 
 by George Lilly, who died in 1559. Gerard Mer- 
 cator published an atlas of maps in 1595 ; see 
 Mereator. 
 
 CHASSEPOT EIFLE, a modified needle- 
 gun, and a breech-loader (named after its inventor, 
 Alphonse Chassepot), adopted by the French go- 
 vernment in 1866. In April, 1867, 10,000 had been 
 issued to the troops. In his report on the battle of 
 Mentana (which see), 3 Nov. 1867, gen. De Failly 
 said, "the chassepot has done wonders." It was 
 generally considered successful in the war, 1 870-1. 
 " The range of the chassepot being 1800 paces, and 
 that of the needle-gun only between 600 and 700, 
 the Germans in all their charges had to traverse 
 1200 paces before their arms could be used to pur- 
 pose." Many Germans were armed with the chasse- 
 pot after the surrender of the French army at Sedan, 
 2 Sept. 1870. 
 
 CHASTITY. The Eoman laws justified homi- 
 cide in defence of one's self or relatives ; and our 
 laws justify a woman for killing a man in defence 
 of her chastity ; and a husband or a father in taking 
 the life of him who attempts to violate his wife or 
 daughter. In 1000 years from Numa, 710 B.C., to 
 Theodosius, a.d. 394, only eighteen Eoman vestals 
 had been condemned for incontinence. See Vestals, 
 Acre, and Coldinghani. 
 
 CHATEAUDUN, an old city; N. C. France, 
 the residence of the heroic Dunois, who died 1468. 
 Here were massacred, 20 July, 1183, about 7000 
 BrabanQons, fanatic mercenaries who had been hired 
 to exterminate the Albigenses by the cardinal 
 Henry, abbot of Clairvaux, in 1181. They had 
 become the scourge of the country, and the " Capu- 
 chons" were organised for their destruction. Cha- 
 teaudun was captured by the Germans after a 
 severe conflict of about nine hours, 18 Oct. 1870. 
 Barricades had been erected in the town, and the 
 Garde Mobile fought bravely. The town was re- 
 occupied by the French, 6 Nov. 
 
 CHATHAM (Kent), a principal station of the 
 royal navy, the dockyard, commenced by queen 
 Elizabeth, has been recently much extended (1872). 
 The Chatham Chest, for the relief of the wounded 
 and decayed seamen, originally established here by 
 the queen and admirals Drake and Hawkins, in 
 1588, was removed to Greenwich in 1803. On 
 10 June, 1667, the Dutch fleet, under admiral De 
 Euyter, sailed up to this town, and burnt several 
 men-of-war ; but the entrance into the Medway is 
 now defended by Sheerness and other forts, and 
 additional fortifications were made at Chatham. 
 On 8-1 1 Feb. 1861, a violent outbreak of the convicts 
 was suppressed by the military, and many rioters 
 flogged. About iooo£. worth of property was de- 
 stroyed, and many persons were seriously hurt. New 
 docks and a basin, said to be the largest and finest 
 in the world, opened by Mr. Goschen, 21 June, 1871. 
 
 CHATHAM ADMINISTRATION,* suc- 
 ceeded the first Eockingham administration in Aug. 
 1766: after several changes it terminated Dec. 
 1767. See Grafton. 
 
 Earl of Chatham, first minister and lord privy seal. 
 Duke of Grafton, first lord of the treasury. 
 Lord Camden, lord chancellor. 
 Charles Townshend, chancellor of tlie exchequer. 
 Earl of Northington, lord president. 
 
 Earl of Shelburne and general Conway, secretaries of state. 
 Sir Charles Saunders (succeeded by Sir Edward Hawke), 
 
 admiralty. 
 Marquis of Granby, ordnance. 
 Lord Hillsborough, first lord of trade. 
 Viscount Barrington, secretary ~at war. 
 Lord North and sir George Cooke, joint paymasters. 
 Viscount Howe, treasurer of the navy. 
 Duke of Ancaster, lord de Despenser, &c. 
 
 CHATILLON (on the Seine, France). Here 
 a congress was held by the four great powers allied 
 against France, at which Caulaincourt attended for 
 Napoleon, 4 Feb. 1814 : the negotiations for peace 
 were broken off on 19 March following. 
 
 CHAT MOSS (Lancashire), a peat bog, twelve 
 miles square, in most places so soft as to be in- 
 capable of supporting a man or horse, over which 
 George Stephenson, the railway engineer, carried 
 the Liverpool and Manchester railway, after over- 
 coming difficulties considered invincible. The road 
 (literally a floating one) was completed by I Jan. 
 1830, when the first experimental train, drawn by 
 the Eocket locomotive, passed over it. 
 
 CHATTANOOGA (Tennessee). Near here 
 the federal generals, Sherman and Thomas, de- 
 feated the confederate general Bragg, after storming 
 the entrenchments, 25 Nov. 1863. Bragg retreated 
 into Georgia, and Longstreet into Virginia. 
 
 CHAUMONT (on the Marne, France), Treaty 
 of, entered into between Great Britain, Austria, 
 Eussia, and Prussia, 1 March, 1814. This treaty 
 was succeeded by that of Paris, 1 1 April, by which. 
 Napoleon renounced his sovereignty; see Paris. 
 
 .CHAUVINISM, a term derived from Chau- 
 vin, the principal character in Scribe's "Soldat 
 Laboureur," a veteran soldier of the first empire, 
 filled with intense admiration for Napoleon and for 
 
 * William Pitt, earl of Chatham (the " great commoner" ) 
 born 15 Nov. 1708, entered parliament in 1735 ; became 
 secretary of state (virtually the premier) in the Devon- 
 shire administration, Nov. 1756, secretary in the New- 
 castle administration, Jan. 1757. In 1766 he became 
 premier, lord privy seal, and afterwards earl of Chatham . 
 which lord Chesterfield called a fail tipstairs. He opposed 
 the taxation of the American colonies, but protested 
 against the recognition of their independence, 7 April, 
 1778, and died 11 May following. 
 
CHEATS. 146 
 
 CHESS. 
 
 all that belonged to him. Scribe was bom 24 Dec. 
 1794, died 20 Feb. 1861. 
 
 CHEATS were punishable by pillory, impri- 
 sonment, and fine, and a rigorous statute was 
 enacted against them in 1542. Persons cheating at 
 play, or winning at any time more than 10I. or any 
 valuable thing, were deemed infamous, and were 
 to suffer punishment as in cases of perjury, 9 Anne, 
 1 71 1. Blackstone. 
 
 CHEESE is mentioned by Aristotle, about 
 350 B.C. It is supposed by Camden and others that 
 the English learned cheese-making from the Eomans 
 about the Christian era. Wilts, Gloucester, and 
 Cheshire make vast quantities ; the last alone, an- 
 nually, about 31,000 tons. In 1840 we imported 
 from abroad about 10,000 tons; in 1855, 384,192 
 cwt. ; in 1866, 872,342 cwt. ; in 1870, 1,041,281 
 cwt. The duty on foreign cheese, producing annually 
 about 50,000*!., was taken off in i860. 
 
 CHELSEA (Middlesex). A council held here 
 27 July, 816. Nicolas. A theological college here 
 founded by James I. in 1609, was converted by 
 Charles II. in 1682 to an asylum for wounded and 
 superannuated soldiers. The erection was earned 
 on by James II., and completed by William III. 
 in 1690. The projector was sir Stephen Fox, 
 grandfather of the orator C. J. Fox ; the architect 
 was sir Christopher Wren ; and the cost 150,000/. 
 In 1850 there were 70,000 out- and 539 in-pen- 
 sioncrs. — The body of the duke of Wellington lay 
 here in state, 10-17 Nov. 1852. — The physic garden 
 of sir Hans Sloane, at Chelsea, was given to the 
 Apothecaries' company, 1721. — The Chelsea water- 
 works were incorporated, 1722 — The first stone of 
 the Military Asylum, Chelsea, was laid by Frederick, 
 duke of York, 19 June, 1801. — The bridge, con- 
 structed by Mr. T. Page to connect Chelsea with 
 Battersea-park, was opened March, 1858. The 
 Albert-bridge was opened 31 Dec. 1872. The par- 
 liamentary borough of Chelsea, created by the 
 Reform act, 15 Aug. 1867, consists of Chelsea, Ken- 
 sington, Fulham, and Hammersmith. See Trials, 
 July, 1870 and 1872. 
 
 CHELTENHAM (Gloucestershire). Its cele- 
 brated mineral spring was discovered in 1718. 
 The king's-well was sunk in 1778 ; and other wells 
 by Mr. Thompson in 1806. Magnesian salt was 
 first found in the waters in 181 1. The theatre was 
 erected in 1804. 
 
 CHEMICAL SOCIETIES. One formed in 
 London in 1780, did not long continue. The 
 present Chemical society of London was established 
 in 184 1 ; that of Paris in 1857. 
 
 CHEMISTET was introduced into Spain by 
 the Moors, about 1150. The Egyptians and Chinese 
 claim an early acquaintance with chemistry. The 
 first chemists were the Alchemists (see Alchemy) ; 
 but chemistry was not a science till the 17th 
 century ; during which its study was promoted by 
 Bacon, Hooke, Mayow, and Boyle. In the early 
 part of the 18th century, Dr. Sephen Hales laid the 
 foundation of Pneumatic Chemistry, and his con- 
 temporary Boerhaave combined the study of 
 chemistry with medicine. These were succeeded 
 by Bergman, Stahl, Black, &c. In 1772, Priestley 
 published his researches on air, having discovered 
 the gases oxygen, ammonia, &c. ; and thus com- 
 menced anew chemical era. He was ably seconded 
 by Cavendish, Scheele, Lavoisier, Chaptal, &c. 
 The 19th century opened with the brilliant dis- 
 coveries of Davy, continued by Dalton, Faraday, 
 
 Thomson, &c. Organic Chemistry has been very 
 greatly advanced by Berzelius, Liebig, Dumas, 
 Laurent, Hofmann, Cahours, Frankland,* &c, 
 since 1830; sec Pharmacy, Electricity, Galvanism. 
 For the analytical processes termed " Spectrum 
 analysis," invented by Kirchboff and Bunscn 
 (1861), and "Dialysis"' (1861), and " Atmolysis " 
 (1863), invented by Mr. T. Graham, see those 
 articles. — The Eoyal College of Chemistry, Oxford- 
 street, London, was established in 1845 (now at 
 South Kensington)— the publication of Henry Watts' 
 great " Dictionary of Chemistry" began hi April, 
 1863 ; ended, May, 1868. M. Ad. Wurtz's equally 
 great " Dictionnaire de Chimie," began in 1868. 
 
 CHEQUES, see Drafts. 
 
 CHERBOURG, the great naval fortress and 
 arsenal of France on the coast of Brittany, about 
 60 or 70 miles equi-distant from Portsmouth and 
 Plymouth. It was captured by our Henry V. in 
 1418, and lost in 1450. Under the direction of 
 Louis XIV., some works were erected here by the 
 great Yauban, which with some shipping, &c, were 
 destroyed by the British, 6, 7 Aug. 1758. The 
 works resumed by Louis XVI., were interrupted by 
 the revolution. The breakwater, commenced in 
 1783, resumed by Napoleon I. about 1803, and com- 
 pleted in 1813, forms a secure harbour, afibrding 
 anchorage for nearly the whole navy of France, and 
 protected by strong fortifications. On 4, 5 Aug. 
 1S58, the railway and the Grand Napoleon docks 
 were opened, the latter in the presence of the 
 queen of England and court. The British fleet 
 visited Cherbourg, 15-17 Aug. 1865, receiving much 
 hospitality. 
 
 CHEEITONDOWN (Hants). Here sir Wm. 
 Waller defeated the royalists under lord Hopton, 
 29 March, 1644. 
 
 CHERRY, the Pruwus Cerasus (from Cerasus, 
 a city of Pontus, whence the tree was brought by 
 Lucullus to Rome, about 70 B.C.), first plauted in 
 Britain, it is said, about ioo. Fine kinds were 
 brought from Flanders, in 1 540, and planted in 
 Kent. 
 
 CHERSOJST, see KJierson. 
 CHERSONEUS, see Crimea. 
 CHESAPEAKE. At the mouth of this river 
 a contest took place between the British admiral 
 Greaves and the French admiral De Grasse aiding 
 the revolted states of America ; the former was 
 obliged to retire, 1781. The Chesapeake and Dela- 
 ware were blockaded by the British fleet in the 
 American war of 1812, and the bay was, at that 
 period, the scene of great hostilities of various 
 results. 
 
 Chesapeake, an American frigate, in Boston bay, com- 
 manded by capt. Lawrence (50 guns, 376 men), struck 
 to the Shannon, British frigate (38 guns, 330 men) com- 
 manded by capt. Philip Vere Broke, after a severe 
 action of eleven minutes, 1 June, 1813. Eleven minutes 
 elapsed between the firing of the first gun and the 
 boarding, and in four minutes more the Chesapeake was 
 the Shannon's prize. Capt. Lawrence died of his wounds. 
 
 CHESS, a game attributed to Palamedes, 680 
 B.C. ; Hyde and sir William Jones refer the origin 
 of chess to the Hindoos. 
 
 * In 1828 Wohler produced artificially urea, a body 
 hitherto known only as a product of the animal organ- 
 ism. Since then, acetic acid, alcohol, grape sugar, 
 various essential oils, similar to those of the pine apple, 
 pear, garlic, <fee., have been formed by combinations of 
 the gases, oxygen, hydrogen, and carbonic acid. The 
 barrier formed by chemists between organic and inorganic 
 bodies is thus broken down. 
 
CHESTER. 
 
 147 
 
 CHILI. 
 
 Caxton printed " the Game and Playe of the Chesse" 1474 
 A chess-club formed at Slaughter's coffee-house, St. 
 
 Martin's-lane 1747 
 
 The automaton chess-player (a piece of machinery) 
 
 exhibited in England 1769 
 
 M.F. A. Danican, known as Phillidor, played three 
 
 matches blindfolded at the Salopian ; he died . 1795 
 The London Chess-club founded in 1807, and St. 
 
 Georg.s's . . . .■ 1833 
 
 Herr Paulsen played ten games at once, of which 
 
 he won five, and lost one ; three were drawn, and 
 
 one not played out Dec. 1861 
 
 A chess congress was held at New York in 1857, 
 
 and an international one in London in June and 
 
 July, 1862 
 
 CHESTER (England, N. W.), the British 
 Caerleon and the Roman Deva, the station of the 
 twentieth legion, Valeria Victrix, quitted by them 
 about 406. The city wall was first built by Edel- 
 fleda, about 908 ; and Hugh Lupus, the earl, nephew 
 of William I., rebuilt the Saxon castle in 1084, and 
 the abbey of St. Werburgh. Chester was incorpo- 
 rated by Henry III. and made a distinct county. The 
 palatine jurisdiction was abolished by parliament, 
 23 July, 1830. The see, anciently part of Lichfield, 
 one of whose bishops, Peter, removingthe seat hither 
 ini075, occasioned his successors to be styled bishops 
 of Chester ; but it was not made a distinct bishopric 
 until Henry VIII. in 154 1 raised it to this dignity, 
 and allotted" the church of the abbey of St. Wer- 
 burgh for the cathedral. After extensive repairs, 
 the cathedral was re-opened 25 Jan. 1872. This 
 see is valued in the king's books at 420^. is. 8d. 
 per annum. Present income 4500?. 
 
 Chester ravaged by Danes 980 
 
 Nearly destroyed by fire 1471 
 
 Taken, after three months' siege, for the parliament 1645 
 
 Fatal gunpowder explosion 1772 
 
 Exchange and town hall burnt . . 30 Dec. 1862 
 
 A projected attack of Fenians on Chester castle was 
 defeated by the vigilance of the authorities and 
 the arrival of the military . . n, 12 Feb. 1867 
 New town hall opened by the prince of Wales 
 
 15 Oct. 1869 
 
 RECENT BISHOPS OF CHESTER. 
 
 1800. Henry Win Majendie, trans, to Bangor, 1809. 
 1810. Bowyer Edward Sparkie, trans, to Ely, 1812. 
 1812. George Henry Law, trans, to Bath, 1824. 
 1824. Chas. J. Blomfield, trans, to London, Aug. 1828. 
 1828. John Bird Sumner, trans, to Canterbury, 1848. 
 1848. John Graham, died 15 June, 1865. 
 1865. William Jacobson. 
 
 CHESTER LE STREET, see Durham. 
 
 CHEVALIER D'EON, see D'Eon. 
 
 CHEVY CHASE, see Otterburne. 
 
 CHICAGO, Illinois, United States, a flourish- 
 ing city settled in 1831 ; incorporated 1837 ; popu- 
 lation, 1867, above 200,000; in 1872, about 400,000. 
 
 Chicago was nearly destroyed by fire, occasioned by 
 the upsetting of a paraffin lamp, 8, 9, 10, 11 Oct. 1871 
 
 About 250 perished, and 98,500 were rendered 
 destitute. The loss was reckoned at 290,000,000 
 dollars. Large sums were collected for relief of 
 the sufferers in London (io,oooi. in a few hours)and 
 other British cities, as well as in North America. 
 The area of the fire was computed at from three 
 to five square miles, and about 25,000 buildings 
 were destroyed. The heart of the city was com- 
 posed of old wooden buildings. The city was re- 
 built most energetically . ... 1872-3 
 
 CHICAMAUGA (" thestream of death"), near 
 the Chattanooga, Tennessee, North America. Near 
 here the Confederates under general Bragg, aided by 
 Longstreet, totally defeated the federals under 
 Eosencrans, 19, 20 Sept. 1863. The loss was severe 
 on both sides. The credit of the victory was attri- 
 buted to Longstreet ; its fruitlessness to Bragg. 
 
 CHICHESTER (Sussex), built by Cissa, 
 about 540. The cathedral was completed about 
 1 108, burnt with the city in 1 1 14, and rebuilt by 
 bishop Seffrid about 1187. The present catherdal 
 was erected during the 13th century. The spire 
 fell 20 Feb. 1861, the foundation of a new one was 
 laid 2 May, 1865, completed June, 1866. The cathe- 
 dral re-opened after repairs, 14 Nov. 1867. The 
 bishopric originated thus : Wilfrid, archbishop of 
 York, compelled to flee by Egfrid, king of Northum- 
 berland, preached the gospel in this countiy, and 
 built a church in the Isle of Selsey, about 673. In 
 681 Selsey became a bishopric, and so continued 
 until it was removed to Chichester, then called 
 Cissan-Caester, from its builder, Cissa, by Stigand, 
 about 1082. This see has yielded to the church 
 two saints, and to the nation three lord chancellors. 
 It is valued in the king's books at 677?. is. 3<f. per 
 annum. Present income, 4200?. 
 
 RECENT BISHOPS OP CHICHESTER. 
 
 1798. John Buckner, died 2 May, 1824. 
 
 1824. Robert J. Carr, trans, to Worcester, Sept, 1831. 
 
 1831. Edward Maltby, translated to Durham, 1836. 
 
 1836. Charles Otter, died 20 Aug. 1840. 
 
 1840. Philip Nicholas Shuttleworth, died 7 Jan. 1842. 
 
 1842. Ashurst Turner Gilbert, died 21 Feb. 1870. 
 
 1870. Richard Durnford. 
 
 CHICKAHOMINY BATTLES, see Fair- 
 oaks, and United States, June, 1862. 
 
 CHICORY, the wild endive, or Cichori/un 
 Intybus of Linnaeus, grows wild in calcareous soils. 
 It was for many years so largely mixed with coffee 
 in England, that it became a matter of serious com- 
 plaint, the loss of revenue being estimated at 
 100,000^. a year. An excise order was issued, 
 intei dieting the mixture of chicory with coffee, 3 
 Aug. 1852. The admixture, however, has since been 
 permitted, provided the word "chicory" be plainly 
 ■printed on each parcel sold. In i860 a duty of 3s. 
 per ewt. was put upon English-grown chicory until 
 April, 1861 ; after that date to be 5s. 6d. per cwt. 
 
 CHIGNON, French for the "back-hair" of 
 ladies. In directions for full dress in 1783, it 
 is said: "The hair large and the chignon low be- 
 hind." Lady's Magazine. Large chignons began 
 to be worn in England in 1866. 
 
 CHILDERMAS DAY, 28 Dec, of ancient 
 observance by the Roman Church, in memory of 
 the slaughter of the Holy Innocents. (Matt, ii.) 
 
 CHILDREN. Many ancient nations exposed 
 their infants, — the Egyptians on the banks of 
 rivers, and the Greeks on highway's, — when they 
 could not support or educate them ; in such cases, 
 they were protected by the state. The old custom 
 of English parents selling their children to the 
 Irish for slaves, was prohibited by Canute, about 
 1017. See Foundling, Factory Acts, and Infanti- 
 cide. 
 
 CHILI (S. America), discovered by Diego de 
 Almagro, one of the conquerors of Peru, 1535. 
 When Almagro crossed the Cordilleras, the natives, 
 regarding the Spaniards on their first visit as allied 
 to the Divinity, collected for them gold and silver 
 amounting to 290,000 ducats, a present which led 
 to the subsequent cruelties and rapacity of the in- 
 vaders. Chili was subdued, but not wholly, in 1546. 
 Population in 1870, 1,972,438. 
 
 Chili declares its independence of Spain, 18 Sept. 1810 
 War with varying success : decisive victory gained 
 by San Martin over the royal forces at Chacabuco, 
 
 1 2 
 
CHILLED SHOT. 
 
 148 
 
 CHINA. 
 
 12 Feb 1817 ; the province declared independent, 
 
 12 Feb. 1818 
 Present constitution established . . 22 May, 1833 
 Manuel Montt elected president . . . 18 Oct, 1856 
 [nsurrection headed by Pedro Gallo.Dec. 1858, sup- 
 
 pressed April, ' 8 59 
 
 Jose J. Perez, president .... 18 Sept. 1861 
 Conflagration of the Jesuits' church at Santiago 
 ( see Santiago), more than 2000 persons perished 
 v 8 Dec. 1863 
 
 Rupture between Chili and Bolivia respecting the 
 
 "Guano "isles 1 March, 1864 
 
 Disputes with Spain respecting rem settled by the 
 Spanish minister, 20 May, disavowed by his 
 
 government 25 July, 1864 
 
 Religious toleration enacted . . . July, 1S65 
 J. J. Perez again proclaimed president; vigorous 
 
 prosecution of the war .... Oct. ,, 
 The Spanish admiral Pare.ja appears before Val- 
 paraiso claiming satisfaction for Chilian inter- 
 vention inthewarwithPeru. 17 Sept. ; refused 21 
 Sept he declar; 3 1 blci kads 14 Ss.pt Chili 
 declares war against Spain, 29 Sept, ; joins Peru, 
 
 5 Dec. ,, 
 The Spaniards bombard Valparaiso . 31 March, 1866 
 
 End of the blockade 14 April, „ 
 
 J. J. Perez re-elected president . . 18 Sept. ,, 
 F. Errazuriz elected president . . . 18 Sept. 1S71 
 Cold mines discovered near Iquique . . Oct. ,, 
 
 CHILLED SHOT, see Cannon, 1864-6. 
 
 CHILLIANWALLAH, Battle of, India, 
 
 between the Sikh forces in considerable strength, 
 and the British commanded by lord (afterwards 
 viscount) Gough, fought 13 Jan. 1849. The Sikhs 
 were completely routed, but the loss of the British 
 was very severe : 26 officers were killed and 66 
 wounded, and 731 rank and file killed, and 1446 
 wounded. The Sikh loss was 3000 killed and 
 4000 wounded.* On 21 Feb. lord Gough attacked 
 the Sikh army, under Shere Singh, in its positien 
 at Goojerat, with complete success ; and the whole of 
 the enemy's camp fell into the hands of the British. 
 
 CHILTEKN HUNDREDS (viz. Burnham, 
 Desborough, and Stoke), an estate of the crown on 
 the chain of chalk hills that pass from east to west 
 through the middle of Buckinghamshire. The 
 stewardship is a nominal office, with a salary of 25s., 
 conferred on members of parliament when they wish 
 to vacate their seats. The strict legality of the 
 practice is questioned. 
 
 CHIMNEY-TAX, see Hearth. 
 
 CHIMNEYS. Chafing-dishes were in use 
 previous to the invention of chimneys, which were 
 first introduced into these countries, in 1200, when 
 the j' were confined to the kitchen and large hall. 
 The family sat round a stove, the funnel of which 
 passed through the ceiling, in 1300. Chimneys 
 were general in domestic architecture in 1310. At 
 the chemical works, Glasgow, is a chimney (there 
 termed a stalk) 420 feet in height ; the height of 
 the monument in London being 202 feet ; of St. 
 Paul's, 404 feet. 
 
 Act to regulate chimney-sweeping, 28 Geo. III. . . 1789 
 
 The chimney-sweeping machine was invented by 
 Smart 1S05 
 
 A statute regulating the trade, the apprenticeship 
 of children, the construction of Hues, preventing 
 calling " sweep" in the streets, <fcc, passed . . 1834 
 
 By 3 & 4 Vict. 85 (1840), it is not lawful for master 
 sweeps to take apprentices under sixteen years 
 of age ; and no individual under twenty-one to 
 ascend a chimney after . . . .1 July, 1842 
 
 * The duke of Wellington (commander-in-chief) did 
 not think the victory complete. Gough was superseded, 
 and sir Charles Napier sent out (March 1840), who did 
 not arrive in India till Gough had redeemed his reputa- 
 tion. 
 
 The enforcement of this law was made more 
 stringent .....••• 1864 
 
 Joseph Glass, inventor of the sweeping machine 
 now in general use, not patented, died 20 Jan. 1868 
 
 CHINA (TSENG), the "Celestial Empire," in 
 Eastern Asia, for which the Chinese annals claim 
 an antiquity of from 8o,000 to 100,000 years B.C.. is 
 said to have commenced about 2500 B.C. ; by others 
 to have been founded bv Fohi, supposed to be the 
 Noah of the Bible, 2240 B.C. We arc told that the 
 Chinese were acute astronomers in the reign of Yao, 
 2357 k.c. Towards the close of the 7th century 
 B.C., the history of China becomes more distinct. 
 Twenty-two dynasties have reigned, including the 
 present. The population of the empire of China 
 was estimated at 190,348,228 in 1757 ; at4!4,6o7,000 
 in i860 ; and at 446,500,000 in 1871. 
 
 The Chinese state their first cycle begun . . b.c. 2700 
 The first dates fixed to his history, by Se-ma-tsien, 
 
 begin 65 1 
 
 Supposed age of Confucius (Kungfutze), the philo- 
 sopher . . 55° 
 
 Stupendous wall of China completed . . 29801- 211 
 
 The dynasty of Han 202 or 206 
 
 Literature and the art of printing encouraged (?) . 202 
 Battle between Phraates and the Scythians : the 
 Chinese aided the latter, and ravaged the coasts 
 of the Caspian : their first appearance in history 
 
 (LengUt.) 129 
 
 The religion of Laot-se begun . . ... 15 
 Buddhism, or the religion of Fo, introduced] about 
 
 A.D. 68-81 
 
 Nankin becomes the capital 420 
 
 The atheistical philosopher, San-Shin, flourishes . 449 
 The Nestorian Christians permitted to preach . . 635 
 They are proscribed and extirpated .... 845 
 China ravaged by Tartars, 9th to nth centuries. 
 Seat of government transferred to Pekin . . . 1260 
 Marco Polo introduces missionaries .... 1275 
 Kublai Khan establishes the Yuen or Mongol 
 
 dynasty about 1275 
 
 Ming dynasty 1368 
 
 Caual, called the Yu Ho, completed . . about 1400 
 Europeans first arrive at Canton .... 1517 
 Macao is granted to the Portuguese . . . . 1536 
 Jesuit missionaries are sent from Rome . - 157s 
 
 The country is conquered by the eastern or Mant- 
 chou Tartars, who establish the present reigning 
 
 Tsin dynasty 1616-44 
 
 Tea brought to England 1660 
 
 An earthquake throughout China, buries 300,000 
 
 persons at Pekin alone 1662 
 
 Commerce with East India Company begins . . 1680 
 
 Jesuit missionaries preach 1692 
 
 Commercial relations with Russia . . . 1719-27 
 
 The Jesuits expelled 1724-32 
 
 Another general earthquake destroys 100,000 per- 
 sons at Pekin, and 80,000 in a suburb . . . 1731 
 In a salute by one of our ships in China, a gun was 
 inadvertently fired, which killed a native ; the 
 government demanded the gunner; he was soon 
 strangled 17S5 
 
 Earl Macartney's embassy arrives at Pekin ; his re- 
 ception by the emperor ... 14 Sept. 1793 
 [This embassy threw light on the empire : it ap- 
 peared to be divided into 15 provinces, containing 
 4402 walled cities ; the population of the whole 
 was given at 333,000,000 : its annual revenues at 
 66,000,000?. : and the army, including the Tartars, 
 1,000,000 of infantry and 800.000 cavalry; the 
 religion Pagan, and the government absolute- 
 Learning, and the arts and sciences, were encou- 
 raged, and ethics studied.] 
 He is ordered to depart .... 7 Oct. ,, 
 And arrives in England .... 6 Sept. 1794 
 The affair of the Company's ship Neptune, when a 
 
 Chinese was killed 1807 
 
 Edict against Christianity 1812 
 
 Lord Amherst's embassy ; he leaves England, 8 Feb. 1816 
 [His lordship failed in the objects of his mission, 
 having refused to make the prostration of the 
 Icotcu, lest he should thereby compromise the 
 majesty of England.] 
 Exclusive rights of the E. I. Co. cease . 22 April, 1834 
 
CHINA. 
 
 149 
 
 CHINA. 
 
 Free-trade ships sail for England . . 25 April, 1834 
 Lord Napier arrives at Macao to superintend 
 British commerce . . . • • *5 July, 
 Affair between the natives and two British ships of 
 war ; several Chinese killed . - 5 Sept. 
 
 Lord Napier dies, and is succeeded by Mr. (after- 
 wards sir John) Davis . . ■ • " Oct. 
 Opium dispute begins ; the trade prohibited by the 
 
 emperor *J 0V - - 
 
 Chinese seize the Argyle and crew . . 31 J an - lB 35 
 Opium burnt at Canton by Chinese . . 23 Feb. 
 Captain Elliot, chief British commissioner 14 Dec. 
 A British commissioner settled at Canton, March, 1837 
 Admiral Maitland arrives at Macao . . 12 July. 1838 
 Commissioner Lin orders seizure of opium, 18 
 March ; British and other residents forbidden to 
 leave Canton, 19 March ; the factories surrounded, 
 and outrages committed . . .24 March, 1839 
 Captain Elliot requires British subjects to surrender 
 to him all opium, promising them full value of it, 
 27 March ; half of it is given up as contraband to 
 to the Chinese, 20 April ; the remainder (20,283 
 chests) surrendered, 21 May ; captain Elliot and 
 the British merchants leave Canton, 24 May ; the 
 opium destroyed by the Chinese ■ . 3 June, „ 
 Affair between the British and American seamen 
 and the Chinese ; a native killed . . 7 July, 
 Hong-Kong taken . . . . • 28 Aug. 
 The British boat Black Joke attacked, and the crew 
 murdered, 24 Aug. ; the British merchants re- 
 tire from Macao 26 Aug 
 
 Affair at Kow-lung between British boats and 
 
 Chinese junks 4 Sept. 
 
 Attack by 28 armed junks on the British frigates 
 Volage and Hyacinth : several junks blown up 3 Nov. 
 The British trade with China ceases, by an edict of 
 the emperor, and the last servant of the company 
 leaves this day . . . • • 6 Dec- 
 
 Edict of the emperor interdicting all trade and 
 
 intercourse with England for ever . . 5 Jan. 1840 
 The Hellas ship attacked by armed junks, 22 May ; 
 blockade of Canton by a British fleet, by orders 
 from sir Gordon Bremer, 28 June ; the Blonde 
 with a flag of truce fired on at Amoy, 2 July ; 
 Ting-hai, in Chusan, surrenders, 5 July ; blockade 
 established along the Chinese coast, 10 July ; Mr. 
 Staunton carried off to Canton . . 6 Aug. „ 
 Captain Elliot, on board a British steam-ship, 
 
 enters the Peiho river, near Pekin . 11 Aug. „ 
 The ship Kite lost on a sand-bank, and the captain's 
 wife and a part of the crew are captured by the 
 natives, and confined in cages . . 15 Sept. „ 
 Lin finally degraded ; Keshin appointed imperial 
 commissioner, 16 Sept. ; capt. Elliot's trace with 
 
 him 6 Nov. „ 
 
 British plenipotentiaries off Macao . . 20 Nov. „ 
 Admiral Elliot's resignation announced . 29 Nov. „ 
 Mr. Staunton released •••'-. I ?,P ec ' " 
 Negotiations cease, owing to breaches of faith on 
 
 the part of the Chinese emperor . . 6 Jan. 184] 
 Chuen-pe and Tae-coc-tow, and 173 guns (some sent 
 
 to England) captured .... 7 Jan. „ 
 Hong-Kong ceded by Keshin to Great Britain, and 
 6,000,000 dollars agreed to be paid within ten days 
 to the British authorities ... 20 Jan. „ 
 Hong-Kong taken possession of . . .26 Jan. „ 
 The emperor rejects Keshin's treaty, 11 Feb. ; hos- 
 tilities resumed, 23 Feb. ; Chusan evacuated, 
 24 Feb. ; rewards proclaimed at Canton for the 
 bodies of Englishmen, dead or alive ; 50,000 dollars 
 to be given for chiefs .... 25 Feb. „ 
 Bogue forts taken by sir G. Bremer ; admiral Kwan 
 
 killed ; 459 guns captured . . -26 Feb. ,, 
 The British squadron proceeds to Canton, 1 March ; 
 sir H. Gough takes command of the army, 
 2 March ; hostilities again suspended, 3 March ; 
 and again resumed, 6 March; Keshin degraded 
 
 by the emperor 12 March, „ 
 
 Flotilla of boats destroyed, Canton threatened, the 
 foreign factories seized, and 461 guns taken by 
 the British forces .... 18 March, „ 
 New commissioners from Pekin arrived at Canton 
 
 14 April, 
 Hong Kong Gazette first published . 
 Capt. Elliot prepares to attack Canton 
 Heights behind Canton taken . 
 The city ransomed for 6,000,000 dollars 
 paid down ; hostilities cease 
 
 British forces withdrawn, 1 June ; and British trade 
 re-opened 16 July, 
 
 Arrival at Macao of sir Henry Pottinger, who, as 
 plenipotentiary, proclaims the objects of his 
 mission ; capt. Elliot superseded . 10 Aug. 
 
 Amoy taken, and 296 guns destroyed . 27 Aug. 
 
 The Bogue forts destroyed ... 14 Sept. 
 
 Ting-hae taken, 136 guns captured, and Chusan re- 
 occupied by the British, 1 Oct. ; they take Chin- 
 hae, 10 Oct. ; Ning-po, 13 Oct. ; Yu-yaou, Tsze- 
 kee, and Foong-hua . . . .28 Dec. 
 
 Chinese attack Ning-po and Chin-hae, and are re- 
 pulsed with great loss, 10 March ; 8000 Chinese 
 are routed near Tze-kee ... 15 March, 
 
 Cha-pou attacked ; defences destroyed . 18 May, 
 
 The British squadron enters the river Kiang, 
 13 June ; capture of Woosung and of 230 guns 
 and stores, 16 June; Shang-hae taken, 19 June, 
 
 The British armament anchors near the " Golden 
 Isle," 20 July; Chin-Keang taken; the Tartar 
 general and many of the garrison commit suicide, 
 21 July ; the advanced ships reach Nankin, 
 4 Aug. ; the whole fleet arrives, and the disem- 
 barkation- commences, 9 Aug. ; Keying arrives 
 at Nankin, with full powers to treat for peace 
 
 12 Aug. 
 
 Treaty of peace signed before Nankin, on board the 
 Cornwallis by sir Henry Pottinger for England, 
 and Keying Elepoo* and Neu-Kien on the part of 
 the Chinese emperor— [Conditions : lasting peace 
 and friendship between the two empires ; China 
 to pay 21,000,000 of dollars ; Canton, Amoy, Foo- 
 choofoo, Ningpo, and Shang-hae to be thrown 
 open to the British, and consuls to reside at these 
 cities ; Hong-Kong to be ceded in perpetuity to 
 England, <fcc. ; Chusan and Ku-lang-su to be held 
 by the British until the provisions are fulfilled t] 
 
 29 Aug. 
 
 The ratification signed by queen Victoria and the 
 emperor formally exchanged . . .22 July, 
 
 Canton opened to the British . . 27 July, 
 
 Appointment of Mr. Davis in the room of sir Henry 
 pottinger 16 Feb. 
 
 Bogue forts captured by the British . 5 April, 
 
 Hong-Kong and the neighbourhood visited by a 
 violent typhoon ; immense damage done to the 
 shipping ; upwards of 1000 boat-dwellers on the 
 Canton river drowned Oct. 
 
 H.M. steam-ship Medea destroys 13 pirate junks in 
 the Chinese seas 4 March, 
 
 Eebellion breaks out in Quang-si . . . Aug. 
 
 Appearance of the pretender, Tien-teh i March, 
 
 1841 
 
 1842 
 
 1844 
 1847 
 
 iS5° 
 1851 
 
 1 May, 
 
 . 17 May, 
 
 25 May, 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 31 May, 
 
 * He took part (it was said without authority) in 
 arranging the treaty of Tien-sin in June, 1858. He was 
 in consequence condemned to death — by suicide. 
 
 t The non-fulfilment of this treaty led gradually to the 
 war of 1856-7. 
 
 I The emperor Taou-Kwang, who died 25 Feb. 1850, 
 during the latter part of his reign, became liberal in his 
 views, and favoured the introduction of European arts ; 
 but his son, the late emperor, a rash and narrow-minded 
 prince, quickly departed from his father's wise policy, 
 and adopted reactionary measures, particularly against 
 English influence. An insurrection broke out in conse- 
 quence, Aug. 1850, and quickly became of alarming im- 
 portance. The insurgents at first proposed only to expel 
 the Tartars ; but in March, 1851, a pretender was an- 
 nounced among them, first by the name of Tien-teh. 
 (Celestial Virtue), but afterwards assuming other names. 
 He is stated to have been a native of Quang-si, of 
 obscure origin, but to have obtained some literary know- 
 ledge at Canton about 1835, and to have become acquainted 
 at that time with the principles of Christianity from a 
 Chinese Christian, named Leang-afa, and also from the 
 missionary Roberts in 1844. He announced himself as 
 the restorer of the worship of the true God, Shang-ti, and 
 has derived many of his dogmas from the Bible. He de- 
 clared himself to be the monarch of all beneath the sky, 
 the true lord of China (and thus of all the world), the 
 brother of Jesus, and the second son of God, and de- 
 manded universal submission. He made overtures for 
 alliance to lord Elgin in Nov. i860. His followers are 
 termed Taepings, "princes of peace," a title utterly 
 belied by their atrocious deeds. The rebellion was virtu- 
 ally terminated 18 July, 1864, by the capture of Nankin, 
 the suicide of the Tien- Wang, and the execution of the 
 military leaders. 
 
CHINA. 
 
 150 
 
 CHINA. 
 
 Defeat of Leu, the imperial commissioner, and de- 
 Btruction of half the army . . . 19 June, 1852 
 
 Successful progress of the rebels ; the emperor ap- 
 plies to the Europeans for help, without success 
 
 March and April, 1853 
 
 The rebels take Nankin, 19, 20 March ; Amoy, 
 19 May ; Shang-hae 7 Sept. ,, 
 
 And besiege Canton without success Aug. -Nov. 1854 
 
 The scanty accounts are unfavourable to the rebels, 
 the imperia ists having retaken Shang-hae, Amoy, 
 and many important places 1855 
 
 Outrage on the British lorcha Arrow, in Canton 
 river* 8 Oct. 1856 
 
 After vain negotiations with commissioner Yeh, 
 Canton forts attacked and taken . 23 Oct. „ 
 
 A Chinese fleet destroyed and Canton bombarded, 
 by sir M. Seymour . . . . 3, 4 Nov. ,, 
 
 Imperialists defeated, quit Shang-hae . . 6 Nov. „ 
 
 The Americans revenge an attack by capturing three 
 forts 21-23 Nov. ,, 
 
 Rebels take Kuriking .... 25 Nov. 
 
 Other forts taken by the British . . . Dec. ,, 
 
 The Chinese bum European factories . .14 Dec. 
 
 And murder the crew of the Thistle . 30 Dec. ,, 
 
 Alum, a Chinese baker, acquitted of charge of 
 poisoning the bread 2 Feb. 1857 
 
 Troops arrive from Madras and England ; and lord 
 Elgin appointed envoy .... March, „ 
 
 No change on either side : Yeh said to be straitened 
 for money ; the imperialists seem to be gaining 
 ground upon the rebels .... May, „ 
 
 Total destruction of the Chinese fleet by commodore 
 Elliot, 25, 27 May ; and sir M. Seymour and com- 
 modore Keppel 1 June, ,, 
 
 Blockade of Canton Aug. ,, 
 
 Stagnation in the war — lord Elgin departs to Cal- 
 cutta, with assistance to the English against the 
 Sepoys, 16 July ; returns to Hong-Kong 25 Sept. ,, 
 
 Gen. Ashburnham departs for India, and gen. Strau ■ 
 benzee assumes the command . . 19 Oct. ,, 
 
 Canton bombarded and taken by English and 
 French, 28, 29 Dec. 1857 ; who enter it . 5 Jan. 1858 
 
 Yeht sent a prisoner to Calcutta . . . Jan. „ 
 
 The allies proceed towards Pekin, and take the Pei- 
 ho forts 20 May, ,, 
 
 The expedition arrives at Tien-Sin . . 20 May, ,, 
 
 Negotiations commence, 5 June ; treaty of peace 
 signed at Tien-sin by lord Elgin, baron Gros, and 
 Keying (who signed the treaty of 1842)— [Ambas- 
 sadors to be at both courts ; freedom of trade ; 
 toleration of Christianity ; expenses of war to be 
 paid by China ; a revised tariff ; term I (bar- 
 barian) to be no longer applied to Europeans] 
 
 26, 28, 29 June, ,, 
 
 Lord Elgin visits Japan, and concludes an im- 
 portant treaty with the emperor . 28 Aug. „ 
 
 The British destroy about 130 piratical junks in the 
 Chinese seas .... Aug. and Sept. ,, 
 
 Lord Elgin proceeds up the Yang-tse-Kiang to 
 Nankin, Jan. ; returns to England . May, 1859 
 
 Mr. Bruce, the British envoy, on his way to Pekiii, 
 is stopped in the river Pei-ho (or Tien-sin) ; ad- 
 miral Hope attempting to force a passage, is re- 
 pulsed with the loss of 81 killed, and about 390 
 wounded 25 June, „ 
 
 The American envoy Ward arrives at Pekin, and 
 refusing to submit to degrading ceremonies, does 
 not see the emperor . . . .29 July, ,, 
 
 Commercial treaty with America . . 24 Nov. „ 
 
 The English and French prepare an expedition 
 against China Oct. ,, 
 
 Lord Elgin and baron Gros sail for China, April 26 ; 
 wrecked near point de Galle, Ceylon, 23 May ; 
 arrive at Shang-hae .... 29 June, i860 
 
 * It was boarded by the Chinese officers, 12 men out of 
 the crew of 14 being carried off and the national ensign 
 taken down. Sir J. Bowring, governor of Hong-Kong, 
 being compelled to resort to hostilities, applied to India 
 and Ceylon for troops. On 3 March, 1857, the house of 
 commons, by a majority of 19, censured sir John for the 
 *' violent measures " he had pursued. The ministry (who 
 took his part) dissolved the parliament ; but obtained a 
 large majority in the new one. 
 
 He died peacefully at Calcutta, 9 April, 1859. He. is 
 said to have ordered the beheading of about 100,000 
 rebels. 
 
 The war begins : the British commanded by sir Hope 
 Grant, the French by general Montauban. The 
 Chinese defeated in a skirmish near the Pe.i-ho 
 
 12 Aug. i860 
 
 The allies repulse the Tae-ping rebels attacking 
 Shang-hae, 18-20 Aug. ; and take the Taku forts, 
 losing 500 killed and wounded ; the Tartar general 
 San-ko-lin-sin retreats .... 21 Aug. ,, 
 
 After vain negotiations, the allies advance towards 
 Pekin ; they defeat the Chinese at Chang-kia-wan 
 and Pa-li-chiau . . . . 18 & 21 Sept. ,, 
 
 Consul Parkes, captains Anderson and Brabazon, 
 Mr. de Norman, Mr. Bowlby (the Times' cor- 
 respondent), and 14 others (Europeans and 
 Sikhs), advance to Tung-chow, to arrange con- 
 ditions for a meeting of the ministers, anil 
 are captured by San-ko-lin-sin ; capt. Brabazon 
 and abbe de Luc beheaded, and said to lie 
 thrown into the canal ; others carried into Pekin 
 
 21 Sept. ,, 
 
 The allies march towards Pekin ; the French ravage 
 the emperor's summer palace, 6 Oct. ; Mr. Parkes, 
 Mr. Loch, and others, it stored alive, 8 Oct. ; capt. 
 Anderson, Mr. De Norman, and others die of ill- 
 usage 8-1 1 Oct. ,, 
 
 Pekin invested ; surrenders, 12 Oct. ; severe pro- 
 clamation of sir Hope Grant ... 15 Oct. ,, 
 
 The bodies of Mr. De Norman and Mr. Bowlby 
 solemnly buried in the Russian cemetery, Pekin, 
 17 Oct. ; the summer palace (Yueu-ming-yuen) 
 burnt by the British, in memory of the outraged 
 prisoners 18 Oct. ,, 
 
 Convention signed in Pekin by lord Elgin and the 
 prince of Kung, by which the treaty of Tien-sin 
 is ratified ; apology made for the attack a: Pei-ho 
 (25 June, 1859) ; a large indemnity to lie paid im- 
 mediately, and compensation in money given to 
 the families of the murdered prisoners, fas. ; Kow- 
 loon ceded in exchange for Chusan, and the treaty 
 and convention to be proclaimed throughout the 
 empire 24 Oct. ,, 
 
 Allies quit Pekin 5 Nov. ,, 
 
 Treaty between Russia and China — the former ob- 
 taining free trade, territories, &C . 14 Nov. „ 
 
 First instalment of indemnity paid . . 30 Nov. ,, 
 
 Part of the allied troops settled at Tien-sin ; con- 
 sulate established 5 Jan. 1S61 
 
 Adm. Hope examines Yang-tse-Kiang, &c. . Feb. ,, 
 
 English and French embassies established at Pekin 
 
 March, ,, 
 
 The emperor Hienfung dies . . . . 21 Aug. ,, 
 
 Canton restored to the Chinese . . 21 Oct. ,, 
 
 Ministerial crisis ; several ministers put to death, 
 Nov. ; Rung appointed regent . . . 13 Dec ,, 
 
 Advance of the rebels ; they seize and desolate Ning- 
 po and Hang-chow Dec. ,, 
 
 They advance on Shang-hae, which is placed under 
 protection of the English and French, and fortified 
 
 Jan. 1862 
 
 Rebels defeated in two engagements . . April, „ 
 
 English and French assist, the government against 
 the rebels — Ning-po re-taken . . 10 May, ,, 
 
 French admiral Protet killed in an attack on rebels 
 
 17 May, „ 
 
 Captain Sherard Osborne permitted by the British 
 government to organise a small fleet of gun- 
 boats to aid the imperialists to establish order 
 
 July, „ 
 
 Imperialists gain ground, take Kah-sing, &c. Oct. ,, 
 
 Commercial treaty witli Prussia ratified 14 Jan. 1863 
 
 The imperialists under col. Charles Gordon defeat 
 tlic TaepingS under Burgevine, &c. . . Oct. „ 
 
 Gordon captures Sow-chow (after a severe attack, 
 27, 28 Nov.) ; the rebel chiefs treacherously 
 butchered by the Chinese . . . 4, 5 Dec. „ 
 
 Capt. Osborne came to China ; but retired in conse- 
 quence of the Chinese government departing from 
 its engagements 31 Dec. ,, 
 
 Gordon's successes continue . . Jan. to April, 1864 
 
 Repulsed ; he takes Chaiig-chow-foo . 23 March, „ 
 
 He takes Nankin (a heap of ruins) ; Hun-seu-tseun, 
 the Tien-wang, the rebel emperor, commits suicide 
 by eating gold leaf, 30 June; Chang-wang and 
 Kan-wang, the rebel generals, are "cut into a 
 thousand pieces " 18 July, ,, 
 
 Great mortality among British troops at Kowloon 
 
 Jan. 1865 
 
CHINA. 
 
 151 
 
 CHLOROFORM. 
 
 The Taepings hold Ming-chow ; the Mahometan 
 rebellion (Dounganes) progressing in Honan 
 
 Jan. -March, 1865 
 Taepings evacuate Ming-chow . . 23 May, ,, 
 A rebellion of the Nien-fei in the north ; Pekin in 
 danger . . ... . . July, „ 
 
 The Chinese general San-ko-lin-sin defeated and 
 
 slain ; his son more successful . . July, ,, 
 
 Rebellion in the north advancing . . June, ,, 
 Prince Kung chief of the regency again . 7 Nov. „ 
 Sir Rutherford Alcock, ambassador at Pekin, 
 
 26 Nov. „ 
 Chinese newspaper, " Messenger of the Flying- 
 Dragon," appears in London . . 14 Jan. 1866 
 Great victory over the Nien-fei announced at Canton 
 
 13 March, „ 
 Chinese commissioners visit London . June, ,, 
 Rivalry of two great political chiefs in China, Li- 
 
 hung-ching and Tsen-kwo-fan . . . July, „ 
 Reported victory of the Nien-fei over the impe- 
 rialists Dec. 1867 
 
 Chinese embassy (Mr. Anson Burlinghame, Chin 
 Kang, and Sun Chia Su) received by president 
 Johnson at Washington, 5 June ; they sign a 
 treaty, 4 July ; arrive in London, Sept. ; received 
 
 by the queen 20 Nov. 1868 
 
 The rebels seize Ningpo .... Oct. „ 
 The people at Yang-chow, incited by the "literati" 
 (learned classes) destroy the Protestant mission- 
 houses, 22 Aug. ; redress not obtained ; a British 
 squadron proceeds to Nankin, 8 Nov. ; the vice- 
 roy is superseded, and the British demands ac- 
 ceded to 14 Nov. ,, 
 
 Chinese embassy received by the emperor at Paris, 
 
 24 Jan. 1869 
 Pekin visited by the duke of Edinburgh, incognito, 
 
 Oct. „ 
 Supplementary convention to the treaty of Tien-tsin 
 (June, 1858) for additional commercial freedom, 
 
 signed 24 Oct. ,, 
 
 Burlinghame dies at St. Petersburg . 22 Feb. 1870 
 Successful rebellion of Mahometans in northwest 
 
 provinces reported May, „ 
 
 Cruel massacre of the French consul at Tien-tsin, 
 Roman Catholic priests, sisters of mercy (22 per- 
 sons), besides many native converts, and above 
 30 children in the orphanage, by a mob, with, it 
 is said, the complicity of the authorities ; the 
 missionaries were accused of kidnapping children, 
 
 21 June, ,, 
 Increased hatred of the people to foreigners at Tien- 
 tsin ; lukewarm proceedings of the government 
 against the murderers .... July, ,, 
 Ma, a viceroy of Nankin, favourable to Europeans, 
 
 assassinated about 22 Aug „ 
 
 Chapels destroyed at Fatshan . . 21 Sept. „ 
 The French ultimatum refused ; the murderers of 
 the nuns unpunished ; Chinese warlike prepara- 
 tions reported 26 Sept. „ 
 
 Judicious mandate from the mandarin Tseng-kwo- 
 fan, exculpating the missionaries, and condemn- 
 ing their massacre Oct. „ 
 
 16 coolies beheaded, 15 Sept., and 23 exiled; in- 
 demnity to the sufferers by the outrage ordered ; 
 
 reported 26 Oct. ,, 
 
 End of the difficulty announced . . 3 Nov. ,, 
 Chang-How, an envoy, arrives in London Aug. 1871 
 Received at Paris ; apologizes for Tien-tsin massa- 
 cres, and reports redress . . . .23 Nov. ,, 
 Memorial addressed to the Chinese government by 
 Mr. Hart, inspector of customs, recommending 
 changes in civil and military administration, 
 
 autumn, ,, 
 Reported formidable insurrection in the east, in- 
 cited by Mahometans May, 1872 
 
 The young emperor married ... 16 Oct. „ 
 
 CHINESE EMPEROBS. 
 
 1627. Chwang-lei. 
 
 1644. Shun-che (first of the Tsing dynasty). 
 
 1662. Kang-he, an able sovereign ; consolidated the em- 
 pire, compiled a great Chinese dictionary. 
 
 1723. Yung-ching. 
 
 1736. Keen-lung, fond of art ; greatly embellished 
 Pekin. 
 
 1795. Kea-king. 
 
 1820. Taou-Kwang. 
 
 1850. Hieng-fung, 25 Feb. 
 
 1861. Ki-tsiang (altered to Toung-chi) 21 Aug. ; born 21 
 April, 1856 ; married 16 Oct. 1872. 
 
 CHINA GRASS, or Rhea ; a prize of 5000^. 
 was offered by the Indian government for machinery 
 to prepare and cleanse the fibre, 11 Jan. 1870. 
 Mr. John Greig's machine was exhibited in Edin- 
 burgh, Dec. 187 1. 
 
 CHINA PORCELAIN, introduced into Eng- 
 land about 1531 ; see Pottery. 
 
 CHINA ROSE, &c. The Rosa indica was 
 brought from China, and successfully planted in 
 England, 1786; the Chinese apple-tree, or Pyrus 
 spectabilis, about 1780. 
 
 CHINCHA ISLES, see Peru, 1864-5. 
 
 CHIOS (now Scio), an isle in the Greek Archi- 
 pelago, revolted against Athens, 412 and 357 B.C. 
 It partook of the fortunes of Greece, being conquered 
 by the Venetians, a.d. 1124; by the crusaders, 1204; 
 by the Greek emperor, 1329 ; by the Genoese, 1329 ; 
 and finally by the Turks in 1594. A dreadful mas- 
 sacre of about 40,000 inhabitants by the Turks took 
 place II April, 1822, during the Greek insurrection. 
 
 CHIPPAWA (N. America). Here the British 
 under Riall were defeated by the Americans under 
 Brown, 5 July, 1814. The Americans were defeated 
 by the British under Drummond and Riall, 25 July 
 following, but Riall was wounded and taken pri- 
 soner. 
 
 CHIVALRY arose out of the feudal system in 
 the latter part of the 8th century {chevalier, or 
 knight, being derived from the caballarius, the 
 equipped feudal tenant on horseback). From the 
 12th to the 15th century it tended to refine manners. 
 The knight swore to accomplish the duties of his 
 profession, as the champion of God and the ladies, 
 to speak the truth, to maintain the right, to protect 
 the distressed, to practise courtesy, to fulfil obliga- 
 tions, and to vindicate in every perilous adventure 
 his honour and character. Chivalry expired with 
 the feudal system. See Knighthood, and Tourna- 
 ments. By letters patent of James I. the earl-mar- 
 shal of England had " the like jurisdiction in the 
 courts of chivalry, when the office of lord high con- 
 stable was vacant, as this latter and the marshal did 
 jointly exercise," 1623. 
 
 CHLORALUM, or chloride of alumina, a com- 
 pound of chlorine and alumina, a new antiseptic 
 disinfectant, invented by Dr. Gamgee about 1870. 
 It is said to be safe and efficacious, and useful in 
 medicine for gargles, washing wounds, &c. 
 
 CHLORINE (Greek chloros, pale green), a gas 
 first obtained by Scheele in 1774, by treating man- 
 ganese with muriatic (hydrochloric) acid. Sir H. 
 Davy, in 1810, proved this gas to be an element, and 
 named it chlorine. Combined with sodium it forms 
 common salt (chloride of sodium), and combined 
 with lime it forms the bleaching powder and disin- 
 fectant, chloride of lime ; see Bleaching. In 1823 
 Faraday condensed chlorine into a liquid. 
 
 CHLOROFORM (the ter-chloride of the hypo- 
 thetical radical formyl) is a compound of carbon, 
 hydrogen, and chlorine, and was made from alcohol, 
 "water, and bleaching powder. It was discovered by 
 Soubeiran in 1831, and its composition was deter- 
 mined by Dumas in 1834. The term " chloric 
 ether" was applied in 1820 to a mixture of chlorine 
 and olefiant gas. Chloroform was first applied as an 
 anaesthetic experimentally by Mr. Jacob Bell in 
 
CHOBHAM. 
 
 1.52 
 
 CHRISTIAN. 
 
 Loudon, in Feb., and Dr.. Simpson of Edinburgh in 
 Nov. 1847; and was administered in England on 14 
 Dee. 1848, by Mr. James Robinson, Burgeon-dentist. 
 A committee of the Royal Medical and Chirurgical 
 Society in Jul)', 1864, after examining statistics, 
 reported that the use of anaesthetics had in no degree 
 increased the rate of mortality. 
 
 CHOBHAM COMMON, in Surrey. A mili- 
 tary camp was formed here on 14 June, 18153, by 
 a force between 8000 and 10,000 strong Only one 
 serious case of misconduct was reported during all 
 the time. 
 
 CHOCOLATE, made of the cocoa berry, intro- 
 duced into Europe (from Mexico and the Brazils) 
 about 1520, was sold iu the London coffee-houses 
 soon after their establishment, 1650. 
 
 CHOCZIM, Bessarabia, S. Russia. Here the 
 Turks were totally defeated by John Sobieski, king 
 of Poland, 11 Nor. 1673; an( l by the Russians, 30 
 April and 13 Jul)-, 1769. 
 
 CHOIR. This was separated from the nave of 
 the church in the time of Constantine. The choral 
 service was first used in England at Canterbury, 
 677 ; see Chanting. 
 
 CHOLERA MORBUS (Asiatic cholera) was 
 described by Garcia del Huerto, a physician of Goa, 
 about 1560. It appeared in India in 1774, and at 
 other times, and became endemic in Lower Bengal 
 in 1 81 7, whence it gradually spread, till it reached 
 Russia in 1830, and Germany in 1831, carrying off 
 more than 900,000 persons in 1829-30. In England 
 and Wales in 1848-9, 53,293 persons died of cholera, 
 and in 1854, 20,097. 
 
 Cholera appeal's at Sunderland . . 26 Oct 1831 
 
 And at Edinburgh 6 Feb. 1832 
 
 First observed at Rotherhithe and Limehouse, 
 London, 13 Feb. ; and in Dublin . 3 March, ., 
 
 Mortality very great, but more so on the Continent ; 
 18,000 deaths at Paris, between March and Aug. ., 
 
 Cholera rages in Rome, the Two Sicilies, Genoa, 
 Berlin, <fcc\, in .... July and Aug. 1837 
 
 Another visitation of cholera in England : the num- 
 ber of deaths in London, for the week ending 15 
 Sept. 1849, was 3*83 ; the ordinary average, 1008 ; 
 and the number of deaths by cholera from 17 
 June to 2 Oct. in London alone, 13. 161. The 
 mortality lessened and the distemper disappeared 
 
 about 13 Oct. 1849 
 
 Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Hexham, Tynemouth, and 
 other northern towns, sutler much from cholera, 
 
 Sept. 1853 
 
 It rages in Italy and Sicily ; above 10,000 are said 
 to have died at Naples ; it was also very fatal to 
 the allied troops at Varna . . . autumn, 1854 
 
 Cholera very severe for a short time in the southern 
 parts of Loudon, and iu Soho and St. James's, 
 Westminster .... Aug. ami Sept. ., 
 
 Raging in Alexandria, June ; abated . July, 1865 
 
 Prevailing in Aneona (843 deaths) Aug. , subsiding, 
 
 Bept. „ 
 
 Very severe in Constantinople, nearly 50,000 deaths. 
 Aug. ; subsides after the great fire . 6 Sept. ,, 
 
 Cases at Marseilles, Toulon, and Southampton, 
 
 end of Sept. ,, 
 
 Cholera prevalent at Marseilles, Paris, Madrid, and 
 Naples July-Oet. ,, 
 
 An international meeting at Constantinople, to con- 
 sider preventive measures, proposed, Oct 1865, 
 met 18 Feb. 1866. At the last sitting the conclu- 
 sions adopted were that cholera may be propa- 
 gated, and from great distances ; and a num- 
 ber of preventive measures were reeommended, 
 
 26 Sept. 1866 
 
 Cholera appears at Bristol, 24 April ; at Liverpool, 
 13 May ; at Southampton . . . July, „ 
 
 Cholera severe in east of London : 346 deaths in 
 week ending 21 July, „ 
 
 House to house visitation ; Metropolitan Relief 
 Association formed ; large subscriptions received 
 (Queen's 500/.) .... July and Aug. 1866 
 
 Cholera subsides Sept. ,, 
 
 Very severe at Naples .... Sept. „ 
 Cholera Belief Committee closes . . 31 Oct. ,, 
 Cholera declared to he extinct in London 1 Dec. ,, 
 Cholera in Rome, Naples, and Sicily, Aug. -Sept ; 
 
 in Switzerland Oct. 1867 
 
 Alarm of approaching cholera, July; said to be 
 severe in Koiiigsberg in Prussia . . Aug. 1871 
 
 CHORAGUS, the regulator of the chorus in 
 Greek feasts, &c. Stesichorus (or Tysias) received 
 this name, having first taught the chorus to dance 
 to the lyre, 556 B.C. Quintil. 
 
 CHORUS-SINGING was early practised at 
 Athens, Hypodicus, of Chalcides, carried off the 
 prize for the best voice, 508 B.C. Parian marbles ; 
 sec Music. 
 
 CHOUANS, a name given to the Bretons 
 during the war of La Vendee in 1792, from their 
 chief Jean Cottereau, using the cry of the Chat- 
 liuanf, or screech-owl, as a signal. He was killed 
 in 1794. Georges Cadoudal, their last chief, was 
 said to be connected with Pichegru in a conspiracy 
 against Napoleon when first consul, and was executed 
 in 1804. 
 
 CHRISM, consecrated oil, was used early in the 
 ceremonies of the Greek and Roman churches. 
 Musk, saffroD, cinnamon, roses, and frankincense, 
 arc mentioned as used with the oil, in 1541. It was 
 ordained that chrism should consist of oil and 
 balsam only ; the one representing tiie human 
 nature of Christ, and the other his divine nature, 
 1596. 
 
 CHRIST, see Jesus Christ. 
 
 CHRIST'S HOSPITAL (the Blue-Coat 
 school) was established by Edward VI. 1553, on the 
 site of the Grey Friars' monastery. A mathematical 
 ward was founded by Charles II. 1672. The Times 
 want was founded in 1841. Large portions of the 
 edifice having fallen into decay, it was rebuilt : in 
 1822 a new infirmary was completed, and in 1825 
 (25 April) the duke of York laid the first stone of 
 the magnificent new hall. On 24 Sept. 1854, the 
 master, Dr. Jacob, in a sermon in the church of the 
 hospital, censured the system of education and the 
 general administration of the establishment, and 
 many improvements have since been made. Rev. 
 G. C. Bell succeeded Dr. Jacob, 12 Aug. 1868. 
 The subordinate school at Hertford, for 416 younger 
 boys and 80 girls, was founded in 1683. — Annual 
 income (1870) about 70,000/. 800 boys in London; 
 200 boys and 20 girls at Hertford. ' The removal 
 of the school to the country negatived by the 
 governors, 26 April, 1870. The proposal that the 
 buildings and ground should be purchased by the 
 Mid- London Railway Company for 600,000/. was 
 not carried out. 
 
 CHRIST'S THORN, conjectured to be the 
 plant of Which our Saviour's crown of thorns was 
 composed, came hither from the south of Europe 
 before 1596. 
 
 CHRISTIAN Era, see Anno Domini. Chris- 
 tian Knowledge Society was founded in 1698 to 
 promote charity schools, and to disperse Bibles and 
 religious tracts. It has an annual revenue of about 
 100,000/. Most Christian King ; Christianissi- 
 mus Bex, a title conferred by pope Paul II. in 1469 
 on the crafty Louis XL of France. 
 
CHEISTIANIA. 
 
 153 
 
 CHEONOSCOPE. 
 
 CHEISTIANIA, the capital of Norway, built 
 in 1624, by Christian IV. of Denmark, to replace 
 Opslo (the ancient capital founded by Harold Haard- 
 rade, 1058), which had been destroyed by lire. On 
 13 April, 1858, Christiania suffered by fire, the loss 
 being about 250,000?. The university was established 
 in 1811. New Storthing (parliament house) built 
 1861-2. 
 
 ■ CHEISTIANITY- The name Christian was 
 first given to the disciples of Christ at Antioch, in 
 Syria. 43 (Acts xi. 26 ; 1 Peter iv. 6) . The first 
 Christians were divided into episcopoi (bishops or 
 overseers) or presbyteroi (elders), diaconoi (ministers 
 or deacons), and^e'stoi (believers) ; afterwards were 
 added catechumens, or learners, and energumens, who 
 were to be exorcised ; see Persecutions. 
 
 Christianity said to lie taught in Britain, about a.d. 
 
 64 ; and propagated with some success (Beck) . . 156 
 Christianity said to be introduced into Scotland in 
 
 the reign of Donald I. about 212 
 
 Constantine the Great professes the Christian 
 
 religion 312 
 
 Frumentius preaches in Abyssinia . . about 346 
 Introduced among the Goths by Ulfllas . . . 376 
 Into Ireland in the second century, but with more 
 
 success after the arrival of St. Patrick . . . 432 
 Clrristianity established in France by Clovis . . 496 
 Conversion of the Saxons* by Augustin . . . 597 
 Introduced into Helvetia, by Irish missionaries . 643 
 Into Flanders in the 7th century. 
 
 Into Saxony, by Charlemagne 785 
 
 Into Denmark, under Harold 827 
 
 Into Bohemia, under Borsivoi 894 
 
 Into Russia, by Swiatoslaf .... about 940 
 
 Into Poland, under Meieislalis 1 992 
 
 Into Hungary, under Geisa 994 
 
 Into Norway and Iceland, under Olaf I. . . . 998 
 Into Sweden, between 10th and nth centuries. 
 Into Prussia, by the Teutonic knights, when they 
 
 were returning from the holy wars . . . 1227 
 Into Lithuania ; paganism was abolished about . . 1386 
 Into Guinea, Angola, and Congo, in the '15th 
 
 century. 
 Into China, where it made some progress (but was . 
 
 afterwards extirpated, and thousands of Chinese 
 
 Christians were put to death) . . . • . 1575 
 Into India and America, in the 16th century. 
 Into Japan, by Xavier and the Jesuits, 1549 ; but 
 
 the Christians were exterminated . . . . 1638 
 Christianity re-established in Greece . . . 1628 
 
 CHEISTIAN EVIDENCE SOCIETY 
 
 established by earl Eussell, the bishop of London, 
 and others to counteract " the current forms of un- 
 belief among the educated classes." Lectures for this 
 purpose Avere given in St. George's Hal] in 1871, 
 beginning with the archbishop of York, 25 April. A 
 public meeting was held 6 June following. Tracts 
 for circulation are published. 
 
 CHEISTINOS, supporters of the queen-regent 
 Christina against the Carlists in Spain during the 
 war, 1833-40. 
 
 CHEISTMAS-DAY, 25 Dec. (from Christ, 
 and the Saxon masse, signifying the mass and a 
 feast), a festival in commemoration of the nativity 
 of Christ, said to have been first kept 98 ; and ordered 
 to be held as a solemn feast, by pope Telesphorus, 
 
 * It is, traditionally, said that Gregory the Great, 
 shortly before his elevation to the papal chair, passing 
 through the slave-market at Rome, and perceiving some 
 IbeautSful children set up for sale, inquired about their 
 country, and finding they were English pagans, lie is said 
 to have cried out, " Non Angli sed Angeli forent, si essent 
 Christicou ; " that is, " They would not be English, but 
 angels, if they were Christians." From that time he ar- 
 dently desired to convert the nation, and ordered a monk 
 named Austin, or Augustin, and others, to undertake the 
 mission to Britain in the year 596. 
 
 about 137-t In the eastern church, Christmas and! 
 the Epiphan3', 6 Jan. (which see), are deemed but 
 one and the same feast. The holly and mistletoe 
 used at Christmas are said to be the remains of the- 
 religious observances of the Druids ; see Anno Do- 
 mini. 
 
 CHEISTMAS ISLAND, in the Pacific Ocean, 
 so named by captain Cook, who landed here on 
 Christmas-day, 1777. He had passed Christmas- 
 day at Christmas-sound, 1774. On the shore of' 
 Christmas Harbour, visited by him in 1776, a man 
 found a piece of parchment inscribed: " Ludovico 
 XV. Galliarum rege, et d. Boynes regi a secretis ad- 
 res maritimas, annis 1772 et 1773." On the other- 
 side captain Cook wrote : " Naves Resolution et 
 Discovery de rege Magnce Britannice, Dec. 177W 
 and placed it in a bottle. 
 
 CHEISTOPHEE'S, St. (or St. Kitt's), a West 
 India Island, discovered in 1493, by Columbus, who- 
 gave it his own name. Settled by the English and 
 French, 1623 or 1626. Ceded to England by the 
 peace of Utrecht, 1713. Taken by the French 
 in 1782, but restored the next year. The town of 
 Basseterre suffered from fires, 3 Sept. 1776 ; also- 
 3 and 4 July, 1867, when the cathedral and nearly 
 all the town were destroyed. 
 
 CHEOMIUM (Greek, ch>ome, colour), a rare- 
 metal, discovered by Vauquelin in 1797. It is found 
 combined with iron and lead, and forms the colour- 
 ing matter of the emerald. 
 
 CHEOMQ-LITHOGEAPHY, see Printing 
 in Colours. 
 
 CHEONICLES- The earliest are those of the 
 Jews, Chinese, and Hindoos. In Scripture there 
 are two "Books of Chronicles " ; see Bible. Col- 
 lections of the British chronicles have been pub- 
 lished by Camden, Gale, &c, since 1602; in the 
 present century by the English Historical Society, 
 &c. In 1858, the publication of "Chronicles and 
 Memorials of Great Britain and Ireland during the 
 Middle Ages," commenced under the direction of" 
 the Master of the Bolls (still going on, 1873) ; 
 Macray's " Manual of British Historians" was pub- 
 lished in 1845. 
 
 CHEONOLOGY (the science of time) has for 
 its object the arrangement and exhibition of the 
 various events of the history of the world in the- 
 order of their succession, and the ascertaining the 
 intervals between them ; see Eras and Epochs^ 
 Valuable works on the subject are V Art de Verifier 
 les Dates, compiled by the Benedictines (1783-1820)- 
 Playfair's Chronology, 1784; Blair's Chronology, 
 1753 (new editions by sir H. Ellis in 1844, and by 
 Mr. Bosse, in 1856). The Oxford Chronological 
 Tables, 1838. Sir Harris Nicolas' Chronology of 
 History, 1833 ; new edition, 1852. Hales' Chron- 
 ology, 2nd edition, 1830 ; "Woodward and Cates' Ency- 
 clopedia of Chronology, 1872; Mr. H. Fynes-Clin- 
 ton's Fasti Hellenici and Fasti Eomani (1824-50). 
 
 CHEONOMETEE, see Clocks, and Harrison. 
 
 CHEONOSCOPE, an apparatus invented by 
 professor Wheatstone in 1840, to measure small 
 intervals of time. It has been applied to the velocity 
 of projectiles and of the electric current. A chrono- 
 scope was invented by Pouillet, in 1844, and by 
 others since. Capt. Andrew Noble (engaged by sir 
 
 t Diocletian, the Roman emperor, keeping his court 
 at Nieomedia, being informed that the Christians were 
 assembled on this day in great multitudes to celebrate 
 Christ's nativity, ordered the doors to be shut, and the 
 church to be set on fire, and 600 perished in the burning- 
 pile. This was the commencement of the tenth persecu- 
 tion, which lasted ten years, 303. 
 
CHRYSOPOLIS. 
 
 1.54 
 
 CHURCH OF ENGLAND. 
 
 William Armstrong) invented an apparatus for 
 determining the velocity of a projectile in a gun ; 
 a second of time is divided into millionths, and the 
 electric spark is employed in recording the rate of the 
 passage. The apparatus was exhibited at Newcastle- 
 on-Tyne in Aug. 1869, and in London in April, 1870. 
 
 CHRYSOPOLIS, or Scutari. 
 
 CHUNAR, or Chunarghur, N."W. India, 
 taken by the British, 1763, and ceded to them, 1768. 
 Here was concluded a treaty between the nabob of 
 Oude and governor Hastings, by which the nabob 
 was relieved of his debts to the East India Company, 
 on condition of bis seizing the property of the be- 
 gums, his mother and grandmother, and delivering 
 it up to the English, 19 Sept. 1781. This treaty 
 enablcdthe nabob to take the lands of Fyzoola Khan, 
 a Eohilla chief, who had settled at Rampoor, under 
 guarantee of the English. The nabob presented to 
 Air. Hastings ioo,cx>o£. ; see Hastings. 
 
 CHURCH (probably derived from the [Greek 
 Jcyriahos, pertaining to the Lord, Kyrios), signifies 
 t>oth a collected body of Christians, and the place 
 where they meet. In the New Testament, it signi- 
 nifies *' congregation," in the original ekklesia. 
 "Christian architecture commenced with Constantine, 
 who erected at Rome churches called basilicas (from 
 the Greek basileus, a king) ; St. Peter's about 330. 
 His successors erected others, and adopted the 
 heathen temples as places of worship. Several very 
 ancient churches exist in Britain and Ireland. See 
 Architecture ; Choir and Chanting ; Rome, Modern ; 
 Popes. 
 
 CHURCH CONGRESS, see under Church of 
 England. 
 
 r .CHURCH DISCIPLINE ACT (3 & 4 
 
 Vict. c. 86), passed 7 Aug. 1840, enables bishops to 
 issue commissions of inquiry, and on conviction to 
 inhibit clergymen from performing service, &c. 
 
 CHURCH of England.* The following 
 
 .are leading facts in her history : for details, refer 
 
 to separate articles ; see Clergy. 
 
 Britain converted to Christianity (" Christo sub- 
 
 dita," Tertullian) 2nd century. 
 
 Invasion of the Saxons, 477 ; converted by Augus- 
 
 tin and his companions 596 
 
 Dunstau establishes the supremacy of the monastic 
 
 orders, about 960 
 
 'The aggrandising policy of the Church, fostered by 
 
 Edward the Confessor, checked by William I. and 
 
 his successors . . . . * . . io 66 et seq. 
 Contest between Henry II. and Becket respecting 
 
 " Constitutions of Clarendon " . . . 1164-1170 
 -John surrenders his crown to the papal legate . 1213 
 Rise of the Lollards— Wickliffe publishes tracts 
 
 against the errors of the church of Rome, 1356 ; 
 
 and a version of the Bible, about . . . . 1383 
 The clergy regulated by parliament, 1529 ; they lose 
 
 the first fruits 1534 
 
 * The church of England consists of three orders of 
 clergy— bishops, priests and deacons; viz., two arch- 
 bishops and twenty-five bishops, exclusive of the see of 
 Sodor and Man. The other dignities are chancellors, 
 deans (of cathedrals and collegiate churches), archdea- 
 cons, prebendaries, canons, minor canons, and priest- 
 vicars : these and the incumbents of rectories, vicarages, 
 .and chapelries, make the number of preferments of the 
 established church, according to official returns, 12,327. 
 The number of benefices in England and Wales, according 
 to parliamentary returns, in 1844, was 11,127, a,1(1 tne 
 number of glebe-houses 5527. The number of parishes is 
 11,077, and of churches and chapels about 14,100. The 
 number of benefices in Ireland was 1495, to which there 
 -were not more than about 900 glebe-houses attached, the 
 rest having no glebe-houses. An act was passed in i860 for 
 the union of contiguous benefices. In 1867 the beneficed 
 ■clergy were estimated at 12,888 ; curates and other clergy 
 without livings about 7000. 
 
 The royal supremacy imposed on the clergy by 
 Henry VIII., 1531 ; many suffer death for refusing 
 to acknowledge it . . . . . . 1535 
 
 Coverdale's translation of the Bible commanded to 
 
 be read in churches „ 
 
 " Six Articles of Religion " promulgated . . . 1539 
 First Book of Common Prayer issued . . . 1549 
 
 The clergy permitted to marry 
 
 " Forty-two Articles of Religion " issued . . 1552 
 Restoration of the Roman forms, and fierce perse- 
 cution of the Protestants by Mary . . . 1553-8 
 The Protestant forms restored by Elizabeth ; the 
 
 Puritan dissensions begin .... 1558-1603 
 " Thirty-nine " Articles published . . . . 1563 
 Ilamjiton Court conference with the Puritans. . 1604 
 New translation of the Bible published . . . 161 r 
 Book of Common Prayer suppressed and Directory 
 
 established by parliament 1644 
 
 Presbyterians established by the Commonwealth . 1649 
 Act of Uniformity (14 Chas. II. c. 4) passed — 2000 
 
 nonconforming ministers resign their livings . 1662 
 Attempts of James II. to revive Romanism; "De- 
 claration of Indulgence " published . . . . 1687 
 Acquittal of the seven bishops on a charge of 
 
 "seditious libel" 168S 
 
 The Non-juring bishops and others deprived ; (they 
 
 formed a separate communion) . . 1 Feb. 1691 
 
 "Queen Anne's Bounty," for the augmentation of 
 
 poor livings 1704 
 
 Act for building 50 new churches passed . . . 1710 
 Fierce disputes between the low church and the 
 high church ; trial of Henry Sacheverell, for 
 
 seditious sermons ; riots ,, 
 
 The Bangorian controversy begins . . . . 1717 
 
 John Wesley and George Whitfield commence 
 preaching ........ 1738 
 
 Rise of the Evangelical party in the church, under 
 Newton, Romaiue, and others, in the latter part 
 
 of iStli century 
 
 Church of England united with that of Ireland at 
 
 the Union 1800 
 
 Clergy Incapacitation Act passed .... 1801 
 Incorporated Church Building Society established, 
 
 6 Feb. 1818 
 Acts for building and enlarging churches, 1828, 1838 
 200 new churches erected in the diocese of London 
 
 under bishop C. J. Blomfield . . . 1828-56 
 " Tracts for the Times " (No. 1-90) published (much 
 
 controversy ensued) 1833-41 
 
 Ecclesiastical Commission established . . . 1834 
 New Church Discipline Act (3 &. 4 Vict. c. 86) . . 1840 
 " Essays and Reviews " published, i860; numerous 
 
 Replies issued (see Essays and R evieivs) . 1861-2 
 [The Church of England is now said to lie divided 
 into High, Moderate, Low (or Evangelical), and 
 Broad Church : the last including persons who 
 hold the opinions of the late Dr. Arnold, the Rev. 
 F. D. Maurice, dean Stanley, canon Kingsley , and 
 others.] 
 Dr. Colenso, bishop of Natal, publishes his work 
 on "The Pentateuch," about Oct. 1862; the 
 bishops, in convocation, declare that it contains 
 " errors of the gravest and most dangerous cha- 
 racter " 20 May, 1863 
 
 A Church Congress at Manchester 13, 14, 15 Oct. ,, 
 Bishop Colenso deposed by his metropolitan. Dr. 
 
 Gray, bishop of Capetown. . . 16 April, 1864 
 Church Congress at Bristol .... Oct. ,, 
 Church Association (against popery and ritualism) 
 
 established 1865 
 
 District Churches Tithes act passed (rectories con- 
 stituted) ,, 
 
 Bishop Colenso's appeal came before the privy 
 council, which declared bishop Gray's proceed- 
 ings null and void (since a colonial bishop can 
 have no authority except what is granted by par- 
 liament or by the colonial legislature), 21 March, ,, 
 " Oxford Declaration " (authorship ascribed to arch- 
 deacon Denison and Dr. Pusey), respecting belief 
 in eternal punishment, drawn up and signed on 
 25 Feb. , and sent by post to the clergy at large 
 for signature : about 3000 are said to have signed ; 
 it was presented to the archbishop of Canterbury 
 
 12 May, 1864 
 Bishop of London's Fund, for remedying spiritual 
 destitution in London, established ; the queen 
 engages to give (in three years) 3000?., and prince 
 of Wales 1000?. . ... 7 March „ 
 
CHUECH OF ENGLAND. 
 
 155 
 
 CHUECH OF IEELAND. 
 
 100,456?. received ; 72,003!. promised . 31 Dec. 1864 
 The queen engages to give 15,000!. in 10 years, 
 
 April, 1865 
 New form of clerical subscription proposed by a 
 commission in 1864 ; adopted by parliament, 
 
 July, ,, 
 
 •Church Congress at Norwich . . .3-7 Oct. „ 
 Meeting in London of three English bishops, Dr. 
 Pusey, and nearly 80 of the clergy and laity with 
 counts Orloff and Tolstse, and the Russian chap- 
 lain, to consider on the practicability of uniting 
 the English and Russian churches . 15 Nov. ,, 
 Bishop Colenso publicly excommunicated at Maritz- 
 
 burg cathedral, by bishop Gray . . 5 Jan. 1866 
 Bishop Gray declares himself independent, estab- 
 lishes synods, and calls his see " The Church of 
 
 South Africa " early in ,, 
 
 'The Church Missionary Society refuses to support 
 colonial bishops, unless they keep within the for- 
 mularies of the Church of England . early in ,, 
 'Church Congress at York . . f • -6 Oct. ,, 
 Much excitement caused by the progress of ritual- 
 ism (which see) .... Sept. -Nov. „ 
 Bishop Colenso v. Gladstone and others (trustees of 
 the Colonial Bishopric Fund) for withholding his 
 salary. Verdict of master of the rolls, for plaintiff, 
 
 with costs 6 Nov. ,, 
 
 Unqualified condemnation of ritualism by the 
 bishops in convocation, 13 Feb. ; the lower house 
 
 concurred 15 Feb. 1867 
 
 The bishop of Salisbury (Dr. Hamilton) in a church 
 asserts the doctrine of the supernatural gifts of 
 priests, the Divine presence in the sacrament ; 
 public protest against it . . . 16 May, ,, 
 Trial in Court of Arches : Martin v. Mackonochie, 
 respecting extreme ritualistic practices _at St. 
 Alban's, Holborn ; case deferred . 21 May, ,, 
 Royal Ritualistic Commission appointed to inquire 
 respecting rubricks in the Prayer-Book, table of 
 lessons, &c. , 3 June ; first report, censuring in- 
 novation, signed 19 Aug. ,, 
 
 Pan-Anglican Synod (which see) meets at Lambeth, 
 
 24-27 Sept. ,, 
 Church Congress at Wolverhampton . . 1 Oct. „ 
 Meeting of ritualists in St. James's Hall, claiming 
 
 liberty 19 Nov. ,, 
 
 Case of Martin v. Mackonochie, begun 4 Dec, 
 
 lasted 14 days ; resumed . . 16-18 Jan. 1868 
 Proposal of bishop Gray of Capetown to consecrate 
 Mr. Macrorie bishop of Natal in opposition to 
 bishop Colenso, disapproved of by the English 
 
 and Scotch bishops Jan. ,, 
 
 Bishop of London's Fund, received, 312,309?. 31 Jan. ,, 
 Martin v. Mackonochie decided ; verdict for plain- 
 tiff ; use of incense, mixing water with the wine, 
 and elevation of the elements, in the sacrament, 
 
 forbidden 28 March, „ 
 
 Great meeting at St. James's Hall, in defence of the 
 Irish Church establishment ; 23 bishops present, 
 
 6 May, ,, 
 District Churches Act, constituting vicarages 
 
 (Bishop of Oxford's Act), passed . . . . ,, 
 Church Congress at Dublin ... 29 Sept. ,, 
 Sharp party contests at a special meeting of the 
 
 Christian Knowledge Society . . 8 Dec. ,, 
 Martin v. Mackonochie : appeal case ; verdict for 
 plaintiff, declaring certain ritualistic practices 
 
 illegal 23 Dec. ,, 
 
 Warm meeting of ritualists at St. James's Hall, 
 
 12 Jan. 1869 
 First meeting of a Church Reform Society (since 
 named " Liturgical Revision Society ") ; Lord 
 Ebury, chairman . . . . 13 May, ,, 
 
 Church conference at Sheffield . . 24 May, ,, 
 
 Church Congress at Liverpool . . .5 Oct. ,, 
 Martin v. Mackonochie : defendant censured by 
 
 privy council for evading sentence . 4 Dec. ,, 
 Bishop of London's Fund: — 411,839?. received, July, 1870 
 "Clerical Disabilities Act" passed . . Aug. ,, 
 Church Congress at Southampton . . 11 Oct. ,, 
 Christian Knowledge Society votes 10,000?. to sup- 
 port Church schools . . . .20 Oct. „ 
 Rev. Mr. Mackonochie suspended from duty for 
 three months by decree of Privy Council for 
 evading former sentence ... 25 Nov. „ 
 Rev. C. Voysey sentenced to be deprived for heresy ; 
 appeal to judicial committee of privy council 
 disallowed 10 Feb. 18-1 
 
 Hebbcrt v. Purchas, of Brighton ; verdict against 
 defendant for offences against ecclesiastical law ; 
 considered a great defeat of the ritualists, and 
 caused much excitement ... 23 Feb. 1871 
 Mr. Miall's resolution for disestablishing the church 
 of England defeated in the commons — 374-89, 
 
 9 May. 1871 
 Incumbents' Resignation Act passed . 13 July, „ 
 Agitation for revival of diocesan synods, Sept. -Oct. „ 
 Church Congress at Nottingham ; closed 10 Oct. „ 
 Sheppard v. Bennett (for teaching the divine pre- 
 sence in the sacrament) ; appeal to privy council, 
 28 Nov. ; judgment adjourned . . 2 Dec. „ 
 Church Defence Association established . . . ,, 
 Bishop of London's Fund — received 441,199?. 31 Dec. „ 
 The convocation authorised to consider alterations 
 
 in the Prayer Book Feb. 1872 
 
 Church reform meeting at St. James's Hall ; paro- 
 chial councils recommended . . 15 Feb. „ 
 Rev. John Purchas, of Brighton, to be suspended 
 from duties for one year, from . . 18 Feb. ,, 
 [He died 18 Oct.] 
 Conference of bishops, deans, and canons at Lam- 
 beth, to consider cathedral reform . 1 March, „ 
 Sheppard v. Bennett ; judgment for defendant, who 
 
 is censured 8 June, „ 
 
 Mr. Miall's motion for royal commission to in- 
 quire into the property of the church lost (295-94) 
 
 2 July, „ 
 Church Congress at Leeds . . . 8-n Oct. „ 
 
 CHUECH OF FRANCE. St. Pothinus preached 
 Christianity to the (iauls about 160; became bishop 
 of Lyons, aud suffered martyrdom with others, 177 ; 
 see Huguenots. 
 
 A mission of seven bishops arrived in 245 ; followed 
 by severe persecution . ... 286-288 
 
 Christianity tolerated by Constantius Chlorus . 292 
 
 Council of Aries convoked by Constantine, about 
 600 bishops present ; the Donatists condemned . 314 
 
 Christianity established by Clovis .... 496 
 
 Pragmatic sanction of St. Louis restraining the im- 
 positions of the pope ; and restoring the right of 
 electing bishops, &c 1269 
 
 Pragmatic sanction of Bourges, declaring a general 
 council superior to the pope, and prohibiting 
 appeals to him 1438 
 
 Concordat of Leo X. and Francis I. annulling the 
 pragmatic sanction .... 18 Aug. 1516 
 
 Disputes between the Jesuits and Jansenists . 1640 
 
 Declaration of the clergy (drawn up by Bossuet) in 
 accordance with the pragmatic sanctions, con- 
 firmed by the king .... 23 March, 1682 
 
 The Jansenists excommunicated by the Bull Uni- 
 genitus I 7 I 3 
 
 Concordat with Pius VII. and Napoleon 1801 and 1813 
 
 The principles of the concordat of Leo X. restored 
 by Pius VII. and Louis XVIII 1817 
 
 The archbishop of Paris and other prelates resist 
 the dogma of papal infallibility at the council at 
 Rome 1870 
 
 CHUECH of Ireland, founded by St. 
 
 Patrick in the 5th century ; accepted the Eeforma- 
 
 tion about 1550 ; united with that of England as 
 
 the United Church of England and Ireland in 1800 ; 
 
 see Bishops and Ireland, 1868. 
 
 " An act to put an end to the establishment of the 
 church of Ireland," introduced into the house of 
 commons by Mr. Gladstone, 1 Mar. ; vote for 
 second reading, 368; against, 250; 2 a.m., 24 
 March; for third reading, 361; against, 247, 
 
 31 May, 1869 
 
 Introduced into the house of lords by earl Gran- 
 ville, 1 June; read third time, 12 July; some 
 amendments by the lords accepted, others re- 
 jected ; received royal assent [to come into effect, 
 1 Jan. 1871] . • • • ;,. . 26 July, „ 
 
 Address of bishops to the clergy and laity, dated, 
 
 18 Aug. „ 
 
 Meeting of the general synod of the Irish church in 
 St. Patrick's cathedral, Dublin, for re-organisa- 
 tion of the general council . . . 14 Sept. „ 
 
 Conference of the laity ; duke of Abercorn chair- 
 
 13 Oct. 
 
 Church of Ireland disestablished 
 
 1 Jan. 1871 
 
CHURCH OF NORTH AMERICA. 156 
 
 CINTRA. 
 
 A BUstentataon fund established (well supported) 
 during , .... 1871 
 
 First elected bishop (Dr. Maurice Day, bishop of 
 Cashel) consecrated at St. Patrick's, Dublin, 
 
 14 April, 1872 
 
 The new ecclesiastical court meets : tries a ease of 
 ritual practices 26 June, ,, 
 
 The Irish Church Act amended . . June, ,, 
 
 Keceived for the susteutatioii fund, 33,573?. up to 
 
 31 Dec. „ 
 
 CHURCH of North America, was estab- 
 lished in Nov. 1 784, when bishop Seabury, chosen 
 by the churches in Connecticut, was consecrated in 
 Scotland. The first convention was held at Phila- 
 delphia in 1785. On 4 Feb. 1787, two more American 
 bishops were consecrated at Lambeth. In 1851 
 there were 37 bishops ; see Pan- Anglican Synod. 
 
 CHURCH OF SCOTLA:NT), see Bishops in 
 Scotland. On the abolition of Episcopacy, in 1638, 
 Presbyterianism became the established religion 
 Its formulary of faith, said to have been compiled 
 by John Knox, in 1560, was approved by the par- 
 liament and ratified in 1567, finally settled by an 
 act of the Scottish senate in 1696, and secured by 
 the treaty of union with England in 1 707 ; see 
 Discipline, Patronage, and Bisliops. The church 
 is regulated by four courts — the general assem- 
 bly, the synod, the presbytery, and kirk ses- 
 sions; see Presbyterians. For important secessions, 
 see Burghers (1732), and Free Church (1843). 
 
 The first general assembly of the church was held 
 20 Dec. 1560. 
 
 The general assembly constitutes the highest ecclesi- 
 astical court in the kingdom ; it meets annually in Edin- 
 burgh in May, and sits about ten days. It consists of a 
 grand commissioner, appointed by the sovereign, and 
 delegates from presbyteries, royal boroughs, and univer- 
 sities, some being laymen. To this court all appeals 
 from the inferior ecclesiastical courts lie, and its decision 
 is final. 
 
 CHURCH-RATES. The maintaining the 
 church in repair belongs to the parishioners, who 
 have the sole power of taxing themselves for the 
 expense when assembled in vestry. 'Die enforce- 
 ment of payment, which is continually disputed by 
 dissenters and others, belonged to the ecclesiastical 
 courts. Many attempts w r ere made to abolish 
 church-rates before Mr. Gladstone's ''Compulsory 
 Church-rate Abolition" Bill, passed 31 July, 1868. 
 
 CHURCH SERVICES were ordered by pope 
 Yitellianus to be read in Latin, 663 ; by queen 
 Elizabeth in 1558 to be read in English. 
 
 CHURCH-WARDENS, officers of the 
 church, appointed by the first canon of the synod of 
 London in 1 127. Overseers in every parish w r ere 
 also appointed by the same body, and the}' continue 
 now nearly as then constituted. Johnson's Canons. 
 Church-wardens, by the canons of 1603, are to be 
 chosen annually. 
 
 CHURCHYARDS, see Consecration. 
 
 CHURCHING- of Women" is the act of 
 returning thanks in the church by women after 
 child-birth. It began about 214. Wheatley ; see 
 Purification. 
 
 CHUSAN, a Chinese isle ; see China, 1840, 
 1841, i860. 
 
 CIDER {Zider, German), when first made in 
 England, was called wine, about 1284. The carl 
 of Manchester, when ambassador in France, is said 
 to have passed off cider for wine. It was subjected 
 to the excise in 1763 et seq. The duty was taken 
 off in 1830. Many orchards were planted in Here- 
 fordshire by lord Scudauiore, ambassador from 
 
 Charles I. to France. John Philips published his 
 poem "Cider" in 1706. 
 
 CIGAR SHIP, see under Steam, 1866. 
 
 CILICIA, in Asia Minor, partook of the for- 
 tunes of that country. It became a Roman province 
 about 64 B.C., and was conquered by the Turks, 
 a.d. 1387. 
 
 CIMBRI, a Teutonic race from Jutland, in- 
 vaded the Roman empire about 120 B.C. They 
 defeated the Romans, under Cncius Papirius Carbo, 
 113 B.C.; under the consul, Marcus Silanus, 109 
 B.C., and under C;epio Manlius, at Arausio, on the 
 banks of the Rhine, where 80,000 Romans were 
 slain, 105 B.C. Their allies, the Teutones, were 
 defeated by Marius in two battles at Aqua; Sextiae 
 (Aix) in Gaul ; 200,000 were killed, and 70,000 
 made prisoners, 102 B.C. The Cimbri were defeated 
 by Marius and Catulus, at Campus Raudius, when 
 about to enter Italy; 120,000 were killed, and 
 60,000 taken prisoners, 101 B.C. They were after- 
 wards absorbed into the Teutones or Saxons. 
 
 CIMENTO (Italian, experiment) . The " Acca- 
 demia del Cimento," at Florence, held its first 
 meeting for making scientific experiments, 18 June, 
 1657. It was patronised by Ferdiuand, grand duke 
 of Tuscany. The Royal Society of London was 
 founded in 1660, and the Academy of Sciences at 
 Paris in 1666. 
 
 CINCHONA, see Jesuits' Bark. 
 
 CINCINNATI. A society established by 
 oflicers of the American army soon after the peace 
 of 1783, " to perpetuate friendship, and to raise a 
 fund for relieving the widows and orphans of those 
 who had fallen during the war." On the badge 
 was a figure of Cincinnatus. The people dreaded 
 military influence, and the society dissolved itself. 
 
 CINNAMON, a species of laurel, is mentioned 
 among the perfumes of the sanctuary {Exodus xxx. 
 23) 1491 B.C. It was found in the American forests 
 by don Ulloa, in 1736, was cultivated in Jamaica 
 and Dominica in 1788, and is now grown in 
 Ceylon. 
 
 CINQUE-CENTO (five hundred) ; tcr cento, 
 &c.; see note to article Italy. 
 
 CINQUE PORTS, on the south coast of 
 England, were originally fire (hence the name) — 
 Dover, Hastings, Hythe, Romney, and Sandwich ; 
 Winehelsea and Rye were afterwards added. Jeake. 
 Their jurisdiction was vested in barons, called war- 
 dens, for the better security of the coast, these ports 
 being nearest to France, and considered the keys 
 of the kingdom ; instituted by "William I. in 1078. 
 Rapin. The latest lord- wardens were the duke of 
 Wellington, 1828-52 ; the marquis of Dalhousic, 
 1852-60; lord Palmerston, 1861-65; earl Granville, 
 appointed Dec. 1865. Their peculiar jurisdiction 
 was abolished in 1855. 
 
 CINTRA (Portugal). Here was signed an 
 agreement on 22 Aug. 1808, between the French 
 and English the day after the battle of Vimeira. 
 As it contained the bases of the convention signed 
 on 30 Aug. following, it has been termed the con- 
 vention of Cintra. By it Junot and his army were 
 permitted to evacuate Portugal free, in British 
 ships. The convention was publicly condemned, 
 and a court ©f inquiry was held at Chelsea, which 
 exonerated the British commanders. Both "Wel- 
 lington and Napoleon justified sir Hew Dalrymple. 
 
GIPHEE. 157 
 
 CIRCUS. 
 
 CIPHER, a secret manner of writing. Julius 
 Cassar and Augustus when writing secret despatches 
 are said to have employed the second or third letter 
 instead of the first, and the same sequence with 
 regard to the others. This cipher was in use till 
 the reign of Sixtus IV. (1471-84), when the secret 
 was divulged by Leon Battista Alberti, and a new 
 sort of cipher sprang up. The father of Venetian 
 cipher was Zuan Soro, who nourished about 15 16. 
 Raivdon Brown. — See Cryptograph. 
 
 CIRCASSIA (Asia, on N. side of the Caucasus) . 
 The Circassians, said to be descended from the Al- 
 banians, were unsubdued, even by Timour. In the 
 16th century they acknowledged the authority of 
 the czar Ivan II. of Kussia, and about 1745, the 
 princes of Kabarda took oaths of fealty. Many 
 Circassians became Mahometans in the 18th century. 
 
 Circassia surrendered to Russia by Turkey by the 
 treaty of Adrianople (but the Circassians, under 
 Schamyl, long resist) ... 14 Sept. 1829 
 
 Victories of Orbelliani over them, June, Nov., Dec. 1857 
 
 He subdues much country, and expels the inhabi- 
 tants April, 1858 
 
 ;Schamyl, the great Circassian leader, captured, and 
 treated with much respect . . .7 Sept. 1859 
 
 About 20,000 Circassians emigrate to Constanti- 
 nople, suffer much distress, and are relieved. 
 
 28 April, i860 
 
 Vaidar, the last of. the Circassian strongholds 
 captured, and the grand duke Michael declares 
 the war at an end 8 June. 1864 
 
 Many thousand Circassians emigrate into Turkey ; 
 partially relieved by the sultan's government, 
 
 June, et seq. „ 
 
 ."Schamyl and his son at the marriage of the czaro- 
 witch, 9 Nov. 1866 ; he dies . . . March, 1871 
 
 CIRCENSIAN GAMES were combats in 
 the Roman circus (at first in honour of Consus, the 
 god of councils, but afterwards of Jupiter, Neptune, 
 Juno, and Minerva), said to have been instituted by 
 Evander, and established at Rome, 732 B.C. by 
 Romulus. Tarquin named them Circensian ; their 
 celebration continued from 4 to 12 Sept. 
 
 CIRCLE. The quadrature, or ratio of the 
 diameter of the circle to its circumference, has 
 exercised the ingenuity of mathematicians of all 
 ages. Archimedes, about 221 B.C., gave it as 7 to 
 22 ; Abraham Sharp (1717) as 1 to 3 and 72 deci- 
 mals ; and Lagny (1719) as 1 to 3 and 122 decimals. 
 
 CIRCLES OF GERMANY (formed by Maxi- 
 milian I. about 1500, to distinguish the members of 
 the diet of the empire) were, in 1512, Franconia, 
 Bavaria, Upper Rhine, Suabia, Westphalia, and 
 Lower Saxony; in 1512, Austria, Burgundy, Lower 
 Rhine, the Palatinate, Upper Saxony and Bran- 
 denburg were added. In 1804 these divisions were 
 annulled by the establishment of the Confedera- 
 tion of the Rhine, in 1806 (which see). 
 
 CIRCUITS IN ENGLAND were divided into 
 three, and three justices were appointed to each, 
 1 176. They were afterwards divided into four, 
 with five justices to each division, 1180. Rapin. 
 They have been frequently altered. England and 
 "Wales are at present divided into eight — each 
 travelled in spring and summer for the trial of civil 
 and criminal cases, the larger towns are visited in 
 winter for trials of criminals only ; this is called 
 " going the circuit." There are monthly sessions 
 for the city of London and county of Middlesex. 
 
 CIRCULATING LIBRARY. Stationers 
 lent books on hire in the middle ages. The public 
 circulating library in England, opened by Samuel 
 Fancourt, a dissenting minister of Salisbury, about 
 
 1740, failed; but similar institutions at Bath and 
 in London succeeded, and others were established 
 throughout the kingdom. There was a circulating 
 library at Crane-court, London, in 1748, of which 
 a catalogue in two vols, was published. — No books 
 can be taken from the British Museum except for 
 judicial purposes, but the libraries of the Royal 
 Society and the principal scientific societies, except 
 that of the Royal Institution, London, are circu- 
 lating. — The London Library (circulating) was 
 founded 24 June, 1840, is of great value to literary 
 men. — Of the subscription libraries belonging to 
 individuals, that founded by Mr. C. E. Mudie, in 
 New Oxford-street, is the most remarkable for the 
 large quantity and good quality of the books: 
 several hundreds, sometimes thousands, of copies 
 of a new work being in circulation. It began in 
 1842, and grew into celebrity in Dec. 1848, when 
 the first two volumes of Macaulay's History of Eng- 
 land were published, for which there was an un- 
 precedented demand, supplied by this library. The 
 hall, having the walls covered with shelves filled 
 with new books, was opened in Dec. i860. The 
 "Circulating Library Company" was founded in 
 Jan. 1862, and other companies since. 
 
 CIRCULATION OF THE Blood, see Blood. 
 
 CIRCUMCISION (instituted 1897 b.c.) was 
 the seal of the covenant made by God with Abra- 
 ham. It was practised by the ancient Egyptians, 
 and is still by the Copts and some oriental nations. 
 The Festival of the Circumcision (of Christ), origi- 
 nally the octave of Christmas, is mentioned about 
 487. It was introduced into the liturgy in 1550. 
 
 CIRCUMNAVIGATORS. Among the most 
 daring human enterprises at the period when it was 
 first attempted, was the circumnavigation of the 
 earth in 1519-22. 
 
 Magellan or Magalhaens, a native of Portugal, in the 
 service of Spain, by keeping a westerly course, 
 returned to the same place he had set out from in 
 1519. (The voyage was completed in 3 years and 
 29 days.) He entered the Pacific Ocean, 27 Nov. 
 1520 ; killed by Indians . . . 17 April, i52r 
 
 Grijalva, Spaniard j 1537 
 
 Alvaradi, Spaniard 
 
 Mendana, Spaniard 1567 
 
 Sir Francis Drake, first English .... 1577-80 
 
 Cavendish, first voyage 1586-88 
 
 Le Maire, Dutch 1615-17 
 
 Cuiros, Spaniard ^25 
 
 Tasman, Dutch ^^ 
 
 Cowley, British iffe^ 
 
 Dampier, English 1 689 
 
 Cooke, English I70 s 
 
 Clipperton, British 171 <j 
 
 Roggewein, Dutch 1721-23 
 
 Anson (afterwards lord) 1740-44 
 
 Byron, English 1764-66 
 
 Wallis, British 1766-68 
 
 Carteret, English 1766-69 
 
 Bougainville, French 1766-9 
 
 James Cook 1768-71 
 
 On his death the voyage was continued by King . 1779 
 
 Portlocke, British I7 88 
 
 King and Fitzroy, British .... 1826-36 
 
 Belcher, British 1836-42 
 
 Wilkes, American 1838-42 
 
 See Nortlv-West Passage. 
 
 CIRCUS (Greek, Hippodrome.) There were 
 eight (some say ten) buildings of this kind at 
 Rome ; the largest the Circus Maximus, was built 
 by the elder Tarquin, 605 B.C. It was an oval 
 figure : length three stadia and a half, or more than 
 three English furlongs; breadth 960 Roman feet. 
 It was enlarged by Julius Cassar so as to seat 150,000 
 persons, and was rebuilt by Augustus. Julius 
 
CIERHA. 
 
 158 
 
 CLANSHIPS. 
 
 Caesar introduced into it large canals of water, 
 which could be quickly covered with vessels, and 
 represent a sea fight. ' Tlimj ; see Amphitheatres, 
 and Factions. 
 
 CIKRHA, a town of Phocis (N. Greece), for 
 sacrilege, razed to the ground in the Sacred War, 
 586 B.C. 
 
 CISALPINE EEPUBLIC (N. Italy), 
 formed by the French in May, 1797, from the 
 Oispadane and Jfranspadatte republics, acknow- 
 ledged by the emperor of Germany by the treaty 
 of Campo Formio (which see), 17 Oct. following. 
 It received a new constitution in Sept. 1798; was 
 remodelled, and named the Italian republic, with 
 Napoleon Bonaparte president, 1802; and merged 
 into the kingdom of Italy in March, 1805 ; see 
 Italy. 
 
 CISPADANE EEPUBLIC, with the 
 
 Transpadane republic, merged into the Cisal- 
 pine republic, Oct. 1/97- 
 
 CISTEECIANS (the order of Citeaux), a 
 powerful order of monks founded about 1098 by 
 Robert, a Benedictine, abbot of Molesme, named 
 from Citeaux, in France, the site of the first convent, 
 near the end of the nth century. The monks 
 observed silence, abstained from flesh, lay on straw, 
 and wore neither shoes nor shirts. They were re- 
 formed by St. Bernard ; see Bernardino,. 
 
 CITATE. The Russian general Gortschakoff, 
 intending to storm Kalafat, threw up redoubts at 
 Citate, close to the Danube, which were stormed by 
 the Turks under Omer Pacha, 6 Jan. 1854. The 
 fighting continued on the 7th, 8th and 9th, when 
 the Russians were compelled to retire to their 
 former position at Krajowa, having lost 1500 
 killed and 2000 wounded. The loss of the Turks 
 was estimated at 338 killed and 700 wounded. 
 
 CITIZEN. It was not lawful to scourge a 
 citizen of Rome. Livy. In England a citizen is a 
 person who is free of a city, or who doth cany on 
 a trade therein. Camden. Various privileges have 
 been conferred on citizens as freemen in several 
 reigns. — The wives of citizens of London (not being 
 aldermen's wives, nor gentlewomen by descent) 
 "Were obliged to w r ear minever caps, being white 
 woollen knit three-cornered, with the peaks pro- 
 jecting three or four inches beyond their foreheads; 
 aldermen's wives made them of velvet, 1 Eliz. 1558. 
 Stow. — On 10 Oct. 1792, the convention decreed 
 that "citoyen" and "citoyenne" should be the 
 only titles in France. 
 
 CITY. (Latin ciritas, French ate, Italian 
 eitta.) The word has been used in England only 
 since the conquest, when London was called Lon- 
 donburgh. Cities were first incorporated 1079. A 
 town corporate is called a a city when made the 
 seat of a bishop and having a cathedral church. 
 Camden. 
 
 CLTY LIBEAEY axd MUSEUM, see 
 
 Guildhall. 
 
 CITY OF LONDON COUET, the name 
 
 given to the Sheriffs' Court (established 1517); by 
 the County Courts act of Aug. 1867. 
 
 CIUDAD EODEIGO, a strong fortified town 
 in Spain invested by the French, II June, 1810, 
 and surrendered to them 10 July. It remained in 
 their possession until it was stormed by the British, 
 under Wellington, 19 Jan. 1812. 
 
 CIVIL ENGINEEES, see Engineers. 
 
 CIVIL LAW. See Codes. Civil law was- 
 restored in Italy, Germany, &c, 1127. Blair. It 
 was introduced into England by Theobald, a Nor- 
 man abbot, afterwards archbishop of Canterbury in 
 1 138. It is now used in the spiritual courts only,, 
 and in maritime affairs ; see Doctors' Commons, and 
 laws. 
 
 CIVIL LIST. This now comprehends the- 
 revenue awarded to the kings of England in lieu of 
 their ancient hereditary income. The entire revenue 
 of Elizabeth was not more than 600,000/., and that 
 of Charles I. was about 800,000/. After the revolu- 
 tion a civil list revenue was settled on the new king 
 and queen of 700,000/. (in 1660), the parliament 
 taking into its own hands the support of the forces 
 both maritime and military. The civil list of 
 Geerge II. was increased to 800,000/. ; and that o£ 
 George III., in the 55th year of his reign, was 
 1,030,000/. 
 
 In 1831, the civil list of the sovereign was fixed at 
 510,000?., and in December, 1837, the civil list of 
 the queen was fixed at 385,000?. 
 
 Prince Albert obtained an exclusive sum from par- 
 liament of 30,000? per an. ... 7 Feb. 1840 
 
 Sir H. Parnell's motion for inquiry into the civil list 
 led to the resignation of the Wellington adminis- 
 tration 15 Nov. 1830 
 
 A select committee was appointed by the house of 
 commons for the purpose ... 2 Feb. i860. 
 
 CIVIL SEEVICE. Nearly 17,000 persons 
 are employed in this service under the direction of 
 the treasury, and the home, foreign, colonial, post, 
 and revenue offices, &c. In 1855, a commission re- 
 ported most unfavourably on the existing system 
 of appointments, and on 21 May commissioners 
 were appointed to examine into the qualifications 
 of the candidates, who report annually. By an 
 order of council 4 June, 1870, the system of compe- 
 titive examination was made general after 1 Oct. 
 1870. The civil service superannuation act passed 
 in April, 1859. Civil service for the year (ending 
 31 March) 1855, cost 7,735,515/.; 1865, 10,205,413/.; 
 1867, 10,523,019/. ; 1871, 13,176,659/. Vote for 
 a select committee to inquire into this expenditure, 
 passed 18 Feb. 1873. 
 
 CIVILISATION. The opinion that the civili- 
 sation of mankind was gradually developed from a 
 low savage state is advocated by sir John Lubbock 
 in his "Origin of Civilisation," 1870, and by Mr. 
 Edward B. Tylor in his " Primitive Culture, 187 1. 
 
 CIVIL WAES, see England, France, &c. 
 CLAMEUES, see Haro. 
 
 CLANSHIPS are said to have arisen in Scot- 
 land, in the reign of Malcolm II., about 1008. The 
 legal power of the chiefs and other remains of 
 heritable jurisdiction were abolished in Scotland, 
 and liberty was granted to clansmen in 1747, in 
 consequence of the rebellion of 1745. The following 
 is a list of all the known clans of Scotland, with 
 the badge of distinction anciently worn by each. 
 The chief of each clan wears two eagle's feathers 
 in his bonnet, in addition to the badge. Chambers. 
 A history of the clans by "Win. Buchanan was pub- 
 lished in 1775. 
 
 Name. 
 Buchanan . 
 Cameron 
 Campbell . 
 
 Chisholm 
 Colquhoun 
 
 Badge. 
 Birch. 
 
 Oak. 
 Mvrtle. 
 Alder. 
 Hazel. 
 
CLAEE. 
 
 Name. Badge. 
 
 dimming .... Common sallow. 
 
 Drummond .... Holly. 
 
 Farquharson . . . . Purple foxglove. 
 
 Ferguson Poplar. 
 
 Forbes Broom. 
 
 Frazer Yew. 
 
 Gordon Ivy. 
 
 Graham Laurel. 
 
 Grant Cranberry heath. 
 
 Gun Kosewort. 
 
 Lamont Crab-apple tree. 
 
 M'Alister Five-leaved heath. 
 
 M'Donald Bell-heath. 
 
 M'Donnell Mountain-heath. 
 
 M'Dougall Cypress. 
 
 M'Farlane Cloud-berry bush. 
 
 M'Gregor Pine. 
 
 M'lntosh Box-wood. 
 
 M'Kay Bull-rush. 
 
 M'Kenzie L)eer-grass. 
 
 M'Kinnon St. John's wort. 
 
 M'Lachlan * Mountain-ash. 
 
 M'Lean Blackberry heath. 
 
 M'Leod Red whortle-berries. 
 
 M'Nab Rose blackberries. 
 
 M'Neil Sea-ware. 
 
 M'Pherson Variegated box-wood. 
 
 M'Quarrie Blackthorn. 
 
 M'Rae Fir-club moss. 
 
 Menzies Ash. 
 
 Munro Eagle's feathers. 
 
 Murray Juniper. 
 
 Ogilvie Hawthorn. 
 
 Oliphant Great maple. 
 
 Robertson Fern, or brechans. 
 
 Rose Briar-rose. 
 
 Ross Bear-berries. 
 
 Sinclair ..... Clover. 
 
 Stewart ...... Thistle. 
 
 Sutherland . . . . Cat's-tail grass. 
 
 CLAEE and Clarence (Suffolk). Richard 
 
 de Clare, earl of Gloucester, is said to have seated 
 here a monastery of the order of Friars Eremites, 
 the first of this kind of mendicants who came to 
 England, 1248. Tanner. Lionel, third son of Ed- 
 ward III., becoming possessed of the honour of 
 Clare, by marriage, was created duke of Clarence. 
 The title has ever since belonged to a branch of the 
 royal family. 
 
 DUKES OP CLARENCE. 
 
 1362. Lionel, born 1338, died, 1369 ; see York. 
 
 141 1. Thomas (second son of Henry IV.), born 1389 
 
 killed at Bauge, 1421. 
 1461. George (brother of Edward IV.), murdered, 1478. 
 1789. William (third son of George III.), afterwards king 
 
 William IV. 
 
 CLAEE was the first place in Ireland since 
 1689 that elected a Roman Catholic M. P. ; see Soman 
 Catholics. At the election, held at Ennis, the 
 county town, Mr. Daniel O'Connell was returned, 
 5 July, 1828. He did not sit till after the passing of 
 the Catholic Emancipation Act, in 1829, being 
 re-elected 30 July, 1829. 
 
 CLAEE, NUNS OF St., a sisterhood, called 
 Minoresses, founded in Italy by St. Clare and St. 
 Francis d'Assisi, about 1212. They were also called 
 TJrbanists ; their rule having been modified by pope 
 Urban IV., who died 1264. This order settled in 
 France about 1260, and in England, in the Minories 
 ■without Aldgate, London, about 1293, by Blanche, 
 queen of Navarre, wife of Edmund, earl of Lan- 
 caster, brother of Edward I. At the suppression, 
 the site was granted to the bishopric of Bath and 
 "Wells, 1539. Tanner. 
 
 CLAEEMONT (Surrey), the residence of the 
 princess Charlotte (daughter of the prince-regent, 
 afterwards George IV., married to prince Leopold 
 of Saxe-Coburg, 2 May, 1816) : here she died in 
 childbirth, 6 Nov. 18 17. The house was built by 
 
 159 
 
 CLASSIS. 
 
 sir John Vanbrugh, and was the seat successively 
 of the earl of Clare, of lord Clive, lord Galloway,, 
 and the earl of Tyrconnel. It was purchased of 
 Mr. Ellis by government for 65,000^. for the prince 
 and princess of Saxe-Coburg ; and the former, the 
 late king of Belgium, assigned it to prince Albert 
 in 1840. The exiled royal family of France took 
 up their residence at Claremont, 4 March, 1848 ; 
 and the king, Louis Philippe, died there, 29 Aug. 
 1850. 
 
 CLAEENCIEUX, the second king-at-arms, 
 said to have been nominated by Thomas, son of 
 Henry IV., created duke of Clarence, 1411. His- 
 duty was to arrange the funerals of all the lower 
 nobility, as baronets, knights, esquires, and gentle- 
 men, on the south side of the Trent, from whence 
 he is also called sur-roy or south-roy. 
 
 CLAEENDON, Constitutions of, were 
 
 enacted at a council held 25 Jan. 1164, at Claren- 
 don, in Wiltshire, to retrench the power of the 
 clergy. They led to Becket' s quarrel with Henry II. , 
 were annulled by the pope, and abandoned by the 
 king, April, 1 174. 
 
 I. All suits concerning advowsons to be determined in 
 civil courts. 
 
 II. The clergy accused of any crime be tried by civil 
 judges. 
 
 III. No person of any rank whatever be permitted to 
 leave the realm without the royal licence. 
 
 IV. Laics not to be accused in spiritual courts, except 
 by legal and reputable promoters and witnesses. 
 
 V. No chief tenant of the crown to be excommunicated, 
 nor his lands put under interdict. 
 
 VI. Revenues of vacant sees to belong to the king. 
 
 VII. Goods forfeited to the crown not to be protected! 
 in churches. 
 
 VIII. Sons of villeins not to be ordained clerks with- 
 out the consent of their lord. 
 
 IX. Bishops to he regarded as barons, and be sub- 
 jected to the burthens belonging to that rank. 
 
 X. Churches belonging to the king's see not to tie 
 granted in perpetuity against his will. 
 
 XL Excommunicated persons not to be bound to give 
 security for continuing in their abode. 
 
 XII. No inhabitant in demesne to be excommunicated 
 for non-appearance in a spiritual court. 
 
 XIII. If any tenant in capite should refuse submission 
 to spiritual courts, the case to be referred to the king. 
 
 XIV. The clergy no longer to pretend to the right of 
 enforcing debts contracted by oath or promise. 
 
 XV. Causes between laymen and ecclesiastics to be 
 determined by a jury. 
 
 XVI. Appeals to be ultimately carried to the king, and 
 no further without his consent. 
 
 CLAEENDON PEESS, Oxford. The 
 
 building was erected by sir John Vanbrugh, in 
 1711-13, the expense being defrayed out of the 
 profits of lord Clarendon's History of the Rebellion, 
 the copyright of which was given to the university 
 hj his son. The original building was converted' 
 into a museum, lecture-rooms, &c, and a new" 
 printing-office erected by Blore and Robertson, 
 1825-30. 
 
 CLAEION, said by Spanish writers to have 
 been invented by the Moors in Spain, about 8oo, 
 was at first a trumpet, serving as a treble to 
 trumpets sounding tenor and base. Ashe. 
 
 CLAEIONET, a wind instrument of the reecfe 
 kind, invented by Denner, in Nuremberg, about 
 1690. 
 
 CLASSIS. The name was first used by Tullius 
 Servius (the sixth king of ancient Rome), ire 
 making divisions of the Roman people, 573 B.C. 
 The first of the six classes were called classici, by 
 way of eminence, and hence authors of the first 
 
CLAVICHORD. 
 
 160 
 
 CLEVES. 
 
 rank (especially Greek and Latin) came to be 
 called classics. 
 
 CLAVICHORD, a musical instrument in the 
 form of a spinnet (called also a manichord) ; much 
 in use in France, Spain, and Germany, in the 17th 
 century. 
 
 CLAY'S ACT, Sir Wiltjam, 14 & 15 Vict., 
 
 c. 14 (1851), relates to the compound householders. 
 
 CLAYTON -BULWER TREATY, see 
 
 Bulwer. 
 
 . CLEARING-HOUSE. In 1775, a building 
 
 in Lombard-street was set apart for the use of 
 hankers, in which they might exchange drafts, 
 bills, and securities, and thereby save labour and 
 curtail the amount of floating cash requisite to 
 meet the settlement of the different houses, if 
 ■effected singly. By means of transfer tickets, trans- 
 actions to the amount of millions daily arc settled 
 without the intervention of a bank note. In 186 1, 
 the clearing-house was used by 117 companies, and 
 ■on May, 1864, it was joined by the Bank of England. 
 The Railway clearing-house in Seymour-street, near 
 Euston-square, established in 1842, is regulated 
 "by an act passed in 1850. In 1868, it regulated 
 13,000 miles of railways. 
 
 CLEMENTINES, apocryphal pieces, attri- 
 buted to Clemens Romanus, a contemporary of 
 St. Paul, and said to have succeeded St. Peter as 
 bishop of Rome. He died 102. Niceron. Also the 
 decretals of pope Clement V. wbo died 13 14, pub- 
 lished by his successor. Bowyer. Also Augustine 
 monks, each of whom having been a superior nine 
 years, then merged into a common monk. — 
 'Clementines were the adherents of Robert, son of 
 the count of Geneva, who took the title of Cle- 
 ment VII. on the death of Gregory XI. 1378, and 
 Urbanists, those of pope Urban VI. Christendom 
 was divided by their claims : France, Castile, Scot- 
 land, &c, adhering to Clement; Rome, Italy, and 
 England, to Urban. The schism ended in 1409, 
 when Alexander V. was elected pope, and his rivals 
 'resigned ; see Anti-Popes. 
 
 CLEPSYDRA, a water-clock ; see Clocks. 
 
 CLERGY (from the Greek kleros, a lot or in- 
 heritance) in the first century were termed pres- 
 byters, elders, or bishops, and deacons. The bishops 
 (episcopoi or overseers), elected from the presbyters, 
 in the second century assumed higher functions 
 (about 330), and, under Constantine, obtained the 
 recognition and protection of tbe secular power. 
 Under the Lombard and Norman-French kings in 
 the 7th and 8th centuries, the clergy began to pos- 
 sess temporal power, as owners of lands ; and after 
 the establishment of monacbism, a distinction was 
 made between the regular clergy, who lived apart 
 from the world, in accordance with a regula or rule, 
 and the secular (worldly) or beneficed clergy. The 
 English clergy write clerk after their names in 
 legal documents. See Church of England and 
 Bishops. 
 
 The clergy were first styled clerks, owing to the judges 
 being chosen after the Norman custom from the sacred 
 order, and the officers being clergy : this gave them 
 that denomination, which they keep to this day. Black- 
 stone. 
 
 As the Druids kept the keys of their religion and of 
 letters, so did the priests keep both these to themselves ; 
 they alone make profession of letters, and a man of 
 letters was called a clerk, and hence learning went by 
 the name of clerkship. Jt'asquier. 
 
 Benefit of Clergy, Pi-ivilegium Clerical* arose in the 
 regard paid by Christian princes to the church, and 
 consisted of: 1st, an exemption of places consecrated 
 to religious duties from criminal arrests, which was 
 the foundation of sanctuaries : 2nd, exemption of the 
 persons of clergymen from criminal process before the 
 secular .judge, in particular cases, which was the 
 original meaning of the privilegium clericale. The 
 benefit of clergy was afterwards extended to even-one 
 who could read ; and it was enacted, that there should 
 be a prerogative allowed to the clergy, that if any man 
 who could read were to be condemned to death, the 
 bishop of the diocese might, if he would, claim him as 
 a clerk, and dispose of him in some places of the clergy 
 as he might deem meet. The ordinary gave the pri- 
 soner at the bar a Latin book, in a black Gothic 
 character, from which to read a verse or two; and if 
 the ordinary said, "Legit uf Cferfeus" ("He reads 
 like a clerk''), the offender was only burnt in the 
 hand ; otherwise, he suffered death, 3 Edw. I. (1274). 
 
 The privilege was restricted by Henry VII. in 1489, and 
 abolished, with respect to murderers and other great 
 criminals, by Henry VIII. 1512. 
 
 The reading was discontinued by 5 Anne, c. 6 (1706). 
 
 Benefit of Clergy was wholly repealed by 7 <fc 8 Geo. IV. 
 c. 28 (1827). 
 
 CLERGV CHABITIES. 
 
 William Assheton, an eminent theological writer, was the 
 first proposer of a plan to provide for the families of 
 deceased clergy. He died Sept. 1711. Watts's Life of 
 Assheton. 
 
 Festival of the " Sons of the Clergy," held annually at St. 
 Paul's cathedral, instituted about 1655 : from it sprang 
 the charity called the "Sons of the Clergy" (clergy 
 orphan and widow corporation), incorporated 1 July, 
 1678. 
 
 There are several other charities for relatives of the 
 clergy. 
 
 CLERICAL DISABILITIES ACT, passed 
 9 Aug. 1870, relieves persons who have been ad- 
 mitted priests or deacons of certain clerical dis- 
 abilities upon their resigning their ecclesiastical 
 offices and preferments, and declares them incapable 
 of officiating henceforward. 
 
 CLERICAL SUBSCRIPTION ACT, 
 
 passed July, 1865. 
 
 CLERK, see Clergy. 
 
 CLERKENWELL, a parish, N. E. Louden, 
 so called from a well {fans clcricorum) in Ray- 
 street, where the parish clerks occasionally acted 
 mystery-plays : once before Richard II. in 1390. 
 Hunt's political meetings in 181 7 were held in 
 Spa-fields in this parish. In St. John's parish are 
 the remains of the priory of the knights of St. 
 John of Jerusalem. Clerkenwell prison was built 
 in 1615, in lieu of the noted prison called the Cage, 
 which was taken down in 1614 ; the then Bride- 
 well having been found insufficient. The prison 
 called the House of Detention, erected in 1775, was 
 rebuilt in 1818 ; again 1844. For the explosion 
 here, see Fenians, Dec. 1807. At Clerkenwell- 
 close formerly stood the house of Oliver Cromwell, 
 where some suppose the death-warrant of Charles I. 
 was signed, Jan. 1649. 
 
 CLERMONT (France). Here was held the 
 council under pope Urban II. in 1095, ^ which the 
 first crusade against the infidels was determined 
 upon, and Godfrey of Bouillon appointed to com- 
 mand it. In this council the name of pope was 
 first given to the head of the Roman Catholic 
 church, exclusively of the bishops who used pre- 
 viously to assume the title. Philip I. of France 
 was (a second time) excommunicated by this 
 assembly. Henault. 
 
 CLEVES (N.E.Germany). Rutger, count of 
 Cleves, lived at the beginning of the nth century. 
 Adolphus, count of Mark, was made duke of Cleves 
 
CLIFTON. 
 
 161 
 
 CLOUD. 
 
 by the emperor Sigismund, 1417. John William, 
 duke of Cleves, Berg, Juliers, &e., died without 
 issue, 25 March, 1609, -which led to a war of suc- 
 cession. Eventually Cleves was assigned to the 
 elector of Brandenburg in 1666; seized by the 
 French in 1757; restored at the peace in 1763, and 
 now forms part of the Prussian dominions. 
 
 CLIFTON SUSPENSION - BRIDGE, 
 
 over the Avon, connecting Gloucestershire and 
 Somersetshire, constructed of the removed Hunger- 
 ford -bridge, was completed in Oct. and opened 
 8 Dec. 1864. It is said to have the largest span 
 (702 feet) of any chain bridge in the world. In 
 1753 Alderman Vick, of Bristol, bequeathed 1000^. 
 to accumulate for the erection of a bridge over the 
 Avon. In 183 1 Brunei began one, which was aban- 
 doned after the expenditure of 45,000/. 
 
 CLIMACTERIC, the term applied to certain 
 periods of time in a man's life (multiples of 7 or 9), 
 in which it is affirmed notable alterations in the 
 health and constitution of a person happen, and 
 expose him to imminent dangers. Cotgrave says, 
 " Every 7th or 9th or 63rd year of a man's life, all 
 very dangerous, but the last most." The grand cli- 
 macteric is 63. Hippocrates is said to have referred 
 to these periods, 383 B.C. 
 
 CLINICAL SOCIETY of London, for 
 
 the cultivation and promotion of practical medi- 
 cine and surgery, established in Dec. 1867 ; first 
 president, sir Thomas Watson. See Lectures 
 (clinical). 
 
 CLIO. The initials C. L. I. 0., forming the 
 name of the muse of history, were rendered famous 
 from the most admired papers of Addison, in the 
 Spectator, having been marked by one or other of 
 them, signed consecutively, in 1713. Gibber. 
 
 CLOACA MAXIMA, the chief of the cele- 
 brated sewers at Kome, the construction of which is 
 attributed to king Tarquinius Prisons (588 B.C.) and 
 his successors. 
 
 CLOCK. The clepsydra, or water-clock, was 
 introduced at Borne about 158 B.C. by Scipio Nasica. 
 Toothed wheels were applied to them by Ctesibius, 
 about 140 B.C. Clocks said to have been found by 
 Caesar on invading Britain, 55 B.C. The only clock 
 supposed to be then in the world was sent by pope 
 Paul I. to Pepin king of France a.d. 760. Pacincus, 
 archdeacon of Genoa, invented one in the 9th cen- 
 tury. Originally the wheels were three feet in 
 diameter. The earliest complete clock of which 
 there is any certain record was made by a Saracen 
 mechanic in the 13th century. Alfred is said to 
 have measured time by wax tapers, and to have 
 ■used lanterns to defend them from the wind about 
 887. 
 
 The scapement ascribed to Gerbert . . . . 1000 
 A great clock put up at Canterbury cathedral, cost 
 
 30Z 1292 
 
 A clock constructed by Richard, abbot of St. 
 
 Alban's about 1326 
 
 John Visconti sets up a clock at Genoa . . . 1353 
 A striking clock in Westminster .... 1368 
 A perfect one made at Paris, by Vick . . . . 1370 
 
 The first portable one made 1530 
 
 In England no clock went accurately before that 
 
 set up at Hampton-court (maker's initials N. O.) 1540 
 The pendulum is said to have been applied to clocks 
 
 by the younger Galileo, 1639 ; and by Richard 
 
 Harris (who erected a clock at St. Paul's, Covent- 
 
 garden) 1641 
 
 Christian Huyghens said he made his pendulum 
 
 clock previously to 1658 
 
 Fromantil, a Dutchman, improved the pendulum 
 
 about 1659 
 
 Repeating clocks and watches invented by Barlow, 
 
 about 1676 
 The dead beat, and horizontal escapements, by 
 
 Graham, about 1700 ; compensating pendulum . 1715 
 The spiral balance spring suggested, and the duplex 
 scapement, invented by Dr. Hooke ; pivot holes 
 jewelled by Facio ; the detached-scapement, 
 invented by Mudge, and improved by Berthould, .- 
 Arnold, Earnshaw, and others in the 18th century. 
 Harrison's time-piece (which see) constructed . . 1735 
 Clocks and watches taxed, 1797 ; tax repealed . 1798 
 Church clocks illuminated : the first, St. Bride's, 
 
 London 2 Dee. 1826 
 
 The Horological Institute established . . . 1858 
 The great "Westminster clock set up . .30 May, 1859 
 266,750 clocks and 88,621 watches imported into 
 the United Kingdom in 1857 ; 258,628 clocks ; 
 
 372,420 watches imported in 1870 
 
 The duty came off j[86r 
 
 See Electric Clock, under Electricity. 
 
 CLOGHER (Ireland). St. Macartin, a disciple 
 of St. Patrick, fixed a bishopric at Clogher, where 
 he also built an abbey "in the street before the 
 royal seat of the kings of Ergal." He died in 506. 
 Clogher takes it name from a golden stone, from 
 which, in times of paganism, the devil used to 
 pronounce juggling answers, like the oracles of 
 Apollo Pythius. Sir James Ware. In 1041 the 
 cathedral was built anew, and dedicated to its 
 founder. Clogher merged, on the death of its last 
 prelate (Dr. Tottenham) , into the archiepiscopal see 
 of Armagh, by the act of 1833. 
 
 CLONFERT (Ireland). St. Brendan founded 
 an abbey at Clonfert in 558 : his life is extant in 
 jingling monkish metre in the Cottonian library at 
 Westminster. In his time the cathedral, famous 
 in ancient days for its seven altars, was erected; 
 and Colgan makes St. Brendan its founder and the 
 first bishop ; but it is said, in the Ulster Annals, 
 under the year 571, "M<ena, bishop of Clonfert- 
 Brenain, went to rest." Clonfert, in Irish, signifies 
 a wonderful den or retirement. In 1839 the see 
 merged into that of Fdllaloe ; see Bishops. 
 
 CLONTARF (near Dublin), the site of a battle 
 fought on Good. Friday, 23 April, 1014, between 
 the Irish and Danes, the former headed by Bryan 
 Boroimhe, monarch of Ireland, who defeated the 
 invaders, after a long and bloody engagement, was 
 wounded, and soon afterwards died. His son Mur- 
 chard also fell with many of the nobility ; 13,000 
 Danes are said to have perished in the battle. 
 
 CLOSTERSEVEN (Hanover) CONVENTION 
 OF, was entered into 8 Sept. 1757, between the 
 duke of Cumberland, third son of George II., 
 hardly pressed, and the duke of Bichelieu, com- 
 mander of the French. By it 38,000 Hanoverians 
 laid down their arms, and were dispersed. The 
 treaty was disavowed by the king ; the duke re- 
 signed all his commands, and the convention was 
 soon broken. 
 
 CLOTH, see Woollen Cloth and Calico. 
 
 CLOUD, St., a palace near Paris, named from 
 prince Clodoald or Cloud, who became a monk 
 there in 533, after the murder of his brothers, and 
 died in 560. The palace was built in the 16th 
 century, and in it Henry II. was assassinated by 
 Clement, 2 Aug. 1589. This palace, long the 
 property of the dukes of Orleans, was bought by 
 Marie Antoinette in 1785. It was a favourite 
 residence of the empress Josephine, of Charles X. 
 and his family, and of the emperor Napoleon III. 
 It was burnt during the siege of Paris, having 
 
CLOUDS. 162 
 
 been fired upon by the French themselves, 13 Oct. 
 1870. 
 
 CLOUDS consist of minute particles of water, 
 often in a frozen state, floating in the air. In 1 803 
 Mr. Luke Howard published his classification of 
 clouds, now generally adopted, consisting of three 
 primary forms — cirrus, cumulus, and stratus ; three 
 compounds of these forms ; and the nimbus or 
 black rain clouds (cumulo-cirro-stratus.) A new 
 edition of Howard's Essay on the Clouds appeared 
 in 1865. 
 
 CLOVESHOO (now Cliff), Kent. Here was 
 held an important council of nobility and clergy 
 concerning the government and discipline of the 
 church, Sept. 747 ; and others were held here, 800, 
 803, 822, 824. 
 
 CLOYNE (S. Ireland), a bishopric, founded in 
 the 6th century by St. Coleman, was in 1431 united 
 to that of Cork,and so continued for 200 years. It 
 was united with that of Cork and Ross, 1834 ; see 
 
 COAL. 
 
 CLUBMEN, associations founded in the 
 southern and western counties of England, to re- 
 strain the excesses of the armies during the civil 
 wars, 1642-9. They professed neutrality, but in- 
 clined towards the king, and were considered ene- 
 mies by his opponents. 
 
 CLUBS, originally consisted of a small number 
 of persons of kindred tastes and pursuits, who met 
 together at stated times for social intercourse. The 
 club at the Mermaid tavern, established about the 
 end of the 16th century, consisted of Raleigh, 
 Shakspeare, and others. Ben Jonson set up a club 
 at the Devil tavern. Addison, Steele, and others, 
 frequently met at Button's coffee-house, as de- 
 scribed in the Spectator. The present London 
 clubs, some comprising 300, others about 1500 
 members, possess handsome luxuriously furnished 
 edifices in or near Pall Mall. The members obtain 
 choice viands and wines at moderate charges, and 
 many clubs possess excellent libraries, particularly 
 the Athenaeum {which see). The annual payment 
 varies from 61. to ill. lis.; the entrance fee from 
 gl. as. to 31/. us. The following are the principal 
 clubs ; several are described in separate articles : — 
 
 "Rota, (political) 1659 
 
 Kit-Cat (literary) 1700 
 
 Dilettanti (fine arts) 1734 
 
 Beef Steak (cxt inct) 1735 
 
 White's (Tory) 1736 
 
 Royal Society (scientific) .... before 1743 
 
 Boodle's 17 62 
 
 Literary Club (which see), termed also " The Club," 
 
 and Johnson's Club 1764 
 
 Brooke's, originally Alrnaek's (Whig) . . ■ ■ „ 
 
 Alfred (literary) 1808-51 
 
 Guards' 1 May, 1810 
 
 Arthur's, early in 1 8th century ; house built . . 1811 
 
 Boxburghe, London 1812 
 
 United Service 1815 
 
 Travellers' 1819 
 
 Union 1821 
 
 United University 1822 
 
 Bannatyne, Edinburgh 1823 
 
 Athi'iiii-mn (which see) 1824 
 
 Oriental >. 
 
 United Sen-ice (Junior) 1827 
 
 Wyndham J 828 
 
 Maitland, Glasgow ,, 
 
 Oxford and Cambridge 1829 
 
 Carlton (Conservative), founded by the duke of Wel- 
 lington and others . 1831 
 
 Garriek >. 
 
 Abbotsford, Edinburgh 1835 
 
 Reform (Liberal) 1836 
 
 Parthenon • • »» 
 
 Army and Navy 1837 
 
 Etching, London 1838 
 
 Spalding, Aberdeen 1839 
 
 Conservative 1840 
 
 Whittington (founded by Douglas Jerrold and 
 
 others) 1846 
 
 Army and Navy 1851 
 
 Grafton 1863 
 
 Cobden Club 1866 
 
 See Working Men's Club. 
 
 CLUBS, FRENCH. The first arose about 1782. 
 They were essentially political, and greatly con- 
 cerned in the revolution. The Club Breton became 
 the celebrated Club des Jacobim, and the Club des 
 Cordeliers comprised among its members Danton 
 and Camille Desmoulins. From these two came 
 the Mountain party which overthrew the Girondists 
 in 1793, and fell in its turn in 1794. The clubs 
 disappeared with the Directory in 1799. They were 
 revived 1848 in considerable numbers, but did not 
 attain to their former eminence, and were sup- 
 pressed by decrees, 22 June, 1849, and 6 June, 
 1850. Bouillet. 
 
 CLUB-FOOT, a deformity due to the shorten- 
 ing of one or more of the muscles, although at- 
 tempted to be relieved by Lorenz in 1784, by 
 cutting the tendo Achillas, was not effectually cured 
 till 183 1, when Stromeyer of Erlangen cured Dr. 
 Little by dividing the tendons of the contracted 
 muscles with a very thin knife. 
 
 CLUGNY or CLUNY, ABBEY OF, in France, 
 formerly most magnificent, founded by Beuedictines, 
 under the abbot Bern, about 910, and sustained 
 afterwards by William, duke of Berry and Aqui- 
 taine. English foundations for Cluniac monks were 
 instituted soon after. 
 
 CLYDE and FOETH WALL was built 
 
 by Agricola, 84. The Forth and Clyde Canal was 
 commenced by Mr. Smeaton, 10 July, 1768, and 
 was opened 28 July, 1790. It forms a communi- 
 cation between the seas on the eastern and western 
 coasts of Scotland. 
 
 CXIDUS, in Caria, Asia Minor: near here 
 Conon the Athenian defeated the Lacedaemonian 
 fleet, under Peisander, 394 B.C. 
 
 COACH (from coucher, to lie). Beckmann 
 states that Charles of Anjou's queen entered Naples 
 in a caretta (about 1282). Under Francis I. there 
 were but two in Paris, one belonging to the 
 queen, the other to Diana, the natural daughter of 
 Henry II. There were but three in Paris in 1550; 
 and Henry IV. had one without straps or springs. 
 John de Laval de Bois-Dauphin set up a coach on 
 account of his enormous bulk. The first coach seen 
 in England was about 1553. Coaches were intro- 
 duced by Fitz-Alan, earl of Arundel, in 1580. Stow. 
 A bill was brought into parliament to prevent the 
 effeminacy of men riding in coaches, 43 Eliz. 1601. 
 Carte. Repealed 1625. The coach of the duke of 
 Buckingham had six horses, that of the earl of 
 Northumberland eight, 1619. The coach-tax com- 
 menced in 1747. Horace Walpole says that the 
 present royal state coach (first used 16 Nov. 1762), 
 cost 7528^. The lord mayor's old state coach was 
 not used 9 Nov. 1867 ; see Car, Carriages, Chariots, 
 Hackney Coaches, Mail Coaches, &c. 
 
 COAL.* It is contended, with much seeming 
 truth, that coal, although not mentioned by the 
 
 * There are five kind of fossil fuel : anthracite, coal, 
 lignite, bituminous shale, and bitumen. No satisfactory 
 definition of coal has yet been given. The composition of 
 tvood is 49'i carbon, 63 hydrogen, 44 6 oxygen ; of coal 
 82 - 6 carbon, 56 hydrogen, n - 8 oxygen. 
 
COAL. 163 
 
 Eomans in their notices of Britain, was yet in use 
 by the ancient Britons. Brandt. Henry III. is 
 said to have granted a licence to dig coals near 
 Newcastle-upon-Tyne in 1234 ; some say earlier, 
 and others in 1239. Sea-coal was prohibited from 
 being used in and near London, as being "preju- 
 dicial to human health ; " and even smiths were 
 obliged to burn wood, 1273. Stow. In 1306 the 
 gentry petitioned against its use. Coal was first 
 made an article of trade from Newcastle to London, 
 4 Kich II. 1381. Bymer's Fcedera. Notwithstanding 
 the many previous complaints against coal as a 
 public nuisance, it was at length generally burned 
 in London in 1400 ; but it was not in common use 
 in England until the reign of Charles 1. 1625. Coal 
 was brought to Dublin from Newry in 1742. 
 
 1700 consumed in London . . . 317,000 chald. 
 
 1750 510,000 ,, 
 
 1800 814,000 ,, 
 
 1810 ........ 980,372 „ 
 
 1820 1,171,178 „ 
 
 1830 1,588,360 ,, 
 
 1835 2,299,816 tons. 
 
 1840 2,638,256 ,, 
 
 1850 3.638,883 „ 
 
 i860. — Coal brought to London, 3,573,377 tons coast- 
 wise ; 1,499,899 tons by railways and canals. 
 1861. — Coal brought to London, 5,232,082 tons ; in 1862, 
 
 4,973,823 tons. 
 The coal-fields of Great Britain are estimated at 5400 
 square miles ; of Durham and Northumberland, 
 723 square miles. Bakewell. In 1857 about 65^ 
 millions of tons were extracted (value about 
 16, 348, 676Z.) from 2095 collieries ; about 25 millions 
 are consumed annually in Great Britain. 
 Coal obtained in Great Britain and Ireland : — In 
 1854, 64,661,401 tons ; in 1861, 83,635,214 tons ; in 
 1862, 81,638,338 tons; in 1863, 86,292,215 tons; 
 in 1864 (from 3268 collieries), 92,787,873 tons ; in 
 1865, 98,150,587 tons ; in 1866, 101,630,544 tons ; 
 in 1867, 104,500,480 tons; in 1868, 103,141,157 
 tons ; in 1869, 107,427,557 tons ; in 1870, 
 110,431,192 tons, value 27,607,798?. 
 Mr. Sopwith, in 1855, computed the annual product 
 of the coal-mines of Durham and Northumberland 
 at 14 million tons : — 6 millions for London, 2J 
 millions exported, 2% millions for coke, 1 million 
 for colliery engines, <fcc, and two millions for 
 local consumption. 
 By a stipulation in the commercial treaty of i860, in 
 consequence of the French government greatly 
 reducing the duty on imported coal, the British 
 government (it is thought by many imprudently) 
 engaged to lay no duty on exported coal for ten 
 years. In 1859 about 7,000,000 tons of British 
 coals were exported, of which 1,391,009 tons went 
 to France. 
 A commission (consisting of the duke of Argyll, sir 
 R. I. Murchison, Dr. John Percy, professor 
 Ramsay, and others) appointed to investigate into 
 the probable quantity of coal in the coal-fields of 
 the United Kingdom, &e. 28 June, 1866, reported 
 27 July, 1871 : — 
 Attainable quantity of coal in known tons 
 
 coal-fields 90,207,000,000 
 
 Probable available coal in other 
 places 56,273,000,000 
 
 COAL. 
 
 146,480,000,000 
 
 Sale of Coal Regulation Act 
 
 The duties on the exportation of British coal, which 
 had existed since the 16th century, were prac- 
 tically repealed 
 
 Sir R. Peel imposed a duty of 4s. a ton in 1842 ; 
 caused much dissatisfaction ; repealed . . . 
 
 Women were prohibited from working in English 
 collieries in .... 
 
 The consumption of coal in France in 1780, only 
 400,000 tons, rises to 6,000,000 tons in . . 
 
 The United States produced between 8 and 9 millions 
 of tons : Belgium, 5,000,000 ; and France, 4,500,000, 
 
 An Act for the regulation and inspection of mines 
 
 1834 
 1845 
 1842 
 1845 
 1855 
 
 Duplicate shafts act passed x 862 
 
 Coal-pitmen's strikes frequently occur ; a long and 
 
 severe one arose in Staffordshire in 1864 ; near St. 
 
 Helen's, March, 1868 ; in S. Wales . Jan. -March, 1873 
 Coal-mines regulation act, tending to check the 
 
 supply, passed .... 10 Aug. 1872 
 
 A coal-cutting machine at work, producing about 
 
 70 tons in 8 hours (work of 40 men) ; requires 
 
 attendance of 3 or 4 men . . Times. 6 Feb. 1873 
 Great dearth of coal in London (see Strikes), best 
 
 coal 52s. a ton I5 Feb. 1873 
 
 Parliamentary committee respecting coal first met 
 
 24 March, „ 
 
 Accidents. — About 1000 lives are lost annually by 
 accidents in mines. (1856-67). 
 
 In 1858, by explosions in coal-mines, 52 persons perished 
 at Bardsley ; 20 at Duffryn, near Newport ; 52 at 
 Tyldesley, near Leeds ; and about 36 in different parts of 
 the country. 
 
 1859—5 April, 26 lives were lost at the chain colliery, 
 near Neath, through the irruption of water. 
 
 1860—76 lives were lost on 2 March, at Burradon, near 
 Killingworth ; 145 at the Risca mine, near Newport, 
 1 Dec. ; and 22 at the Hetton mine, Northumberland, 20 
 Dec. 
 
 1861 — 11 June, 21 lives were lost through an inundation 
 in the Claycross mines, Derbyshire. 
 
 85 lives were lost at Lalle coal-mine, in France, in Oct. 
 1861. 
 
 1862—47 lives were lost at Gethin mine, Merthyr 
 Tydvill, S. Wales, 19 Feb. ; at Walker, near Newcastle 
 on-Tyne, 15 lives lost, 22 Nov. ; Edmund's Main, near 
 Barnsley, 60 lives lost, 8 Dec. 
 
 1863—13 lives lost at Coxbridge, near Newcastle, 
 6 March ; 39 lives lost at Margani, S. Wales, 17 Oct. ; 14 
 lives lost at Moestig, S. Wales, 26 Dec. 
 
 1865—6 lives lost at Claycross, 3 May; 24 at New 
 Bedwelty pit, near Tredegar, 16 June ; explosion at 
 Gethin mine, Merthyr Tydvill ; 30 lives lost, 20 Dec. 
 
 1866 — Explosion at Highbrook colliery, near Wigan> 
 Lancashire, about 30 lives lost, 23 Jan. ; at Dukinfleld. 
 near Ashton, 37 lives lost, 14 June ; at Pelton Fell 
 colliery, near Durham, about 24 lives lost, 31 Oct. ; at 
 Oaks colliery, Hoyle-mill, near Barnsley, about 360 
 persons killed, 12 Dec. ; 28 searchers killed (including 
 Mr. Parkin Jeffcock, mining engineer) by fresh explosion, 
 
 13 Dec. ; at Talke-of-the-hill, Staffordshire ; about 80 
 persons perish, 13 Dec. 
 
 1867 — Explosion at Garswood collier}', near St. Helen's, 
 
 14 lives lost, 29 Aug. ; Shankhouse colliery, Cramlington, 
 Northumberland, flooded : about 200 men drowned, 
 1 Nov. ; explosion at Ferndale colliery, Rhonnda Valley, 
 near Cardiff about 178 lives lost : attributed to naked 
 lights, 8 Nov. 
 
 (For still more fatal accidents, see Lwndhill and 
 Hartley.) 
 
 47 lives lost in a mine near Jemmappes, Belgium, 6 
 Aug. 1868. 
 
 1868. Explosions : at Green pit, near Ruabon, n 
 persons killed, 30 Sept. ; at Arley mine, Hindley-green, 
 near Wigan, 62 killed, 26 Nov. ; at Norley mine, near 
 Wigan, about 7 killed, 21 Dec. ; at Haydock colleries, 
 near St. Helen's, 26 deaths, 30 Dec. 
 
 1869. Brierly pit, near Stourbridge, inundated 17 
 March, many lost ; — some rescued, 20, 21 March ; 
 Explosions at Highbrooks colliery, near Wigan, about 
 33 persons perished, 1 April ; at Ferndale colliery, 
 Glamorganshire, about 60 lost, 10 June ; Haydock pit, 
 St. Helen's, about 58 lost, 21 July; Moss Coal Company's 
 pit, near Hindley, about 30 lost, 22 Nov. 
 
 1870. Explosions — at Silverdale colliery, Staffordshire, 
 19 killed, 7 July ; Llansamlet, near Swansea, 19 killed, 
 23 July ; Brynn-hall, near Wigan, about 19 killed, 19 Aug. 
 
 1871. Explosions, Renishaw park colliery, Eckington, 
 near Sheffield, 27 lulled, 10 Jan. ; Pentre colliery, 
 Rhonnda valley, 38 killed. 24 Feb. ; Victoria, near Ebbw 
 vale, Monmouthshire, about 19 killed, 2 March ; Moss 
 Pits, near Wigan, 70 killed, 6 Sept. ; Grisons, Belgium, 
 30 killed, 27 Sept. ; Gedly pit, Aberdare, 4 killed, 4 Oct. ; 
 Seaham, 30 killed, 25 Oct. 
 
 1872. Explosions— Lynvi valley near Bridgend, 11 
 killed, 11 Jan. ; Black lake colliery, S. Staffordshire, 8 
 killed, (through carelessness), 25 Jan. ; Morley main, near 
 Dewsbury and Leeds, 7 Oct. about 34 deaths : great 
 carelessness and bad discipline ; Rains mine, Pendlebury, 
 6 killed, 6 Nov. ; Monceaux, department of Sa6ne et Loire' 
 
 M 2 
 
COALITIONS. 
 
 164 
 
 CODES. 
 
 .about 38 killed, 8 Nov. ; Pelsall-hall, Walsall, about 22 
 
 drowned by influx of water from an old working 14 Nov. 
 1873. Explosion at Talke colliery, N. Staffordshire, Coal 
 
 and Iron Company's works, about 20 killed, 18 Feb. 
 
 Coal Exchange, London, established by 47 Geo. 
 III. c. 68 (1807). The present building (a most 
 interesting structure) was erected by Mr. J. B. 
 Bumiing, and opened by prince Albert 30 Oct. 1849 
 
 CoAL-wmppERS' Board, to protect; the men em- 
 ployed in unloading coal-vessels from publicans, 
 formed by an act of parliament in 1843, lasted 
 ti.i 1856, when the coal-owners themselves estab- 
 lished a whipping office. 
 
 COALITIONS against France generally 
 arose through England subsidising the great powers 
 of the continent. 
 
 Austria, Prussia and Great Britain .... 1793 
 Great Britain, Germany, Russia, Naples, Portugal, 
 
 and Turkey, signed . . .22 June, 1799 
 
 Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Naples, 5 Aug. 1805 
 Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Saxony, 6 Oct. 1806 
 England and Austria .... 6 April, 1809 
 Russia and Prussia ; the treaty ratified at Kalisch 
 
 17 March, 1S13 
 See Treaties. 
 
 COALITION MINISTRIES, see Aberdeen, 
 Grenville II, Pelham, and Portland. 
 
 COAST GUARD. In 1856, the raising and 
 governing this body was transferred to the ad- 
 miralty. A coast brigade of artillery was established 
 in Nov. 1859. — Coast Volunteers, see under 
 Navy of England. 
 
 COASTING TRADE of Great Britain thrown 
 open to all nations by 17 Vict. c. 5, 1854. 
 
 COBALT, a rare mineral found among the veins 
 of ores, or in the fissures of stone, at an early date, 
 in the mines of Cornwall, where the workman call 
 it mundic. Hill. It was distinguished as a metal 
 by Brandt, in 1733. 
 
 COBDEN CLUB, instituted to spread and 
 develop Cobden's principles; held first dinner, 
 W. E. Gladstone in the chair, 21 July, 1866. The 
 statue of Richard Cobden, at Camden town, was 
 inaugurated, 27 June, 1868. 
 
 COBURG, see Saxc Cobury. 
 
 COCA, a powerful narcotic existing in the 
 Erythoxylon Coca a South American plant; 
 men taking a little of this are enabled to endure 
 hard labour without any food for six or seven days 
 and nights. Dr. Mantegazza's prize essay in 
 German was published at Vienna in 1849. 
 
 COCCEIANS, a small sect founded by John 
 Cocceius, of Bremen, in the seventeenth century. 
 He held, amongst other opinions, that of a visible 
 reign of Christ" in this world, after a general con- 
 version of the Jews and all other people to the 
 Christian faith. He died in 1665. 
 
 COCHEREL (near Evreux, N. W. France). 
 Here Bertrand du Guesclin defeated the king of 
 Navarre, and took prisoner the captal de Buch, 16 
 May, 1364. 
 
 COCHIN (India), held by the Portuguese, 1503 ; 
 by the Dutch, 1663 ; bv Hyder Ali, 1776 ; taken by 
 the British, 1796; ceded to them, 1814.— Cochin 
 China, see Anam. 
 
 COCHINEAL INSECT {Coccus cacti), de- 
 riving its colour from feeding on the cactus, became 
 known to the Spaniards soon after their conquest of 
 Mexico in 1518. Cochineal was brought to Europe 
 about 1523, but was not known in Italy in 1548, 
 although the art of dyeing then flourished there. 
 
 In 1858 it was cultivated successfully in Tcneriffe, 
 the vines having failed through disease. 260.OOO lbs. 
 of cochineal were imported into England in 1830 ; 
 1,081,776 lbs. in 1845; 2,360,000 lbs. in 1850; and 
 3,034,976 lbs. in 1859. Duty repealed 1845. 
 
 COCKER' S ARITHMETIC. Edward Cocker, 
 an eminent penman born 1631, died 1677, compiled 
 a book which first appeared in 1677, edited by John 
 Hawkins. 
 
 COCK-FIGHTING, practised by the Greeks, 
 was brought by the Romans into England. William 
 Fitz-Stephen, in the reign of Henry II., describes 
 cock-fighting as the sport of school-boys on Shrove- 
 Tuesday. It was prohibited by Edward HI. 1365 ; 
 by Henry VIII. ; and by Cromwell, 1653, and 
 latterly in 1849. Part of the site of Drury-lane 
 theatre was a cock-pit in the reign of James I. ; and 
 the Cock-pit at "Whitehall was erected by Charles II. 
 Till lately there was a Coch-pit-Iioyalm St. James's 
 Park; but the governors of Christ's Hospital would 
 not renew the lease for the building.* Cock-fighting 
 is now forbidden by law. On 22 April, 186s, 34 
 persons were fined at Marlborough-street police- 
 office, for being present at a cock-fight. It is now 
 popular in New York (1873). 
 
 COCK-LANE GHOST, an imposition prac- 
 tised by William Parsons, his wife, and daughter, 
 bv means of a female ventriloquist, during 1 760 and 
 1761, at No. 33, Cock-lane, London, was at length 
 detected, and the parents were condemned to the 
 pillory and imprisonment, 10 July, 1762. 
 
 COCOA or CACAO, the kernel or seed of T/ieo- 
 broma cacao (Linn.), was introduced into this 
 country shortly after the discovery of Mexico, where 
 it is an article of diet. From cocoa is produced 
 chocolate. The cocoa imported into the United 
 Kingdom, chiefly from the British AVest Indies and 
 Guiana, was in 1849, 1,989,477 lbs.; in 1855, 
 7,343,498 lbs. ; in 1861, 9,080,288 lbs. ; in i860, 
 10,308,298 lbs. ; in 1870, 14,793,950 lbs. ; about half 
 for home consumption. 
 
 COCOA-NUT TREE (Cocos nucifera, Linn.), 
 supplies the Indians with almost all they need, as 
 bread, water, wine, vinegar, brandy, milk, oil, 
 honey, sugar, needles, clothes, thread, cups, spoons, 
 basins, baskets, paper, masts for ships, sails, cord- 
 age, nails, covering for their houses, &c. Say. 
 In Sept. 1829, Mr. Soames patented his mode of 
 procuring stearine and elaine from cocoa-nut oil. 
 It is said that 32 tons of candles have been made 
 in a month from these materials at the Belmont 
 works, Lambeth. 
 
 CODES, see Laws. Alfrenus Varus, the civilian, 
 first collected the Roman laws about 66 B.C. ; and 
 Servius Sulpicius, the civilian, embodied them 
 about 53 B.C. The Gregorian and Hermoginian 
 codes were published A.d. 290 ; the Theodosian 
 code commenced by order of Theodosius II. in 
 429 ; and published for the eastern empire in 438. 
 In 447 he transmitted to Valentinian his new con- 
 stitutions promulgated as the law of the west in 
 448. The celebrated code of the emperor Justinian 
 in 529 — a digest from this last made in 533 ; see 
 Basilica. Alfred's code is the foundation of the 
 
 * Mr. Ardesoif, a gentleman of large fortune and great 
 hospitality, who was almost unrivalled in the splendour 
 of his equipages, had a favourite cock, upon which he- 
 had won many profitable matches. The last wager 
 he laid upon this cock he lost, which so enraged him, 
 that in a fit of passion he thrust the bird into the fire. 
 A delirious fever, the result of his rage and inebriety, in 
 three days put an end to his life. He died at Tottenham, 
 near London, 4 April, 1788. 
 
CODEX. 
 
 165 
 
 COIN. 
 
 common law of England, 887. — The Code Napo- 
 leon, the civil code of France, was promulgated 
 from 1803 to 1810. The emperor considered it 
 his most enduring monument. It was prepared 
 under his supervision by the most eminent jurists, 
 from the 400 systems previously existing, and has 
 been adopted by other countries. 
 
 CODEX, see under Bible, Alexandrian, &c. 
 
 CODFISH, see Holland, 1347. 
 
 COD-LIVER OIL was recommended as a 
 remedy for chronic rheumatism by Dr. Percival in 
 1782, and for diseases of the lungs about 1833. De 
 Jongh's treatise on cod - liver was published in 
 Latin, 1844 ; in English, 1849. 
 
 C03UI1 DE LION or THE LlON-HEARTED, 
 a surname given to Eichard I. of England, on ac- 
 count of his courage about 1192 ; and also to Louis 
 VIII. of Erance, who signalised himself in the 
 crusades, and in his wars against England, about 
 1223. 
 
 COFFEE. The tree was conveyed from Mocha 
 in Arabia to Holland about 1616; and carried to 
 the "West Indies in 1726. First cultivated at Suri- 
 nam by the Dutch, 1718. The culture was encour- 
 aged in the plantations about 1732, and the British 
 and French colonies now grow coffee abundantly. 
 Its use as a beverage is traced to the Persians. It 
 came into great repute in Arabia Felix, about 1454; 
 and passed thence into Egypt and Syria, and thence 
 (in 151 1) to Constantinople, where a coffee-house 
 was opened in 1551. M. Thevenot, the traveller, 
 first brought it to France, 1662. Chambers. 
 
 Coffee brought into England by Mr. Nathaniel 
 Canopus, a Cretan, who made it his common 
 beverage at Balliol college, Oxford, 1641. An- 
 derson. 
 
 The quantity of coffee imported into these realms 
 in 1852, 54,935,510 lbs. ; in i860, 82,767,746 lbs. ; 
 in 1866, 127,044,816 lbs. ; in 1870, 179,901,864 lbs. 
 
 The first coffee-house in England was kept by a 
 Jew, named Jacobs, in Oxford .... 1650 
 
 Mr. Edwards, an English turkey merchant, brought 
 home with him Pasquet, a Greek servant, who 
 opened the first coffee-house in London, in George- 
 yard, Lombard-street 1652 
 
 Pasquet afterwards went to Holland, and opened 
 the first house in that country. Anderson. 
 
 Rainbow coffee-house, Temple-bar, represented as a 
 nuisance 1657 
 
 Coffee-houses suppressed by proclamation, 1675 ; 
 the order revoked on petition of the traders . . 1676 
 
 Licences to sell coffee abolished .... 1869 
 
 Duty on coffee reduced to i^d. the pound from 
 
 2 May, 1872 
 
 COFFERER of the Household, formerly 
 
 an officer of state, and a member of the privy council, 
 who had special charge of the other officers of the 
 household. Sir Henry Cocks was cofferer to queen 
 Elizabeth". In 1782 the office was suppressed. 
 
 COFFINS. Athenian heroes were buried in 
 coffins of cedar ; owing to its aromatic and incor- 
 ruptible qualities. Thucydides. Coffins of marble 
 and stone were used by the Romans. Alexander is 
 said to have been buried in one of gold ; and glass 
 coffins have been found in England. Gough. The 
 earliest record of wooden coffins amongst us is that 
 of the burial of king Arthur in an entire trunk of 
 oak hollowed, 542. Asser. Patent coffins were 
 invented in 1796; air-tight metallic coffins adver- 
 tised at Birmingham in 1861 . 
 
 COHORT. A division of the Eoman army 
 consisting of about 420 men, with 300 cavalry, 
 divided into centuries. It was the sixth part of a 
 legion. 
 
 COIF. The Serjeant's coif was originally an 
 iron scull-cap, worn by knights under their hel- 
 mets. The coif was introduced before 1259, and 
 was used to hide the tonsure of such renegade 
 clergymen as chose to remain advocates in the 
 secular courts, notwithstanding their prohibition 
 by canon. Blackstone. The coif was at first a thin 
 linen cover gathered together in the form of a skull 
 or helmet, the material being afterwards changed 
 into white silk, and the form eventually into the 
 black patch at the top of the forensic wig, winch 
 is now the distinguishing mark of the degree of 
 serjeant-at-law. Foss's Lives of the Judges. 
 
 COIMBRA was made the capital of Portugal 
 by Alfonso, the first king, 1 139. The only Portu- 
 guese university was transferred from Lisbon to 
 Coimbra hi 1308; finally settled in 1527. In a 
 convent here, Alfonso IV. caused Inez de Castro, at 
 first mistress and afterwards wife of his son Pedro, 
 to be cruelly murdered in 1355. 
 
 COIN. Homer speaks of brass money, 1 184 
 B.C. The invention of coin is ascribed to the 
 Lydians, whose money was of gold and silver. 
 Both were coined by Pheidon, tyrant of Argos, about 
 862 B.C. Money was corned at Pome under Servius 
 Tullius, about 573 B.C. The most ancient known 
 coins are Macedonian of the 5th century B.C. Brass 
 money only was in use at Borne previously to 269 
 b. c. (when Fabius Pictor coined silver) . Gold was 
 coined 206 B.C. Iron money was used in Sparta, 
 and iron and tin in Britain. Dufresnoy. In the 
 earlier days of Kome the heads were those of deities, 
 or of those who had received divine honours. 
 Julius Csesar first obtained permission of the senate 
 to place his portrait on the coins, and the example 
 was soon followed. The Anglo-Saxons coined 
 silver. Bev. Boger Buding's "Annals of the Coin- 
 age of Great Britain," published 1817-40. The 
 gold and silver coinage in the world is about 
 250,000,000^. silver, and 150,000,000?. gold. Times, 
 25 June, 1852 ; see Gold, Silver, Copper and Guineas, 
 and other coins under names. An international 
 conference relative to a universal system of coinage 
 met at Paris in 1867 ; and a royal commission was 
 appointed in London, Feb. 1868. 
 
 The first coinage in England was under the Romans 
 at Camalodunum, or Colchester. English coin 
 was of different shapes, as square, oblong, and 
 round, until the middle ages, when round coin 
 only was used. 
 Coin was made sterling in 1216, before which time 
 rents were mostly paid in kind, and money was 
 found only in the coffers of the barons. Stow. 
 Coinage reformed by Edward VI. . . • i547"53 
 
 Queen Elizabeth caused the base coin to be recalled 
 
 and genuine issued 1560 
 
 During the reigns of the Stuarts the coinage was 
 greatly debased by clipping, &c. A commission 
 (lord Somers, sir Isaac Newton, and John Locke) 
 was appointed by William III. to reform the 
 coinage ; an act was passed, withdrawing the de- 
 based coin from circulation, and 1,200,000?. was 
 raised by a house duty to defray the expense 1695-96 
 Broad-pieces called in, and re-coined into guineas . 1732 
 The gold-coin brought into the Mint by proclama- 
 tion, amounted to about 15.563, 593?- : tla e expense 
 of collecting, melting, and recoining it, was 
 
 754,019? I773- 6 
 
 Act for weighing gold coin passed . . 13 June, 1774 
 The coin of the realm valued at about 12,000,000?. 
 in 1711. Davenant. At 16,000,000?. in 1762. A71- 
 derson. It was 20,000,000?. in 1786. Chalmers. 
 37,000,000?. in 1800. Phillips. 
 
 New silver coinage . 1816 
 
 English and Irish money assimilated . . 1 Jan. 1826 
 The gold is 28,000,000?., and the rest of the metallic 
 
 currency is 13,000,000?. Duke of Wellington . 1830 
 Metallic currency calculated to reach 45,000,000?. . 1840 
 
COINING. 
 
 166 
 
 COLLECTS. 
 
 Estimated as approaching, in gold and silver, 
 60,000,000/. ........ 1853 
 
 Silver coined in London, value 11,108,265?. 15*'- 1816-40 
 
 Ditto, value 2,440,614/ 1837-47 
 
 Light gold called in 1842 
 
 Napier's coin-weigliiug machine at the bank of 
 
 England constructed 1844 
 
 The law respecting coinage offences consolidated . 1861 
 New Coinage act 4 April, 1870 
 
 The first gold coins on certain record, struck 42 
 
 Hen. Ill 1257 
 
 Gold florin first struck, Edw. IIL (Camden) . . 1337 
 He introduced gold 6s. pieces, and nobles of 6s. 8rf. 
 (hence the lawyer's fee), afterwards half and 
 
 quarter nobles 1344 
 
 Edw. IV. coined angels with a figure of Michael and 
 the dragon, the original of George and the dragon 1465 
 
 Sovereigns first minted 1489 
 
 Shillings first coined (Dr. Kelly) . . 1503 or 1504 
 
 Crowns and half-crowns coined 1553 
 
 Irish shillings struck 1560 
 
 Milled shilling of Elizabeth 1562 
 
 First large copper coinage, putting an end to the 
 circulation of private leaden pieces, &c. . . 1620 
 
 Modern milling introduced 1631 
 
 Halfpence and farthings 1665 
 
 Copper coined by government 1672 
 
 Guineas (value 20s.), 2-guinea and 5-guinea pieces, 1663-64 
 
 Quarter-guinea coined, 3 Geo. 1 1716 
 
 Two-penny copper pieces 1797 
 
 Gold 7s. -pieces authorised . . .29 Nov. ,, 
 Sovereigns, new coinage, St. George and dragon . 1817 
 Four-penny pieces (see Groat) coined . . . 1836 
 Three-penny pieces : 3,299,208 coined . . . . 1861 
 
 Half-farthings coined 1843 
 
 Silver florin (2s.) 1849 
 
 No crowns or half-crowns coined since . . . 1851 
 
 Bronze coinage issued 1 Dec, i860 
 
 St. George and dragon sovereigns re-issued 14 Jan. 1871 
 
 AMOUNT OF MONEY COINED. 
 
 Elizabeth £5,832,000 
 
 James I. . . 2,500,000 
 
 Charles I. 10,500,000 
 
 Cromwell 1,000,000 
 
 Charles II 7,524,100 
 
 James II 3,740,000 
 
 William III 10,511,900 
 
 Anne 2,691,626 
 
 George I. 8,725,920 
 
 George II 11,966,576 
 
 George III gold 74,501,586 
 
 George IV 41,782,815 
 
 William IV 10.827,603 
 
 [The quantity of gold that passed through the Mint, 
 since the accession of queen Elizabeth in 1558, to the 
 beginning of 1840, is 3,353,561 pounds weight, troy. 
 Of this, nearly one-half was coined in the reign of 
 George III., namely, 1,593,078 pounds weight, troy.] 
 Victoria, from 1837 to 1848, gold, 29,886,457/. ; weight, 
 
 746,452 lbs. ; silver, 2,440,614/. ; copper, 43,743/. 
 
 1848-1852, gold, silver, and copper, 19,838,377/. 
 Gold coined in 1853 (when Australian gold came in), 
 
 12,664,125/. ; in 1854, 4,354,201/. ; in 1855, 9,245,264/. ; 
 
 in 1856, 6,476,060/. 
 Coined in 1859, i>547>6o3 sovereigns, and 2,203,813 half- 
 sovereigns. 
 Value often years' (1849-50) gold coinage, 54,490,265/. 
 Coined from 1 July, 1854, to 31 Dec. i860: gold, 
 
 27,632,039/. ; silver, 2,432,116?. 
 Coined in 1861 : gold, 8,053,069/, ; silver, 209,484/. ; 
 
 bronze, 273,578/. 13s. 4c/. 
 Coined in 1862: gold, 7,836,413/.; silver, 4,035,412/.; 
 
 bronze pieces, 4,125,977,600/. 
 Coined in 1866 : gold, 5,076,676/. ; silver, 493,416/. ; 
 
 bronze, 50,372/. Total, 5,620,464/. 
 Coined in 1869 : gold, 7,372,204/. ; silver, 76,428/. ; 
 
 copper, 20,832/. Total value, 7,469,464/. 
 
 COINING:. Originally the metal was placed 
 between two steel dies, and struck by a hammer. 
 In 1553, a mill, invented by Antoine Brucher, in- 
 troduced into England, 1562. An engine invented 
 by Balancier, 161 7. Great improvements effected 
 by Boulton and Watt, at Soho, 1788. The erection 
 of the Mint machinery, London, began 181 1. 
 
 COLCHESTER (Essex), Camelodunu m , a 
 Eoman station, obtained its first charter from 
 Eichard I., 1189. Its sixteen churches and all its 
 buildings sustained great damage at the ten weeks' 
 siege, June-Aug. 1648. Two of its defenders, sir 
 George Lisle and sir Charles Lucas, were tried and 
 shot after surrendering. The baize manufacture was 
 established here, 1660. Anderson. The railway to 
 London was opened in 1843. 
 
 COLD- The extremes of heat and cold are 
 found to produce the same perceptions on the skin, 
 and when mercury is frozen at forty degrees below 
 zero, the sensation is the same as touching red-hot 
 iron. During the hard frost in 1 740, a palace of ice 
 was built at St. Petersburg. Greig. Quicksilver 
 was frozen hard at Moscow, 13 Jan. 1810. Perhaps 
 the coldest day ever known in London was 25 Dec. 
 1 796, when the thermometer was 16° below zero. On 
 3 Jan. 1854, the thermometer marked 4 below zero, 
 Fahrenheit ; on 25 Dec. i860, it fell in some places 
 to 1 8° and in others to 15 below zero ; at Torquay, 
 Devon, 20° below zero. From 23 to 30 Dec. the cold 
 was excessive. On 4 Jan. 1867, the thermometer 
 stood at 3 below zero at Hammersmith and Hornsey, 
 near London ; on 7 Jan., at 55 above ; see Frosts, 
 Ice, Congelation, Regelation. 
 
 COLDINGHAM, near Berwick, is celebrated 
 for the heroism of its nuns, who, on the attack of 
 the Danes, in order to preserve their chastity, cut 
 off their noses and lips. The Danes burnt the "whole 
 sisterhood, with the abbess Ebba, in their monas- 
 tery, 870. 
 
 COLDSTREAM GUARDS- General Monk, 
 before marching from Scotland into England to 
 restore Charles II., raised this regiment at Cold- 
 stream, at the confluence of the Leet and Tweed, 
 1660. 
 
 COLENSO CONTROVERSY, see Church 
 of England, 1862-8. 
 
 COLIN, see Kolin. 
 
 COLISEUM or Colosseum, at Eome, an 
 
 elliptical amphitheatre, of which the external dia- 
 meter is 1641 Italian feet, supposed to have been 
 able to contain 80,000 spectators of the fights with 
 wild beasts, and other sports in the arena. It was 
 erected between 75 (some say 77) and 80, by the 
 emperors Vespasian and Titus, at an expense suffi- 
 cient te have built a metropolis. Its remains are 
 very imposing. 
 
 COLLAR, a very ancient ornament. The 
 Eoman hero Titus Manlius slew a gigantic Gaul in 
 single combat, and put his torques (twisted chain or 
 collar) on his own neck, and was hence surnamed 
 Torquatus, 361 B.C. A collar is part of the ensigns 
 of the order of knighthood. That of the order of the 
 garter is described, and its wearing enjoined, in the 
 statutes of Henry VIII., 24 April, 1522 ; but a collar 
 had been previously worn. Ashmole. The collar 
 of SS. was adopted by Henry IV., and became a 
 Lancastrian badge ; some consider the letters stand 
 for " souveraigne," in reference to his claim to the 
 crown. Some writers consider SS. to be in honour 
 of St. Simplicius, a martyr. The order of the Collar 
 or Necklace (or Annonciada) was instituted by 
 Amadeus VI. of Savoy, about 1360. 
 
 COLLECTS, short prayers, very ancient, intro- 
 duced into the Eoman service by pope Gelasius, 
 about 493, and into the English liturgy in 1548. 
 The king of England coming into Normandy, ap- 
 pointed a collect for the relief of the Holy Land, 
 1 166. Rapin. 
 
COLLEGES. 
 
 167 
 
 COLONIES. 
 
 COLLEGES. University education preceded 
 the erection of colleges, which were munificent 
 foundations to relieve the students from the expense 
 of living at lodging-houses and at inn3. Collegiate 
 or academic degrees are said to have been first con- 
 ferred at the university of Paris, 1 140; but some 
 authorities say not before 121 5. In England, it is 
 contended that the date is much higher, and some 
 hold that Bede obtained a decree formally at Cam- 
 bridge, and John de Beverley at Oxford, and that they 
 were the first doctors of these universities ; see Gam- 
 bridge, Oxford, Aberdeen, Queen's Colleges, Heralds, 
 Working Men's Colleges, &c. 
 
 Founded, a.d. 
 Addiscombe Military College ... . 1809 
 
 Birmingham, Queen's College .... 1853 
 
 Cheshunt College 1792 
 
 Doctors' Commons, civil law .... 1670 
 
 Dulwich College 1619 
 
 Eton College 1441 
 
 Glasgow College, now University .... 1451 
 
 Gresham College 1581 
 
 Haleybury, or East India College . 1806 ; closed 1858 
 
 Highbury College 1826 
 
 Highgate 1564 
 
 King's College, London 1829 
 
 Maynooth College 1795 
 
 Military College, Sandhurst 1799 
 
 Naval College, Portsmouth 1722 
 
 New College, St. John's Wood 1850 
 
 Physicians, London 1523 
 
 Physicians, Dublin 1667 
 
 Physicians, Edinburgh 1681 
 
 St. Andrews, Scotland 1410 
 
 Sion College, incorporated 1630 
 
 Surgeons, London 1745 
 
 Surgeons, re-incorporated 1800 
 
 Surgeons, Dublin 1786 
 
 Surgeons, Edinburgh (new) 1803 
 
 Trinity College, Dublin 1591 
 
 University, London 1826 
 
 Winchester College 1387 
 
 COLLIEEY ACCIDENTS, see under Coal. 
 
 COLLODION, a film obtained from the solu- 
 tion of gun-cotton in ether. The iodised collodion 
 extensively employed in photography, was invented 
 by Mr. F. Scott Archer, and announced in the 
 " Chemist : " in March, 1851. On the premature 
 death of himself and wife, a pension of 50/. per an- 
 num was granted by government to his three orphan 
 children. 
 
 COLLYBIDIANS, Arab heretics who offered 
 collyrides, little cakes, to the Virgin Mary as a goddess 
 in the 4th century. 
 
 COLOGNE (Colonia Agrippind), on the Ehine, 
 the site of a colony founded by the empress Agrip- 
 pina, about 50 ; an imperial town, 957 ; a member 
 of the Hanseatic league, 1260. Many ecclesiastical 
 councils held here, 782-1536. The Jews were ex- 
 pelled from it in 1485, and the Protestants in 1618, 
 and it then fell into decay. Cologne was taken by 
 the French under Jourdan, Oct. 1794. The arch- 
 bishopric secularised, 1801 ; assigned to Prussia, 
 1814. 
 
 The cathedral (containing many supposed relies, 
 such as the heads of the magi or three kings, bones 
 of the 11,000 virgins, &c.) founded . . . 1248 
 The building, long suspended, vigorously continued 
 by the kings of Prussia .... since 1842 
 * The body of the cathedral opened in the presence of 
 the king, 600th anniversary of the foundation, 
 
 15 Aug. 1848 
 International industrial exhibition opened by the 
 
 crown prince 2 June, 1865 
 
 Dispute between the king and the chapter respect- 
 ing the electing an archbishop, settled ; the pope 
 
 appoints Melehers Jan. 1866 
 
 Congress of Old Catholics meet (which see) 20, 22 Sept. 18 72 
 
 COLOMBIA, a republic of S. America, formed 
 of states which declared their independence, Dec. 
 1819 ; civil war ensued and the union was dissolved. 
 
 Union of New Grenada and Venezuela . 17 Dec. 1819 
 The royalists defeated at Carabobo . 24 June, 1821 
 Bolivar named dictator .... 10 Feb. 1824 
 Alliance between Colombia and Mexico 30 June ,, 
 Independence of Colombia recognised . . . . 1825 
 Alliance with Guatemala .... March, 1825 
 Congress at Lima names Bolivar president, Aug. ; 
 
 dictator 23 Nov. 1826 
 
 Padilla's insurrection .... 9 April, 1828 
 Conspiracy of Santander against the life of Bolivar, 
 
 25 Sept. „ 
 Venezuela separates from Grenada . . Nov. 1829 
 Bolivar resigns, 4 April ; dies . . -17 Dec. 1830 
 
 Santander dies 26 May, 1840 
 
 The republic now named Colombia instead of New 
 
 Granada ; president, general E. Salgar . . . 1871 
 Population, 1864, 2,794,473. 
 Manuel Murillo Toro elected president for two years 
 
 1 April, 1872 
 (See New Grenada, and Venezuela.) 
 
 COLOMBO (Ceylon), fortified in 1638 by the 
 Portuguese, who were expelled by the Dutch in 
 1666; the latter surrendered it to the British, 15 
 Feb. 1796; see Ceylon, 1803, 1845. 
 
 COLON (:)• The colon and period were adopted 
 by Thrasymachus about 373 B.C. (Suidas), and 
 known to Aristotle. The colon and semicolon (;) 
 were first used in British literature in the 16th cen- 
 tury. 
 
 COLONEL (from Italian colonna, a column), 
 the highest regimental military officer. The term 
 had become common in England in the 16th century. 
 
 COLONIAL Naval Defence Act, to 
 
 enable the colonies to take effectual measures for 
 their defence against attacks by sea, was passed in 
 1865. Colonial Branch Army Act passed, 1866. 
 
 COLONIAL SOCIETY, established to pro- 
 mote the interests of the colonies, lord Bury, presi- 
 dent, held its first meeting 26 June, 1868, and first 
 annual meeting 28 June, 1869, when it assumed the 
 title " Boyal." On 7 March, 1870, it became " The 
 Royal Colonial Institute." The first volumes of its 
 " Proceedings" have been published. The forma- 
 tion of a National and Colonial League was resolved 
 on at a meeting held at Cannon-street, London, 5 
 Jan. 1870. 
 
 COLONIES- The Phoenician and Greek colo- 
 nies, frequently founded by political exiles, soon 
 became independent of the mother country. The 
 Roman colonies, on the contrary, continued in close 
 connection with Home itself ; being governed almost 
 entirely by military law. — The Colonies of Great 
 Britain partake of both these characters. The N. 
 American colonies revolted in consequence of the 
 attempt at taxation without their consent in 1764. 
 The loyal condition of the present colonies now is 
 due to the gradual relaxation of the pressure of the 
 home government. The population of the British 
 colonies in all parts of the world was estimated, in 
 1861, at 142,952,243 (of which 135,442,911 belong 
 to the East Indies) . The revenue of the colonies wa s 
 estimated in 1865 to be 51,492,000^., the expendi- 
 ture, 59,353, 0061. The act for the abolition of 
 slavery in the British colonies, and for compensation 
 to the owners of slaves (20,000,000/. sterling), was 
 passed in 1833. All the slaves throughout the 
 British colonies were emancipated on 1 Aug. 1834. 
 See Bishops (Colonial), Secretaries, and Separate 
 Articles. 
 
COLOEADO. 
 
 168 
 
 COMBAT. 
 
 Colony, or Possession. 
 African Forts 
 Anguilla . 
 Antigua 
 Ascension 
 Australia, South 
 
 Date of Settlement, <(■<■. 
 
 about 1618 
 . Settlement . about 1666 
 . Settlement . . . 1632 
 . Occupied . . . . 1815 
 . Settlement . . . 1834 
 
 Australia, W. (Swan river). Settlement . . . 1829 
 Bahama Island . . . Settlement 1629, et seq. 
 Barbadoes . . . . Settlement . . . 1605 
 Bengal .... Settlement . about 1652 
 
 Berbice Capitulation, . Sept. 1803 
 
 Bermudas .... Settlements 1609, et seff. 
 
 Bombay See India . . . 1662 
 
 British Burmah . . . See Peon . . . 1862 
 British Columbia. . . . Settlement . . . 1858 
 Canada .... Capitulation, Sept. 1759-60 
 Cape Breton . . . . Ceded .... 1763 
 Cape Coast Castle . . By cession . . . 1667 
 Cape of Good Hope . . Capitulation, . Jan. 1806 
 Ceylon .... All acquired . . . 1815 
 Demerara and Essequibo . Capitulation .Sept. 1803 
 Dominica .... Ceded by France . . 1763 
 Elmina and Dutch Guinea . By cession . Feb. 1872 
 Falkland Islands . . . See Falkland Islands . 1833 
 Gambia .... Settlement in . . 1631 
 Gibraltar . . . . Capitulation . Aug. 1704 
 Gold Coast .... Settlement . about 1618 
 
 Gozo Capitulation, . Sept. 1S00 
 
 Grenada .... Ceded by France . . 1763 
 Guiana, British . . . Capitulation . . 1803 
 Heligoland .... Capitulation . . . 1807 
 Honduras . . . . By treaty, in . . 1670 
 Hong-Kong (Victoria) . Ceded in . . . . 1841 
 
 Jamaica Capitulation . . 1655 
 
 Lagos Ceded . . . . 1861 
 
 Labuan See Borneo . . . 1846 
 
 Madras .... See India, . . . 1639 
 Malacca (under Bengal) 
 
 Malta Capitulation Sept. 1800 
 
 Mauritius .... Capitulation . Dec. 18 10 
 Montserrat . . . . Settlement, in . . 1632 
 
 Natal Settlement . . . 1823 
 
 Nevis Settlement, in . . 1628 
 
 New Brunswick . . . Settlement, ill . 1622-1713 
 Newfoundland . . . Settlement . about 1500 
 New South Wales . . Settlement, in . . 1787 
 
 Nova Scotia . . . . Settlement, in . . 1622 
 New Zealand . . . Settlement . . . 1840 
 
 Pegu Conquered . . . 1852 
 
 Port Philip . . . See Victoria. 
 
 Prince Edward's Island . Capitulated in . . 1745 
 
 Prince of Wales' Island 
 
 (Penang) . . . . Settlement, in . . 1786 
 Queensland, N. S. Wales . Settlement, in . . i860 
 
 Sierra Leone . . . Settlement, in . . 1787 
 [United with other settlements as West Africa, Feb. 1866.] 
 Singapore . . . . Purchased, in . . . 1S19 
 St. Christopher's . . Settlement, in . . 1623 
 St. Helena . . . . Capitulated, in . . 1600 
 St. Lucia .... Capitulation . June, 1803 
 St. Vincent . . . . Ceded by France . . 1763 
 Swan River. . . . See West Australia. 
 Tobago . . . . Ceded by France . . 1763 
 
 Tortola .... Settlement, in . . 1666 
 Trinidad . . . . Capitulation . Feb. 1797 
 
 Van Diemen's Land . . Settlement, in . . . 1803 
 Vancouver's Island . . Settlement, in . . 1781 
 Victoria (Port Philip) . Settlement, in. . . 1850 
 Victoria .... See Hong-Kong. 
 Virgin Isles . . . . Settlement . . . 1666 
 
 COLOEADO, a territory of the United States 
 of North America, was organised 2 March, 1861 ; 
 made a state, May, 1866; capital, Golden City. 
 
 COLOSSEUM, see Coliseum. The building in 
 Eegent's Park, London, was planned by Mr. Honior, 
 a land surveyor, and commenced in 1824, by Peto 
 and Grissell, from designs by Decimus Burton. The 
 chief portion is a polygon of 16 faces, 126 feet in 
 diameter externally : the walls are three feet thick 
 at the ground: the height to the glazed dome 112 
 feet. On the canvas walls of the dome was painted 
 the panoramic view of London, completed in 1829 
 from sketches by Mr. Honior taken from thesuimnit 
 
 of St. Paul's cathedral in 1821-2. The picture covers 
 above 46,000 square feet, more than an acre of can - 
 vas. The different parts were combined by Mr. E. 
 T. Parris, who in 1845 repainted the whole. In 
 1848 a panorama of Paris was exhibited ; succeeded, 
 in 1850, by the lake of Thorn in Switzerland; in 
 1851 the panorama of London was reproduced. Iu 
 1848 the theatre with the panorama of Lisbon was 
 added. In 1831, when Mr. Hornor failed, the esta- 
 blishment was sold for 40,000/. to Messrs. Braham 
 and Yates. In 1843 it was bought by Mr. L>. Mon- 
 tague for 23,000 guineas. Timbs. After having 
 been long closed, the building was opened to the 
 public at Christmas, 1856, at one shilling. Under 
 the charge of Dr. Bachhoffner, it continued open till 
 the spring of 1864, when it was again closed. The 
 sale of the site was announced 1870. It was announ ced 
 in Dec. 1S71, that a company was about to transform 
 the building and grounds into club-chambers, baths, 
 a winter garden, &c. 
 
 COLOSSUS OF EHODES, a brass statue of 
 Apollo, seventy cubits high, esteemed one of the 
 wonders of the world, was erected at the port of 
 Rhodes in honour of the sun, by Chares of Lindus, 
 disciple of Lysippus, 290 or 288 B.C. It was thrown 
 down by an earthquake about 224 B.C. The figure 
 is said traditionally to have stood upon two moles, 
 a leg being extended on each side of the harbour, so 
 that a vessel in full sail could enter between. The 
 statue was in ruins for nearly nine centuries, and 
 had never been repaired ; when the Saracens taking 
 Ehodes, pulled it to pieces, and sold the metal, 
 weighing 720,900 lbs., to a Jew, who is said to have 
 loaded 900 camels in transporting it to Alexandria 
 about 653. Dufresnoy. 
 
 COLOUE is to light what pitch is to sound, 
 according to the undulatory theory of Huyghens 
 (about 1678), established by Dr. T. Young, and 
 others. The shade varies according to the number 
 of vibrations. The number of millions of millions 
 of vibration sin a second attributed to the red end of 
 the spectrum is 458 ; to the violet, 727 ; see Spec- 
 trum* 
 
 COLUMBIA, a federal district round the city 
 of Washington in Maryland ; established 1800. In 
 1862, slavery was abolished in it ; see British 
 Columbia. 
 
 COLUMBIA MAEKET, Betlmal Green, E. 
 London; erected by Mr. Darbishire, architect, in 
 the pointed Gothic style, and inaugurated by Miss 
 (now lady) Burdett Coutts, the proprietor, 28 April, 
 1869. It cost her 200,000/. It was opened as a 
 wholesale fish-market, 21 Feb. 1 870, but was not 
 successful. On 3 Nov. 1871, lady Burdett Coutts 
 presented the market to the corporation of London, 
 and on 18 July, 1872, she received publicly the 
 freedom of that city. 
 
 COLUMBIUM, a metal discovered by C. 
 Hatchett, in a mineral named columbite, in 1801. 
 It is identical with niobium, and not with tantalum, 
 as supposed by some chemists. Walts. 
 
 COMBAT, SINGLE. Trial by this commenced 
 by the Lombards, 659. Baronius. It was intro- 
 duced into England for accusations of treason, if 
 neither the accuser nor the accused could produce 
 good evidence ; see High Constable, and Appeal of 
 Battle. 
 
 * Some persons (about 65 outof iiS4)cannot distinguish 
 between colours, and are termed Colour blind. 1111859, 
 professor J. Clerk Maxwell invented spectacles to remedy 
 this defect, which is also called " Daltonism," after John 
 Dalton, the chemist, to whom scarlet appeared drab- 
 coloured. 
 
COMBINATION. 
 
 169 
 
 COMMANDER -IN -CHIEF. 
 
 A battle by single combat was fought before the king, 
 William II., and the peers, between Geoffrey Bay- 
 nard and William earl of En, who was accused by 
 Baynard of high treason ; and Baynard having con- 
 quered, Eu was deemed convicted, and blinded and 
 mutilated, 1096. 
 
 A combat proposed between Henry of Bolingbroke, duke 
 of Hereford (afterwards Henry IV.), and Thomas, duke 
 of Norfolk, was forbidden by Richard II. Sept. 1398. 
 
 A trial was appointed between the prior of Kilmainham 
 and the earl of Ormond, the former having impeached 
 the latter of high treason ; but the quarrel having been 
 taken up by the king, was decided without fighting, 
 1446. 
 
 A combat was proposed between lord Keay and David 
 Ramsay, in 1631, but the king prevented it. 
 
 In a combat in Dublin castle, before the lords justices 
 and council, between Connor MacCormack O'Connor 
 and Teig Mac-Gilpatrick O'Connor, the former had his 
 head cut off, and presented to the lords, 1553. 
 
 COMBINATION. Laws, were enacted from 
 the time of Edward I. downwards, regulating the 
 price of labour and the relations between masters 
 and workmen, and prohibiting the latter from corn- 
 lining for their own protection. All these laws were 
 repealed, 6 Geo. IV. c. 129, in 1825, due protection 
 being given to both parties. The act was amended 
 in 1859 by 22 Vict. c. 34, when the subject was much 
 discussed, in consequence of the strike in the build- 
 ing trades, see Sheffield and Strikes. 
 
 COMBS, found in Pompeii; Combmakers' com- 
 pany incorporated, 1636 or 1650. 
 
 COMBUSTION, see Spontaneous. 
 
 COMEDY. Thalia is the muse of comedy and 
 lyric poetry. Susarion and Dolon, the inventors of 
 theatrical exhibitions, 562 B.C., performed the first 
 comedy at Athens, on a waggon or moveable stage, 
 on four wheels, for which they were rewarded with 
 a basket of figs. and a cask of wine ; see A.rundelian 
 Marbles, and Drama. 
 Comedy degenerated into libel prohibited at Athens, 440 
 
 B.C. 
 
 Aristophanes called the prince of ancient comedy, 434 
 B.C., and Menander that of the new, 320 B.C. 
 
 Of Plautus, 20 comedies are extant ; he flourished 220 B.C. 
 
 Statius Ctecilius wrote upwards of 30 comedies ; flourished 
 at Rome 180 b.c. 
 
 Comedies of Leelius and Terence first acted 154 b.c. 
 
 First regular comedy performed in England about a.d. 
 
 1551- 
 It was said of Sheridan that he wrote the best comedy 
 (the School for Scandal), the best opera (the Duenna), 
 and the best afterpiece (the Critic), in the English lan- 
 guage (1775-1779) 
 
 COMETS (Greek come, a hair). It is recorded 
 that more than 600 have been seen. Mr. Hind, in 
 his little work on comets, gives a chronological list. 
 The first discovered and described accurately was by 
 Nicephorus, 1337. There are said to be 17,500,000 
 in the solar system. 
 
 At the birth of the great Mithridates two large comets 
 appeared, which were seen for seventy-two days to- 
 gether, whose splendour eclipsed that of the mid-day 
 sun, and occupied the fourth part of the heavens, about 
 135 b.c. Justin. 
 
 A grand comet seen, 1264. Its tad is said to have ex- 
 tended 100?. It is considered to have reappeared in 
 1556, with diminished splendour ; and was expected to 
 appear again about Aug. 1858 or Aug. i860. Hind. 
 
 A remarkable one seen in England, June, 1337. Stow. 
 
 Tycho Brahe demonstrated that comets are extraneous 
 to our atmosphere, about 1577. 
 
 A comet which terrified the people from its near apj>roaeh 
 to the earth was visible from 3 Nov. 1679 to 9 March, 
 1680. It enabled Newton to demonstrate that comets, 
 as well as planets, are subject to the law of gravitation, 
 and most probably move in elliptic orbits, 1704. 
 
 A most brilliant comet appeared in 1769, which passed 
 within two miUions of miles of the earth. Tins beauti- 
 
 ful comet, moving with immense swiftness, was seen. 
 in London ; its tail stretched across the heavens like 
 a prodigious luminous arch, 36,000,000 miles in length. 
 
 The computed length of that which appeared in 1811, and 
 which was so remarkably conspicuous, was, on 15. 
 Oct. according to the late Dr. Herschel, upwards of 
 100,000,000 miles, aud its apparent greatest breadth, at 
 the same time, 15,000,000 miles. It was visible aU the 
 autumn to the naked eye. Philos. Trans. Royal Soc. 
 for 1812. 
 
 Another comet, Dec. 1823. 
 
 Halley's Comet, 1682. Named after one of the greatest 
 astronomers of England. He first proved that many 
 of the appearances of comets were but the periodical, 
 returns of the same bodies, and he demonstrated that 
 the comet of 1682 was the same with the comet of 1456,. 
 1531, and 1607, deducing this fact from a minute obser- 
 vation of the first-mentioned comet, and being struck 
 by its wonderful resemblance to the comets described 
 as having appeared in those years : Halley, theretore,. 
 first fixed the identity of comets, and predicted then- 
 periodical returns. Vince's Astronomy. The revolution 
 of Halley's comet is performed in about 75 years ;_it 
 appeared (as he had rjredicted) in 1759, and came to its 
 perihelion on March 13 ; its last appearance was 1S35 ;. 
 its next wiU be 1910. 
 
 Encke's Comet. First discovered by M. Pons, 26 Nov. 
 1818, but justly named by astronomers after professor 
 Encke, for his success in detecting its orbit, motions,, 
 and perturbations ; it is, like the preceding, one of the- 
 three comets which have appeared according to predic- 
 tion, and its revolutions are made in 3 years and 15 
 weeks. Thirteenth return observed at Copenhagen by 
 M. d' Arrest, 20 July, 1863 ; observed in England, 14 
 Oct. 1871. 
 
 Biela's Comet has been an object of fear to many on. 
 account of the nearness with which it has approached, 
 not the earth, but a point of the earth's path ; it was 
 first discovered by M. Biela, an Austrian officer, 28 Feb. 
 1826. It is one of the three comets whose re-appear- 
 ance was predicted, its revolution being performed in 
 6 years and 38 weeks. Its second appearance was in 
 1832, when the time of its perihelion passage was 27 
 Nov. ; its third was in 1839 : its fourth in 184s ; and 
 its fifth in 1852 ; it has since vanished. 
 
 Donati's Comet, so called from its having been first ob- 
 served by Dr. Donati, of Florence, 2 June, 1858, being 
 then calculated to be 228,000,000 miles from our earth- 
 It was very brilliant in England in the end of September 
 and October following, when the tail was said to be 
 40,000,000 miles long. On the 10th of October it was 
 nearest to the earth ; on the 18th it was near coming 
 into collision with Venus. Opinions varied as to this 
 comet's bridianey compared with that of 1811. 
 
 The Great Comet of 1861 was first seen by Mr. Tebbutt 
 at Sydney, in Australia, 13 May ; by M. Goldschmidt 
 and others in France and England on 29, 30 June. The 
 nucleus was about 400 miles in diameter, with a long 
 bush-like tail, travelling at the rate of 10,000,000 miles 
 in 24 hours. On 30 June, it was suggested that we 
 were in the tail — there being " a phosphorescent auroral! 
 glare." 
 
 A tailless comet was discovered in the constellation Cas- 
 siopceia, by M. Seeling, at Athens, on 2 July, and by 
 M. Tempel, at Marsedles, 2 and 3 July, 1862. 
 
 A comet detected at Harvard by Mr. Turtle, 18 July, and 
 by Rosa, at Rome, on 25 July, 1862. It was visible by 
 the naked eye in August and September. 
 
 Six telescopic comets were observed in 1863, and several 
 in 1864. 
 
 A fine comet appeared in the southern hemisphere, and 
 was visible in South America and Australia, in Jan.- 
 Feb. 1865. 
 
 M. Babinet considered that comets had so little density 
 that the earth might pass through the tail of one with- 
 out our being aware of it, 4 May, 1857. 
 
 Sehiaparelli, of Milan, discovered that the August meteors, 
 move round the sun in an orbit almost identical with 
 the second comet of 1862-1866. 
 
 One discovered at Carlsruhe by Dr. Winnecke, 13 June,. 
 1868. 
 
 COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF, an office in the 
 British army frequently vacant. When the duke- 
 of Wellington resigned the office, on becoming prime 
 minister, in 1828, his successor, lord Hill, became 
 
COMMEND AM. 
 
 170 
 
 COMMON PLEAS. 
 
 commander of the forces, or general commanding- 
 in-chief. 
 
 CAPTAINS-GENERAL. 
 
 Duke of Albemarle 1660 
 
 Duke of Monmouth 1678 
 
 Duke of Marlborough 1690 
 
 Schomberg, duke of Leinster 1691 
 
 DukeofOrmond 1711 
 
 Duke of Marlborough, again 1714 
 
 Duke of Cumberland 1744 
 
 Duke of York 1799 
 
 COMMANDERS-IN-CHIEF. 
 
 Duke of Monmouth 1674 
 
 Duke of Marlborough 1690 
 
 Duke of Schomberg . 1691 
 
 DukeofOrmond . 1711 
 
 Earl of Stair 1744 
 
 Field-Marshal Wade 1745 
 
 Lord Ligonier 1757 
 
 Marquis of Granby 1766 
 
 Lord Amherst, general on the staff .... 1778 
 
 Gen. Seymour Conway 1782 
 
 Lord Amherst, again 1793 
 
 Frederick, duke of York .... n Feb. 1795 
 
 Sir David Dundas .... 25 March, 1809 
 
 Frederick, duke of York, again . . 29 May, 1811 
 
 Duke of Wellington . . .22 Jan. & 27 Aug. 1827 
 
 Lord Hill, general eonimanding-in-ehief 25 Feb. 1828 
 
 Duke of Wellington, again . . . .15 Aug. 1842 
 Viscount Hardinge (uied 24 Sept. 1856), general 
 
 commanding-in-chief 28 Sept. 1852 
 
 Duke of Cambridge, ditto .... 15 July, 1856 
 
 COMMEND AM, " a benefice or church 
 living, which being void, is commended to the 
 charge of some sufficient clerk, to be supplied until 
 it may be conveniently supplied with a pastor." 
 Mount. By 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 77 (1836), future 
 bishops were pi-ohibited from holding in commendam 
 the livings they held when consecrated. 
 
 COMMEECE early flourished in Arabia, 
 Egypt, and among the Phoenicians, see the descrip- 
 tion of Tyre, 588 B.C., Ezek. xxvii. In later times 
 it was spread over Europe by a confederacy of 
 maritime cities, 1241 (see Manse Toivns) ; by the 
 discoveries of Columbus ; and by the enterprises of 
 the Dutch and Portuguese; see Exports, Im- 
 ports, and the various articles connected with this 
 ■subject through the volume. 
 
 The first treaty of commerce made by England with 
 any foreign nation was entered into with the 
 Flemings, 1 Edw. I. 1272. The second was with 
 Portugal and Spain, 2 Edw. II. 1308. Anderson ; 
 see Treatises. Hertslett's Collection, in 12 vols. 
 8vo, published 1827-59, nas a copious index. 
 An important commercial treaty was concluded with 
 
 France (see French Treaty) i860 
 
 Chambers of Commerce originated at Marseilles in 
 the 14th century, and similar chambers were 
 instituted in all the chief cities in France, about 1700 
 These chambers suppressed in 1791 ; restored by 
 
 decrees 3 Sept. 1851 
 
 The chamber of commerce at Glasgow was estab- 
 lished 1783 ; at Edinburgh, 1785 ; Manchester, 
 
 1820; Hull 1837 
 
 Twenty-seven of these chambers of commerce (not 
 including Liverpool, Manchester, and Glasgow) 
 met at Westminster for interchange of opinions 
 ou various questions . . . .21 Feb. 1865 
 Annual meetings held since ; 46 met . 18 Feb. 1873 
 
 COMMISSION, see High Commission, Court of. 
 
 . COMMISSIONAIRES, street messengers 
 in Paris. Those in London were originally pen- 
 sioned soldiers wounded either in the Crimea or 
 India, first employed in the west-end. They were 
 appointed by a society, founded in Feb. 1859 by 
 capt. Edward Walter, which is now under the 
 patronage of the queen and the commander-in- 
 chief. The charges are regulated by a tariff. In 
 Jan. 1861 the society commenced the gratuitous 
 issue of a Monthly Advertising Circular. In March, 
 
 1864, there were 250 commissionnaires in London ; 
 in Nov. 1866, about 340 ; in June, 1868, 377 ; in 
 Oct. 1872, ;500. In 17 June, 1865, capt. Walter 
 resigned the superintendence, and a permanent 
 system of administration was formed. In 1865 
 commissionnaires were first engaged as private 
 night-watchmen. 
 
 COMMON COUNCIL of London. Its 
 
 organisation began about 1208. The charter of 
 Henry I. mentions the folk-mote, a Saxon appella- 
 tion for a court or assembly of the people. The 
 general place of meeting of the folk-mote was in 
 the open air at St. Paul's-cross, St. Paul's church- 
 yard. It was not discontinued till after Henry III.'s 
 reign; when certain representatives were chosen 
 out of each ward, who, being added to the lord 
 mayor and aldermen, constituted the court of com- 
 mon council. At first only two were returned for 
 each ward; but the number was enlarged in 1347, 
 and since. This council, which meets every Thurs- 
 day, is elected annually 21 Dec, St. Thomas' s-day. 
 A Common Sail is held occasionally. The common 
 council supported the prince of Orange in 1688, and 
 queen Caroline in 1820. 
 
 COMMON LAW of England, an ancient 
 
 collection of unwritten maxims and customs {leges 
 nonscriptee), of British, Saxon, and Danish origin, 
 which has subsisted immemorially in this kingdom; 
 and although somewhat impaired by the rude shock 
 of the Norman conquest, has weathered the violence 
 of the times. At the parliament of Merton, 1236, 
 " all the earls and barons," says the parliament 
 roll, "with one voice answered, that they would 
 not change the laws of England, which have 
 hitherto been used and approved ;" eminently the 
 law of the land ; see Bastard. The process, prac- 
 tice, and mode of pleading in the superior courts of 
 common law, were amended in 1852 and 1854. 
 
 COMMON PLEAS, Court of, in Eng- 
 land, 'in ancient times followed the king's person, 
 and is distinct from that of the Eing's Bench ; but 
 on the confirmation of Magna Charta by king 
 John, in 1215, it was fixed at Westminster, where 
 it still continues. In 1833 the mode of procedure 
 in all the superior courts was made uniform. In 
 England, no barrister under the degree of Serjeant 
 could plead in the court of common pleas ; but in 
 1846 the privilege was extended to barristers prac- 
 tising in the superior courts at Westminster. 
 chieb justices. {England.) 
 
 1558. Sir Anthony Browne. 
 
 1559. Sir James Dyer. 
 
 1582. Sir Edmund Anderson. 
 
 1605. Sir Francis Gawdy. 
 
 1606. Sir Edward Coke. 
 1613. Sir Henry Hobart. 
 1626. Sir Thomas Richardson. 
 1631. Sir Robert Heath. 
 1634. Sir John Finch. 
 
 1639. Sir Edward Lyttleton. 
 
 1640. Sir John Bankes. 
 1648. Oliver St. John. 
 
 1660. Sir Orlando Bridgman, afterwards lord keeper. 
 1668. Sir John Vaughan. 
 
 1675. Sir Francis North, afterwards lord keeper Guildford. 
 1683. Sir Francis Pemberton. 
 ,, Sir Thomas Jones. 
 
 1686. Sir Henry Bedingfield. 
 
 1687. Sir Robert Wright. 
 ,, Sir Edward Herbert. 
 
 1689. Sir Henry Pollexfen. 
 
 1692. Sir George Treby. 
 
 1701. Sir Thomas Trevor, afterwards lord Trevor. 
 
 1714. Sir Peter King, afterwards lord chancellor King. 
 
 1725. Sir Robert Eyre. 
 
 1736. Sir Thomas Reeve. 
 
 1737. Sir John Willes. 
 
COMMON PRAYER. 
 
 171 
 
 COMMONS, HOUSE OP. 
 
 1761. Sir Charles Pratt, afterwards lord chancllr. Camden. 
 1766. Sir John Eardley Wilmot. 
 
 1771. Sir William de Grey, afterwards lord Walsingham. 
 1780. Alexander Wedderburne, afterwards lord chancel- 
 lor Loughborough. 
 1793. Sir James Eyre. 
 
 1799. Sir John Scott, afterwards lord chancellor Eldon. 
 1801. Sir Richard Pepper Arden (lord Alvanley) 22 Mas'. 
 1804. Sir James Mansfield, 21 April. 
 
 1814. Sir Vicary Gibbs, 24 Feb. 
 
 1818. Sir Robert Dallas, 5 Nov. 
 
 1824. Sir Robert Gifford, 9 Jan. ; (lord Gifford) ; after- 
 wards master of the Rolls. 
 „ Sir William Draper Best, afterwards lord Wynford, 
 15 April. 
 
 1829. Sir Nicolas C. Tindal, 9 June ; died July, 1846. 
 1846. Sir Thomas Wilde, 11 July ; afterwards lord chan- 
 cellor Truro. 
 
 1850. Sir John Jervis, 16 July ; died 1 Nov. 1856. 
 1856. Sir Alex. Cockburn, Nov. ; ch. j. Q. B. June, 1859. 
 1859. Sir William Erie, June ; retired Nov. 1866. 
 1866. Sir William Bovill, 29 Nov. 
 
 chief justices. {Ireland). 
 169 1. Richard Pyne, 5 Jan. 
 1695. Sir John Hely, 10 May. 
 1701. Sir Richard Cox, 4 May. 
 1703. Robert Doyne, 27 Dec. 
 1714. John Forster, 30 Sept. 
 1720. Sir Richard Levinge, 13 Oct. 
 1724. Thomas Wyndham, 27 Oct. 
 
 1726. William Whitshed, 23 Jan. 
 
 1727. James Reynolds, 8 Nov. 
 1740. Henry Singleton, 11 May. 
 1754. Sir William Yorke, 4 Sept. 
 1761. William Aston, 5 May. 
 1765. Richard Clayton, 21 Feb. 
 1770. Marcus Patterson, 18 June. 
 
 1787. Hugh Carleton, afterwards viscount Carleton, 
 30 April. 
 
 1800. John Toler, afterwards lord Norbury, 22 Oct. 
 1827. Lord Plunket, 18 June. 
 
 1830. John Doherty, 23 Dec. 
 
 1850. James Henry Monahan, 23 Sept. 
 
 COMMON PRAYER, Book OF, was ordered 
 by parliament to be printed in tbe English language 
 on 1 April, 1548. It was voted out of doors by parlia- 
 ment, and tne Directory {which see) set up in its 
 room in 1644, and a proclamation was issued against 
 
 Old House. 
 
 England. Members. 
 
 202 Cities or boroughs . . 403 
 
 40 Counties . . . .82 
 
 2 Universities .... 4 
 
 it in 1647. "With a few changes the English Com- 
 mon Prayer-book is used by the episcopal churches 
 in Scotland and North America. 
 
 The King's Primer published 1545 
 
 First book of Edward VI. printed . 7 March, 1549 
 
 Second book of Edward VI 1552 
 
 First book of Elizabeth {revised) .... 1559 
 
 King James's book . ditto 1604 
 
 Scotch book of Charles 1 1637 
 
 Charles II. 's book {Savoy Conference) now in use . 1662 
 The State services (which had never formed part of the 
 Prayer-book, but were annexed to it at the beginning of 
 every reign) for 5 November (Gunpowder treason), 30 
 Jan. (Charles I.'s execution), and 29 May (Charles II. 's re- 
 storation), were ordered to be discontinued; 17 Jan. 1859. 
 Changes in the Lectionary or calendar of lessons 
 were recommended in the third report of the 
 Ritual Commission, 12 Jan. 1870. A bill for 
 sanctioning these changes passed the house of 
 lords, but was dropped in the house of commons 
 through want of time, Aug., passed . 13 July, 1871 
 [The old tables may be used, till 1 Jan. 1879.] 
 The fourth report of the Ritual Commission dis- 
 closed great difference of opinion amongst the 
 
 commissioners Aug. 1870 
 
 Shortened services and other changes were autho- 
 rized by the New Uniformity Act, passed 18 July, 1872, 
 
 COMMONS, HOUSE OF, originated with 
 Simon ue Montfort, earl of Leicester, who by the 
 Provisions of Oxford ordered returns to be made of 
 two knights from every shire, and deputies from 
 certain boroughs, to meet such of the barons and 
 clergy as were his friends, with a view thereby to 
 strengthen his own power in opposition to that of 
 his sovereign Henry III., 1258. Stow; see Parlia- 
 ment. In 1859 Mr. Newmarch estimated the con- 
 stituency of England and Wales at 934,000. It was 
 largely increased by the reform act of 1867 : — Kegis- 
 tered parliamentary electors, 1872 : England and 
 Wales, boroughs, 1,250,019; counties, 801,109, 
 Scotland, borougbs, 49,025 ; counties, 79,919. Ire- 
 land, boroughs, 171,912 ; counties, 175,439. Total, 
 2,526,423. The following is the past and present 
 constitution : — 
 
 489 
 
 WALES. 
 
 12 Cities or boroughs 
 12 Counties 
 
 SCOTLAND. 
 
 15 Cities or boroughs 
 33 Counties . 
 
 48 
 
 IRELAND. 
 
 33 Cities or boroughs 
 32 Counties 
 1 University . 
 
 382 
 
 100 
 
 658 
 
 By the Reform Act of 1832.* 
 England. Members. 
 
 187 Cities or boroughs . . . 323 
 40 Counties .... 144 
 
 1 Isle of Wight .... 1 
 
 2 Universities ... 4 
 
 230 
 
 WALES. 
 
 14 Cities or boroughs 
 12 Counties 
 
 SCOTLAND. 
 
 21 Cities or boroughs . 
 33 Counties 
 
 54 
 
 IRELAND. 
 
 33 Cities or boroughs . 
 32 Counties 
 1 University 
 
 66 
 
 376 
 
 472 
 
 105 
 Total 658 
 
 By the Acts 0/1867 an d l8 68- 
 England. Members. 
 
 186 Cities or boroughs f . - 286 
 
 40 Counties 171 
 
 1 Isle of Wight ... z 
 3 Universities . . . . "5 
 
 230 
 
 WALES. 
 
 14 Cities or boroughs 
 12 Counties 
 
 26 
 
 SCOTLAND. 
 
 22 Cities or boroughs 
 33 Counties 
 4 Universities 
 
 59 
 
 IRELAND. 
 
 33 Cities or boroughs t 
 32 Counties 
 1 University 
 
 66 
 
 463 
 
 * In 1844 Sudbury, and in 1852 St. Alban's, were dis- 
 franchised for bribery and corruption ; each having 
 previously returned two members ; the aggegate number 
 of the house then became 654. In 1861, the forfeited 
 seats were thus distributed by act of parliament — two 
 additional to the west riding of York, one additional to 
 
 South Lancashire, and one to a newly-created borough, 
 Birkenhead. 
 
 t Disfranchised and replaced, 1867 : Lancaster, Yar- 
 mouth, Totnes, and Reigate. — Disfranchised, 1870 : Be- 
 verley and Bridgwater, each two members ; Cashel and 
 Sligo, each one member : present house, 652 members, 1873. 
 
COMMONS. 
 
 172 
 
 COMPASS. 
 
 COMMONS. In 1685, of the 37,000,000 acres 
 of land in England, about 18,000,000 were moor- 
 land, forest, and fen. In 1727, about 3,000,000 
 acres more had been brought into cultivation ; and 
 from that time to 1844, by means of 4000 private 
 acts of parliament, about 7,000,000 acres more 
 were enclosed. Since the Inclosure Act of 1845, 
 which established commissioners, another 1,000,000 
 acres have been enclosed. 
 
 Act for the improvement, protection, and manage- 
 ment of commons near the metropolis, passed 
 
 Aug. 1866 
 The Commons Preservation Society elected Wm. 
 
 Cowper, president Feb. 1867 
 
 " Six Essays on Commons Preservation," were pub- 
 lished ,, 
 
 COMMONWEALTH of ENGLAND the 
 term applied to the interregnum between the death 
 of Charles I. and the restoration of Charles II. A 
 republic was established at the execution of 
 Charles I., 30 Jan. 1649, — a new oath called the 
 "Engagement" was framed, which the people 
 were obliged to take.* Salmon. Oliver Cromwell 
 was made protector, 16 Dec. 1653 ; succeeded by his 
 son Kichard, 3 Sept. 1658. Monarchy was restored, 
 and Charles II. entered London, 29 May, 1660. 
 
 COMMUNALISTS, or Communists, pro- 
 pose to divide France into about a thousand small 
 thoroughly independent states, with councils elected 
 by all the population, Paris to be the ruling head. 
 They declare that capital and its holders must be 
 adapted to nobler uses, or cease to exist. Their 
 creed is stated to be atheism and materialism. 
 They are intimately connected with the Interna- 
 tional Society of workmen (see Workmen), and 
 with the communists or socialists (1871-3). 
 
 COMMUNES, in France, are territorial divi- 
 sions under a mayor. In the nth century the 
 name was given to combinations of citizens, favoured 
 by the crown, against the exactions of the nobles. 
 In 1356 Stephen Marcel, during the English inva- 
 sion, vainly endeavoured to establish a confederation 
 of sovereign cities, having Paris as the governing 
 head; and for six months it was really governed by 
 a commune in 1588. After the insurrection of July, 
 1 789, the revolutionary committee which replaced the 
 city council took the name of '' commune of Paris," 
 Pethion being mayor. It met at the Hotel de 
 Ville, and was definitively constituted, 21 May, 
 1 791. It had great power under Robespierre, and 
 fell with him 17 July, 1794; being replaced by- 
 twelve municipalities. The commune of Paris was 
 proclaimed 28 March, 187 1, during the insurrection, 
 which began 18 March, and ended with the capture 
 of the city by the government troops, 28 May follow- 
 ing. For the events of the communal rule in Paris, 
 see France, 1871. 
 
 COMMUNION, a name given to the ordinance 
 of the Lord's supper, I Cor. x. 16. Communicating 
 under the form of bread alone is said to have had 
 its rise in the west, under pope Urban II., 1096. The 
 cup was first denied to the laity by the council of 
 Constance, 1414-18. The fourth Lateran council, 
 12 15, decreed that every believer should receive the 
 communion at least at Easter. The communion ser- 
 vice of the church of England was set forth in 1 =549. 
 
 * By this oath they swore to be true and faithful to 
 the Commonwealth, without king or house of lords. 
 The statues of Charles were next day demolished, par- 
 ticularly that at the Royal Exchange, and one at the 
 west end of St. Paul's ; and in their room the following 
 inscription was conspicuously set up : — "Exit Tyra/nnus 
 Jtegwm ultimus, Anno Liberhtiis Anglice Eestitutas Pvvmo, 
 Anno Dom., 1648, Jan. 30." 
 
 COMOE.N, see Komom. 
 
 COMPANIES, t Among the earliest com- 
 mercial companies in England may be named the 
 Steel-yard society, established 1232. The second 
 company was the merchants of St. Thomas a Becket, 
 in 1248. Stow. The third was the Merchant Adven- 
 turers, incorporated by Elizabeth, 1564. The fol- 
 lowing are the city companies of London; the first 
 twelve are the chief, and are styled "the Honour- 
 able." Several companies are extinct, and many 
 dates are doubtful. In 1869 the gross income of the 
 endowed charities of the city companies was stated 
 to be above 99,000/. : — 
 
 I. 
 
 Mercers 
 
 1393 
 
 46. 
 
 Plasterers . . 
 
 1500 
 
 2. 
 
 Grocers . . . 
 
 1345 
 
 47- 
 
 Stationers . 
 
 1556 
 
 3- 
 
 Drapers 
 
 1439 
 
 48. 
 
 Broderers . . 
 
 I59 1 
 
 4- 
 
 Fishmongers (salt, 
 
 
 49. 
 
 Upholders . 
 
 1627 
 
 
 I433;stock,i5o9) 
 
 
 50. 
 
 Musicians . . 
 
 1604 
 
 
 united . . . 
 
 1536 
 
 Si- 
 
 Turners 
 
 „ 
 
 5- 
 
 Goldsmiths . 
 
 i.3 2 7 
 
 52- 
 
 Basket-makers . 
 
 * * 
 
 6. 
 
 Skinners . . . 
 
 
 53- 
 
 Glaziers 
 
 1637 
 
 7- 
 
 Merchant Taylors. 
 
 1416 
 
 54- 
 
 Homers . . . 
 
 1638 
 
 8. 
 
 Haberdashers 
 
 1447 
 
 55- 
 
 Farriers 
 
 1673 
 
 9- 
 
 Salters . . . 
 
 1558 
 
 50. 
 
 Paviors . . . 
 
 * * 
 
 10. 
 
 Ironmongers 
 
 1462 
 
 57- 
 
 Loriners 
 
 1488 
 
 11. 
 
 Vintners . . . 
 
 1436 
 
 5 3. 
 
 Apothecaries . . 
 
 1617 
 
 12. 
 
 Cloth-workers 
 
 1482 
 
 Sa- 
 
 Shipwrights 
 
 1610 
 
 
 
 
 
 go. 
 
 Spectacle-makers. 
 
 1630 
 
 13- 
 
 Dyers . . . 
 
 1469 
 
 61. 
 
 Clock-makers 
 
 1632 
 
 14. 
 
 Brewers 
 
 1438 
 
 62. 
 
 Glovers . . . 
 
 1556 
 
 1 5- 
 
 Leather-sellers 
 
 1442 
 
 63- 
 
 Comb-makers 
 
 1650 
 
 16. 
 
 Pewterers . . 
 
 1474 
 
 64. 
 
 Felt-makers . . 
 
 1604 
 
 x 7- 
 
 Barber-Surgeons . 
 
 1308 
 
 65- 
 
 Framework knit- 
 
 
 18. 
 
 Cutlers . . . 
 
 1417 
 
 
 ters . 
 
 1664 
 
 19. 
 
 Bakers . 
 
 !3°7 
 
 66. 
 
 Silk-throwsters . 
 
 1629 
 
 20. 
 
 Wax-chandlers . 
 
 1484 
 
 67. 
 
 Silk-men 
 
 1608 
 
 21. 
 
 Tallow-chandlers . 
 
 1463 
 
 63. 
 
 Pin-makers . . 
 
 1636 
 
 22. 
 
 Armourers and 
 
 
 69. 
 
 Needle-makers 
 
 1656 
 
 
 Braziers . . 
 
 
 70. 
 
 Gardeners . . 
 
 1616 
 
 23- 
 
 Girdlers 
 
 1448 
 
 7i- 
 
 Soap-makers 
 
 1638 
 
 24. 
 
 Butchers . . . 
 
 i6o"4 
 
 72. 
 
 Tinplate-workers . 
 
 1670 
 
 -5- 
 
 Saddlers 
 
 1280 
 
 73- 
 
 Wheelwrights 
 
 1670 
 
 ■26. 
 
 Carpenters . . 
 
 1344 
 
 74- 
 
 Distillers . . . 
 
 * * 
 
 27. 
 
 Cordwainers 
 
 1410 
 
 75- 
 
 Hatband-makers . 
 
 1638 
 
 28. 
 
 Painter-stainers . 
 
 1580 
 
 76. 
 
 Patten-makers 
 
 1670 
 
 29. 
 
 Curriers 
 
 1605 
 
 77- 
 
 Glass-sellers . . 
 
 1664 
 
 30. 
 
 Masons . . . 
 
 1677 
 
 78. 
 
 Tobacco - pipe 
 
 
 3i- 
 
 Plumbers 
 
 1611 
 
 
 makers 
 
 1663 
 
 32. 
 
 Inn-holders . . 
 
 1515 
 
 79- 
 
 Coach and Har- 
 
 
 33- 
 
 Founders 
 
 1614 
 
 
 ness makers 
 
 1677 
 
 34- 
 
 Poulterers . . 
 
 1503 
 
 80. 
 
 Gunmakers . . 
 
 1638 
 
 35- 
 
 Cooks . 
 
 1481 
 
 Si. 
 
 Gold and Silver 
 
 
 36- 
 
 Coopers . . . 
 
 1501 
 
 
 wire-drawers . 
 
 1623 
 
 37- 
 
 Tilers and brick- 
 
 
 82. 
 
 Bowstring-makers 
 
 
 
 layers 
 
 1568 
 
 S3- 
 
 Card-makers 
 
 1629. 
 
 38- 
 
 Bowyers . . . 
 
 1620 
 
 84. 
 
 Fan-makers . . 
 
 1709 
 
 39- 
 
 Fletchers 
 
 1536 
 
 35- 
 
 Wood-mongers 
 
 * * 
 
 40. 
 
 Blacksmiths . . 
 
 1577 
 
 36. 
 
 Starch-makers 
 
 1632 
 
 41. 
 
 Joiners . 
 
 1564 
 
 87. 
 
 Fishermen . . 
 
 1687 
 
 42. 
 
 Weavers . . . 
 
 1164 
 
 S3. 
 
 Parish clerks 
 
 1232 
 
 43- 
 
 Woolmen 
 
 * * 
 
 89. 
 
 Carmen . . . 
 
 * * 
 
 44- 
 
 Scriveners . . 
 
 1616 
 
 90. 
 
 Porters 
 
 * 
 
 45- 
 
 Fruiterers . 
 
 1604 
 
 91. 
 
 Watermen . . 
 
 IS56 
 
 COMPANIES' ACT, passed 1862, was 
 amended and continued, 20 Aug. 1867. 
 
 COMPASS, MAPINEE'S, said to have 
 been early known to the Chinese, 11 15 B.C., and 
 brought to Europe by Marco Polo, a Venetian, 
 1260. Flavio Gioja, of Amain, a navigator, of 
 
 t Babble companies have been formed, commonly by 
 designing persons. Law's bubble, in 1720-1, was per- 
 haps the most extraordinary of its kind, and the South 
 Sea Bubble, in the same year, was scarcely less memor- 
 able for its ruin of thousands of families. Many com- 
 panies were established in these countries in 1824 and 
 1825, and turned out to be bubbles. Immense losses 
 were incurred by individuals, and the families of thou- 
 sands of speculators were totally ruined. Many railway 
 enterprises (1844-5) were termed bubbles. See Laws 
 Bubble; South Sea ; Railways; Joint-Stock Companies. 
 
COMPETITIVE EXAMINATIONS. 173 
 
 CONCOEDAT. 
 
 Naples,* is said to have introduced the suspension 
 of the needle, 1302. The compass is also said to 
 have been known to the Swedes in the time of 
 king Jarl Birger, 1 250. Its variation was discovered 
 first by Columbus, 1492 ; afterwards by Sebastian 
 Cabot, 1540. The compass box and hanging com- 
 pass used by navigators were invented by William 
 Barlowe, an English divine and natural philosopher, 
 in 1608 ; see Magnetism. The measuring compass 
 was invented by Jost Bing, of Hesse, in 1602. 
 
 COMPETITIVE EXAMINATIONS, see 
 
 Civil Service. 
 
 COMPIEGNE, a French city north of Paris, 
 the residence of the Carlovingian kings. During 
 the siege, Joan of Arc was captured by the Bur- 
 gundians, 25 May, 1430, and given up to the English 
 for money. The emperor Napoleon III. and the king 
 of Prussia met here on 6 Oct. 1861. 
 
 COMPLUTENSIAN BIBLE, see Polyglot. 
 
 COMPOSITE OBDEE, a mixture of the 
 Corinthian and Ionic, and also called the Roman 
 order, is of uncertain date. 
 
 COMPOUND HOUSEHOLDEES (in 
 
 regard to the payment of rates) were constituted 
 by the Small Tenements act of 1851. Their posi- 
 tion, with regard to the suffrage, caused much 
 discussion during the passing of the Reform act in 
 1867 ; and their claims were rejected. 
 
 COMPOUND EADICLE, in organic chem- 
 istry, is a substance which although containing 
 two or more elements, in ordinary circumstances 
 performs the part of an element. The Radical or 
 Binary theory was propounded by Berzelius, 1833, 
 and by Liebig, 1838 ; and modified in the nucleus 
 theory of Aug. Laurent, 1836. The first compound 
 radicle isolated was cyanogen (which see), by Gay- 
 Lussac, in 1815 ; see Amyl, Ethyl, and Methyl as 
 other examples. 
 
 COMPEOMISE, see Breda. 
 
 COMTE PHILOSOPHY, see Positive 
 Philosophy. 
 
 CONCEPTION, Immaculate. A festival 
 
 (on 8 Dec.) appointed in 1389, observed in the 
 Roman Catholic Church in honour of the Virgin 
 Mary's having been conceived and born immacu- 
 late, or without original sin. Opposition to this 
 doctrine was forbidden by decree of pope Paul V. 
 in 161 7, confirmed by Gregory XV. and Alexander 
 VII. Henaitlt. On 8 Dec. 1854, pope Pius IX. 
 promulgated a bull, declaring this dogma to be an 
 article of faith, and charging with heresy those who 
 should doubt it or speak against it. — The Concep- 
 tionists were an order of nuns in Italy, estab- 
 lished in 1488 ; see Santiago. 
 
 CONCEETINA, a musical instrument in- 
 vented by prof, now sir Charles "Wheatstone, about 
 1825, and improved by Mr. G. Case. The sounds 
 are produced by free vibrating metal springs. 
 
 CONCEBTS. The Filarmonia gave concerts 
 at Vicenza in the 16th century. The first public 
 subscription concert was performed at Oxford in 
 1665 ; the first in London is said to have been in 
 1672. The Academy of Ancient Music, which in- 
 troduced concerts in London, began in 1710; the 
 Concerts of Ancient Music in 1776; and thepi'esent 
 Philharmonic Society in 1813 ; see Music; Crystal 
 
 * The statement that the fleur-de-lis was made the 
 ornament of the northern point of the compass in com- 
 pliment to Charles, the king of Naples at the time of 
 the discovery, has been contradicted. 
 
 Palace; and Handel. Colossal peace concerts 
 were held at Boston, U.S., 15 June, &c. 1869; 
 17 June to 4 July, 1872 ; see Boston. 
 
 CONCHOLOGY, the science of shells, is 
 mentioned by Aristotle and Pliny. It was first 
 reduced to a system by John Daniel Major, of 
 Kiel, who published his classification of the Tes- 
 tacca in 1675. Lister's system was published in 
 1685; and that of Largius in 1722. Johnson's 
 Introduction (1850) and Sowerby's Manual .of 
 Conchology (1842), are useful. Forbes and Han- 
 ley's " British Mollusca and their Shells " (1848-53) 
 is a magnificent work. 
 
 CONCILIATION COUNCILS, see 
 
 Councils. 
 
 CONCLAVE. A range of small cells in the 
 hall of the Vatican, or palace of the pope of Rome, 
 where the cardinals usually meet to elect a pope, 
 and also the assembly of the cardinals shut up for 
 the purpose. Clement IV. having died at Viterbo 
 in 1268, the cardinals were nearly three years 
 unable to agree in the choice of a successor, and 
 were on the point of breaking up, when the magis- 
 trates, by the advice of St. Bonaventura, shut the 
 gates of their city, and locked up the cardinals till 
 they agreed, 127 1. 
 
 CONCOED (Massachusetts, N. America) . Near 
 here was fought the battle of Lexington {which 
 see), 19 April, 1775. 
 
 CONCOED ANCE. An index or alphabetical 
 catalogue of all the words and also a chronological 
 account of all the transactions in the Bible. The 
 first concordance was made under the direction of 
 Hugo de St. Caro, who employed as many as 500 
 monks upon it, 1247. Abbe Leng let. It was based 
 on one compiled by Anthony of Padua. Marbeck's 
 concordance was published, 1550. Two Concord- 
 ances (with royal privileges), by Rob. F. Herres r , 
 appeared in 1578. Cruden's Concordance was pub- 
 lished in London in 1737. The Index to the Bible, 
 published by the Queen's printers, was prepared by 
 B. Vincent, editor of this volume, and completed in 
 May, 1848. 
 
 Verbal indexes accompany good editions of the 
 ancient classics. An index to Shakspeare, by Ayscough, 
 appeared in 1790; another by Twiss in 1805; and Mrs. 
 Cowden Clarke's (late Mary Novello) complete concord- 
 ance to Shakspeare (on which she spent 16 years' labour) 
 in 1847. Todd's verbal index to Milton, 1809. Cleve- 
 land's concordance to Milton, 1867. Brightwell's con- 
 cordance to Tennyson's works, 1869. 
 
 CONCOEDAT. An instrument of agree- 
 ment between a prince and the pope, usually con- 
 cerning benefices. The concordat between the em- 
 peror Henry V. of Germany and pope Calixtus II., 
 in 1 122, has been regarded as the fundamental law 
 of the church in Germany. The concordat be- 
 tween Napoleon Bonaparte and Pius VII., signed 
 at Paris, 15 July, 1801, re-established the Catholic 
 church anct the papal authority in France. Napo- 
 leon was made in effect the head of the Gallican 
 church, as bishops were to have their appointments 
 from him, and their investiture from the pope. 
 Another concordat between the same persons was 
 signed at Fontainebleau, 25 Jan. 1813. These were 
 almost nullified by another, 22 Nov. 1817. A con- 
 cordat, signed 18 Aug. 1855, between Austria and 
 Rome ; by which a great deal of the liberty of the 
 Austrian church was given up to the papacy, 
 caused much dissatisfaction. In 1868 it was vir- 
 tually abolished by the legislatures of Hungary 
 and Austria. 
 
CONCUBINES. 
 
 174 
 
 CONGEEGATIONALISTS. 
 
 CONCUBINES were tolerated among the 
 Jews, Greeks, and Romans, but strictly forbidden 
 by Christ {Mark x., I Cor. vii. 2). They are men- 
 tioned as having been allowed to the priests, 1 132 ; 
 see Morganatic Marriages. 
 
 CONDENSATION, see Gas. 
 
 CONDOTTIEKI, conductors or leaders of 
 mercenaries, termed free companies or lances, 
 ■which became so troublesome in Italy, that the 
 cities formed a league to suppress them in 1342. 
 Many ravaged France after the peace of Bretigny, 
 in 1360. 
 
 CONDUITS- Two remarkable conduits, 
 among a number of others in London, existed 
 early in Cheapside. The " great conduit " was the 
 first cistern of lead erected in the city, and was 
 built in 1285. At the procession of Anna Boleyn, 
 on the occasion of her marriage, it ran with white 
 and claret wine all the afternoon, 1 June, 1533. 
 Stow. 
 
 CONFEDEEATE STATES of Noeth 
 America. The efforts of the Southern States for 
 the extension of slaver}', and the zeal of the Northern 
 States for its abolition, with the consequent political 
 dissensions, led to the great secession of 1860-1. On 
 4 Nov. i860, Abraham Lincoln, the Republican or 
 Abolitionist candidate, was elected president of the 
 United States. Hitherto, a president in the interest 
 of the South had been elected. On 20 Dec, South 
 Carolina seceded from the Union ; and soon after 
 Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Georgia, Louisiana, 
 Texas, Virginia (except West Virginia), Arkansas, 
 Tennessee, and North Carolina also. Jefferson Davis 
 was inaugurated president of the Southern Con- 
 federacy at Montgomery in Alabama, 18 Feb. 1861. 
 For the events of the war which ensued, and the 
 restoration of the Southern States to the Union, 
 see United States, 1861-5. 
 
 CONFEDEEATION at Paris, 14 July, 
 1790; see Champ dc Mars, and Bastille. 
 
 CONFEDEEATION of the Ehine, the 
 League of the Germanic States, formed by Napo- 
 leon Bonaparte, 12 July, 1806, when he abolished 
 the Holy Roman Empire, and the emperor of Ger- 
 many became emperor of Austria. In Dec. it 
 consisted of France, Bavaria, "Wurtemberg, Saxony, 
 and Westphalia; seven grand duchies ; six duchies; 
 and twenty principalities. The princes collectively 
 engaged to raise 258,000 troops to serve in case of 
 war, and established a diet at Frankfort. This 
 league terminated with the career of Bonaparte in 
 1814; and in 1815 it was replaced by the Germanic 
 Confederation {which see, and Germany). 
 
 CONFEEENCES, Ecclesiastical. One 
 
 was held at Hampton Court palace, between the 
 prelates of the church of England and the dissenting 
 ministers, in order to effect a general union, at the 
 instance of the king, James I., 14-16 Jan. 1604. It 
 led to the new translation of the Bible, now in 
 general use in England; executed in 1607-11. 
 Some alterations in the church liturgy were agreed 
 upon ; but these not satisfying the dissenters, 
 nothing more was done.— Another conference of the 
 bishops and presbyterian ministers, with the same 
 Tiew, was held in the Savoy, 15 April to 25 July, 
 1661. The dissenters' objections were generally 
 disallowed, but some alterations were recommended 
 in the Prayer-book; see Wesleyans. 
 
 CONFESSIONAL, see Auricular Confession. 
 
 CONFESSIONS of Faith, or Creeds; 
 
 see Apostles' , Nicene (325), and Athanasian (about 
 434) Creeds. 
 
 The confession of faith of the Greek church was 
 presented to Mahommed II. in 1453. This gave 
 way in 1643 to one composed by Mogila, metro- 
 politan of Kiev, which is the present standard 
 of the Russo-Oreek church. 
 
 The creed of Pius VI. ,'composed of the Nicene creed, 
 with additional articles which embody all the 
 peculiar dogmas of the Roman Catholic church, 
 published by the council of Trent . . . 1564 
 
 The church of England retains the Apostles', 
 Nicene, and Athanasian creeds, with articles : — 
 42 in 1552 ; reduced to 39 1563 
 
 The confession of Augsburg (that of the Lutherans) 
 was drawn up principally by Melanchthon, in 
 1530, and has since undergone modifications, the 
 last of which is called the " Form of Concord." . 1579 
 
 The Westminster confession was agreed to in 1643 ; 
 and adopted by the presbyterian church of Scot- 
 land ; see Westminster 1647 
 
 The congregational dissenters published a declara- 
 tion of faith 1833 
 
 CONFIEMATION, or laying on hands, was 
 practised by the Apostles in 34 and 56 {Acts viii. 
 17; xix. 6), and was general, according to some 
 church authorities, in 190. In the church of Eng- 
 land it is the public profession of the Christian 
 religion by an adult person, who has been baptized 
 in infancy. It is made a sacrament by the church 
 of Rome. 
 
 CONFLANS (near Paris), TREATY OF, 
 between Louis XL of France and the dukes of 
 Bourbon, Brittany, and Burgundy, 5 Oct. 1465. 
 By its provisions Normandy was ceded to the duke 
 of Berry, and an end was put to the " War of the 
 Public Good." It was confirmed by the Treaty of 
 Peronne, 1468. 
 
 CONGE D'ELIEE (permission to elect), the 
 licence given by the sovereign as bead of the church, 
 to chapters and other bodies, to elect dignitaries, 
 particularly bishops ; the right asserted by Henry 
 VIIL, 1535. After the interdict of the pope upon 
 England nad been removed in 1214, king John 
 made an arrangement with the clergy for the 
 election of bishops. 
 
 CONGELATION, the act of freezing. Ice 
 was produced in summer by means of chemical 
 mixtures, by Mr. Walker, in 1783. Quicksilver 
 was frozen without snow or ice, in 1787. In 1810 
 Leslie froze water in an air-pump by placing a 
 vessel of sulphuric acid under it. Numerous freez- 
 ing mixtures have been discovered since. Intense 
 cold is produced by the aerification of liquefied 
 carbonic acid gas. In 1857 Mr. Harrison patented 
 a machine for manufacturing ice for commercial 
 purposes, by means of ether and salt water, and 
 made large "blocks. In i860, M. Carre devised a 
 method of freezing to 60° below zero by making 
 water in a close vessel absorb and give off the gas 
 ammonia. Siebe's ice-making machine exhibited 
 at the International Exhibition of 1862, excited 
 much admiration. 
 
 CONGEEGATION OF the Lord, a name 
 taken by the Scotch reformers, headed by John 
 Knox about 1546. Their leaders (the earls of Glen- 
 cairn, Argyle, Morton, and others) called "lords of 
 the congregation," signed the first bond or covenant 
 which united the protestants under one association, 
 3 Dec. 1557. Tytler. 
 
 CONGEEGATIONALISTS, see Indepen- 
 dents. 
 
CONGEESS. 
 
 175 
 
 CONSEEVATIVES. 
 
 CONGRESS. An assembly of princes or min- 
 isters for the settlement of the affairs of nations or 
 of a people. The following are the most remark- 
 able congresses of Europe : — 
 
 Miinster 1643-8 
 
 Nimeguen 1676-8 
 
 Byswiek ' . . 1697 
 
 Utrecht 171:3 
 
 Soissons xj 2 s 
 
 Antwerp 8 April, 1793 
 
 Bastadt 9 Dec. 1797-9 
 
 Chatillon .5 Feb. 1814 
 
 Vienna ...... 3 Nov. „ 
 
 Aix-la-Chapelle 9 Oct. 1818 
 
 Carlsbad 1 Aug. 1819 
 
 Troppau 20 Oct. 1820 
 
 Laybaeh 6 May, 1821 
 
 Verona 25 Aug. 1822 
 
 Paris 16 Jan.— 22 April, 1856 
 
 Frankfort (see Germany) . . . 16-31 Aug. 1863 
 See Alliances, Conventions, dbc. 
 
 The first general congress of the United States 
 of America, preparatory to their declaration of 
 independence, when strong resolutions were 
 passed, also a petition to the king, and an address 
 to the people of England, was held, 5 Sept. 1774. 
 The second was held, 10 May, 1775 ; the third, 
 when the independence was declared . 4 July, 1776 
 
 The first federal American congress, under the con- 
 stitution, was held at New York ; George Wash- 
 ington, president March, 1789 
 
 The first congress of the seceding southern states 
 was held at Montgomery, Alabama, 4 Feb. ; it 
 elected Jefferson Davis president of the con- 
 federate states on 9 Feb. For political reasons it 
 adjourned on 24 May, to meet at Eichmond, in 
 Virginia, on 20 July, 1861 
 
 In 1863, the emperor Napoleon invited the sove- 
 reigns of Europe to a congress ; which was de- 
 clined by England 25 Nov. , and only conditionally 
 acceded to by other powers. He proposed a con- 
 gress on the affairs of Italy and Borne in Nov. 1867, 
 without effect. 
 
 CONGEEVE SOCKETS, see Rochets. 
 
 CONIC SECTIONS. Their properties were 
 probably known to the Greeks, four or five centuries 
 before the Christian era, and their study was culti- 
 vated in the time of Plato, 390 B.C. The earliest 
 treatise on them was written by Aristseus, about 330 
 B.C. Apollonius's eight books Avere written about 
 240 B.C. The parabola was applied to projectiles 
 by Galileo ; the ellipse to the orbit of planets by 
 Kepler, and to comets by Newton. 
 
 CONJUEATION, see Witchcraft. 
 
 .CONNAUGHT, W. Ireland; long a nominal 
 kingdom, divided into counties, 1590. 
 
 CONNECTICUT granted to lord Say and 
 Broke, 1630 ; see America and United States. 
 
 CONNOE, Ireland. The bishopric was united 
 to that of Down, 1442. The first prelate, ^ngus 
 Macnisius, died 507. The united sees were added 
 to Droinore on the death of its last bishop, 1842, in 
 accordance with the Irish Church Temporalities act, 
 passed 1833. 
 
 CONQUEST, the era in British history, when 
 William duke of Normandy overcame Harold II. at 
 the battle of Hastings, 14 Oct. 1066, and obtained 
 the crown which he asserted had been bequeathed 
 to him by Edward the confessor (Edgar being the 
 rightful heir) . William has been erroneously styled 
 the Conqueror, for he succeeded to the crown of 
 England by compact. He defeated Harold, who 
 was himself a usurper, but a large portion of the 
 kingdom afterwards held out against him ; and he, 
 unlike a conqueror, took an oath to observe the 
 
 laws and customs of the realm, in order to induce 
 the submission of the people. Formerly our judges 
 were accustomed to reprehend any gentleman at the 
 bar who said casually William the conqueror, 
 instead of William I. Selden. Maclise exhibited 
 forty-two drawings on the events of the Norman 
 conquest, in May, 1857. 
 
 CONSCIENCE, LlBEETY OF, a principle 
 of genuine Christianity ; repudiated by Eomanism, 
 proclaimed by James II. for political purposes, 1687. 
 
 CONSCIENCE CLAUSE, see Education. 
 
 CONSCIENCE, Couets of, or of Be- 
 quests for recovery of small debts, constituted by 
 a stat. of Hen. VII. 1493, and re-organised by stat. 
 9 Hen. VIII. 1517. These courts were improved! 
 and amended by various acts ; their jurisdiction in 
 London reached to $1. and (until superseded by 
 county-courts) to 40s. in other towns. The practice 
 was by summons, and if the party did not appear, 
 the commissioners had power to apprehend and 
 commit ; see County Courts. 
 
 CONSCEIPT 'FATHEES {patres con- 
 scripti) the designation given to the Boman sena- 
 tors, because their names were written in the regis- 
 ters of the senate. 
 
 CONSCEIPTION, a mode (derived from the 
 Eomans) adopted for recruiting armies on the con- 
 tinent. On 5 Sept. 1798, a military conscription 
 was ordained in France, comprehending all the 
 young men from 20 to 25 years of age : from whom 
 selections were made. A conscription for 350,000 
 men took place in Jan. 1813, after the disastrous 
 Eussian campaign, and in Dec. same year, another 
 for 300,000 after the battle of Leipsic. Estimated 
 conscription, 1793-1813, 4,103,000. The law of 1818 
 (modified in 1824, 1832 and 1868) required a certain 
 annual contingent for each department. The con- 
 scription was enlarged and modified by the army 
 bill which was enacted in Feb. 1868. The re- 
 organisation of the army began in 1871, after the 
 fatal war with Germany. 
 
 CONSECEATION. Aaron and his sons were 
 consecrated priests, 1490 B.C. {Lev. viii.) The 
 Jewish tabernacle was dedicated, 1490 B.C., and 
 Solomon's temple, 1004 B.C. (1 Kings viii.) The 
 consecration of churches begun in the 2nd century. 
 Anciently the consecration of p^pes was deferred 
 until the emperor had given his assent to their 
 election. Gregory IV. desired to have his election 
 confirmed by the emperor Louis, in 828. He'nault. 
 The consecration of churches, places of burial, &c, 
 is admitted in the reformed religion. An act re- 
 lating to the consecration of churchyards passed 
 20 Aug. 1867, was amended in 1868. The form of 
 consecrating bishops in the church of England is 
 set forth in the prayer-book of 1549. Stow. 
 
 CONSEEVATION OF FOECE. The doc- 
 trine that no physical force can be created or de- 
 stroyed, but may be transferred, is maintained by 
 Faraday, Grove, Helmholtz, Tyndall, and other 
 philosophers; see Correlation. 
 
 CONSEEVATIVES, a name of modern date, 
 is given to, and accepted by a political party, whose 
 leading principle is the preservation of our national 
 institutions, since 1830. Conservative in popular 
 language is now opposed to Liberal. Sir Kobert 
 Peel acknowledged himself a conservative when 
 reproached by the Irish party in parliament with 
 being an Orangeman ; but the party that afterwards 
 
CONSERVATOIRES. 
 
 176 
 
 CONSTABLES. 
 
 separated from him called their principles conserva- 
 tive in contradistinction to his,— his policy and 
 measures being changed.— The Conservative Club 
 was founded in 1840 ; Bee Protectionists and Clubs. 
 The party in the north of the United States which 
 •supported the president in his conciliatory efforts to 
 re-establish the Union, Jan. 1866, were tended 
 " Conservatives." A great meeting of the National 
 Union of Conservative Associations was held at the 
 Crystal Palace, 24 June, 1872. 
 
 CONSERVATOIRES, a name given to es- 
 tablishments for the cultivation of music and the 
 arts on the continent. One was established at 
 Naples in 1537. The singing school at Paris, 
 founded in 1784, and closed in 1789, was re-opened 
 in 1793 as the " Institut National deMusique," and 
 after being reorganised, was re-named " Conserva- 
 toire de Musique" in 179S, and nourished under 
 Cherubini (1822-42). "The Conservatoire des 
 Arts et Metiers" was established in 1784. It in- 
 cludes a museum and library, and lectures are given 
 to workmen there. 
 
 CONSERVATORS of the Public Lib- 
 erties. Officers chosen in England to inspect the 
 treasury' and correct abuses in administration, 
 28 Hen. III. 1244. Rapin. Conservators were 
 appointed to see the king's peace kept. Pardon. 
 Conservators were formerly appointed in every sea- 
 port to take cognisance of all offences committed 
 against the peace upon the main sea out of the 
 liberty of the Cinque Ports. Bailey. 
 
 CONSISTORIES for regulating ecclesiastical 
 discipline and divine worship in the Lutheran 
 church in Germany, were established at the refor- 
 mation—the first at Wittenberg in 1542 ; other 
 •consistories were established after the peace of 
 Augsburg in 1555. 
 
 CONSISTORY COURT, anciently joined 
 with the hundred court ; and its original, as divided 
 therefrom, is found in a law of William I., 1079, 
 quoted by lord justice Coke. The chief and most 
 ancient consistory court of the kingdom belongs to 
 the see of Canterbury,' and is called the Court ot 
 Arches {which see). 
 
 CONSOLIDATED FUND was formed by 
 combining the "aggregate," "general," and 
 "South Sea funds," 1786. On 5 Jan. 1816, the ex- 
 chequers of Great Britain and Ireland, previously 
 separate, were amalgamated, forming "the consoli- 
 dated fund of the United Kingdom." 
 
 CONSOLS, see Stocks. 
 
 CONSORZIO NAZIONALE, see Italy, 
 1866. 
 
 CONSPIRACIES. Among the recorded con- 
 spiracies, real or supposed, the following are the most 
 remarkable : see Rebellions. 
 
 Of the duke of Gloucester against Richard II. . 1397 
 Of the earl of Cambridge and others against Henry V. 1415 
 Of Anthony Babington and others against Elizabeth. 
 
 (See Babington) x 5 y6 
 
 Of Lopez, a Jew, and others . . ■ • • 1594 
 Of Patrick York, an Irish fenemg-master hired bj 
 
 the Spaniards to kill the queen . . • . -1594 
 Of Walpole, a Jesuit, and Edward Squyer tq poison 
 
 the queen . . • • * 59 
 
 Tyrone's insurrection in Ireland . . • • '599 
 The Gunpowder plot (which see) . • • • ^°5 
 
 Tvrone's conspiracy to surprise the castle 1 ,f Dul »lm. 1607 
 Of Penruddock (1655) and of Syndercombe and 
 
 others to assassinate Oliver Cromwell . Jan 1657 
 Insurrection of the Fifth-monarchy men against 
 
 Charles II Jan - l6fil 
 
 Of Blood, who seized the duke of Ormond, wounded 
 
 him, and would have hanged him, Dec. 1670 ; and 
 
 who afterwards attempted to steal the regalia. 
 
 9 May, 1671 
 The pretended conspiracy of the French, Spanish, 
 
 and English Jesuits to assassinate Charles II., 
 
 revealed by the infamous Titus Oates, Dr. Tongue, 
 
 and others . .... Aug. 1678 
 
 The Meal-tub plot (which see) 1679 
 
 The Rye-house plot to assassinate the king on his 
 
 way to Newmarket. (See Rye-house Plot). . . 1683 
 Of lord Preston, the bishop of Ely, and others to 
 
 restore James II. .... Jan. 1691 
 
 Of Granville, a French chevalier, to murder king 
 
 William in Flanders 1692 
 
 The Assassination plot (which see) frustrated . . 1696 
 Of Simon Fraser, lord Lovat, against queen Anne. 
 
 (See Rebellions) 1703 
 
 Of the marquis Guiscard . . . . March, 1711 
 
 Of James Sheppard, an enthusiast, to assassinate 
 
 George I. 1718 
 
 Of counsellor Layer and others, to bring in the 
 
 Pretender 1722 
 
 Of the Corresponding Society, &c. (which see) . 1796-8 
 
 Of colonel Despard 1802 
 
 Of Robert Emmett, in Dublin, when lord Kil- 
 
 warden was killed .... 23 July, 1803 
 Of Thistlewood and others, to assassinate the king's 
 
 ministers. (See Cato-street) 1820 
 
 Of the Sepoys in India. (See India) . 10 May, 1857 
 
 Of the Fenians 1858-68 
 
 See Rebellions, Chartists, &c. 
 
 CONSTABLE of England, Lord High. 
 
 The seventh great officer of the crown, and, with the 
 earl marshal, formerly a judge of the court of 
 chivalry, called, in the time of Henry IV., curia 
 militaris, and subsequently the court of honour. 
 The power of this officer was so great, that in 1389 
 a statute was passed for abridging it, and also the 
 power of the earl marshal (which see) . The office 
 existed before the conquest, after which it went by 
 inheritance to the earls of Hereford and Essex, and 
 next in the line of Stafford. In 1521 it was for- 
 feited by Edward Stafford, duke of Buckingham, 
 attainted for high treason, and has never since been 
 granted to any person, otherwise than pro hue vice 
 (for this occasion), to attend at a coronation or trial 
 by combat. The only instance of a trial by combat 
 being ordered since this office fell into the hands of 
 the crown, was that commanded between lord Reay 
 and sir David Ramsay, in Nov. 1631 ; but the king 
 prevented it. 
 
 LORD HIGH CONSTABLES AT CORONATIONS. 
 
 Queen Anne, Wriothesly, duke of Bedford . 
 
 George I., John, Duke of Montague 
 
 George II., Charles, duke of Richmond . 
 
 George III., John, duke of Bedford 
 
 George IV. ) 
 
 William IV. V Arthur, duke of Wellington 
 
 Victoria . ) . ( 1838 
 
 CONSTABLE of Scotland, Lord High. 
 
 The office was instituted by David I. about 1147. 
 The holder had the keeping of the king's sword, 
 which the king, at his promotion, delivered to him 
 naked (and hence the badge of the lord high con- 
 stable is a naked sword) ; and the absolute com- 
 mand of the king's armies while in the field, in the 
 absence of the king. The office was conferred 
 heritably in 132 1 on sir Gilbert Hay, created earl of 
 Erroll, by Robert Bruce, and with his descendants 
 it still remains, being expressly reserved by the 
 treaty of union in 1707. The present carl of Erroll 
 is the twenty-second lord high constable (1873). 
 
 CONSTABLES of Hundreds and Franchises, 
 instituted in the reign of Edward I., 1285, are now- 
 called high constables. There are three kinds of 
 constables, high, petty, and special ; the high con- 
 stable's jurisdiction extends to the whole hundred ; 
 
 1702 
 1714 
 1727 
 1761 
 1821 
 1831 
 
CONSTABULABY. 
 
 177 
 
 CONTEIBUTIONS. 
 
 the petty constable's to the parish or liberty for 
 which he is chosen ; and the special constable is 
 appointed for particular emergencies (as in April, 
 1848, on account of the Chartists). The general 
 appointment of parish constables was made un- 
 necessary by an act passed Aug. 1872. See Special 
 Constables and Tower. 
 
 CONSTABULABY EOBCE. For that of 
 London, see Police. The Constabulary of Ireland 
 act passed in 1823, when this species of force was 
 embodied throughout the country, Several subse- 
 quent acts were consolidated in 1836. 
 
 CONSTANCE, a city in Baden (S. Germany). 
 Here was held the seventeenth general council, 1414, 
 whieh condemned John Huss; and here he was 
 burnt, 6 July, 1415 ; see Hussites. 
 
 CONSTANTINA, the ancient capital of 
 Numidia, was taken by the French, 13 Oct. 1837. 
 During the assault on 12 Oct. the French general 
 Damremont was killed. Achmet Bey retired with 
 12,000 men, as the victors entered Constantina. 
 
 CONSTANTINOPLE (formerly Byzantium) 
 {which see), now Stamboul, deiives its name from 
 Constantine the Great, who removed the seat of the 
 Eastern Empire here, dedicating it II May, 330. 
 See Eastern Empire. 
 
 Seized by Procopius 365 
 
 The city suffered much from religious dissensions, 
 
 and was burnt during the " Mka " conflicts . . 532 
 Rebuilt by Justinian with great splendour ,, 
 
 St. Sophia dedicated 537 
 
 Resisted the Saracens successfully . . . 675,718 
 
 And the Russians .... 865, 904, 941, 1043 
 
 Taken by the Latins 1203, 1204 
 
 Recovered by the Greeks 1261 
 
 Vainly besieged by Amurath the Ottoman, June — 
 
 Aug. 1422 
 Taken by Mahomet II. (after 53 days' siege), 29 May, 1453 
 General ecclesiastical councils against heresy were held 
 
 here in 381, 553, 680, and 869. 
 
 For continuation see under Turkey. 
 
 Era of Constantinople has the creation placed 5508 
 years b.c. It was used by the Russians until the time 
 of Peter the Great, and is still used in the Greek church. 
 The civil year begins 1 Sept. , and the ecclesiastical year 
 in March ; the day is not exactly determined. To 
 reduce it to our era, subtract 5508 years from January 
 to August, and 5509 from Sept. to the end. Nicolas. 
 
 CONSTELLATIONS. Arcturus Orion, the 
 Pleiades, and Mazzaroth are mentioned in Job ix. 
 9, and xxxviii. 31, about 1520 B.C. Homer and 
 Hesiod notice constellations ; but our first direct 
 knowledge was derived from Claudius Ptolemasus, 
 about a.d. 140. Hipparchus (about 147 B.C.) made a 
 catalogue of forty-eight constellations, and others 
 were added by Tycho Brahe, Hevelius, Halley, and 
 others. The number at present acknowledged is 29 
 northern, 45 southern, and 12 zodiacal. 
 
 CONSTITUENCIES, see Commons, House of. 
 
 CONSTITUENT, see National Assembly. 
 
 CONSTITUTION of England. It com- 
 prehends the whole body of laws by which the British 
 people are governed, and to which it is presump- 
 tively held that every individual has assented. 
 Lord Somers. This assemblage of laws is distin- 
 guished from the term government in this respect — 
 that the constitution is the rule by which the sove- 
 reign ought to govern at all times ; and government 
 is that by which he does govern at any particular 
 time. Lord Bolingbrohe. The king of England is 
 not seated on a solitary eminence of power : on the 
 contrary, he sees his equals in the co-existing 
 branches of the legislature, and he recognises his 
 
 -449 
 
 444 
 366 
 
 1799 
 1802 
 
 superior in the law. Sheridan. Hallam's " Con- 
 stitutional History of England" was first published 
 in 1827; May's in 1861-3. 
 
 CONSTITUTIONALIST PAETY, a name 
 assumed by a combination of Conservatives and 
 seceded Whigs, Aug. 1867, and used during the 
 severely contested elections, Nov. 1868. 
 
 . CONSUBSTANTIATION,see Transubstan- 
 tiation. 
 
 CONSULS (meaning colleagues), Roman : at 
 the expulsion of the Tarquins, a republic was esta- 
 blished, to be ruled by two consuls elected annually : 
 the first being Lucius Junius Brutus and Lucius 
 Tarquinius Collatinus, husband of the injured Lu- 
 cretia, 509 B.C. The consular power was in emer- 
 gencies superseded by dictators and tribunes. 
 
 Government of the Decemviri . . B.C. 451- 
 
 Three Military Tribunes with consular power . 
 
 A Plebeian elected consul 
 
 [In the reign of Tiberius the consuls were nomi- 
 minated by the senate, and the appointment be- 
 came henceforth honorary.] 
 
 The French consulate established when the direc- 
 tory was abolished : Bonaparte, Sieyes, and Roger 
 Ducos made provisional consular commissioners. 
 10 Nov. ; Bonaparte, Cambaceres, and Lebrun 
 made consuls 13 Dec. 
 
 Bonaparte was made first consul for 10 years, 6 May, 
 and for life 2 Aug. 
 
 Became emperor 18 May, 
 
 Commercial agents were first distinguished by the 
 name of consuls in Italy. Lorenzo Strozzi was ap- 
 pointed by Richard III. ^85 
 
 A British consul first appointed in Portugal . . 1633 
 
 CONTAGIOUS DISEASES ACT for naval 
 and military stations passed June 1866; amended, 
 1869-71 ; one for animals passed 1866 ; renewed 
 1867; amended 1869. Although the operation of 
 the first act was reported to be successful, it has 
 been much opposed. A royal commission appointed 
 to inquire, reported, July, 1871 ; and alterations 
 have been proposed. 
 
 CONTINENTAL SYSTEM, thename given 
 
 to Napoleon's plan to exclude the British merchan- 
 dise from the entire continent. It h:gan publicly 
 with his Berlin decree in 1806, and occasioned the 
 Orders in Council (which see), and was followed by 
 similar measures. 
 
 CONTINUITY. Mr. (now sir-) W. B. Grove, in 
 his address as president of the British Association, on 
 22 Aug. 1866, at Nottingham, expounded the opinion 
 held by many philosophers, that all the past changes 
 in the world have been produced by the continuous 
 action of the causes now in operation — that "con- 
 tinuity is a law of nature, the true expression of the 
 action of Almighty Power." 
 
 CONTEABAND OF WAR, a term said to 
 have been first employed in the treaty of Southamp- 
 ton between England and Spain in 1625. During 
 the struggle between Spain and Holland, both 
 powers acted with much rigour towards ships of 
 neutrals conveying goods to the belligerents. This 
 provoked the resistance of England. A milder policy 
 was adopted by the treaty of Pyrenees, 1650 ; and 
 by the declaration of Paris, 26 April, 1856. The 
 subject was much discussed during the North Ameri- 
 can conflict, 1861-4. 
 
 CONTEACTOES with Government, disquali- 
 fied from sitting in parliament, 1782. 
 
 CONTEIBUTIONS, Voluntary, to a vast 
 
 amount have been several times made bv the British 
 
CONTROL. 
 
 178 
 
 COOLIES. 
 
 people in aid of the government. One, in 1798, to 
 support the war against France, amounted to two 
 millions and a half sterling. Several men of wealth, 
 among others sir Robert Peel, of Bury, Lancashire, 
 subscribed each io,OOo£. : and 200,006/. were trans- 
 mitted from India in 1799 ; see Patriotic Fund. 
 
 CONTROL, BOARD OF. Mr. Pitt's bill, esta- 
 blishing this board for the purpose of aiding and 
 controlling the executive government of India, and 
 of superintending the territorial concerns of the 
 company, was passed 18 May, 1784. Act amended 
 and the board remodelled, 1793. The president of 
 the board was a chief minister of the crown, and 
 necessarily one of the members of the cabinet. This 
 board was" abolished in 1858, when the government 
 of India was transferred from the company to the 
 crown ; see India Bills, and India. 
 
 CONVALESCENT INSTITUTION (Me- 
 tropolitan), at Walton-on-Thames, with children's 
 branches at Hendon and Mitcham, was established 
 in 1840. A convalescent hospital for the east of 
 London was founded at Snaresbrook in 1866, greatly 
 due to the exertions of Mrs. Gladstone and Miss 
 Catherine Marsh. The principle has been since 
 strongly advocated and acted on. 
 
 CONVENTICLES, private assemblies for 
 religious worship, held by Dissenters from the esta- 
 blished church ; but first applied to the schools of 
 "Wickliff. They were strictly forbidden by Elizabeth 
 in 1593, and by Charles II., 1664 ; and persons 
 attending them were liable to severe punishment. 
 The statutes were repealed by the toleration act, 24 
 May, 1689. 
 
 CONVENTION PARLIAMENTS,, as- 
 sembled without the king's writ upon extraordinary 
 occasions. One on 25 April, 1660, voted the restora- 
 tion of Charles II. A second met on 22 Jan. 1689 ; 
 offered the crown to "William and Mary on 13 Feb. ; 
 and was dissolved in Feb. 1690 ; see National Con- 
 vention. 
 
 CONVENTIONS, see Treaties. 
 
 CONVENTS were first founded, according to 
 some authorities, 270. The first in England was 
 erected at Folkstone, by Eadbald, in 630. Camden. 
 The first in Scotland was at Coldingham, where 
 Ethelreda took the veil in 670. They were founded 
 earlier in Ireland. They were suppressed in Eng- 
 land in various reigns, particularly in that of Henry 
 VIII. A very great number have been suppressed 
 in Europe in the present century. The king of 
 Prussia secularised all the convents in the duchy of 
 Posen. Don Pedro put down 300 convents in Por- 
 tugal in 1834 ; and Spain abolished 1800 convents. 
 Many were abolished in Italy and Sicily in i860, 
 1 86 1, and 1866, and many in Russia 31 July, 1832, 
 and Nov. 1864. 
 
 In 1597 lady Mary Percy founded a convent at Brussels, 
 which nourished there till 1794, when the nuns were 
 compelled to remove to England. They were received 
 by bishop Milner, and placed at Winchester, at which 
 place they remained till their removal to East Berg- 
 holt, in Suffolk, June, 1857. This was the first English 
 conventual establishment founded on the continent 
 after the Reformation. 
 
 By the Emancipation act of 1829, 10 Geo. IV., the 
 establishment of convents and other religious 
 communities in the United Kingdom was prohi- 
 bited, butthis enactment has been a dead letter . 1829 
 
 A select committee to investigate into the revenues 
 of British convents appointed by the commons, 
 10 May, 1870 ; reappointed . . . Feb. 1871 
 
 The committee reported the evidence heard . June, 1871 
 There were in 1832, 16 convents in England ; in 1870, 233 ; 
 and 70 monasteries in Great Britain. 
 
 CONVICTS, see Transportation. 
 
 CONVOCATION, a general assembly of the 
 
 clergy of the nation, convened by the sovereign's 
 writ, to consult on the affairs of the church; the 
 writ is directed to the archbishop of each province, 
 requiring him to summon all the bishops, arch- 
 deacons, &c. The convocation is divided into two 
 houses, the upper, consisting of bishops ; and lower, 
 of deans, prebendaries, archdeacons, and members 
 elected from the inferior clergy. The clergy were 
 summoned to meet the king by writ, 23 Edw. I. 
 1294. The power of the convocation was limited 
 by a statute of Henry VIII., in whose reign the 
 convocation was reorganised. The two houses of 
 convocation were deprived of various privileges 
 in 1716, and ceased to meet. Formal meetings of 
 the clergy have been held annually during the 
 sitting of parliament since 18^4, and fruitless at- 
 tempts have been made to obtain the power of 
 dealing summarily with ecclesiastical affairs ; but 
 in Feb. 1872, convocation was authorised to deli- 
 berate respecting alterations in the Liturgy ; upon 
 which it acted, 5 March. 
 
 CONVOLVULUS. The Canary Convolvulus 
 {Convolvulus canariensis) came to England from 
 the Canary Isles, 1690. The many-flowered, 1779. 
 
 COOKERY, an art connected with civilised 
 life. Animals were granted as food to Noah, 2348 
 B.C., the eating blood being expressly forbidden 
 (Gen. ix. 3, 4). In 1898 B.C. a calf was cooked bv 
 Abraham to entertain his guests (Gen. xviii. 7, 8). 
 " The Forme of Cury " (i.e. cookery) is dated 1390. 
 An English cookery-book was printed 1498; see 
 Cottager's Stove. 
 
 Military Cookery. — Capt. Grant devised a system of cook- 
 ing for the camp at Aldershot, which has continued in 
 successful operation for the service of between 12,000 
 and 14,000 men. From April to August, in 1857, the plan 
 was subjected to the severe test of cooking for 92,000 
 men, who marched in and out of the encampment 
 during that period. The consumption of fuel requisite 
 fortius system of cooking was one half-pound of coal 
 per man per day, and the official report srates the cost 
 to be one halfpenny per man per week for the three 
 daily meals. 
 
 Self-supporting Cooking Depots for the working classes 
 were set up at Glasgow (by Mr. Thomas Corbett), 21 
 Sept. i860 ; and proved successful in Manchester, 
 London, and other places soon after. 
 
 Three medals were awarded to the Norwegian self-acting 
 cooking apparatus (Sorenson's patent) at the Paris Ex- 
 hibition, 1867. Cooking is effected by boiling water, 
 the heat of which is maintained by enclosing it in a 
 1101 1 -conducting substance. 
 
 A School of Cookery was opened at tin- international ex- 
 hibition, South Kensington, 14 April, 1873. 
 
 COOK'S VOYAGES. James Cook, accom- 
 panied by Mr (afterwards sir) Joseph Banks, sailed 
 from England in the Endeavour on his first vovagc, 
 30 July, 1768; and returned home after having 
 circumnavigated the globe, arriving at Deal 12 June, 
 1771. The chief object of the expedition, at the 
 request of the Royal Society, was the observation of 
 the transit of Venus over the sun's disk, which was 
 effected, 3 June, 1769. Captain Cook sailed to ex- 
 plore the southern hemisphere, 13 July, 1772, and 
 returned 30 July, 1775. In his last expedition 
 Cbegun 12 July, 1776) he was killed by the savages 
 of Owhyhee, 14 Feb. 1779. His ships, the Resolution 
 and Discovery, arrived at Sheerness, 4 Oct. 1780. 
 
 COOLIES, the hill tribes of India, have been 
 recently much employed as labourers in Australia 
 
COOPERAGE. 
 
 179 
 
 COPYING-MACHINES. 
 
 and California, especially since 1861 ; and about 
 30,000 of them were conveyed by M. Kootmanschap, 
 to assist in making the great Pacific railway. His 
 proposal in 1869 to replace the negroes in the 
 Southern States of North America for the cultiva- 
 tion of cotton, was not accepted. " The Coolie, his 
 Eights and Wrongs," by E. Jenkins, was published 
 187 1. Coolie emigration has been the subject of 
 negotiation between the British and Chinese govern- 
 ments since 1855. 
 
 COOPERAGE, an ancient art, probably sug- 
 gested for preserving wine. The coopers of London 
 were incorporated in 1 501. 
 
 CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES are com- 
 posed of working men, having for their object the 
 sale of articles of daily consumption to the members 
 at low prices. The Rochdale Equitable Pioneers 
 Society began in 1844, with a capital of 28/. In 
 i860, the business done amounted to 152,063^., the 
 profits being 15,906^. These societies (332 in 1862) 
 are registered pursuant to 13 and 14 Vict. c. 115 
 (1849). On 31 Dec. 1866, 749 industrial, provident, 
 and co-operative societies were registered. By an 
 act passed in 1867 they are bound to make a return. 
 The fourth congress was held at Bolton, 1 April, 
 1872, the fifth at Newcastle, 12 April, 1873, Mr. T. 
 Hughes, M.P., in the chair. A national trade 
 society in opposition to it was formed in 1872. 
 
 COORG, a province, S. India. War broke out 
 between the rajah and the East India Company 1832, 
 which ended by col. Lindsay defeating and deposing 
 the rajah, 10 April, 1834, and his territories were 
 soon after annexed by the British. In 1853 the 
 rajah brought his daughter to be educated in Eng- 
 land, where she was baptized. She married a col. 
 Campbell, and died a few years after. 
 
 COPENHAGEN (Denmark), built by Walde- 
 mar I., 1 157, made the capital, 1443; the university 
 founded 1479. In 1728, more than seventy of its 
 streets and 3785 houses were burnt. Its palace, 
 valued at four millions sterling, was wholly burnt, 
 Feb. 1794, when 100 persons lost their lives. In a 
 fire which lasted forty-eight hours, the arsenal, 
 admiralty, and fifty streets were destroyed, June, 
 1795- A new national theatre was founded by the 
 king, 18 Oct. 1872. — Copenhagen was bombarded by 
 the English under lord Nelson and admiral Parker ; 
 and in then - engagement with the Danish fleet of 
 twenty-three ships of the line, eighteen were taken 
 or destroyed by the British, 2 April, 1801. Again, 
 after a bombardment of three days, the city and 
 Danish fleet surrendered to admiral Gambier and 
 lord Cathcart, 7 Sept. 1807. The capture consisted 
 of eighteen sail of the line, fifteen frigates, six brigs, 
 and twenty-five gun-boats, and immense naval 
 stores. See Denmark. 
 
 COPENHAGEN FIELDS (N. London). 
 
 Here the Corresponding Societj' met on 26 Oct. 
 1796; and the Trades' Union, 21 April, 1834. The 
 fields are now chiefly occupied by the Metropolitan 
 Cattle-market, opened 13 June, 1855. 
 
 . COPERNICAN SYSTEM, so called from 
 its author Nicolas Copernicus, born at Thorn, 19 
 Feb. 1473, died 24 May, 1543. A few days before 
 his death, the printing of his book on the " Revolu- 
 tion of the Celestial Bodies" was completed. The 
 system, which resembles that attributed to Pytha- 
 goras, was condemned by a decree of pope Paul V. 
 in 1616 ; not revoked till 1818 by Pius VII. 
 
 COPLEY MEDAL, see Royal Society. 
 
 COPPER. One of the six primitive metals, 
 said to have been first discovered in Cyprus. Pliny. 
 "We read in the Scriptures of two vessels of fine 
 copper (or brass), " precious as gold," 457 B.C. 
 (Ezra viii. 27). The mines, of Fahlun, in Sweden, 
 are most surprising excavations. In England, cop- 
 per-mines were discovered in 1561, and there are 
 upwards of fifty mines in Cornwall, where mining 
 has been increasing since the reign of William III. 
 In 1857, 75,832 tons of copper ore were imported, 
 and 25,241 tons extracted. In 1865, 198,298 tons of 
 copper ore were extracted from British mines, and 
 11,888 tonssmelted: 82,562 tons were imported. In 
 1856, 24,257 tons of pure copper (worth 2,983,611^.), 
 in 1870, 8291 tons (worth 644,065^.) were produced 
 in the United Kingdom. The Burra-Burra copper- 
 mines, in S. Australia, discovered 1842, brought great 
 prosperity. 
 
 Copper Money. The Romans, prior to the reign of Ser- 
 
 vius Tullius, used rude pieces of copper for money ; see 
 
 Coin. 1 
 In England copper money was made at the instance of 
 
 sir Robert Cotton, in 1609 ; but was first really coined 
 
 (when Miss Stewart sat for the figure of Britannia) 1665. 
 Its regular coinage began in 1672, and it was largely 
 
 issued in 1689 
 
 In Ireland, copper was coined as early as 1339 ; in 
 
 Scotland in 1406 ; in France in . . . . 1580 
 Wood's coinage (which see) in Ireland commenced in 1723 
 The copper coinage was largely manufactured at 
 
 Birmingham, by Boulton and Watt, in . . . 1792 
 Penny and two-penny pieces were extensively issued 1797 
 The half-farthing was coined, but disused (see 
 
 Farthing) ^43 
 
 io,ooo£. voted towards replacing the copper coinage, 
 
 See Bronze. 
 
 Copper-Plate Printing was first invented in Ger- 
 many, about 1450 ; and rolling-presses for work- 
 ing the plates about 1545 
 
 Messrs. Perkins, of Philadelphia, invented a mode 
 of engraving on soft steel, which, when hardened, 
 will multiply copper-plates and fine impressions 
 indefinitely (see Engraving) 1819 
 
 Copper Sheathing first applied to the bottom of 
 H.M.S. Alarm, at Woolwich, 1761 ; all the navy 
 copper-bottomed by 1780 
 
 Electrotyping with copper printing types and casts 
 from woodcuts, began .... about 1850 
 
 COPPERAS, a mineral composed of copper or 
 iron combined with sulphuric acid (vitriol), found 
 in copper-mines, commonly of a green or blue 
 colour ; said to have been first produced in England 
 by Cornelius de Vos, a merchant, in 1587. 
 
 COPPERHEADS, a name given about 1863 
 to such members of the Democrat party in the 
 United States as were in favour of peace with the 
 South on any terms. — Copperhead is a poison- 
 ous serpent, also named dumb-rattle snake, red 
 viper, &c. 
 
 COPTS, in Egypt, the supposed descendants of 
 the ancient Egyptians, mingled with Greeks and 
 Persians. Their religion is a form of Christianity 
 derived from the Eutychians. 
 
 COPYHOLDERS, who hold an estate by a 
 copy of the rolls of a manor made by a steward of 
 the lord's court. They were enfranchised by 5 Vict 
 c. 35, 1841. By the Reform act in 1832, copy- 
 holders to the amount of wl. became entitled to 
 a vote for the county. The copyhold acts wei'e 
 amended by 21 & 22 Vict. c. 94 (1858). 
 
 COPYING-MACHINES (for letters, &c.) 
 were invented by James Watt in 1778 ; patented in 
 May, 1780; and 150 machines were sold before the 
 end of the year, Wedgwood's ''manifold writer" 
 was patented in 1806; and in 1855 Terry patented 
 
 H 2 
 
COPYRIGHT. 
 
 180 
 
 CORINTH. 
 
 a copying machine to be combined with the cover 
 of a book. 
 
 COPYRIGHT. Decree of the Star-chamber 
 regarding it, 1556. Every book and publication 
 ordered to be licensed, 1585. 
 
 Ordinance forbidding the printing of any work with- 
 out the consent of the owner .... 1649 
 
 The first copyright act (for 14 years, and for the 
 author's life if then living), 8 Anne . . . . 1709 
 
 This act confirmed by a decision of the house of 
 lords, and the claim of perpetual copyright over- 
 ruled 22 Feb - T 774 
 
 Later acts extended the author's right to 28 years, 
 and if living at the end of that time, then to the 
 remainder of his life. 
 
 Protection of copyright in prints and engravings, 
 17 Geo. Ill ■ „_ • ■ 1777 
 
 Copyright protection act (for 28 years, and the re- 
 mainder Of the author's life if then living), 
 54 Geo. Ill l8l 4 
 
 Dramatic authors' protection act, 3 Will. IV. c. 15 . 1833 
 
 Act for preventing the publication of lectures with- 
 out consent, 6 Will. IV. c. 65 1835 
 
 International copyright bill, 1 Vict. c. 59 . . 1838 
 
 5 and 6 Vict. c. 45 (Talfourd's or lord Mahon s act), 
 to amend the copyright act passed .... 1842 
 
 (By this act, the right is to endure for the life of the 
 author, and for seven years after his death ; but if 
 that time expire earlier than 42 years, the right is 
 still to endure for 42 years, for which term also any 
 work published after the author's death is to con- 
 tinue the property of the owners of the manu- 
 script) 
 
 The colonies' copyright act, 10 & 11 Vict. c. 95, 
 passed *847 
 
 COPYRIGHT FOR DESIGNS. 
 
 Protection granting security for two months to new 
 designs applied by printing to linens, calicoes, 
 and muslins '787 
 
 Extended to three months 1794 
 
 A copyright of 14 years conferred on sculpture, 1798 
 
 and 1814 
 
 The designs act of Geo. III. made to embrace printed 
 designs on wool, silk, and hair ; and 12 months' 
 copyright granted to designs applied to all tissues 
 except lace and those already provided for ; for 
 the modelling, embossing, and engraving of any 
 manufacture not being a tissue ; and for the shape 
 or configuration of any article .... 1839 
 
 By 5 & 6 Vict. c. 100, all existing designs acts re- 
 pealed (except that for sculpture), and provision 
 made for including all ornamental designs under 
 13 classes, and conferring upon them terms 
 of protection, varying from nine months to three 
 
 years *84 2 
 
 [Fees on registration vary from is. to i7.] 
 
 The "non-ornamental designs act," securing the 
 configuration of articles of utility (fee ioZ.), 
 passed in I 843 
 
 By the "designs act," the Board of Trade is em- 
 powered to extend the copyright for an additional 
 term of three years 1850 
 
 Copyright of photographs secured by the act pro- 
 tecting works of art, passed in . . July, 1862 
 
 INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT. 
 
 Acts passed to secure to authors, in certain cases, 
 the benefits of international copyright (1 & 2 Vict, 
 c. 59, and 15 Vict. c. 12), and conventions have, 
 in consequence, been entered into with France, 
 Prussia, &c 1838 and 1852 
 
 The question of a foreigner possessing a copy- 
 right in this country was finally decided in the 
 negative by the house of lords, who reversed the 
 decision of the court of exchequer, on an appeal 
 bv the defendant in the case of Boosey v. Jeffrey. 
 (In 1831, Mr. Boosey purchased the copyright of 
 Bellini's opera, La Sonnambula, from which Mr. 
 Jeffrey published a cavatina. Six of the judges 
 were for protecting foreign copyrights, and seven 
 of a contrary opinion.) Aug. 1854 
 
 International copyright bill introduced into Ameri- 
 can house of representatives . . 21 Feb. 1868 
 
 In the case of Routledge v. Low, the house of lords 
 
 on appeal decided in favour of the copyright of a 
 
 foreign author 29 Ma y. l8 63 
 
 Copyright Association of England, founded by emi- 
 nent London booksellers ... 19 March, 1872 
 
 CORBIESDALE, Caithness (N. Scotland). 
 Here, on 27 April, 1650, the gallant marquis of Mon- 
 trose was defeated by the Covenanters. He was 
 taken soon after, treated with great contumely, and 
 hanged at Edinburgh, on 21 May. 
 
 CORCYRA (now Corfu, cbief of the Ionian 
 Isles), a colony founded by the Corinthians about 
 734 B.C. It had frequent wars with the mother 
 country ; one about the possession of Epidamnus- 
 (431 B.C.) led to the Peloponnesian war. It was 
 subdued by the Spartans in 373, and by the 
 Eomans, 230. At the decline of the eastern empire 
 it fell into the hands of the Venetians about a.d. 
 IT49. The Turks attacked Corfu in 17 16, but were 
 gallantly repulsed. It was taken from the French 
 by the allied Russian and Turkish fleets 3 March, 
 1799, and formed (with the other isles) into the 
 Ionian republic ; see Ionian Isles. 
 
 CORDELIERS, friars of tbe order of St. 
 Francis d'Assisi (the Minoiites) instituted about 
 1223. They are clothed in coarse grey cloth, having 
 a girdle of cord, hence the name, first given to 
 them by St. Louis of France, about 1227. Several 
 members of the French revolutionary party, termed 
 "Cordeliers," established at Paris Dec. 1790 (He- 
 bert Cloots, &c), were executed 24 March, 1794. 
 
 CORDOVA, the Eoman Corduba (S. Spain), 
 founded about 152 B.C., taken by the Goths a.d. 
 572, and made the capital of an Arab kingdom by 
 Abderahman in 756, who founded the great mosqua 
 (now the cathedral) 786. It was the birthplace of 
 Seneca and Lucan, and of the Arabian physician 
 Averrhoes. It was rescued from the Arabs by 
 Ferdinand III. of Castile in 1236, was taken by 
 the French under Dupont and disgracefully ravaged 
 7-9 June, 1808 ; surrendered to Joseph Bonaparte 
 Jan. 1810; abandoned by the French in 1813 ; 
 plundered by the Carlists, Oct. 1836. 
 
 COREA, a peninsula, E. Asia, tributary to 
 China, and from which foreigners are rigidly ex- 
 cluded. For the dispute with Americans see United 
 States, June, 1871. 
 
 CORFU, see Corcyra. 
 
 CORINTH (Greece), a city said to have been 
 built 1^20 B.C. and named Ephyra. It was de- 
 fended by an elevated fortress called Acrocorinth, 
 surrounded with strong walls, and Cicero named it 
 the Eye of Greece. — For Corinth, in North America, 
 see United States, 1862, 1863. 
 
 The Isthmian games instituted, it is stated by Sisy- 
 phus, who founded a kingdom . . . B.C. 1326 
 Return of the Heraclidaj, or Dorians . . . . 1107 
 Their dynasty established by Aletes . . . 1074 
 
 The Corinthians invent ships called triremes (with 
 
 three benches of oars) .... 786 or 758 
 Reign of Bacchis, 925 ; oligarchy of Bacchidae 747-657 
 Thelestes deposed ; the government ot Prytanes 
 
 instituted ; Automenes, the first, . . about 745 
 The Corinthian colonies of Syracuse and Corcyra 
 
 founded about 734 
 
 Revolt of the Corcyreans : they defeat the Corin- 
 thians at sea 664 
 
 Cypselus, a despot, sets aside the Prytanes . . 655 
 His son Periander rules, and favours learning . 627-585 
 Psammetichus deposed, and a republic formed . 580 
 The Corinthians engaged in the Persian war . . 480 
 Defeated in war with the Corcyreans . . . 435 
 
 The Corinthian war (which see) 395 
 
 Timoleon kills his usurping brother Timophanes . 344 
 
CORINTHIAN. 
 
 181 
 
 CORNELL UNIVERSITY. 
 
 Acrocorinth (citadel) taken by Aratus, and annexed 
 
 to the Achaean League B.C. 243 
 
 The Roman ambassadors first appear at Corinth . 228 
 Greeks defeated at Cynoscephalse . . . . 197 
 Corinth sacked by Lucius Mummius, who sends to 
 Italy the first fine paintings there seen (Livy) . 146 
 
 Rebuilt by Julius Csasar 46 
 
 Visited by St. Paul (Acts xviii.) . . . a.d. 54 
 His two Epistles to the Corinthians . about 59, 60 
 
 Ravaged by Alaric 396 
 
 Plundered by Normans from Sicily .... 1146 
 Taken by Turks, 1446 ; by Venetians, 1687 ; Jby 
 Turks, June, 1714 ; from whom it was finally 
 
 taken by the Greeks in 1823 
 
 Nearly destroyed by an earthquake . . 21 Feb. 1858 
 A concession granted for 99 years to a French com- 
 pany to cut the isthmus for a canal ; to be com- 
 pleted in six years, by MM. E. G. Piat and Chollet 
 
 April, 1870 
 
 CORINTHIAN ORDER, the richest of the 
 orders of ancient architecture, called by Scamozzi 
 the virginal order, is attributed to Callimachus, 
 540 b.c. ; see -Abacus. 
 
 CORINTHIAN WAR, began 395 b.c; re- 
 ceived this name because mostly in the neighbour- 
 hood of Corinth ; waged by a confederacy of the 
 Athenians, Thebans, Corinthians, and Argives, 
 against the Lacedemonians. It was closed by the 
 peace of Antalcidas, 387 B.C. The most famous 
 battles were at Coronea and Leuctra (which see). 
 
 CORIOLI, a Latin city, capital of the Vol- 
 scians, taken by the Eomans, 493 B.C. The exploits 
 of Caius Marcius or Coriolanus against it are deemed 
 mythical. 
 
 CORK (S. Ireland), built in the 6th century. 
 The principality of the M'Cartys was converted 
 into a shire by king John, as lord of Ireland. The 
 foundation of the see is ascribed to St. Barr, or 
 Finbarr, early in the 7th century. About 1431, 
 this see and Cloyne were united ; but in 1678 they 
 were separated, Eoss having been added to Cork 
 1582. Cork and Cloyne were reunited (by the act 
 of 1833) 1835. 
 
 Garrisoned by Henry II 1172 
 
 First charter, from Henry II 1185 
 
 Supported Perkin Warbeck, who landed here . . 1492 
 
 A large part of the town burnt 1621 
 
 Taken by Cromwell 1649 
 
 Marlborough besieged and took Cork from king 
 James, when the duke of Grafton, a son of 
 
 Charles II., was slain 1690 
 
 The cathedral was rebuilt by the produce of a coal 
 
 duty, between the years . . . 1725 & 1735 
 Explosion of gunpowder here . . 10 Nov. 1810 
 One of the three colleges, endowed by government 
 pursuant to act 8 & 9 Vict. c. 66, passed 31 July, 
 1845, was inaugurated in this city (see Queen's 
 
 Colleges) 7 Nov. 1849 
 
 Railway to Dublin finished 1850 
 
 Cork industrial exhibition opened, 10 June, and 
 
 closed 11 Sept. 1852 
 
 For a seditious speech in favour of the Fenians 
 (which see), on 27 April, 1869, the mayor was com- 
 pelled to resign (an act for his disability having 
 been introduced into parliament) . 11 May, 1870 
 
 Riots, partially connected with a strike, suppressed 
 
 26, 28 June, „ 
 New protestant cathedral consecrated . 30 Nov. ,, 
 
 CORK-TREE, Qucrcus tuber, a species of the 
 oak; part of its bark used for stopping bottles. 
 The Egyptians made coffins of cork. The tree 
 grows in great abundance on the Pyrenean moun- 
 tains, and in other parts of Spain, in France, and 
 in the north of New England. It was brought to 
 England about 1690. A cork carpet company was 
 formed in 1862. 
 
 CORN. The origin of its cultivation is attri- 
 buted to Ceres, who, having taught the art to the 
 Egyptians, was deified by them, 2409 B.C. Arun- 
 delian Marbles. The art of husbandry, and the 
 method of making bread from wheat, and wine 
 from rice, is attributed by the Chinese to Ching 
 Noung, the successor of Fohi, and second monarch 
 of China, 1998 B.C. Univ. Mist. Corn provided a 
 common article of food from the earliest ages of the 
 world, and baking bread was known in the patri- 
 archal ages; see Exodus xii. 15. The first impor- 
 tation of corn, of which we have a note, was in 
 1347. A law restricting it was made in 1361, and 
 similar legislation followed. Bounties were granted 
 on its importation into England in 1689. 
 
 CORN LAWS. 
 
 The restrictions on the importation of com felt, in 
 consequence of the increase of manufactures, 
 about 1770 ; relaxed 1773 
 
 Mr. Robinson's act passed, permitting importation 
 when wheat is 80s. a quarter ..... 1815 
 
 During the discussions on this bill, mobs assembled 
 in London, and many of the houses of its sup- 
 porters were damaged, 28 Jan. ; and a riot in 
 Westminster continued ... 6-9 March, ,. 
 
 A corn bill, after passing in the commons, defeated 
 in the lords, by a clause proposed by the duke of 
 Wellington, carried by a majority of 4 .1 June, 1827 
 
 The act (called the sliding scale) whereby wheat was 
 allowed to be imported on payment of a duty of 
 il. 5s. 8d. per quarter, whenever the average price 
 of all England was under 62s. ; from 62s. to 63s., 
 il. 4s. 8d. ; and so gradually reduced to is. , when 
 the average price was 73s. and upwards, passed 
 
 15 July, 1828 
 
 The act 5 Vict. c. 14, the second " sliding scale act," 
 regulated the duty on wheat as follows, with 
 sliding duties, also, on other articles of corn, 
 passed 29 April, 1842 
 
 Average per quarter. Duty. 
 Shillings. Shillings. & s. d. 
 under 51 100 
 
 51 and under 52 o 19 o 
 
 52 and under 55 o 18 o 
 
 55 and under 56 o 17 o 
 
 56 and under 57 o 16 o 
 
 57 and under 58 o 15 o 
 
 58 and under 59 o 14 o 
 
 59 and under 60 o 13 o 
 
 60 and under 61 o 12 o 
 
 61 and under 62 o 11 o 
 
 62 and under 63 . . . . . o 10 o 
 
 63 and under 64 090 
 
 64 and under 65 080 
 
 65 and under 66 070 
 
 66 and under 69 060 
 
 69 and under 70 050 
 
 70 and under 71 040 
 
 71 and under 72 030 
 
 72 and under 73 . . . . .020 
 
 73 and upwards 010 
 
 The Corn Importation Bill (introduced by sir 
 
 Robert Peel), 9 & 10 Vict. c. 22 (by which the duty 
 on wheat was reduced to 4s. when imported at or 
 above 53s., until 1st Feb. 1849 ; after which day 
 the duty became is. per quarter only, on all kinds 
 of grain imported into the United kingdom, at 
 any prices), received the royal assent . 26 June, 1846 
 
 The is. duty repealed by act passed . 24 June, 1869 
 See Anti-Corn Law League. 
 
 Corn Exchange, Mark-lane, London, erected at an 
 expense of 90,000^. (replacing one established in 
 1747), was opened 24 June, 1828 
 
 The Society of Arts gave a prize to Mr. W. A. Gibbs 
 for his essay on harvesting corn in wet weather 
 
 23 Nov. 1868 
 
 CORNELL UNIVERSITY, Ithaca, New 
 York : for the study of the applied sciences, agri- 
 culture, engineering, &c. ; partially on a self-sup- 
 porting system ; founded by Ezra Cornell in 1868. 
 He had risen from poverty to wealth by patenting 
 his inventions. 
 
CORNWALL. 
 
 182 
 
 CORPULENCE. 
 
 CORNWALL, S. W. extremity of England, 
 originally called Kernou, a term connected with 
 the Latin cornu, a horn, probably in allusion to its 
 numerous promontories. On the retreat of the 
 yncient Britons, Cornwall is said to have been 
 formed into a kingdom, and to have existed many 
 years under different princes, among whom were 
 Ambrosius Aurelius, and the celebrated Arthur. 
 Cornwall is said to have been made an earldom by 
 Alfred. The eldest son of the British sovereign is 
 born duke of Cornwall. See Stannary Courts. 
 
 Bishopric of Cornwall, founded, 909 ; united to 
 
 Devonshire, 1040 ; removed to Exeter . 
 Cornwall given by the conqueror to Robert de 
 
 Mortein, his half-brother, 1068 ; killed . . . 
 "William, his son, dispossessed by Henry I. 
 Reginald de Dunstanville, natural son of Henry I., 
 
 earl 
 
 John Plantagenet, son of Henry II., earl, about 
 Richard Fitz-Count, son of Reginald, earl, 1215 ; 
 
 resigned 
 
 Richard, son of king John, 1225 ; elected king of the 
 
 Romans, 1256 ; died .... 2 April, 
 Edmund, son, earl, 1272 ; died without issue . . 
 Piers de Gaveston, earl, 1308 ; beheaded, 19 June, 
 John, son of Edward II., earl, 1330 ; died with issue 
 Cornwall made a, duchy, by Edward III., for Ed want 
 
 his eldest son, afterwards created prince of Wales 
 
 17 March, 
 Insurrection of Cornishmen under lord Audley, 
 
 Thomas Flammock, and others, against taxis ; 
 
 they march to London ; defeated at Blackheath 
 
 22 June, 
 Insurrection in Devon and Cornwall against the 
 
 Protestant liturgy, defeated by lord Russell, Aug. 
 Dolly Pentreath, said to have been the last person 
 
 who spoke Cornish, died aged 102 [contradicted] 
 Rev. R. Polwhele's "History of Cornwall "published 
 
 1046 
 
 1087 
 1 104 
 
 1220 
 
 1272 
 1300 
 1312 
 1336 
 
 1497 
 
 1549 
 
 1778 
 
 I03-8 
 1865 
 
 Prince and princess of Wales visit Cornwall, July, 
 
 Receipts from the duchy, 77,755/.— paid to the 
 
 prince of Wales, 53,403/ in 
 
 CORONATION. Leo I., emperor of the East, 
 was crowned by Anatolius, patriarch of Constan- 
 tinople, being the first instance of a Christian 
 sovereign receiving his crown from the hands of a 
 priest, 457. Majorian, emperor of the West, is said 
 to have been crowned in the same year in a similar 
 manner. 
 
 Charlemagne crowned emperor of the west by the 
 pope Leo III. (using the words " coronato a Deo," 
 " crowned by God ") .... 25 Dec. 800 
 Edward I., son of Alfred, crowned . 16 May, 
 William I. crowned at Westminster . . 25 Dec 
 Anointing at coronations introduced into England 
 
 872, and Scotland 
 
 Coronation of Henry III., in the first instance, 
 without a crown, at Gloucester. A plain circle 
 was used on this occasion in lieu of the crown, 
 which had been lost with the other jewels ami 
 baggage of king John, in passing the marshes of 
 Lynn, or the Wash, near Wisbeach . 28 Oct. 
 William and Mary crowned by Compton, bishop of 
 London, as Bancroft, archbishop of Canterbury, 
 would not take the oaths . . . 11 April, 
 
 George IV. crowned 19 July, 
 
 William IV. crowned, with his queen . . 8 Sept. 
 Victoria crowned 28 June, 
 
 902 
 1066 
 
 I«2I 
 
 1831 
 1838 
 
 Coronation Chair. In the cathedral of Cashel, formerly 
 the metropolis of the kings of Minister, was deposited 
 the Lia Fail, or Fatal Stone, on which they were 
 crowned. Tradition says, that in 513 Fergus, a prince 
 of the royal line, having obtained the Scottish throne, 
 procured the use of this stone for. his coronation at 
 Dunstaffhage, where it continued until the time of 
 Kenneth II., who removed it to Scone ; and in 1296 it 
 was removed by Edward I. from Scone to West- 
 minster. 
 
 A Coronation Oath was administered by Dunstan, 
 archbishop of Canterbury, to Ethelred II., in 978. An 
 oath, nearly corresponding with that now in use, was 
 
 administered in 1377. The oath prescribed by 1 "Will. & 
 Mary, c. 6 (1689) was modified in 1706, and again in 
 1821 on account of the union of the Churches of England 
 and Ireland. 
 
 CORONEA, BATTLES OF. I. (orChaeronea). 
 The Athenians were defeated and their general 
 Tolmides slain in a battle with the Boeotians at 
 Coronea near Chseronea, 447 B.C. II. The Athe- 
 nians, Thebans, Argives, and Corinthians having 
 entered into a league, offensive and defensive, 
 against Sparta, Agesilaus, after diffusing the terror 
 of his arms, from his many victories, even unto 
 Upper Asia, engaged the allies at Coronea, a town 
 of Boeotia, and achieved a great victory over them, 
 394 b-C- 
 
 CORONERS, officers of the realm, mentioned 
 in a charter, 925. Coroners for every county in 
 England were first appointed by statute of West- 
 minster, 3 Edw. I. 1275. Stow. They are chosen 
 for life by the freeholders, and their duty is to 
 inquire into the cause of unnatural death, upon 
 view of the body. By an act passed in 1843, 
 coroners are enabled to appoint deputies to act for 
 them in case of illness. Laws respecting coroners 
 amended i860. — 20,531 coroners' inquests were 
 held in England and Wales in 1859; 21,178 in 
 i860; 21,038 in 1861 ; 20,591 in 1862; 22,757 
 in 1863; 84,787 in 1864'; 25,011 in 1865; 24,926 in 
 1866; in 1867, 24,648 ; in 1868, 24,774; *"*■ 1869, 
 24,709 (17,191 males, 7518 females); in 1870, 
 25,376; in 1871, 25,898. 
 
 CORONETS, caps or inferior crowns of the 
 nobility. The coronets for earls were first allowed 
 by Henry III. ; for viscounts by Henry VIII. ; and 
 for barons by Charles II. Baker. But authorities 
 conflict. Sir Bobert Cecil, earl of Salisbury, was 
 the first of the degree of earl who wore a coronet, 
 1604. It is uncertain when the coronets of dukes 
 and marquises were settled. Beatson. 
 
 CORPORATIONS. Numa, in order to break 
 the force of the two rival factions of Sabines and 
 Romans, is said to have instituted separate 
 societies of manual trades. Plutarch. — Municipal 
 Corporations in England. Bodies politic, 
 authorised by the king's charter to have a common 
 seal, one head officer, or more, and members, who 
 are able, by their common consent, to grant or 
 receive in law any matter within the compass of 
 their charter. Cowett. Charters of rights were 
 granted by the kings of England to various towns, 
 first by Edward the Confessor. Henry I. granted 
 charters, 1100 : and succeeding monarchs gave cor- 
 porate powers to numerous communities through- 
 out the realm, subject to tests, oaths, and conditions. 
 Blackstone. The Corporation and Test act, passed 
 in 1661, was repealed in May, 1828. The Corpora- 
 tion Beform act, for the regulation of municipal 
 corporations in England and Wales, 5 & 6 Will. IV. 
 c. 76 (1835), was amended in 1869. The Irish 
 Municipal Corporation act, 4 Vict. c. 108, passed in 
 1840, was amended in 1861. The Corrupt Practices 
 (Municipal elections) act, was passed 6 Aug. 1872. 
 
 CORPULENCE. In Germany some fat monks 
 have weighed eighteen stone. Bender. 
 
 Mr. Bright, a tallow-chandler and grocer, of Maldon, 
 in Essex, who died in his 29th year. Seven per- 
 sons of the common size were with ease enclosed 
 in his waistcoat ; buried at All Saints, Maldon 
 
 12 Nov. 1750 
 
 Daniel Lambert, supposed to have been the heaviest 
 man that ever lived, died in his 40th year, at 
 Stamford, in Lincolnshire, weighing 52 stone 
 
CORPUS CHRISTI. 
 
 183 
 
 COSTA RICA. 
 
 ii pounds; (10 stone 4 pounds more than Mr. 
 Bright) 21 June, 1809 
 
 James Mansfield, died at Dehden, aged 82, weigh- 
 ing 34 stone ... . 9 Nov. 1856 
 
 Mr. Win. Banting published a letter on corpulence, 
 recommending, from his own experience, as a 
 remedy, great moderation in the use of sugar and 
 starch in diet. 5°.°°° copies of this letter were 
 speedily sold or given away 1863 
 
 CORPUS CHRISTI {Ftte Dieu in France), 
 a festival in the 1 Roman church, in honour of tran- 
 substantiation, kept on the Thursday after Trinity 
 Sunday {which see). It was instituted by pope 
 Urban IV. between 1262 and 1264, and confirmed 
 by tbe council of Vienne in 131 1. 
 
 CORPUS JURIS CIVILIS, see Justinian 
 Code. 
 
 " CORRELATION of the PHYSICAL 
 FORCES" is the title of a book by Mr. W. R. 
 Grove, F.R.S., who in 1842 enunciated the theory 
 of the correlation or mutual dependence and con- 
 vertibility into each other of all the forces of nature 
 (viz. heat, light, electricity, magnetism, chemical 
 affinity, and motion) . 
 
 CORRESPONDING SOCIETY of 
 
 LONDON, was formed about 1791 to spread 
 liberal opinions and check the severity of the 
 British government, then much alarmed by the 
 French revolution. Home Tooke and other mem - 
 bers were tried for treason and acquitted, Oct. 1794 ; 
 see Trials, 1794. The meetings of the society at 
 Copenhagen-fields and elsewhere, in 1795 and 1796, 
 were termed treasonable. — On 2 1 April, 1798, Messrs. 
 O'Connor, O'Coigley, and others, were tried for 
 corresponding with the French directory; and James 
 0' Coigley was executed as a traitor (protesting his 
 innocence) on 7 June. 
 
 CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE, see Mercury. 
 
 CORRUPT PRACTICES ACT, respecting 
 elections for members of parliament, was passed in 
 1854, and continued in following years. 
 
 CORSICA, an island in the Mediterranean Sea 
 (called by the Greeks Cyrnos) , held by the French. 
 The ancient inhabitants had the character of 
 robbers, liars, and atheists, according to Seneca. 
 Corsica was colonised by Phocreans 564 B.C., and 
 afterwards held by the Carthaginians, from whom 
 it was taken by the Eomans, 231 B.C. It has been 
 held by Vandals, a.d. 456; by Saracens 852; by 
 Pisans, 1077. It was dependent upon Genoa from 
 1559 till 1768, when it was ceded to France. 
 
 During a revolt erected into a kingdom under Theo- 
 dore, its first and only king 1736 
 
 He came to England, was imprisoned in the 
 King's Bench prison for debt, and long subsisted 
 on private friends, but released ; he gave in his 
 schedule the kingdom of Corsica to his creditors, 
 and died in Soho 1756 
 
 The earl of Oxford wrote the following epitaph, for 
 a tablet near his grave in St. Anne's church, 
 Dean-street : — 
 
 " The grave, great teacher ! to a level brings 
 Heroes and beggars, galley-slaves and kings. 
 But Theodore this moral learn'd ere dead ; 
 Fate pour'd its lesson on his living head, 
 Bestovv'd a kingdom and denied him bread." 
 
 Pascal Paoli chosen for their general by the Cor- 
 sicans 1753 
 
 Defeated by the count de Vaux, he fled to England 1769 
 
 Napoleon Bonaparte born at Ajaceio (5 Feb. 1768, 
 baptismal register ; doubtful) . . 15 Aug. 1769 
 
 The people acknowledge George III. of England for 
 king. 17 June, 1794 
 
 Sir Gilbert Eliott made viceroy, and opened a par- 
 liament 1795 
 
 A revolt suppressed, June ; the island relinquished 
 by the British, 22 Oct. ; the people declare lor the 
 French 1796 
 
 A statue to Napoleon I. inaugurated by prince 
 Napoleon Jerome .... 15 May, 1865 
 
 Visit by the empress and imperial prince . 4 Sept. 1869 
 
 CORTE NUOVA, near Milan, N. Italy. Here 
 the emperor Frederic II. defeated the Milanese 
 after a severe conflict, 27 Nov. 1237. 
 
 CORTES, the Spanish parliament, originating 
 in the old Gothic councils. The cortes were as- 
 sembled after a long interval of years, 24 Sept. 
 1810; and settled the new constitution, 16 March, 
 1812, which was set aside by Ferdinand VII. Avho 
 banished many members of the assembly in May, 
 1814. The cortes were reopened by him March, 
 1820, dissolved Oct. 1823 ; again assembled April, 
 1834, and have since been regularly convened. The 
 cortes of Portugal assembled by virtue of dom 
 Pedro's charter, 30 Oct. 1826 ; they were sup- 
 pressed by dom Miguel in 1828, and restored in 1833. 
 
 CORUNNA (N. W. Spain). The British army, 
 about 15,000 men, under the command of sir John 
 Moore, had just accomplished then- retreat when 
 they were attacked by the French, whose force ex- 
 ceeded 20,000 : the enemy were completely re- 
 pulsed, but the loss of the British in the battle was 
 immense, 16 Jan. 1809. Sir John was struck by a 
 cannon-ball, which carried away his left shoulder 
 and part of the collar-bone, and died universally 
 lamented. The remains of the army embarked at 
 Corunna, under sir David Baird, 17 Jan. 
 
 CORUS (Corupedion, or Cyropedium), a plain 
 in Phrygia, Asia Minor, where the aged_ Lysi- 
 machus was defeated by Seleucus, and slain, 281 
 B.C. These two were the only survivors of Alexander 
 the Great's generals. 
 
 CORVEE, forced labour and service under the 
 feudal system in France, was partially reuuced by 
 Louis XVI., at the instigation of Turgot, 27 June, 
 1787 ; by the constituent assembly, 18 March, 1790 ; 
 and totally abolished by the convention, 17 July, 
 1792. 
 
 CORYPHJEUS, the principal person of the 
 chorus in ancient tragedy. The name was given to 
 Tysias, or Stesichorus, who first instructed the 
 chorus to dance to the lyre, 556 B.C. 
 
 COSMOGRAPHY, see Astronomy and 
 
 Geography . 
 
 COSSACKS, warlike people inhabiting the 
 confines of Poland, Russia, Tartary, and Turkey. 
 They at first lived by plundering the Turkish 
 galleys and the people of Natolia ; but were formed 
 into a regular army by Stephen Bathori, about 
 1576, to defend the frontiers of Russia from the 
 Tartars. They joined the Russians in 1654, and 
 in the great war against France (1813-15) formed a 
 valuable portion of the Russian army. 
 
 COSSOVA, a plain in Servia. Here Amurathl. 
 totally defeated the Christian army (Servians, Hun- 
 garians, &c), Sept. 1389; but was himself killed 
 by an expiring soldier. Here John Huniades was 
 defeated by a Turkish army four times larger than 
 his own, 17 Oct. 1448. 
 
 COSTA RICA, a republic in Central America, 
 part of Guatemala, established independently Nov. 
 1848. It has been much disturbed by the American 
 filibusters, see Nicaragua and America, Central. 
 
COSTERMONGERS. 
 
 184 
 
 COTTON. 
 
 Constitution, 27 Dec. 1859. On 14 Aug. 1859, the 
 president Juan Mora was suddenly deposed, and Dr. 
 Jose Montealegre made president ; Dr. J. Ximenes 
 elected president 3 April, 1863, was succeeded by 
 Dr. Joseph Castro, 8 May, 1866; deposed ; J. Jimenez, 
 governor, Nov. 1868 ; Vicente Quadra proclaimed 
 president 12 March, 1871 ; J. M. Guardia, presi- 
 dent, elected 1871. 1'opulation 1872, estimated, 
 165,000. 
 
 COSTERMONGERS, itinerant dealers in 
 fruit, vegetables, fish, &c, deriving their name, it 
 is said, from costard, a favourite apple. The Lon- 
 don costermongers are useful in relieving the 
 markets when glutted; and it was said in i860, 
 that 3,000,000^. passed through their hands an- 
 nually. Previous to fasting and thanksgiving days, 
 they sell the appointed forms of prayers in great 
 numbers. On 22 Nov. i860, they held a meeting 
 in order to represent to the city authorities the 
 hardships they felt by the police restricting their 
 means of livelihood ; and the Metropolitan Streets 
 act was modified, 7 Dec. 1867. 
 
 COSTUME, see Dress. 
 
 COTTAGE. The term was originally applied 
 to a small house without land, 4 Edw. I. 1275. 
 " No man may build a cottage, except in towns, 
 unless he lay four acres of land thereto," &c, 31 
 Eliz. 1589. This statute was repealed, 15 Geo. III. 
 1775. By returns to the tax office, in 1786, the 
 number of cottages was 284,459. The number in 
 1800 was 428,214; the number in 1840 was about 
 770,000. In i860 the public attention was much 
 drawn to the deplorable state of cottages in many 
 parts of the country, and the law of settlement was 
 altered in 1865. 
 
 Cottage Improvement Society, founded 12 April, 1861, 
 has a museum in Arundel-street, Strand. Some 
 of the society's models appeared in the Interna- 
 tional Exhibitions — in London, 1862 ; in Paris . 1867 
 
 The Cottager's Stove, designed by captain John Grant, 
 registered and presented by him to the metropoli- 
 tan association for improving the dwellings of the 
 industrious classes Dec. 1849 
 
 COTTON, a vegetable wool, the produce of the 
 Gossypium, a shrub indigenous to the tropical 
 regions of India and America. Indian cotton cloth 
 is mentioned by Herodotus, was known in Arabia 
 in the time of Mahomet, 627, and 'was brought into 
 Europe by his followers. It does not appear to 
 have been in use among the Chinese till the 13th 
 century ; to them we are indebted for the cotton 
 fabric termed nankeen. Cotton was the material 
 of the principal articles of clothing among the 
 Americans when visited by Columbus. It was 
 grown and manufactured in Spain in the 10th 
 century; and in the 14th century was introduced 
 into Italy. Indian muslins, chintzes, and cottons 
 were so largely imported into England in the 17th 
 century, that in 1700 an act of parliament was 
 passed, prohibiting their introduction. Cotton be- 
 came the staple commodity of England in the 
 present century. About 1841 the "cotton' or 
 "Manchester" interest began to obtain political 
 influence, which led to the repeal of the corn laws 
 in 1846; see Calico, Muslin, &c. 
 
 Fustian and Velveteen made of cotton, about 1641. 
 
 Calico sheeting, &c. The fly-shuttle was invented by 
 John Kay, of Bury, 1738 ; the drop-box by Robert Kay, 
 1760 ; spinning by rollers (also attributed to John 
 Wyatt) patented by Louis Paul, 1738 ; the spinning- 
 jenny, by Hargreaves, 1767 ; the water-frame, by Ark- 
 wright, 1769 : the power-loom, by Rev. Dr. Edmund 
 Cartwright, 1785 ; the dressing machine, by Johnson 
 and Radcliffe, 1802-4 ; another power-loom, by Horrocks, 
 
 1803-13. A combing machine was patented by Joshua 
 Heilmann, in 1845. 
 
 British muslin, (totally superseding that of India) is due 
 mainly to the invention of the Mule (which see) by 
 Samuel Crompton, 1774-9 ; and to the self-acting mule 
 of Mr. Roberts, 1825. 
 
 Calico Printing commenced 1764. 
 
 The Steam-Engine first applied to the cotton manufacture 
 (by Boulton and Watts), 1785. 
 
 Bleaching by means of chloride of lime introduced by Mr. 
 Tennant, of Glasgow, 1798. 
 
 Stockings. The stocking-frame was invented by William 
 Lee, in 1589. Cotton stockings were first made by hand 
 about 1730; Jedediah Strutt obtained .1 patent for 
 Derby ribbed stockings in 1759 ; and Horton patented 
 his knotter frame in 1776 ; Crompton's mule was em- 
 ployed in making thread for the stocking manufacture 
 about 1770. 
 
 Cotton-Lace— Bobbin-net. The stocking-frame of Lee was 
 applied to lace-making by Hammond, about 1768 ; the 
 process perfected by John Heathcoat, i8oq. 
 
 COTTON FIBRE IMPORTED INTO THE UNITED KINGDOM. 
 
 lb. 
 592,500,000 
 
 lb. 
 
 1697. . . 1,976,359 
 
 1710 . . . 715,008 
 
 1730. • • 1,545,472 
 
 1765 . . . 3,870,392 
 
 1782. . . 11,828,039 
 
 1790 . . . 31,500,000 
 
 1800 . . . 56,000,000 
 
 1810 . . . 132,500,000 
 
 1820. . . 151,500,000 
 
 1830 . . . 264,000,000 
 
 American Cotton. Previous to 1795, 
 came from the East and West Indies, 
 a little from the United States. About 1786, the growth 
 of cotton began in Georgia. In 1793, Eli Whitney, an 
 American, invented the saw-gin, a machine by which 
 cottonwool is separated from the pod and cleaned with 
 great ease and expedition.* This led to such increased 
 cultivation that the United States soon exported 
 1,500,000 lb. of cotton; in 1795, 5,250,000th. ; in 1820, 
 
 i860 
 
 1862 
 1863 
 
 1870 
 
 • • i.39 >938,752 
 . 1,256,984,736 
 
 • ■ 523.973,296 
 
 669.583,264 
 
 • ■ 893,304,720 
 . 977,978,288 
 
 • ■ 1.377,129,936 
 . 1,328,084,016 
 
 . . 1,338,305,584 
 
 our cotton fibre 
 the Levant, and 
 
 74 lb. ; in 1830, 210,885,358 Ih. ; in 1840, 
 487,856,504 lb. ; in 1847, 364,599,291 lb. ; in 1859, 
 961,707,264 lb. ; in i860, 1,115,890,608 lb. ; in 1861, 
 819,500,528 lb. ; in 1866, 520,057,440 lb. ; in 1870, 
 716,245,040 lb. 
 
 Cotton imported fromother countries : In 1847, 110,208,324ft. ; 
 in 1859, 264,281,808 ft. ; in i860, 215,048,144ft. ; in 1861, 
 437,481,208 ft. ; in 1870, 621,959,544 ft. 
 
 Cotton imported from India : 1856, 463,000 bales ; official 
 value, 3,572,329?. ; in 1865, 1,266,520 bales ; value, 
 25,025,856/. : in 1866, 1,847,770 bales ; value, 25,270,547/. 
 
 Australian Cotton said by Manchester manufacturers to 
 be superior to the best American cotton, Jan. 1861. 
 
 A company formed at Manchester to obtain cotton from 
 India, Africa, and other places (arose out of the Cotton 
 Supply Association, formed in 1857), Sept. i860. 
 
 Since 1861, the cultivation of cotton in India, Egypt, 
 Italy, &c. has greatly increased. 
 
 Cotton imported from Egypt in 1856, 34,399,008 ft. ; in 1870, 
 143,700,114 ft. 
 
 Act for collection of cotton statistics passed 25 June, 
 1868. 
 
 Cotton Factories regulated by acts of parliament passed 
 in 1825, 1831, 1833, and 1844. The hours of labour were 
 limited, and the employment of children under nine 
 years of age prohibited. In 1846, 1724 cotton mills 
 employed 197,500 persons. In 1862, the persons em- 
 ployed were stated to be 451,000; 315,000 in Lanca- 
 shire. 
 exports of cotton goods, yarn, &c, from united 
 
 
 KINGDOM. 
 
 
 
 Official Value. 
 
 
 Official Value. 
 
 1697 . 
 
 £5,915 
 
 i860 . 
 
 . £52,012,430 
 
 1701 
 
 • • 23,253 
 
 1861 . 
 
 . . 46,872,489 
 
 1751 • 
 
 45,986 
 
 1862 . 
 
 • 36,750,971 
 
 1780 
 
 . . 355,000 
 
 1863 . 
 
 . . 47,587,188 
 
 1790 . 
 
 . 1,662,369 
 
 1864 . 
 
 . 54,882,329 
 
 1800 
 
 . . 5,406,501 
 
 1866 . 
 
 • • 74,565,426 
 
 1820 . 
 
 . 20,509,926 
 
 1870 . 
 
 . 71,410,131 
 
 1847 . 
 
 • • 23,333,225 1 
 
 
 * A trial of various kinds of cotton gins, under the di- 
 rection of Dr. Forbes Watson, took place at Manchester, 
 28 Nov. -23 Dec. 1871. 
 
COTTONIAN LIBEAEY. 
 
 185 
 
 COUNCILS. 
 
 COTTON FAMINE. 
 
 The supply of cotton from North America nearly ceased, 
 in consequence of the secession of the southern states 
 from the union in 1860-61. In 1852, Mr. T. Bazley 
 warned the country on the danger of trusting to this 
 source. In May, 1862, he stated that through its 
 failure the loss of the labouring classes was 12,000,000/. 
 sterling a year, and estimated the loss, including the 
 employing classes, at nearly 40,000,000/. a year. 
 
 At a meeting of noblemen and gentlemen, connected with 
 the cotton manufacturing districts, at Bridgewater- 
 house, St. James's, on 19 July, 1862, the earl of Derby 
 in the chair, 10,000/. were subscribed to the Cotton 
 District Relief Fund. The viceroy of Egypt, in London 
 at the time, gave 1000/., and the queen gave 2000 J. on 
 24 July. Liberal subscriptions flowed in from all 
 parts. On 28 Aug., the lord mayor had received 
 41,902/. 
 
 In the Lancashire district (population about 4,000,000) 
 there were receiving parish relief, Sept. 1861, 43,500 
 persons ; in Sept. 1862, 163,498. Earl of Derby, 2 Dec. 
 1862. 
 
 In July, 1863, about the value of 700,000?. remained of 
 the donations which had been received in money and 
 goods, amounting to about 1,900,000/. 
 
 On 9 Feb., 1863, the 'George Griswold" arrived, con- 
 taining contributions of provisions, &c, from North 
 America, for the relief of the sufferers in Lancashire. 
 
 The Union Relief Act (passed Aug. 1862, and continued 
 in 1863) gave much relief by enabling overseers to 
 borrow money to be expended in public works to be 
 executed by the unemployed workmen. 
 
 In Oct. 1864, much distress still existed, and fears were 
 entertained for the approaching winter — 90,000 more 
 paupers than ordinary in cotton districts. Times, 
 18 Jan. 1865. 
 
 In June, 1865, Mr. Farnall, the special commissioner 
 (appointed in May, 1862) was recalled by the poor-law 
 board, and the famine was declared to be ended. 
 1,000,000/. had heen expended in two years. The 
 executive of the Central Belief Fund held their last 
 meeting, 4 Dec. 1865. 
 
 The account of the fund was made up in 1873. The 
 balance, above 130,000/., was proposed to be appro- 
 priated to the foundation of a convalescent hospital for 
 Lancashire. 
 
 A memorial window (the gift of the cotton operatives of 
 Lancashire, who subscribed to commemorate the muni- 
 ficence of the metropolis to them during the cotton 
 famine, 1861-4) placed in Guildhall and uncovered, 
 15 July, 1868. 
 
 COTTONIAN LIBEAEY, formed by sir 
 Robert Bruce Cotton, 1600, et seq. He died 6 May, 
 1631. It was rescued from the republicans during 
 trie protectorate, 1649-60, and was secured to the 
 public by a statute in 1700. It was removed to 
 Essex-house in 1712; in 1730 to Dean's-yard, 
 Westminster (where on 23 Oct. 1731, a part of the 
 books sustained damage by fire) ; to the British 
 Museum in 1757. 
 
 COULMIEES, a village ten miles west of 
 Orleans, central France. Here the Bavarians, 
 under general Von der Tann, were defeated by the 
 French army of the Loire, under general d'Aurelle 
 de Paladines, who took about 2000 prisoners, 9 Nov. 
 1870, and regained Orleans. 
 
 COUNCILS. King Alfred, in about 886, is 
 said to have so arranged the business of the 
 nation, that all resolutions passed through three 
 councils. The first was a select council which con- 
 sidered all affairs to be laid before the second council, 
 bishops and nobles appointed by the king, like the 
 present privy council. The third was a general 
 assembly of the nation, called, in Saxon, "Wittena- 
 gemot, in which quality and offices gave a right to 
 Bit. In these three councils we behold the origin of 
 the cabinet, privy councils, and parliaments; see 
 Cabinet, Common, and Privy Councils, &c. 
 
 COUNCILS of the Church. The follow- 
 ing are among the most memorable. Those num- 
 
 bered are the (Ecumenical or General Councils. Sir 
 Harris Nicolas in his "Chronology of History," 
 enumerates 1604 councils, and gives an alphabetical 
 list. 
 
 Of the church at Jerusalem {Acts xv.) ... 50 
 Of the western bishops at Aries, in France, to sup- 
 press the Donatists ; three fathers of the English 
 church attended 314 
 
 I. First Oecumenical or General, at Nice (Constan- 
 tine the Great presided), decreed the consubstan- 
 tiality of the Son of God, condemned Arianism, 
 
 and composed the Nicene creed .... 325 
 
 At Tyre, against Athanasius 335 
 
 The first at Constantinople, when the Arian heresy 
 
 gained ground 337 
 
 At Borne, in favour of Athanasius . . . . 342 
 At Sardis : 370 bishops attended ; Arians con- 
 demned 347 
 
 At Rimini : 400 bishops attended ; Constantine 
 obliged them to sign a new confession . . . 359 
 
 II. Constantinople : 350 bishops attended, and pope 
 Damasus presided . . . May to July, 381 
 
 III. Ephesus, when pope Celestine presided ; Pela- 
 gius censured . . . .22 June to 31 July, 431 
 
 IV. Chalcedon : Marcian and his empress attended; 
 Eutychianism censured . . . .8 Oct. 451 
 
 V. Constantinople : pope Vigilius presided ; against 
 errors of Origen ... 4 May to 2 June, 553 
 
 VI. Constantinople : pope Agatho presided ; against 
 Monothelites . . 7 Nov. 680, to 16 Sept. 68r 
 
 Authority of the six general councils re-established 
 by Theodosius ....... 715 
 
 VII. Second Nicene : 350 bishops attended ; against 
 Iconoclasts ... 24 Sept. to 23 Oct. 787 
 
 VIII. Constantinople : the emperor Basil attended ; 
 against Iconoclasts and heresies 
 
 5 Oct. 869, to 28 Feb. 87a 
 At Clermont, convened by Urban II. to autho- 
 rise the crusa\les : 310 bishops attended . . 1095 
 
 IX. First Lateran : right of investiture settled by 
 treaty between pope Calixtus II. and the emperor 
 Henry V. . . . 18 March to 5 April, 1123 
 
 X. Second Lateran : Innocent II. presided ; pre- 
 servation of temporalities of ecclesiastics, the 
 principal subject ; 1000 fathers of the church 
 attended 20 April, 1139 
 
 XL Third Lateran, against schismatics, 
 
 5 to 19 March, 1179 
 
 XII. Fourth Lateran : 400 bishops and 1000 abbots 
 attended ; Innocent III. presided ; against Albi- 
 genses, &c 11 to 30 Nov. 1215 
 
 XIII. Lyons ; under pope Innocent IV. : emperor 
 Frederick II. deposed . 28 June to 17 July, 1245 
 
 XIV. Lyons ; under Gregory X. : temporary union 
 
 of Greek and Latin churches, 7 May to 17 June, 1274 
 
 XV. Vienne in Dauphine : Clement V. presided, and 
 the kings of France and Aragon attended ; order 
 of Knights Templars suppressed, 
 
 16 Oct. 1311 ; 3 April and 6 May, 1312 
 
 XVI. Pisa : Gregory XII. and Benedict XIII. de- 
 posed ; Alexander elected, 5 March to 7 Aug. 1409 
 
 XVII. Constance : Martin V. elected pope ; and 
 John Huss and Jerome of Prague condemned to 
 
 be burnt 1414-1418 
 
 XVIII. Basel 1431-1443 
 
 XIX. Fifth Lateran : begun by Julius II. . . 1512 
 Continued under Leo X. for the suppression of the 
 
 pragmatic sanction of France, against the council 
 
 of Pisa, &c. , till 1517 
 
 XX. Trent : held to condemn the doctrines of the 
 reformers, Luther, Zuinglius, and Calvin. (See 
 Trent.) .... 13 Dee. 1545, to 3 Dec. 1563 
 
 XXI. Rome : summoned by an encyclical letter, 
 
 8 Sept. 1868 ; met 8 Dec. 1869 
 
 Present : 6 archbishop-princes, 49 cardinals, 11 
 patriarchs, 680 archbishops and bishops, 28 
 abbots, 29 generals of orders — 803 in all . . „ 
 There were held four public sessions, and between 
 90 and 100 congregations. New canons were 
 issued 24 April, 1870, and after much discussion 
 and opposition, the infallibility of the pope 
 as head of the Church was affirmed by 547 
 placets against 2 non-placets, and promulgated, 
 
 18 July, 1870 
 Many bishops withdrew from the discussion. The 
 council then adjourned to, 11 Nov. (see Rome) . „ 
 
COUNCILS. 
 
 186 
 
 COUKT OF SESSION. 
 
 COUNCILS, FRENCH. The Council of 
 Ancients, consisting- of 250 members, together 
 with the council of Five hundred, instituted at 
 Paris, 1 Nov. 1795: the executive was a Directory 
 of Five. Bonaparte dispersed the council of Five 
 hundred at St. Cloud, 9 .Nov. 1799, declaring him- 
 self, Roger Ducos, and Sieyes, consuls provisoires ; 
 see France. 
 
 COUNCILS of Conciliation, to adjust 
 
 differences between masters and workmen, may be 
 established by licence of the secretary of state, by 
 virtue of an act passed 15 Aug. 1867. 
 
 COUNSEL are supposed to be coeval with the 
 curia regis. Advocates are referred to the time of 
 Edward I., but are mentioned earlier. Counsel who 
 ■were guilty of deceit or collusion were punishable 
 by the statute of Westminster, 13 Edw. I. 128=;. 
 Counsel were allowed to persons charged with 
 treason by act 8 Will. III. 1696. An act to enable 
 persons indicted for felony to make their defence 
 by counsel, passed Aug. 1836 ; see Barristers and 
 King's Counsel. 
 
 COUNT, Latin conies, a companion ; French 
 comte; equivalent to the English earl (whose wife 
 is still termed a countess), and to the German graf ; 
 see Champagne and Toulouse. 
 
 COUNTERPOINT (in music), writing the 
 chords to a melody. The earliest known specimen 
 of contrapuntal writing is by Adam de la Halle in 
 the 12th century. 
 
 COUNTESS of HUNTINGDON'S Con- 
 nexion; see Whitefieldites. 
 
 , COUNTIES or Shires. The division of this 
 kingdom into counties began, it is said, with king 
 Allred ; but some counties bore their present names 
 above a century before. The division of Ireland into 
 counties tookplace in 1562. Lord-lieutenants were 
 appointed in 1549 in England, and in 1831 in Ireland. 
 Counties first sent members to parliament, before 
 which period knights met in their own counties, 
 1285. Chandos Clause, Sect. 20 of the Reform 
 act, 2 Will. 4, c. 45 (1832), inserted by the motion 
 of the marquis of Chandos. By it occupiers as 
 tenants of land paying an annual rent of 50/. be- 
 came entitled to a vote for the knight of the shire. 
 It increased the number of tory voters, and in con- 
 sequence several attempts were made to repeal it. 
 It was superseded by the Reform act of 1? Aug. 
 1867. 3 ° 
 
 COUNTRY PAETY, see Court Party. 
 
 . COUNTY-COUETS or schyremotes, in the 
 time of the Saxons, were important tribunals. 
 Alfred is said to have divided England into coun- 
 ties, and counties into hundreds ; but county-courts 
 seem to have existed much earlier. 
 
 County-Courts, for the recovery of debts under 10I., 
 superseding courts of requests, instituted by 9 & 
 10 Vict. c. 95 26 Aug. 1846 
 
 The counties of England and Wales are divided into 
 sixty districts, each district having a county- 
 court, with a barrister as judge, and juries when 
 necessary. Their jurisdiction extended by 13 & 14 
 Vict. c. 61, to sums not exceeding 50/., 1850. 
 
 Their proceedings facilitated in 1852 and 1854 ; 
 60 county-courts in England and Wales . . 1868-72 
 
 In 1S50 plaints entered at the courts of the sixty 
 circuits were 306,793, for 1,265,115/. ; in 1857, 
 744,652 plaints for 1,937,745/. ; of the 217,173 
 causes tried, 4297 were for sums between 20/. 
 and 50/. 
 
 From 1847 to 1858 judgment was obtained in these 
 courts for 8,309,236/. 
 
 Equity powers, like those of the court of chancery, 
 111 cases relating to sums under 500/., conferred on 
 these courts, to begin 1 Oct. 1865 
 
 Their jurisdiction still further enlarged . 20 Aug. 1867 
 Admiralty jurisdiction conferred on them by act 
 passed July, 1868, amended . . . Aug. 1869 
 
 COUEIEES. Xenophon attributes the first to 
 Cyrus ; and Herodotus says that they were common 
 among the Persians ; see Esther iii. 15, about $10 
 b.c. The Greeks and Romans had no regular 
 couriers till the time of Augustus, when they tra- 
 velled in cars, about 24 B.C. Couriers or posts are 
 said to have been instituted in France by Charle- 
 magne about a.d. 800. Couriers for letters were 
 employed by Louis XL of France, 1463. Henault. 
 See Post-office. 
 
 COUELAND, a duchy of Livonia, conquered 
 by Danes, 1218; by Teutonic knights, 1239; sub- 
 jected to Poland in 1561, conquered by Charles XII. 
 of Sweden in 1701 ; Ernest Biren, duke, 1737; his 
 son, Peter, 1769; annexed to Russia, March, 1795. 
 
 COUET BAEON, an ancient court which 
 every lord of a manor may hold by prescription. In 
 it duties, heriots, and customs are received, and 
 estates and surrenders are passed. Its jurisdiction 
 was restricted in 1747 and 1833. By the Small 
 Debts Act, 1856, lords of the manor may give up 
 holding these courts. 
 
 COUET CIECULAE, conservative weekly 
 paper; established 26 April, 1856. 
 
 COUET DEESS, see Dress. 
 
 COUET JOUENAL, fashionable journal, 
 established 1829. 
 
 COUET LEET, an ancient court of record, 
 belonging to a hundred, instituted for punishing 
 encroachments, nuisances, fraudulent weights and 
 measures, &c. The steward is judge, and all per- 
 sons residing within the hundred (peers, clergymen, 
 &c, excepted) are obliged to do suit within this 
 court. 
 
 COUET PAETY-COUNTEY PAETY, 
 
 politicians in the parliaments of England, beginning 
 about 1620. At the end of the 17th century the 
 latter embodied toryism and high church principles, 
 maintained the rights of "the land," as opposed 
 to whiggism and the trading interests. Its most 
 distinguished statesman was sir Thomas Hanmer 
 (the Alonialto of Pope's Satires), who died in 1746. 
 A.she. 
 
 COUET OF HONOUR. In England the 
 court of chivalry, of which the lord high constable 
 was ajudge, was called Curia Militaris, in the time 
 of Henry IV., and subsequently the Court of Honour. 
 In Bavaria, to prevent duelling, a court of honour 
 was instituted in April, 1819. Mr. Joseph Hamil- 
 ton for many years ardently laboured to establish a 
 similar institution in Britain. 
 
 COUET OF JUSTICIAEY, HIGH, in 
 
 Scotland, constituted by a commission under the 
 great seal, 1671, ratified 1672. The present lord- 
 justice-general, the right hon. John Inglis, was ap- 
 pointed, Feb. 1867, and the lord justice-clerk, the 
 right hon. James Moncrieff, Nov. 1869. The pro- 
 cedure in this court was amended by an act passed 
 in 1868. 
 
 COUET OF SESSION, the highest civil 
 tribunal in Scotland, was instituted by James V. by 
 statute, 17 May, 1532. It consisted of 14 judges 
 and a president, and replaced a committee of parlia- 
 ment. In 1830 the number of judges was reduced ; 
 
COURT OF REQUESTS. 
 
 187 
 
 CRACOW. 
 
 and the court now consists of the lord president, the 
 lord justice-clerk, and II ordinary judges. In 1867 
 the necessity of renovating this court was asserted 
 by high legal authority ; and an act to amend its 
 procedure was passed 31 July, 1868. The present 
 lord president, the right hon. John Inglis, was ap- 
 pointed, Nov. 1867. 
 
 COURT OF REQUESTS (or Court of Con- 
 science), first instituted in the reign of Henry VII. 
 1493, and remodelled by Henry VIII. in 1517. Stow. 
 Established for the summary recovery of small debts 
 under forty shillings ; but in the city of London 
 the jurisdiction extends to debts of five pounds. 
 Ashe. The courts of requests superseded in 1847 
 by the County Courts {which see) . 
 
 COURT THEATRE, Sloane-square, Chelsea, 
 opened 25 Jan. 1871 ; Miss Litton first manager. 
 
 COURTRAI (Belgium). Here Robert, count 
 of Artois, who had defeated the Flemings in 1297, 
 was defeated and slain by them, 11 July, 1302. The 
 conflict was named the " Battle of Spurs," from the 
 number of gilt spurs collected. 
 
 COURTS MARTIAL are regulated by the 
 Mutiny act, first passed in 1690. The powers of 
 these courts were much discussed in 1867, in conse- 
 quence of the measures used to suppress the negro 
 insurrection in Jamaica, Oct. 1866. 
 
 COURTS OF JUSTICE were instituted at 
 Athens, 1507 B.C. (see Areiopagus) ; by Moses, 1491 
 B.C. {Exod. xviii. 25), and in Rome. For these 
 realms, see Chancery, Common Pleas, Exchequer, 
 King's Bench, &c. The citizens of London were 
 privileged to plead their own cause in the courts of 
 judicature, without employing lawyers, except in 
 pleas of the crown, 41 Hen. III. 1257. Stoiv. The 
 rights of the Irish courts were established by the 
 British parliament in April, 1783. 
 
 COURTS OF LAW FEES ACT, passed 20 
 Aug. 1867, directs the application of surplus fees 
 towards providing new courts of justice. Acts for 
 building these courts were passed in 1865 and 1866. 
 The plan for their erection by Mr. Street was ap- 
 proved of in 1871. 
 
 COUTRAS (S. W. France). Here Henry of 
 
 Navarre totally defeated the due de Joyeuse and the 
 royalists, 20 Oct. 1587. 
 
 COVENANTERS, those persons who in the 
 reign of Charles I. having signed the solemn league 
 and covenant, engaged to stand by each other in 
 opposition to the projects of the king in 1638. The 
 covenant or league between England and Scotland 
 (the preceding one modified), solemnly adopted by 
 the parliament, 25 Sept. 1643 ; was accepted by 
 Charles II. 16 Aug. 1650, but repudiated by him on 
 Ms restoration in 1661, when it was declared to be 
 illegal by parliament, and copies of it ordered to be 
 burnt. See Cameronians and Bothwell Bridge. 
 
 The covenant consisted of six articles : 
 
 1. The preservation of the reformed church in Scotland 
 and the reformation of religion in England and Ireland. 
 
 2. The extirpation of popery, prelacy, schism, <&c. 
 
 3. The preservation of the liberties of parliament and the 
 king's person and authority. 
 
 4. The discovery and punishment of all malignants, &c. 
 
 5. The. preservation of " a blessed peace between these 
 kingdoms ; " 
 
 6. The assisting all who enter into the covenant : 
 "This will we do as in the sight of God." 
 
 COVENT GARDEN (London), corrupted 
 from " Convent Garden,'' having been the garden 
 of St. Peter's convent. The square was built about 
 
 1633, and the piazza on the north side and the church 
 were designed by Inigo Jones. The fruit and vege- 
 table markets were rebuilt in 1829-30, from designs 
 by Mr. Fowler (the ground belonging to the duke 
 of Bedford). 
 
 COVENT GARDEN THEATRE sprang: 
 out of one in Lincoln's-inn-fields, through a patent 
 granted 14 Chas. II. 1662, to sir William Davenant, 
 whose company was denominated the "duke's ser- 
 vants," as a compliment to the duke of York, after- 
 wards James II. ; see under Theatres. — The present 
 theatre by E. Barry was opened 15 May, 1858. The 
 FloralHall adjoining it was opened 7 March, i860, 
 with the volunteers' ball. 
 
 COVENTRY ACT passed, to prevent malicious- 
 maiming and wounding, 6 March, 167 1, in conse- 
 quence of sir John Coventry, K.B., M.P., being 
 maimed in the streets of London, by sir Thomas 
 Sandys and others, adherents of the duke of Mon- 
 mouth, 21 Dec. 1670. Repealed 1828. 
 
 COVENTRY (Warwickshire). Leofric, earl 
 of Mercia, lord of Coventry, is said to have relieved 
 it from heavy taxes, at the intercession of his wife- 
 Godiva, on condition of her riding naked through 
 the streets, about 1057. Processions in her memory 
 took place in 185 1 ; on 23 June, 1862 ; 4 June, 1866; 
 and 20 June, 1870. A parliament was held here in 
 the reign of Henry IV. called parliamen turn indoc- 
 tum, or the unlearned parliament, because lawyers 
 were excluded, 1404 ; and in the reign of Henry VI. 
 another met, called parliamentum diabolicum, from 
 the acts of attainder passed against the duke of York 
 and others, 20 Nov. 1459. The town was sur- 
 rounded with strong walls, three miles in circum- 
 ference, and twenty-six towers, which were de- 
 molished by order of Charles II. in 1662. The 
 ribbon makers here suffered much from want of 
 work in the winter of 1860-1. An industrial exhi- 
 bition here was opened by earl Granville, 19 June ; 
 closed by the earl of Clarendon, 21 Oct. 1867. The- 
 Bishoprtc was founded by Oswy, king of Mercia, 
 656, and had the double name" of Coventry and 
 Lichfield, which was reversed by later bishops. It 
 was so wealthy, that king Offa, by the favour of 
 pope Adrian, made it archiepiscopal ; but this title 
 was laid aside on the death of that king. In 1075, 
 the see was removed to Chester ; in 1 102 to Coventry ; 
 aad afterwards to its original foundation, Lichfield, 
 but with great opposition from the monks of Co- 
 ventry. Coventry merged into the bishopric of 
 Lichfield {which see) . 
 
 COW-POCK INOCULATION; see Small 
 
 Pox and Vaccination. 
 
 CRACOW, a city in Austrian Poland. The 
 Poles elected Cracus for their duke, who built Cra- 
 cow with the spoils taken from the Franks about 700. 
 It was their capital, 1320-1609. Cracow was taken 
 by Charles XII. in 1702, and taken and retaken 
 several times by the Russians and other confede- 
 rates. The sovereign was crowned at Cracow until 
 1764. The Russians, who had taken it 1768, were 
 expelled by Kosciusko, 24 March, 1794 ; but it sur- 
 rendered to the Prussians, 15 June same year, and 
 in 1795 was awarded to Austria. Cracow was formed 
 into a republic, June, 1815. Occupied by 10,00a 
 Russians, who followed here the defeated Poles, 
 Sept. 1831. Its independence was extinguished: 
 and it was seized by the emperor of Austria, and 
 incorporated with his empire, 16 Nov. 1846, which 
 was protested against by England, France, Sweden, 
 and Turkey ; see Poland. A dreadful fire laid the- 
 greater part of the city in ashes, 18 July. 1850. The 
 
CRANES. 
 
 188 
 
 CRESCENT. 
 
 discovery on 22 July, 1869, of Barbare Abryk, a nun, 
 secluded for 21 years in a convent cell, led to violent 
 rioting. 
 
 CRANES are of very early date, for the engines 
 of Archimedes maybe so called. In 1857 a crane 
 had been erected at Glasgow capable of lifting 50 
 tons. 
 
 CRANIOLOGY (or Phrexology), the 
 study of the external form of the human skull, as 
 indicative of mental powers and moral qualities. 
 Dr. Gall, the propounder, was a German physician, 
 ■bom March, 1758, and his first observations were 
 .among his schoolfellows. Afterwards he studied 
 the heads of criminals and others, and eventually 
 reduced his ideas to a svstem, marking out the skull 
 like a map. His first lecture was given at Vienna 
 in 1796; but in 1802 the Austrian government pro- 
 hibited his teaching. In iSoohe was joined by Dr. 
 Spurzheim ; and in 1810-12 they published at Paris 
 their work on the " Anatomy and Physiology of the 
 Nervous System, and of the Brain in particular." 
 Gall died "in 1828. The researches of Gall and 
 Spurzheim led to increased study of the brain. 
 Combe's "Phrenology," first published in 1819, is 
 the popular English work on this subject. Phreno- 
 logical societies were formed early in London and 
 Edinburgh. 
 
 CRANNOGES, see Lake-dwellings. 
 
 CRANMER, Latimer, and Ridley, mar- 
 tyrdom of, see Protestants, note. 
 
 CRANNON or CBA2TON, Thessaly, N. Greece. 
 Near here the Macedonians under Antipater and 
 •Craterus defeated the confederated Greeks, twice by 
 sea, and once by land, 322 B.C. The Athenians de- 
 manded peace, and Antipater put their orators to 
 ■death, among whom was Hyperides, who, that he 
 might not betray the secrets of his country when 
 under torture, cut out his tongue, and Demosthenes 
 is said to have taken poison shortly after. 
 
 CRANWORTH'S ACT, LORD, to simplify 
 
 the practice of conveyancers, 23 and 24 Vict. c. 145 
 (i860). 
 
 CRAONNE (N. France). Here Victor and 
 Ney defeated the Prussians under Bliicher after 
 a. severe contest, 7 March, 1814. 
 
 CRAPE- It is said some crape was made by St. 
 33adour, when queen of France, about 680. It is 
 •said to have been first made at Bologna. 
 
 CRAVANT, see Orevant. 
 CRAYFORD (Kent). Hengist the Saxon is 
 said to have defeated the Britons here, 457. 
 
 CRAYONS, coloured substances made into 
 paste, and dried into pencils, were known in France 
 -about 1422 ; and improved by L'Oriot, 1748. 
 
 CREASOTE, or KllEASOTE (discovered by 
 Reichenbach about 1833), a powerful antiseptic and 
 coagulator of albuminous tissue, is obtained h\ the 
 destructive distillation of wood and other organic 
 matters. It has been used for the preservation of 
 sneat, timber, &c. 
 
 CREATINE (from the Greek kreas, flesh), the 
 chemical principle of flesh, was discovered in 1835 
 by E. Chevreul, and has been investigated byLiebig, 
 Gregory, and others. 
 
 CREATION of the World- The date 
 
 given by the English bible, and by Usher, Blair, 
 and some others, is 4004 B.C. There are about 140 
 different dates assigned to the Creation, varying 
 from 3616 to 6984 b.c. Dr. Hales gives 541 1 ; see 
 Eras. 
 
 CRECHES, establishments for temporarily re- 
 ceiving the young children of working mothers; 
 begun at Paris, about 1844 ; in London (in Rath- 
 bone-place) about 1863. 
 
 CRECY, or CRESS Y (N. France), where Ed- 
 ward III. and his son, Edward the Black Prince, 
 and an army of about 36,800, obtained a great victory 
 over Philip, king of France, with about 130,000, 26 
 Aug. 1346. John, king of Bohemia (nearly blind) ; 
 James, king of Majorca ; Ralph, duke of Lorraine 
 (sovereign princes) ; and a number of French nobles, 
 together with 30,000 private men, were slain, while 
 the loss of the English was very small. The crest 
 of the king of Bohemia (three ostrich feathers, with 
 the motto Ich dien — in English, " I serve") haa 
 since been adopted by princes of Wales. 
 
 CREDIT FONCIER, &c. A plan of pro- 
 viding loans to landowners was introduced by Frede- 
 rick the Great of Prussia, in 1763, in some of the 
 Prussian provinces, as the best method of alleviating 
 the distresses of the landed interest caused by his 
 wars. The system consists of lending money to 
 landowners on the security of their estates, and pro- 
 viding the loan capital by the issue of debentures 
 charged upon the aggregate mortgaged estates. 
 There are two modes of carrying out this scheme : 
 (1) by means of an association of landowners; (2) 
 by means of a proprietary public company. The 
 former obtains in Eastern Prussia, but the latter is 
 exclusively found in Western Europe. 
 Credit Fonder companies have been founded in Hamburg 
 (1782), Western Prussia (1787), Belgium (1841), Prance 
 (1852), England (1863). Similar companies were formed 
 in all the states of Europe, in India, and in our colonies 
 and dependencies. Henriques. 
 
 CREDIT MOBILIER : a joint-stock com- 
 pany with this name was established at Paris by 
 Isaac and Emile Pereire, and others, 18 Nov. 1852. 
 
 It took up or originated trading enterprises of all kinds, 
 applying to them the principle of commandite, or 
 limited liabilities ; and was authorised to supersede or 
 buy iu any other companies (replacing their shares or 
 bonds in its own scrip), and also to cany on the ordi- 
 nary business of banking. The funds were to be ob- 
 tained by a paid-up capital of 29 millions sterling, the 
 issue of obligations at not less than 45 days' date or 
 sight, and the receipt of money on deposit or current 
 account. The society apparently prospered ; but was 
 considered by experienced persons a near approach to 
 Law's bank of 1716. 
 
 Several of the directors failed, Sept. 1357, no divi- 
 dend paid May, 1858 
 
 Many companies based on its principles established 
 in London 1863 
 
 E. and I. Pereire withdrew from the management ; 
 the company failed, and the capital was said to 
 have disappeared Oct. 1867 
 
 The high court of appeal decided that MM. Pereire 
 and other directors were responsible for their acts, 
 and that damages should be given to the share- 
 holders . . . . ' . . . i Aug. 1868 
 
 CREEDS, see Confessions of Faith. 
 
 CREMERA, Battle of, see Fabii. 
 
 CREMONA (N. Italy), a city founded by the 
 Romans, 221 B.C. It became an independent re- 
 public in 1 107, but was frequently subjugated by its 
 neighbours, Milan and Venice, and partook of their 
 fortunes. In Nov. 1859 it became part of the king- 
 dom of Italy. 
 
 CRESCENT, a symbol of sovereignty among 
 the Greeks and Romans, and the device of Byzan- 
 tium, now Constantinople, whence the Turks 
 adopted it. The Crescent has given name to three 
 orders of knighthood ; founded by Charles I. of 
 
CEESPY. 
 
 189 
 
 CEIMISUS. 
 
 Naples, 1268; by Bene of Anjou, in 1448; by the 
 sultan Selim, in '1801 ; the last is still in existence. 
 
 CEESPY (N. France). Here was signed a 
 treaty between Charles V. of Germany and Francis 
 I. of France, 18 Sept. 1544. The former renounced 
 Burgundy, and the latter Italy. 
 
 CEESTS are ascribed to the Carians. Richard 
 
 I. (1189) had a crest on the helmet resembling a 
 plume of feathers. The English kings had gene- 
 rally crowns above their helmets; that of Richard 
 
 II. 1377, was surmounted by a lion on a cap of dig- 
 nity; &ee.Crecy. Alexander III. of Scotland, 1249, 
 had a plume of feathers ; and the helmet of Robert 
 I. was surmounted by a crown, 1306 ; and that of 
 James I. by a lion, 1424. In the 15th and 16th 
 centuries, the crest was described to be a figure 
 placed upon a wreath, coronet, or cap of mainten- 
 ance. Gwillim. 
 
 CEETE, now CandiA {which see). 
 
 CEEVANT-SITE-YONNE (N. France), was 
 besieged by John Stuart, earl of Buchan, with a 
 French army, July, 1423, and relieved by the earl of 
 Salisbury with an army of English and Burgundians. 
 After a severe contest, the French were totally de- 
 feated. 
 
 CEEVELDT, near Cleves (W. Prussia). Here 
 on 23 June, 1758, prince Ferdinand of Brunswick 
 defeated the French under the count of Clermont. 
 
 CEICKET, an ancient English game, said to be 
 identical with the " club ball" of the 14th century. 
 Rules were laid down in 1774 by a committee of 
 noblemen and gentlemen, including the duke of 
 Dorset and sir Horace Mann. In 1861 the All 
 England Eleven gained and lost games in Australia ; 
 and in Sept. 1868, they beat the New York Twenty- 
 two. In 1867-68, Australian cricketers visited 
 England. 
 
 CEIME. About 1856 it was computed that a 
 fifteenth part of the population of the United King- 
 dom lived by crime. The increase in education and 
 manufactures is gradually reducing this proportion. 
 From 1848 to 1865 there had been no commitment 
 for political offences, such as treason or sedition. 
 The returns of thirty-two years show that crime 
 absolutely and relatively diminished (Sept. 1866). 
 See Executions, Trials, Poisoning , France, 1871, &c. 
 
 CONVICTIONS (BY TRIAL) IN ENGLAND AND WALES. 
 
 
 
 Persons. 
 
 >p. Off. 
 
 Executed. 
 
 1847- 
 
 
 ■ 21,542 
 
 
 8 
 
 1849 . 
 
 
 21,001 
 
 66 
 
 12 
 
 1850. 
 
 
 ■ 20,537 
 
 49 
 
 15 
 
 1851 . 
 
 
 2i,579 
 
 70 
 
 6 
 
 1852. 
 
 
 . 21,304 
 
 61 
 
 10 
 
 1853 - 
 
 
 20,756 
 
 55 
 
 9 
 
 1854. 
 
 
 ■ 23,047 
 
 49 
 
 8 
 
 185s ■ 
 
 
 i9,97i 
 
 50 
 
 5 
 
 1856. 
 
 
 • 14,734 
 
 69 
 
 15 
 
 1857 • 
 
 
 15,307 
 
 54 
 
 13 
 
 1858. 
 
 
 • 13,246 
 
 53 
 
 11 
 
 1859 . 
 
 
 12,470 
 
 52 
 
 9 
 
 i860. 
 
 
 12,068 
 
 48 
 
 12 
 
 1861 . 
 
 
 13,879 
 
 50 
 
 15 
 
 1862. 
 
 
 • 15,312 
 
 29 
 
 16 
 
 1863 . 
 
 
 iS.799 
 
 29 
 
 22 
 
 1864. 
 
 
 14,726 
 
 32 
 
 19 
 
 1865 . 
 
 
 14,740 
 
 20 
 
 8 
 
 1866. 
 
 
 • i4, 2 54 
 
 26 
 
 12 
 
 1867 . 
 
 
 14,207 
 
 27 
 
 10 
 
 1868. 
 
 
 • 15,033 
 
 21 
 
 12 
 
 1869 . 
 
 
 14,340 
 
 18 
 
 10 
 
 1870. 
 
 
 • 12,953 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 1871 
 
 
 11,946 
 
 r 3 
 
 4 
 
 Convictions, 
 
 in 1847 : 
 
 Scotland, 3558 ; 
 
 Ireland, 
 
 15,233. In 
 
 1861 : Scotland, 242 
 
 8 ; Ireland, 3271 
 
 
 
 The Criminal Justice 
 
 act authorises 
 
 justices 
 
 with the 
 
 consent 0: 
 
 prisoners 
 
 , to pass sentence for short period 
 
 instead of 
 
 eommitti 
 
 ng them to trial 
 
 1855. 
 
 
 In 1856, the expenses for criminal prosecutions were 
 194,912?. 4s. 8& 15 persons were executed for murder 
 in 1856 (four foreigners), 13 in 1857, 11 in 1858 (four fo- 
 reigners), and 9 (four for wife-murder) in 1859. 2665 
 persons were liberated on tickets-of-leave in 1856. 
 
 On 17 Feb. 1857, of 126 persons thus liberated, 58 were 
 believed to be living honestly. 
 
 In 1861, 1862, and 1863, the system was considered to 
 have failed through the numerous crimes committed 
 by ticket-of-leavers ; it was modified by the Penal Ser- 
 vitude act, in 1864. 
 
 Sentences to penal servitude, 1869, 2006; in 1870, 1788 (the 
 smallest number on record). 
 
 The " Judicial Statistics " of crime, police, and law, with, 
 a report, have been annually published by government, 
 commenced with 1856. 
 
 " Statistical Criminal Act " passed . . n Aug. 1869. 
 
 "Prevention of Crimes Act" passed . 21 Aug. 187L 
 
 Great decrease in crimes of violence in ielation to 
 the increase of population . . . 1861-187L 
 
 Cbime — International Congress for the prevention 
 and repression of crime met in the Middle Temple, 
 London 3 July, I s 72 
 
 CEIMEA, or CltlM TARTARY, a peninsula in 
 the Euxine or Black Sea, the ancient Taurica Cher- 
 sonesus, colonised by the Greeks about 550 B.C. 
 The Milesians founded the kingdom of Bosporus, 
 now Kertch, which about 108 B.C. formed part of 
 the dominion of Mithridates, king of Pontus, whose 
 descendants continued to rule the country under 
 Roman protection till the irruption of the Goths, 
 Huns, &c. about a.d. 258. About 1237 it fell into- 
 the hands of the Mongols under Genghis Khan; 
 soon after the Venetians established commercial 
 stations, with a lucrative trade, but were supplanted 
 by the Genoese, who were permitted to rebuild and. 
 fortify Kaffa, about 1261. In 1475 Mahomet II. 
 expelled the Genoese, and subjected the peninsula 
 to the Ottoman yoke ; permitting the government 
 to remain in the hands of the native khans, but 
 closing the Black Sea to Western Europe. In 1774, 
 by the intervention of the empress Catherine II., 
 the Crimea recovered its independence : but on the- 
 abdication of the khan in 1783, the Russians took 
 possession of the country, after a war with Turkey, 
 and retained it by the treaty of Jassy, 9 Jan. 1792. 
 The Crimea (now Taurida), was divided into eight 
 governments in 1802. War having been declared 
 against Russia by England and France, 28 March, 
 1854, large masses of troops were sent to the East, 
 which, after remaining some time at Gallipoli, and 
 other places, sailed for Varna, where they disem- 
 barked 29 May, An expedition against the Crimea 
 having been determined on, the allied British, 
 French, and Turkish forces, amounting to 58,000' 
 men (25,000 British), commanded by lord Raglan 
 and marshal St. Arnaud, sailed from Varna, 3 Sept. 
 and landed on the 14th, 15th, and 16th, without 
 opposition, at Old Fort, near Eupatoria, about 30- 
 miles from Sebastopol. On the 20th they attacked 
 the Russians, between 40,000 and 50,000 strong- 
 (under prince Menschikoff) , entrenched on the 
 heights of Alma, supposed to be unassailable. After 
 a sharp contest the Russians were totally routed. 
 See Alma and Eusso- Turkish War. Peace was 
 proclaimed in April, 1856, and the allies quitted the 
 Crimea 12 July following. 
 
 CEIMINAL LAWS op ENGLAND. Their 
 
 great severity, pointed out by sir Samuel Romilly, 
 sir James Mackintosh, and others, about 1818, was 
 considerably mitigated by sir R. Peel's acts, passed 
 1826-8. The criminal law was consolidated by 24 
 and 25 Vict. ec. 94-100, 1861. Some defects were 
 amended by an act passed in 1867. 
 
 CEIMISUS, a river in Sicily, near which Ti- 
 moleon defeated the Carthaginians, 339 b.c. 
 
CRIMPING-HOUSES. 
 
 190 
 
 CROTONA. 
 
 CRIMPING-HOUSES were used to entrap 
 persons into the army ; hence the name of " crimp 
 sergeant." Some of them in London were destroyed 
 hy the populace, in consequence of a young man 
 who had been enticed into one being killed in en- 
 deavouring to escape, 16 Sept. 1794. 
 
 CRINOLINE (a French word, meaning stuff 
 made of crin, hair) is the modern name of the " far- 
 dingale" of the time of queen Elizabeth, hoop-like 
 petticoats made of whalebone, &c, revived in France 
 and England since 1855. They have frequently 
 occasioned los9 of life, by coming in contact with 
 fire and machinery. In No. 116 of the Ti/tler, pub- 
 lished 5 Jan. 1 710, is an amusing trial of the hoop- 
 petticoat then in fashion. 
 
 CRIPPLEGATE (London), was so-called 
 from the lame beggars who sat there, so early as the 
 year IOIO- The gate was new built by the brewers 
 of London in 1244; and was pulled down and sold 
 for 91/. in July, 1760. The poet Milton was buried 
 in the church hear it, 12 Nov. 1674. See London. 
 
 CRISPIN AST) CllISPIAXUS are said to have 
 been two saints, born at home, from whence they 
 travelled to Soissons, in France, to propagate the 
 ■Christian religion. They worked as shoemakers; 
 but the governor of the town discovering them to be 
 •Christians, ordered them to be beheaded, about 288. 
 Their day is 25 Oct. 
 
 CRITH (from the Greek krithe, a barleycorn or 
 small weight,) a term suggested by Dr. A. W. Hof- 
 mann (about 1864) to express the volume-weight of 
 gases ; a cube containing 1 litre of hydogen (0-0896 
 gramme) to be the unit. Hydrogen being 1 crith, 
 oxygen will be 16, nitrogen 14 criths. 
 
 CRITICS. The first society of them was formed 
 276 B.C. Blair. Varro, Cicero, Apollouius, and 
 Arifltarchus were ancient critics. In modern times 
 the Journal des Sgavans was the earliest periodical 
 •critical work. It was originated by Denis de Sallo, 
 ■ecclesiastical councillor in the parliament of France, 
 and was first published at Paris, 30 May, 1655, and 
 is still continued. Jean Le Clerc's " Ars Critica," 
 published 1696, is said to be the earliest systematic 
 treatise. The first work of this kind in England 
 -was the Review of Daniel Defoe (the term being 
 invented by himself), published in Feb. 1703. The 
 Works of the Learned began 1 7 10, and the Wales of 
 Literature- in 1714; discontinued in 1722. See 
 Reviews. 
 
 The legality of fair criticism was established in the Eng- 
 lish courts, in Feb. 1794, when an action that excited 
 great attention, brought by an author against a re- 
 viewer for a severe critique upon his work, was deter- 
 mined in favour of the defendant on the principle that 
 Criticism is allowable, however sharp, if just, and not 
 malicious. 
 
 CROATIA, conquered by Coloman, king of 
 Hungary, in 1 102, was with that country united to 
 Austria in 1 526. The Croatian diet was abolished 
 in Nov. 1861. The Croats protested against incor- 
 poration with Hungary, 25 May, 1867, and their 
 diet (including Croatia and Slavonia), at Agram, 
 was dissolved 27 May. The union of Croatia with 
 Hungary was recognised by a Croatian deputation 
 27 May," 1868, and Croatian delegates entered the 
 Hungarian diet 24 Nov. The emperor and empress 
 visited Agram 9-10 March, 1869. 
 
 CROCKERY- WARE, see Pottery. 
 
 CROCODILES were reverenced as divinities 
 by the Egyptians. The emperor Augustus is said 
 
 to have collected twenty-five at one time in his 
 amphitheatre, where they were killed by gladiators. 
 
 CROIX, ST., a W. India Island, purchased 
 from the French by Christian VI. king of Denmark, 
 in 1733 ; taken by sir Alexander Cochrane, 22 Dec. 
 1807 ; restored in 1814. 
 
 CROMLECHS, ancient monuments, con- 
 sidered to be Celtic or Druidical altars or sepul- 
 chres. One still exists in Anglesey : similar 
 structures have been found in India, Arabia, and 
 other countries. 
 
 CRONSTADT, Russia, founded by Peter the 
 Great, 1710, and received its name (Crown-town) 
 in 1721. It was not attacked by the fleets in the 
 war with Russia, 1854-5. 
 
 CROOK, a bishop's pastoral staff or crook, dis- 
 tinct from the crozier. Nine pastoral staff's have 
 been recently presented to English bishops; one to 
 the bishop of Hereford, Dr. James Atlav, in Jan. 
 1872. 
 
 CROPPED Y BRIDGE, near Banbury, Ox- 
 fordshire. Here the royalists defeated sir William 
 Waller and the army of the parliament, 29 June, 
 1644. 
 
 CROQUET. This game, which became common 
 in Britain about 1850, is said to be a revival of the 
 old Pall Mall (which see). 
 
 CROSIER, a staff surmounted by a cross, borne 
 before an archbishop, was hi use in the 4th century. 
 The bearing a crosier before ecclesiastics is mentioned 
 in the life of St. Csesarea of Aries about 500. 
 
 CROSS. That on which the Redeemer suf- 
 fered on Mount Calvary, was said to have been 
 found at Jerusalem, with two others, deep hi the 
 ground, b5' St. Helena, 3 May, 328 (termed the Lu- 
 nation of the Cross); Christ's being distinguished 
 from those of the thieves by a sick woman being 
 cured by touching it. It was carried away by 
 Chosroes, king of Persia, on the plundering of Jeru- 
 salem ; but was recovered by the emperor Hcraclius 
 (who defeated him in battle), 14 Sept. 615, and 
 that day has since been commemorated as " the 
 festival of the Exaltation of the Cross," established 
 in 642. 
 
 It is asserted by church writers that a great shining 
 cross was seen in the heavens by Constantino, 
 ami that it led him to adopt it on his standard, 
 with the inscription "In hoc signo viruses;" 
 "Under this sign thou shalt conquer." With 
 this (Labarum) he advanced to Rome, where he 
 vanquished Maxentius, 27 Oct. 312. /.. 
 
 Sigr, ' tig with the Cross was first practised by Chris- 
 tians to distinguish themselves from the. Pagans, 
 
 about no 
 
 In the time of Tertullian, 260, it was deemed effica- 
 cious against poison, witchcraft, &c. . . . 260 
 
 in churches and chambers were introduced 
 about 431 ; and set up on steeples about . . 568 
 
 9 in honour of queen Eleanor were set up in 
 tin.' places where her hearse rested, between 1296 
 (when she died) and 1307 
 
 Crosses and idolatrous pictures were removed from 
 churches, and crosses iii the streets demolished 
 by order of parliament 1641 
 
 Maids Of tin' Cross were a community of young 
 women who made vows of poverty, chastity, and 
 obedience, instituted in 1625 
 
 The order of Ladies of tin- Star of the Cross was 
 instituted by the empress Eleonora di Gonzaga, 
 wife of Leopold I., in 1668 
 
 CROSSED CHEQUES, see Drafts. 
 
 CROTONA (S. Italy), a city founded by the 
 Achaean Greeks about 710 B.C. Here Pythagoras 
 
CROWS. 
 
 191 
 
 CRYSTAL PALACE. 
 
 taught about 520. The Crotons destroyed Sybaris, 
 510. 
 
 CROWS. An act passed for their destruction 
 in England, 24 Hen. VIII. 1532. Crows were 
 anciently employed as letter-bearers, as carrier- 
 pigeons are now. 
 
 CROWN. An Amalekite brought Saul's crown 
 to David, 1056 B.C. (2 Sam. i.) The first Roman 
 who wore a crown was Tarquin the Elder, 616 B.C. 
 The crown was first a fillet tied round the head ; 
 afterwards it was formed of leaves and flowers, and 
 also of stuff's adorned with jewels. See Tiara. 
 
 The crown of Alfred had two little hells attached (872) ; 
 it is said to have been long preserved at Westminster, 
 and may have heen that described in the parliamentary 
 inventory taken in 1649. 
 
 Athelstan's crown resembled an earl's coronet, 929. 
 
 William I. wore his crown on a cap, adorned with points, 
 1066. 
 
 Richard III. introduced the crosses, 1483. 
 
 Henry VII. introduced the arches, 1485. 
 
 The crown and regalia of England were pledged to the 
 city of London by Richard II. for 2000?. in 1386 ; see 
 the king's receipt on redeeming them. Rymer. 
 
 The crown of Charles II., made in 1660, is the oldest ex- 
 isting in England ; see Blood's Conspiracy. 
 
 The Imperial State Crown of England was made by Run- 
 dell and Bridges, in 1838, principally with jewels taken 
 from old crowns. It contains one large ruby, 1 large 
 sapphire, 16 sapphires, 11 emeralds, 4 rubies, 1363 
 brilliants, 1273 rose diamonds, 147 table diamonds, 4 
 drop-shaped pearls, and 273 pearls. Professor Tennant. 
 
 CROWN LANDS. The revenue arising from 
 those in England is now nearly all subject to par- 
 liament, which annually provides for the support 
 of the sovereign and government about 375,000/. 
 The revenue of the duchy of Cornwall belongs 
 to the prince of Wales even during his minority. 
 Henry VII. (1485) resumed those lands which 
 had been given to their followers by the sove- 
 reigns of the house of York. The hereditary 
 estates of the crown were largely bestowed on 
 their courtiers by the sovereigns — especially by 
 the Stuarts. 
 
 CROWNS AND HALE- CROWNS of silver were 
 coined in England by Edward VI. in 1553. None 
 were coined in 1861, and they will gradually be with- 
 drawn from circulation. 
 
 CROYDON, Surrey, granted to Lanfranc, 
 archbishop of Canterbury, about 1070. Archbishop 
 Whitgift's hospital was founded in 1596. The fine 
 old parish church was burnt, 5, 6 Jan. 1867. 
 
 CROZIER, see Crosier. 
 
 CRUCIFIX, the cross with the figure of Christ 
 attached to it, first known in the fourth, came into 
 general use in the eighth century. 
 
 CRUCIFIXION. A mode of execution com- 
 mon among the Assyrians, Egyptians, Persians, 
 Carthaginians, Greeks, and Romans. Ariarathes, 
 of Cappadocia, aged 80, when vanquished by 
 Perdiccas, discovered among the prisoners, was 
 flayed alive, and nailed to a cross, with his principal 
 officers, 322 B.C. Jesus Christ was crucified 3 April, 
 a.d. 33. Bible. (15 April, a.d. 29, Clinton; 28 
 March, a.d. 31, Sales). Crucifixion was ordered to 
 be discontinued by Constantine, 330. Lenglet. 
 
 CRUELTY TO ANIMALS, see Animals. 
 
 CRUSADES (French Croisades), wars under- 
 taken to drive the infidels from Jerusalem and the 
 "Holy Land." Peter Gautier, the Hermit, an 
 officer of Amiens, on his return from pilgrimage in- 
 cited pope Urban II. to expel iufidels from the city 
 
 where Christ had taught. 'Urban convened a 
 council of 310 bishops at Clermont in France, at 
 which the ambassadors of the chief Christian 
 potentates assisted, and gave Peter the commission 
 to summon Europe to a general war, 1094. The 
 first crusade was published ; an army of 300,000 men 
 was raised, of which Peter had the direction, and 
 Godfrey de Bouillon the command, 1095. The 
 warriors wore a red cross upon the right shoulder : 
 and their motto was Volonte de Dieu, "God's will." 
 — The French government published the "Western 
 Historians of the Crusades in a magnificent form 
 (1844-72). 
 
 I. Crusade (1095) ended by Jerusalem being taken by 
 assault, 15 July, 1099, and Godfrey de Bouillon made 
 king. 
 
 II. Preached by St. Bernard in 1146, headed by emperor 
 Conrad II., and Louis VII. of France. Crusaders de- 
 feated ; Jerusalem lost in 1187. 
 
 III. Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, <fcc, in 1188, joined 
 by Philip II. of France and Richard I. of England, in 
 1190. Glorious, but fruitless. 
 
 IV. 1195, by emperor Henry VI. ; successful till his 
 death in 1197. 
 
 V. Proclaimed by Innocent III., 1198. Baldwin, count 
 of Flanders, attacked the Greeks, and took Constanti- 
 nople in 1203. His companions returned. 
 
 VI. In 1216. In 1229, emperor Frederick II. obtained 
 possession of Jerusalem on a truce for ten years. In 
 1240, Richard, earl of Cornwall, arrived at Palestine, 
 but soon departed. 
 
 VII. By Louis IX. (St. Louis), 1248, who was defeated 
 and taken prisoner at Mausourah, 5 April, 1250 ; re- 
 leased by ransom ; truce of ten years. 
 
 VIII. and last, in 1270, by the same prince, who 'died of 
 a contagious disease, at Carthage, in Africa, 2 Aug. 
 Prince Edward, afterwards Edward I. of England, was 
 at Acre, 1271. In 1291, the soldan took Acre, and the 
 Christians were driven out of Syria. 
 
 CRYOLITE, a Greenland mineral, a fluoride 
 of aluminium and sodium, employed in procuring 
 metallic aluminium in 1855. 
 
 CRYOPHORUS, an instrument (invented by 
 Dr. Wollaston about 1812) to demonstrate the re 
 lation between evaporation at low temperaturef- 
 and the production of cold. 
 
 CRYPTOGRAPH, an apparatus for writing- 
 in cypher, invented by sir Charles Wheatstone, and 
 made known in 1868, in which different key-words 
 may be employed, and it is said, absolute secrecy 
 ensured. A cryptographic machine was patented, 
 i860. 
 
 CRYSTALLOGRAPHY is the science re- 
 lating to the symmetrical forms assumed by sub- 
 stances passsng from the liquid to the solid state. 
 Rome de Lisle published his " Essai de Cristallo- 
 graphie," in 1772; but Rene- Just Haiiy is regarded 
 as the founder of the modem school of crystallo- 
 graphy (1801). Whewell. Dana, Dufresnoy, and 
 Miller, are eminent modern writers on this subject. 
 
 CRYSTAL PALACE, Hyde Park, London ; 
 see Exhibition 0/1851. 
 
 CRYSTAL PALACE, Sydenham. The Ex- 
 hibition building of 185 1 having been surrendered 
 to Messrs. Fox and Henderson on 1 Dec. 1851, the 
 materials were sold for 70,000/. to a company, 
 who soon after commenced re-erecting the Crystal 
 Palace on its present site, near Sydenham in Kent, 
 under the direction of sir Joseph Paxton, Uwen 
 Jones, Digby Wyatt, and others. The proposed 
 capital of 500,000/. (in 100,000 shares of 5/. each) 
 was increased in Jan. 1853 to a million pounds. 
 First column raised by S. Laing, M.P. .5 Aug. 1852 
 During the progress of the works as many as 6400 
 men were engaged at one time. By the fall of - 
 scaffolding, 12 men were killed . " i^Aup 1853 
 
CRYSTAL PALACE. 
 
 192 
 
 CUDDALORE. 
 
 Dinner given to professor Owen and others in the 
 interior of the model of the iguanodon, con- 
 structed by Mr. Waterhouse Hawkins 31 Dec 1S53 
 The palace opened by the queen . . 10 June, 1854 
 Grand musical fete on behalf of the Patriotic Fund, 
 
 28 Oct. „ 
 The palace visited by the emperor and empress of 
 
 the French, &c 20 April, 1855 
 
 First grand display of the great fountains, before 
 
 the queen and 20,000 spectators . 18 June, 1856 
 
 The receipts were 115,627*. ; the expenditure, 
 87,872*., not including payments for preference 
 shares, &c, in year ending . . . 30 April, 1S57 
 The preliminary Handel festivals (see Handel), 15, 
 
 17, 19 June, 1857 ; and .... 2 July, 1858 
 On the Fast day (for the Indian mutiny) rev. C. 
 Spurgeon preached here to 23,000 persons ; 476*. 
 were collected, to which the C.P. company added 
 
 200I 7 Oct. 1857 
 
 Centenary of the birth of Robert Burns celebrated : 
 the directors awarded sol. to a prize poem on the 
 subject, which was obtained by Miss Isa Craig, 
 
 25 Jan. 1859 
 The Handel festival . . . 20, 22, 24 June, ,, 
 Festival kept in honour of Schiller, 10 Nov. 1859 : 
 
 of Mendelssohn 4 May, i860 
 
 London charity children sing here . 6 June, „ 
 3000 Orpheonistes (French musical amateurs) per- 
 form choral music, 25 June ; the Imperial band of 
 Guides perform, 26 June ; both dine in the palace, 
 
 30 June, .. 
 115 brass bands perform . . . .10 July, ., 
 
 Annual rose show began » 
 
 North wing injured bv a gale of wind, 20, 21 Feb. . 1861 
 Haydn's " Creation" performed (Costa, conductor) 
 
 1 May, ,, 
 Blondin's performances on an elevated rope begin 
 here (he plays on violin, cooks, simulates falling, 
 
 &c.) 1 June, ,. 
 
 Successful Handel festival : a new arched roof con- 
 structed for the orchestra ; about 4000 vocal 
 and instrumental performers . 23, 25, 27 June, 1862 
 Successful Handel festival . . 26, 28, 30 June, 1865 
 North wing, containing tropical department, the 
 Alhambra, and other courts, destroyed by fire 
 (about i5o,ooo£. damage) ... 30 Dec. 1S66 
 
 Prince of Wales present at a grand concert to raise 
 
 funds to restore the palace . . .26 June, 1867 
 Visit of the viceroy of Egypt (gives 500*.), July ; of 
 
 the sultan (gives 1000/.) . . • 16 July, ,, 
 Conservative working men's demonstration, 11 Nov. ,, 
 Meeting of shareholders decide by ballot that free 
 tickets shall not be issued to admit non-share- 
 holders on Sundays . . . ■ 3 1 £> ec - >> 
 North wing restored and re-opened to the public, 
 
 15 Feb. 1868 
 An Aeronautical Exhibition opened . 25 June, „ 
 Protestant meeting to defend the Irish Church, 
 
 17 Aug. „ 
 Reception of the vicomte de Lesseps . . July, 1870 
 Suicide of Mr. Robert K. Bowley, fourteen years 
 
 manager of the company . . . 25 Aug. ,, 
 Successful Handel festival . 19, 21, 23 June, 1871 
 
 The grand duke Wladimir of Russia entertained 
 
 here by the prince of Wales . . 26 June, ,, 
 Cat show, native and foreign . . 13 July, 2 Dec. „ 
 Dividend on stock, i£ per cent. . . . Dec. „ 
 Inauguration of the great aquarium by professor 
 
 Owen Jan. 1S72 
 
 Lecture by professor Flower . . .12 Jan. ,, 
 
 Bird show opens 10 Feb. ,, 
 
 Thanksgiving festival for the recovery of the prince 
 
 of Wales 1 May, 1872 
 
 Dog show opens 4 June, ,, 
 
 Meeting of National Union of Conservative and Con- 
 stitutional Associations . . . 24 June, ., 
 National music meetings ; competition and concerts, 
 
 27 June— 6 July, ,, 
 Scottish southern gathering ; highland sports, 
 
 25 July, „ 
 National cat show .... 26—29 Oct. ,, 
 
 Bird show 22 Feb. 1873 
 
 National music meetings . 3, 5, 8, 10, 12 July, ,, 
 
 CTESIPHON (afterwards Al Madayn), on the 
 Tigris, the splendid capital of Parthia, was taken by 
 Trajan in 116; and by Alexander Severus (who 
 
 made 100,000 captives), 198. Its defences deterred 
 Julian from the siege, 363. It was taken by 
 Omar and the Saracens, 637, and utterly destroyed, 
 and Cufa near it built with the remains. 
 
 CUBA (its original name), an island (W. 
 Indies) discovered by Columbus on his first voyage, 
 28 Oct. 1492, settled by Velasquez, 1511-12. Popu- 
 lation, 1870, 765,000 whites ; 250,000 coloured ; 
 368,000 slaves. 
 
 The buccaneer Morgan took the Havannah ; see 
 Buccaneers 1669 
 
 A British expedition lands and remains, 20 July — 
 
 20 Nov. 1 74 1 
 
 The Havannah taken by admiral Pococke and lord 
 Albemarle, 1762 ; restored at the peace of Paris, 
 
 10 Feb. 1763 
 
 " Lone Star" society {which see), for the acquisition 
 of Cuba, &c. formed 1848 
 
 The president of the United States (Taylor) pub- 
 lished a strong proclamation, denouncing the 
 object of the invaders . . . 11 Aug. 1849 
 
 Expedition of general Lopez and a large body of 
 Americans, with the view of wresting this island 
 from the dominion of Spain, landed at Cuba, (de- 
 feated) 17 May, 1850 
 
 Cuba again invaded by 7 Lopez and others 13 Aug. 1851 
 
 They are defeated and taken ; 50 shot, and Lopez 
 garotted at Havannah . . . . 1 Sept. ,, 
 
 The president of the United States again issued a 
 proclamation against an intended expedition 
 against Cuba ... . . 31 May, 1854 
 
 Messrs. Buchanan, Mason, and Soule, United States 
 envoys, met at Ostend and Aix-la-Chapelle, and 
 reported, recommending the purchase of Cuba, 
 
 Oct. „ 
 
 The Spanish minister in cortes declared that the 
 sale of Cuba would be "the sale of Spanish 
 honour itself " 19 Dec. ,, 
 
 Insurrection of Creoles for expulsion of Spaniards 
 after the revolution in Spain, Sept. — Nov. 1868 
 
 A filibusters' attack on Cuba repelled . 17 May, 1869 
 
 The United States decide not to recognize the in- 
 surgents as belligerents .... June, 1870 
 
 About 2000 lives lost by a hurricane, about 14 Oct. 1870 
 
 The captain-general De Rodas resigned, and left 
 Cuba 15 Dec. „ 
 
 Insurrection subdued, but enduring ; the volunteers 
 very insubordinate; occasional reign of terror, 
 
 Jan. — Nov. 1871 
 
 Don Gonzalo Castanon murdered by Cubans ; his 
 tomb deseerated by medical students, 25 Nov. ; 
 eight of them tried and shot at Havannah, 
 
 27 Nov. ,, 
 
 Mr. F. Delano sent by the United States government 
 to report on the state of Cuba . . 9 Dec. 1872 
 
 The merciless war still continues ; no quarter given, 
 
 Dec. „ 
 
 Suspended hostilities through the establishment of 
 the Spanish republic .... Feb. 1873 
 
 CUBIT, a measure by which the ark of Noah 
 was measured (2448 B.C.). It was the distance 
 from a man's elbow to the extremity of the middle 
 finger. According to Arbutlinot the Hebrew cubit 
 was a little under 22 inches, and the Roman cubit 
 173 inches, and the English cubit 18 inches. 
 
 CUCKING-STOOL (or Ducking-stool), 
 
 for shrews : one at Kingston-on-Thames was used 
 in April, 1 745 ; and another at Cambridge in 1 780. 
 Chambers. 
 
 CUCUMBERS, noticed by Virgil and other 
 ancient poets, were brought to England from the 
 Netherlands about 1538. 
 
 CUDDALORE (India), on the coast of the 
 Camatic, was acquired by the English in 1681. It 
 was reduced by the French in 1 758, but recaptured 
 in 1760 by sir Eyre Coote. Again lost in 1781.it 
 underwent a destructive siege by the British under 
 general Stuart, in 1783, which was continued until 
 peace was signed, when it reverted to them, 1784. 
 
CUIRASS. 
 
 193 
 
 CUEIATII. 
 
 CUIRASS, a part of Greek and Roman armour. 
 The skins of beasts, and afterwards tanried leather, 
 formed the cuirass of the Britons until the Anglo- 
 Saxon era. It was afterwards made of iron and 
 brass. The cuirass was worn by cavalry in the 
 reign of Henry III. 1216 et seq. Napoleon had 
 several regiments oT cavalry wearing cuirasses ; and 
 most European armies have picked corps of such. 
 
 CULDEES, said to derive their name from 
 cultores Dei, worshippers of God, monks in Scotland 
 and Ireland, who had their principal seat at St. 
 Andrew's. It is said that in 1185 at Tipperary 
 there was a Culdean abbey whose monks were " at- 
 tached to simple truth and pure Christian worship, 
 and bad not yet conformed to the reigning super- 
 stition." They were eventually subjected to the 
 papal yoke. 
 
 CULLEN'S-WOOD (Ireland). An English 
 colony from Bristol inhabiting Dublin, went to 
 divert themselves at Cullen's-wood, when the 
 O'Byrnes and O'Tooles fell upon them, and 
 destroyed 500 men, besides women and children, 
 30 March, 1209 (on Easter, afterwards called Black, 
 Monday) . 
 
 CULLODEN, near Inverness, where the Eng- 
 lish, under William, duke of Cumberland, defeated 
 the Scottish headed by the young Pretender, the 
 last of the Stuarts, 16 April, 1746. The Scots lost 
 2500 men in killed upon the field, or in the slaughter 
 which occurred in the pursuit, while the loss of 
 the English did not far exceed 200. Prince 
 Charles, who wandered among the wilds of Scotland 
 for six months, while 30,000^. were offered for 
 taking him, at length escaped from Uist to Mor- 
 laix, and died at Rome, 3 March, 1788. 
 
 CULVERIN, cannon so called from the French 
 coulevrine, said to have been introduced into England 
 from a French model in 1534. It was originally 
 five inches and a quarter diameter in the bore, and 
 earned a ball of eighteen pounds. Bailey. 
 
 CUMJE (S. Italy), a Greek colony, 1050 B.C., 
 said to have been the residence of the ancient Sibyl, 
 was taken by the Samnites 420 B.C., and annexed 
 by the Romans 338 B.C. 
 
 CUMBERLAND, a N.W. county of England, 
 was granted to Malcolm I. of Scotland in 945, 
 by king Edmund, " on condition that he should be 
 his fellow-woi-ker." It was seized by William I., 
 but restored to Malcolm III., "who became his 
 man," 1072. William the Lion, after his defeat at 
 Alnwick, resigned Cumberland to Henry II., and it 
 was finally annexed to England in 1237. 
 
 DUKES. 
 
 1726. William Augustus, second son of George II., died 
 
 13 Oct. 1765. 
 1766. Henry Frederic, son of Frederic, prince of Wales, 
 
 died 18 Sept. 1790. 
 1799. Ernest Augustus ; became king of Hanover, 20 June, 
 
 1837 ; died 18 Nov. 1851. 
 1851. George V., the ex-king of Hanover. 
 
 CUMBERLAND, The, see Naval Battles, 
 1811. 
 
 CUMULATIVE VOTE, in parliamentary 
 elections, proposed by Mr. Robert Lowe,* 4 July, 
 
 * " At any contested election for a county or borough 
 represented by more than two members, and having 
 more than one seat vacant, eveiy voter shall be entitled 
 to a number of votes equal to the number of vacant seats, 
 and may give all such votes to one candidate, or may 
 distribute them among the candidates as he thinks fit. " 
 
 during the debates on the reform bill ; and rejected, 
 5 July, 1867, by 314 to 173. By the act passed 15 
 Aug. 1867 (30 & 31 Vict. c. 102), it was enacted 
 that at a contested election for any county or 
 borough represented by three members, no person 
 shall vote for more than two candidates. The 
 cumulative vote was used in the election of the 
 London school board, 29 Nov. 1870. 
 
 CUNAXA, in Mesopotamia, near the Euphrates, 
 where Cyrus the younger was defeated and slain by 
 his brother Artaxerxes II., against whom he had 
 conspired (401 B.C.), narrated in Xenophon's 
 Anabasis. His Greek auxiliaries were successful; 
 see Retreat of the Greeks. 
 
 CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS (from 
 cuneus, Latin for a wedge), in characters resembling 
 arrow-heads, inscribed on bricks or clay-tablets, 
 found at Babylon, Behistun, &c, have lately been 
 deciphered by English and foreign scholars, who 
 date some of them as far back as 2000 B.C. This is 
 impugned by other scholars ; see Assyria, Babylon, 
 Behistun. 
 
 CUNNERSDORF (in Prussia). On 12 Aug. 
 1759, Frederick II. king of Prussia, with 50,000 
 men, attacked the Austrian and Russian army of 
 90,000 in their camp near this place, and at first 
 gained considerable advantages ; but pursuing them 
 too far, the Austrian s and Russians rallied, and 
 gained a complete victory. The Prussians lost 200 
 pieces of cannon and 30,000 men .in killed and 
 wounded. 
 
 CUPOLA SHIPS, see Navy of England, 1861. 
 
 CUPPING, a mode of blood-letting. The skin 
 is scarified by lancets, and a glass cup in which the 
 air has been rarified by heat, is immediately applied 
 to it, when the blood usually flows into the cup. 
 This operation was well known to the ancients, and 
 is described by Hippocrates (413 B.C.) and Celsus 
 (20 B.C.). It was common in England about 1820. 
 
 CURACOA, an island in the Caribbean sea, 
 settled by'the Spaniards about 1527, was seized by 
 the Dutch in 1634. In 1800 the French, settled on 
 part of this island, quarrelled with the Dutch, who 
 surrendered it to a British frigate, it was restored 
 to the Dutch in 1802 ; taken from them by the 
 British in 1807, and again restored in 1814. 
 
 CURATES were of early appointment as coad- 
 jutors in the Romish church, and are mentioned in 
 England in the 7th century. Among the acts 
 passed for the relief of this laborious class of the 
 clergy are the 12th Anne, 1713, and 36th, 53rd, and 
 58th Geo III., and especially the beneficent act, 2 
 Will. IV. Oct. 1831. It appeared by parliamentary 
 reports on ecclesiastical revenues, that there were 
 in 1831, 5230 curates in England and Wales, whose 
 stipends amounted to 424,695^. The greatest num- 
 ber of curates in one diocese was Lincoln, 629 ; and 
 the smallest that of St. Asaph, 43. The Society for 
 promoting the Employment of Additional Curates, 
 was established in 1837. 
 
 CURFEW BELL (from the French couvre 
 fen), was revived or introduced in England by 
 Will. I. 1068. On the ringing of the curfew at 
 eight o'clock in the evening all fires and candles 
 were to be extinguished under a severe penalty. 
 Bapin. The curfew was abolished 1 Hen. I. 1100. 
 A so-called curfew bell was rung at West Ham so 
 lately as Nov. 1859. 
 
 CURIATII, see Borne, 669 b.c 
 
CURLING. 
 
 194 
 
 CYCLE. 
 
 CURLING, a Scotch national game with stones 
 on the ice, said to have been introduced from the 
 Low Countries in the 16th century. The Dudding- 
 stone curling club was instituted 1795. The royal 
 Caledonian curling club, founded in 1838, owns a 
 large artificial pond at Strathallan, Perthshire. 
 
 CURRANTS, from Corinth, whence, probably, 
 the tree was first brought to us about 1533. The 
 name is also given to a small kind of dried grape, 
 brought from the Levant and Zante. The duty on 
 these currants (44s. qd. per cwt. in 1834) has been 
 reduced to 7s. The hawthorn currant (Ribes 
 Oxyacanthoides) came from Canada in 1 705. 
 
 CURRENCY ACTS. Those of sir Robert 
 Peel were passed in 1819 and in 1844. 
 
 CURSITOR BARON. This office, formerly 
 attached to the court of exchequer, was abolished in 
 1856, on the death of the right hon. George Bankes. 
 
 CURTATONE, near Mantua, N. Italy. Here 
 the Austrians, under Radetzky, crossed the Mincio, 
 and defeated the Italians after a severe conflict, 29 
 May, 1848. 
 
 CUSHEE PIECES, invented by Eichard 
 Leake, the master-gunner of the Royal Prince man- 
 of-war, renowned for bravery shown in the engage- 
 ment with the Dutch admiral Van Trornp, in 1673. 
 
 CUSTOM is a law, not written {lex non scripta), 
 established by long usage and consent, and is dis- 
 tinguished from lex scripta, or the written law. It 
 is the rule of law when it is derived from 1189 
 downwards. Sixty years' custom is binding in the 
 civil law, and forty years' in ecclesiastical cases. 
 
 CUSTOMS were collected upon merchandise in 
 England, under Ethelred II. in 979. The king's 
 claim to them by grant of parliament was estab- 
 lished 3 Edw. I. 1274. The customs were farmed 
 to sir Thomas Smith for annual sums varying from 
 14,000/. to 50,000/. in the reign of Elizabeth. Stow. 
 They were farmed by Charles II. for 390,000/. in 
 1666. Bavenant. In 1671 commissioners were 
 appointed. The customs were consolidated by Mr. 
 Pitt in 1787. Between 1820 and 1830 so many 
 reductions and consolidations were made in the 
 customs department, that above a quarter of a 
 million was saved in salaries, though the work had 
 enormously increased. — Acts consolidating the cus- 
 toms duties were passed in 1853, 1854, and i860, 
 whereby the number of articles in the tariff and the 
 amount of the customs were greatly reduced. Many 
 changes have been made since ; see Revenue. The 
 disqualification of custom-house officers and officers 
 of excise from voting for the election of members 
 of parliament in 1782, was removed in 1867-8. 
 
 The laws respecting the customs were amended by 
 
 an 
 
 
 
 
 21 Aug. 1871 
 
 Customs 
 
 in 
 
 
 Customs 
 
 
 1580 
 
 
 
 . ,£14,000 
 
 1845 
 
 
 20,196,856 
 
 1592 
 
 
 
 50,000 
 
 1850 
 
 
 20,442,170 
 
 1614 
 
 
 
 148,000 
 
 1855 
 
 
 21,630,081 
 
 1622 
 
 
 
 168,000 
 
 1858 
 
 
 23,109,105 
 
 1642 
 
 
 
 500,000 
 
 Customs in year ending 
 
 1684 
 
 
 
 530,000 
 
 
 31 M 
 
 ITCh. 
 
 1720 
 
 
 
 . 1,555,600 
 
 i860 
 
 
 24,460,901 
 
 1748 
 
 
 
 . 2,000,000 
 
 1864 
 
 
 23,232,000 
 
 1808 
 
 
 
 • 9.973.240 
 
 1867 
 
 
 22,303,000 
 
 1823 
 
 
 
 11,498,762 
 
 1868 
 
 
 22,650,000 
 
 1830 
 
 
 
 17,540,323 
 
 1869 
 
 
 22,424,000 
 
 1835 
 
 
 
 18,612,906 
 
 1870 
 
 
 21,529,000 
 
 1840 
 
 
 
 19,915,296 
 
 
 
 
 The customs in 
 
 Ireland, a s 
 
 ick of w 
 
 ool, 31? 
 
 ; a last 
 
 of hides, 
 
 6d.; 
 
 a barrel of w 
 
 ine, 2d. 
 
 
 . 1224 
 
 the Customs business of Ireland was transferred to 
 the Loudon board ... 6 Jan. 1830 
 
 Custom-house. A custom-house was erected in 
 London on a large scale, 1304 ; and a yet larger in 
 1559 : burnt down in 1666 ; a new one, built by 
 Charles II., burnt down in 1718, again rebuilt; 
 and once more burnt down, and immense property 
 .•Did valuable records destroyed . 12 Feb. 1814 
 The present edifice opened . . . 12 May, 1817 
 Dublin Custom-house, commenced in 1781 ; opened 
 in 1791. The eastern wing of its warehouse was 
 destroyed by fire, with property to the amount 
 of 400,000?. 9 Aug. 1833 
 
 CUSTOMS PARLIAMENT, see Zollverein. 
 
 CUSTOS ROTULORUM, keeper of the 
 
 rolls or records of the sessions of the peace, pre- 
 viously nominated by the lord chancellor, was in 
 1545 directed to be appointed by a bill signed by the 
 king. The act was confirmed in 1689. 
 
 CUSTOZZA, near Verona, N. Italy. Here the 
 Italians were defeated by marshal Radetzky, 23 
 July, 1848 ; and here they were again defeated, 24 
 June, 1866, after a series of desperate attacks on the 
 Austrian army. The Italians were commanded by 
 their king, Victor Emmanuel, and the Austrians by 
 the archduke Albrecht. The Italian loss was com- 
 puted to be 720 killed, 31 12 wounded, and 4315 
 missing ; the Austrian loss, 960 killed, 3690 
 wounded, and nearly a thousand prisoners. The 
 Italians soon recrossed the Mincio. 
 
 CUTCH (Kachh) W. India, a principality 
 under the government of Bombay. In consequence 
 of the depredations of the natives, the East India 
 government resorted to hostile measures, which 
 resulted in a stringent treaty with the rao in Jan. 
 1816. In 18 19 he was deposed for misgovernment, 
 and replaced by his infant son, supported by a 
 British contingent. The traffic in children, detected 
 in Dec. 1835, was suppressed by the British. Many 
 persons perished by an earthquake in July, 18 19. 
 Thornton. 
 
 CUTLERY, see Steel. 
 
 CUTTACK (Katak\ E. India, a British pro- 
 vince ceded to the E. I. company in 1803. Cuttack, 
 the capital, 4ra.s taken by col. Harcourt, 14 Oct. 
 same year. The Mahrattas conquered it in 1 750. 
 Thornton. 
 
 CUTTING-OUT MACHINES. Wearing 
 apparel was first cut out by machinery in England 
 by Messrs. Hyams in 1853. The machine, invented 
 by Mr. Frederick Osbourn, consists of a recipro- 
 cating vertical knife working through a slot in the 
 table that supports the pile of cloth to be cut. The 
 cloth being pressed up to the edge of the knife by 
 the attendant, the knife will sever it in the direction 
 of the lines marked on the upper layer. 
 
 CUZCO, capital of Peru, was entered by Pizarro 
 in Nov. 1533, and taken by him in Aug. 1536, after 
 five months' siege. 
 
 CYANOGEN, a colourless gas (composed of 
 nitrogen and carbon), irritating to the nose and 
 eyes, derived from Prussian blue, was first obtained 
 in the free state by Gay Lussac in 1815, being the 
 first instance of the isolation of a compound radicle. 
 
 CYCLE of the sun, the twenty-eight years 
 before the days of the week return to the same days 
 of the month ; that of the moon is nineteen lunar 
 years aDd seven intercalary months, or nineteen 
 solar years. The cycle of Jupiter is sixty years. 
 The Paschal cycle, or the time of keeping Easter, 
 was first calculated for the period of 532 years by 
 Victorius, 463. Blair. See Metonic Cycle, Calippic 
 Period. 
 
CYCLONES. 
 
 195 
 
 DAGUEEEEOTYPE. 
 
 CYCLONES, circular whirlwinds, or hur- 
 ricanes, common in the East and West Indian and 
 Chinese seas, varying from 200 to 500 miles in 
 diameter. Many details respecting them will be 
 found in Eeid's "Law of Storms," first published 
 in 1838. 
 
 By a great cyclone immense damage was done on 
 sea and land ; about 100 ships are said to nave 
 been lost, and about 60,000 persons perished, and 
 whole towns nearly destroyed ; see Calcutta, 5 Oct. 1864 
 
 Captain Watson, of the Clarence, observing the 
 barometer falling, and foretelling the approach of 
 the cyclone, saved his ship by steering out of its 
 range. 
 
 "Great cyclone in the Bahamas, at Nassau, New 
 Providence, above 600 houses and many churches 
 and other buildings thrown down ; between 60 
 and 70 persons killed, and a great many ships dis- 
 mantled 1, 2 Oct. 1866 
 
 Another cyclone at Calcutta, not so destructive, 
 
 1 Nov. 1867 
 
 A cyclone desolated Antigua, St. Kitts, and other 
 isles ; religious, and manufacturing buildings de- 
 stroyed and thousands made homeless, 21 Aug. 1871 
 
 Destructive cyclone near Madras ; ships lost 1 May, 1872 
 See Virgin Isles. 
 
 CYCLOPAEDIA, see Encyclopedia. 
 
 CYCLOPEAN MASONEY, a term given 
 to very ancient buildings in Greece, Italy, and Asia 
 Minor, probably the work of the Pelasgi, more than 
 
 IOOO B.C. 
 
 CYDEE, see Cider. 
 
 CYMBAL, the oldest known musical instru- 
 ment, made of brass. Xenophon says the cymbal 
 was invented by Cybele, and used in her feasts 
 about 1580 b.c. 
 
 CYMEI or Kymri (hence Cambria), the great 
 Celtic family to which the Britons belonged, and 
 which came from Asia and occupied a large part of 
 Europe about 1500 B.C. About a.d. 640 Dyvnwal 
 Moelmud reigned " King of the Cymry ;" see 
 Wales. 
 
 CYNICS, a sect of philosophers founded by 
 Antisthenes (about 396 B.C., Diog. Laert., Clinton). 
 who professed to contemn all worldly things, even 
 sciences, except morality ; and lived in public with 
 little shame. Diogenes, the eminent cynic, died 
 
 323 B.C. 
 
 CYNOSCEPHALiE (dogs' heads, so named 
 from the shape of the heights), in Thessaly, where 
 Pelopidas and the Thebans defeated Alexander 
 tyrant of Pherss and the Thessalians, 364 B.C. 
 Pelopidas was slain. Here also the consul Flami- 
 nius totally defeated PhiUp V. of Macedon, 197 b.c, 
 and ended the war. 
 
 CYPEESS, Cupressus Semper vir ens, a tree 
 found in the isle of Cyprus. The Athenians buried 
 
 heroes in coffins made of this wood, of which 
 Egyptian mummy-chests were also fabricated. The 
 ancients planted it in cemeteries. The cypress was 
 brought to England about 1441. The deciduous 
 cypress, C. disticha, came from North America before 
 1640. 
 
 CYPEUS, an island in the Mediterranean, Avas 
 ruled by several petty kings till Cyrus of Persia 
 subdued them. It was taken by the Greeks 477 B.C., 
 annexed to Eg}'pt by Alexander about 323 ; made a 
 Roman province 58. Conquered by the Saracens, 
 a.d. 648 ; but soon recovered by the Greeks. 
 Cyprus was reduced by Eichard I. of England, in 
 1 191. He gave it to Guy de Lusignan, who became 
 king in 1192, and whose descendants reigned till the 
 last, Catherine de Cornano, sold it to the Venetians, 
 1489. It was taken by the Turks, Aug. 1571, who 
 treated the defenders with great barbarity. 
 
 C YE, St. , near Versailles. Here a college for 
 ladies was founded by madame De Maintenon, in 
 1686, and here she died, 15 April, 1719. It was 
 made a military college in 1803. 
 
 CYEENAIC SECT, founded by Aristippus 
 the Elder, 365 B.C. They taught that the supreme 
 good of man is pleasure, particularly that of the 
 senses; and that even virtue ought to be com- 
 mended only because it gave pleasure. 
 
 CYEENE (N. W. Africa), a Greek colony, 
 founded by Battus about 630 B.C. Aristaeus, who 
 was chief of the colonists here, gave the city his 
 mother's name. It was also called Pentapolis, on 
 account of its five towns ; namely, Cyrene, Ptole- 
 mais, Berenice, Apollonia, and Arsinoe. It was 
 conquered by Ptolemy Soter I., who placed many 
 Jews here (286 B.C.). Cyrene was left by Ptolemy 
 Apion to the Romans, 97 b.c It is now a desert. 
 Some Cyrenaic sculptures were placed in the 
 British Museum in July, 1861. 
 
 CYEOPEDIUM, see Corus. 
 
 CYZICUS (Asia Minor) . In the Peloponnesian 
 war, the Lacedemonian fleet under the command 
 of Mindarus, assisted by Pharnabazus, the Persian, 
 was encountered by the Athenians under Alcibiades, 
 and defeated with great slaughter, near Cyzicus; 
 Mindarus being slain : 410 B.C. Plutarch. 
 
 CZAE (the title of the emperor of Russia), 
 probably derived from Caesar, a title said to have 
 been assumed by Ivan Basilowitz after defeating 
 the Tartars, about 1482. The empress is termed 
 czarina, and the eldest son czarowitch. 
 
 CZECHS, the native race of Bohemia and 
 Moravia (which see). The antagonism between 
 the Germans and Czechs is milder in Moravia than 
 in Bohemia. 
 
 D. 
 
 DACCA, N. E. India, a province acquired by 
 the East India Company in 1765, and ruled under 
 them by a Nawab till its annexation in 1845. 
 Thornton. 
 
 DACIA, a Roman province, part of Hungary, 
 and the adjoining provinces, after many contests, 
 was subdued by Trajan, 106, when Decebalus, the 
 Dacian leader, was killed. Dacia was abandoned 
 to the Goths by Aurelian, in 270 ; subdued by the 
 
 Huns, 376 ; by Scythians, 566 ; by Charlemagne, 
 and by the Magyars, in the 9th century. 
 
 DAG-HISTAN (S. W. Asia), was conquered 
 by the czar Peter, 1723; restored to Persia, 1735; 
 re-annexed to Russia by Alexander I., 1813. 
 
 DAGUEEEEOTYPE PEOCESS, invented 
 by Daguerre, and published 1838 ; see Photo- 
 graphy. 
 
 2 
 
DAHLIA. 
 
 DAHLIA, a flower brought from Mexico, of 
 •which it is a native, in the present century, and 
 cultivated by the Swedish botanist, Dahl. In 1815 
 it was introduced into France; Andre Thouine 
 suggested improvements in its culture, and it soon 
 became a favourite. Georgi introduced it at St. 
 Petersburg ; hence it is known in Germany as the 
 Georgina. 
 
 DAHOMEY, a negro kingdom, West Africa, 
 became known to Europeans early in the last 
 century, when Trudo Andati or Guadjor Trudo, a 
 man of energy and talent, was king. He died in 
 1732, and was succeeded by a series of cruel tyrants, 
 a large part of whose revenue was derived from the 
 slave-trade. Abbeokuta, a robbers' bauntin 1825, 
 has, since 1829, become a strong-walled town, inha- 
 bited by free blacks; and was consequently opposed 
 by the king of Dahomey. His army has been 
 severely defeated in its attacks on this place, ami 
 in one on 16 March, 1864, a great number of his 
 Amazons were slain. During the last few years 
 Dahomey has been visited by captain Burton and 
 other travellers, who have' described the royal 
 sanguinary customs. 
 
 DAHEA (Algeria). On 18 June, 1845, above 
 500 Kabyles at war with the French were suffo- 
 cated in a cave, a fire having been kindled by order 
 of general Pelissier, afterwards duke of Malakoff. 
 They had fired on a messenger bearing an oiler of 
 a truce. The massacre was condemned by marshal 
 Soult, the minister of war, but justified by marshal 
 Bugeaud. 
 
 DAILY NEWS, liberal newspaper, now id., 
 established 21 Jan. 1846. 
 
 DAILY TELEGRAPH, penny paper, liberal, 
 established 29 June, 1855. 
 
 DAKOTA (North America), organised as a 
 territory of the United States, 2 March, 1861. 
 
 DALECARLIANS (Sweden), revolted against 
 Christian of Denmark, 1521, and placed Gustavus 
 Vasa on the throne of Sweden. 
 
 DALMATIA, an Austrian province, N.E. of 
 the Adriatic Sea, conquered and made a province 
 by the Bomans, 34 n.C. The emperor Diocletian 
 erected his palace at Spalato or Spalatro, and re- 
 tired there, a.d. 305. Dalmatia was held in turns 
 by the Goths, Hungarians, and Turks, till its 
 cession to Venice in 1699. By the treaty of Campo 
 Formio in 1797 it was given to Austria, but in 1 805 
 it was incorporated with Italy, and gave the title 
 of duke to marshal Soult. In 1814 it reverted to 
 Austria. An insurrection opposed to the new mili- 
 tary law broke out at Bocche di Cattaro, and a con- 
 flict with the troops at Dragali took place, 10 Oct. 
 1869. Several regiments were sent there, but the 
 insurgents obtained several successes during the 
 month. A deputation offered submission, 2 Nov., 
 and the operations against them were suspended 
 about the end of the month. 
 
 DALTONISM, see Colour, note. 
 
 DAMASCUS (Syria), a city in the time of 
 Abraham; 1913 B.C. (Got. xiv.), now the capital 
 of a Turkish pachalic. 
 Taken by David (1040 B.C.), but retaken shortly 
 
 after ; 'made the capital of Syria under Benhadad 
 
 and his successors BC - 95i 
 
 Recovered by Jeroboam II . . ■ about 822 
 Taken bv Tiglath-Pileser, king of Assyria . . 740 
 From the Assyrians it passed to the Persians, and 
 
 from them to the Greeks, under Alexander . 233 
 To the Romans about 64 
 
 196 DANCE. 
 
 Paul, converted, preaches here (Art.* ix.) . . a.d. 52 
 Taken by the Saracens, 633 ; by the Turks in 1075 ; 
 destroyed by Tamerlane .... Jan. 1401 
 
 Taken by Ibrahim Pacha 1832 
 
 The disappearance of a Greek priest, named father 
 Tommaso, from here, 1 Feb. 1840, led to the 
 torture of a number of Jews, suspected of bis mur- 
 der, and to a cruel persecution of that people, 
 which caused remonstrances from many states of 
 
 Europe 1840 
 
 Damascus restored to Turkey 1841 
 
 In consequence of a dispute between the Druses 
 and Maronites, the Mahommedans massacred 
 above 3000 Christians and destroyed the bouses, 
 rendering vast numbers of persons homeless and 
 destitute ; a large number were rescued by Abd- 
 el-Kader, who held the citadel . 9, 10, 11 July, i860 
 Justice executed for these crimes by Fuad Pacini : 
 160 persons executed including the Turkish 
 governor; and 11,000 persons made soldiers, 
 
 Aug. Sept. ,, 
 
 DAMASK LINENS and SlLKS, first manu- 
 factured at Damascus, have been beautifully imi- 
 tated by the Dutch and Flemish. The manufacture 
 was brought to England by artisans who fled from 
 the persecutions of Alva, 1571-3. The Damask 
 Rose was brought here from the south of Europe 
 bv Dr. Linacre, physician to Henry YIIL, about 
 1540. 
 
 D AMIENS' ATTEMPT. Louis XV. of 
 France was stabbed with a knife in the right side 
 by Damiens, a native of Anas, 5 Jan. 1757. The 
 culprit endured the most excruciating tortures, and 
 was then broken on the wheel, 28 March. 
 
 DAMIETTA (Lower Egypt), was taken by 
 the crusaders, 5 Nov. 1219 ; lost 1221 ; retaken by 
 Louis IX., 5 June, 1249 ; surrendered as his ran- 
 som when a prisoner, 6 May, 1 250. The present town 
 was built soon after. Here, it is said, dimity was 
 first manufactured. 
 
 DAMON AND PYTHIAS (or Phintias), 
 Pythagorean philosophers. Damon was con- 
 demned to death by the tyrant Dionysius of Syra- 
 cuse, about 387 B.C. He obtained leave to go and 
 settle some domestic affairs, promising to return at 
 the appointed time of execution, and Pythias be- 
 came his surety. When Damon did not appear, 
 Pythias surrendered, and was led to execution ; but 
 at this critical moment Damon returned. Diony- 
 sius remitted the sentence, and desired to share 
 their friendship. 
 
 DANAI '• an ancient name of the Greeks de- 
 rived from Danaus, king of Argos, 1474 n.c. 
 
 DANCE OF DEATH. The triumph of death 
 
 over all ranks of men was a favourite subject with 
 the artists of the middle ages, and appears in rude 
 carvings and pictures in various countries. 
 
 The Chorea Machabceorum or Danse Macabre, the 
 first printed representation, published by Guyot 
 Marctaand, a bookseller of Paris . ... 1485 
 
 Holbein's Dance of Death (concerning the author- 
 ship of which there has been much controversy), 
 printed at Lyons in 1538, and at Basil . . . 1594 
 
 Many editions have since appeared ; one with an 
 introduction and notes published by Mr. Russell 
 Smith 1849 
 
 The term Donee of Death was also applied to the 
 frenzied movements of the Flagellants, who had 
 sometimes skeletons depicted on their clothing 
 about the end of the 14th century. 
 
 Dancing mania, accompanied by aberration of 
 mind and distortions of the body, was very 
 prevalent in Germany in 1374, and in the 16th 
 century in Italy, where it was termed Tarantism, 
 and erroneously supposed to be caused by the 
 bite of the Tarantula spider. The music and 
 songs employed for its cure are still preserved. 
 
DANCING. 
 
 197 DANUBIAN PEINCIPALITIES. 
 
 DANCING- was invented by the Curetes, 1534 
 B.C. Eusebius. The Greeks combined the dance 
 with their dramas, and pantomimic dances were 
 introduced on the Roman stage, 22 B.C. Usher. 
 Dancing by cinque paces was introduced into Eng- 
 land from Italy, a.d. 1541. In modern times the 
 French introduced ballets analogues in their musical 
 dramas. The country dance (co)itre-dame) is of 
 French origin, but its date is not precisely known. 
 Spelman. See Morice Dance, Quadrille, and 
 Waltz. 
 
 DANE-GELD, or Danegelt, a tribute paid 
 to the Danes to stop their ravages in England ; 
 first raised by Ethelred II. in 991, and again in 
 1003 ; and levied after the expulsion of the Danes 
 to pay fleets for clearing the seas of them. The 
 tax was suppressed by Edward the Confessor in 
 1051 ; revived by "William I. 1068 ; and formed 
 part of the revenue of the crown, until abolished 
 by Stephen, 1136. Every hide of land, i.e. as much 
 as one plough could plough, or as Bede says, as 
 much as could maintain a family, was taxed at first 
 is., afterwards as much as Js. Camden says that 
 once 24,360/. was raised. 
 
 DANES, or NORTHMEN ; see Denmark. 
 During their attacks upon Britain and Ireland 
 they made a descent on France, where, in 895, 
 under Rollo, they received presents under the wails 
 of Paris. They returned and ravaged the French 
 territories as far as Ostend in 896. They attacked 
 Italy in 903. Neustria was granted by the king of 
 France to Rollo and his Normans (North-men), 
 hence Normandy, in 911. The invasions of Eng- 
 land and Ireland were as follows : — 
 
 First hostile appearance of the Danes . . . 783 
 
 They land near Purbeck, Dorset 787 
 
 Descend in Northumberland : destroy the church 
 at Lindisfarne ; are repelled, and perish by ship- 
 wreck 8 Jan. 794 
 
 They invade Scotland and Ireland . . 795, 796 
 They enter Dublin with a fleet of 60 sail, and pos- 
 sess themselves of Dublin, Fingal, &e. . . 798 
 
 They take the Isle of Sheppey 832 
 
 Defeated at Hengeston, in Cornwall, by Egbert . 835 
 They land in Kent from 350 vessels, and take Can- 
 terbury and London 851 
 
 They descend on the north, and take York . . 867 
 
 They defeat the Saxons at Merton . . . . 871 
 
 They take Wareham and Exeter .... 876 
 They take Chippenham : but 120 of their ships are 
 
 wrecked 877 
 
 Defeated : Guthrum, their leader, becomes Chris- 
 tian, and many settle in England .... §78 
 Alfred enters into a treaty with them . . . . 882 
 Their fleet destroyed by Alfred at Appledore . . 894 
 
 Defeated near Isle of Wight 897 
 
 They invade and waste Wales 900 
 
 Defeated by Edward the Elder 922 
 
 They defeat the people of Leinster .... 956 
 
 Ravage Cornwall, Devon, and Dorset . . . . 982 
 
 And ravage Essex and Suffolk 990 
 
 Said to assume the title lord dane about . . . 991 
 Their fleet defeated after a breach of treaty, pur- 
 chased by money 992 
 
 Anlaf and Sweyn ravage Kent and the south, and 
 
 are paid 1 6,000 1, for peaee 994 
 
 A general massacre of the Danes, by order of 
 
 Ethelred II. 13 Nov. 1002 
 
 Sweyn revenges it, and receives 36,000^. (as an 
 
 annual tribute) to depart 1003 
 
 Their fleet anchors at Isle of Wight .... 1006 
 They make fresh inroads, and defeat the Saxons in 
 Suffolk, 1010 ; sack Canterbury, and kill the in- 
 habitants, ion ; receive 48,000;. as tribute, and 
 
 murder Alphege, archbishop 1012 
 
 Vanquished at Clontarf, Ireland (see Clontarf) . 1014 
 
 Conquest of England completed ; Canute king . . 1017 
 
 They settle in Scotland 1020 
 
 They land again at Sandwich, carrying off much 
 
 plunder to Flanders 1047 
 
 Defeated by Harold II. at Stanford-bridge, 25 Sept. 1066 
 They bum York, and kill 3000 Normans . . . 1069 
 Once more invade England to aid a conspiracy ; 
 but compelled to depart 1074 
 
 DANGEROUS ASSOCIATIONS (IEE- 
 LAND) BILL; see Roman Catholic Association. 
 
 DANGEEOUS GOODS : act regulating 
 their deposit and carriage passed 6 Aug. 1866. 
 
 D ANNEWEEKE, or DANNAWIRKE, a series 
 of earthworks, considered almost impregnable, 
 stretching across the long narrow peninsula of 
 Schleswig, Holstein, and Jutland — said to have 
 been constructed during the " stone age," long before 
 the art of metal-working. It was rebuilt in 937 
 by Thyra, queen of Gormo the old, for which she 
 was named "Dannabod," the pride of the Danes. 
 It was repaired by Olaf Tryggveson between 995 
 and 1000. Near here the Prussians, helping the 
 duchies, defeated the Danes, 23 April, 1848. The 
 retreat of the Danes from it, 5 Feb. 1864, occa- 
 sioned much dissatisfaction at Copenhagen. 
 
 DANTE'S DIVINA COMMEDIA was 
 
 first printed in 1472. He was born 14 May, 1265, 
 died at Ravenna, 14 Sept. 1321. A festival in his 
 honour, at Florence, was opened by the king, 14 
 May, 1865, when a large statue of Dante by Pazzi 
 of Ravenna was uncovered. 
 
 DANTZIC (N. Germany), a commercial city in 
 997 ; according to some authorities, built by 
 Waldemar I. in 1 165. Poland obtained the 
 sovereignty of it in 1454. It was seized by the 
 king of Prussia, and annexed in 1793. It sur- 
 rendered to the French, May, 1 807 ; and by the 
 treaty of Tilsit was restored to independence, under 
 the protection of Prussia and Saxony, July, 1807. 
 Dantzic was besieged by the allies in 1812 ; and 
 surrendered 1 Jan. 1814. By the treaty of Paris it 
 reverted to the king of Prussia. By the Vistula 
 breaking through its dykes, 10,000 head of cattle 
 and 4000 houses were destroyed, and many lives 
 lost, 9 April, 1829. 
 
 DANUBE (German, Donau ; anciently Ister, in 
 its lower part), the largest river in Europe, except 
 the Volga, rises in the Black Forest and falls into 
 the Black Sea. Trajan's bridge at Gladova was 
 destroyed by Adrian, to prevent the barbarians 
 entering Dacia. Steam navigation was projected 
 on this river by count Szchenyi, in 1830, and in 
 that year the first steam-boat was launched at 
 Vienna, and the Austrian company was formed 
 shortly after. The Bavarian company was formed 
 1836. A canal between the Danube and the 
 Maine was completed by Louis I. of Bavaria. 
 Charlemagne, in the 8th century, contemplated 
 uniting the Danube and Rhine by a canal. At the 
 peace of 30 March, 1856, the free navigation of the 
 Danube was secured, and an independent European 
 commission appointed to make it navigable from 
 Isaktchi to the sea, which has worked with good 
 effect. The British government in 1868 lent 
 135,000/. to complete the works. The treaty re- 
 specting the navigation of the Danube renewed for 
 twelve years, 13 March, 187 1. 
 
 DANUBIAN PEINCIPALITIES; 
 
 WALLACHIA and MOLDAVIA (capitals, Bucha- 
 rest and Jassy) were united and named EOTJMANIA, 
 1859. Population of the two, i860, 3,864,848; 1866, 
 4,424,961. These provinces formed part of the 
 ancient Dacia (which sec). 
 
DAEDANELLES. 
 
 198 
 
 DAUPHINE. 
 
 Fait of Moldavia ceded to Russia . . ■ ■ 1812 
 The provinces having participated in the Greek in- 
 surrection in 1821, were severely treated by the 
 Turks ; but by the treaty of Adrianople were 
 placed under the protection of Russia . . . 1829 
 The Porte appointed as hospodars prince Stirbey 
 for Wallachia, and prince Ghika for Moldavia, 
 
 June, 1849 
 They retire from their governments when the Rus- 
 sians enter Moldavia. See Rmso-Turhish War. 
 
 2 July, 1853 
 The Russians quit the provinces and the Austria] is 
 
 enter, Sept, 1854 ; retire . . . March, 1857 
 The government of the principalities finally settled 
 at the Paris conference : (there were to be two 
 hospodars, elected by elective assemblages, and 
 the suzerainty of Turkey was to be preserved), 
 
 19 Aug. 1858 
 Alexander Couza elected hospodar of Moldavia, 
 
 17 Jan. ; of Wallachia .... 5 Feb. 1859 
 The election acknowledged by the allies 6 Sept, „ 
 The definitive union of the provinces (under the 
 name of Roumania) proclaimed and acknowledged 
 
 by the Porte Dec. 1861 
 
 M. Catargi, the president of the council of minis- 
 ters, assassinated as he was leaving the chamber 
 
 of deputies 20 June, 1862 
 
 The united chambers of the two principalities meet 
 
 at Bucharest 5 Feb. „ 
 
 Coup d'etat of prince Couza against the aristocrats : 
 a plebiscite for a new constitution, 2 May ; which 
 
 is adopted 28 May, 1864 
 
 Law passed enabling peasants to hold land, Aug. ,, 
 Revolt at Bucharest suppressed, 15 Aug. ; amnesty, 
 
 11 Sept. 1865 
 Revolution atBucharest ; forced abdication of prince 
 Couza: and provisional government established, 
 
 22 Feb. 1866 
 The offered crown declined by the count of Flan- 
 ders, Feb. ; prince Charles of Hohenzollern-Sig- 
 ■maringen elected hospodar by plebiscite, 20 
 April ; enthusiastically received at Bucharest, 
 
 22 May, ,, 
 Sworn to observe the constitution . 12 July, „ 
 Recognised hereditary hospodar by the sultan, and 
 
 received at Constantinople . . .24 Oct. ,, 
 Roumania unsettled; "nationality" projects, 
 
 Nov. 1867 
 Prince Charles marries princess Elizabeth of Nieu- 
 
 wied 15 Nov. 1869 
 
 The legislature proposes to repudiate the just claims 
 of the German shareholders in the Roumanian 
 railways ; the prince assents reluctantly ; Bis- 
 marck appeals to the Porte, which declines to 
 
 interfere July- Aug. 1871 
 
 Peace between the prince and the chambers 
 announced 20 Nov. „ 
 
 DARDANELLES. Two castles (Sestos, in 
 Romania, and Abydos, in Natolia), built by the 
 sultan Mahomet IV. in 1659, commanding the 
 entrance of the strait of Gallipoli, named Dar- 
 danelles from the contiguous town Dardanus.— -The 
 passage of the strait was achieved by the British 
 squadron under sir John Duckworth, 19 Feb. 1807 ; 
 hut he repassed them with great loss, 2 March, the 
 castles of Sestos and Abydos hurling down stones 
 of many tons' weight, upon the British ships. The 
 allied English and French fleets passed the Dar- 
 danelles at the sultan's request, Oct. 1853 ; see 
 Hellespont and Xerxes. 
 
 DAEIC, a Persian gold coin, issued by Darius, 
 hence its name, about 538 B.C. About 556 cents. 
 Knowles. It weighed two grains more than the 
 English guinea. Dr. Bernard. 
 
 DAEIEN, ISTHMUS OF, central America, dis- 
 covered by Columbus, 1494. In 1694, William 
 Paterson, founder of the Bank of England, pub- 
 lished his plan for colonising Darien. A company 
 was formed in 16915, and in 1698-9, three expedi- 
 tions sailed there from Scotland, where 400,000?. 
 had been raised. The first consisted of 1200 young 
 
 men of all classes, besides women and children. 
 The enterprise not having Deen recognised by the 
 English government, the settlements were threat- 
 ened by the Spaniards, to whom they were finally 
 surrendered, 30 March, 1700. Paterson and a few 
 survivors from famine and disease, had set off 
 shortly before the arrival of the second expedition. 
 Several years after, 398,085?. were voted by parlia- 
 ment to' the survivors as "Equivalent money." 
 18,000?. were also voted to Paterson; but the bill 
 was rejected in the house of lords. See Panama. 
 
 DARK AGES, a term applied to the Middle 
 
 Ages ; according to Hallam, comprising about IOOO 
 years — from the invasion of France by Clovis, 486, 
 to that of Naples by Charles VIII. 1495. During 
 this time learning was at a low ebb. 
 
 DAEMSTADT, see Hesse Darmstadt. 
 
 DAETFOED (Kent). Here commenced the 
 insurrection of "Wat Tyler, 1381. A convent of 
 nuns, of the order of St. Augustin, endowed here 
 by Edward III. 1355, was converted by Henry VIII. 
 into a royal palace. The first paper-mill in Eng- 
 land was erected at Dartford by sir John Spielman, 
 a German, in 1590 (Stoiv), and about the same 
 period was erected here the first mill for splitting 
 iron bars. The powder-mills here were blown up 
 four times between 1730 and 1738. Various ex- 
 plosions have since occurred, in some cases with 
 loss of life to many persons : 12 Oct. 1 790 ; I Jan. 
 1795 ; and others recently. 
 
 DAETMOOE PEISON, founded Mar. 1806. 
 Seven prisoners of war were shot 6 April, 18 15, 
 after an insurrection. 
 
 DAETMOUTH (Devon). Burnt by the 
 French in the reigns of Richard I. and Henry IV. 
 In a third attempt (1404), the invaders were de- 
 feated by the inhabitants, assisted by the valour of 
 the women. The French commander, Du Chastel, 
 three lords, and thirty-two knights, were made 
 prisoners. In the war of the parliament, Dart- 
 mouth was taken after a siege of four weeks, by 
 prince Maurice, who garrisoned the place for the 
 king (1643) ; but it was retaken by general Fairfax 
 by storm in 1646. 
 
 DAEWINISM, see Development and Species. 
 
 DATES were affixed to grants and assignments 
 18 Edw. I. 1290. Before this time it was usual at 
 least to pass lands without dating the deed of con- 
 veyance. Leiois. Numerous instruments of assign- 
 ment enrolled among our early records establish 
 this fact. The date is determined by the names of 
 the parties, particularly that of the grantor : the 
 possession of land was proof of the title to it. 
 Mar die. A useful glossary of the dates given in old 
 charters and chronicles will be found in Nicolas's 
 " Chronology of History." J. J. Bond's " Handy- 
 Book for Verifying Dates," published 1866. 
 
 DAUPHINE,* S.E. France, successively held 
 by the Allobroges, Burgundians, and Lombards ; 
 was, about 732-4, delivered from the invading 
 Saracens by Charles Mattel. After forming part of 
 the kingdom of Aries, it was much subdivided 
 among counts. One of these, Humbert II. ceded 
 Dauphine and the Viennois to Philip VI., in 1343, 
 for his eldest son, on the condition that the prince 
 should be styled dauphine, which took effect in 
 1349, when Humbert became a monk. Louis 
 
 * One of the counts of Vienne placed a dolphin 
 (dauphin) in his coat-of-arms, and assumed the title of 
 dauphin. 
 
DAVENTEY. 
 
 199 
 
 DEAN. 
 
 Antoine, duke of Angouleme, son of Charles X., 
 the last dauphin who assumed the title at his 
 father's accession, 16 Sept. 1824, died 3 June, 
 1844. 
 
 DAVENTEY, Northamptonshire. Near here 
 Lambert, having escaped from the Tower, was de- 
 feated and retaken, in his attempt to enkindle the 
 war, by Monk, 21 April, 1660. The dissenting 
 academy removed here from Northampton in 1752, 
 was transferred to Wymondley in 1789, thence to 
 London as Coward College, and finally united with 
 Homerton and Highbury Colleges as New College, 
 in 1850. 
 
 DAVID'S, St. (S. W. Wales), the ancient 
 Menapia, now a poor decayed place, but once the 
 metropolitan see of Wales, and archiepiscopal. 
 When Christianity was planted in Britain, three 
 archbishops' seats were appointed, viz. London, 
 York, and Caerleon upon tJsk, in Monmouthshire. 
 That at Caerleon being too near the dominions of 
 the Saxons, was removed to Mynyw, and called 
 St. David's, in honour of the archbishop who re- 
 removed it, 522. St. Sampson was the last arch- 
 bishop of the Welsh ; for he, withdrawing himself 
 on account of a pestilence to Dole, in Brittany, 
 carried the pall with him. In the reign of Henry I. 
 the archbishops submitted to the see of Canterbury. 
 Beat-son. Present income 4500^. 
 
 BISHOPS. 
 
 1800. Lord George Murray, died 3 June, 1803. 
 1803. Thomas Burgess, trans, to Salisbury, June, 1825. 
 1825. John Banks Jenkinson, died 7 July, 1840. 
 1840. Connop Thirlwall (present bishop). 
 
 DAVID'S DAY, St., I March, is annually 
 commemorated by the Welsh, in honour of St. 
 David. Tradition states that on St. David's birth- 
 day, 540, a great victory was obtained by the 
 Welsh over their Saxon invaders ; and that the 
 Welsh soldiers were distinguished by order of St. 
 David by a leek in their caps. 
 
 DAVIS'S STEAIT (N. America), discovered 
 by John Davis, 11 Aug. 1585, on his voyage to find 
 a N. W. passage, 1585-87. He made two more 
 voyages for the same purpose, and five voyages to 
 the East Iudies. In the last he was killed by 
 Japanese pirates, on the coast of Malacca, 27 or 29 
 Dec. 1605. 
 
 DAVY LAMP, see Safety Lamp. 
 
 DAY. Day began at sunrise among most of the 
 northern nations, at sunset among the Athenians 
 and Jews ; and among the Bomans at midnight as 
 with us. The Italians in some places, reckon the 
 day, from sunset to sunset, making their clocks 
 strike twenty-four hours round. The Chinese 
 divide the day into twelve parts of two hours each. 
 The astronomical day begins at noon, is divided 
 into twenty-four hours (instead of two parts of 
 twelve hours) , and is the mode of reckoning used in 
 the Nautical Almanac. 
 
 DEACONS (literally servants), an order of 
 Christian ministers, began with the Apostles, about 
 53. {Acts vi.) Their qualifications are given by 
 St. Paul (65) 1st Timothy iii. 8 — 14. 
 
 DEACONESSES, or ministering widows, have 
 their qualifications given in 1 Tim. v. 9, 10 (65). 
 Their duties were to visit the poor and sick, assist 
 at the agapse or love feasts, admonish the young 
 women, &c. The office was discontinued in the 
 Western church in the 5th and 6th centuries, and 
 in the Greek church about the 12th, but has been 
 
 recently revived in Germany. The appointment of 
 deaconesses, subject to the parochial clergy, was 
 advocated by the bishop of Ely about 1853, and 
 some were appointed. The Deaconesses' Institu- 
 tion, London, was established in 1861. 
 
 DEAD. Prayers for their benefit were pro- 
 bably offered up in the 2nd century, being referred 
 to by Tertullian, who died 220. The practice was 
 protested against by Aerius, and defended by Epi- 
 phanius, who died 403. It is renounced by the 
 church of England. 
 
 DEAD WEIGHT LOAN acquired its name 
 from its locking up the capital of the Bank of 
 England, which in 1823 advanced 11,000,000^. to 
 the government (to construct new ordnance, &c). 
 The latter engaged to give an annuity of 585,740^. 
 for 44 years, which ceased in June, 1867. 
 
 DEAE AND DUMB. The first systematic 
 attempt to instruct the deaf and dumb was made 
 by Pedro de Ponce, a Benedictine monk of Spain, 
 on Jerome Cardan's system, about 1570. 
 
 Bonet, a monk, published a system at Madrid . . 1620 
 
 Dr. Wallis published a work in England on the 
 subject 1650 
 
 The first regular academy for the deaf and dumb in 
 Britain opened in Edinburgh 1773 
 
 In modern times the abbe de l'Epee (1712-89), and 
 his friend and pupil the abbe Sicard of Paris (1742 — 
 1822) ; the rev. Mr. Townsend and Mr. Baker, of 
 London ; Mr. Thos. Braidwood of Edinburgh ; 
 and surgeon Orpen of Dublin, have laboured with 
 much success in promoting the instruction of the 
 deaf and dumb. 
 
 The asylum for deaf and dumb children, opened in 
 London through the exertions of Mr. Townsend 
 in 1792 ; one in Edinburgh by Mr. J. Braidwood, 
 in 1810 ; and one in Birmingham by Mr. T. Braid- 
 wood 1815 
 
 The asylum at Claremont, Dublin, opened . . . 1816 
 
 The foundation stone of St. Saviour's church, near 
 Oxford street, London, for the deaf and dumb, laid 
 by the prince of Wales . . . 5 July, 1870 
 
 In 1851, there were in Great Britain, 12,553 deaf and 
 dumb out of a population of 20, 959,477. 
 
 A deaf and dumb debating club (Wallis club) closed 
 its third session April, 1869 
 
 DEAL, a cinque port with Sandwich, 1229 ; a 
 fishing village in the reign of Henry VIII. ; its 
 strong castle built 1539 by Henry VIII. Deal was 
 incorporated and made independent of Sandwich, 
 1699. 
 
 DEAN, EOBEST OE, Gloucestershire, an- 
 ciently wooded quite through, and in the last 
 century, though much curtailed, was twenty miles 
 in length and ten in breadth. It was famous for its 
 oaks, the material of our ships of war. Biots in 
 this district, when more than 3000 persons as- 
 sembled in the forest, and demolished upwards of 
 fifty miles of wall and fence, throwing open 10,000 
 acres of plantation, took place on 8 June, 183 1. 
 The Dean forest (mines) act passed 16 Aug. 1871. 
 
 DEAN (decanus), a name commonly given to 
 the arch-presbyter, or eldest presbyter, in the 12th 
 century ; originally a military title, an officer over 
 ten soldiers. In the church of England the dean 
 and chapter of a cathedral nominally elect the 
 bishop and form his council. By 13 & 14 Car. II. 
 (1662), a dean must be in priest's orders; pre- 
 viously the office had occasionally been held by a 
 layman, with special dispensation. The ancient 
 office of "rural dean" has been much revived since 
 1850. The Deans' and Canons' resignation act 
 passed 13 May, 1872. 
 
DEATH. 
 
 200 
 
 DECEETALS. 
 
 DEATH, ordained as the punishment for mur- 
 der, 2348 B.C. {Gen. ix. 6.) 
 
 The Jews generally stoned their criminals (Let: 
 
 XX. 2) B.C. 1490 
 
 Draco's code punished every offence with death 621 
 
 It was limited to murder by Solon . . . 594 
 
 Drowning in a quagmire was a punishment among 
 the Britons (Stow), about .... 450 
 
 Mithridates, a Persian soldier, who boasted that he 
 had killed Cyrus the Younger, at the battle of 
 Cunaxa, was by order of Artaxerxes exposed to 
 the sun for eighteen days .... 401 
 
 Maurice, the son of a nobleman, was hanged, drawn, 
 and quartered for piracy, the first execution in 
 that manner in England, 25 Hen. III. . A.D. 1241 
 
 The punishment of death was abolished in a great 
 number of eases by sir Robert Peel's acts, 4 to 10 
 Geo. IV 1824-9 
 
 By the criminal law consolidation acts, death was 
 confined to treason and wilful murder . 1861 
 
 The commission on capital punishment (appointed 
 1864) issued their report (recommendiug that 
 penal servitude be substituted for death in some 
 cases where murder was unpremeditated, and 
 that executions should not be public) Dec. 1865 
 
 Capital punishment restricted in Italy . April, ,, 
 
 Its proposed abolition in Belgium was negatived, 
 
 18 Jan. 1867 
 
 "Capital Punishment within Prisons Bill" passed 
 May, 1868. First case, 13 Aug. 1868, see Execu- 
 tions. 
 
 Abolition of the punishment of death in Great 
 Britain proposed by Mr. Gilpin in the commons ; 
 negatived (127 to 23), 21 April, 1868 ; negatived 
 (118 to 58), 29 July, 1869 ; negatived (167-54), 24 
 July, 1872 
 
 Capital punishment abolished in Saxony, 1 April, 1868 
 
 See Beheading, RavaUlac, Dcmiem, Boiling, Burn- 
 ing, Hanging, Forgery, and Campbell's Acts. 
 
 DEATHS, EEGISTEBS OF, see Bills of Mor- 
 tality and Registers. 
 
 DEBTORS have been subjected to imprison- 
 ment in almost all countries and times. In the 
 eighteen months subsequent to the panic of Dec. 
 1825, as many as 101,000 writs for debt were issued 
 in England. In the year ending 5 Jan. 1830, there 
 were 7 114 persons sent to the several prisons of 
 London ; and on that day, 1547 of the number 
 were yet confined. On the 1st of Jan. 1840, the 
 number of prisoners for debt in England and Wales 
 was 1732 ; in Ireland the number was under 1000 ; 
 and in Scotland under 100. The operation of 
 statutes of relief, and other causes, considerably 
 reduced the number of imprisoned debtors. When 
 the new Bankruptcy act (abolishing imprisonment 
 for debt except when fraudulently contracted) 
 came into operation in Nov. 1861, a number of 
 debtors who had been confined were released. 
 Arrest of Absconding Debtors bill, 14 & 15 Vict. 
 c. 52, 1852. In 1863 nearly 18,000 persons were 
 imprisoned by order of the county courts : average 
 time, 15 days, amount of debt, 3/. 10s. By an act 
 passed 9 Aug. 1869, the imprisonment of fraudulent 
 debtors was abolished, with certain exceptions, and 
 nearly a hundred debtors were released by a judge's 
 order in Jan. 1870. An act to facilitate the arrest 
 of absconding debtors, passed 9 Aug. 1870. Im- 
 prisonment for debt in Ireland was abolished bv an 
 act passed 6 Aug. 1872. See Arrest, King's Bench, 
 Bankrupts, Insolvents, and National Debt. 
 
 DEBUSSCOPE, an instrument of French 
 origin, somewhat similar to the kaleidoscope, said 
 to be useful for devising patterns for calico-printers, 
 &C, made its appearance in i860. 
 
 DECAMERONE (10 days), see Boccaccio. 
 
 DECAPITATION, see Beheading. 
 
 DECCAN (Dekhan or Dakhan), S. India, was 
 invaded by the Mahometans in 1294. The first 
 independent sultan was Alaudin. The natives re- 
 volted, and the dynasty of Bahmani was founded 
 by Hasan Ganga iii 1347. About 1686-90, Aurung- 
 zebe I. recovered the Deccau, but soon lost great 
 part of it to the Mahrattas. The Nizam al Mulk, 
 his viceroy, became independent in 171 7. A large 
 part of the Deccau was ceded to the English in 
 1818. 
 
 DECEMBER (from decern, ten), the tenth 
 month of the year of Komulus, commencing in 
 March. In 713 B.C. Numa introduced January 
 and February before March, and thenceforward 
 December became the twelfth of the year. In the 
 reign of Commodus, a.d. 181 — 192, December was 
 called, by the way of flattery, Amazonius, in honour 
 of a courtesan whom that prince bad loved, and had 
 had painted like an Amazon. The English com- 
 menced their year on the 25th December, until the 
 reign of William I. ; see Year. 
 
 DECEMVIRI, or Ten Men, appointed to 
 draw up a code of laws, to whom for a time the 
 whole government of Rome was committed, 451 B.C. 
 The laws they drew up were approved by the 
 senate and general assembly of the people, written 
 on ten metallic tables, and set up in the place where 
 the people met (comitium). Two more tables were 
 added, 450 B.C. The Decemviri at first ruled well, 
 but the conduct of Appius Claudius towards 
 Virginia occasioning an insurrection, they were 
 forced to resign ; and consuls were again ap- 
 pointed, 449 B.C. 
 
 DECENNALIA, festivals instituted by Au- 
 gustus, 17 B.C., celebrated by the Koman emperors 
 every tenth year of their reign, with sacrifices, 
 games, and largesses. Livy. Celebrated by An- 
 toninus Pius, a.d. 148. 
 
 DECIMAL SYSTEM of Coixage, 
 WEIGHTS, &c, see Metric System. 
 
 DECLARATION of Rights, see Rights. 
 
 DECORATED STYLE, see Gothic. 
 
 DECORATIVE ART. Its principles enun- 
 ciated by A. W. Pugin, in his " Designs," in 1835, 
 have been advanced by Owen Jones, Redgrave, and 
 others. Owen Jones's elaborate ''Grammar of 
 Ornament," was published in 1856. A Decorative 
 Art society, founded in 1844, existed for a short 
 time ouly. 
 
 DE COURCY'S PRIVILEGE, that of 
 standing covered before the king, granted by king 
 John, to John dc Courcy, baron of Kingsafe, and 
 his successors, in 1203. He was the first Irish 
 nobleman created by an English sovereign, 27 
 Hen. II. 1 181, and was entrusted with the govern- 
 ment of Ireland, 1 185. The privilege was allowed 
 to the baron of Kingsale by Will. III., Geo. III., 
 and by Geo. IV. at his court held in Dublin, in Aug. 
 1 82 1. The present baron is the 30th in succession. 
 
 DECRETALS. They formed the second part 
 of the canon law, or collection of the pope's edicts 
 and decrees and the decrees of councils. The first 
 acknowledged to be genuine is a letter of Siricius 
 to Himerus, a bishop of Spain, written in the first 
 year of his pontificate, 385. Howel. Certain false 
 decretals were used by Gregory IV. in 837. The de- 
 cretals of Gratian, a Benedictine (a collection of 
 canons), were compiled in 1150. Ht-nault. Five 
 books were collected by Gregory IX. 1227 ; a sixth 
 
DEDICATION. 
 
 201 
 
 DELHI. 
 
 by Boniface VIII. 1297 ; the Clementines by Cle- 
 ment V. in 1313 ; employed by John XXII. in 1317 ; 
 the Extravagantes range from 1422 to 1483. 
 
 DEDICATION of the Jewish tabernacle took 
 place 1490 B.C. ; of the temple, 1004 B.C.; of the 
 second temple, 515 B.C. The Christians under Con- 
 stantine built new churches and dedicated them 
 with great solemnity, in a.d. 331, et seq. The 
 dedication of books (by authors to solicit patronage 
 or testify respect) existed in the time of Maecenas, 
 17 B.C., the friend and counsellor of Augustus, and 
 a patron of Horace (Ode I. 1) . 
 
 DEED, a written contract or agreement. The 
 formula, " I deliver this as my act and deed," 
 occurs in a charter of 933. Fosbrooke. Deeds in 
 England were formerly written in Latin or French ; 
 the earliest known instance in English is the in- 
 denture between the abbot of Whitby and Eobert 
 Bustard, dated at York in 1343 ; see English. 
 
 . DEEP-SEA SOUNDINGS. Much new and 
 interesting information respecting the animal life 
 and temperature of the deep sea has been acquired 
 by the dredgings on the coast of Norway by M. 
 Sars, and by those of Dr. "W". B. Carpenter and 
 professor Wyville Thomson on our own coasts, near 
 the Faroe isles, in 1868 and 1869, and in the Medi- 
 terranean by Dr, Carpenter in 1870. Living ani- 
 mals have been found at a depth of three miles. 
 On 21 Dec. 1872, Dr. "Wyville Thomson and a party 
 of scientific men sailed in H.M.S. Challenger 
 (Capt. G. S. Nares), to examine into the physical 
 and biological condition of the great ocean basins 
 and the direction of their currents. 
 
 DEEE. are mentioned in a will of one Athel- 
 stan, dated 1045. Professor Owen thinks that fallow 
 deer are not native, but were introduced here at an 
 early period. There are now in England 334 deer 
 parks, the oldest beiug probably lord Abergavenny's 
 at Eridge, Sussex. See Evelyn Shirley's "Account 
 of Deer Parks," July, 1867. 
 
 DEFAMATION is punishable by fine and 
 imprisonment by statute of 1843. The jurisdiction 
 of the ecclesiastical courts on this subject was 
 abolished by 18 & 19 Vict. c. 41 (1855). 
 
 DEFENCE op the EEALM ACT passed 
 28 Aug. i860, in. consequence of the unsettled state 
 of Europe, and the doubtful policy of the emperor 
 Napoleon ; see Fortification. 
 
 DEFENDEE OF THE Faith {Fidei De- 
 fensor), a title of the British sovereign, conferred 
 by Leo. X. on Henry VIII. of England, 11 Oct. 
 1521, for the tract against Luther on behalf of the 
 Church of Eome (then accounted Domicilium fidei 
 Catholicaf). 
 
 DEFENDEES, a faction in Ireland, which 
 arose out of a quarrel between two residents of 
 Market-hill, 4 July, 1784. Each was soon aided 
 by a large body of friends, and many battles ensued. 
 On Whit-Monday, 1785, an armed assemblage of 
 one of the parties (700 men), called the Nappagh 
 Fleet, prepared to encounter the Baivn Fleet, but 
 the engagement was prevented. They subsequently 
 became religious parties, Catholic and Presbyterian, 
 distinguished as Defenders and Peep-o' -day-boys,: 
 the latter were so named because they usually visited 
 the dwellings of the Defenders at daybreak in search 
 of arms ; see Diamond. 
 
 DEGEEES- Eratosthenes attempted to deter- 
 mine the length of a geographical degree about 250 
 b.c. SneUius; see Latitude and Zofigiticde. Col- 
 
 legiate degrees are coeval with universities. Masters 
 and doctors existed, 826. Those in law are traced 
 up to 1 149; in medicine, to 1384; in music, to 
 1463. Middle class examinations for degrees were 
 instituted at Oxford, 18 June, 1857 ; at Cambridge, 
 24 Nov. 1857 ; and girls were allowed to compete 
 for degrees, Oct. 1863. 
 
 DEI GEATIA, see Grace of God. 
 
 DEIEA, a part of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of 
 Northumbria; see Britain, p. ill. 
 
 DEISM, Theism, or Monotheism (Latin, 
 
 deus ; Greek, theos, God), the belief in one God, in 
 opposition to polytheism and to the doctrine of the 
 Trinity. About the middle of the 16th century 
 some gentlemen of France and Italy termed them- 
 selves deists, to disguise their opposition to Chris- 
 tianity by a more honourable appellation than that 
 of Atheism (which see). The most distinguished 
 deists were Herbert, baron of Cherbury, in 1624 ; 
 Hobbes, Tindal, Morgan, lord Bolingbroke, Gibbon, 
 Hume, Holcroft, Paine, and Godwin. The "Pro- 
 gressive Brahmins," termed the Brahmo Somaj, or 
 Theistic Church of India, opened a place of worship 
 at Calcutta, 24 Aug. 1869. Their leader, Baboo 
 Keshub Chunder Sen, was received at a public 
 meeting in London as a reformer, 12 April, 1870, 
 and subsequently preached in a Unitarian chapel, 
 Finsbuiy, London. See Voysey. 
 
 DELAWAEE, one of the United States of 
 North America, named after lord de la Warre, go- 
 vernor of Virginia, who entered the bay 1610. It 
 was settled by Swedes, sent there by Gustavus in 
 1627 ; acquired by the Dutch, 1655 ; ceded to the 
 English, 1664. 
 
 DELEGATES, COUBT OF- Appeals to the 
 pope in ecclesiastical causes having been forbidden 
 (see Appeals), such causes were for the future to be 
 heard in this court, established by Henry VIII. 
 1533. Stow. This court was abolished in 1832, 
 and appeals now lie to the Judicial Committee of 
 the Privy Council, according to 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 
 41 (1833) ; and 6 & 7 Vict, c.38 (1843). See Arches. 
 
 DELFT (S. Holland), a town founded by God- 
 frey le Bossu, about 1074 ; famous for " Delft 
 earthenware ;" first manufactured here about 1310. 
 The sale of delft greatly declined after the introduc- 
 tion of potteries into Germany and England. Gro- 
 tius was born here, 10 April," 1583 ; and here Wil- 
 liam, the great prince of Orange, was assassinated 
 by Gerard, 10 July, 1584. 
 
 DELHI, the once great capital of the Mogul 
 empire, and chief seat of the Mahometan power in 
 India ; it was taken by Timour in 1398. It is now 
 in decay, but contained a million of inhabitants in 
 1700. In 1739, when Nadir Shah invaded Hin- 
 dostan, he entered Delhi ; 100,000 of the inhabitants 
 perished by the sword, and plunder to the amount of 
 62,000,000/. sterling is said to have been collected. 
 Similar calamities were endured in 1761, on the 
 invasion of Abdalla, king of Candahar. In 1803, 
 the Mahrattas, aided by the French, took Delhi; 
 but were defeated by general Lake, 11 Sept., and 
 the aged Shah Aulum, emperor of Hindostan, was 
 restored to his throne with a pension ; see India, 
 1803. On 10 May, 1857, a mutiny arose in the 
 sepoy regiments at Meerut. It was soon checked ; 
 but the fugitives fled to Delhi on 11 May, and, 
 combined with other troops here, seized the city ; 
 proclaimed a descendant of the Mogul king, and 
 committed frightful atrocities. The rebels were 
 anxious to possess the chief magazine, but after a 
 
" DELICATE INVESTIGATION." 202 
 
 DENARIUS. 
 
 gallant defence it was exploded by order of lieut. 
 Willoughby, who died of his wounds shortly after. 
 The other heroes of this exploit were lieutenants 
 Forrest and Rayner, and the gunners Buckley and 
 Scully. Delhi was shortly after besieged by the 
 British, but was not taken till 20 Sept. following. 
 The final struggle began on the iOth ; brigadier 
 (since sir R.) Archdale Wilson being the commander. 
 Much heroism was shown; the gallant deaths of 
 Salkeld and Home at the explosion of the Cashmere 
 gate created much enthusiasm The old king and 
 his sons were captured soon after : the latter were 
 shot, and the former after a trial was sent for life to 
 .Rangoon, where he died II Nov. 1862. See India, 
 1857. A camp formed at Delhi by the earl of Mayo, 
 the viceroy, Dec. 1 871, was visited by the king of 
 Siam, Jan. 1872. 
 
 "DELICATE INVESTIGATION" into the 
 conduct of the princess of Wales (afterwards queen 
 of England, as consort of George IV.), was com- 
 menced by a committee of the privy council, under 
 a warrant of inquiry, dated 29 May, 1806. The 
 members were lord Grenville, lord Erskine, earl 
 Spencer, and lord Ellenborough. The inquiry, of 
 which the countess of Jersey, sir J. and lady Doug- 
 las, and other persons of rank, were the prompters, 
 led to the publication called "The Book;" after- 
 wards suppressed. The charges against the princess 
 were disproved in 1807, and in 1813 ; but not being 
 permitted to appear at court, she went on the conti- 
 nent in 1814 ; see Queen Caroline. 
 
 DELITJM, Bceotia, N. Greece, the site of a 
 celebrated temple of Apollo. Here, in a conflict 
 between the Athenians and the Boeotians, in which 
 the former were defeated, Socrates the philosopher 
 is said to have saved the life of his pupil Xenophon, 
 424 B.C. 
 
 DELLA CEUSCA ACADEMY of Florence 
 merged into the Florentine in 1582. — The Della 
 Crusca School, a term applied to some English 
 residents at Florence, who printed inferior senti- 
 mental poetry and prose in 1785. They came to 
 England, where their works, popular for a short 
 time, were severely satirised by Gilford in his " Ba- 
 viad" and "Mteviad" (1792-5). 
 
 DELOS, a Greek isle in the jEgean sea. Here 
 the Greeks, during the Persian war, 477 B.C., esta- 
 blished their common treasury, which was removed 
 to Athens, 461. 
 
 DELPHI (N. Greece), celebrated for its enig- 
 matical oracles delivered by the Pythia or priestess 
 in the temple of Apollo, which was built, some say, 
 by the council of the Amphictyons, 1263 B.C. The 
 Pythian games were first celebrated here 586 B.C. 
 The temple was burnt by the Pisistratidaj, 548 B.C. 
 Anew temple was raised by the Alcmasonicke. The 
 Persians (480 B.C.) and the Gauls (279 B.C.) were 
 deterred from plundering the temple by awful por- 
 tents. It was, however, robbed and seized by the 
 Phocians 357 B.C., which led to the sacred war, and 
 Nero carried from it 300 costly statues, a.d. 67. 
 The oracle was consulted by Julian, but silenced by 
 Theodosius. 
 
 DELPHIN CLASSICS, a collection of thirty- 
 nine Latin authors in sixty volumes, made for the 
 use of the dauphin {in usum DelpJiini) son of Louis 
 XIV., and published in 1674-91. Ausonius was 
 added in 1730. The due de Montausier, the young 
 prince's governor, proposed the plan to Huet, bishop 
 of Avranches, the dauphin's preceptor ; and he, with 
 
 other learned persons, including Madame Dacier,* 
 edited all the Latin classics except Lucan. Each 
 author is illustrated by notes and an index of words. 
 An edition of the Delphin classics, with additional 
 notes, &c, was published by Mr. Valpy of London, 
 1 81 8, et seq. 
 
 DELUGE- The deluge was threatened in the 
 year of the world 1536 ; and began 7 Dec. 1656, and 
 continued 377 days. Genesis vi. vii. and viii. The 
 ark rested on Mount Ararat 6 May, 1657 ; and Noah 
 left the ark 18 December following. Ihe year cor- 
 responds with that of 2348 B.C. Blair. The fol- 
 lowing are the epochs of the deluge, according to 
 Dr. Hales :— 
 
 Septuagint 
 
 B.C. 3246 
 
 Jackson 
 
 • 3I7 
 
 Hales . 
 
 • ■ 3155 
 
 Josephus . 
 
 . 3146 
 
 Persian . 
 
 • • 3I03 
 
 Hindoo 
 
 . 3102 
 
 Samaritan 
 
 . . 299S 
 
 Howard 
 
 . 2698 
 
 Clinton 
 
 . B.C. 248a 
 
 Playfair . 
 
 • • 2352 
 
 Usher and Eng. 
 
 Bible 2348 
 
 Marsham 
 
 ■ • 2344 
 
 Petavius . 
 
 • 2329 
 
 Strauehius . 
 
 . . 2293 
 
 Hebrew 
 
 . 2288 
 
 Vulgar Jewish 
 
 . . 2104 
 
 In the reign of Ogyges, king of Attica, 1764 b.c , a deluge 
 so inundated Attica, that it lay waste for nearly 200 
 years. Blair. Button thinks "that the Hebrew and 
 Grecian deluges were the same, and arose from the 
 Atlantic and Bosphorua bursting into the valley of the 
 Mediterranean. 
 
 The deluge of Deucalion, in Thessaly, is placed 1503 B.C. 
 according to Eusebius. It was often confounded by 
 the ancients with the general flood : but considered to 
 be merely a local inundation, occasioned by the over- 
 flowing of the river Peneius, whose course was stopped 
 by an earthquake between the mounts Olympus and 
 Ossa. Deucalion, who then reigned in Thessaly, with 
 his wife Pyrrha, and some of their subjects, are stated 
 to have saved themselves by climbing up mount Par- 
 nassus. 
 
 A general deluge was predicted to occur in 1524, and arks 
 were built ; but the season happened to be a fine and 
 dry one. 
 
 DEMEEAEA A2\ T D Essequibo, colonies in 
 British Guiana, South America, founded by the 
 Dutch, 1580, were taken by the British, under 
 major-general Whyte, 22 April, 1796, but were re- 
 stored at the peace of Amiens, March, 1802. They 
 again surrendered to the British under general 
 Grinfield and commodore Hood, Sept. 1803, and 
 became English colonies in 1814. John Scott was 
 appointed governor, 31 Dec. 1868. 
 
 DEMOCEATS, advocates for government by the 
 people themselves {demos, people, and kratein, to 
 govern), a term adopted by the French republicans 
 in 1790 (who termed their opponents aristocrats, 
 from aristos, bravest or best). The name Democrats 
 was adopted by the pro-slavery party in N. America 
 (the southern states), and the abolitionists were 
 called Republicans. Into these two great parties a 
 number of smaller ones were absorbed at the presi- 
 dential election in 1856. In i860, the Kepublicans 
 formed " Wide-awake" clubs for electioneering pur- 
 poses, and succeeded iu getting their candidate, 
 Abraham Lincolu, elected president, 4 Nov. ; see 
 United States, i860. 
 
 DENAIN (N. France). "Here marshal Villars 
 defeated the Imperialists, 24 July, 1712. 
 
 DENAEIUS, the chief silver coin among the 
 Romans, weighing the seventh part of a Roman 
 ounce, and value ~\d. sterling, first coined about 
 269 B.C., when it exchanged for ten ases (see As). 
 In 216 B.C. it exchanged for sixteen ases. A pound 
 weight of silver was coined into 100 denarii, higby. 
 
 * This beautiful and gifted woman translated Calli- 
 mach/us at the age of 2;, ; and also Anucreon, Sa/ppho, 
 PlautUS, Terence, and limner. She died in 1720. 
 
DENHAM MUEDEES. 
 
 203 
 
 DENMAEK. 
 
 A pound weight of gold was coined into twenty 
 denarii aurei in 206 B.C. ; and in Nero's time into 
 forty-five denarii aurei. Lempriere. 
 
 DENHAM MUEDEES, see Trials, 1870. 
 
 DENIS, St., an ancient town of France, near 
 Paris, famous for its abbey and church ; the former 
 abolished at the revolution, the latter the place of 
 sepulture of the French kings, from its foundation 
 by Dagobert, about 630 ; the remains of the saint 
 Denis were placed there in 636. On 6, 7, 8 Aug. 
 1793, the republicans demolished most of the royal 
 tombs, and in Oct. following, the bodies were taken 
 from coffins and cast into a pit ; the lead was melted, 
 and the gold and jewels taken to Paris. By a de- 
 cree of Bonaparte, dated 20 Feb. 1806, the church 
 (which had been turned into a cattle-market) was 
 ordered to be cleansed out and redecorated as "the 
 future burial-place of the emperors of France." On 
 the return of the Bourbons, more restorations were 
 effected, and the due de Berri and Louis XVIII. 
 were buried here. 
 
 DENISON'S ACT (18 & 19 Vict. c. 34), pro- 
 vides "for the education of the children of persons 
 in receipt of out-door relief: " passed 26 June, 1855. 
 
 DENMAN'S Act, Lord, 6 & 7 Vict. c. 85 
 
 (1843), relates to juries and witnesses. 
 
 DENMAEK (N\ Europe). The most ancient 
 inhabitants were Cirnbri and Teutones, who were 
 driven out by the Jutes or Goths. The Teutones 
 settled in Germany and Gaul ; the Cimbrians in- 
 vaded Italy, where they were defeated byMarius. 
 The peninsula of Jutland obtained its name from 
 the Jutes ; and the name of Denmark is supposed to 
 be derived from Dan, the founder of the Danish 
 monarchy, and mark, a German Avord signifying 
 country. For their numerous invasions of Britain, 
 &c, see Danes. Population of the kingdom of Den- 
 mark in i860, 1,600,551 ; of the duchies of Schles- 
 wig, Holstein, andLauenburg, 1,004,473 ; of tbe colo- 
 nies, 120,283. By the treaty of peace, signed 30 
 Oct. 1864, the duchies were taken from Denmark ; 
 Schleswig and Holstein were to be made indepen- 
 dent, and Lauenburg was to be incorporated, by 
 its desire, with Prussia. For the result, see Gastein 
 and Prussia, 1866. Population of the monarchy, 
 1 Feb. 1870, 1,784,741; of the colonies, Oct. i860, 
 124,020. 
 
 Reign of Skiold, alleged first king . . b. c. 60 
 The Danish chronicles mention 18 kings to the time 
 of Ragnor Lodbrog, killed in an attempt to invade 
 
 "England a.d. 794 
 
 Canute the Great conquers Norway . . . 1016-28 
 By the union of Calmar, Denmark, Norway, and 
 Sweden made one kingdom under Margaret, 
 
 12 July, 1397 
 
 Copenhagen made the capital 1440 
 
 Accession of Christian I. (of Oldenburg), from whom 
 
 the late royal family sprang 1448 
 
 Christian II. deposed ; independence of Sweden 
 
 under Gustavus Vasa acknowledged . . . 1523 
 Lutheranism introduced in 1527 ; established by 
 
 Christian III 1536 
 
 Danish East India Company established . . . 1612 
 Christian IV. chosen head of the Protestant league 
 
 against the emperor 1629 
 
 Charles Gustavus of Sweden invades Denmark, be- 
 sieges Copenhagen, and makes conquests . . 1658 
 The crown made hereditary and absolute . . 1665 
 
 Frederick IV. takes Holstein, Schleswig, Tonningen, 
 and Stralsuncl ; reduces "Weismar, and drives the 
 Swedes from Norway . . . . 1716 et seq. 
 
 Copenhagen nearly destroyed by fire . . . 1728 
 The peaceful reign of Christian VI. . . 1730-46 
 
 Plot of the queen dowager against the ministers and 
 Matilda (sister of our George III. and queen of 
 Christian VII., a weak monarch). Matilda, en- 
 
 trapped into a confession of criminality to save the 
 life of her supposed lover, Struenzee, condemned 
 to imprisonment for life in the castle of Zell, 
 
 18 Jan. 1772: 
 Count Struenzee and Brandt beheaded 28 April, „ 
 
 Queen Matilda dies, aged 24 1775. 
 
 Christian VII. becomes deranged, and prince Frede- ■ 
 
 rick is appointed regent ^7^4- 
 
 One-fourth of Copenhagen burnt . . 9 June, 1795 
 Admirals.Nelson and Parker bombard Copenhagen 
 {which see). (Confederacy of the North, see Armed 
 Neutrality, dissolved.) ... 2 April, 1801 
 
 Admiral Gambierand lord Cath cart bombard Copen- 
 hagen ; the Danish fleet surrenders . 7 Sept. 1807 
 Peace of Kiel : Pomerania and Rugen annexed to 
 
 Denmark for Norway .... 14 Jan. 1814. 
 Pomerania and Rtigen ceded to Prussia for Lauen- 
 burg 1815 
 
 Commercial treaty with England .... 1824. 
 Frederick VI. grants a new constitution . . . 1831 
 Christian VIII. declares the right of the crown to 
 
 Schleswig, Holstein, <fcc. . . .11 July, 1846. 
 Accession of Frederick VII. 20 Jan. ; he proclaims 
 a new constitution, uniting the duchies more 
 closely with Denmark .... 28 Jan. 1848- 
 Insurrection in the duchies : a provisional govern- 
 ment founded 23 March, ,, 
 
 The rebels seize fortress of Rendsburg 24 March, „ 
 They are defeated near Flensburg . 9 April, „ 
 The Danes defeated by the Prussians (helping the 
 ' duchies) near Dannawerke, Schleswig . 23 April, „ 
 The North sea blockaded by Denmark . 1 Aug. „ 
 Hostilities suspended : the European powers recom- 
 mend peace 26 Aug. „ 
 
 Hostilities recommence ... 25 March, 18491 
 Victory of the Danes over the Holsteiners and Ger- 
 mans 10 April, ,, 
 
 Several conflicts with varying success . June, „ 
 Armistice renewed at Mahno . . . 10 July, ,, 
 Separate peace with Prussia ... 2 July, 1850. 
 Integrity of Denmark guaranteed by England, France, 
 
 Prussia, and Sweden 4 July, ,, 
 
 Battle of Idstedt, and defeat of the Schleswig-Hol- 
 
 steiners by the Danes . . . .25 July, „ 
 Protocol signed in London by the ministers of all 
 
 the great powers 23 Aug. „ 
 
 Bombardment of Friedrichstadt by the Holsteiners, 
 and the town almost destroyed, but not taken, 
 
 29 Sept. to 6 Oct. „ 
 Proclamation of the stadtholders of Schleswig-Hol- 
 stein, placing the rights of the country under the 
 protection of the Germanic confederation 10 Jan. 1851 
 The integrity of the Danish monarchy and the inde- 
 pendence of Schleswig and its old union with Hol- 
 stein guaranteed by treaty . . . 18 Feb: 1852: 
 Austrians evacuate Holstein, &c. . . 2 March, „ 
 Treaty of European powers. [The succession in 
 the line of Sonderburg-Gliicksburg settled, and 
 the integrity of the Danish kingdom guaranteed. 
 Christian, "duke of Augustenburg-Holstein re- 
 nounced his rights for a compensation in money.] 
 
 8 May, „ 
 The king promulgates a new constitution, 29 July, 
 
 1854 : adopted 1 Oct. 1855, 
 
 The sound dues abolished for a compensation (see 
 
 Sound) 14 March, 1857 
 
 Dissension between the government and the duchies, 
 
 Oct. 1857-62 
 Fortification of Copenhagen decreed 27 March, 1858 
 
 New ministry appointed 3 Dec. 1859 ; resigns 9 Feb. ; 
 
 bishop Monrad forms a ministry . . 24 Feb. 1860- 
 The assembly of Schleswig complain that the pro- 
 mise of equality of national rights in 1852 has not 
 been kept, 1 1 Feb. ; protest against the annexa- 
 tion to Denmark 1 March, „ 
 
 The Prussian chamber of deputies receive a petition 
 from Schleswig, and declare that they will aid the 
 duchies, 4 May ; at which the Danish government 
 
 protests 16 May, „ 
 
 Correspondence ensues between the Prussian, 
 Danish, and British governments ; the Danish 
 government declare for war, if German forces 
 
 enter the duchies Jan. 1861. 
 
 Warlike preparations in Denmark . . Feb. „ 
 
 Decimal coinage adopted .... June, ,, 
 Agitation in favour of union of Denmark with 
 Sweden, June ; the king of Sweden visits Den- 
 mark, and is warmly received . . . 17 July, 1862- 
 
DENMARK. 
 
 204 
 
 DENMARK. 
 
 Earl Russell recommends the government to give 
 to Holstein and Lauenburg all that the Germanic 
 confederation desire for them, and to give self- 
 government to Bchleswig . . .24 Sept. 1862 
 
 M. Hall, the Danish minister, declines to accede ; 
 stating that to do so would imperil the existence 
 of the monarchy itself . . . . 20 Nov. „ 
 
 Princess Alexandra of Denmark married to the 
 Prince of Wales at Windsor . . 10 March, 1863 
 
 The king grants, by patent, independent rights to 
 Holstein, but annexes Settles wig . 30 March, 
 
 Austria and Prussia protest against it . 17 April, 
 
 Further diplomatic correspondence . . May, 
 
 The king accepts the crown of Greece for his rela- 
 tive, prince William-George, and gives him sound 
 political advice 6 June, 
 
 Death of the crown prince Frederick-Ferdinand, 
 the king's uncle 29 June, 
 
 The German diet demands annulment of the patent 
 of 30 March ; (Holstein and Schleswigtobe united 
 with the same right ; ) and threatens an army of 
 occupation 9 July, 
 
 The king replies that he will consider occupation to 
 be an act of war 27 Aug. 
 
 Vain efforts for alliance with Sweden . . Aug. 
 
 Extra levy for the army decreed . . 1 Aug. 
 
 New constitution (uniting Schleswig with Denmark) 
 proposed in the rigsraad . . . . 29 Sept. 
 
 Death of Frederick VII. and accession of Christian 
 IX 15 Nov. 
 
 Prince Frederick of Augustenburg claims the 
 duchies of Schleswig and Holstein . . 16 Nov. 
 
 ■Great excitement in Holstein ; many officials refuse 
 to take oatli to Christian . 21 Nov. et seq. 
 
 Saxony, Bavaria, Hesse, and other German powers 
 
 resolve to support the prince of Augustenburg, 
 
 26 Nov. c t seq. 
 
 New constitution affirmed by the rigsraad, 13 Nov. ; 
 signed by king, 18 Nov. ; published, . 1, 2 Dec. 
 
 The Austrian and Prussian ministers say that they 
 will quit Copenhagen if the constitution of 18 
 Nov. is not annulled .... Dec. 
 
 •Great excitement in Norway : proposals to support 
 Denmark lice. 
 
 Prince Frederick's letter to the emperor Napoleon, 
 2 Dec. ; an ambiguous reply ... 10 Dec. 
 
 Denmark protests against federal occupation, 19 Dec. 
 
 ■900 representatives of different German states" meet 
 at Frankfort, and resolve to support prince Frede- 
 rick as duke of Schleswig and Holstein, and the 
 inseparable union of those duchies . . 21 Dec. 
 
 The federal execution takes place ; a Saxon regiment 
 enters Album, 24 Dec. ; and the federal commis- 
 sioners assume administrative powers . 25 Dei-. 
 
 The Danes retire from Holstein, to avoid collision 
 with federal troops . . .24 Dec. et seq. 
 
 Prince Frederick enters Kiel, as duke of Schleswig 
 and Holstein 30 Dec. 
 
 The Danes evacuate Bendsburg . . 31 Dee. 
 
 Ministerial crisis : Hall retires, and bishop Monrad 
 forms a cabinet 31 Dec. 
 
 Dissension among Germans : the Austro-Prussiau 
 proposition rejected by the diet . . 14 Jan. 
 
 Austria and Prussia demand abrogation of the con- 
 stitution (of 18 Nov.) in two days, 16 Jan. ; the 
 Danes require six weeks' time . . 18 Jan. 
 
 The German troops under marshal Wrangel enter 
 Holstein 21 Jan. 
 
 The Prussians enter Schleswig, and take Eckenfi >rde, 
 
 1 Feb. 
 
 They bombard Missunde, 2 Feb. ; which is burnt, 
 
 3 Fell. 
 
 The Danes abandon the Dannewerke to save their 
 army, 5 Feb. ; great discontent in Copenhagen, 
 
 6 Feb. 
 
 The Danes defeated by Wrangel at Oever-sce ; 
 Bchleswig taken ; pr. Frederick proclaimed, 6 Feb. 
 
 The allies occupy Flensburg, 7 Feb. ; commence 
 their attack on Duppel .... 13 Feb. 
 
 The federal commissioners protest against the Prus- 
 sian occupation of Altona . . . . 13 Feb. 
 
 The Prussians enter Jutland ; take Kolding, iS Feb. ; 
 Danes fortify Alsen . . .18 Feb. et seq. 
 
 A conference on Danish affairs proposed by Eng- 
 land : agreed to by allies . . . . 23 Fell. 
 
 A subscription for the wounded Danes begun in 
 London 2 4 Feb. 
 
 De Gertach, general of the Danes . . 1 Mar. 1864 
 
 Defeated at Sonderbygaard and Veill . 8 Mar. 
 
 The rigsraad vote a firm address to the king, 26 
 Feb. ; adjourned 22 Mar. ,, 
 
 The Prussians bombard and take the village of Dup- 
 pel, or Dybbol, 16, 17 March, and bombard Fred- 
 ericia, 20 March ; repulsed in an attack on the 
 fortress 28 Mar. „ 
 
 The opening of the conference adjourned from 12 
 
 to 20 April, ,, 
 
 The Prussians take the fortress of Duppel, by assault, 
 with much slaughter 18 April, ,, 
 
 Meetings of the conference at London : result un- 
 favourable to Denmark . . 23 April, et se>j. ,, 
 
 The Danes retreat to Alsen ; evacuate Fredericia 
 and fortresses of Jutland . . . . 29 April, ,, 
 
 Agreement for an armistice for one month from 12 
 May 9 May ,, 
 
 Jutland subjected to pillage for not paying a war 
 contribution to Prussians . . 6 May, el seq. ,, 
 
 The Danes defeat the allies in a naval battle off 
 Heligoland 9 May, ,, 
 
 The armistice prolonged a fortnight . 9 June, ,, 
 
 The conference ends 22 June, ,, 
 
 Hostilities resumed, 26 June ; the Prussians bom- 
 bard Alsen ; take the batteries and 2400 prisoners, 
 
 29 June, ,, 
 
 The Monrad ministry resigns ; count Moltke 
 charged to form an administration . 8-10 July, „ 
 
 Alsen taken ; — Jutland placed under Prussian ad- 
 ministration ; — Prince John of Denmark sent to 
 negotiate at Berlin .... 9 July, ,, 
 
 Formation of the Bluhme ministry . . n July, ,, 
 
 Armistice agreed to .... iS July, ., 
 
 Conference for peace at Vienna . . . 26 July, ,, 
 
 Treaty of peace signed at Vienna ; — the king of Den- 
 mark resigns the duchies to the disposal of the 
 allies, and agrees to a rectification of his frontier, 
 and to pay a large sum of money to defray the 
 expenses of the war .... 30 Oct. ,, 
 
 Proclamation of the king to the inhabitants of the 
 duchies, releasing them from their allegiance, 
 
 16 Nov. ,, 
 
 Project of a new constitution presented to the 
 chambers, 21 Dec. ; rejected . . 25 Feb. 1865 
 
 New ministry formed under count Frijsenborg, 
 6 Nov. ; a new constitution proposed, 7 Nov. 1865 ; 
 approved by the two chambers, 19 and 27 July ; 
 sanctioned by the king . . . 28 July, 1866 
 
 Princess Dagmar married to prince Alexander of 
 Russia, 9 Nov. ,, 
 
 New rigsraad opened .... 12 Nov. ,, 
 
 The king visited England .... March, 1867 
 
 The Danish West Indies, St. Thomas and St. John, 
 proposed to be sold to the United States for 
 1,500,000?. — proclamation in the islands dated 
 
 25 Oct. „ 
 
 Proposed sale of St. Thomas's to the United States 
 approved by the assembly (not carried out), 
 
 30 Jan. 1868 
 
 Marriage of the crown prince Frederic to the prin- 
 cess Louisa of Sweden . . . 28 July, 1S69 
 
 New ministry formed by M. Holsteinborg, 20 May, ,, 
 
 Denmark remains neutral in the Franco-Prussian 
 war ; fruitless visit of the due de Cadore to 
 Copenhagen 4-1 1 Aug. 1S70 
 
 Birth of a son to the crown prince . . 27 Sept. ,, 
 
 Destructive hurricane over the kingdom ; loss of life 
 and property 12, 13 Nov. 
 
 Parliament opened 1 Oct. ii-ji 
 
 War budget reduced .... 18 Dec. ., 
 
 Meeting of the International at Copenhagen forbid- 
 den; chiefs arrested .... 5 May, 1S72 
 
 Industrial exhibition opened . . 13 June, ,, 
 
 A.D. SOVEREIGNS. 
 
 794. Sigurd Snogoje. 
 £03. Hardicanute. 
 
 850. Eric I. 
 
 854. Eric II. 
 
 883. Gormo, the Old ; reigned 53 years. 
 
 941. Harold, surnained Blue Tooth. 
 
 991. Suenon, or Swcyn. the Forked-beard. 
 1014. Canute II. the Great, king of Denmark and 
 
 England. 
 1035. Canute III. ; son, Hardicanute of England. 
 1042. Magnus, surnained the Good, of Norway. 
 
DENMAEK. 
 
 205 
 
 DEEBY. 
 
 1047. Suenon, or Sweyn II. (Denmark only). 
 
 1073. [Interregnum.] 
 
 1076. Harold, called the Simple. 
 
 1080. Canute IV. 
 
 1086. Olans IV. the Hungry. 
 
 1095. Erie I, styled the Good. 
 
 1 103. [Interregnum.] 
 
 1 105. Nicholas I. killed at Sleswick. 
 
 1135. Eric II. sumamed Harefoot. 
 
 1137. Eric III. the Lamb. 
 
 f Suenon, or Sweyn III. : beheaded. 
 ** 7 ' ( Canute V. until 1157 (civil war). 
 1157. Waldemar, styled the Great. 
 1 182. Canute VI. sumamed the Pious. 
 1202. Waldemar II. the Victorious. 
 1241. Eric IV 
 1250. Abel : assassinated his elder brother Eric ; killed 
 
 in an expedition against the Prisons. 
 1252. Christopher I. : poisoned. 
 1259. Eric V. 
 1286. Eric VI. 
 1320. Christopher II. 
 1334. [Interregnum of seven years.] 
 1340. Waldemar III. 
 
 1375. [Interregnum.] 
 
 1376. Olaus V. 
 
 1387. Margaret, styled the "Semiramis of the North," 
 
 queen of Sweden, Norway, and Denmark. 
 1397. Margaret and Erie VII. (Eric XIII. of Sweden.) 
 1412. Eric VII. reigns alone ; obliged to resign both 
 
 crowns. 
 1438. [Interregnum.] 
 1440. Christopher III. king of Sweden. 
 1448. Christian I. count of Oldenburg ; elected king of 
 
 Denmark, 1448 ; of Sweden, 1457 ; succeeded by 
 
 his son, 
 1481. John ; succeeded by his son, 
 1513. Christian II. called the Cruel, and the " Nero of 
 
 the North ; " he caused all the Swedish nobility 
 
 to be massacred : dethroned for his tyranny in 
 
 1523 ; died in a dungeon in 1559. 
 [Sweden separated from Denmark.] 
 
 DENMARK AND NORWAY. 
 
 1523. Frederick I. duke of Holstein, son of Christian I. ; 
 
 a liberal ruler. 
 1533. Christian III. son of Frederick ; established the 
 
 Lutheran religion ; esteemed the " Father of his 
 
 People." 
 1559. Frederick II. son of Christian III. 
 1588. Christian IV. son. 
 1648. Frederick III. ; changed the constitution from an 
 
 elective to an hereditary monarchy, vested in 
 
 his own family, 1665. 
 1670. Christian V. son of Frederick III. ; succeeded by 
 
 his son, 
 1699. Frederick IV. ; leagued with the czar Peter and 
 
 the king of Poland against Charles XII. of 
 
 Sweden. 
 1730. Christian VI. his son. 
 1746. Frederick V. his son : married the princess Louisa 
 
 of England, daughter of George II. 
 1766. Christian VII. his son. See p. 203. 
 1784. Prince Frederick declared regent, in consequence 
 
 of the mental derangement of his father. 
 1808. Frederick VI. previously regent, now king. 
 1814. Norway annexed to Sweden, 14 Jan. 
 
 DENMARK. 
 
 1839. Christian VIII. (son of Frederick, brother of 
 Christian VII.) 
 
 1848. Frederick VII. son of Christian VIII. ; 20 Jan. ; 
 born 6 Oct. 1808 ; separated from his first wife, 
 Sept. 1837 ; from his second wife, Sept. 1846 ; 
 married morganatically Louisa, countess of 
 Dauner, 7 Aug. 1850 ; died 15 Nov. 1863. 
 
 1863. Christian IX. son of William, duke of Schleswig- 
 Holstein-Sonderburg-Gliicksburg ; 15 Nov. (suc- 
 ceeded by virtue of the protocol of London, 8 
 May, 1852, and of the law of the Danish succes- 
 sion, 31 July, 1853.) He was born 8 April, 1818 ; 
 married princess Louisa of Hesse-Cassel, 26 
 May, 1842. [He is descended from Christian III. 
 and she from Frederick V. ; both from George II. 
 of England.] 
 
 Heir: Frederick (his son), born 3 June, 1843; married 
 princess Louisa of Sweden, 28 July, 1869. 
 
 DENNEWITZ (Prussia), here a victory was 
 obtained by marshal Bernadotte (afterwards- 
 Charles XIV., king of Sweden), over marshal Ney, 
 6 Sept. 1813. The loss of the French exceeded 
 13,000 men, several eagles, and cannon; of the- 
 allies, 6000. The defeat of Napoleon at Leipsic, on 
 the 18th of October following, closed this disastrous 
 campaign. 
 
 DENOMINATIONS, The Three (pres- 
 
 byterians, congregationalists or independents, and 
 baptists), were organised in 1727 as an association, 
 with the privilege of direct appeal to the reigning 
 sovereign of Great Britain. 
 
 DEODAND (Latin, " to be given to God") : 
 formerly anything which had caused the death of 
 a human being became forfeit to the sovereign or 
 lord of the manor, and was to be sold for the benefit 
 of the poor. The forfeiture was abolished by 9 & 
 10 Vict. c. 62 (1846). 
 
 D'EON, Chevalier, who had acted in a 
 
 diplomatic capacity in several countries, and been 
 minister plenipotentiary from France in London, 
 was affirmed to be a female, at a trial at the King's 
 Bench in 1771, in an action to recover wagers as to 
 his sex. He subsequently wore female attire; but 
 at his death he was proved to be a male. 
 
 DEONTOLOGY, the knowledge of what is 
 right, or the science of duty (from the Greek to deon, 
 that which is proper), an element of the Utilitarian) 
 philosophy propounded by Jeremy Bentham in his 
 " Deontology," published by Dr. Bowring in 1834. 
 
 DEPAETMENTS, see France. 
 
 DEPTFOED (near London). The hospital 
 here was incorporated by Henry VIII. about 1512, 
 and called the Trinity-house of Deptford Strond - 
 the brethren of Trinity-house hold their corporate 
 rights by this hospital. The dockyard, founded 
 about 1513, was closed 31 March, 1809, having been 
 purchased by Mr. T. P. Austin for 70,000^. He soldi 
 part of it to the corporation of London for 94,640^., 
 for a market for foreign cattle, which was opened 
 for use, 28 Dec. 1871. On 4 April, 1581, Queen 
 Elizabeth dined at Deptford on board the Golden 
 Hind, the ship in which Drake had made his 
 voyage round the globe. The Deptford victualling- 
 office was burnt 16 Jan. 1748-9; the store-house, 2 
 Sept. 1758; the red-house, 26 Feb. 1761 ; and the- 
 king's-mill, I Dec. 1755. Peter the Great of Bussiai 
 lived at Evelyn's house, Say's-court, while learning 
 ship-building, &c, in 1698. 
 
 DEPUTIES, CHAMBER OF, the title borne- 
 by the French legislative assembly, from the resto- 
 ration of the Bourbons in 1814 till Jan. 1852 ; when 
 it was named " Corps Legislatif." 
 
 DEEBY was made a, royal burgh by Egbert 
 (about 828) . Alfred expelled" the Danes from it and 
 planted a colony in 880. His heroic daughter, 
 Ethelfleda, again expelled the Danes in 918. 
 "William I. gave Derby to his illegitimate son 
 William Peveril. Lombe's silk-throwing machine 
 was set up in 1 7 18; and in 1756, Jedediah Strutt 
 invented the Derby ribbed stocking-frame. The- 
 young Pretender reached Derby, 3 Dec. 1745, and 
 retreated thence soon after. The new town-hall was 
 opened 29 May, 1866. The midland counties fine- 
 art exhibition was held here, and was opened by the* 
 duke of Devonshire, 5 May, 1870. 
 
 Derby Trials. Brandreth, Turner, Ludlam senior, 
 Ludlam junior, Weightman, and others, Luddites, con- 
 
DERBY ADMINISTRATIONS. 
 
 206 
 
 DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 victed at a commission of high treason, 15 Oct. 1817 ; 
 and Brandreth, Turner, and the elder Ludlam exe- 
 cuted, 7 Nov. following. 23 were tried, and 12 not 
 tried. 
 21 prisoners indicted at Derby for the murder of several 
 miners in the Red-soil mine ; but were acquitted mi the 
 ground that the mischief was not wilful, 23 March, 
 1834. 
 
 DERBY ADMINISTRATIONS : the first 
 formed after the resignation of lord John Russell, 
 21 Feb. 1852. 
 
 FIRST ADMINISTRATION, 27 Feb. 1852. 
 
 First lord of the. treasury, Edward, earl of Derby.* 
 
 Lord chancellor, lord St. Leonards (previously sir Edward 
 
 Sugden). 
 President of the council, earl of Lonsdale. 
 Lord privy seal, marquis of Salisbury. 
 Home, foreign, and colonial secretaries, Spencer Horatio 
 
 Walpole, earl of Malmesbury, and sir John Pakington. 
 •Chancellor of the exchequer, Benjamin Disraeli. 
 Board of control, John Charles Hemes. 
 Board of trade, Joseph Warner Henley. 
 Postmaster-general, earl of Hardwicke. 
 .Secretary-ai-ivar, William Beresford. 
 First commissioner of works and public buildings, lord 
 
 John Manners. 
 Robert Adam Christopher, lord Colchester, &c. 
 [Defeated on the budget, 16 Dec. ; resigned 17 Dec. 1852 ; 
 
 succeeded by the Aberdeen administration.] 
 
 SEGOND ADMINISTRATION, 25 Feb. 1858. 
 
 First lord of tlie treasury, earl of Derby. 
 
 Lord chancellor, lord Chelmsford (previously sir F. 
 
 Thesiger). 
 ■Chancellor of the exchequer, B. Disraeli. 
 
 Secretaries- foreign, earl of Malmesbury ; home, Spencer 
 H. Walpole (resigned March, 1859), T. Botheron Est- 
 court ; colonies, lord Stanley ; in June, 1858, sir E. 
 Bulwer Lytton ; war, col. Jonathan Peel. 
 
 P residents— of the council, marquis of Salisbury ; of board 
 of control (India), 1, earl of Elleuborough (who resigned 
 in May, 1858 ; he had sent a letter, on his own autho- 
 rity, censuring the proclamation of lord Canning to the 
 Oude insurgents ; the. government hardly escaped a 
 vote of censure) ; 2, in June, 1858, lord Stanley ;— 
 board of trade, Mr. Joseph W. Henley (resigned in 
 March, 1859) ; earl of Donoughmore ; — board of works, 
 lord John Manners. 
 
 Lord privy seal, earl of Hardwicke. 
 
 First lord of the admiralty, sir John S. Pakington. 
 
 Postmaster, lord Colchester. 
 
 ■Chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, duke of Montrose. 
 
 [This ministry resigned in consequence of a vote of want 
 of confidence, 11 June, 1S50 ; ** was succeeded by the 
 Palmerstou-Russell cabinet (which see).] 
 
 THIRD ADMINISTRATION, CONSTITUTED 6 July, 1866. 
 
 First lord of the treasury, Edward, earl of Derby. 
 
 Lord chancellor, Frederick, lord Chelmsford. 
 
 President of council, Richard, duke of Buckingham; 
 succeeded by John, duke of Marlborough, 8 March, 
 1867. 
 
 Lord privy seal, James, earl of Malmesbury. 
 -Secretaries— home, Spencer Horatio Walpole, resigned ; 
 Gathorne Hardy, 17 May, 1867 ;— foreign, Edward, lord 
 Stanley ; — colonies, Henry, earl of Carnarvon, resigned ; 
 Richard, duke of Buckingham and Chandos, 8 March, 
 x g6 7 j — wa r, lieut.-gen. sir Jonathan Peel, resigned ; 
 sir John Somerset Pakington, 8 March, 1867 ;— India, 
 Robert, lord Cranborne, resigned ; sir Stafford Henry 
 Northcote, 8 March, 1867. 
 • Chancellor of the exchequer, Benjamin Disraeli. 
 
 First lord of admiralty, sir John S. Pakington ; suc- 
 ceeded by Henry Thomas Corry, 8 March, 1867. 
 
 Chief commissioner of works, <Cc, lord John Manners. 
 
 President of board of trade, sir Stafford Northcote; suc- 
 ceeded by Charles Henry, duke of Richmond, March, 
 1867. 
 
 Chief secretary for Ireland, Richard, lord Naas (afterwards 
 carl of Mayo) 
 
 * Born 1799 ; M.P. for Stockbridge (as lion. E. G. S. 
 Stanley) in 1820 ; chief secretary for Ireland, 1830-33 ; 
 secretary for the colonies, 18^3-4, and 1841-5 ; termed the 
 " Rupert of debate" by lord Lytton in "the New Timon," 
 1845 ; succeeded his fattier as earl of Derby, 30 June, 
 1851 ; resigned, 25 Feb. 1868 ; died 25 Oct. 1869. 
 
 President of poor-law board, Gathorne Hardy ; succeeded 
 by Wm. Reginald, earl of Devon (not in cabinet), 17 
 May, 1867. 
 
 Horatio Spencer Walpole, without office. 
 
 The above formed the cabinet, Feb. 1868. 
 
 Postmaster-general, James, duke of Montrose. 
 
 Lord chamberlain, Orlando, earl of Bradford. 
 
 Chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, William, earl of 
 Devon ; succeeded by colonel John Wilson Patten, 
 June, 1867. 
 
 Lord-lieutenant of Ireland, J ames, earl (afterwards mar- 
 quis) of Abercorn. 
 
 [The earl of Derby resigned through ill-health, 25 Feb. 
 1868 ; and Mr. Disraeli reconstituted the ministry ; 
 see Disraeli.] 
 
 DERBY DAY (see Maces), generally (not 
 always) the "Wednesday in the week preceding 
 Whitsunday, the second da}' of the grand spring 
 meeting at Essoin. 
 
 DERRICKS are lofty, portable crane-like 
 structures, used on land and water for lifting enor- 
 mous loads, and in some cases depositing them at an 
 elevation. They are extensively used in the United 
 States, and were introduced into England as floating 
 derricks for raising sunken vessels, by their inventor, 
 A. D. Bishop in 1857." 
 
 DERRY (N. Ireland), a bishopric first at Ard- 
 frath ; thence translated to Maghera ; and in n 58 
 to Derry. The cathedral, built in 1 164, becoming 
 ruinous, was rebuilt by Londoners, who settled here 
 in the reign of James I. The see is valued in the 
 king's books at 2$ol. sterling; but it bus been one 
 of the richest sees in Ireland. Beatson. The see 
 of Raphoe was united to Derry, 1834 ; see JBishojJs; 
 Londonderry. 
 
 DESIGN, SCHOOLS OF, established by go- 
 vernment, began at Somerset-house, London, 1 Jan. 
 1837. In 1852 the head school was removed to 
 Marlborough-house, and became eventually " the 
 department of science and art," transferred to South 
 Kensington in 1857. It is under the direction of the 
 committee of council on education. 
 
 DESPARD' S CONSPIRACY. Colonel Ed- 
 ward Marcus Despard, a native of Ireland, Brough- 
 ton, Francis, Graham, Macnamara, "Wood, and 
 "Wratten, conspired to kill the king, and establish a 
 republic, on the day of opening parliament, 16 Nov. 
 1802. Above 30 persons including soldiers were 
 taken in custody ; of those tried, 20 Jan. 1803, 
 Despard and six others were executed, 21 Feb. He 
 had been a distinguished officer under Nelson. 
 
 DESTITUTE CHILDREN'S DINNER 
 SOCIETY, established early in 1869, to give 
 weekly meat dinners. 16,822 dinners given in 
 1869 ; 147,858 dinners in 58 dining rooms in 1870. 
 
 DETROIT (N. America), the oldest city in the 
 west, was built by the French about 1670. 
 
 DETTINGEN (Bavaria), BATTLE OF, 16 
 June, 1743, between the British, Hanoverian, and 
 Hessian army (52,000), commanded by king 
 George II. of England and the earl of Stair, and 
 the French army (60,000), under marshal Noailles 
 and the due de Grammont. The French passed a 
 defile, which they should have merely guarded. 
 The due de Grammont with his cavalry charged the 
 British foot with great fury, but was received with 
 such intrepidity, that he was obliged to give way, 
 and to repass the Maine, losing 3000 men. 
 
 DEVELOPMENT (or Evolution). Lamarck, 
 the naturalist (who died Dec. 1829), propounded a 
 theory that all animals had been developed from 
 "monads," living minute particles ; see Species and 
 Vestiges. Buflbn held a similar doctrine. In 1827 
 
DEVIZES. 
 
 207 
 
 DIAMONDS. 
 
 Ernst von Baer of Kbnigsberg demonstrated that 
 all mammals are developed from a minute egg not 
 a hundredth of an inch in diameter. Mr. C. Darwin's 
 views are given in his " Origin of Species," 18159 ; 
 and "Descent of Man," 1871. He supposes that 
 man was gradually evolved from the lowest created 
 form of animal life. Hseckel, his most advanced 
 follower, considers a Creator unnecessary. 
 
 DEVIZES, Wilts; at EoundwayDown, near 
 here, sir William Waller and the parliamentarians 
 •were defeated, 13 July, 1643. 
 
 DEVONPORT, see Dockyards and Plymouth. 
 
 DEVONSHIRE, the country of the Dam- 
 xionii or Dumnonii. Odun, earl of Devon, in 878, 
 defeated the Danes, slew Ubbo or Hubba their chief, 
 and captured his magic standard. A bishopric of 
 Devonshire was founded in 909 ; see Exeter. 
 
 Richard de Redvers, first earl of Devon, son of Baldwin, 
 
 sheriff of Devonshire, died 1137. 
 "William Courtenay, the present earl, is descended from 
 
 Robert de Courtenay and Mary de Redvers, daughter 
 
 of William de Redvers, earl of Devon, in 1184. 
 William Cavendish, created first earl of Devonshire, 1618. 
 William Cavendish (his great grandson), created first duke 
 
 of Devonshire, 1684, from him is descended William 
 
 Cavendish, the present duke. 
 
 DEVONSHIEE and PITT ADMINIS- 
 TRATION, formed 16 Nov. 1756; dismissed 
 5 AP 1 ' 11 . 1757- 
 
 First lord of the treasury, William, duke of Devonshire. 
 
 'Chancellor of the exchequer, hon. Henry Bilson Legge. 
 
 Lord president, earl Granville (lord Carteret). 
 
 Privy seal, earl Gower. 
 
 ■Secretaries of state, earl of Holdernesse and Wm. Pitt 
 
 (afterwards earl of Chatham, the virtual premier). 
 •George Grenville, earl of Halifax, dukes of Rutland and 
 
 Grafton, earl of Rochfort, viscount Barrington, &c. 
 
 The great seal in commission. 
 
 DEW, the modern theory respecting it was put 
 forth by Dr. Wells in his book, 1814. 
 
 DEWANGIRI, see India, 1865. 
 
 DIADEM, the band or fillet worn by the 
 ancients instead of the crown, and consecrated to the 
 gods. At first it was made of silk or wool, set with 
 precious stones, and was tied round the temples and 
 forehead, the two ends being knotted behind, and 
 let fall on the neck. Aurelian was the first Roman 
 ■emperor who wore a diadem, 272. Tillemont. 
 
 DIALECTIC SOCIETY, for the philoso- 
 phical treatment of all questions, especially of those 
 which lie at the root of the differences of opinion 
 ■which divide mankind, was established early in 
 1867 by sir John Lubbock and others. The report 
 ■of their committee on spiritualism was published in 
 Nov. 1871. 
 
 DIALS. "The sun-dial of Ahaz," 713 B.C. 
 (Isa. xxxviii. 8). A dial invented by Anaximander, 
 550 B.C. Pliny. The first dial of the sun seen at 
 Rome was placed on the temple of Quirinus by L. 
 Papirius Cursor, when time was divided into hours, 
 293 B.C. Blair. Dials set up in churches about 
 A.d. 613. Lenglet. Mrs. Alfred Gatty's "Book of 
 Sun Dials " was published in 1872. 
 
 DIALYSIS, an important method of chemical 
 analysis, depending on the different degrees of 
 diffusibility of substances in liquids, was made 
 known in 1 861, by its discoverer, professor Thomas 
 Graham, then master of the mint. 
 
 DIA-MAGNETISM, the property possessed 
 hy nearly all bodies of behaving differently to iron, 
 when placed between two magnets. The pheno- 
 
 mena, previously little known, were reduced to a 
 law by Faraday in 1845. 
 
 DIAMOND, a hamlet, Armagh, N. Ireland, 
 where was fought the " battle of the Diamond," 21 
 Sept. 1795, between the " Peep-o' -day-boys" and 
 the "Defenders," and many of the latter were killed. 
 To commemorate this conflict the first Orange 
 Lodge was formed immediately after. See De- 
 fenders. 
 
 DIAMONDS were first brought to Europe 
 from the East, where the mine of Sumbulpoor was 
 the first known, and where the mines of Golconda, 
 the realm of diamonds, were discovered in 1534. 
 The mines of Brazil were discovered in 1728. From 
 these last a diamond, weighing 1680 carats, or 
 fourteen ounces, was sent to the court of Portugal, 
 and was valued by Mr. Borneo de l'lsle at 224 
 millions ; by others at 56 millions, and at 3! mil- 
 lions ; its true value (not being brilliant) was 
 400,000^. 
 
 The great Russian diamond weighs 193 carats, or 1 oz. 
 12 dwts. 4 gr. troy. The empress Catherine II. offered 
 for it 104,166?. 13s. 4c?., besides an annuity for life to 
 the owner of 1041?. 13s. $d., which was refused ; but it 
 was afterwards sold to Catherine's favourite, count 
 Orloff, for the first-mentioned sum, without the 
 annuity, and was by him presented to the empress 
 on her birthday, 1772 ; it is now in the sceptre of 
 Russia. 
 The Pitt diamond weighed 136 carats, and after cutting, 
 106 carats : it was sold to the king of Prance for 
 125,000?. in 1720. 
 
 The Pigott diamond (bought by Mr. Pitt, grandfather 
 of Wm. Pitt) was sold for 9500 guineas, 10 May, 1802. 
 
 The diamond called the Kohinoor, or Mountain of 
 Light, was found in the mines of Golconda, in 1550, 
 and is said to have belonged in turn to Shah Jehan, 
 Aurungzebe, Nadir Shah, the Afghan rulers, and after- 
 wards to the Sikh chief Runjeet Singh. Upon the ab- 
 dication of Dhuleep Singh, the last ruler of the Pun- 
 jab, and the annexation of his dominions to the British 
 empire, in 1849, the Kohinoor was surrendered to the 
 queen. It was accordingly brought over and presented 
 to her, 3 July, 1850. It was shown in the Great Exhi- 
 bition, 1851. Its original weight was nearly 800 carats, 
 but it was reduced by the unskilfulness of the artist, 
 Hortensio Borghese, a Venetian, to 279 carats. Its 
 shape and size resembled the pointed half (rose cut) of 
 a small hen's egg. The value is scarcely computable, 
 though two millions sterling have been mentioned as a 
 justifiable price, if calculated by the scale employed in 
 the trade. This diamond was re-cut in London in 1852, 
 and now weighs 1023 carats. 
 
 The Sanci diamond, which belonged to Charles the 
 Bold, duke of Burgundy, was bought by sir C. 
 Jejeebhoy from the Demidoff family for 20,000?. in 
 Feb. 1865. 
 
 A diamond, termed the Star of the South, was brought 
 from Brazil in 1855, weighing 254^ carats, half of which 
 was lost by cutting. 
 
 Diamonds were discovered in Cape Colony, S. Africa, in 
 March, 1867. A fine one, termed the "Star of South 
 Africa," brought to England in 1869, was purchased by- 
 Messrs. Hunt and Roskell. After cutting, it weighed 
 46^ carats, and was valued at 25,000?., in June, 1870. 
 
 Rich diamond fields recently discovered near the Vaal 
 and Orange rivers, Sept. 1870. 
 
 Great influx of diggers, and many fine diamonds found, 
 Nov. Value of 141 diamonds found in 1869, 7,405?. ; of 
 5661 found in 1870, 124,910?. 
 
 Inflammability of Diamonds. 
 
 Boetius de Boot conjectured that the diamond was in- 
 flammable, 1609. When exposed to a high temperature 
 it gave an acrid vapour, in which a part of it was dis- 
 sipated, 1673. Boyle. 
 
 Sir Isaac Newton concluded from its great refracting 
 power, that it must be combustible, 1675. 
 
 Averani demonstrated, by concentrating the rays of the 
 sun upon it, that the diamond was exhaled in vapour, 
 and entirely disappeared, while other precious stones 
 merely grow softer, 1695. 
 
DIANA. 
 
 203 
 
 DIEU-DONNE. 
 
 It has been ascertained by Guyton, Davy, and others, 
 that diamonds contain nothing but pure charcoal, or 
 carbon. Diamonds were charred by the intense heat 
 
 of the voltaic battery— by M. Dumas, in Paris, and by 
 professor Faraday, in London, in 1848. 
 
 Diamond Necklace Affair.— In 1785, Bcehmer, the 
 court jeweller of France, offered the queen Mane An- 
 toinette, a diamond necklace, for 56,000?. The queen 
 desired the necklace, but feared the expense. The 
 countess de la Motte (of the ancient house of Valois) 
 forged the queen's signature, and by pretending that 
 the queen had an attachment for him, persuaded the 
 cardinal de Rohan, the queen's almoner, to conclude a 
 bargain with the jeweller for the necklace for 56,000/. 
 De fa Motte thus obtained the necklace and made away 
 with it. For this she was tried in 1786, and sentenced 
 to be branded on the shoulders and imprisoned for life. 
 She accused in vain the celebrated Italian adventurer, 
 Cagliostro, of complicity in the affair, he being then 
 intimate with the cardinal. She made her escape and 
 came to London, where she was killed by falling from 
 a window-sill, in attempting to escape an arrest for 
 debt.— De Rohan was tried and acquitted, 14 April, 
 1786. The public in France at that time suspected the 
 queen of being a party to the fraud. Talleyrand wrote 
 at the time, that he* should not be surprised if this 
 miserable affair overturned the throne. 
 
 Diamond Bobbery. See Trials, 1871. 
 
 DIANA, TEMPLE OF (at Ephesus), accounted 
 one of the seven wonders of the world, was built at 
 the common charge of all the Asiatic states, 552 
 B.C.; the chief architect being Ctesiphon. ram- 
 says that 220 years were employed in completing it. 
 It"was 425 feet long, 225 broad, and was supported 
 by 127 columns (60 feet high, each weighing 150 
 tons of Parian marble), furnished by so many 
 kings. It was set on fire, on the night of the birth 
 of Alexander the Great, by Eratostratus, who con- 
 fessed on the rack, that his sole motive was the de- 
 sire of transmitting his name to future ages, 356 
 n.c. The temple was rebuilt, but again burnt by 
 the Goths, in their naval invasion, a.d. 256 or 262. 
 In April, 1869, Mr. J. T. Wood discovered the site 
 of the temple ; and since then sculptured marble 
 columns have been removed to the British Museum. 
 DICE. The invention of dice is ascribed to 
 Palamedes, of Greece, about 1244B.C. The game of 
 tali and tessera among the Romans was played with 
 dice. Stow mentions two entertainments given by 
 the city of London, at which dice were played. Act 
 to regulate the licences of makers, and the sale of 
 dice, 9 Geo. IV. 1828. 
 
 In 1357, the kings of Scotland and France, being 
 prisoners, and the king of Cyprus on a visit to 
 Edward III., a great tournament was held in Smith- 
 field, and afterwards Henry Pieard, mayor of London, 
 " kept his hall against all coiners that were willing to 
 play at dice and hazard. The lady Margaret, his wife, 
 did keepe her chamber to the same intent." The 
 mayor restored to the king of Cyprus 50 marks which 
 he had won from him, saying, "My lord and king, be not 
 aggrieved ; for I covet not your gold ; but your play," 
 &e. Stow. 
 
 DICHROOSCOPE, an optical apparatus, de- 
 scribed by the inventor, professor Dove of Berlin, 
 in i860, who intended it to represent interferences, 
 spectra in coloured lights, polarisation of light, &c. 
 
 DICTATORS were supreme and absolute magis- 
 trates of Home, appointed to act in critical times. 
 Titus Lartius Flavus, the first dictator, was ap- 
 pointed, 501 B.C. Caius Marcius Rutilus was the 
 first plebeian dictator, 356 B.C. This office became 
 odious by the usurpations of Sylla and Julius 
 Coosar; and after the death of the latter, the Roman 
 senate, on the motion of the consul Antony, passed 
 ;i law forbidding a dictator to exist in Bome, 44 B.C. 
 
 DICTIONARY. A standard dictionary of the 
 Chinese language, containing about 40,000 charac- 
 
 ters, most of them hieroglyphic, or rude representa- 
 tions, somewhat like our signs of the zodiac, was 
 perfected by Pa-out-she, who lived about 1 100 B.C. 
 Morrison ; see Encyclopaedias. 
 
 A Latin one was compiled by Varro, born . B.C. 116 
 
 Varro's work " de Lingua Latina " ; he died . . 28 
 
 The " Onomasticon," a collection of vocabularies 
 in Greek, by Julius Pollux, was published about 
 
 a.d. 177 
 
 The first noted polyglot dictionary, perhaps the 
 first, is by Ambrose Calepini, a Venetian friar, in 
 Latin ; he wrote one in eight languages. Kiceron. 
 
 about 1500 
 
 John E. Avenar's Dictioiwrlum Eebraiffum was pub- 
 lished at Wittenberg in 15S9. Buxtorfs great 
 work, Lexkon Hebraieum, &c, appeared . . 1621 
 
 The Lexicon Heptaglotton was published by Edmund 
 Castell, in 1669. 
 
 The great English dictionary by Samuel Johnson 
 appeared in 1755 
 
 Francis Grose's Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue 
 was compiled in 1768 
 
 The following academies have published large dic- 
 tionaries of their respective languages : the French 
 academy, first in 1694; the Spanish, 1726; the 
 Italian "academy (della Crusca) 1729 ; and the 
 Russian 1789-9+ 
 
 Schwan's great German-French dictionary appeared 1782 
 
 Richardson's English dictionary appeared . . 1836 
 
 Lempriere's Classical Dictionary, which first ap- 
 peared in 1788, is now superseded by Dr. W. 
 Smith's classical series 1842-57 
 
 The Philological Society of London issued "pro- 
 posals for a new English dictionary " . . . 1859 
 
 The great German dictionary, by Jacob and Wilhelm 
 Grimm 1854 et seq. 
 
 Mr. Hensleigh Wedgwood's Dictionary of English 
 Etymology 1859-67 
 
 Smith's Dictionary of the Bible was published . 1860-3 
 
 The earliest known English-Latin dictionary is the 
 Promptoriwm Parmlorvm, compiled by Galfridus 
 Grammaticus, a preaching friar of Norfolk, in 
 1440 ; and printed by Pynson, as Promptorhis 
 Puerorwm, in 1499. A new edition, carefully 
 edited by Mr. Albert Way, from MSS. , was pub- 
 lished by the Camden Society . . . 1843-65 
 
 The great French dictionary, by E. Littre . 1863-72 
 
 DIDYMIUM, a rare metal, discovered by 
 Mosander in 1841. It appears to be always asso- 
 ciated with lanthanum and cerium. 
 
 DIEPPE (N. France). This town was bom- 
 barded by an English fleet, under admiral Russell, 
 and laid in ashes, July, 1694. It was again bom- 
 barded in 1794 ; and again, together with the town 
 of Granville, by the British, 14 Sept. 1803. 
 
 "DIES IBM" ("Day of Wrath"), a Latin 
 mediaeval hymn on the day of judgment, is ascribed 
 to various authors, amongst others to pope Gregory 
 the Great (died about 604) ; St. Bernard (died 1 153) '; 
 but is generally considered to have been composed 
 by Thomas of Celano (died 1255), and to have been 
 used in the Roman service of the mass before 1385. 
 
 DIET of the German Empire (in which 
 
 the supreme court of authority of the empire may 
 be said to have existed) was composed of three 
 colleges : one of electors, one of princes, and one of 
 imperial towns, and commenced with the edict of 
 Charles IV. 13^6; see Golden Bull; Wurzhwg 
 (1180) ; Nuremberg (1467) ; Worms (1521) ; Spires 
 (1529) ; Augsburg (1530) ; Ratisbon (1541); Frank- 
 fort (1806, et seq.) ; and Germany. 
 
 " DIETJ DONNE*," the name given in his in- 
 fancy to Louis le Grand, king of France, the queen, 
 his mother, having been barren for 23 j r ears pre- 
 viously, 1638. Also to the present comte de Cham- 
 bord, son of the duchess of Angouleme, born. 29 Sept. 
 1820. His father was assassinated, 14 Feb. 1820. 
 
DIEU ET MON DEOIT. 
 
 209 
 
 DIEECTOEY. 
 
 One of the popes (672) was named Adeodatus or 
 God's gift. 
 
 . DIEU ET MON DEOIT (" God and my 
 right"), the royal motto of England, was the parole 
 of the day, given by Richard I. of England to his 
 army at the battle of Gisors, in France, 20 Sept. 
 1198, when the French army was signally defeated. 
 11 Dieu et mon droit" appears to have been first 
 assumed as a motto by Henry VI. (1422-1461) ; see 
 Semper Eadem. 
 
 DIFFERENTIAL ENGINE, see Calcula- 
 ting Machine. 
 
 DIFFUSION OF GASES. In 1825, Dobereiner 
 ohserved the transmission of hydrogen gas through 
 a crack in a glass vessel, and professor Thomas 
 Graham discovered the passage of gases through 
 porous porcelain, graphite, and other substances, 
 and established laws in 1832, and to him we are 
 indebted for the discovery of Atmolysis and Dia- 
 lysis. He died 16 Sept. 1869. 
 
 DIFFUSION op Useful Knowledge 
 
 SOCIETY, which published a number of books 
 relating to history, science, and literature, and an 
 atlas, in a cheap form, ridiculed as the " Sixpenny 
 Sciences," was established by Lord Brougham, Mr. 
 William Tooke, Mr. Charles Knight, and others. 
 It published its "Library" 1827-48, and patronised 
 the publication of the Penny Magazine and the 
 Penny Cyclopasdia. Its proceedings were suspended 
 in 1846. The Royal Institution of Great Britain 
 was established in 1800, for "the Promotion, Dif- 
 fusion, and Extension of Science and Useful Know- 
 ledge." 
 
 DIGEST. The first collection of Roman laws 
 under this title was prepared by Alfenus Varus, the 
 civilian, of Cremona, 66 B.C. Quintil. The "Di- 
 gest," so called by way of eminence, was the 
 collection made by order of the emperor Justinian, 
 529 : it made the first part of the Roman law and 
 the first volume of the civil law. Quotations from it 
 are marked with a ff. Far don. — The "Digest of 
 Law " commissioners signed their first report 
 13 May, 1867, recommending the immediate prepa- 
 ration of a digest of the English common law, statute 
 law, and judicial decisions. 
 
 DIGITS, any whole number Tinder 10 : 1, 2, <Src, 
 are the nine digits. Arithmetical figures were 
 known to the Arabian Moors about 900 ; and were 
 introduced by them into Spain in 1050, and thence 
 into England about 1253. In astronomy, the digit 
 is a measure used in the calculation of eclipses, and 
 is the twelfth part of the luminary eclipsed ; see 
 Figures. 
 
 DIJON, E. France, the ancient capital of Bur- 
 gundy, is said to have been founded by Julius 
 Caesar, fortified by the emperor Marcus Aurelius, 
 and named Divio, about 274. It has been several 
 times captured in war ; and a castle was erected 
 here by Louis XL Dijon became the capital of the 
 dukes of Burgundy about 1 180. It was attacked by 
 the Germans, under general Beyer, 30 Oct. 1870. 
 The heights and suburbs were taken by prince 
 William of Baden, and the town surrendered on 
 31 Oct. 
 
 DILAPIDATIONS, see Ecclesiastical. 
 DILETTANTI, Society of, established in 
 
 1734 by the viscount Harcourt, lord Middlesex, duke 
 of Dorset, and others who had travevelled and who 
 were desirous of encouraging a taste for the fine arts 
 in Great Britain. The society published, or aided in 
 
 publishing, Stuart's Athens (1762-1816), Chandler's 
 Travels (1775-6), and several other finely illustrated 
 works. The members dine together from time to 
 time at the Thatched-house tavern, St. James's. 
 
 DIMITY, see Damietta. 
 
 DINNEES, see Destitute. ■ 
 
 DIOCESE. The first division of the Roman 
 empire into dioceses, at that period civil govern- 
 ments, is ascribed to Constantine, 323 ; but Strabo 
 remarks that the Romans had the departments 
 called_ dioceses long before. In England the princi- 
 pal dioceses are coeval with the establishment of 
 Christianity ; of 28 dioceses, 20 are suffragan to the 
 diocese of Canterbury, and six to that of York ; see 
 Bishops, and the sees severally. 
 
 DIOCLETIAN EEA (called also the era of 
 Martyrs, on account of the persecution in his reign) 
 was used by Christian writers until the introduction 
 of the Christian era in the 6th century, and is still 
 employed by the Abyssinians and Copts. It dates 
 from the day on which Diocletian was proclaimed 
 emperor at Chalcedon, 29 Aug. 284. 
 
 DIOPTEIC SYSTEM (from the Greek, dia, 
 through, and optomai, I see), an arrangement of 
 lenses for condensing light in lighthouses, devised 
 by Fresnel, about 1819, based on the discoveries of 
 Buffon, Condorcet, Brewster, and others; see Light- 
 houses. 
 
 DIOEAMA. This admired exhibition was first 
 opened by MM. Bouton and Daguerre in Paris, 
 II July, 1822; in London, 29 Sept. 1823. It was 
 not successful commercially here, and was sold in 
 1848. The building in Regent's-park was pur- 
 chased by sir S. M. Peto, in 1855, to De usecl as a 
 Baptist chapel. 
 
 DIPHTHEEIA (from the Greek diphthera, a 
 membrane), a disease resembling croup which has 
 the essential character of developing a false mem- 
 brane on the mucous membrane connected with the 
 throat. It was named diphtheritis by Bretonneau 
 of Tours in 1820. From its prevalence' in Boulogne, 
 it has been termed the Boulogne sore-throat; many- 
 persons were affected with it in England at the be- 
 ginning of 1858. 
 
 _ DIPLOMACY, the art of managing the rela- 
 tions of foreign states by means of ambassadors, 
 envoys, consuls, charges d'affaires, &c. ; see Ambas- 
 sadors and Consuls. New regulations for the British 
 diplomatic service were issued 5 Sept. 1862. 
 
 DIPLOMATICS, the foreign term for the 
 science of paleography or ancient writings. Valu- 
 able works on this subject have been compiled by 
 Mabillon (1681), De Vaines (1774), Astle (1781), 
 De Wailly (1838), and other antiquaries. 
 
 " DIEECTOEYfokthe Public Worship 
 
 OF GOD " was drawn up at the instance of the par- 
 liament by an assembly of divines at Westminster 
 in 1644, after the suppression of the Book of Common 
 Prayer. The general hints given were to be man- 
 aged with discretion ; for the Directory prescribed 
 no form of prayer or manner of external worship, 
 and enjoined the people to make no responses except 
 Amen. It was adopted by the parliament of Scot- 
 land in 1645, and many of its regulations are still 
 observed by presbyterians. 
 
 DIEECTOEY, The French, established 
 
 by the constitution of the 5th of Fructidor, an III. 
 (22 Aug. 1795), and nominated 1 Nov., was com- 
 
DIEECTOEY. 
 
 210 
 
 DIVINE EIGHT. 
 
 posed of five members (MM. Lepeaux, Letourneur, 
 Rewbel, Barras, and Carnot). It ruled in conjunc- 
 tion with two chambers, the Council of Ancients 
 and Council of Five Hundred {which see), at the 
 revolution of the 1 8th of Brumaire (9 Nov. 1799). 
 It was deposed by Bonaparte, who, with Camba- 
 ceres and Lebrun, assumed the government as three 
 consuls, himself the first, 13 Dec. 1799; see Consuls. 
 
 DIEECTOEY, the first London, is said to 
 have been printed in 1677. The "Post-office Direc- 
 tory " first appeared in 1800. 
 
 DISCIPLINE, ecclesiastical, originally con- 
 ducted spiritually according to the divine commands 
 in Matt, xviii. 15, I Cor. v., 2 Thess. iii. 6, and 
 other texts, was gradually changed to a temporal 
 character, as it now appears in the Boman, Greek, 
 and other churches. The " First Book of Disci- 
 pline" of the presbyterian church of Scotland was 
 drawn up by John Knox and four ministers in 
 Jan. 1560-I. The more important " Second Book " 
 was prepared with great care in 1578 by Andrew 
 Melville and a committee of the leading members 
 of the general assembly. It lays down a thoroughly 
 presbyterian form of government, defines the posi- 
 tion of the ecclesiastical and civil powers, &c. 
 
 DISCOUNT, see under Bank of England. 
 
 DISPENSAEIES, to supply the poor with 
 medical advice and medicines, began in London. 
 The Boyal General Dispensary, London, was esta- 
 blished in St. Bartholomew's Close, in 1770. It 
 relieved about 20,000 persons in 1861 ; about 17,000 
 in 1866. Low's Charities. Garth's satiric poem, 
 " The Dispensary," published 1699. 
 
 DISPENSATIONS, ecclesiastical, were first 
 granted by pope Innocent III. in 1200. These 
 exemptions from the discipline of the church, with 
 indulgences, absolutions, &c, led eventually to the 
 Reformation in Germany in 15 17. 
 
 DISPENSING POWEE of the Crown 
 
 (for setting aside laws or their power) asserted by 
 some of our sovereigns, especially by Charles II. 
 (in 1672 for the relief of nonconformists) and by 
 James II. in 1686, was abolished by the bill of 
 rights, 1689. It has been on certain occasions 
 exercised, as in the case of embargoes iipon ships, 
 the Bank Charter act, &c. ; see Indemnity. 
 
 DISEAELI ADMINISTEATION* on the 
 
 resignation of the earl of Derby through ill-health, 25 
 Feb., 1868, Mr. Disraeli reconstituted the ministry, 
 29 Feb. (see Derby Administrations, III.). As the 
 elections gave a large majority to the liberal party, 
 Mr. Disraeli's ministry resigned 2 Dec. He de- 
 clined to take office with the present house of 
 commons when Mr. Gladstone resigned, 12 March, 
 1873, and the latter resumed office. 
 
 First lord of treasury, Benjamin Disraeli. 
 
 Lord chancellor, Hugh MacCalmont, lord Cairns. 
 
 Lord president of the council. John, duke of Marlborough. 
 
 Lord privy seal, James, earl of Malmesbury. 
 
 Secretaries— home, Gathorne Hardy -—foreign, Edward, 
 lord Stanley ;— colonies, Richard, duke of Buckingham 
 and Chaudos ;—war, sir John S. Pakington ;— India, 
 sir Stafford Henry Northcote. 
 
 Chancellor of exchequer, George Ward Hunt. 
 
 First lord of admiralty , Henry Thomas L. Corry. 
 
 * Benjamin Disraeli (son of Isaac Disraeli, author of the 
 "Curiosities of Literature," &c.,) born 21 Dec. 1805; 
 published "Vivian Grey," 1825; M. P. for Maidstone, 
 1837-41 ; Shrewsbury, 1841-7 ; Bucks, 1847-68 ; Chancel- 
 lor of Exchequer (see Derby administrations), Feb. 1852 ; 
 Feb. 1858; July, 1866.— Mrs. Disraeli created viscountess 
 Beaconsfield, 28 Nov. 1868 ; died 15 Dec. 1872. 
 
 Chief commissioner of works, lord John Manners. 
 
 President of board of trade, Charles Henry, duke of Rich- 
 mond. 
 
 Chief secretary for Ireland, Richard, earl of Mayo : made 
 viceroy of India, Oct. ; succeeded by col. J. Wilson 
 Patten, 7 Nov. 1868. 
 
 President of poor-lew hoard, Win. Reginald, carl of Devon. 
 The above formed the Cabinet. 
 
 Postmaster-general, James, duke of Montrose. 
 
 Lord great chamberlain, Orlando, earl of Bradford. 
 
 Chancellor of duchy of Lancaster, coL John Wilson Patten; 
 succeeded by col. Thos. E. Taylor, 7 Nov. 1868. 
 
 Lord lieutenant of Ireland, James, earl (afterwards mar- 
 quis) of Abercom. 
 
 DISSECTION, see Anatomy. 
 
 DISSENTEES, the modern name of the 
 Puritans and Nonconformists (which see). In 
 1851, in London, the number of chapels, meeting- 
 houses, &c, for all classes of dissenters amounted 
 to more than 554. (The Church of England had 
 458; Boman Catholics, 35.) The great act (9 Geo. 
 IV. c. 17) for the relief of dissenters from civil and 
 religious disabilities was passed 9 May, 1828. By 
 this act, called the Corporation and Test Repeal act, 
 so much of the several acts of preceding reigns as 
 imposed the necessity of receiving the sacrament of 
 the Lord's Supper as a qualification for certain 
 offices, &c, was repealed. By 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 85 
 (1836), dissenters acquired the right of solemnising 
 marriages at their own chapels, or at a registry 
 office ; see Worship. 
 
 DISTAFF (or Rock), the staff to which flax or 
 any substance to be spun is fastened. The art of 
 spinning with it at the small wheel, first taught to 
 Englishwomen by Anthony Bona visa, an Italian. 
 Stoiv. St. Distaff's or Rock day, was formerly the 
 first free day after the Epiphany (6th Jan.) because 
 the Christmas holidays were over and women's work 
 was resumed. 
 
 DISTILLATION, and the various processes 
 dependent on it, are believed to have been intro- 
 duced into Europe by the Moors about 1 1 50; see 
 Alcohol, Brandy. The distillation of spirituous 
 liquors was in practice in Great Britain in the 16th 
 century. Bums. The processes were improved by 
 Adam of Montpellier in 1801. M. Pay en' 8 work 
 (1861) contains the most recent improvements. An 
 act to prevent the use of stills by unlicensed persons 
 was passed in 1846. 1 18 licences to distillers were 
 granted in the year ending 31 March, 1858 for the 
 United Kingdom. 
 
 DISTRICT CHUECHES ACTS. By the 
 one passed in 1865 certain new churches were con- 
 stituted rectories, and by another act, passed in 1868 
 (the Bishop of Oxford's act) the new parishes not 
 rectories were ordered to be styled by vicarages. 
 
 DITCH, see Expedition. 
 
 DIVIDENDS of Public Stocks. By an 
 
 act passed n Aug. 1869, these may be paid by post 
 if the recipients desire it, as railway dividends are. 
 
 DIVINATION was forbidden to the Jews, 
 B.C. 1451. (Beut. xviii. 9.) It was common among 
 their neighbours : and is described by Ezekiel 
 (xxi. 21) 493 B.C. 
 
 DIVINE EIGHT of Kings, the absolute 
 and unqualified claim of sovereigns to the obedience 
 of their subjects, a doctrine totally foreign to the 
 genius of the English constitution, was defended by 
 many persons of otherwise opposite opinions, e.g., by 
 Hobbesthe free-thinker (1642), by Salmasius (1640), 
 by sir Robert Filuier (about 1653), in his Patriareha, 
 
DIVING-BELL. 
 
 211 
 
 DOCTOES' COMMONS. 
 
 tmblished in 1680, and by the High Church party 
 generally about 1714; but opposed by Milton (1651), 
 Algernon Sydney, and others. 
 
 DIVING-BELL (first mentioned, though ob- 
 scurely, by Aristotle, about 325 B.C.) was used in 
 Europe about a.d. 1509. It is said to have been 
 used on the coast of Mull, in searching for the 
 wreck of part of the Spanish Armada, before 1662. 
 Halley (about 1721) greatly improved this machine, 
 and was, it is said, the first who, by means of a 
 diving-bell, set his foot on the ground at the bottom 
 of the sea. Smeaton made use of the diving-bell 
 in improving Eamsgate harbour, 1779-88. Mr. 
 Spalding and his assistants going down in a diving- 
 bell in Ireland were drowned, I June, 1783. The 
 Royal George man-of-war, which was sunk off 
 Portsmouth in 1782", was first surveyed by means of 
 a diving-bell in May, 1817. Latterly it has been 
 employed in submarine surveys and harbour works. 
 The " talpa marina," or sea-mole, a diving machine 
 for laying down torpedoes, &c, being a cylinder 
 provided with compressed air sufficient for two per- 
 sons for 50 hours: was invented by Toselli, a 
 Venetian, and was successfully tried in the bay of 
 Naples, 26 Aug. 1871. 
 
 DIVINING ROD (virgula divina, bacula- 
 torius) , formed of wood or metal, was formerly be- 
 lieved, even by educated persons, to have the property 
 • of indicating the position of minerals and springs of 
 water. Instances were alleged in 1851 by Dr. H. 
 Mayo, in his work on " Popular Superstitions." 
 
 DIVINITY, see Theology. 
 
 DIVORCE was permitted by the law of Moses 
 (Dent, xxiv. 1), 1451 B.C., but forbidden by Christ 
 except for unchastity (Matt. v. 31, 32). It was put 
 in practice by Spurius Carvilius Ruga at Rome, 
 234 B.C. At this time morals were so debased that 
 3000 prosecutions for adultery were enrolled. Di- 
 vorces are of two kinds ; one, d vinculo matrimonii 
 (total divorce) ; the other a mensd et tlwro (from 
 board and bed). Divorces were attempted to be 
 made of more easy obtainment in England in 1539. 
 
 Bill to prevent women marrying their seducers 
 brought into parliament 1801 
 
 The commissioners on the law of divorce issued 
 their first report April, T857 
 
 In 1857 there had heen in England, since the Re- 
 formation, 317 divorces by act of parliament ; in 
 Scotland, by the law, 174 divorces since 1846 ; 
 1858-67, 1279 dissolutions of marriage, 213 judicial 
 separations. 
 
 From the establishment of the divorce court, to 
 March, 1859, 37 divorces had heen granted out 
 of 288 petitions ; from Nov. i860 to July, 1861, 164. 
 
 By 20 & 21 Vict. c. 85, the jurisdiction of the eccle- 
 siastical courts respecting divorce, &c., was 
 abolished, and the Divorce and Matrimonial 
 Causes court instituted, to consist of three 
 judges, the judge of the Probate court to be one 
 (if possible) 1857 
 
 A full court sat — lord Campbell, chief baron Pollock, 
 sir Cresswell Cresswell (judge of the Probate court) 
 when five marriages were dissolved . 10 May, 1858 
 
 The above-mentioned act, amended by acts passed 
 in consequence of the increase of the business of 
 the court 1858-60 
 
 An act respecting divorces in Scotland passed . . 1861 
 
 Sir Cresswell Cresswell died in July ; sir James P. 
 Wilde (afterwards lord Penzance) was appointed 
 successor in Sept. 1863 
 
 Lord Penzance retired, Oct. ; succeeded by sir James 
 Hannen Nov. 1872 
 
 The Divorce Amendment act passed 21 July, 1868. 
 
 Between 1856 and 1867 1279 dissolutions of mar- 
 riage and 213 judicial separations were decreed. 
 
 DIZIER, St. (N.E. France). Here a siege 
 was sustained for six weeks against the army of the 
 
 emperor Charles V., 1544. The allies here defeated 
 the French under Napoleon, 27 Jan. and 26 March, 
 1 8 14. 
 
 DOBRUDSCHA, the N.E. corner of Bulgaria ; 
 in 1854, the scene of the earlier incidents of the 
 Russo-Turkish war {which see). 
 
 DOCETJE, a sect of the 1st century, said to have 
 held that Jesus Christ was God, but that his body 
 was an appearance, not a reality. 
 
 DOCKS OF ENGLAND. The following are 
 the principal commercial docks : — 
 Commercial Docks, Rotherhithe, originated about 1660. 
 West India Docks commenced 3 Feb. 1800 ; opened 
 
 27 Aug. 1802, when the "Henry Addington," West 
 
 Indiaman, first entered them, decorated with the 
 
 colours of the different nations of Europe. 
 London Docks were commenced 26 June, 1802, and 
 
 opened 20 Jan. 1805. 
 East India Docks commenced 1803 ; opened 4 Aug. 1806. 
 St. Katharine's Docks began 3 May, 1827 ; and 2500 men. 
 
 were daily employed on them until they were opened, 
 
 25 Oct. 1828. 
 Victoria Docks (in Plaistow marshes) completed and 
 
 opened Nov. 1855. 
 Magnificent docks at Liverpool and Birkenhead erected 
 
 1810-57. 
 Milwall Docks, near London, formally opened, 14 March, 
 
 1868. 
 
 ROYAL DOCK-YARDS. 
 
 Woolwich, an extensive one in 1509 ; closed 1 Oct. 1869. 
 
 Deptford dock-yard founded about 1513, closed 31 March, 
 1869. 
 
 Chatham dock-yard was founded by queen Elizabeth ; 
 much enlarged in 1870. 
 
 Portsmouth dock-yard established by Henry VIII. 
 
 Plymouth dock, now Devonport, about 1689. Great fire 
 here, by which the Talavera, of 74 guns, the Imogens 
 frigate, of 28 guns, and immense stores, were des- 
 troyed; the relics and figure-heads of the favouritt 
 ships of Boscawen, Rodney, Duncan, and other naval 
 heroes, which were preserved in a naval museum, 
 were also burnt: the loss was estimated at 2oo,oooJ., 
 27 Sept. 1840. 
 
 Sheerness dock-yard was built by Charles II. after the 
 insult of the Dutch, who burnt our men-of-war at 
 Chatham in 1667. A fire occurred at Sheerness dock- 
 yard, on board the Camperdovm, 9 Oct. 1840. 
 
 Milford-Haven dock-yard, 1790; removed to Pembroke 
 in 1814. — See Hull. 
 
 A great floating iron dry dock, which cost 250,000^., was 
 launched at North Woolwich, 3 Sept. 1868; and 
 towed from the Medway by two ships of war, 23 June, 
 1869, and arrived at the Bermudas (in thirty-six days), 
 30 July. 
 
 DOCTOR. Doctor of the Church was a title 
 given to Athanasius, Basil, Gregory Nazianzen, 
 and Chrysostom in the Greek church ; and to 
 Jerome, Augustin, Ambrose, and Gregory the Great 
 in the Latin church ; see Fathers. Afterwards the 
 title was conferred on certain persons with distin- 
 guishing epithets, viz. : Thomas Aquinas (Angel- 
 icus), Bonaventura (Seraphicus), Alexander de 
 Hales (Irrefragabilis), Duns Scotus (Subtilis), 
 Roger Bacon (Mirabilis), "William Occam (Singu- 
 laris), Joseph Gerson (Christianissimus), Thomas 
 Bradwardine (Profundus), and so on. Doctor of the 
 Law, was a title of honour among the Jews. The 
 degree of doctor was conferred in England, 8 John, 
 1207. Spelman. Some give it an earlier gate, 
 referring it to the time of the Venerable Bede and 
 John de Beverley, the former of whom, it is said, 
 was the first that obtained the degree at Cam- 
 bridge in the 8th century. 
 
 DOCTORS' COMMONS,.the college for the 
 professors of civil and canon law in the 8th century. 
 In February, 1568, Dr. Henry Her vie, dean of the 
 arches and master of Trinity -hall (a seminary 
 founded at Cambridge chiefly for the study of the 
 civil and canonlaws), procured from the dean and 
 
 p 2 
 
DOCTRINAIRES. 
 
 212 
 
 DOMINICAL LETTEE. 
 
 chapter of the diocese of London a lease of Montjoy- 
 house and buildings in the parish of St. Bene't, 
 Paul's wharf, for the accommodation of the society. 
 Other courts being held here, the whole place re- 
 ceived the appellation of " Doctors' Commons." 
 The original college was destroyed in the great 
 fire of 1666 ; in 1672 it was rebuilt on the old 
 site. After the great fire, until 1672, the society 
 held its courts at Exeter-house in the Strand. ft 
 was incorporated by charter in June, 1768. Coote. 
 The buildings were pulled down in April, 1867, for 
 a new street and new erected. Till 1857 the causes 
 taken cognizance of here were blasphemy, divorces, 
 bastardy, adultery, penance, tithes, mortuaries, 
 probate of wills, &c. ; see Ecclesiastical Courts, 
 Civil Law, &c. 
 
 DOCTRINAIRES, a name given since 1814 
 to a class of politicians in France (Guizot, Mole, 
 the due de Broglie and others), who upheld con- 
 stitutional principles, in opposition to arbitrary 
 monarchical power. The part}' came into office in 
 1830 under Louis-Philippe, and fell with him in 
 1848. The term has been applied in this country 
 to the writers in the " "Westminster Eeview " (1824, 
 et scq.), Bentham, Molesworth, and others. 
 
 DODONA, Epirus. The temple of Jupiter 
 here, renowned for its ancient oracle, delivered by 
 the sound of wind in a grove of trees, was destroyed 
 by the JStolians, 219 B.C. 
 
 DODSON'S ACT (brought forward by Mr. 
 John G. Dodson, and passed 1 Aug. 1861) provides 
 that votes for electing members of parliament for 
 the universities may be recorded by means of polling 
 papers. The act was amended in 1868. 
 
 DOG. Buffon considers the shepherd's clog as 
 " the root of the tree," assigning as his reason that it 
 possesses from nature the greatest share of instinct. 
 Dr. Gall mentions that a dog was taken from 
 Vienna to England ; that it escaped to Dover, got 
 on board a vessel, landed at Calais, and, after accom- 
 panying a gentleman to Mentz, returned to Vienna. 
 
 Statute against dog stealing, 10 Geo. III. . . 1770 
 
 Dog-tax imposed, 1796; and again in 1808; 12s. a year 
 realised 219,3131., in 1866 
 
 Assessed taxes on dogs repealed, 29 Mar. 1867 ; an 
 annual excise duty of 5s. imposed on all dogs 
 more than six months old, to begin on 5 April, 1867 
 
 Employment of dogs in drawing carts, &c, abol- 
 ished in London, 1839 '• m the United Kingdom . 1854 
 
 Dog shows held in London in 1861 ; since 1862 at 
 the Agricultural Hall, Islington. 
 
 " Dogs' temporary home " opened, Hollingsworth- 
 street, London, N. , 1861 ; removed to Battersea 
 in 1871 ; about 2200 animals have been sheltered iu 
 a year. As a nuisance, dogs at large unmuzzled in 
 the metropolis were ordered to be seized by the 
 police July to 27 Nov. 1868 
 
 A new act, more stringent, passed . 24 July, 1871 
 
 Master McGrath, an excessively fleet hound, the 
 property of Lord Lurgan, thrice won the Waterloo 
 cup ; was sent for the queen to see, 1 Mar. , and 
 died 24 Dec. ,, 
 
 Dog licences (annual 5s.) issued in the financial 
 year 1871-2, 1,202,980, produced 279,425?. 
 
 DOG-DAYS. The canicular or dog-days now 
 commence on 3 July and end II Aug. The rising 
 and setting of Sirius or the dog-star with the sun 
 has been erroneously regarded as the cause of ex- 
 cessive heat and of consequent calamities. 
 
 DOGE or DUKE : Venice was first governed by 
 a doge named Anafesto Paululio, or Paoluccio, 697 ; 
 see Venice. The Genoese chose their first doge, 
 Simone Boccanegra, in 1339. Muratori. 
 
 DOGGER-BANK (German Ocean). Here a 
 gallant but indecisive battle was fought between 
 the British, under admiral sir Hyde Parker, and 
 the Dutch, 5 Aug. 1781. 
 
 DOGGETT'S COAT and BADGE. 
 
 Thomas Doggett, an eminent actor of Drury-lane, 
 at the first anniversary of the accession to the 
 throne of George I., 1 Aug. 1715, gave a water- 
 man's coat and silver badge to be rowed for by six 
 young watermen in honour of the day, and be- 
 queathed at his death, in 1722, a sum of money to 
 continue the custom. 
 
 DOIT. A silver Scottish penny, of which 
 twelve were equal to a penny sterling. Some of 
 those struck by Charles I. and II. are in the cabinets 
 of the curious. The circulation of " doydekyns" 
 (small Dutch coins) was prohibited by statute in 1415. 
 
 DOLLAR, the German thaler. Stamped 
 Spanish dollars (value 4s. gd.) were issued from 
 the Mint in March, 1797, but called in Oct. fol- 
 lowing. The dollar is the principal silver coin in 
 the United States of North America, value 4s. \d. 
 British money. 
 
 DOLLY'S BRAE, see Riots, 1849. 
 
 DOM-BOC or Doom-Book {Liber Judicialis), 
 
 the code of law compiled by king Alfred from the 
 "West-Saxon collection of Ina and other sources. 
 Alfred reigned from 871 to 901. 
 
 DOME'S-DAY BOOK orDOOM'S-DAY 
 [Domus Dei book, Stow] (Liber Censualis Anylue), 
 a book of the general survey of England, com- 
 menced in the reign of William I., 1080 (some say 
 1085), and completed in 1086. It was intended to- 
 be a register to determine the right in the tenure 
 of estates ; and from it the question whether lands 
 be ancient demesne or not, is sometimes still de- 
 cided. The book, formerly kept in the Chapter- 
 house of Westminster, is now in the Publio Record 
 Office. • It consists of two volumes, a greater and less, 
 wherein all the counties of England, except North- 
 umberland, Durham, Westmorland, and Cumber- 
 land, are surveyed. "This Dome' s-day book was 
 the tax-book of kinge "William." Camden. The 
 taxes were levied according to this survey till 
 13 Hen. VIII., 1522, when a more accurate survey 
 was taken, called by the people the New Doom's- 
 Day-Book. It was printed in four vols, folio, with 
 introductions, &c, 1783-1816. Photo-zinco-graphic 
 copies of various counties have been published 
 since 1861. It is stated that the government pro- 
 pose the obtaining a return of all the owners of 
 land in England and Wales — in fact, a new Dome's- 
 Day-Book; the work to be done by the Local 
 Government Board, Sept. 1872. 
 
 DOMINGO, St., see Bayti. 
 
 DOMINICA (W. Indies), discovered by 
 
 Columbus in his second voyage, on Sunday, 3 Nov. 
 1493. It was taken by the British in 1761, and 
 confirmed to them by the peace of Paiis, Feb. 1763. 
 The French took Dominica in 1778, but restored it 
 at the subsequent peace in 1783. Their admiral 
 Villeneuve ineffectually attacked it in 1805. It 
 suffered great damage by a hurricane in 1806. 
 
 DOMINICAL LETTER, noting the Lord's 
 day, or Sunday. The seven days of the week, 
 reckoned as beginning on the 1 Jan., are desig- 
 nated by the first seven letters of the alphabet, 
 A (1 Jan.), B, C, D, E, F, G ; and the one of these 
 which denotes Sunday is the Dominical letter. If 
 the year begin on Sunday, A is the Dominical 
 
DOMINICAN EEPUBLIC. 
 
 213 
 
 DOVER. 
 
 letter ; if on Monday, G ; on Tuesday, F ; and so 
 on. Generally to find the Dominical letter call 
 New Year's day A, the next B, and go on thus 
 until you come to the first Sunday, and the letter 
 that answers to it is the Dominical letter ; in leap 
 years count two letters. The letters for 1871, A; 
 1872, G,F; 1873, E; 1874, D; 1875, C. 
 
 DOMINICAN EEPUBLIC, see Hayti, 
 1844-61. 
 
 DOMINICANS, formerly a powerful religious 
 order (called in France, Jacobins, and in England, 
 Black friars), founded to put down the Albigenses 
 and other heretics by St. Dominic, approved by 
 Innocent III. in 1215, and confirmed by Honorius 
 III. in 1 2 16, under St. Augustin's rules and the 
 founder's particular constitution. In 1276 the 
 corporation of London gave the Dominicans two 
 streets near the Thames, where they erected a 
 large convent, whence that part is still called 
 Blackfriars. A Dominican establishment at Haver- 
 stock hill, near London, was consecrated 10 Oct. 
 1867. 
 
 DOMINION OF CANADA, see Canada. 
 
 DONATISTS, an ancient strict sect, formed 
 about 313-318, by an African bishop, Donatus, who 
 was jealous of Csecilian, bishop of Carthage : it 
 became extinct in the 7th century. The Donatists 
 held that the Father was above the Son, and the 
 Son above the Holy Ghost. Their discipline was 
 severe, and those who joined them were re- 
 baptized. 
 
 DONAUWEBTH (Bavaria). Here the 
 French and Bavarians were defeated by the duke of 
 Marlborough, after a severe conflict, 2 July, 1704. 
 
 DONCASTEB (Yorkshire) the Eoman 
 Danum, the Saxon Donne ceastre. The races here 
 (held annually in September) began about 1703 ; 
 see Races. 
 
 DONKEY SHOW- An exhibition of donkeys 
 and mules belonging to the upper and lower classes 
 took place at the Agricultural Hall, Islington, 9 
 Aug. 1864. 
 
 DON QUIXOTE, by Saavedra Miguel de 
 Cervantes (born 1547; died 1616). The first part 
 of this work appeared in 1605, and the second part 
 in 1608. It is said that upwards of 12,000 copies of 
 the first part were circulated before the second was 
 printed. Watts. 
 
 DOOM'S-DAY BOOK, see Domes-daij Book. 
 
 DOBADO, see El Dorado. 
 
 DOECHESTEE (Oxfordshire) was once a 
 bishopric, founded about 636. The first bishop 
 Birinus, the apostle of the West Saxons {which see), 
 was succeeded in 650 by Agilbert. In 659 the 
 see was divided by the king. Dorchester remained 
 with Agilbert, and Wina, established at Winchester, 
 in 660 obtained the whole. The see of Dorchester 
 was revived about 764. In 1072 the bishop Bemigius 
 de Feschamp removed the see to Lincoln. 
 
 DOECHESTEE (Dorsetshire), the Eoman 
 Durnovaria, the Saxon Domceaster. Here are 
 found remains of a Eoman theatre and of a British 
 camp. Here Jefferies held his "bloody assize" 
 (after Monmouth's rebellion) 3 Sept. 1685. Much 
 excitement was caused by six labourers of Dor- 
 chester being sentenced to transportation 17 March 
 1834, for administering illegal oaths. 
 
 DOEIANS, Greeks, who claimed descent from 
 
 Dorus, son of Hellen ; see Greece. The return of 
 the Dorians, named Heraclidas, to the Peloponnesus 
 is dated 1 104 u. c. They sent out many colonies. 
 To them we owe the Doric architecture, the second 
 of the five orders. 
 
 DOEKING, Surrey, an ancient town ; the 
 manor having been given by the Conqueror to earl 
 Fitz wan-en. An imaginary battle of Dorking in which 
 the German invaders totally defeat the British army 
 is the subject of a clever article in Blackwood's 
 Magazine for May, 1871. It provoked much con- 
 troversy, and caused the publication of "Dame 
 Europa's School," and similar pamphlets. 
 
 DOEMANS (N. E. France). The Huguenots 
 and their allies, under Montmorency, were here 
 defeated by the duke of Guise, 10 Oct. 1575. 
 
 DOET, or DoRDKECHT, an ancient town in 
 Holland. Here happened an inundation of the 
 Meuse in 142 1, through the breaking down of the 
 dykes. In the territory of Dordrecht 10,000 persons 
 perished ; and more than 100,000 round Dollart, in 
 Friesland, and in Zealand. The independence of 
 the thirteen provinces was declared here in 1572, 
 when William Prince of Orange was made stadt- 
 holder. A Protestant synod sat at Dort 13 Nov. 
 1618, to 25 May 1619 ; to which deputies were sent 
 from England, and from the reformed churches in 
 Europe, to settle the difference between the doctrines 
 of Luther, Calvin, and Arminius, principally upon 
 points of justification and grace. This synod con- 
 demned the tenets of Arminius. 
 
 DOEYL^EUM (Phrygia). Soliman, the 
 Turkish sultan of Iconium, having retired from the 
 defence of Nicsea his capital, was here defeated with 
 great loss by the crusaders 1 July, 1097. Michaud. 
 
 DOUAY (N. France), the Eoman Duacum, was 
 taken from the Flemings by Philip the Fair in 
 1297 ; restored by Charles V. in 1368. It reverted 
 to Spain, from which it was taken by Louis XIV. in 
 1667. It was captured by the duke of Marlborough 
 in June 1 710; and retaken by the French 8 Sept. 
 1712. This town gives its name to the Eoman 
 Catholic English version of the Bible authorised by 
 the pope, the text being explained by notes of 
 Eoman divines. The Old Testament was published 
 by the English college at Douay in 1609 ; the New 
 had been published at Eheims in 1582. The English 
 college for Eoman Catholics was founded in 1568 by 
 William Allen, afterwards cardinal. Dodd. 
 
 DOUEO, a river (separating Spain and Portu- 
 gal), which, after a desperate struggle between 
 Wellington's advanced guard under Hill, and the 
 French under Soult, was successfully crossed by the 
 former on 12 May, 1809. So sudden was the move- 
 ment, that Wellington at 4 o'clock sat down to the 
 dinner prepared for the French general. Alison. 
 
 DOVES (Kent), the Eoman Dubris. Near 
 here Julius Cassar is said to have first landed in 
 England, 26 Aug., 55 B.C., and its original castle to 
 have been built by him soon after; but this is 
 disputed. The works were strengthened by Alfred 
 and succeeding kings, and rebuilt by Henry II. 
 The earliest named constable is Leopoldus de Bertie, 
 in the reign of Ethelred II., followed by earl 
 Godwin, Odo the brother of William I., &c. In 
 modern times, this office, and that of warden of the 
 Cinque Ports, have been frequently conferred on 
 the prime minister for the time being, — e.g., lord 
 North, Mr. Pitt, lord Liverpool, and the duke of 
 Wellington. The earl of Dalhousie, late governor- 
 general for India, appointed in Jan. 1853, died 19 
 
DOWER. 
 
 214 
 
 DRAMA. 
 
 Dec. i860. Lord Palmerston, appointed constable 
 March, 1861, died 18 Oct. 1865. Earl Granville 
 appointed Dec. 1865. See Tunnels. 
 
 The priory was commenced by archbishop Corboyl, 
 
 or Corbois, about 1130 
 
 At Dover, king John resigned his kingdom to Pan- 
 
 dolf, the pope's legate . . . 13 May, 1213 
 
 The pier projected by Hemy VIII. . . . 1533 
 
 Charles II. landed here from his exile 26 May. 1660 
 
 The foot barracks burnt by accident 30 July, 1800 
 
 Admiralty pier commenced 1844 
 
 Railway to London opened . . 7 Feb. 1844 
 
 Part of the cliff fell, 27 Nov. 1810 ; and 13 Jan. 1853 
 
 A submarine telegraph laid down between Dover 
 
 and Calais by Brett . . . .28 Aug. 1850 
 A telegraph between Dover and Calais opened, 
 
 13 Nov. 1851 
 Easter volunteer review here . . .22 April, 1867 
 Dover College inaugurated by earl Granville 4 Oct. 1871 
 
 DOWER, the gifts of a husband to a wife before 
 marriage (Genesis xxxiv. 12). The portion of 
 a man's lands or tenements which his wife enjoys 
 for life after her husband's death. By the law of 
 king Edmund, a widow was entitled to a moiety of 
 her husband's lands or tenements for her life, 941. 
 The widows of traitors, but not those of felons, are 
 debarred their dower by statute 5 Edw. VI. 1551. 
 By the Dower act passed in 1833, the power of the 
 ■wife over her dower was much diminished. 
 
 DOWN (N\ E. Ireland). An ancient see, first 
 bishop St. Cailan, in 499. At the instance of 
 John de Courcy, the conqueror of Ulster, the cathe- 
 dral, consecrated to the Trinity, was re-dedicated to 
 St. Patrick about 1 183. The sepulchre of St. Patrick 
 (buried here in 493, in the abbey of Saul, founded 
 by himself) brought this place into great repute. 
 The see was united with that of Connor in 1441 
 (see Connor) ; and the see of Dromore was united to 
 both by the Irish Church Temporalities act, 3 & 4 
 Will. IV. c. 37, Aug. 14, 1833. The cathedral of 
 Downpatrick was destroyed by lord Grey, lord 
 deputy of Ireland ; for this and other crimes he was 
 impeached and beheaded in 1541. Beatson. 
 
 DOWN'S, see Naval Battles, 1652-3. 
 
 DRACO'S LAWS (enacted by him when 
 archon of Athens, 621 b. a), on account of their 
 severity, were said to be written in blood. Idleness 
 was punished as severely as murder. This code was 
 set aside by Solon's, 594 b. c. 
 
 DRAFTS (or cheques). In 1856, drafts crossed 
 with a banker's name were made payable only to or 
 through the same banker. This act was passed in 
 consequence of a decision to the contrary in the 
 case of Carlon v. Ireland, 12 Dec., 1855. In 1858 
 the crossing was made a material part of a cheque, 
 but bankers are not held responsible when the 
 crossing does not plainly appear, and a penny .stamp 
 was ordered to be affixed to drafts on bankers, com- 
 mencing 25 May. In the case of Simmonds v. Taylor, 
 May, 185S, it had been decided that the crossing 
 formed no part of the draft. The crossing had been 
 erased, and the money paid to the holder of the 
 draft, who had stolen it. 
 
 DRAGONNADES, the fierce persecution of 
 the Protestants in the reign of Louis XIV. by 
 dragoons, by the minister Louvois, 1684, was con- 
 summated by the revocation of Henry IVth's edict 
 of Nantes, 22 Oct. 1685, which drove 50,000 families 
 from France. Duruy. 
 
 DRAGOONS- The name is supposed to have 
 been derived from dragon, "because mounted on 
 horseback with lighted match he seemeth like a 
 fiery dragon." Meyrick. The Draconarii were 
 horse-soldiers, who bore dragons for ensigns. The 
 
 first regiment of dragoons was raised in England, it 
 is believed, in 1681. "King Charles 11. at the 
 Restoration established a regiment of Life Guards, 
 to which he added a regiment of Horse Guards, and 
 two regiments of Foot Guards ; and a third regiment 
 of Foot Guards was raised at Coldstream, on the 
 borders of Scotland." Captain Curling. 
 
 DRAINAGE OF Land, in England, is of 
 early date — remains of British works being still 
 extant in the Fens district. Cornelius Vermuyden, 
 the Dutch engineer, was invited to England in 1621 
 and amidst much opposition, he and his successors 
 drained the districts termed the Great Levels ; see 
 Levels. In the present century great progress has 
 been made in drainage. In 1861 was passsed "an 
 act to amend the laws relative to the drainage of 
 land for agricultural purposes ; " see Sewers. 
 
 DRAKE'S CIRCUMNAVIGATION. Sir 
 
 Francis Drake sailed from Falmouth 13 Dec. 1577, 
 circumnavigated the globe, and returned to England 
 after many perils, 3 Nov. 1580. He was vice-admiral 
 under lord Howard, high admiral of England, in the 
 conflict with the Spanish Armada, 19 July, 1588. 
 He died at Panama, 28 Jan. 1596, during an 
 expedition against the Srjaniards. 
 
 DRAMA, ANCIENT. Both tragedy and comedy 
 
 began with the Greeks. 
 
 The first comedy performed at Athens, by Susarion 
 and Dolon, on a movable scaffold . . b. c. 562 
 
 The chorus introduced 556 
 
 Tragedy first represented at Athens by Thespis, on 
 a waggon (Arnold. Marb.) . . . ... 536 
 
 Thespis of Icaria, the inventor of tragedy, performed 
 at Athens "Alcestis," and was rewarded with a 
 goat (tragos). Pliny ,, 
 
 JEschylus introduced dresses and a stage . . . 486 
 
 The drama was first introduced into Rome on oc- 
 casion of a plague which raged during the consu- 
 late of C. Sulpicius Peticus and C. Licinius Stolo : 
 the magistrates, to appease the deities, instituted 
 games called the " Seenici ;" actors from Etraria 
 danced, after the Tuscan manner, to the flute . 364 
 
 Anaxandrides, first dramatic poet who introduced 
 intrigues upon the stage ; composed about 100 
 plays, of which 10 obtained the prize ; died b. c. 340 
 
 Plays were represented by Livius Andronicus, who, 
 abandoning satires, wrote plays with a regular 
 and connected plot ; he gave singing and dancing 
 
 to different performers 240 
 
 The greatest ancient dramatic writers were — 
 Greek, iEsehylus, Sophocles, Euripides (tragedy), 
 and Aristophanes (comedy), 525 — 427 ; Latin, 
 Plautus and Terence (comedy), 184 — 160 ; Seneca 
 (tragedy) 7 b. c. — a. d. 65 
 
 DRAMA, Modern, arose early in the rude 
 attempts of minstrels and buffoons at fairs in France, 
 Italy, and England. Stories from the Bible (Mys- 
 tery Plays), represented by the priests, were the 
 origin of sacred comedy. Warton. 
 
 Gregory Nazianzen, an early father of the Church, 
 is said to have constructed a drama on the 
 Passion of Christ, to counteract the profanities of 
 the heathen stage about 364 
 
 Fitzstephen, in his "Life of Thomas a Becket," 
 asserts that — "London had for its theatrical 
 exhibitions holy plays, and the representation of 
 miracles, wrought by holy confessors;" he died 
 
 about 1 1 90 
 
 The Chester Mysteries performed . . about 1270 
 
 The Coventry, Chester, Townley, and other mysteries 
 have been printed during the present century. 
 
 Plays performed at Clerkenwell by the parish clerks, 
 and " miracles " represented in the fields . . 1397 
 
 The "Passion of Christ" a miracle-play still fre- 
 quently performed at Ober-Ammergau in Bavaria ; 
 is said to have had its origin after a pestilence in 1633 
 
 This play was witnessed by the prince of Wales and 
 other distinguished persons in the summer and 
 autumn 1871 
 
DEAMATIC COLLEGE. 
 
 215 
 
 DEEUX. 
 
 [The " Passion-play " is still performed in Spain, 
 with painful realism, 1873.] 
 
 Allegorical characters introduced in the 15th cen- 
 tury. 
 
 Skelton and others wrote " Moralities " . about 1500 
 
 The first regular drama acted in Europe was the 
 "Sophonisba" of Trissino, at Rome, in the pre- 
 sence of pope Leo X. (Voltaire) . . . . 1515 
 
 First royal licence for the drama in England (to 
 master Burbage, and four others, servants to the 
 earl of Leicester) to act plays at the Globe, Bank- 
 side 1574 
 
 Shakespeare began to write . . . about 1590 
 
 A licence granted to Shakespeare and others . . 1603 
 
 Plays opposed by the Puritans in 1633, suspended 
 during the commonwealth, 1649 ; restored ... 1660 
 
 Two companies of regular performers were licensed 
 by Charles II. , Killigrew's and sir William Dave- 
 nant's. The first was at the Bull, Vere-street, 
 Clare-market, which was immediately afterwards 
 removed to Drury-lane ; the other in ■ Dorset- 
 gardens, 1662. Till this time, boys performed 
 women's parts ; but Mrs. Coleman (the first 
 female on the stage) had performed Ianthe, in 
 Davenant's " Siege of Rhodes," in ... 1666 
 
 Sir "William Davenant introduced operas, and both 
 companies united, 1684, and continued together 
 till 1694, when a schism under Betterton led to the 
 opening of a theatre in Lincoln's-inn-fields, the 
 parent of Covent-garden 1695 
 
 Act for the revision of plays and for licensing them 
 previously to being performed . . . 1737 
 
 Author's Dramatic Copyright Protection act, 3 "Will. 
 IV. c. 15. 10 June, 1833 ; extended to operas, 1 July 1842 
 
 See Theatres, Covent-garden, Drury-lane, and Copyright. 
 
 DEAMATIC COLLEGE, for the benefit of 
 distressed actors and their childreu, was proposed 
 21 Jul)', 1858, at the Princess's theatre, by Messrs. 
 C. Dickens, Thackeray, C. Kean, B. "Webster, and 
 others. Mr. Henry Dodd's offer of land and money, 
 with certain stipulations, was declined Jan. 1859. 
 The first stone of the building at Maybury near 
 Woking, was laid by the prince consort, 1 June, 
 i860; and on 29 Sept. 1862, seven annuitants were 
 installed The central hall was opened by the 
 prince of Wales, 5 June, 1865. The queen is the 
 patron. The viceroy of Egypt was present at the 
 annual fete at the Crystal Palace, July 1867, and 
 gave 500^. to the college. 
 
 DEAPIEE'S LETTEES, by dean Swift, 
 published in 1723-4 against Wood's Halfpence 
 (tohich see) . 
 
 DEEADNOUGHT. In this ship, which was 
 engaged in the battle of Trafalgar, 21 Oct. 1805, 
 was established a hospital for the seamen of ail 
 nations, by the Seamen's Hospital Society estab- 
 lished 183 1. The removal of the men to Greenwich 
 hospital was proposed in 1867; and effected, April 
 1870. 
 
 DEEAMS are mentioned in Scripture, e. g., 
 Joseph's and Pharaoh's, 1715 b. C. {Gen. xxxvii. 
 and xli.), and Nebuchadnezzar's, 603 and 570 B. C. 
 (Daniel ii. and iv.). The first attempt to interpret 
 dreams and omens is ascribed to Amphictyon of 
 Athens, 1497 b. c. 
 
 Thomas, lord Lyttelton dreamt that a young female, 
 dressed in white, solemnly warned him of his dissolution 
 in three days from that time. On the third day his 
 lordship had a party to spend the evening with him, and 
 about the time predicted, he observed to the company 
 present, that "he believed he should jockey the ghost ;" 
 but in a few minutes afterwards he was seized with a 
 sudden faintness, carried to bed and rose no more. He 
 died in 1779, aged 35. Some assert that he committed 
 suicide. 
 
 DEEDGING; see Beep Sea. 
 DEED SCOTT CASE; see United States, 
 i8 5 7- 
 
 DEEPANUM (Sicily). Near this place the 
 Carthaginian admiral Adherbal totally defeated the 
 Eoman fleet under Publius Claudius, 249 b. c. 
 
 DEESDEN, termed the German Florence, 
 became the capital of Saxony in 1548.* 
 
 Alliance of Dresden between Saxony and Denmark 
 and Russia 28 June, 1709 
 
 Peace of Dresden between Hungary, Prussia, and 
 Saxony 25 Dec. 1743 
 
 Taken by Frederick of Prussia in 1756 ; by the 
 Austrians 1739 
 
 Bombarded in vain by Frederick . . July, 1760 
 
 Held by Austrians, . . . June — July, 1809 
 
 Severe contests between the allied army under the 
 prince of Schwarzenberg, and the French com- 
 manded by Napoleon . . 26, 27 Aug. 1813 
 
 The allies, 200,000 strong, attacked Napoleon in his 
 position at Dresden, and the event had nearly 
 proved fatal to them, but for an error in the con- 
 duct of general Vandamme. They were defeated 
 with dreadful loss, and were obliged to retreat 
 into Bohemia ; but Vandamme pursuing them too 
 far, his division was cut to pieces, and himself 
 and all his staff made prisoners. In this battle, 
 general Moreau received his mortal wound, while 
 in conversation with the emperor of Russia 27 Aug. ,, 
 
 Marshal St. Cyr, and 25,000 French troops, sur- 
 rendered Dresden to the allies . 11 Nov. „ 
 
 During a political commotion the king abdicated, 
 and prince Frederick, his nephew, was declared 
 regent 9 Sept. et seq. 1830 
 
 An insurrection 3 May ; suppressed . . 6 May, 1849 
 
 DEESS. The attire of the Hebrew women is 
 censured in Isaiah hi., about 760 B.C. Excess in 
 dress among the early Eomans was restrained by 
 sumptuary laws : and also in England by numerous 
 statutes, in 1363, 1465, 1570, &c. (see Cap). Stow. 
 Fairholt's "Costume in England" contains a 
 history of dress with numerous illustrations derived 
 from MSS., the works of Strutt, &c. A " dress- 
 making company " was established in London, 6 
 Feb. 1865, with the view of improving the condition 
 of the workwomen. 
 
 Sir Walter Raleigh wore a white satin-pinked vest, close- 
 sleeved to the wrist, and over the body a doublet finely 
 flowered, and embroidered with pearls, and in the 
 feather of his hat a large ruby and pearl drop at the 
 bottom of the sprig in place of a button. His breeches, 
 with his stockings and ribbon garters, fringed at the 
 end, all white ; and buff shoes, which, on great court 
 days, were so gorgeously covered with precious stones 
 as to have exceeded the value of 6600I. ; and he had a 
 suit of armour of solid silver, with sword and belt 
 blazing with diamonds, rubies, and pearls. 
 
 King James's favourite, the duke of Buckingham, had his 
 diamonds tacked so loosely on, that when he chose to 
 shake a few off on the ground, he obtained all the fame 
 he desired from the piekers-up, who were generally les 
 Dames de la Cour. 
 
 The court dress of civilians, previously that of the time of 
 the Georges, was modified by the lord chamberlain, 
 lord Sydney, in 1869. 
 
 The Bloomer. Costume, introduced into America in 
 1849, by Mrs. Ann Bloomer, and worn there by many 
 of the women. It resembled male attire, being an 
 open-fronted jacket and loose trowsers, the latter wide 
 like those of the Turk, but gathered in at the ankles. 
 The Bloomer dress was adopted by a few females in the 
 west of London, in August, 1851 ; but though recom- 
 mended by some American ladies in popular lectures, 
 it was soon totally discontinued. 
 
 DEEUX (N. "W. France). Here Montmorenci 
 defeated the Huguenots under Conde, 19 Dec. 1562. 
 Here is the burying-place of the Orleans family 
 since 1816. The duke of Guise, aged 18 ; the last 
 
 * Dresden china was invented by John Frederick 
 Bottger (or Bbttcher), an apothecary's boy, about 1709. 
 He died 13 March, 1719. A costly service, each piece 
 exquisitely painted, with battles, &c, was presented to 
 the duke of Wellington by the king of Prussia, in 18 16. « 
 
DRILL REVIEW. 
 
 216 
 
 DUBLIN. 
 
 surviving- child of the due d'Aumale was buried 
 here 27 July, 1872. Places are reserved for his 
 grandfather and others. 
 
 DRILL REVIEW of children ; see Educa- 
 tion, 1870. 
 
 DRILLING-MACHINES, in agriculture. 
 One was invented by Jethro lull, early in the last 
 century. 
 
 DRINKING-FOUNTAINS. Many were 
 
 erected in Liverpool in 1857. An association for 
 their erection in London was formed in April, 1859, 
 by lord John Russell, the earl of Carlisle, Mr. IS. 
 Gurney, and others. The first of the numerous 
 fountains since erected is that near St. Sepulchre's 
 church, Skinner-street, 21 April, 1859. The mag- 
 nificent fountain in Victoria-park, London, was 
 inaugurated by the donor, Miss (afterwards 
 baroness) Burdett-Coutts, 28 June, 1862. A re- 
 markable drinking-fountain (the gift of the maha- 
 rajah of Vizianigram), was inaugurated in Hyde- 
 park, 29 Feb. 1868 ; another in Regent' s-park, the 
 gift of a Parsee, Aug. 1869. 
 
 DROGHEDA (Central Ireland, E.), formerly 
 Tredagh, a place of great importance, having the 
 privilege of coining money. Here was passed 
 Poyni&gs' law (which see) in 1494. In the reign of 
 Edward VI. an act was passed for the foundation 
 of a university here. The town was besieged 
 several times in the contests between 1641 and 
 1691, and Cromwell took it by storm, and put the 
 governor, sir A. Aston, and the whole of the garri- 
 son, to the sword, 12 Sept. 1649. More than 3000 
 men, most of them English, perished. It sur- 
 rendered to William III. in 1690. 
 
 DROMORE, Bishopric of (N. E. Ireland), 
 
 founded by St. Coleman, first bishop, about 556. 
 By an extent returned 15 James I., this see was 
 valued in the king's books at 50/. Jeremy Taylor 
 was bishop of Down and Connor in 1660, and of 
 this see in 1661. In 1842 Dromore was united to 
 Down by the Irish Church Temporalities act of 
 1833- 
 
 DRONTHEIM, capital of Norway, founded by 
 Olaf I. about 998. 
 
 DROWNING, an ancient punishment. The 
 Britons inflicted death by drowning in a quagniire, 
 before 450 B.C. Stow. It is said to have been in- 
 flicted on eighty intractable bishops near Nicome- 
 dia, a.d. 370; and to have been adopted as a 
 punishment in France by Louis XI. The wholesale 
 drownings of the royalists in the Loire at Nantes, 
 by command of the brutal Carrier, Nov. 1793, were 
 termed Noyades. 94 priests were drowned at one 
 time. He was condemned to death in Dec. 1794. 
 Societies for the recovery of drotoning persons were 
 first instituted in Holland, in 1767. The second 
 society is said to have been formed at Milan, in 
 1768; the third in Hamburg, in 1771 ; the fourth 
 at Paris, in 1772 ; and the fifth in London, in 1774. 
 The motto of the Royal Humane Society in England 
 is : Lateat scintillula forsan — " A small spark may 
 perhaps lie hid." Francois Texier, of Dunkerque, 
 after saving 50 lives at different times, was drowned 
 in a storm, Oct. 1871. 
 
 DRUIDS. Priests, among the ancient Ger- 
 mans, Gauls, and Britons, so named from their 
 veneration for the oak (Brit, deriv). They ad- 
 ministered sacred things, were the interpreters of 
 the gods, and supreme judges. They headed the 
 Britons who opposed Caesar's first landing, 55 B.C., 
 
 and were exterminated by the Roman governor, 
 Suetonius Paulinus, a.d. 61. 
 
 DRUM : the invention is ascribed to Bacchus, 
 who, according to Polyaenus, " gave his signals of 
 battle with cymbals and drums." It was used by 
 the Egyptians ; and brought by the Moors into 
 Spain, 1 7 13. The drum, or drum capstan, for 
 weighing anchors, was invented by sir S. Morland, 
 in 1685. Anderson. 
 
 DRUMCLOG (W. Scotland). Here the 
 covenanters defeated Graham of Claverhouse, on 
 1 June, 1679. An account of the conflict is given 
 by Walter Scott, in "Old Mortality." 
 
 DRUMMOND LIGHT; see Lime-light. 
 
 DRUNKARDS were to be excommunicated 
 in the early church, 59 (1 tor. vii.) In England, 
 a canon law forbade drunkenness in the clergy, 747- 
 Constantino, king of Scots, punished it with death, 
 870. By 21 James I., c. 7, 1623, a drunkard was 
 liable to a penalty of five shillings, or six hours in 
 the stocks. 
 
 DRURY-LANE THEATRE derives its 
 
 origin from a cock-pit, which was converted into a 
 theatre in the reign of James I. It was rebuilt 
 and called the Phoenix ; and Charles II. granted an 
 exclusive patent to Thomas Killigrew, 25 April, 
 1662. The actors were called " the king's servants," 
 and ten of them, called gentlemen of the great 
 chamber, had an annual allowance of ten yards of 
 scarlet cloth, with lace ; see under Theatres. 
 
 DRUSES, a warlike people dwelling among the 
 mountains of Lebanon, derive their origin from a 
 fanatical Mahometan sect which arose in Egypt 
 about 996, and tied to Palestine to avoid persecution. 
 They now retain hardly any of the religion of their 
 ancestors : they eat pork and drink wine, and do 
 not practise circumcision, pray, or fast. In the 
 middle of i860, in consequence of disputes (in 
 which doubtless both parties were to blame), the 
 Druses attacked their neighbours the Maronites 
 (which see), whom they massacred, it was said, with- 
 out regard to age or sex. Peace was made in July; 
 but in the meantine a religious fury seized the 
 Mahometan population of the neighbouring cities, 
 and a general massacre of Christians ensued. Fuad 
 Pacha with Turkish troops, and general Hautpoul 
 with French auxiliaries, invaded Lebanon in Aug. 
 and Sept. The Druses surrendered, giving up their 
 chiefs, Jan. 1861. See Damascus and Syria. 
 
 DUALIN, a new explosive substance (said to be 
 from four to ten times more powerful than gun- 
 powder), composed of varying proportions of cellu- 
 lose (woody fibre), nitre-starch, nitro-maunite, and 
 nitro-cellulose ; invented by Carl Ditmar, a Prus- 
 sian, and made known in 1870. This name also 
 given to another explosive compound, invented .by 
 Mr. Nobel, composed of ammonia and sawdust, acted 
 on by nitro-sulphuric acid. 
 
 DUALISM, a term applied to the principles of 
 the advocates for a separate government of 
 Hungary under the emperor of Austria ; effected in 
 1867. 
 
 DUBLIN, capital of Ireland, anciently called 
 Ashcled, said to have been built 140. Auliana, 
 daughter of Alpinus, a lord or chief among the 
 Irish, having- been drowned at the ford where now 
 Whitworth-bridge is built, he changed the name to 
 Auliana, by Ptolemy called Eblaua (afterwards cor- 
 rupted into Dublana). Alpinus is said to have 
 
DUBLIN. 
 
 217 
 
 DUBLIN. 
 
 brought " the then rude hill into the form of a 
 town," about 155; see Ireland. 
 
 Christianity established by St. Patrick, and St. 
 
 Patrick's cathedral founded about . . . . 448 
 Dublin environed with walls by the Danes . . 798 
 Named by king Edgar in the preface to his charter 
 
 " Nobilissima Civitas " 964 
 
 Battle of Clontarf (which see) . . .23 April, 1014 
 Dublin taken by Ramond le Gros, 1 1 70, f or Henry II. 
 
 who soon after arrives 11 71 
 
 Charter granted by this king 1173 
 
 Christ church built, 1038 ; rebuilt . . . . 1190 
 .Slaughter of 500 British by the Irish citizens near 
 
 Bublin (see Cullens Wood) 1209 
 
 Assemblage of Irish princes, who swear allegiance 
 
 to king John 1210 
 
 Foundation of Bublin castle laid by Henry de Loun- 
 
 dres, 1205 ; finished 1213 
 
 John de Deeer first provost ; Richard de St. Olave 
 and John Stakebold first bailiffs (see Mayor) . . 1308 
 
 Thomas Cusack, first mayor 1409 
 
 Besieged by the son of the earl of Kildare, lord 
 
 deputy 15 00 
 
 Christ church made a deanery and chapter by 
 
 Henry VIII. (see Christ Church) .... 1541 
 Bailiff changed to sheriffs ; John Ryan and Thomas 
 
 Comyn, first 1S48 
 
 Trinity college founded 159 1 
 
 Charter granted by James I. 1609 
 
 Convocation which established the Thirty-nine 
 
 articles of religion 1614 
 
 Besieged by the marquis of Ormond, defeated at 
 
 battle of Rathmines (which see) . . 2 Aug. 1649 
 
 Cromwell arrives in Bublin with 9000 foot and 400 
 
 horse Aug. „ 
 
 Chief magistrate styled lord mayor . . . . 1665 
 Blue coat hospital incorporated .... 1670 
 Essex bridge built by sir H. Jervis . . . . 1676 
 Royal hospital, Kilmainham, founded . . . 1683 
 James II. arrives in Dublin, 24 March ; proclaimed 
 
 4 May, 1689 
 
 Great gunpowder explosion 1693 
 
 Lamps first erected in the city 1698 
 
 Infirmary, Jervis-street, founded 1728 
 
 Parliament-house begun 1729 
 
 Foundling hospital incorporated 1739 
 
 St. Patrick's spire erected (see St. Patrick) . . 1749 
 Royal Bublin Society originated, 1731 ; incor- 
 porated 1749 
 
 Hibernian society 1765 
 
 Marine society 1766 
 
 Queen's bridge first erected, 1684 ; destroyed by a 
 
 flood, 1763 ; rebuilt 1768 
 
 Act for a general pavement of the city . . . 1773 
 Royal exchange begun, 1769 ; opened . . . 1779 
 
 Order of St. Patrick instituted 1783 
 
 Bank of Ireland instituted (see Bank) . . . ,, 
 
 Police established by statute 1786 
 
 Royal academy incorporated ,, 
 
 Custom house begun, 1781 ; opened . . . . 1791 
 Bublin library instituted ... . . „ 
 
 Fire at the parliament house i79 2 
 
 Carlisle bridge erected 1794 
 
 City armed association 1796 
 
 New Four law courts opened „ 
 
 The rebellion ; arrest of lord Edward Fitzgerald, in 
 
 Thomas-street 19 May, J 79S 
 
 "Union with England (see Union) . . 1 Jan. 1801 
 Emmett's insurrection .... 23 July, 1803 
 
 Hibernian Bible society 1806 
 
 Bank transferred to College-green . . . . 1808 
 
 Dublin institution founded 1811 
 
 Riot at the theatre . . . . .16 Dec. 1814 
 
 Visit of George IV 12 Aug. 1821 
 
 The " Bottle riot " 14 Dec. 1822 
 
 Hibernian academy 16 Aug. 1823 
 
 Dublin lighted with gas . . . .5 Oct. 1825 
 Rd. Whately made archbishop (very active in edu- 
 cation) 1831 
 
 Great custom-house fire . . . -9 Aug. 1833 
 
 Railroad to Kingstown 1834 
 
 British Association meet here . . .6 Aug. 1835 
 
 Bublin new police act 4 July, 1836 
 
 Cemetery, Mount Jerome, consecrated 19 Sept. ,, 
 Royal arcade burnt .... 25 April, 1837 
 Poor-law bill passed .... 31 July, 1838 
 Awful storm raged 6 Jan. 1839 
 
 O'Connell's arrest (see Trials) ... 14 Oct. 1843 
 He is found guilty, 12 Feb. ; liberated in Sept. 1844 
 
 His death at Genoa 15 May. 1847 
 
 Arrest of Mitchell, of the "United Irishman" 
 
 newspaper 13 May, 1848 
 
 State trial of Wm. Smith O'Brien and Meagher 111 
 
 Bublin 15 May, „ 
 
 [These persons were afterwards tried at Clonmel, 
 
 and found guilty.] 
 Trial of Mitchel ; guilty .... 26 May, „ 
 "Irish Felon," newspaper first published, 1 July, „ 
 " Nation " and " Irish Felon" suppressed, 29 July, „ 
 Conviction of O'Doherty . . . . 1 Nov. „ 
 The queen visits Dublin ... 6 Aug. 1849 
 Royal exchange opened as a city hall . 30 Sept. 1852 
 Dublin industrial exhibition, which owed its exis- 
 tence to Mr. Dargan, who advanced 8o,oooJ. for 
 the purpose, was erected by Mr. (afterwards sir) 
 John Benson, in the Dublin society's grounds, 
 near Merrion-square. It consisted of one large 
 and two smaller halls, lighted from above. It 
 was opened by earl St. Germains, the lord-lieu- 
 tenant 12 May, 1853 
 
 Visited by the queen and prince Albert, 30 Aug. ; 
 
 and closed on 1 Nov. „ 
 
 Acts passed to establish a national gallery, 
 
 museum, &c. . . 10 Aug. 1854 ; and 2 July, 1S55 
 Arrival of lord Eglinton— disgraceful contest be- 
 tween the Trinity college students and the police ; 
 the latter severely blamed . . .12 March, 1858 
 Demonstration at the funeral of the rebel M'Manus, 
 
 10-12 Nov. 1861 
 Fine art exhibition proposed, 20 July, i860 ; opened 
 by the lord-lieutenant, the earl of Carlisle, 24 
 May, 1861 ; visited by the prince of Wales, 1 July ; 
 and by the queen and prince consort . 22 Aug. „ 
 National association for social science met, 14-22 Aug. ,, 
 Lord Rosse installed as chancellor of the university, 
 
 17 Feb. 1863 
 Abp. Whately dies, 8 Oct. ; succeeded by Rd. 
 
 Chenevix Trench Nov. „ 
 
 Statue of Oliver Goldsmith inaugurated by the 
 lord-lieutenant, 5 Jan. ;.who opens the national 
 gallery of Ireland . . . . . 30 Jan. 1864 
 New Richmond hospital, to be called the " Carmi- 
 chael School of Medicine," founded by lord Car- 
 lisle (Mr. Carmichael, the surgeon, bequeathed 
 
 io,oooi. to it) 29 March, „ 
 
 Industrial exhibition opened by the lord chancellor, 
 
 25 May, „ 
 The O'Connell monument founded . . 8 Aug. 1864 
 St. Patrick's cathedral restored by Mr. Benjamin 
 
 L. Guinness ; re-opened ... 24 Feb. 1865 
 The international exhibition opened by the prince 
 
 of Wales 9 May, „ 
 
 The newspaper " The Irish People " seized, and 
 several Fenians taken in custody. (See Fenians, 
 
 and Ireland.) is Sept. „ 
 
 International exhibition closed . . .9 Nov. „ 
 Great fire : Mrs. Delany and five others burnt ; fire- 
 brigade blamed 7 June, 1866 
 
 Great banquet to John Bright . . .3° 0ct - » 
 Meeting of Royal AgrieuRural Society of Ireland, 
 
 27 Aug. 1867 
 Two policemen shot (probably by Fenians), 31 Oct. „ 
 Funeral demonstration for Allen, Gould, and Larkin, 
 
 the Fenians 8 Dec. ,, 
 
 Visit of prince of Wales (see Ireland) . 15 April, 1868 
 Sir Benjamin L. Guinness, benefactor, died 19 May, „ 
 Church congress held . . 29 Sept.— 2 Oct. „ 
 Public entry of earl Spencer as lord-lieutenant, 
 
 16 Jan. 1869 
 Smith O'Brien's statue unveiled . . .26 Dec. 1870 
 State funeral of lord mayor Bulfin (died in office), 
 
 16 June, 1S71 
 Fine art and industrial exhibition opened by the 
 
 duke of Edinburgh 5 J™e, 1872. 
 
 Closed by the lord-lieutenant, earl Spencer, 30 Nov. „ 
 Spencer dock inaugurated by the lord-lieutenant, 
 
 15 April 1873 
 
 DUBLIN, ARCHBISHOPRIC OF. It is sup- 
 posed that the bishopric of Dublin was founded by 
 St. Patrick, in 448. Gregory, bishop in 1121, be- 
 came archbishop in 1 152. It was united to Glan- 
 dalagh in 1214. George Browne, an Augustine friar 
 of London (deprived by queen Mary in 1554). was 
 
DUCAT. 
 
 218 
 
 DUKE. 
 
 the first Protestant archbishop. Dublin has two 
 cathedrals, Christ Church, and St. Patrick's. The 
 revenue was valued, in the king's books, 30 
 Henry VIII. , at 534^. 15s. 2d. Irish. Kildare, on 
 its last avoidance, was annexed to Dublin, 1846 ; 
 see Bishops. 
 
 DUCAT, a coin so called because struck by 
 dukes. Johnson. First coined by Longinus, 
 governor of Italy. Procopius. First struck in the 
 duchy of Apulia, 1140. Bu Cange. Coined by 
 Kobert, king of Sicily, in 1240. 
 
 DUCKING-STOOL ; see Cucking-stool. 
 
 DUELLING took its rise from the judicial 
 combats of the Celtic nations. The first formal 
 duel in England, between "William count of Eu and 
 Godfrey Uaynard, took place 1096. Duelling in 
 civil matters was forbidden in France, 1305. 
 Francis I. challenged the emperor Charles V. 1528 
 without effect. The fight with small swords was 
 introduced into England, 1587. Proclamation that 
 no person should be pardoned who killed another in 
 a duel, 1679.* Duelling was checked in the army, 
 1792 ; and has been abolished in England, by the 
 influence of public opinion, aided by the prince 
 consort. A society "for the discouraging of duel- 
 ling " was established in 1845. See Battel, Wager 
 of, and Combat. 
 
 MEMORABLE DUELS. 
 
 Between the duke of Hamilton and lord Mohun, 
 
 fought 15 Nov. 1712 
 
 [This duel was fought with small swords, in Hyde- 
 park. Lord Mohun was killed upon the spot, 
 and the duke expired of his wounds as he was 
 being carried to his coach.] 
 Capt. Peppard and Mr. Hayes ; latter killed . . 1728 
 Messrs. Hamilton and Morgan ; former killed . 1748 
 S. Martin wounded Mr. Wilkes, M. P. . 16 Nov. 1763 
 Lord Byron killed Mr. Chaworth . . 26 Jan. 1765 
 Lord Townsend wounded lord Bellamont, 1 Feb. 1773 
 Comte d'Artois wounded by due de Bourbon, at 
 
 Paris 21 March, 1778 
 
 Mr. Donovan and capt. Hanson ; the latter killed, 
 
 13 Nov. 1779 
 Charles James Fox wounded by Mr. Adam, 30 Nov. ,, 
 Col. Fullerton wounded lord Shelburne, 22 March, 1780 
 Rev. Mr. Allen killed Lloyd Dulany . . 18 June, 1782 
 Col. Thomas killed by col. Gordon . 4 Sept. 1783 
 
 Lord Macartney wounded by major-general Stuart, 
 
 8 June, 1786 
 Mr. M'Keon killed George N. Reynolds, 1787 ; exe- 
 cuted x e Feb. 1788 
 
 Mr. Purefoy killed col. Roper .... Dec. ,, 
 Duke of Yurk and col. Lennox, aft. duke of Rich- 
 mond (for an insignificant cause) . 26 May, 17S9 
 Sir George Ramsay and captain Macrea : sir George 
 
 killed I7 g 
 
 Mr. Curran and major Hobart . . . 1 April, ,, 
 Mr. Macduff and Mr. Prince ; latter killed 4 June. ., 
 Mr. Harvey Aston and Lieut. Fitzgerald ; the former 
 
 severely wounded .... 25 June, „ 
 Mr. Anderson killed Mr. Stevens . . 20 Sept. 
 Mr. Julius killed Mr. Graham . . 19 July, 1791 
 Mr. John Kemble and Mr. Aiken ; no fatality, 
 
 1 March, 1792 
 Earl of Lonsdale and captain Cuthbert ; no fatality 
 
 9 June, ,, 
 M. de Chauvigny wounded Mr. Lameth . 8 Nov. 
 
 Mr. Carpenter kiEed by Mr. Pride . 20 Aug. 1796 
 Lord Valentia wounded by Mr. Gawler . 28 June, ,, 
 Wm. Pitt and Geo. Tierney . . . 27 May, ',, 
 Henry Grattan wounded Isaac Corry . 15 Jan. 1800 
 Lieut. Willis killed major Impey . . 26 Aug. 1801 
 George Ogle and Bernard Coy le ; no fatality . .1802 
 
 * " As many as 227 official and memorable duels were 
 fought during my grand climacteric."— Sir J. Bwrrington. 
 A single writer enumerates 172 duels, in which 63 indi- 
 viduals were killed and 96 wounded ; in three of these 
 cases both the combatants were killed, and 18 of the 
 survivors suffered the sentence of the law. Hamiltvn. 
 
 Sir Richard Musgrave and Mr. Todd Jones ; sir 
 
 Richard wounded .... 8 June, 1802 
 Capt Mac Namara killed col. Montgomery, 6 April, 1803 
 Gen. Hamilton and col. Aaron Burr (in America) ; 
 
 the general killed 1804 
 
 Capt. Best killed lord Camelford 6 (died 10) March, ,. 
 Surgeon Fisher killed lieut. Torrens, . 22 March, 1806 
 Baron Hompesch wounded Mr. Richardson, 21 Sept. 
 Sir Francis Burdett and Mr. Paull ; botli wounded 
 
 5 May, 1807 
 Mr. Alcock killed Mr. Colclough ; and lost his reason 
 
 8 June, ,, 
 M. de Granpre and M. Le Pique, in balloons, near 
 
 Paris, and the latter killed ... 3 May, 1808 
 Major Campbell and captain Boyd ; latter killed 
 
 (former hanged, 2 Oct. 1808) . . 23 June, ,, 
 Lord Paget and captain Cadogan ; neither wounded 
 
 30 May, 1809 
 Lord Castlereagh wounded Geo. Canning 21 Sept. 
 
 Mr. Clarke killed George Payne . . .6 Sept. 1810 
 Ensign de Balton killed capt. Boardman, 4 March, 181 1 
 Lieut. Stewart killed lieut. Bagnal . . 7 Oct. 1812 
 Mr. Edward Maguire killed lieut. Blundell, 9 July, 1813 
 Captain Stackpole (of " Statira " frigate) and lieut. 
 Cecil ; the captain killed (arose on account of 
 words spoken four years previously) . April, 1814 
 Mr. D. O'Connell killed Mr. D'Esterre . 1 Feb. 1815 
 Colonel Quentin and colonel Palmer . 7 Feb. ,, 
 Mr. O'Connell and Mr. Peel ; an affair, no meeting 
 
 31 Aug. „ 
 Major Greene and Mr. Price, in America ; the latter 
 
 killed, greatly lamented 1816 
 
 Lieut. Conroy killed lieut. Hindes . 8 March, 181 7 
 Major Lockyer killed Mr. John Sutton . 10 Dec. 
 Mr. O'Callaghan killed lieut. Bayley . . 12 Jan. 1818 
 Mr. Grattan and the earl of Clare . . 7 June, 1820 
 Mr. Henshaw and Mr. Hartinger ; both desperately 
 
 wounded 18 Sept. ,, 
 
 Mr. Christie killed Mr. Scott . . .16 Feb. 1S21 
 M. Manuel and Mr. Beaumont . . 9 April, ,, 
 Mr. James Stuart killed sir Alexander Boswell, 
 
 26 March, 1822 
 The duke of Buckingham and the duke of Bedford ; 
 
 no fatality 2 May, 
 
 Gen. Pepe wounded gen. Carascosa . 28 Feb. 1823 
 
 Mr. Westall killed capt. Gourlay 1824 
 
 Mr. Beaumont and Mr. Lambton : no result 1 July, 1826 
 Mr. Hayes killed Mr. Brie. ... 26 Dec . ,, 
 Rev. Mr. Hodson wounded Mr. Grady . Aug. 1827 
 
 Duke of Wellington and the earl of Winehelsea ; no 
 
 injury 21 March, 1829 
 
 Capt Helshain killed lieut. Crowther . 1 April, ,, 
 Mr. W. Lambrecht killed Mr. O. Clayton . 8 Jan. 1830 
 Capt. Smith killed Mr. O'Grady . . 18 March, ,; 
 Mr. Storey wounded Mr. Matthias . 22 Jan. 1833 
 
 Sir John W. Jeffeott and Dr. Hennis ; the latter 
 
 wounded, and died on the 18th . 10 May, ,, 
 
 Lord Alvanley and Mr. Morgan O'Connell ; 2 shots 
 
 each 4 May, 1835 
 
 Sir Colquhoun Grant and lord Seymour : no fatality 
 
 29 May, ,, 
 Mr. Roebuck, M.P., and Mr. Black, editor of the 
 
 "Morning Chronicle ;" 2 shots each . 19 Nov. ,, 
 Capt. Dickson wounded gen. Evans . . 8 April, 1836 
 Emile de Girardin killed Armand Carrel (both jour- 
 nalists) 24 July, ,, 
 
 Mr. Ruthven and Mr. Scott ; and Mr. Ruthven and 
 
 Mr. Close (Mr. Scott's second) ; thelatterwounded 
 
 23 May, ,, 
 The earl of Cardigan and captain Tuckett ; 2 shots 
 
 each ; the latter wounded ; the earl was tried in the 
 
 house of lords and acquitted, 16 Feb. 1841) 12 Sept. 1S40 
 Captain Boldero and hon. -Craven Berkeley; no 
 
 fatality 15 July, 1842 
 
 Lieut. Munrpe killed col. Fawcett 1 (died 3) July, 1843 
 Lieut. Hawkey killed lieut. Seton . 20 May, 1845 
 
 Due de Grammont Caderousse kills Mr. Dillon at 
 
 Paris, for a newspaper attack . . . Oct. 1862 
 Paul de Cassagnac and M. Lissagaray, journalists ; 
 
 (latter run through) .... 4 Sept. 1868 
 Don Enrique de Bourbon killed by the due de Mont- 
 
 pensier, near Madrid, after much provocation, 
 
 12 March, 1870 
 
 DUKE, from Latin dux, a leader. In England, 
 during Saxon times, the commanders of armies 
 were called dukes, duces. Camden. Iu Genesis 
 
DULWICH COLLEGE. 
 
 219 
 
 DUPPLIN. 
 
 xxxvi. some of Esau's descendants are termed 
 dukes. Duke-duke was a title given to the house of 
 Sylvia, in Spain, on account of its possessing many 
 duchies. 
 
 Edward the Black Prince made duke of Cornwall 
 
 17 March, 1337 
 Bobert de Vere was created marquis of Dublin and 
 
 duke of Ireland, 9 Bich. II 1385 
 
 Bobert III. created David, prince of Scotland, duke 
 
 of Bothsay, a title which afterwards belonged to 
 
 the king's eldest son, 1398, and is now borne by 
 
 the prince of Wales. 
 Cosmo de' Medici created grand-duke of Tuscany, 
 
 the first of the rank, by pope Pius V. . . . 1569 
 
 DULWICH COLLEGE (Surrey) called 
 God's-gift college, founded by Edward Alleyn, an 
 eminent comedian, was completed and solemnly 
 opened 13 Sept. 1619. Alleyn was its first master, 
 and died in 1626. In 1686 Win. Cartwright, an 
 actor, gave a library and some portraits, and on 
 
 20 Dec. 1810 sir Francis Bourgeois bequeathed his 
 ■ collection of pictures, the gallery for which was 
 
 erected by sir John Soane, and opened in 1812. Sir 
 Francis died 8 Jan. 1811. In 1857, an act was 
 passedby which the college was reconstituted. Two 
 schools were established ; and the number of the 
 almspeople increased. In i860 the annual income 
 was 11,482?. The new school buildings, founded 
 26 June, 1866, were opened by the prince of Wales, 
 
 21 June, 1870. The • Endowed Schools Commis- 
 sioners put forth a draft scheme for remodelling the 
 charity about Oct. 1872. 
 
 DUMB, see Deaf and Dvmb. 
 
 DUMBLANE or Dunblane (Perth), an 
 ancient city, near which took place a conflict called 
 the battle of Sheriftinuir, between the royalist army 
 under the duke of Argyle, and the Scots rebels 
 under the earl of Mar, 13 Nov. 1715. Both claimed 
 the victory. 
 
 DUNBAR (Haddington). Here the Scottish 
 army and king John Baliol were defeated by War- 
 renne, earl of Surrey, 27 April, 1296, and Scotland 
 was subdued. Near here also Cromwell obtained a 
 signal victory over the Scots, in arms for Charles II. 
 3 Sept. 1650. 
 
 DUNCIAD, the celebrated satirical poem by 
 Alexander Pope, was published in 1728. 
 
 DUNDALK (Louth, Ireland) . On 5 Oct. 1318, 
 at Foughard near this place, was defeated and slain 
 Edward Bruce, who had invaded Ireland in 1315. 
 The walls and fortifications of Dundalk were de- 
 stroyed in 1641. It was taken by Cromwell in 
 1649. The first cambric manufacture in Ireland 
 was established in this town by artisans from 
 France in 1727. 
 
 DUNDEE (E. Scotland), on the Tay. The 
 site was given by William the Lion (reigned 11 65 — 
 1214), to his brother David, earl of Huntingdon, 
 who built or strengthened the castle, and erected a 
 large church, the tower of which, 156 feet high, 
 still remains. The town was taken by the English 
 in 1385 ; pillaged by Montrose, 1645 ; stormed by 
 Monk in 1 65 1 ; and visited by queen Victoria in 
 1844. It has thriven since 1815, through its 
 extensive linen manufactories ; at one of these 
 (Edwards' s) a steam explosion took place on 15 April, 
 1859, when twenty persons were killed. Claver- 
 house, viscount Dundee (killed 1689), had a house 
 here. The Baxter park, the gift of sir David 
 Baxter, was opened by earl Eussell, 9 Sept. 1863. 
 The British association met here, 4 Sept. 1867. 
 Population in 1861, 90,425 ; in 1871, 118,974. 
 
 DUNES, see Dunkirk. 
 
 DUNGAN-HILL (Ireland). Here the Eng- 
 lish army, commanded by colonel Jones, signally 
 defeated the Irish, of whom 6000 are said to have 
 been slain, while the loss on the side of the English 
 was inconsiderable, 8 Aug. 1647. 
 
 DUNKELD (Perthshire) was made a bishopric- 
 by David I. in 1 127; the ancient Culdee church, 
 founded by king Constantine III., becoming the 
 cathedral. The beautiful bridge over the Tay, 
 erected by Thomas Telford, was opened in 1809. 
 
 DUNKIRK (N. France), founded in the 7th. 
 century, was taken by the Spaniards, Sept. 1652,, 
 and retaken from them by the English and French 
 after Turenne's victory over them under Conde on. 
 the dunes (or sands), 14 June, 1658, and put into 
 the hands of the English, 25 June following. It 
 was sold by Charles II. for 500,000?. to Louis XIV.,, 
 17 Oct. ; restored 1662, and was one of the best 
 fortified ports in the kingdom ; but the works were 
 demolished in conformity with the treaty of Utrecht 
 in 1713. The works were ordered to be demolished, 
 at the peace of 1763; but in 1783 they were again 
 resumed. The English attempted to besiege Dun- 
 kirk ; but the duke of York was defeated by Hoche r 
 and forced to retire with loss, 7 Sept. 1793. It was- 
 made a free port in 1816. 
 
 DUNMOW (Essex), famous for the tenure of 
 the manor (made by Bobert Fitz- Walter, 1244),. 
 " that whatever married couple will go to the 
 priory and kneeling on two sharp-pointed stones,, 
 will swear that they have not quarrelled nor repented, 
 of their marriage within a year and a day after its- 
 celebration, shall receive a flitch of bacon." 
 
 The earliest recorded claim for the bacon was in 1445,.. 
 since when to 1855 it had only been demanded five 
 times. 
 
 The last claimants previous to 1855 were John Shake- 
 shanks and his wife, 20 June, 1751 ; they made a large 
 sum by selling slices of the flitch to witnesses of the 
 ceremony (5000 persons). 
 
 Flitches were awarded to Mr. and Mrs. Barlow, of Chip- 
 ping-Ongar, and the Chevalier Chatelaine and his lady, 
 19 July, 1855. 
 
 The lord of the manor opposed the revival, but Mr. W. 
 Harrison Ainsworth, the novelist, and some friends, 
 defrayed the expense, and _ superintended the cere- 
 monials. 
 
 A flitch was awarded in i860. 
 
 DUNSE (S. Scotland). Here on 18 June, 
 1639, by treaty between the Scots commission and 
 Charles I., their demands were acceded to, and they 
 agreed to disband their army. Disputes arose, and 
 the treaty was not carried into effect. 
 
 DUNSINANE (Perthshire) . On the hill was 
 fought the battle between king Macbeth formerly the 
 thane of Glammis, and Siward, earl of Northum- 
 berland, 27 July, 1054. Edward the Confessor had 
 sent Siward on behalf of Malcolm III., whose father 
 Duncan, the usurper had murdered. Macbeth was. 
 defeated, and it was said was pursued to Lumpha- 
 nan, in Aberdeenshire, and there slain, 1056 or 1057. 
 
 DUPES (day of), II Nov. 1 630, when Eichelieu. 
 energetically and adroitly frustrated the plan for 
 his ruin, formed by the queen Marie de Medicis and 
 Gaston, duke of Orleans, and others, during the 
 king's illness. 
 
 DUPPEL or DYBOL. See under Denmark? 
 1864. 
 
 DUPPLIN (Perthshire) . Here Edward Balliol 
 and his English allies totally defeated the Scots 
 under the earl of Mar, 11 Aug. 1332, and obtained 
 the crown for three months. 
 
DURBAR. 
 
 220 
 
 DZOUNGARIA. 
 
 DURBAR, an East Indian term for an audience- 
 chamber or reception. On 18 Uct. 1864, a durbar 
 was held at Lahore by the viceroy of India, sir John 
 Lawrence, at which 604 of the most illustrious 
 princes and chieftains of the north-west province 
 were present, magnificently clothed. Similar ones 
 •were held in 1866, 1867, and on 27 March, 1869, at 
 •Umballah. 
 
 Sir Seymour Fitzgerald, governor of Bombay, held 
 a great durbar of the princes of Western India at 
 Poona 6 Oct. 1868 
 
 The earl of Mayo, the viceroy, held a solemn durbar 
 at Ajmere in Rajpootana ... 22 Oct. 1870 
 
 DURHAM, an ancient city, the Dun holme of 
 the Saxons, and Dureme of the Normans. The 
 bishopric was removed to Durham from Chester- 
 le -street in 995 ; whither it had been transferred 
 from Lindisfarne, or Holy Island, on the coast 
 of Northumberland, in 875, in consequence of the 
 invasion of the Danes. The bones of St. Cuth- 
 bert, the sixth bishop, were brought from Lin- 
 -disfame, and interred in Durham cathedral. The 
 palatine privileges, granted to the bishop by the 
 Danish Northumbrian prince Guthrum, were taken 
 by the crown in June I036. Durham was ravaged 
 •by Malcolm of Scotland in 1070, and was occupied 
 by the Northern rebels in 1569 ; and by the Scots 
 in 1640. In 1650 Cromwell quartered his Scotch 
 prisoners in the cathedral. Near Durham on 17 Oct. 
 1346, was fought the decisive battle of Neville's 
 cross {which see). This see, deemed the richest in 
 England, was valued in the king's books at 2821I. 
 Present income 8ooo£. 
 
 College founded in 1290 ; abolished at the Reforma- 
 tion. 
 
 Cromwell established a college, 1657 ; which was 
 suppressed at the Restoration .... 1660 
 
 Present University established in 1831, opened Oct. 
 1833 ; chartered .... . June, 1837 
 
 Certain new ordinances, recommended by a commis- 
 sion, 1862, set aside 1863 
 
 BISHOPS. 
 
 J791. Hon. Shute Barrington, died in 1826. 
 
 1826. Win. Van Mildert (the last prince bishop), died 21 
 
 Feb. 1836. 
 .1836. Edward Maltby, resigned in 1856 ; died 3 July, 
 
 1859, aged 90. 
 -1856. Charles Thomas Longley ; became archb. of York, 
 
 May, i860. 
 .i860. Hon. H. Montagu Villiers (transd. from Carlisle ) ; 
 
 died 10 Aug. 1861. 
 .1861. Charles Baring (present bishop). 
 
 DURHAM LETTER, see Papal Aggression, 
 1850. 
 
 DUST AND DISEASE. A controversy re- 
 specting the connection between them originated 
 with a lecture on the subject by professor Tyndall 
 at the Royal Institution, 21 Jan. 1870, when he de- 
 monstrated the presence of organic matters in the 
 •dust of the atmosphere in conformity with the ex- 
 perimentsof Pasteur and other eminent philosophers. 
 Professor Huxley, at the meeting of the British 
 Association, 14 Sept. 1870, expressed his opinion 
 that contagious diseases are propagated by germs in 
 the atmosphere, in agreement with some physicians. 
 
 DUTCH REPUBLIC, see Holland. 
 
 DUUMVIRI, two Roman patricians appointed 
 by Tarquin the Proud 520 B.C. to take care of the 
 books of the Sibyls, which were supposed to contain 
 the fate of the Roman empire. The books were 
 placed in the Capitol, and secured in a chest under 
 the ground. The number of keepers was increased 
 
 to ten (the Decemviri) 365 B.C., afterwards to fifteen; 
 the added five called quinque viri. 
 
 DWARFS : ANCIENT. Philetas of Cos, dis- 
 tinguished about 330 B.C., as a poet and grammarian, 
 was said to have carried weights in his pockets, to 
 prevent his being blown away. He was preceptor 
 to Ptolemy Philadelphus. JElian. Julia, niece of 
 Augustus, had a dwarf named Coropas, two feet and 
 a hand's breadth high ; and Andromeda a f reed- 
 maid of Julia's, was of the same height. Pliny. 
 Aug. Coesar exhibited in his plays a man not two 
 feet in stature. Sueton. Alypius of Alexandria, a 
 logician and philosopher, was but one foot five 
 inches and a half high ; "he seemed to be consumed 
 into a kind of divine nature." Yos. Instit. 
 
 Modern Dwarfs. — John d'Estrix, of Mechlin, was 
 brought to the duke of Parma, in 1592, when he was 
 35 years of age, having a long beard. He was skilled 
 in languages, and not more than three feet high. 
 
 Geoffrey Hudson, an English dwarf, when a youth of 18 
 inches high, was served up to table in a cold pie, before 
 the king and queen, by the duchess of Buckingham, in 
 1626. He challenged Mr. Crofts to light a duel, but the 
 latter came armed with a squirt. At another meeting 
 the dwarf shot his antagonist dead, 1653. 
 
 Count Borowlaski, a Polish gentleman, of great accom- 
 plishments and elegant manners, well known in Eng- 
 land, where he resided for many years, was born in 
 Nov. 1739. His growth was at one year of age, 14 
 inches ; at, six, 17 inches ; at twenty, 33 inches ; and 
 at thirty, 39. He had a sister, named Anastasia, seven 
 years younger than himself, and so much shorter that 
 "she could stand under his arm. He visited many of 
 the courts of Europe, and died in England in 1837. 
 
 Charles Stratton (termed general Tom Thumb), an Ameri- 
 can, was exhibited in England, 1846. In Feb. 1863, in 
 New York, when 25 years old and 31 inches high, he 
 married Lavinia Warren, aged 21, 32 inches high. He, 
 his wife, and child, and commodore Nutt, another 
 dwarf, came to England in Dec. 1864, and remained 
 there some time. 
 
 DYEING is attributed to the Tyrians, about 
 1500 B.C. The English sent their goods to be dyed 
 in Holland, till the art was brought to them it is 
 said in 1608. " Two dyers of Exeter were flogged 
 for teaching their art in the north" (ofEDgland), 
 1628. A statute against abuses in dyeing passed 
 in 1783. The art has been greatly improved by 
 chemical research. A discovery of Dr. Stenhouse 
 in 1848, led to M. Marnas procuring mauve from 
 lichens; and Dr. Hofmann's production of aniline 
 from coal-tar, has led to the invention of a number 
 of beautiful dyes (mauve, magenta red, &e.) ; see 
 Aniline. 
 
 DYNAMITE, a new explosive compound, con- 
 sisting of 75 parts of silicious earth saturated with 
 25 parts of nitro-glycerine (which sec) . It is suitable 
 for mining purposes, and was tried and approved 
 at Mcrstham 14 July, 1868. It was invented by 
 A. Nobel to obviate danger. Its manufacture is 
 very daugerous. 
 
 DZOUNGARIA, a region of Central Asia, N. 
 of China, with about 2,000,000 inhabitants, fierce, 
 warlike Mahometans. After being long tributary 
 to China, they rebelled in 1864, massacred the 
 Chinese residents, and set up their countryman 
 Abel Oghlan, as sultan. As he was unable to re- 
 strain predatory attacks upon the Russians, the 
 czar declared war in April 1871. After a brief 
 campaign in May and June, and several conflicts in 
 which the Russians were victors, the sultan sur- 
 rendered himself to general Kolpakoviski, 4 July, 
 and the country was annexed to the Russian empire. 
 
EAGLE. 
 
 221 
 
 EARTHQUAKES. 
 
 E. 
 
 EAGLE, an ancient coin of Ireland, made of a 
 base metal, and current in the first years of Ed- 
 ward I. about 1272, was so named from the figure 
 impressed upon it. The American gold coinage of 
 eagles, half eagles, and quarter eagles, began 6 Dec. 
 1792 ; an eagle is of the value of 10 dollars, or about 
 2I. is. — The standard of the eagle was borne by the 
 Persians, at Cunaxa, 401 B.C. The Romans carried 
 gold and silver eagles as ensigns, and sometimes 
 represented them with a thunderbolt in their talons, 
 on the point of a spear, 102 B.C. Charlemagne 
 added the second head to the eagle for his amis, to 
 denote that the empires of Borne and Germany 
 were united in him, a.d. 802. The eagle "was 
 the standard of Napoleon I. and Napoleon III. ; 
 as well as of Austria, Eussia, and Prussia; see 
 Knighthood. 
 
 EARL (Latin, comes), introduced at the con- 
 quest, superseded the Saxon ealdorman, and con- 
 tinued the highest rank in England, until Ed- 
 ward III. created dukes in 1337 and 1351, and 
 Richard II. created marquises (1385), both above 
 earls. Alfred used the title of earl as a substitute 
 for king. William Fitz-Osborn was made earl of 
 Hereford by "William the Conqueror, 1066. Gil- 
 christ was created earl of Angus, in Scotland, by 
 king Malcolm III. in 1037, and sir John de Courcy 
 created baron of Kingsale and earl of Ulster in Ire- 
 land, by Henry II. 1181. 
 
 Earl Marshal of England, the eighth great officer of 
 state. This office, until it was made hereditary, always 
 passed "by grant from the king. Gilbert de Clare was 
 created lord marshal by king Stephen, 1135. The last 
 lord marshal was John Fitz-Alan, lord Maltravers. 
 Camden. Bichard II. in 1397 granted letters patent to 
 the earl of Nottingham by the style of earl marshal. In 
 1672, Charles II. granted to Henry lord Howard the 
 dignity of hereditary earl marshal. The earl marshal's 
 court was abolished in 1641. (See Howard.) 
 
 Earl Marischal of Scotland was an officer who com- 
 manded the cavalry, whereas the constable commanded 
 the whole army ; but they seem to have had a joint 
 command, as all orders were addressed to " our con- 
 stable and marischal. " The office was never out of the 
 Keith family. It was reserved at the Union, and when 
 the heritable jurisdictions were bought, it reverted to 
 the crown, being forfeited by the rebellion of George 
 Keith, earl marischal, in 1715. 
 
 EARLY ENGLISH TEXT SOCIETY 
 
 began to publish in 1864. 
 
 EARRINGS were worn by Jacob's family, 
 1732 b.c. {Gen. xxxv. 4.) 
 
 EARTH, see Globe. 
 
 EARTHENWARE, see Pottery. 
 
 EARTHQUAKES. Anaxagoras supposed 
 that earthquakes were produced by subterraneous 
 clouds bursting into lightning, which shook the 
 vaults that confined them, 435 B.C. Biog. Laert. 
 Kircher, Des Cartes, and others, supposed that there 
 were many vast cavities under ground which have 
 a communication with each other, some of which 
 abound with water, others with exhalations, arising 
 from inflammable substances, as nitre, bitumen, 
 sulphur, &c. Dr. Stukeley and Dr. Priestley at- 
 tributed earthquakes to electricity. They are pro- 
 bably due to steam generated by subterraneous heat. 
 
 An elaborate Catalogue of earthquakes (from B.C.. 
 1606 to a.d. 1842), with commentaries on the phe- 
 nomena, by R. and J. "W. Mallet, was published 
 by the British Association in 1858. In i860 the* 
 velocity of then- propagation was estimated by Mr. 
 J. Brown at between 470 and 530 feet per second.* 
 
 One which made Buboea an island . . .b.c. 425-, 
 Helice and Bura in Peloponnesus swallowed up . 373 
 The chasm in the Boman Forum into which Quintus 
 
 Curtius leaped, was probably an earthquake . . 364. 
 Duras, in Greece, buried with all its inhabitants : 
 
 and 12 cities in Campania also buried . . . 345: 
 Lysimachia and its inhabitants buried about . . 283; 
 Ephesus and other cities overturned . .a.d. 17 
 One accompanied the eruption of Vesuvius when 
 
 Pompeii and Herculaneum were buried . . 79' 
 Four cities in Asia, two in Greece, and two in Ga- 
 
 latia overturned 105 or 106- 
 
 Antioch destroyed 115 
 
 Nicomedia, Csesarea, and Nicea overturned . . 126- 
 In Asia, Pontus, and ; Macedonia, 150 cities and 
 
 towns damaged 157- 
 
 Nieomedia again demolished, and its inhabitants 
 
 buried in its ruins 358: 
 
 One felt by nearly the whole world .... 543 
 At Constantinople ; its edifices destroyed, and thou- 
 sands perished 557 
 
 In Africa ; many cities overturned .... 560 
 Awful one in Syria, Palestine, and Asia ; more than 
 500 towns were destroyed, and the loss of life sur- 
 passed all calculation 742 
 
 In France, Germany, and Italy .... 8or 
 
 Constantinople overturned ; all Greece shaken . . 936 
 
 One felt throughout England 1089. 
 
 One at Antioch ; many towns destroyed . . . 1114. 
 Catania, in Sicily, overturned, and 15,000 persons 
 
 buried in the ruins 1137" 
 
 One severely felt at Lincoln 1142- 
 
 In Syria, <&c. , 20,000 perished 1158 
 
 At Calabria ; one of its cities and all its inhabitants 
 overwhelmed in the Adriatic sea . . Sept. 1186 
 
 In Cilicia, 60,000 perished 1268 
 
 One again felt throughout England ; Glastonbury 
 
 destroyed 1274. 
 
 In England ; the greatest known there . 14 Nov. 1318 
 At Naples ; 40,000 persons perished . 5 Dec. 1456 
 Constantinople ; thousands perished . . 14 Sept. 1509 
 At Lisbon ; 1500 houses and 30,000 persons buried 
 in the ruins ; several neighbouring towns engulfed, 
 
 26 Feb. 1531 
 One felt in London ; part of St. Paul's and the 
 
 Temple churches fell . . . .6 April, 1580 
 In Japan ; several cities made ruins, and thousands 
 
 perish 2 July, 1596 
 
 In Naples ; 30 towns or villages ruined ; 70,000 
 
 lives lost 30 July, 1626 
 
 Awful one at Calabria . . . .27 March, 1638 
 Bagusa ruined ; 5000 perished . . 6 April, 1667 
 
 At Schamaki, lasted 3 months ; 80,000 perished . ,, 
 At Rimini ; above 1500 perished . . 14 April, 1672 
 One severely felt at Dublin, &c. . . . 17 Oct. 1690 
 One at Jamaica, which totally destroyed Port Royal, 
 whose houses were engulfed 40 fathoms deep, and 
 
 3000 perished 7 June, 1692- 
 
 One in Sicily, which overturned 54 cities and towns, 
 and 300 villages ; of Catania and its 18,000 inhabi- 
 tants, not a trace remained ; more than 100,000 
 
 lives were lost Sept. 1693/. 
 
 Aquila, in Italy, ruined ; 5000 perished 2 Feb. 1703 
 
 Jeddo, Japan, ruined ; 200,000 perished . . . ,, 
 
 * Mrs. Somerville states that about 255 earthquakes 
 have occurred in the British Isles ; all slight. To avoid 
 the effects of a shock predicted by a madman, for the 8th. 
 of April, 1750, thousands of persons, particularly those 
 of rank and fortune, passed the night on the 7th in their- 
 carriages and in tents in Hyde-park. 
 
EARTHQUAKES. 
 
 222 
 
 EARTHQUAKES. 
 
 In the Abruzzi ; 15,000 perished . . 3 Nov. 1706 
 At Algiers ; 20,000 perished . . May & June, 1716 
 Palermo nearly destroyed ; nearly 6000 lives lost 
 
 I Sept. 1726 
 Again in China ; and 100,000 people swallowed up 
 
 atPekin 30 Nov. i 73I 
 
 In Naples, &c. ; 1940 perished . . .29 Nov. 1732 
 Lima and Callao demolished ; 18,000 persons buried 
 
 in the ruins 28 Oct. 1746 
 
 In London, &c., a slight shock . . . 19 Feb. 1750 
 Port-au-Prince, St. Domingo, ruined . 21 Nov. 1751 
 Adrianople nearly overwhelmed . . . 29 July, 1752 
 At Grand Cairo ; half of the houses and 40,000 
 persons swallowed up .... Sept. 1754 
 
 Quito destroyed April, 1755 
 
 Kaschan, N. Persia, destroyed ; 40,000 perished, 
 
 7 June, „ 
 •Great earthquake at Lisbon. In about eight minutes 
 most of the houses and upwards of 50,000 inhabi- 
 tants were swallowed up, and whole streets 
 buried. The cities of Coimbra, Oporto, and 
 Braga, suffered dreadfully, and St. Ubes was 
 wholly overturned. In Spain, a large part of 
 Malaga became ruins. One half of Fez, in Mo- 
 rocco, was destroyed, and more than 12,000 
 Arabs perished there. Above half of the island 
 of Madeira became waste ; and 2000 houses in the 
 island of Meteline, in the Archipelago, were over- 
 thrown. This awful earthquake extended 5000 
 miles ; even to Scotland 1 Nov. ,, 
 
 ■Comorn, Pesth, &c. , much damaged . 28 June, 1763 
 In Syria, extended over 10,000 square miles ; Baalbec 
 
 destroyed ; here 20,000 perished . . 30 Oct. 1759 
 At Martinico ; 1600 persons perished . . Aug. 1767 
 At Guatemala ; Santiago, with its inhabitants, 
 
 swallowed up 7 June, 1773 
 
 A destructive one at Smyrna . . 3 July, 1778 
 At Tauris ; 15,000 houses thrown down, and multi- 
 tudes buried 1780 
 
 Messina and other towns in Italy and Sicily over- 
 thrown : thousands perished ... 5 Feb. 1783 
 Ezinghian, near Erzeroum ; destroyed, and 5000 
 
 persons buried in its rains . . 23 July, 1784 
 .St. Lucia, W. Indies; 900 perished . . 12 Oct. 1788 
 At Borgo di San Sepolcro ; many houses and 1000 
 
 persons swallowed up 30 Sept. 1789 
 
 In Naples ; Vesuvius overwhelmed the city of 
 
 Torre del Greco June, 1794 
 
 The whole country between Santa Fe and Panama 
 destroyed, including Cuzco and Quito ; 40,000 
 people buried in one second . . 4 Feb. 1797 
 
 Cumana, S. America, rained . . .14 Dec. „ 
 .At Constantinople, which destroyed the royal palace, 
 
 and many buildings . . . .26 Sept. 1800 
 From Cronstadt to Constantinople . 26 Oct. 1802 
 
 A violent one felt in Holland . . end of Jan. 1804 
 At Frosolone, Naples ; 6000 lives lost . 26 July, 1805 
 At the Azores ; a village of St. Michael's sunk, 
 and a lake of boiling water appeared in its place, 
 
 II Aug. 1810 
 Awful one at Caracas (which see) . 26 March, 1812 
 Several throughout India ; district of Kutch sunk ; 
 
 2000 persons buried .... 16 June, 1819 
 -Genoa, Palermo, Rome, and many other towns 
 
 greatly damaged ; thousands perish . „ 
 
 Aleppo destroyed ; above 20,000 perish ; shocks on 
 
 10 & 13 Aug., and 5 Sept. 1822 
 Coast of Chili permanently raised . . 19 Nov. ,, 
 In Spain ; Murcia and numerous villages devastated ; 
 
 6000 persons perish . . . .21 March, 1829 
 •Canton and neighbourhood ; above 6000 perished, 
 
 26 & 27 May, 1830 
 In the duchy of Parma ; 40 shocks at Borgotaro ; 
 
 and at Pontremoli many houses thrown down, 
 
 14 Feb. 1834 
 ■Concepcion, &c, in Chili; destroyed . 20 Feb. 1835 
 In Calabria, Cosenza and villages destroyed ; 1000 
 
 persons buried 29 April, 1835 
 
 In Calabria ; 100 perish at Castiglione . 12 Oct. ,, 
 At Martinique ; nearly half of Port Royal destroyed : 
 
 nearly 700 persons killed, and the whole island 
 
 damaged « Jan. 1839 
 
 At Ternate ; the island made a waste, and thousands 
 
 of lives lost 14 Feb. 1840 
 
 Awful and destructive earthquake at mount Ararat, 
 
 in one of the districts of Armenia ; 3137 houses 
 
 were overthrown, and several hundred persons 
 
 perished 27 July. •> 
 
 Great earthquake at Zante, where many persons 
 
 perished 30 Oct. 1840 
 
 At Cape Haytien, St. Domingo, which destroyed 
 nearly two-thirds of the town ; between 4000 
 and 5000 lives were lost ... 7 May, 1842 
 At Point a Pitre, Guadaloupe, which was entirely 
 
 destroyed 8 Feb. 1843 
 
 At Rhodes and Macri, when a mountain fell in at 
 the latter place, crushing a village, and destroying 
 600 persons. . . . 28 Feb.— 7 March, 1851 
 At Valparaiso, where more than 400 houses wire 
 
 destroyed 2 April, ,, 
 
 In South Italy; Melfi almost laid in ruins; 14,000 
 
 lives lost 14 Aug. ,, 
 
 Philippine isles ; Manilla injured . 16-30 Sept. 1852 
 In N.W. of England, slight . . . 9 Nov. „ 
 Thebes, in Greece, nearly destroyed . . 18 Aug. 1853 
 St. Salvador, S. America, destroyed . 16 April, 1854 
 Anasaca, in Japan, and Simoda, in Niphon, de- 
 stroyed ; Jeddo much injured . . .23 Dec ,, 
 Broussa, in Turkey, nearly destroyed . 28 Feb. 1855 
 Several villages in Central Europe destroyed, 
 
 25, 26 July, „ 
 Jeddo, Japan, nearly destroyed . . 11 Nov. ,, 
 At the island of Great Sanger, one of the Moluccas, 
 volcanic eruption and earthquake ; nearly 3000 
 
 lives lost 2 March, 1836 
 
 In the Mediterranean : at Candia, 500 lives lost ; 
 
 Rhodes, 100; and other islands, 150 . 12 Oct. ,, 
 In Calabria,* Montemurro and other towns de- 
 stroyed, and about 10,000 lives lost . 16 Dec. 1857 
 Corinth nearly destroyed . . . .21 Feb. 1858 
 At Quito ; about 5000 persons killed, and an im- 
 mense amount of property destroyed, 22 March, 1859 
 Erzeroum, Asia Minor ; thousands perished, 
 
 2 June— 17 July, ,, 
 At San Salvador ; many buildings destroyed, no 
 
 lives lost 8 Dec. „ 
 
 In Cornwall, slight . . 21 Oct. 1859 ; 13 Jan. i860 
 In Perugia, Italy ; several lives lost . 8 May, 1861 
 At Mendoza, South America ; about two-thirds of 
 
 the city and 7000 lives lost . . 20 March, ,, 
 In Greece ; N. Morea, Corinth, and other places 
 
 injured 26 Dec. ,, 
 
 Guatemala : 150 buildings and 14 churches de- 
 stroyed ....... 19 Dec. 1862 
 
 Rhodes ; 13 villages destroyed, about 300 persons 
 perished, and much cattle and property lost, 
 
 22 April, 1863 
 Manilla, Philippine isles ; immense destruction of 
 
 property ; about 10,000 persons perish, 2, 3 July, ,, 
 Central, west, and north-west of England, at 
 
 3/1. 22 m. a.m. 6 Oct. „ 
 At Macchia, Bendinella, &c, Sicily; 200 houses 
 
 destroyed, 64 persons killed . . 18 July, 1865 
 Slight earthquake near Tours and Blois, in France, 
 
 14 Sept. 1866 
 Argostoli, Cephalonia ; above 50 perished, 4 Feb. 1867 
 At Mitylene ; about 1000 killed . 8, 9 March, ,, 
 Djoeja, Java ; above 400 perished ; town destroyed 
 
 10 June, ,, 
 The cities of Arequipa, Iquique, Tacna, and Chencha, 
 and many small towns in Peru and Ecuador 
 destroyed ; about 25,000 lives lost, and 30,000 
 rendered homeless ; loss of property estimated 
 at 60,000,000?. .... 13-15 Aug. 1868 
 
 [About ii,oooZ. collected in London to relieve the 
 
 sufferers.] 
 Slight earthquake in W. England and S. Wales ; 
 felt at Bath, Swansea, &c. . . .30 Oct. „ 
 
 In Santa Maura, an Ionian isle, the town Santa 
 Maura destroyed; about 17 persons perished, 
 
 28 Dec. 1869 
 At Quebec, not much damage . . .20 Oct. 1870 
 In Calabria ; several villages destroyed, early in 
 
 Oct, „ 
 N. W. England ; houses shaken, crockery broken, 
 evening, 17 March; slight shock in Yorkshire, 
 
 22 March, 1871 
 California ; several small towns destroyed ; about 
 
 30 killed 26, 27 March, 1872 
 
 Lehree, Eastern Catchi, Sind frontier, India, de- 
 stroyed ; about 500 killed . . 14, 15 Dec. ,, 
 
 * In the course of 75 years, from 1783 to 1857, the 
 kingdom of Naples lost, at least, 111,000 inhabitants by 
 the effects of earthquakes, or more than 1500 per year, 
 out of an average population of 6,000,000 ! 
 
EAST ANGLES. 
 
 223 
 
 EASTEEN EMPIEE. 
 
 EAST ANGLES, the sixth kingdom of the 
 Heptarchy, commenced by Uffa, 526; ended with 
 Ethelbert in 792; see Britain. The bishop's see 
 founded by St. Felix, who converted the East 
 Angles in 630, was eventually settled at Norwich 
 (which see) about 1094. 
 
 EASTEE, instituted about 68, the festival ob- 
 served by the church in commemoration of Our 
 Saviour's resurrection, so called in England from 
 the Saxon goddess JSostre, whose festival was in 
 April. After much contention between the eastern 
 and western, churches, it was ordained by the 
 council of Nice, 325, to be observed on the same 
 day throughout the whole Christian world. " Eas- 
 ter-day is the Sunday following that fourteenth 
 day of the calendar moon which happens upon or 
 next after the 21st March : so that, if the said four- 
 teenth day be a Sunday, Easter-day is not that 
 Sunday but the next." Easter-day may be any 
 day of the five weeks which commence with March 
 22 and end with April 25. The dispute between the 
 •old British church and the new Anglo-Saxon 
 church respecting Easter was settled about 664. — 
 Easter Sunday, 1873, 13 April; 1874, 5 April; 1875, 
 28 March. 
 
 EASTEE ISLAND, in the Pacific Ocean, 
 was discovered by Davis in 1686; if was visited by 
 Roggewein, April 1722, and from him obtained the 
 aiame it now bears ; it was visited by captain Cook, 
 March 1774. At the south-east extremity is the 
 •crater of an extinguished volcano, about two miles 
 in circuit and 800 feet deep. 
 
 EASTEEN 
 
 Greek Church. 
 
 (or GEEEK) Chuech, see 
 
 EASTEEN EMPIEE. After the death of 
 "the emperor Jovian, in Feb. 364, the generals at 
 Nice elected Valentinian as his successor ; who, in 
 June, made his brother Valens emperor of the West; 
 the final division was in 395, between the sons of 
 Theodosius. The eastern empire ended with the 
 capture of Constantinople, and death of Constan- 
 tine XIII. , 29 May, 1453 ; see Turkey. 
 
 Nestorius, the bishop, nominated the first patriarch 
 
 of Constantinople .... 9 July, 381 
 
 Theodosius the Great succours Valentinian II. , the 
 western emperor, and defeats the tyrant Maxi- 
 
 nms, at Aquileia 388 
 
 Valentinian II. slain by Arbogastes the Frank, who 
 
 makes Eugenius emperor 392 
 
 Eugenius defeated and slain by Theodosius, who 
 
 re-unites the two empires ... 6 Sept. 394 
 Death of Theodosius ; the empire finally divided 
 between his sons — Arcadius receives the east, 
 
 Honorius the west 17 Jan. 395 
 
 Constantinople walled by Theodosius II. . . 413 
 
 Alaric the Goth begins to ravage the empire . . ,, 
 Violent religious dissensions ; Theodosius II. estab- 
 lishes schools, and revives learning . . . 425 
 The Theodosian code promulgated . . . . 438 
 The councils of Ephesus, 431, 449 ; of Chalcedon . 451 
 Frequent sanguinary conflicts between the Blues 
 and Greens, circus factions at Constantinople, 498-520 
 
 The Justinian code published 529 
 
 "War with Persia ; beginning of the victorious career 
 
 of Belisarius, the imperial general . . 529-531 
 He suppresses the "Nika" ("conquer") insurrec- 
 tion of the circus factions ; 30,000 Greens slain, 
 
 and Constantinople burnt 532 
 
 Dedication of St. Sophia 537 
 
 Victories of Belisarius in Africa, Italy, and the East 
 
 533-541 
 Recalled through Justinian's jealousy, 542 ; again, 
 
 548 ; again, 549 ; disgraced . . 562 
 
 Beginning of the Turkish power iu Asia . . . 545 
 'The Slavonians ravage Illyria 551 
 
 Narses defeats Totila and the Goths near Rome . . 552 
 Death of Belisarius, aged 84 ; of Justinian (83) . 565 
 Victories of Maurice and Narses in the East, 579 et seq. 
 
 Disaffection of Narses 561 
 
 Severe contests with the Avars .... 594-620 
 Narses burnt at Constantinople .... 606 
 The flight(Hejira)of Mahomet from Mecca to Medina, 
 where he establishes himself as a prophet and 
 Prince .... 16 July, 622 
 
 Victorious career of Heraclius II. . . . 622 et seq. 
 He recovers his lost territories . - . . . . 627 
 The Saracens invade the empire, 632 ; defeat Hera- 
 clius at Aiznadin, 633 ; at Yermuk, 636 ; take 
 Alexandria, 640; and the Greek provinces in 
 
 Africa 648 
 
 Constans purchases peace with them .... 660 
 They besiege Constantinople seven times . 672-677 
 The Bulgarians establish a kingdom in Mossia (now 
 Bulgaria), 678 ; they ravage the country up to 
 
 Constantinople 711 
 
 The Saracens vainly invest Constantinople, 716, 718 ; 
 
 defeated y 2 o 
 
 Leo III. the Isaurian, forbids the worship of 
 images : (this leads to the Iconoclast contro- 
 versy, and eventually to the separation of the 
 
 eastern and western churches) 726 
 
 A great invading Arab force (90,000) defeated by 
 
 Acronius 7 ja 
 
 The monasteries dissolved 770 
 
 Destruction of images throughout the empire de- 
 creed, 754 ; image-worship restored by the empress 
 Irene (for which she was canonized) . . . 787 
 The empire loses the exarchate of Italy, 752 ; Dal- 
 
 matia, 825 ; Sicily and Crete . . . . . §27 
 Image-worship persecuted, 830 ; restored, 842 ; for- 
 bidden at Constantinople by one council, 869 ; 
 
 restored by another 879 
 
 South Italy annexed to the empire . . . . 890 
 Five emperors reigning at one time .... 928 
 
 Naples added to the empire 
 
 Basil subdues the Bulgarians .... 987, io'i4 
 Bulgaria annexed to the empire . . ... 1018 
 
 The Turks invade Asia Minor 1068 
 
 The Normans conquer South Italy . . . . 1080 
 The first crusade ; Alexis I. recovers Asia . . 1097 
 The Venetians victorious over the Greeks . . . 1125 
 The Hungarians repelled, 1152 ; peace made with 
 
 the Normans in Sicily n 5 6 
 
 Wars with the Turks and the Venetians . . .1172 
 
 Cyprus lost to the empire ngo 
 
 The fourth crusade begins 1202 
 
 Revolt of Alexis against his brother Isaac ; the 
 crusaders take Constantinople, and restore Isaac 
 and his son Alexis IV. 19 July, 1203 
 
 Alexis Ducas murders Alexis IV. and usurps the 
 throne ; the crusaders take Constantinople, kill 
 Alexis, and establish the Latin empire, under 
 Baldwin, count of Flanders ... 9 May, 1204 
 Empire of Nice founded by Theodore Lascaris . „ 
 Kingdom of Epirus and iEtolia established . . 1208 
 Constantinople recovered, and the empire re-estab- 
 lished by Michael Palseologus . . 25 July, 1261 
 Establishment of the Turkish empire in Asia, under 
 
 Othman 1 1299 
 
 The Genoese trade in the Black sea .... 1303 
 The Turks ravage Mysia, &c, 1340 and 1345; and 
 
 settle in the coast of Thrace 1353 
 
 The sultan Amurath takes Adrianople, and makes 
 it his capital, 1362 ; and, by treaty, greatly re- 
 duces the emperor's territories .... 1373 
 All the Greek possessions in Asia lost . . . 1390 
 Sultan Bajazet defeats the Christians under Sigis- 
 
 mund of Hungary, at Nicopolis . 28 Sept. 1396 
 The emperor Manuel vainly solicits help from the 
 
 western sovereigns 1400 
 
 A Turkish pacha established at Athens . . . 1401 
 The Greek empire made tributary to Timour, 1402 ; 
 who subjugates the Turkish sultan, and dismem- 
 bers his empire, 1403 ; death of Timour, on his 
 
 way to China 1405 
 
 Dissension amongst the Turks defers the fall of 
 Constantinople, 1403-12 ; Mahomet I. aided by 
 the emperor Mann oh becomes sultan . . . 1413 
 Amurath II. in vain h sieges Constantinople, 1422 ; 
 
 peace made . . - 1425 
 
 John PalEeologus visits Rome and other places, 
 
 soliciting help in vain 1437-40 
 
 Accession of Constantine XIII., last emperor . 1448 
 
EASTERN EMPIRE. 
 
 221 
 
 EAST LONDON MUSEUM. 
 
 Accession of Mahomet II. 1451 ; begins the siege of 
 Constantinople, 6 April ; takes it . 29 May, 1453 
 
 (He granted the Christians personal security ami 
 free exercise of their religion. ) See Tu rhey. 
 
 EMPERORS OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE. 
 
 364. Valens. 
 
 379. Theodosius I. the Great. 
 
 395. Arcadius, the son of Theodosius. 
 
 408. Theodosius II. succeeded his father. 
 
 450. Marcian, a Thracian of obscure family. 
 
 457. Leo I. the Thracian. 
 
 474. Leo II. the Younger, died the same year. 
 
 ,, Zeno, called the Isaurian. 
 491. Anastasius I. an Illyrian, of mean birth. 
 518. Justin I. originally a private soldier. 
 527. Justinian I. founder of the Digest. 
 565. Justin II. nephew of Justinian. 
 578. Tiberius II. renowned for his virtues. 
 582. Maurice, the Cappadocian : murdered with all his 
 
 children, by his successor, 
 602. Phocas, the Usurper, a centurion, whose crimes 
 and cruelties led to his own assassination in 
 610. 
 610. Heraclius, by whom Phocas was dethroned. 
 641. (Heracleonas) Constantine III. reigned a few 
 months ; poisoned by his step-mother Martina. 
 „ Constans II. ; assassinated in a bath 
 6fi8. Constantine III. (or IV.) Pogonatus. 
 
 Justinian II. son of the preceding; abhorred for 
 his exactions, debaucheries, and cruelties : de- 
 throned and mutilated by his successor. 
 Leontius : dethroned and mutilated by Tiberius 
 Aspimar. 
 698. Tiberius III. Aspimar. 
 
 705. Justinian II. restored. Leontius and Tiberius 
 degraded in the Hippodrome, and put to death. 
 Justinian slain in 711. 
 Fhilippicus-Bardanes : assassinated. 
 Anastasius II. : fled on the election of Theodosius 
 in 716 ; afterwards delivered up to Leo III. and 
 put to death. 
 716. Theodosius III. 
 718. Leo III. the Isaurian. 
 
 [In this reign (726) commences the great Icono- 
 clastic controversy; the alternate prohibition and 
 restoration of images involves the -peace of 
 several reigns.] 
 741. Constantine IV. (or V.) Copronymus, son of the 
 
 preceding : succeeded by his son. 
 775. Leo IV. 
 
 780. Constantine V. (or VI.) and his mother Irene. 
 790. Constantine, alone, by the desire of the people, 
 
 Irene having become unpopular. 
 792. Irene again, jointly with her son, and afterwards 
 alone, 797 ; deposed for her cruelties and mur- 
 ders, and exiled. 
 802. Nicephorus I. Logothetes : slain. 
 811. Stauraeius : reigns a few days only. 
 
 Michael I. : defeated in battle, abdicates the 
 throne, and retires to a monastery. 
 813. Leo V. the Armenian : killed in the temple at Con- 
 stantinople on Christmas-day, 820, by conspira- 
 tors in the interest of his successor, 
 820. Michael II. the Stammerer. 
 829. Theophilus, son of Michael. 
 
 842. Michael III. Porphyrogenitus, and the Sot, son of 
 the preceding ; murdered by his successor, 
 Basil I. the Macedonian. 
 Leo VI. the Philosopher. 
 
 Alexander and Constantine VI. (or VII.) Porphy- 
 rogenitus, brother and son of Leo, the latter 
 only six years of age ; the former dying in 912, 
 Zoe, mother of Constantine, assumes the re- 
 gency. 
 Bomanus Lecapenus, usurper, associates with 
 him his sons : 
 920. Christopher, and 
 928. Stephen and Constantine VII. (or VIII.) 
 
 [Five emperors now reign : Christopher dies, 
 931 ; Bomanus exiled by his sons Constantine 
 and Stephen, who are themselves banished the 
 next year. ] 
 945. Constantine VII. (or VIII.) reigns alone : poisoned 
 
 by his daughter-in-law, Theophania, 959. 
 959. Bomanus II. son of preceding: contrived his 
 
 father's death : banished his mother, Helena. 
 963. Nicephorus II. Phocas : married Theophwiia. his 
 
 685. 
 
 69 
 
 711 
 7*3 
 
 867. 
 886. 
 911. 
 
 919. 
 
 predecessor's consort, who has him assassi- 
 nated. 
 969. John I. Zimisces, celebrated general ; takes 
 Basil II. and Constantine VIII. (or IX.), sons of 
 Bomanus II. , as colleagues ; John dies, supposed 
 by poison, and 
 976. Basil II. and Constantine VIII. reign alone : the 
 former dies in 1025 ; the latter in 1028. 
 
 1028. Bomanus III. Argyropulus : poisoned by his pro- 
 fligate consort Zoe, who raises 
 
 1034. Michael IV. the Paphlagonian, to the throne : on 
 his death Zoe places 
 
 1041. Michael V. Calaphates, as his successor: Zoe 
 
 dethrones him, has his eyes put out, and 
 marries 
 
 1042. Constantine IX. (or X.) Monomachus, and Zoe 
 
 reign jointly : Zoe dies, 1050. 
 1054. Theodora, widow of Constantine. 
 
 1056. Michael VI. Stratiotes, orStrato: deposed. 
 
 1057. Isaac I. Comnenus : abdicates. 
 1059. Constantine X. (or XI.) Ducas. 
 
 1067. Eudocia, consort of the preceding, and Bomanus; 
 
 IV. Diogenes, whom she marries, reign to the 
 
 prejudice of Michael, Constantine's son. 
 1071. Michael VII. Parapinaces, recovers his throne, and 
 
 reigns jointly with Constantine XI. (or XII.) 
 1078. Nicephorus III. ; dethroned by 
 108 1. Alexis or Alexius I. Comnenus, succeeded by 
 1 1 18. John Comnenus, his son Kalos: died of a wound 
 
 from a poisoned arrow. 
 1143. Manuel I. Comnenus, son of John. 
 1180. Alexis II. Comnenus, son of the preceding, under 
 
 the regency of the empress Maria, his mother. 
 1183. Andronicus I. Comnenus, causes Alexis to be 
 
 strangled, and seizes the throne ; put to- 
 
 death by 
 1185. Isaac II. Angelus-Comnenus, who is deposed, im- 
 prisoned, and deprived of his eyes by his 
 
 brother, 
 1195. Alexis III. Angelus, the Tyrant: deposed, and his 
 
 eyes put out ; died in a monastery. 
 
 1203. Isaac II. again, with his son, Alexis IV. ; deposed. 
 
 1204. Alexis V. Ducas, murders Alexis IV. ; is killed by 
 
 the crusaders. 
 
 LATIN EMPERORS. 
 
 1204. Baldwin I. earl of Flanders, on the capture of 
 Constantinople by the Latins, elected emperor ; 
 made a prisoner by the king of Bulgaria, and 
 never heard of afterwards. 
 1206. Henry I. his brother : dies in 1217. 
 1216. Peter de Courtenay, his brother-in-law. 
 Bobert de Courtenay, his son. 
 Baldwin II. his brother, a minor, and John de 
 Brienne, of Jerusalem, regent and associate 
 emperor. 
 [Constantinople recovered, and the empire of the 
 Franks or Latins terminates.] 
 
 GREEK EMPERORS AT NICE. 
 
 1204. Theodore Lasearis I. 
 1222. John Ducas Vataces. 
 1255. Theodore Lasearis II., his son. 
 
 John Lasearis, and (1260) Michael VIII. Palie- 
 ologus. 
 
 GREEK EMPERORS AT CONSTANTINOPLE. 
 
 Michael VIII. now at Constantinople : puts out 
 the eyes of John, and reigns alone. 
 
 Andronicus II. Paheologus the Elder, son of pre- 
 ceding: deposed by 
 
 Andronicus III. the Younger, his grandson. 
 
 John Palseologus I. under the guardianship of 
 John Cantacuzenus : the latter proclaimed em- 
 peror at Adrianople. 
 1347. John Cantacuzenus abdicates. 
 1355. John Palseologus I. restored. 
 
 Manuel II. Pakeologus, his son : succeeded by his 
 son and colleague. 
 
 John Palseologus II. The throne elaimed by his 
 three brothers. 
 1448. Constantine Palseologus XII. (XIII. or XIV. (some 
 of the other emperors being called Constantine 
 by some writers) killed, when Constantinople 
 was taken, 29 May, 1453. 
 
 EAST INDIES, see India. 
 EAST LONDON MUSEUM, see Bethnal 
 Green. 
 
 1221 
 1228 
 
 1261. 
 
 1259- 
 
 1261. 
 
 .328. 
 1341- 
 
 1391. 
 
 1425. 
 
EAST SAXONS. 
 
 225 
 
 ECLIPSES. 
 
 EAST SAXONS, see Britain, p. in. 
 
 EBELIANS, a German revivalist sect, which 
 began at Konigsberg in Prussia, about 1836, its 
 leaders being archdeacon Ebel and Dr. Diestel, 
 who were tried and condemned for unsound doc- 
 trine and impure lives in 1839. The sentence was 
 annulled in 1842, it is said by royal influence. The 
 sect is popularly termed "Mucker," German for 
 hypocrites. Their theory and practice of spiritual 
 marriage is described by Mr. Hepworth Dixon in 
 his " Spiritual Wives," 1868. 
 
 EBIONITES, heretics, in the 1st century, a 
 branch of the Nazarenes, were of two kinds : one 
 believed that our Saviour was born of a virgin, 
 observed all the precepts of the Christian religion, 
 but added the ceremonies of the Jews ; the other 
 believed that Christ was born after the manner of 
 all mankind, and denied his divinity. Photinus 
 revived the sect in 342. 
 
 EBONITE (vulcanised india-rubber), see 
 Caoutchouc. 
 
 EBBO, a river in Spain — the scene of a signal 
 defeat of the Spaniards by the French, under 
 Lannes, near Tudela, 23 Nov. 1808 ; and also of 
 several important movements of the allied British 
 and Spanish armies during the Peninsular war 
 (1809-1813). 
 
 ECCLESIASTICAL COMMISSIONS: 
 
 appointed by queen Elizabeth, 1584; by James I. 
 in Scotland, 161 7; by the English parliament in 
 1641 ; and by James II. to coerce the universities 
 in 1687. The present Ecclesiastical Commissioners 
 (bishops, deans, and laymen) for the management 
 of church property, were appointed in Feb. 1835 > 
 incorporated in 1836 ; and their proceedings regu- 
 lated in 1840 and 1841. The law relating to Iheni 
 was amended in 1868. 
 
 . ECCLESIASTICAL COUETS. There ex- 
 isted no distinction between lay and ecclesiastical 
 courts in England until 1085, after the Norman con- 
 quest ; see birches and Consistory Courts. Till the 
 establishment of the Divorce and Probate courts 
 {which see) in 1857, the following were the causes 
 cognisable in ecclesiastical courts : blasphemy, 
 apostasy from Christianity, heresy, schism, ordina- 
 tions, institutions, to benefices, matrimony, divorces, 
 bastardy, tithes, incest, fornication, adultery, pro- 
 bate of wills, administrations, &c. 
 
 ECCLESIASTICAL DILAPIDA- 
 TIONS, law respecting amended, by acts passed 
 in 1871 and 1872. 
 
 ECCLESIASTICAL GAZETTE, Church 
 of England semi-official journal ; sent gratuitously 
 to all dignitaries and incumbents ; established 10 
 July, 1838. 
 
 ECCLESIASTICAL STATE, or States 
 OF THE Church:, see Rome, Modern. 
 
 ECCLESIASTICAL TITLES ACT, 14 & 
 
 15 Vict. c. 60(1851), repealed 24 July, 1871; see 
 Papal Aggression. 
 
 ECHO. The time which elapses between the 
 utterance of a sound and its return must be more 
 than one-twelfth of a second, to form an echo. 
 The whispering gallery of St. Paul's is a well- 
 known example. The Echo, independent evening 
 paper, price \d., established Dec. 1868. 
 
 ECKMUHL (Bavaria), the site of a battle 
 between the main armies of France (75,000) and 
 
 Austria (40,000); Napoleon and marshal Davoust 
 (hence prince d'Eckmuhl) defeated the archduke 
 Charles, 22 April, 1809. 
 
 ECLECTICS (from Greek, eklego, I choose), 
 ancient philosophers (called Analogetici, and also 
 Philalethes, the lovers of truth), who, without 
 attaching themselves to any sect, chose what 
 they judged good from each : of them was Potamon 
 of Alexandria, about a.d. i. Also a Christian sect, 
 who considered the doctrine of Plato conformable 
 to the spirit of Christianity. 
 
 ECLIPSE (the race-horse), see Races. 
 
 ECLIPSES. Their revolution was calculated 
 by Calippus, the Athenian, 336 B.C. The Egyptians 
 said they had accurately observed 373 eclipses of 
 the sun, and 832 of the moon, in the period from 
 Vulcan to Alexander, who died 323 b.c. The 
 theory of eclipses is said to have been known to 
 the Chinese before 120 B.C. The first eclipse re- 
 corded happened 19 March, 721 B.C., at 8A. 40m. 
 p.m., according to Ptolemy; it was lunar, and was 
 observed with accuracy at Babylon. A list of 
 eclipses to the year 2000 is given in ^ L' Art de 
 Verifier les Dates." 
 
 ECLIPSES OF THE SUN. 
 
 The Nineveh eclipse (recorded, according to sir 
 Henry Rawlinson, on a Nineveh tablet in the 
 
 British Museum) IS j une< ? q 3 
 
 That predicted by Thales ; see Halys (Pliny, Mb. 
 ii. 9), believed to have occurred . 28 May, 585 
 [Sir G. B. Airy thinks the date should be 610 : 
 others say 603 or 584 b. c. It is the one recorded 
 by Herodotus as interrupting a battle between 
 the Medes and Lydians.] 
 Eclipse of Xerxes, when setting out on his expedi- 
 tion against Greece .... 17 Feb. 478 
 One at Athens (Thucydides, lib. iv.) . . . 424 
 
 Eclipse of Agathoeles (Airy) . . . 15 Aug. 310 
 Total one: three days' supplication decreed at 
 
 Rome (Livy) z gg 
 
 One general at the death of Jesus Christ (Joseplius) 
 
 a.d. 3 April, 33 
 One observed at Constantinople .... g68 
 At the battle of Sticklestadt . . 29 July, 1030 
 In France, when it was dark at noon-day (Du 
 
 Fresnoy) 29 June, 1033 
 
 In England: a total darkness (IF. Malmsb.), 20 Mar. 1140 
 Again; the stars visible at ten in the morning 
 
 (Camden) 23 June, 1191 
 
 The true sun, and the appearance of another, so 
 that astronomers alone could distinguish the 
 difference by coloured glasses . . . ,, 
 
 Observed in Scotland; termed the "black hour" 
 
 7 June. 1433 
 Observed in Scotland; termed "Mirk Monday" 
 
 8 April, 1652 
 Total eclipse, visible in England ; the darkness so 
 
 great that the stars shone, and the birds went to 
 
 roost at noon 3 May, 1715 
 
 Last total eclipse observed in England ; seen near 
 
 Salisbury 22 May, 1724 
 
 Remarkable one, central and annular in the interior 
 
 of Europe 7 Sept. 1802 
 
 Total eclipses— 17 July, 1833; 8 July, 1842; 28 
 
 July, 1851. 
 An annular eclipse ; it was seen and photographed 
 at Oundle; but not seen well at other places 
 
 15 March, i8s8 
 Total eclipse of the sun ; well seen by Sir G. B, 
 Airy, astronomer royal, and others in Spain; 
 Mr. Warren De la Rue took photographs, 18 July, i860 
 Total eclipse of the sun of the longest possible dura- 
 tion ; (the Royal Society provided means for its 
 observation in India, by col. Walker, Mr. Herschel, 
 and others) . .... 18 Aug. t868 
 
 During the solar eclipse, 18 Aug. 1868, as observed 
 in India, M. Janssen invented a method of study- 
 ing the phenomena of the sun at any time, by 
 employing several spectroscopes, whereby the 
 spectrum is lengthened and the dazzling bril- 
 liancy diminished. Mr. Joseph Norman Lockyer 
 
 Q, 
 
ECNOMUS. 
 
 226 
 
 EDINBURGH. 
 
 had suggested a similar method of observation 
 in 1866, hut did not use it till 20 Oct. 1868, being 
 then not aware of M. Janssen's discovery. 
 
 The solar eclipse well observed in North America, 
 
 7 Aug. 1869 
 
 Two expeditions to observe the solar eclipse of 
 22 Dec. 1870, sent out by the British government, 
 were not successful .... 22 Dec. 1870 
 
 The solar eclipse well observed at Ceylon and in 
 southern India . . . . .12 Dec. 1871 
 [The same eclipses (about 70) recur in a period of 
 18 years ioJ- days.] 
 
 Except the total eclipse, 12 Aug. 1999, there can be 
 no total eclipse of the sun visible in England for 
 250 years : July, 1871. Hind. 
 
 OF THE MOON. 
 
 The first, observed by the Chaldeans at Babylon 
 
 (Ptolemy iv.) B.C. 721 
 
 A total one observed at Sardis (Thucydides vii.) . 413 
 
 Again, in Asia Minor ( PolyHus) 219 
 
 One at Rome, predicted by Q. Sulpitius Gallus 
 
 (Livy xliv.) 168 
 
 One terrified the Roman troops and quelled their 
 revolt (Tacitxis) a.d. 14 
 
 ECNOMUS, see Himera. 
 
 ECOLE POLYTECHNIQUE, a military 
 academy at Paris, established in 1794, an< ^ reor- 
 ganised and given its present name on 1 Sept. 
 1795. The "Journal" (1795-1867) contains pro- 
 found mathematical papers. The school was reor- 
 ganised 4 Sept. 1816. The pupils helped to defend 
 Paris in 18 14 and 1830. 
 
 ECONOMIC MUSEUM (or Museum of 
 Domestic and Sanitary Economy), at Twickenham, 
 open free, was established chiefly by the agency 
 of Mr. Thos. Twining, in i860. It originated from 
 the Paris exhibition of 1855. 
 
 ECONOMIST, London weekly journal, de- 
 voted to financial matters, first appeared 2 Sept. 
 1843. 
 
 ECORCHEURS (Flayers), hands of armed 
 adventurers who desolated France and Belgium 
 during the 15th century, beginning about 14315. 
 Amongst their leaders were Chabannes, comte de 
 Dammartin, the bastard of Armagnac, and Vil- 
 landras ; and they at one time numbered 100,000. 
 They are said to have stripped their victims to their 
 shirts, and flayed the cattle. They were favoured 
 by the English invasion and the civil wars. 
 
 ECUADOR, see Equator. 
 
 EDDAS, or Grandmothers, two books 
 
 (prose and verse) containing the Scandinavian 
 mythology (or history of Odin, Thor, Frea, &c), 
 •written about the nth or 12th centuries. Transla- 
 tions have been made into French, English, &c. 
 MSS. of the Eddas exist at Copenhagen and Upsal. 
 
 EDDYSTONE (or Edystone) LIGHT- 
 HOUSE, off the port of Plymouth, erected by 
 the Trinity-house to enable ships to avoid the 
 Eddystone rock. The first lighthouse was com- 
 menced under Mr. Winstanley, in 1696 ; finished 
 in 1699; and destroyed in the dreadful tempest 
 of 27 Nov. 1703, when Mr. Winstanley and others 
 perished. It was rebuilt by act of parliament, and 
 all ships were ordered to pay one penny per ton 
 inwards and outwards towards supporting it, 
 1708. This lighthouse was burnt 4 Dec' 1755; 
 and one on a better plan, erected by Mr. Smeaton, 
 finished 9 Oct. 1759. The woodwork of this, burnt 
 in 1770, was replaced by stone. 
 
 EDESSA (now Orfah), a town in Mesopo- 
 tamia, said by some, to have been built by Nimrod ; 
 by Appian, to have been built by Seleucus. It be- 
 
 came famous for its schools of theology in the 5th 
 century. It was made a principality by the crusa- 
 ders, and was taken by the Saracens, 1 145; by 
 Nur-ed-deen, in 1 144; and the Turks in 1184. Its 
 ancient kings or rulers were named Abgarus and 
 Mannus. 
 
 EDGECOTE, see Banbury. 
 
 EDGEHILL FIGHT (23 Oct. 1642), War- 
 wickshire, between the royalists under prince Ru- 
 pert and the parliament army under the earl of 
 Essex, was the first important engagement in the 
 civil war. Charles I. was present, and the earl of 
 Lindsay, who headed the royal foot, was mortall)' 
 wounded. The king lost 5000 dead. The action 
 was indecisive, though the parliament claimed the 
 victory. 
 
 EDICTS, public ordinances and decrees, 
 usually set forth by sovereigns ; originated with 
 the Romans. The Perpetual Edict : Salvius 
 Julianus, of Milan, a civilian at Rome (author of 
 several treatises on public right), was employed by 
 the emperor Adrian to draw up this body of law's 
 for the praetors, promulgated 132. 
 
 EDICT OF NANTES, by which Henry IV. of 
 France granted toleration to his protestant subjects, 
 13 April, 1598, was confirmed by Louis XIII. in 
 1610, and by Louis XIV. in 16^2. It was revoked 
 by Louis XIV. 22 Oct. 1685. This act cost France 
 50,000 Protestant families, and gave to England 
 and Germany thousands of industrious artisans. 
 It also caused a fierce insurrection in Languedoc. 
 See Camisards. Some of the refugees settled in Spital- 
 fields, where their descendants yet remain; others 
 settled in Soho and St. Giles's, and pursued the art 
 pf making crystal glasses, and carried on the silk 
 manufacture and jewellery ; then little understood 
 in England. 
 
 EDINBURGH, the metropolis of Scotland, 
 derives its name — in ancient records Dun Edin, 
 "the hill of Edin" — from its castle, founded or 
 rebuilt by Edwin, king of Northumbria, who, 
 having greatly extended his dominions, erected it 
 for the protection of his newly acquired territories 
 from the incursions of the Scots and Picts, 626. 
 But it is said the castle was first built by Camelon, 
 king of the Picts, 330 B.C. It makes a conspicuous 
 appearance, standing at the west end of the town, 
 on a rock 300 feet high, and, before the use of great 
 guns, was a fortification of considerable strength. 
 
 Christianity introduced (reign of Donald I.) . . 201 
 Edinburgh taken by the Anglo-Saxons . . . 482 
 
 Taken by the Picts . . ' 
 
 City fortified, and castle rebuilt by Malcolm 
 
 Canmore 
 
 Besieged by Donald Bain 
 
 Holyrood abbey founded by David I 
 
 Edinburgh constituted a burgh . . about 
 Castle surrendered to Henry II. of England . . 
 A parliament held here under Alexander II. . 
 
 City taken by the English 
 
 Grant of the town of Leith to Edinburgh 
 
 Surrenders to Edward III 
 
 St. Giles's cathedral built 
 
 City burnt by Richard II., 1385 ; and by Henry IV. 
 James II. first king crowned here . . . . 
 
 Execution of the earl of Athol 
 
 Annual fair granted by James II 
 
 City strengthened by a wall 
 
 Charter of James III . . 
 
 Edinburgh made the metropolis by James III. 
 Royal College of Surgeons incorporated . . . 
 Charter of James IV 
 
 [The palace of Holyrood is built in the reign of 
 James IV. 1 
 High school founded, about . . 1518 
 
 685 
 
 1074 
 1093 
 1128 
 1128 
 1174 
 1215 
 1296 
 1329 
 1356 
 1359 
 1401 
 
 M37 
 
 1447 
 1450 
 
 1477 
 148* 
 iS°5 
 1508 
 
EDINBURGH. 
 
 227 
 
 EDINBURGH UNIVERSITY. 
 
 A British force, landing from a fleet of 200 ships, 
 burns both Edinburgh and Leith . . May, 
 
 Leith is again burnt, but Edinburgh is spared 
 
 Tolbooth built 
 
 Marriage of queen Mary and lord Darnley 
 
 David Rizzio murdered 
 
 Lord Darnley blown up in a private house by gun- 
 powder . . ... . . .10 Feb. 
 
 Mary marries James, earl of Bothwell 15 May, 
 
 Mary's forced resignation ; civil war 
 
 Death of John Knox 
 
 University chartered ; see Ed. University 14 April, 
 
 Bothwell's attempt on Holyrood-house 27 Dec. 
 
 Riot in the city ; the mob attacks the king . 
 
 James VI. leaves Edinburgh as king of England, 
 5 April, 1603 ; he revisits it . . .16 May, 
 
 George Heriot's hospital founded by his will . 
 
 Charles I. visits Edinburgh .... June, 
 
 Biots in Greyfriars church at the reading the 
 English Liturgy 23 July, 
 
 Parliament house finished 
 
 Charles again visits the city 
 
 The castle is surrendered to Cromwell . Dec. 
 
 ' ' Merourius Caledonius, " first Edinburgh newspaper, 
 
 appeared 
 
 Coffee-houses first opened 
 
 Merchants' Company incorporated .... 
 
 College of Physicians incorporated . . . . 
 
 Earl of Argyll beheaded . . . .30 June, 
 
 African and East India Company incorporated 
 
 Bank of Scotland founded 
 
 Union of the kingdoms 
 
 Boyal bank founded 
 
 Board of trustees of trade and manufactures 
 appointed 
 
 Royal Infirmary incorporated 
 
 Affair of Captain Porteous (see Porteous) 7 Sept. 
 
 Medical Society instituted 
 
 The young Pretender occupies Holyrood 17 Sept. 
 
 Battle of Preston Pans . . . .21 Sept. 
 
 Modern improvements, "New town," commenced . 
 
 Magistrates assigned gold chains 
 
 Royal Exchange completed 
 
 Foundation of the North Bridge . . . 21 Oct. 
 
 Theatre Royal erected 
 
 Great fire in the Lawn-market 
 
 Register-office, Princes-street, commenced . . . 
 
 Calton-hill observatory founded . . 25 July, 
 
 Great commotion against popery . . .2 Feb. 
 
 Society of Antiquaries 
 
 Royal Society of Edinburgh incorporated 
 
 1544 
 1547 
 1561 
 1565 
 1566 
 
 1567 
 
 1570 
 1572 
 1582 
 
 I59 1 
 1596 
 
 1617 
 1624 
 J 633 
 
 1637 
 1640 
 1641 
 1650 
 
 1677 
 
 1685 
 i695 
 
 1707 
 1727 
 
 1736 
 
 1737 
 1745 
 
 1753 
 1754 
 1761 
 1763 
 1769 
 1771 
 1774 
 1776 
 1779 
 1780 
 
 Aug. 1785 
 
 16 Nov. 
 11 June, 
 
 South Bridge commenced 
 Royal College of Surgeons incorporated 
 First stone of present university laid 
 Robertson, the historian, dies here 
 
 Bridewell, Calton-hill, erected 
 
 Holyrood, an asylum to Louis XVIII. and his 
 
 brother, afterwards Charles X. . . 1795 to 
 New Bank of Scotland commenced . . 3 June, 
 " Edinburgh Review " first published . 10 Oct. 
 New system of police established . . . . 
 
 Alarming riots here 31 Dec. 
 
 Nelson's monument completed 
 
 Gas company incorporated 
 
 Water company incorporated 
 
 Professor Playfair dies . . .20 July, 
 
 Society of Arts instituted 
 
 Union Canal completed 
 
 George IV. 's visit; foundation of the national 
 
 monument 15-27 Aug. 
 
 Royal Institution erected 
 
 Destructive fires .... June and Nov. 
 
 Scottish Academy founded 
 
 Lord Melville's monument erected 
 
 Edinburgh and Dalkeith railway opened . July, 1831 
 
 Statue of George IV. erected 1832 
 
 Death of sir Walter Scott . . .21 Sept. ,, 
 
 Chambers's Edinburgh Journal published 
 
 Association of the Fine Arts 
 
 The British Association meets here . . 8 Sept. 
 Edinburgh and Granton railway begun . . . 
 
 Art-union of Scotland 
 
 Monument to sir Walter Scott commenced . . . 
 Society of Arts, founded 1821 ; incorporated . 
 Edinburgh and Glasgow railway opened . Feb. 
 Queen Victoria visits Edinburgh, &c, 31 Aug.- 
 
 15 Sept. 
 
 1793 
 1796 
 
 1799 
 1801 
 1802 
 1805 
 1811 
 1815 
 1818 
 1819 
 
 1821 
 1822 
 
 1823 
 1824 
 1826 
 1828 
 
 1833 
 1834 
 1836 
 1837 
 
 Secession, and formation of the Free Church, 
 
 18 May, 1843 
 
 New College instituted „ 
 
 North British railway commenced . . . . 1844 
 The monument to the political martyrs of 1793-4, 
 
 laid by Mr. Hume 21 Aug. „ 
 
 Walter Scott's monument completed . . . 1845 
 N. British railway opened . . . 18 June, 1846 
 British Association (2nd time) meets . 31 July, 1850 
 The queen again visits Edinburgh . 29 Aug. ,, 
 
 Prince Albert lays the foundation-stone of the 
 
 Scotch national gallery . . . .30 Aug. ,, 
 Meeting to vindicate Scottish rights . 2 Nov. 1853 
 
 Old buildings near Lawn-market burnt . 5 Aug. 1857 
 Act passed for building new Post-office . . July, 1858 
 National gallery opened ... 21 March, 1859 
 Agitation against Ministers' Annuity tax . Sept. ,, 
 Lord Brougham elected chancellor of the university, 
 
 Edinburgh 1 Nov. „ 
 
 Ministers' tax abolished, and other arrangements 
 made which did not give satisfaction : riots 
 
 ensued Nov. i860 
 
 20,000 volunteers reviewed by the queen in Queen's 
 
 Park 7 Aug. „ 
 
 Industrial Museum Act passed . . .28 Aug. ,, 
 Edinburgh visited by empress Eugenie, 20 Nov. ,, 
 The prince consort lays foundation of new Post- 
 office and industrial museum . . .23 Oct. 1861 
 Fall of a house in High-street, 35 persons killed, 
 
 24 Nov. „ 
 Accident on Edinburgh and Glasgow railway — 17 
 
 killed ; above 100 wounded ... 13 Oct. 1862 
 Lord Palmerston's visit . 31 March-4 April, 1864 
 
 Theatre royal burnt : George Lorimer, dean of 
 guild, and seven other persons, killed by fall of 
 wall, while endeavouring to extricate others, 
 
 13 Jan. 1865 
 Statues of Allan Ramsay and John Wilson inaugu- 
 rated 25 March, \, 
 
 New Post-office opened .... 7 May, t866 
 National museum of science and art opened by 
 prince Alfred (who is created duke of Edinburgh, 
 
 &c. 24 May) 19 May, ., 
 
 Great reform demonstration . . . 17 Nov. ,, 
 Explosion in the Canongate, at Hammond's, a fire- 
 work-maker's ; 5 killed, many injured . 9 Oct. 1867 
 Visit of Mr. Disraeli, chancellor of the exchequer, 
 
 conservative demonstration . . 29, 30 Oct. ,, 
 Meeting to propose restoration of St. Giles's cathe- 
 dral 1 Nov. ,, 
 
 Visit of John Bright, made freeman . 3 Nov. 1S6S 
 The prince of Wales installed as patron of the 
 Freemasons of Scotland, 12 Oct. ; laid the founda- 
 tion of the new royal infirmary . . 13 Oct. 1870 
 The annuity-tax abolition act passed . 9 Aug. ,, 
 Meeting of British Association (3rd) . . 2 Aug. 1871 
 Scott centenary celebrated '. 9 (for 15) Aug. ,, 
 Restoration of St. Giles's cathedral begun, 17 June, 1872 
 
 EDINBURGH, Bishopric of, was created 
 
 by Charles I. when in Scotland in 1633 ; and Wil- 
 liam Forbes, minister of Edinburgh, first bishop. 
 The king allotted the parishes of the shires of 
 Edinburgh, Linlithgow, Haddington, and a part 
 of Berwick and of Stirlingshire, to compose the see. 
 The sixth and last prelate was Alexander Ross, ■who 
 was ejected on the abolition of episcopacy, at the 
 period of the revolution, in 1689. Edinburgh be- 
 came a post-revolution bishopric in 1720; see 
 Bishops. 
 
 EDINBURGH REVIEW (by Francis Jef- 
 frey, rev. Sydney Smith, Henry Brougham, and 
 other whigs) published first on 10 Oct. 1802. 
 
 EDINBURGH UNIVERSITY. A college 
 Avas commenced by the town council of Edinburgh, 
 in 1 58 1, for which queen Mary had given the site 
 of ancient religious houses, and Robert Reid, bishop 
 of Orkney, the funds in 1558. In 1582 the uni- 
 versity was chartered by James VI. afterwards 
 James I. of England. The first principal was ap- 
 pointed in 1585. The foundation-stone of the new 
 buildings was laid by Francis, lord Napier, grand- 
 
 Q. 2 
 
EDMUNDS' CASE. 
 
 228 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 master of the masons of Scotland, 16 Nov. 1789. 
 In 1845, the library contained upwards of 80,000 
 volumes, besides numerous curious and rare MSS. 
 and documents. Dr. Lyon Playfair elected the 
 first M.P. for Edinburgh and St. Andrews' univer- 
 sity in conformity with the act of 1868, 4 Dec. 
 1868. 
 
 EDMUNDS' CASE, see under Patents 
 
 EDOM, see Idumcca. 
 
 EDUCATION, the art of developing the 
 physical, intellectual, and moral faculties of man, 
 lias occupied the greatest minds in all ages, Socrates, 
 Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, Quintilian, Bacon, Milton, 
 Locke, Kousseau, &c. In England the earliest 
 schools for the lower classes were those attached to 
 the monasteries ; for the higher classes halls and 
 colleges were gradually founded ; see Arts, Oxford, 
 Cambridge, §c. 
 
 William of Wykeham planted the school at Win- 
 chester, whence arose his colleges at that place 
 
 and Oxford . 1373 
 
 Eton college founded by Henry VI 1440 
 
 After the reformation, education was greatly pro- 
 moted, and many grammar schools were erected 
 and endowed by Edward VI. and Elizabeth . 1535-65 
 Christ's hospital,' the bluecoat school, established, 1553 
 Westminster school founded by Elizabeth . . 1560 
 Foundation of Rugby school by Lawrence Sheriff, 
 
 1567-; of Harrow school by John Lyon . . . 1571 
 The Charterhouse founded by Thomas Sutton . 1611 
 Queen Anne, a zealous friend of education, founded 
 the Greycoat school, Westminster, and cordially 
 supported parochial charity schools (one esta- 
 blished at St. Margaret's, Westminster, 1688) . 1698 
 Nearly 2000 of these schools established in Great 
 Britain and Ireland, principally by the instru- 
 mentality of the Society for the Promotion of 
 
 Christian Knowledge 1698-1741 
 
 Robert Baikes set up Sunday Schools about . . . 1781 
 In 1833 there were 16,828 of these schools, with 
 1,548,890 scholars. 
 
 Sunday School Union formed 1802 
 
 Joseph Lancaster, a young Quaker, began to instruct 
 
 the children of the poor 1796 
 
 He had 90 pupils before he was 18 years old, and 
 
 1000 pupils in 1798 
 
 To provide teachers, he invented the monitorial 
 system. In consequence of his exertions the 
 present British and Foreign School Society was 
 founded with the name of the " Royal Laneas- 
 
 terian Institution," &e 1805 
 
 This, being unexclusive, was followed by the insti- 
 tution of the Church of England " National 
 Society for Educating the Poor," on Dr. Bell's 
 
 system 1811 
 
 Infant Schools began about 1815 
 
 The Charity Commission, appointed at the instance 
 of Mr. (afterwards lord) Brougham, published 
 their reports on Education, in 37 volumes folio, 1819-40 
 Irish National School System (to accommodate both 
 Roman Catholics and Protestants) organised 
 mainly by archbishop Whately and the Roman 
 
 Catholic archbishop Murray 1831 
 
 In 1834, the government began annual grants (the 
 first 20,000/.), which continued till 1839, when 
 the Committee of the Privy Council on Education 
 was constituted for the distribution of the money. 
 The grant for Public Education in Great Britain, 
 in 1852, was 150,0002. ; 1856-7, 451, 213/. ; i860, 
 798,951/. ; 1861, 803, 794!. ; 1864, 705, 404/. ; 1867, 
 705,865/. For Ireland, i860, 270,722?. ; 1861, 
 285,377/. : I 863, 316,770/. From 1839 to i860. 
 3, 655,067/. were granted for education. The grant 
 for education, science, and art, in 1861, was 
 1,358,996'. ; for 1867-8, 1,487,554/. ; 1872, 1,551,560/. 
 In 1836, the Home and Colonial School Society was 
 instituted, and about 1843 were formed the Volun- 
 tary School Society and the Congregational Board 
 of Education. In 1851, out of a population of 
 17,927,609, there were 2,466,481 day scholars. 
 Primary schools in Great Britain, 1854, 3825 ; 
 1863, 7739. 
 
 Ragged School Union established .... 1844 
 
 Educational Times, monthly, established . Oct. 1847 
 
 A great educational conference took place at 
 Willis's Rooms, the prince consort in the chair, 
 
 22-24 June, 1857 
 
 The Industrial Schools aet passed in „ 
 
 Middle Class Examinations from the university of 
 Oxford began, June, 1858. The examiners granted 
 the degree of A.A. to many persons at Liverpool, 
 Leeds, &c. ; similar examinations from Cam- 
 bridge took place in the autumn, and are to be 
 continued 1858 
 
 Report of commissioners on popular education (ap- 
 pointed 1858), published 18 March, 1861, led to 
 the Minute of the Committee of the Privy Council 
 on Education, establishing a Revised Code of 
 Regulations, adopted 21 July, 1861, to come into 
 operation, after 31 March, 1862. It decreed, regu- 
 lar examinations of the pupils, payment by results, 
 evening schools for adults, and other changes, 
 which raised a storm of opposition from the 
 clergy and schoolmasters. The subject was much 
 agitated in parliament (25, 28 March, 1862) ; but 
 eventually a compromise was effected, 5 May, 1862- 
 
 Official instructions for the administration of the 
 Revised Code issued Sept. ,, 
 
 " Conscience*clause," founded on the Endowed 
 Schools act, March, i860, introduced by the Com- 
 mittee of Council on Education for parishes where 
 only one school is required. It provided for the 
 admission of children of dissenters, and exempted 
 them from religious teaching, and attendance at 
 
 public worship Nov. 1863 
 
 (Report, 10 June, 1865). 
 
 It has been much opposed by the clergy ever since, 
 and created much controversy in . . 1866-7 
 
 College and Public School Commission Report, 
 signed 16 Feb. 1864 
 
 Royal Commission appointed, to inquire into the 
 state of education in Scotland. First meeting at 
 Edinburgh 14 Nov. „ 
 
 Miss Burdett Courts proposes the establishment of 
 small village-schools, to be taught by " ambula- 
 tory " teachers Jan. 1865 
 
 Parliamentary Committee appointed to inquire into 
 the best mode of benefiting schools unassisted by 
 the state 28 Feb. „ 
 
 Training ship established for homeless boys of 
 London ; 50 boys placed there by Boys' Refuge 
 committee 18 Dec. 1866- 
 
 Foundation of the London College of the Inter- 
 national Education Society laid by the prince of 
 Wales 10 July, 1867 
 
 Four establishments in England, France, Germany, 
 and Italy proposed ; the idea is attributed to Mr. 
 Cobden and Mr. Michel Chevalier . . . . 1862- 
 
 Committee appointed at a meeting for establishment 
 of higher schools for middle classes in London, by 
 means of funds of lapsed charities, &c, 7 Nov. ; 
 nearly 28,000/. subscribed by end of Dec. 1865 ; 
 51,349/. received Oct. 1866 
 
 The subscribers incorporated by charter ; their first 
 school opened by lord mayor and others in Bath- 
 street, St. Luke's 1 Oct. ,, 
 
 Great prosperity reported at the annual meeting, 
 
 18 March, 1867 
 
 Resolutions moved in the. lords by earl Russell (as- 
 serting that every child has a right to education, 
 and recommending appointment of a cabinet 
 minister of education), withdrawn . . 2 Dec. ,, 
 
 Important report of schools inquiry commissioners 
 signed 2 Dec. ,, 
 
 Conference at Manchester recommend compulsory 
 education, to lie paid for by rates . 15 Jan. 186& 
 
 Public Schools bill brought into the commons, 
 
 7 Feb. „ 
 
 Public Elementary Education bill brought into the 
 lords by duke, of Marlborough, 24 March; with- 
 drawn ' 18 May, ,, 
 
 Technical Education. — Minute of Committee of 
 Education, recommending the foundation of 
 scholarships for giving scientific instruction to 
 artisans 21 Dec. t> 
 
 Mr. (now sir Joseph) Whitworth's offer to found 30 
 scholarships of annual value of 100/. each, for in- 
 struction of young men in mechanics, &c, 18 
 March, accepted by the lords of the council, 
 
 27 March, ,, 
 
EGALITE. 
 
 229 
 
 EGYPT. 
 
 Foundation of the first new building for a middle 
 class school in London laid by the lord mayor, 
 Lawrence (very successful, 1873) . . 15 Dec. 1868 
 Public Schools Act (modifying the government of 
 Eton, Winchester, Westminster, Charterhouse, 
 Harrow, Rugby, and Shrewsbury schools) passed 
 31 July, 1868 ; amendment acts . . 9 Aug. 1869-70 
 New statutes for them issued . . Oct. -Nov. 1869 
 
 National Education League (advocating compulsory 
 secular education by the state), first met at Bir- 
 mingham 12, 13 Oct. ,, 
 
 National Education Union for supplementing the 
 present denominational system, first met at 
 Manchester 3 Nov. „ 
 
 Conference of masters of city companies at the 
 Mansion-house, to promote technical education, 
 
 5 Nov. ,, 
 
 Conference at the Society of Arts to reconcile the 
 League and the Union . . . .7 Feb. 1870 
 
 Scientific instruction and advancement commission 
 appointed 19 May, „ 
 
 First " drill-review " of London charity schools, and 
 others, at the Crystal Palace . . 21 June, „ 
 
 Elementary Education Bill introduced by Mr. W. E. 
 Forster, 17 Feb. ; after much discussion, and op- 
 position from the dissenters, it passed, and re- 
 ceived the royal assent . . . 9 Aug. ,, 
 [Amended in 1872.] 
 
 10,000*. voted by the Christian Knowledge Society 
 in aid of Church of England schools . 20 Oct. ,, 
 
 Order for first election of Metropolitan school- 
 board on 29 Nov 27 Oct. „ 
 
 National university for industrial and technical 
 
 training proposed Oct. ,, 
 
 [Meeting held to promote it, 5 July, 1871.] 
 
 Metropolitan school-board elected . 29 Nov. ,, 
 
 Regulations for school-boards issued . 21 Dec. „ 
 
 Primary schools in Great Britain : in 1855, 4800 ; in 
 i860, 7272 ; in 1870, 10,949. 
 
 Annual grant for primary schools in Great Britain : 
 in 1861, 813,442*. ; in 1865, 636,806*. ; in 1870, 
 912,451*. 
 
 New Revised Code discussed . . . March, 1871 
 
 London School-board Education Scheme proposed, 
 
 23 June, ,, 
 
 At the London school-board, after sharp discussion, 
 the religious difficulty respecting payment for 
 poor children at denominational schools settled 
 for a year 2 Nov. ,, 
 
 Arrangements for erecting or adapting buildings for 
 new schools made by London school-board, Dec. ,, 
 
 Conference of masters of grammar schools at High- 
 gate 28 Dec. ,, 
 
 Mr. Dixon's and the nonconformists' censure on 
 the Elementary Education Act ; negatived in the 
 commons, 355-94 .... 5 March, 1872 
 
 Scientific instruction :. royal commission appointed, 
 May, 1870 ; reported . . April, 1871, April, ,, 
 
 Education (Scotland) Act passed . . 10 Aug. „ 
 
 The London school-board determine to open separate 
 schools for dirty unruly children . . 20 Nov. ,, 
 
 " Society for Organization of Academical Study" 
 proposed by sir B. C. Brodie, Dr. Carpenter, 
 Prof. Rolleston and others at a meeting, 16 Nov. ,, 
 
 Irish University Bill introduced by Mr. Gladstone, 
 
 13 Feb. 1873 
 
 EGALITE (Equality), see Orleans. 
 
 EGGS. The duty on imported eggs was re- 
 pealed in i860, whereby the revenue lost about 
 20,000^. a year. Number imported into Great 
 Britain : in 1*861, 203,313,360 ; in 1865, 364,013,040; 
 in 1869, 442,172,640; in 1870, 430,842,240. 
 
 EGLINTOUN TOUENAMENT, see Tour- 
 nament. 
 
 EGYPT.* The early seat of political civiliza- 
 tion. 1st epoch ; the dynasty of its Pharaohs, or 
 _ * Three magnificent works on Egypt have been pub- 
 lished : in France (commenced by' Napoleon, and the 
 savans who accompanied him to Egypt), Description de 
 VEgypte, 1809-22 ; in Italy, Rosellini's Monurnenti dell' 
 Egitto, 1832-44 ; and in Prussia, Lepsius' Denkmaler aus 
 JEgypten, 1848-56. All these are in the Library of the 
 Royal Institution of Great Britain, London. 
 
 " great kings," commenced with Mizraim, the son 
 of Ham, second son of Noah, 2188 B.C. to the con- 
 quest by Cambyses, 525 B.C. 2nd epoch, to the 
 death of Alexander the Great, and establishment of 
 the Ptolemies, 323 B.C. 3rd epoch, to the death of 
 Cleopatra and tlie subjugation by the Eomans, 
 30 B.C., see Alexandria and Cairo. Population of 
 the present viceroyalty about 8,000,000 (1871). 
 
 Dynasty of Menes (conjectural) . . 6.0.271701-2412 
 
 Mizraim builds Memphis (Blair) 2188 
 
 Egypt made four kingdoms, viz., Upper Egypt, 
 Lower Egypt, This, and Memphis (Abbe Lenglet, 
 
 Blair) 2126 
 
 Athotes invents hieroglyphics 2122 
 
 Busiris builds Thebes (Usher) 21 n 
 
 Osymandyas, the first warlike king, passes into 
 Asia, conquers Bactria, and causes his exploits 
 to be represented in sculpture and painting 
 
 (Usher, Lenglet) 2100 
 
 The Phoenicians invade Lower Egypt, and hold it 
 260 years (Usher) ; the dynasty of Shepherd kings 
 
 begins 2080 
 
 The Lake of Moeris constructed 1938 
 
 The patriarch Abraham visits Egypt . . . 1920 
 Syphoas introduces the use of an alphabet (Usher) 1891 
 Memnon invents Egyptian characters ? (Blair, Leng- 
 let) 1822 
 
 Amenophis I. acknowledged king of all Egypt 
 
 (Lenglet) 1821 
 
 Joseph is sold into Egypt as a slave . ... 1728 
 He interprets the king's dreams .... 1715 
 His father and brethren settle here . ... 1706 
 Rameses III. , or Sesostris, reigns : he extends his 
 dominion by conquest over Arabia, Persia, India, 
 and Asia Minor (Lenglet) uncertain . . . 1618 
 Settlement of the Ethiopians (Blair) .... 1615 
 Rameses, who imposed on his subjects the building 
 of walls and pyramids, and other labours, dies 
 
 (Lenglet) 1492 
 
 The persecution of the Jews ; the exodus of the 
 
 Israelites 1491 
 
 Amenophis II. is overwhelmed in the Red Sea, with 
 
 all his army (Lenglet, Blair) „ 
 
 Reign of iEgyptus, from whom the country, hither- 
 to called Mizraim, is now called Egypt (Blair) . 1485 
 Reign of Thuoris (the Proteus of the Greeks) ; his 
 faculty of assuming whatever form he pleased, 
 
 probably denoted his policy n 89 
 
 Pseusennes (Shishak) enters Palestine, ravages 
 
 Judea, and carries off the sacred vessels . . . 971 
 The dynasty of kings called Tanites begins with 
 Petubastes (Blair) ..... . 825 
 
 The dynasty of Saites (Blair) 781 
 
 Sebacon (the Ethiopian) invades Egypt, subdues the 
 king, Bocchoris, whom he orders to be roasted 
 
 alive (Usher) 737 
 
 The Dodekarchy (12 rulers) expelled by Psammeti- 
 
 chus the Powerful 650 
 
 He invests Azoth, which holds out for 19 years, the 
 
 longest siege of antiquity (Usher) .... 647 
 Necho begins the canal between the Arabian gulf 
 
 and the Mediterranean sea (Blair) . . . . 610 
 This canal abandoned after costing the lives of 
 
 120,000 men (Herodotus) 609 
 
 Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon deposes Apries . . 581 
 Apries taken prisoner and strangled in his palace 
 
 (Diod. Siculus) 571 
 
 The philosopher Pythagoras comes from Samos into 
 Egypt, and is instructed in the mysteries of 
 
 Egyptian theology (Usher) 535 
 
 The line of the Pharaohs ends in the murder of 
 
 Psammenitus by Cambyses (Blair) ., . . 526 
 Dreadful excesses of Cambyses ; he puts the children 
 of the grandees, male and female, to death, and 
 makes the country a waste (Herodotus) . . . 524 
 He sends an army of 50,000 men across the desert to 
 destroy the temple of Jupiter Amnion, but they 
 all perish in the burning sands (Justin). . „ 
 
 Egypt revolts from the Persians ; again subdued by 
 
 Xerxes (Blair) 487 
 
 A revolt under Inarus (Blair) 463 
 
 Successful revolt under Amyrtseus, who is pro- 
 claimed king (Ixnglet) 414 
 
 Egypt again reduced by Ochus, king of Persia, and 
 its temples pillaged (Usher) 350 
 
EGYPT. 
 
 230 
 
 EHRENBREITSTEIN. 
 
 Alexander the Great conquers Eygpt and founds 
 
 Alexandria 332 
 
 Ptolemy I. (Lagos), Soter, re-establishes the 
 
 monarchy 323 
 
 Ptolemy II. Philadelphia (with his father) 285 ; 
 alone [the museum of Alexandria founded ; the 
 Septuagint version of the Hebrew Scriptures 
 made ; the Pharos completed] . . . 283-247 
 
 Ambassadors first sent to Rome .... 269 
 
 Ptolemy III. Euergetes, reigns 247 
 
 Overruns Syria, and returns laden with rich spoils 
 and 2500 statues and vessels of gold and silver, 
 which Cambyses had taken from the Egyptian 
 
 temples (Blair) 246 
 
 Ptolemy IV. Philopator .... Nov. 222 
 Battle of Raphia ; Ptolemy defeats Antiochus, king 
 
 of Syria 217 
 
 Ptolemy V. Epiphanes Nov. 2P5 
 
 Embassy to Rome . . . . . . 200 
 
 Ptolemy VI. Philometor .... Oct. 181 
 
 At the death of Philometor, his brother Physcon 
 
 (Ptolemy VII. Euergetes) marries his queen, and 
 
 on the day of his nuptials murders the infant son 
 
 cf Philometor in its mother's arms . . Nov. 146 
 
 His subjects, wearied by his cruelties and crimes, 
 
 compel him to fly 130 
 
 He defeats the Egyptians and recovers his throne, 
 
 128 ; dies 117 
 
 Ptolemy VIII. Soter II. and Cleopatra his mother, ,, 
 
 Alexander I. and Cleopatra 107 
 
 Ptolemy VIII. restored 89 
 
 Revolt in Upper Egypt ; Thebes destroyed after a 
 siege of three years (Diod. Sicuhis) . . . . 82 
 
 Alexander II. and Cleopatra 1 81 
 
 Ptolemy IX. Auletes 80 
 
 Berenice and Tryphsena 58 
 
 Auletes restored, 55 : leaves his kingdom to Ptolemy 
 
 and Cleopatra 51 
 
 During a civil war between Ptolemy and Cleopa- 
 tra II., Alexandria is besieged by Ciesar, and the 
 library nearly destroyed by fire (Blair) ... 47 
 Caesar defeats the king, who, in crossing the Nile, 
 is drowned ; and the younger Ptolemy and Cleo- 
 patra reign . . . 46 
 
 Cleopatra poisons her brother, and reigns alone . 43 
 She appears before Marc Antony, to answer for this 
 crime ; fascinated by her beauty, he follows her 
 
 into Egypt 41 
 
 Cleopatra in Syria 36 
 
 Antony defeated by Octavius CaBsar at the battle of 
 
 Actium (Blair) 2 Sept. 31 
 
 Octavius enters Egypt ; Antony and Cleopatra kill 
 themselves ; and the kingdom becomes a Roman 
 
 province, Sept. 30 
 
 Egypt visited by Adrian, 122 ; by Severus . a.d. 200 
 Monachism begun in Egypt by Antony . . . 305 
 Destruction of the temple and worship of Serapis, 389 
 Egypt conquered by Chosroes II. of Persia. . . 616 
 Invasion of the Saracens under Amrou . June, 638 
 Conquest of Alexandria .... 22 Dec. 640 
 
 Cairo founded by the Saracens 969 
 
 Conquest by the Turks 1163-96 
 
 Government of the Mamelukes established . . 1250 
 Selim I., emperor of the Turks, conquers Egypt . 1517 
 It is governed by beys till a great part of the 
 country is conquered by the French, under Bona- 
 parte (see Alixinulria) 1798-99 
 
 The invaders dispossessed by the British, and the 
 
 Turkish government restored .... 1801 
 Mehemet Ali massacres the Mamelukes, and obtains 
 
 the supreme power .... 1 March, 1S11 
 Arrival of Belzoni, 1815 ; he removes statue of Mem- 
 
 non, 1816; explores temples, <fec. . . . 1817 
 Formation of the Mahmoud canal, connecting Alex- 
 andria with the Nile 1820 
 
 Mehemet Pacha revolts and invades Syria . . 1831 
 His son Ibrahim takes Acre, 27 May ; overruns 
 
 Syria ; defeats the Turks at Konieh . 21 Dec. 1832 
 He advances on Constantinople, which is entered 
 by Russian auxiliaries, 3 April ; war ends with 
 convention of Kutayah ... 4 May, 1833 
 
 Mehemet again revolts, claiming hereditary power ; 
 
 Ibrahim defeats the Turks at Nezib 24 June, 1839 
 
 England, Austria, Russia, and Prussia undertake 
 to expel Ibrahim from Syria ; Napier bombards 
 Beyrout, 10 Sept. ; Acre taken by the British 
 and Austrian fleets, under sir R. Stopford, 3 Nov. ; 
 the Egyptians quit Syria . 21 Nov., et seq. 1840 
 
 Peace restored by treaty ; Mehemet made hereditary 
 viceroy of Egypt, but deprived of Syria 15 July, 1841 
 
 Ibrahim Pacha dies (see Suez) . . 10 Nov. 1848 
 
 The Suez canal begun 1858 
 
 Malta and Alexandria telegraph opened . 1 Nov. 1861 
 
 The viceroy Said visits Italy, France, and England, 
 May to Sept. ; returns to Alexandria . 1 Oct. 1862 
 
 Sultan of Turkey visits Egypt . . 7 April, 1863 
 
 Increased cultivation of cotton in Egypt . 1863-67 
 
 At the demand of the sultan, the viceroy sends 
 troops to repress the insurgents in Arabia, May, 1864 
 
 Opening of part of the Suez canal (which .sec), 
 
 15 Aug. 1865 
 
 Direct succession to the viceroyalty granted by the 
 porte May, 1866 
 
 Designated " sovereign " by the sultan 9 June, 1867 
 
 Egyptian legislative chamber opened with a speech 
 from the viceroy 27 Nov. 1866 
 
 Viceroy invested with Order of the Bath (as G. C. B.) 
 by lord Clarence Paget . . . -30 Jan. 1867 
 
 The viceroy visits Paris . . . 16 June-5 July, ,, 
 
 He arrives in London 6 July ; received by the queen 
 at Windsor, 8; by lord Derby, 10; by the lord 
 mayor, 11 ; departs .... 18 July, ,, 
 
 The viceroy (now termed the Khedive) visited 
 England, 22 June, 1869 
 
 Present at the inauguration of the Suez canal, 
 
 17 Nov. ,, 
 
 The differences between the sultan and himself 
 respecting prerogatives arranged, the viceroy 
 giving up the power of imposing taxes and of 
 contracting loans Dec. ,, 
 
 The first stone of the new port laid by the khedive, 
 
 15 May, 1871 
 
 Military expedition up the Nile, under sir Samuel 
 Baker, to abolish slavo trade ; started 7 Jan. 1870 ; 
 he met with determined resistance from the 
 governors implicated in the trade ; took possession 
 of Gondokoro (an old slave depot) in the name of 
 the viceroy ; made war with opposing tribe, the 
 Baris, and subdued them ; founded a town, 
 Ismailia ; reported in a letter to the prince of 
 Wales that the slave trade on the White Nile had 
 disappeared 21 Aug. ,, 
 
 Reported in another letter, disaffection among his 
 troops, and shortness of provisions . 19 Oct. „ 
 
 The khedive's son, prince Hassan, made D.C.L. at 
 Oxford 13 June, 1872 
 
 The khedive visits the sultan; Constantinople 
 rejoices 25 June, ,, 
 
 Sir Samuel Baker's expedition defeated ; assistance 
 to be sent by the viceroy . . . . Feb. 1873 
 
 KHEDIVES OR HEREDITARY VICEROYS 
 
 (nearly independent). 
 1806. Mehemet Ali Pacha; abdicated Sept. 1848; dies 
 
 2 Aug. 1849. 
 1848. Ibrahim (adopted son), Sept. ; dies 9 or 10 Nov. 1848 
 
 ,, Abbas (his son), 10 Nov. ; dies 14 July, 1854. 
 1854. Said (brother), 14 July ; dies 18 Jan. 1863. 
 1863. Ismail (nephew), 18 Jan. (born 1830). 
 Heir, his son, Mechmet, aged 19. 
 EGYPTIAN ERA, &c. The old Egyptian 
 year was identical with the era of Nabonassar, be- 
 ginning 26 Feb. 747 B.C., and consisted of 365 days 
 only. It was reformed 30 B.C., at which period 
 the commencement of the year had arrived, by 
 continually receding to the 29 Aug., which was 
 determined to be in future the first day of the year. 
 To reduce to the Christian era, subtract 746 years 
 125 days. The canicular or heliacal period of the 
 Egyptians and Ethiopians (1460 years) began when 
 Sirius or the dog star emerged from the rays of the 
 sun, on 20 July, 2785 B.C., and extended to 1325 
 B.C. This year comprised 12 months of 30 days, 
 with 5 supplementary days. 
 
 EHRENBREITSTELN (Honour's broad- 
 stone), a strong Prussian fortress on the Rhine, 
 formerly belonged to the electors of Treves. It 
 was often besieged. It surrendered to the French 
 general Jourdain, 24 Jan. 1799. The fortifications 
 were destroyed on its evacuation, 9 Feb. 1801, at 
 the peace of Luneville. The works have been 
 restored since 1814. 
 
EIDEE. 
 
 231 
 
 ELECTEICITY. 
 
 EIDEE., a river, separating Schleswig from 
 Holstein, was passed by the Austrians and Prussians, 
 4 Feb. 1864. 
 
 EIDOGEAPH, see Pantograph. 
 
 EIKON BASILIKE (" the Portraiture of 
 His Sacred Majesty in his Solitudes and Suffer- 
 ings"), a book of devotion formerly attributed to 
 king Charles I., but now generally believed to 
 have been written partially, if not wholly, by 
 bishop Gauden, and possibly approved by the king : 
 it was published in 1648, and sold with great 
 rapidity. 
 
 EISENACH DECLAEATION, see Ger- 
 many, 1859. 
 
 EISTEDDFODD, see Bards. 
 
 EL AEISCH, Egypt, captured by the French 
 under Eeynier, 18 Feb. 1799. A convention was 
 signed here between the grand vizier and Kleber 
 for the evacuation of Egypt by the French, 28 Jan. 
 1800. He beat the Turks at Heliopolis on 20 March ; 
 and was assassinated on 14 June following. 
 
 ELBA, ISLE OF (on the coast of Tuscany), 
 taken by admiral Nelson in 1796; but abandoned 
 1797. Elba was conferred upon Napoleon (with 
 the title of emperor) on his relinquishing the 
 throne of France, 5 April, 1814. He secretly em- 
 barked hence with about 1200 men in hired feluccas, 
 on the night of 25 Feb. 1815, landed in Provence, 
 I March, and soon after recovered the crown ; see 
 France, 1815. Elba was resumed by the grand 
 duke of Tuscany, July, 1815. 
 
 ELCHINGEN, Bavaria. Here Ney beat the 
 Austrians, 14 Oct. 1805, and was made duke of 
 Elchingen. 
 
 ELDEES (in Greek, presbuteroi), in the early 
 church equivalent with episcopoi, or bishops (see 
 1 Tim. iii. and Titus i.), who afterwards became a 
 distinct and superior order. Elders in the presby- 
 terian churches are laymen. 
 
 EL DOEADO (the " Gilded Man")- When 
 the Spaniards had conquered Mexico and Peru, 
 they began to look for new sources of wealth, and 
 having heard of a golden city ruled by a king or 
 priest, smeared in oil and rolled in gold dust (which 
 report was founded on a merely annual custom of 
 the Indians), they organised various expeditions 
 into the interior of South America, which were 
 accompanied with disasters and crimes ; about 1560. 
 Raleigh's expeditions in search of gold in 1596 and 
 161 7 led to his fall. 
 
 ELEASA, Palestine. Here Judas Maccabeus 
 was defeated and slain by Bacchides and Alcimus, 
 and the Syrians, about 161 b.c. (i Mace, ix.) 
 
 ELEATIC SECT, founded at Elea in Sicily, 
 by Xenophanes, of Colophon, about 535 B.C., 
 whither he had been banished on account of his 
 wild theory of God and nature. He supposed that 
 the stars were extinguished every morning and 
 rekindled at night; that eclipses were occasioned 
 by a partial extinction of the sun ; that there were 
 several suns and moons for the convenience of the 
 different climates of the earth, &c. Btrabo. Zeno 
 (about 364) was an Eleatic. 
 
 ELECTIONS PETITIONS. The laws 
 respecting them were consolidated in 1828, 1839, 
 and 1844. An act passed in 1848 was amended in 
 1865. By the act of 1868, 3 new judges were ap- 
 
 pointed, and three to be selected from all the judges 
 to try election cases ; justices Willes and Blackburn, 
 and baron Martin were the first appointed, Nov. 
 1868. 
 
 ELECTOE PALATINE, see Palatinate. 
 
 ELECTOES for members of parliament for 
 counties were obliged to have forty shillings a-year 
 in land, 8 Hen. VI. 1429. Among the acts relating 
 to electors are the following : Act depriving excise 
 and custom-house officers and contractors with 
 go vernmenttof their votes, 1 782 ; see Customs. Act to 
 regulate polling, 1828. Great changes were made 
 by the Reform Acts of 1832, 1867, and 1868. 
 County elections act, 1836; see Bribery. The 
 forty shilling freeholders in Ireland lost their 
 privilege in' 1829. By Dodson's act, passed in 
 1 86 1, university electors are permitted to vote by 
 sending balloting papers. 
 
 ELECTOES of Germany. In the reign of 
 
 Conrad I. king of Germany (912-918), the dukes 
 and counts, from being merely officers, became 
 gradually independent of the sovereign, and sub- 
 sequently elected him. In 919 they confirmed the 
 nomination of Henry I. duke of Saxony by Conrad 
 as his successor. In the 13th century seven princes 
 (the archbishops of Mentz, Treves, and Cologne, 
 the king of Bohemia, the electors of Brandenburg 
 and Saxony, and the elector Palatine), assumed 
 the exclusive privilege of nominating the em- 
 peror. Robertson. An eighth elector (Bavaria) was 
 made in 1648 ; and a ninth (Hanover) in 1692. 
 The number was reduced to eight at 1777 (by the 
 elector palatine acquiring Bavaria) and increased 
 to ten at the peace of Luneville, in 1801. On the 
 dissolution of the German empire, the crown of 
 Austria was made hereditary, 1804-1806; see Ger- 
 many. 
 ELECTEIC CLOCK; see p. 234. 
 
 ELECTEICITY, from the Greek eUUron, 
 electrum, amber. The electrical properties of 
 rubbed amber are said to have been known to 
 Thales, 600 B.C. ; see Magnetism. 
 
 FRICTIONAL OR STATIC ELECTRICITY. 
 
 Gilbert records that other bodies besides amber 
 generate electricity when rubbed, and that all 
 substances may be attracted 1600 
 
 Otto von Guericke constructed the first electric 
 machine (a globe of sulphur), about . . . 1647 
 
 Boyle published his electrical experiments . . 1676 
 
 Stephen Gray, aided by Wheeler, discovered that 1 
 the human body conducts electricity, that elec- 
 tricity acts at a distance (motion in light bodies 
 being produced by frictional electricity at a dis- 
 tance of 666 feet), the fact of electric induction, 
 and other phenomena 1720-36 
 
 Dufay originated his dual theory of two electric 
 fluids: one vitreous, from rubbed glass, <fec, the 
 other resinous, from rubbed amber, resin, &c. ; 
 and showed that two bodies similarly electrified 
 repel each other, and attract bodies oppositely 
 electrified, about 1733 
 
 The Leyden jar (vial or bottle) discovered by Kleist, 
 1745, and by Cun«us and Muschenbroek, of Ley- 
 den ; Winckler constructed the Leyden ba ery . 1746 
 
 Desaguliers classified bodies as electrics and non- 
 electrics 1742 
 
 Important researches of Watson, Canton, Beccaria 
 and Nollet 1740-7 
 
 Franklin announced his theory of a single fluid, 
 terming the vitreous electricity positive, and the 
 resinous negative, 1747; and demonstrated the 
 identity of the electric spark and lightning, 
 drawing down electricity from a cloud by means 
 of a kite June, 1752 
 
 At a pic-nic, he " killed a turkey by the electric 
 spark, and. roasted it by an electric jack before 
 a fire kindled by the electric bottle " . . 1748 
 
ELECTEICITY. 
 
 232 
 
 ELECTEICITY. 
 
 1753 
 
 1759 
 
 1773 
 1777 
 
 1785 
 
 Professor Richnian killed at St. Petersburg, 
 while repeating Franklin's experiments Aug. 
 
 Becearia published his researches on atmospheric 
 electricity, 1758; and iEpinus his mathematical 
 theory 
 
 Electricity developed by fishes investigated by 
 Ingenhousz, Cavendish, and others, about . . 
 
 Liehtenberg produced his electrical figures . 
 
 Electrostatics: Coulomb applied the torsion balance 
 to the measurement of electric force . . . 
 
 Electro-chemistry — water decomposed by Caven- 
 dish, Fourcroy, and others .... 1787-90 
 
 Discoveries of Galvani and Volta (see Voltaic Elec- 
 tricity, below) 1791-3 
 
 QSrsted, of Copenhagen, discovered electro-mag- 
 netic action (see Electro-Magnetism, next column) 1819 
 
 Thermo - Electricity (currents produced by heat), 
 discovered by Seebeck : it was produced by 
 heating pieces of copper and bismuth soldered 
 together, 1821; the Thermo-electrometer invented 
 by Snow Harris, 1827 ; the Thenuo-multiplier 
 constructed byMelloni and Nobili, 1831. [Marcus 
 constructed a powerful thermo-electric battery in 
 1865.] 
 
 Faraday produced a spark by the sudden separation 
 of a coiled keeper from a permanent magnet (see 
 Magneto-Electricity, next column) . . . 1831 
 
 Wheatstone calculated the velocity of electricity, 
 on the double fluid theory, to be 288,000 miles 
 a second ; on the single fluid theory, 576,000 miles 
 a second 1834 
 
 Armstrong discovered, and Faraday explained, the 
 electricity of high pressure steam, which produces 
 the hydro-electric machine 1840 
 
 Electro Machines. Otto von Guericke obtained 
 sparks by rubbing a globe of sulphur, about 1647 ; 
 Newton, Boyle, and others used glass, about 1675 ; 
 Hawksbee improved the machine, about 1709 ; 
 Bose introduced a metallic conductor, 1733 ; 
 Winckler contrived the cushion for the rubber, 
 1741 ; Gordon employed a glass cylinder, 1742; 
 for which a plate was substituted about 1770 ; 
 Canton introduced amalgam for the rubber, 1751 ; 
 Van Marum constructed an electric machine at 
 Haarlem, said to have been the most powerful 
 ever made, 1785 ; Dr. H. M. Noad set up at the 
 Panopticon, Leicester-square, London, a very 
 powerful electric machine ami Leyden battery [in 
 possession of Mr. Edwin Clark, 1862] . . . 1855 
 
 The Hydro-Electric machine, by Armstrong, was 
 constructed 1840 
 
 The Electrophorus, a useful apparatus for ob- 
 taining frictional electricity, was invented by 
 Volta in 1775, and improved by him in 
 
 C. F. Varley's " reciprocal electrophorus " invented 
 
 Sir William Thomson's "electric replenisher" de- 
 scribed Jan. 1S6S 
 
 Mr. Apps' great indui tnrium, or induction coil, 
 giving the largest sparks ever seen, exhibited at 
 the Royal Polytechnic Institution . 29 March, 1869 
 
 Electroscope and Electrometer, as the terms 
 signify, are apparatus for ascertaining the presence 
 and quantity of electrical excitation. Pith-balls 
 weie employed in various ways as electroscopes 
 by Gilbert, Canton, and others. Dr. Milner in- 
 vented an electrometer similar to Peltier's, 1783. 
 The gold leaf electrometer was invented by rev. 
 A. Bennet, 1789, ami improved by Singer, about 
 1810 ; Lane's discharging electrometer is dated 
 1767; Henley's, 1772; Bohnenberger's electro- 
 scope, 1820 ; Peltier's induction electrometer, 
 
 about 1848 
 
 GALVANISM, OR VOLTAIC-ELECTRICITY, AND 
 ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. 
 
 Sulzer noticed a peculiar sensation in the tongue 
 when silver and lead were brought into contact 
 with it and each other 1762 
 
 Madame Galvani observed the convulsion in the 
 muscles of frogs when brought into contact with 
 two metals, in 1789 ; and M. Galvani, after study- 
 ing the phenomena, laid the foundation of the 
 galvanic battery 
 
 Volta announced his discovery of the " Voltaic 
 pile," composed of discs of zinc and silver, and 
 moistened card 
 
 By the voltaic pile, Nicholson and Carlisle decom- 
 posed water, and Dr. Henry decomposed nitric 
 acid, ammonia. &c 
 
 1782 
 
 1791 
 
 1S00 
 
 Behrens formed a dry pile of 80 pairs of zinc, 
 copper, and gilt paper 1805 
 
 By means of the large voltaic battery of the Royal 
 Institution, London, Davy decomposed the 
 alkali potash, and evolved the metal potassium, 
 
 6 Oct, 1807 
 
 Zamboni constructed a dry pile of paper discs, 
 coated with tin on one side and peroxide of 
 manganese on the other 1809 
 
 Children's battery fused platinum, &c. . . . ,, 
 
 Davy exhibited the voltaic arc 1813 
 
 Wollaston's thimble battery ignited platinum wire, 1815 
 
 Multipliers or rheometers, popularly termed "gal- 
 vanometers," invented by Ampere and by 
 Schweigger, 1820 ; by Cumming, 1821 ; De la 
 Rive, 1824 ; Ritchie (torsion), 1830 ; Joule (mag- 
 netic), 1843. 
 
 Faraday described his discovery of electro-magnetic 
 rotation Jan. 1822 
 
 Ohm enunciated his formula- relating to the galvanic 
 current 1827 
 
 Improvement in constructing the Voltaic battery 
 made by Wollaston, 1815 ; Becquerel, 1829 ; 
 Sturgeon, 1830 ; J. F. Darnell, 1836 ; Grove 
 (nitric acid, &c), 1839 ; Jacobi, 1840 ; Sniee, 1840 ; 
 Bunsen (carbon, &c), 1842 ; Grove (gas battery), 
 842. 
 
 Faraday read the first series of his " Experimental 
 Researches on Electricity " at the Royal Society, 
 
 21 Nov. 1831 
 
 Faraday demonstrated the nature of electro-chemi- 
 cal decomposition, and the principle that the 
 quantity and intensity of electric action of a gal- 
 vanic battery depends on the size and number of 
 plates employed 1834 
 
 Wheatstone invented his electro-magnetic chrono- 
 scope ......... 1840 
 
 Electro-Magnetism began with OSrsted's discovery 
 of the action of the electric current on the mag- 
 netic needle, 1819 ; proved by Ampere, who 
 exhibited the action of the voltaic pile upon the 
 magnetic needle, and of terrestrial magnetism 
 upon the voltaic current ; he also arranged the 
 conducting wire in the form of a helix or spiral, 
 invented a galvanometer, and imitated the mag- 
 net by a spiral galvanic wire 1820 
 
 Arago magnetised a needle by the electric current, 
 and attracted iron filings by the connecting wire 
 of a galvanic battery 
 
 The first electro-magnet 1825 
 
 Induction of electric currents discovered by Fara- 
 day and announced 1831 
 
 Becquerel invented an electro-magnetic balance . ,, 
 
 Faraday discovered the electro-magnetic rotative 
 force developed in a magnet by voltaic electricity, 
 
 1831 ; experiments on the induction of a voltaic 
 current, &c 1834-5 
 
 Sturgeon made a bar of soft iron magnetic by sur- 
 rounding it with coils of wire, and sending an 
 electric current through the wire .... 1837 
 
 J i.istj ih Henry announced his discovery of secondary 
 currents 2 Nov. 1838 
 
 Magneto-electricity applied to electro-plating by 
 Woolwich 1842 
 
 Breguet used electro-magnetic force to manufacture 
 mathematical instruments, about . . . . 1854 
 
 Magneto-Electricity (the converse of Oersted's 
 discovery of electro-magnetism), discovered by 
 Faraday 1 , who produced an electric spark by sud- 
 denly separating a coiled keeper from a perma- 
 nent magnet ; and found that an electric current 
 existed in a copper disc rotated between the poles 
 of a magnet 1831 
 
 The Magneto-Electric machine arose out of Faraday's 
 discovery, and was first made at Paris by Pixii, 
 
 1832 ; and in London by Saxton . . . . 1833 
 Ruhmkorff's magneto-electric induction coil con- 
 structed, about 1850 
 
 H. Wilde's description of his machine (a powerful 
 generator of dynamic electricity, by means of 
 permanent magnets) and the magneto-electric 
 machine (constructed in 1865) sent to the 
 Royal Society by professor Faraday and reported, 
 
 26 April, 1866 
 
 The light (resembling bright moon-light) exhibited 
 on the top of Burlington house . 2 March, 1867 
 
 Dynamo-magneto-electric machines, by Wheatstone 
 
ELECTEICITY. 
 
 233 
 
 ELECTEICITY. 
 
 and Siemens, described at the Royal Society, 
 
 Feb. ; by Ladd .... 14 March, 1867 
 " Faraday as a Discoverer," by professor Tyndall, 
 
 jmblished March, 1868 
 
 Trial of Siemens' dynamo-electric light in the 
 
 torpedo service at Sheerness reported successful, 
 
 18 Dec. 1871 
 
 ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. 
 
 The transmission of electricity by an insulated wire 
 was shown by Watson and others . . . . 1747 
 
 Telegraphic arrangements were devised by Lesarge, 
 1744 ; Betancourt, 1787 ; Cavallo, 1795 ; Salva, 
 1796 ; Soemmering, exhibited 29 Aug. 1809 ; 
 Ronalds 1816 
 
 Ampere invents his telegraphic arrangement, cm- 
 ploying the magnetic needle and coil, and the 
 galvanic battery 1820 
 
 F. Ronalds publishes an account of his electric 
 telegraph . . . • 1823 
 
 Professor Wheatstone constructs an electro-mag- 
 netic apparatus, by which 30 signals are conveyed 
 through nearly four miles of wire . . June, 1836 
 
 Telegraphs invented by Schilling, Gauss, and Weber 
 (magneto-electric), 1833 ; by Steinheil and by 
 Masson, 1837 '• by Morse (died 1872). . . . 1837 
 
 The magnetic needle telegraph patented by (aft. 
 sir Wm. F.) Cooke and (aft. sir) Charles Wheat- 
 stone. (The Society of Arts Albert gold medal 
 was awarded to them in June, 1867) . 12 June, ,, 
 
 Mr. Cooke set up the telegraph line on the Great 
 Western Railway, from Paddington to West 
 Drayton, 1838-9 ; on the Blackwall line, 1840 ; 
 and in Glasgow 1841 
 
 Wheatstone's alphabetical printing telegraph 
 patented „ 
 
 The first telegraph line in America set up from 
 Washington to Baltimore 1844 
 
 The murderer Tawell apprehended by means of the 
 telegraph 1845 
 
 The electric telegraph company established (having 
 purchased Cooke and Wheatstone's telegraphic 
 inventions) 1846 
 
 Gutta percha suggested as an insulator by Faraday 1847 
 
 Professor Charles Wheatstone drew plans of a pro- 
 jected submarine telegraph between Dover and 
 Calais 1840 
 
 Mr. John Watkins Brett submitted a similar plan 
 to Louis Philippe without success . . . 1847 
 
 He obtained permission from Louis Napoleon to 
 make a trial, 1847 ; took place . . 28 Aug. 1850 
 
 The connecting wires (27 miles long) were placed 
 on the government pier in Dover harbour, and in 
 the Goliath steamer were coiled about 30 miles in 
 length of telegraphic wire, enclosed in a covering 
 of gutta-percha, half an inch in diameter. The 
 Goliath started from Dover, unrolling the tele- 
 graphic wire as it proceeded, and allowing it to 
 drop to the bed of the sea. In the evening the 
 steamer arrived on the French coast, and the wire 
 was run up the cliff at cape Grisuez to its termi- 
 nal station, and messages were sent to and fro 
 between England and the French coast. But the 
 wire, in settling into the sea-bottom, crossed a 
 rocky ridge, and snapped in two, and thus the 
 enterprise for that time failed. 
 
 New arrangements were soon made, and on a scale 
 of greater magnitude ; and the telegraph was 
 opened ; the opening and closing prices of the 
 funds in Paris were known on the London stock 
 exchange within business hours, and guns were 
 fired at Dover by communication from Calais, 
 
 13 Nov. 1851 
 
 Communications complete between Dover and Os- 
 tend and between Portpatrick and Donaghadee, 
 
 May, 1853 
 
 Holyhead and Howth .... June, 1854 
 
 Paris and Bastia Nov. ,, 
 
 London and Constantinople . . . May, 1858 
 
 Cromer and Emden . . . . . . . ,, 
 
 Aden and Suez May, 1859 
 
 Malta and Alexandria .... 28 Sept. 1861 
 
 England and Bombay, opened . . .1 March, 1865 
 
 Marsala, Sicily, and La Calle, Algeria. 21 June, ,, 
 
 Over-house electric telegraphs (first erected at Paris) 
 set up between their premises in the City and 
 West-end by Messrs. Waterlow, in 1857, extended 
 throughout London 1859-73 
 
 House's printing telegraph, 1846 ; Bain's electro- 
 chemical telegraph, 1846 ; Hughes's system, 1855; 
 the American combination system (of the pre- 
 ceding), which can convey 2000 words an hour, 
 adopted by the " American telegraph company, 
 
 Jan. 1859 
 
 Wheatstone's automatic printing telegraph pa- 
 tented i860 
 
 It was stated that there are in work 15,000 miles of 
 electric telegraph wire in Great Britain ; 80,000 on 
 the continent of Europe ; and 48,000 in America ; 
 and altogether about 150,000 miles laid down in 
 the world July, 1862 
 
 Bonelli s typo-electric telegraph, made known and 
 company established, i860 ; and tried between 
 Liverpool and Manchester, 1863 ; promised revival, 
 
 June, 1864 
 
 An "electric telegraph" conference, at which 16 
 states (not Great Britain) were represented, met 
 at Paris March, 1865 
 
 The Telegraph Act (see Telegraph) passed 31 July, 1868 
 
 Society of Telegraph Engineers established, 28 Feb. 1872 
 
 Atlantic Telegraph. A plan to unite Europe 
 and xVmerica by telegraph was entered at the 
 government registration office in June, 1845, by 
 Mr. J. Watkins Brett, who made proposals to the 
 government, which were not accepted. This plan 
 was attempted to be carried out by a company in 
 1857 and 1858, with the concurrence of the British 
 and American governments. 
 
 2500 miles of wire were manufactured, and tested in 
 
 March, 1857 
 
 The laying it down commenced at Valentia, in 
 Ireland on 5 Aug. ,, 
 
 The vessels employed were the Niagara and Susque- 
 hanna (American vessels), and the Leopard and 
 Agamemnon. (British vessels). After sailing a few 
 miles the cable snapped. This was soon repaired ; 
 but on 11 Aug. after 300 miles of wire had been 
 paid out, it snapped again (and the vessels 
 returned to Plymouth) . . . 11 Aug. „ 
 
 A second attempt to lay the cable failed through a 
 violent storm, .... 20-21 June, 1858 
 
 The third voyage was successful. The junction 
 between the two continents was completed by the 
 laying down of 2050 miles of wire from Valentia, 
 in Ireland, to Newfoundland. The first two 
 messages, on 5 Aug., were from the queen of 
 England to the president of the United States, 
 and his reply 5 Aug. „ 
 
 This event caused great rejoicing in both countries ; 
 but, unfortunately, the insulation of the wire 
 gradually became more faulty, and the power 
 of transmitting intelligence utterly ceased on 
 
 4 Sept. ,, 
 
 A new company was formed i860 
 
 The Great Eastern steamer, engaged to lay down 
 2300 miles of wire, with 25,000 tons burden, sailed 
 for Valentia, Ireland, from the Thames, com- 
 manded by capt. Anderson, accompanied by pro- 
 fessor Wm. Thomson and Mr. Cromwell F. 
 Varley, to superintend the paying out the cable, 
 
 15 July, 1865 
 
 After connecting the wire with the land, the Great 
 Eastern sailed from Valentia . . 23 July, ,, 
 
 Telegraphic communication with the vessel (inter- 
 rupted by two faults, due to defective insulation, 
 caused by pieces of metal pressed into the gutta- 
 percha coating, which were immediately repaired) 
 finally ceased on 2 Aug. The apparatus for 
 raising the wire proving insufficient, the vessel 
 returned, and arrived at the Medway 19 Aug. „ 
 
 Atlantic telegraph company reconstituted as the 
 Anglo-American telegraph company limited, 
 
 March, 1866 
 
 The Great Eastern, with a new cable, sailed from 
 the Medway, 30 June ; the shore-end at Valentia 
 was spliced with the main cable, and the Great 
 Eastern sailed, 13 July ; 1200 miles of cable had 
 been laid, 22 July ; the cable was completely laid 
 at Heart's Content, Newfoundland, and a message 
 sent to lord Stanley, 27 July ; message from the 
 queen to president of the United States sent, 28 
 July, " From the queen, Osborne, to the presi- 
 dent of the United States, Washington. The 
 queen congratulates the president on the success- 
 ful completion of an undertaking which she hopes 
 may serve as an additional bond of union between 
 
ELECTRICITY. 
 
 234 
 
 ELEMENTS. 
 
 the United Status and England." To which lie 
 replied 3 oJulv, 
 
 The lost cable of 1865 recovered, 2 Sept. ; and its 
 laying completed at Newfoundland . 8 Sept. 
 
 Tlie Great Eastern arrived at Liverpool . 19 Sept. 
 
 Messrs. Samuel Canning, Daniel Gooch, and capt. 
 Anderson knighted Oct. 
 
 [It was stated (in Sept 1866) that the engineer of 
 the i-able passed signals through 3700 miles of 
 wire by means of a battery formed in a lady's 
 thimble.] 
 
 The U. S. congress voted a gold medal to Cyrus 
 Field, for his exertions connected with Atlantic 
 telegraphs 7 March, 
 
 At a dinner given to Cyrus Field at Willis's Rooms, 
 London, telegraphic messages were exchanged 
 between the company and lord Monck, viceroy 
 Of Canada and president Johnson . 1 July, 
 
 French Atlantic Telegraph company formed ; French 
 government grant concession for 20 years, from 
 1 Sept. 1869, to Julius Renter and baron Emile 
 d'Erlangen 8 July, 
 
 An act to enable JELM.'s postmaster-general to acquire, 
 work, and maintain electric telegraphs, passed, 
 
 31 Julv, 
 
 Anglo-Danish telegraph (Xewbigginto Copenhagen) 
 completed 2! au". 
 
 European end of the French Atlantic cable laid at 
 Brest, 17 June ; the American end at Duxbury, 
 Massachusetts 23 July, 
 
 Reported union between the Anglo-American and 
 French Atlantic telegraph companies . Jan. 
 
 The British government began to work postal tele- 
 graph s Feb. 
 
 Telegraph between Bombay and Suez completed . 
 
 Result of the " Derby " race sent to Calcutta in live 
 minutes 24 May, 
 
 Statue of Morse at New York uncovered, 10 June, 
 
 Fourth telegraph conference opened at Koine, under 
 the auspices of the Italian government (next to 
 be at St. Petersburg in 1875) . . 18 Dec. 
 
 Telegraph between Adelaide and Port Darwin, 
 Australia, completed . . . .22 Aug. 
 
 Message from the mayor of Adelaide received by 
 the lord mayor of Loudon, and replied to, 
 
 21 Oct. 
 
 Electric Clock, &c. Professor Wheatstone in- 
 vented an electro-magnetic telegraph clock in 
 1840. Clocks worked by electricity, invented by 
 Mr. Alexander Bain, Mr. Shepherd, and others, 
 appeared in the' exhibition of 1851. An electric 
 clock, with four dials, illuminated at night, was 
 set up for some time in front of the office of the 
 electric telegraph company, in the Strand, Lon- 
 don, July, 1852. A time-ball was set up by Mr. 
 French, m Cornhill, in 1856. in i860, Mr. C. V. 
 Walker so connected the clock of the Greenwich 
 observatory with that of the South-eastern station. 
 London, that they could be controlled by elec- 
 tricity. 
 
 Electric Light. Apparatus for regulating the 
 electric light were devised in 1S46, and shown by 
 Staite and Petrie in 1848 ; by Foucault soon 
 after. 
 
 Jules Duboscq's Electric Lamp (the most perfect of 
 the kind) appeared at the Paris exhibition in 
 1855 ; and was first employed by professor Tyn- 
 dall, at the Royal Institution, London, for illus- 
 trating lectures on light and colours, in 
 
 The works of new Westminster bridge were illumi- 
 nated by Watson's electric light, in . . . . 
 
 M. Serrin, of Paris, exhibited his improved electric 
 lamp, in 
 
 The Magneto-Electric light (the most brilliant artifi- 
 cial light yet produced), by means of apparatus 
 devised by Professor Holmes, was successfully 
 tried at the South Foreland lighthouse, Dover, 
 
 in 1858 and 
 
 The French government ordered eight lighthouses 
 ou their coast to be illuminated by electric light, 
 
 April, 
 MM. Dumas and Benoit constructed an electric 
 
 safety lamp in 
 
 Electric Loom. M. Bonelli, of Turin, in 1854, de- 
 vised a plan of employing magnets and electro- 
 magnets in weaving, thereby superseding the 
 tedious and costly Jacquard system of cards. 
 His loom was set up in London in 1859, aucl i eo_ 
 
 1867 i 
 
 1870 
 
 1871 
 
 1872 
 
 1856 
 1858 
 1862 
 
 1859 
 
 18(31 
 1862 
 
 tured upon at the Royal Institution by professor 
 Faraday, 011 . . . . . 8 June, i860 
 
 Electro-Physiology. Aristotle and Pliny refer to 
 the powers of the torpedo, whilst Walsh and 
 Ingcnhouss, the discoveries of Galvani iu 1790, 
 and the researches of Matteucci about 1830, have 
 greatly advanced the science. 
 
 Fowler experimented on animals with galvanism, 
 1793; and Aldini, 1796, who produced muscular 
 contractions in a criminal recently executed, 1803; 
 Ure did the same . . . * . . . . 1818 
 
 Du Bois Reymond lectured on animal electricity at 
 the Royal Institution, and showed the existence 
 of an electric current, developed by action of the 
 human muscles, in May, 1855 
 
 Electrophone, invented by Dr. Strethill Wright, 
 for producing sound by electric currents of high 
 tension : one laid before the Royal Scottish 
 Society of Arts 25 April, 1864 
 
 Electro-Tint. Mr. Palmer, of Newgate-street, 
 London, patented inventions by which engravings 
 may not only be copied from other engraved 
 plates, but the engraving itself actually produced, 
 by electrical agency, and one process he termed 
 glyphography 1841-2 
 
 Electro-Type of Deposit. Mr. Spencer, in Eng- 
 land, and professor Jaeobi, in Russia, made the 
 first successful experiments in this art in 1837 
 and 1838. Since then, Mr. A. Smee and others 
 have perfected the processes. In 1840, Mr. Rob. 
 Murray applied black-lead to non-metallic bodies 
 as a conducting surface. In 1840, Mr. Ruolz and 
 Mr. Elkington applied it to gilding and silver 
 plating. Since 1850, printing types and wood- 
 cuts, and casts from them, have been electrotyped 
 with copper, and the process is now largely 
 adopted in the arts. 
 
 Messrs. C. Wheatstone and F. A. Abel experiment on 
 the application of electricity to military purposes. 1861 
 
 The Electro-block company established, i860 ; by 
 their processes the enlargement and reduction of 
 engravings, obtained by india-rubber, can be 
 immediately transferred to a lithographic stone, 
 and multiplied at pleasure. Leech's engravings, 
 so enlarged, were coloured by himself, and ex- 
 hibited in 1862 
 
 Ozone, generated by a current produced by 
 Wild's magneto-electric machine, employed to 
 bleach sugar, at Whitechapel (Edwd. Beane's 
 patent) Aug. 1868 
 
 ELEGY. Elegiac verse (consisting of a hexa- 
 meter and pentameter alternately) was the first 
 variation from the hexameter or epic measure, used 
 by Tyrtseus and other early poets. The elegies of 
 Ovid and Catullus are celebrated. Gray's "Elegy, 
 written in a country churchyard," was published 
 in 1749. 
 
 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION ACT, 
 
 33 & 34 Vict. c. 75, passed 9 Aug. 1S70 ; amended 
 in 1872. 
 
 ELEMENTS were formerly reckoned as four : 
 earth, air, fire and water. Lavoisier enunciated 
 the principle that all bodies which cannot be 
 proved to be compounded are elements and to be 
 treated as such. See Table, and separate articles. 
 The chemical elements now are about 63. 
 
 list of elements, 1872 (Odlincf). 
 
 — Gold © 
 
 — Silver )> 
 
 — Mercury .... 5 
 
 — Copper .... 9 
 
 — Iron 6 
 
 — Tin 11 
 
 — Lead h 
 
 1490. Antimony . . . . B. Valentine. 
 
 1530. Bismuth .... Agricola? 
 
 1541. Zinc Paracelsus. 
 
 — Carbon 
 
 — Sulphur .... 
 
 1669. Phosphorus .... Brandt. 
 1702. Borax, boron . . . Homberg. 
 
 1733. ( Arsenic ) Q Brandt 
 
 ,, ( Cobalt ) 
 
ELEPHANT. 
 
 235 
 
 ELY. 
 
 1741. 
 
 1751. 
 
 1736 
 
 to 
 
 1758 
 
 1766. 
 
 1771. 
 1772. 
 
 1774- 
 
 177S. 
 
 1791 
 1793 
 1794, 
 1797. 
 1798, 
 1802. 
 1803 
 
 1811. 
 1817. 
 
 1818. 
 
 1826. 
 1828. 
 
 1841. 
 1843. 
 
 1859- 
 
 Flatiuum 
 
 Nickel 
 
 Soda -ium 
 
 Potash. 
 
 Lime 
 
 Silex . 
 
 Alumina 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 Hydrogen 
 
 Fluor -ine 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Chlorine 
 
 Oxygen . 
 
 Manganese 
 
 Baryta -ium 
 
 Molybdenum 
 
 Tungsten 
 
 Tellurium . 
 
 Uranium 
 
 Zirconia -ium 
 
 Titanium 
 
 Strontia -ium 
 
 Yttria -ium 
 
 Chromium 
 
 Glucina -um 
 
 Tantalum 
 
 Cerium . 
 
 Palladium 
 
 Rhodium 
 
 Iridium 
 
 Osmium 
 
 Iodine 
 
 Lithium 
 
 Selenium 
 
 Cadmium 
 
 Bromine 
 
 Thorinum 
 
 Vanadium 
 
 Lanthanum 
 
 Didymium 
 
 Erbium . 
 
 Ruthenium 
 
 Niobium 
 
 Caesium 
 
 Rubidium 
 
 Thallium . 
 
 Indium 
 
 Woods. 
 Cronstedt. 
 
 }Duhamel. 
 Marggraf. 
 Bergmann, 
 and 
 Scheele. 
 Cavendish. 
 Scheele. 
 Rutherford. 
 Scheele. 
 Priestley. 
 Gahn. 
 
 Scheele. 
 
 Delhuart. 
 Miiller. 
 
 j- Klaproth. 
 
 Gregor. 
 
 Hope. 
 
 Gadolin. 
 
 I Vauquelin. 
 
 Hatchett. 
 Klaproth. 
 
 J- Wollaston. 
 
 ) Descotils &Smithson 
 J Tennant. 
 
 Courtois. 
 
 Arfwedson. 
 
 Berzelius. 
 
 Stomeyer. 
 
 Balard. 
 
 Berzelius. 
 
 Sefstrom. 
 
 vMosander. 
 
 Claus. 
 H. Rose. 
 
 >■ Bunsen. 
 
 Crookes. 
 
 Reich and Richter. 
 
 ELEPHANT, in the earliest times trained to 
 war. The history of the Maccabees informs us, 
 that " to every elephant they appointed 1000 men 
 armed with coats of mail, and 500 horse : and upon 
 the elephants were strong towers of wood, &c." The 
 elephants in the army of Antiochus were provoked 
 to tight by showing them the " blood of grapes and 
 mulberries." The first elephant said to have been 
 seen in England was one of enormous size, presented 
 by the king of France to our Henry III. in 1238. 
 Baker's Chron. Polytenus states that Cffisar 
 brought one to Britain 54 B.C., which terrified the 
 inhabitants greatly. See Knighthood. 
 
 ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES. The insti- 
 tution of these annual secret religious ceremonies 
 (in honour of Ceres) at Athens, is attributed to 
 Cadmus, 1550; toErechtbeus, 1399; or to Eumolpus, 
 1356 B.C. If any one revealed them, he was to be 
 put to death. They were introduced from Eleusis 
 into Kome ; lasted about 1800 years, and were abol- 
 ished by Theodosius a.d. 389. The laws were — 1. 
 To honour parents; 2. To honour the gods with the 
 fruits of the earth; 3. Not to treat brutes with 
 cruelty. Cicero makes the civilisation f mankind one 
 of the beneficial effects of the Eleusinian mysteries. 
 
 ELGIN MARBLES, derived chiefly from the 
 Parthenon, a temple of Minerva, on the Acropolis at 
 Athens, of which they formed part of the frieze and 
 pediment, the work of Phidias, under the govern- 
 ment of Pericles, about 440 B.C. Thomas lord Elgin 
 began the collection of these marbles during his 
 mission to the Ottoman Porte, in 1802 ; and from him 
 
 they were purchased by the British government for 
 35,000^. and placed in the British Museum, in 1816. 
 The ship conveying them was wrecked near Cerigo, 
 and Mr. W. E. Hamilton, who was on board, re- 
 mained several months at Cerigo, and recovered 
 them from the sea. 
 
 ELIS) a Greek state termed the " Holy Land," 
 in the Peloponnesus, founded by the Heraclhke, 
 1 103 B.C. Herelphitus revived the Otympic games, 
 884, which were regularly celebrated after Coroebus 
 gained the prize in 776. Elis surrendered many 
 towns to the Spartans in war, 400. After various 
 changes, Elis joined the Achsean league, 274; and 
 with the rest of Greece was subjugated by the 
 Eomans in 146. 
 
 ELL (so named from ulna, the arm) was fixed at 
 45 inches, by king Henry I. in 1101. The old 
 French ell, or aune, was 46' 790 inches. 
 
 ELLISON GALLERY. In April, i860, 
 Mrs. Elizabeth Ellison (in conformity with the wish 
 of her deceased husband, Eichard) , presented to the 
 South Kensington Museum a series of 50 original 
 water-colour drawings, by the first masters. 
 
 ELLORA or ELORA, Central India ; remark- 
 able for its very ancient rock-cut temple ; excavated 
 according to Hindoo legends nearly 7000 years ago ;. 
 but more probably about 800 A.D. The town was 
 ceded to the British by Holkar in 1818, and trans- 
 ferred by them to the Nizam of the Deocan in 1822. 
 
 ELMINA, and Dutch Guinea, W. Africa. 
 were ceded by the Dutch government by treaty, 
 signed Feb. 1872, and consolidated with the West 
 African settlements ; first governor, Mr. Pope Hen- 
 nessy, April, 1872. 
 
 ELOPEMENT. A wife who departs from her 
 husband, loses her dower by the statute of Westm. 
 1285 — unless her husband, without coercion of the 
 church, be reconciled to her. Earlier law r s punished 
 elopement with death when adultery followed. 
 
 ELPHIN (Ireland). St. Patrick founded a 
 cathedral near Elphin, "by a river issuing from 
 two fountains," in the 5th century, and placed over 
 it St. Asicus, whom he created bishop, and who- 
 soon after filled it with monks. After many cen- 
 turies, Eoscommon, Ardcarn, Drumclive, and others- 
 of less note, were also annexed to Elphin, which 
 became one of the richest sees in Ireland. It is- 
 valued in the king's books, by an extent returned 
 28 Eliz., at 103^. 18s. sterling. The see was united 
 to Kilmore in 1841, under the provisions of the 
 Church Temporalities act, passed Aug. 1833. . 
 
 ELSINORE, Zealand, Denmark, the station 
 for receiving the Sound dues (ivhich see). 
 
 ELY, an island in Cambridgeshire, on which a 
 church was built about 673, by Etheldreda, queen 
 of Egfrid, king of Northumberland ; she also founded 
 a religious house, filled it with virgins, and became 
 herself first abbess. The Danes ruined the convent 
 about 870 ; but a monastery was built in 879, on 
 which king Edgar and succeeding monarchs be- 
 stowed great privileges and grants of land ; whereby 
 it became the richest in England. Eichard, the 
 eleventh abbot, wishing to free himself from the- 
 bishop of Lincoln, made great interest with Henry 
 I. to get Ely erected into a bishopric, 1108, and his 
 successor Herveeus was the first prelate, 1109. It 
 is valued in the king's books at 2134^ 18s. $d. y 
 present stated income, 5500/. 
 
ELZEVIRS. 
 
 236 
 
 EMIR. 
 
 RECENT BISHOPS. 
 
 1781. James York, died 26 Aug. 1808. 
 1808. Thomas Dampier, died 13 May, 1812. 
 1812. Bowyer Edward Bparke, died 4 April, 1836. 
 1836. Joseph Allen, died 20 March, 1845. 
 .1845. Thomas Turton, died 7 Jan. 1864. 
 1864. Edward Harold Browne. 
 
 ELZEVIRS, a celebrated family of printers, 
 in Holland, whose reputation is based on tine pocket 
 editions of the classics. Their first book is dated 
 
 EMANCIPATION, see Roman Catholics and 
 Slavery. The Emancipation Society for slaves 
 lasted 1862-5. 
 
 EMBALMING. The ancient Egyptians be- 
 lieving that their souls, after many thousand years, 
 •would reinhabit their bodies, if preserved entire, 
 ■embalmed the dead. Some of the bodies, called 
 mummies, buried 3000 years ago are still perfect. 
 " The physicians embalmed Israel," 1689 B.C. Gen. 
 1. 2 ; see Mummies. Carbolic acid was successfully 
 employed by professor Seely in America, in 1868. 
 
 The most perfect specimens of modern embalming are pre- 
 served in the museum of the royal college of surgeons, 
 one being the body of the wife of Van Butchell, pre- 
 served by John Hunter by injecting camphorated 
 spirits of wine, &c. , into the arteries and veins ; and 
 the other the body of a young woman, who died about 
 1 780 of consumption, in the Lock hospital. The method 
 of embalming royal personages in modern times is fully 
 described in " Hunter's Posthumous Works." He died 
 in 1793. —During the American War (1861-5), many 
 soldiers' bodies were embalmed and sent home. 
 
 EMBANKMENTS of earth were erected by 
 the ancients for preservation from then enemies 
 ■and the inundations of the tide. Those of the 
 Egyptians and Babylonians are described by Hero- 
 dotus and Strabo. To the Romans are attributed 
 the first dykes of Holland, and the embankments of 
 Eomney Marsh, considered to be the oldest in Britain. 
 In 1250 Henry III. issued a writ enforcing the sup- 
 port of these works ; and his successors followed his 
 example. James I. greatly encouraged the embank- 
 ment of the Thames. Sir W. Dugdale's " History 
 of Embanking" first appeared in 1662 ; see Brain- 
 ■age, Levels, and Thames. Since 1830, millions of 
 pounds have been expended in embankments for 
 railways. 
 
 EMBARGO, from the Spanish embargar, to 
 -detain, applied to the restraining ships from sailing. 
 This power is vested in the crown, but is rarely 
 •exercised except in extreme cases, and sometimes as 
 a prelude to war. The most memorable instances 
 of embargo were those for the prevention of corn 
 going out of the kingdom in 1766 ; and for the de- 
 tention of all Russian, Danish, and Swedish ships 
 in the several ports of the kingdom, owing to the 
 armed neutrality, 14 Jan. 1801 ; see Armed Neu- 
 trality. 
 
 EMBER WEEKS, instituted, it is said, by 
 pope Callixtus I. (219-223), to implore the blessing' 
 of God on the produce of the earth by prayer and 
 fasting, in which penitents used to sprinkle the 
 ashes (embers) of humiliation on their heads. In 
 the English church the Ember days are the Wed- 
 nesday, Friday, and Saturday, after the following 
 days — the first Sunday in Lent, Whit-sunday, 14 
 Sept. (Holy Cross), and 13 Dec. (St. Lucia). 
 
 EMBROIDERY is usually ascribed to the 
 Phrygians ; but the Sidonians excelled in it, and it 
 is mentioned in 1491 B.C. Exodus xxxv. 35 and 
 xxxviii. 23. See Bayeux Tapestry. Embroidery is 
 how done by machinery. The first embroidery ma- 
 
 chine is said to have been invented by John Duncan 
 of Glasgow in 1804. Heilman's embroidery machine 
 was patented by Kochlin. Berlin Wool-work has 
 been much improved of late years by the production 
 of more elegant patterns, first published by Mr. 
 Wittich in Berlin, about 1810. 
 
 EMERALD, a precious stone, of a green colour, 
 found in tbe East and in Peru. It has been er- 
 roneously alleged that there were no true emeralds 
 in Europe before the conquest of Peru ; but there is 
 one in the Paris Museum, taken from the mitre of 
 pope Julius II. who died in 1513, and Peru was not 
 conquered till 1545. 
 
 EMESA, now Hems, Syria, renowned for a 
 temple of the sun, the priest of which, Bassianus, 
 was proclaimed emperor with the name Heliogabalus 
 or Elagabalus, 218. His atrocities led to his assas- 
 sination, 11 March, 222. 
 
 EMIGRANTS- The French aristocracy and 
 clergy (emigres) began to leave their country in 
 July, 1789, at the breaking out of the revolution : 
 their estates were confiscated in Dec. A large num- 
 ber returned in 1802, by an amnesty granted after 
 the peace of Amiens. Many were indemnified after 
 the restoration in 1815. 
 
 EMIGRATION. Phoenician and Greek emi- 
 grants colonised the coasts of the Mediterranean and 
 the Black Sea ; see Magna Greecia, Marseilles, &c. 
 The discoveiy of America opened a vast field for 
 emigration, which was restrained by Charles I. in 
 1637. It has been greatly encouraged since 1819. 
 Regulations for emigration were made in 1831, and 
 in Jan. 1840, the Colonial Land and Emigration 
 Board was established. Emigration much promoted 
 through want of employment in London, 1869-70. 
 
 Emigration from the United Kingdom, in 1815, 2081 ; in 
 1820, 25,729 ; in 1830, 56,907 ; in 1840, 90,743 ; in 1850, 
 280,843 ; in i860, 128,469 ; in 1866, 204,882 ; in 1867, 
 195,953 ; in 1868, 196,325 ; in 1869, 258,027 ; in 1870, 
 256,940 ; in 1871, 252,435. 
 
 1846. 1851. 
 
 From England 86,611 254,970 
 
 ,, Scotland . . . . 3,427 18,646 
 
 ,, Ireland 38,813 62,350 
 
 128,851 335, 966 
 
 Emigration to North American colonies, West Indies, 
 
 Cape of Good Hope, New South Wales, Swan River, 
 
 Van Diemen's Land, &c. , in 1820-30, 154,291 ; in 1830-40, 
 
 277.695- 
 
 To North American Colonies, in 1842, 54,123 ; in 1847, 
 109,680 ; in 1856, 16,378 ; in 1861, 12,707 ; in 1863, 
 18,083 ; m 1864, 12,721 ; in 1866, 13,255 ; in 1867, 15,503 ; 
 in 1868, 21,062 ; in 1869, 33,891 ; in 1870, 35,295. 
 
 To United States, in 1842, 63,852 ; in 1847, 142,154 ; in 
 1857, 126,905 ; in 1861, 49,764 ; in 1863, 146,813 ; in 
 1864, 147,042; in 1866, 161,000; in 1867, 159,275; in 
 1868, 155,532 ; in 1869, 203,001 ; in 1870, 196,075. 
 
 To Australia and New Zealand, ill 1842, 8534 ; in 1845, 
 830 ; in 1850, 16,037 ; in 1852 (gold discovery), 87,881 ; 
 in 1853, 61,401 ; in 1854, 83,237 ; in 1855, 52,309 : in 
 1856, 44,584 ; in 1857, 61,248 ; in 1861, 23,738 ; in 1863, 
 53,o D 4 ; in 1864, 40,942 ; in 1866, 24,097 ; in 1867, 14,466 ; 
 in 1868, 12,809 I i' 1 1869, 14,901 ; in 1870, 17,065. 
 
 To other "places, in 1854, 3366 ; in 1859, I2 A 2 7 • m 1868, 
 6922 ; in 1870, 8505. 
 
 EMILY ST. PIERRE, see United States, 
 1862. 
 
 EMINENCE, a title conferred upon cardinals 
 by pope Urban VIII. Jan. 10, 1631, as more honour- 
 able than "Excellency." Previously cardinals had 
 the title of Illustrissimi. Ashe. The grand-master 
 of Malta also obtained this title. Eardon. 
 
 EMIR, a title of the caliphs among the Turks 
 and Persians, first awarded to the descendants of 
 
EMISSION THEOEY. 
 
 237 
 
 ENGEN. 
 
 Mahomet's daughter Fatinia, about 650. To such 
 only was originally given the privilege of wearing 
 the green turban. 
 
 EMISSION THEOEY OF LIGHT (advo- 
 cated by Newton, about 1672), supposes that indi- 
 vidual particles pass from the luminous body to the 
 eye, and that each ray of light passes from the sun 
 to the earth. It is opposed to the Undulatory 
 Theory {which see) now generally received. 
 
 EMLY, an Irish see, said to have been founded 
 by St. Patrick. Emly was called Imelaca-Ibair : 
 St. Ailbe was the first bishop in 448. In 1568, the 
 see was united to Cashel (which see). It is now an 
 inconsiderable village. 
 
 EMMANUEL HOSPITAL, Westminster, 
 founded in 1594 by lady Anne Dacre for aged people 
 and children. Its original annual income had in- 
 creased from 360^. to about 4000^. in 1870, when 
 changes in the disposition of the funds were pro- 
 posed by the Charity Commissioners, and opposed. 
 
 EMPALEMENT. This mode of executing 
 criminals, mentioned by Juvenal, and often inflicted 
 in Rome, is still used in Turkey and Arabia. In 
 England the dead bodies of murderers were some- 
 times staked in this manner, previously to being 
 buried ; abolished, 1823. See Suicide. 
 
 EMPEEOE, from Imperator (ruler), a title 
 conferred on victorious Roman generals. 
 
 Augustus Caesar the first Koman emperor . b.c. 27 
 Valentinian I. first emperor of the west, and Valens, 
 
 first emperor of the east . . . a.d. 364 
 
 Charlemagne first emperor of Germany, crowned by 
 
 Leo. III. ....»....'. 800 
 Othman I. founder of the Turkish empire, the first 
 
 emperor of Turkey 1299 
 
 The Czar the first emperor of Bussia . 22 Oct. 1721 
 Napoleon Bonaparte first emperor of the French 1804 
 Napoleon III., his nephew, founded the second 
 
 French empire, Dec. 1852, deposed . 4 Sept. 1870 
 Iturbide, emperor of Mexico, Feb. 1822 ; shot 
 
 19 July, 1824 
 Dom Pedro IV. of Portugal the first emperor of 
 
 Brazil . 1825 
 
 Faustin I. the first emperor of Hayti, in 1849 ; de- 
 posed .... 1859 
 
 Maximilian I. emperor of Mexico, 10 April, 1864 ; 
 
 shot 19 June, 1867 
 
 EMPIEICS, a sect of physicians, formed in the 
 3rd century before Christ, who contended that all 
 reasoning respecting the animal economy was use- 
 less, and that experience and observation were the 
 only foundations of medicine. The sect adopted 
 the principles of Acron of Agrigentum, who flour- 
 ished about 430 B.C. 
 
 _ ENAMELLING was practised by the Egyp- 
 tians, Chinese, and other nations, and was known 
 in England in the time of the Saxons. At Oxford 
 is an enamelled jewel, which belonged to Alfred, 
 and which, as appears by the inscription, was made 
 by his order, in his reign, about 887. Limoges 
 enamelled ware was popular in the 16th century. 
 Magnificent specimens by Lepec, Elkington, Eman- 
 uel, and others, appeared at the exhibition at Paris, 
 1867. See Mosaic. On 19 June, 1862, madame 
 Rachel sued captain Carnegie for 928/. for enamel- 
 ling his wife's face : and was nonsuited ; see 
 Trials, 1868. 
 
 ENOZENIA. Greek festivals kept on days on 
 which cities were built and temples consecrated; 
 and in later times, as at Oxford, at the celebration 
 of founders and benefactors. Oldisworth. They 
 were the origin of church-wakes in England, about 
 
 1620. 
 
 1673 
 1677- 
 
 600. They were also feasts celebrated by the Jews. 
 on the 25th of the ninth month, in commemoration, 
 of the Maccabees cleansing the temple, which had' 
 been polluted by Antiochus Epiphanes, 131 b.c. 
 
 ENCAUSTIC PAINTING, enamelling by 
 fire. Painting with burnt wax is said to have been 
 known to Praxiteles about 360 B.C. This art was 
 revived by M. Bachelier, 1749, by count Caylus, 
 1765, and by Miss Greenland, 1785 and 1792. 
 
 ENCEATITES, followers of Tatian, about 170, 
 denounced marriage, and abstained from flesh, and 
 from wine even at the Lord's supper. 
 
 ENCUMBEBED ESTATES ACT, passed 
 July 1849, to enable owners of land or leases in 
 Ireland, subject to encumbrance, to apply to com- 
 missioners appointed under it to direct a sale of such 
 property. These commissioners held their first 
 court in Dublin, 24 Oct. 1849, and their last 28 July, 
 1858, a new court being established under the* 
 Landed Estates act. The number of estates sold up 
 to 1858 was 2380, producing twenty-two millions of 
 pounds. In 1854 a similar act was passed for the- 
 West Indies. 
 
 ENCYCLICAL Lettee, see Rome, 1864. 
 
 ENCYCLOPEDIA or Cyclopedia, a 
 
 general dictionary of art, science, and literature. 
 This name has been given to a work by Abulphara- 
 gius in the 13th century. 
 
 Alsted's Encyclopaedia 
 
 Louis Moreri's Dictionnaire Historique ' . 
 Hofmann's Lexicon Universale .... 
 Corneille's Dictionnaire des Arts . . . 
 
 Bayle's Dictionnaire x ^gQ. 
 
 Lexicon Technicum of John Harris (earliest English 
 
 encyclopaedia) 1704 ; supplements . 1710, 1741 
 
 Ephraim Chambers' Cyclopaedia i 72 s 
 
 Zedler's Universal Lexicon ... ' 1732-50 
 
 Encyclopedie (by Diderot and D'Alembeit) ' . 1751-80 
 [The contributors were termed Encycxopedistes, 
 
 and their daring writings are believed to have 
 
 hastened the French revolution in 1789.] 
 Encyclopaedia Britannica (1st edition by "William 
 
 Smellie] I77 g 
 
 [The 8th completed, 1861.] 
 Encyclopedie Methodique (by Paneoucke) . 1782-1832' 
 Chambers' Cyclopaedia (edited by Rees) . . . 1785 
 
 Rees' Cyclopaedia 1802-10 
 
 Brockhaus's Conversations Lexicon, 1st edition . 1818" 
 
 [New editions frequent. ] 
 Encyclopaedia Metropolitana .... 1817-45. 
 Cabinet Cyclopaedia (a collection of treatises) . 1829-46 
 
 Penny Cyclopaedia 1833-46. 
 
 Knight's English Cyclopaedia (4 divisions) . 1853-61-70 
 
 Chambers' Cyclopaedia 1859-68 
 
 Ersch and Graber's Allgemeine Encyclopadie, began 
 
 1818 ; 125 vols, published x 86b. 
 
 ENDEEBY LAND, see Southern Continent. 
 
 ENDOSMOSIS. M. Dutrochet, about 1826, 
 found that if two fluids, gases 01 vapours, of unequal: 
 density, are separated by an animal or vegetable 
 membrane, the denser will attract the less dense 
 through the medium. This property he called' 
 endosmose, when the attraction is from the outside 
 to the inside, and exosmose when it operates from 
 the inside to the outside. Many natural phenomena' 
 are thus more clearly understood. Brande. 
 
 . ENDOWED SCHOOLS ACT, containing 
 the " Conscience Clause," passed i860 ; another 
 similar act passed 2 Aug. 1869. 
 
 ENFIELD MUSKET, see Fire-arms. 
 
 ENGEN, Baden. Here Moreau defeated the- 
 Austrians, 3 May, 1800. 
 
ENGHIEN. 
 
 238 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 ENGHIEN or STEENKIRK (S. W. Belgium). 
 Here the British under William III. were defeated 
 by the French under marshal Luxemburg-, 24 July, 
 1692. — The due d'Enghien, a descendant of the 
 great Conde, was seized in Baden by order of Bona- 
 parte, conveyed to Vincennes, and, after a hasty 
 trial, shot by torch-light, immediately after con- 
 demnation, 21 March, 1804. The body was ex- 
 humed, 20 March, 1816. 
 
 ENGINEERS, Military, formerly called 
 Trench-masters. Sir William Pelham officiated as 
 trench-master in 1622 ; the chief engineer was 
 called camp-master-general in 1634. Capt. Thomas 
 Eudd had the rank of chief engineer to the king 
 about 1650. The corps of engineers was formerly 
 a civil corps, but was made a military force, and 
 directed to rank with the artillery, 25 April, 1787. 
 It has a colonel-in-chief, 16 colonels-commandant, 
 and 16 colonels. Civil Engineering became im- 
 portant in the middle of the last century, when 
 Smeaton began the Eddystone lighthouse, and 
 Brindley the Bridgewater canal. Since then the 
 Kennies, Telford, the Stephensons and Brunels, 
 Locke, and others have constructed breakwaters, 
 docks, bridges, railways, tunnels, &c, which are 
 the marvel of our age. 
 
 The first society of Civil Engineers formed by Smea- 
 ton and others, afterwards termed the Smsaton la u 
 Society of Civil Engineers 1793 
 
 Institution of Civil Engineers established 2 .Ian. 
 1818 ; obtained a charter ... 3 June, 1828 
 1472 members Jan. 1868 
 
 Institution of Mechanical Engineers, which has its 
 head-quarters in Birmingham, established . . 1847 
 
 Isambard Kingdon Brunei, projector of the Great 
 Eastern, aged 53, died 15 Sept. ; Robert Stephen- 
 son, railway engineer, aged 59, died . 12 yet. 1859 
 
 Engineers' Amalgamated Society, in 1867, consisted 
 of above 30,000 members ; annual income, 86,000/. ; 
 disbursed to disabled workmen, A: e., about 50,000?.; 
 amassed capital, about 125,000. 
 
 Engineer, weekly journal, established . 4 Jan. 1856 
 
 Jingineering, weekly journal, established . Jan. 1866 
 
 ENGLAND (from Angles and lond, land), so 
 named, it is said, by Egbert, first king of the 
 English in a general council held at Winchester, 
 $29 ; or by Athelstau, 925. See Anglo-Saxons. 
 England was united to Wales, 128 3; to Scotland in 
 1603 ; they have had the same legislature since 1707, 
 •when the three were styled Great Britain. Ireland 
 •was incorporated with them, by the act of legislative 
 runion, 1 Jan. 1801, and the whole was called the 
 United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The 
 British empire is computed to containahout 7,000,000 
 square miles of territory, with 200,000,000 inhabi- 
 tants. Statistical details are given under the re- 
 spective headings ; Army, Navy, Revenue, &c. For 
 previous history, see Britain. Historic* of England, 
 by llapin (in English), 1725-31 ; Thomas Carte, 
 1747-55; David Hume, 1755-62 ; Tobias Smollett, 
 1757-65 ; John Lingard, 1819-30 ; Charles Knight, 
 1856-62. See Chronicles. 
 
 Egbert, " king of the English," 828 ; defeats the 
 Welsh, Danes, &c. , at Hengestdown . . . 835 
 
 Alfred, king, 871 ; after many vicissitudes, van- 
 quishes the Danes 871-896 
 
 He frames a code of laws, 890 ; forms a militia and 
 navy, surveys and subdivides the country, and 
 promotes education 896 
 
 Athelstan's great victory over the Danes, Scots, &c 
 at Brunanburg 937 
 
 Predominance of Dunstan ; he promotes monaehism 
 and the celibacy of the clergy, about . . . 952 
 
 Ethelred compounds with the Danes for peace . 991 
 
 Causes their massacre 13 Nov. 1002 
 
 Avenged by Sweyn, king of Denmark : Ethelred 
 flees to Normandy 1003 
 
 Sweyn dies, and Ethelred returns, 1014 ; dies . . 1016 
 
 Canute the Dane sole monarch 1017 
 
 Edward the Confessor king ; Saxon dynasty restored 1042 
 Harold II. crowned, 6 Jan. ; defeats the Norwegians, 
 25 Sept. : defeated and slain at Hastings by Wil- 
 liam of Normandy 14 Oct. 1066 
 
 William I. crowned .... 25 Dec. „ 
 The northern counties rebel ; ravaged from the 
 
 Humber to the Tyne 1069-70 
 
 Introduction of the feudal system, about . . 1070 
 
 Justices of peace appointed 1076 
 
 Domesday book compiled 1085-6 
 
 William II. crowned . . . .26 Sept. 1087 
 
 The crusades begin 1096 
 
 Henry I. crowned ; restores Saxon laws, &c. 
 
 5 Aug. 1 too 
 Defeats his brother Robert, and gains Normandy . 1 106 
 Stephen crowned .... 26 Dec. 1135 
 Civil war between the empress Maud, Henry's 
 daughter, and Stephen ; her friends the Scots de- 
 feated at the battle of the Standard, . 22 Aug. 1 138 
 She lands in England, and is successful . . . 1139 
 Crowned at Winchester ... 3 March, 1141 
 
 Defeated; retires to France 1147 
 
 Concludes a peace with Stephen 1153 
 
 Henry II. crowned .... 19 Dec. 1154 
 Constitutions of Clarendon enacted . . Jan. 1164 
 Arrogance of Becket ; murdered . . 29 Dec. 11 70 
 
 Conquest of Ireland 1172 
 
 England divided into six circuits for the administra- 
 tion of justice 1176 
 
 English laws digested by Glanville, about . . . 1181 
 Richard I. crowned .... 3 Sept. 1189 
 
 He joins the crusades 1191 
 
 Defeats Saladin 1192 
 
 Made prisoner by Henry VI. of Germany . Dec. 1192 
 
 Ransomed for 400,000/ 1194 
 
 John crowned .... 27 May, 1199 
 
 Normandy lost to England 1204 
 
 England put under an interdict 1208 
 
 Magna Charts granted . . . .15 June, 1215 
 
 Henry III. crowned . . . .28 Oct. 1216 
 
 The Barons' war (which see) .... 1262-8 
 
 The first regular parliament 1265 
 
 Edward I. crowned . . . .20 Nov. 1272 
 
 Wales united to England 1283 
 
 Death of Roger Bacon 1292 
 
 Scotland subdued, 1296 ; revolts 1297 
 
 Edward II. crowned .... 8 July, 1307 
 Defeated by Bruce at Bannockburn . 24 June, 1314 
 Insurrection of the barons against his favourites . 1308 
 
 1315. 1325 
 
 Edward III. crowned ... 25 Jan. 1327 
 
 Defeat of the Scots at Hallidown-hill . . . . 1333 
 
 Invades France ; victorious at Crecy . 26 Aug. 1346 
 
 Takes Calais 1347 
 
 Order of the Garter instituted . . . 1349 
 
 Victory at Poictiers .... 19 Sept. 1356 
 
 Peace of Bretigny a May, 1360 
 
 Law pleadings in English 1362 
 
 Richard II. crowned. . . . 22 June, 1377 
 Insurrection of Wat Tyler suppressed . 15 June, 138 1 
 
 Death of Wickliffe 1385 
 
 Henry IV. crowned ... 30 Sept. 1399 
 Order of the Bath instituted by Henry IV. . . ,, 
 Insurrection of the Percies and the Welsh . . 1402-5 
 Henry V. crowned ... 21 March, 1413 
 
 France invaded by Henry V. who gains the battle of 
 
 Agincourt 25 Oct. 1415 
 
 Treaty of Troyes ; the French crown gained . . 1420 
 Henry VI. crowned at Paris . . . Dec. 1430 
 Appearance of the maid of Orleans ; the French con- 
 quests lost, except Calais 1429-31 
 
 Cade's insurrection . June, 1450 
 
 War of the Roses (see Roses and Battles) . . 1455-71 
 
 Edward IV. deposes Henry VI. . 4 March, 1461 
 
 Printing introduced by Caxton 1471 
 
 Edward V. accession .... 9 April, 1483 
 Murdered in the Tower (soon after) . . . . ,, 
 Richard III. deposes Edward V. . 25 June, ,, 
 
 Valuable statutes enacted 1484 
 
 Henry VII. accession ; Richard defeated and 
 slain at Bosworth Field ... .22 Aug. 1485 
 Henry marries Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV. . i486 
 Insurrection of Lambert Simnel quelled . . 1486-7 
 Yeomen of the guard, the first appearance of a 
 
 standing army in England instituted . . 1485 
 Court of Star-Chamber instituted .... 1487 
 
ENGLAND. 
 
 239 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 Insurrection of Perkin Warbeck quelled . . 1492-8 
 Gardening introduced into England, principally from 
 
 the Netherlands, about 1502 
 
 Death of Prince Arthur .... 2 April, ,, 
 
 Henry VIII. accession ... 22 April, 1509 
 Kise of Wolsey ... .... 1514 
 
 Henry VIII. 's interview with Francis I. at Ardres 
 
 (see " Field of the Cloth of Gold") . 4-25 June, 1520 
 First map of England drawn by G. Lilly, about . ,, 
 Henry VIII. becomes " Defender of the Faith " . . 1521 
 Fall of Wolsey ; he dies . . . .29 Nov. 1530 
 
 Henry VIII. marries Anne Boleyn privately, Nov. 
 1532 or January 1533 ; divorced from Catherine, 
 
 23 May, 1533 
 Henry VIII. styled " Head of the Church " . . 1534 
 The pope's authority in England is abolished . . ,, 
 Sir Thomas More beheaded ... 6 July, 1535 
 Queen Anne Boleyn beheaded . . 19 May, 1536 
 Queen Jane Seymour dies ... 24 Oct. 1537 
 
 Monasteries suppressed 1538 
 
 Statute of Six Articles passed 1539 
 
 Abbots of Glastonbury, Reading, <fec. executed . . ,, 
 The first authorised edition of the Bible (Cranmer's) 
 
 printed „ 
 
 Cromwell, lord Essex, beheaded 1540 
 
 Anne of Cleves divorced .... 9 July, „ 
 Queen Catherine Howard beheaded .... 1542 
 The title of " king of Ireland" confirmed to the Eng- 
 lish sovereigns 1543 
 
 Henry marries Catherine Parr . . .12 July, „ 
 Edward VI. accession, 28 Jan. ; promotes the 
 Reformation (Somerset, protector) . . . 1547 
 Book of Common Prayer authorised . , . . 1548 
 Somerset deprived of power, 1549 ; beheaded . . 1552 
 Mary, accession, 6 July ; restores popery . . 1553 
 Execution of lady Jane Grey and her friends . . 1554 
 Mary marries Philip of Spain ; persecutes the Pro- 
 testants ,, 
 
 Ridley, Latimer, and Cranmer burnt . 1555 and 1556 
 
 Calais re-taken by the French . . .7 Jan. 1558 
 
 Elizabeth, accession ; the church of England 
 
 re-established 17 Nov. ,, 
 
 Mary, queen of Scots, lands in England, 1568 ; exe- 
 cuted 8 Feb. 1587 
 
 The Spanish armada repulsed .... July, 1588 
 
 Devereux, earl of Essex, beheaded . 25 Feb. 1601 
 
 James I. accession ; union of the two crowns 
 
 24 March, 1603 
 Styled " king of Great Britain " . . 24 Oct. 1604 
 
 The Gunpowder Plot Nov. 1605 
 
 The present translation of the Bible completed . . 1611 
 
 Baronets first created May, ,, 
 
 The Overbury murder .... 15 Sept. 1613 
 
 Shakespeare dies 23 April, 1616 
 
 Raleigh beheaded 29 Oct. 1618 
 
 Book of Sports published ... 24 May, ,, 
 Charles I. accession ... 27 March, 1625 
 
 Death of lord Bacon 9 April, 1626 
 
 Duke of Buckingham assassinated . 23 Aug. 1628 
 Hampden's trial respecting " ship money " . . . 1637 
 Contest between the king and parliament ; impeach- 
 ment and execution of lord Strafford . . .1641 
 " Arrest of the five members " . . .4 Jan. 1642 
 Civil war begins ; see Battles ... 23 Oct. ,, 
 Archbishop Laud beheaded . . . .10 Jan. 1645 
 Charles defeated at Naseby . . .14 June, ,, 
 He flees to the Scotch, 5 May ; is given up, 21 Sept. 1646 
 
 Execution of Charles 1 30 Jan. 1649 
 
 Cromwell's victory at Worcester . . 3 Sept. 1651 
 Oliver Cromwell protector of the Common- 
 wealth 16 Dec. 1653 
 
 Naval victories of Blake 1652-7 
 
 Richard Cromwell, protector . . 3 Sept. 1658 
 
 Richard resigns 25 May, 1659 
 
 Charles II. : monarchy re-established, 29 May, 1660 
 Act of uniformity passed ; church of England re- 
 stored 1662 
 
 The great plague 1665 
 
 The great fire of London . . . . 2, 3 Sept. 1666 
 Disgrace of lord Clarendon .... Nov. 1667 
 Death of John Milton .... 8 Nov. 1674 
 Oates's "popish plot " creates a panic . 13 Aug. 1678 
 Sir Edmond Beriy Godfrey found murdered, 17 Oct. „ 
 Many Roman Catholics executed .... 1678-9 
 The Habeas Corpus act, for protecting English sub- 
 jects against false arrest and imprisonment, passed 
 
 27 May, 1679 
 
 " Rye-house plot ;" William, lord Russell (executed 
 21 July), and Algernon Sydney executed . . . 1683 
 James II. accession . . . . 6 Feb. 1685 
 Duke of Monmouth's rebellion defeated at Sedge- 
 moor, 6 July ; he is beheaded . . 15 July^ „ 
 Acquittal of the seven bishops . . 30 June, 1688 
 
 Abdication of James II 11 Dec. ,, 
 
 William III. and Mary proclaimed by the con- 
 vention parliament ... 13 Feb. 1689 
 
 National debt begins 1:692 
 
 Bank of England incorporated . . 27 July, 1694 
 Death of the queen regnant, Mary . . 28 Dec. „ 
 
 Peace of Ryswick . xfjgj 
 
 Death of James II. in exile . . . 16 Sept. 1701 
 
 Anne, accession .... 8 Mavch, 1702 
 
 Victory of Marlborough at Blenheim . 2 Aug. 1704 
 
 Union of the two kingdoms under the title of Great 
 
 Britain . . . ... . . x May, 1707 
 
 Sacheverell riots I7IO 
 
 Treaty of Utrecht, advantageous to Great Britain 
 
 11 April, 1713 
 George I. of Hanover, accession . . 1 Aug. 1714 
 
 The Scots' rebellion quelled i 7IS 
 
 South-sea bubble . 1720 
 
 Death of the duke of Marlborough . 16 June, 1722 
 
 Order of the Bath revived (which see) , . . . 1725 
 
 George II. accession . . . . ix June, 1727 
 
 Death of Newton 20 March' 
 
 George II. at the victory of Dettingen . 16 June' 1743 
 Second Scots rebellion : prince Charles-Edward 
 gains Edinburgh, 17 Sept. ; victor at Prestonpans, 
 
 21 Sept. 1745 
 Victory at Falkirk, 18 Jan. ; defeated totally at Cul- 
 
 loden 16 April, 1746 
 
 Death of prince Frederick Louis, son of George II. 
 
 and father of George III. . . 20 March, 1751 
 
 New style introduced into England, 3 Sept. (made 14) 1752 
 Seven years' war begins .... May, 1756 
 
 Conquest of India begins, under colonel (afterwards 
 
 lord) Clive (see India) xjsj 
 
 Victory and death of general Wolfe (see Quebec) ' '. 1759 
 George III. accession ... . .25 Oct. 1760 
 His marriage with Charlotte Sophia, of Mecklen- 
 burg Strelitz, 8 Sept. ; crowned . 22 Sept. 1761 
 Peace of Paris ; Canada gained . . .10 Feb. 1763 
 Isle of Man annexed to Great Britain . . '. 1765 
 Death of the Old Pretender, the " chevalier de St. 
 
 George " 30 Dec. „ 
 
 Royal marriage act passed I7?2 
 
 American war begins (see United States) . . . 1773 
 Death of earl of Chatham . . . 11 May, 1778 
 
 " No Popery " riots 2 - 7 June, 1780 
 
 Separation of America from England . . 30 Nov. 1782 
 Margaret Nicholson's attempt on the 'life of 
 
 George III 2 Aug. 1786 
 
 Trial of Warren Hastings begins ... 13 Feb. 1788 
 Death of the Young Pretender, at Rome, 3 March, ,, 
 The king's illness made known . . 12 Oct. ,, 
 He recovers, and goes to St. Paul's to make thanks- 
 giving 23 April, 1789 
 
 First coalition against France . . 26 June, 1792 
 Habeas Corpus act suspended . -23 May, 1794 
 
 Howe's victory T June, „ 
 
 Marriage of the prince of Wales with the princess 
 
 Caroline of Brunswick .... 8 April, 1795 
 Warren Hastings acquitted ... 23 April', 
 Princess Charlotte of Wales bom . . 7 Jan' 1796 
 Cash payments suspended ... 25 Feb. 1797 
 Death of Edmund Burke .... 9 July, ,, 
 Battle of the Nile ; Nelson victor . . . 1 Aug! 1798 
 
 Irish rebellion May, 
 
 Habeas Corpus act again suspended . . . . " 
 Hatfield's attempt on the king's life . . 15 May, 1800 
 Union of Great Britain with Ireland . . 1 Jan. 1801 
 Nelson's victory at Copenhagen . • 2 April, „ 
 Habeas Corpus act again suspended . 19 April, ,, 
 Peace of Amiens concluded . . . 1 Oct. ,, 
 War against France under Bonaparte . .18 May, 1803 
 Nelson's victory and death at Trafalgar . 21 Oct. 1805 
 
 Death of Mr. Pitt 23 Jan. 1806 
 
 "Delicate investig-^' on" (which see) . .May, 
 Lord Melville impeached, 29April; acquitted 12 June, 
 Death of Charles James Fox ... 13 Sept. " 
 Orders in council against Berlin decree . 7 Jan. 1807 
 Abolition of the slave trade by parliament, 25 Mar. 
 Victory and death of sir J. Moore. (See Corunna) 
 
 16 Jan. 1809 
 
ENGLAND. 
 
 240 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 Duke of York impeached by col. Wardle . Jan. 1809 
 Jubilee celebrating king's accession . . 25 Oct. ,, 
 Unfortunate Walcheren expedition . Aug. -Nov. ,, 
 Sir Francis Burdett's arrest, and riots . 6 April, 1810 
 Death of princess Amelia ; king's malady returns, 
 
 2 Nov. , , 
 Great commercial embarrassment . . Dec. 
 
 Regent — The prince of Wales . . 5 Feb. 1811 
 
 Luddite riots Nov. ., 
 
 Assassination of Mr. Perceval, premier 11 May, 1812 
 
 Earl of Liver] 1 premier . . . 9 June, ,, 
 
 War with America commenced , . . 18 June, 
 
 Peace with France, &c 14 April, 1814 
 
 Visit cit' the emperor of Russia and king of Prussia 
 
 to England 7 June, „ 
 
 Centenary of the house of Hanover . . 1 Aug. ,, 
 
 War with America Aug. ,, 
 
 Peace with America (treaty of Ghent) . 24 Dec. ,, 
 Battle of Waterloo (close of French war), 18 June, 1815 
 Princess Charlotte marries prince Leopold, of Saxe- 
 
 Coburg 2 May, 18 16 
 
 Death of R. B. Sheridan .... 9 July, ,, 
 Spa-fields meeting (which see) . . . 2 Ikr. 
 Green-bag inquiry (which see) . . . 2 Feb. 1817 
 Habeas Corpus act suspended . . .24 Feb. ,, 
 Cash payments resumed . . . .22 Sept. ,, 
 Princess Charlotte dies in childbirth . . 6 Nov. ,, 
 Queen Charlotte dies at Kew ... 17 Nov. 1S1S 
 Queen Victoria born .... 24 May, 1819 
 Manchester reform meeting (Peterloo) . 16 Aug. 
 
 Duke of Kent dies 23 Jan. 1S20 
 
 George IV. accession ... 29 Jan. ,, 
 
 Cato-street conspirators arrested, 23 Feb. executed, 
 
 1 May, „ 
 Trial of queen Caroline . . 19 Aug. to 10 Nov. ,, 
 
 Coronation of George IV 19 July, 1821 
 
 Queen Caroline dies at Hammersmith . 7 Aug. ,, 
 
 Lord Byron dies 19 April, 1824 
 
 Commercial panic 1825-6 
 
 Duke of York dies 5 Jan. 1827 
 
 Mr. Canning, premier, 30 April ; dies . 8 Aug. ,, 
 
 Battle of Navarino 20 Oct, „ 
 
 Roman Catholic Relief bill passed . . 13 April, 1829 
 Political panic in London ;— riots . . Nov. ,, 
 
 William IV. accession ... 26 June, 1830 
 Mr. Huskisson killed at the opening of the Liver- 
 pool and Manchester railway . . .15 Sept, „ 
 Grey administration formed . . . . Nov. 
 King opens new London bridge . . . Aug. 1831 
 The cholera morbus in England . . .260,1. ,, 
 Reform bill rejected by the lords, 7 Oct. ; fatal 
 
 Bristol riots 29 Oct. ,, 
 
 English Reform act passed • • • 7 June, 1832 
 Sir Walter Scott dies .... 21 Sept. ,. 
 Assault on William IV. by a discharged pensioner at 
 
 Ascot 19 June, ., 
 
 S. T. Coleridge dies 25 July, 1834 
 
 Slavery ceases in the colonies . . .1 Aug. ,, 
 Corporation reform act passed . . . g Sept. 1835 
 Victoria, accession ; Hanover separated from 
 Great Britain .... 20 June, 1837 
 Coronation of queen Victoria . . . 28 June, 1S38 
 Beginning of war with China . . . March, 1839 
 Penny postage begins .... 10 Jan. 1840 
 Marriage of the queen with prince Albert of Saxe- 
 
 Coburg (see p. 244) 10 Feb. 
 
 Oxford's assault on the queen . . . 10 June, ,, 
 
 Prince of Wales born 9 Nov. 1841 
 
 King of Prussia visits England . . 24 Jan. 1842 
 John Francis fires at the queen . . . 30 May, ,, 
 Bean presents a pistol at her 3 July, ,, 
 
 Income tax act passed .... Aug. ,, 
 Queen embarks for Scotland (1st visit) . 29 Aug. ,, 
 Peace of Nankin (with China) . . . Dec. ,, 
 Death of duke of Sussex . . . 21 April, 1843 
 
 Queen's visit to the Orleans family at Chateau d'Eu, 
 
 2 Sept. ,, 
 Emperor of Russia visits England . . 1 June, 1844 
 King Louis Philippe's visit ... 7 Oct. ,. 
 Tractarian or Puseyite controversy . . . 1844-5 
 
 Anti-corn-law agitation 1845 
 
 Queen's visit to Germany . . . .9 Aug. „ 
 Peel's new tariff, 1845 ; railway mania . . Nov. „ 
 
 Commercial panic March, 1846 
 
 Corn laws repealed .... 26 June, „ 
 
 Chartist demonstration in London . . 10 April, 1848 
 Cholera re-appeara in England in . . 1848 and 1849 
 Queen embarks on her visit to Ireland . 1 Aug. ,, 
 
 Adelaide, queen dowager dies . . . 2 Dec. 1849 
 
 " Exhibition of 1851 " announced . . 3 Jan. 1850 
 
 Death of Wordsworth (aged 80) . . 23 April, „ 
 
 Pate's assault on the queen . . .27 June, ,, 
 
 Death of Sir Robert Peel (aged 62) . .2 July, ,, . 
 
 Duke of Cambridge dies .... 8 July, „ 
 
 Queen's visit to Belgium ... 21 Aug. ,, 
 Great excitement occasioned by the pope's establish- 
 ment ofa Roman Catholic Merarehy in England, Nov. ,, 
 Sixth census of United Kingdom (see Population) 
 
 (27,637,761) 30 March, 1851 
 
 The first " Great Exhibition " opened . 1 May, „ 
 
 Australian gold arrives .... Dec. ,, 
 
 Death of the poet Thomas Moore . . 26 Feb. 1852 
 John Camden Neild, an eccentric miser, bequeathed 
 
 about 250,000?. to the queen ; he died 30 Aug. „ 
 
 Slight earthquake at Liverpool, &c. . .9 Nov. ,, 
 Death of Wellington (aged 83), Sept. 14 ; public 
 
 funeral ... ... 18 Nov. ., 
 
 Camp. at Chobham . . . 14 June-19 Aug. 1853 
 Death of sir Charles Napier, conqueror of Scinde, 
 
 29 Aug. „ 
 
 English and French fleets enter Bosphorus, 22 Oct ,, 
 Protocol signed between England, France, Austria, 
 
 and Prussia, for re-establishment of peace between 
 
 Russia and Turkey 5 Dec. „ 
 
 Many meetings on eastern question, favourable to 
 
 Turkey Sept. to Dec. ,, 
 
 Great strike at Preston ; 14,972 hands unemployed 
 
 at one time . . .15 Oct. 1853, to 1 May, 1854 
 
 Queen reviews Baltic fleet . . . 11 March, ,, 
 Treaty of alliance between England, France, and 
 
 Turkey signed 12 March, ,, 
 
 War declared against Russia (see Rosso-Turkish War) 
 
 28 March, ,, 
 
 Fast day on account of the war . . 26 April, ,, 
 
 Marquis of Anglesey dies .... 28 May, „ 
 
 King of Portugal visits England ". . . June, ,, 
 Crystal Palace opened by the queen . 10 Jo a 
 Cholera prevails in the south and west of London, 
 Aug. ami Sept. 
 
 Thanksgiving for abundant harvest . . 1 Oct. ,, 
 Great explosion and tire at Gateshead and Newcastle, 
 
 6 Oct. „ 
 
 Meeting of Parliament .... 12 Dec. „ 
 
 Resignation of Aberdeen ministry . . 29 Jan. 1855 
 
 Formation of Palmerston ministry . . Feb. „ 
 
 Death of Joseph Hume (aged 78) . . 20 Feb. ,, 
 
 Sebastopol inquiry committee named . 23 Feb. ,, 
 Visit of emperor and empress of French, 
 
 \i6 to 21 April, ,, 
 
 Loan of 16 millions agreed to . .\ . April, ,, 
 
 Distribution of Crimean medals . . 18 May, ,, 
 Metropolitan cattle market opened . . 13 June. 
 
 Agitation and rioting concerning Sunday trailing 
 bill, which is withdrawn ... 2 July, 
 
 The queen and prince visit Paris . . 18 Aug. ,, 
 
 Peace with Russia proclaimed, 10 April ; thanks- 
 giving day, 4 May ; illuminations, &c. . 29 May, 1856 
 
 War with China (vhich see) .... Oct. ,, 
 
 War with Persia (which see) . . . Nov. ,, 
 
 Dissolution of parliament, 21 March ; new parlia- 
 ment meets 30 April, 1857 
 
 Death of duchess of Gloucester (aged 81), the last of 
 George III. 's children . . . 30 April, ,, 
 
 Mutiny of Indian army begins (see India) . March, 
 
 Opening of the Fine Arts exhibition at Manchester. 
 
 5 May, ,, 
 
 Educational conference in London, prince Albert in 
 the chair 22 June, „ 
 
 Victi iria crosses (ich ich see) distributed by the queen 
 in Hyde-park 26 June, ,, 
 
 Meetings for relief of sufferers by the mutiny in 
 India [by 15 Nov. 260,000?. raised] . 25 Aug. ,, 
 
 Great commercial panic ; relieved by suspension of 
 Bank Charter Act of 1844 . . .12 Nov. „ 
 
 Parliament meets 3 Dec. „ 
 
 Marriage of princess royal to prince Frederick-Wil- 
 Uam of Prussia 25 Jan. 1858 
 
 Excitement respecting attempted assassination of 
 Louis Napoleon, 14 Jan. ; indiscreet addresses of 
 French colonels, published . . -27 Jan. ,, 
 
 " Conspiracy to Murder " bill (introduced by lord 
 Palmerston, 8 Feb.) rejected, 19 Feb. ; Palmerston 
 ministry resigns ..... 22 Feb. ,, 
 
 Derby-Disraeli administration formed . 26 Feb. ,, 
 
 L)r. Simon Bernard acquitted of conspiracy against 
 the life of Louis Napoleon ... 17 April, „ 
 
ENGLAND. 
 
 241 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 The Jewish Disabilities bill passed . . 23 July, 1858 
 The India bill passed .... 2 Aug. „ 
 
 The queen visits Birmingham, 15 June: Cherbourg, 
 4, s Aug., ; the princess royal (at Potsdam), 12 
 Aug. &c. ;' and Leeds .... Sept. ,, 
 Excitement about the confessional ; public meet- 
 ings held against it . .12 July and 18 Sept. „ 
 The Association for the Promotion of Social Science 
 
 meet at Liverpool 12 Oct. ,, 
 
 Excitement respecting the Italian war ; proclama- 
 tion for manning the navy ... 30 April, 1859 
 Thanksgiving for suppression of Indian mutiny, 1 May, ,, 
 Declaration of neutrality of England . . 12 May, ,, 
 Proclamation for the organisation of volunteer rifle 
 
 corps : many formed .... May-Oct. „ 
 The Derby ministry defeated on the Reform bill ; 
 dissolve parliament, 23 April ; again defeated, 
 they resign u June ; the Palmerston- Russell ad- 
 ministration formed . . . .18 June, „ 
 The Handel commemoration . . 20, 22, 24 June, „ 
 The income-tax increased to provide for the defences 
 
 of the country July, „ 
 
 Lord Macaulay dies (aged 59) . . . 28 Dec. ,, 
 Commercial treaty with France, signed 23 Jan. ; 
 
 approved by parliament .... March, i860 
 Sir Charles Barry dies (aged 65) . . 12 May, „ 
 The queen reviews 18,000 volunteers in Hyde-park, 
 
 23 June, ,, 
 Great failures in the leather trade . July, &c. ,, 
 National rifle shooting match at Wimbledon (see 
 
 Volunteers) 2-7 July, „ 
 
 The earl of Derby reviews about 11,000 Lancashire 
 volunteers at Knowsley . . . .1 Sept. „ 
 
 The queen and prince visit their daughter in Prussia 
 
 Sept. „ 
 Peace with China signed . . . .24 Oct. „ 
 
 Thos. Cochrane, earl of Dundonald, dies (aged 82) 
 
 31 Oct. „ 
 Prince of Wales visits Canada and United States, 
 
 24 July-20 Oct. ; returns ... 15 Nov. ,, 
 Severe cold (see Cold) . . Dec. i860, and Jan. 1861 
 Charter granted for Exhibition of 1862 . 14 Feb. ,, 
 Death of duchess of Kent (aged 75) . 16 March, ,, 
 Excitement about " Essays and Reviews " . . ,, 
 Seventh census taken (29,192,419) . . . 8 April, ,, 
 Great excitement through eapt. Wilkes (of U.S. 
 navy) forcibly taking Messrs. Slidell and Mason 
 from the Royal British Mail steamer Trent (see 
 United States) . . . . . .8 Nov. „ 
 
 King of Sweden and his son visit London Aug. „ 
 Death of the prince consort of "typhoid fever, 
 duration 21 days," 14 Dec. ; buried (see Albert 
 
 Memorial) 23 Dec. ,, 
 
 The United States' government release Messrs. 
 
 Slidell and Mason 28 Dec. „ 
 
 Second great International Exhibition opened by the 
 
 duke of Cambridge 1 May, 1862 
 
 Inundations in Norfolk (see Levels) . . . May, ,, 
 Marriage of princess Alice to Louis of Hesse, 1 July, „ 
 Prince Alfred declared king of Greece at Athens 
 
 (throne declined) 23 Oct. ,, 
 
 Final closing of international exhibition . 15 Nov. ,, 
 Remains of the prince consort transferred to the 
 
 mausoleum at Frogmore ... 18 Dec. ,, 
 
 Great distress in the cotton manufacturing districts 
 begins, April : contributions received, central re- 
 lief fund, 407..830Z. ; Mansion-house fund, 236,926^. 
 
 20 Dec. ,, 
 Rupture with Brazil . . . . Jan. 1863 
 
 Prince Alfred elected king of Greece . . 3 Feb. ,, 
 Princess Alexandra of Denmark enters London, 
 7 March ; married to the prince of Wales, 
 
 10 March, ,, 
 The British, French, and Austrian governments re- 
 monstrate with Russia on cruelties in Poland, 
 
 7 April, ,, 
 Inauguration of the Great Exhibition memorial to 
 the prince consort in the Horticultural gardens, 
 
 London 11 June, „ 
 
 Arrival of captains Grant and Speke from exploring 
 
 the source of the Nile .... June, ,, 
 Great decrease of distress in cotton districts Oct. ,, 
 Earthquake in central and N.W. England . 6 Oct. ,, 
 The government declines the French emperor's pro- 
 posal for a congress of sovereigns . . Nov. ,, 
 Death of William Thackeray (aged 52) . 24 Dec. ,, 
 Birth of prince Albert-Victor of Wales . 8 Jan. 1864 
 Final judgment of the judicial committee of the 
 
 privy council that the government had no autho- 
 rity to seize the Alexandra (Confederate) steamer 
 
 8 Feb. 1864 
 Garibaldi's visit to England . . . 3-27 April, ,, 
 The Ionian isles made over to Greece . 1 June, „ 
 European conference at London on the Schleswig- 
 
 Holstein question ; no result, 24 April — 25 June, „ 
 Great excitement through the murder of Mr. Briggs 
 in a first-class carriage on the North-London rail- 
 way 9 July, ,, 
 
 Great explosion of gunpowder at the Belvedere 
 
 magazine, near Woolwich . . . . 1 Oct. „ 
 Death of John Leech (aged 47) ... 29 Oct. „ 
 Death of Richard Cobden (aged 61) . 2 April, 1865 
 Prince George of Wales born ... 3 June, „ 
 Resignation of lord-chancellor Westbury . 4 July, ,, 
 General election ; majority for Palmerston adminis- 
 tration 10 July, &c. ,, 
 
 Visit of Abd-el-Kader ; departs . . 6 Aug. „ 
 Prevalence of a cattle plague, June-Oct. ; royal 
 
 commission appointed ; met . . .10 Oct. „ 
 English fleet visits Cherbourg, 15 Aug. ; French fleet 
 
 visits Portsmouth . . . . 29, 30 Aug. ,, 
 Fine art and industrial exhibitions opened in Lon- 
 don and the provinces . . . July -Sept. ,, 
 Death of lord Palmerston, 18 Oct. ; public funeral 
 
 27 Oct. „ 
 Earl Russell premier ... 3 Nov. ,, 
 
 Important commercial treaty with Austria signed 
 
 16 Dec. „ 
 New parliament opened by the queen . . 6 Feb. 1866 
 New reform bill introduced by Mr. Gladstone, i2Mar. ., 
 Commercial panic in London . . n May, et seq. „ 
 International botanical congress opened . 22 May, „ 
 Defeat of the government on the reform bill, 
 
 18 June ; resignation of ministers . 26 June, ,, 
 Marriage of princess Helena to prince Christian of 
 
 Schleswig-Holstein .... 5 July, „ 
 The third Derby cabinet formed . . .6 July, „ 
 The Atlantic telegraph completely laid, and mes- 
 sages sent to lord Stanley ... 27 July, ,, 
 The cable of 1865 recovered, and communication 
 established with Valentia, 2 Sept. ; and with New- 
 foundland 8 Sept. „ 
 
 Projected attack of Fenians on Chester prevented 
 
 by the authorities . . . . 11, 12 Feb. 1867 
 The queen laid foundation of the Albert hall of arts 
 
 at S. Kensington 20 May, ,, 
 
 Visit of the viceroy of Egypt . . . 6-18 July, „ 
 Visit of the Belgian volunteers (see Belgium), 
 
 10-22 July, ,, 
 Visit of the Sultan (see Turkey) . . 12-23 July, ,, 
 "Early Years of the Prince Consort," published 
 
 end of July, ,, 
 
 New Reform act passed (see Reform) . . 15 Aug. „ 
 Michael Faraday, natural philosopher (nearly 76) died 
 
 25 Aug. „ 
 Preparations for the expedition to Abyssinia (see 
 
 Abyssinia) Aug. ,, 
 
 Fenian outrages ; rescue of prisoners at Manchester 
 
 (see Fenians) 18 Sept. „ 
 
 Synod of bishops at Lambeth (see Pan-Anglican) 
 
 24-27 Sept. ,, 
 Meeting of parliament respecting Abyssinian war, 
 
 19 Nov. ,, 
 Fenian explosion at Clerkenwell prison, London, 
 
 i3Dee. ,, 
 Special constables called for ; 113,674 (in the U.K.) 
 
 sworn in by 28 Jan. 1868 
 
 " Leaves from our Journal in Scotland," &c, by the 
 
 queen, published Jan. „ 
 
 Resignation of earl of Derby, 25 Feb. ; the Disraeli 
 
 ministry formed 29 Feb. „ 
 
 The queen holds a drawing-room again 12 March, ,, 
 Death of lord Brougham, aged 89 . . 7 May. ,, 
 Arrival of the duke of Edinburgh from Australia 
 
 26 June, 
 Irish and Scotch reform acts passed . 13 July, ., 
 Mr. Gladstone's resolution for disestablishing the 
 
 Irish church ; adopted by the commons, 30 April, ,, 
 Nearly 21,000 extra deaths attributed to the hot 
 summer (23 July said to be the hottest) 
 
 1 July — 30 Sept. „ 
 Parliament dissolved 1 1 Nov. , new parliament meets 
 
 10 Dec. ,, 
 Resignation of Disraeli ministry, 2 Dec. ; Gladstone 
 
 ministry take office 9 Dec. ,, 
 
 Convention with the United States respecting the 
 
 R 
 
ENGLAND. 
 
 242 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 Alabama claim signed (afterwards rejected by the 
 states) 14 Jan- 1869 
 
 New parliament meet for business . . 16 Feb. „ 
 
 Irish Church bill introduced into the commons, 
 1 March ; royal assent. ... 26 July, ,, 
 
 The earl of Derby dies (aged 70). . . 23 Oct. „ 
 
 Parliament meets 8 Feb. 1870 
 
 Charles Dickens died (aged 58) . . .9 June, „ 
 
 Earl of Clarendon died (aged 70) . . 27 June, ,, 
 
 Irish land bill brought in, 15 Feb., received royal 
 assent 8 July, „ 
 
 Neutrality in Franco-Prussian war (which see) pro- 
 claimed" 19 July. » 
 
 2,000,000^. voted to increase the army by 20,000 men 
 
 1 Aug. „ 
 
 Foreign enlistment act passed, 1 Aug. ; stringent 
 proclamation of neutrality issued . . 9 Aug. ,, 
 
 Parliament prorogued .... 10 Aug. ,, 
 
 Treaty with Prussia and France for neutrality of 
 Belgium signed . . . 9, n Aug. ,, 
 
 Long drought : bad hay harvest : good wheat har- 
 vest Mar.— Aug. „ 
 
 Earl Granville repels the charge of violating neu- 
 tralities made by the Prussian government, 
 
 1-15 Sept. ,, 
 
 The queen's consent to the marriage of the princess 
 Louise to the marquis of Lome announced 
 
 24 Oct. ,, 
 
 Foot and mouth disease prevalent among cattle 
 
 Aug. — Nov. ,, 
 
 Election of elementary school-boards . . Nov. ,, 
 
 Excitement through the Russian note respecting 
 the Black sea (see Russia) . . . Nov. ,, 
 
 Foundation of new Post-office laid . 16 Dec. „ 
 
 Resignation of Mr. Bright announced . 20 Dec. ,, 
 
 Parliament meets . ... 9 Feb. 1871 
 
 Marriage of the princess Louise and the marquis of 
 Lome 21 March, „ 
 
 Royal Albert Hall, Kensington, opened by the queen 
 
 29 March, „ 
 
 Eighth census taken (31,817,108) . . 3 April, „ 
 
 Death of sir John F, Herschel. astronomer and 
 philosopher (aged 79) .... 11 May, ,, 
 
 Death of George Grote, historian of Greece (aged 77) 
 
 18 June, ,, 
 
 First annual International Exhibition at South Ken- 
 sington, opened 1 May, closed . . 30 Sept. 
 
 Black Sea conference met 17 Jan., closed (neutrali- 
 sation of Black Sea abrogated, &e.) . 13 March, „ 
 
 Disestablishment of the Church of England bill re- 
 jected in the commons (374—89), 1 May ; parlia- 
 ment prorogued 21 Aug. ,, 
 
 Illness of the queen at Balmoral, 4 Sept. ; recovery 
 
 13 Sept. ,, 
 
 Serious illness of the prince of Wales from typhoid 
 fever, Dec. ; began to recover . . 14 Dec. „ 
 
 Letter from the queen and princess to the people, 
 thanking them for sympathy . . .26 Dec. „ 
 
 Thanksgivings for recovery of prince of Wales 
 
 21 Jan. 1872 
 
 Excitement respecting the American claims under 
 the treaty of Washington .... Feb. ,, 
 
 Meeting of parliament 6 Feb. „ 
 
 The queen, prince and princess of Wales, and court 
 and parliament go in state to St. Paul's ; national 
 thanksgiving for recovery of the prince of Wales ; 
 London decorated ; illuminations, &c. ; a success- 
 ful day 27 Feb. „ 
 
 The queen in a public letter, gazetted 1 March, says, 
 "Words are too weak for the queen to say how 
 very deeply touched and gratified she has been 
 by the immense enthusiasm and affection ex- 
 hibited towards her dear son and herself," dated 
 
 29 Feb. ,, 
 
 The queen, while entering Buckingham Palace, 
 threatened by Arthur O'Connor, aged about 18, 
 who presents an unloaded pistol, with a paper to 
 be signed ; immediately apprehended . 29 Feb. 
 
 The ciueen sailed for Germany, and stayed several 
 weeks 23 March— 7 April, 
 
 Strikes among agricultural labourers 111 Warwick- 
 shire and other counties ; a union formed, 
 
 29 March, 
 
 Arthur O'Connor pleads guilty (sentenced to im- 
 prisonment and flogging) . . • -9 April, 
 
 Correspondence between the British and American 
 governments respecting the claims for indirect 
 losses, which the former rejects . 3 Feb.— May, 
 
 Supplemental treaty proposed : accepted by U.S. 
 senate, 25 May ; further discussion in parliament ; 
 unsatisfactory correspondence; the U.S. con- 
 gress adjourns 10 June, 1872 
 
 Strikes among builders and other trades . June, „ 
 
 Final meeting of arbitrators ; damages awarded ; 
 see Alabama 14 Sept. ,, 
 
 Continued rain ; floods in midland counties . Dee. 
 
 Death of Edward Bulwer Lord Lytton, orator, poet, 
 and novelist, aged 66 . . . .18 Jan. 1873 
 
 Strikes among colliers, Jan. ; great dearth of coal ; 
 the best, 52s. a ton in London . . 15 Feb. ,, 
 
 Visit of the Shah of Persia . 18 June.-s July, ,, 
 
 KINGS AND QUEENS OF ENGLAND. 
 
 BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 
 
 827. Egbert, styled " king of England" in 828. 
 
 837. Ethelwolf ; his son. 
 
 857. Ethelbald ; his son. 
 
 860. Ethelbert ; brother. 
 
 866. Ethelred ; brother. 
 
 871. Alfred the Great ; brother ; died 21 or 28 Oct. 901. 
 
 901. Edward the Elder ; son ; died 925. 
 
 925. Athelstan ; eldest son ; died 17 Oct. 940. 
 
 940. Edmund I. , fifth son of Edward the Elder ; died 
 
 from a wound received in an affray, 26 May, 946. 
 946. Edred ; brother ; died 955. 
 
 955. Edwy, eldest son of Edmund ; died of grief in 958. 
 958. Edgar the Peaceable ; brother ; died 1 July, 975. 
 975. Edward the Martyr, his son, stabbed at Corfe 
 
 Castle, at the instance of his step-mother Elfrida, 
 
 18 March, 979. 
 979. Ethelred II. ; half-brother ; retired. 
 
 1013. Sweyn, proclaimed king ; died 3 Feb. 1014. 
 
 1014. Canute the Great ; his son. 
 
 ,, Ethelred restored in Canute's absence ; died 24 April, 
 1016. 
 
 1016. Edmund Ironside, his son, divided the kingdom 
 
 with Canute ; murdered at Oxford, 30 Nov. 1016; 
 reigned seven months. 
 
 1017. Canute sole king ; married Emma, widow of Ethel- 
 
 red ; died 12 Nov. 1035. 
 
 1035. Harold I. ; son; died 17 Mar. 1040. 
 
 1040. Hardicanute, son of Canute and Emma ; died of re- 
 pletion at a marriage feast, 8 June, 1042. 
 
 1042. Edward the Confessor, son of Ethelred aud Emma ; 
 died 5 Jan. 1066. 
 
 1066. Harold II., son of earl Godwin; reigned nine 
 months ; killed near Hastings, 14 Oct. 1066. 
 
 THE NORMANS.* 
 
 1066. William the Conqueror ; crowned 25 Dec. : died at 
 Rouen, 9 Sept. 1087. 
 Queen, Matilda, daughter of Baldwin, earl of 
 Flanders ; married in 1054 ; died in 1083. 
 
 * The regnal dates are those given by sir H. Nicolas. 
 The early Norman and Plantagenet kings reckoned their 
 reigns from the day of their coronation ; the later Phm- 
 tagenets from the day after the death of their prede- 
 cessor. With Edward VI. hegan the present custom of 
 beginning the reign on the day of the death of the pre- 
 ceding sovereign. 
 
 ROYAL ARMS OF ENGLAND. 
 
 William I., William II., and Henry I.— two lions or 
 
 leopards passant. 
 Stephen— Sagittarius, the archer, one of the signs of the 
 
 zodiac (traditional}. 
 Henry II. to Edward II. Three lions passant. 
 Edward ill. and his successors quartered the preceding 
 
 with fleurs de lys, the arms of France. 
 Henry V. used only 3 fleurs de lys. 
 Mary' I. quartered" the preceding with the anus of her 
 
 husband Philip II. of Spain. 
 
 UNITED KINGDOM. 
 
 James I. and his successors combined the arms of Eng- 
 land and France (1st and 4th quarter) ; 2nd, the lion 
 rampant of Scotland; 3rd, the harp of Ireland. He 
 introduced the unicorn as a supporter of the anus. 
 
 George I. George II. and George III. introduced the arms 
 of Brunswick. 
 
 In 1801 the arms of France were omitted. In 1816 the 
 arms were modified through Hanover being made a 
 kingdom. 
 
 Victoria. In 1837 the amis of Hanover were omitted. 
 The amis are now : 1st and 4th quarters, 3 lions passant 
 for England ; and, lion rampant for Scotland ; 3rd. harp 
 for Ireland. 
 
ENGLAND. 
 
 243 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 1087. William II. Rufus ; reign began 26 Sept. ; killed by 
 an arrow, 2 Aug. n 00. 
 
 1100. Henry I. Beauclerc, his brother ; reign began 
 5 Aug. ; died of a surfeit, 1 Dee. 1135. 
 Queens, Matilda, daughter of Malcolm III. king of 
 Scotland; married 11 Nov. 1100 ; died 1 May, 
 1119. 2. Adelais, daughter of Godfrey, earl of 
 Louvaine ; married 29 Jan. 1129 ; died 1151. 
 
 1135. Stephen, earl of Blois, nephew of Henry ; reign 
 26 Dee. ; died 25 Oct. n 54. 
 Queen, Matilda, daughter of Eustace, count of 
 
 Boulogne ; married in 1128 ; died 3 May, 1151. 
 [Maud, daughter of Henry I. and rightful heir to 
 the throne; born 1101 ; betrothed, in 1109, at 
 eight years of age, to Henry V. emperor of Ger- 
 many, who died 1125. She married, secondly, 
 Geoffrey Plantagenet, earl of Anjou, 1130. Was 
 set aside from the English succession by Stephen, 
 1135 ; landed in England and claimed the crown, 
 1 139. Crowned, but soon after defeated at Win- 
 chester, 1141 ; concluded a peace with Stephen, 
 which secured the succession to her son Henry, 
 1153 ; died 1165.] 
 
 THE PLANTAGENETS. 
 
 1154. Henry II. Plantagenet, grandson of Henry I. and 
 son of Maud ; reign began 19 Dec. ; died 6 July, 
 1189. 
 Queen, Eleanor, the repudiated queen of Louis VII. 
 king of France, and heiress of Guienne and 
 Poitou ; married to Henry, 1151 ; died 26 June, 
 1202 ; see Rosamond. 
 
 1 189. Richard I. Conor de Lion, his son ; reign began 
 3 Sept. ; died of a wound, 6 April, 1199. 
 Queen, Berengaria, daughter of the king of Navarre; 
 married 12 May, 1191 ; survived the king. 
 
 1 199. John, the brother of Richard ; reign began 27 May ; 
 died 19 Oct. 1216. 
 Queens, Avisa, daughter of the earl of Gloucester ; 
 married in 1189 ; divorced. 2. Isabella, daughter 
 of the count of Angouleme : she was the young 
 and virgin wife of the count de la Marche ; 
 married to John in 1200. Survived the king, on 
 whose death she was re-married to the count de 
 la Marche. 
 
 1216. Henry III. son of John ; reign began 28 Oct. ; died 
 16 Nov. 1272. 
 Queen, Eleanor, daughter of the count de Pro- 
 vence ; married 14 Jan. 1236 ; survived the king ; 
 and died in 1291, in a monastery. 
 
 1272. Edward I. son of Henry, surnamed Longshanks; 
 reign began 20 Nov. ; died 7 July, 1307. 
 Queens, Eleanor of Castile ; married in 1253 ; died 
 of a fever, on her journey to Scotland, at Grant- 
 ham, in Lincolnshire, 1290. 2. Margaret, sister 
 of the king of France ; married 12 Sept. 1299 ; 
 survived the king, dying in 13 17. 
 
 1307. Edward II. son of Edward I. ; reign began 8 July ; 
 dethroned 20 Jan. 1327; murdered at Berkeley 
 castle, 21 Sept. following. 
 Queen, Isabella, daughter of the king of France ; 
 married in 1308. On the death, by the gibbet, of 
 her favourite Mortimer, she was confined for the 
 rest of her life in her own house at Risings, near 
 Lynn, and died in 1357. 
 
 1327. Edward III. his son ; reign began 25 Jan. ; died 
 21 June, 1377. 
 Queen, Philippa, daughter of the count of Hainault ; 
 married in 1326 ; died 15 Aug. 1369. 
 
 1377. Richard II. son of Edward the Black Prince, and 
 grandson of Edward III. ; reign began 22 June ; 
 dethroned 29 Sept. 1399 ; said to have been mur- 
 dered at Pomfret castle, 10 Feb. following. 
 Queens, Anne of Bohemia, sister of the emperor 
 Wenceslaus of Germany ; married in Jan. 1382 ; 
 died 7 June, 1394. 2. Isabella, daughter of 
 Charles V. of France ; married when only seven 
 years old, 1 Nov. 1396. On the deposition of her 
 husband she returned to her father. 
 
 HOUSE OF LANCASTER. 
 
 1399. Henry IV. cousin of Richard II. ; reign began 
 30 Sept. ; died 20 March, 1413. 
 Queens, Mary, daughter of the earl of Hereford ; 
 she died before Henry obtained the crown, in 
 1394. 2. Joan of Navarre, widow of the duke of 
 Bretagne ; married 1403 ; survived the king ; 
 died 1437. 
 
 1413. Henry V. his son ; reign began 21 March ; died 
 
 3a Aug. 1422. 
 Queen, Catherine, daughter of the king of France ; 
 
 married 30 May, 1420. She outlived Henry, and 
 
 was married to Owen Tudor, grandfather of 
 
 Henry VII., in 1423 ; died 1437. 
 1422. Henry VI. his son ; reign began 1 Sept. ; deposed 
 
 4 March, 1461 ; murdered by Richard, duke of 
 
 Gloucester, in the Tower, 20 June, 1471. 
 Queen, Margaret, daughter of the duke of Anjou ; 
 
 married 22 April, 1445 ; survived the king ; 'died 
 
 25 Aug. 1481. 
 
 HOUSE OF YOEK. 
 
 1461. Edward IV. ; died 9 April, 1483. 
 
 Queen, Lady Elizabeth Grey, daughter of sir Richard 
 Woodville, and widow of sir John Grey, of Groby ; 
 married 1463 or 1464. Suspected of favouring 
 the insurrection of Lambert Simnel ; and closed 
 her life in confinement, 8 June, 1492. 
 
 1483. Edward V. his son ; deposed 25 June, 1483, and 
 said to have been murdered in the Tower ; reigned 
 two months and thirteen days. 
 „ Richard III. brother of Edward IV. ; began to reign, 
 
 26 June ; slain at Bosworth, 22 Aug. 1485. 
 Queen, Anne, daughter of the earl of Warwick, and 
 
 widow of Edward, prince of Wales, murdered 
 147 1. She is said to have been poisoned by 
 Richard (having died suddenly, 16 March, 1485), 
 to make way for his intended marriage with prin- 
 cess Elizabeth of York. 
 
 HOUSE OF TUDOR. 
 
 1485. Henry VII. ; began to reign 22 Aug. ; died 21 April, 
 1509. 
 Queen, Elizabeth of York, princess of England, 
 daughter of Edward IV. ; married 18 Jan. i486 ; 
 died 11 Feb. 1503. 
 
 1509. Henry VIII. his son; began to reign, 22 April; died 
 28 Jan. 1547. 
 Queens, Catherine of Aragon, widow of Henry's 
 elder brother, Arthur, prince of Wales ; married 
 7 June, 1509 ; mother of queen Mary ; repudi- 
 ated, and afterwards formally divorced, 23 May, 
 1533 ; died 7 Jan. 1536. 
 
 2. Anne Boleyn, daughter of sir Thomas Boleyn, 
 and maid of honour to Catherine ; privately 
 married, before Catherine was divorced, 14 Nov. 
 1532 ; mother of queen Elizabeth ; beheaded at 
 the Tower, 19 May, 1536. 
 
 3. Jane Seymour, daughter of sir John Seymour, 
 and maid of honour to Anne Boleyn ; married 
 20 May, 1536, the day after Anne's execution ; 
 mother of Edward VI. of whom she died in 
 childbirth, 24 Oct. 1537. 
 
 4. Anne of Cleves, sister of William, duke of 
 Cleves ; married 6 Jan. 1540 ; divorced 10 July, 
 1540 ; died 1557. 
 
 5. Catherine Howard, niece of the duke of Nor- 
 folk ; married 28 July, 1540 ; beheaded, 12 Feb. 
 1542- 
 
 6. Catherine Parr, daughter of sir Thomas Parr, 
 and widow of Nevill, lord Latimer ; married 12 
 July, 1543 ; survived the king, after whose death 
 she married sir Thomas Seymour, created lord 
 Sudley ; died 5 Sept. 1548. 
 
 1547. Edward VI. son of Henry VIII. (by Jane Seymour) ; 
 died 6 July, 1553. 
 
 ISS3- Jane, daughter of the duke of Suffolk, and wife of 
 lord Guildford Dudley ; proclaimed queen on the 
 death of Edward ; ten days afterwards returned 
 to private life ; was tried 13 Nov. 1553 ; beheaded 
 12 Feb. 1554, when but 17 years of age. 
 „ Mary, daughter of Henry (by Catherine of Aragon) ; 
 married Philip of Spain, 25 July, 1554 ; died 17 
 Nov. 1558. 
 
 1558. Elizabeth, daughter of Henry (by Anne Boleyn), 
 died 24 March, 1603. 
 
 HOUSE OP STUART. 
 
 1603. James I. of England and VI. of Scotland, son of 
 Mary, queen of Scots ; died 27 March, 1625. 
 Queen, Anne, princess of Denmark, daughter of 
 Frederick II. ; married 20 Aug. 1590 ; died 
 March, 1619. 
 1623. Charles I. his son; beheaded at Whitehall, 30 Jan. 
 1649. 
 Queen, Henrietta-Maria, daughter of Henry IY. 
 
 E 2 
 
ENGLAND. 
 
 244 
 
 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 king of France ; married 13 June, 1625 ; sur- 
 vived the king ; died in France 10 Aug. 1669. 
 
 1649. Commonwealth. Oliver Cromwell made pro- 
 tector, 12 Dee. 1653 ; died 3 Sept. 1658. 
 
 1658. Richard Cromwell, his son, made protector, 4 
 Sept. ; resigned 22 April, 1659. 
 
 1660. Charles II. son of Charles I. ; died 6 Feb. 1685. 
 
 Queen, Catherine of Braganza, infanta of Portugal, 
 daughter of John IV. and sister of Alfonso VI. ; 
 married 21 May, 1662; survived the king; re- 
 turned to Portugal ; died 21 Dec. 1705. 
 
 1685. James II. his brother ; abdicated by flight, n Dec. 
 1688 ; died in exile, 6 Aug. 1701. 
 [1st Wife, Ann Hyde, daughter of Edward Hyde, 
 earl of Clarendon ; married Sept. 1660 ; died 
 1671 ; mother of queens Mary II. and Anne.] 
 Queen, Mary Beatrice, princess of Modena, daughter 
 of Alphonso d'Este, duke ; married 21 Nov. 
 1673 ; in 1688 retired with James to France ; 
 died at St. Germains, 1718. 
 
 1689. William III. prince of Orange, ldng, and Maiy, 
 queen, daughter of James ; married 4 Nov. 1677 ; 
 began then- reign, 13 Feb. 1689; Maiy died 28 
 Dec. 1694. 
 
 1694. William III. ; died of a fall from his horse, 8 March, 
 1702. 
 
 1702. Anne, daughter of James II. ; married George, 
 prince of Denmark, 28 July, 1683 ; succeeded to 
 the throne, 8 March, 1702 : had thirteen children, 
 all of whom died young ; lost her husband, 
 28 Oct. 1708 ; died 1 Aug. 1714. 
 house of hanover. (See Brunswick and Este.) 
 
 1714. George I. elector of Hanover and duke of Bruns- 
 wiek-Luneburg ; son of Sophia, who was daugh- 
 ter of Elizabeth, the daughter of James I. ; died 
 11 June, 1727. 
 Queen, Sophia-Dorothea, daughter of the duke of 
 Zell ; died in prison, 2 Nov. 1726. 
 
 1727. George II. his son; died 25 Oct. 1760. 
 
 Queen, Wilhelmina Carolina Dorothea, of Branden- 
 burg Anspach ; married 1705 ; died 20 Nov. 
 1737. 
 
 1760. George III. grandson of George II. ; died 29 Jan. 
 1820. 
 Queen, Charlotte Sophia, daughter of the duke of 
 Meeklenburg-Strelitz ; married 8 Sept. 1761 ; 
 died 17 Nov. 1818. 
 
 1820. George IV. his son ; died 26 June, 1830. 
 
 Queen, Caroline Amelia Augusta, daughter of the 
 duke of Brunswick ; married 8 April, 1795 ; died 
 7 Aug. 1821 (see article Queen Caroline) 
 
 18^0. William IV. brother of George IV. ; died 20 June, 
 1837. 
 Queen, Adelaide Amelia Louisa Theresa Caroline, 
 sister of the duke of Saxe-Meuiingen ; married 
 11 July, 1818 ; died 2 Dec. 1849'. 
 1837. Victoria, the reigning queen, whom God pre- 
 serve. 
 
 the present royal family of great britain. 
 
 The Queen,* Alexandrina Victoria, only daughter of 
 Edward, duke of Kent, (fourth son of king George 
 III. )t bora 24 May, 1810 ; succeeded to the throne on 
 the decease of her uncle, William IV. 20 June, 1837 : 
 crowned at Westminster, 28 June, 1838; married 
 (10 Feb., 1840) to her cousin, 
 
 Francis-ALBERT-Augustus-Charles-Emmanuel, duke of 
 Saxe, prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha ; born 26 
 Aug. 1819, naturalized, 24 Jan. 1840; (ordered to be 
 styled Prince Consort 20 June, 1857 ;) elected chan- 
 cellor of the university of Cambridge, 28 Feb. 1847 '• 
 died 14 Dec. 1861. 
 
 ISSUE. 
 
 1. ViCTORlA-Adelaide-Mary- Louisa, princess royal, horn 
 21 Nov. 1S40; married to prince Frederick-William, 
 
 * On 1 Nov. 1858, the queen was proclaimed through- 
 out India as " Victoria, by the grace of God, of the united 
 kingdom of Great Britain ami Ireland. p and of the colonies 
 and dependencies thereof, in Europe, Asia, Africa, 
 America, and Australasia, Queen, defender of the faith," 
 Ac. 
 
 t He was born 2 Nov. 1767; and died 23 Jan. 1820; 
 he married Victoria-Maria-Louisa (widow of the prince of 
 Leiningen, sister of Leopold, king of the Belgians, and 
 aunt to the prince consort), 29 May, 1S18. She was bom 
 17 Aug. 1786; and died 16 March, 1861. 
 
 of Prussia, 25 Jan. 1858 (dowry 40,000/. and annuity 
 of 8000/.). Issue: Frederick-William, bom 27 Jan. 
 1859 ; and 4 other children. 
 
 2. Albert-Edward, prince of Wales, duke of Saxony, 
 
 duke of Cornwall and Rothsay, earl of Chester, 
 Carrick, and Dublin, baron of Renfrew, and lord of 
 the Isles, bora 9 Nov. 1841 ; married prim ess Alex- 
 andra of Denmark (jborn 1 Dec. 1S44) 10 March, 
 1863. Issue; Albert Victor, bora 8 Jan. 1864; 
 George Frederick, born 3 June, 1865 ; Louisa Victoria, 
 born 20 Feb. 1867 ; Victoria Alexandra, iiorn 6 July, 
 1868 : Maud Charlotte, 26 Nov. 1869 : Alexander 
 John, bom 6 April, died 7 April, 1871. '(Sec Wales) 
 
 3. ALICE-Maud-Mary, bom 25 April, 1843 ; - 
 
 prince Louis of Hesse-Darmstadt, 1 July, 1862 
 (dowry 30,000?., annuity 6000?.). /.«»■: ; Victoria, 5 
 April, 1863 ; and 5 other children. 
 
 4. ALFRED-Ernest, bom 6 Aug. 1844 ; entered the ICur- 
 
 yalus as midshipman, 31 Aug. 1858 ; created duke 
 of Edinburgh, &c. 24 May, 1866 ; visited Cape of 
 Good Hope, Aug. ; Australia, Nov. 1867 : escaped 
 assassination by a Fenian at Port Jackson, 12 
 March, 1868 ; visited Japan, China, and India, 1869. 
 
 5. HELENA-Augusta-Victoria, hnru 25 May, 1346 ; -mm tied 
 
 to prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein, 5 July, 
 1866. Issue: Christian Victor, born 14 April, 1867; 
 and 3 other children. 
 
 6. LouiSE-Carolina-Alberta, bom 18 March, 1848; mar- 
 
 ried to John, marquis of Lome, 21 March, 1871. 
 
 7. ARTHUR-William-Patrick-Albert, ?»>/;< 1 May, 1850 ; 
 
 voted 15,000/. a-year, 31 July, 1871. 
 
 8. LEOPOLD-George-Duncan-Albcrt, born 7 April, 1853. 
 
 9. BEATRICE-Mary-Vietoria-Feodore, bom 14 April, 1857. 
 
 The Queen's Aunt and Cousins, Augusta, duchess 
 (widow of duke) of Cambridge, hunt 25 July. 1797. 
 
 Her son, George, duke of Cambridge, commander-in- 
 chief, bom 26 March, 1819 ; and 
 
 Her daughters, Augusta, grand duchess of Meeklen- 
 burg-Strelitz, bom 19 July, 1822 ; married 28 June, 
 1843 ; and the rjrincess Mary of Cambridge, bom 27 
 Nov. 1833 ; ma/rried to the prince of Teck, 12 June, 
 1866. 
 
 Queen's cousin, George, king of Hanover, duke of Cum- 
 berland : see Hanover. 
 
 ENGLISH LANGUAGE is traced from the 
 Frisian variety of the Teutonic or Germanic branch 
 of the great Indo-European family. " The English 
 tongue possesses a veritable power of expression 
 such as, perhaps, never stood at the command of 
 any other language of man." Grimm. 
 
 Celtic prevailed in England . . . A.D. 1 
 
 Latin introduced about 1 
 
 Saxon prevails (Beowulf ; Csedmon ; Alfred) 450-1066 
 Latin re-introduced by missionaries . . . 596 
 
 Norman-French combining with English . 1066-1250 
 William I. and his successors used English in their 
 laws, &c. ; it was superseded by Latin in the 
 reign of Henry II. Norman-French was not used 
 in law-deeds till the reign of Henry III. 
 
 Early English 1250-1500 
 
 English formed 1550 
 
 Law pleadings were made in English by order of 
 
 Edward III. instead of in French . ' . . . 1362 
 The English tongue and English apparel were or- 
 dered to be used in Ireland, 28 Hen. VIII. . . 1536 
 The English was ordered to be used in all law-suits, 
 
 and the Latin disused .... May, 1731 
 Per-centage of Anglo-Saxon words in the English 
 bible, 97 ; Swift, 89; Shakspeare and Thomson, 
 85 ; Addison, 83 ; Spenser and Milton, Si ; Locke, 
 80 ; Young, 79 ; Pope, 76 ; Johnson, 75 ; Robert- 
 son, 68 ; Hume, 65 ; Gibbon, 58. Marsh. 
 Of 100,000 English words, 60,000 are of Teutonic 
 origin ; 30,000 Greek and Latin ; and 10,000 from 
 other sources. 
 
 PRINCIPAL BRITISH AND AMERICAN AUTHORS. 
 
 John Wickliffe, t. . 
 John Gower, ;>. 
 Geoffrey Chaucer, p. 
 Paston Letters 
 Wm. Caxton 
 Sir Thomas More, ft. p. 
 Sir Philip Sidney, n, p. . 
 Holinshed's Chronicles, 1586. 
 
 Born. 
 
 Died, 
 
 ■ 1324 
 
 about 1320 
 
 . 1328 
 
 . . 1460 
 
 1384 
 1402 
 1400 
 1482 
 
 . 1421 
 
 . . 1182 
 
 • 1554 
 
 1491 
 1535 
 1586 
 
ENGBAVING. 
 
 245 
 
 ENSISHEIM. 
 
 John Fox, t. h. . 
 
 Edmund Spenser, p. . 
 
 Richard Hooker, t. . 
 
 Win. Shakspeare, d. 
 
 Walter Raleigh, h. p. 
 
 Francis xjacon, ph. 
 
 George Herbert, p. . 
 
 Ben Jonson, d. . 
 
 Philip Massinger, d. 
 
 Jeremy Taylor, t. . 
 
 John Milton, p. 
 
 Isaac Barrow, t. . 
 
 Samuel Butler, p. 
 
 John Bunyan, t. . 
 
 John Dryden, p. 
 
 John Locke, ph. . 
 
 Joseph Addison, e. . 
 
 Matthew Prior, p. 
 
 Richard Steele, e. 
 
 Daniel De Foe, n. pol. . 
 
 John Gay, p. 
 
 Alexander Pope, p. 
 
 Jonathan Swift, n. p. 
 
 James Thomson, p. 
 
 Henry Fielding, n. d. 
 
 Sam. Richardson, n. . 
 
 Edward Young, p. . 
 
 Laurence Sterne, n. 
 
 Mark Akenside, p. . 
 
 Thomas Gray, p. . 
 
 Tobias Smollett, n. . 
 
 Oliver Goldsmith, n. p. 
 
 David Hume, h. ph. . 
 
 Samuel Johnson, e. n. p. 
 
 Benjamin Franklin, ph. pol. 
 
 William Robertson, h. 
 
 Edward Gibbon, h. . 
 
 Robert Burns, p. . 
 
 William Cowper, p. . 
 
 Percy B. Shelley, p. 
 
 George lord Byron, p. 
 
 Walter Scott, n. p. 
 
 Samuel T. Coleridge, p. ph. 
 
 Charles Lamb, e. . 
 
 William Cobbett, pol. e. . 
 
 Robert Southey, p. h. . 
 
 Thomas Campbell, p. 
 
 Sidney Smith, e. pol. . 
 
 Wm. Wordsworth, p. 
 
 J. Fennimore Cooper, n. 
 
 Joanna Baillie, p. 
 
 Thomas Moore, p. n. . 
 
 John Wilson, p. e. . 
 
 Samuel Rogers, p. 
 
 Henry Hallam, h. 
 
 Thomas de Quincey, e. 
 
 William Prescott, h. . 
 
 Washington Irving, n. h. 
 
 T. B. Macaulay, h. p. 
 
 Abp. Richd. Whateley, ph. 
 
 Henry lord Brougham, pol. h. 
 
 Wm. M. Thackeray n. 
 
 Thomas Carlyle, h. e. 
 
 George Bancroft, h. 
 
 Edwd. Bulwer Lytton, p. n. 
 
 Benjamin Disraeli, n. . 
 
 Alfred Tennyson, p. . 
 
 Charles Dickens, n. 
 
 John Ruskin, art critic . 
 
 George Ticknor, h. 
 
 Thomas Trollope, n. 
 
 Robert Browning, p. . 
 
 Anthony Trollope, n. 
 
 d. dramatist ; e. essayist ; h. historian 
 
 n. novelist ; p. poet ; t. theologian 
 
 philosopher. 
 
 ENGRAVING- on signets is mentioned Uxod. 
 xxviii. ii (b.c. 1491). Engraving on plates and 
 wood began about the middle of the 15th century. 
 Engraving on glass was perfected by Bourdier, of 
 Paris, 1799. The copyright to engravings has been 
 protected by several statutes ; among the principal 
 are the acts 16 & 18 Geo. III. 1775 ancl 1777 ; and 
 the acts 7 & 8 Vict. 6 Aug. 1844, and 15 Vict. 28 
 
 Bom. 
 
 Died. 
 
 1517 
 
 1587 
 
 1553 
 
 1598 
 
 1553 
 
 1600 
 
 1564 
 
 1616 
 
 1552 
 
 1618 
 
 1561 
 
 1626 
 
 1593 
 
 ^633 
 
 1574 
 
 1637 
 
 1584 
 
 1640 
 
 1613- 
 
 1667 
 
 1608 
 
 1674 
 
 1630 
 
 1677 
 
 1612 
 
 1680 
 
 1628 
 
 1688 
 
 1631 
 
 1700 
 
 1632 
 
 1704 
 
 1672 
 
 1719 
 
 1664 
 
 1 721 
 
 1671 
 
 1729 
 
 1663 
 
 1731 
 
 1688 
 
 1732 
 
 1688 
 
 1744 
 
 1667 
 
 1745 
 
 1700 
 
 1748 
 
 1707 
 
 1754 
 
 1689 
 
 1761 
 
 1681 
 
 1765 
 
 17*3 
 
 1768 
 
 1721 
 
 1770 
 
 1716 
 
 1771 
 
 
 1771 
 
 1728 
 
 1774 
 
 1711 
 
 1776 
 
 1709 
 
 1784 
 
 1706 
 
 1790 
 
 1721 
 
 1793 
 
 1737 
 
 1794 
 
 1759 
 
 1796 
 
 1731 
 
 1800 
 
 1792 
 
 1822 
 
 1788 
 
 1824 
 
 1771 
 
 1832 
 
 1772 
 
 1834 
 
 1775 
 
 1834 
 
 1762 
 
 1835 
 
 1774 
 
 1843 
 
 1777 
 
 1844 
 
 1771 
 
 1845 
 
 1770 
 
 1850 
 
 1798 
 
 1851 
 
 1763 
 
 1851 
 
 1780 
 
 1852 
 
 178S 
 
 1854 
 
 1763 
 
 1855 
 
 1778 
 
 1783 
 
 1800 
 
 1787 
 1778 
 
 1811 
 1795 
 
 1805 
 
 1809 
 
 1812 
 1819 
 1791 
 1810 
 1812 
 
 1859 
 
 1863 
 1873 
 
 1870 
 
 1871 
 
 1815 
 
 to. miscellaneous ; 
 pol. political ; ph. 
 
 May, 1852. A process of enlarging and reducing 
 engravings by means of sheets of vulcanised india- 
 rubber, was shown by the electro-printing block 
 company in i860 ; see Lithography and Photo- 
 Galvanography. In " Lyra Germanica," published 
 in 18G1, are illustrations engraved upon blocks 
 photographed from negatives taken by John Leigh- 
 ton, F.S.A. 
 
 Engraving on Copper. Prints from engraved copper- 
 plates made their appearance about 1450, and were 
 first produced in Germany. Masso, surnamed Fini- 
 guerra, is considered to have been the first Italian 
 engraver, about 1440. (See Niello.) 
 
 The earliest date known of a copper-plate engraving is 
 1461. 
 
 Rolling-presses for working the plates were invented in 
 
 1545- 
 
 Of the art of etching on copper by means of aqua-fortis, 
 Francis Mazzuoli, or Parmegiano, is the reputed in- 
 ventor, about 1532. De Piles. 
 
 Etching was practised by Albert Diirer. The Etching 
 Club was established in 1838. 
 
 Engraving on Wood, long known in China, began in 
 Europe with the orief-mahlers or manufacturers of 
 playing-cards, about 1400 (see Printing). The art is 
 referred by some to a Florentine, and by others to 
 Reuss, a German ; it was greatly improved by Diirer 
 (1471-1528) and Lucas van Leyden (1497). It was mueli 
 improved in England by Bewick and his brother, and 
 pupils, Nesbitt, Anderson, &c, 1789, et seq. The 
 earliest wood engraving which has reached our times 
 is one representing St. Christopher carrying the infant 
 Jesus over the sea ; it bears date 1423. 
 
 Engraving on Soft Steel, to be hardened afterwards, 
 was introduced info England by Messrs. Perkins and 
 Heath, of Philadelphia, 1819. 
 
 Mezzotinto is said to have been discovered by col. von 
 Siegen, who engraved a portrait of princess Amelia of 
 Hesse in mezzotinto in 1643 ; it was improved by 
 prince Rupert in 1648 ; and by sir Christopher Wren, 
 about 1662. 
 
 Aguatinta, by which a soft and beautiful effect is pro- 
 duced, was invented by the celebrated French artist, 
 St. Non, about 1662 ; he communicated his invention 
 to Le Prince. Barabbe of Paris was distinguished for 
 his improvements in this kind of engraving, 1763. 
 Chiar'-oscuro engraving originated witli the Germans, 
 and was first practised by Mair, one of whose prints 
 bears date 1491 (see Zinc, &c.) 
 
 ENLISTMENT. No persons enlisting as 
 soldiers or sailors are to be sworn in before a magis- 
 trate in less than twenty-four hours after, and they 
 are then at liberty to withdraw upon their return- 
 ing the enlistment or bounty money, and 21s. costs. 
 Enlistment is now entirely voluntary. In 1847 the 
 term of enlistment was limited to ten years for the 
 infantry, and twelve years for the cavalry, artillery, 
 and royal marines ; and in 1867, to twelve years ; 
 see Army, 1867, and Foreign Enlistment. 
 
 ENNISKILLEN (N. W. Ireland). This 
 town made an obstinate defence against the army of 
 Elizabeth, 1595, and resisted James II., 1689. 1500 
 Enniskilleners met his general M'Carthy at Newton 
 Butler with 6000 men (of whom 3000 were slain, 
 and nearly all the rest made prisoners), they losing 
 but twenty men, 30 July, 1689. ' The dragoon regi- 
 ment, the " Inniskillingers," was originally re- 
 cruited here. 
 
 ENOCH, BOOK OF, an apocryphal work, 
 quoted by the fathers, disappeared about the 8th 
 century. A MS. Ethiopic version was found in 
 Abyssinia by Bruce, and brought to England in 
 1773. Of this archbishop Lawrence published an 
 English translation in 1821, and the Ethiopic text 
 in 1838. 
 
 ENSISHEIM (E. France). Here Turenne 
 defeated the Imperial army, and expelled it from 
 Alsace, 4 Oct. 1674. 
 
ENTAIL. 
 
 246 
 
 EPOCHA. 
 
 ENTAIL of estates began with the statute of 
 Westminster, 1 285. Subsequent legislation broke 
 the entail incases of treason (1534), when the estate 
 is to revert to the crown, and ot bankruptcy (1833 
 and 1849), when it is to be sold. 
 
 ENTOMOLOGY, the science of insects, now 
 mainly based upon the arrangement of Linnreus, 
 1739. Ray's " Methcdus Inseetorum," 1705; " In- 
 sectorum Historia," 17 10. The Entomological 
 Society of London was instituted in 1833. 
 
 ENVELOPES for letters are mentioned by 
 Swift, 1726. Stamped adhesive envelopes came 
 into general use shortly after the establishment of 
 the penny postal system, 10 Jan. 1840. Machinery 
 for their manufacture was patented by Mr. George 
 Wilson in 1844 ; and by Messrs. E. Hill and Warren 
 De la Rue, 17 March, 1845. 
 
 ENVOYS AT COURTS, in dignity below am- 
 bassadors, enjoy the protection, but not the cere- 
 monies of ambassadors. Envoys extraordinary are 
 of modern date. Wicquefort. The court of France 
 denied to them the ceremony of being conducted to 
 court in the royal carriages, 1639. 
 
 EPACT (Greek, added) is the excess of the 
 solar month above the lunar synodical month, 
 I day, 11 hours, 15 minutes, 57 seconds, the lunar 
 month being only 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes, 3 
 seconds ; and the excess of the solar year above the 
 lunar synodical year (nearly 11 days), the lunar 
 year being 354 days. The number o{ the Gregorian 
 epact for 1872, 20 ; 1873, x i i874> 12 ; 1875, 23 ; 
 1876,4; 1877, 15. 
 
 EPERNAY (N.E. France), seat of the trade 
 in champagne, was taken from the League by 
 Henry IV., 26 July, 1592, when marshal Armand 
 13 iron was killed. 
 
 EPHESUS (in Asia Minor), a city founded by 
 the Ionians about 1043 B.C. It was subdued by 
 Cyrus in 544 B.C. ; revolted from the Persians, 501 
 B.C. and was destroyed by an earthquake in a.d 17. 
 See Diana, Temple of , and Seven Churches. Paul 
 preached here a.d. 55, 56 {Acts xviii. xix.) His 
 epistle to the Ephesians is dated a.d. 64. The third 
 general council was held here in 431. After long 
 investigation, Mr. Wood discovered the site of the 
 temple of Diana in April, 1S69; and about 60 tons 
 of marble were shipped at Smyrna for the British 
 museum, Jan. 1872, part of which arrived in the 
 summer. 
 
 EPIIORI, powerful magistrates of Sparta, five 
 in number, said to have been first created by 
 Theopompus to control the royal power, about 
 757 B.C. 
 
 EPIC POEMS (from Greek epos, a song), 
 narratives in verse. Eminent examples : — 
 
 Homer's " Iliad " and " Odyssey " (Greek), between 
 
 8th and 10th century B.C. (see Homer). 
 
 Virgil's "iEneid" (Latin) about . . . b.c. 19 
 
 Ovii's " Metamorphoses " (Latin), about . a.d. i 
 Dante (died 1321), " Divina Commedia" (Italian) 
 
 published .... . 1472 
 
 Ariosto, " Orlando Fuxioso " (Italia/n) . . . 1516 
 
 Camoens' " Lusiad " (Portuguese) .... 1569 
 
 Tasso, "Jerusalem Delivered " (Italian) . . . 1581 
 Spenser's " Faery Queen " .... 1590-6 
 
 Milton's " Paradise Lost " 1667 
 
 Voltaire, " Henriade " (French) .... 1728 
 
 Walter Scott, " Lay of the Last Minstrel," &c. . . 1805 
 
 EPICUREAN PHILOSOPHY. Epicurus 
 of Gargettus, near Athens, about 300 B.C., taught 
 
 that the greatest good consists in peace of mind 
 springing from virtue, as tending to prevent dis- 
 quiet : but the name epicurean is frequently given 
 to those who derive happiness from sensual plea- 
 sure. 
 
 EPIDATJRITS (Greece), celebrated for the 
 temple of Asclepius, or iEsculapius, god of medicine, 
 and enriched by gifts from persons healed. The 
 Romans sent an embassy to seek the help of the 
 god during a pestilence, and his worship was in- 
 troduced at Rome, 293 B.C. The temple was visited 
 by JEmilius Paulus, after his conquest of Mace- 
 donia, 167 B.C. 
 
 EPIDEMIOLOGICAL SOCIETY, estab- 
 lished in 1850. 
 
 EPIGRAMS derive their origin from the in- 
 scriptions placed by the ancients on tombs. Marcus 
 Valerius Martialis, the Latin epigrammatist, who 
 flourished about a.d. 83, is allowed to have ex- 
 celled all others, ancient or modern. The following 
 epigram on Christ's turning water into wine (John 
 iii.) is an example: — "Vidit et erubuit lympha 
 pudica Deum." " The modest water saw its God, 
 and blushed." Crashaw (died 1650). 
 
 EPIPHANY (appearance), a feast (Jan. 6), 
 termed Twelfth Day, celebrates the manifestation 
 of the Saviour, by the appearance of the star which 
 conducted the Magi to the place where he was to be 
 found; instituted 813. Jrhately. 
 
 EPIRUS (Northern Greece) . Its early history 
 is very obscure. 
 
 The first Pyrrhus (Neoptolemus) settled in Epirus, 
 after the Trojan war, 1170 B.C., and was killed in 
 the temple of Delphi . . . . about B.C. 1165 
 
 Pyrrhus the Great reigns, 295 ; he takes Macedon 
 from Demetrius, 290 ; compelled to yield to Lysi- 
 machus 287 
 
 He invades Italy ; defeats the Romans, 280 ; again, 
 279 ; subdues Sicily 278 
 
 He invades Italy again, and is totally defeated by 
 Curius Dentatus at Beneventum . . . . 275 
 
 He takes Macedon from Antigonus . . . 273 
 
 He unsuccessfully invades Sparta; enters Argos, and 
 is killed by a tile, thrown by a woman . . 272 
 
 Philip unites Epirus to Macedon . . . . 220 
 
 Its conquest by the Romans 167 
 
 Epirus annexed to the Ottoman empire . a.d. 1466 
 An insurrection against the Turks put down . . 1854 
 
 EPISCOPACY, see Bishops. 
 
 EPISTLES or LETTERS. The earliest known 
 letter is that sent to Joab by David by the hands of 
 Uriah, about 1035 (2 Sam. xi. 14) ; see under 
 Bible, p. 90. Horace Walpole, renowned for his 
 letters, was born 5 Oct. 1717 ; died 2 March, 1797. 
 The collection entitled " Elegant Epistles," com- 
 mencing with Cicero, was published in 1790. It 
 ends with an essay on letter writing by Dr. 
 Johnson. 
 
 EPITAPHS were inscribed on tombs by the 
 Egyptians, Jews, Greeks, and Romans. Mr. T. J. 
 Pettigrew published a collection entitled " Chroni- 
 cles of the Tombs," in 1857. 
 
 EPITHALAMIUM, a nuptial song at mar- 
 riage. Tisias, the lyric poet, is said to have been 
 the first writer of one. He received the name of 
 Stesichorus, from the alterations made by him in 
 music and dancing, about 536 B.C. Bossuet. 
 
 EPOCHA, a point of time made remarkable by 
 some event, from which subsequent years are reck- 
 oned by historians and chronologers ; see Eras. 
 
EPSOM. 
 
 247 
 
 ESPAETO. 
 
 Creation b.c. 4004 
 
 Deluge 2348 
 
 1st Olympiad 776 
 
 Building of Rome B.C. 753 
 
 The birth of Christ A.D. 1 
 
 The Hegii'a (or flight of Mahomet). . . . 622 
 
 EPSOM (Surrey). The mineral springs were 
 discovered in 1618. The races began about 1711, 
 and have been held annually since 1730. 
 
 EQUATOR or ECUADOR, a South American 
 republic, formerly Quito and other provinces, part 
 of Columbia, 1821; independent in 1831, when the 
 Columbian republic was divided into three; the 
 other two being Venezuela and New Granada. The 
 population of Equator is about 1,040,400, of which 
 76,000 are in Quito, the capital. 
 
 Presidents : general Franco, 21 Aug. 1859 ; defeated 
 in battle by general Flores . . . Aug. i860 
 
 G. G. Moreno Jan. 1861 
 
 Geronimo Carrion, 4 Aug. 1865 ; disputes with the 
 
 chambers ; resigns Dec. 1867 
 
 Dr. Xavier Espinosa was elected president, 13 Sept. 1867 
 
 No president about Nov. 1871 
 
 Dr. Garcia Mureno, president, . . end of 1872 
 
 See Earthquakes, 1868. ■ 
 
 EQUESTRIAN ORDER in Eome began 
 with Eomulus, about 750 B.C. ; see Knighthood. 
 
 EQUINOX. When the sun in his progress 
 passes through the equator in one of the equinoc- 
 tial points, the day and night are equal all over 
 the globe. This occurs twice in the year: about 
 21 March, the vernal equinox, and 22 Sept., the 
 autumnal equinox. The equinoctial points move 
 backwards about 50 seconds yearly, requiring 25,000 
 years to accomplish a complete revolution. This is 
 called the precession of the equinoxes, which is 
 said to have been observed by the ancient astrono- 
 mers. 
 
 EQUITY, COURTS OF, are those of the lord 
 chancellor, the vice-chancellors, and the master of 
 the rolls, their office being to correct the operations 
 of the literal text of the law, and supply its defects 
 by reasonable construction not admissible in a court 
 of law. The supreme court of session in Scot- 
 land combines the functions of law and equity. In 
 1865 equity powers were conferred on the county 
 courts for cases respecting sums under 500^. 
 
 ERAS. The principal are more fully noticed 
 in their alphabetical order. 
 
 Common Era (English Bible, Usher, &e.) . B.C. 4004 
 
 Era of the Jews 3761 
 
 Era of Constantinople .... 1 Sept. 5508 
 
 Era of Nabonassar, after which the astronomical 
 observations made at Babylon were reckoned, 
 
 began 26 Feb. 747 
 Era of the Seleucidce (used by the Maccabees), 
 
 commenced 312 
 The Olympiads belong to the Grecians, and date 
 from 1 July, 776 B.C. ; they subsequently reck- 
 oned by indictions, the first beginning a.d. 313; 
 these, among chronologers, are still used (see 
 Indictions). 
 The Romans reckoned from the founding of their 
 
 city, a.u.c. (anno urbis conditce) .... 753 
 Spanish Era (of the conquest of Spain), Varro, 752, 
 Cato the Elder; the 16th year of the emperor 
 Augustus (see Ccesars), long used by the Spaniards, 
 
 a.d. 1 Jan. 38 
 Era of Diocletian or Martyrs, began . . 29 Aug. 284 
 The Mahometans began their era from the Hegira, 
 or flight of their prophet from Mecca 16 July, 622 
 See Creation, Anno Domini, Calendar. 
 
 ERASTIANISM, the opinions of Thomas 
 Lieber (latinised Erastus), a German physician 
 
 (1524-83), who taught that the church had no 
 right to exclude any person from church ordin- 
 ances, to inflict excommunication, &c. Persons 
 who acknowledge the jurisdiction of the civil power 
 in spiritual matters and the law of patronage, are 
 now termed Erastians. 
 
 ERASURES. By order of sir John Romilly, 
 master of the rolls, in 1855, no document corrected 
 by erasure with the knife was to be henceforth 
 received in his court. The errors must be corrected 
 with the pen. It is so in the army courts. 
 
 ERDINGTON ORPHANAGE, &c. ; see 
 
 Orphans' -houses. 
 
 ERFURT (Central Germany), was founded in 
 476 ; and its university established about 1390. 
 Erfurt was ceded to Prussia in 1802. It capitu- 
 lated to Murat, when 14,000 Prussian troops surren- 
 dered, 16 Oct. 1806. In this city Napoleon and 
 Alexander met, and offered peace to England, 27 
 Sept. 1808. The French retreated to Erfurt from 
 Leipsic, 18 Oct. 1813. A German parliament met 
 here in March and April, 1850. 
 
 ERICSSON'S CALORIC ENGINE, see 
 Seat, note. 
 
 ERIVAN (Armenia), in the 16th century the 
 residence of the shahs of Persia, was taken by the 
 Turks in 1553 and 1582; but recovered by Abbas 
 the Great,, 1604. After being several times cap- 
 tured, it was ceded to Persia, 1769. It was taken 
 by Paskewitch in 1827, and annexed to Russia by 
 treaty in Feb. 1828. 
 
 ERZEROUM (Asiatic Turkey), a city built 
 by Theodosius II., 415 ; taken by the Seljuk Turks 
 in the 13th century, and by the Ottoman Turks in 
 15 1 7. It was captured by the Russian general 
 Paskewitch, June, 1829, but restored in 1830. It was 
 almost totally destroyed by earthquakes, 2 June to 
 17 July, 1859. 
 
 ESCHEATS. Land or other property that 
 falls to a lord within his manor by forfeiture or 
 death. The escheator observes the rights of the 
 king in the county whereof he is escheator. Cowel. 
 In London a court of escheats was held before the 
 lord mayor to recover the property of a bastard who 
 died intestate, for the king ; such a court had not 
 been held in the city for 150 years before — 16 July, 
 1771. Phillips. 
 
 ESCURIAL, properly ESCORIAL (25 miles 
 N,W. of Madrid), the magnificent palace of the 
 sovereigns of Spain, termed the eighth wonder of 
 the world, was commenced by Philip II. in 1563, 
 and completed in 1586, at a cost of about 10,000,000^. 
 It is built in the form of a gridiron in honour of 
 St. Lawrence, on whose day (10 Aug. 1557) the 
 Spaniards gained the victory of St. Quentin. Ac- 
 cording to Francisco de los Santos the total length 
 all its rooms and apartments is above 120 English 
 miles. The Escurial comprises a church, mauso- 
 leum, monastery, palace, library, and museum. It 
 was struck by lightning and caught fire 11.30 p.m. 
 I Oct. 1872, and was much damaged; but the 
 grand library and other treasures were preserved. 
 
 ESPARTO, from the Latin spartum, stipa 
 tenacissima of Linnteus, a Spanish grass used by 
 Romans for whip-thongs, and now largely employed 
 in paper-making. In 1856 about 50 tons, in 1870 
 above 100,000 tons, were imported into Britain. 
 The price has risen from 4I. to 10I. per ton. 
 Living plants were received at Newcastle, July, 
 1867. 
 
ESPIERRES. 
 
 248 
 
 ETHYL. 
 
 ESPIEEEES (Belgium). At Pont-a-Chin, 
 near this village, the French, under Pichegru, 
 attacked the allied English and Austrian army 
 (100,000 men), commanded by the duke of York, 
 and were repulsed after a long and desperate en- 
 gagement, losing the advantages gained by the 
 victory at Turcoing, 22 May, 1794. 
 
 ESPRIT, SAINT (or Holy Ghost), the title of 
 an order of knighthood, founded by Henry III. of 
 France in 1578, and abolished in 1791. 
 
 ESQUIRES, among the Greeks and Romans, 
 were armour-hearers to, or attendants on a knight. 
 Blount. In England the king created esquires by 
 putting about their necks the collars of SS, and 
 bestowing upon them a pair of silver spurs. John 
 de Kingston was created a squire by patent, 13 
 Richard II., 1389-90. 
 
 "ESSAYS AND REVIEWS," by six clergy- 
 men and one layman of the church of England (the 
 Eev. Drs. Fred. Temple and Rowland Williams, 
 professor Baden Powell, H. B. Wilson, Mark 
 Pattison, and professor B. Jowett, and Mr. C. W. 
 Goodwin) were published in an 8vo vol. in March, 
 i860. The book did not excite much attention at 
 first, but having been severely censured for hetero- 
 dox views by nearly all the bishops and many of 
 the clergy, it created much excitement in 1861, 
 and was condemned by convocation 24 June, 1864. 
 The ecclesiastical courts sentenced the revs. R. 
 Williams and H. B. Wilson to suspension for one 
 year, and costs, 15 Dec. 1862; but on appeal the 
 sentence was reversed by the judicial committee of 
 the privy council, 8 Feb. 1864. The most remark- 
 able amongst the works put forth in opposition (in 
 1862) are the "Aids to Faith," edited by this bishop 
 of Gloucester (W. Thomson, now ahp. of York), 
 and "Replies to Essays and Reviews," edited by 
 the bishop of Oxford (S. Wilberforce) . The elec- 
 tion of Dr. Temple to the see of Exeter was much 
 opposed on account of his essay in this collection ; 
 see Church of England, 1869. 
 
 ESSENES, an ascetic Jewish sect at the time 
 of Christ. 
 
 ESSEX, KINGDOM OF ; see under Britain. 
 earls of essex (from Nicolas.) 
 Geoffrey de Mandeville, created earl of Essex by 
 
 Matilda, was slain .... 14 Sept. 1144 
 
 Humphrey de Bohun, succeeded by right of his mother, 
 
 Mary, sister of William, who died without heir 1189 
 
 Humphrey de Bohun, died without heir . . 1372 
 
 Thomas of Woodstock, son of Edward III. 1372 ; 
 
 murdered 1397 
 
 Henry Bourchier (grandson) .... 1461 
 
 Hemy Bourchier, grandson ; died without heir 
 
 (earldom extinct) • 1539 
 
 Thomas Cromwell, 1539 ; beheaded . . . 1540 
 William Parr, 1543 ; attainted .... 1543 
 
 Walter Devereux, 1572 ; died . . . 1576 
 
 Robert Devereux, lord lieut. of Ireland, 1599 ; cen- 
 sured for misgovemment ; conspired against the 
 government ; beheaded, 25 Feb. . . . 1601 
 Robert, son ; died without heir . . . 1646 
 
 Arthur Capel, ancestor of the present (26th) earl 1661 
 
 ESSLING, Battle of, see Asperne. 
 
 ESTE, HOUSE OF. Boniface, count of Lucca 
 and duke of Tuscany, about 81 1, is said to have 
 descended from Odoacer, king of Italy. From 
 Boniface sprang Albert Azzo II. marquis of Italy 
 and lord of Este, born about 996, who married — 
 first, Cunegonda of the house of Guelf, by whom he 
 had Guelf, duke of Bavaria, the ancestor of the 
 house of Brunswick (see Bavaria and Brunswick) ; 
 and secondly, Gersonda, by whom he had Fulk, 
 
 the ancestor of the Estes, dukes of Ferrara and 
 Modena. 
 
 ESTHONIA or REVEL, a Russian province, 
 said to have been conquered by the Teutonic 
 knights in the 12th century; after various changes 
 it was ceded to Sweden by the treaty of Oliva, 3 
 May, 1660, and finally to "Russia by the peace of 
 Nystadt, 30 Aug. 172 1, having been conquered by 
 Peter in 1 7 10. 
 
 ETATS, see States. 
 
 ETCHING, see Engraving. 
 
 ETHER was known to the earliest, chemists. 
 Nitric ether was first discovered by Kunkel, in 
 1 68 r, and muriatic ether, from the chloride of tin, 
 by Courtanvaux, in 1759. Acetic ether was dis- 
 covered by count Lauraguais, same year; and 
 hydriotic ether was first prepared by Gay-Lussac. 
 The phosphoric ether was obtained by M. Boullay. 
 The discovery that by inhaling ether the patient i3 
 rendered unconscious of pain, is due to Dr. Charles 
 T. Jackson, of Boston, U. S. Mr. Thomas Morton, 
 of the same place, first introduced it into surgical 
 practice, under Dr. Jackson's directions (1846) ; see 
 Chloroform, and Amylene. The term " ether " was 
 applied to the transparent celestial space by the 
 German astronomer Encke, about 1829, when 
 studying the elements of Pons' comet, discovered in 
 1818. 
 
 ETHICS (Greek term for Morals). The works 
 of Plato, Aristotle, and Confucius, contain heathen 
 systems ; the New Testament is that of Christianity. 
 Paley's Moral Philosophy appeared in 1785, and 
 Whewell's Elements of Morality in 1845. 
 
 ETHIOPIA. The name was applied anciently 
 rather vaguely to countries the inhabitants of 
 which had snn-burnt complexions, in Asia and 
 Afiica; but is now considered to apply properly to 
 the modern Nubia, Sennaar, andNorthernAbyssiiria. 
 Many pyramids exist at Napata, the capital of 
 Meroe, the civilised part of ancient Ethiopia. 
 
 The Ethiopians settle near Egypt . . B.C. 1615 
 
 Zerah, the Ethiopian, defeated by Asa . . 941 
 
 A dynasty of Ethiopian kings reigned over Egypt 
 
 765 to 715 
 Tirhakah, king of Ethiopia, inarches against Senna- 
 cherib 710 
 
 Unsuccessful invasion of Cambyses . . 525-522 
 Ptolemy III. Euergetes extended his concpiests in 
 
 Ethiopia 225 
 
 Candace, queen of Meroe, advancing against the 
 Roman settlement at Elephantine, defeated and 
 subdued by Petronius . . . . a.d. 22-23 
 
 ETHNOLOGY, a branch of Anthropology, is 
 defined as the science "which determines the dis- 
 tinctive characters of the persistent modifications of 
 mankind, their distribution, and the causes of the 
 modifications and distribution." The study of the 
 relations of the different divisions of mankind, to 
 each other is of recent origin. Balbi's Ethnographic 
 Atlas was published in 1826, and Dr. Prichard's 
 great work, Researches on the Physical History of 
 Mankind, 1841-7. The Ethnological Society, 
 established in 1843, published transactions. On 17 
 Jan. 1871, it was amalgamated with the Anthropo- 
 logical Society, (wh ich sec) and named the Anthropo- 
 logical Institute. Dr. R. G. Latham's works, on 
 the Ethnology of the British Empire, appeared in 
 1851-2. Professor T. H. Huxley gave courses of 
 lectures on Ethnology at the Royal Institution, 
 London, May & June, 1866, 1867. 
 
 ETHYL, a compound radicle, a colourless gas, 
 with a slightly ethereal odour, a compound of 
 carbon and hydrogen, first obtained in the free state 
 
ETNA. 
 
 249 
 
 EUSTATIUS. 
 
 by professor Edw. Frankland in 1849. Several of 
 its compounds with metals take fire on exposure to 
 the ah - . 
 
 ETNA, MOUNT (Sicily). Here were the 'fabled 
 forges of the Cyclops : and it is called by Pindar 
 the pillar of heaven. Eruptions are mentioned by 
 Diodorus Siculus as happening 1693 B.C., and 
 Thucydides speaks of three eruptions as occurring 
 734) 477) an(1 4 2 5 B - c - There were eruptions, 125, 
 121, and 43 B.C. Livy. 
 
 Eruptions, a. d. 40, 254, and 420. Carrera. 
 
 One in 1012. Geoffrey de Viterbo. 
 
 One overwhelmed Catania, when 15,000 inhabitants 
 
 perished in the burning ruins . . . 1169 
 
 Eruptions, 1329, 1408, 144s, 1536, 1537, 1564, et seq. 
 In 1669, when tens of thousands of persons perished 
 
 in the streams of lava which rolled over the whole 
 
 country for forty days. 
 Eruptions in 1766, 1787, 1809, 1811, and in May, 
 
 1830, when several villages were destroyed, and 
 
 showers of lava reached near to Home. 
 The town of Bronte was destroyed . . 18 Nov. 1832 
 Violent eruption occurred in . . Aug. & Sept. 1852 
 An eruption began on 1 Feb., and ceased in July 1865 
 Violent eruption began ... 28 Nov. 1868 
 
 ETON COLLEGE (Buckinghamshire), 
 founded by Henry VI. in 1440, and designed as a 
 nursery to King's College, Cambridge. John 
 Stanbery, confessor to Henry VI. (bishop of Bangor, 
 in 1448), was nominated the first provost. One of 
 the provosts, William Waynflete, (bishop of Win- 
 chester, 1447) greatly promoted the erection of the 
 buildings. Besides about three hundred noblemen's 
 and gentlemen's sons, there were seventy king's 
 scholars on the foundation, who, when properly 
 qualified, are elected, on the first Tuesday in August, 
 to King's College, Cambridge, and are removed 
 there ^vhen there are vacancies, according to 
 seniority. In Dec. i860 there were in all 820 
 scholars; see Cambridge. The establishment of 
 the Montem is nearly coeval with the college. It 
 consisted in the procession of the scholars, arrayed 
 in fancy dresses, to Salt-hill once in three years ; the 
 donations collected on the road (sometimes as much 
 as 800^.) were given to the senior or best scholar, their 
 captain, for his support while studying at Cambridge. 
 The montem was discontinued in 1847, and the 
 regatta took its place. The college system was 
 modified by the Public Schools act, 186S. 
 
 ETEUEIA (or TlTSCIA, hence the modern 
 name Tuscany), a province of Italy, whence the 
 Romans, in a great measure, derived their laws 
 customs, and superstitions. Herodotus asserts that 
 the country was conquered by a colony of Lydians. 
 The subjugation of this country forms an important 
 part of early Roman history. It was most powerful 
 under Porsena of Clusium, who attempted to rein- 
 state the Tarquins, 506 B.C. Veii was taken by 
 Camillus, 396 B.C. A truce between the Romans 
 and Etrurians for forty years was concluded, 351 B.C. 
 The latter and their allies were defeated at the 
 Vadimonian lake, 310; with the Boii their allies, 
 283 B.C., and totally lost their independence about 
 265 B.C. The vases and other works of the Etrus- 
 cans still remaining, show the degree of their 
 civilisation. Napoleon I. established a kingdom of 
 Etruria, 1801, and suppressed it 1 807, see Tuscany. — 
 Mruria, Staffordshire the site of Josiah Wedgood's 
 porcelain works, &c, was founded in 1771. 
 
 EUBCEA, the largest island in the iEgean sea. 
 Two of its cities, Chalcis and Eretria, were very 
 important, till the former was subdued by Athens, 
 506 B.C. and the latter by the Persians, 490. After 
 the Persian war, Eubcea became wholly subject to 
 
 Athens, and was its most valuable possession. It 
 revolted in 445, but was soon subdued by Pericles. 
 After the battle of Chceronea, 338, it became subject 
 to Macedon. It was made independent by the 
 Romans in 194; but was afterwards incorporated in 
 the province of Achaia. It now forms part of the 
 kingdom of Greece. 
 
 EUCHAEIST, thanksgiving, an early name 
 for the Lord's Supper; see Sacrament. 
 
 EUCLID'S ELEMENTS. Euclid, a native 
 of Alexandria, nourished about 300 B.C. The 
 Elements are not wholly his ; for many of the 
 demonstrations were derived from Thales, Pytha- 
 goras, Eudoxus, and others ; Euclid reduced them 
 to order, and probably inserted many theorems of 
 his own. The Elements were first printed at Basil 
 by Simon Grynasus, in 1533. 
 
 EUDIOMETEE, an apparatus to ascertain 
 the purity of atmospheric air, or the quantity of 
 oxygen gas or vital ah- contained in it ; one was? 
 invented by Dr. Priestley, in 1772. 
 
 EUNUCHS, first mentioned among the Egyp- 
 tians and Assyrians, and said to have been first 
 employed by Semiramis, queen of Assyria, about 
 2007 B.C. Eunuchs frequently attained to political 
 power in the later Eastern empire. 
 
 EUPATOEIA (KoSLEEE), a sea-port on the 
 west coast of the Crimea. After the allied Erench, 
 English, and Turkish armies landed in the Crimea, 
 14 Sept. 1854, a detatchment under captain Brock 
 occupied this place, which was afterwards reinforced 
 by the Turks. It was attacked 17 Feb. 1855, by 
 40,000 Russians under Liprandi. The latter were 
 repulsed with the loss of 500 men by the Turks, 
 whose loss was only 50, among which, however, 
 was Selim Pasha, the commander of the Egyptian 
 contingent. 
 
 EUPHEATES Valley Eailwat, as a 
 
 speedy means of reaching India, has been much 
 advocated, especially by the late general Chesney, 
 who published his survey of the Euphrates and 
 Tigris in 1850. A parliamentary commission reported 
 on it, Aug. 1872, when it was also considered at the 
 meeting of the British association at Brighton. 
 The construction would cost from five to ten millions- 
 sterling and its advantages are considered rather 
 hypothetical by the best judges. 
 
 EUPHUISM, an affected style of language, 
 prevalent in the time of Elizabeth, arose from 
 "Euphues; the Anatomy of Wit," by John Lyly r 
 published in 158 1. 
 
 EUEASIAN PLAIN, the great central plain 
 of Europe and Asia, so named by ethnologists- 
 (1865). 
 
 EUEOPE, the smallest of the three divisions 
 of the old continent, really an appendage of Asia ; 
 area, nearly 3,800,000 square miles; population, 
 301,700,000 (1872). For the history, see Greece, 
 Mome, and the modern kingdoms. 
 
 EUEYMEDON, a river in Pamphylia, near 
 which Cimon, son of Miltiades, destroyed the fleet 
 of the Persians at Cyprus, and defeated then- land 
 forces, 466 B.C. 
 
 EUSTACE, ST. (Lower Canada). The rebels 
 were defeated here, 14 Dec. 1837, and compelled 
 to surrender their arms. Their chiefs fled. 
 
 EUSTATIUS, ST., a West India island, set- 
 tled by the Dutch, 1632 ; taken by the French in 
 1689 ; by the British in 1690 ; again by the British 
 
EUTAW SPEINGS. 
 
 250 
 
 EXCHEQUER. 
 
 forces under Eodney and Vaughan, 3 Feb. 178 1. 
 It was recovered by tbe French under the marquis 
 •de Bouille, 26 Nov. same year; captured by the 
 British, 1801, 1810; restored to the Dutch, 1814. 
 
 EUTAW SPEINGS (S. Carolina) . Here the 
 Americans were defeated by the British under 
 Arnold, 8 Sept. 1781. 
 
 EUTYCHIANS, so called from Eutyches, an 
 abbot of Constantinople, who asserted in 446 that 
 there was but one nature in Christ, the human 
 having been absorbed in the divine. This doctrine 
 ■was condemned by councils — at Constantinople in 
 448, and at Chalcedon in 451. It has been also 
 .called Monophysite (of one nature), and Jacobite, 
 from Jacobus Baradanis, its zealous defender in the 
 <6th century. It is the form of Christianity now 
 ■existing among the Copts and Armenians. 
 
 EVACUATION TEEATY, see France, 
 
 ■Sept. 187 1. 
 
 EUXINE, see Black Sea. 
 
 EVANGELICAL, a term applied to a portion 
 •of the clergy of the church of England (also called 
 the low church), who profess to preach the gospel 
 ■more purely than then- brethren termed the high 
 church party; see Church of England. 
 
 The Evangelical Alliance was founded by sir Culling 
 Eardley Smith and others at Liverpool in 1845, with the 
 view of promoting unity among all denominations of 
 protestant Christians against Romanism and infidelity. 
 It holds annual meetings. It met in Sept. 1857, at 
 Berlin, where it was well received by the king. The 
 ■19th meeting was held at Hull, 3 Oct. 1865 ; the 20th at 
 Bath, 16 Oct. 1866; the 21st at Amsterdam, Aug. 1867; 
 .at Derby, 23-28 Nov. 1869. Lord Ebury presided at a 
 day of united prayer for the issue of the general election 
 about to take place, 1 Oct. 1868. The proposed meeting 
 At New York in Sept. 1870 was deferred on account of 
 the war. The alliance met at Geneva, 23-28 Sept. 1872 ; 
 .and at Brighton, 22-24 April, 1873. 
 
 The " Evangelical Church "in Germany began with a 
 fusion of the Lutherans and Calvinists in Nassau in 
 1817 ; followed by similar movements in different parts 
 of Germany, 1818-22. 
 
 EVANGELISTS, preachers of the "gospel," 
 •or good news ; see Gospels. 
 
 EVELINA HOSPITAL, Southwark, estab- 
 lished in 1869 hy baron Ferdinand de Rothschild, 
 in memory of his wife, and since maintained by 
 him. Its enlargement by public aid was proposed 
 in 1871. 
 
 EVENING SCHOOLS for adults of the lower 
 •classes were strongly recommended by bishop Hinds 
 in 1839, and by the committee of the Privy Council 
 •on Education in 1861. One was set up at Bala in 
 Wales by the Rev. T. Charles in 181 1. 
 
 EVESHAM (Worcestershire), where prince 
 Edward, afterwards Edward I., defeated the barons 
 headed by Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, 
 4 Aug. 1265, when the earl, his son Henry, and 
 most of his adherents were slain. Henry III. at 
 one period of the battle was on the point of being 
 ■cut down by a soldier who did not know him, but 
 was saved by exclaiming, " Do not kill me, soldier; 
 I am Henry of Winchester, thy king ! " This vic- 
 tory broke up the combination of the barons. 
 
 EVIDENCE, Law OF, regulated by 14 & 15 
 Vict., c. 99 (1851), 16 & 17 Vict., c. 83 (1853), 32 iz 
 33 Vict., c. 68 (1869). 
 
 EVIL MAY-DAY (1 May, 1517), thus called 
 on account of the violence of the apprentices and 
 populace, directed against foreigners, particularly 
 
 the French. The rioters were headed by one 
 Lincoln, who, with 15 others, was hanged; and 
 400 more in their shirts, and bound Avith ropes, and 
 halters about their necks, were carried to West- 
 minster ; but they crying ' ' mercy, mercy ! ' ' were all 
 pardoned by the king, Henry VIII. 
 
 EVOLUTION THEOEY includes the 
 nebular theory and Mr. Darwin's doctrine of natural 
 selection ; see Development, and Progressionists. 
 
 EXALTATION, see Cross. 
 
 EXAMINATIONS of candidates for employ- 
 ment in the civil service has been enforced since 
 1855. Mr. Gladstone in 1862 said that the present 
 might be tenned the "age of examinations;" see 
 Civil Service. 
 
 EXAMINEE, liberal weekly journal, estab- 
 lished Jan. 1808. 
 
 EXAMINEE OF STAGE PLAYS, an 
 
 office under the lord chamberlain, now held by 
 Mr. Wm. Bodham Donne; appointed 27 March, 
 1857. His more recent predecessors were, George 
 Colman, Chas. Kemble, and his son John Mitchell 
 Kemble. 
 
 EXAECHS, appointed by the Byzantine em- 
 perors of the East, to govern central Italy after its 
 conquest by\Belisarius and Narses, 548. They ruled 
 Ravenna from 568 to 752, when Eutychus, the last, 
 was overcome by Astolphus the Lombard. 
 
 EXCHANGE, formerly Bourse, the Royal 
 Exchange being "Britain's Burse;" that at Paris 
 is still named "i« Bourse," from bursa, a purse. 
 One called Collegium Mercatorum existed at Rome, 
 493 B.C. The Exchange at Amsterdam was reck- 
 oned the finest structure of the kind in the world. 
 Many edifices of this name in the United Kingdom 
 are magnificent ; see Royal Exchange, and Bills of 
 Exchange. 
 
 EXCHEQUEE, an ancient institution, con- 
 sisting of officers with financial and judicial func- 
 tions : the chancellor of the exchequer, the financial 
 officer, formerly sat in the court of exchequer above 
 the barons. The first chancellor was Eustace de 
 Fauconbridge, bishop of London, in the reign of 
 Henry III. about 1221. Sir Robert Walpole was 
 the last chancellor of the exchequer who acted 
 judicially (in 1735). The exchequer stopped pay- 
 ment from Jan. to 24 May, Charles II. 1673. 
 Stow. The English and Irish exchequers were 
 consolidated in 1816; see Chancellors of the Ex- 
 chequers, and Tally Office. 
 
 Exchequer Bills. The government securities, so called, 
 said to have been invented by Montague, afterwards 
 earl of Halifax, were first issued in 1697, and first cir- 
 culated by the bank in 1796. These bills, of which 
 more than twenty millions sterling are often in circu- 
 lation, are in effect accommodation notes of govern- 
 ment, that are issued in anticipation of taxes, at daily 
 interest ; and being received for taxes, and paid by the 
 bank in lieu of taxes, in its dealings with the exchequer, 
 they usually bear a premium: Amount in circulation, 
 56,974,780?. in 1817; in 1854, 16,008,700?. 
 
 Robert Aslett, a cashier of the bank of England, tried 
 for embezzling exchequer bills, and found not guilty, 
 on account of the invalidity of the bills, though the 
 actual loss to the bank amounted to 342,697?., 18 July, 
 1803. 
 
 Mr. Beaumont Smith tried for forging exchequer bills to 
 the amount of 350,000?. ; pleaded guilty ; sentenced to 
 transportation, 4 Dec. 1841. 
 
 Exchequer Bonds, a species of public securities, intro- 
 duced by Mr. W. E. Gladstone, in 1853, have not been 
 well received. 
 
EXCHEQUEK. 
 
 251 
 
 EXCISE. 
 
 Tellers or the Exchequer. Besides chamberlains of 
 the exchequer, clerks of the pells, and auditor of the 
 exchequer (offices which have all been discontinued 
 since their last avoidance in Oct. 1826, or by surrender 
 or abolition, in Oct. 1834), there were the four lucrative 
 offices of tellers of the exchequer, also abolished, 10 
 Oct. 1834. 
 
 John Jeffreys Pratt, earl, afterwards marquis Camden, 
 was appointed a teller of the exchequer, in 1780, and 
 held the appointment until his death, in 1840. During 
 nearly half of this long term he relinquished the income 
 (amounting in the whole to upwards of a quarter of a 
 million sterling) and placed it at the service of the state, 
 as it annually accrued. 
 
 Comptroller-General of the Exchequer. This office 
 was created on the abolition of the offices of the auditor 
 and the four tellers of the exchequer, and the clerk of 
 the pells, mentioned in the preceding paragraph. The 
 first comptroller-general was sir John Newport, ap- 
 pointed 11 Oct. 1834. — 34,438^. per annum have been 
 saved to the state by the retrenchments in this depart- 
 ment of the government. 
 
 Court of Exchequer Chamber. Erected by Edward 
 III. in 1357. It was remodelled by Elizabeth, m 1584, 
 and then made to comprise the judges of all the courts. 
 This court is for error from the judgments of the courts 
 of queen's bench, common pleas, and exchequer of 
 pleas in actions commenced therein. Re-modelled by 
 act 2 Geo. IV. and 1 Will. IV. c. 70 (23 July, 1830). 
 
 The Exchequer office, Westminster, was instituted by 
 Henry IV. in 1399. 
 
 CHANCELLORS OF THE EXCHEQUER. 
 
 Henry Addington (aft. lord Sidmouth) 21 March, 1801 
 
 Wm. Pitt (premier) 16 May, 1804 
 
 Lord Henry Petty (afterwards marquis of Lans- 
 
 downe) 10 Feb. 1806 
 
 Spencer Perceval .... 31 March, 1807 
 
 And premier 6 Dec. 1809 (assassinated 11 May, 1812) 
 Nicholas Vansittart (aftds. lord Bexley) 9 June, „ 
 Fred. J. Robinson (afterwards lord Goderich and 
 
 earl of Ripon) 31 Jan. 1823 
 
 George Canning (premier) .... April, 1827 
 John C. Hemes . .... 17 Aug. ,, 
 
 Henry Goulburn 26 Jan. 1828 
 
 Viscount Althorp (aft. earl Spencer) . 22 Nov. 1830 
 
 Sir Robert Peel (premier) .... 10 Dee. 1834 
 Thos. Spring Rice (aft. lord Monteagle) 18 April, 1835 
 Francis T. Baring (afterwards baronet) . 26 Aug. 1839 
 
 Henry Goulburn 3 Sept. 1841 
 
 Charles Wood (afterwards baronet, lord Halifax, 
 
 1866) 6 July, 1846 
 
 Benjamin Disraeli 21 Feb. 1852 
 
 William Ewart Gladstone . . . .28 Dec. ,, 
 Sir George Cornewall Lewis 5 March, 1855 
 
 Benjamin Disraeli, again . . . -27 Feb. 1858 
 William E. Gladstone, again . . . June, 1859 
 Benjamin Disraeli, again .... 6 July, 1866 
 George Ward Hunt .... 29 Feb. 1868 
 
 Robert Lowe . . . . -9 Dec. 1868 
 
 EXCHEQITEE, COURT OF (Curia Regis), 
 instituted by "William I. on the model of the Trans- 
 marine Exchequer of Normandy, in 1079 ; according 
 to some authorities, by Henry I. It included the 
 common pleas until they were separated, 16 John, 
 1215. Coke's Reports. The exchequer is so named 
 from a chequered cloth which anciently covered the 
 table where the judges and chief officers sat.* Here 
 are tried all causes relating to the king's revenue ; 
 such as are concerning accounts, disbursements, 
 customs, and fines imposed, as well as all matters at 
 common law between subject and subject. The 
 judges are styled barons, first appointed 1234. There 
 are a chief and four puisne barons : the fifth judge 
 having been added 23 July, 1830. The office of 
 Cursitor Baron was abolished in 1856. 
 
 * In process of time the court of exchequer became 
 gradully enlarged in its jurisdiction, until at length it 
 was not merely a revenue court and one at common law 
 between subject and subject, but one in which suits in 
 equity were also instituted. In fact, until the act 5 Vict. 
 c. 5 (1841), the court of exchequer possessed a triple 
 jurisdiction; but by this statute its equity business was 
 transferred to the court of chancery. 
 
 CHIEF BARONS. 
 
 1689. Sir Robert Atkins. 10 April. 
 1695. Sir Edward Ward. 10 June. 
 1714. Sir Samuel Dodd. 22 Nov. 
 1716. Sir Thomas Bury. 11 June. 
 
 1722. Sir James Montagu. 9 May. 
 
 1723. Sir Robert Eyre. 5 Dec. 
 
 1725. Sir Geoffrey Gilbert. 1 June. 
 
 1726. Sir Thomas Pengelly. 29 Oct. 
 1730. Sir James Reynolds. 30 April. 
 1738. Sir John Comyn. 7 July. 
 
 1740. Sir Edmund Probyn. 24 Nov. 
 1742. Sir Thomas Parker. 29 Nov. 
 
 1772. Sir Sidney Stafford Smythe. 29 Oct. 
 
 1777. Sir John Skynner. 17 Dec. 
 
 1787. Sir James Eyre. 26 Jan. 
 
 1793. Sir Archibald Macdonald. 12 Feb. 
 
 1813. Sir Vicary Gibbs. 8 Nov. 
 
 1814. Sir Alexander Thomson. 24 Feb. 
 1817. Sir Richard Richards. 22 April. 
 1824. Sir William Alexander. 9 Jan. 
 
 1831. John, lord Lyndhurst. 18 Jan. Previously lord 
 chancellor ; again lord chancellor, 1834. 
 
 1834. Sir James Scarlett. 24 Dec. Created lord Abinger, 
 Jan. 1835. 
 
 1844. Sir Frederick Pollock. 15 April. 
 
 1866. Sir FitzRoy Kelly. 16 July. 
 
 CHIEF BARONS OF EXCHEQUER IN IRELAND. 
 
 1690. John Hely. 5 Dec. 
 1695. Robert Doyne. 10 May. 
 1703. Nehemiah Donnellan. 27 Dec. 
 
 1706. Richard Freeman. 25 June. 
 
 1707. Robert Rochfort. 12 June. 
 
 1714. Joseph Deane. 14 Oct. 
 
 1715. Jeffrey Gilbert. 16 June. 
 1722. Bernard Hale. 9 June. 
 1725. Thomas Dalton. 2 Sept. 
 1730. Thomas Marlay. 29 Sept. 
 
 1741. John Bowes. 21 Dec. 
 1757. Edward Willis, n March. 
 1766. Anthony Foster. 5 Sept. 
 
 1777. James Dennis (aftds. baron Tracton). 3 July. 
 
 1782. Walter Hussey Burgh. 2 July. 
 
 1783. Barry Yelverton (afterwards viscount Avonmore). 
 
 29 Nov. 
 1805. Standish O'Grady (afterwards viscount Guillamore). 
 
 S Oct. 
 1831. Henry Joy. 6 Jan. 
 1838. Stephen Woulfe. 20 July. 
 1840. Maziere Brady. 11 Feb. 
 1846. David Richard Pigot. 1 Sept. 
 
 EXCISE. The system was established in 
 England by the Long Parliament in 1643, duties 
 being levied on wines, beer, &c, and tobacco, to 
 support the army against Charles I. It was con- 
 tinued under Charles II. The present system was 
 settled about 1733. The old excise office was built 
 on the site of Gresham college in 1774 ; the present 
 is at Somerset-house. The officers of excise and 
 customs were deprived of their votes for returning 
 members to parliament in 1782 ; but received them 
 again in 1868. In 1849 the boards of excise, 
 stamps and taxes, were united, as " the board of 
 commissioners of inland revenue." Notwithstand- 
 ing the abolition of the excise duty upon numerous 
 articles, and the reduction of duty upon various 
 others, of late years, the total excise revenue, so far 
 from having decreased, has progressively advanced 
 (1847 and 1861 excepted) in its aggregate annual 
 amount. Additional excise duties were charged by 
 17 & 18 Vict. c. 27, July 3, 1854. The excise duties 
 were further modified in i860; see Revenue. 
 
 REVENUE FROM EXCISE. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 1744 ; ^3.754.072 
 
 1786 5>54°>"4 
 
 1808 19.867,914 
 
 1820 26,364,702 
 
 1827 (United Kingdom) .... 20,995,324 
 
 1830 . . 18,644,385 
 
 1834 16,877,292 
 
 1837 14.518,142 
 
EXCLUSION BILL. 
 
 ■i-ri 
 
 EXECUTIONS. 
 
 1840 (United Kingdom) 
 
 1847 
 
 1850 
 
 1858 (to March 31) 
 i860 „ „ . 
 1865 „ „ 
 
 1870 
 1871 
 
 £12,607,766 
 13.585.583 
 12,883,678 
 13,919,652 
 15,278,208 
 17,901,545 
 20,240,467 
 19,428,324 
 20,190,338 
 20,475,740 
 21,879,238 
 22,833,907 
 
 EXCLUSION BILL (to exclude the duke of 
 York, afterwards James II., from the throne), was 
 passed by the commons, but rejected by the lords in 
 1679. The revival of the question led to the disso- 
 lution of parliament in 168 1. 
 
 EXCOMMUNICATION, or separation from 
 Christian communion, founded on Matt, xviii. 17; 
 I Cor. v., &c, was instituted to preserve the purity 
 of the church. The Koman church excommuni- 
 cated by Bell, Bopk, and Candle {which see). See 
 Interdict. 
 
 Gregory VII. excommunicated the emperor 
 Henry IV., and absolved his subjects from 
 their allegiance 1077 
 
 Innocent III. excommunicated John of England, 
 placing the country under an interdict . 120S-14 
 
 Gregory IX. excommunicated the emperor 
 Frederick II. four times between . . . 1228-45 
 
 Louis XII. of France was excommunicated by 
 Julius II. 1510 ; Francis I. by Leo X. 1521 ; 
 Henry VIII. of England by Clement VII. in 
 1527, and by Paul III. in 1535 ; and Elizabeth 
 by Pius V. 25 April, 1570 
 
 The emperor of France, the king of Sardinia, and 
 others, were virtually excommunicated (but not 
 by name) ou account of the annexation of the 
 "Romagna by Sardinia ... 29 March, i860 
 
 EXECUTIONS, see Crime. In the reign of 
 Henry VIII. (38 years) it is said that no less a 
 number than 72,000 criminals were executed. Stoiv. 
 In the ten years between 1820 and 1830, there were 
 executed in England alone 797 criminals; but as our 
 laws became less severe, the number of executions 
 decreased. In the three years ending 1820, the 
 executions in England and Wales amounted to 
 312 ; in the three years ending 1830, they were 
 178 ; in the three years ending 1840, they were 62. 
 The place of execution in London (formerly gene- 
 rally at Tyburn) was in front of Newgate from 1783 
 to 1868, when an act was passed directing execu- 
 tions to take place within the walls of prisons. The 
 dissection of the bodies of executed persons was 
 abolished in 1832, see Death, 1868. 
 
 EXECUTIONS IN LONDON. 
 
 1820, 43 ; — 1825, 17 ; — 1830, 6 ; — 1835, o ; — 1836, o ; — 
 1837, 2 ; — 1838, o ; — 1839, 2 ; — 1840, 1 ; — 1842, 2; — 1843, o; 
 1844, 1 ; — 1845, 3 ; — 1846, 2. 
 
 IN ENGLAND. 
 
 England. London. 
 
 1847 
 
 1849 . 
 
 ■ 15 
 
 1850 . 
 
 . 6 
 
 1851 . 
 
 . 10 
 
 1852 . 
 
 ■ 9 
 
 1853 • 
 
 . 8 
 
 1854 . 
 
 • 5 
 
 1855 . 
 
 ■ 7 
 
 1856 . 
 
 • 15 
 
 1857 • 
 
 • J 3 
 
 i860 
 
 1864 
 
 1867 
 
 1870 
 1871 
 
 England. London. 
 
 1859 • • 9 • 
 
 EXECUTIONS OF REMARKABLE CRIMINALS. 
 
 Gunpowder plot conspirators, Digby, R. Winter, 
 Grant, and Bates, 30 Jan. ; T. Winter, Eookwood, 
 
 Keys, and Fawkes, 3 1 Jan. ; Henry Garnett, Jesuit : 
 
 at London 3 May, IOO ° 
 
 John Felton, murder of duke of Buckingham ; 
 
 Tyburn 28 Nov. 1628 
 
 James, duke of Monmouth, treason ; Tower-hill, 
 
 15 July, 1685 
 Charnock, King, and Keys, 18 March ; sir John 
 Friend, and sir Wm. Perkins (" assassination 
 
 plot") 3 April, 1696 
 
 Capt. Wm. Kidd and three others, piracy 23 May, 1701 
 James, earl of Derwentwater, and William, earl of 
 
 Kenmure, rebellion ; Tower-hill . . 24 Feb. 1716 
 John Price, the hangman ; murder, Bunhill-row, 
 
 21 Kay, 1718 
 Jack Sheppard, highwayman ; Tyburn 16 Nov. 1724 
 
 Richard Turpin, highwayman ; York 7 or 10 April, 1739 
 Lord Balinerino and others, rebellion ; Tower-hill, 
 
 18 Aug. 1746 
 Lord Lovat, rebellion ; Tower-hill . 9 April, 1747 
 Richard Wm. Vaughan, first forger of Bank of Eng- 
 land notes 11 May, 1758 
 
 Eugene Aram, murder ; York . . .6 Aug. 1759 
 Earl Ferrers, murder of his steward ; Tyburn, 5 May, 1760 
 Theodore Gardelle, murder ; Haymarket 4 April, 1761 
 John Perrott, fraudulent bankrupt ; Smithtield, 
 
 11 Nov. ,, 
 John M'Naughten, esq., murder of Miss Knox; 
 
 Strabane 13 Dec. „ 
 
 Elizabeth Brownrigg, murder of her apprentice ; 
 
 Tyburn 14 Sept. 1767 
 
 Daniel and Robert Perreau, wine merchants, forgery ; 
 
 Tyburn 17 Jan. 1776 
 
 Rev. Dr. Dodd, found guilty of forging a bond, in 
 the name of lord Chesterfield for 4200?. ; the 
 highest influence was exerted to save him, but 
 when the case came before the council, the 
 minister of the day said to George III. , " If 
 your majesty pardon Dr. Dodd, you will have 
 murdered the Perreaus ; " Tyburn . 27 June, 1777 
 Rev. Henry Hackman, murder of Miss Reay, mis- 
 tress of earl of Sandwich ; Tyburn . 19 April, 1779 
 Capt. John Donellan, murder of sir Theodosius 
 
 Boughton ; Warwick . . . .2 April, 1781 
 Christian Murphy (or Bowman), a woman ; strangled 
 
 and burnt for coining . . . 18 March, 1789 
 
 Richard Parker and others, mutiny at the Nore, 
 
 30 June, 1797 
 Mrs. Phepoe, celebrated murderess ; Old Bailey, 
 
 11 Dec. ,, 
 Sir Edward Crosbie, high treason ; Ireland, 4 June, 1798 
 Messrs. Sheares, high treason ; Dublin 12 July, 1799 
 Galloping Dick, highwayman ; Aylesbury, 4 April, 1800 
 Governor Joseph Wall, murder of Serjeant Arm- 
 strong ; Old Bailey .... 28 Jan. 1802 
 ilr. Crawley, murder of two females ; Dublin, 
 
 10 March, „ 
 George Foster, murder of wife and child ; Old Bailey, 
 
 18 Jan. 1803 ' 
 Colonel Despard and others, high treason ; Horse- 
 
 nioiiger-lane 21 Feb. ,, 
 
 John Hatfield (a rank impostor, who married, by 
 means of the most odious deceit, the celebrated 
 "Beauty of Buttermere "), forgery; Carlisle, 
 
 3 Sept. „ 
 Robert Emmett, high treason ; Dublin 20 Sept. ,, 
 Richard Patch, murder of Mr. Bligh ; Horsemonger- 
 
 lane 8 April. 1806 
 
 John Holloway, Owen Haggerty, murder of .Mr. 
 Steele ; Old ' Bailey (thirty of the spectators of 
 this execution were trodden to death, and num- 
 bers were pressed, maimed and wounded), 23 Feb. 1807 
 T. Simmons, the man of blood, murder; Hertford, 
 
 7 March, 180S 
 Major Campbell, murder of capt. Boyd in a duel ; 
 
 Armagh 2 Oct. ,, 
 
 Capt. Sutherland, murder ; Execution dock, 
 
 29 June, 1809 
 Richard Armitage, forgery ; Old Bailey 24 June, 1811 
 John Bellingham, murder of Mr. Perceval ; Old 
 
 Bailey 18 May, 1S12 
 
 Philip Nicholson, murder of Mr. and Mrs. Bonar ; 
 
 Pennenden-heath .... 23 Aug. 1813 
 
 Francis Tuite, murder of Mr. Goulding ; Dublin, 
 
 9 Oct. ,, 
 Charles Callaghan, murder of Mr. Merry ; Horse- 
 
 monger-lane .... 2 April, 1814 
 William Sawyer, murder of JackHacket; Old Bailey, 
 
 15 May, „ 
 
EXECUTIONS. 
 
 253 
 
 EXECUTIONS. 
 
 Eliza Fenning, administering poison ; Old Bailey, 
 
 26 July, 1815 
 [Universally believed to be innocent ; she denied 
 her guilt on the scaffold ; and thousands accom- 
 panied her funeral. In the "Annual Begister " 
 for 1857, p. 143, it is stated on the authority of 
 Mr. Gurney, that she confessed the crime to Mr. 
 James Upton, a baptist minister, shortly before 
 her execution.] 
 John Cashman, Spa-fields riots ; Skinner-street, 
 
 12 March, 1817 
 Murderers of the Lynch family. Wild-goose Lodge 
 
 affair ; Ireland 19 July, ,, 
 
 The three Ashcrofts, father and sous, murder ; 
 
 Lancaster 8 Sept. ,, 
 
 Brandreth and others, high treason ; Derby, 7 Nov. ,, 
 Charles Hussey, murder of Mr. Bird and his house- 
 keeper ; Pennenden-heath . . .3 Aug. 1818 
 John Scanlan, esq., murder of Ellen Hanley ; Lime- 
 rick 16 March, 1820 
 
 Arthur Thistlewood, John Brunt, James Ings, John 
 Davidson, Richard Tidd (see Cato-street) ; Old 
 
 Bailey 1 May, „ 
 
 John Channell, Thomas Calcraft, murder of Mr. 
 
 Channell, senr. ; Godalming . . 17 Aug. ,, 
 Josiah Cadman, forgery ; Old Bailey . 21 Nov. 1821 
 Samuel Greenwood, highway robbery ; Old Bailey, 
 
 27 Dec. 1822 
 John Thurtell, murder of Mr. Weare ; Hertford, 
 
 9 Jan. 1824 
 John Wayte, forgery ; Old Bailey . . 24 Feb. „ 
 Henry Fauntleroy, banker, forgery; Old Bailey, 
 
 30 Nov. ,, 
 Wm. Probert (an accomplice of Thurtell's in the 
 murder of Mr. Weare ; he became approver), 
 horse-stealing ; Old Bailey . . 20 June, 1825 
 Spitalfields' gang, highway robbery; Old Bailey, 
 
 29 Nov. 1826 
 Chas. Thos. White, arson ; Old Bailey . 2 Jan. 1827 
 Edward Lowe, coining (the. last coiner drawn on a 
 
 sledge to the scaffold) ; Old Bailey . 22 Nov. „ 
 Catherine Walsh, murder of her child ; Old Bailey, 
 
 14 April, 1828 
 William Bea, highway robbery ; Old Bailey, 4 July, „ 
 Captain Charles Montgomery was ordered for exe- 
 cution this day for forgery ; but he took a dose (ahi 
 ounce and a half) of prussic acid, to save himself 
 from the ignominy of the gallows, and was found 
 
 dead in his cell 4 July, ,, 
 
 William Corder, murder of Maria Marten ; Bury St. 
 
 Edmunds n Aug. ,, 
 
 Joseph Hunton, quaker, forgery; Old Bailey, 
 
 8 Dec. „ 
 Wm. Burke, murderer (see Burking) ; Edinburgh, 
 
 28 Jaii. 1829 
 Anne Chapman, murder of her child ; Old Bailey, 
 
 30 June, ,, 
 Stewart and wife, murder ; Glasgow . 24 July, ,, 
 Thomas Maynard, the last executed for forgery ; 
 
 Old Bailey 31 Dec. „ 
 
 Mr. Comyn, arson ; Ennis . . .18 March, 1830 
 John Bishop, Thomas Williams, murder of a poor 
 
 Italian boy (see Burking); Old Bailey, 5 Dec. 1831 
 John Smith, James Pratt, unnatural crime ; Old 
 
 Bailey 8 April, 1835 
 
 Maryanne Burdock, remarkable case of poisoning ; 
 
 Bristol 15 April, „ 
 
 John Pegsworth, murder ; Old Bailey 7 March, 1837 
 James Greenacre, murder of Hannah Brown ; Old 
 
 Bailey 2 May, „ 
 
 William Lees, murder of his wife ; Old Bailey, 
 
 16 Dec. 1839 
 Francois Benj. Courvoisier, murder of lord W. Rus- 
 sell ; Old Bailey 6 July, 1840 
 
 Josiah Misters, wounding Mr. .Mackretk; Shrews- 
 bury 3 April, 1841 
 
 Robert Blakesley, murder of Sir. Burdon ; Old 
 
 Bailey 15 Nov. „ 
 
 John Delahunt, murder of Thomas Maguire ; Dublin, 
 
 S Feb. 1842 
 Daniel Good, murder of Jane Jones; Old Bailey, 
 
 23 May, „ 
 William Crouch, murder of his wife ; Old Bailey, 
 
 27 May, 1844 
 James Tapping, murder of Emma Whiter ; Old 
 
 Bailey 24 March, 1845 
 
 John Tawell, murder of Sarah Hart ; Aylesbury, 
 
 28 March, „ 
 
 Thomas Henry Hocker, murder of Mr. Delarue ; 
 
 Old Bailey 28 April, 1845 
 
 Joseph Connor, murder of Mary Brothers ; Old 
 
 Bailey 2 June, ,, 
 
 John Platts, murder of Collis ; Derby . 1 April, 1847 
 Catherine Foster, murder of her husband ; Bury St. 
 
 Edmunds . . . .. . .17 April, ,, 
 
 James Bloomfield Rush, murder of Messrs. Jenny, 
 
 sen. and jun. ; Norwich ... 21 April, 1849 
 Fred. George Manning, and his wife, Maria Manning, 
 
 murder of O'Connor ; Horsemonger-lane, 13 Nov. ,, 
 James Barbour, murder ; York . . 15 Jan. 1853 
 Hy. Hoiier, murder of wife ; Old Bailey . 15 Jan. ,, 
 Grant, Quin, and Coomey, murder of Thomas Bate- 
 
 Monaghan 9 April, 1854 
 
 Emanuel Barthelemy, murder of Mr. Moore and 
 
 C. Collard ; Old Bailey ... 22 Jan. 1855 
 William Bousfield, murder of his wife and three 
 
 children ; Old Bailey ... 31 March, 1856 
 William Palmer (of Rugeley), murder of J. P. Cook 
 
 by poison ; Stafford .... 14 June, ,, 
 William Dove, murder of his wife by poison ; York, 
 
 9 Au 8- » 
 Joseph Jenkins, alias Robert Marley, murder of 
 Cope, a shopman, in Westminster ; Old Bailey, 
 
 15 Dec. ,, 
 William Jackson, murder of two children ; Chester, 
 
 20 Dec. „ 
 Lagava, Bartelano, and Pettrick, murder of two 
 
 officers and piracy ; Winchester . 23 Dec. ,, 
 
 Dedea Redaines, murder of two girls at Dover ; 
 
 Maidstone 1 Jan. 1857 
 
 Thomas Mansell (after seven months' respite), 
 
 murder of a soldier ; Maidstone . 6 July, ,, 
 
 Capt. H. Rogers, murder of A. Rose, a black, with 
 
 great cruelty ; Liverpool . . . n Sept, .,, 
 Thomas Davis, murder of wife ; Old Bailey, 16 Nov. ,, 
 John William Beale, murder of Charlotte Pugsley, 
 
 his sweetheart ; Taunton . . . 12 Jan. 1858 
 John Thomson, alias Peter Walker, murder of Agnes 
 
 Montgomery by poison — discovered by a child ; 
 
 Paisley 14 Jan. „ 
 
 Christian Sattler, a German, murder of inspector 
 
 Thain ; Old Bailey .... 8 Feb. „ 
 Giovanni Lani, murder of Heloi'se Thaubin ; Old 
 
 Bailey 26 April, „ 
 
 John B. Bicknell, murder of his grandfather and 
 
 grandmother ; Taunton ... 24 Aug. ,, 
 Wm. Burgess, murder of his daughter ; Taunton, 
 
 4 Jan. 1859 
 Joseph Castle, murder of his wife ; Bedford. 
 
 31 March, i860 
 William Youngman, murder of sweetheart, Mary 
 
 Streeter, and mother and two brothers, on Aug. 
 
 16 ; Horsemonger-lane ... 4 Sept. „ 
 
 James Mullins, murder of Mrs. Emsley, at Stepney ; 
 
 Old Bailey 19 Nov. „ 
 
 James Johnson, murder of two non-commissioned 
 
 officers ; Winchester 1 Jan. 1861 
 
 Matthew and Charles Wedmore, murder of their 
 
 aunt ; Taunton 5 April, „ 
 
 Martin Doyle, barbarous attempted murder (last 
 
 execution for this crime) ; Chester . 27 Aug. „ 
 Wm. Cogan, murder of wife ; Old Bailey, 14 Oct. ,, 
 Thomas Jackson, a soldier, murder of sergeant 
 
 John Dickson ; Winchester . . 27 Dec. „ 
 Wm. Charlton, engine-driver, murdered Jane Em- 
 
 merson, to obtain the money she had saved for 
 
 her funeral ; Carlisle ... 15 March, 1862 
 G. J. Gilbert, brutal murder of Miss M. S. Hall, on 
 
 her way to church ; Winchester . . 4 Aug. „ 
 William Taylor, murder of Mr. Meller from revenge ; 
 
 he previously killed his own children ; Kirkdale, 
 
 13 Sept. „ 
 Catherine Wilson, murder of Mrs. Soames by poison 
 
 [and of several other persons] ; Old Bailey, 20 Oct. ,, 
 
 William Ockold (aged 70), murder of his wife, after 
 50 years marriage ; Worcester ". . 2 Jan. 1863 
 
 Noah Austen, murder of Mr. Allen ; Oxford, 
 
 24 March, „ 
 
 Robert A. Burton, murder of a boy; Maidstone, 
 
 n April, „ 
 
 Edward Cooper, murder of his deformed son ; 
 Shrewsbury n April, ,, 
 
 Dennis Delane, hired Beckham and Walsh to mur- 
 der his landlord, F. Fitzgerald . .13 April, ,, 
 
 John Ducker, murder of Tye, a policemau ; Ipswich, 
 
 14 April, „ 
 
EXECUTIONS. 
 
 254 
 
 EXETEE. 
 
 Win. Hope, violation and murder of Mary Corbett ; 
 
 Hereford 15 April, 1863 
 
 D MacPhail and G. Woods, murder of Mrs. Walne ; 
 
 Kirkdale 25 April, „ 
 
 Joseph Brooks, murder of Davy, a policeman ; 
 
 Old Bailey 27 April, „ 
 
 Joseph Kelly, murder of Fitzhenry, a schoolmaster ; 
 
 Wexford " Au S- »• 
 
 Thomas, Alvarez, Hughes, and O'Brien, ferocious 
 
 murderers ; Liverpool ... 11 Sept. „ 
 
 Alice Holt, murder of her mother ; Chester, 28 Dec ,, 
 Samuel Wright, murder of his paramour, 12 Jan. 1864 
 John Lyon and four others (foreigners) ; murder 
 
 and piracy ; Old Bailey ... 22 Feb. „ 
 Charles Bricknell, murder of his sweetheart, 
 
 1 Aug. ,, 
 Franz Miiller, murder of Mr. Briggs in a railway 
 
 carriage (see Trials) ; Old Bailey . 14 Nov. „ 
 Ferdinand Kohl, murder of M. Fuhrkop ; Chelms- 
 ford 26 Jan. 1865 
 
 Edw. William Pritchard, M.D., murder of wife 
 
 and her mother ; Glasgow . . .28 July, ,, 
 John Currie, murder of major De Vere ; Maidstone, 
 
 12 Oct. ,, 
 Stephen Forward, alias Ernest Southey, murder of 
 
 wife and four children ; Maidstone . n Jan. 1866 
 Mary Ashford, murder of husband ; Exeter, 
 
 28 March, „ 
 John Win. Leigh, murder of wife's sister ; Brighton, 
 
 10 April, ,, 
 Robert Coe, murder of a young man for his wages, 
 
 30s.; Swansea 12 April, ,, 
 
 John Grant, a soldier, murder of a boy ; Exeter, 
 
 15 Aug. » 
 J R Jeffreys, murder of his son (aged 7); Old Bailey, 
 
 9 Oct. ,, 
 Jas. Langhurst, brutal murder of Harriet Sax 
 
 6 years old) 16 April, 1867 
 
 Hubbard Lingley, murder of his uncle, Benj. Black ; 
 
 Norwich 26 Aug. ,, 
 
 George Britten, murder of his wife ; Taunton, 
 
 29 Aug. ,, 
 John Wiggins, murder of his concubine, Agnes 
 
 Oakes ; Old Bailey .... 15 Oct. „ 
 Louis Bordier, murder of his concubine, Mary Ann 
 
 Snow ; Horsemonger-lane . . . 15 Oct. ,, 
 Wm. O'Meara Allen, Win. Gould (or O'Brien), and 
 Michael Larkin, Fenians, for murder of Brett, a 
 policeman; Salford .... 23 Nov. ,, 
 Frederick Baker, murder of a little girl, whom he 
 
 afterwards cut up ; Winchester . . 24 Dec. ,, 
 Wm Worsley, murder of Wm. Bradbury; Bedford, 
 
 31 March, 1S68 
 Frances Kidder, murder of her husband's child ; 
 
 Maidstone 2 April, ,, 
 
 Timothy Faherty, for murder of his sweetheart, 
 
 Mary Hanmer (for rejecting him), and 
 Miles Weatherill, murder of Rev. Mr. Plow, of Tod- 
 morden, and his maid (for revenge); Manchester; 
 
 4 April, „ 
 Frederick Parker ; murder of Daniel Driscoll ; York, 
 
 4 April, , , 
 John Mapp, murder of little girl ; Shrewsbury, 
 
 9 April, ,, 
 O'Farrell, for attempting to assassinate the duke of 
 
 Edinburgh ; Sydney, N.S. Wales . 21 April, „ 
 Richard Bishop ; murder of Alfred Cartwright ; 
 
 Maidstone 3° April, „ 
 
 Michael Barrett, Fenian ; for Clerkenwell explosion ; 
 
 THE LAST PUBLIC EXECUTION IN ENGLAND ; Old 
 
 Bailey 26 May, „ 
 
 Thomas Wells, for murder of Mr. Walsh, station- 
 master at Dover ; (the first private execution), 
 
 13 Aug. ,, 
 William Sherward, for murder of his wife, Norwich 
 
 (see Norwich) 20 April, 1869 
 
 Josiah Detheridge, murder of warder in Portland 
 prison ; Dorchester 12 Aug. ,, 
 
 Wm Taylor, soldier ; murder of his corporal ; Exeter, 
 
 n Oct. „ 
 
 Frederick Hinson, murder of his concubine Maria 
 Death, and of Wm. Douglas Boyd, her paramour, 
 at Wood Green, Middlesex ; Old Bailey, 13 Dec. ,, 
 
 Wm. Mobbs, purposeless murder of a child; Ayles- 
 bury 28 March, 1S70 
 
 Walter Millar, murder of Rev. Elias Huelin and 
 Ann Boss (at Chelsea) ; Old Bailey . 1 Aug. ,, 
 
 John Owen or Jones, for murder of a family (7 
 persons) at Denham ; Aylesbury . . 8 Aug. 1870 
 
 Thomas Ratcliff'e ; murder of a warder in Portland 
 prison; Dorchester .... 15 Aug. ,, 
 
 Margaret Waters ; murder of infants ; baby-fanning 
 case ; Horsemonger-lane ... n Oct 
 
 Patrick Durr; murder of his wife ; Manchester, 
 
 26 Dec. ,, 
 
 Wm. Bull ; brutal murder of an old woman ; Bed- 
 ford 3 April, 1871 
 
 Michael Campbell ; murder of Mr. Galloway at 
 Stratford ; Springfield gaol, Essex . 24 April, ,, 
 
 Richard Addington ; murder of wife ; Northampton, 
 
 31 July, „ 
 
 Frederic Jones; murder of Emily Gardner, 
 through jealousy ; Gloucester . . 8 Jan. 1872 
 
 Edward Roberts ; murder of Ann Merrick, who re- 
 fused to many him ; Oxford . . 18 March, ,, 
 
 Wm. Fred. Horry ; murder of wife ; Lincoln, 1 April, ,, 
 
 Charles Holmes ; murder of wife ; Worcester, 12 Aug. ,, 
 
 Thomas Moore, murder of wife ; James Took, sol- 
 dier, murder of drummer ; Francis Bradford, 
 soldier, murder of comrade ; Maidstone, 13 Aug. ,, 
 
 Christopher Edwards ; murder of wife ; Stafford, 
 
 13 Aug. „ 
 
 Wm. Lace ; murder of wife ; Taunton . 26 Aug. ,, 
 
 Augustus Elliott ; murder of paramour ; Old Bailey, 
 
 9 Dec, ,, 
 
 Mich Kennedy; murderofwife ; Manchester, 30 Dec ,, 
 
 Edwd. Handcock; murderofwife; Warwick, 7 Jan. 1873 
 
 Richard Spencer; murder of paramour; Liver] 1 
 
 8 Jan. „ 
 
 Hugh Slane and John Hayes ; murder of Joseph 
 Waine ; Durham 13 Jan. ,, 
 
 Mary Arm Cotton ; murder of child (see Poisoning); 
 Durham 24 March ,, 
 
 EXETER (Devonshire), said to have been 
 named Augusta from having been occupied by the 
 second Augustan legion commanded by Vespasian : 
 its present name is derived from Excestre. It was 
 for a considerable time the capital of the West 
 Saxon kingdom. The bishopric anciently com- 
 prised two sees : Devonshire (founded about 909) 
 and Cornwall. The church of the former was at 
 Crediton, of the latter at Bodmin, and afterwards at 
 St. German's. About 1040 the sees were united. 
 St. Petroc was the first bishop of Cornwall, before 
 900 ; (Edulphus, the first bishop of Devonshire, 905 ; 
 and Leofric, the first bishop of Exeter, in 1049. 
 The cathedral originally belonged to a monastery 
 founded by Athelstan : Edward the Confessor re- 
 moved the monks to his new abbey of Westminster, 
 and gave their church for a cathedral to the united 
 see, 1049 ; the see was valued in the king's hooks at 
 500/. per annum. Present stated income, 2"ool. 
 Alfred invested the city, held by the Danes, and 
 
 compelled them to capitulate . . . 877 & 894 
 
 Exeter sacked by Sweyn 1003 
 
 Besieged by William the Conqueror . . . . 1067 
 The castle surrendered to king Stephen . . . 1136 
 The city first governed by a mayor . . . . 1200 
 Ihe celebrated nunnery founded .... 1236 
 
 The ancient bridge built 1250 
 
 Edward I. holds a parliament here .... 1286 
 
 The Black Prince visits Exeter 1371 
 
 The duchess of Clarence takes refuge in the city . 1469 
 Besieged by sir William Courtenay . . . . ,, 
 City assaulted by Perkin Warbeck .... 1497 
 Exeter constituted a county of itself . . . . 1536 
 Welsh, the vicar of St. Thomas's, hanged on the 
 
 tower of his church, as a leader in the Cornish 
 
 rebellion 2 July, 1549 
 
 Annual festival established . . . . 6 Aug. ,, 
 
 The guildhall built 1593 
 
 Prince Maurice takes Exeter for king Charles I. 
 
 Sept. 1643 
 
 April, 1646 
 
 • • 1675 
 
 It surrenders to the parliamentarians 
 The canal to Topsham cut . 
 A mint established by James II. 
 Water-works erected .... 
 The sessions-house built . 
 
 The new bridge built 1778 
 
 The theatre erected 1 783 
 
 1694 
 1773 
 
 
EXETEE CHANGE. 
 
 255 
 
 EXHIBITION. 
 
 Lunatic asylum founded 1795 
 
 County gaol built 1796 
 
 Devon and Exeter institution for the promotion 
 
 of science established 1803 
 
 Subscription library founded . . . .■ . 1807 
 
 New city prison built . . . . . . 18 18 
 
 The last of the ancient gates removed . . . ,, 
 
 The subscription rooms opened 1820 
 
 The public baths erected 1821 
 
 Mechanics' institution opened 1825 
 
 New cemetery commenced 1837 
 
 Railway to Bristol opened . . . .1 May, 1844 
 Great fire, 20 houses burnt ... 2 Aug. ,, 
 
 Another great fire 26 April, 1847 
 
 Inauguration of a statue of John Denham, who 
 
 died June, 1864, bequeathing 24,000?. to charities, 
 
 26 March, 1866 
 Bread and meat riots ; suppressed . .4-5 Nov. 1867 
 Albert Memorial Museum given up to the town 
 
 council 21 April, 1870 
 
 RECENT BISHOPS. 
 
 1803. John Fisher, translated to Salisbury in 1807. 
 1807. Hon. George Pelham, translated to Lincoln, Sept. 
 
 1820. 
 1820. William Carey, translated to St. Asaph, March, 1830. 
 1830. Christopher Bethell, translated to Bangor, 1830. 
 1830. Henry Phillpotts, died 18 Sept, 1869. 
 1869. Frederick Temple, elected n Nov., and enthroned 
 
 (after much opposition from some of the clergy) 
 
 2qDec. i86q. 
 
 EXETER CHANGE (London), was built 
 about 1680, on part of the site of Exeter house, 
 the palace of Walter Stapleton, bishop of Exeter 
 and lord treasurer in 1319, beheaded by order of the 
 queen-regent, Isabella, in 1326. It was entirely- 
 demolished at the period of the Strand improve- 
 ments, in 1829. The new Exeter Change, built by 
 the marquis of Exeter near its site, opened in 184^, 
 was pulled down in 1862, for the Strand Music-hall, 
 now Gaiety theatre. 
 
 EXETEE COLLEGE (Oxford) was founded 
 by Walter Stapleton, bishop of Exeter in 1314. The 
 college buildings mainly consist of a quadrangle in 
 the later Gothic style. 
 
 EXETEE HALL (Strand, London), erected 
 in 1830- 1 for the meetings of religious and philan- 
 thropic institutions, concerts, oratorios, and musical 
 societies, a large and magnificent apartment with a 
 splendid orchestra and organ, and having rooms 
 attached for committees, &c. See under Music. 
 Religious services were held here in 1856 by the 
 Rev. C. Spurgeon, and in 1857 by ministers of the 
 church of England, on Sundays. 
 
 EXHIBITION of 1851 (the great ex- 
 hibition). The original idea of a National Ex- 
 hibition* is attributed to Mr. F. Whishaw, secretary 
 of the Society of Arts in 1844. It was not taken up 
 till 1849, when prince Albert, president of the 
 society, said, "Now is the time to prepare for a 
 Great Exhibition, an exhibition worthy of the 
 greatness of this country ; not merely national in its 
 scope and benefits, but comprehensive of the whole 
 world ; and I offer myself to the public as their 
 leader, if they are willing to assist in the under- 
 taking." 
 
 * Industrial exhibitions began with the French ; 
 Expositions having been organised and opened at Paris 
 in 1798, 1801, 1802, 1806, 1819, 1823, 1827, 1834, 1839, 1844, 
 and 1849, the last, being the eleventh, exceeding all the 
 preceding in extent and brilliancy. The first exhibition 
 of the kind in this country was the National Repository, 
 opened under royal patronage in 1828, near Charing- 
 cross. It was not successful. Other exhibitions were 
 opened at Manchester in 1837, at Leeds in 1839, and at 
 Birmingham in 1849. Exhibitions have since been held 
 at Cork, Dublin, Manchester, New York, Paris, Montreal, 
 Florence, Constantinople, Bayonne, Melbourne, and 
 many other places (which see). 
 
 Royal commission appointed . . .3 Jan. 1850* 
 
 A subscription list opened, headed by the queen for 
 1000?. 
 
 Civic banquets in support of the plan, at London, 
 21-22 March ; and at York . . .25 Oct. ,, 
 
 The building* commenced ... 26 Sept. „ 
 
 Many persons admitted into it in Jan. ; it is virtually 
 transferred to the royal commissioners by the 
 contractors, Messrs. Fox and Henderson, Feb. 18511 
 
 Reception of goods began 12 Feb., and the sale of 
 season tickets 25 Feb. „ 
 
 The Exhibition opened by her majesty . 1 May, ,„ 
 
 The number of exhibitors exceeded 17,000, of whom 
 2918 received prize medals and 170 council 
 medals. The articles exhibited in arts, manufac- 
 tures, and the various produce of countries, defied 
 calculation. 
 
 The palace continued open above 23 weeks, alto- 
 gether 144 days (1 May to 15 Oct.) within which 
 time it was visited by 6, 170,000 persons, averaging 
 43,536 a day, whose admission at the respective 
 prices of one pound, half-a-crown, and one shilling, 
 amounted to 505,1071!. including season tickets, 
 leaving a surplus, after payment of expenses, of 
 about 150,000k 
 
 The greatest number of visitors in one day was 
 109,760 (8 Oct.) ; and at one time (2 o'clock, 7 Oct.) 
 there were 93,000 ; these persons were assembled 
 at one time, not in an open area, like a Roman 
 amphitheatre, but within a windowed and floored 
 and roofed building. There is no like vast assem- 
 blage recorded in either ancient or modern annals, 
 as having been gathered together, it may be said, 
 in one room. 
 
 The Exhibition was closed to the public . 11 Oct. ,,. 
 
 A memorial statue of the prince consort by Joseph 
 Durham, placed in the gardens of the Royal Hor- 
 ticultural Society, uncovered in the presence of 
 the prince and princess of Wales . 10 June, 1863; 
 See Crystal Palace. 
 
 EXHIBITION OF 1862 (INTERNATIONAL). 
 A proposal in 1858 for another great exhibition, to 
 be held in 1861, was withdrawn in consequence of 
 the war in Italy in 1859, &c. The scheme was re- 
 vived in April i860, when the prince consort en- 
 gaged to guarantee 10,000^. if 240,000^ should be- 
 subscribed for by other persons. 
 
 A charter granted to the following commissioners : 
 earl Granville, the marquis of Chaudos, C. W. 
 Dilke, jun. , and Thomas Fairbairn . 22 Feb. i86r 
 
 The guarantee fund amounted to 349,000?. in Nov. 
 i860, and to 452,300? 22 Aug. 1862: 
 
 The building,! erected at South Kensington, by 
 
 * The palace, with the exception of the flooring and 
 joists, was entirely of glass and iron. It was designed by 
 Mr. (since sir Joseph) Paxton (who died 8 June, 1865), 
 and the contractors were Messrs. Fox and Henderson, to- 
 whom it was agreed to pay 79,800?. , or 150,000?. if the- 
 building were permanently retained. Itcosti76,o3o?. 13s. 8& 
 Its length was 1851 feet, corresponding with the year ;. 
 the width 408 feet, with an additional projection on the- 
 north side, 936 feet long, by 48 wide. The central por- 
 tion was 120 feet wide and 64 feet high, and the great 
 avenues ran east and west through the building ; the- 
 transept near the centre was 72 feet wide and 108 feet 
 high. The entire area was 772,784 square feet, or about 
 19 acres. Four galleries ran lengthways, and others- 
 round the transept. The ground-floor and galleries con- 
 tained 1,000,000 square feet of flooring. There were 
 altogether 4000 tons of iron in the structure, and 17 acres- 
 of glass in the roof, besides about 1500 vertical glazed 
 sashes. 
 
 t The main building occupied about 16 acres of 
 ground, and the annexes 7 acres. The south front was. 
 1 150 feet long and 55 feet high, and over the east and 
 west fronts rose the two domes 260 feet high. The inte- 
 rior was decorated by Mr. John G. Crace. The building; 
 was given up to Messrs. Kelk aud Lucas on 31 Dec. 1862, 
 the house of commons having refused to purchase it for 
 80,000?. 2 July, 1863 ; and the pulling down commenced 
 on 6 July. The domes and other parts of the structure 
 were purchased for erection in Alexandra-park, Muswell- 
 hill, near London (north). 
 
EXHIBITIONS. 
 
 256 
 
 EYEE. 
 
 Messrs. Kelk and Lucas, according to a design by 
 capt. Fowke, made over to the commissioners, 
 
 12 Feb. 1862 
 
 The Exhibition opened by the duke of Cambridge 
 and royal commissioners . . . 1 May, ,, 
 
 The fine arts. department included a noble collec- 
 tion of paintings and sculptures. 
 
 The jurors' award of medals were announced in the 
 building 11 July, „ 
 
 The Exhibition was closed 1 Nov., when the total 
 number of visitors (exclusive of attendants) had 
 been 6,117,450. 
 
 The Exhibition reopened on 3 Nov. for the sale of 
 goods exhibited ; was finally closed 15 Nov. ,, 
 
 The success of the Exhibition was much impaired 
 by the decease of the prince consort, 14 Dec. 1861, 
 and the breaking out of the civil war in the 
 United States of America. The foreign exhibitors 
 in 1851 were 6566 ; in 1862, 16,456. 
 
 Exhibitors at London, in 1851, 14,000 ; at Paris, in 
 1855, 24,000 ; at London, in 1862, 29,000; at Paris, 
 in 1867, 50,000. 
 
 EXHIBITIONS, INTEENATIONAL. A 
 
 meeting was held 4 April, 1870, the prince of 
 Wales in the chair, to promote annual international 
 •exhibitions at South Kensington, to commence 
 I May, 1871. 
 
 I. 1871. Fine arts, pottery, woollen and worsted manu- 
 factures ; educational department ; opened by the 
 prince of Wales, 1 May ; closed 30 Oct. 
 
 [34 countries contributed ; total number of visitors, 
 1,142,154 ; highest on one day (Whit-Monday, 29 May), 
 21,946.] 
 
 II. 1872. Fine arts, cottcfn, jewellery, stationery, with 
 machinery ; and raw materials ; opened by the duke 
 of Edinburgh, 1 May ; closed 19 Oct. 
 
 III. 1873. Fine arts ; manufactures (silk, steel, surgical 
 instruments, &c. ; carriages for rails or tramways ; 
 food) ; scientific inventions and new discoveries ; 
 opened 14 April ; to close in October. 
 
 EXODUS (Greek, way out), a term applied to 
 the departure of the Israelites from Egypt, 1491 u.c. ; 
 and described in the book of Exodus. Chronologers 
 vary in the date of this event : the LXX. give 1614; 
 Hales, 1648; Wilkinson, 1495; Bunsen, 1320 or 
 I3I4- 
 
 EX OFFICIO INFORMATIONS are 
 those filed by the attorney-general, by virtue of his 
 office, without applying to the court where they are 
 died for leave, or giving tbe defendant an oppor- 
 tunity of showing cause why they should not be 
 filed. Cabinet Lawyer. They were used by the 
 Liverpool administration about 1817-19. AVilliam 
 Hone was tried on criminal information, 18-20 Dec, 
 1817, and acquitted. The British bank directors 
 ■were thus tried, 1857- 
 
 EXPEDITIONS. Many are described under 
 their respective heads. 
 
 Expedition of "the Nations" or "the Ditch"; the 
 third expedition of the Koreish (ichich sec) against 
 Mahomet, named from the nations who marched under 
 their leader Aim Sophian, and from the ditch which was 
 
 drawn before the city. They were principally vanquished 
 by the fury of the elements. Gibbon. 625. 
 
 BRITISH EXPEDITIONS. 
 
 France, near Port l'Orient . . . 1 Oct. 1746 
 
 Cherbourg 7 Aug. 1758 
 
 St. Malo ; 4000 men lost .... Sept. 1758 
 
 Quiberon Bay (F rench emigrants) . ... 1796 
 
 Ostend (all made prisoners) . . . May, 1798 
 
 Helder Point and Zuyder Zee . . . Sept. 1799 
 
 Ferrol, in Spain Aug. 1800 
 
 Egypt (Abercrombie) March, 1801 
 
 Copenhagen Sept. 1807 
 
 Walcheren (unfortunate) .... July, 1809 
 
 Bergen-op-Zoom 8 March, 1814 
 
 Crimea Sept. 1854 
 
 Abyssinia Oct. 1867-April, 1868 
 
 EXPENDITUEE, see under Revenue. 
 
 EXPLOSIVES : see Gunpowder, Gun Cotton, 
 jXitro-Glycerine, Dynamite, Dualine, Lithofrac- 
 teur, GlyoxiUne. A committee to examine into 
 the nature and properties of various explosives was 
 appointed by government in 187 1. 
 
 EXPOETS. Edward III by his encourage- 
 ment of trade turned the scale so much in favour of 
 English merchandise, that, by a balance taken in 
 his time, the exported commodities amounted to 
 294,ooo£. and the imported to only 38,000^; see 
 Revenue. The declared value is of much less 
 amount than the official. 
 
 OFFICIAL VALUE OF EXPORTS FROM GREAT BRITAIN 
 TO ALL PARTS OF THE WORLD, VIZ. :- 
 
 1700 
 
 £ 6,097, I2 ° 
 
 1830 
 
 • £66,735,445 
 
 1750 . 
 
 . 10,130,991 
 
 l83S • 
 
 • 78,376.732 
 
 1775 
 
 16,326,363 
 
 1840 
 
 97,402,726 
 
 1800 . 
 
 . 38,120.120 
 
 1845 . 
 
 . 131,564,503 
 
 1810 
 
 45,869,839 
 
 1850 
 
 175,126,706 
 
 1820 . 
 
 • 5i,733."3 
 
 1851 . 
 
 . 190,397,810 
 
 DECLARED 
 
 VALUE OF BRITISH AND 
 EXPORTED. 
 
 IRISH PRODUCE 
 
 1851 . 
 
 £74,448,722 
 
 1862 . 
 
 £123,992,264 
 
 1853 
 
 98,933,781 
 
 1863 
 
 146,602,342 
 
 1855 • 
 
 . 95,688,085 
 
 1865 . 
 
 . 165,835,725 
 
 1856 . 
 
 115,826,948 
 
 1866 
 
 . 188,917,536 
 
 1857 • 
 
 . 122,155,237 
 
 1867 . 
 
 . 180,961,923 
 
 1859 
 
 130,440,427 
 
 1868 
 
 179,677,812 
 
 i860 . 
 
 . 135,891,227 
 
 1869 . 
 
 • 189,953,957 
 
 1861 
 
 125,102,814 
 
 1870 
 
 . 199,640,983 
 
 Exports of all kinds in 1871 : to foreign .countries, 
 228,013,406?. ; to British possessions, 55,561,294/. 
 
 EXTINCTETJR, see Mre-AnnihUator. 
 
 EXTRACT OF MEAT, obtained by Liebig 
 in 1847 ; a company was formed to manufacture it 
 in South America in 1866. 
 
 EXTRADITION TEEATY, between Great 
 Britain and France, was concluded in 1843. In 
 Dec. 1865, the French government gave notice of 
 withdrawing from it in six months. It was renewed, 
 with modifications, for six months, 21 May, 1866. 
 A new act was passed, 9 Aug. 1870. 
 
 In 1866, M. Lamirand, charged with forgery and fraud 
 against the Bank of France, fled to America. He was 
 pursued, and was arrested at Montreal, on 1 Aug., under 
 the governor-general's warrant. On 15 Aug. .while his 
 examination was still pending, he petitioned the gover- 
 nor-general not to warrant his surrender before he eould 
 apply for a writ of habeas corpus, and was assured on 17 
 Aug. that ample time should be allowed fortius purpose. 
 On 22 Aug. he was finally committed ; and on 24 Aug. 
 his petition for a writ of habeas corpus was presented to 
 judge Drummond, twenty-four hours' notice having been 
 given to the representatives of the crown ami the Bank 
 of France. After arguments had been heard and the case 
 adjourned until the following day, he was surreptitiously 
 carried off the same night by train to Quebec, and hurried 
 on board a steamer bound for Europe, by virtue of an 
 extradition warrant, purporting to be signed by the 
 governor-general at Ottawa, on 23 Aug. He was con- 
 veyed to France, and on 5 Dec was tried, found guilty, 
 and condemned to ten years' imprisonment. These cir- 
 cumstances led to much discussion, and the Canadian 
 authorities were censured for irregularity and want of 
 discretion. The discussion ended by Lamirand declining 
 British intervention. 
 
 EXTRAVAGANTES, see Decretals. 
 
 EXTREME UNCTION, see Anointing. 
 
 EYLAU (Prussia), where, on 7-8 Feb. 1807, the 
 French defeated the Russians in one of the most 
 bloody contests of the war. Napoleon commanded 
 in person. Both armies by this and other battles 
 were so much reduced, that the French retired to 
 the Vistula, and the Russians on the Pregel. 
 
 EYRE (old French for ire, to go on), the itine- 
 rant court of justices, the justices in eyre, was in- 
 stituted by Henry II. 1 176; and when the forest 
 
FABII. 
 
 257 
 
 FALCZI. 
 
 laws were in force, its chief-justice had great 
 dignity. These justices were to go their circuit 
 every third year, and punish all abuses committed 
 
 in the king's forests. The last instance of a court 
 being held in any of the forests is said to have been 
 in 1671. Beatson. 
 
 F. 
 
 FABII. A noble family at Eome, said to have 
 derived their name froxa f aba, a bean, because some 
 of their ancestors cultivated this pulse ; or to have 
 descended from Fabius, a son of Hercules. They 
 made war against the Veientes, and in an engage- 
 ment near the Cremera, all the grown up males of 
 the family (306 men) were slain in a sudden attack, 
 477 B.C. From one, whose tender age had detained 
 him at Eome, arose the noble Fabii of the following 
 ages. Fabius Cunctator (the delayer) kept Hanni- 
 bal in check for some time without coming to an 
 engagement, 217-216 B.C. 
 
 FABLES. "Jotham's fable of the trees 
 {Judges ix., about 1209 B.C.) is the oldest extant, 
 and as beautiful as any made since." Addison. 
 Nathan's fable of the poor man (2 Sam. xii., about 
 1034 B.C. is next in antiquity. The earliest collec- 
 tion of fables extant is of eastern origin, and pre- 
 served in the Sanscrit. The fables of Vishnoo 
 Sarma, or Pilpay are the most beautiful, if not the 
 most ancient in the world. Sir William Jones. 
 Professor Max Miiller traced La Fontaine's fable of 
 the Milkmaid to a very early Sanscrit collection. 
 JEsop's fables (which see) supposed to have been 
 written about 565 or 620 B.C., were versified by 
 Babrius, a Greek poet, about 130 B.C. (Coray), and 
 turned into prose by Maximus Planudes, a Greek 
 monk, about 1320, who added other fables and ap- 
 pended a worthless life of JEsop. The fables of 
 La Fontaine (1700) and Gay (1727) are justly 
 celebrated. 
 
 FACIAL ANGLE (that contained by one 
 line drawn horizontally from the middle of the ear 
 to the edge of the nostrils, and another from the 
 latter point to the ridge of the frontal bone) was in- 
 vented by Peter Camper to measure the elevation 
 of the forehead. In negroes this angle is about 70° ; 
 in Europeans varies from 75° to 85°. Camper died 
 7 April, 1789. His book on " Characteristic Marks 
 of Countenance" was published in 1791. 
 
 FACTIONS of the Circus among the Eomans, 
 were parties that fought on chariots in the circus, 
 and who were distinguished by colours, as green, 
 blue, red, and white; Domitian added gold and 
 scarlet, about a.d. 90. 
 
 Nika sedition. — In Jan. 532, a conflict took place at 
 Constantinople, lasting five clays, when about 30,000 lives 
 were lost, and Justinian was mainly indebted for his life 
 and throne to the heroism of his empress Theodora. The 
 blues and greens united for a day or two against the em- 
 peror, taking Nika ! (overcome) for a watchword. The 
 blues soon turned, and massacred nearly all the greens. 
 The conflict was suppressed by Belisarius with difficulty, 
 and the games were abolished for a time. 
 
 FACTORIES, supplied with machinery for 
 producing manufactures, have immensely increased 
 in this country since 1815. The Factory act, regu- 
 lating the hours of laboui', &c, was passed in 1833 
 and amended 1834 aim 1844. Similar acts have 
 been passed since ; and an act for the extension of 
 the principles of the Factory acts was passed in 
 1867 in relation to women and children employed 
 in manual labour; short time on Saturdays was 
 enacted. Other acts were passed in 1870 and 1871. 
 
 FACULTIES, Cc-TJUT OP, giving powers 
 to the archbishops of Canterbury and York, 25 
 Hen. VIII. cap. 21, 1534. 
 
 FAENZA, central Italy. The ancient Faventia 
 submitted to the emperor Frederick I., 1162; was 
 taken by Frederick II, 12 April, 1241 ; held by the 
 pope, 1275; by the Bolognese, 1282; by Ceesar 
 Borgia, 1501 ; by Venice, 1504; by the papacy, 
 1509; by the French, 1512. After various changes 
 early in the 16th century it was acquired by the 
 papacy and retained till the annexation by Sardinia, 
 1859. Faience pottery owes its name to this place, 
 where it was invented. 
 
 "FAERIE QUEEN,'.' by Edmund Spenser; 
 a part was published in 1590; the whole, 1611. 
 
 FAHRENHEIT, see Thermometer . 
 FAITH, see Defender. 
 FAINEANTS, see Mayors of the Palace. 
 
 . FAIRLOP OAK, with a trunk 48 feet in 
 circumference, the growth of five centuries, in 
 Hainault forest, Essex, was blown down in Feb. 1820. 
 Beneath its branches an annual fair was long held 
 on the first Friday in July, which originated with 
 the eccentric Mr. Day, a pump and block maker of 
 Wapping, who, having a small estate in the vicinity, 
 annually repaired here with a party of friends, to 
 dine on beans and bacon. 
 
 FAIROAKS, near the Chickahominy, Virginia, 
 the site of two sanguinary indecisive battles between 
 the Confederates, under general Joseph Johnson, 
 and the Federal army of the Potomac, under general 
 M'Clellan, 31 May and 1 June, 1862. 
 
 FAIRS AND WAKES, of Saxon origin, were 
 instituted in Italy, about 500; in England by Alfred, 
 886. Spelman. Wakes were established by order 
 of Gregory VII. in 1078, and termed Ferice, at 
 which the monks celebrated the festival of their 
 patron saint : the vast resort of people occasioned 
 a great demand for goods, wares, &c. Fairs were 
 established in France about 800 by Charlemagne, 
 and encouraged in England about 1071 by "William 
 the Conqueror. Many statutes were made for the 
 regulation of fairs (1328— 1868). The "Fairs Act," 
 passed 25 May, 1871, provides for the abolition of 
 fairs ; in 1872, Charlton and Blackheath fairs, and 
 in 1873 Clapham fair, were abolished as nuisances. 
 
 FALCONRY or Hawking in England 
 
 cannot be traced with certainty before the reign of 
 king Etbelbert, the Saxon monarch, 858. Pennant. 
 The grand seignior at one time kept six thousand 
 falconers in his service. Juliana Berners' book on 
 " Hawkynge and H untynge " was printed in 1496 ; 
 see Angling. Recent attempts have been made to 
 revive falconry. Hawking was practised in Thrace. 
 Aristotle. 
 
 FALCZI, on the Pruth, Turkey. Here wa3 
 concluded a Peace between Russia and Turkey, 
 21 July, 1711, the Russians giving up Azof, and all 
 the possessions on the Black Sea to the Turks. The 
 Russians were saved from imminent destruction by 
 the address of Catherine the empress. In 17 12 the 
 
FALERII. 
 
 258 
 
 FARTHING. 
 
 war was renewed, and terminated by the peace of 
 Constantinople, 16 April, 1712. 
 
 FALERII, a city of the Falisci, an Etruscan 
 people who joined the Veientes against Rome, and 
 were beaten by Cornelius Cossus, 437 B.C. It is 
 recorded that when the city was besieged by Ca- 
 miilus in 394, a schoolmaster offered to betray to 
 him the children of the principal citizens. On his 
 refusal, the citizens from gratitude surrendered. 
 Tbey opposed Rome during the first Punic war; 
 and in 241 the city was taken and destroyed. 
 
 FALERNIAN WINE, celebrated by Virgil 
 and Horace, was the produce of Falernus, or, as 
 called by Martial, Mous Massicus, in Campania. 
 Horace in his Odes boasts of having drunk Falemian 
 wine that had been, as it were, born with him, or 
 which reckoned its age from the same consuls, 
 
 14 B.C. 
 
 FALKIRK (Stirlingshire, Scotland)), the site 
 of a victory by the English under Edward I. over 
 the Scots, commanded by Wallace, part of whose 
 forces deserted him. It is said from 20,000 to 40,000 
 Scots were slain, 22 July, 1298. A battle wasfought 
 at Falkirk Muir between the royal forces under 
 Hawley, and prince Charles Edward Stuart, in which 
 the former were defeated, 17 Jan. 1746. 
 
 FALKLAND ISLANDS, a group in the 
 South Atlantic, belonging to Great Britain, seen by 
 Americus Vespueius, 1502, and visited by Davis, 
 1592 ; explored by Hawkins, 1594 ; taken possession 
 of by France, 1 764. The French were expelled by 
 the Spaniards ; and in 1771, Spain resigned them to 
 England. Not having been colonised by us, the 
 republic of Buenos Ayres assumed a right' to these 
 islands, and a colony from that country settled at 
 Port Louis ; but owing to a dispute with America, 
 the settlement was destroyed by the latter in 1831. 
 In 1833 tne British flag was hoisted at Port Louis, 
 and a British officer has since resided there. Gover- 
 nors, "Win. Cleaver F. Robinson, 1866; col. George 
 A. K. D'Arcy, 1870. 
 
 FALLING STARS, see Meteors. 
 
 FAMILY COMPACT, see Bourbon. 
 
 FAMILY OF LOVE, a society, called also 
 Philadelphians, from the love they professed to bear 
 to all men, assembled at Brew-house yard, Notting- 
 ham. Their founder, David George, an Anabaptist, 
 of Holland, propagated his doctrines in Switzerland, 
 where he died in 1556. The tenet3 of the society 
 were declared impious, and George's body and books 
 ordered to be burned by the hangman. In Eng- 
 land a sect with a similar title was repressed by 
 Elizabeth, 1580 ; but existed in the following cen- 
 tury. See Agapemone. 
 
 FAMINES- The famine of the seven years in 
 Egypt began 1708 B.C. Usher; Blair. 
 
 Famine at Rome, when thousands of people threw 
 themselves into the Tiber . . . b.c. 436 
 
 Awfu Ifarnine in IJgypt a. d. 42 
 
 At Rome, attended by plague . . 262 
 
 In Britain ; people ate the bark of trees . . . 272 
 In Scotland ; thousands died . ... 306 
 
 In England ; 40,000 perished . . . 310 
 
 Awful one in Phrygia ... . . 370 
 
 In Italy . when parents ate their children (Dvfresnoy) 450 
 In England, Wales, and Scotland . . 739 
 
 Again, when thousands starve . ... 823 
 
 Again, which lasts four years . . . . 954 
 
 Awful one throughout Europe . . . . 1016 
 
 In England, 21 William 1 1087 
 
 In England and France : this famine leads to a pes- 
 tilential fever, which lasts from . . 1193 to 1195 
 
 Another famine in England 1251 
 
 Again, so dreadful that the people devoured the flesh 
 of horses, dogs, cats, and vermin .... 1315 
 
 One occasioned by long rains 1335 
 
 One in England and France (Rapiri) . . . 1353 
 Again, one so great, that bread was made from fern- 
 roots (Stow) 14.38 
 
 One throughout these islands 1565 
 
 Awful one in France (KoWaire) .... 1603 
 
 One general in these realms 1748 
 
 One which devastates Bengal 1771 
 
 At Cape de Verde ; 16,000 persons perish . . . 1775 
 
 One greviously felt in France 1789 
 
 One severely felt in England 1795 
 
 Again, throughout the kingdom .... 1801 
 At Dronfheim, owing to Sweden intercepting the 
 
 supplies 1813, 
 
 Scarcity of food severely felt by the Irish poor, 1814, 
 1816, 1822, 1831, 1846, in consequence of the 
 failure of the potato crop. Grants by parliament, 
 to relieve the suffering of the people, were made 
 in the session of 1847, the whole amounting to ten 
 millions sterling. 
 In N. W. provinces of India, thousands starved. (See 
 
 India) Jan. -March, 1867 
 
 In Persia very severe 1871-2 
 
 FAN- Used by the ancients ; Cape hoc flabel- 
 lum, et ventulum huic sic facito, " Take this fan, 
 and give her thus a little air." Terence's Eunuchus, 
 166 B.C. — Fans, together with muffs, masks, and 
 false hair, were first devised by the harlots in Italy,. 
 and were brought to England from France. Stow. 
 In the British Museum are Egyptian fan-handles. 
 
 FARADAY MONUMENT, &c. Professor 
 
 Michael Faraday, natural philosopher and chemist 
 (see Electricity), died 25 Aug. 1867. A public meet- 
 ing was held at the Boyal Institution, 21 June, 1869, 
 the prince of Wales in the chair, to take measures to 
 provide a public monument to him. A sufficient 
 sum having been subscribed, the production of a 
 statue was entrusted to Mr. Foley. The " Faraday 
 Medal," to be given to distinguished foreign philo- 
 sophers by the Chemical society, was awarded to M. 
 Dumas, June, 1869 ; to professor Cannizzaro, May, 
 1872. 
 
 FARADISATION, the medical application 
 of the magneto-electric currents which Faraday 
 discovered in 1837. Apparatus for this purpose was 
 first made by M. Pixii, and employed by Dr. Neef 
 of Frankfort. 
 
 FARCE, a short comic drama, usually of one or 
 two acts. One by Otway is dated 1677. The best 
 English farces (by Foote, Garrick, Bickerstaff, &c.) 
 appeared from about 1740 to 1780. This species 
 of dramatic entertainment originated in the droll 
 shows which were exhibited by charlatans and then* 
 buffoons in the open streets ; see Drama. 
 
 FARMERS-GENERAL, see Fermicrs. 
 
 FARNESE FAMILY became important 
 through the elevation of Alexander Farnese to the 
 papacy as Paul III. He gave his natural son Peter 
 the duchy of Parma, and his descendants ruled till 
 the death of Antony without issue in 1 73 1 . Alex- 
 ander prince of Parma was governor of the Nether- 
 lands in 1579. 
 
 FARRINGDON-MARKET, erected by the 
 corporation of London, near the abolished Fleet- 
 market, was opened 20 Nov. 1829. 
 
 FARTHING, an early English coin. Farth- 
 ings in silver were coined by king John ; the Irish 
 farthing of his reign (12 lb) is rare. Farthings 
 were coined in England in silver by Henry VIII. 
 First coined in copper by Charles II. 1665 ; and 
 again in 1672, when there was a large coinage of 
 
FARTHINGALE. 
 
 259 
 
 FENIANS. 
 
 copper money. Half- farthings were first coined in 
 1843 ; see Queen Anne's Farthings. 
 
 FARTHINGALE, see Crinoline. 
 
 FASTI CAPITOLINI, marble tablets dug 
 up in the forum at Rome, 1547, contain a list of the 
 consuls and other officers from the year of Eome 250 
 to 765. Other fragments were found in 1817 and 
 1818. The " Fasti Consulares," from 509 B.C. to 
 A.d. 235, are givenat the end of Smith's "Dictionary 
 of Greek and Roman Antiquities." 
 
 FASTS, observed by most nations from the re- 
 motest antiquity ; by the Jews (2 Chron. xx. 3) ; 
 by the Ninevites {Jonah Hi.); see Isai. lviii. A 
 fast was observed by the Jews on the great day of 
 atonement. Lev. xxiii. 1490 B.C. Moses fasted 40 
 days and nights on Sinai, Exod. xxiv. 1491 B.C. 
 The first Christian ministers were ordained with 
 fasting (a.d. 45) Acts xiii. 2. Annual fasts, as that 
 of Lent, and at other stated times, and on particular 
 occasions to appease the anger of God, began in the 
 Christian church, in the second century, 138. The 
 Mahometan fast is termed Ramadan (which see). 
 Fast days are appointed by the Reformed churches 
 in times of war and pestilence (as 21 March, 1855, 
 for the Russian war, and 7 Oct. 1857, for the Indian 
 mutiny) ; see Abstinence. 
 
 FATHERS of the CHURCH. 
 lowing are the principal : — 
 
 first century. Greek.. 
 Clemens Romanus, d. 100 
 Ignatius . . . d. 115 
 Polycarp . d. abt. 169 
 
 The fol- 
 
 second century. Greek. 
 Justin Martyr, d. abt. 166 
 Irenseus . d. abt. 200 
 Athenagoras. 
 
 third century. Greek. 
 Clemens Alexan- 
 
 drinus . d. abt. 217 
 
 Hippolytus . . d. 230 
 
 Origen . . d. abt. 253 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Tertullian . d. abt. 220 
 
 Minutius Felix, fl. abt. 230 
 
 Cyprian . . d. abt. 258 
 
 FOURTH AND FIFTH CEN- 
 TURIES. Greek. 
 
 Eusebius . d. abt. 340 
 
 Athanasius . d. 373 
 
 Eplirem Syrus, d. abt. 378 
 
 Basil . . . d. 379 
 
 Cyril of Jerusalem d. 386 
 
 Gregory Nazianzen . d. 389 
 
 Maearius . d. abt. 391 
 
 Gregory Nyssen d. abt. 394 
 
 Bpiphanius . d. 403 
 
 John Chrysostom . d. 407 
 
 Cyril of Alexandria d. 444 
 
 Theoderet . . d. 457 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Arnobius 
 
 • fl. 
 
 303 
 
 Lactantius . 
 
 d. abt. 
 
 330 
 
 Ambrose . 
 
 . d. 
 
 S07 
 
 Jerome . 
 
 . d. 
 
 420 
 
 Augustine 
 
 . d. 
 
 43° 
 
 FATIMITES, see All and Mahometanism. 
 
 FATS are oils solid at ordinary temperatures. 
 The researches of Chevreul since 1811 ou their 
 chemical nature are very important ; see Candles. 
 
 FAUGHARD, see Foughard. 
 
 FAUSTUS, a professor of magic, renowned in 
 chap books, flourished about the end of the 15th 
 century. Goethe's dramatic poem, " Faust," ap- 
 peared in 1 790. 
 
 FEASTS and Festivals. The " Feasts of 
 
 the Lord," viz , those of the Passover, Pentecost, 
 Trumpets, and Tabernacles, were instituted 1490 B.C. 
 {Leviticus xxiii.) 
 
 Feast of Tabernacles, celebrated upon the dedication of 
 the Temple of Solomon, 1004 b. c. 
 
 Hezekiah (726 B.C.) and Josiah (623) kept the feast of 
 Passover in a most solemn manner. 
 
 In the Christian Church the feasts of Christmas, Easter, 
 Ascension, and the Pentecost or Whitsuntide (which 
 see), are said to have been ordered to be observed by 
 all Christians in the 1st century. 
 
 Rogation days appointed 469. 
 
 Jubilees in the Romish Church were instituted by Boni- 
 face VIII. in 1300 ; see Jubilees. 
 
 For fixed festivals observed in the Church of England, as 
 
 settled at the Reformation, et seq. , see Book of Common 
 Prayer. 
 Feasts of Charity; see Agapce. 
 
 .FEBRUARY (from Februus, an Italian di- 
 vinity), the second month of the year, in which were 
 celebrated Februa, feasts on behalf of the manes of 
 deceased persons. This month, with January, was 
 added to the year by Numa, about 713 B.C. 
 
 FECIALES or FetiALES, twenty in number, 
 heralds of Rome, to denounce war or proclaim peace, 
 appointed by Numa, about 712 B.C. 
 
 FEDERAL STATES are those united by 
 treaty as one state, without giving up self-govern- 
 ment — as in Switzerland. The people of the 
 Northern United States of America during the great 
 conflict in 1861-5 were styled Federals; their oppo- 
 nents Confederates. 
 
 FEEJEE ISLANDS or Fiji, in the Pacific 
 Ocean, about 1500 miles from Sydney. There are 
 80 islands, the largest about 360 miles in circum- 
 ference, with 20,000 inhabitants. The islands were 
 offered by the king, Thakombau and chiefs to the 
 British government, July, 1859 ; but not accepted. 
 In i860 the house of commons granted 1680/. for 
 expenditure in them; and European settlements 
 have been made. Annexation to Great Britain was 
 proposed in parliament, 25 June, 1872, but not 
 acceded to. The king, Thakombau, is said to be 
 very enterprising, 1873. 
 
 FELONY, in English law (says Blackstone, in 
 I 765), comprises every species of crime which occa- 
 sions the forfeiture of land and goods. An act to 
 abolish forfeitures for treason and felony, and to 
 otherwise amend the law relating thereto, passed 4 
 July, 1870. 
 
 FEMALE MEDICAL SCHOOL, London, 
 held its first session in 1865, when courses of lec- 
 tures were given. Dr. Mary Walker attended Mid- 
 dlesex hospital, in a modified female dress, in 1866. 
 She gave an autobiographical lecture at St. James's 
 Hall, 20 Nov. 1866. In 1869 it was decided that 
 ' ' ladies should be admitted to study medicine in the 
 university of Edinburgh, but some disturbances 
 ensued. 
 
 FEMALE SUFFRAGE, &c, see Women. 
 
 FENCIBLE LIGHT DRAGOONS, abodv 
 of cavalry raised voluntarily in various counties of 
 England and Scotland in 1794, to serve during the 
 war in any part of Great Britain. This force (be- 
 tween 14,000 and 15,000), which did its duty with 
 much judgment during a period of intense popular 
 excitement, was disbanded in 1800. 
 
 FENCING was introduced into England from 
 France. Fencing-schools having led to duelling in 
 England, were prohibited in London by statute 13 
 Edw. I. 1285. In 1859 there were eight teachers of 
 fencing in London ; in 1872, ten. 
 
 FENIANS (the name of ancient Irish national 
 militia), a " brotherhood" in the United States and 
 Ireland united to liberate Ireland and establish » 
 republic* The agitation was begun, it is said, by 
 Stephens in March, 1858, and in 1864 enlistments 
 and secret drillings took place. A convention was 
 formed in 1863 in America. The movement is 
 opposed by the Roman Catholic clergy. See Ireland. 
 
 * Fenian oath. " I promise by the divine law of God 
 to do all in my power to obey the laws of the society 
 F. B., and to freeand regenerate Ireland from the voice 
 of England. So help me God." } w 
 
 S 2 
 
FENIANS. 
 
 260 
 
 FENIANS. 
 
 Riot between the Fenians and their opponents at 
 the Rotoudo, Dublin . . . .22 Feb. 1864 
 
 25 persons arrested in Dublin, and the newspaper 
 the Irish People (established Sept. 1863) seized, 15 
 Sept. ; others arrested at Cork, &c. 16-30 Sept. 1865 
 
 The Fenians in America publish an address, stating 
 that officers were going to Ireland to organise an 
 army of 200,000 men .... Sept. „ 
 
 Fenians arrested at Manchester . . 21 Sept. ,, 
 
 A ship with gunpowder seized at Liverpool Sept. ,, 
 
 Allocution of the pope, condemning secret societies 
 
 30 Sept. ,, 
 
 Evidence that 5000Z. and 2000 pike-heads had been 
 received from America in Sept. „ 
 
 O'Donovan and e others committed for high treason 
 
 2 Oct. „ 
 33 Fenians committed for trial . up to 14 Oct. „ 
 A. Fenian provisional government at New York, and 
 
 a congress of 600 members held at Philadelphia 
 
 Oct. „ 
 
 Fenians in United States said to have raised 200,000?. 
 
 Oct. „ 
 
 Capture of James Stephens, Irish head-centre, 11 
 Nov. ; he escapes from gaol . . 24 Nov. „ 
 
 Fierce disputes between the senate and O'Mahony, 
 the head-centre, who is charged with corruption 
 and deposed ; Mr. Roberts appointed his successor 
 
 Dec. „ 
 
 380,000 Fenians reported in the United States Jan. 1866 
 
 Habeas Corpus act suspended in Ireland ; about 250 
 suspected persons arrested immediately 17 Feb. ,, 
 
 Great mass meeting at New York, threatening to 
 invade Canada 4 March, ,, 
 
 Fenian schooner Friend captures British schooner 
 Wentworth, and scuttles her near Eastport, N. A. 
 
 1 May, ,, 
 
 James Stephens arrives at New York . 10 May, „ 
 
 Col. O'Niel and Fenians cross the Niagara and enter 
 Canada, 31 May; a conflict ensued with the volun- 
 teers, with bloodshed .... 2 June, ,, 
 
 The American generals Grant and Meade capture 
 many retreating Fenians . . 2 June'ei scq. „ 
 
 Sweeny and others arrested . . 6, 7 June, ,, 
 
 President Johnson's proclamation against the Fe- 
 nians 7 June, „ 
 
 Spear and others cross the boundary near Vermont, 
 7 June ; the corps demoralised ; many return 
 
 9 June, ,, 
 
 Much dissensions among the Fenians, July, e,t seq. ,, 
 
 They exercise much influence in the elections in 
 America in Oct. ,, 
 
 Trials in Canada.— Col. Lynch and Rev. John 
 MacMahon (sentenced to be hanged on 13 Dec.) 
 reprieved 24-26 Oct. ,, 
 
 James Stephens, " central organiser of the Irish 
 republic," said to sail from America . 24 Nov. ,, 
 
 The British government offer 2000Z. for his appre- 
 hension Nov. ,, 
 
 Meaney, a delegate, arrested in London . 1 Dec. ,, 
 
 Arms and ammunition seized in Dublin, Cork, and 
 Limerick ; many arrests .... Dec. ,, 
 
 Gen. Millen, head of the Fenian military depart- 
 ment, denounces Stephens " as a cheat and a ras- 
 cal," and declares the cause for the present hope- 
 less; Dute^ortatowatchfalnesB for an opportunity 
 
 3 Dec. „ 
 Sweeny (released) rejoins the U.S. army . . Jan. 1S67 
 22 convictions at Toronto .... Jan. ,, 
 67 Fenians from Liverpool arrested in Dublin 
 
 12 Feb. „ 
 Irruption of Fenians into Chester ; compelled to 
 
 retire n. 12 Feb. ,, 
 
 Outbreak in Kerry; Killarney threatened; capt. 
 
 Moriarty and others captured . . .12 Feb. ,, 
 Attack on coastguard station, Cahirciveen, 12 Feb. ; 
 
 movement collapsed . . . .16 Feb. ,, 
 Kilmallock police barrack defended for three hours 
 
 by 14 constables, who drove off 200 armed Fenians, 
 
 with loss, by a sally . . . . 5 March, ,, 
 General Massey captured . . 4 or 6 March, ,, 
 Rising at Midleton in Cork ; Daly, a leader, killed ; 
 
 rails of South and Midland railway taken up 
 
 6 March, ,, 
 Proclamation of the Irish republic sent to the Times 
 
 and other papers .... 6 March, „ 
 Fenian rising near Dublin ; telegraph destroyed ; 
 
 attack on the police station at Tallaght repelled ; 
 
 several shot, 208 prisoners taken into Dublin 
 
 7 March, 1867 
 1000 Fenians hold market-place at Drogheda, but 
 retreat at the approach of police . 7 March, ,, 
 
 Capt. Maclure captured . . . 31 March, ,, 
 
 Special commission to try 230 Fenians ; Whiteside, 
 eh. -just. ; Deasy and Fitzgerald, begin (Massey, 
 Keogh, Corydon, and McGough, approvers) 
 
 9 April, et seq. ,, 
 
 Burke and Doran sentenced to death, 1 May ; re- 
 prieved 26 May, ,, 
 
 Many convictions of treason (M'Afferty, M'Clure, 
 and others) and treason-felony, and" many dis- 
 charged May, ,, 
 
 Trials at Limerick begin . . . 11 June, ,, 
 
 President Roberts retires ; the party in the United 
 States said to be demoralised . . . July, ,, 
 
 Many Fenians tried and convicted July and Aug. ,, 
 
 Several imprisoned Fenians released and sent to 
 America Aug. and Sept. ,, 
 
 Fenian congress at Cleveland, Ohio . . Sept. ,, 
 
 Kelly and Deasy, two Fenians, remanded for further 
 examination, rescued from the prisoners' van, 
 near Manchester ; and Brett, a policeman, shot 
 for refusing to give up his keys . .iSSept. ,, 
 
 Many persons taken up ; 23 committed on charge 
 of murder — tried, 5 condemned to death (2 re- 
 prieved) ; 7 sentenced to 7 years' imprisonment 
 
 29 Oct. -12 Nov. ,, 
 
 Allen, Gould, and Larkin executed at Salford, 
 
 23 Nov. ,, 
 
 Funeral demonstration in London . . 24 Nov. ,, 
 
 Trials of Halpin and others at Dublin, Oct. -Nov. ,, 
 
 Funeral demonstrations for Allen, &c, at Cork, 
 1 Dec. ; Dublin and Limerick . . 8 Dec. „ 
 
 Address of the president and senate of the Fenian 
 brotherhood of America to the " liberty-loving 
 people of England," dated New York, 12 Dec. ,, 
 
 Reunion of the Roberts and Stephens parties under 
 a new president . . . about 20 Dec. „ 
 
 Premeditated explosion of Clerkenwell house of 
 detention, London, to release Burke and Casey, 
 leading Fenians, at 3.45. (A cask of gunpowder 
 was fired close to the prison wall ; Timothy Des- 
 mond, Jeremiah Allen, and Ann Justice captured 
 on suspicion) 13 Dec. ,, 
 
 [Consequences of the explosion. — "Six persons were 
 killed ' outright,' six more died from its effects, 
 according to the coroner's inquests ; five, in 
 addition, owed their deaths indirectly to this 
 means ; one young woman is in a madhouse, 40 
 mothers were prematurely confined, and 20 of 
 their babes died from the effects of the explosion 
 on the women ; others of the children are dwarfed 
 and unhealthy. One mother is now a raving 
 maniac ; 120 persons were wounded: 50 went 
 into St. Bartholomew's, Gray's Inn-lane, and 
 King's College Hospitals ; 15 are permanently 
 injured, with loss of eyes, legs, anus, &c. ; besides 
 20,000?. worth of damage to person and property. " 
 — Times, 29 April, 1868.] 
 
 Capt. Mackay and others rifle a Martello tower, 
 
 27 Dec. ,, 
 Audacious seizure of arms and ammunition in a 
 
 gunsmith's shop in Cork ... 30 Dec. ,, 
 12 suspected Fenians captured at Merthyr Tydvil, 
 
 31 Dec „ 
 Mullany, a prisoner, turns queen's evidence, and 
 accuses Barrett or Jackson (captured at Glasgow, 
 14 Jan.) of filing the barrel at Clerkenwell, 
 
 28 Jan. 1868 
 Attack on Martello tower near Waterford 28 Jan. ,, 
 Capt. Mackay arrested at Cork, 7 Feb. ; much riot- 
 ing there .... 11, 12 Feb. „ 
 
 Conviction of Patrick Lennon, a leader, 12 Feb. ,, 
 
 Habeas corpus act susp. till 1 March, 1S69 Feb. ,, 
 
 Mullany and Thompson convicted as accessories in 
 murder of Brett .... 18 March, „ 
 
 Capt. Mackay convicted ; sentenced to 12 years' 
 imprisonment 20 March, „ 
 
 O'Farrell, a Fenian, wounds the duke of Edinburgh 
 at Port Jackson, 12 March ; sentenced to death, 
 
 31 March, „ 
 
 Mr. Darcy M'Gee, M.P., shot dead by a Fenian at 
 Ottawa . .... 7 April, „ 
 
 Trial of Win. and Timothy Desmond, Nicholas Eng- 
 lish, John O'Keefe, Michael Barrett, and Ann 
 
FEEE-CHAMPENOISE. 
 
 261 
 
 FETE DE DIEU. 
 
 Justice, for murder (Clerkenwell outrage) begun 
 20 ; acquittal of Justice, 23 ; of O'Keefe, 24 ; and 
 of the two Desmonds and English, 27. Conviction 
 of Barrett 27 April, 1S68 
 
 EiehardBurke, a leader, convicted of treason-felony, 
 
 30 April, „ 
 
 Michael Barrett (for causing the Clerkenwell ex- 
 plosion) executed .... 26 May, „ 
 
 O'Donovan Rossa and others released, "behave 
 violently March, 1869 
 
 The government declines to release others, 18 Oct. „ 
 
 Manifesto from John Savage, executive officer, 
 
 Dec. „ 
 
 Fenian raid into Canada vigorously repelled by the 
 militia, and their general, O'Neill, captured by the 
 U. S. marshal 26 May, 1870 
 
 Michael Davitt and John "Wilson convicted of 
 treason-felony for endeavouring to transmit arms 
 secretly to Ireland (detected March) . 18 July, „ 
 
 Captured Fenian generals (Thompson and Starr) in 
 United States, sentenced to imprisonment for 
 breach of neutrality laws . . . July, „ 
 
 President Grant's proclamation against Fenian raids 
 into Canada 13 Oct. „ 
 
 Letter from Mr. Gladstone announcing early release 
 of Fenian convicts .... 15 Dec. ,, 
 
 The convicts released Jan. 1871 
 
 The released convicts welcomed in the United 
 States Jan. ,, 
 
 The Fenians favour the French in the war, 
 
 Aug. 1870-Feb. „ 
 
 Fenian raid into Manitoba suppressed by United 
 States troops, and general Neill arrested ; see 
 Ireland about 12 Oct. ,, 
 
 Gen. Cluseret (a short time in the service of the 
 Fenians) publishes an account of them in Fraser's 
 Magazine: he says, "Their insurrection was 
 foolishly planned and still more foolishly exe- 
 cuted," and strongly advises reconciliation with 
 England July, 1872 
 
 FEEE-CHAMPENOISE (France). Here 
 the French, army under Marmont, Mortier, and 
 Arrighi, were surprised and defeated by the allies 
 under the prince of Schwarzenberg, 25 March, 
 1814, after a heroic resistance. Paris surrendered 
 six days after. 
 
 FEEIZE LATI1SLE, solemn Eoman festivals, 
 said to have been instituted by Tarquin the Proud, 
 about 534 B.C. The principal magistrates of forty- 
 seven towns of Latium assembled on a mount near 
 Eome, and with the Roman authorities offered a 
 hull to Jupiter Latialis. 
 
 FEEMENTATION, termed by Gay-Lussac 
 one of the most mysterious processes in nature : he 
 showed that in the process, 45 lbs. of sugar are 
 resolved into 23 of alcohol and 22 of carbonic acid. 
 His memoir appeared in. 1810. In 1861 Pasteur 
 brought forward evidence to show that fermenta- 
 tion depends on the presence of minute organisms 
 in the fermenting fluid, and that the source of all 
 such organisms is the atmosphere. 
 
 FEEMIERS GENEEATTX, officers who 
 farmed the French revenues previous to 1789, fre- 
 quently with much oppression. Lavoisier and 27 
 of these were executed 8 May, 1794. 
 
 FEENDALE COLLIEEY EXPLO- 
 SION; 8 JSlov. 1867; about 178 lives lost. See 
 under Coal. 
 
 FEENS (Ireland), an ancient bishopric, once 
 archiepiscopal. St. Edam was seated here in 598. 
 Leighlin and Ferns were united in 1600 ; and by 
 the Church Temporalities act, passed Aug. 1833, 
 both were united to the bishopric of Ossoi-y. See 
 Ossory. — Fekns, an order of cryptogamous plants, 
 now much cultivated in Wardian cases ; which see, 
 and also Nature-Printing . 
 
 FEEOZESHAH (India). The British, com- 
 manded by sir Hugh Gough, attacked the en- 
 trenchments of the Sikhs, and carried their first 
 line of works, 21 Dee. 1845 ; but night coming on, 
 the operations were suspended till daybreak, when 
 their second line was stormed by general Gilbert, 
 and 74 guns captured. The Sikhs advanced to re- 
 take their guns, but were repulsed with great loss, 
 and retreated towards the Sutlej, 22 Dec. ; and re- 
 crossed that river unmolested, 27 Dec. The British 
 loss was reckoned at 2415. 
 
 FEEEAEA, formerly part of the exarchate of 
 Ravenna, under the emperors of the East. It was 
 subdued by the Lombards in the 8th century, and 
 taken from them about 752 by Pepin, who gave it 
 to pope Stephen II. About 1208 it fell into the 
 hands of the house of Este {which see), and became 
 the principal seat of the literature and fine arts 
 in Italy. Pope Clement VIII. obtained the sove- 
 reignty in 1598, on the death of the duke Alphonso 
 II., the last legitimate male of the Este family. 
 His illegitimate nephew, Caesar, became duke of 
 Modena. The French under Massena took Ferrara 
 in 1796 ; but it was restored to the pope in 1814. 
 An Austrian garrison held it from 1849 ; it retired 
 in June, 1859, and the people rose and declared for 
 annexation to Sardinia, which was accomplished in 
 March, i860. 
 
 FEEEAES' AEEEST. In March, 1542, Mr. 
 George Ferrars, a member of parliament, while in 
 attendance on the house, was taken in execution 
 by a sheriff' s officer for debt, and committed to the 
 Compter prison. The house despatched their Ser- 
 jeant to require his release, which was resisted, 
 and an affray taking place, his mace was broken. 
 The house in a body repaired to the lords to com- 
 plain, when the contempt was adjudged to be very 
 great, and the punishment of the offenders was 
 referred to the lower house. On another messenger 
 being sent to the sheriffs by the commons, they 
 delivered up the senator, and the civil magistrates 
 and the creditor were committed to the Tower, the 
 inferior officers to Newgate, and an act was passed 
 releasing Mr. Ferrars from liability for the debt. 
 The king, Henry VIII., highly approved of all 
 these proceedings, and the transaction became the 
 basis of that rule of parliament which exempts 
 members from arrest. Molinshed. 
 
 FEEEO, the most western of the Canary isles, 
 from whose west point some geographers have taken 
 their first meridian, was known to the ancients, 
 and was rediscovered in 1402. 
 
 FEEEOL (N.W. Spain). Upwards of 10,000 
 British landed near Ferrol under the command of 
 sir James Pulteney, in Aug. 1800. They gamed 
 possession of the heights ; but, despairing of suc- 
 cess, on account of the strength of the works, sir 
 James re-embarked his troops. His conduct was 
 much condemned. Soult captured Ferrol, 27 Jan. 
 1809. An insurrection of about 1500 men in the 
 arsenal here broke out, headed by brigadier Pozas 
 and capt. Montojo, who raised the red flag, II 
 Oct. They dispersed or surrendered when about 
 to be attacked, 17 Oct. 1872. 
 
 FESCENNINE YEESES were rude extem- 
 porary dialogues, frequently licentious, in favour 
 among the ancient Etruscans at weddings, and still 
 popular in Italy. 
 
 FESTIVALS, see Feasts. 
 
 FETE DE DIEU, a feast of the Roman church 
 in honour of the real presence in the Lord's Sup- 
 
fete de vertu. 
 
 262 
 
 FIRE ANNIHILATOR. 
 
 ppr, kept on the Thursday after Trinity Sunday. 
 See Corpus Christi. Berengarius, archbishop of 
 Angiers, opposed the doctrine of transubstantia- 
 tion, and to atone for his crime a yearly pro- 
 cession was made at Angers, called la ftie de Dieu, 
 IOig. 
 
 FETE DE VERTU, an annual assemblage, 
 chiefly of young persons, to whom were adjudged 
 rewards for industry and virtue. These fetes, held 
 at Nuneham, in Oxfordshire, begun by lady Har- 
 court in 1789, were continued till her death. 
 
 FEUDAL LAWS. The tenure of land by 
 suit and service to lord or owner was introduced 
 into England by the Saxons, about 600, and was 
 increased by William I. in 1068. The kingdom was 
 divided into baronies, which were given on condition 
 of the holders furnishing the king with men and 
 money. The vassalage, limited by Henry VII., 
 1495, was abolished by statute, 1660. The feudal 
 system was introduced into Scotland by Malcolm II. 
 in 1008, and the hereditary jurisdictions were finally 
 abolished in that kingdom, 1746-7. The feudal 
 laws, established in France by Clovis I. about 486, 
 were discountenanced by Louis XI. in 1470. 
 
 FEUILLANTS, a religious order founded by 
 Jean de la Barriere in 1577 at the abbey of Feuil- 
 lant, near Toulouse, and settled in Paris in 1587. 
 The Feuillant club, formed in Paris by La Fayette 
 and others in 1789, to counteract the intrigues of 
 the Jacobins, was so named from the convent where 
 they met. A body of Jacobins burst into their hall 
 and obliged them to separate, 25 Dec. 1791 ; and 
 the club was broken up in 1792. 
 
 FEZ (in the ancient Mauritania, Africa), 
 founded by Edris, a descendant of Mahomet, about 
 787, was long capital of the kingdom of Fez. 
 After long-continued struggles, it was annexed to 
 Morocco about 1550. Leo Africanus describes it as 
 containing more than 700 temples, mosques, and 
 other public edifices, in the 12th century. 
 
 FICTIONS, see Romances. — Fictions in Law 
 were invented by the lawyers in the reign of 
 Edward I. as a means of carying cases from one 
 court to another, whereby the courts became checks 
 to each other. Hume. Lord Mansfield, in the court 
 of King's Bench, emphatically declared that "no 
 fiction of law shall ever so far prevail against the 
 real truth, as to prevent the execution of justice," 
 31 May, 1784. They have been mostly abolished 
 in the present century. 
 
 FIDENiE, a Sabine city, frequently at war 
 with Rome. It was finally captured and the in- 
 habitants enslaved, 426 B.C. by the Romans, whose 
 ambassadors they had slain. 
 
 FIEF, see Feudal Laics. 
 
 FIELD. The country gentleman's weekly 
 paper, devoted to natural history, sports, &c, firs"t 
 appeared I Jan. 1853. 
 
 FIELD of March and May, see Champ.— 
 Field of the Cloth of Gold, a plain near 
 Ardres, near Calais, in France, on which Henry 
 VIII. met Francis I. of France, 7-25 June, 11526. 
 The nobility of both kingdoms displayed their 
 magnificence, and many involved themselves in 
 debt. Paintings of the embarcation and interview 
 are at Windsor castle. 
 
 FIELD-MARSHAL, see Marshal. 
 
 FIERY-CHAMBER, see Chambre Ardentc- 
 
 FIESCHI'S ATTEMPT on Louis-Phi- 
 lippe, see France, 1835. 
 
 FIFTH-MONARCHY MEN, about 1645, 
 supposed the period of the Millennium to be just 
 at hand, when Jesus Christ should descend from 
 heaven, and erect the fifth universal monarchy. 
 They proceeded so far as to elect him king at 
 London. Cromwell dispersed them, 1653. Kearsletj. 
 Another rising with loss of life was suppressed, 
 6 Jan. 1661. Thos. Venner, a cooper, their leader, 
 and 16 others, were executed soon after. 
 
 FIG-TREE (Ficus Carica) brought from the 
 south of Europe, before 1548. The Botany-Bay 
 fig, Ficus Australia, brought from N. S. Wales in 
 1789. 
 
 FIGURES, see Arithmetic, and Digits. 
 
 FIJI, see Feejee. 
 
 FILES are mentioned (1 Sam. xiii. 21) 1093 B.C. 
 The manufacture of them has attained to great per- 
 fection, by means of file-cutting machinery. That 
 set up by Mr. T. Greenwood of Leeds, in 1859, was 
 invented by M. Bernot of Paris. It is said that 
 the price of files made by it is recfuced from 32^. to 
 \d. per dozen. 
 
 FILIBUSTERS (proper! y Flibmtiers), a 
 name given to the freebooters who plundered the 
 coasts of America in the 16th and 17th centuries; 
 
 see Buccaneers and Nicaragua. 
 
 FILTERERS. A plan for purifying corrupted 
 water was patented by Wm. Woolcott in 1675. 
 Other modes followed. James Peacock's method of 
 filtration was patented in 1791. 
 
 FINE ARTS, see Arts, Paintings, Sculpture, 
 Engraving, &c. 
 
 FINES and Recoveries, conferring the 
 
 power of breaking ancient entails and alienating 
 estates, began in the reign of Edward IV., but was 
 not, properly speaking, law, till Henry VII., by 
 correcting some abuses that attended the practice, 
 gave indirectly a sanction to it, 1487. Fines and 
 recoveries were abolished in 1833. 
 
 FINISTERRE, see Cape Finistcrre. 
 
 FINLAND, a Russian grand duchy, in the 
 middle of the 12th century was conquered by 
 Eric IX. of Sweden, who introduced Christianity. 
 It was several times taken by the Russians (1714, 
 1742. and 1808), and restored (1721 and 1743) ; but 
 in 1809 they retained it by treaty ; see Abo. Its 
 political constitution was confirmed by the czar in 
 1800, 1825, and 1855. Population in 1862, 1,746,229; 
 in 1867, 1,830,853. During a dreadful famine, 
 whole villages were starved, March, 1868. 
 
 FINNIAN, see Fenians. 
 
 FINSBURY PARK, London, N. In 1866, 
 land was purchased, and preparations for the park 
 began ; and it was opened 7 Aug. 1869. 
 
 FIRE. The poets supposed that fire was stolen 
 from heaven by Prometheus. Heraclitus about 
 596 B.C. maintained that the world was created 
 from fire, and deemed to be a god omnipotent. 
 See Farsees. 
 
 FIRE-ANNIHILATOR, an apparatus in- 
 vented by Mr. T. Phillips, and made known by 
 him in 1849. When put in action, steam and car- 
 bonic acid are formed, which extinguish flame. It 
 was not successful commercially. L' Fxtineteur, 
 
FIRE-ARMS. 
 
 263 
 
 FIRE-WORKS. 
 
 was invented by Dr. F. Carlier, and patented by 
 A. "Vignon in July, 1862. It is an iron cylinder 
 filled with water and carbonic acid gas, generated 
 by bi-carbonate of soda and tartaric acid. The 
 apparatus was developed and improved by Mr. 
 W. B. Dick, in his Manual and Chemical Fire- 
 Engines, which give a continuous flow of water 
 and gas, patented April, 1869. 
 
 FIRE-ARMS, see Artillery, Cannon, Needle- 
 gun, Chassepot, and Pistols. The first small fire- 
 arms, were a species of cannon, borne by two men. 
 
 Fire-arms made at Perugia, in Italy . . . 1364 
 
 Employed by the Burgundians at Arras . . . 1414 
 
 Edward IV. , when he landed at Ravenspur, is said 
 to have been accompanied by 300 Flemings, 
 armed with hand-guns 1471 
 
 At Morat, the Swiss are said to have had 10,000 
 arquebusiers (men armed with fire-arms) . . 1476 
 
 Fire-arms said to have been used at the siege of 
 Berwick 1521 
 
 The petronel (from poitrine, the chest) or arquebus 
 came into vise, 1480 ; and the musket employed 
 in the armies of the emperor Charles V. about . ,, 
 
 All these were of very rude construction, being 
 first discharged by a lighted match, afterwards, 
 about 1517, by a wheel-lock, then by the flint. 
 
 The match-lock and wheel-lock superseded by the 
 flint-lock, about 1692 
 
 The rev. Mr. Forsythe patented the percussion 
 principle of igniting gunpowder in muskets, by 
 means of detonating powder . . April, 1807 
 
 Percussion caps came into use between . 1820 & 1830 
 
 Percussion musket ; pattern . ... 1842 
 
 Artillery carbine ; pattern ,, 
 
 Victoria carbine (for cavalry). 
 
 Regulation rifle musket ; pattern .... 1851 
 
 Application of machinery in small arms factory 
 established at Enfield (the old musket Brown Bess 
 superseded) ... ... Jan. 1857 
 
 Mr. Jacob Snider's system of breech-loading in- 
 vented in 1859 : presented to the British govern- 
 ment ; finally adopted, 1866. He received 1000Z. 
 for expenses in June ; died 25 Oct 1866 
 
 100,000 breech-loaders said to have been ordered by 
 the British government .... July, „ 
 
 New government advertises for propositions for 
 conversion of Enfield rifles into breech-loaders, 
 
 Aug. „ 
 
 " Chassepot " guns in use in France . 1 Oct. „ 
 
 War-office advertises for proposals for breech- 
 loading rifles, to replace those now in use, 
 
 22 Oct. „ 
 
 Nine systems selected for further trial ; 1000Z. to be 
 awarded to the best .... June, 1867 
 
 Snider's rifle reported veiy successful at Wimbledon, 
 
 July, „ 
 
 61,682 new arms had been made at Enfield ; 175,550 
 converted to Sniders, up to . . . Dec. ,, 
 
 The " Money- Walker " rifle (patented by Mr. Mow- 
 bray-Money and lieut.-col. Walker), tried and 
 approved . .... 18 June, 1868 
 
 A report in favour of the Martini and Henry rifle 
 was issued March, 1869 
 
 An act to grant a duty of excise in licenses to use 
 
 guns, passed 9 Aug. 1870 
 
 See Mitrailleuse and Gatling. 
 
 FIRE-BRIGADE was established in London 
 in 1832 by Mr. R. Bell Ford, director of the Sun 
 fire-office. It then had 80 men and 19 stations. 
 In 1863 it had 130 men and 20 stations. In May, 
 1862, a commission recommended the establishment 
 of a fire-brigade, which was effected by the Metro- 
 politan Fire-brigade act, in 1865. It is supported 
 by a hd. rate and by contributions from government 
 and from the insurance offices. It came into action, 
 and its energies were successfully tested at the 
 great fire at St. Katherine's docks, 1 Jan. 1866. 
 
 FIRE-DAMP INDICATOR, a small appa- 
 ratus, about the size of a chronometer, invented by 
 Mr. Gr. F. Ansell, and patented by him in 1865, by 
 
 which the presence of very small quantities of fire- 
 damp or light carburetted hydrogen gas may be 
 detected in mines. It is an application of the law 
 of the diffusion of gases. 
 
 FIRE-ENGINES are said to have been in- 
 vented by Ctesibius, 250 B.C. They are mentioned 
 by Pliny, a.d. 70. A "water-bow" was patented 
 by Thos. Grent in 1632, one was constructed by 
 John Van der Heyden, about 1663. Bramah's engine 
 was patented in 1793. Mr. John Braitbwaite con- 
 structed a steam fire-engine in 1830. A trial of 
 steam fire-engines took place at the Crystal Palace, 
 Sydenham, on 1, 2, 3 July, 1863, when prizes were 
 awarded to a large one by Merryweather and a 
 small one by Shand and Mason. 
 
 FIRE-ESCAPES were patented by David 
 Mane (1766), and Joachim Smith (1773). The Royal 
 Society for the Protection of Life from Fire was 
 first established in 1836 ; its object was not fully 
 attained till 1843, when it was re-organised, begin- 
 ning with six escape stations in London ; in March, 
 1859, it possessed 67; in 1866, 85. In 1858, 504 
 fires had been attended, and 57 persons rescued. 
 In 1861 it was stated that 84 lives had been saved 
 by the society's officers. In 1866, 695 fires had 
 been attended, and 78 lives saved. In Aug. 1867, 
 the plant of the society was virtually presented to 
 the Board of Works, in consequence of the passing 
 of the Metropolitan Fire Brigade act, 1865. Vers- 
 mann's composition for rendering washing dresses 
 Jire-proof 'was published about i860. 
 
 FIRE INSURANCE, see Insurance. 
 
 FIREMAN'S RESPIRATOR, the inven- 
 tion of Dr. Tyndall (1870-71), is a combination of 
 his respirator of cotton-wool moistened with gly- 
 cerine, and Dr. Stenhouse's charcoal respirator. 
 Armed with this apparatus a man may remain a 
 long time in the densest smoke. 
 
 FIRE-SALVAGE CORPS formed, in 1865, 
 by the London Fire Insurance Offices. 
 
 FIRE-SHIPS. Among the most formidable 
 contrivances of this kind ever used, was an ex- 
 plosion vessel to destroy a bridge of boats at the 
 siege of Antwerp, in 1585. The first use of them in 
 the British navy was by Charles lord Howard of 
 Effingham, in the engagement with the Spanish 
 Amiada, July, 1588. Rapin. 
 
 FIRE-WATCH or Fire-Guard, of Lon- 
 don, was instituted Nov. 1791 
 
 FIRE -WORKS are said to have been made 
 by the Chinese in remote ages. They were invented 
 in Europe at Florence about 1360 ; and were exhi- 
 bited as a spectacle in 1588. 
 
 Maeaulay states that the fire- works let off in England at 
 the peace of Ryswick, in 1697, cost 12,000^. 
 
 Very grand fire-works were let off from a magnificent 
 building erected in the Green-park, London, at the 
 peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, Nov. 1748. 
 
 Exhibition of fire-works in Paris, 31 May, 1770, in honour 
 of the marriage of the dauphin, afterwards Louis XVI. ; 
 nearly 1000 persons perished by pressure and drown- 
 ing, through a panic. 
 
 The display of fire-works, under sir Wm. Congreve, at 
 the general peace, and the centenary of the accession 
 of the Brunswick family to the throne, 1 Aug. 1814. 
 
 Another at the coronation of William IV., 8 Sept. 1831. 
 
 A grand display of this kind (at a cost of io,oooZ.)to cele- 
 brate the peace with Russia, 29 May, 1856. 
 
 In consequence of explosions frequently occurrinc at 
 fire-work makers (particularly one on 12 July, 1858, at 
 Mr. Bennett's in the Westminster-road, Lambeth, when 
 five lives were lost, and about 300 persons seriouslv 
 injured, and much property destroyed), it was detei- 
 
FIEES. 
 
 26A 
 
 FIRES. 
 
 mined to enforce 9 & 10 Will. III. c. 7 (1697), an act to 
 prevent the throwing and forming of squibs, serpents, 
 and other fire-works. An act regulating the making of 
 tire-works was passed in i860. 
 Mr. C. T. Brock, the greatest pyrotechnist of the time, 
 has a manufactory at Nunhead ; exhibits at the Crystal 
 Palace, &c, and abroad, 1871-2. 
 
 FIRES IN LONDON. The conflagration of a 
 city, with all its tumult of concomitant distress, is 
 one of the most dreadful spectacles which this 
 world can offer to human eyes. Dr. Johnson. See 
 Chicago, Santiago, Liverpool, 1862, &c. 
 
 A great part of the city destroyed, including St. 
 
 Paul's cathedral 962 & 1087 
 
 One at London-bridge, began on the Southwark 
 side, and was communicated to the other side, 
 and hemmed in a numerous crowd ; about 3000 
 were drowned, and a great part of the city, north 
 
 and south, burned 1212 
 
 The Great Fire, whose ruins covered 436 acres, ex- 
 tended from the Tower to the Temple-church, and 
 from the north-east gate to Holborn-bridge. It 
 began in a baker's house in Pudding-lane, behind 
 Monument-yard, and destroyed, in the space of 
 four days, S9 churches (including St. Paul's), the 
 city gates, the Royal Exchange, the Custom- 
 house, Guildhall, Sion college, and many other 
 public buildings, besides 13,200 houses, laying 
 waste 400 streets. About 2oo,ooopersons encamped 
 iu Islington andHighgate fields. (See. Monument.') 
 
 2-6 Sept. 1666 
 In Southwark, 60 houses burnt .... 1676 
 In Wapping, 150 houses burnt, 50 lives lost . . 1715 
 
 Customs-house burnt 1718 
 
 At Shadwell, 50 houses burnt . . 10 Sept. 1736 
 
 In Cornhill ward, 200 houses burnt ; this fire began 
 in Change-alley, and was the most terrible since 
 the great fire of 1666 . . . 25 March, 1748 
 
 At Covent Garden, 50 houses burnt 
 
 In Smithtield, 28 houses burnt . 
 
 At Shadwell, 30 houses burnt 
 
 In Throgmorton-street, 20 houses .... 
 
 At Wapping, 20 houses , 
 
 At Hermitage-stairs, 31 houses 
 
 At Horselydown, 30 houses, besides many ware 
 houses and ships .... 30 April, 1780 
 
 Newgate, &c. , by the Gordon mob . . June, ,, 
 
 In the Strand, 40 houses 1781 
 
 In Aldersgate-street, 40 houses; the loss exceeding 
 100,000?. ...... 5 Nov. 1783 
 
 The Opera-house 17 June, 1789 
 
 At Rotherhithe, 20 houses ... 12 Oct. 
 
 Again, when many ships and 60 houses were con- 
 sumed 14 Sept. 
 
 Pantheon, Oxford-street ... 14 June, 1792 
 
 At Wapping, 630 houses, and an East India ware- 
 house, in which 35,000 bags of saltpetre were 
 stored : the loss 1,000,000?. (tents for the sufferers 
 were lent by the government) . . 21 July, 
 
 Astley's amphitheatre .... 17 Sept. 
 
 St. Paul's church, Covent-garden . 11 Sept. 
 
 At Shadwell, 20 houses burnt . . 1 Nov. 
 
 In the Minories, 30 houses . . . 23 March, 1797 
 
 In the King's Bench, 50 residences . 14 July, 1799 
 
 Near the Customs, three West India warehouses; 
 loss 300,000? 11 Feb. 1800 
 
 At Wapping, 30 houses .... 6 Oct. 
 
 In Store-street, Tottenham-court-road, immense 
 property destroyed .... 27 Sept. 1802 
 
 The great tower over the choir of Westminster 
 abbey burnt 9 July, 1803 
 
 Astley's again, and 40 houses . . 1 Sept. ,, 
 
 Frith-street, Soli o, lasted several days, many houses 
 destroyed 2 Dec. ,, 
 
 Surrey Theatre 12 Aug. 180.5 
 
 Covent-garden theatre . . . .20 Sept. 
 
 Drury-lane theatre 24 Feb. 
 
 In Couduit-street ; Mr. Windham, in aiding to save 
 Mr. North's library, received an injury which 
 caused his death 9 July, 1809 
 
 In Bury-street, St. Mary-axe, half the street made 
 ruins 12 June, 1S11 
 
 Custom-house: warehouses, and public records 
 destroyed . . . . . . 12 Feb. 1814 
 
 At Rotherhithe, 60 houses and several ships de- 
 troved ; loss 80,000? 16 March, 1820 
 
 1759 
 1761 
 
 J 774 
 
 1775 
 1779 
 
 1790 
 
 1791 
 
 !794 
 
 1795 
 1796 
 
 1809 
 
 At Mile-end; loss 200,000?. . . . 22 Jan. 1821 
 
 In Smithtield ; loss 100,000?. ... 14 Aug. 1822 
 Royalty theatre, Wellclose-sq. , destroyed 11 April, 1826 
 In Red Lion-street, 15 houses . . 6 June, 1828 
 
 Argyle rooms destroyed . ... 5 Feb. 1830 
 English opera-house, &c. , burnt . . 16 Feb. ,, 
 Houses of parliament consumed . . 16 Oct. 1834 
 
 Fenning's-wharf, London-bridge, &c. ; loss 250,030?. 
 
 30 Aug. 1836 
 The Royal Exchange destroyed . . 10 Jan. 1838 
 At Wapping, 12 houses ... 16 June, 1840 
 
 Camberwell church 7 Feb. 1841 
 
 Astley's theatre again 8 June, ,, 
 
 At the Tower ; the armoury and 280,000 stand of 
 
 arms, &c, destroyed .... 30 Oct. „ 
 Raggett's hotel, Dover-street, Piccadilly ; several 
 
 eminent persons perished . . .27 May, 1845 
 Several houses in New-square, Lincoln's inn, 
 
 1 4 Jan. 1849 
 
 Olympic theatre 29 March, ,, 
 
 One in St. Martin's-lane (at a publican's named Ben 
 
 Caunt), three lives lost . . . .15 Jan. 1851 
 Fire at Duke-street, London-bridge ; property lost 
 
 estimated at 60,000? 19 Feb. ,, 
 
 At the Rose and Crown, Love-lane, City, four lives 
 
 lost 18 May, ,, 
 
 Foot of London-bridge, four large hop warehouses 
 
 burnt; loss 150,000? 23 June, ,, 
 
 Collard and Co., pianoforte makers, Camden-town; 
 
 loss 60,000?. 19 Dec. 
 
 The warehouses of Messrs. Pawson, St. Paul's 
 
 churchyard, burnt 24 Feb. 1853 
 
 Works of Gutta Percha Company, near City-road ; 
 
 loss 100,000? 5 June, ,, 
 
 Kirkman's pianoforte manufactory . .10 Aug. ,, 
 Messrs. Scott Russell and Co.'s works, Millwall ; 
 
 loss 100,000?. ..... 10 Sept. ,, 
 
 Premises of Messrs. Savill and Edwards, printers, 
 
 Chandos-street, destroyed . . .30 Sept. ,, 
 Premises of Townend and Co., Bread-street, de- 
 stroyed ; loss about 100,000?. . . 31 Dec. ,, 
 Messrs. Cubitt's premises, Pinilico . 17 Aug. 1854 
 
 Whittington club-house ... 3 Dec. ,, 
 
 Premises of Messrs. Routledge, Messrs. Rennie, 
 
 &c, Blackfriars-road ; loss, one life and 150,000?., 
 
 16 Feb. 1855 
 Of Etna steam battery at Messrs. Scott Russell's 
 
 works ; loss about 120,000?. . . 3 May, ,, 
 
 Pavilion theatre 13 Feb. 1856 
 
 Covent-garden theatre .... 5 March, ,, 
 Messrs. Scott Russell's (third Are), much valuable 
 
 machinery destroyed . . . 12 March, ,. 
 Messrs. Dobbs' premises, Fleet-street . 1 April, ,, 
 Shad Thames flour-mill ; loss about 100,000?. , 
 
 17 July, ,, 
 Messrs. Broadwood's, pianoforte makers, Westmin- 
 ster 12 Aug. ,, 
 
 Premises of Messrs. Almond's, army accoutrement 
 makers, and others, in St. Martin's-lane ; esti- 
 mated loss 20,000? 9 Nov. 
 
 Messrs. Pickford's premises, at Chalk Farm station, 
 
 9 June, 1857 
 Gilbert-street, Bloomsbury ; 15 lives lost, 28 March, 1858 
 Fresh-wharf ; 25,000?. of silk . . 21 June, ,, 
 London docks ; great explosion ; man killed by 
 
 fright ; loss about 150,000/. . . 29 June, ,, 
 Linieliouse ; Messrs. Forest, Dixon's, &c. , premises 
 destroyed, and Blackwall railway arches ; insured, 
 
 19-20 July, ,, 
 Gt. James-st. , Marylebone ; six lives lost, 26 Feb. 1859 
 Messrs. Hubbuek and Co. , Lime-street ; one life 
 
 and a large amount of property . . 20 May, ,, 
 West Kent wharf and New Hibernia wharf; de- 
 stroyed property valued at 200,000?. ; fire lasted 
 nearly a month ; commenced . . 17 Aug. i860 
 St. Martin's-hall, built for Mr. Hullah, and other 
 
 premises, destroyed 26 Aug. ,, 
 
 Thames iron-works, Blackwall . . 31 Aug. ,, 
 Kilburn church, Maida-hill, destroyed 29 Nov. ,, 
 
 Surrey music-hall destroyed . . 11 June, 1861 
 
 Cotton's wharf and depot and other wharves near 
 Tooley-street, containing oil and other combust- 
 ible substances, took fire about half-past 4 p.m. , 
 22 June, and continued burning for a month. 
 (Several persons were killed, including James 
 Braidwood, the able superintendent of the Lon- 
 don fire-brigade : the loss of property was esti- 
 mated at 2,000,000?. . . . . ,, 
 
FIEES. 
 
 265 
 
 FISHEEIES. 
 
 Davis's wharf, Horselydown, taint ; loss about 
 
 15,000? 1 Aug. 
 
 ( a: Paternoster-row ; Messis. Longman's, book- 
 selleis, Messis. Knight's, tallow-melteis, and 
 others ; loss above 50,000?. ... 4 Sept. 
 
 Mr. Price's, Fountain-court, Strand, three lives lost, 
 
 3 Jan. 
 
 At Campden-house, Kensington, pictures and other 
 valuable property of Mr. Woolley destroyed (see 
 Trials, 1863) 23 March, 
 
 Mi. Dean's, Berkeley-street, Clerkenwell, three 
 lives lost 5 May, 
 
 Mr. Joel's, Fore-street, City, four lives lost, 21 May, 
 
 Mr. Boor's, druggist, Bishopsgate-street ; explo- 
 sion ; two lives lost .... 7 June, 
 
 Great Cumberland-street, Hyde-park ; Mr. S. Bar- 
 rett and two daughters burnt . . 15 Aug. 
 
 Messrs. Price's oil-mills, Blackfriars, burnt ; great 
 loss of property 20 Nov. 
 
 Ancient Austin-friars church, City, partially de- 
 stroyed 22 Nov. 
 
 Mr. Chard's, Portland-street, Soho ; six lives lost, 
 
 26 Dec. 
 
 Messrs. Capel's, Seething-lane, City ; great destruc- 
 tion of property .... 18 April, 
 
 Warehouses of Messrs. Grant and others, between 
 Wood-street and Milk-street ; property worth 
 about 100,000 destroyed ... 19 Dec. 
 
 Meriton's wharf, Dockhead ; immense loss of pro- 
 perty 7 June, 
 
 Royal Savoy chapel, Strand, destroyed 7 July, 
 
 Haberdashers'-hall and Messrs. Tapling and others' 
 warehouses 19 Sept. 
 
 Messrs. Barry, Sufferance wharves, Dockhead ; 
 great loss 25, 26 Nov. 
 
 Surrey theatre destroyed . . . 30, 31 Jan. 
 
 Saville-house (where George III. was born), Leices- 
 ter-square ...... 28 Feb. 
 
 Poulterers' arms, Leadenhall market ; two lives 
 lost 13 June, 
 
 Messrs. Meeking and Co. , Holborn ; damage 30,000/. 
 
 24 June, 
 
 Messrs. Sotheby and Co., auctioneers ; valuable 
 library destroyed .... 29 June, 
 
 Great fire at Beale's wharf ; about 18,000?. damage, 
 
 30 Oct. 
 
 Immense fire at St. Katherine's-docks . 1 Jan. 
 
 Holland and Hennen's premises, Duke-street, 
 Bloomsbury, destroyed ... 26 Aug: 
 
 Great fire in Haydon-square, Minories ; depot of 
 N. W. Railway, company, and other warehouses ; 
 great loss . ' 11 Sept. 
 
 Standard-theatre, Shoreditch, burnt down, 21 Oct. 
 
 In Hampstead-road, thirteen lives lost . 5 Nov. 
 
 North wing of the Crystal palace destroyed by fire, 
 
 30 Dee. 
 
 Quebec-street, Oxford-street ; six lives lost, 
 
 11 March, 
 
 Rotherhithe, 16 or 17 houses burnt ; about 100 
 persons destitute .... 12 Sept. 
 
 Her Majesty theatre, Royal opera-house, destroyed ; 
 see Opera 6 Dec. 
 
 Oxford music-hall, Oxford-street, partially de- 
 stroyed 11 Feb. 
 
 Above 20 shops burnt in Portman-market, Maryle- 
 bone . 23' Feb. 
 
 Hubbard and Stutters' hop-warehouses ; and many 
 small houses destroyed ... 10 Aug. 
 
 Northumberland house, Strand ; valuable pictures, 
 &c, injured 19 Aug. 
 
 Adelaide rooms, Strand, destroyed . 14 March, 
 
 All Saints church, Walworth, destroyed 27 April, 
 
 Mrs. Jago's, Pentonvill^-hill ; 3 perish 5 June, 
 
 Moscow-road, Bayswatjr ; through explosion of 
 fireworks ; 7 persons perish . . .1 Oct. 
 
 Mr. McMicken's, Newington-butts 4 lives lost, 
 
 10 Oct. 
 
 Old Star and Garter hotel, Richmond ; Wm. Lever, 
 the manager, killed . . . .12 Jan. 
 
 Mr. Hill's, upholsterer's, Waterloo-road ; 6 children 
 suffocated 23 July, 
 
 Church-street, Rotherhithe ; 3 lives lost, 23 Aug. 
 
 Cecil-house, Cecil-street, Strand ; Mr. Forbes burnt ; 
 architectural books, &c, of Mr. G. G. Scott de- 
 stroyed 4 Sept. 
 
 Mr. Bush's, manufacturing chemist, Liverpool- 
 street, Bishopsgate ; 4 lives lost . 27 Sept. 
 
 1870 
 
 Chapel-street, Edgware-road, 4 lives lost ; Crouch- 
 end, Hornsey, 3 lives lost . . .5 March, 1871 
 
 Pavilion-road, Chelsea ; 5 deaths . 26 March, ,, 
 
 Gray's-inn-road ; James Ford, a fireman, lost his 
 life after saving 6 .... 7 Oct. ,, 
 
 Thames-street ; Nicholson's and other warehouses 
 destroyed ; great loss . . . .24 Oct. ,, 
 
 Oxford music-hall ; quite destroyed . 1 Nov. 1872 
 
 City flour-mills, Upper Thames-street; 1 fireman 
 killed 10, 11, 12 Nov. „ 
 
 There were 953 fires in 1854 ; 1113 in 1857 '• ZII 4 m 
 1858 (38 lives lost) ; 1183 in 1861. 1303 fires in 
 1862 ; 1404 in 1863 ; and 1715 in 1864. In 1866, 
 1338 fires (326 serious) ; in 1867, 1397 fires (245 
 serious) ; in 1868, 1668 fires (235 serious); in 1869, 
 1572 fires (199 serious) ; in 1870, 1946 fires (276 
 serious) ; in 1871, 1842 (207 serious) ; in 1872, 
 1494 (120 serious). In but few cases were the 
 premises totally destroyed. Several fires were 
 occasioned by careless use of coal oils in 1861-2. 
 
 FIEE-WOESHIPPEES, see Parsees. 
 
 FIEST-FEUITS were offering* which made 
 a large part of the revenues of the Hebrew priest- 
 hood. First-fruits (called Annates, from annus, 
 a year), in the Eoman church, originally the profits 
 of one year of every vacant bishopric, afterwards of 
 every benefice, were first claimed by pope Clement V. 
 in 1306, and were collected in England in 1316 : but 
 chronologers differ on this point. In the 26th of 
 Henry VIII. 1534, the first-fruits were assigned, by 
 parliament, to the king and his successors. Mary- 
 gave the Annates to the popes (1555) ; but Eliza- 
 beth resumed them (1559). They were granted,, 
 together with the tenths, to the poor clergy, by 
 queen Anne, in 1 703. The offices of First-fruits, 
 Tenths, and Queen Anne's Bounty were consoli- 
 dated by 1 Vict. c. 20, 1838 ; see Augmentation of 
 Poor Livings. Annates were long resisted in France, 
 but not totally suppressed till 1789. 
 
 FISH, FISHEEIES, &c. Laws for the pro- 
 tection of fisheries were enacted by Edward I. in 
 1284, and by his successors. The rights of the 
 English and French fishermen were defined by 
 treaty in 1839 ; see Herring, Whale, and Neiv- 
 foundland Fisheries. The known species of fish are 
 about 7000, Gunther, 187 1. 
 
 Fishmongers' company of London incorporated . 1384 
 
 Fishing towns regulated by an act passed in . . 1542 
 
 Fishing on our coast forbidden to strangers . . 1609, 
 
 The Dutch paid 30,000?. for permission to fish on 
 the coasts of Britain 1636 
 
 Corporation of Free British fisheries instituted . 1750. 
 
 Fish-machines, for conveying fish by land to Lon- 
 don, set up in 1761 ; and supported by parlia- 
 ment 1764, 
 
 The British Society of Fisheries established in 
 Londonin 1786 
 
 The Irish Fishery Company formed in . Dec. 1818. 
 
 In 1849, two peasants, Remy and Gehin, obtained 
 medals for their exertions in cultivating fish in 
 France, and the government, set up an establish- 
 ment for this purpose at Huningue, under M. 
 Coumes. 
 
 In i860 great progress had been made by M. Coste 
 and others. 
 
 Commission to examine into British fisheries were 
 appointed in i860, and acts to amend the law re- 
 lating to fisheries in Great Britain and Ireland 
 were passed 1861-2-3-8-9, 
 
 In April, Mr. Ponders placed in the Thames 76,000 
 young fish (salmon, trout, char, and grayling) ; 
 and on 17 April, Mr. Frank Buckland demon- 
 strated the importance of fish culture before the 
 members of the Royal Institution, London . . 1863; 
 
 In 1853 Mr - Buist began the culture of fish at Stor- 
 montfield, Perthshire: reported highly successful, 
 
 Sept. 1866 
 
 A convention with France respecting sea fisheries, 
 signed at Paris, 11 Nov. 1867 ; ratified by the 
 " Sea Fisheries Act," passed . . 13 July, i86S 
 
FISHGUARD. 
 
 266 
 
 FLEUR-DE-LIS. 
 
 FISHGUARD (Pembroke). On 22 Feb. 1797, 
 1400 Frenchmen lauded in Cardigan bay. On the 
 24 Feb. the}' surrendered to lord Cawdor with the 
 Castlemartin yeomanry, and some countrymen, 
 armed with scythes and pitchforks, near Fish- 
 .guard. 
 
 FITZ WILLI AM MUSEUM (Cambridge), 
 founded by Richard viscount Fitzwilliam, who died 
 in 1816, and bequeathed his collection of books, 
 pictures, kc, to the university, with ioo,OOcV. to 
 ■erect a building to contain them. The building 
 was begun by G. Basevi in 1837, and finished by 
 Cockerell some years after. 
 
 FIVE FORKS, near Richmond, Virginia. 
 Here general Sheridan turned the front of the con- 
 federates and defeated them after a fierce struggle, 
 1 April, 1865. 
 
 FIVE HUNDRED, Council of, esta- 
 blished by the new French constitution, 22 Aug. 
 1795, was unceremoniously dissolved by Napoleon 
 JBonaparte, 10 Nov. 1799. 
 
 FIVE MILE ACT, 17 Chas. II. c. 2 (Oct. 
 1665), forbade nonconformist teachers who refused 
 .to take the non-resistance oath, to come within five 
 miles of any corporation where they had preached 
 since the act of oblivion (unless they were travel- 
 ling), under the penalty of 40I. They were relieved 
 by Will. III. in 1689. 
 
 FLADENHEIM, or FLATCHEIM, Saxony. 
 Here Rodolph of Swabia defeated the emperor 
 Henry IV. 27 Jan. 1080. 
 
 FLAG. The flag acquired its present form in 
 the 6th century, in Spain ; it was previously small 
 and square. Ashe. It is said to have been intro- 
 duced there by the Saracens, before whose time 
 the ensigns of war were extended on cross pieces of 
 •wood; see Carrocium. The honour -of -the -flag 
 salute at sea was exacted by England from very 
 ■early times ; but it was formally yielded by the 
 Dutch in 1673, at which period they had been 
 ■defeated in mauy actions. Louis XIV. obliged the 
 Spaniards to lower their flag to the French, 1680. 
 Henault. After an engagement of three hours 
 between Tourville and the Spanish admiral Papa- 
 chin, the latter yielded by firing a salute of nine 
 guns to the French flag, 2 June, 1688. Idem; see 
 Salute at Sea, and Union Jack. 
 
 FLAGELLANTS, at Perouse, about 1268, 
 ■during a plague, they maintained there was no 
 ■remission of sins without flagellation, and publicly 
 lashed themselves. Clement VI. declared them 
 heretics in 1349 : and 90 of them and their leader, 
 Conrad Schmidt, were burnt, 1414. In 1574, 
 Henry HI. of France became a flagellant for a 
 shor: time. 
 
 FLAGEOLET, see Flute. 
 
 FLAMBEAUX, Feast of, see Argos. 
 
 FLAMMOCK'S REBELLION, see Iiebel- 
 ■llons, 1497. 
 
 FLANDERS, the principal part of ancient 
 Belgium, which was conquered by Julius Cresar, 51 
 B.C. It became part of the kingdom of France, a.d. 
 ■843, and was governed by counts subject to the 
 king, from 862 till 1369, the first being Baldwin, 
 Bras de Fer, who is said to have introduced the 
 cloth manufacture. In 1204, Baldwin IV. became 
 emperor at Constantinople. In 1369, Philip duke of 
 Burgundy married Margaret, the heiress of count 
 Louis II. After this, Flanders was subjected suc- 
 cessively to Burgundy (1384), Austria (1477), and 
 
 Spain (1555). In 1580 it declared its independence, 
 but afterwards returned to its allegiance to the house 
 of Austria. In 17 13 it was included in the empire 
 of Germany. France obtained a part of Flanders 
 by treaty in 1659 and 1679 ; see Burgundy, Nether- 
 lands, and Belgium. 
 
 FLANNEL, see Woollen. 
 
 FLATBUSH, BATTLE OF, see Long Island. 
 
 FLATTERY, CAPE (W. coast of North 
 America), so named by captain Cook, because at a 
 distance it had the deceptive appearance of a har- 
 bour, 1778. 
 
 FLAVIAN CAESARS, the Roman emperors 
 Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian, 66-96. 
 
 FLAX. The manufacture in Egypt in very 
 early times was carried thence to Tyre about 588 
 B.C., and to Gaul about 1 B.C. ; and thus reached 
 Britain. It was ordered to be grown in England, by 
 statute, 24 Hen. VIII. 1533. For many ages the 
 core was separated from the flax, the bark of the 
 plant, by the hand. A mallet was next used ; but 
 the old methods of breaking and scutching the flax 
 yielded to a water-mill which was invented in 
 Scotland about 1750 ; see Hemp. The duty imposed 
 on imported flax, 1842, was repealed 1845. In 185 1 
 chevalier Claussen patented a method of " cotton- 
 ing" flax. 
 
 FLAYERS, see Ecorcheurs. 
 FLEECE, see Golden Fleece. 
 
 FLEET PRISON, MARKET, &c. (London), 
 vvere built over the small river Fleta, now used as a 
 common sewer. In the reign of Henry VII. this 
 river is said to have been navigable to Holbom- 
 bridge. 
 
 Fleet Prison was founded in the first year of 
 Richard I. , and was allotted for debtors, 1640 ; and 
 persons were committed here who had incurred 
 the displeasure of the Star-Chamber, and for con- 
 tempt of the court of chancery. It was burnt 
 during the Gordon riots, 7 June, 1780, and re- 
 built 1 781-2. It was pulled down in 1845 (and the 
 debtors removed to the Queen's Bench prison). 
 The site, was sold to the London, Dover, and Chat- 
 ham railway company for 6o,oooZ. on 2 June, 1864. 
 Last vestige removed Feb. 1868 
 
 Fleet-market, originally formed in 1737, was re- 
 moved, and the site named Farringdon-street in 
 1829. A new (Farringdon) market was opened 20 
 Nov. 1829. The granite obelisk in Fleet-street, to 
 the memory of alderman Waithman was erected 
 
 25 June, 1833 
 
 Fleet JIarriaobs. Between the 19th of October, 
 1704, and 12 Feb. 1705, there were celebrated 295 
 marriages in the Fleet without licence or certifi- 
 cate of banns. 20 or 30 couples were sometimes 
 joined in one day, and their names concealed by 
 private marks, if they chose to pay an extra fee. 
 Pemiant says that in his youth he was often ac- 
 costed with, "Sir, will you please to walk in and 
 "oe married?" Painted signs, of nude and female 
 hands conjoined, with the inscription, "Mar- 
 riages performed within," were common along 
 the building. 
 
 This abuse abolished by the marriage act in . . 1753 
 
 FLEETWOOD, see Hythe. 
 
 FLENSBORG, N. Germany. Here the Danes 
 defeated the Slesingers and Germans, 9 April, 1848. 
 It was entered by the Germans, 7 Feb. 1864. 
 
 FLETA, an ancient English law treatise, an 
 abridgment of Bracton, dated about 1290, said to 
 have been composed in Flctu, in the Fleet prison, 
 by some lawyer. 
 
 FLEUR-DE-LIS, the emblem of France, said 
 to have been brought from heaven by an angel to 
 
FLEUEITS. 
 
 267 
 
 FLOEIN. 
 
 Clovis, he having made a vow that if he proved vic- 
 torious in a pending battle with the Alemanni near 
 Cologne, he would embrace Christianity, 496. It 
 was the national emblem till the revolution in 1789, 
 when the tricolor (white, red, and blue) Avas adopted. 
 
 FLEUEUS (Belgium), the site of several 
 battles. 
 
 Between the Catholic league under Gonzales de Cor- 
 dova, and the Protestant union (indecisive) 30 Aug. 1622 
 
 The prince of Waldeck defeated by marshal Luxem- 
 burg 1 July, 1690 
 
 The allies under the prince of Coburg, defeated by 
 the French revolutionary army commanded by 
 Jourdan, who was enabled to form a junction 
 with the armies of the Moselle, the Ardennes, and 
 the north. (The French used a balloon to recon- 
 noitre the enemy's army, which it is said, contri- 
 buted to their success) ... 26 June, 1794 
 
 Here Napoleon defeated Blucher at the battle of 
 Ligny (which see) 16 June, 1815 
 
 FLIES- An extraordinary fall of these insects 
 in London covered the clothes of passengers, 1707. 
 Chamberlain. In the United States of America the 
 Hessian fly, so called from the notion of its having 
 been brought there by the Hessian troops in the 
 service of England in the war of independence, 
 ravaged the wheat in 1777. Before and during the 
 severe attack of cholera at Newcastle in Sept. 1853, 
 the air was infested with small flies. 
 
 FLINTS, see Man. 
 
 FLOATING BATTEEIES, see Batteries, 
 and Gibraltar, 1781. 
 
 FLODDEN FIELD (Northumberland). The 
 site of a battle on 9 Sept. 1513, between the English 
 and Scots ; in consequence of James IV. of Scotland 
 having taken part with Louis XII. of France against 
 Henry VIII. of England. James, many of his 
 nobles, and upwards of 10,000 of his army were 
 slain ; while the English, who were commanded by 
 the earl of Surrey, lost only persons of small note. 
 
 FLOGGING by the Jewish law was limited to 
 forty stripes, " lest thy brother should seem vile 
 unto thee," 1451 B.C. (Dent. xxv. 3). ¥m. Cobbett 
 in 1810, and John Drakard in 1811, were punished 
 for publishing severe censures on flogging in the 
 army. By orders issued 9 Nov. 1859, this mode of 
 punishment was very much diminished in the army 
 (see Army) ; and on Dec. following it was ordered 
 that first-class seamen should not be flogged, except 
 after a trial. Still more diminished, in March, 1867; 
 and, by an amendment on the clause in the mutiny 
 bill, flogging was abolished in the army in the time 
 of peace, April, 1868. New regulations for the navy 
 issued, 18 Dec. 1871. Plogging was made a punish- 
 ment for attempts at garroting in 1863 ; and for 
 juvenile criminals, 1847 and 1850. 
 
 FLOODS, see Inundations. 
 
 FLOEAL HALL, adjoining Covent-garden 
 theatre, is a large conservatory, 220 feet long, 75 
 feet wide, and 55 feet high, erected from designs by 
 Mr. E. M. Barry, and was opened with the volun- 
 teers' ball, 7 March, i860. It was used as a flower- 
 market, 22 May- Aug. 1861. Here was held the 
 west London industrial exhibition, 1 May to 2 Aug. 
 1865. 
 
 FLOEALIA, annual games at Eome in honour 
 of Flora, instituted about 752, but not celebrated 
 with regularity till about 174 B.C. 
 
 FLOEENCE (Florentia), capital of Tuscany 
 (which see), and from 1864 to 1870, of Italy, is said 
 to have been founded by the soldiers of Sylla (80 
 
 B.C.), and enlarged by the Roman triumviri. In 
 its palaces, universities, academies, churches, and 
 libraries, are to be found the rarest works of sculp- 
 ture and painting in the world. The Florentine 
 academy and Accademia della Crusca (established 
 1582) were instituted to enrich literature and im- 
 prove the language of Tuscany ; the latter was so 
 named, because it rejects like bran all words not 
 purely Tuscan : both are now united under the 
 former name. 
 
 Destroyed by Totila about 541 
 
 Rebuilt by Charlemagne .... about 800 
 Becomes an independent republic . . about 1198 
 
 Dante born here 14 May, 1265 
 
 A rt i or guilds established 1266 
 
 Factions of the Bianchi and Neri 1300 
 
 The influence of the Medici begins with Cosmo de' 
 
 Medici, " the father of his country " . about 1420 
 Death of Lorenzo de' Medici . . 8 April, 1492 
 
 Savonarola burnt 23 May, 1498 
 
 Appointment of Alexander de' Medici as perpetual 
 
 governor. . 1530 
 
 Cosmo de' Medici created grand-duke of Tuscany ; 
 
 makes Florence his capital 1569 
 
 Revolution at Florence . . . .27 April, 1859 
 Annexation to Sardinia voted by people, 11, 12 
 
 March ; the king enters Florence . . 7 April, i860 
 The king opens the exhibition of the industrial 
 
 products of Italy .... 15 Sept. 1861 
 Florence decreed the capital of Italy till the acqui- 
 sition of Rome 11 Dec. 1864 
 
 The king and court remove there . 13 May, 1865 
 
 The Dante festival (the 600th anniversary of his 
 
 birth) opened by the king . - . . 14 May, ,, 
 
 Inauguration of a national rifle-meeting ; the king 
 
 fires the first shot .... 18 June, ,, 
 First assembly of Italian parliament here 18 Nov. „ 
 The government removes to Rome as capital of Italy 
 
 July, i87r 
 
 FLOEES, or Isle of Flowers (one of the Azores 
 which see), discovered by Vanderberg in 1439; and 
 settled by the Portuguese in 1448. 
 
 FLOEIDA, a peninsula, one of the southern 
 states of North America, first discoveredby Sebastian 
 Cabot in 1497. It was visited by Juan Ponce de 
 Leon, the Spanish navigator, 4 April, 1512, in a 
 voyage he had undertaken to discover a fountain 
 whose waters had the property of restoring youth to 
 the aged who tasted them ! Florida was conquered 
 by the Spaniards under Ferdinand de Soto in 1539 ; 
 but the settlement was not fully established until 
 1565. It was plundered by sir Francis Drake in 
 1585 ; and by Davis, a buccaneer, in 1665. It was 
 invaded by the British in 1702 ; and again by gen. 
 Oglethorpe in 1 740 ; ceded to the British crown in 
 1763 ; taken by the Spaniards in 1781 ; and guaran- 
 teed to them in 1783. At the revolution in 1810, 
 the American government took means for occupying 
 the country ; and after a tedious negotiation it was 
 finally ceded* by Spain to the United States by 
 treaty, 24 Oct., 1820 ; and admitted into the Union 
 as a state in 1845. It seceded in Dec. i860; and 
 was reannexed in 1865 ; see United States. 
 
 FLOEIN, a coin first made by the Florentines. 
 A florin was issued by Edward III. which was cur- 
 rent in England at the value of 6s. in 1337. Cam- 
 den. This English coin was called floren after the 
 Florentine coin, because the latter was of the best 
 gold. Ashe. The florin of Germany is in value 
 2s. \d. ; that of Spain, 4s. $\d. ; that of Palermo 
 
 * In 1801, the Americangovernmentpurchased Louisiana 
 from the French, of which they contended West Florida 
 formed a part. On the revolution, and in consequence 
 of this purchase, Spain, unable to defend the country, 
 ceded the whole of Florida to the United States, to which 
 it was finally annexed after the negotiation above men- 
 tioned. 
 
FLOWERS. 
 
 2GS 
 
 FLUXIONS. 
 
 and Sicily, 2s. 6f/. ; that of Holland, 28. Ayliffe. 
 Silver florins (value 2*.) were issued in England in 
 1849. 
 
 FLOWERS- Our present common flowers 
 were for the most part introduced into England 
 from the reign of Henry VII. to that of Elizabeth 
 (1485-1603). The art of preserving flowers in Band 
 was discovered in 1633. A mode of preserving them 
 from the effects of frost in winter, and hastening 
 their vegetation in summer, was invented in America, 
 by Geo. Morris, in 1792. A very great number 
 have been introduced from America, Australia, the 
 Cape, &c, during the present century. 
 
 Acacia, N. America, before 1640 
 
 Allspice shrub, Carolina 1726 
 
 Aniseed tree, Florida, about 1766 
 
 Arbor Vitie, Canada, before 1596 
 
 Arctopus, Cape of Good Hope 1774 
 
 Auricula, .Switzerland 1567 
 
 Azarole, S. Europe, before 1640 
 
 Hay. Royal, Madeira 1665 
 
 Bay, sweet, Italy, before 1548 
 
 Camellia, China 1S11 
 
 Canary bell-flower, Canaries 1696 
 
 Canary Convolvulus, Canaries 1690 
 
 Carnation, Flanders 1567 
 
 Ceanothus, blue. New Spain 1818 
 
 Chaste tree, Sicily, before 1570 
 
 Christ's thorn, Africa, before 1596 
 
 Convolvulus, many flowered 1779 
 
 Coral tree, Cape 1816 
 
 Coral tree, bell-flowered, Cape 1791 
 
 Coral tree, tremulous, Cape 1789 
 
 Creeper, Virginian, N. America 1603 
 
 Dahlia, China 1803 
 
 Dryandria, New Holland 1803 
 
 Evergreen, thorn, Italy 1629 
 
 Everlasting, giant-flowered, Cape 1781 
 
 Everlasting, giant, Cape 1793 
 
 Fernbush, sweet, N. America 1714 
 
 Fox-glove, Canaries 1698 
 
 Fuchsia fulgens, Mexico, about 1835 
 
 Geranium, Flanders 1534 
 
 Gillyflower, Flanders 1567 
 
 Gold-plant, Japan 1783 
 
 Golden-bell-flower, Madeira 1777 
 
 Hawthorn, American, before 1683 
 
 Heaths, Cape 1774-1803 
 
 Honeyflower, great, Cape. 1688 
 
 Honeysuckle, Chinese, China 1806 
 
 Honeysuckle, fly, Cape 1752 
 
 Honeysuckle, trumpet, N. America . . . . 1656 
 
 Hyssop, S. Europe, before 1548 
 
 Jasmine, Circassia, before 1548 
 
 Jasmine, Catalonia, East Indies .... 1629 
 
 Judas tree, S. Europe, before 1596 
 
 Laburnum, Hungary 1576 
 
 Laurel, Alexandrian, Portugal, before . . . 1713 
 
 Laurustine, S. Europe, before 1596 
 
 Lavender, S. Europe, before 1568 
 
 Lily, Italy, before 1460 
 
 l.i 1\ . gigantic, N. South Wales 1800 
 
 Lily, red coloured, S. America 1623 
 
 Loblolly bay, N. America, before . . . . 1739 
 
 Lupine tree, Cape, about 1793 
 
 .Magnolia (sec Magnolia), N. America . . . . 1688 
 
 Magnolia, dwarf, China 1786 
 
 Magnolia, laurel-leaved, N. America . . . . 1734 
 
 Maiden-hair, Japan 1714 
 
 Mignonette, Italy 1528 
 
 Milk-wort, giant-flowered, Cape .... 1713 
 
 Milk-wort, showy, Cape 1814 
 
 Mock orange, S. Europe, before .... 1596 
 Mountain tea, N. America, before . . . . 1758 
 Myrtle, candleberry, N. America .... 1699 
 
 Myrtle, woolly-leaved, China 1776 
 
 Nettle tree, S. Europe, before 1596 
 
 Oleander, red, S. Europe ,, 
 
 Olive, Cape, Cape 1730 
 
 Olive, sweet-scented, China 1771 
 
 Paraguay tea, Carolina, before 1724 
 
 Passion-flower, Brazil 1692 
 
 Passion-flower, orange, Carolina .... 1792 
 Petunia, S. America 1823 
 
 berry, N. America 1736 
 
 Pink, from Italy 1567 
 
 Ranunculus, Alps .... ... 1528 
 
 Roses, Netherlands 1522 
 
 Rose, China, China 1789 
 
 Rose, damask, s. Europe, about 1543 
 
 Rose, the Japan, China 1793 
 
 Rose, the moss, before I 7 2 4 
 
 Rose, the musk, Italy 1522 
 
 Rose, the Provence, Flanders 1567 
 
 Ruse, sweet-scented guelder, from China . . 1821 
 
 Rose, tube, from Java and Ceylon . . . . 1629 
 
 Rose without thorns, North America, before . . 1726 
 
 Rosemary, S. Europe 1548 
 
 Sage, African, Cape 1731 
 
 Sage, Mexican, Mexico 1724 
 
 St. Peter's wort, North America 1730 
 
 Sassafras, North America, before .... 1663 
 
 Savin, S. Europe, before 1584 
 
 Snowdrop, Carolina 1756 
 
 Sorrel-tree, North America, before . . . . 1752 
 
 Sweet-bay, S. of Europe, before .... 1548 
 
 Tamarisk plant, Germany 1560 
 
 Tea tree, China, about 1768 
 
 Tooth-ache tree, from Carolina, before . . . 1739 
 
 Trumpet-flower, North America .... 1640 
 
 Trumpet-flower, Cape 1823 
 
 Tulip, Vienna 1578 
 
 Verbena, S. America 1827 
 
 Victoria Regia, Guiana 1838 
 
 Virginia creeper, North America, before . . . 1629 
 
 Virgin's bower, Japan 1776 
 
 Wax-tree, China 1794 
 
 Weeping willow, Levant, before .... 1692 
 
 Winter-berry, Virginia 1736 
 
 Youlan, China 1789 
 
 FLUORESCENCE. When the invisible 
 chemical rays of the blue end of the solar spectrum 
 are sent through uranium glass, or solutions of 
 quinine, horse-chestnut bark, or stramonium datura, 
 they become luminous. This phenomenon was 
 termed "fluorescence" by its discoverer, professor' 
 Stokes, in 1852. By means of fluorescence Drs. 
 Bence Jones and Dupre detected the presence of 
 quinoidine in animal tissues ; see Calorescence. 
 
 FLUORINE, a gaseous element, obtained from 
 fluor spar ; first collected over mercury by Priestley. 
 Its property of corroding all vessels is so great that 
 it is separated with great difficulty. It was named 
 by Ampere in 1810. Its chemical history was 
 further elucidated by Davy (1809), Berzelius (1824), 
 and succeeding chemists. The corroding property 
 of fluoric acid was employed in the arts in 1 760, by 
 Schwankhard of Nuremberg. Gmelin. 
 
 FLUSHING, SIEGE OF, see Wakhcren Ex-' 
 pedition. 
 
 FLUTE- The transverse flute, incorrectly 
 termed the " German " instead of the Swiss flute, 
 was known to the ancients. It was described by 
 Michael Pretorius, of Wolfenbuttel, in 1620, and by 
 Mersenne of Paris, in 1636. It was much improved 
 by the French in the 17th century; by Quantz, 
 Tacet, Florio, Potter, Miller, Nicholson, and others 
 in the 18th. In the present century also the Nichol- 
 sons, Boehm of Munich, Godfrey of Paris, Carter, 
 Kockstro, and Eudall and Rose of London, have 
 greatly contributed to the perfection of this instru- 
 ment. The English flute or flageolet was patented 
 by Win. Bainbridge in 1803, with improvements in 
 1810 and 1819. 
 
 FLUXIONS, a branch of the higher mathe- 
 matics, invented by Newton, 1665, similar to the 
 differential calculus described by Leibnitz, 1684. 
 A fierce controversy ensued as to the priority of the 
 discovery. The finest applications of the calculus 
 are by Newton, Euler, La Grange, and La Place. 
 The tirst elementary work on fluxions in England 
 
FLYING. 
 
 269 
 
 FOREIGN LEGION. 
 
 is a tract of twenty-two pages in A New Short 
 Treatise of Algebra, together with a Specimen of the 
 Nature and Algorithm of Fluxions, by John Harris, 
 M.A. London, 1702. 
 
 FLYING, ARTIFICIAL. In Greek mythology, 
 Daedalus is said to have attached wings of wax to 
 the body of his son Icarus, who, neglecting the 
 advice of his father, flew so high that the sun 
 melted his wings, and he fellinto the Icarian sea. 
 Archytas is said to have made a flying dove, about 
 400 B.C. Friar Bacon maintained the possibility 
 of the art of flying, and predicted it would be a 
 general practice, 1273. Bishop "Wilkin says (165 1), 
 it will yet be as usual to hear a man call for his 
 wings when he is going on a journey, as it is now 
 to hear him call for his boots ! Borelli (about 1670) 
 showed the futility of these speculations. About 
 1800, sir George Cayley experimented on the sub- 
 ject, and in 1843 Mr. Henson invented a flying 
 machine ; but nothing has been devised capable of 
 serving a practical purpose. The motion of birds 
 in relation to aeronautics was much discussed by 
 scientific men in 1867-8. At a meeting of the 
 Aeronautical society, 26 March, 1868, it was stated 
 that a member had actually, by his muscular force, 
 aided by apparatus, risen from the ground and 
 flown horizontally. Dr. James Pettigrew published 
 his elaborate researches on flying, 1867-71. 
 
 FLY SHEETS, see under Wesleyans. 
 
 FO, RELIGION OF, the form of Buddhism (which 
 see) existing in China. 
 
 FOG SIGNALS. In 1862, much attention 
 was paid to the subject by the Royal commission on 
 Light-houses, &c. The use of bells, steam-trumpets, 
 a battery of whistles blown by steam, the trans- 
 mission of sound through water, the sirene, &c, 
 were considered. A fog horn blown by steam is in 
 use at Dungeness lighthouse (1869). 
 
 FOIX (S. France), a county established 1050, 
 and united with Beam, 1290. About 1494 Catherine 
 de Foix, the heiress, married Jean d'Albret, whose 
 descendant, Henry IV., as king of France, united 
 Foix to the monarchy, 1589. 
 
 FONT. Formerly the baptistery was a small 
 place partitioned off in a church, within which a 
 large font was placed, where the persons to be 
 baptised (frequently adults) were submerged. 
 Previously, lakes and rivers .were resorted to for 
 immersion. Fonts are said to have been set up in 
 churches in the sixth century. 
 
 FONTAINEBLEAU, near the Seine, France. 
 The royal palace, founded by Robert le Pieux about 
 999, enlarged and. adorned by successive kings, was 
 completed by Louis Philippe, 1837-40. Fontaine- 
 bleau was entered by the Austrians, 17 Feh 1814. 
 Here Napoleon resigned his dignity, 4 April, and 
 bade farewell to his army, 20 April, 1814. 
 
 Peace between Prance, Denmark, <fec. . 2 Sept. 1679 
 Treaty between Germany and Holland . 8 Nov. 1785 
 Treaty between Napoleon and Spain . 27 Oct. 1807 
 The decree of Fontainebleau for the destruction of 
 
 British merchandise issued . . 19 Oct. 1810 
 
 Concordat between Napoleon and pope Pius VII. 
 
 25 Jan. 18 1 3 
 
 FONTENOY, near Tournay, in Belgium, the 
 site of an obstinate sanguinary battle on 30 April 
 (11 May, N.s.), 1745, between the French, com- 
 manded by marshal Saxe, and the English, Hano- 
 verians, Dutch, and Austrians, commanded by the 
 duke of Cumberland. The king Louis XV. and the 
 dauphin were present. The success of the British 
 
 at the commencement is still quoted as an illustra- 
 tion of the extraordinary power of a column ; and 
 the advance of the Austrians during several hours 
 at Marengo (14 June, 1800) was compared to it by 
 Bonaparte. The allies lost 12,000 men, and the 
 French nearly an equal number; but the allies 
 were compelled to retire. Marshal Saxe (ill of the 
 disorder of which he afterwards died) was carried 
 about to all the posts in a litter, assuring his troops 
 that the day would be their own. 
 
 FONTHILL ABBEY, Wiltshire, founded in 
 1796, the mansion of William Beckford, author of 
 " Vathek," and son of Alderman Beckford. He 
 died 2 May, 1844. Within this edifice (which alone 
 cost 273,000*.) were collected costly articles of 
 vertu and art, and the rarest works of the old 
 masters. The sale of the abbey and its contents to 
 Mr. Farquhar took place in 1819 ; 7200 catalogues 
 at a guinea each were sold in a few days. On 21 
 Dec. 1825, the lofty tower fell, and in consequence 
 the remaining buildings were sold. 
 
 FOOD, see Provisions. A Food Journal pub- 
 lished since 1870. 
 
 FOOLS, FESTIVALS OP, were held at Paris on 
 the 1st of January, when we are told all sorts of 
 absurdities were committed, from 1 198 to 1438. Fools 
 or licensed jesters were kept at court in England up 
 to the time of Charles 1. 1625. The'" order of Fools" 
 founded by Adolphus, count of Cleves, for philan- 
 thropic purposes, 1381, existed in 1520. 
 
 FORBES MACKENZIE'S ACT (16 & 17 
 Vict. c. 67) "for the better regulation of public- 
 houses in Scotland," passed in 1853. ^ P ermi ts 
 grocers to sell spirits, &c, as usual, but forbids 
 drinking on the premises, which is to be confined to 
 places duly licensed. Much dram- drinking pre- 
 viously took place in grocers' shops. 
 
 FORCE, see Conservation, and Correlation. 
 
 FOREIGNERS, see Alien. 
 
 FOREIGN CATTLE MARKET. The city 
 of London having been required to provide this 
 market before 1 Jan. 1872, by the Contagious 
 Diseases Act (for Animals), 1869, the common 
 council, 7 Nov. 1870, agreed to the expenditure of 
 160,000*. for the purpose. The site chosen, Dept- 
 ford dockyard, was much opposed. The requisite 
 alterations were made by Mr. Horace Jones, and the 
 market was formally opened by the lord mayor, 28 
 Dec. 1871 ; for use on 1 Jan. 1872. 
 
 FOREIGN ENLISTMENT ACT, 59 Geo. 
 III. c. 69 (1819), forbids British subjects to enter 
 the service of a foreign state, without licence from 
 the king or privy council, and prohibits the fitting 
 out or equipping ships for any foreign power to be 
 employed against any power with which our govern- 
 ment is at peace ; see Trials, 1862, 1863. In 1606, 
 Englishmen were forbidden to enter foreign service, 
 without taking an oath not to be reconciled to the 
 pope. The act was suspended in 1835 on behalf of 
 the British Legion (which see). The act passed 9 
 Aug. 1870, relates to illegal enlisting, shipbuilding, 
 and expeditions. 
 
 FOREIGN JURISDICTION ACTS were 
 
 passed in 1843, 1865, and 1866. 
 
 FOREIGN LEGION. Foreigners have fre- 
 quently been employed as auxiliaries in the pay of 
 the British government; see Hessians. An act 
 (18 & 19 Vict. c. 2) for the formation of a foreign 
 legion as a contingent in the Russian war (18c; t) 
 
FOREIGN OFFICE. 
 
 270 
 
 FORT DU QUESNE. 
 
 was passed 23 Dec. 1854.* The queen and prince 
 Albert reviewed 3500 soldiers, principally Swiss 
 and Germane, at Snorncliffe, 9 Aug. 1855. On the 
 peace in 1856, many were sent to the Cape of Good 
 Hope ; but not prospering, returned. 
 
 FOREIGN OFFICE was established at the 
 re-arrangement of the duties of secretaries of state 
 in 1782. It has the exclusive charge of British 
 interests and subjects in foreign countries. The 
 secretary for foreign affairs negotiates treaties, 
 selects "ambassadors, codsuIs, &c, for foreign 
 countries, and grants passports. The new foreign 
 office, building in the Italian style (designed by 
 Gilbert Scott), was begun in 1864. A portion of it 
 was inaugurated by Mr. Disraeli's reception, 25 
 March, and it was occupied by lord Stanley, who 
 gave an entertainment here 24 June, 1868. See 
 Secretaries. 
 
 FOREIGN ORDERS. No British subject is 
 permitted to accept a foreign order from the sovereign 
 of any foreign country, or wear the insignia thereof, 
 without her majesty's consent, — regulations pub- 
 lished in London Gazette, 10 May, 1855. 
 
 FORESTALLING was forbidden by statutes 
 (in 1350, 1552, &c), all repealed in 1844. 
 
 FORESTS. There were in England, even in 
 the last century, as many as 68 forests, 18 chases, 
 and upwards of 780 parks. See New Forest.f 
 
 FORESTS, Charter of the, Charta de 
 
 Forest a, granted by Henry III. in 121 7, was founded 
 on Magna Charta, granted by king John, 15 June 
 1215. It was confirmed in 1225 and 1297. See 
 Woods. 
 
 FORESTERS, ancient order of, a species of 
 benefit society, founded on the principle that many 
 can help one ; all religious and political discussions 
 are strictly avoided ; reported prosperous, Aug. 1872. 
 
 FORFARSHIRE STEAMER, on its passage 
 from Hull to Dundee, on 6 Sept. 1838, was wrecked 
 in a violent gale, and thirty-eight persons out of 
 fifty-three perished. The Outer-Fern Lighthouse 
 keeper, James Darling, and his heroic daughter 
 Grace, ventured out in a tremendous sea in a coble, 
 and rescued several of the passengers. 
 
 FORGERY of deeds, or giving forged deeds in 
 evidence, was made punishable by tine, by standing 
 in the pillory, having both ears cut oft', the nostrils 
 slit up and seared, the forfeiture of land, and per- 
 petual imprisonment, 5 Eliz. 1562. Since the 
 
 * The endeavour to enlist for this legion, in 1854, in the 
 United States, gave great offence to the American govern- 
 ment. Mr. Crampton, our envoy, was dismissed, 28 
 May, 1856, in spite of all the judicious pacific efforts of 
 lord Clarendon. Lord Napier was sent out as our repre- 
 sentative in 1857. 
 
 t The commissioners appointed to enquire into the 
 state, of the woods and forests, between 1787 and 1793, 
 reported the following as belonging to the crown, viz. : — 
 In Berkshire, Windsor Forest and Windsor Great and 
 Little Park. In Dorset, Cranbum Chase. In Essex. 
 Waltham or Epping and Hainault Forest. In Gloucester- 
 shire, Dean Forest. In Hampshire, the New Forest, 
 Alice Holt, Woolmer Forest, and Bere Forest. In Kent, 
 Greenwich Park. In Middlesex, St. James's, Hyde, 
 Bushey, and Hampton-court Parks. In Northampton- 
 shire, the forests of Whittlebury, Salcey, and Rockingham. 
 In Nottingham, Sherwood Forest. In Oxford, Which- 
 wood Forest. In Surrey, Richmond Park. Several of 
 these have been disforested since 1851, viz. Hainault, 
 Whichwood, and Whittlebury. A committee of the 
 house of commons respecting forests, sat in 1863. 
 Motion in parliamen to preserve Epping Forest, adopted 
 14 Feb. 1870. 
 
 establishment of paper credit many statutes have 
 been enacted ; the latest Forgery act passed 9 Aug. 
 1870. 
 
 Forgery first made punishable by death . . 1634 
 Forging letters of attorney made capital . 1722 
 
 Mr. Ward, M.P., a man of wealth, expelled the house 
 of commons for forgery, 16 May, 1726; and con- 
 signed to the pillory . ■ 17 March, 1727 
 The first forger on the bank of England was Richard 
 William Vaughan, once a linen-draper of Stafford. 
 Hr employed a number of artists on different 
 pails of the notes fabricated. He filled up 
 twenty of the notes and deposited them in the 
 hands of a young lady whom lit- was on the point 
 Of marrying, as a proof of his being a man of sub- 
 stance ; 1111 suspicion was entertained. One of 
 the artists informed, and Vaughan was executed 
 
 at Tyburn 1 .May, 1758 
 
 Value of forged notes presented to the bank 1801-10 
 
 nominally 101,661?. 
 The bank prosecuted 142 persons for forgery or the 
 
 uttering of forged notes .... 181 7 
 
 Thos. Maynard, the last person executed for forgery, 
 
 31 Dec. 1829 
 Statutes reducing into one act all such forgeries as 
 
 shall henceforth be punished with death . 1830 
 
 The punishment of forgery with death ceases, except 
 in eases of forging or altering wills or powers of 
 attorney to transfer stock .... 1832 
 
 These rases also reduced to transportable offences 1837 
 A barrister, Jem Saward, and others, tried for 
 
 forging numerous drafts on bankers 5 March, 1857 
 
 The law respecting forgery amended in . 1861 and 1870 
 For W. Roupell's case, see Trials . Aug. Sept. 1862 
 
 An elaborate system of bill forgery in London, dis- 
 covered by the Bank of England . 1 March, 1873 
 [See Executions (for forgery), 1776, 1777, et seq.] 
 
 FORKS were in use on the continent in the 13th 
 and 14th centuries. Voltaire. This is reasonably 
 disputed. In Fynes Moryson's Itinerary, reign of 
 Elizabeth, he says, "At Venice each person was 
 served (besides his knife and spoon) with a fork to 
 hold the meat while he cuts it, for there they deem 
 it ill manners that one should touch it with his 
 hand." Thomas Coryate describes, with much 
 solemnity, the manner of using forks in Italy, and 
 adds, " I myself have thought it good to imitate the 
 Italian fashion since I came home to England," 
 1608. Two pronged forks at Sheffield were made 
 soon after. Three-pronged forks are more recent. 
 Silver forks, previously only used by the highest 
 classes, came into more general use in England 
 about 1814. 
 
 FORMA PAUPERIS. A person having a 
 just cause of suit, certified as such, yet so poor that 
 he cannot meet the cost of maintaining it, has an 
 attorney and counsel assigned him on his swearing 
 that he is not worth 5?., by stat. 11 Hen. VII. 1495. 
 — This act has been remodelled, and now any per- 
 son may plead in forma pauperis in the courts of 
 law. 
 
 FORMIC ACID, the acids of ants {formica). 
 Its artificial production by Pelouze in 1831 was 
 considered an event in the progress of organic 
 chemistry. 
 
 FORMIGNI (N.W. France), Here the con- 
 stable de Kichemont defeated the English, 15 April, 
 1450. 
 
 FORNOVO (Parma, Italy). Near here Charles 
 VIII. of France defeated the Italians, 6 July, 
 H95- 
 
 FORSTER'S ACT, see Education, 1870. 
 
 FORT DU QUESNE, N. America. Near 
 here general Braddock was surprised by a party of 
 French and Indians, his troops routed and himself 
 killed, 9 July, 1755. The fort was named Fort 
 
FOET EEIE. 
 
 271 
 
 FOX-GLOVE. 
 
 Pitt after its capture by Forbes, 24 Nov. 1758. It 
 is now Pittsburg. 
 
 FOET EEIE (Upper Canada). This fortress 
 Avas taken by the American general Browne, 3 June, 
 18 14. After several conflicts it was evacuated by 
 the Americans, 5 Nov. 1814. 
 
 FOET GEOEGE, Inverness, N.W. Scotland, 
 was erected in 1747, to restrain the Highlanders. — 
 FOBT WILLIAM, besieged by them in vain in 1 746, 
 is now in ruins. 
 
 FOETH and CLYDE CANAL, commenced 
 10 July, 1768, under the direction of Mr. Smeaton, 
 and opened, 28 July, 1790. A communication was 
 thus formed between the eastern and western seas 
 on the coast of Scotland. A railway-bridge across 
 the Firth of Forth was projected, and a raft 
 launched on June, 1866; but the scheme was 
 abandoned. 
 
 FOETIFICATION. .The Phoenicians were 
 the first people to fortify cities. Apollodorus says 
 that Perseus fortified Mycena?, where statues were 
 afterwards erected to him. The modern system 
 was introduced about 1500. Albert Diirer wrote on 
 fortification in 1527 ; and great improvements were 
 made by Vauban, who fortified many places in 
 France; he died 1707. The new fortifications of 
 Paris were completed in 1846 ; see Paris. In Aug. 
 i860, the British parliament passed an act for the 
 expenditure of 2,000,000/. in one year upon the 
 fortifications of Portsmouth, Plymouth, Pembroke, 
 and Portland, the Thames, Medway, and Sheerness, 
 Chatham, Dover, and Cork, and on the purchase of 
 a central arsenal establishment ; the estimated ex- 
 pense being 9,500,000/. A committee to investigate 
 our fortifications was appointed, 16 April, 1868. 
 
 FOETUNATE ISLES, see Canaries. 
 
 FOETUNE-TELLING is traced to the early 
 astrologers, by whom the planets Jupiter and Venus 
 were supposed to betoken happiness. The Sibyllse 
 were women said to be inspired by Heaven ; see 
 Sibyls and Gipsies. In England the laws against 
 fortune-telling were at one time very severe. A 
 declaration was published in France, 11 Jan. 1680, 
 of exceeding severity against fortune-tellers and 
 poisoners, under which several persons suffered 
 death. Scnault. Fortune-tellers, although liable 
 by the acts of 1743 and 1824 to be imprisoned as 
 rogues and vagabonds, still exist in England. 
 
 FOETY-SHILLING FEEEHOLDEES, 
 
 see Freeholders. 
 
 FOEUM, at Rome, originally a market-place, 
 became about 472 b.c. the place of assembly of the 
 people in their tribes (the Comitia), and was 
 gradually adorned with temples and public build- 
 ings. — Near Forum Trebronii, in Moesia, the 
 Romans were defeated by the Goths, Nov. 251. 
 After a struggle in the morass, the emperor Decius 
 and his son were slain and their bodies not re- 
 covered. 
 
 FOSSALTA, near Bologna, central Italy. 
 Here Enzo or Enrico, titular king of Sardinia, 
 natural son of the emperor Frederick II., was de- 
 feated and made prisoner, 26 May, 1249, and re- 
 tained. He was kept in honourable captivity till 
 his death, 14 March, 1272. 
 
 FOTHEEINGHAY CASTLE (Northamp- 
 tonshire), built about 1400. Here Richard III. of 
 England was born in 1450 ; and here Mary queen 
 of Scots was tried, 11- 14 Oct. 1586, and beheaded, 8 
 
 1713. 
 
 Feb. 1587. It was demolished by her son, James I. 
 of England, in 1604. 
 
 FOUGHAED, near Armagh, N. Ireland. 
 Here Edward, brother of Robert Bruce, after 
 invading Ireland in 1315, was defeated by sir John. 
 Bermingham, 5 Oct. 13 18. Bruce was killed by 
 Roger de Maupis, a burgess of Dundalk. 
 
 FOUNDLING HOSPITALS are ancient. 
 A species of foundling hospital was set up at Milan 
 in 787, and in the middle ages most of the principal 
 cities of the continent possessed one. The French 
 government in 1790 declared foundlings to be the 
 " children of the state." 
 
 No Foundling hospital in England when Addison 
 wrote in 
 
 London foundling hospital, projected by Thomas 
 Coram, a sea-captain, incorporated, Oct. 1739 : 
 opened 2 June, 1756- 
 
 It succours about 500 infant children ; Coram's 
 statue was put up in iS$6- 
 
 Foundling hospital in Dublin instituted in 1704! 
 Owing to great mortality, and from moral con- 
 siderations, the internal department was closed 
 by order of government . . . 31 March, 1835 
 
 Foundling hospital at Moscow, founded by Cathe- 
 rine II. in 1772 ; about 12,000 children are re- 
 ceived annually. 
 
 FOUNTAINS. The fountain of Hero of 
 Alexandria was invented about 150 B.C. Among 
 the remarkable fountains at Rome are the Fontana 
 di Trevi, constructed for pope Clement XII. in 
 1735; tlle Fontana Paolina, erected for pope 
 Paul V. in 1612 ; and Fontana dell' Acqua Felice, 
 called also the Fountain of Moses. The fountains 
 in the palace gardens at Versailles, made for 
 Louis XIV., and the Grand Jet d'Eau, at St. Cloud, 
 are exceedingly beautiful. There are above lOO' 
 public fountains in Paris, the most striking being 
 the Chateau d'Eau on the Boulevard St. Martin 
 (by Girard, 181 1) and that at the Palais Royal- 
 London is not remarkable for fountains ; the 
 largest are in Trafalgar-square, constructed in 
 1845, after designs by sir Charles Barry. There 
 are beautiful fountains at Chatsworth, in Derby- 
 shire, the seat of the duke of Devonshire. The 
 magnificent fountains at the Crystal Palace, Syden- 
 ham, were first publicly exhibited on 18 June,. 
 1856, in the presence of the queen and 20,000- 
 spectators. 
 
 FOUEIEEISM, a social system devised by 
 M. Charles Fourier (who died in 1837). The 
 Phalanstery (from phalanx), an association of 400 
 families living in one edifice was to be so arranged 
 as to give the highest amount of happiness at the- 
 lowest cost. Thr system failed ; caused, it is said, 
 by the smallnes>o of the scale on which it was 
 tried. 
 
 ."FOUR MASTEES," a name given to 
 Michael, Conary, and Cucogry O'Clery, and Fer- 
 feasa O'Mulconry, who compiled from originaL 
 documents the annals of Ireland from 2242 B.C. to 
 a.d. 1616. An edition of these " Annals," printed 
 from autograph MS S., with a translation edited by 
 Dr. John O'Donovan, was published at Dublin in 
 1 85 1. The " Four Masters " lived in the first half 
 of the 17th century. 
 
 FOX, see Pcynard. 
 
 FOX and GEENVILLE ADMINISTEA- 
 TION, see Grenville Administration. 
 
 FOX-GLOVE (folks' or fairies' glove), a 
 handsome indigenous flower. The canary fox-glove 
 {Digitalis canariensis) came from the Canary 
 
FRAGA. 
 
 272 
 
 FRANCE. 
 
 islands, 1698. The Madeira fox-glove came here 
 in 1777. The fox-grape shrub {Vitus I'tdpuio), 
 from Virginia, before 1656. 
 
 FRAGA, N.E. Spain. Near here the Christians, 
 under Alfonso I. of Aragon, were defeated by the 
 Moors, 17 Jul)', 1 134. 
 
 FRANC, the current silver French coin (value 
 I0«?.), superseded the livre tournois by law in 
 '795- 
 
 FRANCE, the Roman Gaul (ivhich see). In 
 the qth century it was conquered by the Franks, a 
 people of Germany, then inhabiting Franconia, 
 where they became known about 240. The country 
 was gradually named Franken-ric, Franks' king- 
 dom. For the dynastic changes, see list of sove- 
 reigns, p. 284. Previous to the revolution, France 
 was divided into 40 governments. In 1 790 it was 
 •divided into 83 departments, and subsequently into 
 130, including Corsica, Geneva, Savoy, and other 
 places, chiefly conquests. In 1815 the departments 
 were reduced to 86 ; in i860 they were raised to 89 
 by the acquisition of Savoy and Nice.* The 
 political constitution has been frequently changed 
 since 1789. For details of more important events, 
 see separate articles. 
 
 'The Franks' settle in that part of Gaul, till late 
 
 called Flanders about 418 
 
 Clovis, 481 ; defeats Syagrius and the Gauls at 
 Soissons, 486 ; and the Alemanni at Tolbiac, near 
 Cologne ; and embraces Christianity . . . 496 
 He kills Alaric the Goth at the battle of Vougle, 
 near Poictiers, unites his conquests from the 
 Loire to the Pyrenees, and makes Paris his 
 
 capital 5°7 
 
 He proclaims the Salique law ; and dies, leaving 
 four sons (see p. ) . . .... 511 
 
 Frequent invasions of the Avars and Lombards, 562-584 
 The mayors of the palace now assume almost sove- 
 reign authority 584 
 
 ■Charles Martel becomes mayor of the palace, and 
 
 rules with despotic sway 714 
 
 Invasion of the Saracens, 720 ; defeated by Charles 
 Martel, near Tours .... 10 Oct. 732 
 
 Reign of Pepin the Short 752 
 
 •Charlemagne, king, 768 ; conquers Saxony and 
 Lombardy, 773-4 ; crowned emperor of the West. 
 
 25 Dee. 800 
 The Normans invade Neustria, 876 ; part of which 
 is granted Rollo, as Normandy, by Charles the 
 
 Simple 9 11 
 
 Reign of Hugh Capet 987 
 
 Paris made capital of all France 996 
 
 Letters of franchise granted to cities and towns by 
 
 Louis VI 1 135 
 
 Louis VII. joins in the Crusades . . . . 1146 
 
 Philip Augustus defeats the Germans at Bouvines . 1214 
 Louis VIIL, Cava- deLion, frees his serfs . . . 1224 
 Louis IX. conducts an army into Palestine : takes 
 Damietta, 1249 ; see Crusades ; dies before Tunis, 
 
 25 Aug. 1270 
 Charles of Anjou conquers Naples and Sicily . 1266 
 
 His tyranny leads to the massacre called the Sicilian 
 
 Vespers (which see) 1282 
 
 Philip the Fair's quarrels with the Pope . . 1301-2 
 Knights Templars suppressed .... 1307-8 
 
 * Population of France in 1700, 19,669,320 ; in 1762, 
 21,769,163 ; in 1801, 27,349,003 ; in 1820, 30,451,187 ; in 
 1836, 33,540,910 ; in 1846, 35,401,761 ; in 1856, 36,039,364 ; 
 in 1861, including the new departments, 37,382,225 ; in 
 1871 (after the war), 36,702,921. Population of the 
 colonies (in Asia, Pondicherry, &c. ; Africa, Algeria, &C. ; 
 America, Martinique, Guadaloupe, &c. ; Oceania, the 
 Marquesas, &c), in 1858, 3,641,226. Population of 
 France alone, Dec. 1866, 38,192,094. [Alsace and Lor- 
 raine lost with population of 1,597,219 in 1871.] In 
 May, 1862, the Moniteur asserted the effective army to 
 be 447,000, with a reserve of 170,000 ; virtually raised to 
 1,200,000 in 1868 ; disposable force in 1869, about 
 1,350,000 ; iron-clad ships, 62. 
 
 Union of France and Navarre 1314 
 
 English invasion — Philip VI. defeated at Creasy, 
 
 26 Aug. 1346 
 Calais taken by Edward III. . . .3 Aug. 1347 
 
 Dauphiny annexed to France 1349 
 
 Battle of Poictiers (which see) ; king John taken 
 
 (brought prisoner to England) . . 19 Sept. 1356 
 France laid under an interdict by the pope . . 1407 
 Battle of Agincourt (which see) . . . 25 Oct. 1415 
 .Massacre of the Armagnacs by the Burgundians, 
 
 June, 1418 
 Henry V. of England acknowledged heir to the 
 
 throne . . 1420 
 
 Henry VI. crowned at Paris ; duke of Bedford re- 
 gent 1422 
 
 Siege of Orleans, 8 May ; battle of Patay ; the Eng- 
 lish defeated by Joan of Arc . . 18 June, 1429 
 Joan of Arc burnt at Rouen . . . 30 May, 2431 
 England lost all her possessions (but Calais) in 
 
 France, between .... 1434 and 1450 
 " League of the public good" against Louis XL by 
 
 the nobles Dec. 1464-Oct. 1465 
 
 Edward IV. of England invades France . . . 1475 
 Charles VIIL conquers Naples, 1494 ; loses it . . 1496 
 League of Cambray against Venice .... 1508 
 Pope Julius II. forms the Holy League against 
 
 France 1511 
 
 English invasion — battle of Spurs . . 16 Aug. 1513 
 Interview on the Field of the Cloth of Gold between 
 
 Francis I. and Henry VIIL of England . . . 1520 
 Francis I. defeated and taken at Pavia . 24 Feb. 1525 
 
 Peace of Cambray 5 Aug. 1529 
 
 Persecution of protestauts begins .... 1530 
 Royal printing press established, 1531 ; Robert 
 
 Stephens prints his Latin Bible . . . . 1532 
 
 Brittany annexed to France ,, 
 
 League of England with the emperor Charles A". ; 
 
 Henry VIIL invades France 1544 
 
 Peace with England 7 June, 1546 
 
 Successful defence of Metz by the duke of Guise . 1552 
 
 He takes Calais (which see) 1558 
 
 Religious wars ; massacre of protestauts at Vassy, 
 
 1 March, 1562 
 Guise defeats the Huguenots at Dreux 19 Dec ,, 
 
 Guise killed at siege of Orleans, 18 Feb. ; temporary 
 
 peace of Amboise . . . -19 March, 1563 
 Huguenots defeated at St. Denis . . 10 Nov. 1567 
 At Janiac, 13 March ; at Moncontour . . 3 Oct. 1569 
 Massacre of St. Bartholomew . . -24 Aug. 1572 
 " Holy Catholic League " established . . . . 1576 
 Duke of Guise assassinated by king's order, 23 
 
 Dec. ; and his brother, the cardinal . 24 Dec. 1588 
 Henry III. stabbed by Jacques Clement, a friar, 1 
 
 Aug. ; died 2 Aug. 1589 
 
 Henry IV. defeats the league at Ivry 14 March, 1500 
 
 Henry IV. becomes a Roman Catholic 25 July, 1593 
 
 The league leaders submit to him . . Jan. 1596 
 He promulgates the edict of Nantes . 13 April, 1598 
 Silk and other manufactures introduced by him and 
 
 Sully " 1606-1610 
 
 Quebec in North America settled . . . . 1608 
 Murder of Henry IV. by Ravaillac . . 14 May, 1610 
 
 Regency of Mary de Medici 1610-14 
 
 The states-general meet and complain of the 
 
 management of the finances . . . 27 Oct. 1614 
 Rise of the Concinis, 1610 ; their fall and death . 1617 
 
 Navarre annexed to France 1620 
 
 Vigorous and successful administration of Richelieu, 
 
 begins with finance 1624 
 
 Etochelle taken after a long siege . . . .' 1628 
 
 '• Day of Dupes ;" Richelieu's energy defeats the 
 
 machinations of his enemies . . 11 Nov. 1630 
 
 Richelieu organises the Academic de France . 1634-5 
 
 His death (aged 58) 4 Dec. 1642 
 
 Accession of Louis XIV, aged four years (Anne of 
 
 Austria, regent) ...'.. 14 May. 1643 
 Administration of Mazarin ; victories of Turennc, 
 
 1643-6 
 Civil wars of the Fronde .... 1648, &c. 
 Heath of Mazarin, 9 March; Colbert financial 
 
 minister 1661 
 
 War with Holland, &c. 1672 
 
 Canal of Languedoc constructed . . . 1664-81 
 IVace of Nimegueii .... 10 Aug. 1678 
 
 Edict of Nantes revoked .... 22 Oct. 1685 
 Louis marries Madame de Maintenon . . . . ,, 
 War with William III. of England . . . 1689, &c. 
 Peace of Ryswiek 20 Sept. 1637 
 
FKANCE. 
 
 273 
 
 FKANCE. 
 
 War of the Spanish succession . . Sept. 1701 
 
 French defeated at Blenheim . . . 2 Aug. 1704 
 
 At Ramillies 23 May, 1706 
 
 Peace of Utrecht (which see) . . 11 April, 1713 
 Dissensions of Jesuits and Jansenists ; the bull 
 
 Unigenitus Sept. ,, 
 
 Accession of Louis XV. ; stormy regency of the duke 
 
 of Orleans 1 Sept. 1715, &c. 
 
 Law's babble in France (see Law) . . . . 1716 
 French defeated at Dettingen . . . 16 June, 1743 
 Successful campaign of marshal Saxe . . . . 1746 
 Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle . . . . 18 Oct, 1748 
 Seven years' war begun .... May, 1756 
 Damiens' attempt oil life of Louis XV. . 5 Jan. 1757 
 Canada lost — battle of Quebec . . 13 Sept. 1759 
 The Jesuits banished from France, and their effects 
 
 confiscated 1762 
 
 Peace of Paris ; Canada ceded to England, 10 Feb. j 763 
 Louis XV. enslaved by madame du Barry . . . 1769 
 
 Death of Louis XV. 10 May, 1774 
 
 Famine riots at Versailles .... May, 1775 
 The minister Turgot dismissed . . May, 1776 
 
 Ministry of Necker ' Nov ,, 
 
 Louis XVI. assists America to throw off its epen- 
 
 dence on England, at first secretly . . . . 1778 
 Torture abolished in French judicature . . . 1780 
 Peace of Versailles with England . . 3 Sept. 1783 
 The diamond-necklace affair (which see) . . . 17S5 
 Meeting of the assembly of notables, 22 Feb. 1787 ; 
 
 again ....'.... 6 Nov. 1788 
 Opening of states general (308 ecclesiastics, 285 
 
 nobles; 621 deputies, tiers etat) . 5 May, 1789 
 
 The tiers etat constitute themselves the National 
 
 Assembly 17 June, ,, 
 
 The French revolution commences with the de- 
 struction of the Bastille ('iu7iic7i, see) . 14 July, ,, 
 The National Assembly decrees that the title of the 
 " king of France " shall be changed to that of the 
 " king of the French " .... 16 Oct. ,, 
 The property of the clergy confiscated . 2 Nov. ,, 
 
 Emigration of nobles .... Oct. -Dec. ,, 
 Confederation of the Chaiwp de Mars; France de- 
 clared a limited monarchy ; Louis XVI. swears 
 to maintain the constitution . . 14 July, 1790 
 The silver plate used in the churches transferred to 
 
 the mint and coined ... 3 March, 1791 
 
 Death of Mirabeau .... 2 April, „ 
 
 The king, queen, and royal family arrested at 
 
 Varennes, in their flight . . . .21 June, ,, 
 Louis (a prisoner) sanctions the National Constitu- 
 tion 15 Sept. ,, 
 
 War declared against the emperor . 20 April, 1792 
 The Jacobin club declare their sittings permanent, 
 
 18 June, „ 
 The multitude, hearing the red bonnet of liberty, 
 march to the Tuileries to make demands on the 
 
 king 20 June, ,, 
 
 First coalition against France ; commencement of 
 the great French war .... June, ,, 
 [See Battles, 1792 to 1815.] 
 The royal Swiss guards cut to pieces ; massacre of 
 
 5000 persons 10 Aug. ,, 
 
 Revolutionary tribunal set up . . . 19 Aug. ,, 
 Decree of the National Assembly against the priests ; 
 
 40,000 exiled ..... 26 Aug. ,, 
 Massacre in Paris ; the prisons broken open, and 
 
 1200 persons (100 priests) slain . 2-5 Sept. ,, 
 Murder of the princess de Lamballe . 3 Sept. „ 
 The National Convention opened . 17 Sept. „ 
 Convention establishes a republic, 20 Sept. ; pro- 
 claimed 22 Sept. ,, 
 
 Duke of Brunswick defeated at Valmy, 20 Sept. „ 
 The French people declare their fraternity with 
 all nations who desire to be free, and offer help, 
 
 19 Nov. ,, 
 
 Flanders conquered Dec. ,, 
 
 Decree for the perpetual banishment of the Bourbon 
 
 family, those confined in the Temple excepted, 
 
 20 Dec. ,, 
 Louis imprisoned in the Temple distinct from the 
 
 queen, and brought to trial, 19 Jan. ; condemned 
 to death, 20 Jan. ; beheaded in the Place de Louis 
 
 Quinze .21 Jan. 1793 
 
 Committee of public safety established, 21 Jan. ,, 
 War with England and Holland declared, 1 Feb. ,, 
 
 War in La Vendee March, ,, 
 
 Reign of terror — proscription of Girondists, 31 
 May ; establishment of convention, 23 June, ,, 
 
 Marat stabbed by Charlotte Corday . 13 July, 1793 
 The queen beheaded .... 16 Oct. ,, 
 
 Execution of the Girondists . . . 31 Oct. ,, 
 
 Philip Egalite, duke of Orleans, who had voted for 
 the king's death, guillotined at Paris (see Orleans), 
 6 Nov. ; and madame Roland . . 8 Nov. ,, 
 Worship of goddess of reason . . 10 Nov. ,, 
 Adoption of new republican calendar . 24 Nov. ,, 
 Execution of Danton and others, 5 April ; of madame 
 
 Elizabeth 12 May, 1794 
 
 Robespierre president, 4 June ; he and 71 others 
 
 guillotined 28 July, ,, 
 
 Peace with Prussia 5 April, 1795 
 
 Insurrection of the Faubourgs . . 20, 21 May, ,, 
 Louis XVII. dies in prison ... 8 June, ,, 
 French directory chosen . . . .1 Nov. ,, 
 
 Bonaparte's successful campaigns in Italy, 1796, <&«. 
 Babeuf's conspiracy suppressed . .12 May, ,, 
 Pichegru's conspiracy fails . . . May, 1797 
 
 Expedition to Syria and Egypt (which see), July, 1798 
 European coalition against France . . April, 1799 
 Council o iFive Hundred deposed by Bonaparte, 
 
 who is declared First Consul . . 10 Nov. ,, 
 He defeats the Austrians at Marengo . 14 June, 1800 
 His life attempted by the infernal machine, 24 Dec. ,, 
 Peace of Amiens (with England, Spain, and Hol- 
 land) signed .... 25-27 March, 1802 
 
 Amnesty to the emigrants . . . April, ,, 
 Legion of Honour instituted . . . 19 May, ,, 
 Bonaparte made consul for life . . 2 Aug. ,, 
 The bank of Fiance established . . 14 April, 1803 
 Declaration of war against England . 22 May, ,, 
 Conspiracy of Moreau and Pichegru against Bona- 
 parte, 15 Feb. ; the latter found strangled in prison 
 (see Georges) . . ... . 6 April, 1804 
 
 Due d'Enghien executed . . . .21 March, ,, 
 
 France made an empire ; Napoleon proclaimed em- 
 peror, 18 May ; crowned by the pope, 2 Dec. ,, 
 He is crowned king of Italy . . .26 May, 1805 
 Another coalition against France . . . Aug. ,, 
 Napoleon defeats the allies at Austerlitz, 2 Dec. ,, 
 And the Prussians at Jena . . .14 Oct. 1806 
 
 And the Russians at Eylau ... 8 Feb. 1807 
 His interview with the czar at Tilsit, 26 June ; peace 
 
 signed 7 July, ,, 
 
 His Milan decree against British commerce, 
 
 17 Dee. ,, 
 New nobility of France created . . 1 March, 1808 
 Abdication of Charles IV. of Spain and his son, in 
 favour of Napoleon, 5 May ; insurrection in Spain, 
 
 27 May, ,, 
 Commencement of the Peninsular war (see Spain), 
 
 July, ,, 
 Alliance of England and Austria against France, 
 
 April, 1809 
 Victories in Austria; Napoleon enters Vienna, May, ,, 
 
 Peace of Vienna 14 Oct. ,, 
 
 Divorce of the emperor and empress Josephine 
 
 decreed by the senate .... 16 Dec. ,, 
 Marriage of Napoleon to Maria Louisa of Austria, 
 
 1 April, 1810 
 Holland united to France ... 9 July, „ 
 Birth of the king of Rome (now styled Napoleon II. ), 
 
 20 March, 1811 
 War with Russia declared . . . 22 June, 1812 
 
 Victory at Borodino 7 Sept. ,, 
 
 Disastrous retreat ; French army nearly destroyed, 
 
 Oct. „ 
 Alliance of Austria, Russia, and Prussia against 
 
 France March, 1813 
 
 The British enter France . . . .7 Oct. ,, 
 Surrender of Paris to the allies . . 31 March, 1814 
 Abdication of Napoleon negotiated . 5 April, ,, 
 Bourbon dynasty restored, and Louis XVIII. arrives 
 
 in Paris 3 May, ,, 
 
 Napoleon arrives at Elba . . . . 4 May, ,, 
 The Constitutional Charter decreed . 4-10 June, „ 
 Quits Elba, and lands at Cannes . 1 March, 1815 
 
 Arrives at Fontainebleau (the 100 days), 20 March, „ 
 Joined by all the army ... 22 March, „ 
 The allies sign a treaty against him . March, ,, 
 He abolishes the slave trade . . 29 March, ,, 
 Leaves Paris for the army . . .12 June, ,, 
 Defeated at Waterloo . . . .18 June, „ 
 
 Returns to Paris, 20 June ; abdicates in favour of 
 
 his infant son 22 June, ,, 
 
 Intending to embark for America, he arrives at 
 Rochefort . .... 3 July, „ 
 
 T 
 
FRANCE. 
 
 274 
 
 X'RAiX CE. 
 
 Louis XVIII. enters Paris . . . .3 July, 1815 
 Napoleon surrenders to capt. Maitland, of the 
 
 BelUrophon, at Rochefort . . -15 July, ,, 
 Transferred at Torbay to the Northumberland, ami 
 with admiral sir George Cockburn sails for St. 
 
 Helena 8 Aug. ,, 
 
 Arrives at St. Helena to remain for life, 15 Oct. ,, 
 Execution of marshal Ney . . . 7 Dec. ,, 
 The family of Bonaparte excluded for ever from 
 
 France by the law of amnesty . . 12 Jan. 1816 
 Duke of Berry murdered ... 13 Feb. 1820 
 Death of Napoleon I. (see Wills) . . 5 May, 1821 
 Louis XVIII. dies ; Charles X. king . 16 Sept. 1824 
 National Guard disbanded . . .30 April, 1827 
 War with Algiers ; dey's fleet defeated . 4 Nov. ,, 
 Seventy-six new peers created . . 5 Nov. „ 
 Election riots at Paris ; barricades ; several per- 
 sons killed 19-20 Nov. ,, 
 
 The Villele ministry replaced by the Martignac, 
 
 4 Jan. 1828 
 Beranger imprisoned for political songs, 10 Dec. ,, 
 Polignac administration formed . . 8 Aug. 1829 
 Chamber of deputies dissolved . . 16 May, 1830 
 Algiers taken ...... 5 July, ,, 
 
 The obnoxious ordinances regarding the press, 
 and reconstruction of the chamber of deputies, 
 
 26 July, ,, 
 Revolution commences with barricades, 27 July, „ 
 Conflicts in Paris between the populace (ulti- 
 mately aided by the national guard) and the army, 
 
 28-30 July, ,, 
 Charles X. retires to Rambouillet ; flight of his 
 
 ministry, 31 July ; he abdicates . . 2 Aug. ,, 
 The duke of Orleans accepts the crown as Louis- 
 Philippe 1 7 Aug. „ 
 
 The constitutional charter of July published, 
 
 14 Aug. ,, 
 Charles X. retires to England . . 17 Aug. ,, 
 Polignac and other ministers tried and sentenced to 
 
 perpetual imprisonment . 21 Dec. ,, 
 
 The abolition of the hereditary peerage decreed 
 by both chambers ; the peers (36 new peers being 
 created) concurring by a majority of 103 to 70, 
 
 27 Dec. 1831 
 The A. B. C. (abaisses) insurrection in Paris sup- 
 pressed 5-6 June, 1832 
 
 Charles X. leaves Holyrood-house for the conti- 
 nent 18 Sept. ,, 
 
 Ministry of Soult, duke of Dalmatia . . n Oct. ,, 
 Bergeroii and Benoit tried for an attempt on the 
 
 life of Louis-Philippe ; acquitted . 18 March, 1833 
 The duchess of Berry, who has been delivered of a 
 female child, and asserts her secret marriage 
 with an Italian nobleman, sent to Palermo, 
 
 9 June, ,, 
 Death of La Fayette .... 20 May, 1834 
 Marshal Gerard takes office . . .15 July, ,, 
 
 M. Dupuytren dies 8 Feb, 1835 
 
 Due de Broglie, minister .... Feb. ,, 
 Fieschi attempts the king's life . . 28 July, ,, 
 [He fired an infernal machine as the king and his 
 sons rode along the lines of the national guard, 
 on the Boulevard du Temple. The machine 
 consisted of twenty-five barrels, charged -with 
 various missiles, and lighted simultaneously by a 
 train of gunpowder. The king and his sons es- 
 caped ; but marshal Mortier, duke of Treviso, 
 was shot dead, many officers dangerously 
 wounded, and upwards of forty persons killed 
 or injured. ] 
 
 Fieschi executed 19 Feb. 1836 
 
 Louis Alibaud fires at the king on his way from the 
 
 Tuileries, 25 June ; guillotined . . 11 July, ,, 
 Ministry of count Mole, vice M. Thiers . 6 Sept. ,, 
 
 Death of Charles X 6 Nov. ,, 
 
 Attempted insurrection at Strasburg by Louis 
 Napoleon (afterwards emperor), 29-30 Oct. ; he is 
 
 sent to America 13 Nov. „ 
 
 Prince Polignac and others set at liberty from Ham, 
 
 and sent out of France . . . .23 Nov. ,, 
 Meunier fires at the king on his way to open the 
 
 French Chambers .... 27 Dec. ,, 
 Amnesty for political offences ... 8 May, 1837 
 "Idees Napoleoniennes," by prince Louis Napo- 
 leon, published 1838 
 
 Talleyrand dies 20 May, „ 
 
 Marshal SouLt at the coronation of the queen of 
 England 28 June, ,, 
 
 Birth of the count of Paris . . . 24 Aug. 1838 
 Death of the duchess of Wurtemberg (daughter of 
 
 Louis Philippe), a good sculptor . . 2 Jan. 1839 
 Insurrection of Barbes and Blanqui at Paris, 
 
 12 May, ,, 
 M. Thiers, minister of foreign affairs . 1 March, 1840 
 The chambers decree the removal of Napoleon's re- 
 mains from St. Helena to France . . 12 May, ,, 
 [By the permission of the British government these 
 were taken from the tomb at St. Helena (15 Oct 
 1840), and embarked on the next day on board 
 the Belle Poule French frigate, under the com- 
 mand of the prince de Joiuvillc ; the vessel 
 reached Cherbourg on 30 November : and on 15 
 December the body was deposited in the Hotel 
 des Invalides. The ceremony was witnessed by 
 1,000,000 of persons ; 150,000 soldiers assisted in 
 the obsequies : and the royal family and all the 
 high personages of the realm were present; all 
 the relatives of the emperor were absent, being 
 proscribed, and in exile or in prison. The body 
 was finally placed in its crypt on 31 March, 1861.] 
 Descent of prince Louis Napoleon, general Montho- 
 lon, and 50 followers, at Vimereux, near Bou- 
 logne, 6 Aug. ; the prince sentenced to imprison- 
 ment for life 6 Oct. ,, 
 
 Darmes fires at the king ... 15 Oct. ,, 
 
 M. Guizot, minister of foreign affairs . 20 Oct. „ 
 Project of law for an extraordinary credit oi 140,000,000 
 of francs, for erecting the fortifications of Paris, 
 
 15 Dec. „ 
 The duration of copyright to 30 years after the 
 
 author's death, fixed . . . .30 March, 1841 
 Bronze statue of Napoleon placed on the column 
 
 of the grande armee, Boulogne . . 15 Aug. „ 
 Attempt to assassinate the duke of Aumale (king's 
 
 son) on return from Africa . . 13 Sept. ,, 
 
 The duke of Orleans, heir to thethroDe, killed by a 
 
 fall from his carriage . . . -13 July, 1842 
 The queen of England visits the royal family at 
 
 Chateau d'Eu 2 to 7 Sept. 1843 
 
 An extradition treaty with England signed . . ,, 
 War with Morocco, May ; peace . . 10 Sept. 1844 
 Attempt of Lecompte to assassinate the king at 
 
 Fontainebleau 16 April, 1846 
 
 Louis Napoleon escapes from Ham . 25 May, „ 
 The seventh attempt on the iife of the king : by 
 
 Joseph Henri 29 July, „ 
 
 Spanish marriages : marriage of the queen of Spain 
 with her cousin, and of the due de Montpensier 
 with the infanta of Spain ... 10 Oct. ,, 
 Disastrous inundations in the south . . 18 Oct. „ 
 The Praslin murder (see Praslin) . . 18 Aug. 1847 
 Death of marshal Oudinot (duke of Reggio) at Paris, 
 in his 91st year, 13 Sept. ; Soult made general of 
 France, in his room . . .26 Sept. „ 
 
 Jerome Bonaparte returns to France after an exile 
 
 of 32 years 10 Oct. „ 
 
 Surrender of Abd-el-Kader . . . 23 Dec. ,, 
 Death of the ex-empress, Maria Louisa, 18 Dec. ; 
 
 and of madame Adelaide - . . .30 Dec. ,, 
 The grand reform banquet at Paris prohibited, 
 
 21 Feb. 1848 
 Revolutionary tumult in consequence ; impeach- 
 ment and resignation of Guizot, 22 Feb. ; barri- 
 cades thrown up, the Tuileries ransacked, the 
 prisons opened, and frightful disorders committed, 
 
 23-24 Feb. . „ 
 Louis Philippe abdicates in favour of his infant 
 grandson, the comte de Paris, who is not ac- 
 cepted ; the royal family and ministers escape, 
 
 24 Feb. „ 
 A republic proclaimed from the steps of the Hotel 
 
 de Ville 26 Feb. ,, 
 
 The ex-king and queen arrive at Newhaven in Eng- 
 land 3 March, „ 
 
 Grand funeral procession in honour of the" victims 
 
 of the revolution 4 March, „ 
 
 The provisional government resigns to an executive 
 commission, elected by the Nationa lAssembly of 
 the French Republic . . . .7 May, ,, 
 
 [The members of this new government were : MM. 
 Dupont de l'Eure, Arago, Garnier-Pages, Marie, 
 Lamartine, Ledru-Rollin, and Cremieux. The 
 secretaries : Louis Blanc, Albeit. Flocon. and 
 Marrast.] 
 The people's attack on the assembly suppressed, 
 
 " 15 May, „ 
 
FEANCE. 
 
 275 
 
 FEANCE. 
 
 Perpetual banishment of Louis-Philippe and his 
 
 family decreed 26 May, 1848 
 
 Election of Louis Napoleon (to the National As- 
 sembly) for the department of the Seine and three 
 other departments . . . -13 June, ,, 
 
 Rise of the red Republicans : war against the troops 
 and national guard ; more than 300 barricades 
 thrown up, and firing continues in all parts of 
 Paris during the night ... 23 June, „ 
 The troops under Cavaignac and Lamoriciere, with 
 immense loss, drive the insurgents from the left 
 
 bank of the Seine 24 June, „ 
 
 Paris declared in a state of siege . . 25 June, ,, 
 The Faubourg du Temple carried with cannon, and 
 
 the insurgents surrender . . . • 26 June, „ 
 [The national losses caused by this outbreak esti- 
 mated at 30,000,000 francs ; 16,000 persons killed 
 and wounded, and 8000 prisoners weretaken. The 
 archbishop of Paris was killed while tending the 
 dying, 26 June.] 
 Cavaignac, president of the council . . 28 June, 
 Louis Napoleon takes his seat in the National As- 
 sembly 26 Sept. 
 
 Paris relieved from a state of siege, which had con- 
 tinued four months .... 20 Oct. 
 Solemn promulgation of the constitution of 4 Nov. , 
 in front of the Tuileries . . . . 12 Nov. 
 Louis Napoleon elected president of the French 
 republic, 11 Dec. ; proclaimed . . 20 Dec. 
 ,[He had 5,587,759 votes ; Cavaignac, 1,474,687 ; Le- 
 dru-Rollin, 381,026 ; Raspail, 37,121 ; Lamartine, 
 21,032 ; and Changarnier, 4,975.] 
 Military demonstration to stifle an anticipated in- 
 surrection of the reds .... 29 Jan. 1849 
 Death of king Louis-Philippe, at Claremont, in 
 
 England 26 Aug. 1850 
 
 Liberty of the press restricted . . 26 Sept. „ 
 Gen. Changarnier deprived of the command of the 
 
 national guard 10 Jan. 1851 
 
 Death of the duchess of Angouleme, daughter of 
 
 Louis XVI. , at Frohsdorf. . . . 19 Oct. ,, 
 
 Death of marshal Soult .... 26 Oct. „ 
 Electric telegraph between England and France 
 
 opened 13 Nov. ,, 
 
 Coup d'etat; legislative assembly dissolved ; universal 
 suffrage established, and Paris declared in a state 
 of siege ; the election of a president for ten years 
 proposed, and a second chamber or senate, 2 Dee. „ 
 MM. Thiers, Changarnier, Cavaignac, Bedeau, La- 
 moriciere, and Charres arrested, and sent to the 
 castle of Vincennes .... 2 Dec. ,, 
 About 180 members of the assembly, with M. Ber- 
 ryer at their head, attempting to meet, are ar- 
 rested, and Paris is occupied by troops 2 Dec. „ 
 Sanguinary conflicts in Paris ; the troops victorious, 
 
 3-4 Dec. ,, 
 Consultative commission founded . . 12 Dec. „ 
 Toting throughout France for the election of a 
 president of the republic for ten years ; affirmative 
 votes 7,473,431, negative votes 641,351 21-22 Dec. ,, 
 Installation of the prince-president in the cathe- 
 dral of Notre Dame ; the day observed as a 
 national holiday at Paris, and Louis Napoleon 
 takes up his residence at the Tuileries, 1 Jan. 1852 
 Generals Changarnier, Lamoriciere, and others, 
 conducted to the Belgian frontier . . 9 Jan. 
 S3 members of the legislative assembly banished ; 
 575 persons arrested for resistance to the coup 
 d'etat of 2 Dec. , and conveyed to Havre for trans- 
 portation to Cayenne .... 10 Jan. „ 
 [The inscription "Liberty, Fraternity, Equality," 
 ordered to be forthwith erased throughout France, 
 and the old names of streets, public buildings, 
 and places of resort to be restored. The trees of 
 liberty are everywhere hewn down and burnt.] 
 The national guard disbanded, reorganised anew, 
 and placed under the control of the executive ; 
 the president appointing the officers . 10 Jan. „ 
 A new constitution published . . 14 Jan. „ 
 
 Decree obliging the Orleans family to sell all their 
 real and personal property in France within a 
 
 year 22 Jan. „ 
 
 Second decree, annulling the settlement made by 
 Louis-Philippe upon his family previous to his 
 accession in 1830, and annexing the property to 
 the domain of the state . . . .22 Jan. 
 The birthday of Napoleon I. (15 Aug.) decreed to be 
 the only national holiday . . -17 Feb. 
 
 The departments of France released from a state of 
 
 siege 27 March, 1852 
 
 Legislative chambers installed . . 29 March, „ 
 A crystal palace authorised to be erected in the 
 
 Champs Elysees at Paris . . .30 March, ,, 
 Plot to assassinate the prince-president discovered 
 
 at Paris 1 July, ,, 
 
 President's visit to Strasburg . . 19 July, ,, 
 M. Thiers and others permitted to return to France, 
 
 8 Aug. „ 
 The French senate prays " the re-establishment of 
 the hereditary sovereign power in the Bonaparte 
 family "....'.. 13 Sept. „ 
 Enthusiastic reception of the prince-president at 
 
 Lyons IQ Sept. „ 
 
 Infernal machine, to destroy the prince-president, 
 
 seized at Marseilles .... 23 Sept. „ 
 Prince-president visits Toulon, 27 Sept. ; and Bor- 
 deaux, where he says "the empire is peace" 
 (JJEmpire c'est la paix) .... 7 Oct. „ 
 He releases Abd-el-Kader (see Algiers) . 16 Oct. „ 1 
 He convokes the senate for November to deliberate 
 on a change of government, when a senatus consul- 
 turn will be proposed for the ratification of the 
 
 French people ig Oct. „ 
 
 Protest of comte de Chambord . . . 25 Oct. „ 
 In his message to the senate, the prince-president 
 announces the contemplated restoration of the 
 empire, and orders the people to be consulted 
 
 upon this change 4 Nov. 
 
 Votes for the empire, 7,824,189 ; noes, 253,145 ; 
 
 null, 63,326 21 Nov. „ 
 
 The prince-president declared emperor ; assumes 
 
 the title of Napoleon III. ... 2 Dec. „ 
 His marriage with Eugenie de Montijo, countess of 
 
 Teba, at Notre-Dame .... 29 Jan. 1853 
 4312 political offenders pardoned . . .2 Feb. ,, 
 
 Bread riots Sept. ,, 
 
 Military camp at Satory, near Paris . . Sept. ,, 
 Emperor and empress visit the provinces (many 
 
 political prisoners discharged) . . . Oct. ,, 
 Francis Arago, astronomer, &c. , died . . 2 Oct. ,, 
 Attempted assassination of the emperor ; ten per- 
 sons transported for life .... Nov. ,, 
 Reconciliation of the two branches of the Bourbons 
 
 at Frohsdorf 20 Nov. „ 
 
 Marshal Ney's statue inaugurated exactly 38 years 
 
 after his death on the spot where it occurred, 7 Dec. ,, 
 War declared against Russia (see Russo-Turkish War) 
 
 27 March, 1854 
 Visit of prince Albert at Boulogne . 5 Sept. ,, 
 Death of marshal St. Arnaud . . . 29 Sept. ,, 
 Emperor and empress visit London, 16-21 April, 1855 
 Industrial exhibition at Paris opened . 15 May, „ 
 Attempted assassination of the emperor by Pianori, 
 
 28 April ; by Bellemarre .... 8 Sept. ,, 
 Queen Victoria and prince Albert visit France, 
 
 18-27 Aug. ,, 
 
 Death of count Mole 24 Nov. „ 
 
 Birth of the imperial prince ; amnesty granted to 
 
 1000 political prisoners ... 16 March, 185 
 Peace with Russia signed . . 30 March, „ 
 
 Awful inundation in the south . . . June, ,, 
 [Subscriptions in London to relieve the sufferers 
 amounted to 43,000k Sir Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy, 
 of Bombay, gave 500k for the same purpose.] 
 Distress in money market . . . . 6 Oct. „ 
 Sibour, archbishop of Paris, assassinated by Verger, 
 
 a priest 3 Jan. 1857 
 
 Elections (3,000,000 voters to elect 257 deputies) : 
 gen. Cavaignac elected deputy, but declines to 
 
 take the oath 21, 22 June, ,, 
 
 Conspiracy to assassinate the emperor in Paris de- 
 tected n July, „ 
 
 Death of Beranger, popular poet . . 16 July, ,, 
 Longwood, the residence of Napoleon I. at St. 
 
 Helena, bought for 180,000 francs . . . . ,, 
 The conspirators Grilli, Bartolotti, and Tibaldi, 
 tried, convicted, and sentenced to transportation, 
 
 &c 6, 7 Aug. „ 
 
 Emperor and empress visit England . 6-10 Aug. ,, 
 The emperor meets the emperor of Russia at Stut- 
 
 gardt 25 Sept. „ 
 
 Death of Eugene Cavaignac (aged 55) . 28 Oct. ,, 
 Death of Mdlle. Rachel (aged 38) . . 4 Jan. 1858 
 Attempted assassination of the emperor by Orsini, 
 Pieri, Budio, Gomez, &c. , by the explosion of three 
 shells (two persons killed, many wounded). 14 Jan. „ 
 
 x 2 
 
FRANCE. 
 
 276 
 
 FKANCE. 
 
 [Felix Orsini, a man of talent and energy, earnest to 
 obtain Italian independence, was bom Deo. 1819 ; 
 studied at Bologna in 1837 ; joined a secret society 
 in 1843 ; was arrested and condemned to the gal- 
 leys for life in 1844 ; was released in 1846 ; took 
 part in the Roman revolution in 1848, when lie 
 was elected a member of the assembly ; and on the 
 fall of the republic, fled to Genoa in 1849, and 
 (.uiie to England in 1853. Entering into fresh 
 conspiracies, lie was arrested in Hungary, Jan. 
 1855, and sent to Mantua ; he escaped thence and 
 came to England in 1856, where he associated 
 with Kossuth, Mazzini, be. ; delivered lectures, 
 and where he devised the plot for which he suf- 
 fered. In his will he acknowledged the justice of 
 his sentence.] 
 
 Public safetv bill passed — bold protest against it by 
 Ollivier 18 Feb. 
 
 France divided into five military departments ; 
 aeneral Espinasse becomes minister of the interior, 
 
 Feb. 
 
 " Napoleon III. et VAngleterre " published 11 Mar. 
 
 Intemperate speeches in France against England — 
 misconceptions between the two countries par- 
 tially removed in March, 
 
 Republican outbreak at Chalons suppressed 
 
 9 March, 
 
 Orsini and Pieri executed . . .13 March, 
 
 Simon Bernard, tried in London as their accomplice, 
 acquitted 12-17 April, 
 
 Marshal Pelissier, ambassador to London 15 April, 
 
 Espinasse retires from ministry of the interior [he 
 was killed at the battle of Magenta, 4 June, 1859] 
 
 June, 
 
 Queen of England meets the emperor ; visits Cher- 
 bourg 4, 5 Aug. 
 
 Conference at Paris respecting the Danubian prin- 
 cipalities closes 19 Aug. 
 
 Dispute with Portugal respecting the Charles et 
 Georges {which see) settled ... 23 Oct. 
 
 Trial of comte de Moutalembert . . 25 Nov. 
 
 [In Oct. 1858, the comte published a pamphlet en- 
 titled " Un Debat sur I'liide," eulogising English 
 institutions and depreciating those of France. 
 He was sentenced to six months' imprisonment 
 and a fine of 3000 francs, but was pardoned by the 
 emperor. 2 Dec. The comte appealed against the 
 sentence of the court, and was again condemned ; 
 but acquitted of a part of the charge. The sen- 
 tence was once more remitted by the emperor 
 (21 Dec). In Oct. 1859, the comte published a 
 pamphlet entitled " Pie IX. et la France en 1849 
 et 1859," in which England is severely censured 
 for opposition to popery.] 
 
 Emperor's address to the Austrian ambassador (see 
 Austria) 1 Jan. 
 
 Marriage of prince Napoleon to princess Clotilde of 
 Savoy 30 Jan. 
 
 Publication of " Napoleon III. et 'Italia" . Feb. 
 
 Ou the Austrians invading Sardinian territories, 
 France declares war, and the French enter ; the 
 empress appointed regent ; the emperor arrives at 
 Genoa 12 May, 
 
 Loan of 20,000,000 francs raised . . 21 May, 
 
 Victories of the allies (French and Sardinians) at 
 Montebello, 20 May ; Palestro, 30, 31 May ; Ma- 
 genta, 4 June ; Melegnano (Marignano), 8 June ; 
 Napoleon enters Milan, 8 June ; victory of allies 
 at Solierino 24 June, 
 
 Armistice agreed on 6 July, 
 
 Meeting of emperors of France and Austria at Villa 
 Franca 11 July, 
 
 Peace agreed on .... 12 July, 
 
 Louis Napoleon returns to Paris 17 July, 
 
 he emperor addresses the senate, 19 July ; and the 
 diplomatic body 21 July, 
 
 Reduction of the army and navy ordered . Aug. 
 
 Conference of Austrian and French envoys at Zurich 
 (aee Zurich) 8 Aug. -Nov. 
 
 Amnesty to political offenders . 17-18 Aug. 
 
 Violent attacks of the French press on England re- 
 pressed Nov. 
 
 " Le Pape et 1c Congres " published ; 50,000 sold in a 
 few days . Dec. 
 
 Count Walewski. the foreign minister, resigns ; 
 M. Thouvenel succeeds him . . Jan. 
 
 The emperor announces a free trade policy ; Mr. 
 Cobden at Paris 5 Jan. 
 
 1859 
 
 Commercial treaty with England signed . 23 Jan. i860 
 LUnivers suppressed for publishing the pope'sletter 
 
 to the emperor 29 Jan. ,, 
 
 Treaty for the annexation of Savoy and Nice signed 
 
 24 March, ,, 
 The press censured for attacking England, 7 April, ,, 
 The emperor meets the German sovereigns at Baden 
 
 15-17 June, ,, 
 Jerome Bonaparte, the emperor's uncle, dies 
 
 (aged 76) 24 June, 
 
 The emperor, in a letter to count Persigny, dis- 
 claims hostility to England . . .25 July, ,, 
 The emperor and empress visit Savoy, Corsica, ami 
 Algiers 1-17 Sept. ,, 
 
 New tariff comes into operation . . . 1 Oct. ,, 
 
 Public levying of Peter's pence forbidden, and free 
 issue of pastoral letters checked . . . Nov. ,, 
 
 The empress visits London, Edinburgh, Glasgow, 
 &c, privately Nov.-Dec. ,, 
 
 Important ministerial changes ; greater liberty of 
 speech granted to the chambers ; two sets of 
 ministers appointed — speakers and administra- 
 ' tors ; Pelissier made governor of Algeria ; Per- 
 signy, minister o ithe interior ; Flahault, English 
 ambassador Nov. & Dec. ,, 
 
 Passports for Englishmen to cease after 1 Jan. 1861 
 
 16 Dec. ,, 
 
 Six bishoprics vacant Dec. ,, 
 
 Persigny relaxes the bondage of the press, Dec. 11 ; 
 [but for a short time] .... 20 Dec. ,, 
 
 Tlir emperor advises the pope to surrender his re- 
 volted provinces . . . -31 Dec ,, 
 
 " Borne et les Eveques" published. . . 6 Jan. 1861 
 
 Jerome (son of Jerome Bonaparte and Elizabeth 
 Paterson, an American lady) claims his legitimate 
 rights ; non-suited after a trial 25 Jan. -15 Fell. ,. 
 
 [The marriage took place in America, on 24 Dec. 
 1803 ; but was annulled, and Jerome married the 
 princess Catherine of Wurtemberg, 12 Aug. 1807 ; 
 their children are the prince Napoleon and the 
 princess Mathilde (see Bonaparte).] 
 
 Purchase of the principality of Monaco for 4,000,000 
 francs, Feb. 2 ; announced ... 5 Feb. ,, 
 
 Meeting of French chambers, 4 Feb. ; stormy de- 
 bates in the chambers . . Feb. & March, ,, 
 
 " La France, Rorae, etl 'Italia " published 15 Feb. „ 
 
 Angry reply to it by the bishop of Poitiers, who 
 compares the emperor to Pilate . . 27 Feb. „ 
 
 Failure of Mires, a railway banker and loan con- 
 tractor, &c. ; he is arrested . . .17 Feb. „ 
 
 Many influential persons suspected of participating 
 in his frauds; the government promise strict 
 justice Feb. & March, ,, 
 
 Eugene Scribe, dramatist, dies (aged 80) 20 Feb. ,, 
 
 Speech of prince Napoleon in favour of Italian 
 unity, the English alliance, and against the pope's 
 temporal government . . . 1 March, ,, 
 
 Strong advocacy of the temporal government of the 
 pope in the chambers ; the French army stated to 
 consist of 687,000 men . . . March, 
 
 Circular forbiddingthe priests to meddle with politics 
 
 11 April, ,, 
 
 Liberal commercial treaty with Belgium . 1 May", ,, 
 
 Publication in Paris of the due d'Aumale's severe 
 letter to prince Napoleon, 13 April. Printer and 
 publisher fined and imprisoned . . . May, ,, 
 
 Declaration of neutrality in the American conflict 
 
 11 June, ,, 
 
 Official recognition of kingdom of Italy . 24 June, ,, 
 
 Visit cf king of Sweden 6 Aug. ,, 
 
 Conflict between French and Swiss soldiers at Ville- 
 la-Grande 18 Aug. ,, 
 
 Mires, the speculator, sentenced to five years' im- 
 prisonment 29 Aug. ,, 
 
 Pamphlet " La France, Rome, et V Italic" appears 
 
 Sept. „ 
 
 Commercial treaty between France, Great Britain, 
 and Belgium comes into operation . 1 Oct. ,, 
 
 Meeting of emperor and king of Prussia at Com- 
 piegne, 6 Oct. ; and king of Holland . 12 Oct. ,, 
 
 French troops enter the valley of Dappes (Switzer- 
 land) to prevent an arrest . . . 27 Oct. ,, 
 
 Convention between France, Great Britain, and 
 Spain, respecting intervention in Mexico, signed „ 
 (see Mexico) 31 Oct. „ 
 
 Embarrassment in the government finances ; Achille 
 Fould becomes finance minister, 14 Nov. ; with 
 enlarged powers 12 Dec. „ 
 
FEANCE. 
 
 277 
 
 FEANCE. 
 
 The emperor reminds the clergy of their duty " to- 
 wards Csesar " i Jan. 
 
 French army lands at Vera Cruz . . .7 Jan. 
 
 The French masters of the province of Bienhoa, in 
 Annam ■ 20 Jan. 
 
 Fruitless meeting of French and Swiss commis- 
 sioners respecting the Ville-la-Grande conflict 
 
 3 Feb. 
 
 Fould announces his finance scheme (reduction of 
 4^ per cent, stock to 3 per cent., and additional 
 taxes and stamp duties) ... 24 Feb. 
 
 Fierce debate in the legislative chamber, in which 
 prince Napoleon takes part . . .27 Feb. 
 
 French victories in Cochin-China (6 provinces ceded 
 to France) 28 March, 
 
 The Spanish and British plenipotentiaries decide to 
 quit Mexico ; the French declare war against the 
 Mexican government (for the events see Mexico) 
 
 16 April, 
 
 Sentence against Mires examined and reversed at 
 Douai ; he is released . . . .21 April, 
 
 Treaty of peace between France and Annam signed 
 
 3 June, 
 
 Duke Pasquier dies (aged 96) . . 5 July, 
 
 New commercial treaty with Prussia . 2 Aug. 
 
 Newspaper La France, opposed to Italian unity, set 
 up by Lagueronniere Aug. 
 
 Ship Prince Jerome, with reinforcements for Mexico, 
 burnt near Gibraltar ; crew saved . . Aug. 
 
 Camp at Chalons formed on account of Garibaldi's 
 movements in Sicily ; broken, when he is taken 
 prisoner 29 Aug. 
 
 Great sympathy for him in France . . Sept. 
 
 Treaty of commerce with Madagascar . 12 Sept. 
 
 Drouyn de Lhuys made foreign minister in room of 
 Thouvenel 15 Oct. 
 
 Baron Gros, ambassador at London in room of 
 comte de Flahault, resigned . . 18 Nov. 
 
 Serjeant Glover brings an action in the court of 
 queen's bench against the comte de Persigny and 
 M. Billault, claiming 14,000?. for subsidising the 
 Morning Chronicle, and other newspapers 22 Nov. 
 
 The emperor inaugurates "Boulevard Prince Eu- 
 gene," Paris 7 Dec. 
 
 Great distress in the manufacturing districts through 
 the cotton famine and the civi war in America 
 
 Dec. 
 
 Treaty of commerce with Italy signed . 17 Jan. 
 
 Revolt in Annam suppressed . . .26 Feb. 
 
 Convention regulating the French and Spanish fron- 
 tiers concluded 27 Feb. 
 
 Resignation of Magne, the " speaking minister," in 
 the assembly . . . . . .1 April, 
 
 Dissolution of the chambers ... 8 May, 
 
 Persigny issues arbitrary injunctions to electors 
 
 May, 
 
 Thiers, Ollivier, Favre, and other opposition candi- 
 dates elected in Paris . . 31 May-15 June, 
 
 Changes in the ministry — resignation of Persigny, 
 Walewski, and Rouland ... 23 June, 
 
 The empress visits queen of Spain at Madrid, Oct. 
 
 Baron Gros resigns, prince Tourd'Auvergne becomes 
 ambassador at London .... 14 Oct. 
 
 Death of Billault (born 1805) " speaking minister " 
 in legislative assembly, 13 Oct. ; succeeded by 
 Rouhei, as "minister of state" . . 18 Oct. 
 
 The emperor proposes the convocation of a European 
 congress, and invites the sovereigns or their de- 
 puties by letter 4 Nov. 
 
 Thiers and his friends form a new opposition 
 
 9 Nov. 
 
 The invitation to the congress declined by England 
 
 25 Nov. 
 
 Thiers speaks in the chamber . . 24 Dec. 
 
 Arrest of Grego and other conspirators against the 
 emperor's life, 3 Jan. ; tried and sentenced to 
 transportation and imprisonment . . 27 Feb. 
 
 Convention between France, Brazil, Italy, Portugal, 
 and Hayti, for establishing a telegraphic line be- 
 tween Europe and America . . 16 May, 
 
 Death of marshal Pelissier, duke of Malakhoff, 
 governor of Algeria (born 1794) . . 22 May, 
 
 Convention between France and Japan signed by 
 Japanese ambassadors at Paris . . 20 June, 
 
 Convention of commerce, &c. , between France and 
 Switzerland, signed . . . .30 June, 
 
 Prince Napoleon Victor, son of prince Napoleon 
 Jerome and princess Clotilde, born . 16 July, 
 
 1864 
 
 Convention between France and Italy respecting 
 evacuation of Rome, &c. . . . 15 Sept. 
 
 Gamier- Pages and 12 others who had met at his 
 house for election purposes, convicted as mem- 
 bers of a society " of more than 20 members " 
 
 7 Dec. 
 
 Death of the emperor's private secretary and old 
 friend, Mocquard 9 Dee. 
 
 Death of Proudlion (born 1809), who said " la pro- 
 priety c'est le vol " .... 19 Jan. 
 
 The clergy prohibited from reading the pope's ency- 
 clical letter of 8 Dec. in churches ; much excite- 
 ment ; the archbishop of Besangon and other 
 prelates disobejr 5 Jan. 
 
 The prince Napoleon Jerome appointed vice-presi- 
 dent of the privy council .... Jan. 
 
 Decree for an international exhibition of the products 
 of agriculture and industry, and of the fine arts, 
 at Paris, on 1 May, 1867 . . . . 1 Feb. 
 
 Treaty with Sweden signed ... 14 Feb. 
 
 The minister Duruy's plan of compulsory education 
 rejected by the assembly . . 8 March, 
 
 Death of the due de Morny, said to be half-brother 
 of the emperor 10 March, 
 
 " Loi des suspects " (or of public safety) suffered to 
 expire ... . . 31 March, 
 
 Attempted assassination of a secretary at the 
 Russian embassy .... 24 April, 
 
 The emperor visits Algeria . . .3-27 May, 
 
 Inauguration of the statue of Napoleon I. at 
 Ajaecio, with an imprudent speech by prince 
 Napoleon Jerome, 15 May ; censured by the 
 emperor, 23 May ; the prince resigns his offices 
 
 9 June, 
 
 The English fleet entertained at Cherbourg and 
 Brest, 15 Aug. et seq. ; review of the fleets 
 
 15 & 21 Aug. 
 
 The French fleet entertained at Portsmouth, 
 
 29 Aug. -1 Sept. 
 
 Protest of the United States against French inter- 
 vention in Mexico — prolonged correspondence (see 
 Mexico) .... Aug. 1865-Feb. 1866. 
 
 Count Walewski nominated president of the corps 
 Ugislatif 2 Sept. 
 
 Death of general Lamoriciere . . . 11 Sept. 
 
 The queen of Spain visits the emperor at Biarritz 
 
 11 Sept. 
 
 Notice given of the abrogation of the Extradition 
 treaty in six months . . . . .4 Dec. 
 
 Riots of republican students at Paris (several ex- 
 pelled from the Academy of Medicine) . 18 Dec. 
 
 Emperor opens chambers with a pacific speech 
 
 22 Jan. 
 
 At Auxerre, Napoleon expresses his detestation of 
 the treaties of 1815 6 May, 
 
 In a letter says that in regard to the German war, 
 "France will observe an attentive neutrality" 
 
 11 June, 
 
 The emperor of Austria cedes Venetia to France, and 
 invites the emperor's intervention with Prussia 
 
 4 July, 
 
 Empress of Mexico arrives at Paris . 8 Aug. 
 
 Note to the Prussian government desiring rectifica- 
 tion of the French frontier to what it was in 
 1814 ; declared by Prussia to be inadmissible 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Resignation of M. Drouyn de Lhuys, foreign minis- 
 ter (succeeded by the marquis de Moustier) 
 
 2 Sept. 
 
 Inundations in the south ; railways destroyed, 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Pacific circular of the emperor sent to foreign 
 courts 16 Sept. 
 
 Death of M. Thouvenel, formerly foreign minister, 
 
 18 Oct. 
 
 Commission appointed to inquire into the advisa- 
 bility of modifying the organisation of the army ; 
 the emperor president ; report . . 30 Oct. 
 
 The French troops quit Rome . . 3-" Dec. 
 
 Publication of letter from the comte de Chambord 
 to his adherents in favour of the pope's temporal 
 power, dated 9 Dec- 
 Commercial treaty with Austria signed . 11 Dec. 
 
 General opposition to the army organisation plan 
 published 12 Dec. 
 
 Richelieu's head, after many removals, deposited m 
 the Sorbonne 17 Dec. 
 
 Imperial decree announcing political reforms 
 
 1864 
 
 1865 
 
FRANCE. 
 
 278 
 
 FEANCE. 
 
 interpellation in the chambers ; relaxation of the 
 restriction on the press . . . 19 Jan. 
 
 Ministerial changes; Rouher becomes minister of 
 finance; Niel, of war, &c . . . Jan. 
 
 The chambers opened by the emperor . 14 Feb. 
 
 Emile Gerardin fined for libel in La Liberie, 
 
 7 March, 
 
 Severe speech of Thiers on foreign policy, 18 March, 
 
 International exhibition opened (see Paris), 
 
 1 April, 
 
 Resignation of Walewski, president of the chamber, 
 29 Mar. ; succeeded by M. Schneider, n April, 
 
 Scheme for organising the army rejected by com- 
 mittee May, 
 
 Paris \isited by the czar, 1-12 June ; and the king 
 of Prussia 5-14 June, 
 
 Three provinces in Annam annexed to the French 
 empire 25 June, 
 
 International conference at Paris respecting mone- 
 tary currency . . . 17 June-9 July, 
 
 The emperor distributes the prizes of the inter- 
 national exhibition 1 July, 
 
 Protectorate of France over Cambodia assured by 
 treaty 15 July 
 
 Law abolishing imprisonment for debt adopted by 
 the senate 18 July, 
 
 Meeting of the emperors of France and Austria at 
 Salzburg 18-21 Aug. 
 
 The emperor's letter recommending money to 
 be expended in improving intercommunica- 
 tion by means of railways, canals, and roads, 
 
 15 Aug. 
 
 Emperor of Austria visits Paris . 23 Oct. -2 Nov. 
 
 French troops enter Rome (see Rome) . 30 Oct. 
 
 Garibaldians defeated at Mentana . . 3 Now 
 
 Lord Lyons received as British ambassador. 9 Nov. 
 
 Pacific and liberal speech of the emperor on open- 
 ing the chambers .... 18 Nov. 
 
 "Napoleon III. ct VEurope en 1867," published, 
 
 Nov. 
 
 During a debate in the legislative assembly, Rouher, 
 the minister, says, " We declare that Italy shall 
 never seize upon Rome " (the government sup- 
 ported by 238 votes to 17) . . .5 Dec. 
 
 12 persons convicted for belonging to a secret 
 seditious society .... about 24 Dec. 
 
 Friendly reception of foreign ministers . 1 Jan. 
 
 New army bill (allowing 100,000 men to be added 
 to the army annually ; establishing a new national 
 guard, &c. ; giving the empire virtually an army 
 of 1,200,000 men), passed in the corps legislatif 
 (206 to 60) 1 Jan. 
 
 Ten .journals fined for printing comments on legis- 
 lative debates end of Jan. 
 
 M. Magne announces a deficiency in the budget ; 
 and a loan for 1 7,600, oool. . . . 29 Jan. 
 
 The army bill passes the senate — 125 to 1 (Michel 
 Chevalier, who spoke warmly against it), 30 Jan. ; 
 becomes law . . . . . .4 Feb. 
 
 The "Arcadians." (new ultra-conservative party) 
 oppose the new press law ; fierce debates on it, 
 
 Feb. 
 
 New press law passed in legislative chamber, 240 
 to 1 (M. Berryer) March, 
 
 " Les Titres de la Dynastie Imperirtle" appeared, 
 about 20 March, 
 
 Riotous opposition to enlistments for "garde 
 mobile" (new national guard) at Bordeaux, 
 Toulon, and other towns . 20 March, ct seg. 
 
 Defeat of an attack on free trade in the chamber, 
 
 May, 
 
 New press law put in force ; increasing facility for 
 publishing new journals . . . June, 
 
 The assembly closes .... 30 July, 
 
 Roehefort's weekly satirical pamphlet La Lanterne, 
 suppressed ; he and his printer condemned to 
 fine and imprisonment, escapes to Belgium, Aug. 
 
 M. Berryer, the advocate (born 1790) died, 29 Nov. 
 
 Ministerial changes ; marquis de la Valette, foreign 
 minister, in room of De Moustier ; Forcade de la 
 Roquette minister of the interior . . Dec. 
 
 The Moniteur replaced by the Journal Officicl, 1 Jan. 
 
 Meeting of the assembly . . . .18 Jan. 
 
 De Moustier dies 5 Feb. 
 
 Death of Lamartine (born Oct. 1792), 28 Feb. ; of 
 Troplong, president of the senate . 1 March, 
 
 Dissolution of the legislative assembly of 1863, 
 
 26 April, 
 
 1867 
 
 Difference with Belgium respecting the Luxem- 
 bourg railway settled . . . 27 April, 
 
 Fierce election riots at Paris, 9 June; the emperor 
 and empress ride boldly through the Boulevards, 
 
 11 June, 
 
 The new legislative chamber meets ; the oppo- 
 sition to the government more than trebled, 
 
 26 June, 
 
 Message from the emperor announcing important 
 political changes ; introducing ministerial respon- 
 sibility, &C.,read 12 July ; resignation of ministers, 
 
 13 July, 
 
 New ministry: Forcade de la Roquette (interior); La 
 Tour d'Auvergne (foreign); Chasseloup-Laubat, 
 president, &c 17 July, 
 
 M. Rouher made president of the senate, 20 July, 
 
 French Atlantic telegraph completely laid, 23 July, 
 
 Marquis de la Valette appointed ambassador in 
 London J«ly, 
 
 The political changes announced to the senate, 
 
 S Aug. 
 
 Marshal Niel, war minister, aged 66, dies, 13 Aug. 
 
 Centenary of the birth of Napoleon I. ; amnesty 
 granted to political offenders ; increased pen- 
 sions to survivors of the grand army ; troops re- 
 viewed by the imperial prince (the emperor ill), 
 
 15 Aug. 
 
 Ultra-liberal speech of prince Napoleon Jerome in 
 the senate 1 Sept. 
 
 New constitution promulgated . . 10 Sept. 
 
 Pere Hyaeinthe (name Loyson), popular Carmelite 
 preacher at Paris, protests against papal infalli- 
 bility and encroachments, and resigns by letter, 
 
 20 Sept. 
 
 Great excitement at Paris through discovery of 
 
 Tropmann's murder of the Kinck family at Pantin, 
 
 about 19 Sept 
 
 Proposed meeting of republicans at Paris (did not 
 take place) 26 Oct. 
 
 Agitation against free trade . Oct., Nov., Dec. 
 
 Journey of the empress to the East ; arrival at 
 Constantinople, 13 Oct. ; at Alexandria, 13 Nor, 
 
 Firm and temperate manifesto of the left (ultra 
 republican opposition) issued . about 16 Nov. 
 
 Henri Roehefort (of La Lanterne) elected a deputy 
 for Paris 22 Nov. 
 
 The chambers opened by the emperor with a liberal 
 speech 29 Nov. 
 
 Resignation of ministers announced . 27 Dec. 
 
 New liberal ministry formed by Emile Olli vier (jus- 
 tice); Dam (foreign); Le Bceuf (war) . 3 Jan. 
 
 Resignation of M. Haussmann, prefect of the Seine, 
 
 about 6 Jan. 
 
 Victor Noir, a journalist, killed by Pierre Bona- 
 parte during an interview at Auteuil respecting 
 a challenge sent to M. Roehefort . 10 Jan. 
 
 Tropmann, the murderer, executed . . 19 Jan. 
 
 Great excitement amongst lower orders ; prosecu- 
 tion of Roehefort for libel in his paper, the AI«r- 
 seillaise; he is sentenced to fine and imprison- 
 ment 22 Jan. 
 
 Barricades erected in Paris, and riots after the ap- 
 prehension of Roehefort, 7 Feb.; soon quelled, 
 
 8, 9 Feb. 
 
 Jules Favre's attack on the ministry in the cham- 
 ber defeated (236 to 18) . . . 22 Feb. 
 
 Charles, comte de Montalembert, eminent author, 
 dies (see 1858) 13 March, 
 
 Trial of Pierre Bonaparte at Tours ; acquitted 
 
 (but ordered to pay 1000Z. to Noir's family) ; 
 
 21 — 27 March, 
 
 Emperor's letter to Ollivier, agreeing to modifica- 
 tion of the constitution of the senate, 22 March, 
 
 Senatus consultum communicated to the senate, 
 28 March ; adopted . . . .20 April, 
 
 Ministerial crisis : resignation of Daru and other 
 ministers opposing the proposed plibisoite, 
 
 10 April, 
 
 Proclamation of the emperor respecting changes in 
 the constitution .... 24 April, 
 
 Conspiracy against the emperor's life detected ; 
 Baurie (aged 22) and others arrested, 
 
 about 30 April, 
 
 Plebiscite to ascertain whether the people approve 
 of these changes,— yes, 7,527,379 ; no, 1,530,909, 
 
 8 May, 
 
 Ollivier ministry reconstructed, 13 April ; due de 
 Grammont foreign minister . about 15 May, 
 
 1870 
 
FEANCE. 
 
 279 
 
 FEANCE. 
 
 Bioting and barricades in Paris, g, 10 May about 
 ioo arrested, many sentenced to imprisonment, 
 
 14 May, 
 
 Speech by the emperor on receiving result of the 
 plebiscite .... -23 May, 
 
 The Orleans princes address the legislative assem- 
 bly, demanding their return to France, 19 June; 
 oxiposed by 173 to 31 . . . .2 July, 
 
 Discoveiy of a plot against the emperor's ife, 
 
 5 July, 
 
 Great excitement through the nomination of prince 
 
 Leopold of Hohenzoiiern Sigmaringen for xne 
 
 Spanish throne ; warlike speeches of the ministers, 
 
 5, 6, 7 July, 
 
 The prince Leopold withdraws from candidature ; 
 guarantees required by France from Prussia re- 
 fused ; France decides to declare war against 
 Prussia, 15 July: declaration signed, 17 July, 
 
 [For events of the war. see Franco-Prussian War.] 
 
 The empress appointed regent . . 23 July, 
 
 The emperor joins the army . . . 28 July, 
 
 Publication of the Marseillaise of Boehefort ceases, 
 
 end of July, 
 
 The government declare that they are only "at war 
 with the policy of Bismarck " . . 2 Aug. 
 
 Great excitement in Paris through the false an- 
 nouncement of a great victory . . 6 Aug. 
 
 State of siege proclaimed in Paris after the great 
 defeat of MacMahon at Woerth . . 7 Aug. 
 
 Decrees for the enlargement of the national guard, 
 appealing to patriotism and deurecating discord, 
 
 7, 8 Aug 
 
 At Blois, the conspirators against the emperor's 
 life sentenced to long imprisonments . 8 Aug. 
 
 Energetic measures taken for the defence of Paris ; 
 Changarnier offers his services to the emperor ; 
 well received . .... 8 Aug. 
 
 The government appeals to France and Europe 
 against Prussia 8 Aug. 
 
 Stormy debate in the corps legislatif; (M. de Keratry 
 called on the emperor to abdicate ; M. Guyot 
 Montpeyroux said that the army were "lions led 
 by asses ") ; resignation of Ollivier and his 
 ministry 9 Aug. 
 
 New ministry formed : General Cousin-Montauban 
 comte de Palikao (distinguished in the war with 
 China), minister of war, chief: M. Chevreau, 
 minister of the interior : M. Magne, minister of 
 finance ; M. Clement Duvernois, minister of com- 
 merce and agriculture ; admiral Bigault de 
 Genouilly, minister of marine; baron Jerome 
 David, minister of public works; prince de la 
 Tour d'Auvergne, minister of foreign affairs ; and 
 others ... ... 10 Aug. 
 
 Decree for the great augmentation of the army 
 during the war, and appointing a " defence com- 
 mittee " for Paris . 10 Aug. 
 
 The Orleans princes (the due dAumale, prince de 
 Joinville, and due de Chartres), proffer their 
 services in the army ; declined . . Aug. 
 
 Extraoramary sitting of the corps legislatif respect- 
 ing the new levies . . Sunday, 14 Aug. 
 
 Great disturbances at La Villette, a suburb of 
 Paris : about 200 armed men attack the police, 
 crying '-Vive la repubiique ! " soon suppressed, 
 and many arrested .... 14 Aug. 
 
 The government declare against any negotiations 
 for rje?/28 . 14 Aug. 
 
 Atrocious murder of M. Allain de Moneys, sus- 
 pected of re.Dubiicanism and Germanism ; he was 
 half killed by blows and then burnt to death by 
 infuriated peasants at Hautefaye, Dordogne, not 
 far from Bordeaux .... 16 Aug. 
 
 General Trochu (Orleanist), energetic and able 
 author of "l'Armee Francaise en 1867," appointed 
 governor of Paris, 17 Aug. : issues a stirring pro- 
 clamation 18 Aug. 
 
 A loan of 750 million francs announced, 21 Aug. 
 
 Frequent diplomatic conferences at the British 
 embassy respecting mediation . about 22 Aug. 
 
 Confident statement of the national position by 
 the ministry 23 Aug. 
 
 M. Thiers placed on the defence committee, 
 
 about 26 Aug. 
 
 Decree of M. Trochu for the expulsion from Paris 
 of all foreigners not naturalized . 28 Aug. 
 
 Death of count Flahault de la Billarderie. chancellor 
 
 1870 
 
 of the legion of honour, aged 85 (served under 
 Napoleon I., Louis Philippe, and Napoleon III.), 
 
 31 Aug. 1870 
 
 Deputation from 10,000 persons call on Trochu 
 to assume the government : he declines, 
 
 8 p.m., 3 Sept. „ 
 
 The news of the final defeat of MacMahon near 
 Sedan, and the surrender of the emperor and the 
 remainder of MacMahon's army (90,000), to the 
 king of Prussia announced by comte de Palikao to 
 the legislative assembly! Jules Favre declares 
 for defending France to the last gasp, attacks the 
 imperial dynasty, and proposes concentration of 
 all power in the hands of general Trochu, amid 
 profound silence . . . 3.35 a. m., 4 Sept. ,, 
 
 The ruin of MacMahon's army announced in the 
 Journal Officiel 4 Sept. ,, 
 
 On the proposition of Thiers the chamber appoints 
 a commission of government and national de- 
 fence, and orders the convocation of a constituent 
 assembly, and adjourns . 3.10 p.m., 4 Sept. „ 
 
 At the resumption of the sitting of the assembly it 
 is invaded by the crowd, demanding a republic ; 
 most of the deputies retire. Gambetta and other 
 liberal members of the " left " proclaim the depo- 
 sition of the imperial dynasty and the establish- 
 ment of a republic . . 4.15 p.m., 4 Sept. „ 
 
 Last meeting of the senate ; it declares adhesion to 
 the emperor 4 Sept. „ 
 
 Proclamation of a " government of defence," gene- 
 ral Trochu, president; MM. Leon Gambetta (inte- 
 rior), Jules Simon (public instruction), Jules 
 Favre (foreign), Cremieux (justice), Jules Picard 
 (finance), general Le Flo (war), Fouriehon (marine), 
 Magnin (agriculture), Dorian (public works), 
 Etienne Arago (mayor of Paris), Keratry (police). 
 
 4 Sept. ,, 
 
 An informal meeting of the legislative assembly 
 held, M. Thiers, president. M. Jules Favre re- 
 ports to it the formation of the provisional 
 government ; some protest ; Thiers recommends 
 moderation, and the meeting retires, 
 
 evening 4 Sept. „ 
 
 The empress, the comte de Palikao, and other minis- 
 ters secretly leave Paris and enter Belgium, 
 
 evening, 4 Sept. ,, 
 
 Legislative chamber dissolved ; senate abolished ; 
 regular troops and national guard fraternize ; 
 " perfect order reigns "... 5 Sept. 
 
 M. Favre calls on the United States of America 
 for moral support 5 Sept. „ 
 
 The emperor Napoleon arrives at Wilhelmshohe, 
 near Cassel . . . 9.35 p. m. 5 Sept. ,, 
 
 The republican deputies in the Spanish cortes greet 
 the republic 5 Sept. „ 
 
 Henri Boehefort added to the government 5 Sept. „ 
 
 The red republican flag raised at Lyons, 5 Sept. „ 
 
 Victor Hugo and Louis Blanc arrive in Paris, 6 Sept. „ 
 
 Jules Favre, in a circular to French diplomatic 
 representatives, while professing desire for peace, 
 says, " We will not cede either an inch of our 
 territories or a stone of our fortresses," 6 Sept. ,, 
 
 Proclamation of general Trochu, saying that the 
 defence of the capital is assured . . 6 Sept. „ 
 
 The police replaced by national guards . 6 Sept. „ 
 
 Proffered services of the Orleans princes again 
 declined 1 . .6 Sept. „ 
 
 The imperial correspondence seized, about 7 Sept. „ 
 
 The government proclaim that to-day, as in 1792, 
 the republic signifies the hearty union of the army 
 and people for the defence of the country 7 Sept. „ 
 
 The republic recognised by the United States, 
 
 8 Sept. „ 
 
 The defence committee summon the king of Prussia „ 
 to quit French territory without loss of time 
 
 8 Sept. „ 
 
 Beappearance of the Marseillaise : Boehefort resigns „ 
 editorship, and disclaims connection on account 
 of a violent article ; the paper ceases to appear 
 soon after 8 Sept. ,, 
 
 Decree convoking the constituent assembly, to be 
 composed of 750 members (to be elected on £16 
 Oct.) 8 Sept. „ 
 
 The imperial prince at Hastings, 7 Sept., joined by 
 the empress 8 Sept. ,, 
 
 Victor Hugo publishes an address to the Germans, 
 appealing to their fraternal sentiments 9 Sept. „ 
 
FRANCE. 
 
 280 
 
 FRANCE. 
 
 Cattle plague began in Alsace and Lorraine, Sept. 
 
 The republic recognised by Spain, 8 Sept. ; by 
 Switzerland 9 Sept. 
 
 M. Thiers arrives in London on a mission from the 
 government 13 Sept. 
 
 Lyons said to be ruled by a " committee of safety ; " 
 red flag raised ; reign of terror . . 13 Sept. 
 
 Letter from M. Pietri, private secretary to the 
 emperor, stating that "his master has not a 
 centime in foreign funds " . . 15 Sept. 
 
 Elections for constituent assembly ordered to take 
 place on 2 Oct 16 Sept. 
 
 The academies of the institute protest against the 
 bombardment of the monuments, museums, &c, 
 in Paris 16 Sept. 
 
 Diplomatic circular from M. Jules Farce : he admits 
 he has no claim on Prussia for disinterestedness ; 
 urges that statesmen should hesitate to continue 
 a war in which more thau 200,000 men have 
 already fallen ; announces that a freely elected 
 assembly is summoned, and that the government 
 will abide by its judgment, and that France, left 
 to her free action, immediately asks the cessation 
 of the war, but prefers its disasters a thousand 
 times to dishonour. He admits that France has 
 been wrong, and acknowledges its obligation to 
 repair by a measure of justice the ill it has done 
 
 17 Sept. 
 
 A government delegation at Tours under M. 
 Cremieux, tin. minister of justice ; the foreign 
 ambassadors proceed there . . 18 Sept. 
 
 Manifesto of the red republicans signed by general 
 Cluseret, placarded in Paris . . about 18 Sept. 
 
 Bronze statues of Napoleon ordered to be made 
 into cannon .... about 19 Sept. 
 
 Stern proclamation of Trochu respecting the cowar- 
 dice of the Zouaves on 19 Sept. . 20 Sept. 
 
 M. Duruof in a post-balloon quits Paris with mail- 
 bags, arrives at Evreux, and reaches Tours 
 
 23 Sept. 
 The Journal Officiel replaced by the Monitcur 
 
 Universel as the organ of the government, 
 
 about 23 Sept. 
 
 Esquiros struggles to maintain order at Marseilles 
 
 24 Sept. 
 Failure of the negotiations for peace between count 
 
 Bismark and Jules Favre ; manifesto of the govern- 
 ment at Tours, calling on the people to rise and 
 either disavow the ministry or " fight to the 
 bitter end ; " the elections for the assembly sus- 
 pended 24 Sept. 
 
 All Frenchmen between 20 aud 25 years of age pro- 
 hibited leaving France . . about 26 Sept. 
 
 Great enthusiasm in the provinces on the failure of 
 the negotiations ; " war to the knife " and levie cu 
 masse proclaimed by the prefects ; efforts made to 
 excite warlike ardour in Brittany by M. Cathe- 
 lineau 26, 27 Sept. 
 
 The due d'Aumale consents to become a candidate 
 
 for the representative assembly, and promises 
 
 submission to the de facto government for defence 
 
 about 27 Sept. 
 
 Attempted insurrection of the red republicans at 
 Lyons ; order restored by national guards ; general 
 Cluseret disappears 2S Sept 
 
 Great order in Paris maintained by the national 
 guard ; report from surgeon-major Wyatt, 
 
 28 Sept. 
 
 All between 21 and 40 to be organised as a national 
 garde mobile ; all men in arms placed at the dis- 
 posal of the minister of war . . 30 Sept. 
 
 The empress and her son residing at Camden-hou.se, 
 Chisellmrst, Kent .... Sept. 
 
 The elections for the constituent assembly (753 
 members) ordered by the delegates at Tours to 
 take place on 16 Oct. . . 29 Sept. — 1 Oct. 
 
 Proclamations of general Trochu for maintaining 
 order in Paris .... about 1 Oct. 
 
 Marseilles said to be unsettled : many arrested, 
 
 1 Oct. 
 
 The elections deferred till they can be carried out 
 throughout the whole extent of the republic, by 
 order of the government at Paris . 1 Oct. 
 
 M. Cremieux becomes delegate minister of war at 
 Tours in room of admiral Fourichon, still minister 
 of marine 3 Oct. 
 
 Gustave Flourens, heading five battalions of national 
 
 1870 
 
 guards, marches to the Hotel de Ville and 
 demands cliasscpots (not to be had) . 5 Oct. 
 
 Suppression Of the schools of the "brethren of the 
 Christian doctrine " by the republicans : much 
 dissatisfaction 8 Oct. 
 
 All Frenchmen under 60 years of age forbidden to 
 quit France 8 Oct. 
 
 M. Gambetta escapes from Paris in a balloon, 7 Oct. ; 
 arrives at Rouen and declares for "a pact with 
 victory or death," 8 Oct. ; arrives at Tours and 
 becomes minister of war as well as of the interior 
 
 9 Oct. 
 
 Address from the comte de Chambord, saying that 
 his whole ambition is to found witli the people a 
 really national government . . 9 Oct. 
 
 Battalions of amazoiis said to be forming in Paris 
 
 12 Oct. 
 
 Blanqui, Gustave Flourens, Ledra Rollin, Felix 
 Pyat, and other red republicans defeated in their 
 attempts to establish the commune at Paris to 
 supersede the government, 10, 11 Oct. : reconcilia- 
 tion effected by Rochefort . about 14 Oct. 
 
 Riots at Honfleur : the people oppose the embarka- 
 tion of cattle to England, 12 Oct. ; similar riots at 
 St, Male 15 Oct. 
 
 M. Edmoiid Adam, prefect of police ; replacing 
 
 M. de Keratry, sent on a foreign mission, 
 
 about 16 Oct. 
 
 M. de Keratry quits Paris in a balloon, 12 Oct. ; at 
 Madrid fails in obtaining assistance from Prim 
 
 19, 20 Oct. 
 
 Marseilles disturbed by red republicans; Esquiros 
 still in office 1901k 
 
 Publication of the imperial correspondence seized 
 in the Tuileries Oct. 
 
 Decree for a loan of 10,000,000/. issued on behalf of 
 the French government . . . 25 Oct. 
 
 The imperial guard suppressed . . 26 Oct, 
 
 Circular of Gambetta stigmatising the surrender of 
 Jletz (on 27 Oct.) as a clime . . 28 Oct, 
 
 Death of M. Baroche in Jersey . . 30 Oct. 
 
 M. Thiers arrives in Paris with news of the sur- 
 render of Mctz and the proposals for an armistice 
 
 30 Oct. 
 
 Riots in Paris: general Trochu threatened; the 
 principal members of the defence government im- 
 prisoned in the Hotel de Ville ; Ledru Rollin, 
 Victor Hugo, and Gustave Flourens, and others, 
 established as a committee of public safety and 
 of the commune of Paris, under the direction of 
 M. Picard ; the national guard releases the 
 government, and order is restored . 31 Oct. 
 
 General Boyer, replying to Gambetta, says, "We 
 capitulated with hunger " . . . 31 Oct. 
 
 The empress arrives at Wilhelmshohe ; interview of 
 Bazaine with the emperor . . .31 Oct. 
 
 Etienne Arago and other mayors of Paris resign, 
 
 1 Nov. 
 
 Marshals Canrobert and Le Bceuf and many generals 
 at Wilhelmshohe .... 1 Nov. 
 
 Proclamation of Gambetta calling on the army to 
 avenge the dishonour at Metz . 1 Nov. 
 
 The government proclaim a plebiscite in Paris on 3 
 Nov. to ascertain whether the people maintain 
 the power of the government of national defence 
 
 1 Nov. 
 
 M. Rochefort, member of the defence government, 
 resigns 2N0V. 
 
 Result of the plebiscite: — for the defence govern- 
 ment, 557,976 ; against, 62,638 . 3 Nov. 
 
 Resignation of M. Esquiros at Marseilles, succeeded 
 by M. Alphonse Gent ... 3 Nov. 
 
 The ex-empress returned to Chisellmrst, 3 Nov. 
 
 Mobilisation of all able-bodied men between 20 ami 
 40, ordered 4 Nov. 
 
 Failure of the negotiations for an armistice, 6 Nov. 
 
 Felix Pyat and others arrested for the affair of 31 
 Oct 6 Nov. 
 
 " France can do nothing now but carry on with 
 such courage and strength as remain to her a war 
 a outrance." — Guizot .... 8 Nov. 
 
 Decree for melting some of the church-bells to make 
 cannon 10 Nov. 
 
 Alexander Dumas, novelist and dramatist, dies 
 
 10 Dec. 
 
 The delegate government removed from Tours to 
 Bordeaux n Dec. 
 
 1870 
 
 1870 
 
FKANCE. 
 
 281 
 
 FKANCE. 
 
 Murder of lieut. Amaud <at Lyons by the people for 
 resisting them 20 Dec. 
 
 Trial of 21 peasants for murder of M. Moneys (see 
 16 Aug.): 4 condemned to death; others to im- 
 prisonment .... about 23 Dec. 
 
 Firm proclamation of Trochu at Paris . 30 Dec. 
 
 Gambetta at Bordeaux declares that the govern- 
 ment only holds office for defence of the country ; 
 demonstration in honour of the republic, 1 Jan. 
 
 Foreigners not permitted to leave Paris by the 
 Germans 19 Jan. 
 
 Fierce speech of Gambetta at Lille, demanding con- 
 tinuance of the war . . . .22 Jan. 
 
 Disturbances at Paris suppressed by the army, 
 
 23 Jan. 
 
 Resignation of Trochu ; Vinoy made governor of 
 Paris 24 Jan. 
 
 Capitulation of Paris ; armistice signed by Favre 
 and Bismarck 28 Jan. 
 
 Disavowed by Gambetta at Bordeaux . 31 Jan. 
 
 Manifesto of the due d'Aumale in favour of a con- 
 stitutional monarchy 1 Feb. 
 
 Arrival of food from London to relieve Paris (see 
 Mansion-house) 3 Feb. 
 
 The defence government publish their reasons for 
 capitulation (2,000,000 people in Paris with only 
 ten days' provisions), 4 Feb. ; and annul Gam- 
 betta's decree, 4 Feb. ; he and his ministry resign, 
 
 5, 6 Feb. 
 
 Railway accident between Bandoz and St. Xizaire ; 
 explosion of casks of gunpowder ; 60 killed ; 
 about 100 wounded .... 5 Feb. 
 
 Four murderers of M. Moneys (16 Aug. 1870) exe- 
 cuted 8 Feb. 
 
 Proclamation of Napoleon III. " Betrayed by 
 fortune," he condemns the government of 4 Sept. ; 
 states that his government was four times con- 
 firmed in 20 years ; submits to the judgment of 
 time; saying "that a nation cannot long obey 
 those who have no right to command," 8 Feb. 
 
 General election of a national assembly . 8 Feb. 
 
 First meeting of the new national assembly, 12 Feb. 
 
 Supplementary armistice signed . . 15 Feb. 
 
 Garibaldi resigns his election, 13 Feb. ; Grevy 
 elected president by 519 out of 538 . 16 Feb. 
 
 Termination of the war ; the Belfort garrison 
 (12,000) marches out with military honours, 
 
 16 Feb. 
 
 " Pact of Bordeaux : " M. Thiers made chief of the 
 executive power, by agreement of the different 
 parties in the assembly, 17 Feb. ; voted, 18 Feb. 
 
 Thiers' ministry : Dafaure (justice); Jules Favre 
 (foreign), Pieard (interior), Jules Simon (public 
 instruction), Lambrecht (commerce), gen. Leflo 
 (war), admiral Pothuau (marine), De Larcy 
 (public works) 17 Feb. 
 
 The French government recognised by the great 
 powers of Europe 18 Feb. 
 
 The due de Broglie appointed French minister at 
 London 21 Feb. 
 
 Negotiations for peace between Thiers and Bis- 
 marck 22, 23, 24 Feb. 
 
 Preliminaries of a treaty of peace accepted by MM. 
 Thiers and Favre, and 15 delegates of the national 
 assembly at Versailles (cession of parts of Alsace 
 and Lorraine, including Strasbourg and Metz, 
 and payment of five milliards of francs — 
 2oo,ooo,oooJ.), 25 Feb. ; signed . . 26 Feb. 
 
 Intense excitement in Paris . . . 27 Feb. 
 
 Preliminaries of the treaty accepted by the assembly 
 (546 to 107) ; the fall of the empire unanimously 
 confirmed ; and the emperor stigmatised, 
 
 1 March, 
 
 A strong party of the national guard seize some 
 cannons and transport them to Montmartre and 
 Belleville, to defend themselves against the 
 Germans entering Paris . . .1 March, 
 
 The emperor of Germany reviews about 100,000 of 
 his troops at Longchamps near Paris, 1 March, 
 
 About 30,000 Germans enter Paris, 1 March ; re- 
 main 48 hours ; depart ... 3 March, 
 
 Impeachment of the defence government demanded 
 by the party of the left (Victor Hugo, Louis 
 Blanc, Quinet, and others) . . 6 March, 
 
 The ex-emperor protests against his deposition, 
 
 6 March, 
 
 The army of the north and other special army corps 
 dissolved 7-10 March, 
 
 1870 
 
 1871 
 
 Meeting of national guard in Paris quelled, 
 
 10 March, 1871 
 
 The national assembly vote for removal to Ver- 
 sailles (461-104) . * . . . 10 March, „ 
 
 Le Vengeur and four other violent journals sup- 
 pressed in Paris by Vinoy . . 11 March, ,, 
 
 Blanqui, Flourens, and others condemned for 
 insurrection of 31 Oct. 1870 . . 12 March, „ 
 
 Central committee of republican confederation of 
 national guards (termed " the government of the 
 Buttes ") meet ; depose Vinoy and appoint Gari- 
 baldi general-in-chief ... 15 March, „ 
 
 Insurrection at Paris : the regular troops take 
 possession of the Buttes, Montmartre, and Belle- 
 ville, for the assembly ; the national guard 
 attempt to recover them ; after a brief conflict 
 the troops fraternise with the insurgents, who 
 capture and shoot generals Lecomte and Clement 
 Thomas, and take possession of the Hotel de 
 Ville ; barricades erected in Belleville and 
 other places ; general Vinoy with the gendarmerie 
 retire across trie Seine ... 18 March, „ 
 
 The insurgents nominate a central committee of 
 the national guard, headed by Assy, a workman, 
 which takes possession of public offices ; Thiers 
 issues a circular, enjoining obedience to the 
 assembly 19 March, „ 
 
 The central committee order communal election in 
 Paris, 19 March ; and liberate about 11,000 
 political prisoners in Paris . . 20 March, „ 
 
 The national assembly meet at Versailles ; propose 
 conciliatory measures ; and appoint a committee 
 to support the government . . 20 March, „ 
 
 Napoleon III. arrives at Dover . 20 March, „ 
 
 The Journal des Debuts and other papers renounce 
 the central committee . . .20 March, „ 
 
 The assembly appeal to the nation and the army, 
 
 21 March, „ 
 
 Requisitions levied on the Paris shop-keepers, 
 
 21 March, „ 
 
 Unarmed demonstration of the Friends of Order ; 
 they are fired on by the insurgents ; 10 killed, 
 20 wounded 22 March, i „ 
 
 Lullier arrested by the central committee, 22 March, ' „ 
 
 Admiral Saisset appointed commander of the 
 national guard for the assembly . . 23 March, „ 
 
 The 69th regiment of the line retire to Versailles, 
 
 23 March, „ 
 
 The central committee appoint some of their dele- 
 gates generals 24 March, „ 
 
 The insurgents hold central Paris ; Saisset returns 
 to Versailles 25 March, „ 
 
 Municipal elections at Paris ; 200,000 out of 500,000 
 vote ; majority of two-thirds in favour of the 
 insurgents 26 March, ,, 
 
 The government of the commune proclaimed at the 
 Hotel de Ville 28 March, „ 
 
 Meeting of the conference for the peace at Brussels, 
 
 28 March, „ 
 
 Gustave Flourens, Blanqui, and Felix Pyat now at 
 the head of the movement : they propose^revival 
 of the system of the Italian republics of the middle 
 ages 29 March, „ 
 
 The remission of part of the rents due by tenants 
 ordered ; the standing army to be named the 
 national guard .... 29 March, „ 
 
 Reign of terror : " Paris has no longer liberty of the 
 press, of public meeting, of conscier.ee, or of 
 person." — LeSoir 1 April, „ 
 
 Military operations commence 9 a.m. ; action at 
 Courbevoie ; Flourens marches his troops to 
 Versailles, via Rueil .... 2 April, „ 
 
 The corps d'armee of general Bergeret at the Rond 
 Point, near Neuilly, stopped by the artillery of 
 Mont Valerien ; exchange of shot between Fort 
 Issy and Fort Vanves, occupied by the insurgents, 
 andMeudon 3 April, „ 
 
 General Duval made prisoner in the engagement at 
 Chatillon and shot ; death of Flourens at Chatou ; 
 Delescluze, Cournet, and Vermorel succeed Ber- 
 geret, Eudes, and Duval on the executive com- 
 mission ; Cluseret, delegate of war, and Bergeret, 
 commandant of Paris forces - . 4 April, „ 
 
 Communist insurrection at Marseilles suppressed, 
 
 4 April, „ 
 
 General Cluseret commences active operations ; 
 military service compulsory for all citizens under 
 40 ; the archbishop of Paris arrested, s April, „ 
 
FEANCE. 
 
 282 
 
 FEANCE. 
 
 Extension of action to Neuilly ami G lurl pevoie ; severe 
 decree concerning complicity with Versailles, and 
 arrest of hostages ; Dombrowski succeeds Beige 
 vet as commandant of Paris ; the guillotine burnt 
 on the Place Voltaire .... 6 April, 
 
 Federals abandon Neuilly ; commission of barri- 
 cades created and presided over by Gaillard 
 Senior ; military occupation of the railway ter- 
 mini by the insurgents . . 8 April, 
 
 Insurgents repulsed in an attempt to take Chatil- 
 lon ; forts Vanves and Montrouge disabled : 
 Mont Valerien shells the Avenue des Tenies ; 
 Bergeret arrested by order of the commune, 
 
 9 April, 
 
 Marshal MacMahon, commander-in-chief for the 
 assembly, distributes his forces, and commences 
 the investment of Fort Issy . . n April, 
 
 Versailles batteries established on Chatillon ; the 
 Orleans railway and telegraph cut , communica- 
 tions of the insurgents with the. south inter- 
 cepted ; decree ordering the fall of the column 
 Vendome 12 April, 
 
 Publication of the reports of the sittings of the 
 commune 13 April, 
 
 The redoubt of Geimevilliers taken ; the troops of 
 Versailles advance to the Chateau de Becon, a 
 post of importance ; Assy at the bar of the 
 commune 14 April, 
 
 The national assembly pass the new municipal bill 
 (419-18) 14 April, 
 
 Complementary elections ; organisation of a court- 
 martial under the presidency of Rossel, chief 
 officer of the staff .... 16 April, 
 
 Capture and fortification of the Chateau de Becon 
 by the Versailles troops . . . 17 April, 
 
 Station and houses at Asnieres taken by the army 
 of Versailles 18 April, 
 
 The communists appeal to the nation, 19 April, 
 
 Bagneux occupied by the Versaillais ; re< irganisa- 
 tion of commissions ; Eudes appointed inspector- 
 general of the southern forts ; transfers his quar- 
 ters from Montrouge to the palace of the Legion 
 of Honour 20 April, 
 
 The Versailles batteries at Breteuil, Brimborion, 
 Meudon, and Moulin de Pierre trouble the federal 
 fort Issy, and battery between Bagneux and 
 Chatillon shells fort Vanves ; truce at Neuilly 
 from 9 a.m. to 5 p.m. ; the inhabitants of 
 Neuilly enter Paris by the Porte des Ternes, 
 
 25 April, 
 
 Capture of Les Moulineaux, outpost of the insur- 
 gents, by the troops, who strongly fortify them- 
 selves on the 27th and 28th . . 26 April, 
 
 Cemetery and park of Issy taken by the Versaillais 
 in the night ; freemasons make a new attempt at 
 reconciliation ; the commune levies a sum of 
 two millions of francs from the railway companies, 
 
 29 April, 
 
 A flag of trace sent to fort Issy by the Versaillais, 
 calling upon the federals to surrender ; general 
 Eudes puts fresh troops in the fort, and takes 
 the command ; Cluscret imprisoned at Mazas by 
 order of the commune ; Rossel appointed provi- 
 sional delegate of war . . . .30 April, 
 
 The Versaillais take the station of Clamart and the 
 Chateau of Issy ; creation of the committee of 
 public safety ; members ; Antoine Arnauld, Leo 
 Meillet, Ranvier, Felix Pyat, Charles Gerardin ; 
 alleged massacre of communist prisoners, 1 Slay, 
 
 Lacretelle carries the redoubt of Moulin Saquet, 
 
 3 May, 
 
 Colonel Rossel appointed to the direction of 
 military affairs, defines the military quarters of 
 Dombrowski, La Cecilia, Wroblewski, Bergeret, 
 and Eudes 5 May, 
 
 Central committee, of the national guard charged 
 with administration of war : the Chapelle Expia- 
 toire condemned to destruction — the materials to 
 be sold by auction .... 5 May, 
 
 Concert at the Tuileries in aid of the ambulances. 
 Suppression of newspapers . . . 6 May, 
 
 Batteiy of Montretout (70 marine guns) opens fire ; 
 Thiers exhorts the Parisians to rise against the 
 commune 8 May, 
 
 Morning ; insurgents evacuate the fort Issy ; the 
 committee of public safety renewed ; members : 
 Ranvier, Antoine Arnauld, Gambon, Eudes, 
 Delescluze ; Rossel resigns . . .8 May, 
 
 1871 
 
 Treaty of peace with Germany signed at Frankfurt, 
 
 10 May, 1871 
 
 Cannon from the fort Issy taken to Versailles ; 
 decree for the demolition of M. Thiers' house ; 
 Delescluze appointed delegate of war, 10 May, ,, 
 
 Thiers opposed ; offers to resign ; the assembly vote 
 confidence in him (495-10) ... 11 May, „ 
 
 Troops take possession of the Couvent des Oiseaux 
 at Issy, and the Lyceum at Vanves ; Auber, the 
 composer, dies, aged 89 . . - 12 May, ,. 
 
 Triumphal entry of the troops into Versailles with 
 flags and cannon taken from the convent ; evacua- 
 tion of the village of Issy completed ; fort Vanves 
 taken by the troops .... 13 May, ,, 
 
 Vigorous cannonade from the batteries of Courbe- 
 voie, Becon, Asnieres, on Levallois and Clichy ; 
 both villages evacuated ; commencement of the 
 demolition of house of M. Thiers . . 14 May, ,, 
 
 Report of the re-armament of Montrnartre, 15 May, ,, 
 
 The column Vendome overthrown . . 16 May, ,, 
 
 Secession from the communist government ; a 
 central club formed ; a battalion of women formed, 
 
 17 May, ,, 
 
 Stringent conscription in Paris . about 17 May, ,, 
 
 Silver ornaments in churches seized ; explosion of 
 a cartridge factory near the Champ de Mars ; 
 above 100 killed 17 May, , 
 
 The assembly adopt the treaty of peace, 18 May, „ 
 
 Roehefort brought a prisoner to Versailles ; last 
 sitting of the commune . . . 21 May, ,, 
 
 Noon, explosion of the powder magazine of the 
 Manege d'Etat-Major (staff riding-school) ; the 
 hostages transferred from Mazas to La Roquette ; 
 Assy arrested in Paris by the Versaillais ; the 
 assembly votes the re-erection of the column 
 Vendome ; M. Ducatel, at the risk of his life, 
 having signalled that the way was clear, the 
 Versailles troops enter Paris by the gates of St. 
 Cloud and Montrouge, 2 p.m., 21 May; take 
 possession of the south and west, and about 
 10,000 prisoners, after some conflicts . 22 May, „ 
 
 Montrnartre taken by Douai and Ladmirault : 
 death of Dombrowski. Morning : Assy arrives 
 at Versailles ; execution of gendarmes and Gus- 
 tave Chaudey at the prison of Sainte-Pelagie. 
 Night : the Tuileries set on fire ; Delescluze and 
 the committee of public safety hold permanent 
 sittings at the Hotel de Ville . . 23 May, „ 
 
 Morning: Palais Royal, Ministry of Finance, 
 Hotel de Ville, &c, set on fire. 1 p.m., the 
 powder magazine at the Palais du Luxembourg 
 blown up ; the committee of public safety organ- 
 ise detachments of fusee-bearers ; petroleum 
 pumped into burning buildings ; Raqul Rigault 
 shot in the afternoon by the soldiers. Evening : 
 execution in the prison of La Roquette of the 
 archbishop, abbe Deguerry, president Bonjean, 
 and 64 others, hostages . . . .24 May, ,, 
 
 The forts Montrouge, Hautes-Bruyeres, Bicetre 
 evacuated by the insurgents ; the death of Deles- 
 cluze reported ; executions in the Avenue 
 d'ltalie of the Peres Dominicans of Arcueil, 
 
 25 May, ,, 
 
 16 priests and 38 gendarmes shot at Belleville by 
 the insurgents ; many women fighting, and cast- 
 ingpetrolcum into fires, shot . 26, 27 May, ,, 
 
 The Buttes Chaumont, the heights of Belleville, 
 and the cemetery of Pere Lachaise carried by the 
 troops ; taking of the prison of La Roquette by 
 the marines ; deliverance of 169 hostages ; the 
 investment of Belleville complete ; last position 
 captured by MacMahon ; fighting ends, 
 
 5 p.m., 28 May, ,, 
 
 Federal garrison of Vincennes surrendered at dis- 
 cretion 29 May, ,, 
 
 Reported results of seven days fighting in Paris: 
 regular troops, 877 killed, 645 wounded, 183 miss- 
 ing ; insurgents, about 50,000 dead, 25,000 pri- 
 soners ; nearly all the leaders killed or prisoners ; 
 about a fourth part of Paris destroyed 22-27 May, ,, 
 
 Estimated loss of property through the insurrection, 
 32,000,000^ April, May, „ 
 
 Thiers' decree for disarming Paris and abolishing 
 the National Guard of the Seine . . 29 May, 
 
 Victor Hugo expelled from Belgium . 30 May, ,, 
 
 Reported wholesale execution of prisoners by the 
 marquis de Gallifet ; Paris put under martial law ; 
 about 50,000 insurgents still at large . 30 May, ,, 
 
FRANCE. 
 
 283 
 
 FRANCE. 
 
 Severe letter from prince Napoleon Jerome to Jules 
 Favre, dated 31 May, 
 
 Changes in the ministry ; resignation (and reappoint- 
 ment of some) of those who had been members 
 of the government of defence . . 6 June, 
 
 Solemn funeral of Darboy, archbp. of Paris 7 June, 
 
 Abrogation of the laws of proscription by the as- 
 sembly (484 — 103) ; elections of the due d'Aumale 
 and the prince de Joinville declared valid 8 June. 
 
 Important speech of Thiers for maintaining the re- 
 public at present . . ■ . . .8 June 
 
 Imposition of new taxes (463,000,000 francs) and a 
 loan proposed by M. Pouyer Quertier . 12 June 
 
 Gen. Trochu's powerful speech defending the "go- 
 vernment of national defence " . 13, 14 June, 
 
 Army of reserve ordered to be dissolved 14 June, 
 
 Financial measures of M. Pouyer Quertier opposed 
 by Dufaure and the free-traders about 14 June, 
 
 Theatres and public places reopened in Paris about 
 
 20 June, 
 
 Letter from M. Guizot to M. Grevy recommending 
 political moderation to all parties, and main- 
 tenance of the present government, published 
 
 22 June, 
 
 The loan of 2 milliards francs (80,000,0001!.) decreed 
 26 June ; subscription opened, 27 June ; about 4 
 milliards subscribed for in France alone 28 June 
 
 132 members elected for the assembly ; includes 
 Gambetta, and a few legitimists and Bonapart- 
 ists ; the rest support the government . 2 July, 
 
 Letter from the comte de Chambord at Chambord, 
 professing devotion to France, and adhesion to 
 modern policy and liberality ; but declining to 
 give up the white flag of Henry IV. ; he retires to 
 Germany to avoid all pretext for agitation, dated 
 
 5 July, 
 The government said to have 500 votes in the 
 
 assembly; bill for new taxes passed (483 to 5) 
 
 8 July, 
 
 20,000,000?. part of the indemnity, paid to the Ger- 
 mans about 14 July, 
 
 Prince Napoleon Jerome expelled from France (at 
 Havre) 15 July, 
 
 M. Devienne, president of the court of cassation, 
 acquitted of blame for settling disputes relative 
 to an imperial scandal (in Nov. i860) . 21 July, 
 
 Jules Favre, foreign minister, resigns about 23 July ; 
 succeeded by Charles de Eemusat about 3 Aug. 
 
 Full compensation for losses claimed by the invaded 
 provinces refused by Thiers, who acknowledges 
 no debt, but proposes to act generously . Aug. 
 
 Trial of communist prisoners at Paris, begun about 
 
 8 Aug. 
 
 Great dissensions in the assembly between the 
 monarchists and republican parties ; resignation 
 of Thiers not accepted, 24 Aug. ; prolongation of his 
 power and the sovereign and constituent authority 
 of the assembly voted (443 to 227) about 25 Aug. 
 
 Thiers' powers prolonged, and nominated president 
 of the French republic by the assembly ; (the Bivet- 
 Vitet proposition), 491-93 . . .31 Aug. 
 
 French postage increased .... Sept. 
 
 Societe de Prevoyance established to counteract the 
 Internationale; becomes permanent . Sept. 
 
 Ferre and Lullier sentenced to death, others to 
 transportation or imprisonment, 2 Sept. ; 3 women 
 (petroleuses) sentenced to death for throwing 
 petroleum on fires 5 Sept. 
 
 Bill for making the whole nation bear the losses of 
 the invaded provinces adopted by the assembly 
 
 6 Sept. 
 Bossel, communist general, sentenced to death 
 
 8 Sept. 
 
 Message from Thiers to the assembly ; consideration 
 of the budget adjourned 12 Sept. ; read 13 Sept. 
 
 Disarmament of the national guard begun at Lyons, 
 &c 14 Sept. 
 
 Bill introduced concerning treaty with Germany 
 relating to tariff on goods from Alsace and Lor- 
 raine, and the reducing German troops in France 
 to 50,000 men, 14 Sept. ; adopted by the assembly 
 (533-33) ; the session declared closed, 2 a.m. 
 
 17 Sept. 
 
 Courts-martial on communists go on . . Sept. 
 
 " Permanent Committee" of 25 of different parties 
 appointed by the assembly to watch over the 
 course of the government during the recess (17 
 Sept. -4 Dec.) 15 Sept. 
 
 1871 
 
 25,000 communists yet to be tried ; about half to be 
 set free 15 Sept. 1871 
 
 Evacuation of Paris forts by the Germans begun 
 
 about 20 Sept. „ 
 
 Bochefort(of "LaLanterne," and " LeMotd'Ordre,") 
 sentenced to life-imprisonment . . 21 Sept. ,, 
 
 Difficulty in settling the Alsace and Lorraine treaty 
 
 21 Sept. , r 
 
 M. Pouyer Quertier, the French finance minister, 
 arrives at Berlin 8 Oct. , r 
 
 M. Lambrecht, minister of the interior, dies sud- 
 denly, 8 Oct. ; succeeded by M. Casimir Perier 
 
 10 Oct. ,, 
 
 Tranquil election of above 2000 general councillors 
 
 Oct. ,„ 
 
 Convention for evacuation of 6 departments, and 
 finance convention of Alsace and Lorraine signed, 
 12 and 13 Oct. ; exchanged . . .21 Oct. „. 
 
 Count Benedetti publishes an apology, attacking the 
 Prussian government ; count Bismarck replies (in 
 " Official Journal") disproving his assertions 
 
 22 Oct. ,,. 
 Dispute with Tunis settled . . about 25 Oct. „. 
 Prince Napoleon resigns his seat in the council- 
 general of Corsica ; and denounces intimidation 
 
 28 Oct. ,, 
 
 Insurrection in Algeria ended . . . Nov. ,,. 
 
 Eight of the murderers of generals Lecomte and 
 Thomas condemned .... 18 Nov. ,, 
 
 Bossel, Ferre, and Bourgeois, communist leaders, 
 shot at Satory in presence of 3000 soldiers 28 Nov. ,, 
 
 Gaston Cremieux executed at Marseilles . 30 Nov. ,, 
 
 Territory held by Germans put into state of siege 
 
 4 Dec. ,. 
 
 Meeting of the national assembly . . 4 Dec. ,, 
 
 Sixteen political parties said to exist . . Dec. „. 
 
 Thiers reads his message to the assembly ; depre- 
 cates free trade, but proposes moderate protec- 
 tion of French manufactures . . 7 Dec. ,, 
 
 Sharp despatch from count Bismarck in reference 
 to the acquittal of murderers of Germans at 
 Melun and Paris 7 Dec. ,,. 
 
 After some discussion with M. Thiers, the due 
 dAumale and prince de Joinville take their seats 
 in the assembly 19 Dec. ,,. 
 
 A committee of the assembly decide against the 
 assembly removing to Paris . . .22 Dec. ,,. 
 
 Joseph Lemettre condemned to death for 27 crimes 
 (chiefly atrocious murders) ... 23 Dec. ,, 
 
 Income-tax proposed and negatived . . 28 Dec. „ 
 
 Vautram, a government candidate, elected deputy 
 for Paris, and not Victor Hugo . . 7 Jan. 1872: 
 
 The due de Persigny dies . . . 12 Jan. ,, 
 
 Long debate in the assembly ; opposition to the 
 proposed taxes on raw materials ; government de- 
 feated (377-307) 19 Jan. ,,. 
 
 Resignation of Thiers and the ministry opposed by 
 the assembly ; M'Mahon writes that the army will 
 respect the orders of a majority of the assembly, 
 but not obey dictatorship ; Thiers resumes office 
 
 20 Jan. „, 
 
 Death of Aries Dufour, of Lyons, St. Simonian and 
 free-trader about 22 Jan. 
 
 The government taxes voted . . .22 Jan. 
 
 Conviction of the assassins of archbishop Darboy 
 and others (on 24 May, 1871), 1 to death 
 
 23 Jan. 
 Manifesto of the comte de Chambord ; his mind un- 
 changed ; he will not become a legitimate king by 
 revolution 29 Jan. 
 
 Abrogation of the commercial treaties with Great 
 
 Britain and Belgium determined on . Feb. 
 
 Sardou's play, " Rabagas," satirising the radicals ; 
 
 causes much excitement . . . .1 Feb. 
 Proposed return of the assembly to Paris negatived 
 
 (377-318) ; resignation of Casimir Perier, minister 
 
 of the interior 2 Feb. 
 
 League for commercial liberty formed . . Feb. 
 Five Communists sentenced to death for murder of 
 
 the Dominicans on 25 May . . .17 Feb. 
 Blanqui condemned to transportation to a fortified 
 
 prison about 17 Feb. 
 
 M. Rouher elected a member of the assembly about 
 
 15 Feb. 
 "Universal subscription to pay the indemnity to the 
 
 Germans begins . . . . . Feb. 
 Manifesto in favour of a constitutional monarchy 
 
 signed by about 280 of the " Right," about 21 Feb. 
 
FRANCE. 
 
 284- 
 
 FKANCE. 
 
 Assassins of generals Clement and Thomas executed 
 
 22 Feb. 1872 
 
 Janvier de la Motte, a prefect, prosecuted for forgery, 
 &c. , by government, acquitted ; M. Pouyer Quer- 
 tier, who gives evidence in his favour, resigns, 
 about 5 March, 
 
 Joseph Lemettre executed . . .5 March, 
 
 The treaty of commerce with Great Britain (i860), 
 denounced (to cease in 12 months) . 15 March, 
 
 War budget of 27,000,000?. (formerly 10,000,000?.) 
 proposed March, 
 
 Publishers of "Figaro" convicted of libel against 
 general Trochu ; moderate punishment 2 April, 
 
 Abolition of passports for British subjects an- 
 nounced 10 April, 
 
 Law against the International Society placarded 
 
 22 April, 
 
 In a letter, the ex-emperor takes upon himself the 
 whole responsibility of the surrender at Sedan 
 
 12 May, 
 
 Rouher iu the assembly repels the due d'Audiffret 
 Pasquier's severe attack on the empire 21 May, 
 
 Three more condemned communists shot 25 May, 
 
 The due; d'Aumale speaks in the chamber in favour 
 of the army organisation bill . . .28 May, 
 
 Marshal Vaillant dies 4 June, 
 
 'Thiers threatens to resign at opposition in the 
 chamber about 9 June, 
 
 Interview of delegates of the majority (the right) in 
 the assembly with Thiers (respecting his policy); 
 much censured 20 June, 
 
 Budget for 1873 ; deficiency, 4,800,000?. ; 8,000,000?. 
 to be raised ; Thiers advocates duty on raw mate- 
 rials, and opposes income-tax, 26 June, et seq. 
 
 The majority in the assembly propose MacMahon as 
 president in room of Thiers . . . July, 
 
 New convention between Germany and France re- 
 specting speedy payment of the indemnity and 
 evacuation of territory, signed . . 29 June, 
 
 Anniversary of the destruction of the Bastille cele- 
 brated by public dinners ; important moderate 
 speech by Gambetta at Ferte-sous- Jouarre, 14 July, 
 
 Announcement of a public loan of 120,000,000/. at 
 6J per cent 26 July, 
 
 Three communists (murderersof hostages) executed 
 at Satory . . . . .25 July, 
 
 The loan subscribed for, nearly 12 times the amount, 
 Chiefly in France July, 
 
 Thiers' financial measures carried (taxes on raw 
 materials, &c.) ; the session of the assembly closed 
 
 3 Aug. 
 
 Meeting of Guizot and Thiers at Val Richer n Sept. 
 
 Arrest of Edmond About at Saverne, by the Ger- 
 mans, on account of a newspaper article (written 
 Oct. 1871), 14 Sept. ; released . . 21 Sept. 
 
 Three more communist murderers shot at Satory 
 
 15 Sept. 
 
 Attempted celebration of the anniversary of the 
 establishment of the first French republic ; ban- 
 quet at Chambery stopped . . .22 Sept. 
 
 M. Thiers and the ministry in Paris . . Sept. 
 
 Progress of Gambetta in the south ; violent speech 
 at Grenoble against Thiers ... 27 Sept. 
 
 Pilgrimage of about 20,000 persons to the grotto of 
 the Virgin Mary at Lourdes, on account of alleged 
 miracles (the Virgin was said to have appeared to 
 two girls, 14 Feb. 1858) .... 6 Oct. 
 
 Report that the Russian minister remonstrated on 
 Gambetta's speech ;it Grenoble . . Oct. 
 
 The supreme council of war constituted ; includes 
 MacMahon, Canrobert, due d'Aumale, and other 
 eminent generals ; first meeting, Thiers present 
 
 9 Oct. 
 
 Prince Napoleon and princess Clothilde come to 
 Paris ; expelled by order of the government (lie 
 protests) 12 Oct. 
 
 Letter from the comte de Chambord to M. de la 
 Rochette, protesting against a republic, and assert- 
 ing that France can be saved, by a monarchy 
 alone ; that she is catholic and monarchical, and 
 cannot, therefore, perish ; dated . . 15 Oct. 
 
 Elections for vacancies in the assembly ; radical 
 republicans mostly elected ... 20 Oct. 
 
 The Germans evacuate Haute Marne and other de- 
 partments Oct., Nov. 
 
 Banquet of the monarchical party at Bordeaux 
 
 31 Oct. 
 
 New commercial treaty with Great Britain signed at 
 London 5 Nov. 1872 
 
 Re-assembling of the national assembly, 11 Nov. ; 
 Thiers in his message declares that the republic is 
 the legal government ; and that to exist it must 
 be conservative ; and proposes changes 12 Nov. ,, 
 
 Service of prayer on behalf of the assembly 17 Nov. „ 
 
 Fruitless attack nf general Changamier on Thiers' 
 policy and Gambetta's speech at Grenoble ; mo- 
 tion to pass to order of the day ; majority for 
 government, 150 ; (300 did not vote) . 18 Nov ,, 
 
 M. Kerdrel proposes a commission to consider 
 Thiers' proposals for changes ; adopted 19 Nov. „ 
 
 Thiers threatens to resign ; crisis . 19, 20 Nov. ,, 
 
 Report of the commission read by M. Batbie, claim- 
 ing the right of the assembly to frame a constitu- 
 tion with a responsible ministry ; the president 
 not to speak in the assembly, &c. ; he advocated 
 " gouvernement de combat " . . 26 Nov. ,, 
 
 Amendment proposed by Dufaure, minister of jus- 
 tice, accepting ministerial responsibility, rejected 
 by the committee .... 28 Nov. ,, 
 
 M. Thiers addresses the assembly ; declares he pre- 
 fers the English to the American system ; but 
 that a monarchy in France is at 1 'resent impos- 
 sible ; that he is faithful to the republic ; and 
 that he wishes to render it conservative ; and that 
 he has for two years served his country with 
 boundless devotion ; Dufaure's amendment car- 
 ried by 370-334 (union of royalists with Bonapart- 
 ists against the radicals) . . -29 Nov. ,, 
 
 Vote of censure on the home minister (Lanfranc) 
 carried; 305-299; he resigns . . 3c Nov. ., 
 
 Agitation respecting the appointment of the com- 
 mission of 30, proposed by Dufaure ; it consists 
 of 19 for the right, n for the government, 6 Dec. ; 
 changes in the ministry announced . 8 Dec. ,, 
 
 Manifesto of the left, proposing a dissolution of the 
 assembly by legal means ... 10 Dec. ,, 
 
 Negatived by the assembly (490-201) . 14 Dec. ,, 
 
 Powerful speech of Thiers to the commission of 30 
 
 16 Dec. ,, 
 
 Execution of Poitevin, a traitor . . 23 Dec. „ 
 
 Meeting of the national assembly . . 6 Jan. 1873 
 
 Illness of the ex-emperor . . . . 4 Jan. ,, 
 
 Death of Napoleon III. at Chiselhurst . 9 Jan. ,, 
 
 Bonapartist manifesto ; "the emperor is dead, but 
 the empire is living and indestructible " 15 Jan. ,, 
 
 The "30 committee" considering Tallou's project 
 for a constitution Jan. ,, 
 
 Three communist murderers shot at Satory 22 Jan. ,, 
 
 Reported recognition of the comte de Chambord as 
 king by the Orleans princes . . .26 Jan. ,, 
 
 Powerful speech of Thiers before the commission of 
 30 against their proposed changes . . 2 Feb. ,, 
 
 The commission of 30 close their meetings 8 Feb. „ 
 
 Letter of the comte de Chambord published ; destroys 
 all hopes of the fusion of the Bourbons . Feb. ,, 
 
 Debate begins on the report of the commission, 
 which reserves the legislative rights of the present 
 assembly, and the adherence to the provisional 
 state in accordance with the " pacte de Bor- 
 deaux," 27 Feb. ; powerful speech of Thiers in 
 favour of this "truce of parties," adopted (475 — 
 199) 4 March, „ 
 
 Convention for the total evacuation of the depart- 
 ments in Sept. on payment of indemnity, signed 
 at Berlin 15 March, ,, 
 
 Declaration in the assembly " that M. Thiers has de- 
 served well of his country " . . 17 March, ,, 
 
 M. Grevy resigns the presidency on account of the 
 conduct of the party of the right, 2 April ; 
 M. Buffet, a liberal Bonapartist, elected in oppo- 
 sition to Martel the government candidate, 4 April, ,, 
 
 M. Barodet, radical, ex-mayor of Lyons, elected 
 member of the assembly for Paris by a large ma- 
 jority over the minister de Remusat . 27 April, ,, 
 
 Thiers' ministry defeated ; he resigns ; Marshal 
 MacMahon appointed president . 24 May, „ 
 
 Sovereigns of France, 
 merovingian race. 
 Pharamond (his existence doubtful). 
 428. Clodion the Hairy ; his supposed son ; king of the 
 
 Salic Franks. 
 447. Merovseus, or Merovee ; son-in-law of Clodion. 
 458. Childeric ; son of Merovee. 
 
FEANCE. 
 
 285 
 
 FEANCE. 
 
 481. Clovis the Great, his son, and the real founder of 
 
 the monarchy. He left four sons, who divided 
 
 the empire : 
 511. Childebert ; Paris. 
 
 ,, Clodomir ; Orleans. 
 
 ,, Thierry ; Metz ; and 
 
 ,, Clotaire ; Soissons. 
 
 534. Theodebert; Metz. 
 548. Theodebald ; succeeded in Metz. 
 558. Clotaire I. ; now sole ruler of Prance. Upon his 
 
 death the kingdom was again divided between 
 
 four sons : viz. , 
 561. Charibert, ruled at Paris. 
 ,, Gontram, in Orleans and Burgundy. 
 ,, Sigebert, at Metz, and ) Both assassinated by 
 ,, Chilperic, at Soissons. J Predegond. 
 575. Childebert II. 
 584. Clotaire II. ; Soissons. 
 596. Thierry II. , son of Childebert ; in Orleans. 
 „ Theodebert II. ; Metz. 
 613. Clotaire II. ; became sole king. 
 628. Dagobert I. the Great, son of Clotaire II. ; divided 
 
 the kingdom between his two sons : 
 638. Clovis II. , Burgundy and Neustria. 
 ,, Sigebert II., Austrasia. 
 656. Clotaire III. , son of Clovis II. 
 670. Childeric II. ; sole king ; assassinated, with his 
 
 queen and his son Dagobert, in the forest of Livri. 
 670. Thierry III. ; Burgundy and Neustria. 
 674. Dagobert II. , son of Sigebert, in Austrasia ; assas- 
 sinated 679. 
 691. Clovis III. (Pepin, mayor of the palace, rules in his 
 
 name ; succeeded by his brother). 
 695. Childebert III. , surnamed the Just ; Pepin 
 
 supreme. 
 711. Dagobert III., son of Childebert. 
 715. Chilperic II., deposed by Charles Martel, mayor of 
 
 the palace. 
 717. Clotaire IV., of obscure origin, raised by Charles 
 
 Martel to the throne ; dies soon after ; Chilperic 
 
 is recalled from Aquitaine. 
 720. Chilperic II. restored; shortly afterwards dies at 
 
 Noyon ; succeeded by 
 ,, Thierry IV., son of Dagobert III., surnamed de 
 
 Chelles; died in 737. Charles Martel now reigns 
 
 under the new title of "duke of the French." 
 
 Henault. 
 737. Interregnum, till the death of Charles Martel, in 741. 
 742. Childeric III., son of Chilperic II., surnamed the 
 
 Stupid. Carloman and Pepin, the sons of Charles 
 
 Martel, share the government of the kingdom in 
 
 this reign. 
 
 THE CARL0V1NGIANS. 
 
 752. Pepin the Short, son of Charles Martel ; he is suc- 
 ceeded by his two sons, 
 
 768. Charles the Great (Charlemagne) and Carloman; 
 Charles crowned Emperor of the West, by 
 Leo III. , 800. Carloman reigned but three years. 
 
 814. Louis I. le Debonnaire, Emperor; dethroned, but 
 restored to his dominions. 
 
 840. Charles, surnamed the Bald, King ; Emperor in 
 875 ; poisoned by Zedechias, a Jewish physician. 
 
 877. Louis II. , the Stammerer, son of Charles the Bald, 
 King. 
 
 879. Louis III. and Carloman II. ; the former died in 
 882, and Carloman reigned alone. 
 
 884. Charles III. le Grc>s; a usurper, in prejudice to 
 Charles the Simple. 
 
 887. Eudes, or Hugh, count of Paris. 
 
 898. Charles III. (or IV), the Simple; deposed, and 
 died in prison in 929 ; he married Edgiva, 
 daughter of Edward the Elder, of England, by 
 whom he had a son, King Louis IV. 
 
 922. Eobert, brother of Eudes ; crowned at Eheims ; 
 
 Charles killed him in battle. Henault. 
 
 923. Rudolf or Raoul, duke of Burgundy ; elected king, 
 
 but never acknowledged by the southern pro- 
 vinces. Henault. 
 
 936. Louis IV. d'Outremer, or Transmarine (from having 
 been conveyed by his mother into England), son 
 ofCharlesIII. (or IV); died by a fall from his horse. 
 
 954. Lothaire,hisson; reigned jointly with his father from 
 952, and succeeds him at 15 years of age, under 
 the protection of Hugh the Great ; poisoned. 
 
 986. Louis V. , the Indolent, son of Lothaire ; also 
 poisoned, it is supposed by his queen, Blanche ; 
 last of the race of Charlemagne. 
 
 THE CAPETS. 
 
 987. Hugh Capet, the Great, count of Paris, &c, eldest 
 son of Hugh the Abbot, 3 July; he seizes the- 
 crown, in prejudice to Charles of Lorraine, uncle 
 of Louis Transmarine. From him this race of 
 kings is called Capevingians and Capetians. He- 
 died 24 Oct. 
 996. Robert II. , surnamed the Sage ; son; died lamented,. 
 20 July. 
 
 1031. Henry I., son; died 29 Aug. 
 
 1060. Philip I. the Fair, VAmoureux; son; succeeded at 
 8 years of age ; ruled at 14 ; died 3 Aug. 
 
 1108. Louis VI. , surnamed the Lusty, or le Gros; son; 
 died 1 Aug. 
 
 1137. Louis VII. ; son ; surnamed the Young, to distin- 
 guish him from his father, with whom he reigned 
 for some years ; died 18 Sept. 
 
 1180. Philip II. (Augustus) ; son ; succeeds at 15 - r 
 crowned at Rheims in his father's lifetime ; died 
 
 14 July, 
 
 1223. Louis VIII., Cceur de Lion; son ; died 8 Nov. 
 1226. Louis IX. ; son ; called St. Louis ; ascended the 
 
 throne at 15, under the guardianship of his 
 
 mother, who was also regent ; died in his camp 
 
 before Tunis, 25 Aug. 
 1270. Philip III., the Hardy; son; died at Perpignan,. 
 
 6 Oct. 
 1285. Philip IV., the Fair; son; king in his 17th year ; 
 
 died 29 Nov. 
 1314. Louis X. ; son ; surnamed Rutin, an old word for 
 
 headstrong, or mutinous ; died 5 June. 
 1316. John I., posthumous son of Louis X. ; bom 
 
 15 Nov. ; died 19 Not, / 
 
 „ Philip V the Long (on account of his stature) ; 
 brother of Louis ; died 3 Jan. 
 1322. Charles IV, the Handsome; brother; died 31 Jan. 
 1328. 
 
 HOUSE OF VALOIS. 
 
 1328. Philip VI., de Valois, the Fortunate; grandson of 
 
 Philip III. ; died 23 Aug. 
 1350. John II. the Good ; son ; died suddenly in the Savoy 
 
 in London, 8 April, 
 1364. Charles V., the Wise; son; died 16 Sept. 
 1380. Charles VI. the Beloved ; son ; died 21 Oct. 
 1422. Charles VII., the Victorious ; son; died 22 July, 
 1461. Louis XI. ; son ; able but cruel : died 30 Aug. 
 1483. Charles VIII., the Affable; son; died 7 April, 
 1498. Louis XII., Duke of Orleans; the Father of his- 
 
 People ; great-grandson of Charles V. ; died 
 
 1 Jan. 
 1515. Francis I. of Angouleme; called the Father of 
 
 Letters ; great-great-grandson of Charles V. ; 
 
 died 31 March, 
 1547. Henry II. ; son; died of a wound received at a 
 
 tournament at the nuptials of his sister with the 
 
 duke of Savoy, accidentally inflicted by the comte 
 
 de Montmorency, 10 July, 
 
 1559. Francis II. ; son ; married Mary Stuart, queen of 
 
 Scots ; died 5 Dec. 
 
 1560. Charles IX. ; brother ; Catherine de Medicis, his 
 
 mother, regent ; died 30 May, 
 1574. Henry III. ; brother ; elected king of Poland ; last 
 of the house of Valois ; stabbed by Jacques 
 Clement, a Dominican friar, 1 Aug. ; died 2 Aug. 
 1589. 
 
 HOUSE OF BOURBON. 
 
 1589. Henry IV. , the Great, of Bourbon, king of Navarre ; 
 son-in-law of Henry II. ; murdered by Francis 
 Ravaillac, 14 May, 
 1610. Louis XIII., the Just; son; died 14 May, 
 1643. Louis XIV, the Great, Dieudonne; son; diec 
 
 1 Sepit. 
 1715. Louis XV. , the Well-beloved ; great-grandson ; diea 
 
 20 May, 
 1774. Louis XVI. , his grandson ; ascended the throne in 
 his 20th year; married the archduchess Marie 
 Antoinette, of Austria, May, 1770; dethroned, 
 14 July, 1789; guillotined, 21 Jan. 1793, and his 
 queen, 16 Oct. following. 
 [Louis was executed Monday, 21 January, 1793, at 
 eight o'clock a. m. On the scaffold he said, "French- 
 men, I die innocent of the offences imputed to me. I 
 pardon all my enemies, and I implore of Heaven that 
 
 my beloved France " At this instant Santerre- 
 
 ordered the drums to beat, and the executioners to 
 perform their office. When the guillotine descended, 
 the priest exclaimed : " Son of St. Louis ! ascend to 
 
FRANCE. 
 
 286 
 
 FRANCONIA. 
 
 heaven." The bleeding head was then held up, and a 
 few of the popula.ce shouted, " Vice la Mpublique!" 
 The body was interred in a grave that was immediately 
 afterwards filled up with quick lime, and a strong 
 guard was placed around until it should be consumed. 
 1793. Louis XVII. , son of Louis XVI. He never reigned ; 
 
 and died in prison, supposed by poison, 8 June, 
 
 1795, aged 10 years 2 months. 
 
 THE FIKST REPUBLIC. 
 
 1792. The National Convention (750 members), first 
 
 sitting, 21 Sept. 
 j 795. The Directory (Lareveillere Lepaux, Letourneur, 
 
 Rewbell, Barras, and Carnot) nominated 1 Nov. ; 
 
 abolished, and Bonaparte, Ducos, and Sieyes 
 
 appointed an executive commission, Nov. 1799. 
 1799. The Consulate. Napoleon Bonaparte, Camba- 
 
 ceres, and Lebrun appointed consuls, 24 Dec. 
 
 Napoleon appointed consul for 10 years, 6 May, 
 
 1802 ; for life, 2 Aug. 1802. 
 first empire. (See article Bonaparte Family.) 
 
 [Established by the senate 18 May, 1804.] 
 1804. Napoleon (Bonaparte) I. ; born 15 Aug. 1769. 
 
 He married, 
 1st, Josephine, widow of Alexis, vicomte de 
 
 Beauharnais, 8 March, 1796 (who was divorced 
 
 16 Dec, 1809, and died 29 May, 1814) ; 
 2nd, Maria-Louisa of Austria, 2 April, 1810 (she 
 
 died 17 Dec. 1847). Son, Napoleon Joseph, duke 
 
 of Reichstadt, born 20 March, 1811 ; died, 22 
 
 July, 1832. 
 He renounced the thrones of France and Italy, 
 
 and accepted the isle of Elba for his retreat, 5 
 
 April, 1814. 
 Again appeared in France, 1 March, 1815. 
 Was defeated at Waterloo, 18 June, 1815. 
 Abdicated in favour of his infant son, 22 June, 
 
 1815. 
 Banished to St. Helena, where he dies, 5 May, 
 
 1821. (See France, p. 274). 
 
 BOURBONS RESTORED. 
 
 1814. Louis XVIII. (comte de Provence), brother of 
 Louis XVI. ; born 17 Nov. 1755 ; married Marie- 
 Josephine-Louise of Savoy ; entered Paris, and 
 took possession of the throne, 3 May, 1814 ; 
 obliged to flee, 20 March, 1815 ; returned 8 July, 
 same year ; died without issue, 16 Sept. 1824. 
 
 3824. Charles X. (comte d'Artois), his brother ; born 9 Oct. 
 1757 ; married Marie-Therese of Savoy ; deposed 
 30 July, 1830. He resided in Britain till 1832, 
 and died at Gratz, in Hungary, 6 Nov. 1835. 
 [Heir : Henry, due de Bordeaux, called comte de 
 Chambord, son of the due de Berry ; born 29 
 Sept. 1820 ; married princess Theresa of Modena, 
 Nov. 1846; no issue.] 
 
 house or Orleans. (See Orleans.) 
 
 3830. Louis-Philippe, son of Louis-Philippe, duke of 
 Orleans, called Egalite, descended from Philippe, 
 duke of Orleans, son of Louis XIII. ; born 6 
 Oct. 1773 ; married 25 Nov. 1809, Maria- Amelia, 
 daughter of Ferdinand I. (IV.) king of the Two 
 Sicilies ; (she died 24 March, 1866). Raised to the 
 throne as king of the French, 9 Aug. 1830 ; abdi- 
 cated 24 Feb. 1848. Died in exile, in England, 
 26 Aug. 1850. 
 [Heir : Louis-Philippe, count of Paris ; born 24 
 Aug. 1838.] 
 
 SECOND REPUBLIC, 1848. 
 
 The revolution commenced in a popular insurrection at 
 Paris, 22 Feb. 1848. The royal family escaped by 
 flight to England, a provisional government was estab- 
 lished, monarchy abolished, and France declared a 
 republic. 
 
 ■Charles-Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte, declared by the 
 National Assembly (19 Dec.) president of the republic 
 of France ; and proclaimed next day, 20 Dec. ; elected 
 for ten years, 22 Dec. 1851. 
 
 FRENCH EMPIRE REVIVED. 
 
 ,[1821. Napoleon II. (decreed to be so termed l>y 
 Napoleon III. on his accession). Napolecm- 
 Joseph, son of Napoleon I. and Maria-Louisa, 
 archduchess of Austria ; born 20 March, 181 1 : 
 created king of Rome. On the abdication of his 
 father he was made duke of Reichstadt, in 
 Austria ; and died at the palace of Sehoenbrumi, 
 22 July, 1832, aged 21.] 
 
 1852. Napoleon III., formerly president of the P'reneh 
 republic, elected emperor, 21, 22 Nov. 1852 ; 
 proclaimed, 2 Dec. 1852 ; surrendered himself a 
 prisoner to the king of Prussia at Sedan, 2 Sept. 
 1870 ; deposed at Paris, 4 Sept. ; arrives at Wil- 
 heimshohe, nearCassel, 5 Sept. ; deposition con- 
 finned by the national assembly, 1 March : he 
 protested against it, 6 March, 1871 ; diedat Chisel- 
 hurst, England, 9 Jan. 1873; buried there 15 Jan. 
 
 Empress : Eugenie-Marie (a Spaniard, countess of 
 Teba), born 5 May, 1826 ; married 29 Jan. 1853. 
 
 Heir: Napoleon-Eugene-Louis-Jean- Joseph, son ; 
 born 16 March, 1856. 
 
 [On 18 Dec. 1852, the succession, in default of issue 
 from the emperor, was determined in favour of 
 prince Jerome-Napoleon and his heirs male.] 
 
 THIRD REPUBLIC. 
 
 Louis AdolpheThiers (bom 16 April, i797)appointed chief 
 of the executive power, 17 Feb., and president of the 
 French republic, by the national assembly, 31 Aug. 1871. 
 
 FRANCE, ISLE OF, see Mauritius. 
 
 FRANCHE COMTE, in upper Burgundy, E. 
 France, was conquered by Julius Ctesar, about 45 
 B.C. ; by the Burgundians, early in the fifth century, 
 a.d. ; and by the Franks about 534. It was made 
 a county for Hugh the Black in 915, and received 
 its name from having been taken from Benaud III. 
 (1127-48), and restored to him. By marriage with 
 the count's daughter, Beatrice, the emperor 
 Frederick I. acquired the county, 11 56. Their 
 descendant, Mary of Burgundy, by marriage with 
 the archduke Maximilian, conveyed it to the house 
 of Austria, 1477. It was conquered by the French, 
 1668; restored by the treaty of Aix la Chapelle, 
 2 May, 1668 ; again conquered ; and finally annexed 
 to France by treaty, 1674. 
 
 FRANCHISE. A privilege or exemption 
 from ordinary j urisdiction, and anciently an asylum 
 or sanctuary where the person was secure. In 
 Spain, churches and monasteries were, until lately, 
 franchises for criminals, as formerly in England ; 
 see Sanctuaries. In 1429, the elective fran- 
 chise for counties was restricted to persons having 
 at least 40s. a year in land, and resident ; for recent 
 changes, see Reform. 
 
 FRANCIS' Assault on the Queen. 
 
 John Francis, a youth, fired a pistol at queen Vic- 
 toria as she was riding down Constitution-hill, in 
 an open barouche, accompanied by prince Albert, 30 
 May, 1842. The queen was uninjured. Previous 
 intimation having reached the palace of the inten- 
 tion of the criminal, her majesty had commanded 
 that none of the ladies of her court should attend 
 her. Francis was condemned to death, 17 June, 
 following, but was transported for life. 
 
 FRANCISCANS. Grey or Minor Friars, an 
 order founded by St. Francis d'Assisi, about 1209. 
 Their rules were chastity, poverty, obedience, and 
 very austere regimen. About 1220 they appeared in 
 England, where, at the time of the dissolution of 
 monasteries by Henry VIII., they had fifty-five 
 abbeys or other houses, 1536-38. 
 
 FRANCONIA, or Frankenland (on the 
 Maine), formerly a circle of the German empire, 
 part of Thuringia, was conquered by Thierry, king 
 of the Franks, 530, and colonized. Its count or 
 duke, Conrad, was elected king of Germany, 912 ; 
 and his descendant was the emperor Conrad III., 
 elected 1 138, and another duke. Franconia wasmade 
 a distinct circle from Thuringia in 1512. At its sub- 
 division in 1806 various German princes obtained 
 apart; but in 1814 the largest share was awarded 
 to Bavaria. 
 
FEANCO-PEUSSIAN WAE. 
 
 287 
 
 FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAE. 
 
 FRANCO-PEUSSIAN WAE originated in 
 the emperor of the French's jealousy of the greatly 
 increased power of Prussia, through the successful 
 issue of the war with Denmark in 1864, and with 
 Austria in 1866. The German Confederation was 
 thereby annulled, and the North German Con- 
 federation established under the supremacy of 
 the king of Prussia, to whose territories were 
 further annexed Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Nas- 
 sau, Frankfort, and other provinces. This great 
 augmentation of the power of Prussia was mainly 
 due to the energetic policy of count Bismarck- 
 Schonhausen, prime minister since Sept. 1862. 
 
 In a draft treaty, secretly proposed to the Prussian, 
 government by the French emperor in 1866 : " 1. 
 The emperor recognises the acquisitions which 
 Prussia has made in the last war ; 2. The king of 
 Prussia promises to facilitate the acquisition of 
 Luxemburg by Prance ; 3. The emperor will not 
 oppose a federal union of the northern and 
 southern states of Germany, excluding Austria ; 
 4. The king of Prussia, in case the emperor should 
 enter or conquer Belgium, will support him in 
 arms against any opposing power ; 5. They enter 
 into an alliance offensive and defensive." 
 
 [This draft treaty was published in the Times, 25 
 July, 1870. After some discussion, its authenti- 
 city was admitted ; count Bismarck asserting 
 that it emanated entirely from the French em- 
 peror, and that the scheme had never been 
 seriously entertained by himself.] 
 
 In March, 1867, a dispute arose through the French 
 emperor's proposal for purchasing Luxemburg 
 from the king of Holland, which was strongly op- 
 posed by Prussia, as that province had formed 
 part of the dissolved Germanic Confederation ; 
 and the affair was only settled by a conference of 
 the representatives of the great powers in London, 
 at which the perfect neutrality of Luxemburg 
 was determined, together with the withdrawal of 
 the Prussian garrison and the destruction of the 
 fortifications 7-1 1 May, 1867 
 
 Prince Leopold of Hohenzolleru-Sigmaringen (con- 
 nected with the Prussian dynasty, and brother of 
 Charles, prince of Eoumania), consented to be- 
 come a candidate for the throne of Spain, 4 July, 1870 
 
 This was denounced by the French government. 
 Threatening speeches were made in the French 
 chamber by the due de Grammont, the foreign 
 minister, and eventually, after some negotiation 
 and the intervention of Great Britain, prince Leo- 
 pold, with the consent; of his sovereign, declined 
 the proffered crown ' . . . .12 July, ,, 
 
 The submission did not satisfy the French govern- 
 ment and nation and the demand for a guarantee 
 against the repetition of such an acceptance 
 irritated the Prussian government, and led to the 
 termination of the negotiations, the king refusing 
 to receive the count Benedetti, the French 
 minister 13 July, „ 
 
 Energetic but fruitless efforts to avert the war were 
 
 I made by earl Granville, the British foreign 
 minister about 15 July, „ 
 
 War was announced by the emperor, with the 
 hearty consent of the great majority of the 
 chambers. Theleft or republican party opposed the 
 war ; M. Thiers and a few others only protested 
 against it as premature .... 15 July, ,, 
 
 {After his surrender on 2 Sept. , the emperor told 
 count Bismarck that he did not desire war, but 
 was driven into it by public opinion. He appears 
 to have been greatly deceived as to the numerical 
 strength of his army, and its state of preparation. ] 
 
 " The greatest national crime that we have had the 
 pain of recording since the days of the first 
 French revolution has beeu consummated. War 
 is declared — an unjust but premeditated war." — 
 Times, 16 July, 1871. 
 
 {For details of the battles see separate articles.) 
 
 French Army, about 300,000 : — 
 
 1st corps, under marshal MacMahon. 
 2nd corps, under general Frossard. 
 3rd crops, under marshal Bazaine. 
 4th corps, under general Ladmirault. 
 
 sth corps, under general De Failly. 
 6th corps, under marshal Canrobert. 
 Imperial guard, under general Bourbaki. 
 Commander-in-chief, the emperor ; general Le Bceuf, 
 second ; succeeded by marshal Bazaine. 
 
 Prussian Army, about 640,000 : — 
 
 1. Northern, under general Vcigel von Falckenstein, 
 
 about 220,000, defending the Elbe, Hanover, &c. 
 
 2. Bight, under prince Frederick Charles, about 
 
 180,000. 
 
 3. Centre, under generals Von Bittenfeld and Von 
 
 Steinmetz, about 80,000. 
 
 4. The left, under the crown prince of Prussia, about 
 
 166,000. 
 Commander-in-chief, king William; second, general 
 Von Moltke. 
 
 The North German army, at the beginning of August, 
 consisted, firstly, of 550,000 line, with 1,200 guns and 
 53,000 cavalry ; secondly, of 187,000 reserve, with 234 
 guns and 18,000 cavalry ; and, thirdly, of 205,000 land- 
 wehr or militia, with 10,000 cavalry, making a grand 
 total of 944,000 men, with 1,680 mobilised guns and 
 193,000 horses. 
 
 To these must be added, firstly, the Bavarians, 69,000 
 line, with 192 guns and 14,800 horses— 25,000 reserve 
 with 2,400 horses, and 22,000 landwehr ; secondly, the 
 Wurtembergers— 22,000 line with 54 guns and' 6,200 
 horses, 6,500 reserve, and 6,000 landwehr ; and, thirdly, 
 the Badenese — 16,000 line with 54 guns, 4,000 reserve, 
 and 9,600 landwehr. 
 
 All the German troops taken together as under arms at 
 present, 1,124,000 men. Aug. 1870. 
 
 Four weeks previously, on the peace footing, they num- 
 bered only 360,000. 
 
 The French and Germans in this war were considered to 
 be equally brave and efficient ; but the French generals 
 appear to have acted greatly upon impulse. The Ger- 
 mans seem to have been invariably guided by a well 
 matured plan, their tactics mainly consisting in bring- 
 ing vast masses to bear on the point where they were 
 anxious to prevail. From Saarbriiek to Sedan, Moltke 
 appears to have left nothing to chance ; and all his ar- 
 rangements were ably carried out. 
 
 The causes of the early ruin of the French army were : 
 " 1, the enormous superiority of the Germans in regard 
 to numbers ; 2, the absolute unity of their command 
 and concert of operation ; 3, their superior mechanism 
 in equipment and supplies ; 4, the superior intelli- 
 gence, steadiness and discipline of the soldiers ; 5, 
 superior education of the officers, and the dash and 
 intelligeuce of the cavalry." — Quarterly Review. 
 
 War resolved on by the French government, 15 July ; 
 declaration delivered at Berlin . . 19 July, 1870 
 
 The north German parliament meet at Berlin, and 
 engage to support Prussia in the war 19 July, „ 
 
 Witrtemberg, Bavaria, Baden, and Hesse Darm- 
 stadt declare war against France, and send con- 
 tingents to the army .... 20 July, „ • 
 
 War proclamation of the emperor Napoleon, de- 
 claring that the national honour, violently excited 
 . '. . alone takes in hand the destinies of the 
 country 23 July, „ 
 
 Part of the bridge at Kehl blown up by the 
 Prussians 23 July, „ 
 
 Proclamation of the king that " love of the common 
 fatherland, and the unanimous uprising of the 
 German races, have conciliated all opinions, and 
 dissipated all disagreements .... The war will 
 procure for Germany a durable peace, and from 
 this bloody seed will arise a harvest blessed by 
 God — the liberty and unity of Germany," 25 July, „ 
 
 Skirmish at Niederbronn ; a Bavarian officer killed, 
 
 26 July, „ 
 
 Day of general prayer observed in Prussia, 27 July, „ 
 
 The emperor Napoleon joins the army ; at Metz as- 
 sumes the chief command, and issues a proclama- 
 tion declaring that the war will be long and severe, 
 
 28, 29 July, „ 
 
 Bepulse of a French attack at Saarbriiek, 30 July, „ 
 
 20 Badenese enter France at Lauterburg ; Mr. 
 Winsloe killed ; some captured ; others escape 
 with valuable information . -31 July, „ 
 
 Proclamation of the king of Prussia to his people, 
 granting an amnesty for political offences, and 
 "resolving, like our forefathers, placing full 
 
FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. 
 
 288 
 
 FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. 
 
 trust in God, to accept the battle for the defence 
 
 of the fatherland" .... 31 July. 1S70 
 
 He leaves Berlin for the army, 1 Aug., and an- 
 nounces that "all Germany stands united in arms" 
 
 3 Aug. „ 
 
 The French government announce that "they 
 make war, not against Germany, but against 
 Prussia, or rather against the policy of count 
 Bismarck " 2 Aug. „ 
 
 The French under Frossard bombard and take Saar- 
 briick in the presence of the emperor and his 
 son ; the Prussians, dislodged, retire with little 
 loss 2 Aug. „ 
 
 The due deGrammont, French foreign minister, pub- 
 lishes a circular replying to Bismarck's charges 
 against France 3 Aug. 
 
 The crown prince crosses the Lauter, the boundary 
 of France, and defeats the French under Frossard, 
 storming the lines of Wisembourg and Geisberg ; 
 general Douav killed 4 Aug. ,, 
 
 Battle of Woerth : in a desperate, long-continued 
 battle the crown prince defeats marshal MacMa- 
 hon and the army of the Khine ; they retire to 
 Saverne to cover Nancy . . . . 6 Aug. 
 
 Battle of Forbach: Saarbriick recaptured, and For- 
 bach (in France) taken by generals Von Gceben 
 and Von Steinmetz, after a fierce contest ; all the 
 French retreat 6 Aug. 
 
 General Turr publishes, in a letter, statements of 
 proposals by Bismarck for the annexation of Lux- 
 embourg and Belgium by France, in 1866 and 
 1867 ....... 6 Aug. „ 
 
 The emperor, reporting these defeats, says, " Tout 
 pent se retablir " 7 Aug. ,, 
 
 The Germans occupy Forbach, Haguenau, and Saar- 
 guemines 7 Aug. ,, 
 
 Marshal Bazaine appointed to the chief command 
 of the French army at Metz (about 130,000); 
 MacMahon has about 50,000 near Saverne ; Can- 
 robert about 50,000 near Nancy . . 8 Aug. ,, 
 
 Nine French iron-clads pass Dover for the Baltic. 
 
 • g Aug. ,, 
 
 St. Avoid occupied by the Germans . 9 Aug. „ 
 
 Marshal Bazaine takes command of the army at 
 Metz 9 Aug. ,, 
 
 Phalsburg invested 9 Aug. ,, 
 
 Treaty with Great Britain guaranteeing the neu- 
 trality of Belgium, signed on behalf of Prussia, 
 9 Aug. ; of France .... 11 Aug. ,, 
 
 Forced resignation of the Ollivier ministry 9 Aug. ,, 
 
 New ministry constituted under general Cousin 
 Montaubau, comte de Palikao, war minister, 
 
 10 Aug. ,. 
 Strasburg invested by the Germans . . 10 Aug. „ 
 The king of Prussia, at Saarbriick, proclaims that 
 
 " he makes war against soldiers, not against 
 French citizens " .... 10 Aug. ,, 
 
 Lichtenburg capitulates to the Germans 10 Aug. ,, 
 MacMahon's army retreating upon the Moselle, 
 
 11 Aug. ,, 
 The little fortress, " La Petite Pierre," evacuated, 
 
 11 Aug. ,, 
 Communication with Strasburg cut off 11 Aug. ,, 
 Nancy occupied by the Germans without resistance, 
 
 12 Aug. ,, 
 The Bavarians pass the Vosges . . .12 Aug. , 
 The king at St. Avoid forbids conscription for the 
 
 French army in territories held by Germans, 
 
 13 Aug. „ 
 Marshal Bazaine made commander of the army of 
 
 the Rhine 13 Aug. ,, 
 
 Bombardment of Strasburg begun . 14 Aug. „ 
 
 The French government declare that "there can 
 
 be, for a moment, no question of negotiation of 
 
 peace" 14 Aug. ,, 
 
 Blockade of the German ports on the Baltic, from 
 
 15 Aug., announced by the French admiral, 
 
 14 Aug. „ 
 Many French volunteer sharp-shooters (francs- 
 
 tireurs) take the field (not recognised as soldiers 
 by the Germans) .... about 14 Aug. „ 
 Toul refuses to surrender ... 14 Aug. 
 
 The emperor retires to Verdun . . 14 Aug. ,, 
 Marshal Bazaine's army defeated in several long- 
 continued sanguinary battles before Metz (see 
 Mete) :— 
 
 1. Battle of Courcelles (Pange or Longeville) 
 
 gained by Von Steinmetz and the 1st army, 
 14 Aug. 
 
 2. Battle of'Vionville or Mars-la-Tour, gained 
 
 by prince Frederick Charles and the 2nd 
 army 16 Aug. 
 
 3. Battles of Gravelotte and Rezonville, gained 
 
 by the combined armies commanded by 
 the king 18 Aug. 
 
 French sortie from Strasburg repulsed ; German 
 attack on Phalsburg repulsed . . 16 Aug. 
 
 MacMahon reaches Chalons, 16 Aug. ; joined by the 
 emperor; his army between 130,000 and 150,000 
 
 20 Aug. 
 
 The king appoints governors-general of Alsace and 
 Lorraine 17 Aug. 
 
 Energetic fortification of Paris by general Troehu, 
 the governor, and the "defence committee" 
 
 18 Aug. 
 
 Estimated German losses: killed, wounded, and 
 missing, 2088 officers, 46,480 men ; up to 18 Aug. 
 
 Severe bombardment of Strasburg . 19 Aug. 
 
 MacMahon's army of the Rhine retreats as the 
 Prussians under the king and crown prince 
 advance: prince Frederick Charles opposed to 
 Bazaine at Metz ; [German armies in France about 
 500,000; the French armies about 300,000 ; com- 
 munications between marshals Bazaine and Mac- 
 Mahon very difficult] . . . about 20 Aug. 
 
 Lieut. Harth, a Prussian spy, tried and shot at 
 Paris 20 Aug. 
 
 MacMahon raises his camp at Chalons 20 Aug. 
 
 The troops extended along the line of the Maine, 
 
 21 Aug. 
 Exportation of food prohibited . . . 21 Aug. 
 Bazaine at Metz said to be completely isolated, 
 
 22 Aug. 
 MacMahon at Rheims with his army, including the 
 
 remains of the corps of Failly and Canrobert ; he 
 marches in hope of joining Bazaine, 23 Aug. ; the 
 crown-prince and prince of Saxony start in pur- 
 suit, 23 Aug. ; march upon Chalons . 24 Aug. 
 Prussian royal head-quarters removed from Pont a 
 Moussou to Bar-le-Duc (125 miles from Paris) 
 
 24 Aug. 
 The alleged violation of the neutrality of Belgium 
 
 denied by its government ... 25 Aug. 
 The Germans enter the arrondissement of Vassy, 
 
 25 Aug. 
 Germans repulsed in an attack on Verdun, 25 Aug. 
 800 French national guards captured at St. Mene- 
 
 hould 25 Aug. 
 
 Chalons occupied by the Germans . . 25 Aug. 
 
 Capitulation of Vitry, a small fortress . 25 Aug. 
 
 Formation of three German armies of reserve in 
 Germany, and a fourth army in the Held, under 
 the crown-prince of Saxony, to co-operate with 
 the en iwn-prince of Prussia against Paris, 26 Aug. 
 
 Strasburg suffering much by bombardment, 
 
 23-26 Aug. 
 
 Powerful sortie of Bazaine from Metz repulsed, 
 
 26 Aug. 
 Phalsburg heroically resisting . . 26 Aug. 
 Thionville invested by the Germans . 27 Aug. 
 Engagement at Busancy, between Vouziers and 
 
 Stenay : a regiment of French chasseurs nearly 
 annihilated 27 Aug. 
 
 Two German armies (220,000) marching on Paris, 
 
 28 Aug. 
 
 Continued retreat of MacMahon's army ; severe 
 fighting at. Dun. Stenay, and Mouzon 28 Aug. 
 
 Nicholas Schull, a German spy, shot atMetz,28Aug. 
 
 Vrizy. between Vouziers and Attigny, stormed by 
 the Germans 29 Aug. 
 
 Municipal meetings at Berlin. Kiinigsberg, and 
 other German cities, protest against foreign inter- 
 vention for peace ... 30, 31 Aug. 
 
 MacMahon's army, about 150,000, accompanied by 
 the emperor, retreating northwards; part of it, 
 under De Failly, surprised and defeated near Beau- 
 mont, between Mouzon and Moulins ; several other 
 engagements, unfavourable to the French, oc- 
 curred during the day .... 30 Aug. 
 
 Count Bismarck-Bohlen installed governor of Alsace 
 at Haguenau 30 Aug. 
 
 The Germans enter Carignan ; attack the French in 
 the plain of Douzy ; the French, at first success- 
 ful, are defeated, and retreat to Sedan 31 Aug. 
 
 1870 
 
FEANCO-PEUSSIAN WAE. 
 
 289 
 
 FEANCO-PEUSSIAN WAE. 
 
 A French army of old soldiers, about 100,000, are 
 said to "be forming near Lyons . . 31 Aug. 1! 
 
 Bazaine defeated in his endeavour to escape from 
 
 Metz ; after a fierce struggle, retreats into Metz, 
 
 31 Aug. 1 Sept. 
 
 Battle round Sedan: begun at 4 a.m. between 
 Sedan and Douzy ; the French at first successful ; 
 after a severe struggle and dreadful carnage, the 
 Germans victorious; MacMahon wounded, 5.30 
 p.m. ; general de Wimpffen refuses to accept the 
 terms offered by the king of Prussia . 1 Sept. 
 
 Capitulation of Sedan and the remainder of Mae- 
 Mahon's army ; the emperor surrenders to the 
 king (see Sedan) 2 Sept. 
 
 Vigorous artillery action at Strasburg ; a sortie 
 repulsed 2 Sept. 
 
 Kevolution at Paris after the declaration of the 
 capture of MacMahon's army ; proclamation of a 
 republic (see France) .... 4 Sept. 
 
 Rheims occupied by the Germans and the king, 
 
 5 Sept. 
 Jules Favre, the French foreign minister, in -a 
 
 circular to the French diplomatic representa- 
 tives, says, "We will not cede either an inch of 
 our territories or a stone of our fortresses " 
 
 6 Sept. 
 General Vinoy and a corps sent too late to aid 
 
 MacMahon ; retreat and arrive in Paris, 6, 7 Sept. 
 
 St. Dizier occupied by the Germans . . 7 Sept. 
 
 Strasburg invested by 60,000 men . . 8 Sept. 
 
 Verdun vigorously resisting ... 8 Sept. 
 
 The German army, in five corps, advancing on Paris, 
 
 9 Sept. 
 
 Laon surrendered to save the town from destruc- 
 tion ; by the accidental or treacherous explosion 
 of a magazine some of the German staff and many 
 French perish 9 Sept. 
 
 Metz, Strasburg, Thionville, Phalsburg, Toul, 
 Bitsche, and other fortified places holding out, 
 
 10 Sept. 
 
 Messages between belligerents transmitted by lord 
 Lyons (at Paris) and count Bernstorff (Prussian 
 minister) in London .... 9-10 Sept. 
 
 German attack on Toul repulsed . . 10 Sept. 
 
 Bridge at Creil over the Oise blown up 12 Sept. 
 
 Seven German corps (about 300,000 men) approach- 
 ing Paris, which is said to contain 300,000 com- 
 batants 13 Sept. 
 
 M. Thiers arrives in London on a mission from the 
 government 13 Sept. 
 
 Colmar occupied by the Germans . . 14 Sept. 
 
 General Trochu reviews the troops in Paris, 13 Sept. ; 
 delivers a stirring address ; the daily guard 
 ordered to be 70,000 ... 14 Sept. 
 
 Estimated German loss : 60,000 killed and wounded ; 
 between 20,000 and 30,000 sick; about 1000 
 prisoners 15 Sept. 
 
 French prisoners in Germany: 62 generals, 4800 
 officers, 140,000 privates, about . 15 Sept. 
 
 Correspondence between count Bernstorff and earl 
 Granville respecting neutrality, said to have 
 been broken ; denied by the earl 1-15 Sept. 
 
 Siege of Paris begun ; ingress and egress prohibited 
 without a permit .... 15 Sept. 
 
 Blockade of the Elbe and Weser non - effective, 
 
 15 Sept. 
 
 Important circular of M. Favre, condemning the war 
 and recognising the obligations of the country, 
 
 17 Sept. 
 Circular letters of count Bismarck, recounting the 
 
 history of French aggressions on Germany, and 
 asserting the necessity of obtaining material 
 guarantees for the future safety of Germany, and 
 removing the frontiers and point of attack further 
 
 west 13, 16 Sept. 
 
 Prussian head-quarters at Meux (20 miles from Paris) 
 
 18 Sept. 
 32 German merchant ships reported to have been 
 
 captured by the French fleet up to . 18 Sept. 
 
 Vessels sunk in the Seine and Marne, and other 
 vigorous delusive measures adopted, 18, 19 Sept. 
 
 Paris said to be completely invested ; the fortifica- 
 tionsrecontuoitre.d by the king, who has fixed his 
 head-quarters at Baron Rothschild's chateau at 
 Ferrieres, near Lagny ... 19 Sept. 
 
 Three French divisions under general Vinoy attack 
 the Germans on the heights of Sceaux ; repulsed 
 with loss of 7 guns and 2500 prisoners : the defeat 
 
 attributed to the disorder of the Zouaves ; the 
 national guard behave well . . -19 Sept. 1870 
 
 Count Bismarck consents to receive Jules Favre 
 (about 16 Sept.); they meet at Chateau de la 
 Haute Maison, 19 Sept. ; and at the king's head- 
 quarters, Ferrieres, near Lagny . 20 Sept. ,, 
 
 Jules Favre reports to the government the result 
 of his interviews with count Bismarck : Prussia 
 demands the cession of the departments of the 
 Upper and Lower Rhine and part of that of 
 Moselle, with Metz, Chateau Salins and Soissons, 
 and would agree to an armistice in order that a 
 French constituent assembly might meet; the 
 French to surrender Strasburg, Toul and Verdun 
 (or Phalsburg according to Favre), and Mont 
 Valerien, if the assembly meet at Paris; these 
 terms are positively rejected by the French 
 government 21 Sept. „ 
 
 Versailles and the troops there surrender, 19 Sept. ; 
 entered by the crown prince of Prussia 20 Sept. „ 
 
 A lunette captured at Strasburg . . 20 Sept. ,, 
 
 General von Steinmetz sent to Posen as governor- 
 general ; prince Frederick Charles sole commander 
 before Metz 21 Sept. ,, 
 
 Sevres surrenders 22 Sept. 
 
 The blockade of German ports raised ; officially 
 announced in London . . . .22 Sept. „ 
 
 The French government issue a circular expressing 
 readiness to consent to an equitable peace, but 
 refusing " to cede an inch of our territory or a 
 stone of our fortresses " . . . 23 Sept. ,, 
 
 Three conflicts before Paris : at Drancy, Pierrefitte, 
 and Villejuif ; the two last reported favourable to 
 the French ..... 23 Sept. ,, 
 
 Toul surrenders after a most vigorous resistance, 
 
 23 Sept. 
 
 Levee en masse of men under 25 ordered by the 
 French government .... 23 Sept. ,, 
 
 Germans repulsed in conflicts before Paris ; said by 
 them to be unimportant ... 23 Sept. ,, 
 
 Verdun invested by the Germans . . 25 Sept. ,, 
 
 Desperate ineffective sallies from Metz, 
 
 23, 24, 27 Sept. ,, 
 
 All the departments of the Seine and Marne occu- 
 pied by Germans .... 26 Sept. ,, 
 
 The iron cross given by the crown prince of Prussia 
 to above 30 soldiers beneath the statue of Louis 
 XIV. at Versailles 26 Sept. „ 
 
 Circular of Von Thile, Prussian foreign minister, 
 stating that as the ruling powers in France 
 decline an armistice, and as no recognised govern- 
 ment exists in Paris (the government de facto 
 being removed to Tours), all communications 
 with and from Paris can only be carried on 
 so far as the military events may permit, 
 
 27 Sept. ., 
 
 Clermont occupied by the Germans after a brief 
 vigorous resistance, overcome by artillery, 
 
 27 Sept. „ 
 
 Commencement of attack on Soissons . 28 Sept. „ 
 
 Capitulation of Strasburg, 27 Sept. ; formally sur- 
 rendered 28 Sept. ,, 
 
 Sortie of general Vinoy's army (at Paris) ; repulsed, 
 after two hours' fighting, crown prince present ; 
 above 200 prisoners taken ; general Giulham 
 killed 30 Sept. „ 
 
 Above 375,000 national guards said to be in Paris, 
 
 30 Sept. „ 
 
 Conflict near Rouen ; at first favourable to the 
 French ; their loss 1200 killed and wounded ; 300 
 prisoners 30 Sept. ., 
 
 Beauvais captured by the Germans . 30 Sept. ., 
 
 Mantes occupied by the Germans . . 1 Oct. ,, 
 
 Circular from count Bismarck, disclaiming any in- 
 tention of reducing France to a second-rate power, 
 
 1 Oct. ,, 
 
 The American general Burnside visits M. Favre, 
 
 1 Oct. ,, 
 Surgeon-major Wyatt writes that Paris is well- 
 provisioned, and nearly inexpugnable . 1 Oct. ,, 
 
 M. Thiers' fruitless visit to Vienna, 23 Sept. ; to 
 St. Petersburg, 27 Sept. ; dined with the czar, 
 
 2 Oct. ,, 
 The grand duke of Mecklenburg at Rheims ap- 
 pointed governor of the country conquered in ad- 
 dition to Alsace and Lorraine . . .2 Oct. „ 
 
 M. Favre, in the name of the diplomatic body, 
 requests count Bismarck to give notice before 
 
FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. 
 
 290 
 
 FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. 
 
 bombarding Paris, and to allow a weekly courier ; 
 the count declines both requests, but permits the 
 passage of open letters : reported . . 3 Oct. 1870 
 
 Count Bismarck in a circular corrects Favre's re- 
 port of the negotiations, and accuses the French 
 government of beeping up the difficulties opposed 
 to a conclusion of peace ; reported . . 3 Oct. „ 
 
 Epernon and La Ferte occupied by the Germans 
 after an engagement .... 4 Oct. „ 
 
 The king's head-quarters removed to Versailles ; 
 arrival of the king, Bismarck, Moltke, and others, 
 
 5 Oct. „ 
 
 The Germans victors in several small engagements, 
 
 2-6 Oct, „ 
 
 General Treskow, in command of a German army, 
 to advance into Southern France . . 5 Oct. ,, 
 
 Colmar occupied by the Prussians for an hour, 
 
 5 Oct. „ 
 Battle at Thoury ; General Reyan, with the ad- 
 vanced guard of the army of the Loire under 
 general La Motte Rouge, defeats the Germans 
 betweed Chaussy and Thoury, and captures some 
 prisoners and cattle 5 Oct. „ 
 
 Fictitious manifesto of the emperor Napoleon III., 
 entitled "les Idees de I'Empereur,'' advocating 
 peace on moderate terms, dated 26 Sept., pub- 
 lished in the imperialist journal in London, La 
 Situation, and in Daily News, 4 Oct. ; disclaimed 
 by the emperor 6 Oct. ,, 
 
 31. Thiers' mission to foreign courts reported to be 
 quite abortive 6 Oct. , , 
 
 Part of the army of Lyons, under general Dupre, 
 defeated by the Badenese under general Von 
 Gegenfeld, near St. Remy; French loss, about 
 1500, and 660 prisoners ; German loss, about 430, 
 
 6 Oct. ,, 
 General Bumside leaves Paris in order to meet 
 
 count Bismarck 7 Oct. „ 
 
 Great sortie from Metz ; the Germans surprised ; 
 40,000 French engaged ; repulsed after severe con- 
 flicts ; French loss, about 2000 ; German, about 
 
 600 7 Oct. „ 
 
 Estimated number of French prisoners in Germany, 
 
 3577 officers, and 123,700 men . . 8 Oct. ,, 
 Neu Breisach bombarded .... 8 Oct. ,, 
 Breton volunteers organising by 31. Cathelineau ; 
 volunteers in the west organising by general 
 Charette (from Rome) .... 8 Oct. „ 
 German attack on St. Quintin vigorously repulsed, 
 
 8 Oct. „ 
 Long despatch from count Bernstorff to earl Gran- 
 ville, complaining of the British supplying arms 
 
 to France 8 Oct. „ 
 
 31. Thiers again at Vienna ... 8 Oct. „ 
 Garibaldi arrives at Tours ; enthusiastically re- 
 ceived ; reviews the national guard at Tours, 
 
 9 Oct. ,, 
 Direct mediation declined by Russia, Great Britain, 
 
 and Spain 10 Oct. ,, 
 
 Prussian circular to the European powers, regret- 
 ting the obstinate resistance of the French govern- 
 ment to peace, and foretelling the consequences 
 — social disorganisation and much starvation, 
 
 10 Oct. ,, 
 Ablis, near Paris, burnt for alleged treachery 
 
 (killing sleeping soldiers) . . . . 10 Oct. ,, 
 M. Gambetta escapes from Paris by a balloon, 7 
 Oct. ; in his proclamation at Tours, states that 
 Paris possesses 560,000 troops ; that cannon are 
 cast daily, and that women are making cartridges : 
 he urges unanimous devoted co-operation in 
 carrying on the war .... 10 Oct. ,, 
 Part of the army of the Loire defeated at Arthenay, 
 near Orleans, by Bavarians under Von der Tann ; 
 about 2000 prisoners taken . . .10 Oct. ,, 
 Prussian attack on Cherizy repulsed . 10 Oct, „ 
 French reply to Bismarck's circular on the negotia- 
 tions IO Oct. „ 
 
 oout 20 villages burnt, and 150 peasants shot for 
 Illicit warfare .... up to n Oct. „ 
 The French fleet appears off Heligoland . 11 Oct. „ 
 3000 national guard mobilised at Rouen . 11 Oct. ,, 
 Three first shots fired against Paris . . 11 Oct. „ 
 Orleans captured by gen. Von der Tann after nine 
 hours' fighting ; the army of the Loire defeated 
 retires behind the Loire .... 11 Oct. „ 
 Stenay captured by a sortie from the French garri- 
 son of Montmedy 11 Oct. ,, 
 
 Gen. Bourbaki accepts the command at Tours ; 
 gen. La Motte Rouge superseded in the command 
 of the army of the Loire by gen. DAurelle de 
 Paladines 12 Oct. 1870 
 
 Battalions of Amazons said to be forming in Paris, 
 
 12 Oct, „ 
 
 Favourable intelligence from Paris by balloons re- 
 ceived 12 Oct. „ 
 
 Garibaldi appointed commander of the French 
 irregulars 12 Oct. „ 
 
 Epinal captured by the Germans . . 12 Oct. „ 
 
 31. Aries Duf our of Lyons appeals to the people of 
 Great Britain for active sympathy in endeavouring 
 to obtain peace 12 Oct. „ 
 
 Breteuil occupied by the Germans after a sharp 
 resistance 12 Oct. „ 
 
 Slight engagements (termed victories by the French) 
 before Paris 13 Oct. „ 
 
 All the Vosges district in arms ; no regular army ; 
 the defiles occupied by the francs-tireurs, 13 Oct, ,, 
 
 Reported successful sorties ; Neu Breisach com- 
 pletely invested 13 Oct. „ 
 
 Reported French success at Bagneux, near Paris — 
 the Prussians surprised . . . .13 Oct. „ 
 
 St. Cloud fired on by the French and burnt, 
 
 13, 14 Oct. „ 
 
 Frequent sorties from Metz . . about 14 Oct. „ 
 
 Sharp tight at Ecouis ; the French escape from 
 being surrounded r4 Oct. „ 
 
 Gambetta announces that the Germans arc dis- 
 lodged from their innermost belt round Paris, 
 
 14 Oct. „ 
 
 M. Thiers arrives at Florence ; Garibaldi at Besan- 
 Qon 14 Oct, ,, 
 
 Gen. Boyer, aide-de-camp to marshal Bazaine, ar- 
 rives at Versailles and meets count Bismarck, 
 
 14 Oct. ,, 
 
 Gen. Trochu's letter to the mayors of Paris, on re- 
 organising the national guard and repressing the 
 ardent desire for immediate action . 15 Oct. ,, 
 
 Soissons surrenders after three weeks' investment 
 and four days' bombardment . . .16 Oct. ,, 
 
 French successes before Paris denied by the Prus- 
 sians, who hold the same position as on 19 Sept, 
 
 16 Oct. „ 
 
 31. Gambetta proceeds to the army of the Vosges ; 
 gen. Bourbaki appointed commander of the army 
 of the north; gen. 3Iaziere appointed to a com- 
 mand in the army of the Loire . . 17 Oct. „ 
 
 Montdidier attacked by the Germans : 150 mobile 
 guards captured 17 Oct. „ 
 
 The emperor Napoleon declares that " there can be 
 no prospect of peace, near or remote, on the basis 
 of ceding to Prussia a single foot of French 
 territory ; and no government in France can 
 attach its signature to such a treaty and remain 
 in power a single day " .... 17 Oct. ,, 
 
 4000 French attacked and defeated near Chateaudun 
 after ten hours' fighting and the barricaded town 
 stormed 18 Oct. „ 
 
 Circular of Jules Favre, asserting that Prussia 
 " coldly and systematically pursues her task of 
 annihilating us. France has now no illusions 
 left. For her it is now a question of existence. 
 . . . We prefer our present sufferings, our perils, 
 and our sacrifices to the consequences of the 
 inflexible and cruel ambition of our enemy. 
 France needed, perhaps, to pass through a 
 supreme trial — she will issue from it transfigured," 
 
 18 Oct. „ 
 
 Asserted repulse of the Germans at Fort Issy before 
 Paris 18 Oct. „ 
 
 Despatch from earl Granville to count Bismarck 
 urging the negotiations for peace on terms lenient 
 to the French 20 Oct. „ 
 
 Conclusive reply of earl Granville to count Bern- 
 storff 's charge of breach of neutrality . 21 Oct. „ 
 
 Vigorous sortie from Mont Valerien against Ver- 
 sailles ; an engagement at Malmaison ; the French 
 retire after three hours' fighting, losing about 
 400 killed and wounded and 100 prisoners ; Ger- 
 man loss about 230 killed and wounded, 21 Oct. „ 
 
 Chartres occupied by the Germans under Wittich, 
 
 21 Oct. „ 
 Intervention of the British government (supported 
 by the neutral powers) to obtain an armistice for 
 the election of a national assembly . 21 Oct. ,, 
 Vesoul occupied by the Germans . 21 Oct. ,, 
 
FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. 
 
 291 
 
 FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. 
 
 Many deserters from Metz . . 20 — 22 Oct. 
 Schelestadt bombarded vigorously . 22 Oct. 
 
 Engagement near Evreux .... 22 Oct. 
 Fighting at Vouray, Cussey, &c. , in the Vosges ; 
 
 French " army of the east " defeated 22 Oct. 
 
 German attack on Ch&tillon le Due repulsed by gen. 
 
 Cambriels 22 Oct. 
 
 M. de Keratry assumes command of the army in 
 
 Brittany 23 Oct. 
 
 St. Quentin taken by the Germans after half art 
 
 hour's cannonading, 21 Oct. ; evacuated by them, 
 
 23 Oct. 
 Keported failure of the suggestions concerning an 
 
 armistice, through Prussia demanding that 
 France should consent to a cession of territory, 
 
 24 Oct. 
 Gambetta informs the mayors of towns that "re- 
 sistance is more than ever the order of the day," 
 
 24 Oct. 
 
 Reported negotiations for the surrender of Metz, 
 
 24 Oct. 
 
 Thiers undertakes the mission to obtain an armistice, 
 
 about 24 Oct. 
 
 Capitulation of Schelestadt (2400 prisoners and 120 
 guns taken) 24 Oct. 
 
 A girl calling herself a successor of Jeanne d'Arc at 
 Tours 24 Oct. 
 
 Marshal Bazaine surrenders Metz and his army, 
 '< conquered by famine " (see Metz) . 27 Oct. 
 
 The French defeated near Gray (Haute Saone) by 
 Von Werder 27 Oct. 
 
 About 2000 sick and wounded of both nations in 
 Versailles 27 Oct. 
 
 Le Bourget, near Paris, recaptured by the French, 
 
 28 Oct. 
 
 A safe-conduct given to M. Thiers to enter Paris for 
 negotiation 28 Oct. 
 
 Despatch from count Bismarck to earl Granville, 
 expressing desire for the meeting of a French 
 national assembly to consider terms of peace ; but 
 statingthat overtures must come from the French, 
 
 28 Oct. 
 
 Badenese troops defeated near Besancon ; Prus- 
 sian attack on Formerie on the Oise repulsed, 
 
 28 Oct. 
 
 Gen. Von Moltke created a count on his 70th birth- 
 day 28 Oct. 
 
 Vigorous proclamation of Bourbaki to the French 
 army of the north 29 Oct. 
 
 The crown prince and prince Frederick Charles 
 created field-marshals .... 29 Oct. 
 
 Dijon captured after bombardment . . 29 Oct. 
 
 The francs-tireurs defeated by the Wiirtembergers 
 between Montereau and Nangis . . 29 Oct. 
 
 Estimated : 856,000 Germans in France ; French 
 prisoners in Germany, 223,000 . . 29 Oct. 
 
 Le Bourget retaken by the Germans ; heavy losses on 
 both sides ; about 1200 French prisoners, 30 Oct. 
 
 Proclamation of Gambetta, accusing Bazaine of 
 treason ; the war to go on . . . 30 Oct. 
 
 M. Thiers enters Paris . . . 30 Oct. 
 
 Garibaldi defending Dole (Jura) with about 7500 
 men 31 Oct. 
 
 M. Thiers receives x'owers from the French defence 
 government to treat for an armistice, and has in- 
 terviews with count Bismarck, 31 Oct. and 1 Nov. 
 
 Gen. Bourbaki attempting to form an army of the 
 north, near Lille . . • . . Oct. — Nov. 
 
 Thionville invested 1 Nov. 
 
 The francs-tireurs dispersed in several slight en- 
 gagements between Colmar and Belfort, 2, 3 Nov. 
 
 Letter from marshal Bazaine repelling the charge 
 of treason 2 Nov. 
 
 Count Bismarck offers an armistice of 25 days 
 for the election of a French national assembly, 
 
 3 Nov. 
 
 Defeat of an attempted revolution in Paris : see 
 France 3 Nov. 
 
 M. Favre declares to the national guard that the 
 government has sworn not to yield an inch of 
 territory, and will remain faithful to this engage- 
 ment 3 Nov. 
 
 Proclamation of Garibaldi to the army of the 
 Vosges, and appealing to other nations, 
 
 about 3 Nov. 
 
 " Carnpagne de 1870 ; par un Officur attache a I'etat 
 major-general " (a pamphlet ascribed to the em- 
 peror), appears in the Daily Telegraph, 4 Nov. 
 
 1870 
 
 Failure of the negotiation, as count Bismarck will 
 not permit food to enter Paris during the armis- 
 tice without any military equivalent ; M. Thiers 1870 
 ordered to break off negotiation . . 6 Nov. „ 
 
 Chateaudun recaptured by the French . 6 Nov. „ 
 
 The Prussian semi-official journal says, " The 
 French government having refused to listen to 
 reason the cannon will be resorted to for giving 
 them a lesson " 7 Nov. 
 
 Bombardment of Thionville . . . ' 7 Nov. ", 
 
 Circulars on the armistice negotiations— of M. 
 Favre, 7 Nov. ; of Count Bismarck . 8 Nov. „ 
 
 The king's permission for the election of a French 
 national assembly declined by the French govern- 
 ment 7 Nov. „ 
 
 Orders that no one shall enter or quit Paris, 7 Nov. ,, 
 
 A Prussian column repulsed in an attack on the 
 army of the Loire at Marchenoir . 7 Nov. „ 
 
 Capitulation of Verdun .... 8 Nov „ 
 
 Seven persons, captured in balloons from Paris, sent 
 to German fortresses to be tried by court martial, 
 
 8 Nov. „ 
 
 The French fleet off Heligoland . . 8 Nov. „ 
 
 German corps, under Manteuffel, advancing on 
 Amiens and Rouen 8 Nov. 
 
 Firm circular from M. Favre to French diplomatic 
 representatives, about .... 8 Nov. „ 
 
 The Germans enter Montbeliard (Doubs) 9 Nov.' „ 
 
 The Germans, under gen. Von der Tann, defeated 
 between Coulmiers and Baccon, near Orleans, 
 retire to Thoury . ' . . . . Nov. ,, 
 
 M. Thiers' report of the unsuccessful negotiations 
 for an armistice .... dated 9 Nov. „ 
 
 Reported naval victory of the Prussian steamer 
 Meteor over the French steamer Bouvet off 
 Havannah Q Nov. 
 
 Continued fighting; Orleans retaken by general 
 D'Aurelle de Paladines ; French losses, 2000; 
 Germans about 700, and 2000 prisoners 10 Nov. ,, 
 
 Capitulation of Neu Breisach, 5000 prisoners and 
 100 guns taken IO Nov. „ 
 
 The French repulsed near Montbeliard on the Swiss 
 frontier IO Nov. , 
 
 Von der Tann's army reinforced by 30,000, now 
 70,000, the grand duke of Mecklenburg com- 
 mander; the Loire army about 150,000, but only 
 12,000 regulars- 12 Nov. 
 
 Bankers at Berlin and Frankfort arrested for deal- 
 ing in French war loan . . . about 12 Nov. „ 
 
 Dole, near Dijon, occupied by the Germans, 
 
 13 Nov. ., 
 
 Calm, truthful proclamation of gen. Trochu, at 
 Paris I4 Nov. „ 
 
 The armies in central France have been placed 
 under prince Frederick Charles and the grand 
 duke of Mecklenburg .... 14 Nov. „ 
 
 Eleven French towns, 3653 guns, 155 mitrailleuses, 
 nearly 500,000 chassepots, about 90 eagles and 
 standards, and nearly 4,000,000?. in money, taken 
 by the Germans . . . . up to 14 Nov. „ 
 
 Montmedy completely invested . . 15 Nov. ,, 
 
 French sorties from Mezieres repulsed, 15 Nov. ; 
 from Belfort repulsed ... 16 Nov. ,, 
 
 The grand duke of Mecklenburg repulses the army 
 of the Loire near Dreux, which is captured by 
 Von Treskow . . . . . . 17 Nov. ,, 
 
 Successful French sortie from Mezieres, 500 Ger- 
 mans said to be killed . . . 17 Nov. „ 
 
 Germans victorious in an engagement near Cha- 
 teaudun ; French claim the success 18 Nov. „ 
 
 Ricciotti Garibaldi said to have beaten 700 or 800 
 men at Chatillon io.Nov. ,, 
 
 The national guard at Evreux repulse a German 
 attack . 19 Nov. 
 
 The German army under prince Frederick Charles 
 and the grand duke of Mecklenburg (135,000) 
 said to be retreating towards Paris . 19 Nov. „ 
 
 Paris engirdled with a second line of investment, 
 
 20 Nov. „ 
 
 French attempt to release La Fere repulsed with 
 heavy loss 20 Nov. „ 
 
 Several balloons from Paris captured about 20 Nov. ., 
 
 French mobile guard defeated at Bretoncelles, 
 
 21 Nov. „ 
 
 Bombardment of Thionville begun . . 22 Nov. 
 
 Ham occupied by the Prussians . . .22 Nov. 
 
 Prince Frederick Charles takes up a position near 
 Orleans 24 Nov. „ 
 
 U 2 
 
FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. 
 
 292 
 
 FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. 
 
 Thionville, in flames, capitulates, with about 2000 
 prisoners 24 Nov. 1870 
 
 The Germans repulsed near Amiens and near Stagil, 
 
 24 Nov. 
 
 La Fere surrenders, after two days' bombardment, 
 with about 70 guns and 2000 men . 27 Nov. 
 
 The Garibaldians defeated near Pasques (Cote d'Or) 
 by Von Werder . 27 Nov. 
 
 The French army of the north defeated by Man- 
 teuffel between Villers Bretonneux and Soleur, 
 near Amiens 27 Nov. 
 
 Amiens occupied by Von Gceben after a severe en- 
 gagement 28 Nov. 
 
 Severe engagement near Beaune la Rolande (Loiret) 
 between part of the army of the Loire under 
 D'Aurelle de Paladines and the Germans under 
 Voigts Rhetz ; prince Frederick Charles ar- 
 rives and turns the day ; the French retire ; 
 heavy loss on both sides . . . .28 Nov. 
 
 M. de Keratry resigns his command, accusing M. 
 Gambetta of misconduct, 28 Nov. ; Bourbaki ap- 
 pointed to command an army corps . 29 Nov. 
 
 Fruitless endeavours of the army in Paris and the 
 army of the Loire, to unite . 29 Nov. — 4 Dec. 
 
 Sorties from various parts of Paris repulsed with 
 loss 29 Nov. 
 
 Great sortie of 120,000, under generals Trochu and 
 Ducrot, who cross the Marne ; severest conflict 
 between Champigny-sur-Marne, Brie-sur-Marne, 
 and Villiers-sur-Marne ; the French retain the 
 taken possessions, but their advance is checked ; 
 great loss on both sides (chiefly Saxons and Wiir- 
 tembergers engaged) . . . -30 Nov. 
 
 The contest resumed at Avron ; the Germans retake 
 Champigny and Brie; the French retreat 2 Dec. 
 
 Ducrot bivouacks in the woods of Vincennes, 
 3 Dec. : he issues a final order of the day, re- 
 ferring to two days' glorious battles . 4 Dec. 
 
 The army of the Loire: Chanzy defeated by the 
 grand duke of Mecklenburg at Bazoche des 
 Hautes, 2 Dec. ; near Chevilly (the French report 
 these engagements indecisive) . . .3 Dec. 
 
 Prince Frederick Charles dislodges an encampment 
 in the forest of Orleans. . . . 3 Dec. 
 
 General D'Aurelle de Paladines entrenched before 
 Orleans ; proposes to retreat ; the government 
 opposes him, but yields ; he determines to await 
 the attack ; part of his army defeated by prince 
 Frederick Charles, and the grand duke of Meck- 
 lenburg ; lie retreats with about 100,000 men : 
 Orleans threatened with bombardment ; surrenders 
 at midnight .... .4 Dec. 
 
 The Germans said to be in pursuit of D'Aurelle de 
 Paladines (superseded) ... 5 Dec. 
 
 10,000 prisoners, 77 guns, and 4 gun-boats cap- 
 tured at Orleans S Dec. 
 
 Rouen occupied by Manteuffel . . 6 Dee. 
 
 General order of the king of Prussia, "We enter 
 on a new phase of the war . . . Every attempt to 
 break through the investment or relieve Paris has 
 failed " 6 Dec. 
 
 The grand duke of Mecklenburg attacks gen. 
 Chanzy and the army of the Loire near Beau- 
 gency ; indecisive, 7 Dec. ; the Germans victo- 
 rious, taking about 1 100 prisoners and six guns. 
 and occupying Beaugency (severe loss to Germans), 
 
 8 Dec. 
 Gen. Manteuffel's army in two parts, one occupies 
 
 Evreux, and marching to Cherbourg; the other 
 marching to Havre .... 8 Dec. 
 
 Continued severe engagements between the Ger- 
 mans and the army of the Loire ; the defeated 
 French retreat (7 battles in 9 days) 9, 10 Dec. 
 
 Vigorous siege of Belfort; obstinately defended, 
 
 9 Dec. 
 Pamphlet (attributed to the emperor Napoleon) 
 
 published under the name of his friend, the mar- 
 quis de Gricourt, throwing the blame of the war 
 upon the French nation . . early in Dec- 
 Fighting along the whole line of the army of the 
 Loire, under general Chanzy and others ; it re- 
 treats, but obstinately resists . 5— IO Dec - 
 Brilliant action by De Chanzy . . 11 Dec. 
 
 The delegate government transferred from Tours to 
 Bordeaux ; "Gambetta remains with the army of 
 the Loire . . . . . u Dec. 
 
 Dieppe occupied by the Germans . 12 Dec. 
 
 La Fere threatened by Faidherbe, commander of 
 the army of the north . . . 12 Dec. 1870. 
 
 Phalsburg surrenders, subdued by famine ; com- 
 mencement of bombardment of Montmedy, 
 
 12 Dec. ,, 
 
 Evreux and Blnis occupied by the Germans, 1 j I ' 
 
 Montmedy surrenders . . . 14 1 >* 
 
 Sharp engagement at Freteval ; which is taken and ,, 
 abandoned by the Germans . . 14 Dei-. 
 
 Nuits near Dijon captured by the Badenese under 
 Von Werder, after a severe conflict . 18 Dec. 
 
 The French government issue a circular against the 
 propagation of false news. . . . 20 Dec. ,, 
 
 Conflict at Honnaie: about 6000 French gardes 
 mobiles driven back to Tours . . 20 Dee. ,, 
 
 Vigorous sortie from Paris repulsed — an artillery 
 action ....... 21 Dec. ,, 
 
 Tours partially shelled; submits, but not occupied 
 by Germans 21 Dec 
 
 Chanzy and part of the army of the Loire said to have 
 reached ue Mans and joined the Bretons, about 
 
 21 Dec. ,, 
 
 Seven hours' battle at Pont a Noyelles between 
 Manteuffel and the army of the north under Faid- 
 herbe: both claim the victory; Faidherbe re- 
 treats 23 Dec. 
 
 Six English colliers, said to have had Prussian per- 
 mits, after delivering coal at Rouen, are sunk in 
 the Seine at Duclair near Havre by the Prussians 
 fur strategic reasons .... 21 Dec. 
 
 Explanation given by Bismarck and compensation 
 promised . . .... 26 Dec. ,, 
 
 Chanzy, in a letter to the German commandant at 
 Vendome, accuses the Germans of cruelly pillag- 
 ing St. Calais, and, denying his defeat, says. " We 
 have foughtyou and held you in check since 4 Dec" 
 
 26 Dec. 
 
 Trochu said to be making Mont Valerien a vast 
 citadel 27 1 >ec 
 
 Mont Avron, an outlying fort near Paris, after a 
 day's bombardment, abandoned and occupied by 
 the Germans 29 Dec. 
 
 Alleged defeat of the Germans by detachment of 
 Cnanzy's army near Montoire . . 27 Dec. 
 
 Several small engagements in Normandy — reported 
 successful to the French . . 28 — 31 Dec. 
 
 Capitulation of Mezieres with 2000 men and 106 
 guns 1, 2 Jan. 1871 
 
 Severe battles near Bapaume between the army of 
 the North under Faidherbe and the Germans under 
 Manteuffel and Von Goeben ; victory claimed by 
 both, the French retreat . . . 2, 3 Jan. 
 
 [ndecisive conflict near Dijon le Mans: between 
 general Chanzy and prince Frederick Charles, 
 
 6 Jan. „ 
 
 Daujoutin, S. of Belfort, stormed by Germans, 6 Jan. 
 
 Bombardment of eastern front of Paris, and of the 
 southern forts, 4 Jan. ; forts of Issy and Vanvres 
 silenced 6 Jan. „ 
 
 Fortress of Rocroy taken by the Germans, 5, 6 Jan. ,, 
 
 General Roy defeated near Jumieges . 7 Jan. ,, 
 
 Von Goeben in the north, Manteuffel sent to the east 
 
 about 7 Jan. ,, 
 
 Conflicts (in the east) between Von "Werder and 
 Bourbaki at Villarais, south of Vesoul 9, 10 Jan. 
 
 Bombardment of Paris, many buildings injured, 
 and people killed : the French government appeal 
 to foreign powers .... 9, 10 Jan. ,, 
 
 Capitulation of Peronne with garrison . 9 Jan. ,, 
 
 Chanzy retreating ; defeated nearLe Mans by prince 
 Frederick Charles and the grand duke of Mecklen- 
 burg 11 Jan. ,, 
 
 Prince Frederick Charles enters Le Mans ; after 6 
 days' lighting, (about 20,000 French prisoners 
 mule ; German loss about 3400) 12 Jan. ,, 
 
 Vigorous sorties from Paris repulsed 13 Jan. ,, 
 
 Chanzy retreating, 14 Jan. ; defeated near Vosges, 
 
 15, 16 Jan. ,, 
 
 Indecisive conflicts between Bourbaki and Von 
 Werder, near Belfort ... 15, 16 Jan. ,, 
 
 St. Quentin recaptured by Isnard under Faidherbe, 
 
 16 Jan. ,, 
 Bourbaki defeated near Belfort after three days' 
 
 fighting, 15— 17 Jan. ; retreats south 18 Jan. ,„ 
 
 The grand duke of Mecklenburg enters Alencon, 
 
 17 Jan. ,, 
 Bombardment of Longwy begun . . 17 Jan. ,, 
 
FEANCS-TTEEUES. 
 
 293 
 
 FEANKLIN. 
 
 Faidherbe defeated near St. Quentin ; after seven 
 hours' righting ; by Von Goeben, 4000 prisoners 
 
 taken 19 Jan. 1871 
 
 Great sortie from Paris of Troehu and 100,000 men 
 repulsed with loss of about 1000 dead and 5000 
 
 wounded 19 Jan. ,, 
 
 Bourbaki hard pressed by Von Werder 19 Jan. ,, 
 
 Armistice for two days at Paris refused 22 Jan. „ 
 
 Bombardment of St Denis and Cambrai 22 Jan. „ 
 
 Faidherbe asserts that the German successes are 
 
 exaggerated 22 Jan. „ 
 
 Besignation of Troehu ; Vinoy, governor of Paris, 
 
 23, 24 Jan. ,, 
 Pavre opens negotiations with Bismarck 24 Jan. ,, 
 Longwy capitulates ; 4000 prisoners, 200 guns, 
 
 25 Jan. „ 
 
 Letter from M. Guizot to Mr. Gladstone proposing 
 
 the demolition of fortresses on both sides of the 
 
 Bhine ; and the maintenance of the balance of 
 
 power by congresses ; published . 26 Jan. ,, 
 
 Capitulation of Paris ; armistice for 21 days signed 
 
 by count Bismarck and Jules Favre 28 Jan. ,, 
 
 The forts round Paris occupied by the Germans, 
 
 29 Jan. ,, 
 Advance of German troops into France suspended, 
 
 30 Jan. ,, 
 Bourbaki and his army about 80,000, driven by „ 
 
 Manteuffel into Switzerland near Pontarlior, about 
 6000 having been captured . 30 Jan. , 1 Feb. 
 French loss about 350,000 men, 800 guns in Jan. ,, 
 Dijon occupied by the Germans . 1 Feb. ,, 
 
 Belfort capitulates with military honours 13 Feb. ,, 
 Negotiations for peace between Thiers and Bismarck 
 
 22 — 24 Feb. ,, 
 Preliminaries of a treaty accepted by Thiers, Favre, 
 and 15 delegates from the national assembly ; it 
 includes cession of parts of Lorraine, including 
 Metz and Thionville and Alsace less Belfort ; and 
 payment of 5 milliards of francs, 200,000,000?., 
 25 Feb. , signed 26 Feb. , accepted by the national 
 
 assembly 1 March, ,, 
 
 German loss in battles throughout the war ; killed 
 
 or died soon after, 17,570 ; died of wounds 
 
 eventually 10,707; total killed and wounded 
 
 127,867. 
 
 German troops enter Paris and remain 48 hours, 
 
 1 — 3 March, ,, 
 
 They quit Versailles . . . .12 March, ,, 
 
 Conference for peace open at Brussels, 28 March ,, 
 
 Treaty of peace signed at Frankfort, 10 May ; ratified 
 
 by the French national assembly . 18 May, „ 
 
 FEANCS-TIEEUES, free shooters, took an 
 active part in the Franco-Prussian war from about 
 14 Aug. 1S70; and more especially after the sur- 
 render of MacMalion's army at Sedan, 2 Sept. 
 Their conduct was much censured. 
 
 FEANKENHAUSEN, N. Germany: near 
 this place Philip, landgrave of Hesse, and his allies 
 defeated the insurgent peasantry headed by Munzer 
 the anabaptist, 15 May, 1525. 
 
 FEANKFOET-ON-THE-MAIN, central Ger- 
 many, founded in the 5th century ; was the resi- 
 dence of Charlemagne in 794 ; walled by Louis I. 
 838 ; a capital city, 843 ; an imperial city, 1245. 
 
 Union of Frankfort : treaty between France, Sweden, 
 Prussia, and other German states led to war with 
 Austria ."22 May, 1744 
 
 Frankfort captured by the French by a surprise, 
 
 2 Jan. 1759 
 
 Captured by Custine, 28 Oct. ; retaken by the 
 Prussians 2 Dec. 1792 
 
 Bombarded by the French ; surrendered to Kleber, 
 
 16 July, 1796 
 
 Made part of the confederation of the Bhine 1806 
 
 A grand duchy under Carl von Dalberg . . 1810 
 
 Bepublic restored; appointed capital of the Ger- 
 manic confederation ■ 1815 
 
 Vain attempts at insurrection by students, April 
 1833 May, 1834 
 
 The Frankfort diet publish a federative constitution, 
 
 30 March, 1848 
 
 The plenipotentiaries of Austria, Bavaria, Saxony, 
 Hanover, Wurtemburg, Mecklenburg, &c, here 
 
 constitute themselves the council of the Germanic 
 diet 1 Sept. 1850 
 
 The German sovereigns (excepting the king of 
 Prussia) met at Frankfort (at the invitation of 
 the emperor of Austria), .to consider a plan of 
 federal reform, 17 Aug. ; the plan was not 
 accepted by Prussia .... 22 Sept. 1863 
 
 Meeting of diet of Germanic confederation ; con- 
 demn the treaty of Gastein . . 1 Oct. 1865 
 
 The diet adopts the Austrian motion, that Prussia 
 has broken the treaty ; the Prussian representative 
 declares the confederation at an end, and proposes 
 a new confederation .... 14 June, 1866 
 
 Entered by the Prussians, who exact heavy supplies, 
 
 16 July, ,, 
 
 Annexed to Prussia bylaw of 20 Sept. ; promulgated 
 at Frankfort ; (the legislative corps and 15,000 
 citizens protest against it) ... 8 Oct. ,, 
 
 Visited by the king of Prussia ; an ancient cathedral, 
 St. Bartholomew (founded 1315, completed 1512), 
 destroyed by Are . . . . 14, 15 Aug. 1867 
 
 Frankfort supported Prussia in the war July, 1870 
 
 Treaty of peace between France and Germans, signed , , 
 here 10 May, 1871 
 
 Riots through rise in price of beer ; suppressed 
 by N. German soldiers : 37 of the people killed ; 
 about 100 wounded . . about 22, 23 April 1873 
 
 Population in Dec. 1867, 78,277 ; see Germany. 
 
 FEANKFOET-ON-THE-OdER (N. Ger- 
 many) ; a member of the Hanseatic league, suffered 
 much from mauraders in the middle ages, and in 
 the thirty years' war. The university was founded 
 in 1506, and incorporated with that of Breslau in 
 1811. Near Frankfort, 12 Aug, 1759, Frederick of 
 Prussia was defeated by the Russians and Austrians ; 
 see Gunner sdorf. 
 
 FRANKING LETTEES, passing letters free 
 of postage, was claimed by parliament about 1660. 
 The privilege was restricted in 1839, and abolished 
 on the introduction of the uniform penny postage, 
 10 Jan. 1840. The queen was amongst the first 
 to relinquish her privilege. 
 
 FEANKLIN, the English freeholder in the 
 middle ages; see "the Franklin's Tale," in 
 Chaucer's Canterbury Tales (written about 1364). 
 
 FEANKLIN, SEARCH FOR. Sir John Frank- 
 lin, with captain Crozier and Fitzjames, in H. M. 
 ships Erebus and Terror (carrying in all 138 
 persons), sailed on his third arctic expedition of 
 discovery and survey, from Greenhithe, on 24 May, 
 1845 ; see North-west Passage. Their last des- 
 patches were from the Whalefish islands, dated 12 
 July, 1845. Their protracted absence caused intense 
 anxiety, and several expeditions were sent from 
 England and elsewhere in search of them, and 
 coals, provisions, clothing, and other necessaries, 
 were deposited in various places in the Arctic seas 
 by our own and by the American government, by 
 lady Franklin, and numerous private persons. The 
 Truelove, captain Parker, which arrived at Hull, 
 4 Oct. 1849, from Davis's Straits, brought intelli- 
 gence (not afterwards confirmed) that the natives 
 had seen sir John Franklin's ships in the previous 
 March, frozen up by the ice in Prince Regent's 
 inlet. Other accounts were equally illusory. Her 
 majesty's government, on 7 March, 1850, offered a 
 reward of 20,000^. to any party of any country, that 
 should render efficient assistance to the crews of the 
 missing ships. Sir John's first winter quarters were 
 found at Beechy island by captains Ommanney and 
 Penny. 
 
 1. H.M.S. Plover, capt. Moore (afterwards under 
 capt. Maguire), sailed from Sheerness to Behring's 
 Straits, in search . . . . 1 Jan. 1848 
 
 2. Land expedition under sir John Richardson and 
 Dr. Rae, of the Hudson's Bay Company, left 
 England 25 March, „ 
 
 [Sir John Bichardson returned to England 
 
FltAXKLIX. 294 
 
 in 1849, and Dr. Rae continued his search 
 
 till 1851.] 
 ;. Sir James Ross, with the Enterprise and InvesU- 
 gator(i2 June, 1848), having also sailed in search 
 to Barrow's Straits, returned to England (Sear- 
 borough) 3 Nov. l8 49 
 
 4. The Enterprise, cant, Collinson, and Investigator, 
 commander M'Clure, sailed from Plymouth for 
 Behring's Straits .... 20 Jan. 1850 
 
 [Both ships proceeded through to the eastward:] 
 Capt. Austin's expedition, viz. : Resolute, capt. 
 Austin, C.B. ; Assistance, capt. Ommanney ; 
 Intrepid, lieut. Bertie Cator ; and Pioneer, lieut. 
 Sherard Osborn, sailed from England for Barrow's 
 
 Straits 25 April, „ 
 
 [Returned Sept. 1851.] 
 . The Lady Franklin, capt Penny; and Sophia, 
 capt. Stewart, sailed from Aberdeen for Barrow's 
 
 Straits 13 April, „ 
 
 [Returned home Sept. 1851.] 
 
 7. The American expedition in the Advance and 
 Rescue, under lieut. De Haven and Dr. Kane (son 
 of the judge), towards which Mr. Grinnell sub- 
 scribed 30,000 dollars, sailed for Lancaster Sound 
 and Barrow's Straits ; after drifting in the pack 
 down Baffin's Bay, the ships were released in 
 1851 uninjured 25 May, 1850 
 
 8. The Felix, sir John Ross, fitted out chiefly by the 
 Hudson Bay Company, sailed to the same locality, 
 
 22 May, „ 
 [Returned in 185 1.] 
 
 9. H.M.S. North Star, commander Saunders, which ,, 
 had sailed from England in 1849, wintered in 
 Wolstenholme Sound, and returned to Spithead, 
 
 28 Sept. ,, 
 
 10. H.M.S. Herald, captain Kellett, C.B., which 
 had sailed in 1848, made three voyages to 
 Behring's Straits, and returned in . . 1851 
 
 Lieut. Pirn went to St. Petersburg with the intention 
 
 of travelling through Siberia to the mouth of the 
 
 river Kolyma ; but was dissuaded from proceeding 
 
 by the Russian government . . 18 Nov. 1851 
 
 [The Enterprise and Investigator (see No. 4 above) 
 
 not having been heard of for two years.] 
 
 11. Sir Edward Belcher's expedition, consisting of 
 — Assistance, sir Edward Belcher, C.B. ; Resolute, 
 captain Kellett, C.B. ; North Star, capt. Pullen ; 
 Intrepid, capt. M'Clintock ; and Pioneer, capt. 
 Sherard Osbom, sailed from Woolwich 15 April, 1852 
 
 [This expedition arrived at Beechy Island 14 
 Aug. 1852. The Assistance and Pioneer pro- 
 ceeded through Wellington Channel, and the 
 Resolute and Intrepid to Melville Island : the 
 North Star remaining at Beechy Island.] 
 
 LADY FRANKLIN'S EQUIPMENTS. 
 
 Lady Franklin, aided by a few friends (and by the 
 "Tasmanian Tribute" of 1500?.), equipped four 
 expeditions (Nos. 12, 13, 14, 16). 
 
 12. Prince Albert, capt. Forsyth, sailed from Aber- 
 deen to Barrow Straits ... 5 June, 1850 
 
 [Returned 1 Oct. 1850.] 
 
 13. The Prince Albert, Mr. Kennedy, accompanied 
 by lieut. Bellot, of the French navy, and John 
 Hepburn, sailed from Stromness to Prince 
 Regent's Inlet 4 June, 1S51 
 
 [Returned Oct. 1852.] 
 
 14. The Isabel, commander Inglefield, sailed for the 
 head of Baffin's Bay, Jones's Sound, and the 
 Wellington Channel, 6 July ; and returned Nov. 1852 
 
 15. Mr. Kennedy sailed again in the Isabel, on a 
 renewed search to Behring's Straits . . 1853 
 
 16. H.M.S. Rattlesnake, commander Trollope, des- 
 patched to assist the Plover, capt. Maguire (who 
 succeeded capt. Moore), at Point Barrow in April ; 
 met with it Aug. ,, 
 
 17. The second American expedition, the Advance, 
 under Dr. Kane .... early in June, ,, 
 
 18. The Phoenix (with the Breadalbane transport), 
 commander Inglefield, accompanied by lieut. 
 Bellot, sailed in May ; lie returned, bringing des- 
 patches from Sir E. Belcher, <fec. . Oct. ,, 
 
 The Investigator and sir E. Belcher's squadron 
 were safe ; but no traces of Franklin's party had 
 been met with. Lieut. Bellot was unfortunately 
 drowned in August while voluntarily conveying 
 despatches for sir E. Belcher. Capt. M'Clure had 
 left the Herald (10) at Cape Lisburne, 31 July, 
 
 FEAXKLIX. 
 
 1850. On 8 Oct. the ship was frozen in, and so 
 continued for nine months. On 26 Oct. 1850, 
 while on an excursion party, the captain dis- 
 covered an entrance into Barrow's Straits, and 
 thus established the existence of a N. E. NWV. 
 passage. In Sept. 1851, the ship was again fixed 
 in ice, and so remained till lieut. Pirn and a party 
 from capt. Kellett's ship, the Resolute (11), fell in 
 with them in April, 1853. Tlle position of the 
 Enterprise (4) was still unknown. 
 
 A monument to Bellot's memory was erected at 
 Greenwich. His " Journal " was published ill 1854 
 
 Dr. Rae, in the spring of 1853, again proceeded 
 towards the magnetic pole; and in July, 1854, 
 he reported to the Admiralty that he had pur- 
 chased from a party of Esquimaux a number of 
 articles which had belonged to sir J. Franklin 
 and his party — namely, sir John's star or order, 
 part of a watch, silver spoons, and forks with 
 crests, <fec. He also reported the statement of 
 the natives, that they had met with a party of 
 white men about four winters previous, and had 
 sold them a seal ; and that four months later, in 
 the same season, they had found the bodies of 
 thirty men (some buried), who had evidently 
 perished by starvation ; the place appears, from 
 the description, to have been in the neighbour- 
 hood of the Great Fish river of Back. Dr. Rae 
 arrived in England on 22 Oct. 1854, with the 
 relics, which have since been deposited in Green- 
 wich hospital. He and his companions were 
 awarded 10,000?. for their discovery. 
 
 19. The Phoenix, North Star, and Talbot, under the 
 command of capt. Inglefield, sailed in May, and 
 returned in Oct. 1854 
 
 Sir E. Belcher (No. n), after mature deliberation, 
 in April, 1854, determined to abandon his ships, 
 and gave orders to that effect to all the captains 
 under his command ; and capt. Kellett gave 
 similar orders to capt. M'Clure, of the Investigator. 
 The vessels had been abandoned in June* when 
 the crews of the Phoenix and Talbot (under capt. 
 Inglefield) arrived (19). On their return to 
 England all the captains were tried by court 
 martial and honourably acquitted 17-19 Oct. 1854 
 
 Capt. Collinson's fate was long uncertain, and 
 another expedition was in contemplation, when 
 intelligence came, in Feb. 1855, that he had met 
 the Rattlesnake (16) at Fort Clarence on 21 Aug. 
 1854, and hail sailed immediately, in hopes of 
 getting up with capt. Maguire in the Plover (1), 
 which had sailed two days previously. Capt. 
 Collinson having failed in getting through the ice 
 in 1850 with capt. M'Clure, returned to Hong- 
 Kong to winter. In 1851 he passed through 
 Prince of Wales's Straits, and remained in the 
 Arctic regions without obtaining any intelligence 
 of Franklin till July, 1854, when, being once 
 more released from the ice, he sailed for Fort 
 Clarence, where he arrived as above mentioned. 
 Captains Collinson and Maguire arrived in England 
 in May, 1855 
 
 20. The third American expedition in search of 
 Dr. Kane, in the Advance, consisted of the 
 Release and the steamer Arctic, the barque Eringo, 
 and another vessel under the command of lieut. 
 H. J. Hartstene, accompanied by a brother of 
 
 Dr. Kane as surgeon, . . 31 May, 1855 
 
 [On 17 May, 1855, Dr. Kane and his party quitted 
 the Advance, and journeyed over the ice, 1300 
 miles, to the Danish settlement ; on their way 
 home in a Danish vessel, they fell in with lieut. 
 Hartstene, 18 Sept. ; and arrived with him at 
 New York, n Oct. 1855. Dr. Kane visited 
 England in 1856 ; he died in 1857.] 
 The Hudson's Bay Company, under advice of Dr. Rae 
 
 * Capt. Kellett's ship, the Resolute, was found adrift 
 1000 miles distant from where she was left, by a 
 Mr. George Henry, commanding an American whaler, 
 who brought her to New York. The British government 
 having abandoned their claim on the vessel, it was 
 bought by order of the American congress, thoroughly 
 repaired and equipped, and entrusted to capt. H. J. 
 Hartstene, to be presented to queen Victoria. It arrived 
 at Southampton, 12 Dec. 1856 ; was visited by her majesty 
 ou the 16th ; and formally surrendered on the 30th. 
 
FRANKS. 
 
 295 
 
 FREEMASONRY. 
 
 and sir G. Back, sent out an overland expedition, 
 June 1855, which returned Sept. following. Some 
 more remains of Franklin's party were discovered. 1855 
 
 si. The 18th British expedition (equipped by lady 
 Franklin and her friends, the government having 
 declined to fit out another) — the Fox, screw 
 steamer, under capt. (since sir F. L. M'Clintoek, 
 R.N. (see No. 11}— sailed from Aberdeen 1 July, 
 1857 ; returned .... 22 Sept. 1859 
 
 On 6 May, 1859, lieut. Hobson found at Point 
 Victory, near Cape Victoria, besides a cairn, a tin 
 case, containing a paper, signed 25 April, 1848, 
 by capt. Fitzjames, which certified that the ships 
 Erebus and Terror, on 12 Sept. 1846, were beset in 
 lat. 70 05' N. , and long. 98 23' W. ; that sir John 
 Franklin died 11 June, 1847; and that the ships 
 were deserted 22 April, 1848. Captain M'Clintoek 
 continued the search, and discovered skeletons 
 and other relics. His Journal was published in 
 Dec. 1859 ; and on 28 May, i860, gold medals 
 were given to him and to lady Franklin by the 
 Royal Geographical Society. 
 
 Mr. Hall, the arctic explorer, reported, in Aug. 1865, 
 circumstances that led him to hope that capt. 
 Crozier and others were surviving. 
 
 A national monument by Noble, set up in Waterloo- 
 place, was inaugurated, 15 Nov. 1866. It is 
 inscribed to " Franklin the great navigator and 
 his brave companions who sacrificed their lives in 
 completing the discovery of the north west 
 passage, a.d. 1847-8." 
 
 Sir John Franklin discovered the north-west passage 
 by sailing down Peel and Victoria Straits, now 
 named Franklin Straits. 
 
 FRANKS (or freemen), a name given to a com- 
 bination of the North-western German tribes about 
 240, which invaded Gaul and other parts of the 
 empire with various success in the 5th century; 
 see Gaul and France. 
 
 FRATRICELLI (Little Brethren), a sect of 
 the middle ages, originally strict Franciscan monks. 
 Their numbers increased, and they were condemned 
 by a papal bull in 1317 ; and suffered persecution ; 
 but were not extinct till the 16th century. They 
 resembled the " Brethren of the Free Spirit." 
 
 FRAUDS, Statute of. 29 Charles II., c. 3, 
 
 1677. " -A- 11 act f° r prevention of frauds and per- 
 juryes." 
 
 FRAUDULENT TRUSTEES ACT, 20 & 
 
 21 Vict. c. 54, passed Aug. 1857, in consequence of 
 the delinquencies of sir John D. Paul, the British 
 Bank frauds, &c. It was brought in by sir It. 
 Bethell, then attorney-general (afterwards lord 
 Westbury), and is very stringent. 
 
 FRAUNHOFER'S LINES, see Spectrum. 
 
 FRASER'S MAGAZINE, first appeared, 
 Feb. 1830. 
 
 FREDERICKSBURG (Virginia,N. America) . 
 On 10 Dec. 1862, general Burnside and the federal 
 army of the Potomac crossed the small deep river 
 Rappahannock. On 11 Dec. Fredericksburg was 
 bombarded by the federals and destroyed. On the 
 13th commenced a series of desperate unsuccessful 
 attacks on the confederate works, defended by 
 generals Lee, Jackson, Longstreet, and others. 
 General Hooker crossed the river with the reserves, 
 and joined in the conflict, in vain. On 15 and 16 
 Dec. the federal army recrossed the Rappahannock. 
 The battle was one of the most severe in the war. 
 
 FREDERICKSHALD (Norway). Charles 
 XII. of Sweden was killed by a cannon-shot before 
 its walls, while examining the works. His hand 
 was on his sword, and a prayer-book in his pocket, 
 II Dec. 1718. 
 
 FREE CHURCH (of England). The rev. 
 H. Hampton, one of the. curates of Islington, 
 
 having been dismissed, a part of his congregation 
 erected a temporary church. The bishop of London, 
 after inquiry, refused to license it. On this the 
 congregation declared itself to be the Free Church 
 of England, March, 1859. Eventually, he left the 
 neighbourhood, and re-entered the establishment. 
 Secessions from the church of England took place 
 in 1872 in consequence of the decision in favour of 
 Mr. Bennett, 8 June, 1872 ; see Church of England. 
 The establishment of a bishopric for a new Free 
 Church at Southampton was proposed Jan. 1873. 
 
 FREE CHURCH (of Scotland) was formed 
 by an act of secession of nearly half the body from 
 the national church of Scotland, headed by Dr. Thos. 
 Chalmers and other eminent ministers, 18 May, 
 1843. The difference arose on the question of the 
 right of patrons to nominate to livings; see Patron- 
 age. The Free Church claims for the parishioners 
 the right of a veto. Much distress was endured the 
 first year by the ministers of the new church, 
 although 366,719/. 14s. 3d. had been subscribed. 
 In 1853 there were 850 congregations. A large 
 college was founded in 1846. In 1856 the susten- 
 tation fund amounted to 108,638/. from which was 
 paid the sum of 138/. each to 700 ministers. 
 
 FREE CHURCH SOCIETY, or National 
 Association for Freedom of Public Worship, esta- 
 blished in 1857, to abolish the pew-rent system 
 and revive the weekly offertory to defray the ex- 
 penses of public worship. 
 
 FREE COMPANIES AND LANCES, see 
 Condottieri. 
 
 FREEDMEN'S BUREAUS, established in 
 the Southern States of North America in March, 
 1865, to protect the freed negroes. Having the 
 support of martial law, these bureaus became very 
 oppressive, and the act of congress making them 
 permanent was vetoed by president Johnson in 
 Feb. 1866. 
 
 FREEHOLDERS. Those under forty shil- 
 lings per annum were not qualified to vote for 
 members of parliament by 8 Hen. VI. c. 7, 1429. 
 Various acts have been passed for the regulation of 
 the franchise at different periods. The more recent 
 were, the act to regulate polling, 9 Geo. IV., 1828 ; 
 act for the disqualification of freeholders in Ireland, 
 which deprived those of forty shillings of this privi- 
 lege, passed 13 April, 1829; Reform acts, 1832, 
 1867, 1868. ' County elections act, 7 Will. IV., 1836. 
 See Chandos Clause. 
 
 FREE LABOUR REGISTRATION 
 SOCIETY, established for the benefit of em- 
 ployers and non-unionist workmen, in opposition 
 to trades' unions, about July, 1867. 
 
 FREE TRADE principles, advocated by Adam 
 Smith in his "Wealth of Nations" (1776), tri- 
 umphed in England when the corn laws were 
 abolished in 1846, and the commercial treaty with 
 France was adopted in i860. Richard Cobden, who 
 was very instrumental in passing these measures, 
 and termed "Apostle of Free Trade," died 2 April, 
 1865. Since 1830 the exports have been tripled 
 See French Treaty. An agitation for free trade has 
 begun in the United States. A reform league was 
 formed at Boston, 20 April, 1869; and the move- 
 ment became active in New York in Nov., and has 
 since continued. 
 
 FREEMASONRY. Writers on masonry, 
 themselves masons, affirm that it has had a being 
 "ever since symmetry began, and harmony dis- 
 played her charms." It is traced by some to the 
 
FREETHINKERS. 
 
 296 
 
 FRENCH TREATY. 
 
 building of Solomon's temple; and it is said the 
 architects from the African coast, Mahometans, 
 brought it into Spain, about the 9th century. Its 
 introduction into Britain has been fixed at 674; 
 and in Scotland 1 140. Many of our Gothic cathe- 
 drals are attributed to freemasons. The grand lodge 
 at York was founded 926. Freemasonry was inter- 
 dicted in England, 1424. In 1717, the grand lodge 
 of England "was established ; that of Ireland in 
 1730 ; and that of Scotland in 1736. Freemasons 
 were excommunicated by the pope in 1738; again 
 condemned, 30 Sept. 1865. Freemasons' Hall, 
 Great Queen - street, London, built 1771 ; re- 
 built, and consecrated 14 April, 1869. The charity 
 instituted, 1 788. Earl de Grey was installed grand- 
 master of the English freemasons in room of the 
 earl of Zetland, 14 May, 1870. The prince of 
 Wales was installed at Edinburgh as patron of tbe 
 freemasons of Scotland, 12 Oct. 1870. 
 
 FREETHINKERS, professors of natural re- 
 ligion ; see Iteixts. 
 
 FRENCH ASSOCIATION for the ad- 
 vancement OE THE SCIENCES was established 
 by the general assembly, 22 April, 1872, its chief 
 founders being MM. Balard, Claude Bernard, De- 
 launay, Dumas, Pasteur, Berthelot, Wiirtz, and 
 others. It held its first meeting at Bordeaux, 
 5 Sept. 1872, when many foreign scientific men 
 were present. M. De Quatrefages, president. 
 
 FRENCH CHURCH, see Church of France. 
 
 FRENCH LANGUAGE is mainly based on 
 the rude Latin of the western nations subjugated 
 by the Romans. German was introduced by the 
 Franks in the 8th century. In the 9th the Gallo- 
 Romanic dialect became divided into the Langue 
 d'oc of the south and the Langue cl'oil of the north. 
 The French language as written by Froissart assi- 
 milates more to the modern French, and its 
 development was almost completed when the Aca- 
 deniie Franchise (established by Richelieu in 1634) 
 published a dictionary of the language in 1674. 
 The French language, laws, and customs were 
 introduced into England by William I., 1066. Law 
 pleadings were changed from French to English in 
 the reign of Edward III., 1362. Stow. 
 
 PRINCIPAL FRENCH AUTHORS. 
 
 Bom Died 
 
 Joinville thirteenth century. 
 
 Froissart 1337 — 1400? 
 
 Monstrelet about 1390 1453 
 
 Comines 1445 1509 
 
 Harot 1465 1544 
 
 Rabelais 1483 1553 
 
 Ronsard 1524 1585 
 
 Montaigne 1553 1592 
 
 Malherbe 1556 1628 
 
 Des Cartes 1596 1650 
 
 Pascal 1623 1662 
 
 Moliere 1622 1673 
 
 Rochefoucault 1613 1680 
 
 Corneille ....... 1606 1684 
 
 La Fontaine 1621 1695 
 
 La Bruyere 1644 1696 
 
 Racine 1639 1699 
 
 Bossuet . 1627 1724 
 
 Bayle 1647 1706 
 
 Boileau 1636 1711 
 
 Fenelon 1651 1715 
 
 Rollin 1661 1741 
 
 Le Sage 1668 1747 
 
 Montesquieu 1689 1755 
 
 Voltaire 1694 1778 
 
 J. J. Rousseau . ... 1712 1778 
 
 D'Alembert 1717 1783 
 
 Button 1707 1788 
 
 Marmontel 1723 1799 
 
 Born Died 
 
 Mad. Cottin 1773 1807 
 
 St. Pierre 1737 1814 
 
 De Stael 1766 1817 
 
 De Genlia 1746 1830 
 
 Sismondi ....... 1773 1842 
 
 Chateaubriand 1769 1848 
 
 Augustin Thierry 1795 1856 
 
 Beranger 1780 1857 
 
 Eugene Sue 1804 1857 
 
 A. Eugene Scribe 1791 1861 
 
 A. G. De Barante 1782 1866 
 
 F. Guizot 1787 
 
 A. F. Villemam 1791 1S67 
 
 A De la Martine 1790 1869 
 
 Victor Cousin 1792 1867 
 
 Amedee Thierry 1797 1873 
 
 L. A. Thiers 1797 
 
 Jules Miehelet 1798 
 
 Victor Hugo 1802 
 
 P. Merimee 1803 1870 
 
 Louis Blanc 1813 
 
 C. F. Montalembert 1810 1870 
 
 FRENCH RELIEF FUND, see Mansion- 
 Jioase Fund. The French peasant relief fund, 
 originated by the Daily Neivs, in Sept. 1870, was 
 closed April, 1871- 
 
 FRENCH REVOLUTION, see France, 1789. 
 
 FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY CA- 
 LENDAR. In 1792, the French nation adopted 
 a calendar professedly founded on philosophical 
 principles. The first year of the era of the republic 
 began at midnight, between 21 and 22 Sept. 1792; 
 but its establishment was not decreed until the 
 4th Frimaire of the year II., 24 Nov. 1793. The 
 calendar existed until the ioth Nivose, year of the 
 republic XIV., 31 Dee. 1805, when the Gregorian 
 mode of calculation was restored by Napoleon I. 
 
 AUTUMN. 
 
 Vendemiaire . . Vintage month, 22 Sept. to 21 Oct. 
 Brumaire . . . Fog month . . 22 Oct. to 20 Nov. 
 Frimaire . . . Sleet month . 21 Nov. to 20 Dec. 
 
 WINTER. 
 
 Nivose . . . . Snow month . 21 Dec. to 19 Jan. 
 Pluviose . . . Rain month . 20 Jan. to 18 Feb. 
 Veutose . . . Wind month . 19 Feb. to 20 Mar. 
 
 SPRING. 
 
 Germinal . . . Sprouts' month, 21 Mar. to 19 April. 
 Finical. . . . Flowers' month, 20 April to 16 May. 
 Prairial . . . Pasture month, 20 May to 18 June. 
 
 SUMMER. 
 
 Messidor . . . Harvestmonth, 19 June to 18 July. 
 Fervidor, or 
 
 Tliennidor . . Hot month . . 19 July to 17 Aug. 
 
 Fructidor . . . Fruit month . 18 Aug. to 16 Sept. 
 
 SANSCULOTIDES, OR FEASTS DEDICATED TO 
 
 Les Vertus .... The Virtues . .17 Sept 
 
 Le Genie . . . . Genius . . . 18 Sept. 
 
 Le Travail . , . . Labour . . .19 Sept. 
 
 L'Opinion . . . . Opinion . . . 20 Sept. 
 
 Les Recompenses . . Rewards . .21 Sept. 
 
 FRENCHTOWN (Canada), was taken from 
 the British by the American general "Winchester, 
 22 Jan. 1813, during the second war with the 
 United States of America. It was retaken by the 
 British forces under general Proctor, 24 Jan., and 
 the American commander and his troops were made 
 prisoners. 
 
 FRENCH TREATY, the term given to the 
 treaty of commerce between Great Britain and 
 France, signed 23 Jan. i860, at Paris, by lord 
 Cowley and Richard Cobden and by the ministers 
 MM. Baroche and Rouher. The beneficial results 
 of this treaty compensated for the depression of 
 trade occasioned by the civil war in North America 
 (1861-5). The French assembly determined that 
 
FEESCO PAINTINGS. 
 
 297 
 
 FEOSTS. 
 
 on 15 March, 1871, this treaty should cease in 12 
 months from that date. A fresh treaty was signed 
 at Paris 29 Jan. 1873. Free trade was somewhat 
 restricted, but the new French navigation law was 
 relaxed. 
 
 FEESCO PAINTINGS are executed on 
 plaster while fresh. Very ancient ones exist in 
 Egypt, Italy, and England, and modern ones in the 
 British houses of parliament, at Berlin, and other 
 places. The fresco paintings by Giotto and others 
 at the Campo Santo, a cemetery at Pisa, executed 
 in the 13th century, are justly celebrated. See 
 Stereochromy. 
 
 FEETEVAL (Central France). Here Richard 
 I. of England defeated Philip II. of France, and 
 captured his royal seal, archives, &c, 15 July, 
 1 194. 
 
 FEIAES (from the French frere, a brother) ; 
 see Minorites, Carmelites, Dominicans, Franciscans, 
 and other orders. 
 
 FEIDAY, the sixth day of the week ; so called 
 from Friga, or Frea, the Scandinavian Venus, the 
 wife of Thor, and goddess of peace, fertility, and 
 riches, who with Thor and Odin composed the 
 supreme council of the Gods. See Good Friday. 
 
 FEIEDLAND (Prussia). Here the allied 
 Russians and Prussians were beaten by the French, 
 commanded by Napoleon, on 14 June, 1807. The 
 allies lost eighty pieces of cannon and about 18,000 
 men ; the French about 10,000 men. The peace of 
 Tilsit followed, by which Prussia was obliged to 
 surrender nearly half her dominions. 
 
 FEIENDLY ISLES, in the Southern Pacific, 
 consist of a group of more than 150 islands, form- 
 ing an archipelago of very considerable extent. 
 These islands were discovered by Tasman, in 1643 ; 
 visited by Wallis, who called them Keppel Isles, 
 1767 ; and by captain Cook, who named, them on 
 account of the friendly disposition of the natives, 
 1773- Subsequent voyagers describe them as very 
 ferocious. 
 
 . FEIENDLY SOCIETIES, which originated 
 in the clubs of the industrious classes, were sub- 
 jected to slight control in 1793, and have been 
 regulated by various enactments. Other acts were 
 passed in 1855, 1858 and i860. 
 
 FEIENDS, see Quakers. 
 
 FEIENDS OF THE PEOPLE, an association 
 formed in London to obtain parliamentary reform, 
 1792. 
 
 FEIESLAND : EAST (N. Germany), the 
 ancient Frisia, formerly governed by its own counts. 
 On the death of its prince Charles Edward, in 1744, 
 it became subject to the king of Prussia; Hanover 
 disputed its possession, but Prussia prevailed. It was 
 annexed to Holland by Bonaparte, in 1806, to the 
 French empire, 1810 ; and awarded to Hanover in 
 1815. The English language is said to be mainly 
 derived from the old Frisian dialect. — Friesland, 
 "West, in Holland, was part of Charlemagne's 
 empire in 800. It passed under the counts of 
 Holland about 936, and was one of the seven pro- 
 vinces which renounced the Spanish yoke in 1580. 
 The term Chevaux de Frise (or Cheval de Frise, a 
 Fries/and Horse) is derived from Friesland, where 
 it was invented. 
 
 FEIULI (Venetia), made a duchy by Alboin 
 the Lombard, when he established his kingdom 
 about 570. It was conquered by Charlemagne. 
 
 Henri, a Frenchman, made duke, was assassinated 
 in 799, which was the fate of duke Berengarius, 
 king of Italy and emperor, in 924. The emperor 
 Conrad gave the duchy to his chancellor Poppo, 
 patriarch of Aquileia, in the nth century; it was 
 conquered by Venice in 1420 ; annexed to Austria, 
 1797; to France, 1 805 ; to Austria, 18 14; to Italy, 
 1866. 
 
 FEOBISHEE'S STEAITS, discovered by 
 sir Martin Frobisher, who tried to find a north- 
 west passage to China, and after exploring the coast 
 of New Greenland, entered this strait, 11 Aug. 
 1576. He returned to England, bringing with him 
 a quantity of black ore, supposed to contain gold, 
 which induced queen Elizabeth to patronise a second 
 voyage. This led to a third fruitless expedition. 
 He was mortally wounded at Brest, Nov. 1594- 
 
 FEOGMOEE, near Windsor, Berks. A house 
 here, built b) r Nash, was the residence of queen 
 Charlotte and afterwards of the duchess of Kent. 
 Here is situate the mausoleum of the late prince 
 consort. See filbert. 
 
 FEONDE, ClVIL Wars OF THE, in France, 
 in the minority of Louis XIV. (1648-52), during 
 the government of queen Anne of Austria and 
 cardinal Mazarin, between the followers of the 
 the court and the nobility, and the parliament and 
 the citizens. The latter were called Frondeurs 
 (slingers), it is said, from an incident in a street 
 quarrel. In a riot on 27 Aug. 1648, barricades were 
 erected in Paris. 
 
 FEOSTS. The following are some of the most 
 remarkable recorded : (see Cold.) 
 
 The Euxine Sea frozen over for 20 days . . . 4or 
 A frost at Constantinople, when the two seas there 
 
 were frozen a hundred miles from the shore, 
 
 Oct. 763 — Feb. 764 
 A frost in England on Midsummer-day is said to 
 
 have destroyed the fruits of the earth . . . 1035 
 
 Thames frozen for 14 weeks 1063 
 
 Dreadful frosts in England from Nov. to April . 1076 
 
 The Cattegat entirely frozen 1294 
 
 Baltic passable to travellers for six weeks . . 1323 
 The Baltic frozen from Pomerania to Denmark . 1402 
 In England, when all the small birds perished . 1407 
 The ice bore riding upon it from Liibeek to Prussia, 1426 
 Severe frost , when large fowl of the air sought 
 
 shelter in the towns of Germany . . . . 1433 
 The river frozen below London-bridge to Gravesend, 
 
 from 24 Nov. to Feb. 10 1434 
 
 The Baltic frozen, and horse passengers crossed 
 
 from Denmark to Sweden 1460 
 
 The winter so severe in Flanders that the wine 
 
 distributed was cut by hatchets .... 1468 
 Carriages passed over from Lambeth to Westminster 1515 
 Wine in Flanders frozen into solid lumps . . . 1544 
 Sledges drawn by oxen travelled on the sea from 
 
 Rostock to Denmark 1548 
 
 Diversions on the Thames . . .21 Dec. &c. 1564 
 The Scheldt frozen so hard as to sustain loaded 
 
 waggons ^5 
 
 The Rhine, Scheldt, and sea at Venice frozen . . 1594 
 Fires and diversions on the Thames . . . . 1607 
 The rivers of Europe and the Zuyder Zee frozen ; 
 
 ice covers the Hellespont 1622 
 
 Charles X. of Sweden crossed the Little-Belt over 
 
 the ice from Holstein to Denmark, with his whole 
 
 army ^5^ 
 
 The forest trees, and even the oaks in England, 
 
 split by the frost ; most of the hollies were killed ; 
 
 the Thames covered with ice eleven inches thick ; 
 
 and nearly all the birds perished, Dec. 1683— Feb. 1684 
 '* The people kept trades on the Thames as in a 
 
 fair, till 4 Feb. 1684. About forty coaches daily 
 
 plied on the Thames as on drye land. Bought 
 
 this book at a shop upon the ice in the middle of 
 
 the Thames." — Entry in the memoranda of a 
 
 Citizen. 
 
FROSTS INSURRECTION. 
 
 293 
 
 FUNERALS. 
 
 1691 
 1709 
 1716 
 
 1740 
 1766 
 1789 
 
 !795 
 1796 
 1812 
 
 185s 
 
 The wolves, driven by the cold, entered Vienna, 
 and attacked cattle and men 
 
 Three months' frost, with heavy snow, from Dec. 
 
 to March 
 
 A fair held on the Thames, and oxen roasted ; frost 
 continued 24 Nov. to 9 Feb. 
 
 One lasted 9 weeks, when coaches plied upon the 
 Thames, and festivities and diversions of all 
 kinds were enjoyed upon the ice. (The " hard 
 winter ") 
 
 From 25 Dec. to 16 Jan. and from 18 to 22 Jan. '; 
 most terrible 
 
 One general throughout Europe ; the Thames pass- 
 able opposite the Custom House Nov. to Jan. . 
 
 One from 24 Dec, 1794, to 14 Feb. 1795, with the 
 intermission of one day's thaw . . 23 Jan. 
 
 Intense frosts all Dec! 
 
 Severe frost in Russia 
 
 Very destructive to the French army in its retreat 
 from Moscow. Napoleon commenced his retreat 
 on the 9th Nov. The men perished in battalions, 
 and the horses fell by hundreds on the roads. 
 France lost in the campaign of this year more 
 than 400,000 men. 
 
 Booths erected on the Thames; the winter very 
 severe in Ireland Jan. 
 
 The frosts so intense in parts of Norway, that 
 
 quicksilver freezes, and persons exposed to the 
 
 _ atmosphere lose their breath . . 2 Jan. 
 
 Very severe frost in London, 14 Jan. to 24 Feb. ; 
 and very cold weather up to 26 June . . . 
 
 On 22 Feb. tires were made on the Serpentine, 
 Hyde Park. A traffic on the ice of 35 miles long, 
 was established in Lincomshire ... ,, 
 
 Very severe frost, 20 Dec. i860 ; to . 5 Jan. 1861 
 
 FROST'S INSURRECTION, see Newport. 
 
 FRUCTIDOR CONSTITUTION; that 
 promulgated in .France on the 5th Fructidor, year 3, 
 or 22 Aug. 1795. See Directory. 
 
 FRUITS. Several varieties introduced into 
 Italy, 70 B.C. et seq. Many exotic fruits and flowers, 
 previously unknown in England, were brought 
 thither between 1500 and 1578, and very many in 
 the present century. See Gardening, and Flowers. 
 
 Almond-tree, Barbary, about i 54 8 
 
 Apples, Syria I522 
 
 Apple, custard, N. America ..." '1736 
 
 Apple, osage, ditto I 8 1 s 
 
 Apricots, Epirus I540 
 
 Cherry-trees, Poutus . . . ' IOO 
 
 Cherries, Flanders I54 o 
 
 Cornelian cherry, Austria 1596 
 
 Currant, the hawthorn, Canada 1705 
 
 Fig-tree, S. Europe, before I54 8 
 
 Gooseberries, Flanders, before i 54 o 
 
 Grapes, Portugal I52 8 
 
 Lemons, Spain ' ISS4 
 
 Limes, Portugal, about . . • ... 1554 
 
 Limes, American, before , I752 
 
 Melons, before ... ' 1^4.0 
 
 Mulberry, Italy '.'.'. 1520 
 
 Mulberry, white, China, about .... 1596 
 
 Mulberry, the red, N. America, before . . . 1629 
 Mulberry, paper, Japan, before . . . .1754 
 
 Nectarine, Persia !6 52 
 
 Olive, Cape \ I730 
 
 Olive, the sweet-scented China . . I77I 
 
 Oranges I595 
 
 Peaches, Persia I5 6 2 
 
 Pears, uncertain * * 
 
 Pine-apple, Brazils I5 68 
 
 Pippins, Netherlands .... rtoe 
 
 Plums, Italy t %£ 
 
 Pomegranate, Spain, before i 54 8 
 
 Quince, Austria I573 
 
 Quince, Japan I7 n6 
 
 Kaspberry, the Virginian, before . . . . . 1696 
 
 Strawberry, Flanders I53 o 
 
 Strawberry, the Oriental, Levant . ... i 7 2 4 
 
 Walnut, the black, N. America, before . . . 1629 
 
 FUCHSIA, an American plaut named after the 
 German botaniit Leonard Fuohs, about 1 5+2. The 
 
 Fuchsia fulgens, the most beautiful variety, was 
 introduced from Mexico, about 1830. 
 
 FUENTES DE ONORO (central Spain). 
 On 2 May, 181 1, Massena crossed the Agueda with 
 40,000 infantry, 5000 horse, and about 30 pieces of 
 artillery, to relieve Almeida. He expected every 
 day to be superseded in his command, and wished 
 to make a last effort for his own military character. 
 Wellington could muster no more than 32,000 men, 
 of which only 1200 were cavalry. He however de- 
 termined to tight rather than give up the blockade 
 of Almeida. After much fighting, on 3 May, night 
 came on and stopped the conflict. Next day Mas- 
 sena was joined by Bessieres with a body of the 
 Imperial guard ; and on 5 May, made his grand 
 attack. In all the war there was not a more dan- 
 gerous hour for England. The fight lasted until 
 evening, when the lower part of the town was 
 abandoned by both parties — the British maintaining 
 the chapel and crags, and the French retiring a 
 cannon-shot from the stream. Napier. 
 
 FUESSEN, Bavaria. By a treaty signed here, 
 22 April, 1745, peace was made between Maria 
 Theresa, queen of Hungary, and the elector of 
 Bavaria, the latter renouncing his claim to the 
 imperial crown and recovering his lost territories. 
 
 FUGGER, an illustrious German family (the 
 present head, prince Leopold Fugger Babenhausen, 
 since 28 May, 1 836), derives its origin from John 
 Fugger, a master weaver in Augsburg in 1370; 
 and its wealth by trade, and by money-lending to 
 monarchs, especially the emperors. 
 
 FUGITIVE SLAVE BILL passed by the 
 American legislature in 1850. It imposed a fine of 
 IOOO dollars and six months' imprisonment on any 
 person harbouring fugitive slaves or aiding in their 
 escape. This law was declared to be unconstitu- 
 tional by the judges of the superior court on 3 Feb. 
 1855, was carried into effect with great diffi- 
 culty, and was not received by Massachusetts. 
 It was repealed 13 June, 1864 ; see Slavery in 
 America. 
 
 FULDA (W. Germany), the seat of an abbey, 
 founded by St. Boniface, the apostle of Germany, 
 in 744. It was made a bishopric in 1752, and a 
 principality in 1803. Napoleon incorporated it with 
 Frankfort in 1810 ; but in 1815 it was ceded to 
 Hesfe-Cassel. 
 
 FULFORD, Yorkshire. Here Harold Har- 
 drada of Norway, and Tostig, brother of Harold of 
 England, defeated the earls Edwin and Morcar, 
 20 Sept. 1066 ; and the people near York submitted 
 to them ; see Stanford-bridge. 
 
 FUMIGATION. Acron, a physician of Agri- 
 gentum, is said to have first caused great fires to 
 be lighted and aromatics to be thrown into them 
 to purify the air, and thus to have stopped the 
 plague at Athens and other places in Greece, about 
 473 B.C. 
 
 FUNDS, see Stocks, and Sinking Fund. 
 
 FUNERALS. David lamented over Saul and 
 Jonathan, 1056 B.C., and over Abner, 1048 B.C. 
 2 Sam. i. and iii. In Greece, Solon was the first 
 who pronounced a funeral oration, according to 
 Herodotus, 580 B.C. The Komans pronounced 
 harangues over their illustrious dead. Theopompus 
 obtained a prize for the best Funeral Oration in 
 praise of Mausolus, 353 B.C. Popilia was the first 
 Koman lady who had an oration pronounced at her 
 funeral, which was done by her son, Crassus ; and 
 
FUEBUCKABAD. 
 
 299 
 
 GALLEEIES. 
 
 it is observed by Cicero that Julius Caesar did the 
 like for his aunt Julia and his wife Cornelia. — 
 Funeral Games, among the Greeks and Eomans 
 included horse-races, dramatic representations. uro- 
 cessions, and mortal combats of gladiators. These 
 games were abolished by the emperor Claudius, 
 a.d. 47. A tax was laid on funerals in England, 
 1793- 
 
 Public Funerals voted by parliament : — 
 Duke of Rutland, in Ireland . . -17 Nov. 1787 
 Lord Nelson (see Nelson) . . . .9 Jan. 1806 
 
 Wm. Pitt 22 Feb. ,, 
 
 Chas. Jas. Fox 10 Oct. ,, 
 
 Richard Brinsley Sheridan . . .13 July, 1816 
 
 George Canning 16 Aug. 1827 
 
 Duke of Wellington 18 Nov. 1852 
 
 Viscount Palmerston (at her majesty's request), 
 
 27 Oct. 1865 
 
 FUEBUCKABAD (N. India), a province ac- 
 quired by the East India company, in June, 1802. 
 Near the capital of the same name, 17 Nov. 1804, 
 
 lord Lake defeated the Maharatta chief Holkar, ana 
 about 60,000 cavalry, himself losing 2 killed and 
 about 20 wounded. 
 
 FURS were worn by Henry I. about 1125. 
 Edward III. enacted that all persons who could not 
 spend 100I. a year should be prohibited this species 
 of finery, 28 March, 1336-7. 
 
 FUSILIEES. Foot soldiers, formerly armed 
 with fusees with slings to sling them. The 7th 
 regiment (or Royal English Fusiliers) was raised, 
 II June, 1685 ; the 21st (or Royal North British), 
 23 Sept. 1679; the 23rd (or Royal Welsh), 17 March, 
 1688. Grose. 
 
 FUTTEHG-HUE (India). Here Nana Sahib 
 massacred both the English defenders of the fort and 
 their Sepoy assailants, July, 1857 ; and here the 
 Sepoy rebels were defeated by sir Colin Campbell, 
 2 Jan. i8q8. 
 
 G. 
 
 GABELLE (from Gale, a gift), a term applied 
 to various taxes, but afterwards restricted to the 
 duty upon salt first imposed by Philip the Fair on 
 the French in 1286. Duruy. Our Edward III., 
 termed Philip of Valois, who exacted the tax 
 rigorously, the author of the Salic law (from sal, 
 salt), 1340. The assessments were unequal, being 
 very heavy in some provinces and light in others ; 
 owing to exemptions purchased from the sovereigns. 
 The tax produced 38 millions of francs in the reign 
 of Louis XVI. It was a grievous burden, and 
 tended to hasten the revolution, during which it 
 was abolished (1790). 
 
 GAELIC, the northern branch of the Celtic 
 languages, Irish, Erse or Highland Scottish, and 
 Manx. The "Dean of Lismore's book" written 
 1511-51) contains Gaelic poetry; specimens were 
 published, with translations, in 1862, by rev. T. 
 M'Lachlan. 
 
 GAETA (the ancient Cajeta), a fortified Nea- 
 politan seaport, has undergone several remarkable 
 sieges. It was taken by the French, 4 Jan. 1799; 
 by the English, 31 Oct. T799; by the French, 
 18 July, 1806 ; and by the Austrians in 1815 and 
 182 1. Here pope Pius IX. took refuge, 24 Nov. 
 1848, and resided more than a year. Here also 
 Francis II. of Naples, with his queen and court, 
 fled, when Garibaldi entered Naples, 7 Sept. i860; 
 and here he remained till the city was taken by 
 the Sardinian general Cialdini, 13 Feb. 1861, after 
 a severe siege, uselessly prolonged by a French fleet 
 remaining in the harbour. Cialdini was created 
 duke of Gaeta. 
 
 GAGGING BILL, properly so called, meant 
 to protect the king and government from the 
 harangues of seditious meetings, was enacted 8 Dec. 
 1795, when the popular mind was much excited. 
 In Dec. 1819, soon after the Manchester affray, an 
 act was passed for restraining public meetings and 
 cheap periodical publications; it was popularly called 
 " a gagging bill." Statutes coercing popular as- 
 semblies, particularly in Ireland, have been also so 
 designated. 
 
 GAIETY THEATEE, Strand, opened 21 Dec. 
 1868, Mr. John Hollingshead, manager. 
 
 GALATZ (Moravia). The preliminaries of 
 peace between Russia and Turkey signed here T 
 11 Aug. 1791, led to the treaty of Jassy, 9 Jan. 
 1792. The site of several conflicts, in which the Rus- 
 sians defeated the Turks, Nov. 1769; 10 Mav, 
 1828. 
 
 GALAPAGOS, islands ceded to the United 
 States by Ecuador, 3 Nov. 1854, the British, French, 
 and other powers protesting against it. 
 
 GALATIA, a province of Asia Minor. In the 
 3rd century B.C. the Gauls under Brennus invaded 
 Greece, crossed the Hellespont, and conquered the 
 Troas, 278 ; were checked by Attalus I. in a battle- 
 about 241 ; and then settled in what was called 
 afterwards Gallogrsecia and Galatia. The country 
 was ravaged by Cneius Manlius, 189 B.C., and was 
 finally annexed to the Roman empire, 25 B.C., oa 
 the death of the king Amyntas. Paul's Epistle to 
 the Galatiam was probably written a.d. 58. 
 
 GALICIA, a province, N."W. Spain, was con- 
 quered by D. Junius Brutus, 136 B.C. and by the 
 Vandals a.d. 419 ; and was subdued by successive 
 invaders. In 1065, on the death of Ferdinand I. 
 king of Castile and Leon, when his dominions were 
 divided, his son Garcia became king of Galicia. 
 Ruling tyranically, he was expelled by his brother 
 Sancho ; returned at his death in 1072 ; was again 
 expelled by his brother Alfonso, 1073 ; and died in 
 prison in 1091. Alfonso, son of Urraca, queen of 
 Castile, was made king of Galicia by her in 1109. 
 He defended his mother, a dissolute woman, against 
 her husband, Alfonso VII., and at her death in 
 1 126, acquired Castile, and once more re-united the 
 kingdoms. — Galicia, Poland. East Galicia was 
 acquired by the emperor of Germany at the parti- 
 tion in 1772; and West Galicia at that of 1795. 
 The latter was ceded to the grand duchy of Warsaw 
 in 1809; but recovered by Austria in 1815. The- 
 appointment of count Goluchowski, a Pole, as 
 governor, in Oct. 1866, gave much satisfaction to 
 the Poles, about 2,000,000 in this province; see 
 Poland, note. 
 
 GALLEEIES, see National, Louvre, ami 
 Versailles. 
 
GALL. 
 
 300 
 
 GARDENING. 
 
 GALL, ST. (in Switzerland). The abbey, 
 ■founded in the 7th century, was surrounded by a 
 town in the 10th. St. Gall became a canton of the 
 confederation in 1815. 
 
 GALLEYS with three rows of rowers, tri- 
 remes, were invented by the Corinthians, 786 B.C. 
 Blair. The terms " galley slave," and " condemned 
 to the galleys," arose from these sea vessels having 
 from 25 to 30 benches on each side, manned by four 
 •or live slaves to each bench. In France they had 
 -a general of galleys, of whom the baron de la Garde 
 was the first, 1544. The punishment of the galleys 
 (galercs) has been superseded by the " travaux 
 forces," forced labour, regulated by a law of 1854, 
 the men being called "forcats." 
 
 GALLICAN CHURCH, see Church of 
 France. 
 
 GALLIPOLI, the ancient Callipolis, a sea- 
 .port in Turkey in Europe, 128 miles west of Con- 
 stantinople. It was taken by the Turks in 1357, 
 and fortified by Bajazet I. The first division of the 
 French and English armies proceeding against the 
 Russians landed here in March and April, 1854. 
 
 GALOCHES, French for overshoes, formerly 
 of leather ; but since 1843 made of vulcanised India 
 ■rubber. The importation of Galoshes was prohibited 
 by 3 Edw. IV. c. 4 (1463). 
 
 GALVANISM and GALVANO-PLAS- 
 TICS, see under Electricity, p. 232. 
 
 GALWAY (W. Ireland). The ancient settlers 
 here were divided into thirteen tribes, a distinction 
 not yet forgotten. It was conquered by Richard de 
 Burgo in 1232. In 1690 Galway city declared for 
 king James, but was taken by general Ginckel soon 
 ■after the decisive battle of Aughrim, 12 July, 1691. 
 Here is one of the new colleges, endowed by 
 government, pursuant to act 8 & 9 Vict. c. 66 
 (1845), inaugurated, 30 Oct. 1849, see Colleges and 
 Ireland, 1872-3. 
 
 In 1858 the sailing of mail steam packets from Galway to 
 America began ; but the subsidy ceased in May, 1861, 
 through the company's breach of contract, which 
 occasioned much discussion in parliament. In July, 
 1863, the contract for the conveyance of mails from 
 Galway to America was renewed, and 75,000?. voted for 
 the purpose. The scheme was not successful. On 9 
 Nov. the steamer Anglia struck on the Black rock, and 
 the mails were taken to Dublin. The last packet sailed 
 in Feb. 1864. 
 
 GAMBOGE, a medicine and pigment, brought 
 from India by the Dutch, about 1600. Hermann 
 in 1677 announced that it was derived from two 
 trees of Ceylon, since ascertained to belong to the 
 order G uttifera. 
 
 GAME LAWS are a remnant of the forest 
 laws imposed by William the Conqueror, who, to 
 preserve his game, made it forfeiture of property 
 to disable a wild beast, and loss of eyes, for a stag, 
 buck or boar. The clergy protested against amelio- 
 rations of these laws, under Henry III. The first 
 game act passed in 1496. Game certificates were 
 first granted with a duty in 1784. The Game act 
 (I & 2 Will. IV. 0. 32), greatly modifying all pre- 
 vious laws, was passed in 1831. By it the sale of 
 game is legalised at certain seasons. By the Game 
 Poaching Preventive act, passed in 1862, greatly 
 increased powers were given to the county "police. 
 Licences to kill game granted for the year 1856-7, 
 .28,950; for 1865-6, 43,231; for 1869, 54,203. Con- 
 victions under the game laws in 1869, 10,345. 
 
 1541 
 1620 
 
 1663 
 
 1797 
 1838 
 
 GAMES. Candidates for athletic games in 
 Greece were dieted on new cheese, dried figs, and 
 boiled grain, with warm water, and no meat. The 
 sports were leaping, foot-races, quoits, wrestling, 
 and boxing ; see Capitolinc, Isthmian, Olympic, 
 1'ijthian, Secular Games, &c. 
 
 Gam ixc was introduced into England by the Saxons; 
 the loser was often made a slave to the winner, 
 and sold in traffic like other merchandise. 
 Camden, 
 
 Act prohibiting gaming to all gentlemen (and inter- 
 dicting tennis, cards, dice, bowls, &c. , to inferior 
 people, except at Christmas time) 
 
 Gaming-houses licensed in London . . . . 
 
 Any person losing, by betting or playing, more than 
 100?. at any one time, not compellable to pay the 
 same, 16 Chas. II 
 
 Bonds or other securities given for money won at 
 play not recoverable ; and any person losing more 
 than 10/. may sue the winner to recover it back, 
 9 Anne, c. 14 
 
 Act to prevent excessive and fraudulent gaming, 
 when all private lotteries and the games of faro, 
 basset, and hazard were suppressed 
 
 The profits of a gaming-house in London for one 
 season have been estimated at 150,000?. In one 
 night a million of money is said to have changed 
 hands at this place. Leigh. A bankrupt was 
 refused his certificate because he had lost 5'. at 
 one time in gaining .... 17 July, 
 
 Three ladies of quality convicted in penalties of 
 50/. each for playing at faro . . March 11, 
 
 Gaming-houses were licensed in Paris until . . 
 
 Amended laws respecting games and wagers, 8 & 9 
 Vict. c. 109 (1845); by 3 Geo. IV. c. 114 (1822), a 
 gaming-house keeper is to be imprisoned with 
 hard labour ; and by 2 & 3 Vict., gaming-houses 
 may be entered by the police and all persons 
 present taken into custody 1839 
 
 Betting-houses suppressed 1853 
 
 Public, gaming-tables totally suppressed at Wies- 
 baden, Homburg, &c. . . . 31 Dec. 1872 
 
 GAMUT. The scale of musical intervals (com- 
 monly termed do or lit, re, mi, fa, sol, la, to which 
 st was added afterwards), for which the first seven 
 letters of the alphabet are now employed, is men- 
 tioned by Guido Aretino, a Tuscan monk, about 
 1025. 
 
 GANGES CANAL, for irrigating the country 
 between the Ganges and the Jumna. The main 
 line (525 miles long) was opened 8 April, 1854. 
 The immense difficulties in its execution were over- 
 come by the skill and perseverance of its engineer, 
 sir Proby Cautley. In Oct. 1864, sir Arthur Cotton 
 asserted that the work was badly done, and the in- 
 vestment only paid 3 per cent. 
 
 GANGS, see Agricultural Gangs. 
 
 GAOL DISTEMPER, see Old Bailey. 
 
 GAEDENING. The first garden, Eden 
 planted by God. Gen. ii. The Scriptures abound 
 with allusions to gardens, particularly the Song of 
 Solomon and the prophets ; and Christ's agony took 
 place in a garden. Xenophon describes the gardens 
 at Sardis; and Epicurus and Plato taught in gardens. 
 Theophrastus's History of Plants was written about 
 322 B.C. Horace, Virgil, and Ovid derive many 
 images from the garden (50 B.C. to a.d. 50) ; and 
 Pliny's Tusculan villa is circumstantially described 
 (about a.d. 100). The Romans introduced garden- 
 ing into Britain, the religious orders maintained it, 
 and its cultivation increased in the 16th century, 
 when many Flemings came here to escape the per- 
 secutions of Philip II. Miller's dictionary was pub- 
 lished in 1724; the Horticultural Society {which 
 see) was established in 1804; Loudon's Encyclo- 
 pedia of Gardening was first published in 1822, and 
 
GARDENERS' CHRONICLE. 
 
 301 
 
 GAS-LIGHTS. 
 
 his Encyclopaedia of Plants in 1829 ; an act for the 
 protection of gardens and ornamental grounds in 
 cities was passed in 1863. See Botany, Flowers, 
 
 Fruits. 
 
 GARDENERS' CHRONICLE, a weekly 
 paper, long edited by Dr. John Lindley, first ap- 
 peared, 2 Jan. 1841. 
 
 GARIGLIANO, a river (S. W. Italy). After 
 long waiting and refusing to recede a step, the great 
 captain Gonsalvo de Cordova made a bridge over 
 this river, 27 Dec. 1503, and surprised and totally 
 defeated the French army. Graeta surrendered a 
 few days after. 
 
 GAROTTE, a machine for strangling criminals, 
 used in Spain. Many attempts to strangle made 
 by thieves (termed, "garrotters,") in the winter of 
 1862-3, l e d to the passing of an act in July, 1863, 
 to punish these acts by flogging. 
 
 GARTER, Order of the. Edward III., 
 
 when at war with France and eager to draw the 
 best soldiers of Europe into his interest, projected 
 the revival of king Arthur's round table, proclaimed 
 a solemn tilting. On New Tear's day 1343-4, ne 
 published letters of protection for the safe coming 
 and returning of such foreign knights as would 
 venture their reputation at the jousts and tourna- 
 ments about to be held. These took place 23rd 
 April, 1344. A table was erected in Windsor castle 
 of 200 feet diameter, and the knights were enter- 
 tained at the king's expense. In 1346 Edward gave 
 his garter for the signal of a battle that had been 
 crowned with success (supposed to be Cressy) , and 
 being victorious on sea and land, and having David, 
 king of Scotland, a prisoner, he, in memory of these 
 exploits, is said to have instituted this order, 23 
 April, 1349. 
 
 Edward III. gave the garter pre-eminence among 
 the ensigns of the order ; it is of blue velvet bor- 
 dered with gold, with the inscription in old 
 French — " Honi soit qui mal y pense " (Evil be to 
 him who evil thinks). The knights are installed 
 at Windsor, and styled Equites aurece Periscelidis, 
 knights of the golden garter. Beatson. 
 
 The order until king Edward VI. 's time was called 
 the order of St. George, the patron saint of 
 England. His figure on horseback, presented as 
 holding a spear, and killing the dragon, was first 
 worn by the knights of the institution. It is sus- 
 pended by a blue ribbon across the body from the 
 shoulder. 
 
 Instituted, according to Selden, 23 April, 1344 ; 
 
 according to Nicolas, 1347 ; to Ashmole . . 1349 
 
 The office of " Garter king of arms of Englishmen " 
 
 instituted . . . between May and Jul}', 1417 
 Additions to the statutes decreed . . . 1421, 1423 
 Collar and George of the order instituted by 
 
 Henry VII about 1497 
 
 The statutes reformed by order, 28 May, 1519 ; 
 
 issued 23 April, 1522 
 
 The ceremonies altered in consequence of the 
 
 reformation 20 April, 1548 
 
 Revision of the statutes 1560 
 
 The annual feast of St. George discontinued . . 1567 
 The eseocheon converted into a star . . . 1629 
 The number of knights increased by seven . . 1786 
 
 The order reconstituted ; to consist of the sovereign, 
 
 the prince of Wales, 25 knights companions, and 
 
 lineal descendants of George III. , when elected, 
 
 17 Jan. 1805 
 Several European sovereigns elected . . 1813-14 
 Abdul-Aziz, sultan of Turkey, invested with the 
 
 garter by the queen on board her yacht at the 
 
 naval review 17 July, 1867 
 
 Order of the Garter in Ireland instituted by 
 
 Edward IV. 1466 
 
 Abolished 1494 
 
 ORIGINAL KNIGHTS. 
 
 King Edward III. , sovereign. 
 
 Edward, prince of Wales (called the Black Prince). 
 
 Henry, duke of Lancaster. 
 
 Thomas, earl of Warwick. 
 
 John, captal de Buch. 
 
 Ralph, earl of Stafford. 
 
 William, earl of Salisbury. 
 
 Roger, earl of Mortimer. 
 
 Sir John Lisle. 
 
 Bartholomew, lord Burghershe. 
 
 John, lord Beauchamp. 
 
 John, lord Mohun, of Dunster. 
 
 Sir Hugh Courtenay. 
 
 Thomas, earl of Kent. 
 
 John, lord Grey, of Rotherfield. 
 
 Sir Richard Fitz-Simon. 
 
 Sir Miles Stapleton. 
 
 Sir Thomas Wale. 
 
 Sir Hugh Wrottesley. 
 
 Sir Nele Loryng. 
 
 Sir John Chandos. 
 
 Sir James Audeley. 
 
 Sir Otho Holand. 
 
 Sir Henry Earn. 
 
 Sir Sanchet d'Abrichecourt. 
 
 Sir Walter Paveley. 
 
 GAS, in chemistry, a permanently elastic aeri- 
 form fluid ; see Oxygen, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Chlo- 
 rine, &c. 
 
 Faraday determined a gas to be the vapour of a 
 volatile liquid existing at a temperature consider- 
 ably above the boiling point of the liquid ; and 
 that the condensing points of different gases are 
 merely the boiling points of the liquids producing 
 them ; he by pressure condensed chlorine gas into 
 a liquid 1823. 
 
 Prof. Thos. Graham's paper on the law of the 
 diffusion of gases appeared, 1834 ; he showed that 
 platinum and other metals can absorb gases . . 1866* 
 
 Furnaces in which gases are used as fuel invented by 
 C. W. Siemens, and employed in glass works, &c. 1861 
 
 Lenoir's gas-engine, in which the motive power is 
 obtained by the ignition of combined gases by 
 electricity, patented by him ,, 
 
 143 of these engines had been working in Paris ; 
 and introduced into England . . . Dec. 1864. 
 
 Pierre Hugon's gas-engine (said to be superior to 
 Lenoir's, 1871) exhibited 1867 
 
 GASCONY (S. W. France), a duchy, part of 
 
 Aquitaine (-which see). 
 
 GAS-LIGHTS ; theinflammable aeriform fluid, 
 carburetted hydrogen, evolved by the combustion of 
 coal, was described by Dr. Clayton in 1739. Phil. 
 Trans. 
 
 Application of coal gas to the purposes of illumina- 
 tion tried by Mr. Murdoch, in Cornwall . . . 1792 
 
 Gaslight introduced at Boulton and Watt's foundry 
 in Birmingham 1798' 
 
 Lyceum Theatre lit with gas as an experiment by 
 Mr. Winsor 1803. 
 
 Permanently used at the cotton-mills of Phillips 
 and Lee, Manchester (1000 burners lighted) . 1805 
 
 Introduced in London, at Golden-lane, 16 Aug. 
 1807 ; Pall Mall, 1809 ; generally through Lon- 
 don 1814-20- 
 
 Mr. David Pollock, father of the late chief baron, 
 was governor of the first " chartered" gas com- 
 pany 1812 
 
 Gas first used in Dublin, 1818 ; the streets generally 
 lighted Oct. 1825 
 
 Gas-lighting introduced in Paris, 1819 ; ten gas 
 companies in Paris .... July, 1865 
 
 Sydney, in Australia, was lit with gas 25 May, 1841- 
 
 The sale of gas is regulated by acts passed in . . i860 
 
 The gas-pipes in and round London extend upwards 
 of 2000 miles, and are daily increasing. It was 
 said in i860, that of ttu gas supply of London a 
 leakage of 9 per cent, took place through the 
 faulty joints of the pipes. 
 
 Processes to obtain illuminating gas from water 
 have been patented by Cruiekshanks (1830), White 
 (1849), and others. 
 
GASTEIN. 
 
 302 
 
 GAVEL-KIND. 
 
 Gas-meters patented by John Malam (1820), sir W. 
 Congreve (1824), Samuel Clegg (1830), Nathan 
 Defries (1838), and others 
 
 Explosion of a large gasometer at the London Gas- 
 light Company's works at Nine-elms ; 10 persona 
 killed, and many injured (first accident of the 
 kind) 31 Oct. 1865 
 
 Moscow first lit with gas ... 27 Dec. 1866 
 
 An economical gas produced from bitumen at 
 Woolwich arsenal Jan. 1868 
 
 Central Gas Company, London, established . . 1849 
 
 Gas successfully tried as fuel for the generation of 
 steam by Jackson's patent . . . April, 1868 
 
 The Central Gas company robbed of about 70,000?. 
 by Benjamin Higgs, a clerk ; discovered, April, 1869 
 
 Gas-light tried at H'owth lighthouse, near Dublin, 
 
 July, » 
 
 Gasworks clauses act passed . . 13 July, 1871 
 
 By the London gas act, passed 13 July, 1868, ordi- 
 nary gas charged 3s. gd. the 1000 cubicfeet, after 
 1 Jan. 1870. 
 
 Strike of London gas-stokers, 2400 out, 2 Dec. ; the 
 inconvenience met by great exertion, 2-6 Dec, ; 
 several tried and imprisoned . . . Dec. 1872 
 
 GASTEIN (Salzburg, Austria). The long dis- 
 cussion between Austria and Prussia respecting the 
 disposal of the duchies conquered from Denmark, 
 ■was closed by a provisional convention signed here 
 by their ministers (Blum for Austria and Bismarck 
 for Prussia) 14 Aug. 1865. This convention was 
 severely censured by the other powers and abrogated 
 iu 1866. 
 
 Austria was to have the temporary government of Hol- 
 stein, and Prussia that of Sleswig ; the establishment 
 of a German fleet was proposed, with Kiel as a Federal 
 harbour, held by Prussia ; Lauenburg was absolutely 
 ceded to Prussia, and the king was to pay Austria as a 
 compensation 2,500,000 Danish dollars. ' 
 
 GATES, see London Gates. 
 
 GATESHEAD, a borough in Durham, on the 
 Tyne, opposite Newcastle. At Gateshead- fell, 
 William I. defeated Edgar Atheliug and his Scotch 
 auxiliaries in 1068. Gateshead was made a par- 
 liamentary borough by the reform act in 1832. 
 
 Between twelve and one o'clock, 5, 6 Oct. 1854, a fu' e 
 broke out in a worsted manufactory here, which set 
 fire to a bond warehouse containing a great quantity of 
 nitre, sulphur, &c. , causing a terrific explosion, felt at 
 nearly twenty miles' distance, and totally destroying 
 anany buildings, and burying many persons in the 
 ruins. At the moment of the explosion, large masses 
 •of blazing materials flew over the Tyne and set ftre to 
 many warehouses in Newcastle. About fifty lives were 
 lost, and very many persons were seriously wounded. 
 The damage was estimated at about a million pounds. 
 
 GATLING GUN or BATTERY. An 
 American invention exhibited at Paris in 1867. It 
 is intended to discharge at once a number of pro- 
 jectiles smaller than the shells of field guns, and it 
 has as many locks as barrels, It was tried at Shoe- 
 buryness and rejected as inferior to a field gun firing 
 shrapnel. A powder to be used in the Gatling, in- 
 Tented by M. Pertuiset, was tried in London, 
 Aug. 1870. 
 
 GAUGAMELA, see Arbela. 
 
 GAUGES (in railways). Much discussion 
 {termed " the battle of the gauges") began among 
 ■engineers about 1833. Mr. I. M. Brunei approved 
 of the broad gauge, adopted on the Gi-eat Western 
 Railway, and Mr. R. Stephenson, Joseph Locke, 
 and others, chose the narrow, now almost uni- 
 versally adopted even by the Great Western. A 
 2 foot gauge was recommended in Feb. 1870, having 
 been successful on the Festiniog railway, Wales, 
 with Faiilie's engine. 
 
 GAUGING, measuring the contents of any 
 vessel of capacity, with respect to wine and other 
 liquids, was established by a law, 27 Edw. III. 1352. 
 
 GAUL AND GAULS. Gallia the ancient 
 name of France and Belgium. The Gauls termed 
 by the Greeks Galatre, by the Romans, Galli or 
 Celtas, came originally from Asia, and invading 
 Eastern Europe, were driven westward, and settled 
 in Spain (in Galicia), North Italy (Gallia Cisalpina), 
 France and Belgium (Gallia Transalpina), and the 
 British isles (the lands of the Cymry or Gaels). 
 
 B.C. 
 
 The Phocseans found Massilia, now Marseilles . 600 
 The Galli Senones under Brennus defeat the Romans 
 
 at the river Allia, and sack Rome ; are defeated 
 
 and expelled by Camillus . . .13 July, 390 
 
 Again defeated 367 
 
 The Gauls defeated by the Romans at Sentinum . 295 
 The Senones defeat the Romans at Arretium ; 
 
 nearly exterminated by Dolabella . . . . 283 
 The Gauls overrun Northern Greece, 280 B.C. ; are 
 
 beaten at Delphi, 279 ; and by Antigonus, king of 
 
 Macedon 278 
 
 The Gauls defeated with great slaughter near Pisa. 225 
 The Insubres totally overthrown by Marcellus, and 
 
 their king Viridomarus slain 222 
 
 They assist Hannibal 218, &c 
 
 The Romans conquer Gallia Cisalpina, 220 ; invade 
 
 Gallia Transalpina, with varied success. . 121-58 
 They colonise Aix, 123 B.C. ; and Narbonne . . 118 
 Julius Cassar subdues Gaul in 8 campaigns . . 58-50 
 Lyons (Lugdunum) founded 41 
 
 A.D. 
 
 Druids' religion proscribed by Claudius ... 43 
 Adrian visits and favours Gaul, hence called Re- 
 storer of the Gauls 120 
 
 Introduction of Christianity 160 
 
 Christians persecuted . . 177, 202, 257, 286, 288 
 The Franks and others defeated by Aurelian . . 241 
 And by Probus, 275, 277 ; who introduces the cul- 
 ture of the vine 280 
 
 Maximian defeats the Franks 281 
 
 Constantine proclaiiped emperor of Gaul . . . 306 
 Julian arrives to relieve Gaul, desolated by bar- 
 barians ; defeats the Alemanni at Strasburg . 357 
 Julian proclaimed emperor at Paris, 360 ; dies . . 363 
 Gaul harassed by the Alemanni . . . 365-377 
 Invasion and settlement of the Burgundians, 
 
 Franks, Visigoths, &c 378-450 
 
 Clodion, chief of the Salian Franks, invades Gaul ; 
 
 is defeated by Aetius 447 
 
 The Huns under Attila defeated by Aetius near 
 
 Chalons 451 
 
 j^gidius, the Roman commander, murdered . . 464 
 
 Childeric the Frank takes Paris , 
 
 All Gaul, west of the Rhone, ceded to the Visi- 
 goths 475 
 
 End of the Roman empire of the West, and estab- 
 lishment of the kingdom of the Franks . . 476 
 (Sec France.) 
 
 GAUNTLET, an iron glove, first introduced in 
 the 13th century, perhaps about 1225. It was 
 commonly thrown down as a challenge to an 
 adversary. 
 
 GAUZE, a fabric much prized among the 
 Roman people. " Brocades and damasks and tab- 
 bies and gauzes have been lately brought over " (to 
 Ireland). Dean Swift, in 1698. The manufacture 
 of gauze and articles of a light fabric at Paisley, in 
 Scotland, began about 1759. 
 
 GAVEL-KIND (derived from the Saxon gif 
 eal cyn, "give all suitably;" or from gafolcynd, 
 land yielding rent), the custom in Kent of dividing 
 paternal estates in land, the wives to have half, the 
 rest equally among male children, without any dis- 
 tinction, 550. By the Irish law of gavel-kind, even 
 bastards inherited. Davies. Not only the lands of 
 the father were equally divided among all his sons, 
 but the lands of the brother also among all his 
 brethren, if he had no issue of his own. Law Diet. 
 
GAZA. 
 
 303 
 
 GENOA. 
 
 GAZA, a city of the Philistines, of which Sam- 
 son carried off the gates about 1120 B.C. {Judges 
 xvi.) It was taken by Alexander after a long siege, 
 332 ; and near to it Ptolemy defeated Demetrius 
 1'oliorcetes, 312 B.C. It was taken by Saladin a.d. 
 1 1 70; by Bonaparte, March, 1799; and by the 
 Egyptians under Ibrahim Pacha in 1831. 
 
 GELHEIM, near "Worms, central Germany. 
 Here the emperor Adolphus of Nassau was de- 
 feated and slain by his rival Albert I. of Austria, 
 2 July, 1298. 
 
 GAZETTES, see Newspapers. 
 
 GEMS. The Greeks excelled in cutting precious 
 stones, and many ancient specimens remain. The 
 art was revived in Italy in the 15th century. In 
 Feb. i860, Herz's collection of gems was sold for 
 io,ooo£. Rev. C. King's "Antique Gems" ap- 
 peared in i860, and his "Natural History of Pre- 
 cious Stones and Gems" in 1865. Dr. A. Billing's 
 " Science of Gems," 1868. Artificial gems have 
 been recently produced by chemists (Ebelmen, De- 
 ville, "Wohler, and others), 1858-65. 
 
 GENEALOGY, from the Greek genea, birth, 
 descent. The earliest pedigrees are contained in 
 the 5th, 10th, and nth chapters of Genesis. The 
 first book of Chronicles contains many genealogies. 
 The pedigree of Christ is given in Matt. i. and 
 Luke iii. Many books on the subject have been 
 published in all European countries ; one at Magde- 
 burg, Theatrum Genealogicum, by Henninges, in 
 1598. Anderson, Royal Genealogies, London, 1732. 
 Sims' Manual for the Genealogist, &c, 1856, will 
 be found a useful guide. The works of Collins 
 (1756 et seg.), Edmondson (1764-84), and Nicolas 
 (1825 and 1857), on the British peerage, are highly 
 esteemed. The Genealogical society, London, 
 established in 1853. 
 
 GENERAL ASSEMBLY, see Church of 
 Scotland. 
 
 GENEEAL COUNCILS, WARRANTS, 
 
 see Councils, Warrants. 
 
 GENERALS. Matthew de Montmorency 
 was the first general of the French armies, 1 203. 
 Henault. Balzac states that cardinal Richelieu 
 coined the word Generalissimo, upon his taking the 
 supreme command of the French armies in Italy, 
 in 1629. Ulysses Grant was the first general of the 
 army of the United States of America, so styled in 
 1866; see Commanders-in-Chief. 
 
 GENERATION .(in Chronology), the interval 
 of time between the birth of a father and the birth 
 of his child: 33 years are allowed for the average 
 length of a generation. See Spontaneous. 
 
 GENEVA, a town of the Allobroges, a Gallic 
 tribe, 58 n.c. ; became part of the empire of Charle- 
 magne, about a.d. 800 ; and capital of the kingdom 
 of Burgundy, 426. 
 
 The Republic founded in 1512 
 
 Emancipated from Savoy 1526 
 
 Calvin settled here, and obtaining much influence, 
 Geneva was termed the " Rome of Calvinism " 
 
 about 1536 
 Through him Servetus burnt for heresy, 27 Oct. 1553 
 Geneva allied to the Swiss Cantons . . . . 1584 
 Insurrection, Feb. 1781 ; about 1000 Genevese, in 
 consequence, applied, in 1782, to earl Temple, 
 lord-lieutenant of Ireland, for permission to settle 
 in that country: the Irish parliament voted 
 5o,oooJ. to defray the expenses of their .journey, 
 and to purchase them lands near Waterford. 
 
 178-4 
 
 179+ 
 1798 
 1813 
 
 1865 
 1867 
 1871 
 1872 
 
 Many of the fugitives came to Ireland in July, 
 1783; but they soon after abandoned it ; many 
 Genevese settled in England 
 
 A revolution ; executions and imprisonments', 
 
 ,-, - July, 
 
 Geneva incorporated with France . 26 April, 
 
 Admitted into the Swiss Confederation, 30 Dec! 
 
 The constitution made more democratic . 
 
 Revolution, through an endeavour of the Catholic 
 cantons to introduce Jesuits as teachers ; a pro- 
 visional government set up . . . 7 Oct. 
 [The scheme was withdrawn.] 
 
 About 50 persons from Geneva land at Thonon and 
 Evian, to set up the Swiss flag ; but are brought 
 back by Swiss troops .... 30 Mar. 
 
 Election riots, with loss of life, through the indis- 
 cretion of M. Fazy 22 Au". 
 
 49th annual meeting of the Helvetic Society of 
 National Sciences held . . . 21-23 Au». 
 
 Violent peace congress — Garibaldi present, 
 
 12 Sept. 
 
 The Alabama arbitration commission met ; received 
 the cases and adjourned to 15 June, 1872, 18 Dec. 
 
 Formal meeting of the commission (see Alabama), 
 
 15 June, 
 
 Monsignor Mermillod, nominated bishop of Geneva 
 (in the diocese of the bishop of Lausanne), and 
 vicar apostolic ; his arrest proposed, 2 Feb. ; 
 ordered to quit, if he will not submit to the civil 
 government by 15 Feb. ; he is expelled 17 Feb. ,, 
 
 GENEVA CONVENTION, for the succour 
 of the wounded in time of active warfare. Having 
 been a witness of the horrors of the battle-field of 
 Solferino, 24 June, 1859, M. Henri Dunant, a 
 Swiss, published his experiences, which induced 
 the Societe Genevoise d' Utilite Publique in Feb. 
 1863 to discuss the question whether relief societies 
 might not be formed in time of peace to help the 
 wounded in time of war by means of qualified volun- 
 teers. At an international conference held 26 Oct. 
 1863, fourteen governments, including Great Britain, 
 France, Austria, Prussia, Italy, and Russia, were 
 represented by delegates. The propositions then 
 drawn up were accepted as an international code by 
 a congress which met at Geneva, 8 Aug. 1864, and 
 on 22 Aug. a convention was signed by twelve of 
 the delegates, and it was eventually adopted by all 
 civilised powers except the United States. Inter- 
 national conferences were held at Paris in 1867 and 
 at Berlin in 1869 for further developing in a practi- 
 cal manner the objects of the Geneva conference. 
 The International Society (termed "the Red Cross 
 Society"), established in consequence of these pro- 
 ceedings was very energetic in relieving the wounded 
 and sick during the Franco-Prussian war in 1870, 
 its flag being recognised as neutral. See Aid to 
 Sick and Wounded Above 13,000 volunteers said 
 to be employed in attending the sick and wounded, 
 Sept.— Dec, 1870. At a meeting in London, 6 Aug., 
 1872, M. Dunant proposed a plan for the uniform 
 treatment of prisoners of war. 
 
 GENOA, the ancient Genua (N. Italy). Its 
 inhabitants were the Ligures, who submitted to the 
 Romans, 115 B.C. It partook of the revolutions of 
 the Roman empire. 
 
 Genoa becomes a free commercial state . about 1000 
 
 Frequent wars with Pisa 1070-1284 
 
 Frederick II. captures 22 galleys, and vainly be- 
 sieges Genoa I2 ai 
 
 The families of Doria and Spinola obtain ascendancy, 
 
 about 1270 
 The Genoese destroy the naval power of Pisa at 
 
 Melora {which see) .... 6 Aug. 1284 
 Frequent wars with "Venice . 1218-32 ; 1293-99 
 
 Rafaele Doria and Galeotto Spinola, appointed 
 
 captains j,,^ 
 
 Simon Boccanegra made the first doge, 1339 : set 
 
 aside by the nobles, 1344 ; re-appointed . . . 1356 
 Great discord ; many doges appointed . . . 1394 
 
GENS-D'AEMES. 304 
 
 Genoa successively under protection of Prance, 
 1396; of Naples, 1410; of Milan, 1419; losing ami 
 
 regaining freedom 1421-1512 
 
 Sacked by the Spaniards and Italians under Prosper 
 
 Coldnna 1522 
 
 Andrew Doria deserts the French sen-ice, and 
 
 restores the independence of his country . . 1528 
 Genoa bombarded by the French . . May, 1684 
 
 By the British .' Sept. 1745 
 
 Taken by the imperialists, who are soon after ex- 
 pelled Sept. 1746 
 
 Another siege raised " . . .10 June, 1747 
 
 The celebrated bank failed 1750 
 
 Genoa made the Ligurian republic . . May, 1797 
 
 The city, blockaded by a British fleet and Austrian 
 
 army, until literally starved, was evacuated by 
 
 capitulation, 5 June ; but it was surrendered to 
 
 the French soon after their victory at Marengo, 
 
 14 June, 1800 
 Genoa annexed to the French empire, 4 June, 
 1805 ; surrenders to the English and Sicilians, 
 
 18 April, 1814 
 United to the kingdom of Sardinia . . . Dec. 
 The city seized by insurgents, who, after a murder- 
 ous straggle, drove out the garrison and pro- 
 claimed the Ligurian republic, 3 April; but sur- 
 rendered to general La Marmora. . 11 April, 1849 
 
 GENS-D'AEMES were anciently the king's 
 horse-guards only, hut afterwards the 'king's gardes- 
 du-corps ; the musqueteers and light horse were 
 reckoned among them. There was also a company 
 of gentlemen (whose number was about 250) bearing 
 this name. Scots guards were about the persons of 
 the kings of France from the time of St. Louis, 
 ■who reigned in 1226. They were organised as a 
 royal corps by Charles VII. about 1441 ; the younger 
 sons of Scottish nobles being usually the captains. 
 The name gens-d'armes was afterwards given to the 
 police ; but becoming obnoxious, was' changed to 
 " municipal guard " -in 1830. 
 
 GENTLEMAN (from gentilis, of a. gens, a race 
 or clan). The Gauls observing that during the 
 empire of the Romans, the scutarii and gentiles had 
 the best appointments of all the soldiei s, applied to 
 them the terms ecuyers and gentilshommes. This 
 distinction of gentlemen was much in use in Eng- 
 land, and was given to the well-descended about 
 1430. Sidney. Gentlemen by blood were those 
 "who could show 'four descents from a gentleman 
 ■who had been created by the king by letters patent. 
 
 GENTLEMEN- AT- AEMS (formerly styled 
 the Band of Gentlemen Pensioners) is the oldest 
 corps in England, with the exception of the Yeomen 
 of the Guard. The band was instituted by Henry 
 VIII. in 1509, and was originally composed entirely 
 of gentlemen of noble blood, whom he named his 
 pensioners or spears. William IV. commanded 
 that it should be called his majesty's honour- 
 able corps of gentlemen-at-arms, 7 March, 1834. 
 Curling. 
 
 GENTLEWOMEN'S SELF-HELP IN- 
 STITUTION, London, established by the earl of 
 Shaftesbury, duchess of Sutherland, and others, 
 May 1870. " 
 
 GEOGEAPHY. The first geographical re- 
 cords are in the Pentateuch, and in the book of 
 Joshua. Homer describes the shield of Achilles as 
 representing the earth surrounded by the «ia, and 
 also the countries of Greece, islands of th«> Archi- 
 pelago, and site of Troy. Iliad. The priests taught 
 that the temple of Apollo at Delphos was the centre 
 of the world. Anaximander of Miletus was the in- 
 ventor of geographical maps, about 568 B.C. Hip- 
 parchus attempted to reduce geography to a mathe- 
 matical basis, about 135 B.C. Strabo, the great 
 Greek geographer, lived 71-14 B.C. Ptolemy 
 
 GEOLOGY. 
 
 flourished about 139 a.d. The science was brought 
 to Europe by the Moors of Barbary and Spain, 
 about 1240. Lenglet. Maps and charts were intro- 
 duced into England by Bartholomew Columbus to 
 illustrate his brother's theory respecting a western 
 continent, 1489. Geography is now divided into 
 mathematical, physical, and political, and its study 
 has been greatly promoted during the present 
 century by expeditions at the expense of various 
 governments and societies. The Royal Geograph icat 
 Society of London was established in 1830; that of 
 Paris in 1821. See Africa, North West Fas- 
 sage, §c. 
 
 GEOLOGY, the science of the earth, is 6aid 
 to have been cultivated in China before the Chris- 
 tian era, and occupied the attention of Theophrastus, 
 Pliny, Avicenna, and the Arabian writers. 
 
 In 1574 Mercati wrote concerning the fossils in the pope'B 
 museum : Cesalpino Majoli, and others (1597), Bteno 
 (1669), Scilla (1670), Quirini (1676), Plot and Lister 
 (1678), Leibnitz (1680) recorded observations, and put 
 forth theories on the various changes in the crust of 
 the earth. 
 
 Hooke (1668), in his work on Earthquakes, said that 
 fossils, " as monuments of nature, were more certain 
 tokens of antiquity than coins or medals, and though 
 difficult, it would not be impossible to raise a chrono- 
 logy out of them." 
 
 Burnet's "Theory of the Earth" appeared in 1690, 
 Winston's in 1696. 
 
 Buffi m's geological views (1749) were censured by the 
 Sorboime in 1751, and recanted in consequence. The 
 principle he renounced was that the present condition 
 of the earth is due to secondary causes, and that these 
 same causes will produce further changes. His more 
 eminent fellow-labourers and successors were Qesnei 
 (1758), Michell (1760), Raspe (1762-73), Pallas and 
 Saussure (1793-1800). 
 
 Werner (1775) ascribed all rocks to an aqueous origin, 
 and even denied the existence of volcanoes in primitive 
 geological times, and had many followers, Kirwan, i)e 
 Luc, &c. — Hutton (1788) supported by Playfair (1801) 
 warmly opposed Werner's views, and asserted that the 
 principal changes in the earth's crust are due to the 
 energy of fire. The rival parties were hence termed 
 Neptunists and Vulcanists. 
 
 William Smith, the father of British geology (who had 
 walked over a large part of England) drew up a Tabular 
 View of British Strata, in 1799, and published it and 
 his Geological Map of England and Wales, 1812-15 : 
 died 28 Aug. 1839. The Rev. Adam Sedgwick, another 
 father, died 27 Jan. 1873, aged 87. 
 
 In 1S03 the Royal Institution possessed the best geologi- 
 cal collection in London, collected by H. Davy, C. 
 Hatchett, and others; the proposal of sir John St. 
 Aubyn, sir Abraham Hume, and the right hon. C. F. 
 Gieville, to aid the government in establishing a 
 school of mines there in 1804-7, was declined. 
 
 In 1807 the Geological Society of London was established. 
 By collecting a great mass of new facts, it greatly 
 tended to check the disposition to theorise, and led to 
 the introduction of views midway between those of 
 Werner and Hutton. 
 
 The Geological Society of Dublin. 1S32 ; of Edinburgh, 
 1834 ; of France, 1830. 
 
 In 1835 Mr. (afterwards sir Henry) De la Beehe suggested 
 the establishment of the present Mvseuw of (leology, 
 which began at Craig's-court, and which was removed 
 to its present position in Jermyn-street. To him is 
 also due the valuable geological maps formed on the 
 ordnance survey. The building was erected by Mr. 
 Pennethorne, and formally opened by the prince con- 
 sort, 14 May, 1851. Attached to the Museum are the 
 Mining Records office, a lecture theatre, laboratories, 
 &C Sir H. De la Beche, the first director, died 13 
 April, 1855 ; succeeded by sir Roderick Murchison, 
 who died 22 Oct. 1871 ; succeeded by professor A. ( 
 Ramsay, March, 1872. 
 
 A similar institution was established at Calcutta by the 
 
 E. I. Company in 1840. 
 The English standard works on Geology at the present 
 time are those of Lyell, Murchison* Phillips, De la 
 Beehe. Mantell, and Austed. 
 
GEOLOGY. 
 
 305 
 
 GEOEGIA. 
 
 The strata composing the earth's crust may be divided 
 into two great classes : 
 
 I. Those generally attributed to the agency of water ; 
 
 II. To the action of fire : which may be subdivided as 
 
 follows : — 
 Aqueous formations, stratified, rarely crystalline : — 
 
 Bedimentary or fossiliferous rocks. 
 
 Metamorphic or unfossiliferous. 
 Igneous formations, unstratified, crystalline : — 
 
 Volcanic, as basalt, &c. 
 
 Plutonic, as granite, &c. 
 Fossiliferous, or Sedimentary, rocks are divided into three 
 
 great series : — 
 The Palaeozoic (most ancient forms of life), or 
 
 Primary. 
 The.Mesozoic (middle life period), or Secondary. 
 The Neozoic or Cainozoic (more recent forms of life), 
 
 or Tertiary. 
 
 Table of Strata (chiefly from Lyell). 
 NEOZOIC : 
 I. Post-Tertiary : 
 
 A. Post-Pliocene : 
 
 i. Recent: Marine strata; with human re- 
 mains; Danish peat; kitchen middens; 
 bronze and stone implements ; Swiss lake- 
 dwellings ; temple of Serapis at Puzzuoli. 
 
 2. Post-Pliocene : Brixham cave, with flint 
 
 knives, and bones of living and extinct 
 quadrupeds ; ancient valley gravels ; glacial 
 drift; ancient Nile mud; post glacial N. 
 American deposits ; remains of mas odon ; 
 Australian breccias. 
 
 II. Tertiary or Cainozoic Series : 
 
 B. Pliocene : 
 
 3. Newer Pliocene (or Pleistocene) Mammalian 
 
 beds, Norwich Crag. [Marine Shells.] 
 
 4. Older Pliocene: Red and Coralline Crag 
 
 (Suffolk, Antwerp). 
 
 C. 5, 6. Miocene : Upper and Lower ; Bordeaux ; 
 
 Virginia sands and Touraine beds ; Pikerme 
 deposits near Athens ; volcanic tuff and 
 limestone of the Azores, &c. ; brown coal of 
 Germany, &c. [Mastodon, Gigantic 
 Elk, Salamander, <fec] 
 
 D. 7, 8, 9. Eocene : Upper, Middle, and Lower ; 
 
 Freshwater and Marine beds ; Barton Clays ; 
 Bracklesham Sands; Paris Gypsum; Lon- 
 don Plastic, and Thanet Clays. [Palms, 
 Birds, &c] 
 
 III. Secondary or Mesozoic Series : 
 B. 10. Cretaceous: Upper ; British Chalk ; Maestri cht 
 
 beds. — Chalk with and without Flints, 
 Chalk Marl, Upper Green Sand, Gault, 
 Lower Green Sand. [Mesosaurus; Fish, 
 Mollusks, &c] 
 11. Lower (or Neocomian or Wealden) ; Kentish 
 rag; Weald Clay; Hastings Sand. [I guano - 
 don, Hylmosaurus, &c.J 
 
 F. 12. Oolite : Upper ; Purbeck beds, Portland Stone 
 
 and Sand, Kimmeridge Clay ; Lithographic 
 Stone of Solenhofen with Archceopteryx. 
 [Fish.] 
 
 13. Middle : Calcareous Grit, Coral Rag, Oxford 
 
 Clay, Kelloway Rock. [Belemnites and 
 Ammonites.] 
 
 14. Lower : Cornbrash, Forest Marble, Bradford 
 
 Clay, Great Oolite, Stonesfie'd Slate, Fuller's 
 Earth, Inferior Oolite. [Ichthyosaurus, 
 Plesiosaurus, Pterodactyl.] 
 
 G. 15. Lias: Lias Clay and Marl Stone. [Ammo- 
 
 nites, Equisetum, Amphibia, Laby- 
 rinthodon.] 
 H. 16. Trias : Upper ; White Lias, Red Clay, with 
 Salt in Cheshire, Coal Fields in Virginia, 
 N.A. [Fish, Dromatherium.] 
 
 17. Middle or Muschelkalk (wanting in England). 
 
 [Encrinus; Placodus gigas.] 
 
 18. Lower : New Red Sandstone of Lancashire 
 
 and Cheshire. [Labyrinthodon, Foot- 
 prints of Birds and Reptiles. ] 
 
 TV. Primary or Palaeozoic Series : 
 I. 19. Permian : Magnesian Limestone, Marl Slates, 
 
 Red Sandstone and Shale, Dolomite : kup- 
 ferschiefer. [Firs, Fishes, Amphibia.] 
 
 K. 20, 21. Carboniferous, Upper and Lower: Coal 
 Measures, Millstone Grit, Mountain Lime* 
 stone. [Ferns, Calamites, Coal.] 
 
 L. 22, 23, 24. Devonian, Upper, Middle, and Lower: 
 
 Tilestones, Cornstones, and Marls, Quart- 
 zose, Conglomerates. [Shells, Fish, Tri- 
 lobites.] 
 
 M. 25, 26, 27. Silurian, Upper, Middle, and Lower : 
 Ludlow Shales, Aymestry Limestone, Wen- 
 lock Limestone, Wenlock Shale, Caradoc 
 Sandstone, Llandeilo Flags ; Niagara Lime- 
 stone. [Sponges, Corals, Trilobites, 
 Shells.] 
 
 N. 28, 29. Cambrian, Upper and Lower : Bala 
 
 Limestone, Festiniog Slates, Bangor Slates 
 and Grits, Wicklow Rock, Hasleets Grits, 
 Huronian Series of Canada. [Zoophytes, 
 Lingula, Ferns, Sigillaria, Stig- 
 maria, Calamites, and Cryptogamia.] 
 
 O. 30. Laurentium, Upper Gneiss of the Heb- 
 
 rides (?) : Labradorite Series, N. of the St. 
 Lawrence ; Adirondack Mountains, New 
 York. 
 31. Lower : Gneiss and Quartzites, with Inter- 
 stratified Limestones, in one of which, 1000 
 feet thick, occurs a foraminifer, Eosoon 
 Canadense, the oldest known fossil. 
 
 GEOMETRY, so termed from its original ap- 
 plication to measuring the earth, is ascribed to the 
 Egyptians; the annual inundations of the Nile 
 having given rise to it by carrying away the land- 
 marks and boundaries. 
 
 Thales introduced geometry into Greece, about 600 b. c. 
 
 Pythagoras cultivated the science about 580. 
 
 The doctrine of curves originally attracted the attention 
 
 of geometricians from the conic sections, which were 
 
 introduced by Plato, about 390 B.C. 
 Euclid's Elements compiled about 300 B.C. 
 Archimedes, a discoverer in geometry, 287-212 B.C. 
 The conchoid curve invented by Nicomedes, 220 b. c. 
 Ptolemy, the astronomer, 2nd century a. d. 
 Geometry taught in Europe in the 13th century. 
 Books on geometry and astronomy were destroyed in 
 
 England as infected with magic, 7 Edw. VI., 1552. 
 
 Stow. 
 Descartes published his Analytical Geometry, 1627. 
 Sir Isaac Newton (Aritlvmetica Universalis, &c), 1642- 
 
 1727. 
 Simson's edition of Euclid, first appeared, 1756. 
 La Place's Mecanique Celeste, 1799-1805. 
 
 GEORGE. A gold coin current at 6s. 8d. in 
 the reign of Henry VIII. Leake. 
 
 GEORGE, ST., the tutelary saint of England, 
 and adopted as patron of the order of the garter by 
 Edward III. His day is 23 April ; see Garter, 
 and Knighthood. 
 
 St. George was a tribune in the reign of Diocletian, and 
 being a man of great courage, was a favourite ; but 
 complaining to the emperor of his severities towards 
 the Christians, and arguing in their defence, he was 
 put in prison, and beheaded, 23 April, 290. — On that 
 da , in 1192, Richard I. defeated Saladin. 
 
 GEORGES' CONSPIRACY, in France. 
 General Moreau, general Pichegru, Georges Cadou- 
 dal, who was commonly known by the name of 
 Georges, and otheis, were nrrested at Paris, charged 
 with a conspiracy against the life of Bonaparte, and 
 for the restoration of Louis XVIII., Feb. 1804. 
 Pichegru was found strangled in prison, 6 April. 
 Twelve of the conspirators, including Georges, were 
 executed 25 Juue, and others imprisoned. Moreau 
 was exiled, and went to America. In 1813 he was 
 killed before Dresden (which see). 
 
 GEORGIA, the ancient Iberia now a province 
 of S. Russia, near the Caucasus, submitted to Alex- 
 ander about ^31 B.C., but threw off the yoke of his 
 successors. It was subjugated to Rome by Pompey, 
 65 B.C., but retained its own sovereigns. Chris- 
 
GEORGIUM SIDUS. 
 
 306 
 
 GERMANY. 
 
 tianity was introduced into it in the 3rd century. 
 In the 8th century, after a severe struggle, Georgia 
 was subdued by the Arab caliphs ; by the Turkish 
 sultan Alp-Arslan, 1068 ; and by the Tartar hordes, 
 1235. From the 14th to the 18th centuries, Georgia 
 was successively held by the Persian and Turkish 
 monarchs. In 1740 Nadir Shah established part of 
 Georgia as a principality, of which the last ruler, 
 Heraclius, surrendered his territories to the czar in 
 1799; and in 1802 Georgia was declared to be a 
 Russian province. — Georgia, in North America, 
 was settled by gen. Oglethorpe, in 1732. Separating 
 from the congress of America, it surrendered to the 
 British, Dec. 1778; and its possession was of vast 
 importance to the royalists in the war. Count 
 d'Estaing joined the American general Lincoln, and 
 made a desperate attack on Georgia, which failed, 
 and the French fleet returned home; the colony 
 was given up to the Union by the British in 1783. 
 It seceded from the Union, by ordinance, 18 Jan. 
 1861, and was conquered by Sherman in 1864-15, and 
 readmitted as a state Jan. 1868. See United Slates. 
 — Georgia, in the Pacific, was visited by captain 
 Cook in 1775. 
 
 GEORGIUM SIDUS, the first name of the 
 planet Uranus {which see), discovered 13 March, 
 1781. 
 
 GERBEROI (Normandy, N. France). Here 
 William the Conqueror was wounded in battle by 
 his son Kobert, who had joined the French king 
 Philip I., 1078. 
 
 GERMAIN", ST., near Paris. The palace 
 here was begun by Louis the Fat, 11 24, and en- 
 larged and embellished by his successor's, especially 
 by Francis I., Henry IV., and Louis XIV. Here 
 James II. of England resided in state after his 
 abdication, in 1689, and here he died, 16 Sept. 1701 ; 
 see Treaties. 
 
 GERMANIC CONFEDERATION, 
 
 superseding ihe confederation of the Rhine (which 
 sec), was constituted 8 June, 181 5 ; held its first 
 diet at Frankfort, 16 Nov. 1816, and its last, 24 Aug. 
 1866. See next article. It comprised — 
 
 I. Austria ; 2. Prussia ; 3. Bavaria ; 4. Saxony 
 
 5. Hanover ; 6. Wiirtemberg ; 
 7. Baden ; 8, 9. Hesse (electorate and grand 
 
 duchy) ; 
 10. Denmark (for Holstein and Lauenburg) ; 
 
 II. Netherlands (for Luxemburg) ; 
 
 12. Saxe-Weimar, Saxe-Coburg, Saxe-Meiniugeu, 
 
 and Saxe-Altenburg ; 
 
 13. Brunswick and Nassau ; 
 
 14. Mecklenburg-Schwerin, and Mecklenburg- 
 
 Strelitz ; 
 
 15. Oldenburg, three Anhalts, and two Schwarz- 
 
 burgs ; 
 
 16. Two Hohenzollerns, Liechtenstein, two Beuss, 
 
 Schaumburg-Lippe, Lippe, and Waldeck ; 
 
 17. Free cities :— Lubeck, Frankfort, Bremen, and 
 
 Hamburg. 
 
 The diet declares for a constituent assembly, 30 
 March, which met . . - - 18 May, 1848 
 
 The diet remits its functions to the archduke John, 
 vicar of the empire (see Germany) . . 12 July, „ 
 
 The diet re-established, meets . . 30 May, 185 1 
 
 The emperor of Austria proposes a reform of the 
 confederation, 17 Aug. ; accepted by the diet, 
 1 Sept. ; rejected by Prussia . . 22 Sept. 1863 
 
 The diet celebrates the fiftieth anniversary of its 
 establishment 8 June, 1865 
 
 Vote of the majority of the diet supports Austria in 
 the dispute respecting Sehleswig and Holstein ; 
 Prussia announces her withdrawal from the con- 
 federation, and its dissolution ; the diet declares 
 itself indissoluble, continues his functions, and 
 protests 14 June, 1866 
 
 The diet removes to Augsburg during the war, 
 
 14 July, „ 
 
 The confederation renounced by Austria at Nikols- 
 
 burg 26 July, 1866 
 
 The diet holds its last sitting . . 24 Aug. ,, 
 
 GERMAN CONFEDERATION, North, 
 
 established in room of the Germanic Confederation 
 (which see) : population 1867, estimated 29 906,092. 
 The confederation ceased on the re-establishment 
 of the German empire, 1 Jan. 1871. 
 
 The king of Prussia invites the states of North 
 
 Germany to form a new confederation 16 July, 1866 
 Treaty of alliance offensive and defensive between 
 Prussia and the following states : — Saxe-Weimar, 
 Oldenburg, Brunswick, Saxe-Altenburg, Saxe- 
 Coburg-Gotha, Anhalt, two Schwarzburgs, Wal- 
 deck, the younger Reuss, two Lippes, Lubeck, 
 Bremen, and Hamburg, signed . . 18 Aug. „ 
 And two Mecklenburgs .... 21 Aug. ,, 
 And Hesse (for country north of the Maine), 3 Sept. ,, 
 And the elder Reuss .... 26 Sept. ,, 
 
 And Saxe-Meiningen 8 Oct. „ 
 
 And Saxony 21 Oct. „ 
 
 Meeting of North German Parliament (295 deputies 
 from the 22 states) at Berlin . . .24 Feb. 1867 
 See Germany. 
 
 GERMANITES, a name given to a sect, of 
 which members appeared in the British Mediter- 
 ranean fleet in 1867. They called themselves " non- 
 fighting men," and hold no communion with other 
 
 religious bodies. 
 
 GERMANS, ST., was made the seat of the 
 bishopric of Cornwall for a short time, about 905. 
 
 GERMANY (Germania,Alemania), anciently, 
 as now, divided into independent states. The Ger- 
 mans long withstood the attempts of the Romans to 
 subdue them ; and although that people conquered 
 some parts of the country, they were expelled before 
 the close of the 3rd century. In the 5th century 
 the Huns and other tribes prevailed over the greater 
 portion of Germany. In the latter part of the 8th 
 century, Charlemagne subdued the Saxons and 
 other tribes, and was crowned emperor at Rome, 
 25 Dec. 800. At the extinction of his family, the 
 empire became elective, 91 1, and was generally 
 obtained by a member of the house of flapsburg 
 from 1437 till 1804. Germany was divided into 
 circles, 1501-12. The confederation of the Rhine 
 was formed 12 July, 1806 ; the Germanic confede- 
 ration, 8 June, 1815 ; and the North German con- 
 federation, 18 Aug. 1866; the treaty ratified, 8 Sept. 
 1866. See Franco-Prussian War, 1870-71. 
 
 The re-established empire of Germany (Jan. 1, 1871), 
 founded upon treaties concluded between the North 
 German contederation (which see) and, 1. the grand 
 duchies of Baden and Hesse, 15 Nov. 1870; 2. the 
 kingdom of Bavaria, 23 Nov. 1870 ; 3. the kingdom of 
 Wurtemburg, 25 Nov. 1870 ; ratified, 29 Jan. 1871. 
 William I., king of Prussia, was proclaimed emperor 
 at Versailles, 18 Jan. 1871. The first chancellor of the 
 emperor, prince Otho von Bismarck. Population 
 (including Alsace - Lorraine, conquered, 1870), 
 40,107,428. 
 
 The parliament is elected by manhood suffrage and 
 ballot. 
 
 The Teutones united with the Cymry, defeat the 
 
 Romans in Illyria B.c. 113 
 
 After varying success are defeated by Marius . 102 
 
 Hermann assassinated 21 
 
 Drusus invaded Germany 12-9 
 
 Battle of Teutoburg ; Hermann or Arminius de- 
 stroys the Romans under Varus . . A.D. 9 
 
 The Franks invade Gaul 238 
 
 Great irruption of Germanic tribes into Gaul 450 et seq. 
 Charlemagne after a long contest subdues the 
 
 Saxons, who become Christians . . . 772-785 
 He is crowned emperor of the West at Rome by the 
 
 pope 25 Dec. 800 
 
GEEMANY. 
 
 307 
 
 GEEMANY. 
 
 He adds a second head to the eagle, to denote that 
 
 the empires of Rome and Germany are united 
 
 in him 802 
 
 Louis (le Debonnaire) separates Germany from 
 
 France 839-840 
 
 The Germans under Arnold take Borne . . . 896 
 The German princes assert their independence, and 
 
 Conrad I. of Frahconia reigns . . 8 Nov. 911 
 [The electorate began about this time. See Electors. ] 
 Beign of Henry I. [king], surnamed the Fowler ; 
 
 he vanquishes the Huns, Danes, Vandals, and 
 
 Bohemians 918-934 
 
 Otho I. extends his dominions, and is crowned 
 
 emperor by the pope 962 
 
 Otho II. conquers Lorraine 978 
 
 Henry III. conquers Bohemia 1042 
 
 Contest between Henry IV. and Gregory VII. (Hilde- 
 
 brand) 1075 
 
 Henry's humiliation at Canossa (which see) . . 1077 
 He takes Borne 1084 ; and Gregory dies in exile at 
 
 Salerno 1085 
 
 Disputes with the pope relating to ecclesiastical 
 
 investitures 1073-1123 
 
 The Guelph and the Ghibeline feuds begin . . 1140 
 
 Conrad III. leads an army to the holy wars ; it was 
 
 destroyed by Greek treachery .... 1147 
 Frederick Barbarossa emperor, 1152 ; wars in Italy, 
 
 "54-77 
 
 He destroys Milan 1162 
 
 Buins Henry the Lion (see Bavaria) . . .1180 
 Is drowned during the crusade in Syria, 10 June, 1190 
 
 Teutonic order of knighthood „ 
 
 Hanseatic league established . . . about 1245 
 Beign of Bodolph, count of Hapsburg, chosen by 
 
 the electors 1273 
 
 The edict, called the Golden Bull, by Charles IV. . 1356 
 
 The Tyrol acquired 1363 
 
 Sigismund, king of Bohemia, elected emperor. He 
 betrays John Huss and Jerome of Prague, who 
 are burned alive (see Bohemia) . . . 1414-16 
 Sigismund driven from the throne, Albert II., duke 
 
 of Austria, succeeds 1437 
 
 The Pragmatic Sanction confining the empire to the 
 
 house of Austria 1439 
 
 Peasants' wars 1502, 1514, 1524 
 
 Era of the Beformation (see Lutheranism) . . . 1517 
 German bible and liturgy published by Luther, 1522-46 
 Luther excommunicated by the diet at Worms, 
 
 17 April, 1521 
 "War with the pope — the Germans storm Borne . 1527 
 Diet at Spires ; Protestants condemned, 13 March, 1529 
 Confession of Augsburg published . . 25 Jan. 1530 
 Protestant League of Smalcalde . . .31 Dec. 1531 
 The anabaptists seize Munster, 24 June, 1535 ; de- 
 feated, and John of Leyden slain .... 1536 
 
 Death of Luther 18 Feb. 1546 
 
 War with the Protestants . . . 26 June, ,, 
 
 Who are helped by Henry II. of France — Peace of 
 
 Beligion at Passau 31 July, 1552 
 
 Abdication of Charles V. announced . 25 Oct. 1555 
 
 Hungary joined to the empire 1570 
 
 The Thirty years' war begins between the Evangelic 
 union under the elector palatine, and the Catholic 
 league under the duke of Bavaria . . . . 1618 
 Battle of Prague, which ruined the elector palatine, 
 
 8 Nov. 1620 
 Gustavus-Adolphus of Sweden invades Germany, 
 
 June, 1630 
 Gustavus-Adolphus, victor, killed at Lutzen, 
 
 16 Nov. 1632 
 Treason of Wallenstein ; he is assassinated, 25 Feb. 1634 
 End of the Thirty years' war : treaty of Westphalia, 
 establishing religious toleration . . 24 Oct. 1648 
 
 War with France 1674 
 
 John Sobieski, king of Poland, after defeating the 
 Turks, obliges them to raise the siege of Vienna, 
 
 12 Sept. 1683 
 
 Peace of Byswick (with France) . . 20 Sept. 1697 
 
 The peace of Carlowitz (with the Turks) 26 Jan. 1699 
 
 War with France, &c, 6 Oct. 1702 ; Marlborough's 
 
 victory at Blenheim . . . .13 Aug. 1704 
 
 Peace of Utrecht n April, 1713 
 
 The Pragmatic Sanction (which see) . . . . 1722 
 Francis I. , duke of Lorraine, marries the heiress of 
 Austria, Maria-Theresa (1736) ; she succeeds her 
 father, and becomes queen of Hungary, 20 Oct. 1740 
 The elector of Bavaria elected emperor as Charles 
 VII 22 Jan. 1742 
 
 He dies Jan. 20 ; Francis I., duke of Lorraine, 
 elected emperor 15 Sept. 1745 
 
 The Seven years' war between Austria and Prussia 
 and their respective allies begins Aug. 1756 ; ends 
 with the peace of Hubertsburg . . . 15 Feb. 1763 
 
 Lorraine ceded to France 1766 
 
 Joseph II. extends his dominions by the dismem- 
 berment of Poland, 1772 ; many civil reforms and 
 liberal changes 1782 
 
 War with Turkey 1788 
 
 Victory of the Austrians and Bussians at Rimnik, 
 
 22 Sept. 1789 
 
 The Ehenish provinces revolt 1793 
 
 Francis I. joins in the second partition of Poland, 1795 
 
 In the ruinous wars between Germany and France, 
 the emperor loses the Netherlands, all his terri- 
 tories west of the Bhine, and his states in Italy, 
 
 1793-1803 
 
 Cessions of territory to France by the treaty of 
 Luneville 9 Feb. 1801 
 
 Francis II. assumes the title of Francis I. , emperor 
 of Austria 11 Aug. 1804 
 
 Napoleon establishes the kingdoms of Bavaria and 
 Wiirtemberg, 1805 ; and of Westphalia, 1807 ; 
 dissolution of the German empire ; formation of 
 the confederation of the Bhine . . 12 July, 1806 
 
 North Germany annexed to France . 13 Dec. 1810-11 
 
 Commencement of the war of independence : the 
 order of the iron cross instituted . . March, 1813 
 
 Final defeat of the French at Leipsic 16-19 Oct. „ 
 
 Congress of Vienna . . 1 Nov. 1814 & 25 May, 1815 
 
 The Germanic confederation (which see) formed 
 
 8 June, ,, 
 
 The Zollverein (which see) formed .... 1818 
 
 General depression in trade 1824 
 
 Death of J. H. Voss, poet, <fec. . . 29 March, 1826 
 
 Revolution at Brunswick (flight of the duke) 7 Sept. 1830 
 
 In Saxony (abdication of the king) . 13 Sept. „ 
 
 Death of Goethe, poet, novelist, and philosopher, 
 
 22 March, 1832 
 
 Becker's song about the free German Bhine ; and 
 Alfred de Musset's song in reply, " Le Bhin 
 Allemand " (see Rhine) appear .... 1841 
 
 Excitement about Bonge, the Catholic reformer, 
 and the holy coat of Treves 1844 
 
 Insurrection at Vienna and throughout Germany 
 (see Austria, Hungary, &c.) 1848 
 
 Bevolt in Schleswig and Holstein (see Denmark) 
 
 March, „ 
 
 The king of Prussia takes the lead as an agitator, to 
 promote the reconsolidation of the German em- 
 pire, by a proclamation ... 27 March, ,, 
 
 German national assembly meet at Frankfort (see 
 Germanic confederation) . . . 18 May, „ 
 
 Archduke John of Austria elected vicar of the em- 
 pire 12 July, „ 
 
 The national assembly elects the king of Prussia 
 emperor, 28 March ; he declines . . 3 April, 1849 
 
 He recalls the Prussian members of the assembly, 
 
 14 May, „ 
 
 The Frankfort assembly transfers its sittings to 
 Stuttgardt ... . . 30 May, ., 
 
 Treaty of Vienna between Austria and Prussia for 
 the formation of a new central power for a 
 limited time ; appeal to be made to the govern- 
 ments of Germany .... 30 Sept. „ 
 
 Protest of Austria against the alliance of Prussia 
 with the smaller German states . 12 Nov. ,, 
 
 Treaty of Munich between Bavaria, Saxony, and 
 Wiirtemberg, for a revision of the German eon ■ 
 federation 27 Feb. 1850 
 
 Parliament meets at Erfurt . . . March, „ 
 
 The king of Wiirtemberg denounces the insidious 
 ambition of the king of Prussian . x$ March, ,, 
 
 German diet meets at Frankfort . . 10 May, „ 
 
 Hesse-Cassel sends no representative to Erfurt, 7 
 June ; Hesse-Darmstadt withdraws from the 
 Prussian league .... 20 June, „ 
 
 Austria calls an assembly of the German confedera- 
 tion, 19 July ; which meets at Frankfort, 2 Sept. „ 
 
 Austrian, Bavarian, and Prussian forces enter 
 Hesse-Cassel (see Hesse-Cassel) . . 12 Nov. „ 
 
 Conferences on German affairs at Dresden, 
 
 23 Dec. 1850, to 15 May, 1851 
 
 Max Schneckenburger, author of the song "Die 
 Wacht am Bhein," died „ 
 
 Be-establishment of the diet of the Germanic con- 
 federation at Frankfort ... 30 May, „ 
 
 X 2 
 
GERMANY. 
 
 308 
 
 GERMANY. 
 
 Conference at Nuremberg relative to a general code 
 
 of commerce 15 Jan. 1857 
 
 Great excitement in Germany at the French suc- 
 cesses in Lombardy : warlike preparations in 
 Bavaria, &c. .... May and June, 1859 
 
 Meetings of new liberal party in Eisenach, Saxe 
 Weimar, 17 July ; seven resolutions put forth 
 recommending that the imperfect federal consti- 
 tution be changed ; that the German diet be re- 
 placed by a strong central government ; that a 
 national assembly be summoned ; and that Prus- 
 sia be invited to take the initiative . 14 Aug. ,, 
 This proposal not accepted by Prussia, and warmly 
 
 opposed by Hanover Sept. ,, 
 
 The Austrian minister, Rechberg, severely censur- 
 ing the duke of Saxe Gotha, for a liberal speech, 
 4 Sept. ; and accusing the Prussian government 
 of favouring the liberals, meets with cutting 
 retorts . . . . ' . . . . Sept. „ 
 Death of Ernst Moritz Arndt, patriot and poet, 
 
 29 Jan, i860 
 The federal diet maintains the Hesse-Cassel consti- 
 tution of 1852 against Prussia . 24 March, „ 
 Meeting of the French emperor and the German 
 sovereigns at Baden, 16, 17 June ; and of the czar 
 and the emperor of Austria and the regent of 
 Prussia at Toplitz . . . .26 July, &o. „ 
 Meeting at Coburg in favour of German unity 
 
 against French aggression ... 5 Sept. ,, 
 Dispute with Denmark respecting the rights of 
 
 Holstein and Schleswig .... Nov. „ 
 First meeting of a German national shooting match 
 
 at Gotha 8-1 1 July, 1861 
 
 Meeting of German national association at Heidel- 
 berg ; decides to form a fleet . . 23 Aug. ,, 
 Subscriptions received for fleet . Sept. and Oct. ,, 
 The national association meet at Berlin ; they re- 
 commend the formation of a united federal 
 government with a central executive, under the 
 
 leadership of Prussia 13 March, 1862 
 
 Meetings of plenipotentiaries from German states 
 
 on federal reform ... 8 July-10 Aug. „ 
 Deputies from German states meet at Weimar, and 
 declare that Germany wants formation into one 
 
 federal state 28, 29 Sept. „ 
 
 Congress of deputies from German states declare 
 
 in favour of unity .... 21 Aug. 1863 
 The emperor of Austria invites the German 
 sovereigns to a congress at Frankfort, 31 July ; 
 king of Prussia decl'-nes, 4 Aug. ; nearly all the 
 sovereigns meet, 16, 17 Aug. ; they approve the 
 Austrian plan of federal reform, 1 Sept. ; which 
 is rejected by Prussia . . . .22 Sept. ,, 
 The diet determines to have recourse to federal exe- 
 cution in Holstein if Denmark does not fulfil her 
 
 obligations 1 Oct „ 
 
 50th anniversary of the battle of Leipsic celebrated 
 
 18 Oct. „ 
 Death of Frederick VII. of Denmark . 15 Nov. ,, 
 German troops enter Holstein for "federal execu- 
 tion" (see Denmark for events) . . 23 Dec. „ 
 
 Death of Maximilian II. of Bavaria . 10 March, 1864 
 Prussia retains the duchies ; discussion between 
 Austria and Prussia ; the diet adopt the resolu- 
 tion of Bavaria and Saxony requesting Austria 
 and Prussia to give up Holstein to the duke of 
 Augustenburg ; rejected . . .6 April, 1865 
 50th anniversary of the establishment of the Ger- 
 manic confederation .... 8 June, ,, 
 The Gastein convention (which see) . . 14 Aug. „ 
 Condemned by the diet at Frankfort . . 1 Oct. ,, 
 The diet calls on Austria and Prussia to disarm, 
 
 19 May, 1866 
 Meeting of deputies from smaller German states 
 
 condemn the impending war . . .20 May, ,, 
 Austria declares that Prussia has broken the treaty 
 by invading Holstein, 11 June ; the diet adopts 
 this, by 9 votes ; the Prussian representative de- 
 clares the Germanic confederation at an end, and 
 invites the members to form a new one, excluding 
 
 Austria 14 June, ,, 
 
 The Prussians enter Saxony, and the war begins, 
 
 15 June, „ 
 The diet determines for war, 16 June ; proclaims 
 prince Charles of Bavaria general of the confedera- 
 tion troops 27 June, „ 
 
 [For the war and its consequences, see Prussia, 
 and German oonjederation, North.] 
 
 Treaty of alliance between Prussia and the northern 
 
 states ; ratified 8 Sept. 1866 
 
 Continued disputes between the diet and Austria 
 and Prussia respecting Schleswig-Holstein, 
 
 Oct. and Nov. „ 
 Draft of new constitution for North Germany 
 
 settled 9 Feb. 1867 
 
 Elections commence .... 12 Feb. ,, 
 North German parliament opened at Berlin by the 
 king of Prussia, 24 Feb. ; Dr. Simson elected 
 
 president 2 March, ,, 
 
 The federal constitution adopted (printed in 
 Almanachde Gotha, 1868) ; the parliament closed, 
 
 17 April, ,, 
 The constitution put in action . . . 1 July, ,, 
 Meeting of 50 deputies from parliaments of Bavaria, 
 Wurtemberg, Baden, and Hesse Darmstadt, 
 declare necessity of union with North Germany, 
 
 Aug. ,, 
 Luxemburg evacuated by the Prussian garrison, 
 
 9 Sept. ,, 
 New North German parliament meets, 10 Sept. ; 
 
 closed 26 Oct. ,, 
 
 Opened by king of Prussia, 23 March ; closed, 
 
 20 June, 1868 
 Delegates from the Zollverein meet, April ; close 
 
 23 May, ,, 
 Inauguration of the Luther monument at Worms 
 
 by the king of Prussia . . . .25 June, ,, 
 German rifle association meeting at Vienna, 26 
 July ; addressed by Von Beust at the close, giving 
 as toast, " Peace and Reconciliation " . 6 Aug. „ 
 After negotiations between Bavaria, Wurtemberg, 
 and Baden, July, a South German military com- 
 mission appointed Oct. ,, 
 
 Wilhelmshaven, at Hippens, bay of Jahde, Olden- 
 burg, the first German military port, inaugurated 
 by the king of Prussia .... 17 June, 1869 
 Centenary of the birth of Alexander von Humboldt 
 
 celebrated 14 Sept. ,, 
 
 Count Amim, German representative at Rome, 
 protests against the doctrine of papal infallibility 
 
 May, 1870 
 German parliament opened by the king, 14 Feb. ; 
 
 closed 26 May, „ 
 
 Count Bismarck announces the declaration of war 
 by France, and terms it groundless and presump- 
 tuous 19 July, „ 
 
 Bavaria, Wurtemberg, Hesse Darmstadt, and 
 Baden, support Prussia in the war declared by 
 
 France 15 July, „ 
 
 See Franco-Prussian War. 
 Munich, Stuttgart, and other cities, declare for 
 
 union with North Germany . . about 6 Sept. „ 
 Socialists declare against annexation of Alsace, &c. 
 
 Sept. -Nov. „ 
 Baden and Hesse Darmstadt join the North German 
 Confederation by treaty, about 15 Nov. ; also 
 Wurtemberg, 25 Nov. ; and Bavaria, 23 Nov. ; re- 
 taining certain powers in military and diplomatic 
 
 affairs Nov. ,, 
 
 The North German parliament opened at Berlin by 
 
 Dr. Simson on behalf of the king . . 24 Nov. ,, 
 The parliament vote 100,000,000 thalers to continue 
 
 the war 28 Nov. ,, 
 
 The king of Bavaria, in a letter to the king of 
 
 Saxony, proposes the king of Prussia to be 
 
 nominated emperor of Germany about 4 Dec. ,, 
 
 The parliament in an address request the king 
 
 to become emperor (votes for, 188 ; against, 6), 
 
 10 Dec. „ 
 The address solemnly presented to the king in an 
 
 assembly of princes by Dr. Simson . . 18 Dec. „ 
 Re-establishment of the German empire, 1 Jan. ; 
 William I. of Prussia proclaimed emperor at Ver- 
 sailles 18 Jan. 1871 
 
 Several German bankers condemned to imprison- 
 ment for subscribing to the French loan 3 Jan. „ 
 Preliminaries of peace with Fiance signed at Ver- 
 sailles 26 Feb 
 
 The emperor reviews part of his army at Long- 
 champs, near Paris 1 Mar. „ 
 
 First Reichstag or imperial council opened at 
 
 Berlin by the emperor .... 21 Mar. „ 
 The new constitution of the empire comes into 
 
 force 4 May, „ 
 
 The treaty of peace ratified . . . 16 May, „ 
 Dr. Dollinger, of Munich, excommunicated for 
 
GEEMANY. 
 
 309 
 
 GEEMANY. 
 
 opposing the dogma of papal infallibility, 18 
 April; madeD.C.L. of Oxford . . June, 1871 
 
 Triumphal entry of the German armies into Berlin ; 
 statue of Frederick William IV. inaugurated, 
 
 16 June, „ 
 
 Dr. Dollinger elected rector of the university of 
 Munich . . . . . . .29 July, „ 
 
 The emperors of Austria and Germany meet at 
 Salzburg, Bismarck and Beust present 6-8 Sept. „ 
 
 The Bavarian minister of public worship declares 
 against the dogma of papal infallibility in a letter 
 to the archbishop of Munich . . 27 Sept. „ 
 
 The German parliament opened by the emperor ; 
 who expresses his conviction " that the new Ger- 
 man empire will be a reliable shield of peace," 
 
 16 Oct. „ 
 
 Reform in the coinage : introduction of a gold coin 
 approved by the federal council about 6 Nov. „ 
 
 Law forbidding the clergy to meddle with politics 
 in the pulpit .... about 26 Nov. „ 
 
 Triennial war-budget voted ... 1 Dec. „ 
 
 Sharp despatch from count Bismarck to the Ger- 
 man ambassador at Paris respecting the acquittal 
 of murderers of Germans at Melun and Paris, 
 
 7 Dee. „ 
 
 Ultramontane agitation against the government; 
 excitement amongst the Polish Romanists ; count 
 Bismarck carries his school inspection bill against 
 the Roman catholic clergy .... Mar. 1872 
 
 The empress-queen visits England . . May, „ 
 
 Bismarck reports to the parliament the pope's 
 refusal to receive cardinal Hohenlohe as ambas- 
 sador . . ... 14 May, „ 
 
 Bill for the expulsion of the Jesuits passed in the 
 German parliament (131-93); end of session, 
 
 19 June, „ 
 
 Inauguration of a memorial to Von Stein, the patri- 
 otic statesman (see Tugendband) at Nassau, by 
 the emperor 9 July, „ 
 
 Imperial congress : the czar arrives at Berlin, 
 5 Sept. ; the emperor of Austria, 6 Sept. ; both 
 leave ; prince Bismarck declares the meeting to 
 be merely au act of friendship ; "prince Gortscha- 
 koff thankful that nothing was written," about 
 
 6 Sept. „ 
 
 Great emigration of young men to America to avoid 
 the conscription; forbidden by government, 
 
 Sept. „ 
 
 The German parliament opened . . 12 Mar. 1873 
 
 Treaty with France settling the total evacuation of 
 the departments held by German troops on pay- 
 ment of the indemnity in Sept. signed 15 Mar. ,, 
 
 The emperor William warmly received at St. Peters- 
 burg 27 April — 11 May, „ 
 
 Kings and Empeeobs of Geemany. 
 caelovingian bace. 
 
 800. Charles I. the Great, or Charlemagne. 
 
 814. Louis I. U Debonnaire, king of France. 
 
 840. Lothaire I. , or Lother, son of Louis ; died in a 
 monastery at Treves, Sept. 855. 
 
 855. Louis II. . son of Lothaire. 
 
 875. Charles II. , the Bald, king of France. 
 
 881. Charles III. , the Fat, crowned king of Italy ; de- 
 posed ; succeeded by 
 
 887. Arnulf, or Arnoul ; crowned emperor at Rome in 
 896. 
 
 899. Louis III. , the Blind. 
 
 899. Lou s IV., the Child, son of Arnulf ; the last of the 
 Carlovingian race in Germany. 
 
 SAXON DYNASTY. 
 
 911. Otho, duke of Saxony; refuses the dignity on 
 
 account of his age. 
 ,, Conrad I., duke of Franconia, king. 
 918. Henry I., the Fowler, son of Otho, duke of Saxony, 
 
 king. 
 936. Otho I. , the Great, son of Henry, crowned by pope 
 
 John XII. , 2 Feb. 962, the beginning of the holy 
 
 Roman empire. 
 973. Otho II. , the Bloody ; massacred his chief nobility 
 
 at an entertainment, 981 ; wounded by a poisoned 
 
 arrow. 
 983. Otho III. , the Red, his son, yet in his minority, 
 
 poisoned. 
 1002. Henry II., duke of Bavaria, surnamed the Holy 
 
 and the Lame. 
 
 HOUSE OF FRANCONIA. 
 
 1024. Conrad II. , surnamed the Salique. 
 
 1039. Henry III. , the Black, son. 
 
 1056. Henry IV., son; a minor; Agnes, regent ; deposed 
 
 by his son and successor, Rudolph (1077) an( i 
 
 Herman (1082) nominated by the pope; and 
 
 Conrad (1087). 
 1 106. Henry V. ; married Maud or Matilda, daughter of 
 
 Henry 1. of England. 
 1125. Lothaire II., surnamed the Saxon. 
 
 HOUSE OF HOHENSTAUFEN, OR OF SUABIA. 
 
 1138. Conrad III., duke of Franconia. 
 1152. Frederick I. Barbarossa; drowned by his horse 
 throwing him into the river Saleph, 10 June, 
 1 190. 
 1 190. Henry VI., son, surnamed Asper, or the Sharp; 
 detained Richard I. of England a prisoner ; died 
 1 197. 
 [Interregnum and contest for the throne between 
 Philip of Suabia and Otho of Brunswick.] 
 1198. Philip, brother to Henry; assassinated at Bam- 
 berg by Otto of Wittelsbaeh. 
 1208. Otho IV., surnamed the Superb; excommunicated 
 
 and deposed; died 1218. 
 1.215. Frederick II., king of Sicily, son of Henry VI. : 
 deposed by his subjects, who elected Henry, 
 landgrave of Thuringia, 1246 ; Frederick died in 
 1250, naming his son Conrad his successor ; but 
 the pope gave the imperial title to 
 1247. William, earl of Holland (nominal). 
 1250. Conrad IV, son of Frederick. 
 [His son Conradin was proclaimed king of Sicily, 
 which was, however, surrendered to his uncle 
 Manfred, 1254; on whose death it was given by the 
 pope to Charles of Anjou in 1263. Conradin, on the 
 invitation of the Ghibeline party, entered Italy with 
 a large army, was defeated at Tagliacozzo, 23 Aug. 
 1268, and beheaded at Naples 29 Oct., thus ending 
 the Hohenstaufen family.] 
 
 1256. [Interregnum.] 
 
 1257. Richard, earl of Cornwall, and Alphonso, of Castile. 
 
 merely nominated. 
 
 HOUSES OF HAPSBUEG, LUXEMBUEG, BAVAEIA, ETC. 
 
 1273. Rudolph, count of Hapsburg. 
 
 1291. [Interregnum.] 
 
 1292. Adolphus, count of Nassau, to the exclusion of 
 
 Albert, son of Rodolph : deposed ; slain at the 
 
 battle of Gelheim, 2 July, 1298, by 
 1298. Albert I., duke of Austria, Rodolph's son; killed 
 
 by his nephew at Rheinl'els, 1 May, 1308. 
 1308. Henry VII. of Luxemburg. 
 
 1313. [Interregnum.] 
 
 1314. Louis IV. of Bavaria, and Frederick III. of Austria, 
 
 son of Albert, rival emperors ; Frederick died in 
 
 1 33°- 
 Louis reigns alone. 
 
 Charles IV of Luxemburg. (At Nuremberg, in 
 1356, the Golden Bull became the fundamental 
 law of the German empire.) 
 Wenceslas, king of Bohemia, son, twice impri- 
 soned ; forced to resign ; but continued to reign 
 in Bohemia. 
 
 1400. Frederick III. duke of Brunswick; assassinated 
 immediately after his election, and seldom placed 
 in the list of emperors. 
 „ Rupert, count palatine of the Rhine ; crowned at 
 Cologne ; died 1410. 
 1410. Jossus, marquess of Moravia ; chosen by a party of 
 the electors ; died next year. 
 „ Sigismund, king of Hungary; elected by another 
 party, on the death of Jossus recognised by all ; 
 king of Bohemia in 1419. 
 
 HOUSE OF AUSTEIA. 
 
 1438. Albert II. the Great, duke of Austria, and king of 
 
 Hungary and Bohemia ; died 27 Oct. 1439. 
 
 1439. [Interregnum.] 
 
 1440. Frederick IV. (or III.) surnamed the Pacific; 
 
 elected emperor 2 Feb., but not crowned until 
 June, 1442. 
 
 Maximilian I., son; died in 1519. In 1477 he 
 married Mary of Burgundy. 
 
 Francis I. of France and Charles I. of Spain be- 
 came competitors for the empire. 
 
 1330. 
 1347- 
 
 1378. 
 
 1493- 
 
GERMAN LANGUAGE. 
 
 310 
 
 GIANTS. 
 
 1519 Charles V. (I. of Spain) son of Joan of Castile and 
 
 Philip of Austria, elected ; resigned both crowns, 
 
 1556; retired to a monastery, where he died 
 
 a Sept 1558. 
 1556. Ferdinand I., brother; succeeded by his son 
 1564. Maximilian II. king of Hungary and Bohemia. 
 1576. Rodolph II., son. 
 i6iz. Matthias, brother. 
 
 1619. Ferdinand II., cousin, king of Hungary. 
 1637. Ferdinand III., son. 
 1658. Leopold I., son. 
 1705. Joseph I., son. 
 1711. Charles VI., brother. 
 1740. Maria-Theresa, daughter, queen of Hungary and 
 
 Bohemia ; her right sustained by England 
 1742. Charles VII. elector of Bavaria, rival emperor, 
 
 whose claim was supported by France. 
 [This competition gave rise to a general war. 
 
 Charles VII. died Jan. 1745.] 
 1745. Francis I. of Lorraine, grand-duke of Tuscany, 
 
 consort of Maria-Theresa. 
 1765. Joseph II., son. 
 1790. Leopold II., brother. 
 1792. Francis II., son, became emperor of Austria only, 
 
 as Francis I., 1804. 
 
 See Aristria. 
 
 HOUSE OF HOHENZOLLERN. 
 
 1871. William I. king of Prussia, 1 Jan. 
 
 GERMAN LANGUAGE has two great 
 branches : hoch and platt Deutsch, high and low 
 German. The former became the literary language, 
 principally through its use by Luther in his trans- 
 lation of the Bible and in other works, 1522-34. 
 The latter is that spoken by the lower classes. 
 There are many dialects : the satirical epic in low 
 German, "Reineke Fuchs," appeared in 1498; see 
 Reynard. 
 
 PRINCIPAL GERMAN AUTHORS. 
 
 Born Died 
 Ulftlas (Gothic bible) about a.d. 360 
 
 Martin Luther (German bible, &c. 1522-34). 1483 1546 
 
 Hans Sachs 1494 1578 
 
 Godf. Leibnitz 1646 17 16 
 
 G. F. Gellert 1715 1769 
 
 G. E. Lessing 1729 1781 
 
 G. A. Biirger 1748 1794 
 
 J. G. von Herder 1744 1803 
 
 Fred. T. Klopstock 1724 1803 
 
 Im. Kant 1724 1804 
 
 J. C. Fred, von Schiller . . . .1759 1805 
 
 Ch. M. Wieland 1733 1813 
 
 C. T. Kbrner 1791 1813 
 
 Jean Paul Richter 1763 1825 
 
 J. H. Voss i 75I !8 2 6 
 
 F. Schlegel i 772 1829 
 
 B. G. Niebuhr i 77 6 1831 
 
 J. W. von Goethe 1749 1832 
 
 Wm. von Humboldt 1767 1835 
 
 A. Win. Scldegel 1767 1845 
 
 L. Tieck I773 1853 
 
 H. Heine I7g7 ^56 
 
 Alex, von Humboldt 1769 1859 
 
 Chr. Carl J. Bunsen 1791 i860 
 
 F. C. Schlosser 1776 1861 
 
 Ernst M. Amdt 1769 i860 
 
 G. G. Gervinus 1805 1871 
 
 Theod. Mommsen 18 17 
 
 GERMINAL INSURRECTION, in the 
 faubourgs of Paris, suppressed on 12th Germinal, 
 year III. (1 April, 1795). 
 
 GERONA (N. E. Spain), an ancient city, fre- 
 quently besieged and taken. In June, 1808, it 
 successfully resisted the French ; but after suffer- 
 ing much by famine, surrendered 12 Dec. 1809. 
 
 GESTA ROMANORUM; a collection of 
 popular tales derived from Oriental and classical 
 sources, written in Latin by an unknown author, 
 about the middle of the 14th century, and one of 
 the first books printed in the 15th. These tales 
 have been largely used by our early poets and 
 dramatists, including Shakspeare. The English 
 
 translation, by the Rev. G Swan (from an edition 
 printed at Hagenau, 1 508), appeared 1824. 
 
 GETTYSBURG (Philadelphia). Here severe 
 fighting took place 1-3 July, 1863, between the in- 
 vading confederate army under generals Lee, Long- 
 street, and Ewell, and the federals under general 
 George Meade. The confederates were long suc- 
 cessful, but eventually were compelled to retire 
 from Pennsylvania and Maryland. The killed and 
 wounded on each side were estimated at about 
 15,000. 
 
 GHENT (Belgium), an ancient city, built about 
 the 7th century, during the middle-;iges became 
 very rich. John, third son of Edward III. of Eng- 
 land, is said to have been born here in 1340 (hence 
 named John of Gaunt) during the revolt under 
 Jacob Van Artevelde, a brewer, whose son Philip 
 revived the insnrrection against the earl Louis, 
 I379-83- 
 
 Ghent rebelled against Philip of Burgundy, 1451 ; against 
 the emperor Charles V., 1539; severely punished, 1540. 
 "Pacification of Ghent" (when the north and south pro- 
 vinces of the Netherlands united against Spain) pro- 
 claimed 8 Nov. 1576, broken up 1579. 
 Ghent taken by Louis XIV. of France, 9 March, 1678 ; and 
 
 by the duke of Marlborough, 1706. 
 Ghent seized by the French, 1793; annexed to the 
 
 Netherlands, 1814 ; made part of Belgium, 1830. 
 Peace of Ghent, between Great Britain and America, 
 signed 24 Dec. 1814. 
 
 GHIBELINES, see Guelphs. 
 
 GHIZNEE, or GHUZNEE (East Persia), the 
 seat of the Gaznevides, who founded the city, 969. 
 They were expelled by the Seljuk Tartars in 1038. 
 The British under sir John Keane attacked the 
 strong citadel of Ghiznee at 2 A.M. 23 July, 1839. 
 At 3 o'clock the gates were blown in by the artillery, 
 and under cover of a heavy fire, the infantry forced 
 their way into the place and at 5 fixed the British 
 colours on its towers. — It capitulated to the 
 Afghans, 1 March, 1842, who were defeated 6 Sept. 
 and general Nott re-entered Ghiznee 7 Sept. same 
 year. 
 
 GHOSTS, produced by optical science. Mr. 
 Dircks described his method at the British Associa- 
 tion meeting in 1858. Dr. John Taylor produced 
 ghosts scientifically in March ; and Mr. Pepper ex- 
 hibited the ghost illusion at the Royal Polytechnic 
 Institution, July, 1863. See Cock-lane Ghost. 
 
 GIANTS are mentioned in Gen. vi. 4. The 
 bones of reputed giants, 17, 18, 20, and 30 feet high, 
 have been proved to be remains of animals. — The 
 battle of Marignano (1515) has been termed the 
 " battle of the Giants." 
 
 Og, king of Bashan, of the remnant of the giants : his 
 "bedstead was 9 cubits long (about 16^ feet). 1451 B.C. 
 (Deut. iii. 11.) 
 
 Goliath of Gath's "height was 6 cubits and a span." 
 Killed by David about 1063 B.C. (1 Sam. xvii. 4.) 
 
 Four giants, sons of Goliath, killed (2 Sam. xxi. 15-22) 
 about 1018. 
 
 The emperor Maximin(A.D. 235) was 8J feet in height, 
 and of great bulk. Some say between 7 and 8 feet ; 
 others above 8. 
 
 "The tallest man that hath been seen in our age was 
 one named Gabara, who in the days of Claudius, the 
 late emperor, was brought out of Arabia. He was 
 9 feet 9 inches high." Pliny. 
 
 John Middleton (born 1578), commonly called the child 
 of Hale (Lancashire), whose hand, from the carpus to 
 the end of his middle finger, was 17 inches long; his 
 palm 8£ inches broad ; his whole height 9 feet 3 inches. 
 Plot, Nat. Hist, of Staffordshire, p. 295. 
 
 Patrick Cotter, Irish giant, born in 1761, was 8 feet 
 7 inches in height ; his hand, from the commencement 
 of the palm to the extremity of the middle finger, 
 
GIAOUR. 
 
 311 
 
 GIURGEVO. 
 
 measured 12 inches, and his shoe was 17 inches long; 
 
 died Sept. 1806. 
 Charles Byrne, called O'Brien, 8 feet 4 inches high ; died 
 
 1783 ; his skeleton is in the Museum, Royal College of 
 
 Surgeons. 
 Big Sam, porter of the prince of Wales, at Carlton-palace, 
 
 near 8 feet high, performed as a giant in " Cymon," 
 
 at the Opera-house, 1809. 
 M. Brice, a native of the Vosges, 7 feet 6 inches high. 
 
 He exhibited himself in London, Sept. 1862, and Nov. 
 
 1863. 
 Robert Hales, the Norfolk giant, died at Great Yarmouth, 
 
 22 Nov. 1863 (aged 43). He was 7 feet 6 inches high, 
 
 and weighed 452 lbs. 
 Chang- Woo-Gow, a Chinese, aged 19, 7 feet 8 inches 
 
 high, exhibited himself in London in Sept., &c, 
 
 1865. 
 Capt. Martin Van Buren Bates, of Kentucky, and Miss 
 
 Ann Hanen Swann, of Nova Scotia, both about 7 feet 
 
 high ; exhibited themselves in London, in May ; and 
 
 married at St. Martin's-in-the-Fields, 17 June, 1871. 
 
 GIAOUR, Turkish, for infidel, a term applied 
 to all who do not believe in Mahomedanism. — 
 Byron's poem, "The Giaour," was published in 
 1813. 
 
 GIBRALTAR. The ancient Calpe (which, 
 with Abyla, on the opposite shore of Africa, ob- 
 tained the name of the Pillars of Hercules), a town 
 on a rock in South Spain, on which is placed a 
 British fortress, considered impregnable. The 
 height of the rock, according to Cuvier, is 1437 
 English feet. It was taken by the Saracens under 
 Tarik, whence its present name (derived from Gibel- 
 el-Tarik), in 711. 
 
 Taken from the Moors, 1309 ; surrendered to them, 
 1333; finally taken from them by Henry IV., of 
 Castile, 1462 ; strengthened by Charles V. . . 1552 
 
 Attacked by the British under sir George Rooke, 
 the prince of Hesse-Darmstadt, sir John Leake, 
 and admiral Byng, 21 July ; taken . 24 July, 1704 
 
 Besieged by the Spanish and French; they luse 
 10,000 men; the victorious English but 400, 
 
 11 Oct. „ 
 
 Sir John Leake captured several ships, and raised 
 the siege 10 March, 1705 
 
 Ceded to England by treaty of Utrecht n April, 1713 
 
 The Spaniards repulsed in an attack with great 
 loss 1720 
 
 They again attack it with a force of 20,000 men, 
 and lose 5000 ; English loss, 300 . . 22 Feb. 1727 
 
 Siege by the Spaniards and French, whose arma- 
 ments (the greatest brought against a fortress) 
 wholly over-thrown .... 16 July, 1779 
 
 In one night their floating batteries were destroyed 
 with red-hot balls, and their whole line of works 
 annihilated by a sortie commanded by general 
 Eliott ; the enemy's loss in munitions of war, on 
 this night, was estimated atupwards of 2,000,000?. 
 sterling; the army amounted to 40,000 men, 
 
 27 Nov. 1781 
 
 Grand defeat by a garrison of only 7000 British, 
 
 13 Sept. 1782 
 
 The duke of Crillon commanded 12,000 of the best 
 troops of France. 1000 pieces of artillery were 
 brought to bear against the fortress, besides 
 which there were 47 sail of the line, all three- 
 deckers; 10 great floating batteries, esteemed 
 invincible, carrying 212 guns; innumerablefrigates, 
 xebeques, bomb-ketches, cutters, and gun and 
 mortar-boats ; while small craft for disembarking 
 the forces covered the bay. For weeks together 
 6000 shells were daily thrown into the town. 
 
 Blockade ceased 5 Feb. 1783 
 
 Royal battery destroyed by fire . . . Nov. 1800 
 
 Engagement between the French and English fleets 
 in the bay; H.M.S. Hannibal, 74 guns, lost, 
 
 6 July, 1801 
 
 The Royal Carlos and St. Hermenigildo Spanish ships, 
 each of 112 guns, blew up, with their crews, at 
 night-time, in the straits here, and all on board 
 perished 12 July, „ 
 
 A malignant disease caused great mortality Sept. 1804 
 
 A dreadful plague raged 1805 
 
 A malignant fever raged .... Aug. 1814 
 
 Again : courts of justice and places of worship 
 
 closed by proclamation ... 5 Sept. 1828 
 The fatal epidemic ceased . . . .12 Jan. 1829 
 Bishopric of Gibraltar established .... 1842 
 Gen. sir Richard Airey appointed governor Sept. 1865 
 Popular discussion respecting its exchange for 
 
 Ceuta Dec. 1868-Jan. 1869 
 
 Gen. sir Fenwick Williams of Kars appointed 
 governor . " Aug. 1870 
 
 GILBERTINES, an order of canons and 
 nuns established at Sempringham, Lincolnshire, 
 by Gilbert of that place, 1131-1148. At the disso- 
 lution there were 25 houses of the order in England 
 and Wales. 
 
 GILDING on wood formed part of the decora- 
 tions of the Jewish tabernacle, 1490 B.C. (JExod. 
 xxv. 11); was practised at Rome, about 145 B.C. 
 The capitol was the first building on which this 
 enrichment was bestowed. Pliny. Of gold leaf for 
 gilding the Bomans made but 750 leaves, four 
 fingers square, out of a whole ounce. Pliny. Gild- 
 ing with leaf gold on bole ammoniac was first intro- 
 duced by Margaritone in 1273. See Electrotype. 
 
 GIN, ardent spirit, flavoured with the essential 
 oil of the juniper berry. The "gin act," 1735, 
 laying an excise of 55. per gallon upon it, passed 
 14 July, 1736- I n London alone 7044 houses sold 
 gin by retail ; and a man could intoxicate himself 
 for one penny. Salmon. About 1700 gin-shops 
 were suppressed in London in 1750. Clarke. 
 
 GINS, machines for separating cotton wool from 
 the seed ; see under Cotton. 
 
 GINGER, the root of the Amomum Zinziber, 
 a native of the East Indies and China, now culti- 
 vated in the "West Indies. In 1842 the duty was 
 reduced from 53s. to 10s. per cwt. of foreign ginger, 
 and from lis. to 5s. per cwt. of that from British 
 colonies. 
 
 GIPSIES, see Gypsies. 
 
 GIRAFFE or CAMELOPARD, a native of the 
 interior of Africa, was well known to the ancients. 
 In 1827 one was brought to England for the first 
 time as a present to George IV. It died in 1829. 
 On 25 May, 1835, four giraffes, obtained by M. 
 Thibaut, were introduced into the Zoological gar- 
 dens, Regent's park, where a young one was born 
 in 1839. 
 
 GIRONDISTS, an important party during the 
 French revolution, principally composed of deputies 
 from the Gironde. They were ardent republicans, 
 butafterthe cruelties of Aug. and Sept. 1792, laboured 
 in vain to restrain the cruelties of Robespierre and 
 the Mountain party, and their leaders, Brissot, 
 Vergniand, and many others, were guillotined 
 31 Oct. 1793. Lamartine's " Histoire des Giron- 
 dins," published in 1847, tended to hasten the 
 revolution of 1848. 
 
 GISORS, BATTLE OF (France), on 20 Sept. 
 or 10 Oct. 1 198, when Richard I. of England defeated 
 the French. His parole for the day, " Dieu et 
 mon droit" — "God and my right" — afterwards 
 became the motto to the arms of England. 
 
 GITSCHIN (Bohemia), was captured by the 
 Prussians after a severe conflict with the Austrians, 
 29 June, 1866. Near Gitschin, the same evening, 
 the crown prince of Prussia was victor in another 
 engagement. 
 
 GIURGEVO (Wallachia). Here the Russians 
 were defeated by the Turks aided by some English 
 officers, 7 July, and repulsed in an attack, 23 July, 
 1854. 
 
GLADIATORS. 
 
 312 
 
 GLASITES. 
 
 GLADIATORS were originally malefactors, 
 who fought for their lives, or captives who fought 
 for freedom. They were first exhibited at the 
 funeral ceremonies of the Romans, 263 B.C., and 
 afterwards at festivals, about 215 B.C. Their revolt 
 under Spartacus, 73 B.C., was quelled by Cras^us, 
 71. "When Dacia was reduced by Trajan, 1000 
 gladiators fought at Rome in celebration of his 
 triumph, for 123 days, a.d. 103. These combats 
 were suppressed in the East by Constantine the 
 Great, 321;, and in the West by Theodoric in 500. 
 Lenglet. 
 
 GLADSTONE ADMINISTRATION. * 
 
 Mr. Disraeli resigned 2 Dec. and was succeeded by 
 Mr. Gladstone, whose ministry received the seals 
 9 Dec. 1868. In consequence of a majority of three 
 against the Irish University bill, early on 12 March, 
 1873, Mr. Gladstone tendered his resignation, but 
 wihdrewit a few days after, as Mr. Disraeli de- 
 clined office with the existing house of commons. 
 
 First lord of the treasury, Win. Ewart Gladstone. 
 
 Lord chancellor, sir Win. Page Wood, baron H itherley ; 
 
 resigned; sir Roundell Palmer, baron Salbourne, 
 
 Oct. 1872. 
 Lord president of the council, Geo. Fred. Samuei Robinson, 
 
 earl de Grey and Ripon (marquis of Ripon, 1871). 
 Lord privy seal, John Wodehouse, earl of Kimberley; 
 
 succeeded by viscount Halifax, July, 1870. 
 Chancellor of the exchequer, Robert Lowe. 
 Secretaries— home, Henry Austin Bruce ; foreign, Geo. 
 
 Win. Fred. Villiers, earl of Clarendon (died 27 June, 
 
 1870) ; succeeded by earl Granville ; colonics, Granville 
 
 Geo. Leveson-Gower, earl Granville ; succeeded by earl 
 
 of Kimberley, July, 1870; war, Edward Cardwell ; 
 
 Lndia, George Douglas Campbell, duke.of Argyll. 
 Chancellor of duchy of Lancaster, Frederick lord Dutferin, 
 
 appointed governor-general of Canada ; succeeded by 
 
 H. E. Childers, Aug. (?) 1872. 
 First lord of admiralty, Hugh Culling Eardley Childers ; 
 
 succeeded by G. Joachim Goschen, 9 March, 1871. 
 Chief secretary far Ireland, Chichester S. Fortescue ; 
 
 succeeded by the marquis of Hartington, 1 Jan. 1871. 
 President of board of trade, John Bright ; succeeded by 
 
 Chichester S. Fortescue, Dec. 1870. 
 President of poor law (now local government) board 
 
 George Joachim Goschen ; succeeded by James Stans- 
 
 feld, 9 March, 1871. 
 Wm. Edward Forster, vice-president of the committee 
 
 of council on education; admitted to the cabinet, 
 
 July, 1870. 
 
 The above form the cabinet. 
 Lord-lieutenant of Ireland, George earl Spencer. 
 Office of works, Austen Layard ; succeeded by Acton S 
 
 Ayrton, Nov. 1869. 
 Postmaster-general, Spencer C. Cavendish, marquis of 
 
 Hartington ; succeeded by Wm. Monsell (not in the 
 
 cabinet), Jan. 1871. 
 
 This ministry carried— the disestablishment of the 
 Irish church in 1869; the Irish tenant act in 1870; was 
 censured in the house of lords for advising the royal 
 warrant abolishing purchase in the army (162—82), 
 1 Aug. 1871 ; carried the ballot in 1872. 
 
 GLASGOW (Lanarkshire), the largest city in 
 Scotland. Its prosperity greatly increased after the 
 union in 1707, in consequence o'f its obtaining some 
 of the American trade. Population in 1707 about 
 12,000; in 1861, 394,857 ; in 1871, 477,144. 
 
 The cathedral or high church, dedicated to St. 
 
 Kentigem or Mungo, began about . . . 1181 
 Erected into a burgh 
 
 1190 
 
 * William Ewart Gladstone, born 29 Dec. 1809; master 
 of the mint, Sept. 1841; president of the board of trade, 
 May, 1843— Feb. 1845 ; secretary for colonies, Dec. 1845 
 —July, 1846; chancellor of the exchequer, Jan. 1853 — 
 Feb. 185s, June, 1859— June, 1866; lord high com- 
 missioner extraordinary to the Ionian Isles, Nov. 1858 • 
 M. P. for Newark, 1832—46 ; for Oxford, 1847—65 : for 
 South Lancashire, 1865—8 ; for Greenwich, Nov. 1868. 
 
 Charter was obtained from James II. . . . 1451 
 University founded by bishop Turnbull, about . ,, 
 
 Made a royal burgh by James VI 1611 
 
 Town wasted by a great fire 1652 
 
 Charter of William and Mary 1690 
 
 Glasgow Courant, the first newspaper published . 1715 
 First vessel sailed to America for its still great 
 
 import, tobacco 1718 
 
 Great Shawfield riot 1725 
 
 Calico printing begun, about 1742 
 
 Plundered by rebels 1745 
 
 Theatre opened 1764 
 
 Power-loom introduced 1773 
 
 Theatre burnt ; Glasgow Herald published . . . 1782 
 
 Chamber of commerce formed 1783 
 
 Trades' hall built 1791 
 
 Spinning machinery by steam introduced . . 179s 
 Anderson's university founded . . 7 May, 1795 
 
 New College buildings erected 181 1 
 
 Great popular commotion . . . April, „ 
 
 Trials for treason followed .... July, ,, 
 
 Theatre again burnt Jan. 1829 
 
 The royal exchange opened ... 3 Sept. ,, 
 
 Great fire, loss 150,000? 14 Jan. 1832 
 
 The Glasgow lotteries, the last drawn in Britain, 
 
 were granted by licence of parliament to the 
 
 commissioners for the improvement of Glasgow. 
 
 The third and final Glasgow lottery was drawn 
 
 in London, at Coopers' Hall, 28 Aug. 1834. 
 
 Their repetition was forbidden by 4 Will. IV., 
 
 C 37 1834 
 
 British Association meet here . . .24 Sept 1840 
 Wellington's statue erected . . . . 8 Oct. 1844 
 False alarm of fire at the theatre, when 70 persons 
 
 are crushed to death . . . .17 Feb. 1849 
 British Association meet (2nd time) . 12 Sept. 1855 
 
 Failure of Western Bank of Scotland, and City of 
 
 of Glasgow banks, and other firms . . Nov. 1857 
 In which great frauds were discovered . . Oct. 1858 
 New water-works at Loch Katrine opened by the 
 
 queen 14 Oct 1859 
 
 [Supplies 25,000,000 gallons daily, can supply 
 
 50,000,000 ; engineer, J. F. Bateman ; cost about 
 
 918,000/. independent of price paid for old 
 
 works.] 
 Self-supporting cooking establishments for work- 
 ing classes begun by Mr. Thos. Corbett, 21 Sept. i860 
 Glasgow visited by the empress of the French, 
 
 27 Nov. ,, 
 
 Theatre burnt again 31 Jan. 1863 
 
 Visited by lord Palmerston ; installed lord rector, 
 
 29 March, „ 
 Industrial exhibition opened . . 12 Dec. 1865 
 
 Fine stained glass windows, by German artists, put 
 
 up in the cathedral by private munificence 1859-66 
 Site of the old university sold to railway company; 
 
 new buildings to be erected near Western-park . 1866 
 Great reform demonstration ; visit of John Bright, 
 
 16 Oct „ 
 The duke of Edinburgh inaugurates the statue of 
 
 the prince consort, in George 's-square 18 Oct. ,, 
 Glasgow and Aberdeen universities to elect one 
 
 M. P. , and Glasgow to elect three instead of two 
 
 M. P.'s, by the Scotch reform act, passed 13 July, 1868 
 Foundation of the new university buildings laid by 
 
 the prince of Wales .... 8 Oct ,, 
 Foundation of Albert bridge laid . 3 June, 1870 
 
 The new university buildings opened . 7 Nov. „ 
 
 Scott centenary celebrated ... 9 Aug. 1871 
 Fraser and Maelaren's warehouse, Buchanan-street, 
 
 burnt ; about ioo,oooJ. lost . . 27 March, 1872 
 Explosion at Tradeston flour mills ; about 14 killed ; 
 
 loss 70,000/ 9 July, 1872 
 
 GLASGOW, Bishopric of. Rennet, in his 
 
 Antiquities, says it was founded by St. Kentigem, 
 alias Mungo, in 560; Dr. Heylin, speaking of the 
 see of St. Asaph, in Wales, says that that see was 
 founded by St. Kentigem, a Scot, then bishop of 
 Glasgow in 583. This prelacy became archiepiscopal 
 in 1491, ceased at the Revolution, and is now a 
 post-revolution bishopric. The cathedral, com- 
 menced in 1 121, has a noble crypt; see Bishops. 
 
 GLASITES (in Scotland) and SandemANTANS 
 (in England). In 1727, John Glas, a minister of 
 
GLASS. 
 
 313 
 
 GLOEY. 
 
 the church of Scotland, published "The Testimony 
 of the King of Martyr.-*, concerning his Kingdom 
 (John xviii. 36)," in which he opposed national 
 churches, and described the original constitution of 
 the Christian church, its doctrines, ordinances, 
 officers, and discipline, as given in the New Testa- 
 ment. Having been deposed in 1728, he and others 
 established several churches formed upon the pri- 
 mitive models. The publication of a series of letters 
 on Hervey's '" Theron and Aspasio," by Kobert 
 Sandeman, in 1755, led to the establishment of 
 churches in London and other places in England, 
 and also in North America. The ineeting-houie at 
 Barnsbury, London, N., was erected in 1862. 
 
 GLASS. The Egyptians are said to have been 
 taug,,t the art of making glass by Hermes. The 
 discovery of glass took place in Syria. Pliny. 
 Gla.-s-houses were erected in Tyre. It was in use 
 among the .Romans in the time of Tiberius ; and 
 we know, from the ruins of Pompeii, that windows 
 were formed of glass before 79. 
 
 Glass is said to have been brought to England by 
 Benedict Biscop, abbot of Wearmouth, in . . 676 
 
 The glass manufacture established in England at 
 Crutehed-friars, and in the Savoy (Stovj) . . 1557 
 
 Great improvements have been made in the manu- 
 facture, through the immense increase of chemical 
 knowledge in the present century. Professor 
 Faraday published his researches on the manu- 
 facture of glass for optical purposes in . . 1830 
 
 The duties on glass, first imposed 1695 ; repealed, 
 1698; re-enacted, 1745 ; finally remitted, 24 April, 1845 
 
 Glass-Painting was known to the ancient Egyp- 
 tians. It was revived about the 10th century, 
 and is described in the treatise by the monk 
 Theophilus ; was practised at Marseilles in a 
 beautiful style, about 1500, and attained great 
 perfection about 1530. Specimens of the 13th 
 century exist in England ; 0. Winston's work is 
 the best on the subject, 1846, new edition . . 1868 
 
 Glass Plate, for coach- windows, mirrors, &c. , 
 made at Lambeth by Venetian artists, under the 
 patronage of Vilhers, duke of Buckingham . . 1673 
 
 The manufacture was improved by the French, 
 who made very large plates ; and further im- 
 provements in it were made in Lancashire, when 
 the British Plate Glass company was established 1773 
 
 Manufacture of British sheet glass introduced by 
 Messrs. Chance, of Birmingham, about . . . 1832 
 
 GLASTONBUBY (Somerset), said to have 
 been the residence of Joseph of Arimathea, and the 
 site of the first Christian church in Britain, about 
 60. A church was built here by Ina about 708. 
 The town and abbey were burnt, 1184, and an 
 earthquake did great damage in 1275. Richard 
 "Whiting, the last abbot, who had 100 monks and 
 400 domestics, was hanged on Tor-hill in his pon- 
 tificals for refusing to take the oath of supremacy 
 to Henry VIII. , 14 Nov. 1539. The monastery was 
 suppressed 1540. 
 
 GLENCOE MASSACEE of the Macdonalds, 
 a Jacobite clan, for not surrendering before I Jan. 
 1692, the time stated in king William's proclama- 
 mation. Sir John Dalrymple, master (afterwards 
 earl) of Stair, their enemy, obtained a decree " to 
 extirpate that set of thieves," which the king is 
 said to have signed without perusing. Every man 
 under 70 was to be slain. This mandate was trea- 
 cherously executed by 120 soldiers of a Campbell 
 regiment, hospitably received by the Highlanders, 
 13 Feb. 1692. About 60 men were slain ; and many 
 ■women and children, turned out naked in a freez- 
 ing night, perished. Tnis exited great indigna- 
 tion ; and an inquiry was set on foot, May, 1695, 
 but no capital punishment followed. 
 
 GLENDALOUGH, or " Seven Churches," an 
 ancient Irish bishopric, said to have been founded 
 by St. Keven in 498 ; united with Dublin, 1214. 
 
 GLOBE. The globular form of the earth, the 
 five zones, some of the principal circles of the 
 sphere, the opacity of the moon, and the true causes 
 of lunar eclipses, were taught, and an eclipse pre- 
 dicted, by Thales of Miletus, about 640 B.C. Pytha- 
 goras demonstrated, from the varying altitudes of 
 the stars by change of place, that the earth must 
 be round; that there might be antipodes on the- 
 opposite part of the globe ; that Venus was the 
 morning and evening star ; that the universe con- 
 sisted of twelve spheres — the sphere of the earth, 
 the sphere of the water, the sphere of the air, the- 
 sphere of fire, the spheres of the moon, the sun ;. 
 Venus, Mercury, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and the 
 spheres of the stars ; about 506 B.C. — Aristarchus,. 
 of Samos, maintained that the earth turned on its- 
 own axis, and revolved about the sun, which doc- 
 trine was held by his contemporarits as so absurd, 
 that the philosopher nearly lost his life, 280 B.C. - r 
 see Circumnavigators. 
 
 To determine the figure of the earth, a degree of latitude 
 has been measured in different parts of the world ; by 
 Bouguer and La Condamine in Peru, and by Mauper- 
 tuis and others in Lapland, 1735. 
 
 France and Spain measured by Mechain, Delambre,. 
 Biot, and Arago, between 1792 and 1821. 
 
 Measurements made in India by col. (afterwards sir 
 George) Everest, published in 1830. 
 
 Experiments made by pendulums to demonstrate the 
 rotation of the earth by Foucault in 1851 ; and to- 
 determine its density by Maskelyne, Badly, and, 
 others ; and in 1826, 1828, and 1854, by Mr. (now sir). 
 G. B. Airy, the astronomer royal. 
 
 Artificial Globes. It is said that a celestial globe was 
 brought to Greece from Egypt, 368 B.C., and that 
 Archimedes constructed a planetarium about 212 B.C. 
 
 The globe of Gottorp, a concave sphere, eleven feet in 
 diameter, containing a table and seats for twelve per- 
 sons, and the inside representing the visible surface 
 of the heavens, the stars and constellations all dis- 
 tinguished according to their respective magnitudes, 
 and being turned by means of curious mechanism,, 
 their true position, rising and setting, are shown. 
 The outside is a terrestrial globe. The machine, called 
 the globe of Gottorp, from the original one of that 
 name, which, at the expense of Frederick II. duke of 
 Holstein, was erected at Gottorp, under the direction 
 of Adam Olearius, and was planned after a design found 
 among the papers of the celebrated Tycho Brahe. 
 Frederick IV. of Denmark presented it to Peter the 
 Great in 1713. It was nearly destroyed by fire in 
 1757 ; but it was afterwards reconstructed. Coxe. 
 
 The globe at Pembroke-hall, Cambridge, erected by Dr. 
 Long (master, 1733), is eighteen feet in diameter. 
 
 In 1851 Mr. Abrahams erected in Leicester-square, for 
 Mr. Wyld, a globe 60 feet 4 inches in diameter, lit 
 from the centre by day, and by gas at night. It was- 
 closed in July, 1861 ; the models were sold, and the 
 building eventually taken down. 
 
 GLOBE THEATEE, BACKSIDE (London),, 
 see Shakespeare's Theatre. — The Globe "Theatre," 
 erected on the site of Lyon's-inn, Strand, was- 
 opened 28 Nov. 1868, Mr. Sefton Parry, manager.. 
 — The Globe evening newspaper; formerly wnig r 
 now conservative ; established 1803. 
 
 GLOIEE, French steam frigate, see Navy r 
 French. 
 
 GLOEY, the nimbus drawn by painters round; 
 the heads of saints, angels, and holy men, and the 
 circle of ravs on images, adopted from the Caesars 
 and their flatterer^, were used in the 1st century. 
 The doxology, " Gloria Patri," is very ancient, 
 and originally without the clause " as it was in 
 the beginning," &c. In the Greek it began with 
 "doxa," glory. 
 
GLOUCESTER. 
 
 314 
 
 GODWIN'S OATH. 
 
 GLOUCESTER (Roman Glevum), submitted 
 to the Romans about 45, and to the Saxons 577. 
 The statutes of Gloucester, passed at a parlia- 
 ment held by Edward I. 1278, relate to actions at 
 law. This city was incorporated by Henry III.; 
 and was fortified by a strong wall, which was de- 
 molished after the Restoration, in 1660, by order of 
 Charles II., as a punishment for the successful 
 resistance of the city to Charles I., under col. 
 Massey, Aug., Sept. 1643. The Gloucester and 
 Berkeley canal was completed in April, 1827. 
 Gross bribery took place here at the election for the 
 parliament in 1859. — The Bishopric was one of 
 the six erected by Henry VIII. in 1541, and was 
 formerly part of Worcester. It was united to 
 Bristol in 1836. The church, which belonged to 
 the abbey, and its revenues, were appropriated to 
 the maintainance of the see. The abbey, which 
 was founded by king Wulphere about 700, was 
 burnt in 1102, and again in 1122. In it are the 
 tombs of Robert, duke of Normandy, and Edward II. 
 In the king's books, this bishopric is valued at 
 315^. 17*. 2d. per annum. Present income, 5000^. 
 
 RECENT BISHOPS OF GLOUCESTER AND BRISTOL. 
 
 1802. George Isaac Huntingfurd, translated to Hereford, 
 
 June, 1815. 
 1815. Hon. Hen. Ryder, translated to Lichfield, 1824. 
 1824. Christopher Bethell, translated to Exeter, 1830. 
 1830. James Henry Monk, died. 
 1856. Charles Baring, translated to Durham, Sept. 1861. 
 
 1861. Wm. Thomson, translated to York, 1862. 
 
 1862. Charles John Ellicott (present bishop). 
 
 GLOVES. Woodstock and Worcester leather 
 gloves are of ancient celebrity. In the middle 
 ages, the giving a glove was a ceremony of inves- 
 titure in bestowing lands and dignities; and two 
 bishops were put in possession of their sees by each 
 receiving a glove, 1002. In England, in the reign 
 of Edward II. the deprivation of gloves was a 
 -ceremony of degradation. The Glovers' company 
 •of London was incorporated in 1556. Embroidered 
 gloves were introduced into England in 1580, and 
 are still presented to judges at maiden assizes. The 
 importation of foreign gloves was not permitted till 
 1825. 
 
 GLUCINUM (from glukus, sweet). In 1798 
 Vauquelin discovered the earth gluciua (so termed 
 from the sweet taste of its salts). It is found in 
 the beryl and other crystals. From glucina \\ ohler 
 and Bussy obtained the rare metal glucinum in 
 1828. Gmelin. 
 
 GLUCOSE, see Sugar. 
 
 GLUTEN, an ingredient of grain, particularly 
 wheat, termed the vegeto-animal principle (con- 
 taining nitrogen). Its discovery is attributed to 
 Beccaria in the 18th century. 
 
 GLYCERINE, discovered by Scheele, about 
 1779, and termed by him the "sweet principle of 
 fats," and further studied by Chevreul, termed the 
 "father of the fatty acids." It is obtained pure 
 hy saponifying olive oil or animal fat with oxide of 
 lead, or litharge. Glycerine is now much employed 
 in medicine and the arts. 
 
 GLYOXYLINE (invented by Mr. F. A. Abel, 
 the chemist of the war department, in 1867), an 
 explosive mixture of gun-cotton, pulp and saltpetre 
 saturated with nitro-glycerine. It was abandoned 
 for compressed gun-cotton. 
 
 GNOSTICS (from the Greek gnosis, know- 
 ledge), a sect who, soon after the preaching of 
 Christianity, endeavoured to combine its principles 
 with the Greek philosophy. Among their teachers 
 
 were Saturnius, 111 ; Basilides, 134; and Valentine, 
 140. Priscillian, a Spaniard, was burnt at Treves 
 as a heretic, in 384, for endeavouring to revive 
 Gnosticism. 
 
 GO A (S.W. Hindostan), was taken by the Por- 
 tuguese under Albuquerque in 1510, and made their 
 Indian capital. 
 
 GOBELIN-TAPESTRY, so called from a 
 house at Paris, formerly possessed by wool-dyers, 
 whereof the chief (Giles Gobelin), in the reign of 
 b rancis I., is said to have found the secret of dyeing 
 scarlet. This house was purchased by Louis XIV. 
 for a manufactory of works for adorning palaces 
 (under the direction of Colbert), especially tapestry, 
 designs for which were drawn by Le Brun, about 
 1666. 
 
 " GOD BLESS YOU!" see Sneezing. 
 
 " GOD SAVE THE KING." This melody 
 is said to have been composed by John Bull, Mus. 
 1)., in 1606, for a dinner given to James I. at 
 Merchant Taylors' Hall ; others ascribe it to Henry 
 Carey, author of " Sally in our alley," who died, 
 4 Oct. 1743. It has been claimed by the French. 
 The controversy on the subject is summed up in 
 Chappell's "Popular Music of the Olden Times" 
 (1859). 
 
 GODERICH ADMINISTRATION. Vis- 
 count Goderich * (afterwards earl of Kipon) became 
 first minister on the death of Mr. Canning, 8 Aug. 
 1827 ; he resigned 8 Jan. 1828. 
 
 Viscount Goderich, first lord of the treasury. 
 
 Duke of Portland, president of the council. 
 
 Lord Lyndhurst, lord chancellor. 
 
 Earl of Carlisle, lord privy seal. 
 
 Viscount Dudley, Mr. Huskisson, and the marquis of 
 
 Lansdowne, foreign, colonial, & home secretaries. 
 Lord Palmerston, secretary-at-war. 
 Mr. C. W. Wynn, president of the India board. 
 Mr. Charles Grant (afterwards lord Glenelg), board of 
 
 trade. 
 Mr. Hemes, chancellor of the exchequer. 
 Mr. Tierney, master of the mint, &c. 
 
 GODFATHERS and Godmothers, or 
 
 sponsors. The Jews are said to have had them at 
 circumcision; but theie is no mention of them in 
 scripture. Tradition says that sponsors were first 
 appointed by Hyginus, a Roman bishop, about 154, 
 during a time of persecution. In Roman Catholic 
 countries bells have godfathers and godmothers at 
 their baptism. 
 
 GODOLPHIN ADMINISTRATIONS 
 
 (see Administrations), 1684 and 1690. Lord 
 Godolphin became prime minister to queen Anne, 
 8 May, 1702. The cabinet was notified in 1704. 
 The earl resigned 8 Aug. 1710, and died 1712. 
 
 Sidney, lord (afterwards earl) Godolphin, treasury. 
 
 Sir Nathan Wright, lord keeper. 
 
 Thomas, earl of Pembroke and Montgomery, lord pre- 
 sident. 
 
 John Sheffield, marquis of Normanby (afterwards duke 
 of Normanby and Buckingham), privy seal. 
 
 Hon. Henry Boyle, chancellor of the exchequer. 
 
 Sir Charles Hedges and the earl of Nottingham (the latter 
 succeeded by Robert Harley, created earl of Oxford in 
 1704), secretaries of state. 
 
 GODWINS OATH. "Take care you are 
 not swearing Godwin's oath." This caution, to a 
 
 * Born 1 782 ; held various inferior appointments from 
 1809 to 1818, when he became president of the board of 
 trade ; was chancellor of the exchequer from 1818 to 
 April, 1827, when he became colonial secretary, which 
 office he held in the Grey cabinet, Nov. 1830 ; created earl 
 of Ripon, 1833 ; died 28 Jan. 1859. 
 
GODWIN SANDS. 
 
 315 
 
 GOLDSMITHS' COMPANY. 
 
 person taking a voluntary and intemperate oath, or 
 making violent protestations, had its rise in the 
 following circumstance related by the monks : 
 Godwin, earl of Kent, was tried for the murder of 
 prince Alfred, brother of Edward the Confessor, and 
 pardoned, but died at the king's table while pro- 
 testing with oaths his innocence of the murder; 
 supposed by the historians of those times to have 
 been choked with a piece of bread, as a judgment 
 from Heaven, having prayed it might stick in his 
 throat if he were guilty of the murder ; 1053. 
 
 GODWIN SANDS, sand-banks off the east 
 coast of Kent, occupy land which belonged to 
 Godwin, earl of Kent, the father of king Harold II. 
 This ground was afterwards given to the monastery 
 of St. Augustin at Canterbury; but the abbot 
 neglecting to keep in repair the wall that defended 
 it from the sea, the tract was submerged about 
 1 100, leaving these sands, upon which many ships 
 have been wrecked. Salmon. 
 
 GOLD (mentionpd Gen. ii. 11), the purest, and 
 most ductile of all the metals, for which reason it 
 has been considered by almost all nations as the 
 most valuable. It is too soft to be used pure, and 
 to harden it it is alloyed with copper or silver : our 
 coin consists of twenty-two carats of pure gold, and 
 two of copper. By 17 & 18 Vict. c. 96 (1854), S ^ 
 wares are allowed to be manufactured at a lower 
 standard than formerly ; — wedding rings excepted, 
 by 18 & 19 Vict. c. 60 (1855). The present stated 
 price is $1. 17s. io\d. per oz. ; see Coin of England, 
 and Guineas. 
 
 The Amalgamation of Gold is described by Pliny (about 
 77) and Vitruvius (about 27 B.C.). The alchemist Basil 
 Valentine (in the 15th century) was acquainted with 
 the solution of the chloride of gold and fulminating 
 gold. Andreas Cassius, in 1685, described the pre- 
 paration of gold purple, which was then adapted by 
 Kunkel to make red glass, and to other purposes. 
 Gmelin. Gold has been subjected to the researches of 
 eminent chemists, such as Berzelius and Faraday. 
 Gold Mines. Gold was found most abundantly in 
 Africa, Japan, and South America. In the last it 
 was discovered by the Spaniards in 1492, from which 
 time to 1 73 1 they imported into Europe 6000 millions 
 of pieces of eight, in register gold and silver, exclu- 
 sively of what were unregistered. 
 
 Peter the Great re-opened ancient gold mines in 
 Russia, 1699. 
 
 A piece of gold weighing ninety marks, equal to 
 sixty pounds troy (the mark being eight ounces), was 
 found near La Paz, a town of Peru, 1730. 
 
 Gold discovered in Malacca in 1731 ; in New Anda- 
 lusia in 1785; in Ceylon, 1800; 2887 oz. of gold, value 
 9991?., obtained from mines in Britain and Ireland in 
 1864 ; it has been found in Cornwall, and in the county 
 of Wicklow in Ireland. 
 
 The Ural or Oural mountains of Russia long pro- 
 duced gold in large quantity. 
 
 Gold discovered in California, Sept. 1847; and in 
 Australia, 1851. On 28 April, 1858, a nugget, said to 
 weigh 146 pounds, was shown to the queen. It is 
 estimated that between 1851 and 1859 gold to the value 
 of 88,889,435?. was exported from Victoria alone (see 
 California and Australia severally). 
 
 Gold discovered in what is now termed New Columbia 
 in 1856 : much emigration there in 1858. 
 
 Gold discovered in New Zealand, and in Nova Scotia 
 in 1861. 
 
 Gold discovered in South Africa (Transvaal republic, 
 &c), and discovered in Sutherlandshire ; much excite- 
 ment, Oct. 1868 ; in West Australia, reported Sept. 
 1870 ; in the Bendigo fields, Victoria, Nov. 1871. 
 
 Gold obtained in United Kingdom ; value in 1861, 
 10,816/. ; in 1862, 20,390?. ; in 1863, 1747J. ; in 1864, 
 9991 1. ; in 1865, 5894J. ; in 1868, 3522?. 
 Gold Wire was first made in Italy about 1350. An 
 ounce of gold is sufficient to gild a silver wire above 
 1300 miles in length; and such is its tenacity that a 
 
 wire the one-eighteenth part of an inch will bear the 
 weight of 500 lb. without breaking. Fouroroy. 
 
 Gold Leaf. A single grain of gold may be extended 
 into a leaf of fifty-six square inches, and. gold leaf can 
 be reduced to the 300,000 part of an inch, and gilding 
 to the ten-millionth part. Kelly's Cambist. 
 
 Gold Robbery. Three boxes, hooped and sealed, con- 
 taining gold in bars and coin to the value of between 
 i8,oooZ. and 20,000?. were sent from London, 15 May, 
 1855. On their arrival in Paris, it was found that 
 ingots to the value of 12,000?. had been abstracted, 
 and shot substituted, although the boxes bore no 
 marks of violence. Many persons were apprehended 
 on suspicion ; but the police obtained no trace till 
 Nov. 1856. Three men named Pierce, Burgess, and 
 Tester, were tried and convicted 13-15 Jan. 1857, on 
 the evidence of Edward Agar, an accomplice. They 
 had been preparing for the robbery for eighteen months 
 previous to its perpetration. 
 
 GOLD COAST, West Africa; settlements 
 made by the Dutch ; transferred to Great Britain 
 by treaty, signed 2 Feb. 1872. 
 
 GOLD FISH (the golden carp, cyprinus 
 auratus), brought to England from China in 1691 ; 
 but not common till about 1723. 
 
 GOLDEN BULLS, EOSE, see Bulls, Rose, 
 note. 
 
 GOLDEN FLEECE (see Argonauts). _ Philip 
 the Good, duke of Burgundy, in 1429, at his mar- 
 riage, instituted the military order of " Toison d'or" 
 or " golden fleece ; " it was said on account of the 
 profit he made by wool. The number of knights 
 was thirty-one. The king of Spain, as duke of 
 Burgundy, afterwards became grand master of the 
 order. The knights wore a scarlet cloak lined with 
 ermine, with a collar opened, and the duke's cipher, 
 in the form of a B, to signify Burgundy, together 
 with flints striking tire, with the motto "Ante 
 ferit, quam flamma micat." At the end of the 
 collar hung a golden fleece, with this device, 
 "Pretiwm non vile lab'orum." The order afterwards 
 became common to all the princes of the house of 
 Austria, as descendants of Mary, daughter of 
 Charles the Bold, last duke of Burgundy, who 
 married Maximilian of Austria in 1477, and now 
 belongs to both Austria and Spain, in conformity 
 with a treaty made 30 April, 1725. 
 
 GOLDEN HOEDE, a name given to the 
 Mongolian Tartars, who established an empire in 
 Kaptchak (or Kibzak), now S.E. Russia, about 
 1224, their ruler being Batou, grandson of Gengis 
 Khan. They invaded Russia, and made Alexander 
 Newski grand-duke, 1252. At the battle of Biela- 
 wisch, in 148 1, they were crushed by Ivan III. and 
 the Nogai Tartars. 
 
 GOLDEN LEGEND, "Legenda Aurea." 
 The lives of our Lord and the saints, written by 
 Giacomo Varaggio, or Jacobus de Voragine, a 
 Dominican monk about 1260; first printed 1470; 
 a translation printed by Caxton, 1483. 
 
 GOLDEN WEDDING, see Wedding. 
 
 GOLDEN NUMBEE, the cycle of nineteen 
 years, or the number that shows the years of the 
 moon's cycle ; its invention is ascribed to Meton, of 
 Athens, about 432 B.C. Pliny. To find the golden 
 number or year of the lunar cycle, add one to the 
 date, and divide by 19; the quotient is the number 
 of cycles since Christ, and the remainder the golden 
 number. The golden number for 1871, 10; 1872, 
 ii; 1873, 12; 1874, 13. 
 
 GOLDSMITHS' COMPANY (London) 
 began about 1327, and incoiporated 16 Rich. II., 
 1392. The old hall was taken down in 1829, and 
 
GOMARISTS. 
 
 316 
 
 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 the present magnificent edifice by Philip Hard wick, 
 was opened 15 J uly, 1835 ; see Assay, and Standard. 
 The first bankers were goldsmiths. 
 
 Goldsmiths' hall marks on gold and silver plate are five :— 
 1. The sovereign's head ; 2, lion passant (the standard 
 mark, probably introduced between 1538 and 1558 ; 
 ■>, the price mark, fixed 8 & 9 Will. III. 1696-7 ; 4, leo- 
 pard's head, the hall mark ; 5, the maker's mark (an 
 old custom). 
 
 [The date-letter, is one of an alphabet of 20 letters ; A to 
 U or V, J being omitted. The letter is changed on 30 
 May annually, and the shape of the letter every 20 years ; 
 thus 1796-1816, A, &c. ; 1816-36, a, <fec. ; 1836-56, SI, &c. ; 
 1856-76, a, &c. The earliest known alphabetical series 
 began 1438-9.] 
 
 GOMARISTS, see Arminians. 
 
 GONFALONIER, or Standard Bearer 
 
 OF JUSTICE, originally a subordinate officer in 
 Florence; instituted 1292; became paramount in 
 the 15th century, and was suppressed, 27 April, 
 1532, when the constitution was changed and Alex- 
 ander de Medicis made duke. 
 
 ' GOOD FRIDAY (probably God's Friday), 
 the Friday before Faster day, on which a solemn 
 fast has long been held, in renienibntnce of the 
 crucifixion of Christ on Friday, 3 April, 33, or 
 15 April, 29 Its appellation of good appears to be 
 peculiar to the church of England ; our Saxon fore- 
 fathers denominated it Long Friday, on account of 
 the length of the offices and fastings enjoined on 
 this day. Good Friday, 1873, J 3 April; 1874, 
 3 April ; 1875, 2 ^ March. 
 
 GOODMAN'S FIELDS THEATRE, 
 
 London, opened 1729. Here David Garrick made 
 his debut as Richard III., 19 Oct. 1741. The new 
 theatre erected about 1746, was burnt down, June, 
 1802 The Garrick theatre here was opened in 
 1830; burnt, 4 Nov. 1846; and since rebuilt. 
 
 GOODWIN, see Godwin. 
 
 GOODWOOD RACES, see Races. 
 
 GOOJERAT (N. India), see Guzerat. 
 
 GOOSE, see Michaelmas. 
 
 GORDIAN KNOT, is said to have been made 
 of the thongs thai served as harness to the waggon 
 of Gordius, a husbandman, alterwards king of 
 Phrygia. Whosoever loosed this knot, the ends of 
 which were not discoverable, the oracle declared 
 should be ruler of Persia. Alexander the Great cut 
 away the knot with his 6\vord until lie found the 
 ends of it, and thus, iu a military sense at least, 
 interpreted the oracle, 330 B.C. 
 
 GORDON'S "NO POPERY" RIOTS, 
 
 occasioned by the zeal of lord George Gordon, 
 June 2-9, 1780. 
 
 On 4 Jan. 1780, he tendered the petition of the Protestant 
 Association to lord North. 
 
 On Friday, 2 June, he headed the mob of 40,000 persons 
 who assembled in St. George's Fields, under the name 
 of the Protestant Association, to carry up a petition to 
 parliament for the repeal of the act which granted 
 certain indulgences to the Roman Catholics. The mob 
 proceeded to pillage, burn, and pull down the chapels 
 and houses of the Roman Catholics first, but after- 
 wards of other persons, for nearly six days. The Bank 
 was attempted, the gaols opened (the King's Bench, 
 Newgate, Fleet, and Bridewell prisons). On the 7th, 
 thiity-six fires were seen blazing at one time. At 
 length by the aid of armed associations of the citizens, 
 the horse and foot guards, and the militia of several 
 counties, then embodied and marched to I ondon, the 
 riot was quelled on the 8th. 
 
 210 rioters were killed and 248 wounded, of whom 75 
 
 died afterwards in the hospitals, and many were tried, 
 
 convicted and executed. 
 The loss of property was estimated at i8o,oooJ. 
 Lord George was tried for high treason and acquitted, 
 
 5 Feb. 1781. He died a prisoner for libel, 1 Nov. 1793. 
 Alderman Kennett was found guilty of a dereliction of 
 
 duty, 10 March, 1781. 
 
 GOREE, a station near Cape Verd, "W. coast 
 of Alnca, planted by the Dutch, 1617. It was 
 taken by the English admiral Holmes in 1663; 
 seized by the French, 1677 > an ^ ceded to them by 
 the treat) of Nimeguen in 1678 ; taken by the 
 British in 1758, 1779, 1800, and 1804; ceded to 
 France, 1814. Governor Wall was hanged in Lon- 
 don, 28 Jan. 1802, for the murder of sergeant Arm- 
 strong, committed while governor at Goreein 1782. 
 
 GOREY (S. E. Ireland). Near here the king's 
 troops under colonel Walpole were defeated, and 
 their leader slain, by the Dish rebels, 4 June, 1798. 
 
 GORGET, the ancient breast-plate, was very 
 large, varying in size and weight. The present 
 diminutive breast-plate came into use about 1660 ; 
 see Armour. 
 
 GORHAM CASE, see Trials, 1849-50. 
 
 GORILLA, a powerful ape of W. Africa, about 
 five leet seven inches high. It is a match for the 
 lion, and attacks the elephant with a club. It is 
 considered to be identical with the hairy people 
 called Gorullai by the navigator Hanno, in his 
 I'criplus, about 400 B.C. In 1847 a sketch of a 
 gorilla's cranium was sent to proiessor Owen by Dr. 
 Savage, then at the Gaboon river, and preserved 
 specimens have been brought to Europe, and a 
 living one died on its voyage to France. In 1859 
 professor Owen gave a summary of our knowledge 
 of this creature at the Koyal Institution, London ; 
 and in 1861 several skins and skulls were there ex- 
 hibited by M. Du (Jhaillu, who stated that he killed 
 21 ot them in his travels in Central Africa. The 
 gorilla was not known to Cuvier. 
 
 GOSPELLERS, a name given to the followers 
 of Wicklitt'e, who attacked the errors of popery, 
 about 1377. "Wicklitt'e opposed ihe authority of the 
 pope, the temporal jurisdiction of bishops, &c, and 
 is called the father of the Reformation. 
 
 GOSPELS (Saxon god-spell, good story). Mat- 
 thew s and Mark's are conjectured to have been 
 written between a.d. 38 and 65 ; Luke's 55 or 65 ; 
 John's, about 97. Irenaeus in the 2nd century re- 
 fers to each of the gospels by name. Dr. Robert 
 Bray was one of the authors of the Society for the 
 Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Countries, 
 incorporated in 1701. A body termed "Bray's 
 Associates," still exists ; its object being to assist 
 informing and supportingcleiical parochial libraries. 
 
 GOSPORT (Hampshire), contains the Koyal 
 Ciaience victualling yard. The great Haslar hos- 
 pital, near Gosport, was built iu 1762. 
 
 GOTHA, capital of the duchy of Saxe Cohurg- 
 Gotha. Here is published the celebrated Almanack 
 de Gotha, which first appeared in 1764, in German. 
 
 GOTHARD, see Gotthard. 
 
 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE began about 
 the 9th century afier Christ, and spread over Europe. 
 Its great feature is the poinied arch; hence it has 
 been suggested to call it the pointed st.,le. " Gothic" 
 was originally a term of reproach given to this style 
 by the renaissance architects of the 16th century, 
 its invention has been claimed for several nations, 
 
GOTHLAND. 
 
 317 
 
 GEAIN. 
 
 particularly for the Saracens. The following list is 
 from Godwin's Chronological Table of English 
 Architecture : — 
 
 Anglo-Roman — b.c. 55 to about a.d. 250 — St. Martin's 
 church, Canterbury. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon — a.d. 800 to, 1066 — Earl's Barton church ; 
 St. Peter's, Lincolnshire. 
 
 Gothic Anglo-Roman — a.d. 1066 to 1135 — Rochester 
 cathedral nave ; St. Bartholomew's, Smithfield ; St. 
 Cross, Hants, &e. 
 
 Early English, or Pointed — a.d. 113s to 1272 — Temple 
 church, London ; parts of Winchester, Wells, Salis- 
 bury, and Durham cathedrals, and Westminster Abbey. 
 
 Pointed, called Pure Gothic— a.d. 1272 to 1377 — Exeter 
 cathedral, Waltham Cross, &c, St. Stephen's, West- 
 minster. 
 
 Florid Pointed — a.d. 1377 to 1509— Westminster Hall ; 
 King's College, Cambridge ; St. George's Chapel, Wind- 
 sor ; Henry VII. 's Chapel, Westminster. 
 
 Elizabethan — a.d. 1509 to 1625 — Northumberland 
 House, Strand ; part of Windsor Castle ; Hatfield 
 House, Schools at Oxford. 
 
 Revival of Grecian architecture about 1625. Banqueting 
 House, Whitehall, &c. 
 
 The revival of Gothic architecture commenced about 
 1825, mainly through the exertions of A. W. Pugin. 
 The controversy as to its expediency was rife in 1860-1. 
 
 GOTHLAND, an isle in the Baltic sea, was 
 conquered by the Teutonic knights, 1397-8 ; given 
 up to the Danes, 1524; to Sweden, 1645; conquered 
 by the Danes, 1677, and restored to Sweden, 1679. 
 
 GOTHS, a warlike nation that inhabited the 
 country between the Caspian, Pontus, E' xine, and 
 Baltic seas. They entered Mossia, took Philippo- 
 polis, massacring thousands of its inhabitants ; de- 
 feated and killed the emperor Decius, 251 ; but were 
 defeated at Naissus by Claudius, hence surnamed 
 Gothicus, 320,000 being slain, 269. Aurelian ceded 
 Dacia to them in 272 ; but they long troubled the 
 empire. After the destruction of the Roman western 
 empire by the Heruli, the Ostrogoths, under Theo- 
 deric, became masters of the greater part of Italy, 
 where they retained their dominion till 353, when 
 they were finally conquered by Narses, Justinian's 
 general. The Visigoths settled in Spain, and 
 founded a kingdom, which continued until the 
 country was subdued by the Saracens. 
 
 GOTTHAED, ST., near the river Raab, Hun- 
 gary. Here the Turks, under the grand vizier 
 Kupriuli, were totally defeated by the Imperialists 
 and their allies, commanded by Montecuculi, I Aug. 
 1664. Peace followed this great victory. 
 
 GOTTINGEN (Hanover), a member of the 
 Haiiseatic league about 1360. The university 
 ''Georgia Augusta," founded by George II. of 
 England in 1734, was opened 1737- It was seized 
 bv the French, 1760, and held till 1762. In 1837 
 several of the mo-t able professors were dismissed 
 for their political opinions. 
 
 GOVEENESSES' BENEVOLENT IN- 
 STITUTION, was established in 1843, and incor- 
 porated in 1848. It affords to aged governesses 
 annuities and an asylum ; and to governesses in 
 distress a temporary home and assistance. 
 
 GOVEENMENT ANNTttTIES Act. see An- 
 nuities. The building of the new Government 
 Offices began in 1861. 
 
 GOWEIE CONSPIEACT. John Ruthven, 
 earl of Cowrie, in 1600, reckoaing on the support of 
 the burghs and thekirk, conspired to dethrone James 
 VI. of Scotland, and seize the government. For 
 this purpose the king was decoyed into Cowrie's 
 house in Perth, on 5 Aug. 1600. The plot was frus- 
 trated, and the earl and his brother, Alexander, 
 
 were slain on the spot. At the time, many persons 
 believed that the young men were rather the victims 
 than the authors of a plot. Their father, William, 
 was treacherously executed in 1584 for his share in 
 the raid of Ruthven, in 1582 ; and he and his father, 
 Patrick, were among the assassins of Rizzio, 9 
 March, 1566. 
 
 GEACE, a title assumed by Henry IV. of Eng- 
 land, on his accession, in 1399. Excellent Grace 
 was assumed by Henry VI. about 1425. Till the 
 time of James I. 1603, the king was addressed l>y 
 that title, but afterwards by the title of Majesty 
 only. " Your Grace " is the manner of addressing 
 an archbishop and a duke in this realm. — The term. 
 "Grace of God'" is said to have been taken by 
 bishops at Ephesus, 431 (probably from I Cor. xv. 
 10), by the Carlovingian princes in the 9th century, 
 by popes in the 13th century; and about 1440 it was 
 assumed by kings as signifying their divine right. 
 The king of Prussia's saying, that he would reign 
 " by the grace of God," gave much offence, 18 Oct. 
 1861. 
 
 GEACE AT MEAT. The ancient Greeks 
 would not partake of any meat until thev had first 
 offered part of it, as the first fruits, to their gods. 
 The short prayer said before, and by some persons 
 after meat, in Christian countries, is in conformity 
 with Christ's example, John vi. n, &c. 
 
 GEJECIA MAGNA, colonies planted by the 
 Greeks, 974 748 B.C. ; see Italy. 
 
 GEAAL, Holy (Sangreal). The publication 
 of Tennyson's poem with this title, Dec. 1869, led 
 to much discussion. Tennyson treats it as the cup 
 in which Christ drank at the Last Supper. The 
 mediaeval romances treat it as the dish which held 
 the paschal-lamb. The word is probably old French, 
 gre'al, from the old Latin gradalis, a dish. 
 
 GEAFFITI, a term given to the scribblings 
 found on the walls of Pompeii and other Roman 
 ruins ; selections were published by Wordsworth in 
 1837, and by Garrucci in 1856. 
 
 GEAFTON ADMINISTEATION, suc- 
 ceeded that of lord Chatham, Dec. 1767. The duke 
 resigned, and lord North became piime minister, 
 Jan. 1770; see North' 1 s Administration. 
 
 Augustus Henry, duke of Grafton, first lord of the trea- 
 sury [born, 1735 ; died 1811]. 
 
 Frederick, lord North, chancellor of the exchequer. 
 
 Earl Gower, lord president. 
 
 Earl of Chatham, lord privy seal. 
 
 Earl of Shelburne and Viscount Weymouth, secretaries of 
 state. 
 
 Sir Edward Hawke, first lord of the admiralty. 
 
 Marquis of Granby, inaster-general of the ordnance. 
 
 Lords Sandwich and Le Despencer, joint postmasters- 
 
 Lords Hertford, duke of Ancaster, Thomas Townshend, 
 
 <fec. 
 Lord Camden, lord chancellor, succeeded by Charles 
 
 Yorke (created lord Morden), died (it is said by his own 
 
 hand) 20 Jan. 1770. 
 
 GEAHAM'S DIKE (Scotland), a wall built in 
 209 by Severus Septimus, the Roman emperor, or, 
 as others say, by Antoninus Pius. It reached from 
 the Firth of Forth to the Cl\ de. Buchanan relates 
 that there were considerable remains of this wall in 
 his time, and vestiges of it are still to be seen. 
 
 GEAIN. Henry III. is said to have ordered a 
 grain of wheat gathered from the middle of the ear 
 to be the original standard of weight : 12 grains to 
 be a pennyweight; 12 pennyweights one ounce, and 
 12 ounces a pound Troy. Lawson. 
 
GRAMMARIANS. 
 
 318 
 
 GRAVELOTTE. 
 
 GRAMMARIANS. A society of grammarians 
 was formed at Home so early as 276 B.C. Blair. 
 Apollodorus of Athens, Varro, Cicero, Messala, 
 Julius Caesar, Nicias, JElius Donatus, Remmius, 
 Palemon,T}rannionof Pontus, Athcnscus, and other 
 distinguished men, were of this class. A Greek 
 grammar was printed at Milan in 1476 ; Lily's 
 Latin grammar (Brevis Institutio), 1513 ; Lindley 
 Murray's English grammar, 1795; Cobuett's English 
 grammar, 1818.— Harris's Hermes was published in 
 1750, Home Tooke's " Epea Pteroenta," or the 
 "Diversions of Purley," in 1786, treatises on the 
 philosophy of language and grammar. Cobbett 
 declared Mr. Canning to have been the only purely 
 grammatical orator of his time ; and Dr. Parr, 
 speaking of a speech of Mr. Pitt's, said, " We threw 
 our whole grammatical mind upon it, and could not 
 discover one error." The science of grammar has 
 been recently much studied with excellent results. 
 
 GRAMMAR SCHOOLS, see Education. 
 
 GRAMME, see Metrical System. 
 
 GRAMPIAN HILLS (central Scotland). At 
 Ardoch, near Mons Grampius of Tacitus, the Scots 
 and Picts under Galgacus were defeated by the 
 Romans under Agricola, 84 or 85. 
 
 GRAMPOUND (Cornwall) was disfranchised 
 in 1821, for bribery and corrupt practices in 1819. 
 Sir Manasseh Lopez was sentenced by the court of 
 king's bench to a tine of 10,0002. and two years' 
 imprisonment. 
 
 GRAN, (Hungary). Here the Hungarians 
 defeated the Austrians, 27 Feb. 1849. ' 
 
 GRANADA, a city, S. Spain, was founded by 
 the Moors in the 8th century, and formed at first 
 part of the kingdom of Cordova In 1236, Mo- 
 hammed-al-Hamar made it the capital of his new 
 kingdom of Granada, which was highly prosperous 
 till its subjugation by the " great captain," Gonsaivo 
 de Cordova, 2 Jan." 1492. In 1609 and 1610 the 
 industrious Moors were expelled from Spain, by the 
 bigoted Philip III., to the lasting injury of his 
 country. Granada was taken by marshal Soult in 
 1810, and held till 1812. See New Granada. 
 
 GRANARIES were formed by Joseph in 
 Egypt, 1715 b. 0. (Genesis xli. 48.) There were 
 three hundred and twenty-seven granaries in Kome. 
 Univ. Hist. Twelve new granaries were built at 
 Bridewell to hold 6000 quarters of corn, and two 
 store houses for seacoal to hold 4000 loads, thereby 
 to prevent the sudden dearness of these articles by 
 great increase of inhabitants, 7 James I. 1610. 
 Stow. 
 
 GRAND ALLIANCE between the emperor 
 and the Dutch States- General (principally to 
 prevent the union of the French and Spanish 
 monarchies in one person), signed at Vienna, 12 
 May, 1689, to which England, Spain, and the duke 
 of Savoy afterwards acceded. 
 
 GRANDEES, see Spanish Grandees. 
 
 GRAND-DUKE, see Duke. 
 
 GRAND JUNCTION CANAL (central 
 England), joins several others, and forms a water 
 communication between London, Liverpool, Bristol, 
 and Hull. The canal commences at Braunston, on 
 the west borders of Northamptonshire, and enters 
 the Thames near London. Executed 1793-1805. 
 
 GRAND JURIES, see Juries. 
 
 GRANDMONTINES, a monastic order estab- 
 lished in Limousin, in France, by Stephen, a 
 gentleman of Auvergne, about 1076. It came to 
 England in the reign of Henry I. (1100-35). 
 Tanner. 
 
 GRAND PENSIONARY, a chief state 
 functionary in Holland, in the 16th century. In 
 the Constitution given by France to the Batavian 
 republic, previously to the erection of the kingdom 
 of Holland, the title was revived and given to the 
 head of the government, 29 April, 1805, Rutger 
 Jan Schimmelpenninck being made the grand 
 pensionary ; see Holland. 
 
 GRAND REMONSTRANCE, see Remon- 
 strance. 
 
 GRANICUS (a river N.W. Asia Minor), near 
 which on 22 May, 334 b. c, Alexander the Great 
 signally defeated the Persians. The Macedonian 
 troops (30,000 foot and 5000 horse) crossed the 
 Granicus in the face of the Persian army (600,000 
 foot and 20,000 horse). Justin. The victors lost 
 fifty-five foot soldiers and sixty horse. Sardis 
 capitulated, Miletus and Halicarnassus were taken 
 by storm, and other great towns submitted to the 
 conqueror. 
 
 GRANSON, near the lake of Neufchatel, 
 Switzerland, where Charles the Bold, duke of 
 Burgundy, was defeated by the Swiss, 3 March, 
 1476. 
 
 GRAPES. Previously to the reign of Edward 
 VI. grapes were brought to England in large quan- 
 tities from Flanders, where they were first cultivated 
 about 1276. The vine was introduced into England 
 in 1552 ; being first planted at Bloxhall, in Suffolk. 
 In the gardens of Hampton-court palace is a vine, 
 stated to surpass any in Europe ; it is 72 feet by 20, 
 and has in one season produced 2272 bunches of 
 grapes, weighing 18 cwt. ; the stem is 13 inches in 
 girth; it was planted in 1769. Leigh. 
 
 GRAPHIC, illustrated weekly journal estab- 
 lished, 4 Dec. 1869. 
 
 GRAPHITE (from the Greek graphein, to 
 
 write), a peculiar form of mineral carbon, with a 
 trace of iron, improperly termed black lead and 
 plumbago. In 1809 sir Humphry Davy investi- 
 gated into the relations of three forms of carbon, 
 the diamond, graphite, and charcoal. A rude kind 
 of black lead pencil is mentioned by Gesner in 1565. 
 Interesting results of sir B. C. Brodie's researches 
 on graphite appeared in the International Exhi- 
 bition of 1862. 
 
 GRAPHOTYPE, a new process for obtaining 
 blocks for surface-printing, the invention of Mr. De 
 Witt Clinton Hitchcock in i860. It was described 
 by Mr. Fitz-Cook at the Society of Arts, 6 Dec. 
 1865. Drawings are made on blocks of chalk with 
 a silicious ink; when dried, the soft parts are 
 brushed away, and the drawing remains in relief ; 
 stereotypes are then taken from the block. 
 
 GRATES. The Anglo-Saxons had arched 
 hearths, and chafing-dishes were in use until the 
 introduction of chimneys about 1200 ; see Chimneys, 
 and Stoves. 
 
 GRAVELINES (N. France^. Here the 
 Spaniards, aided by an English fleet, defeated the 
 French on 13 July, 1558. 
 
 GRAVELOTTE, Battle of, 18 Aug. 1870. 
 
 SeeMetz. ' 
 
GRAVITATION. 
 
 319 
 
 GEEECE. 
 
 GRAVITATION, as a supposed innate power, 
 ■was noticed by the Greeks, and also by Seneca, who 
 speaks of the moon attracting the waters, about 38. 
 Kepler investigated the subject about 1615; and 
 Booke devised a system of gravitation about 1674. 
 The principles of gravity were demonstrated by 
 Galileo at Florence, about 1633 ; but the great law 
 on this subject, laid down by Newton in his 
 "Principia," in 1687, is said to have been proved by 
 him in 1670. The fall of an apple from a tree in 1666 
 is said to have directed his attention to the subject. 
 
 On 15 July, 1867, M. Chasles laid before the Paris 
 Academy of Sciences some letters alleged to be from 
 Newton to Pascal and others tending to show that to 
 Pascal was due the theory of gravitation. The authen- 
 ticity of these letters was authoritatively denied, and 
 their forgery and his own delusion were acknowledged 
 by M. Chasles before the academy 13 Sept. 1869. 
 
 GREAT BETHEL, see Big Bethel. 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN, the name given in 1604 
 to England, Wales, and Scotland {which see). 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN, EASTERN, &c, see 
 under Steam.— The Eastern Counties Eailway 
 assumed the name of Great Eastern in 1862. — 
 The Great Northern Railway Company was 
 incorporated in 1846. Their station at King's-cross, 
 London, was opened in Oct. 1852. — The Great 
 "Western Railway, between London and Bristol, 
 was opened 30 June, 1841. 
 
 GREAT EXHIBITION, see Exhibition. 
 
 GREAT SEAL of ENGLAND. The first 
 seal used by Edward the Confessor was called the 
 broad seal, and affixed to the grants of the crown, 
 IO48. Baker's Chron. The most ancient seal with 
 arms on it is that of Richard I. James IL, when 
 fleeing from London in 1688, dropped the great seal 
 in the Thames. The great seal of England was 
 stolen from the house of lord chancellor Thurlow, 
 in Great Ormond-street, and carried away, with 
 other property, 24 March, 1784, a day before the 
 dissolution of parliament ; it was never recovered, 
 and was replaced the next day. A new seal was 
 brought into use on the union with Ireland, I Jan. 
 1801. A new seal for Ireland was brought into use 
 and the old one defaced, 21 Jan. 1832. 
 
 GREECE, anciently termed Hellas. The 
 Greeks are said to have been the progeny of Javan, 
 fourth son of Japheth. Greece was so called from an 
 ancient king, Graecus, and Hellas from another king, 
 Hellen, the son of Deucalion. From Hellen's sons, 
 Dorus and JSolus, came the Dorians and JEolians; 
 another son Xuthus was father of Acheeus and Ion, 
 the progenitors of the Achseans and Ionians. 
 Homer calls the inhabitants indifferently Myrmi- 
 dons, Hellenes, and Achaians. They were also 
 termed Danai, from Dauaus, king of Argos, 1474 B.C. 
 Greece anciently consisted of the peninsula of the 
 Peloponnesus, Greece outside of the Peloponnesus, 
 Thessaly, and the islands. The principal states of 
 Greece were Athens, Sparta, Corinth, Thebes, 
 Arcadia, and afterwards Macedon (all which see). 
 The limits of Modem Greece are much more con- 
 fined. Greece became subject to the Turkish empire 
 in the 15th century. The population of the kingdom, 
 established in 1829, 96,810: in 1861, 1,096,810, with 
 the Ionian isles (added in 1864), about 1,348,522; 
 in 1870, 1,457,894- 
 
 Sicyon founded (Eusebius) . . . . b.c. 2089 
 
 Uranus arrives in Greece (Lenglet) . . . 2042 
 
 Revolt of the Titans ; War of the Giants . . . * * 
 
 Inachus king of the Argives 1910 
 
 Kingdom of Argos begun by Inachus (Eusebius) . 1856 
 Reign of Ogyges in Bceotia (Eusebius) . . . . 1796 
 Sacrifices to the gods introduced by Phoroneus . 1773 
 The Pelasgi hold the Peloponnesus 1700-1550 ; suc- 
 ceeded by the Hellenes .... 1550-1300 
 
 Sicyon now begun (Lenglet) I773 . 
 
 Deluge of Ogyges (which see) 1764 
 
 A colony of Arcadians emigrate to Italy under 
 OEnotrus : the country first called (Enotria, 
 afterwards Magna Grazcia (Eusebius) . . . 171& 
 
 The Areopagus established 1504 
 
 Chronology of the Arundelian marbles commences 
 
 (Eusebius) I5 82 
 
 Cecrops arrives from Egypt . . . about 155c- 
 
 Deluge of Deucalion (Eusebius) 1503 
 
 PanathensBan games instituted .... 1495 
 
 Cadmus with the Phoenician letters settles in Bceotia, 
 
 and founds Thebes, .... about 1493. 
 
 Lelex, first king of Laconia, afterwards called 
 
 Sparta zii ^ . 
 
 Danaus said to have brought the first ship into 
 Greece, and to have introduced pumps (see Argos) 1485, 
 
 Reign of Hellen (Eusebius) 1459. 
 
 First Olympic games at Elis, by the Idcei Dactyli, 1453 
 Who are said to have discovered iron . . . 1406 
 
 Corinth re-built and so named 1384 
 
 Eleusinian mysteries instituted by Eumolpus (1356) 
 
 and Isthmian games . 1326- 
 
 Kingdom of Mycense created out of Argos . . 1313. 
 
 Pelops, from Lydia, settles in south Greece, 
 
 (Peloponnesus) .... about 1283 
 
 Argonautic expedition (which see) . . . . 1263, 
 The Pythian games begun by Adrastus . . „ 
 
 War of the seven Greek captains against Thebes . 1225 
 
 The Amazonian war 1213. 
 
 Rape of Helen by Theseus ,, 
 
 Rape of Helen by Paris 1198 
 
 Commencement of the Trojan war . . . 1193. 
 Troy taken and destroyed on the night of the 7th of 
 
 the month Thargelion (27th of May, or nth June) 1184. 
 iEneas said to arrive in Italy . . . about 1182 
 Migration of iEolians who build Smyrna, &e. 1123 
 
 Return of the Heraclidse .... about 1103 
 Settlement of the Ionians in Asia Minor . 1044 
 
 The Rhodians begin navigation laws . . 916 
 
 Lycurgus flourishes 846 
 
 Olympic games revived at Elis, 884 ; the first 
 
 Olympiad 776. 
 
 The Messenian wars 743-669 
 
 Sea-fight, the first on record, between the Corin- 
 thians and the inhabitants of Corcyra . . 664 
 
 Byzantium built 657- 
 
 Seven sages of Greece (Solon, Periander, Pittacus, 
 Chilo, Thales, Cleobulus, and Bias) flourish 
 
 about 590 
 Persian conquests in Ionia .... 544 
 
 Sybaris in Magna Graecia destroyed : 100,000 Cro- 
 
 tonians under Milo defeat 300,000 Sybarites . . 508 
 Sardis burnt by the Greeks, which occasions the 
 Persian invasion, 504 ; Thrace and Macedonia 
 
 conquered 496 
 
 Athens and Sparta resist the demands of the king 
 
 of Persia 49! 
 
 The Persians defeated at Marathon . 28 Sept. 490. 
 Xerxes invades Greece, but is checked at Thermo- 
 pylae by Leonidas Aug. 480^ 
 
 Battle of Salamis (which see) ... 20 Oct. „ 
 Mardonius defeated and slain at Plataea ; Persian 
 
 fleet destroyed at Mycale ... 22 Sept. 479 
 Battle of Eurymedon (end of Persian war) . . . 466 
 Athens begins to tyrannise over Greece . . . 459, 
 
 The sacred war begun 448 
 
 War between Corinth and its colony Corcyra . . 435 
 Leads to the Peloponnesian war . . . 431-404 
 Disastrous Athenian expedition to Syracuse 415-413 
 
 Retreat of the 10,000 under Xenophon . . . 400 
 
 Death of Socrates 399 
 
 The sea-fight at Cnidus . . . ; . . 394 
 
 The peace of Antalcidas 387- 
 
 Rise and fall of the Theban power in Greece . 370-360 
 Battle of Mantinea ; death of Epaminondas . . 362 
 Ambitious designs of Philip of Macedon . . . 353 
 Sacred wars ended by Philip, who takes all the 
 
 cities of the Phoceans 348 
 
 Battle of Chseronea (which see) 338 
 
 Philip assassinated by Pausanias . . . . 335 
 Alexander, his son, subdues the Athenians, and 
 destroys Thebes ... 
 
GREECE. 
 
 320 
 
 GREECE. 
 
 Alexander conquers the Persian empire . b.c. 334-331 
 Greece harassed by his successors ; the iEtolian and 
 
 Achaian leagues revived 284-280 
 
 Greece invaded by the Gauls, 280 ; they are defeated 
 
 at Delphi, 279 ; and expelled .... 277 
 Dissensions lead to Roman intervention . . . 200 
 Greece conquered by Mummius and made a Roman 
 
 province 147-146 
 
 * * * * * * * 
 
 Greece visited and favoured by Augustus, 21 b.c. ; 
 
 and by Hadrian A.D. 122-133 
 
 Invaded by Alaric 396 
 
 Plundered by the Normans of Sicily . . . . 1146 
 •Conquered by the Latins, and subdivided into 
 
 small governments 1204 
 
 The Turks under Mahomet II. conquer Athens and 
 
 part of Greece 1456 
 
 The Venetians hold Athens and the Morea . . 1466 
 
 All Greece subject to the Turks 1540 
 
 The Morea held by Venice .... 1687-1715 
 Great struggle for independence with Russian help ; 
 
 1770 et seq., fruitless insurrection of the Suliotes 1803 
 Secret Society, the Hetairia, established . . . 1815 
 ^Insurrection in Moldavia and Wallachia, in which 
 
 the Greeks join, suppressed 1821 
 
 Proclamation of prince Alexander to shake off the 
 Turkish yoke, March, 1821 ; he raised the stan- 
 dard of the cross against the crescent and the 
 war of independence began . . 6 April, ,, 
 The Greek patriarch put to death at Constantinople 
 
 23 April, ,, 
 The Morea gained by the Greeks . . June, ,, 
 Missolonghi taken by Greeks .... Nov. „ 
 -Independence of Greece proclaimed . . 27 Jan. 1822 
 Siege of Corinth by the Turks . . . Jan. „ 
 Bombardment of Scio ; its capture ; most horrible 
 massacre recorded in modern history (see Chios) 
 
 11 April, „ 
 The Greeks victors at Thermopylae, &c. 13 July, „ 
 
 Massacre at Cyprus July, ,, 
 
 Corinth taken '.16 Sept. „ 
 
 National congress at Argos . . .10 April, 1823 
 Victories of Marco Botzaris, June ; killed 10 Aug. ,, 
 Lord Byron lands in Greece to devote himself to its 
 
 cause Aug. ,, 
 
 First Greek loan Feb. 1824 
 
 Death of lord Byron at Missolonghi . . 19 April, „ 
 Defeat of the capitan pacha, at Samos . 16 Aug. „ 
 Provisional government of Greece set up 12 Oct. „ 
 Ibrahim Pacha lands, 25 Feb. ; takes Navarino, 23 
 
 May ; Tripolitza 30 June, 1825 
 
 The Greek fleet defeats the capitan pacha June, „ 
 The provisional government invite the protection 
 
 of England July. » 
 
 Ibrahim Pacha takes Missolonghi by assault, after a 
 
 long and heroic defence . . . . 23 April, 1826 
 7o,oooi. raised in Europe for the Greeks . . . ,, 
 Reschid Pacha takes Athens . . .2 June, 1827 
 Egypto-Turkish fleet destroyed at Navarino, 20 Oct. „ 
 Treaty of Loudon, between Great Britain, Russia, 
 
 and France, on behalf of Greece, signed 6 July, „ 
 Count Capo d'Istria president of Greece 18 Jan. 1828 
 The Panhellenion or Grand Council of State estab- 
 lished 2 Feb. „ 
 
 National bank founded . . .14 Feb. „ 
 
 •Convention of the viceroy of Egypt with sir Edward 
 Codrington, for the evacuation of the Morea, and 
 delivery of captives .... 6 Aug. „ 
 Patras, Navarino, and Modon surrender to the 
 
 French 6 Oct. „ 
 
 The Turks evacuate the Morea . . . Oct. „ 
 Missolonghi surrendered to Greece . . 16 May, 1829 
 Greek National Assembly commences its sittings 
 
 at Argos 23 July, ,, 
 
 The Porte acknowledges the independence of 
 
 Greece by the treaty of Adrianople . 14 Sept „ 
 Prince Leopold declines the sovereignty 21 May, 1830 
 ■Count Capo d'Istria, president of Greece, assas- 
 sinated by the brother and son of Mavromichaelis, 
 a Mainote chief whom he had imprisoned, 9 Oct. 1831 
 The assassins immured within close brick walls, 
 built around them up to their chins, and sup- 
 plied with food until they died . . 29 Oct. „ 
 Otho of Bavaria made king of Greece by a conven- 
 tion signed 7 May, 1832 
 
 Colocotroni's conspiracy .... Sept. „ 
 
 He is condemned but spared . . .7 June, 1834 
 Otho I. assumes the government . . 1 June, 1835 
 
 University at Athens established, 1837 ; building 
 commenced 
 
 A bloodless revolution at Athens is consummated, 
 establishing a new constitution, enforcing minis- 
 terial responsibility and national representation, 
 
 14 Sept. 
 
 The king accepts the now constitution 16 March, 
 
 Admiral Parker, in command of the British Medi- 
 terranean fleet, blockades the harbour of the 
 Piraeus, the Greek government having refused the 
 payment of moneys due to British subjects, and 
 to surrender the islands of Sapienza and Caprera, 
 
 18 Jan. 
 
 France interposes her good offices, and the blockade 
 is discontinued 1 March, 
 
 Negotiations terminate, and the blockade of Athens 
 is renewed 25 April, 
 
 Dispute with France accommodated . 21 June, 
 
 Insurrections against Turkey in Thessaly and Epi- 
 rus, favoured by the Greek court, Jan. and Feb. ; 
 lead to a rupture between Greece and Turkey, 
 
 28 March, 
 
 After many remonstrances, the English and French 
 governments send troops which arrive at the 
 Piraeus ; change of ministry ensues, and the king 
 promises to observe a strict neutrality, 25, 26 May, 
 
 A newspaper in the modern Greek language printed 
 in London, beginning .... 9 July, 
 
 Great Britain, France, and Russia remonstrate 
 with the Greek government respecting its debts, 
 
 18 Oct. 
 
 Agitation in the Ienian isles for annexation to 
 Greece ; the parliament prorogued . . March, 
 
 The king retires to Bavaria .... July, 
 
 Attempted assassination of the queen by Darios, an 
 insane student 18 Sept 
 
 Great earthquake in the Peloponnesus . 26 Dec. 
 
 Leopold of Bavaria proposed as heir to the throne, 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Military revolt begins at Nauplia . . 13 Feb. 
 
 Blockade of the coast decreed . . 9 March, 
 
 The insurgents demand reforms and a new succes- 
 sion to the throne April, 
 
 The royal troops enter the citadel of Nauplia ; in- 
 surgents removed .... 25 April, 
 
 Change of ministry : Colocotroni becomes premier, 
 
 7 June, 
 
 Insurrection begins at Patras and Missolonghi, 17 
 Oct. ; a provisional government, established at 
 Athens, deposes the king, 23 Oct. ; he and the 
 queen fly ; arrive at Corfu, 27 Oct. ; the Euro- 
 pean powers neutral ; general submission to pro- 
 visional government .... 31 Oct. 
 
 Great demonstrations in favour of prince Alfred of 
 Great Britain, who is proclaimed king at Lamia 
 in Phthiotis, 22 Nov. ; great excitement in his 
 favour at Athens 23 Nov. 
 
 The provisional government establish universal 
 suffrage 4 Dec 
 
 The national assembly meets at Athens . 22 Dec. 
 
 The national assembly elects M. Balbis president, 
 29 Jan. ; and declares prince Alfred king of 
 Greece by 230,016 out of 241,202 votes 3 Feb. 
 
 Military revolt of lieut Canaris against Bulgaris 
 and others, who resign, 20 Feb. ; a new ministry 
 appointed under Balbis . . . .23 Feb. 
 
 The assembly decides to offer the crown to prince 
 William of Schleswig-Holstein, 18 March ; pro- 
 claim him as king George I. . .30 March, 
 
 Protocol between the three protecting powers. 
 Fiance, England, and Russia, signed at London, 
 consenting to the offer of the crown on condition 
 of the annexation of the Ionian isles to Greece, 
 
 S June, 
 
 The king of Denmark accepts from the aged admiral 
 Canaris the Greek crown for prince William, 
 whom he advises to adhere to the constitution 
 and gain the love of his people . . 6 June, 
 
 Military revolt at Athens, suppressed 30 June — 
 
 9 July, 
 
 The king arrives at Athens, 30 Oct. ; takes the oath 
 to the constitution 31 Oct 
 
 The Balbis ministry formed . . .28 April, 
 
 Protocol annexing the Ionian isles to Greece, signed 
 by M. Zaiinis and sir H. Storks, 28 May ; the 
 Greek troops occupy Corfu, 2 June ; the king 
 arrives there 6 June, 
 
 New ministry under Canaris formed . 7 Aug. 
 
 1839 
 
 1843 
 1844 
 
 1850 
 
 1854 
 
 1862 
 
 1863 
 
 1864 
 
GEEECE. 
 
 321 
 
 G-EEEK FIEE. 
 
 Tlie assembly recognises the debt of 1824 5 Sept. 1864 
 Aftermueh delay, and a remonstrance from the king, 
 19 Oct. a new constitution (with no upper-house) 
 is passed by the assembly, 1 Nov. ; and accepted 
 
 by the king 28 Nov. „ 
 
 New ministry under Comoundouros 29 March, 1865 
 
 The anniversary of the beginning of the war of inde- 
 pendence (6 April, 1821) kept with enthusiasm, 
 
 6 April, „ 
 
 The king visits the eastern provinces ; general 
 tranquillity 20 April, „ 
 
 The king opens chamber of deputies . 9 June, ,, 
 
 Deat of Alexander Mavrocordato, one of the early 
 patriots 18 Aug. „ 
 
 The king gives up one-third of his civil list to re- 
 lieve the treasury 25 Sept. „ 
 
 An economical financial policy proposed ; a new 
 ministry formed Nov. ,, 
 
 Brigandage prevails ; frequent ministerial changes 
 under Deligeorges, Comoundouros, Bulgaris, and 
 Roufos Oct. 1865— June, 1866 
 
 New ministry under Bulgaris and Roufos, 23 Jan. „ 
 
 Chambers vote payments to themselves ; suddenly 
 dissolved by the king . . . .3 Feb. ,, 
 
 Great agitation in favour of the Cretan insurrection 
 (see Candia) Aug. -Dec. „ 
 
 New ministry headed by Comoundouros . Jan. 1867 
 
 Manifesto of the so-named "Greek nation," issued 
 at Paris 19 April, ,, 
 
 Great sympathy with the insurrection in Candia ; 
 the blockade run by Greek vessels with volun- 
 teers, arms, and provisions . . April, et seq. ,, 
 
 Marriage of the king with the grandduchess Olga 
 of Russia 27 Oct. ,, 
 
 Their cordial reception at Athens . . 24 Nov. ,, 
 
 New ministry under Moraitinis, 1 Jan. ; under Bul- 
 garis Feb. 1868 
 
 C'onstantine, duke of Sparta, heir to the crown, 
 bom 2 Aug. ,, 
 
 Greek vessel Enosis fires on Turkish vessels and 
 enters port of Syra .... 14 Dec. ,, 
 
 Rupture between Turkey and Greece in conse- 
 quence of Greek armed intervention in Candia 
 (which see) Dec. ,, 
 
 After a conference of representatives of the Western 
 powers at Paris, Jan., their requisitions were 
 accepted, and diplomatic relations between 
 Turkey and Greece resumed . . .26 Feb. 1869 
 
 Prince and princess of Wales visit Athens, 19 April, ,, 
 
 Law authorising the cutting the isthmus of Corinth 
 passed 7 Nov. „ 
 
 New ministry under M. Zai'mis ... 9 Jan. 1870 
 
 Concession to cut a canal through the isthmus of 
 Corinth granted to a French company . April, ,, 
 
 Lord and lady Muncaster and a party of English 
 travellers seized by brigands at Oropos, near 
 Marathon ; lord Muncaster and the ladies sent to 
 treat ; 25,000!. demanded as ransom, with free 
 pardon 11 April, ,, 
 
 The brigands retreating, and surrounded by troops, 
 kill Mr. Vyner, Mr. Lloyd, Mr. Herbert, and the 
 count de Boyl . . ' . . . 21 April, ,, 
 
 Great excitement ; the king shows great liberality ; 
 but many influential persons are charged with 
 connivance at brigandage . . May, June, ,, 
 
 Several brigands killed ; seven captured, tried and 
 condemned, 23 May ; five executed . 20 June, „ 
 
 A new ministry under M. Deligeorges . 19 July, ,, 
 
 Greek college opened at BaysWater, London, W. 
 
 1 Oct. „ 
 
 Decree for suppression of brigandage issued Oct. „ 
 
 Two gentlemen carried off . . . .11 Oct. „ 
 
 A new ministry under M. Comoundoros 22 Dec. „ 
 
 Comoundoros ministry resigns . . 6 Nov. 1871 
 
 Succeeded by Zai'mis 8 Nov. ,, 
 
 Bulgaris minister, 7 Jan. ; resigns ; Deligeorges 
 again minister . . . . .26 July, 1872 
 
 The Laurium mines of lead, zinc, &c, were pur- 
 chased by MM. Roux and Serpieri and a company, 
 1863 ; an< l worked profitably ; roads being made 
 and a village built. The mines having been hepvily 
 taxed and scoriae claimed by the government, 
 loss ensued ; the company's offer to sell the mines 
 to the government was accepted, but payment 
 evaded by the legislature. Hence arose disputes 
 with France and Italy, and ministerial changes 
 in Greece autumn, ,, 
 
 Speech of the king to the legislature, announcing 
 
 formation of roads and other improvements. 
 [The Laurium mines had been purchased by M. 
 Syngros, a Greek capitalist, supported by the 
 
 "banks] 25 Feb. 1873 
 
 52nd anniversary of Greek independence kept in 
 London 5 April, „ 
 
 KINGS OF GREECE. 
 
 1832. Otho I., prince of Bavaria; born, 1 June, 1815 ; 
 elected king, 7 May, 1832 ; under a regency till 
 1 June, 1835 ; married, 22 Nov. 1836, to Maria 
 Frederica, daughter of the grand-duke of Olden- 
 burg ; deposed, 23 Oct. 1S62 ; died in Bavaria, 26 
 July, 1867. 
 
 1863. George I. (son of Christian IX. of Denmark), king 
 of the Hellenes ; born 24 Dec. 1845 ; accepted the 
 crown, 6 June, 1863 ; declared of age, 27 June, 
 1863 ; married grand-duchess Olga of Russia, 27 
 Oct. 1867. 
 Heir: Constantine, duke of Sparta, born 2 Aug. 
 1868. 
 
 GEEEK AECHITECTUEE, see Architec- 
 ture. 
 
 GEEEK CHITECH, or Eastern church, 
 established in Eussia and Greece, disowns the 
 supremacy of the pope, and is strongly opposed to 
 many of the doctrines and practices of the Roman 
 church. The Greek orthodox confession of faith 
 appeared in 1643 ; see Fathers of the Church. 
 
 Catechetical school at Alexandria (Origen, Clemens, 
 
 &c.) 180-254 
 
 Rise of monachism about 300 
 
 Foundation of the churches of Armenia, about 300 ; 
 
 of Georgia or Iberia 318 
 
 First council of Nice (see Councils) .... 325 
 Rivalry between Rome and Constantinople begins 
 
 about 340 
 Ulphilas preaches to the Goths . . . about 376 
 Nestorius condemned at the council of Ephesus . 431 
 Monophysite controversy ; churches of Egypt, 
 Syria, and Armenia, separate from the church of 
 
 Constantinople 461 
 
 Close of the school of Athens ; extinction of the 
 
 Platonic theology 529 
 
 The Jacobite sect established in Syria by Jacobus 
 
 Baradseus 541 
 
 The struggle with the Mahometans begins . . 634 
 The Maronite sect begins to prevail . about 676 
 The Paulicians severely persecuted . . . . 690 
 Iconoclastic controversy begins . . about 726 
 Pope Gregory II. excommunicates the emperor Leo, 
 which leads to the separation of the Eastern 
 (Greek) and Western (Roman) churches . . . 729 
 
 Image worship condemned 734 
 
 Foundation of the church in Russia : conversion of 
 
 princess Olga, 955 ; of Vladimir . . . . 988 
 The Maronites join the Roman church . . . 1182 
 Re-union of Eastern and Western churches at the 
 
 council of Lyons, 1274 ; again separated . . . 1277 
 Proposed union with the Church of England . . 1723 
 The patriarchate of Moscow established, 1582 ; sup- 
 pressed in 1762 
 
 The archimandrite Nilos, representing Constanti- 
 nople and 4 patriarchates, visits London on be- 
 half of the Greek clergy in the Danubian princi- 
 palities 1863 
 
 The pope's invitation to an oecumenical council, 8 
 Dec. 1869, firmly declined by the patriarch of 
 
 Constantinople about 3 Oct. t868 
 
 Letter from the patriarch Gregory to the archbishop 
 of Canterbury acknowledging receipt of English 
 prayer-book, and objecting to some of "39 
 
 Articles," dated 8 Oct. 1869 
 
 Greek church at Liverpool consecrated by an arch- 
 bishop 16 Jan. 1870 
 
 GEEEK EMPIEE, see Eastern Empire. 
 
 GEEEK FIEE, a combustible composition 
 (now unknown, but thought to have been princi- 
 pally naphtha), thrown from engines, said to have 
 been invented by Callinicus, an engineer of Helio- 
 polis, in Syria, in the 7th century, to destroy the 
 Saracens' ships, which was effected by the general 
 of the fleet of Constantine Pogonatus, and 30,000 
 
 Y 
 
GREEK LANGUAGE. 
 
 322 GREENWICH OBSERVATORY. 
 
 men were killed. A so-called "Greek fire," pro- 
 bably a solution of phosphorus in bi-sulphide of 
 carbon, was employed at the siege of Charleston , 
 U.S., in Sept. 1863. 
 
 GREEK LANGUAGE. The study was re- 
 vived in western Europe about 1450; in France, 
 1473; William Grocyn, or Grokeyn, an English 
 professor of this language, introduced it at Oxford, 
 about 1491, where he taught Erasmus, who himself 
 taught it at Cambridge in 1510. Wood's Athen. 
 Oxon. England has produced many eminent Greek 
 scholars, of whom may be mentioned Richard Bent- 
 ley, died 1742 ; professor Richard Porson, died 1808; 
 Dr. Samuel Parr, died 1825 ; and Dr. Charles 
 Burney, died 1817. 
 
 Homer nourished .... about B.C. 962-927 
 
 Hesiod about 850 
 
 jEsop . . 572 
 
 Anacreon about 559 
 
 ^Eschylus 525-456 
 
 Herodotus about 443 
 
 Pindar . 522-439 
 
 Aristophanes 427 
 
 Euripides 480-406 
 
 Sophocles 495-405 
 
 Thucydides 470-404 
 
 Xenophon 443-359 
 
 Plato 429-347 
 
 Isocrates 436-338 
 
 Aristotle 384-322 
 
 Demosthenes 382-322 
 
 Menander about 321 
 
 iEschines 389-314 
 
 Theocritus about 272 
 
 Epicurus 342-270 
 
 Theophrastus 287 
 
 Archimedes " .. 287-212 
 
 Polybius ........ 207-122 
 
 Diodorus B.C. 50-A.D. 13 
 
 Strabo 10 
 
 Dionysius Halicarnassus .... about 30 
 
 Plutarch .... about 96 
 
 Epictetus . about 118 
 
 Appian about 147 
 
 Arrian about 148 
 
 Athenseus about 194 
 
 Lucian about 120-200 
 
 Herodian about 204 
 
 Longinus dies 273 
 
 Julian, emperor 331-363 
 
 (See Fathers, and Philoso2ihy.) 
 
 GREENBACKS, a name given, from the 
 
 colour of some notes, to the paper currency first 
 issued by the United States government, in 1862. 
 Sums as low as lhd., 2\d., and $d., &c. were repre- 
 sented — the precious metals being exceedingly 
 scarce. 
 
 GREEN-BAG INQUIRY took its name 
 from a Green fi«g, full of documents of alleged 
 seditions, laid before parliament by lord Sidmouth, 
 3 Feb. 1817. Secret committees presented their 
 reports, 19 Feb. ; and bills were brought in on the 
 2ist to suspend the Habeas Corpus act, and prohibit 
 seditious meetings then frequent. 
 
 GREEN CLOTH, BOARD OF, in the depart- 
 ment of the lord-steward of the household, included 
 an ancient court (abolished in 1849), which had 
 jurisdiction of al loffences committed in the verge of 
 the court. 
 
 GREENLAND, an extensive Danish colony 
 in north America, discovered by Icelanders, under 
 Eric Raude, about 980, and named from its verdure. 
 It was visited by Frobisher in 1576. The first ship 
 from England to Greenland was sent for the whale- 
 fishery by the Muscovy company, 2 James I. 1604. 
 In a voyage performed in 1630, eight men were left 
 behind by accident, who suffered incredible hard- 
 
 ships till the following year, when the company's 
 ships brought them home. Tindal. The Greenland 
 Fishing company was incorporated in 1693. — Hans 
 Egede, a Danish missionary, founded a new colony, 
 called Godhaab, or Good Hope, in 1 720-3; and 
 othermissionary stations have been since established. 
 Scoresby surveyed Greenland in 1821 ; and captain 
 Graah, by order of the king of Denmark, in 1829-30. 
 
 GREENOCK (W. Scotland). Charters were 
 granted in 1635 and 1760 to John Shaw, of the 
 barony of Greenock. It was a fishing station till 
 169", when the Scottish Indian and African com- 
 pany resolved to erect salt-works in the Frith, and 
 thus drew the attention of sir John Shaw, its 
 superior, to its maritime advantages. It was made 
 a burgh of barony in 1757, and a parliamentary 
 burgh in 1832. The erection of the new quay was 
 entrusted, about 1773, to James Watt, who was born 
 here in 1736. The East India harbour was built 
 1805-19, and Victoria harbour 1846-50. 
 
 GREEN PARK (near Buckingham palace, 
 London) forms a part of the ground enclosed by 
 Henry VIII. in 1530, and is united to St. James's 
 and Hyde-parks by the road named Constitution- 
 hill. Over the arch at the entrance, the Wellington 
 statue was placed in 1846. On the north side was 
 a reservoir of the Chelsea water-works, filled up in 
 1856. 
 
 GREENWICH (Kent), anciently Grenawic. 
 an ancient manor, near which the Danes murdered 
 the archbishop Elphege, 1012. The Hospital 
 stands on the site of a royal residence erected in the 
 reign of Edward I. and much enlarged by his suc- 
 cessors. Heie were born Henry VIII., his daugh- 
 ters Mary and Elizabeth, and here his son Edward 
 VI. died. Charles II. intended to build a new 
 palace here, but erected one wing only. 
 
 William III. and Mary converted the palace into a 
 hospital for seamen, 1694, and added new build- 
 ings, erected by Wren 1696 
 
 100 disabled seamen admitted 1705 
 
 The estates of the attainted earl of Derwentwater 
 
 (beheaded in 1716) bestowed upon it . . 1735 
 
 A charter granted to the commissioners 6 Dee. 1775 
 
 The chapel, the great dining-hall, and a large portion 
 of the buildings appropriated to the pensioners 
 
 destroyed by tire 2 Jan. 1779 
 
 The chapel rebuilt 1789 
 
 Sixpence per month to be contributed by ever}' sea- 
 man ; the payment advanced to one shilling, from 
 
 June, 1797 
 The payment abolished in 1829, and that of " the 
 
 merchant seamen's " sixpence also in . . . 1834 
 The hospital had lodging for 2710 seamen and a 
 
 revenue of about 150,000?. per annum . . . 1853 
 Greenwich Fair was discontinued, . . April, 1857 
 The office of the commissioners was abolished . . 1865 
 
 Reported annual income, 155, 532? 1867 
 
 By an act of parliament, about 900 indoor pensioners 
 received additions to their pensions, quitted the 
 hospital, 1 Oct. 1S65 ; henceforth to be used as an 
 infirmary. All the remaining inmates except 31 
 bedridden persons had left the place . 1 Oct. 1869 
 The patients of the Dreadnought seamen's hospital 
 
 removed here 13 April, 1870 
 
 Acts for the application of the revenues were passed 
 
 in 1869-1872 
 A part of the buildings appropriated for a naval col- 
 lege, opened 1 Feb. 1873 
 
 GREENWICH OBSERVATORY, built at 
 the solicitation of sir Jonas Moore and sir Christo- 
 pher Wren, by Charles II., on the summit of Flam- 
 steed-hill, so called from the first asironomer-royal. 
 The building was founded, 10 Aug. 1675, and Fl a,l >- 
 steed commenced his residence, 10 July, 1676. In 
 
GREGORIAN CALENDAR. 
 
 323 
 
 GROAT. 
 
 1852, an electric telegraph, signal ball in the Strand 
 was completed, and put in connection with Green- 
 wich observatory. 
 
 ASTRONOMERS-ROYAL. 
 
 John Flamsteed 1675 
 
 Edmund Halley 1719 
 
 James Bradley 1742 
 
 Nathaniel Bliss 1762 
 
 Nevil Maskelyne 1765 
 
 John Pond 1811 
 
 George Biddell Airy 1835 
 
 (Under whose superintendence the apparatus have 
 been greatly increased and improved.) 
 
 GREGORIAN CALENDAR, see Calendar, 
 and New Style. — Gregorian Chant received its 
 name from pope Gregory I., who improved the 
 Ambrosian ch-ant, about 590. 
 
 GRENADA, see Granada, and New Granada. 
 
 GRENADE, an explosive missile, so named 
 from granada, Spanish, invented in 1594. It is a 
 small hollow globe, or ball, of iron, about two 
 inches in diameter, which is filled with fine powder, 
 and set on fire by a fusee at a touchhole. 
 
 GRENADIERS. Tbe Grenadier corps was a 
 company armed with a pouch of hand-grenades, 
 established in France in 1667 ; and in England in 
 1685. Brown. 
 
 GRENELLE, see Artesian Wells. 
 
 GRENOBLE (the Roman Gratianopolis), 
 S.E. France. Here Napoleon was received on his 
 return from Elba, 8 March, 1815, and here he issued 
 three decrees. 
 
 GRENVILLE ADMINISTRATIONS. 
 
 The first succeeded the Bute administration, 8 April, 
 1763 ; and resigned in July, 1765. 
 
 George Grenville (bom 1712, died 1770), first lord of the 
 
 treasury and chancellor of the exchequer. 
 Earl Granville (succeeded by the duke of Bedford), lord 
 
 president. 
 Duke of Marlborough, privy seal. 
 Earls of Halifax and Sandwich, secretaries of state. 
 Earl Gower, lord chamberlain. 
 Earl of Egnront, admiralty. 
 Marquis of Granby, ordnance. 
 Lord Holland (late Mr. Fox), paymaster. 
 Welbore Ellis, secretary-at-war. 
 Viscount Barrington, treasurer of the navy. 
 Lord Hillsborough, first lord of trade. 
 Lord Henley (afterwards earl of Northington), lord cho/n- 
 
 cellor. 
 Duke of Rutland, lords North, Trevor, Hyde, <fce. 
 
 Second Grenville administration, formed after the 
 death of Mr. Pitt, on 23 Jan. 1806. From the ability 
 of many of its members, their friends said it contained 
 " all the talents, wisdom, and ability of the country," a 
 term applied to it derisively by its opponents. The 
 death of Mr. Fox, 13 Sept. 1806, led to changes, and 
 eventually the cabinet resigned, 25 March, 1807 : — 
 
 Lord Grenville, first lord oftlie treasury. 
 
 Lord Henry Petty (afterwards marquis of Lansdowne), 
 
 chancellor of the etcnequer. 
 Earl Fitzwilliam, lord president. 
 Viscount Sid mouth (late Mr. Addington), privy seal. 
 Charles James Fox, foreign secretary. 
 Earl Spencer, home secretary. 
 "William Windham, colonial secretary. 
 Lord Erskine, lord clumcellor. 
 Sir Charles Grey (afterwards viscount Howick and earl 
 
 Grey), admiralty. 
 Lord Minto, board of control. 
 Lord Auckland, board of trade. 
 Lord Moira, master general of the ordnance. 
 R. B. Sheridan, treasurer of the navy. 
 Richard Fitzpatrick, &e. 
 Lord Ellenborough ( lord chief justice) had a seat in the 
 
 cabinet. 
 
 GRESHAM COLLEGE (London), esta- 
 blished by sir Thomas Gresham in 1575, founder of 
 the Royal Exchange. He left a portion of his pro- 
 perty in trust to the city and the Mercers' company 
 to endow this college for lectures in divinity, astro- 
 nomy, music, geometry, civil law, physic, and 
 rhetoric; he died 21 Nov. 1579. The lectures, 
 commenced in Gresham's house, near Broad-street, 
 June, 1597 (where the founders of the Koyal Society 
 first met in 1645) . The buildings were pulled down 
 in 1768, and the Excise office erected on its site. 
 The lectures were then read in a room over the 
 Royal Exchange for many years : on the rebuilding 
 of the exchange, the Gresham committee erected 
 the present building in Basinghall-street, which was 
 designed by G. Smith, and opened for lectures, 2 
 Nov. 1843. It cost above 7000^. In 1871 the col- 
 lege acquired a valuable collection of books and pic- 
 tures, bequeathed by Mrs. Hollier. 
 
 GRETNA GREEN (Dumfries, S. Scotland, 
 near the border). Here runaway marriages were 
 contracted for many years, as Scotch law ruled that 
 an acknowledgment before witnesses made a legal 
 marriage. John Paisley, a tobacconist, and termed 
 a blacksmith, who officiated from 1760, died in 1814. 
 His first residence was at Megg's Hill, on the com- 
 mon or green betwixt Gretna and Springfield, to 
 the last of which villages he removed in 1782. A 
 man named Elliot was lately the principal officiating 
 person. The General Assembly, in 1826, in vain 
 attempted to suppress this system ; but an act of 
 parliament, passed in 1856, made these marriages 
 illegal after tbat year, unless one of the persons 
 married had lived in Scotland 21 days. 
 
 GREY ADMINISTRATION succeeded the 
 "Wellington administration, which resigned 16 Nov. 
 1830. It carried the Parliamentary and Corporation 
 Reform Acts (which see), and terminated 9 July, 
 1834. 
 
 Earl Grey,* first lord of the treasury. 
 
 Lord Brougham, lord chancellor. 
 
 Viscount Althorpe, chancellor of the exchequer. 
 
 Marquis of Landsdowne, president of the council. 
 
 Earl of Durham, privy seal. 
 
 Viscounts Melbourne, Palmerston, and Goderich, Iwine, 
 
 foreign, and colonial, secretaries. 
 Sir James Graham, admiralty. 
 Lord Auckland and Mr. Charles Grant (afterwards, 1830, 
 
 lord Glenelg), boards of trade and control. 
 Lord Holland, chancellor of duchy of Lancaster. 
 Lord John Russell, paymaster of the forces. 
 Duke of Richmond, earl of Carlisle, Mr. Wynne, &c. 
 E. G. Stanley (afterwards earl of Derby), chief secretary 
 
 for Ireland, became colonial secretary, March, 1833. 
 
 GREY FRIARS, see Christ's Hospital. 
 
 GREYTOWN, see Mosquito Coast. 
 
 GRISONS, a Swiss canton ; see Caddee. It 
 was overrun by the French in 1798 and 1799. The 
 ancient league was abolished, and the Gnsons be- 
 came a member of the Helvetic confederation, 19 
 Feb. 1803. 
 
 GRIST-TAX (imposta sul macinato). Prin- 
 ciple of the tax adopted by the Italian parliament, 
 I April, 1868. 
 
 GROAT, from the Dutch groat, value of four- 
 pence, was the largest silver coin in England until 
 after 1351. Fourpenny pieces were coined in 183b 
 to the value of 70,884/. ; in 1837, 16,038/. 
 
 * Born 13 March, 1764 ; M.P., as Charles Grey, in 1786 ; 
 first lord of the admiralty and afterwards foreign secre- 
 tary in 1806 ; resigned in 1806 on account of his favouring 
 Roman Catholic emancipation ; died 17 July, 1845. 
 
 Y 2 
 
GEOCEES. 
 
 324 
 
 GUEUX. 
 
 GEOCEES anciently meant "ingrossers or 
 monopolisers," as appears by a statute 37 Edw. III. 
 1363 : " Les marchauntz nomez engrossent totes 
 maners de merchandises vendables." The Grocers' 
 company, one of the twelve chief companies of 
 London, was established in 1345, and incorporated 
 in 1429. 
 
 GEOCHOW, near Praga, a suburb of "Warsaw. 
 Here took place a desperate conflict between the 
 Poles and Russians, 19, 20 Feb. 1831, the Poles re- 
 maining masters of the field of battle. The Rus- 
 sians shortly after retreated, having been foiled in 
 their attempt to take "Warsaw. They are said to 
 have lost 7000 men, and the Poles 2000 ; see also 
 Poland, 1 86 1. 
 
 GEOG, sea term for rum and water, derived its 
 namefrom admiral Edw. Vernon, who wore grogram 
 breeches, and was hence called '' Old Grog." About 
 1745, he ordered his sailors to dilute their rum with 
 water.* 
 
 GTJADALOUPE, a "West India Island, dis- 
 covered by Columbus in 1493. The Erench took 
 possession of it in 1635, and colonised it in 1664. 
 Taken by the English in 1759, and restored in 1763. 
 Again taken by the English in 1779, 1794, and 1810. 
 The allies, in order to allure the Swedes into the 
 late coalition against France, gave them this island. 
 It was, however, by the consent of Sweden, restored 
 to France at the peace in 1814. 
 
 GUAD-EL-EAS (N.W. Africa). Here the 
 Spaniards signally defeated the Moors, 23 March, 
 i860, after a severe conflict : general Prim mani- 
 fested great bravery, for which he .was ennobled. 
 The preliminaries of peace were signed on the 25th. 
 GUANO or Htja> t O (the Peruvian term for 
 manure), the excrement of sea-birds that swarm on 
 the coasts of Peru and Bolivia, and of Africa and 
 Australia. It is mentioned by Herrera in 1601, and 
 Garcilasso stated that the birds were protected by 
 the incas. Humboldt was one of the first by whom 
 it was brought to Europe, in order to ascertain its 
 value in agriculture. The importation of guano 
 into the United Kingdom appears to have commenced 
 in 1839. 283,000 tons were imported in 1845 (of 
 which 207,679 tons came from the western coast of 
 Africa); 243,016 tons in 1851 (of which 6522 tons 
 came from "Western Australia) ; 131,358 tons in 
 1864; 237,393 tous in 1865 ; 135,697 tons in 1866; 
 280,311 in 1870. 
 
 GUAEANTEES. The " Guarantee by Com- 
 panies act," relating to the security by means of 
 sureties required for persons employed in the public 
 service, was passed 20 Aug. 1867 (30 & 31 Vict. 
 c. 108). 
 
 GUARDIAN, high-church weekly journal, 
 first published 21 Jan. 1846. 
 
 GUAEDS. The custom of having guards is 
 said to have been introduced by Saul, 1093 B.C. 
 Body guards were appointed to attend the kings of Eng- 
 land, 1 Henry VII. 1485. 
 Horse Guards were raised 4 Edw. VI. 1550. 
 The three regiments, 1st, 2nd, and 3rd Foot Guards were 
 raised in 1660, and the command of them given to col. 
 Russell, general Monk, and lord Linlithgow. The 
 2nd regiment, or Coldstream, was the first raised ; see 
 Coldstream. These guards were the beginning of our 
 standing army. 
 
 * He did great service in the West Indies, by taking 
 Portobello, Chagre, &c. ; but by his disagreement with 
 the commander of the land forces, the expedition against 
 Oarthagena, in 1741, is said to have failed. He was dis- 
 missed the service for writing two pamphlets attacking 
 the admiralty ; he died 30 Oct. 1757. 
 
 The Horse Grenadier guards first troop, raised in 1693. 
 was commanded by general Cholmondeley : the second 
 troop was raised in 1702, and was commanded by lord 
 Forbes; this corps was reduced in 1783, the officers 
 retiring on full pay. 
 
 Guards' Institute, Francis-street, Vauxhall-bridge road ; 
 
 leading and lecture rooms, &c, for all officers and 
 soldiers in the metropolis ; inaugurated by the duke of 
 Cambridge, 11 July, 1867. 
 See Horse Guards, Yeomen, National, and Imperial 
 
 Guards. 
 
 GTJASTALLA, N. Italy, a city, near which 
 the imperial army, commanded by the king of 
 Sardinia, was defeated by the French, 19 Sept. 
 1734. The ancient duchy, long held by the dukes 
 of Mantua, was seized by the emperor of Germany, 
 1746, and ceded to Parma, 1748. After having 
 been comprised in the Italian republic, 1796, and 
 subjected to other changes, it was annexed to 
 Parma, 1815, and to Modena, 1847. 
 
 GUATEMALA. A republic in Central Ame- 
 rica, revolted from Spain, 1821, and declared inde- 
 pendent, 21 March, 1847. Constitution settled, 
 
 2 Oct. 1859. President (1862), general Raphael 
 Carrera, elected 1851 ; appointed for life, 1854; 
 died 14 April, 1865 ; succeeded bj Vincent Cenia, 
 
 3 May, 1865; re-elected, 1869. Provisional pre- 
 sident, Manuel Garcia Granedos, Dec. 1872. A war 
 between Guatemala and San Salvador broke out in 
 Jan. 1863; and on 16 June the troops of the latter 
 were totally defeated. An insurrection became for- 
 midable, July, 1871. Alliance with Honduras 
 against San Salvador, March, 1872. Population, 
 about 1,180,000. 
 
 GUEBEES, see Parsees. 
 
 GUELPHIC OEDEE of knighthood was 
 instituted for Hanover by the prince regent, after- 
 wards George IV., 12 Aug. 1815. 
 
 GUELPHS AND GHIBELINES, names 
 given to the papal and imperial factions who de- 
 stroyed the peace of Italy from the 12th to the end 
 of the 15th century (the invasion of Charles VIII. 
 of France in 1495). The origin of the names is 
 ascribed to the contest for the imperial crown 
 between Conrad of Hohenstaufen, duke of Swabia, 
 lord of Wiblingen (hence Gkibelin), and Henry 
 nephew of Welf, or Guelf, duke of Bavaria, in 1 138. 
 The former was successful; but the popes and 
 several Italian cities took the side of his rival. Hie 
 Guelf and Hie Gibelin are said to have been used 
 as war-cries in 1140, at a battle before Weinsberg, 
 in W ihtemberg, w hen Guelf of Bavaria was defeated 
 by the emperor Conrad IV. who came to help the 
 rival duke Leopold.* The Ghibelines were almost 
 totally expelled from Italy in 1267, when Conradin, 
 the last of the Hohenstaufens, was beheaded by 
 Charles of Anjou. Guelph is the name of the 
 present royal family of England ; see Brunsivick, 
 and Hanover. 
 
 GUEEEILLA, Spanish, "a little war"; a 
 term applied to the armed peasants who worried 
 the French armies during the Peninsular war, 
 1808-14. 
 
 GUEENSEY, see Jersey. 
 
 GUEUX (beggars), a name given by the comte 
 de Barlaimont to the 300 Protestant deputies from 
 the Low Countries, headed by Henri of Brederode 
 and Louis of Nassau, who petitioned Margaret, 
 
 * It is stated, traditionally, that the emperor con- 
 demned all the men to death, but permitted the women 
 to bring out whatever they most valued ; on which they 
 carried out their husbands on their shoulders. 
 
GUIANA. 
 
 325 
 
 GUN-COTTON. 
 
 governess of the Low Countries, to abolish the 
 inquisition, 5 April, 1566. The deputies at once 
 assumed the name as honourable, and immediately 
 organised armed resistance to the government ; see 
 Holland. 
 
 GUIANA (N.E. coast of South America), dis- 
 covered by Columbus in 1498, visited by the 
 Spaniards in the 16th century ; and explored by sir 
 AV alter Ealeigh in 1596 and 161 7. The French 
 settlements here were formed in 1626-43 ; and the 
 Dutch, 1627-67. Demerara and Essequibo were 
 ceded to Great Britain in 1814; see Demerara. 
 Governor of British Guiana, John Scott, 1868. 
 
 GUIDES, a corps in the French army, espe- 
 cially charged with the protection of the person of 
 the general, Avas formed by Bessieres, under the 
 direction of Bonaparte, who had been nearly 
 carried off by the enemy, 30 May, 1796. Several 
 squadrons of "guides" were formed in 1848, to 
 guard the ministers. They formed a portion of 
 the imperial guard till Sept. 1870. 
 
 GUIENNE, a French province, was part of 
 the dominions of Hemy II. in right of his wife 
 Eleanor, 1152. Philip of France seized it in 1293, 
 which led to war. It was alternately held by 
 England and France till 1453, when John Talbot, 
 earl of Shrewsbury, in vain attempted to retake it 
 from the latter. 
 
 GUILDHALL (London) was built in 141 1. 
 When it was rebuilt (in 1669), after the great fire 
 of 1666, no part of the ancient building remained, 
 except the interior of the porch and the walls of 
 the hall. The front was erected in 1789; and a 
 new roof built, 1864-5. Beneath the west window 
 are the colossal figures of Gog and Magog, said to 
 represent a Saxon and an ancient Briton. The 
 hall can contain 7000 persons, and is used for city 
 feasts. Here were entertained the allied sovereigns 
 in 1814, and Napoleon III., 19 April, 1855; and 
 here the city industrial exhibition was held, 6 
 March, 1866, and the International Botanical 
 banquet, 22 May, 1866. A memorial window, the 
 gift of the cotton workers of Lancashire, to com- 
 memorate the munificence of the metropolis towards 
 them in the famine of 1862-4, was uncovered, 15 
 July, 1868. The prince consort memorial window 
 was unveiled in the presence of prince Arthur, 
 3 Nov. 1870. A library existed in the Guildhall in 
 1426, from which books were taken by the protector 
 Somerset in the reign of Edward VI. The library 
 was again set up ; and re-opened, Jan. 1828. The 
 new handsome building by Horace Jones was opened 
 by the lord chancellor Selbome, 5 Nov. 1872. 
 
 GUILDS (of Saxon origin, about the 8th 
 century), associations of inhabitants of towns for 
 mutual benefit, resembling our religious and friendly 
 societies, chartered by the sovereign since the time 
 of Henry II. 
 
 The London guilds became livery companies in the 14th 
 century. 
 
 The guild of Corpus Christi, York, had 14,800 members 
 when a return respecting these guilds was ordered to 
 be made, 1388. 
 
 The Early English Text Society published the "Ordi- 
 nances " of more than 100 guilds, 1870. 
 
 The "Guild of Literature and Art" (including sir E. B. 
 Lytton, C. Dickens, and others) founded an institu- 
 tion (on ground given by sir E. B. Lytton, at Stevenage) 
 consisting of thirteen dwellings, retreats for artists, 
 scholars, and men of letters, which were completed 
 and inaugurated, 29 July, 1865. 
 
 The revival of religious guilds began in 1851, with 
 that of St. Alban, which held its 21st anniversary 
 20 June, 1872. 
 
 GUILLOTINE, an instrument for causing 
 immediate and painless death, named after its sup- 
 posed inventor, a physician named Joseph Ignatius 
 Guillotin. In 1866 M. Dubois, of Amiens, stated 
 that the idea only was due to Guillotin, who at a 
 meeting of the legislative assembly in 1789 ex- 
 pressed an opinion that capital punishment should 
 be the same for all classes. Accordingly, at the 
 request of the assembly, M. Louis, secretary of the 
 "Academie de Chirurgie," submitted to it on 20 
 March, 1792, a mode of capital punishment, "sure, 
 quick, and uniform," which he had invented. The 
 first person executed by it was a highway robber 
 named Pelletier, on 25 April ; and Dangremont was 
 its first political victim, 2 1 Aug. following. Guillotin 
 died in 1814. The guillotine at Paris was burnt 
 by the communist insurgents, 7 April, 1871. A 
 similar instrument (called the 3Iannaia) is said to 
 have been used in Italy, at Halifax in England 
 (see Halifax), and in Scotland, there called the 
 Maiden and the AVidow. 
 
 GUINEA (AY. coast of Africa) was discovered by 
 the Portuguese about 1446. From their trade with 
 the Moors originated the slave trade, sir John Haw- 
 kins being the first Englishman who engaged in this 
 traffic. Assisted by English gentlemen with money 
 for the purpose, he sailed from England in Oct. 1562, 
 with three ships, proceeded to the coast of Guinea, 
 purchased or forcibly seized 300 negroes, sold them 
 profitably at Hispaniola, and returned home richly 
 laden with hides, sugar, ginger, and other mer- 
 chandise, in Sept. 1563. This voyage led to similar 
 enterprises. Hakluyt. See Slave Trade. An African 
 company to trade with Guinea was chartered 1588. 
 The Dutch settlements here were transferred to 
 Great Britain, 6 April, 1872. See Elmina. 
 
 GUINEAS, English gold coin, so named from 
 having been first coined of gold brought by the 
 African company from the coast of Guinea in 1663, 
 valued then at 20s.; but worth 305. in 1695. Se- 
 duced at various times; in 1717 to 21s. In 1810 
 guineas were sold for 22s. 6d. ; in 1816, for 27s. In 
 181 1 an act was passed forbidding their exportation, 
 and their sale at a price above the current value, 21s. 
 The first guineas bore the impression of an elephant, 
 having been coined of this African gold. Since the 
 issue of sovereigns, 1 July, 1817, guineas have not 
 been coined. 
 
 GUINEGATE, Battles of, ii July, 1302, 
 and 16 Aug. 1513. See Spurs. 
 
 GUISE, a French ducal family : — 
 
 Claude of Lorraine, first duke, a brave warrior, 
 favoured by Francis I. ; died . . . April, 1550 
 
 Francis, the great general, born, 1519 ; assassinated, 
 
 24 Feb. 1563 
 
 Hemy, head of the Catholic league ; born 1550 ; 
 revenged his father's death ; assassinated by order 
 of Henry III 23 Dec. 1588 
 
 Charles, first opposed, and then submitted to, 
 Henry IV. ; died 1640 
 
 Henry died without issue .... . 1664 
 
 GUN, see Artillery, Fire-arms. — GtTK- . 
 CLUB, for pigeon-shooting, founded by sir Gilbert 
 East, in 1862, had 200 members, noblemen and 
 gentlemen, in July, 1867. The new gun-licences 
 produced in the financial year 1871-2, 62,437;. 
 
 GUN-COTTON, a highly explosive substance, 
 invented by professor Schonbein, of Basel, and 
 made known in 1846. It is purified cotton, steeped 
 in a mixture of equal parts of nitric acid and sul- 
 phuric acid, and afterwards dried, retaining the 
 
GUN LICENCE ACT. 
 
 326 
 
 GUY'S HOSPITAL. 
 
 appearance of cotton wool. See Collodion. Its nature 
 was known to Bracconot and Pelouze. 
 
 The diet of Frankfort voted, 3 Oct. 1846, a recompense 
 of 100,000 florins t<> professor Schonbein and Dr. 
 Beettger, as the inventors of the cotton powder, pro- 
 vided the authorities of Mayence, after seeing it tried, 
 pronounced it superior to gunpowder as an explosive. 
 
 Improvements were made in the manufacture of gun- 
 cotton by an Austrian officer, Baron von Lenk, about 
 1852, and it was tried by a part of the Austrian army 
 in 1855, but did not obtain favour. 
 
 In 1862 details of the manufacture, were communicated 
 by the Austrian government to our own government, 
 and Mr. Abel, our war-office chemist, was directed to 
 experiment on the constitution and desirability of 
 gun-cotton. The British Association also appointed a 
 scientific committee to consider its merits. A com- 
 plete decision was not arrived at. 
 
 The first trial of English-made gun-cotton was made in 
 the spring of 1864, at the manufactory at Stowmarkct, 
 Suffolk, by Messrs. Prentice. 
 
 There was manufactured, by a company, the " patent safety 
 gun-cotton," according to Mr. Abei's patent (including 
 the pulping, compressing, and wet processes), based 
 on researches commenced in 1866. The cotton was 
 said to be explosive by detonation, and not by 
 ignition. A great explosion took place at Stowmarket ; 
 24 persons were killed (including A. E. H. and W. R. 
 Prentice, managers) ; about 6c were dreadfully wounded, 
 and nearly the whole town was destroyed as if by a 
 bombardment, n Aug. 1871. 
 
 The verdict at the inquest attributed the explosion to 
 the culpable "addition of sulphuric acid to the gun- 
 cotton subsequent to its passing the tests required by 
 government," 6 Sept. 1871. 
 
 A government commission, appointed in Sept. to con- 
 sider the manufacture and use of gun-cotton, reported 
 in favour of both, with special regard to compressed 
 gun-cotton, 13 Dec. 1871. 
 
 Another report recommended this gun-cotton to be 
 stored wet, with drying apparatus near ; and to be 
 kept in slighter boxes, 25 July, 1872. 
 
 Mr. E. O. Brown, of the war department, Woolwich, dis- 
 covers that wet gun-cotton can be exploded by con- 
 cussion by a detonating fuse, about Nov. 1872. 
 
 It is used as an explosive agent in mining, &c. 
 
 Gun-Cloth, made on a similar principle, was patented 
 
 by Mr. W. A. Dixon, about 1866. 
 Cotton-Gunpowder, patented by Mr. R. Pimshon, 1871. 
 
 GUN LICENCE ACT, passed 9 Aug. 1870 ; 
 annual licence, icw. 
 
 GUNPOWDEK. The invention of gunpowder 
 is generally ascribed to Bertholdus or Michael 
 Schwartz, a Cordelier monk of Goslar, south of 
 Brunswick, in Germany, about 1320. But many 
 writers maintain that it was known much earlier 
 in various parts of the world. Some say that the 
 Chinese and Hindoos possessed it centuries before. 
 Its composition, moreover, is expressly mentioned 
 by Boger Bacon, in his treatise I)e Nullitate 
 Magia. He died in 1292 or 1294. Various sub- 
 stitutes for gunpowder have been recently invented, 
 such as the white gunpowder of Mr. Horsley and 
 Dr. Ehrhardt, and gun-paper by Mr. Hochstodten. 
 A new gunpowder by M. Newmaver, of Toya, near 
 Leipsic, was discussed in Nov. 1866. " Pellet gun- 
 powder" was ordered to be used in gun-charges in 
 the army, March, 1868. An act to amend the law 
 concerning the making, keeping, and carriage of 
 gunpowder, &c. was passed 28 Aug. i860, and other 
 acts since. See Birmingham, 1870. In May, 1872, 
 a company was formed to manufacture Mr. R. 
 Punshon's patent cotton-gunpowder, asserted to be 
 very safe and controllable. See Ohronoscopc and 
 Explosives. 
 
 W. Hunter, after a careful examination of the question, 
 in 1847, thus states the result: — "July and August, 
 1346, may be safely assumed to be the time when the 
 explosive force of gunpowder was first brought to bear 
 on the military operations of the English nation." 
 
 Above 11 tons of gunpowder on board tic Lottie Sleigh, 
 in the Mersey, exploded ; much damage done in Liver- 
 pool and Birkenhead, but no lives lost, 16 Jan. 1864. 
 
 About 104,000 lbs. of gunpowder exploded at the Belve- 
 dere powder magazines of .Messrs. Hall & Co., at 
 Plumstead, near Woolwich ; 13 persons perished, and 
 the shock was felt at 50 miles' distance, 1 Oct. 1864. 
 Searching inquiries were made into the circumstances, 
 and new regulations for the keeping and transmission 
 of powder issued in November ; see Dartford. 
 
 Mr. Gale, a blind gentleman of Plymouth, on 22 June, 
 1865, patented his method of rendering gunpowder 
 uninflammable by combining with it finely X'Owdered 
 glass, which can be readily separated by a sieve when 
 the powder is required for use. Successful public 
 experiments were made. 
 
 Mr. Gale exhibited his process before the queen at 
 Windsor, 10 Nov. 1865, and it was severely tested at a 
 martello tower, near Hastings, 20 June, 1866. The 
 attainment of perfect security was still doubtful. 
 Gale's Protected Gunpowder Company was formed, 
 Oct. 1865, and wound up, March, 1867. 
 
 Great explosion at Messrs. Hall's powder-mills, near 
 Faversham ; 11 men killed, much damage done ; shock 
 felt at Canterbury, 10 miles off, 28 Dec. 1867. Another 
 explosion about 21 Dec. 1868. 
 
 Dixon & Beck's works blown up ; 9 lives lost, 25 Julv, 
 1868. 
 
 Explosion at Hounslow mills, 3 lives lost, 6 Sept. 1872. 
 
 Milner's powder-magazines placed in fire at Woolwich 
 arsenal and found secure, 8-9 Oct. 1872. 
 
 GUNPOWDEK PLOT, for springing a mine 
 under the houses of parliament, and destroying the 
 three estates of the realm — king, lords, and commons 
 ■ — there assembled, was discovered on 4 Nov. 1605. It 
 was projected by Robert Catesby early in 1604, and 
 several Roman Catholics of rank were in the plot. 
 Guy Faux was detected in the vaults under the 
 house of lords, hired for the purpose, preparing 
 the train for being fired on the next day. Catesby 
 and Percy (of the family of Northumberland) were 
 killed at Holbeach house, whither they had fled, 
 8 Nov.; and Guy Faux, sir Everard Digby, Rook- 
 wood, Winter, and others, were executed, 30, 31 
 Jan. 1606. Henry Garnet, a Jesuit, suffered as an 
 accomplice, 3 May following. An anonymous letter 
 sent to lord Mouteagle led to the discovery. It 
 contained the following words, " Though there be 
 no appearance of any stir, yet I say they shall 
 receive a terrible blow this parliament, and yet 
 they shall not see Avho hurts them." The vault 
 called Guy Faux cellar, in which the conspirators 
 lodged the barrels of gunpowder, remained till 
 1825, when it was converted into offices. 
 
 GUNTEK,' S CHAIN, used in measuring land, 
 invented by Edmund Gunter, in 1606. 
 
 GUENEY'S ACT, 31 & 32 Vict., c. 116 
 (1868), amends the law relating to larceny and 
 embezzlement. 
 
 GUTTA PEECHA is procured from the sap 
 of the Isonandra Gutta, a large forest tree, growing 
 in the Malayan peninsula and on the islands near 
 it. It was "made known in England by Drs. D. 
 Almeida and Montgomery, at the Society of Arts, 
 in 1843. As a non-conductor of electricity it is in- 
 valuable in constructing submarine telegraphs, an 
 application suggested by Faraday, 1847. 
 
 GUY'S HOSPITAL (London). Thomas Guy, 
 a wealthy bookseller, after bestowing large sums on 
 St, Thomas's, determined to found a new hospital. 
 At the age of seventy-six, in 1721, he commenced 
 the present building, and lived to see it nearly 
 completed. It cost him 18,793/., an< ^' i n addition, 
 he endowed it with 219,499/. In 1829, 196,115/. 
 were bequeathed to this hospital by Mr: Hunt, to 
 provide accommodation for 100 additional patients. 
 
GUZERAT. 
 
 327 
 
 HACKNEY COACHES. 
 
 GUZEEAT, a state in India, founded by Mah- 
 moud the Gaznevide, about 1020, was conquered by 
 Akbar in 1572 ; and became subject to the Mahrattas 
 1732 or 1752. At the battle of Guzerat, near the 
 Chenab, in the Punjab, 21 Feb. 1849, lord Gough 
 totally defeated the Sikhs and captured the town of 
 Guzerat. 
 
 GWALIOR, an ancient state in Central India ; 
 since 1803, under British protection. Scindiah, the 
 maharajah, remained faithful during the revolt of 
 1857- 
 
 GYMNASIUM, a place where tlie Greeks 
 performed public exercises, and where philosophers, 
 poets, and rhetoricians repeated their compositions. 
 In wrestling and boxing the athletes were often 
 naked (gymtios), whence the name. A London 
 gymnastic society, formed in 1826, did not flourish. 
 In 1862, M. Ravenstein set up another gymnastic 
 association. The German Gymnastic Institutiou, 
 in St. Pancras-road, London, was opened on 29 Jan. 
 1865, and a large and perfect gymnasium at Liver- 
 pool was inaugurated by lord Stanley, 6 Nov. 1865. 
 A London athletic club existed in Nov. 1866. 
 
 GYMNOSOPHIST^l, a set of naked philo- 
 sophers in Inuia. Alexander (about 324 B.C.) was 
 astonished at the sight of men who seemed to 
 despise bodily pain, and endured tortures without 
 a groan. Pliny. 
 
 GYPSIES, Gipsies, or Egyptians 
 
 (French, Bohemiens ; Italian, Zingarij Spanish, 
 
 Gifanos; German, Zigeuner) ; vagrants, supposed 
 to be descendants of low-caste Hindoos expelled by 
 Tim our, about 1399. They appeared in Germany 
 and Italy early in the 15th century, and at Paris in 
 1427. In England an act was made against their 
 itinerancy, in 1530 ; and in the reign of Charles I. 
 thirteen persons were executed at one assizes for 
 having associated with gypsies for about a month. 
 The gypsy settlement at Norwood was broken up, 
 and they were treated as vagrants, May, 1797. 
 There were in Spain alone, previously to 1800, 
 more than 120,000 gypsies, and many communities 
 of them yet exist in England. Notwithstanding 
 their intercourse with other nations, their manners, 
 customs, visage, and appearance are almost wholly 
 unchanged, and their pretended knowledge of 
 futurity gives them power over the superstitious. 
 Esther Faa was crowned queen of the gypsies at 
 Blyth, on i8_Nov. i860. The Bible has been trans- 
 lated into gypsy dialects. Gypsy parliaments are 
 occasionally held. 
 
 GYEOSCOPE (from gijrere, to revolve), the 
 name of a rotatory apparatus invented by Fessel of 
 Cologne (1852), and improved by professor "Wheat- 
 stone and M. Foucault of Paris. It is similar in 
 principle to the rotatory apparatus of Bohnen- 
 berger of Tubingen (born 1765, died 1831). — The 
 gyroscope by exhibiting the combined effects of the 
 centrifugal and centripetal forces, and of the 
 cessation of either, illustrates the great law of 
 gravitation. 
 
 H. 
 
 HAARLEM, an ancient town in Holland, once 
 the residence of the counts, was taken by the duke 
 of Alva, in July, 1573, after a siege of seven 
 months. He violated the capitulation by butcher- 
 ing half the inhabitants. The lake was drained, 
 1849-51. 
 
 HABEAS CORPUS. The subjects' Writ of 
 Right, passed " for the better securing the liberty 
 of the subject," 31 Charles II. c. 2, 27 May, 1679. 
 If any person be imprisoned by the order of any 
 court, or of the queen herself, he may have a writ 
 of habeas corpus, to bring him before the court of 
 queen's bench or common pleas, which shall deter- 
 mine whether his committal be just. This act 
 (founded on the old common law) is next in im- 
 portance to Magna Charta. The Habeas Corpus act 
 can be suspended by parliament for a specified time 
 when the emergency is extreme. In such a case 
 the 'nation parts with a portion of its liberty to 
 secure its own permanent welfare, and suspected 
 persons may then be arrested without cause or 
 purpose being assigned. Blackstone. 
 
 Act suspended for a short time in . 1689, 1696, 1708 
 Suspended for Scots' rebellion . . . 1715-6 
 
 Suspended for twetve months 1722 
 
 Suspended for Scots' rebellion in . . . 1744-5 
 Suspended for American war) .... 1777-9 
 Again by Mr. Pitt, owing to French revolution . 1794 
 Suspended in Ireland, on account of the great re- 
 bellion 1798 
 
 Suspended in England, 28 Aug. 1799; and 
 
 14 April, 1801 
 Again, on account of Irish insurrection . . . 1803 
 Again, owing to alleged secret meetings (see Green 
 
 Bag) 21 Feb. 1817 
 
 Bill to restore the Habeas Corpus brought into par- 
 liament 28 Jan. 1818 
 
 Suspended in Ireland (insurrection) . 24 July, 1848 
 
 Restored there 1 March, 1849 
 
 Suspended again (see Fenians), 17 Feb. 1866 ; 
 26 Feb. and 31 May, 1867 ; and 28 Feb. 1868 till 
 
 25 March, 1869 
 
 The constitution of the United States provides that 
 "the privilege of habeas corpus shall not be sus- 
 pended, unless when, in cases of rebellion or 
 invasion, the public safety may require it ; " but 
 does not specify the department of the govern- 
 ment having the power of suspension. A series 
 of contests on this subject between the legal 
 and military authorities began in Maryland, 
 
 May, 1861 
 
 In consequence of the affair of John Anderson (see 
 Slavery in England, note), an act was passed in 
 1862, enacting that no writ of Habeas Corpus should 
 issue out of England into any colony, &c, 
 having a court with authority to grant such 
 writ. 
 
 HABITUAL CRIMINALS ACT, for the 
 
 more effectual prevention of crime, giving powers 
 for the apprehension of habitual criminals on sus- 
 picion, passed 11 Aug. 1869. 
 
 HABSBURG, see Sapsburg. 
 
 HACKNEY, a parish N.E. of London; by 
 the division of the Tower Hamlets, was made a 
 metropolitan borough by the Beforrn act, 15 Aug. 
 1867. 
 
 HACKNEY COACHES (probably from the 
 French coche-d-haquenee, a vehicle with a hired 
 horse, haquenee. Their supposed origin in Hackney, 
 near London, is a vulgar error ; see Cabriolets, and 
 Omnibuses. 
 
 Four were set up in London by a capt. Bailey ; 
 
 their number soon increased .... 1625 
 
 They were limited by the star-chamber in 1635 ; 
 
 restricted in 1637 and in .... 1652 
 
HADRIANOPLE. 
 
 328 
 
 HALYS. 
 
 The number was raised to 400, in 1662 ; to 700, in 
 1694 ; to 800, in 1715 ; to 1000, in 1771 ; to 1100, in 
 1814 ; and finally, to 1300, in 1815 
 
 One-horse, hackney carriages (afterwards cabriolets) 
 permitted to be licensed „ 
 
 All restriction as to number ceased, by 2 Will. IV. 
 (the original fare was is. a mile) . . . . 1831 
 
 Two hundred Hackney Chairs were licensed . . 1711 
 
 Office removed to Somerset-house . . . . 1782 
 
 Coach-makers made subject, to a licence . . . 1785 
 
 Lost and Found Office for the recovery of property 
 left in hackney coaches, established by act 55 
 Geo. Ill 1815 
 
 All public vehicles to be regulated by the act 16 & 
 17 Vict. cc. 33, 127, by which they are placed 
 under the control of the commissioners of police, 
 
 June and Aug. 1853 
 
 By the Metropolitan Carriages Act, passed 12 Aug. 
 1869, various restrictions respecting the amount 
 of fare, &c, were removed, commencing, 1 Jan. 1870 
 
 Further regulations for cabs issued by the home 
 secretary IO March, 1871 
 
 HADRIANOPLE, see Adrianople. 
 
 HAFSFIORD (Norway). Here Harold Hiir- 
 fager, in a sea-fight, finally defeated his enemies ; 
 and consolidated his kingdom, 872. A millenary 
 festival was held throughout Norway, and a monu- 
 ment to his memory at Hangesund, inaugurated by 
 prince Oscar of Sweden, 18 July, 1872. 
 
 HAGUE, capital of the kingdom of Holland, 
 once called the finest village in Europe ; the place 
 of meeting of the states-general, and residence of 
 the former earls of Holland since 1250, when 
 "William II. built the palace here. 
 
 Here the states abjured the authority of Philip II. 
 of Spain . I5 8o 
 
 A conference upon the five articles of the remon- 
 strants, which occasioned the synod of Dort . . 1610 
 
 Treaty of the Hague (to preserve the equilibrium of 
 the North), signed by England, France, and 
 Holland 21 May, 1659 
 
 The De Witts torn in x>ieces here . . 24 July, 1672 
 
 The French, favoured by a hard frost, took posses- 
 sion of the Hague ; the inhabitants and troops 
 declared in their favour ; general revolution en- 
 sued, and the stadtholder and his family fled to 
 England 19 Jan. 1795 
 
 The Hague evacuated by the French . Nov. 1813 
 
 The stadtholder returned .... Dec. ,, 
 
 HAILEYBTJRY COLLEGE (Herts), 
 wherein students were prepared for service in India; 
 it was founded by the East India Company in 1806 ; 
 was closed in 1858, and became a college for general 
 education. 
 
 HAINAULT, a province in Belgium, anciently 
 governed by counts, hereditary after Kegnier I., 
 who died in 916. The count John d'Arsenes became 
 count of Holland in 1299. Hainault henceforth 
 partook of the fortunes of Elanders. 
 
 HAINAULT FOREST (Essex), disafforested 
 in 1851. Here stood the Fairlop oak {which see). 
 
 HAIR,. In Gaul, hair was much esteemed, 
 hence the appellation Gallia comata ; cutting off 
 the hair was a punishment. The royal family of 
 France held it as a privilege to wear long hair art- 
 fully dressed and curled. " The clerical tonsure is of 
 apostolic institution ! " Isidorits Hispalensis. Pope 
 Anicetus forbade the clergy to wear long hair, 155. 
 Long hair was out of fashion during the pro- 
 tectorate of Cromwell, and hence the term Sound- 
 heads; in 1795; and also 1801. — Hair-powder came 
 into use in 1590; and in 1795 a tax of a guinea 
 was laid upon persons using it, which yielded at 
 one time 20,000^. per annum. The tax was repealed 
 24 June, 1869, when it yielded about loool. a year. 
 See Beard. 
 
 HAITI, see Hayti. 
 
 HAKLUYT SOCIETY, established for the 
 publication of rare voyages and travels, 15 Dec. 
 1846, was named after Richard Hakluyt, who pub- 
 lished his " Principal Navigations, Voyages, and 
 Discoveries made by the English Nation," in 1589; 
 and died 23 Nov. 1616. 
 
 HALIARTUS, a town in Bceotia, near which 
 Lysander the Spartan general was killed in battle 
 with the Thebans, 395 B.C. 
 
 HALICARNASSUS, Caria (Asia Minor); the 
 reputed birth-place of Herodotus, 484 B.C. ; the site 
 of the tomb of Mausolus, erected 352; was taken by 
 Alexander, 334; see Mausoleum. 
 
 HALIDON HILL, near Berwick, where, on 
 19 July, 1333, the English defeated the Scots, the 
 latter losing upwards of 14,000 slain, among whom 
 were the regent Douglas and a large number of the 
 nobility ; a comparatively small number of the 
 English suffered. Edward Balliol thus became king 
 of Scotland for a short time. 
 
 HALIFAX (Yorkshire) . The woollen manu- 
 factory was successfully established here in the 
 15th century. The power of the town to punish 
 capitally (by a peculiar engine resembling the 
 guillotine) any criminal convicted of stealing to 
 the value of upwards of thirteen pence halfpenny, 
 was used as late as 1650. In 1857, Mr. J. Cross- 
 ley announced his intention of founding a college 
 here, and Mr. F. Crossley presented the town with 
 a beautiful park. 
 
 HALIFAX ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 Charles, earl of Halifax, was appointed first lord of 
 the treasury, 5 Oct. 1714. He died 19 May, 1715, 
 and was succeeded by Charles, carl of Carlisle, on 
 10 Oct. following; and Robert Walpole became 
 premier. 
 
 Charles, earl of Halifax, first lord of the treasury. 
 
 William, lord Cowper, aft. earl, lord chancellor. 
 Daniel, earl of Nottingham, lord president 
 
 Thomas, earl of Wharton, privy seal. 
 
 Edward, earl of oxford, admiralty. 
 
 James Stanhope, afterwards earl Stanhope, and Charles, 
 
 viscount Townsheiid, secret/tries of state. 
 Sir Richard Onslow, chancellor of the exchequer. 
 Dukes of Montrose and Marlborough, lord Berkeley, 
 
 Robt. Walpole, Mr. Pulteney, &e. 
 
 HALL, principal apartment in mediaeval man- 
 sions. Westminster and Elthani halls are fine 
 examples; see Westminster Hall. 
 
 HALL MARK, see Goldsmiths and Standard. 
 
 HALLE (Saxony, N. Germany), first men- 
 tioned in 801, was made a city by the emperor 
 Otho II. in 981. The orphan-house here was esta- 
 blished by August Francke, 1698-9. Halle suffered 
 much by the Thirty years' and Seven years' wars. 
 It was stormed by the French, 17 Oct. 1806, and 
 added to the kingdom of Westphalia ; but given up 
 to Prussia in 1814. 
 
 HALLELUJAH AND AMEN {Praise the 
 Lord, and So be it), expressions used in the 
 Hebrew hymns ; said to have been introduced by 
 Haggai, the prophet, about 520 B.C. Their intro- 
 duction into the Christian church is ascribed to St. 
 Jerome, about a.d. 390. 
 
 HALYS, a river (Asia Minor), near which a 
 battle was fought between the Lydians and Medes. 
 It was interrupted by an almost total eclipse of the 
 sun, which led to peace, 28 May, 585 B.C. (the 
 
HAM. 
 
 329 
 
 HANGO BAY. 
 
 fourth year of the 48th Olympiad). Plin. Nat. 
 Hist. ii. Others give as the date 584, 603, and 
 610 B.C. This eclipse is said to have been predicted 
 many years before by Thales of Miletus. Hero- 
 dotus, i. 75. 
 
 HAM, on the Sonime, N. France. The castle 
 was built in 1470 by the constable Louis of Luxem- 
 bourg, comte de St. Pol, beheaded by Louis XI. 
 19 Dec. 1475. Here were imprisoned the ex- 
 ministers of Charles X., 1830 ; and Louis Napoleon 
 Bonaparte after his attempt at Boulogne, from Oct. 
 1840 till 25 May, 1846, when he escaped. 
 
 HAMBURG, a free city, N.W. Germany, 
 founded by Charlemagne, about 809. It joined the 
 Hanseatic league in the 13th century, and became 
 a flourishing commercial city. Population in i860, 
 229,941 ; in 1871, 338,974. 
 
 A free imperial city by permission of the dukes of 
 Holsteiii, 1296 ; subject to them till 1618 ; pur- 
 chased its total exemption from their claims . 1768 
 French declared war upon Hamburg for its 
 treachery in giving up Napper Tandy ; see Tandy, 
 
 Oct. 1799 
 British property sequestrated . . March, 1801 
 Hamburg taken by the French after the battle of 
 
 Jena, in 1806 
 
 Incorporated with France 1810 
 
 Evacuated by the French on the advance of the 
 
 Bussians into Germany 1813 
 
 Bestored to independence by the allies . May, 18 14 
 Awfid lire here, which destroyed numerous churches 
 and public buildings, and 2000 houses ; it con- 
 tinued for three days .... 4 May, 1842 
 Half the city inundated by the Elbe . 1 Jan. 1855 
 New constitution granted by the senate, July, i860; 
 the new assembly (of 191 members) first met, 
 
 6 Dec. i860 
 The constitution began 1 Jan. 1861 
 
 Hamburg joined the N. German confederation, 
 
 21 Aug. 1866 
 Joined the German empire, Jan.; its privileges as a 
 free port confirmed 16 April, 1871 
 
 HAMPDEN CLUBS, see Radicals, and 
 Chalgrove. 
 
 HAMPSTEAD HEATH, N.W. of London; 
 an act authorising the Metropolitan Board of Works 
 to purchase the heath, from sir John Maryon 
 Wilson, bart., passed 29 June, 1871, and the heath 
 was formally taken possession of by the Metropo- 
 litan Board of Works, 13 Jan. 1872, 45,000/. being 
 paid. During the prevalence of small-pox in Lon- 
 don, in 1871, a temporary hospital was established 
 at Hampstead. Charges of mismanagement having 
 been made against the officers, an official inquiry 
 ensued which lasted 33 days, from 23 Sept. to 3 Nov. 
 Further inquiry ensued respecting the disappear- 
 ance of a child, Elizabeth Bellue. The medical 
 officers were exonerated from blame, Dec. 
 
 HAMPTON COURT PALACE (Middle- 
 sex), built by cardinal Wolsey on the site of the 
 manor-house of the knights-hospitallers, and in 
 1525 presented to Henry VIII. ; perhaps the most 
 splendid offering ever made by a subject to a 
 sovereign. Here Edward VI. was born, 12 Oct. 
 1537 ; here his mother, Jane Seymour, died, 24 Oct. 
 following ; and here Mary, Elizabeth, Charles, and 
 others of our sovereigns resided. Much was pulled 
 down, and the grand inner court built by William 
 III. in 1694, when the gardens, occupying 40 acres, 
 were laid out. The vine was planted 1769. Here 
 was held, 14-16 Jan. 1604, the Conference be- 
 tween the Puritans and the Established church 
 clergy, which led to a new translation of the Bible ; 
 see Conference. 
 
 HANIPER OFFICE (of the court of Chan- 
 cery), where writs relating to the business of the 
 subject, and their returns, were anciently kept in 
 hanaperio (in a wicker hamper) ; and those relating 
 to the crown, in parva bay a (a little bag) . Hence 
 the names Hanaper .and Petty Bag Office. The 
 office was abolished in 1842. 
 
 HANAU (Hesse-Cassel), incorporated 1303. 
 Here a division of the combined armies of Austria 
 and Bavaria, of 30,000 men, under general Wrede, 
 encountered the French, 70,000 strong, under Na- 
 poleon 1., on their retreat from Leipsic, 30 Oct. 
 1813. The French suffered very severely, though 
 the allies were compelled to retire. The county of 
 Hanau was made a principality in 1803 ; seized by 
 the French in 1806 ; incorporated with the duchy 
 of Frankfort in 1809 ; restored to Hesse in 1813 ; 
 which was annexed to Prussia in 1866. 
 
 HANDEL'S COMMEMORATIONS. 
 
 The Jirst was held in Westminster abhey, 26 May, 
 1784; king George III. and queen Charlotte, and 
 above 3000 persons being present. The band con- 
 tained 268 vocal and 245 instrumental performers, 
 and the receipts of three successive days were 
 12,746/. These concerts were repeated in 1785, 
 1786, 1790, and 1791. 
 
 Second great commemoration, in the presence of king 
 William IV. and queen Adelaide, when there were 644 
 performers, 24, 26, 28 June, and 1 July, 1834. 
 
 Great Handel festival (at the Crystal Palace) on the 
 centenary of his death, projected by the Sacred 
 Harmonic Society. Grand Behearsal at the Crystal 
 Palace, 15, 17, 19 June, 1857, and 2 July, 1858. 
 
 Performances : Messiah, 20 June ; Selections, 22 June; Is- 
 rael in Egypt, 24 June, 1859, when the prince consort, the 
 king of the Belgians, and 26,827 persons were present. 
 
 There" were 2765 vocal and 393 instrumental performers, 
 and the performance was highly successful. The re- 
 ceipts amounted to about 33,0002., from which there 
 were deducted i8,oooi. for expenses ; of the residue 
 (i5,ooo£.), two parts accrued to the Crystal Palace Com- 
 pany, and one part to the Sacred Harmonic Society. 
 Handel's harpsichord, original scores of his oratorios, 
 and other interesting relics, were exhibited. 
 
 Handel festivals (at the Crystal Palace) : 4000 performers ; 
 highly successful ; 23, 25, 27 June, 1862 ; again, 26, 28, 
 30 June, 1865 ; again, 15, 17, 19 June, 1868 (about 
 25,000 present ; also, 19, 21, 23 June, 1871 (about 
 84,000 persons subscribed). 
 
 HANDKERCHIEFS, wrought and edged 
 with gold, used to be worn in England by gentle- 
 men in their hats, as favours from young ladies, 
 the value of them being from five to twelve pence 
 for each in the reign of Elizabeth, 1558. Stoic's 
 Ghron. Paisley handkerchiefs were first made in 
 1743- 
 
 HANDS, imposition of, was performed by Moses 
 in setting apart his successor Joshua (Num. xxvii. 
 23), in reception into the church, and in ordination, 
 by the apostles (Acts viii. 17 ; 1 Tim. iv. 14). 
 
 HANGING-, Drawing, and Quarter- 
 ing, said to have been first inflicted upon William 
 Marise, a pirate, a nobleman's son, 25 Hen. III., 
 1241. Five gentlemen attached to the duke of 
 Gloucester were arraigned and condemned for trea- 
 son and at the place of execution were hanged, cut 
 down alive instantly, stripped naked, and then- 
 bodies marked for quartering, and then pardoned, 
 2? Hen. IV. 1447. Stow. The Cato-street con- 
 spirators (which see) were beheaded after death by 
 hanging, I May, 1820. Hanging in chains was 
 abolished in 1834 ; see Death. 
 
 HANGO BAY (Finland). On 5 June, 1855, 
 a boat commanded by lieut. Geneste left the 
 
HANOVER. 
 
 330 
 
 HARMONIC STRINGS. 
 
 British steamer Cossack, with a Hag of truce to 
 land some Russian prisoners. They were tired on 
 by a body of riflemen, and live were killed, several 
 wounded, and the rest made prisoners. The Rus- 
 sian account, asserting the irregularity to have 
 been on the side of the English, was not sub- 
 stantiated. 
 
 HANOVER (N. W. Germany), successively an 
 electorate, and a kingdom, chiefly composed of 
 territories which once belonged to the dukes of 
 Brunswick {which see). Population in 1859, 
 1,850,000; in 1861, 1,888,070. It was annexed to 
 Prussia, 20 Sept. 1866. 
 
 Hanover became the ninth electorate . . a.d. 1692 
 Suffered much during the seven years' war . 1756-63 
 Seized by Prussia .... 3 April, 1801 
 
 Occupied and hardly used by the French, 5 June, 1803 
 
 Delivered to Prussia in 1805 
 
 Betaken by the French 1807 
 
 Part of it annexed to Westphalia . . . . 1810 
 
 Regained for England by Bernadotte . 6 Nov. 1813 
 Erected into a kingdom . . . .12 Oct. 1814 
 The duke of Cambridge appointed viceroy, 
 and a representative government established, 
 
 Nov. 1816 
 
 Visited by George IV Oct. 1821 
 
 Ernest, duke of Cumberland, king . 20 June, 1837 
 He granted a constitution with electoral rights, 
 1848 ; which was annulled in obedience to the 
 decree of the federal diet . . . 12 April, 1855 
 The king claims from England crown jewels, which 
 belonged to George III. (value about 120,000?.), 
 1857; by arbitration, the jewels given up, Jan. 1858 
 Stade dues given up for compensation, 12 June, 1861 
 In the war the king takes the side of Austria ; and 
 the Prussians enter and occupy Hanover, 
 
 13 June, et. scq. 1866 
 The Hanoverians defeat the Prussians at Langen- 
 salza, 27 June ; but are compelled to surrender, 
 
 29 June, ,, 
 Hanover annexed to Prussia by law, 20 Sept. ; pro- 
 mulgated 6 Oct. 
 
 Protest of the king of Hanover addressed to Europe 
 
 23 Sept. ,, 
 Arrangement with Prussia by a treaty ratified 
 
 18 Oct. 1867 
 The king celebrates his " silver wedding " at Hiet- 
 zing, near Vienna, expressing hopes of recovering 
 
 his kingdom, &c 18 Feb. 1868 
 
 Tart of his property sequestrated by Prussia, 
 
 March, 
 
 Still further, in consequence of his maintaining a 
 
 Hanoverian legion (the king protested against it), 
 
 Feb. 1869 
 
 ELECTORS. 
 
 1692. Ernest-Augustus, youngest son of George, that son 
 of William, duke of Brunswick-Luneburg, who 
 obtained by lot the right to marry (see Bruns- 
 wick). He became bishop of Osnaburg in 1662, 
 and in 1679 inherited the possessions of his 
 uncle John, duke of Calenberg; created Elector 
 of Hanover in 1692. 
 [He married, in 1659, the princess Sophia, daugh- 
 ter of Frederick, elector palatine, and of Eliza- 
 beth, the daughter of James I. of England. In 
 1701, Sophia was declared next heir to the British 
 crown, after William III., Anne, and their de- 
 scendants.] 
 
 1698. George-Lewis, son of the preceding ; married his 
 cousin Sophia, the heiress of the duke of Briins- 
 wick-Zell ; became kimj of Great Britain, 1 Aug. 
 1714, as George I. 
 
 1727. George-Augustus, his son (George II. of England), 
 11 June. 
 
 1760 George-William-Frederick, his grandson (George 
 III. of England), 25 Oct. 
 
 KINGS. 
 
 1814. George-William-Frederick(theprecedingsovereign), 
 first king of Hanover, 12 Oct. 
 
 1820. George-Augustus-Frederick, his sou (George IV. 
 of England), 29 Jan. 
 
 1830. William-Henry, his brother (William IV. of Eng- 
 land), 26 June. 
 [Hanover separated from the crown of Great 
 Britain.] 
 
 1837. Ernest-Augustus, duke of Cumberland, brother to 
 William IV. of England, on whose 1le1ni.se he 
 Bucceeded (as a distinct inheritance) to the 
 tin one of Hanover, 20 June. 
 
 1851. George V. (bom 27 May, 1819), son of Ernest ; 
 ascended the throne on the death of his father, 
 18 Nov. His states annexed to Prussia, 20 Sept. 
 1866. 
 Heir: Prince Ernest-Augustus, born 21 Sept 
 1845. 
 
 HANSE TOWNS. The Hanseatic league 
 (fromhaiisa, association), formed by port towns in 
 Germany against the piracies of the Swedes and 
 .Danes : began about 1140; the league signed 1241. 
 At first it consisted only of towns situate on the 
 coasts of the Baltic sea, but in 1370 it was composed 
 of sixty-six cities and forty-four confederates. The 
 league proclaimed war against Waldemafc king of 
 Denmark, about the year 1348, and against Eric in 
 1428, with forty ships and 12,000 regular troops, 
 besides seamen. On this several princes ordered 
 the merchants of their respective kingdoms to with- 
 draw their effects. The Thirty years' war in Ger- 
 many (1618-48) broke up the strength of the asso- 
 ciation, and in 1630 the only towns retaining the 
 name were Liibeck, Hamburg, and Bremen. The 
 league suffered also by the rise of the commerce of 
 the Low Countries in the 15th century. Their 
 privileges by treaty in England were abolished by 
 Elizabeth in 1578. 
 
 HAPSBURG (Habsbupg or Habichts- 
 
 BUBG), HOUSE OF, the family from which the 
 imperial house of Austria sprang in the nth cen- 
 tury, Werner being the first named count of Habs- 
 burg, 1096. Hapsburg was an ancient castle of 
 Switzerland, on a lofty eminence near Schintznach. 
 Rodolph, count of Hapsburg, became archduke of 
 Austria, and emperor of Germany, 1273; see 
 Austria, and Germany. 
 
 HARBOURS. England has many fine natural 
 
 harbours; the Thames (harbour, dock, and depdt), 
 
 I Portsmouth, Plymouth, See. Acts for the improve- 
 
 I ment of harbours, &C, were passed in 1847, 1861, 
 
 and 1862. 
 
 HARFLETJR, seaport, N.W. France, taken 
 ! by Henry V., 22 Sept. 1415. 
 
 HARLAW (Aberdeenshire), the site of a 
 desperate indecisive battle between the earl of 
 Mar, with the royal army, and Donald, the lord of 
 the Isles, who aimed at independence, 24 July, 1411. 
 This conflict was very disastrous to the nobility, 
 some houses losing all their males. 
 
 HARLEIAN LIBRARY, containing 7000 
 manuscripts, besides rare printed books, bought by 
 secretary Harley, afterwards earl of Oxford and 
 Mortimer, 1705, et scq., is now in the British 
 Museum. A large portion of his life and wealth 
 was spent on the collection. He died 21 May, 
 1724. The Harleian Miscellany, a selection from 
 the MSS. and Tracts of his library, was published 
 in 1744 and 1808. 
 
 HARLEY ADMINISTRATION, see Ox- 
 ford. 
 
 HARMONIC STRINGS, said to have been 
 invented by Pythagoras about 540 B.C., through 
 hearing four blacksmiths working with hammers, 
 in harmony, whose weights he found to be six, 
 eight, nine, and twelve. — The Harmonica, or 
 musical glasses, were first "arranged" by an Irish 
 gentleman named Puckeridge, and improved by 
 Dr. Franklin in 1760. 
 
HARMONISTS. 
 
 331 
 
 HASTINGS. 
 
 HARMONISTS, a sect, founded in Wiirtem- 
 burg by George and Frederick Rapp, about 1780. 
 Not much is known of their tenets, but they held 
 their property in common, and considered marriage 
 a civil contract. They emigrated to America, and 
 built New Harmony in Indiana in 1815. Kobert 
 Owen purchased this town about 1823 ; but failed 
 in his scheme at establishing a "social" community 
 and returned to England : see Socialists. The 
 Harmonists removed to Pittsburg in Pennsylvania 
 in 1822. 
 
 HARMONIUM, a keyed instrument, resem- 
 bling the accordion, the tones being generated by 
 the action of wind upon metallic reeds. The 
 Chinese were well acquainted with the effects pro- 
 duced by vibrating tongues of metal. M. Biot 
 stated, in 1810, that they were used musically by 
 M. Grenie ; and in 1827-29, free reed stops were 
 employed in organs at Beauvais and Paris. The 
 best known harmoniums in England are those of 
 Alexandre and Debain, the latter claiming to be the 
 original maker of the French instrument. In 1841, 
 Mr. W. E. Evans, of Cheltenham, produced his 
 English harmonium, then termed the Organ-Har- 
 nionica, and by successive improvements he produced 
 a fine instrument, with diapason quality, and great 
 rapidity of speech, without loss of power. English 
 Cyclopaedia. 
 
 HARNESS, chariots and the leathern dress- 
 ings used for horses to draw them, are said to have 
 been the invention of Erichthonius of Athens, who 
 ■was made a constellation after his death, under the 
 name of Bootes (Greek for ploughman), about 
 1487 B.C. 
 
 HARO, CRY OF {Clameur de Haro), tradition- 
 ally derived from fiaoul, or Rollo, of Normandy, 
 ancestor of our Norman princes of England. Bollo 
 administered justice so well, that injured persons 
 cried " a Eaoul ! " The cry was raised in a church 
 in Jersey in 1859. 
 
 HARP. Invented by Jubal, 3875 B.C. {Gen. iv. 
 21). David played the harp before Saul, 1063 B.C. 
 1 Sain, xvi. 23. The Cimbri, or English Saxons, 
 had this instrument. The celebrated Welsh harp 
 was strung with gut ; and the Irish harp, like the 
 more ancient harps, with wire. Erard's improved 
 harps were first patented in 1795. 
 
 One of the most ancient harps existing is that of Brian 
 Boroimlie, monarch of Ireland : it was given by his 
 son Donagh to pope John XVIII., together with the 
 crown and other regalia of his father, in order to obtain 
 absolution for the murder of his brother Teig. Adrian 
 IV. alleged this as being one of his principal titles to 
 the kingdom of Ireland in his bull transferring it to 
 Henry II. This harp was given by Leo X. to 
 Henry VIII., who presented it to the first earl of 
 Clanricarde : it then came into possession of the family 
 of De Burgh ; next into that of MacMahon of Clenagh, 
 county of Clare ; afterwards into that of MacNamara 
 of Limerick ; and was at length deposited by the right 
 lion. William Conynghani in the College Museum, 
 Dublin, in 1782. 
 
 HARPER'S FERRY (Virginia), see United 
 States, 1859-62. 
 
 HARRISON'S TIME-PIECE, made by 
 John Harrison, of Foulby, near Pontefract. In 
 1714, the government offered rewards for methods 
 of determining the longitude at sea ; Harrison came 
 to London, and produced his first time-piece in 
 1735 ; his second in 1739; his third in 1749; and 
 his fourth, which procured him the reward of 
 20,000/. offered by the Board of longitude, a few years 
 after. He obtained 10,000?. of his reward in 1764, 
 
 and other sums, more than 24,000/. in all, for fur- 
 ther improvements in following years. 
 
 In the patent museum at South Kensington is an eight- 
 day clock made by Harrison in 1715. It strikes the- 
 hour, indicates the day of the month, and with one- 
 exception (the escapement) its wheels are entirely 
 made of wood. The clock was going in 1871. 
 
 HARROGATE (Yorkshire). The first or old 
 spa in Knaresborough forest was discovered by capt. 
 Slingsby in 1571 : a dome was erected over the well 
 by lord Rossiyn in 1786. Two other chalybeate- 
 springs are the Alum well and the Towit spa. The 
 sulphureous well was discovered in 1783. The 
 theatre was erected in 1788. The Bath hospital was 
 erected by subscription in 1825. 
 
 HARROW - ON - THE - HILL SCHOOL. 
 
 (Middlesex), founded and endowed by John Lyon 
 in 1571. To encourage archery, the founder in- 
 stituted a prize of a silver arrow to be shot for 
 annually on the 4th of August ; but the custom has- 
 been abolished. Lord Palmerston, sir B. Peel, the 
 statesman, and lord Byron, the poet, were educated 
 here. The school building suffered by fire, 22 Oct. 
 1838. The school arrangements were modified by 
 the public schools act, 1868. Charles II. called 
 Harrow church " the visible church." 
 
 HARTLEY COAL MINE (Northumber- 
 land). On 16 Jan. 1862, one of the iron beams, 
 about 12 tons w r eight, at the mouth of the ventilating, 
 shaft, broke and fell, destroyed the brattice, divided 
 the shaft, and carried down sufficient timber to kill 
 two men who were ascending the shaft, and buried* 
 alive 202 persons, men and boys. Several days 
 elapsed before the bodies could be removed. Much 
 sympathy was shown by the queen and the public, 
 and about 50,000/. were collected for the bereaved 1 
 families. The coroner's verdict asserted the neces- 
 sity of two shafts to coal mines, and recommended 
 that the beams of colliery engines should be of 
 malleable instead of cast iron. 
 
 HARTWELL (Buckinghamshire), the retreat 
 of Louis XVIIL, king of France, 1807-14. He- 
 landed in England at Yarmouth, 6 Oct. 1807, took 
 up his residence at Gosfield-hall, in Essex, and 
 afterwards came to Hartwell, as the count de Lille. 
 His consort died here in 1810. On his restoration, 
 he embarked at Dover for France, 24 April, 1814 ; 
 see France. 
 
 HARUSPICES, priests or soothsayers, _ of 
 Etruscan origin, who foretold events from observing- 
 entrails of animals. They were introduced to Borne 
 by Romulus (about 750 B.C.), and abolished by Con- 
 stantine, a.d. 337, at which time they were seventy 
 in number. 
 
 HARVARD COLLEGE (Massachusetts, 
 North America) was founded by the general court 
 at Boston, on 28 Oct. 1636. It derived its name from 
 John Harvard, who bequeathed to it his library and 
 a sum of money in 1638. 
 
 HASTINGS, a cinque-port, Sussex; said to. 
 owe its name 10 the Danish pirate Hastinge, who 
 built forts here, about 893 ; but Mr. Kemble thinks 
 it was the seat of a Saxon tribe named Hastingas.. 
 At Senlao, now Battle, near Hastings, more than 
 30,000 were slain in the conflict between Harold II. 
 of England and William duke of Normandy, the- 
 former losing his life and kingdom, 14 Oct. 1066, 
 his birthday. He and his two brothers were interred 
 at Waltham abbey, Essex. The new town, St. 
 Leonard's-on-Sea, was begun in 1828. A new pier 
 
HASTINGS' TRIAL. 
 
 332 
 
 HAYTI. 
 
 here was inaugurated by earl Granville, 5 Aug. 
 1872. 
 
 HASTINGS' TRIAL. Warren Hastings, 
 governor-general of India, was tried by the peers of 
 Great Britain for high crimes and misdemeanours. 
 Among other charges was his acceptance of a present 
 •of 100,000^. from the nabob of Uude; see Chuneir, 
 Treaty of. The trial lasted seven years and three 
 months; commencing 13 Feb. 1788, terminating 
 in his acquittal, 23 April, 1795. Mr. Sheridan's 
 speech on the impeachment excited great admira- 
 tion. 
 
 Hastings was born in 1732 ; went to India as a writer in 
 1750 ; became governor-general of Bengal in 1772 ; of 
 India, 1773 ; governed ably, but, it is said, unscrupu- 
 lously and tyrannically, till lie resigned in 1785. The 
 expenses of bis trial (70,0002.) were paid by the East 
 India Company ; and a pension was granted to him. 
 He died a privy-councillor in 1818. 
 
 HATELY FIELD, see Shrewsbury. 
 
 HATFIELD'S ATTEMPT. On 11 May, 
 1800, during a review in Hyde-park, a shot from an 
 undiscovered hand was fired, which wounded a 
 young gentleman who stood near king Geo. III. In 
 the evening, when his majesty was at Drury-lane 
 theatre, Hat6eld fired a pistol at him. Hatfield 
 was confined as a lunatic till his death, 23 Jan. 1841, 
 aged 69 years. 
 
 HATS, first made by a Swiss at Paris, 1404. 
 "When Charles VII. made his triumphal entry into 
 Rouen, in 1449, he wore a hat lined with red velvet, 
 and surmounted with a rich plume of feathers. 
 Henceforward, hats and caps, at least in France, 
 began to take place of chaperons and hoods. 
 Henault. Hats were first manufactured in England 
 ■by Spaniards in 1510. Stow. Very high-crowned 
 bats were worn by queen Elizabeth's courtiers; and 
 Wgh. crowns were again introduced in 1783. A 
 stamp-duty laid upon hats in 1784, and in 1796, 
 was repealed in 181 1. Silk hats began to supersede 
 beaver about 1820. 
 
 rNone allowed to sell any hat for above 20'/. nor cap for 
 above 2s. 8d., 5 Henry VII. 1489. Every person above 
 seven years of age to wear on Sundays and holidays, a 
 cap of wool, knit, made, thickened, and dressed in 
 England by some of the trade of Cappers, under the 
 forfeiture of three farthings for every day's neglect, 
 1571. Excepted : maids, ladies, and gentlewomen, and 
 •every lord, knight, and gentleman, of twenty marks of 
 laud, and their heirs, and such as had borne office of 
 worship, in any city, town, or place, and the wardens 
 of London companies, 1571. 
 
 HATTERAS EXPEDITION, see United 
 
 ■States, Aug. 1861. 
 
 HATJ-HAU FANATICS, see New Zealand, 
 1865. 
 
 HAVANNAH, capital of Cuba, "West Indies, 
 founded by Velasquez, 1511 ; taken by lord Albe- 
 marle, 14 Aug. 1762; restored, 1763; the remains 
 of Columbus were brought from St. Domingo and 
 deposited in the cathedral here, 1795. 
 
 HAVRE-DE-GRACE (N. "W. France) was 
 defended for the Huguenots by the English in 1562 ; 
 who, however, were expelled 1111563. It was bom- 
 barded by Rodney, 6 to 9 July, 1759; by sir Richard 
 Strachan, 25 May, 1798; and blockaded, 6 Sept. 
 1803. The attempts of the British to burn the 
 shipping here failed, 7 Aug. 1804. The Inter- 
 national Maritime Exhibition here opened, 1 June, 
 1868. 
 
 HAWAII, see Owhyhce. 
 
 HAWKERS and Pedlars were first 
 
 licensed in 1698. Licensing commissioners were 
 appointed in 1810. The expense of licensing was 
 reduced in 1861, and regulated by the Pedlars' Act, 
 1871. 
 
 HAWKING, see Falconry. 
 
 HAYMARKET (Westminster), opened in 
 1864, was removed to Cumberland-market, I Jan. 
 183 1. The Haymarket theatre was opened in 1 702; 
 see Theatres. Mr, Buckstone manager, 1853-72. 
 
 HAYTI or HAITI, Indian name of a "West 
 Indian island, discovered by Columbus in Dec. 
 1492, and named Hispaniola, and afterwards St. 
 Domingo. Before the Spaniards fully conquered 
 it, they are said to have destroyed, in battle or cold 
 blood, three million of its inhabitants, including 
 women and children, 1495. It now comprises the 
 republics of St. Domingo in the east, and Hayti 
 in the west.. Population (1872) of Hayti, about 
 572,000; of St. Domingo, about 136,500. 
 
 Hayti seized by the filibusters and French bucca- 
 neers 1630 
 
 The French government took possession of the 
 
 whole colony 1677 
 
 The negroes revolt against France . . 23 Aug. 1791 
 And massacre nearly all the whites 21-23 June, 1793 
 The French directory recognise Toussaint l'Ouver- 
 
 tnre as general-in-chief 1794 
 
 The eastern part of the island ceded to France by 
 
 Spain 1795 
 
 Toussaint establishes an independent republic in 
 
 St. Domingo 9 May, 1801 
 
 He surrenders to the French . . . 7 May, 1802 
 Is conducted to France, where he dies . . . 1803 
 A new insurrection, under the command of Dessa- 
 
 lines ; the French quit the island . . Nov. ,, 
 Dessalines proclaims the massacre of all the whites, 
 29 March ; crowned emperor of Hayti , as Jaccmes I. , 
 
 8 Oct. 1804 
 He is assassinated, and the isle divided 17 Oct. 1806 
 Henry Christophe, a man of colour, president in 
 Feb. 1807; crowned emperor by the title of Henry 
 I., while Pethion rules as president at Port-au- 
 Prince March, 181 r 
 
 Numerous black nobility and prelates created . ,, 
 Petition dies; Boyer elected president . May, 1818 
 Christophe commits suicide, Oct. 1820; the two 
 states united under Boyer as regent for life, Nov. 
 1820 ; who is recognised by France . . . 1825 
 
 Revolution: Boyer deposed 1843 
 
 St. Domingo and the eastern part of Hayti pro- 
 claim the ••Dominican republic," Feb. 1844; recog- 
 nised by France 1848 
 
 Hayti proclaimed an empire under its late president 
 Solouque, who takes the title of Faustin I., 
 26 Aug. 1849 I crowned ... 18 April, 1852 
 Faustin attacking the republic of St. Domingo, 
 
 repulsed 1 Feb. 1856 
 
 Revolution in Hayti : general Fabre Geffrard pro- 
 claims the republic of Hayti . . 22 Dec. 1858 
 
 Faustin abdicates 15 Jan. 1859 
 
 Geffrard takes oath as president of Hayti 23 Jan. ,, 
 Sixteen persons executed for a conspiracy against 
 
 Geffrard Oct. „ 
 
 Jose Valverde elected president of the republic of 
 
 St. Domingo, or Dominican republic . March, 1S38 
 Spanish emigrants land : a declaration for reunion 
 witli Spain signed 18 March, decreed by the 
 
 queen 20 May, 1S61 
 
 Insurrection against Spain in St. Domingo, 18 Aug. 1863 
 A Spanish force sent; 'the insurgents generally 
 
 defeated . . 1864 
 
 Great fire at Port-au-Prince ; 600 houses destroyed, 
 
 23 Feb. 1865 
 St. Domingo renounced by Spain . . 5 May, ,, 
 Military insurrection under Salnave against Gef- 
 frard, 7 May ; Cape Haj^ti seized . . 9 May, ,, 
 Cabral provisional president of St. Domingo, Sept. 
 1865 ; B. Baez proclaimed president . 14 Nov. „ 
 
HEAD ACT. 
 
 333 
 
 HEIDELBEEG. 
 
 Valorogue, a rebel vessel, fires into British Jamaica 
 packet, near Acul, St. Domingo, 22 Oct. ; Capt. 
 Wake, H. M. S. Bulldog, threatens Valorogue; 
 Salnave orders the removal of refugees from 
 British consulate at Cape Hayti, shoots them, 
 and destroys the building. The Bulldog, failing 
 to obtain satisfaction, shells the fort, sinks the 
 Valorogue, but gets on a reef ; the crew is taken 
 out, and she is blown up. H.M.S. Galatea and 
 Lily take the other forts and give them up to 
 Geffrard ; the rebels flee inland . . 9 Nov. 1865 
 Capt. Wake censured by court-martial for losing 
 
 his ship Jan. 1866 
 
 Hayti — another revolt against Geffrard suppressed, 
 
 5-11 July, „ 
 Revolution ; Geffrard flies ; banished for ever ; 
 Salnave president of Hayti . . 27 March, ,, 
 
 New constitution June, „ 
 
 Revolution caused by Pimentel ; Baez flies ; Cabral 
 
 becomes president of St. Domingo . . June, „ 
 Revolt against Salnave .... Sept. 1867 
 
 The ex-emperor Faustin (born a slave, 1791), died 
 
 1 Sept. ,, 
 City of San Domingo nearly destroyed by the 
 
 hurricane 30 Oct. ,, 
 
 Insurrection against Salnave, 10 May; said to be 
 successful, 26 May; English consul protecting 
 
 foreigners June, 1868 
 
 Salnave defeats insurgents, and kills his prisoners, 
 
 3 June, „ 
 Salnave proclaims himself emperor, Aug. ; offers an 
 amnesty . . . . . . . Oct. „ 
 
 Civil war continued : Saget and Dominguez pro- 
 claimed president by their respective followers, 
 
 Oct. „ 
 Baez suppresses revolts in St. Domingo, Jime-Dec. 1863 
 Salnave finally defeated flies to the woods, 18 Dec. 
 
 1868 ; captured, tried, and shot . . 15 Jan. 1870 
 Sale of Samana bay to the United States discussed, 
 
 Jan. ,, 
 Gen. Nissage Saget elected president of Hayti for 
 
 four years (from 15 May) . . .19 March, „ 
 Baez supports an insurrection against Hayti Aug. 1871 
 Tranquillity of Hayti reported by Saget . 9 May, 1872 
 
 HEAD ACT, see note to Ireland, 1465. 
 
 HEALTH, General Board of, was 
 
 appointed by the act for the promotion of the public 
 health, passed in 1848; see Sanitary Legislation. 
 This board was reconstructed in Aug. 1854, and sir 
 Benjamin Hall was placed at its head, with a salary 
 of 2000?.; succeeded by "W. F. Cowper, Aug, 1855, 
 and by Ch. B. Adderley in 1858. The expenses for 
 the year 1856-7 were 12,325?. In 1858 this board 
 was incorporated into the privy council establish- 
 ment; Dr. Simon being retained as medical officer. 
 
 HEARTH, or Chimney, Tax, on every 
 
 fire-place or hearth in England, was imposed by 
 Charles II. in 1662, when it produced about 
 200,000?. a year. It was abolished by "William and 
 Mary at the Revolution in 1689 ; imposed again, 
 and again abolished. 
 
 HEAT (called by French chemists Caloric). 
 Little progress had been made in the study of the 
 phenomena of heat till about 1757, when Joseph 
 Black put forward his theory of latent heat (heat, 
 he said, being absorbed by melting ice), and of 
 specific heat. Cavendish., Lavoisier, and others, 
 continued Black's researches. Sir John Leslie put 
 forth his views on radiant heat in 1804. Count 
 Rumford put forth the theory that heat consists in 
 motion among the particles of matter, which view 
 he supported by experiments, on friction (i-ecorded 
 in 1802). This theory (now called the dynamical 
 or mechanical theory of heat, and used to explain 
 all the phenomena of physics and chemistry) has 
 been further substantiated by the independent re- 
 searches of Dr. J. Meyer of Heilbronn and of Mr. 
 Joule of Manchester (about 1840), who assert that 
 heat is the equivalent of work done. In 1854, 
 
 Professor "William Thomson, of Glasgow, published) 
 his researches on the dynamical power of the sun's 
 rays. Thermo-electricity, produced by heating 
 pieces of copper and bismuth soldered together, was- 
 discovered by Seebeck in 1823. A powerful thermo- 
 electric battery was constructed by Marcus of 
 Vienna, in 1865. Professor TyndaU's "Heat, a 
 Mode of Motion," first published Feb. 1863, third 
 edition, 1868. The researches of philosophers are 
 still devoted to this subject; see Calorescence. 
 Greatest heat in the hot summer of 1868 : at Not- 
 tingham, in sun, 122-4 > in shade, 92-2, 22 Julv r 
 I p.m. 
 
 Captain Ericson constructed a ship, in which caloric, or 
 heat, was the motive power. On 4 Jan. 1853, it sailed 
 down the bay of New York, at the rate of 14 miles an 
 hour, it is said at a cost of 80 per cent, less than steam. 
 Although caloric engines were not successful, capt. 
 Ericson continued his experiments, and patented an 
 improved engine in 1856. 
 
 HEBEEWS, see Jews. 
 
 HEBBIDES (the JEbudm of Ptolemy and the 
 Hebudes of Pliny), western isles of Scotland, long- 
 subject to Norway; ceded to Scotland in 1264? 
 and annexed to the Scottish crown in 1540 by 
 James V. The heritable jurisdictions were abo- 
 lished in 1747. 
 
 HEBBON (in Palestine). Here Abraham re- 
 sided, i860 B.C. ; and here David was made king of 
 Judah, 1048 B.C. On 7 April, 1862, the prince of 
 Wales visited the reputed care of Machpelah, near- 
 Hebron, said to contain the remains of Abraham 
 and his descendants. 
 
 HECATOMB, an ancient sacrifice of a hundred 
 oxen, particularly observed by the Lacedemonians- 
 when they possessed a hundred cities. The sacri- 
 fice was subsequently reduced to twenty-three 
 oxen, and goats and lambs were substituted. 
 
 HECLA, MOUNT (Iceland). Its first re- 
 corded eruption is 1004. About twenty-two erup- 
 tions have taken place, according to Olasson and 
 Paulson. Great convulsions of this mountain oc- 
 curred in 1766, since when a visit to the top in 
 summer is not attended with great difficulty. Per- 
 haps the most awful volcanic eruption on record 
 took place in 1784-5, when rivers were dried up, 
 and many villages overwhelmed or destroyed. The 
 mount was in a state of violent eruption from 
 2 Sept. 1845, to April, 1846. Three new craters 
 were formed, from which pillars of fire rose to the 
 height of 14,000 English feet. The lava formed 
 several hills, and pieces of pumice stone and scoriae- 
 of 2 cwt. were thrown to a distance of a league and 
 a half; the ice and snow which had covered the 
 mountain for centuries melted into prodigious- 
 floods. 
 
 HEGIBA, ERA OF THE, dates from the flight 
 (Arabic hejra) of Mahomet, from Mecca to Medina, 
 on the night of Thursday, 15 July, 622. The era 
 commences on the 16th. Some compute this era 
 from the 15th, but Cantemir proves that the 16th 
 was the first day. 33 of its lunar years are equal tc- 
 32 of those of the vulgar era. 
 
 HEIDELBEEG (Germany) was the capital 
 of the Palatinate, 1362- 17 19. The protestant elec- 
 toral house becoming extinct in 1693, a war en- 
 sued, in which the castle was ruined, and the 
 elector removed his residence to Mannheim. It was 
 annexed to Baden in 1802. Here was the cele- 
 brated tun, constructed in 1343, when it contained 
 twenty-one pipes of wine. Another was made in 
 
HELDER POINT. 
 
 334 
 
 HEPTARCHY. 
 
 1664, which held 600 hogsheads. It was destroyed 
 by the French iu 1688 ; but a larger one, fabricated 
 in 1 75 1, which held 800 hogsheads, and was form- 
 erly kept full of the best Rhenish, wine, is said to 
 be mouldering in a damp vault, empty, since 1769. 
 
 HELDER POINT (Holland). The fort and 
 the Dutch fleet lying in the Texel surrendered to 
 the British under the duke of York and sir Ralph 
 Abercromby, for the prince of Orange, after a 
 conflict. 540 British were killed, 30 Aug. 1799. 
 The place was left in Oct. ; see Bergen. 
 
 HELENA, ST. , an island in the South Atlantic 
 Ocean, discovered by the Portuguese under Juan 
 •de Nova Castilla, on St. Helena's day, 21 May, 
 1502. The Dutch afterwards held it until 1600, 
 when they were expelled by the English. The 
 British East India Company settled here in 1651; 
 and the island was alternately possessed by the 
 English and Dutch until 1673, when Charles II., 
 ■on 12 Dec, assigned it to the company once more. 
 St. Helena was the place of Napoleon's captivity, 
 16 Oct. 1815; and here he died 5 May, 1821. His 
 remains were removed in 1840, and interred at the 
 Hotel des Invalides, Paris ; see France, 1840. The 
 house and tomb have heen purchased by the French 
 government. The bishopric was founded in 1859. 
 Governor, adm. sir Ctias. Elliot, 1863-9 ; adm. 
 Oharles George Edward Patey, 1869. 
 
 HELIGOLAND, an island in the North Sea, 
 taken from the Danes by the British, 5 Sept. 1807; 
 made a depot for British merchandise"; confirmed 
 to England by the treaty of Kiel, 14 Jan. 1814. 
 In a naval engagement oft' Heligoland, between the 
 Danes and the Austrians and Prussians, the allies 
 were compelled to retire, 9 May, 1864. Governor, 
 ■col. Henry F. B. Maxse, 1863. 
 
 HELIOGRAPH Y (from helios, the sun), see 
 Photography. 
 
 HELIOMETER, an instrument for measur- 
 ing the diameters of the sun, moon, planets, and 
 stars, invented by Savary, in 1743 ; applied by M. 
 Bouguer, in 1744. A fine heliometer, by Repsold 
 of Hamburg, was set up at the Radclifl'e observatory, 
 •Oct. 1849. 
 
 HELIOSCOPE (a peculiar sort of telescope, 
 prepared for observing the sun so as not to affect 
 the eye), was invented by Christopher Scheiner in 
 1625. 
 
 HELIOSTAT, an instrument invented to 
 make a sunbeam stationary, or apparently sta- 
 tionary, invented by s'Gravesande about 1719, and 
 greatly improved by Malus and others. One con- 
 structed by MM. Foucault and Duboscq was ex- 
 hibited at Paris in Oct. 1862. 
 
 HELLAS, in Thessaly, the home of the Hel- 
 lenes and the Greek race, which supplanted the 
 Pelasgians from the 15th to the nth century B.C., 
 derived their name from Hellen, king of Phthiotis, 
 about 1600 B.C. They separated into the Dorians, 
 JEolians, lonians, ana Achaians. The present king 
 of Greece is called " king of the Hellenes :" see 
 Greece. 
 
 HELLESPONT (now the Strait of the Darda- 
 nelles) was named after Helle, daughter of Atha- 
 mas, king of Thebes, who was drowned here. It is 
 celebrated for the story of the loves of Hero of 
 Sestus, and Leander of Abydos : Leander was 
 -drowned in a tempestuous night as he was swim- 
 ming across the Hellespont (about one mile), and 
 
 Hero, in despair, threw herself into the sea, about 
 627 B.C. Lord Byron and lieut. Ekenhead also 
 swam across, 3 May, 1810. See Xerxes. 
 
 HELL-FIRE CLUBS. Three of these as- 
 sociations were suppressed, 1 721. They met at 
 Somerset-house, and at houses in Westminster, and 
 in Conduit-street. 
 
 HELMETS, among the Romans, were pro- 
 vided with a vizor of grated bars, to raise above the 
 eyes, and beaver to lower for eating ; the Greek 
 helmet was round, the Roman square. Richard I. 
 of England wore a plain round helmet ; but most 
 of the English kings had crowns above their 
 helmets. Alexander III. of Scotland, 1249, had a 
 flat helmet, with a square grated vizor, and the 
 helmet of Robert I. was surmounted by a crown, 
 1306. Gwillim. 
 
 HELOTS, captives, derived by some from the 
 Greek hclein, to take ; by others from Helos, a city 
 which the Spartans hated for refusing to pay tri- 
 bute, 883 B.C. The Spartans, it is said, ruined the 
 city, reduced the Helots to slavery, and called all 
 their slaves and prisoners of war Helotce. The 
 number of the Helots was much enlarged by the 
 conquest of Messenia, 668 B.C. ; and is considered 
 to have formed four-fifths of the inhabitants of 
 Sparta. In the Peloponnesian war the Helots be- 
 haved with uncommon bravery, and were rewarded 
 with liberty, 431 B.C.; but the sudden disappear- 
 ance of 2000 manumitted slaves was attributed to 
 Lacedemonian treachery. Herodotus. 
 
 HELVETIAN REPUBLIC. Switzerland 
 having been conquered by the French in 1797, a 
 republic was established April, 1798, with this title ; 
 see Switzerland. 
 
 HELVETII, a Celto-Germanic people, who 
 inhabited what is now called Switzerland. In- 
 vading Gaul, 61 b.c, they were defeated and 
 massacred by Julius CaBsar, 58 B.C., near Geneva. 
 
 HEMP AND FLAX. Flax was first planted in 
 England, when it was directed to be sown for fish- 
 ing-nets, 1532-3. " Bounties were paid to encourage 
 its cultivation in 1783; and every exertion should 
 be made by the government and legislature to ac- 
 complish such a national good. In 1785 there were 
 imported from Russia, in British ships, 17,695 tons 
 of hemp and flax." Sir John Sinclair. The im- 
 portation of hemp and flax in 1870, 5,149,135 cwts. 
 The cultivation of flax was revived at the dearth of 
 cotton during the American civil war, 1861-4. 
 
 HENGESTDOWN (Cornwall). Here Egbert 
 is said to have defeated the Danes and West 
 Britons, 835. 
 
 HENOTICON (from the Greek henotes, unity), 
 an edict of union for reconciling the Eutychians with 
 the church, issued by the emperor Zeno at the in- 
 stance of Acacius, patriarch of Constantinople, 482. 
 It was zealously opposed by the popes of Rome, and 
 was annulled by Justin I. in 518. The orthodox 
 party triumphed, and many heretic bishops were 
 expelled from their sees. 
 
 HEPTARCHY (or government of seven rulers) 
 in England was gradually formed from 455, when 
 Hengist became king of Kent. It terminated in 
 828, when Egbert became sole monarch of England. 
 There were at first nine or ten Saxon kingdoms, but 
 Middlesex soon ceased to exist, and Bernicia and 
 Deira were generally governed by one ruler, as 
 Northumbria ; see Britain, and Octarchy. 
 
HERACLID^E. 
 
 335 
 
 HERRING-FISHERY. 
 
 HERACLIDJE, descendants of Hercules, who 
 were expelled from the Peloponnesus about 1200 
 B.C., but reconquered it in 1048, 1103-4 or 1 109 B.C., 
 a noted epoch in chronology, all the history pre- 
 ceding being accounted fabulous. 
 
 HERALDRY. Marks of honour were used in 
 the first ages. Nisbet. The Phrygians had a sow ; 
 the Thracians, Mars ; the Romans, an eagle ; the 
 Goths, a bear ; the Flemings, a bull ; the Saxons, 
 ahorse ; and the ancient French, a lion, and after- 
 wards the fleur-de-lis {which see) . Heraldry, as an 
 art, is ascribed first to Charlemagne, about 800 ; and 
 next to Frederick Barbarossa, about 1152 ; it began 
 and grew with the feudal law. Mackenzie. The great 
 English works on Heraldry are those of Barcham 
 or Bai'kham, published by Gwillim (1610), and Ed- 
 mondson (1780). 
 
 Edward III. appointed two heraldic kings-at-arms 
 for the south and north (Surroy, Norroy) . . 1340 
 
 Richard III. incorporated and endowed the 
 Heralds' College 1483-4 
 
 Philip and Mary enlarged its privileges, and eon- 
 finned them by letters patent . . 15 July, 1554 
 
 Formerly, in many ceremonies, the herald repre- 
 sented the king's person, and therefore wore a 
 crown, and was always a knight. 
 
 The college has an earl marshal, 3 kings of arms 
 (Garter, Clarencieux, and Norroy), 6 heralds 
 (Richmond, Lancaster, Chester, Windsor, Somer- 
 set, and York), 4 pursuivants, and 2 extra heralds ; 
 see Earl Marshal, and Kings-of-Arms. 
 
 The building in Doctors' Commons, London, was 
 erected by sir Christopher Wren (after the great 
 fire in 1666) 1683 
 
 HERAT, on the confines of Khorasan, a strong 
 city called 'the key of Afghanistan, capital of a 
 state formed by Shah Mahmoud, in 1818. Popula- 
 tion in 1830, 100,000. The Persians, baffled in an 
 attempt in 1838 ; took it 25 Oct. 1856, in violation 
 of the treaty of 1853 ; and war ensued between 
 Great Britain and Persia. Peace was made in April, 
 1857 ; and Herat was restored 27 July following. 
 It was seized again by Dost Mahommed, 26 May, 
 1863 ; taken by Yakoob Khan, rebelling against his 
 father, 6 May, 1871. Yakoob, reconciled to his 
 father, was made governor, 16 Sept. 1871. See 
 Afghanistan, 1871. 
 
 HERCULANEITM, an ancient city of Cam- 
 pania, overwhelmed, together with Pompeii, by an 
 eruption of lava from Vesuvius, 23 or 24 Aug. 79. 
 Successive eruptions laid them still deeper under 
 the surface, and all traces of them were lost until 
 excavations began in 171 1 ; and in 17 13 many anti- 
 quities were found. In 1738 excavations were re- 
 sumed, and works of art, monuments, and memorials 
 of civilized life were discovered. 150 rolls of 
 MSS. papyri were found in a chest, in 1754; and 
 many antiquities were purchased by sir William 
 Hamilton, and sold to the British Museum, where 
 they arj deposited ; but the principal relics are 
 preserved in the museum of Portici. The " Anti- 
 chita di Ercolano," 8 vols, folio, were published by 
 the Neapolitan government, 1757-92. 
 
 HEREFORD was made the seat of a bishopric 
 about 676, Putta being first bishop. The cathedral 
 was founded by a nobleman named Milfride, in 
 honour of Ethelbert, king of the East Saxons, who 
 was treacherously slain by his intended mother-in- 
 law, the queen of Mercia. The tower fell in 1786, 
 and was rebuilt by Mr. Wyatt. The cathedral was 
 re-opened after very extensive repairs, on 30 June, 
 1863. T ne see is valued in the king's books at 768/. 
 per annum. Present income, 4200/. 
 
 BISHOPS. 
 
 1803. Folliott H. W. Cornwall, translated to Worcester. 
 
 1808. 
 
 1808. John Luxmoore, translated to St. Asaph, 1815. 
 
 1815. George Isaac Huntingford, died 29 April, 1832. 
 
 1832. Hon. Edward Grey, died 24 June, 1837. 
 
 1837. Thomas Musgrave, trans, to York, Dec. 1847. 
 
 1847. Renn D. Hampden, died 23 April, 1868. 
 
 1868. James Atlay ; consecrated 24 June. 
 
 HERERA (Arragon). Here don Carlos, of 
 Spain, in his struggle for his hereditary right to 
 the tin-one, at the head of 12,000 men, encountered 
 and defeated general Buerens, who had not much 
 above half that number of the queen of Spain's 
 troops. Buerens lost about 1000 in killed and 
 wounded, 24 Aug. 1837. 
 
 HERETICS (from the Greek hairesis, choice). 
 Paul says, "After the way they call heresy, so wor- 
 ship I the God of my fathers," 60 {Acts xxiv. 14). 
 Heresy was unknown to the Greek and Roman 
 religions. Simon Magus is said to have broached 
 the Gnostic heresy about 41. This was followed by 
 the Manichees, Nestorians, Arians, &c. ; see In- 
 quisition. It is stated that the promulgation of 
 laws for prosecuting heretics was begun by the em- 
 peror Frederick II. in 1220; and immediately 
 adopted by pope Honorius III. 
 
 Thirty heretics came from Germany to England to 
 propagate their opinions, and were branded in 
 the forehead, whipped, and thrust naked into the 
 streets in the depth of winter, where, none daring 
 to relieve them, they died of hunger and cold 
 (^ed) 1160 
 
 Certain laws against heretics repealed, 25 Henry 
 
 The last person executed for heresy in Britain was 
 Thomas Aikenhead, at Edinburgh . • . . . 1696 
 
 [The orthodox Mahommedans are Sonnites ; the 
 heretics — Shiites, Druses, &c] 
 
 HERITABLE JURISDICTIONS (t. e., 
 
 feudal rights) in Scotland, valued at 164,232/., were 
 abolished by the act 20 Geo. II. c. 43 (1747), and 
 restored to the crown for money compensation after 
 25 March, 1748. — Heritable and Movable JRiyhts, in 
 the Scottish law, denote what in England is meant by 
 real and personal property : real property in Eng- 
 land answering nearly to the heritable rights in 
 Scotland, and personal property to the movable 
 rights. 
 
 HERMANDAD, SANTA (Spanish for holy 
 brotherhood), associations of cities of Castile and 
 Arragon to defend their liberties, began about 
 the middle of the 13th century. The brotherhood 
 was disorganised in 1498, order having been firmly 
 established. It is said to have been continued as a 
 species of voluntary police. 
 
 HERMAS, author of "the Shepherd," a 
 Christian apocryphal book, supposed to have been 
 written about 131. Some believe Hernias to be 
 mentioned in Romans xvi. 14. 
 
 HERMITS, see Monachism. 
 
 HERO, British Man-of-War, see Wrecks, 
 
 1811. 
 
 HERRING -FISHERY was largely en- 
 couraged by the English and Scotch so early as the 
 8th century. The "statute of herrings," passed in 
 1357, placed the trade under government control. 
 The mode of preserving herrings by pickling was 
 discovered about 1397. Anderson The British 
 Herring- Fishery company was instituted 2 Sept. 
 1750. A scientific commission in relation to the 
 fisnery was appointed in 1862. 
 
HERRINGS. 
 
 336 
 
 HIGH CONSTABLE. 
 
 HERRINGS, Battle of the, fought 
 
 12 Feb. 1429, obtained its name from the due de 
 Bourbon being defeated while attempting to inter- 
 cept a convoy of salt fish, on the road to the English 
 besieging Orleans. 
 
 HERRNHUTERS, see Moravians. 
 
 HERSCHEL TELESCOPE, see Telescopes. 
 
 HERULI, a German tribe, which ravaged 
 Greece and Asia Minor in the 3rd century after 
 Christ. Odoacer, their leader, overwhelmed the 
 •western empire and became king of Italy, 476. He 
 was defeated and put to death by Theodoric the 
 Ostrogoth, 491-3. 
 
 HERZEGOVINA or HERTSEK (European 
 Turkey), originally a part of Croatia, was united 
 with Bosnia in 1326, and made the duchy of St. 
 Saba by the emperor Frederic III. in the following 
 century. It was ceded to Turkey in 1699 at the 
 peace of Carlowitz. In Dec. 1 861 an insurrection 
 against the Turks broke out, fostered by the prince 
 of Montenegro. It was subdued; and on 23 Sept. 
 1862, Vucatoviteh, chief of the insurgents, surren- 
 dered on behalf of his countrymen to Kurschid 
 Pasha, and an amnesty was granted. 
 
 HESSE (W. Germany), the seat of the Catti, 
 formed part of the empire of Charlemagne; from 
 the rulers of it in his time, the present are de- 
 scended. It was joined to Thuringia till about 
 1263, when Henry I. (son of a duke of. Brabant and 
 Sophia, daughter of the landgrave of Thuringia) 
 became landgrave of Hesse. The most remarkable 
 of his successors was Philip the Magnanimous 
 (1509), an eminent warrior and energetic supporter 
 of the Reformation, who signed the Augsburg Con- 
 fession in 1530 and the League of Smalcald in 1531. 
 At his death, in 1567, Hesse was divided into 
 Hesse-Cassel and Hesse-Darmstadt, under his 
 sons William and George, and their descendants 
 played an eminent part in the convulsions of Ger- 
 many during the 17th and 18th century.* In 1803 
 Hesse-Cassel became an electorate, and in 1806 
 Hesse-Darmstadt a grand duchy ; which titles were 
 retained in 1814. In 1807 Hesse-Cassel was incor- 
 porated with the kingdom of Westphalia, but in 
 1813 the electorate was re-established. Population 
 (1871), grand duchy, 852,843. 
 
 Hesse-Cassel (made an electorate, 1803; incor- 
 porated with Westphalia, 1807 ; restored, 1813). 
 
 ELECTORS. 
 
 1803 William I. ; born 3 June, 1743 ; succeeded as land- 
 grave, 1785 ; made elector, 1803 ; deprived of his 
 states. 1S06 ; restored, 1813 ; died 27 Feb. 1821. 
 
 1821. William II. ; born 28 July, 1777 ; died 20 Nov. 1847. 
 
 1847 Frederic William : born 20 Aug. 1802. 
 
 The. elector, in 1850, remodelled the constitution 
 "iven in 1831 (by which the chamber had the 
 "exclusive right of voting the taxes), and did not 
 convene the chamber until the usual time for 
 (losing the session had arrived, when his de- 
 mand lor money for 1851 was laid before it. The 
 chamber called for a regular budget, that it 
 might discuss its items. The elector dissolved 
 the chamber, and declared his dominions in a 
 state of siege, 7 Sept. 1850. 
 He fled to Hanover, and subsequently to Frank- 
 fort ; and on 14 Oct. he formally applied to the 
 
 * Six thousand Hessian troops arrived in England, in 
 consequence of an invasion being expected in 1756. The 
 sum of 471,000?. three per cent, stock was transferred to 
 the landgrave of Hesse, for Hessian auxiliaries lost in 
 the American war, at 30*. per man, Nov. 1786. The 
 Hessian soldiers were again brought to this realm at the 
 close of the last century, and served in Ireland during 
 the rebellion in 1798. 
 
 Frankfort diet for assistance to re-establish his 
 authority in Hesse. On 6 Nov. an Austro- 
 Bavarian force of 10,000 men entered Hesse- 
 Cassel, under the command of Prince Thurn- 
 und-Taxis, who fixed his head-quarters in Hanau ; 
 and on the next day a Prussian force entered 
 Cassel. The elector returned to his capital, the 
 taxes having been collected under threats of 
 imprisonment, 27 Dec 1850. 
 
 The constitution of 1831 was abolished, and a new 
 one established, 1852. 
 
 The conflict was soon resumed, and continued 
 till, by law of 20 Sept. t866, Hesse-Cassel was 
 annexed to Prussia, 8 Oct. 1866. 
 
 The ex-elector's property sequestrated for intriguing 
 against Prussia, 2 Nov. 1868 & Feb. 1869. 
 
 Hesse -Darmstadt. (Population, Dec. 1867, 
 823,138.) 
 
 GRAND-DUKES. 
 
 1806. Louis I. ; born 14 June, 1753 ; died 6 April, 1830. 
 1830. Louis II. ; born 26 Dec. 1777 ; died 16 June, 1848. 
 1848. Louis III. ; born 9 June, 1806. By treaty with 
 Prussia, 15 Sept. 1866, he ceded the northern 
 part of Hesse-Darmstadt, and paid a war con- 
 tribution. 
 Heir: his brother Charles; born 23 April, 1809; 
 whose son Louis manned princess Alice of Great 
 Britain, 1 July, 1862. 
 Issue: Ernest Louis, bom 25 Nov. 1868, and four 
 
 other children. 
 Hesse-Darmstadt supported Prussia in the Franco- 
 Prussian war, Aug. 1870. 
 
 Hesse-Homburg, a landgraviate, established by 
 Frederic, son of George of Hesse-Darmstadt, 
 
 in 1596. His descendant, Augustus-Frederic, 
 married 7 May, 1818, Elizabeth, daughter of 
 George III. of England, who had no issue. 
 
 The landgraviate was absorbed into the grand 
 duchy of Hesse in 1S06, but re-established in 
 1815 with additional territories. The landgrave 
 Ferdinand succeeded his brother, 8 Sept. 1848, 
 and died 24 March, 1866. 
 
 Hesse-Homburg annexed to Prussia, 8 Oct. 1866. 
 
 HETEROGENY, see Spontaneous Genera- 
 tion. 
 
 HEWLEY'S CHARITY, see Unitarians. 
 
 HEXAMETER, the most ancient form of 
 Greek verse, six measures or feet, each containing 
 two long syllables (a spondee), or a long one and 
 two short (a dactyl), the form of verse in which 
 Homer wrote his Iliad and Odyssey. 
 
 HEXHAM or HAGULSTAD, Northumberland. 
 The see of Hexham was founded about 678; it had 
 ten bishops successively, but by reason of the rapine 
 of the Danes it was discontinued; the last prelate 
 appointed 810. — At the Battle of Hexham the 
 Yorkist army of Edward IV. obtained a complete 
 victory over the Lancastrian army of Henry VI., 
 15 May, 1464. 
 
 HIBERNIA, Ibernia, Ivemia, and Ierne, a 
 name given to Ireland by ancient writers (Aristotle, 
 Ptolemy, &c.) ; Bee Ireland, and Wrecks, 1833. 
 
 HICKS' S HALL, Clerkenwell, London. The 
 sessions-house of the justices of Middlesex was 
 long so named on account of its having besh erected 
 for them by sir Baptist Hicks, at his own expense, 
 1611-12. 
 
 HIEROGLYPHICS (sacred engravings), 
 picture-writing, the expression of ideas by repre- 
 sentation of visible objects, used chiefly by the 
 Egyptians; said to have been invented oy Athotes, 
 21 12 B.C. Usher. Young, Champollici, Rosellini, 
 and others (in the present century) have much 
 elucidated Egyptian hieroglyphics ; see Eosetta 
 Stone. 
 
 HIGH CONSTABLE, see Constable. 
 
HIGH AND LOW CHUECH. 
 
 337 
 
 HOCHK1ECHEN. 
 
 HIGH and LOW CHUECH, sections in 
 the Church of England became prominent in the 
 reign of Anne. Dr. Sacheverel, preacher at St. 
 Saviour's Southwark, was prosecuted for two sedi- 
 tious sermons preached (14 Aug. and 9 Nov. 1709) 
 to create apprehension for the safety of the church, 
 and to excite hostility against dissenters. His 
 friends were called High Church and his opponents 
 Low Church, or moderate men, 1720. The queen 
 favoured Sacheverel, and presented him with the 
 rectory of St. Andrew's, Holborn. He died in 1724. 
 
 HIGH COMMISSION, Court of, an 
 
 ecclesiastical court, erected by I Eliz. c. 1, I559> 
 by which all spiritual jurisdiction was vested in 
 the crown. It originally had no power to fine or 
 imprison; but under Charles I. and archbishop 
 Laud it assumed illegal powers, was complained of 
 by the parliament, and abolished in 1641. 
 
 HIGH COUET OF JUSTICIAEY, see 
 Court and Law. 
 
 HIGHLANDS (of Scotland), long held by 
 semi-barbarous clans, were greatly improved by the 
 construction of military roads by general Wade, 
 about 1725-6; by the abolition of heritable juris- 
 diction of feudal rights in 1747, and by the esta- 
 blishment of the Highland and Agricultural Society 
 in 1784; see Regiments. 
 
 HIGHNESS. The title of Highness was given 
 to Henry VII.; and this, and sometimes Your 
 Grace, was the manner of addressing Henry VIII. ; 
 but about the close of the reign of the latter, the 
 titles of "Highness" and "Your Grace" were 
 absorbed in that of " Majesty." Louis XIII. of 
 France gave the title of Highness to the prince of 
 Orange, in 1644; this prince had previously only 
 the distinction of Excellency. Louis XIV. gave 
 the princes of Orange the title of High and Mighty 
 Lords, 1644. Henault. 
 
 HIGH PEIEST, see Priest. 
 
 HIGH TEEASON. To regulate the trials 
 for this crime the statute, so favourable to liberty, 
 the 25th of Edward III., 1352, was enacted, by 
 which two living witnesses are required; parlia- 
 ment having refused to sanction the sentence of 
 death against the duke of Somerset. By the 
 40 Geo. III., 1800, it was enacted that where there 
 was a trial for high treason in which the overt act 
 was a direct attempt upon the life of the sovereign, 
 such trial should be conducted in the same manner 
 as in the case of an indictment for murder; see 
 Treason. 
 
 The last two cases of execution for high treason : — 
 
 I. William Cundell alias Connell, and John Smith; 
 tried on a special commission, 6 Feb. 1812, being two of 
 fourteen British subjects taken in the enemy's service in 
 the isles of France and Bourbon. Mr. Abbot, afterwards 
 lord Tenterden and chief justice, and sir Vicary Gibbs, 
 attorney-general, conducted the prosecution, and Mr. 
 Brougham, now lord Brougham, defended the prisoners. 
 The defence was, that they had assumed the French 
 uniform to aid their escape to England. They were 
 hanged and beheaded on the lodge of Horsemonger-lane 
 gaol on 16 March, 1812. 
 
 All the other convicts were pardoned, upon condition 
 of serving in colonies beyond the seas. 
 
 II. The Cato-street Conspirators (which see), executed 
 1 May, 1820. 
 
 HIGHWAYS, see Roads. 
 
 HILLSBOEOUGH (Down, N.E. Ireland), 
 founded by sir A. Hill, in the reign of Charles I. 
 Here were held two great protestant meetings in 
 favour of the Irish church: I., on 30 Oct. 1834, 
 
 to protest against the "appropriation clause;" 
 II., 30 Oct. 1867, in consequence of a commission of 
 inquiry into the Irish church establishment, and the 
 agitation consequent thereon. 
 
 HIMEEA (Sicily). Here (in 480 b.c.) Theron 
 and Gelon of Agrigentum defeated the Cartha- 
 ginians ; and at Ecnomus, near here, the latter de- 
 feated Agathocles of Syracuse, 311 B.C. 
 
 HINDOO EEA (see Cali-yuga) began3ioi B.C., 
 or 756 before the Deluge, in 2348. The Hindoos 
 count their months by the progress of the sun 
 through the zodiac. The Samoat era begins 56 B.C. ; 
 the Saca era a.d. 79. 
 
 HINDOSTAN, see India. 
 
 HIPPODEOME, a circus for horse-riding. 
 One opened by Mr. John Whyte, near Notting-hill, 
 London, on 29 May, 1837, was closed in 1841 by the 
 Kensington vestry. 
 
 HIPPOPOTAMUS (Greek, river-horse), a 
 native of Africa, known to, but incorrectly described 
 by ancient writers. Hippopotami were exhibited 
 at Eome by Antoninus, Commodus, and others, 
 about 138, 180, and 218. The first brought to 
 England arrived 25 May, 1850, and was placed in 
 the Zoological Gardens, Regent' s-park, London ; 
 another, a female, four months old, was placed there 
 in 1854. One born here, 21 Feb. 1871, and another 
 born 1 Jan. 1872, lived a few days only ; another 
 born 5 Nov. 1872, still living. Two young ones 
 born at Paris in May, 1858, and June, 1859, were 
 killed by their mother. One born at Amsterdam, 
 29 July, 1865. 
 
 HISPANIA, Latin name of Spain. 
 
 HISPANIOLA, see Hayti. 
 
 HISTOLOGY (from histos, a web), the science 
 which treats of the tissues which enter into the 
 formation of animals and vegetables ; mainly prose- 
 cuted by the aid of the microscope. Schwann, 
 Valentin, Kolliker, Quekett, and Robin are cele- 
 brated for their researches. Professor Quekett's 
 "Lectures on Histology" were publisned in 1852 
 and 1854. 
 
 HISTOEY. The Bible, the Parian Chronicle, 
 the histories of Herodotus " the father of history," 
 and Ctesias, and the poems of Homer, are the 
 foundations of early ancient History. Later ancient 
 history is considered as ending with the destruction 
 of the Roman empire in Italy, 476. Modern history 
 dates from the age of Charlemagne, about 800. 
 There was not a professorship of modern history in 
 either of our universities until the years 1724 and 
 1736, when Regius professorships were established 
 by George I. and George II. — Royal Historical 
 Society, London, established 1868, Earl Russell 
 president, 1872. A commission was appointed 31 
 Aug. 1869, to examine historical MSS. in the pos- 
 session of institutions and private families, and to 
 publish any considered desirable. 
 
 HOBAET TOWN or HobARTON, a sea-port 
 and capital of Van Diemen'sLand, was founded in 
 1804 by col. Collins, the first lieutenant-governor, 
 who died here in 1810. 
 
 HOBHOUSE'S ACT, 1 & 2 Will. IV. c. 60, 
 
 1831, relates to vestries and charities. 
 
 HOCHKIECHEN (Saxony). Here, on 14 
 Oct. 1758, the Prussian army, commanded by 
 Frederick II., was surprised and defeated by the 
 
HOCHSTADT. 
 
 338 
 
 HOLLAND. 
 
 Austrians commanded by count Daun. Marshal 
 Keith, a Scotsman, in the Prussian service, was 
 killed. The Austrian generals shed tears, and 
 ordered his interment with military honours. A 
 conflict between the Russians and Prussians and the 
 French, in which the last were victorious, took 
 place 22 May, 1813. 
 
 HOCHSTADT, a city on the Danube, in 
 Bavaria, near which several important battles have 
 been fought: (1) 20 Sept. 1703, when the Im- 
 perialist's were defeated by the French and Bavarians, 
 under marshal Villars and the elector of Bavaria. 
 (2.) 2 Aug. 1704, called the battle of Blenheim 
 (which see). (3.) 19 June, 1800, when Moreau 
 totally defeated the Austrians, and avenged the 
 defeat of the French at Blenheim. 
 
 HOGUE, see La llogue. 
 
 HOHENLINDEN (Bavaria). Here the 
 Austrians commanded by archduke John, were 
 beaten by the French and Bavarians, commanded 
 by Moreau, 3 Dec. 1800. The peace of Luneville 
 followed. 
 
 HOHENSTATJFEN, see Germany, and 
 Guelfs. 
 
 HOHENZOLLEBN, the reigning family in 
 Prussia. Its origin is referred to Thassilo, about 
 800, who built the castle of Hohen-zollern. In 
 141 7, Frederick of Nuremburg, his descendant, was 
 made elector of Brandenburg. The princes of 
 Hohenzollern-Hechingen and Hohenzollem-Sig- 
 maringen abdicated in favour of the king of Prussia, 
 7 Deo. 1849. Charles, son of the prince of Hohen- 
 zollern- Sigmaringen , was elected prince of Roumania, 
 20 April, 1866, see JJanubian Principalities. His 
 brother Leopold, nominated candidate for the throne 
 of Spain, withdrew July, 1870. See Brandenburg, 
 and Prussia. 
 
 ■ HOLBEIN SOCIETY, for obtaining photo- 
 lithographic representations of ancient wood en- 
 gravings established in 1868, sir William Stirling 
 Maxwell, president. 
 
 HOLBOEN (Holeborne, in Doomsday book), 
 said to be identical with the river Fleet. Holborn- 
 hill, in the time of Stow, 1600, was termed " heavy- 
 hill." Gerard, the herbalist, speaks of his " house 
 in Holborne," 1597. The Holborn-theatre was 
 opened by Mr. Sefton Parry, 6 Oct. 1866, with 
 " Flying Scud," a new piece, by Mr. Dion 
 Boucicault. The Eolbom amphitheatre was opened 
 25 Mav, 1867. The Holbom valley viaduct, founded 
 by Mr. F. H. Fry, 3 June, 1867, (Mr. "William 
 Haywood, chief engineer), was opened for foot- 
 passengers 14 Oct., and inaugurated by the queen, 
 6 Nov. 1869. "Middle-row" was pulled down in 
 1867. Western Approach street opened 25 June, 1868. 
 
 HOLIDAYS, see Bank Holidays. 
 
 HOLLAND (Holloiv land, or, some say, 
 Wooded land), a kingdom, N.W. Europe, the chief 
 part of the northern Netherlands, composed of land 
 rescued from the sea, and defended by immense 
 dykes. It was inhabited by the Batavi in the time 
 of Caesar, who made a league with them. It became 
 part of Gallia Belgica, and afterwards of the kingdom 
 of Austrasia. From the 10th to the 15th century it 
 was governed by counts under the German emperors. 
 In 1861, the population of the kingdom in Europe 
 was 3,521,416; of the colonies, 18,175,910; of both 
 in 1863, 21,805,607, of the kingdom, Jan. 1869, 
 3,628,468; colonies, about 21,000,000. 
 
 The parties termed Hooks, (followers of Margaret, 
 countess of Holland,) aud Cod-fish, (supporters of 
 her son William, who endeavoured to supplan* 
 her,) create a civil war, which lasts many years . 1347 
 Holland united to Hainault, 1299 ; and Brabant . 1416 
 Annexed to Burgundy by duke Philip, who wrests 
 it from his niece Jaqueline, of Holland, daughter 
 
 of the last count 1436 
 
 Annexed to Austria through marriage of Mary of 
 
 Burgundy with archduke Maximilian . . . 1477 
 Government of Philip of Austria . . . . 1495 
 
 Of Margaret of Austria and Charles V. . . . 1506 
 
 Of Philip II. 1555 
 
 Philip II. establishes the Inquisition ; the Hol- 
 landers having zealously embraced the reformed 
 doctrines ; the Confederacy of Gueux (Beggars) 
 formed by the nobles against it . ... 1566 
 
 Compromise of Breda presented . . Jan. ,, 
 
 Commencement of the revolt under William, prince 
 
 of Orange 1572 
 
 Elizabeth of England declines the offered sovereignty, 
 
 but promises help 1575 
 
 The pacification of Ghent — union of the North and 
 
 south provinces 1576 
 
 The seven northern provinces contract the league of 
 
 Utrecht 1579 
 
 And declare their independence . . 29 Sept. 1580 
 
 Assassination of William of Orange . 10 July, 1584 
 The ten southern provinces conquered by the prince 
 
 of Parma 1585 
 
 The provinces solicit help from England and France ; 
 expedition of the earl of Leicester ; English ami 
 
 Dutch disagree 1585-7 
 
 Battle of Zutphen— sir Philip Sidney mortally 
 
 wounded 22 Sept. 1586 
 
 Prince Maurice appointed stadtholder . . . 1587 
 Death of Philip II. His son Philip III. cedes the 
 Netherlands to Albert of Austria, and the infanta 
 
 Isabella 1598 
 
 Campaigns of Maurice and Spinola . . . 1599-1604 
 Maurice defeats the archduke at Nieuport 2 July, 1600 
 The independence of the United Provinces recog- 
 nised ; truce of Antwerp for twelve years, 
 
 9 April (30 March), 1609 
 
 Batavia in Java built 1610 
 
 Fierce religious dissensions between the Arminians 
 
 and Gomarists 1610-19 
 
 Maurice favours the latter and intrigues for royal 
 
 power 1616 
 
 Synod of Dort ; persecution of the Arminians 1618-19 
 Execution of the illustrious Barneveldt 13 May, 1619 
 Renewal of the war ; Maurice saves Bergen-op-Zoom 1622 
 His tyrannical government : plot against him, and 
 
 sixteen persons executed 1623 
 
 His death ; his brother Frederick succeeds him, and 
 
 annuls the persecution 1625 
 
 Manhattan, now New York, North America, founded ; 
 
 massacre of English at Amboyna, East Indies 1624 
 
 Victories of Van Tromp, who takes two Spanish fleets 
 
 off the downs . . 16 Sept. and 21 Oct. 1639 
 
 Peace of Westphalia, the republic recognised by 
 
 Europe 1648 
 
 War with England — naval actions — Blake defeats 
 De Ruyter, 22 Oct. ; but is surprised by Van 
 Tromp, who takes some English ships, and. sails 
 through the channel with a broom at his mast- 
 head 29 Nov. 1652 
 
 Indecisive sea-fights, 12-14 June; death of Van 
 Tromp, 21 July ; peace follows .... 1653 
 
 Victorious, war with Sweden 1659 
 
 Another war with England 1665 
 
 Indecisive sea-fights, 1-4 June ; victory of Monk 
 
 over De Ruyter . , . . 25 July, 1666 
 
 Triple alliance of England, Holland, and Sweden 
 
 against France 1668 
 
 Charles II. deserts Holland ; joins France . . 1670 
 
 The French overrun Holland 1671 
 
 Desperate condition of the States — the populace 
 massacre the De Witts — William III. made stadt- 
 holder 1672 
 
 The French repelled by the sluices being opened ,, 
 
 Indecisive campaigns 1673-7 
 
 William marries princess Mary of England . 1677 
 
 Peace with France (Nimeguen) .... 1678 
 William becomes king of England . . . 1689 
 
 Sanguinary war with France . . . 1689-96 
 
 Peace of Ryswick signed . . 20 Sept. 1697 
 
 Death of William .... 8 March, 1702 
 
HOLLAND. 
 
 339 
 
 HOLSTEIN. 
 
 No stadtholder appointed — administration of 
 
 Heinsius . . '. 1702 
 
 War against France and Spain ; campaigns of Marl- 
 borough 1702-13 
 
 Peace of Utrecht .... 30 March, 1714 
 
 Holland supports the empress Maria-Theresa . 1743-8 
 William Henry hereditary stadtholder . . . 1747 
 Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle . . . 18 Oct. 1748 
 
 War with England for naval supremacy — Holland 
 
 loses colonies 1781-3 
 
 Civil wars in the Low Countries . . .1787-9 
 
 The French republicans march into Holland ; the 
 
 people declare in their favour .... 1793 
 Unsuccessful campaign of the duke of York . 1794 
 
 The Batavian republic established in alliance with 
 
 France 
 
 1795 
 
 Battle of Camperdown, Duncan signally defeats the 
 
 Dutch 11 Oct. 1797 
 
 The Texel fleet, of twelve ships of the line, with 
 
 thirteen Indiamen, surrenders to the British 
 
 admiral, without firing a gun . . 30 Aug. 1799 
 
 A new constitution is given to the Batavian republic ; 
 
 the chief officer (R. J. Schimmelpenninck) takes 
 
 the title of grand pensionary . . 26 April, 1805 
 Holland erected into a kingdom , and Louis Bonaparte 
 
 father of Napoleon III. declared king . 5 June, 1806 
 The ill-fated Walcheren expedition . July, Sept. 1809 
 Louis abdicates . . . . 1 July, 18 10 
 
 Holland united to France .... 9 July, „ 
 Restored to the house of Orange, and Belgium 
 
 annexed to its dominions . . .17 Nov. 1813 
 The prince of Orange proclaimed sovereign prince of 
 
 the united Netherlands ... 6 Dee. ,, 
 
 Religious discord between Holland and the southern 
 
 provinces 1817, &c. 
 
 The revolution in Belgium ... 25 Aug. 1830 
 
 Belgium separated from Holland . . 12 July, 183 1 
 Holland makes war against Belgium . . 3 Aug. ,, 
 Treaty between Holland and Belgium, signed in 
 
 London 19 April, 1839 
 
 Abdication of William I. . . 7-10 Oct. 1840 
 
 Death of the ex-king William I. . . 12 Dec. 1843 
 
 Louis Bonaparte, count de St. Leu, ex-king of 
 
 Holland, dies of apoplexy at Leghorn . 25 July, 1846 
 The king agrees to political reform, March ; a new 
 
 constitution granted . . ' . 17 April 1848 
 
 Death of William II. . . i 7 March, 1849 
 
 Re-establishment of a Roman Catholic hierarchy 
 
 announced 12 March, 1853 
 
 Inundations : 40,000 acres submerged ; nearly 
 
 30,000 villages made destitute Jan. and Feb. 1861 
 
 Great fire at Endschede the Manchester of Holland, 
 
 loss about a million pounds . . 7 May, 1862 
 
 The states-general pass a law for the abolition of 
 
 slavery in the Dutch West Indies . 6 Aug. „ 
 
 [To commence 1 July, 1863.] 
 Treaty for capitalising Scheldt dues signed 12 May, 1863 
 Slavery ceases in the Dutch West Indies 1 July, „ 
 50th anniversary of deliverance from France, 17 Nov. „ 
 Commencement of canal to connect Amsterdam with 
 
 the North sea 8 March, 1 
 
 The government undertake a canal to connect 
 
 Rotterdam with the sea . . . March, ,, 
 
 Commercial treaty with France . . 7 July, ,, 
 New ministry (protectionist) . . . 1 June, 1866 
 Correspondence with Prussia respecting the 
 
 Prussian garrison in Luxemburg . July-Aug. „ 
 The lower chamber barely passes a vote of censure 
 
 on the ministry respecting government of Java, 
 
 <fec. ; the king dissolves the chamber . 10 Oct. 1866 
 Alleged treaty with France respecting cession of 
 
 Luxemburg (which see) ... 22 March, 1867 
 The fortifications of Luxemburg razed . May, 1868 
 Long struggle between the ministry and the cham- 
 bers, Nov. 1867-May, 1868, the ministry resign ; a 
 
 new ministry formed by M. de Thorbecke, June, „ 
 International exhibition opened at Amsterdam by 
 
 prince Henry 15 July, 1869 
 
 Meeting of the chambers ; strict neutrality in the 
 
 Franco-Prussian war to be maintained 19 Sept. 1870 
 Cession of Dutch possessions in Guinea to Great 
 
 Britain, voted 7 July, 1871 
 
 Tercentenary celebration of the commencement of 
 
 Dutch independence by the capture of Briel, 1 Apr. 1872 
 Death of de Thorbecke, a great statesman 4 June, „ 
 A new ministry formed by Devries ■ . 29 June, „ 
 Discussions respecting the war in Sumatra (which 
 * e «) April, 1873 
 
 princes of orange (see Orange), stadtholders, 
 
 AND KINGS. 
 
 1502. Philibert de Chalons. 
 
 1530. Rene de Nassau, his nephew. 
 
 1544. William of Nassau, styled the Great, cousin to 
 Rene, recovers the principality of Orange in 1559. 
 Nominated stadtholder, 1579 ; killed by an assas- 
 sin hired by Philip II. of Spain, 16 July, 1584. 
 
 1584. Philip-William, his son ; stolen away from the 
 university of Louvain ; the Dutch would never 
 suffer him, to reside in their provinces : died 1618. 
 
 1618. Maurice, the renowned general ; became stadt 
 holder in 1584 ; he was a younger son of Wil- 
 liam by a second marriage. 
 
 1625. Frederick Henry (brother) stadtholder. 
 
 1647. William II., stadtholder: married Mary, daugh- 
 ter of Charles I. of England, by whom he had a 
 son, who succeeded in 1672. 
 
 1650-72. John De Witt, grand pensioner ; no stadtholder. 
 
 1660. William-Henry : stadtholder in 1672 ; married 
 Mary, eldest daughter of James II. of England, 
 1677. 
 
 1702-47. No stadtholder. 
 
 1702. John- William, nephew of William III., loses the 
 principality of Orange, which is annexed to 
 France. 
 
 1747. William-Henry becomes hereditarystadtholder; 
 married princess Anne of England : succeeded 
 by his son. 
 
 1751. William IV. ; retired on the invasion of the French 
 in 1795 ; died in 1806. 
 
 1795. [Holland and Belgium united to the French re 
 public. ] 
 
 KINGS. 
 
 1806 Louis Bonaparte made king of Holland by his 
 brother Napoleon, 5 June, 1806 ; abdicated, 31 
 Jul}', 1810. 
 
 1810. [Holland again united to France.] 
 
 1813. House of Orange restored. William-Frederick, 
 prince of Orange (born 1772), proclaimed 6 Dec. 
 1813 ; took the oath of fidelity as sovereign 
 prince, 30 March, 1814 ; assumed the style of 
 king of the Netherlands, i6Marcli, 1815 ; formally 
 abdicated in favour of his son, 7 Oct. 1840. ; died 
 12 Dec. 1843. 
 
 1840. William II. ; born 6 Dec. 1792 ; succeeded on his 
 father's abdication ; died 17 March, 1849, suc " 
 ' eeeded by 
 
 1849. William III., son; born 19 Feb. 1817 ; married 
 Sophia of Wiirtemburg, 18 June, 1839. 
 Heir: William, prince of Orange, born 4 Sept. 
 1840. 
 
 HOLLAND, NEW, see Australia and Aus- 
 tralasia. 
 
 HOLMPIETH FLOOD. On 5 Feb. 1852, 
 the Bilberry reservoir above Holmfirth, near Hud- 
 dersfield. Yorkshire, burst its banks, and levelled 
 four mills and many ranges of other buildings, 
 killing more than 90 persons, and devastating pro- 
 perty estimated at above half a million. 
 
 HOLSTEIN and SCHLESWIG (N.W. 
 Germany), duchies once belonging to Denmark. 
 The country, inhabited by Saxons, was subdued by 
 Charlemagne in the beginning of the 9th century, 
 and afterwards formed part of the duchy of Saxony. 
 In 1 106 or 1 1 ro, Adolphus of Schauenberg became 
 count of Holstein : his descendants ruled till 1459, 
 when Adolphus VII. died without issue, and the 
 states of Holstein and Schleswig elected Christian, 
 king of Denmark, his nephew, as their duke, through 
 fear of his arms. In 1544, his grandson, Christian 
 II., divided his states amongst his brothers, with 
 the condition that the duchies should remain subject 
 to Denmark. The eldest branch of the family reigned 
 in Denmark till the decease of Frederick VII., 
 15 No^ ., 1863. From a jounger branch (the dukes 
 of Holstein-Grotforp) descended through marriage, 
 the kings of Sweden from 1751-1818, and the 
 reigning family in Russia since 1762, when the 
 duke, as the husband of Anne, became czar. In 
 1773. Catherine II. of Russia ceded Holstein-Sot- 
 
HOLY ALLIANCE. 
 
 340 
 
 HOME EULE. 
 
 torp to Denmark in exchange for Oldenburg, &c. 
 The duchies were occupied by the Swedes in 1813, 
 but restored to Denmark in 18 14, and on 28 May, 
 1831, constituent assemblies were granted to them. 
 Since 1844 disputes have been rife between the 
 duchies ana Denmark, and in 1848 the states-general 
 of the duchies voted their annexation to the German 
 confederacy, in which they were supported by 
 Prussia; war ensued, which lasted till 1850, when 
 they submitted to Denmark. The agitation in the 
 duchies, encouraged by Prussia, revived in 1857. 
 The Germans in Schleswig desired it to be made a 
 member of the German confederation, like Holstein ; 
 but both duchies demanded a local government more 
 independent of Denmark, which changes were re- 
 sisted by that power. For the events of the war of 
 1864, see Denmark. By the convention signed at 
 Gastein {which see), 14 Aug. 1865, the government 
 of Holstein was left with Austria, and that of 
 Schleswig with Prussia. The whole of Holstein 
 and part of Schleswig were ceded to Prussia by the 
 treaty of Prague, signed 23 Aug. 1866. Population 
 in i860, 1,004,473. 
 
 HOLY ALLIANCE was ratified at Paris, 26 
 Sept. 1815, between the emperors of Kussia (its 
 originator) and Austria, and the king of Prussia, by 
 which they ostensibly bound themselves, among 
 other things, to be governed by Christian principles 
 in all their political transactions, with a view to 
 perpetuating the peace they had achieved. The 
 compact was severely censured in this country as 
 opposed to rational liberty. 
 
 HOLY BEOTHEEHOOD, see Hermandad. 
 
 HOLYDAYS ACT, see Bank Holidays. 
 
 HOLY GHOST, see Esprit. 
 
 HOLY ISLAND, see Lindisfarne. 
 
 HOLY LEAGUE, see 
 
 HOLY MAID OF KENT -Elizabeth Barton 
 was incited by the Roman Catholic party to oppose 
 the Reformation by pretending to inspirations from 
 heaven. She foretold the speedy and violent death 
 of Henry VIII. if he divorced Catherine of Spain, 
 and married Anne Boleyn, and direful calamities to 
 the nation. She and her confederates were hanged 
 at Tyburn, 21 April, 1534. Rapin. 
 
 HOLY PLACES in Palestine. These 
 
 places have been a source of contention between the 
 Greek and Latin churches for several centuries. In 
 the reign of Francis I. they were placed under Latin 
 monks, protected by the French government ; but 
 the Greeks from time to time obtained firmans from 
 the Porte invalidating the rights of the Latins, who 
 ■were at last (in 1757) expelled from the sacred 
 buildings, which were committed to the care of the 
 Greeks by a hatti-scheriff, or imperial ordinance. 
 
 The holy sepulchre partially destroyed by fire and 
 rebuilt by the Greeks, who claim additional privi- 
 leges, and cause fresh dissensions . . . 1808 
 
 The Russian and French governments sent envoys 
 (M. Dashkoff and M. Marcellus) to adjust the dis- 
 pute ; an arrangement prevented by the Greek 
 revolution 1821 
 
 The subject again agitated, and the Porte proposed 
 that a mixed commission should adjudicate on tho 
 rival claims. M. Titoff, the Russian envoy, acting 
 on behalf of the Greeks, and M. Lavalette, the 
 French envoy, on that of the Latins, took up the 
 question very warmly 1850 
 
 A firman issued by the Porte, confirming and con- 
 solidating the rights previously granted to the 
 Greek Christians, and declaring that the Latins 
 had no right to claim exclusive possession of cer- 
 
 tain holy places specified, but permitting them to 
 possess a key of the church at Bethlehem, <fcc., as 
 in former times 9 March, 1852 
 
 The French government acquiesced with much dis- 
 satisfaction ; but the Russian envoy still desired 
 the key to be withheld from the Latin monks. 
 M. D'OzerofT made a formal declaration of the 
 right of Russia to protect the orthodox in virtue 
 of the treaty of Kainardji in 1774, and demanded 
 that the firman of 9 March, 1852, should be read 
 at Jerusalem, although it militated against his 
 pretensions, which was accordingly done. The 
 dispute still continued, the Porte being exposed 
 to the attacks of both the Russian and French 
 governments March, 1853 
 
 Prince Menschikoff arrives at Constantinople as 
 envoy extraordinary, and in ad.lition to the claims 
 respecting the holy places, made demands respect- 
 ing the protection of the Greek Christians in 
 Turkey which led to the war of 1854-6. (See Russo- 
 Turkish War) 28 Feb. „ 
 
 HOLY EOMAN EMPIEE. The German 
 empire received this title under the emperor Otho I. 
 the great, crowned at Rome by pope John XII., 2 
 Feb. 962. See Borne, and Germany. 
 
 HOLY EOOD or Cross- A festival insti- 
 tuted on account of the recovery of a large piece of 
 the cross by the emperor Heraclius, after it had 
 been taken away, on the plundering of Jerusalem, 
 about 615. The feast of the invention (or finding) 
 of the Cross is on 3 May ; that of the exaltation of 
 the Cross, 14 Sept. At Boxley abbey, in Kent, was 
 a crucifix, called the Hood of Grace; at the dissolu- 
 tion it was broken in pieces as an imposture by 
 Hilsey, bishop of Rochester, at St. Paul's cross, 
 London, 1536. 
 
 HOLYEOOD PALACE (Edinburgh), for- 
 merly an abbey, was for several centuries the resi- 
 dence of the monarchs of Scotland. The abbey, of 
 which some vestiges remain, was founded by David 
 I. in 1 128, and in the burial-plr.ee within its walls 
 are interred several of his successors. The palace 
 is a large quadrangular edifice of hewn stone, with 
 a court within surrounded by piazzas. In the 
 north-west tower is the bed-chamber which was 
 occupied by queen Mary ; and from an adjoining 
 cabinet to it David Rizzio, her favourite, was dragged 
 forth and murdered, 9 March, 1566. The north- 
 west towers wpre built by James V., and the re- 
 maining part of the palace was added during the 
 reign of Chailes II. Mr. Pinkerton states that the 
 palace was burnt in 1650, and rebuilt in 1659. 
 Great improvements were made in 1857. The 
 queen held her court here, 30 Aug. 1850. 
 
 HOLY SEPULCHEE, a Byzantine church 
 in modern Jerusalem. Fergusson, Robinson, and 
 others, consider the true site of the holy sepulchre 
 to be the mosque of Omar, the " dome of the Rock." 
 The question is still undecided. The order of the 
 Holy Sepulchre was founded by Godfrey of Bouillon, 
 1099; revived by pope Alexander VI. 1496; re-or- 
 ganised, 1847 and 1868. 
 
 HOLY WAES, see Crusades. 
 
 HOLY WATEE is said to have been used in 
 churches as early as a.d. 120. Ashe. 
 
 HOLY WEEK.orthe " Week of Indulgences," 
 is the week before Faster. 
 
 HOME EULE. The Home Government As- 
 sociation (for Home Rule), established in Dublin 
 in 1870 ; held its first anniversary meeting, 26 June, 
 187 1. It includes both catholics and protestants 
 amongst its members. Mr. Isaac Butt, a leader of 
 
HOME SECEETAET. 
 
 341 
 
 HOPS. 
 
 the movement, was elected M.P. for Limerick, 20 
 Sept. 187 1. 
 
 HOME SECEETAEY, see Secretaries, and 
 all the administrations under the name of their 
 premier. 
 
 HOMEE'S ILIAD and ODYSSEY, the 
 
 earliest and most perfect epic poems in the world. 
 The first begins with the wrath of Achilles, and 
 ends with the funeral of Hector; the second re- 
 counts the voyages and adventures of Ulysses, after 
 the destruction of Troy. Various dates are assigned 
 to these works, from 962 to 915 B.C. Among the 
 thousands of volumes burnt at Constantinople, 
 a.d. 477, are said to have been the works of Homer, 
 written in golden letters on the great gut of a 
 dragon, 120 feet long. 
 
 F. A. Wolf, in his Prolegomena, in 1795, argued that the 
 Homeric poems were composed of independent epic 
 songs, collected and arranged by Peisistratus about 
 550 b. c. This theory occasioned much controversy. 
 
 The first English version of the Iliad, by Arthur Hall, 
 appeared in 158 1. The most celebrated versions of 
 Homer's works are Chapman's, 1616 ; Hobbes', 1675 ; 
 Pope's, 1715-25 ; Cowper's, 1791. The translation of 
 the Iliad by the earl of Derby (1864) is much com- 
 mended. 
 
 HOMICIDE was tried at Athens by the Areo- 
 pagites, 1507 B.C. He that killed another at any 
 public exercise of skill, or who killed another that 
 lay hid to do a person mischief of a grievous nature, 
 was not deemed guilty. He who killed a man taken 
 with another's wife, sister, daughter, or concubine, 
 or killed a man who, without just grounds, assaulted 
 another violently, was not deemed a homicide. 
 Among the Jews, wilful murder was capital ; but 
 for chance-medley the offender was to flee to one of 
 the cities of refuge, and there continue till the death 
 of the high-priest, 1451 B.C. {Num. xxxv.) 9 Geo. 
 IV. c 31 (1828), distinguishes between justifiable 
 homicide and homicide in its various degrees of 
 guilt, and circumstances of provocation and wilful- 
 ness ; see Murder. 
 
 HOMILDONHILL(Northumberland),where 
 the Scots, headed by the earl of Douglas, were de- 
 feated by the Percies (among them Hotspur), 14 
 Sept. 1402. Douglas and the earls of Angus, Mur- 
 ray, Orkney, and the earl of Fife, son of the duke 
 of Albany, and nephew rjf the Scottish king, with 
 many of the nobility and gentry, were taken pri- 
 soners. 
 
 HOMILIES in early Christian times were dis- 
 courses delivered by the bishop or presbyter, in a 
 homely manner, for the common people. Charle- 
 magne's "Homilarium" was issued 809. The Book 
 of Homilies drawn up by abp. Cranmer, and pub- 
 lished 1547) aQ d another prepared by an order of 
 convocation, 1563, were ordered to be read in those 
 churches that had not a minister able to compose 
 proper discourses. 
 
 HOMCEOPATHY, a hypothesis promulgated 
 in his "Organon of Medicine," 1810, and in other 
 works, by Dr. Samuel Hahnemann, of Leipsic (died 
 12 July, 1843), according to which every medicine 
 has a specific power of inducing a certain diseased 
 state of the system (similia similibus curantur, likes 
 are cured by likes) ; and if such medicine be given 
 to a person suffering under the disease which it has 
 a tendency to induce, such disease disappears, be- 
 cause two similar diseased actions cannot simul- 
 taneously subsist in the same organ. JBrande. 
 Infinitesimal doses of medicine, such as the mil- 
 lionth of a grain of aloes, have been employed, it is 
 
 said, with efficacy. The system requires the patient 
 to regulate his diet and habits carefully. — The 
 Hahnemann hospital was opened in Bloomsbury- 
 square, 16 Sept. 1850. Homoeopathy has led to a 
 more accurate study of the materia medica. 
 
 HOMOUSION and HOMOIOTTSION 
 
 (Greek, same essence, 'and similar essence or being), 
 terms employed with respect to the nature of the 
 Father and the Son in the Trinity. The orthodox 
 party adopted the former term as a party cry at the 
 council of Nice, 325 ; the Arians adopted the latter 
 at Seleucia, 359. 
 
 HOMS, Syria. Here Ibrahim Pacha and the 
 Egyptians severely defeated the Turks, 8 July, 1832. 
 
 HONDITEAS, discovered by Columbus in 
 1502, and conquered by the Spaniards 1523, is 
 one of the republics of Central America ; see 
 America. Great Britain ceded the Bay Islands 
 to Honduras, 28 Nov. 1859. President, general 
 J. M. Medina, elected I Feb. 1864, and in 1869. 
 Provisional president, C. Arias (Dec. 1872). War 
 with San Salvador, May, 1871, and May, 1872. 
 Population, about 350,000 (i860). British Hon- 
 duras, Central America, was settled by English 
 from Jamaica soon after a treaty with Spain in 
 1667. They were often disturbed by the Spaniards, 
 and sometimes expelled, till 1783. Balize or Belize, 
 the capital, is a great seat of the mahogany trade. 
 In 1861, the population was 25,635, and the revenue, 
 35,757?. Governor, James B. Longden, 1867 ; 
 Wm. W. Cairns, 1870. 
 
 HONEY-MOON. It was a custom to drink 
 of diluted honey for thirty days, or a moon's age, 
 after a wedding feast, and hence arose the term 
 honey-moon, of Teutonic origin. Attila the Hun 
 drank, it is said, so freely of hydromel on his 
 marriage- day, that he died of suffocation, 453. 
 
 HONG-KONG, an island off the coast of 
 China, was taken by capt. Elliott, 23 Aug. 1839, 
 and ceded to Great Britain, 20 Jan. 1841. Its 
 chief town is Victoria, built in 1842, and erected 
 into a bishopric in 1849. Sir John Bowring, gover- 
 nor from 1854 to 1859, was succeeded by sir Hercules 
 Robinson. Present governor, sir Bich. G. Mac- 
 Donnell, 1865. 
 
 HONI SOIT QUI MAL Y PENSE, "Evil 
 
 be to him who evil thinks." It is mythically said 
 that the countess of Salisbury, at a ball at court, 
 happening to drop her garter, the king, Edward III. , 
 took it up, and presented it to her, with these words, 
 which afterwards became the motto of the order of 
 the garter ; see Garter. 
 
 HONOUE. Temples were erected to Honour by 
 Scipio Africanus, about 197 B.C. , and by C. Marius, 
 about 102 b.c. — The Legion of Honour was created 
 by Bonaparte in 1802. 
 
 HONVEDS, the militia of Hungary. They 
 supported the rebellion against the emperor in 1849, 
 but on the completion of the changes whereby the 
 independence of Hungary was secured, in 1868, 
 they offered a loyal address to the emperor-king. 
 
 HOOKS AND CODFISH, party names, see 
 Holland, 1347. 
 
 HOOP-PETTICOAT, see Crinoline. 
 
 HOPS, in use in England in 1425. Harleian 
 MS. Introduced from the Netherlands into Eng- 
 land about 1524, and used in brewing; but the 
 physicians having represented that they were un- 
 
HOEATII AND CUEIATII. 
 
 342 
 
 HOSPITALS. 
 
 wholesome, their use was prohibited in 1528. 
 Anderson. In the year ending 5 Jan. 1853, there 
 were 46,157! acres under hops in England and 
 Wales, chiefly in Herefordshire, Kent, and Wor- 
 cestershire, which paid 447,144/. duty; the quantity 
 yielded was 51,102,494 lbs., whereof 955,855 lbs. 
 were exported. The duty on hops was repealed in 
 1862, after many applications. An act for prevent- 
 ing fraud in the trade was passed in June, 1866. — 
 The hop and malt exchange, Southwark, was opened 
 in Oct. 1867. 
 
 HOEATII AND CUEIATII, see Some, 
 
 669 B.C. 
 
 HOEN ; HOENPIPE. The horn is thought 
 to be, next to the reed, the earliest wind instrument, 
 and has been found among most savage nations. It 
 was first made of horn, hence tbe name ; afterwards 
 of brass, with keys, for the semi-tones, in the last 
 century. — The dance called the Hornpipe is sup- 
 posed to be so named from its having been per- 
 formed to the Welsh pib-corn, that is hornpipe, 
 about 1300. Spencer. 
 
 HOEJSTE TOOKE, &c. The trial of Messrs. 
 Hardy, Tooke, Joyce, Thelwall, and others, on a 
 charge of high treason, caused a great sensation. 
 They were taken into custody on 20 May, 1794. 
 Mr. Hardy was tried 29 Oct., and, after a trial of 
 eight days, was honourably acquitted. John Home 
 Tooke was tried and acquitted, 20 Nov. ; and Mr. 
 Thelwall was acquitted, 5 Dec; the' others were 
 discharged. Acts were passed to prohibit Mr. Thel- 
 wall' s political lectures in 1795. 
 
 HOEOLOGY, see Clocks. The British Horo- 
 logical institute, Clerkenwell, London, established 
 in 1858, for the benefit of watchmakers, published a 
 monthly journal. 
 
 HOESE. The people of Thessaly were excel- 
 lent equestrians, and probably first among the 
 Greeks who broke them in for service in war ; 
 whence probably arose the fable that Thessaly was 
 originally inhabited by centaurs. "Solomon had 
 40,000 stalls of horses for his chariots, and 12,000 
 horsemen," 1014 B.C. 1 Kings iv. 26. The Greeks 
 and Romans had some covering to secure their 
 horses' hoofs from injury. In the 9th century 
 horses were only shod in time of frost. Shoeing 
 was introduced into England by William I., 1066. 
 See Races. 
 
 The horse-tax was imposed in 1784. Its operation 
 was extended, and its amount increased, in 1796 ; 
 and again in 1808. The existing duty upon 
 "horses for riding" only, in England, amounts to 
 about 350,0002. per year 1862 
 
 Annual licence duty on horses and mules, 10s. 6d. 
 each ; horse-dealers' licence, 12I. 10s. . . . 1873 
 
 Mr. J. S. Rarey, an American, made a great sensa- 
 tion in London by taming vicious and wild horses, 
 and even a zebra from the Zoological Gardens. 
 His system is founded on a profound study of the 
 disposition of the animal, and on kindness. He 
 initiated many illustrious persons in his method 
 (on 20 March, lord Palmerston and twenty others) 
 binding them to secrecy ; from which they were 
 released in June, when his book was reprinted in 
 England without his consent . . 1858, 1859 
 
 He was engaged to instruct cavalry officers and 
 riding masters of the army . . . July, 1859 
 
 He gave a lecture to the London cabmen, which 
 was well received, 12 Jan. i860 ; and in the Bame 
 year he received a present of 20 guineas from the 
 Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, 
 
 May, i860 
 
 Great annual horse-shows held at the Agricultural 
 Hall, Islington, began .... July, 1864 
 
 Horse-flesh. An establishment for the sale of it as 
 human food was opened at Paris on 9 July, 1866, 
 
 with success, and its use as food strongly advo- 
 cated. About 150 persona (including sir Henry 
 Thompson and sir John Lubbock) dined on horse- 
 flesh at the Langhani hotel, London . . 6 Feb. 1868 
 
 Horse-shoes. Goodenough's American horse-shoes, 
 made by machinery, put on cold (patented i860), 
 were used by the London omnibus company, 
 Oct.-Dec. 1868. The international horseshoe, 
 company for adopting the patent was established 
 early in 1870 
 
 Horse epidemic (" epizootic "), from Canada, at New- 
 York, Boston, &c. , caused much inconvenience, 
 
 Oct. 1872 
 
 Reported scarcity of horses in Britain ; a commis- 
 sion of inquiry appointed .... Feb. 1873 
 
 HOESE GUAEDS. The regiment is said to 
 have been instituted in the reign of Edward VI. 
 1550, and revived by Charles II. 1661. The first 
 troop of Horse Grenadier Guards was raised in 1693, 
 and was commanded by general Cholmondeley ; and 
 the second troop, commanded by lord Forbes, was 
 raised in 1702. There was a reduction of the Horse 
 and Grenadier Guards, and Life Guards, as now 
 established, were raised in their room, 26 May, 
 1788. Philips. The present edifice called the 
 Horse Guards was erected about 1758. In the front 
 are two small arches, where horse-soldiers, in full 
 uniform, daily mount guard. In the building was 
 formerly the office of the commander-in-chief, now 
 inPalfMall. 
 
 HOESE-EACING, see Races. 
 
 HOETENSIAN LAW, passed by Q. Hor- 
 tensius, dictator, 286 B.C., after the secession of the 
 plebeians to the Janieulum, affirmed the legi^ative 
 power granted them by previous laws in 446 and 
 336 B.C. 
 
 HOETICULTUEE (from hortutrtmA eultura), 
 
 the art of cultivating gardens ; see Gardening. 
 
 The (now royal) Horticultural society of London 
 founded by sir Joseph Banks and others in 1804 ; 
 incorporated, 17 April, 1809; transactions first 
 
 published 1812 
 
 Planting the garden at Chiswick begun . . . 1822 
 
 Annual exhibitions 1831 
 
 The library sold . . ■ 1859 
 
 Proposal for laying out a garden for the society on 
 the Brompton estate, belonging to the Crystal 
 Palace Commissioners, July, 1859 ; received the 
 support of the queen, nobility, &c. , ami Mr. 
 Nesfield's design was adopted, May, i860 ; the 
 new gardens opened by the prince consort, who 
 planted a IVcllinytonia gigantea (ivhich see) 
 
 5 June, 1861 
 The queen also planted one on . . 24 July, ,, 
 Dr. John Lindley (who "raised horticulture from 
 an empirical art to a developed science ") secre- 
 tary, 1822-62 died 1 Nov. 1865 
 
 The Albert memorial uncovered in the presence of 
 
 the prince and princess of Wales . . 10 June, 1863 
 An International Horticultural exhibition was 
 
 opened in the gardens. . . . 23-31 May, 1866 
 Horticultural societies established at Edinburgh, 
 1809 ; at Dublin 1817 
 
 HOSIEEY, see Stockings, and Cotton. 
 
 HOSPITALLEES, see Malta. 
 
 HOSPITAL SUNDAY. Near the end of 
 1872, it was proposed that collections for the benefit 
 of hospitals and dispensaries in London should be 
 annually made on one Sunday in the year at all 
 places of worship. A committee for effecting this 
 met at the Mansion-house, 31 Jan. 1873 ; and soon 
 after 15 June was appointed as the day for the 
 collection. 
 
 HOSPITALS, originally Hospitia for the 
 reception of travellers. That at Jerusalem, built 
 by the knights of St. John, 11 12, was capable of 
 receiving 2000 guests, and included an infirmary 
 
HOST. 
 
 343 
 
 HUDSON'S BAY. 
 
 for the sick. The richly endowed " five royal 
 hospitals" under " the pious care of the lord-mayor 
 of London," &c, are St. Bartholomew's, St. 
 Thomas's, Bridewell, Bethlehem, and Christ's ; 
 which see, and Infirmaries, and Dispensaries. 
 
 Bethlehem (oldest lunatic asylum in Europe except 
 
 one at Granada) founded 1547 
 
 Cancer, Brompton 1S51 
 
 Charing-cross, founded 1818 ; new hospital built . 1831 
 
 Consumption, Brompton 1841 
 
 Dreadnought ship (seaman's) 1821 
 
 Dental 1858 
 
 Evelina (baron Rothschild's) 1869 
 
 Fever 1802 
 
 Free Royal, Gray's Inn-lane 1828 
 
 German, Dalston 1845 
 
 Great Northern 1856 
 
 Guy's (see Guy's) 1721 
 
 Hahnemann (homoeopathic) 1850 
 
 Idiots' 1847 
 
 Incurables 1850 
 
 Jews' 1747 
 
 King's College 1839 
 
 Lock 174 6 
 
 London i74° 
 
 Lying-in, British . . . . . . .1749 
 
 ,, City of London 1750 
 
 ,, General, Lambeth 1765 
 
 „ Queen Charlotte's 1752 
 
 ,, Queen Adelaide's 1824 
 
 London Ophthalmic, Finsbury 1804 
 
 London Ophthalmic, Gray's Inn-road . . . 1843 
 
 Middlesex 174S 
 
 Orthopaedic 1838 
 
 Samaritan Free, for women and children . . . 1847 
 
 Small Pox 1746 
 
 St. Bartholomew's (see Bartholomew, St.) . 1102, 1546 
 
 St. George's 1733 
 
 St. Luke's (lunatics) 17S1 
 
 St. Mark's 1835 
 
 St. Mary-le-bone 1871 
 
 St. Mary's, Paddington 1843 
 
 St. Thomas's (removed 1862 and 1871) . . . . 1553 
 
 Sick Children 1851 
 
 University College 1833 
 
 Westminster i7 I 9 
 
 Women's, Soho-square 1843 
 
 HOST, Elevation of the, introduced into 
 
 Eoman Catholic worship, and prostration, said to 
 have been enjoined about 1201. Pope Gregory IX. 
 was the first pontiff who decreed a bell to be rung 
 as a signal for the people to betake themselves to 
 the adoration of the host, 1228. Pees. 
 
 HOT BLAST, see Blowing Machine. 
 
 H6TEL DE VILLE, Paris, the residence 
 of the chief magistrate, the prefect of the Seine, was 
 began in 1533, and completed, after his own design, 
 by Dominico da Cortona, 1628. Here La Fayette 
 introduced Louis-Philippe, the citizen-king, to the 
 people, Aug. 1830 ; and here the republic was pro- 
 claimed, 26 Feb. 1848. The communists, who had 
 established themselves here, set fire to the building, 
 24 May, 187 1, after their total defeat. The H6tel 
 was ordered to be rebuilt, April, 1873. 
 
 HOUR. The early Egyptians divided the day 
 and night each into twelve hours, a custom adopted 
 by Jews or Greeks probably from the Babylonians. 
 The day is said to have been first divided into hours 
 from 293 B.C., when L. Papirius Cursor erected a 
 sun-dial in the temple of Quirinus at Kome. Pre- 
 viously to the invention of water-clocks (which see) 
 158 B.C., the time was called at Rome by public 
 criers. In England, the measurement of time was, 
 in early days, uncertain: one expedient was by 
 wax candles, three inches burning an hour, and six 
 wax candles burning twenty-four hours, said to 
 have been invented by Alfred, a.d. 886 ; see Day. 
 For Sours of Prayer, see Breviary. The Sour, 
 
 daily convervative newspaper, first appeared, 24 
 March, 1873. 
 
 HOUSE DUTY was imposed in 1695. Its 
 rate was frequently changed till its repeal. It was 
 re-imposed as a substitute for the window-tax, in 
 1851. 
 
 HOUSEHOLD SUFFBAGE, after one 
 year's residence, w#s introduced into parliamentary 
 elections for boroughs, by the reform act passed 15 
 Aug. 1867. 
 
 HOUSELESS POOB ACT (Metropolitan) 
 passed, 1864; made perpetual, 1865. See Poor. 
 
 HOUSE of Commons, Lords, &c, see 
 Parliament, Lords, and Commons. 
 
 HOWABD ASSOCIATION, instituted in 
 1866, under the patronage of the late lord Brougham, 
 for the improvement of prison discipline and pre- 
 vention of crime. See Prisons. 
 
 HOWABD FAMILY. John Howard, son 
 of Margaret, the heiress of the Mowbrays, was 
 created earl marshal and the 7th duke of Norfolk in 
 1483. He was slain with his master, Eichard III., 
 at Bosworth, 22 Aug. 1485. His son was restored 
 to the earldom of Surrey in 1489 ; in reward for 
 having gained the victory of Flodden, 9 Sept. 1513, 
 he was created the 8th duke of Norfolk, in 1514. 
 Thomas, the 10th duke, was beheaded for conspiracy 
 against queen Elizabeth on behalf of Mary, queen 
 of Scots, in 1572. Henry Fitzalan Howard, now 
 the 2ist duke of Norfolk, and the 18th of the 
 Howard family, premier duke and earl of England 
 and hereditary earl marshal, was born in 1847. 
 
 HOWITZEB, a German piece of ordnance, 
 ranking between a cannon and a mortar, came into 
 use early in the 18th century. 
 
 HUBEBTSBUBG (Saxony). The treaty 
 between the empress, the king of Prussia, and the 
 elector of Bavaria, signed here, 15 Feb. 1763, ended 
 the Seven years' war, whereby Prussia gained 
 Silesia. 
 
 HUDIBBAS. The first three cantos of this 
 political satire, by Samuel Butler, appeared in 
 1663 ; the other parts in 1664 and 1678. 
 
 HUDSON'S BAY, discovered by Sebastian 
 Cabot, 1512, and re-discovered by captain Henry 
 Hudson, when in search of a north-west passage to 
 the Pacific Ocean, 1610, had been visited by 
 Frobisher. The " governor and company of adven- 
 turers of England trading to Hudson's Bay," obtained 
 a charter from Charles II. in 1670. The "fertile 
 belt" was settled by lord Selkirk in 1812. For 
 these territories the bishopric of Rupert's Land 
 was founded, 1849. The charter having expired, 
 the chief part of the company's territories, on the 
 proposition of earl Granville, the colonial secretary 
 (9 March, 1869), were transferred to the dominion 
 of Canada for 300,000^. , and a right to claim a cer- 
 tain portion of land within fifty years, and other 
 privileges ; the company having consented to this, 
 9 April, 1869. A portion of the people resisted the 
 annexation, and general Louis Riel proclaimed 
 independence and seized the company's treasury, 
 Jan. 1870. On 3 March he tried and shot Thomas 
 Scott, a Canadian, who had escaped from his cus- 
 tody. Col. Wolseley conducted a Canadian expedi- 
 tion to the territories (now named Manitoba), and 
 issued a proclamation to the loyal inhabitants, 
 23 July, saying " our mission is one of peace." 
 Riel was unsupported and offered no resistance. The . 
 
HUE AND CRY. 
 
 344 
 
 HUNGARY. 
 
 lieut. -governor, Adams George Archibald, arrived 3 
 Sept. See Manitoba. 
 
 HUE AND CRY, the old common-law pro- 
 cess of pursuing " with horn and with voice," from 
 hundred to hundred, and county to county, all 
 robbers and felons. Formerly, the hundred was 
 bound to make good all loss occasioned by the rob- 
 beries therein committed, unless the felon were 
 taken ; but by subsequent laws it is made answer- 
 able only for damage committed by riotous 
 assemblies. The pursuit of a felon was aided 
 by a description of him in the Hue and Cry, a 
 gazette established for advertising felons in 1 7 10. 
 Ashe. 
 
 HUGUENOTS, a term (derived by some from 
 the German Eidgenossen, confederates ; by others 
 from Hugues, a Genevese Calvinist) applied to the 
 Reformed party in France, followers of Calvin. 
 They took up arms against their persecutors in 
 1561. After a delusive edict of toleration, a great 
 number were massacred at Vassy, 1 March, 1562, 
 when the civil wars began, which lasted with some 
 intermission till the edict of Nantes in 1598 (re- 
 voked in 1685. The massacre of St. Bartholomew's 
 day, 24 Aug. 1572, occurred during a truce; see 
 Calvimsts, Protestants, Bartholomew. Edict, and 
 Camisard. S. Smiles's " History of the Huguenots," 
 appeared in 1867. 
 
 HULL (E. Yorkshire), a rising commercial 
 place in 1200, was named Kingston-upon-Hull in 
 1296 by Edward I., who purchased the town, 
 formed the port, and granted a charter. Great fire ; 
 damage about 100,000/., 15 Aug. 1864. Eoyal 
 Albert dock opened by the prince of "Wales, 21 
 July, 1869. 
 
 HULSE'S FOUNDATIONS. The rev. 
 John Hulse, who died in 1790, bequeathed his 
 estates in Cheshire to the university of Cambridge 
 for the advancement of religious learning : — by the 
 maintenance of two scholars; the payment of a 
 prize of 40*'. annually for a theological dissertation ; 
 the establishment of the office of Christian advocate 
 (made a professorship of divinity, 1 Aug. i860) ; and 
 the payment of a lecturer, to be chosen annually. 
 The first Hulsean lectures were given by the rev. 
 Christopher Benson, in 1820. 
 
 HUMAITA, a strong pi 1st on the river Para- 
 guay, fortified at a great cost with a battery of 
 300 cannon, by Lopez, the president of Paraguay, 
 and believed to be impregnable, was passed by the 
 Brazilian ironclads, 17 Feb. 1868. On the 19th, 
 Casias, the Brazilian general, stormed a Avork to 
 the north of Humaita, and captured many stores. 
 Humaita itself, after a severe siege, was abandoned, 
 24 July, 1868. 
 
 HUMANE SOCIETY, ROYAL (London), 
 for the recovery of persons apparently drowned, 
 was founded in 1774, by Drs. Goldsmith, Heberden, 
 Towers, Lettsom, Hawes, and Cogan, but princi- 
 pally by the last three. The society has above 280 
 depots supplied with apparatus. The principal one 
 was erected in 1794, on a spot of ground given by 
 George III. on the north side of the Serpentine 
 river, Hyde-park. The motto of this society- 
 is appropriate — " Lateat scintillula forsan" — 
 "a small spark may perhaps lie hid;" see 
 Drowning. 
 
 HUMILIATI, a congregation of monks, said 
 to have been formed by some Milanese nobles, who 
 had been imprisoned by Frederick I. 1162. The 
 order had more than ninety monasteries ; but 
 
 was abolished for luxury and cruelty by pope 
 Pius V., and the houses were given to the 
 Dominicans, Cordeliers, and other communities in 
 1570. 
 
 HUMMING-BIRDS. Mr. Gould's beautiful 
 collection of the skins of these birds was exhibited 
 at the Zoological Gardens, London, in 1851. His 
 elaborate work on them in five folio volumes, with 
 richly coloured plates, was completed in 1862. 
 
 HUNDRED, a Danish institution, was a part 
 of a shire, so called, as is supposed, from its having 
 been composed of a hundred families, at the time 
 the counties were originally divided, about 897. 
 The hundred-court is a court-baron held for all the 
 inhabitants of a hundred instead of a manor. Law 
 Dictionary. 
 
 Hundred days ; a term given to Napoleon's resto- 
 ration, dating from his arrival in Paris, 20 March, 
 to his departure on .... 29 June, 1815 
 
 Hundred years' war, in French history, com- 
 menced with the English invasion in 1337. 
 
 HUNGARY, part of the ancient Pannonia and 
 Dacia, was subjected to the .Romans about 106, and 
 retained by them till the 3rd century, when it was 
 seized by the Goths, who were expelled about 376 
 by the Huns. See Huns, and Attila. After Attila's 
 death, in 453, the Gepidae, and in 500 the Lombards 
 held the country. It was acquired by the Avars 
 about 568, and retained by them till their destruc- 
 tion by Charlemagne in 799. About 890 the 
 country was settled by a Scythian ti-ibe, named 
 Vingours or Ungri (whence the German name 
 TJngarri) and the Magyars of Finnish origin. The 
 chief of the latter, Arpad (889), was the ancestor of 
 a line of kings (see below). The progress of the 
 Magyars westward was checked by their defeat by 
 the emperor Henry the Fowler, 934. Population, 
 31 Dec. 1869, 11,188,502. See Austria. 
 
 Stephen, founder of the monarchy of Hungary, em- 
 braces and establishes Christianity and subdues 
 the Slaves, <fec, receives the title of the Apestolic 
 king from the pope 997 
 
 The Poles overrun Hungary 1061 
 
 Bela III. introduces the Greek civilisation 1174, <tc. 
 
 Ravages of the Tartars under the sons of Genghis 
 Khan, throughout Hungary , Bohemia, and Russia, 
 
 1 24 1 et seq. 
 
 Golden Bull of Andrew II. granting personal 
 rights I22 2 
 
 Death of Andrew III. , end of the Arpad dynasty . 1301 
 
 Victories of Louis the Great in Bulgaria, Servia, 
 and Dalmatia 1344-82 
 
 He marches into Italy and avenges the murder of 
 his brother, Andrew, king of Naples . . . 1348 
 
 Sanguinary anarchy : Elizabeth, queen of Louis, 
 is drowned: and King Mary, the daughter, mar- 
 ries Sigismond, of Brandenburg ; they govern with 
 great severity ^82 
 
 [The Hungarians had an aversion to the name of 
 queen; and whenever a female succeeded to the 
 throne, she was termed king.] 
 
 Sigismond's atrocious cruelties compel his subjects 
 to invite the assistance of the Turks . . . 1393 
 
 Battle of Nicopolis : Bajazet vanquishes Sigismond 
 and a large army 2 8 Sept. 1396 
 
 Sigismond obtains the crown of Bohemia, and is 
 elected emperor of Germany 1410 
 
 Albert of Austria succeeds to the throne of 
 Hungary I437 
 
 Victories of the great John Hunniades (reputed 
 illegitimate son of Sigismond) over the Turks 1442-4 
 
 Who obtain a truce of ten years 1444 
 
 Broken by Ladislas king of Hungary (at the pope's 
 instigation) ; he is defeated and slain, with the 
 papal legate, at Varna .... 10 Nov. 1444 
 
 John Hunniades escapes ; becomes regent . 1444-53 
 
 Raises siege of Belgrade, 14 July ; dies 10 Sept. . 1456 
 
 Hungarians insult Turkish ambassadors; war en- 
 sues : Solyman II. takes Buda .... 1526 
 
HUNGAEY. 
 
 345 
 
 HUNGAEY. 
 
 29 Aug. 1526 
 
 1606 
 
 1686 
 
 1740 
 1784 
 1790 
 
 Disastrous battle of Mohatz (which see) 
 
 Hungary subject to Austria 
 
 Peace of Vienna, granting toleration to Protestants, 
 
 23 June, 
 
 John Sobieski defeats the Turks in several battles, 
 and raises the siege of Vienna . . 12 Nov. 
 
 The duke of Lorraine retakes Buda (which see) 
 
 Prince Louis of Baden defeats the Turks at Salenc- 
 kenien 19 Aug. 1691 
 
 Prince Eugene defeats them at Zanta 11 Sept. 1697 
 
 Peace of Carlowitz .... 26 Jan. 1699 
 
 Pragmatic sanction, authorising female succession 
 to the throne 1722-3 
 
 Servia and Wallachia ceded to Turkey at the peace 
 of Belgrade 1739 
 
 The Hungarians enthusiastically support Maria- 
 Theresa against France and Bavaria 
 
 The protestants permitted to have churches . . 
 
 Independence of Hungary guaranteed . . . 
 
 The diet meets ; Hungarian academy established . 1825 
 
 The people, long discontented with the Austrian 
 rale, break out into rebellion . . 11 Sept. 
 
 Murder of the military governor, count Lamberg, 
 by a mob at Pesth ; the Hungarian diet appoint 
 a provisional government under Kossuth and 
 Louis Batthyany, 28 Sept. ; Hungarians defeat 
 the ban of Croatia 29 Sept. 
 
 The diet denounces as traitors all who acknowledge 
 the emperor of Austria as king of Hungary, 
 
 8 Dec. 
 
 The insurgents defeated by the Austrians at 
 Szaikszo, 21 Dec. ; at Mohr by the ban Jellachich, 
 
 29 Dec. 
 
 Buda-Pesth taken by Windischgratz . 5 Jan. 
 
 Bern defeats the Austrians at Hermannstadt, 
 
 21 Jan. 
 
 Hungary declares itself a free state; Kossuth 
 supreme governor .... 14 April, 
 
 The Hungarians defeat the Imperialists before Gran, 
 
 18 April, 
 
 March of the Russian army through Gallicia to 
 assist the Austrians 1 May, 
 
 The Austro-Russian troops defeat the Hungarians 
 at Pered 20 June, 
 
 Battles of Acs between the Hungarians and Aus- 
 trians ; former retire . . . . 2, 10 July, 
 
 Hungarians defeat Jellachich . . -14 July, 
 
 The Hungarians defeated by the Russians : Gorgey 
 retreats after three days' battle . 15 July, 
 
 Battle before Komorn, between the insurgents and 
 the Austro-Russian army ... 16 July, 
 
 Insurgents under Bern enter Moldavia, 23 July ; 
 defeated by the Russians at Schassberg 31 July, 
 
 Utter defeat of the Hungarian army before Temes- 
 war, by gen. Haynau .... 10 Aug. 
 
 Gorgey and his army surrender to the Russians, 
 
 13 Aug. 
 
 Kossuth, Bern, &c, escape to the Turkish frontiers, 
 and are placed under protection at New Orsova 
 (see Turkey) 21 Aug. 
 
 Komorn surrenders to the Austrians ; close of the 
 
 war 27 Sept. 
 
 Louis Batthyany tried at Pesth, and shot ; many 
 other insurgent chiefs put to death . . 6 Oct. 
 
 Amnesty granted to the Hungarian insurgents, who 
 return home 16 Oct. 
 
 Bern dies at Aleppo .... 10 Dec. 1850 
 
 The country remains in an unsettled state ; many 
 executions 1853-5 
 
 Crown of St. Stephen and royal insignia discovered 
 and sent to Vienna .... 8 Sept. 1853 
 
 Amnesty for political offenders of 1848-9 12 July, 1856 
 
 The emperor and empress visit Buda . 4 May, 1857 
 
 During the Italian war in 1859, an insurrection in 
 Hungary was in contemplation, and communica- 
 tions took place between Louis Napoleon and 
 Kossuth ; which circumstances it is said led the 
 emperor of Austria to accede to the peace of Villa- 
 franca so suddenly, and shortly afterwards to 
 promise many reforms and to grant more liberty 
 to the protestants in Hungary . Aug. -Oct. 1859 
 Recall of archduke Albert; general Benedek ap- 
 pointed governor April, i860 
 
 Demand for restoration of the old constitution ; re- 
 union of the Banat and Voivodina with Hungary, 
 
 Ac Oct. „ 
 
 Restoration of old constitution promised 20 Oct. „ 
 Schmerling appointed minister . . 13 Dec. „ 
 
 1862: 
 1863. 
 
 1865, 
 
 National conference at Gran . . . Dec. 1860- 
 
 Demand for the constitution of 1848 . Jan. 1861. 
 
 The emperor promulgates a new liberal constitu- 
 tion for the empire 26 Feb. ,,. 
 
 "Which does not satisfy the Hungarians March, „ 
 
 Hungarian diet opened .... 6 April, „, 
 
 Meeting of the Reichsrath at Vienna : no deputies 
 present from Hangary or Croatia . 29 April, ,,, 
 
 Count Teleki (see Austria, i860) found dead in his 
 bed at Pesth : intense excitement . 8 May, „. 
 
 The diet votes an address to the emperor, desiring 
 restoration of the old constitution . . 5 July, ,,. 
 
 The military begin to levy the taxes . . July, ,> 
 
 Imperial rescript refusing the entire independence 
 of Hungary, 21 July : the diet protests, 20 Aug. ; 
 and is dissolved .... 21 Aug. „, 
 
 The archbishop of Gran, the primate, indignantly 
 protests against the act of the imperial govern- 
 ment Sept. -Oct. ,, 
 
 Summoned to Vienna ; he stands firm 25 Oct. , y 
 
 The magistrates in the comitat of Pesth resign; 
 military government established ; passive resist- 
 ance of the nobility Dec. „ 
 
 Amnesty declared for political offences, and cessa- 
 tion of prosecutions . . . .18 Nov. 
 
 Newspapers confiscated for publishing seditious 
 speeches 29 March, 
 
 The emperor visits Buda-Pesth ; well received ; 
 inauguration of a new policy ; the rights of Hun- 
 gary to be restored .... 6-9 June, 
 
 Imperial rescript, abolishing the representative con- 
 stitution of the empire, with the view of restoring 
 independence of Hungary, &c. . . 21 Sept. 
 
 The Deak or moderate party demand restoration of 
 the monarchy, with a responsible government, 
 
 11 Nov. 
 
 The emperor visits Pesth ; the diet opened, 14 Dec. ; 
 Carl Szentivanyi elected president . 20 Dec. 
 
 Emperor and empress arrive at Pesth . 29 Jan. 
 
 Hungarian legions join the Prussian army, June ; 
 (after the peace, they were allowed to return to 
 their allegiance) . . . . . . Oct. 
 
 Prolonged political negotiations for autonomy; 
 Deak and national party wearied, threaten to 
 break off Oct. 
 
 Hungarian diet opened by a conciliatory rescript, 
 
 19 Nov. 
 
 Deak's address in reply, demanding the restoration 
 of the constitution, adopted by the diet with a 
 large majority 15 Dec. 
 
 Much opposition to the convocation of the Reichs- 
 rath Jan. 
 
 Restoration of the constitution of 1848 ; an inde- 
 pendent ministry appointed, headed by count 
 Julius Andrassy 17 Feb. 
 
 The Croats protest against incorporation with 
 Hungary 25 May, 
 
 The emperor and empress crowned at Buda with 
 the ancient ceremonies .... 8 June, 
 
 Amnesty granted for all political offences 9 June, 
 
 The coronation gift to the emperor of 50,000 ducats 
 bestowed on orphans and invalids . 10 June, 
 
 Discussion between the Austrians and Hungarians 
 respecting the division of the liability for the 
 national debt Aug. -Sept 
 
 A financial convention signed by deputations, 
 
 23 Sept. 
 
 Kossuth's letter to his constituents at Waitzen, 
 censuring Deak and the moderate party Oct. 
 
 Deak joined by Klapka and other liberals Nov. 
 
 The " Nazarenes," a sect resembling Quakers, be- 
 come prominent . . ■ . . . Nov. 
 
 Bills for financial arrangement with Austria, and 
 for Jewish emancipation, received royal assent, 
 
 29 Dec. 
 
 First trial by jury of press offences ; (fine and im- 
 prisonment inflicted for publishing a letter of 
 Kossuth) 27 Feb. 
 
 Kossuth (elected a member of the legislature) 
 resigns by letter 14 April, 
 
 A Croatian deputation accepts union with Hungary, 
 
 27 May, 
 
 Prince Napoleon Jerome's visit ; warmly received, 
 
 June, 
 
 Dispute respecting the apportionment of the army 
 settled 5 Dec. 
 
 The diet of 1865 closed with an address from the 
 emperor 10 Dec. 
 
HUNGAEY. 
 
 346 
 
 HUSSITES. 
 
 Congress of Hungarian Jews opened ; Joseph Eotvos 
 minister 14 Dec. 1868 
 
 Powerful counter-addresses from Andrassy and 
 Kossuth published Jan. 1869 
 
 Royal Hungarian guard organised . . 9 Feb. ,, 
 
 Chamber of deputies meet ... 22 April, ,, 
 
 Remains of Louis Batthyany (executed and pri- 
 vately buried, Oct. 1849), re-interred solemnly in 
 the public cemetery, Pesth . . .9 June, 1870 
 
 Joseph Eotvos, author, patriot, aud minister, died, 
 deeply lamented, aged 58 . . .1 Feb. 1871 
 
 Autumn military manoeuvres, near Waitzen, 22 Sept. 
 
 et seq. , , 
 
 Andrassy succeeds count von Beust as foreign minis- 
 ter at Vienna ; count Lonyay, Hungarian premier, 
 
 14 Nov. ,, 
 
 The diet, after sitting three years, dissolved, 
 
 16 April, 1872 
 
 Elections ; increased majority of the Deak uncon- 
 stitutional party, July ; diet opened 4 Sept. ,, 
 
 Resignation of the count Lonyay ministry, 2 Dec. ; 
 Szlavy forms a ministry .... Dec. „ 
 
 SOVEREIGNS. 
 
 997. St. Stephen, duke of Hungaiy (son of Geisa) ; es- 
 tablished the Roman catholic religion (1000), 
 and received from the pope the title of Apostolic 
 King, still borne by the emperor of Austria, as 
 king of Hungary. 
 
 ^038. Peter, the German ; deposed. 
 
 1041. Aba or Owen. 
 
 1044. Peter, again : deposed ; and his eyes put out. 
 
 1047. Andrew I. ; deposed. 
 
 1061. Bela I. : killed by the fall of a ruinous tower. 
 
 1064. Salamon, son of Andrew. 
 
 1075. Geisa I. son of Bela. 
 
 1077. Ladislas I. the Pious. 
 
 1095. Coloman, son of Geisa. 
 
 a 1 14. Stephen II. named Thunder. 
 
 1131. Bela II. : had his eyes put out. 
 
 1141. Geisa II. : succeeded by his son, 
 
 1 161. Stephen III.: and Stephen IV. (anarchy). 
 
 1173. Bela III. : succeeded by his sou, 
 
 1 196. Emeric: succeeded by his son, 
 
 1204. Ladislas II. ; reigned six months only. 
 
 1205. Andrew II. son of Bela III. 
 1235. Bela IV. 
 
 1270. Stephen IV. (or V.) his son. 
 
 1272. Ladislas III. : killed. 
 
 1290. Andrew III. surnamed the Venetian, son-in-law of 
 Rodolph of Hapsburg, emperor of Germany (last 
 of the house of Arpad), died 1301. 
 
 1301. Weuceslas of Bohemia, and (1305) Otho of Bavaria, 
 who gave way to 
 
 1309. Charobert, or Charles Robert of Anjou. 
 
 1342. Louis I. the Great; elected king of Poland, 1370. 
 
 1382. Mary, called King Mary, daughter of Louis. 
 
 1385-6. Charles Durazzo. 
 
 1387. Mary and her consort Sigismond : the latter be- 
 came king of Bohemia, and was elected emperor 
 in 1410. 
 
 1392. Sigismond alone (on the death of Mary). 
 
 1437. Albert, duke of Austria, married Elizabeth, daughter 
 of Sigismond, and obtains the thrones of Hun- 
 gary, Bohemia, and Germany ; dies suddenly. 
 
 1439. Elizabeth alone : she marries 
 
 1440. Ladislas IV. king of Poland, of which kingdom he 
 
 was Ladislas VI. : slain at Varna. 
 
 1444. [Interregnum.] 
 
 1445. John Huimiades, regent. 
 
 1458. Ladislas V. posthumous son of Albert : poisoned. 
 
 ,, Matthias-Corvinus, son of Hunniades. 
 1490. Ladislas VI. king of Bohemia: the emperor Maxi- 
 milian laid claim to both kingdoms. 
 1516. Louis II. of Hungary (I. of Bohemia): loses his 
 life at the battle of Mohatz. 
 'John Zapolski, waivode of Transylvania, elected 
 by the Hungarians, and supported by the sul- 
 tan Solyman; by treaty with Ferdinand, he 
 1526. -I founds the principality of Transylvania, 
 i53°- 
 Ferdinand I. king of Bohemia, brother to the 
 (^ emperor Charles V. ; rival kings. 
 1540. Ferdinand alone : elected emperor, 1558. 
 1563. Maximilian, son; emperor in 1564. 
 1572. Rodolph, son ; emperor in 1576. 
 1608. Matthias II. brother; emperor in 1612. 
 1618. Ferdinand II. cousin, emperor. 
 
 1625. Ferdinand III. son; emperor, 1637. 
 
 1647. Ferdinand IV. son ; died in 1654, three years before 
 his father. 
 
 1655. Leopold I. brother: emperor, 1657. 
 
 1687. Joseph I. son: emperor in 1705. 
 
 1712. Charles VI. (of Germany), brother, and nominal 
 king of Spain. 
 
 1741. Maria-Theresa, daughter; empress; survived her 
 consort, emperor Francis I., from 1765 until 
 1780; see Germany. 
 
 1780. Joseph II. son, emperor in 1765: succeeded to 
 Hungary on the death of his mother. 
 
 1790. Leopold II. brother; emperor; succeeded by his 
 son, 
 
 1792. Francis I. son (Francis II. as emperor of Ger- 
 many) : in 1804 he became emperor of Austria 
 only. 
 
 1835. Ferdinand V. son : Ferdinand I. as emperor of 
 Austria. 
 
 1848. Francis-Joseph, emperor of Austria, nephew ; suc- 
 ceeded on the abdication of his uncle, 2 Dec 
 1848 ; crowned king of Hungary, 8 June, 1867 ; 
 see Avstria. 
 
 HUNGEEFOED BEIDGE,* over the 
 Thames from Hungerford-stairs to the Belvedere- 
 road, Lambeth, opened 1 May, 1845, was taken 
 down in July, 1862, to make way for the Charing- 
 cross railway-bridge, and transferred to Clifton 
 (which see). The market (opened in July, 1833), 
 was removed at the same time. 
 
 HUNS, a race of warlike Asiatics, said to have 
 conquered China, about 210 B.C., and to have been 
 expelled therefrom about a.d. 90. They invaded 
 Hungary, about 376, and drove out the Goths. 
 Marching westward, under Attila, they were tho- 
 roughly beaten at Chalons by the consul Aetius, 
 451 ; see Attila. 
 
 HUNTING : an ancient pastime. The " Bokys 
 of Hawking and Huntyng," by Dame Julyana 
 Barnes, was printed at St. Alban's, i486. 
 
 HUNTINGDON, see Whitfieldites. 
 
 HUEEICANES, see Cyclones. 
 
 HUSSAES, Hungarian militia, provided by 
 the landholders ; instituted by Matthias Corvinus, 
 about 1359. (Hussar is derived from huss, 20 ; and 
 ar, price). The British Hussars were enrolled in 
 1759- 
 
 HUSSITES. After the death of Huss,f many 
 of his followers took up arms, in 1419, and formed a 
 political party under John Ziska, and built the 
 city of Tabor. He defeated the emperor Sigismond, 
 11 July, 1420, and a short truce followed. Ziska, 
 blinded at the siege of Rabi, beat all the armies 
 sent against him. He died of the plague, 18 Oct. 
 1424, and is said to have ordered a drum to be made 
 of his skin to terrify his enemies even after death. 
 Two Hussite generals, named Procopius, defeated 
 
 * It was 14 feet wide, and 1342 feet long ; the length 
 of the central span, between trie two piers, 676 feet; 
 the height of the two towers 55 feet above the footway, 
 and 84 above high water; the piers were in the Italian 
 style, with the chains passing through the attic of each. 
 The cost of the masonry was 6o,oooZ. ; of the ironwork, 
 exceeding 700 tons in weight, 17,000?. ; of the approaches, 
 13,000?.: total, 102,245?. Architect, I. K. Brunei. 
 
 t The clergy having instigated the pope to issue a bull 
 against heretics, John Huss (born in Bohemia in 1373), a 
 zealous preacher of the Reformation, was cited to appear 
 before a council of divines at Constance, the emperor 
 Sigismond sending him a safe-conduct. He presented 
 himself accordingly, but was thrown into prison, and 
 after some months' confinement was adjudged to be 
 burned alive, which he endured with resignation, 6 or 7 
 July, 1415. Jerome of Prague, his intimate friend, who 
 came to this council to support and second him, also 
 suffered death by fire, 30 May, 1416, although he also had 
 a safe-conduct. 
 
HUSTINGS. 
 
 347 
 
 HYGIENE. 
 
 the imperialists in 143 1 ; and a temporary peace 
 ensued. Divisions took place among the Hussites, 
 and on 30 May, 1434, they were defeated, and Pro- 
 copius the elder slain at Bomischbrod or Lippau. 
 Toleration was granted by the treaty of Iglau, and 
 Sigismond entered Prague 23 Aug. 1436. 'Ihe Hus- 
 sites opposed his successor, Albert of Austria, and 
 called Casimir of Poland to the throne ; but were 
 defeated in 1438. A portion of the Hussites existed 
 in the time of Luther, and were called "Bohemian 
 brethren." 
 
 HUSTINGS (said to be derived from house 
 court, an assembly among tbe Anglo-Saxons), an 
 ancient court of London, being its supreme court of 
 judicature, as the court of common council is of 
 legislature. The court of hustyngs was granted to 
 the city of London, to be holden and kept weekly, 
 by Edward the Confessor, 1052. One was held to out- 
 law defaulters, 6 Dec. 1870. Winchester, Lincoln, 
 York, &c, were also granted hustings courts. 
 
 HUTCHINSONIANS included many emi- 
 nent clergy, who did not form any sect, but held 
 the opinions of John Hutchinson, of Yorkshire 
 (1674-1737) ; they rejected the Newtonian system, 
 atad contended that the scriptures contain a complete 
 system of natural philosophy. His work, '■'■Moses' 
 Frincipia," was published iu 1724. He derived all 
 things from the air, whence, he said, proceeded fire, 
 light, and spirit, types of the Trinity. In 1712 he 
 invented a time-piece for finding the longitude, and 
 died in 1737. 
 
 HYDASPES, a river in India, where Alex- 
 ander the Great defeated Porus, after a severely 
 contested engagement ; 327 B.C. 
 
 HYDE-PARK (London, W.), the ancient 
 manor of Hyde, belonging to the abbey of West- 
 minster, became crown property at the dissolution, 
 1535. It was sold by parliament in 1652 ; but was 
 resumed by the king at the restoration in 1660. 
 The Serpentine was formed 1730-33. 
 Colossal statue of Achilles, cast from cannon taken 
 in the battles of Salamanca, Vittoria, Toulouse, 
 and Waterloo, and inscribed to " Arthur, Duke of 
 Wellington, and his brave companions in arms, by 
 their countrywomen," erected on . .18 June, 1822 
 Hyde Park corner entrance erected . . . . 1828 
 Marble arch from Buckingham Palace set up at 
 
 Cumberland Gate .... 29 March, 1850 
 Crystal palace erected for the great exhibition. . 1851 
 Disturbances in consequence of a Sunday bill hav- 
 ing been brought before parliament by lord Eobert 
 Grosvenor, which was eventually withdrawn Sun- 
 days, ... 25 June, and 1 and 8 July, 1855 
 Eiotous meetings held here, on account of the high 
 
 price of bread . . Sundays 14, 21, 28 Oct. ,, 
 Democratic meetings on the reform question, March, 1859 
 The queen reviewed 18,450 volunteers . 23 June, i860 
 Great meeting of admirers of Garibaldi, 28 Sept ; who 
 are violently attacked by the Irish ; many persons 
 
 wounded 5 Oct. 1862 
 
 Public meetings in the park henceforth prohibited, 
 
 9 Oct. „ 
 20,000 volunteers reviewed by the prince of Wales, 
 
 28 May, 1864 
 Proposed reform meeting in the park opposed ; 
 great rioting ; the palings broken down, and much 
 damage done ; fierce conflicts with the police, and 
 
 many hurt 23, 24 July, 1866 
 
 Peaceful reform demonstrations in the park, 
 
 6 May and 5 Aug. 1867 
 Regulations with restrictions on public meeting in 
 
 the parks issued (afterwards modified) . Oct. 1872 
 Meeting of Penian sympathisers in Hyde park con- 
 trary to the regulations . . . .3 Nov. ,, 
 Odger and others prosecuted and fined . . Nov. ,, 
 The convictions confirmed by the judges on appeal 
 
 22 Jan. 1873 
 
 HYDRAULIC PRESS, see under Hydro- 
 statics-. 
 
 HYDROCHLORIC ACID or Chloehyd- 
 EIC ACID, the only known compound of chlorine 
 and hydrogen, was discovered by Dr. Priestley, 1772 ; 
 its constitution determined by Davy, 1810. It is 
 also called muriatic acid and spirits of salts; see 
 under Alkalies. 
 
 HYDROGEN (from hydor } water) . Paracelsus 
 observed a gas rise from a solution of iron in oil of 
 vitriol, about 1500; Turquet de Mayerne discovered 
 its inflammability, 1656 ; as did Boyle, 1672 ; Le- 
 mery noticed its detonating power, 1700. In 1766 
 Cavendish proved it to be an elementary body ; and 
 in 1781, lie and "Watt first showed that m the com- 
 bination of this gas with oxygen, which takes place 
 when it is burnt, water is produced ; subsequently 
 Lavoisier decomposed water into its elements, and 
 gave hydrogen its present name instead of "inflam- 
 mable air." One volume of oxygen combines with 
 two volumes of hydrogen to form water. Hydrogen 
 is never found in the free state. Gmelin. 
 
 HYDROGENIUM, a hypothetical metal. 
 In a paper read before the Boyal Society, 7 Jan. 
 1869, Mr. Thomas Graham, master of the Mint, 
 suggested that a piece of the metal palladium, into 
 which hydrogen had been pressed, became an " alloy 
 of the volatile metal hydrogenium." 
 
 HYDROGRAPHY is the description of the 
 surface waters of the earth. The first sea-chart is 
 attributed to Henry the Navigator, in the 16th cen- 
 tury. There is a hydrographic department in the 
 British admiralty, by which a series of charts has 
 been issued. 
 
 HYDROMETER, the instrument by which 
 is measured the gravity, density, and other pro- 
 perties of liquids. The oldest mention of the 
 hydrometer occurs in the 5th century, and may be 
 found in the letters of Synesius to Hypatia ; but it 
 is not improbable that Archimedes was the inventor 
 of it, though no proofs of it are to be found. Beck- 
 mann. Archimedes was killed in 212 B.C., and 
 Hypatia was torn to pieces at Alexandria, A.D. 415. 
 Robert Boyle described a hydrometer in 1675 : 
 Baume's (1762) and Sykes', about 1818, have been 
 much employed. 
 
 HYDROPATHY, a term applied to the treat- 
 ment of diseases by cold water, practised by Hippo- 
 crates in the 4th century B.C., by the Arabs in the 
 loth century a.d., and revived by Dr. Currie in 
 1797. A system was suggested in 1825 by Vincenz 
 Priessnitz, of Grafenberg, in Austrian Silesia. The 
 rational part of the doctrine was understood and 
 maintained by Dr. Sydenham, before 1689. Priess- 
 nitz died 26 Nov. 1851. Brande. 
 
 HYDROSTATICS, &c, were probably first 
 studied in the Alexandrian school about 300 B.C. 
 
 Pressure of fluids discovered by Archimedes, 
 
 about b. c. 250 
 
 The forcing pump and air fountain invented by Hero 
 
 1 about 120 
 
 Water mills were known . . . about a.d. i 
 
 The science revived by Galileo, Castellio, Torricelli, 
 and Pascal 17 th century 
 
 The theory of rivers scientifically understood in . 1697 
 
 The correct theory of fluids and oscillation of waves 
 explained by Newton 1714 
 
 A scientific form was given to hydro-dynamics, by 
 Bernouilli 1738 
 
 Joseph Bramah's hydrostatic or hydraulic press pa- 
 tented first in . j • • 1785 
 
 Sir Wm. Armstrong's hydraulic orcme patented . 1846 
 
 John Crowther's 1852 
 
 HYGIENE, see Sanitary legislation. 
 
HYGROMETER. 
 
 348 
 
 ICONOCLASTS. 
 
 HYGROMETER, an instrument for measur- 
 ing the moisture in the atmosphere. That by 
 Saussure (who died in 1799) is most employed. It 
 consists of a human hair boiled in caustic lye, and 
 acts on the principle of absorption. Brande. 
 Daniell's hygrometer (1820) is much esteemed. 
 
 HYMNS- The song of Moses is the most an- 
 cient, 1491 B.C. (Exod. xv.) The Psalms date 
 from about 1060 B.C. to about 444 B.C. (from David 
 to Ezra). The hymns of the Jews were frequently 
 accompanied by instrumental music. Paul (a.d. 
 64) speaks of Christians admonishing one another 
 " in psalms and hymns and spiritual songs" {Col. 
 iii. 16.) Hilary, the bishop of Aries, in France, is 
 said to have been the first who composed hymns to 
 be sung in Christian churches, about 431. The 
 hymns of Dr. "Watts (died 1784), of John Wesley 
 
 (died 1791), and of his brother Charles (died 1788), 
 are much used by English dissenters. " Hymns, 
 Ancient and Modem," first appeared in 1861. 
 
 HYPNOTISM (Greek hypnos, sleep) or ner- 
 vous sleep, terms given by Mr. Braid (in 1843) to a 
 sleep-like condition, produced in a person by steadily 
 fixing his mind on one particular object. Minor 
 surgical operations have, it is said, been performed 
 without pain on persons in this state. 
 
 HYPSOMETER, a thermometrical barometer 
 for measuring altitudes, invented by F. J. "Wollaston 
 in 181 7, much improved by Regnault, about 1847. 
 
 HYTHE, Kent, a cinque-port. A school of 
 musketry was established here in 1854, under the 
 charge of major-gen. Charles Crawford Hay. He 
 resigned in 1867. 
 
 I. 
 
 IAMBIC VERSE. Iambe, an attendant of 
 Metanira, wife of Celeus, king of Sparta, when 
 trying to exhilarate Ceres, while the Litter was tra- 
 velling over Attica in quest of her daughter Proser- 
 pine, entertained her with jokes, stories, and poetical 
 effusions ; and from her, free and satirical verses 
 have been called Iambics. Apollodorus. Iambic 
 verses were first written about 700 B.C., by Archi- 
 lochus, who had courted Neobule, the daughter of 
 Lycambes ; but, after a promise of marriage, the 
 lather preferred another suitor, richer than the poet ; 
 whereupon Archilochus wrote so bitter a satire on 
 the old man's avarice, that he hanged himself. 
 Herodotus. 
 
 IBERIA, see Georgia, and Spain. 
 
 ICE. Galileo observed ice to be lighter than 
 water, about 1597. See Congelation, where is a 
 "f «°V f the lce - makin g machines of Harrison and 
 of Siebe. In 1841 there were sixteen companies in 
 Boston, U.S., engaged in exporting ice, brought 
 from Wenham lake and Fresh and Spy Ponds, 
 about 18 miles from that city. The trade was begun 
 by Mr. Tudor in 1806. 156,540 tons were sent 
 from Boston alone in 1854. ' In New York, in 1855, 
 305,000 tons were stored up, of which 20,000 were for 
 exportation. The Wenham lake company import ice 
 largely from their ponds near Christiania, Norway, 
 from whence 43,359 tons were shipped to Great 
 Britain m 1865. 
 
 Regulation and other properties, exhibited by professor 
 Faraday, m 1850. became the subject of investigation 
 by eminent physicists of the day, especially J. D. Forbes, 
 JJr . lyndall, and sir William Thomson. " Icy night " or 
 silver thaw " in London, 22 Jan. 1867. After a severe 
 Irost came rain freeziiig as it fell. Many accidents 
 occurred in consequence of the glassy pavements and 
 roads. 
 
 .ICELAND (North Sea), discovered by Norwe- 
 gian chiefs, about 861 ; according to some accounts, 
 it had been previously visited by a Scandinavian 
 pirate. It was peopled by the Norwegians in 874, and 
 has belonged to Denmark since 1397. Christianity 
 was introduced about 996 ; and Protestantism estab- 
 lished about 1551 ; see Heela. The publication of 
 Cleasby's great Icelandic-English Dictionary began 
 in 1869. J ° 
 
 ICENI, a British tribe which inhabited chiefly 
 Suffolk and Norfolk. In 61, while Suetonius Pau- 
 linus was reducing Mona (Anglesey) they marched 
 
 southwards and destroyed Verulam, London, and 
 other places, with great slaughter of the Eemans; 
 but were defeated by Suetonius near London, and 
 their heroic queen, Boadicea or Boudicea died or 
 committed suicide. 
 
 "ICH DIEN," I serve, the motto under the 
 plume of ostrich feathers found in the helmet of 
 the king of Bohemia after he was slain at the battle 
 of Cressy, at which he served as a volunteer in the 
 French army, 26 Aug. 1346. Edward the Black 
 Prince, in respect to his father, Edward III., who 
 commanded that day, though the prince won the 
 battle, adopted the motto, which has since been 
 borne with the feathers, by the heirs to the crown of 
 England. 
 
 ICHNOLOGY, the science of footprints, treats 
 of the impression made in mud or sand by the 
 animals of former ages. Dr. Duncan discovered the 
 footprints of a tortoise in the sandstone of Annan- 
 dale, in 1828 ; since then numerous discoveries 
 have been made by Owen, Lyell, Huxley, and 
 others. 
 
 ICHTHYOLOGY, the science of fish. Emi- 
 nent writers are Willoughby, Bay, Valenciennes, 
 Cuvier, Owen, Agassiz. &c. Yarrell's " British 
 Fishes" (1836-59) is a classical work; see Fish. 
 
 ICONIUM (Syria). Here Paul and Barnabas 
 preached, 38. Soliman the Seljuk founded a king- 
 dom here in 1074, which lasted till 1307, when it 
 was conquered by the Turks. It had been subdued 
 by the Crusaders in 1097 and 1190 ; see Konieh. 
 
 ICONOCLASTS (image-breakers). The con- 
 troversy respecting images (which had been intro- 
 duced into churches for popular instruction about 
 300) was begun about 726, and occasioned much 
 disturbance and loss of life in the Eastern Empire. 
 Leo Isauricus published two edicts for demolishing 
 images in churches in that year, and enforced them 
 with great rigour in 736. The defenders of images 
 were again persecuted in 752 and 761, when Con- 
 stantine forbade his subjects becoming monks. The 
 worship of images was restored by Irene in 780. 
 This schism was the occasion of the second council 
 of Nice, 787. Theophilus banished all the painters 
 and statuaries from the Eastern Empire, 832. The 
 Iconoclasts were finally excommunicated at the 
 8th general council at Constantinople, 869-870. 
 This controversy led to the separation of the Greek 
 
IDAHO. 
 
 349 
 
 IMPERIAL GUARD. 
 
 and Latin churches. Many images in churches 
 ■were destroyed in England and Scotland during the 
 Reformation and the civil war, 1641-8. 
 
 IDAHO, a northern " territory" of the United 
 States of North America, was organised as such on 
 3 March 1868. 
 
 IDES (Latin Idus), were eight days in the 
 Koman and cburch calendar, following the Nones, 
 They were reckoned backward. In March, May, 
 July, and October, the 8th Idus was on the 8th of 
 the month, the 7th on the 9th, &c, the first, or Ide, 
 being the 15th. In the other months the 8th Ide fell 
 on the 6th, and the first on the 13th. On the Idus 
 of March (the 15th) 44 B.C., Julius Caesar was as- 
 sassinated. 
 
 IDIOTS. About 1855 there were in England, 
 exclusive of lunatics, pauper idiots, or idiots pro- 
 tected in national institutions, males, 3372 ; females, 
 3893 ; total, 7265 ; see Lunacy. The Idiot Asylum 
 at Earlswood, near Eeigate, Surrey, began in 1847 ; 
 was chartered, 1862 ; additional buildings were 
 founded by the prince of "Wales, 28 June, 1869. 
 The foundation of the Imbecile Asylum, Caterham, 
 was laid by Dr. Brewer, M.P., 17 April, 1869. 
 
 IDOLS. The public worship of idols was 
 introduced by Ninus, king of Assyria, 2059 B.C. 
 Vossius. Images are mentioned in Gen. xxxi. 19, 
 30, 1739 B.C. The Jews frequently deserted the 
 worship of God for idols till their captivity, 588 B.C. 
 Constantine, emperor of Rome, ordered all the 
 heathen temples to be destroyed, and all sacrifices 
 to cease, a.d. 330. Dufresnoy. Idolatry was re- 
 vived in Britain by the Saxons about 473, but it 
 gave way in Britain, after the coming of Augustin, 
 about 597. See Iconoclasts, Week. 
 
 IDSTEDT (N. Germany). Here the insurgent 
 army of Holstein and Schleswig, commanded by 
 TVilHsen, was defeated by the Danes, 25 July, 1850. 
 
 IDUMJEA, the country of the Edomites, the 
 descendants of Esau, the brother of Jacob : see Gen. 
 xxxvi., Josh. xxiv. 4. 
 
 The Edomites prevent the Israelites from passing 
 through their country b. c. 1453 
 
 They are subjugated hy David 1040 
 
 They revolt against Ahaziah, 892 ; and are severely 
 defeated by Amaziah 827 
 
 They join the Chald»ans against Judah, and are 
 anathematised in Psalm, cxxxvii . . about 570 
 
 John Hyrcanus, the Maceabee, subjugates and en- 
 deavours to incorporate them with the Jews . . 125 
 
 Herod the Great, son of Antipater an Idumsean, 
 king of Judffia 40 
 
 IERNE, see Ireland. 
 
 IGLAU, see Hussites. 
 
 ILDEFONSO, ST., Spain. Here was signed a 
 treaty between France and Spain, 19 Aug. 1796; 
 and another by which France regained Louisiana, 
 1 Oct. 1800. 
 
 ILIUM (Asia Minor). A city was built here 
 by Dardanus, and called Dardania, 1480 B.C. Troy 
 {which see), another city, was founded by Troas, 
 about 1341 B.C. ; and Ilus, his successor, called the 
 country Ilium ; see Homer. 
 
 ILLINOIS, a western state of North America, 
 was settled by the French in 1749 ; acquired by 
 the British, 1763 ; made a territory, 1809 ; and ad- 
 mitted into the Union as a state, 3 Dec. 1818. 
 Capital, Springfield. 
 
 ILLUMINATED BOOKS. The practice 
 of adopting ornaments, drawings, and emblematical 
 figures, and even portraits, to enrich MSS., is of 
 great antiquity. Varro wrote the lives of 700 
 illustrious Romans, which he embellished with 
 their portraits, about 70 B.C. Plin. Nat. Hist. 
 Some beautiful missals and other works were 
 printed in the 15th and 16th centuries, et seq. ; and 
 fine imitations have lately appeared. 
 
 ILLUMINATI, heretics who sprang up in 
 Spain, where they were called Alombrados, about 
 1575. After their suppression in Spain, they ap- 
 peared in France. One of their leaders was friar 
 Anthony Buchet. They professed to obtain grace 
 and perfection by their sublime manner of prayer. 
 A secret society bearing this name, opposed to 
 tyranny and priestcraft, was founded at Ingoldstadt, 
 Bavaria, by Dr. Adam Weishaupt, in May, 1776, 
 and was suppressed in 1784-5. 
 
 ILLUSTRATED LONDON NEWS, the 
 
 earliest publication of the kind, established by Mr. 
 Herbert Ingram, M.P., first appeared on 14 May, 
 1842. Mr. Ingram was drowned in lake Michigan, 
 8 Sept. i860. Illustrated Times was established 
 by Mr. Ingram, 9 June, 1855. 
 
 ILLYRIA (now Dalmatia, Croatia, and Bosnia), 
 after several wars (from 230 B.C.) was made a 
 Roman province, 167 B.C. In 1809 Napoleon I. 
 gave the name of Illyrian provinces to Carniola, 
 Dalmatia, and other provinces, then part of the 
 French empire, now Carinthia, Carniola, &c. 
 
 IMAGE WORSHIP, see Iconoclasts. 
 
 IMMACULATE CONCEPTION, see Con- 
 ception. 
 
 "IMITATION OF JESUS CHRIST." 
 
 (De Imitatione Christi) . The author of this devo- 
 tional work is unknown. It has been attributed to 
 an abbot Gersen (whose very existence is doubtful) ; 
 to Jean Gerson, the celebrated chancellor of Paris ; 
 and to Thomas a. Kempis, said to have been merely 
 a compiler and editor ; he died 25 July, 1471. 
 
 IMMORTALS (Greek, athanatoi), the flower 
 of the Persian army, limited, to 10,000 in number, 
 and recruited from the nobility alone, about 500 
 B.C. The name was also given to the body-guard of 
 the emperors at Constantinople in the 4th and 5th 
 centuries. 
 
 IMPEACHMENT. The first impeachment 
 by the commons house of parliament, and the first 
 of a lord chancellor, Michael de la Pole, earl of 
 Suffolk, was in 1386. By statute 12 & 13 Will. & 
 Mary, 1700, it was enacted that no pardon under the 
 great seal shall be pleaded to an impeachment by 
 the commons in parliament. 
 
 Impeachment of Warren Hastings, 13 Feb. 1788, to 25 
 April, 1795 ; acquittal. 
 
 Impeachment of lord Melville, 29 April ; acquittal, 12 
 June, 1806. 
 
 Inquiry into the charges preferred by colonel Wardle 
 against the duke of York, 27 Jan. o 20 March, 1809 ; 
 acquittal. 
 
 Trial of Caroline, queen of George IV., by bill of pains 
 and penalties, before the house of loids, commenced 
 16 Aug. ; Mr. Brougham entered on hei majesty's de- 
 fence, 3 Oct. ; and the last debate on the bill took place 
 10 Nov. 1820 ; see Queen Caroline. 
 
 Impeachment of the president ; see United States, 1868. 
 
 IMPERIAL CHAMBER, see Aulic Council. 
 
 IMPERIAL GUARD of France, was created 
 by Napoleon from the guard of the convention, the 
 directory, and the consulate, when he became 
 
IMPERIAL PARLIAMENT. 
 
 3.50 
 
 INCOME TAX. 
 
 emperor in 1804. It consisted at first of 9775 men, 
 but was afterwards enlarged. It was subdivided in 
 1809 into the old and young guard. In Jan. 1814, 
 it numbered 102,706. It was dissolved by 
 Louis XVIII. in 1815 ; revived by Napoleon III. in 
 1854. It surrendered with Metz to the Germans 
 27 Oct. 1870 ; and was abolished by the defence 
 government soon after. It took part in the Crimean 
 war in 1855. 
 
 IMPERIAL PARLIAMENT, see Commons, 
 Lords, Parliament, and Reform. 
 
 IMPORTS of Merchandise. The vast 
 
 progressive increase of our commercial intercourse 
 with other countries is here sbown : — 
 
 VALUE OF IMPORTS INTO GREAT BRITAIN, FROM ALL 
 PARTS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 la 
 
 1710 
 I750 
 1775 
 
 1800 
 1810 
 1820 
 1830 
 1840 
 1845 
 1850 
 1851 
 1856 
 
 £4.753.777 
 7,289,582 
 
 14.815. 85S 
 30,570,605 
 41,136,135 
 36,514,564 
 46,245,241 
 62,004,000 
 85,281,958 
 95,252,084 
 103.579.582 
 i72.544.i54 
 
 In 1857 
 1859 
 1861 
 1864 
 1865 
 1866 
 1867 
 
 1870 
 1871 
 
 £187,844,441 
 
 . 179,182,355 
 
 . 217,485,024 
 
 • 274,952,172 
 . 271,072,285 
 . 295,290,274 
 . 275,183,137 
 . 294,693,608 
 . 295,460,214 
 . 303,296,082 
 
 • 33 I .° I 5.48o 
 
 In 1871, from foreign countries 
 
 British possessions 
 
 . £258,071,062 
 • • 72,944,418 
 
 IMPOSTORS. The following are among the 
 
 most extraordinary : — 
 
 Mahomet promulgated his creed, 604 : see MtrfwmetanUm. 
 
 Aldebert, a Gaul, in 743, pretended he had a letter from 
 the Redeemer, which fell from heaven at Jerusalem ; 
 he seduced multitudes to follow him into woods and 
 forests, and to live in imitation of John the Baptist, 
 He was condemned by a council at Rome in 745. 
 
 Gonzalvo Martin, a Spaniard, pretended to be the angel 
 Michael in 1359: he was burnt by the inquisition in 
 Spain in 1360. 
 
 George David, son of a waterman at Ghent, styled him- 
 self the son of God, sent into the world to adopt 
 children worthv of heaven : he denied the resurrection, 
 preached in favour of a community of women, and 
 taught that the body only could be denied by sin ; lie 
 had many followers ; died at Basle, 1556, promising to 
 rise again in three years. 
 
 Otrefief, a monk, pretended to be Demetrius the son of 
 Ivan,' czar of Muscovy, whom the usurper Boris had 
 put to death ; he maintained that another child had 
 been substituted in his place : he was supported by 
 Poland ; his success led the Russians to invite him to 
 the throne, and deliver into his hands, Feodor, the 
 reigning czar, and all his family : his imposition dis- 
 covered, he was assassinated in his palace, 1606. 
 
 Sabbata Levi, a Jew of Smyrna, amused the Jews and 
 Turks a long time at Constantinople and other places, 
 by personating our Saviour, 1666. 
 
 Joseph Smith, see Mormonites. 
 
 Apparition of our Lady of Salette ; the imposture ex- 
 posed and several persons prosecuted, April, 1846. 
 The superstition revived and flourishing, Aug. 1872. 
 
 Pilgrimage of about 20,000 persons to Lourdes, in the 
 Pyrenees, on account of alleged miracles (the virgin 
 was said to have appeared to two girls, 11 Feb. 1858), 
 6 Oct. 1872. 
 
 IN BRITISH HISTORY. 
 
 A man pretending to be the Messiah, and a woman as- 
 suming to be the Virgin Mary, were burnt, 1222. 
 
 In 1487, Lambert Simnel, tutored by Richard Simon, a 
 priest, supported by the duke of Burgundy, personated 
 the earl of Warwick. Simnel's army was defeated by 
 Henry VII. , and he was made a scullion in the king's 
 kitchen. 
 
 For Warbeck's imposture in 1492, see n aroeck. 
 
 Elizabeth Barton, stvled the Holy Maid of Kent, spirited 
 up to hinder the Reformation by pretending to inspira- 
 tions from heaven, foretelling that the king would 
 have an early and violent death if he divorced Cathe- 
 rine of Spain and married Anne Boleyn. She and 
 her confederates were executed at Tyburn, 21 April, 1534. 
 
 * n 'S.s? (first year of Mary's reign, after her marriage with 
 Philip of Spain), Elizabeth Croft, a girl 18 years of age, 
 was secreted in a wall, and with a whistle made for the 
 purpose, uttered many seditious speeches against the 
 queen and the prince, and also against the mass and 
 confession, for which she did penance. 
 
 William Hacket, a fanatic, personated our Saviour, and 
 was executed for blasphemy, 1591. 
 
 Valentine Greatrix, an Irish impostor, who pretended to 
 cure all diseases by stroking the patient : his imposture 
 deceived the credulous, and occasioned very warm dis- 
 putes in Ireland and England about 1666. Boyle and 
 Flamsteed believed in him. 
 
 Dr. Titus Oates, see Outes. 
 
 Robert Young, a prisoner in Newgate, forged the hands 
 of the earls of Marlborough, Salisbury, and other 
 nobility, to a pretended association for restoring king 
 James : the lords were imprisoned, but the imposture 
 being detected, Young was fined 1000Z. , and put in the 
 pillory, 1692. He was afterwards hanged for coining. 
 
 Three French refugees pretend to be prophets, and raise 
 tumults ; convicted as impostors, Nov. 1707. 
 
 Mary Tofts of Godalming, by pretending she bred rabbits 
 within her, so imposed upon many persons (among 
 others, Mr. St. Andre, surgeon to the king), that they 
 espoused her cause, 1726. 
 
 The Cock-lane ghost impostures by William Parsons, his 
 wife, and daughter, 1762 ; see Cock-lane Ghost. 
 
 Johanna Southcote, who proclaimed her conception of 
 the Messiah, and had a multitude of followers ; she 
 died 27 Dec. 1814. 
 
 W. Thom, see Thomites. 
 
 [See Abstinence.'] 
 
 IMPRESSMENT of Seamen, affirmed by 
 sir M. Foster to be of ancient practice. The stat. 
 2 Rich. II. speaks of impressment as a matter well 
 known, 1378. The first commission for it was 
 issued 29 Edw. III. 1355. Pressing, either for the 
 sea or land service, declared to be illegal by the 
 British parliament, Dec. 1641, but practised till 
 present times. Impressment was not resorted to in 
 the Russian war, 1 854-5. 
 
 IMPRISONMENT for DEBT, seeArrests, 
 Debtors, and Ferrars' Arrest. 
 
 IMPROPRIATION (applying ecclesiastical 
 property to lay purposes) . On the suppression of 
 abbeys in 1539, their incomes from the great tithes 
 were distributed among his courtiers by Henry 
 VIII. ; and their successors constitute 7597 lay 
 impropriators. 
 
 INCAS, see Peru. 
 
 INCENDIARIES. The punishment for arson 
 was death by the Saxon laws and Gothic constitu- 
 tions. In the reign of Edward I. incendiaries wire 
 burnt to death. This crime was made high treason 
 by stat. 8 Hen. VI. 1429 ; and was denied benefit 
 of clergy, 21 Hen. VIII. 1528. Great incendiary 
 fires Qommenced in and about Kent, in Aug. 1830 ; 
 and in Suffolk and other counties since. The 
 punishment of death was remitted, except in special 
 cases, in 1827. The acts relating to arson were 
 amended in 1837 and 1844. 
 
 INCH. It was defined in 1824 by act of par- 
 liament, that 39" 13929 inches is the length of a 
 seconds pendulum in the latitude of London, vi- 
 brating in vacuo at the sea level, at the temperature 
 of 62° Fahrenheit; see Candle, and Standard. 
 
 INCHCAPE BELL, see Bell Sod: 
 
 INCOME TAX. In 1512, parliament granted 
 a subsidy of two-fifteenths from the commons, and 
 two-tenths from the clergy, to enable the king to 
 enter on a war with France. In Dec. 1798, Mr. 
 Pitt proposed and carried, amid great opposition, 
 resolutions for increased taxes "as an aid for the 
 prosecution of the war" with France. 
 
INCOME TAX. 
 
 351 
 
 INDEX EXPITEGATOEITJS. 
 
 Graduated duties on income imposed, beginning with 
 
 6o2. per annum, by the act passed 9 Jan. 1799. 
 The " property tax " passed which levied a rate of 5 per 
 
 cent, on all incomes above 1502. and lower rates on 
 
 smaller incomes, 11 Aug. 1803. 
 Increased to 6£ per cent. 1805 ; 10 per cent., embracing 
 
 the dividends at the bank, 1806. 
 In 1800 the tax produced 5,716,5722. ; in 1804, 4,650,0002. ; 
 
 in 1806, 11,500,0002. ; in 1808, 16,548,9852. ; in 1815, 
 
 14,978,5572. 
 The tax produced from lands, houses, rentages, <fec, 
 
 8,657,9372. ; from funded and stock properties, 
 
 2,885,5052. ; the profits and gains of trade, 3,831,0882. ; 
 
 and salaries and pensions, 1,174,4562. Repealed March, 
 
 1816. 
 Sir Robert Peel's bill imposing the present tax at a rate 
 
 of 7C2. in the pound (2I. 18s. 4c?. per cent.) per ann. (for 
 
 three years) passed 22 June, 1842. 
 It produced about 5,350,0002. a-year ; and led to repeal of 
 
 about 12,000,0002. indirect taxes. 
 Renewed for three years, 1845 ; and 1848. 
 Large meetings assembled in Trafalgar-square, London 
 
 (for the ostensible purpose of opposing the income tax) ; 
 
 rioting ensued, which was soon quelled, 6, 7 March, 
 
 1848. 
 Tax continued for one year in 1851 and 1852. 
 The tax of ^. limited to seven years (till i860); to be 
 
 gradually reduced in amount; but all incomes from 
 
 ioo2. to 1502. made liable to 5$. in the pound for all 
 
 that period : the tax also extended to Ireland, June, 
 
 1853. 
 In consequence of the Crimean war, the rate was doubled, 
 
 1854, I4f2. 
 
 2d. (making i6(2.) added to the tax on incomes above 
 1502., and ijc2. on those between ioo2. and 1502. ; the 
 former being is. 4<2., the latter n^d. in the pound. 
 
 1855- 
 
 The former assessment reduced to yd., the latter to 5&, 
 1857. Both became 5$., 1858. 
 
 The former raised to 'gd. , the latter to 6£d ; and the tax 
 on incomes, derived from lands, tenements, &c. , raised 
 from 3jc2. to sJd. for England, and from z^d. to 4c?. for 
 Scotland and Ireland, July, 1859. 
 
 The assessment on incomes raised — to those above ioo2. 
 to jd. ; to those above 1502. to zod. 
 
 [The object of the increase was to provide for a deficiency 
 occasioned by extra expenditure for defending the 
 country, April, i860.] 
 
 A committee to inquire into the working of the income 
 tax appointed, 14 Feb. 1861. 
 
 Reduction of the last assessment from yd. to 6d. , and 
 from ioc2. to gd. for three-quarters of the financial year 
 1861-62. 
 
 The rates of 6d. and 9C2. to continue, April, 1862. 
 
 The rate of -jd. on all chargeable incomes ; -^\d. on 
 farms, &c. , in England ; and 2\d. in Scotland and Ire- 
 land. Incomes under 100Z. a-year exempted ; those 
 above ioo2. and under 2002. allowed an abatement on 
 6o2. , 8 June, 1863. 
 
 The rate of 6c2. on chargeable incomes, with some exemp- 
 tions and abatement, 13 May, 1864. 
 
 The rate of 41! on chargeable incomes, with same exemp- 
 tions and abatement, May, 1865 ; continued, 1866, and 
 1867. 
 
 Raised to 5& (for year ending 1 April, 1868), to provide 
 for Abyssinian war, Nov. 1867. 
 
 Raised to 6d. (for 1868-9), May, 1868. 
 
 Reduced to $d. in the pound, April, 1869 ; to 4c?. , April, 
 1870. Raised to 6d. on account of re-organisation of 
 army, abolishing purchase, 1871. 
 
 Reduced to +d. , April, 1872. Renewed agitation against 
 the tax ; conference at Birmingham, 22 May ; at the 
 Mansion-house, London, proposed formation of a 
 National Anti-Income Tax League, 13 Dec. 1872. 
 
 Reduced to 3d from 6 April, 1873. 
 
 PBODUCE Or THE INCOME TAX. 
 
 1842 i^^oSS 
 
 1844 5,191,597 
 
 1846 . 5,395.39* 
 
 1852 ....... . 5.509,637 
 
 1 855 (31 March) 10,642,621 
 
 1856 ,, ..... . 15,070,958 
 
 1857 „ • 16,089,933 
 
 1858 ,, 11,586,115 
 
 1859 „ • 6,683,587 
 
 i860 ,, . 9,596,106 
 
 1861 „ .... £10,923,186 
 
 1862 (31 March) 10,365,000 
 
 1863 ,, ....... 10,567,000 
 
 1864 ,, ....... 9,084,000 
 
 1865 ,, 7,958,000 
 
 1866 ,, 6,390,000 
 
 1867 ,, ....... 5,700,000 
 
 1868 ,, ....... 6,177,000 
 
 1869 „ 8,618,000 
 
 1870 ,, ....... 10,044,000 
 
 1871 ,, ....... 6,350,000 
 
 1872 „ 9,084,000 
 
 INCUMBENTS' EESIGNATION ACT, 
 
 with provision for pensions, passed 13 July, 1871. 
 
 INCUMBEEED ESTATES, see Encum- 
 bered "Estates. 
 
 INCTJEABLES. The' royal hospital for in- 
 curables, founded by Dr. Andrew Reed, at Car- 
 shalton in Surrey, in 1850, has since been removed 
 to Putney. 
 
 INDEMNITY BILL, by which the minister 
 of the crown or the government, is relieved from 
 the responsibility of measures adopted in extreme 
 and urgent cases, without the previous sanction of 
 parliament. One was passed 19 April, 1801 ; an- 
 other to indemnify ministers against their acts 
 during the suspension of the Habeas Corpus act, 
 was carried in the commons (principal divisions, 
 190 to 64) ; and in the lords (93 to 27), 10 March, 
 1818. In 1848 and 1857, bills of indemnity were 
 passed for the suspension of the Bank Charter act 
 by the ministry ; see Oblivion. An indemnity bill 
 is passed at the end of every session of parliament 
 for persons who transgress through ignorance of the 
 law. The practice began in 1715. 
 
 INDEPENDENTS or Congreq-ational- 
 ISTS, hold that each church or congregation is 
 independent of all others in religious matters ; that 
 there is no absolute occasion for synods or councils, 
 whose resolutions may be taken for advice, but not 
 as decisions to be peremptorily obeyed ; and that one 
 church may advise or reprove another, but has 
 no authority to excommunicate. Robert Brown 
 preached these doctrines about 1585, but, after 32 
 impiisonments, he eventually conformed to the 
 established church. A church was formed in Lon- 
 don in 1593, when there were 20,000 independents. 
 They were driven by persecution to Holland, where 
 they formed several churches ; that at Leyden was 
 under Mr. Robinson, often regarded as the author 
 of Independency. In 1616 Henry Jacobs returned 
 to England and founded a meeting-house. Crom- 
 well, himself an independent, obtained them tole- 
 ration, in opposition to the Presbyterians. The 
 independents published an epitome of their 
 faith, drawn up at a conference at the Savoy, in 
 1658 ; and the congregational union of England 
 and Wales formed in 183 1, published their "de- 
 claration of faith, order, and discipline," in 1833. 
 In 1851, they had 3244jchapels for 1,067,760 per- 
 sons m England and Wales; see Worship. The 
 first independents in Scotland were the Grlasites 
 {which see). The first independent church in 
 America was founded by John Robinson, at Ply- 
 mouth, New England, in 1620. 
 
 INDEX EXPUEGATOEIUS, a catalogue 
 of the books, the reading of which is prohibited by 
 the church of Rome, first made by the inquisitors, 
 and approved by the council of Irent, 1559. The 
 Index by which the reading of the Scriptures was 
 forbidden (with certain exceptions) to the laity, 
 was confirmed by a bull of pope Clement VIII. in 
 1595. Many of the works of the great authors of 
 France, Spain, Germany, and England, are thus 
 
INDIA. 352 
 
 INDIA. 
 
 prohibited. On 25 June, 1864, Hugo's " Les Mise- 
 rables" and other books were added to the number; 
 ■and many others since. 
 
 INDIA or HlNDOSTAN. The Hindoo his- 
 tories ascribe their origin to a period ages before 
 the ordinary chronologies. A race of kings is 
 mentioned as reigning 2300 B.C., and Buddhism is 
 ■said to have been introduced 956 B.C. Several 
 ancient nations, particularly the Tyrians and 
 Egyptians, carried on commerce with India. It 
 "was partially conquered by Darius Hystaspes, who 
 formed an Indian satrapy, in 512 B.C., and by Alex- 
 ander, 327 B.C., and subsequently the intercourse 
 between India and the Roman empire was much 
 increased. The authentic history of Hindostan 
 commences with the conquest of Mahmud Ghuzni, 
 J004. Rennell. See Secretaries, Bengal, Bombay, 
 Calcutta, Madras, and Oude, for further details.* 
 For the new route to India, see Waghorn. 
 
 The religiou of Brahma introduced . about B.C. 2000 
 
 Buddhism introduced about 1000 
 
 Invasion of Alexander 327 
 
 Irruptions of the Mahometans, under Mahmud 
 
 Ghuzni, 1001-24. He captured Somnath . a.d. 1024 
 Extinction of the house of Ghuzni, 1186 ; rule of the 
 slave-kings of Delhi, 1206-1288 ; of the Kilghis and 
 house of Toghlak, i288-i4i2;of theSyuds, 1412-50; 
 
 of the house of Lodi 1450-1526 
 
 Patan, or Affghan empire, founded . . . . 1205 
 Invasion of the Moguls under Genghis Khan, 1219 ; 
 
 he died 1227 
 
 'The Mogul Tartars, under the conduct of Timour, 
 or Tamerlane, invade Hindostan, and take Delhi ; 
 defeat the Indian army, 1397 ; conquer Hindostan, 
 and butcher 100,000 of its people . . . 1398-9 
 Passage to India discovered by Vasco de Gama . 1497 
 The first European settlement (Portuguese) esta- 
 blished by him at Cochin (S. Coast) . . . . 1502 
 Albuquerque made governor-general, 1508 ; dies at 
 
 Goa 1514 
 
 •Conquest of India completed by the sultan Baber, 
 
 founder of the Mogul empire, .... 1519-26 
 Reign of his son Humayun .... 1531-56 
 Reign of Akbar, the greatest sovereign of Hindostan 
 
 1 556-1605 
 The Portuguese introduce tobacco . . . . 1600 
 The Dutch first visit India, 1601 ; establish a United 
 
 East India Company 1602 
 
 Tranquebar granted to the Danes . . . . 1619 
 
 Reign of Jehanghir 1605-27 
 
 Reign of Shah Jehan ; golden age of the Moguls, 1627-58 
 Aurungzebe dethrones his father and murders his 
 
 brothers, 1658 ; reigns .... 1658-1707 
 French East India Company established . . . 1664 
 Rise of the Mahratta power under Sevajee, 1659 : he 
 
 assumes royalty, 1674; dies 1680 
 
 Aurungzebe conquers Golconda, &c. . . .1687 
 His prosperity wanes, 1702 ; dies . . .22 Feb. 1707 
 Bahadoor Shah succeeds, 1707; dies . . . 1712 
 - Jehander Shah, 1713 : dethroned and killed . . 1718 
 
 Accession of Mahomed Shah 1719 
 
 Independence of the Nizam of the Deccan . . . 1723 
 Rise of the Mahratta families, Holkar and Sindiah . 1730 
 Invasion of the Persian Nadir Shah or Kouli Khan : 
 at Delhi he orders a general massacre, and 150,000 
 persons perish ; carries away treasure amounting 
 
 to 125,000,000!. sterling 1739 
 
 Mahomed Shah dies 1748 
 
 '[The Mogul empire now became merely nominal, in- 
 dependent sovereignties being formed by petty 
 princes. In 1761, Shah Alum II. attacking the 
 English was defeated at Patna, 15 Jan. In 1764, 
 
 * British India extends from 8* to 34° N. lat. and from 
 70" to 90° E. long, (exclusive of the Burmese additions). 
 The population in 1869, 155,348,090 ; that of the whole 
 peninsula about 200 millions. Cotton was planted in 
 1839, and the tea-plant in 1834. Railways and the elec- 
 tric telegraph are being rapidly constructed, and canals 
 for irrigation ; see Ganges Canal. The Indian revenue in 
 1854-5 was 2°»37 I >45°'- The expenditure, 22,915,160?. 
 In 1858-9: revenue, 36,060,788*. ; expenditure, 49,642,350?. 
 In 1869-70 : revenue, 52,942,482!. ; expenditure, 56,184,489?. 
 
 after the battle of Buxar, he was thrown upon the 
 protection of the English, who established him at 
 Allahabad. After the victory at Delhi in 1803, 
 gen. Lake restored the aged monarch to a nominal 
 sovereignty, which descended at his death to his 
 son, Akbar Shah. Akbar died in 1837, and was 
 succeeded by the last king of Delhi (his son), who 
 received a pension of about 125,000/. per annum. 
 He joined the mutiny in 1857; was tried in 1858, 
 and transported to Rangoon ; died there, 11 Nov. 
 1862.] 
 
 BRITISH POWER IN INDIA. 
 
 Attempt made to reach India by the north-east and 
 
 north-west passages 1528 
 
 Sir Francis Drake's expedition 1579 
 
 Levant company's land expedition .... 1589 
 First commercial adventure from England . . . 1591 
 First charter to the London company of merchants 
 
 (see India Company) 1600 
 
 Factories established at Surat, &c 1612 
 
 Sir Thos. Roe, first English ambassador . . . 1615 
 Madras founded, 1640; made a presidency . . . 1652 
 Bombay ceded to England as part of dowry of 
 
 Catherine, queen of Charles II 1662 
 
 French company established 1664 
 
 They settle at Pondicherry 1668 
 
 Calcutta purchased 1698 
 
 War between the English and French in India 1746-9 
 
 English besiege Pondicherry, the seat of the French 
 
 government, without success .... 1748 
 
 Clive takes Arcot 1751 
 
 Peace made 1754 
 
 Severndroog and other strongholds of the pirate 
 
 Angria taken n Feb. 1756 
 
 Capture of Calcutta by Surajah Dowla ; suffocation 
 
 of English in the Black hole (which see) 20 June, ,, 
 Calcutta retaken by Clive, 2 Jan. ; he defeats the 
 
 Soubah at Plassey .... 23 June, 1757 
 Fort William, the strongest fort in India, built ,, 
 
 French successful under Lally 1758 
 
 But lose nearly all their power .... 1759 
 
 The French under Lally defeated by sir Eyre Coote 
 
 near Wandewash .... 2 July, 1760 
 
 Hyder Ali usurps the sovereignty of Mysore 1763-4 
 
 Conquest of Patna .... 6 Nov. 1763 
 
 Battle of Buxar (which see) . . . 23 Oct. 1764 
 
 The nabob becomes subject to the English . . 1765 
 Lord Clyde obtains the Dewanny by an imperial 
 
 grant, which constitutes the company the receivers 
 
 of the revenue of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa, and 
 
 gives the British the virtual sovereignty of these 
 
 countries 12 Aug. „ 
 
 Treaty with Nizam Ali : the English obtain the 
 
 Northern Circars .... 12 Nov. 1766 
 
 Hj-der Ali ravages the Carnatic . . Jan. 1769 
 
 Frightful famine in Bengal 1770 
 
 Warren Hastings governor of Bengal 13 April, 1772 
 
 India Bill ; supreme court established (see India 
 
 Bills) . 1773 
 
 Treaty with Bhootan 1774 
 
 Death of Clive ; ungratefully treated . . . . ,, 
 Accusations commence against Warren Hastings ; 
 
 accused of taking a bribe from a concubine of 
 
 Meer Jaffier (see Hastings) . . 30 May, 1775 
 
 Nuncomar, a Brahmin, accuses Warren Hastings of 
 
 receiving bribes .... n March, 1776 
 Is hanged for forgery .... 5 Aug. ,, 
 Pondicherry taken .... 11 Oct. 1778 
 
 Fortress of Gwalior taken by Popham . 4 Aug. ,, 
 Hyder Ali overruns the Carnatic, and defeats the 
 
 British, 10 Sept. ; takes Arcot . . 31 Oct. 1780 
 
 Hyder Ali defeated by sir Eyre Coote . 1 July, 1781 
 Warren Hastings accused of taking more bribes (see 
 
 Chunar) 19 Sept. „ 
 
 Bussy lands with a French detachment, March, 1782 
 War with Hyder Ali aided by the French . . ,, 
 Hyder Ali overthrown by Coote . . 2 June, „ 
 Death of Hyder, and accession of his son, Tippoo 
 
 Sahib Dec. ,, 
 
 Tippoo, who had taken Cuddalore, now takes 
 
 Bednore April, 1783 
 
 Pondicherry, restored to the French, and Trin- 
 
 comalee to the Dutch ,, 
 
 Fox's India bill thrown out „ 
 
 Pitt's India bill establishing the board of control 
 
 (which see) 1784 
 
 Ignoble peace with Tippoo . . . 11 March, ,, 
 Charges against Warren Hastings .... 1786 
 
INDIA. 
 
 353 
 
 INDIA. 
 
 His trial begun ..... 13 Feb. 1788 
 War with Tippoo renewed .... 1790 
 
 Bangalore taken (see Bangalore) . . 21 March, 1791 
 Cornwallis defeats Tippoo at Arikera . 15 May, ,, 
 Fortress of Savemdroog taken . . 21 Dee. „ 
 Definitive treaty with Tippoo ; his two sons hostages 
 
 19 March, 1792 
 Civil and criminal courts erected . . . 1793 
 
 Pondicherry again taken ,, 
 
 Tippoo's sons restored ... 29 March, 1794 
 First dispute with the Burmese ; adjusted by 
 
 general Erskine 1795 
 
 Warren Hastings acquitted . . 23 April, ,, 
 
 Government of lord Mornington, afterwards mar- 
 quis Wellesley . . . . 17 May, 1798 
 Seringapatam stormed by gen. Baird ; Tippoo Sahib 
 
 killed, 4 May ; Mysore divided . 22 June, 1799 
 
 Victories of the British ; the Carnatie conquered 1800 
 The nabob of Furruckabad cedes his territories to 
 
 the English for a pension . . .4 June, 1802 
 Mahratta luar. Victories of sir Arthur Wellesley 
 
 and general Lake 1803 
 
 Wellesley 's great victory at Assaye . 23 Sept. ,, 
 
 Pondicherry (restored 1801) retaken . . Dec. ,, 
 
 War with Holkar ■ 1804-5 
 
 Capture of Bhurtpore .... 2 April, 1805 
 Lord Wellesley superseded by the marquis Corn- 
 wallis, who dies .... 5 Oct. „ 
 The Mahratta chief, Scindiah, defeated by the 
 
 British ; treaty of peace ... 23 Nov. „ 
 Treaty of peace with Holkar . . . 24 Dec. ,, 
 Sepoy mutiny at Vellore ; 800 executed . July, 1806 
 Cumoona surrenders . . . . % 21 Nov. 1807 
 Mutiny at Seringapatam quelled . . " 23 Aug. 1809 
 Act opening the trade to India . . . July, 1813 
 
 War with Nepaul 181 4- 15 
 
 Holkar defeated by sir T. Hislop . . 21 Dec. 1817 
 
 Pindaree war. English successful . . . 1817-18 
 
 Peace with Holkar 6 Jan. 1818 
 
 Burmese war. The British take Rangoon s May, 1824 
 Lord Combermere commands in India . . ,, 
 
 Malacca ceded, and Singapore purchased . ,, 
 
 Barrackpore mutiny, many sepoys killed . Nov. „ 
 General Campbell defeats the Burmese near Prome, 
 
 25 Dec. 
 Bhurtpore stormed by Combermere . 18 Jan. 
 
 Peace with the Burmese ... 24 Feb. 
 
 [They pay i,ooo,oooZ. sterling, and cede a great 
 
 extent of territory.] 
 Abolition of suttees, or the burning of widows (see 
 
 Suttees) 7 Dec. 
 
 Act opening the trade to India, and tea trade, &c. , 
 to China, forming a new era in British com- 
 merce 28 Aug. 1833 
 
 Coorg annexed ; Rajah deposed . . 10 April, 1834 
 The natives admitted to the magistracy 1 May, ,, 
 
 The Nawab Shumsoodden put to death for the 
 
 murder of Mr. Frazer, British resident 8 Oct. 1835 
 Slavery abolished ... .1 Aug. 1838 
 
 Afghan war. Proclamation against Dost Mahomed 
 
 1 Oct. „ 
 The British occupy Candahar . . 21 April, 1839 
 
 Battle of Ghiznee ; victory of sir John (afterwards 
 
 lord) Keane (see Ghiznee) ... 23 July, ,, 
 Wade forces the Khyber pass . . 26 July, „ 
 Shah Soujah restored to his sovereignty ; he and the 
 
 British army enter Cabul ... 7 Aug. ,, 
 English defeat Dost Mahomed . . 18 Oct. 1840 
 
 Kurroek Singh, king of Lahore, dies ; at his funeral 
 his successor is killed by accident, and Dost 
 Mahomed, next heir, surrenders to England 
 
 5 Nov. ,, 
 Rising against the British at Cabul ; sir Alex. 
 
 Burnes and others murdered . . 2 Nov. 1841 
 Sir Wm. Macnaghten assassinated . . 25 Dec. „ 
 Jellalabad held by sir R. Sale .... 1841-2 
 The British under a convention evacuate Cabul, 
 placing lady Sale, &c, as hostages with Akbar 
 Khan ; a massacre ensues of about 26,000 men, 
 women, and children . . . 6-13 Jan. 1842 
 The British evacuate Ghiznee . . 6 March, „ 
 
 Sortie from Jellalabad ; general Pollock forces the 
 
 Khyber pass 5 April, ,, 
 
 Ghiznee retaken by general Nott . . 6 Sept. „ 
 General Pollock re-enters Cabul . . 16 Sept. ,, 
 Lady Sale and other prisoners rescued by sir R. 
 Shakspeare ; arrive at gen. Pollock's camp 
 
 21 Sept. ,, 
 
 1S25 
 1826 
 
 1829 
 
 Cabul evacuated after destroying the fortifications 
 
 12 Oct. 1842 
 
 Scincle war. Ameers defeated by sir Charles Napier 
 at Meanee 17 Feb. 1843 
 
 Scinde annexed to the British empire ; sir Charles 
 Napier governor June, ,, 
 
 G'walior war. Battles of Maharajpoor and Punniar : 
 the strong fort of Gwalior, the " Gibraltar of the 
 East," taken 29 Dec. ,, 
 
 Danish possessions in India purchased . . . 1845 
 
 Sikh war. * The Sikhs cross the Sutlej river and 
 attack the British at Ferozepore . 14 Dec. ,, 
 
 Sir H. Hardinge, after a long rapid march, reaches 
 Moodkee ; the Sikhs (20,000) make an attack ; 
 after a hard contest they retire, abandoning their 
 guns (see Moodkee) .... 18 Dec. „ 
 
 Battle of Ferozeshah (which see) . 21, 22 Dec. ,, A 
 
 Battle of Aliwal ; the Sikhs defeated (see Aliwal 
 and Sutlej) 28 Jan. 1846 
 
 Great battle of Sobraon ; the enemy defeated with, 
 immense loss (see Sobraon) . . 10 Feb. „ 
 
 Citadel of Lahore occupied by sir Hugh Gough, and 
 the war terminates . . .20 Feb. ,, 
 
 Sir R. Sale dies of his wounds received at Moodkee 
 (18 Dec. 1845) 23 Feb. „ 
 
 The governor-general and sir Hugh Gough raised to 
 the peerage, as viscount Hardinge and baron 
 Gough ; receive the thanks of parliament and of 
 the E. I. company . . . . 2, 6 March, 
 
 Treaty of Lahore signed .... 9 March, ,, 
 
 Vizier Lall Singh deposed ... 13 Jan. 1847 
 
 Mr. Vans Agnew and lieut. Anderson killed by 
 the troops of the dewan Moolraj . 21 April, 1848 
 
 Lieut. Edwardes joins general Courtland, and most 
 gallantly engages the army of Moolraj, which he 
 defeats after a sanguinary battle of nine hours, at 
 Kennyree 18 June, ,, 
 
 General Whish raises the siege of Mooltan through 
 the desertion of Shere Singh . . 22 Sept. ,, 
 
 Cavalry skirmish at Ramnuggur . . 22 Nov. ,, 
 
 Shere Singh, entrenched on the right bank of the 
 Chenab, with 40,000 men and 28 pieces of artil- 
 lery ; gen. Thackwell crosses the river with 8 
 infantry regiments, with cavalry and cannon, 1 
 Dec, and attacks his left flank at Sadoolaport, 
 
 3 Dec. „ 
 
 Lord Gough attacks the enemy's advanced position; 
 victory of Chillianwallah (which see) . 13 Jan. 1849 
 
 Unconditional surrender of the citadel of Mooltan 
 by Moolraj (see Mooltan) ... 22 Jan. „ 
 
 Victory of Guzerat (which see) . . 21 Feb. ,, 
 
 Sir Chas. Napier appointed comm. -in-chief, 
 
 7 March, ,, 
 
 The Sikhs surrender unconditionally 14 March, „ 
 
 Formal annexation of the Punjab to the British 
 dominions ; Dhuleep Singh obtains a pension of 
 40,000?. ...... 29 March, „ 
 
 Moolraj sentenced to death for the murder of Mr. 
 Agnew and lieut. Anderson, Aug. ; commuted to 
 transportation for life .... Sept. „ 
 
 Sir Charles Napier disbands the 66th Bengal native 
 infantry, for mutiny . . . .27 Feb. 1850 
 
 Dr. Healy, of the Bengal army, and his attendants, 
 murdered by the Affredis . . .20 March, ,, 
 
 Embassy from the king of Nepaul to the queen 
 of Great Britain arrives in England (see Nepaul) 
 
 25 May, „ 
 
 Resignation of his command in India by sir Charles 
 Napier 2 July, ,, 
 
 His farewell address to the Indian army 15 Dec. „ 
 
 Burmese war. Death of Bajee Rao, ex-peishwa of 
 the Mahrattas. [His nephew Nana Sahib's claim 
 for continuance of the pension (8o,ooo£.) refused.] 
 
 28 Jan. 1 85 1 
 
 A British naval force arrives before Rangoon, in 
 the Burman empire, and commodore Lambert 
 allows the viceroy thirty-five days to obtain in- 
 structions from Ava . . . .29 Oct. „ 
 
 The viceroy of Rangoon interdicts communication 
 
 * Runjeet Singh, long the ruler of the Sikhs and the 
 Punjab, lived in amity with the British. After his death, 
 27 June, 1839, several of his successors (children and 
 grandchildren) were in turn assassinated. During the 
 minority of his grandson Dhuleep Singh, the favourite of 
 the Maha Ranee, Lall Singh, ruled ; and finding the 
 army ungovernable, sanctioned the unprovoked attack 
 on the British, as given above. 
 
 A A 
 
INDIA. 
 
 354 
 
 INDIA. 
 
 between the shore and the British ships of war ; 
 and erects batteries to prevent their departure, 
 
 4 Jan. 1852 
 
 [Commodore Lambert blockades the Irawaddy ; 
 
 the Fox, Hermes, &c, attacked by the batteries, 
 
 destroy the fortifications, and kill nearly 300 of 
 
 the enemy.] 
 
 Martaban (5 April), Rangoon (14 April), and Bassein 
 
 stormed by the British . . . 19 May, ,, 
 Pegu captured, afterwards abandoned . 4 June, „ 
 Prome captured by ca] it. Tarleton . 9 July, ,, 
 
 Pegu recaptured by general Godwin . 21 Nov. ,, 
 
 Pegu annexed to our Indian empire by proclama- 
 tion of the governor-general . . 20 Dec. ,, 
 Revolution at Ava ; the king of Ava deposed by his 
 
 younger- brother Jan. 1853 
 
 Rangoon devastated by fire ... 14 Feb. ,, 
 Capt. Lock and many men killed in an attack on the 
 stronghold of a robber chief, 3 Feb. ; which is 
 taken by sir J. Cheape . . 19 March, „ 
 
 First Indian railway opened (from Bombay to 
 
 Tannah) 16 April, ,, 
 
 Termination of the war .... June, ,, 
 New India bill passed .... 20 Aug. ,, 
 Death of general Godwin . . . .26 Oct. „ 
 Assassination of capt. Latter . . 8 Dec. ,, 
 
 Rajah of Nagpoor dies, and his territories fall to 
 
 the E. I. Company 11 Dec. ,, 
 
 Opening of Gauges Canal 1834 
 
 Opening of the Calcutta railway . . 3 Feb. 1855 
 Treaty with Dost Mahomed of Cabul . 31 March, ,, 
 Insurrection of the Sonthals (which see) . July. „ 
 Which is only finally suppressed . . May, ,, 
 
 Oude annexed (see Oude) .... 7 Feb. ,, 
 
 MUTINY OF THE NATIVE ARMY. 
 
 Mutinies in the Bengal array : at Barrackpore, &c, 
 several regiments disbanded . . . March, 1857 
 
 "India is quiet throughout."— Bomhay Gazette. 
 
 1 May, „ 
 
 Mutiny at Meerut* (near Delhi) 10 May. The 
 mutineers seize Delhi, commit dreadful out- 
 rages, and proclaim the king of Delhi emperor, 
 
 11-12 May, &c. ,, 
 
 Three native regiments disbanded at Lahore by 
 the energy of Mr. Montgomery and brigadier 
 Corbett, who save the Punjab . . 12 May, „ 
 
 Martial law proclaimed by the British lieut. -gover- 
 nor, J. R. Colvin May, „ 
 
 British troops under general Anson advance on 
 Delhi : his death 27 May, „ 
 
 Mutineers often defeated . . 30 May-23 June, „ 
 
 Mutiny at Lucknow 30 May, „ 
 
 Neill suppresses the mutiny at Benares, 3 June ; 
 and recovers Allahabad . . .4 June, „ 
 
 Mutiny spreads throughout Bengal : fearful atroci- 
 ties committed! ,, 
 
 * On the introduction of the improved (Enfield) mus- 
 ket in the Indian army, greased cartridges had been 
 brought from England. These were objected to by the 
 native soldiers, and the issue of them was immediately 
 discontinued by orders in Jan. 1857. A mutinous spirit 
 however gradually arose in the Bengal native army. 
 In March several regiments were disbanded, followed by 
 others, till in June the army had lost by disbandment 
 and desertion, about 30,000 men. On 5 April, a sepoy, 
 and on 20 April, a jemadar, or native lieutenant, were 
 executed. At the end of May 34 regiments were lost. 
 In April, 85 of the 3rd Bengal native cavalry at Meerut 
 refused to use their cartridges. On 9 May they were 
 committed to gaol. On Sunday, the 10th, a mutiny in 
 the native troops broke out ; they fired on their officers, 
 killing col. Finnis and others. They then released their 
 comrades, massacred many Europeans, and iired the 
 public buildings. The European troops rallied and drove 
 them from their cantonments. The mutineers then fled 
 to Delhi (which see). 
 
 t At the end of June the native troops at the follow- 
 ing places were in open mutiny : Meerut, Delhi, Feroze- 
 pore, Allyghur, Roorkee, Murdaun, Lucknow, Cawnpore, 
 Nusseeraiiad, Neemvch, Hansi, Hissar, Jhansi, Mehidpore, 
 Jullundur, Azimghur, Futtehglmr, Jaunpore, Hardily, 
 Shahjehanpore, Allahabad. At the stations printed in 
 italics, European women and children were massacred. 
 — The Relief Fund for the sufferers in India was com- 
 menced 25 Ante. 1857. The Queen, the emperor Napo- 
 
 Native troops disbanded at Mooltan, which is 
 
 saved n June, 1857 
 
 Ex-king of Oude arrested . . . 14 June, „ 
 Siege of the residency at Lucknow by the rebels, 
 
 commences 1 July, ,, 
 
 Sir H. Lawrence dies of his wounds at Lucknow, 
 
 4 July, ,. 
 The liberty of the press restricted . . 4 July, ,, 
 Sir H. Barnard commanding before Delhi (lies of 
 
 cholera, succeeded by general Reed . 5 July, ,, 
 General Nicholson destroys a large body of rebels 
 
 at Sealcote 12 July, ,, 
 
 Cawnpore surrenders to Nana Sahib, who kills the 
 garrison, &c. , 28 June ; he is defeated by general 
 Havelock, 16 July: who re-captures Cawnpore 
 
 (see Cawnpore) 17 July, „ 
 
 Mutinies suppressed at Hyderabad, 18 July ; and at 
 Lahore ...... 20 July, ,, 
 
 General Reed retires, and sir Archdale Wilson takes 
 
 the command before Delhi . . .22 July, ,, 
 Revolt at Dinapore : the Britisli repulsed with 
 severe loss at Arrah .... 25 July, ,, 
 
 Herioc exertions and numerous victories of general 
 Havelock and his army, although suffering from 
 
 disease 29 July, to 16 Aug. ,, 
 
 Lord Canning's so-called "clemency" proclama- 
 tion 31 July, ,, 
 
 Victory of Neill at Pandoo Nuddee . . 15 Aug. ,, 
 General Nicholson's victory at Nujuffghur [he dies 
 
 23 Sept.] 25 Aug. ,, 
 
 Assault of Delhi, 14 Sept. ; taken, 20 Sept. ; the 
 king captured, 21 Sept. ; his son and grandson 
 slain by colonel Hodson ... 22 Sept. ,, 
 Sir James Outram joins Havelock and serves under 
 
 him 16 Sept. „ 
 
 Havelock marches to Lucknow and relieves the be- 
 sieged residency ; retires and leaves Outram in 
 command; Neill killed . . 25, 26 Sept. ,, 
 
 Colonel Greathed defeats the rebels at Bnlundsho- 
 hur, 27 Sept. ; destroys a fort at Molaghur, 29 
 Sept. ; takes Allyghur, 5 Oct. ; and defeats rebels 
 
 at Agra 10 Oct. 
 
 Sir Colin Campbell (afters, lord Clyde) appointed 
 commander-in-chief, n July ; arrives at Cawnpore 
 
 3 Nov. ,, 
 Marches to Alumbagh, near Lucknow, 9 Nov. ; and 
 
 takes Secunderabagh .... 16 Nov. ,, 
 Joined by Havelock, he attacks the rebels and 
 
 rescues the besieged in the residency, 18-25 Nov. „ 
 Havelock* dies of dysentery at Alumbagh, 24 Nov. ,, 
 General Windham (at Cawnpore) repulsed with 
 loss in an attack on the Gwalior contingent, who 
 take part of Cawnpore . . . .27 Nov. ,, 
 Sir C. Campbell arrives at Cawnpore, which he re- 
 takes, 28 Nov. ; and defeats the Gwalior rebels, 
 
 6 Dec. „ 
 The rebels defeated by Seaton, 14, 17, and 27 Dec. ; 
 at Goruckpore by Rowcroft, 27 Dec. ; and at Fut- 
 tehglmr by sir C. Campbell . . .2 Jan. 1858 
 Lucknow strongly fortified by the rebels Jan. „ 
 
 Generals Rose, Roberts, Inglis, and Grant, victo- 
 rious in many encounters . . Jan. and Feb. ,, 
 Trial of king of Delhi ; sentenced to transportation 
 
 27 Jan. to 9 March, ,, 
 Sir C. Campbell marches to Lucknow, 11 Feb. ; the 
 siege commences, 8 March ; taken by successive 
 assaults ; the enemy retreat ; Hodson killed, 
 
 14-19 March, ,, 
 Severe proclamation of the governor-general in 
 
 Oude t 14 March, ,, 
 
 General Roberts takes Kotah . . 30 March, ,, 
 
 leon, and the Sultan, gave each 1000?. In Nov. 1857, 
 280, 749?. had been collected : in Nov. 1858, 433,620?. In 
 Dec. 1861, 140,000?. had been distributed to sufferers in 
 India ; and 100,000?. to those at home ; 246,069?. re- 
 mained for the benefit of widows and orphans. A fast 
 was observed on 7 Oct. 
 
 * Born 5 April, 1795 ; educated at the Charterhouse, 
 London, where he was called " old Phlos ;" went to India, 
 1823 ; served in the Burmese war, 1824 ; and in the 
 Sikh war, 1845. He was a Baptist. 
 
 t Lord Ellenborough, the minister for India, sent, un- 
 known to his colleagues, a desx>ateh severely censuring 
 this proclamation. This despatch became public and 
 led to his resignation and very nearly to the defeat of 
 the ministry, a vote of censure being moved for in both 
 houses of parliament, but not carried. 
 
INDIA. 
 
 365 
 
 INDIA. 
 
 Sir Hugh Rose beats the enemy severely, and takes 
 
 Jliansi 4 April, 
 
 General Whitelock takes Budaon . . 19 April, 
 Death of capt. sir W. Peel, of small-pox, at Cawn- 
 
 pore 27 April, 
 
 General Penny killed in Rohileuncl . . 4 May, 
 
 Bareilly recaptured 7 May, 
 
 Sir Hugh Rose defeats the rebels several times — at 
 Kooneh, May 11, and near Calpee, which he re- 
 takes 23 May, 
 
 Victory of sir E. Lugard at Jugdespore 29 May, 
 
 The rebels seize Gwalior, the capital of Scindiah, 
 who escapes to Agra . . . .13 June, 
 
 The rebels defeated by sir H. Rose (the heroic 
 Ranee of Jhansi killed), 17 June ; Gwalior retaken 
 and Scindiah reinstated ... 19 June, 
 
 Tantia Topee heads a division of the rebels 
 
 Rajahs of Jeypore, &c. , surrender ; Rohilcund and 
 other provinces tranquillised . . July, 
 
 General Roberts destroys the remains of the 
 Gwalior rebels . . . . . 14 Aug. 
 
 Many Oude chiefs surrender . . . Aug. 
 
 An attempt of disbanded regiments to retake their 
 arms at Mooltan, suppressed by major Hamilton 
 (300 killed on the spot, and 800 slain or captured 
 afterwards) 31 Aug. 
 
 The government of the East India Company ceases, 
 
 1 Sept. 
 
 General Mitchell defeats Tantia Topee, near Raj- 
 ghur ....... 15 Sept. 
 
 The queen proclaimed throughout India — lord Can- 
 ning to be the first viceroy . . . 1 Nov. 
 
 Campaign in Oude begins ; several chiefs submit, 
 others subdued 1-30 Nov. 
 
 At Dhooden Khera lord Clyde (formerly sir C. Camp- 
 bell) defeats Beni Mahdo . . .24 Nov. 
 
 Flight of Tantia Topee — he is beaten in Guzerat by 
 major Sutherland .... 25 Nov. 
 
 The ex-king of Delhi sails for the Cape of Good 
 Hope, 4-1 1 Dec. ; the colonists refuse to receive 
 him ; he is sent to Rangoon 
 
 Brigadier John Jacob dies at Jaeobabad (greatly 
 lamented) 6 Dec. 
 
 Indecisive skirmishes with Perozeshah . Dec. 
 
 Who joins Tantia Topee : they are defeated in 
 several small engagements . . . Jan. 
 
 Enforcement of the Disarming Act in the north- 
 west provinces Jan. 
 
 The Punjaub made a distinct presidency 1 Jan. 
 
 Rebels completely expelled from Oude ; enter Ne- 
 paul Jan. 
 
 Guerilla warfare continues in Rohilcund . Feb. 
 
 Tantia Topee hemmed in ; deserted by his troops, 
 about 25 Feb. 
 
 Defeat of the Begum of Oude and Nana Sahib by 
 general Horsford .... 10 Feb. 
 
 The new Indian tariff creates much dissatisfaction, 
 
 March, 
 
 Maun Singh surrenders .... 2 April, 
 
 Tantia Topee taken, 7 April, ; hanged . 18 April, 
 
 Thanksgiving in England for pacification of India 
 
 1 May, 
 
 Mutinous conduct of British troops lately in the 
 company's service at Meerut and other places, on 
 account of their transfer to the queen's service 
 without bounty 5 May, 
 
 Sir Hope Grant defeats Nana Sahib in the Jorwah 
 pass 23 May, 
 
 A court of inquiry appointed . . . June, 
 
 Sir Chas. Wood becomes sec. for India . 22 June, 
 
 Dissatisfaction among the troops at their transfer 
 from the service of the company to that of the 
 crown, without a bounty ; settled by discharge 
 being offered to them, which about 10,000 accept 
 
 July, „ 
 
 Thanksgiving day observed in India . . 28 July, ,, 
 
 An income tax bill (called " the Trades' and Pro- 
 fessions' Licensing Bill") passes the legislative 
 council ; great meetings at Calcutta and Madras 
 protesting against it Sept. ,, 
 
 Rajah Jey-loll Singh hanged . . . 1 Oct. ,, 
 
 Nana Sahib, in force, in Nepaul on the frontiers of 
 Oude Oct. „ 
 
 Insurgents in Nepal dispersed . . -24 Dec. ,, 
 
 Important financial changes made by Mr. James 
 Wilson, new finance secretary . . . Feb. i860 
 
 Company formed to obtain cotton, flax, &c. , from 
 India ....... March, ,, 
 
 Paper currency determined on March, i860 
 
 Bahadoor Khan, ex-king of Bareilly, hanged for 
 murders caused by him . . . .2 March, ,, 
 
 Sir Chas. Trevelyan recalled from Madras, for pub- 
 lishing a government minute against Mr. Wilson's 
 commercial scheme May, ,, 
 
 Sir Hugh Rose takes command of the Indian army, 
 amalgamated with the British . . July, ,, 
 
 Lord Clyde arrives in London . . 18 July, „ 
 
 Lord Canning's recommendation that the adopted 
 successors of Indian princes should be recognised 
 agreed to by the home government . 21 July, „ 
 
 Death of sir H. Ward, new governor at Madras, 
 3 Aug. ; and of Mr. James Wilson . . n Aug. „ 
 
 Nana Sahib, supposed to have died of jungle fever 
 in Aug. 1858 ; is said to be living in Tibet . Dec. ,, 
 
 Mutiny of 5th European regiment at Dinapore, sup- 
 pressed ; breaks out again, 5 Oct. ; is again sup- 
 pressed, Win. Johnson shot, and the regiment dis- 
 banded 13 Nov. ,, 
 
 British troops repulsed at Sikkim . . Nov. ,, 
 
 Agitation against the income tax suppressed at 
 Bombay and other places .... Dec. ,, 
 
 Excitement against sir Chas. Wood's grant of 
 520,000?. to descendants of Tippoo Sahib . Dec. „ 
 
 Mr. Samuel Laing, successor to Mr. James Wilson, 
 arrives 10 Jan. 1861 
 
 Awful famine in N.W. provinces through failure 
 of the crops ; immense exertions of the govern- 
 ment and others to relieve the sufferers, 
 
 Jan. -June, „ 
 
 Expedition marches against Sikkim ; natives retire 
 
 Feb. „ 
 
 Disturbances in the indigo districts . . March, „ 
 
 Kootoob-ood-deen, grandson of Tippoo Sahib, mur- 
 dered by his servants . . . .31 March, ,, 
 
 British subscriptions for relief of the famine com- 
 mence at the Mansion-house, London, with 4000Z. , 
 28 March ; 52,000?. subscribed 20 April ; closes 
 with 114,807!. Nov. „ 
 
 Order of the " Star of India" (which see) constituted 
 
 25 June, 
 
 Excitement through the printing and circulation of 
 " Nil Darpan," a Hindu drama libelling the indigo 
 planters June, „ 
 
 The rev. James Long, the translator, sentenced to 
 fine and imprisonment Aug. , 
 
 New Indian council and new high court of judicature 
 established Aug. „ 
 
 Mr. J. P. Grant, lieut. -governor of Bengal (who had 
 authorised the translation of " Nil Darpan ") and 
 Mr. Seton Kerr, his secretary (who had, without 
 authority, distributed copies) are censured and 
 resign Sept. „ 
 
 Law of property in India altered; sale of waste 
 lands authorised Oct. ,, 
 
 Lords Harris and Clyde, sir J. Lawrence, Dhuleep 
 Singh, and others invested with the Star of India 
 by the queen 1 Nov. ,, 
 
 Reported prosperity of Indian finances ; licence tax 
 not to be reimposed . . . . . 3I Dec. „ 
 
 First meeting of new legislative council ; includes 
 several Indian princes .... 18 Jan. 1862 
 
 Lord Elgin, new governor-general, installed at Cal- 
 cutta 12 March, „ 
 
 Lord Canning arrives at Southampton, 26 April ; 
 dies 17 June, „ 
 
 Mr. S. Laing returns to England through ill health ; 
 censured by sir C. Wood ; he justifies himself and 
 resigns . . .... July, ,, 
 
 High court of judicature at Bengal inaugurated 
 
 12 July, „ 
 
 Reported suspension of sale of waste lands Aug. „ 
 
 Rao Sahib hanged for murders during the revolt 
 
 8 Sept. „ 
 
 Great increase in the cultivation of cotton in India, 
 reported Oct. ,, 
 
 Sir Charles Trevelyan, new finance minister, arrives 
 
 8 Jan. 1863 
 
 First agricultural exhibition at Calcutta 19-30 Jan. „ 
 Rise of Ram Singh, a fanatic, in N.W. provinces 
 
 Oct. „ 
 War with warlike hill-tribes on the N.W. frontiers, 
 Oct. ; severe conflict, gen. Chamberlain wounded, 
 
 20 Nov. ; war ended 29 Dec. ,, 
 
 The Hindu religion deprived of government support 
 
 Dec. ,, 
 Death of the viceroy, lord Elgin . . 20 Nov. „ 
 
 A A 2 
 
INDIA. 
 
 356 
 
 INDIA. 
 
 Sir John Lawrence, his successor, assumes office 
 
 12 Jan. 1864 
 
 Excitement amongst the Hindoos on account of go- 
 vernment suppressing funeral rites on sanitary 
 grounds March, 
 
 Prosperous financial statement of sir Charles Tre- 
 velyan April, 
 
 Mr. Ashley Eden, envoy at Bhootan, seized and 
 compelled to sign a treaty giving up Assam 
 
 about April, 
 
 Gold currency (a sovereign = 10 rupees) ordered to 
 be introduced at Christmas . . . July, 
 
 Terrific cyclone— immense loss of life, property, and 
 ships at Calcutta and elsewhere. . . 5 Oct. 
 
 Grand durbar, held by sir John Lawrence, at La- 
 hore ; 604 native princes present . . 18 Oct. 
 
 War with the Bhootanese— fortress of Dhalimcote 
 taken 12 Dec. 
 
 Much commercial speculation at Bombay . Dec. 
 
 The Bhootanese attack on Dewangiri repulsed 
 with severe loss, 29 Jan. ; evacuated by the British 
 
 Feb. 1865 
 
 Opening of the Indo-European telegraph — a tele- 
 gram from Kurrachee received . . 1 March, 
 
 W. Massey succeeds sir C. Trevelyan as finance 
 minister ; he arrives at Calcutta . 31 March, 
 
 Sir Charles Trevelyan declares a large deficit in the 
 revenue 1 April, 
 
 Dewangiri recaptured by gen. Tombs . 2 April, 
 
 Sir Hugh Rose retires from command of the army ; 
 which is assumed by sir Win. Mansfield, 23 April, 
 
 Sir Charles Trevelyan's plans reversed by sir C. 
 • Wood May, 
 
 Death of the able and beneficent h<m. Juggonath 
 Bunkeusett, the recognised representative of the 
 Hindoo community .... 31 July, 
 
 Negotiation with the Bhootanese . . July, 
 
 Shipwreck of the Eagle Speed near Calcutta; 265 
 coolies perish through neglect . . 24 Aug. 
 
 Peace with the Bhootanese signed . . 13 Nov. 
 
 Much dissatisfaction at mildewed cotton goods 
 being received from England. . July-Oct. ,, 
 
 Settlement of the question respecting marriage of 
 Hindoo converts April, 1866 
 
 " Simla Scandal.". Trial of capt E. Jervis; ac- 
 quitted on charge of peculation of stores belong- 
 ing to sir W. Mansfield, commander-in-chief, but 
 condemned for insubordination ; sentence (dis- 
 missal from the service) approved by sir W. 
 Mansfield 17 Sept. ,, 
 
 Awful famine in Orissa, Bengal ; about 1,500,000 
 perished Aug. -Nov. ,, 
 
 Relief by Government Oct. ,, 
 
 Dr. Cotton, bishop of Calcutta, accidentally drowned 
 
 6 Oct. „ 
 
 Famine abating ; official inquiry ordered . Nov. ,, 
 
 Great durbar held at Agra, by sir J. Lawrence 
 
 10-20 Nov. ,, 
 
 Simla case ; sentence against capt. Jervis confirmed, 
 and sir W. Mansfield censured by the duke of 
 Cambridge, by letter dated ... 17 Jan. 1867 
 
 Deficiencies in the revenue ; Massey's proposed new 
 licence tax much opposed . . April & May, ,, 
 
 False rumour of mutiny at Meerut . . 20 May, ,, 
 
 Report on Orissa famine ; authorities blamed, June, ,, 
 
 Deficiency in revenue for 1S67, 2,400,000?. reported 
 
 Aug. „ 
 
 Massacre of Hindoo chiefs by the nawab of Tonk 
 (for which he was deposed) . . . 1 Aug. „ 
 
 Grand durbar at Lucknow . . . 9-17 Nov. ,, 
 
 The fierce Wagheers of Kattywar, in a night attack, 
 are nearly exterminated ; capts. Hibbert and La 
 Touche killed 29 Dec. ,, 
 
 Mr. Massey's budget ; surplus of 800,000/. ; licence 
 tax abolished, tax on trades, &c. , substituted ; ex- 
 penditure of 1,700,000?. on public works proposed 
 
 14 March, 1868 
 
 War on the N.W. frontier; the Bazotees, fanatical 
 Mahometans, defeated by general Wilde ; 30 killed 
 and wounded ; all dispersed, 4 Oct. ; villages burnt 
 as punishment for outrages . . . Oct. „ 
 
 Death of the begum of Bhopal, who helped the 
 British during the mutiny . . .30 Aug. ,, 
 
 Arrival of the earl of Mayo, the new viceroy, at 
 Calcutta 12 Jan. 1869 
 
 Sir R. Temple's budget ; deficiency of about 
 2,750,000?. ; a 1 per cent, income tax put on 
 (excessively opposed) .... March, ,, 
 
 Meeting of the viceroy and Shere AH, the Affghan 
 sovereign, who receives a subsidy and presents 
 
 27 March, 186; 
 
 New divorce act in operation . . .1 April, ,, 
 
 Rise of a body of Indian religious reformers termed 
 the Brahmo-Somaj (see Dei m) . . Aug. ,, 
 
 Act for the better governing India and defining the 
 governor-general s powers passed . . 11 Aug. ,, 
 
 India visited by the duke of Edinburgh, Dec. 1869- 
 
 Apru, 1870 
 
 Railway between Calcutta and Bombay completed 
 
 March, ,, 
 
 Announced deficiency in the revenue ; increasi d 
 taxation proposed; much opposition to the in- 
 come tax May, ,, 
 
 Grand durbar at Bhurtpore . . . 10 Oct. ,, 
 
 Lamented death of sir H. Duraud, from fall from an 
 elephant 1 Jan. 1871 
 
 Sir Proby Cautley, designed Ganges canal works, 
 &e. , died, aged 68 25 Jan. ,, 
 
 Volunteer system proposed for India . . Jan. ,, 
 
 Indian finance committee appointed . . Feb. 
 
 Sir R. Temple's budget .... 9 March, ,, 
 
 Indian civil engineering college, Cooper's-hill, opened 
 by the duke of Argyll, secretary for India, 5 Aug. 
 
 Justice Norman stabbed at Calcutta, 20 Sept. ; dies 
 21 Sept. ; assassin convicted, 28 Sept. ; executed 
 
 4 Nov. ,, 
 
 Moulvi Liakat All, a cruel rebel who in 1857 ruled 
 as viceroy at Allahabad, apprehended . 5 July, 
 
 Much corrupt opposition to the income tax reported 
 
 Nov. „ 
 
 Lord Mayo visits Palumpore fair, and holds a rural 
 durbar 6 Nov. ,, 
 
 Military expedition under generals Nutthall and 
 Bourchier, aided by the rajah of Munnipore, against 
 the Looshais, about 13 Nov. ; skirmishes, 1 Dec. ,, 
 
 Death of the earl of Ellenborough, a late governor- 
 general (see Somnath) .... 22 Dec. ,, 
 
 Skirmishes with the Looshais, 21, 23 Dee. ; they 
 sue for peace 29 Dec. ,, 
 
 The king of Siam visits Calcutta . . 7-12 Jan. 1872 
 
 Outbreak of the Hookas, near Loodiana, severely 
 suppressed by commissioners Cowan and Forsyth 
 (see Kookas) 15-17 Jan. ,, 
 
 Camp at Delhi ; military manoeuvres, by sir H. 
 Tombs and others .... 13-23 Jan. ,, 
 
 Looshais repulsed and strongholds taken 28 Jan. „ 
 
 The viceroy arrives at Rangoon, 28 Jan. ; on his 
 return he visits the convict establishment in the 
 Andaman Islands, and is assassinated at Port 
 Blair by Shere Ali, a convict, while about to 
 embark in the Glasgow ... 8 Feb. ,, 
 
 Lord Napier acts as viceroy . . .23 Feb. „ 
 
 Looshais surrender unconditionally ; army returning 
 
 28 Feb. „ 
 
 The Kamous tribe, while carrying off Looshai cap- 
 tives, defeated, and captives rescued ; British re- 
 turning to Calcutta .... 7 March, „ 
 
 Shere Ali hanged, without confessing associates, 
 
 12 March, ,, 
 
 Annual pension from Indian government to lady 
 Mayo, 1000?. ; grant of 20,000?. for children, 
 
 March, ,, 
 
 Sir Richard Temple's budget favourable ; income 
 tax to be reduced April, „ 
 
 Lord Northbrook swom in as viceroy . 3 May, ,. 
 
 Liakat Ali, on confession, condemned to transporta- 
 tion for life 27 July, ,, 
 
 Christian marriage bill passed . . . July, ,, 
 
 The begum of Bhopal made a knight of the Star of 
 India at Bombay .... 16 Nov. ,, 
 
 The income tax not renewed . . .21 March, 1873 
 
 GOVEBNORS-GENERAL OF INDIA, &C* 
 
 Warren Hastings assumes the govt. . . 13 April, 1772 
 
 Sir John Maepherson 1 Feb. 1785 
 
 Lord C'ornwallis 12 Sept. 1786 
 
 Sir John Shore (afterwards lord Teignmouth) 
 
 28 Oct. 1793 
 Lord (afterwards marquis) Cornwallis again: he 
 relinquished the appointment. 
 
 * Several of these appointments were provisional, as, 
 for instance, sir Alured Clarke, sir George Hilaro Barlow, 
 hon. William Butterworth Bayley, William Wilberforce 
 Bird. tie. The appointments of governors-general were, 
 of course, of earlier date than their assumption of office. 
 
INDIA COMPANY. 
 
 357 
 
 INDIANS. 
 
 Sir Alured Clarke 6 April, 1798 
 
 Lord Hornington (afterwards Marquis Wellesley) - 
 
 17 May, 1798 
 Marquis Cornwallis again . . . .30 July, 1805 
 Sir George Hilaro Barlow . . . .10 Oct. „ 
 
 Lord Minto 31 July, 1807 
 
 Earl of Moira, afterwards marquis of Hastings, 
 
 4 Oct. 1813 
 
 Hon. John Adam 13 Jan. 1823 
 
 George Canning, relinquished the appointment . „ 
 William, Lord (afterwards earl) Amherst . 1 Aug. ,, 
 Hon. W. Buttervvorth Bayley . . 13 March, 1828 
 Lord Wm. Cavendish Bentinck . . 4 July, „ 
 [This nobleman "became the first governor-general 
 of India, under the act 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 85 : 
 Aug 28, 1833.] 
 Sir Charles Theophilus Metcalfe (afterwards lord 
 
 Metcalfe) 20 March, 1835 
 
 William, lord Heytesbury ; did not proceed . . „ 
 George, lord Auckland (afterwards earl of Auckland 
 
 4 March, 1836 
 Edward, lord Ellenborough ... 20 Feb. 1842 
 William Wilberforce Bird ... 15 June, 1844 
 Sir Henry (afterwards viscount) Hardinge, 23 July, „ 
 James-Andrew, earl (afterwards marquis) of Dal- 
 
 housie 12 Jan. 1848 
 
 Charles John, viscount Canning, appointed, July, 1855 
 Proclaimed the first viceroy throughout India, 
 
 1 Nov. 1858 
 James, earl of Elgin, appointed, Aug. 1861 ; died 
 
 20 Nov. 1863 
 Sir John Lawrence appointed . . . Dec. ,, 
 Richard, earl of Mayo (see Mayo) appointed . Oct. 1868 
 
 [Assassinated 8 Feb. 1872.] 
 Thomas George Baring, lord Northbrook . Feb. 1872 
 
 INDIA COMPANY, EAST. The first com- 
 mercial intercourse of the English with the East 
 Indies was a private adventure of three ships fitted 
 out in 1591. Only one of them reached India; and, 
 after a voyage of three years, the commander, cap- 
 tain Lancaster, was brought home in another ship, 
 the sailors having seized his own; but his in- 
 formation gave rise to a mercantile voyage, and the 
 establishment of a company, whose first charter, in 
 Dec. 1600, was renewed in 1609, 1657, 1661, 1693, 
 and 1744. Its stock in 1600 consisted of 72,000^., 
 when it fitted out four ships. Meeting with success, 
 it continued to trade, and India stock sold at 500^. 
 for a share of 100I. in 1683. 
 
 A new company (the " English ") was chartered in 
 1698, and the old (the "London") suspended 
 from trading for three years ; the two were united 1702 
 New East India company established . . . . 1708 
 Privileges of the company continued till 1783 . . 1744 
 Affairs of the company were brought before parlia- 
 ment, and a committee exposed a series of in- 
 trigues and crimes . ... Aug. 1772 
 As remedial measures, two acts passed (one autho- 
 rised a loan of i,ooo,oooL to the company; the 
 other celebrated as the India bill) effected most 
 important changes in the constitution of the 
 company and its relations to India. A governor- 
 general was appointed to reside in Bengal, to 
 which the other presidencies were then made 
 subordinate ; a supreme court of judicature was 
 instituted at Calcutta : the salary of the governor 
 was fixed at 25,000?. per year ; that of the council 
 at io,oooZ. each ; and of the chief judge at 8000Z. ; 
 the affairs of the company were controlled ; all the 
 departments were re-organised, and all the terri- 
 torial correspondence was henceforth to be laid 
 before the British ministry . . . June, 1773 
 Mr. Pitt's bill appointing the Board of Control 
 
 (which see), passed 18 May, 1784 
 
 The company's charter was renewed for 20 years . 1793 
 The trade with India thrown open .... 1813 
 The trade to China opened and the Charter renewed 
 
 till 1854 1833 
 
 The government of India was continued in the 
 hands of the company till parliament should 
 otherwise provide . . . . . . . 1853 
 
 In consequence of the mutiny of 1857, and the dis- 
 appearance of the company's army, the govern- 
 
 ment of India was transferred to the crown, the 
 Board of Control was abolished, and a Council of 
 State for India instituted by the act 21 & 22 Vict, 
 c. 106, which received the royal assent, 2 Aug. * 1858 
 
 The company's jiolitical power ceased on 1 Sept., 
 and the queen was proclaimed as Queen of Great 
 Britain and the Colonies, &c, in the principal 
 places in India, amid much enthusiasm 1 Nov. 1858 
 
 The company to be dissolved, 1 June, 1874, and 
 dividends redeemed, by act passed . . . . 1873 
 
 The East India-House built 1726 ; enlarged and a 
 new front erected, 1799 ; sold with the furniture, 
 1861 ; pulled down in Sept. and Oct. . . . 1862 
 
 INDIA, COUNCIL OF, established by act of 
 parliament, 2 Aug. 1858, in the place of the board 
 of control (which see). It consists of 15 members 
 (salary 1200J. a year), eight of whom were appointed 
 by the queen, and seven elected by the directors of 
 the East India company. The members may not 
 sit in parliament. The council met first on 3 Sept. 
 1858, when lord Stanley, secretary of state for India, 
 presided. The members of the first council are 
 here recorded : — ■ 
 
 Charles Mills. 
 John Shepherd. 
 Sir J. Weir Hogg. 
 Elliot Macnaghten. 
 
 Ross D. Mangles. 
 William J. Eastwick. 
 Henry T. Prinsep. 
 
 APPOINTED. 
 
 Sir Frederick Currie. 
 Sir Henry Rawlinson. 
 Sir R. Hussey Vivian. 
 J. Pollard Willoughby. 
 
 Sir John Lawrence. 
 Sir Henry Montgomery. 
 Sir Proby Cautley, and. 
 Wm. Arbuthnot. 
 
 INDIAN MUSEUM, The, was proposed by 
 sir Charles Wilkins and approved by the East India 
 company in 1798. The valuable collections were 
 removed from Leadenhall-street to Fife house, 
 behind the chapel royal, Whitehall, and opened 
 24 July, 1861 ; again removed to the East Indian 
 museum, which was opened to the public May, 
 1869. 
 
 INDIANA, a western state of North America. 
 It was included in Ohio till 1801 ; was constituted 
 a territory in 1809, and admitted into the Union 
 
 11 Dec. 1816; capital, Indianopolis. 
 
 INDIAN CIVIL SERVICE COLLEGE, 
 
 established at Cooper's hill, Surrey, 1870. 
 
 INDIANS occupying the south-western parts 
 of the United States, in direct connexion with the 
 government, were numbered at 239,506 in 1861 ; 
 and about 300,000 in 1872. The larger tribes are 
 the Cherokees (22,000), the Chocktaws (18,000), 
 the Creeks (13,550), and the Chickasaws (5000). 
 A large proportion are in comfortable circumstances, 
 and have schools and churches; other tribes are 
 the Delawares, Sacs, Foxes, Shawnees, Sioux, and 
 Ioways. During the American civil war in 1861, 
 the Choctaws joined the confederates, who per- 
 mitted two Choctaw delegates to sit in congress ; 
 the first being Sampson Folsom and Eastman Lo- 
 man ; but the principal chief of the Cherokees, on 
 4 May, 1861, issued a proclamation of neutrality, 
 which was maintained with great difficulty. In a war 
 provoked by outrages general Sheridan defeated the 
 
 * Lord Palmerston brought in a bill for the purpose on 
 
 12 Feb. , which was accepted by the house on 18 Feb. 
 He resigned on the following day, and the bill dropped. 
 A similar bill was introduced by Mr. Disraeli on 12 March ; 
 but many of its details being objected to, it was with- 
 drawn. On lord John Russell's proposition, the house 
 proceeded to consider the matter by way of resolutions ; 
 on 17 June, lord Stanley brought in the above mentioned 
 bill, being the third on the subject introduced during the 
 session. 
 
INDIA-RUBBER. 
 
 358 
 
 INFLUENZA. 
 
 Indians, and they surrendered unconditionally Dec. 
 1868. Negotiations undertaken by the Quakers had 
 no effect, and the war was renewed June, 1869. 
 Aa a chastisement for murders and other outrages 
 major Baker killed 173 Indians, including women 
 and children, Jan. 1870. In June following a 
 deputation of eminent chiefs was received by the 
 president at Washington, and promises and presents 
 were made to them. On 1 Oct. 1869 prince Arthur 
 visited the villages of the Canadian Indians, and 
 was made a chief of the " Six Nations." A. depu- 
 tation of Indian chiefs were well received by the 
 president at Washington, Jan. 1870. A meeting of 
 delegates from various tribes met at Ocmulgee, 5- 1 7 
 June, 1871, and agreed to a constitution for the 
 common government by means of a senate and par- 
 liament representing 17 tribes of 60,000 people ; see 
 Modoc. 
 
 INDIA EUBBEE, see Caoutchouc. 
 
 INDICTION, a cycle of tributes of corn de- 
 manded every fifteen years, not known before the time 
 of Constantine. The first examples in the Theo- 
 dosian code are of the reign of Constantius, who 
 died 361. — In memory of the great victory obtained 
 by Constantine over Mezentius, 8 Cal. Oct. 312, 
 the council of Nice ordained that the accounts of 
 years should be no longer kept by the Olympiads, 
 but by the Indiction, which has its epocha 1 Jan. 
 313. It was first used by the Latin church in 342. 
 
 INDIGO. Its real nature was so little known 
 in Europe, that it was classed among minerals, as 
 appears by letters-patent for erecting works to 
 obtain it from mines in the principality of Halber- 
 stadt, dated 23 Dec. 1705; yet what Vitruvius and 
 Pliny called indicum is supposed to have been our 
 indigo. Beckmann. The first mention of indigo 
 occurs in English statutes in 1581. Its cultivation 
 was begun in Carolina in 1747. The quantity im- 
 ported into Great Britain in 1840 was 5,831,269 lbs. ; 
 in 1845, 10,127,488 lbs. ; in 1850, 70,482 cwt. ; in 
 1859, 63,237 cwt. ; in 1861,83,109 cwt.; in 1866, 
 74,256 cwt. ; in 1869, 86,721 cwt. ; in 1870, 79,255 
 cwt.; see Aniline. 
 
 INDIEECT CLAIMS, see Alabama, Wash- 
 ington. 
 
 INDIUM, a metal discovered in the arsenical 
 pyrites of Freiberg by F. Beich and T. Bichter in 
 1863. Its name is due to its giving an indigo blue 
 ray in its spectrum. 
 
 INDUCTION of electric currents, discovered 
 by Faraday, and announced in his "Experimental 
 Besearches," published in 1831-2. Buhmkorff's 
 magneto-electric induction coil was constructed in 
 1850. 
 
 INDULGENCES in the early church were 
 the moderation of ecclesiastical punishment. The 
 papal system for the absolute pardon of sin, com- 
 menced by Leo. III. about 800, were granted in 
 the nth century by Gregory VII., and by Urban 
 II., and by others, in the 12th century as rewards 
 to the crusaders. Clement V. was the first pope 
 who made public sale of indulgences, 1313. In 
 1517, Leo. X. published general indulgences 
 throughout Europe, and the resistance to them led 
 to the Beformation. 
 
 INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITIONS, in Great 
 Britain, are now frequent. One for South London 
 was opened at Lambeth, 1 March, 1864; for North 
 London, by earl Eussell, at the Agricultural hall, 
 Islington, 17 Oct. 1864; for West London, at the 
 
 Floral hall, Covent-garden, 1 May, 1865; for the 
 city of London, at Guildhall, 6 March, 1866; one- 
 was opened at York, 24 July, 1866; and several 
 since ; see Workmen. 
 
 INDUSTRIAL AND PROVIDENT 
 
 SOCIETIES' ACTS, 1852 and 1862, were 
 amended by acts passed 1867 and 187 1. 
 
 INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS ACT, 21 & 22 
 
 Vict. c. 48 (1857) was enacted to make better pro- 
 vision for the care and education of vagrant, desti- 
 tute, and disorderly children. Another act was 
 passed, 1861. These acts were consolidated by an 
 art pns-ed in Aug. 1866. Forty-seven of these 
 schools had been certified under these acts up to 
 29 Sept. 1864. The act was extended to Ireland, 
 1868. 
 
 INDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES, see Co-opera- 
 tive Societies. 
 
 INFALLIBILITY OF THE POPE, see 
 Rome, 1870. 
 
 INFANTICIDE, especially female, was very 
 prevalent in barbarous countries. Lord Macartney 
 stated that 20,000 infants were killed annually ; it 
 is now gradually decreasing in India. On 12 Nov. 
 1 85 1, Mr. Baikes induced the Chohan chiefs to 
 agree to resolutions against it, and a great meeting 
 in the Punjab was held for the same purpose,. 
 14 Nov. 1853. Much suspicion was caused in Lon- 
 don in 1867 through the deaths of children farmed 
 out, or given up to persons advertising for children 
 to adopt, with a premium. The agitation revived, 
 June, 1870. Margaret Waters was convicted of the 
 murder of John Cowen, an illegitimate infant, by 
 poison and neglect, 23 Sept. 1870. She had adopted 
 about 40 children, receiving a few pounds as pre- 
 mium, in four years ; many had died. The Infant 
 Life Protection act passed 25 July, 1872. 
 
 INFANTRY, foot soldiers ; their organisation 
 much improved during the wars of Charles V. and 
 Francis I., in the 16th century. The British army 
 comprised 99 regiments of regular infantry in 1858, 
 when the Canadians raised a regiment which is 
 termed the 100th. The number, now 109, includes- 
 the nine regiments in the pay of the East India 
 company, and several colonial corps. Marshal 
 Bugeaud said, "The British infantry is the finest 
 in the world : happily there is not much of it." 
 
 INFANT SCHOOLS began in New Lanark, 
 Scotland, in 1815 ; in London in 1818. 
 
 INFERNAL MACHINE, see France, 1800, 
 1835, and 1858 ; and Baltic, note. 
 
 INFIRMARIES. Ancient Borne had no 
 houses for the cure of the sick ; diseased persons 
 were carried to the temple of JEsculapius for cure. 
 Institutions for the accommodation of travellers, 
 the indigent, and sick were founded by the em- 
 peror Julian about 362 ; and infirmaries or hospitals 
 were frequently built to cathedrals and monas- 
 teries. The emperor Louis II. caused infirmaries 
 situated on mountains to be visited, 855. In Jeru- 
 salem the knights and brothers attended on the 
 sick. There were hospitals for the sick at Constan- 
 tinople, in the nth century. The oldest mention 
 of physicians and surgeons established in infirm- 
 aries occurs in 1437. Beckmann; see Hospitals. 
 
 INFLUENZA, an epidemic which prevailed 
 in England in 1831, 1833, 1836, and 1847; appears 
 to have been known in the 16th century. 
 
INFORMERS. 
 
 35 
 
 INQUISITION. 
 
 INFORMERS, upon penal statutes, com- 
 pounding with defendants without leave of the 
 court, were punishable with fine and pillory, by 
 18 Eliz. c. 5 (1576). Their share of a penalty was 
 regulated by 2 & 3 Yict. c. 71 (1839). 
 
 INFUSORIA, see Animalcules. 
 
 INGOUR, a river rising in the Caucasus and 
 falling into the Black Sea. Omar Pasha, marching 
 to the relief of Ears, crossed this river on 6 Nov. 
 1855, with 10,000 men, and attacked the Russians, 
 12,000 strong, who, after a struggle, retreated with 
 the loss of 400 men. The Turks had 68 killed and 
 242 wounded. Ears, however, was not saved. 
 
 INK. The ancient black inks were composed of 
 soot and ivory black, and Vitruvius and Pliny men- 
 tion lamp-black; but they had ink of various 
 colours, as red, gold, silver, and purple. Eed ink 
 was made of vermilion and gum. Indian ink was 
 brought from China, and must have been in use by 
 the people of the east from the earliest ages. Invis- 
 ible, or Sympathetic Inks, were known at early 
 periods. Ovid (a.d. 2) teaches young women to 
 write with new milk. Eeceipts for preparing in- 
 visible ink were given by Peter Borel, in 1653, and 
 by Le Mort, in 1669. Beckmann. 
 
 INKERMANN (Crimea) . The Russian army 
 (about 40,000) having received reinforcements, and 
 being encouraged by the presence of the granddukes 
 Michael and Nicholas, attacked the British (8000) 
 near the old fort of Inkermann, before daybreak, 
 5 Nov. 1854. They were kept at bay for six hours 
 till the arrival of 6000 French. The Russians were 
 then repulsed, leaving 9000 killed and wounded. 
 The loss of the allies was 462 killed, 1952 wounded, 
 and 191 missing. Sir George Cathcart, and generals 
 Strangways, Goldie, and Torrens, were among the 
 slain. On 15 Nov. 1855, an explosion of about 
 100,000 lbs. of gunpowder occurred near Inker- 
 mann, and caused great loss of life. 
 
 INLAND REVENUE BOARD was con- 
 stituted in Feb. 1849. It comprises the hoards of 
 Excise, Stamps, and Taxes {which see). The law 
 respecting the inland revenue amended 187 1. 
 
 INNOCENTS' DAY, 28 Dec. in the western 
 church ; 29 Dec. in the Greek or eastern church; 
 see Childermas. 
 
 INNS at Rome were regulated by laws ; and 
 Edward III. enacted that they should be subjected 
 to inquiry, 1353. See Taverns, and Victuallers. 
 
 INNS OF COURT (London) were established 
 at different periods, in some degree as colleges for 
 teaching the law. Annual revenue in 1872 said to 
 be about 25,000?. 
 
 The Temple founded, and the church built by 
 
 Knights Templars 1185 
 
 The Inner and Middle Temple made inns of law 
 
 ahout 1340 ; the Outer about (Stow) . . . 1560 
 Barnard's Inn, an inn of Chancery .... 1445 
 
 Clement's Inn, 18 Bdw. IV 1478 
 
 Clifford's Inn, 20 Edw. Ill 1345 
 
 Fumival's Inn, 5 Eliz 1563 
 
 Gray's Inn, 32 Edw. Ill 1357 
 
 Lincoln's Inn, 4 Edw. II ... . 1310 or 1312 
 
 Lyon's Inn 1420 
 
 New Inn, 1 Hen. VII 1485 
 
 Serjeants' Inn, Fleet Street 1429 
 
 Serjeants' Inn, Chancery-lane 1666 
 
 Staples Inn, 4 Hen. V 1415 
 
 Thavies' Inn, 10 Hen. VIII. 1519 
 
 INNSPRUCK, capital of the Tyrol, captured 
 by Maurice of Saxony in 1552 ; by the Bavarians 
 
 in 1703 ; by the French and Bavarians, 1805. 
 Much fighting took place between these people and 
 the Austrians in 1809, and Innspriick changed 
 masters several times, being finally taken by the 
 Austrians, 12 Aug. 
 
 INOCULATION, see Small Fox. Lady Mary 
 Wortley Montagu introduced inoculation from 
 small pox to England from Turkey. In 17 18 she 
 had her son inoculated at Adrianople with success. 
 Stie was allowed to have it first tried in England on 
 seven condemned criminals, 1721 ; and in 1722 two 
 of the royal family were inoculated. The practice 
 was preached against by many of the bishops and 
 clergy until 1760. Dr. Mead practised incculntion 
 very successfully up to 1754, and Dr. Dimsdale of 
 London, inoculated Catherine II., empress of 
 Russia, in 1768. Of 5964 who were inoculated in 
 1797-99, onl y three died. An inoculation hospital 
 was established in 1746. Vaccine inoculation was 
 introduced by Dr. Jenner, 21 Jan. 1799; he had 
 discovered its virtue in 1796, and had been making 
 experiments during the intermediate three years. 
 Inoculation was forbidden by law in 1840. See 
 Vaccination, and Sheep. 
 
 INQUISITION or Holy Office. Pre- 
 vious to Constantine (306), heresy and_ spiritual 
 offences were punished by excommunication only ; 
 but shortly after his death capital punishments 
 were added, and inquisitors were appointed by 
 Theodosius, 382. Priscillian was put to death in 
 384. Justinian decreed the doctrine of the four 
 holy synods as to the holy scriptures and their 
 canons to be observed as laws, 529; hence the 
 penal code against heretics. About 800 the power 
 of the western bishops was enlarged, and courts 
 were established for trying and punishing spiritual 
 offenders, even with death ; the punishment being 
 termed in Spain auto-da-fe, " an act of faith." In 
 the 12th century many heresies arose, and during 
 the crusades against the Albigenses, Gregory IX., 
 in 1233, established by rules the inquisitorial 
 missions sent out by Innocent HI., 1210-15, and 
 committed them to the Dominicans. Pietro da 
 Verona (styled Peter Martyr), the first inquisitor 
 who burnt'heretics, assassinated by an accused gol- 
 falonier,6 April, 1252, was canonized. 
 
 Pierre de Castelnau sent against the Albigenses, 
 1210 ; St. Dominic made the first inquisitor- 
 general I2I 5 
 
 The Inquisition constituted by Gregory IX., 1233; 
 established in Arragon, 1233 ; Venice, 1249 ; 
 
 France, 1255 ; Castile 1290 
 
 The Inquisition revived by a bull . . 1 Nov. 1478 
 The Holy Office was reinstituted in Spain by Ferdi- 
 nand and Isabella ; Torquemada inquisitor- 
 general I 48o 
 
 Nearly 3000 persons burnt in Andalusia, and 17,000 
 
 suffer other penalties 14 81 
 
 " Instructions " of the new tribunal promulgated, 
 
 29 Nov. 1484 
 New articles were added . . . 1488 & 149 8 
 Established in Portugal . .... 1520 
 
 The establishment resisted in Naples, and only 
 introduced into other parts of Italy with jealous 
 limitations by the temporal power . . 1546-7 
 New ordinances in 81 articles compiled by the 
 
 inquisitor-general Valdez 1561 
 
 Suppressed in France by edict of Nantes . . _ . 1598 
 Carnesecohi executed at Konie, 1567, and Galileo 
 
 compelled to abjure his philosophical opinions . 1634 
 20 persons perish at an auto-da-fe at Goa . 1717 
 
 Gabriel Malagrida, a Jesuit, burnt at Lisbon . .1761 
 A woman accused of making a contract with the 
 
 devil burnt at Seville .... 7 Nov. 1781 
 The tribunal abolished in Tuscany and Lombardy . 1787 
 Louis XIV. revoked the edict of Nantes, but re- 
 fused to introduce the Inquisition . . . . 1683 
 
INQUESTS. 
 
 360 
 
 INUNDATIONS. 
 
 Suppressed in Spain by Napoleon, 4 Dec. 1808. and 
 
 % the Cortes 12 Feb. 1813 
 
 Restored by Ferdinand VIL . . 21 July, 1814 
 Finally abolished by the Cortes .... 1820 
 [Llorente states that in 236 years the total amount 
 of persona put to death in .Spain by the Inquisi- 
 tion was about 32,000 ; 291,000 were subjected to 
 other punishments.] 
 
 INQUESTS, see Coroner. 
 
 INSANITY, see Lunatics. 
 
 INSOLVENCY. The first insolvent act was 
 passed in 1649, but it was of limited operation ; a 
 number of acts of more extensive operation were 
 passed at various periods, and particularly in the 
 reign of George III. The benefit of the act known 
 as the Great Insolvent Act, was taken in England by 
 50,733 insolvents from the time of its passing in 
 1814, to March, 1827, a period of thirteen years. 
 iSince then the acts relating to insolvency have 
 been several times amended. Persons not traders, 
 or being traders whose debts are less than 300/., 
 might petition the court of bankruptcy, and pro- 
 pose compositions, and have pro tern, protection 
 from all process against their persons and property, 
 by 6 Vict. c. 116 (1842). In 1861, by a new bank- 
 ruptcy act, the business of the insolvent debtors' 
 court was transferred to the court of bankruptcy ; 
 and a number of imprisoned debtors were released 
 in Nov. 1861. See Bankrupts. 
 
 INSTITUTE OF France, see Academies 
 
 (Paris). On 25 Oct. 1795, all the Royal Academies, 
 viz., the French academy, the academy of inscrip- 
 tions and belles lettres, that of the mathematical 
 and physical sciences, of the fine arts, and of the 
 moral and political sciences, were combined in one 
 body, under the title of " Institut National," after- 
 wards Royal, Imperial, and now National. 
 
 INSTITUTES, see Code. 
 
 INSTITUTION, see Royal, London, and Civil 
 Engineers. 
 
 INSURANCE on Ships and Merchan- 
 dise. Suetonius conjectures that Claudius was 
 the first contriver of the insurance of ships, 
 a.d. 43. 
 
 Insurance in general use in Italy, 1194, and in 
 England 1560 
 
 Insurance policies first used in Florence . . ■ 1523 
 
 The first law relating to insurance was enacted . 1601 
 
 Insurance of houses and goods against Fire, in 
 Loudon, began the year following the Great Fire 
 of London 1667 
 
 An office set up for insuring houses and buildings, 
 chiefly on the plan of Dr. Barton, one of the first 
 and most considerable builders of London . . ,, 
 
 The first regular office set up in London was the 
 Hand-in-Ha/nd 1696 
 
 First Life Insurance Office (the Amicable), esta- 
 blished 1706 
 
 Sun fire-office established 1710 
 
 The first Marine Insurance was the Royal Exchange 
 Insurance, and the London Insurance . . 1720 
 
 Duty first laid on insurances of is. 6d. per 100?. in- 
 sured, 1782 ; duty increased 1797 
 
 In 1857, 1,451, 110J. were paid as duty for fire insur- 
 ances, on property amounting to 72,136,585/. 
 
 There were 33 London fire insurance offices ; 25 
 country offices ; 7 Scotch, and 2 Irish . . . 1859 
 
 165 such offices in London ,, 
 
 A new Commercial Union fire insurance, founded 
 in consequence of the increased charges of the 
 companies Sept. 1861 
 
 Rate of tax on insurance, reduced from 3s. to is. 6ri. 
 per cent, on stock in trade, from 13 May, 1864 ; 
 on household goods . . . . . . 1865 
 
 Sea insurance duties reduced . . -31 May, 1867 
 
 Policies of Assurance act (enabling assignees of 
 
 assurances to sue in their own names for policy 
 
 monies), passed .... 20 Aug. 1867 
 Fire insurance duties totally repealed . 24 June, 1869 
 Albert Assurance Company fail for about 8,ooo,oooJ. 
 
 Aug. ,, 
 Act amending the law respecting life assurance 
 
 companies passed 1870-1-2 
 
 European Assurance arbitration first met before 
 
 lord. Westbury (important decisions), 
 
 22 Oct. -Nov. 1872 
 
 AMOUNT INSURED. 
 
 1782 £130,000,000 
 
 1802 220,000,000 
 
 1822. . . . . 399,000,000 
 
 1842 652,000,000 
 
 1862. ...... 1,007,000,000 
 
 INSURRECTIONS, see Conspiracies, Mas- 
 sacres, Rebellions, Riots, &c. 
 
 INTENDMENT of Crimes. In cases of 
 
 treason, wounding, burglary, &c, intention proved 
 was made as punishable as crime completed, by 7 
 Geo. II., 1734. The rigour was modified by sir 
 Kobert Peel's revision of the statutes, 4-ioGeo. IV. 
 1823-29. 
 
 INTERDICT or Ecclesiastical Cen- 
 sure, seldom decreed in Europe till the time of 
 Gregory VIL, 1073, but often afterwards. When a 
 prince was excommunicated, all his subjects re- 
 taining their allegiance were excommunicated also, 
 and the clergy were forbidden to perform any part 
 of divine service, or any clerical duties, save the 
 baptism of infants, and taking the confessions of 
 dying penitents. In 1170, pope Alexander put all 
 England under an interdict ; and when king John 
 was excommunicated in 1 208, the kingdom lay 
 under a papal interdict for six years. England was 
 put under an interdict, on Henry VIII. shaking off 
 the pope's supremacy, 1535; and pope Sixtus V. 
 published a crusade against queen Elizabeth of 
 England in 1588; see Excommunication. 
 
 INTEREST, see Usury. The word interest 
 was first used in an act of parliament of the 21st 
 James I. 1623, wherein it was made to signify a 
 lawful increase by way of compensation for the use 
 of money lent. The rate fixed by the act was 8/. 
 for the use of 100I. for a year, in place of usury at 
 10^. before taken. The Commonwealth lowered the 
 rate to 61. in 165 1 ; confirmed in 1660 ; and by an 
 act of the 13th of queen Anne, 1713, it was reduced 
 to 5/. The restraint being found prejudicial to 
 commerce, it was totally removed by 17 & 18 
 Vict. c. 90 (1854). 
 
 INTERIM OF AUGSBURG, a decree issued 
 by the emperor Charles V. in 1548, with the view 
 of attempting to reconcile the Catholics and Pro- 
 testants, in which it entirely failed. It was revoked 
 in 1552. The term Interim has been applied to 
 other decrees and treaties. 
 
 INTERNATIONAL, see under Cholera, 
 Copyright, Editca/iox, Exhibitions, Havre, Horti- 
 culture, Lavj, Statistics, Worki>ig-men, and 
 Wounded. 
 
 INTERREGNUM, see Commonwealth. 
 
 INUNDATIONS. The following are anion? 
 the most remarkable : — 
 
 An inundation of the sea in Lincolnshire laid under 
 
 water many thousand acres. Camden . a.d. 245 
 Another in Cheshire, by which 3000 persons and 
 
 an innumerable quantity of cattle perished, . 353 
 An inundation at Glasgow, which drowned more 
 
 than 400 families. Furdun 756 
 
 The Tweed overflowed its banks, and laid waste 
 
 the country fur 30 miles round, . . . . 836 
 
INUNDATIONS. 
 
 361 
 
 INVENTION. 
 
 An inundation on the English coasts, demolished a 
 number of sea-port towns, 1014 
 
 Earl Godwin's lands, exceeding 4000 acres, over- 
 flowed by the sea, and an immense sand-bank 
 formed on the coast of Kent, now known by the 
 name of the Godwin sands. Camden. . . . 1100 
 
 Flanders inundated by the sea, and the town and 
 harbour of Ostend totally immersed . . . 1108 
 
 More than 300 houses overwhelmed at Winchelsea 
 by an inundation of the sea 1280 
 
 At the Texel, which first raised the commerce of * 
 Amsterdam ........ 1400 
 
 The sea broke in at Dort, and drowned 72 villages, 
 and 100,000 people (see Dort), 17 April . . . 1446 
 
 The Severn overflowed during ten days, and carried 
 away men, women, and children, in their beds, 
 and covered the tops of many mountains ; the 
 waters settled upon the lands, and were called the 
 Great Waters for 100 years after, 1 Richard III. 
 Jlollinshed , . . . 1483 
 
 The waters rose above the tops of the houses, and 
 above 100 persons perished in Somersetshire and 
 Gloucestershire 1607 
 
 A general inundation by the failure of the dikes in 
 Holland, ; the number of drowned said to have 
 been 400,000 ........ 1530 
 
 At Catalonia, where 50,000 persons perished . . 1617 
 
 An inundation in Yorkshire, when a rock opened, 
 and poured out water to the height of a church 
 steeple. Vide Phil. Trans 1686 
 
 Part of Zealand overflowed, 1300 inhabitants were 
 drowned, and incredible damage was done at Ham- 
 burg 1717 
 
 At Madrid, several of the Spanish nobility and 
 other persons of distinction perished . . . 1723 
 
 In Yorkshire, a dreadful inundation, called Bipon 
 Flood 1771 
 
 In Navarre, where 2000 persons lost their lives by 
 the torrents from the mountains . . Sept. 1787 
 
 Inundation of the Liffey, which did immense 
 damage in Dublin, 12 Nov. 1787 ; again, 2-3 Dec. 1802 
 
 Lorca, a city of Mercia, in Spain, destroyed by the 
 bursting of a reservoir, which inundated more 
 than 20 leagues, and killed 1000 persons, besides 
 cattle 14 April, 1802 
 
 At Pesth, near Presburg, the overflow of the 
 Danube, by which 24 villages and their inhabi- 
 tants were swept away .... April, 181 1 
 
 In the vicinity of Salop, by the bursting of a cloud 
 during a storm, many persons and much stock 
 perished May, „ 
 
 Dreadful inundation in Hungary, Austria, and 
 Poland, in the summer of 1813 
 
 Overflow of the Danube ; a Turkish corps of 2000 
 men, on a small island near "Widdin, surprised, 
 and met instant death .... 14 Sept. ,, 
 
 In Silesia, 6000 inhabitants perished, and the ruin 
 of the French army under Maedouald was accele- 
 rated by the floods ; also in Poland 4000 lives 
 were supposed to have been lost . . . „ 
 
 At Strabane, Ireland, by the melting of the snow 
 on the surrounding mountains, most destructive 
 floods were occasioned . . . .2 Jan. 1816 
 
 In Germany, the Vistula overflowed ; many villages 
 were laid under water, and great loss of life and 
 property was sustained . . .21 March, „ 
 
 In England, 5000 acres were deluged in the Fen 
 countries June, 1819 
 
 Inundation at Danzic, occasioned by the Vistula 
 breaking through some of its dikes, by which 
 10,000 head of cattle and 4000 houses were de- 
 stroyed, and numerous lives lost . . 9 April, 1829 
 
 The " Moray Floods," caused by rainfall, when the 
 Spey and Findhorn rose in some places 50 feet 
 above their ordinary level, and caused great de- 
 struction of property. Many lives were lost, and 
 whole families who took refuge on elevated places 
 were with difficulty rescued. Sir T. D. Lauder. 
 
 9 Aug. „ 
 
 At Vienna, the dwellings of 50,000 of its inhabitants 
 laid under water Feb. 1830 
 
 10,000 houses swept away, and about 1000 persons 
 perished, at Canton, in China, in consequence of 
 an inundation, occasioned by incessant rains. 
 Equal or greater calamity was produced by the 
 same cause in other ports of China . Oct. 1833 
 
 Awful inundation in France : the Saone poured its 
 waters into the Rhone, broke through its banks, 
 
 and covered 60,000 acres ; Lyons was inundated ; 
 in Avignon 100 houses were swept away ; 218 
 houses were carried away at La Guillotiere ; and 
 upwards of 300 at Vaise, Marseilles, and Nismes ; 
 the Saone had not attained such a height for 238 
 years 31 Oct. to 4 Nov. 1840 
 
 Lamentable inundation at Brentford and the sur- 
 rounding country ; several lives lost, and im- 
 mense property destroyed ... 16 Jan. 1841 
 
 Disastrous inundation in the centre, west, and 
 south-west of France ; numerous bridges, with 
 the Orleans and Vierzon viaduct, swept away : 
 the latter had cost 6,000,000 of francs. The 
 damage done exceeded 4,000,000?.. sterling. The 
 Loire rose twenty feet in one night . 22 Oct. 1846 
 
 Lamentable catastrophe at Holmttrth (see Holm- 
 firth Flood) 4 Feb - l8 52 
 
 Inundation of the valleys of the Severn and Teme 
 after a violent thunderstorm . . 5 Sept. „ 
 
 Inundations of the basins of the Rhine and the 
 Rhone, overflowing the country to a great extent, 
 
 19 Sept. ,, 
 
 Hamburg half-flooded by the Elbe . . 1 Jan. 1855 
 
 Inundations in south of France, with immense 
 damage (see France) . . May and June, 1856 
 
 In Holland, nearly 40,000 acres submerged, Jan. 1861 
 
 Great inundation through the bursting of the out- 
 fall sluice at St. Germain's, near King's Lynn 
 (see Levels) 4-15 May, 1862 
 
 Another marshland sluice bursts ; many acres 
 inundated 4 Oct. ,, 
 
 Bursting of the Bradfleld reservoir (see Sheffield) ; 
 about 250 persons drowned . . 11 March, 1864 
 
 Great inundations in France . . 26 Sept. et seq. 1866 
 
 Great floods in north of England, immense damage 
 in Yorkshire, Lancashire, and Derbyshire ; farms 
 destroyed, mines flooded, mills thrown down, 
 railways stopped ; and much suffering at Leeds 
 (about 20 drowned) Manchester, Preston, "Wake- 
 field, &c 16-17 Nov. „ 
 
 Inundations at Cork, Dublin, and other places, 
 
 about 30 Jan. 1869 
 
 Inundation at Rome, causing great distress ; re- 
 lieved by the king ... 28, 29 Dec. 1870 
 
 Great inundations from the mountains in N. Italy ; 
 the Po and other rivers overflow ; thousands of 
 people unhoused ; Mantua, Ferrara, &c. , suffer 
 much latter part of Oct. 1872 
 
 INVALIDES, Hotel des, founded in 1671 
 by Louis XIV. Its chapel contains the body of 
 Napoleon I., deposited there 15 Dec. 1840. 
 
 INVASIONS of the British Islands, 
 
 see Britain, and Danes. From the death of Edward 
 theConfessor, only the following invasions marked(s) 
 have been successful : — 
 William of Normandy (s.) . . . . 29 Sept. 1066 
 
 The Irish 1069 
 
 The Scots, 1091 ; king Malcolm killed . . . 1093 
 
 Robert of Normandy "01 
 
 The Scots • . . . . 1136 
 
 The empress Maud "39 
 
 Ireland, by Fitz-Stephen (s.) 1169 
 
 Ireland, by Edward Bruce i3!5 
 
 Isabel, queen of Edward II. (s.) .... 1326 
 
 Duke of Lancaster (s.) *399 
 
 Queen of Henry VI 1462 
 
 Earl of Warwick (s.) 1470 
 
 Edward IV. (s.) . . 147* 
 
 Queen of Henry VI 1471 
 
 Earl of Richmond (s.) 148s 
 
 Lambert Simnel M%7 
 
 Perkin Warbeck *495 
 
 Spaniards and Italians, Ireland 1580 
 
 Ireland, Spaniards 1601 
 
 Duke of Monmouth 1685 
 
 William of Orange (s.) 1688 
 
 James II., Ireland 1689 
 
 Old Pretender 1708 
 
 Pretender again i7 I 5 
 
 Young Pretender 1745 
 
 Ireland (see Thurot) 176° 
 
 Wales, the French 1797 
 
 Ireland ; the French land at Killala (which see) . .1798 
 
 INVENTION. See Cross, Patents. 
 
INVENTORS' INSTIUTE. 
 
 362 
 
 IRELAND. 
 
 INVENTORS' INSTITUTE, established in 
 
 May, 1862; first president, sir David Brewster. 
 
 INVERNESS (N.W. Scotland), a city of the 
 Picts up to 843. It was taken by Edward I. ; re- 
 taken by Bruce, 1313; burnt by the lord of the 
 isles, 141 1 ; taken by Cromwell, 1649; and by 
 prince Charles Edward in 1746. He was totally 
 defeated at Culloden, about five miles from Inver- 
 ness, 16 April, 1746. 
 
 INVESTIGATION. See Delicate. 
 
 INVESTITURE of Ecclesiastics, was a 
 
 cause of discord between the pope and temporal 
 sovereigns in the middle ages ; and led to actual 
 war between Gregory VII. and the emperor Henry 
 IV. 1075-1085. The pope endeavoured to deprive 
 the sovereign of the right of nominating bishops 
 and abbots, and of investing them with the cross 
 aud ring. Henry V. gave up the right, by treaty, 
 12 Feb. 1 in ; but other sovereigns resolutely refused 
 to concede it. 
 
 INVINCIBLE ARMADA or Spanish 
 
 ARMADA, see Armada. 
 
 INVOCATION of the Virgin and 
 
 SALNTS to intercede with God. This practice of 
 the ltomish church has been traced to the time 
 of Gregory the Great, 593. The Eastern church 
 began (in the 5th century) by calling upon the 
 dead, and demanding their suffrage as present in 
 the divine offices. 
 
 IODINE (from the Greek iodes, violet-like), 
 was discovered by M. De Courtois, a manufacturer 
 of saltpetre at Paris in 1812, and investigated by 
 M. Clement, 1813. On the application of heat it 
 rises in the form of a dense violet-coloured vapour, 
 easily evaporates, and melts at 220 degrees : it 
 changes vegetable blues to yellow, and a seven- 
 thousandth part converts water to a deep yellow 
 colour, and starch into a purple. 
 
 IONA, ICOLMKILL, or Hll, one of the 
 
 Hebrides. About 565 St. Columba founded a 
 monastery here, which flourished till the 8th and 
 9th centuries, when it was frequently ravaged by 
 the Norsemen. Other religious bodies afterwards 
 were formed here, and the isle was long esteemed 
 sacred. 
 
 IONIA (Asia Minor). About 1040 B.C. the 
 Iones, a Pelasgic race, emigrated from Greece, and 
 settled here and on the adjoining islands. They built 
 Ephesus, Smyrna, and other noble cities. They 
 were conquered by the great Cyrus about 548 B.C. ; 
 revolted 504, but were again subdued. After the 
 victories of Cimon, Ionia became independent and 
 remained so till 387, when it was once more sub- 
 jected to Persia. It formed part of the dominions 
 of Alexander and his successors ; was annexed to 
 the Roman empire, 133, and conquered by the 
 Turks. — Ionia was renowned for poets, historians, 
 and philosophers. 
 
 IONIAN ISLANDS (on W. coast of Greece). 
 Corfu, the capital, Cephalonia, Zante, Ithaca, Santa 
 Maura, Cerigo, and Paxo. They were colonised by 
 the Iones, and partook of the fortunes of the Greek 
 people ; were subject to Naples in the 13th cen- 
 tury, and in the 14th to Venice. Population in 
 1862, 234,123. 
 
 The islands ceded to France by the treaty of Campo 
 Eormio . . . . . . .17 Oct. 1797 
 
 Formed into the republic of the seven islands under 
 
 Russia and Turkey ... 21 March, 1800 
 
 Restored to France by treaty of Tilsit . 7 July, 1807 
 Taken by the English .... 3-12 Oct. 1809 
 
 Formed into an independent state under the protec- 
 
 tion of Great Britain (sir Thomas Maitland, lord 
 
 high commissioner) 5 Nov. 1815 
 
 A constitution ratified . . . .11 July, 1817 
 A. university established at Corfu . . . . 1823 
 The constitution liberalised during the government 
 
 of lord Seaton . . . . 1848-9 
 
 In consequence of complaints, Mr. W. E. Gladstone 
 
 went out on a commission of inquiry, &c. . Nov. 1858 
 sir H. storks, lord high commissioner . Feb. 1859 
 The parliament declare for annexation to Greece, 
 
 March, 1861, and April, 1862 
 Tin.- islands annexed to Greece, 28 May ; the British 
 troops retired, 2 June, and king George I. arrived 
 at Corfu (see Greece) .... 6 June, 1864 
 
 IONIC ORDER of Architecture, an 
 
 improvement on the Doric, was invented by the 
 Ionians about 1350 B.C. Vitruvius. Its distinguish- 
 ing characters are the slenderness and flutings of 
 its columns, and the volutes of rams' horns that 
 adorn the capital. 
 
 IONIC SECT of Philosophers, founded 
 
 by Thales of Miletus about 600 B.C. distinguished 
 for its abstruse speculations under his successors 
 and pupils, Anaximander, Anaximenes, Anaxa- 
 goras, and Archelaus, the master of Socrates. They 
 held that the world is a living being, and that water 
 is the origin of all things. 
 
 IOWA, a western state of North America, was 
 organised as a territory 12 June, 1838 ; and ad- 
 mitted into the Union, 28 Dec. 1846. Capital Des 
 Moines. 
 
 IPSUS (Phrygia) BATTLE OF, Aug. 301 B.C., 
 when Seleucus was confirmed in his kingdom of 
 Syria by the defeat and death of Antigonus, king 
 of Asia. The latter led into the field an army of 
 about 70,000 foot, and 10,000 horse, with 75 ele- 
 phants. The former had 64,000, infantry, besides 
 10,500 horse, 400 elephants, aud 120 armed chariots. 
 Plutarch. 
 
 IPSWICH (Suffolk), the Saxon Gippeswic, 
 was ravaged by the Danes, 991 and IOOO. Wolsey 
 was born here, 1471 ; and founded a school in 1525. 
 The port was greatly improved by the erection of 
 wet docks, 1837-42. " The railway to London was 
 opened 25 June, 1846; and the new town-hall, 
 29 Jan. 1868. 
 
 IRELAND, anciently named Eri or Erin, 
 Ierne and Hibemia, is said to have been first 
 colonised by Phoenicians. Some assert that Par- 
 tholani landed in Ireland about 2048 B.C. ; that 
 the descent of the Damnonii was made about 
 1463 B.C. ; and that this was followed by the de- 
 scent of Heber and Heremon, Milesian princes, 
 from Galieia, in Spain, who conquered Ireland, and 
 gave to its throne a race of 171 kings. See Church 
 of Ireland, and Population. 
 
 1849. 1857. 
 
 Paupers in workhouse . 620,000 65,000 
 
 Notes in eirculation . 3,850,450?. 7,150,000?. 
 
 Bullion in banks . . 1,625,000?. 2,492,000?. 
 
 Deposits in Irish joint stock banks, 1862, 22,672,000? ; in 
 
 1871, 20,049,000?. 
 Deposits in Irish saving banks, 1869, 2,452,898?. ; 1871, 
 
 2,794,027?. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 Arrival of St. Patrick .... about 432 
 Christianity established .... about 448 
 The Danes and Normans, known by the name of 
 
 Easterlings, or Ostmen, invade Ireland . . 795 
 They build Dublin and other cities . . . about 800 
 Brian Boroimhe totally defeats the Danes at Clon- 
 
 tarf; and is killed .... 23 April, 1014 
 [In the 12th century Ireland is divided into live 
 kingdoms, viz. : Ulster, Leinster, Meath, Con- 
 naught, and Munster, besides a number of petty 
 principalities, whose sovereignscontiuually warred 
 with each other.] 
 
IRELAND. 
 
 363 
 
 IRELAND. 
 
 Adrian IV. permitted Henry II. to invade Ireland, 
 on condition that lie compelled every Irish family 
 to pay a carolus to the holy see, and held it as a 
 fief of the Church 1155 
 
 Dermot MacMurrough, king of Leinster, drivenfrom 
 his throne for his oppression . . ... 1166 
 
 Flees to England, where he takes an oath of fidelity 
 to Henry II. who promises to restore him . .1168 
 
 Invasion of the English under Fitz-Stephen . .1169 
 
 Landing of Strongbow at Waterford . . > . „ 
 
 Dermot dies 1171 
 
 Henry II. lands near Waterford, and receives the 
 submission of the princes of the country, settles 
 the government, and makes his son John lord of 
 Ireland May, 1177 
 
 The English settlers generally adopt Irish names and 
 manners about 1200 
 
 Ireland reduced to temporary obedience by king 
 John 1210 
 
 Invasion of Edward Bruce, 1315 ; crowned king . 1316 
 
 Defeated and slain at Foughart, near Dundalk . 1318 
 
 Lionel, duke of Clarence, third son of Edward III., 
 marries Elizabeth de Burgh, heiress of Ulster . 1361 
 
 Statute of Kilkenny passed by him (which see) . . 1367 
 
 Richard II. lands at Waterford with a train of nobles, 
 4000 men-at-arms, and 30,000 archers ; gains the 
 affection of the people by his munificence, and 
 confers the honour of knighthood on their chiefs 1394 
 
 Richard again lands in Ireland .... 1399 
 
 The sanguinary Head act passed at Trim, by the 
 earl of Desmond, deputy. This act ordained, 
 " That it shall be lawful to all manner of men 
 that find any theeves robbing by day or night, or 
 going or coming to rob or steal, or any persons 
 going or coming, having no faithful man of good 
 name and fame in their company in English ap- 
 parell, that it shall be lawful to take and kill 
 those, and to cut off their heads, without any im- 
 peachment of our sovereign lord the king. And 
 of any head so cut off in the county of Meath, 
 that the cutter and his ayders there to him cause 
 the said head so cut off to be brought to the por- 
 treffe to put it upon a stake or spear, upon the 
 castle of Trim ; and that the said portreff'e shall 
 testify the bringing of the same to him. And 
 that it shall be lawful for the said bringer of the 
 said head to distrain and levy by his own hand 
 (as his reward) of every man having one plough- 
 land in the barony, two-pence ; and of every man 
 having half a ploughland, one peny ; and of every 
 man having one house and goods, value forty 
 shillings, one peny ; and of every other cottier 
 having house and smoak, one half-peny," &c. 
 Much slaughter is said to have ensued . . . 1465 
 
 Apparel and surname act (the Irish to dress like the 
 English, and to adopt surnames) „ 
 
 " Poynings' law," subjecting the Irish parliament 
 to the English council 1494 
 
 Great rebellion of the Fitzgeralds subdued . . 1534 
 
 Henry VIII. assumes the title of king, instead of 
 lord of Ireland 1542 
 
 The reformed religion embraced by some of the Eng- 
 lish settlers in the reign of Edward VI. . . 1547 
 
 Ireland finally divided into shires . . . . 1569 
 
 Printing in Irish characters introduced by N. Walsh, 
 chancellor of St. Patrick's 1571 
 
 700 Italians, headed by Fitzmaurice, land in Kerry ; 
 they are treacherously butchered by the earl of 
 Ormond 1580 
 
 O'Neill revolts, 1597 ; defeats the English at Black- 
 water 14 Aug. 1598 
 
 He invites over the Spaniards, and settles them in 
 Kinsale ; defeated by the lord deputy Mountjoy 1601-2 
 
 In consequence of repeated rebellions and for- 
 feitures, 511,465 acres of land in the province of 
 Ulster became vested in the crown, and James I. 
 after removing the Irish from their hills and fast- 
 nesses, divides the land among such of his English 
 and Scottish protestant subjects as choose to 
 settle there. (See Irish Society) . . . 1609-12 
 
 More and Maguire's rebellion : the catholics enter 
 into a conspiracy to expel the English, and cruelly 
 massacre the protestant settlers in Ulster, to the 
 number of 40,000 persons, commenced on St. Ig- 
 natius' day [some doubt the massacre] . 23 Oct. 1641 
 
 O'Neill defeats the English under Monroe at Ben- 
 burb 5 June, 1646 
 
 Massacre and capture of Drogheda by Cromwell 
 
 11 Sept. 1649 
 Cromwell and Ireton reduce the whole island to 
 
 obedience 1649-1656 
 
 Landing of James II 12 March, 1689 
 
 3000 protestants attainted . . . July, ,, 
 
 William III. lands at Carrickfergus . 14 June, 1690- 
 Battle of the Boyne ; James defeated . 1 July, ,, 
 Treaty of Limerick (see Limerick) . 3 Oct. 1691 
 
 Linen manufacture encouraged .... 1696 
 
 Popery act passed 1704 
 
 Excitement against Wood's halfpence (which see) . 1724. 
 
 Thurot's invasion (see Thurot) 1760 
 
 Indulgences granted to the catholics by the relief 
 
 bill 1778 
 
 Ireland admitted to a free trade .... 1779. 
 Released from submission to an English council ; 
 
 Poynings' law repealed 1782 
 
 Genevese refugees received in Ireland, and an asylum 
 given them in Waterford ; 1783. 
 
 Order of St. Patrick established ,, 
 
 Society of United Irishmen founded . . . 1791 
 
 Orange clubs, &c. , formed (see Diamond) . . . 1795. 
 Irish rebellion commenced 4 May, 1798 ; cost 150,000 
 
 Irish lives, 20.000 English ; gradually suppressed 1799. 
 Legislative Union of Great Britain and Ireland 
 
 1 Jan. 1801 
 Emmett's insurrection .... 23 July, 1803 
 English and Irish exchequers consolidated 5 Jan. 1817 
 Visit to Ireland of George IV. . 11 Aug.-i6 Sept. 1821 
 The currency assimilated . 1 Jan. 1826- 
 
 Roman catholic emancipation act passed 13 April, 1829 
 Customs consolidated . . . . 6 Jan. 1830. 
 
 Dr. Whately, supporter of Irish National School 
 
 system becomes abp. of Dublin .... 1831 
 Irish reform act passed .... 7 Aug. 1832 
 Poor laws introduced : act passed . . 31 July, 183S 
 Great Repeal movement ; meeting at Trim (see Re- 
 peal) 16 March, 1843, 
 
 O'Connell's trial (for political conspiracy), found 
 
 guilty (see Trials) ... 15 Jan.-i2 Feb. 1844. 
 Population by census, 8,196,597 .... 1841 
 Appointment of new commissioners of charitable 
 bequests (rank of the R. C. bishops recognised) 
 
 18 Dec. „ 
 Irish National Education Board incorporated 
 
 23 Sept. 184s 
 Failure of the potato crop throughout Ireland ; the 
 
 sufferers relieved by parliament . . . ,, 
 
 Committal of William Smith O'Brien to the custody 
 of the sergeant-at-arms, for contempt in not obey- 
 ing an order of the house of commons to attend a 
 
 committee 30 April, 1846. 
 
 William Smith O'Brien and the " Young Ireland," or 
 physical force party, secede from the Repeal Asso- 
 ciation 29 July, ,, 
 
 O'Connell's last speech in the commons 8 Feb. 1847 
 
 Grants from Parliament amounting to io,ooo,oooJ. 
 to relieve the people suffering from famine and 
 
 disease ,, 
 
 Death of O'Connell at Genoa, on his way to Rome, 
 in his 73rd year ; he bequeathed his heart to Rome 
 
 iS May, ,, 
 Deputation from the Irish people (?) — Smith O'Brien, 
 Meagher, O'Gorman, <fec. — to Lamartine and 
 others, members of the provisional government at 
 
 Paris 3 April, 1848. 
 
 Great meeting of "Young Irelanders" at Dublin 
 
 4 April, ,, 
 Arrest of Mitchell, editor of the " United Irishman" 
 
 13th May, „ 
 State trials in the Irish Queen's Bench 15-27 May, „ 
 Mitchell found guilty and sentenced to transporta- 
 tion for 14 years 26 May, ,, 
 
 Arrest of Gavan Duffy, Martin, Meagher, Doheny, 
 
 &c, for felonious writings, speeches, <&c. 8 July, „ 
 Confederate clubs prohibited . . .26 July, ,, 
 The Habeas Corpus act suspended . 26 July, ,, 
 O'Brien's rebellion suppressed . . . 29 July, >y 
 Arrest of Smith O'Brien at Thurles ; he is conveyed 
 
 to Kilmainham gaol, Dublin . . 5 Aug. ,, 
 Arrest of Meagher, O'Donoghue, &c. . . 12 Aug. „ 
 Martin sentenced to transportation . 14 Aug. ,,. 
 Encumbered estates act passed . . Sept. „ 
 Smith O'Brien, Meagher, and the other confederates 
 
 tried and seutenced to death ... 9 Oct. „ 
 The Irish court of queen's bench gives judgment 
 on writs of error sued out by the prisoners con- 
 
IRELAND. 
 
 364 
 
 IRELAND. 
 
 victed of high treason, and confirms the judgment 
 of the court below 16 Jan. 
 
 •O'Brien, Meagher, McManus, andO'Donoghue trans- 
 ported 9 July, 
 
 ■Orange and catholic affray at Dolly's Brae ; several 
 lives lost I2 July, 
 
 Her majesty visits Ireland, and holds her court at 
 Dublin castle 5 Aug. 
 
 First court under the encumbered estates act {which, 
 see) held in Dublin .... 24 Oct. 
 
 Queen's university in Ireland established 15 Aug. 
 
 Synod of Thurlea condemns queen's colleges 22 Aug. 
 
 Oensus taken ; population, 6,574,278 . 30 March, 
 
 Roman catholic university originated, and large 
 sums subscribed 5 May, 
 
 Death of R. Lalor Sheil, at Florence . 25 May, 
 
 McManus escapes from transportation, and arrives 
 at San Francisco, in California . . 5 June, 
 
 The Irish Tenant League hold a meeting on the site 
 of the battle of the Boyne . . . 14 July 
 
 First meeting of the " Catholic Defence Association*" 
 
 17 Oct, 
 
 Meagher escapes from Van Diemen's Land and ar- 
 rives at New York 24 May, 
 
 Cork National Exhibition opened . 10 June, 
 
 Irish Industrial Exhibition set on foot; Mr. Dargan, 
 a railway contractor, contributes towards it 26,000?. 
 
 24 June, 
 
 " Tenant Right " demonstration at Warrington dis- 
 persed by tire magistrates ... 3 July, 
 
 Fierce religious riots at Belfast . . 14 July, 
 
 Fatal election riot at Six-Mile Bridge . 22 July, 
 
 Irish members of parliament found a "Religious 
 Equality Association "... 10 Sept. 
 
 Cork Industrial Exhibition closed . . 2 Sept. 
 
 Income tax extended to Ireland . . . June, 
 
 Dublin Exhibition opens . . . .12 May, 
 
 Queen visits Ireland .... 29 Au< r . 
 
 Tenant Right League conference . . 4 Oct. 
 
 Dreadful railway accident near Dublin . 5 Oct. 
 
 Dublin Exhibition closed . . . 1 Nov. 
 
 Train wilfully upset after air Orange demonstration 
 at Londonderry, one person killed and many hurt 
 
 15 Sept. 
 
 A pardon granted to O'Brien ; he shortly after re- 
 turned to Ireland 3 May, 
 
 Religious riots at Belfast .... Sept. 
 
 Progress of cardinal Wiseman in Ireland . Sept. 
 
 A packet from Galway reaches N. America in six 
 days Sept. 
 
 Proclamation against secret societies . Nov. 
 
 Arrests of members of Phoenix Society . Dec. 
 
 Proposed demonstration of landlords (headed by 
 marquis of Downshire) given up . . 27 Jan. 
 
 National Gallery founded .... Feb. 
 
 Agitation against the Irish National School system, 
 
 * Sept 
 
 Religious revival movement in the north, particu- 
 larly at Belfast Oct. 
 
 •Great emigration to America in the spring 
 
 Many Irishmen enlist in tlfe service of the pope, 
 May, June ; main' return dissatisfied . July, 
 
 The remainder taken prisoners by the Sardinians are 
 released, and return to Dublin, where they receive 
 an ovation Nov. 
 
 Attempted revival of Repeal agitation . . Dec. 
 
 Agrarian outrages ; alderman Sheehy murdered, 
 
 23 Oct. 
 
 ■Census taken ; population, 5,798,967 . 8 April, 
 
 Suspension of packet service between Galway and 
 America through the company's breach of contract, 
 
 23 May, 
 
 Visit of the prince of Wales, 29 June ; and the queen 
 and prince consort . . . 24-31 Aug. 
 
 Irish Law Court commission appointed 13 Dec. 
 
 Numerous agrarian murders ; Gustav Thiebault, 28 
 April ; Francis Fitzgerald, 16 May (and others) ; 
 Michael Hayes shoots Mr. John Braddell, 30 July, 
 
 The primate, J. G. Beresford, abp. of Armagh, dies, 
 aged 89 19 July, 
 
 An Orange demonstration at Belfast leads to de- 
 structive riots 17 Sept. 
 
 Building for the catholic university founded, 
 
 20 July, 
 
 Oreat agricultural distress ; many murders and out- 
 rages, end of 1862, beginning of .... 
 
 Galway packet service restored by subsidy of 70,000?. 
 (see Galwwg) Aug. 
 
 1849 
 
 1850 
 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 1853 
 
 1854 
 
 1856 
 1857 
 
 1859 
 
 Insignificant " Nationalist" meeting . 15 Aug. 1863 
 
 Death of archbishop Whately . . .8 Oct. „ 
 
 Great emigration of able-bodied labourers in . . ,, 
 
 Appearance of the Fenians {which see) . . Jan. 1864 
 
 Death of Smith O'Brien, descendant of king Brian 
 Boroimhe 16 June, ,, 
 
 Address of the " National Association " to liberate 
 tenant capital ; recover the property of the Catho- 
 lic, church, &c 12 Jan. 1865 
 
 Opening of the International Exhibition at Dublin 
 by the prince of Wales ... 9 May, ,, 
 
 General election favourable to the government and 
 liberal party July, ,, 
 
 Importation of cattle from England prohibited on 
 account of the plague . . . 25 Aug. ,, 
 
 Seizure of the newspaper "Irish People" and 30 
 Fenians (see Fenians) . 15-17 Sept. 14 Oct. ,, 
 
 International Exhibition closed . . 9 Nov. ,, 
 
 Stephens escapes from gaol . . . 24-25 Nov. ,, 
 
 Fenian trials began at Dublin, 27 Nov. ; Thomas 
 Clarke. Luby convicted of treason felony ; sen- 
 tenced to 20 years' penal servitude . 1 Dee. ,, 
 
 O'Leary and others convicted, Dee. ; O'Donovan 
 or Rossa sentenced to imprisonment for life, 
 
 13 Dec. ,, 
 
 More Fenians arrested and convicted at Cork and 
 Dublin Jan., Feb. 1S66 
 
 Discovery of an arms manufactory at Dublin ; the 
 city and county proclaimed as put under the pro- 
 visions of the Peace Preservation act, 11 Jan. ,, 
 
 Habeas Corpus act suspended ; many Fenians flee 
 
 17 Feb. ,, 
 
 Agitation respecting Irish church ; debates in par- 
 liament April, ,, 
 
 Lord Abercorn made lord-lieutenant . July, ,, 
 
 About 320 suspected Fenians remain in prison, 
 
 1 Sept. ,, 
 
 Great seizure of fire-arms .... 15 Dec. ,, 
 
 Clare and other counties proclaimed under Peace 
 Preservation act Dec. ,, 
 
 Election riots at Dungarvan ; capt. Barth-Kelly 
 killed 28 Dec. „ 
 
 Death of Wm. Dargan, promoter of Irish Exhibition, 
 
 7 Feb. 1867 
 
 Irish college of science established atDublin early in ,, 
 
 Another Fenian outbreak (see Fenians), 5-13 March, ,, 
 
 Appointment of commission respecting church of 
 Ireland agreed to .... 24 June, ,, 
 
 Chancery and Common -law Offices act passed, 20 Aug. , . 
 
 Irish church commission appointed, earl Stanhope 
 chairman 30 Oct. ,, 
 
 More trials of Fenians .... Nov. ,, 
 
 Execution of Fenians (Allen, Gould, and Larkin) 
 for murder of Brett, a policeman, at Manchester, 
 
 23 Nov. ,, 
 
 Funeral demonstrations for them at Cork, 24 Nov. ; 
 Dublin and Limerick 1 Dec. 
 
 Party funeral processions prohibited . . 12 Dee. „ 
 
 Protest of Irish noblemen and gentlemen against 
 Irish church establishment signed, about 12 Dec. „ 
 
 Declaration of many Roman catholic clergy profes- 
 sing loyalty, but claiming self-government for 
 Ireland 23 Dec. „ 
 
 Bishop Moriarty, of Kerry, publishes a circular 
 censuring the funeral processions for Fenians, 
 
 30 Dec. „ 
 
 Prosecution of the "Irishman" newspaper for 
 sedition 10 Jan. 186S 
 
 Arrest of Geo. Francis Train on his arrival from 
 America, on suspicion of Fenianism ; soon dis- 
 charged (claimed 10,000?.) . . . 18 Jan. „ 
 
 Publication of facts proving the increased pros- 
 perity of the country ... 28 Jan. „ 
 
 Great protestant defence meeting at Dublin, many 
 peers present 6 Feb. ,, 
 
 Habeas Corpus act suspended till 1 March, 1869 (83 
 persons detained on suspicion) . . . Feb. ,, 
 
 Messrs. Sullivan and Pigott, convicted of seditious 
 libels in their newspapers (the " Weekly News " 
 and "Irishman"), sentenced to imprisonment 
 and fine 18, 19 Feb. ,, 
 
 Mr. Johnston, grand master of an Orange lodge, im- 
 prisoned for infraction of Party Processions act, 
 
 March, ,, 
 
 Train arrested for debt ... 3 March, ,, 
 
 Four nights' debate on Ireland in the Commons 
 ended (Mr. Gladstone declared for disestablish- 
 ment of the Irish protestant church 16 March. ,, 
 
IEELAND. 
 
 365 
 
 IEELAND. 
 
 Irish reform bill introduced, into the Commons, 
 
 19 March, 181 
 Debate on Mr. Gladstone*s proposal for a committee 
 on his resolutions for the disestablishment of the 
 church (carried by 328 to 272), 30 March to early 
 
 morning of 4 April, ,. 
 
 Mr. Featherstonehaugh, J. P., a deputy-lieut. , shot 
 dead while returning from Dublin (he had re- 
 cently raised the rent of his tenants) . 15 April, ,. 
 Visit of prince and princess of Wales ; arrive at 
 
 Dublin ; intense enthusiasm . . 15 April, ,. 
 
 The prince and princess at Punchestown races, 
 
 16 April, ,. 
 The prince installed as a knight of St. Patrick, 
 
 18 April, , : 
 The prince and princess at review in Phcenix-park, 
 
 20 April ; leave Dublin ... 24 April, , 
 Increased emigration to United States . April, , 
 Mr. Gladstone's first resolution passed in the Com- 
 mons (by 330 to 265) early on 1 May ; second and 
 third resolutions passed ... 7 May, , 
 Irish archbishops and bishops present address to 
 the queen at Windsor, on behalf of the Irish 
 Church establishment . . . .14 May, , 
 Irish Church commission recommend consolidation 
 
 of dioceses and other reforms (1st report), 27 July, , 
 Earl Spencer lord lieutenant .... Dec. , 
 Visit of prince Arthur . . .5 April et seq. 18 
 Many murders : Mr. Anketell, 3 March ; Mr. Brad- 
 
 shaw, J. P., 24 April ; Capt. Tarleton 28 April, , 
 Mayor of Cork, for a speech eulogizing Fenians, 27 
 
 April, compelled to resign . . .11 May, , 
 Address of archbishop Leahy condemning agrarian 
 
 murders 16 May, , 
 
 Irish Church bill introduced into the commons, 1 
 • March ; after much opposition passed, 26 July, ,, 
 Irish mixed schools denounced by abp. Cullen ; 
 support for a Catholic university demanded in a 
 
 circular dated 18 Aug. ,, 
 
 Great agitation for amnesty to the Fenian convicts, 
 
 Oct. ,. 
 Tenant-right 'agitation ; a conference at Cork, 10 
 
 Sept. ; county meeting at Kilkenny . 18 Oct. ,, 
 Jeremiah O'Donovan Bossa, a Fenian convict 
 
 elected M. P. for Tipperary . . 25 Nov. ,, 
 
 Many agrarian outrages . . . Jan. , Feb. 1870 
 
 O'Donovan Bossa's election annulled . 10 Feb. ,, 
 Irish Church convention met . about 21 Feb. „ 
 Irish Land bill, read a second 'time in commons 
 (442 against 11), 1 a.m., 12 March; read second 
 
 time in the lords 17 June, „ 
 
 New " Irish Peace Preservation act " passed, 
 
 4 April, „ 
 Eight counties placed under this act . 29 April, ,, 
 Beported growth of a " Nationality " party among 
 
 the Protestants July, ,, 
 
 Irish Land act passed . . . . 1 Aug. „ 
 The " Home Government Association," to include 
 
 all parties, meet at Dublin 1 Sept. ,, 
 
 Aggressive outrages and murders . . Nov. „ 
 Some Fenian convicts released from prison, Jan. 1871 
 John Martin, a nationalist, elected M.P., for Meath, 
 
 5 Jan. ,, 
 Census taken ; population, 5,402,759 . 3 April, 1871 
 Bill for protection of life and property in West- 
 meath brought in (and soon passed) on account 
 
 ofribandism 2 May, ,, 
 
 Chief constable Talbot shot, night of 11 July ; died 
 
 15 July, ,, 
 Visit of the prince of Wales to open the Boyal 
 
 Agricultural exhibition . 1 Aug. „ 
 
 Biot through attempted repression of Fenian 
 
 sympathisers ; several killed . . 7 Aug. ,, 
 French deputation (comte de Flavigny and others) 
 to thank the Irish for the assistance of the Irish 
 ambulance during the war ; warmly received ; 
 with seditious demonstrations against England, 
 
 16-28 Aug. „ 
 Mr. Isaac Butt, leader of Home-rule movement, 
 
 elected M.P. for Limerick . . .20 Sept. „ 
 The B. C. bishop of Deny, the O'Donoghue, and 
 others, declare against the movement, Jan. ; 
 members in its favour elected for Galway and 
 
 Kerry Feb. 1872 
 
 Peaceful state of the south ; few prisoners for trial, 
 
 March. ,, 
 Mrs. Neill murdered at her own door near Dublin, 
 
 27 May. ,, 
 
 Capt. Nolan, M. P. for Galway, unseated for intimi- 
 dation by his agents ; the B. C. bishops and 
 clergy severely censured by justice Keogh in 
 giving sentence .... about 27 May, 1872 
 
 O'Byrne v. Marquis of Harrington, and others 
 (police) for exceeding duty in suppressing a 
 meeting in Phcenix-park, Dublin, in Aug. 1871 ; 
 verdict for plaintiff, 25L damages . 11 July, ,, 
 
 Fathers Loftus and Quain tried for undue interfer- 
 ence in Galway election ; jury disagreed, 10-14 Feb. 1873 
 
 Mr. Gladstone brings into the commons the Irish 
 University bill (rejected and withdrawn) 13 Feb. ,, 
 
 The B. C. bishop of Clonfert, Dr. Duggan, tried 
 and acquitted (see Dublin) . . 15-19 Feb. „ 
 
 Trial : O'Keeffe v. Cardinal Cullen ; begins (see Trials) 
 
 12 May, ,, 
 
 KINGS AND GOVERNORS OF IRELAND.* 
 KINGS. 
 
 979 or 980. Maol Ceachlin II. (Malachi) deposed. 
 
 1001 or 1002. Brian Baromy or Boroimhe ; slain after 
 
 totally defeating the Danes at Clontarf, 23 April, 
 
 1014. 
 1014. Maol Ceachlin II. restored ; dies 1022 or 1023. 
 
 [Disputed succession.] 
 1058. Donough, or Denis, O'Brian, son. 
 1072. Tirloch, or Turlough, nephew ; dies 1086. 
 1086-1132. The kingdom divided ; fierce contests for it. 
 1132. Tordel Vach ; killed in battle 
 1 166. Boderic, or Boger, O'Connor. 
 1172. Henry II. king of England. 
 
 [The English monarchs were styled "Lords of 
 
 Ireland" until the reign of Henry VIII. , who 
 
 first styled himself Icing.] 
 
 GOVERNORS OF IRELAND (with VarfOUS titles. )t 
 
 1172. Hugues de Lasci. 1173, Bich. Fitz-Gislebert, earl of 
 Pembroke. 1 1 76, .Raymond le Gros. 1 1 77, prince 
 John (afterwards king), made lord of Ireland. 
 
 1184 et seq. Justiciars. The changes were so frequent 
 that the more important officers only are given. 
 
 1189, 1203, 1205. Hugues de Lasci. 
 
 1199, 1204. Meiller Fitz-Henri (son of Henry II.) 
 
 1215, 1226. Geoffrey de Marreis. 
 
 1229-32-33. Maurice Fitzgerald. 
 
 1308. Piers Gaveston, earl of Cornwall. 1312, Edmund 
 le Botiller. 1316, Roger de Mortimer. 1320,. 
 Thomas Fitzgerald. 1321, John de Bermingham. 
 1327, earl of Kildare. 1328 and 1340, Prior 
 Boger Utlagh. 1332, sir John d'Arey. 1337, 
 sir John de Cherlton. 1344, sir Baoul d'Ufford. 
 1346, sir Boger d'Arcy ; sir John Moriz. 1348, 
 Walter de Bermingham. 1355, Maurice, earl of 
 Desmond. 1356, Thomas de Bokeby. 1357, 
 Almeric de St. Amand. 1359, James, earl of 
 Ormond. 1361, Lionel, duke of Clarence. 1367, 
 Gerald, earl of Desmond. 1369 and 1374, Wil- 
 liam de Windsor. 1376, Maurice, earl of Kildare, 
 and James, earl of Ormond. 1380, Edmund Mor- 
 timer, earl of March. 1385, Kobert de Vere, 
 earl of Oxford. 1389 and 1398, sir John Stanley. 
 1391, James, earl of Ormond. 1393, Thomas, 
 duke of Gloucester. 1395, Boger de Mortimer,, 
 earl of March, killed. 1398, Beginald Grey and 
 Thomas de Holland. 
 
 1401 and 1408, Thomas, earl of Lancaster. 1313, sir John 
 Stanley and sir John Talbot. 1420, James, earl 
 
 * The list of Irish sovereigns, printed in previous edi- 
 tions, has been omitted. The Irish writers carry their 
 succession of kings very high. The learned antiquary, 
 Thomas Lines, of the Scots' College of Paris, expressed 
 his wonder that "the learned men of the Irish nation 
 have not, like those of other nations, yet published the 
 valuable remains of their ancient history whole and en- 
 tire, with just translations, in order to separate what is 
 fabulous, and only grounded on the traditions of their 
 poets and bards, from what is certain history. " O'Fla- 
 herty, Keating, Toland, Kennedy, and other modern 
 Irish historians, have rendered all uncertain, by deducing- 
 their history from the Deluge with as much assurance as 
 they deliver the transactions of Ireland from St. Patrick's 
 time." — Anderson. The " Annals of the Four Masters," 
 edited by Dr. Donovan, were published in Irish and 
 English in 1848. 
 
 t Lords justices and deputies, and latterly Lords 
 Lieutenant. It has been several times proposed to* 
 abolish the viceroyalty of Ireland, but without success. 
 The last time 25 March, 1858. 
 
IRELAND. 
 
 366 
 
 IRON. 
 
 .1603. 
 
 1767. 
 
 3772. 
 1777. 
 
 1783- 
 1784. 
 
 1787. 
 
 1790. 
 
 J795- 
 .1798. 
 
 1813. 
 1817. 
 1821. 
 1828. 
 1829. 
 1830. 
 
 1833- 
 ■1834. 
 1835- 
 1839. 
 
 1847. 
 1852. 
 1853- 
 1855- 
 1858. 
 1859- 
 
 of Ormond. 1423, Edmund de Mortimer, earl of 
 March. 1425, sir John Talbot. 1427, sir John 
 de Grey. 1428, sir John Sutton, lord Dudley. 
 1431 and 1435, sir Thomas Stanley. 1438, Leon, 
 lord de Welles. 1446, John, earl of Shrewsbury. 
 1449, Richard, duke of York. 1461, George, 
 duke of Clarence. 1470, earl of Worcester. 1478, 
 John de la Pole, earl of Suffolk. 1481, Richard, 
 carl of Kildare. 1483, Gerald, earl of Kildare. 
 1484, John de la Pole, earl of Lincoln. 1485, 
 Jasper, duke of Bedford. 1494, Henry, duke of 
 York, afterwards Henry VIII. (his deputy, sir 
 E. Poynings). 1496, Gerald, Earl of Kildare, 
 and in 1504. 1521, Thomas Howard, earl of 
 Surrey. 1529, Henry, duke of Richmond. 1560, 
 Thomas, earl of Sussex. 1599, Robert, earl of 
 Essex. 
 
 Sir Charles Blount, lord Mountjoy, made earl of 
 Devonshire. 1640, Thos. , viscount Wentworth, 
 earl of Strafford. 1643 and 1648, James, marquis 
 of Ormond. 1647, Philip de Lisle. 1649, Oliver 
 Cromwell. 1657, Henry Cromwell. 1662, James 
 Butler, duke of Ormond. 1669, John Roberts, 
 lord Roberts. 1670, John, lord Berkeley. 1672, 
 Arthur Capel, earl of Essex. 1677, James Butler, 
 duke of Ormond. 1685, Henry Hyde, earl of 
 Clarendon. 1687, Richard Talbot, earl of Tyr- 
 connel. 1690, Henry Sydney, lord Sydney. 1695, 
 Henry Capel, lord Capel. 
 
 Laurence Hyde, earl of Rochester. 1703, James 
 Butler, duke of Ormond. 1707, Thomas, earl of 
 Pembroke. 1709, Thomas, earl of Wharton. 
 1710, James, duke of Ormond, again. 1713, 
 Charles, duke of Shrewsbury. 1717, Charles, 
 duke of Bolton. 1721, Charles, duke of Grafton. 
 1724, John, lord Carteret. 1731, Lionel, duke of 
 Dorset. 1737, William, duke of Devonshire. 
 1745, Philip, earl of Chesterfield. 1747, William, 
 earl of Harrington. 1751, Lionel, duke of Dor- 
 set, again. 1755, William, duke of Devonshire. 
 1757, John, duke of Bedford. 1761, George, earl 
 of Halifax. 1763, Hugh, earl of Northumberland. 
 1765, Francis, earl of Hertford. 
 
 George, viscount Townshend, 14 Oct. 
 
 Simon, earl of Harcourt, 30 Nov. 
 
 John, earl of Buckinghamshire, 25 Jan. 
 
 Fred. , earl of Carlisle, 23 Dee. 
 
 Wm. Henry, duke of Portland, 14 April. 
 
 George, earl Temple, 15 Sept. 
 
 Robert, earl of Northington, 3 June. 
 
 Charles, duke of Rutland, 24 Feb. ; died 24 Oct. 
 1787. 
 
 George, marquis of Buckingham (late earl Temple), 
 again, 16 Dec. 
 
 John, earl of Westmorland, 5 Jan. 
 
 William, earl Fitzwilliam, 4 Jan. 
 
 John, earl Camden, 31 March. 
 
 Charles, marquis Cornwallis, 20 June. 
 
 Philip, earl of Hardwicke, 25 May. 
 
 John, duke of Bedford, 18 March. 
 
 Charles, duke of Richmond, 19 April. 
 
 Charles, earl Whitworth, 26 Aug. 
 
 Charles, earl Talbot, 9 Oct. 
 
 Richard, marquis Wellesley, 29 Dec. 
 
 Henry, marquis of Anglesey, 1 March. 
 
 Hugh, duke of Northumberland, 6 March. 
 
 Henry, marquis of Anglesey, again, 23 Dec. 
 
 Marquis Wellesley, again, 26 Sept. 
 
 Thomas, earl of Haddington, 29 Dec. 
 
 Henry, marquis of Norinanby, 23 April. 
 
 Hugh, viscount Ebrington, afterwards earl For- 
 tescue, 3 April. 
 
 Thomas Philip, earl de Grey, 15 Sept. 
 
 William, lord Heytesbury, 12 July. 
 
 John William, earl of Bessborough, 9 July ; died 
 16 May, 1847. 
 
 George William Frederick, earl of Clarendon, 26 May. 
 
 Archibald William, earl of Eglinton, 28 Feb. 
 
 Edward Granville, earl of St. Germains, Jan. 
 
 George, earl of Carlisle, March. 
 
 Archibald, earl of Eglinton, again, Feb., resigned. 
 
 George, earl of Carlisle, again, June ; died 5 Dec. 
 
 1864. John, lord Wodehouse, afterwards earl of Kimber- 
 
 ley, 1 Nov. 
 1866. James, marquis of Abercorn, July; made duke, 
 
 6 Aug. 1868. 
 1868. John, earl Spencer, Dec. 
 
 IRELAND FORGERIES. In 1786 W. H. 
 Ireland made public the Shakspeare manuscripts 
 which he had forged, and deceived many critics. 
 The play, "Vortigern," was performed at Drury- 
 lane theatre on 2 April, 1796. He shortly after ac- 
 knowledged the forgery, and published his "Con- 
 fessions" in 1805. He died in 1835. 
 
 .IRIDIUM AND OSMIUM. In i8o4Tennant 
 discovered these two rare metals in the ore of 
 platinum, in which, in 1845, Claus discovered a 
 third, Ruthenium. 
 
 IRISH CHURCH ; see Church of Ire/and. 
 The Irish Presbyterian Church act, passed 16 June, 
 1871, regulates the management of certain trust 
 properties for that church. 
 
 IRISH SOCIETY, The Honourable, 
 
 the name given to a committee of citizens of twelve 
 London companies invited by king James I. to 
 colonize the confiscated lands in the north of 
 Ireland, termed the Ulster plantations, including 
 Londonderry and Coleraine, 1613. The committee 
 received a charter, which was taken away in 1637, 
 and restored after various changes 1670. The 
 affairs of this company and its methods of business 
 were discussed in parliament in 1868 and 1869. 
 
 IRON found on Mount Ida by the Dactyles, 
 owing to the forest having been burnt by lightning, 
 1432 B.C. Arundelian Marbles [1407 ', Hales ; 1283, 
 Clinton.'] The Greeks ascribed the discovery of 
 iron to themselves, and referred glass to the Phoe- 
 nicians. Moses relates that iron was wrought by 
 Tubal-Cain (Gen. iv. 22). Swedish iron is very 
 celebrated, and Dannemora is the greatest mine of 
 Sweden. The weekly publication "Iron" began 
 18 Jan. 1873. 
 
 Belgium, an early seat of the iron manufacture ; coal said 
 to have been employed at Marche-les-dames, 1340. 
 
 British iron cast by Ralph Page and Peter Baude, in 
 Sussex, 1543. Itymer's Fcedera. 
 
 Iron-mills used for slitting iron into bars for smiths, by 
 Godfrey Bochs, 1590. 
 
 Tinning of iron introduced from Bohemia, 1681. Till 
 about 1730 iron ores were smelted entirely with wood 
 charcoal, which did not wholly give way to coal and 
 coke till 1788. 
 
 The operation termed puddling, and other very great 
 improvements in the manufacture, invented by Mr. 
 Henry Cort, about 1781, who did not reap the due re- 
 ward of his ingenuity. He died in 1800. 
 
 Mi'. Henry Bessemer patented his method of manufac- 
 turing iron and steel, 17 Oct., 5 Dec, 1855 ; 12 Feb., 
 1856. 
 
 Strike of the puddlers and lock-out of the masters in 
 Staffordshire, Northumberland., &e. , lasted during 
 March, April, and May, 1865. 
 
 Ironworkers of Great Britain determine to form one. 
 trades' union, with one executive, Oct. 1866. 
 
 Strike of iron workers in the north over, 31 Dec. 1866. 
 
 Mr. Wm. Robinson announced a method of making 
 wrought irou from cast iron by means of magnetism, 
 July, 1867. 
 
 Mr. John Heatou's process for making steel announced 
 about Nov. 1867, discussed Oct. 1868. 
 
 One of the finest, thickest, and heaviest armour-plates 
 ever rolled in the world was pressed into the very per- 
 fection of a manufactured armour-plate at the great 
 Atlas Ironworks of sir John Brown and Co. , Sheffield. 
 The size of it when in the furnace was a little over 20 
 feet long by about 4 feet broad and 21 inches thick. 
 Its rough weight was over 21 tons. It was built up in 
 the furnace before being rolled by five mould plates, 
 each 3 inches thick, and one solid plate of 6 inches. 
 This mass when reduced by intense heat to the con- 
 sistency of dough, was withdrawn from the furnace, 
 and in the course of less than a quarter of an hour was 
 passed between the enormous rollers many times, was 
 reduced to a compact slab of iron of an uniform thick- 
 ness of 15 inches, and then passed on to its bed to cool 
 
IKON AND STEEL INSTITUTE. 367 
 
 ISLY. 
 
 till fit for having its rough edges planed down to the 
 proper dimensions, 6 Sept. 1867. 
 
 Iron forts (cost about 1,000,000?. made by Whitworth and 
 Co. at Manchester) put up at Spithead early in 1872. 
 
 Mr. Crampton's iron furnace, in which definite propor- 
 tions of coal dust and air are introduced under pressure,, 
 was tried at Woolwich and was reported successful, 
 May, 1873. 
 
 RON PRODUCED IN GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 1740 . . 59 furnaces . . 17,350 tons. 
 
 1788 . . 77 ,, . . 61,920 „ 
 
 1796 . . 121 ,, . . 124,789 ,, 
 
 1802 . . 168 ,, . . 227,000 ,, 
 
 1806 . . 227 „ . . 250,000 ,, 
 
 1820 . . 260 ,, . 400,000 ,, 
 
 1825 . . 374 „ . . 581,367 ,, 
 
 1840 . . 402 ,, . . 1,396,400 ,, 
 
 1848 . . 623 ,, . . 1,998,558 ,, 
 
 1852 . . 655 ,, . . 2,701,000 ,, 
 
 In 1855, 3,217,154 tons of pig iron were produced ; in 
 
 I 857, 3.659,447 tons ; in 1865, 4,819,254 tons ; in 1869, 
 
 5.44S.7S7 tons. 
 
 IEON AM) STEEL INSTITUTE, the 
 duke of Devonshire, president, held its first meet- 
 ing in London 22 June, 1869, and a first provincial 
 meeting at Merthyr-Tydvil, 6 Sept. 1870. 
 
 IEON CEOSS, an order of knighthood esta- 
 blished by Frederick "William III. of Prussia, 
 
 10 March, 1813, to honour patriotic bravery in the 
 war against France; was revived by William I. in 
 the Franco-Prussian war, and awarded by him to 
 his son for his victory at Wissembourg, 4 Aug. 
 1870. About 40,000 persons were decorated in 
 1870-71. 
 
 IEON CEOWN (of Italy), of gold and pre- 
 cious stones, set in a thin ring of iron, said to have 
 been forged from a nail of Christ's cross, was made 
 by order of Theudelinde for her husband, Agilulf, 
 king of the Longobards, 591. She presented it (to 
 be kept) to the church at Monza. Charlemagne 
 was crowned with this crown, and after him all 
 the emperors who were kings of Lombardy ; 
 Napoleon I. at Milan, on 26 May, 1805, put it on 
 his head, saying, " Dieu me I' a donne'e ; gare a qui 
 y touchera." (God has given it to me; woe to 
 him who touches it.) The crown was removed from 
 Monza to Mantua by the Austrians, on 23 April, 
 1859. After the peace of Vienna in. 1866, the 
 crown was given up to general Menabrea on 
 
 11 Oct., and presented to king Victor Emmanuel, 
 at Turin, on 4 Nov. The order of the " Iron 
 Crown of Italy," instituted by Napoleon 26 May, 
 1805, was abolished in 1814, but revived by the 
 emperor of Austria 12 Feb. 1816 ; see Gotha. The 
 order of the Crown of Italy was instituted by king 
 Victor Emmanuel 20 Feb. 1868. 
 
 IEON-MASK, the Man with the.* a 
 
 mysterious prisoner in France, wearing a mask and 
 closely confined under M. de St. Mars, at Pignerol 
 (i679),Exilles(i68i), Sainte Marguerite (1687), and 
 
 * The following conjectures have been made as to his 
 identity : — An Armenian patriarch forcibly carried from 
 Constantinople (who died ten years before the mask) ; 
 the due de Vermandois, son of Louis XIV. , reported to 
 have perished in the camp before Dixmude ; the due de 
 Beaufort, whose head is reported to have been taken otf 
 before Candia ; James, duke of Monmouth, executed on 
 Tower-hill ; a son of Anne of Austria, queen of Louis 
 XIII., either by cardinal Mazarine, or by the duke of 
 Buckingham ; the twin brother of Louis XIV. (a conjec- 
 ture received by Voltaire and others) ; Foucquet, an 
 eminent statesman in the time of Louis XIV. ; and a 
 count Matthioli, secretary of state to Charles III. , duke 
 of Mantua. M. Delort and the right hon. Agar Ellis 
 (afterwards lord Dover) endeavoured to prove Matthioli 
 to have been the person. The mask, it seems, was not 
 made of iron ; but of black velvet, strengthened with 
 whalebone, and fastened behind the head with a padlock. 
 
 at the Bastille (1698), where he died 19 Nov. 1703. 
 He was of noble mien, and was treated with pro- 
 found respect ; but his keepers had orders to des- 
 patch him if he uncovered. M. de St. Mars himself 
 always placed the dishes on his table, and stood in 
 his presence. 
 
 IEON-PLATED SHIPS, see under Navy 
 of England, and United States, 1862. 
 
 IEEIGATION, practised in the east and in 
 Egypt from the most remote ages. It was strenu- 
 ously advocated for India by sir A. Cotton and 
 others at the Social Science Congress at Manchester, 
 Oct. 1866. In 1865 acts were passed for utilising 
 London sewage in the irrigation of grass land, and 
 the results are said to be favourable. 
 
 IEUN (a frontier village of Spain) . On 16 May, 
 1837, the British auxiliary legion under general 
 Evans, marched from St. Sebastian to attack Irun 
 (held by the Carlists), which after a desperate re- 
 sistance was carried by assault, 17 May. 
 
 IEVINGITES, followers of Edward Irving,* 
 now called the " Holy Catholic Apostolic Church." 
 They use a liturgy (framed in 1842, and enlarged 
 1853), and have church officers named apostles, 
 angels, prophets. &c. In 1852 lighted candles were 
 placed on the magnificent altar, and burning of 
 incense during prayers was prescribed. The Gothic 
 church in Gordon-square was solemnly opened 
 I Jan. 1854. It is said that all who join the church 
 offer it a tenth of their income. They had 30 
 chapels in England in 1851. 
 
 ISAUEIA (a province in Asia Minor), con- 
 quered by the Bomans B.C. 78, by the Saracens 
 a.d. 650; was retaken by the emperor Leo. III., 
 who founded the Isaurian dynasty, 739, which 
 ended with Constantine VI. in 797. Isauria was 
 incorporated with Turkey 1387. 
 
 ISEENIA (S. Italy). Here the Sardinian 
 general Cialdini defeated the Neapolitans, 17 Oct. 
 i860. 
 
 ISLAM, or EsLlM, submission to God, the 
 name given to Mahotnetanism {which see). 
 
 ISLE OF FRANCE, Man, &c., see Mauri- 
 tius, Man, &c. 
 
 ISLES, BISHOPRIC OF. This see contained 
 not only the Hebrides, or Western Isles, but the 
 Isle of Man, which for nearly 400 years had been a 
 separate bishopric. The first bishop of the Isles 
 was Amphibalus, 360 ; see lona. Since the revo- 
 lution (when this bishopric was discontinued) the 
 Isles have been joined to Moray and Boss, or to 
 Boss alone. In 1847, however, Argyll and the Isles 
 were made a seventh post-revolution and distinct 
 bishopric ; see Bishops. 
 
 ISLY (N.W. Africa). Here Abd-el-Eader, the 
 Arab chief, was totally defeated by the French, 
 under Bugeaud, 14 Aug. 1844. 
 
 * Edward Irving was born 15 Aug. 1792, and was en- 
 gaged as assistant to Dr. Chalmers, at Glasgow, in 1819. 
 In 1822 he attracted immense crowds of most distin- 
 guished persons to his sermons at the Scotch church, 
 Hatton-garden. A new church was built for him in 
 Regent-square in 1827. Soon after, he propounded new 
 doctrines on the human nature of Christ: and the " Ut- 
 terances of Unknown Tongues " which began in his con- 
 gregation with a Miss Hall and Mr. Taplin, 16 Oct. 183 1, 
 were countenanced by him, as of divine inspiration. He 
 was expelled from the Scotch church, 15 March, 1833. 
 His church, " reconstituted with the threefold cord of a 
 sevenfold ministry," was removed to Newman-street. 
 He died 8 Dec. 1834. 
 
ISMAIL. 
 
 3G8 
 
 ITALY. 
 
 ISMAIL (Bessarabia). After a long siege by 
 the Russians, who lost 20,000 men before the place, 
 the town was taken by storm, 22 Dee. 1790 ; when 
 Suwarrow, the most merciless warrior of modern 
 times, pnt the brave Turkish garrison (30,000 men) 
 to the sword and delivered up Ismail to pillage, and 
 ordered the massacre of 6000 women. It was again 
 captured by the Russians 26 Sept. 1809, and re- 
 tained till the treaty of Paris in 1856 when it was 
 ceded to Moldavia. 
 
 ISPAHAN was made the capital of Persia by 
 Abbas the Great, in 1590. It lost its supremacy in 
 1796, when Teheran became the capital. 
 
 ISRAEL, Kingdom of, see Jens. 
 
 ISSUS (Asia Minor), the site of Alexander's 
 second great battle with Darius, whose queen and 
 family were captured, Oct. 333 B.C. The Persian 
 army, according to Justin, consisted of 400,000 
 foot and 100,000 horse; 61,000 of the former and 
 10,000 of the latter were left dead on the spot, 
 and 40,000 were taken prisoners. Here the emperor 
 Septimius defeated his rival Niger, a.d. 194. 
 
 ISTAMBOUL, see Constantinople. 
 
 ISTER, see Danube. 
 
 ISTHMIAN GAMES received their name 
 from the isthmus of Corinth, where they were ob- 
 served : instituted by Sisyphus, about 1406 B.C., in 
 honour of Melicertes, a sea-god. Lenglet. Re- 
 iustituted in honour of Neptune by Theseus about 
 1239'B.c. ; and their celebration was held so sacred, 
 that even a public calamity did not prevent it. 
 The games were revived by Julius Cassar, 60 ; and 
 by the emperor Julian, a.d. 362. 
 
 ISTRIA was finally subdued by the Romans, 
 177 B.C. After various changes it came under the 
 rule of Venice in 1378, and was annexed 1420. It 
 was obtained by Austria 1796; by France 1806 ; 
 by Austria 1814. 
 
 ITALIAN LANGUAGE, based on Latin, is 
 said by Dante to be formed of a selection of the 
 best portions of the different dialects. Pure ele- 
 gant poetry was written by Guido Cavaleanti, who 
 died 1301 ; and good prose by Malespiui, about 
 1250. 
 
 
 PRINCIPAL ITALIAN AUTH0I 
 
 ts. 
 
 
 
 Born 
 
 Died 
 
 
 Bom 
 
 Died 
 
 Dante . 
 
 1265 
 
 1321 
 
 Goldoni 
 
 ■ 1707 
 
 1795 
 
 Petrarca . . 
 
 1304 
 
 1374 
 
 Parini 
 
 • 1729 
 
 1799 
 
 Boccaccio . 
 
 1313 
 
 1375 
 
 Alfieri . 
 
 • 1749 
 
 1803 
 
 Arinsto 
 
 1474 
 
 1533 
 
 Volta . 
 
 • 1745 
 
 1826 
 
 Machiavelli . 
 
 1469 
 
 i5 2 7 
 
 Leopardi 
 
 • 1798 
 
 1837 
 
 Guicciardini 
 
 1482 
 
 1540 
 
 Monti 
 
 • 1754 
 
 1828 
 
 Tasso . . 
 
 1544 
 
 i59S 
 
 Gioberti 
 
 . 1 801 
 
 1852 
 
 Galileo 
 
 1564 
 
 1642 
 
 Nicolini . 
 
 . 1782 
 
 1861 
 
 Metastasio . 
 
 1698 
 
 1782 
 
 Manzoni 
 
 • 1784 
 
 1873 
 
 The following terms are often used with reference to 
 certain periods in the history of Italian literature and 
 
 1 Trecento (three hundred), from the birth of Dante 
 (1265) to the death of Boccaccio (137s), which two, 
 with Petrarca, are styled "the triumvirate of the 
 
 2. Quattrocento (four hundred), from 1375 to the revival 
 of Italian literature by Lorenzo de' Medici in the 15th 
 century. During this' period Latin was revived, to the 
 prejudice of Italian. 
 
 3. Cinqueccnto (five hundred), from about 1480 to 1590. 
 A sensuous style of art, founded on the heathen my- 
 thology, began to prevail. 
 
 4. Seicento (six hundred), from 1590 to 1700. The bad 
 taste which prevailed during this period is ascribed to 
 the influence of the Spaniards and the Jesuits through- 
 out Italy. Seicentisti is a term of reproach. 
 
 The Trecento and Cinqueccnto were the most flourishing 
 periods. 
 
 ITALIAN REPUBLIC was the name given 
 to the remodelled Cisalpine republic. Napoleon 
 Bonaparte, president, Jan. 1802. 
 
 ITALY (either from Italus, an early king, or 
 italics, a bull calf) was called the garden of Europe. 
 The invading Pelasgians from Greece, and the 
 Aborigines (Umbrians, Oscans, and Etruscans), 
 combined, form the Latin race, still possessing the 
 southern part of Europe. The history of Italy is 
 soon absorbed into that of Rome, founded 753 B.C. 
 Previous to the 15th century it was desolated by 
 intestine wars and the interference of the German 
 emperors ; since then, Spain, France, and German v 
 struggled for the possession of the country, which 
 has been divided among them several times. 
 Spain predominated in Italy during the 16th and 
 17th centuries ; yielded to the house of Austria at 
 the beginning of the 18th. The victories of Bona- 
 parte in 1797-8 changed the government of Italy; 
 but the Austrian rule was re-established at the 
 peace in 1814. In 1848 the Milanese and Venetians 
 revolted and joined Piedmont, but were subdued by 
 Radetzky; see below. The hostile feeling between 
 Austria and Piedmont gradually increased till war 
 broke out in April, 1859. The Austrians were 
 defeated, and the kingdom of Italy, comprising 
 Piedmont, Sardinia, Lombardy, Tuscany. Moclena, 
 Parma, the Romagna, Naples, and Sicily was re- 
 established, 17 March, 1861, by the Italian parlia- 
 ment (consisting of 443 deputies from 59 provinces) . 
 On 29 Oct., 1861, the internal government was re- 
 organized ; the 59 provinces were placed under pre- 
 fects, subject to four directors-general. In'1861, 
 the population was 21,728,529. War with Austria 
 was declared 18 June, 1866; and on 3 Oct., peace 
 was signed at Vienna, and Vcnetia was ceded to 
 Italy ; see below for the events. The kingdom of 
 Italy was consummated by the occupation of Rome 
 as the capital, 1870. Estimated population of the 
 kingdom, 1862, 25,003.635; Rome was added in 
 1870 ; Dec. 31, 1 87 1, 26,716,809. For other details 
 see Rome and the various Italian cities throughout 
 the volume. 
 
 Italy (Saturnia) fabled to have been ruled by Saturn 
 
 during the golden age B.C. 2450 
 
 Arrival of (Enotrus from Arcadia, 1710; and of 
 
 Evander : reign of Latinus . . . about 1240 
 jEneas the Trojan said to land in Italy, defeat and 
 kill Turnus, marry Lavinia, daughter of king 
 Latinus, and found Lavinium, in South Italy, 1182, &e. 
 Greek colonies (see Magna Grascia) founded . . 974-443 
 
 Romulus builds Rome 753 
 
 [For subsequent history, see Rome.] 
 Odoacer, leader of the Heruli, establishes the king- a.d. 
 
 dam of Italy 476 
 
 The Ostrogoths invade Italy, 489, and retain it till 491 
 They are expelled by the Imperial generals Narses 
 
 and Belisarius 552 
 
 [See Kings or Italy, p. 372, and Iron Oroum.] 
 Narses, governor of Italy, invites the Lombards 
 
 from Germany, 568 ; who overrun Italy . . . 596 
 Invasion and defeat of Constans II. ... 662 
 
 Venice first governed by a doge 697 
 
 Pepin gives Ravenna to the pope .... 754 
 
 Charlemagne invades Italy, 774 ; overcomes the Lom- 
 bards ; crowned emperor of the west at Rome by 
 pope Leo III. . . . . . 25 Dec. 800 
 
 Tlic Saracens invade Italy and settle at Bari . . 842 
 Invasion of Otho I. 951 ; crowned emperor, 2 Feb. 962 
 
 Genoa becomes important 1000 
 
 The Saracens expelled by the Normans . 1016-17 
 
 The Normans acquire Naples from the pope . . 1051 
 Pope Gregory VII., Hildebrand, pretends to uni- 
 versal sovereignty, in which he is assisted by 
 Matilda, countess of Tuscany, mistress of the 
 
 greater part of Italy 1073-85 
 
 Disputes between the popes and emperors, relative 
 to ecclesiastical investitures, begin (and long agi-» 
 tate Italy and Germany) .... about 1073 
 
ITALY. 
 
 369 
 
 ITALY. 
 
 Kise of the Lombard cities .... about 1120 
 
 Who war with each other 1144 
 
 The Venetians obtain many victories over the 
 
 Eastern emperors 1125 
 
 Wars of the Guelfs and Ghibelines {which see) begin 
 
 about 1161 
 Frederic I. (Barbarossa) interferes : his wars 1154-75 
 
 Lombard league formed 1167 
 
 His defeat at Legnano .... 29 May, 1176 
 
 Peace of Constance 1183 
 
 Civil wars again 1199, &c. 
 
 Rise of the Medici at Florence . . . about 1251 
 Wars of Frederick II. and the Lombard league, 1236-50 
 His natural son, Manfred, king of Sicily, defeated 
 and killed at the battle of Benevento, by Charles 
 
 of Anjou 26 Feb. 1266 
 
 Who defeats Conradin, at Tagliacozzo . 23 Aug. 1268 
 
 The Visconti rule at Milan 1277 
 
 The Sicilian vespers ; massacre of the French, who 
 
 are expelled from Sicily . . 30 March, 1282 
 Clement V. (pope, 1305), fixes his residence at Avig- 
 non in France 1309 
 
 Louis Gonzaga makes himself master of Mantua, 
 with the title of imperial vicar .... 1328 
 
 First doge of Genoa appointed 1339 
 
 Lucca independent 1370 
 
 Borne again the seat of the pope 1377 
 
 Charles VIII. of France invades Italy, 1494, and 
 
 conquers Naples, 1495 ; loses it in . . . 1496 
 Louis XII. joins Venice and conquers Milan (soon 
 
 lost) 1499 
 
 League of Cambray (1508) against Venice, which is 
 
 despoiled of its Italian possessions . . . 1509 
 Leo X. pope, patron of literature and art . . 1513-22 
 Wars of Charles V. and Francis I. 1515-21 
 
 Francis defeated and prisoner at Pavia 24 Feb. 1525 
 
 Parma and Placentia made a duchy for his family 
 by pope Paul III. (Alexander Farnese) . . . 1545 
 
 Peace of Cateau-Cambresis 1559 
 
 War of the Mantuan succession . . . 1627-31 
 Catinat and the French defeat the duke of Savoy 
 
 at Marsaglia 4 Oct. 1693 
 
 War of Spanish succession commences in Italy . 1701 
 
 Battle of Turin 7 Sept. 1706 
 
 Division of Italy at the peace of Utrecht, n April, 1713 
 The duke of Savoy becomes king of Sardinia . . 1720 
 Successful French campaign in Italy . . . . 1745 
 Milan, &c, obtained by the house of Austria, 1706 ; 
 
 confirmed by treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle . . . 1748 
 Italy overrun by the French . . . May — Dec. 1796 
 Division of the Venetian states by France and 
 Austria by the treaty of Campo Formio ; Cisal- 
 pine republic founded .... 17 Oct. 1797 
 Pius VI. deposed by Bonaparte . . . Feb. 1798 
 The Russians, under Suwarrow, defeat the French 
 
 at Trebia, &c 1799 
 
 Bonaparte crosses the Alps, 16-20 May ; defeats the 
 
 Austrians at Marengo . . . -14 June, 1800 
 The Cisalpine becomes the Italian republic (Bona- 
 parte, president) Jan. 1802 
 
 Napoleon crowned king of Italy . . 26 May, 1805 
 Eugene Beauharnois made viceroy of Italy . . . „ 
 Austria loses her Italian possessions by the treaty 
 
 of Presburg ; ratified 1 Jan. 1806 
 The kingdom ceases on the overthrow of Napoleon, 
 1814 ; the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom estab- 
 lished for Austria 7 April, 1815 
 
 Formation of the young Italy party by Mazzini ; in- 
 surrections 1831-33 
 
 Insurrection in Lombardy and Venice, March ; sup- 
 ported by the king of Sardinia and by the pope, 
 
 April, 1848 
 The king defeated at Novara, 23 March ; and Lom- 
 bardy reverts to Austria .... May, 1849 
 [See Sardinia and Austria.'] 
 "Napoleon III. etlTtalie" published . . Feb. 1859 
 The Austrian ultimatum, rejected by Sardinia, 
 
 26 April, ,, 
 The Austrians cross the Ticino, 27 April ; and the 
 
 French enter Genoa 3 May, „ 
 
 Peaceful revolution at Florence, 27 April ; Parma, 
 
 3 May ; Modena 15 June, „ 
 
 The Austrians defeated at Montebello, 20 May ; 
 Palestro, 30-31 May ; Magenta, 4 June ; Marig- 
 nano, 8 June ; Solferino ... 24 June, ,, 
 Provisional governments established at Florence, 
 27 April ; Parma, May ; and Modena [the sove- 
 reigns retire] . . . .15 June, ,, 
 
 Insurrection in the papal states Bologna, Fer- 
 rara, &c 13-15 June, 
 
 Massacre of the insurgents at Perugia by the Swiss 
 troops . . . . . . 20 June, 
 
 The allies cross the Mincio . . . 1 July, 
 
 Armistice between Austria and France 8 July, 
 
 Preliminaries of peace signed at Villafranca ; Lom- 
 bardy surrendered to Sardinia . .11 July, 
 
 Italy dismayed at the peace ; agitation at Milan, 
 Florence, Modena, Parma, &c. ; resignation of 
 count Cavour as minister . . . July, 
 
 The pope appeals to Europe against the king of 
 Sardinia 12 July, 
 
 Garibaldi exhorts the Italians to arm . 19 July, 
 
 Grand duke of Tuscany abdicates . 21 July, 
 
 Constitutional assemblies meet at Florence, 1 1 Aug. ; 
 and at Modena 16 Aug. 
 
 Tuscany, Modena, Parma, and the Romagna enter 
 into a defensive alliance, and declare for annexa- 
 tion to Piedmont, 20 Aug. -10 Sept. ; fiscal restric- 
 tions between them and Piedmont abolished, 
 
 10 Oct. 
 
 Assassination of col. Anviti at Parma . 5 Oct. 
 
 Garibaldi appeals to the Neapolitans ; subscriptions 
 in Italy and elsewhere to supply arms for the 
 Italians Oct. 
 
 Tuscany, &c. , choose the prince Eugene of Carignan- 
 Savoy, as regent of central Italy, 5 Nov. ; the king 
 of Sardinia refusing his consent, the prince de- 
 clines the office, but recommends the chevalier 
 Buoncampagni 14 Nov. 
 
 Treaty of Zurich (establishing Italian confederacy, 
 &c. ), signed 10 Nov. 
 
 Garibaldi retires from Sardinian service . 18 Nov. 
 
 New Sardinian constitution proclaimed 7 Dec. 
 
 The pope condemns the pamphlet " Le Pape et le 
 Congres " 31 Dec. 
 
 The emperor Napoleon recommends the pope to 
 give up the legations . . . .31 Dec. 
 
 The pope refuses and denounces the emperor, 
 
 8 Jan. 
 
 Count Cavour charged with the formation of a 
 ministry 16 Jan. 
 
 Annexation to Sardinia voted for (by universal suf- 
 frage) in Parma, Modena, and the Romagna ; 13 
 March ; Tuscany, 16 March ; accepted by the king, 
 18-22 March, 
 
 Treaty ceding Savoy and Nice to France signed, 24 
 March; approved by the Sardinian parliament, 
 
 29 May, 
 The French troops retire from Italy . . May, 
 Vain insurrections in Sicily . 4 April ; 2 May, 
 Garibaldi lands at Marsala in Sicily, 11 May; as- 
 sumes the office of dictator, 14 May ; defeats 
 the Neapolitans at Calatifimi, 15 May ; and 
 at Melazzo, 20 July ; by a convention the 
 Neapolitans agree to evacuate Sicily (see Sicily), 
 
 30 July, 
 Garibaldi lands at Reggio in Calabria, 18 Aug. ; 
 
 enters Naples ; king Francis retires . 7 Sept. 
 
 Insurrection in Papal States, 8 Sept. ; the Sardi- 
 nians enter, n Sept. ; defeat the papal troops 
 at Castel-fidardo, 18 Sept. ; take Ancona, 
 
 17-29 Sept. 
 
 Victor-Emmanuel takes the command of his army, 
 
 4 Oct. 
 
 The Sardinians enter kingdom of Naples, 15 Oct. ; 
 defeat Neapolitans at Isernia . . 17 Oct. 
 
 Garibaldi defeats Neapolitans attheVolturno, 1 Oct. 
 i860 ; meets Victor-Emmanuel, and says, "King 
 of Italy ! " the latter replies, " I thank you ! " 
 
 26 Oct. 
 
 By universal suffrage (plebiscitum), Sicily and 
 Naples vote for annexation to Sardinia 21 Oct. 
 
 Capua bombarded ; the Neapolitans retire, 2 Nov. ; 
 and are defeated at the Garigliano . . 3 Nov. 
 
 Victor-Emmanuel enters Naples as king, 7 Nov. ; 
 Garibaldi resigns the dictatorship and retires to 
 Caprera 9 Nov. 
 
 Victor-Emmanuel receives homage from the Neapo- 
 litan clergy, &c. ; gives money to encourage educa- 
 tion ; appoints a ministry, including Poerio, &c. , 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Siege of Gaeta commences ; attack by sea pre- 
 
 ' vented by the presence of the French fleet, 
 
 3 Nov. &c. 
 
 Treaty of Zurich signed (see Zurich) . 10 Nov. 
 
 Decree in honour of Garibaldi's army . 16 Nov. 
 
 1859 
 
 B B 
 
ITALY. 
 
 370 
 
 ITALY. 
 
 Reactionary movements suppressed . Nov. -Dec. 
 
 Prince of Carignan-Savoy appointed lieutenant of 
 Naples J:ni. 
 
 The French Beet retires from Gaeta, 19 Jan. ; after 
 severe bombardment it surrenders ; Francis II. 
 retires to Rome 13 Feb. 
 
 Monastic establishments in Naples abolished] with 
 compensation to the inmates ; schools established, 
 
 Feb. 
 
 Assembly of the first Italian parliament, 18 Feb., 
 
 which decrees Victor-Emmanuel king of Italy, 
 
 26 Feb. and 14 March, 
 
 Naples unsettled through reactionary intrigues of 
 the papal party . . . March and A] nil, 
 
 Italy recognised by Great Britain . 31 March, 
 
 Order for the levy of 70,000 soldiers . April, 
 
 Cavoui forms a new ministry, including members 
 from all parts of Italy .... April, 
 
 The pope protests against the kingdom, 15 April, 
 
 Altercation in parliament between Cavour and 
 Garibaldi, 18 April ; reconciled . 25 April, 
 
 Bourbonist bands defeated . . 7 May, &c. 
 
 Prince of C'arignan resigns ; San Martino appointed 
 lieutenant 13 May, 
 
 Death of count Cavour, aged 52 . . 6 June, 
 
 Ricasoli forms a ministry to continue Cavour's policy, 
 
 11 June, 
 
 The kingdom recognised by France . 24 June, 
 
 San Martino resigns the government of Naples : 
 active measures taken against the insurgents and 
 brigands by Cialdini, his successor, appointed, 
 
 16 July, 
 
 The king opens the exhibition of Italian industry 
 at Florence 14 Sept. 
 
 The kingdom recognised by Portugal and Belgium, 
 1 Oct. ; divided into fifty-nine prefectures, &c, 
 
 13 Oct. 
 
 Skirmishes in the south with brigands and foreign 
 emissaries in the cause of Francis II., . Oct. 
 
 Cialdini retires, and La Marmora becomes lieu- 
 tenant-general of Naples . . . 2 Nov. 
 
 Brigandage still prevailing in the south, aided by 
 the king of Naples : insurgents defeated ; and 
 many killed to Nov. 
 
 Jose Borges, a Spaniard, lands in Calabria, 15 
 Sept. ; calls on the people to rise for Francis II., 
 Sept. ; taken and shot .... 8 Dec. 
 
 The reactionist warfare continues ; cruelties of 
 the brigands lead to reprisals. 
 
 Dee. 1861, Jan. and Feb. 
 
 Ricasoli compelled to resign by court influence, 
 1 March ; Rattazzi forms an administration, 
 
 3 March, 
 
 The kingdom recognised by Prussia . 1 March, 
 
 Surrender of Civatella del Tronto, the last Bourbon 
 fortress in Sicily .... 14 March, 
 
 Triumphant progress of Garibaldi through Italy, 
 establishing rifle clubs . March and April, 
 
 Mr. J. F. bishop, an active English Bourbonist 
 propagandist, captured . . . .2 April, 
 
 Conspiracy among the Neapolitan soldiers at Milan 
 suppressed 19 April, 
 
 The king received at Naples with great enthusiasm, 
 
 28 April, 
 
 The French general Guyon aids in the suppression 
 of the Bourbonist brigands . . . April, 
 
 The kingdom recognised by Russia . . 3 July, 
 
 Garibaldi proceeds to Sicily ; at Marsala he calls 
 for volunteers, giving as his watchword, " Rome 
 or death?" 19 July. 
 
 Calls on the Hungarians to rise . . 26 July, 
 
 The king issues a proclamation against his proceed- 
 ings, as tending to rebellion ... 3 Aug. 
 
 Garibaldi enters Catania, and organises a provisional 
 government 19 Aug. 
 
 Sicily proclaimed to be in a state of siege, 21 Aug. ; 
 and put under general Cialdini . . 22 Aug. 
 
 Garibaldi issues his last proclamation ; embarks at 
 Catania ; lands at Melito, in Calabria, and marches 
 towards Reggio, 25 Aug. ; La Marmora proclaims 
 a state of sietre, 26 Aug. ; Garibaldi and his fol- 
 lowers fall in with the royalists, under Pallavicini, 
 at Aspromonte, where, after a short skirmish, he 
 is wounded and taken prisoner, 29 Aug. ; removed 
 to Varignano, near Spezzia . . .1 Sept. 
 
 Mr J. F. Bishop sentenced to 10 years' imprison- 
 ment 6 Sept. 
 
 General Durando issues a diplomatic circular con- 
 
 1860 demning Garibaldi's proceedings, yet asserting 1S62 
 the necessity of the Italian government possess- 
 
 1861 I ing Rome 10 Sept. 
 
 A subscription in England enables professor Part- 
 ridge, of King's College, London, to go to Garibaldi, 
 
 19 Sept. ,, 
 
 Princess Maria Pia married by proxy to the king of 
 Portugal 27 Sept. „ 
 
 Garibaldi issues a rhetorical appeal to the English 
 nation, urging its intervention for the cause of 
 liberty 28 Sept. ,, 
 
 Inflammatory manifesto addressed to the people of 
 Italy by Joseph Mazzini .... Sept. ,, 
 
 Amnesty granted to Garibaldi and his followers, 
 
 5 Oct. ,. 
 
 Sharp reply of M. Drouyn de Lhuys to Durando's 
 note 8 Oct. ,, 
 
 End of state of siege in Naples & Sicily . 17 Oct. ,, 
 
 Disorderly encounter bet ween Italians and Austrians 
 on the banks of the Po .... 1 Nov. ,, 
 
 Father Passaglia and 10,000 (out of 80,000) Italian 
 priests sign a declaration against the temporal 
 authority of the pope Nov. ,, 
 
 Garibaldi removed to Pisa, 9 Nov. ; ball extracted 
 from his foot by Zanetti .... 23 Nov. ,, 
 
 Meeting of parliament; determined opposition to 
 Rattazzi, 18 Nov. ; he resigns . . 30 Nov. ,, 
 
 New ministry formed by Farina . . 9 Dec. ,, 
 
 It declines further negotiations with France on the 
 Roman question 18 Dec. ,, 
 
 Commercial treaty with France signed . 17 Jan. 1863 
 
 Farina resigns ; Minghetti succeeds . 24 March, ,, 
 
 Grand Cavour canal for irrigation of Piedmont 
 opened 1 June, 
 
 Income tax bill passed July, ,, 
 
 Tristany and other bandits captured . . July, ,, 
 
 Commercial treaty witli Great Britain signed, 
 
 6 Aug. ,, 
 
 Death of Farina 5 Sept. ,. 
 
 Several bandits captured cm board the French ship 
 Aunis ; given up to France, July ; restored to Italy, 
 
 12 Bent 
 
 The army of Piedmont (50,000) consolidated by La 
 Marmora and expanded into the "army of Italy" 
 (250,000) ....... Oct. ,. 
 
 The king visits Naples ; reviews National Guard, &c. 
 
 11-17 Nov. ,, 
 
 General election ; triumph of the moderate party, 
 
 Jan. 1864 
 
 Garibaldi's visit to England amidst much enthusiasm, 
 
 April, ,, 
 
 Franco-Italian convention signed (French troops to 
 quit Rome in two years [from 6 Feb. 1865], 
 Florence to be the capital of Italy, &c), 15 Sept. „ 
 
 Riots at Turin in consequence ; many persons killed 
 by the military 21-22 Sept. ,, 
 
 Minghetti and his colleagues blamed; resigned; a 
 ministry formed by La Marmora . . 24 Sept. 
 
 Garibaldi denounces the convention . 10 Oct. ,, 
 
 Desperate state of the finances announced by Sella, 
 the minister ; he proposes stringent remedies, 
 
 Nov. ,, 
 
 Railway from Turin to Florence opened . 4 Nov. 
 
 The convention approved by the chamber of depu- 
 ties, 19 Nov. ; by the senate (after an aide speech 
 by Cialdini, 6 Dec.) 9 Dec. ,, 
 
 Decree for transfer of the capital published, 11 Dec. „ 
 
 Prince Humbert resides at Naples . . . Dec. ,, 
 
 Stated that 346 brigands had been killed in action ; 
 453 taken in action, and 132 surrendered ; about 
 300 remain to be tracked ; many pretend to be 
 subjects of the ex-king Francis II. of Naples, 
 
 Dec. „ 
 
 Demonstration against the king at Turin, 30 Jan. ; 
 he goes to Florence 3 Feb. 1865 
 
 Amnesty for political offences published ; brigandage 
 in the Neapolitan and Roman states increasing, 
 
 March, ,, 
 
 Fruitless negotiations with the pope by Vegezzi 
 respecting the position of bishops, 
 
 April to July, ,, 
 
 The king and court proceed to Florence, 13 May ; 
 he opens the Dante festival, the 600th anniversary 
 of the poet's birth 14 May, ,, 
 
 Mr. Moens, a British subject, seized and retained 
 by brigands 15 May, ,, 
 
 45 monks and others arrested at Salerno on charge 
 of a Bourbonist conspiracy . . . 12 June, „ 
 
ITALY. 
 
 371 
 
 ITALY. 
 
 Inauguration of a national rifle meeting at Florence ; 
 
 the king fires the first shot . . 18 June, 1865 
 
 Numerous atrocities committed by brigands ; Giar- 
 
 dullo and 8 brigands captured . . 19 June, 
 
 The kingdom recognised by Spain . . June, 
 
 Mr. Moens released after a ransom of 5000Z. had 
 
 been paid 26 Aug. 
 
 Bank of Italy established . . . .7 Nov. 
 
 French troops leaving Italy ; general election, the 
 moderate party predominate . . . Nov. 
 
 The new parliament meets at Florence . 18 Nov. 
 Serious financial deficiency ; heavy taxation pro- 
 posed, 13 Dec. ; much dissatisfaction ; the minis- 
 ters resign, 21 Dec. ; a new ministry formed under 
 
 La Marmora 31 Dec. 
 
 Death of the patriot and soldier, Massimo D'Azeglio, 
 
 15 Jan. 
 
 Formation of the "Consorzio Nazionale," a public 
 
 subscription for reducing the national debt, 
 
 27 Feb. 
 Massacre of Protestants at Barletta, Naples ; attri- 
 buted to priests . . . . 19 March, 
 Alliance with Prussia .... 12 May, 
 Volunteers numerously enlisted . 7 June, et seq. 
 War declared against Austria . . 18 June, 
 New ministry formed under Ricasoli . 20 June, 
 Royal manifesto to the people . . 20 June, 
 The army, headed by the king, crosses the Mincio, 
 23 June ; defeated at Custozza . . 24 June, 
 Venetia ceded to France by the emperor of Austria, 
 
 3 July, 
 Fruitless conflicts between the volunteers under 
 Garibaldi ; defeated at Monte Suello . 4 July, 
 Bill for suppression of monasteries and confiscation 
 of property passed .... 7 July, 
 Cialdini crosses the Po, and enters Venetia, 8 July, 
 Naval battle near Lissa ; Italians defeated by Aus- 
 ' trians (Re d 'Italia and Palestro blown up), 20 July, 
 The Italians beaten at Versa ; the last conflict, 
 
 26 July, 
 Armistice for four weeks signed . . .12 Aug. 
 Volunteers disbanded ; Garibaldi retires to Caprera, 
 
 15 Aug. 
 Treaty of peace with Austria signed at Vienna, 
 
 3 Oct. ; ratified 12 Oct. 
 
 Court constituted at Florence to try admiral Persano 
 
 for neglect of duty at battle of Lissa . n Oct. 
 
 The Austrians retire from Peschiera, 9 Oct. ; 
 
 Mantua, 10 Oct. ; Verona, 16 Oct. ; Venice, 
 
 17 Oct. 
 
 General Menabrea pays to count Mensdorff a sum 
 
 of money, and receives the iron crown of Italy, 
 
 11 Oct. 
 National loan freely subscribed . . Oct. 
 Plebiscitum in Venetia ; for annexation with Italy, 
 641,758 ; against, 69 ... 21 Oct. 
 
 This result reported, and the iron crown presented 
 to the king at Turin .... 4 Nov. 
 The king enters Venice, 7 Nov. ; visits Verona, 
 
 Mantua, &c. Nov. 
 
 Circular of Ricasoli to the prefects, recommending 
 industrial development and commerce, forbidding- 
 agitation, and enjoiningneutrality regarding Rome, 
 
 15 Nov. 
 
 Letter from Ricasoli to the clergy recommending a 
 
 free church in a free state . . .26 Nov. 
 
 Persano committed for trial ; examination begins, 
 
 1 Dee. 
 Parliament opened by the king, who declares that 
 "Italy is now restored to herself" . 15 Dec. 
 Sig. Tonello received by the pope, 15 Dec. ; many 
 bishops return to their dioceses . . Dee. 
 Persano acquitted of cowardice at Lissa . 30 Jan. 
 Government proposal for investing part of the 
 property of the religious bodies for support of 
 clergy (" Free Church and Ecclesiastical Liquida- 
 tion bill ") brought forward . . . Jan. 
 Great reduction in the army (to 146,000) ordered, 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Defeat of the ministry on question of the right of 
 
 public meetings in Venetia, 11 Feb. ; parliament 
 
 dissolved 13 Feb. 
 
 Ricasoli reconstructs his ministry . 17 Feb. 
 
 The pope accepts Italian help to suppress brigandage, 
 
 March, 
 
 Elections give a majority for government March, 
 
 Resignation of Ricasoli, 5 April ; a ministry formed 
 
 by Rattazzi 8 April, 
 
 Persano condemned ; degraded and dismissed the 
 service for disobedience, incapacity, and negli- 
 gence 15 April, 1867 
 
 Treaty of commerce with Austria signed at Florence, 
 
 23 April, ,, 
 Public funeral of the patriot Carlo Poerio 1 May, ,, 
 Italy joins in the conference at London respecting 
 
 the Luxemburg question . . 7-1 1 May, „ 
 
 National financial embarrassments ; the king 
 gives up part of his civil list ; proposed sale 
 of church lands, and reduction of expenditure, 
 
 May, et seq. ,, 
 17,200,000^ advanced for church lands by Fould 
 
 and others of Paris .... May, ,, 
 
 Church property bill passed . . . Aug. ,, 
 Garibaldi, about to enter the Roman territory with 
 volunteers, captured by Italian government at 
 Sinalunga (orAsinalunga) and sent to Alessandria, 
 
 23 Sept, ,, 
 Sent to Caprera, 27 Sept. ; escapes to Leghorn, 
 
 and is sent back 2 Oct. ,, 
 
 Bands of Garibaldians invade Roman territories, 
 
 Sept. -Oct. „ 
 Garibaldi escapes from Caprera . . 15 Oct. ,, 
 Embarkation of French troops at Toulon, suspended 
 by the resignation of Rattazzi and his ministry, 
 
 20 Oct. ,, 
 Cialdini tries to form a ministry in vain, 21-25 Oct. >» 
 Garibaldi at Florence announces an expedition 
 
 against Rome 22 Oct. 
 
 The French minister Moustier's circular against 
 
 the invasion 25 Oct. ,, 
 
 Garibaldians defeated at Viterbo . . 25 Oct. ,, 
 Enter Roman territories ; defeat papal troops, and 
 
 take Monte Rotondo . . . 26, 27 Oct. ,, 
 Menabrea's ministry formed ; proclamation of Vic- 
 tor-Emmanuel against the Garibaldian invasion, 
 
 27 Oct. ,, 
 Riots at Naples, Turin, Pavia, and other places, 
 
 suppressed .... 26-28 Oct. et seq. ,, 
 French army arrives at Civita Vecchia, 28 Oct. ; two 
 
 brigades enter Rome .... 30 Oct. „ 
 Royal Italian troops enter papal territory ; Mena- 
 brea's justificatory circular ; suppression of insur- 
 rectional committees in Italy . . 30 Oct. ,, 
 De Moustier's reply .... 1 Nov. ,, 
 
 Garibaldi defeated at Mentana, 3 Nov. ; retreats into 
 Italy with his sou ; captured and sent to Varig- 
 nano, gulf of Spezzia .... 4 Nov. ,, 
 Fiery manifesto of Mazzini . . . 8 Nov. ,, 
 Garibaldi sent to Caprera .... 25 Nov. ,, 
 French proposal of a European conference on 
 
 Roman question discussed . . 9 Nov.-Dec. ,, 
 French troops left Rome for Civita Vecchia, 3 Dec. ,, 
 Meeting of parliament ; judicious firmness ; an 
 
 amnesty for Garibaldians proclaimed . 5 Dec. ,, 
 Long army debate ; vote against the ministry (201 
 
 to 199) ; Menabrea resigns . . . 22 Dec. ,, 
 His ministry reconstituted ... 5 Jan. 1868 
 
 M. Cambray Digny's financial statement : great 
 
 deficit; a grist tax proposed . . . 21 Jan. ,, 
 Exculpatory letter of La Marmora issued . Feb. ,, 
 Government financial measures announced Feb. ,, 
 New order of knighthood, the "Crown of Italy," 
 
 constituted 20 Feb. „ 
 
 Grist tax adopted after 21 days' debate . 1 April, ,, 
 Enthusiastic reception of the crown prince of Prussia, 
 
 20, 21 April, ,, 
 Marriage of prince Humbert to his cousin Mar- 
 
 gherita at Turin .... 22 April, ,, 
 Frightful atrocities committed by brigands in 
 
 south Italy April, May, ,, 
 
 Grist tax adopted by the senate . . June, „ 
 Arrangement made for debt of the late papal pro- 
 vinces 30 July, ,, 
 
 Governmenttobacco monopoly ordered to be farmed ; 
 resignation of the ministers, Lanza and Sella, 
 
 8 Aug. „ 
 Long continued rain ; dreadful inundations in the 
 
 Alpine regions ; great storm . . 27 Sept. ,, 
 Meeting of chamber of deputies ; Garibaldi with- 
 draws 24 Nov. ,, 
 
 Ministerial victory respecting the grist tax in the 
 
 chambers 26 Jan. 1869 
 
 Thomas, duke of Genoa, entered a pupil at Harrow 
 
 (see Spain, 1870) April, ,, 
 
 Circular of Menabrea against the council at Rome, 
 
 5 Oct. „ 
 
 B B 2 
 
ITALY. 
 
 372 IVRY. 
 
 Victor-Emmanuel Ferdinand, son of prince Hum- 
 bert, born at Naples .... ii Nov. 1869 
 Serious illness and recovery of the king, 6-20 Nov. ,, 
 Offered resignation of Menabrea, about 19 Nov. ; 
 Cialdini and Sella unable to form a ministry, 10 
 Dec. ; Lanza and Sella succeed . 13 Dec. „ 
 
 (Ecumenical council at Rome (see Rome, Councils) 
 
 opened 8 Dec. „ 
 
 Republican risings in Pavia and other places quelled , 
 
 about 24 March, 1870 
 Neutrality in the Franco-Prussian war announced, 
 
 18 July, additional armaments ordered . 4 Aug. ,, 
 Mazzini arrested at Palermo and sent to Gaeta, ' 
 
 14 Aug. ,, 
 Fruitless mission of prince Napoleon to obtain help 
 
 for France 21 — 25 Aug. „ 
 
 Circular note from the government recounting the 
 
 failure of all attempts to conciliate the pope since 
 
 i860 ; and proposing favourable terms 29 Aug. „ 
 
 Respectful letter from the king to the pope, 
 
 announcing the occupation of Rome necessary to 
 
 order 8 Sept. ,, 
 
 The Italian troops enter the papal territories (see 
 
 Rome); occupy Viterbo and other places, 12 Sept. „ 
 General Bixio marches towards Rome, 18, 19 Sept. ,, 
 After a short resistance, the Italians under General 
 
 Cadorna enter Rome. [For details see Rome.] 20 Sept. „ 
 Plebiscite in papal territories : for union with the 
 kingdom of Italy (out of 167,548 voters) 133,681 ; 
 
 against 1507 2 Oct. „ 
 
 The king receives the result of the plebiscite, 8 Oct. ,, 
 Rome incorporated with Italy by royal decree, 
 
 general La Marmora governor . . 9 Oct. „ 
 Arrival of La Marmora at Rome as viceroy ; reported 
 agitation in Nice for reunion with Italy or 
 
 autonomy Oct. „ 
 
 Capture and death of Pilone, a great Bourbonist 
 
 brigand chief 14 Oct. „ 
 
 Mazzini arrives at Florence ... 15 Oct. ,, 
 Amnesty to political offenders proclaimed, 10 Oct. ; 
 
 including Mazzini .... 16 Oct. ,, 
 Diplomatic circular announcing the occupation of 
 Rome as the capital of Italy . . .18 Oct. 
 Roman provinces united into one, with five sub- 
 prefectures 19 Oct. „ 
 
 Ministerial changes completed . . .30 Oct. „ 
 Ricasoli retires into private life ; about 14 Nov. ,, 
 Amadeus, duke of Aosta, the king's second son, 
 
 elected king by the Spanish cortes . 16 Nov. ,, 
 Elections favourable to the government ; all the 
 
 ministers elected . . . about 28 Nov. „ 
 Parliament meets ; the king declares Rome to be 
 
 the capital of Italy .... 5 Dec. ,, 
 
 Bills introduced for the transfer of the capital and 
 the preservation of the pope's rights, about, 
 
 10 Dec. ,, 
 The Cenis tunnel completed . . 25 Dec. ,, 
 
 Great inundation ; the king visits Rome 31 Dec. ,, 
 The senate vote the transfer of the capital from 
 
 Florence to Rome (94—39) . . 26 Jan. 1871 
 
 The king and ministers remove to Rome, 1, 2 July, 
 
 which is inaugurated as the capital . 3 July, ,, 
 The parliament opened there by the king 27 Nov. ,, 
 Telegraphic conference at Rome . 18 Dec. ,, 
 
 Joseph Mazzini dies at Pisa . . 10 March, 1872 
 
 Elections favourable to the liberals . . Aug. ,, 
 Great inundations in the valley of the Po, &e. , loss 
 of life and of much property ; much saved by the 
 exertions of the military . . . Oct. „ 
 
 Opposition to the income-tax in the assembly ; 
 
 majority for government (144 — 116) . . Dec. ,, 
 Great sorrow at the death of Napoleon III., 9 Jan. 
 
 proposals for monument in Milan . . Jan. 1873 
 Bill dealing with the religious establishments at 
 
 Rome introduced April, ,, 
 
 TheLanza-Sella ministry resign ;butresiimeofficeat 
 
 the request of the king . . about 4 May, ,, 
 Death of Alessandro Manzoni . . .22 May, „ 
 Death of Urbano Rattazzi . . .5 June, ,, 
 
 KINGS OF ITALY. 
 
 476. Odoacer, king of the Heruli, invades Italy, and 
 becomes king, conquered and slain by 
 
 493. Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, an able prince. 
 He put to death the philosophers Boethius and 
 Symmachus, falsely accused, about 525. 
 
 526. Athalaric, his grandson, dies of the plague. 
 
 534. Theodatus elected ; assassinated. 
 
 536. Vitiges elected 
 
 540. Theodebald (Hildibald) elected ; assassinated. 
 
 541. Totila, or Badiula, a great prince ; killed in battle 
 
 against the imperial army under Narses. 
 
 552. Theias falls in battle. 
 
 Italy subject to the eastern empire till 
 
 568. Alboin, king of the Lombards, with a huge mixed 
 army, conquers Italy : poisoned by his wife 
 Rosamond, for compelling her to drink wine out 
 of a cup formed of her father's skull. 
 
 573. Cleoph ; assassinated. 
 
 575. Autharis ; poisoned. 
 
 591. Agilulph. 
 
 615. Adaloald ; poisoned. 
 
 625. Arioald. 
 
 636. Rotharis ; married the widow of Arioald ; pub- 
 lished a code of laws. 
 
 652. Rodoald (son); assassinated. 
 
 653. Aribert I. (uncle). 
 
 661. Bertharit and Godebert (sons) ; dethroned by 
 
 662. Grimoald, duke of Benevento. 
 671. Bertharit re-established. 
 
 686. Cunibert (son). 
 
 700. Luitbert ; dethroned by 
 
 701. Ragimbert. 
 
 701. Aribert II. (son). 
 
 712. Ansprand elected. 
 
 712. Luitprand (son), a great prince, and a favourite of 
 
 the church. 
 744. Hildebrand (nephew) ; deposed. 
 744. Rachis, duke of Friuli, elected ; became a monk. 
 749. Astolph (brother). 
 756. Desiderius (Didier), quarrelled with the pope 
 
 Adrian, who invited Charlemagne into Italy, by 
 
 whom Desiderius was deposed, and an end put 
 
 to the Lombard kingdom. 
 781. Pepin or Carloman (son of Charlemagne). 
 812. Bernard. 
 820. Lothaire (son of Louis le Debonnaire). 
 
 EMPERORS. 
 
 875. Charles the Bald. 
 
 877. Carloman. 
 
 879. Charles the Fat. 
 
 888. Berenger I. 
 
 889. „ and Guy. 
 894. „ and Lambert. 
 
 921. ,, and Rudolph of Burgundy 
 
 926. Hugh of Provence. 
 
 945. Lothaire II. 
 
 950. Berenger II. and Adalbert his son ; deposed in 961 
 
 by the emperor Otho the Great, who added Italy 
 
 to the German empire. 
 
 MODERN KINGS OF ITALY. 
 
 1805. Napoleon proclaimed king of Italy, 18 March ; 
 
 crowned at Milan, 26 May ; abdicated, 1814. 
 1861. Victor-Emmanuel II. (of Sardinia, which see), born 
 
 14 March, 1820 ; declared king of Italy by the 
 
 parliament, 17 March, 1861. 
 Heir: Humbert, prince of Savoy (son), bom 14 
 
 March, 1844 ; married his cousin Margherita, 22 
 
 April, 1868 ; their son Victor-Emmanuel, born 
 
 11 Nov. 1869. 
 
 ITHACA, kingdom of Ulysses, see Ionian 
 Isles. 
 
 ITINERARIES. The Roman Itinerarium 
 was a table of the stages between important places. 
 The "Itineraria Antonini," embracing the whole 
 Roman empire, usually ascribed to the emperor 
 Aurelius Antonius, and his successors, a.d. 138-180, 
 was probably based upon the survey made by order 
 of Julius Coesar, 44 B.C. The "Itinerarium 
 Hierosolymitanum " was drawn up for the use of 
 the pilgrims about 333. 
 
 IVORY was brought to Solomon from Tarshish, 
 about 992 B.C. (1 Kings x. 22). The colossal statues 
 of Jupiter, Minerva, &c, by Phidias, were formed 
 of ivory and gold, /\/ [ \ B.C. 
 
 IVRY (near Evreux, N."W. France). Here 
 Henry IV. totally defeated the due de Mayenne 
 and the League army, 14 March, 1590. 
 
JACOBINS. 
 
 373 
 
 JAMAICA. 
 
 J. 
 
 J was distinguished from I by the Dutch scholars 
 of the 16th century, and introduced into the alphabet 
 by Giles Beys, printer, of Paris, 1550. Dufresnoy. 
 
 JACOBINS, the original name of the Domi- 
 nicans {which see) . The Jacobin club (first called 
 " club Breton") consisted of about forty gentlemen 
 and men of letters, who met in the hall of the 
 Jacobin friars, at Paris, in Oct. 1789, to discuss 
 political and other questions. Similar societies 
 were instituted in all the principal towns of the 
 kingdom. The club was closed 11 Nov. 1794. 
 
 JACOBITES, a Christian sect, so called from 
 Jacob Baradseus, a Syrian, about 541 ; see Euty- 
 chians. — The partisans of James II. (Latin, 
 Jacobus II.) were so named after his expulsion from 
 England in 1868. 
 
 JACOBUS, a gold coin, so called from king 
 James I. of England, in whose reign it was struck, 
 1603-25. 
 
 JACQUARD LOOM, for figured fabrics, in- 
 vented by Joseph Marie Jacquard, of Lyons, and 
 patented 23 Dec. 1801. 
 
 JACQUERIE, a term applied to bands of 
 revolted peasants (headed by one Caillot, called 
 Jacques Bonhomme), who ravaged France during 
 the captivity of king John in 1358, and were quelled 
 with much bloodshed. Similar insurrections oc- 
 curred in Germany. One was termed the Bundschuh, 
 from the large shoe especially worn by peasants, in 
 1502 ; and another termed the Bund (or league) of 
 the Poor Conrad, 1514 and 1524, which also cost 
 about 100,000 lives, and led to the insurrection of 
 the anabaptists. 
 
 JAFFA, a seaport of Syria, celebrated in scrip- 
 ture as Joppa, whence Jonah embarked (about 862 
 B.C.), and where Peter raised Tabitha from the dead 
 (a.d. 38) ; in mythology the place whence Perseus 
 delivered Andromeda. Jaffa was taken by the 
 caliph Omar, a.d. 636 ; by the Crusaders, 1099 ; by 
 Saladin, 1193, byLouisIX., 1252; and by Bonaparte, 
 7 March, 1 799 ; the French were driven out by the 
 British in June, the same year. Here, according to 
 sir Bobert Wilson, were massacred 3800 prisoners 
 by Bonaparte ; but this is doubted. Jaffa suffered 
 by an earthquake in Jan. 1837, when it is said that 
 13,000 persons were killed. 
 
 JAGEULONS, a dynasty which at times reigned 
 over Lithuania, Poland, Hungary, and Bohemia, 
 beginning with Jagellon, duke of Lithuania 
 (husband of Hedwig, daughter of Louis of Hungary, 
 1384), who became king of Poland as Ladislas III. 
 or V. in 1399, and ending with Sigismund II., who 
 died in 1572. 
 
 JAMAICA, a W. India island, discovered by 
 Columbus, 3 May, 1494, and named St. Jago. It 
 was conquered from the Spaniards by admiral 
 Penn, with land forces commanded by Venables, 
 3 May, 1655, and settled soon after. Population in 
 1861, 13,816 whites; 81,074 coloured; 346,374 
 blacks. 
 
 An awful earthquake here . . 2 June, 1692 
 The Maroons (runaway slaves) permitted to settle 
 in the north of the island i 73 8 
 
 Desolating hurricanes in . . . 1722, 1734, & 1751 
 In June, 1795, the Maroons rose against the English, 
 
 and were not quelled till .... March, 1796 
 Many transported to Sierra Leone .... 1800 
 
 Slave trade abolished 1 May, 1807 
 
 Tremendous hurricane, by which the whole island 
 was deluged, hundreds of houses washed away, 
 vessels wrecked, and 1000 persons drowned, Oct. 1815 
 
 Bishopric established 1824 
 
 Insurrection of the negro slaves ; numerous planta- 
 tions burnt ; the governor, lord Belmore, declared 
 
 martial law. 22 Dec. 1831 
 
 Emancipation of the slaves . . . 1 Aug. 1834 
 
 About 50,000 die of cholera in 1850 
 
 In May, 1853, the dissension between the colonial 
 legislature and sir Charles Grey, the governor, 
 occasioned his recall ; his successor, sir H. Barkly, 
 
 arrived Oct. 1853 
 
 Bishopric of Kingston established . . . . 1856 
 Charles Henry Darling appointed governor . . 1857 
 Edward John Eyre appointed governor . July, 1864 
 Negro insurrection begins at Morant-bay, by resist- 
 ing the capture of a negro criminal, 7 Oct. ; the 
 court-house fired on ; baron Ketelholdt, rev. V. 
 Herschell, and others cruelly murdered, and many 
 
 wounded .11 Oct. 1863 
 
 Bebellion spreads, and many atrocities are com- 
 mitted ; it is suppressed by the energy of the 
 governor, the military and naval officers, volun- 
 teers, the Maroons, and the loyal negroes, 
 
 13-24 Oct. „ 
 George Wm. Gordon, a coloured member of the 
 legislature, convicted of encouraging the rebel- 
 lion, 21 Oct. ; executed . . . .23 Oct. „ 
 
 Baul Bogle executed 24 Oct. „ 
 
 Numerous executions .... Oct & Nov. „ 
 Sir Henry Storks summoned from Malta, and sent 
 to Jamaica, with Messrs. Russell Gurney and John 
 B. Maule, as commissioners, to inquire respecting 
 the disturbances, and the measures taken in sup- 
 pressing them . . • - - 11 Dec. etseq. „ 
 Governor Eyre temporarily suspended ; sir Henry 
 
 Storks arrives in Jamaica . . . . 6 Jan. 1866 
 The legislative assembly of Jamaica dissolves itself, 
 and abrogates the constitution (which had existed 
 
 200 years) 17 J an - >» 
 
 1600L subscribed for at Jamaica for defence of gov. 
 
 Eyre Feb. „ 
 
 Commission opened 23 Jan. ; closed . 21 March, „ 
 They receive evidence of the existence of widely 
 spread discontent during 1865 : they reported that 
 439 persons had suffered by martial law ; that about 
 1000 dwellings had been burnt; that about 600 
 (many women) had been flogged ; that they con- 
 sidered the punishments inflicted excessive, the 
 executions unnecessarily frequent, the burning 
 the houses wanton ; and that they saw no proof 
 of Gordon's complicity in the outbreak ; or in 
 an organised conspiracy against government, 
 
 9 April, „ 
 The " Jamaica Government act " passed in England 
 
 23 March, „ 
 Sir J. B. Grant gazetted governor in room of governor 
 
 Eyre 16 July, „ 
 
 A " Jamaica Committee," J. S. Mill, chairman, pro- 
 pose prosecution of governor Eyre . . 27 July, „ 
 He arrives at Southampton, 12 Aug. ; welcomed by 
 
 a banquet 2I Au S- » 
 
 A committee for his defence formed . . Sept. „ 
 The governor, sir J. P. Grant, promulgates the new 
 constitution ; opening of the legislative council 
 (consisting of the governor and six members), 
 
 16 Oct. „ 
 G. D. Bamsay, accused of murder, discharged by 
 
 grand jury 18 Oct. „ 
 
 "Warrants issued against gov. Eyre, col. Nelson, and 
 lieut. Brand, Feb. ; the grand jury discharges 
 the bills against Eyre, 29 March, and the others, 
 
 11 April, 18 
 
JAMES'S HALL, ST. 
 
 374 
 
 JAP AX. 
 
 A bill of indictment for misdemeanor against 
 governor Byre brought in, 15 May ; discharged by 
 grand jury 2 June, i£68 
 
 Chief-justice Cockburn disclaimed agreement with 
 partof justice Blackburn's charge on theoccasion ; 
 an almost unexampled case . . . 8 June, ,, 
 
 Trial of Phillips V. Eyre (for beating and imprison- 
 ment during the rebellion of 1866) ; Eyre pleaded 
 aet of indemnity ; verdict for defendant 2? Jan. 1869 
 
 Episcopal church disestablished . . .31 Dec. ,, 
 
 Appeals in England for its support . . July, 1870 
 
 Legal expenses of Mr. Eyre ordered to be paid, after 
 discussion in the commons . . . 8 July, 1872 
 
 Many estates in Jamaica offered for sale in the 
 London papers July, ,» 
 
 Returning prosperity reported . . . May, 1873 
 
 JAMES'S HALL, ST., near Piccadilly, 
 
 erected for public meetings, &c, was opened on 
 25 March, 1858, with a concert for the benefit of 
 the Middlesex hospital Mr. Owen Jones was the 
 architect. The " Popular Monday Concerts " here 
 began 14 Feb. 1859. 
 
 JAMES'S PALACE, ST., &c, London, was 
 built by Henry VIII. on the site of an hospital of 
 the same name, 1530-6. It has been the official 
 town-residence of the English court since the fire at 
 Whitehall in 1698. 
 
 The Park a marsh till Henry VIII. enclosed and 
 laid it out in walks 1530 
 
 Much improved by Charles II. , who employed Le 
 Notre to plant lime-trees, and to layout "the 
 mall," for the purpose of playing a game with a 
 ball called a mall 166S 
 
 William III. granted a passage into it from Spring- 
 gardens 1699 
 
 A grand display of fireworks took place here at the 
 peace, when the pagoda bridge erected here by 
 sir W. Congreve was burnt . . . 1 Aug. 1814 
 
 The x>ark improved by Geo. IV. . . . 1827 et seq. 
 
 The enclosure first opened to the public in Jan. 
 1829 : the opening by Carlton-steps in . . . 1831 
 
 The marble arch at Buckingham-palace removed 
 to Cumberland-gate, Hyde-park . 29 March, 1851 
 
 An iron bridge over the ornamental water con- 
 structed 1857 
 
 JAMES'S THEATRE, ST., erected by 
 Beazley for John Brahani, the singer; opened 
 14 Dec. 1835. 
 
 JANINA, see Albania, 
 
 JANISSARIES (Turkish Uni tehdri, new 
 
 soldiers), an order of infantry in the Turkish army; 
 originally, young prisoners trained to arms; were 
 first organi>ed by Or can, about 1330, a*id remodelled 
 bj' his son Amurath I. 1360; their numbers being 
 increased by following sultans. In later days they 
 degenerated from their strict discipline, and several 
 times deposed and killed the sultans. During an in- 
 surrection. 14-15 June, 1826, when nearly 3000 of 
 them were killed, the Ottoman army was re-orga- 
 nised by Mahmud II. and a firman was issued on 
 17 June, abolishing the Janissaries. 
 
 JANSENISTS, persons who embraced the 
 doctrines of Cornelius Jansen, bishop of Ypres, who 
 died in 1638. The publication of his •' Augustinus," 
 1640, in which he maintained the doctrine of free 
 grace, kindled a fierce controversy, and was con- 
 demned by a bull of pope Urban VIII. in 1642. 
 Through the Jesuits Jansenism was condemned by 
 Innocent X. in 1653, and by Clement XI., in 1713, 
 by the bull Unigenitus. This bull the French 
 church rejected. Jansenism still exists at Utrecht 
 and Haarlem ; see Port Royalists. 
 
 JANUARY derives its name from Janus, an 
 early Roman divinity. January was added to the 
 
 Roman calendar byNuma, 713 B.C. He placed it 
 about the winter solstice, and made it the first 
 month, because Janus was supposed to preside over 
 the beginning of all business. In 1751 the legal 
 year in England was ordered to begin on I Jan. in- 
 stead of 25 March. 
 
 JANUS, TEMPLE OF, at Rome, was erected 
 by Romulus, and kept open in time of war, and 
 closed in time of peace. During above 700 years 
 it was shut only — under Numa, 714 B.C. ; at the close 
 of the first Punic war, 235 B.C. ; and under Augustus, 
 29, 25, and 5 B.C. 
 
 JAPAN, an Asiatic empire, composed of Japan 
 or Niphon, and about 3850 isles, with between 
 35,000,000 and 40,000,000 inhabitants. It was 
 visited by Marco Polo, the Venetian traveller, in 
 the 13th century; and by Mendez Pinto, a Portu- 
 guese, about 1535 or 1542; whose countrymen 
 shortly after obtained permission to found a settle- 
 ment. The Jesuit missionaries followed, and made 
 a number of converts, who sent a deputation to pope 
 Gregory XIII. in 1582 ; but a tierce persecution, of 
 the Christians began in 1590, aggravated it is said 
 by the indiscreet zeal and arrogance of the Jesuits : 
 thousands of the converts suffered death ; and the 
 Portuguese were utterly expelled, 1637-42. The 
 Dutch trade with Japan commenced about 1600 
 under severe restrictions, and has since been fre- 
 quently suspended ; other nations, except Chinese, 
 being excluded. The learned Engelbert Ksenipfer 
 visited Japan in 1690, and published an account of 
 it with plates. 
 
 An American expedition, under commodore Parry, 
 reaches Jeddo, and is favourably received; but 
 remains only a few days ... 8 July, 1853 
 
 A treaty of commercial alliance concluded between 
 the two countries .... 31 March, 1854 
 
 A similar treaty with Great Britain . 14 Oct. „ 
 
 With Russia 26 Jan. 1855 
 
 Nagasaki and Hakodadi opened to European com- 
 merce . 1856 
 
 Commercial treaty with Russia . . 19 Aug. 1858 
 
 Lord Elgin visits Japan, with a present of a steamer 
 for the emperor, and is honourably received, 
 July; obtains the treaty of Jeddo, opening 
 Japan to British commerce ... 26 Aug. ,, 
 
 The secular emperor dies (aged 36) . 16 Sept. ,, 
 
 Mr. (afterwards sir) Rutherford Alcock apjxrinted 
 consul-general, Bee. 1858 ; envoy extraordinary, 
 
 Nov. 1859 
 
 A Japanese embassy visits Washington, New York, 
 &c. , United States . . 14 May-30 June, i860 
 
 Attack on the British embassy at Jeddo ; some 
 persons wounded .... 5 July, 1861 
 
 Embassy received at Paris, 13 April ; London, June ; 
 in Holland, Prussia, &c. . . July-Sept. 1862 
 
 Another attack on the English charge d'affaires 
 frustrated 26, 27 June, „ 
 
 Foreign ministers transfer the residence from Jeddo 
 to Yokohama 27 June, „ 
 
 Mr. Richardson murdered and his companions 
 cruelly assailed by a Japanese noble and his suite, 
 
 14 Sept. „ 
 
 The batteries and vessels of the prince of 
 Nagato fire on an English and a French vessel 
 at the entrance of the straits of Simonosaki, 
 
 15, 19 Nov. ,, 
 
 Some English, French, and American vessels bom- 
 bard his forts and his vessels . . 15-19 July, 1863 
 
 Reparation demanded ; 100,000?. paid by the govern- 
 ment ; the prince of Satsuina resists payment of 
 25,000?., his portion ; admiral Kuper enters the 
 bay of Kagosima, and is fired upon ; whereupon he 
 bombards the town and burns the prince's 
 steamers 15 Aug. ,, 
 
 Tin' Japanese minister announces that the ports 
 opened, by virtue of the treaties will be closed, 
 
 24 June, ,, 
 
 The prince of Satsuma pays the 25,000?., 11 Bee. „ 
 
 The Japanese government refuse to abide by the 
 
JAEGONIUM. 
 
 375 
 
 JENA. 
 
 .treaties ; a combined fleet enters the straits of 
 Simonosaki, 4 Sept. ; and attacks and destroys 
 the Japanese batteries . . 5, 6 Sept. 1864 
 
 Major Baldwin and lieut. Bird murdered, 20 Nov. ; 
 two assassins executed .... Dec. ,, 
 
 Sir Harry Parkes appointed to succeed sir R. 
 Alcock as envoy April, 1865 
 
 Treaties with England, France, &c. , ratified, 25 Nov. ,, 
 
 Two more ports opened .... Jan. 1866 
 
 Death of the tycoon : his successor said to be 
 favourable to foreigners . . . Sept. „ 
 
 Civil dissensions reported .... Oct. ,, 
 
 Town of Yokohama and third part of European 
 settlement destroyed by fire . . 26 Nov. ,, 
 
 Jeddo and other places opened to trade, by the 
 government 25 April, 1867 
 
 Visit of sir Harry Parkes to the tycoon, Stots Bashi, 
 
 1 May, ,, 
 
 Prince Minbontaiyou, brother of the tycoon, ar- 
 rives at Dover, 2 Dec. ; presented to the queen, 
 
 4 Dec. ,, 
 Osaka and Niogo opened to European commerce, 
 
 1 Jan. 1868 
 Insurrection of the Daimios ; rivalry between the 
 mikado and tycoon, Dec. ; foreigners neutral, 
 
 27 Jan. -Feb. ,, 
 Japanese outrages on French sailors ; culprits exe- 
 cuted, 16 March ; further outrages punished, 
 
 23 March, „ 
 The mikado's troops defeat the tycoon's, who flies, 
 26-30 Jan. ; the mikado's defeated near Jeddo, 
 
 10-17 May, „ 
 After long war and varying success the rebellion 
 
 ends ; the mikado re-established . . July, ,, 
 Majority of the mikado proclaimed . . Nov. ,, 
 His marriage, 9 Feb. ; another rebellion of the 
 
 tycoon's partisans Feb. 1869 
 
 Visit of the duke of Edinburgh, 29 Aug. ; received 
 
 by the mikado 22 Sept. ,, 
 
 The tycoon submits to the mikado . . Dec. „ 
 Great progress of internal improvements, and 
 assimilation to European civilisation ; proposed 
 establishment of railways, telegraphs, &c. . 1870-71 
 Industrial exhibition opened at Kioto 10 April, 1872 
 Destructive fire at Jeddo .... May, ,, 
 Embassy of distinguished Japanese arrives at 
 
 Washington, 4 March ; in London . .17 Aug. ,, 
 Pacific mail screw steamer America burnt at Yoko- 
 hama ; about 40 killed . . . 24 Aug. „ 
 First railway (from Yokohama to Shinagawa) 
 opened, 12 June, to Jeddo ; opened by the mikado, 
 
 Oct. „ 
 Japanese ambassadors received by queen Victoria, 
 
 5 Dec. „ 
 English proposed as the national tongue . Dec. „ 
 
 REIGNING EMPEROR OR MIKADO. 
 
 Moutz Hito, born 1852 ; succeeded his father, Komei 
 Tenuo, 1867. 
 
 JAEGONIUM, a new metal discovered by- 
 professor A. Church in combination with the zircon 
 of Ceylon. The spectrum was shown by Mr. H. 
 Sorby, 6 March, 1869. 
 
 JAENAC (W. France). On 13 March, 1569, 
 the duke of Anjou, afterwards Henry III. of France, 
 here defeated the Huguenots under Louis, prince of 
 Conde, who was killed in cold blood by Montesquieu. 
 The victor (seventeen years of age), on account of 
 his success here and at Moncontour, was chosen 
 king of Poland. 
 
 JASMINE or JESSAMINE {Jasminum offici- 
 nale}, native of Persia, &c, was brought hither from 
 Circassia, before 1548. The Catalonianj asinine came 
 from the East Indies, in 1629, and the yellow Indian 
 jasmine in 1656. 
 
 JASSY, the capital of Moldavia, frequently 
 occupied by the Russians; taken by them in 1739, 
 1769, and 1828. A treaty between them and the 
 Turks was signed here, 9 Jan. 1792. 
 
 JAVA, a large island in the Eastern Archi- 
 pelago, is said to have been reached by the Portu- 
 guese in 1511, and by the Dutch in 1595. The 
 
 latter, who now possess it, built Batavia, the 
 capital, about 1619 ; see Batavia. The atrocious 
 massacre of 20,000 of the unarmed natives by the 
 Dutch, sparing neither women nor children, to 
 possess their effects, took place in 1740. The 
 island capitulated to the British, 18 Sept. 181 1. 
 The sultan was dethroned by the English, and the 
 hereditary prince raised to the throne, in June, 
 1813. Java was restored to Holland in 1814. The 
 English promoted free labour instead of forced; 
 but the Dutch reverted to the old system, and in 
 1830 abolished free labour, introducing the " cul- 
 ture system," by which the government controls 
 the cultivation of the land and buys the produce at 
 its own price. In Aug. i860, the Swiss soldiers 
 here, aided by the natives, mutinied, but were soon 
 reduced, and many suffered death. The diminished 
 prosperity of Java led to warm discussions in the 
 Dutch chamber in 1866. 
 
 JEAN DE LUZ, ST. (S. France, near the 
 Pyrenees). Soult's strong position here was taken 
 by general Hill and marshal Beresford, 10 Nov. 
 1813. 
 
 JEDDA, the port of Mecca, Arabia. On 15 June, 
 1858, the fanatic Mahometans massacred twenty-six 
 of the Christian inhabitants, among them the Eng- 
 lish and French consuls and part of then- families ; 
 but many fled to the shipping. On the delay of 
 justice, commodore Pullen, with the Cyclops, bom- 
 barded the town, 25, 26 July. On 6 Aug. eleven of 
 the assassins were executed ; the ringleaders after- 
 wards. 
 
 JEDDO or YEDDO, the capital of Japan, on 
 the island of Niphon, contains about 2,000,000 
 inhabitants. The emperor's palace is said to have 
 a hall of audience supported by pillars of massive 
 gold, and three towers, each nine stories high, 
 covered with gold plates. On 23 Dec. 1854, and 
 II Nov. 1855, severe earthquakes occurred : during 
 the latter 57 temples, 100,000 houses, and about 
 30,000 persons were destroyed. Here was signed 
 the treaty of 26 Aug. 1858 ; see Japan. 
 
 JET J/ AT, A "RAD, Afghanistan, defended by sir 
 Robert Sale from 8 Jan. to 5 April, 1842, when the 
 siege was raised by general (jr. Pollock, who de- 
 stroyed the fortifications. 
 
 JEHAD, see Jihad. 
 
 JE MAINTIENDEAI, "I will maintain," 
 the motto of the house of Nassau. When William 
 III. came to the throne of England, he continued 
 this, but added "the liberties of England and the 
 Protestant religion," at the same time ordering 
 that the old motto of the royal arms, " Dieu et mon 
 droit" should be retained on the great seal, 1689. 
 
 JEMAPPES (N.W. Belgium), the site of the 
 first pitched battle gained by the French republicans 
 (under Dumouriez), in which 40,000 French troops 
 drove out 19,000 Austrians, who were entrenched 
 in woods and mountains, defended by redoubts and 
 many cannon, 6 Nov. 1792. The number killed on 
 each side was reckoned at 5000. 
 
 JENA AND AUERSTADT (Central Germany), 
 where two battles were fought, 14 Oct. 1806, be- 
 tween the French and Prussians. The French were 
 commanded at Jena by Napoleon, and at Auerstadt 
 by Davoust : the Prussians by prince Hohenlohe at 
 the former place, and the king of Prussia at the 
 latter. The Prussians were defeated, losing nearly 
 20,000 killed and wounded, and nearly as many 
 prisoners, and 200 field pieces ; the French lost 
 
JENNEEIAN INSTITUTION. 
 
 m 
 
 JESUIT'S BAEK. 
 
 14,000 men. Napoleon advanced to Berlin, and 
 issued the Berlin decree (which see). 
 
 JENNEEIAN INSTITUTION, founded 
 1803 ; see Vaccination. 
 
 JEESEY. The chief island of the channel 
 archipelago (which includes, Guerney, Sark, Alder- 
 ney, &c), formerly held by the Bomans in the 3rd 
 and 4th centuries after Christ — Jersey being termed 
 Caesarea. The isles were captured by Bollo, and 
 thus became an appanage of the duchy of Nor- 
 mandy, and were united to the crown of England 
 by his descendant, William the Conqueror. The 
 inhabitants of the Channel Islands preferred to re- 
 main subjects of king John, at the period of the 
 conquest of Normandy by Philip Augustus, and 
 while retaining the laws, customs, and (until lately) 
 the language of their continental ancestors, have 
 always remained firm in their allegiance to Eng- 
 land. Almost every war with France has been 
 characterised by an attack on Jersey, the most for- 
 midable of which, under the baron de Bullecour, 
 •was defeated by the English garrison and Jersey 
 militia, commanded by major Pierson, 6 Jan. 1781. 
 Mr. J. Bertrand Payne, in his "Armorial of Jersey," 
 and his ' ' Gossiping Guide ' ' has exhaustively treated 
 the general and family history of the island. Jersey 
 became a place of refuge for MM. Rouher, Baroche, 
 Drouyn de Lhuys, and other distinguished French 
 imperialists, Sept. 1870. The population of the 
 channel isles in 1861 was 90,978; in 1871, 90,563. 
 
 JEEUSALEM, called also Salem, 1913 b.c. 
 
 (Gen. xiv. 18). Its king was slain by Joshua, 1451 
 B.C. It was taken by David, 1048 B.C., who dwelt 
 in the fort, calling it the city of David ; see Jews, 
 and Holy Places. Population in 1872, about 
 250,000. 
 
 The first temple founded by Solomon, 1012 b.c; and 
 solemnly dedicated on Friday . . 30 Oct. 1004 
 [See under article Jews.] 
 Jerusalem taken by Chosroes the Persian, a.d. 
 614; retaken by the emperor Heraclius, 628; by 
 the Saracens, 637 ; and by the Crusaders, when 
 70,000 infidels were put to the sword ; a new 
 kingdom founded .... 15 July, 1099 
 The "assize of Jerusalem," a code of laws, estab- 
 lished by Godfrey of Bouillon, king . . . IIOO 
 King Guy defeated at Tiberias, and Jerusalem taken 
 
 by Saladin 2 Oct. 1187 
 
 By the Turks, who drive away the Saracens, 1217 <fc 1239 
 Surrendered to the emperor Frederick II. by treaty, 1228 
 
 Surrendered to the Crusaders 1243 
 
 Taken from the Christians 1291 
 
 Taken by the Turks 1516 
 
 Held by the French under Bonaparte . Feb. 1799 
 
 The protectant bishopric of Jerusalem erected, 
 under the protection of Great Britain and Prussia ; 
 S. M. S. Alexander consecrated bishop 7 Nov. 1841 
 Jerusalem visited by the prince of Wales, &c, 
 
 31 March, 1862 
 Convention for the preservation of the holy sepul- 
 chre, signed on behalf of Russia, France, and 
 
 Turkey 5 Sept. „ 
 
 Jeiusalem and the neighbourhood surveyed by a 
 
 party of royal engineers since . . Sept. 1864 
 Visited by the prince of Prussia, 4 Nov. ; by the 
 emperor of Austria .... 9 Nov. 1869 
 
 CHRISTIAN KINGS. 
 
 Godfrey of Bouillon 1099 
 
 Baldwin I i IOO 
 
 Baldwin II m j 
 
 FulkofAnjou n 3I 
 
 Baldwin III n 44 
 
 Amauri (or Almeric) 1162 
 
 Baldwin IV n 7 3 
 
 Sibyl, then his son Baldwin V. .... 1185 
 
 Guy de Lusignan 1186 
 
 Henry of Champagne 
 
 Amauri de Lusignan 
 
 Jeanne de Brienne 1210 
 
 Emperor Frederick II ... . 1229-39 
 
 ' ' JEEUSALEM DELIVEEED , " the great 
 Italian epic, by Tasso, was published in 1580. 
 
 JEEVIS'S ACTS, 11 & 12 Vict., cc. 42, 43 
 (1848), relate to legal proceedings against criminals. 
 
 JESTEE is described as " a witty and jocose 
 person, kept by princes to inform them of their 
 faults, and of those of others, under the disguise of 
 a waggish story." Several of our kings, particu- 
 larly the Tudors, kept jesters. Rayhere, the 
 founder of St. Bartholomew's priory, West Smith- 
 field, London, 1133, is said to have been a court 
 jester and minstrel. There was a jester at court in 
 the reigns of James I. and Charles I., but we hear 
 of no licensed jester afterwards. 
 
 JESUITS, the society or company of Jesus, was 
 founded by Ignatius Loyola, a page to Ferdinand V. 
 of Spain, subsequently an officer in his army, and 
 afterwards canonised. Having been wounded in 
 both legs at the siege of Pampeluna, in 1 521, he 
 devoted himself to theology, and renounced the 
 military for the ecclesiastical profession. He dedi- 
 cated his life to the Blessed Virgin as her knight ; 
 made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, and on his 
 return laid the foundation of his society at Paris, 
 16 Aug. 1534. He presented his institutes, in 
 1539, to pope Paul III., who made many objec- 
 tions ; but Ignatius adding to the vows of chastity, 
 poverty, and obedience, a fourth of implicit sub- 
 mission to the holy see, the institution was con- 
 firmed by a bull, 27 Sept. 1540. The number of 
 members was not to exceed sixty, but that restric- 
 tion was taken oft" by another bull, 14 March, 1543 ; 
 and popes Julius III., Pius V., and Gregory XLtl. 
 granted many privileges. Loyola died 31 July, 
 1556. Francis Xavier, and other missionaries, the 
 first brethren, carried the order to the extremities 
 of the habitable globe, but it met with great opposi- 
 tion in Europe, particularly in Paris ; see Paraguay 
 and Jansenists. The order still exists in many 
 European states contrai-y to the laws. 
 
 The society condemned by the Sorbonne, Paris, 
 1554; expelled from France, 1594; re-adinitted, 
 1604; but after several decrees is totally sup- 
 pressed in France and its property confiscated 
 
 Ordered by parliament to be expelled from Eng- 
 land, 1579, 1581, 1586, 1602; and by the Catholic 
 relief act in 
 
 Expelled from — Venice, 1607; Holland, 1708; Por- 
 tugal, 1759 ; Spain 
 
 Abolished by Clement XIV. . . . 21 July, 
 
 Restored by Pius VI. .... 7 Aug. 
 
 Expelled from — Belgium, 1818; Russia, 1820; Spain, 
 1820, 1835; France, 1831,1845; Portugal, 1834; 
 Sardinia, Austria, and other states, 1848 ; Italy 
 and Sicily 
 
 The chief of the order appeals to the king of Sar- 
 dinia for redress of grievances . . 24 Oct. 
 
 Report of the order ; total number of Jesuits, 8167 : 
 in France, 2422 : in 
 
 In consequence of the activity of the order on be- 
 half of the papal supremacy, a bill for its expul- 
 sion from Germany passed by the parliament at 
 Berlin (131-93) . . . 19 June, 1872 
 
 JESUIT'S BAEK, called by the Spaniards 
 fever-wood, from the cinchona or chinchona tree, 
 discovered, it is said, by a Jesuit, about 1535 (and 
 used by the order) . Its virtues were not generally 
 known till 1633, when it cured of fever the lady of 
 the viceroy (Chinchona) at Peru. It was sold at 
 one period for its weight in silver, and was intro- 
 duced into France in 1649; and is said to have 
 cured Louis XIV. of fever when he was dauphin. 
 1 19*7 I It came into general use in 1680, and sir Hans 
 
 ■ 1764 
 
 1829 
 
 1767 
 1773 
 1814 
 
 i860 
 
 1866 
 
JESUS CHEIST. 
 
 377 
 
 JEWS. 
 
 Sloaue introduced it here about 1700. The cinchona 
 plant, largely ^plan ted in the Neilgherry hills, India, 
 in 1861, is thriving greatly, in 1870, and also in 
 Ceylon; see Quinine. 
 
 JESUS CHRIST, the Saviour of the 
 WORLD, stated to have been born on Monday, 
 25 Dec. a.m. 4004, in the year of Borne, 752 ; but 
 this event should be dated four years before tne com- 
 mencement of the common era ; see Nativity. The 
 following dates are gvien by ecclesiastical writers : — 
 
 Christ's baptism by John, and his first ministry 
 (English Bible) a.d. 27 
 
 He celebrated the last passover, and instituted the 
 sacrament on Thursday ... 2 April, 33 
 
 Was first crucified on 3 April, at three o'clock in 
 the afternoon ; arose .... 5 April, 
 
 Ascended to heaven from Mount Olivet on Thurs- 
 day 14 May, 
 
 The holy spirit descended on his disciples on Sun- 
 day, the day of Pentecost ... 24 May, 
 
 The divinity of Christ, denied by the Arians, was 
 affirmed by the council of Nice .... 325 
 
 JEU DE PAUME (the tennis court). The 
 king having closed the hall of the assembly at Ver- 
 sailles, the third estate {tiers etats) met in this 
 place, and swore not to dissolve till a constitution 
 was established, 20 June, 1789. (It is the subject 
 of a painting by David). 
 
 JEWELLERY was received by Eebekah as a 
 marriage gift, 1857 B.C. {Gen. xxv. 53). Pliny the 
 elder, says he saw Lollia Paulina (wife of Caius 
 Csesar, and afterwards Caligula) wearing ornaments 
 valued at a sum equal to 322,916^. sterling. Jewels 
 were worn in France by Agnes Sorel in 1434, and 
 encouraged in England about 1685. The standard 
 of gold for jewellery, except wedding rings, was 
 lowered by parliament in 1854. 
 
 JEWISH DISABLITIES, see under Jews, 
 1269- 1867. 
 
 JEWISH ERA and Calendar. The Jews 
 
 usually employed the era of the Seleucidse until the 
 15th century, when a new mode of computing was 
 adopted. They date from the creation, which they 
 consider to have been 3760 years and 3 months 
 before the commencement of our era. lo reduce 
 Jewish time to ours, subtract 3761 years. The Jewish 
 year consists of either twelve or thirteen months, of 
 29 or 30 days. The civil year commences with the 
 month Tisri, immediately after the new moon fol- 
 lowing the autumnal equinox; the ecclesiastical 
 year begins with Nisan. 
 
 Civil year, 5628. 
 
 Tisri begins 30 Sept. 1867 
 
 Marchesvan 30 Oct. 
 
 Chislev 28 Nov. 
 
 Thebet 27 Dec. 
 
 Sebat 25 Jan. 
 
 Adar 24 Feb. 
 
 Nisan or Abib 24 March, 
 
 Ijar 23 April, 
 
 Sivan 22 May, 
 
 Thammuz 21 June 
 
 Ab 20 July, 
 
 Elul 19 Aug. 
 
 JEWS, the descendants of Abraham, with whom 
 God made a covenant, 1898 b.c. Gen. xvii. See 
 Jerusalem. 
 
 CallofAbram B.C. 1921 
 
 Isaac bom to Abraham 1896 
 
 Birth of Esau and Jacob 1837 
 
 Death of Abraham 1822 
 
 Joseph sold into Egypt 1729 
 
 The male children of the Israelites thrown into the 
 
 Nile ; Moses born . . 1571 
 
 The Passover instituted ; the Israelites go out of 
 
 Egypt, and cross the Red Sea .... 1491 
 
 The law promulgated from Mount Sinai . b.c. 1491 
 
 The Tabernacle set up 1490 
 
 Joshua leads the Israelites into Canaan . . . 1451: 
 The first bondage (Othniel, judge, 1405) . . . 1413 
 The second bondage (Ehud, 1325) . . . . 1343 
 The third bondage (Deborah and Barak, 1285) . 1305 
 The fourth bondage (Gideon, 1245) . . . . 1252 
 The fifth bondage (Jephthah, 1187) .... 1206 
 
 The sixth bondage 1157 
 
 Samson slays the Philistines 1136 
 
 Samuel governs as judge, about 112a 
 
 Samson pulls down the temple of Dagon . . .1117 
 
 Saul made king 1095 
 
 David slays Goliath, about 1063- 
 
 Death of Saul ; David made king . . . . 1055 
 David besieges and takes Jerusalem, and makes it 
 
 his capital 1048 
 
 Solomon king, 1015 ; lays the foundation of the 
 
 temple, 1012 ; which is dedicated . . . 1004. 
 
 Death of Solomon ; the kingdom divided . . . 97s 
 
 KINGDOM OF ISBAEL. 
 
 Jeroboam establishes idolatry 975 
 
 Bethel taken from Jeroboam ; 500,000 Israelites 
 
 slain . . . , 957 
 
 Israel afflicted with the famine predicted by Elijah 906 
 
 The Syrians besiege Samaria 901 
 
 Elijah translated to heaven 896 
 
 Miracles of Elisha the prophet 895 
 
 The Assyrian invasion under Phul .... 771 
 
 Pekah besieges Jerusalem 741 
 
 Samaria taken by the king of Assyria : the ten tribes 
 are carried into captivity, and an end is put to the 
 
 kingdom of Israel 721. 
 
 KINGDOM OF JUDAH. 
 
 Shishak, king of Egypt, takes Jerusalem, and pil- 
 lages the temple 971 
 
 Abijah defeats the king of Israel ; 50,000 men are 
 slain in battle 957 
 
 Asa defeats the Ethiopians ; abolishes idolatry . 941 
 
 Jehoshaphat orders the lawto be taught, 912 ; defeats 
 the Ammonites, &c 896" 
 
 Usurpation and death of Athaliah .... 884 
 
 Hazael desolates Judah 857 
 
 Pekah, king of Israel, lays siege to Jerusalem ; 
 120,000 of the men of Judah are slain in one day 741 
 
 Hezekiah abolishes idolatry 726 
 
 Sennacherib invades Judea, but the destroying angel 
 enters the camp of the Assyrians, and in one night 
 destroys 185,000 of them 710. 
 
 Holofernes said to have been killed at the siege of 
 Bethulia by Judith 656 
 
 In repairing the temple, Hilkiah discovers the book 
 of the law, and Josiah keeps a solemn Passover . 624 
 
 Nebuchadnezzar subjugates Judea .... 605. 
 
 He takes Jerusalem after a long siege .... 588. 
 
 Jerusalem fired, the temple burnt, the walls razed 
 to the ground 587" 
 
 KINGS. PROPHETS. 
 
 Saul began to reign .... B.C. "1095 Samuel. 
 David, king of Judah, 1055 ; of all Israel, 1048 Nathan. 
 Solomon ,, .... 1015 
 
 B.C. 
 
 975 
 958 
 955 
 953 
 930, 
 929. 
 925 
 918 
 914. 
 897 
 
 Kings of Judah. 
 Rehoboam . 
 Abijah . 
 Asa 
 
 Jehoshaphat 
 
 Jehoram 
 Ahaziah 
 Athaliah 
 Joash or Jehoahaz 
 
 Kings of Israel 
 Jeroboam I. 
 
 Nadab (954) 
 Baasha ,, . 
 Elah „ 
 Zimri . 
 Omri 
 Ahab . 
 
 Ahaziah 
 Jehoram or Joram 
 
 Amaziah 
 
 Jehoahaz. 
 Jehoash (841) 
 Jeroboam II. . 
 
 Uzziah or Azariah 
 
 . Anarchy 
 . Zeohariah. 
 
 Ahijah. 
 
 Azariah. 
 Hanani. 
 Jehu. 
 
 Elijah. 
 
 Elisha. 
 JahazieL 
 
 Jonah, 
 j Hosea. 
 1 Amos. 
 
JEWS. 
 
 378 
 
 JEWS. 
 
 KINGS. PROPHETS. 
 
 B.c. Kingsof Jadah. Kings of Israel. 
 
 772 . DsziahorAzariah {^SSSk 
 761. „ ,, . Fekahiali. 
 
 759. ,, ,, . Pekah. 
 
 . T ,, ( Isaiah &, 
 
 758. Jotham . . . „ . . . . •[ >lica]l 
 
 742. Ahaz . . . ,, 
 
 730. „ . . . Hoshea. 
 
 726. Hezekiah . . [Captivity, 721.] Xahuni. 
 
 698. Manasseh. 
 
 643. Anion Jeremiah. 
 
 641. Josiah Zephaniah 
 
 ( Jehoahaz ) 
 610. -j (Shallum). !• Habakkuk 
 
 ( Jehoiakim. ) 
 
 Pjehoiachin ) Daniel. 
 
 599. < (Coniali), > _ , . , 
 
 ( Zedekiah j Ezekiel. 
 
 BABYLONISH CAPTIVITY. 
 
 Daniel prophesies at Babylon . . . .b.c. 603 
 Shadraeh, Meshach, and Abed-nego, refusing to wor- 
 ship the golden image, are cast into a tiery fur- 
 nace, but are delivered by the angel . . . 587 
 
 Obadiah prophesies ,, 
 
 Daniel declares the meaning of the handwriting 
 against Belshazzar ; cast into the lion's den ; pro- 
 phesies the return from captivity, and the coming 
 of the Messiah 538 
 
 RETURN FROM CAPTIVITY. 
 
 Cyrus, sovereign of all Asia, publishes an edict for 
 the return of the Jews and rebuilding of the 
 
 temple 536 
 
 Haggai and Zeehariah prophets .... 520 
 The second temple finished . . 10 March, 515 
 
 The Jews delivered from Hainan by Esther . . 510 
 Ezra, the priest, arrives in Jerusalem to reform 
 
 abuses 458 
 
 Here begin the 70 weeks of years predicted by 
 Daniel, being 490 years before the crucifixion of 
 
 the Redeemer 457 
 
 The walls of Jerusalem built 445 
 
 Malachi the prophet 415 
 
 .[The Scripture history of the Jews ends, according 
 to Euscbius, in 442 b.c. ; and from this time Jo- 
 sephus and the Roman historians give the best 
 account of the Jews.] 
 Alexander the Great marches against Jerusalem to 
 besiege it, but, it is said, on seeing Jaddus, the 
 high-priest, clad in his robes, he declares he had 
 seen such a figure in Macedonia, inviting him to 
 Asia, and promising to deliver the Persian empire 
 into his hands ; he goes to the temple, and offers 
 sacrifices to the God of the Jews .... 332 
 Jerusalem taken by Ptolemy Soter . . . . 320 
 Ptolemy Philadelphia said to employ 72 Jews to 
 
 translate the Scriptures 277 
 
 The Sadducee sect formed 250 
 
 Jews massacred at Alexandria 216 
 
 Antiochus takes Jerusalem, pillages the temple, and 
 
 slay's 40,000 of the inhabitants .... 170 
 Government of the Maccabees begins . . . . 166 
 Treaty with the Romans ; the first on record with 
 
 the Jews 161 
 
 Judas Hyreanus Aristobulus assumes the title of 
 
 " king of the Jews " 107 
 
 Alexander Jamueus suppresses a rebellion of Phari- 
 sees cruelly 86 
 
 Jerusalem taken by the Roman legions under 
 
 Pompey 63 
 
 The temple plundered by Orassus .... 54 
 Antipater made intendant of Judsea by Julius 
 
 Ciesar 49 
 
 Herod, son of Antipater, marries Mariamne, grand- 
 daughter of the high priest 42 
 
 Invasion of the Parthians 40 
 
 Herod employs the aid of the senate ; they decree 
 
 him to be the king ,, 
 
 Jerusalem taken by Herod and the Roman general 
 
 Sosius 37 
 
 Herod kills Mariamne, 29 ; rebuilds the temple 29-18 
 
 Jesus Christ born 4 
 
 Pontius Pilate is made procurator of Judea, a.d. 26 
 John the Baptist begins to preach ... ,, 
 Christ's ministry and miracles, 27-33 ; his cruci- 
 fixion and resurrection .33 
 
 The Jews persecuted for refusing to worship Cali- 
 gula A.D. 38 
 
 Receive the right of Roman citizenship . . . 41 
 Claudius banishes Jews from Rome ... 50 
 
 Invasion of Vespasian 68 
 
 Jews settle at Merida, Spain 69 
 
 Titus takes Jerusalem ; the city and temple sacked 
 
 and burnt, and 1,100,000 of the Jews perish, 8Sept. 70 
 Targum of Onkelo smitten about . . . . 100 
 Adrian rebuilds Jerusalem (calling it /Elia Capito- 
 
 lina), and erects a temple to Jupiter . . . 130 
 Rebellion of Bar-chobab, 131 ; final desolation of 
 
 Judea i35- x 36 
 
 More than 580,000 of the Jews are slain by the 
 
 Romans 135-136 
 
 Jews favoured by Antoninus Pius ; college of Jam- 
 
 nia opened 13S 
 
 The Mischna(see Talmud) written by Rabbi Judah, 
 
 the prince 141 
 
 The Jews favoured by Severus, 196 ; by Constan- 
 tine, 310 ; by Julian, 363 ; persecuted by Constans 353 
 
 Jews massacred at Alexandria 415 
 
 The Babylonian Talmud completed .... 504 
 
 Jerusalem taken by Omar 655 
 
 Jews first mentioned in English chronicles . . 740 
 Jewish college founded at Cordova . . . . 948 
 
 Talmud translated into Arabic 1006 
 
 Jews said to be banished from England by Canute 1020 
 Polygamy in Christian countries prohibited by the 
 
 Jewish synod at Worms 1030 
 
 Jews return to England 1066 
 
 The Jews massacred in London, on the coronation 
 
 day of Richard I., at the instigation of the priests 1189 
 500 Jews besieged in York castle by the mob, cut 
 
 each other's throats to avoid their fury . . 1190 
 Jews of both sexes imprisoned ; their eyes or teeth 
 plucked out, and numbers inhumanly butchered, 
 
 by king John 1204 
 
 The Rabbi Moses Maimonides died . . . . ,, 
 700 Jews are slain in London, a Jew having forced a 
 Christian to pay him more than 2s. per week as 
 interest on a loan of 20s. (Stow.) . . . . 1262 
 Statute that no Jew should enjoy a freehold . . 1269 
 Every Jew lending money on interest compelled to 
 wear a plate on his breast, signifying that he was 
 a usurer, or to quit the realm. (Stow.) . . . 1274 
 267 Jews hanged and quartered, accused of clipping 
 
 coin 1278 
 
 All Jews (16,511) banished from England, (llapin.) 1290 
 Much pillaged and persecuted in France during the 
 
 14th and 15th centuries. 
 A fatal distemper raging in Europe ; they are sus- 
 pected of having poisoned the springs, and num- 
 bers are massacred. (Lenglet.) . . . . 1348 
 Jews banished from Spain, Portugal, and France 
 (considered by them as great a calamity as the 
 destruction of Jerusalem) .... 1492-94 
 Edicts against Jews rescinded by pope Sixtus V. . 1585 
 
 Jews favoured in Holland 1603 
 
 After having been banished England 370 years, they 
 
 are permitted to return by Cromwell . . . 1650 
 Who giants a pension to Manasseh Ben Israel . 1655 
 
 First Portuguese synagogue, King-street, Duke's- 
 
 place, erected 1656 
 
 Statute to compel them to maintain their protestant 
 
 children enacted 1702 
 
 Jews acquire right to possess land in England . . 1723 
 Bill to naturalise the professors of the Jewish reli- 
 gion in Ireland (where 200 Jews then resided) 
 refused the royal assent ..... 1746 
 Statute to naturalise them in England passed . . 1753 
 Repealed on the petition of all the cities . . . 1754 
 The Jews of Spain, Portugal, and Avignon are de- 
 clared to be citizens of France 1790 
 
 Sitting of the great Sanhedrim of Paris convened by 
 the emperor Napoleon . . . .18 Sept. 1806 
 
 Jews' hospital, London, founded „ 
 
 London society for promoting Christianity among 
 
 the Jews established 1808 
 
 Jews' free school, Spitalfields, Loudon, established 1817 
 Alexander of Russia grants land on the sea of Azoph 
 
 to converted Jews .... 1 Sept. 1820 
 The brothers Rothschild made barons of the Aus- 
 trian empire 1822 
 
 Jews' orphan asylum founded 1831 
 
 Mr. David Salomons elected sheriff of London (the 
 first Jewish one) ; an act passed to enable him to 
 act 24 June, 1835 
 
JEWS. 
 
 379 
 
 JOHN'S GATE, ST. 
 
 Bill for Jewish emancipation in England lost on the 
 second reading by a majority in the commons, 228 
 
 against 165 17 May, 1836 
 
 Moses Monteflore, esq., elected sheriff of London, 
 and knighted hy the queen, being the first Jew on 
 whom that honour has been conferred . 9 Nov. 1837 
 Ukase of the emperor of Russia, permitting the title 
 of citizen of the first class to be held by any Jew 
 who renders himself worthy of it . . . . 1839 
 Owing to the disappearance of a Greek priest, a per- 
 secution of the Jews began at Damascus (see Da- 
 mascus) 1 Feb. 1840 
 
 Jewish mission to the East under sir Moses Monte- 
 
 fiore 1840 
 
 Congregation of British Jews formed (sec bdow) 1 840-1 
 Act to relieve Jews elected to municipal offices from 
 
 taking oaths, (fee, 9 Vict 1846 
 
 Baron Lionel de Rothschild returned to Parliament 
 for the city of London by a majority of 6619 votes ; 
 his opponent, lord John Manners, polling only 
 
 3104 3 July, 1849 
 
 Alderman Salomons elected member for Greenwich, 
 
 28 June, 1851 
 
 Neither permitted to sit ,, 
 
 The Jews' Oaths of Abjuration bill passed the house 
 
 of commons 3 July, 1851 
 
 Baron Rothschild again returned for the city of 
 London at the general elections, July, 1852 ; 
 March, 1857 ; July, 1857 J an d ■ ■ ■ J lli y> z ^5 
 Violent outbreak against the Jews in Stockholm, 
 
 3 Sept. 1852 
 The Jewish Oath bill passed in commons, 15 April; 
 
 thrown out in the lords ... 29 April, 1853 
 Alderman Salomons the first Jewish lord mayor of 
 
 London 9 Nov. 1855 
 
 The Jewish Oath bill several times passed 111 the 
 
 commons and thrown out in the lords . . 1854-7 
 Edgar Mortara, a Jewish child, forcibly taken from 
 his parents by order of the archbishop of Bologna, 
 on the plea of having been baptized when an in- 
 fant by a Roman Catholic maid-servant 24 June, 1858 
 An act passed enabling Jews to sit in parliament by 
 
 resolution of the house .... July, ,, 
 Baron Lionel de Rothschild takes his seat as M.P. 
 
 for London 26 July, ,, 
 
 To commemorate this event he endowed a scholar- 
 ship in the City of London School . . . . ,, 
 The French government having in vain urged Mor- 
 tara's restoration to his parents, sir Moses Monte- 
 flore proceeds to Rome (but obtains no redress), 
 
 22 Dec. „ 
 Alderman Salomons elected M.P. for Greenwich ; 
 
 baron Meyer de Rothschild for Hythe . 15 Feb. 1859 
 Protest resxoecting the seizure of the boy Mortara 
 signed at London by the abp. of Canterbury, and 
 bishops, noblemen, and gentlemen, sent to the 
 French ambassador, Oct. ; and presented to lord 
 
 John Russell Nov. ,, 
 
 Oppressive laws against the Jews in the Austrian 
 
 empire annulled 6, 10 Jan. i860 
 
 Act passed permitting Jewish M. P. 's to omit from 
 the oath the words " on the faith of a Christian," 
 
 6 Aug. „ 
 Additional political privileges granted to the Jews 
 
 in Russia, 26 Jan. ; and in Poland . June, 1862 
 Jews persecuted at Rome .... Dec. 1864 
 Alderman Benjamin Samuel Phillips, second Jewish 
 
 lord mayor 9 Nov. 1865 
 
 Persecution of Jews at Bucharest reported, July, 1866 
 A synagogue at Berlin, said to be the largest and 
 
 most beautiful in the world, consecrated, 5 Sept. ,, 
 Jewish emancipation bill, Hungary, received royal 
 
 assent 29 Dee. 1867 
 
 Benjamin Disraeli, of Jewish extraction, premier of 
 
 England 29 Feb, 1868 
 
 Jews' synagogue at Barnsbury, London, N., founded 
 by baron F. Rothschild, 24 Dec. 1867, consecrated 
 
 29 March, ,, 
 Jews permitted to return to Spain . . . Oct. „ 
 Jewish congress at Pesth opened by the minister of 
 
 public worship, Ebtvos ... 14 Dec. „ 
 
 It closes and presents the new statutes to the 
 
 ministers 25 Feb. 1869 
 
 Jewish reform convention at Philadelphia, U.S., 
 
 alterations in rituals, &c. , resolved on . Oct. ,, 
 Alfred Davis, a Jew, a munificent benefactor of 
 
 education, Jewish and Christian, died 7 Jan. 1870 
 
 New central synagogue in Great Portland-st., W., 
 
 founded by baron Rothschild, 18 March, 1869 ; 
 consecrated 7 April, 1870 
 
 " Hebrew Literature Society" established in London 
 
 29 June, ,, 
 
 Anglo-Jewish Association constituted for the moral, 
 social, and -intellectual progress of Jews (a branch 
 of the Universal Israelitish Alliance, whose 
 central seat is at Paris) . . . .2 July, ,, 
 
 The emperor of Brazil attended worship at the 
 West Central London synagogue . . 8 July, ,, 
 
 Jews permitted to work on Sundays by a Workshops 
 Act . . ■. „ 
 
 Society formed at Birmingham to resist proselytism ,, 
 
 Congregation of British Jeivs, formed in 1840 and 
 1841 by certain families of Spanish and German 
 Jews, for uniting two sections of the community, 
 diminishing the influence of Talmudism, and 
 simplifying the rituals — recognising the Mosaic - 
 scriptures as the only authority for faith and 
 practice, and rejecting the oral law, or Tahnudic 
 rabbins, as not binding on the consciences of re- 
 formed Jews. Their West London Synagogue in 
 Burton-street, opened 1 Jan. 1842 ; removed to 
 Margaret-street, Regent-street, 1849 ; superseded 
 by a magnificent synagogue, Berkeley-street, con- 
 secrated 22 Sept. 1870 
 
 A Jew made M. A. at Oxford (after the abolition of 
 tests) 22 June, 1871 
 
 JIHAD, or religious warfare against unbelievers, 
 although, inculcated in the Mohammedan law, was 
 prohibited by the iSheeahs, and only permitted by 
 the Sonnites in some cases , certainly not with 
 any nation with whom they had made a treaty of 
 peace. The Jihad was preached by fanatics in India 
 in 1871, and prohibited by government. 
 
 JOAN OF ARC, the maid of Orleans, born at 
 Domreniy, imagined that she had a divine commis- 
 mission to expel the English, who under the earl of 
 Salisbury were besieging Orleans. Charles VII. 
 entrusted her with the command of the French 
 troops, and she raised the siege, and entered Orleans 
 with supplies, 29 April, 1429 ; and the English, 
 who were before the place from 12 Oct. preceding, 
 abandoned the enterprise 8 May following. She 
 captured several towns in the possession of the 
 English, whom she defeated in a battle near Patay, 
 18 June, 1429. She was wounded several times 
 herself, but never shed any blood with her own 
 hand. She was taken at the siege of Compiegne, 
 23 May, 1430 ; and, after a trial, burnt for a witch 
 at Rouen, 31 May, 1431. A statue of Joan of Arc, 
 the work of the late princess Marie of France, was 
 inaugurated at Orleans, 13 Sept. 185 1, and the 
 435th anniversary of the deliverance of tbe city 
 was celebrated there on 14 May, 1865. See Patay. 
 
 JOCKEY CLUB, instituted in the reign of 
 George II, (1727-60) is mentioned in Heber's 
 " .Racing Calendar," 1758. Rules were made in. 
 1828, afterwards revised. See Races. 
 
 JOHN, ST., see Newfoundland, Cambridge, 
 and Oxford. 
 
 St. John's Night, or Midsummer eve, 23 June : bonfires 
 are still made in Ireland, and in some parts of Eng- 
 land, and thought to be the relic of a pagan custom — 
 resembling the Phoenician worship of Baal. 
 
 JOHN, ST., Knights of, see Malta. 
 
 The Knights of St. John (Johanniter Ritter), a Luthe- 
 ran order of high rank, founded by Frederick Wil- 
 liam III. of Prussia, 23 May, 1812, and reorganised 15 
 Oct. 1852. These knights co-operated witli the knights 
 of St. John of Malta and various other bodies in 
 rendering energetic assistance to the wounded during 
 the Franco-Prussian war, in 1870-1, and had an office 
 in London ; the duke of Manchester being a prior of the 
 order. 
 JOHN'S GATE, ST. (St. John's Square, 
 
 Clerkenwell, London), a fine vestige of monastic 
 
JOHN DOE. 
 
 380 
 
 JUDICATURE. 
 
 building, was the gate of the priory of St. John of 
 Jerusalem (suppressed in 1540), and was the place 
 where the Gentleman' s Magazine was first pub- 
 lished, 6 March, 1 731. The house was often visited 
 by Dr. Johnson, (iarrick, and their friends. 
 
 JOHN DOE AND RlCHARD Eoe, names 
 well known, as standing pledges for the prosecution 
 of suits. In early times real and substantial per- 
 sons were required to pledge themselves to answer 
 to the crown for an amercement or fine set upon 
 the plaintiff', for raising a false accusation, if he 
 brought an action without cause, or failed in it; 
 and in 1285, 13 Edw. I. sheriffs and bailiffs were, 
 before they made deliverance of the distress, to re- 
 ceive pledges for pursuing the suit, and for the 
 return of the property, if return were awarded. 
 But this becoming a matter of form, the fictitious 
 names of Doe and Roe were used until the form was 
 declared to be no longer necessary by the Common 
 Law Procedure Act, 1852. 
 
 JOHN O'GEOAT'S HOUSE, an ancient 
 house formerly situated on Duncan's Bay Head, 
 the most northerly point of Great Britain, deriving 
 its name from John of Groat, or Groot, and his 
 brothers, originally from Holland, said to have set- 
 tled here about 1489. 
 
 The house was of an octagon shape, being one room, with 
 eight windows and eight doors, to admit eight mem- 
 bers of the family, the heads of different brandies of it, 
 to prevent their quarrels for precedence at table. Each 
 came in by this contrivance at his own dour, and sat 
 at an octagon table, at which, of course, there was no 
 chief place or head. 
 
 JOHNSON'S CLUB, see Literary Club. 
 
 JOINT STOCK COMPANIES (good and 
 bad) have been very numerous during the present 
 century (especially in 1825, 1846, 1866, and 1872). 
 Many acts have been passed for their regulation; 
 the most important in 1844, 1855, 1857 and 1858. 
 An important act for the incorporation, regulation, 
 and winding-up of trading companies and other 
 associations passed in 1862, was amended in 1867 ; 
 see Companies, and Limited Liability. 
 
 JOURNALS, see Newspapers. 
 
 JOURNAL DES SAVANTS, see Reviews. 
 
 JOURNALS of the House of Commons, 
 
 commenced in 1547, first ordered to be printed in 
 1752, when 5000/. were allowed to Mr. Hardinge 
 for the execution of the work. The journals of the 
 House of Peeks (commencing 1509) were ordered 
 to be printed in 1767. 
 
 JUAN FERNANDEZ, an island in the 
 Pacific, named from its discoverer in 1567. Alexan- 
 der Selkirk, a native of Scotland, left on shore here 
 by his captain in Nov. 1704, and lived alone till he 
 was discovered by captain Rogers in 1709. He died 
 lieutenant of H. M.S. Weymouth, 1723. A monu- 
 ment to his memory was erected on the island in 
 1868, then colonised by Germans. From his nar- 
 rative De Foe is said to have derived his Adventures 
 of Robinson Crusoe, first published in 17 19. 
 
 JUAN, SAN, a small island, near Vancouver's 
 island. The possession of this island, on account of its 
 commanding the straits between British Columbia and 
 the United States territories, led to disputes between 
 the two countries, owing to the doubtful interpre- 
 tation of the treaty of Washington respecting the 
 boundaries, 12-June, 1846. See United States, 1859 
 and i860. The matter (by the treaty of Washing- 
 ton, 8 May, 187 1) was referred for arbitration to 
 
 the emperor of Germany, who decided in favour 
 of the United States, Oct. 1872. The isle was 
 evacuated by the British 22 Nov. following. 
 
 JUBILEES. The Jews were commanded to 
 celebrate a jubilee every fifty years, 1491 B.C. 
 {Lew. xxv. 8.) Among the Christians a jubilee 
 every century was instituted by pope Boniface VIII. 
 in the year 1300. It was ordered to be celebrated 
 every fifty years by pope Clement VI. ; and by 
 Urban VI. every thirty-third year; and by Six- 
 tus V. every twenty-fifth year. 
 
 National jubilee in England on account of 
 George III. entering the 50th year of his reign, 
 
 25 Oct. 1809 
 
 Jubilee in celebration of the general peace, and of 
 the centenary of the accession of the Brunswick 
 family 1 Aug. 1814 
 
 Shakspeare's Jubilee, projected by David Garrick, 
 was celebrated at Shakspeare's birth-place, 
 Stratford-on-Avon . . . . 6, 7, 8 Sept. 1769 
 
 A Shakspeare festival at Stratford . . 23 April, 1836 
 
 A Shakspeare festival at Stratford . 23 April, 1865 
 
 The Scott centenary celebrated (he was 'born 15 
 Aug. 1771) 9 Aug. 1871 
 
 International musical jubilee at Boston, U.S., (see 
 Boston) 17 June -4 July, 1872 
 
 JUDAH, see Jews. 
 
 JUDGE ADVOCATE GENERAL, and 
 
 judge martial of all the forces, an ancient office, 
 held by patent from the crown. He is the legal 
 adviser of the commander-in-chief in military cases, 
 and by his authority all general courts martial are 
 held. An advocate-general accompanied the army 
 to France in 1625, and the office was constituted 
 soon after the restoration. Dr. Samuel Barrowe 
 was appointed 1666. Sir Colman O'Loghlen, who 
 succeeded Mr. John Robert Mowbray, Dec. 1868, 
 resigned Nov. 1870. Mr. John R. Davison, Q.C., 
 appointed Dec. 1870; died 15 April, 1871. Since 
 then the duties of the office have been performed by 
 sir Robert Phillimore, judge of the admiralty court. 
 
 JUDGES appointed by God, when the Israelites 
 were in bondage, ruled from 1402 B.C. till the elec- 
 tion of Saul as king, 1095 > see J ews i Chancellors, 
 Justices, Circuits, Lords Justices, Vice- Chancellors, 
 and Privy Councils. 
 
 Judges punished for bribery and Thomas de Wey- 
 land banished 1289 
 
 William de Thorp hanged for bribery . . . 1351 
 
 John de Cavendish beheaded by the Suffolk rebels, 1381 
 
 Tresylian, chief justice, executed for favouring 
 despotism, and other judges condemned . . . 1388 
 
 The prince of Wales said to have been committed 
 by judge Gascoigne for assaulting him on the 
 bench 1412 
 
 Sir Thos. More, late lord chancellor, beheaded, 
 
 6 July, 1535 
 
 Judges threatened with impeachment, and Berkeley 
 taken off the bench and committed by the com- 
 mons, on a charge of treason . . 13 Feb. 1641 
 
 Three judges impeached for favouring the levying 
 ship-money 1680 
 
 Judge Jefferies committed by the lord mayor to the 
 Tower, where he died 1689 
 
 The judge's office made tenable for life (during good 
 behaviour) instead of during the pleasure of the 
 crown by 13 Will. III. e. 2 1702 
 
 Their commissions made permanent, notwith- 
 standing the demise of the crown (by 1 Geo. III. 
 c 23) 1761 
 
 Three additional judges appointed, one to each law 
 court, 1784; and again in 1830 
 
 A new judge took his seat as vice-chancellor, 5 May, 18 13 
 
 Two new vice-chancellors appointed . . . 1841 
 
 A third vice-chancellor and two new chancery 
 judges (styled lords-justices) appointed . . . 1851 
 
 JUDICATURE, see Law. 
 
JUDICIAL COMMITTEE. 
 
 381 
 
 JURIES. 
 
 JUDICIAL COMMITTEE or the Peivy 
 COUNCIL, see Privy Council. 
 
 JUDICIAL SEPARATION of married per- 
 sons may now be decreed by the Divorce Court, 
 established by act of parliament in 1857. The 
 persons separated may not marry again. 
 
 JUGGERNAUT, or " Lord of the World," 
 one of the incarnations of Krishna, is an idol 
 formed of an irregular pyramidal black stone, with 
 two rich diamonds to represent eyes ; the nose and 
 mouth are painted vermilion. The number of 
 pilgrims that visit the god is stated at 1,200,000 
 annually. Formerly some were crushed by the 
 wheels of the car (so lately as Aug. 1864) ; a great 
 many never returned, and, to the distance of fifty 
 miles, the way was strewed with human bones. 
 The temple of Juggernaut has existed about 800 
 years. The state allowance to the temple was sus- 
 pended by the Indian government in June, 1851. 
 The festival was kept, June, 1872. 
 
 ; JUGURTHINE WAR. Jugurtha murdered 
 his cousin, Hiempsal, king of Numidia, and usurped 
 his throne, 118 B.C. He gave him a share in the 
 government, but killed him in 112. He then pro- 
 voked the Komans to war. Csecilius Metellus was 
 first sent against him, and defeated him in two bat- 
 tles; and Marius brought him in chains to Rome to 
 adorn his triumph, 106 B.C., where he was put to 
 death in 104. This war has been immortalised by 
 the pen of Sallust. 
 
 JULIAN PERIOD (by Joseph Scaliger, about 
 1583), a term of years produced by the multiplica- 
 tion of the lunar cycle 19, solar cycle 28, and Roman 
 indiction 15. It consists of 7980 years, and began 
 47 r 3 years before our era. It has been employed in 
 computing time to avoid the ambiguity attendant 
 on reckoning any period antecedent to our era, an 
 advantage in common with the mundane eras used 
 at different times. By subtracting 4713 from the 
 Julian period, our era is found; if before Christ, 
 subtract the Julian period from 4714. For Julian 
 era, see Calendar, and Year. 
 
 JULIERS, a Prussian province; made a duchy 
 in 1356 ; became the subject of contention on the 
 extinction of the ruling family in 1609 ; was allotted 
 to Neuburg in 1659 ; seized by the French in 1794; 
 and ceded to Prussia in 1815. 
 
 JULY, the seventh, originally fifth, Roman 
 month, named by Marc Antony from Julius Cassar, 
 the dictator of Rome, who was born in it. 
 
 JUNE, the sixth month, owes its name to 
 Junius, which some derive from Juno, and others 
 from Juniores, this being the month for the young, 
 as May was for aged persons. Ovid, in his Fasti, 
 introduces Juno as claiming this month. 
 
 JUNIUS' S LETTERS hegan in the Public 
 .Advertiser, 21 Jan. 1796. 
 
 They have been ascribed to Mr. Burke, Mr. William 
 Gerard Hamilton, commonly called Single-speech Hamil- 
 ton, John Wilkes, Mr. Dunning (afterwards lord Ash- 
 burton), serjeant Adair, the rev. J. Eosenhagen, John 
 Eoberts, Charles Lloyd, Samuel Dyer, general Lee, the 
 duke of Portland, Hugh Boyd, lord George Sackville, 
 and sir Philip Francis. The last-named is generally 
 considered to have been the author. Junius said, " I 
 am the depository of my own secret, and it shall perish 
 with me." The work of Mr. Chabot and hon. E. T. B. 
 Twisleton was considered decisive of sir Philip Francis 
 being Junius, May, 1871. 
 
 JUNKER PARTY {Junker, German for 
 young noble), a term applied to the aristocratic 
 
 party in Prussia, which came into power under 
 Otho von Bismarck-Schonhausen, appointed prime 
 minister, 9 Oct. 1862. Their political organ is the 
 Kreuz-Zeitung. 
 
 JUNO, the planet discovered by M. Harding, of 
 Lilienthal near Bremen, 1 Sept. 1804. Its distance 
 from the sun is 254 millions of miles, and it ac- 
 complishes its revolution in four years and 128 
 days, at the rate of nearly 42,000 miles an hour. Its 
 diameter is estimated by German astronomers at 
 1424 English miles. 
 
 JUNONIA, festivals in honour of Juno, cele- 
 brated at Rome, and instituted 431 B.C. 
 
 JUNTA. The Spanish provincial juntas or 
 councils declared against the French in 1808, and 
 incited the people to insurrection. 
 
 JUPITER, known as a planet to the Chaldeans, 
 it is said, 3000 B.C. The discovery of the satellites, 
 incorrectly attributed to Simon Mayr (Marius) in 
 1609, was made by Galileo on 8 Jan. 1610; see 
 Planets. Jupiter's moons were all invisible on 
 21 Aug. 1867 ; a very rare occurrence. — Jupiter 
 Ammon's celebrated temple in Libya was visited by 
 Alexander, 332 B.C. Cambyses' army sent against 
 this temple perished miserably, 525 B.C. 
 
 JURIDICAL SOCIETY was established in 
 Feb. 1855, and opened with an address by sir R. 
 Bethell on 12 May following. 
 
 JURIES. Trial by jury was introduced into 
 England during the Saxon heptarchy, mention 
 being made of six Welsh and six Anglo-Saxon 
 freemen appointed to try causes between the English 
 and Welsh men of property, and made responsible, 
 with their whole estates real and personal, for false 
 verdicts. Lambard. By most authorities their 
 institution is ascribed to Alfred about 886. In 
 Magna Charta, juries are insisted on as the great 
 bulwark of the people's liberty. When either 
 party is an alien born, the jury shall be one half 
 denizens, and the other half aliens, stat. 28 Edw. 
 ?U; 1353- Bv tlie common law a prisoner upon 
 indictment or appeal might challenge peremptorily 
 thirty-five, being under three juries ; but a lord of 
 parliament, and a peer of the realm, who is to be 
 tried by his peers, cannot challenge any of his 
 peers. An act for the trial by jury in civil cases in 
 Scotland was passed in 1815. An act to consolidate 
 and amend the laws relating to juries in Ireland 
 was passed 4 Will. IV. 1833. A new act respecting 
 juries, regulating their payment, &c, was passed 
 9 Aug. 1870. The clause respecting their payment 
 was rescinded by act' passed 28 Feb. 1871. Laws 
 respecting juries in Ireland amended, 14 Aug, 1871. 
 New Juries bill brought in by the attorney-general, 
 sir John Coleridge, Feb. 1873. Juries are sum- 
 moned to assist the coroner in investigating the 
 causes of sudden or violent death — Grand Juries 
 (of not less than 12 or more than 23 persons), decide 
 whether sufficient evidence is adduced to put the 
 accused on trial. — The constitution of 1791 esta- 
 blished the trial by jury in France. — An imperial 
 decree abolished trial by jury throughout the Aus- 
 trian empire, 15 Jan. 1852. — Trial by jury began 
 in Russia, 8 Aug. 1866. 
 
 Coebcion of Juries. — About the year 927, the plain- 
 tiff and defendant used to feed the jury empanelled in 
 their action, and hence arose the common law of denying 
 sustenance to a jury after the hearing of the evidence. 
 A jury may be detained during the pleasure of the judge 
 if they cannot agree upon a verdict ; and may be con- 
 fined without meat, drink, or fire, candle light excepted, 
 till they are unanimous. - -Some jurors have been fined 
 for having fruit in their pockets, when they were with- 
 
JUSTE MILIEU. 
 
 382 
 
 KAINARDJI. 
 
 drawn to consider of their verdiet, though they did not 
 eat it. Leon. Dyer, 137. A jury at Sudbury not being 
 able to agree, and having been some time under duress, 
 forcibly Broke from the courtwhere theywere locked up, 
 
 and went home, 9 Oct. 1791. Phillip*. In Scotland, 
 Guernsey, Jersey, and France, juries decide by a ma- 
 jority ; in Prance, since 1831, a majority of two-thirds is 
 required. 
 
 " JUSTE MILIEU," according to Louis- 
 Philippe (in 1830), is the only principle of govern- 
 ment which can secure the welfare of France. 
 
 JUSTICES OF THE PEACE are unpaid local 
 magistrates, invested with extensive powers in 
 minor cases, hut subject to suppression and punish- 
 ment by the King's Bench for an abuse of their 
 authority. They were first nominated by Wil- 
 liam I. in 1076. Stow. Persons termed conserva- 
 tors of the peace in each county were appointed by 
 1 Edw. III. c. 2, 1327 ; and their duties were 
 defined in 1360. The form of a commission of the 
 peace settled by the judges, 23 Eliz. 1580. Haw- 
 kins ; see Eyre. 
 
 JUSTICES, LORDS, were appointed by 
 English sovereisns to govern during their absence ; 
 especially by William III., and George I. and II. 
 (1695-1760). George III. never left England. In 
 Sept. 1824, when George IV. went to Hanover, 
 lords justices were appointed, the duke of York 
 being the first. No such appointment has been 
 made during the present reign, it having been 
 decided by the law authorities in 1843 to be un- 
 necessary when the queen went to France. Ireland 
 was sometimes temporarily ruled by lords justices. 
 — Two lords justices of the court of appeal in 
 chancer}/, having rank next after the chief baron 
 of the exchequer, were appointed from 1 Oct. 185 1, 
 salary 6000Z. 
 
 1851. 
 
 Sir James 
 
 7 Nov. 1 
 
 L. Knight-Brace, resigned Oct. died 
 
 Robert lord Cranworth (afterwards lord chan- 
 cellor). 
 1853. Sir George Jas. Turner, Jan., died, q July, 1867. 
 
 1866. Sir Hugh M. Cairns, 29 Oct., became lord-chau- 
 
 cellor, 29 Feb. 1868. 
 
 1867. Sir John Rolt, July ; resigned Feb. 1868. 
 
 1868. Sir Charles Jasper Selwyn, 8 Feb., died 11 Aug. 
 
 i860. 
 ,, Sir William Page Wood, March ; lord-chancellor, 
 2 Nov. 
 
 1869. Sir George M. Giffard, Dec, died 13 July, 1870. 
 
 1870. Sir William M. James, June. 
 „ Sir William Mellish, July. 
 
 JUSTICIARS. In ancient times the kings of 
 England used to hear and determine causes; but it 
 is declared by law that if the king cannot deter- 
 mine every controversy, he, to ease himself, may 
 divide the labour among persons, men of wisdom 
 and fearing God, and out of such to appoint judges. 
 The Saxon kings of England appointed a judge 
 after this manner, who was, in fact the king's 
 deputy. After the Norman conquest, the penan 
 invested with that power had the style of Capitalis 
 Justicia, or Justiciarius Anr/licc. These judges 
 continued until the erection of the courts of king's 
 bench and the common pleas. The first justiciars 
 of England were Odo, bishop of Bayeux, and 
 William Fitz-Osborne, in 1067; and the last was 
 Philip Basset, in 1261, or Hugh le Despencer, 1263 
 (Henry III). Authorities vary. 
 
 JUSTICIARY, COURT OF, see Court of 
 Justiciar//. 
 
 JUSTINIAN CODE compiled by a commis- 
 sion appointed by the emperor Justinian I. Feb. 528, 
 wherein was written what may be termed the 
 statute law (scattered through 2000 volumes re- 
 duced to fifty). It was promulgated, April, 529. 
 To this code Justinian added the Digest or Pan- 
 dects, the Institutes, and Novels, promulgated 
 16 Nov. 534. These compilations have since been 
 called, collectively, the body of civil law {Corpus 
 Juris Civ His). 
 
 JUTE, the fibres of two plants, the chonch and 
 isbund (Corchorus olitorius and Corchorus cap- 
 sular is), since 1830 extensively cultivated in 
 Bengal for making gunnycloth, &c. Jute has been 
 much manufactured at Dundee as a substitute for 
 flax, tow, &c, and in July, 1862, assertions were 
 made that it could be employed as a substitute for 
 cotton. In 1853, 275,578 cwt., in" 1861, 904.092 
 cwt., and in 1871. 3,4^4,386 cwt. of undressed 
 jute were imported into the united kingdom. 
 
 JUTLAND (Denmark), the home of the Jutes 
 who settled in our southern counties. South Jut- 
 land was taken by the allies in 1813, and restored 
 in 1 8 14. 
 
 JUVENILE OFFENDERS. In 1838, an 
 
 act was passed for instituting n prison for instruct- 
 ing and correcting juvenile offenders, and the mili- 
 tary hospital at Parkhurstin the Isle of Wight, was 
 appropriated for this purpose. An act for their 
 committal to reformatories was passed in 1854. 
 
 K. 
 
 KAABA, see Caaba. 
 
 KABYLES, see Algiers. 
 
 KADSEAH, see Parsees. 
 
 KAFFRARIA, an extensive country in S. 
 Africa, extending from the north of Cape Colony to 
 the Orange river. Our war with the natives began 
 in 1798. 
 
 The Kaffirs, headed by Mokanna, a prophet, attack 
 Grahamstown ; repiilsed with much slaughter . 1819 
 
 Again defeated, 1828, 1831 1834 
 
 The Kaffirs rise ; sir Harry Smith, the governor, pro- 
 claims martial law, and orders the inhabitants 
 to rise en masse for the defence of the frontier, 
 
 31 Dec. T850 
 
 Disastrous operations against the Kaffirs in the 
 Waterkloeff follow, and colonel Fordyce and seve- 
 ral officers and men of the 74th regiment are killed 
 
 6 Nov. 1851 
 
 Wreck of the Birkenhead with reinforcements from 
 England (see Birkenhcrtd) ... 26 Feb. 1852 
 
 The hostilities of the Kaffirs having assumed all 
 the features of regular warfare, the governor- 
 general, Catheart, attacked and defeated them, 
 
 20 Dec. ,, 
 
 The conditions offered by Catheart accepted, and 
 peace restored 9 March, 1853 
 
 KAGOSIMA, see Japan, 1863. 
 
 KAINARDJI, (Bulgaria). Here a treaty was 
 signed, 1774, between the Turks and Kussians, 
 
KALAFAT. 
 
 383 
 
 KENNINGTON COMMON. 
 
 which opened the Black Sea, and gave the Crimea 
 to the latter. 
 
 KALAFAT, on the Danube, opposite the 
 fortress of "Widden. This place was fortified by the 
 Turks under Omer Pacha when they crossed the 
 river, 28 Oct. 1853. In December, prince Gort- 
 schakoff, with the Russian army, determined to 
 storm their intrenchments. The conflict lasted from 
 31 ;Dec. to 9 Jan. 1854, when the Russians were 
 compelled to retire. Among these conflicts one 
 occurred at Citate, 6 Jan. ; see Citate. Kalafat 
 was invested 28 Jan. and general Schilders attacked 
 it vigorously on 19 April, without success, and the 
 blockade was raised 21 April. 
 
 KALEIDOSCOPE, an optical instrument, 
 which, by an arrangement of mirrors, produces a 
 symmetrical reflection of vaiious transparent sub- 
 stances placed between, was invented by Dr. (after- 
 wards sir David) Brewster, of Edinburgh ; it was 
 suggested in 1814, and perfected in 1817; see 
 Debusscope. 
 
 KALITSCH (Poland) . Here the Russians de- 
 feated the Swedes, 19 Nov. 1706, and here the 
 Saxons, under the French general, Reynier, were 
 beaten by the Russians under Winzingerode, 
 13 Feb. 1813. 
 
 KALI YUGH, see Call Tugh. 
 
 KALMAE, see Calmar. 
 
 KALMUCK, see Tartar. 
 
 KALUNGA FOET (E. Indies), attacked un- 
 successfully by the British forces, and general 
 Gillespie killed, 31 Oct. 1814 ; and again unsuccess- 
 fully, 25 Nov. It was evacuated by the Nepaulese, 
 30 Nov. same j^ear. 
 
 KAMTSCHATKA, a peninsula, E. coast of 
 Asia, was discovered by Morosco, a Cossack chief, 
 1690; taken possession of by Russia in 1697; arj -d 
 proved to be a peninsula by Behring in 1728. Four 
 months, commencing at our midsummer, may be 
 considered as the spring, summer, and autumn 
 here, the rest of the year being winter. The 
 amiable captain Clarke, a companion of captain 
 Cook, died in sight of Kamtschatka, 22 Aug. 1779, 
 and was buried in the town of St. Peter and Paul, 
 in the peninsula. 
 
 KAMPTULICOISr, a substance used for floor- 
 ing, patented by Elijah Galloway in 1843, and 
 manufactured since 1851, by Messrs. Tayler, 
 Harvey, and Co. It is composed of India-rubber 
 and cork, combined by masticating machines. 
 
 KANGAROOS, animals indigenous to Aus- 
 tralia (first seen by captain Cook, 22 June, 1770), 
 were bred at San Donato, the estate of prince 
 Demidoff, in 1853, and since. 
 
 KANSAS, a western state in N. America, 
 organised as a territory, 30 May, 1854 ; admitted 
 into the union, 29 Jan. 1861 ; and left open to 
 slavery, contrary to the Missouri Compromise ; see 
 Slavery in America. During greater part of 1855 
 this state was a scene of anarchy and bloodshed 
 through fruitless efforts to make it a slave state. 
 
 KAEEACK, see Carrack. 
 
 KAES, a town in Asiatic Turkey, captured by 
 the Russians under Paskiewich, 15 July, 1828. It 
 was defended by general Fenwick Williams, with 
 15,000 men, and with three months' provisions and 
 three days' ammunition, against the Russian general 
 Mouravieff, with an army of 40,000 infantry and 
 
 10,000 cavalry. The siege lasted from 18 June to 
 
 28 Nov. 1855. The sufferings of the garrison were- 
 very great from cholera and want of food. The 
 Russians made a grand assault on 29 Sept. but were 
 repulsed with the loss of above 6000 men, and the 
 garrison were overcome by famine alone. Sand- 
 with. Kars was restored to Turkey, Aug. 1856. 
 
 On accepting general Williams' proposal for surrender- 
 ing, general Mouravieff said :— " General Williams, you 
 have made yourself a name in history; and posterity 
 will stand amazed at the endurance, the courage, and. 
 the discipline which this siege has called forth in the 
 remains of an army. Let us arrange a capitulation that 
 will satisfy the demands of war, without disgracing 
 humanity." In 1856 the general was made a baronet, 
 with the title of sir William Fenwick Williams of Kars, 
 and granted a pension. 
 
 KATSBACH (Prussia) ; near this river the 
 Prussian general Bliicher defeated the French 
 under MacDonald and Ney, 26 Aug. 1813. He 
 received the title of prince of "Wahlstatt, the name 
 of a neighbouring village. 
 
 KEATING' S ACT, 18 & 19 Vict. c. 67 (1855) 
 relates to bills of exchange. 
 
 KEBLE COLLEGE (Oxford), founded in 
 memory of the rev. John Keble, author of the 
 " Christian Tear," born 25 April, 1792, died 
 
 29 March, 1866. The first stone of the building 
 was laid by the archbishop of Canterbury, 25 April, 
 1868 ; the building was dedicated, 23 June, 1870. 
 
 KEEPEE of the King's Conscience. 
 
 The early chancellors were priests, and out of their 
 supposed moral control of the king's mind grew 
 the idea of an equity court in contradistinction to 
 the law courts. A bill in chancery is a petition 
 through the lord chancellor to the king's conscience 
 for remedy in matters for which the king's common 
 law courts afford no redress. The keeper of the 
 king's conscience is therefore now the officer who 
 presides in the court of chancery; see Chancellor 
 and Lord Keeper. 
 
 KEEPEE (LOED) of the Great Seal 
 
 OF ENGLAND differed only from the lord chan- 
 cellor in. that the latter had letters patent, whereas 
 the lord keeper had none. Richard, a chaplain, 
 was the first keeper under Ranulph, in 11 16. The 
 two offices were made one by 5 Eliz. 1562. Cowell ; 
 see Chancellor. The office of lord keeper of the 
 great seal of Scotland was established in 1708, 
 after the union. 
 
 KENILWOETH CASTLE (Warwickshire), 
 was built about 1120, by Geoffrey de Clinton, whose 
 grandson sold it to Henry III. It was enlarged 
 and fortified by Simon de Montfort, to whom Henry 
 gave it as a marriage portion with his sister Eleanor. 
 Queen Elizabeth conferred it on her favourite, 
 Dudley, earl of Leicester. His entertainment of 
 the queen commenced 19 July, 1575, and cost the 
 earl daily wool. 
 
 After the battle of Evesham and defeat and death of 
 Simon de Montfort, by Prince Edward (afterwards 
 Edward I.) 1265, Montfort's younger son, Simon, shut 
 himself up in Kenilworth castle, which sustained a siege 
 for six months against the, royal forces of Henry III. , to 
 whom it at length surrendered. Upon this occasion was 
 issued the " Dictum de Kenilworth," or "ban of Kenil- 
 worth," enacting that all who had borne arms against 
 the king should pay him the value of their lands for 
 periods varying from 7 years to 6 months. 
 
 KENNINGTON COMMON (Surrey) . The 
 Chartist demonstration, 10 April, 1848, took place 
 on the common. It was directed to be laid out as a 
 public pleasure ground in 1852. 
 
KENSAL GREEN. 
 
 384 
 
 KHYBER PASS. 
 
 KENSAL GREEN, see Cemeteries. 
 
 KENSINGTON PALACE was purchased 
 hy William III., from lord chancellor Finch, who 
 made the road through its park. The gardens were 
 improved hy queens Mary, Anne, and Caroline, who 
 died here. Here died George, prince of Denmark, 
 and George II. ; and here queen Victoria was born, 
 24 May, 1819. In Aug. 1855, by permission of the 
 government, a military band played in Kensington 
 gardens on Sundays, in presence of about 60,000 
 persons. The practice was discontinued in 1856, 
 heing objected to by many persons; but bands were 
 ■ordered to play in other parks during the week. 
 The new parish church erected by sir Gilbert G. 
 Scott was consecrated, 14 May, 1872. 
 
 KENT, see Britain and Holy Maid. Odo, 
 hishop of Bayeux, brother of William the Con- 
 queror, was made earl of Kent, 1067 ; and Henry 
 Grey was made duke of Kent in 17 10 ; he died with- 
 out male heirs in 1740. Edward, son of George III., 
 was created duke of Kent in 1799, was father of 
 queen Victoria, and died 23 Jan. 1820; see England. 
 
 KENT, an Eastlndiaman, of 1350 tons burthen, 
 left the Downs, 19 Feb. 1825, bound for Bombay. 
 In the Bay of Biscay she encountered a dreadful 
 storm, 28 Feb. On the next day she accidentally 
 took fire, and all were in expectation of perish- 
 ing, either by the tempest or the flames. The 
 Cambria, captain Cook, bound to Vera Cruz, provi- 
 dentially hove in sight, and nearly all on board 
 were saved. The Kent blew up, 2 March. 
 
 KENTISH FIRE, a term given to the con- 
 tinuous cheering common at the protestant meetings 
 held in Kent, 1828 and 1829, with the view of 
 •preventing the passing of the Catholic Relief 
 hill. — Kentish Petition to the house of commons, 
 censuring its proceedings, was signed at Maidstone, 
 •29 April, 1 701. It gave much offence. 
 
 KENTUCKY, a western state of N. America, 
 admitted into the union 1792. It declared for strict 
 •neutrality in the conflict between the North and 
 South in April, 1861, but was invaded by the 
 "Southern troops in August. On their refusal to 
 retire, after much correspondence, the legislature 
 of Kentucky gave in its adhesion to the union, 
 ■27 Nov. 1861. In the campaign that ensued sharp 
 skirmishes took place, and on 19 Jan. 1862, the 
 ■confederates under Zollicoffer were defeated and 
 himself killed at Mill Spring, and in March no con- 
 federate soldiers remained in Kentucky ; see United 
 ■States. 
 
 KEROSELENE, a new anaesthetic, derived 
 from the distillation of coal-tar by Mr. W. B. Merrill, 
 ■of Boston, U.S., was tried and made known early in 
 1861. 
 
 KERTCH, formerly Panticapseum, capital of 
 the ancient kingdom of Bosporus, late a flourishing 
 town on the straits of Tenikale, sea of Azof. It 
 was entered by the allies (English and French) 
 24 May, 1855 ; the Russians retired after destroying 
 -stores, &c. The place was dismantled by the 
 allies, and most of the inhabitants removed. 
 
 KET'S REBELLION: a revolt in July, 
 11549, instigated by William Ket, a tanner, of 
 Wymondham, Norfolk. He demanded the abolition 
 of inclosures and the dismissal of evil counsellors. 
 The insurgents amounted to 20,000 men, but were 
 quickly defeated by the earl of Warwick. More 
 than 2000 fell ; Ket and others were tried 26 Nov., 
 and hanged soon after. 
 
 KEW (Surrey). The palace was successively 
 occupied by the Capel family and Mr. Molyneux ; 
 by Frederick, prince of Wales, 1 730, and George III. 
 Queen Charlotte died here, 4 Nov. 1818. A. new 
 palace erected by George III., under the direction 
 of Mr. Wyatt, was pulled down in 1827. The 
 gardens contained a fine collection of plants, and 
 were decorated with ornamental buildings, most of 
 them erected by sir William Chambers, about 1760. 
 
 BOTANIC GARDENS. 
 
 Mr. Aiton retired from his office of director, after 
 fifty years' service . 1841 
 
 Succeeded by sir William Hooker, at whose recom- 
 mendation the gardens were opened to the public 
 daily. The royal kitchen and forcing gardens in- 
 corporated with the botanic gardens . . . 1847 
 
 Collections in the museum of Economic Botany 
 began with the private collection of sir William 
 Hooker, given by him in 1847 
 
 Under his charge the gardens were greatly im- 
 proved, and magnificent conservatories erected. 
 
 He died 12 Aug. 1865, and was succeeded by his 
 son, Dr. Joseph D. Hooker 1865 
 
 Discussion respecting a dispute between him and 
 Mr. Ayrton, first commissioner of works, 
 
 July, Aug. 1872 
 
 The Meteorological Observatory presented to the 
 British Association, 1842 ; purchased by J. P. 
 Gassiot for io.oooZ. , and presented to the Royal 
 Society . 1871 
 
 KEYS- The invention is ascribed to Theodore 
 of Samos, by Pliny, about 730 B.C. 
 
 KHEDIVE, or Kedervi, king or lord, a title 
 given to the viceroy of Egypt, instead of vali or 
 viceroy, 14 May, 1867. 
 
 KHERSON, an ancient Dorian colony (deriving 
 its name from Chersonesus, a peninsula), came 
 under the sway of the great Mithri dates about 120 
 B.C. ; and afterwards of that of Rome, a.d. 30. It 
 continued important, and its possession was long 
 disputed by the Russians and Greeks. Justinian n. 
 cruelly treated it. It was taken by Vladimir, grand- 
 duke of Russia in 988, when he and his army received 
 Christian baptism, and he married the emperor's 
 sister Anne, who obtained Kherson as her dowry. 
 The city was destroyed by the Lithuanians ; and the 
 Turks found it deserted when they took possession 
 of the Crimea in 1475. What ancient remains the 
 Turks and Tartars had spared, the Russians con- 
 veyed away for the construction of Sebastopol. 
 
 KHERSON, a Russian city on the Dnieper, 
 founded 1778. Potemkin, the favourite of Catherine, 
 who died at Jassy in 1791, is buried here, and John 
 Howard, the English philanthropist, who died here, 
 20 Jan. 1790, is buried about three miles from the 
 town, where an obelisk has been erected to his 
 memory, by the czar Alexander I. 
 
 KHIVA, (formerly Carasmia), in Turkistan, 
 Asia, governed by a khan, Muhammed Rachim. An 
 expedition sent against it by the emperor Nicholas 
 of Russia in 1839 perished through the rigour of the 
 climate in 1840. Russian influence is extending. 
 To obtain redress for many outrages, a Russian expe- 
 dition was sent to Khiva, Feb. 1873. The khan sent 
 an envoy to Calcutta requesting the intercession of 
 the -viceroy of India, who declined to interfere, Sept. 
 1872. In Dec. the Khivese were said to be in- 
 vading the Russian territory, and to be success- 
 ful ; in May, desirous of making peace. Popu- 
 lation, Uzbeks (Turk Tartars), about 100,000; 
 Tadjiks, 100,000 ; Persians, 40,000; Nomads, &c, 
 100,000. 
 
 KHYBER PASS, Afghanistan; see India t 
 1839, 1842. 
 
KIDDEEMINSTEE. 
 
 385 
 
 KINDEED. 
 
 KIDDEEMINSTEE (Worcestershire), re- 
 nowned for its carpet manufactures, established 
 about 1735. It was made a parliamentary borough 
 again in 1832. 
 
 KIDNAPPING ACT (1872), was passed to 
 prevent and punish criminal outrages upon natives 
 of the islands in the Pacific Ocean; see Slavery 
 and Melanesia. 
 
 KIEL, chief town of Holstein, a seaport, and a 
 member of the Hanseatic league in 1300. The 
 university was founded in 1665. By a treaty 
 between Great Britain, Sweden, and Denmark, 
 signed here 14 Jan. 1814, Norway was ceded to 
 Sweden ; see Norway. An extraordinary assembly 
 of the revolted provinces, Schleswig and Holstein, 
 met here 9 Sept. 1850. By the convention of 
 Gastein between Austria and Prussia, 14 Aug. 1865, 
 the former was to govern Holstein, but Kiel to be 
 held by Prussia as a German federal port. This 
 was annulled in 1866 by the issue of the war. 
 
 KILCULLEN (Kildare). Here a large body 
 of the insurgent Irish defeated the British forces 
 commanded by general Dundas, 23 May, 1798. The 
 general in a subsequent engagement overthrew the 
 rebels near Kilcullen-bridge, when 300 were slain. 
 
 KILDAEE (E. Ireland). The Curragh or 
 race-course here was once a forest of oaks. Here 
 was the nunnery of St. Bridget, founded by her in 
 the 15th century, and here was a building called the 
 fire-house, where, it is supposed, the nuns kept the 
 inextinguishable fire which existed till the re- 
 formation. The see was one of the earliest episco- 
 pal foundations in Ireland; St. Conlseth, who 
 died 519, the first prelate. The first Protestant 
 bishop was Thomas Lancaster, in 1550. The see is 
 valued, by an extent returned, 39 Hen. VIII., at 
 69^. us. 4^. Irish per year. Kildare was united to 
 Dublin in 1846 ; see Dublin. The insurrection in 
 Kildare, which swelled into the rebellion, com- 
 menced, 23 May, 1798. On that night, lieut. Gifford 
 of Dublin and a number of other gentlemen were 
 murdered by insurgents. This rebellion was quelled 
 in 1799. 
 
 KILEENOEA (Clare), a bishopric, said to 
 have been founded by St. Fachnan. Cardinal 
 Paparo, in 1152, rendered it a suffragan see to 
 Cashel; but in 1660 it was annexed to Tuam, and 
 to Killaloe in 1752. 
 
 KILKENNY (S. E. Ireland), an English 
 settlement about 1 1 70. The castle was built 1 195, 
 by ¥m. Marshall, earl of Pembroke. At the par- 
 liament held here by Lionel duke of Clarence 1367, 
 the statute of Kilkenny was passed.* After a siege 
 the town surrendered to Cromwell, 28 March, 1650, 
 on honourable terms. 
 
 KILLALA (Mayo) was invaded by a French 
 force landing from three frigates, under general 
 Humbert, 22 Aug. 1798. The invaders were joined 
 by the Irish insurgents, and the battles of Castlebar 
 and Colooney followed ; and the French were de- 
 feated at Ballynamuck, 8 Sept. same year. 
 
 KILLALA (Sligo), an early see. The author 
 of the Tripartite life of St. Patrick, says, "that in 
 434 he came to a pleasant place where the river 
 Muadas (Moy) empties itself into the ocean ; and 
 
 * It enacted among other things, "that the alliance 
 of the English by marriage with any Irish, the nurture of 
 infantes, and gossipred with the Irish, be deemed high 
 treason." And again, "if anie man of English race use 
 an Irish name, Irish apparell, or anie other guize or 
 fashion of the Irish, his lands shall be seized, and his 
 body imprisoned, till he shall conform to English modes 
 and customs. " Said never to have been enforced.. 
 
 on the south banks of the said river he built a noble 
 church called Kil-Aladh, of which he made one of 
 his disciples, Muredach, the first bishop." The see 
 of Achonry was united to Killala in the 17th century ; 
 and both were united to Tuam in 1839 ; see 
 Tuam and Bishops. 
 
 KILLALOE (Clare), a see supposed to have 
 been founded by St. Molua, whose disciple, St. 
 Flannan, son to king Theodoric, consecrated at 
 Borne by John IV. in 639, was also bishop. At the 
 close of the 12th century, Koscrea was annexed to 
 Killaloe, and Kilfenora has been held with it. 
 Clonfert and Kilmacduach were united to them in 
 1836. 
 
 KILLIECEANKIE (a defile in Perthshire). 
 Here the forces of "William III. commanded by 
 general Mackay were defeated by the adherents of 
 James II. under Graham of Claverhouse, viscount 
 Dundee, who fell in the moment of victory, 27 
 July, 1689. 
 
 KILMACDUACH (Galway). This see was 
 held with Clonfert, from 1602. St. Coleman was its 
 first bishop, in the 7th century. It was valued, 29 
 Eliz. 1586, at 13^. bs. 8d. per annum. It is united 
 to Killaloe. 
 
 KILMAINHAM HOSPITAL (Dublin), 
 the noble asylum of aged and disabled soldiers in 
 Ireland, built by Wren, was founded by Arthur, 
 earl of Granard, marshal- general of the army in 
 Ireland, 1675 ; and the duke of Ormond perfected 
 the plan, in 1679. 
 
 KILMALLOCK (Limerick). An abbey was 
 founded here by St. Mochoallog or Molach about 
 645, and an abbey of Dominicans was built in the 
 13th century. Ware. A charter was granted to 
 Kilmallock by Edward VI., and another by Eliza- 
 beth in 1584. The town was invested by the Irish 
 forces in 1598, but the siege was raised by the earl 
 of Ormond. There was much fighting here in 1641 
 and 1642 ; see Fenians, March 1867. 
 
 . KILMOEE (Armagh), an ancient town, whose- 
 bishops were sometimes called Brefinienses, from 
 Brefney, and sometimes Triburnenses, from. 
 Triburna, a village; but in 1454, the bishop of 
 Triburna, by assent of pope Nicholas V., erected 
 the parish church of St. Fedlemid into a cathedral. 
 Florence O'Connacty, the first bishop, died in 1231. 
 Valued, 15 Jas. I. with Ardagh, at 100?. per annum. 
 The joint see of Elphin and Ardagh was united to> 
 it in 1841. 
 
 KILSYTH (central Scotland). Here Montrose 
 defeated the Covenanters, 15 Aug. 1645, and 
 threatened Glasgow. 
 
 KIMBEELEY'S ACT. See under Crime. 
 . KINBUEN, a fort, at the confluence of the 
 rivers Bug and Dnieper. Here Suwarrow defeated 
 the Turks, 28 June, 1788. Kinburn was taken by 
 the English and French, 17 Oct. 1855. Three 
 floating French batteries, said to be the invention 
 of the emperor, on the principle of horizontal shell- 
 firing, were very effective. On the 18th the 
 Bussians blew up Oczakoff, a fort opposite. 
 
 KINDEE-GAETEN (children's garden), a. 
 system of education devised by Frcebel, but prac- 
 tically carried out by Mr. and Mrs. Bonge, in 
 Germany, in 1849, and in England in 1851. The 
 system, founded mainly on self-tuition, and en- 
 livened by toys, games, and singing, is set forth in 
 Konge's " Kinder-garten," published in 1858; and 
 has been partially adopted in English schools. 
 
 KINDEED, TABLE OP, in the Book of Com- 
 mon Prayer, was set forth in 1563. 
 
 c c 
 
KING. 
 
 386 
 
 KING'S BENCH PRISON. 
 
 KING : German Kimig. The Latin Rex, 
 Scythian Rets, Spanish Rey, Italian Re, and French 
 Roy, are all said to come from the Hebrew Rosch, 
 chief or head. Nimrod was the first founder of a 
 kingdom, 2245 B.C. Dufresnoy. Misraim built 
 cities in Egypt, and was the first who assumed the 
 title of king in that division of the earth, 2188 B.C. 
 The " manner of the king" is set forth in 1 Samuel 
 viii., 1112 B.C. Saul was the first king of Israel, 
 1095 B.C. Most of the Grecian states were originally 
 governed by kings ; and kings were the first rulers 
 in Rome. 
 
 King of England. — The style was used by Egbert, 
 828 ; but the title Rex gentis Anglorum, king of 
 the English nation, existed during the Heptarchy ; 
 see Britain. 
 
 The plural phraseology, we, 11s, our, was first adopted 
 among English kings by John .... 1199 
 
 The title of "king of France" assumed, and the 
 French arms quartered, by Edward III., in right 
 of his mother 1340 
 
 Pope Leo X. conferred the title of " Defender of the 
 Faith" on Henry VIII. . . . 11 Oct. 1521 
 
 Henry VIII. changed lord of Ireland into king. . 1542 
 
 The style " Great Britain " was adopted at the union 
 of England and Scotland, 6 Anne . . . . 1707 
 
 That of the " United Kingdom of Great Britain and 
 Ireland" at the union, when the royal style and 
 title was appointed to run thus : — " Georgius 
 Tertius, Dei Gratia, Britanniarum Hex, Fidei 
 Defensor," " George the Third, by the grace of 
 God, of the United kingdom of Great Britain and 
 Ireland, king, Defender of the Faith" (France 
 being omitted) 1 Jan. 1801 
 
 Hanover omitted in the queen's style 21 June, 1837 
 
 The queen was proclaimed in all the important 
 places in India, as "Victoria, by the Grace of 
 God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain 
 and Ireland, and the colonies and dependencies 
 thereof in Europe, Asia, Africa, America, ami 
 Australia, queen," &c. . . . 1 Nov. 1858 
 
 The national assembly decreed that the title of 
 " king of France," should be changed in the person 
 of Louis XVI. to that of "king of the French" 
 
 16 Oct. 1789 
 
 The royal title in France abolished ". . . . 1792 
 
 Louis XVIII. styled "by the grace of God king of 
 France and Navarre " 1814 
 
 Louis-Philippe I. was invited to the monarchy under 
 the style of the " king of the French " . 9 Aug. 1S30 
 
 The emperors of Germany, in order that their 
 eldest sons might be chosen their successors, 
 in their own life-time politically obtained them 
 the title of "king of the Romans." The first 
 emperor so elected was Henry IV. . . . 1055 
 
 Richard, brother of Henry III. of Tngland, was 
 induced to go to Germany, where he disbursed vast 
 sums under the promise of being elected next 
 emperor ; he was elected " king of the Romans" 
 (but failed in succeeding to the imperial crown) 1256 
 
 The style " king of Rome " was revived by 
 Napoleon I. who conferred it on his son. upon 
 his birth 20 March, 1811 
 
 The title " king of Italy" was conferred on Victor 
 Emmanuel II. of Sardinia by the Italian parlia- 
 ment 17 March, 1861 
 
 KING-OF-AEMS : three for England,— 
 Garter, Clarencieux, andNorroy ; Lyonking-at-nrms 
 for Scotland, and Ulster for Ireland. These offices 
 are very ancient: Clarencieux is so named from 
 Lionel, third son of Edward III., the sovereign who 
 founded the order of the Garter; see Garter. 
 Lionel havix.g by his wife the honour of Clare, was 
 made duke of Clarence; which dukedom afterwards 
 escheating to Edward IV., he revived the office of 
 Clarence king-at-arms. The office of Bath king of 
 arms, created in 1725, was changed to Gloucester 
 king-of-arms, 14 June, 1726. Ulster was substi- 
 tuted, it is said, in lieu of Ireland king-of-arms, by 
 Edward VI., 1553 ; but the monarch himself named 
 t as a new institution. 
 
 KING'S ADVOCATE, see Quern's. 
 KING'S BENCH, or Queen's Bench, 
 
 COURT OF, obtained its name from the king 
 sometimes sitting here on a high bench, and the 
 judges, to whom the judicature belongs in his 
 absence, on a low bench at his feet. This court in 
 ancient times was called Curia Domini Regis. 
 
 CHIEF JUSTICES IN ENGLAND F 
 
 1509. John Fineux. 
 1526. John Fitz James. 
 1539. Sir Edward Montagu. 
 1546. Sir Richard Lyster. 
 
 1552. Sir Roger Cholmely. 
 
 1553. Sir Thomas Bromley. 
 
 1554. Sir William Portman. 
 1556. Sir Edward Saunders. 
 1559. Sir Robert Catlyn. 
 1573. Sir Christopher Wray. 
 1591. Sir John Popham. 
 1607. Sir Thomas Fleming. 
 1 61 3. Sir Edward Coke. 
 1616. Sir Henry Montagu. 
 1620. Sir James Ley. 
 1624. Sir Ranulph Crewe. 
 1626. Sir Nicholas Hyde. 
 1631. Sir Thomas Richard- 
 son. 
 
 1635. Sir John Brampston. 
 1643. Sir Robert Heath. 
 1648. Hemy Rolle. 
 1655. John Glyn. 
 1659. S* r Richard Newdi- 
 gate. 
 
 1659. Robert Nicholas. 
 
 1660. Sir Robert Foster. 
 1663. Sir Robert Hyde. 
 1665. Sir John Kelyng. 
 1671. Sir Matthew Hale. 
 1676. Sir Richard Rayns- 
 
 ford. 
 
 1678. Sir William Scroggs. 
 
 1681. Sir Francis Pember- 
 ton. 
 
 16S3. Sir Edmund Saun- 
 ders. 
 
 1683. 
 
 1685. 
 1687. 
 
 1709. 
 
 171s. 
 1725- 
 
 1733- 
 
 1737- 
 I7S4- 
 1756. 
 
 1802 
 
 1818. 
 
 1832. 
 
 1859. 
 
 ROM HENRV VIII. 
 
 Sir George Jefferies, 
 aft. lord Jefferies 
 and lord chanc. 
 Sir Edward Herbert. 
 
 Sir Robert Wright. 
 
 Sir John Holt. 
 
 Sir Thomas Parker, 
 aft. hud Farker, 
 earl of Macclesfield, 
 and lord chanc. 
 
 Sir John Pratt. 
 
 Sir Robert Raymond, 
 aft. lord Raymond. 
 
 Sir Philip Yorke, aft. 
 Id. Hardwieke and 
 lord chanc. 
 
 Sir William Lee. 
 
 Sir Dudley Ryder. 
 
 William Murray, lord, 
 aft. earl of Mans- 
 field. 
 
 Lloyd, lord Kenyon, 
 9 June. 
 
 Sir Edward Law. 12 
 April ; aft. lord 
 Ellen borough. 
 
 Sir Charles Abbott, 
 4 Nov. ; aft. lord 
 Tenterden. 
 
 Sir Thomas Denman, 7 
 Nov. : aft. lord Den- 
 man : resigned. 
 
 John, lord Campbell, 
 March ; aft. lord 
 chancellor. 
 
 Sir Alexander Cock- 
 burn, June. 
 
 CHIEF JUSTICES IN IRELAND. 
 
 1690. 
 1695. 
 1709. 
 1711. 
 
 1714. 
 
 1727. 
 1741. 
 
 I75I- 
 
 1760. 
 
 1764. 
 
 I 7 8 4 . 
 
 Sir Richard Reynell, 
 
 6 Dec. 
 
 Sir Richard Pyne, 
 
 7 June. 
 
 Allan Brodrick, 24 
 
 Dec. 
 Sir Richard Cox, 5 
 
 July. 
 William Whitshed, 14 
 
 Oct. 
 John Rogerson, 3 Apr. 
 Thomas Marlay, 29 
 
 . Dec. 
 St. George Caulfield, 
 
 27 Aug. 
 Warden Flood, 31 
 
 July. 
 John Gore, 24 Aug. ; 
 
 aft. earl Annaly. 
 John Scott, 29 April ; 
 
 1803. 
 
 1841. 
 1846. 
 
 1S52. 
 1866. 
 
 aft. earl of Clo n " 
 mel. 
 
 Arthur Wolfe, 13 
 June ; aft. lord 
 Kilwarden. (killed 
 in Emmet's insur- 
 rection, 23 July, 
 1803). 
 
 William Downes, 12 
 Sept. ; aft. lord 
 Downes. 
 
 Chas. Kendal Bushe, 
 14 February. 
 
 Edward Pennefather, 
 10 November. 
 
 Francis Blackburne, 
 23 Jan. 
 
 ThomasLefroy, March 
 
 James Whiteside, 
 July. 
 
 KING'S BENCH PRISON (South wark), 
 near the site of one of the oldest prisons of London, 
 long used for the confinement of debtors. Here, it 
 is said, prince Henry (afterwards Henry V.) was 
 committed by Justice Gascoigne. The prison was 
 burnt down by the London rioters, 7 June, 1780; 
 see Gordon's No-Popery Mob. It was rebuilt in 
 1 78 1, and contained about 230 rooms. Formerly, 
 the debtors were allowed to purchase the liberties, 
 to enable them to have houses or lodgings without 
 the' walls, or to purchase day-rules, to go out of 
 the prison under certain regulations. The rules 
 included St. George's Fields, &c. A consequence 
 of the bankruptcy act, 1861, was the release of 
 many insolvent debtors ; and an act was passed 
 
KING'S BOOK. 
 
 387 
 
 KNIGHTS. 
 
 in 1862 " for discontinuing the queen's prison 
 and removal of the prisoners to Whitecross-street 
 prison." The buildings now are used as a military 
 prison. 
 
 KING'S BOOK, or "Valor Ecclesiasticus 
 temp. Henrici VIII," the return of the commis- 
 sioners appointed in 1534 to value the first fruits 
 and tenths granted to the king. An edition by 
 John Bacon ("Liber Regis") was published in 
 1780, and it was printed for the Record Commission, 
 1810-25. 
 
 KING'S BOUNTY, an annual grant of 
 1000L, began early in the reign of George III. and 
 continued till 10 George IV. 1829. 
 
 KING'S COLLEGES, see Aberdeen and 
 Cambridge. King's College, London, incorporated 
 14 Aug. 1829, and opened 8 Oct. 1831. It was 
 
 incorporated with the university of London in 1837. 
 
 The hospital was founded in 1839. The dining- 
 
 hall and kitchen fell in, through drainage, 8 a.m., 
 
 6 Dec. 1869 ; no lives were lost. 
 
 KING'S COUNSEL, the first under the 
 degree of serjeant was sir Francis Bacon, made 
 so, honoris causa, without patent or fee, in 1604, 
 by James I. The first modern king's counsel was 
 sir Francis North, afterwards lord keeper, in 1663. 
 
 KING'S COUNTY (Ireland), formed out of 
 confiscated property, and so named from Philip, king 
 of Spain, the husband of queen Mary of England, 
 in 1556. 
 
 KINGS CEOSS MARKET, N. London, 
 opened 7 Aug. 1868. 
 
 KINGSDOWN'S ACT, 24 & 25 Vict. c. 114 
 , (1861) relates to wills. 
 
 KING'S EVIL (scrofula), formerly supposed 
 to be' cured by the king's touch; the first being 
 Edward the Confessor, in 1058. In the reign of 
 Charles II. 92, 107 persons were touched ; and, ac- 
 cording to Wiseman, the king's physician, they 
 were nearly all cured ! Queen Anne officially an- 
 nounced in the London Gazette, 12 March, 17 12, her 
 intention to touch publicly. The custom was 
 dropped by George I., 17 14. 
 
 KING S SPEECH. The first from the throne 
 is said to have been by Henry I., 1107. 
 
 KINGSTON, see Hull. -KINGSTON, Ja- 
 maica, was founded in 1693, after the great earth- 
 quake in 1692 which destroyed Port Royal ; it was 
 constituted a city, 1802." An awful fire here 
 ravaged a vast portion of the town, and consumed 
 500,000/. of property, 8 Feb. 1782 ; another fire in 
 1843. The bishopric was established in 1856; see 
 Jamaica. 
 
 KINGSTON TEIAL. The duchess of 
 Kingston was arraigned before the lords in West- 
 minster-hall, on a charge of bigamy, having 
 married first, captain Hervey, afterwards earl of 
 Bristol, and next, during his lifetime, Evelyn 
 Pierrepont, duke of Kingston, 15-22 April, 1776. 
 She was found guilty, but, on pleading the privilege 
 of peerage, the punishment of burning in the hand 
 was remitted, and she was discharged on paying the 
 fees. 
 
 KINGSTOWN (Dublin). The harbour here 
 was commenced in June, 1817. The name was 
 changed from Dunleary in compliment to George 
 IV., who here embarked for England at the close 
 of his visit to Ireland, 3 Sept. 1821. The Kings- 
 town railway from Dublin was opened 17 Dec 
 1834. 
 
 KISSING the hands of great men was a Grecian 
 custom. Kissing was a mode of salutation among 
 the Jews, 1 Samuel x. 1, &c. The " kiss of 
 charity," or " holy kiss," commanded in the Scrip- 
 tures (Romans xvi. 16, &c), was observed by the 
 early Christians, and is still recognised by the 
 Greek church and some others. Kissing the pope's 
 foot began with Adrian I. or Leo III. at the close 
 of the 8th century. 
 
 KIT-KAT CLUB, of above thirty noblemen 
 and gentlemen, instituted in 1703, to promote the 
 Protestant succession. The duke of Marlborough, 
 sir R. Walpole, Addison, Steele, and Dr. Garth 
 were members. It took its name from its dining at 
 the house of Christopher Kat, a pastry-cook in 
 King-street, Westminster. 
 
 KITT'S, see Christopher's, St. 
 
 KNEELING. The knee was ordered to be 
 bent at the name of Jesus (see Thilippians ii. 10), 
 about the year 1275, by the order of the pope. The 
 ceremony of a vassal kneeling to his lord is said to 
 have begun in the 8th century. 
 
 KNIGHTS. The word knight is derived from 
 the Saxon Cniht, a servant (i.e., servant to the 
 king, &c). The institution of the Roman knights 
 (Equites or horsemen, from equus, a horse), is 
 ascribed to Romulus, about 750 B.C., when the 
 curiae elected 300. Knighthood was conferred in 
 England by the priest at the altar, after confession 
 and consecration of the sword, during the Saxon 
 heptarchy. The first knight made by the sovereign 
 with the sword of state was Athelstane, by Alfred, 
 a.d. 900. Spelman. The custom of ecclesiastics 
 conferring the honour of knighthood was sup- 
 pressed in a synod held at Westminster in 1100. 
 Ashmole's Institutes. All persons having ten 
 pounds y early income were obliged to be knighted, 
 or pay a fine, 38 Hen. III. 1254. Salmon . On the 
 decline of the empire of Charlemagne, all Europe 
 being reduced to a state of anarchy, the proprietor 
 of every manor became a petty sovereign ; his 
 mansion was fortified by a moat, and defended by a 
 guard, and called a castle. Excursions were made 
 by one petty lord against another, and the women 
 and treasure were carried off by the conqueror. At 
 length the owners of rich fiefs associated to repress 
 these marauders, to make property secure, and to 
 protect the ladies; binding themselves to these 
 duties by a solemn vow, and the sanction of a 
 religious ceremony. Cervantes' " Don Quixote," a 
 satire on knight-errantry, was published in 1605; 
 see Bannaret, Chivalry, Tournaments, Holy Sepul- 
 chre, John, and Michael. 
 
 PRINCIPAL MILITARY, RELIGIOUS, AND HONORARY 
 ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD.* 
 
 Albert the Bear, Anhalt 1836 
 
 Albert, Saxony t.%s° 
 
 Alcantara, instituted about 1156 
 
 Alexander Nevskoi, St. , Russia .... 1722 
 
 Amaranta, Sweden (female) 1645 
 
 Andrew, St., Russia 3:698 
 
 Andrew, St. , Scotland (see Thistle) . 787, 1540, 1687 
 
 Angelic Knights, Greece 337, n qi 
 
 Anne, St., Holstein, now Russia . ... . . . 1735 
 
 Annonciada, Savoy, about 1360 
 
 Annunciada, Mantua !6i8 
 
 Anthony, St., Hainault I3 8 2 
 
 Anthony, St., Bavaria I3 8 2 
 
 Avis, Portugal, about n 5 2 
 
 Bannerets. See Bannerets. 
 
 Bath, England, 1399. Revived (see Bath) . . . 1725 
 
 * Enlarged and corrected from Edmondson, Carlisle, 
 and the " Almanach de Gotha ; " the early dates are 
 doubtful. Many orders were instituted after the settle-, 
 ment of Europe in 1815. 
 
KXIGHTS. 
 
 388 
 
 KNIGHTS. 
 
 Bear, Switzerland 1213 
 
 Bee, France (female) 1703 
 
 Bento d'Avis, St., Portugal 1162 
 
 Black Eagle, Prussia 1701 
 
 Blaise, St., Armenia, 12th century. 
 
 Blood of Christ, Mantua 1608 
 
 Bridget, St., Sweden 1366 
 
 Broomflowers, France 1234 
 
 Brotherly (or Neighbourly) Love, Austria (female) . 1708 
 Calatrava, Castile, instituted by Sancho III. . .1158 
 
 Catherine, St., Palestine 1063 
 
 Catherine, St. , Russia (female) .... 1714 
 
 Charles, St. , Wurtemberg 1759 
 
 Charles III. (or the Immaculate Conception), Spain 1771 
 
 Charles XIII. , Sweden 181 1 
 
 Chase, Wurtemberg 1702 
 
 Christ, Livonia 1203 
 
 Christ, Portugal and Rome 1317 
 
 Christian Charity, France 1558 
 
 Cincinnati, America (soon dissolved) . . . 1783 
 Compostello (see St. James). 
 
 Conception of the Virgin 1618 
 
 Concord, Prussia 1660 
 
 Constantine, St., Constantinople, about 313 ; by 
 emperor Isaac, 1190 ; Parma, 1699 ; since removed 
 to" Naples. 
 Crescent, Naples, 1268. Revived . . . . 1464 
 
 Crescent, Turkey 1801 
 
 Cross of Christ 1217 
 
 Cross of the South, Brazil 1822 
 
 Crown of Italy 1868 
 
 Crown of Oak, Netherlands 1841 
 
 Crown, Prussia 1861 
 
 Crown Royal, France (Friesland) .... 802 
 
 Crown, Wurtemberg 1818 
 
 Danebrog, Denmark, instituted by Waldemar II., 
 
 1219 ; revived by Christian V 1671 
 
 Death's Head (female), by the widow Louisa Eliza- 
 beth of Saxe Masburg 1709 
 
 Denis, St., France 1267 
 
 Dog and Cock, France 5°° 
 
 Dove of Castile 1379 
 
 Dragon, Hungary 1439 
 
 Dragon Overthrown, German 1418 
 
 Eagle (see Black, Mexican, lied, White). 
 Ear of Corn and Ermine, Brittany, about . . . 1442 
 Elephant, Denmark (about 1 190), by Christian I. . 1462 
 Elizabeth, St., Portugal and Brazil (female) . . 1801 
 Elizabeth Theresa, Austria (female) . . . 1750 
 
 Esprit, St., France 1579 
 
 Ferdinand, St., Naples 1800 
 
 Ferdinand, St., Spain 1811 
 
 Fidelity, Baden 171 5 
 
 Fidelity, Denmark 1732 
 
 Fools, Cleves -. 1380 
 
 Francis I. , Two Sicilies 1829 
 
 Francis Joseph, Austria 1849 
 
 Frederick, Wurtemberg 1830 
 
 Friesland (or Crown Royal), France . . . 802 
 
 Garter (which see), England. 1349 
 
 Generosity, Brandenburg . . . ' . . . 1685 
 
 Genet, France 726 
 
 George, St., and the Reunion, Naples 1800 and 1819 
 
 George, St., Angelic Knights 1191 
 
 George, St. , Austria 147°. *494 
 
 George, St. , Defender of the Immaculate Concep- 
 tion, Bavaria 1729 
 
 George, St., England (see Garter) . ... 1349 
 
 George, St., Genoa 147 2 
 
 George, St. , Hanover 1839 
 
 George, St., Ionian Isles 1818 
 
 George, St. , Rome 149 2 
 
 George, St., Russia i7 6 9 
 
 George, St. , Spain I3 1 ? 
 
 George, St. , Venice 1200 
 
 Gerion, St. , Germany 119° 
 
 Glaive, Sweden 15 22 
 
 Glory, Turkey 1831 
 
 Golden Angel (afterwards St. George), about . . 312 
 Golden Fleece, instituted at Bruges by Philip the 
 
 Good, Austria and Spain i4 2 9 
 
 Golden Lion, Hesse Cassel 177° 
 
 Golden Lion, Nassau, and Holland . . . . 1858 
 Golden Shield and Thistle, France . . . . 1370 
 
 Golden Spur, by Pius IV 1559 
 
 Golden Stole, Venice, before 737 
 
 Gregory, St. , Rome . 183 1 
 
 Guelphs, Hanover 1815 
 
 Henry, St. , Saxony 1736 
 
 Henry the Lion, Brunswick 1834 
 
 Hemiengilde, St. , Spain 1814 
 
 Hohenzollern, Prussia 1851 
 
 Holy Ghost, France 1579 
 
 Holy Sepulchre (which see) .... 1099, 1496 
 
 Holy Vial (St. Remi), France 499 
 
 Hospitallers (which see), 1099 ; of Rhodes, 1308 ; of 
 
 Malta 1521 
 
 Hubert, St. , Germany (by the duke of Juliers and 
 
 Cleves), Bavaria 1444 
 
 Iron Cross, Prussia 1813 
 
 Iron Crown, Lombardy, 1805 1816 
 
 Iron Helmet, Hesse Cassel 1814 
 
 Isabella, St. , Spain, 1804; Portugal (female) . . 1801 
 
 Isabella the Catholic, Spain 1815 
 
 James, St., Holland 1290 
 
 James, St. , Portugal 1310 
 
 James, St., of the Sword, Santiago, 1175; Spain 
 
 and Portugal 11 77 
 
 Januarius, St., Naples 1738 
 
 Jerusalem (see Malta) 1048 
 
 Jesus Christ, Rome, instituted by John XXII., 
 1320. Reformed as Jesus and Mary, by Paul V. . 1615 
 
 Joachim, St., Germany 1755 
 
 John of Aeon, St. , after 1377 
 
 John of Jerusalem, St. (see Hospitallers), Rome . 1048 
 
 John. St., Prussia 1812 
 
 Joseph, St., Tuscany 1807 
 
 Julian of Alcantara, St. 11 56 
 
 Knot, Naples 1352 
 
 La Cal^a, Venice, about 737 
 
 Lamb of God, Sweden . .... 1564 
 
 Lazarus, St., France, before 1154 ; united with that 
 
 of St. Maurice, Savoy 1572 
 
 Legion of Honour, France 1802 
 
 Leopold, Austria 1808 
 
 Leopold, Belgium 1862 
 
 LilyofAragon 1410 
 
 Lily of Navarre, about 1043 
 
 Lion, Holland 1815 
 
 Lion (see Sun) 1808 
 
 Lion of Zahringen, Baden 181 2 
 
 Lioness, Naples, about 1399 
 
 Loretto, Lady of 1587 
 
 Louis, Bavaria 1827 
 
 Louis, Hesse Darmstadt 1807 
 
 Louis, St. , France 1693 
 
 Louisa, Prussia (female) 1814 
 
 Malta (see Hospitallers). 
 
 Maria de Merced, St., Spain 1218 
 
 Maria Louisa, Spain (female) 1792 
 
 Maria Theresa, Austria 1757 
 
 Mark, St., Venice, about 828. Renewed . . . 1562 
 
 Martyrs, Palestine 1014 
 
 Maurice, St. , Savoy 1434 
 
 Maximilian Joseph, Bavaria 1806 
 
 Medjidie, Turkey 1852 
 
 Merit, Bavaria 1808, 1866 
 
 Merit, Belgium 1867 
 
 Merit, Hesse Cassel 1769 
 
 Merit, Oldenburg 1838 
 
 Merit, Prussia 1740 
 
 Merit, Saxony . 1815 
 
 Merit. Wurtemberg . . 1859 
 
 Merit, Military, Baden 1807 
 
 Mexican Eagle 1865 
 
 Michael, St., Bavaria 1693 
 
 Michael, St. , France 1469 
 
 Michael, St. , Germany 1618 
 
 Michael and George, Sts., 1818 ; re-organised, March, 1869 
 
 Montjoie, Jerusalem, before 1180 
 
 Neighbourly Love, Austria (female) . . . . 1708 
 
 Nicholas, St., Naples 1382 
 
 Noble Passion, Saxony 1704 
 
 Oak of Navarre, Spain 722 
 
 Olaf, St., Sweden 1847 
 
 Osmanie, Turkey 1861 
 
 Our Lady of Montesa 1316 
 
 Our Lady of the Conception of Villa ViQosa . . 1818 
 
 Our Lady of the Lily, Navarre 1043 
 
 Palatine Lion 176S 
 
 Palm and Alligator, Africa, granted to Gov. Camp- 
 bell in 1837 
 
 Passion of Jesus Christ, France . . . . 1384 
 
 Patrick, St. Ireland . .... 1783 
 
 Paul, St., Rome ... .... 1540 
 
 Pedro I. , Brazil ... .... 1826 
 
KNIVES. 
 
 389 
 
 KONIGSBERG. 
 
 Peter, Frederick Lewis, Oldenburg . . . . 1838 
 Peter, St., Bome . . .... 1530 
 
 Philip, Hesse Darmstadt 1840 
 
 Pius, founded by Pius IV. 1559 
 
 Pius IX. , Bome 1847 
 
 Polar Star, Sweden. Bevived 1748 
 
 Porcupine, France 1393 
 
 Beale, Naples, about . . . . . . . 1399 
 
 Bed Eagle, Prussia, 1705, 1712, 1734. Bevived . 1792 
 
 Bedeemer (or Saviour), Greece 1833 
 
 Bemi, St. (or Holy Vial), about .... 499 
 
 Bosary, Spain 1212 
 
 Bose, Brazil 1829 
 
 Bound Table, England, by Alfred (see Garter), 516 or 528 
 
 Bue Crown, Saxony 1807 
 
 Bupert, St., Germany 1701 
 
 Saviour, Aragon 1118 
 
 Saviour, or Bedeemer, Greece ..... 1833 
 
 Saviour of the World, Sweden 1561 
 
 Savoy, Italy 1815 
 
 Scale, Castile, about 1316 
 
 Scarf, Castile, 1330. Bevived 1700 
 
 Sepulchre, Holy Palestine 1099 
 
 Seraphim, Sweden . . . . 1260 or 1265 
 
 Ship and Crescent, France 1269 
 
 Slaves of Virtue, Germany (female) .... 1662 
 
 Stanislas, St., Poland 1765 
 
 Star, France 1022 
 
 Star, Sicily 1351 
 
 Star of India, British 1861 
 
 Star of the Cross (female), Austria .... 1668 
 
 Star of the North, Sweden 1748 
 
 Stephen, St., Hungary 1764 
 
 Stephen, St., Tuscany 1561 
 
 Sun and Lion, Persia 1808 
 
 Swan, Flanders, about 500 
 
 Swan, Prussia (female) 1440, 1843 
 
 Sword (or Silence), Cyprus, about .... 1192 
 
 Sword, Sweden, 1525. Bevived 1748 
 
 Templars (see Templars) 1119 
 
 Teste Morte (Death's Head), Wiirtemberg (female) . 1652 
 Teutonic, Austria, about 1190; abolished, 1809; 
 
 1522 ; re-organised 1840, 1865 
 
 Thistle of Bourbon 1370 
 
 Thistle, Scotland, 809. Bevived . . 1540, 1687 
 
 Thomas of Aeon, St. , after 1377 
 
 Toison d'Or (golden fleece) 1429 
 
 Tower and Sword, Portugal, 1459. Bevived . . 1808 
 Tusin, or Hungarian knights, about . . . 1562 
 
 Two Sicilies 1808 
 
 Vasa, Sweden 1772 
 
 Vigilance, or White Falcon, Saxe-Weimar . . . 1732 
 
 Virgin Mary, Italy 1233 
 
 Virgin of Mount Carmel, France 1607 
 
 Wends, Mecklenburg 1864 
 
 White Cross, Tuscany 1814 
 
 White Eagle, Poland, about 1325. Bevived . . 1705 
 
 White Falcon, Saxe-Weimar 1732 
 
 Wilhelm, Holland 1815 
 
 Wing of St. Michael, Portugal 11 72 
 
 Wladimir, St., Bussia 1782 
 
 Female Knights. It is said that the first were the 
 women who preserved Tortosa from the Moors in 1149, 
 by their stout resistance. Large immunities were 
 granted to the women and their descendants. Several 
 female orders appear in the previous list. Ladies 
 have been admitted to several male orders. 
 
 Knights of Glyn and Kerry in Ireland. The heads 
 of two branches of the family of Fitzgerald, who still 
 enjoy the distinctions bestowed on their ancestors by 
 sovereigns in the 13th century. 
 
 Knights of the Shire, or of Parliament ; summoned 
 by the king's writ and chosen by the freeholders, first 
 summoned by Simon de Montfort, in 1254, and in a 
 more formal manner, 20 Jan. 1265. There are writs 
 extant as far back as 11 Edward I., 1283. The knights 
 are still girded with a sword when elected, as the writ 
 prescribes. 
 
 KNIVES. In England, Hallamshire (the 
 country round Sheffield) has been renowned for its 
 cutlery for five centuries; Chaucer speaks of the 
 " Sheffield thwytel." Stow says that Eichard 
 Mathews on the Fleet-bridge was the first English- 
 man who made fine knives, &c. ; and that he ob- 
 tained a prohibition of foreign ones, 1563. Clasp 
 
 or spring knives became common about 1650 ; coin- 
 ing originally from Flanders. — Knife -cleaning ma- 
 chines were patented by Mr. George Kent in 1844 
 and 1852 ; others have been invented, by Masters, 
 Price, &c. ; see Forks. 
 
 KNOW-NOTHINGS, a society which arose 
 in 1853, in the United States of N. America. Their 
 principles were embodied in the following proposi- 
 tions (at New Tprk, 1855). They possessed several 
 newspapers and had much political influence : — 
 
 1. The Americans shall rule America. 
 
 2. The Union of these States. 
 
 3. No North, no South, no East, no West. 
 
 4. The United States of America — as they are — one and 
 
 inseparable. 
 
 5. No sectarian interferences in our legislation or in the 
 
 administration of American law. 
 
 6. Hostility to the assumption of the pope, through the 
 
 bishops, &c, in a republic sanctified by Protestant 
 blood. 
 
 7. Thorough reform in the naturalisation laws. 
 
 8. Free and liberal educational institutions for all sects 
 
 and classes, with the Bible, God's holy word, as a 
 
 universal text-book. 
 
 A society was formed in 1855 in opposition to the above, 
 
 called Know-Somethings. Both bodies were absorbed 
 
 into the two parties, Democrats and Bepublicans, at 
 
 the presidential election in Nov. 1856. 
 
 KOH-I-NOOR, or " Mountain of Light," the 
 East India diamond ; see Diamonds. 
 
 KOLIN or KOLLIN (Bohemia). Here the 
 Austrian general Daun gained a signal victory over 
 Frederick the great of Prussia, 18 June, 1757. In 
 commemoration, the military order of Maria Theresa 
 was instituted by the empress-queen. 
 
 KOMOEN or COMOBN (Hungary), an ancient 
 fortress town, often taken and retaken during the 
 wars with Turkey. Near it the Hungarians de- 
 feated the Austrians, 11 July, 1849, but surren- 
 dered the town 1 Oct. 
 
 KONIEH (formerly Iconium). Here the 
 Turkish army was defeated by the pasha of Egypt, 
 after a long sanguinary fight, 21 l)ec. 1832. The 
 grand vizier was taken prisoner. 
 
 KONIGGEATZ (Bohemia). Near here was 
 fought the decisive battle between the Austrians 
 commanded by marshal Benedek, and the Prussians 
 commanded by their king William I., 3 July, 1866. 
 Prince Frederick Charles halted at Kammeniz on 
 Monday, 2 July, his troops commenced their march 
 at midnight, and the first shot was fired about 7-30 
 a.m. 3 July. The attack began at Sadowa (after 
 which the battle is also named) about 10 o'clock, 
 and a desperate struggle ensued, the result ap- 
 pearing uncertain, till the army of the crown prince 
 of Prussia arrived about 12-30. When Chlum, 
 which had been taken and lost seven times by the 
 Prussians, was taken for the eighth time, the fate 
 of the day was decided ; and the retreat of the Aus- 
 trians, at first orderly, became a hasty disastrous 
 flight. About 400,000 men were engaged in this 
 battle, one of the greatest in modern times. The 
 Austrians are said to have lost 174 guns, about 40,000 
 killed and wounded, and 20,000 prisoners. The 
 Prussians lost about 10,000 men. The victory gave 
 the supremacy in Germany to Prussia, unity to 
 North Germany, and Venetia to Italy ; and led to 
 the legislative independence of Hungary. 
 
 KONIGSBERG, the capital of east Prussia, 
 was founded by the Teutonic knights in 1255, and 
 became the residence of the grand master in 1457. 
 It joined the Hanseatic league in 1365. It was 
 ceded to the elector of Brandenburg in 1657, and 
 here Frederick III. was crowned the first king of 
 
KONIGSTEIN TUN. 
 
 390 
 
 LABYRINTHS. 
 
 Prussia in 1 701. It was held by the Russians 
 1758-64, and by the French in 1807. Here the 
 present king and queen were crowned, 18 Oct., 
 1861. 
 
 KONIGSTEIN TUN (Nassau, Germany), 
 most capacious, was built by Frederick Augustus, 
 king of Poland, in 1725. It was made to hold 
 233,667 gallons of wine ; and on the top, which was 
 railed in, was accommodation for twenty persons to 
 regale themselves. The famous tun of St. Bernard's 
 was said to bold 800 tons ; see Heidelberg Tun. 
 
 KOOKAS, a warlike reforming sect in N. W. 
 India, founded by Baluk Ram about 1845, and after 
 his death, about 1855, headed by Ram Singh, who 
 preached the restoration of the old Sikh religion, 
 which venerated cattle and punished their slaugh- 
 terer. After several outrages against the Mahome- 
 tans, an outbreak of the Kookas took place near 
 Loodiana, which was vigorously suppressed, 15 
 Jan. 1872, by commissioner Cowan, who ordered 
 49 prisoners to be blown from cannon, 17 Jan. 
 Several others were tried and executed by com- 
 missioner Forsyth soon after. For this severity 
 Mr. Cowan was ordered to be dismissed, and Mr. 
 Forsyth removed to another station, April, 1872. 
 The Kooka leaders claim 800,000 followers ; but 
 the probable number is about one-tenth. 
 
 KORAN or Alcoran (Al Kite an), the 
 
 sacred book of the Mahometans, was written about 
 610, by Mahomet (who asserted that it had been 
 revealed to him by the angel Gabriel in twenty- 
 three years), and published by Abu-bekr about 635. 
 Its general aim was to unite the professors of idolatry 
 and the Jews and Christians in the worship of one 
 God (whose unity was the chief point inculcated) , 
 under certain laws and ceremonies, exacting obe- 
 dience to Mahomet as the prophet. The leading ar- 
 ticle of faith preached is compounded of an eternal 
 truth and a necessary fiction, namely, that there is 
 only one God, and that Mahomet is the apostle of God. 
 Gibbon. The Koran was translated into Latin in 
 1 143; into French, 1647; into English by Sale, 
 1734 ; and into other European languages, 1763 
 et seq. It is a rhapsody of 6000 verses, divided 
 into 114 sections; see Mahometanism, &c. 
 
 KOREISH, an Arab tribe which had the charge 
 of the Caaba, or sacred stone of Mecca, and strenu- 
 ously opposed the pretensions of Mahomet. It was 
 defeated by him and his adherents, 623-30. 
 
 KOSZTA AFFAIR. Martin Koszta, a Hunga - 
 rian refugee, when in the United States in 1850, 
 declared his intention of becoming an American 
 citizen, and went through the preliminary^ forms. 
 In 1853 he visited Smyrna, and on 21 June was 
 seized by a boat's crew of the Austrian brig Hxzzar. 
 By direction of the American minister at Constan- 
 tinople, captain Ingraham of the American sloop St. 
 Louis, demanded his release ; but having heard that 
 the prisoner was to be clandestinely transported 
 to Trieste, he demanded his surrender by a certain 
 time, and prepared to attack the Austrian vessel on 
 2 July; Koszta was then given up. On 1 Aug., the 
 Austrian government protested against these pro- 
 ceedings in a circular addressed to the European 
 courts, but eventually a compromise was effected, 
 and Koszta returned to the United States. 
 
 KRASNOI (central Russia). Here the French 
 defeated the Russians, 15 Aug. 1812; and here they 
 were themselves defeated after a series of conflicts, 
 14-18 Nov. following. 
 
 KREASOTE, see Creosote. 
 
 KREMLIN, a palace at Moscow, built by De- 
 metri, grand-duke of Russia, about 1376. It was 
 burnt down in Sept. 1812, and rebuilt in 1816. 
 
 KRIEGSPIEL, see under War. 
 
 KU KUX KLAN, the name of a secret society 
 in the southern states of the Union, principally in 
 Tennessee in North America, bitterly opposed to the 
 ruling men. Early in 1868, this society issued lists 
 of proscribed persons, who, if they did not quit the 
 country after warning, became liable to assassination. 
 General Grant endeavoured to suppress this society 
 in April. Its repression by the militia in Arkansas 
 was ordered, Nov. 1868, and it became the subject 
 of legislation at Washington, June, 1871. 
 
 KUNNERSDORF, Battle of, see Cun- 
 
 nersdorf. 
 
 KUNOBITZA, in the Balkan. Here John 
 Hunniades, the Hungarian, defeated the Turks, 24 
 Dec, 1443. 
 
 KURRACHEE, a flourishing port in N. W. 
 India, was taken by the British, 3 Feb. 1839. 
 
 KUSTRIN or CUSTRIN (Prussia), a fortified 
 town, besieged and burnt by the Russians, 22 Aug. 
 1758 ; taken by the French in 1806 ; given up, 1814. 
 
 L. 
 
 LABARUM, see Standards. 
 
 LABORATORY- The Royal Institution labo- 
 ratory, the first of any importance in London, was 
 established in 1800, and rebuilt, 1872. In it were 
 made the discoveries of Davy, Faraday, Tyndall, 
 and Frankland ; see Royal Institution. The Royal 
 Laboratory, "Woolwich Arsenal, was re- organised in 
 1855- 
 
 LABOURERS, Statute oe, regulating 
 
 wages, enacted 1350. A conference of philanthro- 
 pists on the condition of agricultural labourers was 
 held at Willis's rooms, Westminster, 28 March, 1868. 
 Labouring Classes Dwelling House acts, passed, 
 1855, and May, 1866; see Agriculture and Working- 
 men. 
 
 LABRADOR (North America), discovered by 
 Sebastian Cabot, 1497; visited by Corte Real in 
 1500 ; made a Moravian missionary station in 1771. 
 
 LABUAN, an Asiatic island, N. W. Borneo; 
 ceded to the British in 1846, and given up to sir 
 James Brooke in 1848. The bishopric was founded 
 1855. Governor, John Pope Hennessy, 1867, sir H. 
 E. Bulwer, 1871 ; see Borneo. 
 
 LABURNUM, Cytisus Laburnum, called also 
 the golden chain, was brought to these countries 
 from Hungary, [Austria, &c, about 1576 Ashe. 
 
 LABYRINTHS. Four are mentioned: the 
 first, said to have been built by Daedalus, in the 
 island of Crete, to secure the Minotaur, about 1210 
 
LACE. 
 
 391 
 
 LAMIAN WAE. 
 
 B.C. ; the second, of Arsinoe, in Egypt, in the isie 
 of Mceris, by Psammeticus, king of that place, about 
 683 B.C. ; the third, at Lemnos, remarkable for its 
 sumptuous pillars, 'which seems to have been a sta- 
 lactite grotto ; and the fourth, at Clusium, in Italy, 
 erected by Porsenna, king of Etruria, about 520 B.C. 
 Pliny. The labyrinth of "Woodstock is connected 
 with the story of Fair Eosamond ; see Rosamond. 
 The Maze at Hampton Court, was formed in the 16th 
 century. 
 
 LACE of very delicate texture was made in 
 France and Flanders in 1320. Its importation into 
 England was prohibited in 1483 ; but it was used 
 in the court costume of Elizabeth's reign. Dresden, 
 Valenciennes, Mechlin, and Brussels, have long been 
 famous for their fine lace. An ounce weight of 
 Flanders thread has been frequently sold for four 
 pounds in London ; and its value, when manufac- 
 tured, has been increased to forty pounds, ten times 
 the price of standard gold. A framework knitter of 
 Nottingham, named Hammond, is said to have in- 
 vented a mode of applying his stocking-frame to the 
 manufacture of lace from studying the lace on his 
 wife's cap, about 1768. Macculloch. So many 
 improvements have been made in this manufacture, 
 particularly by Heathcote (1809, 1817, &c), Morley 
 and Leaver (181 1, &c), that a piece of lace which 
 about 1809 cost l"]l. may now be had for Js. (1853). 
 Ure. The process of "gassing" by which cotton 
 lace is said to be made equal to fine linen lace, was 
 invented by Samuel Hall of Basford, near Notting- 
 ham. He died in Nov. 1862. 
 
 LACEDiEMON or LACOOTA (Tzakonia), see 
 Sparta. 
 
 LACTEALS (absorbent vessels connected with 
 digestion), were discovered in a dog by Jasper 
 Asellius of Cremona, 1622, and their termination in 
 the thoracic duct by Pecquet, 165 1 ; see Lymphatics. 
 
 LADOCEA, in Arcadia. Here Cleomenes III. 
 king ot Spaita, defeated the Achsean league, 226 B.C. 
 
 LADEONE ISLES (N. Pacific), belonging to 
 Spain, discovered by Magellan, in 1520. He first 
 touched at the island of Guam. The natives having 
 stolen some of his goods, he named the islands the 
 Ladrones, or Thieves. In the 17th century they 
 obtained the name of Marianna islands from the 
 queen of Spain. 
 
 LADY. The masters and mistresses of manor- 
 houses, in former times, served out bread to the poor 
 weekly ; and were therefore called Lafords and Lef- 
 days — signifying bread givers (from hlaf, a loaf) : 
 hence Lords and Ladies. Wedgewood considers this 
 fanciful, and derives the words from the Anglo- 
 Saxon, laford, lord, and hlcefdig, lady. — Lady day 
 (March 25) , a festival instituted about 350, according 
 to some authorities, and not before the 7th century 
 according to others ; see Annunciation. The year 
 was ordered to begin on Jan. 1, in France in 1564; 
 and in Scotland, by proclamation, on 17 Dec. 1599; 
 but not in England till 3 Sept. 1752, when the style 
 was altered. 
 
 LADY-BTBDS. About 18th August, 1869, 
 great flights of these insects alighted on the S.E. 
 coasts of England, and arrived as far as London ; a 
 similar event occurred in 1867. 
 
 LAFFELDT, Holland. Here marshal Saxe 
 defeated the English, Dutch, and Austrians, 2 July, 
 1747- 
 
 LAGOS, in the Bight of Benin (Africa), was 
 assaulted and taken by the boats of a British squa- 
 
 dron, under commodore Bruce, 26, 27 Dec. 1851. This 
 affair arose out of breaches of a treaty for the sup- 
 pression of the slave-trade. In 1861, the place was 
 ceded to the British government, and created a set- 
 tlement : Henry Stanhope Freeman, first governor. 
 
 LAGOS BAY (Portugal). Here was fought a 
 battle between admiral Boscawen and the French 
 admiral De la Clue, who lost both his legs in the 
 engagement, and died next day, 17, 18 Aug. 1759. 
 The Centaur and Modeste were taken, and the Re- 
 doubtable and Ocean run on shore and burnt : the 
 scattered remains of the French fleet got into Cadiz. 
 
 LA HOGUE (N. W. France), Battle of, 19 
 May, 1692, when the English and Dutch fleets 
 under admirals Bussell and Kooke, defeated the 
 French fleet commanded by admiral Tourville. The 
 English burnt thirteen of the enemy's ships, and 
 destroyed eight more, thus preventing a descent 
 upon England. 
 
 LAHOEE (N. W. India), was taken by Baber 
 about 1520, and was long the capital of the Mongol 
 empire. It fell into the power of the Sikhs in 1798. 
 It was occupied by sir Hugh Gough, 22 Feb. 1846, 
 who in March concluded a treaty of peace. See 
 Durbar. 
 
 LAKE DWELLINGS contain relics of the 
 stone, iron, and brass ages. Herodotus (about 450 
 B.C.) described the Pseonians as living on platforms 
 in Lake Prasias. In 1855, Dr. Keller discovered 
 the remains of lake habitations whichhad been sup- 
 ported on piles in several Swiss lakes ages ago. His 
 book was published in England in 1866. The arti- 
 ficial fortified islands termed "Crannoges" dis- 
 covered in some Irish lakes are attributed to the 9th 
 and 10th centuries. They have been frequently 
 used as places of refuge. 
 
 LAKE POETS, a term applied to Wordsworth 
 (1770-1850), Coleridge (1772-1834), and Southey 
 (1774-1843), from their residence in the neighbour- 
 hood of the lakes of Westmoreland. 
 
 LAKE EEGILLUS (Italy), where, tradition 
 states, the Romans defeated the Latin auxiliaries of 
 the expelled Tarquins, about 499 B.C. 
 
 LAKES CHAMPLAIN, EEIE, and ON- 
 TAEIO were the scenes of many actions between 
 the British and Americans in the war of independ- 
 ence (about 1776 and 1777), and in the war of 
 1813-14. 
 
 LAMAISM, the religion of Mongolia and Thibet 
 (dating about 1357), is a corrupt form of Buddhism 
 {which see) . 
 
 LAMBETH PALACE. A considerable por- 
 tion was built early in the 13th century, by Hubert 
 Walter, archbishop of Canterbury. The tower of 
 the church was erected about 1375 ; and other parts 
 of the edifice in the 15th century. Simon of Sud- 
 bury, archbishop of Canterbury, was killed here by 
 the followers of Wat Tyler, who attacked the palace, 
 burnt the furniture and books, and destroyed the 
 registers and public papers, 14 June, 1381. The 
 domestic portion of the palace was greatly enlarged 
 for archbishop Howley (who died 1848), by Mr. 
 Blore, at an expense of 52,000^. ; see Canterbury, 
 Articles, and Pan-Anglican Synod. 
 
 L AMI AN "WAE, 323 B.C., between Athens 
 and her allies (excited by Demosthenes, the orator) , 
 and Antipater, governor of Macedon. Antipater 
 fled to Lamia, in Thessaly, and was there besieged. 
 He escaped thence and defeated his adversaries at 
 Cranon, 322 B.C. 
 
LAMMAS-DAY. 
 
 392 
 
 LANDLORD AND TENANT. 
 
 LAMMAS-DAY, the ist of August, one of our 
 four cross quarter-days of the year. "Whitsuntide 
 was the first, Lammas the second, Martinmas the 
 third, and Candlemas the last ; and such partition 
 of the year was once equally common with the pre- 
 sent divisions of Ladyday, Midsummer, Michaelmas, 
 and Christmas. Some rents are yet payable at each 
 of these quarterly days in England, and very gene- 
 rally in Scotland. Lammas probably comes from 
 the Saxon hlammcesse, loaf mass, because formerly 
 upon that day our ancestors offered bread made of 
 new wheat; anciently, those tenants that held lands 
 of the cathedral church of York were by tenure to 
 bring a lamb alive into church at high masa. 
 
 LAMPETEE COLLEGE (Cardiganshire), 
 was founded by bishop Burgess in 1822, and 
 incorporated 1828. Henry James Prince, founder 
 of the Agapemone {which see), was one of the 
 revivalist Lampeter brotherhood, instituted among 
 the students here about 1836. 
 
 LAMPS. The earthen lamp of Epictetus the 
 philosopher sold after his death for 3000 drachms, 
 161. Lamps with horn sides were the invention of 
 Alfred. London streets were first lighted with oil- 
 lamps in 1681, and with gas-lamps in 1814. A 
 lamp "constructed to produce neither smoke nor 
 smell, and to give considerably more light than any 
 lamp hitherto known," was patented by M. Aime 
 Argand in 1784, and was brought into general use 
 in England early in the present century. On his 
 principle are founded the lamps invented by Carcel 
 about 1803, and since 1825, the moderator lamps of 
 Levavasseur, Hadrot, and Neuburger. See Safety 
 Lamp. Paraffin oil and naphtha spirit are now 
 much used in lamps, 1873. 
 
 LANARK (W. Scotland), was a Eoman station, 
 and made a royal burgh 1 103. 
 
 LANCASHIRE was created a county palatine 
 hy Edward III. for his son John of Gaunt, who had 
 married the daughter of Henry first duke of Lan- 
 caster, in 1359, and succeeded him in 1361. The 
 court of the duchy chamber of Lancaster was 
 instituted in 1376. On the accession of Henry IV. 
 i n T 399 the duchy merged into the crown. Net 
 revenue to the queen in 1866, 29,000/. ; total 
 receipts, 42,545/. See Cotton. 
 
 LANCASTER, supposed to have been the 
 Ad Alaunam of the Komans. Lancaster was 
 granted by William I. or II. to Roger de Poitou, 
 who erected a castle upon its hill. It was taken 
 by the Jacobites, Nov. 1715 and Nov. 1745. It was 
 disfranchised for bribery by the Reform act of 
 1867. 
 
 LANCASTERIAN SCHOOLS, hased on a 
 system of education by means of mutual instruction, 
 devised by Joseph Lancaster about 1796, were not 
 much patronised till about 1808. The system led 
 to the formation of the British and Foreign School 
 society, in 1805, whose schools are unsectarian, and 
 use the Bible as the only means of religious instruc- 
 tion. Lancaster was accidentally killed at New 
 York in 1838. 
 
 LANCASTRIANS, see Roses. 
 
 LANCERS, see Regiments. 
 
 LANCET, a weekly medical journal, established 
 and edited by Thomas Wakley, surgeon (after- 
 wards coroner for Middlesex and M.P.for Finsoury), 
 first published 3 Oct. 1823. An injunction obtained 
 by Mr. Abernethy against the publication of his 
 lectures in the "Lancet," was dissolved by the lord 
 
 chancellor in 1825. Mr. Wakley died 16 May, 
 1862. The proprietors of the "Lancet" have at 
 various times employed medical men as commis- 
 sioners of enquiry. The reports of the Analytical 
 Sanitary Commission of the " Lancet" in 1851-54, 
 were published by Dr. A. H. Hassall, as " Food and 
 its Adulterations," in 1855. The "Lancet" com- 
 missioners (three physicians) enquired into the 
 state of workhouse infirmaries in London, 1865, and 
 in the country, 1867. 
 
 LAND was let generally in England for is. per 
 acre, 36 Hen. VIII. 1544. The whole rental of the 
 kingdom was about 6,000,000/. in 1600 ; about 
 14,000,000?. in 1688. In 1798 Mr. Pitt proposed 
 his income tax of 10 per cent, on an estimate of 
 100 millions, taking the rent of land at 50 millions, 
 that of houses at 10 millions, and the profits of 
 trade at 40 millions ; but in his estimate were 
 exempted much land, and the inferior class of 
 houses. The rental of the United Kingdom was 
 estimated at 59,500,000/. in 1851. An act for ren- 
 dering the transfer of land more easy was passed in 
 1862 ; see Agriculture. 
 
 A species of Land-tax was exacted in England in the 
 10th century, which produced 82,000?. (see Dane- 
 gelt) in . . . 1018 
 
 Land Banks were proposed by Yarranton in . . 1648 
 
 The Land-tax grew out of a subsidy scheme of 4s. in 
 the pound (which produced 500,000/. in 1692), im- 
 posed 1699 
 
 Ministers were left in a minority in the House of 
 Commons on the land-tax bill in 1767 ; it being 
 the hrst instance of the kind on a money bill 
 since the Revolution. Its rate varied in different 
 years from is. to 4s. in the pound. 
 
 Mr. Pitt made the tax perpetual at 4s. in the pound, 
 but introduced his plan for its redemption, 
 
 2 April, 1798 
 
 The tax in 1810 produced 1,418,337?. ; in 1820, 
 1,338,420?. ; in 1830, 1,423,618?. ; in 1840, 1,298,622?.; 
 in 1852, 1,151,613?. From the Revolution to the 
 year 1800, the land-tax had yielded 227,000,000?. 
 
 Land Allotments. Lord Braybrooke's successful 
 experiment in Essex, of allotting small portions 
 of land to poor families, to assist them and relieve 
 the parish poor-rates 1819 
 
 [The little colony was first called Pauper Gardens, 
 but afterwards New Village, and it is calculated 
 that 200?. per annum were saved to the parish.] 
 
 Landed Estates Court, established to "facilitate the 
 sale and transfer of land in Ireland " (see Encum- 
 bered Estates Act) 1858 
 
 The Land Registry office for transfer of land opened 
 in 1862 ; reported to be a failure by a commission, 
 
 March, 1870 
 
 Land Tenure Reform League held its first 
 meeting, John Stuart Mill in the chair, 15 May, 1871 
 
 Bill to facilitate sale aud transfer of land by means 
 of registration brought in by lord chancellor Sel- 
 borne 29 April, 1873 
 
 LAND CREDIT COMPANY (for Silesia), 
 established bv Frederick the Great ; see Credits 
 Foncib-es, 1763. 
 
 LANDEN or Neerwinden (Belgium). 
 Near here the French under marshal Luxembourg 
 defeated the allies, commanded by William III. of 
 England, chiefly through the cowardice of the 
 Dutch, 19 July (N.S. 29), 1693. The duke of Ber- 
 wick, illegitimate son of James II., fighting on the 
 side of France, was taken prisoner. 
 
 LANDGRAVE (from land and grave), a 
 count), a German title, which commenced in 1 130 
 with Louis III. of Thuringia, and became the title 
 of the house of Hesse about 1263. 
 
 LANDLORD, see Rent. 
 
 LANDLORD AND TENANT ACT (Ire- 
 land), passed 1 Aug. 1870. 
 
LANDSHUT. 
 
 393 
 
 LA PEROUSE'S VOYAGE. 
 
 LANDSHUT (Silesia), where the Prussians 
 were defeated by the Austrians under marshal 
 Laudohn, 23 June, 1760. 
 
 LANDWEHR (German, land-defence), the 
 militia of Germany, especially of Prussia, which 
 was very effective in the war with Austria in 1866, 
 and in that with France in 1870. No ranks in life 
 are exempt from this service, and many persons in 
 foreign countries returned to serve in 1870. 
 
 LANGDALES ACT, Loed, 7 Will IV. & 
 I Vict. c. 26 (1837), relates to copyholds, &c. 
 
 LANGENSALZA (N. Germany). Here the 
 Hanoverian army on its way to join the Bavarians 
 was attacked by the Prussians, who were defeated 
 with the loss of about a thousand killed and 
 wounded, and 912 prisoners, 27 June, 1866. The 
 victory was of little avail, for the Hanoverians 
 were soon surrounded by Falckenstein, and com- 
 
 Jelled to capitulate on honourable terms on 29 
 une. 
 
 LANGOBARDI, see Lombards. 
 
 LANGSLDE (S. Scotland), where the forces 
 of the regent of Scotland, the earl of Murray, de- 
 feated the army of Mary queen of Scots, 13 May, 
 1568. Mary fled to England and crossed the Solway 
 Frith, landing at "Workington, in Cumberland, 16 
 May. Soon afterwards she was imprisoned by 
 Elizabeth. 
 
 LANGUAGE must either have been revealed 
 originally from heaven, or the fruit of human 
 invention. The latter opinion is embraced by 
 Horace, Lucretius, Cicero, and most of the Greek 
 and Roman writers ; the former by the Jews and 
 Christians, and many modern philosophers. Some 
 suppose Hebrew to have been the language spoken 
 by Adam ; others say that the Hebrew, Chaldee, 
 and Arabic are only dialects of the original tongue. 
 " And the whole earth was of one language and of 
 one speech," Genesis xi. 1.* George I. in 1724, and 
 George II. in 1736, appointed regius professors of 
 modern languages and of history to each of the 
 universities of England. 
 
 The original European languages were thirteen, viz. : 
 Greek, Latin, German, Sclavonian, spoken in the east ; 
 Welsh ; Biseayan, spoken in Spain ; Irish ; Albanian, 
 in the mountains of Epirus ; Tartarian ; the old 
 IUyrian ; the Jazygian, remaining yet in Libumia ; the 
 Chaucin, in the north of Hungary ; and the Finnic, in 
 east Friesland. 
 
 From the Latin sprang the Italian, French, Spanish, and 
 Portuguese. 
 
 The Turkish is a mixed dialect of the Tartarian. 
 
 From the Teutonic sprang the present German, Danish, 
 Swedish, Norwegian, English, Scotch, &c. 
 
 There are 3424 known languages, or rather dialects, in 
 the world. Of these, 937 are Asiatic ; 587 European ; 
 276 African ; and 1624 American languages and dialects. 
 Adelung. 
 
 In 1861 and 1862 professor Max Miiller lectured on the 
 " Science of Language " at the Royal Institution, 
 London. He divides languages into three families : — 
 
 I. Aryan (in Sanskrit, noble). 
 Southern Division. India (Prakrit, and Pah ; Sanskrit ; 
 
 dialects of India ; Gipsy). 
 Iranic (Parsi ; Armenian, &c ). 
 
 Northern Division. Celtic (Cymric : Cornish, Welsh, 
 Manx, Gaelic, Breton, &c). 
 
 * Eminent Linguists. — Anas Montanus, editor of the 
 Antwerp Polyglott Bible (1527-98); sir Wm. Jones 
 (1746-94); O.mliual Giuseppe Mezzofanti (1774-1849)13 
 said, to have known 114 languages or dialects, and 50 
 well ; and Niebuhr (1776-1831) knew 20 languages in 
 1317, and more afterwards. 
 
 Italic (Oscan ; Latin ; Umbrian ; — Italian, Spanish, Por- 
 tuguese, French, &c). 
 
 Illyric (Albanian). 
 
 Hellenic (Greek, and its dialects). 
 
 Wendic (Lettic : Old Prussian ; Slavonic dialects,— 
 Bohemian, Russian, Polish, Lithuanian, &c). 
 
 Teutonic (High German : Modern German ; Low German : 
 Gothic ; Anglo-Saxon ; Dutch ; Frisian ; English. 
 Scandinavian: Old Norse, Danish, Swedish, Nor- 
 wegian, Icelandic). 
 
 II. Semitic : Southern. Arabic (including Ethiopic 
 and Amharic). Middle. Hebraic (Hebrew, Samaritan, 
 Phoenician inscriptions). Northern. Aramaic (Chaldee, 
 Syriac, Cuneiform inscriptions of Babylon and 
 Nineveh). 
 
 III. Turanian (from Tura, swiftness). 
 
 Northern Division. Tungusic (Chinese, &c.) ; Mongolic ; 
 Turkic ; Samoyedic, and Finnic. 
 
 Southern Division. Taic (Siamese, &c); (Hymalayas) ; 
 Malayic (Polynesia, &c.) ; Gangetic ; Lonitic (Bur- 
 mese, &c); Munda ; Tamulic. 
 
 LANGUE D'OC, see Troubadours. 
 
 LANGUEDOC (a province, S. France), 
 formed part of the Roman Gallia Narbonensis ; was 
 named Gothia, as having been held by the Visi- 
 goths 409, who were expelled by the Saracens, in 
 turn driven out by Charles Martel in the 8th cen- 
 tury. In the dark ages the country was named 
 Septimania (probably from its containing seven 
 important towns) : afterwards Languedoc (from its 
 dialect, see Troubadours), about 1270, when an- 
 nexed to the monarchy. It suffered during the 
 persecutions of the Albigenses and Huguenots. 
 
 LANS DOWN, near Bath (Somersetshire). 
 The parliamentary army under sir Wm. Waller was 
 here defeated, 5 July, 1643. 
 
 LANTERNS of scraped horn were invented in 
 England, it is said, by Alfred ; and it is supposed 
 that horn was used for window lights also, as glass 
 was not generally known, 872-901. Stow. London 
 was lighted by suspended lanterns with glass sides, 
 14*5- 
 
 LANTHANUM, a rare metal discovered in 
 the oxide of cerium, by Mosander in 1839. 
 
 LAOCOON, an exquisite work of Grecian art, 
 in marble, modelled by Agesander, Athenodorus, 
 and Polydorus, all of Rhodes, and other eminent 
 statuaries (about a.d. 70) ; it represents the death 
 of the Trojan hero, Laocoon, priest of Neptune, 
 and his two sons, as described by Virgil. JEneis, 
 ii. 200. It was discovered in 1 506 in the Sette 
 Salle near Eome, and purchased by pope Julius II. 
 It is now in the Vatican. 
 
 LAODICEA, see Seven Churches. 
 
 LAON (N. France). A succession of actions 
 between the allies (chiefly the Prussians) and the 
 French, was fought under the walls of the town, 
 which ended in the defeat of the latter with great 
 loss, 9-10 March, 1814. Laon surrendered to the 
 Germans 9 Sept. 1870. As the last man of the 
 garde mobile left the citadel, a French soldier, in 
 contravention of the capitulation, blew up the 
 powder magazine, causing great destruction to the 
 town and fortress. The grand-duke William of 
 Mecklenburg Schwerin was bruised, and 95 German 
 riflemen and 300 French gardes mobiles were killed 
 or wounded ; general Theremin Du Hame, the com- 
 mander, was wounded. The French attributed the 
 explosion to accident. 
 
 LA PEROUSE'S VOYAGE. In 1785 La 
 Perouse sailed from France for the Pacific, with 
 the Boussole and Astrolabe under his command, 
 
LAPLAND. 
 
 394 
 
 LA TEAPPE. 
 
 and was last heard of from Botany Bay, in March, 
 1788. Several expeditions were subsequently des- 
 patched in search of Perouse ; but no certain in- 
 formation was obtained until captain Dillon, of the 
 East India ship Research, ascertained that the 
 French ships had been cast away on the New 
 Hebrides, authenticated by articles which he 
 brought to Calcutta, 9 April, 1828. 
 
 LAPLAND or SaMELAJSTD (N. Europe), 
 nominally subject to Norway in the 13th century, 
 and now to Sweden and Russia. 
 
 LA PLATA, see Argentine Republic. 
 
 LAECENY, French, larcen ; Latin, latro- 
 cinium ; see Theft. 
 
 LAEENTALIA, see Laurentalia. 
 
 LAEGS (Ayrshire, S. Scotland). Here the 
 great expedition of Haco of Norway was finally 
 defeated by Alexander III. after a succession of 
 skirmishes, 3 Oct. 1263. 
 
 LA EOTHIEEE (France). Here the French, 
 
 commanded by Napoleon, defeated the Prussian 
 and Russian armies, with great loss after a despe- 
 rate engagement, 1 Feb. 1814. This was one of 
 Napoleon's last victories. 
 
 LAEYNGOSCOPE, an instrument consist- 
 ing of a concave mirror, by which light is thrown 
 upon a small plane mirror placed in the pos- 
 terior part of the cavity of the mouth. By its 
 means the vocal chords" of the interior of the 
 larynx, &c., are exhibited, and have been photo- 
 graphed. One constructed by Dr. Tiirck was modi- 
 fied, in 1857, by Dr. Czermak, who exhibited its 
 action in London in 1862. A similar apparatus 
 is said to have been constructed by Mr. John 
 Avery, a surgeon in London, in 1846, and used by 
 M. Garcia. 
 
 LATEEAN, a church at Rome, dedicated to 
 St. John, " the mother of all the churches," was 
 originally a palace of the Laterani, a Roman family, 
 and was given to the bishops of Rome by Coustan- 
 tine, and inhabited by them till their removal to 
 the Vatican in 1377. Eleven councils have been 
 held there. 
 
 LATHAM-HOUSE (Lancashire), was 
 heroically defended for three months against the 
 parliamentarians, by Charlotte, countess of Derby. 
 She was relieved by prince Rupert, 27 May, 1644. 
 The house was, however, surrendered 4 Dec, 1645, 
 and dismantled. 
 
 LATHE. The invention is ascribed to Talus, 
 a grandson of Daedalus, about 1240 B.C. Pliny- 
 ascribes it to Theodore of Samos, about 600 B.C. 
 Great improvements have been made in recent 
 times. 
 
 . LATIN KINGDOM, Empire, &c, see La- 
 tittm, Eastern Empire 1204, and Jerusalem. 
 
 LATIN LANGUAGE (founded on the Oscan, 
 Etruscan, and Greek), one of the original languages 
 of Europe, and from which sprang the Italian, 
 French, and Spanish ; see Latium. A large por- 
 tion of our language is derived from the Latin. 
 It ceased to be spoken in Italy about 581 ; and was 
 first taught in England by Adelmus, brother of 
 Ina, in the 7th century. The use of Latin in law 
 deeds in England gave way to the common tongue 
 about 1000 ; was revived in the reign of Henry II. ; 
 and again was replaced by English in the reign of 
 Henry III. It was finally discontinued in religious 
 
 worship in 1558, and in conveyancing and in courts 
 of law in 1731 (by 4 Geo. II. c. 25). A corrupt 
 Latin is still spoken in Roumelia. 
 
 Plautus 
 
 Ennius 
 
 PRINCIPAL LATIN WRITERS. 
 
 Died 
 
 B.C. 184 
 
 69 
 
 (flourished) 166 
 
 • • 149 
 
 . 103 
 
 . . 52 
 
 Terence 
 
 Cato the Elder .... 
 
 Lucilius 
 
 Lucretius 
 
 Julius Casar .... 
 
 Cicero 43 
 
 Catullus "... 40 
 
 Sallust 34 
 
 Yitruvius (flourished) 27 
 
 Propertius 26 
 
 Virgil 19 
 
 Tibullus 18 
 
 Horace 8 
 
 Celsus (flourished) a.d. 17 
 
 Livy 18 
 
 Ovid 18 
 
 Paterculus 31 
 
 Persius 62 
 
 Lucan 65 
 
 Seneca 65 
 
 Pliny the Elder 79 
 
 Quintilian (flourished) 80 
 
 Valerius Flaccus ,, . 81 
 
 Pliny the Younger „ 100 
 
 Statius (about) 100 
 
 Tacitus (flourished) 100 
 
 Silius Italicus 101 
 
 Martial (flourished) 104 
 
 Suetonius (about) 120 
 
 Juvenal 128 
 
 Aulas Gellius (flourished) 169 
 
 Apuleius 174 
 
 Ammianus Marcellinus 390 
 
 Claudian 408 
 
 IVIacrobius 415 
 
 Boethius 524 
 
 (See Fathers of the Church). 
 
 LATITAT, an ancient writ, directing the 
 sheriff to apprehend persons to be brought before 
 the king's bench court, had its name from its being 
 supposed that the person was lying hid, and could 
 not be found in the county to be taken by bill. 
 The writ was abolished by the Uniformity of Pro- 
 cess act, 23 May, 1832. 
 
 LATITUDE. First determined by Hippar- 
 chus of Nice, about 162 B.C. It is the extent of 
 the earth or the heavens, reckoned from the equa- 
 tor to either pole. Maupertuis, in 1737, in latitude 
 66 - 20 measured a degree of latitude, and made it 
 69-493 miles. Swanberg, in 1803, made it 69-292. 
 At the equator, in 1744, four astronomers made it 
 68-732; and Lambton, in latitude 12, made it 61 -743. 
 Mudge, in England, made it 69-148. Cassini, in 
 France, in 1718 and 1740, made it 69-12 ; and Biot, 
 68-769 ; while a recent measurement in Spain makes 
 it but 68-63 — l ess than at the equator, and contra- 
 dicts all others, proving the earth to be a prolate 
 spheroid (which was the opinion of Cassini, Ber- 
 noulli, Euler, and others), instead of an oblate 
 spheroid ; see Longitude. 
 
 LATITUDINAEIANS, a name given to 
 certain theologians who endeavoured to reconcile 
 the church and nonconformists in the 17th cen- 
 tury, such as Hales, Chillingworth, Tillotson, and 
 Burnet. 
 
 LATIUM, now CAMPANIA (Italy), the coun- 
 try of Latinus, king of Janiculum, 1240 B.C. 
 Laurentum was the capital of the country in the 
 reign of Latinus, Lavinium in that of JEneas, and 
 Alba in that of Ascanius ; see Italy, and Rome. 
 
 LA TEAPPE, see Trappists. 
 
LATTEE-DAY SAINTS. 
 
 395 
 
 LAW. 
 
 LATTER-DAY SAINTS, see Mormonites. 
 
 LAUDANUM, see Opium. 
 
 LAUENBUEG, a duchy, N. Germany ; was 
 conquered from the Wends by Henry the Lion of 
 Saxony, about 1152; ceded to Hanover, 1689; in- 
 corporated with the French empire, 1810 ; ceded to 
 Denmark, 1815 ; annexed by t Prussia, 14 Aug. 1865 ; 
 possession taken 15 Sept. following; see Qastein. 
 Population in 1855, 50,147. 
 
 LAUFACH, Bavaria (S. W. Germany), was 
 taken by the Prussians under Wr angel, on 13 July, 
 1866, after a sharp action, in which the Hessians 
 were defeated, the Prussian needle gun being very 
 efficacious. 
 
 LAUEEATE, see Poet Laureate. 
 
 LAUEEL was sacred to Apollo, god of poetry ; 
 and from the earliest times the poets and generals 
 of armies, when victors, were crowned with laurel. 
 Petrarch was crowned with laurel, 8 April, 1341. — 
 The Prunus laurocerasus was brought to Britain 
 from the Levant, before 1629 ; the Portugal laurel, 
 Prunus lusitanica, before 1648 ; the royal bay, 
 Laurus indica, from Madeira, 1665 ; the Alexan- 
 drian laurel, Ruscus racemosus, from Spain, before 
 1 7 13; the glaucous laurel, Laurus aggregata, from 
 China, 1 806 or 182 1. 
 
 LAUEENTALIA were festivals celebrated at 
 Eome in honour of Acca Laurentia, or Larentia, 
 said to have been either the nurse of Bomulus and 
 Eemus, or a rich dissolute woman, who bequeathed 
 her property to the Koman people. The festival 
 commenced about 621 B.C., and was held on the 
 last day of April and the 23rd of December. 
 
 LAUEIUM MINES, see Greece, 1872. 
 
 LAUEUSTINUS, Viburnum Times, an ever- 
 green shrub, was brought to England from the 
 south of Europe, before 1596. 
 
 LAUSANNE, capital of the canton of Vaud, 
 Switzerland. Here Gibbon completed his " Decline 
 and Fall," 27 June, 1787. The International 
 Workmen's congress assembled here Sept. 1867. 
 
 LA VALETTA, see Malta. 
 
 LAVALETTE'S ESCAPE. Count Lava- 
 lette, for joining the emperor Napoleon on his 
 return in 1815, was condemned to death, but escaped 
 from prison in the clothes of his wife, 20 Dec. 1815. 
 Sir Eobert Wilson, Mr. Michael Bruce, and captain 
 J. H. Hutchinson, aiding the escape, were sen- 
 tenced to three months' imprisonment in the 
 French capital, 24 April, 1816. Lavalette was per- 
 mitted to return to France in 1820, and died in 
 retirement in 1 830. 
 
 LA VENDEE ^(W. France). The French 
 royalists of La Vendee took arms in March, 1793, 
 and were successful in a number of hard-fought 
 battles with the republicans, between 12 July, 
 1793, and I Jan. 1794, when they experienced a 
 severe reverse. Their leader, Henri comte de La- 
 rochejaquelin, was killed, 4 March, 1794. A short 
 peace was made at la Jaunay, 17 Feb. 1795. The 
 war was terminated by gen. Hoche in 1796. and a 
 treaty of peace was signed at Luqon, 17 Jan. 1800 ; 
 see Chouans. 
 
 LA VENDEE, Lavandula spica, brought from 
 the south of Europe, before 1568. 
 
 LAW, see Canons, Codes, Common Laiu, Civil 
 Law, Digest. The Jewish law was given by God, 
 and promulgated by Moses, 1491 B.C. 
 
 The laws of Phoroneus, in the kingdom of Argos 
 (1807 B.C.) were the first Attic laws ; they were 
 reduced to a system by Draco, for the Athenians, 
 623 b. c. ; whose code was superseded by that of 
 Solon, 594 b. c. 
 
 The Spartan laws of Lycurgus were made about 
 844 b. 0. ; they remained in full force for about 
 700 years, and formed a race totally different from 
 all others living in civilised society. 
 
 The Roman laws of Servius Tullius 566 B.C. were 
 amended by the Twelve Tables published in 449 
 b.c, and remained in force till Justinian, nearly 
 a thousand years. 
 
 BRITISH LAWS. 
 
 The British laws of earliest date were translated 
 
 into the Saxon in A.D. 590 
 
 Saxon laws of Ina published about . . . . 690 
 Alfred's code of laws, the foundation of the common 
 law of England, is said to have been arranged 
 
 about 886 
 Edward the Confessor collected the laws . 1050-1065 
 Stephen's charter of general liberties . . . 1136 
 Henry II. 's confirmation of it . . 1154 and 11 75 
 The maritime laws of Richard I. (see Oleron) . . 119s 
 Magna Charta, by king John, 1215 ; confirmed by 
 Henry III. 1216 et stsq. (see Magna Charta, and 
 Forests Charter). 
 Lord Mansfield, lord chief justice of the king's 
 bench, declared, "That no fiction of law shall 
 ever so far prevail against the real truth of the 
 fact, as to prevent the execution of justice," 
 
 21 May, 1784 
 
 LAWYERS. 
 
 Pleaders of the bar, or barristers, are said to have 
 
 been first appointed by Edward 1 1291 
 
 " No man of the law " to sit in parliament, by stat. 
 
 of 46 Edward III. and 6 Hen. IV. . . . 1372 
 
 This prohibition was declared to be invalid by Coke 
 and unconstitutional by Blaekstone; attention was 
 drawn to it in July, 1871 ; and the statutes were 
 
 repealed 1871 
 
 Serjeants, the highest members of the bar, were alone 
 permitted to plead in the court of common pleas. 
 The first king's counsel under the degree of Ser- 
 jeant was sir Francis Bacon, in ... . 1604' 
 Law Association charity for widows founded in . 1817 
 Incorporated Law Society formed in 1823 ; plan en- 
 larged, 1825 : a charter obtained, 1831 ; renewed, 
 1845. The building in Chancery-lane, from the 
 designs of Vulliamy, was commenced in . . . 1829 
 Juridical Society established in ... . 1855 
 A professorship of International law, at Cambridge, 
 endowed by bequest of Dr. Win. Whewell, master 
 
 of Trin. Coll 1867 
 
 Law Times, established .... 8 April, 1843 
 
 Law Journal Jan. 1866 
 
 The establishment of a legal university strongly 
 
 advocated by the lord chancellor and others, Jan. 1871 
 The council of legal education put forth a scheme 
 involving many changes .... Nov. 1872 
 See Barrister, Counsel. 
 
 LAW REFORM. 
 
 Law Amendment Society, founded in 1843. It holds 
 meetings during the session of parliament, and pub- 
 lishes a journal and reports. Its first chairman was 
 lord Brougham, who introduced the subject of Law 
 Reform by a most eloquent speech in the house of 
 commons, on 7 Feb. 1828. Many acts for Law Reform 
 have been passed since, and vigorous measures pro- 
 posed. 
 
 Royal commission to inquire into the operation and con- 
 stitution of the English courts of law, &c. issued iS 
 Sept. 1867. 
 
 The Judicature Commission (appointed 1867) recom- 
 mended the consolidation of all the superior courts, 
 into one supreme court divided into chambers, April, 
 1869. 
 
 The High Court of Justice Bill introduced into the house- 
 of lords 18 March, 1870, was dropped near the end of 
 the session. 
 
 Bill introduced by lord chancellor Selbornefor establish- 
 ing : 1, a High Court of Justice, with 21 judges ; 
 
LAWS BUBBLE. 
 
 396 
 
 LEAP-YEAR. 
 
 four divisions, queen's bench, court of chancery, com- 
 mon pleas, and exchequer ; lord chief justice presi- 
 dent : other changes, including also a high court of 
 appeal (lord chancellor ; presidents of law courts : 
 law lords, and others), 13 Feb. 1873. 
 
 Xiaw-Courts.— Commissioners appointed in 1859 reported 
 in favour of the concentration of the law-courts in 
 Loudon, on a site near Carey-street, Chancery-lane. 
 The estimated expense was about 1,500,000^., which it 
 was recommended to take from the accumulated 
 Chancery fund, termed " Suitors' fund." Acts of par- 
 liament to carry out the plan were passed in 1865 and 
 1866. 
 
 •Competitive designs were invited, and after much dis- 
 cussion (public and professional), Mr. Street's design 
 was accepted ; but much attacked, 1871-2. 
 
 Xaw Reports : A new and more economical plan of 
 preparing and publishing law reports was finally 
 adopted by a committee of hamsters on 11 March, 1865 
 (see Year-hooks). 
 
 Expenditure for law and justice from the public purse ex- 
 clusive of county rates, in the year 1865-6, 2,344,5402. 
 
 LAW S BUBBLE. John Law, of Edinburgh 
 (born 1681), was made comptroller-general of the 
 finances of France, upon the strength of a scheme 
 for establishing a bank, and an East India and a 
 Mississippi company, by the profits of which the 
 national debt of France was to be paid off. See 
 Mississippi. He first offered his plan to Victor 
 Amadeus, king of Sardinia, who told him he was 
 not powerful enough to ruin himself. The French 
 ministry accepted it; and in 1 7 16, he opened a 
 bank in his own name, under the protection of the 
 duke of Orleans, regent of France ; and the de- 
 luded rich subscribed for shares both in the bank 
 and the companies. In 1718 Law's was declared 
 ;a royal bank, and the _shares rose to upwards of 
 twenty-fold the original value; so that, in 1719, 
 they were worth more than eighty times the amount 
 •of all the current specie in France. In 1720 this 
 fabric of false credit fell to the ground, spreading 
 rain throughout the country. Law died in poverty 
 at Venice in 1729. — The South Sea Bubble in Eng- 
 land occurred in 1720; see South Sea. 
 
 LAYAMON'S BRUT, or Chronicle of Britain, 
 a pottical semi-Saxon paraphrase of the Brut of 
 "Wace, made between 1100 and 1230, was published 
 •with a literal translation by sir Frederick Madden, 
 in 1847. 
 
 LAYBACH (near Trieste, in Ill)Tia) . A con- 
 gress met here in Jan. 1821, and was attended by 
 the sovereigns of Austria, Russia, Prussia, and 
 .Naples. It broke up in May, after having issued 
 two circulars, stating it to be their resolution to 
 ■occupy Naples with Austrian troops, and put down 
 popular insurrections. 
 
 LAYER'S CONSPIRACY. Christopher 
 Layer, a barrister, conspired with other persons to 
 ■seize George L, the prince of Wales, lord Cadogan, 
 and the principal officers of state, to seize the tower, 
 to plunder the bank, and bring in the Pretender. 
 Layer was hanged, 17 May, 1 723. Bishop Atter- 
 bury was accused of complicity and attainted, but 
 permitted to quit the country. 
 
 LAZARISTS (the Priests of the Mission), a 
 congregation devoted to education, founded by St. 
 Vincent de Paul, 1625, were so named from their 
 •first establishment in a house which once belonged 
 to the military order of St. Lazarus. They are also 
 •called Vincentines. 
 
 LAZARO, ST. (N. Italy). Here the king of 
 Sardinia and the Imperialists defeated the French 
 
 and Spaniards after a long and severe conflict, 4 
 June, 1746. 
 
 LAZZARONI (from lazzdro, Spanish for a 
 pauper or leper), a term applied by the Spanish 
 viceroys to the degraded beings in Naples, half- 
 clothed and houseless. No man was born a lazzaro ; 
 and he who turned to a trade ceased to be one. The 
 viceroy permitted the lazzaroni to elect a chief with 
 whom he conferred respecting the imposts on the 
 goods brought to the markets. In 1647, Masaniello 
 held the office, and made an insurrection; see 
 Naples. In 1793, Ferdinand IV. enrolled several 
 thousands of lazzaroni as [pikemen (spontoneers), 
 who generally favoured the court party ; on 15 
 May, 1848, they were permitted, on the king's 
 behalf, to commit fearful ravages on the ill-fated 
 city. — Colletta. 
 
 LEAD is found in various countries, and is 
 abundant in various parts of Britain, and in some 
 places richly mixed with silver ore. The famous 
 Clydesdale mines were discovered in 15 13. Pattin- 
 son's valuable method for extracting the silver was 
 made known in 1829. The lead-mines of Cumber- 
 land and Derbyshire yield about 15,000 tons per 
 annuni. British mines produced 65,529 tons of 
 lead in 1855; 69,266 tons in 1857; 67,181 tons in 
 1865 ; 73,420 tons in 1870. 
 Leaden pipes for the conveyance of water were 
 
 brought into use in 1236 
 
 In 1859, 23,690 tons of pig and sheet lead were 
 
 imported, and 18,414 tons exported ; in 1866, 36,446 
 
 tons imported ; 25,291 tons exported in . . 1866 
 
 LEADENHALL MARKET, London, 
 founded by sir Richard Whittington, in 1408, and 
 presented to the city. A granarv was added by sir 
 Simon Cope, lord mayor, 1419. 
 
 LEAGUES. Four kings combined to make 
 war against five, about 1913 B.C. {Gen. xiv.) The 
 kings of Canaan combined against the invasion 
 of the Israelites, 1451 b.c. The more emi- 
 nent Greek leagues were the Jitoliau, powerful 
 about 320 B.C., which lasted till 189 b.c, and the 
 Achoean, revived 280 B.C., which was broken up by 
 the conquest of Greece by the Bomans, 146 B.C. 
 The fall of these leagues was hastened by dissension. 
 
 Hanseatic league 1140 
 
 Lombard leagues against the emperors (see Lom- 
 bards) 1176 and 1226 
 
 Caddee league (which see) . . about 1400 etseq. 
 
 League of the Public Good was formed in Dec. 1464, 
 by the dukes of Calabria, Brittany, and Bourbon, 
 and other princes against Louis, XI. of France, 
 under pretext of reforming abuses ; an indecisive 
 battle was fought at Monthleri, 16 July ; and a 
 treaty was signed 25 Oct. 1465 
 
 League of Cambray against Venice .... 1508 
 
 Holy League (the pope, Venice, &c), against 
 Louis XII 1510 
 
 League of Smalcald 1530 
 
 League of the Beggars (Gueiuc) ; the protestauts so 
 called (though Roman Catholici joined the league) 
 to oppose the institution of the Inquisition in 
 Flanders 1566 
 
 The Holy League, to prevent the accession of 
 Henry IV. of France, who was then of the re- 
 formed religion, was formed at Peronne and lasted 
 tin Henry embraced Romanism . . . 1576-93 
 
 League of Wurtzburg, by Catholics ; of Halle, by 
 Protestants 1610 
 
 League against the emperor 1626 
 
 Solemn League and Covenant in Scotland, against 
 the episcopal government of the Church (see 
 Covenant) 1638 
 
 League of Augsburg against France .... 1686 
 
 LEAP-YEAR or Bissextile, originated 
 
 with the astronomers of Julius Cassar, 45 B.C. They 
 fixed the solar year at 365 days, 6 hours, compri- 
 
LEARNING. 
 
 397 
 
 LEGION. 
 
 sing, as they thought, the period from one vernal 
 equinox to another ; the six hours were set aside, 
 and at the end of four years, forming a day, the 
 fourth year was made to consist of 366 days. The 
 day thus added was called intercalary, and was 
 placed a day before the 24th of February, the sixth 
 of the calends, which Avas reckoned twice, hence 
 called bissextile or twice sixth. This added day 
 with us is Feb. 29th ; see Calendar. This arrange- 
 ment makes the year nearly three minutes longer 
 than the astronomical year : to obviate this, 1700 
 and 1800 were not, and 1900 will not be leap-years, 
 but 2000 will be one; see Julian Year, Gregorian 
 Calendar, &c. 
 
 LEARNING AND the Arts flourished 
 among the Greeks, especially under Pisistratus, 
 537 B.C., and under Pericles, 444 B.C. ; and with 
 the Romans at the commencement of the Christian 
 era, under Augustus. The Greek refugees caused 
 their revival in Italy, particularly after the taking of 
 Constantinople by the Turks in 1453, and the inven- 
 tion of printing shortly before, — the period of the Re- 
 naissance. Leo X. and his family (the Medici) greatly 
 promoted learning in Italy, in the 16th century ; 
 when literature revived in France, Germany, and 
 England ; see Literature, and authors under Greek, 
 Latin, English, and other languages. 
 
 LEASE (from the French laisser, to let), a kind 
 of conveyance invented by serjeant Moore, soon 
 after the statute of uses, 27 Henry VIII. 1535. 
 Acts relating to leases were passed in 1856 and 
 1858. 
 
 LEATHER was very early known in Egypt 
 and Greece, and the thongs of manufactured hides 
 were used for ropes, harness, &c, by all ancient 
 nations. The Gordian knot was made of leather 
 thongs, 330 B.C. A leather cannon was proved at 
 Edinburgh, fired three times, and found to answer, 
 23 Oct. 1778. Phillips. The duty on leather im- 
 posed 1697, produced annually in England, 
 450,000?. and in Ireland about 50,000?. It was 
 abolished, 29 May, 1830. Many bankruptcies were 
 declared in the leather trade, in the autumn of i860 
 in England. In the case of Lawrence, Mortimore, 
 and Co., enormous fraudulent dealings in bills were 
 disclosed. A plan for making artificial leather out 
 of cuttings, &c, was made known in i860. — 
 Leather cloth (invented by Messrs. Crockell, of 
 Newark, U.S., and patented in 1849) is unbleached 
 cotton coated with a mixture of boiled linseed oil and 
 turpentine, and coloured. An exhibition of leather 
 manufactures at Northampton in the autumn, an- 
 nounced, (May, 1873). 
 
 LECH, a river, S. Germany, near which at a 
 village named Rain the cruel imperialist general 
 Tilly was defeated by the Swedes, under Gustavus 
 Adolphus, 5 April, 1632, and died of his wounds. 
 
 LECTIONARY, the Romish service-book 
 containing lessons from the Bible : see Common 
 Prayer. 
 
 LECTURES. Those on Physic were instituted 
 by Dr. Thomas Linacre, of the College of Physicians 
 (founded by Henry VIII.) about 1502. Clinical 
 lectures, at the bed-side of the patient, were begun 
 by sir B. C. Brodie (1813-17) ; Mr. G. Macilwain, 
 about 1824, gave surgical clinical lectures in con- 
 nection with a dispensary ; see Gresham College, 
 Boyle's Lectures, Royal and London Lnstitutions, 
 &c. The political lectures of Thelwall, commenced in 
 Jan. 1795, were interdicted by an act of parliament. 
 In the autumn of 1857 and since, many distinguished 
 noblemen and gentlemen lectured at mechanics' 
 institutes. An act passed in 1835 prohibited the 
 
 publication of lectures without the consent of the- 
 lecturers. 
 
 LEEDS (Yorkshire), the Saxon Loidis, once a 
 Roman station, received a charter in 1627. Popu- 
 lation in 1861, 207,165 ; in 1871, 259,212. 
 Shenfield's grammar school founded . . . . 1552 
 Coloured Cloth hall built 1758 ; White Cloth hall . i 77S . 
 Literary and Philosophical society estahlished . 1820 
 Enfranchised by the Eeform act (2 members) . . 1832. 
 Magnificent new town-hall opened by the queen, 
 
 and the mayor, Peter Fairbairn, knighted 7 Sept. 1858 
 British Association met here . . . Sept. ,, 
 Great Keform meeting ; Mr. Bright there 8 Oct. 1866 
 An additional M.P. given to Leeds by Reform act, 
 
 15 Aug. 1867- 
 Exhibition of art treasures, opened by the prince 
 
 of Wales, 19 May, closed .... 31 Oct. 1868. 
 Roundhay-park inaugurated as a public park by 
 
 prince Arthur, and new exchange founded, 
 
 19, 20 Sept. 1872 
 Church congress met .... 8-11 Oct. „ 
 
 LEEK, the "Welsh emblem, in consequence of a. 
 command from Dewi or David, afterwards arch- 
 bishop of St. David's, in 519. On the day that, 
 king Arthur won a great victory over the Saxons,. 
 Dewi is said to have ordered the soldiers to place a. 
 leek in their caps. 
 
 LEESBURG HEIGHTS, see Pall's Pluff. 
 
 LEEWARD ISLES, West Indies : Antigua,. 
 Barbuda, Montserrat, St. Christopher's, Nevis,. 
 Anguilla, Virgin Isles, and Dominica. Governor- 
 general of the British Isles, col. Stephen John Hill, 
 1863. Sir B. C. C. Pine, 1869. An act for their 
 federation passed 21 Aug. 1871. 
 
 LEGACIES. In 1780 receipts for legacies-- 
 were subjected to a stamp duty, and in 1796 the 
 legacy duty was imposed. The impost was increased 
 several times subsequently, particularly in 1805, 
 1808, and 1845. In 1853 the legacy duty was 
 extended to landed or real property; see Succes- 
 sion Duty Act, and "Wills. John Camden Neild, 
 an eccentric miser, died 30 Aug. 1852, bequeathing 
 about 250,000?. to the queen. Received for legacy 
 and succession duties in year 1870-1, 2,963,372! 
 
 LEGATES (legatus). Roman ambassadors;, 
 and also governors of the provinces into which 
 Augustus divided the empire, 27 B.C. Legates are 
 also ambassadors from the pope. The legate's 
 court in England, erected in 15 16 by cardinal 
 Wolsey, to prove wills, and for the trial of offences- 
 against the spiritual laws, was soon discontinued. 
 
 LEGATIONS were the twenty administrative 
 divisions in the states of the church, governed by 
 legates. They rebelled in 1859-60, and are now- 
 included in the kingdom of Italy ; see Rome. 
 
 LEGHORN, Livorno, Tuscany, a mere village 
 in the 15th century, owes its prosperity to the- 
 Medici family. It suffered dreadfully by an 
 earthquake in 1741 ; and was entered by the French 
 army, 27 July, 1796, but the British property had 
 been removed. It was held by the French 1796-9. 
 and retaken, 1800. It was unsuccessfully attacked 
 by the British and Italian forces in Dec. 1813. 
 The Austrians took this city from the insurgents, 
 12, 13 May, 1849, and quelled a slight insurrection, 
 July, 1857. In June, 1857, above 60 persons were 
 killed at the theatre, through an alarm of fire ; see- 
 Tuscany. 
 
 LEGION, Legio, a corps of soldiers in the 
 Roman armies, first formed by Romulus, when it 
 consisted of 3000 foot and 300 horse, about 720 B.C. 
 When Hannibal was in Italy, 216 B.C., the legion 
 consisted of 5200 soldiers; and under Marius, in 
 88 B.C., it was 6200 soldiers besides 700 horse. 
 
LEGION OF HONOITK. 
 
 398 
 
 LEON. 
 
 There were ten, and sometimes as many as eighteen, 
 legions kept at Rome. Augustus had a standing- 
 army of 45 legions, together with 25,000 horse and 
 37,000 light-armed troops, about 5 B.C. ; and the 
 peace establishment of Adrian was thirty of these 
 formidable brigades. A legion was divided into ten 
 cohorts, and every cohort into six centuries, with a 
 vexillum, or standard, guarded by ten men. The 
 peace of Britain was protected by three legions. 
 The French army has been divided into legions 
 since Francis I. See Thundering Legion. 
 
 LEGION OF HONOUE, a French order 
 embracing the army, civil officers, and other indi- 
 viduals distinguished for services to the state; 
 instituted by Napoleon Bonaparte, when first consul, 
 19 May, 1802. The order was confirmed by Louis 
 XVIlf. in 1815, and its constitution modified in 
 1816 and 185 1. The honour was conferred on many 
 British subjects who distinguished themselves in 
 the Russian war, 1854-6, and in the Paris exhibitions 
 of 1855 and 1867. The palace and offices were burnt 
 "by the communalists, 23 May, 1871. 
 
 LEGITIMISTS, a term (since 1814) applied 
 to those who support the claims of the elder branch 
 of the Bourbon family to the throne of France: 
 whose present representative is Henry, due de 
 Bordeaux, called comte de Chambord, bom 29 Sept, 
 1820. They held a congress at Lucerne on 24-29 
 June, 1862, and agreed to continue a pacific policy. 
 The party was active in Feb. 1 87 1. Their efforts to 
 recover power have proved ineffectual ; see France. 
 
 LEGNAGO, a fortress on the Adige, N. Italy, 
 • one of the Quadrilateral. It was captured by the 
 French in 1796; but reverted to the Austrians in 
 1815. It was surrendered to the Italians in Oct. 
 1866. 
 
 LEGNANO, Lombardy. Here the emperor 
 Frederick Barbarossa was defeated by the Milanese 
 .and their allies 29 May, 1 176, and the treaty of Con- 
 stance ensued in 1183. 
 
 LEICESTEE (central England), a bishopric 
 for a short time in the 8th century, returned two 
 members to parliament in the reign of Edward I. 
 Here Richard III. was buried 25 Aug. 1485; and 
 here cardinal Wolsey died, 29 Nov. 1530. During 
 the civil war, Leicester was taken by Charles I. 31 
 May, and by Fairfax, 17 June, 1645. The stocking 
 manufacture was introduced in 1680. 
 
 LEIGHLIN (W. Carlow), a see founded by 
 St. Laserian, about 628. Burchard, the Norwegian, 
 the son of Garmond, founded or endowed the priory 
 ■of St. Stephen of Leighlin. Bishop Doran, appointed 
 in 1523, was murdered by his archdeacon, Maurice 
 ■Cavcnagh, who was hanged on the spot where the 
 crime was committed. Beaison. In 1600 Leighlin 
 was united to Ferns; the combined see united to 
 "Ossory in 1835 ; see Farm and Bishops. 
 
 LEININGEN (or Linange), a principality 
 partly in Bavaria, Baden, and Hesse, mediatised in 
 1806. The present prince Ernest, born 9 Nov. 1830, 
 a captain in the British navy, is the son of prince 
 Charles, the half-brother of queen Victoria. Feodore, 
 dowager princess of Hohenlohe Langenburg, the 
 queen's half-sister, died 23 Sept. 1872, aged nearly 
 •65. The first husband of the duchess of Kent, 
 prince Enrich of Leiningen, died 4 July, 1814. 
 
 LEINSTEE, a kingdom in 1167, now one of 
 the four provinces of Ireland, divided into four 
 archbishoprics by pope Eugcnius III., at a national 
 synod, held at Kells, 9 March, 1151-2, and in which 
 his holiness «as represented by cardinal Paparo. 
 The abduction of Devorgilla, wife of O'Ruare, a 
 
 lord of Connaught, by Dermot king of Leinster in 
 1 152, is asserted to have led to the landing of the 
 English and the subsequent conquest, The province 
 of Leinster gave the title of duke to Schomberg's 
 son in 1690. The title became extinct in 1 7 19, and 
 was conferred on the family of Fitzgerald in 1766. 
 
 LEIPSIC (Saxony), an ancient city, famous 
 for its university (founded 1409) and its fair (1458). 
 At Breitenfeld, near here, Gustavus Adolphus, king 
 of Sweden, defeated the Imperialists, under Tilly, 
 7 Sept. 1 63 1 ; and the Imperialists were again 
 defeated here by the Swedes, under Torstensen, 23 
 Oct. 1642. Here took place, on 16, 18, 19 Oct. 1813, 
 "the battle of the nations" between the French 
 army and its allies, commanded by Napoleon 
 (160,000), and the Austrian, Russian, and Prussian 
 armies (240,000 strong). The French were beaten 
 chiefly owing to 17 Saxon battalions, then - allies, 
 turning upon them in the heat of the engagement. 
 80,000 men perished on the field, of whom more 
 than 40,000 were French, who also lost 65 pieces of 
 artillery, and many standards. The victory' was 
 followed by the capture of Leipsic, of the rear 
 guard of the French army, and of the king of Saxony 
 and his family. The 50th anniversary was cele- 
 brated 18 Oct. "1863. Tne Leipsic book fair began 
 1545- 
 
 LEITH, the port of Edinburgh, was burnt by 
 the earl of Hertford in 1544. It was fortified by the 
 French partisans of queen Mary in 1 560, and 
 surrendered to the English. The " Agreement of 
 Leith" between the superintendents and ministers 
 was made, Jan. 1572. The docks were begun 
 1720. 
 
 LEITH A, a river dividing the Austrian terri- 
 tories ; see Austria. 
 
 LELEGES, a Pelasgic tribe which inhabited 
 Laconia about 1490 B.C., and after many contests 
 merged into the Hellenes. 
 
 LE MANS, a French city, department of the 
 Sarthe. Here the retreating French general Chanzy 
 was overtaken and defeated by the Germans under 
 prince Frederick Charles and the grand-duke of 
 Mecklenburg, after some conflicts : 10, II Jan. 187 1. 
 Le Mans was entered 12 Jan. In six days' fighting 
 about 22,000 French made prisoners. 
 
 LEMUEES. The ancients supposed that the 
 soul, after death, wandered over the world, and 
 disturbed the peace of the living. The happy 
 spirits were called Lares familiares, and the 
 unhappy, Lemures. The Roman festival, Lemu- 
 ralia, kept on 9, 11, 13 May, is said to have been 
 instituted by Romulus about 747 B.C., to propitiate 
 the spirit of the slaughtered Remus. 
 
 LENT (from the Saxon, lencten, spring). The 
 forty days' fast observed in the Roman catholic 
 church from Ash-Wednesday to Easter-day, said to 
 have been instituted by pope Telesphorus, 130. In 
 early times Lent commenced on the Sunday, now 
 called the first Sunday' in Lent ; and the four days 
 beginning with Ash- Wednesday were added by pope 
 Felix III., in 487, in order that the fasting days 
 should amount to forty. Lent was first observed in 
 England by command of Ercombert, king of Kent, 
 in 640 or 641. Baker's Chron. Flesh was prohibited 
 during Lent ; but Henry VIII. permitted the use of 
 white meats by a proclamation in 1543, which con- 
 tinued in force until, by proclamation of James I., 
 in 1619 and 1625, and by Charles I., in 1627 and 
 1631, flesh was again wholly forbidden ; see Ash- 
 Wecln esclay .Qua dragesin 1 a . 
 
 LEON, KINGDOM OF, see under Spain. 
 
LEONAEDS. 
 
 399 
 
 LEWES. 
 
 LEONAEDS' ACTS, Lord St., 22 & 23 
 Vict. c. 35 ; 23 &24 Vict. c. 38 (1859-60), relate to 
 legal proceedings. 
 
 LEONINE CITY (Cittd Leonina or Borgo), 
 formerly a suburb, now included in the city of 
 Rome, was founded by Leo IV., pope 847-55, and 
 named Leopolis. It comprehends the castle of St. 
 Angelo, the hospital of San Spirito, the Vatican 
 palace and gardens, and St. Peter's. Its possession 
 was allotted to pope Pius IX. when tbe Italian roj r al 
 troops entered Kome, 20 Sept. 1870. About 1500 
 inhabitants of the Leonine city voted for union with 
 the kingdom of Italy, 2 Oct. 1870. 
 
 LEONINES, hexameter and pentameter verses, 
 rhyming at the middle and the end, are said to have 
 been first made by Leoninus, a canon, about the 
 middle of the 12th century, or by pope Leo II. 
 about 682. 
 
 LEPANTO (near Corinth), Battle of, 7 Oct. 
 1571: when the combined fleets of Spain, Venice, 
 Genoa, Malta, and Pius V., commanded by don 
 John of Austria, defeated the whole maritime force 
 of the Turks, and completely checked their pro- 
 gress. 
 
 LEPEOS Y, a skin disease described in Leviticus 
 xiii. (b.c. 1490), which prevailed in ancient times 
 throughout Asia. It has now almost disappeared 
 from Europe. It chiefly affected the lower classes, 
 yet occasionally proved fatal to the very highest 
 personages. Eobert Bruce of Scotland died of leprosy 
 in 1329. A hospital for lepers was founded at 
 Granada, by queen Isabella of Castile, about 1504, 
 and a large number of leper houses were founded in 
 Britain. Dr. Edmondson met with a case in Edin- 
 burgh in 1809. 
 
 LEELDA, the ancient Ilerda, E. Spain, founded 
 by the Carthaginians. Near it Julius Caesar de- 
 feated Pompey's lieutenants, 49 B.C. It was made 
 the residence of the kings of Aragon, 1 149. It was 
 captured for Philip V. by the French under the duke 
 of Orleans, 13 Oct. 1707, and by Suchet, 13 May, 
 1810. 
 
 LESSONS, see Common Prayer. 
 
 LETTEES, see Alphabet, Anonymous, Belles 
 Lettres, Copying Machine, Epistles, Literature, 
 Marque, and Privateers. 
 
 . LETTEES DE CACHET, sealed letters 
 issued by the kings of France since about 1670, by 
 virtue of which those persons against whom they 
 were directed were thrown into prison or exiled. 
 The National Assembly decreed their abolition, 1 
 Nov. 1789. 
 
 LETTUCE, introduced into England from 
 Flanders about 1520. It is said that when queen 
 Catherine wished for a salad, she bad to send to 
 Holland or Flanders for lettuce. 
 
 LEUCTEA, in Bceotia, N. Greece, where the 
 Thebans under Epaminondas defeated the superior 
 force of Cleombrotus, king of Sparta, 8 July, 371 B.C. 
 4000 Spartans, with their king, were slain. The 
 Spartans gradually lost their preponderance in 
 Greece. 
 
 LEUDES, from the German, Leute, people. 
 Native feudal vassals, faithful to the German and 
 French sovereigns in the 6th and 7th centuries. 
 
 LEUTHEN (S. Prussia) ; see Lissa. 
 
 LEVANT (the East), a term applied to Greece, 
 Turkey, Asia Minor, &c. Levant companies, in 
 London, were established in 1581, 1593, and 1605. 
 
 LEVELLEES, a fanatical party in Germany, 
 headed by Muncer and Storck in the 16th century, 
 who taught that all distinctions of rank were usurpa- 
 tions on the rights of mankind. At the bead of 
 40,000 men, Muncer commanded the sovereign 
 princes of Germany and the magistrates of cities to 
 resign their authority; and on his march his followers 
 ravaged the country. The landgrave of Hesse at 
 length defeated him at Frankenhausen, 15 May, 
 1525 ; 7000 of the enthusiasts fell in the battle, and 
 the rest fled; their leader was taken and beheaded 
 at Mulhausen. The English " Levellers," powerful 
 in parliament in 1647, were put down by Cromwell 
 in 1649, and 'their leader Lilburn imprisoned. At 
 the period of the French revolution some Levellers 
 appeared in England. A " Loyal Association" was 
 formed against them by Mr. John Reeves, Nov. 
 1792. 
 
 LEVELS- The great Level of the Fens is a 
 low-lying district of about 2000 square miles, in 
 Lincolnshire, Huntingdonshire, Cambridgeshire, and 
 Norfolk, said to have been overflown by the sea 
 during an earthquake, 368. It was long afterwards 
 an inland sea in winter, and a noxious swamp in 
 summer, and was gradually drained — by the Romans, 
 the Saxons, and especially by the monks during the 
 reigns of the Plantagenet kings. One of the first 
 works on a large scale was carried out by Morton, 
 bishop of Ely, in the reign of Henry VII. A general 
 drainage act was passed by the advice of lord Burgh- 
 ley, in 1601, but little work was done till the reign 
 of "James I., who, in 1621, invited over tbe great 
 Dutch engineer, Cornelius Verrnuyden, to assist in 
 the general drainage of the country. After complet- 
 ing several great works, Verrnuyden agreed (in 1629) 
 to drain the " Great Level." He was at first 
 prevented from proceeding with his undertaking 
 through a popular outcry against foreigners ; but 
 eventually, aided by Francis, earl of Bedford, in 
 spite of the great opposition of the people, for whose 
 benefit he was labouring, he declared his great work 
 complete in 1652. He also reclaimed much valuable 
 land at Axholme, in Lincolnshire, 1626-30, and 
 many Dutch and French protestants settled here 
 about 1634; and a few of their descendants still 
 remain. — There are the Middle, Bedford, South, 
 and North Levels. 
 
 The drainage of the Great Level employed the 
 talents of Rennie (about 1807), and of Telford 
 (1822), and of other eminent engineers. 
 
 The Middle Level commission cut through certain 
 barrier banks, and replaced them by other works 1844 
 
 These were reported unsound in March, and the 
 outfall sluice at St. Germains, near King's Lynn, 
 gave way 4 May, 1862 
 
 High tides ensuing, about 6000 acres of fertile land 
 were inundated, causing a loss of about 25,000^. 
 After unwearied, and, for a while, unsuccessful 
 efforts, a new coffer dam was constructed under 
 the superintendence of Mr. Hawkshaw, which was 
 reported sound July, 1862 
 
 Another inundation, begun through the bursting 
 of a marshland sluice, near Lynn, was checked 
 
 4 Oct. 1862 
 
 LEVEEIAN MUSEUM, formed by sir Ash- 
 ton Lever, exhibited to the public at Leicester- 
 house, London;' it was offered to tbe public, in 
 1785, by the chance of a guinea lottery, and won by 
 Mr. Parkinson, in 1785, who sold it by auction, in 
 lots, May-July, 1806. 
 
 LEVIATHAN, see Steam Navigation. 
 
 LEWES (Sussex), where Henry III., king of 
 England, was defeated by Montfort, earl of Leicester, 
 and tbe barons, 14 May, 1264. Blaauw. The 
 
LEXICON. 
 
 400 
 
 LIBRARIES. 
 
 king, his brother Eichard, king of the Eomans, and 
 his son Edward, afterwards Edward I., were taken 
 prisoners. One division of Montfort's army, a body 
 of Londoners, gave way to the furious attack of 
 prince Edward, who, pursuing the fugitives too far, 
 caused the battle to be lost; see Evesham. 
 
 LEXICON, see Dictionaries, aa.d. Lexicography. 
 
 LEXINGTON" (Massachusetts), Battle of, at 
 the beginning of the war of independence. The 
 British obtained the advantage, and destroyed the 
 stores of the revolted colonists, but lost in the battle 
 273 men, killed and wounded, 19 April, 1775. The 
 hostilities thus commenced continued to 1783. — 
 Lexington, a town in Missouri, U.S., fortified by 
 the Federals, was attacked by the confederate general 
 Price, on 29 Aug. ; and after a gallant resistance by 
 colonel Mulligan, surrendered on 21 Sept. 1861. 
 
 LEYDEN (Holland), Lugdunum Batavorum, 
 important in the 13th century. Between 31 Oct. 
 1573, and3 0ct. 1574, whenit was relieved, itendured 
 two sieges by the armies of Spain, during which 6000 
 of the inhabitants died of famine and pestilence. In 
 commemoration the university was founded, 1575. 
 In 1699 two-thirds of the population perished by a 
 fever, which, it was said, was aggravated by its 
 improper treatment by professor De la Boe. The 
 university was almost destroyed by a vessel laden 
 with 10,600 lbs. weight of gunpowder blowing up, 
 and demolishing a large part of the town, and killing 
 numbers of people, 12 Jan. 1807. The Leyden jar 
 was invented about 1745, by Kleist, Muschenbroek, 
 and others ; see Electricity. 
 
 LIBEL- By the Koman laws of the Twelve 
 Tables, libels which affected the reputation of another 
 were made capital offences. In the British law, 
 whatever renders a man ridiculous, or lowers a man 
 in the opinion and esteem of the world, is deemed a 
 libel. " The greater the truth the greater the libel," 
 the well known law maxim of a high authority, is 
 now disputed ; see Trials, 1788, 1790, 1792, 1803, 
 1808 et seq., 1863 ; and (note) Patents and Times. 
 
 Dispersing slanderous libels made felony . . 1545 
 
 Wm. Prynne, a puritan lawyer, fined 5000?., placed 
 in the pillory, where his ears were cut off, and 
 imprisoned, for writing " Histriomastix," a con- 
 demnation of stage plays ; which was considered 
 to be a libel on the queen, who favoured them, 
 1633 ; he was tried and further punished for his 
 satirical writings in 1637 
 
 Fox's libel bill, which enlarged the discretionary 
 power of juries in cases of libel, thrown out by the 
 lords in 1791 ; passed in 1792 
 
 Blasphemous and seditious libels, on the second 
 offence, made punishable with transportation . 1819 
 
 An action for libel was brought in the court of 
 King's Bench by a bookseller named Stockdale, 
 against Messrs. Hansard, the printers to the house 
 of commons ; this action related to an opinion 
 expressed in a parliamentary report of a book 
 published by Stockdale, 7 Nov. 1836. Lord Den- 
 man, in giving judgment, said he was not aware 
 that the authority of the house of commons could 
 justify the publication of a libel — an opinion 
 which led to some proceedings on the part of the 
 house, and to other actions by Stockdale . 1837-39 
 
 Verdicts were given in his favour, and in Nov. 1839, 
 the sheriffs took possession of Hansard's premises. 
 This caused much excitement in parliament, and 
 they were ordered to appear at the bar of the 
 house of commons, and were formally committed 
 to the custody of the serjeant-at-arms, 21 Jan., 
 but immediately discharged : the conflict was 
 maintained by the law officers and the commons 
 till May, 1840 
 
 A law was passed giving summary protection to 
 persons employed by parliament in the publication 
 of its reports and papers . . .14 April, „ 
 
 The severity of the law In respect to newspapers 
 relaxed by lord Campbell's act, 6 <fc 7 Vict. c. 96 . 1843 
 
 A bill relieving newspapers from actions for libel in 
 reporting speeches at lawful public meetings, read 
 third time in the commons, Aug. 1S67, but 
 dropped ; read 2nd time 1 April ; and withdrawn, 
 
 1 July, 1868 
 
 Wason v. Walter (" Times ") j parliamentary reports 
 and fair comments, declared no libel . 25 Nov. 1868 
 
 LIBERIA, the republic of freed and indigenous 
 negros on the coast of Upper Guinea, West Africa, 
 was founded in 1822 by the American Colonisation 
 Society, which was established by Henry Clay in 
 1816 : capital, Monrovia. The independence of Li- 
 beria was proclaimed, 24 Aug. 1847 ; recognised by 
 Europe in 1848, by America, in 1861. It is stated 
 to be flourishing. The president visited the Inter- 
 national Exhibition of London in 1862. Presidents : 
 Daniel B. Warner, elected 1864 ; James Spriggs 
 Payne installed 6 Jan. 1868 ; E. J. Boy, president, 
 Jan. 1870, was deposed, Oct. 187 1 ; escaped from 
 prison ; drowned, Feb. 1872. J. J. Roberts, the 
 first president, was re-elected Jan. 1872. Popula- 
 tion, about 700,000. 
 
 LIBERTINES (signifying freedmen and their 
 sons), was a sect headed by Quintin, and Corin, 
 about 1525, who held monstrous opinions. 
 
 LIBRARIES. The first public library of 
 which we have any certain account in history was 
 founded at Athens by Pisistratus, about 540 B.C. 
 The second of note was founded by Ptolemy Phila- 
 delphus, 284 B.C. It was partially destroyed when 
 Julius Csesar set fire to Alexandria 47 B.C. 400,000 
 valuable books in MS. are said to have been lost by 
 this catastrophe. Blair. 
 
 The first private library was Aristotle's. Strata. B.C. 334 
 
 The first library at Rome brought from Macedonia 167 
 
 According to Plutarch, the library at Pergamos con- 
 tained 200,000 books. It came into the posses- 
 sion of the Romans at the death of Attalus III., 
 who bequeathed his kingdom to the Roman people 1 33 
 
 The library of Appellicon, sent to Rome from 
 Athens, by Sylla 86 
 
 Library founded at Constantinople by Constantine, a.d. 
 
 about 355 
 
 An Alexandrian library, said to have been burnt by 
 the caliph Omer 1 640 
 
 Library at St. Mark's, Venice, begun, by gifts from 
 Petrarch, 1352 ; enlarged by cardinal Bessarion . 1468 
 
 Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary, collected a 
 library of nearly 500,000 volumes at Buda ; died . 1490 
 
 The first public library in Italy founded at Florence 
 by Niccolo Niccoli, one of the great restorers of 
 learning. At his death he left his library to the 
 public, 1436. Cosmo de' Medici enriched it with 
 the invaluable Greek and Hebrew MSS. about 1560 
 
 The Vatican Library at Rome, founded by pope 
 Nicholas V. in 1447, and improved by Sixtus V., 1588 
 (contained about 150,000 volumes and 40,000 
 MSS., 1868) ,, 
 
 Imperial Library of Vienna, founded by Frederick 
 III. in 1440, and by Maximilian 1 1500 
 
 Royal Library of Paris, founded by John 1350, en- 
 larged by Charles V. , 1364 ; said to contain 815,000 
 volumes and 84,000 MSS. in i860. A new reading- 
 room has been built. 
 
 Royal Libraries founded at Copenhagen by Christian 
 III. about 1533 : at Stockholm, by Gustavus Vasa, 
 about 1540 ; at Munich, by Albert III. . about 1550 
 
 Escurial at Madrid, commenced with the foundation 
 of the palace, by Philip II 1557 
 
 Harvard University Library (see Harvard), Massa- 
 chusetts, U.S., founded 1632, endowed . . 1638 
 
 Imperial Library at St. Petersburg (principally the 
 spoils of Poland), founded ..... 1714 
 
 Astor Free Public. Library, New York, founded by 
 John Jacob Astor, by gift of 8o,oooJ. . . . 1839 
 
 LIBRARIES IN GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 Richard de Bury, chancellor and high treasurer of 
 England , purchased thirty or forty volumes of the 
 
LIBYA. 
 
 401 
 
 LIEGE. 
 
 abbot of St. Alban's for fifty pounds' weight of 
 
 silver 1341 
 
 Unn ersity Library, St. Andrew's, founded . . 1411 
 Glasgow University Library, founded about . . 1473 
 
 Sion College Library, founded 1630 
 
 Eoyal Society Library, founded 1667 
 
 Harleian Library (which see) begun .... 1705 
 University Library, Cambridge, founded 1475 ; Geo. 
 I. gave 6000 guineas to purchase Dr. Moore's col- 
 lection 1715 
 
 Bodleian Library at Oxford, founded 1598 ; opened ' 
 8 Nov. 1602 ; contains nearly 400,060 volumes and 
 upwards of 30,000 MSS. 
 Cottonian Library, founded by Sir Bobert Cotton 
 about 1588 ; appropriated to the public, 1701 ; 
 partly destroyed by fire, 1731 ; removed to the 
 
 British Museum (which see) 1753 
 
 Badcliffe Library at Oxford, founded by the will of 
 
 Dr. Badcliffe, 1714; opened 1749 
 
 The Libraries of the Royal Institution (founded 
 1803), the London Institution (1805), and the 
 Boyal College of Surgeons (1786), have classified 
 catalogues. 
 Library of the University of Dublin (1601), and the 
 Advocates' Library in Edinburgh (1680), are ex- 
 tensive and valuable. 
 Library of East India Company, founded . . 1800 
 
 Royal Libraries in England : that of Edward IV., 
 mentioned 1480, increased in the reigns of Edw. 
 VI. and James I. ; much enlarged by Richard 
 Bentley, while librarian, 1694-1735 ; added to the 
 British Museum by Geo. II., 1759 ; rich library of 
 Geo. III., presented to the nation, 1823 ; deposited 
 
 in the British Museum 1829 
 
 In 1609 the Stationers' Company agreed to give a 
 copy of every book published, to the Bodleian 
 Library, Oxford. By 14 Charles II. c. 33 (1662), 
 three copies were required to be given to certain 
 public libraries ; by 8 Anne, c. 19 (1709), the num- 
 ber was increased to nine ; by 41 Geo. III. c. 107, 
 to eleven ; which number was reduced to five by 
 5 &, 6 Will. IV. c. no (1835) : the British Museum, 
 the Bodleian, Oxford, the Fublic Library, Cam- 
 bridge, the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh, and 
 Trinity College, Dublin. 
 
 FeeeLibeaeies successfully established, since 1850, 
 at Manchester, Liverpool, Salford, &e. Many 
 others formed under acts passed in 1845, 1850 & 1856 
 
 On 5 Nov. 1855, a proposal to establish a Free Li- 
 brary in the city of London was negatived, and 
 in 1857 that in Marylebone was closed for want of 
 support. 
 
 The new city library, Guildhall (free) was opened 
 
 5 Nov. 1872 
 See Circulating Library. 
 
 LIBYA (Africa) , was conquered by the Persians, 
 524 B.C., and by Ptolemy Soter, 320. 
 
 LICENCES. This mode of levying money was 
 introduced by Richard I. about 1190 ; but was then 
 confined to such of the nobility as desired to enter 
 the lists at tournaments. 
 
 Games and gaming-houses licensed in London . 1620 
 Licence system for excisable articles enforced in 
 
 various reigns, from the 12th Charles II. . . 1660 
 
 Lottery office-keepers to take out licences, and pay 
 
 $ol. for each. This reduced the number from 400 
 
 to 51 . . . . v . . . Aug. 1778 
 
 General licensing act, 9 Geo. IV. c. 61 . , . . 1828 
 Licences for public-houses granted in 1551, and for 
 
 refreshment-houses, with wine licences . . . i860 
 The licensing system was applied to India as a kind 
 
 of income-tax, 1859 ; ceased in .... 1861 
 Licences for the sale of tea, coffee, chocolate, and 
 
 pepper were abolished and other licences modified 
 
 by acts passed in 1869-70 
 
 Licensing Beform Agitation .... 1870-71 
 Acts for licensing plays and playhouses by the lord 
 
 chamberlain, were passed in 1736 (10 Geo. II. 
 
 c. 28) ; and in 1843 (6 & 7 Vict. c. 68) ; and for 
 
 music and dancing in public-houses, in 1752 (25 
 
 Geo. II. c. 36). 
 New licensing act, regulating the sale of intoxicating 
 
 liquors ; very much opposed ; passed and came 
 
 into operation 10 Aug. 1872 
 
 LICHFIELD (Staffordshire). The see of 
 Mercia (at Lichfield) was founded about 656 ; re- 
 moved to Chester, 1075 ; to Coventry, 1102. In 1121 
 Eobert Peche was consecrated bishop of Lichfield 
 and Coventry. By an order in council, Jan. 1837, 
 the archdeaconry of Coventry was added to the see 
 of Worcester, and Dr. Samuel Butler became bishop 
 of Lichfield. This see has given three saints to the 
 Romish church ; and to the British nation one lord 
 chancellor and three lord treasurers. It is valued 
 in the king's books at 559Z. 18s. 2d. Present income, 
 4500I. 
 
 Lichfield cathedral was first built about 656 ; the pre- 
 sent structure was founded by Roger de Clinton, the 
 37th bishop, in 1148. Walter de Langton (bishop in 
 1296), built the chapel of St. Mary, now taken into the 
 choir, and under bishop Hey worth (1420) the cathedral 
 was perfected. The building was despoiled at the 
 Reformation, and was scandalously injured in the par- 
 liamentary war (when its monuments, its fine sculp- 
 tures, and beautifully painted windows, were demo- 
 lished). It was repaired at the restoration, 1660 ; in 
 1788 ; and by Gilbert G. Scott, 1860-63. 
 
 In Lichfield castle, king Richard II. kept his Christmas 
 festival, 1397, when 200 tuns of wine and 2000 oxen 
 were consumed. A charter was granted to Lichfield, 
 constituting it a city, by Edward VI., 1549. 
 
 BISHOPS OF LICHFIELD AND COVENTEY. 
 
 1781. James, earl of Cornwallis, died 1824. 
 1824. Hon. Henry Ryder, died 31 March, 1836. 
 
 BISHOPS OF LICHFIELD. 
 
 1836. Samuel Butler, died 4 Dec. 1839. 
 
 1839. James Bowstead, died n Oct. 1843. 
 
 1843. John Lonslade, died 19 Oct. 1867. 
 
 1867. Geo. Aug. Selwyn, late bishop of N. Zealand. 
 
 LICHFIELD HOUSE COMPACT, said 
 to have been made between the "Whig government 
 and Daniel O'Connell in 1835 at Lichfield-house, 
 13, St. James's-square. 
 
 LICINIAN LAWS. In 375 b.c, C. Licinius 
 Stolo and L. Sextius, tribunes of the people, pro- 
 mulgated various rogation es or laws to weaken the 
 power of the patricians and benefit the plebs: one 
 was to relieve the plebeians from their debts ; 
 another enacted that no person should possess more 
 than 500 jugera of the public land, or more than 
 100 head of large cattle, or 500 of small, in the 
 Roman states; and the third, that one of the con- 
 suls should be a plebeian. After much opposition 
 these were earned, and L. Sextius became- the first 
 plebeian consul, 365. Another law, 56 B.C., of this 
 name, imposed a severe penalty on party clubs, or 
 societies assembled for election purposes; and 
 another, about 103 B.C. (brought forward by P. 
 Licinius Crassus), limited the expenses of the 
 table. 
 
 LIEBENATJ (Bohemia). Here was fought 
 the first action of the seven weeks' war, 26 June, 
 1866; when the Austrians were compelled to 
 retreat by the Prussians under general Von Home. 
 
 LIECHTENSTEIN, a principality, S. Ger- 
 many. Population, in 1867, 8320. Constitutional 
 charter, 26 Sept. 1862. Prince John II., born 5 
 Oct. 1840, succeeded his father Alois-Joseph, 12 
 Nov. 1858. 
 
 LIEGE (Belgium), a bishopric, under the Ger- 
 man empire, from the 8th century till 1795. Liege 
 frequently revolted against its prince-bishops. 
 After a severe contest, the citizens were beaten at 
 Brusthem, 28 Oct. 1467, and Liege taken by Charles 
 the Bold, duke of Burgundy, who treated them with 
 great severity. In 1482 Liege fell into the power 
 of De la Marck, the Boar of Ardennes, who killed 
 the bishop, Louis of Bourbon, and was himself 
 
LIEGNITZ. 
 
 402 
 
 LIGHTNING-CONDUCTORS. 
 
 defeated and killed. Liege was taken by the duke 
 of Marlborough, 23 Oct. 1 702 ; and by the French 
 and others, at various times, up to 1796, when it 
 was annexed to France. It was incorporated with 
 the Netherlands in 1814, and with Belgium in 1830. 
 Iron-works were established at Liege in the 16th 
 century. An international volunteer shooting con- 
 test held here, Sept. 1869. 
 
 LIEGNITZ, see Pfaffendorf. 
 
 LIEUTENANTS, LORD, for counties, were 
 instituted in England, 3 Edw. VI., 1549, and in 
 Ireland in 1831. Their military jurisdiction abo- 
 lished by Army Regulation Act, 1871. For the lords 
 lieutenants of Ireland, see Ireland. 
 
 LIFE ASSURANCE COMPANIES ACT, 
 
 passed 9 Aug. 1 870, requires the companies to 
 publish annual returns of receipts, expendi- 
 ture, &c. 
 
 LIFE BOAT, &c, see Wrecks. 
 
 Patent granted to Mr. Lukin for a life-boat . . 1785 
 
 A reward, offered by a committee in South Shields 
 for a life-boat, 1788, obtained by Mr. Henry Great- 
 head, of that town (lie received 1200Z. from parlia- 
 ment), 1789 ; it first put to sea . . 30 Jan. 1790 
 
 31 life-boats built, and 300 lives saved up to . . 1804 
 
 The duke of Northumberland offered a reward of 
 105I. for a life-boat fulfilling certain conditions, 
 1850 ; obtained by Mr. James Beeching, of Yar- 
 mouth 1851 
 
 The tubular life-boat of Mr. H. Richardson, the 
 Challenger, patented in Jan. ; a cruise was made 
 by him from Liverpool to London in it . . 1852 
 
 The National Life-boat, Institution, founded in 1824 ; 
 its journal first published, 1852. In 1856 its funds 
 were enlarged by a bequest of io.oooJ. from 
 Hamilton Fitzgerald, esq. 
 
 Report to Dec. 1872, 21,465 lives had been saved by 
 its life-boats ; 658 lives and 31 vessels saved in 
 1871 ; 548 lives and 25 ships saved in 1872. 
 
 185 life-boats in the United Kingdom, 1865 ; 264, 
 1870. 
 
 Hans Busk Life-ship Institute founded . Oct. 1869 
 
 The American Life-raft, composed of cylinders 
 lashed together, sailed from New York, 4 June, 
 1867, navigated by three men, capt John Mikes 
 and Messrs. Miller and Mullane, and arrived at 
 Southampton, 25 July following. 
 
 Life-preserver, the apparatus of capt. Manby 
 (brought into use in Feb. 1808), effects a com- 
 munication with the distressed vessel by a rope, 
 thrown by a shot from a mortar, with a line 
 attached to it. For the night, a night-ball is 
 provided with a hollow case of thick pasteboard, 
 and a fuse and quick match, and charged with 
 fifty balls, and a sufficiency of powder to inflame 
 them. The fuze is so graduated that the shell 
 shall explode at the height of 300 yards. The 
 balls spread a brilliant light for nearly a minute, 
 and give a clear view of every surrounding object. 
 In 20 years, 58 vessels and 410 of their crews and 
 passengers had been saved. Capt. Manby died 
 18 Nov. 1854, aged 89. 
 
 The Boat-Lowering Aitaratcs, in consequence 
 of many being lost when boats were lowered from 
 the Amazon in 1852, invented by Mr. Charles 
 Clifford, of London, in 1856, has been much ap- 
 proved of, and has been generally adopted in the 
 royal navy. 
 
 Capt. Kynaston's hooks were approved by admiral 
 sir Baldwin Walker in 1862, and by a committee 
 on the subject in 1872. 
 
 Exhibition of life-boats, life-rafts, &c, at the 
 London Tavern opened 15 April, 1873. 
 
 LIFE GUARDS, see Guards. 
 
 LIFE INSURANCE, see Insurance. 
 
 LIFE-PEERAGES. A bill for creating them 
 was read a second time in the lords, 27 April, 1869, 
 but afterwards rejected. 
 
 LIFE SHIPS. To promote the construction 
 and use of these the Hans Busk Life Ship Institute 
 was founded, Oct. 1869. 
 
 LIGHT. The law of refraction discovered by 
 Snellius, about 1624. The motion and velocity of 
 light discovered by Reaumur, and after him by 
 Cassini, and calculated by Rcemer (1676) and 
 Bradley (1 720) . Its velocity ascertained to be about 
 190,000,000 of miles in sixteen minutes, or nearly 
 200,000 miles in a second, which is a million of 
 times swifter than the velocity of a cannon ball, 
 about 1667. The light of the sun takes eight 
 minutes and eight seconds for its transmission 
 through the space to the earth. The undulatory 
 theory of light, its polarisation, and its chemical 
 action, have all been made known in the present 
 century by Dr. Thos. Young, Fresnel, Malus, 
 Arago, Biot, Brewster, Wheatstone, Ritter, Niepce, 
 Daguerre, Talbot, Tyndall, &c. ; see Optics, T/wto- 
 graphy, Calorescence, Fluorescence. 
 
 LIGHTHOUSE, called Pharos (now phare, 
 French ;faro, Italian), from one erected at Pharos, 
 near Alexandria, Egypt, $50 feet high, said to have 
 been visible forty-two miles, about 285 B.C. There 
 was one at Messina, at Rhodes, &c. The light was 
 obtained by fires. A coal-fire light was exhibited 
 at Tynemouth castle, Northumberland, about 1638. 
 The first true lighthouse erected in England was 
 the Eddystone lighthouse (tchich see) in 1 758-60. 
 Lights were exhibited in various places by the 
 corporation of the Trinity-house early in the 16th 
 century. 2814 lighthouses in the world (1867). 
 
 BRITISH LIGHTHOUSES. 
 
 The Commissioners on Lights, &c. (1861), report 171 
 shorelights in England, 113 in Scotland, and 73 in 
 Ireland (total, 357) ; and 47 floating-lights. 
 
 6 lighthouses building, April, 1867. 
 
 The French have 224 lighthouses on shore. 
 
 The source of light in our lighthouses is principally 
 oil ; but in harbour lights gas has been successfully 
 used. Glass reflectors were used in 1780, and copper 
 ones in 1807. A common coal-fire light was discon- 
 tinued at St. Bees so recently as 1822. Fresnel's 
 Dioptric system (which see), devised about 1819, was 
 adopted for the first time in England by Messrs. Wilkins, 
 at the direction of the corporation of the Trinity-house, 
 1 July, 1836. 
 
 The most brilliant artificial light ever produced — derived 
 from magneto-electricity by a machine devised by 
 professor Holmes — was first employed at the South 
 Foreland lighthouse, near Dover, on 8 Dec. 1858 ; and 
 at Deugeness (or Dungeness) in 1862. Mr. Holmes' 
 arrangement, and a similar one constructed by M. 
 Serin, were shown at the International exhibition, 
 London, in 1862. 
 
 Mr. H. Wilde's apparatus for producing a most powerful 
 1 1 (-electric light, on trial in northern lights 
 houses, Oct. 1866. 
 
 Lime-light (which sec) employed at the S. Foreland light- 
 house in 1861. 
 
 Gas light tried successfully at Howth Bailey lighthouse, 
 Dublin Bay, July, 1869. 
 
 The cost of erecting the three great British lighthouses 
 — viz , the Skerry-Vore (west coast), 158 feet high, 
 83,1262. ; the Bishop Rock, Scilly Isles, 14s feet high, 
 36,559!. ; and the Bell Rock, Scotland, 117 feet high, 
 61,331'- 
 
 LIGHTNING-CONDUCTORS were first 
 set up for the protection of buildings by Franklin 
 shortly after 1752, wben he brought down electricity 
 from a thunder-cloud. Kichmann, of St. Peters- 
 burg, was killed while repeating these experiments, 
 Aug. 1752. The first conductor in England was set 
 up at Payne's Hill, by Dr. Watson. In 1766 one 
 was placed on the tower of St. Mark, at Venice, 
 which has since escaped injury, although frequently 
 injured by lightning previously. A powder maga- 
 zine at Glogau, in Silesia, was saved by a conductor 
 
LIGNY. 
 
 403 
 
 LINCOLN. 
 
 in 1782 ; and, from the want of one, a quantity of 
 gunpowder was ignited at Brescia in 1767, and above 
 3000 persons perished. In 1762, Dr. "Watson 
 recommended conductors to be used in the navy ; 
 and they were employed for a short time, but soon 
 fell into disuse from want of skill and attention. 
 Mr. (afterwards sir William) Snow Harris devoted his 
 attention to the subject from 1820 and 1854, and 
 published a work, in 1843, detailing his experiments. 
 In 1830, above thirty ships were fitted up with his 
 conductors, and in 1842 his plans were adopted, and 
 his conductors are now manufactured in the royal 
 dockyards. In 1854 parliament granted him 
 5000I. 
 
 LIGNY (near Fleurus, Belgium), where Napo- 
 leon defeated the Prussian army under Blucher, 
 16 June, 1815 ; see Waterloo. 
 
 LIGUOEIANS or Redemptorists, a 
 
 Roman catholic order, established in 1 732 by Alfonso 
 de Liguori, and approved by pope Benedict XIV. in 
 1749. 
 
 LIGURIANS, a Celtic tribe, N. Italy, invaded 
 the Roman territory, and were defeated 238 B.C. 
 They were not subjugated till 172 B.C. — The Ltgtj- 
 kian Republic, founded in May, 1797, upon the 
 ruins of the republic at Genoa, was incorporated 
 with France in 1805, and then merged into the 
 kingdom of Italy. 
 
 LILAC TREE, Syringa. The Persian lilac 
 from Persia was cultivated in England about 1638 ; 
 the common lilac by Mr. John Gerard about 1597. 
 
 LILLE, see Lisle. 
 
 LILY, a native of Persia, Syria, and Italy, was 
 brought to England before 1460; the martagon 
 from Germany, 1596. 
 
 TJT Y"R TF/TTTVT, a strong maritime fortress of 
 Sicily, besieged by Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, 276 B.C., 
 and relieved by the Carthaginians 275 B.C. It was 
 taken by the Romans, 241 B.C., after a siege of 
 nine years, which led to the end of the second 
 Punic war. 
 
 LIMA (Peru). In 1534, Pizarro, marching 
 through Peru, was struck with the beauty of the 
 valley of Rimac, and there he founded this city, and 
 gave it the name of Ciudad de los Reyes, or city of 
 the kings, 1535. Here he was assassinated, 26 June, 
 1541. Awful earthquakes occurred here, 1586, 1630, 
 1687, and 28 Oct. 1746. In 1854-5, thousands 
 perished by yellow fever. Mr. Sullivan, the British 
 consul, was assassinated at Lima, 11 Aug. 1857; see 
 feru, 1872. 
 
 LIMBUEG (Netherlands), a duchy in the loth 
 eentury ; acquired by the dukes of Brabant about 
 1288 ; added to Burgundy about 1429 ; passed to 
 the house of Austria in 1477 ; became one of the 
 United Provinces, 1609; conquered and annexed to 
 the French republic, 1795; restored to the Nether- 
 lands, 1814; divided between Holland and Belgium, 
 1830 ; completely separated from the German con- 
 federation by treaty, 11 May, 1867. 
 
 LIME or LINDEN TREE, probably introduced 
 in the 16th century. The limes in St. James's 
 park are said to have been planted at the suggestion 
 of Evelyn, who recommended multiplying odorifer- 
 ous trees, in his " Fumifugium " (1661). A lime- 
 tree planted in Switzerland in 1410, existed in 
 1720, the trunk being thirty-six feet in circum- 
 ference. 
 
 LIME-LIGHT, produced by the combustion 
 of oxygen and hydrogen or carburetted hydrogen on 
 a surface of lime. This light evolves little heat and 
 does not vitiate the air. It is also called Drummond 
 Light, after its inventor, lieut. Thomas Drummond, 
 who successfully produced it as a first-class light in 
 1826, and employed it on the ordnance survey. It 
 is said to have been seen at a distance of 112 miles. 
 It was tried at the South Foreland lighthouse in 
 1861. Lieut. Drummond was born, 1797, died 
 15 April, 1840. To him is attributed the maxim 
 that " property has its duties as well as its rights." 
 
 LIMERICK, anciently Lumneach (S. "W". Ire- 
 land). About 550, St. Munchin is said to have 
 founded a bishopric and built a church here, which 
 latter was destroyed by the Danes in 853. Donald 
 O'Brien, king of Limerick, founded the cathedral 
 about 1200. Limerick obtained its charter in 1 195, 
 when John Stafford was made first provost ; and its 
 first mayor was Adam Servant, in 1 198. It was 
 taken by Ireton after six months' siege in 1651. In 
 Aug. 1690 it was invested by the English and 
 Dutch, and surrendered on most honourable terms, 
 3 Oct. 1691.* An awful explosion of 218 barrels of 
 gunpowder greatly shattered the town, killing IOO 
 persons, I Feb. 1694. Another explosion of gun- 
 powder here killed many persons, 2 Jan. 1837. 
 Awful and destructive tempest, 6-7 Jan. 1839. A 
 new graving-dock was opened by the lord-lieutenant 
 earl Spencer, 13 May, 1873. 
 
 LIMITATIONS, Statute of, 21 James I. 
 
 c. 16, 1623. By it actions for trespass or debt, or 
 simple contract, must be commenced within six 
 years after the cause of action, and actions for 
 assault, menace, or imprisonment within four years. 
 
 LIMITED LIABILITY. An act for limit- 
 ing the liability of joint stock companies, 18 & 19 
 Vict. c. 133 (passed 185 5), was several times 
 amended 1856-7-8. On 31 May, 1864, " 3830 joint 
 stock companies had been formed and registered on 
 the limited liability principle, and 938 had ceased 
 to exist." Much calamity in 1866 was occasioned 
 by the abuse of the system. The Companies act of 
 1862 was amended in 1867. 
 
 LINCELLES (N. France), where the allied 
 English and Dutch armies defeated the French, 
 18 Aug. 1793. General Lake commanded three 
 battalions of foot guards. 
 
 LINCOLN, the Roman Lindum Colonia, and 
 at the period of the conquest rich and populous. It 
 was taken several times by Saxons and Danes. The 
 castle was built by William I. in 1086. Without 
 Newport-gate upon Lincoln plain was fought the 
 battle between the partisans of the empress Maud, 
 commanded by the earl of Gloucester, and the army 
 of Stephen, in which the king was defeated and 
 taken prisoner, 2 Feb. 1141. Louis, dauphin of 
 France, invited over by the discontented barons in 
 the last year of king John's reign, was acknowledged 
 by them as king of England here ; but the nobility, 
 summoned by the earl of Pembroke to Gloucester 
 to crown Henry III., marched against Louis and 
 the barons, and defeated them in a most sanguinary 
 
 * By the treaty it was agreed that all arms, property 
 and estates should he restored ; all attainders annulled, 
 and all outlawries reversed ; and that no oath hut that 
 of allegiance should he required of high or low ; the free- 
 dom of the Catholic religion was secured ; relief from 
 pecuniary claims incurred by hostilities was guaranteed ; 
 permission to leave the kingdom was extended to all who 
 desired it ; and a general pardon proclaimed to all then 
 in arms. Bums. This treaty was annulled hy the Irish 
 parliament, 1695. Limerick is still called " the city of 
 the broken treaty." 
 
 D D 2 
 
LINCOLN. 
 
 404 
 
 LISMOEE. 
 
 fight (called the Fair of Lincoln), 20 May, 1217; 
 and Louis withdrew. 
 
 LINCOLN, BlSHOPKIC OF. Sidnacester or 
 Lindisse and Dorchester, two distinct sees in Mercia, 
 were united about 1078, and the see was removed 
 to Lincoln by bishop Kemigius de Feschamp, who 
 built a cathedral (1086), afterwards destroyed by 
 fire, but rebuilt by bishop Alexander (1127) and 
 bishop Hugh of Burgundy. The diocese is very 
 large, although the dioceses of Ely (1109), Oxford, 
 and Peterborough (1541) were formed from it, and 
 were further enlarged in 1837. The see was valued 
 at the dissolution of monasteries at 2065^ P er 
 annum ; and after many of its manors had been 
 seized upon, it was rated in the king's books at 
 894^. 10*. id. Present income, 5000/. It has given 
 three saints to the church of Rome, and to the civil 
 state of England six lord chancellors. The great 
 bell of the cathedral, called Great Tom of Lincoln, 
 weighs four tons eight pounds. 
 
 RECENT BISHOPS. 
 
 1787. George Pretyman (afterwards Tomline), translated 
 
 to Winchester, 1820. 
 1820. Hon. George Pelham, died 1 Feb. 1827. 
 1827. John Kaye, died 19 Feb. 1852. 
 1852. John Jackson, translated to London, 1869. 
 1869. Christopher Wordsworth, consecrated 24 Feb. 
 
 LINCOLN'S-INN (London), derives its name 
 from Henry de Lacy, earl of Lincoln, who erected a 
 mansion on this spot in the reign of Edward I., 
 which had been the bishop of Chichester's palace. 
 It became an inn of court, 1310. The gardens of 
 Lincoln' s-inn-fields were laid out by Inigo Jones, 
 about 1620, and erroneously said to occupy the same 
 space as the largest pyramid of Egypt, which is 
 764 feet square ; Lincoln's-inn square being82i feet 
 by 625 feet 6 inches. William lord Eussell was 
 beheaded in Lincoln's-hm-fields, 21 July, 1683. 
 The square (formed in 1618) was enclosed with iron 
 railings about 1737. The new hall and other build- 
 ings were opened, 30 Oct. 184s, and the square 
 planted. The theatre in Lincoln's-inn-fields was 
 built in 1695; rebuilt in 1714 ; made a barrack in 
 1756, and pulled down in 1848. 
 
 LINDISFAENE or Holy Islajstd, on the 
 
 coast of Northumberland, became a bishop's see, 
 635. It was ravaged by the Danes under Eegnar 
 Lodbrok in 793, and the monastery destroyed by 
 them in 875. The see was then removed to Chester- 
 'le-street, and to Durham in 995 (or 990). 
 
 LINEN. Pharaoh arrayed Joseph in vestures 
 of fine linen, 1716 B.C. {Gen. xli. 42.) 
 
 First manufactured in England by Flemish weavers, 
 
 under the protection of Henry III. . . . 1253 
 A company of linen weavers established in London 1368 
 The art of staining linen known . . . about 1579 
 A colony of Scots in the reign of James I. , and other 
 Presbyterians who fled from persecution in suc- 
 ceeding reigns, planted themselves in the north- 
 east part of Ireland, and there established the 
 linen manufacture, which was liberally en- 
 couraged by the lord deputy Wentworth in 1634 ; 
 
 by William III 1698 
 
 Hemp, flax, linen, thread, and yarn, from Ireland, 
 
 permitted to be exported duty free . . . . 1696 
 Irish linen board established in 1711 ; the Linen- 
 hall, Dublin, opened 1728 : the board abolished . 1828 
 A board of trustees to superintend the Scotch linen 
 
 manufacture established 1727 
 
 Duty on linen taken off i860 
 
 Dunfermline in Fifeshire, Dundee in Angusshire, 
 and Bamsley in Yorkshire, are chief seats of our 
 linen manufacture. 
 
 LINLITHGOW - BEIDGE (near Edin- 
 burgh), near which the forces of the earl of Angus, 
 
 who held James V. in their power, defeated the 
 forces of the earl of Lennox, who, after receiving 
 promise of quarter, was killed by sir James Hamil- 
 ton, 1526. Mary, queen of Scots, was born in the 
 palace of Linlithgow, 8 Dec. 1542, James Y.> her 
 father, dying of a broken heart, 14 Dec. 
 
 LINN^AN SYSTEM of botany, arranged 
 by Linne or Linnaeus, a Swede, 1725-30. He 
 classed the plants according to the number and 
 situation of the sexual parts, and made the flower 
 and fruit the test of his various genera. Liniwus 
 lived from 1707 to 1778. His library and herbarium 
 were purchased by sir James E. (then Dr.) Smith, 
 and given to the Linnaan Society in London, which 
 was instituted in 1 788, and incorporated 26 March, 
 1802. 
 
 LION AND TJNICOEN, the former English, 
 the latter Scottish, became the supporters of the 
 royal arms on the accession of James I. in 1603. 
 The lions in Trafalgar-square, designed by sir Edwin 
 Landseer, were uncovered, 31 Jan. 1867. 
 
 Lion. True lions belong to the old world exclu- 
 sively. They existed in Europe, Egypt, and 
 Palestine, but have long disappeared from those 
 countries ; their present country being Africa. A 
 lion named Pompey died in the Tower of London 
 in 1760, after 70 years' confinement. 
 
 Mr. Gordon Cumming, the lion-slayer, publi 
 his " Sporting Adventures in South Africa "in . 1850 
 
 Van Amburgh was very successful in taming liona ; 
 but many have perished through rashness. 'Die 
 Lion-queen was killed at Chatham, 1850 : 
 Massarti (John McCarthy) was killed by a lion, 
 
 3 Jan. 1872 
 LIPPAU, see Hussites. 
 
 LIPPE, a constitutional principality (N. "W. 
 Germany). Population, 1867, 111,352. Reigning 
 prince, Leopold, born 1 Sept. 1821 ; succeeded his 
 father, Leopold, 1 Jan. 185 1 ; heir, his brother 
 Waldemar, born 18 April, 1824. Lippe became a 
 member of the North German confederation, 18 
 Aug. 1866. 
 
 LIPPSTADT, see Liitzcn. 
 
 LISBON (Olisippo, and Felicitas Julia, of the 
 ancients) was taken by the Arabs about 716, and 
 became important under the Moorish kings, from 
 whom it was captured by Alfonso I. of Portugal in 
 1 147. It was made the capital of Portugal by 
 Emanuel, 1 506. Lisbon has suffered much by 
 earthquakes, and was almost destroyed by one, 
 1 Nov. 1755; see Earthquakes. The court fled to 
 the Brazils, 10 Nov. 1807, and on 30 Nov. the 
 French, under Junot, entered Lisbon, and held it 
 until the battle of Vimeira, in which they were 
 defeated by the British, under sir Arthur Wellesley, 
 21 Aug. 1808. A military insurrection at Lisbon, 
 21 Aug. 1831, was soon suppressed, and many sol- 
 diers were executed ; see Portugal. 
 
 LISLE (now Lille), N. France, has a strong 
 citadel by Vauban. It was besieged by the duke 
 of Mu'lborough and the allies ; and, though deemed 
 impregnable, was taken after a three months' siege 
 in 1708. It was restored by the treaty of Utrecht, 
 in 1713, in consideration of the demolition of the 
 fortifications of Dunkirk. Lisle sustained a severe 
 bombardment from the Austrians, who were obliged 
 to raise the siege, 7 Oct. 1792. 
 
 .LISMOEE (S. Ireland). St. Carthage, first 
 bishop, 636, says : " Lismore is a famous and holy 
 city, of which nearly one-half is an asylum where 
 no woman dare enter." The castle (built by king 
 John when earl cf Moreton, 1185), burnt in 1645, 
 
LISSA. 
 
 405 
 
 LITURGIES. 
 
 ■was rebuilt with great magnificence by the duke of 
 Devonshire. The cathedral, built 636, was re- 
 paired by Connac, son of Muretus, king of Muns- 
 ter, about 1130. The bishopric was united to that 
 of Waterford, about 1363; and both to Cashel in 
 1839. 
 
 LISSA (or Leuthen, Silesia). Here the king 
 of Prussia vanquished Charles of Lorraine ; 6000 
 Austrians were slain, 5 Dec. 1757- — Lissa, in 
 Poland, was laid in ruins by the Russian army in 
 the campaign of 1 707. — Lissa, an island in the 
 Adriatic. Near here the Italian fleet, commanded 
 by Persano, was defeated with severe loss by the 
 Austrian fleet, commanded by Tegethoff, 20 July, 
 1866. 
 
 The Italians had 23 vessels, 11 of which were iron- 
 clads, and the Austrians had 23 vessels, 7 only 
 being ironclads. 
 
 Persano, when in sight of the enemy, quitted his 
 ship, the Re d' Italia, and hoisted his flag on the 
 Affondatore. His ironclads did not keep well 
 together. 
 
 During the action, the ironclad Palestro took fire 
 and exploded, and all on board perished (except 
 19 out of 200 men), exclaiming, Viva il Re! Viva 
 Italia! The Re d' Italia was surrounded and sunk 
 by the Austrians. The Re di Portobello disabled 
 the Austrian line-of-battle ship Kaiser, and com- 
 pelled her to run ashore. Both parties soon after 
 retired from the conflict, which had lasted four 
 hours. 
 
 Admiral Persano was tried for misconduct and 
 dismissed the service (see Italy) . 15 April, 1867 
 
 LITANIES (Greek &'ta«ee'«, ! supplication), were 
 first used in processions, it is said, about 469 ; others 
 say about 400. Litanies to the Virgin Mary were 
 first introduced by pope Gregory I. about 595. 
 The first English litany was commanded to be used 
 in the Reformed churches by Henry VIII. in 1544. 
 
 LITEEAEY CLUB (at first called " The 
 Club" and "Johnson's Club"), founded by Dr. 
 Johnson and sir Joshua Reynolds, in 1764. Haw- 
 kins, Topham Beauclerk, Goldsmith, Burke, and 
 Bennet Langton, were among the first members. 
 The opinion formed of a new work by the club was 
 speedily known all over London, and had great in- 
 fluence. The club still exists. Hallam, Macaulay, 
 the marquis of Lansdowne, and bishop Blomfield 
 were members; Dr. Milman, dean of St. Paul's, 
 was in the chair at the centenary dinner, on 7 June, 
 1864. 
 
 . LITEEAEY FUND, Eoyad, was founded 
 in 1790, to relieve literary men of all nations, by 
 David Williams,* the friend of Benjamin Franklin, 
 and incorporated in 1818. The king of the Belgians 
 presided at the annual dinner, 8 May, 1872. 
 
 LITEEAEY PEOPEETY, SOCIETIES, 
 
 &c, see Copyright, Societies, &c. 
 
 LITEEATUEE, see Letters; comprehends 
 eloquence, poetry, history, language, and their 
 subdivisions. 
 
 * Ployer Sydenham, an eminent Greek scholar, of 
 Wadham college, Oxford, and translator of some of the 
 works of Plato, was arrested and thrown into prison for 
 a trifling debt due for his frugal meals, and there, in 
 1788, died of a broken heart in want and misery, when 
 nearly eighty years of age. The sympathy excited gave 
 rise to this institution, since well supported. Williams 
 was in early life a dissenting minister, and wrote on 
 education. He was consulted by the early revolutionary 
 party in Prance as to the form of a constitution for that 
 country ; he, Dr. Priestley, sir James Mackintosh, and 
 other distinguished Englishmen, having been previously 
 declared French citizens. He died 29 July, 1816. 
 
 LITHIUM, a metal, the lightest substance in 
 nature except the gases (its specific gravity being 
 °'59) > i s obtained from an alkaline substance termed 
 lithia ; discovered by M. Arfwedson, a Swede, in 
 1817. 
 
 LITHOFEACTEUE, or " Stoots-Bpeak- 
 ER," an explosive material, a modification of dyna- 
 mite (composed of gun-cotton, nitro-glycerine, with 
 the constituents of gunpowder, and other sub- 
 stances), invented by professor Engels of Cologne, 
 and made by Krebs, in 1869. It was occasionally 
 used by the Germans in the war 1870-1, and was 
 tried and well reported of for power and safety at 
 Nant Mawr quarries, near Shrewsbury, 9, 10 May, 
 1871, and 20 Feb. 1872. It was again tried at Nant 
 Mawr, 20 Feb. 1870, before the government explo- 
 sive committee, with similar results. 
 
 LITHOGEAPHY (engraving on stone). The 
 invention is ascribed to Alois Sennefelder, about 
 1 796 ; and shortly afterwards the art was announced 
 in Germany, and was known as polyautography. It 
 became partially known in England in 1801, et seq., 
 but its general introduction is referred to Mr. 
 Ackermann, of London, about 1817. Sennefelder 
 died in 1841. Improvements have been made by 
 Engelmann and many others ; see Printing in 
 Colours. 
 
 LITHOTOMY. The surgical operation of 
 cutting for the stone, it is said, was performed by 
 Ammonius, about 240 B.C. The "small apparatus," 
 so called from the few instruments used in the 
 operation, was practised by Celsus, about a.d. 17. 
 The " high apparatus " was practised (on a criminal 
 at Paris) by Colot, 1475 ; by Franco, on a child, 
 about 1566 ; and in England, by Dr. Douglass, 
 about 1519. The "lateral operation," invented by 
 Franco, much performed in Paris by Frere Jacques, 
 in 1697, has been greatly improved. The "great 
 apparatus" was invented by John de Romanis, and 
 described by his pupil Marianus Sanctus, 1524. 
 
 LITHOTEITY (or bruising the stone). The 
 apparatus produced by M. Leroy d'Etiolles in 1822 
 has since been improved. 
 
 LITHUANIA, formerly a grand- duchy, N. E. 
 of Prussia. The natives (belonging to the Slavonic 
 race) long maintained their independence against 
 the Eussians and Poles. In 1386, their grand-duke 
 Jagellon became king of Poland and was baptized : 
 Lithuania was not incorporated with Poland till 
 1501, when another duke Casimir, became king of 
 that country. The countries were formally united 
 in 1569. The larger part of Lithuania now belongs 
 to Russia, the remainder to Prussia. 
 
 LITURGIES (from the Greek litai, prayers, 
 and ergon, work). The Greek and Boman liturgies 
 are very ancient, having been committed to writing 
 about the 4th and 5th centuries. The Romish church 
 recognises four: the Koman or Georgian, the Am- 
 brosian, the Gallican, and the Spanish or Mosarabic. 
 The Greek church has two principal liturgies : St. 
 Chrysostom's and St. Basil's, and several smaller 
 ones. Parts of these liturgies are attributed to the 
 Apostles, to St. Ignatius, 250, to St. Ambrose (died 
 397), and to St. Jerome (died 420). 
 
 The present English Liturgy was first composed, 
 and was approved and confirmed by parliament, 
 in 1547-8. The offices for morning and evening 
 prayer were then put into nearly the same form 
 in which we now have them. 
 
 At the solicitation of Calvin and others, the liturgy 
 was reviewed and altered .... 1551 
 
LIVERIES OF THE CITY. 
 
 406 
 
 LIVERPOOL. 
 
 It was first read in Ireland, in the English lan- 
 guage, in 1550, and in Scotland, where it occa- 
 sioned a tumult, in 1637, and was withdrawn . 1638 
 
 The liturgy was revised by Whitehead, formerly 
 chaplain to Anna Boleyn, and by bishops Parker, 
 Grindall, Cox, and Pilkington, dean May, and 
 secretary Smith. 
 
 John Knox is said to have used a liturgy for several 
 years. The rev. Kobert Lee, of Edinburgh, intro- 
 duced a form of prayer in public worship, but 
 gave it up when ordered to discontinue it in May, 
 1859 ; he soon after resumed it, and the discussion 
 on the subject ceased only at his death, 14 March, 1868 
 See Common Prayer. 
 
 LIVERIES OF THE CITY OF LON- 
 DON. The term is derived from the custom of the 
 retainers of the lord mayor and sheriffs wearing 
 clothes of the form and colour displayed by those 
 functionaries. It was usual for the wardens of 
 companies to deliver a purse containing 20s. to the 
 lord mayor on I Dec. to obtain for individuals, so 
 desiring, sufficient cloth to make a suit, and the 
 privilege of wearing the livery. This added to the 
 splendour of the lord mayor's train when the civic 
 court went forth. Ashe. Liveries were regulated by 
 statute in 1392, and frequently since. The nobility 
 gave liveries to their retainers. 
 
 LIVERPOOL (W. Lancashire), is supposed to 
 be noticed in Domesday-book under the name Esme- 
 dune, or Smedune* Soon after the conquest, 
 William granted that part of the country situated 
 between the rivers Mersey and Kibble to Eoger of 
 Poitiers, who, according to Camden, built a castle 
 here, about the year 1089. It afterwards was held 
 by the earls of Chester and dukes of Lancaster. 
 Population of the parliamentary borough in 1851, 
 375)995 S in 1861, 443,938; in 1871, 493,346- 
 Liverpool made a free borough by Henry III. . 1229 
 
 Made an independent port 1335 
 
 Liverpool " a paved town " (Ltlcmd) . . . . 1558 
 " The people of her majesty's decayed town of 
 
 Liverpool " petition Elizabeth to be relieved from 
 
 a subsidy 1571 
 
 Separated from the duchy of Lancaster . . . 1628 
 Town rated for ship-money in only 26?. by Charles I. 1634 
 Besieged and taken by prince Rupert 26 June, 1644 
 
 Made a separate parish 1698 
 
 The old dock, the first in England, constructed and 
 
 opened 1699 
 
 Blue coat hospital founded 1709 
 
 The town vigorously opposes the Young Pretender 1745 
 
 Town- hall commenced 1749 
 
 Infirmary established „ 
 
 Seamen's hospital founded 1752 
 
 A most destructive fire 1762 
 
 House of industry founded 1770 
 
 Theatre licensed, 1771 ; opened .... 1772 
 Liverpool equips, at the commencement of the war 
 
 against France, 120 privateers, carrying 1986 guns, 
 
 and 8754 seamen 1778 
 
 King's dock constructed 1785 
 
 [The Queen's dock was also constructed about the 
 
 same time.] 
 
 Memorable storm raged 1789 
 
 The exchange burnt 1795 
 
 The town-hall (since restored) destroyed by fire . . ,, 
 The Athenaeum opened 1 Jan. 1799 
 
 Union news-room erected 1800 
 
 The Lyceum erected 1802 
 
 Awful fire ; loss exceeded i,ooo,oooZ. . 14 Sept. ,, 
 Corn exchange opened .... 4 Aug. 1808 
 Royal Exchange completed 1809 
 
 * In other ancient records its appellations are Litherpul 
 and Lyrpul, signifying probably, in the ancient dialect, the 
 lower pool; though some have deduced its etymology 
 from a pool frequented by an aquatic fowl, called the 
 " Liver," or from a sea-weed of that name ; and others, 
 from its having belonged to a family of the name of 
 Lever, whose antiquity is not sufficiently established to 
 justify their conclusion. 
 
 Statue of George III. commenced . . 25 Oct. 1809 
 Fall of St. Nicholas' tower, 28 killed . 11 Feb. 1810 
 
 Royal Institution founded 1814 
 
 Wellington-rooms built 1815 
 
 Royal Institution opened by Mr. Roscoe . 2 Nov. 18 18 
 
 American seamen's hospital 1820 
 
 Prince's dock opened . . . -19 July. 1821 
 St. John's market-place .... Feb. 1822 
 
 Royal Institution incorporated 
 
 Marine Humane Society formed 1823 
 
 New house of industry erected 1824 
 
 Liver theatre opened 1825 
 
 Old dock closed 1826 
 
 Foundation of new custom-house laid . 12 Aug. 1828 
 Blackrock lighthouse built, and light first shown, 
 
 1 March, 1830 
 Lunatic asylum founded, 1792 ; new buildings 
 
 erected , 
 
 Clarence dock completed .... Sept. ,, 
 Liverpool and Manchester railway opened* 15 Sept. ,, 
 
 Zoological gardens opened 1833 
 
 Great fire ; property valued at 300,000?. destroyed, 
 
 1 Jan. ,, 
 Lock hospital and Waterloo dock opened . . 1834 
 Victoria and Trafalgar docks opened . 8 Sept. 1836 
 
 British Association meet here . . . Sept. 1837 
 
 Mechanics' institute opened 1837 
 
 New fish market opened .... 8 Feb. ,, 
 
 Apothecaries' company formed ,, 
 
 Liverpool and Birmingham (Grand Junction) rail- 
 way opened 4 July, ,, 
 
 Railway to London (now the North- Western) opened 
 
 its entire length 17 Sept. 1838 
 
 Statistical society founded ,, 
 
 The Liverpool steamer, of 461-horse power, sails for 
 
 New York 28 Oct. „ 
 
 Awful storm raged 6 Jan. 1839 
 
 Foundation of the collegiate institution laid by lord 
 
 Stanley 1840 
 
 Foundation of St. George's hall and courts laid . . 1841 
 Immense fire ; property worth more than half-a- 
 
 million sterling destroyed ... 25 Sept. 1842 
 Mr. Huskisson's statue erected . . . Oct. 1847 
 Procession of Orangemen at Liverpool, and fatal riot, 
 
 14 July, 1851 
 The queen visits Liverpool ... 9 Oct. ,, 
 British Association meet here . . . Sept. 1854 
 St. George's hall opened . . . .18 Sept. ,, 
 Bread riots (150,000 persons out of employ through 
 
 the frost) 19 Feb. 1855 
 
 Gigantic landing stage for large steamers completed 1857 
 Free library, <fec. , founded by Mr. (afterwards sir) 
 W. Brown, M.P. for S. Lancashire, 5 April, 1857 ; 
 free library, &c. opened ... 18 Oct. i860 
 Many commercial failures . . Sept. to Nov. 1857 
 
 Association for Social Science meets . . Oct. 1858 
 Sailors' home (cost 3o,oooZ.) burnt . . 29 April, i860 
 
 Free Museum opened 17 Oct. 1861 
 
 Brownlow Hill church and workhouse school burnt, 
 
 and 23 lives lost (20 children) . . 8 Sept. 1862 
 Explosion of 11J tons of gunpowder in the Lottie 
 
 Sleigh, in the Mersey, great damage . 16 Jan. 1864 
 Death of sir Wm. Brown, a great benefactor to Liver- 
 pool 3 March, ,, 
 
 Additional M.P. (now 3) granted by Reform act, 
 
 15 Aug. 1867 
 Royal bank of Liverpool stopped . . 21 Oct. ,, 
 Greek steamer (Bubulina) in the Mersey exploded ; 
 
 about 19 lives lost .... 29 Nov. ,, 
 Reverdy Johnson, the United States' minister 
 
 warmly received 22 Oct. 1868 
 
 A Greek church consecrated by the Greek arch- 
 bishop of Syra 16 Jan. 1869 
 
 Fire at St. Joseph's Catholic chapel, 15 lives lost, 
 
 23 Jan. ,, 
 Stanley park, 100 acres (cost 42,000^.) opened 7 May, 1870 
 Stanley hospital ; foundation laid by the earl of 
 Derby 6 June, „ 
 
 * The first grand work of the kind, about 31 miles long. 
 The first shaft was commenced in Oct. 1826, and the ex- 
 cavation of the tunnel, one mile and a quarter long, Jan. 
 1827 ; the tunnel was completed in Sept. 1828, and opened 
 30 July, 1829. At the opening of the railroad, the duke 
 of Wellington and other illustrious persons were present ; 
 and Mr. Huskisson, who alighted during a stoppage of 
 the engines, was knocked down by one of them, which 
 went over his thigh and caused his death, 15 Sept. 1830. 
 
LIVEEPOOL ADMINISTEATION. 407 LOCAL GOVEENMENT BOABD. 
 
 British Association meets here third time 14 Sept. 1870 
 Equestrian statue of the queen unveiled 3 Nov. ,, 
 Seamen's Orphan Institution founded . n Sept. 1871 
 Tunnel across the Mersey to Birkenhead begun, 
 
 April, 1872 
 Sefton park opened by prince Arthur . 20 May, „ 
 
 The dock space in 1810 was 26 acres for ships, to the 
 amount of 704,000 tons ; in 1857, 209 acres, ton- 
 nage, 4,320,000. 
 
 LIVEEPOOL ADMINISTEATION. 
 
 Shortly after the assassination of Mr. Perceval 
 (II May, 1812), the earl of Liverpool became first 
 minister.* His administration terminated when he 
 was attacked by apoplexy, 17 Feb. 1827, and Mr. 
 Canning succeeded as prime minister, 10 April. 
 
 Earl of Liverpool, first lord of the treasury. 
 
 Earl of Eldon, lord chancellor. 
 
 Earl of Harrowby, lord president of the council. 
 
 Earl of Westmoreland, lord privy seal. 
 
 N. Vansittart, chancellor of the exchequer (succeeded by 
 
 F. J. Bobinson, 1823). 
 
 Viscount Sidmouth, home secretary (succeeded by Bobert 
 Feel, 1822). 
 
 Viscount Castlereagh, afterwards marquis of London- 
 derry, foreign secretary (succeeded by George Canning, 
 1822). 
 
 Earl Bathurst, colonial secretary. 
 
 Viscount Melville, first lord of admiralty. 
 
 Earl of Buckinghamshire, board of control (succeeded by 
 
 G. Canning, 1816 ; C. Bathurst, 1820 ; C. Wynne, 1822). 
 Charles Bathurst (1813), chancellor of duchy of Lancaster 
 
 (succeeded by N. Vansittart, lord Bexley, 1823). 
 
 Wellesley Pole, afterwards lord Maryborough, 1815, 
 master of the mint. 
 
 F. J. Bobinson, 1818 ; W. Huskisson, 1823, board of trade. 
 
 Earl of Mulgrave, ordnance (succeeded by duke of Wel- 
 lington, 18 19). 
 
 LIVINGSTONE, see under Africa. 
 
 LIVONIA, a Eussian province on the Baltic 
 sea, first visited by some Bremen merchants about 
 1 158. It has belonged successively to Denmark, 
 Sweden, Poland, and Russia. It was finally ceded 
 to Peter the Great in 1721. 
 
 LIVEET D'OUVEIEE, a species of work- 
 man's passport, introduced into France by Turgot 
 about 1781 ; abolished 23 March, 1869. 
 
 LLANDAFF (S. Wales). The first known 
 bishop was St. Dubritius, said to have died in 612. 
 The see is valued in the king's books at 154^. 14s. id. 
 per annum. Present income 4200?. 
 
 EECENT BISHOPS. 
 
 1782. Bichard Watson ; died 4 July, 1816. 
 
 1816. Herbert Marsh ; trans, to Peterborough, 18 19. 
 
 1819. Wm. Van Mildert ; translated to Durham, 1826. 
 
 1826. Charles Bichard Summer ; translated to Win- 
 
 chester, 1827. 
 
 1827. Edward Copleston ; died 14 Oct. 1849. 
 1849. Alfred Ollivant, present bishop. 
 
 LLANDEWEYEE (Carmarthenshire). 
 Here Llewelyn, prince of Wales, having descended 
 into the plains, was surprised, defeated, and slain 
 by the lords marchers, II Dec. 1282. This disaster 
 led to the subjugation of Wales in 1283. 
 
 LLEEENA, see Villa Franca. 
 
 LLOYD'S (London), at the Eoyal Exchange. 
 About 1710, a coffee-house, kept by Lloyd, in 
 Abchurch-lane, became a place of meeting of mer- 
 chants. After several removals it was established 
 finally at the Boyal Exchange in 1774, and re- 
 
 * Bobert Jenkinson, born 7 Jan. 1770, entered the house 
 of commons under Mr. Pitt ; opposed the abolition of the 
 slave trade in 1792 ; became lord Hawkesbury in 1796 ; 
 became foreign minister under Mr. Addington, in 1801 ; 
 succeeded his father as earl of Liverpool in 1808 ; died 4 
 Dec. 1828. 
 
 mained there till the fire in 1838, when it was 
 removed till the present building was completed in 
 1844. Here' resort eminent merchants, &c. ; and 
 here are effected many insurances on ships and 
 merchandise. Lloyd's is supported by subscribers 
 who pay annually aI. as. The books kept here 
 contain an account of the arrival and sailing of 
 vessels, and are remarkable for their early intelli- 
 gence of maritime affairs. In 1803, the subscribers 
 instituted the Patriotic Mind (which see). The 
 Austrian Lloyd's, an association for general, com- 
 mercial, and industrial purposes, was founded at 
 Trieste, by Baron Bruck, in 1833. It has established 
 regular communication between Trieste and the 
 Levant, by means of a fleet of steamers carrying the 
 mails, and publishes a journal. 
 
 LOADSTONE, see Magnetism. 
 
 LOANO, Piedmont (N. Italy). Here the Aus- 
 trians and Sardinians were defeated by the French, 
 under Massena, 23, 24 Nov. 1795. 
 
 LOANS for the public service were raised by 
 Wolsey in 1522 and 1525. In 1559 Elizabeth 
 borrowed 200,000?. of the city of Antwerp, to en- 
 able her to reform her own coin, and sir Thomas 
 Gresham and the city of London joined in the 
 security. Eapin. The amount of some of the 
 English and other loans, during memorable periods, 
 viz. : — 
 
 Seven years' war . . 1755101763 .£52,100,000 
 American war . . . 1776101784 . 75,500,000 
 French revolutionary war . 1793 to 1802 . 168,500,000 
 War against Bonaparte . 1803 to 1814 . 206,300,000 
 2 loans, 1813 . . . 21,000,000?. and 22,000,000 
 War against Bussia . . 1855 to 1856 . 16,000,000 
 For deficiency in revenue 1856 . 10,000,000 
 
 [Both taken by the Bothschilds alone.] 
 By East India Company 1858 . 8,000,000 
 
 A subscription loan (18,000,000?.) to carry on the war, 
 against France, filled up in London in 15 hours and 
 20 minutes (see Loyalty Loans), 5 Dee. 1796. 
 French loan on 9 July, 1855, on account of the war with 
 Bussia. The French legislature passed a bill for raising 
 by loan 750 million francs (30,000,000?. sterling). On 
 the 30th the total subscribed, in France amounted to 
 3,652,591,985 francs (about 146,103,679?.), nearly five 
 times the amount required ; 2,533,888,450 were from 
 Paris ; from the departments, 1,118,703,535. The num- 
 ber of subscribers was 316,864. No less than 231,920,155 
 francs were made up by subscription of 50 francs and 
 under. About 600 millions came from foreign countries. 
 The English subscription of 150,000,000 francs was 
 returned, as double the amount required had been 
 proffered. 
 The French government raised a loan of 20,000,000?. for 
 the Italian war from its own people without difficulty, 
 May 1859. 
 A Turkish loan of 5,000,000?., on the security of England 
 and France, was taken up by Bothschild in Aug. 1855, 
 and was well received : the stock rose to a small 
 premium. 
 French loan for 17,600,000?. announced 29 Jan. 1868. 
 French loan 2,000,000,000 francs for 80,000,000?. : nearly 
 twice the amount subscribed in France alone, 28 June, 
 1871 ; another loan, of (120,000,000?. at 6J per cent.) 
 for speedy payment of the indemnity and evacuation 
 of the provinces held by the Germans ; announced 26 
 July ; 1872, above twice the amount subscribed. See 
 France. 
 
 LOAN SOCIETIES. The laws relating to 
 them were amended by the act 3 & 4 Vict. c. 1 10 ; 
 passed Aug. 1840. 
 
 LOCAL GOVEENMENT ACT, passed in 
 1858, was amended in 1861. 
 
 LOCAL GOVEENMENT BOAED (anew 
 department of the government, comprising the 
 supervision of the public health, and local govern- 
 ment together with the powers and duties of the 
 Poor Law board), was established in pursuance of 
 
LOCHLEVEX CASTLE. 
 
 408 
 
 LOMBARD MERCHANTS. 
 
 an act passed 14 Aug. 1871. First president, Mr. 
 James Stansfeld, appointed president of the poor 
 law board, March, 1871 ; sec Gladstone. Mr. Lam- 
 bert, C.B., first secretary, appointed Sept. 1871. 
 
 LOCHLEVEN CASTLE (Kinross), built on 
 an isle in Loch Leven, it is said by the Picts, was 
 the royal residence of Alexander III. and his queen 
 when taken from it to Stirling. It was besieged 
 by the English in 1301, and in 1334. Patrick 
 Graham, first archbishop of St. Andrew's, im- 
 prisoned for attempting to reform the church, died 
 here al>out 1478. The earl of Northumberland was 
 confined in it, 1569. It was the place of queen 
 Mary's imprisonment in 1567, and of her escape on 
 Sunday, 2 May, 1568. 
 
 LOCKE'S ACT, 23 & 24 Vict. c. 127 (i860), 
 relates to legal proceedings. 
 
 LOCKE KING'S ACTS; 17 & 18 Vic? 
 
 c. 113 (1854), and 30 & 31 Vict. c. 69 (1867), relate 
 to mortgages. 
 
 LOCKS used by the Egyptians, Greeks, and 
 Eomans. Denon has engraved an Egyptian lock of 
 wood. Du Cange mentions locks and padlocks as 
 early as 138 1. Bramah's locks w r ere patented in 
 1784. Mr. Hobbs, the American, exhibited his own 
 locks in the Crystal palace, in 1851, and showed 
 great skill in picking others. 
 
 LOCOMOTIVES, see Railways. The use of 
 steam locomotives on ordinary roads is regulated by 
 acts passed in 1861, and 1865. 
 
 LOCRI, a people of Northern Greece. They 
 resisted Philip of Macedon, were aided by the 
 Athenians and Thebans, and defeated by him at 
 Cheeronea, 7 Aug. 338 B.C. 
 
 LOCUSTS, one of the plagues of Egypt, 1491 
 B.C. \Exod. x.) Owing to the putrefaction of vast 
 swarms in Egypt and Libya, upwards of 800,000 
 persons are said to have perished, 128 B.C. Pales- 
 tine was infested with such swarms that they 
 darkened the air ; and after devouring the fruits of 
 the earth, they died, and their intolerable stench 
 caused a pestilential fever, a.d. 406. A similar 
 catastrophe occurred in France in 837. A swarm of 
 locusts settled upon the ground about London, and 
 consumed the vegetables; great numbers fell in 
 the streets ; they resembled grasshoppers, but were 
 three tunes the size, and their colours more varie- 
 gated, 4 Aug. 1748. They infested Germany in 
 1749, Poland in 1750, and Warsaw in June, 1816. 
 They are said to have been seen in London in 1857. 
 Russia was infested by them in July, i860; Algeria, 
 severely, in 1866 ; and Sardinia in 1868. 
 
 LODGERS paying 10I. a year for a whole year 
 for apartments without furniture, acquired the 
 suffrage, by Reform act passed 15 Aug. 1867. Act 
 to protect their goods from distraint, passed 16 Aug. 
 1871. 
 
 LODGING-HOUSES. An act placing com- 
 mon lodging-houses under the watch of the police 
 was passed in 185 1. In that year a model lodging- 
 house erected by prince Albert appeared at the 
 Great Exhibition. Since then, blocks of lodging- 
 houses for the poor have been erected by Miss Burdett 
 Coutts and others. Mr. Peabody's donation of 
 12 March, 1862, has been appropriated for a similar 
 purpose; see Peabody. On 19 Nov. 1863, the city 
 of London voted 20,000/. and a piece of land in 
 Victoria-street for the purpose see London, 1845. 
 
 LODI (N. Italy). Napoleor Bonaparte, com- 
 manding the French army, totally defeated the 
 
 Austrians, under Beaulieu, after a bloody engage- 
 ment at the bridge of Lodi, 10 May, 1796. 'Ihe 
 republican flag floated in Milan a few days after. 
 
 LOGARITHMS, the indexes of the ratio of 
 numbers one to another, were invented by baron. 
 Napier of Merchiston, who published his work in 
 1614. The invention was completed by Mr. Henry 
 Briggs, at Oxford, who published tables, 1616-I0. 
 The method of computing by means of marked 
 pieces of ivory was discovered about the same time, 
 and hence called Najner's bones. 
 
 LOGIC, " the science of reasoning." Eminent 
 works on it are by Aristotle ; Bacon, Novum 
 Organon ; Locke on the Understanding ; and the 
 modern treatises on Logic, by archbishop Wltately, 
 sir William Hamilton, and Mr. John Stuart Mill. 
 
 . LOGIERIAN SYSTEM of musical educa- 
 tion, commenced by J. B. Logier, in Jan. 1815, and 
 introduced into the chief towns of the United King- 
 dom, Prussia, &c. He died 1846. 
 
 LOG-LINE, used in navigation, about 1570; 
 first mentioned by Bourne in 1577. It is divided 
 into spaces of 50 feet, and the way which the ship 
 makes is measured by a half- minute sand-glass, 
 which bears nearly the same proportion to an honr 
 that 50 feet bear to a mile : the line us^d in the 
 royal navy is 48 feet. 
 
 LOGOGRAPHIC PRINTING, in which 
 the commoner words were cast in one mass, was 
 patented by Henry Johnson and Mr. Walter of the 
 Tones in 1783. Anderson's History of Commerce, 
 vol. iv. was printed by these types in 1789. 
 
 LOGRONO, see Najara. 
 
 LOI DES SUSPECTS, enacted by the 
 French convention, 17 Sept. 1793, during the reign 
 of terror, filled the prisons of Paris. The Public 
 Safety bill, of a similar character, was passed, 
 18 Feb. 1858, shortly after Orsini's attempt on the 
 life of the emperor. 
 
 LOLLARDS (by some derived from the Ger- 
 man lollen, to sing in a low tone), the name given 
 to the first reformers of the Roman catholic religion 
 in England, the followers of Wykliti'e. The sect is 
 also said to have been founded in 13 15 by Walter 
 Lollard, who w r as burnt for heresy at Cologne in 
 1322. The Lollards are said to have devoted them- 
 selves to acts of mercy. The first Lollard martyr 
 in England was William Sawtree, parish priest of 
 St. Osith, London, 12 Feb. 1401, when the Lollards 
 were proscribed by parliament, and numbers of 
 them were burnt alive. Sir John Cobham, lord 
 Oldcastle, a follower of Wykliffe, was accused of 
 treason and condemned, Sept. 1413. He escaped to 
 Wales, where he was captured, and brought to 
 London and burnt, 25 Dec. 1418. 
 
 LOMBARDISTS, disciples of Peter Lombard, 
 the schoolman, bishop of Paris, author of the " Book 
 of Sentences," who died in 1164. 
 
 LOMBARD MERCHANTS, in England, 
 were understood to be composed of natives of some 
 one of the four republics of Genoa, Lucca, Florence, 
 or Venice. Anderson. Lombard usurers were sent 
 to England by pope Gregory IX. to lend money to 
 convents, communities, and private persons who 
 were not able to pa} r down the tenths which were 
 collected throughout the kingdom with great rigour 
 that year, 13 Hen. III. 1299. They had offices in 
 the street named after them to this day. Their 
 usurious transactions caused their expulsion from 
 the kingdom in the reign of Elizabeth. 
 
LOMBAEDY. 
 
 409 
 
 LONDON. 
 
 LOMBAEDY (N. Italy) derived its name 
 from the Langobardi, a German tiibe from Branden- 
 burg, said (doubtfully) to have been invited into 
 Italy by Justinian to serve against the Goths. 
 Their chief, Alboin, established a kingdom which 
 lasted from 568 to 774. The last king, Desiderius, 
 was dethroned by Charlemagne. (For a list of 
 the Lombard kings ; see Italy.) About the end of 
 the 9th century the chief towns of Lombardy forti- 
 fied themselves, and became republics. The first 
 Lombard league, consisting of Milan, Venice, 
 Pa via, Modena, &c, was formed to restrain the 
 power of the German emperors, in 1167. On 29 
 May, 1 176, they defeated the emperor Frederick 
 Barbarossa at Legnano, and eventually compelled 
 him to sign the peace of Constance in 1183. In 
 1226 another league was formed against Frede- 
 rick II., which was also successful. After this, 
 petty tyrants rose in most of the cities, and foreign 
 influence quickly followed. The Guelf and Ghibel- 
 line factions greatly distracted Lombardy; and 
 from the 15th century to the present time, it has 
 been contended for by the German and French 
 sovereigns. The house of Austria obtained it in 
 1748, and held it till 1797, when it was conquered 
 by the French, who incorporated it with the Cisal- 
 pine republic, and in 1805 with the kingdom of 
 Italy. On the breaking up of the French empire 
 in 1815, the Lombardo-Venetian Kingdom was 
 established by the allied sovereigns and given to 
 Austria, who had lost her Flemish possessions. 
 Lombardy and Venice revolted, and joined the king 
 of Sardinia in March, 1848 ; but they did not sup- 
 port him well, and were again subjected to Austria 
 after his defeat at Novara, 23 March, 1849. An 
 amnesty for political offences was granted in 1856. 
 Great jealousy of Sardinia was felt by Austria after 
 1849. In 1857 diplomatic relations were suspended; 
 and in April, 1859, war broke out ; the Austrians 
 crossing the Ticino and entering Piedmont. The 
 French emperor declared war against Austria, and 
 immediately sent ti-oops into Italy. The Austrians 
 were defeated at Montebello, 20 May ; Palestro, 30, 
 31 May ; Magenta, 4 June ; and Solferino, 24 June. 
 By the peace of Villafranca (11 July), the largest 
 part of Lombardy was ceded to Louis Napoleon, who 
 transferred it to the king of Sardinia. It now forms 
 part of the new kingdom of Italy, to which Venetia 
 was also surrendered by the treaty of Vienna, 
 3 Oct. 1867. 
 
 LONATO (Brescia, N. Italy). Here Napoleon 
 Bonaparte defeated "Wurmser and the Austrians, 3 
 Aug. 1796. 
 
 LONDON. Some assert that a city existed on 
 the spot 1 107 years before the birth of Christ, and 
 354 years before the foundation of Borne,* that it 
 was the capital of the Trinobantes, 54B.C, and long 
 previously the seat of their kings. In a.d. 61 it was 
 known to the Romans as Lundinium, or Colonia 
 Augusta, and the chief residence of the merchants. 
 It is said, but not truly, to have derived its name 
 from Lud, an old British king, who was buried near 
 where Ludgate formerly stood; but its name is 
 from Llyn-Din, the "town on the lake."f It 
 
 * The fables of Geoffrey of Monmouth state that 
 London was founded by Brute, a descendant of the 
 Trojan iEneas, and called New Troy, or Troy-novant, 
 until the time of Lud, who surrounded it with walls, 
 and gave it the name of Caer Lud, or Lud's town, &c. 
 Leigh. 
 
 t The original walls of London, said to have been the 
 work of Theodosius, Roman governor of Britain, 379 ; 
 hut they are supposed to have been built about 306. 
 There were originally four princix>al gates, but the num- 
 ber increased ; and ameng others were the Prastorian 
 
 became the capital of the Saxon kingdom of Essex, 
 and was called Lundenceaster. In i860, London 
 and the suburbs were estimated to cover 12 1 square 
 miles, 11 miles each way, being three times as large 
 as in 1800. The population of the metropolitan 
 districts in 1851, was 2,362,236 ; in 1861, it was 
 2,808,862; in 1871, 3,264,530. The population 
 of " the city" in 1851, was 127,869; in 1861, it 
 was 112,063 ; in 1871, 74,732. Revenue of the 
 corporation in 1862, 437,341/. The "port" of 
 London extends from London Bridge to the North 
 Foreland. See Bocks, Mayors, and Treaties. 
 
 Boadicea, queen of the Iceni, reduces London to 
 ashes, and puts 70,000 Romans and strangers to 
 
 the sword .61 
 
 She is defeated by Suetonius, 80,000 Britons are 
 
 massacred, and she takes poison . . . ,. 
 Bishopric said to have been founded by Theanus . 179 
 London rebuilt and walled in by the Romans . . 306 
 800 vessels said to be employed in the port of Lon- 
 don for the export of corn 359 
 
 Bishopric revived by St. Mellitus .... 604 
 St. Paul's church founded by Ethelbert . . . 610 
 
 A plague ravages London 644 
 
 Great fire which nearly consumed the city . . . 798 
 
 London pillaged by the Danes 839 
 
 Alfred repairs and strengthens London . . . 884 
 Easterlings settle in London before .... 978 
 
 Another great fire . 982 
 
 Tower built by "William I. 1078 
 
 First charter granted to the city by the same king* 1079 
 Another great fire, St. Paul's burnt .... 1086 
 606 houses thrown down by a tempest . . . 1090 
 
 Charter granted by Henry 1 1100 
 
 St. Bartholomew's priory founded by Rahere, about „ 
 London-bridge built, 1014 ; burnt . . . -1136 
 
 Old London-bridge begun 1176 
 
 Henry Fitz-Alwhyn, the first mayor (served twenty- 
 four years) 1189 
 
 Massacre of Jews » 
 
 Charter granted by Henry II 1154 
 
 First stone bridge finished 1209 
 
 Charter of king John ; mayor and common council 
 
 to be elected annuallyt I2 i4 
 
 Foreign merchants invited, settle here . 1 199-1220 
 
 Charter of Henry III 1233 
 
 Aldermen appointed about 1242 
 
 Watch in London, 38 Henry III 1253 
 
 Privileges granted to the Hanse merchants {which 
 
 see) 1259 
 
 Tax called murage, to keep the walls and ditches m 
 
 repair about 1282 
 
 Water brought from Tyburn to West Cheap . . 1285 
 Expulsion of the Jews' by Edward I. (16,511) . - 1290 
 
 Livery companies incorporated 1327 
 
 Charter granted by Edward III 1328 
 
 way, Newgate, Dowgate, Cripplegate, Aldgate, Alders- 
 gate, Ludgate, Bridegate, Moorgate, Bishopsgate, and the 
 Postern on Tower-hill. Eight gates were removed in 
 1 760-1, and the only one of the city boundaries now 
 remaining is Temple-bar, rebuilt 1670-2, and its removal 
 is expected. 
 
 * It is still preserved in the city archives. This 
 charter is written in beautiful Saxon characters, on a 
 slip of parchment six inches long, and one broad, and is 
 in English as follows :—" William the king greeteth 
 William the bishop, and Godfrey the portreve, and all 
 the burgesses within London friendly. And I acquaint 
 you, that I will that ye be all there law-worthy as ye were 
 in king Edward's days. And I will that every child be 
 his father's heir, after his father's days. And I will not 
 suffer that any man do you any wrong. God preserve 
 you." 
 
 f Stow incorrectly states this charter to have been 
 given in 1209, but it bears date May 19th in the 16th year 
 Of king John's reign, which began in 1199. This charter 
 was acted on at that period in various instances, as 
 many of the mayors were afterwards continued in their 
 offices for several years together ; and the same right was 
 exerted in the case of Mr. Alderman Wood, who filled 
 the office of lord mayor during two succeeding years, 
 those of 1816 and 1817. Leigh^ 
 
LONDON. 
 
 410 
 
 LONDON. 
 
 Terrible pestilence, in which 50,000 (?) citizens 
 
 perish* 1348 
 
 London sends 4 members to parliament . . . 1355 
 William of Walworth lord mayor . . . . 1380 
 
 Wat Tyler's rebellion (see Tyler) .... 1381 
 
 Aldermen elected for life 1394 
 
 Great plague, 30,000 (?) died . ... 1406 
 City first lighted at night by lanterns . . . . 1415 
 Guildhall commenced 1411, finished . . . 1416 
 Whittington thrice lord mayor, viz., 1397, 1406, 1419 
 Jack Cade's rebellion ; see Cade .... 1450 
 First civic procession on the water ; sir John Nor- 
 man lord mayor 1453 
 
 Falconbridge attempts the city .... 1471 
 
 Printing-press set up by Caxton ,, 
 
 Sweating sickness rages 1485 
 
 Fleet ditch navigable 1502 
 
 St. Paul's school founded by dean Colet . . . 1509 
 
 The fatal sweat, Sudor Anglicus 1517 
 
 Evil May-day (which see) „ 
 
 Streets first paved (Viner's Stat.) . . . . 1533 
 " Bills of Mortality " ordered to be kept . . . 1538 
 
 Dissolution of religious houses 1539 
 
 St. Bartholomew's monastery changed to an hos- 
 pital ,, 
 
 Forty taverns and public houses allowed in the 
 
 city, and three in Westminster, act 7 Edw. VI. . 1553 
 Christ's hospital founded by king Edw. VI. . . ,, 
 Russian trading company established . . . . ,, 
 
 Coaches introduced about 1563 
 
 Boyal Exchange built (see Exchange) . . . . 1566 
 New buildings in Loudon forbidden "where no 
 former hath been known to have been," to pre- 
 vent the increasing sizet 1580 
 
 Levant company established 1581 
 
 Thames water conveyed into the city by leaden 
 
 pipes 1580-94 
 
 Stow publishes his survey 1598 
 
 Nearly all London yet built of wood . . . 1600 
 East India company incorporated . . . . ,, 
 30,578 persons said to perish by the plague . . 1603 
 
 Gunpowder plot (which see) 1605 
 
 Thomas Sutton founds Charterhouse school, &c. . 161 1 
 New river water brought to London . . . . 1613 
 
 Virginia company established 1616 
 
 Principal streets paved „ 
 
 Hackney coaches first plied 1625 
 
 Building of the western parishes, St. Giles's, &c. 
 
 begun 1640 
 
 The city held for the parliament .... 1642 
 
 London fortified 1643 
 
 Jews allowed to return to London by Cromwell . 1650 
 Banking begun by Francis Child . . about 1660 
 Royal Society of London chartered . . . . 1662 
 68,596 persons said to have perished by the great 
 
 plague (see Plagues) 1665 
 
 " Oxford" afterwards " London Gazette" published 
 
 7 Nov. ,, 
 Great Are of London (see Fires) . . 2-6 Sept. 1666 
 Act for a "new model of building " in the city . ,, 
 Hudson's-bay company chartered . . . . 1670 
 Monument erected by Wren (see Monument) . 1671-7 
 St. Paul's founded .... 21 June, 1675 
 Oates' pretended popish plot 1678 
 
 * This terrible pestilence broke out in India, and 
 spreading itself westward through every country on the 
 globe, reached England. Its ravages in London were 
 so great, that the common cemeteries were not sufficient 
 for the interment of the dead ; and various pieces of 
 ground without the walls were assigned for burial-places. 
 Amongst these was the waste land now forming the 
 precincts of the Charter-house, where upwards of 50,000 
 bodies were then deposited. This disorder did not sub- 
 side till 1357. Leigh. 
 
 t This proclamation or decree was dated from None- 
 such, 7 July, 1580, and it was forbidden to erect new 
 buildings where none had before existed in the memory 
 of man. The extension of the metropolis was deemed 
 calculated to encourage the increase of the plague ; 
 create a trouble in governing such multitudes ; a dearth 
 of victuals ; multiplying of beggars, and inability to 
 relieve them ; an increase of artisans more than could 
 live together ; impoverishing other cities for lack of 
 inhabitants. The decree stated that lack of air, lack of 
 room to walk and shoot, &c. , arose out of too crowded a 
 city. A proclamation to the same effect was also issued 
 by James I. 
 
 A London directory published 1679 
 
 Charter granted by Charles II. .... 1680 
 
 Penny post established 1683 
 
 Settlement of French protestants .... 1685 
 Charter declared forfeited, 1682 ; but restored . . 1689 
 
 Bank of England established 1694 
 
 St. Paul's opened 2 Dec. 1697 
 
 Awful storm .... 26 Nov.-i Dec. 1703 
 
 Saeheverel's sermon and mob 1710 
 
 Act for the erection of fifty new churches . .1711 
 South Sea bubble commenced, 17 10 ; exploded (see 
 
 South Sea Company) 1720 
 
 Chelsea water works formed 1722 
 
 Bank of England built 1732-4 
 
 Glass lamps in the street . . between 1694 & 1736 
 Fleet ditch covered, and Fleet market opened . 1737 
 " Great Frost," 25 Dec. 1739 to 8 Feb. . . . 1740 
 
 London Hospital instituted ,, 
 
 New Mansion-house founded, 1739 ; completed . . 1753 
 
 British Museum established ,, 
 
 Society of Arts established ,, 
 
 Eight gates removed 1 760-1 
 
 Shop signs removed 1762 
 
 Westminster paving-act passed . . . ,, 
 
 Blackfriars-bridge opened ... 19 Nov. 1769 
 
 The lord mayor (Brass Crosby) committed to the 
 
 Tower by the House of Commons for a breach of 
 
 privilege 27 March, 1771 
 
 Lord George Gordon's No-popery mob (see Gordon's 
 
 mob) June, 1780 
 
 Thanksgiving of George III. at St. Paul's Cathedral 
 
 23 April, 1789 
 Royal Institution of Great Britain founded . . 1799 
 London docks opened .... 20 Jan. ,, 
 
 London Institution founded 1805 
 
 Lord Nelson's funeral .... 9 Jan. 1806 
 Gas first exhibited in Pall Mall 1807 
 
 Riots on the committal of sir F. Burdett to the 
 
 Tower 
 
 The Mint finished .... 
 
 Regent-street begun .... 
 Civic banquet to the allied sovereigns at 
 
 18 June, 1817 
 
 24 March, 1819 
 
 . . 1820 
 
 Soane 
 
 14 Aug. 
 
 Custom-house burnt 
 
 The city generally lighted with gas . 
 
 Waterloo-bridge opened 
 
 New Custom-house opened 
 
 Southwark-bridge opened . 
 
 The great increase in building commences 
 
 Bank of England completed by sir John " 
 
 Tumults at queen Caroline's funeral 
 
 Cabs introduced 
 
 London Mechanics' Institution founded 
 
 Bubble companies' panic 
 
 London University chartered . 
 
 27 turnpikes removed by act of parliament 
 
 New Post-office completed . 
 
 Farringdon-market opened 
 
 Omnibuses introduced . 
 
 New metropolitan police began 
 
 Covent-garden market rebuilt 
 
 Memorable political panic, 5 Nov. ; and no lord 
 
 mayor's show .... 
 New London-bridge opened . 
 General Fast on account of the cholera in 
 
 Hungerford-market opened 
 Houses of parliament burnt . 
 City of London sehool founded 
 The queen dines at Guildhall 
 Royal Exchange burnt 
 
 Railway opened from London to Birmingham, 
 
 1 7 Sept. ; to Greenwich 
 Penny-postage begun 
 Railway to Southampton opened . 
 Wood pavement tried ; fails 
 London library established . 
 Railway to Bristol opened 
 Blaekwall railway opened 
 Railway to Brighton opened 
 Thames Tunnel opened . 
 Royal Exchange opened by the queen 
 Erection of baths and wash-houses begins 
 Fleet prison taken down . 
 New building act begins operation 
 Penny steamboats begun . 
 Model lodging houses built . 
 Railway mania 
 
 6 April, 1810 
 
 . . 1811 
 
 . 1813 
 
 Guildhall, 
 
 18 June, 1814 
 
 . 12 Feb. ,, 
 
 1821 
 
 11 Feb. 
 
 1823 
 
 1825 
 1826 
 1827 
 1829 
 
 29 Sept. 
 
 1830 
 
 9 Nov. ,, 
 . 1 Aug. 1831 
 
 England, 
 6 Feb. 1832 
 3 July, 1833 
 
 . 16 Oct. 1834 
 • 1835 
 
 . 9 Nov. 1837 
 
 10 Jan. 1838 
 
 . 28 Dec. 
 10 Jan. 
 11 May, 
 
 1840 
 1841 
 
 30 June, ,, 
 
 . 2 Aug. „ 
 
 21 Sept. „ 
 
 25 March, 1843 
 
 28 Oct 1844 
 
 184s 
 
LONDON. 
 
 411 
 
 LONDON. 
 
 Twopenny omnibuses begun 1846 
 
 Great Chartist demonstration in London (see 
 
 Chartists) 10 April, 1848 
 
 Re-appearance of the cholera . . . Sept. 1849 
 Coal Exchange opened .... 30 Oct. „ 
 Lord mayor's great banquet (of mayors) — (see Lord 
 
 Mayors) 21 March, 1850 
 
 Attack upon general Haynau ... 4 Sept. „ 
 Great Exhibition opened, 1 May ; closed, n Oct. . 1851 
 Duke of Wellington dies, 14 Sept. ; his funeral at 
 St. Paul's (which see) ... 18 Nov. 1852 
 
 Cab-strike 27-29 July, 1853 
 
 Visit of king of Portugal . . . . 19 May, 1854 
 Attack of cholera .... Aug. <& Sept. „ 
 Meeting for Patriotic fund . . . .2 Nov. ,, 
 Visit of emperor and empress of the French to the 
 
 lord mayor 19 April, 1855 
 
 The queen distributes Crimean medals . 18 May, ,, 
 Failure of Paul, Strahan, & Co. (see Trials) 5 June, „ 
 Metropolitan Local Management act passed 14 Aug. „ 
 Visit of the king of Sardinia . . .30 Nov. „ 
 Metropolitan Board of works, first meeting 22 Dec. „ 
 Peace proclaimed, 29 April ; illuminations and fire- 
 works in the parks .... 29 May, 1856 
 Royal British Bank stops payment (see British Bank) 
 
 4 Sept. „ 
 Meetings of unemployed operatives in Smithfield, 
 
 Feb. 1857 
 Many commercial failures ; Bank charter act sus- 
 pended 12 Nov. „ 
 
 James Morison (originally a poor boy), who mainly 
 introduced the system of quick returns and small 
 profits, dies exceedingly rich . . 30 Oct. „ 
 
 Metropolis divided into 10 postal districts 1 Jan. 1858 
 Great Eastern launched (began 3 Nov.) . 31 Jan. „ 
 Complaints of the state of the Thames ; act for its 
 
 purification passed 2 Aug. . , 
 
 Panic on stock exchange (40 or 50 failures) at re- 
 ported French and Russian alliance against Aus- 
 tria April, 1859 
 
 A strike among the building trades, and a lock-out 
 by the masters, 8 Aug. ; the latter require the men 
 to sign a document, declaring that they will not 
 belong to any society which interferes with the 
 freedom of the workman ; the strike was dying 
 
 out in Nov. „ 
 
 Disgraceful riots at the church of St. George's in 
 the East, through the indiscretion of the Trac- 
 tarian clergyman, the rev. Bryan King, Sept. and 
 Oct. The church (closed for a time) re-opened ; 
 fresh disturbances on 6, 13, 20 Nov. ; the agita- 
 tion continued till Mr. King retired ; a compromise 
 
 ■was effected 29 July, i860 
 
 Metropolitan railway (underground) commenced in 
 
 spring of „ 
 
 Great distress through the severe winter ; thousands 
 
 relieved at the police offices . Dec. i860, & Jan. 1861 
 Another strike in the building trades commences, 
 
 22 March, „ 
 A street railway in the metropolis opened near 
 
 Bayswater 23 March, „ 
 
 Great fire near Tooley-street (see Fires) 22 June, „ 
 Sale of the East India house . . 23 June, „ 
 Meeting to establish the *' City of London College," 
 
 bishop of London in the chair . . 2 Oct. „ 
 Mr. George Peabody, the American merchant, gives 
 150,000!. to ameliorate the condition of the poor 
 and needy of London ... 12 March, 1862 
 The International Exhibition opens . 1 May, „ 
 Thames embankment bill passed, after much dis- 
 cussion Aug. „ 
 
 The masons' strike not over .... June, „ 
 Fights in Hyde-park between the Garibaldians and 
 
 Irish 28 Sept. & 5 Oct. „ 
 
 Public meetings there prohibited . . 9 Oct. „ 
 Comtesse de Silly leaves 4000k to poor of London „ 
 The Metropolitan railway opened . . 10 Jan. 1863 
 Pneumatic despatch company begins to convey 
 
 post-office bags 21 Feb. „ 
 
 Princess Alexandra of Denmark enters London, 
 
 7 March, „ 
 Prince and princess of Wales present at the city ball 
 
 at Guildhall 8 June, „ 
 
 Appeal of the bishop of London on account of the 
 spiritual destitution of the metropolis (see Church 
 
 of England) June, „ 
 
 The common council vote 20,000/!. and a site in 
 
 Victoria-street, E. C. , for a lodging-house for the 
 poor 19 Nov. 1863 
 
 New street between Blackfriars and London-bridge 
 opened 1 Jan. 1864 
 
 Charing Cross railway opened . . . 11 Jan. ,, 
 
 First block of Peabody's dwellings in Spitalfields 
 opened 29 Feb. „ 
 
 Garibaldi enters London, n April ; receives the 
 freedom of the city . . . .21 April, „ 
 
 Many turnpikes in the N. suburbs abolished, 1 July, „ 
 
 Great excitement through the murder of Mr. 
 Briggs in a carriage of the North London railway, 
 
 9 July, „ 
 
 The first railway train enters the city of London 
 near .olackfriars-bridge . . . .6 Oct. „ 
 
 North London industrial exhibition, Islington, 
 opened by earl Russell .... 17 Oct. „ 
 
 Excitement through the performance of the Daven- 
 port brothers Oct. -Dec. „ 
 
 Great bullion robbery in Lombard-street, 3 or 4 Dec. „ 
 
 Many burglaries in London ; great robbery at 
 Walker's, the jewellers, Comhill . . 4, 5 Feb. 1865 
 
 South London industrial exhibition opened by earl 
 of Shaftesbury 1 March, „. 
 
 The prince of Wales present at the opening of the 
 main drainage works, at the southern outfall 
 nearErith 4 April, „ 
 
 Prince of Wales opens the international reformatory 
 exhibition at Islington ... 19 May, „ 
 
 Cattle plague breaks out in cow houses near Barns- 
 bury, about 27 June, „ 
 
 Investigation into the state of the workhouse in- 
 firmaries from several paupers dying through 
 neglect Aug. „ 
 
 Many turnpikes in the S. suburbs abolished, 31 Oct. ,, 
 
 Mr. Peabody adds ioo,oooZ. to his gift of 1862, 
 
 29 Jan. 1866 
 
 City industrial exhibition opened by lord mayor, 
 
 6 March, „ 
 
 Horrible murder of Sarah Millson in Cannon-street 
 (culprit undiscovered) . . . .11 April, „ 
 
 Black-Friday ; commercial panic ; failure of Overend, 
 Gurney, & Co., Discount Company, on 10 May 
 (see-Bcmfc) 11 May, „ 
 
 Agra and Masterman's bank stops ; great excitement, 
 
 6 June, ,, 
 
 Shocking revelations in London workhouse in- 
 firmaries June, et seq. „ 
 
 Cholera prevails in east London (see Cholera), 
 
 July-Sept. ,„ 
 
 Riots in Hyde-park .... 23, 24 July, „. 
 
 Cannon-street railway station opened . 1 Sept. , y 
 
 Lord mayor honourably entertained at Brussels by 
 the king of the Belgians .... Oct. „ 
 
 Working classes industrial exhibition at Islington 
 closed 12 Nov. „ 
 
 Report of committee at common council recom- 
 mending enlargement of constituency voting for 
 municipal questions (from about 6700 to 15,000) 
 
 12 Nov. ,» 
 
 Reform demonstration by trades unions ; procession 
 of about 25,000 to Beaufort-house grounds, Bromp- 
 ton 3 Dec - » 
 
 Estimated population of the " City " by day, 
 283,520; by night, about 100,000 . . Dec. „ 
 
 Severe frost : 40 lives lost by breaking in of ice on 
 ornamental waters in Regent's park . 15 Jan. 1867 
 
 " Icy night " ; many accidents through fall of rain 
 and immediate frost 22 Jan. „ 
 
 London Street Reform Association organised, Jan. „ 
 
 Great distress in east London ; large subscriptions ; 
 Mansion-house Metropolitan Relief Fund esta- 
 blished 26 Jan. „ 
 
 Metropolitan poor act passed . . 29 March, „ 
 
 London conference on Luxembourg question, 
 
 7-1 1 May, , y 
 
 First stone laid of Holbom viaduct, 3 June ; of new 
 meat market -. 5 June, >» 
 
 The lord mayor entertained the viceroy of Egypt, 
 11 June ; the Belgians, 12 July ; the Sultan, 
 
 18 July, „ 
 
 The Sultan gives 2500Z. to the poor of London, 
 
 22 July, „ 
 
 Electors for M.P.'s to have 3 votes only, by Reform 
 act passed is Aug. „ 
 
 County Court for the city established by act of par- 
 liament 20 Aug. „ 
 
LONDON. 
 
 412 
 
 LONDON INSTITUTION. 
 
 Edw. M'Donnell shot by supposed Fenian, 28 Sept., 
 died 5 Oct. 1867 
 
 Tailors' strike, began 22 April ; over . . Oct. ,, 
 
 Lord mayor's state coach not used . . 9 Nov. „ 
 
 Common Council undertake erection of another 
 cattle market (for foreign cattle) . . 6 Dec. „ 
 
 Premeditated explosion outside Clerkenwell house 
 of detention to release Fenians (7 persons killed 
 and about 50 wounded) .... 13 Dec. ,, 
 
 Much excitement through other attempted explo- 
 sions ; about 30,000 special constables sworn in, 
 
 17-24 Dec. ,, 
 
 Mysterious disappearance of the rev. B. Speke in 
 Westminster 8 Jan. 1868 
 
 •Great distress in the east of London through want 
 of employment ; meeting of employers and em- 
 ployed. ; work offered to the iron shipwrights at 
 lower wages declined .... 25 Jan. „ 
 
 .52,974 special constables in the metropolis up to 
 
 28 Jan. ,, 
 
 Mr. Speke (partially insane) found in Cornwall, 
 
 24 Feb. „ 
 
 .(East) London Museum Site act passed . 28 Feb. „ 
 
 'The queen lays foundation of the new St. Thomas's 
 hospital 13 May, ,, 
 
 Western approach street, Holborn Valley, opened, 
 
 25 June, ,, 
 
 Part of the Albert (southern) embankment of the 
 Thames opened 30 July, ,, 
 
 King's Cross market opened ... 7 Aug. ,, 
 
 Midland Counties railway station opened . 1 Oct. „ 
 
 ■Great meeting to relieve sufferers by South American 
 earthquake (n.oooZ.) collected . . .13 Oct. „ 
 
 New meat market, Smithfield, inaugurated by the 
 lord mayor, 24 Nov. ; opened to the public, 1 Dec. „ 
 
 Mr. Peabody gives another ioo.oooi. to the poor of 
 London 5 Dec. ,, 
 
 London Association for prevention of poverty and 
 crime founded 17 Dec. „ 
 
 S. London industrial exhibition opened 1 March, 1869 
 
 Columbia market, .ethnal-green, erected by Miss 
 Burdett Coutts ; opened by her . . 28 April, ,, 
 
 Statue of Mr. Peabody uncovered, prince of Wales 
 present 23 July, ,, 
 
 Inauguration of the Holborn viaduct and the new 
 Blackfriars bridge by the queen . . 6 Nov. „ 
 
 Inauguration of the Victoria (northern) Thames em- 
 bankment by the prince of Wales . . 13 July, 1870 
 
 International workmen's exhibition at Islington 
 opened by the prince of Wales . . 16 July, ,, 
 
 London ratepayers' school-board association esta- 
 blished 8 Oct. „ 
 
 New city library and museum founded near Guild- 
 hall 27 Oct. „ 
 
 London education board elected . . 29 Nov. „ 
 
 Foundation laid of new general post-office 16 Dec. ,, 
 
 Mansion-house Relief Fund established for the 
 French (24,000?. raised in 4 days) . 18 Jan. 1871 
 
 Royal Albert hall, Kensington, opened by the queen, 
 
 29 March, ,, 
 
 International Exhibition at South Kensington 
 opened by the prince of Wales . . 1 May, „ 
 
 St. Thomas's hospital opened by the queen, 21 June, ,, 
 
 Hampstead heath purchased by Metropolitan board 
 of works for 45,000?. ; act passed . 29 June, ,, 
 
 The freedom of the city presented to prince Arthur, 
 
 13 July, „ 
 
 Tolls on the Commercial roads, London, E., ceased, 
 
 5 Aug. „ 
 
 Queen Victoria-street opened, 4 Nov. ; St. Andrew's 
 street, &c. , opened 20 Nov. ,, 
 
 New lieutenancy appointed, 1 Nov. . 8 Dec. ,, 
 
 National thanksgiving for the recovery of the prince 
 of Wales ; the queen and prince go to St. Paul's, 
 
 27 Feb. 1872 
 
 Strike of building trades begun, 1 June (see Strikes) ; 
 lock-out by the masters begun . . 19 June, „ 
 
 East London Museum at Bethnal-green opened by 
 the prince and princess of Wales . . 24 June, ,, 
 
 Murder of Mrs. Squires and daughter in Hoxton at 
 noon 10 July, ,, 
 
 Failure of Oledstanes and Co. (East India firm) for 
 nearly 2,000,000?. ; announced . . 22 Aug. ,, 
 
 Builders' strike and lock-out ends by agreement, 
 about 27 Aug. ,, 
 
 New City Library and Museum at Guildhall opened 
 by the lord chancellor .... 5 Nov. ,, 
 
 Brutal murder of Harriet Buswell, a gay woman, 
 in Great Coram-street ... 25 Dec. 1872 
 
 Banquet to mayors of corporate towns at the Man- 
 sion-house 26 March, 1873 
 
 Victoria-park visited by the queen ; she went 
 through Islington and returned through the city, 
 
 2 April, ,, 
 
 The City temple (to replace the Poultry chapel) 
 founded near Holborn Viaduct . . 19 May, ,, 
 
 The Shah of PersiaatabanquetatGuildhall, 20 June, „ 
 
 [See England; and the occurrences not noticed 
 here, under their respective heads.] 
 
 LONDON, Bishopric of, is said to have 
 been founded in the reign of Lucius, about 179, 
 Theanus the first archbishop. Augustin made 
 Canterbury the metropolitan see of England. Mel- 
 litus was bishop in 604. The see has given to the 
 church of Rome five saints, and to the realm sixteen 
 lord chancellors and lord treasurers ; it was valued 
 in the king's books, at 119^. 8s. \d. per annum. 
 Present income, io,ooo£. In 1845 Hertford and 
 part of Essex were taken from the see of London 
 and added to that of Rochester. 
 
 RECENT BISHOPS. 
 
 1787. Beilby Porteus, died 14 May, 1809. 
 
 1809. John Randolph, died 28 July, 1813. 
 
 1813. W. Howley, trans, to Canterbury, Aug. 1828. 
 
 1828. Charles James Blomfield ; resigned Oct. 1856 
 
 (died 5 Aug. 1857). 
 1856. Archibald Campbell Tait, translated to Canterbury, 
 
 Dec. 1868. 
 1869. John Jackson, from Lincoln, elected 14 Jan. 
 
 LONDON BEIDGE. One is said to have 
 existed, 978. A bridge built of wood, 10 1 4, was 
 partly burned in 1 136. The late old bridge was 
 commenced about 1 1 76, by Peter of Colechurch, 
 and completed in 1 209, with houses on each side, 
 connected together by large arches of timber which 
 crossed the street. 
 
 A fire at the Southwark end brought crowds on the 
 bridge ; the houses at the north end caught fire 
 likewise, and prevented their escape : and up- 
 wards of 3000 persons lost their lives, being 
 either killed, burned or drowned . . July, 1212 
 The bridge restored in 1300, again destroyed by fire 
 in 1471 ; 13 Feb. 1632, and . . . Sept. 1725 
 
 All the houses pulled down 1756 
 
 Waterworks begun, 1582 ; destroyed by fire . . 1774 
 The toll discontinued .... 27 March, 1782 
 In 1822 the corporation advertised for designs for a 
 new bridge : that by John Rennie was approved, 
 and the works were executed by his sons John 
 and George. The first pile was driven 200 feet to 
 the west of the old bridge, 15 March, 1824 ; the 
 first stone was laid by the lord mayor, alder- 
 man Garratt ... . 15 June, 1825 
 The bridge opened by William IV. and his queen, 
 
 1 Aug. 1831 
 The cost was 506,000?. 
 
 It was computed that on 17 March, 1859, there 
 passed over London-bridge 20,498 vehicles (of 
 which 4483 were cabs and 4286 omnibuses), and 
 167,910 persons (107,074 on foot, and 60,836 in 
 vehicles). 
 
 LONDON CONFERENCE, of representa- 
 tives of the chief European powers to reconcile Aus- 
 tria, Prussia, and Denmark, met 25 April to 25 June, 
 1864, without effect. For the conference in London 
 respecting the treaty of Paris, 1856, see Black Sea. 
 
 LONDON GATES, see note, p. 409. 
 
 LONDON INSTITUTION, '.'for the ad- 
 vancement of literature and the diffusion of useful 
 knowledge," in imitation of the Royal Institution, 
 was founded in 1805 by sir Francis Baring, bart., 
 and others, at 8, Old Jewry, Cheapside, and incor- 
 porated 30 April, 18 15. Prof. Porson, the first 
 librarian, died 25 Sept. 1808. The present building 
 hi Finsbury-circus was opened on 21 April, 1819; 
 
LONDON GAZETTE. 
 
 413 
 
 LONGITUDE. 
 
 the first lecture was delivered by Mr. W. T. Brande, 
 on 5 May following. Mr. ~W. E. Grove, Q.C. 
 (afterwards justice) (the inventor of the Voltaic 
 battery which bears his name), was the first pro- 
 fessor of experimental philosophy, 1840-6. The 
 institution possesses arj excellent library, lecture- 
 room, and laboratory. 
 
 LONDON GAZETTE, see Newspapers. 
 
 LONDON LIBEAET (circulating), at first 
 in Pall-mall, now in St. James' s-square, was 
 founded by lord Eliot and others, 24 June, 1840, 
 and opened 1 May, 1841. The latest catalogue was 
 printed in 1865. 
 
 LONDON PHILANTHROPIC SO- 
 CIETY was founded 1841, to supply bread and 
 coal to the poor. 
 
 LONDON STEAMEE, see Wrecks, &c. 
 
 LONDON STONE. A stone said to have 
 been placed by the Romans in Cannon-street, then 
 the centre of the city, 15 B.C. London stone was 
 known before the time of "William I. It was re- 
 moved from the opposite side of the way in 1742; 
 and again moved to its present position in the wall 
 of St. S within' s church, 1798. It was against this 
 stone that Jack Cade struck his sword, exclaiming 
 " Now is Mortimer lord of this city ! " 1450. 
 
 LONDON, UNIVEESITY OP. The "Lon- 
 don university " was founded by the exertions of 
 lord Brougham, Thomas Campbell, and others ; the 
 deed of settlement dated 11 Feb. 1826. The build- 
 ing was commenced 30 April, 1827 (when the first 
 stone was laid by the duke of Sussex) ; and was 
 opened by an inaugural lecture from professor 
 Bell, 1 Oct. 1828. On 28 Nov. 1836, two charters 
 were granted : by one the " London university " 
 was changed to "University college," and by the 
 other the University of London was established, 
 with a chancellor and other officers. New charters 
 were granted to the latter on 5 Dec. 1837 and 21 
 April, 1858. It has power to grant degrees to 
 students of the universities of the united kingdom, 
 and of many collegiate establishments. Its offices 
 were long in Burlington-house, Piccadilly, London. 
 The university was enfranchised by the Reform 
 act of 1867, and Robert Lowe was elected the first 
 M.P. 17 Nov. 1868. The new buildings in Burling- 
 ton-gardens, erected by Mr. Pennethorne, were in- 
 augurated by the queen II May, 1870. University 
 Hall, Gordon-square, was founded in 1847. 
 
 LONDONDEEEY or Derby (N. Ireland), 
 mentioned ^46. An abbey here was burned by the 
 Danes in 783. A charter was granted to the Lon- 
 don companies in 1615. The town was surprised, 
 and sir George Powlett, the governor, and the 
 entire garrison were put to the sword by rebels, in 
 1606. It was besieged by O'Neill in 1641. A grant 
 was made of Derry, with 210,000 acres of land, to 
 various companies in London, in 1619, when it took 
 its present name. The siege of Derry by James II.' s 
 army commenced 20 April, 1689. The garrison 
 and inhabitants were driven to the extremity of 
 famine ; but under the rev. George Walker, they 
 defended it until the siege was raised by gen. 
 Kirke, on 30 July. James's army, under the French 
 general Rosen, retired with the loss of about 9000 
 men. 
 
 LONE STAE, a secret society formed in 1848, 
 in Alabama and other southern states of the North 
 American Union, for the " extension of the institu- 
 tions, power, influence, and commerce of the 
 United States over the whole of the western hemi- 
 
 sphere, and the islands of the Atlantic and Pacific- 
 oceans." The first acquisition to be made by the- 
 order were Cuba and the Sandwich Islands. The- 
 knowledge of the existence of this society reached 
 England in Aug. 1852. 
 
 LONG ISLAND orELATBTISH (N. America),. 
 Battle of, 27 Aug. 1776, between the British troops 
 under sir "William Howe, and the revolted Ameri- 
 cans, who suffered a severe defeat, after a well- 
 fought action, losing 2000 men killed and wounded 
 and 1000 prisoners. 
 
 LONGEVITY. Methuselah died, aged 969,, 
 2349 B.C. {Gen. v. 27). Golour M'Crain of the Isle 
 of Jura, one of the Hebrides, is said to have kept 
 180 Christmasses in his own house, and died in the 
 reign of Charles I., being the oldest man on any- 
 thing approaching to authentic records for upwards 
 of 3000 years. Greig. "In 1014 died Johannes de 
 Temporibus, who lived 361 years (!)" Stow. 
 Thomas Parr, a labouring man of Shropshire, was 
 brsught to London by the earl of Arundel, in 1635,. 
 and said to be in his 153rd year, and in perfect 
 health ; he died 15 Nov. m the same year. Henry 
 Jenkins, of Yorkshire, died in 1670, and was buried 
 in Bolton churchyard, 6 Dec. aged 169 years (?) The 
 researches of sir G. Comewall Lewis, professor 
 Owen, Mr. Wm. J. Thorns (in his " Human Longe- 
 vity," May, 1873) and others, have disproved many 
 alleged cases oi longevity; and few statements 
 of lives extending much beyond a century can be 
 relied on. There were no records of baptism till 
 the 16th century. 
 
 Died. Alleged instances. Aged. 
 
 1656. James Bowles, Killingworth . . . i 52 
 
 1691. Lady Bccleston, Ireland I43 > 
 
 1759. James Sheil, Irish yeoman 136 
 
 1766. Colonel Thomas Winslow, Ireland . . . 146 
 1772. Mrs. Clum, Lichfield I3 g 
 
 1774. "William Beeby, Dimgarvon (an ensign -who 
 served at the battles of the Boyne and Augh- 
 rim) I3 o 
 
 1780. Robert Mac Bride, Hemes 130 
 
 ,, Mr. William Ellis, Liverpool .... 130 
 
 17S5. Cardinal de Solis IIO 
 
 1797. Charles Macklin, actor, London . . . . 107 
 
 1806. Mr. Creeke, of Thurlow I2 5 
 
 ,, Catherine Lopez, of Jamaica . . . . 134 
 
 1813. Mrs. Meighan, Donoughmore .... 130 
 
 1814. Mary Innes, Isle of Skye 127 
 
 1816. Jane Lewson, Coldbath-fields, Clerkenwell . 116 
 1840. Mrs. Martha Rorke, of Dromore, county of 
 
 Kildare 27 Aug. 133 
 
 1853. Mrs. Mary Power (aunt of Rd. Lalor Shiel), 
 
 Ursuliiie convent, Cork . . 20 March, 116 
 1858. James Nolan, Knoekardrane, Caiiow . . . 116 
 
 EXAMPLES FURNISHED BY DR. J. WEBSTER, F.R.S. 
 
 Died. Buried at Aged. 
 
 1652. Dr. W. Meade, Ware, Herts .... 148! 
 
 1 71 1. Mrs. Scrimshaw, Rosemary-lane . . . 127 
 
 1739. Margaret Patten, Christchurch, Westminster . 136 
 
 1 741. John Rovin, Tenieswar, Hungary . . . 172 
 
 1757. Alexander M'Culloch, Aberdeen . . . 132 
 
 1759. Donald Cameron, Bannack, Aberdeenshire . 130 
 
 1763. Mrs. Taylor, Piccadilly I3I 
 
 1766. John Mount, Langham, Dumfries . . . 136 
 
 ,, John Hill, Leadhills, near Edinburgh . . . 130 
 
 1771. Mr. Whalley, Rotherhithe . . . . 121 
 
 1775. Widow Jones, Campbell 125 
 
 1780. Mr. Evans, Spitalfields 139 
 
 1784. Mary Cameron, Braemar, Aberdeen . . . 129 
 
 1791. Archbd. Cameron, Keith, Aberdeenshire . . 122 
 
 1851. Jean Golembeski, H6tel des Invalides, Paris . 126 
 
 LONGITUDE, determined by Hipparchus, at 
 Nice, who fixed the first degree in the Canaries, 
 162 B.C. Harrison made a time-keeper, in a.d. 
 1759, which in two voyages was found to correct 
 the longitude within the limits required by the act 
 of parliament 12 Anne, 1714; and obtained the 
 
LONGOBAEDI. 
 
 414 
 
 L'OEIENT. 
 
 reward; see Harrison's Timepiece. The chrono- 
 meters of Arnold, Earnshaw, and Breguet, are 
 highly esteemed. Chronometers are now received 
 on trial at Greenwich Observatory. The act relating 
 to the discovery of the longitude at sea was repealed 
 in 1828. The Bureau des Longitudes at Paris was 
 established in 1795. 
 LONGOBAEDI, see Lombardy. 
 
 LONG PAELIAMENT met 3 Nov. 1640; 
 was forcibly dissolved by Cromwell 20 April, 1653. 
 
 LONGWOOD, in St. Helena (S. Atlantic 
 Ocean), the residence of the emperor Napoleon from 
 10 Dec. 1815 till bis death, 5 May, 1821. 
 
 LONGWY (N.E. France), a frontier town, 
 was taken by the allied army of Austrians and 
 Prussians, 23 Aug. 1792, the beginning of the great 
 war. It was again taken 18 Sept. 1815. After a 
 bombardment it surrendered to the Germans, 25 
 Jan. 1871. 
 
 LOOKING-GLASSES, see Mirrors. 
 
 LOOM: was used by the Egyptians. Theweaver's 
 otherwise called the Dutch loom, was brought into use 
 in London from Holland, about 1676. There were, in 
 1825, about 250,000 hand-looms in Great Britain, 
 and 75,000 power-looms, each being equal to three 
 hand-looms, making twenty-two yards each per 
 day. The steam-loom was introduced in 1807 ; see 
 Cotton, Electric-loom, Jacquard, Pneumatic-loom. 
 
 LOOSHAIS, a predatory nomadic Indian 
 tribe, about 300 miles east of Calcutta. They fre- 
 quently robbed the British tea plantations, killing 
 the planters and carrying off their children. An 
 expedition to chastise them was successful, Dec. 187 1 . 
 
 LOED, see Lady. When printed in the Eng- 
 glish Bible in small capitals Lord stands for Jeho- 
 vah, the self-existing God, the name first revealed 
 to Moses, 1491 B.C. Exod. vi. 3. "When Lord is in 
 ordinary type, it represesents Adonai, lord or 
 master. 
 
 LOED CHAMBEELAIN, CHANCEL- 
 LOB &c, see Chamberlain, Chancellor, &c. 
 
 LOED'S DAY ACT, 29 Chas. II. c. 7, see 
 Sabbath. 
 
 LOED'S SUPPEE, instituted by Jesus Christ 
 {Matt. xxvi. 17), 33, see Sacrament and Transub- 
 istantiation. 
 
 LOEDS.* The nobility of England date their 
 creation from 1066, when William Fitz-Osborn is 
 said to have been made earl of Hereford by Wil- 
 liam I. ; and afterwards Walter d'Evreux, earl of 
 Salisbury; Copsi, earl of Northumberland; Henry 
 <le Ferrers, earl of Derby ; and Gerodus (a Fleming) 
 earl of Chester. Twenty -two other peers were made 
 in this sovereign's reign. Ike first peer created by 
 patent was lord Beauchamp of Holt Castle, by 
 ltichard II. in 1387. In Scotland, Gilchrist was 
 created earl of Angus by Malcolm III. 1037. In 
 Ireland, sir John de Courcy was created baron of 
 Kinsale, &c, in 1 181; the 'first peer after the ob- 
 taining of that kingdom by Henry II. 
 
 * Peers of England are free from all arrests of debts, as 
 "being the king's hereditary counsellors ; therefore a peer 
 cannot be outlawed in any civil action, and no attach- 
 ment lies against his person ; but execution maybe taken 
 upon his lands and goods. For the same reason, they 
 are free from all attendance at courts leet or sheriffs' 
 turns ; or, in case of a riot, from attending the posse 
 ■comitatus. He can act as a justice of the peace in any 
 part of the kingdom. See Baron, Earl, &c. 
 
 LOEDS, HOUSE OF. The peers of England 
 were summoned ad consulendum, to consult, in early 
 reigns, and by writ, 6 & 7 John, 1 205; but the 
 earliest writ extant is 49 Hen. III. 1265. The 
 commons did not form a part of the great council of 
 the nation until some ages after the conquest ; see 
 Parliament. The house of lords includes the spiritual 
 as well as temporal peers of Great Britain. The 
 bishops are supposed to hold certain ancient baronies 
 under the king, in right whereof they have seats in 
 this house. Some of the temporal lords sit by de- 
 scent, and some by creation : others by election, 
 since the union with Scotland in 1707, and with 
 Ireland, 1801. — Scotland elects 16 representative 
 peers, and Ireland, 28 temporal peers for life. The 
 house of lords in Jan. 1873 consisted of 4 princes of 
 the blood, 2 archbishops, 20 dukes, 21 marquises, 
 127 earls, 32 viscounts, 245 barons, and 24 bishops; 
 in all, 475. 
 
 House of lords at death of Charles II. 1685 . 176 peers 
 ,, ,, Will. III. 1702 . 192 
 
 ,, „ Anne, 1714 . . 209 
 
 „ ,, Geo. I. 1727 . . 216 
 
 „ „ Geo. II. 1760 . . 229 
 
 ,, „ Geo. HI. 1820 . 339 
 
 ,, ,, Geo. IV. 1830 . . 396 
 
 Will. IV. 1837 . 456 
 
 In the 18th Vict. 1855 448 
 
 „ 24th Vict, i860 462 
 
 ,, 32ndVict. 1868 464 
 
 The king, barons, and clergy enact the constitutions 
 
 of Clarendon in 1164 
 
 Obtain Magna Charta in 1215 
 
 Held the government 1264-5 
 
 House of lords abolished by the commons, 6 Feb. 1649 
 
 ,, ,, met again, . . -25 April, „ 
 Unite with the commons in making William and 
 
 Mary king and queen 1689 
 
 Reject the great reform bill, 7 Oct. 1831 ; pass it, 
 
 4 June, 1832 
 The parliament house destroyed by fire . 16 Oct. 1834 
 Take possession of their new house . 15 April, 1847 
 
 Oppose successfully the creation of life peerages,* 
 
 7 Feb. 1856 
 Voting by proxy abolished by standing order, 
 
 31 March, 1868 
 New regulations respecting committees 2 April, ,, 
 Six new peers were gazetted . . 17 April, „ 
 
 Bankrupt peers not to sit or vote, decided 10 Feb. ; 
 
 settled by act 13 July, 1871 
 
 That peers cannot vote for M. P. 's affirmed by court 
 
 of common pleas on appeal . . .15 Nov. 1872 
 
 LOEDS JUSTICES, see Justices. 
 
 LOEDS LIEUTENANTS, see Lieutenants. 
 
 LOEDS OF THE PALE, see Pale. 
 
 LOEETTO, near Ancona, Italy. Here is the 
 Casa Santa, or Holy House, in which it is pretended 
 the Virgin Mary lived at Nazareth, and said to have 
 been carried by angels into Dalmatia from Galilee 
 in 1 29 1, and brought here a few years after. The 
 lady of Loretto, gaudily dressed, stands upon an 
 altar holding the infant Jesus in her arms, sur- 
 rounded with gold lamps. Loretto was taken by the 
 French in 1797 ; the holy image, which had been 
 carried to France, was brought back with pomp, 5 
 Jan. 1803. 
 
 L'OEIENT (W. France). Lord Bridport off 
 this port defeated the French fleet, 23 June, 1795. 
 The loss of the French was severe: that of the 
 
 * Peerage for life only, with the title of lord Wensleydale 
 of Wensleydale, was granted to baron sir James Parke, 
 10 Jan. 1856 ; the house of lords opposed his sitting and 
 voting as a peer for life, and on 25 July, 1856, he was 
 created a peer in the usual way, with the title of lord 
 Wensleydale of Walton. He died in 1868. A bill for 
 creating life peerages was read a second time in the lords, 
 27 April, 1869 ; but afterwards rejected. 
 
LORRAINE. 
 
 415 
 
 LUCCA. 
 
 British inconsiderable. — The French flag-ship, 
 L' Orient, blew up during the battle of the Nile, I 
 Aug. 1798. Admiral Brueys and about 900 men 
 perished. 
 
 LORRAINE (Lotharingia), formerly a French 
 now a German province, became a kingdom under 
 Lothaire (son of the emperor Lothaire I.) about 
 855 ; and was divided at his death, in 869, part of 
 it being made a duchy. From the first hereditary 
 duke, Gerard, nominated by the emperor Henry III. 
 in 1048, descended the house of Lorraine, repre- 
 sented now by the emperor of Austria, whose ances- 
 tor, the empress Maria Theresa, married in 1736 
 Francis formerly duke of Lorraine, then of Tuscan)*-. 
 Lorraine, given to the dethroned king of Poland, 
 Stanislaus I., for life, was, at his death in 1766, 
 united to France ; see Nancy. Lorraine was the seat 
 of war in Aug. 1870, and the chief part was annexed 
 to Germany at the peace, 26 Feb. 187 1. 
 
 LOTS- Casting lots, as an appeal to God, was 
 sacred among the Jews, Proverbs xvi. 33. It was 
 employed in the division of the land of Canaan, 
 about 1444 B.C., by Joshua (xiv.), and in the elec- 
 tion of Matthias the apostle, a.d. 33, Acts i. — Lots 
 for life or death have been frequently east. For an 
 instance, see Wales, 1649, note. 
 
 LOTTERIES are said to have originated in 
 Florence about 1530, and to have been legalised in 
 France in 1539, and soon became common. See 
 Art Union. 
 
 The first mentioned in English history took place, 
 day and night, at the western door of St. Paul's 
 cathedral. It contained 40,000 "lots" at 10s. 
 each lot, the profits were for repairing the har- 
 bours, and the prizes were pieces of plate, 
 
 11 Jan. -6 May, 1569 
 
 A lottery, granted by the king, in favour of the 
 colony of Virginia (prizes, pieces of plate), drawn 
 near St. Paul's . . .29 June, 20 July, 1612 
 
 First lottery for sums of money took place in . . 1630 
 
 Lotteries established (for more than 130 years 
 yielded a large annual revenue to the crown) . . 1693 
 
 Lottery for the British Museum .... 1753 
 
 Cox's museum, containing many rare specimens of 
 art and articles of virtu, disposed of by lottery, 
 by an act of parliament 1773 
 
 An act passed for the sale of the buildings of the 
 Adelphi by lottery .... 16 June, ,, 
 
 Irish state lottery drawn 1780 
 
 Lottery for the Leverian Museum . . . 1784-5 
 
 For the Pigott diamond, permitted, Jan. 2, 1801 ; it 
 was afterwards sold at Christie's auction for 9500 
 guineas 10 May, 1802 
 
 For the collection of pictures of alderman Boydell, 
 by act 1804-5 
 
 Lotteries abolished by 6 Geo. IV. c. 60, Oct. ; the 
 last drawn 18 Oct. 1826 
 
 Act passed declaring that the then pending Glasgow 
 lottery should be the last 1834 
 
 An act passed imposing a penalty of 50I. for adver- 
 tising lotteries in the newspapers . . . . 1836 
 
 Lotteries suppressed in Prance . . 1793 and 1836 
 
 Mr. Dethiers' twelfth-cake lottery, Argyll-rooms, 
 Hanover-square, suppressed . . .27 Dec. i860 
 
 LOUDON-HILL, orDRUMCLOG; seeFrum- 
 ■clog. 
 
 LOUIS-D'OR, a French gold coin of 24 francs, 
 first struck by Louis Sill, in 1640; it was not 
 legal, 1795-1814; superseded by the Napoleon, 
 1810. 
 
 LOUISIANA (N. America), one of the United 
 States ; discovered by Ferdinand de Soto, 1541 ; 
 traversed by M. de Salle, 1682 ; settled by Louis 
 XIV. (from whom it derived its name), 1673. ^ 
 formed the basis of Law's Mississippi scheme, 1717. 
 It was ceded to Spain when all east of the Missis- 
 
 sippi was given to England, 1763. Capital, Baton 
 Kouge. 
 
 Bestored to France 1801 
 
 Sold to the Americans, 1803 ; and made a state . 1812 
 Gen. Jackson defeated^the British at New Orleans, 
 
 8 Jan. 1815 
 Seceded from the Union by ordinance . 25 Jan. 1861 
 Adm. Farragut takes New Orleans for the Federals, 
 
 28 April, 1862 
 Louisiana restored to the Union .... 1865 
 The state disturbed by factions and civil war : at 
 Grant parish many negroes massacred 11 April, 1873 
 
 LOURDES, Hautes Pyrenees, S. France, see 
 France, 1872. 
 
 LOUVRE, in Paris, is said to have been a royal 
 residence in the reign of Dagobert, 628. It was a 
 prison-tower constructed by Philippe Augustus in 
 1204. It afterwards became a library, and Charles 
 VI. made it his palace (about 1364). The new 
 buildings, begun by Francis I. in 1528, were enlarged 
 and adorned by successive kings, particularly Louis 
 XIV. — Napoleon I. turned it into a museum, and 
 deposited in it the finest collection of paintings, sta- 
 tues, and treasures of art known in the world. The 
 chief of those brought from Italy have since been 
 restored to the rightful possessors. The magnificent 
 buildings of the new Louvre, begun^by Napoleon I. 
 and completed by Napoleon III., were inaugurated 
 by the latter in great state, 14 Aug. 1857. The 
 library was destroyed and other buildings much in- 
 jured by the communists, May, 1871. 
 
 LOVE FEASTS, see Agapce. 
 
 LOW COUNTRIES, the Pays Bas, now Hol- 
 land and Belgium {which see). 
 
 LOWER EMPIRE. Some historians make 
 it begin with the reign of Valerian, 253 ; others 
 with that of Constantine, 323. 
 
 LOWERING BOAT APPARATUS, see 
 
 Life-boats. 
 
 LOW SUNDAY, the first Sunday after Easter, 
 said to derive its name from the inferiority of its 
 solemnities to those of Easter Sunday ; see Faster. 
 
 LOYALTY LOANS were raised during the 
 revolutionary wars. The term was applied to one 
 opened in London 5 Dec. 1796 ; in fifteen hours and 
 twenty minutes the sum of eighteen millions sterling 
 was subscribed ; see National Association. 
 
 LUBBOCK'S ACT, Sir John, see Bank Soli- 
 days' Act. 
 
 LUBECK, a city in N. Germany, one of the 
 four republics of the German confederation, was 
 built in the 12th century, and was chief founder of 
 the Hanseatic league about 1240, which lasted till 
 1630. Lubeck was declared a free imperial city 
 about 1226 ; but was frequently attacked by the 
 Danes. The French took it by assault, 6 Nov. 
 1806, and Napoleon incorporated it with his empire 
 in 1810. On his fall in 1814 it became once more a 
 free imperial city. It joined the North German 
 confederation 18 Aug. 1866. Population in 1867, 
 48,538- 
 
 LUCANIANS, a warlike people of S. Italy, 
 defeated Alexander of Epirus at Pandosia, 332 B.C. ; 
 were subdued by the Bomans, 227 ; revolted after 
 the battle of Cannse, 216 ; were reduced by Scipio, 
 201 ; again revolted, 90 ; admitted as Boman citi- 
 zens, 88. 
 
 LUCCA (central Italy), a Boman colony, 177 
 B.C. ; a Lombard duchy, a.d. 1327; a free city about 
 1370 ; took an active part in the civil wars of the 
 
LUCERNE. 
 
 416 
 
 LUSATIA. 
 
 Italian republics. It was united with Tuscany, and 
 given as a pi-incipality to Eliza Bonaparte by her 
 brother Napoleon I. Lucca, as a duchy, was given 
 to Maria Louisa, widow of Louis, king of Etruria, in 
 1814. It was exchanged by her son Charles-Louis 
 for Parma and Plaeentia in" 1847 ; was annexed to 
 Tuscany, and with it became part of the kingdom of 
 Italy, in i860. 
 
 LUCERNE (Switzerland) became independent 
 in 1332, and joined the confederation. The city 
 Lucerne is said to derive its name from a light 
 (lucerna) set up to guide travellers. It dates from 
 the 8th century, and was subject to the abbots 
 of Murbach, who surrendered it to the house of 
 Hapsburg. It was taken by the French in March, 
 1798, and was for a short time capital of the Hel- 
 vetic republic ; which, as the focus of insurrection 
 against the French, was suppressed Oct. 1802. As 
 a catholic canton, Lucerne was very active on 
 behalf of education by the Jesuits, 1844 > see Swit- 
 zerland. 
 
 LUCIA, ST. (West Indies), first settled by 
 the English, 1639 ; expelled by the natives ; settled 
 by French in 1650 ; taken by the British several 
 times in the subsequent wars. Insurrection of 
 the French negroes, April, 1795. St. Lucia was 
 restored to France at the peace of 1802 ; but was 
 seized by England, 1803, and confirmed to her in 
 1814. Population in 1861, 26,705. 
 
 LUCIFER MATCHES came into use about 
 1834. Friction matches were invented by Walker 
 of Stockton-on-Tees, 1829. In March, 1842, Mr. 
 Eeuben Partridge patented machinery for manu- 
 facturing the splints. In 1845, Schrotter of 
 Vienna produced his amorphous phosphorus (by 
 heating ordinary phosphorus in a gas which it 
 cannot absorb), by the use of which lucifers are 
 rendered less dangerous, and the manufacture less 
 unhealthy. Phosphoros (Greek) and lucifer (Latin) , 
 both signify light-bearer. 
 
 Mr. Lowe's proposed tax on lucifers (with "e luce 
 lucellum " on the hox) was much opposed and with- 
 drawn, April, 1871. For their exertions, a drinking 
 fountain at Bow was inaugurated as a memorial to 
 Bryant and May, 5 Oct. 1872. The match manufacture 
 was made a monopoly in France in Oct. 1872, for 
 750,000?. 
 
 LUCKNOW, the capital of Oude, since 1675 ; 
 see Oude, and India, 1857. 
 
 LUDDITES. Large parties of men under this 
 designation, derived from Ned Lud, an idiot, who 
 once" broke some frames in a passion, commenced 
 depredations at Nottingham, breaking frames and 
 machinery, Nov. 181 1. Skirmish with the military 
 there, 29 Jan. 1812. Serious riots occurred again 
 in 1814; and numerous bodies of unemployed arti- 
 sans committed great excesses in 1816 et seq. Several 
 of these Luddites were tried and executed, 1813 and 
 1818; see Derby. 
 LUGDUNUM, see Leyden and Lyons. 
 LUNATICS. Insanity, in a thousand male 
 patients, has been traced to — 
 
 Religious enthusiasm . 29 
 
 of Unnatural practices . 27 
 
 Political events . . 26 
 
 Poisonous effluvia . 17 
 
 " The king shall have the custody of the lands of 
 natural fools," &c, 17 Edw. II. .... 1324 
 
 Marriages with lunatics declared void, 15 Geo. II. 
 c 30 *74 2 
 
 Act regarding criminal lunatics passed . Aug. 1840 
 
 The numerous laws respecting lunatics were con- 
 solidated and amended by 16 & 17 Vict. cc. 70, 96, 
 
 Drunkenness 
 Consequences 
 
 disease . 
 Epilepsy 
 Ambition 
 Excessive labour 
 Born idiots 
 Misfortunes . 
 Old age . 
 Chagrin 
 Love 
 Accidents . 
 
 Ill-usage . . . . 
 Crimes, remorse, and 
 
 despair 
 Malformation of the 
 
 skull .... 
 Other and unknown 
 causes 
 retended insanity 
 
 97 
 
 1853 
 
 A new lunacy act for Scotland passed . . . 185s 
 An act to amend the law relating to commissions of 
 lunacy passed (said to be in consequence of the 
 Wyndham case ; see Trials, 1862) .... 1862 
 
 TREATMENT OF THE INSANE. 
 
 Till the end of the last century lunatics were treated 
 with cruel severity ; see Conolly " On the Treat- 
 ment of the Insane," 1856. 
 
 The insane were exliibited at Bethlem as a show, 
 for id. or 2d. till 1770 
 
 Enlightened principles of treatment were intro- 
 duced by Wm. Tuke, at the Society of Friends' 
 " Retreat," at York, and by Piuel, at theBicetre, 
 Paris, with very great success 1792 
 
 Esquirol succeeds Pinel, and strongly recommends 
 instruction in the management of mental dis- 
 orders 1810 
 
 Exposure of enormous cruelties in the Bethlem 
 hospital 1815 
 
 This led to gradual improvements, and at last to 
 the total abolition of mechanical restraints at 
 Lincoln, 1837 ; and at Hanwell Asylum (under 
 the superintendence of Dr. John Conolly) and at 
 other places 1839 
 
 Psychological Journal first published by Dr. Forbes 
 Winslow 1848 
 
 Journal of Mental Science, by Dr. J. C. Bucknill . 1852 
 See Hosiiitals. 
 
 Lunatics in. charge in 
 
 England and Wales, Private. Pauper. 
 
 1 Jan. 1855. Male. Female. Male. Female. Total 
 
 County Asylums . 132 123 6008 7316 13,579 
 
 Hospitals . . 895 723 91 94 1,803 
 
 Licensed houses . 1448 1350 1034 1279 5,111 
 
 2475 2196 7133 8689 20,493 
 On 1 Jan. 1858, there were in charge in England and 
 Wales 22,310 lunatics of all classes ; 1859, 22,853 ! i860, 
 '7)837 ; 1861, 23,721; 1862, 26,169; 1864, 28,285; 1865, 
 29,425; 1866,30,869; 1S67, 33,123; 1868, 33,213; 1869, 
 34,681 ; 1870, 35,913 ; 1871, 36,874 ; 1872, 37,176. 
 
 In 1851, there were in Ireland nearly 15,000 lunatics of 
 all classes ; in Scotland in 1851, 3362 in charge ; in 1855, 
 7403; of which only 3328 were under the protection of 
 the law. 
 
 LUND-HILL, near Bamsley, in South York- 
 shire. While the miners were dining in the pit, 19 
 Feb. 1857, the inflammable gas took fire and 
 exploded. About 189 miners perished. In April 
 and May bodits were still being extricated. There 
 had been great laxity of discipline in the pit. 
 7000^. were subscribed for the bereaved. 
 
 LUNEBURG, see Brunswick. 
 
 LUNEVILLE (France), PEACE OF, con- 
 cluded between the French republic and the emperor 
 of Germany, confirmed the cessions made by the 
 treaty of Campo Formio, stipulated that the Rhine, 
 as far as the Dutch territories, should form the 
 boundary of France, and recognised the Batavian, 
 Helvetic, Ligurian, and Cisalpine republics, 9 Feb. 
 1801. 
 
 LUPERCALIA, a yearly festival observed at 
 Rome on 15 Feb. in honour of Pan, destrover of 
 wolves (lupi), instituted by the Romans, according 
 to Plutarch; but accoiding to Livy, brought by 
 Evander into Italy. These feasts are said to have 
 been abolished in 496, by pope Gelasius, on account 
 of their great disorders. 
 
 LUSATIA, a marquisate in N. Germany, 
 given to John of Bohemia, 13 19 ; obtained by 
 Matthias of Hungary, 1478 ; ceded to Saxony in 
 I635- 
 
LUSIAD. 
 
 417 
 
 LYDIA. 
 
 LUSIAD, the great epic poem of the Portu- 
 guese, written in honour of their discoveries in 
 India, by Luis de Camoens, and published by him 
 at Lisbon, 1 1:72. The English translations are by 
 sir Richard Fanshawe, 1655 ; and by ¥m. Julius 
 Mickle, 1775. 
 
 LUSITANIA, see Portugal. 
 
 LUSTRUM, an expiatory sacrifice made for 
 the Koman people, at the end of every five years, 
 after the census had been taken, 472 B.C. Every 
 fifth year was called a lustrum ; and ten, fifteen, or 
 twenty years, were commonly expressed by two, 
 three or four lustra. The number of Roman 
 citizens was— in 293 B.C., 272,308; 179 B.C., 
 273,294; 70 B.C., 450,000; 28 B.C., 4,164,060; A.D. 
 48, 5,984,072. The last lustrum took place, 74. 
 
 LUTHER ANTSM,* the form of Christianity 
 professed by the majority of the people of the north 
 of Germany, Prussia, Denmark, and Sweden. The 
 doctrines are mainly embodied in Luther's cate- 
 chisms, in the Augsburg Confession, and in the 
 Formula Concordice of the Lutherans, published in 
 1580. Their first university was founded at Mar- 
 burg, in 1527, by Philip, landgrave of Hesse. The 
 Luther memorial at Worms was unveiled in presence 
 of the king of Prussia and other sovereigns, 25 
 June, 1868. 
 
 LUTZEN, or LuTZENGEN (N. Germany). 
 Here Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, defeated 
 the imperialists under Wallenstein, 16 Nov. 1632, 
 hut was himself killed ; and here the French anny, 
 commanded by Napoleon, defeated - the combined 
 armies of Russia and Prussia, commanded by general 
 "Wittgenstein, 2 May, 1813. Tbe battles of Bautzen 
 and Wurschen immediately followed (19-21 May), 
 both in favour of Napoleon. The allies were com- 
 pelled to pass the Oder, and an armistice was 
 agreed to, afterwards prolonged ; but, unfortunately 
 for the French emperor, this did not produce 
 peace. 
 
 LUXEMBURG, a grand duchy held by the 
 king of Holland. Luxemburg, the capital, once 
 considered the strongest fortified city in the world, 
 has been many times besieged and taken : by the 
 French in 984, 1443, 1479, 1542-3; by the Spaniards 
 in 1544 ; by the French in 1684; restored to Spain 
 in 1697; taken by the French in 1 701 ; given to 
 the Dutch as a barrier town, but ceded to the 
 emperor at the peace in 1713. It withstood several 
 sieges in the last century. It surrendered' to the 
 French after a siege, from Nov. 1794 to July, 1795 ; 
 and was retaken by the allies in May, 1814. Popu- 
 lation of the grand duchy, 1867, 199,958. 
 
 The grand duchy was annexed to the Netherlands, 
 still remaining a member of the Germanic con- 
 federation, the capital having a Prussian garrison 1815 
 
 A portion given to the new kingdom of Belgium . 1830 
 
 After the dissolution of the Germanic confedera- 
 tion, the emperor Napoleon objected to the Prus- 
 sian garrison, and offered to buy the grand duchy 
 from the king of Holland . . . March, 1867 
 
 In consequence of the opposition of Prussia, a con- 
 ference of representatives of the great powers met 
 in London, 7-1 1 May, who agreed upon a treaty 
 guaranteeing the neutrality of the province, the 
 retirement of the Prussian garrison, and the dis- 
 mantling the fortress of Luxemburg 7-1 1 May, „ 
 
 * Martin Luther was born at Eisleben, 10 Nov. 1483 ; 
 studied at Erfurt, 1501 ; was professor of philosophy at 
 Wittenberg, 1508 ; resisted the sale of indulgences, 1517 ; 
 defended himself at Augsburg, 1518; at Worms, 1520; 
 was excommunicated, 16 June, 1520 ; began his German 
 bible, 1521 ; married Katherine de Bora, 1525 ; published 
 Ms German bible complete, 1534 ; died 18 Feb. 1546. 
 
 The Prussian soldiers retired . . . Nov. 1867 
 The fortifications finally dismantled . . Aug. 1870 
 The people protest against absorption into Germany, 
 
 21 Oct. „ 
 They are accused of violating neutrality, and the 
 abrogation of the treaty is mooted by Prussia, 
 
 early in Dec. ,, 
 The king of Holland, their sovereign, declared that 
 he would maintain the treaty, 15 Dec. ; and the 
 government protested against the charge, 19 Dec. „ 
 New treaty with Prussia ; indemnity to be paid for 
 breaches of neutrality ; fortresses to be garrisoned 
 by Germans Feb. 1871 
 
 LUXOR, or El-UksuB, Egypt, see Thebes. 
 LUXURY. Lucullus (died 49 B.C.), at Rome, 
 was distinguished for inordinate luxury ; see Sump- 
 tuary Laws. 
 
 LYCEUM (originally a temple of Apollo 
 Lyceus, or a portico, or gallery, built by Lyceus, 
 son of Apollo) was a spot near the Ilissus, in Attica, 
 where Aristotle taught philosophy; and as he 
 generally taught as he walked, his pupils were 
 called peripatetics, walkers-about, and his philoso- 
 phy that of the Lyceum, 342 B.C. Stanley ; see 
 Theatres. 
 LYCURGUS, see Lam. 
 
 LYCIA (Asia Minor), subject successively to 
 Croesus (about 560 B.C.), to the Persians (546 B.C.), 
 to Alexander the Great (333 B.C.), and to his suc- 
 cessors the Seleucidse. The Romans gave Lycia to 
 the Rhodians (188 B.C.). It became nominally free 
 under the Romans, and was annexed to the empire 
 by Claudius. The marbles brought from Lycia by 
 sir Charles Fellows were deposited in the British 
 Museum, 1840-46. 
 
 LYDIA, or Mseonia, an ancient kingdom in 
 Asia Minor, under a long dynasty of kings, the last 
 being Croesus, "the richest of mankind." The 
 coinage of gold and silver money, and other useful 
 inventions, are ascribed to the Lydians. JEsop, the 
 Phrygian fabulist, Alcman, the first Greek poet, 
 Thales of Miletus, Anaximenes, Xenophanes, Ana- 
 creon of Teos, Heraclitus of Ephesus, &c, flourished 
 in Lydia. 
 Argon, a descendant of Hercules, reigns in Lydia, 
 
 Herod B.C. 1223 
 
 The kingdom, properly so called, begins under 
 
 Ardysus I. Blair. 797 
 
 Alyattes I. reigns 761 
 
 Meles commences his rule 747 
 
 Reign of Candaules 735 
 
 Gyges, first of the race Mermnadse, kills Candaules, 
 marries his queen, usurps the throne, and makes 
 
 great conquests 7*8 
 
 Ardysus II. reigns, 678 ; the Cimbri besiege Sardis, 
 
 the capital of Lydia 635 
 
 The Milesian war, commenced under Gyges, is con- 
 tinued by Sadyattes, who reigns . ... 628 
 
 Reign of Alyattes II. 617 
 
 Battle upon the river Halys, between the Lydians 
 and Medes, interrupted by an almost total eclipse 
 of the sun. This eclipse had been predicted many 
 years before by Thales of Miletus. Blair. 
 
 28 May, B.C. 585 
 Croasus, son of Alyattes, succeeds to the throne, 
 
 and conquers Asia Minor .... 560-50 
 Croesus, dreading Cyras, whose conquests had 
 reached to the borders of Lydia, crosses the 
 Halys to attack the Medes, with 420,000 men and 
 
 60,000 horse 54^ 
 
 He is defeated, pursued, and besieged in his capital 
 
 by Cyrus, who orders him to be burned alive ; 
 
 the pile is already on fire, when Croesus calls 
 
 aloud Solon! and Cyrus hearing him, spares his 
 
 • life. Lydia made a province of the Persian 
 
 empii°. 546 
 
 Sardis V; irnt by the Ionians 499 
 
 Lydia cc. iquered by Alexander . . . . 332 
 Becomes oart of the kingdom of Perganras . . 283 
 
 Conquered by the Turks a.d. 1326 
 
 E £ 
 
LYING-IN HOSPITALS. 
 
 418 
 
 MACE. 
 
 LYING-IN HOSPITALS. The first, esta- 
 blished in Dublin by Dr. Bartholomew Mosse, a 
 physician, amid strong opposition, was opened 
 March, 1 745 ; see Hospitals. 
 
 LYMPHATICS (absorbent vessels connected 
 with digestion), discovered about 1650 by Rudbek 
 in Sweden, Bartholin in Denmark, and Jolyffe in 
 England Asellius discovered the lacteals in 
 1622. In 1654, Glisson ascribed to these vessels the 
 function of absorption ; and their properties were 
 studied by "Win. and John Hunter, Monro, Hew- 
 son, and other great anatomists. 
 
 LYNCH LAW, punishment inflicted by pri- 
 vate individuals, independently of the legal authori- 
 ties, said to derive its name from John Lynch, a 
 farmer, who exercised it upon the fugitive slaves 
 and criminals dwelling in the " dismal swamp," 
 North Carolina, when they committed outrages 
 upon persons and property which the colonial law 
 could not promptly repress. This mode of adminis- 
 tering justice began about the end of the 17th 
 century, and still exists in the outlying districts of 
 the United States. Four robbers were taken from 
 prison and hanged by a vigilance committee at New 
 Albany, on the Ohio, 11 Dec. 1868. 
 
 . LYNDHURSTS ACT (5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 54) , 
 introduced by lord Lyndhurst, rendered valid cer- 
 tain marriages within the forbidden degrees of 
 kindred up to that time, but prohibited them for 
 the future; passed 31 Aug. 1835. 
 
 LYONS (S. France), the Roman Lugdunum, 
 founded by M. Plancus, 43 B.C. The city was re- 
 duced to ashes in a single night by lightning, a.d. 
 59, and was rebuilt in the reign of Nero. It was 
 a free city till its union with France in 1307. 
 
 Buttle near Lyons ; Clodius Albinus defeated and 
 
 slain by Septimius Severas . . 19 Feb. 197 
 Two general councils held here (13th and 14th), 
 
 1245, 1274 
 
 Silk manufacture commenced 1515 
 
 Lyons taken by the republicans after 70 days' siege, 
 9 Oct. ; awful pillage and slaughter follow ; the 
 Convention decreed the demolition of the city, 
 
 12 Oct. 1793 
 Capitulated to the Austrians . . .March, 1814 
 
 Entry of Napoleon 8 March, 1815 
 
 An insurrection among the artisans, which led to 
 great popular excesses ; quelled by an army, 
 
 ?i Nov. -31 Dec. 1831 
 Dreadful riots, put down by military . 15 April, 1834 
 Railway to Paris opened . . . 7 April, 1839 
 
 A dreadful inundation at Lyons (see Inundations), 
 
 4 Nov. 1840 
 Another insurrection quelled, with much loss of life, 
 
 15 June, 1849 
 Grand banquet to Louis Napoleon . 15 Aug. 1850 
 A committee of public safety appointed here and the 
 red flagraised soon after the revolution in Paris. M. 
 Saigne, calling himself president, gen. Cluseret (ex- 
 pelled from Paris), and other extreme republicans', 
 defeated in their endeavours to depose M. Challemel 
 Lacour, the prefect of the Rhone, who was well 
 supported by the national guard ; gen. Mazure, 
 the military commander, accused of treacherous 
 inaction, was arrested ... 28 Sept. 1870 
 Arnaud, commandant of the national, guard, mur- 
 dered by the mob, after a mock trial, for resist- 
 ing them 20 Dec. ,, 
 
 Order maintained at Lyons .... March, 1871 
 
 LYRE. Its invention is ascribed to the Grecian 
 Hermes (in Latin Mercury), who, according to 
 Homer, gave it to Apollo, the first that played upon 
 it with method, and accompanied it with poetry. 
 The invention of the primitive lyre, with three 
 strings, is ascribed to the first Egyptian Hermes. 
 Terpander added several strings to the lyre, making 
 the number seven, 673 B.C. Phrynis, a musician of 
 Mitylene, added two more, making nine, 438 B.C. 
 
 M. 
 
 MACADAMISING, a system of road-making 
 invented by Mr. John Macadam, and published by 
 him in an essay, in 1819, having practised it in 
 Ayrshire. He prescribed stones to be broken to six 
 ounces weight, and the use of clean flints and granite 
 clippings. He received 10,000/. from parliament; was 
 appointed surveyor-general of the metropolitan roads 
 in 1827, and died in 1836 ; see Roads. 
 
 MACAO (in Quang-tong, S. China) was given 
 to the Portuguese as a commercial station in 1586 
 (in return for their assistance against pirates), sub- 
 ject to an annual tribute, which was remitted in 1863. 
 Here Camoens composed part of the "Lusiad." 
 
 MACARONI. This name, given to a poem by 
 Theophilus Folengo, 1509, continues to designate 
 trifling performances, as buffoonery, puns, ana- 
 grams, " wit without wisdom, and humour without 
 sense." His poem was so called from an Italian 
 cake of the same name, pleasant to the taste, with 
 little alimentary virtue. These poen^s, in Italy 
 and France, gave rise to Macaroni academies, and 
 in England to Macaroni clubs (about 1772), when 
 everything ridiculous in dress and manners was 
 called " Macaroni." 
 
 MACCABEES, a family of patriotic Jews, 
 during the persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes, 167 
 B.C. Mattathias, a priest, resisted the tyranny; and 
 his son, Judas MaecabaBus, defeated the Syrians in 
 three battles, 166, 165 B.C.; but fell in an ambush, 
 j6i b.c. His brother Jonathan made a league with 
 
 the Romans and Laeedammnians, and after an able 
 administration was treacherously killed at Ptole- 
 mais by Tryphon, 143 b.c. His brother and suc- 
 cessor, Simon, was also murdered, 135 B.C. John 
 Hyrcanus, son of Simon, succeeded. His son 
 Judas, called also Aristobulus, took the title of 
 king, 107 B.C. The history of the Maccabees is 
 contained in five books of that name, two of which 
 are included in our Apocrypha. Four are accounted 
 canonical by the Roman Catholic church ; none by 
 Protestant communions. 
 
 MACDONALD AFFAIR, see Prussia, 1861. 
 
 MACE, a weapon anciently used by the cavalry 
 of most nations, was originally a spiked club, hung 
 at the saddle-bow, and usually of metal. Maces 
 were also early ensigns of authority borne before 
 officers of state, the top being made in the form of 
 an open crown, and commonly of silver gilt. The 
 lord chancellor and speaker of the house of commons 
 have maces borne before them. Edward III. granted 
 to London the privilege of having gold or silver 
 maces earned before the lord mayor, sheriffs, alder- 
 men, and corporation, 1354. It was with the mace 
 usually carried before the lord mayor on state 
 occasions, that Walworth, lord mayor of London, is 
 said to have knocked the rebel Wat Tyler off his 
 horse, for rudely approaching Richard II., a cour- 
 tier afterwards despatching him with his dagger, 
 15 June, 1381. Cromwell, entering the house of 
 commons to disperse its members and dissolve the 
 parliament, ordered one of his soldiers to " take 
 
MACEDON. 
 
 419 
 
 MADAGASCAE. 
 
 away that bauble," the mace, which was done, and 
 the doors of the house locked, 20 April, 1653. 
 
 MACEDON (N. Greece). The first kingdom 
 was founded by Caranus, about 814 B.C. It was 
 successively under the protection of Athens, of 
 Thebes, and Sparta, until the reign of Philip, the 
 father of Alexander the Great, who by his political 
 wisdom and warlike exploits made it a powerful 
 kingdom, and paved the way for his son's great- 
 ness. 
 
 Reigns of Caranus, 814 j».c., or 796, or 748; Per- 
 diccas I. , 729 ; Argseus I. , 684 ; Philip I. , 640 or 
 609. 
 
 iEropus conquers the Illyrians . . .B.C. 
 
 Eeign of Amyntas, 540 ; of Alexander I. . . . 
 
 Macedon conquered by the Persians, 513 ; delivered 
 by the victory of Platsea 
 
 Reign of Perdiccas II 
 
 Potidaea, revolting, 433 ; re-taken by the Athenians 
 
 Archelaus, natural son of Perdiccas, murders the 
 legitimate heirs ; seizes the throne, and improves 
 the country, 413 ; murdered by a favourite, to 
 whom he promised his daughter in marriage 
 
 Pausanias reigns ....■•... 
 
 Reign of Amyntas II., 393 ; expelled 
 
 Recovers his throne, and kills Pausanias . . . 
 
 The Illyrians enter Macedonia, expel Amyntas, and 
 make Argfeus, brother of Pausanias, king . . 
 
 Amyntas again recovers his kingdom 
 
 Reign of Alexander II., 369; assassinated . . . 
 
 Reign of Perdiccas III., 364 ; killed in battle . 
 
 Reign of Philip II., and institution of the Mace- 
 donian phalanx 
 
 He defeats the Athenians and Illyrians . . 360, 
 
 He takes Amphipolis ; see Archery . . . . 
 
 He conquers Thrace, Illyria, and Thessaly 356 
 
 Birth of Alexander III. the Great .... 
 
 Close of the first sacred war 
 
 Illyricum overrun by the army of Philip . 
 
 Thrace made tributary to Macedon . . . . 
 
 Aristotle appointed tutor to Alexander . 
 
 War against the Athenians 
 
 Philip besieged Byzantium unsuccessfully . . 
 
 Battle of Chseronea ; Philip victor .... 
 
 Philip is assassinated by Pausanias at Mge& during 
 the celebration of games in honour of his 
 daughter's nuptials; Alexander III., the Great, 
 succeeds 
 
 The Greeks appoint him general of their armies 
 against the Persians 
 
 The Thebans revolt ; he levels Thebes to the 
 ground ; the house of Pindar alone left 
 
 He passes into Asia, and gains his first battle over 
 Darius at the Granicus ... 22 May, 
 
 Sardis surrenders, Halicarnassus taken, and cities 
 in Asia Minor 
 
 Memnon ravages the Cyclades ; Darius takes the 
 field with 460,000 infantry, and 100,000 cavalry 
 
 Darius defeated at Issus (which see) . . Nov. 
 
 Alexander on his way to Egypt, lays siege to Tyre, 
 which is destroyed after seven months 
 
 Damascus is taken ; Gaza surrenders . . . 
 
 Alexander enters Jerusalem ; Egypt conquered ; 
 Alexandria founded 
 
 The Persians totally defeated at Arbela . 1 Oct. 
 
 Alexander master of Asia ; enters Babylon . . 
 
 Sits on the throne of Darius at Susa 
 
 Parthia, Media, &c. , overrun by him . . . . 
 
 Thalestris, queen of the Amazons, visits him 
 
 He puts his friend Parmenio to death, on a charge 
 of conspiracy supposed to be false 
 
 His expedition to India ; Porus, king of India, is 
 defeated and taken ; and the country as far as the 
 Ganges is overrun 
 
 Callisthenes is put to the torture for refusing to 
 render divine homage to Alexander 
 
 Voyage of his admiral Nearchus from the Indus to 
 the Euphrates 328- 
 
 Returns to Babylon, 324 ; dies .... 
 
 Philip III. (Aridams) king 
 
 Alexander's conquests are divided among his 
 generals, 323 ; his remains are transported to 
 Alexandria, and buried by Ptolemy 
 
 The Greeks defeated by Antipater and the Mace- 
 donians, near Cranon (which see) . . . . 
 
 Cassander reigns, 316 ; rebuilds Thebes . B.C. 315 
 
 Seleucus recovers Babylon 312 
 
 Cassander kills Roxana and her son (the last of 
 
 Alexander's family), and usurps the throne . 311 
 
 Battle of Ipsus (which see) ; Antigonus killed . . 301 
 
 New division of the empire ,, 
 
 Death of Cassander 298 
 
 Reign of Alexander V. and Antipater, his sons . ,, 
 Demetrius I. , Poliorcetes, son of Antigonus, murders 
 
 Alexander, and seizes the crown of Macedon . 294 
 Achajan league formed against Macedon . . 281-243 
 Governments of Pyrrhus, 287 ; Lysimachus, 286 ; 
 
 Ptolemy Ceraunus 281 
 
 Irruption of the Gauls ; Ptolemy killed . . . 279 
 
 Sosthenes governs 278 
 
 Reign of Antigonus Gonatas, son of Demetrius . 277 
 Pyrrhus invades Macedon, defeats Antigonus, and 
 
 is proclaimed king 274 
 
 Pyrrhus slain ; Antigonus restored . . . 272 
 
 Antigonus takes Athens 268 
 
 The Gauls again invade Macedon . . . . ,, 
 
 Revolt of the Parthians 250 
 
 Reign of Demetrius II 239 
 
 Philip, his son, 232 ; set aside by Antigonus Doson 229 
 Philip V., 220 ; allies with Hannibal, 211 ; wars 
 
 unsuccessfully against the Khodians . . . 202 
 Philip defeated by the Romans at Cynoscephalse 197 
 Reign of Perseus, his son, 178 ; war with Rome . 171 
 Perseus defeated at Pydna ; Macedon made a 
 
 Roman province 168 
 
 Perseus and his sons walk in chains before the 
 chariot of jEmilius in his triumph for the con- 
 quest of Macedon . 167 
 
 Insurrection of Andriscus, calling himself Philip 
 
 son of Perseus, quelled 148 
 
 Macedonia plundered by Theodoric the Ostro- 
 goth a.d. 482 
 
 Conquered by the Bulgarians 978 
 
 Recovered by the emperor Basil 1001 
 
 Formed into the Latin kingdom of Thessalonica, by 
 
 Boniface, of Montferrat 1204 
 
 After various changes, conquered by Amurath II., 
 and annexed to Turkey I 43<> 
 
 MACEDONIANS, a semi-Arian sect, followers 
 of Macedonius, made bishop of Constantinople 
 about 341. His appointment was greatly opposed 
 anil led to much bloodshed. He was expelled by 
 the decree of a council held 360. 
 
 MACHIAVELLIAN PEINCIPLES, 
 
 tho.-e of isicolo Machiavelli of Florence (born 
 1469, died 1527), in his "Practice of Politics" and 
 ''The Prince." By some they are styled "the 
 most pernicious maxims of government, lounded on 
 the vilest policy ; " by others as " sound doctrines, 
 notwithstanding the prejudice erroneously raised 
 against them." The author said that if he taught 
 princes to be tyrants, he also taught the people to 
 destroy tyrants. " The Prince" appeared at Eome 
 in 1532, and was translated into English in 1761. 
 
 MACIEJOVICE (near Warsaw, Poland). 
 Here the Poles were totally defeated by the Russians, 
 and their general, Kosciusko, taken prisoner, 10 
 Oct. 1794, after a murdeious action. He strenuously 
 endeavoured to prevent the junction of the Russian, 
 and Austrian armies. The statement that he said 
 " Finis PoloniaB !" is contradicted. 
 
 MADAGASCAE (S. E. coast of Africa), a 
 large island, said to have been discovered by 
 Lorenzo Almeida, 1506. Population, about 5,000,000; 
 150,000 Christians in 1870. 
 
 Portuguese settlement, 1548 ; destroyed by the 
 French one, 1642, on arrival of a French governor 1669 
 
 The French attempted to settle at Antongel-bay in 1774 
 
 Count Benyowski supreme in the island, Oct. 1773 ; 
 killed in an encounter with the French 23 May, 1786 
 
 Their establishment at Fort Dauphin fell into the 
 hands of the English with Bourbon and Mauritius 
 in . e •» > 1810-11 
 
 B B 2 
 
MADDER. 
 
 420 
 
 MAESTRICHT. 
 
 The settlements ceded to king Radama, on his 
 giving up the slave trade 1818 
 
 Radama I. king 1810, who favoured Europeans and 
 encouraged Christianity, died .... 1828 
 
 A reactionary policy under his energetic queen 
 Rauavalono, 1828. The English missionaries who 
 came in 1820 obliged to depart . . . . 1835 
 
 The application of the native laws to the European 
 settlers occasioned an unsuccessful attack on the 
 town of Tamatave, by a united expedition from 
 the English at the Mauritius, and the French 
 from the isle of Bourbon . . . June, 1845 
 
 All amicable intercourse ceases, the native Christians 
 suffer persecution 1846 ct seq. 
 
 The French defeated in an attack on the island, 
 
 19 Oct. 1855 
 
 Conspiracy against the queen frustrated . June, 1857 
 
 The rev. W. Ellis published accounts of his three 
 visits to the island, on behalf of the London 
 Missionary Society, in 1854-5-6 1858 
 
 The queen dies ; succeeded by her son Radama II., 
 a Christian 23 Aug. 1861 
 
 Treaty with Great Britain and France signed, 
 
 12 Sept. 1862 
 
 Arevolution ; the kingand his ministers assassinated ; 
 the queen Rasoherina proclaimed sovereign, May, 1863 
 
 Embassy from Madagascar arrives at Southampton, 
 
 Feb. 1864 
 
 Disputes with the French . . . . Nov. ,, 
 
 Treaty with Great Britain ; Christians to be tole- 
 rated, &c, 27 June, 1865 ; ratified . . 5 July, 1866 
 
 Rev. Wm. Ellis's "Madagascar Revisited," pub- 
 lished 1 Feb. 1867 
 
 The queen died in March ; her cousin, Ranavalo II., 
 a Christian, succeeded 1 April, 186S 
 
 Dr. Henry Rowley was consecrated bishop of 
 Madagascar Dec. 1872 
 
 MADDER, the root of the Bubia tinctoria, 
 highly valued for dyeing properties. 305,758 cwts. 
 (valued at 848,932^.) were imported iuto this 
 country in 1868. See Alizarine. 
 
 MADEIRA, an island, N. "W. coast of Africa, 
 discovered, it is said, in 1344, by Mr. Macham, an 
 English gentleman, or mariner, who fled from 
 France for an illicit amour. He was driven here 
 by a storm, and his mistress, a French lady, dying, 
 he made a canoe, and carried the news of his dis- 
 covery to Pedro, king of Aragon, which occasioned 
 the report that the island was discovered by a 
 Portuguese, 1345. It is asserted that the Portu- 
 guese did not visit this island until 1419 or 1420, 
 or colonise it until 1431. It was taken by the 
 British in July, 1801 ; and again by admiral Hood 
 and general Beresford, 24 Dec. 1807, and retained 
 in trust for the royal family of Portugal, who had 
 emigrated to the Brazils. It was restored to the 
 Portuguese in 1814. Since 1852 the renowned 
 vintages here have been totally ruined by the vine 
 disease (oidium). 
 
 MADIAI PERSECUTION, see Tuscany. 
 
 MADRAS (S. E. Hindostan), called by the 
 natives Chennapatam, colonised by the English, 
 1640. 
 
 Fort St. George built, 1641 ; made a presidency . 1653 
 
 Bengal placed under Madras 1658 
 
 Calcutta, hitherto subordinate to Madras, made a 
 
 presidency 1701 
 
 Madras taken by the French - . 14 Sept. 1746 
 
 Restored to the English 1749 
 
 Vainly besieged by the French under Lally, 12 Dec. 1758 
 Hyder marches to Madras and obtains a favourable 
 
 treaty April, 1769 
 
 Sir John Lindsay arrives .... July, 1770 
 He is succeeded by sir I!, llartland . . Sept. 1771 
 Lord Pigot, governor, imprisoned by his own coun- 
 cil, 24 Aug. 1776 ; dies in confinement, 17 April, 
 1777 ; his enemies convicted and lined 1000?. each, 
 
 11 Feb. 1780 
 Sir Eyre Coote arrives .... 5 Nov. ,, 
 He defeats Hyder ... .1 July, 1781 
 
 Lord Macartney arrives as governor . . 22 June, 1781 
 The Madras government arrest gen. Stuait for dis- 
 obedience, and send him to England . . June, 1783 
 Lord Cornwallis arrives here . . .12 Dec. 1790 
 Sir Charles Oakley succeeds gen. Medows as governor, 
 
 1 Aug. 1792 
 Madras system of education introduced (see Mom- 
 torlal) .......... 1795 
 
 Lord Mornington (afterwards the marquis Wellesley) 
 
 visits here Dec. 1798 • 
 
 General Harris with the Madras army enters Mysore, 
 5 March ; and arrives at Seringapatam, 5 April, 
 which is stormed by the British under major- 
 general Baird, and Tippoo Sahib killed . 4 May, 1799 
 Appointment of sir Thomas Strange, tirst judge of 
 
 -Madras under the charter ... 26 Dec. 1800 
 
 More than 1000 houses in Madras burnt . . Feb. 1803 
 The Madras army under general Arthur Wellesley 
 (afterwards duke of Wellington) marches for Poo- 
 
 nah (see India) March, ,, 
 
 Mutiny among the native forces at Vellore ; 600 
 
 sepoys killed ; 200 executed . . . 10 July, 1806 
 Mutiny of the sepoy troops at Madras . . 1809 
 
 Arrival of lord Miuto at Madras, who publishes a 
 
 general amnesty 29 Sept. „ 
 
 Awful hurricane, by which the ships at anchor were 
 driven into the town and seventy sail sunk, many 
 
 with their crews May, 1811 
 
 Madras attacked by the Pindarees .... 1817 
 Appointment of the rev. Dr. Corrie, first bishop of 
 
 Madras 14 Feb. 1835 
 
 Sir Charles Trevelyan, governor, Jan. 1859 ; recalled 
 for publishing a minute in opposition to Mr. J as. 
 Wilson's financial schemes ... 10 May, i860 
 
 [Appointed financial secretary and a member of 
 the Indian council at Calcutta, Oct. 1862.] 
 His successor, sir H. Wood, dies at Madras, 2 Aug. ,, 
 Sir Wm. Dennison appointed governor, Nov. i860 ; 
 
 arrives 18 Feb. 1861 
 
 Lord Napier appointed governor . . 31 Jan. 1866 
 
 Arrival of the duke of Edinburgh . . 22 March 1870 
 
 Lord Hobart appointed governor . . FeV 1872 
 
 [For other events, see India.'] 
 
 MADRID (New Castile), mentioned in history 
 as Majerit, a Moorish castle. 
 
 Sacked by the Moors . 11 90 
 
 Fortified by Henry III. about 1400 
 
 Humiliating treaty of Madrid between Charles V. 
 
 and Francis I., his prisoner . . -14 Jan. 1526 
 Made the seat of the Spanish court by Philip II. . 1560 
 
 The Escurial built 1563 et seq. 
 
 Taken by lord Galway . . . .24 June, 1706 
 
 The old palace burnt down 1 734 
 
 Madrid taken by the French . . . March, 1808 
 The citizens attempt to expel the French ; defeated 
 
 with much Slaughter 2 May, ,, 
 
 Joseph Bonaparte enters Madrid as king of Spain 
 
 (but soon retires) 20 Jul}-, 1808 
 
 Madrid retaken by the French . . .2 Dec. ,, 
 Retained till it is entered by Wellington 12 Aug. 1812 
 Ferdinand VII. restored .... 14 May, 1814 
 Madrid pronounces for provisional government 
 
 against Isabella II 29 Sept. 18CS 
 
 English protestant church authorised . 9 Nov. ,, 
 
 Population, in 1857, 271,254 ; in 1870, 332,024. 
 See Spain, 1840 ct siq. 
 
 MADRIGAL, an unaccompanied song for three 
 or more voices, of which the finest examples are by 
 English composers. Madrigals were published by 
 Morley, 1594 ; Weelkes, 1597 ; "Wilbye, 1598 ; and 
 Bennet, 1599. The Madrigal Society in London 
 began in 1741. English Glee and Madrigal Union 
 founded in 1851. Kimbault's "Bibliothcoa Madri- 
 galium " published 1847. 
 
 MAESTRICHT (Holland), the ancient Tra- 
 j'eetum ad Mosam, the capital of Limburg. It re- 
 volted from Spain, and was taken by the prince of 
 Parma in 1579, when a dreadful massacre took 
 place. In 1632, the prince of Orange reduced it 
 after a memorable siege, and it was confirmed to 
 the Dutch in 1648 ; Louis XIV. took it in 1673 ; 
 William, prince of Orange, invested it in vain in 
 
MAGAZINE. 
 
 421 
 
 MAGNA CHAETA. 
 
 Gentleman's 
 
 • 1731 
 
 London . 
 
 • • 1732 
 
 Scots . 
 
 • 1739 
 
 Eoyal . 
 
 • • 1759 
 
 Court . 
 
 . 1760 
 
 Gospel . 
 
 . . 1768 
 
 Lady's 
 
 • *77 2 
 
 European 
 
 . . 1782 
 
 Methodist . 
 
 • 1784 
 
 Evangelical . 
 
 . . 1792 
 
 Monthly 
 
 . 1796 
 
 Philosophical 
 
 . . 1798 
 
 1676; but in 1678 it was restored to the Dutch. 
 In 1748 it was besieged by the French, who were 
 permitted to take possession of the city on condi- 
 tion of its being restored at the peace then nego- 
 tiating. In Feb. 1793, Maestricht was unsuccess- 
 fully attacked by the French, but they became 
 masters of it, Nov. 1794. In i8i4it was made part 
 of the kingdom of the Netherlands, and now 
 ' belongs to Holland. 
 
 MAGAZINE, at first a miscellaneous periodical 
 publication. There are now magazines devoted to 
 nearly every department of knowledge. The fol- 
 lowing are the dates of the first publication of the 
 principal magazines, some of which are extinct. 
 In Jan. 1865, 544 magazines ; in Jan. 1872, 639 
 were in course of publication in Great Britain and 
 Ireland ; see JRevieivs and Newspapers. 
 
 Blackwood's . . 1817 
 New Monthly . . 1814 
 Praser's . . . 1830 
 Metropolitan . . . 1831 
 Penny. . . . 1832 
 Tait's .... 1833 
 Comhill . . . 1859 
 Macmillan's . . . ,, 
 Good Words . . i860 
 St. Paul's . . . 1868 
 Many new ones pub- 
 lished . . 1860-73 
 
 MAGDALA, a very strong place in Abyssinia 
 (which see). On Good Friday, 10 April, 1808, the 
 troops of the emperor Theodore attacked the first 
 brigade of the British army under sir Eobert 
 Napier, and were repulsed with great slaughter. 
 On the next day all the European prisoners were 
 given up, but Theodore himself refused to sur- 
 render ; and on Easter Monday, 13 April, Magadala 
 was stormed, and Theodore himself killed — it is 
 said by his own hand. — British loss, 2 killed ; 20 
 wounded : Abyssinian loss, about 500 killed and 
 wounded out of about 5000. Magdala was burnt to 
 the ground by the British, 17 April, 1868. 
 
 MAGDALENS and . Magdalenettes, 
 
 communities of nuns, consisting chiefly of penitent 
 courtesans. The order of penitents of St. Magdalen 
 was founded 1272, at Marseilles. The convent of 
 Naples was endowed by queen Sancha, 1324. Tbat 
 at :Metz was instituted m 1452. At Paris, 1492. 
 The Magdalen at Eome was endowed by pope 
 Leo X., in 1515, and favoured by Clement VIII. in 
 1594. The Magdalen hospital, London, was founded 
 in 1758, under the direction of Dr. Dodd. The 
 asylum in Dublin was opened in June, 1766. 
 
 MAGDEBUEG (Prussia). The archbishopric 
 was founded about 967. The city suffered much 
 during the religious wars in Germany. It was 
 besieged and taken by the elector Maurice, [Nov. 
 1550, and Nov. 1551 ; blockaded for seven months 
 by the imperialists, under Wallenstein, in 1629 ; 
 and barbarously sacked by Tilly on 10 May, 1631. 
 It was given to Brandenburg in 1648 ; was taken 
 by the French, 8 Nov. 1806 ; annexed to the king- 
 dom of Westphalia, 9 July, 1807 ; restored to 
 Prussia, May, 1813. 
 
 The Magdeburg Experiment is shown by means of a hollow 
 sphere, composed of two hemispheres, fitting air-tight. 
 When the air is exhausted by the air pump, the hemi- 
 spheres are held together by the pressure of the atmo- 
 sphere, and require great force to separate them. The 
 apparatus was suggested by Otto von Guericke, the 
 inventor of the air-pump. He died in 1686. Brande. 
 
 MAGELLAN, Straits of (connecting the 
 
 Atlantic and Pacific oceans), was passed by Fer- 
 nando de Magelhaens (Magellan), a Portuguese, on 
 
 27 Nov. 1520. He gave the latter ocean its name 
 on account of its calmness. Magellan completed 
 the first voyage round the world, with a fleet of 
 discovery fitted out by the emperor Charles V., but 
 was killed in 1 52 1. The Spaniards had a fort here, 
 called Cape Famine, because the garrison perished 
 for want. 
 
 MAGENTA, a small town in Lombardy, near 
 which the French and Sardinians defeated the 
 Austrians, 4 June, 1859. The emperor Louis 
 Napoleon commanded, and he and the king of 
 Sardinia were in the thickest of the fight. It is 
 said that 55,000 French and Sardinians, and 75,000 
 Austrians were engaged. The former are asserted 
 to have lost 4000 killed and wounded, and the 
 Austrians 10,000, besides 7000 prisoners. The 
 French generals Espinasse and Clerc were killed. 
 The arrival of general M'Mahon during a deadly 
 struggle between the Austrians and the French, 
 greatly contributed to the victory. The contest 
 near the bridge of Buffalora was very severe. The 
 Austrians fought well, but were badly commanded. 
 The emperor and king entered Milan on 8 June 
 following; M'Mahon and Begnault d'Angelywere 
 created marshals of France. A monument erected 
 here in memory of the slain was solemnly inaugu- 
 rated 4 June, 1872. — The red dye, rosaniline, ob- 
 tained by chemists from gas-tar, is termed magenta; 
 see Aniline. 
 
 MAGI or Worshippers op Fire. The 
 
 Persians adored the invisible and incomprehensible 
 God as the principle of all good, and paid homage 
 to fire, as the emblem of his .power and purity. 
 They built no altars nor temples ; their sacred fires 
 blazed in the open air, and their offerings were 
 made upon the earth. The Magi^ their priests, are 
 said to have had skill in astronomy, &c. ; hence 
 the term Magi was applied to all learned men, till 
 they were confounded with the magicians. Zoro- 
 aster, king of Bactria, the reformer of the sect of 
 the Magi, flourished about 550 B.C. This religion 
 was superseded in Persia by Mahometanism, a.d. 
 652, and the Parsees at Bombay are descendants of 
 the Guebres or or fire-worshippers. 
 
 MAGIC, see Alchemy, Witchcraft, &c. The 
 invention of the Magic Lantern is ascribed to 
 Koger Bacon, about 1260, but more correctly to 
 Athanasius Kircher, who died 1680. See Godwin's 
 "Lives of the Necromancers," 1834, and Enne- 
 moser's "History of Magic," translated by AV. 
 Howitt, 1854. 
 
 MAGISTRATES, see Justices. Stipendiary 
 borough magistrates may be appointed by 5 & 6 
 Will. IV. c 76, J835 ; and by 26 & 27 Vict. c. 97, 
 1863. The present arrangement of metropolitan 
 magistrates (the chief sitting at Bow-street) was 
 made by act of parliament in 1792. Henry Field- 
 ing, the novelist, was acting magistrate for West- 
 minster and at Bow-street. He was succeeded by his 
 half-brother, sir John Fielding, in 1 761 ; by 
 
 Sir William Addington 1780 
 
 Sir Richard Pord 1800 
 
 Mr. Read l8 °° 
 
 Sir Nathaniel Conant 1813 
 
 Sir Robert Baker 1820 
 
 Sir Richard Birnie 1821 
 
 Sir Frederick Roe "27 
 
 Mr. T. J. Hall l8 39 
 
 Sir Thomas Henry l86 4 
 
 MAGNA CHAETA. Its fundamental parts 
 were derived from Saxon charters, continued by 
 Ht ary I. and his successors. On 20 No/. 1214, the 
 arc ibishop of Canterbury and the barons met at 
 
MAGNA GE^CTA. 
 
 422 
 
 MAHOMETANISM. 
 
 St. Edmondsbury. On 6 Jan. 1215, they presented 
 their demands "to king: John, who deferred his 
 answer. On 19 May they were censured by the 
 pope. On 24 May they marched to London, and 
 the king was compelled to yield. The charter was 
 sealed by John at llunnymede, near "Windsor, 
 15 June, 1215. It was many times confirmed, by 
 Henry, III. and his successors. Tbis last king's 
 grand charter was granted in 1224, and was assured 
 by Edward I. ; see Forests. The original MS. 
 charter is lost. The finest MS. copy, which is at 
 Lincoln, was reproduced by photographs in the 
 "National MSS." published by government, 1865. 
 
 MAGNA GE^ECIA, the independent states 
 founded by Greek colonists in South Itaty, Sicily, 
 &c. Cumse, in Campania, is said to have been 
 founded in 1034 B.C. Pandosia and Metapontum 
 in 774 B.C. These states were ruined through siding 
 with Hannibal when he invaded Italy, 216 B.C. 
 
 Syracuse founded about B.C. 734 
 
 Leontiuum and Catana 730 
 
 Sybaris , . 721 
 
 Crotona ... 710 
 
 Taientum 708 
 
 Locri Epizephyrii 673 
 
 Lipara 627 
 
 Agrigentum 582 
 
 Thurium 432 
 
 MAGNANO (N. Italy). Here Scherer and a 
 French army were defeated by the Austrians under 
 Kray, 5 April, 1799. 
 
 MAGNESIA (Asia Minor). Here Antiochus 
 the great, king of Syria, was defeated by the 
 Seipios, 190 B.C. — Magnesia alba, the white akaline 
 earth used in medicine, was in use in the beginning 
 of the 18th century. Its properties were developed 
 by Dr. Black in 1755. 
 
 MAGNESIUM, a metal first obtained from 
 magnesia by sir Humphry Davy in 1808, and since 
 produced in larger quantities by Bussy, Deville, 
 and especially by Mr. E. Sonstadt, in 1862-4. Its 
 light when burnt is very brilliant, and is so rich in 
 chemical rays that it may be used in photography. 
 Lamps made for burning magnesium wire, were 
 employed by the excavators of the tunnel through 
 Mount Cenis. By its light photographs of the in- 
 terior of the Pyramids were taken in 1865. Larkin's 
 magnesium lamp (in which the metal is burnt in 
 the form of a powder) was exhibited at the Koyal 
 Institution on 1 June, 1866, and before the British 
 Association at Nottingham in Aug. 1S66. 
 
 MAGNETISM. Magnes, a shepherd, is said 
 to have been detained on Mount Ida by the nails 
 in his boots. The attractive power of the load- 
 stone or magnet was early known, and is referred 
 to by Homer, Aristotle, and Pliny ; it was also 
 known to the Chinese and Arabians. The Greeks 
 are said to have obtained the loadstone from 
 Magnesia in Asia, 1000 B.C. Roger Bacon is said 
 to have been acquainted with its property of point- 
 ing to the north (1294). The invention of the 
 mariner's compass is ascribed to Flavio Gioia, a 
 Neapolitan, about 1310; but it was known in Nor- 
 way previous to 1266 ; and is mentioned in a French 
 poem, 1 150; see under Electricity, p. 232. 
 
 Robert Norman, of London, discovered the dip of 
 
 the needle about 1576 
 
 Gilbert's treatise "De Magncte," published . . 1600 
 Halley's theory of magnetic variations published . 1683 
 Marcel observed that a suspended bar of iron be- 
 
 comes temporarily magnetic by position . . 1722 
 Artificial magnets made by Dr. Gowan Knight . . 1746 
 The variation of the compass was observed by Bond, 
 about 16C8 ; the diurnal variation by Giuliani, 
 
 1722 ; on which latter Canton made 4000 observa- 
 tions previous to 1756 
 
 Coulomb constructed a torsion balance for deter- 
 mining the laws of attraction and repulsion, 1786; 
 also investigated by Michell, Euler, Lambert, 
 Robison, and others 1 750-1800 
 
 The deflection of the magnetic needle by the voltaic 
 current was discovered by (Ersted . . . 1820 
 
 Mr. Abraham invents a magnetic guard for persons 
 engaged in grinding cutlery 1821 
 
 The magnetic effects of the violet rays of light ex- 
 hibited by Moriehini, 1814 ; polarity of a sewing 
 needle so magnetised shown by Mrs. Somerville . 1825 
 
 Mr. Christie proves that heat diminishes magnetic 
 force about ,, 
 
 Sir W. Snow Harris invents various forms of the 
 compass 1831 
 
 Electricity produced the rotation of a magnet by 
 professor Faraday, 1831 ; his researches on the 
 action of the magnet on light, on the magnetic 
 properties of flame, air, and gases (published 
 1845), on dia-magnetisin (1845), on magno-crys- 
 tallic action (1848), on atmospheric magnetism 
 (1850), on the magnetic: force. . . . 1851-2 
 
 Magnetic observations established in the British 
 colonies under the superintendence of col. Edward 
 Sabine 1840 et seq. 
 
 Prof. Tyndall proves the existence of dia-magnetic 
 polarity 1836 
 
 Mr. Archibald Smith described the results of his 
 investigations respecting the deviation of the 
 compass in iron ships at the Royal Institution, 
 
 9 Feb. 1866 
 
 Wm. Robinson patented a method of makingwrought 
 iron from cast iron by the help of magnetism, 
 
 announced, July, 1867 
 
 Wilde's magneto-electric machine exhibited (see 
 under -Electricity, p. 232) , 
 
 In the present century our knowledge of the phe- 
 nomena of magnetism has also been greatly in- 
 creased by the labours of Arago, Ampere, Hans- 
 teen, Gauss, Weber, Poggemlorlf, Sabine, Lamont, 
 Du Moncel, Archibald Smith, &c. (see Animal 
 Magnetism). 
 
 In the Royal Institution, London, is a magnet by 
 Logeman, of Haarlem, constructed on the princi- 
 ples of Dr. Elias, which weighs 100 lb, and can 
 sustain 430 It). Haecker, of Nuremberg, con- 
 structed a magnet weighing 36 grains, capable of 
 sustaining 146 times its own weight. This was 
 exhibited in 1851, also at the Royal Institution. 
 
 MAGNETO-ELECTEICITY, the discovery 
 of professor Faraday ; see Electricity, p. 232. Mag- 
 neto-electricity has been recently applied to tele- 
 graphic and to lighthouse purposes. The South 
 Foreland lighthouse, near Dover, was illuminated 
 by the magneto-electric light in the winter of 
 18158-9 and 1859-60, and removed to Dungeness in 
 1861. 
 
 MAGNOLIA. Magnolia glauca was brought 
 here from N. America, 1688. The laurel-leaved 
 Magnolia, Magnolia grandiflora, from N. America 
 
 slender, 1804. 
 
 MAGYAES, see Hungary. 
 
 MAHAEAJPOOE (India). Here sir Hugh 
 Gough severely defeated the Mahratta army of 
 Gwalior, 29 Dec. 1843. Lord Ellenborough was 
 present. 
 
 MAHEDPOEE, see Mehedpore. 
 
 MAHOGANY is said to have been brought to 
 England by Raleigh, in 1595 ; but not to have come 
 into general use till 1 720. 
 
 MAHOMETANISM embodied in the Koran, 
 includes- — the unity of God, the immortality of the 
 soul, predestination, a last judgment, and a sensual 
 paradise^ llahomet asserted that the Koran was 
 
MAHEATTAS. 
 
 423 
 
 MALAKHOFF. 
 
 revealed to him by the angel Gabriel during a 
 period of twenty-three years. He enjoined on his 
 disciples circumcision, prayer, alms, frequent ablu- 
 tion, and fasting, and permitted polygamy and 
 concubinage. 
 Mahomet, Mohammed (the name is spelt many 
 
 ways), born at Mecca .... 569 or 570 
 Announced himself as a prophet . . . about 611 
 Fled from his enemies to Medina (his flight is called 
 
 the Hegira) 15 July, 622 
 
 Overcomes his enemies (the Koreish, the Jews, &c.) 
 in battle ........ 623-5 
 
 Defeats the Christians at Muta 629 
 
 Is acknowledged as a sovereign .... 630 
 Dies, it is said, of slow poison, administered by a 
 
 Jewess to test his divine character . 8 June, 632 
 
 The Mahometans are divided into several sects, the 
 two chief being the Sonnites, or the Orthodox 
 (who recognised as caliph Abubeker, the father- 
 in-law of Mahomet, in preference to Omar and 
 Ali), and the Shiites (Sectaries), or Fatvmites, the 
 followers of Ali, who married Fatima, the pro- 
 phet's daughter. 
 The Ottoman empire is the chief seat of the Son- 
 nites, the sultan being considered the representa- 
 tive of the caliphs ; Persia has been for centuries 
 the stronghold of the Shiites. 
 The Mahometans conquered Arabia, North Africa, 
 and part of Asia, in the 7th century ; in the 8th 
 they invaded Europe, conquering Spain, where 
 they founded the califat of Cordova, which lasted 
 from 756 to 1031, when it was broken up into 
 smaller governments, the last of which, the king- 
 dom of Grenada, endured till its subjugation by 
 Ferdinand in 1492 ; but the Mahometans were not 
 
 finally expelled from Spain till 1609 
 
 Their progress in France was stopped by their 
 
 defeat at Tours by Charles Martel, in . . . 732 
 After a long contest, the Turks under Mahomet II. 
 took Constantinople ; he made it his capital and 
 the chief seat of his religion . .... 1453 
 Though considered to be declining, Mahometanism 
 is calculated as including 100 millions amongst its 
 votaries. 
 Coomroodeen Tyabjee, a Mahometan, admitted to 
 practise as an attorney in England, having taken 
 the oaths upon the Koran . . .. Nov. 1858 
 Budroodeen Tyabjee, a Mahometan, called to the 
 bar 30 April, 1867 
 
 MAHEATTAS, a people of Hindostan, who 
 originally dwelt north-west of the Deccan, which 
 they overran about 1676. They endeavoured to 
 overcome the Mogul, but were restrained by the 
 Afghans. They entered into alliance with the East 
 India company in 1767, made war against it in 
 1774, again made peace in 1782, and were finally 
 subdued in 1818. Their last prince, Sindiah, is 
 now a pensioner of the British government. 
 
 MAID, see Holy Maid, Elizabeth Barton, and 
 Joan of Arc, maid of Orleans. 
 
 MATT) A (Calabria) where the French, com- 
 manded by general Regnier, were signally defeated 
 by the British under major-general sir John Stuart, 
 4 July, 1806. 
 
 MAIDEN, see Guillotine. 
 
 MAIDS OF HONOITE. Anne, daughter of 
 Francis II. duke of Brittany, and queen of Charles 
 Till, and Louis XII. of France (1483-98), had 
 young and beautiful ladies about her person, called 
 maids of honour. The queen of Edward I. of 
 England is said to have had four maids of honour 
 (1272-1307) ; queen Victoria has eight. 
 
 MAIL-COACHES, for the conveyance of 
 letters, were first set up at Bristol by Mr. John 
 Palmer, of Bath, 2 Aug. 1784. They were employed 
 for other routes in 1785, and soon became general 
 in England. The mails were first sent by rail in 
 1838. 
 
 MAILLOTINS (small mallets), a name given 
 to certain citizens of Paris, who, in March, 1382, 
 violently opposed the collection of new taxes 
 imposed by the duke of Anjou, tbe regent. They 
 armed themselves with small iron mallets (taken 
 from the arsenal), and killed the collectors ; for 
 which they were severely punished in Jan. 1383. 
 
 MAIMING AND WOUNDING, see Coven- 
 try Act. 
 
 MAIN PLOT, a name given to a conspiracy 
 to make Arabella Stuart sovereign of England in 
 place of James I. in 1603. Lord Cobham, sir 
 Walter Baleigh, and lord Grey, were condemned 
 to death for implication in it, but reprieved ; others 
 were executed. Baleigh was executed, 29 Oct. 
 1618. 
 
 MAINE, 1. a province, N.W. of France, seized 
 by William I. of England in 1069. It acknowledged 
 prince Arthur, 1 199; was taken from John of 
 England by Philip of France, 1204 ; was recovered 
 by Edward III. in 1357 ; but given up, 1360. After 
 various changes it was finally united to France by 
 Louis XI. in 1481. — 2. MAINE (N. America), was 
 discovered by Cabot, 1497 ; and colonised by the 
 English about 1638 ; it became a state of the union 
 in 1820. The boundary line between the British 
 and the United States territories in Maine was 
 settled by the Ashburton treaty, concluded 9 Aug. 
 1842. The Maine liquor law, prohibiting the 
 manufacture, sale, and use of intoxicating drinks, 
 with certain exceptions, was enacted in 185 1. 
 In 1872, it was officially reported to have greatly 
 decreased drunkenness and rendered the trade dis- 
 reputable. 
 
 MAJESTY. Among the Romans, the emperor 
 and imperial family were thus addressed, and also 
 the popes and the emperors of Germany. The 
 style was given to Louis XL of France in 1461. 
 Voltaire. Upon Charles V. being chosen emperor 
 of Germany in 1519, the kings of Spain took the 
 style. Francis I. of France, at the interview with 
 ■Henry VIII. of England, on the Field of the Cloth 
 of Gold, addressed the latter as Tour Majesty, 1520. 
 James I. used the style "Sacred," and "'Most 
 Excellent Majesty." 
 
 MAJOLICA "WAEE, see Pottery. 
 
 MAJOECA, see Balearic Isles, and Minorca. 
 Majorca opposed Philip V. of Spain in 1714; but 
 submitted, 14 July, 1715. 
 
 MALABAE (W. coast of Hindostan). The 
 Portuguese established factories here in 1505 ; the 
 English did the same in 1601. 
 
 MALACCA, on the Malay peninsula, E. Indies, 
 was made a Portuguese settlement in 1511. The 
 Dutch factories were established in 1640. The 
 Dutch government exchanged it for Bencoolen in 
 Sumatra in 1824, when it was placed under the 
 Bengal presidency. It is now part of the Straits 
 Settlements (which see). 
 
 MALAGA (S. Spain), a Phoenician town, taken 
 by the Arabs, 714 ; retaken by the Spaniards, after 
 a long siege, 1487; see Naval Battles, 1704. An 
 insurrection against the provisional government 
 was put down with much slaughter, 31 Dec. 1868. 
 
 MALAKHOFF, a hill near Sebastopol, on 
 which was situated an old tower, strongly fortified 
 by the Russians during the siege of 1854-55. The 
 allied French and English attacked it on, 17, 18 
 
MALAY ARCHIPELAGO. 
 
 424 
 
 MALTA. 
 
 June, 1855, and after a conflict of forty-eight hours 
 were repulsed with severe loss ; that of the English 
 being 175 killed and 1126 wounded; that of the 
 French 3338 killed and wounded. On 8 Sept. the 
 French again attacked the Malakhoff; at eight 
 o'clock the first mine was sprung, and at noon the 
 French flag floated over the conquered redoubt ; see 
 Sebastopol. In the Malakhofl' and Redan were found 
 3000 pieces of cannon of every calibre, and 120,000 
 lbs. of gunpowder. 
 
 MALAY ARCHIPELAGO, see Moluccas, 
 Philippines, &c. 
 
 MALDON (Essex), built 28 B.C., is supposed 
 to have been the first Roman colony in Britain. 
 It was burnt by queen Boadicea, and rebuilt by the 
 Romans ; burnt by the Danes, a.d. 991, and rebuilt 
 by the Saxons. Maldon was incorporated by Philip 
 and Mary. The singular custom of Borough- 
 English is kept up here, by which the youngest 
 son, and not the eldest, succeeds to the burgage 
 tenure on his father's death ; see Borough- 
 JEnglish. 
 
 MALEGNANO or MELEGNAJtfO, modern 
 names of Marignano (which see). 
 
 MALICIOUS DAMAGES. The law re- 
 specting them was consolidated and amended by 
 24 & 25 Vict. c. 97. This act protects works of art, 
 electric telegraphs, &c, 1861. 
 
 MALINES, see Mechlin. 
 
 MALINS' ACT, 20 & 21 Vict. c. 57, relating 
 to the powers of women in regard to property, was 
 passed in 1857. 
 
 MALO, ST. (N. W. France). This port, as a 
 great resort of privateers, sustained a tremendous 
 bombardment by the English under admiral Benbow 
 in 1693, and under lord Berkeley in July, 1695. In 
 June, 1758, the British landed in considerable force 
 in Cancalle bay, and went up to the harbour, 
 where they burnt upwards of a hundred ships, and 
 did great damage to the town, making a number 
 of prisoners. It is now defended by a very strong 
 castle, and the harbour is very difficult of access. 
 
 MALO-JAROSLAVITZ, near Moscow, cen- 
 tral Russia : the site of severe encounters between 
 the Russians and the retreating French army, 
 24 Oct. 1812. The latter were victorious, but with 
 great loss. 
 
 MALPLAQUET (N. France). Here the 
 allies under the duke of Marlborough and prince 
 Eugene defeated the French commanded by mar- 
 shal Villars, n Sept. 1709. Each army consisted 
 of nearly 120,000 choice soldiers. There was great 
 slaughter on both sides, the allies losing 18,000 
 men, which loss was but ill repaid by the capture of 
 Mons. 
 
 MALT, barley prepared for brewing and distil- 
 lation. A duty was laid upon malt in 1667, 1697, 
 et seq. Important acts for the regulation of malt 
 duties was passed in 1830 and 1837. In March, 
 1858, there were 6157 licensed maltsters in the 
 United Kingdom. The duty on malt in 1863 
 amounted to 6,273,727/. In 1864 the duty was 
 remitted on malt used for cattle feeding; and in 
 1865, an act was passed allowing the excise duty 
 to be charged according to the weight of the grain 
 used. A parliamentary committee to consider repeal 
 of malt tax (6d. a bushel) was agreed to, 14 May, 
 1867. 
 
 Revenue from the malt duties; in the year ending 31 
 March 1850, 5,391, 322*. ;— 1854, 5,418,418*. ; — 1856, 
 
 6,676,849?.; — 1857 (t ax reduced), 5,690,950*. ; — 1860, 
 6,648,881*.;- 1862, 6,208,813*.; 1867, 6,816,385*.;— 1871, 
 6,978,371*.; — 1872, 6,910,366*. 
 Malt made and retained in the United Kingdom : in 
 1825, 36,205,451 bushels; in 1835, 42,892,012; in 1847, 
 35,307,815; in 1857, 44,545,649; in 1861, 46,650,100; in 
 1870, 56,775,614. 
 
 MALTA (formerly Melita), an island in the 
 Mediterranean, held successively by the Phoeni- 
 cians, Carthaginians, and Romans, which last con- 
 quered it, 259 B.C. The apostle Paul was wrecked 
 here, a.d. 62 (Acts xxvii. xxviii.) Malta was 
 taken by the Vandals, 534 ; by the Arabs, 870; and 
 by the Normans from Sicily, 1090. With Sicily it 
 became successively part of the possessions of the 
 houses of Hohenstaufen, of Anjou (1266), and of 
 Aragon (1260). In 1530 Charles V. gave it to the 
 Knights Hospitallers, who defended it most cou- 
 rageously and successfully, in 1551 and 1565, against 
 the Turks, who were obliged to abandon the enter- 
 prise after the lo;-s of 30,000 men. The island was 
 taken by Bonaparte in the outset of his expedition 
 to Egypt, 12 June, 1798. He found in it 1200 
 pieces of cannon, 200,000 lbs. of powder, two ships 
 of the line, a frigate, four galleys, and 40,000 mus- 
 kets, besides an immense treasure collected by 
 superstition ; and 4500 Turkish prisoners, whom he 
 set at liberty. Malta surrendered to the British 
 under Pigot, 5 Sept. 1800. At the peace of Amiens 
 it was stipulated that it should be restored to the 
 knights. The British, however, retained possession, 
 and the war recommenced between the two nations ; 
 but by the treaty of Paris, in 1814, the island was 
 guaranteed to Great Britain. La Valetta, the 
 capital, was founded in 1557 by the grand master 
 La Valetta, and completed and occupied by the 
 knights, 18 Aug. 1571. The Protestant college 
 was founded in 1846. A grand new r naval dry dock 
 was opened, May, 1871. Governor of Malta and 
 Gozo, sir Patrick Grant, March, 1867 ; sir C. T. Van 
 Straubenzee, 1872. 
 
 MALTA, KjaGHTS OF. A military religious 
 order, called also Hospitallers of St. John of Jeru- 
 salem, Knights of St. John, and Knights of Rhodes. 
 Some merchants of Malfi, trading to the Levant, 
 obtained leave of the caliph of Egypt to build a 
 house for those who came on pilgrimage to Jerusa- 
 lem, and whom they received with zeal and charity, 
 IO48. They afterwards founded a hospital for the 
 reception of pilgrims, from whence they were called 
 Hospitallers (Latin, hospes, a guest). The military 
 order was founded about 1099 ; confirmed by the 
 pope 1 1 13. In 1 1 19 the knights defeated the Turks 
 at Antioch. After the Christians had lost their 
 interest in the East, and Jerusalem was taken, the 
 knights retired to Acre, which they defended 
 valiantly in 1290. John, king of Cyprus, gave 
 them Limisso in his dominions, where they stayed 
 till 1310, in which year they took Rhodes, under 
 their grand master De Vallaret, and the next year 
 defended it under the duke of Savoy against an 
 army of Saracens. The story that his successors 
 have used F. E. R. T. (Fortitude- ejus Jthodum 
 tenuit, or his valour kept Rhodes) for their device 
 is much doubted. From this they were also called 
 knights of Rhodes; but Rhodes being taken by 
 Solyman in 1522, they retired into Candia, thence 
 into Sicily. Pope Adrian VI. granted them the 
 city of Viterbo for their retreat; and in 1530 the 
 emperor Charles V. gave them the isle of Malta. 
 The order was suppressed in England in 1540 ; re- 
 stored in 1557; and again suppressed in 1559. St. 
 John's Gate, Clerkenwell, a relic of their possessions, 
 still exists. The emperor Paul of Russia declared 
 himself grand master of the order in June, 1799. 
 
MAMELUKES. 
 
 425 
 
 MANCHESTEK. 
 
 The knights sent a hospital establishment, into 
 Bohemia during the Avar in 1866, which afforded 
 great relief to the wounded and sick. 
 
 MAMELUKES, originally Turkish and Cir- 
 cassian slaves, established by the sultan as a body- 
 guard, about 1240. They advanced one of their 
 own corps to the throne of Egypt, May, 1250, and 
 continued to do so until it became a Turkish pro- 
 vince, in 1517, when the beys took them into pay, 
 and tilled up their ranks with renegades from 
 various counti-ies. On the conquest of Egypt by 
 Bonaparte, in 1798, they retreated into Nubia ; but, 
 assisted by the Arnauts, reconquered Egypt from 
 the Turkish government. In 1804, Napoleon em- 
 bodied some of them in his guard. On I March, 
 181 1, they were decoyed into the power of the 
 Turkish pacha, Mehemet Ali, and slain at Cairo. 
 
 MAMELON, a hill, one of the defences- of 
 Sebastopol, was captured by the French, 7 June, 
 1855- 
 
 MAMEBTINI, sons of Mamers or Mars, were 
 Campanian soldiers of Agathocles. They seized 
 Messina in Sicily, in 281 B.C., and when closely 
 besieged by the Carthaginians, and Hiero of Syra- 
 cuse, in 264, they implored the help of the Komans, 
 which led to the first Punic war. 
 
 MAMMOTH, an extinct species of elephant. 
 An entire mammoth, flesh and bones, was dis- 
 covered in Siberia, in 1799. Bemains of this 
 animal have since been found at Harwich, in 
 1803, and at places in Europe, Asia, and America. 
 
 MAN, Antiquity of. In 1836, M\ Boucher 
 
 de Perthes found some rude flint implements, 
 which he believed to be of human manufacture, 
 mingled with bones of extinct animals, in the old 
 alluvium near Abbeville in Picardy, France, and also 
 in 1847, near Amiens. Similar flints have since been 
 found in Sicily by Dr. Falconer, at Brixham by 
 Mr. Pengelly, and lately in various parts of the 
 world. Hence many geologists infer that man ex- 
 isted on the earth many ages earlier than has been 
 hitherto believed. 
 The " Engis skull " found by Sclimerling in the 
 
 valley of the Meuse, about 1834 
 
 Sir Charles Lyell's "Antiquity of Man" was pub- 
 lished in 1863, and sir John Lubbock's " Prehis- 
 toric Times "in 1865 
 
 A human jaw said to have been found in the drift 
 
 at Moulin Quignon, near Abbeville . March, 1863 
 The skeleton of a man supposed to have been a con- 
 temporary of the mammoth and cave-bear was 
 found with polished flint implements by M. 
 Riviere in the Cavillin cavern, near Mentone, 
 26 March, 1872. Mr. W. Pengelly went to exa- 
 mine these remains. 
 " The Ancient Stone Implements, "Weapons, and Or- 
 naments of Great Britain," by John Evans, F.R.S., 
 published July, 1872 
 
 MAN, ISLE OF, was subdued by Edwin, king 
 of Northumberland, about 620 ; by Magnus of Nor- 
 way, 1098 ; by the Scots, 1266; occupied by Edward 
 at the wish of the inhabitants ; recovered by the 
 Scots in 1313 ; but taken from them by Montacute, 
 afterwards earl of LSalisbury, to whom Edward III. 
 gave the title of king of Man, in 1343. It was 
 afterwards subjected to the earl of Northumber- 
 land, on whose attainder Henry IV. granted it in 
 fee to sir John Stanley, 1406. It was taken from 
 thi3 family by Elizabeth, but was restored in 1610 
 to the earl of Derby, through whom it fell by in- 
 heritance to the duke of Athol, 1735. He received 
 70,000^. from parliament for the sovereignty in 
 1765; and the nation was charged with the further 
 sum of 132,944?. for the purchase of his remaining 
 
 interest in the revenues of the island in Jan. 1829. 
 The countess of Derby held the isle against the 
 parliament forces for a time in 165 1. The new 
 queen's landing pier (cost 46,400?.) inaugurated 
 by the lieut. governor, H. B. Lech, 1 July, 1872. 
 Act relating to the harbours and coasts, passed June, 
 1872. The Bishopric is said to have been pre- 
 sided over by Amphibalus about 360. Some assert 
 that St. Patrick was the founder of the see, and that 
 Germanus was the first bishop, about 447. It was 
 united to Sodor in 1 1 13. The bishop has no seat in 
 the house of lords; but lord Auckland (bishop, 
 1847-54) sat by right of his barony. Present in- 
 come, 2000?. 
 
 ■RECENT BISHOPS OF S0D0K AND MAN. 
 
 1784. Claudius Origan : died in 1813. 
 
 1813. George Murray, trans, to Rochester, 1827. 
 
 1828. William Ward ; died in 1838. 
 
 1838. James Bowstead, trans, to Lichfield, Dec. 1839. 
 
 1840. Henry Pepys, trans, to Worcester, 1841. 
 
 1841. Thos. Vowler Short, trans, to St. Asaph, 1846. 
 
 1846. Walter Augustus Shirley; died in 1847. 
 
 1847. John Eden (lord Auckland), trans, to Bath, 1854. 
 1854. Hon. Horatio Powys. 
 
 MANASSAS JUNCTION (Virginia, United 
 States), an important military position, where the 
 Alexandria and Manassas Gap railways meet, near 
 a creek named Bull Run. i. It was held by the 
 confederates in 1861, when they were attacked by 
 the federal general Irwin McDowell. He began 
 his march from Washington on 16 July, and gained 
 some advantage on the 18th at Centreville. On 
 the 21st was fought the first battle of Bull Bun. 
 The federals, who began the fight, had the advan- 
 tage till about three o'clock p.m., when the con- 
 federate general Johnston brought up reinforcements, 
 which at first the federals took for their own troops. 
 After a brief resistance, the latter were seized with 
 sudden panic, and, in spite of the utmost efforts of 
 their officers, fled, abandoning a large quantity of 
 arms, ammunition, and baggage. The confederate- 
 generals Johnston and Beauregard did not think it 
 prudent to pursue the fugitives, who did not halt 
 till they arrived at Washington. The federal army 
 is said to have had 481 killed, IOII wounded, 
 12 16 missing. The loss of the confederates was stated 
 to be about 1500.— In March, 1862, when the army 
 of the Potomac, under general McClellan, marched 
 into Virginia, they found that the confederates had 
 quietly retreated from the camp at Manassas. 2. Chv 
 30 Aug. 1862, this place was the site of another great 
 battle between the northern and southern armies. 
 In August, general "Stonewall" Jackson, after 
 compelling the federal general Pope to retreat, de- 
 feated him at Cedar mountain on the 9th, turned 
 his flank on the 22nd, and arriving at Manassas 
 repulsed his attacks on the 29th. On the 30th 
 general B. E. Lee (who had defeated general 
 McClellan and the invading northern army before 
 Richmond, 26 June to I July) joined Jackson with 
 his army, and Pope received reinforcements from 
 Washington. A desperate conflict ensued, which 
 ended in the confederates gaining a decisive victory, 
 compelling the federals to a hasty retreat to Centre- 
 ville, where they were once more routed, I Sept. The 
 remains of their army took refuge behind the lines 
 of Washington on 2 Sept. Pope was at once super- 
 seded, and McClellan resumed the command to 
 march against the confederates, who had crossed 
 the Potomac and entered Maryland; see United 
 States. 
 
 MANCHESTEE (Lancashire), in the time of 
 the Druids, was one of their most principal stations, 
 and had the privilege of sanctuary attached to its 
 altar, in the British language Meyne, a stone. It 
 
MANCHESTER. 
 
 426 
 
 MANCHESTER. 
 
 was one of the seats of the Brigantes, who had a 
 <eastle, or stronghold, called Mancenion, or the place 
 ■of tents, near the confluence of the rivers Medlock 
 and Irwell. The site of this, still called the 
 *' Castle Field," was, about 70, selected by the Eo- 
 mans as the station of the Conors Prima 1'risiorum, 
 and called by them Maneunium; hence its Saxon 
 name Manccastre, from which its modern appella- 
 tion is derived. Lewis. 
 
 Mancenion taken from the Britons . . . . 488 
 »Captured by Edwin of Northumbria . . . 620 
 
 The inhabitants becomes Christians . . about 627 
 The town taken by the Danes, 870 ; retaken . . 923 
 The charter (Magna Charta of Manchester), 14 May, 1301 
 " Manchester cottons " introduced .... 1352 
 
 The church made collegiate 1421 
 
 -Free grammar-school founded 1516 
 
 Privilege of sanctuary moved to Chester . about 1541 
 An aulnager (measurer) stationed here . . . 1565 
 Sir Thomas Fairfax takes the town . . . . 1643 
 The walls and fortifications razed .... 1652 
 •Cheetham college, or Blue-coat hospital, founded 1653 
 Tumult raised by " Syddall, the barber," afterwards 
 
 hanged . . 1715 
 
 Prince Charles Edward, the young pretender, makes 
 
 it his quarters 28 Nov. 1745 
 
 •Queen's theatre first built 1753 
 
 The Infirmary instituted, 1752 ; built . . . 1755 
 The inhabitants discharged from their obligation to 
 grind their com at Irk-mill ..... 1759 
 
 Cotton goods first exported 1760 
 
 Manchester navigation opened, by Bridgewater 
 
 canal 1761 
 
 Xunatic asylum founded 1765 
 
 Agricultural society instituted 1767 
 
 Christian, king of Denmark, visits Manchester, and 
 
 puts up at the Bull-iun 1768 
 
 The Queen's theatre rebuilt 1775 
 
 Subscription concerts established .... 1777 
 Riots against machinery . . . .9 Oct. 1779 
 Manufacture of muslin attempted here . about 1780 
 Philosophical society established . . . . 1781 
 
 .New Bailey bridge completed 1785 
 
 ■Queen's theatre burnt down, 19 June, 1789 ; re- 
 erected 1790 
 
 New Bailey built ,, 
 
 .Assembly-rooms, Mosley-street, built . . . . 1792 
 
 Philological Society instituted 1803 
 
 Fever hospital erected, 1805 ; Theatre-royal . . 1806 
 
 The portico erected ,, 
 
 The weavers' riot 24 May, 1808 
 
 Exchange and Commercial buildings erected, Jan. 1809 
 Manchester and Svlford water-Works established . ,, 
 
 JBlanketeers' meeting 4 Nov. 1817 
 
 lock-hospital established 1819 
 
 Manchester reform meeting (called Peterloo) of from 
 60,000 to 100,000 persons, men, women, and chil- 
 dren. Mr. Hunt, who took the chair, had spoken 
 a few words, when the meeting was suddenly as- 
 sailed by a charge of cavalry, assisted by a 
 Cheshire regiment of yeomanry, the outlets being 
 occupied by other military detachments. The 
 unarmed multitude were driven upon each other ; 
 many were ridden over by the horses, or cut down 
 hy their riders. The deaths were 11 men, 
 women, and children, and the wuunded about 600 
 
 16 Aug. ,, 
 
 New Brunswick-bridge built 1820 
 
 Chamber of commerce established . . . ,, 
 
 Law library founded ,, 
 
 Natural History society projected .... 1821 
 
 New Quay company founded 1822 
 
 Deaf and Dumb school instituted .... 1823 
 
 Royal Institution formed ,, 
 
 Floral and Horticultural society established . . ,, 
 
 Mechanics' institution founded 1824 
 
 Musical festival first held 1828 
 
 At the launch of a vessel which keeled and upset, 
 upwards of 200 persons precipitated into the 
 
 river; 51 perished 29 Feb. ,, 
 
 In a tumult, a factory burnt, and much machinery 
 
 destroyed 3 May, 1829 
 
 New concert-room established ,, 
 
 The races established 1830 
 
 Manchester and Liverpool railway opened — Mr. 
 Huskisson killed (see Liverpool) . 15 Sept. ,, 
 
 Manchester made a parliamentary borough (2 mem- 
 bers) by Reform act .... 7 June, 1832 
 
 Choral society established 1833 
 
 Statistical society formed (the first in England), 
 
 2 .Sept. „ 
 
 Church-rate refused 3 Sept. 1834 
 
 Manchester incorporated, by Municipal Reform act 1835 
 Manchester and Leeds railway act passed . . . 1836 
 
 Geological Society instituted 1838 
 
 Charter of incorporation . . . . 23 Oct. ,, 
 Manchester police act .... 26 Aug. 1839 
 Great disorders in the midland counties among 
 
 artisans : they extend to this town . . Aug. 1842 
 British Association meet here . . .23 June, ,, 
 Great free-trade meetings held here (see Corn Laws) 
 
 14 Nov. 1843 
 Important meeting held at the Athenaeum (see 
 
 Atheiueum) 3 Oct. 1844 
 
 Great anti-corn law meeting, at whicli 64,984?. were 
 
 subscribed in four hours ... 23 Dec. 1845 
 The Queen's-park, Peel-park, and Philip's-park, 
 
 opened Aug. 1846 
 
 Manchester made a bishopric . . 10 Aug. 1847 
 
 Opening of Owens' collegiate institution, to which 
 
 John Owens bequeathed 100,000?. . 10 March, 1851 
 The Queen's visit to Manchester . . . 7 Oct. ,, 
 Great meeting in the Free-trade hall, to greet M. 
 
 Kossuth 11 Nov. „ 
 
 The engineers' strike ... 3 Jan. -26 April, 1852 
 The Guild of Literature entertained at a banquet by 
 
 the citizens 31 Aug. ,, 
 
 Opening of the Free library . . . .2 Sept. ,, 
 Great Free-trade banquet ... 2 Nov. ,, 
 Manchester declared to be a city, and formally so 
 
 gazetted 16 April, 1853 
 
 Great strike of minders and piecers . . 7 Nov. 1855 
 Exhibition of Art Treasures determined on, 20 
 May, 1856 ; 1115 old paintings, 689 new paintings, 
 969 water-colours, 388 British portraits, &c. col- 
 lected ; opened by prince Albert, 5 May ; visited 
 by the Queen, 29, 30 June ; visited by 1,335,915 
 persons ; expenses, 99,500?., receipts, 98,500?. ; 
 
 closed 17 Oct. 1857 
 
 Sir John Potter, a benefactor to the town, died 
 
 25 Oct. 1858 
 British Association meet here (2nd time), 4 Sept. 1861 
 Great county meeting ; 130,000?. subscribed to the 
 
 Lancashire Relief fund .... 2 Dec. 1862 
 Meeting of the Church Congress . . 13-15 Oct. 1863 
 Great Reform meeting ; Mr. Bright there, 24 Sept. 1866 
 Manchester Education bill committee appointed . ,, 
 Additional M.P. granted by Reform act 15 Aug. 1867 
 Meeting of Manchester and Liverpool agricultural 
 
 society -. . . . . 27 Aug. ,, 
 
 Trades' Unions commission opened ; evidence ob- 
 tained of gross outrages . . . 3-24 Sept. ,, 
 Two Fenians, Kelly and Deasy, forcibly taken from 
 a police-van, near Manchester, and Brett, a 
 
 policeman killed 18 Sept. ,, 
 
 23 persons committed for trial ; trial, 29 Oct.-ia 
 
 Nov. ; five condemned to death for murder, 1 
 
 Nov. ; others to imprisonment ; Allen, Gould, 
 
 and Larkin executed . . . .23 Nov. „ 
 
 Jacob Bright elected M. P. (Lily Maxwell, a widow, 
 
 voted for him) 26 Nov. ,, 
 
 False alarm of fire at Lang's music-hall, 23 killed, 
 
 31 July, 1868 
 New town-hall founded .... 26 Oct. ,, 
 Manchester Reciprocity Association founded, Sept. 1869 
 National Education Union meet . . 3, 4 Nov. ,, 
 Bishop James Prince Lee died, 24 Dec. 1869 ; suc- 
 ceeded by James Fraser .... Jan. 1870 
 Alexandra park (provided by the corporation) 
 
 opened 6 Aug. ,, 
 
 Owen's college new buildings founded . 23 Sept. ,, 
 Grammar school : additional building opened by 
 
 earl of Derby 25 Oct. 1871 
 
 Visit of Mr. Disraeli ; enthusiastically received, 
 
 2-5 April, 1872 
 
 MANCHESTER, Bishopric of. An order 
 in council in Oct. 1838, declared that the sees of 
 St. Asaph and Bangor should be united on the next 
 vacancy in either, and that the bishopric of Man- 
 chester should be immediately created within the 
 jurisdiction of the archiepiscopal see of York ; the 
 county of Lancaster for that purpose to be detached 
 
MANES. 
 
 427 
 
 MAPS. 
 
 from Chester. By act 10 Vict. (1847) the sees of 
 St. Asaph and Bangor were to exist undisturbed, 
 and that of Manchester was to be created. 
 
 BISHOIS. 
 
 1847. James Prince Lee ; died 24 Dec. 1869. 
 1870. James Fraser, Jan. 1870. 
 
 MANES, the name applied by the ancients to 
 the soul when separated from the body. The Manes 
 were reckoned among the infernal deities, and were 
 generally supposed to preside over the burial-places 
 and monuments of the dead. They were worship- 
 ped by the Bomans, and invoked by the augurs ; 
 Virgil (22 B.C.) makes his bero sacrifice to the 
 Manes. The Bomans superscribed their epitaphs 
 with D. M., Diis Manibus. 
 
 MANGANESE. Black oxide of manganese, 
 long used to decolorise 'glass, and called Magnesia 
 nigra, was formerly included among the ores of iron. 
 Its distinctive character was proved by the re- 
 searches of Pott (1740), Kaim and "Winterl (1770), 
 and Scheele and Bergmann (1774) ; it was first 
 eliminated by Gahn. Manganese combined with 
 potassium is called mineral chameleon, from its 
 rapid change of colour under certain circumstances. 
 Forchammer employed it as a test for the presence 
 of organic matter in water ; and Dr. Angus Smith 
 successfully applied this test to air in 1858. 
 
 MANICHEANS, a sect founded by Manes, 
 in Persia, about 261. It spread into Egypt, Arabia, 
 and Africa. A rich widow, whose servant Manes 
 had been, left him much wealth, after which he as- 
 sumed the title of Apostle, or envoy of Jesus 
 Christ, and announced that he was the paraclete 
 or comforter that Christ had promised to send. He 
 maintained two principles, the one good he called 
 light, the other bad he called darkness. He re- 
 jected the Old Testament, and composed a system of 
 doctrine from Chiistianity and the dogmas of the 
 ancient fire-worshippers. Sapor, king of Persia, 
 believed in him at one time ; but afterwards 
 banished him. He was burnt alive by Bahrain or 
 Varanes, king of Persia, in 277. His followers 
 spread themselves over the Roman empire, and 
 several sects sprang from them. 
 
 MANILLA (built about 1573), capital of the 
 Philippine isles, a great mart of Spanish commerce. 
 Manilla was taken by the English 6 Oct. 1762, 
 when the archbishop engaged to ransom it for about 
 a million sterling; never wholly paid. Manilla 
 has suffered greatly by earthquakes. It is stated 
 that nearly 3000 persons perished by one in 1645. 
 In Sept. 1852, the city was nearly destroyed, and 
 on 3 July, 1863, about a thousand lives were lost. 
 The duke of Edinburgh was hospitably entertained 
 here 19 Nov. 1869. 
 
 MANNHEIM (S. Germany), founded in 1606, 
 became the court residence of the palatine of the 
 Rhine in 1719 ; but his becoming elector of Bavaria 
 in 1777 caused the removal of the court to Munich. 
 Mannheim surrendered to the French, under com- 
 mand of general Pichegru, 20 Sept. 1795. On 31 
 Oct. the Austrians under general Wurmser defeated 
 the French near the city. Several battles were 
 fought with various success in the neighbourhood 
 during the wars of Napoleon I. Kotzebue, the popu- 
 lar dramatist, was assassinated at Mannheim, by 
 Sand, a student of "VVurtzburg, 2 April, 1819. 
 
 MANOMETEE (Greek, manos, thin), an in- 
 strument for measuring the rarity of the atmo- 
 sphere, gases, and vapours. One is said to have 
 been made by Otto von Guericke about 1660, and 
 
 the "statical barometer" of Robert Boyle was 
 a simple manometer. Various forms of the appara- 
 tus were devised by Bamsden (about 1773), by Roy 
 (1777), by Cazalet (1789), and by Bourdon [and 
 others. A manometer was constructed for the in- 
 vestigation respecting the elasticity of steam con- 
 ducted by Prony, Arago, Dulong, and Girard, 1830. 
 
 MANITOBA, see Super f s Land and Hudson' s 
 Bay (N. America), a new colony. A Fenian attack 
 on the colony was suppressed by American troops 
 about 12 Oct. 187 1. 
 
 MANORS are as ancient as the Saxon times, 
 and imply a territorial district with its jurisdiction, 
 rights, and perquisites. They were formerly called 
 baronies, and still are lordships. Each lord was 
 empowered to hold a court called the court-baron, 
 for redressing misdemeanors, and settling disputes 
 between the tenants. Cabinet Lawyer. 
 
 MANSION-HOUSE, LONDON. The resi- 
 dence of the lord mayor. It is situate at the east 
 end of the Poultry on the site of the ancient Stocks- 
 market. It was built of Portland stone by George 
 Dance the elder, 1739-53 > repaired and redecorated, 
 1867-68 ; see Mayor. 
 
 Mansion-House Fkench Relief Fund for the suf- 
 ferers by the siege of Paris, was established at a 
 meeting at the Mansion-house, London 18 Jan. 1S71 
 In four days about 24,000*. had been received ; up 
 to 4 March, 113,599?. • finally, 126,609*. Col. H. 
 Stuart Wortley and Mr. George Moore went to 
 Paris on 3 Feb. with 68 tons of provisions, and 
 personally superintended their distribution by the 
 clergy, foreign consuls, and others. An official 
 report issued by the lord mayor, dated 7 Nov. 
 1871, showed a balance of 4679J. in hand. 
 
 MANSOUEAH (Lower Egypt). Here Louis 
 IX. was defeated by the Saracens and taken pri- 
 soner, 5 April, 1250. He gave Damietta and 400,000 
 livres for his ransom. 
 
 MANTINEA (Arcadia, Greece). Here— (1) 
 Athenians and Argives were defeated by Agis II. of 
 Sparta, 418 B.C. (2) And here Epaminondas and 
 the Thebans defeated the combined forces of Lace- 
 diemon, Achaia, Elis, Athens, and Arcadia, 362 B.C. 
 Epaminondas was killed in the engagement, and 
 Thebes lost its power among the Grecian states. The 
 emperor Adi-ian built a temple at Mantineain honour 
 of his favourite Alcinoiis. The town was also called 
 Antigonia. Other battles were fought in the neigh- 
 bourhood. 
 
 MANTUA (N. Italy), an Etruscan city, near 
 which Virgil was born, 70 B. c. Mantua was ruled 
 by theGonzagas, lords of Mantua, from 1328 to 1708, 
 when it was seized by the emperor Joseph I. It 
 surrendered to the French, 2 Feb. 1797, after a 
 siege of eight months ; retaken by the Austrians 
 and Bussians, 30 July, 1799, after a short siege. 
 After the battle of Marengo (14 June, 1800), the 
 French again obtained possession of it. It was in- 
 cluded in the kingdom of Italy till 1814, when it 
 was restored to the Austrians, who surrendered it to 
 the Italians, 11 Oct. 1866, after the peace. 
 
 MANUFACTURES, see Silk, Cotton, &c. 
 
 MAOEIS, see New Zealand. 
 
 MAPLE-TEEE. The acerrubrum, or scarlet 
 maple, was brought here from N. America, before 
 1656. The. Acer Negundo, or ash- leaved maple, 
 before 1688. From the Acer saccharinum (intro- 
 duced here in 1735) the Americans make very good 
 sugar. 
 
 MAPS, see Charts, and Mercator. 
 
MARANON. 
 
 428 
 
 MARONITES. 
 
 MARANON, see Amazon. 
 
 MARATHON (in Attica). Here, on 28 or 29 
 Sept. 400 B.C., the Greeks, only 11,000 strong, de- 
 feated the Persian army amounting to about 1 10,000. 
 The former were commanded by Miltiades, Aristides, 
 and Themistocles. Among the slain (about 6400) 
 was Hippias, the instigator of the war. The Persian 
 army was forced to retreat to Asia ; see Greece. 
 
 MARBLE. Dipcenus and Scyllis, statuaries of 
 Crete, were the first artists who sculptured marble, 
 and polished their works ; all statues previously 
 being of wood, about 568 B.C. Pliny. The edifices 
 or monuments of Eome were constructed of, or orna- 
 mented with, fine marble. The ruins of Palmyra 
 are chiefly of white marble. The marble arch, 
 London, erected at Buckingham palace, 1830, was 
 removed to Hyde-park, March, 1851. 
 
 MARBURG (W. Germany). The cathedral 
 was founded, 1231 ; and the first Protestant univer- 
 sity in 1527. It suffered much during the Seven 
 years' war, 1753-60. 
 
 MARCH, the first month of the year, until 
 Numa added January and February, 713 B.C. Ro- 
 mulus, who divided the year into months, gave to 
 this month the name of his supposed father, Mars ; 
 though Ovid observes, that the people of Italy had 
 the month of March before the time of Romulus, 
 hut placed it differently in the calendar. The year 
 formerly commenced on the 25th of this month ; see 
 Year. 
 
 MARCHES. The old boundaries between 
 England and Wales, and England and Scotland. 
 The Lords Marchers of the "Welsh borders had vice- 
 regal authority ; the wardens of the Scotch marches 
 were subordinate officers. These powers were abol- 
 ished, 1536, and 1689. 
 
 MARCHFELD (Austria). Here Ottocar II. 
 of Bohemia was defeated and slain by his rival, the 
 emperor Rodolph of Hapsburg, 26 Aug. 1278 ; see 
 Bohemia. 
 
 MARCIONITES, followers of Marcion, a here- 
 tic, about 150, who preceded the Manichees, and 
 taught similar doctrines. Cave. 
 
 MARCOMANNL a people of Southern Ger- 
 many, expelled the Boii from Bohemia, and, united 
 with other tribes, invaded Italy about 167, but were 
 repelled by the emperors Antoninus and Verus. They 
 were defeated by the legion called, from a fabled 
 miracle, the Thundering Legion, 179; and finally 
 driven beyond the Danube by Aurelian, 271. 
 
 MARENGO (N. Italy). Here the French army, 
 commanded by Bonaparte, after crossing the Alps 
 into Piedmont, attacked the Austrians, 14 June, 
 1800 ; his army was retreating, when the arrival of 
 general Dessaix turned the fortunes of the day. The 
 slaughter on both sides was dreadful. By a treaty 
 between the Austrian general Melas and Bonaparte, 
 signed 15 June, the latter obtained twelve strong 
 fortresses, and became master of Italy. 
 
 MARESCHALS or Marshals, in France, 
 
 were the esquires of the king, and originally had 
 the command of the vanguard to observe the enemy 
 and to choose proper places for its encampment. 
 Till the time of Francis I., in 1515, there were but 
 two marshals, who had 500 livres per annum in 
 war, but no stipend in time of peace. The number 
 was afterwards greatly increased. Napoleon's mar- 
 shals were renowned for skill and courage ; see 
 Marshal. 
 
 MARIAN PERSECUTION, see Protestants. 
 
 MARIGNANO (nowMAUEGNANO),N. Italy, 
 near Milan. Three battles have been fought near 
 here — I. Francis I. of France defeated the duke of 
 Milan and the Swiss, 13, 14 Sept. 1515 ; above 20,000 
 men were slain. This conflict has been called the 
 Battle of the Giants. — 2. Near here was fought the 
 battle of Pavia {uhich see), 24 February, 1525. — 3. 
 After the battle of Magenta, 4 June, 1859, the Aus- 
 trians entrenched themselves at Malegnano. The 
 emperor sent marshal Barraguay d'Hilliers with 
 16,000 men to dislodge them, which he did with a 
 loss of about 850 killed and wounded, on 8 June. 
 The Austrians are said to have lost 1400 killed and 
 wounded, and 900 prisoners, out of 18,000 engaged. 
 
 MARINER'S COMPASS, see Compass, and 
 Magnetism, 
 
 MARINES were first established with the ob- 
 ject of forming a nursery to man the fleet. An order 
 in council, dated 16 Oct. 1664, authorised 1200 sol- 
 diers to be raised and formed into one regiment. In 
 1684, the third regiment of the line was called the 
 Marine Regiment ; but the system of having soldiers 
 exclusively for sea service was not carried into effect 
 until 1698, when two marine regiments were formed. 
 More regiments were embodied in subsequent years; 
 and in 1741 the corps consisted of ten regiments, 
 each 1000 strong. In 1759 they numbered I ^> 000 
 men. In the latter years of the French war, ending 
 in 1815, they amounted to 31,400, but there were 
 frequently more than 3000 supernumeraries. The 
 jollies, as they are called, frequently distinguished 
 themselves. The "Royal Mamie Forces" (so 
 named 1 May, 1802), now comprehend artillery and 
 light infantry. The vote for 1857 was for 16,000 
 marines, inclusive of 1500 artillery. P. H. Nicolas. 
 
 MARINO, SAN, a republic in central Italy. 
 Its origin is ascribed to St. Marinus, a hermit, who 
 resided here in the 5th century. Its independence 
 was confirmed by pope Pius VII. in 1817. Popula- 
 tion, in 1858, about 8000 ; in 1869, 7303. 
 
 MARIOLATRY, worship of the virgin Mary, 
 began in the 4th century, greatly increased in the 
 
 1 oth. 
 
 MARITIME EXHIBITION at Havre 
 
 opened by representatives of the government 1 June, 
 1868 : a similar exhibition was opened at Naples by 
 the prince of Piedmont, 17 April, 187 1. 
 
 MARK, a silver coin of the northern nations, 
 and the name mark-lubs is still retained in Denmark. 
 In England, the mark means the sum of 13s. $d., 
 and the name is retained in law courts. 
 
 MARKET, see Smithfield, Metropolitan Cattle 
 Market, London, 1868. 
 
 MARK' S, St. (Venice) . The church was erected 
 in 829; the piazza in 1592. 
 
 MARLBOROUGH, Statutes of, were 
 
 enacted in the castle of Marlborough, Wiltshire, 
 1267. — Marlborough House, Pall Mall, London, 
 was built by Wren for the duke of Marlborough, 
 1709-10 ; was bought for the princess Charlotte and 
 prince Leopold in 1817 ; held by queen Adelaide till 
 1849, and became the residence of the prince of 
 Wales, 1863. 
 
 MAROCCO, see Morocco. 
 
 MARONITES, Christians in the East, fol- 
 lowers of one Maron in the 5th century ; they are 
 said to have embraced the errors of the Jacobites 
 
MAEOONS. 
 
 429 
 
 MAEEIAGE. 
 
 Nestorians, and Monothelites. About 1180 they 
 numbered 40,000, living in the neighbourhood of 
 mount Libanus, and were of service to the Christian 
 kings of Jerusalem. They were reconciled to the 
 church of Eome soon after. For an account of the 
 massacres of the Maronites in i860, see Druses. 
 
 MAEOONS, a name given in Jamaica to run- 
 away negroes. When the island was conquered 
 from the Spaniards, a number of their negroes tied 
 to the hills and became very troublesome to the 
 colonists. A war of eight years' duration ensued, 
 when the Maroons capitulated on being permitted 
 to retain then- free settlements, about 1 730. In 
 1795 they again took arms, but were "speedily put 
 down and many were transported. Brande. 
 
 MAE-PEELATE TEACTS, virulently at- 
 tacking episcopacy, were mostly written, it is 
 believed, by Henry Penry, who was cruelly executed, 
 29 May, 1593, for writing seditious words againstthe 
 queen (found about his person when seized). The 
 tracts appeared about 1586. Some had very singular 
 titles: such as " An Almand for a Parrat," "Hay 
 any Worke for Cooper ? " &c. They were collected 
 and reprinted in 1843. 
 
 MAEQUE, LETTERS OE, see Privateer. 
 
 MAEQUESAS ISLANDS (Polynesia) were 
 discovered in 1595 by Mendana, who named them 
 after the viceroy of Peru, Marquesa de Mendoqa. 
 They were visited by Cook in 1774, and were taken 
 possession of by the French admiral Dupetit Thouars, 
 I May, 1842. 
 
 MAEQUIS, a dignity, called by the Saxons 
 markin-reve, by the Germans markgrave, took its 
 original from mark or March, a limit or bound (see 
 Marches) ; the office being to guard or govern the 
 frontiers of a province. Marquis is next in honour 
 to a duke. The first Englishman on whom the title 
 was conferred was the favourite of king Kichard II., 
 Robert de Vere, earl of Oxford, created marquis of 
 Dublin, and placed in parliament between the dukes 
 and earls, 1385. James Stewart, second son of 
 James III. of Scotland, was made marquis of Or- 
 mond, in 1476, without territories, afterwards earl 
 of Koss. 
 
 MAEEIAGE was instituted by God (Gen. ii.), 
 and confirmed by Christ (Mark x.), who performed 
 a miracle at the celebration of one (John ii.). Ma- 
 trimonial ceremonies among the Greeks are ascribed 
 to Cecrops, king of Athens, 1554 B.C. See Age. 
 
 Law favouring marriage passed at Rome . .B.C. 18 
 Priests forbidden to marry after ordination a.d. 325 
 
 Marriage in Lent forbidden 366 
 
 It was forbidden to bishops in 692, and to priests in 
 1015 ; and these latter were obliged to take the 
 
 vow of celibacy 1073 
 
 The celebration of marriage, as a sacrament, in 
 churches ordained by pope Innocent III. about 
 1199 ; and so affirmed by the council of Trent . . 1547 
 Marriages solemnised by justices of the peace under 
 
 an act of the commons 1653 
 
 A tax laid on marriages, viz. : marriage of a duke, 
 
 50J. ; of a common person, is. 6d 1695 
 
 Irregular marriages prohibited (see Fleet Marriages) 1753 
 
 Marriages again taxed 1784 
 
 New marriage act, 1822 ; partially repealed . . 1823 
 Acts prohibiting marriages by Roman Catholic 
 priests in Scotland, or other ministers not belong- 
 ing to the church of Scotland, repealed . . 1834 
 Act to render the children of certain marriages 
 within forbidden degrees of kindred legitimate ; 
 such marriages in future prohibited (Lyndhurst's 
 
 act) 1835 
 
 The present marriage act for England, authorising 
 marriages without religious ceremony, by regis- 
 
 trar's certificate, or in a dissenting chapel, passed 
 1836 [amended in 1837 and 1856]. 
 
 Marriage Registration act 1837 
 
 Amendment act passed in . 1840 and 1856 
 
 A bill to suppress irregular marriages in Scotland 
 (see Gretna) passed in n 
 
 A court established for Divorce and Matrimonial 
 Causes, which has the power of giving sentence of 
 judicial separation for adultery, cruelty, or deser- 
 tion without cause for two years and upward (see 
 Divorce) ^Ssj 
 
 The Marriage Law Reform association instituted (to 
 legalise a marriage with a deceased wife's sister), 
 15 Jan. 1851. A bill for this purpose passed the 
 commons, 2 July ; was rejected by the lords, 23 
 July, 1838 ; again rejected, 1862 ; and again by 
 the commons, 2 May, 1866 ; and 30 April, 1870, 
 rejected by the lords (77-73) 19 May, 1870 ; passed 
 by commons, 9 March, rejected by the lords (97- 
 71), B7 March, 1871 ; passed by commons in 1872, 
 1873 ; and rejected by the lords (49-74), 14 March, 1873 
 
 These marriages made legal by the legislature at 
 Melbourne Nov. 1872 
 
 In the case of Brook v. Brook, it was decided that 
 such a marriage celebrated in a foreign country 
 was not valid X7 April, 1858 
 
 This decision confirmed on appeal to the house of 
 lords, on ^ March, i86r 
 
 A commission appointed to inquire into the work- 
 ing of the marriage laws of Scotland, 22 March, 
 1865, reported strongly in favour of changes being 
 made to insure uniformity, simplicity, and cer- 
 tainty j u iy ( X 868 
 
 Consular Marriage Act, enabling acting British 
 consuls abroad to solemnize marriages, passed 
 
 16 July, 1868 
 
 Married Women s property act passed . 9 Aug. 1870 
 
 Marriage Law of Ireland amended by an act passed 
 10 Aug. 1870 ; amended .... July, 1871 
 
 REGISTEBED MARRIAGES IN ENGLAND AND WALES. 
 
 1854 . . . 159,727 
 
 1855 (Crimean War) 152,113 
 
 1856 . . . 159,337 
 
 1857 • • ■ • 159.097 
 
 1858 • . . 156,070 
 
 1859 . . . . 167,723 
 i860 . . . 170,156 
 
 1861 (Cotton famine) 163,706 
 
 1862 . . . 164,030 
 
 1863 . ... 173,510 
 
 1864 . . . 180,387 
 
 17s ■ • • 40,300 
 
 1800 . . . 73,228 
 
 1810 . . . 84,473 
 
 1S15 . . . . 91,946 
 
 1820 . . . 96,883 
 
 1825 .... 98,378 
 
 1830 . . . 102,437 
 
 1840 . . . . 121,083 
 
 1845 . . . 143,743 
 
 1848 . . . . 138,230 
 
 1850* . . . 152,744 
 
 1853 .... 164,520 
 
 MARRIAGES IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. 
 
 England and Wales. Scotland. 
 
 1865 . 185,474 70,821 
 
 1866 . . 187,776 71,273 
 1S67 . I79' J 54 69,024 
 1868 . . 176,962 69,386 
 
 1569 . 176,970 75,789 
 
 1570 . . 181,655 74.067 
 
 1871 . 190,015 74,644 
 
 1872 . . 200,837 
 
 Royal Marriage Act was passed in 1772, in consequence 
 
 of the marriage of the duke of Gloucester, the king's 
 brother, with the widow of the earl Waldegrave, and of 
 the duke of Cumberland with the widow of colonel 
 Horton and daughter of lord Irnham. [By this act, 
 none of the descendants of George II. , unless of foreign 
 birth, can marry under the age of 25, without the con- 
 sent of the king ; at and after that age, the consent of 
 parliament is .necessary to render the marriage valid.] 
 The marriage of the duke of Sussex with the lady 
 Augusta Murray, solemnised in 1793, was pronounced 
 illegal, and the claims of their son, sir Augustus d'Este, 
 declared invalid, by the house of lords, 9 July, 1844. 
 H. R. H. the princess Louise was married to the mar- 
 quis of Lome by the queen's consent, 21 March, 1871. 
 
 * Of these marriages, it is stated in the registrar's re- 
 turns that 47,570 men and 70,601 women could not write, 
 and that they signed the marriage register with their 
 marks. — In Prance, the marriages were 208,893 m 1820 ; 
 243,674 in 1825 ; and 259,177 in 1830. As respects Paris,' 
 7754 marriages were, bachelors and maids, 6456 ; bachelors 
 and widows, 368 ; widowers and maids, 70S ; widowers 
 and widows, 222. 
 
 t Approximative 
 
MAR'S INSURRECTION. 
 
 430 
 
 MARTELLO TOWERS. 
 
 Half Marriage. Semi-Mairimoni'wm. Among the 
 Romans concubinage was a legitimate union, not 
 merely tolerated but authorised. The eoncubins had 
 
 the name of tcmi-coujui: Men might have either a 
 wife or a concubine, provided they had not both to- 
 gether. Constantine the Great cheeked eoncubinagt, 
 but did not abolish it. This ancient custom pf the 
 Romans was preserved, not only among the Lombards, 
 but by the French when they held dominion in that 
 countiy. Cujas assures us that the Gascons and other 
 people bordering on the Pyrenean mountains had not 
 relinquished this custom in his time, 1590. The women 
 bore the name of " wives of the second order." He- 
 M. See Morganatic Marriages. 
 Double Marriages. There are some instances of a hus- 
 band and two wives (but they are very rare) in countries 
 where polygamy was interdicted by the state. The first 
 Lacedaemonian who had two wives was Anaxandrides, 
 the son of Leon, about 510 b.c Dionysius of Syracuse 
 married two wives, viz. : Doris, the daughter of Xenctus, 
 and Aristomache, sister of Dion, 398 b.c. It is said 
 that the count Gleichen, a German nobleman, was per- 
 mitted, under peculiar circumstances, by Gregory IX., 
 in a.d. 1237, to marry and live with two wives. The 
 Mormonites practise and encourage polygamy. 
 Forced Marriages. The stat. 3 Henry VII. (1487) made 
 the principal and abettors in marriages with heiresses, 
 &c, contrary to their will, ecpially guilty as felons. 
 By 39 Eliz. (1596) such felons were denied the benefit 
 of clergy. This offence was made punishable by trans- 
 portation, 1 Geo. IV. (1820). Tlie remarkable case of 
 Miss Wharton, heiress of the house of Wharton, whom 
 captain Campbell married by force, occurred in William 
 III. 's reign. Sir John Johnston was hanged for seizing 
 the young lady, ami the marriage was annulled by 
 parliament, 1690.— Edward Gibbon Wakefield was tried 
 at Lancaster, and found guilty of the felonious abduc- 
 tion of Miss Turner, 24 March, 1827 ; and his marriage 
 witli her was immediately dissolved by act of parlia- 
 ment. 
 
 Marriages by Sale. Among the Babylonians, at a cer- 
 tain time every year, the marriageable females were 
 assembled, and disposed of to the best bidder. This 
 custom is said to have originated with Atossa, daughter 
 of Belochos, about 1433 b.c. 
 Fleet Marriages. See Fleet. 
 
 MAR'S INSURRECTION. John, earl of 
 Mar proclaimed James III. at Braemar, Aberdeen- 
 shire, 6 September, 17 15. He was defeated at 
 Sheriffmuir, 13 Nov., and escaped from Montrose 
 with the Pretender, 4 Feb. 17 16. 
 
 MARSAGLIA (Piedmont, N. Italy). Here 
 the imperialists under prince Eugene and the duke 
 of Savoy were defeated by the French under Catinat, 
 4 Oct. 1693. 
 
 MARSEILLAISE HYMN. The words and 
 music are ascribed to Rouget de Lille, or L'Isle, 
 a French engineer officer, who composed it at the 
 request of marshal Luckner, in 1791, to cheer the 
 conscripts at Strasburg. It derived its name from 
 a body of troops from Marseilles marching into 
 Paris in 1792 playing the tune. The author was 
 pensioned by Louis Philippe, 1830. 
 
 MARSEILLES. The ancient Massilia (S. 
 France), a maritime city, founded by the Phocseans 
 about 600 b c. ; an ally of Rome, 218 n.c. Cicero 
 styled it the Athens of Graul, on account of its excel- 
 lent schools. 
 Taken by Julius C;esar after a long siege . .B.C. 49 
 
 By Euric the Visigoth a.d. 470 
 
 Sacked by the Saracens 839 
 
 Marseilles a republic i2 J 4 
 
 Subjected to the counts of Provence . . .1251 
 
 United to the crown of France 1482 
 
 The plague rages J 649 
 
 It carried off 50,000 of the inhabitants. The bishop 
 
 Belsunce devotedly exerted himself to relieve the 
 
 sufferers 1720-1 
 
 Revolutionary commotions here . . 30 April, 1789 
 Marseilles opposes the revolutionary government, 
 
 and is reduced 23 Aug. 1793 
 
 MARSHALS- Two were appointed in London 
 to clear the streets of vagrants, and to send the 
 sick, blind, and lame to asylums and hospitals for 
 relief, 1567. Northouck. 
 
 MARSHALS, Britisii Field-. This rank 
 
 was first conferred upon John, duke of Argyll, and 
 Georg<\ earl of Orkney, by George II. in 1 736. Sir 
 John Fox Burgoyne was made field-marshal in Jan. 
 1868; see Marcschal. 
 
 MARSHALS of France, appointed by 
 
 Napoleon I. during his wars, 1804-14. 
 
 Arrighi, duke of Padua. 
 
 Augereau, duke of C'astiglione. 
 
 Bernadotte, prince of Ponte Corvo ; afterwards king of 
 
 Sweden. 
 Berthier, prince of Neufchatel and Wagram, committed 
 
 suicide at Bamberg, 1815. 
 Bessieres, duke of Istria. 
 
 Davoust, prince of Eckmiihl and duke of Auerstadt. 
 Jourdan, peer of France. 
 Junot, duke of Abrantes ; suicide, 1813. 
 Kellermann, duke of Valmy. 
 
 Lannes, duke of Montobello, killed at Aspem, 1809. 
 Lefebvre, duke of Dantzic. 
 Macdonald, duke of Tarento. 
 Marmont, duke of Ragusa. 
 Massena, prince of Essling and duke of Rivoli. 
 Moncey, duke of Conegliano. 
 
 Mortier, duke of Treviso, killed byFieschi, 28 July, 1835. 
 Murat, king of Naples, executed 13 Oct. 1815. 
 Ney, prince of Moskwa, executed 7 Dec. 1815. 
 Oudinot, duke of Reggio. 
 Soult, duke of Dalmatia. 
 Suchet, duke of Albuera, 
 Victor, duke of Belluno. 
 
 MARSHALSEA COURT, having jurisdic- 
 tion in the royal palace, was very ancient, of high 
 dignity, and coeval with the common law. Since 
 the decision of the case of the Marshalsea (see lord 
 Coke's 10 Rep. 68) no business has been done in this 
 court; but it was regularly opened and adjourned 
 at the same time with the Palace court, toe judges 
 and other officers being the same. These courts 
 were removed from Southwark to Scotland-yard in 
 1 801, were abolished by parliament, anddiscontinued 
 31 Dec. 1S49; see Prisons. 
 
 MARSI, a brave people of Southern Italy, who, 
 after several contests, yielded to the Romans, about 
 301 B.C. During the civil wars they and their 
 allies rebelled, having demanded and been refused 
 the rights of Roman citizenship, 91 B.C. After 
 many successes and reverses, they sued for and 
 obtained peace and the rights they required, 87 B.C. 
 The Marsi being Sociiof the Romans, this was called 
 the Social tear. 
 
 MARSTON MOOR (near York). The Scots 
 and parliamentary army were besieging York, when 
 prince Rupert, joined by the marquis of Newcastle, 
 determined to raise the siege. Both sides drew up 
 on Marstou-moor, on 2 July, 1644, and the contest 
 was long undecided. Rupert, commanding the 
 right wing of the royalists, was opposed by Oliver 
 Cromwell, at the head of troops disciplined by him- 
 self. Cromwell was victorious; he drove his op- 
 ponents off the field, followed the vanquished, 
 returned to a second engagement and a second vic- 
 tory. The prince's artillery was taken, and the 
 royalists never recovered the blow. 
 
 MARTELLO TOWERS or Mortella 
 TOWERS, were circular buildings erected in the 
 beginning of the present century, on the southern 
 coast of England, and other parts of the empire, as- 
 defences against invasion. 
 
MAETIAL LAW. 
 
 431 
 
 MASSACEES. 
 
 MARTIAL LAW, see Courts- Martial, and 
 Military Law. 
 
 MARTINESTI, see Bimnik. 
 
 MARTINIQUE (French West Indies), dis- 
 covered in 1493 or 1502 ; settled by France, 1635. 
 This and the adjacent isles of St. Lucia and 
 St. Vincent, and the Grenadines, were taken by the 
 British from the French in Feb. 1762. They were 
 restored to France at the peace of the following 
 year. They were again taken, 16 March, 1794; 
 restored at the peace of Amiens in 1 802 ; again 
 captured 23 Feb. 1809. A revolution in this island 
 in favour of Napoleon was finally suppressed by 
 the British, 1 June, 1815, and Martinique reverted 
 to its French masters. Severe earthquakes occurred 
 here in 1767 and 1839. 
 
 MARTINMAS, n Nov., the feast of St. 
 Martin, bishop of Tours, in the 4th century, is 
 quarter day in parts of the north of England 
 and in Scotland. The high sheriffs of England and 
 "Wales are nominated on the morrow of St. Martin, 
 12 Nov. 
 
 MARTINS' HALL, ST. (Long Acre, London), 
 was opened as a concert-room for Mr. John Hullah, 
 on 11 Feb. 1850 ; burnt down 26 Aug. i860; rebuilt, 
 1861 ; opened as the New Queen's Theatre, by 
 Mr. Alfred Yv'igan, 24 Oct. 1867. 
 
 MARTYRS. Stephen the first Christian 
 mart3'r, was stoned, 37. The festivals of the 
 martyrs, of very ancient date, took their rise about 
 the time of Polycarp, who suffered martyrdom about 
 169. St Alban is the English protomartyr, 286 ; 
 see Persecutions, Protestants, and Diocletian Era. 
 The Martyrs' Memorial, Srnithfield, erected by the 
 Protestant Alliance, was inaugurated II March, 
 1870. The Martyrs' memorial Church, St, John's- 
 street, Clerkenwell, was consecrated 2 June, 1871. 
 
 MARYLAND, named after queen Henrietta 
 Maria, one of the first thirteen United States of 
 North America, was granted in 1632 to lord Balti- 
 more, and settled by a company of _ English 
 Bomanists in 1634. It contains the district of 
 Colombia, in which Washington is situate. It con- 
 tinued in the Union when the other slave states 
 seceded in i860 and 1861. The confederate army, 
 under general Lee, after their victory at Bull Run, 
 30 Aug. 1862, crossed the Potomac and entered 
 Maryland. They were followed by the federal 
 army under McClellan. Severe conflicts ensued, 
 especially on 17 Sept., at Antietam Creek, with 
 great loss on both sides, each claiming the victory. 
 The confederates retired into Virginia in good order, 
 and it is said with much booty. 
 
 MASKS. Poppsea, the wife of Nero, is said to 
 have invented the mask to guard her complexion 
 from the sun; but theatrical masks were in use 
 among the Greeks and Romans. Horace attributes 
 them to JSschylus ; yet Aristotle says the inventor 
 and time of their introduction, were unknown. — 
 Modern masks, and muffs, fans, and false hair for 
 the women, were devised in Italy, and brought to 
 England from France in 1572. Stow; see Iron 
 Mask. 
 
 MASQUERADES were in fashion in the 
 court of Edward III., 1340; and in the reign of 
 Charles, 1660, masquerades were frequent among 
 the citizens. The bishops preached against them, 
 and made such representations as occasioned their 
 suppression, 9 Geo. I. 1724. They were revived 
 and carried to a shameful excess in violation of the 
 
 laws, and tickets of admission to a masqiierade at 
 Ranelagh were on some occasions subscribed for at 
 twenty-five guineas each, 1776. Mortimer. At 
 the close of a bal masque, 5 March, 1856, Covent- 
 garden theatre was destroyed by fire. 
 
 MASS, in the Roman church, is the office or 
 prayers used at the celebration of the Eucharist, in 
 memory of the passion of Christ, and to this every 
 part of the service alludes. The general division< 
 consists in high and low ; the first is that sung by 
 choristers, and celebrated with the assistance of a 
 deacon and sub-deacon; low masses are those in? 
 which the prayers are rehearsed without singing. 
 Mass was first celebrated in Latin about 394 ; it was* 
 introduced into England in the 7th century. Pros- 
 tration was enjoined at the elevation of the host in* 
 1201. Dr. Daniel Rock, in "The Church of our 
 Fathers " (1849), describes an ancient MS. of " The- 
 Service of the Mass, called the Rite of Salisbury," 
 compiled for that cathedral, by St. Osmund and 
 others, during the I2th century. The English 
 communion service was adopted in 1549 ; see Missal, 
 and Ritualism. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS, the mother state of 
 New England, North America, founded by the- 
 English puritans at Plymouth-rock, 1620. _ It 
 abolished slavery 1783, and adopted the constitution 
 of the United States, 1788. 
 
 MASSACRES. The following are among the- 
 most remarkable : — 
 
 BEFORE CHRIST. 
 
 Of all the Carthaginians in Sicily, 397. 
 
 2000 Tyrians crucified and 8000 put to the sword for not 
 
 surrendering Tyre to Alexander, 331. 
 Of 2000 Capuans, friends of Hannibal, by Gracchus, 211. 
 A dreadful slaughter of the Teutones and Ambrones, near- 
 
 Aix, by Marius, the Roman general, 200,000 being left 
 
 dead on the spot, 102. 
 The Romans throughout Asia, women and children not. 
 
 excepted, massacred in one day, by order of Mithri- 
 
 dates, king of Pontus, 88. 
 A great number of Roman senators massacred by China, 
 
 Marius, and Sertorius, 87. 
 Again, under Sylla and Catiline, Ms minister of ven- 
 geance, 82. 
 At Perusia, Octavianus Csesar ordered 300 Roman senators. 
 
 and other persons of distinction to be sacrificed to the- 
 
 manes of Julius Caesar, 40. 
 
 AFTER CHRIST. 
 
 At the destruction of Jerusalem, 1,100,000 of Jews are 
 
 said to have been put to the sword, 70. 
 The Jews, headed by one Andree, put to death many 
 
 Greeks and Romans, in and near Cyrene, 115. 
 Cassius, a Roman general, under the emperor M.. 
 
 Aurelius, put to death 300,000 of the inhabitants of 
 
 Seleucia, 165. 
 At Alexandria, many thousands of citizens were massa- 
 cred by order of Antoninus, 215. 
 The emperor Probus is said to have put to death 400,000- 
 
 of the barbarian invaders of Gaul, 277. 
 Of the Gothic hostages by Valens, 378. 
 Of Thessalonica, when 7000 persons invited into the 
 
 circus were put to the sword, by order of Theodosius, 
 
 39°- 
 Of the circus factions at Constantinople, 532. 
 Massacre of the Latins at Constantinople, by order of 
 
 Andronicus, 11 84. 
 Of the Albigenses andWaldenses, commenced at Toulouse, 
 
 1208. Thousands perished by the sword aim gibbet. 
 Of the French in Sicily, 1282 ; see Sicilian Vespers. 
 At Paris, of the Armagnacs, at the instance of John, 
 
 duke of Burgundy, 1418. 
 Of the Swedish nobility, at a feast, by order of Chris- 
 tian II., 1520. 
 Of Protestants at Vassy, 1 March, 1562. 
 Of 70,000 Huguenots, or French Protestants, in France 
 
 (see St. Bartholomew), 24 Aug. 1572. 
 Of the Christians in Croatia by the Turks, when 65,000. 
 
 were slain, 1592. 
 
MASSAGETJB. 
 
 432 
 
 MATHEMATICS. 
 
 Of the pretender Demetrius, and his Polish adherents, 
 at Moscow, 27 May, 1606. 
 
 Of Protestants in the Valteline, N. Italy, 19 July, 1620. 
 
 Of Protestants at Thorn, put to death under a pretended 
 legal sentence of the chancellor of Poland, for being 
 concerned in a tumult occasioned by a Roman Catholic 
 procession, 1724. All the Protestant powers in Europe 
 interceded to have this unjust sentence revoked, but 
 unavailingly. .»_« *• 
 
 At Batavia 12,000 Chinese were massacred by the natives, 
 Oct. 1740, under the pretext of an intended insurrec- 
 tion. _ , , 1 
 
 At the taking of Ismail by the Russians, 30,000 old and 
 young, were slain, Dec. 1790; see Ismail. 
 
 Of French Royalists (see Scptcmbriztrs), 2 Sept. 1792. 
 
 Of Poles, at Praga, 1794. 
 
 In St. Domingo, where Dessalines made proclamation tor 
 the massacre of all the whites, 29 March, 1804, and 
 many thousands perished. 
 
 Insurrection at Madrid, and massacre of the trench, 
 2 May, 1808. , 
 
 Massacre of the Mamelukes, in the citadel of Cairo, 
 1 March, 181 1. , , . 
 
 Massacre of Protestants at Nismes, perpetrated by the 
 Catholics, May, 1815. 
 
 Massacre at Scio, 22 April, 1822 ; see Chios. 
 
 Destruction of the Janissaries at Constantinople, 14 June, 
 
 1826. . ., . 
 
 600 Kabyles suffocated in a cave in Algeria, 18 June, 
 1845 ; see Dahra. 
 
 Massacre of Christians at Aleppo, 16 Oct. 1S50. 
 
 Of Maronites, by Druses, in Lebanon, June, 1S60 ; and 01 
 Christians, by Mahometans, at Damascus, 9-1 1 July, 
 i86b ; see Druses and Damascus. 
 
 Of 173 N W. Indians (including women and children) 
 (as a chastisement for murders, outrages, and rob- 
 beries), by major Raker, of U.S. army, Jan. 1870. 
 
 Of French missionaries and others, at Tieu-tsm, 22 per- 
 sons (see China), 21 June, 187a 
 
 Of foreigners, bv the native Gauchos in the Tandel dis- 
 trict, Buenos Ayres, S. America, 1 Jan. 1872. 
 See Minnesota, and Modoc Indian*. 
 
 MASSACRES IN BRITISH HISTORY. 
 
 Of 300 British nobles, on Salisbury Plain, by Hengist, 
 about 450. 
 
 Of the monks of Bangor, to the number of 1200, by Ethel- 
 frid, king of Bernicia, 607 or 612. 
 
 Of the Danes in the southern counties of England, m 
 the night of 13 Nov. 1002, by order of Ethelred II. At 
 London it was most bloody, the churches being no 
 sanctuary. Amongst the rest was Gunilda, sister 01 
 Swein king of Denmark, left in hostage for the per- 
 formance of a treaty but newly concluded. Baker's 
 Chronicle. . __ , 
 
 Of the Jews, in England. Some few pressing into W est- 
 minster hall at Richard I.'s coronation, were put to 
 death bv the people; and a false alarm being given 
 that the king had ordered a general massacre oi them, 
 the people in many parts of England slew all they met. 
 In York 500, who had taken shelter in a castle, killed 
 themselves, rather than fall into the hands of the 
 multitude, 1189. 
 
 OI' the Bristol colonists, at Cullens Wood, Ireland (see 
 Culkn's Wood), 1209. 
 
 Of the English factory at Ami ioyna, m order to dispossess 
 its members of the Spice Islands, Feb. 1624. 
 
 Massacre of the Protestants in Ireland, in O'Neill s rebel- 
 lion 23 Oct. 1641. Upwards of 30,000 British were 
 kUled in the commencement of this rebellion. Sir 
 William Petty. In the first three or four days of it, 
 forty or fifty thousand of the Protestants were de- 
 stroyed. Lm Before the rebellion was 
 entirely suppressed, 154,000 Protestants were massa- 
 cred. Sir W. Temple. 
 
 Of the Macdonalds of Glencoe (see GUncoe), 13 Feb. 1692. 
 
 Of 184 men, women, and children, chiefly Protestants, 
 burnt, shot, or pierced to death by pikes : perpetrated 
 by the. insurgent Irish, at the barn of Bcuuabogue, 
 Ireland, in 1798. Musgracc. 
 
 Of Europeans at Meerut, Delhi, &c., by mutineers of the 
 native Indian army (see India), May and June, 1S57. 
 
 Of Europeans at Kalangan, on the south coast of Borneo, 
 1 May, 1859. 
 
 Of the Europeans at Morant bay, Jamaica, by the in- 
 furiated negroes, 11-12 Oct. 1865 ; see Jamaica. 
 
 MASSAGETiE, an ancient Scythian people 
 (probably the ancestors of the Goths), who invaded 
 
 Asia about 635. In a conflict with them Cyrus the 
 Great was killed, 529 n.c. 
 
 MASSANIELLO REVOLUTION, 1647 j 
 see Naples, note. 
 
 MASSILIA, see Marseilles. 
 
 MASTEE OF THE CEREMONIES, see Cere- 
 monies. 
 
 MASTERS in Chancery, chosen from the 
 
 equity bar, were first appointed, it is said, to assist 
 the ignorance of sir Christopher Hatton, lord chan- 
 cellor of England, in 1587. The office was abolished 
 in 1852. 
 
 MASTER and Servant Act (amending 
 
 the statute respecting them) was passed 20 Aug. 
 1867 ; see Servants. 
 
 MASTER of the Great Wardrobe, an 
 
 officer of great antiquity and dignity. The esta- 
 blishment was abolished in 1782, and the duties 
 transferred to the lord chamberlain. 
 
 MASTER of the Revels, an offieer of the 
 
 court. Solomon Dayrolle was the last appointed. 
 Part of the duties were transferred to the licenser of 
 plays, 1737. 
 
 MASTER OF THE Rolls, an equity judge, 
 derives his title from having the custody of all 
 charters, patents, commissions, deeds, and recog- 
 nizances, entered upon rolls of parchment ; his de- 
 crees are appealable to the court of chancery. The 
 repository of public papers, called the Rolls, was in 
 Chancery-lane. The rolls were formerly kept in a 
 chapel founded for the converted Jews; but after 
 the Jews were expelled the kingdom in 1290 it was 
 annexed for ever afterwards to the office of the 
 mastership of the rolls. Here were kept all the 
 records since the beginning of the reign of king 
 Richard III., 1483 ; all prior to that period being 
 kept in the Tower of London ; see Records. The 
 first recorded master of the rolls was either John dc 
 Langton, appointed 1286, or Adam de Osgodeby, 
 appointed I Oct. 1295 ; but it is clear that the office 
 was in existence long before. Hardy. The duties 
 were defined in 1833 ; the salary regulated in 1837. 
 
 RECENT MASTERS OF THE ROLLS. 
 
 Sir W'm. Grant appointed . . . -27 May, 1801 
 
 Sir Thomas Plumer 6 Jan. 1818 
 
 Robert, lord GifTord 5 April, 1824 
 
 Sir J. S. Copley (aft. lord Lyndliurst) . 14 Sept. 1826 
 
 Sir John Leach 3 May, 1827 
 
 Sir C. Pepys (aft. lord Cottenham) . 29 Sept. 1834 
 
 Henry Biekersteth (aft. lord Langdale) . 19 Jan. 1836 
 
 Sir John (baron 1865) RomUly . . 28 March, 1851 
 
 Has resigned : no successor appointed . May, 1873 
 
 MATCHES ; see Lucifers. 
 
 MATERIALISM, the doctrine held by those 
 who maintain that the soul of man is not a spiritual 
 substance distinct from matter, but is the result of a 
 particular organisation of matter in the body. The 
 term is rather loosely applied to the system of 
 Epicurus, about 310 B.C. ; Hobbes, about a.d. 1642 ; 
 Priestley, about 1772 ; and many others in the pre- 
 sent day. It is not necessarily identical with 
 atheism. 
 
 MATHEMATICS formerly signified all kinds 
 of learning; but the term is now applied to the 
 sciences relating to numbers and quantity ; see 
 Arithmetic. Among the most eminent mathe- 
 maticians were Euclid, 300 B.C.; Archimedes, 
 287 n.c. ; Descartes, died 1650 a.d. ; Barrow, died 
 1C77 ; Leibnitz, died 1716; sir Isaac Newton, died 
 1727; Euler, died 1783; Lagrange, died 1813; 
 Laplace, died 1827; and Dr. Peacock, died 1S58; 
 sir G. B. Airy (astronomer royal), Bartholomew 
 
MATHUEINS. 
 
 433 
 
 MAYOES. 
 
 Price, and I. Todhunter are eminent mathema- 
 ticians. Mary Somerville, born 1790, author of 
 the "Mechanism of the Heavens," died 1873. The 
 London Mathematical Society was founded, 16 Jan. 
 1865 ; professor Aug. De Morgan, president. 
 
 MATHUEINS, see under Trinity. 
 
 MATINS. The service or prayers first per- 
 formed in the morning or beginning of the day in 
 the Soman Catholic church. The French Matins 
 were the massacre of St. Bartholomew, 24 Aug. 
 1572. The Matins of Moscoiv were the massacre of 
 prince Demetrius, and the Poles his adherents, in 
 the morning of 27 May, 1606. 
 
 MATTEEHOEN, a part of the main ridge of 
 the Alps, about 14,836 feet high, S. Switzerland. 
 After various fruitless attempts by pi-ofessor Tyn- 
 dall and other eminent climbers, in i860, the sum- 
 mit was reached on 14 July, 1865, by Mr. Edward 
 "Whymper and others. During their descent, four 
 of the party-were killed. Mr. Hadow fell; the 
 connecting rope broke, and he himself, lord Francis 
 Douglas, the rev. Mr. Hudson, and Michael Croz, 
 a guide, slipped down, and fell from a precipice 
 neaiiy 4000 feet high. Miss "Walker, with her 
 father, ascended the Matterhorn, 22 July, 1871. 
 
 MAUNDY-THUESDAY (derived by Spel- 
 man from mande, a hand-basket, in which the king 
 was accustomed to give alms to the poor ; by others 
 from dies mandati, the day on which Christ gave 
 his grand mandate, that we should love one an- 
 other), the Thursday before Good Friday. Wheat ly. 
 On this day it was the custom of our sovereigns or 
 their almoners to give alms, food, and clothing to as 
 many poor persons as they were years old. It was 
 begun by Edward III., when he was fifty years of 
 age, 1363, and is still continued. 
 
 MAUE, ST. , see Benedictines. 
 
 MAUEITANIA (N. Africa), with Numidia, 
 became a Roman province, 45 B.C., with Sallust for 
 pro-consul. Augustus created (30 B.C.) a kingdom 
 formed of Mauritania and part of Getulia, for Juba 
 II., a descendant of the ancient African princes. 
 Suetonius Paulinus suppressed a revolt here, a.d. 42, 
 when it was made a province, divided into parts. 
 The country was subjugated by the Vandals and 
 Greeks, and fell into the hands of the Arabs, about 
 667 ; see Morocco, and Moors. 
 
 MATJEITIUS or Isle of France (in the 
 
 Indian Ocean), was discovered by the Portuguese, 
 1505 ; but the Dutch were the first settlers in 1598. 
 They called it after prince Maurice, their stadt- 
 holder, but on the acquisition of the Cape of Good 
 Hope, they deserted it ; and it continued unsettled 
 until the French landed, and gave it the name of 
 one of the finest provinces in France, 1715. This 
 island was taken by the British, 2 Dec. 1810, and 
 confirmed to them by the treaty of Paris in 1814. 
 The bishopric was founded 1854. Sir Henry Barkly, 
 governor, in 1863, succeeded by sir Arthur H. 
 Gordon, 1870. Population in 1861, 313,462 ; in 
 1867, 340,604. In 1866 two railways were in pro- 
 gress ; both now opened. By an awful hurricane, 
 on 11 March, 1868, great damage Avas done to ship- 
 ping and buildings, with much loss of life. 
 
 MAUSOLEUM. Artemisia married her own 
 brother, Mausolus, king of Caria, Asia Minor, 
 377 B.C. At his death she drank in liquor his ashes 
 after his body had been burned, and erected to his 
 memory at Halicarnassus a monument, one of the 
 seven wonders of the world (350 B.C.), termed 
 
 Mausoleum. She invited all the literary men of 
 her age, and proposed rewards to him who composed 
 the best elegiac panegyric upon her husband. The 
 prize was adjudged to Theopompus, 357 b.c. She 
 died 352 B.C. The statue of Mausolus is among the 
 antiquities brought from Halicarnassus by Mr. C. T. 
 Newton in 1857, and placed in the British Museum. 
 A mausoleum for the royal family of England was 
 founded by the queen at Frogmore, 15 March, 1862. 
 
 MAUVE (French for malva, mallow), a dye 
 produced by Dr. Stenhouse from lichens in 1848 ; 
 now produced from Aniline {which see). 
 
 MAY, the fifth month of the year, received its 
 name, some say, from Eomulus, who gave it this 
 appellation in respect to the senators and nobles of 
 his citjr, who were denominated major es ; others 
 supposed it was so called from Maia, the mother of 
 Mercury, to whom they offered sacrifices on the first 
 day. The ancient Bomans used to go in procession 
 to the grotto of Egeria on May-day; see Evil 
 May-day. 
 
 Mrs. Elizabeth Montague (who died in 1800) gave for 
 many years, on May-day, an entertainment at her 
 house in Portman-square, to the chimney-sweepers of 
 London. They were regaled with roast beef and plum 
 pudding, and a dance succeeded. Upon their depar- 
 ture, each guest received a shilling from the mistress 
 of the feast. It is said, though the statement is much 
 doubted, that this entertainment was instituted to 
 commemorate the circumstance of Mrs. Montague's 
 having once found a boy of her own, or that of a rela- 
 tion, among the sooty tribe. In allusion to this inci- 
 dent, perhaps, a story resembling the adventures of 
 this lost child is pathetically related by Montgomery, 
 in " The Chimney-Sweeper's Boy. " 
 
 MAYENCE, see Mentz. 
 
 MAYNOOTH COLLEGE (Ireland), 
 founded by parliament, 1795, and endowed by a 
 yearly grant voted for the education of students 
 designed for the Roman Catholic priesthood in 
 Ireland. An act for its government was passed in 
 1800. It contains about 500 students. Permanent 
 endowment of this college (30,000^. fir the enlarge- 
 ment of the buildings and 26,000^. annually) was 
 granted by parliament, June, 1845. This occasioned 
 much controversy in England, a motion being made 
 for its abolition almost every session. The college 
 was repaired and enlarged in i860. By the Irish 
 Church act, passed 26 July, 1869, the annual parlia- 
 mentary grant was to cease after I Jan. 1871 ; a 
 compensation being made. 
 
 MAYO ASSASSINATION. Richard South- 
 well Bourke, earl of Mayo, was born 21 Feb. 1822. 
 As lord Naas he was chief secretary for Ireland, in 
 the Derby and Disraeli administrations, 1852, 1858-9, 
 1866-8. In Sept. 1868, he was appointed viceroy 
 of India, and energetically fulfilled the duties. He 
 was assassinated at Pore Blair in the Andaman 
 islands, on a visit of inspection, by Shere Ali, a 
 convict, 8 Feb. 1872. The Indian government 
 granted an annual pension of 1000/. to the countess, 
 and 20,000^. for the children; and 1000I. a year 
 was added to lady Mayo's pension by parliament, 
 voted unanimously, 22 July, 1872. 
 
 MAYOES of the Palace, high officers in 
 
 France, who had great influence duiing the later 
 Merovingian kings, termed "faineants," do-no- 
 things : — Pepin the Old (or de Landen), 622 et seq.; 
 Pepin Heristal, 687-714 ; Charles Martel, despotic, 
 714-741; Pepin le Bref, 741, who shut up Chil- 
 deric III. in a monastery, and himself took the 
 kingdom, 752. 
 
MAYOES. 
 
 434 
 
 MEATH. 
 
 MAYOES of Corporations. At the time 
 
 of the Norman conquest, 1066, the chief officer of 
 London was called port-grave, afterwards softened 
 into piort-reeve, from Saxon words signifying chief 
 governor of a harbour. He was afterwards called 
 provost ; but in Henry II. 's reign the Norman title 
 of ma ire (soon after Mayor) was brought into use. 
 At first the mayor was chosen for life, but after- 
 wards for periods of irregular duration ; now he is 
 chosen annually, but is eligible for re-election. He 
 must be an alderman, and have been sheriff. His 
 duties commence on 9 Nov. The prefix lord is 
 peculiar to the chief civic officer of London, Dublin, 
 Edinburgh, and York. 
 
 The " Lord Mayor's court " is very ancient. 
 
 The first mayor of London, Henry Fitz-Ahvyn, 
 held office for 24 years, appointed . . .1189 
 
 First presented to the barons of the exchequer . . 1251 
 
 The prefix of lord granted by Edward III., with the 
 style of right honourable .... 1354 
 
 Sir Henry Pickard, who had been lord mayor of 
 London in 1357, sumptuously entertained in one 
 day four monarchs : Edward, king of England ; 
 John, king of France ; the king of Cyprus ; and 
 David, king of Scotland ; the Black Prince and 
 many of the nobility being present. Stow. . . 1363 
 
 Sir John Norman, the first lord mayor who went by 
 water to be sworn at Westminster, and instituted 
 ord mayor's show 1453 
 
 The more costly pageants of the show laid aside • 1685 
 
 The lord mayor entertained the prince regent of 
 England, the emperor of Russia, king of Prussia, 
 and numerous foreigners of high rank 18 June, 1814 
 
 The lord mayor, Farnconibe, gave a banquet to 
 prince Albert and the mayors of most of the 
 boroughs of the United Kingdom, in further- 
 ance of the project of the great International 
 Industrial Exhibition, 1851 . . 21 March, 1850 
 
 The lord mayor, sir P. Moon, entertained the em- 
 peror and empress of the French . 19 April, 1855 
 
 The lord mayor, B. S. Phillips, entertained the king 
 and queen of the Belgians, July ; entertained by 
 them at Brussels Oct. 1866 
 
 The lord mayor entertained the viceroy of Egypt, 11 
 June ; the sultan, 18 July, 1867 ; the shah of Persia, 
 
 20 June, 1873 
 
 
 LORD MAYORS OF LONDON 
 
 1800-1. 
 
 Sir "William Staines, hart. 
 
 1801-2. 
 
 Sir John Earner, bart. 
 
 1802-3. 
 
 Charles Price. 
 
 1803-4. 
 
 John Perring. 
 
 1804-5. 
 
 Peter Perchard. 
 
 1805-6. 
 
 Sir James Shaw. 
 
 1806-7. 
 
 Sir William Leighton, bart. 
 
 1807-8. 
 
 John Ainsley. 
 
 1808-9. 
 
 Sir Charles Flower, bart. 
 
 1809-10. 
 
 Thomas Smith. 
 
 1810-11. 
 
 Joshua Jonathan Smith. 
 
 1811-12. 
 
 Sir Claudius S. Hunter, bart. 
 
 1812-13. 
 
 George Scholey. 
 
 1813-14. 
 
 Sir William Domville, bart. 
 
 1814-15. 
 
 Samuel Birch. 
 
 1815-16. 
 
 Matthew Wood. 
 
 1816-17. 
 
 Matthew Wood again. 
 
 1817-18. 
 
 Christopher Smith. 
 
 1818-19. 
 
 John Atkins. 
 
 1819-20. 
 
 George Brydges. 
 
 1820-1. 
 
 John T. Thorpe. 
 
 1821-2. 
 
 Christopher Magnay. 
 
 1822-3. 
 
 William Heygate. 
 
 1823-4. 
 
 Robert Waithman . 
 
 1824-5. 
 
 John Garratt. 
 
 1825-6. 
 
 William Venables. 
 
 1826-7. 
 
 Anthony Browne. 
 
 1827-8. 
 
 Matthias Prime Lucas 
 
 1828-9. 
 
 William Thompson. 
 
 1829-30. 
 
 John Crowder. 
 
 1830-1. 
 
 Sir- John Key, bart. 
 
 1831-2. 
 
 Sir John Key, bart., Again, 
 
 l8 3 2 "3- 
 
 Sir Peter Laurie. 
 
 1833-4. 
 
 Charles Farebrother. 
 
 '834-5- 
 
 Henry Winchester. 
 
 1835-6. 
 
 William Taylor Copeland. 
 
 1836-7. 
 
 Thomas Kelly. 
 
 1837-8. 
 
 Sir John Cowan, bart. 
 
 1838-9. 
 
 Samuel Wilson. 
 
 1839-40. 
 
 Sir Chapman Marshall, bart. 
 
 1840-1. 
 
 Thomas Johnson. 
 
 1841-2. 
 
 John Pirie. 
 
 1842-3. 
 
 J. Humphrey. 
 
 1843-4. 
 
 Sir W. Magnay, bart. 
 
 1844-5. 
 
 Michael Gibbs. 
 
 1845-6. 
 
 John Johnson. 
 
 1846-7. 
 
 Sir George Carroll. 
 
 1847-8. 
 
 John Kinnesley Hooper. 
 
 1848-9. 
 
 Sir James Duke, bart., M.P. 
 
 1849-50. 
 
 Thomas Farnconibe. 
 
 1850-1. 
 
 Sir John Musgrove. 
 
 1851-2. 
 
 William Hunter. 
 
 1852-3. 
 
 Thomas Challis, M.P. 
 
 1853-4- 
 
 Thomas Sidney. 
 
 1854-5. 
 
 Sir Fras. G. Moon, bart. 
 
 1855-6. 
 
 David Salomons. 
 
 1856-7. 
 
 Thomas Quested Finnis. 
 
 1857-8- 
 
 Sir Robert W. Carden, bart. 
 
 1858-9. 
 
 David W. Wire. 
 
 1859-60 
 
 James Carter. 
 
 1860-1. 
 
 William Cubitt, M.P. 
 
 1861-2. 
 
 William Cubitt, again. 
 
 1862-3. 
 
 W. A. Rose. 
 
 1863-4. 
 
 Win. Lawrence. 
 
 1864-5. 
 
 Warren S. Hale. 
 
 1865-6. 
 
 Benj. 8am. Phillips. 
 
 1866-7. 
 
 Tho's. Gabriel. 
 
 1867-8. 
 
 Wm. Ferneley Allen. 
 
 1868-9. 
 
 James Lawrence. 
 
 1869-7C 
 
 . Robert Besley. 
 
 1870-1. 
 
 Thomas Dakin. 
 
 1871-2. 
 
 Sills John Gibbons. 
 
 1872-3. 
 
 Sir Sidney Hedley Waterlow 
 
 LORD MAYORS OK DUBLIN. 
 
 John le Deeer was appointed first provost in 1308 ; 
 a gilded sword was granted to be borne before the 
 provost by Henry IV 1407 
 
 Thomas Cusack appointed first mayor . . . 1409 
 
 The collar of SS. and a foot company granted by 
 Charles II. to the mayors 1660 
 
 Sir Daniel Bellingham, the first mayor honoured 
 with the title of lord, by Charles II. , who granted 
 500Z. per annum, in lieu of the company of foot . 1665 
 
 The new collar of SS. granted by William III. to the 
 mayor, value 1000?. , the former having been lost 
 in James II. 's time 1697 
 
 MEAL TUB PLOT, against the duke of 
 York, afterwards James II., contrived by one 
 Dangerfield, who secreted a bundle of seditious 
 letters in the lodgings of colonel Maunsell, and then 
 gave information to the custom-house officers to 
 search for smuggled goods, 23 Oct. 1679. After 
 Dangerfield' s apprehension, on suspicion of forging 
 these letters, papers were found concealed in a 
 meal-tub at the house of a woman with whom he 
 cohabited, which contained the scheme to be sworn 
 to, accusing the most eminent persons in the Protes- 
 tant interest, who were against the duke of York's 
 succession, of treason, — particularly the earls of 
 Shaftesbury, Essex, and Halifax. On Dangerfield 
 being whipped the last time, as part of his punish- 
 ment, 1 June, 1685, one of his eyes was struck out 
 by a barrister named Eobert Francis. This caused 
 his death, for which his assailant was hanged. 
 
 MEASUEES, see Weights. " Not. men, but 
 measures, " a phrase used in parliament by Brougham , 
 2 Nov. 1830. 
 
 MEAT, see Provisions. 
 
 MEATH (Ireland). Many episcopal sees in 
 Meath (as Clonard, Duleek, and others of less note) 
 were fixed at Clonard, before 1151-2, when the 
 division of the bishoprics in Ireland was made by 
 John Paparo, then legate from Pope Eugene III. 
 Eugene was the first styled bishop of Meath, about 
 1 1 74. Meath was valued, 30 Henry VIII., at 
 373/. 12*. per annum. 
 
 
MECCA. 
 
 435 
 
 MEDICAL ASSOCIATION. 
 
 MECCA (in Arabia), the birth-place of Ma- 
 homet, about 571, whence he was compelled to nee, 
 15 July, 622 (the Hegira). On one of the neigh- 
 bouring hills is a cave, where it is asserted he 
 retired to perform his devotions, and where the 
 greatest part of the Koran was brought to him by 
 the angel Gabriel, 604. Mecca, after being viiinly 
 besieged by Hosein for the caliph Yezid, 682, was 
 taken by Abdelmelek, 692. In 1803 it fell into the 
 hands of the Wahabees, a Mahometan sect. They 
 were expelled by the pacha of Egypt in 1818, 
 who retired in 1841. It is said that 160,000 
 pilgrims visited Mecca in 1858, and only 50,000 
 in 1859. 
 
 MECHANICS. The simple mechanical 
 powers have been ascribed to heathen deities ; the 
 axe, wedge, wimble, &c, to Daedalus; see Steam 
 Engine. 
 
 Aristotle writes on mechanics about . .b.c. 320 
 The properties of the lever, &c. , demonstrated by 
 
 Archimedes, who died 212 
 
 [He laid the foundations of nearly all those inven- 
 tions, the further prosecution of which is the 
 
 boast of our age. Wallis (1695.)] 
 The hand-mill, or quern, was very early in use ; the 
 
 Romans found one in Yorkshire. 
 Cattle-mills, molce jumentarice, were also in use by 
 
 the Romans. 
 The water-mill was probably invented in Asia; the 
 
 first that was described was near one of the 
 
 dwellings of Mithridates 70 
 
 A water-mill is said to have been erected on the 
 
 river Tiber, at Rome 30 
 
 Pappus wrote on mechanics . . about a. d. 350 
 
 Floating-mills on the Tiber 536 
 
 Tide-mills were, many of them, in use in Venice 
 
 about 107S 
 Wind-mills were in very general use in the 12th 
 
 century. 
 Saw-mills are said to have been in use at Augsburg 1332 
 Theory of the inclined plane investigated by Cardan 
 
 about 1540 
 Work on Statics, by Stevinus ...... 1586 
 
 Galileo's " Seienza Mecanica " 1634 
 
 Theory of falling bodies, Galileo .... 1638 
 Laws of percussion, Huygens, Wallis, Wren, about 1660 
 Theory of oscillation, Huygens .... 1670 
 Bpicycloidal form of the teeth of wheels, Roemer . 1675 
 Percussion and animal mechanics, Borelli; he died 1679 
 Application of mechanics to astronomy, parallelo- 
 
 gism of forces, laws of motion, &c. , Newton, 
 
 Hooke, <fec. ...... 1 666-1 700 
 
 Problem of the catenary with the analysis, Dr. 
 
 Gregory 1697 
 
 Spirit level (and many other inventions) by Dr. Hooke 
 
 from 1660 to 1702 
 D'Alembert's researches on dynamics . about 1743 
 Lagrange's " Mecanique Analytique " published . 1788 
 Laplace's " Mecanique Celeste " published 1799-1805 
 
 Borgnis' Dictionnaire de Mecanique appliquee aux 
 
 Arts, 10 vols 1818-23 
 
 [Among the best modern writers on the science of 
 
 mechanics are Poncelet, Whewell, Barlow, Mose- 
 
 ley, Delaunay, and Bartholomew Price.] 
 
 MECHANICS' INSTITUTIONS. One 
 
 was founded by Dr. Birkbeck in London, and 
 another in Glasgow, in 1823; and soon after others 
 arose in different parts of the empire. They have 
 revived since 1857, many noblemen and gentlemen 
 giving lectures in them. 
 
 MECHANICS' MAGAZINE,weekly; esta- 
 blished 30 Aug. 1823 ; was incorporated with a new 
 paper termed " Iron," Jan. 1873. 
 
 MECHLIN or MALINBS (Belgium), re- 
 nowned for its lace manufacture, was founded in 
 the 6th century, destroyed by the Normans in 884; 
 sacked by the Spaniards, 1572 ; taken by the prince 
 of Orange, 1578, and by the English, 1580; and 
 frequently captured in the 17th and 18th centuries, 
 
 partaking in the evil fortunes of the country. A 
 lloman Catholic congress was held here Sept. 1867. 
 
 MECKLENBURG (N. Germany), formerly 
 a principality in Lower Saxony, now independent 
 as the two grand duchies of Mecklenburg-Schwerin 
 (population in 1867, 560,618) and Mecklenburg- 
 Strelitz (population in 1867, 98,770), The house 
 of Mecklenburg claims to be descended from Gen- 
 seric the Vandal, who ravaged the western empire 
 in the 5th century, and died 477. During the 
 Thirty years' war Mecklenburg was conquered by 
 Wallenstein, who became its duke, 1628 ; it was 
 restored to its own duke, 1630. After several 
 changes the government was settled in 1701 as it 
 now exists in the two branches of Schwerin and 
 Strelitz. In 1815 the dukes were made grand 
 dukes. The dukes joined the new North German 
 confederation by treaty, 21 Aug. 1866. 
 
 GRAND-DUKES OF MECKLENBURG-SCHWERIN. 
 
 1815. Frederic-Francis I. ; died 7 March, 1842. 
 1842. Frederic-Francis II. ; born 28 Feb. 1823. 
 
 Heir: his son, Frederic-Francis, bom iq March, 
 1851. 
 
 GRAND-DUKES OF MECKLENBURG-STRELITZ. 
 
 1815. Charles ; died 6 Nov. 1816. 
 
 1816. George, bom 12 Aug. 1779; died 6 Sept i860. 
 1860. Frederic William, born 17 Oct. 1819. 
 
 Heir : his son, Adolphus-Frederic, born 22 July 
 1848. 
 The royal family of England is intimately allied 
 with the house of MecMenburg-Strelitz. King 
 George III. married Charlotte, a daughter of the 
 duke of Cumberland, in 1761 ; their son, the duke 
 of Cumberland (afterwards king of Hanover) 
 married princess Frederica Caroline, a daughter 
 of the duke, in 1815 : and princess Augusta of 
 Cambridge, married, 28 June, 1843, Frederic, the 
 present grand-duke. 
 
 MEDALS, see Numismatics. The ancient 
 medals resembled medallions. Modern medals 
 began about 1453 in Germany. The house of com- 
 mons resolved to grant rewards and medals to the 
 fleet whose officers (Blake, Monk, Penn, and Law- 
 son) and men gained a glorious victory over the 
 Dutch fleet, off the Tex el', in 1653. Blake's medal 
 of 1653 was bought by his majesty, William IV. for 
 150 guineas. In 1692 an act was passed for apply- 
 ing the tenth part of the proceeds of prizes for 
 medals and other rewards for officers, seamen, and 
 marines. Subsequent to Lord Howe's victory, 
 I June, 1794, it was thought expedient to institute 
 a naval medal. Medals were struck for the victory 
 of "Waterloo ; a general war medal was ordered in 
 1847 ; and special medals were given after the Caffre 
 and Chinese wars. Medals were presented by the 
 queen to persons distinguished in the war in the 
 Crimea, 18 May, 1855. 
 
 MEDIA, a province of the Assyrian empire, 
 revolted, 711 b.c. Its chronology is doubtful. 
 
 Revolt of the Medes . . . . b.c. 711 
 
 Deioces, founder of Ecbatana, reigns . ... 709. 
 Phraortes, or Arphaxad, reigns ; (he conquers Persia, 
 
 Armenia, and other coimtries) . . . 656 
 
 Warlike reign of Cyaxares 632-594 
 
 War with the Lydians (see Halys) . . 603 
 
 Astyages reigns ... . -59+ 
 
 Astyages deposed by Cyrus, 550 ; who established 
 
 the empire of Persia {which see) . . 56 
 
 MEDICAL ASSOCIATION, British, 
 
 founded in 1832 for the promotion of medical science 
 and the maintenance of the honour of the medical 
 profession. It holds annual meetings at different 
 places in the United Kingdom, and publishes tho 
 " British Medical Journal " weekly. 
 
MEDICAL BENEVOLENT COLLEGE. 436 MELBOURNE ADMINISTRATIONS. 
 
 MEDICAL BENEVOLENT COLLEGE 
 
 (Epsom, Surrey), opened in 1855 by the prince 
 consort. It provides an asylum tor 20 pensioners 
 male and female ; and 40 foundation scholars (sons 
 of medical men) are fed, clothed, and educated. 
 
 MEDICAL COUNCIL. An act, in 1858, 
 passed " to regulate the qualifications of practi- 
 tioners in medicine and surgery;" was amended 
 in i860. It established "the General Council of 
 Medical Education and Eegistration of the United 
 Kingdom." The first meeting of this council took 
 place on 23 Nov. 1858, when sir B. C. Brodie was 
 elected first president (who on 30 Nov. was elected 
 president of the Royal Society) . He was succeeded 
 by Mr. J. H. Green in June, i860 ; by Dr. George 
 Burrows, Jan. 1864. The first Medical Register was 
 issued in July, 1859. In 1862 the council was in- 
 corporated by parliament, and authorised to prepare 
 and sell a new Pharmacopoeia, which was published 
 as the "British Pharmacopoeia," in 1864. New 
 editions have appeared since. 
 
 MEDICI FAMILY, the restorers of litera- 
 ture and the fine arts in Italy, were chiefs or 
 signori of the republic of Florence from 1434, in 
 which year Cosmo de' Medici, who had been 
 banished from the republic, was recalled and made 
 its chief; he ruled for thirty years. Lorenzo de' 
 Medici, styled " the Magnificent," and the " Father 
 of Letters," ruled Florence from 1469 to 1492. 
 Giovanni de' Medici (pope Leo X.) was the son of 
 Lorenzo. Roscoe. From 1569 to 1737 the Medici 
 family were hereditary grand dukes of Tuscany 
 {which see). Cattarina de' Medici became queen of 
 France in 1547, and regent in 1550. She plotted 
 with the duke of Alva to destroy the Protestants 
 in 1565. 
 
 MEDICINE, see Physic, and Physicians. 
 
 MEDINA (Arabia Deserta), famous for the 
 tomb of Mahomet, in a large mosque, lighted by 
 rich lamps. Medina was called the City of the 
 Prophet, because here Mahomet was protected when 
 he tied from Mecca, 15 July, 622 ; see Hegira. 
 Medina was taken by the Wababees in 1804 ; re- 
 taken by the pacha of Egypt, 1818. 
 
 MEDINA DE RIO SECO (Valladolid, 
 Spain). Here Bessieres defeated the Spaniards 
 15 July, 1808. 
 
 MEDIOLANUM, see Milan. 
 
 MEEANEE. The Beloochees, amounting to 
 30,000 infantry, with 15 guns and 5000 cavalry, 
 posted in a foi-midable position at Meeanee, were 
 defeated with great loss on 17 Feb. 1843, by lieut.- 
 gen. sir Charles Napier, with 2600 men of all 
 arms. 
 
 MEERUT (near Delhi). Here the Indian 
 mutiny began, 10 May, 1857; sec India. 
 
 MEG^ERA, se« Wreck*, 1871. 
 
 MEGARA, a city of ancient Greece, was sub- 
 dued by the Athenians in the 8th century B.C. 
 Pericles suppressed a revolt, 445 B.C. The Mega- 
 rians founded Byzantium 657 M.c. and sent a second 
 colony, 628 B.C. The Megarian (Eristic or disputa- 
 tious) school of philosophy was founded by Euclid 
 and Stilpo, natives of Megara. 
 
 MEHADPORE orMAHEDI>ORE (W.India). 
 Here sir Thomas Hislop and sir John Malcolm 
 defeated the Mahrattas under Holkar,2 i Dec. 1817. 
 
 MEISTERSINGERS, see Minnesingers. 
 
 MELANESIA, South West Pacific Isles. The 
 rev. J. C. Patteson (son of sir John), born 1827, was 
 consecrated missionary bishop of Melanesia. Ho 
 and the rev. J. Atkin were murdered »t the isle of 
 Santa Cruz, one of the Queen Charlotte group, by the 
 natives, Sept. 1871, it is supposed in revenge for 
 the kidnapping natives for slaves for Queensland 
 and the Fiji isles, a measure which the bishop 
 himself strenuously opposed. 
 
 MELAZZO (W. Sicily). Here Garibaldi, on 
 20, 21 July, i860, defeated the Neapolitans under 
 general Bosco, who lost about 600 men ; Garibaldi's 
 loss being 167. The latter entered Messina; and 
 on 30 July a convention was signed, by which it 
 was settled that the Neapolitan troops were to 
 quit Sicily. They held the citadel of Messina till 
 13 March, 1861. 
 
 MELBOURNE (Australia) capital of Victoria 
 (which see). It was founded by J. P. Fawkener, 
 29 Aug. 1835 ; and laid out as a town by order of 
 sir R. Bourke, in April, 1837. The first land sale 
 took place in June, and speculation continued till 
 it caused wide-spread insolvency, in 1841-2. See 
 Victoria. 
 
 Made a municipal corporation, 1842 ; a bishopric . 
 
 First legislative assembly of Victoria meets . 
 
 Gold found in great abundance about 80 miles from 
 Melbourne in the autumn of 1851, and immense 
 numbers of emigrants flocked there in conse- 
 quence, causing an enormous rise in the prices of 
 provisions and clothing 
 
 Population 23,000 in 1851 ; about 100,000 end of . 
 
 The city greatly improved with public buildings, 
 handsome shops, <fec 
 
 The Victoria bank, Ballarat, broken open, and 
 14,300?. in money and 200 ounces in gold dust 
 carried off [one of the robbers was taken in Eng- 
 land, sent back to Melbourne, and there tried 
 and hanged-] 8 Oct. 
 
 Mouster meeting held at Ballarat respecting the 
 collection of the gold licences, followed by riots, 
 during which the Southern Cross flag was raised ; 
 intervention of the military ; 26 rioters and three 
 soldiers killed, and many wounded . 30 Nov. 
 
 The mayor comes to London to congratulate the 
 queen on the marriage of the princess royal 
 
 Intercolonial exhibition opened . . .25 Oct. 
 
 Arrival of the duke of Edinburgh . . 23 Nov. 
 
 Great telescope set up at the Observatory early in 
 
 Theatre royal burnt . . . .19 March, 
 See Victoria. 
 
 1847 
 1852 
 
 1852 
 1853 
 
 1854 
 
 1866 
 1867 
 
 1872 
 
 MELBOURNE ADMINISTRATIONS. 
 
 On the retirement of earl Grey, 9 July, 1834, 
 viscount Melbourne * became first minister of the 
 crown, 16 July. When viscount Althorp became 
 earl Spencer, on his father's decease, Nov. same 
 year, lord Melbourne waited on the king to receive 
 his majesty's command as to the appointment of a 
 new chancellor of the Exchequer, when his maj< stv 
 said he considered the administration at an end". 
 Sir Robert Peel succeeded, hut was compelled to 
 resign in 1835, and lord Melbourne returned to 
 office. His administration finally terminated, 30 Aug. 
 1841, sir Robert Peel again coming into power ; see 
 ■Administrations. 
 
 first administration, July, 1834 ; resigned 
 Nov. 1834. 
 Viscount Melbourne, fi rst lord of the treasury. 
 Marquis of Lansdowne, lord president. 
 Earl Mtdgrave, privy seal. 
 Viscount Althorp, chancellor of the exchequer. 
 Viscount Duncannon, viscount Palmerston, and T. Spring 
 Rice (afterwards lord Monteagle), home, foreign, and 
 colonial secretaries. 
 
 * IV111. Lamb, born in 1779; became M.P. for West- 
 minster, 1812; secretary for Ireland, 1827; succeeded his 
 father as viscount Melbourne, 1828 ; died, 24 Nov. 1848. 
 
MELEGNANO. 
 
 437 
 
 MENTANA. 
 
 Lord Auckland, admiralty. 
 
 Mr. Charles Grant (afterwards lord Glenelg), and Mr. C. 
 
 P. Thomson (afterwards lord Sydenham), boards of 
 
 control and trade. 
 Lord John Russell, paym,aster of the forces. 
 Lord Brougham, lord chancellor. 
 Sir John Hobhouse, Mr. Ellice, marquis of Conyngham, 
 
 Mr. Littleton, &C. 
 
 SECOND ADMINISTRATION, April, 1835. 
 
 Viscount Melbourne, first lord of the treasury. 
 
 Marquis of Lansdowne, lord president. 
 
 Viscount Duncannon, privy seal, and woods and forests 
 
 (succeeded by earl of Clarendon, Jan. 1840). 
 T. Spring Rice, chancellor of the exchequer (succeeded by 
 
 Francis T. Baring, Aug. 1840). 
 Lord John Russell, home secretary (succeeded by marquis 
 
 of Normanby, Aug. 1839). 
 Viscount Palmerston, foreign secretary. 
 Lord Glenelg, colonial secretary (succeeded by marquis 
 
 of Normanby, Feb. 1839 ; lord John Russell, Aug. 1839). 
 Viscount Howick, secretary-at-war (succeeded by T. B. 
 
 Macaulay, Sept. 1839). 
 Lord Auckland, admiralty (succeeded by earl of Minto, 
 
 Sept. 1835). 
 Sir John C. Hobhouse, board of control. 
 C. Poulett Thomson, board of trade (succeeded by Henry 
 
 Labouchere, Aug. 1839). 
 Lord Holland, chancellor of duchy of Lancaster (succeeded 
 
 by earl of Clarendon, Oct. 1840). 
 The chancellorship in commission ; sir C. Pepys (after- 
 wards lord Cottenham), became lord chancellor, Jan. 
 
 1836. 
 
 MELEGNANO, see Marignano. 
 
 MELFI (Apulia, S. Italy) was nearly destroyed 
 by an earthquake, 14 Aug. 1851 : about 600 persons 
 perished. 
 
 MELODRAMA originated with or was intro- 
 duced by Thomas Holcroft in 1793. 
 
 MELORA or MELORIA, a small isle in the 
 Mediterranean, near which the Pisan fleet defeated 
 the Genoese, in 1241, capturing many bishops going 
 with much treasure to a council. The total destruc- 
 tion of the Pisan fleet on 6 Aug. 1284, by the 
 Genoese near the same place, after a most sanguinary 
 conflict, was considered to be the just punishment 
 of their impiety. 
 
 MELOS (now Milo), one of the Cyclades in the 
 iEgean sea, colonised by the Spartans about 11 16 
 B.C. During the Peloponnesian war the Melians 
 adhered to Sparta, till the island was captured, 
 after seven months' siege, by the Athenians, who 
 massacred all the men and sold the women and 
 children as slaves, 416 B.C. 
 
 MEMEL, an important commercial port in 
 Prussia, built about 1279. It was taken by the 
 Teutonic knights, about 1328. It has suffered much 
 by fire, and was almost totally destroyed 4 Oct. 
 1854. The loss was estimated at 1,100,000/. 
 
 MEMNONEIUM or RAMESEION (Thebes, 
 Egypt), the tomb of Osymandyas, according to 
 Diodorus, now considered to be that of Eameses III., 
 1618B.C. 
 
 MEMORY, see Mnemonics. 
 
 MEMPHIS, an ancient city of Egypt ("of 
 which the very ruins are stupendous"), is said, to 
 have been built by Menes, 3890 B.C. ; or by Misraim, 
 2188 B.C. It was restored by Septimius Severus, 
 a.d. 202. The (invasion of Cambyses, 525 B.C., 
 began the ruin of Memphis, and the founding of 
 Alexandria, 332, completed it. In the 7th century, 
 under the dominion of the Saracens, it fell into 
 decay. — Memphis, Tennessee, U. S., on the Missis- 
 sippi, was taken from the confederates by the 
 federals after a severe conflict, 6 June, 1862. 
 
 MENAI STRAIT (between the Welsh coast, 
 and the isle of Anglesey). Suetonius Paulinus, 
 when he invaded Anglesey, transported his troops 
 across this strait in flat-bottomed boats, while the 
 cavalry swam over on horseback, and attacked the 
 Druids in their last retreat. Their horrid practice 
 of sacrificing their captives, and their opposition so 
 incensed the Eoman general, that he gave the 
 Britons no quarter, throwing all that escaped from 
 that battle into fires which they had prepared for 
 the destruction of himself and his army, 61. — In 
 crossing this strait, a ferry-boat was lost, and fifty 
 persons, chiefly Irish, 4 Dec. 1785. The road from 
 London to Holyhead has long been regarded as the 
 highway from the British metropolis to Dublin; 
 Mr. Telford was applied to by the government to 
 perfect this route by the London and Holyhead 
 mail-coach road, which he did by erecting beautiful 
 suspension bridges over the river Conway and the 
 Menai Strait, commenced in July, 1818, finished in 
 July, 1825, opened 30 Jan. 1826. The Britannia 
 tubular bridge over the Menai was constructed by 
 Stephenson and Eairbairn in 1849-50 ; see Tubular 
 Bridges. 
 
 MENDICANT FRIARS. Several religious 
 orders commenced alms-begging in the 13th century, 
 in the pontificate of Innocent III. Ihey spread 
 over Europe, and formed many communities ; but 
 at length by a general council, held by Gregory X. 
 at Lyons, in 1272, were reduced to four orders- 
 Dominicans, Franciscans, Carmelites, and Augus- 
 tines. The Capuchins and others branched off; 
 see Franciscans, &c. 
 
 MENDICITY SOCIETY (Red Lion-square, 
 London), was established in 1818 for the suppression 
 of public begging, and other impositions. Tickets 
 received from the society are given by subscribers 
 to beggars, who obtain relief at the society's house, 
 if deserving. The society has caused above 23,000 
 vagrants to be convicted as impostors. In 1857, 
 54,074 meals, in i860, 42,912, and in 1865, 52,137 
 were distributed. In 1857, 3785, and in 1865, 3809 
 begging letters were investigated. See Poor. The 
 society has been much aided by the action of the 
 charity organization society ; established in 1870. 
 
 MENDOZA, in the Argentine republic, ncaily 
 destroyed by an earthquake, one of the most awful 
 recorded, 20 March, 1861 : above 7000 persons 
 perished. 
 
 MENIPPEE, see Satire. 
 
 MENSURATION. The properties of conic 
 sections were discovered by Archimedes, to whom 
 the chief advancement in mensuration may ba 
 attributed. He also determined the ratio of spheres, 
 spheroids, &c, about 218 B.C. ; see Arithmetic. 
 
 MENTANA, (near Monte Eotondo, in the old 
 papal states) . Here Garibaldi and his volunteers, 
 after having intrenched his positions at Monte 
 Eotondo and Mentana on their march towards 
 Tivoli, on Sunday, 3 Nov. 1867, were totally 
 defeated by the pontifical and French troops under 
 generals Kanzlar and Polhes, after a severe con- 
 flict, in which general Failly said "the Chassepot 
 rifles did wonders." There were about 5000 men 
 on each side, but the Garibaldians were very badly 
 armed. The loss of the papal and French troops 
 was about 200 killed and wounded ; that of Garibaldi 
 about 800. Garibaldi crossed the Italian frontier, 
 and was arrested at Correse, and eventually sent to 
 Caprera (about 25 Nov.). See Rome. 
 
MENTZ. 
 
 438 
 
 MESSINA. 
 
 MENTZ or MAYENCE (S. "W. Germany), the 
 Roman Moquntiacum, built about 13 B.C. The 
 archbishopric was founded by Boniface, 745. Many 
 diets have been held here ; and here John Faust 
 established a printing press, about 1440. A festival 
 in honour of John Guttenburg was celebrated here 
 in 1837. See Printing. Mentz was given up to 
 the Prussians, 26 Aug. 1866. 
 
 MENU, INSTITUTES OF, the very ancient 
 code of India. Sir Win. Jones, w r ho translated them 
 into English (1794), considers their date should be 
 placed between Homer (about 962 n.c.) and the 
 Roman Twelve Tables (about 449 B.C.). 
 
 MERCANTILE MAEINE ACT was passed 
 in Aug. 1850, and amended Aug. 1851. 
 
 MERCATOR'S CHARTS, said to have been 
 constructed by Gerard Mcrcator or Kaufl'mann and 
 published 1556, and applied to navigation by Edward 
 Wright about 1599. 
 
 . MERCHANDISE MARKS ACT, passed 
 in 1862 to punish forgeries of trade-marks. 
 
 MERCHANT ADVENTURERS' COM- 
 PANY, established by the duke of Brabant in 
 1296, was extended to England in Edward III.'s 
 reign, and was formed into a corporation in 1564. — 
 The Merchant-Tailors, a rich company of the 
 city of London, of which many kings have been 
 members, were so called after the admission of 
 Henry VII. into their company, 1501, but were in- 
 corporated in 1466. Their school was founded in 
 1561. Stow. 
 
 MERCHANT SHIPPING ACT of 1854 
 was amended by acts passed in 1862, 1867, 1871 and 
 1872. 
 
 MERCHANTS were protected by Magna 
 Charta, 1215, and by many statutes. See Acton 
 Burncl. An attempt made by queen Anne's ministry 
 to exclude merchants from sitting in the house of 
 commons in 1711, failed. 
 
 MERCIA, see under Britain. 
 
 MERCURY, the planet nearest the sun, and 
 the smallest known to the ancients. The last 
 transit of Mercury over the sun's disk, of rare occur- 
 rence and first observed by Gassendi, 1631, was well 
 observed 5 Nov. 1868. See Calomel and Quick- 
 silver. 
 
 MERCY, ORDER OF (in France), was estab- 
 lished with the object of accomplishing the redemp- 
 tion of Christian captives, by John de Matha in 
 1 198. Henault. Another order was, formed by 
 Pierre Nolasque in Spain, 1223. 
 
 MERIDA (Spain), a town in Estremadura 
 (built by the Romans), was taken by the French, 
 Jan. i8r 1. Near this town, at Arroyos Molinos, 
 the British army under general (afterwards lord) 
 Hill defeated the French under general Girard, 
 after a severe engagement, 28 Oct. 1811. The 
 British took Merida from the French in 1812, 
 general Hill leading the combined forces of English 
 and Spanish troops. 
 
 MERINO SHEEP, imported into England 
 from Spain, 1788, are thought to be descendants of 
 English sheep taken to Spain as part of the dowry 
 of John of Gaunt' s daughter Katheriue, 1390. 
 
 MEROE, an ancient city and country of inner 
 Africa, near the sources of "the Nile, said to have 
 nourished under sacerdotal government in the time 
 of Herodotus, about 450 B.C. 
 
 MEROVINGIANS, the first race of French 
 kings, 418-752 ; see France and Mayors. 
 
 MERRIMAC, see United States, 1862. 
 
 MERRY- ANDREW. The name is said to 
 have been first given to Andrew Borde, a physician, 
 who lived in the reign of Henry VIII., and who, on 
 some occasions, on account of his facetious manners, 
 appeared at court, 1547. 
 
 MERTHYR-TYDVIL (Glamorganshire). 
 Riots commenced here, 3 June, 1831, and continued 
 for several days ", many persons were killed and 
 wounded; see Coal Mine Accidents, p. 163. 
 
 MERTON (Surrey). At an abbey here, the 
 barons under Henry III., 23 Jan. 1236, held a 
 parliament which enacted the Provisions of Merton, 
 the most ancient body of laws next utter Magna 
 Charta. They were repealed in 1863 ; see Bastards. 
 
 MESMERISM. Frederick Anthony Mcsmer, 
 a German physician, of Merseburg, published his 
 doctrines in 1766, contending, in a thesis on 
 planetary influence, that the heavenly bodies dif- 
 fused through the universe a subtle fluid which acts 
 on the nervous system of animated beings. Quitting 
 Vienna for Paris, in 1778, he gained numerous 
 proselytes and much money. A committee of phy- 
 sicians and philosophers investigated his pretensions, 
 and Bailly, in a paper drawn up in 1784, exposed 
 the futility of animal magnetism. Mesmerism 
 excited attention again about 1848, when Miss 
 Harriet Martineau and others announced their 
 belief in it. In 1859, the Mesmeric Infirmary 
 issued its tenth annual report, archbishop "Whatcly 
 being president, and the earl of Carlisle and Mr. 
 Monckton Milnes (since lord Houghton) among the 
 vice-presidents. 
 
 MESSALIANS, a sect professing to adhere to 
 the letter of the gospel, about 310, refused to work, 
 quoting this passage, " Labour not for the food 
 that perisheth." 
 
 MESSENIA (now Maura-Mat ra), in the 
 Peloponnesus, a kingdom founded by Polycaon, 
 1499 B.C. It had long sanguinary wars with Sparta, 
 and once contained a hundred cities. It was at 
 first governed by kings ; after its restoration to 
 power in the Peloponnesus it formed an inferior 
 republic, under the protection first of the Thebans, 
 and afterwards of the Macedonians. 
 
 The first Messenian war began 743 b.c. ; was occa- 
 sioned by violence ottered to some Spartan 
 women in a temple of devotion common to both 
 nations ; the king of Sparta being killed in his 
 efforts to defend the females. Eventually, Ithome 
 was taken, and the Messenians became slaves to B.C. 
 the conquerors 724 
 
 The second war, to throw off the Spartan yoke, com- 
 menced about 685, ending in the defeat of the 
 Messenians, who lied to Sicily 668 
 
 The third war 466-455 
 
 MESSIAH, synonymous with Christ " the 
 anointed," foretold by Daniel ix. 25, about 538 B.C. 
 "We have found the Messias, which is, being in- 
 terpreted, the Christ." John i. 41. "The Mes- 
 siah," Handel's greatest oratorio, composed by 
 him in twenty-three days (22 Aug. -14 Sept. 1741), 
 was first performed at Dublin, 13 April, 1 742, the 
 receipts being given by him to the charities of that 
 city. 
 
 MESSINA (Sicily), so named by the Samians, 
 who seized this city, then called Zancle, 671 B.C. 
 It was seized by the Mamertini (which see), about 
 2S1 B.C. It belonged for many ages to the Roman 
 
METALS. 
 
 439 
 
 METHYL. 
 
 empire ; was taken by the Saracens, about a.d. 829. 
 Priestley. Eoger the Norman took it from them by 
 surprise, about 1072. 
 
 Revolts against Charles of Anjou, and is succoured 
 
 by Peter of Arragon 1282 
 
 Revolts in favour of Louis XIV. of France, 1676 ; 
 
 the Spaniards punish it severely .... 1678 
 Almost ruined by an earthquake and eruption of 
 
 Etna 1693 
 
 Nearly depopulated by a plague .... 1740 
 Half destroyed by an earthquake . . . . 1783 
 Head-quarters of the British forces in Sicily, prior to 1814 
 An insurrection here subdued ... 7 Feb. 1848 
 Garibaldi enters Messina after his victory at Melazzo 
 
 20-21 July, i860 
 The citadel surrenders to Cialdini . . 13 March, 1861 
 
 METALS. The metals and metalloids are now 
 about fifty in number. Tubal-Cain is mentioned 
 as an "instructor of every artificer in brass and 
 iron." (Gen. iv.) Moses and Homer speak of the 
 seven metals, and Virgil of the melting of steel. 
 The Phoenicians had great skill in working metals. 
 Bunsen and Kirchhoff's method of chemical analy- 
 sis by means of the spectrum has added caesium, 
 rubidium, thallium, and indium to the known 
 metals. See Elements, Mines, Iron, and the other 
 metals. 
 
 METAMOEPHISTS in the 15th century 
 affirmed that Christ's natural body, with which he 
 ascended into heaven, was wholly deified. 
 
 METAPHYSICS, the science of abstract 
 reasoning, or that which contemplates the existence 
 of things without relation to matter. The term, 
 literally denoting "after physics," originated from 
 these words having been put at the head of certain 
 essays of Aristotle, which follow his treatise on 
 Physics. Mackintosh. Modern metaphysics arose 
 in the 15th century— the period when an extra- 
 ordinary impulse was given to the study of the 
 human mind in Europe, commonly called the "re- 
 vival of learning." Hobbes, Cudworth, S. T. Cole- 
 ridge, Dugald Stuart, and sir "VV. Hamilton, were 
 eminent British metaphysicians, and Descartes, 
 Pascal, Kant, Schelling, and Fichte, foreign ones. 
 See Philosophy. 
 
 METAURUS, a river in central Italy, where 
 Hasdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, was defeated 
 and slain, 207 B.C., when marching with abundant 
 reinforcement. The Romans were led by Livius 
 and Claudius Nero, the consuls. The latter com- 
 manded the head of Hasdrubal to be thrown into 
 his brother's camp. The victory saved Borne. 
 
 METEMPSYCHOSIS, a doctrine attributed 
 to Pythagoras, about 528 B.C., asserts the trans- 
 migration of the soul from one body to another. 
 It is also ascribed to the Egyptians, who would 
 eat no animal food lest they should devour the 
 body into which the soul of a deceased friend had 
 passed. They had also an idea that so long as the 
 body of the .deceased was kept entire, the soul 
 would not transmigrate ; and therefore embalmed 
 the dead. See Buddhism. 
 
 METEOROGRAPH, an apparatus for the 
 invention of which father Secchi of Rome received 
 a prize at the Paris International Exhibition, July, 
 1867. It is self-acting, and registers the various 
 changes of the atmosphere in the form of a dia- 
 gram. 
 
 METEOROLOGY (from the Greek meteoros, 
 aerial), the science which treats of the phenomena 
 which have their origin in the air, such as rain, 
 
 lightning, meteors, fogs, &c. Bacon, Boyle, and 
 Franklin wrote on the subject. 
 
 John Dalton's essay on meteorology appeared in 1793, 
 
 Luke Howard's work on the cloud; appeared in 1802, 
 and his " Barometrographia " in 1848. See ClmuU. 
 
 Sir W. Reed published his work on the " law of storms " 
 in 1838. The works of Daniell (1845), Kasmtz (1845), 
 Mtiller (1847), aiia Buchan (1867) are esteemed. 
 
 Mr. James Glaisher, the secretary of the Meteorological 
 Society (established in 1850 and chartered in 1866) is a 
 most eminent meteorologist. By his exertions the ap- 
 paratus at Greenwich was erected ; and meteorology, 
 has appeared in the " Greenwich Observations " since 
 1848. See Balloon — Scientific Ascents. 
 
 Meteorological observatories have been erected in all 
 parts of the globe. 
 
 The Meteorological department of the board of trade, es- 
 tablished in 1855, under admiral Fitzroy, commenced 
 the publication of reports in 1857. The admiral pub- 
 lished his "Weather-Book" in 1863. His exertions 
 are said to have overworked his brain ; and on 30 
 April, 1865, he died by his own hand. The meteoro- 
 logical office was soon after placed under the direction 
 of Mr. Robert H. Scott. It has issued apparatus and 
 instruction books to captains of ships and established 
 observatories in many places in the empire. 
 
 The Kew meteorological observatory given to the British 
 Association in 'April, i860 : was purchased and pre- 
 sented to the Royal Society by Mr. J. P. Gassiot, 1871. 
 
 At the recommendation of M. Le Verrier and admiral 
 Fitzroy, meteorological information, obtained by the 
 telegraph from the principal places in the United King- 
 dom, has been transmitted daily to Paris, and thence 
 to other parts of Europe since 1 Sept. i860. 
 
 Storm-warnings first issued in Holland through M, 
 Buys Ballot, i860. 
 
 Storm-warnings first sent to the coast by the Board of 
 Trade, 6 Feb. ; and first published 31 July, 1861 ; sus- 
 pended, 7 Dec. 1866 ; restoration proposed, Nov. 1867 ; 
 declared, inadvisable. 
 
 Daily international bulletin of the imperial observatory 
 at Paris, under the direction of M. Le Verrier, first 
 published, Nov. 1862. 
 
 " Daily weather charts " first issued by the Meteorological 
 Office, 11 March, 1872. 
 
 See Barometer, Thermometer, &c. 
 
 METEORS, Luminous, include shooting 
 
 stars,- fire-balls, and falling stones or aerolites. 
 They were described by Halley, Wallis, and others 
 early in the 17th century. The periodicity of the 
 star showers about the 10th of August (termed in 
 the middle ages St. Lawrence's tears) was dis- 
 covered separately by Quetelet, 1836, and by Her- 
 rick in 1837. The following are remarkable epochs 
 for their annual return : — 2 Jan.; 29 July; 3 and 
 9-12 Aug. ; 8-14 Nov. ; 11 Dec. P.P. Greg. See 
 [August. 
 
 The magnificent continuous star-shower of 14 Nov. i?66, 
 had been predicted by professor Newton some time 
 previously. A fine display occurred on the night of 
 13 Nov. 1868, in the United States. A similar phenome- 
 non had been witnessed by Humboldt at Cumana 
 (S. A.), 12 Nov. 1799 ; and by Dr. D. Olmsted, at New- 
 haven (U. S.), 13 Nov. 1833. They were well observed in 
 Britain and Europe, 27 Nov. 1872. 
 
 AErolites, falling-stones, accompanying meteors, are 
 found in our museums. They contain iron, nickel, and 
 other minerals. 
 
 METHODISTS, see Wesleyans. 
 
 METHUEN TREATY, a treaty for regula- 
 ting the commerce between Great Britain and Portu- 
 gal, made 27 Dec. 1703, concluded by Paul Methuen, 
 our ambassador at Lisbon. It greatly favoured the 
 importation of port wine into this country by 
 lowering the duty, to the discouragement of French 
 wines. It was abrogated in 1834. 
 
 METHYL, a colourless inodorous gas, a com- 
 pound of hydrogen and carbon, obtained in the 
 
METHYLATED SPIRITS. 
 
 440 
 
 METROPOLITAN. 
 
 free state first by Frankland and Kolbe separately, 
 in 1849. 
 
 METHYLATED SPIRITS. By an act 
 
 passed in 1855 a mixture of spirits of wine with 10 
 per cent, of its bulk of wood-naphtha, or methylic 
 alcohol, is allowed to be made duty free for use in 
 the arts and manufactures, not less that 450 gal- 
 lons being made at one time. In 1861 an act was 
 passed permitting the methylated spirits to be re- 
 tailed by licence. 
 
 METONIC CYCLE, a period of 19 years, or 
 
 6940 days, at the end of which the changes of the 
 moon fall on the same days ; see Calippic Period. 
 
 METRIC SYSTEM. Before the revolution 
 there was no uiformity in French weights and mea- 
 sures. On 8 May, 1790, the constituent assembly 
 charged the Academy of Sciences with the organisa- 
 tion of a better system. The committee named for 
 the purpose by the academy included the names of 
 Berthollet, Borda, Delambre, Lagrange, Laplace, 
 Mecbain, and Prony. Delambre and Mechain were 
 charged with the measurement of an arc of the meri- 
 dian between Dunkirk and Barcelona, and from their 
 calculations the mitre, which is equal to a ten-mil- 
 lionth part of the distance between the poles and tbe 
 equator (3'28o8 English feet) was made the unit of 
 length and the base of the system by law on 7 April, 
 1795. The system was completed in 1 799, and made 
 by law the only legal one on 2 Nov. 1801. A decree 
 on 12 Feb. accommodated the old measures to the 
 new system ; but on 4 July, 1837, it was decreed 
 that after 1 Jan. 1840, the metric and decimal 
 system in its primitive simplicity should be used in 
 all business transactions. The example of France 
 has been followed by the greater part of Europe, 
 and will probably in time be adopted in the British 
 empire. 
 
 Unit of Surface, ccniiare=a. square metre=i-iQ6o 
 
 English yard (a square decametre or oj-e=ioo square 
 
 metres). 
 Unit of Volume or Solidity, stere—a. cubit metre. 
 Unit of Capacity, iitre=a. cubic decimetre (or iotli of a 
 
 metre)=i 76077 English pint. 
 Unit of Weight, grnmmc=we\ght of a cubic centimetre 
 
 (the 100th part of a metre) of distilled water=o's6438 
 
 English drachm. 
 Unit of Money, the franc, a piece of silver weighing 5 
 
 grammes. 
 The multiples of these units are expressed by Greek 
 
 numerals (deca-, 10 ; hekato-, 100 ; kilo-, 1000 ; myria-, 
 
 10,000. The divisors are expressed by Latin numerals 
 
 (deci-, 10 ; centi-, 100 ; inilli-, 1000). 
 
 Sir John Wrottesley brought the subject before 
 parliament 25 Feb. 1824 
 
 A commission of inquiry appointed at the instance 
 of the chancellor of the exchequer, Mr. Spring 
 Rice (since lord Monteagle) . . . May, 1838 
 
 Another commission was appointed (both consisted 
 of eminent scientific men, and reported strongly 
 in favour of the change) . . . 20 June, 1843 
 
 A committee of the house of commons reported to 
 the same effect 1 Aug. 1853 
 
 Mr. Gladstone, admitting the advantages of the 
 system, thought its introduction premature. 
 
 The Decimal Association was formed for the pur- 
 pose of obtaining the adoption of the system, 
 
 June, 1854. 
 
 Another commission for inquiry was appointed, 
 consisting of lords Monteagle and Overstone, and 
 Mr. J. G. Hubbard, who published a preliminary 
 report (with evidence), but expressed no opinion", 
 
 Nov. 1855 
 
 An International Decimal Association formed in . 
 
 The decimal currency adopted in Canada 1 Jan. 1858 
 
 The new weights and measures bill (an approxima- 
 tion to the decimal system) was passed . .1862 
 
 An act passed "to render permissive tbe use of 
 the metric system of weights and measures," 
 
 July, 1864 
 
 A bill for the compulsory adoption of the metric 
 system rejected by the commons . . 26 July, 1871 
 
 Meeting at the Mansion-house, London, advocating 
 its adoption 17 Jan. 1872 
 
 International Congress to promote the universal 
 adoption of the metric system . . 24 Sept. ,, 
 
 METRONOME, to regulate time in the per- 
 formance of music, invented by John Maeizel, 
 1812, was patented in England, 5 Dec. 1815. 
 
 METROPOLIS of Great Britain in- 
 cludes the cities of London and Westminster, and 
 the boroughs of Southwark, Finsburv, Maryle- 
 bone, Tower-Hamlets, Hackney, Lambeth, and 
 Chelsea. The Metropolis Management Act, 18 & 19 
 Vict. c. 122, was passed in 1855 ; see London. 
 
 METROPOLIS ROADS ACT (passed in 
 1863) transferred the management of certain roads 
 north of the Thames from the commissioners to the 
 parishes, and abolished certain turnpikes and toll- 
 
 METROPOLIS WATER ACT, 1852, 
 amended, 187 1. 
 
 METROPOLITAN (from the Greek metro- 
 polis), a title given at the council of Nice, 325, to 
 certain bishops who had jurisdiction over others in 
 a province. The dignity is said to have arisen 
 in the 2nd century, through the dissentient bishops 
 in a district referring to one bishop of superior 
 intellect. 
 
 METROPOLITAN BOARD of WORKS 
 
 was established by 18 & 19 Vict. c. 120 (1855), 
 amended in 1862. It held its first meeting and 
 elected Mr. (aftds. sir) John Thwaites as chairman, 
 22 Dec. 1855. The office is in Spring-gardens. In 
 1858, its powers were extended in order to effect the 
 purification of the Thames by constructing a new 
 main drainage for the metropolis. The board was 
 authorised to raise a loan and levy ^d. in the pound 
 on the property in the metropolis. It was also 
 authorised to construct the Thames Embankment. 
 In 1 861 the board received nearly a million pounds, 
 and expended 900,000/. ; see Sewage, and Thame*. 
 Sir John Thwaites, the chairman, died 8 Aug. 1870, 
 aged 55. Much discussion ensued respecting the 
 appointment of his successor ; Mr. Bruce, the home 
 secretary, naving intimated the probability of the 
 office being abolished by parliament, with other 
 changes, ii Aug. Col. James Macnaghten Hogg, a 
 member of the board, was elected chairman for one 
 year, 18 Nov. 1870. The board was empowered to 
 borrow money by acts passed 1869, 1870, and 1871. 
 Its powers extend over 117 square miles, and 
 3,266,287 persons (1873). 
 
 METROPOLITAN BUILDING ACTS, 
 
 see Building. 
 
 METROPOLITAN CATTLE MARKET, 
 
 inaugurated by the lord mayor and corporation on 
 "Wednesday, 13 July, 1855, in presence of the prince 
 consort. It is situated in Copenhagen-fields, an 
 elevated site north of London, occupying an area of 
 about fifteen acres, larger by nine acres than Smith- 
 field, and capable of containing 30,000 sheep, 6400 
 bullocks, 1400 calves, and 900 pigs. In the centre 
 is a circular building, let to bankers and others 
 having business connected with graziers and cattle- 
 agents. Within and around the market are erected 
 several large taverns. A place is set apart for 
 slaughtering animals, with approved appliances for 
 purposes of health, by ventilation, sewerage, &c. ; 
 there is also a place for haystands. Sales com- 
 
METROPOLITAN. 
 
 441 
 
 METZ. 
 
 menced on Friday, 15 June, 1855. — An act for 
 establishing a meat and poultry market in Smith- 
 field {which see) was passed in i860. 
 
 METROPOLITAN CONVALESCENT 
 INSTITUTION, FIEE BEIGADE, and 
 HOUSELESS POOE. See Convalescent, Fire 
 Brigade, and Houseless Poor. 
 
 METEOPOLITAN DISTEICT ASY- 
 LUM BOAED, instituted by parliament in 1867, 
 proceeded to erect hospitals at Haverstock-hill, 
 Caterham, &c, 1868, causing much discontent in 
 several parishes. The asylum for idiots at Leaves- 
 den, near "Watford, Herts, inaugurated 27 Sept. 
 1870. 
 
 METEOPOLITAN MEAT MAEKET, 
 
 Smithfield, erected in accordance with an act passed 
 in i860, was inaugurated by the lord mayor, James 
 Lawrence, 24 Nov. 1868, and opened for business, 
 1 Dec. 
 
 METEOPOLITAN MUNICIPAL ASSO- 
 CIATION met 11 Dec. 1866. 
 
 METEOPOLITAN POOE ACT, "for the 
 establishment in the metropolis of asylums for the 
 sick, insane, and other classes of the poor," passed 
 29 March, 1867 ; was amended in 1869; see Poor. 
 
 METEOPOLITAN EAILWAY {Under- 
 ground), between Paddington and Victoria-street, 
 near Holborn. The act for it passed in 1853; the 
 construction began in the spring of i860; and it 
 was opened for traffic, 10 Jan. 1863. Many serious 
 difficulties were overcome with great skill and 
 energy by the engineer, John Fowler, and the con- 
 tractors, Jay, Smith, and Knight. In the first six 
 months of 1865, there were 7,462,823 passengers. 
 It has been continued to Moorgate-street, and sup- 
 plemented by the Metropolitan Districts Eailway. 
 
 METEOPOLITAN SCHOOL BOAED, 
 
 instituted by the Elementary Education act, 1870, 
 was elected 29 Nov. 1870. It included lord Law- 
 rence, lord Sandon, professor Huxley, Miss Garrett, 
 M.D., and Miss Davies. At its first meeting, 
 15 Dec, lord Lawrence was elected chairman, and 
 Mr. C. Reed, M.P., vice-chairman; and it was de- 
 cided that the chairman should be unpaid at pre- 
 sent. See Education. 
 
 METEOPOLITAN STEEETS ACT 
 
 (30 & 31 Vict. c. 134) " for regulating the traffic in 
 the metropolis, and for making provision for the 
 greater security of persons passing through the 
 streets," passed 20 Aug. 1867. A short act, modi- 
 fying the clauses relating to costermongers and cabs, 
 was passed 7 Dec. 1867. 
 
 METTEAY, see Reformatory Schools. 
 
 METZ, a fortified city in Lorraine, now in the 
 department of the Moselle, N.E. France. It was 
 the Roman Divodunum or Meti, capital of the 
 Mediomatrici, a powerful Gaulish tribe, and after- 
 wards of the kingdom of Austrasia, or Metz, in the 
 6th century. It was made a free imperial city, 985. 
 It was besieged by Charles VII. of France for seven 
 months in 1444, and was ransomed for 100,000 
 florins ; was captured by Heniy II., 10 April, 1552, 
 and successfully defended by the duke of Guise 
 against the emperor Charles V. with an army of 
 100,000 men, 31 Oct. 1552 to 15 Jan. 1553- Metz 
 was ceded to France by the peace of Westphalia, 
 24 Oct. 1648, and was fortified by Vauban and Belle- 
 isle. On 28 July, 1870, the emperor Napoleon III. 
 arrived at Metz and assumed the chief command. 
 
 After the disastrous defeats at "Woerth and Forbach, 
 on 6 Aug. the whole French army (except the corps- 
 of MacMahon, De Failly, and Douay) was concen- 
 trated here, 10, 11 Aug., and by delay was hemmed 
 in by the Germans. Marshal Bazaine assumed the 
 chief command, 8 Aug. The emperor departed with 
 the vanguard, which crossed the Moselle early on 
 14 Aug. 
 
 1. Battle of Pange or Courcelles, gained by the 
 
 1st army under Von Steinmetz, after several 
 hours' fighting, with great German loss, 
 
 14 Aug. 1870 
 Bazaine was censured for not advancing on 
 
 15 Aug. „. 
 
 2. Battle of Vionville or Mars-la-Tour, gained by 
 
 the 2nd army under prince Frederick Charles, 
 after twelve hours' fighting. By the unex- 
 pected unmasking of a mitrailleuse battery, 
 Henry, prince of Beuss, and many German, 
 nobles were killed in a few moments. The 
 victory was at first claimed by the French. 
 (This battle, the most sanguinary in the war 
 hitherto, included a Balaclava charge of a 
 
 . German regiment of cavalry upon a French 
 battery, by which it was decimated, but to 
 which the victory was greatly due. Twice as 
 many Germans were killed as at Koniggratz, 
 the killed and wounded being estimated at 
 17,000. The French loss was said to have 
 been equally great) . . . 16 Aug. 
 
 Bazaine masses his troops for a decisive conflict, 
 
 17 Aug. ,y 
 
 3. Battle of Kezonville or Gravelotte, gained by 
 
 the combined 1st and 2nd armies, commanded 
 by the king in person, after twelve hours' 
 fighting. " The most desperate struggle took 
 place on the slopes over Gravelotte, which 
 the Germans gained by nightfall, after re- 
 peated fatal charges ; the fortune of the day 
 being long in suspense. But the right of the 
 French had been outflanked, they fell back 
 fighting to the last, and retired under cover 
 of Metz. The French are said to have lost 
 19,000 ; and the Germans, 25,000." (The king, 
 on the 19th, had not undressed for thirty 
 hours. The carnage is considered to have 
 been unexampled ; a large number of French 
 prisoners were made ; and enormous loss was 
 experienced by the imperial guard. The Ger- 
 man army included Saxons and Hessians), 
 
 18 Aug. „. 
 Bazaine repulsed in a sortie at Courcelles, near Metz 
 
 (he claimed a victory) ... 26 Aug. „ 
 
 His whole army defeated by gen. Manteuffel of the 
 army of prince Frederick Charles, in a battle 
 lasting from the morning of 31 Aug. to noon, 
 
 1 Sept. „ 
 
 Von Steinmetz sent to govern Posen ; prince 
 Frederick Charles sole commander before Metz, 
 
 21 Sept. „ 
 
 Three vigorous but ineffective sallies, 
 
 23, 24, 27 Sept. ,, 
 
 About 100,000 soldiers estimated in Metz, 30 Sept ,» 
 
 Great sortie ; the Germans surprised ; about 40,000 
 French engaged ; they are repulsed after a severe 
 engagement from 3 p.m. till dark ; loss about 2000 
 French and 600 Germans ... 7 Oct. ,,. 
 
 About 600 oxen and 500 sheep captured during a 
 sortie 8 Oct. ,„ 
 
 General Boyer arrives at Versailles to treat for 
 terms of capitulation .... 14 Oct. ,„ 
 
 Metz surrenders with the army, including marshals 
 Bazaine, Canrobert, and Le Boeuf ; 66 generals ; 
 about 6000 officers ; 173,000 men, including the 
 imperial guard ; 400 pieces of artillery ; 100 
 mitrailleuses ; and 53 eagles or standards, 27 Oct. , r 
 
 The capitulation was signed at Frescati by generals 
 Jarras and Stiehle on behalf of the French and 
 German commanders . . . .27 Oct. „. 
 
 General order to the army i ssued by marshal Bazaine, 
 saying that they were " conquered by famine," 
 
 27 Oct. , r 
 Order to the army issued by prince Frederick 
 Charles, recognising their bravery, great obedi- 
 ence, cabnness, cheerfulness, and devotion, 
 
 27 Oct 
 
MEXICO. 
 
 442 
 
 MEXICO. 
 
 The Gentians enter Metz ... 29 Oct. 1870 
 One cause of the fall of Metz was the great army it 
 contained ; it might have been successfully de- 
 fended by 20,000 men. 
 
 MEXICO, anciently Anahuac, N. America, is 
 said to have been conquered by the Aztecs, who 
 founded the city of Mexico about 1325. It was dis- 
 covered in 15 1 7, and conquered by .Fernando Cortez, 
 1519-21 ; explored by Alexander von Humboldt, 
 1799-1804. It is stated that there have been above 
 260 insurrections in Mexico since 1821. Popula- 
 tion (1868), 9,173,052. 
 
 Montezuma emperor 1503 
 
 Cortes lands, 1519; captures the city of Mexico . 1521 
 Mexico constituted a kingdom; Cortes, governor . 1522 
 Meudoza, first viceroy of New Spain, 1530; estab- 
 lishes a mint 1535 
 
 Unsuccessful insurrections of Miguel Hidalgo, 1810; 
 
 of Morelos, 1815 ; ofMina 1817 
 
 Mexico declared independent by the treaty of 
 
 Aquala 23 Aug. 1821 
 
 Augustin Iturbide, president of a provisional junto, 
 Feb. ; Mexico formed into an empire ; the crown 
 declined by Spain ; Iturbide made emperor, May, 1822 
 Compelled to abdicate .... 26 March, 1823 
 Mexican federal republic proclaimed . 4 Oct. ,, 
 Iturbide went to England; returns and endeavours 
 
 to recover his dignity ; shot . . . 19 July, 1824 
 Federal constitution established . . . Oct. ,, 
 Treaty of commerce with Great Britain April, 1825 
 
 Expulsion of the Spaniards decreed . March, 1829 
 
 Spanish expedition against Mexico surrendered, 
 
 26 Sept. ,, 
 Mexican revolution: the president Guerrero de- 
 posed 23 Dec. „ 
 
 -Santa Anna president n May, 1833 
 
 Independence of Mexico recognised by Brazil, 
 
 June, 1830; by Spain .... 28 Dec. 1836 
 Declaration of war against France . . 30 Nov. 1838 
 'This war terminated .... 9 March, 1839 
 "War with the United States . . . 4 June, 1845 
 'The Mexicans defeated at Palo Alto, and at Mata- 
 
 moras 8 May, 1846 
 
 ■Santa Fe captured, 22 Aug. ; and Monterey, 24 Sept, „ 
 Battle of Bueno Vista; the Mexicans defeated by 
 general Taylor, with great loss, after two days' 
 
 fighting 22 Feb. 1847 
 
 'The Americans, under general Scott, defeat the 
 
 Mexicans at Cerro Gorda . . .18 April, ,, 
 The Mexicans beaten in several actions; Mexico 
 
 taken by assault by general Scott . . 15 Sept, ,, 
 Treaty of peace ratified .... 19 May, 1848 
 Political convulsions .... Sept, 1852 
 
 President Arista resigns, 6 Jan. ; and Santa Anna 
 
 returns, Feb. ; dictator ... 16 Dec. 1853 
 Tie abdicates ; Carera elected president . Jan. 1855 
 
 Who also abdicates; succeeded first by Alvarez, 
 
 and afterwards by general Comonfort . Dec. ,, 
 Property of the clergy sequestrated . 31 March, 1856 
 .New constitution established . . .5 Feb. 1857 
 Comonfort chosen president . . . July, 
 Coup d'etat; constitution annulled by the church 
 party; Comonfort compelled to retire, 11 Jan.; 
 general Zuloaga takes the government, 21-26 Jan. 1858 
 Benito Juarez declared constitutional president at 
 
 Vera Cruz 11 Feb. 
 
 Civil war : several engagements . Aug. to Nov. „ 
 General Miguel Miramon nominated president at 
 
 Mexico by the Junta 6 Jan. 1859 
 
 .Zuloaga abdicates 2 Feb. ,, 
 
 In consequence of injury to British subjects, ships 
 
 of war sent to Mexico .... Feb. 
 
 Miramon forces the lines of the liberal generals, 
 
 enters the capital, assumes his functions as 
 
 governor, and governs without respect to the 
 
 laws of life and property . . . 10 April, ,, 
 
 ■Juarez confiscates the church property 13 July, ,, 
 
 Miramon and the clerical party defeat the liberals 
 
 under Colima 21 Dec. 
 
 He besieges Vera Cruz, 5 March; bombards it; 
 
 compelled to raise the siege . . 21 March, i860 
 
 General Zuloaga deposes Miramon, and assumes 
 
 the presidency .... 1 May, 
 
 Miramon arrests Zuloaga, 9 May; the diplomatic 
 
 bodies suspend official relations with the former, 
 
 10 May, ,, 
 
 Miramon defeated by Degollado . . 10 Aug. i860 
 He governs Mexico with great tyranny ; seizes 
 152,000?. belonging to English bondholders, Sept. ; 
 the foreign ministers quit the city . Oct „ 
 
 He is compelled to retire; Juarez enters Mexico, 
 
 11 Jan. ; re-elected president . . 19 Jan. 1861 
 Juarez made dictator by the congress . 30 June, „ 
 The Mexican congress decides to suspend payments 
 
 to foreigners for two years . . 17 July, ,, 
 
 Which leads to the breaking off diplomatic relations 
 
 witli England and France . . . 27 July, ,, 
 In consequence of many gross outrages on foreign- 
 ers, the British, French, and Spanish govern- 
 ments, after much vain negotiation, claiming 
 efficient protection of foreigners, and the payment 
 of arrears due to fundholders, sign a convention 
 engaging to combined hostile operations against 
 
 Mexico 31 Oct. „ 
 
 The Mexican congress dissolves, after conferring 
 
 full powers on the president . . 15 Dec. ,, 
 
 Spanish troops land at Vera Cruz, 8 Dec; it sur- 
 renders ...... 17 Dec. ,, 
 
 A British naval and French military expedition 
 
 arrives 7, 8 Jan. 1862 
 
 The Mexicans resist, and invest Vera Cruz ; their 
 
 taxes raised 25 per cent Jan. ,, 
 
 Miramon arrives, but is sent back to Spain by 
 
 the British admiral Feb. „ 
 
 Project of establishing a Mexican monarchy, for 
 archduke Maximilian of Austria, disapproved of 
 by British and Spanish governments . Feb. ,, 
 Negotiation ensues between the Spanish and Mexi- 
 cans ; convention between the commissaries of 
 the. allies and the Mexican general Doblado, at 
 
 Soledad 19 Feb. „ 
 
 The Mexican general Marquez takes up arms 
 against Juarez; and general Almonte joins the 
 trench general Lorencez ; Juarez demands a com- 
 pulsory loan, and puts Mexico in a state of siege, 
 
 March, „ 
 
 Conference between plenipotentiaries of the allies 
 
 at Orizaba ; the English and Spanish declare for 
 
 peace, which is not agreed to by the French, 
 
 9 April ; who declare war against Juarez, 
 
 16 April, „ 
 The Spanish and British forces retire ; the French 
 government sends reinforcements to Lorencez, 
 
 May, „ 
 The French, induced by Marquez, advance into 
 the interior; severely repulsed by Zaragoza, at 
 Fort Guadeloupe, near Puebla . . 5 May, ,, 
 Juarez quits the capital ... 31 May, ,, 
 The French defeat the Mexicans at Cerro de Borgo, 
 
 near Orizaba 13, 14 June, „ 
 
 The Mexican liberals said to be desirous of nego- 
 tiation Aug. ,, 
 
 Gen. Forey and 2500 French soldiers land 28 Aug. „ 
 Letter from the emperor Napoleon to Lorencez 
 disclaiming any intention of imposing a govern- 
 ment on Mexico ; announced . . Sept. ,, 
 Death of Zaragoza, a great loss to the Mexicans, 
 
 8 Sept. „ 
 Gen. Forey deprives Almonte of the presidency at 
 Vera Cruz, and appropriates the civil and mili- 
 tary power to himself .... Oct. „ 
 Ortega takes command of the Mexicans 19 Oct. „ 
 
 The Mexican congress assembles, and protests 
 
 against the French invasion . . .27 Oct. ,, 
 The French evacuate Tampico . . 13 Jan. 1863 
 Forey inarches towards Mexico . . .24 Feb. „ 
 Siege of Puebla; bravely defended, 29 March; 
 severe assault, 31 March to 3 April ; it is sur- 
 rendered at discretion by Ortega . . 18 May, ,, 
 Juarez and the republican government remove to 
 
 San Luis de Potosi .... 31 May, „ 
 Mexico occupied by the French, under Bazainc, 
 5 June ; Forey and his army enter, 10 June ; pro- 
 visional government ,, 
 
 Assembly of notables at Mexico decide on the es- 
 tablishment of a limited hereditary monarchy, 
 with a Roman Catholic prince as emperor; and 
 oiler the crown to the archduke Maximilian of 
 Austria : a regency established . . 10 July, „ 
 The French re-occupy Tampico . . u Aug, ,, 
 Marshal Forey resigns his command to Bazaine, 
 
 and returns to France . . . .1 Oct. „ 
 The archduke Maximilian will accept the crown if 
 it be the will of the people ... 3 Oct „ 
 
MEXICO. 
 
 443 
 
 MICHAEL'S MOUNT. 
 
 The Mexican general Comonfort surprised and shot 
 
 by partisans 12 Nov. 1863 
 
 Successful advance of the imperialists ; Juarez 
 retires from San Luis de Potosi, 18 Dee. ; it is 
 entered by the imperialists . . .24 Dec. ,, 
 The French occupy various places Jan. <fe Feb. 1864 
 
 The ex-president, general Santa Anna, lands at 
 Vera Cruz, professing adhesion to the empire, 
 27 Feb. ; dismissed by Bazaine . 12 March, ,, 
 Juarez enters Monterey, which becomes the seat of 
 
 the republican government ... 3 April, „ 
 The archduke Maximilian definitively aecex>ts the 
 crown from the Mexican deputation at Miramar, 
 
 10 April, „ 
 The emperor and empress land at Vera Cruz, 29 May ; 
 
 enter the city of Mexico . . . 12 June, ,, 
 The emperor visits the interior ; grants a free press, 
 
 Aug. „ 
 The republicans defeat the imperialists at San Pedro, 
 
 27 Dec. ,, 
 Juarez, at Chihuahua, exhorts the Mexicans to 
 
 maintain their independence . . 1 Jan. 1865 
 The emperor institutes the order of the Mexican 
 
 eagle . . . ,, 
 
 Surrender of Oaxaca to marshal Bazaine . 9 Feb. „ 
 A constitution promulgated . . .10 April, ,, 
 Ortega, at New York, enlists recruits for the repub- 
 lican army, May ; discountenanced by the U. S. 
 
 government June, ,, 
 
 Anniversary of Mexican independence ; descend- 
 ants of Iturbide made princesses, &c. 16 Sept. ,, 
 The emperor proclaims the end of the war, and 
 martial law against all armed bands of men ; 
 much indignation excited . - . .2 Oct. ,, 
 Juarist generals taken prisoners ; shot . 16 Oct. ,, 
 The American government protests against the 
 
 French occupation .... Nov. -Dec. „ 
 Presidency of Juarez expires ; he determines to 
 continue to act, 30 Nov. ; he flies to Texas, 
 
 20 Dec. ,, 
 Bagdad, on the Bio Grande, seized by American 
 Juarists, 4, 5 Jan. ; occupied by the American 
 general Weitzel, 5 Jan. ; his conduct disavowed ; 
 and Bagdad re-occupied by imperialists, 20 Jan. 1866 
 Ministerial changes . . . March-April, „ 
 Emperor Napoleon agrees to withdraw all his sol- 
 diers from Mexico between Nov. 1866 and Nov. 1867 
 
 April, ,, 
 Guerilla warfare going on, numerous conflicts, with 
 
 varying success .... March-May, ,, 
 Matamoras captured by the liberals , under Escobedo, 
 
 23, 24 June, „ 
 The empress Charlotte departs for France, 13 July; 
 conspiracy against the government suppressed, 
 
 15-17 July, „ 
 Convention between Maximilian and the French ; 
 transfer of the receipts of the customs to France, 
 
 30 July, ,, 
 Juarez and his party take Tampieo . . 1 Aug. „ 
 The Americans disallow Maximilian's blockade of 
 
 Matamoras 17 Aug. „ 
 
 Dissension among the liberals ; three rival presi- 
 dents, Juarez, Ortega, and Santa Anna, 
 
 Sept. -Oct. „ 
 The empress solicits help from France, in vain, 
 
 Sept.; she falls ill Oct. ,, 
 
 Firm speech of emperor Maximilian . . 19 Sept. „ 
 Emperor leaves Mexico for Orizaba ; giving autho- 
 rity to Bazaine Oct. ,, 
 
 The French evacuate several places . . Nov. „ 
 Imperial council at Orizaba determine to maintain 
 
 the empire 24 Nov. ,, 
 
 Death of Augustin Iturbide . . . n Dec. „ 
 Maximilian, at the head of the army, arrives at 
 
 Queretaro 19 Feb. 1867 
 
 Departure of the French, 13 Jan. , 5 Feb. , 14 March, ■„ 
 Contest for supremacy between Juarez, Diaz, and 
 
 Ortega April, „ 
 
 Queretaro, after many conflicts, captured by 
 
 treachery ; Mendez shot . . . .15 May, „ 
 Emperor Maximilian, Miramon, and Mejia, after 
 
 trial, shot 19 June, ,, 
 
 Mexico city taken after 67 days' siege ; republic re- 
 established 21 June, „ 
 
 Surrender of Vera Cruz .... 25 June, „ 
 Santa Anna captured ; detained a prisoner July, „ 
 Juarez enters Mexico ; convokes the assembly to 
 elect a president . . . . 14, 15 July, ,, 
 
 Marquez and others said to be organising resistance 
 
 to Juarez , Aug. 1867 
 
 Numerous executions ; reign of terror Aug. et seq. „ 
 Porfirio Diaz said to be nominated for the presidency, 
 
 Sept. ,, 
 Santa Anna sentenced to eight years' banishment, 
 
 Oct. „ 
 Maximilian's body given up to the Austrian admiral 
 
 Tegethotf 26 Nov. „ 
 
 Mexican congress opened ; Juarez acting as provi- 
 sional president; foreign consuls said to be leaving, 
 
 8 Dec. „ 
 Juarez re-elected president . . . Dec. ,, 
 Juarez inaugurated as president . about 25 Dec. ,, 
 Maximilian's body buried at Vienna . 18 Jan. 1868 
 Rebellion against Juarez in Yucatan and other pro- 
 vinces Jan. -Feb. „ 
 
 Hasty blockade of Mazatlan by capt. Bridge of 
 H.M.S. Chanticleer, for an outrage 20 June ; 
 raised by admiral Hastings . . . July, „ 
 Treaty with United States adopted . . Dec. „ 
 
 Insurrection at Puebla suppressed . . Feb. 1869 
 General Almonte dies at Paris . . . March, ,, 
 Encounter between Mexicans and United States 
 troops who had pursued some Indian depreda- 
 tors ; about 40 Americans killed ; reported, 
 
 12 April, 1871 
 Election for president ; Diaz, 1982 votes ; Juarez, 
 1963 ; Lerdo, 1366 ; Juarez retains the power, 
 
 27 July, ,, 
 
 Insurrections arise Aug. ,, 
 
 Insurrection headed by Negrete, Riveras, and 
 
 others, suppressed with much slaughter 12 Oct. ,, 
 Juarez re-elected president .... Oct. „ 
 Insurgents under Porfirio Diaz twice defeated ; 
 
 announced Jan. 1872 
 
 Civil war going on with varying success, 
 
 April-June, ,, 
 Rebels nearly subdued . . . . 1 July, ,, 
 Death of Benito Juarez (aged about 68) by apoplexy 
 
 18 July, „ 
 The country tranquil ; Diaz accepts the amnesty ; 
 
 announced 14 Aug. ,, 
 
 Lerdo de Tejado (of good character) elected presi- 
 dent, Oct. ; Diaz submits ... 23 Oct. ,, 
 Railway from Mexico city to Vera Cruz completed ; 
 announced . . Jan. 1873 
 
 EMPERORS. 
 
 1822. Aug. Augustin Iturbide, Feb. ; abdicated 23 
 March, 1823; shot for attempting to recover his 
 authority, 19 July, 1824. 
 
 1864. Maximilian (brother to the emperor of Austria), 
 born 6 July, 1832 ; accepted the crown, 10 
 April, 1864 ; married 27 July, 1857, to princess 
 Charlotte, daughter of Leopold I. , king of the 
 Belgians ; adopted Augustin Iturbide as his 
 heir, Sept. 1865 ; shot (after a trial), 19 June, 
 1867. 
 
 MEZZOTINO, see Engraving. 
 
 MHOW COUET-MAETIAL, see Trials, 
 Nov. 1863. 
 MICHAEL, St., and GEOEGE, St. 
 
 This order of knighthood, founded for the Ionian 
 Isles and Malta, 27 April, 1818, was reorganised in 
 March, 1869, in order to admit servants of the 
 crown connected with the colonies. Among the 
 first of the new knights were the earl of Derby, earl 
 Russell, and earl Gxey. 
 
 MICHAELMAS, 29 Sept., the feast of St. 
 Michael, the reputed guardian of the Roman 
 Catholic church, under the title of "St. Michael 
 and All Angels." Instituted, according to Butler, 
 487. 
 
 The custom of eating goose at Michaelmas has been 
 erroneously attributed to Queen Elizabeth's eating of 
 the bird at dinner on 29 Sept. 1588, at the house of sir 
 Neville Umfreyville, at the time she heard of the 
 destruction of the Spanish Armada. The custom is of 
 much older date, and is observed on the continent. 
 Clavis Calendaria. 
 
 MICHAEL'S MOUNT, ST. (Cornwall), is 
 considered by some to be the Iluis of Diodorus 
 
MICHIGAN. 
 
 414 
 
 MILETUS. 
 
 Siculus, and an ancient resort of the tin merchants. 
 St. Michael was said to have appeared on the 
 mount, 495 or 710; and the place, thus reputed 
 holy, became the seat of a body of monks, who 
 received a charter from Edward the Confessor, 
 1044, and many privileges from pope Gregory VII., 
 1079. 
 
 MICHIGAN, a north-west state of N. America, 
 settled by the French, 1670; admitted into the union, 
 26 Jan. 1837. Capital, Lansing. 
 
 MICROMETER, an astronomical instrument 
 used to measure any small distances and the minuter 
 objects in the heaveDS, such as the apparent dia- 
 meters of the planets, &c, was invented by Wm. 
 Gascoigne, who was killed at the battle of Marston- 
 moor, 2 July, 1644. It was improved by Huyghens 
 about 1652. 
 
 MICROSCOPES, said to have been invented 
 by Jansen, in Holland, about 1590 ; by Fontana, in 
 Italy, and by Drebbel, in Holland, about 162 1. 
 Those with double glasses were made at the period 
 when the law of refraction was discovered, about 
 1624. Solar mici'oscopes were invented by Dr. 
 Hooke. In England great improvements were made 
 in the microscope by Benjamin Martin (who in- 
 vented and sold pocket microscopes about 1740), by 
 Henry Baker, F.B.S., about 1763, and still greater 
 during the present century by Wollaston, Boss, 
 Jackson, Varley, Powell, and others. Diamond 
 microscopes were made bv Andrew Pritchard in 
 1824 ; and the properties of "test objects " to prove 
 the qualities of microscopes, discovered by him and 
 Goring in 1824-40. A binocular microscope (i.e., for 
 two eyes), was constructed by professor Biddell in 
 1851, and "Wenham's important improvements were 
 made known in 1861. Treatises on the microscope 
 by J. Quekett (1848), by Dr. W. B. Carpenter (1856) , 
 by Dr. Lionel Beale (1858-64), and Griffith and 
 Henfrey's " Micrographic Dictionary " (1856), are 
 valuable. The Microscopical Society of London 
 was established 20 Dec. 1839, and the Quekett 
 Microscopical Club, 1865. In 1865 Mr. H. Sorby 
 exhibited his spectrum microscope, by which the 
 millionth of a grain of blood was detected. 
 
 MIDLAND RAILWAY STATION, St. 
 
 Tancras, N. London, possessing the largest known 
 roof in the world (245 feet 6 inches wide, and 698 
 feet long), was opened for traffic 1 Oct. 1868. The 
 engineer was Mr. H. W. Barlow. The architect of 
 this magnificent Gothic hotel is sir G. Gilbert Scott. 
 
 MIDDLE AGES, see Dark Ages. Henry 
 HaUam's " Middle Ages " appeared in 1818. 
 
 MIDDLE-CLASS EXAMINATION and 
 SCHOOLS, see Education (1858, and 1865-8). 
 
 MIDDLE-LEVELS, see Levels. 
 
 MIDDLESBOROUGH, N. Biding of York- 
 shire, on the Tees, a coal port and a seat of the 
 iron manufacture ; founded 1830; population, 1861, 
 18,992; 1871, 46,643. 
 
 MIDIANITES, an eastern people, descend- 
 ants of Midian, a son of Abraham. Having enticed 
 the Israelites to idolatry they were severely chas- 
 tised, 1452 B.C. They invaded Canaan about 1249 
 B.C., and were thoroughly defeated by Gideon. 
 
 MIDWIFERY. Women were the only practi- 
 tioners among the Hebrews and Egyptians. Hippo- 
 crates, in Greece, 460 B.C. is styled the father of 
 
 midwifery, as well as of physic* It advanced 
 under Celsus, who flourished a.d. 37, and of Galen, 
 who lived 131. La England midwifery became a 
 science about the period of the institution of the 
 college of physicians, 10 Hen. VII. 1518. Dr. 
 Harvey engaged in the practice of it, about 1603 ; 
 Astruc affirms that madame de la Valliere, mistress 
 of Louis XIV., in 1663, employed Julian Clement, 
 a surgeon, with great secresy. 
 
 MILAN, Mediolanum, capital of the ancient 
 Liguria, now Lombardy, is reputed to have been 
 built by the Gauls, about 408 B.C. 
 
 C'i mquered by the Roman consul Marcellus . B.C. 222 
 Seat of government of the western empire . a.d. 286 
 
 Council of Milan 346 
 
 St. Ambrose, bishop of Milan 375 
 
 Milan plundered by Attila 452 
 
 Included in the Ostrogothic kingdom, 489 ; in the 
 
 Lombard kingdom 569 
 
 Becomes an independent republic .... 1101 
 The emperor Frederic I. takes Milan, and appoints 
 
 a podesta 1158 
 
 It rebels ; is taken by Frederic and its fortifications 
 
 destroyed 1162 
 
 Rebuilt and fortified 1169 
 
 The Milanese defeated by the emp. Frederic II. . 1237 
 The Visconti become paramount in Milan . . . 1277 
 John Galeazzo Visconti takes the title of duke . 1395 
 Francesco Sforza, son-in-law of the last of the Vis- 
 conti, subdues Milan and becomes duke . . . 1450 
 Milan conquered by Louis XII. of France . . 1499 
 The French expelled by the Spaniards . . . 1525 
 Milan annexed to the crown of Spain . . . 1540 
 Great plague alleviated by the archbishop Bor- 
 
 romeo 1576 
 
 Milan ceded to Austria 1714 
 
 Conquered by the French and Spaniards . . . 1743 
 Reverts to Austria, upon Naples and Sicily being 
 
 ceded to Spain 1748 
 
 Seized by the French .... 30 June, 1796 
 
 Retaken by the Austrians 1799 
 
 Regained by the French . . . 31 May. 1800 
 Made the capital of the kingdom of Italy, and Napo- 
 leon Bonaparte crowned with the iron crown here, 
 
 26 May, 1805 
 The Milan decree of Napoleon against all continental 
 
 intercourse with England ... 17 Dec. 1807 
 Insurrection against the Austrians ; flight of the 
 
 viceroy 18 March, 1848 
 
 Surrenders to the Austrians ... 5 Aug. ,, 
 Treaty of peace between Austria and Sardinia, 
 
 6 Aug. 1849 
 Another revolt promptly suppressed and rigorously 
 
 punished .... 6 Feb. et seq. 1853 
 
 Milan visited by the emperor of Austria . Nov. 1856 
 Amnesty for political offences granted . Dec. 1857 
 After the defeat of the Austrians at Magenta, 4 June, 
 Napoleon III. and the king of Sardinia enter Milan, 
 
 8 June, 1859 
 Peace of Villafranca ; a large part of Lombardy 
 transferred to Sardinia . . . 12 July, 
 Victor-Emmanuel enters Milan as king . 8 Aug. i860 
 Reactionary plots of Neapolitan soldiery suppressed, 
 
 29-30 April, 1861 
 The Victor-Emmanuel gallery opened by the king, 
 
 15 Sept. 1867 
 The arts exhibition opened by the king 26 Aug. 1872 
 See Italy. 
 
 MILETUS, a Greek city of Ionia, Asia Minor, 
 founded about 1043 B.C. The Milesians defended 
 themselves successfully, 623-612 B.C. During the 
 war with Persia it was taken, 494, but restored, 
 449. Here Paul delivered his celebrated charge 
 
 * Agnodice, an Athenian virgin, disguised her sex to 
 learn medicine. She was taught by Hierophilus, her 
 father, the art of midwifery, and, when employed, always 
 discovered her sex to her patients. This brought her 
 into so much practice, that the profession, now out of 
 employment, accused her, before the Areopagus, of 
 corruption. She confessed her sex to the judges, and a 
 law was made to empower all free-born women to leam 
 midwifery. The whole story is doubtful. 
 
MILFOED HAVEN. 
 
 445 
 
 MINIMS. 
 
 to the elders of the church of Ephesus, a.d. 60 
 (Acts xx.). 
 
 MILFOED HAVEN (Wales). Here the 
 carl of Richmond, afterwards Henry VII. landed 
 on his way to encounter Richard III. whom he 
 defeated at Bosworth, 1485. The packets from this 
 port to Ireland, sailing to "Waterford were esta- 
 blished in 1787. The dock-yard, established here 
 in 1790, was removed to Pembroke in 1814. 
 
 MILITAEY EDUCATION, see Army, 
 
 June, 1868. 
 
 MILITAEY or MAETIAL LAW is built 
 
 on no settled principle, but is entirely arbitrary, 
 and, in truth, no law; but sometimes indulged, 
 rather than allowed, as law. Sir Matthew Rale. 
 It has been several times proclaimed in parts of 
 these kingdoms, and in 1798 was almost general in 
 Ireland, where it was also proclaimed in 1803. 
 
 MILITAEY ASYLUM, EOYAI,, at Chelsea, 
 "for the children of the soldiers of the regular 
 army." The first stone was laid by the duke of 
 York, 19 June, 1801. 
 
 MILITAEY KNIGHTS of WINDSOE, 
 
 see Poor Knights of Windsor. 
 
 MILITIA, the standing national force of these 
 realms, is traced to king Alfred, who made all his 
 subjects soldiers, 872-901. See under Army. 
 
 Commission of array to raise a militia . . . 1122 
 
 Revived by Henry II 11 76 
 
 Again revived 1557 
 
 Said to amount to 160,000 men .... 1623 
 'The present militia statutes . . . . 1661 to 1663 
 Supplemental militia act passed .... 1796 
 Irish militia offered its services in England, 
 
 28 March, 1804 
 <3eneral militia act for England and Scotland, 1802 ; 
 
 for Ireland 1809 
 
 Enactment authorising courts-martial to inflict 
 
 imprisonment instead of flogging passed . . 1814 
 Acts to consolidate the militia laws . . i8s2*-s4 
 
 Militia embodied on account of the Russian war, 
 
 1854 ; and on account of the Indian mutiny . 1857 
 Militia reserve act passed . ... . . . 1867 
 
 Militia in 1872, 139,018. 
 
 MILK. A process for its condensation was in- 
 vented by Mr. Gail Borden, near New York, in 
 1849, for which he was awarded a medal at the 
 Great Exhibition in 1851, when he erected factories. 
 'The Anglo-Swiss condensed milk company was 
 established in 1866; and since then the Aylesbury 
 •company. 
 
 MILKY WAY (Galaxy) iu the heavens. 
 Juno is said by the Greek poets to have spilt her 
 milk in the heavens after suckling Mercury or 
 Hercules, Democritus (about 428 B.C.) taught that 
 the via lactea consisted of stars, which Galileo 
 {1610-42) proved by the telescope. 
 
 MILLENAEIANS suppose that the world 
 ■will end at the expiration of the seven thousandth 
 year from the creation ; and that during a thousand 
 years (millennium) Christ and the saints will reign 
 upon the earth ; see Rev . xx. The doctrine was 
 very generally inculcated in the 2nd and 3rd cen- 
 turies, by Papias, Justin Martyr and others. 
 
 * This militia act was consequent upon the then pre- 
 vailing opinion of the necessity of strengthening our 
 national defences against the possibility of French 
 invasion. The act empowered her majesty to raise a 
 force not exceeding 80,000 men, of which number 50,000 
 were to be raised in 1852, and 30,000 in 1855 ; the quotas 
 for each county or riding to be fixed by an order in 
 council 
 
 MILLENAEY PETITION, presented to 
 king James on his accession, 1603, on behalf of 
 nearly a thousand Puritan ministers against the 
 "human rites and ceremonies " of the church of 
 England. 
 
 MILLS. Moses forbade mill-stones to be taken 
 in pawn, because it would be like taking a man's 
 life to pledge. Bent. xxiv. 6. The hand-mill was 
 in use among the Britons previously to the con- 
 quest by the Romans. The Romans introduced the 
 water-mill. Cotton mills moved by water were 
 erected by sir Richard Arkwright, at Cromford, 
 Derbyshire. He died in 1792. See Mechanics. 
 
 MINCIO, a river of Lombardy. Here the 
 Austrians were repulsed by the French under 
 Brune, 25-27 Dec. 1800; and by Eugene Beau- 
 harnais, 8 Feb. 1814, near Valeggio. 
 
 MINDEN (Prussia), JBATTLE OF, I Aug. 
 1759, between the English, Hessians, and Hano- 
 verians (under prince Ferdinand of Brunswick), 
 and the French (under marshal De Contades), who 
 were beaten and driven to the ramparts of Minden. 
 Lord George Sackville (afterwards lord George 
 Gennaine) who commanded the British and Hano- 
 verian horse, for some disobedience of orders was 
 tried by a court-martial on his return to England, 
 found guilty, and dismissed, 22 April, 1760. He 
 was afterwards restored to favour, and became 
 secretary of state, 1776. 
 
 MINEEALOGY" and MINES. Strabo 
 and Tacitus enumerate gold and silver as among 
 the products of Britain. The earliest instance of a 
 claim to a mine royal being enforced occurs 47 
 Hen. III. 1262. It related to mines containing 
 gold, together with copper, in Devonshire. In 
 Edward I.'s reign, according to Mr. Ruding, the 
 mines in Ireland, which produced silver, were sup- 
 posed to be so rich that the king directed a writ for 
 working them to Robert de Word, lord justice, 
 1276. The lead mines of Cardiganshire, from which 
 silver has ever since been extracted, were discovered 
 by sir Hugh 'Middleton in the reign of James I. ; 
 see Coal, and the various metals. 
 
 The study of mineralogy was advanced by Becker, 
 
 Kircher, and Woodward in the 17th century. 
 A British Mineralogical Society established in . . 1800 
 Haiiy's " Traite de Mineralogie " appeared in . . 1801 
 Mining Journal established . . .29 Aug. 1835 
 The government School of Mines, &c, Jermyn- 
 
 street, St. James's, opened in . . Nov. 1851 
 
 An act for the regulation of mines passed in . . i860 
 A Miners' Protection Association proposed by Mr. 
 
 William Gurney and others in . . March, 1862 
 Value of the total mineral produce of the United 
 Kingdom estimated at 29,155,701?. in 1854 ; 
 31,680,581?. in 1859 ; 40,310,931?. in 1865 ; 
 40,345,945?. _ in 1866 ; 41,521,705?. in 1868 ; 
 46,094,600?. in 1870, 
 Miners' conference, for amelioration of their con- 
 dition, held at Merthyr Tydvil ; well conducted ; 
 Mr. Halliday president .... Oct. 1871 
 Metalliferous Mines Regulation act passed 10 Aug. 1872 
 
 MINIE EIFLE, invented at Vincennes, about 
 1833, by M. Minie (born 1810). From a common 
 soldier he raised himself to the rank of chef 
 d'escadron. His rifle, considered to surpass all 
 made previous to it, was adopted by the French, 
 and, with modifications, by the British, 1852 ; see 
 Fire Arms. 
 
 MINIMS (from minimi, the least), an order of 
 monks, founded by S. Francisco di Paolo, in Cala- 
 bria, received their name, as professing themselves 
 inferior to the Minorites (from minor, less) ; see 
 
MINISTER OF WAR. 
 
 446 
 
 MISSIONS. 
 
 Franciscans. St. Francis died in France in 1507 ; 
 where he had established houses of his order. 
 
 MINISTER OF WAR, see War Minister. 
 
 MINISTERS, see Administrations. 
 
 MINNESINGERS, lyric German poets, of 
 the 1 2th and 13th centuries, who sang of love and 
 war to entertain knights and barons of the time. 
 The Meistersingers, their successors, an incorporated 
 fraternity in the 14th century, composed satirical 
 ballads for the amusement of the citizens and lower 
 classes. Hans Sachs, a shoemaker (1494-1576), a 
 poet of the reformation, was for a time their dean. 
 His works were published at Nuremberg, 1560. 
 "Owleglass" and "Reynard the Fox," are attri- 
 buted to the Meistersingers. 
 
 MINNESOTA, a western state of N. America, 
 was organised as a territory, 3 March, 1849, and 
 admitted into the union in low. On 17 Aug. 1862, 
 the Sioux Indians commenced a series of outrages 
 at Acton in Messier county, desolating the country 
 and massacring above 506 persons, of both sexes, 
 and of all ages. General Sibley beat the Indians 
 in two battles and rescued many captives. Thirty- 
 eight Indians were executed as assassins. 
 
 MINORCA ajsd MAJORCA, the Balearic 
 Isles {which see). Minorca was captured by lieu- 
 tenant-general Stanhope and sir John Leake in 
 1708, and was ceded to the British by the treaty of 
 Utrecht in 1 7 13. It was retaken by the Spanish 
 and French in July, 1756, and admiral Byng fell a 
 •victim to public indignation for not relieving it ; 
 see Byng. It was restored to the British at the 
 peace in 1763; taken 5 Feb. 1782 ; again captured 
 by the British under general Stuart, without the 
 loss of a man, 15 Nov. 1798; given up at the 
 peace of Amiens, 25 March, 1802. 
 
 MINORITIES. In the new reform bill, 
 passed 15 Aug. 1867, provision was made for the 
 representation of minorities in constituencies with 
 three members by limiting each elector to two votes. 
 It was introduced as an amendment by lord Cairns 
 in the lords, 30 July, and accepted by the commons, 
 Aug. 1867. The principle was adopted in a new 
 constitution by the state of Illinois, U.S., July, 
 1870. 
 
 MINSTER, or MONASTEKITUr, a place oc- 
 cupied by monks ; see Westminster and York. 
 
 MINSTRELS, originally pipers appointed by 
 lords of manors to divert their copyholders while at 
 work, owed their origin to the glee men or harpers 
 of the Saxons, and continued till about 11560. John 
 of Gaunt erected a court of minstrels at Tutbury in 
 1380. So late as the reign of Henry VIII. they 
 intruded without ceremony into all companies, even 
 at the houses of the nobility ; but in Elizabeth's 
 reign they were adjudged rogues and vagabonds 
 (1597)- 
 
 MINT. Athelstan enacted regulations for the 
 government of the mint about 928. There were 
 several provincial mints under the control of that 
 of London. Henry I. is said to have instituted a 
 mint at Winchester, 112;. Stow says the mint was 
 kept by Italians, the English being ignorant of 
 the art "of coining, 7 Edw. I. 1278. The operators 
 were formed into a corporation by the charter of 
 Icing Edward III. in which condition it consisted 
 of the warden, master, comptroller, assay-master, 
 workers, coiners, and subordinates. The first entry 
 of gold brought to the mint for coinage occurs in 
 18 Edw. HI. 1343. Tin was coined by Charles II. 
 
 1684; and gun-metal and pewter by his successor 
 James after his abdication. Sir Isaac Newton was 
 warden, 1699-1727, during which time the debased 
 coin was called in, and new issued at the loss of 
 the government. Between 1806 and 1810, grants 
 amounting to 262,000/. were made by parliament 
 tor the erection of the present mint, which was 
 completed in 1810; it was injured by fire, 31 Oct. 
 1815. The new constitution of the mint, founded 
 on the report of the hon. "Wellesley Pole, took 
 effect in 1817. Professor Thomas Graham, the 
 master of the mint, died 16 Sept. 1869. By the 
 Coinage Act, passed 4 April, 1870, the office was 
 combined with that of the chancellor of the ex- 
 chequer, the duties being transferred to the deputy- 
 master (Mr. C. TV. Frcemantle). 
 
 MASTERS OF THE MINT. 
 
 1817. Wellesley Pole. 
 1823. Thomas Wallace. 
 
 1827. George Tiemey. 
 
 1828. J. C. Herries. 
 1830. Lord Auckland. 
 
 1834. James Abercrombie. 
 
 1835. Alexander Baring. 
 ,, Henry Labouchere. 
 
 1841. William E. Glad- 
 stone. 
 
 1845. Sir George Clerk. 
 
 1846. Richard L. Sheil. 
 1850. Sir John F. Herschel, 
 
 F.R.S. 
 
 1855. Thomas Graham, 
 
 F.R.S. 
 
 MINUET, a French dance, said to have been 
 first danced by Louis XIV. 1653. 
 
 MINUS, see Plus. 
 
 MIRACLE PLAYS, see under Drama. 
 
 MIRRORS. In ancient times mirrors were 
 made of metal ; those of the Jewish women of 
 brass. Mirrors of silver were introduced by Praxi- 
 teles, 328 B.C. Mirrors or looking-glasse3 'were 
 made at Venice, a.d. 1300 ; and in England, at 
 Lambeth, near London, in 1673. The improve- 
 ments in manufacturing plate-glass, and that of 
 very large size, has cheapened looking-glasses very 
 much. Various methods of coating glass by a 
 solution of silver, thus avoiding the use of mer- 
 cury, so injurious to the health of the workmen, 
 have been made known ; by M. Petitjean in 1851 ; 
 by M. Cimeg in 1861, and by Liebig and others. 
 
 MISSAL, or MASS BOOK, the Romanist 
 ritual compiled by pope Gelasius 1. 492-6 ; revised 
 by Gregory I. 590-604. Various missals were in 
 use till the Roman missal was adopted by the coun- 
 cil of Trent, 1545-63. The missal was Super- 
 seded in England by the book of common prayer, 
 1549- 
 
 MISSIONARY BISHOPS, see under 
 Bishops. 
 
 MISSIONS, see Mark xvi. 15. Among the 
 Romanists, the religious orders of St. Dominie, St. 
 Francis, St. Augustin, &c, have missions to the 
 Levant and to America. Marco Polo is said to hive 
 introduced missionaries into China, 1275. The 
 Jesuits have missions to China (uhich see) and to 
 most other parts of the world. Among the Protes- 
 tants, an early undertaking of this kind was a 
 Danish mission, planned by Frederick IV. in 1706. 
 The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in 
 foreign parts was established 1701, and the Mora- 
 vian Brethren encouraged missions about 1732. 
 The London Missionary Society held their first 
 meeting, 4 Nov. 1794. Most Christian sects now 
 support missions. 
 
 Commander Allan Gardner, R.X., who left England in 
 the Ocean Queen in Sept. 1850, on the Patagonian mis- 
 sion, with Mr. Williams, surgeon, Mr. Maidment, 
 eateehist, and four others, died on Pieton Island, at 
 the mouth of the Beagle Channel, to the south of 
 Tierra del Fuego, having been starved to death : all 
 his companions having previously perished, 6 Sept. 
 1851, 
 
MISSISSIPPI. 
 
 447 
 
 MODENA. 
 
 M. Sehoffler, a missionary to Coehm-China, was publicly 
 executed at Son-Tay, by order of the grand mandarin, 
 for preaching Christianity, such preaching being pro- 
 hibited by the law of that country, 4 May, 1851. 
 
 MISSISSIPPI, a great river, N. America, 
 explored by Be Soto about 1541. The Mississippi 
 trade was begun in England, in Nov. 1716. Law's 
 Mississippi scheme in France, commenced about the 
 same period, exploded in 1720; at which time the 
 nominal capital is said to have amounted to 
 100,000,000/. The ruin of thousands soon followed. 
 See Law's Bubble.— The North American state, 
 MISSISSIPPI, was settled in 1716 ; admitted as a 
 state of the union, 1817 ; seceded from it by. ordi- 
 nance, 8 Jan. 1861 ; submitted, 1865. Capital, 
 Jackson. 
 
 MISSOLONGHI, a town in Greece, taken 
 from the Turks, 1 Nov. 182 1, and heroically and 
 successfully defended against the Turks by Marco 
 Botzaris, Oct. 1822-27 J au - 1823. It was taken 22 
 April, 1826, after a long siege. Here Lord Byron 
 died, 19 April, 1824. It was surrendered to the 
 Greeks in 1829. 
 
 MISSOURI, a south-western state in N. 
 America, was settled in 1763, and admitted into the 
 union, 10 Aug. 1821. It decided on neutrality in 
 the conflict of 1861, but was invaded by both the 
 confederate and federal forces in June of that year, 
 and became one of the seats of war. Capital, 
 Jefferson city ; see United States, 1861 et seq. — 
 For the MISSOURI COMPROMISE, see Slavery in 
 America. 
 
 MITHEIDATE, a medical preparation in the 
 form of an electuary, supposed to be an antidote to 
 poison and the oldest compound known, is said to 
 have been invented by Mithridates, king of Pontus, 
 about 70 B.C. 
 
 MITHRIDATIC WAE, caused by the mas- 
 sacre of 80,000 Komans, by Mithridates VI., king of 
 Pontus, 88 B.C., and remarkable for its duration, 
 its many sanguinary battles, and the cruelties of its 
 commanders. Mithridates having taken the consul 
 Aquilius, made him ride on an ass through a great 
 part of Asia, crying out as he rode, "I am Aquilius, 
 consul of the Romans." He is said to have killed 
 him by causing melted gold to be poured clown his 
 throat, in derision of his avarice, 85 b.c Mithri- 
 dates was defeated by Pompey, 66 b.c; and com- 
 mitted suicide, 63 B.C. 
 
 MITRAILLEUSE, or Mitrailletjr, a 
 machiue-gun in which 37 or more large-bored rifles 
 are combined with breech-action, by means of which 
 a shower of bullets may be rapidly projected by one 
 man. It was invented in Belgium, and adopted by 
 the French emperor soon after the Prusso-Austrian 
 Avar in 1866, and was much used in the Franco- 
 Prussian war in 1870. Its peculiar " dry, shrieking, 
 terrible sound" was described in the bombardment 
 of Saarbriick, 2 Aug. 1870. Modifications of the 
 mitrailleuse have been made by Montigny and 
 others. The Fosbery mitrailleuse was tried and 
 approved at Shoeburyness, II Aug. 1870. It is 
 mentioned in Grose's Military Antiquities (1801) 
 that in England, in 1625, a patent was granted to 
 William Drummond for a machine composed of a 
 number of muskets joined together, by the help of 
 which two soldiers can oppose a hundred, and 
 named, on account of its effect, "thunder carnage," 
 or more usually, " fire carriage." An English 
 mitrailleuse, a modification of the American gatling, 
 containing 50 cartridges, was tried at "Woolwich, 18 
 Jan. 1872 ; fifty of them were ordered to be made 
 by Armstrong. 
 
 MITEE. The cleft cap or mitre was worn by 
 the Jewish high-priest, 1491 B.C. It had on it a 
 golden plate inscribed "Holiness to the Lord." 
 Exodus xxxix. 28. The most ancient mitre that 
 has the nearest resemblance to the present one is- 
 that upon the seal of the bishop of Laon, in the 10th 
 century. Fosbrohe. Anciently the cardinals wore- 
 mitres, but at the council of Lyons, in 1245, they 
 were directed to wear hats. 
 
 MITYLENE, or LESBOS, Mgean Sea. Near 
 here the Greeks defeated and nearly destroyed the 
 Turkish fleet, 7 Oct. 1824. 
 
 MNEMONICS, artificial memory, was intro- 
 duced by Simonides the younger, 477 b.c Arund.. 
 Marbles. "Mnemonica" was published by John 
 "Willis in 1618; and the " Memoria Technica" of 
 Dr. Grey first appeared in 1730. A system of 
 mnemonics was announced in Germany in 1806-7 ; 
 and others since. 
 
 . MOABITES, descendants of Lot, a people 
 living to the south-east of Judcea. They were fre- 
 quently at war with the Israelites, and were sub- 
 dued with divine help by Ehud about 1336, by 
 David about 1040, and by Jehoshaphat, 895 b.c, 
 but often harassed the Jews in the decay of their 
 monarchy. The discovery of a stone with inscrip- 
 tion in Phoenician characters, said to relate to 
 Mesha, king of Moab, referred to in 2 Kings, iii., 
 was announced in Jan. 1870, and impressions were- 
 exhibited soon after, which caused much discussion 
 among orientalists. 
 
 MOCKEEN (Prussia). Here the French army 
 under Eugene Beauharnais were defeated by the- 
 Prussians under Torek, 5 April, 1813 ; and" here- 
 Bliicher defeated the French, 16 Oct. 1813. 
 
 MODELS. The first were figures of living- 
 persons, and Dibutades, the Corinthian, is the- 
 reputed inventor of those in clay. His daughter, 
 being about to be separated from her lover, traced, 
 his profile by his shadow on the wall ; her father 
 filled up the outline with clay, which he afterwards 
 baked, and thus produced a figure of the object of 
 her affection, giving rise to an art till then unknown,, 
 about 985 B.C. 
 
 A beautiful model of the new town of Edinburgh, before 
 the building began, was formed in wood. 
 
 A model was made of a bridge over the Neva, of uncom- 
 mon strength as well as elegance ; and of the moun- 
 tains of Switzerland, by general Pfiffer (1766-85). 
 
 M. Chomn's model of Paris also was remarkable for its- 
 precision. 
 
 Fine models of Gibraltar, Quebec, and other fortified 
 places, are deposited in the Rotunda at Woolwich. 
 
 MODENA (formerly Mutina), capital of the- 
 late duchy in Central Italy ; was governed by the 
 house of Este, from 1288 till 1796, when the last 
 male of that house, the reigning duke Hercules III. 
 was expelled by the French. By the treaty of 
 Campo Formio, the Modenese possessions were- 
 incorporated with the Cisalpine republic, 1797 ; and 
 with the kingdom of Italy, 1805. The archduke- 
 Francis of Este, son of the archduke Ferdinand of 
 Austria, and of Mary, the heiress of the last duke, 
 was restored in 1814. Modena, in accordance with 
 the voting by universal suffrage, was annexed to- 
 Sardinia on 18 March, i860. Population, in 1857, 
 604,512. 
 
 GRAND DUKES. 
 
 1814. Francis IV. An invasion of his states by Murafc 
 was defeated, 11 April, 1815. He was expelled 
 by his subjects in 1831, but was restored by the 
 Austrians. 
 
MODERADOS. 
 
 448 
 
 MONEYERS. 
 
 1846. Francis V. (born 1 June, 1819) succeeded 21 Jan. 
 His subjects rose against him soon after the 
 Italian war broke out, in April, 1859. He fled 
 to Verona, establishing a regency, n June; 
 which was abolished, 13 June : Farina was ap- 
 pointed dictator, 27 July ; a constituent assembly 
 was immediately elected, which offered the 
 duchy to the king of Sardinia, 15 Sept. He 
 incorporated it with his dominions, 18 March, 
 i860. 
 MODERADOS. A political party in Spain, 
 3ong headed by Ramon Maria Narvaez, duke of 
 Valencia (who died 23 April, 1868), who opposed 
 the Progresistas headed by Espartero and Prim. 
 
 MODOC INDIANS (a few hundreds), 
 dwelling in lands south of Oregon, were removed to 
 ■other lands by the United States government. Not 
 obtaining subsistence, they returned to their old 
 possessions, and their able leader captain Jack de- 
 feated the troops sent to expel them, 17 Jan. 1873. 
 During negotiations for a peaceful settlement, they 
 decoyed the United States commissioners into an 
 ambush (11 April), and massacred general Canby 
 and about 40 others. Fighting took place, 15, 16 
 April, and the Indians retreated to almost impreg- 
 nable positions. The troops were fired on, and 
 suffered much loss, 27 April. The Indians were 
 gradually surrounded. Jack and about twenty war- 
 riors held out desperately. Some surrendered, and 
 he himself was captured, 1 June. Their trial was 
 ordered. 
 
 MCESIA (now Bosnia, Servia, and Bulgaria), 
 •was finally subdued by Augustus, 29 B.C. It was 
 successfully invaded by the Goths, a.d. 250, who 
 •eventually settled here ; see Goths. 
 
 MOGULS, see Tartary. 
 
 MOHACZ (Lower Hungary). Here Louis king 
 of Hungary, defeated by the Turks under Solyman 
 II. with the loss of 22,000 men, was suffocated by 
 the fall of his horse in a muddy brook, 29 Aug. 1526. 
 Here also prince Charles of Lorraine defeated the 
 Turks, 12 Aug. 1687. 
 
 MOHAMMERAH, a Persian town near the 
 Euphrates, captured, after two hours' cannonading, 
 "by sir James Outram, during the Persian war, 26 
 March, 1857. News of the peace arrived 4 April. 
 
 MOHILOW (Russia) . Here the Russian army, 
 under prince Bagration, was signally defeated by 
 the French under marshal Davoust, prince of Eck- 
 miihl, 23 July, 1812. 
 
 MOHOCKS, ruffians, who went about London 
 at night, wounding and disfiguring the men, and 
 indecently exposing the women. One hundred 
 pounds were offered by roj al proclamation in 1712, 
 for apprehending any one of them. Korthouck. 
 
 MOLDAVIA, see Banubian Principalities. 
 
 MOLINISTS, a Roman Catholic sect, followers 
 ■of Louis Molina, a Jesuit, born 1535. He maintained 
 the reconcileability of the doctrines of predestination 
 and free will, 1588. 
 
 MOLUCCAS, an archipelago in the Indian 
 Ocean (the chief island, Amboyna), discovered by 
 the Portuguese, about 1511, and held by them 
 secretly until the arrival of the Spaniards, who 
 ■claimed them, till 1529, when Charles V. yielded 
 them to John III. for a large sum of money. The 
 Dutch conquered them in 1607, and have held them 
 ever since, — except from 1810 to 1814, when they 
 •were subject to the English. 
 
 MOLWITZ (in Prussian Silesia). Here the 
 Prussians, commanded by Frederick II., obtained a 
 
 great victory over the Imperialists, 10 April (0. S. 
 30 March), 1 741. 
 
 MOLYBDENUM, a whitish, brittle, almost 
 infusible metal. Scheele, in 1778, discovered mo- 
 lybdic acid in a mineral hitherto confounded with 
 graphite. Hjelm, 1782, prepared the metal from 
 molybdic acid; and in 1825 Berzelius described 
 most of its chemical characters. Ginelin. 
 
 MONACHISM (from the Greek monos, 
 alone). Catholic writers refer to the prophet Eli- 
 jah, and the Nazarenes mentioned in Numbers, rh. 
 vi., as early examples. The first Christian ascetics 
 appear to he derived from the Jewish sect of the 
 Essenes, whose life was very austere, practising 
 celibacy, &c. About the time of Constantine 
 (306-22) numbers of these ascetics withdrew into 
 the deserts, and were called hermits, monks, and 
 anchorets /• of whom Paul, Anthony, and Pacho- 
 mius were most celebrated. Simeon, the founder 
 of the Stylitaj (or pillar saints), died 451. He is 
 said to have lived on a pillar thirty years. St. 
 Benedict, the great reformer of western monachism, 
 published his rules and established his monastery at 
 Monte Casino, about 529. The Carthusians, Cister- 
 cians, &c, are varieties of Benedictines. In 964, 
 by decree of king Edgar, all married priests were 
 ineffectually ordered to be replaced by monks. 
 See Abbeys, and Benedictines. 
 
 MONACO, a principality, N. Daly, held by 
 the Genoese family Grimaldi since 968. By treaty 
 on 2 Feb. 1861, the prince ceded the communes of 
 Roquebrune and Mentone, the chief part of his 
 dominions, to France, for 4,000,000 francs. The 
 present nrince, Charles III., born 8 Dec. 1818, suc- 
 ceeded his father Florestan, 20 June, 1856. A com- 
 mercial convention between the prince and France, 
 signed 9 Nov. 1865, was much discussed as tending 
 towards the abolition of the French navigation 
 laws. Population, 1869, 3127. 
 
 MONARCHY. Historians reckon various 
 grand monarchies — the Chalda;an, Assyrian, Baby- 
 lonian, Median, Persian, Grecian, Parthian, and 
 Roman (ichich see). 
 
 MONASTERIES, see Abbeys. 
 
 MONCONTOUR (near Poitiers, France). 
 Here the admiral Coligny and the French Protes- 
 tants were defeated with great loss by the duke of 
 Anjou (afterwards Henry III.), 3 Oct. 1569. 
 
 MONCRIEFF SYSTEM, see Cannon. 
 
 MONDOVI (Piedmont). Here the Sardinian 
 army, commanded by Colli, was defeated by Napo- 
 leon Bonaparte, 22 April, 1796. 
 
 MONEY is mentioned as a medium of com- 
 merce in Genesis xxiii., i860 B.C., when Abraham 
 purchased a field as a sepulchre for Sarah. " The 
 coinage of money is ascribed to the Lydians. 
 Moneta was the name given to their silver by the 
 Romans, it having been coined in the temple of 
 Juno-Moneta, 269 B.C. Money was made of dif- 
 ferent metals, and even of leather and other articles, 
 both in ancient and modern times. It was made 
 of pasteboard by the Hollanders so late as 1574; 
 sec Coin ; Gold; Copper; Mint; Banks, kc. For 
 Money Orders, see Post Office. 
 
 MONEYERS travelled with our early kings, 
 and coined money as required ; see Mint. 
 
 * The anchorites of the 12th, 13th, and 14th centuries 
 must not be confounded with the anachorets and ancho- 
 rets, or hermits. The former were confined to solitary 
 cells ; the latter permitted to go where they pleased. 
 
MONGOLS. 
 
 449 
 
 MONTEEEATT. 
 
 MONGOLS, see Tartary. 
 
 MONITEUE UNIVEBSEL, a French news- 
 paper, was established in Paris by C. J. Panc- 
 koucke, 5 May, 1789; daily paper, 24 Nov. 1789; 
 the organ of the government, 28 Dec. 1799- It was 
 superseded by the Journal Officiel, I Jan. 1869; 
 resumed its official position about 23 Sept. 1870 ; and 
 was again superseded by the Journal Officiel, Feb. 
 1871. 
 
 MONITOEIAL SYSTEM (in education), 
 in which pupils are employed as teachers, was used 
 by Dr. Bell in the Orphan Asylum at Madras in 
 1795, and was also adopted by Joseph Lancaster, 
 in London ; see Education. 
 
 MONITOR SHIPS, see United States. The 
 American ^monitor, Miantonomah, arrived at Ply- 
 mouth in June 1866, and excited much attention. 
 
 MONK, see MonacMsm. 
 
 MONMOUTH'S EEBELLION. James, 
 duke of Monmouth (born at Rotterdam, 9 April, 
 1649), a natural son of Charles II. by Lucy Waters, 
 was banished England for his connexion with the 
 Eye-house plot, in 1683. He invaded England at 
 Lyme, 1 1 June, 1685 ; was proclaimed king at 
 Taunton, 20 June ; was defeated at Sedgmoor, near 
 Bridgewater, 6 July ; and beheaded on Tower-hill, 
 15 July. 
 
 MONOLITH, Greek for single stone ; see 
 Obelisk 
 
 MONOPHYSITES, see Eutychians. 
 
 MONOPOLIES were formerly so numerous 
 in England that parliament petitioned against 
 them, and many were abolished, about 1601-2. 
 They were further suppressed by 21 Jas. I., 1624. 
 Sir Giles Mompesson and sir Francis Mitchell were 
 punished for their abuse of monopolies, 162 1. In 
 1630, Charles I. established monopolies of soap, 
 salt, leather, and other common things, to supply a 
 revenue without the help of parliament. It was 
 decreed that none should be in future created by 
 royal patent, 16 Chas. I., 1640. 
 
 MONOTHELITES, heretics who affirmed 
 that Jesus Christ had but one will, were favoured 
 by the emperor Heraclius, 630 ; they merged into 
 the Eutychians (which see). 
 
 MONROE DOCTEINE, a term applied to 
 the determination expressed by James Monroe, 
 president of the United States, 1817-24, not to per- 
 mit any European power to interfere in restraining 
 the progress of liberty in North or South America. 
 This doctrine was referred to in 1859, with the view 
 of weakening the influence of Great Britain and 
 Spain on the American continent, and, in 1865, in 
 relation to the new Mexican empire. 
 
 MONTALEMBEET'S TEIAL, see France, 
 1858. 
 
 MONTANISTS, followers of Montanus, of 
 Ardaba, in Mysia, about 171, who was reputed to 
 have the gift of prophecy, and proclaimed himself 
 the Comforter promised by Christ. He condemned 
 second marriages as fornication, permitted the dis- 
 solution of marriage, forbade avoiding martyrdom, 
 and ordered a severe fast of three lents ; he hanged 
 himself with Maximilla, one of his female scholars, 
 before the close of the 2nd century. Cave. The 
 eloquent father, Tertullian, joined the sect, 204. 
 
 MONT BLANC, in the Swiss Alps, is the 
 highest mountain in Europe, being 15,781 feet 
 
 above the level of the sea. The summit was first 
 reached by Saussure, aided by a guide named Balma, 
 on 2 Aug. 1787. The summit was attained by Dr. 
 Hamel (when three of his guides perished) in 1820, 
 and by many other persons before and since. Ac- 
 counts of the ascents of Mr. John Aldjo, Charles 
 Fellows (1827), and of professor Tynda'll (1857-8) 
 have been published ; see Alps. 
 
 MONT CENIS, see Alps. 
 
 MONTEBELLO, in Piedmont, where Lannes 
 defeated the Austrians, 9 June, 1800, and acquired 
 his title of duke of Montebello ; and where, after 
 a contest of six hours, the French and Sardinians 
 defeated the Austrians, who lost about IOOO 
 killed and wounded, and 200 prisoners, 20 May, 
 1859. The French lost about ,670 men, including 
 general Beuret. 
 
 MONTE CASINO (Central Italy). Here 
 Benedict formed his first monastery, 529. After 
 affording a refuge for many eminent persons, its 
 monastic character was abolished by the Italian 
 government in 1866, care being taken for the pre- 
 servation of its historical and literary monuments. 
 
 MONTEM, see Eton. 
 
 MONTENEGEO, an independent principality 
 in European Turkey, was conquered by Solynian II. 
 in 1526. It rebelled early in the 18th century, and 
 established a hereditary hierarchical government in 
 the familyjof Petrovitsch Njegosch, — permitted, but 
 not recognised by the Porte. Population, in 1871, 
 about 120,000. 
 
 The nephew and successor of the Vladika, Peter II., 
 declined to assume the ecclesiastical function, 
 and declared himself a temporal prince, with the 
 title of Daniel I., 1851 ; and began war with 
 Turkey 1852 
 
 Montenegro put in a state of blockade . 14 Dec. ,, 
 
 After indecisive encounters, tranquillity restored by 
 the influence of the arms and negotiations of 
 Omar Pacha, the general of the Turkish army ; he 
 left the province 25 Feb 1853 
 
 Blockade raised 10 April, 
 
 War again broke out ; the Turks defeated at Gra 
 hovo, June ; peace restored .... Nov 1858 
 
 The country much disturbed through the tyrannical 
 conduct of prince Daniel, who was assassinated 
 (aged 35) I3 Aug. i860 
 
 Succeeded by his nephew Nicolas (married), 8 Nov. ,, 
 
 An insurrection in the Herzegovina, favoured by 
 the Montenegrines ; the blockade of Montenegro, 
 
 4 April, 1861 
 
 Omar Pacha invaded the province with an army of 
 32,000 men in . . . . . . Aug. „ 
 
 Many conflicts with various success, but latterly in 
 favour of the Turks ; peace made, Turkish supre- 
 macy recognised 8-9 Sept. 1862 
 
 See Herzegovina. 
 
 PRINCES. 
 
 1851. Daniel, born 25 May, 1826 ; assassinated, 13 Aug. 
 
 i860. 
 i860. Nicolas (nephew), born 1840 
 
 MONTENOTTE, a village in Piedmont, 
 memorable as being the site of the first victory 
 gained over the Austrians by Napoleon Bonaparte, 
 12 April, 1796. 
 
 MONTEEEAU (near Paris). On the bridge 
 of Montereau, at his meeting with the dauphin, 
 John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, was killed by 
 Tanneguy de Chatel in 1419. This event led to 
 our Henry V. subduing France, the young duke 
 Philip joining the English. Here the allied armies 
 were defeated by the French, commanded by Napo- 
 leon, with great loss in killed and wounded ; but 
 it was one of his last triumphs, 18 Feb. 1814. 
 
MONTEREY. 
 
 450 
 
 MOOLTAN. 
 
 MONTEREY (Mexico), was taken by general 
 Taylor after a three days' conflict with the Mexi- 
 cans, 21-23 Sept. 1846. 
 
 MONTE-VIDEO (S. America), was taken by 
 storm by the British forces under sir Samuel Aucli- 
 muty, but with the loss of nearly one-third of our 
 brave troops, 3 Feb. 1807. It was evacuated 7 July 
 the same year, in consequence of the severe repulse 
 the British met with at Buenos- Ayres ; see Buenos- 
 Ayres. Monte-Video, a subject of dispute between 
 Brazil and Buenos-Ayres, was given up to Uruguay, 
 1828. For recent war, see Brazil and Uruguay. 
 
 MONTFERRAT (Lombardy), House OF, 
 celebrated in the history of the Crusades, began 
 with Alderan, who was made marquis of Mont- 
 ferrat, by Otho, about 967. Conrad of Montferrat 
 became lord of Tyre, and reigned from 1 187 till 
 1 191, when he was assassinated. William IV. died 
 in a cage at Alexandria, having been thus impri- 
 soned nineteen months, 1292. Violante, daughter 
 of John II., married Andronicus Pakeologus, em- 
 peror of the East. Their descendants ruled in 
 Italy amid perpetual contests till 1533, when John 
 George Palseologus died without issue. His estates 
 passed after much contention to Frederic II. Gon- 
 zaga, marquis of Mantua, in 1536, and next to the 
 duke of Savoy. 
 
 MONTGOMERY, capital of Alabama, United 
 States, founded 181 7. Here the state convention 
 passed the ordinance of secession from the union 
 on 11 Jan. 1861 ; here the confederate congress met 
 on 4 Feb. and elected Jefferson Davis president, 
 and Alexander Stephens vice-president, of the con- 
 federate states of North America; and here they 
 were inaugurated on 18 Feb. On 21 May the 
 congress adjourned to meet on 20 July at Bich- 
 mond, in Virginia, that state having joined the 
 confederates and become the seat of war. 
 
 MONTI DI PIETA, charitable institutions 
 for advancing money on pledges, were first estab- 
 lished at Perugia, Florence, Mantua, and other 
 Italian cities, 1462, et scq. The Franciscans, in 
 1493, began to receive interest, which was per- 
 mitted by the pope, in 1515. Monts de Mete, 
 established in France 1777, were suppressed by the 
 Eevolution, but restored, 1804 ; regulated by law, 
 1851-2 ; see PawnbrolHng. 
 
 MONTIEL (Spain), Battle of, 14 March, 
 
 1369, between Peter the Cruel, king of Castile, and 
 his brother Henry of Trastamare, aided by the 
 French warrior, Bertram du Guesclin. Peter 
 was totally defeated, and afterwards treacherously 
 slain. 
 
 MONTIGNY, see under Firearms. 
 
 MONTLHERY (Seine -et-Oise, France), 
 site of an indecisive battle between Louis XL and a 
 party of his nobles, termed " The League of the 
 Public Good," 16 July, 1465. 
 
 MONTMARTRE, Heights of, near Paris, 
 
 taken bv Bliicher, 30 March, 1814. They were 
 fortified' during the communist insurrection, March, 
 1871; and retaken by the army of Versailles, 28 
 May. 
 
 MONTMIRAIL (Mame, France). Here 
 Napoleon defeated the allies, II Feb. 1814. 
 
 MONTPELLIER (S. France), built in the 
 8th century, prospered as the neighbouring city 
 Maguelonne decreased. It was acquired by mar- 
 riage by the king of Aragon, 1204 ; by the king of 
 
 Majorca, 1276; was ceded to France, 1349; given 
 to Charles the Bad, king of Navarre, in exchange 
 for Mantes, &c, 1365; sequestered by France, 
 1378. It was seized by the Huguenots early in the 
 reign of Henry III., and held by them till Sept*. 
 1622, when it surrendered after a siege, followed 
 by a treaty of peace, 20 Oct. 
 
 MONTREAL, the second city in Lower 
 Canada, built by the French, about 1642. 
 Surrendered to the English . . . 8 Sept. 1760 
 Taken by the Americans ... 12 Nov. 1775 
 Retaken by the British .... 15 June, i 77 6 
 The church, Jesuits' college, prison, ami many 
 
 buildings burnt down 6 June, 1803 
 
 Great military affray . . . .29 Sept. 1833 
 
 Bishopric founded 1836 
 
 Eliots against the government . . . 6 Nov. 1837 
 The self-styled "loyalists" of Montreal assault the 
 governor-general, lord Elgin; enter the parlia- 
 ment-house, drive out the members, and set fire 
 
 to the building 25 April, 1S49 
 
 A bishopric established ,, 
 
 A destructive tire 23 Aug. 1850 
 
 Another, destroying 1200 houses; the loss esti- 
 mated at a million sterling . . .12 July, 1852 
 At an anti-papal lecture here by Gavazzi, riots en- 
 sued, and many lives were lost . . 10 June, 1853 
 The cathedral destroyed by fire . . 10 Dec. 1856 
 Victoria railway bridge (which see) formally opened 
 by the prince of Wales .... 25 Aug. i860 
 
 MONTSERRAT, a W. India island, dis- 
 covered by Columbus in 1493, and settled by the 
 British in 1632. It has several times heen taken 
 by the French, but was secured to the British in 
 I783- 
 
 MONUMENT of LONDON, built by sir 
 Christopher Wren, 1671-7. The pedestal is forty 
 feet high, and the edifice altogether 202 feet, that 
 being the distance of its base from the spot where 
 the fire which it commemorates commenced. It is 
 the loftiest isolated column in the world. Its 
 erection cost about 14,500/. The staircase is of 
 black marble, consisting of 345 steps.* Of the 
 four original inscriptions, three were Latin, and 
 the following in English, — cut in 168 1, obliterated 
 by James II. ; re-cut in the reign of "William III. ; 
 and finally erased by order of the common council, 
 26 Jan. 1831. They produced Pope's indignant 
 lines : — 
 
 " Where London's column, pointing at the skies, 
 Like a tall bully, lifts the head, and lies." 
 
 THIS PILLAR WAS SET VP IN PERPETVAL REMEMBRANCE 
 OF THAT MOST DREADFUL BURNING OF THIS PROTESTANT 
 CITY, BEGUN AND CARRYED ON BY Y e TREACHERY AND 
 MALICE OF Y e POPISH FACTION, IN Y e BEGINNING OF 
 SEPTEM. IN Y e YEAR OF OUR LORD 1666, IN ORDER TO Y e 
 CARRYING ON THEIR HORRID PLOT FOR EXTIRPATING Y e 
 PROTESTANT RELIGION AND OLD ENGLISH LIBERTY, AND 
 Y e INTRODUCING POPERY AND SLAVERY. 
 
 MOODKEE (India). Here, on 18 Dec. 
 1845, the Sikhs attacked the advanced guard of 
 the British, and were repulsed three miles, losing 
 many men and fifteen pieces of cannon. Sir 
 Bobert Sale was mortally wounded. The battle 
 followed that of Ferozeshah (which see). 
 
 MOOLTAN (N\ "W. India), an ancient city, 
 was stormed by Bunjeet Sing, 1818. Here his son, 
 Moolraj Sing, ruler of the Sikhs, treacherously 
 
 * William Green, a weaver, fell from this monument, 
 25 June, 1750. A man named Thomas Craddoek, a baker. 
 precipitated himself from its summit, 7 July, 1780. Mr. 
 Lyon Levy, a Jewish diamond merchant, of considerable 
 respectability, threw himself from it, 18 Jan. 1810; as 
 did more recently three other persons : in consequence 
 of which a fence was placed round the railings of the 
 gallery in 1839. 
 
MOON. 
 
 451 
 
 MORMONITES. 
 
 murdered Mr. Vans Agnew and lieutenant Ander- 
 son, 21 April, 1848. Several conflicts took place 
 between the British and the Sikhs, in which the 
 latter were beaten, and Mooltan taken after a pro- 
 tracted siege, 2-22 Jan. 1849. 
 
 MOON. Opacity of the moon, and the true 
 causes of lunar eclipses, taught by Thales, 640 B.C. 
 Hipparchus made observations on the moon at 
 Ehodes, 127 B.C. Posidonius accounted for the 
 tides from the motion of the moon, and said that 
 the moon borrows her light from the sun, 79 B.C. 
 Diog. Laert. 
 
 Maps of the moon constructed by Hevelius, 1647. 
 Cassini :i68o 
 
 Beer and Msidler's map published . . . . 1834 
 
 Professor John Phillips invited the British Associa- 
 tion to make arrangements to obtain a "syste- 
 matic representation of the physical aspect of the 
 moon" ^62 
 
 Photographs of the moon taken by Draper at New 
 York, 1840; by Bond, 1850; by Mr. Warren de la 
 Rue, 1857 ; by Rutherford 1871 
 
 Hansen's "Tables of the Moon," calculated at the 
 expense of the British and Danish governments, 
 published at the cost of the latter . . . 1857 
 
 The British Association ' ' lunar committee " publish 
 two sections of a map of the moon, on a scale of 
 200 inches to her diameter . . . July, 1867 
 
 The earl of Rosse made experiments on the radiation 
 
 of heat from the moon 186S-73 
 
 See Eclipse. 
 
 MOORS, formerly the natives of Mauritania 
 {which see) , but afterwards the name given to the 
 Numidians and others, and now applied to the 
 natives of Morocco and the neighbourhood. They 
 frequently rebelled against the Eonian emperors, 
 and assisted Genseric and the Vandals in their in- 
 vasion of Africa, 429. They resisted for a time the 
 progress of the Arab Mahometans, but were over- 
 come in 707, and in 1019 by them introduced into 
 Spain, where their arms were long victorious. In 
 1063 they were defeated in Sicily by Eoger Guis- 
 card. The Moorish kingdom of Grenada was set 
 up in 1237, and lasted till 1492, when it fell before 
 Ferdinand V. of Castile, mainly owing to internal 
 discord. The expulsion of the Moors from Spain 
 was decreed by Charles V., but not fully carried 
 into effect till 1609, when the bigotry of Philip 
 III. inflicted this great injuiy to his country. About 
 15 18 the Moors established the priratical states of 
 Algiers and Tunis {ivhich see). In the history of 
 Spain, the Arabs and Moors must not be con- 
 founded. 
 
 MORAL PHILOSOPHY, the science of 
 ethics, defined as the knowledge of our duty, and 
 the art of being virtuous and happy. Socrates 
 (about 430 B.C.) is regarded as the father of 
 ancient, and Grotius (about 1623) the father of 
 modem moral philosophy; see Philosophy. 
 
 MORAT (Switzerland), where Charles the Bold 
 of Burgundy was completely defeated by the Swiss, 
 22 June, 1476. A monument, constructed of the 
 bones of the vanquished, was destroyed by the 
 French in 1798, and a stone column erected. 
 
 MORAVIA, an Austrian province, occupied by 
 the Slavonians about 548, and conquered by the 
 Avars and Bohemians, who submitted to Charle- 
 magne. About 1000 it was subdued by Boleslas of 
 Poland, but recovered by Ulrich of Bohemia in 
 1030. After various changes, Moravia and Bohemia 
 were amalgamated into the Austrian dominions in 
 1526. Moravia was invaded by the Prussians in 
 1866, and they established their head quarters at 
 Briinn, the capital, 13 July. The demand of the 
 Moravians for home rule was resisted Oct, 187 1. 
 
 MORAVIANS, or United Brethren, 
 
 said to have been part of the Hussites, who with- 
 drew into Moravia in the 15th century; but the 
 brethren assert that their sect was derived from the 
 Greek church in the 9th century. In 1722 they 
 formed a settlement (called Herrnhut, the watch 
 of the Lord) on the estate of count Zinzendorf. 
 Their church consisted of 500 persons in 1727. 
 They were introduced into England by count Zin- 
 zendorf about 1738; he died at Chelsea in June, 
 1760. In 1851 they had thirty-two chapels in Eng- 
 land. They are zealous missionaries, and found 
 settlements in foreign parts, about 1732. 
 
 MORAY FLOODS, see Inundations, 1829. 
 
 MORDAUNT, see Administrations, 1689. 
 
 MORDEN COLLEGE (Blackheath), alms- 
 houses for decayed merchants, with pensions, estab- 
 lished by sir John Morden, 1695; opened, 1702. 
 Low. 
 
 MOREA, a name given to the Peloponnesus in 
 the 13th century ; see Greece. 
 
 MORETON BAY (New S. Wales). The 
 colony founded here in 1859 has since been named 
 Queen' s-land {which see). 
 
 MORGANATIC MARRIAGES, when the 
 left hand is given instead of the right, between a 
 man of superior and a woman of inferior rank, in 
 which it is stipulated that the latter and her chil- 
 dren shall not enjoy the rank or inherit the pos- 
 sessions of the former. The children are legitimate. 
 Such marriages are frequently contracted in Ger- 
 many by royalty and the higher nobility. Our 
 George I. was thus married ; and later, the king of 
 Denmark to the countess of Danner, 7 Aug. 1850 ; 
 and several Austrian princes, recently. 
 
 MORGARTEN (Switzerland). 1300 Swiss en- 
 gaged 20,000 Austrians, commanded by the duke 
 Leopold, whom they completely defeated, 15 Nov. 
 13 15, upon the heights of Morgarten, overlooking 
 the_ defile through which the enemy was to enter 
 their territory from Zug. 
 
 . MORICE DANCE, an ancient dance pecu- 
 liar to some of the country parts of England, and, it 
 is said, also to Scotland : it was performed before 
 James I. in Herefordshire. 
 
 MORISONIANS, followers of the Eev. James 
 Morison of Kilmarnock, suspended for heterodoxy, 
 1841. 
 
 MORMONITES (calling themselves the 
 Church of Je^us Christ of Latter-day Saints). 
 This sect derives its origin from Joseph Smith, 
 called the Prophet, who announced in 1823, at 
 Palmyra, New York, that he had had a vision of 
 the angel Moroni. In 1S27 he said that he found 
 the book of Mormon, written on gold plates in 
 Egyptian characters. This book, there is good 
 reason to believe, was written about 1812, by a 
 clergyman named Solomon Spaulding, as a religious 
 romance in imitation of the scripture style. It was 
 translated and published in America in 1830, in 
 England in 1841. It fell into the hands of Eigdon 
 and Smith, who determined to palm it off as a new 
 revelation. The Mormonites command the payment 
 of tithes, permit polygamy, encourage labour, and 
 believe in their leaders working miracles. Mis- 
 sionaries are propagating these doctrines in Europe 
 with more success than would be expected (1873). 
 
 The Mormonites organize a church at Kirkland 
 
 0]li0 . . 1830 
 
 G G 2 
 
MOEOCCO. 
 
 452 
 
 MOSAIC WOEK. 
 
 They found Zion, in Jackson county, Missouri, 1831-2 
 From 1833 to 1839 the sect endured much perse- 
 cution, and, driven from place to place, was com- 
 pelled to travel westwards ; till the city Nauvoo 
 on the Mississippi was laid out and a temple 
 
 was built 1 840-1 
 
 Joseph and his brother Hyram, when in prison on a 
 charge of treason, shot by an infuriated mob, and 
 Brigham Young chosen seer . . June, 1844 
 
 Much harassed by their neighbours ; departure from 
 
 Nauvoo determined on 1845 
 
 The Great Salt Lake chosen "for an everlasting 
 
 abode," and taken possession of . .24 July, 1847 
 The valley surveyed by order of the United States 
 government x 849 
 
 The provisional government abolished and the Utah 
 territoiy recognized by the United States ; Brig- 
 ham Young appointed the first governor ; and the 
 university of Deseret was founded . . 1849-50 
 
 The population, 11,354 '^S 1 
 
 The crops at the Utah settlement said to be de- 
 stroyed by locusts .... Aug. 1855 
 
 The United States judge at Utah resigned from 
 inability to discharge his functions, in conse- 
 quence of the violent and treasonable conduct of 
 the Mormons, and their leader, Brigham Young 1857 
 
 A conference of Mormon elders, <fec. , was held in 
 London ; offensive speeches made and songs sung 
 advocating polygamy . . . . 1 Sept. ,, 
 
 The United States government sent an army to 
 Utah : a compromise was entered into, and peace 
 was established by governor Cummings in June, 1858 
 
 A Mormonite meeting at Southampton . 18 Feb. 1861 
 
 A French Mormonite priest preached at Paris in Oct. 1862 
 
 " Latter-day Saints' " meetings held in London . 1865 
 
 Utah settlement visited by Hepworth Dixon : he 
 stated that it contained 200,000 persons, and an 
 army of 20,000 rifles. " New America," published 
 in 1867 l866 
 
 Reported schisms : through increasing opposition 
 to polygamy ...... June, 1867 
 
 Synod held in Store-street, London (London con- 
 ference said to include 11 72 members) 5 April, 1868 
 
 650 new Mormonites sailed from Liverpool for Utah, 
 
 6 June, „ 
 
 Bill depriving polygamists of civic rights passed 
 U. S. house of representatives . . March, 1870 
 
 Brigham Young ordered to be tried for bigamy, 
 flies ; Hawkins, a Mormonite elder, sentenced to 
 three years' imprisonment for adultery, end of Oct. 1871 
 
 Brigham Young surrenders for trial, 2 Jan. ; pro- 
 ceedings annulled by the supreme courtabout May, 1872 
 
 Brigham Young resigns temporal powers, 10 April, 1873 
 
 The Mormonite conferences at the Holborn Amphi- 
 theatre 25 May, 1873 
 
 MOENING POST, fashionable daily paper, 
 favourable to the Whigs and High Church party, 
 first appeared 2 Nov. 1772. 
 
 MOEOCCO, or MAROCCO, an empire in North 
 Africa, formerly Mauritania (u-hich sec), In 1051 
 it was subdued for the Fatimite caliphs by the 
 Almoravides, who eventually extended their do- 
 minion into Spain. These were succeeded by the 
 Almohades (1121), the Merinites (1270), and in 
 1516 by the Scherifs, pretended descendants of 
 Mahomet, the now reigning dynasty. The Moors 
 have had frequent wars with the Spaniards and 
 Portuguese, due to piracy. Population above 40,000. 
 
 Invasion of Sebastian of Portugal, who perishes 
 with his army at the battle of Alcazar, 4 Aug. 1578 
 
 Tangiers (which see) acquired by England, 1662; 
 given up „• .• .■..■ l68 3 
 
 The Moors attack the French in Algeria at the 
 instigation of Abd-el-Kader ; the prince de 
 J oinviUe bombards Tangiers, 6 Aug. , and Mogador 
 
 16 Aug. 1844 
 
 Marshal Bugeaud defeats the Moors at the river 
 Isly, and acquires the title of duke . 14 Aug. „ 
 
 Peace between France and Morocco . 10 Sept. „ 
 
 The Spaniards, who possess several places on the 
 coast of Morocco (Ceuta, Penon de Velez, &e.), 
 having suffered much annoyance by Moorish 
 pirates, declare war .... 22 Oct. 1859 
 
 Negotiations fruitless : the Spanish government 
 increasing their demands as the sultan yielded ; 
 the English government interfered in vain. For 
 the war, see Spain 1859-60 
 
 A Moorish ambassador (the first since the time of 
 Charles II.) in London. (He gave 200?. to the 
 lord mayor for the London charities) June-Aug. i860 
 
 The British government gave a guarantee for a loan 
 of 426,000!. to the sultan to meet his engagements 
 with Spain 24 Oct. 1861 
 
 SULTANS. 
 
 1822 Muley Abderrahman. 
 1859. Sidi Mohammed, Sept. 
 
 MOEPHIA, an alkaloid, discovered in opium 
 by Sertiirner, in 1803. 
 
 MOEEILLTAEIFF, see United States, 1861. 
 
 MOETALITY TABLES have been fre- 
 quently compiled. The Northampton tables (for 
 1735-80), by Dr. Price; the Carlisle tables (for 
 1780-87;, by Dr. Hailsham; see Bills of Mortality. 
 
 MOETAEA ABDUCTION, see Jews, 1858. 
 
 MOETAES, a short gun with a large bore, and 
 close chamber, for throwing bombs ; said to have 
 been used at Naples in 1435, and first made in 
 England in 1543. The mortar left by Soult at 
 Cadiz in Spain was fixed in St. James' s-park in 
 Aug. 1816. On 19 Oct. 1857, a colossal mortar, 
 constructed by Mr. Robert Mallet, was tried at 
 Woolwich ; with a charge of 70 lbs. it threw a 
 shell weighing 2550 lbs. 1 £ mile horizontally, and 
 about I mile in height. 
 
 MOETELLA TOWEES, see Martello. 
 
 MOETIMEE'S CEOSS (Herefordshire). 
 The earl of Pembroke and the Lancastrians were 
 here severely defeated by the young duke of York, 
 afterwards Edward IV., 2 Feb. 1461. He assumed 
 the throne as Edward IV. in March following. 
 
 MOETMAIN ACTS {mort main, dead hand). 
 When the survey of all the land in England was 
 made by William I., 1085-6, the whole was found 
 to amount to 62,215 knights' fees, of which the 
 church then possessed 28,015, to which additions 
 were afterwards made, till the 7th of Edward I., 
 1279, when the statute of hiortmain was passed, 
 from a fear that the estates of the church might 
 grow too bulky. By this act it was made unlawful 
 to give any estates to the church without the king's 
 leave ; and this act, by a supplemental provision, 
 was made to reach all lay-fraternities, or corpora- 
 tions, in the 15th of Richard II., 1391. Mortmain 
 being such a state of possession as makes property 
 inalienable, it is said to be in a dead hand. Several 
 statutes have been passed on this subject; legacies 
 by mortmain were especial]}' restricted by the 9th 
 Geo. II., c. 36 (1736). 
 
 MOSAIC WOEK (the Roman opus tessella- 
 tion), is of Asiatic origin, and is probably referred 
 to in Esther, ch. i. 6, about 519 b.c. It had 
 attained to great excellence in Greece, in the time 
 of Alexander and his successors, when Sosos of 
 Pergamus, the most renowned Mosaic artist of 
 antiquity, flourished. He acquired great fame by 
 his accurate representation of an " unswept floor 
 after a feast." The Romans also excelled in Mosaic 
 work, as evidenced by the innumerable specimens 
 preserved. Byzantine Mosaics date from the 4th 
 century after Christ. The art was revived in Italy 
 by Tafi, Gaddi, Cimabue, and Giotto, who designed 
 Mosaics, and introduced a higher style in the 13th 
 century. In the 16th century Titian and Veronese 
 also designed subjects for this art. The practice of 
 
MOSCOW. 
 
 453 
 
 MULE. 
 
 copying paintings in Mosaics came into rogue in 
 the 17th century ; and there is now a workshop in 
 the Vatican where chemical science is employed in 
 the production of colours, and Avhere 20,000 different 
 tints are kept. In 1861, Dr. Salviati of Venice had 
 established his manufacture of "Enamel-mosaics/' 
 and in July, 1864, he fixed a large enamel Mosaic 
 
 Eicture in one of the spandrils under the dome of 
 t. Paul's cathedral, London. He has since 
 executed commissions for the queen and other 
 persons. 
 
 MOSCOW, the ancient capital of Russia, was 
 founded, it is said, by Dolgorouki, about 1147. The 
 occupation of the south of Eussia by the Mongols, 
 in 1235, led to Moscow becoming the capital, and 
 beginning with Jaroslav II., 1238, its princes 
 became the reigning dynasty. It is regarded as a 
 holy city by the Eussians. 
 
 Cathedral of the Assumption built, 1326 ; of the 
 
 Transfiguration 1328 
 
 The Kremlin founded 1367 
 
 Moscow plundered by Timour 1382 
 
 By the Tartars 1451, 1477 
 
 Massacre of Demetrius and his Polish adherents, 
 
 the "Matins of Moscow" . . . 27 May, 1606 
 Moscow ravaged by Ladislas of Poland in] . .1611 
 
 The university founded 1705 
 
 Entered by Napoleon I. and the French, 14 Sept. ; 
 the governor, Rostopchin, is said to have ordered 
 itto.be set on fire (11,840 houses burnt, besides 
 palaces and churches) . . . .13 Sept. 1812 
 The French evacuate Moscow . . . Oct. ,, 
 Railway to St. Petersburg opened .... 1851 
 Industrial exhibition 16 July, 1865 
 
 MOSKIRCH (Baden). Fere the Austrians 
 were defeated by Moreau and the French, 5 May, 
 1800. 
 
 MOSKWA or Borodino, Battle of; see 
 
 Borodino. 
 
 MOSQUITO COAST (Central America). 
 The Indians inhabiting this coast were long under 
 the protection of the British, who held Belize and a 
 group of islands in the bay of Honduras. The 
 jealousy of the United States long existed on this 
 subject. In April, 1850, the two governments 
 covenanted not "to occupy, or fortify, or colonise, 
 or assume, or exercise any dominion over any part 
 of Central America." In 1855 the United States 
 charged the British government with an infraction 
 of the treaty ; on which the latter agreed to cede 
 the disputed territory to the republic of Honduras, 
 with some reservation.* The matter was finally 
 settled in 1859. 
 
 MOSS-TROOPERS, desperate plunderers, 
 and lawless soldiers, secreting themselves in the 
 mosses on the borders of Scotland. Many severe 
 laws were enacted against them, but they were not 
 extirpated till the 18th century. 
 
 MOTTOES, ROYAL. Dieu et mon Droit, 
 first used by Eichard I. , 1 198. Ich dien, " I serve," 
 adopted by Edward the Black Prince, at the battle 
 of Cressy, 1346. Honi soit qui mal y pense, the 
 motto of the Garter, 1349- Je maintiendrai, " 1 
 will maintain," adopted by William III., to which 
 he added, in 1688, " the liberties of England and 
 the Protestant religion." Semper eadem, was 
 assumed by queen Elizabeth, 1558, and adopted by 
 queen Anne, 1702. See them severally. 
 
 * St. Juan del Norte (Greytown) was held by the British 
 on behalf of the Mosquitoes till the American adventurers, 
 under col. Kinney, took possession of it in Sept. 1855. 
 He joined Walker ; and on 10 Feb. 1856, their associate 
 Rivas, the president, claimed and annexed the Mosquito 
 territory to Nicaragua. 
 
 MOUNTAIN PARTY, see Clubs, French. 
 
 MOUNT EVEREST, 29,002 feet high, the 
 highest point in the Himalayas and as yet known 
 in the world, was named after the late sir George 
 Everest, superintendent of the trigonometrical sur- 
 vey of India in Dec. 1843, by his successor, col- 
 Andrew "Waugh. 
 
 MOUNTS, see Bernard, Calvary, Etna, Secla, 
 Olivet, and Vesuvius. 
 
 MOURNING FOR THE DEAD. The Israel- 
 ites neither washed nor anointed themselves during 
 the time of mourning, which for a friend lasted 
 seven days ; upon extraordinary occasions a month. 
 The Greeks and Eomans fasted. "White was used 
 in mourning for the imperial family at Constanti- 
 nople, 323. The ordinary colour for mourning in 
 Europe is black ; in China, white ; in Turkey, 
 violet ; in Ethiopia, brown ; it was white in Spain 
 until 1498. Anne of Brittany, the queen of two 
 successive kings of Erance, mourned in black, 
 instead of the then practice of wearing white, on 
 the death of her first husband, Charles VIII., 7 
 April, 1498. He'nault. 
 
 MOUSQUETAIRES or Musketeers, 
 
 horse-soldiers under the old French regime, raised 
 by Louis XIII., 1622. This corps was considered 
 a military school for the French nobility. It was 
 disbanded in 1646, but was restored in 1657. A 
 second company was created in 1660, and formed 
 cardinal Mazarin's guard. Henault. 
 
 MOZAMBIQUE, chief of the Portuguese 
 territories, E. Africa, on an isle, was visited by 
 Vasco de Gama, 1498 ; conquered by the Portuguese 
 under Tristan da Cunha and Albuquerque, 1506 ; a 
 settlement was established, 1508. 
 
 MUCKER {hypocrites), a German sect; see 
 
 MUGGLETONIANS, so called from Ludo- 
 wic Muggleton, a tailor, known about 1641, promi- 
 nent about 1650; convicted of blasphemy, Jan. 
 1676; died, 1697. He and John Eeeve affirmed 
 that God the Father, leaving the government of 
 heaven to Elias, came down and suffered death in a 
 human form. They asserted that they were the two 
 last witnesses of God which should appear before 
 the end of the world, Rev. xi. 3. This sect existed, 
 1850. 
 
 MUHLBERG, on the Elbe, Prussia. Here 
 the German protestants were defeated by the em- 
 peror Charles V., 24 April, 1547, and John Frede- 
 rick, elector of Saxony, was taken prisoner. 
 
 MUHLDORF (Bavaria). Near this place 
 Frederick, duke of Austria, was defeated and taken 
 prisoner by Louis of Bavaria, 28 Sept. 1322. 
 
 MULBERRY TREES. The alleged first 
 planted in England are in the gardens of Sion- 
 house. Shakspeare planted a mulberry-tree with 
 his own hands at Stratford-upon-Avon ; and Gar- 
 rick, Macklin, and others were entertained under it 
 in 1742. Shakspeare' s house was afterwards sold 
 to a clergyman of the name of Gastrel, who cut 
 down the mulberry-tree for fuel, 1765. A silver- 
 smith purchased the whole, and manufactured it 
 into memorials. 
 
 MULE, a spinning machine invented in 1779 
 by Samuel Crompton, born at Bolton, Lancashire, 
 in 1753 ; named, from Crompton' s residence, Hall- 
 in-the-wood-wheel ; and muslin-wheel, from its 
 riving birth to the British muslin and cambne 
 manufacture ; and mule, from its combining the 
 
MULHOUSE. 
 
 454 
 
 MUSIC. 
 
 advantages of Hargreave's spinning jenny, and 
 Arkwright's adaptation. It is stated that Crompton 
 at the time knew nothing of the latter. He did not 
 patent his invention, but gave it up in 1780. It 
 produced yarn treble the fineness and very much 
 softer than any ever before produced in England. 
 Parliament voted him 5000/. in 1812, now considered 
 a most inadequate compensation. Mr. Eoberts in- 
 vented the self-acting nude in 1825. 
 
 MULHOUSE or MULHAUSEN (in N. E. 
 France), an imperial city, under Kodolph of Haps- 
 burg ; joined the Swiss confederation in 1515 ; 
 annexed to France in 1798 ; conquered and annexed 
 to Germany, 1870-1. The calico manufacture was 
 introduced in 1746. 
 
 MUMMIES (from the Arabic mum, wax) ; see 
 Embalming. The mummies in the British Museum, 
 •with other Egyptian antiquities, were placed there 
 about 1803. Mr. Alex. Gordon, in 1737, published 
 an essay on three Egyptian mummies, one of which 
 ■was brought to England in 1722 by capt. Win. 
 Lethieullier ; two others came in 1734, one of 
 ■which was retained bj T Dr. Mead, the other was 
 given to the College of Physicians. In 1834, Mr. 
 T. J. Pettigrew published a " History of Egyptian 
 Mummies." 
 
 MUNCHENGRATZ (Bohemia) was taken by 
 the Prussians under prince Frederick Charles, after 
 a severe action, 28 J une, 1866. The Austrians lost 
 about 300 killed and 1000 prisoners, and the prince 
 gained about 12 miles of country. 
 
 MUNDA (now Monda, S. Spain). Here Cneius 
 Scipio defeated the Carthaginians, B.C. 216; and 
 here Julius Cresar defeated the sons of Pompey, 1 7 
 March, 45, after a severe conflict. 
 
 MUNDANE ERAS. That of Alexandria 
 fixed the creation at 5502 B.C. This computation 
 continued till a.d. 284. Alex, era, 5786; but in 
 a.d. 285 ten years were subtracted, and 5787 be- 
 came 5777. This coincided with the Mundane era 
 of Antioch (which dated the creation 5492 B.C.). 
 Nicholas. 
 
 MUNICH, the capital of Bavaria, founded by 
 duke Henry of Saxony, 962. It was taken by 
 Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden in 1632; by the 
 Austrians, in 1704, 1741, and 1743; and by the 
 French under Moreau, 2 July, 1800. It abounds in 
 schools, institutions, and manufactories. The 
 university was founded by king Louis in 1826. A 
 Bavarian art-exhibition was opened here by prince 
 Adalbert, 20 July, 1869. A congress of " Old 
 Catholics" {which see) met here, 23 Sept. 1871. 
 
 MUNICIPAL CORPORATIONS, &c.;sce 
 Corporations, 
 
 MUNSTER (W. Prussia). The bishopric, said 
 to have been founded by Charlemagne, 780, was 
 secularised in 1802 ; seized by the French, 1806 ; 
 part of the duchy of Berg, 1809; annexed to France, 
 1810; ceded to Prussia, 1815. The Anabaptists, 
 under John of Leyden, the king of Munster, held 
 the city in 1534-5. Here were signed the prelimi- 
 naries of the treaty of "Westphalia {tchich see), 
 or Munster, Jan. 1647 ; definitively signed 24 Oct. 
 1648. — Munster, the southern province of Ireland, 
 an ancient kingdom. In 1568 a commission was 
 issued for its government by a president and coun- 
 cil, and new colonies weie founded in 1588. 
 
 MURADAL, see Toloso. 
 
 MURCIA, a province, N. E. Spain, was sub- 
 dued by the Moors, 713; by Ferdinand of Castile, 
 1240; and divided between Castile and Arragon, 
 I305- 
 
 MURDER, the highest offence against the law 
 of God. {Genesis ix. 6, 2348 B.C.) A court of 
 Epheta3 was established by Demophoon of Athens 
 for the trial of murder, 1 179 B.C. The Persians did 
 not punish the first offence. In England, during 
 a period of the heptarchy, murder was punished 
 by fines only. So late as Henry VIII. 's time the 
 crime was compounded for in Wales. Murderers 
 were allowed benefit of clergy in 1503. Aggravated 
 murder, or petit treason (a distinction now abo- 
 lished) , happened in three ways : by a servant 
 killing his master, a wife her husband, and an 
 ecclesiastical person his superior, stat. 25 Edw. III. 
 1350. The enactments relating to this crime are 
 very numerous, and its wilful commission has been 
 rarely pardoned by our sovereigns. The act whereby 
 the murderer should be executed on the day next 
 but one after his conviction, was repealed, 1836; 
 see Executions and Trials. 
 
 MURET (S. France). Here the Albigenses, 
 under the count of Thoulouse, were defeated by 
 Simon de Montfort, and their ally Peter of Arragon 
 killed, 12 Sept. 1213. 
 
 MURFREESBOROUGH (Tennessee, N. 
 America) was the site of fierce conflicts between 
 the federals under Rosencrans and the confederates 
 under Bragg, from 31 Dec. 1862 to 3 Jan. 1863, when 
 Bragg retired with great loss. This struggle is 
 called also the battle of Stone Biver. 
 
 MURIATIC ACID, see Alkali. 
 
 MUSCAT, an Arab state on the gulf of Oman, 
 was conquered by the Portuguese under Albu- 
 querque in 1507, but recovered by the Arabs in 
 1648. Sultan Seid, the imaum, an able sovereign, 
 reigned from 1803 to 1856, when his dominions were 
 divided between two of his sons. 
 
 In Oct. 1868, it was stated that the imaum Selim 
 Syud was compelled to fly, and that a chief, Azan 
 bin Gheo, had seized the government 
 
 The imaum endeavoured to regain his authority, 
 
 Aug. 1870 
 
 The city was taken by Syud Toorkee, and the chief 
 killed about 30 Jan. 1871 
 
 Syud had maintained his power . . . Sept. „ 
 
 MUSEUM, originally a quarter of the palace 
 of Alexandria, like the Prytaneum of Athens, where 
 eminent learned men were maintained by the pub- 
 lic. The foundation is attributed to Ptolemy 
 Philadelphus, who here placed his library about 280 
 B.C. Besides the British Museum, Soane's Museum, 
 and the Museum of Geology {tchich sec), there are 
 very many others in London. 
 
 MUSIC* "Jubal, the father of all such as 
 handle the harp and the organ" (3875 B.C., Gen. 
 iii. 21). The flute, and harmony, or concord in 
 music, are said to have been invented by Hyagnis, 
 1506 B.C. Arund. Marbles. Vocal choruses of 
 men are first mentioned 556 B.C. Dufresnoy. See 
 Organ, and other musical instruments. Prior to 
 1600, the chief music in England was masses, 
 
 * Pythagoras (about 555 b.c.) maintained that the 
 motions of the twelve spheres must produce delightful 
 sounds, inaudible to mortal ears, which he called " the 
 music of the spheres." St. Cecilia, said to have enticed 
 an angel from the celestial regions by her melody, is 
 termed the patroness of music. She died in the second 
 century. 
 
MUSIC. 
 
 455 
 
 MUTINA. 
 
 ballads, and madrigals, but dramatic music was 
 much, cultivated from that time. About the end of 
 James I.'s reign, a music professorship was founded 
 in the university of Oxford by Dr. Wm. Hychin ; 
 and the year 1710 was distinguished by the arrival 
 in England of George Frederick Handel. Mozart 
 came to England in 1763 ; Joseph Haydn in 1791 ; 
 ^nd Carl Maria von Weber in 1825. 
 
 Musical Notes, &c. See Gamut The first. six are said 
 to have been invented by Guy Aretino, a Benedictine 
 monk of Arezzo, about 1025. Blair. The notes at 
 present used were perfected in 1338. Counterpoint 
 was brought to .perfection by Palestrina about 1555. 
 Gaffbrio of Lodi read lectures on musical composition 
 in the 15th century, and they effected great improve- 
 ment in the science. The Italian style of composition 
 was introduced into these countries about 1616. 
 
 The Musical Pitch was settled in Prance in i860. The 
 middle C to be 522 vibrations.in a second. At a meeting 
 on the subject, held at the Society of Arts, in 23 Nov. 
 i860, the concert pitch of C was recommended to be 
 528 vibrations in a second. Mr. Hullah adopted 512 
 vibrations. 
 
 A lower pitch was adopted at concerts in London in Jan. 
 1869. 528 vibrations for C adopted for performances 
 at the international exhibition of 1872, at a meeting, 
 20 Jan. 1872. 
 
 [Handel's tuning-fork, 1740, was 495 ; the Philharmonic 
 Society's, 1813-43, was S 3 ^-] 
 
 Musical Festivals in England. Dr. Bysse, chancellor 
 of Hereford, about 1724, proposed to the members of 
 the choirs, a collection at the cathedral door after 
 morning service, when forty guineas were collected 
 and appropriated to charitable purposes. It was then 
 agreed to hold festivals at Hereford, Gloucester, and 
 Worcester, in rotation annually. Until the year 1753, 
 the festival lasted only two days ; it was then ex- 
 tended at Hereford to three evenings ; and at Glouces- 
 ter, in 1 757, to three mornings, for the piupose of in- 
 troducing Handel's "Messiah," which was warmly 
 received, and has been performed annually ever since. 
 Musical festivals on a great scale are now annually held 
 at various cathedrals in England ; see Handel and 
 Crystal Palace. 
 
 Study of music greatly increased by the teaching of John 
 Hullah and others since 1840. 
 
 The Tonic sol-fa system, in which the letters d, r, m, f, s, 
 I, t, (fordo, re, mi, fa, so, la, ti, or si) are used instead of 
 notes, was invented by Miss Glover, of Norwich, and 
 improved by John Curwen, about 1847. 
 
 Musical Institutions. The Ancient Academy of Music 
 was instituted in 1710. It originated with numerous 
 eminent performei's and gentlemen wishing to promote 
 the study of vocal harmony. 
 
 Madrigal Society was established in 1741, and other musi- 
 cal societies followed. 
 
 Royal Society of Music arose from the principal nobility 
 and gentry uniting to promote the performance of 
 operas composed by Handel, 1785. 
 
 Philharmonic Society's concerts began in 1813. 
 
 Boyal Academy of Music, established 1822, {which see). 
 
 New Philharmonic Society established 1852. 
 
 Sacred Harmonic Society, Exeter hall, established 1831. 
 500th performance, 13 Dec. 1867. 
 
 Musical Union, founded by John Ella, 1845. 
 
 Musical Society of London, established 1858. 
 
 "Popular Monday Concerts" at St. James's Hall, 
 founded by S. A. Chapell, commenced with a Mendels- 
 sohn night," 14 Feb. 1859. 
 
 London Academy of Music founded in i860. 
 
 Centenary of the " Noblemen's Catch Club " was kept in 
 July, 1861. 
 
 Cecilian Society, London, founded about 1785 ; ceased in 
 1862. 
 
 " Musical Education Committee " of the Society of Arts, 
 London, with the prince of Wales as chairman, held its 
 first meeting 22 May, 1865. Its first report, dated 27 
 June, 1866, recommended the reconstitution of the 
 Royal Academy. 
 
 The Wagner Society in London gave concerts to intro- 
 duce R. Wagner's so-called " Music of the Future " 
 (the due combination of music and poetry), Feb. 1873. 
 
 Musical Charities. Royal Society of Musicians, estab- 
 lished 1738 ; incorporated 1790. 
 
 Royal Society of Female Musicians, established 1839. 
 
 Choir Benevolent Fund, 1851. 
 
 eminent musical composers. 
 
 Bom Died 
 
 Tallis . 1585 
 
 Palestrina 1529 1594 
 
 T. Morley 1604 
 
 Orlando Gibbons 1583 1624 
 
 H. Lawes 1600 1662 
 
 Lully J 633 1672 
 
 Purcell 1658 1695 
 
 J. Seb. Bach* 1685 1754 
 
 G. F. Handel 1684 1759 
 
 T. A. Arne 1710 1778 
 
 C. Gliick 1714 1787 
 
 W. A. Mozart 1756 1791 
 
 Joseph Haydn 1732 1809 
 
 C.'Dibdin 1748 1814 
 
 S. Webbe 1740 1817 
 
 J. W. Calleott 1766 1821 
 
 C. Weber 1786 1826 
 
 L. Beethoven . 1770 1827 
 
 H. Bishop 1787 l8 55 
 
 M. Cherubini 1760 1842 
 
 F. Mendelssohn-Bartholdy . . . . 1809 1848 
 
 L. Spohr . . . . . . 1783 1859 
 
 D. T. Auber 1784 1871 
 
 J. Meyerbeer 1794 1864 
 
 J. E. Halevy ....... 1799 1862 
 
 J. Rossini ....:.. 1792 1868 
 
 M. W. Balfe 1808 1870 
 
 S. Thalberg 1812 1871 
 
 R. Wagner 1813 
 
 W. Sterndale Bennett 1816 
 
 MUSICAL GLASSES, see under Sarmonic. 
 
 MUSKETS, see Firearms. 
 
 MUSKETEY SCHOOLS at Hythe and 
 Fleetwood were established in 1854 under the 
 superintendence of major-general C. C. Hay. He 
 resigned in 1867. The school at Fleetwood was 
 closed the same year. 
 
 MUSLIN, a fine cotton cloth, so called, it is 
 said, from having a downy nap on its surface, re- 
 sembling moss (French, mousse) ; according to 
 others, because it was first brought from Moussol, 
 in India. Muslins were first worn in England in 
 1670. Anderson. By means of the Mule {which 
 see), British have very much superseded India 
 muslins. 
 
 MUTA (Syria). Here Mahomet and his fol- 
 lowers defeated the Christians in his first conflict 
 with them, 629. 
 
 MUTE. A prisoner is said to stand mute, when 
 being arraigned for treason or felony, he either 
 makes no answer, or answers foreign to the pur- 
 pose. Anciently, a mute was subjected to torture. 
 
 Walter Calverly, esq., of Calverly in Yorkshire, having 
 
 murdered two of his children, and stabbed his wife in 
 
 a fit of jealousy, being arraigned for his crime at York 
 
 assizes, stood mute, and was thereupon pressed to 
 
 death in the castle, a large iron weight being placed upon 
 
 his breast, 5 Aug. 1605. Stow. 
 Major Strangeway suffered death in a similar manner 
 
 at Newgate for the murder of his brother-in-law, Mr. 
 
 Fussell, 1657. 
 Judgment was awarded against mutes, as if they were 
 
 convicted or had confessed, by 12 Geo. III. 1772. 
 A man refusing to plead was condemned and executed at 
 
 the Old Bailey on a charge of murder, 1778, and another 
 
 on a charge of burglary at Wells, 1792. 
 An act passed by which the court is directed to enter a 
 
 plea of " not guilty " when the prisoner will not plead, 
 
 1827. 
 
 MUTINA (now Modena), N. Italy. Here 
 Mark Antony, after defeating the consul Pansa, was 
 himself beaten with great loss by Hirtius the other 
 consul, and compelled to flee to Gaul, 27 April, 
 
 43 B.C. 
 
 * He had eleven sons ; four of them distinguished 
 musicians. 
 
MUTINIES. 
 
 456 
 
 NAFELS. 
 
 MUTINIES, British. The mutiny through- 
 out the lieet at Portsmouth for an advance of wages, 
 April, 1797- It subsided on a promise from the 
 Admiralty, which not being quickly fulfilled, occa- 
 sioned a second mutiny on board the London man- 
 of-war ; admiral Colpoys, and his captain, were put 
 into confinement for ordering the marines to fire, 
 whereby some lives were lost. The mutiny sub- 
 sided 10 May, 1797, when an act was passed to raise 
 the wages, and the king pardoned the mutineers. 
 
 Mutiny of the Bounty, 28 April, 1789 ; see Bounty. 
 
 Mutiny at the Nore, which blocked up the trade of the 
 Thames, broke out on 27 May, 1797, and subsided 13 
 June, 1797, when the principal mutineers were put in 
 irons, and several executed (including the ringleader, 
 who had assumed the name of rear-admiral Richard 
 Parker), 30 June, at Sheemess. 
 
 Mutiny of the Thina'e frigate ; the crew earned the ship 
 into Brest harbour, 27 March, 1800. 
 
 Mutiny on board admiral Mitchell's fleet at Ban try Bay, 
 Dec. 1 801, and January following (see Bantry Bay). 
 
 Mutiny at Malta, began 4 April, 1807, and ended on the 
 12th, when the mutineers (chiefly Greeks and Corsi- 
 cans) blew themselves up by setting fire to a large 
 magazine, consisting of between 400 and 500 ban-els of 
 gunpowder. 
 
 For Indian Mutinies, see Madras, 1806, and India, 1857. 
 
 MUTINY ACT (1 & 2 Will, and Mary, c. 5), 
 for the discipline, regulation, and payment of the 
 army, &c, was passed 12 April, 1689, and has since 
 been re-enacted annually. 
 
 MYCALE (Ionia, Asia Minor), BATTLE OF, 
 fought between the Greeks (under Leotychides, the 
 king of Sparta, and Xantippus the Athenian) and 
 the Persians, 22 Sept. 479 B.C. ; the day on which 
 Mardonius was defeated and slain at Plataca by 
 Pausanias. The Persians (about 100,000 men), 
 who had just returned from the unsuccessful expe- 
 dition of Xerxes in Greece, were completely de- 
 feated, thousands of them slaughtered, and tb en- 
 camp burnt. The Greeks sailed back to Samos 
 Avith an immense booty. 
 
 MYCENiE, a division of the kingdom of 
 Argives, in the Peloponnesus. It stood about fifty 
 stadia from Argos, and flourished till the invasion 
 of the Heraclidse. Early history mythical. 
 
 Perseus removes from Argos, and founds Mycense, 
 
 B.C. 1431, 1313, or 1282 
 
 Reign of Eurystheus . . . 1289, 1274, or 1258 
 
 [Towards the close of his reign is placed the story of 
 the labours surmounted by Hercules.] 
 
 iEgisthus assassinates Atreus ; Agamemnon suc- 
 ceeds to the throne ; becomes king of Sicyon, 
 Corinth, and perhaps of Argos I2 oi 
 
 He is chosen generalissimo of the Grecian forces 
 going to the Trojan war . . . about 1 193 
 
 iEgisthus, in the absence of Agamemnon, lives in 
 adultery with the queen Clytemnestra. On the 
 return of the king they assassinate him ; and 
 jKgisthus mounts the throne .... 1183 
 
 Orestes, son of Agamemnon, kills his mother and 
 her paramour 1176 
 
 Orestes dies of the bite of a serpent . . . .1 106 
 
 The Achaians are expelled 
 
 Invasion of the Heraclidae, and the conquerors 
 divide the dominions 1103 
 
 Mycenae destroyed by the Argives . . . . 468 
 
 MYL^iE, a bay of Sicily, where the Romans, 
 under their consul Duilius, gained their first naval 
 victory over the Carthaginians, and took fifty of 
 their ships, 260 B.C. Here also Agrippa defeated 
 the fleet of Sextus Pompeius, 36 B.C. 
 
 MYOGBAPHION, an apparatus for deter- 
 mining the velocity of the nervous current, invented 
 by H. Helmholtz in 1850, and since improved by 
 Du Bois Raymond and others. 
 
 MYSOBE (S. India), was made a flourishing 
 kingdom by Hyder Ali, who dethroned the reign- 
 ing sovereign in 1761, and by his son, Tippoo 
 Sahib, who considerably harassed the English. 
 Tippoo was chastised by them in 1792, and on 
 4 May, 1799, his capital, Seringapatam, was taken 
 by assault, and himself slain. The English esta- 
 blished a prince of the royal family as mabarajah 
 of part of Mysore in 1 799 ; being without an heir 
 he was permitted to adopt a child of four years of 
 age, in Aug. 1867 ; who succeeded him at his 
 death, 27 Mar. 1868. Tippoo's last surviving son, 
 Gholam Mahomet, a British pensioner, died at 
 Calcutta, 11 Aug. 1872. 
 
 MYSTEBIES. " Mystery" is said to be de- 
 rived from the Hebrew mistar, to hide. The 
 Sacred mysteries is a term applied to the doctrines 
 of Christianity, called the " mystery of godliness," 
 1 Tim. iii. 16, as opposed to the " mystery of 
 iniquity," 2 Thess. ii. 7. The Profane mysteries 
 were the secret ceremonies performed by a select 
 few in honour of some deity! From the Egyptian 
 mysteries of Isis and Osiris sprang those of Bacchus 
 and Ceres among the Greeks. The Eleusinian mys- 
 teries were introduced at Athens by Eumolpus, 1356 
 B.C. — Mystery Plays ; see Drama. 
 
 MYTHOLOGY (Greek mythos, fable), the 
 traditions respecting the gods of any people. Thoth 
 is supposed to have introduced mythology among 
 the Egyptians, 1521 B.C. ; and Cadmus, the worship 
 of the Egyptian and Phoenician deities among the 
 Greeks, 1493 B.C. 
 
 N. 
 
 NAAS (E. Ireland). Here a desperate engage- 
 ment took place between a body of royal forces and 
 the insurgent Irish, 24 May, 1798, during the re- 
 bellion. The latter were defeated with the loss of 
 300 killed and many wounded. 
 
 NABONASSAB, Era OF, received its name 
 from the prince of Babylon, under whose reign 
 astronomical studies were much advanced in 
 Chaldaea. The years contain 365 days each, with- 
 out intercalation. The first day of the era was 
 Wednesday (said, in mistake, to be Thursday, in 
 L'Art de Verifier les Dates), 26 Feb. 747 b.c. — 
 3967, Julian period. To find the Julian year on 
 which the year of Nabonassar begins, subtract the 
 
 year, if before Christ, from 748; if after Christ, 
 add to it 747. 
 
 NACHOD (Bohemia). At this place the 
 Prussians, under then - crown prince, defeated 
 the Austrians, after a severe conflict, 27 June, 1866. 
 The Prussian Uhlans vanquished the Austrian 
 cavalry. 
 
 NACOLEA (Phrygia). Near here the usurper 
 Procopius was defeated, and soon afterwards slain 
 by the emperor Valens, 366. 
 
 NAFELS (Switzerland). Here an Austrian 
 army was defeated by a small body of Swiss, 1388. 
 
NAG'S HEAD STOEY. 
 
 457 
 
 NAPLES. 
 
 NAG'S HEAD STORY. Matthew Parker 
 was consecrated archbishop of Canterbury at Lam- 
 beth, 17 Dec. 1559, by bishops Barlow, Coverdale, 
 Scory, and Hodgkins. Many years after, the 
 Romish writers asserted that Parker and others 
 had been consecrated at the Nag's Head Tavern, 
 Cheapside, by Scory. This fiction was refuted by 
 Burnet. 
 
 NAHUM, Festival OF. Nahuni, the seventh 
 of the twelve minor prophets, about 713 B.C. ; the 
 festival is the 24th of December. 
 
 NAISSUS (Mcesia). The Goths were defeated 
 near here with great slaughter by the emperor 
 Claudius II., 269. 
 
 NAJAKA or NAVARETE (N. Spain). At 
 Logrorio, near these places, .Edward the Black 
 Prince defeated Henry de Trastamere, and re- 
 established Peter the Cruel on the throne of 
 Castile, 3 April, 1367. 
 
 NAMES. Adam and Eve named their sons. 
 Gen. iv. 25, 26. A Roman citizen had generally 
 three names ; prcenomen, denoting the individual ; 
 nomen, the gens or clan ; cognomen, the branch of 
 the clan : sometimes he had the agnomen {e. g., 
 Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus) . The popes 
 change their names on their exaltation to the 
 pontificate, "a custom introduced by pope Sergius, 
 whose name till then was Swine-snout," 687. 
 Platina. Onuphrius refers it to John XII., 956 ; 
 stating that it was done in imitation of SS. Peter 
 and Paul, who were first called Simon and Saul. 
 In France the name given at baptism was some- 
 times changed. The two sons of Henry II. of 
 Prance were christened Alexander and Hercules ; 
 at their confirmation these names were changed to 
 Henry and Francis. Monks and nuns, at their 
 entrance into monasteries, assume new names ; see 
 Surnames. 
 
 NAMUE, in Belgium, was made a county in 
 932 ; taken by the French, 1 July, 1692 ; by Wil- 
 liam of England, 4 Aug. 1695 > ceded to the house 
 of Austria by the peace of Utrecht, and garrisoned 
 by the Dutch as a barrier town of the United Pro- 
 vinces in 1 715. The city of Nam ur was ceded to 
 Austria, 1 7 13; taken by the French in 1746, but 
 was restored in 1749. In 1782, the emperor Joseph 
 expelled the Dutch garrison. In 1792 it was again 
 taken by the French, who were compelled to 
 evacuate it in 1793; regained 1794; delivered up 
 to the allies, 1814; assigned to Belgium, 1831. It 
 was a site of a severe conflict in June, 1815, between 
 the Prussians and the French under Grouchy, when 
 retreating after the battle of "Waterloo. 
 
 NANCY (N.E. France), an ancient city, capital 
 of Lorraine, in the 13th century. After taking 
 Nancy, 29 Nov. 1475, and losing it, 5 Oct. 1476, 
 Charles the Bold of Burgundy was defeated beneath 
 its walls, and slain by the duke of Lorraine and 
 the Swiss, 5 Jan. 1477 ; see Lorraine. Nancy was 
 embellished by Stanislas, ex-king of Poland, who 
 resided and died here Feb. 1766. It was captured 
 by Bliicher, Jan. 1814, and on the retreat of Mac- 
 Mahon's army, and expecting the German army, 
 surrendered to four Uhlans, 12 Aug. 1870. It was 
 restored at the peace. 
 
 NANKIN, said to have been made the central 
 capital of China, 420. It was the court of the 
 Ming dynasty from 1369 till Tung-lo removed it to 
 Pekin in 1410. On 4 Aug. 1842, the British ships 
 arrived at Nankin, and peace was made. The rebel 
 Tae-pings took it on 19, 20 March 1853. It was 
 
 recaptured by the Imperialists, 19 July, 1864, and 
 found to be in a very desolate condition. 
 
 NANTES ("W. France), formerly capital of the- 
 Namnetes. The edict in favour of the Protestants 
 issued here by Henry IV., 13 April, 1598, was re- 
 voked by Louis XIV., 22 Oct. 1685. Awful cruelties 
 were committed here by the republican Carrier, 
 Oct. -Nov, 1793 ; see Drowning. 
 
 NAPHTHA, a clear combustible rock oil, 
 known to the Greeks, called "oil of Media," and 
 thought to have been an ingredient in the Greek 
 fire (ivhich see) . 
 
 NAPIEE'S BONES, see Logarithms. 
 NAPEES, formerly the continental division 
 and seat of government of the kingdom of the Two 
 Sicilies, began with a Greek colony named Parthe- 
 nope (about 1000 B.C.), which was afterwards- 
 divided into Palseopolis (the old) and Neapolis (the- 
 neio city) ; from the latter the present name is 
 derived. The colony was conquered by the Romans 
 in the Samnite war, 326 B.C. Naples, after resisting: 
 the power of the Lombards, Franks, and Germans, 
 was subjugated by the Normans under Roger Guis- 
 card, king of Sicily, a.d. 1131. Few countries have 
 had so many political changes, and cruel and des- 
 potic rulers, or suffered so much by convulsions of 
 nature, such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, &c. 
 In 1856, the population of the kingdom of Naples 
 was 6,886,030, of Sicily 2,231,020; total, 9,117,050. 
 It now forms part of the revived kingdom of Italy. 
 Naples conquered by Theodoric the Goth . . 493. 
 
 The city retaken by Belisarius 536 
 
 Taken again by Totila 543, 
 
 Retaken by Narses 552 
 
 Becomes a duchy nominally subject to the Eastern 
 
 empire 568 or 572 
 
 Duchy of Naples greatly extended . . . . 593 
 Robert Guiscard, the Norman, made duke of Apulia, 
 
 founds the kingdom of Naples .... 10591 
 Naples conquered, and the kingdom of the Two 
 
 Sicilies founded by Roger Guiscard II. . . . 113L 
 The imperial house of Hohenstaufeu (see Germany) 
 
 obtains the kingdom by marriage, and rules 1 194-1266 
 The pope appoints Charles of Anjou, king, who de- 
 feats the regent Manfred (son of Frederick II. of 
 Germany) at Benevento (Manfred slain) 26 Feb. ,, 
 Charles defeats "Conradin (the last of the Hohen- 
 staufens who had come to Naples by invitation of 
 the Ghibellines), at Tagliacozzo, 23 Aug. : Con- 
 radin beheaded 29 Oct. 1268; 
 
 The massacre called the Sicilian vespers (ivhich see) 
 
 30 March, 1282 
 Andrew of Hungary, husband of Joanna I. murdered 
 
 18 Sept. 1345, 
 His brother Louis, king of Hungary, invades Naples 1349 
 Queen Joanna put to death . . .22 May, 1382 
 Alphonso V. of Arragon (called the Wise and Mag- 
 nanimous), on the death of Joanna II. seizes 
 
 Naples 143s 
 
 Naples conquered by Charles VIII. of France . . 1494 
 And by Louis XII. of France and Ferdinand of 
 
 Spain, who divide it 1501 
 
 Expulsion of the French 1504. 
 
 Naples and Sicily united to Spain . . . . „ 
 Insurrection of Masaniello, occasioned by the extor- 
 tions of the Spanish viceroys. An impost was 
 claimed on a basket of figs, and refused by the 
 owner, with whom the populace took part, headed 
 by Masaniello (Thomas Aniello), a fisherman ; 
 they obtained the command of Naples, many of 
 the nobles were slain and their palaces burnt, and 
 the viceroy was compelled to abolish the taxes 
 and to restore the privileges granted by Charles 
 
 V. to the city June, 1647 
 
 Masaniello, intoxicated by his success, was slain by 
 
 his own followers 16 July, „ 
 
 Another insurrection suppressed by don John of 
 
 Austria Oct. „ 
 
 Henry II. duke of Guise, lands, and is proclaimed 
 king, but in a few days is taken prisoner by the 
 Spaniards April, 1648 
 
NAPLES. 458 
 
 NAPLES. 
 
 Naples conquered by prince Eugene of Savoy, for 
 
 the emperor 1706 
 
 Discovery of Herculaneum {which see) . . .1711 
 The Spaniards by the victory at Bitonto (26 May) 
 having made themselves masters of both king- 
 doms, Charles (of Bourbon), son of the king of 
 Spain, ascends the throne, with the ancient title 
 
 of king of the Two Sicilies 1734 
 
 Order of St. Januarius instituted .... 1738 
 Charles, becoming king of Spain, vacates the throne 
 in favour of his third son, Ferdinand, agreeably to 
 
 treaty 1759 
 
 Expulsion of the Jesuits .... 3 Nov. 1767 
 Dreadful earthquake in Calabria . . .5 Feb. 1783 
 Enrolment of the Lazzaroni {which sec) as pikemen 
 
 or spontoneers 1793 
 
 The king flees on the approach of the French repub- 
 licans, who establish the Parthenopean republic, 
 
 14 Jan. 1799 
 -Nelson appears ; Naples retaken ; the restored king 
 
 rules tyrannically June, „ 
 
 Prince Caracciolo tried and executed by order of 
 
 Nelson 29 June, ,, 
 
 The Neapolitans occupy Rome . . 30 Sept. ,, 
 Dreadful earthquake ; thousands perish . 26 July, 1805 
 Treaty of neutrality between France and Naples 
 
 ratified 9 (Jet. ,, 
 
 Ferdinand, through perfidy, is compelled to flee to 
 Sicily, 23 Jan. ; the French enter Naples, and Jo- 
 seph Bonaparte made king .... Feb. 1806 
 The French defeated at Maida . . .4 July ,, 
 •Joseph Bonaparte, after beginning many reforms, 
 
 abdicates for the crown, of Spain . . June, 1808 
 Joachim Murat made king (rules well) 15 July, ,, 
 
 His first quarrel with Napoleon .... 181 1 
 His alliance with Austria .... Jan. 1814 
 Death of queen Caroline of Austria . . 7 Sept. ,, 
 Joachim declares war against Austria . 15 March, 1815 
 Defeated at Tolentino .... 3 May, ,, 
 He retires to France, 22 May, and Corsica : he madly 
 attempts the recovery of his throne by landing at 
 Pizzo : seized, tried, and shot . . 13 Oct. „ 
 Ferdinand, re-established, soon returns to tyrannical 
 
 measures June, ,, 
 
 A plague rages in Naples, Nov. 1815 to June . . 1816 
 Establishment of the society of the Carbonari . . 1819 
 Successful insurrection of the Carbonari under gen. 
 Pepe ; the king compelled to swear solemnly to a 
 
 new constitution 13 July, 1820 
 
 The Austrians invade the kingdom, at the king's 
 
 instigation ; general Pepe defeated . 7 March, 1821 
 Fall of the constitutional government . 23 March, ,, 
 Death of Ferdinand (reigned 66 years) . 4 Jan. 1825 
 
 ![In 30 years, 100,000 Neapolitans perished by various 
 
 kinds of death.] 
 Insurrection of the Carbonari suppressed . Aug. 1828 
 Accession of Ferdinand II., Borilba (as faithless and 
 
 tyrannical as his predecessors) . . 8 Nov. 1830 
 Dispute with England respecting the sulphur trade, 
 
 1838 ; settled . . . . ' . . May, 1840 
 Attilio and Emilio Bandiero, with eighteen others, 
 attempting an insurrection in Calabria, are shot 
 
 17 Jan. 1S44 
 l[The statement that lord Aberdeen had given notice 
 of this attempt was contradicted by his lordship.] 
 Prospect of an insurrection in Naples ; the king 
 
 grants a new constitution . . .29 Jan. 1848 
 •Great fighting in Naples; the liberals and the na- 
 tional guard almost annihilated by the royal 
 troops, aided by the lazzaroni . . 15 May, ,, 
 A martial anarchy prevails ; the chiefs of the liberal 
 
 party arrested in Dec. 1849 
 
 Settembrini, Poerio, Carafa, and others, after a 
 mock trial, are condemned, and consigned to hor- 
 rible dungeons for life .... June, 1850 
 After remonstrances with the king on his tyrannical 
 government (May), the English and French am- 
 bassadors are withdrawn ... 28 Oct. 1856 
 Attempted assassination of the king by Milano 
 
 8 Dec. ,, 
 The Cagliari, a Sardinian mail steamboat plying 
 between Genoa and Tunis, sailed from the former 
 port on 25 June, 1857, with thirty-three passen- 
 gers, who, after a few hours' sail, took forcible 
 possession of the vessel, and compelled the two 
 English engineers (Watt and Tark) to steer to 
 Ponza ... . . 25 June, 1857 
 
 [Here they landed, released some prisoners there, 
 took them on board, and sailed to Sapri, where 
 they again landed, and restored the vessel to its 
 commander and crew. The latter steered imme- 
 diately for Naples ; but on the way the vessel was 
 boarded by a Neapolitan cruiser, and all the crew 
 were landed and consigned to dungeons, where 
 they remained for nine months waiting for trial, 
 suffering great privations and insults. This caused 
 great excitement in England: and after much 
 negotiation, the crew were released, the vessel 
 given up to the British government, and 3000L 
 given as a compensation to the sufferers. ] 
 
 Italian refugees, under count Pisaccane, land in 
 Calabria, are defeated, and their leader killed, 
 
 27 Juue-2 July, 1857 
 
 Dreadful earthquake in the Apennines . 16 Dec. „ x 
 
 Amnesty granted to political offenders . 27 Dec. 1858 
 
 Poerio and sixty-six companions released and sent to 
 N. America, Jan. ; on their way, they seize the 
 vessel, sail to Cork, 7 March ; and proceed to 
 London 18 March, 1859 
 
 Death of Ferdinand II., after dreadful sufferings, 
 
 22 May, 
 
 Diplomatic relations resumed with England and 
 France June, 
 
 A subscription for Poerio and his companions in 
 England amounted to io.oooZ. . . July, 
 
 Insubordination among the Swiss troops at Naples, 
 many shot, July 7 ; major Latour sent to Naples 
 by the Swiss confederation . . . 16 July, 
 
 Army increased ; defences strengthened . < )ct. 
 
 Many political imprisonments; the foreign ambas- 
 sadors collectively address a note to the king 
 stating the necessity for reform in his states, 26 
 March ; the count of Syracuse recommends re- 
 form and alliance with England . . April, i860 
 
 Garibaldi lands in Sicily, 11 May ; defeats the Nea- 
 politan army at Calatafimi . . . 15 May, ,, 
 
 Francis II. proclaims an amnesty ; promises a liberal 
 ministry ; adopts a tricolor flag, &c. 26 June, ,, 
 
 Baron Brenier, French ambassador, wounded in his 
 carriage by the mob . . . -27 June, ,, 
 
 A liberal ministry formed ; destruction of the com- 
 missariat of the police in 12 districts ; state of 
 siege proclaimed at Naples ; the queen-mother 
 flees to Gaeta 28 June, ,, 
 
 Revolutionary committee at Naples . 15 June, ,, 
 
 Garibaldi defeats Neapolitans at Melazzo, 20 July ; 
 enters Messina, 21 July ; the Neapolitans agree to 
 evacuate Sicily 30 July, ,, 
 
 The king of Sardinia in vain negotiates with Francis 
 II. for alliance July, „ 
 
 Francis II. proclaims the re-establishment of the 
 constitution of 1848, 2 July; the army proclaim 
 count de Trani king . . . .10 July, ,, 
 
 Garibaldi lands at Melito, 18 Aug. ; takes Reggio, 
 
 21 Aug. ,, 
 
 Defection in army and navy ; Francis II. retires to 
 Gaeta, 6 Sept. ; Garibaldi enters Naples without 
 troops 7 Sept. ,, 
 
 Garibaldi assumes the dictatorship, 8 Sept. ; gives 
 up the Neapolitan fleet to the Sardinian admiral 
 Persano, n Sept. ; expels the Jesuits ; establishes 
 trial by jury ; releases political prisoners Sept. ,, 
 
 He repulses the Neapolitans at Cajazzo, 19 Sept. ; 
 defeats them at the Volturno . . .1 Oct. ,, 
 
 The king of Sardinia enters the kingdom of Naples, 
 and takes command of his army, which combines 
 with Garibaldi's 11 Oct. „ 
 
 Naples unsettled through intrigues . . Oct. ,, 
 
 Cialdini defeats the Neapolitans at Iseniia, 17 Oct. ; 
 at Venafro 18 Oct. „ 
 
 The plebiscite at Naples, &c. ; almost unanimous 
 vote for annexation to Piedmont (1,303,064 to 
 10,312) 21 Oct. ,, 
 
 Garibaldi meets Victor-Emmanuel, and salutes him 
 as king of Italy 26 Oct. „ 
 
 The first English Protestant church built on ground 
 given by Garibaldi ; consecrated . 11 March, 1865 
 
 Cholera raged at Naples .... autumn, 1866 
 
 Great eruption of Vesuvius began . 12 Nov. 1867 
 
 Land-slip at Naples ; 20 persons engulfed 28 Jan. 1868 
 
 Victor-Emmanuel, prince of Naples (son of prince 
 Humbert), born at Naples . . .11 Nov. 1869 
 
 Maritime exhibition opened at Naples . 17 April, 1871 
 
 [History continued under Italy.] 
 
NAPLES. 
 
 459 
 
 NASSAU. 
 
 1131. 
 
 "54- 
 1 166. 
 1189. 
 1 194. 
 
 1 197. 
 
 1282. 
 1285. 
 1309. 
 *343- 
 
 1385. 
 
 Roger I. (of Sicily, n 30) Norman. 
 
 William I. the Bad ; son. 
 
 William II. the Good ; son. 
 
 Tancred, natural son of Roger. 
 
 William III. son, succeeded by Constance, married 
 
 to Henry VI. of Germany. 
 Frederick II. of Germany (Hohenstaxifen). 
 
 SOVEREIGNS OP NAPLES AND SICILY. 
 
 1250. Conrad ; son. 
 
 1254. Conradin, son ; but his uncle, 
 
 1258. Manfred, natural son of Frederick II., seizes the 
 
 government ; killed at Benevento, in 1266. 
 1266. Chas. of A njou, brother of St. Louis, king of France. 
 
 [Conradin beheaded, 29 Oct. 1268.] 
 1282. Insurrection in Sicily. 
 
 NAPLES. 
 
 Charles I. of Anjou. 
 
 Charles II. ; son. 
 
 Robert the Wise ; brother. 
 
 Joanna (reigns with her husband, Andrew of Hun- 
 gary), 1343-45 ; with Louis of Tarento, 1349-62 ; 
 Joanna put to death (22 May, 1382) by 
 
 Charles III. of Durazzo, grandson of Charles II. : 
 he becomes king of Hungary ; assassinated there, 
 1386. 
 
 Louis I., titular, crowned. 
 
 Louis II. , son of Louis I. 
 
 Ladislas of Hungary, son of Charles III. 
 
 Joanna II., sister, dies in 1435, and bequeaths her 
 dominions to Regnier of Anjou. They are ac- 
 quired by 
 
 (Separation of the kingdoms in 1282.) 
 
 SICILY. 
 
 1282. Peter I. (III. of Arragon.) 
 
 1285. James I. (II. of Arragon.) 
 
 1295. Frederick II. 
 
 1337. Peter II. 
 
 1342. Louis. 
 
 1355. Frederick III. 
 
 1376. Maria and Martin (her husband). 
 
 1402. Martin I. 
 
 1409. Martin II. 
 
 1410. Ferdinand I. 
 1416. Alphonso I. 
 
 1494. 
 1495- 
 
 i5°3- 
 1516- 
 1556. 
 
 NAPLES. 
 
 Ferdinand I. 
 
 Alphonso II. abdicates. 
 
 Ferdinand II. 
 
 Frederic II. expelled by the French, 1501. 
 
 1435. Alphonso I. thus king of Naples and Sicily. 
 (Separation of Naples and Sicily in 1458.) 
 
 SICILY. 
 
 1458. John of Arragon. 
 
 1479. Ferdinand the Catholic of Spain. 
 
 Ferdinand III. (king of Spain). 
 Charles I. (V. of Germany). 
 Philip I. (II. of Spain). 
 Philip II. (III. of Spain). 
 
 The Crowns United. 
 
 1621. Philip III. (IV. of Spain). 
 
 1665. Charles II. (of Spain). 
 
 1700. Philip IV. (V. of Spain), Bourbons. 
 
 1707. Charles III. of Austria. 
 
 (Separation in 1713.) 
 
 NAPLES, 
 
 Charles III. of Austria. 
 
 I SICILY. 
 
 1713. Victor Amadeus of Savoy (exchanged Sicily for 
 Sardinia, 1720.) 
 
 The Two Sicilies. 
 
 (Part of the empire of Germany, 1720-34.) 
 
 Charles IV. (III. of Spain). [ 1759. Ferdinand IV. fled from Naples to Sicily, 1806. 
 
 (Separation in 1806.) 
 
 NAPLES. 
 
 Joseph Napoleon Bonaparte. 
 Joachim Murat, shot 13 Oct. 1815. 
 
 06-15. Ferdinand IV. 
 The Two Sicilies. 
 
 1815. Ferdinand I., formerly Ferdinand IV., of Naples 
 
 and Sicily. 
 1825. Francis I. 
 1S30. Ferdinand II., Nov. 8 (termed king Bomba). 
 
 1859. Francis II., 22 May; born 16 Jan. 1836; last King 
 of Naples; deposed; fled 6 Sept. i860. 
 
 t86i. Victor-Emmanuel II. of Sardinia, as King of Italy; 
 March ; (see Italy, p. 372). 
 
 NAPOLEON, CODE, see Codes. 
 
 NAEBONNE (S. E. France), the Eoman 
 Narbo Martius, founded 118 B.C., made capital of a 
 Visigothic kingdom, 462 ; captured by the Saracens, 
 720; re-taken by Pepin le Bref, 759. Gaston de 
 Foix, the last vicomte (killed at Eavenna, 1 1 April, 
 15 12), resigned it to the king in exchange for the 
 duchy of Nemours. Many councils held here, 589- 
 1374- 
 
 NAECEINE and Narcotine, alkaloids 
 obtained from Opium (which see). Nareeine was 
 discovered by Pelletier in 1832 ; and narcotine by 
 Derosne in 1803. 
 
 NAKVA (Esthonia, Russia). Here Peter the 
 Great of Russia was totally defeated by Charles XII. 
 of Sweden, then in his nineteenth year, 30 Nov. 
 1700. The army of Peter is said to have amounted 
 to 60,000, some Swedes affirm 100,000 men, while 
 the Swedes were about 20,000. Charles attacked 
 the enemy in bis intrcnchments, and slew 18,000 ; 
 30,000 surrendered. He had several horses shot 
 
 under him. He said, " These people seem dis- 
 posed to give me exercise." Narva was taken by 
 Peter in 1704. 
 
 NASEBY (Northamptonshire), the site of a 
 decisive victory over Charles I. by the parliament 
 army under Fairfax and Cromwell. The main 
 body of the royal army was commanded by lord 
 Astley ; prince Rupert led the right wing, sir Mar- 
 maduke Langdale the left, and the king himself 
 headed the body of reserve. The king fled, losing 
 his cannon, baggage, and nearly 5000 prisoners, 
 14 June, 1645. 
 
 NASHVILLE (Tennessee, N. America), was 
 occupied by the confederates in 1861, and taken 
 by the federals, 23 Feb. 1862. Near here the con- 
 fedei'ates under Hood were defeated by the federals 
 under Thomas, i4-i6Dec. 1864. 
 
 NASSAU, a German duchy, made a county by 
 the emperor Frederic I. about 1180, for Wolfram, a 
 descendant of Conrad I. of Germany; from whom 
 are descended the royal house of Orange now 
 reigning in Holland (see Orange, and Holland) , 
 
NATAL. 
 
 460 
 
 NATIONAL DEBT. 
 
 and the present duke of Nassau. "Wiesbaden was 
 made the capital in 1839. On 25 April, i860, the 
 Nassau chamber strongly opposed the conclusion of 
 a concordat with the pope, and claimed liberty of 
 faith and conscience. The duke adopted the Aus- 
 trian motion at the German diet, 14 June, and after 
 the war the duchy was annexed to Prussia by decree, 
 20 Sept., and possession taken, 8 Oct. 1866. Popu- 
 lation of the duchy in 1865, 468,311. 
 .1788. Count Frederic William made duke in 1806. 
 1814. William-George, 20 Aug. 
 1839. Adoliihus-William-Charles, bom 24 July, 1817. 
 
 NATAL (Cape of Good Hope). Vasco de Gama 
 landed here on 25 Dec. 1497, and hence named it 
 Terra Natalis. The Dutch attempted to colonise it 
 about 1721. In 1823 lieut. Farewell and a small 
 band of emigrants settled here. It was annexed 
 to the British possessions in 1843; made a bishopric 
 in 1853 (Dr. John Vm. Colenso bishop), and an in- 
 dependent colony in 1856. Attempts to depose 
 bishop Colenso for unsound doctrine having failed, 
 the rev. "W. R. Macro rie was sent out as bishop of 
 Moritzburg, to act with the clergy opposed to their 
 bishop, Dec. 1868. A bishop of Zululand was ap- 
 pointed in 1871. Governor of Natal, Robt. Wm, 
 Keate, 1866; Anthony Musgrave, 1872; see Church 
 of England, 1863-8. 
 
 NATIONAL ANTHEM, see God save the 
 King. 
 
 NATIONAL ASSEMBLY, French. 
 Upon the proposition of the abbe Sieves, the states- 
 general of France constituted themselves the Na- 
 tional Assembly, 17 June, 1789. On the 20th the 
 hall of this new assembly was shut by order of the 
 king ; upon which the deputies of the Tiers Etat 
 repaired to the Jen de Paume, or Tennis-court, and 
 swore not to dissolve until they had digested a 
 constitution for France. On the 22nd they met at 
 the church at St. Louis. This assembly abolished 
 the state religion, annulled monastic vows, divided 
 France into departments, sold the national do- 
 mains, established a national bank, issued as- 
 signats, and dissolved itself 21 Sept. 1792; 6ee 
 National Convention. In 1848 the legislature was 
 again termed the National Assembly. It met 
 4 May, and a new constitution was proclaimed, 12 
 Nov. Anew constitution was once more proclaimed 
 by Louis Napoleon in Jan. 1852, after dissolving 
 the National Assembly, 2 Dec. 1851. The present 
 French national assembly was elected 8 Feb., and 
 met 13 Feb. 1871; see France. 
 
 NATIONAL ASSEMBLY, German, see 
 Germany, 1848. 
 
 NATIONAL ASSOCIATIONS. One was 
 formed in 1584, headed by the earl of Leicester, to 
 protect queen Elizabeth from assassination, in con- 
 sequence of the discovery of various plots. Another 
 for the defence of William III. against assassins 
 was established in 1696, of which all persons hold- 
 ing office under government were required to be 
 members; see Aid to Sick and Wounded, Artillery, 
 Colonics, Social Science, and Volunteers for other 
 national associations. 
 
 NATIONAL CONVENTION of France, 
 
 constituted in the hall of the Tuileries 17 Sept., and 
 formally opened 21 Sept., 1792, when M. Gregoire, 
 at the head of the National Assembly, announced 
 that that assembly had ceased its functions. It was 
 then decreed, " That the citizens named by the 
 French people to form the National Convention, 
 being met to the number of 37 1 , after having verified 
 their powers, declare that the National Convention 
 is constituted." This convention continued until 
 
 a new constitution was organised, and the Execu- 
 tive Directory was installed at the Little Luxem- 
 bourg, 1 Nov. 1795; see Directory. The Chartists 
 {which see) in England formed a National Conven- 
 tion in 1839. 
 
 NATIONAL DEBT. The first mention of 
 parliamentary security for a debt of the nation 
 occurs in the reign of Henry VI. The present 
 national debt may be said to have commenced in 
 the reign of "William III., 1689. It amounted, in 
 1697, to about five millions sterling, and was then 
 thought to be of alarming magnitude. The sole 
 cause of the increase has been icar. By an act 
 passed 31 May, 1867, the conversion of 24,000,000^. 
 of the debt into terminable annuities was pro- 
 vided for. The law is consolidated by the national 
 debt act, passed 9 Aug. 1870 ; see Sinking Fund. 
 
 Debt. 
 
 1689. William in £664,263 
 
 1702. Anne 16,394,702 
 
 1714. George 1 54,145,363 
 
 1763. George III. (end of Seven years' war), 
 
 nearly 138,865,430 
 
 1786. After American war .... 249,851,628 
 1793. Beginning of French war . . . . 244,440,306 
 1802. Close of French war .... 571,000,000 
 1817. English and Irish Exchequers consoli- 
 dated 848,282,477 
 
 1830. Total amount 840,184,022 
 
 1840. Ditto 789,578,720 
 
 1850. Ditto 787,029,162 
 
 1854. Ditto 775,041,272 
 
 (31 March) 
 
 1855. Ditto 793. 375. 199 
 
 1856. Ditto 807,981,788 
 
 1857. Funded debt 780,119,722 
 
 Unfunded 27,989,000 
 
 1858. Funded debt 779,225,495 
 
 Unfunded 25,911,500 
 
 1859. Funded debt 786,801,154 
 
 Unfunded 18,277,400 
 
 i860. Funded debt 785,962,000 
 
 Unfunded 16,228,300 
 
 (31 March) 
 
 1861. Funded debt 785,119,609 
 
 Unfunded 16,689,000 
 
 1862. Funded debt 784,252,338 
 
 Unfunded 16,517,900 
 
 1863. Funded debt 783,306,739 
 
 Unfunded 16,495,400 
 
 1864. Funded debt 777,429,224 
 
 Unfunded 13,136,000 
 
 1865. Funded debt 775,768,295 
 
 Unfunded 10,742,500 
 
 1866. Funded debt 773>3 I 3> 22 9 
 
 Unfunded 8,187,700 
 
 1867. Funded debt 769,541,004 
 
 Unfunded 7,956,800 
 
 1868. Funded debt 741,190,328 
 
 Unfunded 7,911,100 
 
 1869. Funded debt 740,418,032 
 
 Unfunded 8,896,100 
 
 1870. Funded debt 740,789,548 
 
 Unfunded . . . • . . . 6,761,500 
 
 1871. Funded debt 73 I >3°9, 2 37 
 
 Unfunded 6,091,000 
 
 1872. Funded debt 730,986,800 
 
 Unfunded 5,155,100 
 
 [Exclusive of terminable annuities, estimated, 
 1867, 27,521,513?.; in 1872, 55,749,070?.] 
 The annual interest in 1850 was 23,862,257?.; and the 
 total interest, including annuities, amounted to 
 27,699,740?. On 1 Jan. 1851, the total unredeemed 
 debt of Great Britain and Ireland was 769,272,562?., 
 the charge on which for interest and management was 
 27,620,449?. The total charge on the debt for interest 
 and management, 1872, 26,839,601?. 
 
 ESTIMATED FOREIGN NATIONAL DEBTS, 1872. 
 
 France 
 
 £748,000,000 
 
 Holland . 
 
 £80,000,000 
 
 Italy . 
 
 . 360,000,000 
 
 Portugal . 
 
 64,000,000 
 
 Russia 
 
 . 355,000,000 
 
 Belgium 
 
 27,000,000 
 
 Austria 
 
 . . 306,000,000 
 
 Greece 
 
 18,000,000 
 
 Spain 
 
 . 261,000,000 
 
 Roumania . 
 
 13,000 
 
 Turkey 
 
 . . 124,000,000 
 
 Denmark . 
 
 12,000 
 
NATIONAL GALLEEY. 
 
 461 
 
 NATUEALISATION. 
 
 NATIONAL GALLEEY, London, began 
 
 with the purchase, by the British government, of 
 the Angerstein collection of 38 pictures, for 57,000^., 
 in 1824. The first exhibition of them took place in 
 Pall-mall, on 10 May, 1824. Sir G. Beaumont 
 (1826), Mr. Holwell Carr (1831), and many other 
 gentlemen, as -well as the British Institution, con- 
 tributed many fine pictures ; aud the collection has 
 been since greatly augmented by gifts and pur- 
 chases. The present edifice in Trafalgar-square, 
 designed by Mr. Wilkins, was completed and 
 opened 9 April, 1838. In July, 1857, a commission 
 appointed to consider the propriety of removing the 
 pictures reported in favour of their remaining in 
 their present locality ; and in i860, 15,000?. were 
 voted to be expended in adapting the central part 
 of the building to exhibition purposes. On 1 1 May, 
 1861, the National Gallery was reopened after 
 having been closed eight months, during which 
 time great improvements were made in the internal 
 arrangements. On 19 June, 1865, the house of 
 commons voted 20,000?. to buy land to enlarge the 
 building, and an act for this purpose was passed 
 15 July, 1866. Visitors in 1866, 775,901; in 1871, 
 911,658; sum voted for year 1867-8, 15,895?. 
 
 A parliamentary return gives a list of pictures presented 
 to or purchased for the National Gallery — 284 pre- 
 sented, 256 bequeathed, and 313 purchased. The cost 
 of the 313 purchases, which has been spread over 45 
 years, has been 254,527^. Up to 1871, 337,195^ had 
 been expended. The Peel collection (70 pictures), 
 bought for 75,000?., spring, 1871. The "Congress of 
 Munster," a master-piece of Terburg (valued at 7280Z. 
 in 1868), presented by sir Richard Wallace, Oct. 1871. 
 
 NATIONAL GUAED or France, was 
 instituted by the Committee of Safety at Paris on 
 13 July, 1789 (the day before the destruction of the 
 Bastile), to maintain order and defend the public 
 liberty. Its first colours were blue and red, to 
 which white was added, when its formation was 
 approved by the king. Its action was soon para- 
 lysed by the revolution, and it ceased altogether 
 under the consulate and empire. It was revived 
 by Napoleon in 18 14, and maintained by Louis 
 XVIII., but was broken up by Charles X., after a 
 tumultuous review in 1827. It was revived in 1830, 
 and helped to place Louis Philippe on the throne. 
 In 1848 its reconstitution and its enlargement from 
 8o,000 to 100,000 men led to the frightful conflict of 
 June, 1848. Its constitution was entirely changed 
 in Jan. 1852, when it was subjected entirely to the 
 control of the government. Formerly it had many 
 privileges, such as choosing their own officers, &c. 
 In consequence of the defection of part of the 
 National Guard, and the incompetency of the rest 
 during the outbreak in Paris in 1871, its gradual 
 abolition was decreed by the national assembly at 
 Versailles (488-154), 24 Aug. 1871. The peaceful 
 disarmament began in September. National Guards 
 have been established in Spain, Naples, and other 
 countries, during the present century. 
 
 NATIONAL POETEAIT EXHIBI- 
 TIONS, proposed by the earl of Derby, earl Gran- 
 ville, and others, at a meeting in London, 13 July, 
 1865. They were held in what had been the re- 
 freshment room of the exhibition of 1862, at South 
 Kensington. The 1st was opened 16 April ; closed, 
 18 Aug. 1866: 2nd, opened 3 May; closed, 31 Aug. 
 1867 : 3rd, opened 13 April; closed 22 Aug. 1868. 
 
 NATIONAL POETEAIT GALLEEY was 
 
 determined on in Feb. 1857, in pursuance of votes 
 from both houses of parliament. The sum of 2000?. 
 was appropriated for the purchase of portraits of 
 persons eminent in British history. Donations are 
 
 received under certain restrictions. The gallery, 
 Gt. George-street, Westminster, was opened 15 Jan. 
 1859. The collection was removed to South Ken- 
 sington Dec. 1869, and re-opened 28 March, 1870. 
 A valuable collection of National Portraits appeared 
 at the Manchester Exhibition in 1857. 
 
 NATIONAL. SCHOOLS, see Education. 
 
 NATIONAL SOCIETY for promoting the 
 Education of the Poor in the principles of the esta- 
 blished church of England, founded 1811, incorpo- 
 rated 1817. About 13,000 schools and a million 
 scholars are connected with it. Office : Sanctuary, 
 Westminster. 
 
 NATIONAL TESTIMONIALS (subscribed 
 for) were presented to Rowland Hill (for his exer- 
 tions in obtaining the penny postage), 17 June, 
 1846 ; and to Miss Florence Nightingale (for her 
 beneficent exertions for the sufferers during the 
 Crimean war), 29 Nov. 1855. 
 
 NATIONAL TEADE SOCIETY formed 
 against co-operative societies, 1872. 
 
 NATIONAL UNION was formed in 1869 to 
 combine a number of associations supporting the 
 Conservative party. Lecturers were employed and 
 pamphlets circulated. The party was termed Na- 
 tionalists in Aug. 1 87 1. It included the dissatisfied 
 of various parties. 
 
 NATIONAL UNION CONVENTION, 
 
 see United States, 1866. 
 
 NATIONAL WOEKSHOPS, see Ateliers 
 Nationaux. 
 
 NATIONALITY ; a word much used since' 
 1848. In Poland, Hungary, Italy, and Germany, 
 the struggle for nationality has been long and severe. 
 In 1866 agitationfor this principle began in Bohemia, 
 Slavonia, and other parts of the Austrian empire. 
 The nationality of Ireland is the alleged basis of 
 the Fenian agitation ; see Ireland, 1870, and Some 
 Government. 
 
 NATIVITY. There are three festivals in the 
 Roman and Greek churches, under this name. The 
 Nativity of Christ also observed by the Protestants 
 on 25 Dee. (see Christmas) ; the Nativity of the 
 "Virgin Mary, not observed by the Protestants at all. 
 Pope Sergius I., about 690, established the latter, 
 but it was not generally received in France and 
 Germany till about 1000 ; nor by the eastern Chris- 
 tians till the 12th century. The festival of the 
 nativity of St. John the Baptist, 24 June, Midsum- 
 nier-day, is said to have been instituted in 488. 
 
 NATUEAL HISTOEY was studied bv Solo- 
 mon, 1014B.C. (1 Kings iv. 33) ; Aristotle (384-322 
 B.c.);byTheophrastus (394-297 B.C.); and by Pliny 
 (23-79 A.i>.) ; see Botany, Zoology, &c 
 
 NATUEAL PHILOSOPHY, see Philo- 
 
 NATUEAL SELECTION, see Species. 
 
 NATUEALISATION is defined to be "the 
 making a foreigner or alien a denizen or freeman of 
 any kingdom or city, and so becoming, as it were, 
 both a subject and a native of a king or country, 
 that by nature he did not belong to." The first act 
 of naturalisation passed in 1437 ; and various similar 
 enactments were made in most of the reigns from 
 that time ; several of them special acts relating to 
 individuals. An act for the naturalisation of the 
 Jews passed May, 1753, but was repealed in 1754, 
 on the petition of all the cities in England ; see 
 
NATURE PRINTING. 
 
 462 
 
 NAVAL BATTLES. 
 
 Jews, for the privileges since granted them. The 
 act for the naturalisation of prince Albert passed 3 
 Vict., 7 Feb. 1840. A committee to inquire into 
 the naturalisation laws, appointed May, 1868, earl 
 of Clarendon chairman, met 25 Oct. 1808; reported 
 about Feb. 1869; and new acts for this purpose were 
 passed 12 May, 1870, and 25 July, 1872. In 1870 
 there were about 9500 Americans in England, und 
 about 2,500,000 British subjects in the United States 
 of America. By the new act the latter were enabled 
 to renounce their allegiance; and by the conven- 
 tion signed 3 Feb. 1871, the nationality of British 
 subjects was made dependent on choice and not on 
 birth. 
 
 NATURE PRINTING. This process con- 
 sists in impressing objects, such as plants, mosses, 
 feathers, &C, into plates of metal, causing these 
 objects, as it were, to engrave themselves ; and 
 afterwards taking casts or copies tit for printing 
 from. Kniphoft' of Erfurt, between 1728 and 1757, 
 produced his Herbarium virion by pressing the plants 
 themselves (previously inked) "on paper ; the im- 
 pressions being afterwards coloured by hand. In 
 1833, Peter Kyhl, of Copenhagen, made use of steel 
 rollers and lead plates. In 1842 Mr. Taylor printed 
 lace. In 1847 Mr. Twining printed ferns, grasses, 
 and plants ; and in the same year JJr. Branson sug- 
 gested the application of electrotyping to the im- 
 pressions. In 1849, professor Leydolt, of Vienna, 
 by the able assistance of Mr. Andrew "Worring, ob- 
 tained impressions of agates and fossils._ The first 
 practical application of this process is in Yon 
 Heufler' s work on the Mosses of Arpasch, in Tran- 
 sylvania; the second {ikejirst in this country) in 
 " The Ferns of Great Britain and Ireland," e'dited 
 by Dr. Lindley, the illustrations to which were pre- 
 pared under the superintendence of Mr. Henry 
 Bradburv in 1855-56, who also in 1859-60 printed 
 " The British Sea-weeds," edited by W. G. John- 
 stone and Alex. Croall. The process was applied to 
 butterflies by Joseph Merrin of Gloucester, in 1864. 
 
 NAUVOO, Illinois, N. America, a city of the 
 Mormonites(w>/i«'c/i see) ; founded 1S40; left 1848. 
 
 NAVAL ARCHITECTS' INSTITUTE 
 
 was established in Jan. i860. 
 
 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE. A scientific 
 committee of fifteen appointed to consider the pre- 
 sent state of naval architecture, and the require- 
 ments of naval warfare ; 6 naval officers, 9 scientific 
 men ; lord Dufferin chairman ; about 19 Dec. 1870. 
 A royal school of naval architecture was established 
 at South Kensington in 1864. 
 
 NAVAL ASYLUM, Royax, begun at Pad- 
 dington in 1801, was transferred to Greenwich in 
 1807. The interior of the central portion of the 
 building was commenced in 1613 by Anne, queen of 
 James I., and completed in 1635 by queen Henrietta- 
 Maria, whose arms still adorn the ceiling of the 
 room in which her son Charles II. was born, 1630. 
 
 NAVAL BATTLES. The Argonautic expedi- 
 tion, undertaken by Jason is the first upon record, 
 1263 B.C. Dufresnoy. Tke first sea-fight on record 
 is that between the Corinthians and Corcyreans, 
 664 B.C. Blair. The following are among the 
 most celebrated naval engagements : for the details 
 of which see separate articles. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 Battle of Salanris (Greek victory) . . 20 Oct. 480 
 
 Battle of Eurymedon (ditto) 466 
 
 Battle of Cyzicus ; the Lacedemonian fleet taken by 
 
 Alcibiades, the Athenian 410 
 
 Battle of Arginusa; . 406 
 
 Battle of JSgospotamos (Spartans victors) . b.c. 405 
 The Persian fleet, under Conon, defeats the Spartan, 
 at Cnidos ; Pisander, the Athenian admiral, is 
 killed ; and the maritime power of the Lacede- 
 monians destroyed 394 
 
 Battle of MylsB (Romans defeat Carthaginians) . . 260 
 The Roman fleet, off Trepanum, destroyed by the 
 
 Carthaginians 249 
 
 Tile Carthaginian fleet destroyed by the consul Lu- 
 
 tatius 241 
 
 Battle of Aetiurn N 3i 
 
 The emperor Claudius II. defeats the Goths, and 
 
 sinks 2000 of their ships . . . a.d. 269 
 
 Battle of Lepanto (Turks defeated). . 7 Oct. 1571 
 Bay 1 if Gibraltar; Dutch and Spaniards (a bloody 
 conflict and decisive victory, giving for a time the 
 superiority to the Dutch) . . . 25 April, 1607 
 The Austrians defeat the Italians at Lissa (see L issa) 
 
 20 July, 1866 
 
 NAVAL ENGAGEMENTS IN BRITISH HISTORY. 
 
 Alfred with 10 galleys, defeated 300 sail of Danish 
 pirates on the Dorset and Hampshire coast. Asser's 
 Life of Alfred 897 
 
 Edward III. defeats the French near Sluys 24 June, 1340 
 
 Off Winchelsea ; Edward III. defeated the Spanish 
 fleet of 40 large ships, and captured 26 29 Aug. 1350 
 
 The English and Flemings ; the latter signally de- 
 feated 1371 
 
 Earl of Arundel defeats a Flemish fleet of 100 sail, 
 and captures 80 ... 24 March, 1387 
 
 Near Milford Haven ; the English take 8, and de- 
 stroy 15 French ships 1405 
 
 Ort Harfleur ; the duke of Bedford takes or destroys 
 nearly 500 French ships . . . . 15 Aug. 1416 
 
 In the Downs ; a Spanish and Genoese fleet cap- 
 tured 1 >y the earl of Warwick . . . . . 1459 
 
 Bay of Biscay ; English and French, indecisive, 
 
 10 Aug. 1512 
 
 Sir Edward Howard attacks the French under Prior 
 John ; repulsed and killed . . .25 April. 1513 
 
 The Spanish Armada destroyed . . 19 July, 15S3 
 
 Dover straits ; the Dutch admiral Van Tromp de- 
 feated by admiral Blake 28 Sept. The Dutch 
 surprise the English in the Downs, 80 sail engag- 
 ing 40 English, several of which are taken or 
 destroyed, 2S Nov. ; the Dutch admiral sails in 
 triumph through the channel, with a broom at his 
 mast-head, to denote that he had swept the English 
 from the seas 29 Nov. 1652 
 
 The English gain a victory over the Dutch fleet 1 iflf 
 Portsmouth, taking and destroying 11 men-of-war 
 and 30 merchantmen. Van Tromp was the Dutch, 
 and Blake the English admiral . 18-20 Feb. 1653 
 
 Again, off the North Foreland. The Dutch and 
 English fleets consisted of near 100 men-of-war 
 each. Van Tromp commanded the Dutch ; Blake, 
 Monk, and Deane, the English. Six Dutch ships 
 taken ; 11 sunk, and the rest ran into Calais roads 
 
 2 June, ,, 
 Again, on the coast of Holland ; the Dutch lose 30 
 
 men-of-war, and admiral Tromp was killed (the 
 seventh and last battle) . . . Aug. ,, 
 
 At Cadiz, when two galleons, worth 2,000,000 pieces 
 of eight, were taken by Blake . . . Sept. 1656 
 
 Spanish fleet vanquished, and burnt in the harbour 
 of Santa Cruz by Blake . . . .20 April, 1657 
 
 English and French : 130 of the Bordeaux fleet de- 
 stroyed by the duke of York (afterwards James II.) 
 
 4 Dec. 1664 
 
 The duke of York defeats the Dutch fleet off Har- 
 wich ; Opdani, the Dutch admiral, blown up, with 
 all his crew ; 18 capital ships taken, 14 destroyed 
 
 3 June, 1665 
 The earl of Sandwich took 12 men-of-war and 2 India 
 
 ships 4 Sept. ,, 
 
 A contest between the Dutch and English fleets for 
 four days. The English lose 9, and the Dutch 15 
 ships 1-4 June, 1666 
 
 Decisive engagement at the mouth of the Thames, 
 the English gain a glorious victory. The Dutch 
 lose 24 men-of-war, 4 admirals killed, and 4000 
 seamen 25, 26 July, ,, 
 
 The Dutch admiral de Ruyter sails up the Thames 
 and destroys some ships . . .11 June, 1667 
 
 Twelve Algerine ships of war destroyed by sir Ed- 
 ward Spragg 10 May, 1671 
 
 Battle of Southwold bay (see Solebay) 28 May, 1672 
 
NAVAL BATTLES. 
 
 463 
 
 NAVAL BATTLES. 
 
 Coast of Holland ,- by prince Rupert, 28 May, 4 
 June, and 11 Aug. sir E. Spragg killed; d'Etrees 
 
 and Ruyter defeated 1673 
 
 Off Beaohy Head ; the English and Dutch defeated 
 
 by the French 30 June, 1690 
 
 Victory near Cape La Hogue . . 19 May, 1692 
 
 Off St. Vincent ; the English and Dutch squadrons, 
 under admiral Rooke, defeated by the French, 
 
 16 June, 1693 
 Off Carthagena, between admiral Benbow and the 
 French fleet, commanded by admiral Du Casse. 
 
 Fought 19 Aug. 1702 
 
 The other ships of the squadron falling astern, left 
 Benbow alone to maintain the battle. A chain- 
 shot shattered his leg, yet he would not be 
 removed from the quarter-deck, but continued 
 fighting till the morning, when the French 
 sheered off. He died in Oct. following, of his 
 wounds, at Jamaica, where, soon after his arrival, 
 he received a letter from the French admiral, of 
 which the following is a translation :— 
 
 "Carthagena, 22 Aug. 1702. 
 "Sib, — I had little hopes, on Monday last, but 
 to have supped in your cabin ; yet it pleased God 
 to order it otherwise. I am thankful for it. As 
 for those cowardly captains who deserted you, 
 bang them up, for by G — d they deserve it. 
 
 "Du Casse." 
 Captains Kirby and "Wade were shot on their arrival 
 at Plymouth, having been previously tried ,by a 
 court-martiat 
 Sir George Rooke defeats the French fleet off Vigo 
 
 (which see) . 12 Oct. „ 
 
 Off Malaga : bloody engagement between the French, 
 under the count of Thoulouse, and the English, 
 under sir George Rooke . . 13 Aug. 1704 
 
 At Gibraltar ; French lose 5 men-of-war . 5 Nov. ,, 
 In the Mediterranean, admiral Leake took 60 French 
 
 vessels, laden with provisions . . .22 May, 1708 
 Spanish fleet of 29 sail totally defeated by sir George 
 
 Byng; in the Faro of Messina . • 31 July, 1718 
 
 Bloody battle off Toulon ; Matthews and Lestock 
 against the fleets of France and Spain. Here 
 brave captain Cornwall fell with 42 men, including 
 officers ; and the victory was lost by a misunder- 
 standing between the English admirals ' n Feb. 1744 
 Off Cape Finisterre, the French fleet of 38 sail taken 
 
 by admiral Anson 3 May, 1747 
 
 Off Finisterre, when admiral Hawke took 7 men-of- 
 war of the French 14 Oct. ,, 
 
 Off Newfoundland, when admiral Boscawen took 2 
 
 men-of-war 10 June, 1755 
 
 Off Cape FranQoise ; 7 ships defeated by 3 English, 
 
 21 Oct. 1757 
 Admiral Pocock defeats the French fleet in the East 
 
 Indies, in two actions, 1758, and again . . . 1759 
 Admiral Boscawen defeats the French under De la 
 
 Clue, off Cape Lagos .... 18 Aug. ,, 
 Admiral Hawke defeats the French fleet, com- 
 manded by Conflans, in Quiberon Bay, and thus 
 prevents a projected invasion of England (see 
 
 Quiberon Bay) 20 Nov. * „ 
 
 Keppel took 3 French frigates, and a fleet of mer- 
 chantmen 9 Oct. 1762 
 
 On Lake Champlain the provincial force totally de- 
 stroyed by admiral Howe . . . 11 Oct. 1776 
 Off Ushant ; a drawn battle between Keppel and 
 
 d'Orvilliers 27 July, 1778 
 
 In New England ; the American fleet totally des- 
 troyed 30 July, 1779 
 
 Near Cape St. Vincent ; admiral Rodney defeated a 
 Spanish fleet under admiral don Langara (see 
 
 Rodney) 16 Jan. 1780 
 
 At St. Jago ; Mons. Suffrein defeated by commodore 
 
 Johnstone ri6 April, 1781 
 
 Dogger-bank, between admiral Parker and the 
 Dutch admiral Zoutman : 400 killed on each side, 
 
 5 Aug. „ 
 Admiral Rodney defeated the French going to at- 
 tack Jamaica ; took 5 ships of the line, and sent 
 the French admiral, Comte de Grasse, prisoner 
 to England . .... 12 April, 1782 
 
 The British totally defeated the fleets of France and 
 
 Spain in the Bay of Gibraltar . . 13 Sept. „ 
 East Indies : a series of actions between sir Edward 
 Hughes and Suffrein, viz. : 17 Feb. 1782, the 
 French had 11 ships to 9 ; 12 April they had 18 
 
 ships to 11, yet were completely beaten. Again 
 6 July, off Trincomalee, they liad 15 to 12, and 
 were again beaten with loss of 1000 killed 3 
 
 Sept 1782 ; again 20 June, 1783 
 
 Lord Howe defeated the French off Ushant, took 6 
 
 ships of war, and sunk one . . . 1 June 1704. 
 Sir Edward Pellew took 15 sail ; burnt 7, out of a 
 
 fleet of 35 sail of transports . . . 8 March, 1795 
 
 French fleet defeated, and 2 ships of war taken by 
 
 admiral Hotham. Fought . . 14 March, 
 
 Admiral Cornwallis took 8 transports, convoyed by 
 
 3 French men-of-war. Fought . . 7 June, 
 
 Eleven Dutch East Indiamen taken by the Seeptre', ' 
 
 man-of-war, and some armed British Indiamen in 
 
 company i ip Jlme) ^ 
 
 L'Orient : the French fleet defeated by lord Brid- 
 port, and 3 ships of the line taken ; see L'Orient, 
 
 23 June, ,, 
 Dutch fleet, under admiral Lucas, in Saldanha Bay, 
 surrenders to sir George Keith Elphinstone (see 
 
 Saldanha Bay) ■ i 7 Aug. 1796 
 
 Victory off Cape St. Vincent (ivhich see) . 14 Feb 1797 
 Unsuccessful attempt on Santa Cruz; admiral 
 Nelson loses his right arm . . .24 July, 
 Victory of Camperdown (which see) . n Oct " 
 
 Of the Nile (which see) 1 Aug 1798 
 
 Off the coast of Ireland ; a French fleet of 9 sailj 
 full of troops, as succours to the Irish, engaged 
 by sir John Borlase Warren, and 5 taken, 12 Oct. 
 The Texel fleet of 12 ships and 13 Indiamen surren- 
 ders to admiral Mitchell ... 30 Au°- 1790 
 Capture of the CerVere (which see) . . 29 Julyj 1800. 
 Copenhagen bombarded (see Copenhagen), 2 April' 1801 
 Gibraltar bay; engagement between the French 
 and British fleets ; the Hannibal, of 74 guns, lost, 
 
 6 July, ,, 
 Off Cadiz; sir James Saumarez obtains a victory 
 over the French and Spanish fleets ; 1 ship cap- 
 tured. Fought 12 July, „ 
 
 Sir Robert Calder, with 15 sail, takes 2 ships (both 
 Spanish) out of 20 sail of the French and Spanish 
 
 fleets, off Ferrol 22 j llly ^05. 
 
 Victory off Trafalgar (which see) . . 21 Oct. 
 Sir R. Strachan, with 4 sail of British, captures 4 ''" 
 
 French ships, off Cape Ortegal . . 4 Nov. 
 
 In the West Indies ; the French defeated by sir T. ' 
 
 Duckworth ; 3 sail of the line taken, 2 driven on 
 
 shore 6 Feb. 180S 
 
 Sir John Borlase Warren captures 2 French ships, 
 . , . 13 March, ,, 
 
 Admiral Duckworth effects the passage of the 
 
 Dardanelles (see article Dardanelles) . 19 Feb. 1807 
 Copenhagen fleet captured . . . .8 Sept. 
 The Russian fleet of several sail, in the Tagus, sur- ' 
 
 renders to the British .... 3 Sept. 180S 
 Aix or Basque Roads ; 4 sail of the line, &c, des- 
 troyed by lord Gambier . . . n- I2 April, 1809, 
 Two Russian flotillas of numerous vessels taken or 
 destroyed by sir J. Saumarez . . . July, 
 French ships of the line driven on shore by lord 
 Collingwood (two of them burnt by the French 
 
 next day) 25 Qet 
 
 Bay of Rosas, where lieut. Tailour, by direction of " 
 
 captain Hallo well, takes or destroys n war and 
 
 other vessels (see Rosas Bay) . . . 1 Nov. 
 
 Basseterre ; La Loire and La Seine, French frigates) " 
 
 destroyed by sir A. Cochrane . . 18 Dee! 
 
 The Spartan frigate gallantly engages a large French 
 
 force in the bay of Naples ... 3 May, 1810 
 Action between the Tribune, captain Reynolds, and 
 4 Danish brigs. Fought . . . . I2 May, 
 Isle of Rhe ; 17 vessels taken or destroyed by the 
 Armide and Cadmus .... 17 July 
 Captain Barrett, in the merchant vessel, Cumber- 
 land, with 26 men, defeats four privateers and 
 takes 170 prisoners .... 16 Jan. i8it 
 Twenty-two vessels from Otranto taken by the 
 Cerberus and Active .... 22 Feb. 
 
 Amazon French frigate destroyed off Cape Barfleur 
 
 25 March. „ 
 Sagone Bay ; 2 French store-ships burnt by captain 
 
 Barrie's ships x May, 
 
 The British sloop Little Belt, and American ship 
 
 President : their rencontre . . 16 May, 
 
 Off Madagascar ; 3 British frigates under captain 
 
 Schomberg, engage 3 French larger-sized, with 
 
 troops on board, and capture 2 - 20 May, 
 
NAVAL BATTLES. 
 
 464 
 
 NAVIGATION. 
 
 The Thames and Cephahis capture 36 French vessels 
 
 July, 1811 
 The Naiad frigate attacked in presence of Bona] .arte 
 
 by 7 armed praams ; they were gallantly repulsed 
 
 21 Sept. „ 
 French frigates Pauline and Pomonc capture) 1 1 »y the 
 
 British frigates Alceste, Active, and Unite 29 Nov. ,, 
 Mivoli, 84 guns, taken by Victorious, 74, 21 Feb. 1812 
 I/Orient : 2 French frigates, <fcc, destroyed by the 
 
 Northumberland, capt. Hotham . 22 May, ,, 
 
 Cuerriere, British frigate, 46 small guns, captured 
 
 by the American ship Constitution, 54 guns (an 
 
 unequal contest) 19 Au S- » 
 
 British brig Frolic captured by the American sloop 
 
 Warn 18 Oct. „ 
 
 British frigate Macedonian taken by the American 
 
 ship United States, large class . . 25 Oct. ,, 
 British frigate Java taken by the American ship 
 
 Constitution, large class . . . .29 Deo. „ 
 British frigate Amelia loses 46 men killed and 95 
 
 wounded, engaging a French frigate . 7 Feb. 1813 
 •British sloop Peacock captured by the American 
 
 ship Hornet ; she was so disabled that she sunk 
 
 with part of her crew . . . 25 Feb. ,, 
 
 American frigate Chesapeake taken by the Shan rum, 
 
 captain Broke (see Chesapeake) . . 1 June, ,, 
 American ships Growler and Eagle taken by British 
 
 gun-boats ...... 3 June, ,, 
 
 American sloop Argus taken by the British sloop 
 
 Pelican 14 Aug. „ 
 
 .French frigate La Trave, 44 guns, taken by the 
 
 Andromache, of 38 guns . . . 9$ Oct ,, 
 
 French frigate Ceres taken by the British ship 
 
 Tagus 6 Jan. 1814 
 
 French frigates Alcmene and Iphigenia taken by the 
 Venerable 16 Jan. 
 
 French frigate Terpsichore taken by the Majestic 
 
 3 Feb. 
 
 French ship Clorinde taken by the Dryad and 
 Achates, after an faction with the Eurotas, 25 Feb. 
 
 French frigate L'Etoile captured by the II- 
 
 27 March, 
 
 American frigate Essex captured by the Phabe and 
 Cherub 29 March, 
 
 British sloop Avon sunk by the American sloop 
 Wasp 8 Sept. 
 
 Lake Cham plain : the British squadron captured by 
 the American, after a severe conflict, 11 Sept. 
 
 American ship President captured by the 
 
 15 Jan. 1815 
 
 Algiers bombarded by lord Exmouth ; see Algiers 
 
 27 Aug. 1816 
 
 Navarino (which see) 20 Oct. 1827 
 
 Action between the British ships Volagc and 
 Hyacinth and 29 Chinese war-junks, which were 
 defeated 3 ^ T,,v - l8 39 
 
 Bombardment and fall of Acre. The British 
 squadron under admiral Stopford achieved this 
 triumph with trifling loss, while the Egyptians 
 lost 2000 killed and wounded, and 3000 prisoners 
 (see Syria) 3 Nov. 1840 
 
 Lagos attacked and taken by commodore Bruce, 
 with a squadron consisting of the Penelope, Blood- 
 hound, Sampson, and Teazer, war-steamers, and 
 the Philomel brig of war . . 26-27 Dec. 1851 
 
 [For naval actions which cannot be called regular 
 battles, see China and Japan.] 
 
 SHIPS TAKEN OR DESTROYED BY 
 
 THE NAVAL AND MARINE FORCES OF GREAT BRITAIN :— 
 
 
 
 In the French War, ending 1802 
 
 
 
 
 In the French War, ending 18 
 
 [4. 
 
 Force. 
 
 .a 
 
 a 
 
 j 
 
 1 
 
 .S.2 
 Oj5 
 
 Total. 
 
 'a 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 
 od 
 
 Total 
 
 
 PK 
 
 p 
 
 00 
 
 Jz; 
 
 
 £ 
 
 M O 
 
 « 
 
 ■"1 
 
 
 Of the line .... 
 
 45 
 
 25 
 
 II 
 
 2 
 
 83 
 
 70 
 
 27 23 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 124 
 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 O i I 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 9 
 
 
 133 
 
 31 
 
 20 
 
 7 
 
 191 
 
 77 
 
 36 ! 24 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 148 
 
 Total .... 
 
 161 
 
 32 
 
 55 
 
 16 
 
 264 
 
 188 
 
 64 16 
 
 7 
 
 13 
 
 288 
 
 34i ! 8 9 
 
 86 
 
 25 
 
 541 
 
 342 
 
 127 1 64 
 
 17 
 
 19 
 
 569 
 
 NAVAL KNIGHTS of Windsor, see 
 
 Toor Knights. 
 
 NAVAL EEVIEWS, SALUTE, and 
 VOLUNTEEES, see under Navy. 
 
 NAVAEINO (S. W. Greece), settled by the 
 Arabs 6th century; taken by the Turks, 1500; by 
 Tenetians, 1686; by Turks, 1718; by Greeks, 1821 ; 
 "by Turks, 1825. Near here, on 20 Oct. 1827, the 
 • combined fleets of England, France, and Kussia, 
 under command of admiral Codrington, nearly 
 -■destroyed the Turkish and Egyptian fleet. More 
 than thirty ships, many of them four-deckers, were 
 ""blown up or burnt, chiefly by the Turks themselves, 
 to prevent their falling into the hands of their 
 -enemies. This destruction of the Turkish naval 
 jjower was characterised by the duke of Wellington 
 as an " untoward event." 
 
 NAVAEEE, now a province of Spain, formed 
 a part of the Roman dominions, and was conquered 
 from the Saracens by Charlemagne, 778. His 
 descendants appointed governors, one of whom, 
 •Garcias Ximenes, took the title of king in 857. In 
 1076, king Sancho TV. was poisoned, and Sancho 
 Eamorez of Arragon seized Navarre. In 11 34, 
 Navarre became again independent under Garcias 
 Eamorez IV. In 1234, Thibault, count of Cham- 
 pagne, nephew of Sancho VII., became sovereign of 
 Jfavarre; and in 1284, by the marriage of the 
 
 heiress Jane with Philip IV. le Bel, Navarre was 
 united to France. 
 
 SOVEREIGNS OF NAVARRE. 
 
 1274. Jane I. and (1284) Philip-le-Bel of France. 
 
 1305. Louis X. Hutin of France. 
 
 1316. Philip V. the Long, of France. 
 
 1322. Charles I. the Fair, IV. of France. 
 
 1328. Jane II. (daughter of Jane I.), and her husband 
 
 Philip d'Evreux. 
 1349. Charles II., the Bad. 
 1387. Charles III., the Noble. 
 1425. Blanche, his daughter, and her husband, John of 
 
 Arragon. 
 1441. John II., alone, who became king of Arragon, in 
 
 1458. He endeavoured to obtain the crown of 
 
 Castile also. 
 1479. Eleanor de Foix, his daughter. 
 1479. Francis Phcebus de Foix, her son. 
 1483. Catherine (his sister) and her husband John 
 
 d'Albret. Ferdinand of Arragon conquers and 
 
 annexes all Navarre south of the Pyrenees, 1512 
 
 Lower Navarre (in France). 
 1516. Henry d'Albret. 
 1555. Jane d'Albret and her husband, Anthony de 
 
 Bourbon, who died 1562. 
 1572. Henry III. who became in 1589 king of France, to 
 
 which Lower Navarre was formally united iu 
 
 1609. 
 
 NAVIGATION began with the Egyptians and 
 Phoenicians. The first laws of navigation originated 
 with the Khodians, 916 B.C. The first account we 
 
NAVIGATION LAWS. 
 
 465 
 
 NAVY. 
 
 have of any considerable voyage is that of the 
 Phoenicians sailing round Africa, 604 B.C. Blair. 
 
 Plane charts and mariner's compass used about 1420 
 
 Variation of the compass observed by Columbus 1492 
 That the oblique rhomb lines are spiral, discovered 
 
 by Nonius 1537 
 
 First treatise on navigation . . ... 1545 
 
 The log first mentioned by Bourne .... 1577 
 
 Mercator's chart z$gg 
 
 Davis's quadrant, or baekstaff, for measuring angles, 
 
 about 1600 
 
 Logarithmic tables applied to navigation by 
 
 Gunter 1620 
 
 Middle latitude sailing introduced .... 1623 
 
 Mensuration of a degree, Norwood . . . . 1631 
 
 Hedley's quadrant 1731 
 
 Harrison's time-keeper used 1764 
 
 Nautical almanac first published .... 1767 
 
 Barlow's theory of the deviation of the compass . 1820 
 Quarterly Journal of Naval Science, edited by E. J. 
 
 B-eed, published April, 1872 
 
 See Compass, Latitude, Longitude, Steam, &c. 
 
 NAVIGATION LAWS. A code of maritime 
 laws is attributed to Richard I. of England, said to 
 have been decreed at the isle of Oleron, 1 194 (see 
 Olerori), and further enactments were made by 
 Richard II. in 1381. — In Oct. 1651, the parliament 
 passed an act entitled "Goods from foreign parts, 
 by whom to be imported," the principles of which 
 were affirmed by 12 Charles II. c. 18, " an act for 
 the encouraging and increasing of shipping and 
 navigation" (1660). The latter act restricts the 
 importation and exportation of goods from or to 
 Asia, Africa, or America, to English ships, of which 
 the masters and three-fourths of the mariners are 
 to be English. This was followed by many acts 
 of similar tenor ; which were consolidated by 3 & 4 
 "Will. IV. c. 54 (1833). These acts were in the 
 whole or in part repealed by the act " to amend the 
 laws in force for the encouragement of British 
 shipping and navigation" (passed 12 & 13 Vict. c. 
 29, 26 June, 1849, after much opposition), .'and 
 which came into operation 1 Jan. 1850. The steam 
 navigation act passed 14 & 15 Vict. c. 79, 1851, 
 came into operation 1 Jan. 1852. The act regulating 
 the navigation of the river Thames was passed in 
 1786.— In Feb. 1865 the emperor recommended the 
 modification of the French navigation laws ; in Feb. 
 1872, new restrictions were laid upon foreign ships, 
 chiefly affecting British. 
 
 NAVIGATORS (or Navvies). These helpers 
 in the construction of railways probably derived 
 their name (about 1830) from formerly making the 
 inland navigation in Lincolnshire, &c, and are 
 said to be descendants of the original Dutch canal 
 labourers. 
 
 NAVY OF ENGLAND, " whereon, under the 
 good providence of God, the wealth, safety, and 
 strength of the kingdom chiefly depends," Act for 
 the government of the Navy. See Naval Battles. 
 
 A fleet of galleys, like those of the Danes, built by 
 Alfred 897 
 
 The number of galleys greatly increased under 
 Edgar, who claimed to be lord of the ocean sur- 
 rounding Britain about 965 
 
 A formidable fleet equipped by the contribution of 
 every town in England, in the reign of Etheh'ed II. 
 when it rendezvoused at Sandwich, to be ready to 
 oppose the Danes 1007 
 
 A fleet collected by Edward the Confessor to resist 
 the Norwegians, 1042 ; and by Harold to resist 
 the Normans 1066 
 
 Richard I. collected a fleet and enacted naval laws 
 about 1191 
 
 [The Cinque ports and maritime towns frequently 
 furnished fleets commanded by the king or his 
 officers. ] 
 
 Edward III. 's fleet defeat the French at the battle 
 
 of Sluys, 24 June, 1340; and the Spanish off 
 Winchelsea 2 g Aug. 1350 
 
 Henry V. made efforts to increase the navy . 1415-1422 
 
 Henry VII. built the Royal Harry ; considered to be 
 the beginning of the Royal Navy . . . . 1488 
 
 The Trinity house established and the Navy office 
 appointed (see Admiralty and Trinity house) 
 
 [The navy then consisted of the Great Harry, 1200 ' 
 tons, two ships, of 800 tons, and six or seven 
 smaller.] 
 
 James I. and Charles I. improve the navy. The 
 Sovereign of the Seas launched . 
 
 Frigates said to have been first built 
 
 James II. systematises sea-signals and improves the 
 navy 1685-8 
 
 Reign of George III. ; dimensions of ships in- 
 creased; copper sheathing adopted for ships of 
 every class ; establishments of naval stores pro- 
 vided at all dockyards and naval stations ; and 
 various improvements made in shipbuilding 1 760-1820 
 
 1512 
 
 1637 
 1649 
 
 Years. 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Men. 
 
 Navy Estimates. 
 
 1546 
 
 58 
 
 12.455 
 
 8,546 
 
 no account. 
 
 1558 
 
 27 
 
 f7,uo 
 
 3.565 
 
 no account. 
 
 1578 
 
 2 4 
 
 10,506 
 
 6,700 
 
 no account. 
 
 1603 
 
 42 
 
 I7>°55' 
 
 8,346 
 
 no account. 
 
 1658 
 
 157 
 
 57,000 
 
 21,910 
 
 no account. 
 
 1688 
 
 173 
 
 101,892 
 
 42,000 
 
 no account. 
 
 1702 
 
 272 
 
 159,020 
 
 40,000 
 
 1,056,915 
 
 1760 
 
 412 
 
 321.134 
 
 70,000 
 
 3.227,143 
 
 1793 
 
 498 
 
 433,226 
 
 45,000 
 
 5.525.331 
 
 1800 
 
 767 
 
 668,744 
 
 135,000 
 
 12,422,837 
 
 1808 
 
 869 
 
 892,800 
 
 143,800 
 
 17,496,047 
 
 1814 
 
 901 
 
 966,000 
 
 146,000 
 
 18,786,509 
 
 Great Britain had 901 ships; i 77 of theline,ini8i4; 621 
 ships, some of 140 guns each, and down to survey- 
 ing vessels of two guns only ; 148 sail employed 
 on foreign and home service 
 
 The screw propeller introduced in the Royal Navy, 
 
 The total number of ships of all sizes in commission, 
 183 j Jan. 
 
 The Navy consisted of 339 sailing and 161 steam 
 vessels 
 
 Naval Coast Volunteers' act passed . . Aug. 
 
 Of 315 sailing vessels, 97 screw steamers, and 114 
 paddle steamers April, 
 
 Review of the Baltic fleet at Spithead by the Queen, 
 10 March, 1854, and 23 April, 
 
 Of 271 sailing vessels, carrying 9594 guns, and 258 
 steam vessels, carrying 6582 guns ; together 573 
 vessels, carrying 16,176 guns ; also 155 gun- 
 boats, and in vessels on harbour service, July, 
 
 Proclamation for manning the navy . . 30 April, 
 
 Naval Reserve Force authorised . . . Aug. 
 
 Flogging not to be inflicted on first-class seamen 
 except after a trial Dec. 
 
 Great excitement respecting the French Govern- 
 ment building the plated frigate Gloire (see next 
 page) 
 
 The Warrior, our first iron-plated steam frigate, 
 the largest vessel in the world except the Great 
 Eastern (see Steam), length, 380 ft. breadth, 58 ft. ; 
 iron-plate, 4J inches thick ; 6170 tons burthen ; 
 cost about 400,000!. ; launched [censured in 1864], 
 
 29 Dec. 
 
 A royal commission recommends the abolition of 
 the board of admiralty, and the appointment of a 
 minister of the navy department . . March, 
 
 Lord Clarence Paget, secretary of admiralty, states 
 that England has 67 steam ships of the line ; 
 while France has 37, Russia 9, Spain 3, and Italy 1, 
 
 11 April, 
 
 New act for the government of the navy (the Naval 
 Discipline act) passes .... 6 Aug. 
 
 Four iron-plated vessels (400 ft. long ; 59^ ft. wide ; 
 and cost about 6oo,oooi. each) building . Dec. 
 
 Cupola or Turret Ships. Capt. Cowper Coles' mode 
 of constructing iron-plated vessels, with a cupola 
 or turret for firing from, the other parts of the 
 vessel being nearly submerged, made known in 
 1855, and recommended to the admiralty in 1861 ; 
 adopted by Ericson in the Monitor, 1862 ; pro- 
 posed to be adopted by the British government, 
 
 Six different kinds of plated vessels said to be con- 
 structing ; E. J. Reed authorised to build the 
 
 h ir 
 
 1830 
 
 1850 
 1853 
 
 1836 
 
 1859 
 
NAVY. 
 
 466 
 
 NAVY. 
 
 Enterprise as a specimen of an iron-plated sea- 
 going vessel April, 1862 
 
 Royal Oak, iron-clad steamer, launched at Chatham, 
 
 10 Sept. ,, 
 Twin or double screws for vessels of light draught 
 
 introduced 1863 
 
 Mr. E. J. Reed appointed chief constructor in the 
 
 Royal Navy Jan. „ 
 
 Navy ci insists of 1014 vessels of all classes ; 85 line 
 of battle ships ; 69 frigates ; 30 screw corvettes, 
 
 Jan. ,, 
 Steam ram Valiant launched . . . 14 Oct. „ 
 Minotaur iron-steamer launched . . 12 Dec. „ 
 Royal School of Naval Architecture, South Kensing- 
 ton, established 1864 
 
 The turret-ship Sovereign, constructed on Coles' 
 principle, put out of commission, and placed 
 among reserved ships ; this blamed by some, 
 
 Oct „ 
 Naval models from the time of Henry VIII. col- 
 lected early in the present century by sir Robert 
 Seppings, removed to South Kensington Museum, 
 
 Dec. „ 
 29 iron-clad vessels building " to be ready t for sea 
 
 this year" March, 1865 
 
 Bellerophon, iron-clad, by Mr. E. J. Reed ; and the 
 
 Lord Warden, iron-clad, launched . . May, ,, 
 A British fleet entertained at Cherbourg, Brest, &c, 
 15 Aug., &c. ; and a French fleet at Portsmouth, 
 
 29-31 Aug. „ 
 Royal Navy "consists of 735 vessels and steam- 
 ships of all classes " (30 iron-clads ready for sea), 
 
 (see under Cannon) July, 1866 
 
 New Naval Discipline act, passed . . . Aug. ,, 
 Difficult launch of the Northumberland iron-clad, 
 
 17 March, el seq. ; effected . . . 17 April, ,, 
 Experimental cruise of the iron-clad fleet in stormy 
 weather ; general performance satisfactory (Times) 
 
 'Sept. -Nov. ,, 
 Acts for protection of naval stores passed, 1867 and 1869 
 150 wooden ships of all classes sold . . . 1859-67 
 [Of these were 7 line of battle ships and 6 frigates, 
 
 cost above 1,000,000/. , sold for 87,543/.] 
 Hercules, 12, armour-plated ship, 1200 horse-power, 
 
 floated at Chatham 10 Feb. 1868 
 
 The Monarch, our first armour-clad turret ship, 
 
 launched at Chatham .... 25 May, 
 
 47 armoured vessels afloat, with 598 guns ; 66 
 
 efficient unarmoured vessels ; and a large number 
 
 of vessels of the old type, constitute the navy, 
 
 April, 1 86c 
 Satisfactory trial trip of the Navy Reserve squadron, 
 
 July, ,, 
 Explosion of the boiler of the Thistle gun-boat, on 
 
 trial trip ; 10 killed 3 Nov. 
 
 Devastation, iron turret ship, first rivet of her keel 
 clinched by Mr. Childers, the first lord, at Ports- 
 mouth . . .... 12 Nov. 
 
 Resignation of Mr. E. J. Reed, chief constructor', 
 
 July, 1871 
 Adm. sir T. M. C. Symonds reports in favour of the 
 Monarch and Captain turret ships . . Aug. 
 H.M.S. iron-clad frigate, Triumph, launched at 
 
 Jarrow s 2? Sept _ 
 
 The Captain founders near Finisterre about 
 
 12-15 a.m 7 Sept. ,, 
 
 472 lives were lost, including the captain, Hugh 
 Burgoyne, Captain Cowper Coles, the designer of 
 the ship, Mr. Childers (a son of the first lord), 
 :.nd other officers, the elite of the service ; 18 men 
 of the crew were saved. "She capsized in a 
 heavy squall shortly after midnight, and went 
 down in three minutes, "—Gnu tier's report. Her 
 destruction was attributed to too low free-board, 
 heavy top-weight, masts, and hurricane deck! 
 She cost 440,000/. She was built by Messrs. 
 Laird at Birkenhead. 
 A court-martial for the nominal trial of James May, 
 the gunner, and 17 other survivors, was held 27 
 Sept. to 4 Oct. ; Mr. E. J. Reed and other emi- 
 nent authorities were examined ; the verdict was, 
 that the loss of the ship was due to instability 
 from faulty construction: "a grave departure 
 from her original design having been committed " 
 
 Report on the Monarch that her reserve of energy 
 to prevent upsetting by a squall, is 16 to 1 of 
 that of the Captain. — Tints. . . . ioNov. 
 
 Navy. — 55 armoured vessels afloat ; 9 constructing ; 
 effective force afloat, 354 vessels ; and a I 
 
 number of others 1871 
 
 Megcera troopship lost near Amsterdam island (see s 
 
 Wrecks) 16 June, 
 
 The Agineourt, capt. Hamilton Beamish. 6621 tons, 
 struck on the Pearl Rock near Gibraltar, 11 a.m. 
 11 July; got oft' by great skill and management 
 by the Hercules, capt. lord Guildford . 4 July, 
 [After trial, admirals Welleeley and Wilmot ordered 
 to strike flags ; capts. Beamish and Well super- 
 seded ; Others censured; lord Guildford com- 
 mended, Aug. 1871.] 
 Turret vessels of the Monitor type designed by E. 
 J. Reed, launched : the Glutton, 6 March ; !>• 
 tation, 12 July ; Cyclops . . ■ 18 July, ,, 
 New rules respecting promotions, &c. published 
 
 9 Feb. 1872 
 The Thunderer, ocean-going turret ship, launched 
 
 at Pembroke 25 March, ,, 
 
 Lord Clyde, iron-clad, stranded oft' Pantellaria, 15 
 March ; capt. Bythesea and staff-commander 
 May dismissed the service .... May, ,, 
 A trial-trip of the Devastation reported successful, 
 
 15 April, 1873 
 Annual Expenditure of the British Navy. — 1850, 
 6,942,397/. ;— 1854, 6,640,596/. ; — 1855 (to 31 March, 
 Russian war), 14,490,105/. ; — 1856, 19,654,585/. ; — 1859, 
 9,215,487/. ; — 1861, 13,331,668?. ; — 1862, 12,598,042/. ; 
 — 1863, 11,370,588/. ; — 1864, 10,821,596/. ; — 1865, 
 10,898,253?. ; — 1866, 10,259,788/. ; — 1867, 10,676,101/. ; — 
 1868, 11,168,949/.; — 1869, 11,366,545/.; — 1870,9,757,290/.; 
 — 1871, 9,456,641/. ;— 1872, 9,900,486/. ; 1873, estimates 
 9,633,000/. 
 Naval Salute to the British Flag began in Alfred's 
 reign, and though sometimes disputed, may be said to 
 have been continued ever since. The 1 utch agreed to 
 strike to the English colours in the British seas, in 
 1673. The honour of the flag salute at sea was also 
 formally assented to by France in 1704, although it 
 had been long previously exacted by England ; see 
 Flag and Salutes at Sea. 
 Naval Uniforms. The first notice of the establishment 
 of a uniform in the British naval service, which we 
 have met with, occurs in the Jacobite's Journal of 5 
 March, 1748, under the head of " Domestic News," in 
 these terms: — "An order is said to be issued, re- 
 quiring all his majesty's sea-officers, from the admiral 
 down to the midshipman, to wear a uniformity of 
 clothing, for which purpose pattern coats for dress 
 suits and frocks for each rank of officers are lodged at 
 the Navy-office, and at the several dock-yards for their 
 inspection." This is corroborated by the Gazette of 13 
 July, 1757, when the first alteration in the uniform 
 took place, and in which a reference is made to the 
 order of 1748, alluded to in the journal above men- 
 tioned, and which in fact is the year when a naval uni- 
 form was first established. James I. had indeed 
 granted, by warrant of 6 April, 1609, to six of his 
 principal masters of the navy, " liverie coats of fine 
 red cloth." The warrant is stated to have been drawn 
 verbatim from one signed by queen Elizabeth, but 
 which had not been acted upon by reason of her death. 
 This curious document is in the British Museum ; but 
 king James's limited red livery is supposed to have 
 been soon discontinued. Quarterly Review. 
 Navy Pay Office, organised in 1644, was abolished in 
 1836, when the army and navy pay departments were 
 consolidated in the Paymaster General's office. 
 Navy List was first officially compiled by John Finlai- 
 son, the celebrated actuary, and published monthly in 
 1814. 
 Naval Reviews. The queen reviewed the fleet at Spit* 
 head, near Portsmouth, 11 Aug. 1853; again, March, 1854. 
 before it sailed to the Baltic, at the commencement of 
 the Russian war ; and again, at Portsmouth, on the 
 conclusion of peace, in the presence of the parliament, 
 &c. The fleet extended in an unbroken line of 5 miles, 
 and consisted of upwards of 300 men-of-war, with a 
 tonnage of 150,000, carrying 3800 guns, and manned 
 by 40,000 seamen. There were about 100,000 spectators, 
 23 April, 1856. 
 A grand naval review (15 great wooden ships, 15 iron- 
 plated, 16 gun- vessels and boats), was held at Spithead 
 (the queen, the sultan, and the viceroy of Egypt pre- 
 sent), 17 July, 1867. 
 Naval Volunteers (or Reserve). By 16 & 17 Vict. c. 73 
 (1853), the admiralty were empowered to raise a body 
 
NAVY. 
 
 467 
 
 NEPAUL. 
 
 of sea-faring men to be called the " Naval Coast Volun- 
 teers," not to exceed 10,000, for the defence of the 
 coast, and for actual service if required. On 13 Aug. 
 1859, an act was passed to enable the admiralty to 
 raise a number of men, not exceeding 30,000, as a re- 
 serve force of seamen, to be called the "Royal Naval 
 Volunteers." In November following, the admiralty 
 issued a statement of the "qualifications, advantages, 
 and obligations " of this reserve. The enrolment com- 
 menced on 1 Jan. i860. The engagement is for five 
 years, and the volunteers are entitled to a pension 
 when incapacitated after the expiration of the term. 
 At the prospect of war with the United States in Dec. 
 1861, a great number of seamen at Hartlepool, Dundee, 
 London, Aberdeen, &c. , offered their services. 
 First enrolled body of Royal Naval Volunteers inspected, 
 18 Jan. 1873. 
 
 NAVY OF FRANCE. It is first mentioned in 
 history, 728, when, like that of England at an early 
 period, it consisted of galleys ; in this year the 
 French defeated the Frisian fleet. The French 
 fleet was almost annihilated by Edward III. at the 
 battle of Sluys, 24 June, 1340. It was considerably 
 improved under Louis XIV. at the instance of his 
 minister Colbert, about 1697. The French navy was 
 in its splendour about 178 1 ; became greatly reduced 
 in the wars with England ; see Naval Battles. It 
 was greatly increased bj r the emperor Napoleon III., 
 and in 1859 consisted of 51 ships of the line (14 
 sailing vessels and 37 steamers), and 398 other 
 vessels, in all 449 ; including vessels building, con- 
 verting, or ordered to be built. The new French 
 iron-clad frigate Gloire, constructed by M. Dupuis 
 de Lome, launched in i860, was generally considered 
 as successful. The Solferino and Magenta were 
 launched in June, 1861 ; other iron vessels since. 
 
 NAZABENE, a name given to Jesus Christ, 
 and his disciples ; but afterwards to a sect who re- 
 jected the doctrine of Christ's divinity in the first 
 century. A sect named Nazarenes, resembling the 
 society of Frieuds in Britain, became prominent in 
 Hungary in the autumn of 1867. 
 
 NEAPOLIS, see Naples. 
 
 NEBRASKA, a N."W. territory of North 
 America (part of Louisiana), was organised 30 May, 
 1854. Capital, Omaha city. 
 
 NEBULAE HYPOTHESIS, put forth 
 by sir "Wra. Herschel, 181 1, supposes that the uni- 
 verse was formed out of shapeless masses of nebula: 
 or clusters of small stars. It has not been general^ 
 received. In Oct. i860, Mr. Lassell strictly 
 scrutinised the dumb-bell nebula, and stated that 
 the brightest parts did not appear to be stars. In 
 1865, Mr. Wm. Huggins reported that he had 
 analysed certain nebulae by their spectra, and be- 
 lieved them to be entirely gaseous. 
 
 NECEOMANCEBS, see Magic. 
 
 NECTAEINE, the Amygdalis Persica, ori- 
 ginally came from Persia about 1562. Previously, 
 presents of nectarines were frequently sent to the 
 court of England from the Netherlands ; and 
 Catherine, queen of Henry VIII., distributed them 
 among her friends. 
 
 NEEDLES. "The making of Spanish needles 
 was first taught in England by Elias Crowse, a 
 German, about the eighth year of queen Elizabeth, 
 and in queen Mary's time there was a negro made 
 fine Spanish needles in Cheapside, but would never 
 teach his art to any." Stow. The manufacture 
 was greatly improved at "Whitechapel, London; 
 Eedditch, in Gloucestershire, and Hathersage, in 
 Derbyshire. An exhibition of ancient needlework 
 was formed at South Kensington Museum in 1873. I 
 
 1758 
 1773 
 1780 
 1794 
 1796 
 
 1797 
 
 NEEDLE-GTJN (Ziindnadelgewehr), a musket 
 
 invented by J. N. Dreyse of Scemmerda, about 1S27, 
 and made a breech-loader in 1836, which was 
 adopted by the Prussian general Manteuffel about 
 1846. It was found to be a most effective weapon 
 in the war with Denmark in 1864, and in that with 
 Austria in 1866. The ignition of the charge is pro- 
 duced by a fine steel rod or needle being pressed 
 through the cartridge. The principle is claimed 
 for James "Whitley, of Dublin, 1823 ; Abraham 
 Mosar, 1831, and John Hanson, of Huddersfield, 
 1843. 
 
 NEEEWINDEN, see Landen. 
 NEGBO TEADE, see Slavery. 
 
 NEGUS (wine and water), said to be named 
 after col. Francis Negus, about 1 714. 'I he sove- 
 reign of Abyssinia is termed negus. 
 
 NELSON'S VICTOEIES, &c, see separate 
 
 articles. 
 
 Horatio Nelson, born at Bumham Thorpe, Norfolk 
 
 29 Sept 
 
 Sailed with captain Phipps to the North Pole 
 
 Distinguished himself in the West Indies . 
 
 Lost an eye at the reduction of Calvi, Corsica 
 
 Captured Elba g Aug 
 
 With Jervis, at the victory off St. Vincent, 14 Feb. 
 knighted and made rear-admiral . 20 Feb. 
 
 Lost his right arm at the unsuccessful attack on 
 Santa Cruz . . . . . 25-26 July, „ 
 
 Gained the battle of the Nile, 1 Aug ; created baron 
 Nelson of the Nile .... 6 Nov. 1798 
 
 Attacks Copenhagen, 2 April ; created viscount, 22 
 May ; attacks Boulogne flotilla, and destroys 
 several ships 3 Aug. 1801 
 
 Appointed to chief command in the Mediterranean, 
 
 „ , 20 May, 1803 
 
 Pursues the French and Spanish fleets, March to 
 Aug. ; returns to England, Aug. ; re-appears at 
 Cadiz, and defeats the fleets in Trafalgar Bay, 
 where he is killed 2I Oct. 1805 
 
 The Victory man-of-war arrived off Portsmouth with 
 his remains jj ec 
 
 The body lay in state in the Painted Hall.'at Green- 
 wich, 5 Jan. ; removed to the Admiralty, 8 Jan. ; 
 funeral took place . . . . . g j an . 1S06 
 
 The prince of Wales (afterwards George IV.), the 
 duke of Clarence (aftei wards William IV.), and 
 other royal dukes ; almost all the peers of England, 
 and the lord mayor and corporation of London, 
 with thousands of military and naval officers and 
 distinguished men, followed the funeral car to St. 
 Paul's ; the military amounted to near 10,000, 
 independent of volunteers. 
 
 The Nelson Column, Trafalgar-square, London, com- 
 pleted, and the statue placed on it (see Statues) 
 
 4 Nov. 1843 
 
 NEMEAN GAMES, celebrated at Nemea, 
 in Achaia, said to have been instituted by the Ar- 
 gives, in honour of Archemorus, who died by the 
 bite of a serpent ; and revived by Hercules," 1226 
 B.C. The conqueror was rewarded with a crown of 
 olives, afterwards of green parsley. They were 
 celebrated every third year, or, according to others, 
 on the first and third year of every Olympiad, 
 1226 B.C. Herodotus. They were revived by 
 the emperor Julian, a.d. 362, but ceased in 396. 
 
 NEO-PLATONISM or New Platonism, 
 see Philosophy. 
 
 NEPAUL (N. India) was conquered by the 
 Ghoorkas, 1768, who made treaties with the British, 
 1 791 and 1801 ; but frequently made incursions; 
 and in consequence war with them commenced 1 Nov. 
 1814 ; terminated 27 April, 1815. A treaty of peace 
 was signed between the parties, 2 Dec. 1815. "War 
 was renewed through an infraction of the treaty by 
 the Nepaulese, Jan. 1816; and after several con- 
 tests, unfavourable to the Nepaulese, the former 
 
 u h 2 
 
NEPHALIA. 
 
 468 
 
 NEW BRUNSWICK. 
 
 treaty was ratified, 15 March, 1816. An extra- 
 ordinary embassy from the king of Nepaul to the 
 queen of Great Britain arrived in England, landing 
 at Southampton, 25 May, and remained till Aug. 
 1850 ; it consisted of the Nepaulese prince, Jung 
 Bahadoor, and his suite, to whom many honours 
 were paid. He supported the English during the 
 Indian mutiny in 1857. 
 
 NEPHALIA, sacrifices of sobriety among the 
 Greeks, when they offered mead instead of wine to 
 the sun and moon, to the nymphs, to Aurora, and 
 to Venus ; and burnt any wood but that of the vine, 
 fig-tree, and mulberry-tree, esteemed symbols of 
 drunkenness, 613 B.C. 
 
 NEPHOSCOPE (nephos, Greek, a cloud) . An 
 apparatus for measuring the velocity of clouds, in- 
 vented by Karl Braun, and reported to the Academy 
 of Sciences, Paris, 27 July, 1868. 
 
 NEPTUNE, a primary planet, first observed 
 on 23 Sept. 1846, by Dr. Galle at Berlin, in conse- 
 quence of a letter from M. Le Verrier, who had 
 conjectured from the anomalous movements of 
 Uranus, that a distant planet might exist nearly in 
 the position where Neptune is situated. Calcula- 
 tions to the same effect had been previously made 
 by Mr. J. Couch Adams, of Cambridge. A satel- 
 lite of Neptune was discovered by Mr. Lassell on 
 10 Oct. following. Neptune is said to have been 
 seen by Lalande, and thought to be a fixed star. 
 
 NEB, VII, a warlike tribe in Belgic Gaul, were 
 defeated in a severe battle by Julius Caesar 57, and 
 subdued 53 B.C. 
 
 NEBWINDEN, see Landen. 
 
 NESBIT, seeNisbet. 
 
 NESTOBIANS, the followers of Nestorius, 
 bishop of Constantinople (428-431), who is repre- 
 sented as a heretic for maintaining that though 
 the Virgin Mary was the mother of Jesus Christ as 
 man, yet she was not the mother of God , since no 
 human creature could impart to another what she 
 had not herself; he also held that God was united 
 to Christ under one person, but remained as dis- 
 tinct in nature and essence as though he had never 
 been united at all. He was opposed by Eutyches, 
 and died 439; see Eutychians. Nestorian Chris- 
 tians in the Levant administer the sacrament with 
 leavened bread and in both kinds, permit their 
 priests to marry, and use neither confirmation nor 
 auricular confession. Du Pin. A Nestorian priest 
 and deacon were in London in July, 1862. 
 
 NETHEBLANDS, see Flanders, Holland, 
 and Belgium. 
 
 NETLET HOSPITAL, near Southampton, 
 for invalid soldiers. The foundation stone was laid 
 by the queen, 19 May, 1856. 
 
 NEUFCHATEL, a canton in Switzerland, 
 formerly a lordship, afterwards a principality. The 
 first known lord was Ulric de Fenis, about 1032, 
 whose descendants ruled till 1373, after which by 
 marriages it frequently changed governors. On the 
 death of the duchesse de Nemours, the last of the 
 Longuevilles, in 1 707, there were many claimants ; 
 among them our William III. He and the allies 
 however gave it to Frederick I. of Prussia with the 
 title of prince. In 1806 the principality was ceded 
 to France, and Napoleon bestowed it on his general 
 Berthier, who held it till 18 14, when it fell to the 
 disposal of the allies. They restored the king of 
 Prussia with the title of prince with certain rights 
 
 and privileges; but constituted it a part or the 
 
 Swiss confederation. 
 
 After an unsuccessful attempt in 1831, the inhabit- 
 ants repudiated their allegiance to Prussia, ami 
 proclaimed Neufchatel a free and independent 
 member of the Swiss confederation . . . 1848 
 
 The king of Prussia protested against this ; and a 
 protocol was signed between England, France, and 
 Austria, recognising his claims . . . . 1852 
 
 Some of his adherents, headed by the count de Pour- 
 tales, broke out into insurrection against the re- 
 publican authorities, who, however, quickly sub- 
 dued and imprisoned them, with the intention of 
 bringing them to trial .... Sept. 1856 
 
 War threatened by the king of Prussia, and great 
 energy and determination manifested by the Swiss. 
 On the intervention of the English and French 
 governments, a treaty was signed by which the 
 king of Prussia virtually renounced his claims, on 
 receiving a pecuniary compensation, which lie 
 eventually gave up. He retains the title of prince 
 of Neufchatel, without any political rights 
 
 11 June, 1857 
 
 The prisoners of Sept. 1856 were released' without trial 
 
 18 Jan. 1857 
 
 NEUSTBIA or West France, a kingdom 
 
 allotted to Clotaire by his father Clovis, at his 
 death in 511. His descendant, Charlemagne, be- 
 came sole king of France in 771. It was conquered 
 by the Northmen and hence named Normandy 
 {which see). 
 
 NEUTBALITY LAWS. A commission, in 
 a report issued in May, 1868, recommended changes. 
 An act to make better provision for the preservation 
 of neutrality was passed 9 Aug. 1870. John P. 
 McDiarmid apprehended, for breach of neutrality 
 laws, at Bow-street, 28 Oct. 1870. 
 
 NEUTBAL POWEBS. By the treaty of 
 Paris, signed by the representatives of Great 
 Britain, France, Austria, Russia, Prussia, Turkey, 
 and Sardinia, on 16 April, 1856, it was determined 
 that privateering should be abolished ; that 
 neutrals might carry an enemy's goods not con- 
 traband of war ; that neutral goods not contraband 
 were free even under an enemy's Hag ; and that 
 blockades to be binding must be effective. The pre- 
 sident of the United States acceded to these provi- 
 sions in 1 86 1. 
 
 NEVADA, a western territory of the United 
 States of N. America, organised 2 March, 1861 ; 
 admitted a state, 31 Oct. 1864. Capital, Carson 
 city. 
 
 NEVILLE'S CBOSS or Durham, Battle 
 
 OF, between the Scots under king Lavid Bruce and 
 the English it is said (probably incorrectly) under 
 Philippa, consort of Edward III., and lord Percy, 
 12 or 17 Oct. 1346. More than 15,000 of the Scots 
 were slain, and their king taken prisoner. 
 
 NEVIS (W. Indies), an island discovered by 
 Columbus, planted by the English in 1628 ; taken 
 by the French, 14 Feb. 1782 ; restored to the Eng- 
 lish in 1783. The capital is Charleston. 
 
 NEWABK (Nottinghamshire). The church 
 was erected by Henry IV. Here, in the midst of 
 troubles, died king John, 19 Oct. 1216; here the 
 royal army under prince Rupert repulsed the army 
 of the parliament, besieging the town, 21 March, 
 1644; and here, 5 May, 1646, Charles I., after his 
 defeat at Naseby, put himself into the hands of the 
 Scotch army, who afterwards gave him up to his 
 enemies. Newark was first incorporated by Ed- 
 ward VI., and afterwards by Charles II. 
 
 NEW BBUNSWICK was taken from Nova 
 Scotia, and received its name as a separate colony 
 
NEWBUEY. 
 
 469 
 
 NEWFOUNDLAND . 
 
 in. 1755. It was united with Canada for legislative 
 purposes by an act passed 29 March, 1867. Popu- 
 lation of New Brunswick in 1865, 272,780. Lieut.- 
 governor, Lemuel A. Wilmot, 1868. 
 
 NEWBUEY (Berkshire). Near here were 
 fought two desperate battles — (1.) 20 Sept. 1643: 
 between the army of Charles I. and that of the 
 parliament under Essex ; it terminated somewhat 
 favourably for the king. Among the slain was 
 the amiable Lucius Cary, viscount Falkland, 
 deeply regretted. (2.) A second battle of dubious 
 result was fought between the royalists and the 
 parliamentarians under "Waller, 27 Oct. 1644. 
 
 NEW CALEDONIA (Pacific Ocean), dis- 
 covered by Cook on 4 Sept. 1774, was seized by the 
 French, 20 Sept. 1853, and colonised. The French 
 government in Dec. 1864, redressed the outrages 
 committed upon the British missionaries at a station 
 established here in 1854. 
 
 NEWCASTLE UPON TYNE (Northumber- 
 land), the Jttoman Pons JElia, the first coal port in 
 the world,* and the commercial metropolis of the 
 north of England. The coal-mines were discovered 
 here about 1234. The first charter granted to the 
 townsmen for digging coal was by Henry III. in 
 1239. 
 
 The castle built by Robert Courthose, son of Wil- 
 liam I. 1080 
 
 Taken by William II. 1095 
 
 St. Nicholas church built, about 1091 ; burnt in 1216 ; 
 restored by Edward I., to whom John Baliol did 
 
 homage here, 1292 ; rebuilt 1359 
 
 Newcastle surrenders to the Scotch .... 1640 
 Who here gave up Charles I. to the parliament 
 
 30 Jan. 1647 
 
 Occupied by general Wade in 1745 
 
 Antiquarian Society established .... 1813 
 Literary and Philosophical Society founded 1793 ; 
 
 liberally endowed by Bobt. Stephenson . . 1858-9 
 T. Bewick, the wood-engraver, dies .... 1828 
 The magnificent market erected by Bichd. Grainger, 
 
 who greatly improved the town . . . . 1835 
 High level bridge erected by Bobert Stephenson : 
 
 and grand central station built . . . 1846-50 
 1538 persons die of cholera . 31 Aug. to 26 Oct. 1853 
 Great fire through the explosion at Gateshead (which 
 
 see) 5, 6 Oct. 1854 
 
 Great distress through failure of Northumberland 
 
 Joint-Stock Bank Nov. 1857 
 
 Bichard Grainger dies, aged 63 . . .4 July, 1861 
 Enthusiastic reception of Mr. W. E. Gladstone, 
 
 7-9 Oct. 1862 
 British Association meet here . . 26 Aug. 1863 
 Great fire at Brown's flour mills, <fec. , near the new 
 level bridge, which is injured ; about 70, 000 J. loss 
 
 24 June, 1866 
 The Central Exchange destroyed by fire 11 Aug. 1867 
 Mr. Mawson, the sheriff, and Mr. Bryson, the town 
 surveyor, and others, killed, while attempting to 
 bury some nitro-glyeerine in the town-moor, to 
 
 get rid of it 18 Dec. 1867 
 
 Strike of about 9000 engineers, for day's work of 
 
 nine hours ; begun about ... 16 May, 1871 
 College of Physical Science in connection with the 
 
 Durham University, opened . . . Oct. „ 
 Engineers' strike closed : terms, nine hours a day, 
 to begin on 1 Jan. 1872 ; men to work overtime 
 when needed; wages to remain the same; ar- 
 ranged by Mr. B. B. Philipson and Mr. Joseph 
 Cowen 6 Oct. ,, 
 
 NEWCASTLE ADMINISTEATION, 
 
 formed April, 1754: resigned Nov. 1756; when 
 
 * In 1306 the use of coal for fuel was prohibited in 
 London, by royal proclamation, chiefly because it injured 
 the sale of wood for fuel, great quantities of which were 
 then growing about the city ; but this interdiction did 
 not long continue, and we may consider coal as having 
 been dug and exported from this place for more than 500 
 years. 
 
 the duke of Devonshire became first lord of the 
 treasury. 
 
 Thomas Holies Pelham, duke of Newcastle, first lord of 
 the treasury. 
 
 Henry Bilson Legge, chancellor of the exchequer. 
 
 Earl of Holdemesse and sir Thomas Bobinson (after- 
 wards lord Grantham), secretaries of state. The latter 
 succeeded by Henry Fox (afterwards lord Holland). 
 
 Lord Anson, first lord of the admiralty. 
 
 Earl Grenville, lord president. 
 
 Lord Gower (succeeded by the duke of Marlborough 
 1755), lord privy seal. 
 
 Earl of Hardwicke, lord chancellor. 
 
 Duke of Grafton, earl of Halifax, George Grenville, <fec. 
 
 NEWCASTLE AND PITT ADMINIS- 
 TEATION (see Chatham Administration), formed 
 June, 1757. After various changes it resigned May, 
 1762 ; lord Bute coming into power. 
 Thomas Holies Pelham, duke of Newcastle, first lord of 
 
 the treasury. 
 William Pitt (afterwards lord Chatham), secretary of state, 
 
 for the northern department, and leader of the house of 
 
 commons. 
 Earl of Holdernesse, secretary of state for the southern 
 
 department. 
 Earl Granville, lord president. 
 Earl Temple, privy seal. 
 H. B. Legge, chancellor of the exchequer. 
 Duke of Devonshire, lord chamberlain. 
 Duke of Butland, lord steward. 
 Lord Anson, admiralty. 
 Duke of Marlborough (succeeded by lord Ligonier), 
 
 ordnance. 
 Sir Bobert Henley, lord keeper of the great seal. 
 Henry Fox, George Grenville, viscount Barrington, lord 
 
 Halifax, James Grenville, &c. 
 
 NEW CHUECH, see Swedenborgians. 
 
 NEW COLLEGE (St. John's Wood, London), 
 erected by the Independent dissenters for the edu- 
 cation of their ministers, 1850- 1, was formed by 
 the union of Homerton, Highbury, and Coward 
 colleges. See Oxford. 
 
 NEW DEPAETUEE DEMOCEATS, see 
 
 United States, 187 1. 
 
 NEW ENGLAND (N. America). The first 
 settlement made in 1607, was named New England 
 by captain Smith, in 1614. A band of 102 Puri- 
 tans, now termed the " Pilgrim Fathers " (with 28 
 women) arrived here in the May Flower, and 
 founded the settlement on Plymouth Bock, 25 Dec. 
 1620, which was named New Plymouth. This was 
 the nucleus of Massachusetts, from whence were 
 gradually developed New Hampshire, Vermont, 
 Connecticut, and Bhode Island. In 1643 these 
 settlements formed the first American confederation, 
 a defensive union, with a constitution based on the 
 Mosaic law, governed by a religious aristocracy, 
 which lasted till 1693. Maine was made an inde- 
 pendent state in 1820. See Forests. 
 
 NEW FOBEST (Hampshire), was made 
 (" afforested") by William the Conqueror, 1079-85. 
 It is said that the whole country, for thirty miles 
 in compass, was laid waste. William Bufus was 
 killed in this forest by an arrow shot by Walter 
 Tyrrel, that accidentaUy glanced against a tree, 
 2 Aug. 1 100, the site of which is now pointed out 
 by a triangular stone. The New Forest Deer 
 Bemoval act was passed 14 & 15 Vict. c. 76, 7 Aug. 
 1851 . Agitation for the preservation of this forest, 
 autumn, 1870. 
 
 NEWFOUNDLAND (N. America), discov- 
 ered by Sebastian Cabot, who called it Prima 
 Vista, 24 June, 1497. It was formally taken pos- 
 session of by sir Humphry Gilbert, 1583. In the 
 
NEW FRANCE. 
 
 470 
 
 NEW ORLEANS. 
 
 reign of Elizabeth, other nations had the advan- 
 tage of the English in the fishery. In 1577 there 
 were 100 fishing vessels from Spain, 50 from Portugal, 
 150 from Fiance, and only 15, but of larger size, 
 from England. Halluyt. But the English fishery 
 in some years afterwards (1625) had increased so 
 much that the ports of Devonshire alone employed 
 150 ships, which, sold their fish in Spain, Portugal, 
 and Italy. The sovereignty of England was recog- 
 nised in 1713. Newfoundland obtained the pri- 
 vilege of a colonial legislature in 1832; and the 
 bishopric was established in 1839; population about 
 130,000. — Appalling fire at St. John's, a great por- 
 tion of the town destroyed, the loss estimated at 
 I,OO0,OOoJ. sterling, 9 June, 1846. On 14 Jan. 
 1857, a convention was concluded between the 
 English and French governments, confirming cer- 
 tain French privileges of fishery in exchange for 
 others. The English colonists were dissatisfied 
 with this convention. Newfoundland consented to 
 union with the dominion of Canada, March, 1869. 
 Lieut. -governor, col. Stephen J. Hill, 1870. 
 
 NEW FRANCE, see Canada. 
 
 NEWGATE, LONDON. The prison derives 
 its name from the gate which once formed part of 
 it, and stood a little beyond the Sessions-house in 
 the Old Bailey. It was used as a prison for per- 
 sons of rank, as early as 1218; but was rebuilt 
 about two centuries afterwards by the executors of 
 sir Richard "VVhittington, whose statue with a cat 
 stood in the niche till the time of its demolition 
 by the great fire of London, in 1666. It was then 
 reconstructed ; but becoming an accumulation of 
 misery and inconvenience, was pulled down and 
 rebuilt between 1778 and 1780. During the riots 
 in 1780, the interior was destroyed by fire, but 
 shortly afterwards restored. In 1857 the interior 
 was pulled down to be re-erected on a plan adapted 
 to the reformatory system. Newgate market, es- 
 tablished in 1681, was ordered to be abolished by 
 an act passed in 1861, which took effect when the 
 meat and poultry market in Smithfield was opened, 
 1 Dec. 1868. 
 
 NEW GRENADA (S. America), discovered 
 by Ojeda in 1499, and settled by the Spaniards in 
 1536. It formed part of the new republic of Bo- 
 gota, established in 181 1; and, combined with 
 Caracas, formed the republic of Colombia, 17 Dec. 
 1819; see Colombia. 
 
 President M. Ospina entered on office . 1 April, 1857 
 
 After several reunions and dissolutions, the republic 
 of New Grenada merged into the Grenadine Con- 
 federation, which includes Bolivar, Antioquia, 
 Panama, and other small states . 15 June, 1858 
 
 Struggles between the conservatives, partisans of 
 the old government, and the liberals . . Jan. 1S61 
 
 General Mosquera (liberal) deposes Ospina; and 
 seizes the government ... 18 July, ,, 
 
 A congress of the states determine on union, under 
 the name of the United States of Colombia, 
 
 20 Sept. ,, 
 
 Arboleda, chief of the conservatives, assassinated 
 (succeeded by Cassal) . . . . 1 Nov. 1862 
 
 New constitution established . . .8 May, 1863 
 
 Mosquera invites Venezuela and Equator to join 
 the confederation Aug. ,, 
 
 Equator declines — war ensues . . .20 Nov. „ 
 
 The troops of Equator defeated, 6 Dec. ; peace en- 
 sues, and Equator remains independent 30 Dec. „ 
 
 Coup d'etat of Mosquera, who declares himself dic- 
 tator 11 March, 1866 
 
 Mosquera deposed by Santos Acosta, who becomes 
 provisional president . . . 23 May, 1867 
 
 Mosquera, the ex-president, exiled . . 1 Nov. ,, 
 
 General Santas Gutierrez Vergara, the president, 
 deposed and imprisoned, and general Ponce made 
 provisional president. Ponce compelled to ab- 
 
 dicate ; succeeded by Correoso, 29 Aug., who 
 defeated his opponents . . . 12 Nov. 1868 
 The republic now named Colombia (which see). 
 
 NEW GUINEA or Papua, a large island, 
 Pacific Ocean, discovered by the Portuguese after 
 their settlement of the Moluccas between 1512 and 
 1530. It was visited by Saavedra, a Spaniard, in 
 1528. Torres Straits, which divide New Guinea 
 and Australia, were discovered by Torres, a Span- 
 iard, in 1606. The Dutch established a colony and 
 erected a fortress, named Dubus, 011 the S.W. 
 coast, in 1828. 
 
 NEW HAMPSHIRE, one of the early united 
 states of N. America, was settled in 1623, placed 
 under Massachusetts, 1641 ; separated, 1679. Capital, 
 Concord. 
 
 NEW HARMONY, see Harmonists. 
 
 NEW HEBRIDES (S. Pacific Ocean), dis- 
 covered by Quiros, who believing them to be a 
 contineut named them Tierr a Australia del Bepiritu 
 
 Santo, in 1606. Bougainville in 1768 found them 
 to be islands; and in 1774 Cook gave them their 
 present name. 
 
 NEW HOLLAND, see Australia, Few South 
 Wales, &c. 
 
 NEW JERSEY, one of the early United states 
 of N. America, was settled by the Dutch from New 
 York, 1620; and by Swedes in 1627. Capital, 
 Trenton. 
 
 NEW LANARK OV. Scotland). Here 
 Robert Owen endeavoured to establish socialism in 
 1801; and here the first infant school was set up, 
 1815. 
 
 NEWMARKET (Cambridgeshire), renowned 
 for its horse-races. It is first mentioned in 1227 ; 
 and probably derived its name from the market 
 then recently established. James I. erected a hunt- 
 ing seat here, called the king's house, to which 
 Charles I. was taken as a prisoner in 1647, when 
 the parliament army was quartered in the neigh- 
 bouring village of Kennet. Charles II. . who was fond 
 of racing, built a stand-house for the sake of the 
 diversion, about 1667,* and from that period races 
 have been annual to the present time ; and many 
 extraordinary races have been run ; see llaces. 
 
 t NEW MEXICO (N. America), ceded to the 
 United States in 1848, and organised as a territory, 
 9 Sept. 1850. Capital, Santa Fi. 
 
 NEW ORLEANS, capital of Louisiana, N. 
 America (which sir), founded hi 171 7, under the re- 
 gency of theduke of Orleans. In 1788, seven-eighths 
 of the city were destroyed by fi re . The British attacked 
 New Orleans in Dec. 1814, and were repulsed with 
 great loss, by the Americans under general Jackson, 
 8 Jan. 1815. New Orleans was surrendered to the 
 Federals in April, 1862. The strong feeling of the 
 inhabitants in favour of the Confederates and 
 against the Federals induced general B. Butler to 
 rule them with military rigour, occasionally degene- 
 rating into brutal tyranny, especially towards fe- 
 
 * During the races, on 22 March, 1683, Newmarket was 
 nearly destroyed by an accidental tire, which occasioned 
 the hasty departure of the company then assembled, 
 including the king, the queen, the duke of York, the 
 royal attendants, and many of the nobility ; and to this 
 disaster historians have ascribed the failure of the Rye- 
 house plot, the object of which was said to lie the assas- 
 sination of the king and his brother on the road from 
 Newmarket to London, if the period of their journey had 
 not been thus anticipated; see Jlyc-Jivase Viol. 
 
NEW PLYMOUTH. 
 
 471 
 
 NEWSPAPEES. 
 
 males, May to October, 1862. He was replaced by 
 general Banks, 16 Dec. 1862. Sanguinary riots, 
 due to agitators, begun 30 July, 1866, only sup- 
 pressed by martial law; about 40 persons, white 
 and coloured, were killed, and about 160 wounded; 
 similar riots occurred, 24 Oct. 1868, and often since. 
 
 NEW PLYMOUTH, see New England. 
 
 NEWPORT (Monmouthshire). Chartered by 
 Edward III. and James I. 
 
 Chaetist Riots.— About 10,000 chartists (which see), 
 from the neighbouring mines, armed with guns, pikes, 
 &e., arrived at Newport, 4 Nov. 1839. They divided 
 themselves into two bodies — one, under the command of 
 Mr. John Frost, an ex-magistrate, proceeded down 
 the principal street ; whilst the other, headed by his 
 son, took the direction of Stow-hill. They met in 
 front of the Westgate hotel, where the magistrates 
 were assembled with about 30 soldiers of the 45th 
 regiment, and several special constables. The rioters 
 broke the windows and fired on the inmates, by which 
 the mayor, Mr. (afterwards sir Thomas) Phillips, and 
 several other persons, were wounded. The soldiers 
 returned the fire, and dispersed the mob, which fled, 
 leaving about 20 dead, and others wounded. A detach- 
 ment of the iotli royal hussars arrived from Bristol, 
 and the town became tranquil. 
 
 Frost was apprehended on the following day, together 
 with his printer, and other influential persons 
 among the chartists. He and others were tried 
 "and sentenced to death (afterwards commuted to 
 transportation) Jan. 1840 
 
 An amnesty was granted them, 3 May, and they 
 returned to England .... Sept. 1856 
 
 NEW EIVEE, for the supply of London with 
 water, was begun 1609, and finished in 1613, when 
 the projector, Hugh Myddelton, a London gold- 
 smith, was knighted by James I. Strype. This 
 artificial river, which rises in Hertfordshire, and 
 which, with its windings, is forty-two miles long, 
 was brought to London, and opened 29 Sept. 1613. 
 So little was the benefit of it understood, that for 
 above thirty years the seventy-two shares, into 
 which it was divided, netted only 5? apiece. Each 
 of these shares was sold originally for 100?. Within 
 the last few years they have been sold for 9000?. a 
 share, and some lately for 10,000?. 
 
 NEW EOSS (Wexford), S. E. Ireland. -Here 
 general Johnston totally defeated the rebels under 
 ±Seauchamp D. Bagenal Harvey, 4 June, 1798. 
 
 NEWEY (N. Ireland). In the rebellion of 
 1641, Newry was reduced to a ruinous condition ; it 
 was surprised by sir Con. Magenis, but was retaken 
 by lord Conway. After the Restoration the town 
 was rebuilt. It was burnt by the duke of Berwick 
 "when fleeing from Schomberg and the English 
 army, and only the castle and a few houses escaped, 
 1689. 
 
 NEWS - LETTEES. News-writers in the 
 reign of Charles II. collected from the coffee-houses 
 information, which was printed weekly and sent 
 into the country. The London Gazette, then the 
 only authorised newspaper, contained little more 
 . than proclamations and advertisements. 
 
 NEW SOUTH WALES, the principal 
 colony of Australia on the eastern coast of New 
 Holland, was explored and taken possession of and 
 named by captain Cook in 1 770. At his recom- 
 mendation a convict colony was first formed here. 
 Captain A. Phillip, the first governor, arrived at 
 Botany Bay with 800 convicts, 20 Jan. 1788 ; but 
 he subsequently preferred Sydney, about seven 
 miles distant from the head of Port Jackson, as a 
 more eligible situation for the capital. A new con- 
 stitution was granted in 1855 (18 & 19 Vict. c. 54). 
 The Intercolonial Exhibition was opened at Sydney, 
 
 by the governor-general lord Belmore, 30 Aug. 
 1870. It consisted of two departments, agricul- 
 tural and non-agricultural. A conference of dele- 
 gates from the Australian colonies met at Sydney 
 in Jan. 1873, to deliberate on a customs' union, 
 postal and railway arrangements, &c. Population, 
 in 1856, 269,722; in 1862, 367,495; in 1866, 
 411,388; in 1871, 519,163. The imports for 1859 
 amounted to 6,597,053?. ; the exports to 4,768,049?. 
 Governor, sir John Young, i860 ; earl of Belmore, 
 1867; sir Hercules Robinson, April, 1872. See 
 Australia and Sydney. 
 
 NEWSPAPEES. The Roman Acta Diuma 
 were issued, it is said, 691 B.C. In modern times, a 
 Gazetta, which derived its name from its price, a 
 small coin, was published in Venice (about 1536.) 
 The Gazette de France, now existing, first appeared 
 in April, 1631, edited by Renaudot, a physician. It 
 was patronised by the king, Louis XIII., who wrote 
 one article for it, and by Richelieu. The first real 
 newspaper published in England* was established 
 by sir Roger L'Estrange, in 1663; it was entitled 
 the Public Intelligencer, and continued nearly 
 three years, when it ceased, on the appearance of 
 the Gazette. In the reign of James I., 1622, 
 appeared the London Weekly Courant ; and in the 
 year 1643 (the period of the civil war) were 
 printed a variety of publications, certainly in no 
 respect entitled to the name of newspapers. The 
 following are the titles of some of them : — 
 
 England's Memorable Accidents. 
 The kingdom's Intelligencer. 
 The Diurnal of Certain Passages in Parliament. 
 The Mereurius Aulicus. 
 The Scotch Intelligencer. 
 The Parliament's Scout. 
 
 The Parliament's Scout's Discovery, or certain Informa- 
 tion. 
 The Mereurius Civicus, or London's Intelligencer. 
 The Country's Complaint, &c. 
 The Weekly Accounts. 
 Mereurius Britannicus. 
 
 A paper called the London Gazette ,t published 22 Aug. 
 1642. The London Gazette of the existing series, pub- 
 lished first at Oxford, the Court being there on account 
 of the plague, 7 Nov. 1665, and afterwards at London, 
 S Feb. 1666. 
 
 Printing of newspapers and pamphlets prohibited, 31 
 Chas. I. 1680. Salmon's Chron. 
 
 The regular [newspapers commenced on the abolition of 
 the censorship of the press, in 1695. 
 
 Daily Courant said to have been first published in 1702. 
 
 The stamp duty imposed to check seditious papers 
 
 June, 1712 
 
 A penny charged for every sheet, and a halfpenny 
 for every half sheet i7 2 4 
 
 The duty made xd. or si. is. 8(1 the 1000 . . . 1761 
 
 The duty raised to \\&. in 1776 ; to 2d. in 178 ; to 
 2§d. in 1794 ; to 3^. in 1797; to s/L in . . . 1815 
 
 Reduced to id., and $& for a supplement in . . 1836 
 
 Abolished, the compulsory stamp being retained 
 only for postal purposes 1855 
 
 This also ceased 3" Se P*- l8 7° 
 
 Newspapers first sent with a gd stamp affixed to 
 the cover 1 Oct. 1870 
 
 * Some copies of a publication are in existence called 
 the English Mercury, professing to come out under the 
 authority of queen Elizabeth, in 1588, the period of the 
 Spanish Armada. The researches of Mr. T. Watts, of the 
 British Museum, have proved these to be forgeries, 
 executed about 1766. The full title of No. 50 is "The 
 English Mercuric, published by authoritie, for the pre- 
 vention of false reports, imprinted by Christopher Bar- 
 ker, her highness's printer, No. 50." It describes the 
 Spanish Armada, giving " A.journall of what passed since 
 the 21st of this month, between her majestie's fleet and 
 that of Spayne, transmitted by the Lord Highe Admiral, 
 to the Lordes of council." 
 
 t On 22 May, 1787, a London Gazette Extraordinary was 
 forged, with a view of affecting the funds. 
 
NEWSPAPEKS- 
 
 472 
 
 NEW STYLE. 
 
 NUMBER OF STAMPS ISSUED TO BRITISH NEWSPAPERS. 
 
 1753 • 
 
 • 7.4". 757 
 
 1820 . 
 
 24,862,186 
 
 1760 
 
 • • 9.4°4.79° 
 
 1825 
 
 26,950,693 
 
 1774 . 
 
 . 12,300,000 
 
 1830 . 
 
 30,158,741 
 
 1790 
 
 . . 14,035,639 
 
 1835 . 
 
 32,874,652 
 
 1800 . 
 
 . 16,084,905 
 
 1840 . 
 
 49. 33.384 
 
 1810 
 
 . . 20,172,837 
 
 1843 . 
 
 • 56,433.977 
 
 In the year 
 
 ending 5 Jan. i 
 
 851, there were 
 
 159 London 
 
 newspapers, in which appeared 891,650 advertisements ; 
 222 English provincial newspapers, having 875,631 ad- 
 vertisements. 
 
 In Scotland, same year, there were no newspapers, having 
 249,141 advertisements. 
 
 In Ireland, (here were 102 newspapers, having 236,128 
 advertisements. 
 
 In that year the number of stamps issued was — in Eng- 
 land, 65,741,271 at i(7., and 11,684,423 supplement 
 stamps at id. ; in Scotland, 7,643,045 stamps at id. , and 
 241,264 at id. ; in Ireland, 6,302,728 stamps at id., and 
 43,358 at 0. 
 
 Seduction of newspaper duty from 4c?. to id. took effect 
 on 15 Sept. 1836. 
 
 The distinctive die came into use 1 Jan. 1837. 
 
 Duty on advertisements abolished, 1853. 
 
 By the act passed 15 June, 1855 (18 & 19 Vict. c. 27), the 
 stamp on newspapers, as such, was totally abolished, 
 and to be employed henceforth only for postal pur- 
 poses. Many new papers were then started, which 
 were but of short duration. 
 
 In 1857, 7 1 million newspapers passed through the post- 
 office. In Jan. i860, 1060 newspapers ; in Jan. 1862, 
 1165 newspapers ; and in Jan. 1868, 1404 newspapers 
 were published in the United Kingdom. 
 
 On 1 Oct. 1861, when the paper duty came off, the Times, 
 Daily News, and Morning Post reduced their price to 
 3d. each copy unstamped. 
 
 IRISH NEWSPAPERS. 
 
 The first was the Dublin News-Letter, by Joseph Ray, 1685 ; 
 Pile's Occurrences, 1700 or 1703. Faulkner's Journal was 
 established by George Faulkner, " a man celebrated for 
 the goodness of his heart, and the weakness of his 
 head," 1728. The oldest of the existing Dublin news- 
 papers are Saunders' (then Esdaile's) News-Letter, 1745 ; 
 and Freeman's Journal, founded as the Public Register, 
 by the patriot Dr. Lucas, about 1755. The Limerick 
 Chronicle, the oldest of the provincial prints, 1768. 
 
 PROVINCIAL NEWSPAPERS. 
 
 Norwich Postman, 1706. Worcester Postman, 1709. New- 
 casile-on-Tyne Courant, 1711. 
 
 FOREIGN NEWSPAPERS. 
 
 Gazette de Vc'nise, early in 17th century ; Gazette de France 
 
 (now publishing), 1631. 
 The first newspaper set up in Germany, 1715. 
 The first published in America, the Boston News-Letter, in 
 
 1704 ; the first at Philadelphia in 1719 ; and the first in 
 
 Holland in 1732. 
 "America, whose population is 23 millions and a half, 
 
 supports 800 newspapers (50 of these publishing daily), 
 
 and their annual circulation is stated at 64,000,000. 
 
 In Paris there exists 169 journals, literary, scientific, 
 
 religious and political." — Westminster Review, 1830. 
 
 REGISTERED NEWSPAPERS. 1850. 1865. 1872. 
 
 London newspapers, daily . . 12 22 20 
 
 United Kingdom, daily 
 
 London newspapers, weekly . 
 
 London newspapers generally 
 
 English provincial newspapers 
 
 Irish newspapers . 
 
 Scotch newspapers . 
 
 British isles .... 
 
 British newspapers . 
 
 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE PRINCIPAL LONDON NEWSPAPERS. 
 
 (Mitchell) daily (1873). 
 
 Lloyd's List 1726 
 
 Public Ledger (commercial) 1759 
 
 Morning Chronicle (liberal), 177© ; extinct . . 1862 
 Morning Herald (conservative), 1780, extinct 31 Dec. 1869 
 
 Morning Post (whig) 1772 
 
 Times (independent) 1 Jan. 1788 
 
 Sun (liberal) extinct 1792 
 
 Morning Advertiser (liberal) . . . 8 Feb. 1794 
 Globe (whig : 1866 conservative) evening . . . 1803 
 Standard (conservative) even. (morn. 29 June, 1857) 1827 
 Shipping and Mercantile Gazette . . 4 Jan. 1836 
 
 Daily News (liberal 21 Jan. 1846 
 
 58 
 
 73 
 166 
 
 . 100 
 209 
 268 
 
 222 
 
 750 
 
 903 
 
 I02 
 
 132 
 
 134 
 
 no 
 
 140 
 
 134 
 
 14 
 
 14 
 
 17 
 
 1456 
 
 Daily Chronicle and Clerkenwell News . . . 
 Daily Telegraph * (liberal) ... 29 June, 
 Morning Star (liberal), 1856 ; extinct . . Oct. 
 
 International (in French) 
 
 Pall Mall Gazette (liberal), even. (morn. Jan. -April, 
 
 1870) 
 
 Glowworm (liberal), extinct — 
 
 Echo id. (independent) Dec. 
 
 Financier March, 
 
 London Daily Reporter .... Nov. 
 Hour (conservative) March, 
 
 1855 
 1855 
 1869 
 1863 
 
 1865 
 
 1873 
 
 PRINCIPAL WEEKLY, ETC. (1873). 
 
 St. James'sChronicle(co?i.se7'y.), united with " Press " 1763 
 
 Observer (whig) 1791 
 
 Bell's Messenger (lib. conservative) .... 1796 
 
 Weekly Dispatch (liberal) 1801 
 
 Examiner (liberal) 1808 
 
 Literary Gazette (extinct) 1817-62 
 
 John Bull (conservative) 1820 
 
 Bell's Life in London (sporting) ,, 
 
 Sunday Times (lib. conservative) .... 1822 
 
 Lancet (medical) 1823 
 
 Mechanic's Magazine (merged into " Iron," 1873) . ,, 
 
 Atlas (liberal) extinct 1826 
 
 Athenaeum (literary and scientific) .... 1828 
 
 Spectator (liberal) 
 
 Record (liberal conservative) ,, 
 
 Court Journal (neutral) 1829 
 
 United Service Gazette 1833 
 
 Mining Journal 1835 
 
 Watchman (Wcsleyan) „ 
 
 Musical World 1836 
 
 Magnet (agricultural) 1837 
 
 Railway Times ,, 
 
 Era (theatrical) ,, 
 
 Ecclesiastical Gazette 1838 
 
 Tablet (Roman Catholic) 1840 
 
 Gardeners' Chronicle 1841 
 
 Nonconformist ,, 
 
 Punch ,, 
 
 Jewish Chronicle (libercd) 
 
 Illustrated London News (liberal) . . . . 1842 
 Lloyd's Weekly London Newspaper (radical) . . ,. 
 
 Builder , 
 
 English Churchman (High Church) .... 1843 
 
 News of the World (liberal) ,, 
 
 Law Times ,. 
 
 Economist (liberal) ,, 
 
 Fanner (agricultural) ,, 
 
 Musical Times 1844 
 
 Guardian (High Church) 1846 
 
 Educational Times 1847 
 
 Notes and Queries (literary and antiquarian) . . 1849 
 
 Press (conservative) 1853 
 
 Field (country gentlemen's) ,, 
 
 Saturday Review (literary) 1855 
 
 Overland Mail ,, 
 
 Freeman (Baptist) 
 
 Illustrated Times (liberal) ,, 
 
 Engineer 1856 
 
 Court Circular , 
 
 City Press (neutral) 1857 
 
 Chemical News 1859 
 
 Beehive (liberal) 1861 
 
 Fun (com ic) 
 
 Queen (ladies') 
 
 Reader (lit. and sc.) stopt 1866 
 
 Owl (satirical) stopt — .... 
 
 Newspaper Press 1865 
 
 Engineering 1866 
 
 Law Journal . „ 
 
 Land and Water (natural hist.) ,, 
 
 Chronicle (Rom. Cath.) 1867 
 
 Rock (Protestant) 
 
 Academy (literary) . ... 
 
 Architect 
 
 Nature (scientific) 
 
 Graphic (illustrated) 
 
 Conservative 
 
 Iron (manufactures and science) 
 
 1861 
 1863 
 1864 
 
 1869 
 
 1872 
 1873 
 
 NEW STYLE. Pope Gregory XILL, in order 
 to rectify the errors of the current calendar, pub- 
 lished a new one, in which ten days were omitted — 
 
 * 144,000 copies sold on 16th Dec. 1861. 
 consort died on the 14th. 
 
 The prince 
 
NEW TESTAMENT. 
 
 473 
 
 NEW ZEALAND. 
 
 5 Oct. 1582, becoming 15 Oct. The new style was 
 adopted in France, Italy, Spain, Denmark, Holland, 
 Flanders, Portugal, in 1582, in Germany in 1584, 
 in Switzerland in 158,3 and 1584, in Hungary in 
 1587 ; and in Great Britain in 1751. In 1752 
 eleven days were left out of the calendar — 3 Sept. 
 being reckoned as 14 Sept. The difference between 
 the old and new style up to 1699 was 10 days ; after 
 1700, II days; after 1800, 12 days. In Eussia 
 Greece, and throughout the East, the old style is 
 still retained. The czar, Alexander II., was born 
 on the 17th April, 1818, old style, 29 April, new 
 style ; see Calendar. 
 
 NEW TESTAMENT, see Bible. 
 
 NEWTONIAN PHILOSOPHY, the doc- 
 trines respecting gravitation, &c, taught by sir 
 Isaac Newton in his " Principia," published in 
 1687; see Gravitation. He was born 25 Dec, 1642; 
 became master of the mint, 1699; president of the 
 Koyal Society, 1703 ; and died 20 March, 1727. A 
 statue of him in marble by Koubiliac was set up at 
 Trinity College, Cambridge, 14 July, 1755, and one 
 in bronze by Theed, at Grantham, 21 Sept. 1858, 
 when lord Brougham delivered a discourse on the 
 life and works of Newton. The latter statue cost 
 l6oo£., a sum obtained by public subscription. 
 
 NEWTOWNBABKY EIOT (S.E. Ireland). 
 At a seizure of stock for tithes, a conflict ensued 
 here between the yeomanry and the people, when 
 thirty-five persons were killed or wounded, 18 June, 
 1831. The jury at the inquest were unable to agree 
 on a verdict. 
 
 NEWTOWN-BUTLER (N. Ireland). On 
 30 July, 1689, the Enniskilleners under Gustavus 
 Hamilton thoroughly defeated the adherents of 
 James II. commanded by general Maccarty, taking 
 him prisoner with his artillery, arms, and baggage. 
 
 NEW YEAE'S DAY, &c. The beginning 
 of the Jewish year was changed and the passover 
 instituted, 1491 B.C. A feast is said to have been 
 instituted by Numa, and dedicated to Janus (who 
 presided over the new year), 1 Jan. 713 B.C. 
 
 On this day the Romans sacrificed to Janus a cake of 
 new sifted meal, with salt, incense, and wine ; and all 
 the mechanics began something of their art of trade : 
 the men of letters did the same, as to books, poems, 
 &c. ; and the consuls, though chosen before, took the 
 chair and entered upon their office this day. Nonius 
 Marcellus refers the origin of New-year's gifts 
 among the Romans to Titus Tatius, king of the 
 Sabines, who having considered as a good omen a 
 present of some branches cut in a wood consecrated 
 to Strenia, the goddess of strength, which he received 
 on the first clay of the new year, authorised the cus- 
 tom afterwards, and gave these gifts the name of 
 Strente, 747 b.c. 
 
 NEW YOEK, the "empire state" of the 
 United States of N. America, is said to have been 
 discovered by Verrazano, a Florentine in the French 
 service, about 1524, and rediscovered by Hudson, 
 an Englishman in the Dutch service, in 1609, and 
 settled by the Dutch in 1614, the city being named 
 Manhattan and New Amsterdam ; but the English 
 under colonel Nichols dispossessed them and the 
 Swedes, 27 Aug. 1664, and changed its name. 
 Population in i860, 805,651 ; 1870,942,292. 
 
 The city confirmed to England by the peace of 
 Breda 24 Aug. 1667 
 
 Taken by the Dutch, and named New Orange, 1673 ; 
 surrendered 1674 
 
 The city a principal point of the struggle for inde- 
 pendence. It siu-rendered to the British forces 
 under general Howe . . . . js Sept. 1776 
 
 The city was evacuated by the British; "Evacua- 
 tion day " made one of rejoicing ever since, 
 
 25 Nov. 1783, 
 
 Academy of the fine arts, and a botanical garden, 
 established in 1804. 
 
 Fire here ; 674 buildings destroyed, and property 
 valued at nearly 20,000,000 dollars . 16 Dec. 1835 
 
 Fire ; 302 houses burnt . . . .19 July, 1845 
 
 The Park theatre destroyed by fire . 16 Dec, 1848 
 
 Serious riot (several lives lost) at the theatre, 
 originating in a dispute between Mr. Macready 
 (English) and Mr. Forrest (American), actors, 
 
 10 May, 1849. 
 
 The Crystal Palace, containing an exhibition of 
 goods from all nations, was opened in the presence 
 of the president of the United States and many 
 other dignitaries .... 14 July, 1853, 
 
 New York suffered severely by large commercial 
 failures, and " hunger demonstrations " took place 
 during the panic Nov. 1857 
 
 The Crystal Palace destroyed by fire . . 5 Oct. 1858 
 
 A magnificent cathedral erected .... 1859 
 
 Great fire ; about 50 lives lost . . .2 Feb. 186& 
 
 During the civil war of 1861 New York strongly 
 supported the government of president Lincoln 
 (republican, or abolitionist) ; but during 1862 a 
 reaction gradually took place, and the opposition 
 (democrat) candidates for congress were elected 
 by large majorities Nov. 1862; 
 
 Fierce riots against conscription ; many persons 
 killed and much property destroyed 13-17 July, 1863, 
 
 Barnum's museum burnt; great loss, 13 July, 1865 ; 
 again 2 March, 1868. 
 
 Great loss and panic through James Fisk and 
 others (the Erie Ring) buying up gold, 
 
 22-26 Sept. 18691 
 
 Riot through an Orange procession ; about 30 killed, 
 
 12 July, i87r 
 
 Disclosure of great corruption in the municipal 
 government (termed "Tammany frauds," from 
 the council meeting in Tammany hall) ; public 
 meeting to obtain prompt redress . 4 Sept. ,, 
 
 The Tammany party excluded from office by the 
 elections Nov. ,, 
 
 Demonstrations of the International Society of 
 Workmen repressed Dec. „ 
 
 James Fisk, the railway and financial speculator, 
 assassinated by Edw. Stokes, through jealousy ; 
 dies 7 Jan. 1872 
 
 Collapse of the Erie railway ring, ruled by Fisk and 
 Jay Gould ; new directors elected (including 
 generals Dix and M'Clellan) . . March, „ 
 
 Much inconvenience by the horse disease . Oct. ,, 
 
 Legal proceedings against Gould suspended ; he 
 agrees to give up to the company 9,000,000 dollars, 
 
 Dec. „ 
 
 Stokes convicted of murder ; (execution delayed) 
 
 6 Jan. 1873 
 
 Barnum's museum again burnt ; menagerie de- 
 stroyed ; reported Jan. „ 
 
 See under United States. 
 
 NEW ZEALAND (in the Pacific Ocean), 
 discovered by Tasman in 1642. The country re- 
 mained unknown, and was supposed to be part of a 
 southern continent, till 1769-70, when it was cir- 
 cumnavigated by captain Cook. In 1773, he 
 planted several spots of ground on this island with 
 European garden seeds; and in 1777, he found, 
 some fine potatoes. European population in i860, 
 84,294; Dec. 1865, 190,607; 1867, 258,632. Value 
 of imports, in 1859, 1,551,030?.; exports, 551,484?. 
 
 The right of Great Britain to New Zealand recog- 
 nised at the peace in 1814. 
 
 No constitutional authority placed over it until a 
 resident subordinate to New South Wales . . 1833 
 
 New Zealand company established; Wellington 
 founded 1839, 
 
 Capt. Hobson, the first governor, landed, 29 Jan. ; 
 treaty of Waitangi signed, by which the chiefs 
 cede a large amount of land ... 5 Feb. 1840 
 
 New Zealand an independent colony and a bishop's 
 see April, 1841 
 
 Capt. (aft. admiral) Fitzroy, governor, Dec. 1843 to 
 
 Nov. 1845 
 
 Sir George Grey, governor 1846 
 
NEW ZEALAND. 
 
 474 
 
 NIAGARA. 
 
 A charter, founded upon an act passed in 1846, 
 creating powers municipal, legislative, and ad- 
 ministrative 29 Dec. 1847 
 
 This charter was not acted on ; a legislative council 
 
 opened by the governor . . . .20 Dec. 1848 
 Foundation of Auckland, 1840 ; Nelson and Tara- 
 naki (or New Plymouth), 1841 ; Otago, 1848 ; Can- 
 terbury 1850 
 
 New Zealand company relinquish charter . . ,, 
 
 New constitution granted 1852 
 
 CoL Wynyard, governor . . Jan. 1854 to Sept. 1855 
 
 Governor Browne Oct. ,, 
 
 An earthquake ; not much damage done, 23 Jan. ,, 
 
 Constitution modified 1857 
 
 New bishoprics established: Christ Church, 1856; 
 Nelson and Wellington, 1858 ; Waiapu, 1859 ; 
 Dunedin, i860. 
 Insurrection of the natives (Maoris) under a chief 
 named William King(Wirrimu Kingi), arising out 
 of disputes respecting the sale of land ; the bishop 
 Selwyn and others consider the natives unjustly 
 
 treated March, i860 
 
 Indecisive actions between the militia and volun- 
 teers and the Maoris . . . 14-28 March, „ 
 War breaks out at Taranaki ; the British repulsed 
 
 with loss 30 June, ,, 
 
 Great excitement in Australia ; troops sent to New 
 
 Zealand, under gen. Pratt, land . . 3 Aug. ,, 
 Indecisive actions . . 10, 19 Sept. , 9, 12 Oct. ,, 
 Gen. Pratt defeats the Maoris at Mahoetahi, and 
 
 destroys their fortified places . . 6 Nov. „ 
 New Zealand colonists in England justify the con- 
 duct of the governor . . . . 22 Nov. ,, 
 The Maoris defeated, 29 Dec. i860; 23 Jan., 24 Feb. 
 
 16-18 March, 1861 
 The war ends : surrender of natives . 19 March, ,, 
 Sir George Grey re-appointed governor . June, ,, 
 Gold discovered at Otago, &c. . . . June, ,, 
 A native sovereignty proclaimed ; 5000 British sol- 
 diers in the island July, ,, 
 
 Loyalty of the natives increasing . . May, 1862 
 The Maori chiefs sign a poetical address of condo- 
 lence to the queen on the death of the prince con- 
 sort ; received Nov. ,, 
 
 Natives attack a military escort and kill 8 persons, 
 
 4 May, 1863 
 Waikato tribe driven from a fort . . 17 July, ,, 
 War spreads ; natives construct rifle pits . Aug. ,, 
 Proposed confiscation of Waikato lands . . Sept. ,, 
 Gen. Cameron severely defeats the Maoris at Ran- 
 
 gariri 20 Nov. ,, 
 
 Continued success of gen. Cameron ; capitulation of 
 
 the Maori king 9 Dec. ,, 
 
 British attack on Galepa (the gate pah) repulsed 
 
 with loss of officers and men . . 29 April, 1864 
 Loan of 1,000,000/. to New Zealand ; guaranteed by 
 
 parliament July, ,, 
 
 Several tribes submit Aug. ,, 
 
 Maori prisoners escape and form the nucleus of a 
 
 new insurrection Sept. ,, 
 
 Sir George Grey issues proposals of peace, 25 Oct. ; 
 the Aborigines Protection Society send religious, 
 moral, and political advice to the Maoris (con- 
 sidered injudicious) .... Nov. ,, 
 Change of ministry and policy ; seat of government 
 to be removed from Auckland to Wellington on 
 
 Cook's Strait 24 Nov. ,, 
 
 Maoris' attack on Cameron severely defeated, 25 
 
 Jan. ; again . .... 25 Feb. 1865 
 
 Outbreak of the Pai Mariri or Hau-hau heresy, a 
 compound of Judaism ami paganism, amongst 
 the Maoris ; the rev. (J. S. Volkner murdered and 
 many outrages committed, 2 March ; proclamation 
 of governor sir George Grey against it ; it is checked 
 by the ageircy of a friendly native chief We-tako, 
 
 April, ,, 
 W T illiam Thompson, an eminent chief, surrenders 
 
 on behalf of the Maori king . . 25 May, ,, 
 New Zealand still unsettled . . . July, ,, 
 The Hau-haus beaten in several conflicts, Aug. ; 
 the governor proclaims peace, 2 Sept. ; British 
 troops about to leave . . . . 15 Sept. ,, 
 The Maoris treacherously kill the envoys of peace ; 
 resignation of the Weld ministry ; one formed by 
 
 Mr. Stafford Oct. „ 
 
 Bishopric of Dunedin, Otago. founded 
 
 General Chute subdues the Hau-haus . . Jan. 1866 
 Progress of peace measures . . . April, ,, 
 
 Murderers of Mr. Volkner executed . 17 May, 1866 
 
 Governor announces cessation of the war, 3 July, ,, 
 
 Death of William Thompson, the Maori chief, 
 
 28 Dec. ,, 
 
 Sir George F. Bowen appointed to succeed sir 
 George Grey ; gazetted ... 19 Nov. 1867 
 
 Act relating to the government of New Zealand 
 passed in the British parliament .... 1868 
 
 Geo. Samuel Evans (an eminent colonist, 1838-9)0168 
 
 23 Sept. ,, 
 
 Te Kooti, a chief, and about 150 Maori convicts, 
 escape from Chatham island to the mainland, 
 4 July; they repulse troops sent against them, 
 7 Sept. ; massacre the whites at Poverty Bay, 
 
 10 Nov. 1868 
 
 Te Kooti and the rebels defeated by col. Whitmore ; 
 130 Maoris killed 5 Jan. 1869 
 
 Massai re of settlers at Taranaki . . 12 Feb. ,, 
 
 Change of ministry : hon. Mr. Fox's proposal to 
 pay for British troops declined by the home 
 government Sept. ,, 
 
 Te Kooti, thrice defeated by the colonists and friendly 
 natives, a fugitive Oct ,, 
 
 Despatch from earl Granville, insisting on the 
 withdrawal of the British troops (18th regiment) 
 causes much dissatisfaction ... 7 Oct. ,, 
 
 Friendly interview between Mr. McLean and the 
 Maori king's minister . . . .8 Nov. ,, 
 
 Increased demand for the New Zealand fibrous 
 plant, phormium tenax 1869-70 
 
 Departure of the last British troops . . 22 Jan. 1870 
 
 Te Kooti, refusing to surrender at discretion, 24 
 Jan., narrowly escapes .... 5 Feb. ,, 
 
 Te Kooti's party attacked and dispersed ;his speedy 
 capture anticipated .... 31 July, ,, 
 
 The duke of Edinburgh, in the Galatea, at Welling- 
 ton 27 Aug. ,, 
 
 Increase of prosperity reported ; loan of 4,000,000?. 
 proposed Aug. ,, 
 
 Political union of the islands effected . . Aug. ,, 
 
 Murder of Mr. Todd, surveyor, by Maoris, 28 Dec. ,, 
 
 Te Kooti reported as living by plunder ; acting as a 
 fanatical potentate Nov. 1871 
 
 Friendly meeting of Mr. McLean with Wirrimu 
 Kingi and other chiefs, who submit to the British 
 government March, 1872 
 
 Mr. Stafford's ministry resigns, succeeded by one 
 under Mr. Waterhouse (the Fox party) about Oct. ,, 
 
 Sir James Fergusson appointed governor, March, 1873 
 
 NEY'S EXECUTION. Ney, duke of El- 
 
 chingen, priuce of the Moskwa, and one of the most 
 
 valiant of the marshals of France, was shot as a 
 
 traitor, 7 Dec. 1815. On 7 Dec. 1853, his statue 
 
 was erected on the spot where he fell. 
 
 After the abdication of Napoleon I., 5 April, 1814, Ney 
 
 took the oath of allegiance to the king, Louis XVIII. 
 
 On Napoleon's return to France from Elba, he marched 
 
 against him ; but his troops deserting, lie regarded the 
 
 cause of the Bourbons as lost, and opened the invader's 
 
 way to Paris, March, 1815. Ney led the attack of the 
 
 French at Waterloo, where he fought in the midst of 
 
 the slain, his clothes pierced with bullet-holes, five 
 
 horses having been shot under him ; night and defeat 
 
 obliged him to flee. Though included in the decree of 
 
 24 July, 1815, which guaranteed the safety of all 
 
 Frenchmen, he was sought out, and on 5 Aug. taken 
 
 at the castle of a friend at Urillac, and brought to trial 
 
 before the Chamber of Peers, 4 Dec. The 12th article 
 
 of the capitulation of Paris, fixing a general amnesty, 
 
 was quoted in his favour in vain. 
 
 NEZIB, Syria. Here Ibrahim and the 
 Egyptians defeated the Turks, 24 June, 1839. 
 
 NIAGARA (N. America) . At the head of this 
 river, on the western shore, is Fort Eric, which was 
 taken by the English, 24 July, 17159. It was 
 abandoned in the war with the United States, 27 
 May, 1813, but was retaken, 19 Dec. following. A 
 suspension bridge of a single span of 82Q feet over 
 the Niagara, connecting the railways of Canada 
 and Xew York, was opened in March, 1855. It is 
 elevated 18 feet on the Canadian, and 28 feet on the 
 American side. 
 
NIC^A. 
 
 475 
 
 NICOPOLIS. 
 
 About eighteen miles below Foit Erie are the remarkable 
 falls. The river is here 740 yards wide ; the half-mile 
 immediately above the cataracts is a rapid, in which 
 the water falls 58 feet ; it is then thrown, with aston- 
 ishing grandeur, down a stupendous precipice of 150 
 feet perpendicular, in three distinct and collateral 
 sheets ; and, in a rapid that extends to the distance of 
 nine miles below, falls nearly as much more. The river 
 then flows in a deep channel till it enters lake Ontario, 
 at Fort Niagara. 
 
 The falls visited by the prince of Wales, Sept. i860. 
 
 Blondin crossed the falls on a tight rope, 17 Aug. 1859. 
 
 Professor Tyndall visited the falls, Nov., 1872, and lec- 
 tured on them at the Royal Institution, 4 April, 1872. 
 
 NICiEA, see Nice. 
 
 NICARAGUA, a state in Central America 
 (which see). The present constitution was estab- 
 lished 19 Aug. 1858. At the commencement of 1855 
 it was greatly disturbed by two political parties : 
 that of the president, Chamorro, who held Grenada, 
 the capital, and that of the democratic chief, 
 Castellon, who held Leon. The latter invited 
 Walker, the filibuster, to his assistance, who in a 
 short time became sole dictator of the state.* By 
 the united efforts of the confederated states the 
 filibusters were all expelled in May, 1857. On 
 I May, 1858, Nicaragua and Costa Rica appealed to 
 the great European powers for protection. Nicaragua 
 railway, a transit route between the Pacific and 
 Atlantic, proposed, and company formed Nov. 1866. 
 President T. Martinez elected, 1859 and 1863 ; 
 Fernando Guzman, elected I March, 1867; Vicente 
 Quadra elected 1 Feb. 1871. Population increased 
 to about 400,000. 
 
 NICE or NlCJEA, a town in Bithynia, Asia 
 
 * William Walker was born at Tennessee, in the 
 United States, where he became successively doctor, 
 lawyer, and journalist, and afterwards gold-seeker in 
 California, whence he was invited to Nicaragua by 
 Castellon, with the promise of 52,000 acres of land, on 
 condition of bringing with him a band of adventurers to 
 sustain the revolutionary, cause. Walker accepted the 
 terms, and on 28 June landed at Bealejo with 68 men. 
 He increased his forces at Leon, and soon after attacked 
 the town of Bivas, where he was repulsed with loss. 
 He then joined col. Kinney, who had occupied and 
 governed Grey Town, 6 Sept. On 13 Oct. Walker cap- 
 tured Grenada by surprise when in a defenceless state, 
 shot Mayorga, one of the ministers, and established a 
 rule of terror. By intervention of the American consul 
 he made peace with the general of the state army, Corral, 
 but shot him on 7 Nov., on finding him corresponding 
 with fugitives at Costa Rica. Walker at first was only 
 general-in-chief : but on Rivas, whom he had made 
 president, deserting him, he became sole dictator. On 
 14 May, 1856, his envoy Vijil was recognised by the 
 president of the United States, whence also he obtained 
 reinforcements during his retention of power. Costa Bica 
 declared war against him, 28 Feb. 1856 ; the other states 
 of central America soon followed the example, and a 
 sanguinary struggle ensued, lasting till May, 1857. On 
 25 Nov. 1856, Walker totally burnt Grenada, being unable 
 to defend it, and removed the seat of government to 
 Bivas. This place he surrendered to gen. Mora on 1 May, 
 1857, on the intervention of capt. Davis, of the St. Mary's, 
 U.S. Himself, his staff, and 260 men, were conveyed in 
 that vessel to New Orleans, where they were received with 
 great enthusiasm. On 25 Nov., 1857, he again invaded 
 Nicaragua, landing at Punta Arenas with 400 men ; but 
 on 8 Dec. was compelled to surrender to capt. Paulding, 
 U.S., and was conveyed to New York. He escaped 
 punishment by nolle prosequi (2 June, 1858): but capt. 
 Paulding was tried for exceeding orders, and blamed — ■ 
 yet excused by president Buchanan. On 5 Aug. i860, 
 Walker landed near Truxillo, Honduras, and took the 
 fort on the 6th. On the 7th he proclaimed that he made 
 war on the government, not on the people of Honduras. 
 On being summoned to surrender his booty by capt. 
 Salmon, B. N. , of the Icarus, he refused, and fled. He 
 was pursued, caught, given up to the Honduras govern- 
 ment, tried, and shot (12 Sept.). His followers were 
 dismissed. 
 
 Minor, N. W. Antigonus gave it the name Anti- 
 goneia, which Lysimachus changed to Nicsea, the 
 name of his wife. It became the residence of the 
 kings of Bithynia about 208 B.C. At the battle of 
 Nice, a.d. 194, the emperor Severus defeated his 
 rival, Pescennius Niger, who was again defeated at 
 Issus, and soon after taken prisoner and put to 
 death. The first general council was held here 19 
 June to 25 Aug. 325, which adopted the Nicene 
 Creed and condemned the Arians. It was attended 
 by 318 bishops from divers parts, who settled both 
 the doctrine of the Trinity and the time for observing 
 Easter. The creed was altered, 381, and confirmed 
 431, when it was decreed unlawful to make further 
 additions. When the Crusaders took Constanti- 
 nople, and established a Latin empire there in 1204, 
 the Greek emperors removed to Nice and reigned 
 there till 1261, when they returned to Constanti- 
 nople ; see Eastern Empire, p . 224. Nice was taken 
 by the Ottoman Turks in 1330. 
 
 NICE (N. Italy), was the seat of a colony from 
 Massilia, now Marseilles, and formed part of the 
 Roman empire. In the middle ages it was subject 
 to Genoa, and suffered from the frequent wars, 
 being taken and re-taken by the imperialists and 
 French. It was taken by the Austrians under 
 Melas, 1800; seized and annexed to France 1792; 
 restored to Sardinia in 1814. Nice was again 
 annexed to France in virtue of the treaty of 24 
 March, i860; the people having voted nearly 
 unanimously for this change by universal suffrage. 
 The French troops entered I April and definite 
 possession was taken 14 June following. Garibaldi, 
 a native, vehemently protested against this annexa- 
 tion. Population of the province, in 1857, 256,593. 
 
 NICIAS, PEACE OF, between Athens and 
 Sparta for 50 years, 421 B.C., negotiated by that 
 unfortunate Athenian general, who with his col- 
 league, Demosthenes, was put to death after the 
 disastrous termination of the expedition against 
 Syracuse, 413 B.C. 
 
 NICKEL, a white, ductile, malleable, magnetic 
 metal, employed in the manufacture of German 
 silver. Cronstadt in 1 75 1 discovered nickel in the 
 mineral copper-nickel. 
 
 NICOBAR ISLES, Indian Ocean, S. of Bay 
 of Bengal, given up by Denmark and occupied by 
 Great Britain to suppress piracy ; announced June, 
 1869. 
 
 NICOLAITANES, a sect mentioned in Rev. 
 ii. 6, 15, said to have sprung from Nicolas, one of 
 the first seven deacons (Acts vi.), and to have 
 advocated a community of wives, and to have denied 
 the divinity of Christ. 
 
 NICOMEDIA, the metropolis of Bithynia, Asia 
 Minor, N. W., founded by king Nicomedes I., 264 
 B.C., on the remains of Astacus ; destroyed by an 
 earthquake, a.d. 115 ; and restored by the emperor 
 Adrian, 124. The Roman emperors frequently 
 resided here during theiv eastern wars. Here 
 Diocletian resigned the purple, 305 ; and Constan- 
 tine died at his villa in its neighbourhood, 337. It 
 surrendered to the Seljukian Turks, 1078 ; and to 
 Orchan and the Ottoman Turks in 1338. 
 
 NICOPOLIS (now in Bulgaria,) Battle of, 
 28 Sept. 1396, between the allied Christian powers 
 under Sigismund, king of Hungary, afterwards 
 emperor, and the Turks under Bajazet; said to 
 have been the first battle between the Turks and 
 Christians ; the latter were defeated, losing 20,000 
 slain, and as many wounded and prisoners. 
 
NIELLO-WORK. 
 
 476 
 
 NITROGEN. 
 
 NIELLO-WORK, believed to have been pro- 
 duced by rubbing a mixture of silver, lead, copper, 
 sulphur, and borax into engravings on silver, &c, 
 an art known to the ancients was practised in the 
 middle ages, and said to have given to Maso 
 Finiguerra tbe idea of engraving upon copper, about 
 1460. 
 
 NIEMEN, or MEMEL, a river flowing into the 
 Baltic, and separating Prussia from Russia. On a raft 
 on this river the emperor Napoleon met Alexander 
 of Russia, 22 June 1807, and made peace with him 
 and Prussia. He crossed the Niemen to invade 
 Russia, 24 June, 1812, and re-crossed witb the 
 remains of bis army, 28 Dec. Near it the Poles 
 defeated the Russians 27 May, 1831. 
 
 NIGER EXPEDITION, see Africa, 1841. 
 
 NIGHTINGALE FUND. On 21 Oct. 1854, 
 Miss Florence Nightingale left England with a 
 staff of thirty-seven nurses, and arrived at Scutari, 5 
 Nov. She rendered invaluable services to the army ; 
 and returned to London, 8 Sept. 1856. In honour 
 of this, a meeting was held at Willis's Rooms on 29 
 Nov. 1855, to raise funds to establish an institution 
 for the training of nurses and other hospital atten- 
 dants. Madame Jenny Lind Goldschmidt sang at 
 Exeter Hall on 11 March 1856, and gave the pro- 
 ceeds (1872/.) to the fund. The subscriptions 
 closed, 24 April, 1857, amounting to 44,039^. The 
 queen gave Miss Nightingale a valuable jewel. 
 
 NIKA CONTESTS, sec Circus. 
 
 NIL DARPAN, see India, June 1861, 
 
 NIKOLSBURG (Moravia). Here were signed, 
 26 July 1866, the preliminaries of a peace between 
 Austria and Prussia. 
 
 NILE (Egypt). This great river rises in the 
 Mountains of the Moon, in about ten degrees of N. 
 lat. and in a known course of 1250 miles receives no 
 tributary streams. The travels of Bruce were 
 undertaken to discover the source of the Nile. He 
 set out from England in June, 1768 ; on the 14th of 
 November, 1770, discovered the source of the Blue 
 Nile, and returned home in 1773. This river over- 
 fl»ws regularly every year, from about the 15th of 
 June to the 17th of September, when, having given 
 lertility to the land, it begins to decrease. It must 
 rise 16 cubits to ensure that fertility. The first 
 Nilometer (a pillar,) was set up by'Solyman the 
 Caliph, 715. In 1829, the inundations of the Nile 
 rose to 26 instead of 22, by which 30,000 people 
 were drowned and immense property lost. Mr. 
 Peiherick set out early in 1861 to explore the 
 country at the source of the Nile. For recent 
 discoveries, see Africa 1863. A bridge over the 
 Nile (above 1300 feet) at Cairo, was completed by 
 a French company, Aug. 1872. 
 
 NILE, Battle of the, (or Aboukir,) 1 Aug. 
 
 1798, near Rosetta, between the French fleet under 
 Brueys, and the British under sir Horatio Nelson. 
 Nine of the French line-of-battle ships were taken, 
 two were burnt, and two escaped. The French ship, 
 L' Orient, with Brueys and IOOO men on board, 
 blew up, and only 70 or 80 escaped. Nelson's 
 exclamation upon commencing the battle was, 
 " Victory or Westminster Abbey ! " 
 
 NIMEGUEN (Holland). Here was signed 
 the treaty of peace between France and the United 
 Provinces, 1678. The French were successful against 
 the British under the duke of York, before Nime- 
 guen, 28 Oct. 1794; were defeated by them 3 Nov. ; 
 but gained the place 8 Nov. 
 
 NINEVEH, the capital of the Assyrian empire 
 (see Assyria), founded by Ashur about 2245 B.C. 
 Ninus reigned in Assyria, and named this city 
 Nincveh, 2069 B.C. Abbe Lenglct. Jonah preached 
 against Nineveh (about 862 B.C.), which was taken 
 by Nebuchadnezzar, 606 B.C. The discoveries of 
 Mr. Layard and others since 1839, in the neighbour- 
 hood of Mosul, the supposed site of this ancient 
 capital have in a manner disinterred and re-peopled 
 a city which for centuries has not only ceased to 
 figure on the page of history, but whose very locality 
 had long been blotted out of the map of the earth. 
 In 1848 Mr. Layard published his " Nineveh and its 
 Remains," and in 1853 n ^ s " Discoveries," in his 
 second visit in 1849-50. Botta commenced his ex- 
 plorations at Khorsabad in 1843, and published his 
 great work "Monuments de jSinive," 1849-50. 
 
 The forms, features, costume, religion, modes of warfare, 
 and ceremonial customs of its inhabitants stand before 
 us as distinct as those of a living people ; and by help 
 of the sculptures and their cuneiform inscriptions, the 
 researches of the learned have increased the knowledge 
 of Assyrian history. Among the sculptures that en- 
 rirli the British Museum, may be mentioned, the 
 winged bull and lion, and numerous hunting and 
 battle pieces ; and the bas-relief of the eagle-headed 
 human figure, presumed to be a representation of the 
 Assyrian god Kisroch (from Nisr, an eagle or hawk), 
 whom Sennacherib was in the act of worshipping 
 when lie was assassinated by his two sons, about 710 
 B.C. 2 Kiwjs xix. 37. 
 
 NIOBIUM, a rare metal, discovered by Hat- 
 chett in columbite, a black earth, and named 
 columbium, 1801. It was pronounced to be iden- 
 tical with tantalum by AYollaston ; but was re- 
 discovered by H. Rose in 1846, and named 
 niobium. 
 
 NISBET or NESBIT (Northumberland). Here 
 a battle was fought between the English and 
 Scotch armies, the latter greatly disproportioned in 
 strength to the former. Several thousands of the 
 Scots were slain upon the field and in the pursuit, 
 7 May, 1402. 
 
 NISMES (Nimes), S.France, was the flourish- 
 ing Roman colony, Nemausus. Its noble amphi- 
 theatre was injured by the English in 1417. The 
 inhabitants embraced" Protestantism, and suffered 
 much persecution in consequence, and Nismes has 
 frequently been the scene of religious and political 
 contests. The treaty termed the Pacification of 
 Nismes (14 July, 1629) gave religious toleration for 
 a time to the Huguenots. 
 
 NITRE, see Saltpetre. 
 
 NITRIC ACID, a compound of nitrogen and 
 oxygen, formerly called aqua fortis, first obtained 
 in a separate state by Raymond Lully, an alchemist, 
 about 1287 ; but we are indebted to Cavendish, 
 Priestley, and Lavoisier for our present knowledge 
 of its properties. H. Cavendish demonstrated the 
 nature of this acid in 1785. Nitrous acid was dis- 
 covered by Scheele about 1774. Nitrous gas was 
 accidentally discovered by Dr. Hales. Nitrous 
 oxide gas (laughing gas) was discovered by Dr. 
 Priestley in 1776. Theuseofthisgasasanana'sfhetic 
 began in America in 1864 ; at Paris, 1866 ; in Lon- 
 don, 31 March, 1868, ingenious apparatus having 
 been invented for its application. 
 
 NITROGEN or AZOTE (from the Greek a, 
 no, and zoo, I live), an irrespirable elementary 
 gas, and an important element in food, discovered 
 by Rutherford about 1772. Before 1777, Scheele 
 separated the oxygen of the air from the nitrogen, 
 and almost simultaneously with Lavoisier dis- 
 covered that the atmosphere is a mixture of these 
 
NITEO-GLYCEEINE. 
 
 477 
 
 NOEMAL SCHOOLS. 
 
 two gases. Nitrogen combined with, hydrogen 
 forms the volatile alkali ammonia, so freely given 
 off by decomposing animal and vegetable bodies. 
 
 NITEO-GLYCEEINE (also called Nitro- 
 IiEUM), an intensely explosive amber-like iiuid, 
 discovered by Sobrero in 1847, is produced by add- 
 ing glycerine (in successive small quantities) to a 
 mixture of one part of nitric acid, and two parts 
 of sulphuric acid. Alfred Nobel, a Swede, first 
 attempted its application as an explosive agent, in 
 1864. It has caused several most disastrous acci- 
 dents, with great loss of life. In attempting to 
 bury some nitro-glycerine in the town-moor at 
 Newcastle-on-Tyne, 17 Dec. 1867, an explosion 
 took place, and seven persons lost their lives, in- 
 cluding Mr. Mawson, the sheriff, and Mr. Bryson, 
 town surveyor ; see Dynamite. Mr. Alfred Nobel's 
 nitro-glycerine manufactory, near Stockholm, blown 
 up ; 15 persons killed, many injured, 10 June, 
 1868. An act prohibiting its importation for a 
 time, and regulating its transmission, was passed 
 in 1869. 
 
 NOBILITY. The Goths, after they had seized 
 a part of Europe, rewarded their heroes with titles 
 of honour, to distinguish them from the common 
 people. The right of peerage seems to have been 
 at first territorial. Patents to persons having no 
 estate were first granted by Philip the Fair of 
 France, 1095. George Neville, duke of Bedford 
 (,son of John, masquis of Montague), ennobled in 
 1470, was degraded from the peerage by parliament, 
 on account of his utter want of property, 19 Edw. 
 IV., 1478. Noblemen's privileges were restrained 
 in June, 1773 > see Lords, and the various orders of 
 the nobility. 
 
 NOBILITY OF FRANCE preceded that of 
 England. On 18 June, 1790, the National Assembly 
 decreed that hereditary nobility could not exist in 
 a free state; that the titles of dukes, counts, 
 marquises, knights, barons, excellencies, abbots, 
 and others, be abolished ; that all citizens take 
 their family names ; liveries and annorial bearings 
 also to be abolished. The records of the nobility, 
 600 volumes, were burnt at the foot of the statue 
 of Louis XIV., 25 June, 1792. A new nobility was 
 created by the emperor Napoleon I., 1808. The 
 hereditary peerage was abolished 27 Dec. 1831 ; re- 
 instituted by Napoleon III., 1852. 
 
 NOBLE, an English gold coin (value 6s. 8^.), 
 first struck in the reign of Edward III., 1343 or 
 1344, said to have derived its name from the excel- 
 lency of the metal of which it was composed. 
 
 "NOLTJMTJS LEGES ANGLLE MU- 
 TAEI," see Bastards, and Merton. 
 
 NOMINALISTS (01 Conceptttalists), a 
 
 scholastic sect, opposed to the Realists, maintain 
 that general ideas have no existence outside our 
 minds, and only exist by the names we give them. 
 The founder of the sect, Jean Roscellin, a canon 
 of Compiegne, was condemned by a council at 
 Soissons, 1092, but the controversy was revived in 
 the 12th century. Among the Nominalists are 
 reckoned Abelard, Occam, Hobbes, Locke, Berkeley, 
 and Dugald Stewart. The Realists assert that 
 general ideas are real things with positive 
 existence. 
 
 NON-CONFOEMISTS. The Protestants in 
 England are divided into conformists and non- 
 conformists, or, churchmen and dissenters. The 
 first place of meeting of the latter, in England, 
 svas established at Wandsworth, near London, 
 
 20 Nov. 1572. The name of non-conformists was 
 taken by the Puritans when the Act of Uniformity 
 came into operation on 24 Aug. 1662 (termed 
 " Black Bartholomew's day"), when 2000 ministers 
 of the established religion resigned, not choosing to 
 conform to the statute passed " for the uniformity 
 of public prayers and administration of the sacra- 
 ments;" see Puritans, and Dissenters. The laws 
 against them were relaxed by the Toleration act, 
 24 May, 1689. — The Nonconformist newspaper 
 (edited by Mr. Edward Miall, since M.P.) first 
 appeared 14 April, 1841. 
 
 NONES, in the Roman calendar, were the fifth 
 day of each month, excepting March, May, July, 
 and October, when the nones fell on the seventh 
 day. 
 
 NON-JUEOES considered James II. to have 
 been unjustly deposed, and refused to swear alle- 
 giance to William III. in 1689. Among them were 
 Sancroft, archbishop of Canterbury; Ken, bishop 
 of Bath and Wells, and the bishops of Ely, Glou- 
 cester, Norwich, and Peterborough, and many of 
 the clergy, who were deprived 1 Feb. 1691. Non- 
 jurors were subjected to double taxation, and 
 obliged to register their estates, May, 1723. They 
 formed a separate communion, which existed till 
 the beginning of the present century. 
 
 NON NOBIS, DOMINE ! (" Not unto us, 
 Lord!" &c, Psalm cxv. 1), a musical canon, 
 sung as a grace at public feasts, was composed bv 
 W. Bird in 1618. J 
 
 NON-EESISTANCE OATH (containing a 
 declaration that it is unlawful to take arms against 
 the king upon any pretence whatever), enforced by 
 the Corporation act, 1661, was repealed in 1719. 
 
 NOOTKA SOUND (Vancouver's Island), 
 discovered by captain Cook in 1778, and settled by 
 the British m 1786, when a few British merchants 
 in the East Indies formed a settlement to supply 
 the Chinese market with furs ; but the Spaniards 
 in 1789 captured two English vessels and took pos- 
 session of the settlement. The British ministry 
 demanded reparation, and the affair was amicably 
 terminated by a convention, and a free commerce 
 was confirmed to England in 1790. 
 
 " NO-POPEEY EIOTS," see Gordon. The 
 cry was revived against the Catholic emancipation 
 bill, 1829. 
 
 NOBDLINGEN (Bavaria). Here the Swedes 
 under count Horn were defeated by the Austrians, 
 27 Aug. 1634; and the Austrians and allies by 
 Turenne in 1645. 
 
 NOEE MUTINY, see Mutinies. 
 
 NOEFOLK ISLAND (Pacific Ocean), dis- 
 covered m 1774, by captain Cook, who found it 
 uninhabited, except by birds. The settlement was 
 made by a detachment from Port Jackson under 
 governor Phillip, in 1788, in Sydney bay, on the 
 south side of the island. This was at one time the 
 severest penal colony of Great Britain. The island 
 was abandoned in 1809, but re-occupied as a penal 
 settlement in 1825. The descendants of the muti- 
 neers of the Bounty were removed to it in June 
 1856, from Pitcairn's Island (ivhich see). 
 
 NOEICUM, see Austria. 
 
 NOEMAL SCHOOLS (from norma, a rule). 
 One for the instruction of teachers, established at 
 Paris by a law, 30 Oct. 1794, opened 20 Jan. 170c 
 under the direction of La Place, La Harpe, Hauy 
 
NORMANDY. 
 
 478 
 
 N.E. AND N.W. PASSAGES. 
 
 and other eminent men, was soon closed. Another, 
 established by Napoleon in 1808, was closed in 1822. 
 The plan was revived in 1826, and has been de- 
 veloped in England and other countries. 
 
 NORMANDY (N. France), part of Neustria, 
 a kingdom founded by Clovis in 511 for his son 
 Clotaire, which, after various changes, was united 
 to France by Charles the Bald in 837. From the 
 beginning of the 9th century it was continually 
 devastated by the Scandinavians, termed North- 
 men or Normans, to purchase repose from whose 
 irruptions Charles the Simple of France ceded the 
 duchy to their leader Rollo, 905. Hollo, the first 
 duke, held it as a fief of the crown of France, and 
 several of Ms successors after him, until William 
 the seventh duke, acquired England, in 1066. It 
 remained a province of England till the reign of 
 king John, 1204, when it was reunited to France. It 
 was re-conquered by Henry V., 141 8, and held by 
 England partially till 1450. The English still pos- 
 sess the islands on the coast, of which Jersey and 
 Guernsey are the principal. 
 
 DUKES. 
 
 912. Rollo (or Raoul), baptized as Robert. 
 927. William I. Longsword. 
 943. Richard I. the Fearless. 
 996. Richard II. the Good. 
 
 1027. Richard III. 
 
 1028. Robert I. the Devil. 
 
 1035. William II. (I. of England). 
 
 1087. Robert II., Courthose (his son), after a contest de- 
 spoiled by his brother. 
 1 106. Henry I. (king of England). 
 1135. Stephen (king of England). 
 1144. Matilda and Geoffrey Plantagenet. 
 1151. Henry II. (king of England in 1154). 
 1189. Richard IV. (I. of England). 
 1199-1204. Arthur and John of England. 
 
 NORTH ADMINISTRATION, formed by 
 lord North, Jan. 1770, who resigned March, 1782. 
 (Lord North entered into a league with the Whigs ; 
 which led to the short-lived Coalitionministry, 1 783. 
 He succeeded to the earldom of Guildford in 1790, 
 and died in 1792; see Coalition) 
 
 Frederick, lord North, first lord of the treasury, machan- 
 
 cellor of the exchequer. 
 Earl Gower, lord president. 
 Earl of Halifax, privy seal 
 Earl of Rochford, lord Weymouth (succeeded by lord 
 
 Sandwich) and earl of Hillsborough, secretaries of state. 
 Sir Edward Ilawke, admiralty. 
 Marquis of Granbv, ordnance. 
 Sir Gilbert Elliot, lord Hertford, duke of Aucaster, lord 
 
 Carteret, &c. 
 
 NORTHALLERTON (Yorkshire). Near 
 here was fought the "battle of the Standard," 
 where the English totally defeated the Scotch 
 armies, 22 Aug. 1 138. The archbishop of York 
 brought forth a consecrated standard on a carriage 
 at the moment when they were hotly pressed by the 
 invaders, headed by king David. 
 
 NORTH AMERICA, see America, United 
 States, Indians, Canada, &c. 
 
 NORTHAMPTON was burnt by the Danes 
 in IOIO. Here Henry III. proposed to found a 
 university in 1260, and held a parliament in 1269. 
 On 10 July, 1460, a conflict took place between the 
 duke of York and Henry VI. of England, in which 
 the king was defeated, and made prisoner (the 
 second time) after a sanguinary fight which took 
 place in the meadows below the town. Northamp- 
 ton was ravaged by the plague in 1637. It was 
 seized and fortified by the parliamentary forces in 
 1642. A fire nearly destroyed the town, 3 Sept. 
 1675- 
 
 NORTH BRITON, a newspaper, first pub- 
 lished 29 May, 1762, supported by John Wilkes, 
 M.P. for Aylesbury, and a Loudon alderman, and 
 very bitter against the earl of Bute's administra- 
 tion, accusing him of unduly favouring the Scotch. 
 
 In No. 45 (termed " Wilkes's number"), the king was 
 charged with uttering falsehood in his speech ; 
 published . . . . 23 April, 1763 
 
 " General warrant " issued by lord Halifax against 
 the authors, printers, ami publishers 26 April, 1763 
 
 Wilkes and others arrested and committed to the 
 Tower, and his house searched . . 30 April, ,, 
 
 Brought by writ of habeas corpus before chief-jus- 
 tice Pratt, ami discharged, his arrest being re- 
 garded as illegal 6 May, „ 
 
 300Z. damages granted to a printer for false impri- 
 sonment 6 July, ,, 
 
 No. 45 declared to be "a scandalous and seditious 
 libel " by parliament, and ordered to be burnt by 
 the hangman ...... 15 Nov. ,, 
 
 Riot at the burning in Cheapside . . 3 Dec. ,, 
 
 " General warrants " declared illegal by chief-justice 
 Pratt ; 1000?. damages awarded to Wilkes for 
 seizure of his papers .... 6 Dec. „ 
 
 4000Z. damages obtained by Wilkes in an action 
 against lord Halifax .... 10 Nov. 1769 
 
 Wilkes elected lord mayor, 8 Oct. ; elected fifth time 
 M.P. for Middlesex Oct. 1774 
 
 Allowed to take his seat .... Jan. 1775 
 
 Elected chamberlain of London, 1779 ; died, 
 
 26 Nov. 1797 
 
 NORTH CAROLINA, NORTH GER- 
 MAN, see Carolina, German. 
 
 NORTHMEN or NORSEMEN, see Scandi- 
 navia, and Normandy. 
 
 NORTH-EAST and WEST PASSAGES. 
 
 The attempt to discover a north-west passage was 
 made by a Portuguese named Corte Real, about 
 1500. In 1585, a company was formed in London 
 called the "Fellowship for the discovery of the 
 North-"West Passage." From 1743 to 1818 parlia- 
 ment offered 20,000/. for this discovery. In 1818 
 the reward was modified by proposing that 5000/. 
 should be paid when either no°, 120°, or 130 W. 
 long, should be passed : one of which payments was 
 made to sir E. Parry. For their labours in the 
 voyages enumerated in the list below, l'arry, 
 Franklin, Ross, Back, and Richardson, were 
 knighted. 
 
 Sebastian Cabot's voyages to the arctic regions, 1498, 1517 
 Sir Hugh Willoughby's expedition to find a north- 
 east passage to China, sailed from the Thames 
 
 20 May, 1553 
 Reported to have been entangled in the ice off Lap- 
 land, and thus perished 1554 
 
 Sir Martin Frobisher's attempt to find a N.W. pas- 
 sage to China 1576 
 
 Capt. Davis's expeditions to find a N.W. passage, 
 
 1585, 1586, 1587 
 Barentz's Dutch expeditions (by N.E.) . . 1594-5 
 Waymouth and Knight's expedition . . . . 1602 
 Hudson's voyages (see Hudson's Bay) . . 1607-10 
 
 Sir Thomas Button's 1612 
 
 Baffin's (see Baffin's Bay) 1616 
 
 Foxe's expedition 1631 
 
 [A number of enterprises, undertaken by various 
 countries followed.] 
 
 Behring's voyages 1728, 1729, 1741 
 
 Middleton's expedition 1742 
 
 Mo, ue's and Smith's 1746 
 
 Hearne's land expedition 1769 
 
 Captain Phipps, afterwards lord Mulgrave, his ex- 
 pedition 1773 
 
 Capt. Cook, in the Resolution and Discovery July, 1776 
 
 Mackenzie's expedition 1789 
 
 Captain Duncan's voyage 1790 
 
 The Discoi'ery, captain Vancouver, returned from a 
 voyage of survey and discovery on the north-west 
 
 coast of America Sept. 1795 
 
 Lieut. Kotzebue's expedition .... Oct. 1815 
 
NOETHTTMBEIA. 
 
 479 
 
 NOEWAY. 
 
 Captain Ross and lieut. Parly in the Isabella and 
 Alexander 1818 
 
 Captain Buchan's and lieut. Franklin's expedition 
 in the Dorothea and Trent ,, 
 
 Franklin's 2nd expedition 1819-22 
 
 Lieuts. Parry and Liddon, in the Hecla and Griper, 
 
 4 May, 1819 
 
 They return to Leith .... 3 Nov. 1820 
 
 Capts. Parry and Lyon in Fury and Hecla, 8 May, 1821-23 
 
 Parry's third expedition with the Hecla . 8 May, 1824 
 
 Capts. Franklin* and Lyon, after having attempted 
 a land expedition, again sail from Liverpool, 
 
 16 Feb. 1825 
 
 Capt. Parry* again in the Hecla, sails from Dept- 
 ford, and reaches a spot 435 miles from the North 
 Pole, 22 June ; returns ... 6 Oct. 1827 
 
 Capt. Boss* arrived at Hull, on his return from his 
 Arctic expedition, after an absence of four years, 
 and when all hope of his return had been nearly 
 abandoned t 18 Oct. 1833 
 
 Capt. Back and his companions arrived at Liver- 
 pool from their perilous Arctic land expedition 
 (1833), after having visited the Great Fish River 
 and examined its course to the Polar Seas 8 Sept. 1835 
 
 Capt. Back sailed from Chatham in command of his 
 majesty's ship Terror, on an exploring adventure 
 to "Wager River . . ... .21 June, 1836 
 
 [The Geographical Society awarded the king's annual 
 premium to capt. Back for his polar discoveries 
 and enterprise, Dec. 1835.] 
 
 Sir John Franklin, and capts. Crozier andFitzjames, 
 in the ships Erebus and Terror, leave England, 
 (see Franklin) 24 May, 1854 
 
 [The north-west passage was discovered by sir 
 John Franklin and bis companions, who sailed 
 down Peel and Victoria Straits, since named 
 Franklin Straits. On the monument in Waterloo- 
 place is inscribed — " To Franklin and his brave 
 companions, who sacrificed their lives in completing 
 . the discovery of the north-ivest passage, a.d. 1847-8." 
 Lady Franklin received a medal from the Royal 
 Geographical Society.] 
 
 Commanders Collinson and M'Clure, in the Enter- 
 prise and Investigator, sailed eastward in search of 
 sir John Franklin t .... 20 Jan. 1850 
 
 A north-west passage discovered by capt. M'Clure, 
 
 26 Oct. ,, 
 
 A German arctic expedition (the Germania and the 
 Hansa) sailed, 15 June ; arrived at Pendulum bay, 
 Greenland, 18 July, 1869 ; the vessels parted ; the 
 Germania arrived at Bremen, 11 Sept. 1870; the 
 Hansa was frozen and sank, Oct. 1869 ; the crew 
 escaped with provisions, and reached Copenhagen 
 
 1 Sept. 1870 
 
 A Norwegian arctic expedition sailed in the spring, 
 and a Swedish expedition sailed from Tromso, 
 
 21 July, 1872 
 
 * Sir John Franklin died 11 June, 1847 (see Franklin) ; 
 sir E. Parry died 8 July, 1855, aged 65 ; and sir John 
 Ross died 30 Aug. 1856, aged 80. 
 
 t In 1830 he discovered Boothia Felix : on 31 June, he 
 came to a spot which he considered to be the true mag- 
 netic pole, in 70° 5' 17" N. lat, and 96 46' 45" W. long. 
 
 1 Capt. M'Clure sailed in the Investigator in company 
 with com. Collinson in the Enterprise in search of sir 
 John Franklin, 20 Jan. 1850. On 6 Sept. he discovered 
 high land, which he named Baring's land ; on the 9th, 
 other land, which he named after prince Albert ; on the 
 30th the ship was frozen in. Entertaining a strong con- 
 viction that the waters in which the Investigator then lay 
 communicated with Barrow's straits, he set out on 21 
 Oct., with a few men in his sledge, to test his views. On 
 26 Oct. he reached Point Russell (73° 31' N. lat., 114° 14' 
 W. long.), where from an elevation of 600 feet he saw 
 Parry or Melville Sound beneath them. The strait con- 
 necting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans he named after 
 the prince of Wales. The Investigator was the first ship 
 which traversed the Polar sea from Behring's straits to 
 Behring island. Intelligence of this discovery was brought 
 to England by com. Inglefield, and the Admiralty chart 
 was published 14 Oct. 1853. Capt. M'Clure returned to 
 England, Sept. 1854. In 1855, 5000?. were paid to capt. 
 (afterwards sir Robert) M'Clure, and 5000Z. were distri- 
 buted among the officers and crew. On 30 Jan. 1855, the 
 Admiralty notified that the Arctic medal would be given 
 to all persons engaged in the expeditions from i8i8toi8ss. 
 
 Capt. Hall sailed from New York in the U.S. ship 
 Polaris, 29 June, 1871 ; frozen in, Sept. ; died, 
 8 Nov. After much suffering, the crew reached 
 Newfoundland g May, 1873 
 
 ISTOETHUMBEIA, a Saxon kingdom, founded 
 by Ida, 547 ; see Britain, p. 11 1. 
 
 NOEWAY, until the 7th century, was governed 
 by petty rulers. About 630, Olaf Trtetelia, of the 
 race of Odin termed Ynglings or youths, expelled 
 from Sweden, established a colony in Vermeland, 
 the nucleus of a monarchy, founded by his de- 
 scendant, Halfdan III. the Black, a great warrior 
 and legislator, whose memory was long revered. 
 Olaf Treetelia, 630 ; slain by his subjects . . . 640 
 Halfdan I., 640 ; Eystein I., 700 ; Halfdan II., 730 ; 
 
 Gudrod, 784 ; Olaf Geirstade and Halfdan III. . 824 
 Halfdan recovers his inheritance from his brother, 
 whom he subdues, together with the neighbour- 
 ing chiefs, 840 ; accidentally drowned . . . 863 
 The chiefs regain their power during the youth of 
 his son, Harold Harfager, or fair-haired, who vows 
 neither to cut nor comb his hair till he recovers 
 
 his dominion 865 
 
 He defeats his enemies at Hafsfiord, 872 ; dies . . 934. 
 Eric I. (the bloody axe), his son, a tyrant, expelled, 
 
 and succeeded by 
 Hako (the Good), 940 ; he endeavours in vain to 
 
 establish Christianity ; dies 963 
 
 Harold II., Graafeld, son of Eric, succeeds . . . „ 
 Killed in battle with Harold of Denmark . . 977 
 Hako Jarl, made governor of several provinces ; be- 
 comes king, 977 ; his licentiousness leads to his 
 ruin; deposed by Olaf I., Trygvseson; and slain 
 
 by his slave 9g5 
 
 Olaf I., 99s ; establishes Christianity by force and 
 
 cruelty 99 g 
 
 Defeated and slain, during an expedition against 
 Pomerania, by the kings of Denmark and Sweden, 
 who divide Norway between them . . . . 1000 
 Olaf II., the Saint (his son), lands in Norway . . 101? 
 Defeats his enemies and becomes king . . . 1015 
 Fiercely zealous in the diffusion of Christianity 1018-21 
 Successful invasion of Canute, who becomes king 1028-9 
 Olaf expelled ; returns and is killed in battle . . 1030 
 Sweyn, at the death of Canute, succeeds as king of 
 Norway, but is expelled in favour of Magnus I., 
 
 bastard son of Olaf II IC ,3 5 
 
 Magnus becomes king of Denmark, 1036 ; dies . 1047 
 Harold Hardrada, king of Norway . . . . 
 Invades England ; defeated and slain by Harold II. 
 
 at Stanford-bridge 25 Sept. 1066 
 
 Olaf III. and Magnus II. (sons), kings, 25 Sept. 1066 ; 
 Olaf alone (pacific) . . . . . 1069-1093 
 
 Olaf III. founds Bergen 1070 
 
 Magnus III. (Barefoot), son of Olaf . . . . 1093 
 Invades the Orkneys and Scotland .... 1096 
 
 Killed in Ireland iio3 
 
 Sigurd I., Eystein II., and Olaf IV. (sons) . . ,, 
 Sigurd visits the Holy Land as a warrior pilgrim 1107-10 
 
 Becomes sole king, 1122 ; dies 1130 
 
 Magnus IV. (his son) and Harold TV. . . . „ 
 
 Magnus dethroned 1134 
 
 Harold IV. murdered ; succeeded by his sons, Sigurd 
 
 II., &c. ; civil war rages n 3 6 
 
 Nicolas Breakspear (afterwards pope Adrian IV), 
 the papal legate, arrives, reconciles the brothers, 
 and founds the archbishopric of Trondneim . . 1152 
 Numerous competitors for the crown : civil war ; 
 Inge I., Eystein III., Hako III., Magnus V. . 1136-62 
 
 Magnus V. alone it q z 
 
 Rise of Swerro, an able adventurer, who becomes 
 king ; Magnus defeated ; drowned . . . n86 
 
 Swerro rules vigorously ; dies 1202 
 
 Hako, his son, king, 1202 ; Guthrum, 1204 ; Inge II. 1205 
 
 Hako IV, bastard son of Swerro 1207 
 
 Unsuccessfully invades Scotland, where he dies . 1263 
 Magnus VI., his son (the legislator), dies . . 1280 
 
 Eric II. , the priest-hater, marries Margaret of Scot- 
 land ; their daughter, the Maid of Norway, be- 
 comes heiress to the crown of Scotland . . . 1286 
 Hako V., his brother, king .... 1299-1310 
 Decline of Norwegian prosperity. 
 Magnus VII. (III. of Sweden), king , . . 1319-43 
 
 Hako VI 1343-80 
 
 Olaf V. of Norway (II. of Denmark) . , , i 3 8o-8t 
 
NORWICH. 
 
 480 
 
 NOVA SCOTIA. 
 
 Norway united with Denmark and Sweden under 
 Margaret 1389 
 
 At an assembly at Calmar the three states are 
 formally united 1397 
 
 Sweden and Norway separated from Denmark, 1448 ; 
 re-united 145° 
 
 Denmark and Norway separated from Sweden . 1523 
 
 Christian ia, the modern capital, budt by Chris- 
 tian IV 1624 
 
 Norway given to Sweden by the treaty of Kiel ; 
 Pomerania and Rugen annexed to Denmark 14 Jan. 1814 
 
 The Norwegians declare their independence, 17 May, 1814 
 
 The Swedish troops enter Norway . . 16 July, ,, 
 
 Charles Frederic, duke of Holstein, elected king of 
 Norway ; abdicates 10 Oct. „ 
 
 Charles XIII. of Sweden proclaimed king by the 
 National Diet (Storthing) assembled at Christiania; 
 he accepted the constitution which declares Nor- 
 way a free, independent, indivisible, and inalien- 
 able state, united to Sweden . . 4 Nov. ,, 
 
 Nobility abolished 1821 
 
 The national order of St. Olaf instituted by king 
 Oscar 1 1847 
 
 Millennial festival of the establishment of the king- 
 dom, kept 18 July, 1872 
 
 See Denmark and Sweden. 
 
 NORWICH (Norfolk), mentioned in history in 
 the Saxon Chronicle at the period when Sweyn, 
 .king of Denmark, destroyed it by fire, 1004. 
 
 Artisans from the Low Countries establish here the 
 
 manufacture of baizes, &c, about . . . . 1132 
 Cathedral first erected in 1088, by bishop Herbert 
 Losinga ; completed by bishop Middleton, about 1280 
 
 A great plague ;• 1348 
 
 Church of the Blackfriars, now St. Andrew's-hall, 
 
 erected i4*5 
 
 Norwich nearly consumed by fire . . . .1505 
 
 Public library instituted 1784 
 
 The Norwich new canal and harbour were opened, 
 
 3 June, 1 83 1 
 Church congress met . . . -3-7 Oct. 1865 
 The musical festival was attended by the prince of 
 
 Wales 3 1 0ct - l866 
 
 Norwich and Norfolk Industrial exhibition opened 
 
 in St. Andrew's-hall .... Aug. 1867 
 
 British Association met here . . 20-26 Aug. 1868 
 Mutilated remains of a human body discovered near 
 Norwich, 21-25 June, 1851 ; William Sherward, a 
 publican of the place, confessed that they were 
 the remains of his wife murdered by him, 1 Jan. 
 1869 ; he recanted, but was tried and condemned, 
 
 and executed 20 April, 1869 
 
 Norwich crown bank stopped ; much distress oc- 
 casioned ; sir Robert H. J. Harvey, the chief 
 partner, commits suicide : died . 19 July, 1870 
 
 NORWICH, Bishopric of, originally East 
 
 Anglia ; the first bishop was Felix, a Burgundian, 
 sent to convert the East Anglians about 630. The 
 .see was divided into two distinct bishoprics— Elm- 
 ham, in Norfolk, and Dunwich, in Suffolk, about 
 ^673. Both sees suffered extremely from the Danish 
 invasions, insomuch that after the death of St. 
 Humbert, they lay vacant for a hundred years. " At 
 last the see of Elmham was revived, and Dunwich 
 -was united to it; but Arfastus removed the seat to 
 "Thetford, where it continued till Herbert Losinga 
 removed it to Norwich 1094. Tllis see bas given to 
 the church of Rome two saints ; and to the nation 
 five lord chancellors. It was valued in the king"s 
 books at 899^ 18s. "]\d. per annum. Present income, 
 4500 . ; see Bishoprics. 
 
 RECENT BISHOPS OF NORWICH. 
 
 1700. George Home; died 17 Jan. 1792. 
 
 1792. Charles Manners Sutton ; translated to Canterbury, 
 
 1 Feb. 1805. _ 
 
 1805. Henry Bathurst ; died 5 April, 1837. He was a 
 
 strenuous supporter of catholic emancipation, 
 
 and for a long time the only liberal bishop in the 
 
 house of peers. 
 1837. Edward Stanley ; died 6 Sept. 1849. 
 1849. Samuel Hinds ; resigned 1857. 
 1857. Hon. John T. Pelham, May. 
 
 NOTABLES, French assemblies of nobles, 
 bishops, knights, and lawyers. An assembly of the 
 notables was convened by the duke of Guise, 20 Aug. 
 1560, and by other statesmen. Calonne, the minister 
 of Louis XVI., summoned one which met on 22 
 Feb. 1787, on account of the deranged state of the 
 king's finances, and again in 1788, when he opened 
 his plan : but as any reform militated too much 
 against private interest to be adopted, Calonne was 
 dismissed, and soon after retired to England. Louis 
 having lost his confidential minister, De Vergennes, 
 by death, called De Brienne, an ecclesiastic, to his 
 councils. The notables were re-assembled on 6 
 Nov. 1788. In the end, the states-general were 
 convoked 5 Dec. ; and from this assembly sprang 
 the national assembly {which see). The notables 
 were dismissed by the king, 12 Dec. 1788. — The 
 Spanish notables assembled and met Napoleon 
 (conformably with a decree issued by him command- 
 ing their attendance), at Bayonne, 25 May, 1808. 
 
 NOTARIES PUBLIC, said to have been 
 appointed by the primitive fathers of the Christian 
 church, to collect the acts or memoirs of the lives 
 of the martyrs in the 1st century. Du Fresnoy. 
 This office was afterwards changed to a legal em- 
 nloyment, to attest deeds and writings, so as to estab- 
 lish their authenticity in any other country. A 
 statute to regulate public notaries was passed in 
 1 80 1, and statutes on the subject have been enacted 
 since. 
 
 "NOTES AND QUERIES," a medium of 
 intercommunication for literary men and general 
 readers, founded and edited by W. J. Thorns ; first 
 published on 3 Nov. 1849 ; bought by sir G. W. 
 Dilke, about Aug. 1872. 
 
 NOTRE DAME, the cathedral at Paris, was 
 founded in 1 163. It narrowly escaped destruction 
 by the communists, May, 1871. 
 
 NOTTINGHAM. The castle here was de- 
 fended by the Danes against king Alfred, and his 
 brother Ethelred, who re-took it, 868. It was re- 
 built by William I. 1068 ; and ultimately became a 
 strong "fortress. The riots at Nottingham, in which 
 the rioters broke frames, &c, commenced 14 Nov. 
 181 1, and continued to Jan. 1812. Much similar 
 mischief was done in April, 1814. The Watch and 
 Ward act was enforced, 2 Dec. 1816. Nottingham 
 was burnt by rioters during the Reform excite- 
 ment, 10 Oct. 1831. Fierce election riots with 
 "lambs" and others took place in July, 1865. 
 The British Association met here, 22 Aug. i860. 
 The church congress met here, Oct. 1871. 
 
 NOVARA (N. W. Italy). Near this town the 
 Austrian marshal Radetzky totally defeated the 
 king Charles Albert and the Sardinian army, 23 
 March, 1849. The contest began at 10 a.m. and 
 lasted till late in the evening ; the Austrians lost 
 396 killed, and had about 1850 wounded ; the Sar- 
 dinians lost between 3000 and 4000 men, 27 cannons, 
 and 3000 prisoners. The king soon after abdicated 
 in favour of his son Victor Emmanuel. 
 
 NOVA SCOTIA (N. America), was discovered 
 by Cabot, 1497 ; visited by Verrazzani, 1524, and 
 named Acadia ; settled in 1622, by the Scotch under 
 sir William Alexander, in the reign of James I. of 
 England, from whom it received the name of Nova 
 Scotia. Since its first settlement it has more than 
 once changed proprietors, and was not confirmed to 
 England till the peace of Utrecht, in 1713. It was 
 taken in 1745 and 1758; but was again confirmed 
 to England in 1763. Nova Scotia was divided 
 
NOVATIANS. 
 
 481 
 
 NYSTADT. 
 
 into two provinces in 1784, and was erected into a 
 bishopric in Aug. 1787. King's College, "Windsor, 
 was founded in 1788; see Baronets. Gold was 
 found in Nova Scotia in r86l. By an act passed 
 29 March, 1867, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick 
 were united with Canada for legislative purposes. 
 On the agitation for secession Mr. John Bright pre- 
 sented a petition in the commons 15 May ; his 
 motion for a royal commission of inquiry negatived 
 16 June, 1868. The agitation soon subsided. Lieut. - 
 governor, sir Charles H. Doyle, 1867. Joseph Howe 
 di°d soon after his appointment, 1 June, 1873. 
 
 NOVATIANS, a sect which denied restoration 
 to the church to those who had relapsed during per- 
 secution, began with Novatian, a Koman presbyter, 
 in 250 ; see Cathari. 
 
 NOVELS (Novelise), a part of Justinian's Code, 
 published 535. See Bomances. 
 
 NOVEMBER (novem, nine), anciently the 
 ninth month of the year. "When Numa added 
 January and February, in 713 B.C., it became the 
 eleventh as now. The Boman senators wished to 
 name this month in which Tiberius was born, by 
 his name, in imitation of Julius Caesar, and Augus- 
 tus; but the emperor refused, saying, " What will 
 you do, conscript "fathers, if you have thirteen 
 
 NOVEMBER METEORS, see Meteors. 
 
 NOVGOROD (central Bussia) , made the seat 
 of his government by Buric, a Varangian chief, in 
 862, is held to be the foundation of the Bussian 
 empire. In memory of the event the czar inaugu- 
 rated a national monument at Novgorod, on 20 
 Sept. 1862. Novgorod became a republic about 
 1 ISO- 
 NO VI (N. Italy). Here the French, com- 
 manded by Joubert, were defeated by the Bussians 
 under Suwarrow, with immense loss, 1^ Aug. 1799. 
 Among the French slain was their leader, Joubert, 
 and other distinguished officers. 
 
 NOVUM ORGANON, the great work of lord 
 Bacon, containing his system of philosophy, was 
 published 1620. 
 
 NOYADES, see Drovming. 
 
 NUBIA, the ancient iEthiopia supra 2Egyptum, 
 said to have been theseatof the kingdom of the Meroe, 
 received its name from a tribe named Nubes or 
 Nubates. The Christian kingdom, with Dongola, 
 the capital, lasted till the 14th century, when it 
 was broken up into Mahometan principalities. It 
 is now subject to the viceroy of Egypt, having been 
 conquered by Ibrahim Pacha in 1822. 
 
 NUCLEUS THEORY in Chemistry, see 
 Compound Radicles. 
 
 NUISANCES REMOVAL ACT; passed 
 1848 ; amended 1849 ; see Sanitary Legislation. 
 
 NUITS. A small fortified town, near Dijon, in 
 Burgundy, N.E. France, chartered in 1212 ; fre- 
 quently captured and ravaged, specially in 1569, 
 1576, and 1636. It was taken by the Badenese 
 under Von Werder, 18 Dec. 1870, after five hours' 
 
 conflict, in which above IOOO French are said to 
 have been killed and wounded, and 700 prisoners 
 taken. The German loss was also heavy. A depot 
 of arms and ammunition was gained by the victors. 
 
 NUMANTINE WAR. The war between the 
 Bomans and the Celtiberians (Celts who possessed 
 the country near the Iber, now the Ebro) began, 
 143 B.C., on account of the latter having given 
 refuge to their allies the Sigidians, who had been 
 defeated by the Bomans. Numantia, an unpro- 
 tected city, withstood a long siege, in which the 
 army of Scipio Africanus, 60,000 men, was opposed 
 by no more than 4000 men able to bear arms. The 
 Numantines fed upon horse-flesh, on their own 
 dead, and then drew lots to kill one another. At 
 length they set fire to their houses, and destroyed 
 themselves, so that not one remained to adorn the 
 triumph of the conqueror, 133 B.C. 
 
 NUMIDIA (N. Africa), the seat of the war of 
 the Bomans with Jugurtha, which began ill B.C., 
 and ended with his subjugation and captivity, 106. 
 The last king, Juba, joined Cato and was killed at 
 the battle of Thapsus, 46 B.C., when Numidia be- 
 came a Boman province ; see Mauritania. 
 
 NUMISMATICS, the science of coins and 
 medals, an important adjunct to the study of history. 
 In this country Evelyn (1697), Addison (1726), and 
 Pinkerton (1789), published works on medals. Pel- 
 lerin's " Becueil des Medailles," 9 vols. 4to, (1762). 
 Bu ding's Annals is the great work on British 
 coinage (new edition, 1840) .—The Numismatic 
 Society in London was founded by Dr. John Lee in 
 1836. It publishes the Numismatic Chronicle. — 
 Mr. Yonge Akerman's Numismatic Manual (1840) 
 is a useful introduction to the science. Foreign 
 works are numerous. 
 
 NUNCIO, an envoy from the pope of Borne to 
 catholic states. The pope deputed a nuncio to the 
 Irish rebels in 1645. The arrival in London [of a 
 nuncio, and his admission to an audience by 
 James II., July, 1687, is stated to have hastened 
 the Bevolution. 
 
 NUNNERY. The first founded is said to have 
 been that to which the sister of St. Anthony retired 
 at the close of the 3rd century. The first founded 
 in France, near Poictiers, by St. Marcellina, sister 
 to St. Martin, 360. Bu Fresnoy. The first in 
 England was at Folkestone, in Kent, by Eadbald, 
 or Edbald, king of Kent, 630. Dugdale ; see Abbeys 
 and Monachism. The nuns were expelled from 
 their convents in Germany, in July, 1785 ; in 
 France, in Jan. 1790. In Feb. 1801, monastic 
 establishments were abolished in Naples, com- 
 pensation being made to the inmates. For me- 
 morable instances of the fortitude of nuns, see 
 Acre, and Coldingham. 
 
 NUREMBERG, a free imperial German city 
 in 1219. In 1522, the diet here demanded ecclesi- 
 astical reforms and a general council, and in 1532 
 secured religious liberty to the Protestants. It was 
 annexed to Bavaria in 1 805. Albert Diirer was 
 born here in 1471. 
 
 NYSTADT, S.W. Finland. By a treaty, 
 signed here 30 Aug. 1 721, Sweden ceded Livonia, 
 Esthonia, and other territories to Bussia. 
 
OAKS. 
 
 482 
 
 OBSERVATORIES. 
 
 0. 
 
 OAK, styled the monarch of the woods, and an 
 emblem of strength, virtue, constancy, and long 
 life. That produced in England is considered to be 
 the best calculated for ship-building. In June, 403, 
 the "Synod of the oak," was held at Chaloedon. 
 The constellation Kobur Caroli, the oak of Charles, 
 was named by Dr. Halley in 1676, in memory of 
 the oak in which Charles II. saved himself from 
 his pursuers, after the battle of Worcester, 3 Sept. 
 165 1 ; 6ee Boscobel, and Races. 
 
 The evergreen oak, Quercus Ilex, brought from the 
 south of Europe before 1581 
 
 The scarlet oak, Quercus coccinea, brought from 
 North America before 1691 
 
 The chestnut-leaved oak, Quercus Prunus, from 
 North America before 1730 
 
 The Turkey Oak, Quercus Berris, from the south of 
 Europe 1735 
 
 The agaric of the oak was known as a styptic in . 1750 
 
 Heme's oak, Windsor Park, mentioned in Sliaks- 
 peare's Merry Wives of Windsor, finally destroyed 
 by the wind 31 Aug. 1863 
 
 OATES'S PLOT. Titus Oates, atone time 
 chaplain of a ship of war, was dismissed for im- 
 moral conduct, and became a lecturer in London. 
 In conjuction with Dr. Tongue, he invented a plot 
 against the Roman Catholics, who he asserted had 
 conspired to assassinate Charles II., and extirpate 
 the Protestant religion. He made it known 12 Aug. 
 1678, and in consequence about eighteen Roman 
 Catholics were accused, and upon false testimony 
 convicted and executed ; among them the aged 
 viscount Stafford, 29 Dec. 1680. Oates was after- 
 wards tried for perjury (in the reign of James II.), 
 and being found guilty, was fined, put in the 
 pillory, publicly whipped from Newgate to Tyburn, 
 and sentenced to imprisonment for life, May, 1685. 
 On the accession of "William and Mary he was 
 pardoned, and a pension of 3^. a week granted to 
 him, 1689. 
 
 OATHS were taken by Abraham, B.C. 1892 
 {Gen. xxi. 24), and authorised (b.c. 1491) Exod. 
 xxii. 11. The administration of an oath in judicial 
 proceedings was introduced by the Saxons into 
 England, 600. Rapin. That administered to a 
 judge was settled 1344. 
 
 Op Supremacy, first administered to British sub- 
 jects, and ratified by parliament, 26 Hen. VIII. 
 (Stow's Chron.) 1535 
 
 Oaths were taken on the Gospels so early as 528 ; 
 and the words "So help me God and all saints," 
 concluded an oath until 1550 
 
 The ancient oath of allegiance, which contained a 
 promise " to be true and faithful to the king and his 
 heirs, and truth and faith to bear of life and limb 
 and terrene honour ; and not to know or hear of any 
 ill or damage intended him without defending 
 him therefrom," was modified by James I., a 
 declaration against the pope's authority being 
 added 1603 
 
 It was again altered 1689 
 
 The affirmation of a Quaker was made equivalent to 
 an oath, by statute, in 1696, et scq. 
 
 Of Abjuration, being an obligation to maintain 
 the government of king, lords, and commons, 
 the church of England, and toleration of Protes- 
 tant dissenters, and abjuring all Roman Catholic 
 pretenders to the crown, 13 Will. III. . . . 1701 
 
 The Test and Corporation oaths modified by stat. 
 9 Geo. IV. (see Tests) 1828 
 
 Act abolishing oaths in the customs and excise de- 
 partments, and in certain other cases, and substi- 
 tuting declarations in lieu thereof, 1 & 2 Will. IV. 1831 
 
 Affirmation, instead of oath, was permitted to 
 Quakers and other dissenters by acts passed in 
 1833, 1837, 1838, and 1863 (see Affirmation). 
 
 In 1858 and i860, Jews elected M.P. were relieved 
 from part of the oath of allegiance (see Jews). 
 
 3y 24 & 25 Vict. c. 66, a solemn declaration may be 
 substituted for an oath by persons conscientiously 
 objecting to be sworn in criminal prosecutions . 1861 
 
 A bill for modifying the oath taken by Roman 
 Catholics (passed by the commons), was rejected 
 by the lords 26 June, 1865 
 
 The oath to be taken by members of parliament 
 was modified and made uniform by an act passed 
 
 30 April, 1866 
 
 New oath of allegiance provided by the 31st ami 
 32nd Vict. c. 72 (1868), to be taken by the mem- 
 bers of the new parliament : — " I do swear that I 
 will be faithful and bear true allegiance to her 
 majesty queen Victoria, her heirs aud successors, 
 according to law, so help me God. " 
 
 OBELISK. (Greek obelos, a spit, monolithos, 
 a single stone.) The first mentioned in history was 
 that of Rameses, king of Egypt, about 1485 B.C. 
 The Arabians called them Pharaoh's needles, and 
 the Egyptian priests the fingers of the sun. Several 
 were erected at Rome; one was erected by the 
 emperor Augustus in the Campus Martius, on the 
 pavement of which was a horizontal dial that 
 marked the hour, about 14 B.C. Of the obelisks 
 brought to Rome by the emperors, several have 
 been restored and set up by various popes, especially 
 Sixtus V. In London are three obelisks : first in 
 Eleet-street, at the top of Bridge-street, erected to 
 John Wilkes, lord mayor of London in 1775 (see 
 North Briton) ; and immediately opposite to it at 
 the south end of Farringdon-street, stands another 
 of granite to the memory of Robert Waithman, lord 
 mayor in 1824, erected 25 June, 1833 ; the third at 
 the south end of the Blackfriars-road marks the dis- 
 tance of one mile and a fraction from Fleet-street. 
 An obelisk from Luxor was set up in the Place de 
 la Concorde, Paris, in Oct. 1836. 
 
 OBLIVION. In 1660 was passed an act of 
 " free general pardon, indemnit)', and oblivion for 
 all treasons and state offences " committed between 
 I Jan. 1637, and 24 June, 1660. The regicides and 
 certain Irish popish priests were excepted. A similar 
 act was passed 20 May, 1690. See Amnesty. 
 
 OBSERVANCE, Fathers of the (or 
 
 OBSERVANTS), a name given to certain members 
 of the Franciscan order, about 1363, who volun- 
 tarily undertook the observance of their rule in its 
 pristine rigour. This reformation was after a time 
 enforced by the pope. 
 
 OBSERVATORIES. The first is said to 
 have been erected on the top of the temple of Belus 
 at Babylon. On the tomb of Osymandyas, in Egypt, 
 was another, and it contained a golden circle 200 
 feet in diameter ; that at Benares was at least as 
 ancient as these. The first in authentic history 
 was at Alexandria, about 300 B.C. erected by 
 Ptolemy Soter. 
 
 First modern meridional instrument by Copernicus 1540 
 
 First observatory at Cassel 1561 
 
 Tycho Brahe's, at Uranienburg .... 1576 
 
 Astronomical tower at Copenhagen . . . . 1657 
 
 Royal (French) 1667 
 
 Royal observatory at Greenwich (which see) . . 1675 
 
 Observatory at Nuremberg 1678 
 
 At Utrecht 1690 
 
 Berlin, elected under Leibnitz's direction . . 171 1 
 At Bologna 1714 
 
OBSEEVEE. 
 
 483 
 
 OHIO. 
 
 At St. Petersburg 1725 
 
 At Pekin, about 1750 
 
 Oxford, Dr. Radcliffe . . . . . .1772 
 
 Calton Hill, Edinburgh ... . . 1776 
 
 Dublin, Dr. Andrews 1783 
 
 Armagh, Primate Robinson 1793 
 
 Cambridge, England 1824 
 
 Pulkowa, Russia . . . 1839 
 
 Cambridge, U.S 1840 
 
 Washington, U.S 1842 
 
 Liverpool, England 1844 
 
 OBSEEVEE, Sunday paper (liberal), esta- 
 blished 1 791. 
 
 O'CANA (central Spain), near which the 
 Spaniards were defeated by the French, commanded 
 by Mortier and Soult, 19 Nov. 1809. 
 
 OCCULT SCIENCES (from occultm, con- 
 cealed) , see Astrology, Alchemy, Magic, &c. 
 
 OCEANA, an imaginary republic, described in 
 a book written by James Harrington, dedicated to 
 Oliver Cromwell, and published in 1656. 
 
 OCEAN MONAECH, an American emi- 
 grant ship, left Liverpool, bound for Boston, 
 24 Aug. 1848, having nearly 400 persons on board. 
 When within six miles of Great Ormshead, Lanca- 
 shire, she took fire, and in a few hours was burnt to 
 the water's edge, and 178 persons perished. 
 
 The Brazilian steam-frigate, Alfonso, happened to be out 
 on a trial trip at the time, with the prince and princess 
 de JoinvOle and the duke and duchess dAumale on 
 board, who witnessed the catastrophe, and aided in 
 rescuing and comforting the sufferers. The crews and 
 passengers of the Alfonzo and the yacht Queen of the 
 Ocean saved' 156 persons, and 62 others escaped by 
 various means. 
 
 OCTAECH, the chief of the kings of the hep- 
 tarchy, was called Rex gentis Anglorum. Hengist 
 was the first octarch, 455, and Egbert the last, 800 ; 
 see Britain. Some authors insist that the English 
 heptarchy should have been called the octarchy. 
 
 OCTOBEE, the eighth month in the year of 
 Romulus, as its name imports, and the tenth in the 
 year of Numa, 713 B.C. October still retained its 
 first name, although the senate ordered it to be 
 called Faust inus,. in honour of Faustina, wife of 
 Antoninus the emperor; and Commodus called it 
 Invictus, and Domitianus. October was sacred to 
 Mars. 
 
 OCTEOIS (from the low Latin auctoriwn, 
 authority), a term applied to concessions from 
 sovereigns, and to the taxes levied at the gates of 
 towns in France on articles of food before entering 
 the city. These octrois, of ancient origin, were 
 suppressed in 1791 ; re-established, 1797, and re- 
 organised in 1816, 1842, and 1852. In 1859, the 
 octrois of Paris produced above 54 million francs. 
 The Belgian government became very popular in 
 July, i860, by abolishing the Octrois. 
 
 ODES are very ancient ; amongst the Greeks 
 they were extempore compositions sung in honour 
 of the gods. Anacreon's odes were composed about 
 532; Pindar's, 498 to 446; and Horace's from 24 
 to 13, all B.C. Anciently odes were divided into 
 strophe, antistrophe, and epode; see Poets Lau- 
 reate, and Lyric Poetry. 
 
 ODESSA, a port on the Black Sea, built by 
 the empress Catharine of Russia, 1784- 1792, after 
 the peace of Jassy. In 181 7 it was made a free 
 port, since when its prosperity has rapidly in- 
 creased. It was partially bombarded by the British, 
 21 April, 1854, in consequence of the Russian 
 batteries having fired on a flag of truce, 6 April. 
 On 12 May the English frigate Tiger stranded 
 
 here, and was destroyed by Russian artillery. The 
 captain, Giffard, and many of his crew were killed, 
 and the rest made prisoners. 
 
 ODOMETEE (from the Greek odos, way, and 
 metron, measure), see Pedometer. 
 
 ODONTOLOGY (from the Greek odontes, 
 teeth), the science of the teeth, may be said to 
 have really begun with the researches of professor 
 Richard Owen, who in 1839 made the first definite 
 announcement of the organic connection between 
 the vascular and vital soft parts of the frame and 
 the hard substance of a tooth. His comprehensive 
 work, "Odontography" (illustrated with beautiful 
 plates), was published 1840-45. 
 
 ODEYS^E, a people of Thrace. Their king 
 Teres retained his independence of the Persians, 
 508 B.C. Sitalces, his son, enlarged his dominions, 
 and in 429, aided Amyntas against Perdiccas II., of 
 Macedon, with an army of 150,000 men. Sitalces, 
 killed in battle with the Triballi, 424, was suc- 
 ceeded by Seuthes, who reigned prosperously; 
 Cotys, another king (382-353), disputed the pos- 
 session of the Thracian Chersonesus with Athens. 
 After 9 or 10 years' warfare, Philip II. of Macedon 
 reduced the Odrysse to tributaries, and founded 
 Philippopolis and other colonies, 343. The Romans, 
 after their conquest of Macedon, favoured the 
 Odrysa;, and in 42 their king Sadales bequeathed 
 his territories to the Romans. The Odrysa, tur- 
 bulent subjects, and often chastised, were finally in- 
 corporated into the empire by Yespasian, about 
 a.d. 70. 
 
 QDYL, the name given in 1845 by baron von 
 Reichenbach to a so-called new "imponderable, or 
 influence," said to be developed by magnets, crys- 
 tals, the human body, heat, electricity, chemical 
 action, and the whole material universe. The 
 odylic force is said to give rise to luminous pheno- 
 mena, visible to certain sensitive persons only. 
 The baron's " Researches on Magnetism, &c.,inrela- 
 tion to the Vital Force," translated by Dr. Gregory, 
 were published in 1850. Emanuel Swedenborg 
 (died 1772) described similar phenomena. 
 
 .OECUMENICAL BISHOP (from the Greek 
 
 oilioumene, the habitable, globe understood), " uni- 
 versal bishop ;" a title assumed by John, bishop of 
 Constantinople, 587. 
 
 CENOPHYTA (Bceotia, N. Greece). Here 
 Myronides and the Athenians severely defeated the 
 Boeotians, 456 B.C. 
 
 OFEN, see Buda. 
 
 OEFA'S DYKE, the intrenchment from the 
 YVye to the Dee, made by Offa, king of Mercia, to 
 defend his country from the incursions of the 
 "Welsh, 779. 
 
 OGULIAN LAW, carried by the tribunes Q. 
 and Cn. Ogulnius, increased the number of the 
 pontiffs and augurs, and made plebeians eligible to 
 those offices, b.c. 300. 
 
 OGYGES, DELUGE OF fwhich laid Attica 
 waste for more than 200 years afterwa ds, and until 
 the arrival of Cecrops), is stated to have occurred 
 1 764 B.C.; see Deluge. 
 
 OHIO, a western state of North America, 
 settled by the French in 1673, wa ^ ceded to the 
 British with Canada, in 1763; extensively settled 
 in 1788, and admitted into the Union, 29 Nov. 1802. 
 Capital, Columbus. 
 
 1 t 2 
 
OHM'S LAW. 
 
 484 
 
 OLYNTHUS. 
 
 OHM'S LAW, for determining the quantity 
 of the electro-motive force of the Voltaic battery, 
 -was published in 1827. It is in conformity with 
 the discovery that the earth may be employed as 
 a conductor, "thus saving the return wire in electric- 
 telegraphy. 
 
 OIL was used for burning in lamps as early as 
 the epoch of Abraham, about 1921 B.C. It was the 
 custom of the Jews to anoint with oil persons ap- 
 pointed to high offices, as the priests and kings, 
 Psalm cxxxiii. 2 ; I Sam. x. I ; xvi. 13. The fact 
 that oil, if passed through red-hot iron pipes, will 
 be resolved into a combustible gas, was long known 
 to chemists ; and after the process of lighting by 
 coal-gas was made apparent, Messss. Taylor and 
 Martineau contrived apparatus for producing oil- 
 gas on a large scale, 1815. — Oil Springs ; see 
 Petroleum. 
 
 OLBERS, the asteroid, now termed Pallas, dis- 
 covered by M. Olbers, in 1 802. 
 
 OLD BAILEY SESSIONS COURT is 
 held for the trial of criminals, and its jurisdiction 
 comprehends the county of Middlesex as well as 
 the city of London. It is held eight times in the 
 year by the royal commission of oyer and terminer. 
 The judges are, the lord mayor, those aldermen 
 who have passed the chair, the recorder and the 
 common-serjeant, who are attended by both the 
 sheriffs, and one or more of the national judges. 
 The court-house was built in 1773, and enlarged 
 in 1808 ; see Central Criminal Court. 
 
 During some trials in the old court, the lord mayor, 
 one alderman, two judges, the greater part of the 
 jury, and numbers of spectators, caught the gaol 
 distemper, and died .... May, 1750 
 
 This disease was fatal to several . . . . 1772 
 
 Twenty-eight persons killed at the execution of Mr. 
 Steele's murderers at the Old Bailey . 22 Feb. 1807 
 
 OLD CATHOLICS, the name assumed in 
 Germany by the members of the Eoman Catholic 
 church opposed to the dogma of papal infallibility, 
 headed by professor Dollinger of Munich. After 
 three days' conference at Munich, Sept. 1871, they 
 decided to set up independent worship, first meet- 
 ing in a church given them by the town council of 
 Munich. The abbe Michaud began a similar 
 movement in Paris in Feb. 1872. Dr. Dollinger 
 preached in favour of union with the church of 
 England, March, 1872. Pere Hyacinthe, (Charles 
 Loyson,) president of the party at Eome, issued a 
 programme, respecting the Vatican decrees, recog- 
 nising ecclesiastical authorities, demanding reform, 
 yet opposing schism, about 5 May, 1872. The bishops 
 of Lincoln (Wordsworth) and Ely (Browne) and the 
 dean of Westminster (Dr. Stanley), by invitation 
 attended the conference at Cologne, and delivered 
 addresses, 20-22 Sept. 1872. They elected their 
 first bishop, Dr. Joseph Eeinkens, 1 June, 1873. 
 
 OLDENBURG, a grand duchy in North Ger- 
 many, was annexed to Denmark in 1448 ; in 1773, 
 Christian VII. ceded the country to Kussia in ex- 
 change for Holstein Gottorp, and soon after the 
 present dignity was established. The duke joined 
 the North German confederation, 18 Aug. 1866, 
 and obtained a slight increase of territory from 
 Holstein, 27 Sept. following. Population in 1864, 
 301,812; in 1867, 315,995. 
 
 DUKES. 
 
 1773. Frederick Augustus. 
 
 3785. Peter Frederick. The duchy was seized by Napo- 
 leon, and annexed to his empire in 1811 ; but 
 restored in 1814 
 
 GRAND-DUKES. 
 
 1829. May 21. Augustus. 
 
 1853. Feb. 27. Peter, son ; born 8 July, 1827. 
 
 Heir : Augustus, son ; born 16 Nov. 1852. 
 
 OLD MAN of the Mountain, see 
 
 Assassins. 
 
 OLD STYLE, see New Style. 
 
 OLEFIANT GAS, a combination of hydrogen 
 and carbon, which burns with much brilliancy. 
 In 1862, Berthelot formed it artificially by means 
 of alcohol. 
 
 OLERON, LAWS OF, relating to sea affairs, 
 are said to have been enacted by Eichard I. of 
 England, when at the island of Oleron of France, 
 1 194 ; which is now doubted. 
 
 OLIVES 'are named in the earliest accounts of 
 Egypt and Greece ; and at Athens their cultivation 
 was taught by Cecrops, 1556 B.C. They were first 
 planted in Italy about 562 B.C. The olive has been 
 cultivated in England since 1648 a.d.; the Cape 
 olive since 1730. 
 
 OLMUTZ, the ancient capital of Moravia. 
 Here the emperor Ferdinand abdicated, on behalf 
 of his nephew, Francis Joseph, 2 Dec. 1848 ; and 
 here the latter promulgated a new constitution, 
 4 March, 1849. A conference was held here, 29 Nov. 
 1850, under the czar, Nicholas, when the difficulties 
 between Austria and Prussia respecting the affairs 
 of Hesse-Cassel were arranged. 
 
 OLTENITZA. A Turkish force having crossed 
 the Danube, under Omar Pasha, established them- 
 selves at Oltenitza, in spite of the vigorous attacks 
 of the Russians, who were repulsed with loss, 2 and 
 3 Nov. 1853. On the 4th a desperate attempt to 
 dislodge the Turks by general Danneberg with 9000 
 men, was defeated with great loss. 
 
 OLYMPEIUM (near Peloponnesus) the great 
 temple of Jupiter, erected by Libon, of Elis, at the 
 charge of the Eleans, after their conquest of the 
 country, 572-472 B.C. For this temple Phidias 
 made the colossal statue of the god, in gold and 
 ivory, 437"433 BC - 
 
 OLYMPIADS, the era of the Greeks, dating 
 from 1 July, 776 B.C., the year in which Corcebus 
 was successful at the Olympic games. This era 
 was reckoned by periods of four years, each period 
 being called an Olympiad, and in marking a date 
 the year and Olympiad were both mentioned. The 
 computation of Olympiads ceased with the 305th, 
 a.d. 440. 
 
 OLYMPIC GAMES, so famous among the 
 Greeks, said to have been instituted in honour of 
 Jupiter by the Idoei Dactyli, 1453 B.C., or by 
 Pelops, 1307 B.C., revived by Iphitus, 884 B.C., 
 were held at the beginning of every fifth year, on 
 the banks of the Alpheus, near Olympia, 111 the 
 Peloponnesus, now the Morea, to exercise the youth 
 in five kinds of combats; the conquerors being 
 highly honoured. The prize contended for was a 
 crown made of a kind of wild olive, appropriated to 
 this use. The festival was abolished by Theodosius, 
 a.d. 394. In 1858 M. Zappas, a wealthy Pelopon- 
 nesian, gave funds to re-establish these games, 
 under the auspices of the queen of Greece. — Olympic 
 Theatre, London, opened 1806 ; see Theatres. 
 
 OLYNTHUS, a city, N. Greece, subdued in 
 war by Sparta, in 382-379 B.C. It resisted Philip 
 of Macedon, 350 B.C., by whom it was destroyed, 
 347. Demosthenes delivered three orations on it3 
 behalf, 349. 
 
OMENS. 
 
 485 
 
 OPOETO. 
 
 OMENS, see Augury. Amphictyon was the 
 first who is recorded as having drawn prognosti- 
 cations from omens, 1497 B.C. Alexander the Great 
 and Mithridates the Great are said to have studied 
 omens. At the birth of the latter, 131 B.C., there 
 were seen for seventy days together, two splendid 
 comets ; and this omen, we are told, directed all 
 the actions of Mithridates throughout his life. 
 Justin. 
 
 OMMIADES, a dynasty of Mahometan 
 caliphs, beginning with Moawiyah, of whom four- 
 teen reigned in Arabia, 661-750 ; and eighteen at 
 Cordova, in Spain, 755-1031. Their favourite colour 
 was green. 
 
 OMNIBUS (from omnibus, Latin " for all"). 
 The idea of such conveyances is ascribed to Pascal, 
 about 1662, when similar carriages were started, 
 but soon discontinued. They were revived in Paris 
 about II April, 1828; and introduced into London 
 by a coach proprietor named Shillibeer. The first 
 omnibus started frtSm Paddington to the Bank of 
 England on Saturday, 4 July, 1829. Eegulations 
 were made respecting omnibuses by 16 & 17 Vict. 
 c. 33 (1853). See Cabriolets and Hackney Coaches. 
 The London Omnibus Company was established in 
 Jan. 1856. The saloon omnibuses ran in 1857-60. 
 In Sept. 1865, it was stated that there were then 
 running about 620 omnibuses belonging to the 
 General Omnibus Company, and 450 belonging to 
 private proprietors ; in 1867, about 1050 omni- 
 tmses, with 13,000 drivers and conductors. Sir 
 R. Mayne. 
 
 OMNIMETER, a new -surveying apparatus 
 (combining the theodolite and level, and com- 
 prising a telescope and microscope), invented by 
 Eckhold, a German engineer, to supersede chain 
 measuring : announced Sept. 1869. 
 
 ONE POUND NOTES were issued by the 
 Bank of England, 4 March, 1797, withdrawn for 
 England, 1823 ; re-issued for a short time, 16 Dec. 
 1825. 
 
 ONEIDA, collision with the Bombay; see 
 United States, 1870. 
 
 ONTARIO, formerly Canada "West, or Upper 
 Canada; capital, Toronto ; lieut.- governor, fm. 
 Pearce Harland, 1868. 
 
 O. P. (old prices) RIOT began on the opening 
 of the new Covent Garden Theatre, London, by 
 J. P. Kemble, with increased prices of admission, 
 18 Sept., and lasted till 16 Dec. 1809, when the old 
 charges were restored. Of the play, Macbeth, not 
 one word was heard, and great injury was done to 
 the theatre. 
 
 OPERAS. Adam de la Hale, a Trouvere, sur- 
 named " le Bossu d' Arras," born in 1240, is, as far 
 as has yet been ascertained, the composer of the 
 first comic opera, Li Gieus (Le Jeu) de Robin et de 
 Marion. The Italian opera began with the II 
 Satiro of Cavaliere, and the Dafne of Kinuccini, 
 with music by Peri, about 1590. Their Eur y dice 
 was represented at Florence, 1600, on the marriage 
 of Marie de Medicis with Henry IV. of France. 
 L' Orfeo, Favola in Musica, composed by Monte- 
 verde, was performed in 1607, and is supposed to 
 have been the first opera that was ever published. 
 About 1669, the abbot Perrin obtained a grant from 
 Louis XIV. to set up an opera in Paris, where, in 
 1672, was acted Pomona. Eossini's Barbiere, and 
 Otello, appeared 1816; Gazza Ladra, 1817 ; Semi- 
 r amide, 1823; Guillaume Tell, 1829. "Weber's Der 
 
 Freischiitz, 1821; Oberon, 1826. Donizetti's Lu- 
 crezia Borgia, 1840. Meyerbeer's Robert le Liable, 
 1831 ; Huguenots, 1836; Frophete, 1849. Eichard 
 "Wagner, reformer of the opera, and author of Tann- 
 hiluser and Lohengrin, was born 22 May, 1813. 
 
 OPERAS EST ENGLAND. Sir William Dave- 
 nant introduced a species of opera in London in 
 1684. The first regularly performed opera was at 
 York buildings in 1692. The first at Drury Lane 
 was in 1705. Handel's opera, Radamistus, was per- 
 formed in 1720, and others by him were frequently 
 performed a few years after. Gay' s Beggar' s Opera, 
 first performed in 1727 at the Lincoln's Inn theatre. 
 It ran for sixty-three successive nights, but so 
 offended the persons in power, that the lord 
 chamberlain refused a licence for the performance 
 of a second part of it entitled " Polly." By Gay's 
 friends' subscription, his profits amounted to 1200?., 
 whereas the Beggar's Opera gained him only 400?. 
 See Theatres. 
 
 OPERA COMIQUE, a new theatre, 299 
 Strand, opened 29 Oct. 1870, byMdlle. Dejazet and 
 a French company. 
 
 OPERA-HOUSE, The Italian, or 
 Queen's Theatre. The original building is 
 
 generally supposed to have been constructed by sir 
 John Vanbrugh, though Mr. Pennant attributes it 
 to sir Christopher Wren. It was built according to 
 this authority, in 1704, opened 9 April, 1705; 
 and burnt down 17 June, 1789. The foundation of 
 the new theatre was laid 3 April, 1790; and the 
 house was opened 22 Sept. 1791, on an improved 
 plan ; a new exterior was erected in 1820, 
 from designs by Mr. Nash. This theatre was totally 
 destroyed by fire (cause unknown) on the night of 
 6-7 Dec. 1867. The loss of the lessee, Mr. Maple- 
 son, was about 12,000^., and that of Madlle. Titiens 
 (valuable jewels and dresses), was valued at 2000Z. ; 
 see Theatres.— The English Opera, (or Lyceum) 
 was opened 15 June, 1816. It was entirely de- 
 stroyed by fire 16 Feb. 1830. The new English 
 Opera-house, or Lyceum, was erected from designs 
 by Mr. S. Beazley, and opened in July, 1834; see 
 Theatres. 
 
 OPHTHALMIC HOSPITALS, see Hos- 
 
 OPHTHALMOSCOPE, an apparatus for 
 
 inspecting the interior of the eye, invented by 
 
 professor H. Helmholtz, and described by him 
 in 1851. 
 
 OPIUM, the juice of the white poppy, was 
 known to the ancients, its cultivation being men- 
 tioned by Homer, and its medicinal use by Hippo- 
 crates. It is largely cultivated in British India, 
 and was introduced into China by our merchants, 
 which led eventually to the war bf 1839, the im- 
 portation being forbidden by the Chinese govern- 
 ment. The revenue derived from opium by the 
 Indian government in 1862 was about, 7,850,000;. 
 Laudanum, a preparation of opium, was employed 
 early in the 17th century. A number of alkaloids 
 have been discovered in opium : narcotine by 
 Derosne, and morphia by Serturner, in 1803. 
 
 OPORTO (W. Portugal), the ancient Calle, 
 one of the most impregnable cities in Europe, and 
 the mart of Portuguese wine known as " Port." 
 A chartered company for the regulation of the port- 
 wine trade was established in 1756. The French, 
 under marshal Soult, were surprised here by lord 
 Wellington, and defeated in an action fought 
 12 May, 1809. The Miguelites besieged Oporto, 
 
OPTICS. 
 
 486 
 
 ORANGES. 
 
 and were repulsed by the Pedroites, with consider- 
 able loss, 19 Sept. 1832. The Oporto -wine com- 
 pany was abolished in 1834, but re-established by 
 a royal decree, 7 April, 1838. An international 
 exhibition was opened here by the king, 18 Sept. 
 1865 ; see Portugal. 
 
 OPTICS, a science studied by the Greeks; and 
 by the Arabians about the 12th century. 
 
 Burning lenses known at Athens . . . . b. c. 424 
 A treatise on optics doubtfully attributed to Euclid, 
 
 about 300 
 The magnifying power of convex glasses and con- 
 cave mirrors, and the prismatic colours produced 
 by angular glass, mentioned by Seneca, about a. d. 50 
 Treatise 011 optics by Ptolemy . . . about 120 
 Two of the leading principles known to the Pla- 
 
 tonists 300 
 
 Greatly improved by Alhazen, who died . . . 1038 
 Hints for spectacles and telescopes, given by Roger 
 
 Bacon about 1280 
 
 Spectacles said to have been invented by Salvinus 
 
 Armatus, of Pisa before 1300 
 
 Camera obscura said to have been invented by Bap- 
 
 tista Porta 1560 
 
 Telescopes invented by Leonard Digges . about 1571 
 Kepler publishes his " Dioptrice " . . . . 161 1 
 Telescope made by Jansen (said also to have in- 
 vented the microscope), about 1609, and inde- 
 pendently, by Galileo .... about 1630 
 Microscope, according to Huyghens, invented by 
 
 Drebbel about 1621 
 
 Law of refraction discovered by Snellius about 1624 
 
 Inflection of light discovered, and the undulatory 
 
 theory suggested by Grimaldi . . . about 1665 
 Reflecting telescope, Jas. Gregory, 1663 ; Newton . 1666 
 Motion and velocity of light discovered by Roemer, 
 
 and after him by Cassini 1667 
 
 [Its velocity demonstrated to be 190 millions of 
 
 miles in sixteen minutes.] 
 Double refraction explained by Bartholinus . . 1669 
 
 Cassegrainian reflector 1672 
 
 Newton's discoveries in colours, &c. . . . 1674 
 Telescopes with a single lens by Tschirnhausen, 
 
 about 1690 
 Polarisation of light and undulatory theory dis- 
 covered by Huyghens about 1692 
 
 Structure of the eye explained by Petit . about 1700 
 Aberration of light discovered by Bradley . . 1727 
 Achromatic telescope constructed by Mr. Hall (but 
 
 not made public) in 1733 
 
 Constructed by Dollond, most likely without any 
 
 knowledge of Hall's telescope .... 1757 
 Herschel's great reflecting telescope erected at 
 
 Slough 1789 
 
 Dr. T. Young's discoveries (undulatory theory, &c.) 
 
 1800-3 
 
 Camera lucida (Dr. Wollaston) 1807 
 
 Malus (polarisation of light by reflection) about 1808 
 Fresnel's researches on double reflection, &c. . . 1817 
 Large telescope constructed by lord Rosse . . 1845 
 Arago (colours of polarised light, &c.) . . .1811-53 
 1 Sir D. Brewster, optical researches (see Kaleidoscope, 
 
 Photography) 1814-57 
 
 The spectroscope constructed and used by Kirch- 
 
 hoff and Bunsen 1861 
 
 Dr. Tyndall's Lectures on Light first illustrated by 
 Duboscq's electric lamp, at the Royal Institution, 
 
 London 1856 
 
 See Telescope, Microscope, Stereoscope, Pseudoscope, 
 Spectrum, Photography, &c. 
 
 OPTIC NERVES are said to have been dis- 
 covered by N. Varole, a surgeon and physician of 
 Bologna, about 1538. Nouv. Diet. 
 
 OPTIMISM (from optima, the best), the 
 doctrine that everything which happens is for the 
 best, in opposition to Pessimism (from pessimus. 
 the worst). The germ of optimism is to be found 
 in Plato, and in St. Augustin, and other fathers; 
 and has been especially propounded by Malebranche 
 and Leibnitz, and adopted by Pope, Boliugbroke, 
 Rousseau, and others. 
 
 " OPTION," a term given at the time to the 
 permission given to the inhabitants of Alsace and 
 Lorraine by the German government to choose, 
 before 30 Sept. 1872, whether they would quit 
 their country or become German subjects. Great 
 numbers emigrated into the French territories. 
 
 OEACLES, a term applied to revelations made 
 by God to man. They were given to the Jews at 
 the Mercy-seat in the tabernacle ; see Exod. xxv. 
 18-22. The Holy Scriptures are the Christian 
 "oracles," Mom. Hi. 2; 1 Pet. iv. II. King Aha- 
 ziah sent to consult the oracle of Baalzebub at 
 Ekron about 896 B.C. The Greeks consulted espe- 
 cially the oracles of Jupiter and Apollo (see Dodona 
 and Delphi); and the Italians those of Faunus, 
 Fortune, and Mars. 
 
 OEAN, Algeria (N. Africa), a Moorish city 
 several times captured by the Spaniards ; defini- 
 tively occupied by the French in 1831 : who have 
 since added docks, &o. 
 
 ORANGE, a principality in S.E. France, 
 formerly a lordship in the 9th or 10th century. 
 It has been ruled by four houses successively : that 
 of Giraud Adhemar (to 1174) ; of Baux (1182 to 
 1393) ; of Chalons (to 1 530) ; and of Nassau (1530 
 to 1 " 13) ; see Nassau. Philibert the Great, prince 
 of Orange, the last of the house of Chalons, having 
 been wronged by Francis I. of France, entered the 
 service of the emperor Charles V., to whom he 
 rendered great services by his military talents. 
 He was killed at the siege of Florence, 3 Aug. 1530. 
 He was succeeded by his nephew-in-law, Rene of 
 Nassau ; N see princes of Orange under Holland. 
 The eldest son of the king of Holland is styled the 
 prince of Orange, although the principality was 
 ceded to France in 1 7 13. See Arausio. 
 
 ORANGEMEN. The "Battle of the Dia- 
 mond," 21 Sept. 1795 (see Diamond), and the 
 treachery experienced by the Protestants on that 
 occasion, convinced them they would become an 
 easy prey to the Roman Catholics, from their small 
 numbers, unless they associated for their defence, 
 and the first Orange lodge was formed in Armagh ; 
 but the name of Orangemen already existed. An 
 Urange lodge was formed in Dublin ; the members 
 published a declaration of their principles (the 
 maintenance of church and state) in Jan. 1798. 
 After 1813 Orangeism declined; but revived again 
 in 1827, when the duke of Cumberland became 
 grand-master; and it is stated that in 1836 there 
 were 145,000 Orangemen in England, and 125,000 
 in Ireland. After a parliamentary inquiry Orange 
 clubs were broken up in conformity with resolu- 
 tions of the house of commons ; but were revived 
 in 1845. In Oct. 1857, the lord chancellor of Ire- 
 land ordered that justices of the peace should not 
 belong to Orange clubs. The Orangemen in Canada 
 were greatly excited during the visit of the prince 
 of Wales in Sept. i860. Mr. Wm, Johnston, a 
 grand master, convicted of violating the Party 
 Processions Act, was elected M.P. for Belfast, Nov. 
 1869. See Belfast. 
 
 ORANGE RIVER TERRITORY, a free 
 state in South Africa. The British government 
 proclaimed its authority over this territory, on 
 3 Feb. 1848, but transferred (by sir George Clerk) 
 its powers to a provisional government, 29 March, 
 1854. A Volksraad (legislative council) and governor 
 were appointed. Disputes arose respecting the 
 ownership of the diamond fields in 1868. 
 
 ORANGES. The sweet, or China orange, was 
 first brought into Europe from China by the Portu- 
 
OEATOE HENLEY. 
 
 487 
 
 OEIEL COLLEGE. 
 
 guese, in 1547 ; and it is asserted that the identical 
 tree, whence all the European orange-trees of this 
 sort were produced, is still preserved at Lisbon, in 
 the gardens of one of its nobility. Orange-trees 
 were first brought to England, and planted, with 
 little success in 1595 ; they are said to have been 
 planted at Beddington park, near Croydon, Surrey. 
 The duty on imported oranges was repealed in i860. 
 
 OEATOE HENLEY. An eccentric English 
 gentleman of some talents, in 1726, opened his 
 "oratory," a kind of chapel in Newport-market, 
 where he gave lectures on theological topics on 
 Sundays, and on other subjects 011 "Wednesdays, 
 every week. Novelty procured him many hearers ; 
 hut he was too imprudent to gain any permanent 
 advantage. He removed his oratory to Clare-market, 
 and sank into obscurity previously to his death, in 
 1756. 
 
 OEATOEIANS ► (from the Latin orare, to 
 pray), a regular order of priests established by St. 
 Philip Neri, about 1564, and so called from the 
 oratory of St. Jerome, at Eome, where they prayed. 
 They had a foundation in France, commenced by 
 Guillaume Gibieuf and Pierre de Berulle (afterwards 
 cardinal), 1612, approved by pope Paul V. 1613. — 
 The rev. Frederick Eaber and others, as "Fathers 
 of the Oratory," established themselves first in 
 King William-street, Strand, in 1848, and after- 
 wards at Brompton. 
 
 OEATOEIO, a kind of musical sacred drama, 
 the subject of it being generally taken from the 
 , Scriptures. The origin of oratorios (so named from 
 having been first performed in an oratory), is 
 ascribed to St. Philip Neri, about 1550. The first 
 oratorio in London was performed in Lincoln' s-inn 
 theatre in Portugal-street, in 1732. Handel's ora- 
 torio of "Israel in Egypt" was produced in 1738, 
 and the " Messiah" in 1741 ; Haydn's " Creation" 
 in 1798; Mendelssohn's "St. Paul" in 1837, and 
 "Elijah" in 1846. 
 
 OECHOMENUS, a small Greek state in 
 Bceotia, was destroyed by the Thebans, 368 B.C. ; re- 
 stored by Philip II. of Macedon, 354 ; and given up 
 by him to Thebes, 346. 
 
 OEDEAL was known among the Greeks and 
 Jews {Num. v. 2). It was introduced into England 
 by the Saxons. A prisoner who pleaded not guilty 
 might choose whether he would put himself for 
 trial upon God and his country, by twelve men, as 
 at this day, or upon God only. The trial by ordeal 
 was abolished in 1218. 
 
 OEDEES, see Knighthood. 
 
 OEDEES IN ComsrcrL were issued by the 
 British government 7 Jan. and II Nov. 1807, pro- 
 hibiting trade with the ports occupied by the 
 French, being reprisals for Napoleon's Berlin decree 
 {which see) . They greatly checked the progress of 
 manufactures in this country, and caused much 
 distress till their removal in 18 14. 
 
 OEDINANCES, see Ordonnances, Self-Deny- 
 ing Ordinances. 
 
 OEDINATION of ministers in the Christian 
 church began with Christ and his apostles ; see 
 Mark iii. 14, and Acts vi. and xiv. 23. In Eng- 
 land in 1549 a new form of ordination of ministers 
 was ordered to be prepared by a committee of six 
 prelates and six divines. 
 
 . OEDNANCE OFFICE. Before the inven- 
 tion of guns, this office was supplied by officers 
 under the following names : the bowyer, the cross- 
 
 bowyer, the galeater, or purveyor of helmets, the 
 armourer, and the keeper of the tents. Henry VIII. 
 placed it under the management of a master-general, 
 a lieutenant, surveyor, &c. The master-general 
 was chosen from among the first generals in the 
 service of the sovereign. The appointment was 
 formerly for life ; but since the restoration, was 
 held durante bene placito, and not unfrequently by 
 a cabinet minister. Beatson. The letters patent 
 for this office were revoked 25 May, 1855, and its 
 duties vested in the minister of war, lord Panmure. 
 The last master-general was lord Fitzroy-Somerset, 
 afterwards lord Raglan. 
 
 OEDNANCE SUEVEY. The trigonome- 
 trical survey of England was commenced by gen. 
 Eoy, in 1783, continued by col. Colby, and com- 
 pleted by col. (now sir Henry) James in 1856. The 
 publication of the maps commenced in 1819, under 
 the direction of col. Mudge, and was completed in 
 1862 ; a large part of these maps have been 
 coloured geologically. The survey of Ireland has 
 been completed and published ; that of Scotland is 
 still going on. By the survey act, passed 12 May, 
 1870, the ordnance survey was transferred to the 
 Board of Works. 
 
 OEDONNANCES, the laws enacted by the 
 Capetan kings of France previous to 1789. They 
 began with " in the name of the king." and ended 
 with " such is our good pleasure." The first in 
 French is dated 1287 (Phillip IV.) The publication 
 of these " ordonnances," ordered by Louis XIV., 
 1706, is still in progress. The " ordonnances" of 
 Charles X., promulgated 26 July, 1830, led to the 
 revolution. 
 
 OEEGON TEEEITOEY (N. America). A 
 dispute respecting boundaries arose in 1845 be- 
 tween the British government and that of the 
 United States, which was settled by treaty, 12 June, 
 1846. Oregon was admitted as a state by the union 
 Feb. 1859. 
 
 OEGANIC SYNTHESIS, see Chemistry. 
 
 OEGANS- Their invention is attributed to Ar- 
 chimedes, about 220 B.C. ; and to Ctesibius, a barber 
 of Alexandria, about IOO B.C. The organ was brought 
 to Europe from the Greek empire, and was applied 
 to religious devotions in churches, about a.d. 657- 
 Bellarmine. Organs were used in the western 
 churches by pope Vitalianus, in 658. Ammonius. 
 It is affirmed that the organ was known in France 
 in the time of Louis I. 815, when one was con- 
 structed by an Italian priest. The organ at Haar- 
 lem is one of the largest in Europe ; it has 60 stop" 
 and 8000 pipes. At Seville is one with 1 10 stops 
 and 5300 pipes. The organ at Amsterdam has a 
 set of pipes that imitate a chorus of human voices. 
 Of the organs in England that at St. George's Hall, 
 Liverpool, by Mr. Willis, was the largest ; next in 
 order that at York minster, and that in the music- 
 hall, Birmingham. In London, the largest was, 
 perhaps that of Spitalfields church ; and that in 
 Christ Church was nearly as extensive. The erection 
 of the famous Temple organ was competed for by 
 Schmidt and Harris; after long disputes, the 
 question was referred to vote, and Mr. Jefferies, 
 afterwards chief justice, gave the casting vote in 
 favour of Schmidt (called Father Smith), about 
 1682. A monster organ was erected in the Crystal 
 Palace, Sydenham, in June, 1857. The organ, by 
 Willis, at the Royal Albert Hall, is now said to be 
 the largest in the world ; 1871. 
 
 OEIEL COLLEGE (Oxford), founded in 
 1326, by Adam de Brome archdeacon of Stow, and 
 
ORIFLAMME. 
 
 488 
 
 ORPHAN-HOUSES. 
 
 almoner to king Edward II. This college derives 
 its name from a tenement called V Oriole, on the 
 site of which the building stands. 
 
 ORIFLAMME, see Aurijlahima. 
 
 ORIGENISTSprctendedtodraw their opinions 
 from the writings of Origen, who lived 185-253. 
 The)' maintained that Christ was the son of God 
 no other way than by adoption and grace; that 
 souls were created before the bodies ; that the sun, 
 moon, stars, and the waters that are under the 
 firmament, have souls ; that the torments of the 
 damned shall have an end, and that the fallen 
 angels shall, after a time, be restored to their first 
 condition. They were condemned by councils, and 
 the reading of Origen's work was forbidden. Burke. 
 These doctrines were condemned by the council of 
 Constantinople in 553. 
 
 ORION Steam- Ship. On 18 June, 1850, 
 
 this splendid vessel, bound from Liverpool to Glas- 
 gow, struck on a sunken rock, northward of Port- 
 patrick, within a stone's throw of land, and in- 
 stantly filled. Of two hundred passengers more 
 than fifty were drowned. 
 
 ORISSA, a province of N. "W. Bengal, India, 
 •with an area of 74,413 square miles, and a popu- 
 lation of 20,000,000. It was conquered by Clive 
 in 1 755, and nearly all acquired by the company in 
 1765. It suffered much by famine in 1770, and 
 1792-3, and more especially from the end of 1865 
 to Nov. 1866, when it is said about 750,000 per- 
 sons perished. The government and officials were 
 censured for neglect and want of forethought. It 
 is also said that during a hurricane in Oct. 1836, 
 22,500 persons were drowned. 
 
 ORKNEY and SHETLAND ISLES 
 
 (North of Scotland), were conquered by Magnus III. 
 of Norway, 1099, and were ceded to James III. as 
 the dowry of his wife Margaret, in 1469. The 
 Orkneys were the ancient Orcades; united with 
 Shetland, they now form one of the Scotch coun- 
 ties. The bishopric of Orkney, founded by St. 
 Servanus early in the 5th century, some affirm by 
 St. Colm, ended with the abolition of episcopacy in 
 Scotland, about 1689; see Bishops. 
 
 ORLEANS (a city in central France), formerly 
 Aurelianum ; gave title to a kingdom, 491, and 
 afterwards to a duchy, usually held by one of the 
 royal family. Attila the Hun, besieging it, Avas 
 defeated by Aetius and his allies, 451. It was be- 
 sieged by the English under earls of Salisbury and 
 Suffolk, 12 Oct. 1428, bravely defended by Gaucour 
 (as its fall would have ruined the cause of Charles 
 VI king of France), and i-elieved by the heroism 
 of Joan of Arc, afterwards surnamed the Maid of 
 Orleans, 29 April, 1429, and the siege was raised 
 18 M.jy; see Joan of Arc. (The 439th anniversary 
 was celebrated 10 May, 1868 ; the emperor and 
 empress being present.) During the siege of Or- 
 leans, Feb. 1563, the duke of Guise was assas- 
 sinated. 
 
 After nine hours' severe fighting, Orleans captured 
 by the Germans, under general Vou der Tann. 
 More than 4000 prisoners were taken. ' The loss 
 on both sides was heavy. About 35,000 on each 
 side were engaged. The city was made to pay a 
 war contribution of 6o,oooJ. . . 11 Oct. 1870 
 
 Von der Tann and the Bavarians defeated by 
 generals DAurelle de Paladines and Pallieres, 
 and Orleans re-taken. The Germans acknow- 
 ledged the loss of about 700 men and 1000 pri- 
 soners, chiefly wounded. The French asserted 
 the numbers of both to be higher, and wen 1 much 
 cheered with their victory. The French loss was 
 
 heavy. The chief conflict took place between 
 Coulmiers and Bacon or Baecon . 9, 10 Nov. 1870 
 
 Severe conflicts at Bazoche and C'hevilly, near Or- 
 leans, between a part of the army of the Loire 
 and prince Frederick-Charles and the grand-duke 
 of Mecklenburg 2-4 Dec. „ 
 
 A battle, (luring which the suburbs were stormed, 
 and about 10,000 unwounded prisoners, 77 guns, 
 and four gunboats taken. The French retired; 
 Orleans re-taken by the Germans . 5 Dec. „ 
 
 DUKES. 
 
 Louis contended for the regency with John the Fearless, 
 duke of Burgundy, by whose instigation he was assas- 
 sinated in 1407. 
 
 Charles taken prisoner at Agincourt, 1415 ; released, 
 1440; died, 1465. 
 
 Louis, became Louis XII. of France in 1498, when the 
 duchy merged in the crown. 
 
 Bourbon Branch. — Philip, youngest son of Louis XIII. , 
 bom, 1640; died, 1701. 
 
 Philip II., son, born, 1673; regent, 1715; died, 1723. 
 
 Louis, son, born, 1703; died, 1752. 
 
 Louis Philippe, son, born, 1725; died, 1785. 
 
 Louis Philippe Joseph, son, born, 1747; opposed the 
 court in the French revolution ; took the name 
 Egalite, 11 Sept. 1792; voted for the death of Louis 
 XVI.; was guillotined, 6 Nov. 1793. 
 
 Louis Philippe, son, born, 6 Nov. 1773; chosen king of 
 the French, 9 Aug. 1830; abdicated, 24 Feb. 1848; 
 died, 26 Aug. 1850. His queen, Marie Amelie, died, 
 24 March, 1866 (see France). 
 
 Ferdinand Philippe, son, duke of Orleans, born, 3 Sept. 
 1810; died, through a fall, 13 July, 1842. 
 
 Louis Philippe, son, count of Paris, born, 24 Aug. 1838, 
 married Maria Isabella, daughter of the duke of 
 Montpensier, 30 May, 1864. A daughter, Maria Amelia, 
 born, 28 Sept. 1865. 
 
 The demand of the Orleans princes to return to 
 France, 19 June, refused by the legislative assem- 
 bly after discussion .... 2 July, 1870 
 
 Their request to serve in the army after the fall of 
 the empire declined Sept. ,, 
 
 (The due de Chartres served incognito.) 
 
 After discussion, the due d'Aumale and the prince 
 de Joinville permitted to take their seats as mem- 
 bers of the national assembly . . 19 Dec. ,, 
 
 ORLEANS, NEW, see New Orleans. 
 
 ORMTJLUM, a metrical version of the Gospels 
 and Acts, in early English, made by Orm, an ecclesi- 
 astic, in the 12th century, printed at Oxford in 
 1852, from a MS. in the Bodleian. 
 
 ORNITHOLOGY, see Birds. 
 
 ORNITHORHYNCHTJS, the duck-billed 
 platypus, or water-mole, a singular compound of 
 the mammal and the bird, a native of Australia, 
 was first described by Dr. Shaw, in 1819. 
 
 OROQTJIETA, Navarre, N. Spain. Here don 
 Carlos, calling himself king Carlos VII., grandson 
 of don Carlos, brother of Ferdinand VII., com- 
 manding about 4000 men, was suddenly attacked 
 by general Moriones with about 2000, and defeated 
 after a short conflict, 4 May, 1872. He tied, leav- 
 ing 757 prisoners, and 38 dead. 
 
 ORPHAN-HOUSES. The emperor Trajan 
 first formed establishments for this purpose. Pliny 
 relates in his Panegyric that he had caused 5000 free- 
 born children to be sought out and educated, about 
 a.d. 105. Orphan-houses properly so called, are 
 mentioned for the first time in the laws of the em- 
 peror Justinian. At the court of Byzantium the 
 office of inspector of orphans, orphanotrophos, was 
 so honourable that it was held by the brother of the 
 emperor Michael IV. in the nth century; see 
 Foundling Hospitals. 
 
 The Orphanotropheon at Halle, established by Au- 
 gust Francke 1698-9 
 
 The Orphan Working Asylum for 20 boys was esta- 
 
ORPHEONISTS. 
 
 489 
 
 OTTAWA. 
 
 Wished at Hoxton in 1758. It is now situated at 
 Haverstock-hill.and contains 350 "boys and girls. 
 
 Asylum for Female Orphans, Lambeth; removed 
 to Beddington, near Croydon; instituted . . 1758 
 
 London Orphan Asylum founded, 1813 ; removed to 
 Clapton, 1823 ; new building at Watford, founded 
 by 'the prince of Wales, 13 July, 1869; opened, 
 
 20 July, 1871 
 
 British Orphan Asylum, Clapham-rise, established, 
 1827 ; removed to Slough, Bucks ; re-opened, 
 
 25 June, 1863 
 
 The Infant Orphan Asylum at Wanstead (1827); 
 and the Asylum for Fatherless Children (in 1844 : 
 settled at Reedham, Surrey), established mainly 
 through the exertions of a congregational minister, 
 the rev. Andrew Reed, D. D. 
 
 Orphan-houses, Ashley-down, Bristol, founded by 
 George Miiller, a Prussian, supported entirely 
 by voluntary contributions. (He began in a 
 house in Bristol, n April, 1836.) 2050 orphans 
 were maintained 1873 
 
 Erdington Orphanage and Alms-houses, near Bir- 
 mingham, erected and endowed (with 250,000?.) 
 by Josiah Mason, a manufacturer of Birmingham, 
 
 1860-69 
 
 Royal Albert Orphan Asylum, at Bagshot, esta- 
 blished, 1864; additional buildings founded by 
 the queen, 29 June, 1867. 
 
 Alexandra Orphanage for Infants, Holloway, 1864; 
 foundation of building laid, 6 July, 1867. 
 
 ORPHEONISTS, see Crystal Palace, i860. 
 
 ORPHEUS, STEAMER, see Wrecks, 7 Feb. 
 1863. 
 
 ORRERY, a planetary machine to illustrate 
 and explain the motions of the heavenly bodies, 
 appears to have been coeval with the clepsydra. 
 Ptolemy devised the circles and epicycles that dis- 
 tinguish his system about 130. The planetary 
 clock of Finee was begun 1553. The planetarium 
 of De Eheita was formed about 1650. The planet- 
 arium, now termed the Orrery, it is said, was 
 constructed by Eowley, after a pattern devised by 
 the clock-maker, George Graham, at the expense of 
 Charles Boyle, earl of Orrery, about 1715. A large 
 " planetarium" was constructed by the rev. "Win. 
 Pearson, for the Eoyal Institution, London, about 
 1803. 
 
 ORSINI'S PLOT against the emperor Napo- 
 leon III. ; see France, Jan. 1858. 
 
 ORTHES or ORTHEZ (S. Prance), once capital 
 of the principality of Beam. Near it the British 
 and Spanish armies, commanded by Wellington, 
 defeated the French, under Soult, 27 Feb. 1814. 
 The battle of Toulouse soon followed. 
 
 OSBORNE HOUSE (Isle of Wight), was 
 purchased by the queen in 1845, and rebuilt by Mr. 
 Cubitt. 
 
 OSMIUM, the heaviest known metal, dis- 
 covered in platinum ore by Tennant in 1803. 
 
 OSNABURG (N. Germany), made the seat of 
 a bishopric, by Charlemagne, near the end of the 
 8th century. After the treaty of Westphalia in 
 1648, the bishop was a Koman Catholic ana protest- 
 ant alternately, the latter being chosen from the 
 house of Brunswick. Frederick, duke of York, the 
 last bishop, resigned in 1803, when the lands were 
 annexed to Hanover. He died 5 Jan. 1827. 
 
 OSSORY (S. E. Ireland), BISHOPRIC OF, 
 was first planted at Saiger, about 402 ; translated 
 to Aghadoe, in Upper Ossory, in 1052; and to 
 Kilkenny about the end of the reign of Henry II. 
 It was united to Ferns and Leighlin in 1835. 
 
 OSTEND (Belgium), sustained a siege by the 
 Spaniards, from July, 1601, to Sept. 1604, when it 
 
 honourably capitulated. On the death of Charles 
 II. of Spain, the French seized Ostend; but in 
 1706, after the battle of Kamilies, it was retaken by 
 the allies. It was again taken by the French in 
 1745, but restored in 1748. In 1756, the French 
 garrisoned this town for the empress-queen Maria 
 Theresa. In 1792, the French once more took 
 Ostend, ".which they evacuated in 1793, but regained 
 in 1794." The English destroyed the works of the 
 Bruges canal ; but the wind shifting before they 
 could re-embark, they surrendered to the French, 
 19 May, 1798. See Cuba, note. 
 
 OSTRACISM (from the Greek ostrakon, a 
 potsherd or shell), a mode of proscription at Athens, 
 is said to have been first introduced by the tyrant 
 Hippias ; others ascribe it to Cleisthenes, about 510 
 B.C. The people wrote the names of those: whom 
 they most suspected upon small shells ; these they 
 put in an urn or box and presented to the senate. 
 Upon a scrutiny, he whose name was oftenest 
 written was sentenced by the council to be banished 
 from his altar and hearth. 6000 votes were re- 
 quired. Aristides, noted for his justice, and Mil- 
 tiades, for his victories, were thus ostracized. The 
 custom was abolished by ironically proscribing 
 Hyperbolus, a mean person, about 338 B.C. 
 
 OSTRICH (the struthios of the ancients), a 
 native of Africa (see Job xxxix. 14). Ostriches 
 were hatched and reared at San Donato, near Flo- 
 rence, 1859-60 ; and at Tresco abbey, the seat of 
 Augustus Smith, in the Scilly isles, 1866. 
 
 OSTROGOTHS, or Eastern Goths, were 
 
 distinguished from the Visigoths (Western Goths) 
 about 330. After ravaging eastern Europe, Thrace, 
 &c, their great leader, Theodoric, established a 
 kingdom in Italy, which lasted from 493 to 553 > 
 see Italy. 
 
 OSTROLENKA (Poland). Near here the 
 French defeated the Prussians, 16 Feb. 1807. In 
 another battle here between the Poles and Russians 
 the slaughter was immense, but the Poles remained 
 masters of the field, 26 May, 1831. 
 
 OTAGO, see New Zealand, 1848, 1861, 1866. 
 
 OTAHEITE or TAHITI, an island in the S. 
 Pacific Ocean, seen by Byron in 1765, and visited 
 in 1767 by captain Wallis, who called it George the 
 Third Island. Captain Cook came hither in 1768 
 to observe the transit of Venus ; sailed round the 
 whole island in a boat, and stayed three months ; 
 he visited it twice afterwards. See Cook. Omai, a 
 native of this island, was brought to England by 
 Cook, and carried back in his last voyage. In 
 1799, king Pomare ceded the district of Matavai to 
 some English missionaries. Queen Pomare was 
 compelled to put herself under the protection of 
 France, 9 Sept. 1843. She retracted, and Otaheite 
 and the neighbouring islands were taken possession 
 of by admiral Dupetit-Thouars in the name of the 
 French king, Nov. 1843. » ^ e French imprisoned 
 Mr. Prichard, the English consul, 5 March, 1844, 
 bat the act was censured in France. 
 
 OTTAWA (formerly BYTOWN), on the river 
 Ottawa, was appointed to be the capital of Canada 
 by the queen in August, 1858. The executive 
 council met here 22 Nov. 1865, and the Canadian 
 parliament was, for the first time, opened here by 
 the governor-general, lord Monck, on 8 June, 
 1866. Mr. Darcy McGee, M.P. for Montreal (once 
 an Irish agitator, but latterly exceedingly loyal), 
 was assassinated on his return from parliament, 
 7 April, 1868. Fenians were suspected, and the 
 
OTTERBURN. 
 
 490 
 
 OXFORD ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 town was put in a state of siege. "Whelan con- 
 victed of the murder, 15 Sept. 1868; was executed 
 Feb. 1869. Population in 1861, 14,669. 
 
 OTTERBURN (Northumberland). In 1388 
 the Scotch besieged Newcastle and were driven off 
 by Henry Percy (Hotspur), son of the earl of North- 
 umberland. Percy pursued them to Otterburn, 
 where a battle was fought on 10 Aug., in which the 
 earl of Douglas was killed and Percy taken pri- 
 soner. On this battle the ballad of Chevy Chase is 
 founded. 
 
 OTTOMAN EMPIRE, see Turkey. 
 
 OUDE or OUDH (North India), formerly a 
 vice-royalty held by the vizier of the great mogul. 
 About 1760, it was seized by the vizier Sujah-ud- 
 Dowlah, ancestor of the late king. 
 
 Battle of Buxar, where Sujah and his ally, Meer 
 Cossim, are totally defeated, and the British he- 
 come virtually masters of Oude . . 23 Oct. 1764 
 
 Reign of Asoph-ud-Dowlah, who cedes Benares, <Stc, 
 to the East India Company, who place troops in 
 Oude (see Chunar) 1775-81 
 
 [The annual subsidy to the company in 1787 was 
 500,000?. ; in 1794, 760,000?. ; in 1801, 1,352,347?.] 
 
 Mure territories ceded to the company . . . 1801 
 
 Ghazee-ud-deen becomes king, with the consent of 
 the British 1819 
 
 Dreadful misgovernment of Nusser-ud-deen 1827-37 
 
 [At his death, the British resident, Colonel Lowe. 
 promptly suppresses an insurrection. 1 
 
 Mahomed Ali eovems well . . . 837-42 
 
 But his son Unijeed Aii Shah .... 1842-7 
 
 And grandson, Waud Ali Shah, exceed all their pre- 
 decessors in profligacy .... 1847-56 
 
 In consequence (by virtue of the treaty of 1801) 
 Oude is annexed to the British territories, by 
 decree, proclaimed 7 Feb. 1856 
 
 The queen and prince of Oude, &c. , arrive in Lon- 
 don to appeal 20 Aug. ,, 
 
 Oude joins the Indian mutiny; ex-king of Oude 
 imprisoned (on suspicion) . . . 14 June, 1857 
 
 The queen dies at Paris, 24 Jan. ; and the prince at 
 
 London 26 Feb. 1858 
 
 [For the war, see India, 1857-8.] 
 
 Triumphal entry of the governor-general into Luck- 
 now; the Talookdars (landowners) receive a free 
 grant of their estates .... 22 Oct. 1859 
 
 Grand durbar held at Lucknow by the viceroy, sir 
 John Lawrence . . - . . 12 Nov. 1867 
 
 Oude is said to be prospering under British rule. 
 
 OUDENARDE (Belgium). Here the English 
 and allies under the duke of Marlborough and prince 
 Eugene thoroughly defeated the French besiegers, 
 II July, 1708. 
 
 OULART (S.E. Ireland). Here 5000 Irish 
 insurgents attacked the king's troops, in small 
 numbers, 27 May, 1798. The North Cork militia, 
 after great feats of bravery, were cut to pieces, five 
 men only escaping. Musgravc. 
 
 OUNCE (from uncia), the sixteenth part of the 
 pound avoirdupois, and twelfth of the pound troy. 
 Its precise weight was fixed by Henry III., who 
 decreed that an English ounce should be 640 dry 
 grains of wheat; that twelve of these ounces should 
 be a pound; and that eight pounds should be a 
 gallon of wine, 1233. 
 
 OURIQUE (Portugal), where Alfonso, count 
 or duke of Portugal, is said to have encountered 
 five Saracen kings and a great army of Moors, 25 
 July, 1 139, and signally defeated them; and then 
 to have been hailed the first king. Lisbon, the 
 capital, was taken, and he soon after was crowned. 
 
 OUTLAW, one deprived of the benefit of the 
 law, and out of the sovereign's protection: a 
 punishment for such as being called in law do con- 
 temptuously refuse to appear. In the reign of 
 Edward III. all the judges agreed that none but the 
 sheriff only, having lawful warrant therefor, should 
 put to death any man outlawed. Cowel. 
 
 OUZEL GALLEY SOCIETY. In 1700, 
 the case of the Ouzel Galley, a ship in the port of 
 Dublin, excited great legal perplexity, and was 
 referred to an arbitration of merchants, whose 
 prompt decision was highly approved. This led to 
 the present society, founded in 1 705. 
 
 OVATION, an inferior triumph which the 
 Romans allowed those generals of their army whose 
 victories were not considerable. Publius Posthumius 
 Tubertus was the first who was decreed an ovation, 
 503 B.C. A sheep (ovis) was offered by the general 
 instead of a bull. 
 
 OVERLAND MAIL, see Waghorn. The 
 overland mail travelled first through the Cenis 
 tunnel to Brindisi, saving 24 hours, 5 Jan. 1872. 
 
 OVERSEERS of the poor for parishes -were 
 
 appointed in 1601 ; see Poor Laws. 
 
 OWENS COLLEGE, Manchester, founded 
 by means of a bequest of 100,000/. by John Owens, 
 merchant, who died in 1846. A new constitution 
 was obtained in 1870, and the duke of Devonshire, 
 president, laid the first stone of the new building, 
 23 Sept. 1870. 
 
 OWHYHEE or HAWAII, an island in the 
 N. Pacific Ocean, discovered Dec. 1778, by capt. 
 Cook. On 14 Feb. 1779, he here fell a victim to a 
 sudden resentment of the natives. A boat having 
 been stolen by one of the islanders, the captain 
 went on shore to seize the king, and keep him as a 
 hostage till the boat was restored. The people 
 would not submit to this insult, and their resistance 
 brought on hostilities, and captain Cook and some 
 of his companions were killed. Great progress has 
 been recently made in civilisation here; and an 
 order of nobility and a representative assembly were 
 instituted in i860. The population then was about 
 120,000; see Sandwich Isles. 
 
 OXALIC ACID, which exists in several 
 plants, especially in sorrel, is now abundantly 
 obtained, for use in the arts, from sawdust acted 
 upon by caustic potash or soda, according to Dr. 
 Dale's process, patented in 1862. 
 
 OXFORD, an ancient city, restored by king 
 Alfred, who resided here and established a mint, 
 &c, about 879. 
 
 Canute held a national council here . . . . 1018 
 
 Stormed by William 1 1067 
 
 Charter by Henry II., the city granted to the bur- 
 gesses by John 1 199 
 
 Henry III. holds the " mad " parliament here . . 1258 
 Bishops Ridley and Latimer burnt here, 16 Oct. 
 
 1555 ; and archbishop Cranmer . 21 March, 1556 
 Fatal (or Blaek) Oxford Assizes, — when the high 
 sheriff and 300 other persons died suddenly of an 
 
 infection from the prisoners 1557 
 
 Charles I. took Oxford, 1642, and held a parliament 
 
 here . 1644 
 
 Taken by the parliament ... 24 June, 1646 
 Charles II. held parliaments here . . 1665 & 1681 
 Visit of the allied sovereigns 1814 
 
 OXFORD ADMINISTRATION, formed 
 
 29 May, 171 1. 
 
 Robert, earl of Oxford (previously right hon. Robert 
 Harley), lord treasurer. 
 
OXFOED. 
 
 491 
 
 OYSTEE. 
 
 Sir Simon (afterwards lord) Harcourt, lord keeper. 
 
 John, duke of Nornianby and Buckingham, lord presi- 
 dent. 
 
 John, bishop of Bristol (aft. London), privy seal. 
 
 Henry St. John (afterwards viscount Bolingbroke), and 
 William, lord Dartmouth, secretaries of state. 
 
 Robert Benson (afterwards lord Bingley), chancellor of 
 the exchequer. 
 
 The duke of Shrewsbury succeeded lord Oxford, receiv- 
 ing the lord treasurer's staff on 30 July, 1714, three 
 days before the death of queen Anne. From the reign 
 of George I. the office of lord treasurer has been exe- 
 cuted by commissioners. 
 
 OXFOED BISHOPEIC, established by 
 Henry VIII., formed out of Lincoln, first placed 
 at Osney in 154.2 ; removed to Oxford cathedral 
 (formerly St. Frideswide, how Christ Church), 1545. 
 Present income, 5000^. 
 
 RECENT BISHOPS. 
 
 1807. Charles Moss ; died, 16 Dec. 1811. 
 
 1812. William Jackson ; died, 2 Dec. 1815. 
 
 1815. Edward Legge ; died, 27 Jan. 1827. 
 
 1827. Charles Lloyd ; died, 31 May, 1829. 
 
 1829. Richard Bagot ; translated to Bath, Nov. 1845. 
 
 1845. Samuel Wilberforce ; translated to Winchester, 
 
 Nov. 1869. 
 1869. John Fielder Maekamess. 
 
 OXFOED DECLAEATION, see Church of 
 England, 1864. 
 
 OXFOED MAEBLES, see Arundelian. 
 
 OXFOED UOTVEESITY. An academy 
 here is described as ancient by pope Martin II. 
 in a deed, 802. Alfred founded "the schools" 
 about 879. 
 
 Charter granted by Henry III 124S 
 
 Charter of Edward III. 1355 ; of Henry VIII. . . 1510 
 The university incorporated by Elizabeth . . 1570 
 Receives the elective franchise (to send two mem- 
 bers to parliament) 1604 
 
 Bodleian Library opened, 8 Nov. 1602 ; building 
 
 completed . . . ' 1613 
 
 The botanic garden, &c, established by the earl of 
 
 Danby 1622 
 
 Radcliffe Library opened, 13 April, 1749 ; the 
 
 Radcliffe observatory completed .... 1786 
 A commission appointed (31 Aug. 1850) to inquire 
 into its " state, studies, discipline, and revenues ;" 
 
 reported 27%.pril, 1852 
 
 Acts making alterations passed . . . 1854, 1856 
 University Museum opened .... July, i860 
 Examination statutes passed . 1801, 1807, 1850, 1862 
 Extension of the university proposed at a meeting 
 
 held 16 Nov. 1865 
 
 University tests abolished by act passed 16 June, 1871 
 Royal commission to inquire respecting university 
 property, &c, appointed . . . . 6 Jan. 1872 
 
 COLLEGES. 
 
 University, said to have been founded by king 
 Alfred, 872 ; founded by William, archdeacon of 
 Durham, about 1232 
 
 Balliol ; founded by John Balliol, knt. (father to 
 Balliol, king of the Scots), and Deborah, his wife 1263 
 
 Merton College, by Walter de Merton, bishop of 
 Rochester 1264 
 
 Hertford College (dissolved in 1818, and a Hertford 
 scholarship appointed) 1312 
 
 Exeter, by Walter Stapleton, bishop of Exeter . 13 14 
 
 Oriel College, by king Edward II. ; Adam deBrome, 
 archdeacon of Stowe 1326 
 
 Queen's College, by Robert de Eglesfield, clerk, 
 confessor to queen Philippa, consort of Edward 
 III 1340 
 
 New College, by William of Wykeham, bishop of 
 Winchester ; first called St. Mary of Winchester . 1386 
 
 All Souls' College, by Henry Chichely, archbishop 
 of Canterbury 1437 
 
 Magdalen, by William of Waynfiete, bishop of Win- 
 chester 1456 
 
 Lincoln College, by Richard Fleming, 1427 ; finished 
 by Rotherham, bishop of Lincobi . . . 1479 
 
 Brazenose, by William Smyth, bishop of Lincoln, 
 and sir Richard Sutton 1509 
 
 Corpus Christi, by Richard Fox, bishop of Win- 
 chester .... 1516 
 
 Christ Church, by cardinal Wolsey, 1523 ; and 
 afterwards by Henry VIII 1532 
 
 Trinity, by sir Thomas Pope, on the basis of a pre- 
 vious institution, called Durham College . . 1554 
 
 St. John's, by sir Thomas Whyte, lord mayor of 
 London iS55 
 
 Jesus College, by Dr. Hugh Price and queen Eliza- 
 beth 1571 
 
 Wadham, by Nicholas Wadham, and Dorothy, his 
 wife 1613 
 
 Pembroke, by Thomas Teesdale and Richard Wight- 
 wick, clerk 1624 
 
 Worcester, by sir Thomas Coke, of Bentley, in Wor- 
 cestershire ; it was originally called Gloucester 
 College 1714 
 
 Keble College (see Kcble College) ; first stone laid by 
 archbishop of Canterbury . . .25 April, 1868 
 
 halls (not incorporated). 
 
 St. Edmund's 1269. 
 
 St. Mary's 1333. 
 
 New Inn Hall 1392 
 
 St. Mary Magdalen 1487 
 
 St. Alban's 1547 
 
 [Oxford University Calendar.] 
 
 First Professorships — Divinity (Margaret), 1502; 
 Divinity, Law, Medicine, Hebrew, Greek, 1540, 
 &c. 
 
 RECENT CHANCELLORS. 
 
 1809. William, baron Granville. 
 
 1834. Arthur, duke of Wellington. 
 
 1852. Edward, earl of Derby ; d. 23 Nov. 1869. 
 
 1869. Robert, marquis of Salisbury, elected 12 Nov. 
 
 OXFOED' S ACT, Bishop of, see District 
 Churches. 
 
 OXFOED' S ASSAULT on the Queen. 
 
 Edward Oxford, a youth who had been a servant 
 in a public-house, discharged two pistols at queen 
 Victoria and prince Albert, as they were proceeding 
 up Constitution-hill in an open phaeton from 
 Buckingham palace, 10 June, 1840. He stood 
 within a few yards of the carriage ; but neither her 
 majesty nor the prince was iujured. Oxford was- 
 tried at the Old Bailey (10 July), and was adjudged 
 to be insane, and sent first to Bethlehem hospital, 
 next to Broadmoor ; and set at liberty hi 1868, on 
 condition of going abroad. 
 
 OXYGEN, a gas (named from the Greek oxus, 
 sharp, as being generally found in acids), is the 
 most abundant of all substances, constituting about 
 one-third of the solid earth, and forming about 
 nine-tenths of water and one-fifth of the atmo- 
 sphere. It was first separated from red oxide of 
 mercury by Priestley, 1 Aug. 1774., and by Scheele, 
 who was ignorant of Priestley's discovery, in 1775. 
 It is a supporter of animal life (in respiration), and 
 of combustion. An oxygen gas company was- 
 announced in Dec. 1864 ; its object being the cheap 
 manufacture of oxygen for its application to the 
 production of perfect combustion in lamps, stoves, 
 furnaces, &c. ; see Ozone. 
 
 OYEE AND TERMINER, a commission directed 
 to the judges of the courts, by virtue whereof they 
 have power to hear and determine treasons, felonies, 
 &c, 1285. 
 
 O YES ! A corruption of the Prench oyez, hear 
 ye ! The ancient term still used by a public crier 
 and by the usher of courts of justice to enjoin 
 silence and attention. 
 
 OYSTEE (the Latin Ostrea edulis). British 
 oysters are celebrated by the Roman satirist Juvenal 
 (Sat. iv. 140) about IOO. The robbery of oyster- 
 beds is prohibited by 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 29 (1827). 
 About 15,000 bushels of oysters were said to be pro- 
 duced from the Essex beds alone. In 1858 M. Coste 
 
OZOKERIT. 
 
 492 
 
 PAINTING. 
 
 commenced rearing oysters in great numbers on the 
 coast of Brittany, and his plan has been found suc- 
 cessful. An act for promoting the cultivation of 
 oysters in the United Kingdom was passed Aug. 
 1866, and one for the preservation of oyster fisheries 
 3 May, 1867. Certain restrictions of the Oyster 
 Fisheries Act, 1862, removed by the Fisheries Act of 
 1868. 
 
 OZOKERIT, a mineral hydro-carbon found in 
 Moldavia and Wallachia. From it is distilled a 
 substance suitable for making candles, introduced 
 in the autumn of 187 1. 
 
 OZONE (from the Greek ozein, to yield an 
 odour, was discovered by Schonbein, of Basel, in 
 1840, when experimenting with the then newly- 
 invented battery of sir Wm, Grove, and was recog- 
 nised by him successively as a minute constituent 
 of the oxygen gas resulting from the electrolysis of 
 water effected by a current of high tension ; of air 
 
 or oxygen through which electric discharges have 
 taken place ; and of air in which moist phosphorus 
 has been undergoing slow oxidation. 
 
 Marignac determined the action of ozone on various 
 substances to be due to their oxidation . . 1845 
 
 Ozonometers constructed 1858 
 
 M. Schonbein announced his discovery of another 
 modification of oxygen, which he termed antozone, 
 hitherto found only in the compound state (iu 
 peroxides of sodium, potassium, &c.) . 1859 
 
 The Frencli Academy of Sciences appointed a com- 
 mittee of eminent philosophers to inquire into 
 the nature and relations of ozone . 4 Dec. 1865 
 
 Andrews and Tait demonstrated ozone to be a con- 
 densed form of oxygen .... i860, 1865 
 
 This further established by Soret and Brodie, by 
 quantitative reactions. (Odling suggested and 
 Brodie proved ozone to be 3 parts of oxygen com- 
 pressed into the space of 2) 1872 
 
 Ozone, generated by a current produced by Wilde's 
 magneto-electric machine, employed to bleach 
 sugar, by Edward Beane's patent . . Aug. 1868 
 
 P. 
 
 PACIFICATION, Edicts of, the name 
 
 usually given to the edicts of toleration granted by 
 the French kings to the protestants ; see Ghent. 
 
 First edict, by Charles IX., permitting the exercise 
 of the reformed religion near all the cities and 
 towns in the realm .... Jan. 1562 
 
 The reformed worship permitted in the houses of 
 lords justiciaries, and certain other persons, March, 1563 
 
 These edicts revoked, and all Protestant ministers 
 ordered to quit France in fifteen days . . . 1568 
 
 Edict, allowing lords and others to have service in 
 their houses, and granting public service in cer- 
 tain towns I57 o 
 
 Jin Aug. 1572, the same monarch authorised the 
 massacre of St. Bartholomew (see Bartholomew).] 
 
 Edict of Pacification by Henry III., April; re- 
 voked, Dec. 1576; renewed for six years Oct. 1577 
 
 (Several edicts were published against the protes- 
 tants after the six years expired.] 
 
 Edict of Henry IV., renewing that of Oct. 1577 . 1591 
 
 Edict of Nantes (which see), by Henry IV., 13 April, 1598 
 
 Pacification of Nismes (which see) . . 14 July, 1629 
 
 PACIFIC OCEAN, see Magellan; Steam, 
 185 1 ; Wrecks, 1856. 
 
 PACIFIC RAILWAY, North America, from 
 Omaha city, Missouri, to Sacramento, California, 
 1700 miles, opened 12 May, 1869. By a collision 
 near San Francisco, about 15 persons were killed, 
 14 Nov. 1869. 
 
 PADLOCKS are said to have been invented 
 by Beecher at Nuremberg, 1540, but are mentioned 
 much earlier. 
 
 PADUA, the Roman Patavium, in Venetia, N. 
 Italy, said to have been founded by Antenor, soon 
 after the fall of Troy, 1183 B.C. It flourished under 
 the Romans. Patavian Latin was considered very 
 corrupt, and is traced in Livy, a native of Padua. 
 After being an independent republic, and a member 
 of the Lornb.ird league, Padua was ruled by the 
 €arrara family from 13 18 with a short interruption 
 till 1405, when it was seized by the Venetians. 
 The university was founded about 1220. It was 
 closed for disturbances, 1848-50. 
 
 PAGANS, the heathen, worshippers of idols, 
 not agreeing in any set form or points of belief. 
 Constantine ordered the Pagan temples to be de- 
 stroyed throughout the Roman empire, 331; his 
 nephew, Julian, attempted their restoration, 361 ; 
 but Paganism was renounced by the Roman senate 
 
 in 388, and finally overthrown in the reign of 
 Theodosius the younger, about 391. 
 
 PAI MARIRE, a name given to the dogmas 
 of the Hau-hau sect ; see Neiv Zealand, 1865. 
 
 . PAINS AND PENALTIES, see Queen Caro- 
 line. 
 
 PAINTING. Osymandyas (in Egypt) caused his 
 exploits to be represented in painting, 210OB.C. Usher. 
 
 Polygnotus, said to be the first portrait and historic 
 painter, lived about B.C. 450 
 
 Zeuxis of Heraclea and Parrhasius of Ephesus, about 400 
 
 Apelles, about 332 
 
 Pausias of Sicyon was the inventor of the encaustic, 
 a method of burning the colours into wood or 
 ivory, about 360-330 
 
 Antiphilus, an Egyptian, is said to have been the 
 inventor of the grotesque. Pliny. . . . 332 
 
 The art was introduced at Rome from Etruria, by 
 Quintus Fabius, styled Pictor. Livy. . . . 291 
 
 Excellent pictures brought from Corinth by Mummius 146 
 
 After the death of Augustas, not a single painter of 
 eminence appeared for several ages ; Ludius. who 
 was very celebrated, is supposed to have been the 
 last, about a.d. 14 
 
 Painting on canvas seems to have been known at 
 Borne in 66. Bede, the Saxon historian, knew 
 something of the art, who died .... 735 
 
 It revived about the end of the 13th century, and 
 to Giovanni Cimabue, of Florence, is awarded the 
 honour of its restoration ; died . . . . 1300 
 
 John Van Eyck, of Bruges, and his brother, Hubert, 
 are regarded as the founders of the Flemish school 
 of painting in oil 141s 
 
 Uccello first studied perspective ; died . . . 1432 
 
 Henry VIII. patronised Holbein, and invited Titian 
 to his court about 1523 
 
 In Aug. i860, the sale of lord Northwick's pictures 
 occupied eighteen days. It produced 95,725?. A 
 Carlo Dolci fetched 2010Z., and a MuriUo 1400Z. 
 
 The Bicknell collection, sold in April, 1863, pro- 
 duced 25,600!. 
 
 EMINENT PAINTERS. 
 
 School. Bom. Died. 
 
 Cimabue . . ... Florentine . 1240 1300 
 
 Giotto Ditto . . 1276 1336 
 
 J. Van Eyck . . . . Flemish . . 1366 1441 
 
 Giorgione .... Venetian . 1477 1511 
 
 Leonardi da Vinci . . . Florentine . 1452 1520 
 
 Raphael d'Urbino . . . Roman . 1483 1520 
 
 Paolo Peragino . . . . Ditto . . 1446 1524 
 
 Albert Durer .... German . 1470 1528 
 
 Quentin Matsys . . . Flemish . 1460 1529 
 
 Correggio .... Lombardian 1494 1534 
 
 Parmegiano . . . . Ditto . . 1503 1540 
 
 Giulio Romano . . . Roman . 1492 1546 
 
PAINTING. 
 
 493 
 
 PALATINE. 
 
 
 School. 
 
 
 Sebastian del Piomtio 
 
 . Venetian 
 
 Hans Holbein 
 
 . German 
 
 Michael Angelo Buonarot 
 
 i . Florentine 
 
 Titian 
 
 . Venetian 
 
 Paul Veronese 
 
 . Ditto 
 
 Tintoretto . 
 
 Ditto . 
 
 Annibal Caracci 
 
 . Lombardian 
 
 
 . Flemish 
 
 P. P. Rubens 
 
 . Ditto . 
 
 Domenichino 
 
 . Bolognese 
 
 Vandyck 
 
 .►Flemish . 
 
 Guido 
 
 . Lombardian 
 
 Wm. Dobson . 
 
 . English 
 
 Both .... 
 
 Dutch . 
 
 P. Potter 
 
 . Ditto . 
 
 Le Seur 
 
 . French . . 
 
 Spagnoletto . 
 
 . Spanish 
 
 
 
 Velasquez 
 
 . Spanish 
 
 N. Poussin 
 
 . French 
 
 Guercino 
 
 . Bolognese 
 
 
 
 A. Cuyp 
 
 . Dutch. 
 
 A. Vander Velde 
 
 . Ditto . . 
 
 Salvator Rosa 
 
 . Neapolitan . 
 
 Rembrandt 
 
 . Dutch . . 
 
 Gerard Douw . 
 
 . Ditto . 
 
 Sir Peter Lely . 
 
 . German 
 
 
 Dutch . 
 
 Ruysdael . 
 
 Ditto . . 
 
 Claude Lorraine 
 
 . French 
 
 
 Dutch . . 
 
 Murillo .... 
 
 
 Berghem . 
 
 . Dutch . . 
 
 Carlo Dolci 
 
 . Florentine . 
 
 Wouverrnans 
 
 . Dutch . 
 
 
 
 
 . Flemish 
 
 W. Vander Velde . 
 
 . Dutch . 
 
 Watteau 
 
 French . . 
 
 Sir Godfrey Kneller 
 
 . German 
 
 Sir J. Thomhill 
 
 . English . . 
 
 Huysum 
 
 . Dutch . 
 
 Hogarth 
 
 . English 
 
 Canaletti 
 
 . Venetian 
 
 J. Mortimer 
 
 . English 
 
 R. Wilson 
 
 . Ditto . . 
 
 Gainsborough . 
 
 . Ditto . 
 
 
 Vernet .... 
 
 French 
 
 
 Sir J. Reynolds . 
 
 . English 
 
 
 
 Ditto 
 
 
 George Morland 
 
 . Ditto . 
 
 
 
 Ditto 
 
 
 
 Ditto . 
 
 
 Paul Sandby . 
 
 . Ditto 
 
 
 
 Ditto . 
 
 
 
 Ditto 
 
 
 West .... 
 
 Ditto . 
 
 
 H. Raeburn . . , 
 
 . Ditto 
 
 
 Fuseli 
 
 . Ditto . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Northcote 
 
 . Ditto 
 
 
 Thos. Stothard . 
 
 . Ditto . 
 
 
 
 Ditto 
 
 
 Wm. Hilton 
 
 . Ditto . 
 
 
 Wilkie .... 
 
 . Ditto . 
 
 
 
 Ditto 
 
 
 
 Ditto . 
 
 
 Etty .... 
 
 Ditto 
 
 
 
 Ditto . 
 
 
 
 Ditto 
 
 
 Aug. Egg 
 
 . Ditto . 
 
 
 Wm. Mulready . 
 
 . Ditto 
 
 
 H. Vernet 
 
 . French 
 
 
 E. De la Croix . 
 
 . Ditto 
 
 
 Wm. Hunt . 
 
 . English 
 
 
 D. Roberts 
 
 . Ditto 
 
 
 W. F. Witherington 
 
 . Ditto . 
 
 
 Clarkson Stansfield . 
 
 . Ditto 
 
 
 P. Von Cornelius . 
 
 German 
 
 
 J. D. A. Ingres . 
 
 . French 
 
 
 Sir E. Landseer 
 
 . Ditto . 
 
 
 E. W. Cooke 
 
 . Ditto 
 
 
 Thos. Creswick 
 
 . Ditto . 
 
 
 P. Overbeck 
 
 . German 
 
 
 D. Maclise 
 
 . Ditto . 
 
 
 Sir George Hayter 
 
 . . Ditto. 
 
 
 Bom. 
 148S 
 1495 
 1474 
 1477 
 1S32 
 1512 
 1568 
 1565 
 1577 
 1581 
 !S99 
 1575 
 1610 
 1600 
 1625 
 1617 
 1589 
 1579 
 1599 
 1594 
 1590 
 1611 
 1606 
 1638 
 1615 
 1606 
 1613 
 1617 
 1635 
 1636 
 1600 
 1610 
 1618 
 1624 
 1616 
 1620 
 1619 
 1610 
 1633 
 
 1676 
 1682 
 1697 
 1697 
 
 1739 
 1714 
 1727 
 1714 
 I7 2 3 
 1734 
 1763 
 1741 
 1761 
 1725 
 1756 
 1738 
 1738 
 1786 
 1741 
 1748 
 1769 
 1746 
 1755 
 1753 
 1786 
 
 1785 
 
 Died. 
 !547 
 !543 
 1564 
 1576 
 1588 
 1594 
 1609 
 162s 
 1640 
 1641 
 1641 
 1642 
 1646 
 1650 
 1654 
 1655 
 1656 
 1657 
 1660 
 1665 
 1666 
 1670 
 1672 
 1672 
 1673 
 1674 
 1680 
 1680 
 1681 
 1681 
 1682 
 
 1685 
 
 1707 
 1721 
 1723 
 1732 
 
 1749 
 1764 
 1768 
 1779 
 1782 
 
 1807 
 1809 
 1811 
 1815 
 1820 
 1823 
 1825 
 1825 
 
 1839 
 
 1788 1847 
 1787 1849 
 1775 1851 
 
 1789 1854 
 1816 1863 
 1786 1863 
 
 1786 1865 
 1798 1867 
 
 1787 1867 
 1781 1867 
 1802 
 
 1810 
 
 1811 1869 
 
 1789 
 
 1792 
 
 1870 
 1871 
 
 PALACE COUET, see Marshalsea, and 
 Green Cloth. 
 
 , PALACES, see Buckingham, St. James's, Par- 
 liament, Escurial, Tuileries, St. Cloud, Versailles, 
 &c. 
 
 PAL/EOGEAPHY, ancient writing; see 
 Diplomatics. 
 
 PALJEOLOGI, a family which reigned as 
 emperors of the east from 1260 to 1453. George 
 Palaeologus raised Alexius Comnenus to the throne 
 in 1081, and thereby founded his own family. An- 
 drew, the last PalaBologus, son of Thomas, ruler of 
 the Morea, after the overthrow of his father, be- 
 came a Mahometan at Constantinople about 1533. 
 
 PALAEONTOLOGY (from the Greek palaios, 
 ancient, and onta, beings), treats of the evidences of 
 organic beings in the earth's strata. It is a branch 
 of geology {which see). Cuvier, Mantell, Agassiz, 
 Owen, Edward Forbes, and Blainville, all of the 
 present century, may be reckoned as fathers of this 
 science. The Palseontographical society, which 
 publishes elaborate monographs of British organic 
 remains, was founded in 1847. Professor Owen's- 
 " Palaeontology" was published in i860. " Nearly 
 40,000 species of animals and plants have been 
 added to the Systema Naturae by palaeontological 
 research." Huxley. See Man. 
 
 PAL^EOPOLIS, see Naples. 
 
 PALAIS EOYAL, Paris, originally Palais- 
 Cardinal, built for cardinal Eichelieu, by Lemer- 
 cier, 1620-36, received its present name when occu- 
 pied by Louis XIII., to whom the cardinal gave it 
 shortly before his death in 1642. Louis XIV., in 
 1692, gave it to his nephew Philippe, duke of Or- 
 leans, and it became the residence of his successors- 
 It was confiscated by the republic in 1793, after the 
 execution of Philippe Egalite. Louis Philippe re- 
 sided in it, 18 14-31. It suffered much injury at 
 the revolution in 1848. Under the second empire 
 it became the residence of prince Jerome and his- 
 son Napoleon. The buildings were much injured 
 by fire by the communists, 24 May, 1871. 
 
 PALATINATE OF THE Ehine, one of the 
 seven ancient electorates of Germany, It was long 
 united to Bavaria, but was separated in 1294. — 
 Frederic V., the elector palatine in 1610, married 
 in 1613 Elizabeth, the daughter of James I. of Eng- 
 land, and thus was an ancestor of queen Victoria ; 
 see Hanover. In 1619 he was elected king of Bo- 
 hemia, but lost all by his defeat by the Austrians 
 at Prague in 1620. The Palatinate was horribly 
 ravaged by Tilly in 1622, and by the French in 
 1688. Several thousands of the ruined peasantry 
 were sent to America by the British government 
 and people. The elector palatine, Charles Theo- 
 dore, inherited Bavaria in 1778; since when the 
 two electorates have been united ; see Bavaria. 
 
 PALATINE. William the conqueror made 
 his nephew, Hugh D'Abrincis, count palatine of 
 Chester with the title of earl, about 1070. Edward 
 III. created the palatine of Lancaster, 1539; see 
 Lancaster, duchy of. The bishoprics of Ely 
 (963) and Durham were also made counties 
 palatine. There is also mention made of the 
 county palatine of Hexham, in 33 Henry VIII. 
 c. 10, which then belonged to the arch- 
 bishop of York, but by the 14th of Elizabeth 
 it was dissolved, and made part of the county 
 of Northumberland. The palatinate jurisdic- 
 tion of Durham was separated from the dio- 
 
PALE. 
 
 494 PALMERSTON ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 cese, and vested in the crown, 6 Will. IV. c. 19, 21 
 June, 1836. 
 
 PALE, the name given to the part of Ireland 
 colonised by the English— viz., parts of the coun- 
 ties of Louth, Dublin, Meath, and Kildare. Anglo- 
 Irish rulers were termed lords of the pale. Their 
 arbitrary exactions led to a royal commission of 
 inquiry in 1537. The defection of the lords of the 
 pale in 1641 was followed by a general insurrection, 
 and the royal cause was ruined in 1647. In 1652 
 Ireland was committed to the rule of four com- 
 missioners. 
 
 PALERMO (N. W. Sicily), the ancient Pan- 
 ormus. It has been held by the Carthaginians, 415 
 B.C. ; taken by the Romans, 254 B.C. ; by the Sara- 
 cens, a.d. 832 ; and by the Normans, 1072. Here 
 Roger II. was crowned king of Sicily, 1130. 
 Palermo was the scene of the Sicilian Vespers 
 {which see), 30 March, 1282. It suffered from 
 •earthquake in 1726 and 1740. The king Ferdinand 
 resided at Palermo from 1806 to 1815, while Naples 
 ■was ruled by Joseph Bonaparte and Joachim Murat. 
 It revolted against the tyranny of Ferdinand II. 
 12 Jan. 1848. It was attacked by general Filan- 
 gieri, 29 March, 1849, and surrendered on 14 May. 
 It was taken by Garibaldi, 6 June, i860. An in- 
 surrection against the abolition of the monastic 
 establishments broke out in Palermo on 13 Sept. 
 1866, and was suppressed by the royal troops with 
 much bloodshed ; order was restored by 22 Sept. 
 
 PALESTINE, see Jews. After being several 
 times conquered by the Saracens, and retaken from 
 the 7th to the 10th century, and after being the 
 scene of the wars of the Crusades (which see), and 
 other conflicts, Palestine was united to the Ottoman 
 ■empire by Selim I. in 1516. See Bible (note), Holy 
 Places, and Syria. 
 
 Palestine visited by the prince of "Wales, 
 
 March and April, 1862 
 
 "'The Palestine exploration fund" was founded by 
 many eminent persons as a society " for the inves- 
 tigation of the archaeology, topography, geology, 
 and manners and customs of the Holy Land ;" at 
 the first meeting the archbishop of York was in 
 the chair . . • • • .22 June, 1865 
 
 By its means captain Wilson and a party left Eng- 
 land for Palestine in Nov. 1865 ; they arrived at 
 Damascus, Dec. 20 ; and in the foUowing spring 
 explored Jezreel, Nazareth, and many other parts 
 of the Holy Land. 
 
 The report was read, and further exploration recom- 
 mended, 10, 11 July, 1867 ; carried on under lieut. 
 Warren ,_.-,." l868 " 6 9 
 
 •Great exertions to support the undertaking were 
 made by its friends, especially Mr. Geo. Grove, 
 secretary of the Crystal Palace company . 1868-73 
 
 Exhibition of relics from Pale-taie opened at Dudley 
 Gallery " June > l86 9 
 
 The systematic trigonometrical survey of Palestine 
 commenced by capt. Stewart . . . Dec. 1871 
 
 A similar fund established at New York . . . „ 
 
 The ordnance survey of Sinai by capts. Wilson and 
 
 Palmer, published l8 7 2 
 
 PALESTRO (N. Italy). Here the Sardinians 
 
 defeated the Austnans, 30, 31 May, 1859. 
 
 PALIMPSEST (from the Greek, palin, again; 
 
 and pt-ao, I efface), parchments written on after 
 
 the previous writing had been partially effaced. 
 
 Cardinal Mai, by removing the second writing 111 
 
 some MSS., recovered the original. This was the 
 
 case with Cicero's " De Republica," published by 
 
 Mai in 1821. It had been covered by a treatise of 
 
 Lactantius. 
 
 P <VLL, PALLIUM, in the Roman Church an 
 
 ensign of dignity conferred by the pope upon arch- 
 
 bishops. By a decretal of pope Gregory XL (about 
 1370), no archbishop could call a council, bless the 
 chrism, consecrate churches, ordain a clerk, or con- 
 secrate a bishop, till he had received his pall from 
 the see of Rome. The pall was first worn by an 
 Irish archbishop in 1 1 52, when Gelasius was recog- 
 nised as primate of all Ireland. 
 
 PALLADIUM, the statue of Pallas, said to have 
 fallen from heaven near the tent of Ilus, as he was 
 building Ilium, which the oracle of Apollo de- 
 clared should never be taken so long as the Palla- 
 dium was found within its walls. The Greeks are 
 said to have obtained it by craft during the Trojan 
 war, 1 184 B.C. ; but some writers assert, another 
 statue was taken, and that the real Palladium was 
 conveyed from Troy to Italy by iEneas, 1 183 B.C., 
 and preserved by the Romans with the greatest 
 secrecy in the temple of Vesta. — Palladium is a 
 rare metal, discovered in platinum ore by Dr. Wol- 
 laston, in 1803. 
 
 PALLAS, the planet, was discovered by Olbers, 
 at Bremen, 28 March, 1802. 
 
 PALLISER'S CHILLED SHOT, see 
 
 Cannon. 
 
 PALL MALL, a street near St. James's 
 palace, London, is named from a French game at 
 ball (paille-maille, being a wooden mallet), re- 
 sembling the modern croquet, having been played 
 there about 1621. Among eminent inhabitants 
 were Nell Gwyn and Dr. Thomas Sydenham. The 
 Pall Mall Gazette, a daily independent political 
 and literary journal, first appeared in 1865. 
 
 PALMERSTON ADMINISTRATION.* 
 
 The resignation of the Aberdeen administration was 
 announced 1 Feb. 1855, but nearly all its members 
 returned to office soon after under lord Palmerston, 
 lord Derby and lord John Russell having each in 
 vain endeavoured to form an administration. On 
 22 Feb. Mr. Gladstone, sir James Graham, and Mr. 
 Sidney Herbert resigned on account of the Sebas- 
 topol inquiry. Lord John Russell resigned 13 July. 
 Lord Canning was appointed governor- general of 
 India, 4 July, 1855. This cabinet resigned 20 Feb. 
 1858, in consequence of a vote of censure upon it 
 for introducing the Foreign Conspiracy bill, and 
 was succeeded by the Derby administration {which 
 see) . 
 
 First lord of the treasury, Henry viscount Palmerston. 
 
 Lord chancellor, lord Cranworth. 
 
 President of the council, earl Granville. 
 
 Lord privy seal, duke of Argyll ; next, earl of Harrowby ; 
 
 afterwards the marquis of Clanricarde. 
 Secretaries— home, sir George Grey ; foreign, earl of 
 
 Clarendon ; colonial, Sidney Herbert (resigned Feb. 22) ; 
 
 afterwards lord J. Russell (resigned July 13) ; sir 
 
 William Molesworth (died 22 Oct. 1855) ; next Hemy 
 
 Labouchere ; war, lord Panmure. 
 Chancellor of the exchequer, W. E. Gladstone (resigned 
 
 22 Feb.) ; next, sir G. Cornewall Lewis. 
 
 * Henry John Temple was born 20 Oct. 1784; was 
 educated at Harrow, Edinburgh, and Cambridge ; suc- 
 ceeded his father, viscount Palmerston, 1802 ; became 
 M.P., and a junior lord of the admiralty, 1807 ; was secre- 
 tary-at-war, 1809-28, and a secretary for foreign att'airs, 
 Nov. 1830-34, April, 1835 to Sept. 1841, and July, 1846 
 to Dec. 1851, and home secretary, Dec. 1852 to March, 
 1855, when lie became first lord of the treasury. He was 
 created lord warden of the cinque ports, 31 March, 1861 ; 
 and master of the corporation of the Trinity house, 
 16 June, 1862. He sat for Tiverton, 1835-65. He died 
 18 Oct., and was buried in Westminster abbey, 27 Oct. 
 1865. His statue at Romsey, by M. Noble, was un- 
 covered by earl Russell, 21 July, 1868. Lady Palmer- 
 ston died 11 Sept. 1869, aged 82. 
 
PALMEESTON-EUSSELL-ADMIN. 495 
 
 PANOEAMAS. 
 
 First lord of the admiralty, sir James Graham (resigned 
 22 Feb.) ; next, sir Charles Wood. 
 
 Board of control, sir Charles Wood ; next, R. Vernon 
 Smith. 
 
 Public works, sir Wm. Molesworth ; next, sir B. Hall 
 (appointed 22 July, 1855). 
 
 Postmaster-general, viscount Canning (appointed governor- 
 general of India, 4 July) ; jiext, duke of Argyll. 
 
 President of the board of trade, lord Stanley of Alderley. 
 
 Marquis of Lansdowne, without office. 
 
 Chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, earl of Harrowby ; 
 next, M. T. Baines (appointed 24 Nov. 1855). 
 
 PALMEESTON-EUSSELL ADMINIS- 
 TEATION. The second Derby administration 
 {which see) resigned 11 June, 1859. Earl Granville 
 was requested by the queen to form an administra- 
 tion, and obtained the support of lord Palmerston, 
 but not of lord John Eussell : the two last then 
 agreed to form a cabinet, which came into office 
 18 June, 1859. On the decease of lord Palmerston, 
 18 Oct. 1865, earl Eussell became premier; see 
 Russell. 
 
 First lord of the treasury, Henry viscount Palmerston. 
 Lord high chancellor, John lord Campbell (died 23 June, 
 
 i86i> ; succeeded by sir Richard Bethell, made Lord 
 
 Westbury, who resigned 4 July, 1865 ; succeeded by 
 
 lord Cranworth. 
 Lord president of the council, earl Granville. 
 Lord privy seal, duke of Argyll. 
 Secretaries— foreign affairs, lord John (afterwards earl) 
 
 Russell ; colonies, duke of Newcastle ; succeeded by 
 
 Edward Cardwell, 8 April, 1864 ; liome, sir G. Comewall 
 
 Lewis ; succeeded by sir George Grey ; war, Sidney 
 
 (afterwards lord) Herbert ; succeeded by sir G. C. 
 
 Lewis (died 13 April, 1863), and by earl de Grey 
 
 (1 May) ; India, sir Charles Wood. 
 Chancellor of the exchequer, Wm. Ewart Gladstone. 
 First lord of the admiralty, duke of Somerset. 
 President of the board of trade, Thos. Milner Gibson. 
 
 [This office was offered to Mr. R, Cobden, and declined 
 by him.] 
 Secretary of state for Ireland, Edward Cardwell ; succeeded 
 
 by sir R. Peel (not in the cabinet). 
 Chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, sir George Grey, 
 
 bart. ; succeeded by Edward Cardwell ; and by earl 
 
 Clarendon, 8 April, 1864. 
 Postmaster-general, earl of Elgin (proceeded to China in 
 
 April, i860) ; succeeded by lord Stanley of Alderley, 
 
 appointed Sept. i860. 
 Poor-law board, T. Milner Gibson ; succeeded by Charles 
 
 P. Villiers (9 July, i860). 
 
 PALM-SUNDAY. When Christ made his 
 entry into Jerusalem, multitudes of the people who 
 were come to the feast of the Passover, took branches 
 of the palm-tree, and went forth to meet him, 33. 
 It is usual, in some countries, to carry palms on the 
 Sunday before Easter, hence called Palm-Sunday. 
 
 PALMYEA (Syria) was supposed to have been 
 the Tadmor in the wilderness built by Solomon, 
 hut was manifestly Grecian. The brilliant part of 
 the history of Palmyra was under Odenatus and his 
 queen Zenobia. At the death of Odenatus, Zenobia 
 assumed the title of queen of the East, in 267. 
 Aurelian defeated her at Emesa, in 272, and made 
 her captive, 273, and killed Longinus, the philo- 
 sopher, her friend. Palmyra is now inhabited by a 
 few Arab families. The ruins were visited in 1751, 
 by Mr. Wood, who published an account of them 
 in 1753. Mi\ Dawkins and Mr. Bruce also visited 
 Palmyra. 
 
 PAMPELTJNA (N. E. Spain, taken by the 
 French on their invasion of Spain), was invested by 
 the British, between whom and the French obstinate 
 conflicts took place, 27 and 29 July, 1813. It sur- 
 rendered to the British, 31 Oct. in that year. 
 
 PAMPHLETS. Their first appearance 
 amongst us is generally thought to have been in 
 opposition to the church of Borne. Those who were 
 
 first convinced of the reasonableness of the "new 
 learning," as it was then called, propagated their 
 opinions in small pieces, cheaply printed, and (what 
 was then of great importance) easily concealed. 
 Political pamphlets began, in Edward VI. 's time, 
 and were very numerous in the 1 7th century. Large 
 collections are in the libraries of the British Museum 
 and the Boyal and London Institutions. Certain 
 enactments respecting pamphlets removed by an act 
 passed July, 1869. 
 
 PANAMA, the isthmus which joins the two 
 Americas; see Darien. Across this a ship canal 
 was proposed by the Bulwer-Clayton treaty, 
 19 April, 1850. A treaty for the construction of a 
 ship canal through the isthmus by the United 
 States was signed by representatives of that govern- 
 ment and that of Colombia 26 Jan. 1870. A railway 
 was opened in 1855. In that year a new state, New 
 Granada, was divided into eight federal states, one 
 of which is named Panama. A revolution took 
 place in Panama, on 9 March, 1865 ; the govern- 
 ment was deposed, and don Jil Colunje became pre- 
 sident ; succeeded by Vincent Olarte, I Oct. 1866. 
 Panama is now subject to Colombia {which see). 
 
 PAN-ANGLICAN SYNOD, the popular 
 name of a conference of 75 bishops, British, colonial, 
 and American, who met at Lambeth-palace, 24-27 
 Sept. 1867. They issued an address, published 
 then- resolutions, of a very general character, and 
 formally closed their conference on 10 Dec. 
 
 , PANDECTS, a digest of the civil law, made by 
 order of Justinian, 533. It is stated that a copy of 
 these Pandects was discovered in the ruins of Amalfi, 
 1 137 ; removed from Pisa in 1415, and preserved in 
 the library of the Medici at Florence, as the Pan- 
 dectce Florentines. 
 
 PANDOSIA (Bruttium, S. Italy). Here 
 Alexander, king of Epirus, was defeated and slain 
 by the Bruttians, 326 B.C. Laevinus, the Boman 
 consul, was defeated at Pandosia, in Lucania, by 
 Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, 280 B.C. 
 
 PANEAS or Panitts (Syria) . Here Antiochus 
 the Great defeated Scopas, the Egyptian general, 
 and his Greek allies, 198 B.C. 
 
 PANICS, COMMERCIAL, generally the result 
 of over-speculation; see Bubbles, South Sea, Zaw's. 
 
 Through French war : government issued 5,000,000?. 
 
 exchequer bills 1793 
 
 Through Irish rebellion, <&c. (3 per cents, at 44D . 1797 
 Through bubble companies, 770 banks stopped 
 
 winter, 1825-6 
 Through railway mania . . .■ . . Oct. 1847 
 Through American failures . . . Nov. 1857 
 Through fear of European war . . . April, 1859 
 Through over-speculation in limited liability com- 
 panies May, 1866 
 
 Through Franco-Prussian war . . 10 July, 1870 
 
 PANNONIA, part of Illyria, now Hungary. 
 was finally subdued by Tiberius, a.d. 8. 
 
 PANOPTICON of Science and Art, in 
 
 Leicester-square, erected in 1852-3 for a chartered 
 company, by Mr. T. H. Lewis, the architect ; was 
 opened in 1854 for lectures, musical performances, 
 &c. It had a very large electrical machine, battery, 
 &c. The speculation did not succeed ; the building 
 was sold in 1857, and in Feb. 1858, was opened for 
 concerts and horsemanship, and called the Alhambra. 
 
 PANOEAMAS, invented by Eobert Barker, 
 are bird's eye views painted round the wall of a 
 circular building. In 1788 he exhibited at Edin- 
 burgh a view of that city, the first picture of the 
 
PANORMUS. 
 
 496 
 
 PAPER-HANGINGS. 
 
 kind. He then commenced similar exhibitions in 
 London in 1789, having adopted the name " Pano- 
 rama," and was ultimately enabled to build com- 
 modious premises in Leicester-square for that 
 purpose. (He died in April, 1806.) J. P. Louthcr- 
 bourg, a painter, termed the panoramist, invented 
 the " Eidophusikon," natural phenomena repre- 
 sented by moving pictures, exhibited at Lisle-street, 
 Leicester-square, 3 April, 1781. "This was cer- 
 tainly not a panorama." Dr. Rimbaidt. 
 
 PANORMUS, see Palermo. 
 
 PANTAGRAPH (from the Greek panta, all 
 things, and graphcin, to write, and incorrectly 
 termed Pentagraph) , an instrument for copying, 
 reducing, or enlarging plans. &c, invented by- 
 Christopher Scheiner, about 1603, and improved by 
 professor Wallace, and called " Eidograph," about 
 182 1. 
 
 PANTHEISM, the formula of which is 
 "everything is God, and God is one," was espe- 
 cially taught by Xenophanes, who died 500 B.C. 
 The doctrine is attributed to Spinoza, Kant, Fichte, 
 and other modern philosophers. 
 
 PANTHEON, at Rome, a circular temple 
 built bv Agrippa, the son-in-law of Augustus, 
 27 B.C. " It had nicbes in the wall, where the image 
 or representation of a particular god was set up ; the 
 gates brass, the beams covered with gilt brass, and 
 the roof covered with silver. Pope Boniface III. 
 dedicated it to the Virgin M ary and all the saints, 
 by the name of S. Maria della Rotunda, or "ad 
 Martyres," a.d. 608.— The Pantheon in London 
 was erected by subscription, and opened 25 Jan. 
 1772 ; formed into an opera house ; burned down 
 14 Jan. 1792; rebuilt in 1795 and 1812; made a 
 bazaar in 1834. The bazaar was closed in 1867, 
 and the premises taken by Gilbey and Co., wine 
 merchants, who lent the south part for a temporary 
 church. 
 
 PANTOGEN, see Atomic Theory. 
 
 PANTOMIMES were representations by ges- 
 tures and attitudes among the ancients, and were 
 introduced on the Roman stage by Pylades and 
 Bathyilus, 22 B.C. Comic masques were introduced 
 here from Italy about 1700. The first regular 
 English pantomime is said to have been " Harle- 
 quin executed," produced by Rich at the Lincoln' s- 
 inn-fields theatre, 26 Dec. 1717. 
 
 " PAPAL AGGRESSION." In a consistory 
 holdenin Rome, 30 Sept. 1850, the pope (Pius IX.) 
 named fourteen new cardinals, of whom four only 
 were Italians. Among them was Dr. Nicholas Wise"- 
 nian, vicar-apostolic of the London district, who 
 was at the same time nominated lord archbishop of 
 Westminster. 
 
 Dr. Ullathorne enthroned as Roman Catholic bishop 
 of Birmingham in St. Chad's cathedral 27 Oct. 1850 
 
 A pastoral letter from Dr. Wiseman read in all the 
 Roman catholic chapels of his see (all England 
 parcelled out into Romish dioceses) . . 27 Oct. „ 
 
 The answer of the bishop of London (Dr. Blomfield) 
 to a memorial from the protestant clergy of West- 
 minster, against a Romish hierarchy in this 
 country, was followed by the "Durham" letter 
 from lord John Russell, then chief minister of the 
 crown, to the bishop of Durham, in which he 
 severely censured, not only the papal aggression, 
 but also the proceedings of the tractarian clergy 
 of the Church of England . . . 4 Nov. „ 
 
 Immediately from every quarter of England ad- 
 dresses poured in to her majesty the queen, calling 
 upon her and the government to resist the usurpa- 
 tion ; 6700 addresses, it is said, had been voted 
 
 from nearly as many influential meetings up to 
 
 31 Dec. 1850 
 
 Dr. Briggs, created Roman catholic bishop of Bever- 
 lcv, was enthroned in St. George's chapel at York, 
 
 13 Feb. 1851 
 
 Dr. Browne, created bishop of Clifton, and Dr. 
 Burgess, bishop of Shrewsbury : both consecrated 
 in St. George's cathedral, Southwark 27 July, ,, 
 
 The Ecclesiastical Titles' act, 14 fc 15 Vict. c. 60, 
 prohibited the constitution of bishops of pre- 
 tended provinces under a penalty of 100/. Aug. 
 
 It was imt acted upon, and was repealed 24 July, 1S71 
 
 PAPAL INFALLIBILITY. This dogma, 
 maintained by one party in the Roman church, 
 tolerated by another, and utterly rejected by a 
 third, was adopted and promulgated at the general 
 council at Rome 18 July, 1870, a great many bishops 
 having withdrawn. The dogma was inculcated by 
 the false decretals of Isidore and others, but not 
 adopted by the council of Trent ; see Councils XXI. 
 Professor Dollinger, the historian, was excommuni' 
 cated at Munich for rejecting this dogma, 18 April, 
 1871 : he was made a D.C.L. at Oxford about 
 16 June following; see Old Catholics. 
 
 PAPAL STATES, see Rome, and Popes. 
 
 PAPER, see Papyrus. Paper was probably 
 made in Egypt, and centuries before the Christian 
 era. It was made of cotton about 600 a.d. ; and of 
 rags about 1300.* White coarse paper was made 
 by sir John Speilman, a German, at Dartford, in 
 England, 33 Eliz. 1580; and here the first paper 
 mills were erected. Stow. Paper for writing and 
 printing manufactured in England, and an act 
 passed to encourage it, 2 Will. III. 1690; before 
 this time we paid for these articles to France and 
 Holland ioo,oco£. annually. The French refugees 
 taught our people; we had made coarse brown 
 paper almost exclusively, until they came among 
 us; we made white paper first in 1690. Anderson. 
 Paper-making by a machine was suggested by 
 Louis Robert, who sold his model (0 Didot, the 
 great printer, who brought it to England, and, con- 
 jointly with Fourdrinier, perfected the machinery. 
 The latter obtained a patent for paper-making ma- 
 chinery in 1801 ; and for manufacturing paper of 
 an indefinite length in 1807. The machinery was 
 improved by Bryan Donkin. A sheet of paper, 
 13,800 feet "long, and 4 feet wide, was made at 
 Whitehall-mills, Derbyshire, in 1830; and one 
 21,000 feet long, and 6 feet 3 inches wide, was 
 made at Colyton in Devon in i860. Esparto, a 
 Spanish grass, first imported in 1857, has been 
 largely employed in the paper manufacture since 
 1864. In 1866 wood was largely manufactured into 
 paper at Philadelphia ; and at the Paris exhibition, 
 1867, fine specimens of wood-paper were shown ; see 
 Parchment (note). The paper duty, imposed in 
 1694 (producing, latterly, about 1,460,000^. annu- 
 ally), after having been the subject of agitation for 
 several years, was repealed in 1861. 
 
 PAPER-HANGINGS, &c. Stamped paper 
 for this purpose was first made in Spain and Hol- 
 land about 1555. Made of velvet and floss, for 
 hanging apartments, about 1620. The manufacture 
 of this kind of paper rapidly improved in this 
 country during the present century. — Paper 
 Bkicks have been made in America ; and paper 
 
 * Mr. Joseph Hunter (in the Archceologia, xxxvii.) 
 states that the earliest paper which he had seen was a 
 MS. account-book, dated 1302, probably of Bordeaux 
 manufacture. He gives engravings of manufacturers' 
 marks, French and English, the dates of which range 
 from 1330 to 1431. He also gives an extract from a work 
 by Bartholus, a writer of the middle of the 14th century, 
 in which mention is made of a paper manufactory in the 
 Marches of Ancona. 
 
PAPEE-MONEY. 
 
 497 
 
 PAEIS. 
 
 tubing for water and gas, made by M. Jaloureau of 
 Paris, was shown in i860. 
 
 PAPEE-MONEY, see Banks. 
 
 PAPIEE MACHE\ This manufacture (of 
 paper-pulp combined with gum and sometimes with 
 china clay) has existed f« above a century. Martin, 
 a German snuff-box maker, is said to have learnt 
 the art from one Lefevre about 1 740. In 1745 it 
 was taken up by Baskerville, the printer at Bir- 
 mingham, and soon spread over that district. 
 Papier mache is now largely employed in orna- 
 menting the interior of buildings, &c. 
 
 PAPUA, see New Guinea. 
 
 PAPYEUS, the reed from which was made 
 the paper of Egj'pt and India, used for writings 
 until the discovery of parchment, about 190 B.C. 
 Ptolemy prohibited the exportation of it from 
 Egypt, lest Eumenes of Pergamus should make a 
 library equal to that of Alexandria, 263 B.C. Many 
 papyri were discovered at Herculaneum in 1754 ; 
 and many were collected by the French in Egypt, 
 1798. A manuscript of the Antiquities of Josephus 
 on papyrus, among the treasures seized by "Bona- 
 parte in Italy, and sent to the National Library at 
 Paris, was restored in 1815. 
 
 PAEABLE, see Fable. 
 
 PAEACHUTE, see Balloons, 1785, 1802, 1837. 
 
 PAEACLETE (Greek for comforter), a name 
 given by Abelard to the convent which he founded 
 in Champagne in. 1122, of which Heloise became 
 the first abbess. 
 
 PAEADISE LOST, the great English epic 
 by John Milton, appeared first in ten books in 1667 ; 
 in twelve books in 1674. 
 
 PAEADOX (Greek, para, beyond ; and doxa, 
 opinion), something contrary to common opinion. 
 Professor De Morgan's "Budget of Paradoxes" (of 
 all kinds) was published in 1872. 
 
 PABAFEIN (irovaparum affinis, from its having 
 little affinity with anything), also called photogen, 
 a solid substance, somewhat like spermaceti, pro- 
 duced by distillation of coal, and first obtained by 
 Reichenbach in 1830. It was procured from mineral 
 oil by Mr. James Young about 1847, and is also ob- 
 tained from Irish peat. It makes excellent candles. 
 Much litigation ensued through interference with 
 Mr. Young's patent-right. 
 
 PABAGTJAY, a republic in S. America, dis- 
 covered by Sebastian Cabot in 1526; conquered by 
 Alvarez Nunez in 1535, and civilized by the Jesuits, 
 who in 1608 commenced their missions there and 
 held it till their expulsion in 1768. Paraguay rose 
 against the Spanish yoke in 1811. In 1814, Dr. 
 Jose G. R. Francia was elected dictator ; he ruled 
 vigorously but tyrannically ; he was succeeded on 
 his death in 1840 by Vibal. From 1814 to 1844 the 
 country was rigidly closed against foreigners. The 
 president, C. A. Lopez, elected in 1844, was suc- 
 ceeded by his son, Francis S. Lopez, Sept. 1862 
 {see below). Paraguay was recognised as an inde- 
 pendent state by the Argentine Confederation, 
 14 July, 1852, and by Great Britain in 1853. Popu- 
 lation in 1857, 1,337,431 ; in 1872, about 1,000,000. 
 
 Hostilities between Paraguay and Brazil began when 
 a Brazilian steamer was captured as an intruder 
 on the Paraguay n Nov. 1864 
 
 Brazil invaded in December ,, 
 
 Lopez invaded the territories of the Argentine re- 
 public, which immediately made alliance with 
 Brazil 14 April, 1865 
 
 The army of Lopez defeated .... Sept. „ 
 
 The allies captured Uruguyana aud an army of Para- 
 guayans 18 Sept. 1865 
 
 [For details of the war, see Brazil, 1865-9.] 
 
 A provisional government installed ; Lopez totally 
 defeated, proclaimed an outlaw . 17 Aug. 1869 
 
 Lopez killed near the Aquidaban . . 1 March, 1870 
 
 Peace signed with Brazil and the Argentine republic, 
 
 20 June, .. 
 
 President Salvador Jovellanos elected for three 
 years 12 Dec. 1871 
 
 PAEASOLS were used by the ancient Egyp- 
 tians. A new form (said to have been devised by the 
 duchess of Eutland) came into general use about 1820. 
 
 PAEC AUX CEEES, a deer-park at Ver- 
 sailles, near Paris, made by Louis XII. , and kept 
 as such till 1694, when Louis XIV. took the land 
 for building. The name was given to a house 
 erected on it by madasne Pompadour to form a 
 seraglio for Louis XV. in 1755. It was closed by 
 niadanie Du Barry in 1771. 
 
 PAECHMENT. Invented for writing books 
 by Eumenes (some say by Attalus), of Pergamus, the 
 founder of the celebrated library at Pergamus, 
 formed on the model of the Alexandrian, about 
 190 B.C. Parchment-books from this time became 
 those most used, and the most valuable as well as 
 oldest in the world are written on the skins of 
 goats. It should be mentioned that the Persians 
 and others are said to have written all their records 
 on skins long before Eumenes' time. 
 
 Parchment paper (or vegetable parchment) was invented 
 and patented in 1857, by Mr. W. E. Gaine, C.E., who 
 discovered, that when paper is exposed to a mixture of 
 two parts of concentrated sulphuric acid and one part 
 of water for no longer time than is required to draw it 
 through the fluid, it is immediately converted mto a 
 strong tough skin-like material. It must be instantly 
 washed with water. Its great strength points out 
 many applications of this material, e.g., maps, school 
 and account-books, and drawing-paper. In 1859 it ap- 
 peared that a similar invention had been made in Paris 
 iby Figuier and Poumarede in 1846. 
 
 PABDOJSTS. General pardons were proclaimed 
 at coronations : first by Edward III. in 1327. The 
 king's power of pardoning is said to be derived a 
 lege sua; dignitatis ; and no other person has power 
 to remit treason or felonies, stat. 27 Hen. VIII. 
 1535. Blaekstone. A pardon cannot follow an 
 impeachment of the house of commons : stat. 
 Will. III. 1700. 
 
 PABGA, a city in European Turkey : retained 
 its civic independence under the protection of 
 Venice till 1797, when that state was conquered by 
 the French. It resisted various attempts to cap- 
 ture it ; and in 1806 was garrisoned by Russians. 
 It was given up to the French in 1807 ; taken by 
 the English, 22 March, 1814; surrendered to the 
 Turks, 1817 ; and abandoned by above 3000 of its in- 
 habitants, who retired to the Ionian Isles, May, 1819. 
 
 PAEIAN MAEBLES (containing a chron- 
 ology of ancient Greece, said to have been composed 
 about 264 B.C.) were discovered in the island of 
 Paros, 1610. They were brought to England in 
 1627, and were presented to the university of 
 Oxford, by Thomas Howard, lord Arundel, whence 
 they are called the Arundelian Marbles (which see). 
 Their authenticity has been impugned and vindi- 
 cated. 
 
 PAEIS (formerly Lutetia Parisiorum), the 
 capital of France, situated on the river Seine, which 
 cuts it into two unequal parts, the strongest being 
 towards the north, and in which are three isles, 
 la ville (the city), the He St. Louis, and the He 
 Loicviers. In the time of Julius Csesar, Lutetia 
 comprised the city only. It was greatly improved 
 
PARIS. 
 
 498 
 
 PARIS. 
 
 by the emperor Julian, who made it his residence 
 while he governed Gaul, 355 to 361. It became 
 successively the capital of the kingdoms of Paris, 
 Soissons, and Neustria, and eventually of all the 
 kingdom. Many ecclesiastical councils were held 
 at Paris, 360-1528. The representative of the house 
 of Orleans is styled count of Paris. Population of 
 Paris in 1856, 1,178,262; in i860, 1,525,535; in 
 1866, 1,825,274; see France. 
 
 Clovis makes Paris his residence . . about 508 
 
 St. Denis founded 613 
 
 Paris ravaged by the Normans (or Danes), 845, 855, 
 
 861 ; suffered from famine .... 845-940 
 Gallantly defended against the Danes by the count 
 
 Eudes and the bishop Goslin 885 
 
 Rebuilt 1231 
 
 University founded, about 1200 
 
 Church of Notre Dame built .... 1160-1270 
 
 The parliament established 1302 
 
 Suffers by the factions of the Armagnacs and Bur- 
 
 gundians 1411-1418 
 
 Taken by the English 1420 
 
 Betaken by the French 1436 
 
 Pont Notre Dame built 1499 
 
 The Louvre commenced (see Louvre) . . . 1522 
 
 Hotel de Ville founded 1533 
 
 The Boulevards commenced 1536 
 
 Fountain of the Innocents erected . . . . 1551 
 The Tuileries begun (see Tuileries) .... 1564 
 Massacre of St. Bartholomew's . . 24 Aug. 1572 
 
 The Pont Neuf begun 1578 
 
 Vainly besieged by Henry rV 1589-90 
 
 Entered by him March, 1594 
 
 Hospital of Invalids 1595 
 
 Place Royale begun 1604 
 
 The Hotel-Dieu founded 1606 
 
 Jardin des Plantes formed 1610 
 
 The Luxembourg, by Maty de Medicis . . .1615 
 
 The Palais-Royal built 1629 
 
 The Val-de Grace • l6 45 
 
 Conflicts of the Fronde . . • ■ ■ 1648-53 
 Royal palace at Versailles built ; the court removed 
 
 there 1661-72 
 
 The Academy of Sciences founded . . . .1666 
 
 The Observatory established 1667 
 
 Champs Elvsees planted 1670 
 
 Arch of St. 'Denis erected 1672 
 
 Palais d'Elysee Bourbon built 171° 
 
 The Palace of the Deputies 172 2 
 
 The Military School . . • ■ ■ ■ ■ *75i 
 The Pantheon, St. Genevieve, founded • • -1764 
 The French revolution breaks out ; the Bastile taken, 
 
 14 July, 1789 
 Pont de Louis XIV. finished . . . . .1790 
 Cemetery of Pere la Chaise consecrated . . . 1804 
 Pont des Invalides, &c, erected . . . -i»o6 
 Paris surrenders to the allies . . 30 March, 1814 
 
 Paris lit With gas • "19 
 
 Revolution (see France) . ■ ■ ■ J™J . "3° 
 Column of July founded . • ■ • 28 July 183 1 
 Fortifications of Paris (for which 140,000,000 of 
 
 francs were voted, 1833) commenced 15 Dec 1840 ; 
 
 completed Marc h, 1846 
 
 Revolution (see Fmnc«) . • ■ - 22 let). 1848 
 Paris much improved by Louis Napoleon (probable 
 
 cost (i2,8oo,oooZ.) . ■ • • • • 1853-62 
 Industrial Exhibition opened by the emperor and 
 empress, 15 May ; visited by queen Victoria and 
 prince Albert(the first visit of an English sovereign 
 to Paris since 1422), 24 Aug. ; exhibition closes, 
 
 15 JNOY. Io55 
 
 Conference at Paris respecting the Danubian Prin- 
 
 cipalities (which sec) ; closes . . • . Aug. 1858 
 Bois du Boulogne opened as a garden of acclimatisa- 
 
 . • f . . .0 UCt. I00O 
 
 Remains of Napoleon L deposited in the Invalides, 
 
 31 March, 1861 
 A building was erected for a permanent industrial 
 
 exhibition by a company .... "ct. 1862 
 The scheme failed . . - ;•..•■ * eb ' lS ° 4 
 Boulevard-prince-Eugene opened by the emperor, 
 
 7 Dec. 1802 
 Decree for an international exhibition of the pro- 
 ducts of agriculture, industry, and the fine arts, 
 at Paris, in 1867; commissioners appointed, 
 
 21 *eu 1804 
 
 Fine arts exhibition opened . . . 1 May, 1866 
 
 Estimated population, 1,700,000 . . . Sept. ,, 
 
 The cathedral of Notre Dame and other buildings 
 restored 
 
 International Exhibition on the Champ de Mars 
 (witli a new park, comprising more than 100 
 acres); the oblong building designed by Leplay 
 (enclosing 35 acres), 1245 feet wide, 1500 feet long, 
 consisting of circles within circles ; the external 
 corridor was a belt of iron, 85 feet high and 115 
 feet wide ; opened by the emperor and empress, 
 
 1 April, 1867 
 
 It was visited by the prince of Wales, the kings of 
 Greece, Belgium, Prussia, and Sweden, the czar 
 of Russia, the viceroy of Egypt, the sultan of 
 Turkey, the emperor of Austria, and other inferior 
 potentates May-Nov. 
 
 Attempted assassination of the czar by Berezowski, 
 a Pole 6 June, 
 
 The czar and the king of Prussia entertained by 
 M. Hausmann, prefect of Paris (cost 36,000/.), 
 
 8 June, 
 
 Departure of the czar, 11 June ; of the king of 
 Prussia 14 June, 
 
 Distribution of prizes to exhibitors by the emperor 
 in the presence of the prince of Wales, the sultan, 
 <fcc 1 July, 
 
 Berezowski- condemned to transportation for life, 
 
 15 July, 
 
 Visit of the emperor of Austria . 23 Oct. -2 Nov. 
 
 Grand banquet to commissioners of international 
 exhibition 26 Oct. 
 
 Exhibition finally closed (instead of on 31 Oct.), 
 Sunday, 3 Nov. 
 
 Abbe Migne's great printing-office burnt, loss about 
 360,000/. 12 Feb. 1868 
 
 M. Hausmann, the prefect of the Seine, reported 
 the budget of the city to exceed 9,200,000/. He 
 resigned Jan. 1870. 
 
 For the sieges and other recent events, see France 
 
 and Franco-German War 1870-1 
 
 [See France.] 
 
 IMPORTANT TREATIES OF PARIS. 
 
 Between England, France, Spain, and Portugal ; 
 cession of Canada to Great Britain by France, 
 and Florida by Spain .... 10 Feb. 1763 
 
 Between France and Sardinia ; the latter ceding 
 Savoy, <fec 15 May, 1796 
 
 Between France and Sweden, whereby Swedish 
 Ponierania and the island of Rugen were given up 
 to the Swedes, who agreed to adopt the French 
 prohibitory system against Great Britain 6 Jan. 1810 
 
 Capitulation of Paris : Napoleon renounces the 
 sovereignty of France .... n April, 1814 
 
 Convention of Paris, between France and the allied 
 powers ; the boundaries of France to be the same 
 as on the 1 st of January, 1792 . . 23 April, ,, 
 
 Peace of Paris ratified by France and all the allies, 
 
 14 May, „ 
 
 Convention of St. Cloud, between marshal Davoust, 
 and Wellington, and Blucher, for the surrender of 
 
 Paris 3 July, 1815 
 
 [The allies entered it on the 6th.] 
 
 Treaty of Paris, between Great Britain, Austria, 
 Russia, and Prussia, styling Napoleon the prisoner 
 of those powers, and confiding his safeguard to 
 England 2 Aug. ,, 
 
 Establishing the boundaries of France, and stipu- 
 lating for the occupation of certain fortresses by 
 foreign troops for three years . . 20 Nov. „ 
 
 Treaty of Paris, confirming the treaties of Chaumont 
 and Vienna, same day . . .20 Nov. „ 
 
 Treaty of Paris, to fulfil the articles of the Congress 
 of Vienna 10 June, 1817 
 
 Treaty of Paris between Russia and Turkey, Eng- 
 land, France, and Sardinia (revised 13 March, 
 1871 ; see Russia) .... 30 March, 1856 
 
 Declaration of Paris, signed by European powers, 
 not by United States, March, 1856: 1. Privateer- 
 ing abolished. 2. Neutral flags to exempt an 
 enemy's goods from capture, except contraband 
 of war. 3. Neutral goods under an enemy's flag 
 not to be seized. 4. Blockade to be binding must 
 be effective. This declaration was censured in 
 parliament in 1871. 
 
 Treaty of Paris between England and Persia, 
 
 4 March, 1857 
 
PAEISHES. 
 
 499 
 
 PARLIAMENT. 
 
 Treaty of Paris between the European powers, 
 Prussia, and Switzerland, respecting Neufchatel, 
 
 26 May, 1857 
 
 Important commercial treaty between France and 
 England 23 Jan. i860 
 
 Convention between Prance and Italy for with- 
 drawal of French troops from Rome . 15 Sept. 1864 
 
 PAEISHES. Their boundaries in England 
 were first fixed by Honorius, archbishop of Canter- 
 bury, 636. They were enlarged, and the number 
 of parishes was consequently reduced in the 15th 
 century, when there were 10,000. The parishes of 
 England and "Wales now amount to 11,077. Parish 
 registers were commenced in 1538. Acts were 
 passed in 1844 and 1856 by which new parishes may 
 be formed out of too extensives .ones ; acts amended 
 in 1869. The appointment of parish constables was 
 made unnecessary by an act passed Aug. 1872. See 
 Registers, and Benefices. 
 
 PAEKESINE. A new substance, composed 
 of gun-cotton, obtained from various vegetable 
 bodies, and oil. It can be formed with the pro- 
 perties of ivory, tortoiseshell, wood, india-rubber, 
 gutta-percha, &c. It is the invention of Mr. Alex- 
 ander Parkes, of Birmingham, and was shown by 
 him at the Exhibition in 1862. In Dec. 1865, at 
 the Society of Arts, parkesine was proved to be an 
 excellent electric insulator, and therefore likely to 
 be suitable for telegraphic purposes. 
 
 PARK LANE MUEDEE, see Trials, 1872. 
 
 PAEKS. The Romans attached parks to their 
 villas. Fulvius Lupinus, Pompey, and Hortensius, 
 among others, had large parks. In England, the 
 first great park of which particular mention is made, 
 was that of Woodstock, formed by Henry I., 1125^ 
 Queen Caroline, consort of George II., inquired, it 
 is said, of the first Mr. Pitt (afterwards earl of 
 Chatham), how much it would cost to shut up the 
 parks as private grounds. He replied, "Three 
 crowns, 3 r our majesty." The design was never 
 afterwards entertained. See Finsbury, Southwark, 
 Green, Hyde, James's, St., Regent's, Victoria, 
 Alexandra, Battenea, and People's Barks. 
 
 Acts for the establishment of jmblie parks in Eng- 
 land and Ireland were passed . . 12 July, 1869 
 
 The Parks' Regulation act, passed . 27 June, 1872 
 
 By new regulations, Hyde, Battersea, Regent's, and 
 Victoria parks are the only metropolitan parks in 
 which public addresses may be given, under 
 certain restrictions • Oct. 1872 
 
 These regulations (much objected to ; broken, and 
 offenders fined) were modified by the home secre- 
 tary Feb. 1873 
 
 PAEK'S TEAVELS. Mungo Park set sail 
 on his first voyage to Africa, under the patronage of 
 the African society, to trace the source of the river 
 Mger, 22 May, 1795 ; and returned 22 Dec. 1797, 
 after having fruitlessly encountered great danger. 
 He again sailed from Portsmouth on his second 
 voyage, 30 Jan. 1804, appointed to a new expedition 
 by government ; but never returned. His murder 
 at Broussa on the Niger was well authenticated. 
 
 PAELIAMENT (from the French parlement, 
 discourse) derives its origin from the Saxon general 
 assemblies, called Wittenagemot. The name was 
 applied to the assemblies of the state under Louis VII. 
 of France, about the middle of the I2th century, 
 but it is said not to have appeared in our law till its 
 mention in the statute of Westminster I., 3 Edw., 
 1272 : and yet Coke declared in his Institutes, and 
 spoke to the same effect, when speaker 1,1592), that 
 
 this name was used even in the time of Edward the 
 Confessor, 1041. The first clear account we have of 
 the representatives of the people forming a house of 
 commons, was in the 43rd Hen. III. 1258, when it 
 was settled by the statutes of Oxford, that twelve 
 persons should be chosen to represent the commons 
 in the three parliaments, which, by the sixth statute, 
 were to be held yearly. Burton' s Annals. The 
 general representation by knights, citizens, and 
 burgesses, took place 49 Hen. III. 1265. JJugdale's 
 Summons to Parliament, edit. 1685 ; see Commons 
 and Lords. The power and jurisdiction of parlia- 
 ment are so transcendent and absolute, that it can- 
 not be confined, either for causes or persons within 
 any bounds. It hath sovereign and uncontrollable 
 authority in making and repealing laws. It can 
 regulate or new-model the succession to the crown 
 (as was done in the reigns of Henry VIII. and 
 William III.). It can alter and establish the re- 
 ligion of the country, as was done in the reigns of 
 Henry VIIL, Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth. 
 Sir Edward Coke.* The fourth edition of May's 
 " Practical Treatise on Parliament" was published 
 in 1859 ; see Triennial and Septennial. 
 
 First summons of barons by writ directed to the 
 bishop of Salisbury, by John .... 1205 
 
 Parliament of Merton 1236 
 
 An assembly of knights and burgesses (the mad 
 parliament) . . . . . . n June, 1258 
 
 First assembly of the commons as a confirmed repre- 
 sentation. Dugdale 20 Jan. 1265 
 
 First regular parliament (according to many his- 
 torians), 22 Edw. 1 1294 
 
 First a deliberate assembly; it becomes a legisla- 
 tive power, whose assent is essential to constitute 
 a law 1308 
 
 The commons elect their first speaker, Peter De la 
 Mere I377 
 
 Parliament of only one day (Richard II. deposed) 
 
 29 Sept. 1399 
 
 " Parliamentum Indoctum " at Coventry (lawyers ex- 
 eluded) 6 Oct. 1404 
 
 Members obliged to reside at the places they repre- 
 sented I ^. I 3 
 
 Forty-shilling freeholders only to elect knights . . 1430 
 
 " Parliamentum diabolicum " at Coventry : attainted 
 the Yorkists T ^ 5 g 
 
 Journals of the lords commenced . . . . x^og 
 
 Acts of Parliament printed in 1501, and consecutively 
 from 
 
 Members protected from arrest (see Ferrars) . . 1542 
 
 Journals of the commons begun .... 1547 
 
 Francis Russell, son of the earl of Bedford, was the 
 first peer's eldest son who sat in the house of 
 commons 1-SA9 
 
 The Addled Pari iame nt ; remonstrated with James I. 
 respecting benevolences ; dissolved by him in anger 
 
 S April, 16 14 
 
 The parliament in which were first formed the Court 
 and Country parties, 1614, disputes with James I. 
 
 June, 1620 
 
 Charles I. dissolves parliament, which does not meet 
 for eleven years T g 2 a 
 
 The Long Parliament (which voted the house of lords 
 as useless) first assembled ... 3 Nov. 1640 
 
 The bishops excluded from voting on temporal mat- 
 ters 
 
 The Rump Parliament ; it voted the trial of Charles I* 
 
 Jan. 1649 
 
 House of peers abolished . . . .6 p e b. 
 
 A peer sat as a member of the commons . 
 
 Cromwell roughly dissolves the Long Parliament 
 
 20 April, 1653 
 
 * When the royal assent is given to a public bill, the 
 clerk says "Le roi [or la reine] le veut." If the bill be 
 a private bill, he says " Soit fait comme il est desire " If 
 the bill have subsidies for its object, he says, Le roi [or 
 la reine] remercie ses loyaiuc sujets, accepte leur oenivolenur. 
 et aussi le veut. " If the king do not think proper to assent 
 to the bill, the clerk says, "Leroi [or la reine] s'avisera " 
 which is a mild way of giving a refusal. It is sin<nilar 
 that the French language should still be used. 
 
 K It 2 
 
PARLIAMENT. 
 
 500 
 
 PARLIAMENT. 
 
 A convention parliament (see Convention) . . . 1660 
 Boman catholics excluded from parliament . . 1678 
 The commons committed a secretary of state to the 
 
 Tower Nov. ,, 
 
 The speaker of the commons refused by the king . 1679 
 A convention parliament (see Convention) . . 1688 
 James II. convenes the Irish parliament at Dublin, 
 
 which attaints 3000 protestants . . . . 1689 
 Act for triennial parliament (see Triennial) . . 1694 
 First parliament of Great Britain met . 23 Oct. 1707 
 Members of the house of commons accepting any 
 office of profit ordered to be re-elected by statute 
 
 6 Anne, cap. 7 „ 
 
 The Triennial act repealed, and Septennial act voted 
 
 (see Septennial Parliament) . . . 7 May, 1716 
 The journals ordered to be printed .... 1752 
 Privilege as to freedom from arrest of the servants 
 
 of members relinquished by the commons . . 1770 
 The lord mayor of London (Oliver) and alderman 
 Crosby committed to the Tower by the commons 
 
 in Wilkes's affair 1771 
 
 Eeporting the debates permitted . . about ,, 
 Assembly of the first parliament of the United King- 
 dom of Great Britain and Ireland . 2 Feb. 1801 
 Sir F. Burdett committed to the Tower . 6 April, 1810 
 Murder of Spencer Perceval, by Bellingham, at the 
 
 house of commons . 11 May, 1812 
 
 Eeturn for Clare county, Ireland, of Mr. O'Connell, 
 the first Roman catholic commoner elected since 
 
 the Revolution 5 July, 1828 
 
 The duke of Norfolk took his seat in the lords, the 
 first Roman catholic peer under the Relief bill (see 
 Roman Catholics) .... 28 April, 1829 
 The Reformed Parliament meet . . 7 Aug. 1832 
 Joseph Pease, the first Quaker admitted M.P. on his 
 
 affirmation 15 Feb. 1833 
 
 Houses of Parliament destroyed by fire . 16 Oct. 1834 
 New houses of parliament commenced * . . . 1840 
 The members of the commons' and lords' houses re- 
 linquish the privilege of franking letters (see 
 Franking) . .... 10 Jan. ,, 
 
 Committal of Smith O'Brien by the commons for 
 
 contempt (see Ireland) ... 20 July, 1846 
 The peers took possession of their house, that por- 
 tion of the palace being ready . . 15 April, 1847 
 Reporters excluded by motion of John O'Connell for 
 
 two hours 18 May, 1849 
 
 The commons assemble in their new house 4 Nov. 1852 
 The chairman of committees of the whole house ap- 
 pointed to act as a deputy-speaker of the house of 
 
 commons Aug. 1853 
 
 The two houses began to communicate by letter . 1855 
 Baron L. Rothschild, the first Jew admitted, 26 July, 1858 
 Court of referees to examine private bills established 1865 
 Henry Fawcett (blind), elected M.P. . July, ,, 
 
 The parliamentary oaths modified and made uniform 
 
 30 April, 1866 
 Arthur M. Kavanagh (without arms and legs), elected 
 
 Nov. ,, 
 Her Majesty authorised to proclaim prorogation of 
 
 parliament during the recess, byactpassed 12 Aug. 1867 
 New Reform bill received royal assent . 15 Aug. ,, 
 Great dissatisfaction in the commons at the smaS- 
 ness of their building ; a committee's report (pro- 
 posing changes or a new house) printed . Oct. 1867 
 Changes in mode of dealing with private bills in 
 
 court of referees March, 1868 
 
 Vote by proxy in the house of lords abolished by 
 
 standing order 31 March, „ 
 
 Reform acts for Scotland and Ireland, and Parlia- 
 mentary Boundaries act passed . .13 July, ,, 
 Parliamentary Elections act passed . 31 July, „ 
 Parliament dissolved n Nov. ,, 
 
 * Termed the " Palace of Westminster." The first con- 
 tract for the embankment of the river was taken in 1837, 
 by Messrs Lee ; this embankment, faced with granite, is 
 £86 feet in length, and projected into the river in a line 
 with the inner side of the third pier of old Westminster- 
 bridge. Sir Charles Barry (born 1795, died i860) was the 
 architect of the sumptuous pile of buildings raised since 
 1840. The whole stands on a bed of concrete twelve feet 
 thick ; to the east it has a front of about 1000 feet, and 
 covers an area of nine statute acres. It contains 1100 
 apartments, 100 staircases, and two miles of passages or 
 corridors. The great Victoria tower at the south-west 
 •extremity is 346 feet in height, and towers of less magni- 
 tude crown other portions of the building. 
 
 New parliament met .... 10 Dec. 
 
 Reporters excluded from the commons during de- 
 bates on the Contagious Diseases act, 
 
 24 May and 20 July, 
 
 The commons sat from 2 p.m. 15 July, to 5.30 a.m., 
 
 16 July, 
 
 Meeting of parliament, in six days after proclama- 
 tion, legalised by act passed ... 9 Aug. 
 
 Death of the earl of Onslow, father of the house of 
 lords, aged 93 24 Oct. 
 
 Mr. Fawcett alone in the lobby (350-1, on grant of 
 30,000?. to princess Louise on her marriage), 
 
 16 Feb. 
 
 Bankrupt peers disqualified from sitting or voting 
 in parliament by act passed . . 13 July, 
 
 Mr. Bonham Carter succeeds Mr. J. C. Dodson as 
 deputy speaker and chairman of committees, 
 
 8 April, 
 
 Only 89,938?. paid to members (commons) for sala- 
 ries and pensions, civil, naval, and military July, ,, 
 
 The ballot act passed .... 18 July ,, 
 
 NUMBER AND DURATION OF PARLIAMENTS, FROM 
 27 EDW. I. 1299, TO 28 VICT. 1865. 
 
 Edward I. 8 pari, in 8 yrs\ reign 
 
 Edward II 15 
 
 Edward III 37 
 
 Richard II 26 
 
 Henry IV 10 
 
 Henry V n 
 
 Henry VI 22 
 
 Edward IV 5 
 
 Richard III 1 
 
 Henry VII 8 
 
 1870 
 1870 
 
 1871 
 
 1872 
 
 24 
 
 Henry VIII. 
 
 Edward VI. 
 Mary . 
 
 Charles I. 
 
 Long Parliament 
 Commonwealth 
 
 Charles II. . . 
 Pensionary Pari. 
 
 James II. . 
 William III. 
 
 Day of Meeting. 
 
 21 Jan. . 
 
 4 Feb. . 
 
 5 Feb. . 
 
 15 April . 
 
 3 Nov. . 
 8 June . 
 
 28 April . 
 
 16 Jan. 
 
 12 April . 
 
 23 Nov. . 
 
 4 Nov. . 
 
 1 March . 
 
 5 Oct. . 
 5 April . 
 
 12 Nov. . 
 21 Oct. 
 
 20 Jan. 
 25 Jan. 
 
 12 Jan. 
 
 2 April . 
 8 May . 
 
 29 Oct. 
 
 4 Feb. . 
 19 Feb. . 
 
 24 Oct. 
 27 Oct. 
 
 19 March . 
 
 5 April . 
 
 30 Jan. 
 
 29 Feb. . 
 
 18 June . 
 
 6 Feb. . 
 
 17 March . 
 
 13 April . 
 
 3 Nov. . 
 3 Sept. . 
 
 17 Sept. . 
 27 Jan. 
 
 6 May . 
 
 25 April . 
 
 8 May . 
 6 March . 
 
 21 March . 
 
 19 May 
 
 22 Jan. 
 
 20 March . 
 22 Nov. . 
 
 9 Dec. 
 
 10 Feb. . 
 
 1510 
 15" 
 1514 
 
 1523 
 1530 
 1536 
 1539 
 
 1545 
 1547 
 1553 
 
 1555 
 1558 
 1559 
 1563 
 1571 
 1572 
 
 1586 
 1589 
 1593 
 J 597 
 1601 
 1604 
 1614 
 1621 
 1624 
 1625 
 1626 
 1628 
 1640 
 
 1654 
 1656 
 1659 
 
 1660 
 1661 
 1679 
 1681 
 1685 
 1689 
 1690 
 1695 
 
 When Dissolved. 
 
 23 Feb. . 
 4 March . 
 
 22 Dec. . 
 
 13 Aug. . 
 
 4 April . 
 
 18 July . 
 
 24 July . 
 29 March . 
 
 28 Jan. 
 
 15 April . 
 31 March . 
 
 6 Dec. . 
 
 5 May . 
 
 16 Jan. 
 
 9 Dec. . 
 
 17 Nov. . 
 
 8 May . 
 2 Jan. 
 
 29 May 
 
 15 Sept. . 
 
 23 March . 
 29 March . 
 
 10 April . 
 
 9 Feb. . 
 
 19 Dec. 
 
 19 Feb. . 
 
 6 June . 
 6 Jan. 
 
 27 March . 
 12 Aug. . 
 
 1 1 June . 
 10 March . 
 
 5 May . 
 
 20 April . 
 22 Jan. 
 
 4 Feb. . 
 22 April . 
 
 16 March . 
 29 Dec. 
 
 24 Jan. 
 
 10 July . 
 
 28 March . 
 22 July . 
 
 6 Feb. . 
 
 11 Oct. . 
 
 7 July . 
 19 July . 
 11 Nov. . 
 
 1510 
 1513 
 1515 
 1523 
 1536 
 
 1540 
 1544 
 
 1547 
 1552 
 1553 
 
 1554 
 1555 
 
 1558 
 1559 
 1567 
 1571 
 
 1586 
 1587 
 1589 
 1593 
 1598 
 1601 
 1610 
 1614 
 1622 
 1625 
 1625 
 1626 
 1629 
 1640 
 1653 
 1655 
 1658 
 1659 
 1660 
 
 1679 
 
 1681 
 1687 
 1690 
 1695 
 1698 
 1700 
 1701 
 
PAELIAMENT. 
 
 501 
 
 PAETITION TEEATIES. 
 
 Reign. 
 
 George I. 
 George II. 
 
 George III. 
 
 George IV. 
 William IV. 
 Victoria . 
 
 Day of Meeting. 
 
 30 Dec. . 
 
 20 Oct. . 
 25 Oct. . 
 18 Nov. . 
 
 25 Nov. . 
 11 Nov. . 
 
 21 March . 
 9 Oct. . 
 
 28 Jan. 
 14 Jan. 
 
 4 Dec. . 
 
 10 Nov. . 
 
 14 Nov. . 
 
 3 Nov. . 
 10 May . 
 
 29 Nov. . 
 
 31 Oct. . 
 
 18 May . 
 
 26 Nov. . 
 
 27 Sept. . 
 16 Nov. . 
 
 15 Dec. . 
 
 22 June . 
 24 Nov. . 
 14 Jan. 
 
 23 April . 
 14 Nov. . 
 26 Oct. . 
 
 14 June . 
 29 June . 
 
 19 Feb. . 
 
 15 Nov. . 
 19 Aug. . 
 18 Nov. . 
 
 4 Nov. . 
 1 April . 
 
 31 May . 
 
 1 Feb. . 
 
 10 Dec. . 
 
 1 701 
 1702 
 1 7°S 
 1708 
 1710 
 1713 
 1715 
 1722 
 1728 
 1735 
 1741 
 1747 
 1754 
 1761 
 1768 
 1774 
 1780 
 1784 
 1790 
 1796 
 
 1812 
 1819 
 1820 
 1826 
 1830 
 1831 
 1833 
 1835 
 1837 
 1841 
 1847 
 1852 
 
 1857 
 1859 
 
 When Dissolved. 
 
 2 July . 
 
 5 April . 
 
 11 April . 
 28 Sept. . 
 
 8 Aug. . 
 
 15 Jan. . 
 
 10 March . 
 
 7 Aug. . 
 18 April . 
 
 28 April . 
 18 June . 
 
 8 April . 
 
 21 March . 
 
 12 March . 
 30 Sept. . 
 
 1 Sept. . 
 25 March . 
 12 June . 
 
 20 May . 
 
 29 June . 
 24 Oct. 
 
 29 April . 
 
 24 Sept. . 
 
 10 June . 
 
 29 Feb. . 
 
 2 June . 
 24 July . 
 
 22 April . 
 
 3 Dec. . 
 
 30 Dec. . 
 17 July . 
 
 23 June . 
 23 July . 
 
 1 July . 
 
 21 March . 
 23 April . 
 
 6 July . 
 
 11 Nov. . 
 
 1702 
 1 7°S 
 1708 
 1710 
 1713 
 1715 
 1722 
 1727 
 
 1734 
 1741 
 
 !747 
 1754 
 1 761 
 1768 
 
 1774 
 1780 
 1784 
 1790 
 1796 
 1802 
 1806 
 1807 
 1812 
 1818 
 1820 
 1826 
 
 1832 
 1834 
 1837 
 1 841 
 1847 
 1852 
 1857 
 1859 
 1865 
 
 PAELIAMENT of Ireland, it is said, 
 
 began with conferences of the English settlers on 
 the hill of Tara, in 11 73. "Writs for knights of the 
 shire were issued in 1295. The Irish parliament 
 met last on 2 Aug. 1800; the bill for the union 
 having passed. 
 PAELIAMENT of Scotland consisted of 
 
 barons, prelates, and abbots, and occasionally of 
 burgesses. A great national council was held at 
 Scone by John Balliol, 9 Feb. 1292 ; and by Robert 
 Bruce at Cambuskenneth, in 1326. A house of 
 commons was never formed in Scotland. The par- 
 liament of Scotland sanctioned the act of union on 
 16 Jan. 1707, and met for the last time on 22 April, 
 same year. 
 
 PAELIAMENT OF PARIS was made the 
 chief court of justice in France by Philip IV. ; at 
 his suggestion it revoked a bull of pope Boniface 
 VIII., 1302. It was suppressed by Louis XV., 1771 ; 
 restored by Louis XVI., 1774 ; demanded a meeting 
 of the states-general in 1787; and was suspended 
 by the national assembly, 3 Nov. 1789; see Com- 
 mune. 
 
 PAEMA (N. Italy), founded by the ancient 
 Etrurians. It took part with the Lombard league 
 in the wars with the German emperors. It was 
 made a duchy (with Placentia), 1545. 
 
 United to Spain by Philip V.'s marriage with Eliza- 
 beth Farnese 1714 
 
 Battle near Parma ; the confederates, England, 
 France, and Spain, against the emperor ; both 
 armies claimed the victory . . 29 June, 1734 
 
 Battle near the Trebbia ; the French under Macdon- 
 ald, defeated by Suwarrow, with the loss of 10,000 
 men and four generals . . . .19 June, 1799 
 
 The duke of Parma made king of Etruria . Feb. 1801 
 
 Parma united to France : with Placentia and Guas- 
 talla conferred on Maria Louisa, ex-empress, by 
 treaty of Fontainebleau . . . . 5' April, 18 14 
 
 Parma occupied by the Austrians and Sardinians in 
 the war of 1848 
 
 The Sardinians retire after the battle of Novara, 
 
 23 March, 1849 
 
 The duke Charles II. abdicates in favour of his son, 
 Charles III 14 March, „ 
 
 Charles III. stabbed by an assassin, 26 March, dies, 
 
 27 March, 1854 
 
 Robert I., a minor(born9 July, 1848) ; whose mother 
 becomes regent. 
 
 War in Italy ; the Parmesans establish a provisional 
 government ; the duchess-regent retires to Switzer- 
 land 1 May, 1859 
 
 Farina became dictator ... 18 Aug. „ 
 
 Annexation to Sardinia voted . . .12 Sept. „ 
 
 Col. Anviti, a former obnoxious police minister, 
 having rashly returned, cruelly murdered by the 
 mob 5 Oct. ,, 
 
 Parma is now part of the province of iEmilia in the 
 kingdom of Italy, to which it was annexed'*! by de- 
 cree after a plebiscite ... 18 March, i860 
 
 Duchess-regent died 1 Feb. 1864 
 
 PAEEICIDE. There was no law against it 
 in Athens or Borne, such a crime not being supposed 
 possible. About 172 B.C., L. Ostius having killed 
 his father, the Bomans scourged the parricide; 
 sewed him up in a leathern sack made air-tight, 
 with a live dog, a cock, a viper, and an ape, and 
 thus cast him into the sea. Miss Blandy was exe- 
 cuted at Oxford for the murder of her father, April, 
 1752. 
 
 PAESEES or Guebres, the followers of 
 Zerdusht, dwelt in Persia till 638, when, at the 
 battle of Kadseah, their army was decimated by 
 the Arabs, and the monarchy annihilated at the 
 battle of Naharand in 641. Many submitted to 
 the conquerors, but others fled to India, and their de- 
 scendants still reside at Bombay (where they are 
 termed Parsees), and where they numbered 114,698 
 in 1849. Mr. Dadabhai Naoroji, a Parsee merchant, 
 was for several years professor of Gujerati at Uni- 
 versity college, London. See Bombay. 
 
 PAETHENON (from Greek parthene, virgin), 
 a temple at Athens dedicated to Minerva, erected 
 about 442 B.C. In it Phidias placed his renowned 
 statue of that goddess, 438 b.c. The roof was de- 
 stroyed by the Venetians in 1687 ; see Elgin Marbles. 
 
 PAETHENOPEAN EEPUBLIC was esta- 
 blished by the French at Naples (anciently called 
 Parthenope), 23 Jan. 1799, and overthrown in June 
 same year. 
 
 PAETHIA (Asia). The Parthians were origi- 
 nally a tribe of Scythians, who, being exiled, as 
 then- name implies, from their own country, settled 
 near Hyrcania. Arsaces laid the foundation of an 
 empire which ultimately extended over a large part 
 of Asia, 250 B.C. ; the Parthians were never wholly 
 subdued by the Bomans. The last king, Artabanus 
 V., was killed, a.d. 226; and his territories were 
 annexed to the new kingdom of Persia founded by 
 Artaxerxes, who had revolted against Parthia. 
 
 PAETITION ACT, relative to the division of 
 property sold by direction of the court of chancery, 
 passed 25 June, 1688. 
 
 PAETICULAEISTS. The name given to 
 those Germans who desire the maintenance of the 
 independence of the German states, and oppose 
 their absorption into the empire. M. Gasser, one 
 of them, failed in an attempt to form a ministry in 
 Bavaria, Sept. 1872. 
 
 PAETITION TEEATIES. The first treaty 
 between England and Holland for regulating the 
 Spanish succession (declaring the elector of Bavaria 
 
PARTNERSHIP. 
 
 502 
 
 PATNA. 
 
 next heir, and ceding provinces to France) was 
 signed 19 Aug. 1698; and the second (between 
 France, England, and Holland, declaring the arch- 
 duke Charles presumptive heir of the Spanish mo- 
 narchy, Joseph Ferdinand having died in 1699), 13 
 March, 1700. Treaty for the partition of Poland ; 
 the first was a secret convention between Russia and 
 Prussia, 17 Feb. 1772 ; the second between the 
 same powers and Austria, 5 Aug. same year ; the 
 third was between Russia, Austria, and Prussia, 24 
 Oct. 1795. 
 
 PARTNERSHIP. The laws respecting it 
 were amended in 1863 ; see Limited Liability. 
 
 PARTY, see Processions. 
 
 PASIGRAPHY (from Greek, past, for all) : 
 a system which professes to teach people to com- 
 municate with each other by means of numbers 
 •which convey the same ideas in all languages. A 
 society for this purpose was established at Munich ; 
 and the president, Anton Bachmaier, published a 
 dictionary and grammar in 187 1 ; 4334 mental con- 
 ceptions may be thus communicated. 
 
 PASQUINADES. Small satirical poems ob- 
 tained this name about 1533. 
 
 At the stall of a cobbler named Pasquin, at Rome, idle 
 persons used to assemble to listen to his sallies, to re- 
 late anecdotes, and rail at the passers-by. After the 
 cobbler's death, his name was given to a statue to which 
 lampoons were affixed. 
 
 PASSAROWITZ TREATY, concluded 21 
 July, 1718, between Germany and Venice, and the 
 Turks, by which the house of Austria ceded certain 
 commercial rights, and obtaiued from Turkey the 
 Temeswar, Belgrade, and part of Bosnia, Servia, 
 and "Wallaehia. The Turks gained the Morea. 
 
 PASSAU (Germany), TREATY OF, whereby 
 religious freedom was established, was ratified be- 
 tween the emperor Charles V. and the protestant 
 princes of Germany, 31 July, 1552. In 1662 the 
 cathedral and great part of Passau were consumed 
 by fire. 
 
 PASSENGERS-by public vehicles, are pro- 
 tected by 1 & 2 Will. IV. c. 22 (1831), 1 & 2 Vict, 
 c. 79 (1838), and 16 & 17 Vict. c. 33 (1853). Mr. 
 Cleghorn, under whom the front seat on the near 
 side of one of the general omnibus company's car- 
 riages had given way, recovered 400/. damages 
 against the company, in a verdict by consent, in the 
 Queen's Bench, 10 Dec. 1856. The Ships' Passen- 
 ger act, 18 & 19 Vict. c. 119, passed in 1855, was 
 amended in 1863 ; see Campbell's Act. 
 
 PASSIONISTS, a congregation of clerks of 
 the holy cross, founded by St. Paul of the Cross, 
 who died 1775, and was canonized by the pope 
 1867. A home was set up in England in 1841, and 
 others since. 
 
 PASSION PLAY, see Drama. 
 
 PASSION- WEEK, the name given since the 
 Reformation to the week preceding Easter, was 
 formerly applied to the fortnight. Archbishop 
 Laud says the two weeks were so called "for a 
 thousand years together," and refers to an epistle, 
 by Ignatius, in the 1st century, in which the prac- 
 tice is said to have been " observed by all." 
 
 PASSOVER, the most solemn festival of the 
 Jews, instituted 1491 B.C. {Exodus xii.) in comme- 
 moration of then coming out of Egypt; because 
 the night before their departure, the destroying 
 angel, who put to death the firstborn of the Egyp- 
 tians, passed over the houses of the Hebrews with- 
 
 out entering them ; the door posts being marked 
 with the blood of the Paschal Lamb killed the 
 evening before. The passover was celebrated in 
 the new temple, 18 April, 515 B.C. Usher. 
 
 PASSPORT SYSTEM forbids subjects to quit 
 one country or enter another without the consent of 
 the sovereign thereof. In 1858 the system was 
 somewhat changed in this country, and the stamp 
 duty on passports was reduced from 5*. to 6d. 
 Passports were abolished in Norway in 1859; in 
 Sweden in i860 ; and (with regard to British sub- 
 jects) in France, 16 Dec. i860; in Italy, 26 June, 
 1862 ; in Portugal, 23 Jan. 1863 ; and are falling 
 into disuse in other countries. The passport system 
 was established in the United States on 19 Aug. 
 1861. The passport system, revived in France on 
 account of the war, I Aug. 1870, was abolished by 
 M. Thiers, 10 April, 1872, in compliance with the 
 wish of the British government. 
 
 PASTON LETTERS, the correspondence of a 
 respectable family, 1422-83, giving a picture of 
 social life in England, were edited by sir John 
 Fenn, and published in five volumes, quarto, 1787- 
 1823. Their authenticity was questioned Sept. 
 1865, but was satisfactorily vindicated by a com- 
 mittee of the society of Antiquaries in May, 1866. 
 Part of the MS. was soon after purchased by the 
 trustees of the British Museum. The publication 
 of a new edition, by James Gairdner, with addi- 
 tional letters, began 1872. 
 
 PATAY (France), where Joan of Arc, the maid 
 of Orleans, was present, when the earl of Riche- 
 monte signally defeated the English, 18 June, 1429. 
 Talbot was taken prisoner, and the valiant Fasiolfe 
 was forced to flee. In cousequence, Charles VII. 
 of France entered Kheims in triumph, and was 
 crowned 17 July, following year, Joan of Arc as- 
 sisting in the ceremony in full armour, and holding 
 the sword of state, see Joan of Arc. 
 
 PATENTS (from paleo, I open) , licences and 
 authorities granted by the king. Patents granted for 
 titles of nobility were first made 1344, by Edward III. 
 They were first granted for the exclusive privilege 
 of printing books, in 1591. The property and 
 right of inventors in arts and manufactures were 
 secured by letters patent by an act passed in 1623. 
 The later laws regulating patents are very nume- 
 rous ; among them are 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 83 (1835), 
 and 15 & 16 Vict. c. 83 (1852). By the latter Com- 
 missioneks of Patents were appointed, viz., the 
 lord chancellor, the master of the rolls, the attor- 
 ney-general for England and Ireland, the lord 
 advocate, and the solicitors-general for England, 
 Scotland, and Ireland. In 1853, a journal was pub- 
 lished under their authority, and indexes of patents, 
 from March, 161 7 to the present time. Specifica- 
 tions of patents may be consulted by the public at 
 the Free Library and Beading-Koom, in Southamp- 
 ton-buildings, opened 5 March. 1854. A museum 
 containing models, portraits, &c, was established 
 in 1859 at South Kensington, mainly by the exertions 
 of Mr. Bennet Woodcroft. 
 
 In 1864, the alleged defalcations of Mr. Edmunds, a clerk 
 in the patent office and an official of the house of lords, 
 led to his retirement. He obtained a pension of Sool., 
 which was taken from him by a vote of the house of 
 lords on 9 May, 1865. Much litigation ensued. In an 
 action against Mr. Gladstone, the prime minister, and 
 others, for a libel, Mr. Edmunds was non-suited, 21-22 
 June, 1872 ; and he failed in actions against several 
 newspapers for printing a treasury minute. His appeal 
 to the house of lords failed 16 June, 1873. 
 
 PATNA (N. India). Near here the English, 
 under major Carnac, defeated the emperor Shah 
 
PATEIAECHS. 
 
 503 
 
 PAUL'S CATHEDEAL, ST. 
 
 Alum on 15 Jan. 1761. The town was acquired by 
 the British by their defeat of the sanguinary Meer 
 Cassim, 23 Oct. 1764. 
 
 PATEIAECHS (a. name given to Abraham, 
 Isaac, Jacob, and his sons). The ecclesiastical 
 historian Socrates gives this title to the chiefs of 
 Christian dioceses, about 440. It was first con- 
 ferred on the five grand sees of Home, Constantino- 
 ple, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem. The 
 Latin church had no patriarchs till the 6th century. 
 The first founders or heads of religious orders are 
 called patriarchs. 
 
 Nectarius, bishop of Constantinople, as ex-officio chief of 
 the Eastern bishops, was nominated patriarch of Con- 
 stantinople at the second general council of Constanti- 
 nople, 9 July, 381. This led the way to the schism 
 between the Eastern and Western churches. 
 
 PATEICIANS, the senators of Eome ; their 
 authority began with the city itself ; see Rome. 
 
 PATEICK'S CATHEDEAL, ST. (Dublin), 
 was founded in 1190 by archbishop Comyn, on the 
 site of an old church. The cathedral was dese- 
 crated in 1546, and used as a law court ; restored 
 1553. After renovation by the munificence of the 
 late sir Benjamin Lee Guinness, it was re-opened 24 
 Feb. 1865 ; see Dublin. 
 
 PATEICK, ST., KNIGHTS OF, an order in- 
 stituted by king George III., 5 Feb., the statutes 
 were signed 28 Feb. 1783. The number, originally 
 fifteen, was increased in 1821, 1831, and 1833, and 
 is now twenty-two. The prince of Wales was 
 installed as knight, 18 April, 1868. — St. Patrick's 
 Benevolent Society, London, instituted 1784. 
 
 PATEIOTIO FUNDS, established to en- 
 courage the army and navy in times of war. 
 
 1. Founded by the subscribers to Lloyd's, " to animate 
 
 the efforts of our defenders by sea and land " by 
 providing a fund for the relief of themselves when 
 wounded, and of their widows and orphans, and for 
 granting pecuniary rewards and badges of distinction 
 for valour and merit, 20 July, 1803 : 24 Aug. 1809, 
 424,832?. had been received, and 331,611?. expended. 
 From 1803 to 1826 the total sum received was 
 629,823?. 14s. id. 
 
 2. A commission (headed by prince Albert) was appointed 
 
 to raise and distribute a fund bearing this name, for 
 the relief of the families of those who might fall in 
 the Russo-Turkish war, June ; a great meeting held 
 Nov. 1854. 
 
 Large sums were collected from this country and the 
 colonies, amounting to 1,171,270?. in July, 1855 ; to 
 1,296,282?. on 16 Nov. 1855; to 1,460,000?. in June, 
 1857- • 
 
 The overplus, 200,000?. was appropriated to founding 
 an asylum for 300 orphan girls (the Royal Victoria 
 Patriotic Asylum) on "Wandsworth common, the first 
 stone of which was laid by the queen, 11 July, 1857. 
 
 The royal family and many of the aristocracy con- 
 tributed drawings, some of which were sold for high 
 prices, in May, 1855. 
 
 3. A large fund contributed for the relief of the sufferers 
 
 by the Indian mutiny, Aug. 1857, 434,729?. collected 
 up to Nov. 1858. An act for its administration was 
 passed, 12 Aug. 1867 ; see India, 1857. 
 
 PATEONAGE OF LIVINGS by Laymen in 
 England is very ancient ; in Scotland was opposed 
 by the books of discipline 1560 and 1578, abolished 
 1649, restored 1660. The system led to the dis- 
 ruption of the established church, and the foundation 
 of the free church, 18 May, 1843. The abolition of 
 lay patronage was earnestly advocated by the 
 authorities of the established church in March, 
 1870, and the duke of Argyll volunteered to resign 
 his patronage in May. Of 1109 livings 319 belong 
 to the crown, and about 600 to private persons 
 
 PAULIANISTS or PAULINIANS, followers 
 of Paul bishop of Samosata, afterwards patriarch of 
 Antioch, 260, who are said to have denied Christ's 
 divinity and the trinity ; he was excommunicated 
 269 by a council at Antioch. 
 
 PAULICIANS, a sect of Christian reformers, 
 arose about 652. Although they were severely 
 persecuted, they spread over Asia Minor, in the 9th 
 century, and finally settled at Montford, in Italy, 
 where they were attacked b} r the bishop of Milan 
 in 1028. Severe decrees against them were made 
 in 1 163, and they gradually dispersed; very 
 probably sowing the seeds of the great reformation 
 of the 16th century. 
 
 PAUL JONES, a Scotchman, born 1742 ; died 
 at Paris, 1792. He commanded an American 
 privateer during the American war, and made 
 daring depredations on British commerce. He 
 pillaged the house of lord Selkirk, near Kirkcud- 
 bright, and at Whitehaven burnt shipping in the 
 harbour, April 1778. The Dutch permitted Paul 
 Jones to enter their ports with two British ships of 
 war which he had taken, and which the stadtholder 
 peremptorily refused to deliver up, 1779. 
 
 PAUL'S CATHEDEAL, ST. (London). 
 Sir Christopher Wren's opinion, that there had 
 been a Christian church on this spot, in the time of 
 the Bomans, was confirmed when he explored the 
 foundations for his own design. He exploded the 
 notion of there having been a temple of Diana. 
 
 The first church, supposed to have been destroyed 
 during the Diocletian persecution (302), rebuilt in 
 the reign of Constantine .... 323-337 
 Demolished by the pagan Saxons, and restored by 
 
 Ethelbert and Sebert .... about 603-10 
 Injured by fire in 962, and destroyed by the great 
 conflagration, after which Mauritius, then bishop 
 of London, commenced a magnificent edifice with 
 the highest spire in the world 1087 ; completed, 
 1240. The spire said to be burnt . . . 1561 
 
 A commission granted to Laud, then bishop of 
 
 London, to restore the cathedral . 2 April, 1631 
 It was totally destroyed by the fire of . Sept. 1666 
 First stone of the present edifice laid . 21 June, 1675 
 The choir opened for divine worship . 2 Dec. 1697 
 
 The whole edifice completed under sir Christopher 
 Wren (except some decorations, not finished until 
 
 1723) 1710 
 
 [The total cost (including 200 tons' weight of iron 
 
 railing) was 1,511,202?.] 
 Ball and cross restored by Mr. Cockerell . . 1822 
 Money having been subscribed to adapt St. Paul's 
 for the purpose, evening services began, when 
 above 4000 persons were present, Sunday, 28 Nov. 1858 
 A national guinea subscription for completing the 
 
 interior ornamentation, began . . Feb. 1864 
 
 87th meeting of the charity school children 3 June, 1869 
 A great meeting was held at the Mansion-house to 
 complete the interior of the cathedral according 
 to Wren's design, 13 July, 34,708?. collected 
 
 by 4 Nov. 1870 
 Dr. Church, the new dean, gave 1000?. . Nov. 1871 
 National Thanksgiving for the recovery of the 
 
 prince of Wales, see Thanksgiving . 27 Feb. 1872 
 " Thanksgiving fund " established . . . ,, 
 
 The queen gave 1000?. , the prince 500?. . Feb. ,, 
 
 The railing at the west end removed . Oct. ,, 
 
 DIMENSIONS. 
 
 Length of St. Paul's from the grand portico to east feet. 
 
 end ^ • • ■ 510 
 
 Breadth, north to south portico . . . . 282 
 
 Exterior diameter of the dome .... 145 
 
 Height from ground to top of cross . . . . 404 
 Campaniles, or bell towers, at each corner, height . 208 
 
 Breadth of western entrance 189 
 
 Circumference of dome 420 
 
 Entire circumference of the building . ... 2292 
 Diameter of ball 6 
 
PAUL'S CROSS, ST. 
 
 504 
 
 PEARLS. 
 
 PAUL'S CROSS, ST. (London), which stood 
 at the north side of the cathedral, was a pulpit 
 formed of wood, mounted upon steps of stone, and 
 covered with lead, from which the most eminent 
 divines were appointed to preach every Sunday in 
 the forenoon. To this place the court, the mayor, 
 the aldermen, and principal citizens used to resort. 
 It was in use as early as 1259, and was appropriated 
 not only to preaching, but to political and ecclesias- 
 tical discourses, &c. The cross was demolished in 
 1643, by order of the parliament. 
 
 PAUL'S SCHOOL, ST., was endowed in 
 1512 by John Colet, dean of St. Paul's, for 153 boys 
 " of every nation, country, and class," in memory 
 of the number of fishes taken by Peter. {John xxi. 
 11). The first schoolhouse was burnt in 1666; the 
 second, by Wren, was taken down in 1824, and the 
 present building erected by George Smith . "William 
 Lilly was the first master, and his grammar is still 
 used by the school. Timbs. The claim of the Mercers 
 company to be owners instead of trustees of Colet' s 
 estates, was set aside, by the vice chancellor, 11 
 Feb. 1870. 
 
 PAUPERS, see Poor. 
 
 PAVEMENT. The Carthaginians are said to 
 have been the first who paved their towns with 
 stones. The Romans, in the time of Augustus, had 
 pavement in many of their streets; the Appian 
 way, a paved road, was constructed 312 B.C. In 
 England there were few paved streets before Henry 
 VII.'s reign. London was first paved about 1533. 
 It was paved with flagstones between 1815 and 
 1825. Wood and asphalte paving were tried in 
 1839, and have been disused since 1847 ; see Wood 
 Pavement. Asphalte has been much used lately. 
 
 PA VIA (N. Italy), the ancient Ticinum or 
 Papia. Its university, founded by Charlemagne, 
 is said to be the oldest in Europe. Pavia was built 
 by the Gauls, who were driven out by the Romans, 
 and these in their turn were expelled by the Goths. 
 In 568 it was taken by the Lombards, and became 
 the capital of their kingdom. In the 12th century 
 it was erected into a republic, but soon after was 
 subjected to Milan and followed its fortunes. On 
 24 Feb. 1525, a battle was fought near here between 
 the French and the Imperialists, when the former 
 were defeated, and their king, Francis I., after 
 fighting with heroic valour, and killing seven men 
 with his own hand, was at last obliged to surren- 
 der himself a prisoner. Francis wrote to his mother, 
 Louisa of Savoy, regent of the kingdom during his 
 absence, saying, Tout est perdu, madame, fors 
 Vhonneur (All is lost, madam, except honour). 
 
 PAWNBROKING. The Roman emperors 
 lent money upon land. The origin of borrowing 
 money by means of pledges deposited with lenders 
 is referred to Perugia, in Italy, about 1462. The 
 institutions were termed monti di pietd {whch see). 
 Soon afterwards, it is said that the bishop of 
 Winchester established a system of lending on 
 pledges, but without interest. The business t 
 pawnbrokers was regulated in 1756, and licences 
 issued in 1783. The rate of interest on pledges was 
 fixed in 1800. In London there were, in 1851, 334 
 pawnbrokers; and in England, exclusively of 
 London, 1127 ; the number is increasing more than 
 in proportion to the population. In i860 an act 
 was passed enabling pawnbrokers to charge a half- 
 penny for every ticket describing things pledged 
 for a sum under 5*. The acts relating to pawn- 
 brokers were amended in 1856, 1859, i860. Pawn- 
 brokers in Great Britain; 1851, 1873; in 1861, 
 
 2578; in 1871, 3540. The law was consolidated in 
 the pawnbrokers act passed 10 Aug. 1872. 
 
 PAX, a small tablet, generally silver, termed, 
 tabula pacis or osculatorium, kissed by the Roman 
 Catholic priests and laity; substituted for the 
 primeval kiss of peace in the early church. The 
 Pax is said to have been introduced about the 12th 
 century. 
 
 PAYMASTER GENERAL. In 1836 the 
 army and navy pay departments were consolidated 
 into the paymaster-general' s-office, sometimes held 
 by a cabinet minister. 
 
 PEABODY FUND. Mr. George Peabody, 
 an American merchant (born 18 Feb. 1795, died 4 
 Nov. 1869), who had made his fortune in London, 
 gave on 12 March, 1862, 150,000/., on 21 Jan. 
 1866, 100,000/., on 5 Dec. 1868, 100,000/., and by 
 his will directed his trustees to pay 150,000/. — in all 
 500,000/. — to ameliorate the condition of the London 
 poor. 
 
 An autograph letter, promising her portrait in 
 miniature, was sent him by the queen, 28 March, 1866 
 
 [Inscription on the miniature sent: — "V. R. pre- 
 sented by the Queen to G. Peabody, Esq. , the 
 benefactor of the poor of London. "] 
 
 The first block of buildings for working classes, termed 
 " Peabody dwellings," in Commercial street, Spital- 
 fields, was opened 29 Feb. 1864 ; and others since, in 
 Islington, Shadwell, Chelsea, and Bermondsey ; they 
 have been found to be self-supporting. 
 
 Mr. Peabody's statue, at the east end of the 
 Royal Exchange, was inaugurated by the prince 
 of Wales 23 July, 1869, 
 
 Funeral service at Westminster abbey, . 12 Nov. ,, 
 
 Funeral at Portland, U. S. , prince Arthur present 
 
 8 Feb. 1870 
 
 He also gave large sums, for educational purposes, in 
 the United States. 
 
 16 Blocks of building erecting . . . Feb. 1871 
 
 PEACE. A temple was dedicated to peace by 
 Vespasian, 75 ; see Fire-ivorks, Treaties Justices, 
 &c. — "Peace of Religion" (between catholics 
 and protestants) was signed at Augsburg, 15 Sept. 
 1555- 
 
 A Peace Society, founded 1816, for the promotion 
 of universal peace, held its 54th anniversary in 
 May, 1870. A congress of the friends of peace, 
 from all parts of the world, commenced its 
 sittings at Paris, 22 Aug. 1849. If me f m London 
 at Exeter hall, 30 Oct. following ; and at Frank- 
 fort, in St. Paul's church, 22 Aug. 1850 ; at Bir- 
 mingham, 28 Nov. 1850 ; and at Exeter hall, 22 
 July, 1851. A meeting was held at Manchester, 
 27 Jan. 1853 ; and at Edinburgh . 12 Oct. 1853 
 
 Mr. Bright and Mr. Cobden were among the most 
 conspicuous members of the society. A deputa- 
 tion from the Peace Society, consisting of Messrs. 
 J. Sturge, Pease, and another Quaker friend, 
 stated their views to the emperor of Russia at St. 
 Petersburg, at an interview granted them in Feb. 1854 
 At the stormy international peace congress at 
 
 Geneva, Garibaldi was present . 9-12 Sept. 1867 
 A peace congress met at Berne . . 24 Sept. 1868 
 At the jieace congress held at Lausanne, the violence 
 of the Communists at Paris in May, was warmly 
 
 reprobated 25 Sept. 1871 
 
 Another congress was held at Lugano . 23 Sept. 1872 
 
 PEACE PRESERVATION ACT (Ireland), 
 passed 4 April, 1870 : continued since. 
 
 PEACHES are said to have been introduced 
 into this country from Persia about 1562. 
 
 PEARLS, mentioned Job xxviii. 18. M. 
 Reaumur, in 1 71 7, alleged that pearls are formed 
 like other stones in animals . An ancient pearl was 
 valued by Pliny at 80,000/. sterling. One which 
 
PEASANTS' WAE. 
 
 505 
 
 PEELITES. 
 
 was brought in 1574, to Philip II., of the size of a 
 pigeon's egg, was valued at 14,400 ducats. A pearl 
 named the Incomparable, spoken of by De Boote, 
 weighed thirty carats, equal to five pennyweights, 
 and was about the size of a muscadine pear. The 
 pearl mentioned by Tavernier, as being in possession 
 of the emperor of Persia, was purchased of an Arab 
 in 1633, and is valued at a sum equal to 110,400/. 
 Value of pearls imported into Great Britain, 1856, 
 56,162/. 
 
 PEASANTS' WAE, see Jacquerie. 
 
 PEAT, see Bogs. 
 
 "PECULIAR PEOPLE," a small sect in 
 Essex and other parts of England formed about 
 1845. Two members, Thos. and Maryanne 
 Wagstaffe, were tried and acquitted of manslaughter, 
 29 Jan. 1868. They had neglected getting medical 
 assistance for their sick child, and depended on the 
 efficacy of their elders' prayers and anointing it with 
 oil {James v. 14). The child died. On 8 May 1872, 
 a father was convicted for neglecting to get medical 
 advice for his child who died of small pox; and 
 the sect agreed to modify their practice. Estab- 
 lishments for healing diseases by prayer exist in 
 Germany. 
 
 PEDESTRIANISM. Euchidas, a citizen of 
 Platasa, went from thence to Delphi to bring the 
 sacred fire. This he obtained, and returned with it 
 the same day before sunset, having travelled 125 
 English miles. No sooner had he saluted his fellow- 
 citizens, and delivered the fire, than he fell dead at 
 their feet. After the battle of Marathon, a soldier 
 was sent from the field to announce the victory at 
 Athens. Exhausted with fatigue, and bleeding 
 from his wounds, he had only time to cry out, 
 "Bejoice, we are conquerors!" and immediately 
 expired. 
 
 Foster Powel, the English, pedestrian, performed many- 
 astonishing journeys on foot. His expedition from 
 London to York and back again, in 1788, is said to 
 have been completed in 140 hours. 
 
 Captain Barclay, for a wager (on which many thousands 
 of pounds depended), walked 1000 miles in 1000 suc- 
 cessive hours, each mile in each hour, in forty-two 
 days and nights (less 8 hours). His task was accom- 
 plished on 10 July, 1809. 
 
 Richard Manks, a native of Warwickshire, undertook (in 
 imitation of captain Barclay) to walk 1000 miles in 
 1000 hours : the place chosen was the Barrack-tavern 
 cricket ground, in Sheffield ; he commenced on Monday, 
 17 June, 1850, and completed the 1000 miles, 29 July 
 following, winning a considerable sum. 
 
 On 7 Oct. 1861, a 12 miles foot-race was held, when 
 Levett, the champion of England, ran 7 miles in 37 
 minutes 27 seconds ; Deerfoot, a Seneca Indian, ran 12 
 miles in 65 minutes 5 seconds ; and Mills ran 10 miles 
 in 34 minutes 10 seconds ; other races followed. 
 
 On 11 May, 1863, Deerfoot was beaten by White, who 
 ran 10 miles in 52 minutes 14 seconds. 
 
 PEDLARS, see Hawkers. The Pedlars' act 
 passed, Aug. 1871. 
 
 PEDOMETER and ODOMETER, appa- 
 ratus for measuring the distance traversed by a 
 walker or carriage. 
 
 Odometers, or road-measurers, are said to have 
 been known in the 15th century ; and improve- 
 ments in them were made in England by Butter- 
 field, about 1678 ; and by Meynier, in France 
 
 about 1724 
 
 Wm. Grayson's odometer, or road-measurer, to be 
 attached to carriages, was patented . 1 Dec. 1851 
 
 Ealph Gouts' pedometer for indicating the steps 
 taken by a walker, was patented . 4 Nov. 1799 
 
 Wm. Payne's pedometer for the waistcoat pocket, 
 patented 15 Feb. 1831 
 
 PEEL ACTS. Among the most important 
 were the Bank Acts of 1819 and 1844 ; the acts- 
 amending the criminal laws, 1827 ; dividing, 
 parishes into districts, 1843, and the act repealing 
 the corn laws in 1846. 
 
 PEEL ADMINISTRATIONS.*. The first 
 succeeded the Melbourne administration, which 
 was broken up on the retirement of lord Althorpe, 
 the chancellor of the exchequer, in Nov. 1834. 
 Sir B. Peel, then in Italy, was summoned home,, 
 the duke of Wellington holding the seals of office in 
 the interim. They both resigned in April, 1835. 
 In May, 1841, sir B. Peel carried a vote of want of 
 confidence in the Melbourne cabinet, but did not 
 take office ; and in Sept. of that year, he became- 
 again premier. He lost the support of the conserva- 
 tive party by obtaining the repeal of the corn laws, 
 and resigned 29 June, 1846. 
 
 FIRST ADMINISTRATION (Dec. 1834). 
 
 Sir Robert Peel, first lord of the treasury and chancellor 
 
 of the exchequer. 
 Lord Lyndhurst, lord chancellor. 
 Earl of Rosslyn, lord president. 
 Lord Wharnelifte, privy seal. 
 Henry Goulbum, duke of Wellington, and earl of 
 
 Aberdeen, home, foreign, and colonial secretaries of state* 
 Earl De Grey, first lord of the admiralty. 
 Lord Ellenborough, and Alexander Baring, board of 
 
 control and trade. 
 Sir Edward Knatchbull, paymaster of the forces. 
 J. C. Herries, seeretary-of-war. 
 Sir George Murray, master-general of the ordnance, &c. 
 
 SECOND ADMINISTRATION (Sept. 1841). 
 
 Sir Robert Peel, first minister. 
 
 Duke of Wellington in the cabinet without office, aft 
 commander-in-chief. 
 
 Lord Lyndhurst, lord chancellor. 
 
 Lord Wharncliffe, lord presidertt. 
 
 Duke of Buckingham, lord privy-seal (succeeded by duke- 
 of Buccleuch). 
 
 Sir James Graham, earl of Aberdeen, and lord Stanley,. 
 home, foreign, and colonial secretaries. 
 
 Henry Goulbum, chancellor of the exchequer. 
 
 Earl of Haddington, first lord of the admiralty. 
 
 Earl of Ripon, board of trade (succeeded by W. E. Glad- 
 stone). 
 
 Lord Ellenborough, India, board (succeeded by lord Fitz- 
 gerald ; succeeded by earl of Ripon). 
 
 Sir Henry Hardinge, sir Edward Knatchbull, sir George 
 Murray, &c. 
 
 [Terminated 29 June, 1846, by sir Robert's resigna- 
 tion.] 
 
 PEELITES, a name given to gentlemen, whigs- 
 and tories, who adhered to sir Bobert Peel, after 
 his defeat by the conservative party, on account of 
 his free-trade measures carried in 1846. The- 
 principal were Henry Goulburn, "W. E. Gladstone, 
 Sidney (afterwards lord) Herbert, sir J ames Gra- 
 ham, Edward Cardwell, sir George Clerk, lord Lin- 
 coln (afterwards duke of Newcastle), and lords 
 Canning and Elgin, and others. Several of them 
 became members of the Palmerston and Aberdeen 
 administrations (which see) . 
 
 * Sir Robert Peel was born 5 Feb. 1788 ; entered par- 
 liament in 1809 ; became under-secretary of the colonies 
 in 1811, chief secretary for Ireland in 1812 ; M.P. for 
 Oxford in 1818 (when he resigned his office) ; secretary 
 for home department in 1822 ; resigned office and re- 
 appointed in 1827 ; resigned again in 1830 ; became 
 premier in 1834 and 1841 (see above). He was thrown 
 from his horse 29 June, and died 2 July, 1850. He greatly 
 relaxed the severity of our criminal code in 1827, et seq. ; 
 established the new police, and carried the catholic 
 emancipation bill in 1829, and the repeal of the corn laws 
 in 1846. Statutes have been erected to him — at Salford, 
 in 1852 ; at Tam worth, Leeds, Bury, and Manchester, in 
 1853 ; and in London and Birmingham in 1855. 
 
PEEL PICTUEES. 
 
 506 
 
 PENANCE. 
 
 PEEL PICTUEES. The family collection 
 (70) were purchased for the National Gallery for 
 75,000^. 1871. 
 
 PEEP-O' -DAY-BOYS, insurgents in Ireland, 
 who visited the houses of their antagonists at 
 break of day, in search of arms. They first appeared 
 4 July, 1784, and were long the terror of the 
 •country ; see Defenders. 
 
 PEEEESSES of the United Kingdom : eleven 
 in 1872 : duchess of Inverness, countess of Cro- 
 martie, viscountess Beaconsfield (died 15 Dec. 1872), 
 baronesses Berners, Botreaux and Hastings, Burdett- 
 Coutts, De Clifford, Le Despencer, Lucas, North, 
 •and Willoughby D'Eresby. 
 
 PEEES, see Lords. 
 
 PEGU, a province of the Burmese empire, dis- 
 covered by the Portuguese in 1520. Pegu, the 
 capital, was taken by major Cotton, with 300 men, 
 in June, 1852, without loss ; and afterwards 
 abandoned. It was again occupied by the Burmese 
 :and strongly fortified, with a garrison of 4000 men. 
 It was recaptured by general Godwin with 1200 
 men and two guns, in two hours, with the loss of 
 six killed and thirty-two wounded. The province 
 was annexed to our Indian possessions, by procla- 
 mation, 20 Dec. 1852, and has since prospered. In 
 Feb. 1862, it was united with Arracan and Tenas- 
 serim as British Bumiah. 
 
 PEIHO, see China, 1859, i860. 
 
 PEISHWA, the prime minister of the Mah- 
 ffattas, seized the sovereign power and settled at 
 Poonah, 1749. The title was abolished in 1818. 
 
 PEKIN, the capital of China, was huilt by 
 Eaehilai-Khan, grandson of Genghis- Khan, about 
 1267. Here was held the court of the Mongol or 
 \'uen dynasty, 1280 to 1368. In 1369, Hung-wu, 
 ■of the Ming dynasty, removed to Nankin, which 
 was the capital till Yung-lo removed his court to 
 Pekin in 1410 ; and by him and his successors the 
 •city was enlai - ged, fortified, and beautified. It was 
 ■visited by lord Macartney, Sept. 1 793 ; surrendered 
 to the ailied English and French armies, 12 Oct. 
 i860; and evacuated by them 5 Nov., after peace 
 Iiad been signed 24 Oct. It was described as being 
 in a very desolate state, and the inhabitants scat- 
 tered and indigent. The population in 1864 was 
 •estimated at 1,600,000. English and French repre- 
 sentatives were settled at Pekin, March, 1861. 
 
 PELAGIANS, followers of Pelagius, a Briton, 
 appeared at home about 400. Their doctrines were 
 condemned by councils at Jerusalem, Carthage, and 
 ■other places, 415, 530. They maintained : — 
 
 1. That Adam was by nature mortal, and whether he had 
 sinned or not would certainly have died. 2. That the 
 consequences of Adam's sin were confined to his own 
 person. 3. That new-born infants are in the same 
 condition witli Adam before the fall. 4. That the law 
 qualified men for the kingdom of heaven, and was 
 founded upon equal promises with the Gospel. 5. 
 That the general resurrection of the dead does not fol- 
 low in virtue of Christ's resurrection. 
 
 PELASGI, the primitive inhabitants of Greece 
 and Italy, appear to have belonged to the Indo- 
 Germanic race. They were in Greece about 1900 
 B.C., and in Italy about 1600 B.C. They have been 
 termed Tyrrheni, Sicani or Siculi, Apuli, &c. 
 From the Pelasgi came the Dorians, iEolians, and 
 Ionians ; all three being Hellenes or Greeks. 
 
 PELEW ISLANDS (N. Pacific Ocean), dis- 
 covered by the Spaniards in the 17th century. The 
 
 East India Company's packet Antelope, captain 
 Wilson, was WTecked here in 1783. The king, 
 Abba Thulle, allowed captain Wilson to bring prince 
 Le Boo, his son, to England, where he arrived 
 in 1784, and died of the smallpox soon after. The 
 East India Company erected a monument over hie 
 grave in Rotherhithe churchyard. 
 
 PELHAM ADMINISTRATION. Mr. H. 
 
 Pelham replaced the earl of Wilmington as premier, 
 25 Aug. 1743 ; see Wilmington. In Nov. 1744, 
 the following ministry was formed (termed " trie 
 broad bottom administration," because it compre- 
 hended a grand coalition of the parties). It was 
 dissolved by the death of Mr. Pelham, 6 March, 
 1754- 
 Henry Pelham, first lord of the treasury and chancellor f 
 
 the exchequer. 
 Lord Hardwicke, lord cha ncellor. 
 Duke of Dorset, president of the council. 
 Earl Gower, lord privy seal. 
 Duke of Newcastle and the earl of Harrington, aecretariel 
 
 of state. 
 Duke of Montagu, master-general of the ordnance. 
 Duke of Bedford, first lord of the admiralty. 
 Duke of Grafton, lord chamberlain. 
 Duke of Richmond, master of the horse. 
 Duke of Argyll, keeper of the great seal of Scotland. 
 Marquis of Tweeddale, secretary of state for Scotland. 
 
 All of the cabinet. 
 The duke of Devonshire and duke of Bolton were not of 
 the cabinet. 
 
 PELLS (from pellis, skin), receipts on parch- 
 ment rolls deposited in the court of exchequer. 
 By an act passed in 1834, the office of clerk of the 
 pells was abolished, and a comptroller-general 
 appointed. "Pell Records," or "Issues of the 
 Exchequer," or payments made out of his revenue 
 bv James I., were published by the government in 
 1836. 
 
 PELOPIUM, see Niobium. 
 
 PELOPONNESUS (the island of Pelops), S. 
 Greece, termed Morea in the 13th century, said to 
 have been settled by Pelops about 1283 B.C. Pelo- 
 ponnesiax War continued for twenty-seven years 
 between the Athenians and the people of the Pelo- 
 ponnesus, with their respective allies, and is the most 
 famous of the wars of Greece. It began by an at- 
 tempt of the Bceotians to surprise Platoea, 431 B.C., 
 on 7 May, and ended 404 by the taking of Athens 
 by the Lacedaemonians. 
 
 PELUSIUM (now Tineh), formerly Sin, the 
 key of Egypt. Here, in 525 B.C., Psammeticus III. 
 was defeated by Cambyses, the Persian, who thereby 
 obtained possession of the kingdom. Pelusium 
 surrendered to Alexander, 2,2>3> > was taken by the 
 Persians, 309; by Antiochus, 173; by Augustus, 
 30 B.C. ; and after a protracted resistance by Am- 
 rou, the Saracen, a.d. 638. 
 
 PEMBEOKE (S. Wales). A county palatine 
 till 1536. The royal dockyard at Milford was 
 moved to Pembrokein 1814. Pembroke College 
 and Hall, see under Oxford and Cambridge. 
 
 PENAL LAWS, see Criminal Lotos and 
 Roman Catholics. Penal servitude was substituted 
 for transportation by acts passed in 1853 and 1857, 
 and amended in 1864. 
 
 PENANCE, a sacrament in the Roman church, 
 arose out of the practice of auricular confession 
 (which see). The council of Trent, in its 14th ses- 
 sion (1551), decreed that every one is accursed who 
 shall affirm that this sacrament was not instituted 
 by Christ. 
 
PENANG. 
 
 507 PEECEVAL ADMINISTEATION. 
 
 PENANG, or Peince of Wales's Island, 
 
 was given up to the East India Company in 1786, 
 by captain F. Light, who received it as a marriage 
 portion with the daughter of the king of Keddah. 
 After several changes it became one of the Straits 
 Settlements {which see). 
 
 PENDULUMS. The isochronous property 
 of the pendulum is said to have been applied to 
 clocks by Galileo about 1639, and by Richard Harris 
 about 1641. Christian Huyghens claimed this dis- 
 covery, 1658. See Clocks. George Graham in- 
 vented the compensating pendulum, 1715. Experi- 
 ments were made to determine the density of the 
 earth by pendulums by Mr. G. B. Airy (aftds. as- 
 tronomer royal), and others, in a mine in Corn- 
 wall, in 1826 and 1828 ; and at Horton colliery in 
 1854. In 1 85 1, M. Foucault demonstrated the 
 rotation of the earth by the motion of a pendulum. 
 
 PENINSULAS "WAR, see under Spain, 
 1808-14. 
 
 PENITENTS, see Magdalens. The Penitents 
 of the name of Jesus in Spain, where a congregation 
 of persons who had led a licentious life, formed 
 about 1550. The penitents of Orvieto were formed 
 into an order of nuns about 1662. The London 
 Female Penitentiary, Pentonville-road, was estab- 
 lished in 1807 ; and the British Penitent Female 
 Refuge at Cambridge Heath, Hackney, in 1829. 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA (N. America), the first 
 state in the Union in regard to mineral wealth. Sir 
 "Walter Baleigh was the first adventurer who planted a 
 colony on these shores, in the reign of Elizabeth. 
 Pennsylvania was granted by Charles II. to the 
 duke of York, 1664 ; and it was sold to the Penn 
 family, 1 68 1. Pennsylvania was afterwards pur- 
 chased from the Indians by the celebrated William 
 Penn (son of admiral Penn), who went out from 
 England with a number of colonists ; from which 
 period the settlement gradually increased. Mr. 
 Penn granted a charter in May, 1701, but the emi- 
 grants from the Low Countries refused it, and 
 separated themselves from the province of Pennsyl- 
 vania. They afterwards had their own assembly, 
 in which the governor of Pennsylvania presided. 
 This state adopted an independent constitution in 
 1776, and established the present in 1790. It was 
 strongly unionist during the civil war, 1861-5 ; see 
 United States of America, and Petroleum. Popu- 
 lation in i860, 2,906,370; in 1870, 3,521,791. 
 
 PENNY. The ancient silver penny was the 
 first silver coin struck in England, and the only one 
 current among the Anglo-Saxons. The penny until 
 the reign of Edward I. was struck with a cross, so 
 deeply indented that it might be easily parted into 
 two for halfpence, and into four for farthings, and 
 hence these names. Copper penny and two-penny 
 pieces were coined by Boulton and Watt, at Soho, 
 Birmingham, in 1797, and were accounted the 
 finest of our copper currency; see Coins, &c. — 
 Penny-Post ; see Post-Office. — The Penny 
 Magazine began in 1832; the Penny Cyclopedia 
 in 1833 (supplements in 1846 and 1858). The 
 Penny Receipt stamp was appointed in 1853, and 
 in 1850 a penny stamp was directed to be placed on 
 bankers' cheques. — Penny Banks (in 1861 about 
 200) were established about 1850. — Penny Read- 
 ings, for the working classes, became general in 
 1859. Carpenter's " Penny Readings," published 
 in 1865-7. 
 
 PENEUDDOCK'S REBELLION on be- 
 half of Charles II. was suppressed, and colonel John 
 Penruddock himself executed, 16 May, 1655. 
 
 PENSIONS. The crown's power of granting 
 them, often much abused, was materially checked 
 by statute 1 Anne, c. 1 (1702). 
 
 English pension list fixed at 95,000?. . . . 1781 
 Irish pension list said to amount to 489,000?. . . 1793 
 Provision made by parliament to reduce all the pen- 
 sion lists of the united kingdom from 145,000?. to 
 
 a maximum of 75,000? 1830 
 
 A committee appointed to define the proper persons 
 to whom pensions should be granted : it reported 
 in favour of servants of the crown and public, and 
 also of those who " by their useful discoveries in 
 science and attainments in literature and the arts, 
 have merited the gracious consideration of their 
 sovereign and the gratitude of their country " . 183+ 
 The queen empowered to grant annually new pen- 
 sions to the amount of 1200?. .... 1837 
 The political offices pension act passed . 9 Aug. 1869 
 The pensions commutation act passed . 29 June, 1871. 
 
 PENTAGEAPH, see Pantagraph. 
 
 PENTAMETEE VEESE (five feet), first 
 used about the 7th century, b.c. ; see Elegy. 
 
 PENTATEUCH, the five books of Moses, pro- 
 bably written about 1452 B.C. 
 
 PENTECOST signifies the fiftieth, and is the 
 solemn festival of the Jews, called also " the feast of 
 weeks," because it was celebrated fifty days, or seven 
 weeks after the feast of the Passover, 1491 B.C. {Lev. 
 xxiii. 15 ; Pxod. xxxiv. 22) ; see Whitsuntide. 
 
 PENTLAND HILLS (near Edinburgh). 
 Here the Scotch presbyterians, since called Came- 
 ronians {which see), who had risen against the go- 
 vernment on account of the establishment of episco- 
 pacy, were defeated by the royal troops, 28 Nov. - 
 1666. 
 
 PENZANCE, Cornwall. The town was burnt 
 by the Spaniards, July,' 1595. It was taken by 
 Fairfax in 1646. Here sir Humphry Davy was 
 born, 17 Dec. 1778, and here was inaugurated his 
 memorial statue, 17 Oct. 1872. 
 
 PEOPLE. The duke of Norfolk and C. J. Fox, 
 at dinner in 1798, gave as a toast "the majesty of 
 the people," for which their names were struck off 
 the list of privy councillors. A " people's petition " 
 was presented to parliament by Mr. T. Duncombe, 
 and rejected, 2 May, 1842. "People's Parks," 
 principally through private liberality, have been 
 opened, since 1846, at Manchester, Halifax, Bir- 
 mingham, Sheffield, Dundee, Bradford, Hull, Bath, 
 Bolton, Liverpool, Leeds, &c. {which see). 
 
 PEPPEE was used- 1 by the Greeks ; licenses to 
 sell pepper abolished, 1869. 
 
 PEPSIN, a peculiar organic substance found by 
 Schwamm in the gastric juice, and named by him 
 from pepsis, digestion. It was experimented on by 
 M. Blondlot in 1843, and has since been prescribed 
 as a medicine. 
 
 PEEA, a suburb of Constantinople, the residence 
 of the British and other ambassadors ; has frequently 
 been destroyed by fire; see Turkey, 2 Aug. 1831, 
 and 5 June, 1870. 
 
 PEECEVAL ADMINISTEATION- It 
 
 commenced on the dissolution of the duke of Port- 
 land's, through his death, 30 Oct. 1809. Mr. Per- 
 ceval was assassinated in the lobby of the house of 
 commons, by Bellingham, 11 May, 1812. The earl 
 of Liverpool succeeded as premier. 
 
PERCUSSION CAPS. 
 
 508 
 
 PERSECUTIONS. 
 
 Spencer Perceval [born 1762 ; chancellor of exchequer, 
 1807], first lord of the treasury, chancellor of the exchequer, 
 and chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. 
 
 Lord Eldon, lord chancellor. 
 
 Earl Camden, lord president. 
 
 Earl of Westmoreland, lord privy seal. 
 
 Richard Ryder, marquis of Wellesley, and earl of Liver- 
 pool, home, foreign, and colonial secretaries. 
 
 Lord Mulgrave, admiralty. 
 
 Mr. Dumas, and earl Bathurst, boards of control and 
 trade. 
 
 Eai-1 of Chatham, ordnance. 
 
 Viscount Palmerston, sccretary-at-war, &c. 
 
 PERCUSSION CAPS, see Fire-arms. 
 
 PERCY FAMILY. William de Percy ob- 
 tained lands in Yorkshire from William the Con- 
 queror, and died at Antioch about 1096. 
 
 The heiress of the last baron Percy married Josceline 
 de Louvaine, son of Godfrey, duke of Brabant, in 
 the reign of Henry II 1154-89 
 
 Henry de Percy, their descendant, created earl of 
 Northumberland in 1377 
 
 Many of his descendants were slain during the wars 
 of the Roses. 
 
 Lady Elizabeth Percy, the heiress of Josceline 
 Percy, who died 1670, married Charles, duke of 
 Somerset. 
 
 Lady Elizabeth Percy, heiress of their son Algernon 
 Seymour, duke of Northumberland, married sir 
 Hugh Smithson, created duke of Northumber- 
 land in I7 66 
 
 Their descendant, duke Algernon, died without 
 issue, 12 Feb. 1865, and was succeeded by his 
 cousin, George Percy, earl of Beverley. 
 
 The Percy Society, for the publication of ancient 
 ballads, &c., named after Dr. Percy, bishop of 
 Dromore (died 1811), who published "ballads, was 
 established in 1840, published 94 little volumes, 
 and was dissolved ^52 
 
 PERED (Hungary). Here the Hungarians 
 under Gorgey were defeated by Wohlgemuth and 
 the Eussians, 21 June, 1849. 
 
 PEREKOP, an isthmus, five miles broad, 
 connecting the Crimea with the mainland. It was 
 called by the Tartars Orkapou, " gate of the Isth- 
 mus," which the Eussians changed to its present 
 name, which signifies a barren ditch. The lines 
 across the isthmus were forced by the Eussian mar- 
 shal Munich, May, 1736, and the fortress was taken 
 by Lacy, July, 1 738. It was again strongly fortified 
 by the khan, but was again taken by the Eussians 
 in 1771, who have since retained it. 
 
 PERE-LA-CHAISE, see Cemeteries. 
 
 PERFECTION, see Illuminati. 
 
 . PERFUMERY. In Exodus xxx. (1490 B.C.), 
 directions are given for making the holy incense. 
 Philp Augustus of France granted a charter to the 
 master perfumers in 1190. Perfumes became fash- 
 ionable in England in the reign of Elizabeth. In 
 i860 there were about forty manufacturing per- 
 fumers in London ; in Paris about eighty. No 
 such trade as a perfumer was known in Scotland in 
 1763. Creech. A stamp-tax was laid on various 
 articles of perfumery in England, and the vendor 
 was obliged to take out a licence in 1786. At the 
 corner of Beaufort-buildings, in the Strand, resided 
 Lilly, the perfumer, mentioned in the Spectator. 
 Leigh. 
 
 PERGAMOS, see Seven Churches. 3. 
 
 PERIODICAL LITERATURE, see News- 
 papers, Magazines, and Reviews. 
 
 PERIPATETIC PHILOSOPHY, see Ly- 
 ceum. 
 
 PERJURY. The early Eomans threw the 
 offender headlong from the Tarpeian precipice ; and 
 the Greeks set a mark of infamy upon him. After 
 the empire became Christian, any one who swore 
 falsely upon the Gospels, was to have his tongue cut 
 out. The canons of the primitive church enjoined 
 eleven years' penance ; and in some states the false 
 swearer became liable to the punishment he charged 
 upon the innocent. In England perjury was pun- 
 ished with the pillory, fine, and imprisonment, 
 1562. By the Abolition of Oaths bill, persons 
 making a false declaration are deemed guilty of a 
 misdemeanor ; Act 5 & 6 Will. IV. cc. 60 and 61, 9 
 Sept. 1835. Perhaps the greatest perjurer in mo- 
 dern times was Titus Oates ; see Oates. A woman 
 named Alice Grey was convicted of many perjuries 
 in 1856. See Trials, 1873. 
 
 PERKINS' METALLIC TRACTORS, see 
 
 Animal Magnetism. 
 
 PERMANENT COMMITTEES- One was 
 
 appointed, 15 Sept. 1871, by the French national 
 assembly to watch over the proceedings of the go- 
 vernment during a recess. It consisted of 25 per- 
 sons of various parties. A similar committee of the 
 Spanish cortes, appointed 22 March, 1873, was per- 
 emptorily dissolved by the government 22 April 
 following. 
 
 PERMISSIVE BILL (which would give 
 power to two-thirds of the ratepayers of a parish to 
 refuse licences for the sale of intoxicating liquors), 
 advocated by the United Kingdom Alliance party, 
 was rejected by the house of commons, 8 June, 1864 ; 
 12 May, 1869 (193-87); 17 May, 1871 (206-124); 
 8 May, 1872; (321-81) 7 May, 1873. 
 
 PERONNE (N. France). Louis XL of France, 
 having placed himself in the power of the duke of 
 Burgundy, here was forced to sign a treaty, con- 
 iivming those of Arras and Conflans, and recognising 
 the duke's independence; 14 Oct. 1468. The not- 
 ables declared the treaty invalid and the duke a 
 traitor, Nov. 1470 ; see JDucrug. 
 
 PERPENDICULAR, see Gothic Archi- 
 tecture. 
 
 PERPETUAL EDICTS, see Edicts. 
 
 PERPETUAL MOTIOV For this purpose 
 machines have been constructed by the marquis of 
 Worcester and many others, although the impossi- 
 bility of attaining it was demonstrated by sir Isaac 
 Newton and De la Hire, and affirmed by the academy 
 of sciences at Paris, 1775. It is still the object of 
 experiment by half-taught persons. 
 
 PERSECUTIONS. Historians usually reckon 
 ten general persecutions of the Christians ; see Jews, 
 Heretics, Inquisition, Huguenots, Protestants, Mas- 
 sacres, Bartholomew, St., &c. 
 
 I. Under Nero, who, having set tire to Rome, threw 
 the odium upon the Christians ; multitudes were 
 massacred ; wrapt up in the skins of wild beasts, 
 and torn and devoured by dogs ; crucified, burnt 
 alive, &c. 64-68 
 
 II. Under Domitian 95 
 
 III. Under Trajan IO o 
 
 IV. Under Marcus Aurelius 166-177 
 
 V. Under Septimus Severus .... 199-204 
 
 VI. Under Maximus 235-8 
 
 VII. Under Decius, more bloody than any preceding 250-2 
 
 VIII. Under Valerian 25S-60 
 
 IX. Under Aurelian 275 
 
 X. Under Diocletian, who prohibited divine wor- 
 ship ; houses tilled with Christians were set on 
 fire, and droves of them were bound together with 
 ropes and cast into the sea .... 303-13 
 
PEPSEPOLIS. 
 
 509 
 
 PEBSIA. 
 
 PERSEPOLIS, the ancient splendid capital of 
 Persia. Alexanderis accused of settingfire to it, Avhile 
 intoxicated, 331 B.C. Euins of this city still exist. 
 
 PERSIA or Tratv, in the Bible called Elam, is 
 said to have received its appellation from Perseus, 
 the son of Perseus and Andromeda, who settled 
 here, and established a petty sovereignty. The 
 name is more probably of Indian origin. Persia 
 ■was included in the first Assyrian monarchy, 900 
 B.C. When that empire was dismembered by Arbaces, 
 &c, it appertained to Media. Population of the 
 present kingdom, about 5,000,000. 
 
 .Zoroaster, king of Bactria, founder of the Magi, b.c. 21 15 
 Zoroaster II., Persian philosopher, generally con- 
 founded with the king of Bactria . . . . 1082 
 
 Cyrus, king of Persia, 559 ; overthrows the Medo- 
 Babylonian monarchy, about 557 ; conquers Asia- 
 Minor about 548 ; becomes master of the east, 
 536 ; killed in a war with the Massagetse . . 529 
 Cambyses, his son, king, 529 ; conquers Egypt 
 
 (which see) 525 
 
 The false Smerdis killed ; Darius Hystaspes king, 
 
 521 ; conquers Babylon 517 
 
 Conquest of Ionia ; Miletus destroyed . . . . 498 
 
 Darius equips a fleet of 600 sail, with an army of 
 
 300,000 soldiers to invade the Peloponnesus, 
 
 which is defeated at Marathon (which see) . . 490 
 
 Xerxes (king, 485) ; recovers Egypt, 484 ; enters 
 
 Greece in the spring at the head of an immense 
 
 force ; battle of Thermopylfe 480 
 
 Xerxes enters Athens, after having lost 200,000 of 
 his troops, and is defeated in a naval engagement 
 
 off Salamis ,, 
 
 Persians defeated at Mycale and Platasa . 22 Sept. 479 
 Cimon, son of Miltiades, with a fleet of 250 vessels, 
 takes several cities from the Persians, and de- 
 stroys their navy, consisting of about 340 sail, 
 
 near Cyprus 470 
 
 Xerxes is murdered in his bed by Artabanus . . 465 
 Artaxerxes I. Longimanus, king, 464; marries Esther, 458 
 Xerxes I. king, slain by Sogdianus, 425 ; who is de- 
 posed by Darius II. , Nothus 424 
 
 Artaxerxes II.Mnemon, king, 405 ; battle of Cunaxa, 
 
 Cyrus the younger killed 401 
 
 Betreat of the 10,000 Greeks (see Retreat) . ,, 
 
 "War with Greece, 399 ; invasion of Persia . . . 396 
 Peace of Antalcidas (which see) .... 387 
 
 Artaxerxes III. (Ochus) kills all his relations at his 
 
 accession 359 
 
 He is killed by his minister Bagoas, and his son, 
 
 Arses, made king 338 
 
 Bagoas kills him and sejs up Darius III. , Codoma- 
 
 nus, by whom he himself is killed . . . . 336 
 Alexander the Great enters Asia ; defeats the Per- 
 sians at the river Granicus, 334 ; near Issus, 333 ; 
 
 at Arbela 331 
 
 Darius III. treacherously killed by Bessus . . . ,, 
 Persia partly re-conquered from the Greeks ; sub- 
 jugated by the Parthians 250 
 
 Artaxerxes I. founds the Sassanides dynasty ; re- a.d. 
 
 stores kingdom of Persia 226 
 
 Beligion of Zoroaster restored and Christianity per- 
 secuted 227 
 
 Artaxerxes murdered ; succeeded by Sapor I. ; Ar- 
 menia becomes independent under Chosroes . 240 
 •Sapor conquers Mesopotamia, 258 ; repels the Ro- 
 mans and slays the emperor Valerian . . . 260 
 Sapor assassinated ; succeeded by Hormisdas I. ; 
 
 who favours the Manichees 272 
 
 Varanes I. (Baharam) persecutes them and the 
 
 Christians 273 
 
 Varanes II. defeated by the emperor Probus ; makes 
 
 peace 277 
 
 Persia invaded by the emperor Carus, who conquers 
 
 Seleucia and Ctesiphon 283 
 
 Varanes III. king, 293 ; Narses .... 294 
 
 The emperor Galerius conquers Mesopotamia, &c. . 298 
 
 Peace with Diocletian ,, 
 
 Hormisdas II. king 301 or 303 
 
 Ormuz built about 303 
 
 Sapor II. king, 309 ; proscribes Christianity, 326 : 
 makes war successfully with Rome for the lost 
 provinces 337-360 
 
 The emperor Julian invades Persia ; slain near the 
 Tigris, 26 June ; his successor Jovian purchases 
 his retreat by surrendering provinces . . . 363 
 Sapor annexes Armenia, 365 ; and Iberia, 366 ; 
 
 makes peace with Rome 372 
 
 Artaxerxes II. king, 380 ; Sapor III. . . . 385 
 Armenia and Iberia independent . . . . 386 
 Varanes IV, 390; Yezdejird I., 404; conquers Ar- 
 menia 41:2 
 
 Varanes V , 420, persecutes Christians ; conquers 
 Arabia Felix, 421 ; makes peace with the Eastern 
 
 Empire for 100 years 422 
 
 Armenia again united to Persia .... 428 
 
 "Wars with Huns, Turks, &c 430-2 
 
 Yezdejird II. king, 440 ; Hormisdas III. , 457 ; civil 
 war, 458-86 ; Perozeking, 458 ; Pallas, 484 ; Kobad, 
 486 ; Jamaspes, 497 ; Kobad again . . . 497 
 His son, Chosroes I. king ; long wars with Justinian 
 
 aud his successors, with various fortune . . 531-79 
 Successful campaigns of Belisarius . . . 541-2 
 
 Hormisdas IV continues the war ; degrades his 
 general, Baharam, who deposes him; but is 
 
 eventually defeated jqo 
 
 Chosroes II. 591 ; renews the war with success, 603 ; 
 
 Egypt and Asia Minor subdued . . . 614-6 
 Chosroes totally defeated by the emperor Heraclius, 
 
 who advances on Persia g 27 
 
 Chosroes put to death by his son, Siroes, 628 ; Ar- 
 taxerxes III. king, 629 ; Purandokt, daughter of 
 Chosroes, reigns, 630 ; Shenendeh, her lover, 631 ; 
 Arzemdokt, her sister, 631 ; Kesra, 631 ; Ferokh- 
 
 dad, 632 ; Yezdejird III g 32 
 
 Persia invaded by the Arabs ; the king flies, 651 • 
 is betrayed to them and is put to death, and his 
 
 army exterminated g S2 
 
 Persia becomes the seat of the Shiite or Fat'imite 
 
 Mahometans ggj 
 
 The Taherite dynasty established, 813; the Sof- 
 
 feride, 872 ; the Samanide go2 
 
 Persia subdued by Togrul Beg and the Seljukian 
 Turks, 1038 ; who are expelled, 1194 ; subdued by 
 Genghis Khan and the Mongols . . . r22 -v 
 
 Bagdad made the capital " „.i 
 
 Persia invaded by Timour, 1380 ; ravaged' by him '. 1300 
 
 Conquered by the Turcomans j^gg 
 
 Who are expelled by the Shiites, who establish the 
 
 Sophi dynasty under Ismail I I5or 
 
 Ispahan made the capital ' I5go 
 
 The Turks take Bagdad ; great massacre . ! 1638 
 
 Georgia revolts to Russia \ j-jjL 
 
 Teheran made the capital . . .".".; 1706 
 
 War with Russia " 1826-0 
 
 Rupture with England through the Persians taking 
 
 Herat (which see), 25 Oct. ; war declared 1 Nov. 1856 
 Persians defeated ; Bushire taken . . 8-10 Dec. 
 General Outram defeats the Persians at Kooshab 8 
 
 26 March, 1857 
 14 April, „ 
 June, „ 
 July, ,, 
 
 9 Sept. 1858 
 1865 
 
 Feb. ; and at Mohammerah . 
 
 Peace ratified at Teheran . 
 
 Commercial treaty with France, &c. 
 
 Herat given up by the Persians . 
 
 The shah re-organizes the government 
 
 Railways in process of formation 
 
 Electric telegraph introduced . . . . ', ^867 
 
 Great sufferings through three years' drought.'ac'- 
 companied by fever and cholera ; about 16,000 
 persons perished at Ispahan, &c. . July-Oct. 1871 
 
 Collection in London for relief ; above 13,000^ sub- 
 scribed . . . . Oct. 1871— Feb. 1872 
 
 Concession to baron Julius de Reuter to make rail- 
 ways, waterworks, &c. for 70 years, with great 
 power 2S juiy l8 
 
 Prosperity restored through a good harvest, March 1873 
 
 The shah starts to visit Europe, 19 April ; arrives at 
 St. Petersburg, 22 May ; at Berlin, 31 May ; at 
 Brussels, 16 June ; at London . . x $ June 
 
 A.D. SHAHS. 
 
 1502. Ismail or Ishmael : conquers Georgia, 15™ 
 
 1523. Tamasp or Thamas I. 
 
 1576. Ismail II. Meerza. 
 
 1577. Mahommed Meerza. 
 
 1582. Abbas I. the Great ; made a treaty with the Eng- 
 lish, 1612 ; died in 1628. 
 
 1628. Shah Sophi. 
 
 1641. Abbas II. 
 
 1666. Shah Sophi II. 
 
 1694. Hussein ; deposed. 
 
 1722. Mahmoud, chief of the Afghans. 
 
 1725. Ashraff the Usurper ; slain in battle. 
 
PERSON. 
 
 510 
 
 PESCHIEEA. 
 
 1730. Tamasp or Thamaa II. ; recovered the throne of 
 his ancestors from the preceding. 
 [Thamas-Kouli-Khan, his general, obtained great 
 successes in this and the subsequent reigns.] 
 
 1732. Abbas III., infant son of Tamasp, under the re- 
 gency of Kouli-Khan, who afterwards caused 
 himself to be proclaimed king as 
 
 1736. Nadir Shah (the victorious king) ; conquers India, 
 1739 ; assassinated at Korassan by his nephew. 
 
 1747. Shah Rokh. 
 
 1751. [Interregnum.] 
 
 1759. Kureem Khan. 
 
 1779. Many competitors for the throne, and assassina- 
 tions till — 
 
 1795. Aga-Mahommed Khan obtains the power, and 
 founds the reigning (Turcoman) dynasty ; assas- 
 sinated, 1797. 
 
 1798. Futteh Ali-Shah. 
 
 1834. Mahomnied-Shah, grandson of Futteh ; died, 10 
 Sept. 1848. 
 
 1848. Nasr-ul-Deen, or Nassr-ed-Deen, son ; bom 1830 ; 
 the present shah of Persia ; said to be an able 
 prince and friendly to Britain. 
 
 PERSON, Offences against- The statute 
 
 laws respecting these were consolidated andamended 
 in 1861. 
 
 PERSPECTIVE in drawing was observed by 
 the Van Eycks (1426-46) and treated scientifically 
 by Michael Angelo, Lionardo da Vinci, and Albert 
 Diirer, early in the 16th century. Guido Ubaldo 
 published a treatise in 1608 ; Dubreuil's treatise 
 (the " Jesuits' perspective") appeared in 1642, and 
 the mathematical theory was demonstrated by 
 Brook Taylor in 1731. 
 
 PERTH (the old capital of Scotland), said to have 
 been founded by Agricola, about a.d. 70. It was 
 besieged by the Regent Robert, 1339. On 20 Feb. 
 1437, James I. was murdered at the Black Friars' 
 monastery here, bj- Robert Graham and the earl of 
 Athol, for which they suffered condign punishment. 
 Gowiie's conspiracy occurred here, 6 Aug. 1600. 
 Perth was taken from the French garrison by the 
 reformers, 26 June, 1559. The " Articles of Perth'' 
 relating to religious ceremonies, were agreed to by 
 the General Assembly of Scotland, 25 Aug. 1618. 
 Perth was taken by Cromwell in 1651 ; and by the 
 earl of Mar after the battle of Dunblane, in 1 715. 
 The statue of the prince consort was inaugurated in 
 the presence of the queen, 30 Aug. 1864. 
 
 PERU (S. America), was long governed by 
 incas, said to be descended from Manco Capac, who 
 ruled in the nth century. Population, about 
 2,500,000. 
 
 Peru explored and conquered by Francisco Pizarro 
 
 and Almagro i5 2 4"33 
 
 The last inea, Atahualpa, put to death . 29 Aug. 1533 
 Pizarro assassinated at Lima . . 26 June, 1541 
 Fruitless insurrection of the Peruvians under Tapac 
 
 Amaru, an inca 1780 
 
 San Martin proclaims the independence of Peru, 
 
 28 July, 1821 
 
 "War against Spain 14 Jan. 1824 
 
 Bolivar made dictator Feb. „ 
 
 Mariano Prado president ... 28 Nov. „ 
 The Spaniards defeated at Ayacucho, and freedom 
 
 of Peru and Chili achieved . . . 9 Dec. ,, 
 The new Peruvian constitution signed by the presi- 
 dent of the republic. .... 21 March, 1828 
 "War with Columbia ; treaty of peace . 28 Feb. 1829 
 After a succession of tierce party conflicts, general 
 Ramon Castilla becomes president ; firm and 
 
 politic 1845 
 
 His successor, Echenique, deposed ; Castilla again 
 
 president 1855 
 
 New constitution, 1856 ; modified . . . . i860 
 Population (without Indians) about 2J millions . 1859 
 Marshal San Ramon president . . 24 Oct. 1862 
 
 General J. A. Pezet president ... 3 April, 1863 
 
 The Spanish admiral Pinzon took possession of the 
 Chincha-isles (valuable for guano) belonging to 
 Peru, stating that he would occupy them till the 
 claims of his government on Peru were satisfied, 
 
 14 April, 1864 
 
 American congress at Lima ; plenipotentiaries from 
 Chili and other states meet to concert measures 
 for defence against European powers . Nov. ,, 
 
 Negotiations followed by peace with Spain, 28 Jan. ; 
 Chincha islands restored . . .3 Feb. 1865 
 
 Revolt against president Pezet, 28 Feb. ; several 
 provinces soon lost May, ,, 
 
 The insurgents declare war against Spain . Oct. ,, 
 
 They take Lima ; Pezet flies, and Canseco becomes 
 president Nov. ,, 
 
 Peru joins Chili, and declares war against Spain, 
 
 Feb. 1866 
 
 The Spanish admiral Nunez, in his attempt to bom- 
 bard Callao, repulsed and wounded . 2 May, ,, 
 
 The Spaniards quit Peruvian waters . 10 May, ,, 
 
 Riots at Lima against religious toleration 15 April, 1867 
 
 Invasion of ex-president Castilla, May ; dies of fever, 
 
 30 May, ,, 
 Mariano- Ignace Prado resigns dictatorship ; made 
 
 provisional president, 15 Feb. ; proclaimed, 
 
 31 Au g- „ 
 Insurrection against Prado : he resigns, 7 Jan. ; suc- 
 ceeded by gen. La Puerta ; Pezet's treaty with 
 Spain confirmed 18 Jan. 1868 
 
 Col. J. Balta president 1 Aug. ,, 
 
 Several towns in Peru suffered by great earthquakes 
 
 (see Earthquakes) .... 13-15 Aug. ,, 
 Gold mines discovered at Huacho . . . Oct. 1871 
 Industrial exhibition opened at Lima . July, 1872 
 Military insurrection at Lima : Tomas Gutierrez, 
 minister of war, makes himself dictator, and im- 
 prisons president Balta . . . .22 July, , , 
 Unsupported by the people, and not recognised by 
 diplomatic representatives, he orders Balta to be 
 shot ; is himself compelled to fly ; caught ; killed 
 by the people, and hanged to a lamp-post ; col. 
 Zavallos, vice-president, assumes the government ; 
 order restored ; about 200 lives were lost during 
 
 the coup d'etat 26 July, ,, 
 
 Prado elected president by the people, assumed office, 
 
 2 Aug. „ 
 
 PERUGIA, a city of central Italy ; as Perousia, 
 anciently one of the Etruscan confederation. It 
 allied itself with the Samnites, but was ruined by 
 two defeats by the Romans, 309 and 295 B.C. ft 
 was taken by Octavius Caesar from the adherents 
 of Antony ; many of whom were immolated on altars 
 by their victor, 41. Leo X. took Perugia from the 
 rival families Oddiand Baglioni, in a.d. 1520. An 
 insurrection here against the pope was put down by 
 the Swiss with great cruelty, 20 June, 1859. Perugia 
 was taken by the Sardinian general Fanti, in Sept. 
 i860, when the cruel papal general Schmidt and 
 1600 men were made prisoners. 
 
 PERUKE or "WIG- The ancients used false 
 hair, but the present peruke was first worn in France 
 and Italy about 1620 ; and introduced into England 
 about 1660. 
 
 It is said that either bishop Blomfield (of London) or 
 Tomline (of Lincoln), obtained permission for the 
 bishops to discontinue wearing their wigs in parlia- 
 ment, of which they gradually availed themselves. On 
 account of the heat, sir J. P. Wilde, and other judges 
 and several counsel, appeared in court without wigs, 
 22, 23 July, 1868. 
 
 PERUVIAN BARK, see Jesuits' Bark. 
 
 PESCHIERA, a strong Austrian fortress, on 
 an island in the Mincio, near the Lago de Garda, 
 N. Italy. It has been frequently taken by siege : — 
 by the French, 1796; by the Austrians and Russians, 
 1799; by the French again, 1801 ; given up by 
 them, 1814 ; taken by the Sardinians, May, 1848 ; 
 retaken by Radetsky," March, 1849. The Sardinians 
 were preparing to besiege it in July, 1859, when 
 
PESSIMISM. * 
 
 511 
 
 PETERSWALDEN. 
 
 peace was made. It was given up to the Italians, 
 9 Oct. 1866 ; see Quadrilateral. 
 
 PESSIMISM, see Optimism. 
 
 PESTALOZZIAN SYSTEM of education 
 was devised by John Henry Pestalozzi, born at Zurich 
 in Switzerland, in 1746, died 17 Feb. 1827. In 1775 
 he turned his farm into a school for educating poor 
 children in reading, writing, and working ; but he 
 did not succeed. In 1798 he established an orphan 
 school where he began with the mutual instruc- 
 tion, or monitorial system, since adopted by Lan- 
 caster ; but his school was soon after turned into 
 a hospital for the Austrian army. In 1802, in 
 conjunction with Fellenberg, he established his 
 school at Hofwyl, which at first was successful, but 
 eventually declined through mismanagement. 
 
 PESTH (Hungary), built about 889, on the 
 east bank of the Danube, opposite Buda, was re- 
 peatedly taken and besieged in the wars of Hungary, 
 particularly with the Turks. The great insurrec- 
 tion broke out here, and the minister, count Lam- 
 berg, was killed, 28 Sept. 1848. Buda-Pesth was 
 taken by the imperialists, 5 Jan. 1849. The Hun- 
 garians afterwards defeated the Austrians, who were 
 obliged to evacuate it 18 April, same year ; see 
 Hungary. 
 
 PESTILENCE, see Plague. 
 
 PETALISM (from the Greek petalon, a leaf), 
 a mode of deciding upon the guilt of citizens of 
 Syracuse, similar to the Athenian ostracism, the 
 name being written on a leaf (generally of an 
 olive) instead of a shell, about 460 B.C. If guilt 
 were established the sentence was usually banish- 
 ment. 
 
 PETARD, an instrument whose invention is 
 ascribed to the Huguenots in 1579. Petards of 
 metal, nearly in the shape of a hat, were employed 
 to blow up gates or other barriers, and also in 
 countermines to break through into the enemy's 
 galleries. Cahors was taken by Henry IV. by 
 means of petards, in 1580, when it is said they were 
 first used. 
 
 PETER THE WILD BOY, a savage creature 
 found in the forest of Hertswold, electorate of 
 Hanover, when George I. and his friends were 
 hunting. He was found walking on his hands and 
 feet, climbing trees like a squirrel, and feeding on 
 grass and moss, Nov. 1725. At this time he was 
 supposed to be thirteen years old. He died, while 
 under the care of an English farmer, Feb. 1785. 
 
 The king caused him to taste of all the dishes at the royal 
 table ; but he preferred wild plants, leaves, and the 
 bark of trees, which he had lived on from his infancy. 
 No efforts of the. many philosophic persons about 
 court could entirely vary his savage habits, or cause 
 him to utter one distinct syllable. Lord Monboddo 
 represented him to be a proof of the hypothesis that 
 "man in a state of nature is a mere animal." 
 
 PETERBOROUGH, anciently Medesham- 
 stede (Northamptonshire) ; obtained its present 
 name from a king of Mercia founding an abbey and 
 dedicating it to St. Peter about 655. The church, 
 destroyed by the Danes, was rebuilt with great 
 beauty. The bishopric erected by Henry VIII., 
 out of the lands of dissolved monasteries in the 
 diocese of Lincoln. The first bishop was John 
 Chambers, the last abbot of Peterborough, 1541 . The 
 see was valued in the king's books at 419?. 19*. jid. 
 Present income 4500^. 
 
 RECENT BISHOPS. 
 
 1794. Spencer Madan ; died, 8 Oct. 1813. 
 
 1813. John Parsons ; died, 12 March, 1819. 
 
 1819. Herbert Marsh ; died, 1 May, 1839. 
 
 1839. George Davys ; died, 8 April, 1864. 
 
 1864. Francis Jeune, May ; died 20 Aug. 1868. 
 
 1868. Wm. Connor Magee ; elected 31 Oct. 
 
 PETERLOO, see Manchester Reform Meeting, 
 16 Aug. 1819. 
 
 PETERSBURG, ST., the modern capital of 
 Kussia, founded by Peter the Great, 27 May, 1703. 
 He built a small hut for himself, and some wooden 
 hovels. In 1710, the count Golovkin built the first 
 house of brick; and the next year, the emperor, 
 with his own hands, laid the foundation of a house 
 of the same material. The seat of empire was- 
 transferred from Moscow to this place in 1 71 1. 
 Here, in 1736, a fire consumed 2000 houses; and 
 in 1780, another fire consumed 11,000 houses; this 
 last fire was occasioned by lightning. Again, in 
 June, 1796, a large magazine of naval stores and 
 100 vessels were destroyed. The winter palace was 
 burnt to the ground, 29 Dec. 1837. The railway to- 
 Moscow was finished in 1851 ; to Berlin, opened 
 5 May, 1862. The university was closed in Oct. 
 1861, on account of the riotous conduct of the 
 students. On 10 June, 1862, property to the 
 amount of nearly a million sterling was destroyed 
 by fire. — Petersburg, Virginia, see United States, 
 1864. 
 
 Peace of St. Petersburg, between Eussia and 
 Prussia, the former restoring all her conquests to 
 the latter, signed 5 May, 1762 
 
 Treaty of St. Petersburg for the partition of Poland 
 (see article, Partition Treaties), . . 5 Aug. 1772 
 
 Treaty of St. Petersburg, led to a coalition against 
 France 8 Sept. 1805. 
 
 Treaty of Alliance, signed at St. Petersburg, be- 
 tween Bernadotte, prince royal of Sweden, and 
 the emperor Alexander ; the former agreeing to 
 join in the campaign against France, in return for 
 which Sweden was to receive Norway 24 March, 1812 
 
 PETER'S CHURCH, ST. (Rome), originally 
 erected by Constantine, 306. About 1450, pope 
 Nicholas V. commenced a new church. The present 
 magnificent pile was designed by Bramante; the 
 first stone laid by pope Julius II. in 1 506. In 
 1514, Leo X. employed Raphael and two others to 
 superintend the building. Paul III. committed the 
 work to Michael Angelo, who devised the dome, in 
 the construction of which 30,000 lb. of iron were 
 used. The church was consecrated 18 Nov. 1626. 
 The front is 400 feet broad, rising to a height of 
 180 feet, and the majestic dome ascends from the 
 centre of the church to a height of 324 feet ; the 
 length of the interior is 600 feet, forming one of 
 the most spacious halls ever constructed. The 
 length of the exterior is 669 feet; its greatest 
 breadth within is 442 feet ; and the entire height 
 from the ground 432 feet. 
 
 PETER'S PENCE, presented by Ina, king- 
 of the West Saxons, to the pope at Rome, for the 
 endowment of an English college there, about 725 ; 
 so called because agreed to be paid on Peter Mass, 
 1 Aug. The tax was levied on all families pos- 
 sessed of thh-ty pence yearly rent in land, out of 
 which they paid one penny. It was confirmed by 
 Offa, 777, and was afterwards claimed by the popes 
 as a tribute from England, and regularly collected, 
 till suppressed by Henry VIII. 1534. Camden. A 
 public collection (on behalf of the pope) was for- 
 bidden in France in i860. 
 
 PETERS WALDEN (Germany), CONVEN- 
 TION OF, between Great Britain and Russia, by 
 
PETERWARADEIN. 
 
 512 
 
 PHARMACOPOEIA. 
 
 which a firm and decisive alliance between those 
 powers was made against France, and the course of 
 action against Napoleon Bonaparte was planned ; 
 signed 8 July, 1813. This alliance led to the over- 
 throw of Bonaparte in the next year. 
 
 PETERWARADEIN (in Austria), was taken 
 % the Turks, July, 1526. Here prince Eugene of 
 Savoy gained a great victory over the Turks, 5 Aug. 
 17 16. 
 
 PETITIONS. The right of petitioning the 
 -crown and parliament for redress of grievances is a 
 "fundamental principle of the constitution. Peti- 
 tions are extant of the date of Edward I. In the 
 reign of Henry IV. petitions began to be addressed 
 to the house of commons in considerable numbers. 
 In 1837 there were presented to parliament 10,831 
 petitions, signed by 2,905,905 persons; in 1859, 
 ^4,386, signed by 2,290,579; in 1867, 12,744, signed 
 by 1,145,216 ; see Abhorrers, and Rights. 
 
 PETO'S ACT, 13 & H Vict. c. 28(1850), 
 renders more simple and effectual the titles by 
 which religious bodies hold property. 
 
 PETRA, the ancient Sela, in mount Seir, near 
 mount Hor, in the land of Edom. In the 4th cen- 
 tury B.C. it was held by the Nabathseans, who 
 successfully resisted Antigonus. About a.d. 70 it 
 was the residence of the Arab princes named 
 Aretas. It was conquered by Cornelius Palma, and 
 annexed to the empire under Trajan, 105, to which 
 period its remarkable monuments are ascribed. It 
 was an important station for commercial traffic with 
 Rome. It has been described by Burckhardt and 
 •other travellers. 
 
 PETRARCH AND LAURA; celebrated for 
 the refined passion of the former for the latter, 
 hegan in 1327, and the chief subject of his sonnets. 
 He was born 1304, crowned with laurel, as a poet 
 -and writer, on Easter-day, 8 April, 1341 ; and died 
 at Arqua, near Padua, 18 July, 1374. Laura died 
 6 April, 1348. 
 
 PETROLEUM, rock oil or mineral oil 
 similar to paraffin, has been found in many parts of 
 the world, especially at Rangoon. In 1859-61 a 
 number of oil-springs were discovered in the bitu- 
 minous coal regions of N. "W. Pennsylvania, now 
 termed "Petrolia," and others have been since 
 •discovered in Ohio and other states, and also in 
 Canada. Numerous artesian wells were sunk, 
 •manufactories erected, and an almost unlimited 
 supply obtained. Still abundant, Aug. 1871. In 
 consequence of the importation of this oil into this 
 -country, and many accidents having taken place 
 through its inflammability at low temperature, acts 
 for "the safe keeping of petroleum" were passed, 
 29 July, 1862 ; July, 1868, and Aug. 1871. Petro- 
 leum became an awful weapon in the hands of the 
 insurgents in Paris, 23-27 May, 1871. About fifty 
 lulled by explosion at a petroleum manufactory near 
 Rheims, 16 July, 1871. 
 
 PETROLEUSES, a name given to women 
 ■charged with throwing petroleum on the burning 
 houses in Paris during the siege by the govern- 
 ment, May, 187 1. 
 
 PETRO-BRUSIANS, followers of Pierre de 
 Bruys, an early reformer, who was burnt at St. 
 Gilles, Languedoc, as a heretic, in 1130. 
 
 PETROPATJLOVSKI, a fortified town on 
 the east coast of Kamtschatka, was attacked by an 
 English and French squadron, 30 Aug. 1854. They 
 ■destroyed the batteries, but failed in taking some 
 Russian frigates, except the Sitka, a store-ship 
 
 taken by the President, and a schooner taken by 
 the Pique. Admiral Price was killed, it is sup- 
 posed by the accidental discharge of his own pistol. 
 A party of 700 sailors and marines landed to assault 
 the place, but fell into an ambuscade ; many were 
 killed, including captain Parker and M. Bourasset, 
 English and French officers. The objects of the 
 attack were not attained, it is thought from 
 want of stores. After this the Russians greatly 
 strengthened their defences, but on 30 May, 1855, 
 the allied squadron in the Pacific arriving here 
 found the place deserted. The fortifications were 
 destroyed, but the town was spared. The Russian 
 ships escaped. 
 
 PEVENSEY (Sussex), said to be the site of 
 the Roman Anderida, on which a Norman castle 
 was erected. Here "William of Normandy landed, 
 28 or 29 Sept. 1066. The duke of York, in the 
 reign of Henry IV., wa3 for some time confined 
 within the walls of this castle; as was also queen 
 Joan of Navarre, the last wife of Henry IV., who, 
 with her confessor, friar Randal, was accused of a 
 design to destroy Henry V., her step-son. 
 
 PEWS in churches. " In a London will we 
 read of sedile vocatum pew" (a seat called pew), 
 1453. Pews were censured by Latimer and Brad- 
 ford, 1553. fValcot. The church of Geddington 
 St. Mary, Northamptonshire, long contained a pew 
 dated 1602. The rev. W. M. H. Church (vicar 
 1844-6) restored and re-seated the church, and pre- 
 served the panel with the date in the door of the 
 surplice press. Another pew in the chancel was 
 dated 1604. 
 
 PFAFFENDORF and Liegnitz (Silesia). 
 Near these two places was fought a battle between 
 the Imperialists and Prussians, 15 Aug. 1760. The 
 Austrians were defeated by Frederick of Prussia, 
 who thus prevented the junction of the Russian and 
 Austrian armies. 
 
 PHALANX, the Greek phalanx consisted of 
 8000 men in a square battalion, with shields joined, 
 and spears crossing each other. The battalion 
 of Philip of Macedon, called the Macedonian pha- 
 lanx, was formed by him about 360 B.C. 
 
 PHALANSTERY, see Fourierism. 
 
 PHALSBOURG: (Pfalzburg, Palatine city), a 
 strong town of Alsace, was founded in 1570, by the 
 elector palatine George John . It was ceded to France 
 in 1661, and its fortress erected by Vauban, 1679. 
 It checked the progress of the victorious armies of 
 the allies both in 1814 and 1815, and withstood the 
 Germans from 16 Aug. to 12 Dec. 1870, when it 
 capitulated unconditionally. It was retained at the 
 peace in Feb. 1871. 
 
 PHARAOH'S SERPENTS, a dangerous 
 chemical toy, composed of sulpho-cyanide of mer- 
 cury, appeared in Paris in the summer of 1865. 
 
 PHARISEES, a sect among the Jews; so 
 called from pharash, a Hebrew word for separated, 
 because they pretended to a greater degree of holiness 
 than the rest of the Jews. Luke xviii. 9-12. The 
 Talmud enumerates seven classes of Pharisees. 
 
 PHARMACOPOEIA, a book of directions for 
 the preparation of medicine, published by colleges 
 of physicians, the earliest in England 1618. In 
 1862 the General Medical Council were empowered 
 to prepare and sell a new pharmacopoeia, to super- 
 sede those of the colleges of London, Edinburgh, 
 and Dublin, which was published in June, 1864 ; 
 succeeded by a new one in May, 1867. 
 
PHARMACY. * 
 
 513 
 
 PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 PHAEMACY : the knowledge of the chemical 
 and medical properties of drugs and other things 
 employed medicinally. The Pharmaceutical 8ociet3 r 
 of Great Britain, founded I June, 1841, mainly by 
 Mr. Jacob Bell, obtained its charter in 1843. It 
 publishes a weekly journal. — The pharmacy act, 
 1852, regulates the qualifications of pharmaceutical 
 chemists. It was amended by the pharmacy act of 
 1868 which required all sellers of poisons to be 
 registered after 31 Dec. 1868; act amended in 1869. 
 
 PHAEOS, of Ptolemy Philadelphus of Alex- 
 andria, was esteemed as one of the wonders of 
 the world. It was a tower built of white 
 marble, completed about 283 B.C. On the top 
 fires were constantly kept to direct sailors in the 
 bay. The building cost 800 talents, which are 
 equivalent to above 165,100^. English, if Attic ; or, 
 if Alexandrian, double that sum. It is said that 
 there was this inscription upon it — "King Ptolemy 
 to the gods, the saviours, for the benefit of sailors ; " 
 but Sostratus, the architect, wishing to claim all 
 the glory, engraved his own name upon the stones, 
 and afterwards filled the hollow with mortar, and 
 wrote the above inscription. When the mortar had 
 decayed, Ptolemy's name disappeared, and the 
 following inscription became visible: " Sostratus, 
 the Cnidian, son of Dexiphanes, to the gods, the 
 saviours, for the benefit of sailors." 
 
 PHAESALIA, a strong city in Thessaly, 
 N. Greece. Near it Julius Cuesar defeated his rival 
 Pompey, 9 Aug. 48 B.C., and became virtually 
 master of the known world. Pompey fled to Egypt, 
 where he was treacherously slain, by order of 
 Ptolemy the younger, then a minor, and his body 
 left naked on the strand, till it was burnt by his 
 faithful freedman, Philip. 
 
 PHENOPHTHALMOSCOPE, an appara- 
 tus for investigating the movements of the eye-ball, 
 invented by Donders, of Utrecht, and announced in 
 1870. 
 
 PHEE.ZE (Thessaly, N. Greece), see Thessaly. 
 
 PHIGALIAN MAEBLES, in the British 
 Museum, were purchased for it by the prince regent 
 in 1815. They consist of portions of the frieze 
 taken from the temple of Apollo Epicurus at 
 Phigaleia in Arcadia, and are reputed to be works 
 of the earlier school of Phidias, who died 432 B.C. 
 The bas-reliefs represent the conflicts of the Greeks 
 and Amazons, and of the Centaurs and Lapithae. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA (Asia Minor), see Seven 
 Churches. — Philadelphia, Pennsjivania, was 
 planned by William Penn in 1682. The first 
 American congress assembled here in 1774, and 
 promulgated the declaration of independence on 
 4 July, 1776. It was the capital of the Union till 
 1800, when Washington was selected in its place. 
 The National Union Convention held its first 
 meeting here 14 Aug. 1866 ; see United States. 
 
 PHILANTHBOPIC SOCIETY, for the 
 reformation of criminal boys, was established iu 
 1788, and incorporated in 1806. It supports a farm- 
 school at Redhill, Eeigate, Surrey ; see Reformatory 
 Schools. 
 
 PHILHAEMONIC SOCIETY (London), 
 was established in 1813. New Philharmonic Society 
 began 1852. 
 
 PHILIPHAUGH, near Selkirk, S. Scotland, 
 where the marquis of Montrose and the royalists 
 were defeated by David Leslie and the Scotch 
 covenanters, 13 Sept. 1645. 
 
 PHILIPPI (Macedonia), so named by Philip 
 II. of Macedon. Here Octavius Cossar and Marc 
 Antony, in two battles, defeated the republican 
 forces of Cassius and Brutus, who both committed 
 suicide, Oct. 42 b.c Paul preached here, a.d. 48, 
 and wrote an epistle to the converts, 64. 
 
 PHILIPPICS, the term applied to the orations 
 of Demosthenes against Philip II. of Macedon, 
 352-341 B.C., and also to the orations of Cicero 
 against Marc Antony (one of which, called divine 
 by Juvenal, cost Cicero his life), 44-43 B.C. 
 
 PHILIPPINE ISLES (in the Malay Archi- 
 pelago), discovered by Magellan, in March, 1521, 
 who here lost his life in a skirmish. They were 
 taken possession of in 1565 by a fleet from Mexico, 
 which first stopped at the island of Zeba, and sub- 
 dued it. In 1570 a settlement was effected at the 
 mouth of the Manilla river, and Manilla became 
 the capital of the Spanish possessions in the 
 Philippines; see Manilla. The Philippine com- 
 mercial company was unsuccessful, 1785. 
 
 PHILISTINES, a people of Palestine, con- 
 quered Israel, 1 156 B.C., and ruled it forty years. 
 They were defeated by Samuel, 11 20; and by Saul 
 and Jonathan, 1087. They again invaded Israel 
 about 1063, when David slew then champion, 
 Goliath. After David became king he thoroughly 
 subdued them, 1040. In common with Syria their 
 country was subjugated by the Romans, under 
 Pompey, about 63. — In Germany, about 1830, 
 Heine and the liberal party applied the term 
 "Philistines" to the opponents of progress, or con- 
 servative party. 
 
 PHILOBIBLON SOCIETY, was instituted 
 in 1853 by Mr. R. Monckton Milnes (since lord 
 Houghton), M. Sylvain Van de Weyer, the Belgian 
 minister, and others. It publishes volumes of 
 "Miscellanies," &c. 
 
 PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY of London 
 established, 18 May, 1842. 
 
 PHILOSOPHEE'S STONE, see Alchemy. 
 
 PHILOSOPHICAL LAMP, constructed by 
 Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner, who applied in it 
 the property possessed by spongy platinum of 
 causing the combination of oxygen and hydrogen, 
 discovered by him in 1823. 
 
 PHILOSOPHY (love of wisdom), the know- 
 ledge of the reason of things (distinguished from 
 history, the knowledge of facts, and from mathema- 
 tics, the knowledge of the quantity of things) — the 
 hypothesis or system upon which natural effects are 
 explained. Locke. Pythagoras first adopted the 
 name of philosopher (such men having been 
 previously called sages) about 528 B.C. Philoso- 
 phers were expelled from Pome, and their schools 
 suppressed, by Domitian, a.d. 83. Philosophy is 
 now divided into: — 1. Moral or Ethical; 2. Intel- 
 lectual ; 3. Natural or Physical. 
 
 MORAL AND INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 Ancient Schools. — Pythagorean, about 500 b. c. ; Platonic 
 (the academy), by Plato, 374 ; Peripatetic (the Lyceum), 
 by Aristotle, 334 ; Sceptic, by Pyrrho, 334 ; Cynic by 
 Diogenes, 330 ; Epicurean by Epicurus, 306 ; Stoic, by 
 .Zeno, 290 ; Middle Academy, by Arcesilaus, 278 ; New 
 Academy, by Carneades, 160; New Platonists (who 
 attempted to combine Platonism with Christianity) : 
 Ammonius Saccas, died ad. 243 ; Plotinus, died about 
 270 ; Porphyry, died about 305 ; Jamblichus, died 
 about 333 ; Julian the emperor, died 363. 
 
 Modern Systems. — national, Bacon, about 1624 ; Car- 
 tesian, Descartes, about 1560 ; Reflective or Perceptive, 
 
PHIPPS' EXPEDITION. 
 
 514 
 
 PHOTOGEAPHY. 
 
 Locke, 1690; Idealistic, Berkeley, 1710; Elective, 
 Leibnitz, 1710; Common Sense, Reid, 1750-70; Trow 
 scendental, Kant, Hamilton, Ac., 1 770-1860 ; Scientific, 
 Fichte, 1800-14 : Absolute Identity, Schelling, 1800-20 ; 
 Absolute Idealism, Hegel, 1810-30; Utilitarian, Ben- 
 tham, Mill, &c. 1 790-1873 ; Positive, Comte, 1830; 
 Realism and Evolutionary Materialism prevalent, Dar- 
 win, Herbert Spencer, <fec. 1873. 
 
 NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 Greek and Latin..— Thales, about 600 B.C. ; Pythagoras, 
 590 ; Aristotle and Plato, 350 ; Euclid, 300 ; Archi- 
 medes, 287; Hipparchus, 150; Lucretius, about 100: 
 Julius Caesar, 50; Ptolemy, a.d. 150. 
 Middle Ages. — Arabians: Ben Musa, 800; Alhazen, <fec. , 
 1 100. Gerbert, Decimals, 959. Roger Bacon, Opus 
 Majus, 1266. 
 Inductive Philosophy: 
 
 Copernicus's system published .... 1543 
 
 Tycho Brahe 1546-1601 
 
 Gilbert's researches in electricity and magnetism 1600 
 
 Kepler's Laws 1609-18 
 
 Bacon's Novum Organum 1620 
 
 Galileo's Dialogues 1632 
 
 Royal Society begins (which sec) . . . . 1645 
 Otto Guericke — air pump and electric machine . 1654 
 
 Huyghens on pendulums 1658 
 
 New-ton — Fluxions, 1665 ; Analysis of Light, 1669 ; 
 Theory of Gravitation, 1684 ; Principia pub- 
 lished, 1687 : death 1727 
 
 Bradley discovers aberration ,, 
 
 Euler on Perturbation of the Planets . . . 1748 
 
 Black on Heat 1 762 
 
 Laplace on Tides 1775 
 
 Lagrange, Mecanique Analytique . . . . 1788 
 
 Galvani and Volta's researches .... 1791 
 
 Laplace, Mecanique Celeste 1799 
 
 CEk-sted discovers electro-magnetism . . . 1819 
 
 Faraday, magneto-electricity 1831 
 
 [See Astronomy, Optics, Chemistry, Electricity, &c] 
 
 PHIPPS' EXPEDITION. The hon. captain 
 Pbipps (afterwards lord Mulgrave) sailed from 
 England in command of the Sea-Horse and Carcase 
 ships, to make discoveries, as near as possible, to 
 the North Pole. In August 1773, he was for nine 
 days environed with barriers of ice, in the Frozen 
 Ocean, north of Spitzbergen, 80° 48' N. lat. All 
 progress or retreat was impossible, and all on board 
 gave themselves up for lost; but a brisk wind in 
 two or three days accomplished their deliverance. 
 They returned to England without having made 
 any discoveries, 20 Sept. 1773. Nelson was cox- 
 swain to the second in command. 
 
 PHLOGISTON, a term employed by Stahl to 
 designate the matter or principle of fire; "the in- 
 flammable principle" of bishop Watson near the 
 close of the 17th century. The chemical theory 
 based upon it, considered to have been totally 
 refuted by Lavoisier, 1790, has been recently re- 
 vived in a modified form. 
 
 PHOCIS, a state in Northern Greece. The 
 Phocians seized Delphi 357 B.C., and commenced 
 the second Sacred War. They were opposed by 
 Thebes and other states, and were utterly subdued 
 by Philip II. of Macedon in 346. 
 
 PHOENICIA, on the sea coast of Syria. The 
 natives were the most eminent navigators and 
 traders of antiquity; their cities or allied states 
 being Tyre, Sidon, Berytus, Tripoli, Byblos, and 
 Ptolemais, or Acre. From the 19th to the 13th 
 centuries before Christ, they established colo- 
 nies on the shores or isles of the Mediterranean 
 — Carthage, Hippo, Utica, Gades, Panormus, and 
 are said to have visited the British Isles. Phoenicia 
 was conquered by Cyrus, 537 B.C. ; by Alexander, 
 332; by the Romans, 47; and after partaking of 
 the fortunes of Palestine, was added to the Ottoman 
 empire, a.d. 1516. 
 
 PHCENIX CLUBS, of a treasonable charac- 
 ter, were formed in Ireland in 1858. They met at 
 night to drill. Several persons were arrested and 
 tried in March, 1859, at Tralee ; but the jury could 
 not agree on their verdict. Daniel Sullivan was 
 condemned to penal servitude for ten years, April, 
 1859. Eventually some of the prisoners pleaded 
 guilty, and were discharged on being bound over to 
 keep the peace. 
 
 PHONOGRAPH, a machine proposed to be 
 attached to pianofortes and other keyed instru- 
 ments, by which any music that is played may be 
 written "down on blank paper, since it rules and 
 prints the notes simultaneously. It was patented 
 by Mr. Fenby, 13 June, 1863. The motive-power 
 is electro-magnetism. Machines with a similar 
 object were projected by Mr. Creed in 1747; Mr. 
 J. F. linger in 1774 ; and by Mr. Carreyre in 
 1827. 
 
 PHONOGRAPHY (from the Greek phon-, 
 sound), suggested by Franklin, 1768. The Phonetic 
 society, whose object was to render our mode of 
 writing and printing more consonant to sound, was 
 established, I March, 1843; sir W. C. Trevelyan. 
 president, and Mr. Isaac Pitman, secretary, the 
 latter being the inventor of the system which was 
 made known in 1837. Among other works pub- 
 lished by the promoters of the system, was the 
 "Phonetic News," in 1849; see Visible Speech. 
 
 PHONOSCOPE, an apparatus for testing the 
 quality of musical strings, invented by M. Kcenig, 
 and exhibited at the International Exhibition in 
 1862. 
 
 PHOSPHORUS was discovered in 1667, by 
 Brandt, of Hamburg, who procured it from urine. 
 The discovery was prosecuted by John Kunckel, a 
 Saxon chemist, about 1670, and by the hon. R. 
 Boyle about the same time. Nour. l)ict. Phos- 
 phoric acid is first mentioned in 1743. but is said to 
 have been known earlier. Gahn pointed out its 
 existence in bones in 1769, and Scheele devised a 
 process for extracting it. Canton's phosphorus is 
 so called from its discoverer, 1768. Photophos- 
 phuretted hydrogen was discovered by sir Humphry 
 Davy in 1812. The consumption of phosphorus 
 has immensely increased since the manufacture of 
 lucifer matches. In 1845, Schrotter, of Vienna, 
 discovered allotropic or amorphous phosphorus, 
 which ignites more slowly and is less unwholesome 
 in working than ordinary phosphorus. 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHY. The action of light on 
 chloride of silver was known as early as the 16th 
 century. The phenomenon was studied by Scheele 
 (1777), Senebier (1790), Ritter and Wollaston 
 (1801). From the results of these investigations, 
 experiments were made by Thos. Wedgwood and 
 Humphry Davy, in the Royal Institution, London, 
 which were published in its Journal, 1802. Wedg- 
 wood may be regarded as the first photographer. 
 His paper was entitled "an account of a method 
 of copying paintings upon glass, and of making 
 profiles by the agency of light upon nitrate of 
 silver." 
 
 Further discoveries were made by Niepce in 1814, anil 
 sir J. Herschel in 1819. 
 
 Louis J. M.-Daguerre commenced his experiments in 
 1824 ; and in 1826 joined Joseph Nicephore Niepce, 
 and worked with him till the death of the latter in 
 1833. The production of Daguerreotype plates was 
 announced in Jan. 1839 • ana the French chamber of 
 deputies granted a pension to Daguerre and to Niepce's 
 son Isidore. 
 
PHEENOLOGY. 
 
 515 
 
 PHYSICIANS. 
 
 In 1839 Mr. Henry Fox Talbot first published his mode 
 of multiplying photographic impressions by producing 
 a negative photograph (i. e. , with the light and shades 
 reversed) from which any number of positive copies 
 may be obtained. His patent for producing the 
 Talbotype or Calotype (on paper) is dated Feb. 1841. 
 
 In 1851, Collodion (which see) was applied to photography 
 by Mr. F. Archer. 
 
 The Photographic Society of London was established in 
 1853. It publishes a journal. On 22 Dec. 1852, 774 
 sx>ecimens of photography were exhibited at the rooms 
 of the Society of Arts, Adelphi. 
 
 Carte cU Visits portraits {which see) taken by M. Ferrier 
 at Nice, 1857. 
 
 In 1 861 Mr. Thompson, of "Weymouth, photographed the 
 bottom of the sea. 
 
 Photography was successfully applied to the transfer of 
 works of art to wood blocks by Mr. John Leighton, in 
 his illustrated edition of Lyra Germanica, 1861. 
 
 In 1861 professor O. M. Rood suggested the application 
 of photography to the microscope. 
 
 The tannin process introduced by major Eussell about 
 1861. 
 
 The copyright of photographs is secured by an act passed 
 in 1862. 
 
 Dr. Henry Wright photographed objects of surgical inte- 
 rest in Jan. 1863. 
 
 The Wothlytype process, hi which nitrate of silver and 
 albumen are discarded and a double salt of uranium 
 and collodion substituted, invented by Wothly, was 
 announced in the autumn of 1864. 
 
 The light of ignited magnesium was employed for photo- 
 graphs by Mr. Brothers, of Manchester, in the spring 
 of 1864. 
 
 Photographs of the first page of the Times, containing 
 many French advertisements (1 J inch I ong by 1 inch 
 wide), sent to Paris from Bordeaux by balloons, Jan. 
 1871. 
 
 Criminals ordered to be photographed (by the act for 
 prevention of crime), from 2 Nov. 1871. 
 
 The Autotype process for transferring and printing reported 
 successful, April, 1873. 
 
 Celestial Photography began with professor Bond, the 
 astronomer, of Cambridge, U.S., who exhibited a 
 photograph of the moon in 1851. Since then, Mr. 
 Warren De la Rue, of London, has produced excellent 
 photographs of the moon, and other heavenly bodies, 
 and on 18 July, i860, photographed the solar 
 eclipse. 
 
 Photoheliograph, an apparatus for registering the 
 position of the sun's spots by means of clockwork 
 and photography ; erected at the suggestion of sir 
 John Herschel at Kew observatory about 1857. It was 
 used by Mr. Warren De la Bue to photograph the disc 
 of the sun during the eclipse of 18 July, i860. 
 
 Photogalvanography, the art ot j'loducing engravings 
 by the action of light and electricity. The earliest 
 specimens were produced by Nicephore Niepce, and 
 presented by him in 1827 to the great botanist, Robert 
 Brown. Great advances have since been made in this 
 art by MM. Niepce de St. Victor (who published a 
 treatise on it in 1856), Vitry, W. R. Grove, H. Fox 
 Talbot, &c. In 1852, Paul Pretsch patented a process 
 which he called " Photogalvanography. " 
 
 Photoglyphic Engraving (a process by which the light 
 actually etches a picture on a plate that may be and 
 has been printed from) was patented by Mr. Fox 
 Talbot in 1858, and is described and exemplified in the 
 Photographic News, 9 and 16 Sept. 1859, a specimen 
 being given in the latter number. 
 
 Photozincography (a process by which photographs 
 are transferred to zinc plates which may be printed 
 'from) was devised by sir Henry James, chief of the Ord- 
 nance Survey, and made known in i860. By it maps, 
 charts, and engravings may be printed at a small cost. 
 
 Photo-Sculpture : M. Villeme's employment of photo- 
 graphs in the formation of sculpture was announced in 
 1863. 
 
 PHOTOMETEE (light measurer) ; one was 
 constructed by Dr. W. Ritchie in 1825. Many im- 
 provements have been made recently in connection 
 with photography. 
 
 PHOTOSPHEEE, see Sun, note. 
 
 PHEENOLOGY, see Craniology. 
 
 PHEYGIA (now Karamania), a province in 
 Asia Minor, became part of the Persian empire in 
 537 B.C., and partook of its changes. It became a 
 Roman province in 47 B.C., and a Turkish one, 
 A.D. 1392. 
 
 PHYSIC appears to have been first practised 
 by the Egyptian priests. Pythagoras endeavoured 
 to explain the philosophy of disease and the action 
 of medicine, about 529 B.C. Hippocrates, the father 
 of medicine, flourished about 422 B.C., aud Galen, 
 born a.d. 131, was the oracle of medical science. 
 About 980 Avicenna, an Arab, wrote a system of 
 medicine. The discovery of the circulation of the 
 blood, by Dr. Harvey, furnished an entirely new 
 system of physiological and pathological specula- 
 tion, 1628. On 28 Sept., 1865, Miss Garrett, at 
 Apothecaries' Hall, London, received the licence to 
 practise medicine. See Medical and Societies. 
 
 Physician to the King.— John, the king's chaplain and 
 physician (afterwards bishop of Bath and Wells), men- 
 tioned 1090. 
 
 The earliest mandate or warrant for the attendance of a 
 physician at court is dated 1454, and 33 Henry VI., a 
 reign fertile in the patronage which was aflorded to 
 practitioners in medicine ; but no appointment existed 
 which can justly be called physician to the royal per- 
 son. By this warrant the king, with the consent of 
 his privy council, deputed to three physicians and two 
 surgeons the regulation of his diet, and. the administra- 
 tion of such medicines and remedies as might be suffi- 
 cient for his cure, without any allusion to the previous 
 existence or permanency of the office which they were 
 authorised for a time to fill, or to a remuneration for 
 their services. — Life of Linacre. 
 
 At a meeting of the Royal Medical and Chirurgical 
 Society, 3 May, 1869, it was resolved that the " Royal 
 Society of Medicine " (including the various sections) 
 be founded ; the resolution was affirmed, 22 Feb. 1870 ; 
 but in 1871 the project dropped. 
 
 Bom Died 
 
 Thomas Linacre 1460 1524 
 
 Paracelsus 1493 1541 
 
 William Harvey 1578 1657 
 
 Thomas Sydenham 1624 1689 
 
 Malpighi 1628 1694 
 
 Hermann Boerhaave 1668 1738 
 
 R. Mead 1673 1754 
 
 William Hunter 1718 1783 
 
 John Hunter 1728 1793 
 
 R. T. Laennec 1781 1826 
 
 John Abernethy 1764 1831 
 
 Astley Cooper 1768 1841 
 
 Henry Bence Jones 1813 1873 
 
 PHYSIC GAEDENS. The first cultivated 
 in England was by John Gerard, surgeon of 
 London, in 1567 ; that at Oxford was endowed by 
 the earl of Danby, in 1652 ; that at Cambridge was 
 commenced about the middle of the last century ; 
 and that at Chelsea, originated by sir Hans Sloane, 
 was given to the Apothecaries' company in 1721 ; 
 this last was very much admired by the illustrious 
 Linnaeus. 
 
 PHYSICIAN'S, Eoyal College of, of 
 
 London (of England since 1858), was projected by 
 Dr. Linacre, physician to Henry VIII., who, 
 through his interest with cardinal Wblsey, obtained 
 letters patent, constituting a corporate body of 
 regular physicians in London, with peculiar privi- 
 leges, 23 Sept. 1518. Linacre was elected the first 
 president of the college. Dr. "VV. Harvey was a 
 great benefactor to this institution, 1653. He built 
 a library and public hall, which he granted for ever 
 to the college, with his books and instruments. 
 The college was afterwards held in a building in 
 "VVarwick-lane, erected by sir C. Wren, where it 
 continued till 1825, when the present elegant stone 
 edifice in Trafalgar-square was erected from designs 
 by sir R. Smirke. — The College of Physicians, 
 
 L L 2 
 
PHYSICS. 
 
 516 
 
 PILGEIMAGES. 
 
 Dublin, was founded by charter of Charles II. 1667, 
 and was re-incorporated in 1692. The Royal Col- 
 lege of Physicians, Edinburgh, 29 Nov. 1681. 
 
 PHYSICS, see under Philosophy. 
 
 PHYSIOGNOMY, a science which affirms 
 that the dispositions of mankind may be discovered 
 from the features of the face. The origin of the 
 term is referred to Aristotle; and Cicero was at- 
 tached to the science. It became a fashionable 
 study from the beginning of the 1 6th century ; and 
 in the last century, the essays of Le Cat and Per- 
 nethy led to the modern system. Lavater's re- 
 searches in the pursuit arose from his having been 
 struck with the singular countenance of a soldier 
 who passed under a window at which he and Zim- 
 merman were standing ; his "Fragment" on this 
 subject appeared in 1776. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY is that part of physics which 
 treats of the inner constitution of animals and 
 plant*, and the several functions and operations of 
 all their organs and tissues. The works of Miiller, 
 Milne-Edwards, and Carpenter are much celebrated, 
 and Todd's " Cyclopaedia of Physiology " (1836-59) 
 is a library in itself. 
 
 PIACENZA, see Placentia. 
 
 PIANOFORTE, said to have been invented by 
 J. C. Schroder, of Dresden, in 171 7; he presented 
 a model of his invention to the court of Saxony, 
 and, some time after, G. Silverman, a musical in- 
 strument maker, began to manufacture pianofortes 
 with considerable success. The invention has also 
 been ascribed to father "Wood, an English monk at 
 Rome, 1 71 1 ; and to an instrument-maker at 
 Florence. The square pianoforte was first made by 
 Freiderica, an organ-builder of Saxony, about 1758. 
 Pianofortes were made in London by M. Zumpie, a 
 German, 1766; and have been since greatly im- 
 proved by Broadwood, Collard, Kirknian, Erard, 
 and others. A '■'■stone pianoforte," formed of a 
 series of flints and other stones of various sizes, col- 
 lected in France and arranged by M. Baudre, was 
 played on by him at the Royal institution on 16 
 March, 1866. 
 
 PICARDY (N. France), was conquered by the 
 English in 1346, and by the duke of Burgundy in 
 141 7, to whom it was ceded by the treaty of Arras, 
 21 Sept. 1435, and annexed to France by Louis XL, 
 1463. 
 
 PICENTINES, a Sabine tribe, subdued by the 
 Romans, and their capital, Asculum, taken, 268 B.C. 
 They began the Social war in 90, and were con- 
 quered in 89 B.C. 
 
 PICHEGRU'S CONSPIRACY, see Georges, 
 &c. 
 
 PICKETING, see Trials, Aug. 1867. 
 
 PICQUET, a game with cards, invented, 
 it is said, by Joquemin, for the amusement of 
 Charles VI. of France, then in feeble health, 1390. 
 Meze'rag. 
 
 PICTS (from Picti, painted), Scythians, who 
 landed in Scotland much about the time that the 
 Scots began to seize upon the Hebrides, or Western 
 Isles (Hebudes). They afterwards lived as two 
 distinct nations, the Scots in the highlands and 
 isles, and the Picts in that part now called the low- 
 lands. Between 838 and 842, the Scots under Ken- 
 neth II. totally subdued the Picts, and seized all 
 
 their kingdom. Their incursions in England led 
 to the Saxon invasion ; see Roman Wall. 
 
 PICTURES, see Painting. 
 
 PIEDMONT (Pedemontium, Latin, foot of the 
 mountains), a region in N. Italy, formerly the seat 
 of government of the kingdom of Sardinia, which 
 see, and Savoy. 
 
 PIEPOUDRE COURT, the Court of Dusty 
 Foot, whose jurisdiction was established for cases 
 arising at fairs and markets, to do justice to the 
 buyer and seller immediately upon the spot. By 
 stat. 17 Edw. IV., it had cognizance of all disputes- 
 in the precincts of the market to which it might be- 
 long, 1477. 
 
 PIER AOT HARBOUR ACT, to facilitate 
 the formation, management, and maintenance of 
 piers and harbours in Great Britain and Ireland, 
 was passed in 1862. 
 
 PIETISTS, a Lutheran sect, instituted in 
 Leipsic, by Philip James Spener, a professor of 
 theology, about 1689, with the view of reforming 
 the popular religion. He established "colleges of 
 pietists," with preachers resembling those of the 
 society of friends and the methodists in Britain, 
 about 1760. A body resembling the Pietists, named 
 Chasidim, arose among the Jews in the Ukraine-, 
 and spread through Poland and European Turkey. 
 
 PIGEONS were employed as carriers by the 
 ancients. Hirtius and Brutus corresponded by 
 means of pigeons at the siege of Modena. The 
 pigeons of Aleppo served as couriers at Alexandretta 
 and Bagdad. Thirty-two pigeons liberated from 
 London at 7 o'clock in the morning, 22 Nov. 1819; 
 at noon one of them arrived at Antwerp ; a quarter 
 of an hour afterwards a second arrived ; the re- 
 mainder on the following day. Phillips. At a 
 pigeon race, 25 July, 1872, from Spalding to Lon- 
 don, the speed allowed was 90 seconds a mile ; see 
 Post Office, 1870. 
 
 PILGRIMAGE OF GRACE, a name as- 
 sumed by religious insurgents in the North of Eng- 
 land, who opposed the dissolution of the monasteries. 
 The movement, which commenced in Lincolnshire 
 in Sept. 1536, was suppressed in Oct. ; but soon 
 after revived in Yorkshire ; and an expedition, 
 bearing the foregoing name, having banners on 
 which were depicted the five wounds of Christ, was 
 headed by Aske, and other gentlemen, and joined 
 by priests and 40,000 men of York, Durham, Lan- 
 caster, and other counties. They took Hull and 
 York, with smaller towns. The duke of Norfolk 
 marched against them, and by making terms dis- 
 persed them. Early in 1537 they again took 
 arms but were promptly suppressed, and the leaders, 
 several abbots, and many others, were executed. 
 
 PILGRIMAGES began with the pilgrimage 
 of the empress Helena to Jerusalem, 326. They be- 
 came very frequent at the close of the 10th century. 
 Robert II. of France made several pilgrimages; 
 among others one to Rome about the year 1016,. 
 perhaps in 1020, when he refused the imperial 
 dignity and the kingdom of Italy. The pilgrimage 
 to Canterbury is described by Chaucer in his Canter- 
 bury Tales about 1383. The pilgrimage of Maho- 
 metans to Mecca, the birth-place of the prophet, is 
 commanded in the Koran. Pilgrimages to shrines- 
 of the Virgin Mary in France revived in 1872, in 
 consequence of miracles alleged to have taken place 
 at La Salette in 1846 and at Lourdes, 11 Feb. 1858. 
 
PILGEIM FATHERS. 
 
 517 
 
 PITCAIEN'S ISLAND. 
 
 PILGEIM FATHEES, the name given in 
 North America to a party of 74 English puritans 
 and 28 women, who sailed in the May Flower to 
 North America, and landed on Plymouth Rock, 
 where they founded a colony, 25 Dec. 1620. 
 
 " PILGEIM' S PEOGEESS from this 
 
 WORLD TO THAT 'WHICH IS TO COME," written 
 by John Bunyan, in Bedford gaol, where he was 
 imprisoned twelve years, 1660-72. The first part 
 was published hi 1678. A Hebrew version appeared 
 in 185 1. 
 
 PILLAE SAINTS, see Monachism. 
 
 PILLOEY, a scaffold for persons to stand on, 
 to render them publicly infamous. This punish- 
 ment was awarded against persons convicted of 
 forgery, perjury, libelling, &c. In some cases the 
 head was put through a hole, the hands through 
 two others, the nose slit, the face branded with one 
 or more letters, and one or both ears were cut off. 
 There is a statute of the pillory, 41 Hen. III. 1256. 
 Many persons died in the pillory by being struck 
 with stones by the mob, and pelted with rotten eggs 
 and putrid offal. It was abolished as a punish- 
 ment except for perjury, 1815, and totally abolished 
 in 1837. The last who suffered at the Old Bailey 
 was Peter Jas. Bossy, for perjury, 24 June, 1830. 
 
 PILNITZ (near Dresden, Saxony). The con- 
 vention of Pilnitz, took place between the emperor 
 Leopold and the king of Prussia, 20 July, 1 791. On 
 27 Aug. the treaty of Pilnitz, or, as some style it, 
 the Partition treaty, was finally agreed upon at 
 Pavia by the courts hi concert. It was to the effect 
 "that the emperor should retake all that Louis XIV. 
 had . conquered in the Austrian Netherlands, and 
 uniting these provinces to the Netherlands, give 
 them to his serene highness the elector palatine, to 
 be added to the palatinate ; Bavaria to be added to 
 the Austrian possessions," &c. 
 
 PILOT. The act relating to pilots, 16 & 17 
 Vict. c. 129 (1853), with other acts, is embodied in 
 the Merchant Shipping act ; see Trinity-Souse. 
 
 PILPAY, see Fables. 
 
 PINE-TEEES. The stone pine (Pinus Pinea), 
 brought to these countries before 1548. The cluster 
 pine (Pinus Pinaster), brought from the south of 
 Europe before 1596. The Weymouth pine (Pinus 
 Strobus), from North America, 1705. Frankincense 
 pine (Pinus Tceda), from North America, before 
 1713. There are other varieties. 
 
 PINKEY (near Edinburgh), where the English 
 under the Earl of Hertford, protector, totally de- 
 feated the Scots under the regent Arran, 10 Sept. 
 1547. There fell not 200 of the English, but above 
 10,000 of the Scots. Above 1500 were taken prisoners. 
 Hume. 
 
 PINS are mentioned in a statute of 1483. Brass 
 pins were brought from France in 1540, and first 
 used in England, it is said, by Catherine Howard, 
 queen of Henry VIII. Pins were made in England 
 in 1543. Slow. They were first manufactured by 
 machinery in England in 1824, under a patent of 
 Lemuel Welltnau Wright, of the United States. 
 
 PIOMBINO, a principality, Italy, previously 
 ruled by the Appiani family, was acquired by the 
 Spaniards, 1589. It was ceded to France, i8or, 
 and given by Napoleon to his sister Elise, wife of 
 prince Bacciochi, who held it from 1805 to 1815, 
 when it was restored to the Buoncampagni family, 
 
 subject to Tuscany. It became part of the kingdom 
 of Italy, i860. 
 
 PIEACY was severely suppressed by the Ro- 
 mans. Pompey destroyed the Cilician pirates, 67 
 B.C. ; see Buccaneers. Many acts of parliament 
 have been passed for the suppression of piracy ; the 
 latest in 1837. 
 
 PIEJEUS, the port of Athens, was united to 
 the city by two long walls, one erected by Themisto- 
 cles, and the other by Pericles, 456 B.C., which were 
 destroyed by Lysander, 404 B.C. It was fortified by 
 Conon, 393 B.C. The Pirfeus was able to contain 
 400 Greek vessels. It was occupied by the French 
 during the Russian war in 1854. 
 
 PIEMASENS (Bavaria). Here Moreau and 
 the French were defeated by the duke of Brunswick 
 and the Prussians, 14 Sept. 1793. 
 
 PISA, an ancient city in Tuscany, was founded 
 about six centuries before Christ, and was favoured 
 by the early Roman emperors as a flourishing re- 
 public. The citizens took an active part in the 
 Italian wars of the middle ages, but became subject 
 to Florence, after a long siege, 1405-6. In 1494 
 Pisa became independent under the protection of 
 Charles VIII. of France, but was retaken by the 
 Florentines in 1509. The university was founded 
 in 1343, and revived by the Medici in 1472, and 
 1542. The rival popes, Benedict XIII. and Gre- 
 gory XII., were deposed at a council held at Pisa in 
 1409, and Alexander V. elected in their room. The 
 Campanile or leaning tower was built about 1 154,* 
 and the Campo Santo about the same time. 
 
 PISCTCULTUEE, see Fisheries. 
 
 PISTOLS, the smallest fire-arms, said to have 
 been invented at Pistoia in Italy ; were first used by 
 the cavalry of England about 1544. Of late years 
 they have been made with a revolving cylindrical 
 breech, in which are formed several chambers for 
 receiving cartridges, and bringing them in succes- 
 sion into a line with the barrel ready for firing. 
 The earliest model of this kind of arm is to be found 
 in the museum of the United Service Institution, 
 and is supposed to date from the reign of Charles I. 
 An eight-chambered matchlock revolver of the 16th 
 century is placed in the Royal Artillery Museum, 
 Woolwich. The manufacture of pistols by machinery 
 was first introduced into England from the United 
 States, America, in the year 1853, by col. Colt, who in- 
 vented the Colt revolving pistol, 185 1. This system 
 of manufacture induced the British government to 
 establish the Enfield armoury, in 1855 ; see Fire- 
 Arms. 
 
 PITCAIEN'S ISLAND, in the Pacific Ocean, 
 said to have been discovered by Pitcairn in 1768, 
 seen by Cook in 1773; and since colonised by ten 
 mutineers from the ship Bounty, captain Bligh, in 
 1789 ; see Bounty. 
 
 The mutineers remained unknown to England until 
 discovered accidentally in 1814. A ship nearing the is- 
 land was hailed by a swarthy youth in the English 
 
 * The Campanile was erected to contain bells, and 
 stands in a square close to the cathedral. It is built en- 
 tirely of white marble, and is a cylinder of eight stories, 
 each adorned with a round of columns, rising one above 
 another. It inclines so far on one side from the perpen- 
 dicular, that in dropping a plummet from the top, which 
 is 188 feet in height, it falls sixteen feet from the base. 
 Some thought this was done purposely by the architect ; 
 others attributed it to an accidental subsidence of the 
 foundation. From this tower Galileo made his observa- 
 tion on gravitation (about 1635). 
 
PITT ADMINISTRATIONS. 
 
 518 
 
 PLAGUE. 
 
 language, when it appeared that the mutineers, soon 
 after settling there, hud married some black women from 
 a neighbouring island, and had become a well-conducted 
 
 community under tlie care of Adams, the principal 
 mutineer. He died in 1829, when Nobbs, an English- 
 man, who arrived a few years before, became chief. In 
 Aug. 1852 admiral Moresby spent a few days on the 
 island. By his means Nobbs was sent to England and 
 obtained ordination. As their numbers increased, the 
 island proved incapable of their support. The English 
 government removed them, with all their property, in 
 the ship Morayshire, on 3 May, 1856, and landed them, after 
 a boisterous passage, on Norfolk Island, prepared pre- 
 viously fortheirreception,8 June. The government stocked 
 Norfolk Island with 2000 sheep, 450 head of cattle, ami 
 twenty horses, and gave them stores to last twelve 
 months ; their numbers were 96 males and 102 females. 
 
 PITT ADMINISTRATIONS.* The first 
 administration was formed on the dismissal of the 
 coalition ministry {which see) 18 Dec. 1783, and ter- 
 minated by resignation in 1801. The second was 
 formed 12 May, 1804; and terminated (after various 
 changes) by Mr. Pitt's death, 23 Jan. 1806. A 
 public funeral was decreed to him, and 40,000?. to 
 pay his debts. 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF 1783. 
 
 William Pitt, first lord of the treasury and chancellor of 
 tin: exchequer. 
 
 Earl Gower, lord president. 
 
 Duke of Rutland, privy seal. 
 
 Marquis of Carmarthen, and earl Temple (immediately 
 suceeded by lord Sydney), secretaries. 
 
 Lord Tlmrlow, lord chancellor. 
 
 Viscount Howe, admiralty. 
 
 Duke of Richmond, ordnance. 
 
 William Wyndham Granville, Henry Dundas, &c. 
 
 [Mr. Pitt continued minister until 1801. Many changes 
 occurred in the ministry in the long period of seven- 
 teen years.] 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF 1804. 
 
 William Pitt, first lord of the treasury. 
 
 Lord Eldon, lord chancellor. 
 
 Duke of Portland, succeeded by lord Sidmouth (late Mr. 
 Addington), lord president. 
 
 Earl of Westmoreland, lord privy seal. 
 
 Lord Hawkesbury, lord Harrowby (succeeded by lord 
 Mulgrave), and earl Camden (succeeded by -viscount 
 Castlereagh), home, foreign, and colonial secretaries. 
 
 Viscount Melville (succeeded by lord Barham), admiralty. 
 
 Duke of Montrose, Mr. Dundas, &c. 
 
 PITTSBURG, see Fort Du Quesne. 
 
 PITTSBURG LANDING (near Corinth, 
 Tennessee). On Sunday, 6 April, 1862, a great 
 battle was fought between the American federals 
 under Grant and Prentiss, and the confederates 
 under Albert Sydney Johnston and Beauregard. 
 The latter began the attack and were victorious, 
 but lost their able general Johnston. The federals 
 were reinforced the next day and renewed the at- 
 tack ; the confederates maintained their ground ; 
 hut soon after retired in good order to Corinth. 
 This engagement is also named the battle of Shiloh. 
 
 PIUS IV., CREED OE, see Confessions. 
 
 PLACENTIA (now Piacenza), N. Italy, 
 founded by the Romans about 220 B.C. It suffered 
 in all the convulsions attending the fall of the em- 
 pire, and the wars of the middle ages. In 1254 it 
 fell under the rule of the family of the Scotti. In 
 1302 Alberto Scotto was overcome, and Placentia 
 was united to Milan, then ruled by the Visconti. 
 On their extinction in 1447, Placentia revolted, but 
 was taken by Sforza duke of Milan, and treated 
 rery cruelly. In 1513 it was given to pope Leo X. 
 
 * William Pitt, second son of the great earl of Chatham, 
 was born 28 March, 1759; became M.P. 23 Jan. 1782; 
 moved for a reform in parliament, 7 May, 1782 ; became 
 chancellor of the exchequer, July, 1782 ; died 23 Jan. 
 1806. 
 
 In 1545, Paul III. gave it with Parma as a duchy to 
 his son Peter Louis Famese. The French and 
 Spaniards were defeated by the Austrians and Sar- 
 dinians near Placentia, 16 June, 1746; see Parma. 
 
 PLAGUE. The plagues of Egypt (1491 B.C.) 
 are described in Exodus ix., &c. The first recorded 
 general plague in all parts of the world occurred 
 767 B.c. Petavius. At Carthage a plague was so 
 terrible that people sacrificed their children to ap- 
 pease the gods, 534 B.C. Baronius. At Rome a 
 desolating plague prevailed, 453 B.C. The devasta- 
 ting plague at Athens, which spread into Egypt and 
 Ethiopia, 430 B.C., is admirably described by Thucy- 
 dides. Another which raged in the Greek islands, 
 Egypt, and Syria, destroyed 2000 persons every 
 day, 187 B.C. Pliny ; see Cattle. 
 
 At Rome, a most awful plague ; 10,000 persons perished 
 daily, a.d. 80. 
 
 Again ravaged the Roman empire, 167, 169, 189. 
 
 Another in the Roman empire. For some time 5000 per- 
 sons died daily at Rome ; many towns entirely depopu- 
 lated, 250-265. 
 
 In Britain, a plague swept away such multitudes that 
 the living were scarcely sufficient to bury the dead, 
 430. 
 
 A long-continued dreadful one began in Europe in 558, 
 extended all over Asia and Africa. 
 
 At Constantinople, when 200,000 of its inhabitants 
 perished, and in Calabria, Sicily, and Greece, 746-749. 
 
 In London, 962. 
 
 At Chichester, in England, an epidemical disease carried 
 ofl 34,000 persons, 772. Will. Malms. 
 
 In Scotland 40,000 persons perished, 954. 
 
 In London, great mortality, 1094 ; and Ireland, 1095. 
 
 Again, in London ; it extended to cattle, fowls, and other 
 domestic animals, mi. Holinshed. 
 
 In Ireland ; after Christmas this year, Henry II. was 
 forced to quit the country, 1172. 
 
 Again, in Ireland, when a prodigious number perished, 
 1204. 
 
 The " Black Death " in Italy, 1340. 
 
 A plague raged throughout Europe, causing extensive 
 mortality. Britain and Ireland suffered grievously. 
 In London alone 200 persons were buried daily in the 
 Charterhouse-yard, 1348-9. (That at Florence described 
 by Boccaccio.) 
 
 In London and Paris a dreadful mortality prevailed in 
 1361-2, 1367, 1369, and in Ireland in 1370. 
 
 A great pestilence in Ireland called the Fourth, destroyed 
 a great number of the people, 1383. 
 
 30,000 persons perished of a dreadful pestilence in Lon- 
 don, 1407. 
 
 Again, in Ireland, superinduced by a famine ; great 
 numbers died, 1466 ; and Dublin was wasted by a 
 plague, 1470. 
 
 An awful pestilence at Oxford, 1471 ; and throughout 
 England, a plague which destroyed more people than 
 the continual wars for the fifteen preceding years, 1478. 
 Uapin : Salmon. 
 
 The Sudor Anglicus, or sweating sickness, very fatal in 
 London, 1485. Delaune. 
 
 The plague in London so dreadful that Henry VII. and 
 his court removed to Calais, 1499-1500. Stow. 
 
 The sweating sickness (mortal in three hours), in Lon- 
 don, 1506 ; and in 1517. In most of the capital towns 
 in England half the inhabitants died, and Oxford was 
 depopulated, 9 Henry VIII. Stow. 
 
 Limerick was visited by a plague, when many thousands 
 perished, 1522. 
 
 The sweating sickness again in England, 152S ; and in 
 North Germany in 1529 ; aud for the fifth time in Eng- 
 land, in 1551. 
 
 30,578 persons perished of the plague in London alone, 
 1603-1604. It was also fatal in Ireland. 
 
 200,000 perished of a pestilence at Constantinople in 
 1611. 
 
 In London a great mortality prevailed, and 35,417 per- 
 sons perished, 1625. 
 
 In France a general mortality ; at Lyons, 60,000 persons 
 died, 1632. 
 
 The plague brought from Sardinia to Naples (being intro- 
 duced by a transport with soldiers on board), raged 
 with such violence as to carry of 400,000 of the inhabi- 
 tants in six months, 1656. 
 
PLANETS. 
 
 519 
 
 PLANETS. 
 
 The Great Plague of London, began Dec. 1664, which 
 carried off 68,596 persons ; some say 100,000. Fires 
 were kept up night and day to purify the air for three 
 days ; and it was thought the infection was not totally 
 destroyed till the great conflagration of Sept. 1666. 
 
 [Graphically described by De Foe in his partially imagi- 
 native History of the Plague. ] 
 
 60,000 persons perished of the plague at Marseilles and 
 neighbourhood, brought in a ship from the Levant, 
 1720. 
 
 One of the most awful plagues that ever raged, prevailed 
 in Syria, 1760. Abbe Mariti. 
 
 In Persia, a fatal pestilence, which carried off 80,000 of 
 the inhabitants of Bassora, 1773. 
 
 In Egypt, about 800,000 persons died of plague, 1792. 
 
 In Barbary, 3000 died daily ; and at Fez 247,000 perished, 
 1799. 
 
 In Spain and at Gibraltar immense numbers were car- 
 ried off by a pestilent disease in 1804 and 1805. 
 
 Again at Gibraltar, an epidemic fever much resembling 
 the plague, caused great mortality, 1828. 
 
 The Asiatic cholera (see Cholera) made its first appear- 
 ance in England, at Sunderland, 26 Oct. 1831 ; in Scot- 
 land, at Haddington, 23 Dec. same year ; and in 
 Ireland, at Belfast, 14 March, 1832. 
 
 The cholera again visited England; <&c. 1848 and 1849 (see 
 Cholera). * 
 
 The cholera raged at Smyrna and Constantinople, and 
 appeared in Paris, Marseilles, Naples ; July-Dec. 1865. 
 
 A great cattle plague (which see) in England, resembling 
 typhus, near London, begins June, 1865. 
 
 A new, and hitherto an incurable disease, named black 
 death, on account of purple blotches coming out on 
 the skin, appeared in Dublin ; many persons of all 
 ranks died a few hours after the seizure. March 
 el seq. 1866. 
 
 PLANETS. Jupiter was known as a planet to 
 the Chinese and the Chaldeans, and inserted in a 
 chart of the heavens, made about 600 B.C., and in 
 which 1460 stars are accurately described; this chart 
 is said to be in the national library at Paris. The 
 satellites of Jupiter discovered by Galileo, 7 Jan. 
 1610. We now know nine primary planets, termed 
 major; Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars, Jupiter, 
 Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Vulcan; and, 
 secondary or minor, situated between the orbits of 
 Mars and Jupiter. The numerical order differs in 
 the lists of English, German, and French astro- 
 nomers. 
 
 Uranus, formerly called 'Georgium Sidus and 
 Herschel ; discovered by W. Herschel (see Geor- 
 gium Sidus) 13 March, 1781 
 
 Neptune, discovered by Galle (in consequence of the 
 calculations of Le Verrier and Adams) (see Nep- 
 tune) 23 Sept. 1846 
 
 Vulcan (between Mercury and the Sun), discovered 
 by M. Lescarbault, a physician (not seen since), 
 
 26 March, 1859 
 Minor Planets (according to Mr. G. F. Chambers). 
 
 1. Ceres, discovered by Piazzi (visible to the naked 
 
 eye) . . .1 Jan. 1801 
 
 2. Pallas, discovered at Bremen by Olbers (see 
 
 Pallas) 28 March, 1802 
 
 3. Juno, discovered by Harding . . 1 Sept. 1804 
 
 4. Vesta, discovered by Olbers . . 29 March, 1807 
 
 5. Astrcea, by K. C. Hencke ... 8 Dec. 1845 
 
 6. Hebe, by the same . . . . 1 July, 1847 
 
 7. Iris, by J. R. Hind . . . .13 Aug. „ 
 
 8. Flora, by the same .... 18 Oct. ,, 
 
 9. Metis, by A. Graham . . . .25 April, 1848 
 
 10. Hygeia, by A. de Gasparis . . 12 April, 1849 
 
 11. Parthenope, by the same . . .11 May, 1850 
 
 12. Victoria, by Mr. J. R. Hind . . 13 Sept. „ 
 
 13. Egeria, by A. de Gasparis . . . "2 Nov. ,, 
 
 14. Irene, by J. R. Hind ... 19 May, 1851 
 
 15. Eunomia, by A. de Gasparis . . 29 July, „ 
 
 16. Psyche, by the same . . .17 March, 1852 
 
 17. Thetis, by R. Luther . . . .17 April, „ 
 
 18. Melpomene, by J. R. Hind . . 24 June, „ 
 
 19. Fortuna, by the same . .22 Aug. „ 
 
 20. Massilia, by A. de Gasparis . . 19 Sept. ,, 
 
 21. Lntetia, by H. Goldschmidt . . 15 Nov. ,, 
 
 22. Calliope, by J. R. Hind . . . 16 Nov. ,, 
 
 23. Thalia, by the same . ... 15 Dec. ,, 
 
 87. 
 
 Themis, by A. de Gasparis 
 Phocea, by M. Chacornac . 
 Proserpine, by R. Luther 
 Euterpe, by J. R. Hind 
 Bellona, by R. Luther . 
 Amphitrite, by Mr. Marth . 
 Urania, by J. R. Hind . 
 Euphrosyne, by James Ferguson 
 Pomona, by H. Goldschmidt. 
 Polyhymnia, by M. Chacornac 
 Circe, by the same . 
 Leucothea, by R. Luther . 
 Atalanta, by H. Goldschmidt 
 Fides, by R. Luther . 
 Leda, by M. Chacornac . 
 Lcetitia, by the same . 
 Harmonia, by R. Luther 
 Daphne, by H. Goldschmidt 
 Isis, by Norman Pogson 
 Ariadne, by the same 
 Nysa, by H. Goldschmidt 
 Eugenia, by the same 
 Hestia, by N. Pogson . 
 *Melete, by H. Goldschmidt 
 Aglaia, by R. Luther . 
 Doris, by H. Goldschmidt 
 Pales, by the same . 
 Virginia, by James Ferguson 
 Nemausa, by M. Laurent 
 Europa, by H. Goldschmidt 
 Calypso, by R. Luther . 
 Alexandra, by H. Goldschmidt 
 Pandora, by Mr. Searle 
 Mnemosyne, by R. Luther 
 Concordia, by the same 
 Danae,_ by H. Goldschmidt 
 Olympia, by M. Chacornac . 
 Erato, by MM. Forster and Lessing 
 Echo (orig. Titania), by J. Ferguson 
 Ausonia, by A. de Gasparis 
 Angelina, by M. Tempel 
 Cybele (orig. Maximiliana), by M, 
 
 Maia, by H. P. Tuttle . 
 Asia, by N. Pogson 
 Leto, by R. Luther . 
 Hesperia, by M. Schiaparelli 
 Panopcea, by H. Goldschmidt 
 Feronia, by Mr. Safford 
 Niobe, by R. Luther . 
 Clytie, by H. P. Tuttle . 
 Galatea, by M. Tempel . - 
 Eurydice, by C. H. Peters . 
 Freia, by M. DArrest 
 Frigga, by C. H. Peters 
 Dio.na, by R. Luther 
 Eurynome, by Jas. C. Watson 
 Sappho, by N. Pogson 
 Terpsichore, by M. Tempel 
 Alcmene, by R. Luther 
 Beatrice, by A. de Gasparis 
 Clio, by R. Luther . 
 Io, by C. H. Peters 
 Semele, by F. Tietjen 
 Sylvia, by N. Pogson . 
 Thisbe, by C. H. Peters . 
 Julia, by M. Stephan . 
 Antiope, by R. Luther 
 JEgina, by M. Borelly . 
 Undina, by C. P. Peters . 
 Minerva,, by J. C. Watson 
 Aurora, by the same 
 Arethusa, by R. Luther 
 JEgle, by M. Coggia . 
 Clotho, by M. Tempel . 
 Ianthe, by C. H. Peters . 
 Dike, by M. Borelly 
 Hecate, by J. C. Watson . 
 Helena, by the same 
 Miriam, by C. H. F. Peters 
 Hera, by J. C. Watson . 
 Clymene, by the same 
 
 24 
 
 14 i 
 
 5 April, 
 
 6 April, 
 • 5 May, 
 
 8 Nov. 
 1 March, 
 
 I March, 
 22 July, 
 
 1 Sept. 
 . 26 Oct. 
 
 28 Oct. 
 
 6 April, 
 19 April, 
 19 April, 
 
 5 Oct. 
 12 Jan. 
 
 8 Feb. 
 31 March, 
 
 22 May, 
 
 23 May, 
 15 April, 
 
 27 May, 
 
 28 June, 
 
 16 Aug. 
 9 Sept. 
 
 15 Sept. 
 19 Sept. 
 iq Sept. 
 '4 Oct. 
 . 22 Jan. 
 
 6 Feb. 
 4 Aprd, 
 10 Sept. 
 10 Sept. 
 22 Sept. 
 
 March, 
 
 9 Sept. 
 :2 Sept. 
 - Sept. 
 ._r Sept. 
 
 10 Feb. 
 4 March, 
 Tempel, 
 
 8 March, 
 9 April, 
 1 7 April, 
 
 29 April, 
 
 29 April, 
 5 May, 
 
 29 May, 
 13 Aug. 
 
 7 April, 
 
 30 Aug. 
 
 22 Sept. 
 21 Oct. 
 15 Nov. 
 
 15 March, 
 
 14 Sept. 
 
 2 May, 
 
 30 Sept. 
 
 27 Nov. 
 26 April, 
 
 25 Aug. 
 19 Sept. 
 4 Jan. 
 17 May, 
 15 June, 
 . 6 Aug. 
 1 Oct. 
 . 4 Nov. 
 
 8 July, 
 24 Aug. 
 
 6 Sept. 
 
 23 Nov. 
 
 17 Feb. 
 17 Feb. 
 
 18 April, 
 
 28 May, 
 
 II July, 
 
 15 Aug. 
 22 Aug. 
 
 . 7 Sept. 
 13 Sept. 
 
 1S53 
 
 i8S4 
 
 1855 
 
 1857 
 
 1859 
 
 * It was believed at first to be Daphne, No. 41 ; and 
 hence was called "Pseudo-Daphne," when E. Schubert 
 proved it to be a new planet. It was not re-discovered 
 by M. Goldschmidt till 1 Sept. 1862, when it received its 
 present name, that of the Muse of Meditation. 
 
PLANETARIUM. 
 
 520 
 
 PLEADINGS. 
 
 105. Artemis, by J. C. Watson . . 16 Sept. 1868 
 
 106. Dione, by the same .... 10 Oct. ,, 
 
 107. Camilla, by N. Pogson . . . 17 Nov. „ 
 
 108. Hecuba, by K. Luther ... 2 April, 1869 
 
 109. Felicitus, by C. H. F. Peters. . . 9 Oct. „ 
 no. Lydia, by Alphonse Borelly . . 19 April, 1870 
 in. Ate, by C. H. Peters ... 14 Aug. „ 
 
 112. Iphigenia, by the same ... 19 Sept. ,, 
 
 113. Anwlthirn, by R. Luther . . 12 March, 1871 
 
 114. Cassandra, by C. H. Peters . . 24 July, ,, 
 
 115. Thyra, by J. C. Watson . . .6 Aug. ,, 
 
 116. SironaQxy R. Luther, i4Sept.), by C. H. Peters, 
 
 8 Sept. „ 
 
 117. Lomia, by A. Borelly ... 12 Sept. ,, 
 
 118. Peitho, by R. Luther ... 15 March, 1872 
 
 119. , by J. C. Watson . . 3 April, ,, 
 
 120. Lachesis, by A. Borelly ... 10 April, ,, 
 
 121. by J. C. Watson ... 12 May, ,, 
 
 122. Gerda, by C. H. F. Peters . . 31 July, „ 
 
 123. Brduhilda, by the same ... 31 July, ,, 
 
 124. Alcestis, by the same ... 23 Aug. ,, 
 
 125. , by Prosper Henry . . n Sept. ,, 
 
 126. , by Paul Henry . . .5 Nov. ,, 
 
 127. , by Prosper Henry . . 5 Nov. ,, 
 
 128. , by J. C. Watson . . 25 Nov. ,, 
 
 129. Antigone, by C. H. F. Peters . . 5 Feb. 1873 
 
 130. Elect ra, by the same . . . 18 Feb. ,, 
 
 131. , by the same . . . 26 May, ,, 
 
 132. , by J. C. Watson . . 14 June, ,, 
 
 PLANETARIUM, see Orrery. 
 
 PLANING-MACHINE. One for wood was 
 constructed by Bramah, about 1802 ; and one for 
 iron by Joseph Clement in 1825. 
 
 PLANTAGENET,* House of, to which 
 
 belonged fourteen English kings, from Henry II. 
 1 154, to Richard III. killed at the battle of Bos- 
 worth, 1485 ; see England, p. 243. 
 
 PLANTATIONS, see Trade. 
 
 PLASSEY, in Bengal, India, the site of a 
 battle fought between the British under Clive, and 
 the Hindoos under Surajah Bowlah, 23 June, 1757. 
 The nabob, although at the head of about 68,000 
 men, was vanquished by IOOO British and about 
 2000 sepoys. The victory laid the foundation of 
 our empire in India ; see India. 
 
 _ PLASTER OF PARIS. Gypsum, sulphate of 
 lime, used for moulds, statuary, &c, first found at 
 Montmartre, a village near Paris, whence it ob- 
 tained its name. The method of taking likenesses 
 by its use was first discovered by Andrea del 
 Yerrochio, about 1466. 
 
 PLATA, LA, see Argentine Republic. 
 
 PLATJEA (Boeotia, N. Greece), site of the 
 battle between Mardonius, commander of the army 
 of Xerxes of Persia, and Pausanias, commander of 
 the Lacedaemonians and Athenians, 22 Sept. 479 B.C. ; 
 the same day as the battle of Myeale. Of 300,000 
 Persians scarce 3000 escaped with their lives. The 
 Grecian army, about 110,000, lost but few men. 
 The Greeks obtained immense plunder, and were 
 henceforth delivered from the fear of Persian in- 
 vasions. Plataea, as an ally of Athens, was destroyed 
 by the Thebans, 372 ; and rebuilt by Philip II. after 
 his victory at Chseronea, 338. 
 
 * Fulke Martel, earl of Anjou, having contrived the 
 death of his nephew, the earl of Brittany, in order to 
 succeed to the earldom, his confessor sent him, in atone- 
 ment for the murder, to Jerusalem, attended by only two 
 servants, one of whom was to lead him by a halter to the 
 Holy Sepulchre, the other to strip and whip him there, 
 like a common malefactor. Broom, in French genet, in 
 Latin genista, being the only tough, pliant shrub in 
 Palestine, the noble criminal was smartly scourged with 
 it. and from this instrument of his chastisement he was 
 called I'laida-genista, or Plantaganet ; other accounts are 
 given. Ski/rimer and Mezeray. 
 
 PLATE. In England, plate, with the excep- 
 tion of spoons, was prohibited in public-houses by 
 statute 8 Will. III. (1696). The celebrated Plate 
 act passed in May, 1756. This act was repealed in 
 1780. The act laying a stamp-duty upon plate 
 passed in 1784; see Goldsmiths' Company. By 
 17 & 18 Vict. c. 96 (1854), gold wares were allowed 
 to be manufactured at a lower standard ; but a later 
 act excepted marriage rings. — The art of covering 
 baser metals with a thin plate of silver, either for 
 use or for ornament (plating), said to have been 
 invented by a Birmingham spur-maker, who began 
 with making the branches of a pair of spurs hollow, 
 and filling the hollow with a slender rod of steel. 
 He continued to make the hollow larger and the iron 
 thicker, till at last he merely coated the iron spur 
 with silver ; see Electrotype. 
 
 PLATINUM, the heaviest of all the metals, 
 except osmium. The name originated with the 
 Spaniards on account of its silvery colour ; Plata, 
 signifying silver. It was found in the auriferous 
 sand of the river Pinto, in South America, and was 
 unknown in Europe until 1 74 1, when don Antonio 
 Ulloa announced its existence in the narrative of his 
 voyage to Peru. Greig. In its ore have been found 
 the metals palladium, rhodium, osmium, iridium, 
 and ruthenium {ivhich see). In 1859, M. H. Ste- 
 Claire Devillc made known a new method of obtain- 
 ing platinum from its ore, in great abundance and 
 purity, and at the international exhibition of 1862 
 was shown a mass worth 3840/., weighing 2665 lb., 
 of a metal hitherto considered infusible, obtained 
 by his process, employing the oxy-hydrogen dame ; 
 see Philosophical Lamp. 
 
 PLATONIC PHILOSOPHY, the most 
 popular of all systems (sec Philosophy). Plato's 
 dialogues have been termed " Philosophy backed by 
 example." He was a disciple of Socrates, 409B.C, 
 and died 347. The leading feature of his mind was 
 comprehensiveness. 
 
 PLATONIC YEAR, the period of time which 
 the equinoxes take to finish their revolution, at the 
 end of which the stars and constellations have the 
 same place with regard to the equinoxes that they 
 had at first. Tycho Brahe says that this year or 
 period requires 25,816 common years to complete 
 it ; Riceiolus computes it at 25,920 ; and Cassini at 
 24,800 ; at the end of which time some imagined 
 that there would be a total and natural renovation 
 of the whole creation. 
 
 PLATTSBURG. A British expedition against 
 this place, a town of New York, on Lake Champlain, 
 was designed under general sir George Prevost, but 
 was abandoned after the naval force of England had 
 suffered a defeat in an engagement with the 
 Americans, 11 Sept. 1814, when the British 
 squadron in Lake Champlain was captured ; see 
 United States. 
 
 PLAY-GROUNDS. In 1858 a society was 
 established by the earl of Shaftesbury and other 
 benevolent persons to provide play-grounds for the 
 recreation of adults and the children of the humble 
 classes. Ground was liberally offered by the govern- 
 ment, and by 1he marquis of Westminster and 
 others; and in 1859 an act of parliament was passed 
 to facilitate grants of lands for this purpose, for 
 which part of Smithfield was to be reserved. The 
 scheme was not successful. 
 
 PLAYS, see Drama and Theatres. 
 
 PLEADINGS. Clothairc held a kind of 
 moveable parliament called placita whence ame 
 
PLEBEIANS. 
 
 521 
 
 POET-LAUEEAT. 
 
 the word pleas, a.d. 616. Htnault. In the early- 
 courts of judicature in England, pleadings were 
 made in the Saxon language in 786 ; and in Norman- 
 French Ironi the period of the conquest in 1066 until 
 1362. Pleadings were ordered to be in English by 
 30 Edward III. 1362, and Cromwell extended the 
 rule to all legal proceedings 1650. In English 
 law the proceedings are the mutual statements 
 of the plaintiff's cause of action, and the defendant's 
 ground of defence. 
 
 PLEBEIANS, Plebes, the citizens of Rome, 
 as distinguished from the Patricians ; see Rome, 
 494-366 B.C. 
 
 PLEBISCITUM, a term given to a law passed 
 by the comitia tributa, an assembly of the Roman 
 people in their tribes, first established in 491 B.C. 
 The term has been recently revived in France and 
 Italy, and applied to Universal Suffrage {which 
 see). 
 
 PLOTS, see Conspiracies, and Rebellions. 
 
 PLOUGH. "Thou shalt not plough with an 
 ox and an ass together." Deut. xxii. 10 (1451 B.C.). 
 The Roman plough is minutely described by Virgil, 
 about 31 B.C. Engines to plough grounds, whether 
 inland or upland, were patented by David Ramsay 
 and Thomas Wildgoose, in 1618; and many im- 
 provements in ploughs have been patented since. 
 The application of steam power to ploughing was 
 patented by John Upton in 1837, and by others since, 
 more especially by lord Willoughby D'Eresby, the 
 marquis of Tweeddale, and the earl of Caithness ; 
 see Steam-Plough.' 
 
 PLOUGH MONDAY, in January, the first 
 Monday after the Epiphany: in 1867, Jan. 14; in 
 1868, Jan. 13. It received the appellation from its 
 having been fixed upon by our forefathers as the day 
 upon which they returned to the duties of agricul- 
 ture after enjoying the festivities of Christmas. 
 Ashe. On Plough Monday, too, the ploughmen of 
 the north country used to draw a plough from door 
 to door and beg plough money to drink. Bailey. 
 
 PLUM. We have two native plums ; our finer 
 kinds came from Italj r and Flanders about 1522. 
 The Diospyros Lotus, the date plum, was brought 
 from Barbary, before 1596. The Pishamin plum, 
 Diospyros virginiana, from America, before 1629. 
 Formerly damsons, apricots, and peaches went by 
 this name, as raisins do to this day. 
 
 PLUBALITIES. Clergymen have been re- 
 strained from holding more than one benefice by 
 several statutes; the first being 21 Henry VIII. 
 1529. In 1838 an act was passed prohibiting the 
 holding of more than two benefices except they were 
 at a distance less than ten miles ; and the law on 
 this subject was still further amended in 1850 and 
 1855, provisions being made for the amalgamation of 
 neighbouring benefices. 
 
 PLUEAL NUMBEE, see We. 
 
 PLUS ( + ) AND Minus (— ). Professor De 
 Morgan attributes these signs to either Christopher 
 Rudolf, who published a book on algebra about 1522, 
 or Michael Stifelius, about 1544. 
 
 PLYMOUTH, a fortified seaport in Devon- 
 shire, originally Sutton, was incorporated as Ply- 
 mouth in 1439. It was in 1588 the rendezvous of 
 the English fleet of 120 sail under Howard, Drake, 
 &c, which pursued the Spanish armada. The fine 
 hotel and assembly-rooms were burnt 6 Jan. 1863 ; 
 
 loss about 50,000/. ; see Breakwater, and Dock- 
 yards. The National Association for Social Science 
 met here, Sept. 1872. 
 
 PLYMOUTH BEETHEEN, a body of 
 
 Christians calling themselves "the Brethren," first 
 appeared at Plymouth about 1830. In 1851 they 
 had 132 places of worship in England and Wales. 
 They object to national churches as too latitudi- 
 narian, and to other dissenters as too sectarian. 
 They receive into communion all who confess Christ, 
 and own the Holy Ghost as his vicar. Their doc- 
 trines agree with those of most evangelical pro- 
 testant churches, but they recognise no order of 
 ministers. Mr. Darby, regarded as their founder, 
 afterwards separated from them with some ad- 
 herents. 
 
 PNEUMATIC DESPATCH COMPANY, 
 
 to convey letters and parcels through tubes by means 
 of atmospheric pressure and a vacuum. The com- 
 pany's act was passed 13 Aug. 1859, and tubes were 
 l^iid down in Threadneedle-street on 12 Sept. i860 ; 
 and on 20 Aug. 1861, successful experiments were 
 performed at Battersea. In 1862 tubes were laid 
 down from the Euston railway station to the N. W. 
 post-office in Camden-town, and on 21 Feb. 1863, 
 the conveyance of the mail-bags began. In Oct. 
 
 1865, tubes had been laid down between Euston 
 railway and Holborn ; and on 7 Nov. several persons 
 travelled hi them. Engineer, Mr. Rammell. A 
 pneumatic tube by Siemens, employed to transmit 
 telegraphic messages, began about Jan. 1871. 
 
 PNEUMATIC LOOM, in which compressed 
 air is the motive power, invented by Mr. Harrison, 
 was exhibited in London in Dec. 1864. A company 
 has been formed to bring it into general use. 
 
 PNEUMATICS, the science which treats of 
 the mechanical properties of air and gases; see Air, 
 and Atmospheric Railways. 
 
 PODESTA (from potestas, power), an Italian 
 governor, afterwards a judge ; one with supreme 
 authority was appointed at Milan by the emperor 
 Frederick I., when he took the city in 1 158. 
 
 PODOLL (Bohemia), the site of a severe con- 
 flict between the Austrians and a part of the army 
 of prince Frederick Charles of Prussia, 26 June, 
 
 1866. The Prussians had the advantage. 
 
 POET-LAUEEAT. Selden could not trace 
 the precise origin of this office. 
 
 Warton, in his History of English Poetry, states that in 
 the reign of Henry III. there was a Versiflcator Regis, 
 to whom an annual stipend was first paid of one hun- 
 dred shillings. 
 
 Chaucer, on his return from abroad, assumed the title 
 of poet-laureat ; and in the twelfth year of Eichard 
 II., 1389, he obtained a grant of an annual allowance of 
 wine. 
 
 In the reign of Edward IV., John Kay was laureat ; 
 Andrew Bernard was laureat, temp. Henry VII. ; and 
 John Skelton, temp. Henry VIII. 
 
 James I. in 1615, granted to his laureat a yearly pension 
 of 100 marks ; and in 1630, this stipend was augmented 
 by letters patent of Charles I. to 100Z. per annum, with 
 an additional grant of one tierce of Canary Spanish 
 wine to be taken out of the king's store of wine yearly. 
 We believe that on Southey's appointment the tierce of 
 Canary wine was commuted for zjl. 
 
 Laurence Eusden commenced a series of Birth-Day and 
 New Year's Odes, which continued till the death of 
 Pye, in 181 3. 
 
 On the death of Warton its abolition was recommended 
 loy Gibbon, whose elegant compliment on the occasion 
 still more forcibly applied on Wordsworth's death, in 
 !85o — ' ' This is the best time for not filling up the office, 
 
POETRY. 
 
 522 
 
 POLAXD. 
 
 when the prince is a man of virtue, and the poet just 
 departed was a man of genius." 
 
 POETS-LAUREAT. 
 
 Edmund Spenser, died 1599. 
 
 Samuel Daniel, died 1619. 
 
 Ben Johnson, 1574; died 1637. 
 
 Sir William Uavenant, 1637 ; died 1668. 
 
 John Dryden, 1670 ; deposed at the revolution, 1688. 
 
 Thomas Shad well, 1688; died 1692. 
 
 Nahum Tate, 1692 ; died 1715. 
 
 Nicholas Rowe, died 1718. 
 
 Rev. Laurence Eusden, 1718 ; died 1730. 
 
 Colley Cibber, 1730; died 1757. 
 
 William Whitehead (on the refusal of Gray), 1757 ; died 
 
 1785- 
 Rev. Dr. Thomas Warton (011 the refusal of Mason), 1785 ; 
 
 died 1790. 
 Henry James Pye, 1790 : 1813. • 
 
 Dr. Robert Southey (on the refusal of Scott), 1813 ; died 
 
 21 March. 1843. 
 William Wordsworth, 1843 ; died 23 April, 1850. 
 Alfred Tennyson (born 1809), installed 1850. 
 
 POETEY. The son- of Moses on the deliver- 
 ance of the Israelites, and their passage through the 
 lted Sea, 1491 B.C. {Exodus xv.), is the most 
 ancient poetry extant. Orpheus of Thrace is deemed 
 the inventor of poetry (at least in the western part 
 of the world) about 1397 B.C. ; see Epics, Odes, 
 Satire, Comedy, Tragedy, Sonnets, Ballads, Hymns, 
 and Verse. 
 
 POICTIEES (W. France), near which was 
 fought the battle between Edward the Black Prince 
 and John, king of France, in which the English 
 arms triumphed, 19 Sept. 1356. The standard of 
 France was overthrown, many of her nobility slain, 
 and her king was taken prisoner, and brought to 
 London ; see Tours, and VouyU. 
 
 POISONING. A number of Roman ladies 
 formed a conspiracy and poisoned their husbands. 
 A female slave denounced 170 of them to Fabius 
 Maximus, who ordered them to be publicly exe- 
 cuted, 331 B.C. It was said that this was the 
 first public knowledge they had of poisoning at 
 Home. Poisoning was made petty treason in Eng- 
 land, and was punished by boiling to death (of 
 which there are some remarkable instances) 23 
 Henry VIII. 1531 ; see Boiling to death. The 
 frequency of cases of poisoning by means of arsenic, 
 iu England, caused the British legislature to pass 
 a law rendering the sale of arsenic difficult (14 
 Vict. c. 13, 6 June, 1851). Thesale of poison is now 
 regulated by the Pharmacy act of 1868. The 
 Poisoned Grain Prohibition Act was passed 28 
 July, 1863. 
 
 A deadly poison freely administered by Italians in the 
 seventeenth century, was called aqua to/ana, from the 
 name of the woman Tofania, who made and sold it in 
 small flat vials. [She carried on this traffic for half a 
 century, and eluded the police ; but, on being taken, 
 confessed that she had been a party in poisoning 600 
 people. Numerous persons were implicated by her, 
 and many of them were publicly executed. All Italy 
 was thrown into a ferment, and many fled, and some 
 persons of distinction, on conviction, were strangled 
 in prison. It appeared to have been chiefly used by 
 married women who were tired of their husbands. 
 Four or six drops were a fatal dose ; but the effect was 
 not sudden, and therefore not suspected. It was as 
 clear as water, but the chemists have not agreed about 
 its real composition. A proclamation of the pope 
 described it as aquafortis distilled into arsenic, and 
 others considered it as a solution of crystallised 
 arsenic. 
 
 Between 1666 and 1676, the marchioness de Brinvilliers 
 poisoned her father and two brothers and many others. 
 She was executed, 16 July, 1676. 
 
 W. Palmer was executed in 1856, and Miss M. Smith tried 
 in 1857, for poisoning ; sec Trials. Catherine Wilson, 
 a noted poisoner, was executed on 20 Oct. 1862. 
 Edward William Pritchard, M.D., was executed at 
 
 Glasgow, 28 July, 1865, for the slow murder of his wife 
 and her mother, by antimony. 
 
 Nov. 1858, 17 persons died at Bradford through eating 
 sweetmeats in which arsenic had been mixed by mis- 
 take. Mr. Hodgson, a chemist, was tried for homi- 
 cide, and acquitted. 
 
 Weltmann, a bookbinder at Posen, poisoned 4 wives and 
 2 children, about 1859. 
 
 Christiana Edmunds, of Brighton, was convicted of 
 murdering a child by poisoned sweetmeats ; other per- 
 sons barely escape. 1 (sentence remitted on the ground 
 of insanity), 16 Jan. 1872. 
 
 Mary Ann Cotton, imprisoned Oct. 1872, suspected of 
 poisoning 16 persons, principally children ; convicted 
 of poisoning her child, 7 March ; executed at Durham, 
 24 March, 1873. 
 
 POITOU, an ancient province, "W. France, part 
 of the dowry of Eleanor, queen of Henry II. of 
 England. It partook of the fortunes of Aquitaine. 
 
 POLA (Illyria), a very ancient city, where Au- 
 gustus founded the colony Pietas Julia, which flour- 
 ished during the empire. Oft'Pola, the Genoese fleet, 
 under Doria, defeated the Venetians under Pisani, 
 5 or 6 May, 1379, with great loss. 
 
 POLAND (N. E. Europe), part of ancient Sar- 
 matia. It is said to have become a duchy under 
 Lechus or Lesko I. 550; and a kingdom under 
 Boleslaus, about 992. The natives belong to the great 
 Sclavonic family. The word Pole is not older than 
 the 10th century. Population of the kingdom of 
 Poland in 1857 was 4,789,379 ; in 1867, 5,705,607. 
 
 Piastus, a peasant, is elected to the ducal dignity, 
 
 about 842 
 
 [Piastus is said to have lived to the age of 120, and 
 his reign to have been so prosperous that suc- 
 ceeding native sovereigns were called Piasts.] 
 Introduction of Christianity, about . . . . 992 
 Boleslaus II. murders St. Stanislaus, the bishop of 
 Cracow, with his own hands, 1079; his kingdom 
 laid under an interdict by the pope, and his sub- 
 jects absolved of their allegiance .... 1080 
 He flies to Hungary for shelter ; but is refused it 
 by order of Gregory VII., and at length kills 
 
 himself or dies in a monastery 1081 
 
 Tartar invasion 1241 
 
 Premislas assassinated 1296 
 
 Louis of Hungary elected king .... 1370 
 
 Ladislas VI. defeated and slain by the Turks . . 1444 
 War against the Teutonic knights, 1410 . . . 1447 
 The Wallachian invaders carry off 100,000 Poles, 
 and sell them to the Turks as slaves . . . 1498 
 
 The Wallachians defeated 1531 
 
 Splendid reign of Sigismund II 1548 
 
 Lithuania incorporated with Poland . . . 1569 
 Stephen forms a militia composed of Cossacks, on 
 
 on whom he bestows the Ukraine . . . . 1575 
 Poland eonquei ed by the Swedes .... 1655 
 
 Recovered its independence 1660 
 
 Abdication of John Casimir 1668 
 
 Victories of John Sobieski over the Turks at Vienna 1683 
 Many protestants killed after an affray at Thorn . 1724 
 
 Stanislaus abolishes torture 1770 
 
 An awful pestilence destroys 250,000 persons . . „ 
 Civil war so weakened the kingdom that it fell an 
 
 easy prey to Russia, Austria, and Prussia . . 1772 
 The first partition treaty . . . 17 Feb. ,, 
 
 The public partition treaty, 5 Aug. ; acted on, 18 Sept. ,, 
 A new constitution granted by the king 3 May, 1791 
 
 The Russians, <fcc., on various pretexts enter 
 
 Poland 1792 
 
 Second partition treaty signed 1793 
 
 Insurrection under Kosciusko . . . March, 1794 
 After many successes he is defeated by the Russians 
 
 at Maciejovice and taken prisoner . 10 Oct. ,, 
 
 Praga sacked by Suwarrow ... 4 Nov. ,, 
 
 Courland is annexed to Russia 1795 
 
 Stanislaus resigns his crown at Grodno ; final par- 
 tition of his kingdom .... 25 Nov. ,, 
 Kosciusko set at liberty .... 25 Dec. 1776 
 
 He arrives in London 30 May, 1797 
 
 The Poles enter the French army and greatly help 
 
 to gam their victories .... 1797 et seq. 
 
 Stanislaus dies at St. Petersburg . . 12 Feb. 1798 
 
POLAND. 
 
 523 
 
 POLAND. 
 
 Napoleon I. enters Warsaw ; his army wintered in 
 Poland il 
 
 The Poles neglected by the treaty of Tilsit (which 
 see) 7 July, 
 
 General diet at "Warsaw .... June, 
 
 The central provinces (the duchy at Warsaw, be- 
 tween 1807 and 1813) made the kingdom of Poland 
 under Alexander of Bussia . . 30 April, 
 
 New constitution granted and Cracow declared to 
 be a free republic 27 Nov. 
 
 Polish diet opened Sept. 
 
 A revolution at Warsaw; the army declare in 
 favour of the people .... 29 Nov. 
 
 The diet declares the throne vacant . . 25 Jan. 
 
 Battle of Grochow, near Praga; the Russians lose 
 . 7000 men ; the Poles, who keep the Held, 2000, 
 
 19, 20 Feb. 
 
 Battle of Wawz (which see) . . 31 March, 
 
 Insurrection in Wilna and Volhynia . 3 April, 
 
 Russians defeated at Zelieho, 6 April ; Seidlece, 10 
 April ; at Ostrolenka .... 26 May, 
 
 The Russian general Diebitseh dies . . 10 June, 
 
 Battle of Wilna ; Poles defeated . . 19 June, 
 
 Grandduke Constantine dies . . .27 June, 
 
 Battle of Minsk 14 July, 
 
 Warsaw taken by Russians ... 8 Sept. 
 
 The insurrection suppressed . . . 5 Oct. 
 
 Ukase issued by the emperor Nicholas, decreeing 
 that the kingdom of Poland shall henceforth 
 form an integral part of the Russian empire, 
 
 26 Feb. 
 
 Attempted revolution in Austrian Poland,* 
 
 22-27 Feb. 
 
 The courts of Austria, Russia, and Prussia revoke 
 the treaty of 1815, which constituted Cracow a 
 free republic, and it is declared Austrian terri- 
 tory 16 Nov. 
 
 [This annexation was protested against by England, 
 France, Sweden, and Turkey.] 
 
 The kingdom of Poland declared a Russian pro- 
 vince May, 
 
 Great popular demonstration in commemoration of 
 the battle of Cracow .... 25 Feb. 
 
 Six members of the Royal Agricultural Society 
 killed by the military .... 27 Feb. 
 
 Great excitement at their funeral; many citizens 
 put on mourning; an address to the emperor 
 Alexander signed by 60,000 persons; mild conduct 
 of prince Gortschakoff, the governor 1-7 March, 
 
 Mukhauoff, curator of Poland, who had written a 
 circular exciting the peasantry against their 
 lords, quits Warsaw, which is illuminated in con- 
 sequence 17 March, 
 
 The government promises reforms and the re-estab- 
 lishment of Poland as a separate kingdom ; yet 
 abolishes the Agricultural Society . . 7 April, 
 
 Great meeting in consequence ; which is dispersed 
 by the military (now 32,000 strong) ; above 100 are 
 killed and wounded 8 April, 
 
 Great agitation in the rural districts ; the Russian 
 officials quit Lublin ; general Chruleff marches 
 hither April, 
 
 80,000 soldiers in Poland ; reign of terror in War- 
 saw , May, 
 
 1830 
 1831 
 
 1832 
 
 1847 
 
 * On 22 Feb. 1846, an Austrian force under general 
 Collin, which had entered Cracow on the approach of 
 armed bands of peasantry, was attacked and driven out 
 of the towu. A provisional government was then pro- 
 claimed by the insurgents, and two days afterwards they 
 crossed the Vistula, expecting to be joined by the pea- 
 santry of Gallicia, who were solicited by the nobles and 
 clergy, to strike a blow in the cause of liberty. The 
 Austrian government, in order to prevent this junction, 
 excited in the peasantry a suspicion of the motives of 
 the nobles, and offered a reward for every noble, de- 
 livered up, alive or dead : a general massacre of the 
 nobility and clergy in the circle of Tarnow followed : the 
 insurgents from Cracow were defeated at Gdow, whence 
 they retreated to Podgorze, a suburb of Cracow; here 
 they were attacked by general Collin, and driven into 
 Cracow on the 27th of February. The forces of the three 
 powers then began to concentrate on Cracow ; the people 
 in the town opened negotiations with the Austrians about 
 a surrender, and while these were going on a Russian 
 corps entered the town without resistance, and soon 
 afterwards the revolution was at an end. 
 
 Death of prince Gortschakoff, lieut. -general of Po- 
 land 30 May, 
 
 New administrative council appointed . June, 
 
 Death of prince Adam Czartoryski at Paris, aged 91, 
 
 15 July, 
 
 Oppressive regulations issued respecting dress 
 
 Fresh disturbances ; Warsaw put in a state of siege, 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Military arrests in churches in Warsaw ; they are 
 closed by the priests . . . .17 Oct: 
 
 The governor, count Lambert, leaves Warsaw, 
 
 23 Oct. 
 
 General Gerstenzweig, the military governor, assas- 
 sinated 25 Oct. 
 
 Bialobzeski, catholic archbishop of Warsaw, ar- 
 rested, 19 Nov. ; tried and condemned to death 
 as a rebel for closing the churches [he died shortly 
 after] 18 Dec. 
 
 The new archbishop Felinski exhorts the Poles to 
 submission 13 Feb. 
 
 Rigour of the government relaxed ; amnesty 
 granted to 89 convicted political prisoners, 
 
 29 April, 
 
 Attempted assassination of Wielopolski, a liberal 
 Pole, president of the council . . 7 Aug. 
 
 The grandduke Constantine appointed governor, 28 
 May ; begins with lenient policy, but his life is 
 attempted by Jaroszynsky, 3 July, who is executed, 
 
 21 Aug. 
 
 Count Zamoyski, an eminent loyal Pole, exiled for 
 presenting to the government the report of a 
 meeting of nobles at Warsaw, for which he had 
 been asked Sept. 
 
 Telkner, the chief of the secret police, found mur- 
 dered 9 Nov. 
 
 Severe military conscription without notice, 14 Jan. 
 
 Insurrection in the night ; at Warsaw . 22 Jan. 
 
 Many Russians murdered ; Poland put in a state of 
 siege 24 Jan. 
 
 The Polish provisional government issues its first 
 proclamation 2 Feb. 
 
 Louis Mieroslawski announces himself as head of 
 the Poles, 19 Feb. ; his band defeated and dis- 
 persed 23 Feb. 
 
 Marian Langiewicz declared dictator of Poland, 
 10 March ; after several defeats he enters the 
 Austrian territory, is detected and imprisoned, 
 
 19 March, 
 
 The insurrection becomes general, and is supported 
 by the landed proprietors, Feb. ; successful 
 guerilla warfare . . . March and April, 
 
 The secret central committee assumes the supreme 
 command . . . . . . March, 
 
 The czar offers an amnesty to all who lay down 
 arms before 13 May ; rejected . . 12 April 
 
 European intervention on behalf of Poland, 17 
 April, &c. ; firmly replied to by the Czar, 
 
 26 April, &e. 
 
 The secret committee (as a provisional government) 
 levies taxes, 3 May, and forbids payment of taxes 
 to Russia 9 May, 
 
 8o,oooZ. taken from the Russian treasury at Warsaw 
 for the provisional government, 12 June ; the 
 Poles claim the Poland of 1772 . . 26 June, 
 
 Fruitless intervention of European powers ; san- 
 guinary rule of Mouravieff at Wilna . June, 
 
 General Berg replaces the marquis de Wiepolski, as 
 lieut. -general, and governs with great rigour, 
 
 7 July, 
 
 Unsuccessful invasion of Volhynia by the Poles, 
 under Wysocki and Horodycki, 1 July ; Felinski, 
 the R. C. archbishop of Warsaw, banished, July ; 
 frequent conflicts with varying results ; many 
 captured priests and nobles executed . . Aug. 
 
 Lelewel, a brave Pole, after several victories, killed 
 in battle . . ' 6 Sept. 
 
 Earl Russell decides against armed intervention, 
 Aug. : negotiation ceases .... Sept. 
 
 Gen. Berg fired at from the Zamoyski hotel, War- 
 saw, 19 Sept. ; the hotel destroyed . . Sept. 
 
 Many eminent Poles executed, Oct. ; Wm. Alger, 
 an Englishman, shot at Warsaw for making 
 grenades ; the hotel de ville fired . 9 Oct. 
 
 Mourning forbidden to be worn for the Poles at 
 Warsaw, 27 Oct. ; 41 ladies arrested' at night, 
 
 3 Nov. 
 
 The Times correspondent expelled from Warsaw, 
 
 27 Nov. 
 
POLAND. 
 
 524 
 
 POLICE. 
 
 The abbe Machiewiez, a warlike priest, venerated 
 as a martyr, hanged .... 28 Dec. 1863 
 
 Mouravieff rules Lithuania with great rigour, Dec. ,, 
 
 Numerous skirmishes, and many executions of 
 prisoners captured by the Russians ; the insurrec- 
 tion gradually dying out . . Jan. to April, 1864 
 
 The pope promulgates an arrogant encyclical letter 
 to the Polish church .... 30 July, ,, 
 
 JRomuald Traugott, once a Russian colonel, head 
 of the Polish provisional government, since Oct. 
 1863, and live others, hanged . . 5 Aug. ,, 
 
 Decree for reorganising education at Warsaw, 
 founding a university, &c. . . .11 Sept. ,, 
 
 The secret provisional government, after stating 
 that 50,000 men had been slain, and 100,000 ex- 
 iled to Siberia, still calls on the Poles to begin a 
 " national war " 21 Sept. „ 
 
 Many Roman Catholic convents closed for partici- 
 pating in the insurrection . . . Nov. ,, 
 
 .Further measures for denationalising Poland 
 adopted Dec. „ 
 
 The ex-dictator Langiewicz released by the Aus- 
 tria] is and sent to Switzerland . . . Feb. 1865 
 
 The abbe Stanislas Bizoski and his lieutenant, cap- 
 tured and executed .... 23 May, ,, 
 
 Estates of suspected sympathisers with rebels 
 ordered to be sold . . . .22 Dec. „ 
 
 •Church property appropriated by the government ; 
 the clergy to be paid by the state . . 9 Jan. 1866 
 
 Military government ceases, ami state of siege par- 
 tially raised I7 Feb. ,, 
 
 Insurrection of Polish exiles in Siberia, soon sup- 
 pressed, July ; many executed . . Nov. ,, 
 
 ■Count Goluehowski, a Pole, made governor of 
 Gallicia Oct. „ 
 
 Decree abolishing all political distinctions of Po- 
 land as a kingdom 19 Dec. ,, 
 
 Promulgated 5 Jan. 1867 
 
 Amnesty to political offenders proclaimed, 31 May, ,, 
 
 Poland designated the "Vistula province" in a 
 ukase Jan. 1868 
 
 Its separate internal government abolished, and 
 complete union with the empire effected, ^9 Feb. ,, 
 
 The distinct financial departments of Poland 
 abolished April, „ 
 
 The Polish language interdicted in public places, 
 
 July, ,, 
 
 Conciliatory policy towards the Poles in Russia and 
 
 Austria proposed March, 1872 
 
 See Cracow, Warsaw, and Russia. 
 
 DUKES AND KINGS OF POLAND. 
 
 S42. Piastus, duke. 
 
 S61. Zieinovitus, his son. 
 
 892. Lesko or Lescus IV. 
 
 913. Ziemomislas, son of Leseo. 
 
 964. Miecislas I. becomes Christian. 
 
 992. Boleslas I., surnamed the Lion-hearted ; obtained 
 the title of King from the emperor Otho III. 
 1025. Miecislas II. 
 1034. Richense or Richsa, his consort, regent ; driven 
 
 from the government. 
 J037. [Anarchy.] 
 
 1041. Casimir I., her son, surnamed the Pacific ; he had 
 retired to a monastery, but was invited to the 
 throne. 
 1058. Boleslas II., styled the Intrepid. 
 1081. Ladislas I., called the Careless. 
 1 102. Boleslas III., surnamed Wry-mouth, 
 j 138. Ladislas, son of the preceding. 
 1146. Boleslas IV., the Curled. 
 1 1 73. Miecislas III., the Old ; deposed. 
 1177. Casimir II., surnamed the Just. 
 1 194. Lesko V., the White : abdicated. 
 1200. Miecislas III. : restored. 
 1202. Ladislas 111. : retired. 
 1206. Lesko V. ; restored ; assassinated : succeeded by 
 
 his son, an infant. 
 1227. Boleslas V., surnamed the Chaste. 
 1279. Lesko V. ; surnamed the Black. 
 1289. [Horrid anarchy.] 
 
 1295. Premislas, styled king of Poland, governs wisely : 
 
 assassinated. 
 
 1296. Ladislas I. (IV.), the Short : deposed. 
 
 1300. Weueeslas, king of Bohemia, abandons Poland. 
 1304. Ladislas iV., the Short. 
 
 J333. Casimir III., the Great : encourages the arts, and 
 amends the law : killed by a fall from his horse. 
 1370. Louis, king of Hungary. 
 
 1382. Maria; and 1384 Hedwige (daughters of Louis), 
 and her consort, Jagello, duke of Lithuania, by 
 the style of Ladislas V. 
 
 1399. Ladislas II. (V.), alone : annexed Lithuania. 
 
 1434. Ladislas III. (VI.), son : succeeded as king of Hun- 
 gary, 1440. 
 
 1445. [Interregnum.] 
 ,, Casimir IV. 
 
 1492. John (Albert) I., son. 
 
 1501. Alexander, prince of Livonia, his brother. 
 
 1506. Sigismund I., brother; obtained the surname of 
 the Great. 
 
 1548. Sigismund II., Augustus, son (last of the Jagellon 
 dynasty) ; a splendid reign : added Livonia to 
 his kingdom : died 1572. Interregnum. 
 
 ELECTED MONAKCHS. 
 
 1573. Henry de Valois, duke of Anjou, brother to the 
 king of France ; he afterwards succeeded to the 
 French throne. 
 
 1575. Stephen Bathori, prince of Transylvania : estab- 
 lished the Cossacks as a militia. 
 
 1586. [Interregnum.] 
 
 1587. Sigismund III., son of the king of Sweden, to the 
 
 exclusion of Maximilian of Austria, elected by 
 the nobles. 
 
 1632. Ladislas IV. (VII.), Vasa, son of Sigismund III. ; 
 succeeded by his brother. 
 
 1648. John II., or Casimir V. ; abdicated 1668, and re- 
 tired to France, where he died a monk, in 1672. 
 
 1668. [Interregnum.] 
 
 1669. Michael-Koributh-Wiesnowiski : in this reign the 
 
 Cossacks join the Turks, and ravage Poland. 
 1674. John III., Sobieski ; the last independent king: 
 
 illustrious for victories over the Cossacks, Turks, 
 
 and Tartars. 
 1697. [Interregnum.] 
 ,, Frederick- Augustus I., son of John-George, elector 
 
 of Saxony ; and elector in 1694 ; deprived of his 
 
 crown. 
 1704. Stanislas I. (Lezinski) : forced to retire from his 
 
 kingdom in 1709. 
 1709. Frederick- Augustus I. again. 
 1733. Frederick-Augustus II., son of the preceding 
 
 sovereign. 
 
 1763. [Interregnum.] 
 
 1764. Stanislaus II. Augustus Poniatowski, resigned his 
 
 sovereignty, 25 Nov. 1795 : died at St. Peters- 
 burg, a state prisoner, 12 Feb. 1798. 
 
 POLAR CLOCK. An optical apparatus in- 
 vented by professor Wheatstone (about 1849), 
 whereby the hour of the day is found by means of 
 the polarisation of light. 
 
 POLARISATION OF LIGHT, see Optica. 
 
 POLAR REGIONS, see North- West Passage, 
 and South Pole. 
 
 POLE STAR or Polar Star, a star of the 
 
 second magnitude, the last in the tail of the con- 
 stellation called the Little Bear. As its nearness to 
 the North Pole causes it never to set to those in the 
 northern hemisphere, it is called the seaman's 
 guide. Two stars in the constellation Ursa Major, 
 or Great Bear, are called pointers to the Polar star. 
 The discovery of the Pole star is ascribed by the 
 Chinese to their emperor, Hong-ti, the grandson 
 (they say) of Noah, who reigned and nourished 
 1970 B.C. Univ. Mist. 
 
 POLICE. The London police grew out of the 
 London watch, instituted about 1253. Its jurisdic- 
 tion was extended 27 Eliz. 1585, and 16 Chas. I. 
 1640; and the system improved by various acts in 
 subsequent reigns. See Magistrates. 
 
 Police offices: — The jurisdiction of twenty-one magis- 
 trates, three to preside in each of the seven 
 divisional offices, commenced . . .1 Aug. 1792 
 
 The Thames police was established in . . 1798 
 
 The London police, remodelled by Mr. (afterwards 
 sir Robert) Peel, by 10 Geo. IV. 19 June, com- 
 menced duty 29 Sept. 1829 
 
 The London police improvement acts passed 3 Vict. 
 
POLITICAL ECONOMY. 
 
 525 POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTION. 
 
 1839, 4 Viet. 1840, which were amended by 19 & 20 
 Vict. c. 2 !8 5 6 
 
 In 1857 the total expenditure was 445,212?. for the 
 metropolitan police, consisting of 17 superinten- 
 dents, 140 inspectors, 630 sergeants, and 5296 
 constables. 
 
 The total efficient police force in England and 
 Wales, exclusive of the metropolis, in Sept. 1859, 
 was 11,309, and in Sept. 1863, 14,661 (see Con- 
 stabulary). 
 
 Division X was established to attend the Interna- 
 tional Exhibition in 1862 
 
 The whole police and constabulary in England and 
 Wales amounted to 23,032 men ; metropolitan 
 police, 6590 ; city of London police, 743 ; dock- 
 yard police, &c, 743 .... 29 Sept. 1863 
 
 Metropolitan police, 7493, 1 Jan. 1866 ; 7548, 1 Jan. 
 1867 ; great increase proposed in . . Dec. 1867 
 
 Col. Rowan and Richard Mayne, commissioners of 
 metropolitan police, appointed, 1829 ; Mayne died 
 
 26 Dec. 1868 
 
 Colonel Henderson appointed commissioner in room 
 of sir R. Mayne Feb. 1869 
 
 The first annual report of the commissioner issued, 1870 
 
 State : Dec. 1869, 8883 police constables for aradius 
 of 15 miles from Charing Cross (exclusive of the 
 city of London), including 3,563,410 inhabitants. 
 
 The detective police, only 15 men in June, 1869, has 
 been since raised to 266 men and a superinten- 
 dent, with good effect Oct ,, 
 
 State : Dec. 1871, 9655 of all ranks. 
 
 Large meetings of police to agitate for an increase 
 of pay 17-24 Oct. 1872 
 
 Request granted ; meeting of some constables 
 through misapprehension ... 16 Nov. ,, 
 
 Some constables prosecuted, 18 Nov. ; 109 dis- 
 missed ; 65 reduced in rank . . 20 Nov. „ 
 
 POLICIES OF ASSUEANCE ACT, 
 
 passed 20 Aug. 1867 ; see Insurance. 
 
 POLITICAL ECONOMY, the science 
 winch has for its object the improvement of the 
 condition of mankind, and the promotion of civili- 
 sation, wealth, and happiness. Its history in this 
 country may be dated from the publication of Dr. 
 Adam Smith's "Wealth of Nations," 1776. The 
 works of Mill and M'Culloch are justly celebrated. 
 A professorship of Political Economy was esta- 
 blished at Oxford by Mr. Henry Drummond, M.P., 
 182; ; and at Cambridge, first by Mr. G. Pryme, in 
 1828 ; but regularly established by the university 
 in 1863, Henry Fawcett (blind) being the first 
 professor. 
 
 POLITICAL OFFICES PENSIONS 
 
 ACT passed 9 Aug. 1869. 
 
 POLITICAL UNIONS were formed in Eng- 
 land in 1 83 1 to carry the Eeform Bill ; the most 
 important was that of Birmingham. 
 
 POLITICIANS. A politician is described as 
 a man well versed in policy, or the well regulating 
 and governing of a state or kingdom ; a wise and 
 cunning man. A man of artifice; one of deep 
 contrivance. South. The term was first used in 
 France about 1569. A new faction appeared, 
 known by the name of Politicians, headed by the 
 due d'AlenQon and the Montmorencies, and 
 strengthened by the accession of the Huguenots in 
 1574. The duke was arrested and the Montmoren- 
 cies sent to the Bastile. 
 
 POLKA, a dance introduced into England 
 about 1845. 
 
 POLL ACT passed in Ireland by the Junto of 
 the Pale, putting a price upon the heads of certain 
 Irish ; the earl of Desmond being then deputy, 5 
 Edward IV. 1465. This act long endured, see 
 Ireland, 1465. 
 
 POLLENTIA (Piedmont, N. Italy), the site 
 
 of a great victory of Stilicho, the Imperial general, 
 over Alaric the Goth, 29 March, 403. 
 
 POLL-TAX or Capitation Tax, existed 
 
 among the ancient Eomans. It was first levied in 
 England in 1380 ; and occasioned the rebellion of 
 Wat Tyler (see Tyler), 1381. It was again levied) 
 in 1513. By the 18th Charles II. every subject 
 ■was assessed by the head, viz., a duke 100I., a 
 marquis Sol., a baronet 30^., a knight 20L, an? 
 esquire 10I., and every single private person \2d. y 
 1667. This grievous impost was abolished by 
 William III. 1689. 
 
 POLO, the game of ball termed hockey, played! 
 on horseback, became popular in England "in 1872, 
 having been introduced into India a few years; 
 previously. Games were played by lancers and 
 life-guards at Woolwich, 16, 19 July, 1872. A polo- 
 club was formed. 
 
 POLOTSK (Russia) . The French under mar- 
 shal Oudinot were here defeated by the Russians 
 under general Wittgenstein, 30 and 31 July, 1812 ; 
 the next day, the Russians were defeated. After- 
 several smaller actions with various results, Polotsk 
 was stormed by the Russians, and retaken Oct. 1812. 
 
 POLTOWA, see Pultowa. 
 
 POLYGAMY, &c, Avas permitted among the- 
 early nations, and now by Mahometans. In Media, 
 it was a reproach to a man to have less than seven 
 wives. Among the Romans, Marc Antony is 
 mentioned as the first who took two wives. The- 
 practice was forbidden by Arcadius, 393. The 
 empeiw Charles V. punished polygamy with death. 
 In England, by stat. 1 James I. 1603, it was made- 
 felony, with benefit of clergy. It was formerly 
 punished with transportation, but now by im- 
 prisonment or penal servitude ; see Marriages. 
 Polygamy exists among the Mormonites (which 
 see). — Polyandry (where one woman has several 
 husbands) is permitted in some eastern countries-, 
 the children having equal rights. 
 
 POLYGLOT, from two Greek words denoting 
 " many languages," is chiefly applied to editions of 
 the Bible in several languages. 
 Giustiniani published a polyglot psalter, 1576. 
 
 1. The Complutensian Polyglot, in six vols, folio, was 
 printed at Alcala (Complutensis), in Spain, 1502-14 ; 
 the first edition published in 1522, at the expense of" 
 the celebrated cardinal Ximenes, costing 250,000 
 ducats. Six hundred copies of it were printed ; three- 
 oil vellum. Count MacCarthy, of Toulouse, paid 483L 
 for one of these copies at the Pinelli sale. 
 
 2. The Polyglot, printed at Antwerp, by Montanus, 8' 
 vols, folio, in 1559-69, at the expense of Philip II. of 
 Spain. 
 
 3. Printed at Paris, by Le Jay, in 10 vols, folio, 1628-45. 
 
 4. Edited by Bryan Walton, in 6 vols, folio, 1654-7. 
 Copies of all four are in the library of the British and) 
 
 Foreign Bible Society. 
 
 5. Edited by Dr. Samuel Lee, published by S. Bagster, r 
 vol. folio, 1831. 
 
 POLYNESIA, a name recently given to the- 
 isles in the great Pacific Ocean. 
 
 POLYPES, also named Hydrse (many-footed' 
 animals), on account of their property of repro- 
 ducing themselves when cut in pieces, every part 
 soon becoming a perfect animal ; first discovered by 
 Leeuwenhoek, and described by him in the Philo- 
 sophical Trans. 1703. The polypes are of the order 
 Zoophytes, and partake of the animal and vegetable- 
 nature. 
 
 POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTION* 
 ROYAL, Regent-street, London, was erected by 
 Thompson in 1838, opened 6 Aug. 1839, and 
 
POMEGRANATE TREE. 
 
 526 
 
 PONTUS. 
 
 enlarged in 1848. It contains a hall of manufac- 
 tures with machines worked hy steam-power, 
 lecture theatres, &c, diving-bell, electric machine, 
 &c. Timbs. The institution did not prosper com- 
 mercially, and its decline was hastened by the fall 
 of a staircase on 3 Jan. 1859, when one person was 
 killed and many injured. The institution was 
 closed in May, 1859, DU,; was re-opened by a new- 
 company on 12 Nov. i860 ; see Ecole Polytech- 
 nique. Professor Pepper, the director for many 
 years, resigned in 1872. The classes were formed 
 into a college, which was inaugurated by the earl 
 of Shaftesbury, 7 Oct. 1872. 
 
 POMEGRANATE TREE (Ptmtea Grana- 
 
 turn) was brought to England from Spain before 
 1584. 
 
 POMERANIA, a Prussian province, N. Ger- 
 many, was held by the Poles, 980, and by Den- 
 mark, I2IO; made an independent duchy, 1479; 
 and divided between Sweden and Brandenburg, 
 1648. The Swedish part, awarded to Denmark in 
 1814, was given up to Prussia for Lauenburg, 1815 ; 
 see Denmark. 
 
 POMFRET or PONTEFRACT (S. York). At 
 the castle (built 1069), Richard II. was confined 
 and murdered, 10 Feb. 1399- Henry IV., by 
 whom he was deposed, wishing for his death, an 
 assassin, attended by eight followers, rushed into 
 the king's apartment. He wrested a pole-axe from 
 one of the murderers, and soon laid four of their 
 number dead at his feet, but was at length over- 
 powered and 6lain. Some writers assert that 
 Richard escaped and died in Scotland. In this 
 ■castle also, the earl Rivers, lord Grey, sir Thomas 
 Vaughan, and sir Richard Haut or Hause, were 
 put to death by order of the duke of Gloucester, 
 then protector of England (afterwards Richard III.) 
 about 26 June, 1483. The first parliamentary 
 election by ballot took place here, 15 Aug. 1872, 
 very quietly. 
 
 POMPEII (S. Italy), an ancient city of Cam- 
 pania, was partly demolished by an earthquake in 
 a.d. 63. It was afterwards rebuilt, but was over- 
 whelmed by an eruption of Vesuvius, accompanied 
 by an earthquake, on the night of 24 Aug. 79. The 
 principal citizens were then assembled at a theatre 
 where public spectacles were exhibited. The 
 ashes buried the whole city and covered the 
 surrounding country. After a lapse of fifteen 
 centuries, a countryman, as he was turning up the 
 ground, found a bronze figure ; and this discovery 
 led to further search, which brought numerous 
 other objects to light, and at lengr!i the city w r as 
 uncovered. The part first cleared was supposed 
 to be the main street, 1750. The kings of Naples 
 have greatly aided in exploring Pompeii, and the 
 present Italian government resumed the work in 
 1863. 
 
 POMPEY'S PILLAR stands about three- 
 quarters of a mile from Alexandria, between the 
 city and the lake Mareotis. The shaft is fluted, 
 and the capital ornamented with palm-leaves ; the 
 whole, which is highly polished, composed of three 
 pieces, and of the Corinthian order. The column 
 measures, according to some, 94 feet ; to others 
 141, and even 160 feet; but of its origin, name, 
 use, and age, nothing is certain. 
 
 It is generally believed that the column has no reference 
 to Pompey, to whom a mark of honour was, neverthe- 
 less, set up somewhere about this part. One supposes 
 the edifice was dedicated to Vespasian, another to 
 Severus ; and Mr. Clarke, from a half-effaced inscrip- 
 tion on the base, considered that Adrian is the 
 
 person honoured ; while many assert, from tli<> same 
 inscription, that it is dedicated "to Diocletian 
 Augustus, most adorable emperor, tutelar deity of 
 Alexandria. " 
 
 PONDICHERRY (S.E. India), the capital 
 of French India, and first settled by the French in 
 1674. It was taken from them by the Dutch in 
 1693, restored 1697; besieged by the English, 1748; 
 taken by them, Jan. 1761 ; restored, 1763; again 
 taken, Oct. 1778 ; restored in 1783 ; taken 23 Aug. 
 1793, and in 1803 ; restored, 1815. 
 
 PONT-A-CHIN, see Espierres. 
 
 PONT-A-NOYELLES. At this place, near 
 Amiens, took place a fierce indecisive conflict, 
 lasting from 1 1 a.m. to 6 p.m., between the Germans 
 under Manteuffel and the French army of the north 
 under Faidherbe, 23 Dec. 1870. Both sides claimed 
 a victory ; the French general asserted that he 
 remained master of the field. 
 
 PONTEFRACT, see Pom/ret. 
 
 PONTIFFS (Latin Pontifices), the highest 
 Roman sacerdotal order, established by Numa. The 
 college first consisted of 4 patricians, with a chief 
 (Pontifex Maxinms), to these 4 plebeians were 
 added, by the Ogulnian law, 300 B.C. Sylla in- 
 creased the number to 15 (8 majores, 7 minores), 
 (81), and Julius Cassar to 16. T. Coruncanius, a 
 plebeian, obtained this office, 254 B.C. 
 
 PONTUS, in Asia Minor, seems to have been a 
 portion of Cappadocia, and received its name from 
 its vicinity to the Pontus Euximts. Artabazus was 
 made king of Pontus by Darius Hystaspes, B.C. 
 487. His successors were mere satraps of the kings 
 of Persia. 
 
 Reign of Mithridates I. . •. . . . b.c. 383 
 
 Ariobarzanes invades Pontus 363 
 
 Mithridates II. recovers it 336 
 
 Mithridates III. reigns 301 
 
 Ariobarzanes II. reigns 266 
 
 Mithridates IV. is besieged in his capital by the 
 
 Gauls, &c 252 
 
 Mithridates attacks Sinope, and is obliged to raise 
 
 the siege by the Rhodians 219 
 
 Reign of Pharnaces, 190 ; he takes Sinope, and makes 
 
 it the capital of his kingdom 183 
 
 Reign of Mithridates V 157 
 
 He is murdered in the midst of his court . . . 123 
 Mithridates VI. surnamed the Great, or Eupator, 
 
 receives the diadem at 12 years of age . . . ., 
 
 Marries Laodice, his own sister 115 
 
 She attempts to poison him ; he puts her and ac- 
 complices to death 112 
 
 Mithridates conquers Scythia, Bosphorus, Colchis, 
 
 and other countries 1 1 1 
 
 He enters Cappadocia 97 
 
 His war with Rome 89 
 
 Tigranes ravages Cappadocia 86 
 
 Mithridates enters Bithynia, and makes himself 
 
 master of many Roman provinces, and puts 80,000 
 
 Romans to death „ 
 
 Archelaus defeated by Sylla, at Chferonea ; 100,000 
 
 Cappadocians slain ,, 
 
 Victories and conquests of Mithridates up to this 
 
 time .......... 74 
 
 The fleet of Mithridates defeats that under Lucullus 
 
 in two battles 73 
 
 Mithridates defeated by Lucullus . . . . 69 
 
 Mithridates defeats Fabius 68 
 
 But is defeated by Pompey 66 
 
 Mithridates stabs himself, and dies .... 63 
 
 Reign of Pharnaces . ,, 
 
 Battle of Zela (see Zcla ; Pharnaces defeated by 
 
 Caesar 47 
 
 Darius reigns 39 
 
 Polemon, son of Zeno, reigns 36 
 
 Polemon II. succeeds his father . . . a.d. 33 
 
 Mithridates VII. reigns 40 
 
 Pontus afterwards became a Roman province. 
 
POOR KNIGHTS OF WINDSOR. 527 
 
 POPE. 
 
 Alexis Comnenus founded a new empire of the 
 Greeks at Trebisond, in this country, 1204, which 
 continued till the Turks destroyed it in 1459. 
 
 POOE KNIGHTS of Windsor, or Alms 
 
 KNIGHTS. Soon after his institution of the order 
 of the Garter, Edward III. founded this charity, for 
 the provision of 24 (afterwards 26) poor persons 
 eminent for military services. Edward IV. dis- 
 charged the college from the support of the alms- 
 knights, but Elizabeth re-established the charity 
 for 13 knights, 1559. King William IV. changed 
 the name to the " Military Knights of Windsor," 
 in consequence of their all having held commissions 
 in the army, Sept. 1833. — The "Naval Knights of 
 Windsor" are maintained on a distinct foundation, 
 under the bequest of Samuel Travers. An act 
 making lieutenants and widowers eligible was 
 passed in 1867. 
 
 POONAH, a province, S.W. India, formerly 
 the seat of the power of the peishwa of the 
 Mahrattas, 1749. It was captured by Wellesley 
 from Holkar, 19 April, 1803, for Bajee Rao, who 
 had claimed British protection. Bajee resigned his 
 office, 3 June, 1818, for a pension. 
 
 POOE. The poor of England, till the time of 
 Henry VIII., subsisted as the poor of Ireland until 
 1838, entirely upon private benevolence. By statute 
 23 Edw. III. 1349, it was enacted that none should 
 give alms to a beggar able to work. By the com- 
 mon law, the poor were to be sustained by " par- 
 sons, rectors of the church, and parishioners, so that 
 none should die for default of sustenance ; " and by 
 15 Eich. II. impropriators were obliged to distribute 
 a yearly sum to the poor ; but no compulsory law 
 was enacted till the 27th Hen. VIII. 1535. The 
 •origin of the present poor law is referred to the 
 43rd of Elizabeth, 1601, by which overseers were 
 ■appointed for parishes. 
 
 Additional workhouses ordered to he erected, 1819, 1834. 
 Poor Law Amendment bill passed 1834 ; forming 
 
 " Unions," &c, amended in 1836, 1838, 1846 and 1847. 
 Poor Law (Ireland) act passed 1838 ; amended 1839. 
 A Poor Law system established in Scotland, 1845. 
 Poor Law (Ireland) Rate in aid act passed in 1849. 
 In Scotland, in the year ending May, 1851, the number 
 
 relieved was 141,870, at an average cost of zl. 2s. 50I. 
 
 and the expenditure was 535,943?. 
 In Ireland, the poor's rate for the year ending Sept. 1851, 
 
 was 1,101,878?. 
 An agitation for the equalization of poor's rates throughout 
 
 the kingdom, began in 1857. 
 The Times drew attention to the condition of the house- 
 
 less poor in London, which led to measures for their 
 relief, Dec. 1858. 
 
 Society for relief of distress, St. James's, established i860. 
 
 Laws respecting removal of the jioor amended in 1861. 
 
 Union relief act passed to enable certain unions to obtain 
 temporary aid (on account of the distress in Lan- 
 cashire through suspension of cotton manufactures), 
 1862. 
 
 Metropolitan houseless poor act (authorising guardians to 
 receive destitute persons into workhouses, and the 
 metropolitan board to reimburse them) passed, 29 
 July, 1864. 
 
 Annual report of Poor Law board for 1864, shows great 
 decrease of pauperism — issued Sept. 1865. 
 
 40 refuges for houseless poor established in London, 1864-5. 
 
 " Casual wards " in London workhouses receive 1000 per 
 night, Jan. 1865. 
 
 Union chargeability act passed, 1865. 
 
 Field-lane Refuge : new building formally opened by 
 earl of Shaftesbury, 6 June, 1866. 
 
 Metropolitan Poor act passed for establishment of asy- 
 lums for the sick, insane, &c, 29 March, 1867. 
 
 Poor Law Amendment act makes Poor Law board per- 
 manent ; passed, 20 Aug. 1867. 
 
 Much excitement respecting the bad condition of London 
 workhouse infirmaries, June, 1866 ; of Farnham work- 
 house, Oct. 1867. 
 
 Poor Law Amendment act passed . 31 July, 1868 
 
 Presidents of the Poor La w board : Gathorne Hardy, 
 9 July, 1866 ; earl of Devon, May, 1867 ; G. J. 
 Goschen 9 Dec. „ 
 
 Minute of the poor law board defining limits of 
 relief, and recommending organisation of metro- 
 politan charitable institutions, 20 Nov., which is 
 adopted by several parishes . . . Dec. 1869 
 
 Charity Organisation Society established . . . 1870 
 
 The act for more equal distribution of charge for 
 relief of in-door poor (passed 20 June) came into 
 operation 29 Sept. „ 
 
 Circular of poor law board respecting farming out 
 pauper children 25 Nov. „ 
 
 Received, for relief of the poor, in 1869, in England 
 and Wales, 11,776,153?. ; in Scotland, 892,712?. ; in 
 Ireland, 927,046?. : total, 13,595,911?. 
 
 Paupers in the metropolis receiving relief : — Dec., 
 1869, 152,557; Dec, 1870, about 147,000; Dec, 
 1871, about 124,000; July, 1872, 104,280. 
 
 The powers and duties of the Poor Law board 
 merged into the Local Government hoard by act 
 passed 14 Aug. 1871 ; president, James Stansfeld. 
 
 New regulations for casual poor published in Times 
 
 27 Nov. „ 
 
 ENGLAND AND WALES. 
 
 Poor rates. Expended. 
 
 Expended. 
 In 1580 
 
 1760 . 
 1785 
 1802 . 
 1815 
 
 £188,811 
 
 In 1820 
 
 665,562 
 
 1830 
 
 819,000 
 
 1835 
 
 1,556,804 
 
 1840 
 
 2,184,950 
 
 ^845 
 
 4,952,421 
 
 1853 
 
 5.418,845 
 
 
 England and Wales, 1 Jan. 
 Scotland . about 14 May 
 Ireland . . .1 Jan. 
 
 PAUPERS RECEIVING RELIEF (NOT VAGRANTS). 
 
 1849. 1853. 1858. 1862. 
 
 . 934,419 . . 798,822 . . 968,186 . . 932,400 . 
 
 82,357 • • 75.437 • • 69,217 [1857] . 78,433 [1861] 
 . 620,747 . . 141,822 . . 50,582 . . 59.54 1 • 
 
 Poor rates. 
 
 £7.329.594 
 8,111,422 
 
 6,356,345 
 5,468,699 
 5,543,650 
 6,522,412 
 
 1870. 
 1,079,391 
 128,339 
 73,291 
 
 Total 
 
 • 1,637,523 
 
 1,016,081 
 
 1,007,985 
 
 • 1,070,374 
 
 1,281,681 
 
 Tears ended 
 Lady-day. 
 
 1863 
 
 : (1 Jan.) 
 
 1872 
 
 ENGLAND AND WALES. 
 
 Average number of paupers. Expendi- 
 
 Indoor. Outdoor. ture. 
 
 . . 122,613 786,263 £5,878,542 
 
 . 121,232 744,214 5,558,689 
 
 . . 113,507 731,126 5,454,964 
 
 . 125,866 758,055 5.778,943 
 
 . . 132,236 784,906 6,077,922 
 
 . 136,907 942,475 6,527,036 
 
 . . 133,761 881,217 6,423,381 
 
 . 131,313 820,586 6,264,966 
 
 . . 132,776 783,376 6,439,517 
 
 . 137,310 794,236 6,959,840 
 
 . . 158,723 876,100 7,498,059 
 
 . 163,071 876,478 7,673,100 
 
 . . 165,324 914,067 7,644,307 
 
 . 165,289 916,637 7,886,724 
 . . 154,233 823,431 
 
 POPE (from the Greek Pappas and Papa, a 
 father or grandfather), considered by Eomanists to 
 be the visible chief of the church, the vicar of Jesus 
 Christ, and the successor of St. Peter. He styles 
 himself "servant of the servants of God." The 
 title pope was formerly given to all bishops. It 
 was first adopted by Hyginus, 139; and pope Boni- 
 face III. induced Phocas, emperor of the east, to 
 confine it to the prelates of Eome, 606. By the 
 connivance of Phocas also, the pope's supremacy 
 over the Christian church was established ; see 
 Italy, Reformation, and Pome, Modern. 
 
 Custom of kissing the pope's toe introduced . . 708 
 Adrian I. caused money to be coined with his name 780 
 Sergius II. the first pope who changed his name on 
 
POPE. 
 
 528 
 
 POPE. 
 
 his election, 844 ; some contend that it was 
 Sergius I. 687, and others John XII. . . . 956 
 
 Indulgences for the pardon of sin granted by pope 
 Leo III. about 800 
 
 John XVIII. a layman, made pope .... 1024 
 
 The first pope who kept an army, Leo IX . . . 1054 
 
 Gregory VII. (Hildebrand) obliges Henry IV., em- 
 peror of Germany, to stand three days, in the 
 depth of winter," barefooted at the gate of the 
 castle of Canossa, to implore his pardon . . 1077 
 
 The pope's authority fixed in England . . . 1079 
 
 Appeals from English tribunals to the pope intro- 
 duced (Fitter), 19 Stephen 1 154 
 
 Henry II. of England holds the stirrup for pope 
 Alexander III. to mount his horse . . . 1161 
 
 Celestine III. kicked the emperor Henry VI. 's 
 crown off his head while kneeling, to show his 
 prerogative of making and unmaking kings . . 1191 
 
 John king of England did homage to the pope's 
 legate for his dominions, and bound himself and 
 his successors to an annual payment to the pope, 
 
 15 May, 1213 
 
 The pope collected the tenths of the whole kingdom 
 of England 1226 
 
 The papal seat was removed for seventy years to 
 Avignon in France 1308 
 
 The pope's demands on England refused by parlia- 
 ment . . 1363 
 
 After the discovery of America, pope Alexander VI. 
 granted to the Portuguese all the countries to the 
 east, and to the Spanish all the countries to the 
 west, of Cape Non, Africa, which they might 
 conquer 1493 
 
 Pope Leo X. published the sale of general indul- 
 gences throughout Europe 151 7 
 
 Appeals to Rome from England abolished (Viner) . 1533 
 
 The words "Lord Pope " struck out of all English 
 books 1541 
 
 Kissing the pope's toe and other ceremonies abo- 
 lished by Clement XIV. 1773 
 
 The pope's political influence greatly diminished by 
 the French revolution .... 1789-1814 
 
 The pope's (Pius IX.) diplomatic relations with 
 Great Britain authorised by parliament . . 1848 
 
 He offends the British nation by creating bishops 
 (see Papal Aggression) ... 30 Sept. 1850 
 
 Issues a syllabus of errors, condemning heresy, 
 modern philosophy, and liberalism . 8 Dee. 1864 
 
 His powers in France greatly checked . . 1860-1865 
 
 The " LatseSententiie," regarding excommunication 
 and limiting absolution, signed, 12 Oct. ; issued 
 
 Dec. 1869 
 
 The pope opens a general council, which propounds 
 the doctrine of papal infallibity and list of ana- 
 themas (see Councils) Feb. 1870 
 
 Deprived of the remains of his temporal power (see 
 Rome) Dec. ,, 
 
 Nominates 14 Italian prelates . . -24 Nov. 1871 
 
 BISHOPS AND POPES OF ROME 
 
 (the names in italics were antipopes) : 
 42. St. Peter : (said by very doubtful tradition to 
 have been the first bishop of Rome, and to have 
 been crucified, head downwards, in 66.) 
 * * St. Clement (Clemens Romanus) ; according to 
 Tertullian. 
 66. St. Linus :* martyred ? 
 78. St. Cletus; or Anacletus? martyred? 
 91. St. Clement II. : abdicated? 
 100. St. Evaristus : martyred ; multiplied churches. 
 109. St. Alexander: martyred. 
 119. St. Sixtus I. : martyred? 
 127. St. Telesphorus : martyred. 
 139. St. Hyginus : condemns Gnostics ; called himself 
 
 pope. 
 142. St. Pius : martyred. 
 157. St. Anicetus. 
 
 168. St. Soterus : martyred under Marcus Antoninus. 
 177. St. Eleutherius : opposed the Valentinians. 
 193. St. Victor I. : martyred under Severus. 
 202. St. Zephyrinus : claimed to be Peter's successor. 
 
 * St. Linus is frequently set down as the immediate 
 successor of St. Peter ; but Tertullian maintains that 
 it was St. Clement. In the first century neither the 
 dates nor order of succession of bishops are reconcileable 
 by even the best authorities. Some assert that there 
 were two or three bishops of Rome at the same time. 
 
 219. St. Calixtus : martyred. 
 
 222. [The chair vacant.] 
 
 223. St. Urban I. : beheaded. 
 
 230. St. Pontianus : banished by the emperor Maximin. 
 
 235. St. Anterus : martyred. 
 
 236. St. Fabian : martyred under Decius, 250. 
 
 250. [The chair vacant.] 
 
 251. St. Cornelius : died. 
 
 252. St. Lucius: martyred 252. Novatianus: (denied 
 
 restoration to the repentant lapsed). 
 
 253. St. Stephen I. : martyred in the persecution of 
 
 Valerian. 
 
 257. St. Sixtus II. (his coadjutor) : martyred three days 
 
 before his disciple St. Laurence, in the persecu- 
 tion of Valerian, 258. 
 
 258. [The chair vacant.] 
 
 259. St. Dionysius : opposed the heresy of Sabellius. 
 269. St. Felix' I. died in prison. 
 
 275. St. Eutychianus. 
 
 283. St. Caius : a relative of the emperor Diocletian. 
 
 296. St. Marcellinus : said to have lapsed under a severe 
 
 persecution ? ; canonised. 
 304. [The chair vacant. ] 
 308. St. Marcellus : banished from Rome by the emperor 
 
 Maxentius. 
 
 310. St. Eusebius : died the same year. 
 
 311. St. Milchiades : coadjutor to Eusebius. 
 
 314. St. Silvester : commencement of temporal power 
 by gifts of Constantine. 
 
 336. St. Marcus : died the next year. 
 
 337. St. Julius I. : of great piety and learning ; main- 
 
 tained the cause of St. Athanasius. 
 352. Liberius : banished. 
 355. Felix II., antipope : placed in the chair by Con- 
 
 stans, during the exile of Liberius, on whose 
 
 return he was driven from it with ignominy. 
 [The emperor would have the two popes reign 
 
 together ; but the people cried out, " One God, 
 
 one Christ, and one bishop!"] 
 
 358. Liberius again : abdicated. 
 ,, Felix became pope. 
 
 359. Liberius again : martyred 365. 
 
 366. St. Damasus : opposed the Arians : St. Jerome, 
 
 his secretary, corrected Latin Bible. 
 
 367. Ursinvs : expelled by Valentinian. 
 384. Siricius : combated heretics. 
 
 398. St. Anastasius : proscribed works of Origen. 
 402. St. Innocent I. : condemned Pelagians. 
 
 417. St. Zozimus : ditto. 
 
 418. St. Boniface I. : maintained by the emperor Hono- 
 
 rius, against EvlaV/m. 
 
 422. St. Celestine I. : sent missions to Ireland. 
 
 432. Sixtus III. : opposed Nestorius and Eutyches. 
 
 440. St. Leo I. the Great : zealous ; restrained Alaric ; 
 an able writer. 
 
 461. St. Hilary ; rich, liberal. 
 
 468. St. Simpiicius : wise, prudent. 
 
 483. St. Felix III. : opposed emperor Zeno respecting 
 the Henoticon. 
 
 492. St. Gelasius : opposed heresy ; fixed the canon of 
 Scriptures ; compiled the mass. 
 
 496. St. Anastasius II. : congratulated Clovis. 
 
 498. Symmachus : zealous against the Henoticon. 
 ,, Laurentius : antipope. 
 
 514. Hormisdas : opposed Eutychians. 
 
 523. John I. : sent to Constantinople by Theodoric ; 
 tolerant. 
 
 526. Felix IV. : introduced extreme unction as a sacra- 
 ment. 
 
 530. Boniface II. — Dioseorus. 
 
 533. John II. : called Mercurius. 
 
 535. Agapetus : converted Justinian. 
 
 536. St. Silverius : son of pope Hormisdas, who had 
 
 been married ; the empress Theodora procured 
 his banishment into Lycia (where he died of 
 hunger), and made Vigilius pope. 
 
 537- Vigilius : banished, but restored. 
 
 555. Pelagius I. : an ecclesiastical reformer. 
 
 560. John III. : great ornamenter of churches. 
 
 573. [The see vacant.] 
 
 574. Benedict I., surnamed Bonosus. 
 578. Pelagius II. ; died of the plague. 
 
 590. St. Gregory the Great : revised the liturgy ; sent 
 
 Augustin to convert the Anglo-Saxons. 
 604. Babinianus : said to have introduced church belln. 
 
 606 or 607. Boniface III. died in a few months. 
 
 607 or 608. Boniface IV. 
 614 or 615. St. Deusdedit. 
 
POPE. 
 
 529 POPE. 
 
 617 
 
 625. 
 639 
 640. 
 
 ■642. 
 649. 
 
 654' 
 637- 
 672. 
 676. 
 678. 
 6S2. 
 683. 
 €84. 
 685. 
 686. 
 687. 
 701. 
 705. 
 708. 
 
 7^5- 
 731- 
 
 741. 
 752' 
 
 757' 
 767. 
 768. 
 772- 
 795- 
 816. 
 817. 
 824. 
 827. 
 
 S47. 
 8SS. 
 
 S58. 
 867. 
 872. 
 
 897. 
 
 900. 
 9°3- 
 
 904. 
 gn. 
 
 9*3- 
 914. 
 928. 
 929. 
 931. 
 
 936. 
 
 939- 
 942. 
 946. 
 956. 
 
 963- 
 
 964. 
 
 965. 
 
 972. 
 
 97+ 
 984. 
 
 9SS 
 
 or 618. Boniface V. 
 
 Honorius I. : interested in British churches. 
 [The see vacant] 
 Severinus : "i 
 
 Theodoras I. : f condemned Monothelites. 
 Martin I. : ) 
 Eugenius I. : liberal. 
 
 Vitalianus : favoured education in England. 
 Adeodatus, the gift of God. 
 Domnus I. : ornamented churches. 
 St. Agathon : tribute to the emperor ceased. 
 St. Leo II. : instituted holy water ; favoured music. 
 [The see vacant.] 
 Benedict II. 
 
 John V. : learned and moderate. 
 Conon. — Theodore and Pascal. 
 Sergius : " governed wisely. " 
 John VI. : redeemed captives ; firm and wise. 
 John VII. : moderate. 
 Sisinnius : died 20 days after election. 
 Constantine : wise and gentle ; visited Constanti- 
 nople. 
 St. Gregory II. : sent Boniface to convert Germans. 
 Gregory III. : independent; first sent nuncios to 
 
 foreign powers. 
 St. Zacharias, a Greek. 
 
 Stephen II. elected : died befoi'e consecration. 
 Stephen II. or III. : temporal power of the church 
 
 of Rome commenced. 
 Paul I. : moderate and pious. 
 Constantine Theophylactus : killed by Lombards. 
 Stephen III. or IV. : literary. 
 Adrian I. : sanctioned images. 
 Leo III. : crowned Charlemagne, 800. 
 Stephen IV. or V. 
 
 Pascal I. : ascetic, and built churches. 
 Eugenius II. : " father of the afflicted. "— Zozimus. 
 Valentinus. 
 
 Gregory IV. : pious and learned. 
 Sergius II. 
 
 Leo IV. : defeated the Saracens. 
 Pope Joan's election fabulous (toliich see). 
 Benedict III. — Anastasius. 
 
 Nicholas I., the Great : conversion of Bulgarians. 
 Adrian II. : eminent for sanctity. 
 John VIII. : crowned 3 emperors. 
 Marinus or Martin II. : condemned Photius. 
 Adrian III. : ditto. 
 Stephen V. or VI. : very charitable. 
 Formosus : political. — Sergius. 
 Boniface VI. : deposed. 
 Stephen VI. or VII. : vicious ; dishonoured the 
 
 corpse of pope Formosus ; strangled by the 
 
 people. 
 Romanus. — Sergius. 
 Theodoras II. : governed 22 days. 
 John IX. 
 
 Benedict IV. : "a great pope." 
 Leo V. : expelled ; died in prison. 
 Christopher. 
 
 [Several popes made by the infamous Marozia.] 
 Sergius III. : disgraced by his vices. 
 Anastasius III. 
 Landonius, or Lando. 
 John X. : stifled by Guy, duke of Tuscany. 
 Leo VI. : considered an intruder. 
 Stephen VII. or VIII. 
 John XI. : son of Marozia ; imprisoned in the castle 
 
 of St. Angelo, where he died. 
 Leo VII. : great for zeal and piety. 
 Stephen VIII. or IX. : " of ferocious character." 
 Marinus IT. or Martin III. : charitable. 
 Agapetus II. : of holy life ; moderate. 
 John XII., the infamous : deposed for adultery and 
 
 cruelty ; and murdered. 
 Leo VIII. : an honour to the chair. 
 Benedict V. : chosen on the death of John XII., 
 
 but opposed by Leo VIII., who was supported 
 
 by the emperor Otho : died at Hamburg. 
 John XIII. , elected by the authority of the emperor 
 
 against the popular will. 
 Benedict VI. : murdered in prison. 
 Domnus II. — Boniface VII. 
 John XIV. : imprisoned by Boniface VII. 
 John XV. : died before consecration. 
 John XVI. : loved gain. 
 
 996. Gregory V.—John XVII. : expelled by the emperor, 
 
 and barbarously used. 
 999. Silvester II. (Gerbert) : learned and scientific ; said 
 to have introduced the Arabic numerals, and 
 invented clocks. 
 1003. John XVII. : legitimate pope, died same year. 
 
 ,, John XVIII. abdicated. 
 1009. Sergius IV. (original name " Bocca di Porco," Pig's 
 
 Snout.) 
 1012. Benedict VIII. : supported by the emperor against 
 
 — Gregory. 
 1024. John XIX. : elevated by bribery. 
 1033. Benedict IX. ; became pope, by purchase, at 
 
 12 years of age ; expelled for vices. 
 1044. Sylvester III. : 3 months. 
 „ Gregory VI. : deposed.— Sylvester; and John XX. 
 [The emperor very influential.] 
 
 1046. Clement II. died the next year (Clemens Romanus 
 
 the first Clement). 
 
 1047. Benedict again : again deposed. 
 
 1048. Damasus II. : died soon after. 
 
 ,, St. Leo IX. : a reformer of simony and inconti- 
 nence. 
 1054. [The throne vacant one year.] 
 J055. Victor II. : a reformer. 
 
 1057. Stephen IX. or X. 
 
 1058. Benedict X. ; expelled. 
 
 ,, Nicholas II. : increased the temporal power. 
 
 1061. Alexander II. : raised the papal power. — HonorhisII. 
 
 1073. St. Gregory VII. (Hildebrand) : vigorous reformer ; 
 opposed the emperor Henry IV. respecting in- 
 vestitures ; and excommunicated him, 1076 ; re- 
 stored him at Canossa, 1077 : died, in exile, 1085. 
 
 1080. Clement III. (Guibert). 
 
 1085. [The throne vacant one year.] 
 
 1086. Victor III. (Didier) : learned. 
 1088. Urban II. ; crusades commenced. 
 
 1099. Pascal II. (Ranieri) : Tuscany given to the papacy 
 by the countess Matilda. 
 
 1118. GelasiusII. : retired to a monastery. — GregoryVIII. 
 
 1 1 19. Calixtus II. : settled investiture question. 
 1 124. Honorius II. 
 
 1 1 30. Innocent II. : condemned heresies ; held 2nd 
 
 Lateran council. — Anacletus II. 
 1 138. Victor III. 
 
 1143. Celestine II. : ruled 5 months. 
 
 1144. Lucius II. : killed by accident in a popular com- 
 
 motion. 
 
 1 145. Eugenius III. : ascetic. 
 
 1153. Anastasius IV. 
 
 1154. Adrian IV., or Nicholas Brakespeare, the only 
 
 Englishman elected pope : born at Abbot's Lang- 
 ley, near St. Alban's ; Frederick I. prostrated 
 himself before him, kissed his foot, held his 
 stirrup, and led the white palfrey on which he 
 rode. 
 
 1159. Alexander III. : learned ; canonised Thomas a 
 Becket ; resisted Frederick I. ; 1159, Victor IV. ; 
 1164, Pascal III.; 1168, Calistus III. ; 1178, Inno- 
 cent III. 
 
 1181. Lucius III. — The cardinals acquire power. 
 
 1 185. Urban III. : opposed Frederick I. 
 
 1 187. Gregory VIII. : ruled only 2 months. 
 ,, Clement III. : proclaimed 3rd crusade. 
 
 1191. Celestine III. 
 
 1 198. Innocent HI. (Lothario Conti) : endeavoured to free 
 Rome from foreign influence ; excommunicated 
 John of England ; preached crusade against the 
 Albigenses, 1204. 
 
 1216. Honorius III. : learned and pious. 
 
 1227. Gregory IX. : preached a new crusade ; collected 
 decretals. 
 
 1241. Celestine IV. : died 18 days after his election. 
 [The throne vacant 1 year and 7 months.] 
 
 1243. Innocent IV. : opposed Frederick II. : gave the red 
 hat to cardinals. 
 
 1254. Alexander IV. : established inquisition in France. 
 
 1261. Urban IV. : instituted feast of " Corpus Christi." 
 
 1265. Clement IV, an enlightened Frenchman, pre- 
 viously legate to England ; discouraged the 
 crusades. 
 
 1268. [The throne vacant 2 years and 9 months.] 
 
 1271. Gregory X. : held a council at Lyons to reconcile 
 the churches of the east and west. 
 
 1276. Innocent V. : died shortly after. 
 ,, Adrian V. : legate to England in 1254 ; died 36 days 
 after election. 
 
POPE. 
 
 530 
 
 POPULATION. 
 
 1276. 
 
 1277. 
 1281. 
 1285. 
 
 1292. 
 1294. 
 
 1304. 
 
 i3°5' 
 
 131+ 
 1316. 
 
 *334- 
 1342' 
 1352- 
 1362. 
 
 I37°- 
 
 I378- 
 
 1394- 
 1404. 
 1406. 
 1409. 
 1410. 
 1417. 
 T424. 
 I43i- 
 
 1447. 
 
 M55- 
 
 1458. 
 1464. 
 1471. 
 
 1484. 
 1492. 
 
 i5°3- 
 
 1322. 
 1523' 
 
 1534- 
 I550- 
 *555- 
 
 1566. 
 
 1572- 
 
 1585. 
 
 1590. 
 
 1591. 
 1592. 
 
 1605. 
 
 Vicedominus : died the next day. 
 
 John XX. or XXI. : died in 8 months. 
 
 Nicholas III. : died in 1280. 
 
 Martin IV., French : supported Charles of An.jou. 
 
 Hffnorius IV. : siipported the French. 
 
 Nicholas IV. : endeavoured to stir up a new 
 
 crusade. 
 [The throne vacant 2 years and 3 months.] 
 St. Celestine V. : ascetic ; resigned. 
 Boniface VIII. : proclaimed that "God had set 
 
 him over kings and kingdoms : " imprisoned his 
 
 predecessor ; quarrelled with Philip of France ; 
 
 laid France and Denmark under interdict. 
 Benedict XI. : a pious and liberal pontiff : said to 
 
 have been poisoned. 
 [The throne vacant 11 months.] 
 Clement V. (Bertrand the Goth) : governed by 
 
 Philip of France ; removed the papal seat from 
 
 Borne to Avignon, 1309. 
 [The throne vacant 2 years and 4 months. ] 
 John XXII. 
 
 Benedict XII. (Nicholas V. at Eome. ] 
 Clement VI. : learned. 
 Innocent VI. : favoured Bienzi. 
 Urban V. : charitable ; a patron of learning. 
 Gregory XI. : protector of learning ; restored the 
 
 papal chair to Rome ; proscribed Wickliffe's 
 
 doctrines. 
 
 Schism— 1378-1447. 
 
 Urban VI. : so severe and cruel that the cardinals 
 chose Robert of Geneva, as 
 
 Clement VII. 
 
 Boniface IX. 
 
 Benedict (called XIII.) at Avignon. 
 
 Innocent VII. : died in 1406. 
 
 Gregory XII. Angelo Corario. 
 
 Alexander V. : died, supposed by poison. 
 
 John XXIII. : deposed. 
 
 Martin V. Otho Colonna. 
 
 Clement VIII. : resigned 1429. 
 
 Eugenius IV. Gabriel Condolmera : deposed by the 
 council of Basil, and Ainadeus of Savoy chosen 
 as Felix V., in 1439, who resigned 1449. 
 
 Nicholas V. : learned ; proposed crusade against 
 Turks. 
 
 Calixtus III. Alfonso Borgia : courageous. 
 
 Pius II. JEneas Silvius Piccolomini : learned. 
 
 Paul II. Pietro Barbo : preached a crusade. 
 
 Sixtus IV. : tried to rouse Europe against the 
 Turks. 
 
 Innocent VIII. 
 
 Alexander VI. Roderic Borgia : poisoned at a feast 
 by drinking of a bowl he had prepared for 
 another. 
 
 Pius III. Francisco Piccolomini : 21 days pope. 
 
 Julius II. Julian della Rovere : martial ; began St. 
 Peter's. 
 
 Leo X. Giovanni de' Medici : his grant of indul- 
 gences for crime led to the Reformation ; patron 
 of learning and art. 
 
 Adrian VI. : just, learned, frugal. 
 
 Clement VII. Giulio de' Medici : refused to divorce 
 Catherine of Aragon, and denounced the marriage 
 of Henry VIII. with Anne Boleyn. 
 
 Paul III. Alexander Farnese: approved the Jesuits. 
 
 Julius III. Giovanni 51. Giocchi. 
 
 Marcellus II. : died soon after his election. 
 
 Paul IV. John Peter Caraffa. When queen Eliza- 
 beth sent him an ambassador to announce her 
 accession, he haughtily answered " that to the 
 holy see, and not to her, belonged the throne, 
 to which she had no right as being a bastard." 
 
 Pius. IV. Cardinal de' Medici: founded Vatican 
 press. 
 
 St. Pins V. Michael Ghisleri : pious ; energetic. 
 
 Gregory XIII. Buoncampagno : great civilian and 
 canonist : reformed the calendar. 
 
 Sixtus V. Felix Peretti : an able governor ; excom. 
 Henry III. and Henry IV. of France. 
 
 Urban VII. ; died 12 days after election. 
 
 Gregory XIV. Nicholas Sfrondrate. 
 
 Innocent IX. : died in two months. 
 
 Clement VIII. HippolitO Aldubrandini : learned 
 and just ; published the Vulgate. 
 
 Leo XI. : died same month. 
 
 Paul Y. Camille Borghese ; quarrelled with Venice. 
 
 1621. Gregory XV. Alexander Ludovisio : founded the 
 Propaganda. 
 
 1623. Urban VIII. Maffei Barbcrini : condemned Jan- 
 senism. 
 
 1644. Innocent X. John Baptist Panfili : ditto. 
 
 1655. Alexander VII. Fabio Chigi : favoured literature. 
 
 1667. Clement IX. Giulio Rispogliosi : governed wisely. 
 
 1670. Clement X. Emilio Altieri. 
 
 1676. Innocent XI. Odescalchi : condemned Gallicanism 
 and Quietism. 
 
 1689. Alexander VIII. Ottoboni, 6 Oct. ; helped Leopold 
 against Turks. 
 
 1691. Innocent XII. Antonio Pignatelli : 12 July; con- 
 demned Fenelon. 
 
 1700. Clement XI. John Francis Albani : 23 Nov. ; issued 
 the bull Unigenitus. 
 
 1721. Innocent XIII. Michael Angelo Conti : the eighth 
 of his family ; 8 May ; pensioned Jas. Ed. 
 Stuart. 
 
 1724. Benedict XIII. Orsini : 29 May; favoured J. E. 
 Stuart. 
 
 1730. Clement XII. Orsini : 12 July ; restored San Marino 
 (republic). 
 
 1740. Benedict XIV. Lambertini : 17 Aug. ; learned, 
 amiable. 
 
 1758. Clement XIII. Chas. Rezzonico : Avignon lost. 
 
 1769. Clement XIV. Ganganelli: 19 May; suppressed the 
 Jesuits. 
 
 1775. Pius VI. Angelo Braschi, Feb. 15 : dethroned by 
 Bonaparte ; expelled from Rome, and deposed in 
 Feb. 1798 ; died at Valence, 29 Aug. 1799. 
 
 1S00. Pius VII. Barnabo Chiaramonte : elected 13 March ; 
 agrees to a concordat with France, 15 July, 1801 ; 
 crowns Napoleon, 2 Dec. 1804 ; excommunicates 
 him, 10 June, 1809 ; imprisoned, 6 July, 1809 ; 
 restored in 1814 ; died, 20 Aug. 1823. (He re- 
 stored the Jesuits, 1814.) 
 
 1823. Leo XII. Annibale della Genga, 28 Sept. 
 
 1829. Pius VIII. Francis Xavier Castiglioni, 31 March. 
 
 1831. Gregory XVI. Mauro Capellari, 2 Feb. : died, 1 June, 
 1846. 
 
 1846. Pius IX. Giovanni Maria Mastai Ferretti (born 1 3 
 May, 1792) : the 259th pope ; elected, 16 June ; 
 celebrated a jubilee, the 25th anniversary of his 
 election, 16 June, 1871 ; visited by the priuce 
 and princess of Wales, 27 March, 1871. 
 See Some. 
 
 POPE JOAN. It is falsely asserted that, in 
 the 9th century, a female named Joan, having con- 
 ceived a passion for Felda, a young monk, in order 
 to be admitted into his monastery, assumed the 
 male habit, and that on the death of her lover she 
 entered upon the duties of professor, and, being 
 very learned, was elected pope, when Leo IV. died, 
 in 855. Other scandalous particulars follow; "yet, 
 until the reformation, the tale was repeated and 
 believed without offence." Gibbon. 
 
 POPISH PLOTS, see Gunpowder Plot and 
 Oates's Plot. 
 
 POPLAR TREES. The Tacamahac poplar 
 (Populus Balsamifera) was brought hither from 
 North America before 1692. The Lombardy poplar 
 from Italy about 1758. 
 
 POPLIN (or Tabinef), an elegant rich fabric 
 composed of silk and worsted, introduced by the 
 Huguenot refugees from France about 1693 ; first 
 manufactured in Dublin. Irish poplins are still 
 deservedly esteemed. 
 
 POPULATION. The population of the 
 world was estimated in 1869 at 1,228,000,000. For 
 the Population of Countries, see the table (after the 
 Preface) facing page 1. 
 
 Europe 275,806,741 
 
 Asia ......... 755,000,000 
 
 Africa ........ 200,000,000 
 
 America 67,896,041 
 
 Australia 1,445,000 
 
 Polynesia 1,500,000 
 
POPULATION. 
 
 531 
 
 POPULATION. 
 
 1377 
 1483 
 1696 
 1700 
 
 Population. 
 . 2,092,978 
 . 4,689,000 
 . 5,250,000 
 • S,47S,ooo 
 
 ESTIMATED POPULATION OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 
 
 1710 
 1720 
 1730 
 1740 
 
 Population. 
 5,240,000 
 5,565,000 
 5,796,000 
 6,064,000 
 
 Estimated population of Ireland in 1652 
 
 1750 
 1760 
 1770 
 1780 
 
 Population. 
 . 6,467,000 
 . 6,736,000 
 . 7,428,000 
 • 7>953,ooo I 
 
 Population. 
 1790 • • • 8,675,000 
 Estimated population of 
 
 Scotland in 1751, 
 
 1,255,663. 
 
 850,000; in 1712, 2,099,094; in 1754, 2,372,634 ; in 1805, 5,395,456 
 
 POPULATION OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND BY CENSUS. 
 
 Division. 
 
 1801. 
 
 1811. 
 
 1821. 
 
 1831. 
 
 1841. 
 
 1851. 
 
 1861. 
 
 1871.* 
 
 England . . . 
 Wales .... 
 Scotland . . . 
 Army, Navy, &c. 
 
 1 Total . . . 
 
 Ireland . . . 
 
 Islands in Bri- ) 
 
 tish seas . | 
 
 8,33i,434 
 541,546 
 
 1,599,068 
 470,598 
 
 9,55i,888 
 611,788 
 
 1,805,688 
 640,500 
 
 11,261,437 
 
 717,438 
 
 2,093,456 
 
 319,300 
 
 13,089,338 
 
 805,236 
 
 2,365,807 
 
 277,017 
 
 14,995,138 
 
 916,619 
 
 2,620,184 
 
 312,493 
 
 16,854,142 
 
 1,060,626 
 
 2,870,784 
 
 142,916 
 
 18,949,130 
 
 i,iii,795 
 
 3,061,251 
 
 162,021 
 
 21,487,688 
 
 1,216,420 
 
 3,358,613 
 
 207,198 
 
 10,942,646 
 
 12,609,864 
 5,937,856 
 
 14,391,631 
 8,175,124 
 
 16,537,398 
 7,784,934 
 
 18,844,434 
 8,175,124 
 
 20,936,468 
 
 6,515,794 
 
 143,126 
 
 23,284,197 
 
 5,764,543 
 
 143,779 
 
 26,269,919 
 
 5,402,759 
 
 i44,43o 
 
 27,595,388 
 
 29,192,419 
 
 31,817,108 
 
 First return. 
 
 
 
 Males. 
 
 Females. 
 
 Inhabited Houses. 
 
 England and Wales . 
 
 Scotland . 
 
 Ireland .... 
 
 1861 
 1871 
 1861 
 1871 
 1861 
 1871 
 
 9,758,852 
 11,040,403 
 1,446,982 
 1,601,633 
 2,804,961 
 2,634,123 
 
 10,302,873 
 11,663,705 
 1,614,269 
 1,756,980 
 2,959,582 
 2,768,636 
 
 3>745,463 
 4,259,032 
 393,289 
 419,635 
 995,156 
 960,352 
 
 
 
 POPULATION OF THE 
 
 PRINCIPAL 
 
 TOWNS OF 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 
 
 Towns. 
 
 1801. 
 
 1811. 
 
 1821. 
 
 1831. 
 
 1841. 
 
 1851.* 
 
 1861. t 
 
 1871.+ 
 
 London and suburbs* . 
 
 864,845 
 
 1,009,546 
 
 1,225,694 
 
 1,474,069 
 
 1,873,676 
 
 2,362,236 
 
 2,803,034 
 
 3,251,804 
 
 Manchester, &c. . 
 
 94,876 
 
 115,874 
 
 161,635 
 
 237,832 
 
 242,583 
 
 404,465 
 
 357,979 
 
 383,843 
 
 Glasgow, &c. . 
 
 
 77,385 
 
 100, 749 
 
 147,043 
 
 202,426 
 
 274,533 
 
 340,653 
 
 394,857 
 
 477,144 
 
 Liverpool 
 
 
 79,722 
 
 100,240 
 
 131,801 
 
 189,244 
 
 286,487 
 
 375,955 
 
 443,938 
 
 493>346 
 
 Edinburgh, &c. 
 
 
 82,560 
 
 102,987 
 
 138,235 
 
 162,403 
 
 168,182 
 
 193,929 
 
 168,098 
 
 196,500 
 
 Birmingham . 
 
 
 73,670 
 
 85,753 
 
 106,721 
 
 142,251 
 
 182,922 
 
 232,841 
 
 296,076 
 
 343,696 
 
 Leeds, &c. 
 
 
 * * 
 
 
 83,796 
 
 123,393 
 
 152,054 
 
 172,270 
 
 207,165 
 
 259,201 
 
 Bristol, &c. . 
 
 
 63,645 
 
 76,433 
 
 87,779 
 
 103,886 
 
 122,296 
 
 137,328 
 
 154,093 
 
 182,524 
 
 Sheffield . 
 
 
 * * 
 
 * -X 
 
 69,479 
 
 91,692 
 
 111,091 
 
 i35,3io 
 
 185,172 
 
 239,947 
 
 Plymouth 
 
 
 43,194 
 
 56,060 
 
 6l,2I2 
 
 75,534 
 
 80,059 
 
 102,380 
 
 62,599 
 
 69,414 
 
 Portsmouth 
 
 
 43,46l 
 
 52,769 
 
 56,620 
 
 63,026 
 
 63,032 
 
 72,096 
 
 94,799 
 
 112,954 
 
 Norwich 
 
 
 36,832 
 
 37,256 
 
 50,288 
 
 61,116 
 
 72,344 
 
 68,195 
 
 74,89* 
 
 80,390 
 
 Aberdeen . 
 
 
 27,608 
 
 35,370 
 
 44,796 
 
 58,019 
 
 63,288 
 
 7i,945 
 
 73,794 
 
 88,125 
 
 Neweastle-on-Tyn 
 
 8 
 
 36,963 
 
 36,369 
 
 46,948 
 
 57,937 
 
 70,860 
 
 87,784 
 
 109,108 
 
 128,160 
 
 Paisley . 
 
 
 3I>I79 
 
 36,722 
 
 47,003 
 
 57,466 
 
 60,487 
 
 69,951 
 
 47,419 
 
 48,257 
 
 Nottingham 
 
 
 28,861 
 
 34,253 
 
 40,415 
 
 50,680 
 
 71,344 
 
 57,407 
 
 74,693 
 
 86,608 
 
 Hull . 
 
 
 34,964 
 
 32,467 
 
 41,874 
 
 49,461 
 
 71,629 
 
 84,690 
 
 97,661 
 
 123,111 
 
 Dundee . 
 
 
 26,084 
 
 29,616 
 
 30,575 
 
 45,355 
 
 62,794 
 
 77,829 
 
 90,425 
 
 118,974 
 
 Brighton 
 
 
 7,339 
 
 12,012 
 
 24,429 
 
 40,634 
 
 46,661 
 
 65,573 
 
 87,317 
 
 103,760 
 
 Bath. 
 
 
 3°, "3 
 
 32,214 
 
 36,8ll 
 
 38,063 
 
 . 38,304 
 
 54,240 
 
 52,528 
 
 53,7*4 
 
 York . 
 
 
 23,692 
 
 26,422 
 
 29,527 
 
 34,46i 
 
 38, 3 21 
 
 4o,359 
 
 45,385 
 
 50,761 
 
 Preston . 
 
 
 11,887 
 
 17,065 
 
 24,575 
 
 33,112 
 
 50,131 
 
 69,542 
 
 82,985 
 
 85,428 
 
 Cambridge . 
 
 
 13,360 
 
 13,802 
 
 14,142 
 
 20,917 
 
 24,453 
 
 27,815 
 
 26,361 
 
 34,029 
 
 Oxford . . . . 
 
 15,124 
 
 15,337 
 
 16,364 
 
 20,432 
 
 23,834 
 
 27,843 
 
 27,560 
 
 34,514 
 
 POPULATION OF THE CHIEF CITIES OF THE WORLD. 
 
 From latest returns in "Almanack de Gotha," 1873. 
 
 Cities. Inkabitants. 
 
 Adelaide, 1871 27,208 
 
 Alexandria, Egypt, 187 1 219,602 
 
 Amsterdam, 1869 264,649 
 
 Antwerp, 1869 . 126,663 
 
 Athens, 1871 44,5 10 
 
 Baltimore, U.S., 1870 267,354 
 
 Barcelona, 1864 252,015 
 
 Basle, 1870 44,834 
 
 Berlin, 1871 825,389 
 
 Berne, 1870 36,001 
 
 Bologna, 1871 115,957 
 
 Bombay, 1871 646,600 
 
 * In 1851, 1,106,558 males, and 1,255,678 females. 
 
 Cities. Inkabitants. 
 
 Bordeaux, 1866 194,241 
 
 Boston, U.S., 1870 250,526 
 
 Bremen, 1871 82,968 
 
 Breslau, 1871 208,025 
 
 Brussels, 1869 314,077 
 
 Cadiz, 1864 71,914 
 
 Cairo, 1871 353,851 
 
 Calcutta, 1866 616,249 
 
 Chicago, 1870 298,977 
 
 Christiania, 1870 66,657 
 
 Cologne, 1871 129,233 
 
 Constantinople, 1872, estimated . . . . 1,000,000 
 
 Copenhagen, 1870 181,291 
 
 Dresden, 1871 . . . . . . 177,089 
 
 Dublin, 1871 245,722 
 
 t 1861 and 1871 : parliamentary limits of the boroughs. 
 M M 2 
 
POPULATION. 
 
 532 PORTLAND ADMINISTRATIONS. 
 
 Cities. Inhabitants. 
 
 Edinburgh, 1871 196,500 
 
 Florence, 1871 167,093 
 
 Frankfort on Main, 1871 90,922 
 
 Geneva, 1870 68,175 
 
 Genoa, 1871 130,269 
 
 Ghent, 1869 121,469 
 
 Glasgow, 1871 477,144 
 
 Hague, 1869 . 90,277 
 
 Hamburg, 1870 240,251 
 
 Jeddo, reputed . 1,800,000 
 
 Konigsberg, 1871 .... . 112,123 
 
 Leipsic, 1871 106,925 
 
 Liege, 1869 ...... . 106,402 
 
 Lisbon, 1864 224,063 
 
 Lisle, 1866 154,749 
 
 Liverpool, 1871 . 493,346 
 
 London, 1871 3,251,804 
 
 Lubeck, 1871 . 39,743 
 
 Lyons, 1866 323,954 
 
 Madras, 1871 . 395,440 
 
 Madrid, 1870 332,024 
 
 Marseilles, 1866 300,131 
 
 Melbourne, 1871 193,698 
 
 Messina, 1871 111,854 
 
 Mexico, 1858, estimated 200,000 
 
 Milan, 1871 . 262,085 
 
 Montreal, 1871 107,225 
 
 Moscow, 1871 611,970 
 
 Munich, 1871 169,478 
 
 Nankin, estimated 1,000,000 
 
 Nantes, 1866 111,956 
 
 Naples, 1871 448,743 
 
 New Orleans, 1870 191,418 
 
 New York, 1870 942,292 
 
 Odessa, 1867 121,335 
 
 Oporto, 1864 89,194 
 
 Palermo, 1871 219,398 
 
 Paris, &c, 1866 1,825,274 
 
 Pekin, reputed .... . 4,000,000 
 
 Pesth, 1869 201,911 
 
 Philadelphia, 1870 674,022 
 
 Prague, 1869 157,275 
 
 Quebec, 1871 59,699 
 
 Rio Janeiro, 1871 420,000 
 
 Rome, 1871 244,484 
 
 Rotterdam, 1869 116,232 
 
 Rouen, 1866 100,671 
 
 Santiago, 1871 II 5,377 
 
 Seville, 1864 152,000 
 
 Smyrna, 1863, estimated 150,000 
 
 Stockholm, 1871 138,512 
 
 St. Petersburg, 1869 667,026 
 
 Stutgardt, 1871 91,623 
 
 Sydney, 1871 134.756 
 
 Teheran, estimated 80,000 
 
 Toronto, 1871 46,092 
 
 Toulouse, 1866 126,936 
 
 Tunis, estimated 120,000 
 
 Turin, 1871 207,770 
 
 Upsal, 1871 11,705 
 
 Utrecht, 1869 59.299 
 
 Venice, 1871 128,901 
 
 Vienna, 1872 .... . . 901,000 
 
 Warsaw, 1867 . . 251,584 
 
 Washington, U.S 109,199 
 
 PORCELAIN, see Pottery. 
 
 PORPHYROGENITUS, "bom in the pur- 
 ple," a term applied to emperors of the east, bom 
 while their fathers were reigning. 
 
 PORT EGMONT, a fine harbour on the N.W. 
 coast of Falkland Islands. Commodore Byron was 
 dispatched to found a colony here in 1765 ; see 
 Falkland Islands. 
 
 PORTE, or Sublime Porte, official name 
 
 of the court of the sultan of Turkey. Mostasem, 
 the last of the Abbasside caliphs (1243-58), fixed in 
 the threshold of the principal entrance to his palace 
 at Bagdad a piece of the black stone adored at 
 Mecca, and thus this entrance became the " porte " 
 by eminence, and the title of his court. The sul- 
 tans, successors of the caliphs, assumed the title. 
 — Bouillet. 
 
 PORTEOUS MOB. Capt. Porteous, at Edin- 
 burgh, on 15 April, 1736, commanded the guard at 
 the execution of Wilson, a smuggler, who had 
 saved the life of a fellow criminal, by springing 
 upon the soldiers around them, and by main force 
 keeping them back, while Iris companion fled. Thi ; 
 excited great commiseration, and the spectators 
 pelted the guard with stones. Fearing a rescue, 
 Forteous ordered his men to fire upon the mob, and 
 seventeen persons were killed or wounded. He 
 was found guilty of murder, 22 June, 1736; but the 
 queen granted him a reprieve (the king being then in 
 Hanover). The people, at night, broke open the 
 prison, took out Porteous, and hanged him on a 
 dyer's sign-post, in the Grass-market, 7 Sept. 1736. 
 None of the rioters was ever detected. 
 
 PORTER. Dr. Ashe says that this beverage 
 obtained its appellation on account of its having 
 been drunk by porters in the city of London, about 
 1730.* The number of licensed brewers in 1850, 
 in England, was 2257; in Scotland,;i54; and in 
 Ireland, 96 — total, 2507. On 17 Oct. 1814, at Meux's 
 brewhouse two large vats of porter burst, destroy- 
 ing neighbouring houses. Several lives were lost ; 
 and the loss was between 8000 and 9000 barrels. 
 
 Chief Brewers. In 1760. Barrels. 
 
 Calvert <fe Co. brewed 74,734 
 
 Whitbread . . 63,408 
 
 Truman 60,140 
 
 Sir William Calvert 52,785 
 
 Gilford & Co 41,410 
 
 Lady Parsons 34,098 
 
 Thrale 30,740 
 
 Huck & Co. . . 29,615 
 
 Harman 28,017 
 
 Meux & Co 10,012 
 
 In 1815. 
 
 Barclay & Perkins . 337,621 
 
 Meux, Reid, & Co 282, 104 
 
 Truman, Hanbury, & Co 272,162 
 
 Whitbread & Co 261,018 
 
 Henry Meux & Co. 229,100 
 
 F. Calvert & Co 219,333 
 
 Combe, Delafield, & Co 105,081 
 
 In 1840. 
 
 Barclay, Perkins, and Co. 361,321 
 
 Truman, Hanbury, & Co 263,235 
 
 Whitbread <fc Co 218,828 
 
 Reid and Co 196,442 
 
 Combe, Delafield, & Co 177,542 
 
 Felix Calvert & Co 136,387 
 
 Sir Henry Meux & Co. . . ... 116,547 
 
 PORTERAGE ACT, regulating the charge for 
 porterage of small parcels, passed 1 799. 
 
 PORT JACKSON (New South Wales), thir- 
 teen miles north of Botany Bay, was so named by 
 capt. Cook in 1 770; see Sydney. Here the duke 
 of Edinburgh was shot by O'Farrell, a Fenian, 
 12 March, 1868, but soon recovered. The assassin 
 was hanged, 21 April. 
 
 PORT MAHON, see Minorca. 
 
 PORTLAND ADMINISTRATIONS. 
 
 The first was the "Coalition ministry," of which 
 
 * The malt liquors previously in use were ale, beer, 
 and twopenny, and it was customary to call for a pint or 
 tankard of half-and-half,— i.e., half of ale, and half of 
 beer. In the course of time it also became the practice 
 to ask for a pint of three-thirds, meaning a third of ale, 
 beer, and twopenny. To avoid trouble, Harwood, a 
 brewer, made a liquor which partook of the united 
 flavours of ale, beer, and twopenny, calling it entire, or 
 entire butt beer, meaning that it was drawn entirely 
 from one cask or butt. Being relished by porters and 
 other working people, it obtained its name of porter, 
 and was first retailed at the " Blue Last," Curtain-road. 
 — Leigh. 
 
PORTLAND. 
 
 533 
 
 PORTSMOUTH. 
 
 William Henry Cavendish, duke of Portland,* as 
 first lord of the treasury, was the head. It obtained 
 the name of the "Coalition" ministry, and in- 
 cluded lord North with Mr. Fox, formerly in- 
 veterate opponents. Formed 5 April, 1783; dis- 
 solved by Mr. Pitt's coming into power, Dec. same 
 year. 
 
 FIRST ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 Duke of Portland, first lord of the treasury. 
 
 Viscount Stormont, president of the council. 
 
 Earl of Carlisle, privy seal. 
 
 Frederick, lord North, and Cliarles James Fox, home and 
 
 foreign secretaries. 
 Lord John Cavendish, chancellor of the exchequer. 
 Viscount Keppel, admiralty. 
 Viscount Townshend, ordnance. 
 Lord Loughborough, chief commissioner of great seal. 
 Charles Townshend, Edmund Burke, Bichard Fitz- 
 
 patrick, Bichard B. Sheridan, &c. 
 
 SECOND ADMINISTRATION, 25 March, 1807. 
 
 Earl Camden, lord president. 
 
 Lord Eldon, lord chancellor. 
 
 Earl of Westmoreland, lord privy seal. 
 
 Hon. Spencer Perceval, lord Hawkesbury (afterwards earl 
 
 of Liverpool), Mr. Canning,' and viscount Castlereagh 
 
 (afterwards marquis of Londonderry), home, foreign, and 
 
 colonial secretaries. 
 Earl Bathurst and Mr. Dundas, boards of trade and 
 
 control. 
 Lord Mulgrave, admiralty. 
 Earl of Chatham, ordnance. 
 
 PORTLAND ISLE (off Dorset), the English 
 Gibraltar. Fortified before 1142. Portland castle 
 was built by Henry VIII. about 1536. Off this 
 peninsula a naval engagement commenced between 
 the English and Dutch, 18 Feb. 1653, which con- 
 tinued for three days. The English destroyed 
 eleven Dutch men-of-war and thirty merchantmen. 
 Van Tromp was admiral of the Dutch, and Blake of 
 the English. — Here is found the noted freestone 
 used for building our finest edifices. The Portland 
 lights were erected 17 16 and in 1789. The pier, 
 with nearly half a mile square of land, was washed 
 into the sea in Feb. 1792. Prince Albert laid the 
 first stone of the Portland breakwater, 25 July, 
 1849, and the last stone was laid by the prince of 
 Wales, 10 Aug. 1872. Mr. James Eendel, the first 
 chief engineer, was succeeded on his death in 1856 
 by Mr. (now sir) John Coode. The breakwater and 
 other harbour works cost 1,033,600^. exclusive of 
 convict labour. The Portland prison was established 
 in 1848. A mutiny among the convicts here in 
 Sept. 1858, was promptly suppressed. 
 
 PORTLAND or Barbektni Vase. This 
 
 beautiful specimen of Greek art (composed of a 
 glass-like substance, with figures and devices raised 
 on it on white enamel; height 10 inches ; diameter 
 in the broadest part, 7 ; with a handle on each 
 side) was discovered about the middle of the 16th 
 century, in a marble sarcophagus in a sepulchre at 
 a place called Monte del Grano, about 2j miles 
 from Rome. The sepulchre was supposed to have 
 been that of the Roman emperor, Alexander Se- 
 verus (222-235), and his mother Mammasa, and the 
 vase is supposed to have been the cinerary urn of 
 one of these royal personages. It was placed in the 
 palace of the Barberini family, at Rome, where it 
 remained till 1770, when it was purchased by sir 
 William Hamilton, from whose possession it passed 
 to that of the duchess of Portland : at the sale of 
 her effects, it is said to have been bought by the 
 then duke of Portland, who, in 1810, deposited it 
 (on loan) in the British Museum. On 7 Feb. 1845, 
 
 * Born 1738; became lord chamberlain, 1765; lord 
 lieutenant of Ireland, 1782; premier, 1783; home secre- 
 tary, 1794 ; lord president, 1801 ; premier again, 1807 ; 
 died, 1809 ; when Mr. Spencer Perceval became premier. 
 
 this vase was smashed to pieces with a stone by a 
 man named William Lloyd ; it has been skilfully 
 repaired, but is not now shown to the public. 
 Josiah Wedgwood made a mould of it, and took a 
 number of casts. 
 
 PORTO BELLO (S. America), discovered by 
 Columbus, 2 Nov. 1502, was taken by Morgan the 
 Buccaneer in 1668 ; by the British under admiral 
 Vernon, from the Spaniards, 21 Nov. 1739, and the 
 fortifications destroyed. Before the abolition of the 
 trade by the galleons, in 1748, it was the great mart 
 for the rich commerce of Peru and Chili. 
 
 PORTO EERRAJO, capital of Elba {which 
 see); built and fortified by Cosmo I. duke of 
 Florence, in 1548. The fortifications were not 
 finished till 1628, when Cosmo II. completed them 
 with great magnificence ; see France. 
 
 PORTO NOVO (S. India). Here sir Eyre 
 Coote, with about 9500 men and 55 light field- 
 pieces, skilfully defeated Hyder All,; ruler of the 
 Carnatic, with 80,000 men and some heavy cannon, 
 I July, 1781. Hyder lost about 10,000, the Biitish 
 587 killed and wounded. 
 
 PORT PHILLIP (New S. Wales), original 
 name of the colony of Victoria {which see) . 
 
 PORTRAIT GALLERY, &c, see National 
 Portrait Gallery. 
 
 PORTREEVE (derived from Saxon words 
 signifying the governor of a port or harbour) . The 
 chief magistrate of London was originally so styled ; 
 but Richard I. appointed two bailiffs and afterwards 
 London had mayors. Camden ; see Mayors. 
 
 PORT ROYAL (N. America), eapital'of the 
 French colony, Acadie, founded in 1604, after 
 having been taken and restored several times, was 
 finally acquired by the British in 1710, and named 
 Annapolis. 
 
 PORT ROYAL (Jamaica), once a consider- 
 able town, was destroyed by earthquakes in 1602 
 and 1692 ; laid in ashes by fire in 1702 : reduced to 
 ruins by an inundation of the sea in 1722 ; and 
 destroyed by a hurricane in 1774. _ After these 
 calamities, the custom-house and public offices were 
 removed to Kingston. Port Royal was again greatly 
 damaged by fire in 1750; by another awful storm 
 in 1784; and by a devastating fire in July, 1815, 
 and in 1850 suffered by cholera. 
 
 PORT ROYAL DES CHAMPS (near Paris) 
 was a French Cistercian convent, founded by Odo, 
 bishop of Paris, at the wish of king Philip Augus- 
 tus, 1204. Having fallen into decay, it was revived 
 and reformed in 1608 by Angelica Amauld. In 
 1625 the increased community removed to Paris. 
 The Port Royal des Champs, in 1736, became the 
 retreat of the Arnaulds, Tillemont, Pascal, Lance- 
 lot, and other eminent Jansenists, who devoted 
 themselves to education, and produced the Port 
 Royal grammars, logic, and other works. This 
 institution was condemned by the pope in 1709, 
 and the buildings were pulled down, and tombs 
 desecrated, by the order of Louis XIV., in 17 10. 
 The Port Royal at Paris was suppressed, with other 
 monasteries, in 1790. 
 
 PORTSMOUTH (Hampshire), the most con- 
 siderable haven for men-of-war, and most strongly 
 fortified place in England. The dock, arsenal, and 
 storehouses were established in the reign of Henry 
 
PORTUGAL. 
 
 534 
 
 PORTUGAL. 
 
 VIII. Population in 1851, 72,096 ; in 1861, 94,799 ; 
 in 1871, 112,954. 
 
 The French under D'Annebaut attempted to destroy 
 Portsmouth, but were defeated by viscount Lisle, 
 in the then finest war-ship in the world, the Great 
 Harry 1545 
 
 Here George Villiers, duke of Buckingham, was 
 assassinated by Felton ... 23 Aug. 1628 
 
 Admiral Byng (see Byng) on a very dubious sen- 
 tence was shot at Portsmouth . . 14 March, 1757 
 
 The dockyard was fired, the loss estimated at 
 400,000? 3 July, 1760 
 
 Another fire occasioned loss of ioo,oooL 27 July, 1770 
 
 [The French were suspected both times, but there 
 was no actual proof.] 
 
 Fire caused by James Aitken (John the Painter) 
 7 Dec. 1776; executed . . . . 10 March, 1777 
 
 Royal George (which see) sunk . . 29 Aug. 1782 
 
 Grand naval mock engagement and parade of the 
 fleet, the king being present, 22 to 25 June, 1773, 
 and 30 June, 1794 
 
 Another great fire occurred . . . . 7 Dec. 1776 
 
 A great naval review was held near Portsmouth on 
 
 25 April, 1856 
 
 Visited by a French fleet amid great rejoicings, 
 
 29 Aug.-i Sept. 1865 
 
 Easter Monday volunteer review, &c. , very successful 
 
 13 April 1868 
 
 Naval review at Spithead for the shah of Persia, 
 
 23 June, 1873 
 
 PORTUGAL, the ancient Lusitania. The pre- 
 sent name is derived from Porto Callo, the original 
 appellation of Oporto. After a nine years' struggle, 
 under Viriathes, a brave able leader, the Lusi- 
 tanians submitted to the Koman arms about 137 B.C. 
 Portugal underwent the same changes as Spain on 
 the fall of the Koman empire. There are in 
 Portugal two universities, that of Coimbra, founded 
 in 1308, and the smaller one of Evora, founded in 
 1533. Lisbon has also its royal academy, and the 
 small town of Thomar has an academy of sciences ; 
 but, in general, literature is at a low ebb in 
 Portugal. The poet Camoens, called the Virgil 
 of his country, and author of the Zusiad (1569), 
 translated into English by Mickle, was a native of 
 Lisbon. Population of the kingdom and colonies, 
 31 Dec. 1863, 8,037, 194; in 1868, kingdom on the con- 
 tinent, with Madeira and Azores, 4,360,974 ; colonies, 
 3,880,227. The constitution granted in 1826, was 
 revised in 1852. 
 
 Settlement of the Alains and Visigoths here . . 472 
 
 Conquered by the Moors 713 
 
 The kings of Asturias subdue some Saracen chiefs, 
 
 and Alfonso III. establishes bishops . . . 900 
 The Moors, conquered by Alfonso VI. the Valiant, of 
 Castile, assisted by many other princes and volun- 
 teers ; Henry of Besangon (a relative of the duke 
 of Burgundy and king of France), very eminent ; 
 Alfonso bestowed upon him Theresa, his natural 
 daughter, and Portugal as her marriage portion, 
 which he was to hold of him as count . . . 1095 
 Alfonso Henriquez defeats five Moorish kings, and 
 
 proclaimed king ; see Ourique . . 25 July, 1139 
 Assisted by a fleet of Crusaders on their way to the 
 Holy Laud, he takes Lisbon from the Moors, 
 
 25 Oct. 1 147 
 Part of Algarve taken from the Moors by Sancho I. 1189 
 Reign of Dionysius I. or Denis, father of his coun- 
 try, who builds 44 cities or towns in Portugal . 1279 
 University of Coimbra founded .... 1308 
 Military orders of Christ and St. James instituted, 
 
 1279 and 1325 
 
 Ines de Castro murdered 1355 
 
 John I., surnanied the Great, carries his amis into 
 
 Africa 1415 
 
 Maritime discoveries 1419-30 
 
 Madeira and the Canaries seized .... 1420 
 
 Code of laws digested 1425 
 
 Lisbon made the capital .... about 1433 
 Passage to the East Indies by the Cape of Good 
 
 Hope discovered by Vasco de Gama . 20 Nov. 1497 
 Discovery of the Brazils 1499 
 
 Brazil discovered by Cabral .... April, 1500 
 Camoens, author of the Lusiad, born . about 1520 
 The Inquisition established < . , 1526 
 
 University of Evora founded . . . 1451 or 1533 
 African expedition; king Sebastian defeated and 
 
 slain in the battle of Alcazar . . 4 Aug. 1578 
 
 The kingdom seized by Philip II. of Spain . . . 1580 
 The Dutch seize the Portuguese settlements in India, 
 
 1602-20 
 The Portuguese throw off the yoke, and place John, 
 
 duke of Braganza on the throne . . Dec. 1640 
 The Portuguese defeat the Spaniards at Villa Viciosa 1665 
 The great earthquake destroys Lisbon . 1 Nov. 1755 
 Joseph I. narrowly escapes death by assassins . 1758 
 [Some of the first families were tortured to death ; 
 their very names being forbidden to be mentioned ; 
 the innocence of many was soon afterwards made 
 manifest; the Jesuits were also expelled.] 
 Joseph, having no son, obtains a dispensation from 
 the pope to enable his daughter and brother to 
 
 intermarry; see Incest 1760 
 
 The Spaniards and French invade Portugal, which 
 
 is saved by the English . . . 1762 and 1763 
 Regency of John (afterwards king), owing to the 
 
 lunacy of queen Maria 1792 
 
 "War with Spain, 3 March ; peace . . 6 June,- 1801 
 Treaty between France and Spain for the partition 
 of Portugal, Oct. ; French invasion ; Junot arrives 
 at Lisbon, 27 Nov. ; the court sail for Brazil, 
 
 29 Nov. 1807 
 Rise of the Portuguese; several times defeated, 
 June and July ; arrival of Wellington at Oporto, 
 July ; he defeats Junot at Vimiera, 21 Aug. ; con- 
 vention of Cintra confirmed . . 30 Aug. 1808 
 Oporto taken by Soult ... 29 March, 1809 
 Almeida taken by Massena ... 27 Aug. 1810 
 Massena defeated at Busaco . . 27 Sept. ,, 
 
 Wellington secures the lines of Torres Vedras, Oct. ,, 
 Massena defeated at Fuentes de Onoro ; retreats, 
 
 5 May, 1811 
 The British parliament grants the sufferers by war 
 
 in Portugal ioo.oooi. 1811 
 
 Portugal cedes Guiana to France .... 1814 
 
 Union of Portugal and Brazil 18 15 
 
 Revolution begins in Oporto ... 29 Aug. 1820 
 Constitutional Junta established . . 1 Oct. 
 
 Return of the court 4 July, 1821 
 
 Independence of Brazil ; the prince regent made 
 
 emperor; see Brazil 12 Oct. 1822 
 
 The king modifies the constitution . . 5 June, 1823 
 Disturbances at Lisbon ; Miguel departs 1-9 May, 1824 
 
 Treaty with Brazil 29 Aug. 1825 
 
 Death of John VI 10 March, 1826 
 
 Dom Pedro grants a constitutional charter, and con- 
 firms the regency 26 April, ,, 
 
 He relinquishes the throne in favour of his daughter, 
 
 Donna Maria da Gloria . ... 2 May, „ 
 Miguel takes oath of fealty at Vienna . 4 Oct. ,, 
 Marquis of Chaves' insurrection at Lisbon in favour 
 
 of Dom Miguel . ... 6 Oct. „ 
 
 Dom Miguel and Donna Maria betrothed 29 Oct. ,, 
 Portugal solicits the assistance of Great Britain, 
 3 Dec. ; departure of the first British auxiliary 
 
 troops for Portugal 17 Dec. ,, 
 
 Bank of Lisbon stops payment . . 7 Dec. 1827 
 Dom Miguel made regent : he arrives in London, 30 
 
 Dec. 1827; takes the oath at Lisbon 22 Feb. 1828 
 
 The British armament quits Portugal, 28 April; 
 
 foreign ministers withdraw ... 3 May, ,, 
 Sir John Doyle, a partisan of Donna Maria, arrested, 
 
 13 June, 
 Dom Miguel assumes the title of king . 4 July, 
 He dissolves the three estates . . .12 July, 
 His troops take Madeira . . . 24 Aug. 
 Release of sir John Doyle .... 7 Sept. 
 The queen Donna Maria arrives in London 6 Oct 
 Miguel's expedition against Terceira defeated, 
 
 11 Aug. 1829 
 Duke of Palmella appointed regent . March, 1830 
 Dom Pedro arrives in England . . . 16 June, 1831 
 Insurrection in Portugal in favour of the queen ; 
 
 more than 300 lives lost ... 21 Aug. „ 
 Dom Pedro's expedition sail from Belle-isle, 9 Feb. ; 
 at Terceira proclaims himself regent, 2 April ; 
 
 takes Oporto 8 July, 1832 
 
 The Migu elites attack Oporto and are defeated 
 
 with considerable loss on both sides 19 Sept. ,, 
 
 Mount Cavello taken ... 9 April, 1833 
 
POKTUGAL. 
 
 535 
 
 POKTUGAL. 
 
 Admiral Napier takes Dom Miguel's squadron off 
 Cape St.. Vincent 5 July, 
 
 Lisbon evacuated by the duke of Cadaval; the 
 queen proclaimed, 24 July ; enters Lisbon, 
 
 22 Sept. 
 
 After various conflicts Dom Miguel capitulates to 
 the Pedroites, and Santarem surrenders, 26 May ; 
 Dom Miguel embarks at Bvora for Genoa, 31 May, 
 
 Massacres take place at Lisbon . . .9 June, 
 
 The Cortes declare the queen of age . 15 Sept. 
 
 Dom Pedro dies 24 Sept. 
 
 Oporto wine company abolished .... 
 
 Prince Augustus (duke of Leuchenberg) prince con- 
 sort; married, 1 Dec. 1834; dies . . 28 March, 
 
 'The queen marries Ferdinand of Saxe Coburg, 
 
 9 April, 
 
 Revolution at Lisbon .... 9 Aug. 
 
 Another outbreak there . . . .8 Nov. 
 
 The duke of Terceira attempts to restore Dom 
 Pedro's charter 18 Aug. 
 
 He and Saldanha fail, and embark for England, 
 
 18 Sept. 
 
 Oporto wine company re-established 7 April, 
 
 The northern province in a state of insurrection 
 about this time 20 April, 
 
 The duke of Palmella resigns . . .31 Oct. 
 
 Action at Evora, the queen's troops defeat the in- 
 surgent forces 31 Oct. 
 
 British squadron under admiral Parker arrives in 
 the Tagus, at the queen's request . 31 Oct. 
 
 Palmella banished 26 Nov. 
 
 Marquis of Saldanha defeats count Bomflnn at 
 Torres Vedras 22 Dec. 
 
 The insurgents enter Oporto . . .7 Jan. 
 
 London conference : England, France, and Spain 
 determine to assist the queen of Portugal to ter- 
 minate the civil war . . . .21 May, 
 
 Submission of Sa de Bandiera . . n June, 
 
 A Spanish force enters Oporto, and the Junto capi- 
 tulates 26 June, 
 
 An American squadron in the Tagus to enforce 
 claims against the Portuguese . 22 June, 
 
 Military insurrection, headed by the duke of Sal- 
 danha, who, being outstripped in his march on 
 Santarem by the king of Portugal, flees northward 
 
 10 April, 
 
 Oporto declares for the duke, who had left the city 
 for Vigo to embark for England ; but is called 
 back by the insurgents ... 24 April, 
 
 Saldanha's entry into Oporto . . 29 April, 
 
 The conde de Thomar, prime minister, resigns ; 
 arrives in England .... 16 May, 
 
 Saldanha, prime minister . . . .23 May, 
 
 Dom Miguel marries the princess Adelaide of 
 Lowenstein-Rosenberg ... 24 Sept. 
 
 Revision of the charter by the Cortes sanctioned by 
 the queen ; the prince royal takes the oath to 
 the constitution 18 July, 
 
 Conversion of the public debt . . 18 Dec. 
 
 Death of the queen Maria II. . . . 15 Nov. 
 
 King-consort recognised as regent . 19 Dec. 
 
 The young king visits England . . . June, 
 
 The slaves on royal domains freed . 30 Dec. 
 
 The king visits France .... May, 
 
 Inauguration of the king ... 16 Sept. 
 
 Resignation of Saldanha ministry . . 5 June, 
 
 First Portuguese railway (from Lisbon to Santarem) 
 opened 26 Oct. 
 
 Fever rages in Lisbon ; the king very active in 
 relieving the sufferers . . Oct. and Nov. 
 
 The French emigrant ship for negroes, Charles-et- 
 Georges, seized 29 Nov. 
 
 Anger of the French government ; its ultimatum 
 sent, 13 Oct. ; and ships of war to the Tagus : the 
 vessel restored (see Charles-et-Georges) . 25 Oct. 
 
 Death of the duke of Terceira, prime minister, 
 April 26 ; succeeded by the senhor Aguiar, May 2, 
 who resigns 2 July, 
 
 Death of the king, Pedro V. ; succeeded by his 
 brother the duke of Oporto . . . 11 Nov. 
 
 Death of John, the king's brother . . 29 Dec. 
 
 The law of succession altered in favour of the king's 
 sisters 3 Jan. 
 
 The due de Louie becomes minister . 21 Feb. 
 
 The king married to Princess Maria Pia of Savoy by 
 proxy, at Lisbon 6 Oct. 
 
 Elections : majority for the government . Nov. 
 
 Birth of Dom Carlos, heir to the throne . 28 Sept. 
 
 1S35 
 1836 
 
 1837 
 1838 
 
 1S47 
 
 1S50 
 
 Ministerial changes Jan. 
 
 Death of the celebrated statesman the duke of 
 
 Palmella 2 April, 
 
 Free-trade measures introduced . . .1 June, 
 Frontier treaty with Spain concluded . 29 Sept. 
 U. S. vessels Niagara and Sacramento in the Tagus 
 
 fired on, through suspicion of their sailing after 
 
 the confederate vessel Stonewall, 27 March ; the 
 
 difficulty with the U. S. government arranged, 
 
 7 April, 
 The premier, De Louie, resigns ; marquis de Sa 
 
 Bandeira forms a ministry . . 17 April, 
 Constitutional privileges granted to the colonies, 
 
 May, 
 Another prince bom . . . -31 July, 
 New ministry formed ; Aguiar premier . 4 Sept. 
 The international exhibition at Oporto opened by 
 
 the king 18 Sept. 
 
 The king visits England and France . . Dec. 
 General Prim enters Portugal, 20 Jan. ; ordered to 
 
 depart 17 Feb. 
 
 Death of Dom Miguel, the ex-king . . 14 Nov. 
 The king and queen of Spain visit Lisbon 11 Dec. 
 King and queen at the Paris exhibition, 
 
 July— Aug. 
 New ministry under count d'Avila . 5 Jan. 
 
 under Sa da Bandiera ... 21 July, 
 
 under the duke de Saldanha . . 7 Jan. 
 
 under the duke de Louie . . . .11 Aug. 
 Violent opposition of Saldanha ; ordered back to 
 
 Paris as ambassador there ; he resigns. . Dec. 
 Cortes dissolved . . . . . . . Jan. 
 
 Saldanha heads a military insurrection ; seizes the 
 
 royal palace ; forms a new ministry . 19 May, 
 Neutrality in the French war proclaimed . July, 
 Manifestation against Saldanha in Lisbon and 
 
 Oporto 2 Aug. 
 
 The French republic recognized . . . Sept. 
 New ministry under the bishop of Vizeu, 30 Oct. 
 New ministry under the marquis d'Avila, 30 Jan. ; 
 
 under Fontes Pereira de Mello . 13 Sept. 
 
 Great fire at Lisbon 13 June, 
 
 Cpnspiracy against the government ; officers in the 
 
 army arrested .... about 26 Aug. 
 
 1867 
 
 1870 
 
 1871 
 
 1095. 
 1112. 
 
 ,, 
 
 1185. 
 
 
 1212. 
 
 " 
 
 1223. 
 1248. 
 
 1852 
 
 1279. 
 1325- 
 
 1853 
 1854 
 
 1357- 
 1367- 
 
 1385- 
 
 1855 
 1856 
 
 1433- 
 1438. 
 1 48 1. 
 
 
 I49S- 
 
 ,, 
 
 1521. 
 
 1857 
 
 i557- 
 
 1578. 
 
 1580 
 
 1580. 
 
 1621. 
 1640. 
 
 1656. 
 
 1706. 
 i75°- 
 
 SOVEREIGNS OF PORTUGAL. 
 
 Henry, count or earl of Portugal. 
 
 Alfonso, his son, and Theresa. 
 
 Alfonso, count of Portugal, alone. 
 
 Alfonso I. declared king, having obtained a signal 
 victory over a prodigious army of Moors on the 
 plains of Ourique. 
 
 Sancho I. , son of Alfonso. 
 
 Alfonso II. , surnamed Crassus, or the Fat. 
 
 Sancho II. , or the Idle : deposed. 
 
 Alfonso III. 
 
 Denis or Dionysius, the father of his country. 
 
 Alfonso IV. , the Brave. 
 
 Peter, the Severe. 
 
 Ferdinand I. , son. 
 
 John I. , the Bastard and the Great ; natural 
 brother ; married Philippa, daughter of John of 
 Gaunt, duke of Lancaster. 
 
 Edward or Duarte. 
 
 Alfonso V. , the African. 
 
 John II. , the Great and the Perfect. 
 
 Emmanuel, the Fortunate ; cousin. 
 
 John III. , son ; admitted the Inquisition. 
 
 Sebastian ; drowned after the great battle of Alca- 
 zarquivir, in Africa, 4 Aug. 1578. 
 
 Henry, the cardinal, son of Emmanuel ; great uncle. 
 
 Anthony, prior of Crato, son of Emmanuel ; de- 
 posed by Philip II. of Spain, who united Portu- 
 gal to his other dominions. 
 
 Philip II. ) 
 
 Philip III. > kings of Spain. 
 
 Philip IV. ) 
 
 John IV, duke of Braganza ; dispossessed the 
 Spaniards in a bloodless revolution, and was 
 proclaimed king, Dec. 1. ri - «( 
 
 Alfonso VI. ; deposed in 1667, and his brother 
 Peter made regent. 
 
 Peter II. , brother. 
 
 John V , son. 
 
 Joseph Emmanuel ; son. The daughter and suc- 
 cessor of this prince married his brother, by 
 dispensation from the pope and the ascended 
 the throne, as 
 
POSEN. 
 
 536 
 
 POST-OFFICE. 
 
 j 777. Maria-Frances-Isabella I. and Peter III. jointly. 
 
 1786. Maria I. alone: this princess afterwards falls into a 
 state of melancholy and derangement; dies, 1816. 
 
 1792. Regency — John, son (afterwards king); declared 
 regent, 1791. 
 
 1816. John VI., previously regent. He had withdrawn 
 in 1807, owing to the French invasion of Portu- 
 gal, to his Brazilian dominions ; but the discon- 
 tent of his subjects obliged him to return in 1821 ; 
 died in 1826. 
 
 1826. Peter IV. (Dom Pedro), son ; making his election 
 of the empire of Brazil, abdicated the throne of 
 Portugal in favour of 
 
 1826. Maria II. (da Gloria) ; daughter ; seven years of age. 
 
 1828. Dom Miguel, brother to Peter IV., usurped the 
 crown, which he retained, amid civil conten- 
 tions, until 1833. 
 
 1833. Maria II. restored ; declared in Sept. 1834 to be of 
 age ; died, 15 Nov. 1853. 
 
 1853. Peter V. (Dom Pedro), son ; born 16 Sept. 1837 ; 
 died, 11 Nov. 1861. 
 
 1861. Luis I., brother ; born 31 Oct. 1838 ; married Maria 
 Pia, daughter of Victor Emmanuel, king of 
 Italy, 6 Oct. 1862. 
 Heir : Dom Carlos (son), born 28 Sept. 1863. 
 
 POSEN, a Polish province, annexed to Prussia 
 1772 and 1793; made part of the duchy of "Warsaw, 
 1807; restored to Prussia, 1815. An insurrection 
 here quelled, May, 1848. 
 
 POSITIVE PHILOSOPHY set forth by 
 Auguste Comte, an eminent mathematician, born 
 about 1795; died at Paris, 1852. M. P. Emile 
 Littre, the great French philologist, ardently em- 
 braced the system, and published "De la Philo- 
 sophic Positive," in 1845. 
 
 It professes to base itself wholly on positive facts or 
 observed phenomena, and rejects all metaphysical 
 conceptions, which it considers negatives, having 
 nothing real or true in them ; and dispenses witli the 
 science of mind. It sets aside theology and meta- 
 physics as two merely preliminary stages in life ; and 
 abandons all search after causes and essences of 
 things, and restricts itself to the observation and 
 classification of pheuomena and the discovery of their 
 laws. Comte asserted that Europe had now arrived 
 at the third stage of its progress. He aimed at being 
 the founder of a new religion as well as a new philoso- 
 phy, " the religion of humanity." 
 
 POSTS, said to have originated in the regular 
 couriers established by Cyrus, who erected post- 
 houses throughout the kingdom of Persia, about 
 550 B.C. Augustus was the first who introduced 
 this institution among the Romans, 31 b.c. This 
 was imitated by Charlemagne about a.d. 800. Ashe. 
 Louis XI. first established post-houses in France 
 owing to his eagerness for news, and they were the 
 first institution of this nature in Europe, 1470. 
 Hcnault. An international commission respecting 
 postal arrangements met at Paris, 1 1 May, and broke 
 up 9 June, 1863. 
 
 POST-OFFICE of England. In England, 
 
 in the reign of Edward IV. 1481, riders on post- 
 horses went stages of the distance of twenty miles 
 from each other, in order to procure the king the 
 earliest intelligence of the events that passed in the 
 course of the war that had arisen with the Scots. 
 Gale. Eichard III. improved the system of couriers 
 in 1483. In 1543 similar arrangements existed in 
 England. Sadler's Letters. Post communications 
 between London and most towns of England, Scot- 
 land, and Ireland, existed in 1635. Strype. 
 
 The first chief postmaster of England, Thomas Ran- 
 dolph, appointed by queen Elizabeth . . . I5 8i 
 
 James I. appointed Matthew de l'Equester as 
 foreign postmaster, 1619 ; and Chas. I. appointed 
 William Frizell and Thomas Witherings . . . 1632 
 
 A proclamation of Chas. I., "whereas to this time 
 there hath been no certain intercourse between 
 the kingdoms of England and Scotland, the king 
 
 now commands his postmaster of England for 
 foreign parts to settle a running post or two to 
 run night and day between Edinburgh and Lon- 
 don, to go thither and come back again iu six 
 days" 1631 
 
 The king commanded his "postmaster of England 
 for foreign parts," to open a regular communica- 
 tion by running posts between the metropolis 
 and Edinburgh, West Chester, Holyhead, Ireland, 
 Plymouth, Exeter, &c. (Rates of postage — 1 letter 
 carried under 80 miles 2d. ; under 140 miles, 4^. ; 
 above that distance in England, 6d. ; to any part 
 of Scotland, 8(7.). 
 
 An enlarged office erected by the parliament in 
 1643 ; and one more considerable in 1657, with a 
 view "to benefit commerce, convey the public 
 dispatches, and as the best means to discover and 
 prevent many dangerous wicked designs against 
 the commonwealth by the inspection of the cor- 
 respondence " 1657 
 
 The Post-office as at present constituted was 
 founded 12 Chas. II 27 Dec. 1660 
 
 Penny Post first set up in London and its suburbs 
 by a Mr. Robert Murray, upholsterer . . . 1681 
 
 He assigned his interest in the undertaking to Mr. 
 Dockwra, a merchant, 1683 ; but on a trial at the 
 King's Bench bar it was adjudged to belong to 
 the duke of York, as a branch of the general post, 
 and was thereupon annexed to the revenue of the 
 crown 1690 
 
 This institution considerably improved and made a 
 two-penny post, July, 1794. et seq. 
 
 Cross posts established by Ralph Allen . . . 1720 
 
 Between 1730 and 1740, the post was only trans- 
 mitted three days a week between Edinburgh and 
 London : and the metropolis, on one occasion, 
 sent a single letter, which was for an Edinburgh 
 banker, named Ramsay. 
 
 A penny pjost was first set up in Dublin . . . 1774. 
 
 The mails conveyed by coaches ; the first mail left 
 London for Bristol (see Mail Coaches) . 2 Aug. 1784 
 
 The mails first conveyed by railway, 1830; by the 
 overland route to India 1835 
 
 Post-office acts consolidated ... 12 July, 1837 
 
 Early in 1837, Mr. Rowland Hill broached his plan 
 of penny postage, which was adopted after a full 
 investigation by a committee of the house of 
 commons 1839 
 
 A national testimonial presented to him, 17 June, 
 1846 ; on 30 Nov. appointed secretary to the post- 
 office ; and created K. OB. in .... i860 
 
 The new postage law, by which the uniform rate of 
 4A per letter was tried as an experiment, came 
 into operation 5 Dec. 1839- 
 
 The uniform rate of id. per letter of half an ounce 
 weight, &c, commenced . . . 10 Jan. 1840 
 
 Stamped postage covers came into use . 6 May, ,, 
 
 Reduction in postage — to be id. instead of 2d. for 
 every ounce above the first . . . April, 1865 
 
 Number of letters delivered in the last year of the 
 heavy postage (1839) was 82,470,596, including 
 6,563,024 franks. 
 
 In 1840, the number was 168,768,344;^ 1851, 
 360,651,187 (whereof 36,512,649 were in Scotland, 
 and 35,982,782 were iu Ireland). 
 
 The number in 1856 was, England 388 millions ; 
 Scotland, 42 millions ; Ireland, 48 millions ; total, 
 478 millions ; being an increase of 4! per cent, on 
 1855, and an average of 17 to each person. 
 
 On 14 Feb. 1856, 618,000 letters passed through the 
 general post-office. 
 
 Returned letters (through misdirection, <fcc.), 
 3,618,838 in 1867. 
 
 In 1859, 544,796,000 letters were posted in the 
 United Kingdom ; being an increase of 4} per 
 cent, on 1858. The average annual number to 
 each person — in England, 22; Scotland, 16; Ire- 
 land, 7. 
 
 In i860, 564 millions of letters were delivered in the 
 United Kingdom ; in 1861, 593 millions; in 1863, 
 642,634,618 ; in 1865, 720,467,007; in 1870,. 
 862,722,000 ; in 1871, 917,191,000. 
 
 Book-Post. — A treasury warrant issued, providing 
 for the carriage by post of books, pamphlets, &c. , 
 under certain restrictions — 4 oz. for id. ; 8 oz. for 
 2d., &c. 5 June, 1855 
 
 Altered to under 2 oz. , Jd. ; every additional 2 oz. , 
 or part of 2 oz., £d. ; begun . . . 7 Oct. iS7o 
 
POST-OFFICE. 
 
 537 
 
 POTASSIUM. 
 
 Public receptacles for letters before 1840, about 4500; 
 in 1865, 16,246; since greatly increased. 
 
 In i860, there were in the United Kingdom, 11,412 
 post-offices; 1862, 11,316. 
 
 The street Letter-boxes were erected in March, 1855. 
 The first one was placed at the corner of Fleet- 
 street and Farringdon-street. There were 1958 
 in i860 ; 3460 in 1862. 
 
 Officers employed 1 Dec. 1861, 25,473. 
 
 A Money-order Office, set up in 1792, was little used 
 on account of the expense, till 1840. In 1839, 
 188,291 money orders were issued for 313,124?. ; in 
 1861, 7,580,455 orders for 14,616,348?.; in 1865, 
 orders were issued for 17,829,290?.; in 1870, for 
 19,993,987?.; in 1871, for 22,098,589?. 
 
 The commission on money orders in 1866 was 
 151,979?. 
 
 ThePosta? <3i(ic?efirstappeared 011856 ; in which year 
 London and the vicinity were divided into districts 
 for postal purposes ; viz. , East, West, &c. The 
 postmaster-general has issued Annual Reports, 1854-72 
 
 Postmaster empowered to purchase the electric 
 telegraphs by act passed, 31 July, 1868; work 
 begun 5 Feb. 1869 
 
 Post-office money order system applied to France 
 by virtue of a convention signed . . 5 Aug. 1870 
 
 Halfpenny stamped cards issued to the public, lOct. „ 
 
 By the post-office act (passed 9 Aug. 1870) the 
 newspaper stamp for posting was abolished; re- 
 gistered newspapers and pamphlets or patterns 
 under 2 oz. to be sent for fd. on and after 1 Oct. ,, 
 
 Postage lowered : Letters sent at the rate of id for 
 1 oz., i£& for 2 oz., &c, from . . 5 Oct. 1871 
 
 Short strike of telegraph clerks at Manchester, 
 Liverpool, and Dublin .... Dee. ,, 
 
 Pigeon post between London and Tours during the 
 siege of Paris (48 day mails and 1186 night mails 
 sent) .... 18 Nov. 1870—28 Jan. „ 
 
 REVENUE OF THE POST-OFFICE. 
 
 1643. It yielded _ . . £5,000 
 
 1653. Farmed to John Manley for . . . 10,000 
 
 1663. Farmed to Daniel O'Neale for . . . 21,500 
 
 1674. Farmed for 43,000 
 
 1685. It yielded 65,000 
 
 1707. Ditto 111,461 
 
 1714. Ditto 145,227 
 
 1723. Ditto 201,805 
 
 1744. Ditto 235,492 
 
 1764. Ditto 432,048 
 
 1790. Ditto ....... 480,074 
 
 1800. Ditto ........ 745,313 
 
 1805. Great Britain ...... 1,424,994 
 
 1810. Ditto 1,709,065 
 
 1815. Ditto 1,755,898 
 
 1820. United Kingdom 2,402,697 
 
 1825. Ditto 2,255,239 
 
 1830. Ditto ........ 2,301,432 
 
 1835. Ditto 2,353,340 
 
 1839. Ditto 2,522,495 
 
 1840. New rate ....... 471,000 
 
 1845. Net revenue 761,982 
 
 1850. Ditto 803,898 
 
 1855. Ditto 1,137,220 
 
 1859. Ditto 1,150,960 
 
 i860. Ditto ........ 1,102,479 
 
 1861. Ditto 1,161,985 
 
 1862. Ditto ........ 1,236,941 
 
 1863. Ditto (after payment for foreign and 
 
 colonial mails) 1,037,404 
 
 1864. Ditto (ditto, 29,953?.) 1,153,261 
 
 1865. Ditto (ditto, 28,786?.) .... 1,482,522 
 
 1866. Ditto 1,397,986 
 
 1867. Ditto 1,421,364 
 
 1868. Ditto 1,416,922 
 
 1869. Ditto 1,305,348 
 
 1870. Ditto ........ 1,493,610 
 
 1871. Ditto 1,289,754 
 
 Postages stampsissned: 1859,469,768,629: 1869,886,959,167. 
 Registered letters : 1870, of 3,005,994, only 12 went astray. 
 Returned letters: 1870, 3,792,894. 
 
 Staff employed : 1862, 25,285; in 1872, 28,959. 
 
 Total cost of service: 1862, 2,932,095?.; in 1871, 3,610,700?. 
 
 POST-OFFICES. 
 
 The General Post-office of London was originally 
 established in Cloak-lane, near Dowgate-hill, whence 
 it was removed to the Black Swan, in Bishopsgate- 
 street. After the great fire of 1666, it was removed to 
 
 the Two Black Pillars, in Brydges-street, Covent- 
 
 garden, and afterwards (about 1690) to sir Robert 
 
 Viner's mansion in Lombard-street. It was transferred 
 
 to the building in St. Martin's-le-Grand, erected on the 
 
 site of an ancient college, from designs by R. Smirfee. 
 
 23 Sept. 1829. 
 
 Foundation of a new general post-office laid 16 Dec. 1870. 
 
 The new post-office of Dublm opened, 6 Jan. 1818. 
 
 The foundation of a new post-office at Edinburgh was 
 
 laid by the prince consort in Oct. 1861. 
 Head offices, 1870, 844. 
 
 Post-office Savings-banks established by parliament 
 1861 (began Sept. 16) ; interest 2^ per cent. ; govern- 
 ment responsible to depositors. The number of these 
 banks and the amount of deposits received on 31 March,. 
 1862, were — 
 
 Banks. Deposits. 
 
 England . . . 1795 . £668,879 1° 2 
 Wales . . . . 129 . . 28,392 2 10 
 Scotland . . . 299 . 10,237 9 8 
 
 Ireland . . . 300 . . 26,064 18 8 
 The Islands . . 9 . 1,679 I 5 ° 
 
 ,. , . , Z S32 £735.253 16 4 
 
 London district .... 267,329 13 8 
 
 1866. Computed total amount of capital held by these 
 banks in the United Kingdom, 8,121,175?. 
 
 Dec. 1870, 1,183,153 depositors in United Kingdom ; total 
 sum held, 15,099,104?.; 10 Dec. 1871, total sum, 
 17,303,815?. 
 
 POSTMASTERS. 
 
 The number of postmasters (2) reduced to 1, 1822. 
 
 The offices of postmaster-general of England and of Ire* 
 
 land united in one person, 1831. 
 Act passed permitting postmaster to sit in house 0* 
 
 commons, July, 1866. 
 1823. Thomas, earl of Chichester. 
 
 1826. Lord Frederick Montague. 
 
 1827. William duke of Manchester. 
 1830. Charles duke of Richmond. 
 
 1834. Francis marquis of Conyngham. 
 
 1835. William lord Maryborough. 
 
 ,, Francis marquis of Conyngham. 
 
 , , Thomas earl of Lichfield. 
 1841. William viscount Lowther. 
 1846. Edward earl of St. Germans. 
 
 ,, Ulick marquis of Clanricarde. 
 1855. George duke of Argyll. 
 
 1858. Charles lord Colchester. 
 
 1859. James earl of Elgin. 
 
 i860. Edward lord Stanley of Alderley. 
 1866. James duke of Montrose (July). 
 1868. Spencer marquis of Harrington (Dec). 
 1871. Wm. Monsell (Jan.). 
 
 CHIEF SECRETARIES. 
 
 1797. Francis Freeling. 
 
 1836. Wm. L. Maberley. 
 
 1854. Rowland Hill (sec. to postmaster-general, 1846) ; 
 
 resigned 29 Feb. 1864; made K.C.B. i860, with a 
 
 grant of 20,000?. and 2000?. pension. 
 1S64. John Tilley (March). 
 
 The Post Office Directory first appeared in 1800. 
 
 PO STINGr. Post-chaises were invented by the 
 French, and, according to Grainger, were intro- 
 duced into this country by Mr. "William Tell, son of 
 the writer on husbandry. Posting was fixed by 
 statute of Edward VI. at one penny per mile, 1548. 
 By a statute, re-establishing the post-office, none 
 but the postmaster or his deputies could furnish 
 post-horses for travellers, 1660. The post-horse 
 duty was imposed in 1779. Post-horse duty yielded, 
 in 1852, in England, 128,501^, and in Scotland, 
 16,933^ 
 
 POTASSIUM, a remarkable metal, discovered 
 by Humphry Davy, who first succeeded in sepa- 
 rating it from its oxide, potash, by means of a 
 powerful voltaic battery, in the laboratory of the Royal 
 Institution, London, about 19 Oct. 1807 ; and also 
 the metals Sodium from soda, Calcium from lime, 
 &c. The alkalis and earths had been previously 
 regarded as simple substances. Potassium ignites 
 on contact with moisture. 
 
POTATOES. 
 
 538 
 
 PR2EMUNIRE. 
 
 POTATOES, natives of Chili and Peru, gene- 
 rally considered to have been brought to England 
 from Santa Fe, in America, by sir John Hawkins, 
 1565. Others ascribe their introduction to sir Francis 
 Drake, in 1586; their general introduction, 1592. 
 Their first culture in Ireland is referred to sir Walter 
 Kaleigh, who had large estates in that country, 
 about Youghal, in the county of Cork. It is said 
 that potatoes were not known in Flanders until 
 1620. A fine kind of potato was first brought from 
 America by Mr. Howard, who cultivated it at Car- 
 dington, near Bedford, 1765 ; and its culture be- 
 came general soon after. Ihe failure of the potato 
 crop in Ireland, four successive years, from 1845, 
 caused famine, to which succeeded pestilent disease 
 of which multitudes died ; among them many priests 
 and physicians. Parliament voted ten millions 
 sterling ; and several countries of Europe, and the 
 United States of America, forwarded provisions and 
 other succours ; see Ireland. Iu 1868 it was reported 
 that in England and Wales 500,000 acres, and in 
 Ireland 1,000,000 acres, were under cultivation for 
 potatoes. Potato disease prevailed greatly in Eng- 
 land, autumn of 1872. In consequence the value of 
 potatoes imported in 1872 was 1,654,240/.; in 1871, 
 only 225, 732/. 
 
 POTIDJEA, a town in Macedonia, a tributary 
 of Athens, against which it revolted 432 B.C., but 
 submitted in 429. It was taken from the Athe- 
 nians after three years' siege, by Philip II. of Mace- 
 don in 358 b.c. 
 
 POTOMAC, see United States, Aug. 1861. 
 
 POTOSI (Peru). Silver mines here were dis- 
 covered by the Spaniards in 1545 ; they are in a 
 mountain in the form of a sugar-loaf. 
 
 POTSDAM (near Berlin), the Versailles of 
 Prussia. It was made an arsenal in 1721. Here is 
 situated the palace of Sans Souci (built, 1660-73), 
 embellished by Frederick II., and occupied by Na- 
 poleon I. in Oct. 1806; and the new palace, the 
 residence of prince Frederick William and his wife 
 the princess.royal of England, married 25 Jan. 1858. 
 
 POTTERY and PORCELAIN. Themanu- 
 facture of earthenware (the ceramic art) existed 
 among the Jews as an honourable occupation (see 
 I Chron. iv. 23), and the power of the potter over 
 the clay as a symbol of the power of God is de- 
 scribed by Jeremiah, 605 B.C. (ch. xviii.) Earth- 
 enware was made by the ancient Egyptians, Assy- 
 rians, Greeks, Etruscans, and Romans. 
 
 The Majolica, Raffaelle, or Umbrian ware of the 15th 
 century, was probably introduced into Italy from 
 the Moors from Majorca, as coloured tiles of the 
 6th and 7th century adorn some ancient churches. 
 RafFaelle and other artists made designs for this 
 ware. 
 
 Potter} - manufactured at Beauvais, in France, in 
 the 12th century. 
 
 Enamelled pottery made at St. Cloud . . about 1688 
 
 Luca delta Robbia (born about 1410) applied tin 
 enamel to terra-eotta. Fayence ware was made 
 in France by Bernard Palissy (died, 1589) and his 
 family. 
 
 Porcelain, formed of earth kaolin, was made in 
 China in the 2nd century after Christ. Chinese 
 porcelain is mentioned in histories of the 16th cen- 
 tury, when it was introduced into England, and 
 eagerly sought after. 
 
 Porcelain made at Bow, near London, early in the 
 18th century, and at Chelsea, before . . . 1698 
 
 Birch's " History of Ancient Pottery" (1858); Mar- 
 ryat's " History of Pottery and Porcelain, Medi- 
 aeval and Modern" (1857); and Brongniart's 
 "Arts Ceramiques," are valuable works. 
 
 The first European porcelain was made at Dresden 
 by Bottcher about 1700 
 
 [The manufacture was fostered by the king Augus- 
 tus II.] 
 
 The Capo di Monte factory at Naples established . 1736 
 
 Thomas Frye painted porcelain, 17+9 ; and Dr. Wall 
 established the manufacture at Worcester . . 1750 
 
 The St. Cloud China manufactory removed to 
 Sevres 1756 
 
 Josiah Wedgwood's patent ware was first made . 1762 
 
 The British manufacture greatly improved by Her- 
 bert Minton, who died 1858 
 
 The duty on earthenware taken on* . . . . i860 
 
 POULTRY. An exhibition of poultry was held 
 in London, Jan. 1853, when nearly IOOO cocks were 
 exhibited ; and similar exhibitions have been held 
 at the Crystal palace since. 
 
 POULTRY COMPTER (London) was one 
 of the most noted of the old city prisons. The 
 compter of Wood-street belonged to the sheriff of 
 London, and was made a prison-house in I55v 
 This latter and Broad-street compter were re-built 
 in 1667. The Giltspur-street prison, built to supply 
 the place of the old city compters, was pulled down 
 in 1855. The poultry chapel was erected on the site 
 of the Poultry compter, in 1819. Leigh. 
 
 POUND, from the Latin Pond us. The value 
 of the Boman pondo is not precisely known, though 
 some suppose it was equivalent to an Attic mina, or 
 3/. 4s. "id. The pound sterling was in Saxon times, 
 about 671, a pound troy of silver, and a shilling was 
 its twentieth part; consequently the latter was three 
 times as large as it is at present. Peacham. Our 
 avoirdupois pound weight came from the French, 
 and contains sixteen ounces; it is in proportion 
 to our troy weight as seventeen to fourteen ; see 
 under Standard. 
 
 POWDERING THE HAIR, see Hair- 
 Powder. 
 
 POWER-LOOMS, see Zooms, and Cotton. 
 
 POYNINGS' LAW, named after sir Edward 
 Poynings, one of the lord deputies of Ireland at the 
 time of its passing, at Drogheda, 13 Sept. 1494. By 
 this law all legislation in the Irish parliament was 
 confined to matters first approved of by the king 
 and the English council. The act was repealed, 
 together with the English Declaratory act of the 
 6th of Geo. I. and other obnoxious Irish statutes, 
 April, 1782. 
 
 PR^MONSTRATENSIAN ORDER, or 
 WHITE CANONS, founded in 1120 by Norbert, a 
 monk, at Pre Montre, near Laon. Its first house 
 in England was founded by Peter de Gousla or 
 Gousel, at Newsham, in Lincolnshire, 1 143 — 
 Tanner ; according to others in 1146. The order 
 spread widely through Ensland soon after. The 
 house at Newsham was dedicated to St. Mary and 
 St. Martial. Lewis. 
 
 PRAEMUNIRE, Law OF. This law (which 
 obtained its name from the first two words " Prcc- 
 moncri," or " Pranmniri facias," "Cause to be 
 forewarned," which is applied to any offence in the 
 way of contempt of the sovereign or his govern- 
 ment) derived its origin from the aggressive power 
 of the pope in England. The offence introduced a 
 foreign power into the land, and created an 
 imperium in imperio. The first statute of Praemu- 
 nire was enacted 35 Edward I. 1306. Coke. The 
 pope bestowed most of the bishoprics, abbeys, &c, 
 before they were void, upon favourites, on pretence 
 of providing the church with better qualified suc- 
 cessors before the vacancies occurred. To put a 
 stop to these encroachments, Edward III. enacted 
 a statute in 1353. The statute commonly referred 
 
PE^TOEIAN GUAEDS. 
 
 539 
 
 PEEEOGATIVE COUET. 
 
 to as the statute of Praemunire is the 16th of 
 Eichard II. 1392. Several similar enactments 
 followed. The assertion that parliament is indepen- 
 dent of the sovereign was declared a prcemunire, 1 661 . 
 
 PB^TOBIAN GUAEDS, instituted by the 
 emperor Augustus (13 B.C.) ; their numbers en- 
 larged by Tiberius, Vitellius, and their successors. 
 At first supporters of the imperial tyrants, they 
 eventually became their masters, actually putting 
 up the diadem for sale (as in March, 193 a.d.), 
 when it was bought by Didius Julianus). They 
 committed many atrocities, and were finally dis- 
 banded by Constantine in 312. 
 
 PBiETOES, Roman magistrates. In 365 B.C., 
 one praetor was appointed ; a second appointed in 
 252 B.C. The prcetor urbanus administered justice 
 to the citizens, and the prcetor peregrinus acted in 
 causes relating to foreigners. In. 227 B.C. two more 
 praetors were created to assist the consul in the 
 government of Sicily and Sardinia, lately con- 
 quered; and two more when Spain was made a 
 Roman province, 197 B.C. Sylla, the dictator, 
 added two, and Julius Caesar increased the number 
 to 10, which afterwards became 16. After this, 
 their number fluctuated, being sometimes 18, 16, or 
 12 ; till, in the decline of the empire, their dignity 
 decreased, and their numbers were reduced to three. 
 
 PEAGA, a suburb of "Warsaw, where a bloody 
 battle was fought, 4 Nov. 1794 ; 30,000 Poles were 
 killed by the Russian general Suwarrow. Near 
 here, on 25 Feb. 1831, the Poles, commanded by 
 Skrznecki, defeated the Russians, under general 
 Giemsar, who lost 4000 killed and wounded, 6000 
 piisoners, and 12 pieces of cannon. 
 
 PEAGMATIC SANCTION, an ordinance 
 relating to church and state affairs. The ordinances 
 of the kings of France are thus called ; in one the 
 rights cf the Gallican church were asserted against 
 the usurpation of the pope in the choice of bishops, 
 by Charles VII. in 1438. The Pragmatic Sanction 
 for settling the empire of Germany in the house of 
 Austria, 1439. The emperor Charles VI. published 
 the Pragmatic Sanction, whereby, in default of 
 male issue, his daughters should succeed in prefer- 
 ence to the daughters of his brother Joseph I., 
 19 April, 1713 ; and he settled his dominions on 
 his daughter Maria Theresa, in conformity thereto, 
 1723, She succeeded in Oct. 1740; but it gave rise 
 to a war, in which most of the powers of Europe 
 were engaged, and which lasted till 1748. 
 
 PBAGUE, the capital of Bohemia (which see). 
 The old city was founded about 759 ; the new city 
 rebuilt in 1348 by the emperor Charles IV., who 
 made it his capital and erected a university. Prague 
 has suffered much by war. 
 
 Victory of the Hussites under Ziska . 14 July, 1420 
 
 Frederick, the king, totally defeated "by the Aus- 
 trians near Prague .... 8 Nov. 1620 
 
 Prague taken by the Swedes in 1648, and by the 
 French in 1741 ; they left it 1742 
 
 Taken by the king of Prussia ; obliged to abandon it, 1744 
 
 Great battle of Prague (the Austrians defeated by 
 prince Henry of Prussia, and their whole camp 
 taken ; their commander, general Braun, mor- 
 tally wounded, and the Prussian marshal 
 Schwerin killed) 6 May, 1757 
 
 An insurrection in Prague ; suppressed in a few 
 days June, 1848 
 
 Atreaty of peace between Austria and Prussia signed 
 at Prague (by its articles Austria consented to 
 the breaking up of the Germanic confederation, 
 and to Prussia's annexing Hanover, Hesse Cassel, 
 Nassau, and Frankfort ; and gave up Holstein, 
 and her political influence in North Germany), 
 
 23 Aug. 1866 
 
 PEAGUEEIE, WAP OF (so named from 
 Prague, then celebrated for its civil disorders) ; 
 the revolt of the dauphin, afterwards Louis XL, 
 against his father Charles VII., aided by Alexander, 
 the bastard, of Bourbon, and other nobles. It was 
 soon quelled ; Louis was exiled, and Alexander put 
 to death by drowning, July, 1440. 
 
 PEAIEIAL INSUEEECTION at Paris. 
 
 On 1, 2, 3 Prairial, year 3 (20, 21, 22 April, 1795), 
 the faubourgs rose against the directory, and were 
 quelled by the military. 
 
 PEAISE - GOD - BAEEBONES' PAE- 
 LIAMENT, see Barebones. 
 
 PBASLLTST MTJBDEE. The duchesse de 
 Choiseul-Praslin was murdered by her husband, 
 the due de Praslin, at his own house, in Paris, 17 
 Aug. 1847. She was the only daughter of the 
 celebrated marshal Sebastiani, the mother of nine 
 children, and in her forty-first year. Circum- 
 stances were so managed by him as to give it the 
 appearance of being the act of another. During 
 the arrangements for the trial, the duke took 
 poison. 
 
 PEAYEE-BOOK, see Common Prayer. 
 
 PEAYEES. " Then began men to call upon 
 the name of the Lord " (Gen. iv. 26), 3875 B.C. Ihe 
 mode of praying with the face to the east was 
 instituted by pope Boniface II. a.d. 532. Prayers 
 for the dead, first introduced into the Christian 
 church about 190, are now advocated by ministers 
 of the English church, 1872. Prayers addressed to 
 the Virgin Mary and to the saints are said to have 
 been introduced by pope Gregory, 593. See 
 Liturgies. 
 
 PBEBENDABY, a clergyman attached to a 
 cathedral or collegiate church, who receives an 
 income termed prebenda for officiating at stated 
 times. The office slightly differs from that of a 
 canon. 
 
 PEECEDENCE was established in very early 
 ages, and was amongst the laws of Justinian. In 
 England the order of precedency was regulated 
 chiefly by two statutes, 31 Hen. VIII. 1539, and I 
 Geo. I. 1 7 14. 
 
 PBEDESTINATION (Ephes. i.). The doc- 
 trine concerning this is defined in the seventeenth 
 article of the Church of England (Ephes. i. and 
 Romans ix.). It was maintained by St. Augustin, 
 and opposed by Pelagius, in the early part of the 
 5th century. In later times it has been maintained 
 by the Augustinians, Jansenists, the church of 
 Scotland, and many dissenters (termed Calvinistic), 
 and opposed by the Dominicans, Jesuits, and dis- 
 senters (termed Arminian), especially by the Wes- 
 leyan methodists. 
 
 PEEHISTOEIC AECH^EOLOGY began 
 in Sweden, and first systematised by Mr. Nillson. 
 Daniel Wilson's " Archaeology and Pre-historic 
 Annals of Scotland," published 1 85 1. An inter- 
 national congress for treating prehistorical subjects 
 met at Neuchatel in 1866, and at Paris in 1867. At 
 the third meeting at Norwich, Aug. 1868, it assumed 
 the name of " International Congress for Prehistoric 
 Archaeology," and published its transactions in 1869. 
 See Barrows, and Man. 
 
 PEEEOGATIVE COUET, in which for- 
 merly all wills were proved, and all administrations 
 taken, which belonged to the archbishop of Canter- 
 bury by his prerogative, a judge being appointed by 
 him to decide disputes. Appeals from this court, 
 
PREROGATIVE ROYAL. 
 
 540 
 
 PRESTON. 
 
 previously to the pope, were commanded to be 
 made to the king in chancery, 1533 ; to the privy 
 council in 1830-2. This court was abolished, and 
 the Probate Court established in 1857. Sir John 
 Dodson, the last judge, died in 1858. 
 
 PREROGATIVE ROYAL. In England 
 the sovereign is the supreme magistrate, and it is a 
 maxim that he can do no wrong. He is the head 
 of the established church, of the army and navy, 
 and the fountain of office, honour, and privilege, 
 but is subject to the laws, unless exempted by 
 name. The royal prerogatives were greatly exceeded 
 by several despotic sovereigns, such as Elizabeth, 
 James I., and Charles I. Elizabeth used the phrase 
 " We, of our Koyal prerogative, which we will not 
 have argued or brought iu question" (1591). 
 James I. told his parliament "that as it was blas- 
 phemy to question what the Almighty could do 
 of His power, so it was sedition to inquire what a 
 king could do by virtue of his prerogative." 
 These extreme doctrines were nullified by the 
 revolution of 1688, and the exercise of the preroga- 
 tive is now virtually subject to parliament; see 
 Lords. 
 
 PRESBURG, the ancient capital of Hungary, 
 where the diets were held and the kings crowned. 
 On 26 Dec. 1805, a treaty was signed between 
 France and Austria, by which the ancient states of 
 Venice were ceded to Italy; the principality of 
 Eichstadt, part of the bishopric of Passau, the city 
 of Augsburg, the Tyrol, all the possessions of 
 Austria in Suabia, in Brisgau, and Ortenau, were 
 transferred to the elector of Bavaria, and the duke 
 of Wiirtemberg, who, as well as the duke of Baden, 
 were then created kings by Napoleon. The inde- 
 pendence of the Helvetic republic was also stipu- 
 lated. F 
 
 PRESBYTERIANS are so called from their 
 maintaining that the government of the church 
 appointed in the New Testament was by presby- 
 teries, or association of ministers and ruling elders, 
 equal in power, office, and in order. " The elders 
 (Greek, presbyterom) I exhort, who am also an 
 elder (sympresfojteros)." 1 Peter v. 1. Presby- 
 teriamsm was accepted by parliament in place of 
 episcopacy in England in 1648, but set aside at the 
 restoration in 1660. It became the established 
 form of church government in Scotland in 1696. 
 Its tenets were embodied in the formulary of faith 
 said to have been composed by John Knox, in 1560, 
 which was approved by the parliament, and ratified^ 
 1567, and finally settled by an act of the Scottish 
 senate, 1696, afterwards secured by the treaty of 
 union with England in 1707. The first Presby- 
 terian meeting-house in England was established 
 at Wandsworth, Surrey, 20 Nov. 1572. 
 
 PRESCOTT (Upper Canada). On 17 Nov. 
 1838, the Canadian rebels were attacked by the 
 British under major Young, and (on the 18th) bv 
 lieut.-colonel Dundas, who dispersed the insurgents, 
 several of whom were killed, and many taken pri- 
 soners, and the remainder surrendered. The troops 
 also suffered considerably. 
 
 PRESERVED MEAT, see Provisions. 
 
 PRESIDENT, see Privy Council; United 
 States, 1789; France, 1848, 1871; Wrecks, 1841.— 
 President of the Council, Lord, the 
 
 iourth great officer of state, is appointed under the 
 great seal, durante beneplacito, and, by his office, 
 is to attend the sovereign's royal person, and to 
 manage the debates in council, to propose matters 
 
 from the sovereign at the council-table, and to 
 report to his majesty the resolutions taken there- 
 upon. 
 
 PRESS, LIBERTY OF THE. The imprimatur 
 "let it be printed" was much used on the title- 
 pages of books printed in the sixteenth and seven- 
 teenth centuries. The liberty of the press was 
 severely restrained, and the number of master- 
 printers in London and Westminster limited by the 
 Star Chamber, 13 Charles I., July 1, 1637. 
 
 "Disorders in printing" were repressed by the 
 parliament in 1643 and 1649, au( l by Charles II. . 1662 
 
 The censorship of the press (by a licence established 
 in 1655 and 1693) abandoned 1695 
 
 The toast, " The liberty of the press ; it is like the 
 air we breathe — if we have it not we die," was 
 first given at the Crown and Anchor tavern, at a 
 Whig dinner 1795 
 
 Presses licensed, and the printer's name required to 
 be placed on both the first and hist pages of a 
 book July, 1799 
 
 The severity of the restrictions on the French press 
 relaxed by M. Persigny, minister of the interior, 
 but soon restored Dec. i860 
 
 The liberty of the press in the United States greatly 
 checked during the civil war . . . 1861-1865 
 
 Certain restrictions on printers in the United King- 
 dom removed by act passed . . . July, 1869 
 
 Press (newspaper), a revolutionary journal, pub- 
 lished in Dublin: commenced ' in Oct. 1797; 
 Arthur O'Connor, Mr. Ennnett, the barrister 
 (whose brother was executed in 1803), and other 
 conspicuous men, contributors to it ; it inflamed 
 the public mind in Ireland on the eve of the 
 rebellion in 1798. The paper was suppressed by 
 a military force .... 6 March, 179S 
 
 The existing weekly conservative paper the Press 
 first published in May, 1853 
 
 PRESS-GANG for the roval navy was regu- 
 lated by statute, 1378, and by 5 & 6 Will. IV. 1835, 
 the compulsory service is limited to five years, see 
 Impressment. 
 
 PRESSING to Death, see Mute. 
 
 PRESTON (Lancashire). Near here Cromwell 
 totally defeated the royalists under sir Marmaduke 
 Langdale, 17 Aug. 1(348. Preston was taken in 
 1 715 by the Scotch insurgents, under Forster, who> 
 proclaimed king James VII. They were defeated 
 in a battle on 12, 13 Nov. by generals Willes and 
 Carpenter, who with the royal army invested 
 Preston on all sides. The Scots laid down their 
 arms, and their nobles and leaders were secured ; 
 some were shot as deserters, and others sent to 
 London pinioned and bound together, to intimidate 
 their party. — The stoppage of the cotton manu- 
 facture in 1861 and 1862, through the civil war in 
 America, occasioned great suffering in Preston. 
 
 " The Preston giMld festival," said to have been 
 instituted in Saxon times, and to have been kept 
 once in 20 years regularly since 1562, was duly 
 celebrated in Sept. 1862 
 
 A tine art and industrial exhibition here opened 
 
 21 Sept. 1865 
 
 The new town hall opened by the duke of Cambridge 
 
 3 Oct. 1867 
 
 Statue of the late earl of Derby publicly inaugurated 
 
 3 June, 1873 
 
 Preston strikes. — In 1853, a great number of strikes 
 took place among the workmen in the north of 
 England. Those at Preston struck for an increase 
 of 10 per cent, on their wages. On 15 Oct. the 
 masters, in consequence, closed forty-nine mills, 
 and 20,000 persons were thrown out of employ- 
 ment, who were mostly maintained for a long 
 time by subscriptions from their fellows. In the 
 week ending 17 Dec. 14,972 were relieved, at the 
 cost of 2820?. 8s. The committee of workmen 
 addressed lord Palmerston, 15 Nov., who gave 
 them his advice 24 Dec. 1853 
 
PEESTON-PANS. 
 
 541 
 
 PEINTING. 
 
 After many attempts at reconciliation, the strike 
 
 closed for want of funds . . . i May, 1854 
 Another strike was closed in May, 1869 
 
 PEESTON-PANS, near Edinburgh, the scene 
 of a battle between the Young Pretender, prince 
 Charles Stuart, and his Scotch adherents, and the 
 royal army under sir John Cope, 21 Sept. 1745. 
 The latter was defeated with the loss of 500 men, 
 and fled. 
 
 PEETENDEES. A name given to the son 
 and grandsons of James II. of England. 
 
 The Old Pretender, James Francis Edward 
 Stuart, Chevalier de St. George, born 10 June, 
 1688, was acknowledged by Louis XIV. as James 
 III. of England, in 1701. 
 
 Proclaimed, and his standard set up, at Braemar 
 and Castletown, in Scotland . . 3 Sept. 1715 
 
 Landed at Peterhead, in Aberdeenshire, from 
 Prance, to encourage the rebellion that the earl 
 of Mar and his other adherents had prompted, 
 
 25 Dec. ,, 
 
 This rebellion having been soon suppressed, the 
 Pretender escaped to Montrose (from whence he 
 proceeded to Gravelines) ... 4 Feb. 1716 
 
 Died at Rome 30 Dee. 1765 
 
 The Young Pretender, Charles-Edward, was 
 born in 1720 
 
 Landed in Scotland, and proclaimed his father king 
 
 25 July, 1745 
 
 Gained the battle of Preston-pans, 21 Sept. 1745, 
 and of Falkirk 17 Jan. 1746 
 
 Defeated at Culloden, and sought safety by flight, 
 
 16 April, ,, 
 
 He continued wandering among the wilds of Scot- 
 land for nearly six months ; and as 30,000^. were 
 offered for taking him, he was constantly pursued 
 by the British troops, often hemmed round by 
 his enemies, but still rescued by some lucky 
 accident, and at length escaped from the isle of 
 Uist to Morlaix in Sept. He died . 31 Jan. 1788 
 
 His natural daughter assumed the title of duchess 
 of Albany; died in 1789 
 
 His brother, the cardinal York, calling himself 
 Henry IX. of England, born March, 1725 ; died 
 at Rome in Aug. 1807 
 
 PEICES, see Corn, Bread, and Provisions. 
 Mr. T. Tooke, in 1838, published a "History of 
 Prices from 1793 to 1856." He was latterly aided 
 -by Mr. W. Newmarch. 
 
 PEIDE'S PTTEGE. On the 6th Dec. 1648, 
 colonel Pride, with two regiments, surrounded the 
 house of parliament, and seizing in the passage 
 forty-one members of the Presbyterian party, sent 
 them to a low room, then called hell. Above 160 
 other members were excluded, and none admitted 
 but the most furious of the Independents. The 
 privileged members were named the Pump parlia- 
 ment, which was dismissed by Cromwell, 20 April, 
 1653- 
 
 PEIEST (derived from presbyteros, elder, in 
 the English church the minister who presides over 
 the public worship. In Gen. xiv. 18, Melchizedek 
 king of Salem is termed "priest of the most high 
 God." (1913 B.C. ; see Hebrews vii.) The Greek 
 hiereus, like the Jewish priest, had a sacrificial 
 character, which idea of the priesthood is still 
 maintained by the Komanists and those who favour 
 their views. Among the Jews, the priests assumed 
 their office at the age of thirty years. The dignity 
 of high or chief priest was fixed in Aaron's family, 
 1491 B.C. After the captivity of Babylon, the civil 
 government and the crown were superadded to the 
 high priesthood ; it was the peculiar privilege of 
 the high priest, that he could be prosecuted in no 
 court but that of the great Sanhedrim. The 
 heathens had their arch-flamen or high priest, 
 resembling the Christian archbishop. 
 
 PEIMEE. A book so named from the Eomish 
 book of devotions, and formerly set forth or pub- 
 lished by authority, as the first book children 
 should publicly learn or read in schools, containing 
 prayers and portions of the scripture. Primers were 
 printed 1535, 1539. Henry VIII. issued a prayer- 
 book called a "primer" in 1^46. The three were 
 published by Dr. Burton in 1834. 
 
 PEIMITIVE CULTUEE, see Civilisation. 
 PEIMOGENITUEE, Eight of. A usage 
 
 brought down from the earliest times. The first- 
 born in the patriarchal ages had a superiority over 
 his brethren, and in the absence of his father was 
 priest to the family. In some parts of England, 
 by the ancient customs of gavel-kind and borough- 
 English, primogeniture was superseded. It came 
 in with the feudal law, 3 Will. I. 1068. The 
 rights of primogeniture abolished in France, 1790. 
 
 PEINCE EDWAED'S ISLAND (North 
 America), was discovered by Cabot, in 1497 ; was 
 finally taken from the French by the British, in 
 1758 ; united with Cape Breton as a colony in 1763 ; 
 but separated in 1768. W. F. Robinson, governor, 
 Aug. 1870. 
 
 PEINCE OF WALES'S ISLAND, see 
 
 Penang. 
 
 PEINCESS'S T HE ATEE, see under 
 
 Iheatres. 
 
 PEINCE ETJPEET'S LAND, seePuperfs 
 Zand, and Hudson' s Bay. 
 
 PEINCETON, New Jersey, N. America. 
 Here Washington defeated the British, 3 Jan. 1777. 
 
 PEINTED GOODS, .see Calico. 
 
 PEINTING. Block printing is said to have 
 been practised by the Chinese several centuries 
 before the Christian era. The honour of printing 
 with single types has been appropriated to Mentz, 
 Strasbourg, Haarlem, Venice, Borne, Florence, 
 Basle, and Augsburg ; but the names of the three 
 first only are entitled to attention ; see Press. 
 
 Adrian Junius awards the honour of the invention 
 to Laurenzes John Koster, of Haarlem, " who 
 printed with blocks, a book of images and letters, 
 Speculum Humance Salvaiionis, and compounded 
 an ink more viscous and tenacious than common 
 ink, which blotted .... about 1438" 
 
 [The leaves of this book, being printed on one side 
 only, were afterwards pasted together.] 
 
 [In 1859, Mr. Samuel Leigh Sotheby issued an 
 elaborate work compiled by his father and him- 
 self, entitled " Principia Typographica," con- 
 taining fac-similes, &c, of the block-books of the 
 15th century; and Mr. J. Russell Smith published 
 a fac-simile of the Biblia Pauperum, a very early 
 block-book.] 
 
 John Fust established a printing-office at Mentz, 
 and printed the Tractatus Petri Hispani . . 1442 
 
 John Gutenberg invented cut metal types, and 
 used them in printing the earliest edition of the 
 Latin bible (termed the Mazarine, from the dis- 
 covery of a copy in the cardinal's library) at 
 Mentz 1450-55 
 
 [At the sale of the Perkins library, 6 June, 1873, a 
 copy of this bible on vellum sold for 3400Z. , one on 
 paper sold for 2690J.] 
 
 Book o/Psalnis, by Fust and Schreffer . 14 Aug. 1457 
 
 The Durandi PMtionale, first work printed with cast 
 metal types I45g 
 
 [Printing was introduced into Oxford, about this 
 time. Collier. Denied by Dibdin.] 
 
 A I/ivy printed. Du Fresnoy x ,g 
 
 The first Latin bible with a date completed at 
 Mentz by Fust and Schceffer I4 6 2 
 
 Mentz taken and plundered, and the art of printm"', 
 in the general ruin, is spread to other towns '. * 
 
PRINTING. 
 
 542 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 The types were uniformly Gothic, or old German 
 
 (whence our old English or Black Letter), until . 1465 
 Greek characters (quotations only) first used, same 
 
 year I 4 6 5 
 
 Cicero de Officiis printed by Fust at Mentz . . . „ 
 Roman characters, first at Rome .... 1467 
 A Chronicle, said to have been found in the arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury's palace (the fact disputed), 
 bearing the date "Oxford, anno 1468." 
 Lactantius, by Sweynheym and Pannartz, near 
 
 Rome, 1465 ; Livy by the same .... 1469 
 William Caxton, a mercer of London, set up the 
 
 first press at Westminster 147° 
 
 [To the west of the Sanctuary in Westminster 
 Abbey, stood the Eleemosynary or Almonry, 
 where the first printing press in England was 
 erected in 1471, by William Caxton, encouraged 
 by the learned Thomas Miling, then abbot] 
 He printed Willyam Caxton' s Recuyel of the Hystoryes 
 
 of Troy, by Raoul le Feure. Phillips . . . „ 
 His early pieces were, A Treatise on the Game of 
 
 Chesse and Tully's Offices (see below). Dibdin . 1474 
 JEsop's Fables, printed by Caxton, is supposed to be 
 
 the first book with its leaves numbered . . 1484 
 Aldus cast the Greek Alphabet, and a Greek book 
 
 printed ap. Aldi 1476 
 
 He introduces the Italics * * 
 
 The Pentateuch, in Hebrew 1482 
 
 German Bible at Nuremberg 1483 
 
 Homer, in folio, beautifully done at Florence, 
 
 eclipsing all former printing, by Demetrius . .1488 
 Caxton prints the Boke of Eneydos . . . 1490 
 
 Aldus Manutius begins printing at Venice . . 1494 
 
 Printing used in Scotland iS°9 
 
 The first edition of the whole bible was, strictly 
 speaking, the Complutensian Polyglot of cardinal 
 
 Ximenes (see Polyglot) i5 J 7 
 
 The Liturgy, the first book printed in Ireland, by 
 
 Humphrey Powell 155° 
 
 Printing in Irish characters introduced by Nicholas 
 
 Walsh, chancellor of St. Patrick's . . . 1571 
 
 The first newspaper said to be printed in England 
 
 (see Newspapers) J 588 
 
 First patent granted for printing .... 1591 
 First printing press improved by William Blaeu, at 
 
 Amsterdam I 6° I 
 
 First printing in America, in New England, when 
 the Freeman's Oath and an almanack were 
 printed . . . ■ • • ■•„•„.• l6 39 
 First Bible printed in Ireland was at Belfast. 
 
 Hardy's Tour i7°4 
 
 First types cast in England by Caslon. Phillips . 1720 
 Stereotype printing practised by William Ged, of 
 
 Edinburgh about 1730 
 
 The present mode of stereotype invented by Mr. 
 
 Tilloch about 1779 
 
 [Stereotype printing was in use in Holland in the 
 
 last century. Phillips.] 
 Logographic Printing in which words cast in one 
 piece were employed : patented by H. Johnson 
 and Mr. Walter of the Times; (soon disused) . 1783 
 Machine-printing {luhich see) first suggested by 
 Nicholson ... .... 1790 
 
 The Stanhope press invented about 1800 ; in general 
 use .....*••• 1806 
 
 Columbian press of Clymer patented . . .1817 
 
 Albion press introduced 1816 
 
 The roller, which was a suggestion of Nicholson, 
 
 introduced > 
 
 Cowper's and Applegath's rollers . • ■ • t8i 7 
 Printing for the blind (by raised characters) begins 1827 
 Anastatic Printing, in which written or printed 
 matter is transferred upon zinc plates, was inven- 
 ted by Baldermus of Berlin about 1841, and made 
 known in London ; lectured on by Faraday in 
 1845 ; and improved by Strickland and Delamotte 
 
 in '848 
 
 [A similar process was invented by Mr. Cocks of 
 
 Falmouth in 1836.] 
 Printing-types electro-faced with copper, about 1850 
 Engraved copper-plate electro-faced with iron and 
 
 nickel - l8 s8 
 
 Type-composing machines.— By James Young s several 
 numbers of the "Family Herald "were set up, 
 beginning 17 Dec. 1842 ; Hattersley's appeared at 
 the Exhibition of 1862 ; Hart's was shown at the 
 meeting of the British Association at Cambridge 
 
 6 Oct. 1862 
 
 W. H. Mitchel's composing machine was tried at 
 Messrs. Spottiswoode's, 1861 ; these machines 
 were said to be in use in America in . Jan. 1863 
 
 Kastenbein's composing and distributing machines 
 (in use at the Times office) shown at the Inter- 
 national exhibition ...... 1872 
 
 Alexander Mackie's type-composing machine in use 
 at his office in Warrington, and at Messrs. Clay's 
 London, in 1871. It was said to be able to set up 
 4 columns of the Times in an hour. 
 
 Miss Emily Faithfull established the Victoria 
 printing-office in Great Coram-street, London, in 
 which female compositors are employed : the 
 "Englishwoman's Journal" printed there Aug. 
 1861 ; appointed printer and publisher in ordinary 
 to her Majesty June, 1862 
 
 [See Printiiig Machine, Stereotype, and Nature Printing.] 
 
 Printers' Pension Society established 1827 ; char- 
 tered, 1865 ; almshouses instituted . . . 1841 
 
 Titles of the earliest Books of Caxton and 
 Wynkyn de Worde. 
 
 The Game and Playe of the Chesse. Translated out 
 of the Frenche and emprynted by me William Caxton. 
 Fynysshhl the last day of Marche the yer of our Lord God 
 a thousand foure hondred and Ixxiiij. 
 
 [A fac-simile of this book was printed by Mr. Vincent 
 Figgins in 1859.] 
 
 The Boke of Tulle of Olde Age Emprynted by me 
 simple persone William Caxton into Englysshe as the 
 playsir solace and reverence of men growing in to old age 
 the xij day of August the yere of our Lord M. cccc. Ixxxj. 
 Herbert. 
 
 The Polycronycon conteyning the Berynges and Dedes 
 of many Tymes in eyght Sokes. Imprinted by William 
 Caxton after having somewhat chavnged the rude and olde 
 Englysshe, that is to wete [to wit] certayn Words which 
 in these Dayes be neither vsyd ne understanden. Ended 
 the second day of Juyll at Westmestre the xxij yere of the 
 Regne of Kynge Edward the fourth, and of the Incarna- 
 cion of oure Lord a Thousand four hondred four Score 
 and tweync [1482]. Dibdin's Typ. Ant. 
 
 The Cronicles of Englond Empnted by me Wyllyam 
 Caxton thabbey of Westmynstre by london the v day of 
 Juyn the yere of thincarnacion of our lord god 
 
 M.CCCC.LXXX. 
 
 Polycronycon. Ended the thyrtenth daye of Apryll the 
 tenth yere of the reyne of kinge Harry the seuenth And 
 of tlie Jncarnoxyon of our lord mcccclxxxxv. Empryn- 
 ted by Wynkyn The worde at Wesmestre. 
 
 The Hylle of Perfection emprynted at the instance of 
 the reverend relygyous fader Tho. Prior of the hous of 
 St. Ann, the order of the charterouse Accomplysshe[d] 
 and fynysshc[d] att Westmy lister the uiii day of Janevjer 
 the yere of our lord Thousands cccc.lxxxxvii. And in 
 the xii yere of kynge Henry the vii by me wynkyn de 
 worde. Ames, Herbert, Dibdin. 
 
 The Descripcyon of Englonde Walys Scotland and 
 Irlond speaking of the Noblesse and Worthynesse of the 
 same Fynysshed and emprynted in Flete strete in the syne 
 of the Sonne by me Wynkyn de Worde the yere of our 
 lord a m ccccc and ij. mensis Mayiis [mense Maii]. 
 Dibdin's Typ. Ant. 
 
 The Festyvall or Sermons on sondays and holidais taken 
 out of the golden legend enprynted at london in Flete-strete 
 at y sygne of y Sonne by wynkyn de worde. In the 
 yere of our Lord m. ccccc. vni. And ended the xi daye 
 of Maye. Ames. 
 
 The lord's prayer [As printed by Caxton in 1413.] 
 Father our that art in heavens, hallowed be thy name : 
 thy kingdome come to us ; thy will be done in ea.rth as is 
 in heaven: our every day bread give us to day; and 
 forgive us mire trespasses, as we forgive them that trespass 
 against us ; and lead us not in to temptation, but deliver 
 us from all evil sin, amen. Lewis's Life of Caxton. 
 
 A Placard. [As printed by William Caxton.] If it 
 plese ony man spirituel or temperel to bye any pies of two 
 or three comemoracios of Salisburi use* enprynted- after 
 the forme of this preset lettre whiche ben wel and truly 
 correct, late him come to westmonester in to the almonestye 
 at the reed pale [red pale] and he shall have them good 
 there. Dibdin's Typ. Ant. 
 
 * Romish Service-books, used at Salisbury, by the 
 devout called Pies (Pica, Latin), as is supposed from 
 the different colour of the text and rubric. Our printing- 
 type Pico is called Cicero by foreign printers. WJieatley. 
 
PRIORIES. 
 
 543 
 
 PRIVATEER. 
 
 Printing-machines. — William Nicholson, editor of the 
 Philosophical Journal, first projected (1790-1), but Mr. 
 Konig first contrived and. constructed a working 
 printing machine, which began with producing the 
 Times of 28 Nov. 1814, a memorable day in the annals 
 of typography. 
 
 In 1818, Mr. E. Cowper patented improvements.* 
 
 Konig's machine printed 1800 an hour on one side ; 
 Cowper's improvements increased this number to 
 4200. This was raised to 15,000, by Mr. Applegath's 
 machine, which printed the Tiines. 
 
 Hoe's American machine, introduced into London 1858, 
 prints 20,000 an hour. 
 
 Marinoni's machine at Paris said to print 36,000 an hour ; 
 Dec. 1868. 
 
 Walter press, invented for the Times by J. C. Macdonald 
 and Mr. Calverley, between 1862-9, prints about 17,000 
 an hour perfected ; 1872. 
 
 Printing in Colours was first commenced by the 
 employment of several blocks, to imitate the initial 
 letters in MSS. (for instance, the Mentz Psalter of 
 Fust, 1455, which has a letter in three colours). 
 Imitations of chiaroscuro soon followed (" Repose in 
 Egypt," engraving on wood after Louis Cranaeh, in 
 1519, in Germany : others by Ugo da Carpi, in Italy, 
 1518). 
 
 J. B. Jackson (1720-54) attempted, without success, to 
 imitate water-colour drawings, and to print paper- 
 hangings. 
 
 About 1783, John Skippe, an amateur, printed some 
 chiaroscuros. 
 
 In 1819-22, Mr. William Savage produced his remarkable 
 work, "Hints on Colour Printing," illustrated by 
 imitations of chiaroscuro, and of coloured drawings, 
 giving details of the processes employed. 
 
 In 1836, Mr. George Baxter produced beautiful specimens 
 of Picture-Printing, and took out a patent, which 
 expired in 1855. In some of the illustrations to the 
 "Pictorial Album" (1836), he employed twenty dif- 
 ferent blocks. 
 
 It has been applied to Lithography (hence Chromo- 
 lithography). 
 
 In 1849, Mr. G. C. Leighton produced imitations of 
 water-colour-drawings, by means of modifications and 
 improvements of Savage's processes. In 1851 he com- 
 menced colour-printing by machinery, and has since 
 availed himself of aqua-tinted plates, and also of elec- 
 trotyped silver and copper surfaces to obtain purity of 
 colour as well as durability. 
 
 The large coloured prints of The Illustrated London News 
 were first issued in Dee. 1856. 
 
 PRIORIES, at first dependent on the great 
 abbeys, are mentioned in 722 in England ; see 
 Abbeys, and Monasteries. Alien priories were seized 
 by the king (Edward I.) in 1285, and in succeed- 
 ing reigns on the breaking out of war with France ; 
 but were usually restored on the conclusion of 
 peace. These priories were dissolved, and then- 
 estates vested in the crown, 3 Henry V. 1414. 
 Rymer's Feeder a. 
 
 PRISCILLIANISTS, disciples of Priscillian, 
 a Spanish bishop who propagated doctrines alleged 
 to contain Gnosticism and Manicheism, 372. "When 
 condemned he appealed from the pope to the 
 emperor, but was beheaded at Treves, 385. 
 
 PRISONERS OP WAR, among the ancient 
 nations, when spared, were usually enslaved. About 
 the 13th century, civilized nations began to ex- 
 change then - prisoners. 
 
 The Spanish, French, and American prisoners of 
 war in England were 12,000 in number, 30 Sept. 1779 
 
 The number exchanged by cartel with France, from 
 the commencement of the then war, was 44,000 
 
 June, 1 78 1 
 
 * In 1817 was published Blumenbach's Physiology 
 by Elliotson, the first book printed by machinery. The 
 machine employed was Konig's, one which printed both 
 sides in one operation at the rate of 900 sheets an hour 
 (1816). 
 
 The English prisoners in France estimated at 6000, 
 and the French in England 27,000 . . Sept. 1798 
 
 The English in France amounted to 10,300, and the 
 French, &c, in England to 47,600, in . . . 1811 
 
 Great numbers made by the Germans in the war 1870-1 
 
 PRISONS OF London, see Fleet, King's 
 Bench, Newgate, Poultry, Clerkenwell. 
 
 Horsemonger-lane gaol was built in . . .1791 
 
 The state of prisons greatly improved after the 
 
 exertions of Howard.* Cold-Bath-Fields prison 
 
 was built on his suggestion 1:704. 
 
 The atrocities of governor Aris in this prison were 
 
 exposed in parliament . . . .12 July, 1800 
 White Cross-Street prison for debtors was erected 
 
 in 1813-15 
 
 Borough compter, mean and confined, till visited 
 
 by a parliamentary committee in . . . . 1817 
 Savoy prison, for the confinement of deserters from 
 
 the Guards, formerly situated in the Strand, was 
 
 pulled down to make room for Waterloo-bridge . 1819 
 New Bridewell prison was erected as a substitute 
 
 for the City Bridewell, Blaekfriars, in . . . 1829 
 Tothill Fields Bridewell, built in 1618, rebuilt . 1836 
 The old Marshalsea prison, Southwark, built in the 
 
 13th century, taken down 1842 
 
 Pentonville Model prison completed . . . ,, 
 Middlesex House of Detention, Clerkenwell, erected 
 
 in 1847 
 
 City prison, Holloway, opened . . 6 Feb. 1852 
 Act passed for abolishing Queen's Bench prison . 1862 
 Sheriffs' fund for assisting discharged prisoners 
 
 commenced 1809 
 
 Discharged Prisoners' Aid society established . . 1858. 
 
 Prison Ministers' act passed 1863 
 
 Acts to consolidate and amend the law relating to 
 
 prisons, passed . • • 5 July, 1865 ; Aug. 1866 
 Milbank made a military prison .... 1870 
 Prison Discipline Society, by the philanthropic 
 
 labours of sir T. F. Buxton, M. P. , was instituted 
 
 in 1815, and held its first public meeting in 1820. 
 
 Its "objects were the amelioration of gaols, the 
 
 classification, and employment of the prisoners, 
 
 and the prevention of crime. 
 International prison congress, met at the Middle 
 
 Temple, London 3 July, 1872 
 
 A National Prison Association was organized in 
 
 New York . 1869 or 1870 
 
 Howard Association (which see) instituted . . 1866 
 
 Whitecross-street prison ; to be pulled down and 
 
 materials sold ; stated . . . n Oct, 1870 
 
 PRIVATEER, a ship belonging to private 
 individuals, sailing with a licence (termed a Letter 
 of Marque}, granted by a government in time of 
 war, to seize and plunder the ships of the enemy. 
 The practice, said to have been adopted by Ed- 
 ward I. against the Portuguese in 1295, was gene- 
 ral during the war between Spain and the Nether- 
 lands in the 17th century, and during the last 
 French war. Privateering was abolished by the 
 great sovereigns of Europe by treaty, 30 March, 
 1856. The United States government refused to 
 agree unless the right of blockade was also given up. 
 The British government declined this, asserting 
 " that the system of commercial blockade was 
 essential to its naval supremacy." On 17 April, 
 1861, Jefferson Davis, president of the southern 
 confederacy, announced his intention of issuing 
 letters of marque, and on the 19th president Lin- 
 coln proclaimed that all southern privateers should 
 be treated as pirates. This decree was not carried 
 out; see United States. All the great powers for- 
 bade privateering during the American civil war 
 (which see). By the treaty of "Washington priva- 
 teering was prohibited. 
 
 * John Howard was born 2 Sept. 1726; made sheriff 
 of Bedford, 1773; investigated into the state of English 
 prisons, 1773-5; and gave, evidence thereon before the 
 house of commons, which led to amendments by law, 
 1774 ; he visited prisons all over the continent, and. died 
 at Kherson, 20 Jan. 1790. 
 
PRIVILEGED PLACES. 
 
 544 
 
 PEOTECTOEATES. 
 
 PRIVILEGED PLACES, see Asylums. 
 
 PRIVY COUNCIL. A council was instituted 
 by Alfred, 895. The number of the council was 
 about twelve when it discharged the functions of 
 state, now confined to the members of the cabinet ; 
 but it had become of unwieldy amount before 1679, 
 in which year it was remodelled upon sir William 
 Temple's plan, and reduced to thirty members : 
 Anthony Ashley, earl of Shaftesbury, being presi- 
 dent. The number is now unlimited. To attempt 
 the life of a privy-councillor in the execution of his 
 office was made capital, occasioned by Guiscard's 
 stabbing Mr. Harley while the latter was examining 
 him on a charge of high treason, 9 Anne, 17.11. 
 
 Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. — In lieu of 
 the Court of Delegates, for appeals from the lord chan- 
 cellors of Great Britain and of Ireland in cases of 
 lunacy — from the Ecclesiastical and Admiralty Courts 
 of England, and the Vice-Admiralty courts abroad— 
 from the Warden of the Stannaries, the courts of the 
 Isle of Man, and other islands, and the Colonial courts, 
 &c.,— fixed by statute 3 & 4 Will. IV., c. 41, 1833 ; 
 amended by other acts in 1844, 1851, 1852. 
 
 Judges. — The lord president, lord chancellor, master of 
 the rolls, vice-chancellor, lords justices in appeal, lord 
 chief justice of the queen's bench and common pleas, 
 lord chief baron, juclges of the courts of bankruptcy, 
 probate, and admiralty, and others appointed by the 
 queen. In consequence of the increase of business. 
 and consequent delay, the queen was empowered to 
 appoint four new judicial members of the committee, 
 by 34, 35 Vict. c. 91 (21 Aug. 1871). The attorney- 
 general, sir R. Collier, was made a judge of the Common 
 Pleas, 7 Nov., and a member of the judicial committee 
 22 Nov. 1871. 
 
 These proceedings were considered contrary to the spirit 
 of the act by several judges and the legal profession 
 generally. A vote of censure on the Gladstone ministry 
 was negatived in the house of lords (89-87), 15 Feb. ; 
 in the commons (268-241), 19 Feb. 1872. 
 
 PRIVY SEAL, THE Lord, the fifth great 
 officer of state, has the custody of the privy seal, 
 which he must not put to any grant, without good 
 warrant under the king's signet. This seal is used 
 by the king to all charters, grants, and pardons, 
 signed by him before they come to the great seal. 
 Eichard Fox, bishop of "Winchester, held this office 
 in the reign of Henry VIII. previously to 1523, 
 when Cuthbert Tunstall, bishop of London, was 
 appointed. The privy seal has been on some occa- 
 sions in commission. Beatson. See under Liver- 
 pool, Canning, Wellington, and succeeding Admi- 
 nistrations. 
 
 PRIZE-FIGHTING, see Boxing. 
 
 PRIZE MONEY, arising from captures made 
 from the enemy, was decreed by government to be 
 divided into eight equal parts, and distributed by 
 order of ranks, 17 April, 1793. The distribution o'f 
 army prize-money is regulated by an act passed in 
 1832. Naval prize-money is now regulated by royal 
 proclamation ; the last, 19 May, 1866. 
 
 PROBATE COURT, established in Aug. 1857 
 by 20 & 2 1 Vict. c. 77, which abolished all powers 
 exercised by the ecclesiastical courts in the granting 
 of probates of wills, &c. ; see Prerogative Court. 
 The first judge appointed, 5 Jan. 1858, was sir 
 Cresswell Cresswell., who took his seat on 12 Jan. 
 On his death, sir James P. Wilde was appointed 
 judge, 28 Aug. 1863. Probate is the exhibiting and 
 proving a will before the proper authority. 
 
 PROCESSIONS ACT, 13 Vict. c. 2, passed 
 12 March, 1850, prohibited party processions, with 
 banners, &c. It was repealed in 1872. 
 
 PROCLAMATIONS, Royal, " have only 
 a binding force when grounded upon and to enforce 
 
 the laws of the realm." Coke. Henry VIII., in 
 1539? declared that they were as valid as acts of 
 parliament. This was annulled, 1547. 
 
 PROFILES. The first profile taken, as recorded, 
 was that of Antigonus, who, having but one eye, his 
 likeness was so taken, 330 B.C. Ashe. " Until the 
 end of the 3rd century, I have not seen a Eoman 
 emperor with a full face ; they were always painted 
 or appeared in profile, which gives us the view of a 
 head in a very majestic manner." Addison. 
 
 PROGRESISTAS, a political party in Spain, 
 headed by Espartero, duke of Victory, and latterly 
 by general Prim. Since 1865 they adopted a policy 
 of inaction in public affairs ; by uniting with the 
 unionists and republicans in Sept. 1868, the govern- 
 ment were overthrown ; see Spain. 
 
 PROGRESSIONIST THEORY supposes 
 that the existing species of animals and plants were 
 not originally created, but were gradually developed 
 from one simple form ; see Species. 
 
 PROMISSORY NOTES were regulated and 
 allowed to be made assignable in 1705. First taxed 
 by a stamp in 1782 ; the tax was increased in 1804, 
 and again in 1808, and subsequently; see Bills of 
 Exchange. 
 
 PROPAGANDA FIDE, Congregatio 
 
 DE (congregation for the propagation of the faith of 
 the Eomish church), was constituted at Eome by 
 Gregory XV. in 1622 ; the college in 1627. 
 
 PROPAGATION of the Gospel Society 
 received its charter, 16 June, 1701. Its sphere is 
 generally limited to the British colonies. General 
 income in 1867, 114,546/. 
 
 PROPERTY-TAX. The assessments on real 
 property, under the property tax of 18 15, were 
 51,898,423/. ; of which Middlesex was 5,595,537/. ; 
 Lancashire, 3,087,774/. ; and Yorkshire, 4,700,000/. ; 
 Wales, 2,153,801/. ; see Income Tax. 
 
 PROPHETS, see under Jews. 
 
 PROPHESYING : about 1570 the puritanical 
 part of the clergy, particularly at Northampton, 
 held meetings (termed prophesyings) for prayer and 
 exposition of the scriptures. These were forbidden 
 by queen Elizabeth, 7 May, 1577, and immediately 
 ceased. 
 
 PROROGATION of Parllvment. By an 
 act passed 12 Aug. 1867, her majesty was enabled 
 to issue a proclamation for the prorogation of par- 
 liament during the recess. 
 
 PROTECTIONISTS, that section of the con- 
 servative party which opposed the repeal of the corn 
 laws, and which separated from sir Eobert Peel in 
 1846. The name was derived from a " Society for 
 the Protection of Agriculture," of which the duke 
 of Eichmond was chairman, and which had been 
 established to counteract the efforts of the Anti- Com 
 Law League, 17 Feb. 1844.' Lord George Bentinck 
 was the head of the party from 1846 till his death, 
 21 Sept. 1848. The Derby administration not pro- 
 posing the restoration of the corn-laws, the above 
 society was dissolved, 7 Feb. 1853. — The protection 
 of native manufactures is maintained in the United 
 States, 1868-73. 
 
 PROTECTORATES in England. That 
 
 of the enrl of Pembroke, 19 Oct. 1216, ended by his 
 death, 12 18. Of Humphry, duke of Gloucester, 
 began 31 Aug. 1422; he was seized 11 Feb. 1447, 
 and found dead a few days after. Of Eichard, duke 
 
PROTECTION. 
 
 545 
 
 PROVISIONS. 
 
 of Gloucester, began May, 1483, and ended by his 
 assuming the royal dignity, 26 June the same year. 
 Of Somerset began 28 Jan. 1547, and ended by his 
 resignation in 1549. Of Oliver Cromwell began 16 
 Dec. 1653, and ended by his death, 3 Sept. 1658. 
 Of Bichard Cromwell began 3 Sept. 1658, and ended 
 by his resignation, 25 May, 1659 ; see England. 
 
 PROTECTION OF LIFE AND PRO- 
 PERTY ACT (for part of Ireland), passed 16 
 June, 1871. 
 
 PROTEIN, from the Greek (proteion, princi- 
 pal) ; a chemical term introduced by Mulder about 
 1844, for the basis of albumen, fibrin, and casein. 
 
 PROTESTANTS. The emperor Charles V. 
 called a diet at Spires in 1529, to request aid from 
 the German princes against the Turks, and to devise 
 means for allaying the religious disputes which 
 then raged owing to Luther's opposition to the 
 Eoman catholic clergy. Against a decree of this 
 diet, to support the doctrines of the church of Eome, 
 six Lutheran princes, with the deputies of thirteen 
 imperial towns, formally and solemnly protested, 19 
 April, 1529. Hence the term protestants was given 
 to the followers of Luther ; it afterwards included 
 Calvinists, and other sects separated from the see of 
 Eome. The six protesting princes were : John and 
 George, the electors of Saxony and Brandenburg ; 
 Ernest and Francis, the dukes of Lunenburg ; the 
 landgrave of Hesse; and the prince of Anhalt; 
 these were joined by the citizens of Strasburg, 
 Nuremberg, Ulm, Constance, Heilbron, and seven 
 other cities ; see Lutheranism, Calvinism, Hugue- 
 nots, Germany, Church of England, &c. 
 
 Protestants persecuted in Scotland and Germany . 1546 
 Edward VI. established Protestantism in England . 1548 
 Mary re-establishes Romanism, and persecutes the 
 
 Protestants : above 300 put to death . . 1553-8 
 Ridley, bishop of London, and Latimer, bishop of 
 Worcester, were burnt at Oxford, 16 Oct. 1555 ; 
 and Cranmer, arbp. of Canterbury . 21 March, 1556 
 [During three years of Mary's reign, 277 persons were 
 brought to the stake ; besides those punished by 
 imprisonment, fines, and confiscations. Among 
 those who suffered by fire were 5 bishops, 21 
 clergymen, 8 lay gentlemen, 84 tradesmen, 100 
 husbandmen, servants, and labourers, 55 women, 
 and 4 children. The principal agents of the queen 
 were the bishops Gardiner and Bonner.] 
 Elizabeth restores Protestantism . . . . 1558 
 
 Protestant settlements formed in Ulster, N. Ireland 
 
 1608-11 
 The Protestant union of princes in Germany, 4 May, 
 
 1608 ; met last May, 1621 
 
 Thirty years' war between Romanists and Protestants 
 
 in Germany 1618-48 
 
 Protestants persecuted at Thorn, in Poland . . 1724 
 Protestant Association (see Gordon's No-Popery" 
 
 Mob) 1780 
 
 A society for planting communities of the poorer 
 Protestants on tracts of land, particularly in the 
 northern counties of Ireland, established in Dub- 
 lin in Dec. 1829 
 
 (London) Protestant Society, established 1827 ; Pro- 
 testant Association, 1835 ; Protestant Alliance . 1849 
 Protestant Conservative Society established 9 Dec. 1831 
 Protestant Alliance formed at Armagh . 7 Nov. 1845 
 Pan-protestant conference held at Worms (about 
 
 1000 delegates) 31 May, 1869 
 
 Meeting of a general synod of the Reformed Church 
 of Prance (M. Guizot present), to propose return to 
 early doctrine and discipline, held at Paris, 
 
 7 June, 1872 
 The "liberal party" attack the doctrines of the 
 authority of the Bible, the divinity and resurrec- 
 tion of Christ, &c. ; an orthodox confession is car- 
 ried amid strong opposition (61-45) • 2 ° June, „ 
 
 PROVENCE (the Eoman Provincia), S. E. 
 France, was made a kingdom by the emperor Lo- 
 thaire for his son Charles. It afterwards became 
 
 part of the kingdom of Aries as a feudal fief, and 
 was re-united to the German empire in 1032 by 
 Conrad II. On the fall of the Hohenstaufens it 
 was acquired by Charles of Anjou, king of Naples, 
 in 1266 ; and was held by his successors till its 
 annexation to France by Louis XI. in 1481. 
 
 PROVERBS. The book of Proverbs by Solo- 
 mon is dated about 1000 B.C. The latter part was 
 collected by order of Hezekiah, about 700 b.c. 
 Eay's collection of English proverbs appeared in 
 1672, and Bonn's general collection in 1857. Martin 
 F. Tupper's "Proverbial Philosophy" appeared in 
 1839. Alfred Henderson's Latin Proverbs, 1869. 
 
 PROVIDENT KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY 
 
 established in 1872, to forward the post-office finan- 
 cial schemes ; by establishing penny banks, sending 
 out lecturers, and publishing papers for the promo- 
 tion of thrift among the lower classes. It held its 
 first annual meeting, 9 May, 1873, the earl of Derby 
 in the chair. 
 
 PROVISIONS-Remarkable State- 
 ments CONCERNING THEM. The high value 
 of money at the time must be borne in mind. 
 
 Wheat for food for 100 men for one day worth only one 
 shilling, and a sheep for fourpence, Henry I. about 1130. 
 The price of wine raised to sixpence per quart for red, 
 and eightpence for white, that the sellers might be 
 enabled to live by it, 2 John 1200. Burton's Annals. 
 When wheat was at 6s. per quarter, the farthing loaf was 
 to be equal in weight to twenty-four ounces (made of 
 the whole grain), and to sixteen the white. When 
 wheat was is. 6d. per quarter, the farthing white loaf 
 was to weigh sixty-four ounces, and the whole grain 
 (the same as standard now) ninety-six, by the first 
 assize, 1202. Mat. Paris. 
 A remarkable plenty in all Europe, 1280. Dufresnoy. 
 Wheat is. per quarter, 14 Edw. I., 1286. Stow. 
 The price of provisions fixed by the common council of 
 London as follows : two pullets, three half-pence ; a 
 partridge, or two woodcocks, three half-pence ; a fat 
 lamb, sixpence from Christinas to Shrovetide, the rest 
 of the year fourpence, 29 Edw. I., 1299. Stow. 
 Price of provisions fixed by parliament : at the rate of 
 zl. 8s. of our money for a fat ox, if fed with corn, 3Z. 12s. ; 
 a shorn sheep, 5s. ; two dozen of eggs, 3d ; other 
 articles nearly the same as fixed by the common council 
 al.ove recited, 7 Edw. II., 1313. Rot. Pari. 
 Wine the best sold for 20s. per tun, 10 Rich. II., 1387. 
 Wheat being at is. id the bushel in 1390, this was deemed 
 so high a price that it is called a dearth of corn by the 
 historians of that era. 
 Beef and pork settled at a halfpenny the pound, and veal 
 three farthings, by act of parliament, 24 Hen. VIII., 
 1533. Anderson. 
 Document from a " Book of the Joint Diet, Dinner and 
 Supper, and the charge thereof, for Cranmer, Latimer, and 
 Ridley," kept by the bailiffs of Oxford, while they were 
 in their custody : — 
 
 1 Oct. 1554. DINNER. 
 Bread and Ale . . . .£002 
 Oysters . . . ..001 
 
 Butter 002 
 
 Eggs 002 
 
 Lyng 008 
 
 A piece of fresh salmon . . . 0010 
 Wine . . . . . .003 
 
 Cheese and pears . . ..002 
 
 The three dinners . o ? 5 
 
 Milk sold, three pints ale-measure for one halfpenny, 2 
 
 Eliz. 1560. Stow's Chronicle. 
 Liebig's discovery of his "Extractum Carris," extract of 
 
 meat, announced 1847. 
 Since the autumn of 1865, meat, milk, and butter greatly 
 
 increased in price owing to the cattle-plague, ic. 
 The "Food Committee" of Society of Arts first met 21 
 
 Dec. 1866 ; continued 1867-8. 
 Meat very dear in England, 1868-73. Introduction of 
 
 Australian preserved meat by Mr. John McCall in 1865 ; 
 
 imported in 1866, 91 cwt. ; in 1871, 237,160 cwt. 
 For the price of Bread since 1735, see Bread. 
 See Milk. 
 
 N N 
 
PROWEDIMENTO SOCIETIES. 546 
 
 PEUSSIA. 
 
 PROVVEDIMENTO . SOCIETIES . in 
 
 Italy, formed to aid in acquiring Rome and Venice, 
 elected Garibaldi as their chief, 10 March, 1862. 
 They were tolerated by Eicasoli, and warned to be 
 moderate by Rattazzi. 
 
 PROXIES. Voting by proxy, an ancient privi- 
 lege of the house of peers, was very frequently 
 abused. In the reign of Charles II., when the duke 
 of Buckingham sometimes brought 20 proxies in his 
 pocket, it was ordered that no peer should bring 
 more than two proxies. From 1830 to 1867, both 
 inclusive, proxies were only called 73 times. In 
 conformity with the recommendation of a committee, 
 a new "standing order" was adopted, 31 March, 
 1868, by which it was ordered "That the practice of 
 calling for proxies on a division shall be discon- 
 tinued." 
 
 PRTJD'HOMMES, Conseils de (from 
 prudens homo, a prudent man), trade tribunals in 
 France, composed of masters and workmen, were 
 constituted to arbitrate on trade disputes in 1806. 
 Similar bodies with this name existed as far back as 
 1452 at Marseilles, and at Lyons in 1464. 
 
 PRUSSIA. This country was anciently pos- 
 sessed by the Venedi, about 320 B.C. They were 
 conquered by the Borussi, who inhabited the Ri- 
 pha?an mountains; and from these the country was 
 called Borussia. Some historians derive the name 
 from Po, signifying near, and Russia. The Porussi 
 afterwards intermixed with the followers of the 
 Teutonic knights, and latterly with the Poles. The 
 constitution, established 31 Jan. 1850, was modified 
 30 April, 1851 ; 21 May, 5 June, 1852 ; 7 and 24 
 May, 1853; 10 June, 1854; 30 May, 1855; an d J 5 
 May, 1857. Population, with Lauenburg (annexed 
 14 Aug. 1865), 19,304,843 ; with Hanover, Hesse- 
 Cassel, Nassau, and Frankfort, Dec. 1867, 
 24,039,543- 
 
 St. Adalbert arrives in Prussia to preach Chris- 
 tianity, and is slain about 997 
 
 Boleslaus of Poland revenges his death by dreadful 
 
 ravages 1018 
 
 Berlin built by a colony from the Netherlands, in 
 
 the reign of Albert the Bear 11 63 
 
 The Teutonic knights returning from the holy wars, 
 undertake the conquest and conversion of Prus- 
 sia 1225 
 
 Thorn founded by them 1231 
 
 Konigsberg, lately built, made the capital . . 1286 
 Largely re-peopled by German colonists 12-13^1 
 
 century. 
 Frederick IV. of Nuremberg (the founder of the 
 reigning family) obtains by purchase from Sigis- 
 mund, emperor of Germany, the margraviate of 
 
 Brandenburg 1415 
 
 Casimir IV. of Poland assists the natives against 
 
 the oppression of the Teutonic knights . . 1446 
 Albert of Brandenburg, grand masterof the Teutonic 
 order, seizes its territories, reiiounces the Roman 
 catholic religion, embraces Lutheranism, and is 
 acknowledged duke of East Prussia, to be held as 
 
 a fief of Poland 152s 
 
 University of Konigsberg founded by duke Albert, 1544 
 John Sigismond created elector of Brandenburg and 
 
 duke of Prussia 1608 
 
 The principality of Halberstadt and the bishopric 
 of Minden transferred to the house of Branden- 
 
 burgh 1648 
 
 Poland obliged to acknowledge Prussia as an inde- 
 pendent state, under Frederick William, sur- 
 
 named the Great Elector 1657 
 
 Order of Concord instituted by Christian Ernest, 
 elector of Brandenburg and duke of Prussia, to 
 commemorate the part he had taken in restoring 
 
 peace to Europe 1660 
 
 Frederick III. in an assembly of the states, X'uts a 
 crown upon his own head and upon the head of 
 his consort, and is proclaimed king of Prussia by 
 the name of Frederick I. . . . 18 Jan. 1701 
 
 Order of the Black Eagle instituted by Frederick I. 
 
 on the day of his coronation 1701 
 
 Guelders taken from the Dutch .... 1702 
 Frederick I. seizes Neufchatel or Neunburg, and 
 
 purchases Tecklenburg 1707 
 
 The principality of Meurs added to Prussia . . 1712 
 Frederick II. the Great, king, who made the Prus- 
 sian monarchy rank among the first powers of 
 
 Europe 1740 
 
 Breslau ceded to Prussia 1741 
 
 Silesia, Glatz, &c. ceded 1742 
 
 Frederick II. visits England 1744 
 
 " Seven years' war " (see Battles) .... 1756-63 
 Frederick II. victor at Prague, 6 May ; defeated at 
 
 Kolin, 18 June ; victor at Rosbach . 5 Nov. 1757 
 Gen. Lacy, with an Austrian and Russian army, 
 marches to Berlin ; the city is laid under contri- 
 bution, &c. ; magazines destroyed . . Oct. 1760 
 Peace of Hubertsburg (ends " seven years' war") ; 
 
 Silesia gained by Prussia . . . 15 Feb. 1763 
 Frederick the Great dies ... 17 Aug. 1786 
 
 Prussia shares in the first partition of Poland . . 1772 
 Frederick William II. invades France . . . . 1792 
 Joins the coalition against France .... 1793 
 The Prussians seize Hanover . . 1801 and 1806 
 Prussia joins the allies of England against France, 
 
 6 Oct. „ 
 Fatal battles of Jena and Auerstadt . . 14 Oct. ,, 
 
 [Nearly all the monarchy subdued.] 
 Berlin decree promulgated ... 20 Nov. ,, 
 Peace of Tilsit (which see) .... 9 July, 1807 
 Formation of the Tugendband (which see), a patriotic 
 society by the instrumentality of the statesman 
 
 Von Stein ,, 
 
 Convention of Berlin .... 5 Nov. 1808 
 Schanhorst secretly restores the army by the sys- 
 tem of reserves, thus forming a nation of soldiers 
 
 1809-13 
 The people rise to expel the French from Germany 
 at the king's appeal, and form the " landwehr " or 
 
 militia 17 March, 1813 
 
 Treaty of Paris 11 April, 1814 
 
 The king visits England .... 6 June, ,, 
 Ministry of education established . . . .1817 
 Congress of Carlsbad 1 Aug. 1819 
 
 Blucher dies in Silesia, aged 77 . . 12 Sept. ,, 
 
 [From this time Prussia pursued a peaceful and un- 
 disturbed policy until 1848.] 
 
 Serious attempt made on the life of the king, by an 
 assassin named Tesch, who fired two shots at him 
 
 26 July, 1844 
 Insurrection in Berlin . . . .18 March, 1848 
 Berlin declared in a state of siege .12 Nov. „ 
 
 The constituent assembly meets in Brandenburg 
 
 castle 29 Nov. „ 
 
 This assembly dissolved ; the king issues a new 
 
 constitution 5 Dec. „ 
 
 The German National Assembly elect the king of 
 Prussia "hereditary emperor of the Germans" 
 
 28 March, 1849 
 The king declines the imperial crown, . 29 April, ,, 
 The kingdom put under martial law . . 10 May, ,, 
 The Prussians enter Carlsruhe . . 23 June, ,, 
 Armistice between Prussia and Denmark . 10 July, ,, 
 Bavaria declared for an imperial constitution with 
 
 the king of Prussia at its head . . 8 Sept. ,, 
 Treaty between Prussia and Austria . 30 Sept. „ 
 Austria protests against the alliance of Prussia with 
 
 the minor states of Germany . . .12 Nov. „ 
 New constitution, 31 Jan. ; the king takes the oath 
 
 required by it 6 Feb. 1850 
 
 Hanover withdraws from the Prussian alliance, 
 
 25 Feb. „ 
 Treaty signed at Munich between Austria, Bavaria, 
 Saxony, and Wurtemberg to maintain the German 
 
 union 27 Feb. „ 
 
 Wiirtemberg denounces the insidious ambition of 
 the king of Prussia, and announces a league be- 
 tween Wurtemberg, Bavaria, and Saxony, under 
 the sanction of Austria ... 15 March, „ 
 
 Attempt to assassinate the king . . 22 May, „ 
 Hesse-Darmstadt withdraws from the Prussian 
 
 league 30 June, „ 
 
 Treaty of peace between Prussia and Denmark, 
 
 2 July, „ 
 A congress of deputies from the states included in 
 the Prussian Zollverein opened at CasseL, 12 July, „ 
 
PRUSSIA. 
 
 547 
 
 PRUSSIA. 
 
 Prussia refuses to join the restricted diet of Frank- 
 fort 25 Aug. 1850 
 
 The Prussian government addresses a despatch 
 to the cabinet of Vienna, declaring its resolve 
 to uphold the constitution in Hesse-Cassel, 
 
 21 Sept. „ 
 
 Count Brandenburg, prime minister, dies, 6 Nov. „ 
 
 Decree, calling out the whole Prussian army, 
 223,000 infantry, 38,000 cavalry, and 29,000 artil- 
 lery, with 1080 field-pieces ... 7 Nov. „ 
 
 The Prussian troops in Hesse occupy the military 
 road in that electorate .... 9 Nov. „ 
 
 The Prussian forces withdraw from the grand 
 duchy of Baden 14 Nov. „ 
 
 General Radowitz, late foreign minister, visits 
 queen Victoria at Windsor . . .26 Nov. „ 
 
 Convention of Olnrntz for the pacification of Ger- 
 many 29 Nov. „ 
 
 The Prussian troops commence their retreat from 
 Hesse-Cassel 5 Dec. ,, 
 
 Prince Schwartzenberg visits the king . 28 Dec. „ 
 
 The king celebrates the 150th anniversary of the 
 Prussian monarchy 18 Jan. 1851 
 
 The king visits the czar of Russia . . 18 May, „ 
 
 The king and czar leave Warsaw for Olmutz to meet 
 the emperor of Austria . . . . 31 May, „ 
 
 Statue of Frederick the Great, by Rauch, inaugu- 
 rated at Berlin 27 May, ,, 
 
 The king revives the council of state as it existed 
 before the revolution of 1848 ... 12 Jan. 1852 
 
 A Prussian industrial exhibition opened at Berlin, 
 
 28 May, „ 
 
 Prussia repudiates a customs' union with Austria, 
 
 7 June, ,, 
 
 But agrees to a commercial treaty . . 19 Feb. 1853 
 
 Democratic plot at Berlin detected . . April, „ 
 
 Death of Radowitz 25 Dec. ,, 
 
 Vacillation of the government upon the Eastern 
 question March and April, 1854 
 
 Agrees to a protocol for preservation of the integrity 
 of Turkey, which is signed at Vienna . 7 April, ,, 
 
 Declares neutrality in the war 6 Sept. and Oct. „ 
 
 Excluded from the conferences at Vienna . Feb. 1855 
 
 Disputes with Switzerland (see Neufchdtel) 
 
 Nov. 1856, to May, 1857 
 
 Alarming illness of the king, the prince of Prussia 
 appointed regent 23 Oct. ,, 
 
 Chevalier Bunsen ennobled . . . Jan. 1858 
 
 Prince Frederick William of Prussia married to the 
 princess royal of England . . . 25 Jan. ,, 
 
 Queen Victoria visits them at Potsdam . 10 Aug. ,, 
 
 Prince of Prussia permanent regent . . 7 Oct. ,, 
 
 Resignation of Manteuffel ministry ; succeeded by 
 that of prince Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (liberal): 
 the elections end in favour of the new government 
 
 Nov. ,, 
 
 Prince Frederick William, son of the princess royal 
 of England, born 27 Jan. 1859 
 
 Italian war — Prussia declares its neutrality, but 
 arms to protect Germany . May and June, „ 
 
 The regent announces that " the Prussian army 
 will be in future the Prussian nation in arms," 
 
 12 Jan. i860 
 
 The regent and several German sovereigns meet 
 the emperor of the French at Baden (see Baden), 
 
 15-17 June, „ 
 
 Baron Bunsen dies (aged 70) . . . 27 Nov. „ 
 
 Disclosures respecting the oppressive system of 
 Prussian police ; Stieber, the director, prosecuted 
 and censured, but not punished . . Nov. „ 
 
 Death of Frederick William IV. Accession of Wil- 
 liam I. 2 Jan^ 1861 
 
 Meeting of the chambers : on the motion for the 
 address, M. von Vincke carries an amendment in 
 favour of Italian Unity and "a firm alliance with 
 England" 6 Feb. ,, 
 
 On 12 Sept. i860, capt. Macdonald was committed 
 to prison at Bonn, for resisting the railway autho- 
 rities there ; the English residents appealed and 
 were censured ; a correspondence ensued between 
 the Prussian government and the British foreign 
 secretary ; and strong language was uttered in 
 the house of commons, 26 April, and in the Prus- 
 sian chambers 6 May, 1861 
 
 The Macdonald affair settled by a firm yet concilia- 
 tory despatch from the Baron von Schleinitz, 
 
 May, „ 
 
 Attempted assassination of the king by Becker, a 
 
 Leipsic student, 14 July ; who is sentenced to 20 
 years' imprisonment .... 23 Sept. 1861 
 
 The king meets the emperor Napoleon at Compiegne 
 
 6-8 Oct. „ 
 
 The king and queen crowned at Konigsberg; he 
 declares that he will reign by the "Grace of 
 God" 18 Oct. 
 
 Bill for making the ministry responsible, passed 
 
 6 March, 1862 
 
 The chamber of representatives oppose the govern- 
 ment in regard to the length of military service, 6 
 March : and resolve on discussing the items of 
 the budget ; the ministry resigns ; the king will 
 not accept the resignation, but dissolves the 
 chambers n March, „ 
 
 The ministry (liberal) resign, and a reactionary 
 cabinet formed under Van der Heydt, 18 March- 
 
 12 April, ,, 
 
 Elections go against the government : only one 
 minister elected May, „ 
 
 Parliament opens ; ministers appeal to the patriotism 
 of the members 19 May, „ 
 
 Severe discussion on military expenditure ; the 
 chamber reduces the vote for the maintenance of 
 the army from 200,000 to 135,000 men n-16 Sept. ,, 
 
 Van der Heydt resigns; succeeded as premier 
 by the count Bismark Schbnhausen, 23 Sept. ; 
 who informs the chamber that the budget is 
 deferred till 1863 ; the chamber protests against 
 this as unconstitutional . . .30 Sept. „ 
 
 The chamber of peers passes the budget without 
 the amendments of the chamber of representa- 
 tives ; which (by 237 against 2) resolves that the 
 act is contrary to the letter and spirit of the con- 
 stitution 11 Oct. „ 
 
 The king closes the session (65th) saying, " The 
 budget for the year 1862, as decreed by the cham- 
 ber of representatives, having been rejected by 
 the chamber of peers on the ground of in- 
 sufficiency, the government is under the necessity 
 of controlling the public affairs outside the con- 
 stitution" 13 Oct. „ 
 
 Agitation in favour of the constitution proceeding ; 
 passive resistance adopted : several liberal papers 
 suppressed Nov. „ 
 
 The chambers reassemble ; uneoneiliatory address 
 from the king, 14 Jan. ; bold reply of the depu- 
 ties ; adopted 23 Jan. 1863 
 
 They recommend neutrality in the Polish war 
 
 28 Feb. „ 
 
 Violent dissension between the deputies and the 
 ministry May, „ 
 
 The chamber of deputies address the king on their 
 relation with the ministry, and the state of the 
 country, 22 May ; the king replies, that his minis- 
 ters possess his confidence, and adjourns the 
 session 27 May, „ 
 
 Resolves to govern without a parliament . . „ 
 
 The press severely restricted, 1 June ; the crown 
 prince in a speech disavows participation in the 
 recent acts of the ministry, 5 June ; and censures 
 them in a letter to the king, 6 July ; reconciled to 
 the king 8 Sept. „ 
 
 The liberal members feted in the provinces 
 
 18, 19 July, ,, 
 
 The chamber of deputies dissolved, 2 Sept. ; a 
 liberal majority re-elected . . . Oct. ,, 
 
 A motion in favour of maintaining the rights of 
 the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, carried 2 
 Dec. ; but the chamber obstinately refused its 
 assent to it or to defray the expenses of war, Dec. ,, 
 
 Chambers dissolved Jan. 1864 
 
 [For the events of the war, see Denmark.'] 
 
 Preliminaries for peace with Denmark 1 Aug. ,, 
 
 Peace with Denmark signed . . 30 Oct. „ 
 
 The opening of the chambers, 14 Jan. ; revival of 
 the constitutional agitation for control over the 
 army budget 16 Jan. 1865, 
 
 International exhibition at Cologne opened by the 
 crown prince 2 June, „ 
 
 The deputies having rejected the budget, the bills 
 for reorganizing the army and increasing the fleet, 
 and meeting the expense of the war with Denmark, 
 the chamber is prorogued ; the government will 
 rule without it 17 June, ,', 
 
 The king at Carlsbad issues a despotic decree ap- 
 propriating and disposing of the revenue, 5 July, „ 
 
 A political dinner of the liberal deputies prohibited 
 
 N N 2 
 
PEUSSIA. 
 
 548 
 
 PEUSSIA. 
 
 at Cologne, and forcibly prevented at Overlahn- 
 
 stein, in Nassau .... 24 July, 
 
 Convention of Gastein, (see Gastrin) signed 14 Aug. 
 Navigation treaty with Great Britain concluded, 
 
 16 Aug. 
 The king takes possession of Lauenburg, purchased 
 
 from Austria with his own money . 15 Sept. 
 Bismarck visits the emperor Napoleon at Biarritz 
 
 Nov. 
 The chambers opened with a supercilious speech 
 
 from M. Bismarck .... 15 Jan. 
 
 The opposing chamber prorogued . 22 Feb. 
 
 Decree asserting Prussian jurisdiction over Holstein 
 
 n March, 
 Prussian circular calling on German states to decide 
 
 whether they will support Austria or Prussia 
 
 (they profess neutrality) . . 24 March, 
 
 Prussia prepares for war ... 27 March, 
 Treaty between Prussia and Italy, said to have been 
 
 concluded 27 March, 
 
 The French government professes neutrality, April, 
 Austria demands the demobilisation of the Prussian 
 
 army, 7 April ; Bismarck proposes a German 
 
 parliament 9 April, 
 
 Great meeting at Berlin in favour of peace, 15 April, 
 Blind's attempt to assassinate Bismarck fails, 
 
 7 May, 
 Recriminatory correspondence between Mensdorff 
 
 (Austrian) and Bismarck, calling for disarmament 
 
 April, May, 
 
 Alliance with Italy May, 
 
 The Prussians enter Holstein ; Austrians retire, 
 
 7 June, 
 Meeting of the Federal diet at Frankfort ; the 
 
 demobilisation of the Prussian army proposed by 
 Austria ; voted for by Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, 
 Hesse Cassel, Nassau, and others ; Prussia 
 declares the Germanic confederation to be dis- 
 solved 14 June, 
 
 Prince Alexander of Hesse appointed to command 
 the Federal army June, 
 
 The Prussians declare war against Hanover and 
 Saxony 15 June, 
 
 Justificatory manifestoes issued by Austria and 
 Prussia 17 June, 
 
 Prussia declares war ; royal manifesto to the people 
 
 18 June, 
 
 The Prussians occupy Hanover and Hesse Cassel, 
 Saxony and Nassau .... 16-20 June, 
 
 The Austrian northern army enters Silesia, 18 June ; 
 joined by the Saxons about . . .19 June, 
 
 Nearly all the northern states join Prussia about 
 
 23 June, 
 
 Prince Frederick Charles and the first army, and 
 the army of the Elbe enter Bohemia, 23 June ; 
 victorious in severe engagements at Liebenau, 
 Turnau, and Podoll, 26 June ; Hiihnewasser, 27 
 June ; Miinchengratz, 28 June ; Gitschin, 22 June, 
 
 The crown prince and the second army (of Silesia) 
 enter Bohemia, 22 June ; repulsed at Trautenau, 
 27 June ; victorious at Soor and Trautenau, 28 
 June ; Koniginhof . . . .29 June, 
 
 The left column of the crown prince's army defeat 
 the Austrians at Nachod, 27 June ; Skalicz, 28 
 June : Schweinschadel ... 29 June 
 
 Fruitless victory of the Hanoverians at Langensalza, 
 27 June ; they capitidate to the Prussians, 
 
 29 June, 
 Communications opened between the two armies, 
 
 30 June, 
 The command assumed by the king . . 1 July, 
 Battle of Koniggratz, or Sadowa ; total defeat of 
 
 the Austrians under Benedek . . 3 July, 
 
 Benedek superseded by the archduke Albreeht, 
 
 8 July, 
 Campaign of the army under Vogel von Falcken- 
 
 stein against the army of the confederation, 
 under princes Charles of Bavaria and Alexander 
 of Hesse ; Prussian victories at Wiesenthal and 
 Dermbach, 4 July ; Hammelburg and Kissengen, 
 
 10 July, 
 
 Advance of the united armies under the king ; 
 cavalry skirmish at Saar ; Austrians retire, 
 
 10 July, 
 
 Prince Frederick Charles enters Briinn, capital of 
 Moravia 12 July, 
 
 Campaign, on the Maine: Prussian victories at 
 Luufach, 13 July, and Aschaffenburg 14 July, 
 
 1865 
 
 1866 
 
 The members of the German diet retire from Frank- 
 fort to Augsburg 13 July, 1866 
 
 Austrians defeated at Tobitschau . . 15 July, ,, 
 
 Frankfort occupied by Falckenstein . . 1 6 July, ,, 
 
 Severe fight at Blumenau stopped by the news of an 
 armistice 22 July, ,, 
 
 Preliminaries of peace signed at Nikolsburg, 
 
 26 July, ,, 
 
 The Prussians occupy Wiesbaden, 18 July ; vic- 
 torious at Tauberbischofsheim, Hochhausen, Wer- 
 bach, 24 July ; Neubrunn, Helmstadt, Gerscheim, 
 25 July ; Wiirzburg, 28 July ; armistice granted, 
 
 30 July, ,, 
 
 The army reviewed by the king fifteen miles from 
 Vienna, 31 July ; begin their return home, 
 
 1 Aug. ,, 
 
 Franconia occupied by the Prussian army of reserve, 
 under the grand duke of Meeklenburg-Schwerin, 
 23 July-i Aug. ; armistices granted 1-3 Aug. ,, 
 
 The diet at Augsburg recognised the dissolution of 
 the Germanic confederation ... 4 Aug. „ 
 
 Bohemia and Moravia cleared by . . 18 Aug. ,, 
 
 The treaty of peace signed at Prague . 23 Aug. ,, 
 
 Meeting of special committee of the chamber of de- 
 puties ; cost of the war stated, 88,000,000 dollars, 
 
 29 Aug. „ 
 
 Peace with Wiirtemburg concluded, 13 Aug. ; with 
 Baden, 17 Aug. ; with Bavaria, 22 Aug. ; with 
 Hesse Darmstadt (ceding Hesse Cassel, Hesse 
 Homburg, <fec.) 3 Sept. ,, 
 
 Formation of the North German confederation (see 
 Germany) Aug. ,, 
 
 Indemnity bill for the ministry ]iassed . 8 Sept. ,, 
 
 Entry of the army into Berlin ; enthusiastic reception, 
 
 20 Sept. ,, 
 
 Decree for the annexation of Hanover, Electoral 
 Hesse, Nassau, and Frankfort . . 20 Sept. ,, 
 
 Possession taken of Hanover, 6 Oct. ; of Hesse, 
 Nassau, and Frankfort .... 8 Oct. ,, 
 
 Treaty of peace with Saxony . . . 21 Oct. ,, 
 
 Electoral law for new German parliament promul- 
 gated at Berlin 23 Oct. ,, 
 
 Prussian chambers reassemble . . .12 Nov. ,, 
 
 Schleswig and Holstein incorporated with Prussia 
 by decree ; promulgated ... 24 Jan. 1867 
 
 Chambers closed 9 Feb. ,, 
 
 North German parliament meet at Berlin, 24 Feb. ; 
 adopt a federal constitution ; closed . 17 April, ,, 
 
 Prussian chambers opened by the king 29 April, „ 
 
 They accept the North German constitution (sacri- 
 ficing Prussian civil rights to German unity), 
 
 8 May, „ 
 
 Luxembourg question settled by a conference at 
 London (see Luxembourg) . . . 7-11 May, „ 
 
 The king visits Paris ; leaves it . . 14 June, ,, 
 
 The Prussian chambers approve North German 
 constitution ; closed by the king . . 24 June, ,, 
 
 The new Prussian parliament opened by the king, 
 
 15 Nov. ,, 
 
 Treaty with the United States respecting naturalisa- 
 tion of aliens signed at Berlin. . . 22 Feb. 1 86& 
 
 The parliament closed .... 29 Feb. ,, 
 
 Much of the king of Hanover's property seques- 
 trated, on account of his maintaining a Hano- 
 verian legion, &c March, ,, 
 
 Prince Napoleon Jerome visits Berlin ; left, March, ,, 
 
 North German parliament opened by the king, 
 
 23 March, ,,. 
 
 Count Bismarck defeated in the North German 
 parliament ; his bill withdrawn . . 22 April, , y 
 
 Kbnig Wilhelm, a noble ironclad, originally con- 
 structed for the sultan by Mr. E. Reed, the chief 
 constructor of the British admiralty, bought by 
 Prussia, launched at Blackwall . . 25 April, ,, 
 
 Customs' parliament at Berlin . 27 April-23 May, ,,. 
 
 21 Hanoverians convicted of incipient treason 
 against Prussia 20 May, ,,. 
 
 Count von Bismarck's temporary retirement through 
 ill-health June, „ 
 
 North German parliament closed by the king, 
 
 20 June, ,,. 
 
 Workmen's congress at Berlin, to promote centrali- 
 sation 26-29 Sept. ,, 
 
 Prussian chamber opened with a pacific speech 
 from the king 4 Nov. ,, 
 
 Opposition in the chambers ; violent speech of the 
 minister, Leonhardt 1 Dec. „ 
 
 Bismarck, recovered, returns to Berlin . 8 Dec. ,, 
 
PRUSSIA. 
 
 549 
 
 PRUSSIC ACID. 
 
 The property of the king of Hanover sequestrated, 
 for his opposition 15 Feb. 1869 
 
 The parliament closed .... 6 March, ,, 
 
 The Prussian army exercised in manosuvring at 
 Stettin, Konigsberg, &c, in presence of the king, 
 
 Sept. „ 
 
 The parliament meet, 6 Oct. ; rejects the proposal 
 for disarmament 21 Oct. „ 
 
 The crown prince visits Vienna . . .7 Oct. „ 
 
 Prince Leopold, of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, con- 
 sents to become candidate for the throne of Spain, 
 
 about 5 July, 1870 
 
 In consequence of the virulent opposition of the 
 French government he, with the king's consent, 
 relinquishes the candidature . . 12 July, „ 
 
 The French government requiring guarantees from 
 the king against the future, the king repulses 
 and declines to receive the French minister, 
 Benedetti, 13 July ; and issues a circular to his 
 representatives at foreign courts . 15 July, ,, 
 
 The emperor of the French declares for war, 
 
 15 July, „ 
 
 The North German parliament meet, and vote to 
 support Prussia 19 July, „ 
 
 Proclamation of the king, granting "amnesty for 
 political offences," and " accepting the battle for 
 the defence of the fatherland," 31 July ; and to the 
 army, undertaking the command of the whole 
 army 3 Aug. „ 
 
 For the events of the war see Franco-Prussian War. 
 
 Order of the "Iron Cross " (distributed in the war 
 of 1813) revived ; given to the crown prince for 
 his victory at Wissembourg on . . . 4 Aug. ,, 
 
 Prussian bishops protest against infallibility of the 
 pope end of Aug. „ 
 
 Great rejoicing at Berlin, &c, at the surrender of 
 the emperor Napoleon ... 3 Sept. „ 
 
 Munich, Stuttgardt, and other southern cities, de- 
 mand union with north Germany . . 6 Sept. „ 
 
 M. Jacoby arrested at Konigsberg by Von Falcken- 
 stein for speaking against the annexation of Alsace 
 and Lorraine .... early in Sept. ,, 
 
 Bestriction on democratic meetings rescinded by 
 gen. Von Falckenstein .... 7 Oct. „ 
 
 Herr Twesten, the liberal opponent of government 
 in the chamber, dies . . . .14 Oct. ,, 
 
 Jacoby and other liberals released by royal decree, 
 
 about 26 Oct. ,, 
 
 Election of new parliament, Nov. ; opened with 
 speech promising internal reforms, 14 Dec. ; aris- 
 tocratic address from the peers congratulating 
 the king as nominated emperor (see Germany), 
 
 21 Dec. „ 
 
 The king proclaimed emperor of Germany at Ver- 
 sailles ...... .18 Jan. 1871 
 
 The Prussian parliament closed . . .17 Feb. ,, 
 
 The emperor arrives at Berlin . . . 17 March, „ 
 
 The new imperial diet opened at Berlin 21 March, ,, 
 
 Bismarck created a prince ... 22 March, „ 
 
 ThejCzar arrives at Berlin ... 8 June, „ 
 
 Triumphal entry of the German army into Berlin ; 
 inauguration of the statue of Frederick William 
 III 16 June, „ 
 
 The bishop of Ermeland excommunicates Dr. Woll- 
 ner for denying the pope's infallibility, 5 July ; 
 similar acts disapproved by the government, 
 
 July, „ 
 
 The imperial prince and princess arrive in London, 
 
 6 July, „ 
 
 Convocation of the evangelical church at Berlin, 
 
 2 Aug. ,, 
 
 Meeting of the parliament . . . 27 Nov. ,, 
 
 Von Mtihler, minister of public instruction, ultra- 
 conservative, forced to resign . . .17 Jan. 1872 
 
 Clerical interference with schools opposed in the 
 parliament 8-10 Feb. „ 
 
 Meeting of German princes at Berlin on the em- 
 peror's birthday .... 22 March, „ 
 
 The new "national conservative party" formed, 
 
 about May, ,, 
 
 Memorial to Von Stein, the statesman (see 1807), 
 at Nassau, inaugurated ... 9 July, „ 
 
 Government disputes with the R. C. clergy sup- 
 porting papal infallibility ; the bishoj) of Erme- 
 land's salary ordered to be suspended, from 1 Oct. „ 
 
 The government defeated in the house of peers on 
 the district administrations bill (145 — 18) (the bill 
 
 would depi'ive the peers of power in the provinces 
 by granting representatives to the peasants in the 
 local assemblies) . . . . . 31 Oct. 1872 
 
 The parliamentary session closed, 1 Nov. ; re- 
 opened, government firm ... 12 Nov. 
 
 24 new peers created 2 Dec. 
 
 The principle of the bill passed by the peers 
 (114—87) 7 Dec. 
 
 Bismarck resigns the presidency , continues the 
 foreign department ; announced . . 18 Dec. 
 
 Count Roon to be chairman of the ministry Dec. 
 
 Declaration of the R. C. archbishops of Cologne 
 and Posen against proposed legislation on church 
 affairs Feb. 1873 
 
 Subjection of the church to the state affirmed by 
 the legislature .... 12 March, „ 
 
 Margraves, Electors, Dukes, and Kings, 
 margraves or electors of brandenburg. 
 1134. Albert I., surnamed the Bear, first elector of Bran- 
 denburg. 
 1 1 70. Otho I. 
 1184. Otho II. 
 1206. Albert II. 
 1221. John I. and Otho III. 
 1266. John II. 
 1282. Otho IV. 
 1309. Waldemar. 
 
 1319. Henry I. the Young. 
 
 1320. [Interregnum.] 
 1323. Louis I. of Bavaria. 
 1352. Louis II. the Roman. 
 1365. Otho V. the Sluggard. 
 1373. Wenceslas, of Luxemburg. 
 1378. Sigismund, of Luxemburg. 
 1388. Jossus, the Bearded. 
 
 141 1. Sigismund again, emperor. 
 
 1415. Frederick I. of Nuremberg (of the house of Hohen- 
 
 zollern). 
 1440. Frederick II., surnamed Ironside. 
 1470. Albert III. surnamed the German Achilles. 
 1476. John III. his son ; as margrave ; styled the Cicero 
 
 of Germany. 
 i486. John III. as elector. 
 1499. Joachim I. son of John. 
 1535. Joachim II. poisoned by a Jew. 
 1571. John-George. 
 1598. Joachim-Frederick. 
 1608. John-Sigismund. 
 
 DUKES OF PRUSSIA. 
 
 John-Sigismund. 
 George-William. 
 Frederick-William, his son ; generally styled the 
 
 "Great Elector." 
 Frederick III., son of the preceding ; crowned king, 
 
 18 Jan. 1 701. 
 
 KINGS OF PRUSSIA. 
 
 Frederick I. ; king ; died. 
 
 Frederick-William I., son of Frederick I. 
 
 Frederick II. (or Frederick III. ; styled the Great), 
 son ; made Prussia a military power. 
 
 Frederick-William II, nephew of the preceding 
 king. 
 
 Frederick-William III. (he had to contend against 
 the might of Napoleon, and after extraordinary 
 vicissitudes, he aided England in his overthrow), 
 died 7 June, 1840. 
 
 Frederick- William IV., son ; born 15 Oct. 1795 ; 
 died, 2 Jan. 1861. 
 
 William I., brother (born, 22 March, 1797); pro- 
 claimed emperor of Germany at Versailles, 18 Jan. 
 1871) ; married princess Augusta of Saxe-Weimar, 
 11 June, 1829. 
 
 Heir: his son, Frederick- William ; born 18 Oct. 
 1831 ; married Victoria, princess-royal of Eng- 
 land, 25 Jan. 1858. 
 
 Issue : Frederick- William ; born 27 Jan. 1859 : twa 
 other sons, and four daughters. 
 
 PRUSSIC ACID (hydrocyanic acid), acci- 
 dentally discovered by Diesbach, a German chemist, 
 in 1709, and first obtained in a separate state by 
 Scheele about 1782. It is colourless, smells like 
 peach flowers, freezes at 5° Fahrenheit, is very 
 volatile, and turns vegetable blues into red. Simple 
 water distilled from the leaves of the lauro-cerasus 
 
 1618. 
 1619. 
 1640. 
 
 1701. 
 i7!3- 
 
 1740. 
 
 1040. 
 1861. 
 
PEUTH. 
 
 550 
 
 PUNJAB. 
 
 first ascertained to be a most deadly poison by Dr. 
 Madden of Dublin. 
 
 PEUTH, a river in Moldavia, the boundary of 
 Turkey. The Eussians crossed it 2 July, 1853, aim 
 war ensued. 
 
 PBYTANIS, a magistrate of Corinth, annually 
 elected from 745 b.c. till the office was abolished by 
 Cypselus, a despot, 655 B.C. 
 
 PSALMS OF DAVID were collected by 
 Solomon, 1000 b.c. ; others added 580 and 515 B.C. 
 The Church of England Old Version in metre by 
 Sternhold and Hopkins was published in 1562 ; the 
 New Version by Tate and Brady in 1698. Many 
 versions since published. 
 
 PSEUDOSCOPE (from pseudos, false), a 
 name given by professor AVheatstone (in 1852) to 
 the stereoscope, when employed to produce '' con- 
 versions of relief," i.e., the reverse of the stereo- 
 scope : a terrestrial globe appears like a hollow 
 hemisphere. 
 
 PSYCHIC FOECE, see Spiritualism. 
 
 PSYCHEOMETEE (from psychros, cold), an 
 apparatus for measuring the amount of elastic 
 vapour in the atmosphere ; invented by Guy Lussac 
 (died 1850), and modified by Eegnault (about 1848). 
 An electric psychrometer was described by Edmond 
 Becquerel, 4 Feb. 1867. 
 
 PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM. Claudius Ptolemy 
 of Pelusium, in Egypt (about a.d. 140), supposed 
 that the earth was fixed in the centre of the uni- 
 verse, and that the sun, moon, and stars moved 
 round once in twenty-four hours. The system (long 
 the official doctrine of the church of Eome) was uni- 
 versally taught till that of Pythagoras (500 B.C.) 
 was revived by Copernicus, a.d. 1530, and demon- 
 strated by Kepler (1619) and Newton (1687). 
 
 PUBLICANS, farmers of the state revenues 
 of Eome. Soon after the battle of Cannae they were 
 so wealthy as to be able to advance large sums to 
 the government, payable at the end of the war. No 
 magistrate was permitted to be a publican. 
 
 PUBLIC BATHS, &c., see Baths, Education, 
 Health. 
 
 PUBLIC GOOD, see Leagues. 
 
 PUBLIC HEALTH ACT, passed 10 Aug. 
 
 1872. ° 
 
 PUBLIC HOUSES, see Victuallers. 
 
 PUBLIC LIBEAEIES ACTS, passed i8« 
 and 1871. •" 
 
 PUBLIC SAFETY, Committee of, was 
 
 established at Paris during the French Eevolution 
 on 6 April, 1793, with absolute power, in conse- 
 quence of the coalition against France. The severe 
 government of this committee is termed the Eeign 
 of Terror, which ended with the execution of Eobes- 
 pierre and his associates, 28 July, 1794. A similar 
 committee was established at Paris by the com- 
 munists, March-May, 1871. 
 
 PUBLIC SCHOOLS ACT, 1868, amended 
 by acts passed 1870 and 1872 ; see Education. 
 
 PUBLIC WOEKS ACT, passed 21 July, 
 1863, to provide work for the unemployed persons 
 in the manufacturing districts at the time of the 
 cotton famine. It enabled corporate bodies to raise 
 loans, and proved very successful. It was continued 
 m 1864 and 1867. 
 
 PUBLIC WOEKS and BUILDINGS. 
 
 The sum voted for this purpose in 1862 was 
 692,215/. ; in 1863, 893,523/. ; in 1864, 867,518/. ; 
 in 1865, 199,1701. ; in 1867, 942,535^- 
 
 PUDDLING, making the walls of canals 
 water-tight by means of clay, was largely adopted 
 by Brindley in constructing the Bridge water canals, 
 1 761 et seq. ; see also under Iron Manufacture. 
 
 PUEBLA, see Mexico, 1863. 
 
 PUGILISM, see Boxing. 
 
 PULLEY, vice, and other mechanical instru- 
 ments, are said to have been invented by Archytas 
 of Tarentum, about 400 B.C., or by Archimedes, 
 287-212. In a single moveable pulley the power 
 gained is doubled : in a continued combination the 
 power is equal to the number of pulleys, less one, 
 doubled. 
 
 PULTOWA (Eussia), where Charles XII. of 
 Sweden was entirely defeated by Peter the Great 
 of Eussia, 8 July, 1 709. He fled to Bender, in 
 
 Turkey. 
 
 PULTUSK (Eussia), where a battle was fought 
 between the Saxons, under their king Augustus, and 
 the Swedes, under Charles XII., in which the 
 former were signally defeated, 1 May, 1703. Here 
 also the French under Napoleon fought the Eussian 
 and Prussian armies : both sides claimed the victory, 
 but it inclined in favour of the French, 26 Dec. 
 1806. 
 
 PUMPS. Ctesibius of Alexandria is said to 
 have invented pumps (with other hydraulic instru- 
 ments), about 224 B.C., although the invention is 
 ascribed to Danaus, at Lindus, 1485 b.c Pumps 
 were in general use in England, a.d. 1425. An in- 
 scription on the pump in front of the late Eoyal 
 Exchange, London, stated that the well was sunk 
 in 1282. The air-pump was invented by Otto 
 Guericke in 1654, an d improved by Boyle in 1657 ; 
 see Air and Wells. 
 
 PUNCH, the puppet show, borrowed from the 
 Italian Polichinello, is descended from a character 
 well known in the theatres of ancient Eome. Fos- 
 broke. The satirical weekly publication, Punch, or 
 the London Charivari, was established by Henry 
 Mayhew, Mark Lemon, Douglas Jerrold, Gilbert 
 'a Becket, and others: first published 17 July, 1841. 
 Mark Lemon, the first editor, died 23 May, 1870. 
 See Caricatures. 
 
 PUNCTUATION. The ancients do not ap- 
 pear to have had any system. The period (.) is the 
 most ancient ; the colon (:) was introduced about 
 1485 ; the comma (,) was first seen about 1521, and 
 the semicolon (;) about 1570. In sir Philip Sid- 
 ney's "Arcadia" (1587), they all appear, as well as 
 the note of interrogation (?), asterisk (*), and 
 parentheses (). 
 
 PUNIC WAES, see Carthage, 264 b.c. 
 
 PUNISHMENTS, see Beheading, Blinding, 
 Boiling, Death, Drowning, Flogging, and Poison- 
 ing. 
 
 PUNJAB (N. "W. Hindostan) was traversed by 
 Alexander the Great, 327 b.c. ; by Tamerlane, 
 a.d. 1398 ; by Mahmoud of Ghizni, about 1000. It 
 was an independent state under Bunjeet Sing, 
 1791-1839. Our wars with the Sikhs began here, 
 14 Dec. 1845, and were closed on 29 March, 1849, 
 when the Punjab was annexed ; see India. The 
 Punjab has since greatly flourished, and on 1 Jan. 
 
PUPPETS. 
 
 551 PYTHAGOEEAN PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 1859, was made a distinct presidency (to include the 
 Sutlej states and the Delhi territory) ; see Durbar. 
 
 PUPPETS (Italian, puppi ; French, marion- 
 nettes), of which the eyes, arms, &c, were moved by 
 strings, were used by the ancients, and are men- 
 tioned by Xenophon, Horace, and others. Skilful 
 theatrical performances with puppets have been 
 several times exhibited in London (at the Ade- 
 laide gallery, 1852). A performance with pup- 
 pets as large as life, began at St. James' s-hall, 
 July, 1872. M. Ch. Magnin published a " Sistoire 
 des Ma?*ionnettes," 1852. 
 
 PUECHASE SYSTEM in the army. The 
 payment of a present or gratuity for a commission 
 Avas prohibited by "William III., 1693 ; butin 1702 pur- 
 chase was legally re-organised. In 1711 the sale of 
 commissions was forbidden without the royal permis- 
 sion ; in 1719-20 regulations were issued, and a 
 fixed scale of prices was adopted in consequence of 
 a commission in 1765. Large over-regulation pay- 
 ments continued to be paid. Commissions of inquiry 
 were held frequently since 1858 ; and in 1871 the 
 system was abolished, with compensation, by royal 
 warrant, 20 July, 1871, the bill for the purpose 
 having been rejected by the house of lords. 
 
 PUEGATIVES of the mild species (aperients), 
 particularly cassia, manna, and senna, are ascribed 
 to Actuarius, a Greek physician, 1245. 
 
 PUEGATOEY, the middle place between 
 heaven and hell, where, it is believed by the Eoman 
 catholics, the soul passes through the fire of purifi- 
 cation before it enters the kingdom of God. The 
 doctrine was known about 250 ; was introduced into 
 the Roman church in the 5th century, and made a 
 religious dogma by Gregory I., 590-604. It was 
 first set forth by a council at Florence, 1439 ; en- 
 forced by the council of Trent, Dec. 1563 ; see In- 
 dulgences. 
 
 PURIFICATION, after childbirth, was or- 
 dained by the Jewish law, 1490 B.C. {Lev. xii.) ; see 
 Churching. The feast of the purification was insti- 
 tuted, 542, in honour of the Virgin Mary's going to 
 the temple. {Luke ii.) Pope Sergius I. ordered 
 the procession with wax tapers, whence Candlemas- 
 day. 
 
 PURITANS, the name, first given, it is said, 
 about 1564, to persons who aimed at greater purity 
 of doctrine, holiness of living, and stricter discipline 
 than others. They withdrew from the established 
 church, professing to follow the word of God alone, 
 and maintaining that the church retained many 
 human inventions and popish superstitions; see 
 Cathari, Nonconformists, and Presbyterianism. 
 
 PUEPLE, a mixed tinge of scarlet and blue, 
 discovered at Tyre. It is said to have been found 
 by a dog's having by chance eaten a shell fish, 
 called murex, or purpura ; upon returning to his 
 master, Hercules Tyrius, he observed his lips tinged, 
 and made use of the discovery. Purple was anciently 
 used by the princes and great men for their gar- 
 ments. It was restricted to the emperor by 
 Justinian I. 532, and porphyrogenitus attached to 
 the names of some emperors signifies "born to the 
 purple." 
 
 PUEVEYANCE, an ancient prerogative of 
 the sovereigns of England of purcnasing provisions, 
 &c, without the consent of the owners, led to much 
 oppression. It was regulated by Magna Charta, 
 121 15, and other statutes, and was only surrendered 
 by Charles II. in 1660, for a compensation. 
 
 PUSEYISM, a name attached to the views of 
 certain clergymen and lay members of the church 
 of England, who proposed to restore the practice of 
 the church of England to what that they believed 
 to be required by the language of her Liturgy and 
 Rubrics, but which were considered by their oppo- 
 nents to be of a Romish tendency. The term was 
 derived from the name of the professor of Hebrew 
 at Oxford, Dr. Pusey. The heads of houses of the 
 university of Oxford passed resolutions censuring 
 Dr. Pusey' s attempts to renew practices which are 
 now obsolete, 15 March, 1841 ; and his celebrated 
 sermon was condemned by the same body, 30 May, 
 1843 ; see Tractarians, and Ritualism. 
 
 PYDNA (Macedon), where Perseus, the last 
 king of Macedon, was defeated and made prisoner 
 by the Romans, commanded by iEmilius Paulus, 22 
 June, 168 B.C. 
 
 PYEAMLDS OF EGYPT. The three princi- 
 pal are situated on a rock, at the foot of some high 
 mountains which bound the Nile. The first 
 building commenced, it is supposed, about 1500 B.C. 
 The greatest is said to have been erected by Cheops, 
 1082 B.C., but earlier dates are assigned. The 
 largest, near Gizeh, is 461 feet in perpendicular 
 height, with a platform on the top 32 feet square, 
 and the length of the base is 746 feet. It occupies 
 about twelve acres of ground, and is constructed of 
 stupendous blocks of stone. There are many other 
 smaller pyramids to the south of these. They have 
 been visited and described by Belzoni, 1815 ; Vyse, 
 1836 ; C. Piazzi Smyth, and others. — The battles of 
 the Pyramids, when Bonaparte defeated the Mame- 
 lukes, and thus subdued Lower Egypt, took place 
 13 and 21 July, 1798 ; see Pgypt. 
 
 PYEENEES. After the battle of Vittoria 
 (fought 21 June, 1813), Napoleon sent Soult to super- 
 sede Jourdan, with instructions to drive the allies 
 across the Ebro; Soultretreatedinto France with aloss 
 of more than 20,000 men, having been defeated by 
 Wellington in a series of engagements from 25 July 
 to 2 Aug. One at the Pyrenees on 28 July. A 
 railway through the Pyrenees (from Bilbao to 
 Miranda) was opened 21 Aug. 1862. — The Peace 
 of the Pyrenees was concluded between France 
 and Spain, by cardinal Mazarin, for the French 
 king, and don Louis de Haro, on the part of Spain, 
 in the island of Pheasants, on the Bidassoa. By 
 this treaty Spain yielded Roussillon, Artois, and her 
 right to Alsace ; and France ceded her conquests in 
 Catalonia, Italy, &c, and engaged not to assist 
 Portugal, 7 Nov. 1659. 
 
 PYEOMETEE (fire-measurer), an apparatus 
 employed to ascertain the temperature of furnaces, 
 &c, where thermometers cannot be employed; 
 Muschenbroek's pyrometer (a metallic bar) was 
 described by him in 1731. Improvements were 
 made by EUicott and others. Wedgwood employed 
 clay cylinders, 1782-6. In 1830 professor Daniell 
 received the Rumford medal for an excellent pyro-' 
 meter made in 182 1. Mr. Ericsson's pyrometer 
 appeared in the Great Exhibition of 1 851. {Eng. 
 Cyc.) Mr. C. W. Siemens employed electric resist- 
 ance in his pyrometers, exhibited in 1871. 
 
 PYEOXYLIN, the chemical name of Gun 
 Cotton {which see). 
 
 PYEEHONISM, see Sceptics. 
 
 PYTHAGOEEAN PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 Pythagoras, of Samos, head of the Italic sect, 
 flourished about 555 B.C. He is said to have taught 
 the doctrine of metempaychosis, or transmigration 
 
PYTHIAN GAMES. 
 
 552 
 
 QUAKERS. 
 
 of the soul from one body to another, forbidden his 
 disciples to eat flesh and beans, invented the multi- 
 plication table, improved geometry, and taught the 
 present system of astronomy. 
 
 PYTHIAN GAMES, in honour of Apollo, 
 near the temple of Delphi ; asserted to have been 
 instituted by himself, in commemoration of his 
 victory over the serpent, Python. Also said to have 
 been established by Agamemnon, or Diomedes, or 
 Amphictyon, or lastly, by the council of the 
 Amphictyons, 1263 B.C. They lasted till 394. 
 
 PYX, the casket in which Catholic priests keep 
 the consecrated wafer. In the ancient chapel of the 
 
 pyx, at Westminster abbey, are deposited the 
 standard pieces of gold and silver, under the joint 
 custody of the lords of the treasury and the comp- 
 troller-general. The " trial of the pyx" signifies 
 the verification by a jury of goldsmiths of the 
 coins deposited in the pyx or chest by the master of 
 the mint; this took place on 17 July, 1861, at the 
 exchequer office, Old Palace-yard, in the presence 
 of twelve privy councillors, twelve goldsmiths, and 
 others, and on 15 Feb. 1870. This trial is said to have 
 been ordered in the reign of Henry II., 1154-89; 
 King James was present at one in 161 1. The first 
 annual trial of the pyx, appointed by the Coinage 
 act of 1870, took place 18 July, 1871. 
 
 Q. 
 
 QUACKERY. Quack medicines were taxed 
 in 1783 et seq. An inquest was held on the body of 
 a young lady, Miss Cashin, whose physician "St. 
 John Long, was afterwards tried for manslaughter, 
 21 Aug. 1830; he was found guilty, and sentenced 
 to pay a fine of 250/., 30 Oct. following. He was 
 tried tor manslaughter in the case of Mrs. Catherine 
 Lloyd, and acquitted, 19 Feb. 1831. Dr. Vries, 
 "the black doctor," a professed cancer-curer, at 
 Paris, was condemned to fifteen months' imprison- 
 ment as an impostor in Jan. i860; see Homoeopathy 
 and Hydropathy. 
 
 QUADRAGESIMA SUNDAY, first Sun- 
 day in Lent and 40th before Good Friday; see Lent, 
 and Quinquagesima. 
 
 QUADRANT, a mathematical instrument in 
 the form of a quarter of a circle. The solar quad- 
 rant was introduced about 290 B.C. The Arabian 
 astronomers under the caliphs, in 995, had a quad- 
 rant of 21 feet 8 inches radius, and a sextant 57 feet 
 9 inches radius. Davis's quadrant for measuring 
 angles was produced about 1600; Hadley's quadrant 
 about 1 73 1 ; see Navigation. 
 
 QUADRILATERAL or Quadrangle, 
 
 terms applied to four strong fortresses in N. Italy, 
 long held by the Austrinns, but surrendered to the 
 Italians, Oct. 1866;— Peschiera, on an island in the 
 Mincio ; Mantua on the Mincio ; Verona and Leg- 
 nago, both on the Adige ; see Italy, Peschiera, &c. 
 
 QUADRILLE, a dance, was introduced into 
 this country about 1808 (Miss Berry), and was 
 made popular by the duke of Devonshire and others, 
 in 1813. Raikes. 
 
 QUADRIVIUM, see Arts. 
 
 QUADRUPLE ALLIANCE. That be- 
 tween Great Britain, France, and the emperor 
 (signed at London, 22 July, 1 7 18) ; on the accession 
 of the states of Holland, 8 Feb. 1719, obtained its 
 name. It guaranteed the succession of the reign- 
 ing families of Great Britain and France, settled 
 the partition of the Spanish monarchy, and led to 
 war. 
 
 QUADRUPLE TREATY, concluded in 
 Loudon 22 April, 1834, by the representatives of 
 Great Britain, PVance, Spain, and Portugal, gua- 
 ranteed the possession of her throne to Isabella II., 
 the young queen of Spain. 
 
 QUJESTOR, in ancient Rome, had the man- 
 agement of the public treasure; appointed about 
 484 B.C. It was the first office any person could 
 
 bear in the commonwealth, and gave a right to sit 
 in the senate. At first there were two quaestors, 
 afterwards eight. Two were added in 409 B.C. 
 Sylla raised the number to twenty ; Julius Caesar 
 to forty. Two were called Peregrini, two (for the 
 city) Urban i. 
 
 QUAKERS or Society of Feiends, origin- 
 ally called Seekers, from their seeking the truth, 
 and afterwards Friends (3 John 14). Justice Ben- 
 net, of Derby, gave the society the name of Quakers 
 in 1650, because George Fox (the founder) admon- 
 ished him and those present to quake at the word 
 of the Lord. This sect was commenced in England 
 about 1646, by George Fox (then aged 22), who 
 was joined by George Keith, William Penn, and 
 Robert Barclay, of Dry, and others. Fox rejected 
 all religious ordinances, explained away the com- 
 mands relative to baptism, &c. ; discarded the 
 ordinary names of days and months, and used thee 
 and thou for you, as more consonant with truth. 
 He published a book of instructions for teachers and 
 professors, and died 13 Jan. 1691. The first meet- 
 ing-house in London was in White Hart-court, 
 Gracechurch-street. 
 
 The Quakers early suffered grievous persecutions. At 
 Boston, U.S., where the first Friends who arrived were 
 females, they (even females) were cruelly scourged, and 
 had their ears cut off; some nut to death. 
 In 1659 they stated in parliament that 2000 Friends had 
 endured sufferings and imprisonment in Newgate : and 
 164 Friends ottered themselves at this time, by name, 
 to government, to be imprisoned in lieu of an equal 
 number in danger (from confinement) of death, 1659. 
 Fifty-five (out of 120 sentenced) were transported to 
 
 America, by an order of council, 1664. 
 The masters of vessels refusing to carry them for some 
 months, an embargo was laid on West India ships, 
 when a mercenary wretch was at length found for the 
 service. The Friends would not walk on board, nor 
 would the sailors hoist them into the vessel, and sol- 
 diers from the Tower were employed. In 1665, the 
 vessel sailed ; but it was immediately captured by the 
 Dutch, who liberated twenty-eight of the prisoners in 
 Holland, the rest having died of the plague. Few 
 reached America. 
 
 First meeting of Quakers in Ireland in Dublin in 
 1658 ; and their first meeting-house there was 
 opened in Eustace-street 1692 
 
 The solemn affirmation of Quakers enacted to be 
 taken in all cases in the courts below, wherein 
 oaths are required from other subjects (see Affir- 
 mation) . . , 1696 
 
 William Penn, with a company of Friends, colon- 
 ised Philadelphia 1682 
 
 John Arehdale, a Quaker, elected M.P. for Chipping 
 Wycombe ; refused to take the oaths, and his 
 election was declared void 1699 
 
 Quakers emancipated their negro slaves . 1 Jan. 1788 
 
QUALIFICATION. 
 
 553 
 
 QUEEN CHAELOTTE. 
 
 Joseph Pease, a Quaker, was admitted to parliament 
 on his affirmation .... 15 Feb. 1833 
 
 The Quakers had in England 413 meeting-houses in 
 1800, and 372 in 1872 
 
 At a conference it was agreed to recommend that 
 mixed marriages should be permitted, and that 
 many of the peculiarities of the sect in speech and 
 costume should be abandoned (which has been 
 done) 2 Nov. 1858 
 
 An act passed rendering valid Quaker marriages 
 when only one of the persons is a Quaker May, i860 
 
 The Quakers publish an address deprecating the 
 continuance of the war . . . . Jan. 1871 
 
 QUALIFICATION fob Office Aboli- 
 tion ACT, passed May, 1866, rendered it unneces- 
 sary to make and subscribe certain declarations. 
 
 QUAEANTINE: the custom observed at 
 Venice as early as 1127, whereby all merchants and 
 others coming from the Levant were obliged to 
 remain in the house of St. Lazarus, or the Lazar- 
 etto, forty days before they were admitted into the 
 city. Various southern cities have now lazarettos ; 
 that of Venice is built in the water. In the times 
 of plague, England and all other nations oblige 
 those that come from the infected places to perform 
 quarantine with their ships, &c, a longer or shorter 
 time, as may be judged most safe. Quarantine acts 
 were passed in 1753 and in 1825. By order of coun- 
 cil, 10 Nov. 1866, foreign cattle were made subject 
 to quarantine. 
 
 QUAETEE SESSIONS were established, 
 25 £dw. III. 1350- 1. The days of sitting were 
 appointed, 2 Hen. V. 1413. In 1830 it was en- 
 acted that quarter sessions of the peace should be 
 held in the first week after 11 Oct., 28 Dec, 31 
 March, and 24 June. 
 
 QUAETEELY EEVIE W, the organ of the 
 Tory party, first appeared in Feb. 1809, under the 
 editorship of William Gifford, the celebrated trans- 
 lator of " Juvenal." He died 31 Dec. 1826. 
 
 QUASI MODO, a name given to Loio Sunday 
 (the first Sunday after Easter) from the commence- 
 ment of a. hymn sung on that day. 
 
 QUATEE-BEAS (Belgium). Here on 16 
 June, 1815, two days before the battle of Waterloo, 
 a battle was fought between the British and allied 
 army under the duke of Brunswick, the prince of 
 Orange, and sir Thomas Picton, and the French 
 under marshal Ney. The British fought with re- 
 markable intrepidity, notwithstanding their inferi- 
 ority in number, and their fatigue through march- 
 ing all the preceding night. The 42nd regiment 
 (Royal Highlanders) suffered severely in pursuit of 
 a French division by cuirassiers posted in ambush 
 behind growing corn. The duke of Brunswick was 
 killed. 
 
 QUEBEC (Lower Canada), was founded by the 
 French in 1608. 
 
 Quebec reduced by the English, with all Canada, in 
 
 1629, but restored 1632 
 
 Besieged by the English, but without success . 1711 
 Conquered by them after a battle memorable for the 
 death of general Wolfe in the moment of victory, 
 and of the French general Montcalm 13 Sept. 1759 
 Besieged in vain by the American provincials, under 
 general Montgomery, who was slain . 31 Dec. 1775 
 
 Bishopric established 1793 
 
 Public and private stores and several wharfs de- 
 stroyed by fire ; the loss estimated at upwards of 
 
 260,000? Sept. 1815 
 
 Awful fire, 1650 houses, the dwellings of 12,000 per- 
 sons, burnt to the ground . . .28 May, 1845 
 Another great fire, 1365 houses burnt . 28 June, ,, 
 Fire at the theatre, 50 lives lost . . 12 Jan. 1846 
 
 Quebec made the seat of government . 17 April, 1856 
 Visited by the prince of Wales . . 18-23 Aug. i860 
 Great fire in French quarter ; 2500 houses and 17 
 churches destroyed, and nearly 20,000 persons 
 
 made homeless 14 Oct. 1866 
 
 Great fire ; 500 houses burnt ... 24 May, 1870 
 Lieut. -governor of Quebec (formerly Canada East or 
 Lower Canada), sir Narcisse F. Belleau . . 1867 
 (See Canada and Montreal.) 
 
 QUEEN (Saxon, cwen; German, koniginn). 
 The first woman invested Avith sovereign authority 
 was Semiramis, queen of Assyria, 2017 B.C. In 
 1554 an act was passed " declaring that the regall 
 power of this realme is in the quenes majestie 
 [Mary] as fully and absolutely as ever it was in 
 any of her moste noble progenitours kinges of this 
 realme." The Hungarians called a queen-regnant 
 king; see Hungary. John Knox's "Monstrous 
 Regiment of Women," published 1555, against 
 Mary queen of Scots, greatly offended Elizabeth of 
 England. 
 
 QUEEN ANNE'S BOUNTY, established 
 by her in Nov. 1703, being the first fruits with the 
 tenths, to increase the incomes of the poorer clergy. 
 There were 5597 clerical livings under 50^. per 
 annum found by the commissioners under the act of 
 Anne capable of augmentation. Chalmers. Act to 
 consolidate the offices of first fruits, tenths, and 
 queen Anne's Bounty, passed 1 Vict. 1838. 
 
 QUEEN ANNE'S FAETHINGS- The 
 
 popular stories of the great value of this coin are 
 fabulous, although some few of particular dates 
 have been purchased by persons at high prices. 
 The current farthing, with the broad brim, when 
 in fine preservation, is worth il. The common 
 patterns of 1713 and 1714 are worth il. The two 
 patterns with Britannia under a canopy, and Peace 
 on a car, B, e, b, are worth 2I. 2s. each. The 
 pattern with Peace in a car is more valuable and 
 rare, and worth $1. Pinherton (died 1826). 
 
 QUEEN CAEOLINE'S TEIAL, &c. 
 
 Caroline Amelia Elizabeth, second daughter of 
 Charles William Ferdinand, duke of Brunswick, 
 born 17 May, 1768; married to George, prince of 
 Wales 8 April, 
 
 Their daughter, princess Charlotte, born 7 Jan. 
 
 The "Delicate Investigation" (which see) 22 May, 
 
 Charges against her again disproved 
 
 The princess embarks for the continent . Aug. 
 
 Becomes queen, 20 Jan. ; arrives in England, 
 
 6 June, 
 
 A secret committee in the house of lords, appointed 
 to examine papers on charges of incontinence, 
 
 8 June, 
 
 Bill of pains and penalties introduced by lord 
 Liverpool 5 July, 
 
 The queen removes to Brandenburg-house 3 Aug. 
 
 Receives an address from the married ladies of the 
 metropolis (and many others afterwards) 16 Aug. 
 
 Her trial commences .... 19 Aug. 
 
 Last debate on the bill of pains and penalties, when 
 the report was approved by 108 against 99 ; the 
 numerical majority of nine being produced by the 
 votes of the ministers themselves. Lord Liver- 
 pool moves that the bill be reconsidered that day 
 six months 10 Nov. 
 
 Great public exultation ; illuminations for three 
 nights in London . . .10, 11, 12 Nov. 
 
 The queen goes to St. Paul's in state . 29 Nov. 
 
 She protests against her exclusion from the corona- 
 tion, 18 July ; taken ill at Drury-lane theatre, 
 
 30 July, 
 
 Dies at Hammersmith .... 7 Aug. „ 
 
 Her remains removed on their route to Brunswick ; 
 an alarming riot occurs ; two persons were killed 
 in an affray with the guards . . 14 Aug. „ 
 
 QUEEN CHAELOTTE Ship of "War, 
 a first-rate ship of the line, of no guns, the flag- 
 
 1795 
 1796 
 1806 
 1813 
 1814 
 
 1820 
 
 [82r 
 
QUEEN'S ADVOCATE. 
 
 554 
 
 QUININE. 
 
 ship of lord Keith, then commanding in chief in 
 the Mediterranean, was burnt by an accidental fire, 
 off the harbour of Leghorn, and more than 700 
 British seamen out of a crew of 850 perished by fire 
 or drowning, 17 March, 1800. 
 
 QUEEN'S ADVOCATE, prosecutes or de- 
 fends on the part of the crown in all cases in the 
 court of admiralty. Sir E. J. Phillimore, ap- 
 pointed in 1862, was succeeded by sir Travers 
 Twiss, Aug. 1867, who resigned in March, 1872 ; 
 no successor appointed, 1873. 
 
 QUEEN'S BENCH COUET and PEI- 
 SON, see King's Bench. 
 
 QUEEN'S COLLEGES, see Cambridge and 
 
 Oxford. Queen's colleges, Ireland, from their un- 
 sectarian character termed the " Godless Colleges," 
 were instituted in 1845, to afford education of the 
 highest order to all religious denominations. They 
 were placed at Belfast, Cork, and Galway ; the last 
 was opened on 30 Oct. 1849. —The " Queen's Uni- 
 versity in Ireland," comprehending these colleges, 
 was founded by patent, 15 Aug. 1850; the earl of 
 Clarendon, lord lieutenant, the first chancellor. 
 These were ''condemned" by the Propaganda and 
 the pope, and by a majority (a small one) of the 
 Irish bishops in a synod held at Thurles, in Sept. 
 1850. A supplemental charter, granted in June, 
 1806, created much dissension when acted upon in 
 October following, and was suffered to expire, 31 
 Jan. 1868; see Colleges. 
 
 QUEENSLAND, Moreton-bay, Australia, 
 now including the "plains of promise," Carpen- 
 taria, established as a colony, Dec. 1859; admiral 
 sir George F. Bowen governor, and Brisbane, 'the 
 capital, a bishopric. Population in Dec. 1859, 
 23,450; in 1865, about 90,000; in 1868, 106,922. 
 Its chief productions are sugar, cotton, and tobacco. 
 Governor Blackall sworn in, Aug. 1868 ; the 
 marquis of Normandy appointed governor, Jan. 
 1871. 
 
 QUEENS OF ENGLAND, see under Eng- 
 land, p. 242. 
 
 QUEEN'S THEATEE, see Opera House. 
 
 QUEENSTOWN (Upper Canada) This town, 
 on the river Niagara, was taken in the war with 
 America by the troops of the United States, 13 Oct. 
 1812 ; but was retaken by the British forces, who 
 defeated the Americans with considerable loss in 
 killed, wounded, and prisoners, on the same day. 
 Queenstown suffered severely in this war. — The 
 Cove of Cork was named Queenstown, 3 Aug. 1849, 
 by the queen on her visit. 
 
 QUEEN'S UNIVEESITY, see Queen's 
 Colleges. 
 
 QUEEN VICTOEIA Steam Ship. 
 "Wrecked 15 Feb. 1853; see Wrecks. 
 
 QUENTIN ST. (N. France). The duke of 
 Savoy, with the army of Philip II. of Spain, as- 
 sisted by the English, defeated the French under 
 the constable De Montmorency, at St. Quentin, 10 
 Aug. 1557. In fulfilment of a vow made before 
 the engagement, the king built the monastery, 
 palace, &c, the Escurial, considered by the Span- 
 iards the eighth wonder of the world ; see Escurial. 
 Duringthe r ranco-German warthearmyof thenorth, 
 under Faidherbe, was defeated here by the Ger- 
 mans after seven hours' fighting, on 19 Jan. 187 1 ; 
 total loss about 15,000 : the German loss about 
 3100. 
 
 QUEEETAEO (Mexico), was besieged and 
 taken (through the treachery of Lopez) by the 
 liberal general Escobedo, 15th May, 1867. The 
 emperor Maximilian and his generals Miramon and 
 Mejia, were taken prisoners, and, after trial were 
 shot 19 June following. 
 
 QUEEN or HANDMILL, is of Boman or, as 
 some say, of Irish invention ; so-called Boman 
 querns have been found in Yorkshire. 
 
 QUESNOY (N. France), was taken by the- 
 Austrians, 11 Sept. 1793, but was recovered by the 
 French, 16 Aug. 1794. It surrendered to prince 
 Frederick of the Netherlands, 29 June, 1815, after 
 the battle of Waterloo. — It was here that cannon 
 were first used, and called bombards. Heuunlt. 
 
 QUIBEEON BAY (W. France). A British 
 force landed here, Sept. 1746, but was repulsed. In 
 the bay admiral Hawke gained a complete victory 
 over the French admiral Conflans, and thus defeated 
 the projected invasion of Great Britain, 20 Nov. 
 1759. Quiberon was taken by -some French regi- 
 ments in the pay of England, 3 July, 1795 ; but on 
 21 July, through treachery, the French republicans, 
 under Hoche, retook it by surprise, and many emi- 
 grants were executed. About 900 of the troops, 
 and nearly 1500 royalist inhabitants who had joined 
 the regiments in the pay of Great Britain, effected 
 their embarkation on board the ships. 
 
 QUICKSILVEE, in its liquid state, mercury. 
 Its use in refining silver was discovered, 1540. 
 There are mines of it in various parts, the chief of 
 which are at Almeida, in Spain, and at Idria, in 
 Illyria; the latter, discovered by accident in 1497, 
 for several years yielded 1200 tons. A mine was 
 discovered at Ceylon in 1797. Quicksilver was 
 congealed in winter at St. Petersburg, in 1759. It 
 was congealed in England by a chemical process, 
 without snow or ice, by Mr. Walker, in 1787. Cor- 
 rosive sublimate, a deadly poison, is a combination 
 of mercury and chlorine ; see Calomel. 
 
 QUIETISM, the doctrine of Miguel Molinos, 
 a Spaniard (1627-96), whose work, the "Spiritual 
 Guide," published in 1675, was the foundation of a 
 sect in France. He held that religion consisted in 
 an internal silent meditation on the merits of 
 Christ and the mercies of God. Madame de la 
 Mothe-Guyon, a quietist, was imprisoned in the 
 Bastile for her visions and prophecies, but released 
 through the interest of Fenelon, archbishop of 
 Cambray, between whom and Bossuet, bishop of 
 Meaux, arose a controversy, 1697. Quietism was 
 condemned by pope Innocent XI. in 1685. 
 
 QUILLS are said to have been first used for 
 pens in 553 ; some say not before 635. 
 
 QUINCE, the Pgrus Cydonia, brought to these 
 countries from Austria, before 1573. The Japan 
 quince, or Pyrus Japonica, brought hither from 
 Japan, 1796. 
 
 QUINDECEMVIEI, fifteen men, chosen to 
 keep the Sybilline books. The number originally, 
 two (duumviri), about 520 B.C., was increased to 
 ten in 365 B.C., and afterwards (probably by Sylla) 
 to fifteen, about 82 B.C. Julius Caesar added one ; 
 but the precedent was not followed. 
 
 QUININE or QuiNIA, an alkaloid (much 
 used in medicine), discovered in 1820 by Pelletier 
 and Caventou. It is a probable constituent of all 
 genuine cinchona barks, especially of the yellow 
 bark; see Jesuits' Bark. Artificial quinine was 
 
QUINQUAGESIMA SUNDAY. 
 
 555 
 
 EACES. 
 
 prepared (synthetically) by Mr. W. L. Scott, in 
 Oct. 1865. — Quinoidine, see Fluorescence. 
 
 QUINQUAGESMA SUNDAY.. The ob- 
 servation is said to have been appointed by Gregory 
 the Great (pope, 590-604). The first Sunday in 
 Lent having been termed Quadragesima, and the 
 three weeks preceding having been appropriated to 
 the gradual introduction of the Lent fast, the three 
 Sundays of these weeks were called by names sig- 
 nificant of then - position in the calendar: and 
 reckoning by decades (tenths), the Sunday pre- 
 ceding Quadragesima received its present name, 
 Quinquagesima, the second Sexagesima, and the 
 third Septuagesima. 
 
 QUINTILIANS, heretics in the 2nd century, 
 the disciples of Montanus, who took then name 
 from Quintilia, a lady whom he had deceived by 
 his pretended sanctity, and whom they regarded as 
 a prophetess. They made the eucharist of bread 
 and cheese, and allowed women to be priests and 
 bishops. Pardon. 
 
 QUIEINUS, a Sabine god, afterwards identi- 
 fied with Romulus. L. Papirius Cursor, general in 
 the Roman army, first erected a 'sun-dial in the 
 temple of Quirinus, from which time the days began 
 to be divided into horns, 293 b.c. Aspin. The 
 sun-dial was sometimes called the Quirinus, from 
 the original place in which it Avas set up. Ashe. 
 
 The Sabines who became Roman citizens were 
 termed Quieites. 
 
 QUITO (capital of the republic of Equator), 
 celebrated as having been the scene of the measure- 
 ment of a degree of the meridian, by the French 
 and Spanish mathematicians, 1736-42. Forty thou- 
 sand persons perished by an earthquake which 
 almost overwhelmed the city of Quito, 4 Feb. 1797. 
 Since then violent shocks, but not so disastrous, 
 occurred ; till one, on 22 March, 1859, when about 
 5000 persons were killed ; see Earthquakes. 
 
 QUIXOTE, see Don Quixote. 
 
 QUOITS, a game said to have originated with 
 the Greeks, and to have been first played at the 
 Olympic games, by the Idafi Dactyli, fifty years- 
 after the deluge of Deucalion, 1453 b.c. .Perseus, 
 the grandson of Acrisius, by Danae, having inad- 
 vertently slain his grandfather, when throwing a 
 quoit, exchanged the kingdom of Argos, to which 
 he was heir, for that of Tirynthus, and founded the 
 kingdom of Mycenae, about 1313 B.C. 
 
 QUO WAEEANTO ACT, passed 1282. By 
 it a writ may be directed to any person to inquire 
 by what authority he holds any office or franchise. 
 Charles II. directed a writ against the corporation of 
 London in 1683, and the court of king's bench de- 
 clared their charter forfeited. The decision was 
 reversed in 1690. 
 
 R. 
 
 EACES, one of the ancient games of Greece; 
 see Chariots. Horse-races were known in England 
 in very early times. Fitz-Stephen, in the days of 
 Henry II., mentions the delight taken by the 
 citizens of London in the diversion. In James I.'s 
 reign Croydon in the south, and Garterly in the 
 north, were celebrated courses. Near York there 
 were races, and the prize was a little golden bell, 
 1607. Camden. In the end of Charles I.'s reign, 
 races were performed at Hyde Park. Charles II. 
 patronised them, and instead of bells, gave a silver 
 bowl, or cup, value 100 guineas. "William III. 
 added to the plates (as did queen Anne) , and founded 
 an academy for riding. 
 
 The first racing calendar is said to have been pub- 
 lished by John Cheny 1727 
 
 Act for suppressing races by ponies and weak 
 horses, 19 Geo. 11 1739 
 
 The most eminent races in England are those at 
 Newmarket (which see), established by Charles II. 
 
 1667 
 
 At Epsom, begun about 1711 ; by Mr. Parkhurst 
 (annual since 1730, Allen's Surrey). [The earl of 
 Derby began the Oaks, 1779 ; the Derby, 1780 
 (first won by Diomeil)]. 
 
 At Ascot, begun by the duke of Cumberland, uncle 
 to George III. ; mentioned 1727 
 
 At Doneaster, by col. St. Eeger (the St. Leger stakes 
 were founded in 1776, and so named in 1777) - 1776 
 
 At Goodwood, begun by the duke of Richmond, in 
 his park 1802 
 
 Lord Stamford, said to have engaged Jemmy Grim- 
 shaw, a light-weight jockey, at a salary of 1000?. 
 a year March, 1865 
 
 " Tattersall's," the " high-change of horse-flesh," 
 was established by Richard Tattersall, near Hyde 
 Park Corner (hence termed "the Corner ") in 1766, 
 for the sale, of horses. The lease of the ground 
 having expired, the new premises at Brompton 
 were erected and opened for business on 
 
 10 April, 1865 
 
 The Jockey Club, which now chiefly regulates races 
 and the betting connected with them, was founded 
 in 1750. Its gradually accumulating rules were 
 modified in 1828 and revised in . . . 1857 
 
 Alterations recommended by a committee appointed 
 in April ; adopted by the club 16 July following . 1S70 
 
 John Scott, a most eminent trainer, died, aged 77, 
 
 Oct. 1871: 
 
 Betting. Between 1858 and 1868, 75,000?. and 
 115,000?. have been won upon a single race. 
 Betting is now much reprobated ; see Setting. 
 
 BACE-HOESES. 
 
 Flying Childers, bred in 1715 by the duke of Devon- 
 shire, was allowed by sportsmen to have been the fleetest 
 horse that ever ran at Newmarket, or that was ever bred 
 in the world ; he ran four miles in six minutes and forty- 
 eight seconds, or at the rate of 35J miles an hour, carry- 
 ing nine stone two pounds. He died in 1741, aged 
 26 years. 
 
 Eclipse was the fleetest horse that ran in England since 
 the time of Childers; he was never beaten, and died in 
 February, 1789, aged 25 years. His heart weighed 141b., 
 which accounted for his wonderful spirit and courage. 
 Christie White's Hist, of the Turf. 
 On the accession of queen Victoria, the royal stud 
 
 was sold for 16,476?. on . . . .25 Oct. 1837 
 The comte de la Grange's stud (in consequence of the 
 
 war) was sold for 23,730?. Gladiateur fetched 5800?. 1870 
 Middle-park stud (property of Mr. Blenkiron, de- 
 ceased) sold for 102,005 guineas ; Blair Athol, for 
 12,000?. (to the English Stud Company) ; 4 days' 
 sale 26 July, 1872 
 
 KECENT WINNEES OF 
 
 1846. Pyrrhus. 
 
 1847. Cossack. 
 
 1848. Surplice. 
 
 1849. Plying Dutchman. 
 
 1850. Voltigeur. 
 
 1851. Teddington. 
 
 1852. Daniel O'Rourke. 
 
 1853. West Australian. 
 
 1854. And over. 
 
 'THE DEEBY" AT EPSOM. 
 
 1855. WUd Dayrell. 
 
 1856. Ellington. 
 
 1857. Blink Bonny. 
 
 1858. Beadsman. 
 
 1859. Musjid. 
 i860. Thormanby. 
 
 1861. Kettledrum. 
 
 1862. Caractacus. 
 
 1863. Maccaroni. 
 
EACK. 
 
 556 
 
 RAILWAYS. 
 
 0864. Blair Atliol. 
 
 1865. Gladiateur, 31 May 
 (a horse reared in France, 
 the property of the comte 
 de la Grange. He also 
 won the St. Leger at Don- 
 caster, 13 Sept.). 
 
 1866. Lord Lyon (16 May). 
 
 1867. Hermit (22 May). 
 
 1868. Blue Gown (27 May). 
 
 1869. Pretender (26 May). 
 
 1870. Kingcraft (1 JuneY. 
 
 1871. Favonius (24 May). 
 
 1872. Oemorne (29 May). 
 
 1873. Doncaster (28 May). 
 
 RACK, an engine of torture, for extracting a 
 ■confession from criminals, early known in south 
 Europe, and in later times an instrument of the 
 Inquisition. The duke of Exeter, in the reign of 
 Henry VI., erected a rack of torture (thence called 
 the duke of Exeter's daughter), now seen in the 
 tower, 1423. In the case of Felton, who murdered 
 the duke of Buckingham, the judges of England 
 protested against the proposal of the privy council 
 to put the assassin to the rack, as contrary to the 
 laws, 1628 ; see Ravaillac and Torture. 
 
 RADCLIFFE Library, Oxford, founded 
 
 ■under the will of Dr. John Radcliffe, an eminent 
 physician. He died 1 Nov. 1714, leaving 40,000/. 
 to the university of Oxford for the founding a 
 library, the first stone of which was laid 17 May, 
 1737, and the edifice was opened 13 April, 1749. — 
 The Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford, founded by 
 the exertions of Dr. Hornsby, Savilian professor of 
 astronomy, about 1771, was completed in 1794. The 
 publication of the observations was commenced in 
 1842, by Mr. Manuel J. Johnson, the director, ap- 
 pointed in 1839. 
 
 RADICALS or " Radical Reformers," 
 
 persons who professed to aim at procuring a thorough 
 reformation in the government and policy of Eng- 
 land, became prominent in 1816, when Hampden 
 ■clubs were formed, of which sir Francis Burdett, 
 lord Cochrane, major Cartwright, and William 
 Cobbett were prominent members. Samuel Bam- 
 ford's " Life of a Radical," published in 1842, gives 
 •much information ; he died 13 April, 1872. Many 
 .radicals were severely punished, 1817-20. — The 
 "Radicals" in the United States were the part} 7 
 beaded by Thaddeus Stevens, bitterly opposed to the 
 policy of president Johnson, as too favourable to the 
 subdued Southern States. 
 
 RADICLE, see Compound. 
 
 RADSTADT, Austria. Here Morcau and the 
 French defeated the Austrians, 5 July, 1796. 
 
 RAFFAELLE WARE, see Pottery. 
 
 RAGGED SCHOOLS, free schools for out- 
 cast destitute ragged children, set up in large towns. 
 The instruction is based on the scriptures, and most 
 of the teachers are unpaid. John Pounds, a cobbler, 
 of Portsmouth, who died in 1839, opened a school of 
 this kind ; and one was set up by Andrew Walker, 
 In " Devil's Acre," Westminster, in 1839. Knight. 
 They did not receive their name till 1844, when the 
 " Ragged school union" was formed, principally by 
 Mr. S. Stacey and Mr. Wm. Locke (afterwards hon. 
 secretary). The earl of Shaftesbury was chairman. 
 In 1856 there were 150 Ragged school institutions. 
 In 1867 the number of Sunday ragged schools re- 
 ported in London was 226 ; day schools, 204 ; week 
 evening schools, 207. Average attendance, 26,000. 
 Ragged school buildings were exempted from rates, 
 1869. These schools will doubtless be gradually 
 superseded by those established by the London 
 school board. Dr. Guthrie, a founder of ragged 
 schools in Glasgow, died 24 Feb. 1873; see Shoe 
 Black. 
 
 RAGMAN ROLL (said to derive its name 
 from Ragimunde, a papal legate in Scotland) con- 
 tains the records of the homage and fealty to 
 Edward I., sworn to by the nobility and clergy of 
 Scotland at Berwick m 1296. The original was 
 given up to Robert Bruce, king of Scotland, in 1328, 
 when his son David was contracted in marriage to 
 the princess Joanna of England. 
 
 RAGUSA, a city on the Adriatic, on the south 
 confines of Dalmatia, was taken by the Venetians, 
 1171, but became an independent republic, 1358. 
 It suffered much by an earthquake, 1667 ; was 
 taken by the French in 1806, and given up to 
 Austria m 1814. 
 
 RAID OF RuTHVEX, see Ruthven. 
 
 RAILWAYS- Short roads, in and about New- 
 castle, laid down by Mr. Beaumont, so early as 
 1602, are thus mentioned in 1676 : — "The manner 
 of the carriage is by laying rails of timber from the 
 collier y to the river, exactly straight and parallel ; 
 and bulky carts are made with four rollers fitting 
 those rails, whereby the carriage is so easy that one 
 horse will draw down four or five chaldron of coals, 
 and is an immense benefit to the coal merchants." 
 Roger North. They were made of iron at White- 
 haven, in 1738; see Tramroads. 
 
 An iron railway laid down near Sheffield by John 
 Curr (destroyed by the colliers) . . . . 1776 
 
 The first considerable iron railway was laid down 
 at Colebrook Dale 1786 
 
 The first iron railway sanctioned by parliament (ex- 
 cept a few undertaken by canal companies as 
 small branches to mines) was the Surrey iron 
 railway (by horses), from the Thames at Wands- 
 worth to Croydon 1801 
 
 Trevethick and Vivian obtained a patent for a high 
 pressure locomotive engine 1802 
 
 William Hedley of Wylam colliery made the first 
 travelling engine (locomotive), or substitute for 
 animal power in a colliery 1813 
 
 The first locomotive constructed by George Stephen- 
 son, travelled at the rate of 6 miles per hour . 1814 
 
 The Rocket travelled at the rate of 25 and 35 miles 
 per hour 1829 
 
 (It obtained the prize of 500!. offered by the directors 
 of the Liverpool and Manchester railway com- 
 pany for the best locomotive, Oct. 1829.) 
 
 The Firefly attained a speed of 20 miles per hour . 1834 
 
 The North Star moved with a velocity of 37 miles 
 per hour 1839 
 
 At the present time locomotives have attained a 
 speed of 70 miles per hour. 
 
 Stockton and Darlington railway, constructed by 
 Edw. Pease and George Stephenson, opened, 
 
 27 Sept. 1825 
 
 The Liverpool and Manchester railway commenced 
 in Oct. 1826, and opened (Wm. Huskisson, M.P., 
 killed) 15 Sept. 1830 
 
 Act for transmission of mails by railways . . . 1838 
 
 Railway clearing house established .... 1842 
 
 The examination of railway schemes, before their 
 introduction into parliament, by the Board of 
 Trade, was ordered 1844 
 
 7 & 8 Vict. c. 85, required companies to run cheap 
 trains every day, and to permit erection of elec- 
 tric telegraphs, and authorised government, after 
 1 Jan. 1866, to buy existing railways with the 
 permission of parliament 1844 
 
 George Hudson, a draper, mayor of York in 1839, 
 by his successful management as chairman of 
 the Leeds and York railway and others, was styled 
 the ' ' railway king " 1844 
 
 An act passed 10 Vict, for constituting commis- 
 sioners of railways, who have since been incor- 
 porated with the Board of Trade . . 28 Aug. 1846 
 
 The Railway Mania and panic year, when 272 rail- 
 way acts passed . . .... 1846 
 
 Act for compensating families of persons killed by 
 accidents (see Campbell's 4ct) .... 1846 
 
 Act for the : bettei regulation of railways . . . 1854 
 
EAILWAYS. 
 
 557 
 
 EAILWAYS. 
 
 Act to enable railway companies to settle differences 
 with other companies by arbitration . . . 1859 
 
 Eailway Clauses Consolidation act passed . . 1863 
 
 Joint committee of both houses of parliament ap- 
 pointed to report on railway schemes . 5 Feb. 1864 
 (See Atmospheric and Street Railways.) 
 
 Period of " contractors' lines " . . . . 1859-66 
 
 London, Chatham, and Dover company suspend 
 payment ; directors censured for their policy . 1866 
 
 Eailway Companies Securities act passed . Aug. „ 
 
 A Welsh railway train (about to start) seized for 
 debt ■ . .27 Nov. ,, 
 
 250 railway bills passed, 1865 ; only 98 ... 1867 
 
 Strike of 350 men on London and Brighton line, 
 
 25-27 March, „ 
 
 Strike of 500 on North Eastern line, 11 April ; over- 
 come by the company ... 25 April, „ 
 
 Eailway commission report against the government 
 buying the railways, &c. . . . May, „ 
 
 Eailway acts amended by act passed . 20 Aug. „ 
 
 A climbing locomotive, by means of central rails, 
 ascended Mont Cenis in 1865. [The experiments 
 were first tried on the High Peak railway, Sept. 
 1863 and Feb. 1864.] The railway completed and 
 traversed by a locomotive and two carriages, con- 
 taining Mr. Fell, the inventor of the plan, and 
 others ; an unexampled journey in regard to steep- 
 ness of gradients and the elevation of the summit 
 level, 6700 feet, 21 Aug. 1867. After successful 
 trials in May, the railway was opened 15 June, 1868 
 
 Lord Cairns (on appeal) decides that holders of de- 
 bentures are responsible as qualified proprietors, 
 
 28 Jan. „ 
 
 Capt. Yolland, government inspector, reports that 
 in his opinion electric communication between 
 the passengers and the railway servants on trains 
 stopping only at long intervals is necessary and 
 practicable March, ,, 
 
 Eailway Eegulation acts passed . . . 1868, 1871 
 
 Conference of railway shareholders at Manchester, 
 
 14, 15 April, 1868 
 
 Southern Eailways Amalgamation bill ; opposed in 
 the lords ; withdrawn .... June, „ 
 
 Mont Cenis railway opened for traffic . 15 June, „ 
 
 New act to amend the laws relating to railways, 
 30 <fc 31 Vict. c. 119 ; (it orders smoking compart- 
 ments, and communication between passengers 
 and railway servants in certain trains ; and pro- 
 hibits trains for prize-fights, &c.) passed, 31 July, „ 
 
 Midland railway station, St. Pancras {which see), 
 opened 1 Oct. ,, 
 
 New route to Liverpool (by a viaduct over the Mer- 
 sey at Runcorn), opened 1 April, 1869 
 
 Pacific railway : from the Atlantic to the Pacific ; 
 opened 12 May, ,, 
 
 "Abandonment of Railways act " passed n Aug. ,, 
 
 Railway Companies Powers act (1864) and Con- 
 struction Facilities act (1864) amended by act 
 passed 20 June, 1870 
 
 "Railvjay Association" established: (it consists of 
 directors and representatives of shareholders, to 
 watch legislation, <fcc.,) inaugural dinner, 21 July, ,, 
 
 Under the London, Dover, and Chatham railway 
 act, the arbitrators, the marquis of Salisbury and 
 lord Cairns, decide for the amalgamation of the 
 general undertaking; extensions for award pub- 
 lished Aug. 1871 
 
 Rigi Mountain railway (up to 4000 feet above sea 
 level), opened 23 May, „ 
 
 Mansion-house station of the Metropolitan District 
 railway inaugurated . . .1 July, ,, 
 
 European and North American railway opened at 
 Bangor, Maine 18 Oct. „ 
 
 Proposed amalgamation of the Midland and Glas- 
 gow and South-Western ..... 
 
 Amalgamation of the London and North-Western 
 and the Lancashire and Yorkshire railways, voted 
 by companies 20 Oct. „ 
 
 Forged telegram announcing proposed amalgama- 
 tion of the Midland and Manchester, Sheffield, 
 and Lincolnshire railways (led to purchase of 
 shares, and affected the market), about 23 Nov. „ 
 
 George Hudson, the "railway king," died, aged 71, 
 
 14 Dec. „ 
 
 Strike of porters of London and North-Western 
 company; settled .. . . 26, 27 July, 1872 
 
 Death of Thos. Brassey, who made 6600 miles of 
 . railways.which cost 78,000,0002. (able, honest, kind) „ 
 
 Parliamentary committee report in favour of rail- 
 way amalgamation, published . . . Aug. 1872- 
 
 First railway in Japan opened . .12 June, ,, 
 
 One-rail railway laid down at Paris by M. Lannen- 
 jat, reported successful for short distances Aug. ,, 
 
 Amalgamations already accomplished : London and 
 North-Western, 61 branch lines ; Great Northern, 
 37 ; Great Eastern, 27 ; London and Brighton, 22 ; 
 Tiondon and South-Western, 22 ; Midland, 17 . ,, 
 
 Railway proposed by M. de Lesseps from Orenburg 
 to Peshawur (2500 miles), to connect by means of 
 Russian and East Indian railways Calais and 
 Calcutta May, 1873. 
 
 Bill for amalgamation of London and North- Western 
 and Lancashire and Yorkshire companies rejected 
 by the commons committee . . .23 May, „ 
 
 RAILWAYS OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 
 
 Capital Miles Net 
 
 Year. paid-v/p. opened. Receipts. 
 
 1854. £286,068,794 8,054 £11,009,519 
 
 i860. 348,130,127 10,433 i4;579. 2 54 
 
 1865. 455,478,143 13,289 18,602,582 
 
 1870. 529,908,673 15,537 23,362,618 
 
 Working expenses: 1854,9,206,205/!. ; 1865, 17,149,073?. ; 
 1870, 21,715,525?. 
 
 Number of passengers : 1845, 33,791,253 ; 1854, 
 111,206,707; i860, 163,483,572; 1865, 251,959,862; 
 1870, 330,162,801. 
 
 Miles opened: 1870, England and Wales, 11,043; Scot- 
 land, 2519; Ireland, 1975. 
 
 For 1847-9, it was calculated that out of 4,782,188 
 travellers by railway, one person was killed, from 
 causes beyond his own control; for 1856-9, one 
 in 8,708,411; 1866-8, one in 12,941,170. In 1870, 
 66 killed ; in 1871, 12 killed from causes beyond 
 their control. 
 
 PRINCIPAL RAILWAYS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 
 
 The railways are generally named after their termini. 
 
 Date of Opening: 
 
 3 Jan. 1839 
 
 Railways. 
 Arbroath and' Forfar 
 Atmospheric Railway (which see) 
 
 Bangor and Carnarvon .... July, 1852 
 Belfast and county of Down . . . April, 1850. 
 Birmingham and Derby .... 12 Aug. 1839 
 Birmingham and Gloucester . . 17 Dec. 1840- 
 
 Birmingham, Wolverhampton, and Stour Valley, 
 
 July. 1852 
 Brighton and Chichester .... 8 June, 1846 
 Brighton and Hastings . . . 27 June, ,, 
 
 Bristol and Exeter . . . . . 1 May, 1844. 
 Bristol and Gloucester .... July, 1845 
 
 Caledonian Feb. 1848 
 
 Canterbury and Whitstable . . . May, 1830 
 Charing Cross Railway, London, opened 11 Jan. 1864- 
 Cheltenham and Swindon ... 12 May, 1845. 
 Chester and Birkenhead . . . .22 Sept. 1840 
 
 Chester and Crewe 1:848 
 
 Cockermouth and Workington . . 28 April. 1847- 
 Colchester and Ipswich . . . .15 June, 1846 
 
 Cork and Bandon 8 Dec. 1851 
 
 Cornwall 1 May, 1859, 
 
 Coventry and Leamington . . . . 2. Dec. 1844 
 Croydon and Epsom . . . .17 May, 1847 
 
 Dublin and Carlow 10 Aug. 1846. 
 
 Dublin and Drogheda .... 26 May, 1844 
 Dublin and Kingstown . . . .17 Dec. 1834 
 Dublin and Belfast Junction . . . June, 1852 
 
 Dundee and Newtyle Dec. 1831 
 
 Dundee and Perth 22 May, 1847 
 
 Durham and Sunderland .... 28 June, 1839, 
 Eastern Counties .... 18 June, ,, 
 
 Eastern Union (London and Colchester), 29 March, 1843 
 Edinburgh and Berwick ... 18 June, 1846' 
 
 Edinburgh and Glasgow .... 8 Feb. 1842 
 Ely and Peterborough .... Jan. 1847- 
 
 Exeter and Plymouth (part) ... 29 May, 1846 
 
 Glasgow and Ayr 19 Sept. 1840. 
 
 Glasgow and Greenock . . . .24 March, 1841 
 Glasgow, Garnkirk, and Coatbridge . . July, 1845 
 Gloucester and Chepstow .... Sept. 185 1 
 Grand Junction (Birmingham to Newton . July, 1837 
 Gravesend and Rochester ... 10 Feb. 184s 
 
 Great Western 20 June, 1841 
 
 Great Northern 1842 
 
 Hertford branch of Eastern Counties . 31 Oct. 1843; 
 
EAILWAYS. 
 
 558 
 
 EAILWAYS. 
 
 Railways. Date of Open 
 
 Ipswich and Bury St. Edmunds . . 24 Dec. 
 
 Kendal and Windermere . . . .21 April, 
 Lancaster and Carlisle .... 16 Dec. 
 Lancaster and Preston . . . .30 June, 
 Leeds and Bradford .... 1 July, 
 
 Leeds and Derby July, 
 
 Liverpool and Birmingham . . . .4 July, 
 Liverpool and Manchester . . .15 Sept. 
 
 Liverpool and Preston .... 31 Oct. 
 
 London and Birmingham .... 17 Sept. 
 
 London and Blackwall 2 Aug. 
 
 London and Brighton . . . .21 Sept. 
 London and Bristol .... 30 June, 
 London and Cambridge . . . .30 July, 
 London and Colchester ... 29 March, 
 London, Chatham, and Dover . . .29 Sept. 
 London and Croydon .... 1 June, 
 
 London and Dover 7 Feb. 
 
 London and Greenwich ... 26 Dec. 
 
 London and Kichmond . . . -27 July, 
 London and Southampton . . . 11 May, 
 London and Southend .... June, 
 London and Warrington ; branch of the Great 
 
 Northern Aug. 
 
 Lowestoft branch ; Norwich and Yarmouth . 
 
 Lynn and Ely 
 
 Manchester and Birmingham ... 10 Aug. 
 Manchester and Leeds . . . 1 March, 
 
 Manchester and Sheffield ... 22 Dec. 
 
 Metropolitan, London ; act obtained, 1853 ; con- 
 struction began, i860 ; opened . . 10 Jan. 
 Newcastle and Berwick .... July, 
 Newcastle and Carlisle . . . .18 June, 
 Newcastle and North Shields . . 18 June, 
 
 Newmarket and Cambridge .... Oct 
 Northampton and Peterborough . . 2 June, 
 North and South- Western Junction . . Dec. 
 
 North Eastern July, 
 
 Norwich and Yarmouth . , . . 1 May, 
 .Nottingham to Grantham .... July, 
 Nottingham and Lincoln .... 3 Aug. 
 Nottingham branch ; Rugby and Derby . 30 May, 
 Oxford branch of London and Bristol . 12 June, 
 ■Oxford, Worcester, and Wolverhampton . May, 
 
 Penzance to Camborne Jan. 
 
 Rugby and Derby July, 
 
 Rugby and Leamington Feb. 
 
 St Andrew's July, 
 
 St. Helen's ; first act passed ..... 
 Salisbury branch of the London and Southampton. 
 Southampton and Dorchester . . .1 June, 
 
 South Devon 
 
 South Eastern 6 Feb. 
 
 South Eastern ; North Kent line .... 
 
 Trent Valley 26 June, 
 
 Ulster Aug. 
 
 West and East India Docks and Birmingham Junc- 
 tion from the Blackwall railway to Camden Town, 
 
 Aug. 
 Worcester and Droitvvich .... Jan. 
 York and Darlington (N. Eastern) . . 4 Jan. 
 York and Newcastle ,, . . 17 June, 
 
 York and Normanton „ . . 30 June, 
 
 York and Scarborough ,, . . 7 July, 
 
 Yarmouth and Norwich . . . . 1 May, 
 Alleged Extent of Railways (in miles), 1867 :— 
 Austrian dominions, 4001 ; France, 8989 ; Italy, 3040 ; 
 Prussia, 54S3 ; Russia, 2893 ; Spain, 3216 ; United 
 States of America, 32,896 ; India, 4070 ; Australia, 
 669. 
 
 MEMORABLE RAILWAY ACCIDENTS.* 
 
 Very many {where only 2 persons killed) are not noted; 
 in nearly oil cases a large number "were injured. 
 
 W. Huskisson, M.P. , killed at the opening of the 
 Liverpool and Manchester railway . 15 Sept. 1830 
 
 Great Corby (Newcastle and Carlisle) ; train runs 
 off line ; 3 killed 3 Dec. 1836 
 
 Brentwood (Eastern Counties) : carriages over- 
 turned ; 3 killed 21 Aug. 1840 
 
 Cuckfield (London and Brighton) : engine runs off 
 line ; 4 killed 2 Oct. 1841 
 
 * On Dec. 27, 1864, the queen wrote to the directors of 
 the railway companies of London, requesting them " to 
 be as careful of other passengers as of herself." 
 
 S39 
 
 S50 
 
 3 47 
 
 Sonninghill cutting, near Reading : engine forced 
 
 offline; 8 killed .... 24 Dec. 1841 
 
 Versailles : carriages take fire, passengers locked in ; 
 
 52 or S3 lives lost, including admiral D'Urville, 
 
 8 May, 1842 
 Masborough (Midland Counties) : collision ; Mr. 
 
 Boteler and others killed, many injured, 20 Oct. 1845 
 Stratford (Eastern Counties) : collision through great 
 
 carelessness ; Mr. Hind killed, many mutilated, 
 
 18 July, 1846 
 Pevensey (Brighton and Hastings) : collision ; 40 
 
 injured 24 Aug. ,, 
 
 Clifton (Manchester and Bolton) : express runs off 
 
 line ; 2 killed, many injured . . 15 Dec. „ 
 Chester (Chester and Shrewsbury) : train runs 
 
 off bridge ; 4 killed ; greater number injured, 
 
 18 May, 1847 
 Wolverton (North Western) : collision ; 7 killed, 
 
 many injured 5 June, ,, 
 
 Sluivenham (Great Western) : collision ; 7 killed, 
 
 many injured 10 May, 1848 
 
 Carlisle (Caledonian) : axletree of carriage breaks ; 
 
 5 killed 10 Feb. 1849 
 
 Frodsham Tunnel (Chester and Warrington Junc- 
 tion) : collision ; 6 killed . . .30 April, 1851 
 Newmarket Hill (Lewes and Brighton) : train runs 
 
 offline; 4 killed . . . . . . 6 June, ,, 
 
 Bicester (Buckinghamshire) : collision ; 6 killed, 
 
 6 Sept. „ 
 Burnley (Great Northern) : collision ; 4 killed, 
 
 12 July, 1852 
 Dixonfold (Great Northern) : engine wheels broke ; 
 
 7 killed 4 March, 1833 
 
 Near Straffan (Great Southern and Western, Ire- 
 land) : collision; 13 killed . . . 5 Oct. ,, 
 Near Harling, Norfolk (Eastern Counties) : colli- 
 sion ; 6 killed 12 Jan. 1854 
 
 Croydon (Brighton and Dover) : collision ; 3 killed, 
 
 24 Aug. „ 
 Burlington, between New York and Philadelphia : 
 
 21 killed 29 Aug. ,, 
 
 Reading (South Eastern): collision ; 5 killed, 12 Sept. 1855 
 Near Paris : collision ; 9 killed . . 9 Oct. ,, 
 Between Thoret and Moret : collision ; 16 killed 
 
 23 Oct. „ 
 Campbell (N. Pennsylvania) : collision ; above 100 
 
 killed ... ... 17 July, 1856 
 
 Dunkett (Waterford and Kilkenny) : collision ; 7 
 
 killed IQ Nov. „ 
 
 Kirby (Liverpool and Blackpool) : collision ; 200 
 
 injured ; none killed ... 27 June, 1857 
 
 Lewisham (North Kent): collision ; n killed, 28 June, 
 Between Pyle and Port Talbot : collision ; 4 killed' ' 
 
 14 Oct. 
 Attleborough, Warwickshire (North Western): 
 
 train thrown off the line through a cow crossing 
 
 the rails ; 3 killed .... 10 May, 1858 
 Near Mons, Belgium : coke waggon on the rails • 
 
 21 killed j une> ' 
 
 Chilham (South Eastern) : either too great speed or 
 
 broken axletree ; 3 killed ... 30 June 
 Near Round Oak Station (Oxford and Wolver- ' 
 
 hampton) — excursion train : collision ; 14 killed, 
 
 23 Aug. 
 Tottenham (Eastern Counties): engine wheel 
 
 breaks ; 6 killed 20 Feb. i860 
 
 Helmshore (Lancashire and Yorkshire) — excursion 
 
 train : collision ; 1 1 killed . . . 4 Sept 
 Atherstone (North Western) : collision of mail and " 
 
 cattle trains ; n killed . . . 16 Nov. 
 Near Wimbledon : Dr. Baly killed . . 2 8 Jan 1861 
 Railway tunnel falls in near Haddon Hall, Derby- 
 shire ; 5 men killed 2 July 
 
 Clayton Tunnel (London and Brighton) : collision ; ' 
 
 23 killed, 176 injured .... 23 Aug.' 
 Kentish Town (Hampstead Junction) : 16 killed 
 
 320 injured 2 Sept! „ 
 
 Market Harborough : collision ; 1 killed and 50 
 
 injured 2 g ^ u „ j3g 2 
 
 Near Winchburgh (Edinburgh and Glasgow) : collil 
 
 sion ; 15 killed, 100 wounded . , 13 Oct. 
 
 Near Streatham (London and Brighton) : explosion 
 
 Of boiler through attempting too great speed ; 4 
 
 killed ; above 30 injured . . . 30 May, 1863 
 Near Lynn (Lynn and Hunstanton): carriages upset 
 
 through bullock on the iine ; 5 killed 3 \ug 
 Egham (South Western) : collision ; 5 killed, above 
 
 20 injured 7 June, 1S64 
 
RAILWAYS. 
 
 559 
 
 EAMILLIES. 
 
 Canada : train ran off a bridge at St. Hilaire in 
 crossing ; about 83 killed, 200 wounded, 29 June, 1864 
 
 Blaeklieath Tunnel : fast train ran into a ballast 
 train ; 6 killed 16 Dec. ,, 
 
 Near Kednal (on a branch of Great Western) : train 
 ran off insecure rails ; 13 killed, about 40 injured, 
 
 7 June, 1865 
 
 Near Stapleliurst (South Eastern) : train ran off in- 
 secure rails, &c. ; 10 killed and about 50 injured, 
 
 9 June, ,, 
 
 Near Colney Hatch (Midland) : collision with coal 
 trucks : above 50 persons injured . . 30 Aug. ,, 
 
 Fall of a bridge at Sutton (S. coast line): 6 men killed, 
 
 28 April, 1866 
 
 Near Caterham junction (London and Brighton) : 3 
 killed, 12 injured .... 30 April, ,, 
 
 In Welwyn Tunnel (Great Northern) : a steam tube 
 burst ; collision of three goods trains ; and a great 
 Are ; 2 lives lost . . . . 9, 10 June, ,, 
 
 Near Royston (Great Northern) : train ran off line ; 
 3 lives lost 2 July, „. 
 
 Brynkir station (Carnarvonshire) : points said to 
 have been tampered with ; train ran off line ; 6 
 persons killed 6 Sept. „ 
 
 20 miles from Carlisle (Lancaster and Carlisle) : an 
 axle of carriage of goods train broke ; collision 
 with another goods train ; fire, and explosion of 
 5 tons of gunpowder ; 2 killed . . 25 Feb. 1867 
 
 Between Bhosawul and Khundwah (Great Indian 
 Peninsular) : train precipitated into a chasm 
 made in an embankment by a river torrent ; many 
 lives lost 26 June, „ 
 
 "Walton Junction, Warrington (London and North 
 Western) : collision with coal train ; error of 
 pointsman, 8 lives lost . . . 29 June, ,, 
 
 At Brayhead, near Enniscorthy (Dublin, Wicklow, 
 and Wexford) : went off the line into a gorge ; 2 
 killed, many injured . . . . 9 Aug. ,, 
 
 Between New Mills and Peak Forest : 2 collisions ; 
 5 lives lost 9 Sept. ,, 
 
 French Great Northern, about 14 miles from Paris : 
 several killed, many wounded . . 27 Oct. „ 
 
 Lake Shore railway, New York : embankment fell ; 
 41 persons burnt to death ... 18 Dec. ,, 
 
 Carr's Bock, on river Delaware ; Erie railway : 
 carriages precipitated down an embankment ; 
 26 persons killed, 52 very seriously injured, 
 
 14 April, 1868 
 
 Abergele, N. Wales (London and North-Western) : 
 collision between Irish mail train and luggage 
 train ; barrels of petroleum ignited ; 33 persons 
 burnt to death (see Abergele) . . 20 Aug. „ 
 
 Near Birlingbury station (Rugby and Leamington) : 
 "carriages went over Draycot embankment; 2 
 persons killed 1 Oct. ,, 
 
 Near Bull's Pill, S. Wales (Great Western) : mail 
 train ran into a cattle train ; 1 person and much 
 cattle killed 6 Nov. ,, 
 
 Near Copenhagen tunnel, Holloway (Great . North- 
 ern) : coal train ran off the line ; 2 killed, 18 Jan. 1869 
 
 Near Khandalla, Bombay (Great Indian Peninsular) : 
 train ran off the line ; about 18 killed, 26 Jan. „ 
 
 Arch fell in at Bethnal Green (Great Eastern) : 
 coal train passing ; 5 killed . . 25 Feb. „ 
 
 Newcross (London and Brighton) : collision ; 2 
 killed, many injured ; great loss to the company 
 by compensation .... 23 June, ,, 
 
 Near Bamet (Great Northern) : collision ; 1 man 
 burnt to death 16 Aug. ,, 
 
 Long Eaton Junction (Midland) : collision ; 7 killed 
 
 9 Oct. „ 
 
 Near Welwyn (Great Northern) : collision ; 3 killed 
 
 24 Oct. ,, 
 
 Eureka, St. Louis, Missouri ; collision ; 19 killed, 
 
 12 May, 1870 
 
 Near Newark (Great Northern) : collision ; a 
 waggon of a goods train, through the breaking of 
 an old axle, went off the rails and met an excur- 
 sion train ; 19 deaths ; 1 "30 a.m. . 21 June, ,, 
 
 Near Carlisle : collision ; 5 killed . 10 July, ,, 
 
 Tamworth (London and North Western): Irish 
 mail (late), sent into a siding ; broke down a 
 buttress and ran into the river Anker (error of a 
 pointsman) ; 3 deaths . . 47 a.m. 14 Sept. „ 
 
 Plessis near Tours : collision ; between two trains ; 
 several killed . . . .4 a.m. 20 Sept. „ 
 
 Harrow (London and North-Western) : collision 
 with coal waggons ; 7 killed . . .26 Nov. ,. 
 
 Brockley Whins (North Eastern) : collision through 
 mistake of Hedley, a pointsman ; 5 killed 6 Dec. 1870 
 
 Barnsley (Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincolnshire 
 railway) : collision ; goods trucks broke loose ; 
 14 killed, many injured . . . .12 Dee. „ 
 
 Bell-bar, near Hatfield (Great Northern) : tire of 
 wheel broke ; break and carriages overturned ; 8 
 killed 26 Dec. „ 
 
 Between Bandoz and St. Nizaire : explosion of gun- 
 powder in casks ; 60 killed ... 25 Feb. 1871 
 
 Revere (Boston and Portland, U.S.): collision; 
 above 20 killed . . . . 26 Aug. „ 
 
 Near Champigny (Lyons Company) : a spring 
 broke ; 11 killed .... 16 Sept. „ 
 
 Ferry-hill (North British) : collision ; 2 killed, 
 
 16 Oct. „ 
 
 Antibes railway between Nice and Cannes : train 
 thrown into the river Brague ; 12 said to be killed 
 
 24 Jan. 1872 
 
 Belleville (Grand Trunk of Canada) : engine broke 
 off the line ; many burnt, scalded, &c. ; about 
 30 killed 22 June, „ 
 
 Connellsville (Baltimore and Pittsburg) : collision , 
 many hurt, 3 killed .... 22 June, ,, 
 
 Juvisy (Orleans railway) : express ran into luggage 
 train ; boiler exploded ; 5 burnt to death (includ- 
 ing mother of the duchess of Malakoff ) 26 June, ,, 
 
 Rose-hill junction (Newcastle and Carlisle) : colli- 
 sion ; 4 killed 5 July, „ 
 
 Red-hill junction (Great Western and L. &N.W.), 
 near Hertford ; 2 killed . . . 29 July, ,, 
 
 Clifton junction (Lancashire and Yorkshire) : col- 
 lision ; 4 killed 3 Ang. „ 
 
 Kirtlebridge, Dumfries (Caledonian) : collision ; 
 express train late ; error of pointsman ; 12 killed, 
 
 2 Oct. „ 
 
 Kelvedon, near Chelmsford (Great Eastern) : loco- 
 motive driven off the line by a raised rail ; 1 
 killed, many hurt . . . . 17 Oct. „ 
 
 Near Woodhouse junction (Manchester, Sheffield, 
 and Lincolnshire) : collision ; two killed, 18 Oct. „ 
 
 Corry, Pennsylvania, U.S. : train broke through a 
 bridge ; about 20 killed ... 24 Dee. „ 
 
 Near Pesth : train run off line ; 21 killed, 
 
 about 7 May, 1873 
 
 Near Shrewsbury (Great Western and London & 
 N. W. Junction) : axle of engine broke ; car- 
 riages driven off the line ; 4 killed . . 8 May s „ 
 
 Near Higham, Derbyshire (Midland); engine-tire 
 broke ; train ran off the line ; 2 killed 21 June, „ 
 
 RAINBOW. Its theory was developed by 
 Kepler in 161 1, and by Bene Descartes in 1629; 
 see Spectrum. 
 
 RAIN-FALL. Mr. G-. J. Symons printed a 
 table of rain-fall in Britain iP: 140 years, 1726- 1865, 
 in the Beports of the British Association in 1866. 
 The wettest year was 1852, being 38 percent, above 
 the average ; but 1872 was 58 per cent. He began 
 to publish his "Annual Bainfall in the British 
 Isles " in 1866. 
 
 RALEIGH'S CONSPIRACY, termed the 
 Main Plot (which see). 
 
 RAMADAN, the Mahometan month of fasting ; 
 in 1865, 28 Jan. to 27 Feb. ; and from 27 Dec. 1867 
 to 30 Jan. 1868 inclusive. It is followed by the 
 festival of Bairam (which see). 
 
 RAMBOUILLET, a royal chateau, about 25 
 miles from Paris. Here Francis I. died 31 March, 
 1547 ; and here Charles X. abdicated, 2 Aug. 1830. 
 After being possessed by the count of Thoulouse and 
 the due de Penthievre, it was bought by Louis XVI. 
 in 1778. 
 
 RAMILLIES (Belgium), the site of a brilliant 
 victory gained by the English under the duke of 
 Marlborough and the allies over the French com- 
 manded by the elector of Bavaria and the marshal 
 de Villeroy, on Whitsunday, 23 May (o.s. 12), 1706 
 The French were soon seized with a panic, and a 
 
RANGOON. 
 
 560 
 
 REAL PRESENCE. 
 
 general rout ensued : about 4OOO of the allied army 
 -were slain in the engagement. This accelerated 
 the fall of Louvain, Brussels, &c. 
 
 RANGOON, maritime capital of the Burmese 
 empire, built bv Alompra, 1753, was taken by sir 
 A. Campbell on II May, 1824. In Dec. 1826, it 
 was ceded to the Burmese on condition of the pay- 
 ment of a sum of money, the reception of a British 
 resident at Ava, and freedom of commerce. Oppres- 
 sion of the British merchants led to the second 
 Burmese war, 1852. Bangoon was taken by storm 
 by general Godwin, 14 April, and annexed to the 
 British dominions in December. 
 
 RANSOME'S ARTIFICIAL STONE, the 
 invention of Mr. Fred. Ransome, 1848, is made by 
 dissolving common flint (silica) in heated caustic 
 alkali, adding fine sand. The mixture is pressed 
 into moulds and heated to redness. 
 
 RANTERS, a sect which arose in 1643, similar 
 to the Seekers, now termed Quakers. The name 
 is now applied to the Primitive Methodists, who 
 separated from the main body in 1810; see Wes- 
 leyans. 
 
 RAPE was punished with death by the Jews, 
 Bomans, and Goths; by mutilation and loss of 
 eyes in William I.'s reign. This was mitigated by 
 the statute of Westminster 1, 3 Edw. I. 1274. 
 Made felony by stat. Westminster 2, 12 Edw. III. 
 1338 ; and without benefit of clergy, 18 Eliz. 1575. 
 Kape was made punishable by transportation in 
 1841 ; by penal servitude for life, or a less period, 
 1861. 
 
 RAPHIA, a port of Palestine. Here Antiochus 
 III. of Syria was defeated by Ptolemy Philopater, 
 king of Egypt, 217 B.C. 
 
 RAPHOE, a bishopric in N. Ireland. St. 
 Columb-kille, a man of great virtue and learning, 
 and of royal blood, founded a monastery in this 
 place, and it was afterwards enlarged by other holy 
 men : but it is the received opinion that St. Eunan 
 erected the church into a cathedral, and was the 
 first bishop of the see in the 8th century. Baphoe 
 ■was united to the bishopric of Derry by act 3 & 4 
 Will. IV. 1833 ; see Bishops. 
 
 RAPPAHANNOCK, see Chancellorsville, and 
 Trials, 1865. 
 
 RASPBERRY, not named among the fruits 
 early introduced into this country from the conti- 
 nent. The Virginian raspberry {Rubus occiden- 
 talis) before 1696, and the flowering raspberry 
 (Rubus odoratus), about 1700, came from North 
 America. 
 
 RASTADT, Baden. Here the preliminaries of 
 a peace were signed, 6 March, 1714, by marshal 
 Villars on the part of the French king, and by 
 prince Eugene on the part of the emperor; the 
 German frontier was restored to the terms of the 
 peace of Byswick.— The CONGRESS of Ras- 
 TADT, to "treat of a general peace with the 
 Germanic powers, was commenced 9 Dec. 1797 ; 
 and negotiations were carried on throughout 1798. 
 The atrocious massacre of the French plenipoten- 
 tiaries at Bastadt by the Austrian regiment of 
 Szeltzler took place 28 April, 1799. 
 
 RATHMINES (near Dublin) . Colonel Jones, 
 governor of Dublin castle, made a sally out, routed 
 the marquis of Ormond at Bathmines, killed 4000 
 men, and took 2517 prisoners, with their cannon, 
 baggage, and ammunition, 2 Aug. 1649. 
 
 RATIONALISM, the doctrine of those who 
 reject a divine revelation and admit no other means 
 of acquiring knowledge but experience and reason. 
 The leading writers are Beimarus of Hamburg (died 
 1768), Paulus of Heidelberg, Eichhorn, Beinhard, 
 and Strauss. W. Lecky's " History of Bationalism 
 in Europe" appeared, July, 1865; and Dr. J. 
 Hurst's, April, 1867. 
 
 RATISBON (in Bavaria), was made a free 
 imperial city about 1200. Several diets have been 
 held here. A peace was concluded here between 
 France and the emperor of Germany, by which was 
 terminated the war for the Mantuan succession, 
 signed 13 Oct. 1630. In later times, it was at 
 Batisbon, in a diet held there, that the German 
 princes seceded from the Germanic empire, and 
 placed themselves under the protection of the 
 emperor Napoleon of France, 1 Aug. 1806. Batis- 
 bon was made an archbishopric in 1806 ; secularised 
 in 1810 ; was ceded to Bavaria in 1815 ; became 
 again an archbishopric in 1817. 
 
 RATTENING (from ratten, provincial for rat), 
 the removing and hiding workmen's tools as a 
 punishment for nonpayment to trades unions, or 
 opposition to them. Much "rattening" was dis- 
 closed at the commission of inquiry at Sheffield in 
 June 1867 ; and at Manchester Sept. foUowing ; see 
 Sheffield. 
 
 RAUCOUX (Belgium). Here marshal Saxe 
 and the French army totally defeated the allies 
 under prince Charles of Lorraine, II Oct. 1746. 
 
 RAVAILLAC'S MURDER of Henry IV. of 
 France, 14 May, 1610. The execution of the assassin 
 on 27 May was accompanied by most elaborate 
 tortures. 
 
 RAVENNA (on the Adriatic), a city of the 
 Papal states, founded by Greek colonists, fell under 
 the Boman power about 234 B.C. It was favoured 
 and embellished by the emperors, and Honorius 
 made it the capital of the Empire of the West about 
 a^d. 404. In 568 it became the capital of an 
 exarchate. It was subdued by the Lombards in 
 752, and their king, Astolphus, in 754 surrendered 
 it to Pepin, king of France, who gave it to the pope 
 Stephen, and thus laid the foundation of the tem- 
 poral power of the holy see. On the nth of April, 
 1512, a battle was fought between the French, 
 under Gaston de Foix (duke of Nemours and 
 nephew of Louis XII.), and the Spanish and Papal 
 armies. De Foix perished in the moment of his 
 victory, and his death closed the good fortune of the 
 French in Italy. Bavenna became part of the king- 
 dom of Italy in i860. 
 
 RE", ISLE OF (W. coast of France, near Bochelle). 
 Oyster beds planted here in 1862 have flourished. 
 See Rochelle. 
 
 READERS, a new order of ministrants in the 
 church of England, received the assent of the 
 archbishops and bishops in July, 1866. They were 
 not to be ordained or addressed as reverend. 
 
 READING (Berkshire) . Here Alfred defeated 
 the Danes, 871. The abbey was founded in 1121 
 by Henry I. The last abbot was hanged in 1539 
 for denying the king's supremacy. The palace 
 prison was erected 1850. 
 
 REALISTS, see Nominalists. 
 
 REAL PRESENCE, see Transubstantia- 
 tion. 
 
REAPING-MACHINES. 
 
 561 
 
 RECORDER. 
 
 REAPING-MACHINES. One was invented 
 in this country early in the present century, but 
 failed from its intricacies. At the meeting of the 
 British Association at Dundee, Sept. 1867, the rev. 
 Patrick Bell stated that he invented a reaping- 
 machine in 1826, which was used in 1827 ; the 
 principle being that on which the best American 
 machines are now constructed. On 15 Jan. 1868, 
 he was presented with a valuable testimonial, and 
 iooctf. in money. McCormick's American machine 
 was invented about 1831, and perfected in 1846 ; he 
 received a gold medal from the jurors of the Exhibi- 
 tion of 1851. About 200 patented; few good. 
 Hussey's machine, also American, exhibited at the 
 same time, was highly commended. 
 
 REASON was decreed to be worshipped as 
 a goddess by the French republicans, 10 Nov. 
 1793, and was personified by an actress. — Thomas 
 Paine's " Age of Reason" was published in 1794-5 i 
 Immanuel Kant's " Critique of Pure Reason," 
 ( " Kritik der reinen Vernunft "), 1781. 
 
 REBECCA RIOTS, see Wales, 1843. 
 
 REBELLIONS or Insurrections in 
 British History. Details of many are given 
 in separate articles. See Conspiracies. 
 
 Against William the conqueror, in favour of Edgar 
 Atheling, aided by the Scots and Danes, 1069. 
 
 By Odo of Bayeux and others, against William II. in 
 favour of his brother Robert, 1088 ; suppressed, 1090. 
 
 In favour of the empress Maude, 1139. Ended, 1153. 
 
 The rebellion of prince Richard against his father Henry 
 II. 1189. 
 
 Of the Barons, April, 1215. Compromised by the grant 
 of Magna Charta, 15 June following. 
 
 Of the Barons, 1261-67. 
 
 Of the lords spiritual and temporal against Edward II. 
 on account of his favourites, the Gavestons, 1312. 
 Again, on account of the Spencers, 1321. 
 
 Of Walter the Tyler, of Deptford, vulgarly called Wat 
 Tyler, occasioned by the brutal rudeness of a poll-tax 
 collector to his daughter. He killed the collector in 
 his rage, and raised a party to oppose the tax itself, 
 138 1 ; see Tyler. 
 
 In Ireland, when Roger, earl of March, the viceroy and 
 heir presumptive to the crown, was slain, 1398. 
 
 Of Henry, duke of Lancaster, who caused Richard II. to 
 be deposed, 1399. 
 
 Against king Henry IV. by a number of confederated 
 lords, 1402-3. 
 
 Against Henry V. by earl of Cambridge and other lords, 
 1415- 
 
 Of Jack Cade, against Henry VI. 1450 ; see Cade's Insur- 
 rection. 
 
 In favour of the house of York, 1452, which ended in the 
 imprisonment of Henry VI. and seating Edward IV. of 
 York on the throne, 1461. 
 
 Under Warwick and Clarence, 1470, which ended with 
 the expulsion of Edward IV. and the restoration of 
 Henry VI. the same year. 
 
 Under Edward IV. 1471, which ended with the death of 
 Henry VI. 
 
 Of the earl of Richmond, against Richard III. 1485, which 
 ended with the death of Richard. 
 
 Under Lambert Simnel, i486, who pretended to be 
 Richard III.'s nephew, Edward Plantagenet, earl of 
 Warwick ; his army was defeated, leaders slain, and he 
 was discovered to be a baker's son ; he was pardoned, 
 and employed by the king as a menial. 
 
 Under Perkin Warbeek, 1492 ; defeated ; executed 1499. 
 
 Under Thomas Plammock and Michael Joseph, in Corn- 
 wall, against taxes levied to pay the Scottish war ex- 
 penses. They marched towards London, and lord 
 Audley took the command at Wells. They were de- 
 feated at Blackheath, 22 June, and the three leaders 
 were executed, 28 June, 1497. 
 
 The "Pilgrimage of Grace" against Henry VIII. 1536-7. 
 
 Of the English in the West, to restore the ancient liturgy, 
 &c, 1549 ; suppressed same year. 
 
 In Norfolk, headed by Ket, the tanner, but soon sup- 
 pressed, Aug. 1549. 
 
 In favour of lady Jane Grey, against queen Mary. Lady 
 
 Jane was proclaimed queen of England on the death of 
 Edward VI. 10 July, 1553 ; but she resigned the crown 
 to Mary a few days afterwards : she was beheaded for 
 high treason, in the Tower, 12 Feb. 1554, aged 17. 
 Of sir Thomas Wyatt, son of the poet, and others, against 
 queen Mary's marriage with Philip of Spain, &c, fails ; 
 he is beheaded n April, 1554. • 
 Of the Roman catholic earls of Northumberland and 
 Westmoreland against queen Elizabeth, Nov. and Dec. 
 1567. The former fled to Scotland, but was given up 
 by the regent Morton and executed. 
 Of the Irish under the earl of Tyrone, 1599, suppressed 
 
 in 1601. 
 Under the earl of Essex, against queen Elizabeth, 1600 ; 
 
 it ended in his death, 1601. 
 Of the Irish under Roger More, sir Phelim O'Neil, &c, 
 
 against the English in Ireland, 1641-5. 
 The "Great Rebellion," 1641-60. 
 
 Rebellion of the Scots Covenanters, 1666 ; soon put down. 
 Under the duke of Monmouth, 1685 ; executed 15 July. 
 Of the Scots in favour of the Old Pretender, 1715 ; quelled 
 
 in 1716. 
 Of the Scots under the Young Pretender, 1745 ; suppressed 
 in 1746 ; lords Lovat, Balmerino, and Kilmarnock be- 
 headed. 
 Of the Americans on account of taxation, 1774. This 
 rebellion led to the loss of our chief North American 
 colonies, and the independence of the United States, 
 1782. 
 In Ireland, called the Great Rebellion, when great num- 
 bers took up arms, commenced 24 May, 1798 ; sup- 
 pressed next year. 
 Again in Ireland, under Robert Emmett, a gifted enthu- 
 siast, 23 July, 1803, when lord Kilwarden was killed 
 with several others by the insurgents. 
 Canadian Insurrection (which see), Dec. 1837 to Nov. 1838. 
 Of Chartists at Newport (which see), 4 Nov. 1839. 
 Smith O'Brien's silly Irish rebellion ; terminated iu the 
 defeat and dispersion of a multitude of his deluded 
 followers by sub-inspector Trantand about sixty police 
 constables, on Boulagh common, Ballingary, co. Tip- 
 perary, 29 July, 1848 ; see Ireland. 
 Sepoy mutiny in India (see India), 1857-8. 
 Of Fenians in Ireland ; see Fenians and Ireland, 1865-7. 
 
 RECEIPTS FOR MONEY, were first taxed by 
 a stamp duty in 1783. The act was amended in 
 1784, 1791 et seq., and receipts were taxed by a 
 duty varying to the amount of the money received, 
 in all transactions. Stamps required on bills of 
 exchange, notes, and receipts in Ireland, by stat. 
 35 Geo. III. 1795 ; see Bills of Exchange. The 
 uniform stamp of one penny on receipts, for all sums 
 above zl., was enacted by 16 & 17 Vict. c. 59 (4Aug. 
 1853) ; see Stamps. 
 
 RECIPROCITY ASSOCIATION, founded 
 at Manchester Sept. 1869, in consequence of the 
 restrictions on the importation of British manu- 
 factures into their territories imposed by foreign 
 governments. 
 
 RECIPROCITY TREATY between Great 
 Britain and the United States, regulating the rela- 
 tion between the latter and Canada, in regard to 
 trade, fisheries, &c, negotiated by lord Elgin, and 
 ratified 2 Aug. 1854. Its abrogation, proposed by the 
 United States government in 1864, was effected 17 
 March, 1866. -Its renewal was desired in the states 
 in 1867. 
 
 RECITATIVE, a species of singing differing 
 but little from ordinary speaking, and used for nar- 
 ratives in operas, is said to have been first employed 
 at Rome by Emilio del Cavaliere, who disputed the 
 claim of Rinuccini to the introduction of the opera, 
 1600 ; see Opera. 
 
 RECORDER, the principal judicial officer of 
 great corporations. The first recorder of London 
 was Jeffrey de Norton, alderman, 1298 ; right hon. 
 Russell Gurney, Q.C., the present recorder, was 
 elected Dec. 1856. The salary, originally 10I. per 
 annum, is now 2500J. 
 
RECORDS. 
 
 562 
 
 REFORMS. 
 
 RECORDS, Public, in England, began 
 
 to be regularly preserved in I IOO, by order of Henry 
 I. The repositories which possessed materials the 
 most ancient and interesting to the historian were, 
 the Chapter-house of Westminster Abbey, the Tower 
 of London, the Rolls Chapel, and the Queen's 
 Remembrancer's offices of the exchequer. The early 
 records of Scotland, going from London, were lost 
 by shipwreck in 1298. In Ireland, the council- 
 chamber and most of the records were burned, 1 7 1 1 . 
 Public Records act, 2 Vict. c. 94 (10 Aug. 1838). — 
 A new Record Office has been erected on the Rolls 
 estate, between Chancery and Fetter-lanes, to which 
 the records have been gradually removed. The 
 Record Commissioners commenced their publica- 
 tions in 1802. Mr. F. Thomas's valuable "Hand- 
 book to the Public Records," was published in 1853. 
 
 RECREATION, see Playground. 
 
 .RECREATIVE RELIGIONISTS, a name 
 
 given to an association of gentlemen for diffusing a 
 knowledge of natural religion by the aid of science, 
 formed in Dec. 1866. In Jan. 1867 lectures were 
 given on Sunday evenings at St. Martin's Hall, 
 London, by professor Huxley, Dr. W. B. Carpenter, 
 and others, sacred music being performed at intervals 
 during the evening. This was decided not to be an 
 infraction of the Sunday act, 21 Geo. III. c. 49, in 
 the trial, Baxter v. Baxter Langley, 19 Nov. 1868. 
 See Sunday Lecture Society. 
 
 RECRUITING, see Army, 31 Oct. 1866. 
 
 RECUSANTS, persons who refuse to attend 
 church, 1 Eliz. c. 2, 1559 ; dissenters relieved from 
 this act, 1689 ; it was repealed, 1844. 
 
 REDAN, a kind of field fortification ; see Russo- 
 Turkish War, 1855. 
 
 RED CRAGr, deposits of fossil remains on the 
 coast of Essex and Suffolk, so designated by Edward 
 Charlesworth about 1835. They are much used in 
 the manure manufacture. 
 
 RED CROSS on a white ground, the flag of 
 the Geneva Convention (which see). 
 
 REDEMPTORISTS, see Liguorians. 
 
 REDHILL, see Reformatory Schools. 
 
 RED RIVER SETTLEMENTS, a name 
 given to part of the Hudson bay settlements. 
 
 RED SEA. In 1826 Ehrenberg discovered that 
 the colour was due to marine plants, the Tricho- 
 dcsmium Erythrceum ; see Suez. 
 
 REFLECTORS, see Burning-glass. 
 
 REFORM ASSOCIATION, instituted at 
 Westminster to protect electors, 20 May, 1835. 
 
 REFORM BANQUETS, see France, 1847. 
 
 REFORM CLUB, established 1830. New 
 building finished, 1841. 
 
 REFORM in Parliament. Mr. Pitt's mo- 
 tion for a reform in parliament was lost by a majority 
 of 20, 7 May, 1782 ; of 144, 7 May, 1783 ; and of 74, 
 18 April, 1785 ; see Radicals. The measure of reform 
 by earl Grey's administration was proposed in the 
 house of commons by lord John Russell, 1 March, 1831. 
 
 bill op 1831. 
 
 First division ; second reading : for it, 302 ; against it, 
 301 ; 22 March. 
 
 On motion for a committee, general Gascoyne moved an 
 amendment, "that the number of representatives for 
 England and Wales ought not to be diminished. " Amend- 
 ment carried on a division, 299 to 291 ; 19 April. 
 
 The bill abandoned, and parliament dissolved, 23 April. 
 
 A new parliament assembled, 14 June. Bill again intro- 
 duced, 24 June. 
 
 Division on second reading : for it, 367 ; against it, 231 — ■ 
 majority, 136 ; 7 July. 
 
 Division on third reading of the bill : for it, 345 ; against 
 it, 236 — majority, 109 ; 22 Sept. 
 
 In the Lords: — first division, on second reading; lord 
 Whamcliffe moved, " that the bill be read that day six 
 months." For the amendment, 199 ; against it, 158 — 
 majority, forty-one ; 8 Oct. [Parliament prorogued, 
 20 Oct. 1831.] 
 
 ACT OF 1832.* 
 
 Read in the Commons a first time without a division, 12 
 Dec. 1831. Second reading ; division, viz. : for the bill, 
 324 ; against it, 162 — majority, 162 ; 17 Dec. 1831. Third 
 reading ; division, viz. : for the bill, 355 ; against it, 
 239 —majority for it, 116; 23 March, 1832. 
 
 In the Lords :— read a first time on motion of earl Grey, 
 27 March. Second reading : for the bill, 184 ; against 
 it, 175 — majority, nine ; 14 April. In the committee 
 lord Lyndhurst moved, " that the question of enfran- 
 chisement should precede that of disfranchisement." 
 The division was 151 and 116 — majority against minis- 
 ters, thirty-five, 7 May. 
 
 Resignation of ministers, 9 May; great public excitement 
 ensued, and they were induced to resume office on the 
 king granting them full power to secure majorities by 
 the creation of new peers. 
 
 In the Lords, the bill was carried through the committee, 
 30 May ; read a third time : 106 against 22 — majority, 
 eighty-four ; 4 June. Received the royal assent, 7 
 June, 1832. 
 
 The royal assent given to the Scotch reform bill, 17 July ; 
 and to the Irish one, 7 Aug, 1832. 
 
 ABORTIVE REFORM BILLS. 
 
 Lord John Russell introduced a new reform bill, 13 Feb. 
 1854, which was withdrawn, 11 April, 1854, in conse- 
 quence of the war with Russia. 
 
 On 28 Feb. 1859, Mr. Disraeli brought in a reform bill, 
 which was rejected by the commons on 31 March, by a 
 majority of 39. This led to a dissolution of parlia- 
 ment, and eventually to a change of ministry. 
 
 The new government (lords Palmerston and J. Russell) 
 brought forward a new bill, 1 March, i860 ; but with- 
 drew it, 11 June. No reform bill was brought forward 
 by the government, 1861-5 ; see Commons. 
 
 The discussion respecting parliamentary reform was re- 
 vived in the autumns of 1864 and 1865. 
 
 Mr. Baines' reform bill was rejected by the commons, 8" 
 May, 1865. 
 
 Mr. Gladstone introduced a. franchise bill, 12 March, 1866 r 
 after much discussion, it was read a second time, 28 
 April. A re-distribution of seats bill was introduced, 
 and incorporated with the franchise bill, 7 May ; an 
 amendment (on a clause, substituting " rateable " for 
 " clear yearly value ") was passed, in opposition to the 
 government, 19 June ; which led to the resignation of 
 the government, 26 June ; and the withdrawal of the 
 bill (see Adullam), 19 July, 1866. 
 
 Numerous great reform meetings : London, Hyde-park 
 (riotous), 23, 24 July ; Agricultural Hall, 30 July ; and 
 Guildhall, 8 Aug. ; Manchester, 24 Sept. ; Leeds, 8 
 Oct. ; Glasgow, 16 Oct. ; Edinburgh, 17 Nov. ; Con- 
 ference at Manchester, 19 Nov. 1866. 
 
 Reform demonstration of trades-unions in London ; pro- 
 cession of about 25,000 ; great order observed, 3 Dec. , 
 1866. 
 
 Procession of about 18,000 men to Agricultural Hall, 
 Islington: good order kept ; 11 Feb. 1867. 
 
 Mr. Disraeli announced his plan of proceeding with re- 
 form by 13 resolutions, n Feb. ; these withdrawn, 26 
 Feb. 1867. 
 
 " Ten Minutes' bill " introduced and withdrawn, 25 Feb. 
 1867. 
 
 [It comprised a 67. franchise for boroughs, and 20I. for 
 counties. Said by sir John Pakington to have been 
 agreed to in the last ten minutes of a cabinet council.] 
 
 * By this "Act to amend the Representation of the 
 People in England and Wales " (2 & 3 WiU. IV. c. 45), 56 
 boroughs in England were disfranchised (schedule A.), 30 
 were reduced to one member only (B.) ; 22 new boroughs 
 were created to send two members (C), and 20 to send 
 one member (D.), and other important changes were 
 made. 
 
EEFOEMATION. 
 
 563 
 
 EEGENT'S CANAL. 
 
 New bill (with household suffrage) introduced 18 March ; 
 read second time, 27 March, 1867. 
 
 The "Tea-room meeting" of liberals (Messrs. Owen Stan- 
 ley, Dillwyn, Grant Duff, and others), who agree to 
 support the bill in opposition to Mr. Gladstone's reso- 
 lution, which is withdrawn, and the bill goes into 
 committee, 8 April ; Mr. Gladstone's amendment re- 
 jected by 22 (for 288, against 310), 12 April, 1867. 
 
 Peaceable reform meetings at Birmingham, 22 April ; 
 Hyde Park, 6 May ; National Reform Union (first 
 meeting), 15 May, 1867. 
 
 ACTS OF 1867-8. 
 
 The new Reform bill passed by the commons, 15-16 July ; 
 by the lords (with amendments, when lord Derby said, 
 that it was " a great experiment," and " a leap in the 
 dark ") 6 Aug. ; received the royal assent, 15 Aug. 
 1867.* 
 
 Scotch reform bill introduced by lord advocate, 17 Feb. ; 
 passed 13 July, 1868. 
 
 Irish bill introduced by the earl of Mayo, 19 March ; 
 passed 13 July, 1868. 
 
 The Reform league was dissolved 13 March, 1869. 
 
 EEFOEMATION, The. Efforts for the 
 reformation of the church may be traced to the 
 reign of Charlemagne, when Paulinus, bishop of 
 Aquileia, employed his voice and pen to accomplish 
 it. The principal reformers were Wickliffe, Huss, 
 Jerome of Prague, Savonarola, Erasmus, Luther, 
 Zuinglius, Tyndal, Calvin, Melanchthon, Cranmer, 
 Latimer, Knox, and Browne. Luther thus charac- 
 terised himoelf and his fellow reformers : ' ' Ees non 
 Verba — Luther." "Verba non Res — Erasmus." 
 "Reset Verba — Melanchthon. " "Nee Verba nee 
 Res — Carlstadt ;" see WicMiffites, Protestants^ Cal- 
 vinists, Lutherans, Presbyterianism, &c. The eras 
 of the reformation are as follows : — 
 
 In France (Albigenses) about 1177 
 
 In England (Wicldiffc) 1360 
 
 In Bohemia (Huss) 1405 
 
 In Italy (Jerome Savonarola) . . ... 1498 
 
 In Germany (Luther) 15 17 
 
 In Switzerland (Zuinglius) 1519 
 
 In Denmark (Andreas Bodenstein) .... 1521 
 
 In Prussia 1527 
 
 In France (Calvin) ■ see Huguenots .... 1529 
 
 Protestants first so called ,, 
 
 In Sweden (Petri) 1530 
 
 In England (Henry VIII.) 1534 
 
 In Ireland (Archbishop George Browne) . . . 1535 
 In England, completed (Cranmer, Bucer, Fagius, 
 <fec), 1547 ; annulled by Mary, 1553; restored by 
 
 Elizabeth 1558 
 
 In Scotland (Knox), established 1560 
 
 In the Netherlands, established .... 1562 
 
 * This act is divided into three parts : — 
 
 I. Franchises. Boroughs : All householders rated for 
 relief of the poor ; lodgers, resident for twelve months, 
 and paying 10I. a year. Counties : Persons of property of 
 the clear annual value of 5L ; and occupiers of lands or 
 tenements paying 12?. a year. At a contested election for 
 any county or borough represented by three members, no 
 person to vote for more than 2 candidates ; in London, 
 to vote for 3 only. 
 
 Disfranchised : Totnes ; Reigate ; Great Yarmouth ; 
 and Lancaster. 
 
 II. Distribution or Seats : Boroughs with less than 
 10,000 population, to return one member only (38 in 
 Schedule A). Manchester, Liverpool, Birmingham, and 
 Leeds, to have 3 members instead of 2. 
 
 Chelsea (with Fulham, Hammersmith, and Kensington) 
 made a borough : Merthyr Tydvil, and Salford, to return 
 two members ; Tower Hamlets divided into two boroughs 
 — Hackney, and Tower Hamlets. (Other new boroughs 
 in Schedule B.) University of London to return one 
 member. 
 
 III. Supplementary Provisions : Registration, &c. 
 Boundary Commissioners (which see). Parliament not to 
 be dissolved on any future demise of the crown. Mem- 
 bers holding offices of profit from the crown not to vacate 
 their seats on acceptance of another office. 
 
 EEFOEMATOEY SCHOOLS, for juvenile 
 delinquents.* The Reformatory School at Mettray, 
 near Tours in France, was founded in 1839 by M. 
 de Metz, formerly a councillor of Paris, warmly 
 seconded by the vicomte de Courcelles, who gave 
 the estate on which the establishment is placed. 
 The one at Redhill, Surrey is situated on land 
 purchased in 1849 by the Philanthropic Society, 
 and under the direction of the rev. Sydney Turner. 
 The first stone of the building was laid 30 April, 
 1849, by the prince consort. The inmates of these 
 establishments are instructed in farm labour, and 
 divided into so-called families. In 1854 the Juvenile 
 Offenders act was passed. In 1851 and 1853 great 
 meetings were held on this subject; and in Aug. 
 1856, the first grand conference of the National 
 Reformatory Union was held. 
 
 North-West London Preventive and Reformatory 
 Institution in the New-road, established : all kinds 
 of trades taught 1852 
 
 Acts for establishing reformatory schools passed, 
 1857, 1858, 1866, 1868 ; amended . . 1872 
 
 Fifty-one reformatory schools in England and nine 
 in Ireland 3:863 
 
 An international exhibition of the works of these 
 schools at the Agricultural Hall, Islington, near 
 London, opened by the prince of "Wales . . . 1865 
 
 "EEFOEMED CHUECH" (Calvinistic), 
 established in Holland and in some parts of Ger- 
 many. 
 
 BEFBESHMENT HOUSES for the sale 
 of wine, &c, are licensed in pursuance of an act 
 passed in i860, amended in 1861 : a new act passed 
 in 1864, 1865. See Licences. 
 
 BEFUGES, see Poor 1864. 
 
 BEFUGEES' BENEVOLENT FUND in- 
 stituted in consequence of the war, at a great meeting 
 held at the Mansion-house, London, 21 Oct. 1870. 
 
 BEGALIA, see Crown. 
 
 EEGELATION. See Lee. 
 
 EEGENCY BILLS. One was passed 1751. 
 One was proposed to parliament in consequence of 
 the mental illness of George III., and debated 10 
 Dec. 1788. It was relinquished on his majesty's 
 recovery, 26 Feb. 1789. The return of the malady 
 led to the prince of Wales (afterwards George IV.) 
 being sworn in before the privy council as regent cf 
 the kingdom, 5 Feb. 1811. The Regency Bill pro- 
 viding for the administration of the government, 
 should the crown descend to the princess Victoria 
 while under eighteen years of age, passed I Will. 
 IV., 23 Dec. 1830. A Regency Bill appointing 
 prince Albert regent in the event of the demise of 
 the queen, should her next lineal successor be under 
 age : passed 4 Aug. 1840. 
 
 EEGENTS, see Protectorates. 
 
 EEGENT'S CANAL, begun at Paddington, 
 where it joins a cut to the Grand Junction, passes 
 under Maida-hill, continues its course by the Re- 
 gent's -park to Islington, where another subterranean 
 excavation, about three-quarters of a mile in length, 
 was formed for its passage. It then proceeds by 
 Hoxton, Hackney, Mile-end, to Limehouse, where 
 it joins the Thames. The whole length of it is 
 nine miles ; it comprises twelve locks and thirty- 
 seven bridges. Opened 1 Aug. 1820. 
 
 * It was calculated (about 1856) that there were in 
 London 30,000, and in England 100,000 youths under 
 17 leading a vagabond life, and that out of 15,000 of those 
 who were committed for trial nearly half were in custody 
 for the first time. 
 
 2 
 
EEGENT'S PARK 
 
 564 
 
 RELIGION. 
 
 REGENT'S PARK, originally part of the 
 grounds belonging to a palace of queen Elizabeth, 
 near to the north end of Tottenham court-road, 
 pulled down in 1791. Since 1600, the property was 
 let to various persons, but the leases having expired 
 it reverted to the crown;, and in 1814 great im- 
 provements were commenced under the direction of 
 Mr. Nash. The park consists of about 4^0 acres; 
 within it are the gardens of the Zoological Society 
 and the Royal Botanical Society. During a frost 
 on 15 Jan. 1867, the rotten ice of one of the lakes 
 gave way, and about 200 persons were immersed, of 
 whom above 40 perished. 
 
 REGGIO, see Bhegium. 
 
 REGIMENTS of Infantry were formed in 
 France about 1588 ; see Infantry. The following 
 are the approximate dates of the establishment of 
 several British regiments : — 
 
 CAVALRY. 
 
 Oxford Blues are erroneously said to have been 
 formed in the reign of Henry VIII. ; they derive 
 their name from their colonel, the earl of Oxford, 
 
 1661 
 
 Three Indian regiments (19th, 20th, and 21st) added 
 
 Aug. „ 
 The Dragoon Guards, the Royal Irish, and the Scots 
 
 Greys were formed hy James II. , about . 1684-6 
 Several regiments of Light Dragoons were armed 
 
 with lances and termed Lancers . . Sept. 1816 
 
 INFANTRY. 
 
 1st Royal or Royal Scots regiment, 1633 ; the old title 
 
 resumed . ... Dec. 1871 
 
 Coldstream Guards, established by Monk, in . 1660 
 3rd Buffs, represent London train bands and have 
 
 special privileges 
 
 2nd Queen's Royal 1661 
 
 4th King's Own 1685 
 
 5th Northumberland Fusiliers . . . ■ . ,, 
 
 26th Cameronian 1689 
 
 100th Canadian 1858 
 
 101st to 109th (Indian) added . . . Aug. 1861 
 The Highland regiments are the 42nd, 71st, 72nd, 
 78th, 79th, 92nd, and 93rd. See Army Organization. 
 
 REGISTERS. The registering of deeds and 
 conveyances disposing of real estates was ap- 
 pointed to be effected in Yorkshire and in Middlesex, 
 2 Anne, 1703, et seq. Greater security was thus 
 giveu to purchasers and mortgagees ; and the value 
 of estates increased in those counties. Wills have 
 "been for a series of years kept and registered, in 
 London, at Doctors' Commons; see Wills. The 
 registering of shipping in the Thames was com- 
 menced, 1786; and throughout England, 1787; and 
 several acts and amendments of acts have since 
 followed for keeping and improving registers. 
 
 REGISTERS, PAROCHIAL, were established 
 by Cromwell, lord Essex, by which the dates of 
 "births, marriages, and burials, became ascertainable, 
 27 Henry YIII. 1530-8. This measure was opposed 
 by the people, who feared some new taxation. A 
 stamp-tax was laid on registers in 1784. Laws for 
 their better regulation were enacted in 1813 et seq. 
 The great Registration act (introduced by lord John 
 Russell), 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 86, passed 17 Aug. 1836; 
 see Bills of Mortality, &c. 
 
 REGISTRATION of Voters was enacted 
 by the Reform act, passed 7 June, 1832, and by 
 acts passed in 1868 ; see Revising Barristers. 
 
 REGIUM DONUM (Royal gift), an allowance 
 from the sovereign for the maintenance of the Pres- 
 byterian ministers in Ireland, commenced by 
 Charles II. in 1672, and revived by William III. in 
 1690, was commuted by the Irish Church act passed 
 June, 187 1. The allowance to certain protestant dis- 
 
 senting ministers in Ireland was given up by them in 
 1857, in deference to the wishes of English dissenters. 
 
 REGULATION of the Forces Act passed 
 17 Aug. 1871. See Army. 
 
 REICHENBACH (Prussia). Here Duroc 
 was killed during the conflicts between the French 
 and the allies, 22 May, 1813 ; see Bautzen. Here 
 was signed a subsidy treaty between Russia, Prussia, 
 and England, whereby the last engaged to provide 
 means for carrying on the war against Napoleon I. 
 on certain conditions, 14, 15 June, 1813. Austria 
 joined the alliance soon after. 
 
 REICHSRATH, the representative council of 
 the empire of Austria, reconstituted by decree 5 
 March; met on 31 May, i860. In May, 1861, the 
 upper house consisted of 17 spiritual, 55 hereditary, 
 and 39 peers. The lower house consisted of 136 
 elected deputies. No representatives came from 
 Hungary, Transylvania, Venetia, the Banat, Sla- 
 vonia, Croatia, and Istria. The Reichsrath was 
 abolished by a rescript, 21 Sept. 1865, with the 
 view of restoring autonomy to Hungary and other 
 provinces. It again met 20 May, 1867. 
 
 REIGATE (Surrey), sent two members to 
 parliament in the reiffn of Edward I. ; lost one by 
 the Reform Act of 1832, and was wholly disfran- 
 chised for corruption by that of 1867. 
 
 REIGN OF TERROR. Maximilien Robes- 
 pierre headed the populace in the Champ de Mars, 
 in Paris, demanding the dethronement of the king, 
 17 July, 1 791. He was triumphant in 1793, an0 - 
 numbers of eminent men and citizens were sacrificed 
 during his sanguinary administration. Billaud 
 Varennes denounced the tyranny of Robespierre in 
 the tribune, 28 July, 1794. Cries of "Down with 
 the tyrant!" resounded through the hall; and he 
 was immediately ordered to the place of execution, 
 and suffered death, with many of his companions ; 
 see France. This has been termed the Bed Terror. 
 The reaction, disgraced by many atrocious acts of 
 wanton cruelty, has been termed the White Terror. 
 The Jesuits were then conspicuous in the destruc- 
 tion of their adversaries. 
 
 REIGNS OF SOVEREIGNS. The average 
 duration, according to Newton, is 19 years each; 
 according to Hales 22J years ; that of the sovereigns 
 of England being 23! years, and that of the popes, 
 75 years. Pius IX. is the first pope who has reigned 
 above 25 years, 1871. See Popes. 
 
 RELICS, the trade in these became general in 
 the 7th century, fragments of bones, &c. being 
 brought from Jerusalem. The sale of relics was 
 prohibited by pope Innocent III. 1198, without 
 effect. 
 
 RELIEF CHURCH, a secession from the 
 church of Scotland, founded by Thomas Gillespie, 
 who was deposed from his ministry for opposing the 
 doctrine of passive obedience to the law of the 
 church of Scotland respecting the settlement of 
 ministers, 23 May, 1752. The church was consti- 
 tuted as the "presbytery of relief," 22 Oct. 1761. 
 The Relief and Secession churches were united as 
 the United Presbyterian Church, 13 May, 1847. 
 
 RELIGION (from reliyo, I bind again, in the 
 sense of a vow or oath) comprehends a belief in the 
 being and perfections of God, and obedience to his 
 commandments. The Jewish religion is set forth in 
 the Old and the Christian religion in the New Testa- 
 ment. Departure from these scriptures has been 
 the origin of all corrupt forms of religion, as foretold 
 
EEMONSTEANCE. 
 
 565 
 
 EESEEVE FOECES. 
 
 in them. See Mahometanism, and other religions 
 and sects under their names. The population of 
 the globe with reference to religious worship, is 
 given by Balbi (who assumed the total population 
 to be 1,050,000,000), and Dieterici (who assumed it 
 to be 1,288,000,000), as follows : 
 
 Balbi (1836). Dieterici (1859). 
 
 Jews 4,500,000 5,000,000 
 
 Christians .... 225,000,000 335,000,000 
 .Konian Catiiolics . . . 160,000,000 170,000,000 
 Mahometans .... 155,000,000 160,000,000 
 Idolaters, <fec. not professing the 
 Jewish, Christian, or Mahome- 
 tan worship .... 665,500,000 800,000,000 
 Estimate in 1869 : 1,375,000,000. 
 
 Eoman Catholics 195,460,200 
 
 Protestants 100,385,000 
 
 Eastern church 81,478,000 
 
 Buddhists 360,000,000 
 
 Other Asiatic religions .... 260,000,000 
 
 . . . . . 200,000,000 
 
 Mahometans 165,000,000 
 
 Jews ........ 7,000,000 
 
 In Europe (estimated) 1869 (Almanack de Gotlia.) 
 Boman Catholics . ... 144,000,000 
 
 Protestants 68,500,000 
 
 Greek Church. 68,000,000 
 
 Jews ........ 4,400,000 
 
 Mahometans 6,642,000 
 
 EEMONSTBANCE, The Gband, drawn 
 
 up by the house of commons, and presented to king 
 Charles I., 1 Dee. 1641. It consisted of 206 articles, 
 dwelt bitterly on all the king's illegal and oppres- 
 sive acts, and was printed by order of the house. 
 
 EEMONSTEANTS, see Armmians. 
 
 EENAISSANCE, a term applied to the revival 
 of the classic style of art at the beginning of the 
 16th century, under the patronage of the Medici 
 and others ; see Painters, and Sculptors. 
 
 EENDSBUEG (Holstein), was taken by the 
 imperialists in 1627 ; by the Swedes in 1643 ; and by 
 the Prussians and confederate troops in 1848. The 
 first diet of Schleswig and Holstein met here 3 
 April, 1848. It was re-occupied by the Danes in 
 1852, and taken by the Prussians after a serious 
 conflict, 21 July, 1864. 
 
 EENNES (capital of Brittany, N. W. France). 
 Here was established by Henry II., in 1553, the 
 parliament so celebrated for its independence, 
 especially in its struggle with the court, 1788-89. 
 On 20 May, 1788, it declared infamous every one 
 who should take part in the cour pleniere then pro- 
 posed, but afterwards suppressed. 
 
 EENTS said to have been first made payable in 
 money, instead of in kind, about 1135. Numerous 
 statutes have been enacted in various reigns to 
 define the relations and regulate the dealings 
 between landlord and tenant. 8 & 9 Vict. c. 106 
 (1845) regulates leases. By the act 8 Anne, 1709, 
 no goods are removable from tenements under an 
 execution until the rent shall have been paid to the 
 landlord by the sheriff, 1 709. The rental of England, 
 including land, houses, and mines, was 6,000,000^. 
 about the year 1600, and twelve years' purchase the 
 value of land. About 1690, the rental amounted to 
 14,000,000^., and the land was worth eighteen 
 years' purchase. Davenant on the Revenues, The 
 rental of the United Kingdom has been estimated 
 in the present century at 127,000,000^. ; see Land, &c. 
 
 EEPEAL op the Union, Ieeland. An 
 
 Irish association was formed with this object under 
 
 the auspices of Mr. O'Connell, in 1829. See Home 
 government. 
 
 A proclamation of the lord lieutenant prohibited the 
 meetings of a society " leagued for the purpose of 
 procuring a repeal of the union, under the name 
 of the Irish Society for Legal and Legislative 
 Belief, or the Anti-Union Society " . 18 Oct. 1830 
 The commons, by a majority of 484, reject Mr. 
 
 O'Connell's motion for repeal . 27 April, 1834 
 
 A new association in 1841, 1842, and 1843 became 
 more violent. Assemblies of the lower classes 
 of the people were held in the last-named year, 
 in various parts of Ireland, some of them 
 amounting to 150,000 persons, and called ' ' monster 
 meetings." 
 A great meeting at Trim, 16 March ; other meetings 
 were held at Mullingar, Cork, and Longford, 
 on 14, 21, and 28 May, respectively ; at Drogheda, 
 Kilkenny, Mallow, and Dundalk, on 5, 8, 11, and 
 29 June ; at Donnybrook and Baltinglass, 3 and 
 20 July ; at Tara, 15 Aug. ; at Loughrea, Clifton, 
 and Lismore, 10, 17, and 24 Sept. ; and at 
 
 Mullaghmast 1 Oct. 1843 
 
 A meeting to be held at Clontarf, on 8 Oct. was 
 prevented by government ; and Mr. O'Connell and 
 his chief associates were brought to trial for 
 political conspiracy, 15 Jan. 1844 : an d convicted 
 12 Feb. ; but the sentence was reversed by the 
 house of lords, 4 Sept. ; see Trials. 
 The association for the repeal of the union con- 
 tinued for some time under the direction of Mr. 
 John O'Connell, but was little regarded. 
 The total "repeal rent" is said to have amounted 
 
 to 134,379^. 
 A fruitless attempt was made in Dublin to revive 
 
 repeal agitation 4 Dec. i860 
 
 EEPOETTNG The publication of the debates 
 in parliament is forbidden as a breach of privilege, 
 but was virtually conceded, after a severe struggle, 
 in 1771.* Beporters' galleries were erected in the 
 houses of parliament after the fire of 1834. To the 
 unfettered liberty of reporting we doubtless owe 
 much of our freedom and good government; see 
 under Law. By the verdict for the defendant in 
 the case of "Wason v. The Times (for libel) reports 
 of parliamentary debates were decided to be privi- 
 leged, Nov. 1868. 
 
 EEPEESENTATION" of the People 
 Act fob England, passed 15 Aug. 1867; for 
 
 Ireland and Scotland, 13 July, 1868 ; see Reform. 
 
 BEPUBLICANS, see Democrats. Sir Charles 
 Dilke, M.P. professed himself a republican at public 
 meetings and was much applauded, Nov. 1871 ; 
 but at some places his appearance led to riotous 
 proceedings. His motion for returns respecting the 
 expenditure of the civil list by the queen was nega- 
 tived in the house of commons (2—276), 19 March, 
 1872. A national republican conference of delegates 
 was held at Sheffield, 1 Dec. 1872, when a national 
 flag was adopted. 
 
 EEPUBLICS, see Athens, Rome, Genoa, 
 Venice, France (1792, 1848, 1870), an&Spain (1873). 
 
 EEOJJESTS, COURTS OF; see Court of Con- 
 science. 
 
 EESEEVE FOECES. In the summer of 1859, 
 acts were passed to provide for the establishment 
 of a military reserve force of men who have been in 
 her majesty's service (not to exceed 20,000), and a 
 volunteer reserve force of seamen not to exceed 
 * Very inaccurate reports of parliamentary debates 
 were inserted in the Gentleman's Magazine and other 
 periodicals in the middle of the last century. Miller, 
 printer of the London Evening Mail, was arrested in the 
 city of London, by order of the house of commons, for 
 publishing the debates, but was discharged by the lord 
 mayor, who for doing this was sent to the Tower, where 
 he remained until the end of the session. No opposition 
 was made to the publication of the debates in the next 
 session, 1772. 
 
RESPIRATORS. 
 
 566 
 
 REVIVALS. 
 
 30,000. These acts were consolidated and amended 
 in 1867. 
 RESPIRATORS, see Charcoal and Fireman. 
 
 RESTORATION, The, of king Charles II. 
 to the crown of England, after an interregnum of 
 eleven years and four months, between 30 Jan. 16,19, 
 when Charles I. was beheaded, and 29 May, 1660, 
 when Charles II. entered London amidst the accla- 
 mations of the people. 
 
 RETREAT of the Ten Thousand 
 
 GREEKS, who had joined the army of the younger 
 Cyrus in his revolt against his brother, Artaxerxes 
 Mnemon. The Greeks were victors, but Cyrus was 
 defeated and slain at the battle of Cunaxa, 401 B.C. 
 Artaxerxes having enticed the Greek leaders into 
 his power and killed them, Xenophon was called to 
 the command of his countrymen. Under continual 
 alarms from sudden attacks, he led them across 
 rapid rivers, through vast deserts, over the tops of 
 mountains, till he reached the sea. The Greeks re- 
 turned home after a march of 1155 parasangs or 
 leagues (3465 miles), which was performed in 215 
 days, after the absence of fifteen months. This 
 retreat has been immortalised by the account given 
 by its conductor, in his "Anabasis Cyri" (Expedi- 
 tion of Cyrus). 
 
 REUSS-GREIZ and REUSS-SCHLEIZ, 
 
 two principalities in central Germany, with a united 
 population of 131,986 in 186". The reigning family 
 sprang from Ekbert, count of Osterode, in the 10th 
 century. The princely dignity was conferred by 
 the emperor Sigismond in 1426. 
 1859. Henry XXII., prince of Reuss-Greiz, 8 Nov. ; born 
 
 28 March, 1846. 
 1867. Henry XI V., prince of Reuss-Schleiz, 11 July ; born 
 
 28 May, 1832. 
 
 REVELATION, see Apocalypse. 
 
 REVENUE and Expenditure of Eng- 
 land. The revenue collected for the civil list, and for 
 all the other charges of government, as well ordinary 
 as extraordinary, was 1,200,000^. per annum, in 
 1660, the first after the restoration of Charles II. In 
 1690 it was raised to 6,000,000^., every branch of the 
 revenue being anticipated ; this was the origin of 
 the funds and the national debt, 2 William and 
 Mary. Salmon. The revenue laws were amended 
 in 1861. Previously to 1854 there had been an 
 average surplus of 2,500,0001?. since 1849. Incon- 
 sequence of the Russian war the deficiency in 1854 
 was 3,209,059^.; in 1855, 21,141,183^.; in 1856, 
 10,104,412^. In 1857 there wasaM»7^Ksof36,097^. ; 
 in 1858, of 1,127,657^.; in 1859, a deficiency of 
 2,019,584^. 
 
 PUBLIC REVENUE. 
 
 "William I. estimated ,£400,000 
 
 William Rufus 350,000 
 
 Henry 1 300,000 
 
 Stephen 250,000 
 
 Henry II 200,000 
 
 Richard 1 150,000 
 
 John ......... 100,000 
 
 Henry III 80,000 
 
 Edward 1 150,000 
 
 Edward II 100,000 
 
 Edward III 154,000 
 
 Richard II 130,000 
 
 Henry rv. 100,000 
 
 Henry V 76,643 
 
 Henry VI 64,976 
 
 Edward IV * * * 
 
 Edward V 100,000 
 
 Richard III. 130,000 
 
 Henry VII 400,000 
 
 Henry VIII 800,000 
 
 E '.ward VI 400,000 
 
 Mary 450,000 
 
 Elizabeth 500,000 
 
 James I. ....... 600,000 
 
 Charles I. 895,819 
 
 Commonwealth 1.517,24 
 
 Charles II 1,400,000 
 
 James II 2,001,855 
 
 William III 3,895,205 
 
 Anne (at the Union) 5,691,803 
 
 George 1 6,762,643 
 
 George II 8,522,540 
 
 George III., 1788 15.572.971 
 
 ,, 1800, about 38,000,000 
 
 United Kingdom, 1820 .... 65,599,570 
 
 George IV. , 1825 62,871,300 
 
 W T illiam IV., 1830 55, 431, 317 
 
 1835 50,494,732 
 
 Victoria, 1845, net 53.060,354 
 
 ,, 1850 52,810,680 
 
 1853 54,430,344 
 
 
 Revenue. 
 
 Expenditure. 
 
 1855, net . 
 
 1856 .... 
 
 1857. 
 
 1858 .... 
 
 £63,364,605 
 68,008,623 
 66,056,055 
 61,812,525 
 
 £65,692,962 
 88,428,345 
 75,588,667 
 68,123,859 
 
 1859, 31 March 
 i860 . 
 
 1863 . 
 
 1864 . 
 
 1865 . 
 1866 . 
 1867 . 
 
 1870 . 
 1871 
 1872 . 
 1873 
 
 gross 
 
 Gross 
 Revenue. 
 
 £65,477,284 
 72,089,669 
 70,603,561 
 70,208,964 
 70,313,437 
 67,812,292 
 69.434.568 
 69,600,219 
 72,591,991 
 75.454.252 
 69,945,220 
 74,708,314 
 76,608,770 
 
 Gross 
 
 Expenditure, 
 
 exclusive of 
 
 Fortifications. 
 
 £64,663 
 69,502 
 69,302 
 67,056 
 66,462 
 65.914 
 66,780 
 71,236. 
 72,069 
 68,864 
 69,548 
 71.490 
 70.714 
 
 008 
 286 
 207 
 357 
 .396 
 242 
 961 
 752 
 539 
 020 
 448 
 
 The weekly instead of the quarterly publication of the 
 public revenue and expenditure was begun by Mr. Robert 
 Lowe, the chancellor of the exchequer, 16 Feb. 1870. 
 
 By an act passed 31 July, 1868, revenue officers are per- 
 mitted to vote forthe election of members of parliament. 
 
 Above 100 statutes relating to inland revenue fell into 
 disuse 1 Jan. 1871. 
 
 REVIEWS. The Journal des Scavans, pub- 
 lished on 5 Jan. 1665, by Denis de Salo, under the 
 name of Hedouville, was the parent of critical 
 journals. It was soon imitated throughout Europe, 
 and was itself translated into various languages. It 
 is still published. George III. spoke of this publi- 
 cation to Dr. Johnson, in the private interview with 
 which he was honoured by his majest)', in the 
 library of the queen's house, in Feb. 1767. Boswell. 
 The Bibliotheque Anglaise came out in 1716-27. 
 For Military Reviews, see Army and Volunteers. 
 
 Monthly Review . 
 
 1749 1 Southern America. 
 
 . 1828 
 
 Critical 
 
 1756 I Dublin 
 
 • 1836 
 
 Anti-Jacobin . 
 
 1798 i North British 
 
 . 1844 
 
 Edinburgh . 
 
 1802 British Quarterly 
 
 - 1844 
 
 Quarterly 
 
 1809 1 National 
 
 • 1855 
 
 Eclectic 
 
 1 81 3 | Saturday . 
 
 
 North American . 
 
 1815 1 Fortnightly . 
 
 . 1865 
 
 Retrospective . 
 
 1820 1 Contemporary . 
 
 . 1866 
 
 Westminster . 
 
 1824 | Academy 
 
 . 1869 
 
 REVISING BARRISTERS* COURTS,. to 
 
 examine the lists of voters for members of parlia- 
 ment, were instituted by the Eeform Act of 1832. 
 
 REVIVALS on the subject of religion arose in 
 the United States in 1857. In the autumn of 1859, 
 
EEVOLUTIONAEY CALENDAE. 567 
 
 EIBBONISM. 
 
 they began in Scotland, the north of Ireland (par- 
 ticularly Belfast), and England. Many meetings 
 were held for prayers and preaching throughout the 
 week, as well as on Sundays. The " twelve days' 
 mission," a series of revival services, took place in 
 many London churches during advent 1869. 
 
 EEVOLUTIONAEY CALENDAE, see 
 
 French Revolution, and Calendar. 
 
 EEVOLUTIONS :— 
 
 The Assyrian empire destroyed, and that of the 
 Medes and Persians founded by Cyrus the Great, 
 
 B.C. 536 
 'The Macedonian empire founded on the destruction 
 of the Persian, by the defeat of Darius Codoma- 
 
 nus, by Alexander the Great 331 
 
 'The Roman empire established on the ruins of the 
 
 republic by Julius Csesar 47 
 
 The empire of the Western Franks begun under 
 
 Charlemagne a.d. 800 
 
 In Portugal 1640 
 
 In England 1649 and 1688 
 
 In Russia 1730 and 1762 
 
 In North America 1775 
 
 In Venice 1797 
 
 In Sweden 1772 and 1809 
 
 In Holland, 1795 ; counter-revolution . . . .1813 
 
 In Poland i7°4> *795> and 1S30 
 
 In the Netherlands ,, 
 
 In Brunswick ,, 
 
 In Brazil 1831 
 
 In Hungary 1848 
 
 In Rome 1798 and 1848 
 
 In France . . 1789, 1830, 1848, 1851, 1870, and 1871 
 
 In Italy 1859 aEL( i J 86o 
 
 In United States 1860-5 
 
 In Danubian principalities 1866 
 
 In Papal States, suppressed .... Oct. 1867 
 
 In Spain Sept. 1868 
 
 [See the countries respectively.] 
 
 EEVOLVEES, see Pistols. 
 
 EEVUE DES DEUX MONDES,. the 
 
 French literary and historical periodical published 
 on the 1st and 15th of each month, first appeared in 
 183 1. It includes among its contributors the most 
 eminent writers in France. 
 
 EEYNAED THE FOX, "Eeineke 
 PuCHS," a satirical epic in low German, in which 
 beasts are actors and speakers, was first printed as 
 Eeineke Vos, at Lubeck in 1498, and professes to be 
 written by Hinreck van Alkmer. It has been fre- 
 quently translated. Goethe's version in High (or 
 literary) German hexameters appeared in 1794. 
 Jacob Grimm has shown that the subject-matter of 
 this "Thier-sage" or "beast-fable" is very ancient, 
 many incidents being found in Pilpay and other 
 oriental writers. A poem, entitled " der Eeinaert," 
 in Flemish, was known in the nth century; Cax- 
 ton's translation in English prose was printed 148 1 ; 
 a poetic English translation of Goethe's version, by 
 T. J. Arnold, appeared in 1855. 
 
 EEZONVILLE, Battle of, 18 Aug. 1870, 
 
 see Metz. 
 
 EHEA, see China Grass. 
 
 EHE", Isle OF (W. France), see Rochelle. 
 
 EHEGIUM (now Eeggio), S. Italy, a Greek 
 colony, nourished in the 5th century, B.C. It was 
 held by the Campanian legion, 281-271, afterwards 
 severely punished for its rebellion. Eeggio was 
 taken by Garibaldi, Aug. i860. 
 
 BHEIMS (N. France). The principal church 
 here, built before 406, rebuilt in the 12th century, 
 is now very beautiful. The corpse of St. Eemy, the 
 archbishop, is preserved behind the high altar, in a 
 
 magnificent shrine. The kings of France were 
 crowned at Eheims ; probably because Clovis, the 
 founder of the French monarchy, when converted 
 from paganism, was baptized in the cathedral in 
 496. Several ecclesiastical councils have been held 
 here. The city was taken and retaken several 
 times in the last months of the French war, 1814. 
 EHEOMETEE, see under Electricity, p. 232. 
 
 EHETOEIC. Ehetorical points and accents 
 were invented by Aristophanes of Byzantium, 200 
 B.C. Ehetoric was first taught in Latin at Eome by 
 Photius Gallus, about 87 B.C. He taught Cicero, 
 who said " We are first to consider what is to be 
 said ; secondly how ; thirdly, in what words ; and 
 lastly, how it is to be ornamented." A regius pro- 
 fessor of rhetoric was appointed in Edinburgh, 
 20 April, 1762, when Dr. Blair became first pro- 
 fessor. 
 
 RHINE (Latin, Rhenus ; German, Rhein ; 
 French, Rhin), a river, about 760 miles long, rising 
 in Switzerland, receiving the Moselle, Marne, 
 Necker, and other rivers, terminating in many 
 arms in Holland, and falling into the German 
 ocean. On its banks are Constance, Basel, Stras- 
 bourg, Spires, Mannheim, Cologne, Dusseldorf, 
 Utrecht, and Leyden. The possession of the banks 
 of the Ehine has been the cause of many wars, and 
 it has been crossed by the French above twenty 
 times in a century. In the beginning of the revo- 
 lutionary war, Custine invaded Germany by crossing 
 it in 1792; and at the close of the war in 1815, 
 France retained the left bank, but lost it at the close 
 of the Franco-Prussian war, 1870-1 {which see). 
 A navigation treaty with other powers was signed by 
 France, 17 Oct. 1868. A central committee for the 
 navigation exists, formed by members for Alsace, 
 Lorraine, Baden, Bavaria, Hesse, Holland, and 
 Prussia. 
 
 Becker's German song " They shall not have it, the free 
 German Rhine ; " and Alfred de Musset's reply, in 
 French, "We have had it, your German Rhine," ap- 
 peared in 1841. Max Schneckenburger, author of " The 
 Watch on the Rhine," died 1851. All were popular 
 during the war, 1870-71. 
 
 EHODE ISLAND (N. America), settled by 
 Soger Williams about 1636, was taken in the war 
 of independence by the British, 8 Dec. 1776; but 
 was evacuated by them, 25 Oct. 1779 ; see United 
 States. 
 
 EHODE S, an island on the coast of Asia 
 Minor, is said to have been peopled from Crete, as 
 early as 916 B.C. The Ehodians were great navi- 
 gators, and institutors of a maritime code after- 
 wards adopted by the Eomans. The city was built 
 about 432 and flourished 300-200 B.C. ; see Colossus. 
 Ehodes, long an ally of the Eomans, was taken by 
 the emperor Vespasian, A.d. 71. It was held by the 
 Knights Hospitallers from 1309 to 1522, when it 
 was conquered by the Turks, who still retain it. 
 The knights retired to Malta (ivhich see) . Ehodes 
 suffered severely by an earthquake on 22 April, 
 1863. 
 
 EHODIUM, a rare metal, discovered in pla- 
 tinum ore, by Dr. Wollaston in 1804. It has been 
 used for the points of metallic pens. 
 
 EHUDDLAN, statute of, see Wales, 1283. 
 
 EIALTO, BRIDGE OF THE, at Venice (men- 
 tioned by Shakspeare in his '■'■Merchant of Venice"), 
 built about 1590, consists of a marble arch across 
 the Grand Canal, 90 feet wide and 24 feet high. 
 
 EIBBONISM, a term given to the principles 
 of a secret society in Ireland, organised about 1820, 
 
EICHMOND. 
 
 568 
 
 EIOTS. 
 
 to retaliate on landlords any injuries done to their 
 tenants. To the ribbonmen are attributed many 
 of the agrarian murders, 1 858-7 1 . An act was passed 
 to repress them, 16 June, 1871. 
 
 EICHMOND (Surrey), anciently called Sheen, 
 which in the Saxon tongue signifies resplendent. 
 Here stood a palace in which Edward I. and II. 
 resided, and Edward III. died, 1377. Here also 
 died Anne, queen of Eichard II., 1394. The palace 
 was repaired by Henry V., who founded three re- 
 ligious houses near it. In 1497 it was destroyed by 
 fire; but Henry VJJL. rebuilt it, and commanded 
 that the village should be called Eichmond, he 
 having borne the title of earl of Eichmond (York- 
 shire) before he obtained the crown : and here he 
 died in 1509. Queen Elizabeth was a prisoner in 
 this palace for a short time during the reign of her 
 sister. When she became queen it was one of her 
 favourite places of residence ; and here she died 
 24 March, 1603. It was afterwards the residence of 
 Henry, prince of "Wales. The beautiful park and 
 gardens were enclosed by Charles I. The obser- 
 vatory was built by sir W. Chambers in 1 769. In 
 Eichmond, Thomson "sang the Seasons and their 
 change;" and died 27 Aug. 1748. The old Star 
 and Garter tavern burnt, 12 Jan. 1870 ; W. Lever 
 the manager perished. 
 
 EICHMOND (Virginia, U.S.) became the 
 capital of the southern confederate states. The 
 congress adjourned from Montgomery, Alabama, to 
 Eichmond, where it met 20 July, 1861. After a 
 siege of 1452 days and many desperate battles, 
 Eichmond was evacuated by the confederates,2 April, 
 1865; see United States. By the fall of the flooring 
 in the state capital building, about 60 persons were 
 killed, 27 April, 1870. 
 
 EIFLE COEPS, see Volunteers, and Fire- 
 arms. 
 
 _ EIGHTS, BILL OF, a bulwark of the constitu- 
 tion, obtained by parliament from king Charles I., 
 although he had endeavoured by various artifices to 
 avoid granting it, 26 June, 1628. To the Petition 
 of Eights, preferred 17 March, 1627-8, his majesty 
 answered, " I will that right be done according to 
 the laws and customs of the realm." Both houses 
 addressed the king for a fuller answer to their 
 petition of rights, whereupon he gave them an 
 answer less evasive, " Soitfait comme il est desire," 
 7 June, 1628. An important declaration was made 
 by the lords and commons of England to the prince 
 and princess of Orange on 13 Feb. 1689, in an act 
 " declaring the rights and liberties of the subject, 
 and settling the succession of the crown." 
 
 EIMNIK (near Martinesti, Wallachia). Here 
 the Austrians and Eussians under prince Cobur» 
 and gen. Suwarrow, gained a great victory over the 
 Turks, 22 Sept. 1789. 
 
 EINDEEPEST, German for cattle plague 
 {which see). 
 
 EINGS anciently had a seal or signet engraved 
 on them, to seal writings, and they are so used to 
 this day. In Genesis xli. 42, it is said that Pharaoh 
 gave Joseph his ring. Eings are now put upon 
 women's fourth finger at marriage; but the first 
 use of rings by the Jews was at the espousal or 
 contract before marriage. Wedding-rings are to be 
 of standard gold by statute, 1855. 
 
 EIO JANEIEO (S. America), discovered by 
 De Sousa, 1 Jan. 153 1 ; see Brazil. In 1807 it was 
 made capital of the empire of Brazil. 
 
 EIOTS. The riotous assembling of twelve or 
 more persons, and their not dispersing upon pro- 
 clamation, was first made high treason by a statute 
 enacted 2 & 3 Edw. VI. 1548-9. The present Itiot 
 Act was passed I Geo. I. 17 14. 
 
 Riots against Jews in London 1189 
 
 Some riotous citizens of London demolished the 
 convent belonging to Westminster abbey ; the 
 ringleader was hanged, and the rest had their 
 hands and feet cut on", 6 Hen. Ill 1221 
 
 Goldsmiths' and Tailors' companies fought in the 
 streets of London ; several killed ; the sheriffs 
 quelled it ; and thirteen hanged .... 1262 
 
 A riot at Norwich ; the rioters burn the cathedral 
 and monastery ; the king went thither, and saw 
 the ringleaders executed 1271 
 
 Riot of Evil May-day (which see) .... 1517 
 
 Dr. Lamb killed' by the mob . . . June, 1628 
 
 A riot on pretence of pulling down houses of ill- 
 fame ; several of the ringleaders hanged . . . 1668 
 
 Another, at Guildhall, at the election of sheriffs ; 
 several considerable persons, who seized the lord 
 mayor, were concerned 1682 
 
 At Edinburgh and Dumfries, on account of the 
 Union 1707 
 
 In London, on account of Dr. Henry Sacheverel, for 
 preaching two sermons (one 5 Nov. 1709), voted 
 by the house of commons to be scandalous and 
 seditious : several dissenting meeting-houses were 
 broken open and destroyed . . . Feb. 1710 
 
 Riot of the Whig and Tory mobs, called Ormond 
 and Newcastle mobs . . . -29 May, 171 5 
 
 The Mug-hmise riot, in Salisbury-court, between the 
 Whigs and Tories ; the riot quelled by the guards ; 
 five rioters hanged .... 24 July, 1716 
 
 Of the Spitalfields weavers, on account of employing 
 workmen come over from Ireland ; quelled by the 
 military, but many lives lost .... 1736 
 
 Porteous riot at Edinburgh (see Porteous) 7 Sept. ,, 
 
 The nailers in Worcestershire inarch to Birming- 
 ham, and make terms with iron merchants there 1737 
 
 Of the Spitalfield weavers ; the duke of Bedford 
 narrowly escaped death ; lives lost . . May, 1765 
 
 A mob in St. George's-fields, to see Mr. Wilkes in 
 the King's Bench prison ; the military aid indis- 
 creetly called for by the justices of the peace, and 
 several innocent persons, particularly young Allen, 
 fired upon, and killed .... 10 May, 1768 
 
 Gordon's " No popery " riots . 10 May, 2-9 June, 1780 
 
 At Birmingham, on account of commemorating the 
 French revolution, when several houses were 
 destroyed 14 July, 1791 
 
 In various parts of Scotland, on account of the 
 militia act, when several were killed . Aug. 1797 
 
 At Maidstone, at the trial of Arthur O'Connor and 
 others, 22 May, 1798 ; the earl of Thanet, Mr. 
 Ferguson, and others, were active in endeavouring 
 to rescue O'Connor, for which they were tried and 
 convicted 25 April, 1799 
 
 At Liverpool, occasioned by a quarrel between a 
 party of dragoons and a press-gang . 27 June, 1809 
 
 O. P. riot (which see) at Covent-garden . . Sept. ,, 
 
 In Piccadilly, in consequence of the house of com- 
 mons committing sir Francis Burdett to the 
 Tower 6 April, 1810 
 
 At Sheffield, during which 800 muskets belonging 
 to the local militia were destroyed . 14 April, 1812 
 
 Machinery destroyed by rioters at Nottingham from 
 
 Nov. 181 1 to Jan. „ 
 
 In various parts of the north of England, by the 
 Luddites, during 181 1 and ,, 
 
 At the Theatre Royal, Dublin, on account of the 
 
 celebrated Dog of Montorgis, several nights, Dec. 1814 
 Alarming riots at Westminster, on account of Com 
 
 bill ; lasted several days .... March, 1S15 
 At the depot at Dartmoor, in quelling which seven 
 American prisoners of war were killed, and thirty- 
 five wounded April, „ 
 
 Popular meetings at Spa-fields, when the shops of 
 the gunsmiths were attacked for arms. Mr. Piatt 
 shot in that of Mr. Beckwith, on Snow-hill (Wat- 
 son tried for high treason, but acquitted, June, 
 
 1817) 2 Dec. 1816 
 
 In the park, on the prince-regent going to the house, 
 
 an air-gun was fired at him ... 28 Jan. 1817 
 At Manchester, at a popular meeting . 3 March, „ 
 
EIOTS. 569 
 
 EOADS. 
 
 Affray at Manchester, called the " Field of Peterloo" 
 (see Manchester reform meeting) . . 16 Aug. 1819 
 
 At the Theatre Eoyal, Dublin, of several nights' 
 duration „ 
 
 Riot at Paisley and Glasgow ; many houses plun- 
 dered 16 Sept. „ 
 
 At Edinburgh, on the acquittal of queen Caroline, 
 
 19 Nov. 1820 
 
 In London, at the funeral of the queen 14 Aug. 1821 
 
 At Knightsbridge, between the military and the 
 populace, on the funeral of Honey and Francis, 
 killed 14 Aug 26 Aug. „ 
 
 At the theatre in Dublin ; the riot called the " Bottle 
 conspiracy," against the marquis Wellesley, lord- 
 lieutenant 14 Dec. 1822 
 
 Riot at Ballybay ; Lawless arrested . . 9 Oct. 1828 
 
 Riot at Limerick ; the provision-warehouses plun- 
 dered and mischief done ... 15 June, 1830 
 
 Fatal affrays at Castlepollard, 23 May ; and Newtown- 
 barry (which see) 18 June, 1831 
 
 Alarming riots at Merthyr-Tydvil among the iron- 
 workers ; several fired upon by the military, killed 
 and wounded 3 June, „ 
 
 Riot at the Forest of Dean (see Dean) . 8 June, „ 
 
 Nottingham castle burnt by rioters . . 10 Oct. „ 
 
 Reform riots at Bristol (see Bristol) . . 29 Oct. ,, 
 
 Affray at Castleshock, county Kilkenny, when a 
 number of police, attacked by the populace, were, 
 with their commander, Mr. Gibins, killed, 14 Dec. ,, 
 
 Riot at Boughton, near Canterbury, produced by 
 persons called Thomites, headed by a fanatic, 
 Thorn, or Courtenay, who, with others, was killed 
 (see Thomites) 28-31 May, 1838 
 
 Great riots throughout the country, occasioned by 
 the chartists ; a proclamation . . 12 Dec. ,, 
 
 Riots in Birmingham ; much mischief . 15 July, 1839 
 
 Chartist riot at Newport (which see) . 4 Nov. „ 
 
 Meditated chartist outbreak at Sheffield, with most 
 destructive objects, providentially discovered, 
 and many persons arrested . . .11 Jan. 1840 
 
 Rebecca riots against turnpikes in Wales . . . 1843 
 
 Chartist demonstration (see Chartists) 10 April, 1848 
 
 Fatal affray at Dolly's Brae, near Castlewellan, in 
 Ireland, between the Orangemen and the Roman 
 catholics ; several of the latter lost their lives, 
 and some of their houses were ransacked and 
 burnt 12 July, 1849 
 
 Serious riots at Yarmouth, through a dispute be- 
 tween the shipowners and the seamen 23 Feb. 1851 
 
 Riots occasioned by a procession of Orangemen at 
 Liverpool, and several lives lost . . 14 July, „ 
 
 Riot at Stockport, Cheshire ; two catholic chapels 
 destroyed and houses burnt . . 29 June, 1852 
 
 Fierce religious riots at Belfast, in Ireland, occur, 
 
 14 July, „ 
 
 Fatal election riot at Six-mile-bridge, in the county 
 of Clare, in Ireland ; five persons shot dead by 
 the military 22 July, „ 
 
 Riots at Wigan, among the coal-miners, suppressed 
 by the military without loss of life . 28 Oct. 1853 
 
 Bread riots at Liverpool . . . -19 Feb. 1855 
 
 Riots at Hyde-park, about Sunday bill, July, 1855 ; 
 about dearness of bread . . 14, 21, 28 Oct. ,, 
 
 Riots at Belfast through the open-air preaching of 
 the rev. Hugh Hanna . . .6, 13, 20 Sept. 1857 
 
 Religious riots at St. George's-in-the-East, London, 
 on Sundays in . . . . Sept. and Nov. 1859 
 
 Break-out of the convicts at Chatham, suppressed 
 by the military 11 Feb. 1861 
 
 Violent riots at Belfast begin, through an Orange 
 demonstration 17 Sept. 1862 
 
 Fierce rioting (caused by the Irish against the 
 favourers of Garibaldi) at Hyde-park, London, 28 
 Sept. and 5 Oct. ; and at Birkenhead, Cheshire, 
 
 8 and 15 Oct. „ 
 
 Rioting at Staleybridge (on account of the mode of 
 relief to the unemployed cotton-workers), princi- 
 pally Irish ; put down by the military, 21 March, 1863 
 
 Fierce conflicts between Romanists and protestants 
 at Belfast ; 9 persons killed, and about 150 injured 
 
 10-27 Aug. 1864 
 
 Reform riots in Hyde-park, London ; much damage, 
 and many hurt 23, 24 July, 1866 
 
 Anti-popery riots at Birmingham, through the lec- 
 turing of Murphy : much damage done to houses, 
 
 17, 18 June, 1867 
 
 Col. Kelly and Deasy committed for trial as Fenians ; 
 
 rescued from the prisoners' van ; Brett, a police 
 sergeant, shot dead .... 18 Sept. 1867 
 
 At Wigan ; colliers on strike . . end of April, 1868 
 
 Fierce riots against a colliery manager at Mold, 
 Flintshire, put down by the military ; 4 deaths, 
 
 2 June, 1869 
 
 Violent rioting at a colliery at Thorncliffe, near 
 Sheffield ; quelled by intervention of lord Wharn- 
 cliffe and others 21 Jan. 1870 
 
 Rioting at Armathwaite, near Carlisle, between 
 English and Irish navvies . . 15, 16 Oct. ,, 
 
 Violent riots at Belfast ... 19, 20 Aug. 1872 
 
 EIPON (Yorkshire), an ancient town. About 
 661 an abbey cell was built here by Eata. Eipon 
 was made a bishopric by archbishop Wilfred, hi 
 690, but did not endure so. It suffered much by 
 the ravages of the Danes, the Normans (1069), and 
 the Scots (1319 and 1323). The present see was 
 erected 5 Oct. 1836, out of the archdeaconry of York 
 in the "West Biding. Income 4500^. The cathedral 
 is under restoration, by sir G. G. Scott : the choir 
 was reopened 27 Jan. 1869. 
 
 BISHOPS. 
 
 1836. Charles Thos. Longley, trans, to Durham, 1856. 
 1856. Robert Bickersteth (present bishop). 
 
 EITUALISTS, a name given in 1866 to a 
 party in the church of England, formerly termed 
 Puseyites, for endeavouring to give a more im- 
 posing character to public worship, by the use of 
 coloured vestments, lighted caudles, incense, &c, 
 professing to go back to the practices of the church 
 in the time of Edward VI. An exhibition of these 
 things was held during the church congress at York 
 in Oct, 1866, but was not officially connected with 
 it. The practices of the ritualists were censured in 
 several episcopal charges in Dec. 1866; in two 
 reports of the ritualistic commission, 19 Aug. 1867, 
 and April, 1868, and by the judicial committee of 
 the privy council on appeal, 23 Dec. 1868. See 
 Church of England and Trials, 1867-9. At a gene- 
 ral convocation of the American episcopal church at 
 Philadelphia, 27, 28 Oct. 1868, after a warm dis- 
 cussion on ritualism, the discussion was adjourned 
 to 1871. 
 
 EIVOLI (near Verona, N. Italy). Near here 
 the Austrians defeated the French, 17 Nov. 1796; 
 and were defeated by Bonaparte 14, 15 Jan. 1797. 
 Massena was made duke of Bivoli for his share in 
 the actions. 
 
 EOAD MUEDEE. On the night of 29-30 
 June, i860, Francis Savile Kent, four years old, 
 was murdered, and his body hid in a garden water- 
 closet. His sister Constance Kent (aged sixteen), 
 and the nurse Elizabeth Gough, the first suspected 
 after several examinations, were discharged for 
 want of evidence. The coroner was severely blamed 
 for charging the jury improperly, but the court of 
 queen's bench, in Jan. 1861, refused to issue a writ 
 for a new inquiry. Constance Kent, on 25 April, 
 1865, before sir Thomas Henry at Bow-street, and 
 at her trial at Salisbury, on 21 July following, con- 
 fessed herself to be guilty of the murder. Her 
 punishment was commuted to penal servitude for 
 life. 
 
 EOADS, see Roman Roads. The first general 
 repair of the highways of this country was directed 
 about 1285. Acts were passed for the purpose in 
 1524 and I5SS, followed by others in Elizabeth's 
 and succeeding reigns. Boads through the High- 
 lands of Scotland were begun by general Wade in 
 1726. Loudon M 'Adam's roads were introduced 
 about 1818. Wooden pavements were tried with 
 partial success in the streets of London : at White- 
 hall in 1839, and in other streets in 1840 ; asphalte 
 pavement soon after. An act " for the better man- 
 
ROAD STEAMERS. 
 
 570 
 
 ROGATION WEEK. 
 
 agement of the highways" was passed in 1862 
 after much opposition. Steam road-rollers were 
 tried in 1867; used in London 18 March, 1868 : see 
 Macadamising, Tolls, and Wooden Pavements. 
 
 ROAD STEAMERS. Mr. R. W. Thomson, 
 of Edinburgh, in 1868, by adding india-rubber to 
 the tires of the wheels of locomotives is considered 
 to have solved the question of steam traction on 
 common roads. Road steamers have been success- 
 fully employed in Edinburgh andLeith for drawing 
 heavy waggons up inclined planes, and are adapt- 
 able to any draught work. They were tried at 
 Woolwich, I Oct. 1870, and reported successful by 
 eminent authorities ; and their application to plough- 
 ing by lord Dunmore was exhibited 1 Feb. 1871. 
 
 ROANOAKE, an island off N. Carolina, U.S., 
 discovered by sir Walter Raleigh, 1584, and settled 
 by him, 1585, without success. Other settlers also 
 failed. 
 
 ROASTING ALIVE. An early instance is 
 that of Bocchoris, king of Egypt, by older of Saba- 
 con of Ethiopia, 737 B.C. Lenglet. Sir John Old- 
 castle, lord Cobham, was thus put to death in 1418, 
 and Michael Servetus for heresy at Geneva, 27 Oct. 
 1553 ; see Burning Alive, and Martyrs. 
 
 ROBBERS were punished with death by 
 Edmund I.'s laws, which directed that the eldest 
 robber should be hanged. Remarkable robbers in 
 England were Robin Hood, 1189 (see Robin Hood), 
 and Claud Du Val, " executed at Tyburn," says an 
 historian quaintly, " to the great grief of the 
 women," Jan. 1670. In Ireland, the famous Mac- 
 Cabe was hanged at Naas, 19 Aug. 1691. Gallop- 
 ing Hogan, the rapparee, nourished at this period. 
 Freney, the celebrated highwayman, surrendered 
 himself, 10 May, 1749. The accomplished Barring- 
 ton was transported, 22 Sept. 1790; see Trials. 
 
 ROBIN HOOD, captain of a band of robbers, 
 in Sherwood forest, Nottinghamshire ; traditionally 
 reported to have been the earl of Huntingdon, dis- 
 graced and banished the court by Richard 1. at his 
 accession (1189). Robin Hood and Little John and 
 their band are said to have continued their depre- 
 dations till 1247, when Robin died. Stow. 
 
 " ROBINSON CRUSOE," by Daniel De 
 Foe; the first part appeared in 1719. See Juan 
 Fernandez. 
 
 ROCHEFORT (W.France), a seaport on the 
 Charente. The port was made by Louis XIV. in 
 1666. In Aix-roads or Basque-roads, near Roche- 
 fort, capt. lord Cochrane attacked the French fleet 
 and destroyed four ships, 11-12 April, 1809. Near 
 Rochefort, the emperor Napoleon surrendered him- 
 self to capt. Maitland of the Bellerophon, 15 July, 
 1815. 
 
 ROCHELLE (W. France), a seaport on the 
 Atlantic, belonging to the English for some time, 
 but finally surrendered to the French leader, Du 
 Guesclin, in 1372. As a stronghold of the Calvinist 
 party, it was vainly besieged by the duke of Anjou 
 i 11 1573 ; and was taken after a siege of thirteen 
 months by cardinal Richelieu in 1628. The duke 
 of Buckingham was sent with a fleet and army to 
 relieve it ; but the citizens declined to admit him. 
 He attacked the isle of Rhe, near Rochelle, and 
 failed, 22 July, 1627. He was repulsed 8 Nov. fol- 
 lowing. A conspiracy here in 1822 caused loss of 
 life to sergeant Bories and others. 
 
 ROCHESTER, in Kent, the Roman Buro- 
 hrivec. The bishopric, founded by Augustin, 604, 
 is the next in age to Canterbury. The first cathe- 
 dral was erected by Ethelbert, king of Kent. St. 
 
 Justus was bishop in 604. Alterations were made 
 in the diocese in 1845. Rochester is valued in the 
 king's books at 358/. 3* 2\d. per annum. Present 
 income 5000^. 
 
 RECENT BISHOPS. 
 
 1793. Samuel Horseley, trans, to St. Asaph's, 1820. 
 
 1802. Thomas Dampier, translated to Ely, 1808. 
 
 1809. Walter King, died 22 Feb. 1827. 
 
 1827. Hugh Percy, translated to Carlisle, 27 Oct. 
 
 1827. George Murray, died 16 Feb. i860. 
 
 i860. Joseph Cotton Wigram, died 6 April, 1867. 
 
 1867. Thos. Legh Claugliton. 
 
 ROCKETS, destructive war implements, were 
 invented by sir William Congreve about 1803. The 
 carcase-rockets were first used at Boulogne, 8 Oct. 
 1806, when they set the town on fire, their powers 
 being previously demonstrated in the presence of 
 Mr. Pitt and several of the cabinet ministers, 1806. 
 Improved rockets were made by Hales in 1846. 
 
 ROCKINGHAM ADMINISTRATIONS. 
 
 The first succeeded the administration of Mr. Geo. 
 Grenville ; the second succeeded that of lord North. 
 
 first administration, 13 July, 1765 to 30 July, 1766. 
 
 Charles, marquis of Rockingham,* first lord of the trea- 
 sury. 
 
 William Dowdeswell, chancellor of the exchequer. 
 
 Earl of Winehilsea and Nottingham, lord president. 
 
 Duke of Newcastle, privy seal. 
 
 Earl of Northington, lord chancellor. 
 
 Duke of Portland, lord chamberlain. 
 
 Duke of Rutland, master of the horse. 
 
 Lord Talbot, lord stewa rd. 
 
 Henry Seymour Conway and the duke of Grafton, secre- 
 taries of state. 
 
 Lord Egmont, admiralty. 
 
 Marquis of Granby, ordnance. 
 
 Viscount Barrington, seeretary-at-war. 
 
 Viscount Howe, treasurer of the navy. 
 
 Charles Townshend, paymaster of the forces. 
 
 Earl of Dartmouth, first lord of trade. 
 
 Lords Besborough and Grautham, lord John Cavendish, 
 Thomas Townshend, &c. 
 
 See Chatham administration. 
 
 second administration, March to i July, 1782, when the 
 
 marquis died. 
 Marquis of Rockingham, first lord of the treasury. 
 Lord John Cavendish, chancellor of the exchequer. 
 Lord Camden, president of the council. 
 Duke of Grafton, privy seed. 
 Lord Thurlow, lord chancellor. 
 William, earl of Shelburne and Charles James Fox, sccre 
 
 taries of state. 
 Augustus viscount Keppel, first lord of the admiralty. 
 Duke of Richmond, master-general of the ordnance. 
 Thomas Townshend, sccrdanj-at-war. 
 Isaac Barre, Edmund Burke, John Dunning, &C. 
 
 ROCROY (N. France). Here, 19 May, 1643, 
 the Spaniards were totally defeated by the French, 
 commanded by the great Conde. 
 
 RODNEY'S VICTORIES. Admiral Rodney 
 fought, near Cape St. Vincent, the Spanish admiral, 
 Don Langara,whom he defeated and made prisoner, 
 capturing six of his ships, one of which blew up, 
 16, 17 Jan. 1780. On 12 April, 1782, he encountered 
 the French fleet in the West Indies, commanded by 
 the count de Grasse, took five ships of the line, and 
 sent the French admiral prisoner to England : 
 Rodney was raised to the peerage, June, 1782. 
 
 ROGATION WEEK. Rogation Sunday, the 
 Sunday before Ascension-day, received its title from 
 the Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday following it, 
 called Rogation days, derived from the Latin rogare, 
 to beseech. Extraordinary prayers and supplica- 
 tions for these three days are said to have been 
 
 * Charles Watson Wentworth, marquis of Rockingham, 
 was born 13 May, 1730 ; succeeded his father as marquis, 
 1750. He died without issue, 1 July, 1782 ; and his 
 estates passed to his nephew, earl Fitzwilliaui. 
 
ROHAN. 
 
 571 
 
 ROMAN CATHOLICS. 
 
 appointed in the third century, as a preparation for 
 the devout observance of our "Saviour's ascension on 
 the next day succeeding to them, denominated 
 Holy Thursday or Ascension-day. The whole week 
 in which these days happen is styled Rogation 
 week ; and in some parts it is still known by the 
 other names of Crop week, Grass week, and Pro- 
 cession week. The perambulations of parishes have 
 usually been made in this week. 
 
 ROHAN, an illustrious family, descended from 
 the ancient sovereigns of Brittany. Henri de 
 Rohan, son-in-law of the great Sully, after the 
 death of Henry IV. (14 May, 1610), became head of 
 the Protestant party, and sustained three wars 
 against Louis XIII. He eventually entered the 
 service of the duke of Saxe-Weimar, and died of 
 wounds received in battle in 1638. Of this family 
 was the cardinal de Rohan; see Diamond Neck- 
 lace. 
 
 ROHILCUND, a tract of country, N.E.India, 
 was conquered by the Rohillas, an Afghan tribe, 
 who settled here about 1747. After aiding the 
 sovereign of Oude to overcome the Mahrattas, they 
 were treated with much treachery by him, and 
 nearly exterminated. Rohilcund was ceded to the 
 British in 1801. After the great mutiny, Rohilcund 
 was tranquillised in July, 1858. 
 
 ROLLING MILLS, in the metal manufactories, 
 were in use here in the 17th century, and in 1784 
 Mr. Cort patented his improvements. 
 
 ROLLS, see Master of the Rolls, and Records. 
 
 ROLLS' CHAPEL (London), founded by 
 Henry III., about 1233, for receiving Jewish rabhis 
 converted to Christianity. On the banishment of 
 the Jews in 1290 the buildings now called the Rolls, 
 and the chapel, were annexed by patent to the 
 office of the keeper or master of the rolls of chan- 
 cery, from which circumstance they took their 
 name. A number of public records from the time 
 of Richard III., kept in presses in this chapel, have 
 been removed to the Record Office {which see) . 
 
 ROLT'S ACT, 25 & 26 Vict. c. 42 (1862), 
 relates to the Chancery Court. 
 
 ROMAGNA, a province of the papal states, 
 comprised in the legations of Foiii and Ravenna. 
 It was conquered by the Lombards ; but taken from 
 them by Pepin, and given to the pope, 753. Caesar 
 Borgia held it as a duchy in 1501, but lost it in 
 1503. In 1859 the Romagna threw off the temporal 
 authority of the pope, and declared itself subject to 
 the king of Sardinia, w r ho accepted it in March, 
 i860. It now forms part of the province of iEmilia, 
 in the new kingdom of Italy. Population (i860) 
 1,014,582 ; see Rome. 
 
 ROMAINVILLE and Belleville, heights 
 
 near Paris, where Joseph Bonaparte, M order, and 
 Marmont were defeated by the allies after a 
 vigorous resistance, 30 March, 1814. The next day 
 Paris capitulated. 
 
 ROMAN CATHOLICS, Romanists and 
 Papists. Their religion was the established one 
 in Britain till the Reformation. Since then many 
 laws were made against them, which have been re- 
 pealed ; see Rome, Religion, Leagues, Maynooth. 
 Among other disabilities, Roman Catholics were 
 excluded from corporate offices, 1667 ; from parlia- 
 ment, 1691 ; forbidden to marry protestants, 1708 ; 
 to possess arms, 1695, &c. 
 
 Bishop Fisher, sir Thomas More, and others, exe- 
 cuted for denying the king's supremacy . . . 1535 
 
 Catholics absolved from their allegiance to the king 
 by Paul III. 1535 ; by Pius V 1570 
 
 They rebel in 1549 and 1569 
 
 The Gunpowder Plot (which see) 1605 
 
 They suffer by Oates's fictitious popish plot . . 1678 
 
 They are excluded from the throne . . . . 1689 
 
 They suffer by the Gordon riots . . June, 1780 
 
 Various disabilities removed in . . 1780 and 1791 
 
 Mr. Pitt proposes measures for their relief, which 
 he gives up 1801-4 
 
 Roman Catholic Association organised in Ireland, 
 with the object of removing the political and civil 
 disabilities of Roman catholics .... 1824 
 
 Bills in their favour frequently brought ill without 
 effect from 1813 to 1828 
 
 An act of parliament passed for the suppression of 
 the Catholic Association, it had voted its own 
 dissolution, 12 Feb 5 March, 1829 
 
 The duke of Wellington and sir Robert Peel cany 
 the Catholic emancipation bill (10 Geo. IV. c. 7) 
 in the commons, 30 March ; in the lords, 10 April; 
 received the royal assent . . . 13 April, ,, 
 
 The duke of Norfolk and lords Dormer and Clifford, 
 the first Roman catholic peers, take their seats, 
 
 28 April, ,, 
 
 The first English R. C. member returned, the earl 
 Of Surrey, for Horsham .... 4 May, „ 
 
 Mr. O'Connell elected for Clare, 1828, takes his seat 
 (first Roman catholic M.P. since 1689) . Aug. „ 
 
 Mr. Alexander Raphael, the first Roman catholic 
 sheriff of London .... 28 Sept. 1834 
 
 Sir Michael O'Loghlen, the first Roman catholic judge 
 (as Master of the Rolls in Ireland), appointed, 30 Oct. 1836 
 
 St. George's cathedral, Southwark, erected by A. 
 W. Pugin ; founded 1840 
 
 Tablet newspaper established ,, 
 
 Mr. O'Connell elected first Roman catholic lord 
 mayor of Dublin 1841 
 
 The "Papal Aggression" (which see); cardinal 
 Nicholas Wiseman appointed archbishop of West- 
 minster 30 Sept. 1850 
 
 [In England 570 Roman catholic chapels with 
 186,111 sittings. — The Roman catholic church in 
 Ireland consists of four archbishops, 24 bishops, 
 and (in 1854) 2291 priests ; there are numerous 
 monasteries and convents.] 1851 
 
 Universe newspaper established .... i860 
 
 Agitation in favour of the pope .... 1860-2 
 
 Roman catholic university founded at Drumcondra, 
 Ireland 20 July, 1862 
 
 Roman catholic chaplains permitted for gaols, by 
 Prison Ministers act July, 1863 
 
 Serjeant Win, Shee made a justice of the Queen's 
 Bench, the first Roman catholic judge since the 
 Reformation [died 19 Feb. 1868] . .15 Dec - » 
 
 Death of cardinal Wiseman, aged 63 ; 7th English 
 cardinal since the Reformation . . 15 Feb. 1865 
 
 Henry Manning (formerly an archdeacon in the Eng- 
 lish church) consecrated archbishop of West- 
 minster 8 June, „ 
 
 Conference of Roman catholic bishops at Dublin ; 
 publish resolutions declining state help (in accor- 
 dance with the papal injunctions, 1801 and 1805), 
 and condemning mixed education and secret 
 societies 17 Oct. 1867 
 
 In Great Britain 1639 Roman catholic priests ; 1283 
 chapels and churches ; 227 convents for women 
 (principally educational) ; 21 colleges and large 
 schools Dec. „ 
 
 A proposal of the Derby government to endow a 
 catholic university for Ireland, Oct. 1867, failed 
 through the catholic bishops claiming the entire 
 practical control .... 31 March, 1868 
 
 Mr. Justice Thomas (now lord) O'Hagan, appointed 
 lord chancellor of Ireland, is the first Roman 
 catholic who has held that office since the revolu- 
 tion of 1688-9 Dec. „ 
 
 A Roman catholic made M.A. at Oxford, after the 
 abolition of the test . . . .22 June, 1871 
 
 The catholics opposing the dogma of papal infalli- 
 bility term themselves " old catholics " (which see) ,, 
 
 The Ecclesiastical Titles act (see Papal Aggression) 
 repealed 24 July, „ 
 
 Pastoral issued by the R. C. bishops in Ireland 
 claiming endowment for colleges, &c. under their 
 sole control Oct. ,, 
 
 Two R. C. bishops consecrated at Salford 28 Oct. 1872 
 
ROMAN LAW. 
 
 572 
 
 ROME. 
 
 ROMAN LAW, see Codes; Roman Litera- 
 ture, see Latin. 
 
 ROMAN ROADS m ENGLAND. Our 
 
 historians maintain, but are mistaken, that there 
 were but four of these roads. Camden. " The 
 Romans," says Isidore, "made roads almost all 
 over the world, to have their marches in a straight 
 line, and to employ the people ;" and criminals were 
 frequently condemned to work at such roads, as we 
 learn from Suetonius, in his life of Caligula. They 
 were commenced and completed at various periods, 
 between the 2nd and 4th centuries, and the Roman 
 soldiery were employed in making them, that inac- 
 tivity might not give them an opportunity to raise 
 disturbances, fiede. 
 
 1st, Watling-street, so named from Vitellianus, who is 
 supposed to have directed it, the Britons calling him 
 in their language Guetalin (from Kent to Cardigan 
 Bay). 
 
 2nd, Ikeneld, or Ikenild-street, from its beginning 
 among the Iceni (from St. David's to Tynemouth). 
 
 3rd, Fosse, or Fosse Way, probably from its having 
 been defended by a fosse on both sides (from Cornwall 
 to Lincoln). 
 
 4th, Ermin-street, from Irmunsul, a German word, 
 meaning Mercury, whom our German ancestors wor- 
 shipped under that name (from St. David's to South- 
 ampton). 
 
 ROMAN WALLS- One was erected by 
 Agricola (79 to 85) to defend Britain from the in- 
 cursions of the Picts and Scots ; the first wall ex- 
 tended from the Tyne to the Solway frith (80 miles) ; 
 the second from the frith of Forth, near Edinburgh, 
 to the frith of Clyde, near Dumbarton (36 miles). 
 The former was renewed and strengthened by the 
 emperor Adrian (121), and by Septimus Severus 
 (208). It commenced at Bowness, near Carlisle, 
 and ended at Wallsend near Newcastle. It had 
 battlements and towers to contain soldiers. The 
 more northern wall was renewed by Lollius Urbicus, 
 in the reign of Antoninus Pius, about 140. Many 
 remains of these walls still exist, particularly of the 
 southern one; see Bruce' s "Roman 1 Ta 1 7," pub- 
 lished 1853-1868. 
 
 ROMANCES. Heliodorus, a bishop of Tricca, 
 in Thessaly, about 398, was the author of JEthio- 
 pica (relating to the loves of Theagenes and 
 Charicleia), the first work in tliis species of writing. 
 The "Romaunt of the Rose" was writtenaboutl.310; 
 the Decameron of Boccaccio was published, 1358 ; 
 Don Quixote, by Cervantes, 1605 ; Gil Bias, by Le 
 Sage, 1715. Dunlop's "History of Fiction," pub- 
 lished 1814, see English Authors. 
 
 ROME. The foundation of the city, by 
 Romulus, was laid on the 20th April,* according to 
 Varro, in the year 3961 of the Julian period (3251 
 years after the creation of the world, 753 years be- 
 fore the birth of Christ, 431 years after the Trojan 
 war, and in the fourth year of the sixth Olympiad. 
 Other dates given: Cato, 751; Polybius, 750; 
 Fabius Pictor, 747 ; Cincius, 728 B.C.) The Romans 
 conquered nearly the whole of the then known 
 world. In the time of Julius Caesar, the empire 
 was bounded by the Euphrates, Taurus, and Armenia 
 
 * In its original state, Rome was but a small castle on 
 the summit of mount Palatine ; and the founder, to give 
 his followers the appearance of a nation or a barbarian 
 horde, was obliged to erect a standard as a common 
 asylum for criminals, debtors, or murderers, who fled 
 from their native country to avoid the punishment which 
 attended them. From such an assemblage a numerous 
 body was soon collected, and before the death of the 
 founder, the Romans had covered witli their habitations 
 the Palatine, Capitoline, Aventine, and Esquiline hills, 
 with Mounts Coelius and Quirinalis. 
 
 on the east ; by Ethiopia on the south ; by the 
 
 Danube on the north ; and by the Atlantic on the 
 west. Numerous ecclesiastical councils have .been 
 held at Rome, from 197 to 1869-70. Population, 
 1872, about 240,000. Chiefly through the exertions 
 of Mr. John Henry Parker of Oxford, the Roman 
 exploration fund was established, for the preserva- 
 tion of ancient architectural remains. The Italian 
 government votes 1200/. a year for a similar pur- 
 pose. 
 
 Foundation of the city by Romulus . .B.C. 753 
 The Romans seize on the Sabine women at a public 
 
 spectacle, and detain them for wives . . . 750 
 The Caminians defeated, and first triumphal proces- 
 sion 748 
 
 Rome taken by the Sabines ; the Sabines incor- 
 porated with the Romans as one nation . . 747 
 Romulus sole king of the Romans and Sabines . . 742 
 The Circensian games established by him . . 732 
 
 Romulus murdered by senators 716 
 
 Numa Pompilius elected king, 715 ; institutes the 
 
 priesthood, the augurs and vestals . . . 710 
 
 Roman calendar of 10 months reformed and made 12 ,, 
 The Romans and the Albans contesting for supe- 
 riority, agreed to chose three champions -on 
 each part to decide it. The three Horatii, Roman 
 knights, overcame the three Cariatii, Albans, and 
 
 united Alba to Rome about 669 
 
 War with the Fidenates ; the city of Alba destroyed 665 
 
 Ostia, at the mouth of the Tiber, built . . . 627 
 
 The capital founded 615 
 
 The first census of the Roman state taken . . . 566 
 
 Political institutions of Servius Tullius . . . 550 
 
 The rape of Lucretia by Sextus, son of Tarquin . 510 
 Royalty abolished : the Patricians establish an 
 
 aristocratical commonwealth 509 
 
 Junius Brutus and Tarquinius Collatiuus 'first con- 
 suls ; first alliance of the Romans with Carthage 508 
 The capitol dedicated to Jupiter Capitolinus . . 507 
 The Latins and the Tarquins declare war against 
 the republic, 501 ; defeated at lake Regillus 498 or 496 
 
 First dictator Titus Lartius 501 
 
 Secession of the Plebeians to the sacred mount ; 
 
 establishment of tribunes of the Plebeians . . 494 
 First agrarian law passed : Spurius Cassius put to 
 
 death by Patricians 493 
 
 C. Martius Coriolanus banished .... 491 
 He (with the Volsci) besieges Rome, but withdraws 
 
 at the suit of his wife and mother . . . . 488 
 Contests between the Patricians and Plebeians re- 
 specting the agrarian law 486 
 
 Quaestors appointed about 484 
 
 The Fabii slain (see Fabii) 477 
 
 Cincinnatus, dictator, defeats the jEqui . . . 458 
 
 The Secular Games first celebrated .... 456 
 
 The Decemviri created 451 
 
 Virginias kills his daughter, Virginia, to save her 
 from the decemvir, Appius Claudius ; (Appius 
 killed himself in prison ; the decemviral govern- 
 ment abolished) 449 
 
 The Cauuleian law passed, permitting marriages be- 
 tween Patricians and Plebeians . . . . 445 
 
 Military tribunes first created 444 
 
 Office of censor instituted 443 
 
 Rome afflicted with an awful famine, and many per- 
 sons on account of it drown themselves in the 
 
 Tiber 440 
 
 The Veientes defeated, and their king Tolumnus 
 
 slain 437 
 
 War with the Tuscans 434 
 
 A temple is dedicated to Apollo on account of a 
 
 pestilence 431 
 
 iEqui and Volsci defeated by Tubertus, dictator . ,, 
 
 Two more quaestors appointed 421 
 
 Another dreadful famine at Rome . . . . 411 
 Three quaestors are chosen from the Plebeians for 
 
 the first time 409 
 
 Institution of the Lectisteniian festival on account 
 
 of a pestilence 399 
 
 Veii taken by Caniillus after ten years' siege . . 396 
 
 Banishment of Camillus 391 
 
 The Gauls under Biennus, besiege Clusium (see 
 
 Gavls) 3 go 
 
 They are expelled by Camillus 389 
 
 Rome burnt to the ground by the Gauls, who be- 
 siege the capitol 387 
 
EOME. 
 
 573 
 
 EOME. 
 
 Bebuilt — Capitoline games instituted . .B.C. 387 
 M. Manlius Capitoline thrown from the Tarpeian 
 
 rock on a charge of aiming at sovereign power . 384 
 
 The first appointment of curule magistrates . . 371 
 
 Lucius Sextus, the first Plebeian consul . . . 366 
 Marcus Curtius leaps into the gulf which had opened 
 
 in the forum 362 
 
 The Gauls defeated in Italy 350 
 
 Treaty with Carthage to repress Greek piracy . . 348 
 
 War with the Samnites (with breaks) 51 years . 343 
 
 .Latin war 340-338 
 
 Embassy to Alexander the Great 324 
 
 Defeat at Caudiuro 321 
 
 Priests first elected from the Plebeians . . . 300 
 Etruscans, Samnites, and others, defeated at Senti- 
 
 num by Pabius 295 
 
 End of the third Samnite war 290 
 
 The Gauls invade the Roman territory ; siege of 
 
 Arezzo 284 
 
 Etruscans defeated at Vadimonian lake . 310 and 283 
 Pyrrhus of Epirus invades Italy, 281 ; defeats the 
 
 Romans at Pandosia, 280 ; and at Aseulum, 279 ; 
 
 defeated by them at Benevento . . . . 275 
 
 All Italy subdued by Rome 266 
 
 Pirst Punic war commenced (see Punic Wars) . . 264 
 
 First Roman fleet built 260 
 
 Attilius Regulus said to be put to a cruel death by 
 
 the Carthaginians 255 
 
 End of first Punic war ; Sicily annexed . . . 241 
 
 Temple of Janus closed 235 
 
 Corsica and Sardinia annexed 231 
 
 First Roman embassy to Greece 228 
 
 Invasion of the Gauls ; beaten by the consuls . . 225 
 
 Second Punic war breaks out 218 
 
 The Romans are defeated by Hannibal at Thrasy- 
 
 mene, 217; Cannae 2 Aug. 216 
 
 Syracuse taken by Mareellus 212 
 
 Marcellus defeated by Hannibal, and slain near 
 
 Venusia 208 
 
 Scipio defeats Hannibal at Zama in Africa . . 202 
 The Macedonian wars with Philip begin, 213 and 
 
 200 ; his defeat at Cynoscephake . . . . 197 
 
 Death of Scipio Africanus the elder .... 185 
 Third Macedonian war begins 171 ; Perseus beaten 
 
 at Pydna ; Macedon annexed 168 
 
 Pirst public library erected at Rome . . . 167 
 
 Philosophers and rhetoricians banished from Rome 161 
 
 Third Punic war begins 149 
 
 Corinth and Carthage destroyed by the Romans (see 
 
 Corinth and Cartilage) 146 
 
 Celtiberian and Numantine war in Spain . . 153-133 
 Attalus III. of Pergamos bequeaths his kingdom 
 
 and riches to the Romans 133 
 
 The Servile war in Sicily 132 
 
 Two Plebeian consuls chosen „ 
 
 Agrarian disturbances : Gracchus slain . . . 121 
 
 The Jugurthine war 112-106 
 
 The Mithridatie war {which see) .... 108-63 
 
 The Ambrones defeated by Marius .... 102 
 
 The Social war 90-88 
 
 Rome besieged by four armies (viz. : those of 
 
 Marius, Cinna, Carbo, and Sertorius) and taken . 87 
 Sylla defeats Marius : becomes dictator ; sanguinary 
 
 proscriptions, 82 : abdicates 79 
 
 Bithynia bequeathed to the Romans by king Nico- 
 
 medes 74 
 
 Revolt of Spartacus and the slaves .... 73-71 
 
 Syria conquered by Pompey 65 
 
 The Catiline conspiracy suppressed by Cicero . .63 
 
 The first triumvirate : Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus 60 
 
 Caesar's campaigns in Gaul, 58 ; in Britain . . . 55 
 
 Crassus killed by the Parthians 53 
 
 Gaul conquered and made a province . . . . 51 
 
 War between Caesar and Pompey .... 50 
 
 Pompey defeated at Pharsalia {which see) . . . 48 
 Caesar defeats Pharnaces at Zela ; and writes home 
 
 " Veni, vidi, vici " 47 
 
 Cato kills himself at CJtica ; Caesar dictator for ten 
 
 years 46 
 
 Caesar killed in the senate-house . . 15 March, 44 
 
 Second triumvirate : Octavius, Antony, and Lepidus 43 
 
 Cicero killed, proscribed by Antony „ 
 
 Battle of Philippi ; Brutus and Cassius defeated . 42 
 Lepidus ejected from the triumvirate, 36 ; war be- 
 tween Octavius and Antony, 32 ; Antony defeated 
 
 totally at Actiuni 2 Sept. 31 
 
 Octavius emperor, as Augustus Ccesar ... 27 
 The empire now at peace with all the world the 
 
 by Clau 
 
 temple of Janus shut ; Jesus Christ born. (See 
 Jews) 4 April, 
 
 Varus defeated by Hermann and the Germans 
 
 Ovid banished to Tomi 
 
 Death of Ovid and Livy 
 
 Tiberius retires to Caprea ; tyranny of Sejanus 
 
 A census being taken by Claudius, the emperor and 
 censor, the inhabitants of Rome are stated to 
 amount to 6,944,000. — [It is now considered that 
 the population of Rome within the walls was 
 under a million.] .... 
 
 Caractacus brought in chains to Rome 
 
 St. Paul arrives in bonds at Rome 
 
 Nero burns Rome to the ground, and charges the 
 crime npon the Christians 
 
 Seneca, Lucan, &c, put to death 
 
 Peter and Paul said to be put to death 
 
 Jerusalem levelled to the ground by Titus 8 Sept, 
 
 Coliseum founded by Vespasian . 
 
 The Dacian war begins (continues 15 years) 
 
 Pliny, junior, proconsul in Bithynia, sends Trajan 
 his celebrated account of the Christians . 
 
 Trajan's expedition into the East against the Par- 
 thians, &c. ; subdues Dacia .... 
 
 Trajan's column erected at Rome . 
 
 Adrian resides in Britain, and builds the wall . 
 
 The capitol destroyed by lightning 
 
 Byzantium taken ; its walls razed . 
 
 The Goths are paid tribute .... 
 
 [The Goths, Vandals, Alani, Suevi, and other 
 Northern nations attack the empire.] 
 
 Pompey's amphitheatre burnt {. 
 
 Invasion of the Goths . 
 
 Pestilence throughout the empire 
 
 Great victory over the Goths obtained 
 dius II. ; 300,000 slain 
 
 Dacia relinquished to the Goths 
 
 Palmyra conquered, and Longinus put to 
 
 The era of Martyrs, or of Diocletian 
 
 The Pranks settle in Gaul. Freret . 
 
 Constantius dies at York 
 
 Four emperors reign at one time 
 
 Constantine the Great, it is said, in consequence of 
 a vision, places the cross on his banners, and 
 begins to favour the Christians . . . . 
 
 Constantine defeats Licinius, at Chrysopolis, and. 
 reigns alone 18 Sept. 
 
 He tolerates the Christian faith 
 
 Puts his son Crispus to death 
 
 Constantine convokes the first general council of 
 Christians at Nice 
 
 The seat of empire removed from Rome to Byzan- 
 tium, 321 ; dedicated by Constantine . 
 
 Constantine orders the heathen temples to be 
 destroyed 
 
 Revolt of 300,000 Sarmatian slaves suppressed 
 
 Death of Constantine, soon after being baptized 
 
 The army under Julian proclaims him emperor 
 
 Julian, who had been educated for the priesthood, 
 and had frequently officiated, abjures Christianity, 
 and re-opens the heathen temples, becoming the 
 pagan pontiff 
 
 Julian killed in battle in Persia ; Christianity 
 restored by Jovian 
 
 The empire divided into Eastern and Western by 
 Valentinian and Valens, brothers : the former has 
 
 the Western portion, or Rome 
 
 (See Western and Eastern Empires ; and Italy.) 
 
 Rome placed under the exarchate of Ravenna 
 
 Taken by Alaric 24 Aug. 
 
 Taken and pillaged by Genseric . . 15 July, 
 
 Odoacer takes Rome, and becomes king of Italy 
 
 Rome recovered for Justinian by Belisarius . . 
 
 Retaken by Totila the Goth, 546 ; recovered by 
 Belisarius, 547 : seized by Totila .... 
 
 Recovered by Narses, and annexed to the eastern 
 empire ; and the senate abolished . . . . 
 
 Rome at her lowest state .... about 
 
 Rome independent under the popes . . about 
 
 Pepin of France compels Astolphus, king of the 
 Lombards, to cede Ravenna and other places to 
 the Holy Church 
 
 Confirmed and added to by Charlemagne 
 
 Charlemagne crowned emperor of the West by the 
 pope at Rome 25 Dec. 
 
 Rome taken by Arnulf and the Germans . 
 
 Otho I. crowned at Rome . . . . 2 Feb. 
 
 5 
 
 A.D. 
 9 
 
 18 
 26 
 
 106 
 114 
 121 
 188 
 196 
 
 248 
 250 
 252 
 
 269 
 270 
 
 273 
 
 284 
 287 
 306 
 308 
 
 312 
 
 323 
 
 324 
 
 325 
 
 330 
 
 33° 
 334 
 337 
 360 
 
 361 
 36 3 
 
 364 
 
 404 
 410 
 455 
 
 476 
 536 
 
 553 
 600 
 72S 
 
 755 
 774 
 
 896 
 96 2 
 
EOME. 
 
 574 
 
 EOME. 
 
 The emperor Henry IV. takes Rome . March, 1084 
 Arnold of Brescia, endeavouring to reform church 
 and state and to establish a senate, is put to 
 
 death as a heretic "55 
 
 The pope removes to Avignon 1309 
 
 Nicola di Rienzi, tribune of the people, establishes 
 a republic, 20 May; is compelled to abdicate, 
 
 15 Dec. 1347 
 Returns ; made senator, 1 Aug. ; assassinated, 
 
 8 Oct. 1354 
 
 Papal court returns to Rome 1377 
 
 Rise of the families, Colonna, Orsini, &c. about ,, 
 Julius II. conquers the Romagna, Bologna, and 
 
 Perugia . . iS^-^ 
 
 The city greatly embellished by pope Leo X. is^- 21 
 It is captured by the constable de Bourbon, who is 
 
 slain 6 May, 1527 
 
 Ferrara annexed 1597 
 
 St. Peter's dedicated .... 18 Nov. 1626 
 Expulsion of the Jesuits .... 16 Aug. 1773 
 Harassed by the French, German, and Spanish 
 factions . from the 16th to the 18th century. 
 The French invasion ; the Legations incorporated 
 
 with the Cisalpine republic 1796 
 
 The French proclaim the Roman republic, 
 
 20 March, 1798 
 Recovered for the pope by the Neapolitans, Nov. 1799 
 Retaken by the French, 1800 ; restored to Pius VII. 
 
 July, 1 801 
 Annexed by Napoleon to the kingdom of Italy, and 
 
 declared second city of the empire . May, 1808 
 Restored to the pope," who returns . 23 Jan. 1814 
 
 He re-establishes the Inquisition and the Jesuits, 
 
 7 Aug. „ 
 The papal government endeavour to annul all inno- 
 vations, and thus provoke much opposition ; the 
 Carbonari increase in numbers . . . 1815-17 
 
 Political assassinations in the Romagna . . . 1817 
 The "Young Italy" party established by Joseph 
 Mazzini ; temporary insurrections at Bologna 
 
 suppressed by Austrian aid 1831 
 
 Election of Pius IX 16 June, 1846 
 
 He proclaims an amnesty ; and authorises a national 
 
 guard and municipal institutions . . . . 1847 
 The Romans desire to join the king of Sardinia 
 against the Austrians ; the pope hesitates ; the 
 Antonelli ministry retires ; and the Mamiani 
 
 ministry is formed 1848 
 
 Count Rossi, minister of justice of the pontifical 
 government, assassinated on the staircase of the 
 Chamber of Deputies at Rome . . 15 Nov. ,, 
 
 Insurrection at Rome, the populace demand a 
 democratic ministry and the proclamation of 
 Italian nationality ; the pope (Pius IX.) hesi- 
 tates, the Romans surround the palace, and a 
 conflict ensues. The pope accepts a popular 
 ministry (Cardinal Palma, the pope's secretary, 
 shot in this conflict) . . . .16 Nov. „ 
 A free constitution published . . 20 Nov. ,, 
 The pope escapes in disguise from Rome to Gaeta, 
 
 24 Nov. „ 
 M. de Corcelles leaves Paris for Rome, a French 
 armed expedition to Civita Veechia having 
 preceded hiin, to afford protection to the pope, 
 
 27 Nov. „ 
 Protest of the pope against the acts of the provi- 
 sional government .... 28 Nov. ,, 
 A constituent assembly meets at Rome . 5 Feb. 1849 
 The Roman National Assembly divests the pope 
 of all temporal power, and adopts the republican 
 form of government .... 8 Feb. ,, 
 The pope appeals to the great Catholic powers, 
 
 18 Feb. „ 
 Civita Veechia occupied by the French force under 
 
 Marshal Oudinot . . - 26 April, ,, 
 
 A French force repulsed with loss . . 30 April, „ 
 Engagement between the Romans and Neapolitans ; 
 the former capture 60 prisoners and 400 muskets, 
 
 5 Mav > >» 
 The French under marshal Oudinot commence an 
 
 attack on Rome 3 June, » 
 
 After a brave resistance, the Romans capitulate to 
 
 the French army 3° June, ,, 
 
 The Roman assembly dissolved . . .4 July, ,, 
 An officer from Oudinot's camp arrives at Gaeta, to 
 present the pope with the keys of the two gates 
 of Rome by which the French anny had entered 
 the city 4 July. „ 
 
 1850 
 
 1855 
 1857 
 
 185* 
 
 The re-establishment of the pope's authority pro- 
 claimed at Rome . . . . 15 July, 1849 
 
 Oudinot issues a general order stating that the 
 pope (or his representative) now re-possesses 
 the administration of affairs, but that public 
 security in the pontifical dominions still remains 
 under the special guarantee of the French army, 
 
 3 Aug. „ 
 
 The pope arrives at Portici on a visit to the king of 
 Naples 4 Sept. „ 
 
 He arrives at Rome ; cardinal Antonelli becomes 
 foreign minister April, 
 
 He issues the bull establishing a Roman catholic 
 hierarchy in England (see Papal Agression), 
 
 24 Sept. 
 
 Important concordat with Austria- . 18 Aug. 
 
 The pope visits his dominions . . May-Sept. 
 
 Insurrection in the Romagna, at Bologna, and Ferrara 
 
 June, 
 
 The pope appeals to Europe for help against Sardinia 
 
 12 July, 
 
 The Legations form a defensive alliance with 
 Tuscany, Parma, and Modena . . 20 Aug. 
 
 The queen of Spain engages to send troops to 
 Rome, if the French retire . . 26 Aug. 
 
 The assembly at Bologna vote annexation to Pied- 
 mont, 7 Sept..; the king engages to support their 
 cause before the great powers, 15 Sept. ; the pope 
 annuls the acts of the assembly at Bologna ; and 
 announces the punishment due to those who 
 attack the holy see, 26 Sept. ; and dismisses the 
 Sardinian charge d'affaires at Rome . 1 Oct. 
 
 The Romagna, Modena, and Parma formed into a 
 province, to be called iEmilia . . 24 Dec. 
 
 The Sardinian government annul the Tuscan and 
 Lombard concordats . . 27 Jan., 20 March, 
 
 Riots at Rome suppressed by the police with great 
 cruelty 19 March, 
 
 The pope excommunicates all concerned in the 
 rebellion in his states ... 26 March, 
 
 General Lamoriciere takes command of the papal 
 army, March ; which is re-organised, and in- 
 creased by volunteers from Ireland, &c. . May, 
 
 Tuscan volunteers enter the papal states and are 
 repulsed 19 May, 
 
 Irish volunteers are severely treated for insubor- 
 dination ; many dismissed . . . July, 
 
 The papal army estimated at 20,000 . . Aug. 
 
 Insurrection in the Marches, 8 Sept. ; Fosaembrone 
 subdued by the papal troops ; the people appeal 
 to the Sardinian government, whose troops, 
 under Cialdini and Fanti, enter the Papal States, 
 
 11 Sept. 
 
 Fanti takes Pesaro, 12 Sept. ; and Perugia, in- 
 cluding general Schmidt and 1600 prisoners, 
 
 14 Sept. 
 
 Ancona besieged by sea and land . . 17 Sept. 
 
 Severe allocution of the pope against France and 
 Sardinia ; he appeals to Europe for help, 28 Sept. 
 
 Cialdini defeats Lamoriciere at Castel-Fidardo, 
 18 Sept. ; and takes Ancona . . 29 Sept. 
 
 Additional French troops sent to Rome . Oct. 
 
 The Marches vote for annexation to Sardinia, Nov. 
 
 Subscriptions raised for the pope in various coun- 
 tries : the formal collection forbidden in France 
 and Belgium ; permitted in England . . Nov. 
 
 Monastic establishments suppressed in the Lega- 
 tions ; the monks pensioned; educational institu- 
 tions founded Dee. 
 
 The French emperor advises the pope to give up his 
 revolted provinces .... 21 Dec. 
 
 Publication of Borne et les Eveqves, 6 Jan. ; and of 
 La France, Rome et I'ltalie, 15 Feb. ; great excite- 
 ment, and strong advocacy ofthe pope's temporal 
 government (attacked by prince Napoleon) in the 
 French chambers .... March, 
 
 Cavour claims Rome as capital of Italy, 27 March, 
 
 Petition to the emperor Napoleon to withdraw 
 French troops from Rome ... 10 May, 
 
 The emperor of France declines a union with 
 Austria and Spain for the maintenance of the 
 pope's temporal power .... June, 
 
 Grand ceremony at the canonization of 27 Japanese 
 martyrs (see Canonization) . . .8 June, 
 
 The pope declares a severe allocution against the 
 Italians 9 June, 
 
 Garibaldi calls for volunteers, taking as his watch- 
 word, " Rome or death ! " . .19 July, 1862- 
 
ROME. 
 
 Railway between Rome and Naples completed ; its 
 
 opening opposed by the papal government, Nov. 
 
 Earl Russell's offer to the pope of a residence at 
 
 Malta, 25 Oct. ; declined . . .11 Nov. 
 
 Antonelli's resignation of his office not accepted, 
 
 S March, 
 
 Convention between France and Italy : French 
 troops to quit Rome within two years, 15 Sept. 
 
 Encyclical letter of the pope, publishing a "sylla- 
 bus," censuring 80 errors in religion, philosophy, 
 and politics ; (caused much dissatisfaction, and 
 was forbidden to be read in churches in France 
 and other countries) .... 8 Dec. 
 
 Jews persecuted at Rome .... Dec. 
 
 Fruitless negotiations between the pope and the 
 king of Italy (by Yegezzi) ; mutual concessions 
 proposed . .' . . 21 April to 23 June, 
 
 Pope's severe allocution against secret societies 
 (Freemasons, Fenians, &c.) . . 25 Sept. 
 
 Merode, the papal minister of war, dismissed, 
 
 20 Oct. 
 
 A part of the French troops leave the papal dominions 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Rupture with Russia . . Dee. 1865 — Jan. 
 
 A Franco-pontifical legion (1200 men) formed at 
 Antibes, arrives ; blessed by the pope, 24 Sept. 
 
 Pope's severe allocution against Italy and Russia, 
 
 29 Oct. 
 
 The pope invites all catholic bishops to meet at 
 Rome to celebrate the 18th centenary of the 
 martyrdom of Peter and Paul . . 8 Dec. 
 
 The pope's blessing given to French troops, 6 Dec, 
 who all quit Rome .... 2-12 Dec. 
 
 Rome tranquil 13 Dec. 
 
 Law prohibiting protestant worship except at 
 embassies in Rome enforced . . 31 Dec. 
 
 Negotiation with Italy fruitless ; the Italian coun- 
 cillor, Tonello, quits Rome . . . April, 
 
 599 bishops and thousands of priests present at the 
 pope's allocution, 26 June ; and canonization of 
 25 martyrs ... . . 29 June, 
 
 The pope receives an album and address from 100 
 cities of Italy 8 July, 
 
 Cholera in Rome ; death of cardinal Altieri, while 
 assisting the afflicted . . . n Aug. 
 
 The pope's allocution censures the sacrilegious 
 audacity of the Sub-alpine kingdom, in confisca- 
 ting ecclesiastical property . . .20 Sept. 
 
 Garibaldi arrested at Sinalunga, near the Roman 
 frontier 23 Sept. 
 
 Irruption of Garibaldians in Viterbo — conflicts with 
 various results ; reported appeal of Antonelli for 
 help from the great powers . . . Oct. 
 
 Zouave barracks at Rome blown up, many killed, 
 
 22 Oct. 
 
 Attempt at insurrection in Rome suppressed, 22 
 Oct. ; state of siege proclaimed ; Garibaldi within 
 20 miles of Rome, 24 Oct. ; takes Monte Rotondo 
 
 26 Oct. 
 
 French brigades enter Rome . . .30 Oct. 
 
 Italian troops cross the frontier, 30 Oct. ; occupy 
 several posts 1 Nov. 
 
 Garibaldians defeated by the papal and French 
 troops at Mentana (which see) . . .3 Nov. 
 
 Italian troops retire from the papal states, Nov. 
 
 The Roman committee of insurrection issue a narra- 
 tive, and state that their watchword is "Try 
 again and do better " Dec. 
 
 The papal army increased to about 15,000, . Dec. 
 
 The pope's short allocution (thanking and blessing 
 the French government) ... 19 Dec. 
 
 Nine cardinals made ; Lucien Bonaparte one, 
 
 13 March, 
 
 Sudden death of cardinal Andrea . . 15 May, 
 
 The pope, in his allocution, censures the Austrian 
 new civil marriage law ... 22 June, 
 
 Arrangement respecting the papal debt made with 
 Italy 30 July, 
 
 Encyclical letter of the pope, summoning an oecu- 
 menical council at Rome on 8 Dec. 1869, and in- 
 viting ministers of the Greek and other churches, 
 
 13 Sept. 
 
 The patriarch of the Greek church declined to attend, 
 
 about 3 Oct. 
 
 Monti and Tognetti (for complicity in the explosion 
 of the Zouave barrrcks, 22 Oct. 1867), executed, 
 
 24 Nov. 
 
 575 
 
 ROME. 
 
 1863 
 
 1867 
 
 The pope celebrates a jubilee . . u April, 
 
 In his allocution he deplores the opposition to the 
 church in Austria and Spain . . 25 June, 
 
 He declares, in a letter to archbishop Manning, 
 that no discussions on disputed points can take 
 place at the council 4 Sept. 
 
 The council opened, see Council XXI. , 8 Dec. 
 
 An exhibition of objects of Christian art opened by 
 the pope 7 Feb. 
 
 British and American bishops protest against dis 
 cussing the dogma of papal infallibility in the 
 council, 11 April ; the discussion begins, 14 May, 
 
 Count Arnim, on behalf of the North German con- 
 federation, protests against the dogma . May, 
 
 Papal infallibility adopted by the council and pro- 
 mulgated (533 for ; 2 against ; many retire) ; the 
 council adjourns to 11 Nov. . . 18 July, 
 
 Rome completely evacuated by French troops in 
 consequence of the war ; 8 mortars and 15,000 
 shells said to be ceded to the pope, 8 Aug. ; the 
 troops sent from Civita Vecchia . .21 Aug. 
 
 Conciliatory letter fromVictor Emmanuel to the pope 
 
 8 Sept. 
 
 Agitation in the papal provinces ; the Italian 
 troops invited to enter . . about 10 Sept. 
 
 The pope refuses terms offered him by the king of 
 Italy (sovereignty of the Leonine city and reten- 
 tion of his income) .... 11 Sept. 
 
 Gen. Cadorna crosses the Tiber at Casale ; sends 
 flags of truce to gen. Kanzler, commander of the 
 Zouaves, who refuses to surrender ; baron Arnim 
 in vain negotiates between them . 17 Sept. 
 
 Skirmish with papal Zouaves ; several kiUed, 
 
 14 Sept. 
 
 The Italians occupy Civita Vecchia without resist- 
 ance about 15 Sept. 
 
 Letter from the pope to gen. Kanzler directing that 
 a merely formal defence be made at Rome, and 
 that bloodshed be avoided . . 19 Sept. 
 
 After a brief resistance from the foreign papal 
 troops, stopped by order of the pope, the Italian 
 troops under Cadorna make a breach and enter 
 Rome amid enthusiastic acclamations of the 
 people 20 Sept. 
 
 [Reported Italian loss, about 22 killed, 117 
 wounded ; papal troops, 55 killed and wounded.] 
 
 Cardinal Antonelli issues a diplomatic protest 
 against the Italian occupation of Rome, 21 Sept. 
 
 The papal troops surrender arms ; about 8500 
 foreigners march out with honours of war ; they 
 insult the Italians ; the native troops retained, 
 
 22 Sept. 
 
 Aboutio, 000 persons assemble in the Coliseum, choose 
 44 names for a provisional government (giunta), 
 
 22 Sept. 
 
 Protest of the pope 26 Sept. 
 
 Castle of St. Angelo occupied by Italian troops at 
 the pope's request .... 28 Sept. 
 
 Circular letter from the pope to the cardinals 
 complaining of the invasion and of his loss of 
 liberty, and interference with his private post bag, 
 
 29 Sept. 
 A giunta of 14 (the duke Gaetani chief) selected from 
 
 the 44 names chosen ; approved by Cadorna, 
 
 30 Sept. 
 General Masi in command of Rome and the pro- 
 vinces ; S.P.Q.R. appears on the proclamations, 
 
 30 Sept. 
 
 Plebiscite: out of 167,548 votes, 133,681 for union 
 
 with the kingdom of Italy; 1507 against; the 
 
 remainder did not vote . . . .2 Oct. 
 
 Cardinal Antonelli issues a protest ; published, 
 
 4 Oct. 
 
 The pope said to have accepted 50,000 crowns (his 
 
 monthly civil list) from the Italian government, 
 
 4 Oct. 
 The result of the plebiscite sent to the king, 8 Oct. ; 
 Rome and its provinces incorporated with the' 
 kingdom by royal decree ... 9 Oct. 
 General La Marmora enters Rome as viceroy ; 
 he proclaims that the pope shall be guaranteed 
 in his sovereign powers as head of the church 
 
 11 Oct. 
 The Roman provinces united into one by decree, 
 
 19 Oct. 
 
 The pope issues an encyclical letter adjourning the 
 
 meeting of the council ... 20 Oct. 
 
 1870 
 
ROME. 576 
 
 Antonelli protests against the occupation of the 
 Quirinal by the king . . . .10 Nov. 1870 
 
 Bill introduced into the Italian parliament respect- 
 ing the transfer of the seat of government to 
 Rome in about six months, and the preservation 
 of the spiritual and temporal sovereignty of the 
 pope about 12 Dec. „ 
 
 Inundation of the Tiber ; great suffering of the 
 people, 27, 28 Dec. ; the king gives 200,000 lire ; 
 visits Rome suddenly, the city illuminated, 
 
 4 a.m. 31 Dec. ,, 
 
 Law guaranteeing to the pope full personal liberty 
 and honours, a revenue of 3,225,000 livres, &c, 
 13 May ; rejected by the pope in his allocution, 
 
 15 May, 1871 
 
 2624th anniversary of the city kept ; the pope cele- 
 brates a jubilee on the 25th anniversary of his 
 election 16 June, ,, 
 
 The Italian government remove to Rome, 2, 3 July, „ 
 
 Allocution of the pope, appointing some Italian 
 bishops ; still rejecting guarantees . 27 Oct. ,, 
 
 Grand reception of the king . . 21 Nov. ,, 
 
 He opens the parliament, saying, " The work to 
 which we have consecrated our life is completed," 
 
 27 Nov. „ 
 
 The pope receives an address from nobles and others 
 
 27 Nov. ,, 
 
 Commission appointed to dredge the bed of the 
 Tiber to recover antiquities . . . Dec. ,, 
 
 Easter solemnities not performed by the pope, 
 
 31 March, 1872 
 
 The pope delivers an allocution complaining of per- 
 secution of the church in Italy, Germany, and 
 Spain 23 Dec. „ 
 
 American Protestant church dedicated to St. Paul ; 
 founded 25 Jan. 1873 
 
 B.C. KINGS OF ROME. 
 
 735. Romulus ; murdered by the senators. 
 
 [Tatius, king of the Sabines, had removed to Rome 
 in 747, and ruled jointly with Romulus six 
 years.] 
 
 716. [Interregnum . ] 
 
 715. Numa Pompilius, son-in-law of Tatius the Sabine, 
 elected ; died at the age of 82. 
 
 673. Tullus Hostilius ; murdered by his successor, by 
 whom his palace was set on lire ; his family 
 perished in the flames. 
 
 640. Ancus Martius, grandson of Numa. 
 
 616. Tarquinius Priscus ; son of Demaratus, a Corinthian 
 emigrant, chosen king. 
 
 578. Servius'TulUus, a manumitted slave ; married the 
 king's daughter ; and succeeded by the united 
 suffrages of the army and the people. 
 
 534. Tarquinius Superbus, grandson of Tarquinius Pris- 
 cus ; assassinates his father-in-law, and usurps 
 the throne. 
 
 510. [The rape of Lucretia, by Sextus, son of Tarquin, 
 and consequent insurrection, leads to the aboli- 
 tion of royalty and the establishment of the 
 consulate.] 
 
 REPUBLIC. 
 
 510-82. First period, From the expulsion of Tarquin to 
 
 the dictatorship of Sylla. 
 82-27. Second period. From Sylla to Augustus. 
 
 48. Caius Julius Csesar ; perpetual dictator ; assassi- 
 nated, 15 March, 44 B.C. 
 31. Octavianus Csesar. 
 
 EMPERORS. 
 
 Augustus Imperator, died 19 Aug. a.d. 14. 
 
 Tiberius (Claudius Nero). 
 
 Caius Caligula : murdered by a tribune. 
 
 Claudius I. (Tiberius Drusus) : poisoned by his wife 
 
 Agrippina, to make way for 
 Claudius Nero ; deposed ; kills himself, 68. 
 Servius Sulpicius Galba ; slain by the praetorians. 
 M. Salvius Otho ; stabbed himself. 
 Aulus Vitellius ; deposed by Vespasian, and put to 
 
 death. 
 Titus Flavius Vespasian. 
 Titus (Vespasian), his son. 
 Titus Flavius Domitiau, brother of Titus ; last of 
 
 the twelve Caesars ; assassinated. 
 Cocceius Nerva. 
 Trajan (M. Ulpius Crinitus). 
 
 A.D. 
 
 117. 
 138- 
 161. 
 
 180. 
 
 27. 
 
 A.D. 
 14. 
 
 37- 
 41. 
 
 54- 
 68. 
 69. 
 
 211. 
 217. 
 
 2l3. 
 
 222. 
 235- 
 *37- 
 
 238. 
 
 244. 
 249. 
 
 251- 
 
 253- 
 
 268. 
 
 275- 
 276. 
 
 282. 
 
 23 3 . 
 
 284. 
 
 2S6. 
 
 3°5- 
 306. 
 
 ROME. 
 
 Adrian or Hadrian (Publius iElius). 
 
 Antoninus Titus, surnamed Pius. 
 
 Marcus Aurelius (a philosopher) and Lucius Verus, 
 his son-in-law ; the latter died in 169. 
 
 Commodus (L. Aurelius Antoninus), son of Marcus 
 Aurelius ; poisoned by his favourite mistress, 
 Martia. 
 
 Publius Helvius-Pertinax ; put to death by the prae- 
 torian band. 
 
 [Four emperors now start up : Didianus Julianus, 
 at Rome ; Pescennius Niger, in Syria ; Lucius 
 Septimius Severus, in Pannonia ; and Clodius 
 Albinus, in Britain.] 
 
 Lucius Septimius Severus ; died at York in Britain, 
 in 211 ; succeeded by his sons, 
 
 M. Aurelius Caracalla and Septimius Geta. Geta 
 murdered by Caracalla, 212 ; who is slain by his 
 successor 
 
 M. Opilius Macrinus, prefect of the guards ; be- 
 headed in a mutiny. 
 
 Heliogobalus (M. Aurelius Antoninus), a youth ; put 
 to death for his enormities. 
 
 Alexander Severus ; assassinated by some soldiers 
 corrupted by Maximinus. 
 
 Caius Julius Verus Maximinus ; assassinated in his 
 tent before the walls of Aquileia. 
 
 M. Antonius Gordianus, and his son ; the latter 
 having been killed in a battle with the par- 
 tisans of Maximinus, the father strangled him- 
 self in afit of despair, at Carthage, in his 80th year. 
 
 Balbinus and Pupienus ; put to death. 
 
 Gordian III., grandson of the elder Gordian, in his 
 16th year ; assassinated by the guards, at the 
 instigation of his successor 
 
 Philip the Arabian ; assassinated by his own soldiers ; 
 his son Philip was murdered at the same time, in 
 his mother's arms. 
 
 Metius Decius ; he perished with his two sons, 
 and their army, in an engagement with the 
 Goths. 
 
 Gallus Hostilius, and his son Volusianus ; both slain 
 by the soldiery. 
 
 jEmiiianus ; put to death after a reign of only four 
 months. 
 
 Valerianus, and his son Gallienus ; the first was 
 taken prisoner by Sapor, king of Persia, and 
 flayed alive. 
 
 Gallienus reigned alone. 
 
 [About this time thirty pretenders to imperial power 
 arise in different parts of the empire ; of these 
 Cyriades is the first, but he is slain.] 
 
 Claudius II. (Gallienus having been assassinated 1 >y 
 the officers of the guard) succeeds ; dies of the 
 plague. 
 
 Quintillus, his brother, elected at Rome by the senate 
 and troops ; Aurelian by the army in Illyricum. 
 Quintillus, despairing of success against his 
 rival, who was marching against him, opened his 
 veins and bled himself to death. 
 
 Aurelianus ; assassinated by his soldiers on his 
 march against Persia, in Jan. 275. 
 
 [Interregnum of about nine months.] 
 
 Tacitus, elected 25 Oct. ; died at Tarsus in Cilicia, 
 13 April, 276. 
 
 Florianus, his brother; his title not recognised by 
 the senate. 
 
 M. Aurelius Probus ; assassinated by his troops at 
 Sirmium. 
 
 M. Aurelius Carus ; killed at Ctesiphon by light- 
 ning ; succeeded by his sons 
 
 Carinus and Numerianus; both assassinated, after 
 transient reigns. 
 
 Diocletian ; who associated as his colleague in the 
 
 government, 
 Maximianus Hercules ; the two emperors resign in 
 favour of 
 
 Constantius I. Chlorus and Galerius Maximianus ; 
 the first died at York, in Britain, in 306, and the 
 troops saluted as emperor his son, 
 Constantine, afterwards styled the Great; whilst 
 at Rome the praetorian band proclaimed 
 
 Maxentius, son of Maximianus Hercules. Besides 
 
 these were 
 Maximianus Hercules, who endeavoured to recover 
 
 his abdicated power. 
 Flavius Valerius Severus, murdered by the last- 
 named pretender ; and 
 
ROMILLYS ACT. 
 
 677 
 
 ROSICRUC1ANS. 
 
 3°7- 
 
 323- 
 
 337- 
 
 C Constantine II. 
 
 -j Constans. 
 
 ( Constantius II. 
 
 ROSARY, see Beads. 
 
 ROSAS (N. E. Spain) , Bay oy, where a brilliant 
 naval action was fought by the boats of the Tigre, 
 Cumberland, Volontaire, Apollo, Topaze, Philomel, 
 Scout, and Tuscan, led by lieut. John Tailour (of 
 the Tigre), which ended in the capture or destruc- 
 tion of eleven armed vessels in the bay, 1 Nov. 
 1809; for which purpose lord Collingwood had 
 organised the expedition commanded by capt. Hallo- 
 well. Eosas was gallantly defended by lord Coch- 
 rane, 27 Nov. ; but surrendered, 4 Dec. 1809. 
 
 ROSBACH (Rosebecque) , Flanders. Here 
 Charles VI. of France beat the Flemings, who had 
 revolted against their count, 27 Nov. 1382.— At 
 Eosbach, in Prussia, a great battle was fought 
 between the Prussians, commanded by Frederick 
 the Great, and the combined army of French and 
 
 Flavius Valerianus Licinius, the brother in-law of 
 
 Constantine. 
 [Of these, Maximiamis Hercules was strangled in 
 Gaul, in 310 ; Galerius Maximiamis dies wretchedly 
 in 311 ; Maxentius was drowned in the Tiber in 
 312; and Licinius was put to death by order of 
 Constantine in 324.] 
 Constantine the Great now reigned alone ; died on 
 Whitsunday, 22 May, 337. 
 
 ('Sons of Constantine ; divided 
 the empire between them ; the 
 first was slain in 340, and the 
 second murdered in 350, when 
 the third became sole em- 
 peror. 
 
 360. Julian, the Apostate, so called for abjuring Chris- 
 tianity, having been educated for the priesthood ; 
 mortally wounded in a battle with the Persians, 
 
 363- 
 
 363. Jovian ; reigned eight months ; found dead in his 
 
 bed, supposed to have died from the fumes of 
 charcoal. 
 
 364. Valentinian and Valens. 
 
 375. Valens with Gratian and Valentinian II. 
 379. Theodosius I. , &c. 
 392. Theodosius alone. 
 
 The Roman empire divided ; see Eastern Empire, 
 Western Empire, Popes, and Italy. 
 
 ROMILLY'S ACT, Sir Samuel, 52 Geo. 
 
 III. c. IOI (1812) relates to charities. 
 
 RONCESVALLES (in the Pyrenees), where, 
 it is said, Charlemagne's paladin, Poland, or 
 Orlando, was surprised, defeated and slain by the 
 Gascons, 778. On 25 July, 1813, marshal Soult 
 was defeated here by the British entering France. 
 
 ROOF. The largest in the world was said to be 
 that over a riding-school at Moscow, erected in 
 1791, being 235 feet in span. The roof of the 
 London station of the Midland railway, in Euston- 
 road, London, N."W\, is 240 feet wide, 690 feet long, 
 125 feet high. The extent of ground covered is 
 about 165,000 square feet. 
 
 ROPE-MAKING MACHINE. One was 
 
 patented by Richard March in 1784, and by Edmd. 
 Cartwright, in 1792. Many improvements have been 
 made since. 
 
 ROSAMOND'S BOWER. Rosamond was 
 daughter of lord Clifford, and mistress of Henry II. 
 about 1 154. A conspiracy against her was formed 
 by the queen, prince Henry, and his other sons. 
 Henry kept her in a labyrinth at "Woodstock, where 
 his queen, Eleanor, it is said, discovered her apart- 
 ments by the clue of a silk thread, and poisoned her. 
 She was buried at Godstow church, from whence 
 Hugh, bishop of Lincoln, had her ashes removed, 
 1191. 
 
 Austrians, in which the latter were defeated with 
 severe loss, 5 Nov. 1757. 
 
 ROSE, see under Flowers. The rose, a symbol 
 of silence, gave rise to the phrase sub rosd, " under 
 the rose;" said, by Italian writers, to have risen 
 from the circumstance of the pope's presenting 
 consecrated roses, which were placed over the con- 
 fessionals at Rome, to denote secrecy, 1526. The 
 pope sent a. golden rose to the queen of Spain, which 
 was given to her with much solemnity, 8 Feb. 1868. 
 See Flowers. 
 
 ROSE'S ACT, 33 Geo. III. c. 54 (1793) brought 
 benefit societies under the control of government. 
 
 ROSES, "WARS OF THE, between the Lan- 
 castrians (who chose the red rose as their emblem) 
 and the Yorkists (who chose the white rose), 1455- 
 1485. It is stated that in the Wars of the Roses 
 there perished 12 princes of the blood, 200 nobles, 
 and 100,000 gentry and common people. The union 
 of the roses was effected in the marriage of Henry VII. 
 a\ ith the princess Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV* 
 i486. 
 
 Richard II., who succeeded his grandfather Edward 
 III. in 1377, was deposed and succeeded in i 3 gg 
 by his cousin Henry IV. (son of John of Gaunt, 
 duke of Lancaster, the fourth son of Edward III ) 
 in prejudice to the right of Roger Mortimer 
 (grandson of Lionel, duke of Clarence, Edward's 
 third son), who was declared presumptive heir to 
 the throne in 
 
 Roger's grandson, Richard duke of York,' first 
 openly claimed the crown in . 
 
 Attempts at compromise failed, and the war began 
 
 1385 
 
 1449 
 
 1455 
 
 1459 
 
 1460 
 
 1470 
 
 The Lancastrians were defeated at St. Alban's ; the 
 protector Somerset was slain ; a truce was made, 
 and Richard was declared successor to Henry VL 
 
 mi 2 3 May, 
 
 The war was renewed, and the Yorkists defeated the 
 Lancastrians at Bloreheath . . 23 Sept 
 
 The Yorkists eventually dispersed, and the duke 
 was attainted. 
 
 He defeated his opponents at Northampton, took 
 Henry prisoner, and was declared heir to the 
 crown; but fell into an ambuscade near Wake- 
 field, and was put to death ... 31 Dee 
 
 His son (Edward) continued the struggle ; was in- 
 stalled as king March 
 
 Defeated the Lancastrians at Towton . 29 March' 
 
 Was deposed by Warwick, who restored Henry VI.' 
 
 Edward defeated the Lancastrians at Barnet 14 
 April, and finally at Tewkesbury . . 4 May 1471 
 
 The struggle ended with the defeat and death of 
 Richard III. at Bosworth . . 22 Aug. 1485 
 
 ROSETTA (in Egypt), taken by the French in 
 1798 ; and by the British and Turks, 19 April, 1801. 
 The Turks repulsed the British heie, 22 April, 1807. 
 IS ear Rosetia was fought the battle of the Nile, 
 I Aug. 1798; seeMle. Mehemet Ali rendered great 
 service to his country by constructing a canal 
 between Rosetta and Alexandria. 
 
 The Rosetta Stone, discovered by the French in i7gg was 
 brought from Rosetta in a French vessel, from whence 
 it was taken by Mr. Wm. R. Hamilton, who deposited 
 it in the British Museum. In 1841, Mr. Letronne pub- 
 lished the text and a translation of the Greek inscrip- 
 tion. It is a piece of black basalt, about 3 feet Ion" 
 and 2J feet wide, with an inscription in three languages' 
 viz., hieroglyphics, modified hieroglyphics (enchorial)' 
 and Greek, setting forth the praises of Ptolemy 
 Epiphanes (about 196 b.c). It has been studied bv 
 Dr. T. Young and Champollion. 
 
 ROSICRUCIANS, a sect of mystical philo- 
 sophers who appeared in Germany in the 14th 
 century, and again early in the 17th century. The 
 latter derived their name from the Confessce Eosem 
 Crucis of Valentine Andreas, 1615. They swore 
 
ROSS. 
 
 578 
 
 EOYAL ASSENT. 
 
 fidelity, promised secrecy, and wrote hieroglyphi- 
 cally, and affirmed that the ancient philosophers 
 of Egypt, the Chaldeans, Magi of Persia, and Gym- 
 nosophists of the Indies, taught the same doctrine. 
 
 ROSS, Cork (S. Ireland), a bishopric founded, 
 it is supposed, by St. Fachnan, in the beginning of 
 the 6th century. It was united to Cork in 1340 ; 
 and Cloyne to both, by the Irish Church Temporali- 
 ties act (1833) ; see Bishops ; Neiv Ross. 
 
 ROTA CLUB, a society who met at Miles's 
 Coffee-house in New Palace-yard, Westminster, 
 during the administration of Oliver Cromwell : 
 their plan was that all the great officers of state 
 should be chosen by ballot: and that a certain 
 number of members of parliament should be changed 
 annually by rotation, from whence they took their 
 title. Sir William Petty was one of the members 
 in 1659. JBiog. Brit. 
 
 ROTHESAY CASTLE, see Wrecks, 1831. 
 
 ROTHSCHILD FAMILY. Meyer Am- 
 
 sehel, or Anselm, was born at No. 148, Judengasse 
 (Jew-lane), Frankfort, in 1743. In 1772 he began 
 business as a money-lender and dealer in old coins, 
 in the same house, over which he placed the sign 
 of the red shield (in German, Roth Schild). Hav- 
 ing had dealings with the landgrave of Hesse, that 
 prince entrusted him with his treasure (said to have 
 been 250,000*'.) in 1806, when the French held his 
 country. With this sum as capital, Anselm traded 
 and made a large fortune, and restored the 250,000^. 
 to the landgrave in 1815. At his death his sons 
 continued the business as partners. His son, Na- 
 than, began at Manchester in 1798, removed to 
 London in 1803 ; and died immensely rich, .28 July, 
 1836. The baron, James, head of the family, died 
 at Paris, 15 Nov. 1868. 
 
 ROTTERDAM, the second city in Holland. 
 Its importance dates from the 13th century. The 
 commerce of Antwerp was transferred to it in 1 509. 
 In 1572, Rotterdam was taken by the Spaniards by 
 stratagem, and cruelly treated. It suffered much 
 from the French revolutionary wars, and from in- 
 undations in 1775 and 1825. Desiderius Erasmus 
 was bom here in 1467. The museum and picture- 
 gallery of Rotterdam were destroyed at the fire of 
 the Schieland palace, 16 Feb. 1864. 
 
 ROUEN (N. France), an archbishopric, 260, be- 
 came the capital of Normandy in the 10th century. 
 It was held by the English kings till 1204 ; and was 
 retaken by Henry V., 19 Jan. 1419. Joan of Arc, 
 the Maid of Orleans, was burnt here, 30 May, 143 1. 
 It was taken by Charles VII. of France in 1449 ; 
 and by the duke of Guise from the Huguenots, Oct. 
 1562 and 1591. Rouen, after slight conflicts, 4, 5 
 Dee. 1870, surrendered to general Von Goben, 
 6 Dec. It was ordered to pay a contribution of 
 17,000,000 francs. 
 
 ROUMANIA, the name assumed by the Danu- 
 bian principalities (which sec) on 23 Dec. 1861, 
 when their union was proclaimed at Bucharest and 
 Jassy. 
 
 ROUMELIA or ROMANIA (Turkey), part of 
 Thrace (which see). The Roumelian railway opened 
 17 June, 1873. 
 
 ROUND-HEADS. In the civil war which 
 began in 1642, the adherents of Charles I. were 
 called Cavaliers, and the friends of the parliament 
 Round-heads The term, it is said, arose from those 
 persons who had a round bowl or dish put upon 
 their heads, and their hair cut to the edge of the 
 bowl; see Cavaliers. 
 
 ROUNDWAY DOWN (near Devizes, Wilt- 
 shire). Here the royalists defeated the parliamen- 
 tarians with great slaughter, 13 July, 1643. 
 
 ROVEREDO (Austrian Tyrol) was held by 
 the Venetians from 1416 till 160*9. when it was re- 
 quired by Austria. It was taken by Bonaparte and 
 the French, 4 Sept. 1796, after a brilliant victory. 
 
 ROWING, see Boat Races, Boggett, and Uni- 
 versity. 
 
 ROXBURGHE CLUB was instituted in 
 1812 by earl Spencer, for the republication of rare 
 books, or unpublished MSS., in memory of John 
 duke of Roxburghe. 
 
 ROYAL Agricultural, Astronomical, 
 Geographical, Horticultural, &c; see 
 under Agriculture, Astronomy, Geography, Horti- 
 culture, Sec. 
 
 ROYAL ACADEMY. A society of artists 
 met in St. Peter's-court, St. Martin' s-lane, about 
 1739, which Hogarth established as the society of 
 Incorporated Artists, who held their first exhibition 
 at the Society of Arts, Adelphi, 21 April, 1 760. 
 From this sprang the Royal Academy, in con- 
 sequence of a dispute between the directors and the 
 fellows. On 10 Dec. 1768, the institution of the 
 present Royal Academy was completed under the 
 patronage of George III. ; and sir Joshua Reynolds, 
 knighted on the occasion, was appointed its first 
 president. Leigh. The first exhibition of the 
 academicians (at Pall-Mali) was on 26 April, 1769, 
 when 136 works appeared. In 1771 the king 
 granted them apartments in old Somerset-house, 
 and afterwards, in 1780, in new Somerset-house, 
 where they remained till 1838, when they removed 
 to the National Gallery. Among the professors have 
 been Johnson, Gibbon, Goldsmith, Macaulay, and 
 Dallam. Turner, the painter, gave funds to the 
 academy for the award of a medal triennially for 
 landscape-painting, which was awarded to Mr. N. 
 0. Lupton in 1857. A commission of inquiry into 
 the affairs of the academy, appointed in 1862, re- 
 commended various changes in July, 1863, which 
 were carried into effect. The hundredth anniversary 
 of the foundation of the academy was celebrated 
 10 Dec. 1868. The Royal Academy held its first 
 exhibition in the new building, 3 May, 1869. An 
 exhibition of pictures by the old masters, with some 
 British, was opened 3 Jan. 1870, and in Jan. 1871-2-3. 
 The money received was devoted to the establish- 
 ment of a professorship of chemistry and a labora- 
 tory. 
 
 PRESIDENTS. 
 
 1768. Sir Joshua Reynolds. 
 
 1792. Benjamin West. 
 
 1805. James Wyatt. 
 
 1806. Benjamin West. 
 1820. Sir Thomas Lawrence. 
 1830. Sir Martin A. Shee. 
 
 1850. Sir Charles Eastlake ; died, 23 Dec. 1865. 
 1866. Sir Edwin Landseer elected ; declines, 24 Jan. 
 „ Sir Francis Grant, Feb. 1. 
 
 ROYAL ACADEMY OF MUSIC was es- 
 tablished in 1823, mainly by the exertions of lord 
 Burghcrsh (afterwards earl of Westmoreland, who 
 died 16 Oct. 1859), and was incorporated by charter 
 in 1830. The first concert took place 8 Dee. 1828. 
 Its reconstruction was proposed in 1866, and since 
 effected. 
 
 ROYAL ADELAIDE, see Wrecks, 1850. 
 
 ROYAL ASSENT. If the kin? assent to a 
 public bill, the clerk of the parliament declares in 
 
EOYAL BOUNTY. 
 
 579 
 
 EOYAL INSTITUTION. 
 
 Norman French, u Le roy le veult," the king wills 
 it so to be. If the king refuses his assent, it is in the 
 gentle language of "Ze roy s'avisera," the king 
 will consider it. Sale. By the statute 33 Hen. 
 "VIII., 1 541, the Icing may give his assent by letters- 
 patent. BlacJcstone' s Com. 
 
 EOYAL BOUNTY, a fund from which sums 
 are granted to female relatives of officers killed or 
 mortally wounded during service. 
 
 EOYAL CHAETEE, see Wrecks, 1859. 
 
 EOYAL EXCHANGE (Cambium Eegis), 
 London. The foundation of the original edifice was 
 laid by sir Thomas Gresham, 7 June, 1566, on the 
 site of the ancient Tun prison. Queen Elizabeth 
 opened it on 23 Jan. 1571, and her herald named it 
 the Royal Exchange. Hume. It was totally de- 
 stroyed by the great fire, Sept. 1666. Charles II. 
 laid the foundation-stone of the next edifice, 23 Oct. 
 1667, which was completed by Mr. Hawkesmore, a 
 pupil of sir Christopher Wren, in about three 
 years; it was repaired and beautified in 1769. This 
 also was burnt, 10 Jan. 1838. The new Eoyal Ex- 
 change, erected under the direction of Mr. Tite, was 
 opened by the queen, 28 Oct. 1844.— The Eoyal 
 Exchange, Dublin, commenced 1769, opened 
 1779. 
 
 EOYAL GEOBGE, a man-of-war of 108 
 guns, overset off Spithead, and suddenly went down 
 while at anchor, by the guns rolling to one side. 
 Eear-admiral Kempenfeldt, the crew, many marines, 
 women, and Jews, in all about 600 persons, were 
 drowned, 29 Aug. 1782. By the use of the diving- 
 bell, the ship, embedded in the deep, was surveyed 
 in May, 18 1 7, et seq. Portions of the vessel and its 
 cargo were brought up in 1839-42, under the super- 
 intendence of sir Charles Pasley, when gunpowder 
 was ignited by the agency of electricity. 
 
 EOYAL HUMANE SOCIETY (London), 
 see Humane Society. 
 
 EOYAL INSTITUTION of Great 
 
 BRITAIN", the earliest of the kind in London, was 
 founded 9 March, 1799, by count Eumford, sir 
 Joseph Banks, earls Spencer and Morton, and several 
 other noblemen and gentlemen. It received the 
 immediate patronage of George III., and was in- 
 corporated 13 Jan. 1800, by roval charter, as " The 
 Eoyal Institution of Great Britain, for the diffusing 
 knowledge, and facilitating the general introduc- 
 tion of useful mechanical inventions and improve- 
 ments, and for teaching, by courses of philosophical 
 lectures and experiments, the application of science 
 to the common purposes of life." It was enlarged 
 and extended by an act of parliament in 1810; the 
 original plan, as drawn up by count Eumford, in 
 1799, having been considerably modified. The mem- 
 bers are elected by ballot, and pay ten guineas on 
 admission, and five guineas annually, or a com- 
 position of sixty guineas . ' ' The Eoyal Institution, 
 its Founder, and its first Professors," by Dr. Bence 
 Jones, hon. sec, published 187 1. 
 
 The House (in Albemarle-street, Piccadilly) was pur- 
 chased in June, 1799, and the present front was added 
 by subscription in 1838. The Lecture theatre was 
 erected in 1803, under the superintendence of Mr. T. 
 "Webster. 
 
 The Laboratory established in 1800; was rebuilt, with 
 the modern improvements, 1872. 
 
 The Library was commenced in 1803, by the munificent 
 subscriptions of the proprietors of the institution. 
 It now (1873) comprises about 36,000 volumes. Clas- 
 sified catalogues (by W. Harris) were published in 
 1809 and 1821 ; a new one (by B. Vincent) in 1857. 
 
 The Museum contains original philosophical apparatus 
 
 of Young, Cavendish, Davy, and Faraday. 
 The first Lecture was delivered 4 March, 1801, by Dr. 
 Gamett, he being the first professor of natural philo- 
 sophy and chemistry. . 
 In 1802 he was succeeded by Dr. Thomas Young, so cele- 
 brated for his researches in optics, resulting in the 
 discovery of the interference of light, and the estab- 
 lishment of the theory of undulation. His " Lectures 
 on Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical Arts," first 
 published in 1807, are still considered a text-book of 
 physical science. His works on antiquarian literature 
 (hieroglyphic inscriptions, <fcc.) are also highly es- 
 teemed. 
 
 In Feb. 1801, Mr. (afterwards sir Humphry) Davy was 
 engaged as assistant lecturer and director of the labo- 
 ratory, and on 31 May, 1802, he was appointed pro- 
 fessor of chemistry. His lectures were eminently 
 successful, and his discoveries in chemistry and elec- 
 tricity have immortalised his name, and conferred 
 honour on the institution. By him the alkaloids, po- 
 tassium and sodium, were discovered in 1807; the 
 nature of chlorine was determined in 1810, and the 
 safety-lamp invented in 1815. 
 
 William Thomas Brandt succeeded sir Humphry as pro- 
 fessor of chemistry in 1813, and held that office till his 
 resignation in 1852, since which time, till his death 
 (Feb. 1866), he was hon. professor. From 1816 to 1850 
 he delivered, in the laboratory of this institution, his 
 celebrated chemical lectures to students. 
 
 In 1813 Michael Faraday (born 22 Sept. 1791), on the 
 recommendation of sir H. Davy, was engaged as as- 
 sistant in the laboratory, and in 1825 as its director ; 
 m 1827 he became one of the permanent lecturers of 
 the institution. In 1820 he commenced those researches 
 111 electricity and magnetism which form an era in the 
 history of science. In 1823-4 he discovered the con- 
 densability of chlorine and other gases ; in 1831 he 
 obtained electricity from the magnet ; in 1845 he ex- 
 hibited the two-fold magnetism of matter, compre- 
 hending all known substances, the magnetism of gases, 
 flame, <fce. ; in 1850 he published his researches on 
 atmospheric magnetism: died, 25 Aug. 1867. 
 
 John Tyndall, F.R.S., the present professor of natural 
 philosophy, first elected in July, 1853, is eminent for 
 his researches on magnetism, heat, glaciers, &c. 
 
 Edward. Frankland, F. R. S. , professor of chemistry 1863-8, 
 is eminent for his discoveries in organic chemistry. 
 
 In 1804, sir J. St. Aubyn and other gentlemen proposed 
 to form a school of mines at this institution ; but the 
 plan, although warmly supported by the members, was 
 withdrawn for want of encouragement by the govern- 
 ment and by mining proprietors. 
 
 The weekly evening meetings, on the Fridays, from 
 January to June, as now arranged, commenced in 
 1826. Discourses (of which abstracts are printed) are 
 given at these meetings by the professors of the insti- 
 tution, and other eminent scientific men. 
 
 Endowments. In 1833, John Fuller, esq., of Rosehill, 
 endowed two professorships, of chemistry and physi- 
 ology; the former was bestowed on Mr. Faraday "for 
 life ; (succeeded by Win. Odling, 1868-73 ;) the latter on ' 
 Dr. Roget for three years, to be filled up afterwards by 
 triennial election. — The Fullerian professors of physi- 
 ology have been R. E. Grant, T. R. Jones, W. B. Car- 
 penter, W. W. Gull, T. W. Jones, T. H. Huxley (twice) 
 R. Owen, J. Marshall, Michael Foster, and William 
 Rutherford.— In 183s, Mrs. Acton gave 1000Z. to be in- 
 vested for paying every seven years 100 guineas for the 
 best essay on the beneficence of the Almighty, as illus- 
 trated by discoveries in science; which have been 
 awarded— in 1844 to Mr. G. Fownes; in 1851 to Mr. T. 
 Wharton Jones; in 1858 no award was made; in 1865 
 to Mr. George Warington ; in 1872 to Rev. George * 
 Henslow and B. Thompson Lowne. 
 
 The "Fund for the Promotion of Experimental Re- 
 searches " was founded on 6 July, 1863, by sir Henry 
 Holland, Professor Faraday, sir R. I. Murchison, Dr. 
 Bence Jones, and others. 
 
 The first officers were sir Joseph Banks, president, till the 
 charter was granted, afterwards the earl of Winchilsea • 
 Mr. (afterwards sir Thomas) Bernard, treasurer; rev' 
 Dr. Samuel Glasse, secretary. -The duke of Northum- 
 berland, E.G., elected president, 1842; succeeded by 
 sir Henry Holland, in 1865. W. Pole, esq., treasurer 
 elected 1849; succeeded by Wm. Spottiswoode esq 
 in 1865; by George Busk, esq., 1873. The rev. John 
 
 It2 
 
EOYAL MAERIAGE ACT. 
 
 580 
 
 EUNNY-MEDE. 
 
 Barlow, secretary, elected 1842; succeeded by Henry 
 Benee Jones, M.D., i860; by Wm. Spottiswoode, esq., 
 1873. Librarians: Wm. Harris, 1803-23; S. Weller 
 Singer, 1826-35 ; Wm. Mason, 1835-48 ; B. Vincent, 1849. 
 
 EOYAL MAEEIAGE ACT, &c, see Mar- 
 riage Act ; Military and Naval Asylums ; Navy, 
 and Prerogative. 
 
 EOYAL SOCIETY (London). In 1645 
 several learned men met in London to discuss philo- 
 sophical questions and report experiments ; the 
 Novum Organon of Bacon, published in 1620, hav- 
 ing given great impulse to such pursuits. Some of 
 them (Drs. Wilkins, Waliis, &c), about 1648-9, 
 removed to Oxford, and with Dr. (afterwards bishop) 
 Seth Ward, the hon. Robert Boyle, Dr. (afterwards 
 sir) W. Petty, and several doctors of divinity and 
 physic, frequently assembled in the apartments of 
 Dr. Wilkins, in Wadham college, Oxford. They 
 formed what has been called the Philosophical 
 Society of Oxford, which only lasted till 1690. The 
 members were, about 1658, called to various parts 
 of the kingdom, on account of their respective pro- 
 fessions ; and the majority coming to London, con- 
 stantly attended the lectures at Gresham college, 
 and met occasionally till the death of Oliver Crom- 
 well, 3 Sept. 1658 ; see Societies. 
 The society was organised in 1660, and constituted by 
 Charles II. a body politic and corporate, by the appella- 
 tion of " The President, Council, and Fellowship of the 
 Royal Society of London, for inija-oving Natural Know- 
 ledge," 22 April, 1662. 
 Evelyn records the first anniversary meeting, St. An- 
 
 drew's-day, 30 Nov. 1663. 
 The Philosophical Transactions begin 6 March, 1664-5. 
 In 1668 Newton invented his reflecting telescope (now in 
 the possession of the society), and on 28 April, 1686, 
 presented to the society the MS. of his Principia, 
 which the council ordered to be printed. This was 
 done under the superintendence and at the expense of 
 Halley the astrouomer, at that time clerk to the 
 society. 
 The society met for some years at Gresham College, and 
 afterwards at Arundel House (1666), where it came 
 into possession of a valuable library, presented by Mr. 
 Howard, grandson of its collector, the earl of Arundel. 
 After various changes the fellows returned to Gresham 
 College, where they remained till their removal to 
 Crane-court, in a house purchased by themselves, 
 8 Nov. 1610. 
 The Bakerian lecture was established by Henry Baker, 
 
 1774- 
 
 The first Copley medal was awarded to Stephen Gray in 
 1731 ; the royal medal to John Dalton, 1826 ; the Rum- 
 ford medal (instituted in 1797) to count Rumford him- 
 self in 1 800. 
 
 The society remove to apartments granted them in Somer- 
 set-house, 1780; to apartments in Burlington-house, 
 Piccadilly, 1057. 
 
 Parliament votes annually 1000Z. to the Royal Society 
 for scientific purposes. 
 
 Regulations made by which fifteen fellows are to be an- 
 nually elected, who pay ten pounds on admission, and 
 four pounds annually, or a composition of sixty pounds, 
 March, 1847. In consequence, the number of fellows 
 was reduced from 839 in 1847, to 626 in 1866. 
 
 The "Royal Society Scientific Fund" was founded in 
 imitation of the " Literary Fund" in 1859 : see Scien- 
 tific Fund. 
 
 PRESIDENTS. 
 
 1660. Sir Robert Moray. 1703. Sir Isaac Newton. 
 
 1663. Lord Brouncker. 1727. Sir Hans Sloane. 
 
 1677. Sir Joseph Williamson. 1741. Martin Folkes. 
 
 1680. Sir Christopher Wren. 
 
 1682. Sir John Hoskyns. 
 
 1683. Sir Cyril Wyche. 
 
 1684. Samuel Pepys. 
 1686. John, earl of Carbcry. 
 
 1689. Thomas, earl of Pem- 
 
 broke. 
 
 1 690. Sir Robert Southwell. 
 1695. Chas. Montague (afts. 
 
 earl of Halifax). 
 1698. John, lord Somers. 
 
 1752. George, earl of Mac- 
 clesfield. 
 1764. James, earl of Morton. 
 1768. James Burrow. 
 
 „ James West. 
 1772. James Burrow. 
 1772. Sir John Pringle. 
 1778. Sir Joseph Banks. 
 1820. Dr. W. H. Wollaston. 
 
 ,, Sir Humphry Davy. 
 1827. Davies Gilbert. 
 
 1861. Maj.-gen. sir Edward 
 
 Sabine. 
 1871. Sir G. B. Airy. 
 1873. Probably Dr. Joseph 
 
 Hooker. 
 
 1830. Duke of Sussex. 
 1838. Marquis of North 
 
 ampton. 
 1848. Earl of Rosse. 
 1854. Lord Wrotteslev. 
 1858. Sir Benj. C. Brodie. 
 
 EOYAL SOCIETY of Edinburgh, incor- 
 porated 29 March, 1783, arose out of the Philoso- 
 phical Society of Edinburgh, founded in 1 739. It 
 received a second charter in 181 1. 
 
 EOYAL SOCIETY of Literature was 
 
 founded under the auspices of king George IV. in 
 1823, and chartered 13 Sept. 1826. It awards gold 
 medals. 
 
 RUBICON, a small river flowing into the 
 Adriatic sea, separated Cisalpine Gaul from Italy 
 proper. Roman generals were forbidden to pass 
 this river at the head of an army. Julius Caesar 
 did so, Jan. 49 B.C., and thereby began a revolt and 
 deadly civil war. 
 
 RUBIDIUM, an alkaline metal, discovered by 
 Bunsen by means of the spectrum analysis, and 
 made known in 186 1. 
 
 BUFFLES became fashionable about 1520; 
 and went out about 1790. 
 
 EUGBY SCHOOL (Warwickshire), was 
 founded in 1567 by Lawrence Sheriff, a London 
 tradesman ; its arrangements were affected by the 
 Public Schools act 1868. Or. Thomas Arnold, the 
 historian, entered on the duties of head-master here 
 in August, 1828, and under him the school greatly 
 prospered. He died 12 June, 1842. 
 
 BUGEN, an island in the Baltic, has frequently 
 changed masters, having been held by the Danes, 
 Swedes, and French. It was transferred to Prussia 
 in 1815. 
 
 EUHMKOBFFS INDUCTION COIL, 
 
 see Induction. 
 
 "EULE BEITANNIA." Nearly all the 
 words are by James Thomson ; the music, ascribed 
 to Dr. Arne, is said by Schcolcher (in his life of 
 Handel) to have been taken from an air in Handel's 
 " Occasional Oratorio " composed 1746. 
 
 EULE OF THE EOAD, see Seas. 
 
 EULING-MACHINES, used for ruling 
 paper with faint lines, for merchants' account- 
 books, &c. They were invented by an ingenious 
 Dutchman, resident in London, in 1782, and were 
 subsequently greatly improved by Woodmason, 
 Payne, Brown, and others. They were improved 
 in Scotland in 1803. An invention has lately ren- 
 dered account-books perfect by the numbering of 
 the pages with types, instead of the numbers being 
 written by a pen, so that a page cannot be torn out 
 from them without being discovered. 
 
 EUM (French rhum), ardent spirit distilled 
 from sugar lees and molasses, deriving its peculiar 
 flavour from a volatile oil. Rum is principally 
 made in the West Indies. The duty (since 1858) 011 
 colonial rum imported into the United Kingdom is 
 8s. zd. per gallon. The duty on rum to be employed 
 as methylated spirits was reduced in 1863. 
 Imported. Gallons. I Imported. Gallons. 
 
 1848 . . . 6,858,981 j 1863 . . . 7,194,738 
 1851 . . 4,745,244 j 1871 . . 7,526,890 
 
 1857 . . . 6,515,683 I 
 
 EUMFOED MEDAL, see Royal Society. 
 
 EUMP PAELIAMENT, see Pride's Purge. 
 
 EUNNY-MEDE (council-mead), nearEgham, 
 Surrey. Here king John granted Magna Charta, 
 15 June, 1215. 
 
EUPEET'S LAND. 
 
 581 
 
 EUSSIA. 
 
 EUPEET'S LAND (N. America), or Red 
 River Settlement, formerly the territories of the 
 Hudson's bay company, was made a bishopric ;in 
 1849. See Hudson's Bay, Canada, and Manitoba. 
 
 EUSSELL ADMINISTEATIONS,* see 
 
 Palmerston .Administration, &c. 
 
 first administration (formed on the resignation of sir 
 Robert Peel), July, 1846. 
 
 First lord of the treasury, lord John Russell. 
 
 Lord chancellor, lord Cottenham (succeeded by lord 
 Truro). 
 
 Lord president of the council, marquis of Lansdowne. 
 
 Privy seal, earl of Minto. 
 
 Chancellor of the exchequer, Mr. (aft. sir Charles) Wood. 
 
 Foreign, home, and colonial secretaries, viscount Pal- 
 merston, sir George Grey, and earl Grey. 
 
 Boards of control and trade, sir John Hothouse (aft. lord 
 Broughton), and earl of Clarendon (succeeded by Mr. 
 Labouchere). 
 
 Admiralty, the earl of Auckland (succeeded by sir 
 Francis Thornhill Baring). 
 
 Duchy of LancoMer, lord Campbell (succeeded by the earl 
 of Carlisle, late viscount Morpeth). 
 
 Secretary at war, Mr. Fox Maule. 
 
 Postmaster, marquis of Clanricarde. 
 
 Paymaster-general, T. B. Macaulay. 
 
 Lord John Russell and his colleagues resigned their 
 offices, 21 Feb. 1851 ; but were induced (after the 
 failure of lord Stanley's party to form an adminis- 
 tration) to return to power, 3 March following. 
 
 second administration (or continuation of his first), 
 March, 1851. 
 
 First lord of the treasury, lord John Russell. 
 
 President of the council, marquis of Lansdowne. 
 
 Lord privy seal, earl of Minto. 
 
 Chancellor of the exchequer, sir Charles Wood. 
 
 Home, foreign, and colonial secretaries, sir George Grey, 
 viscount Palmerston (succeeded by earl Granville, 22 
 Dec), and earl Grey. 
 
 Lord chancellor, lord Truro. 
 
 First lord of the admiralty, sir Francis T. Baring. 
 
 Board of control, lord Broughton. 
 
 Board of trade, Mr. Labouchere. 
 
 Secretary at war, Mr. Fox Maule (aft. lord'Panmure, and 
 earl of Dalhousie). 
 
 Postmaster-general, marquis of Clanricarde. 
 
 Paymaster-general, earl Granville. 
 
 Lord Seymour, earl of Carlisle, &c. 
 
 This ministry resigned 21 Feb. 1852 ; see Derby Adminis- 
 tration. 
 
 third administration. (On the decease of lord Pal- 
 merston, 18 Oct. 1865, earl Russell received Her 
 Majesty's commands to reconstruct the adminis- 
 tration.) 
 
 First lord of the treasury, John, earl Russell. 
 
 Lord chancellor, "Robert, lord Cranworth. 
 
 Postmaster-general, John, lord Stanley of Alderley. 
 
 President of the poor-law board, Chas. Pelhani Villiers. 
 
 Lord president of the council, George, earl Granville. 
 
 Lord privy seal, George, duke of Argyll. 
 
 Chancellor of the exchequer, Wm. E. Gladstone. 
 
 Secretaries— foreign affairs, George, earl of Clarendon ; 
 colonies, Edward Cardwell ; home, sir George Grey ; 
 war, George, earl de Grey and Ripon, succeeded by 
 Spencer, marquis of Hartington, Feb. 1866 ; India, sir 
 Charles Wood, resigned (created viscount Halifax) ; 
 succeeded by earl De Grey, Feb. 1866. 
 
 * Lord John Russell, third son of John, duke of 
 Bedford, was born 19 Aug. 1792 ; M.P. for Tavistock, 
 1813 ; for London, 1841-61 ; was paymaster of the forces, 
 1830-34 ; secretary for home department, 1835-9 '• f° r ^ ne 
 colonies, 1839-41 ; first minister, July 1846 to March 
 1852 ; secretary for foreign affairs, Dec. 1852 to Feb. 
 1853 ; president of the council, June 1854 to Feb. 1855 , 
 secretary for the colonies, March to Nov. 1855 ; secretary 
 for foreign affairs, June 1859 to Oct- l86 5> when he suc- 
 ceeded lord Palmerston as premier ; created a peer, as 
 earl Russell, 30 July, 1861. His motion for reform in 
 parliament was negatived in 1822 ; adopted 1 March, 
 1831 ; he introduced the registration bill and a new 
 marriage bill in 1836 ; introduced and withdrew a reform 
 bill, i860. 
 
 First lord of the admiralty, Edward, duke of Somerset. 
 President of the board of trade, Thos. Milner Gibson. 
 Chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, George J. Goschen. 
 Secretary for Ireland, Chichester Fortescue. 
 This ministry resigned, 26 June, 1866, in consequence of 
 
 a minority on 19 June (see under Reform, and Derby 
 
 Administrations). 
 
 EUSSELL INSTITUTION (Great Coram- 
 street, London), was founded in 1808 by sir Samuel 
 Romilly, Francis Horner, Dr. Mason Good, Henry 
 Hallam, sir James Scarlett (since lord Abinger), and 
 others. The building comprises a library, lecture 
 room, news room, &c. 
 
 EUSSELL TEIAL. William, lord Russell's 
 trial for complicity in the Rye-house plot was 
 marked by a most touching scene. "When he re- 
 quested to have some one near him to take notes to 
 help his memory, he was answered, that any of 
 his attendants might assist him; upon which he 
 said, " My wipe is here, and will do it for me." 
 He was beheaded in Lincoln' s-Inn-Fields, 21 July, 
 1683. Lady Russell survived him forty years, 
 dying 29 Sept. 1723, in her eighty-seventh year. 
 His attainder was reversed, 1 Will. III. 1689. 
 
 EUSSIA, the eastern part of ancient Sarmatia. 
 The name is generally derived from the Roxolani, 
 a Slavonic tribe. Rurick, a Varangian chief, 
 appears to have been the first to establish a govern- 
 ment, 862. His descendants ruled amid many 
 vicissitudes till 1598. The progress of the Russian 
 power under Peter the Great and Catherine II. is 
 unequalled for rapidity in the history of the world. 
 The established religion of Russia is the Greek 
 church, with toleration of other sects, even Mahome- 
 tans. By an imperial ukase, in 1802, six universi- 
 ties were established, viz., at St. Petersburg, 
 Moscow, Wilna, Dorpat (in Livonia), Charcov, and 
 Kasan ; but literature made little progress till the 
 present century, the native publications being 
 very few, and the best books being translations. 
 The Russian language, though not devoid of 
 elegance, is, to a foreigner, of very difficult pro- 
 nunciation : the number of letters and diphthongs is 
 forty-two. The population of the empire in 1867, 
 82,159,630. By the first Russian budget (1862), 
 the estimated revenue was 34,500,000/. ; expendi- 
 ture, 37,850,000/. 
 
 Russia invaded by the Huns . . . a.d. 376 
 Ruric the Norman or Varangian, arrives at Novgorod 
 (or New City), and becomes grand duke [anni- 
 versary kept 20 Sept. 1862] 862 
 
 Oleg successfully invades the Greek empire . . 907 
 Baptism of Olga, widow of the czar Igor, at Con- 
 stantinople, about 955 
 
 Vladimir the Great marries Anne, sister of the 
 
 emperor Basil II., and is baptized . . . 988 
 The Golden Horde of Tartars conquer a large part 
 
 of Russia about 1223 
 
 The grand duke Jurie killed in battle . . . 1237 
 Alexander Newski defeats the invading Danes . 1241 
 The Tartars establish the empire of the khan of 
 
 Kaptschak, and exercise great influence in Russia 1242 
 He is made grand duke of Russia by the Tartars . 1252 
 
 Moscow made the capital 1300 
 
 Tartar war, r38o ; Moscow burnt . . . . 1383 
 
 Tamerlane invades Russia, but retires . . . 1395 
 Accession of Ivan III. the Great— able and despotic, 
 
 founds the present monarchy . . . . 1462 
 
 Ivan introduces fire-arms and cannon into Russia . 1475 
 Great invasion of the Tartars ; consternation of 
 
 Ivan 1479 
 
 His general Svenigorod annihilates their power . 1481 
 
 War with Poland 1506-23 
 
 The English " Russian company " established . 1553 
 
 Richard Chancellor sent to open the trade . . 1554 
 
 Discovery of Siberia ,, 
 
 The royal body-guard (the Strelitz) established . 1568 
 Ivan solicits the hand of queen Elizabeth of 
 England . . . . . . . . 1579 
 
RUSSIA. 
 
 582 
 
 RUSSIA. 
 
 Murder of Feodor I. , last of the race of Rurie, which 
 
 had governed Russia for 700 years . . . . 1598 
 The imposition of Demetrius (see Impostors). — 
 
 Matins of Moscow .... 29 May, 1606 
 
 Michael Fedorovitz, of the house of Romanoff, 
 
 ascends the throne 1613 
 
 Finland ceded to Sweden 1617 
 
 Russian victories in Poland 1654 
 
 Subjugation of the Cossacks 1671 
 
 Reign of Ivan and Peter I. or the Great . . . 1682 
 
 Peter sole sovereign 1689 
 
 He visits Holland and England, and works in the 
 
 dockyard at Deptford 1697 
 
 Recalled by a conspiracy of the Strelitz, which he 
 cruelly revenges ; 2000 tortured and slain ; he be- 
 heads many with his own hand .... 1698 
 The Russians begin their new year from 1 Jan. (but 
 
 retain the old style) 1700 
 
 "War with Sweden ; Peter totally defeated by Charles 
 
 XII. at Narva 30 Nov. ., 
 
 Peter founds St. Petersburg as a new capital 
 
 27 May, 1703 
 
 The Strelitz abolished 1704 
 
 Charles XII. totally defeated by Peter at Pultowa, 
 
 and flees to Turkey 8 July, 1709 
 
 14,000 Swedish prisoners sent to Siberia . . . ,, 
 
 WBT with Turkey : Peter and his army cross the 
 
 Pruth, and are surrounded by the Turks ; they 
 
 escape by the energy of the empress Catherine, 
 
 who obtains a truce .... June, 171 1 
 
 Esthonia, Livonia, and a large part of Finland 
 
 added to the empire 1715 
 
 Peter visits Germany, Holland, and France . . ,, 
 
 The Jesuits expelled 1718 
 
 Conspiracy and mysterious death of prince Alexis 
 
 7 July, ,, 
 Peter II. (last of the Romanoffs) deposed, and the 
 
 crown given to Anne of Courland . . .1730 
 
 Elizabeth, daughter of Peter I., reigns, in prejudice 
 
 of Ivan VI., an infant, who is imprisoned for life 1741 
 Peter III. dethroned and murdered, succeeded by 
 
 Catherine his wife 1762 
 
 Ivan VI., the rightful heir, till now immured, put 
 
 to death . 1764 
 
 Treaty of Kutsohouc Kainardji ; independence of 
 
 the Crimea and freedom of Black sea . July, 1774 
 Rebellion of the Cossacks, 1774 ; suppressed . . 1775 
 Dismemberment of Poland; commenced by Cathe- 
 rine (see Poland), 1772 ; completed . . . 1795 
 Successful invasions of the Crimea . . . 1769-84 
 Catherine gives her subjects a new code of laws ; 
 abolishes torture in punishing criminals ; and 
 
 dies 11796 
 
 Unsuccessful war with Persia ,, 
 
 Russian treaty with Austria and England . . 1798 
 Suwarrow, with an army joins the Austrians, and 
 
 checks the French in Italy 1799 
 
 Mental derangement of Paul, 1800 ; murdered, 
 
 24 March, 1801 
 Alexander I. makes peace with England . May, ,, 
 He joins the coalition against France . 11 April, 1805 
 Allies defeated at Austerlitz . . .2 Dec. ,, 
 
 Treaty of Tilsit with France ... 7 July, 1807 
 Russians defeated by the Turks, near SUistria, 
 
 26 Sept. 1809 
 
 "War with France June, 1812 
 
 The Russians defeated at Smolensko, 17 Aug. ; and 
 
 at the Borodino 7 Sept. ,, 
 
 Moscow burnt by the Russians, 14 Sept. ; retreat of 
 
 the French begins 15 Oct. ,, 
 
 Alexander present at the battle of Leipsic, Oct. 1813; 
 
 entered Paris March, 1814 
 
 He visits England June, ,, 
 
 Forms the Holy Alliance 1815 
 
 The grand duke Constantine renounces the right of 
 
 succession 26 Jan. 1822 
 
 Death of Alexander, 1 Dec. ; Pestal's conspiracy 
 against Nicholas I. ; insurrection of troops at 
 Moscow ; suppressed . . . 26-29 Dec. 1825 
 Nicholas crowned at Moscow . . .3 Sept. 1826 
 
 War against Persia 2S Sept. ,, 
 
 Nicholas visits England ; invested with the order of 
 
 the Garter 9 July, 1827 
 
 Peace between Russia and Persia . . 22 Feb. 1828 
 War between Russia and the Ottoman Porte declared 
 
 (see Turkey and Battle*) . . . 26 April, ,, 
 Peace of Adrianople 14 Scot. 1829 
 
 The war for the independence of Poland against 
 Russia (see Poland) .... 29 Nov. 1830 
 
 Failure of the expedition against Khiva . Jan. 1840 
 
 Treaty of London (see Syria) . . 15 July, ,, 
 
 The emperor Nicholas arrives in London . 1 June, 1844 
 
 The grand duke Constantine arrives at Portsmouth 
 in the •Ingermamla'nd, of 74 guns . . 9 June, 1846 
 
 [For the participation of Russia in the Hungarian 
 war of 1848-9, see Hungary.] 
 
 Russia demands the expulsion of the Hungarian 
 and Polish refugees from Turkey (see Turkey) 
 
 5 Nov. 1849 
 
 They are sent to Konieh, in Asia Minor . Jan. 1850 
 
 Conspiracy against the emperor detected 6 Jan. „ 
 
 Harbour of Sebastopol completed . . Feb. ,, 
 
 The emperor decrees seven men in each thousand 
 of the population of Western Russia to be enrolled 
 in the army, giving a total increase of 180,000 
 soldiers Vug. ,, 
 
 St. Petersburg and Moscow railway begun . . 1851 
 
 The czar visits Vienna .... 8 May, 1852 
 
 Concentrates his forces on the frontiers of Turkey, 
 
 Fell. 1853 
 
 Origin of the Russo-Turkish wa.T (which see, and 
 Holy Places) March, ,, 
 
 Conference between the emperors of Russia ami 
 Austria at Olmutz .... 24 Sept. ,, 
 
 And king of Prussia at Warsaw . . .2 Oct. „ 
 
 Interview of Mr. J. Sturge and other quakers with 
 the czar to obtain peace .... Feb. 1854 
 
 The northern provinces put in a state of siege, 
 
 s March, ,, 
 
 The czar issues a manifesto to his subjects ; he will 
 combat only for the faith and Christianity, 
 
 23 April, ,, 
 
 Death of the czar Nicholas, and accession of Alex- 
 ander II. ; no change of policy . . 2 March, 1855 
 
 Most extensive levy ordered by the czar(at Nicolaiefl) 
 
 3 Nov. „ 
 
 He visits his army at Sebastopol . . to Nov. ,, 
 
 Death of prince Ivan Paskiewitsch, aged 74 1 Feb. 1856 
 
 Treaty of peace at Paris . . - 30 March, ., 
 
 Amnesty granted to the Poles, 27 May; five poli- 
 tical offenders, &c. ; Alexander II. crowned at 
 Moscow 7 Sept, ,, 
 
 Manifesto on account of the English and French 
 interference in the affairs of Naples . 2 Sept. ,, 
 
 St. Petersburg and Warsaw railway begun by go- 
 vernment, 185 1 ; ceded to Great Russian railway 
 company (about 335 miles, the half completed) . „ 
 
 Grand duke Constantine visits France and England, 
 
 April, 1857 
 
 The czar meets the emperor Napoleon at Stutgardt, 
 25 Sept. ; and the emperor of Austria at Weimar, 
 
 1 Oct. ,, 
 
 Partial emancipation of the serfs on the imperial 
 domains 2 July, 1858 
 
 A Russian naval station established at Villa Franca, 
 on the Mediterranean, creates some political ex- 
 citement Aug. ,. 
 
 New commercial treaty with Great Britain 12 Jan. 1859 
 
 Russia reproves the warlike movements of the Ger- 
 man confederation during the Italian war, 27 May, „ 
 
 Tin- czar protests against the recognition of the 
 sovereignty of peoples . . . 13 Feb. i860 
 
 Fruitless meetings of the emperors of Russia and 
 Austria and the regent of Prussia at Warsaw 
 
 20-25 Oct. i> 
 
 Treaty with China for enlargement of commerce 
 
 1 Jan. 1861 
 
 Decree for the total emancipation of the serfs 
 (23,000,000) throughout the empire in two years 
 
 3 March, „ 
 
 Demonstrations and repression in Poland (which see) 
 
 Feb. -April, „ 
 
 Disturbances in South Russia, caused by an im- 
 postor asserting himself to be a descendant of 
 Peter III. ; many peasants shot or flogged, 
 
 May and June, , , 
 
 Inundations at Kiev, Moscow ; 615 houses under 
 water May, „ 
 
 Death of prince Michael GortschakofF, governor of 
 Poland 14 May, „ 
 
 Student riots at the university of St. Petersburg, 
 which is closed, 6-9 Oct. ; reopened . 24 Oct. „ 
 
 The nobles sign a petition for a political constitution 
 
 Nov. ,, 
 
 Increased privileges granted to the Jews . 26 Jan. 1862 
 
KUSSIA. 
 
 583 
 
 KUSSIA. 
 
 Death of Nesselrode, the chancellor of the empire, 
 
 20 March, 1862 
 Alarming increase of fires at St. Petersburg and 
 Moscow ; the government suppresses various edu- 
 cational institutions . . . ■ . June, „ 
 Russia recognises the kingdom of Italy 10 July, „ 
 1000th anniversary of the foundation of the Rus- 
 sian monarchy at Novgorod, celebrated 20 Sept. ,, 
 Re-organisation of the departments of justice de- 
 creed ; juries to be employed in trials, &c. 14 Oct. ,, 
 Trade tax bill introduced, admitting foreigners to 
 merchants' guilds, &c. ... 26 Nov. 
 Insurrection in Poland . . . 22-24 J an - 1863 
 
 [For events, see Poland.] 
 Termination of serfdom . . . 3 March, ,, 
 
 Provincial institutions established throughout 
 
 Russia 13 Jan. 1864 
 
 Great victory over the Oubykhs in the Caucasus, 31 
 
 March ; emigration of the Caucasian tribes into 
 
 Turkey, April ; submission of the A'ibgas ; the 
 
 war declared to be at an end ... 2 June, „ 
 
 The czarowitch betrothed to the princess Dagmar 
 
 of Denmark 28 Sept. ,, 
 
 Serfdom abolished in the Trans-Caucasian provinces : 
 
 new judicial system promulgated . . Dec. ,, 
 The Russian nobles request the emperor to esta- 
 blish two houses of representatives [declined] 
 
 24 Jan. 1865 
 New province, "Turkestan," in central Asia, created 
 
 14 Feb. „ 
 The czarowitch Nicholas dies at Nice . 24 April, ,, 
 Industrial exhibition at Moscow closes . 16 July, „ 
 Censorship of the press relaxed ; law begins, 13 Sept. „ 
 Rupture with the pope, on account of Russian 
 
 severity to Polish clergy . . Jan. and Feb. 1866 
 Assembly of the nobility ; short, stormy session, 
 
 March, ,, 
 Inauguration of trial by jury in Russia . 8 Aug. „ 
 Karakozow attempts to assassinate the czar, 16 
 April ; after long investigation into the origin of 
 the plot, he is executed ... 15 Sept. „ 
 War with Bokhara ; conflicts with varying results ; 
 
 Russians advance in May, et seq. ; ended . Nov. ,, 
 Marriage of prince Alexander, heir to the crown, to 
 
 princess Dagmar of Denmark . . 9 Nov. „ 
 Emancipation of many state serfs in Poland, 1 1 Nov. , , 
 Three decrees for abolishing the remains of Polish 
 
 nationality 1 Jan. 1867 
 
 Congress of Slavonian deputies at Moscow 5 May, ,, 
 Russian America sold to the United States for 
 7,000,000 dollars, by treaty, 13 March ; ratified, 
 
 is May, „ 
 Amnesty in favour of the Poles . . 29 May, „ 
 The czar visits Paris (which see) . . . June, „ 
 Escapes assassination by Berezowski, a Pole, 6 June, „ 
 Decree for the use of the Russian language in. the 
 
 Baltic provinces 7 July, ,, 
 
 A Romanist college to replace the authority of the 
 
 pope, established at St. Petersburg . 2 Aug. ,, 
 The separate interior government in Poland sup- 
 pressed 29 Feb. j868 
 
 Samarcand taken by Kaufmann . . 26 May, ,, 
 Amnesty for political offences granted . 6 June, „ 
 Polish language interdicted in public places in Poland 
 
 July, „ 
 The Government Messenger, official journal, published 
 
 at St. Petersburg 13 Jan. 1869 
 
 Socialist secret conspiracy among the students, 
 headed by Sergius Netschajew detected ; the in- 
 former assassinated Jan. 1870 
 
 Russia neutral in the Franco-Prussian war July, ,, 
 Said to be arming, 20 Sept. ; contradicted 27 Sept. ,, 
 Burlingame, Chinese envoy, arrives . 2 Feb. ,, 
 Dies at St. Petersburg . . . .22 Feb. „ 
 Fruitless visit of M. Thiers at St. Petersburg on 
 
 behalf of the French government . 27 Sept. ,, 
 Diplomatic circular of prince Gortschakoff, foreign 
 minister, repudiating the clauses of the treaty of 
 30 March, 1856, respectingthe Black Sea, 31 Oct. ; 
 received by earl Granville, 9 Nov. , who replies, 
 maintaining the force of the treaty . 10 Nov. ,, 
 Vigorous protest of British and Austrian govern- 
 ments 16 Nov. „ 
 
 Decree for forming military reserves, about 16 Nov. ,, 
 Conciliatory despatch from prince Gortschakoff to 
 earl Granville, agreeing to a conference for revi- 
 sion of the treaty of 1856 . . . 20 Nov. ,, 
 Prussian government expresses surprise at Gortscha- 
 
 koff s circular, and proposes a conference 
 
 about 26 Nov. 1870 
 Firm courteous despatch from earl Granville, con- 
 senting to a conference which shall "assemble 
 without any foregone conclusion " . 28 Nov. „ 
 The other powers agree to a conference 7 Dec. „ 
 Re-organisation of the army ordered . . Jan. 1871 
 The conference meets in London . . 17 Jan. ,, 
 The Black Sea clauses abrogated (see Black Sea), by 
 
 treaty, signed 13 March, „ 
 
 Schamyl, the Circassian chief, dies about . April „ 
 The grand duke Wladimir visits England . June, „ 
 Trial of persons implicated in a socialist conspiracy 
 (at St. Petersburg) ; many condemned to impri- 
 sonment Sept. „ . 
 
 Military exercises, sham battles round St. Peters- 
 burg, 30,000 engaged ; emperor present, 15-23 Aug. „ 
 Electric telegraph between St. Petersburg and Naga- 
 saki, Japan, completed .... Nov. ,, 
 200th anniversary of the birth of Peter the Great, 
 30 May, 1672 (o. s. ), solemnly observed by the court 
 and nation . . . . .11 June, 1872 
 
 Peter the Great ironclad (incomplete) launched at 
 
 St. Petersburg Aug. „ 
 
 Great Russian Encyclopaedia undertaken by prof. 
 
 Beresina Autumn „ 
 
 Reconnoitring expedition to Khiva ; defeat of gen. 
 
 Markosoff announced .... Dec. ,, 
 
 Diplomatic visit of count Schouvaloff to London 
 respecting this ; presented to the queen ; Russian 
 concessions reported satisfactory . 13 Jan, 1873 
 Expeditions against Khiva start . . March, „ 
 The emperor of Germany warmly received at St. 
 
 Petersburg 27 April, „ 
 
 The Shah of Persia visits St. Petersburg 22-31 May, „ 
 
 Khiva surrenders 10 June, ,, 
 
 Sovereigns op Russia, 
 dukes of kiov. 
 'Rurick. 
 Oleg. 
 Igor I. 
 
 Olga, widow ; regent. 
 Swiatoslaw I. — victorious. 
 Jaropalk I. 
 
 Vladimir, Wladimir, the Great. 
 Swiatopalk. 
 Jaraslaw, or Jaroslaf I. 
 Isiaslaw I. 
 Swiatoslaw II. 
 Wsewolod I. 
 Swiatopalk II. 
 Vladimir II. 
 Mitislaw.. 
 Jaropalk II. 
 f Wiatschelaw. 
 ( Wsewolod II. 
 ( Isiaslaw II. and Igor II. 
 ( Rostislaw. 
 
 Jurie or George I. ; the city of Moscow was built 
 by this duke. 
 
 GRAND-DUKES AT WLADIMIR. 
 
 ( Andrew I. until 11 75 ; first grand-duke. 
 ( Michael I. 
 Wsewolod III. 
 
 ( Jurie or George II. 
 18. ( Constantine. 
 
 Jaraslaw II. ; succeeded by his son, 
 Alexander-Nevski or Newski, the Saint, 
 Jaraslaw III. 
 Vasali or Basil I. 
 Dmitri or Demetrius I. 
 Andrew II. 
 Daniel-Alexandrovitz. 
 Jurie or George III. ; deposed. 
 Michael III. 
 Vasali or Basil II. 
 Jurie or George III : restored. 
 Alexander II. 
 
 [The dates are doubtful, owing to the difficulty 
 that occurs at every step in early Russian 
 annals.] 
 
 GRAND-DUKES OF MOSCOW. 
 
 Ivan or John I. 
 
 Simeon, the proud. 
 
 Ivan or John II. 
 
 Demetrius II. prince of Susdal. 
 
 Demetrius III. Donskoi. 
 
 850, 
 879, 
 9i3> 
 945. 
 955- 
 973> 
 980. 
 1015, 
 1018, 
 1054. 
 i°73' 
 1078. 
 i°93> 
 1113, 
 1125. 
 1132. 
 1138. 
 1139. 
 1 146, 
 "53< 
 1 149. 
 
 H57- 
 "75- 
 1177. 
 1213. 
 1217- 
 1238. 
 1245. 
 1263. 
 1270. 
 1275- 
 1281. 
 1294. 
 i3°3- 
 1305- 
 1320. 
 1325- 
 1327- 
 
 1328. 
 1340. 
 1353- 
 1359- 
 1362. 
 
EUSSIA. 
 
 584 
 
 EUSSO-TUEKISH WAE. 
 
 1389. Vasali or Basil III. Temnoi. 
 1425. Vasali or Basil IV. 
 
 CZARS OF MCSCOVY. 
 
 1462. Ivan (Basilovitz) or John III. : took the title of 
 
 czar, 1482. 
 1505. Vasali or Basil V obtained the title of emperor 
 
 from Maximilian I. 
 1533- Ivan IV. the terrible ; a tyrant. 
 1584. Feodor or Theodor I. ; and his son, Demetrius, 
 
 murdered by his successor 
 1598. Boris-Godonof, who usurped the throne. 
 
 1605. Feodor IL, murdered. 
 
 1606. Demetrius, the Impostor, a young Polish monk ; 
 
 pretended to be the murdered prince Demetrius ; 
 
 put to death. 
 „ Vasali-Chouiski, or Zouinski. 
 1610. Ladislaus of Poland ; retired 1613. 
 1613. Michael-Feodorovitz, of the house of Romanoff, 
 
 descended from the czar Ivan-Basilovitz. 
 1645. Alexis, son ; styled the father of his country. 
 1676. Feodor or Theodor II. 
 
 1682 \ Ivan V ' and 
 
 \ Peter I. brothers of the preceding. 
 
 EMPERORS AND EMPRESSES. 
 
 1689. Peter I. the Great, alone ; took the title of emperor 
 
 22 Oct. 1721 ; founded St. Petersburg. 
 1725. Catherine I. his widow; at first the wife of a 
 
 Swedish dragoon, said to have been killed on the 
 
 day of marriage. 
 1727. Peter II. son of Alexis-Petrovitz, and grandson of 
 
 Peter the Great : deposed. 
 1730. Anne, duchess of Courland, daughter of the czar 
 
 Ivan. 
 
 1740. Ivan VI. an infant, grand-nephew to Peter the 
 
 Great ; immured in a dungeon for iS years ; mur- 
 dered in 1764. 
 
 1741. Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great, reigned 
 
 during Ivan's captivity. 
 
 1762. Peter III. son of Anne and of Charles-Frederick, 
 duke of Holstein-Gottorp : deposed, and died 
 soon after, supposed to have been murdered. 
 „ Catherine II. his consort : a great sovereign ; ex- 
 tended the Russian territories on all sides ; died 
 17 Nov. 1796. 
 
 1796. Paul, her son, murdered, 24 March, 1801. 
 
 1801. Alexander I., son (who, after many adverse battles, 
 and a forced alliance with France, at length 
 aided in the overthrow of Napoleon Bonaparte), 
 died i Dec. 1825. 
 
 1825. Nicholas I. brother ; died 2 March, 1855. 
 
 1855. Alexander II. son, born 29 April, 1818 ; married 28 
 April, 1841, Mary princess of Hesse. 
 
 Heir: his son Alexander, bom 10 March, 1845 ; married 
 Mary (formerly Dagrnar), princess of Denmark 
 9 Nov. 1866 ; son, Nicholas, born 18 May, 1868. 
 
 EUSSIA COMPANY, see Bussia, 1553-4. 
 See America. 
 
 ETJSSO-TUEKISH WAE.* The Russian 
 and French governments having each taken a side 
 in the dispute between the "Greek and Latin 
 churches as to the exclusive possession of the 
 Holy Places {which see) in Palestine, the Porte 
 advised the formation of a mixed commission, 
 
 * In 1844, when the czar was in England, he conversed 
 with the duke of Wellington and lord Aberdeen (whom 
 he had known many years) respecting the dissolution of 
 the Turkish empire ; and on his return he embodied his 
 views in a memorandum drawn up by count Nesselrode 
 which was transmitted to London, but kept secret till 
 March, 1854. In January and February of that year the 
 czar had several conversations on the' subject with the 
 British envoy at St. Petersburg, sir G. H. Seymour in 
 one of which (Jan. 14) he compared Turkey to a " sick 
 man " in a state of decrepitude, on the point of death 
 and made proposals to the British government as to the 
 disposal of his property. He stated frankly that he 
 would not permit the British to establish themselves at 
 Constantinople; but said in another conversation, he 
 would not object to their possessing Egypt. The pur- 
 port of these conversations was conveyed in despatches 
 to li nd John Russell, who replied that the British govern- 
 ment declined to make any provision for the contingency 
 of the fall of Turkey. The czar made similar proposals 
 to the i rench government with the same result 
 
 which decided in favour of the Greeks, and a 
 firman was promulgated accordingly, 9 March, 
 1853 : to this decision the French acceded, although 
 dissatisfied. 
 
 The Russians make further claims, and prince Men- 
 schikoff (who arrived at Constantinople 28 Feb. 
 1853), by various notes (between 22 March and 
 
 18 May), demands that a convention should be 
 signed by the sultan granting to the czar such a 
 protectorate over the Greek Christians in Turkey, 
 as the sultan considered inimical to his own 
 authority . . . .22 March-18 May, 1853 
 
 Menschikoffs ultimatum rejected; he quits Con- 
 stantinople 21 May, ,, 
 
 The sultan issues a hatti-scherif confirming all 
 the rights and privileges of the Greek Christians, 
 and appeals to his allies .... 6 June, „ 
 
 The English and French fleets anchor in Besika Bay 
 
 13 June, „ 
 
 The Russians, under gen. Luders, cross the Pruth 
 and enter Moldavia 2 July, ,, 
 
 Circular of count Nesselrode in justification, 2 July ; 
 lord Clarendon's reply . . . .16 July, ,, 
 
 The conference of representatives of England, 
 France, Austria, and Prussia meet at Vienna, 
 agree to a note, 31 July ; accepted by the czar, 
 10 Aug. ; the sultan requires modifications, 
 
 19 Aug. ; which the czar rejects . . .7 Sept ,, 
 Two English and two French ships enter the Darda- 
 nelles 14 Sept. ,, 
 
 The sultan (with consent of a great national council) 
 
 declares war against Russia . . .5 Oct. ,, 
 The Turkish fortress at Issaktocha fires on a Russian 
 
 flotilla (the first act of war) ... 23 Oct. ,, 
 The Turks cross the Danube at Widdin and occupy 
 
 Kalafat ... .28 Oct. -3 Nov. ,, 
 
 Russia declares war against Turkey . . 1 Nov. ,, 
 English and French fleets enter Bosphorus 2 Nov. ,, 
 Russians defeated at Oltenitza . . .4 Nov. ,, 
 Turks (in Asia) defeated at Bayandur, Atskur, and 
 
 Achaltzik .... 14, 18, 26 Nov. „ 
 
 Turkish fleet destroyed at Sinope . . 30 Nov. ,, 
 Collective note from the four powers requiring to 
 know on what terms the Porte will negotiate for 
 
 peace 5 Dec. ,, 
 
 Contests at Kalafat . . 31 Dec. 1853-9 J an - *%54 
 At the request of the Porte (5 Dec), the allied fleets 
 
 enter the Black Sea 4 Jan. ,, 
 
 Russians defeated at Citate . . . 6 Jan. ,, 
 Reply of the Porte to the note of Dec. 5, containing 
 four points as bases of negotiation: viz., 1. The 
 promptest possible evacuation of the principali- 
 ties. 2. Revision of the treaties. 3. Maintenance 
 of religious privileges to the communities of all 
 confessions. 4. A definitive settlement of the 
 convention respecting the Holy Places (dated 
 31 Dec), — approved by the four powers 13 Jan. ,, 
 Vienna conferences close ... 16 Jan. „ 
 
 Kalafat invested by the Russians . 28-31 Jan. ,, 
 Proposal in a letter from the emperor of the French 
 
 to the czar (29 Jan.) declined . . . 9 Feb. „ 
 Turkish flotilla at Rustchuk destroyed by the 
 
 Russians under Schilders . . -15 Feb. ,, 
 Ultimatum of England and France sent to St. 
 
 Petersburg 27 Feb. ,, 
 
 The czar "did not judge it suitable to give an 
 
 answer " 19 March, „ 
 
 Baltic fleet sails, under sir C. Napier . n March, „ 
 Treaty between England, France, and Turkey, 
 
 12 March, ,, 
 Russians under Gortschakoff pass the Danube and 
 occupy the Dobrudscha ; severe conflicts ; the 
 Turks retire . . . . 23, 24 March, ,, 
 France and England declare war against Russia, 
 
 27, 28 March, ,, 
 Rupture between Turkey and Greece 28 March, ,, 
 Gen. Canrobert and French troops arrive at Galli- 
 poli, soon after followed by the English, 
 
 31 March, ,, 
 Russians defeated by the Turks at Karakai 30 May, „ 
 English vessel Furious, with a flag of truce, fired on 
 
 at Odessa 8 April, ,, 
 
 Four powers sign a protocol at Vienna guaranteeing 
 the integrity of Turkey and civil and religious 
 rights of her Christian subjects . . 10 April, „ 
 Russians defeated at Kostelli by Mustapha Pacha, 
 
 10 April, „ 
 
RUSSO-TURKISH WAR. 
 
 585 
 
 RYE-HOUSE PLOT. 
 
 Offensive and defensive alliance "between England 
 
 and France 10 April, 
 
 Treaty between Austria and Prussia . . 20 AprU, 
 Bombardment of Odessa by allied fleet 22 April, 
 Eussians, under gen. Schilders, assault Kalafat ; 
 
 repulsed ; the blockade raised . . 19-21 April, 
 The Tiger steamer run aground near Odessa, cap- 
 tured by the Russians . . . .12 May, 
 Russians defeated at Turtukai . . 13 May, 
 Siege of Silistria begun .... 17 May, 
 Allied armies disembark at Varna . 29 May, 
 Mouths of the Danube blockaded by allied fleets, 
 
 1 June, 
 Russians repulsed at Silistria ; Paskiewitsch and 
 
 many officers wounded .... 5 June, 
 Turks defeated at Ozurgheti (in Asia) . 16 June, 
 Severe conflict before Silistria ; the siege raised, 
 
 18-26 June, 
 Batteries at the Sulina mouths destroyed by eapt. 
 
 Parker 26, 27 June, 
 
 Captain Parker killed .... 8 July, 
 
 Russians defeated at Giurgevo ... 7 July, 
 10,000 French troops embark at Boulogne for the 
 
 Baltic 15 July, 
 
 Tiu'ks defeated at Bayazid in Armenia, 29, 30 July ; 
 
 and near Kars 5 Aug. 
 
 Surrender of Bomarsund . . . 16 Aug. 
 [In July and August the allied armies and fleets in 
 
 the east suffered severely from cholera.] 
 
 The Russians defeated by Schamy] in Georgia, 
 
 about 28 Aug. 
 
 They evacuate the principalities . Aug. -20 Sept. 
 
 By virtue of a treaty with Turkey (June 14) the 
 
 Austrians, under count Coronini, enter Bucharest, 
 
 6 Sept. 
 Allies sail from Varna, 3 Sept. and land at Old Fort, 
 
 near Eupatoria* 14 Sept. 
 
 Skirmish at the Bulganac . . . .19 Sept. 
 Battle of the Alma (see Alma) . . 20 Sept. 
 Russians sink part of their fleet at Sebastopol, 
 
 23 Sept. 
 Allies occupy Balaklava . . . .26 Sept. 
 Death of marshal St. Arnaud . . 29 Sept. 
 General Canrobert, his successor . . 24 Nov. 
 Siege of Sebastopol commenced — grand attack 
 
 (without success) .... 17 Oct. 
 
 Battle of Balaklava — charge of the light cavalry, 
 
 with severe loss 25 Oct. 
 
 Sortie from Sebastopol repulsed by generals Evans 
 
 and Bosquet 26 Oct. 
 
 Russian attack at Inkerman ; defeated . 5 Nov. 
 Miss Nightingale and nurses arrive at Scutari, 
 
 6 Nov. 
 Great tempest in the Black Sea, loss of the Prince 
 
 and store vessels .... 14-16 Nov. 
 Treaty of alliance between England, France, Austria, 
 
 and Prussia — a commission to meet at Vienna ; 
 
 signed 2 Dec. 
 
 Russian Sortie 20 Dec. 
 
 Omar Pacha arrives in the Crimea (followed by the 
 
 Turkish army from Varna) ... 5 Jan. 1855 
 Sardinia joins England and France . 26 Jan. 
 
 Great sufferings in the camp from cold and sickness, 
 
 Jan. <fe Feb. 
 Russians defeated by the Turks at Eupatoria, 
 
 17 Feb. 
 Death of emperor Nicholas ; accession of Alex- 
 ander II. (no change of policy) . . 2 March, 
 Sortie from the Malakhoff tower . . 22 March, 
 Capture of Russian rifle-pits . . .19 April, 
 Arrival of Sardinian contingent . . .8 May, 
 Resignation of gen. Canrobert, succeeded by gen. 
 
 Pelissier 16 May, 
 
 Desperate night combats . . . 22-24 May, 
 Expedition into the sea of Azoff (under sir E. Lyons 
 
 and sir G. Brown); destruction of Kertch and 
 
 large amount of stores . . 24 May-3 June, 
 Taganrog bombarded .... 3 June, 
 Massacre of an English boat's crew with flag of truce 
 
 at Hango 5 June, 
 
 Russians evacuate Anapa ... 5 June, 
 The "White Works and Mamelon Vert taken, 
 
 6, 7 June, 
 Unsuccessful attack on the Malakhoff tower and 
 
 Redan 18 June, 
 
 * 40,000 men, a large number of horses, and a powerful 
 artillery were landed in one day. 
 
 Death of lord Raglan ; succeeded by general Simpson, 
 
 28 June, 1855 
 Russians invest Kars in Armenia, defended by gen. 
 
 Williams 15 July, ,, 
 
 Bombardment of Sweaborg ... 9 Aug. ,, 
 Defeat of the Russians at the Tchernaya 16 Aug. „ 
 Ambuscade on the glacis of the Malakhoff taken ; 
 
 Russian sortie repulsed ... 18 Aug. ,, 
 
 The French take the Malakhoff (whiclisee) by assault ; 
 
 the English assault the Redan without success ; 
 
 the Russians retire from Sebastopol to the North 
 
 Forts, and the allies enter the city ; the Russians 
 
 destroy or sink the remainder of then- fleet, 
 
 8 Sept. &c. „ 
 Tanan and Fanagoria captured . . .24 Sept. „ 
 The Russians assaulting Kars are defeated with 
 
 great loss 29 Sept. ,, 
 
 Russian cavalry defeated (50 killed, 105 prisoners) 
 
 at Koughil, near Eupatoria, by the French, 
 
 29 Sept. ,.. 
 
 Kinburn taken 17 Oct. ,, 
 
 Russians blow up Oczakoff . . . .18 Oct. „ 
 Large stores of corn destroyed near Gheisk, in the 
 
 sea of Azoff 4 Nov. ., 
 
 Defeat of the Russians, and passage of the Ingour 
 
 by the Turks under Omar Pacha . . 6 Nov. , r 
 The czar visits his army near Sebastopol 10 Nov. ,, 
 Sir Win. Codrington takes the command in room of 
 
 gen. Simpson 14 Nov. ,, 
 
 Explosion of 100,000 lb. of powder in the French 
 
 siege-train at Inkerman, with great loss of life, 
 
 15 Nov. ,, 
 Sweden joins the allies by a treaty . 21 Nov. ,, 
 Capitulation of Kars to gen. Mouravieff, after a 
 
 gallant defence by gen. Williams . . 26 Nov. ,, 
 Death of admiral Bruat . . . . 27 Nov. ,, 
 Russian attack on the French posts at Ba'idar re- 
 pulsed 8 Dec. ,, 
 
 Proposals of peace from Austria, with the consent 
 
 of the allies, sent to St. Petersburg . 12 Dec. ,, 
 Centre dock at Sebastopol blown up by the English, 
 
 2 Jan. 1856 
 Council of war at Paris .... n Jan. ,, 
 Protocol signed accepting the Austrian propositions 
 
 as a basis of negotiation for peace . . 1 Feb. „ 
 Destruction of Sebastopol docks . . 1 Feb. ,, 
 Report of Sir John M'Neill and col. Tulloch 011 
 
 state of the army before Sebastopol, published 
 
 5 Feb. ,, 
 Peace conferences open at Paris, an armistice till 
 
 31 March agreed on ... . 25 Feb. ,, 
 
 Suspension of hostilities .... 29 Feb. ,. 
 Treaty of peace concluded at Paris . 30 March, ,, 
 Proclamation of peace in the Crimea, 2 April ; in 
 
 London 29 April, „ 
 
 The Crimea evacuated .... 9 July,* ,, 
 
 RUTHENIUM, a rare metal, discovered in 
 the ore of platinum by M. Claus, in 1845. 
 
 RUTHERFORD'S ACT, Lord (13 & 14 
 
 Vict. c. 36)', for simplifying law proceedings in 
 Scotland, passed 1850. 
 
 RUTH VEN, RAID OF, a term applied to the 
 seizure of the person of James VI. of Scotland by 
 William Kuthven, earl of Growrie, and other nobles, 
 in 1582, to compel the king to dismiss his favourites, 
 Arran and Lennox. Ostensibly for this, Gowrie 
 was judicially put to death by his two opponents in 
 1584. 
 
 RUTLAND, Statute of, 10 or 12 Edw. I. 
 1282 or 1284. 
 
 RYE-HOUSE PLOT, a plot (some think 
 pretended) to secure the succession of the duke of 
 Monmouth to the throne in preference to the duke 
 
 * The English lost : killed in action and died of wounds 
 about 3500 ; died of cholera, 4244 ; of other diseases 
 nearly 16,000; total loss nearly 24,000 (including 270 
 officers); 2873 were disabled. The war added to the 
 national debt 41,041,0003. The French lost about 63,500 
 men ; the Russians about half a million. The army 
 suffered greatly by sickness ; see Scutari, Times, and 
 Nightingale. 
 
EYSWICK. 
 
 5S6 
 
 SACEAMENT. 
 
 of York (afterwards James II.), a Roman catholic. 
 Some of the conspirators are said to have projected 
 the assassination of the king, Charles II., and his 
 brother. This design is said to have been frus- 
 trated by the king's house at Newmarket acciden- 
 tally taking fire, which hastened the royal party 
 away eight days before the plot was to take place, 
 22 March, 1683 ; see Newmarket. The plot was 
 discovered 12 June following. Lord William 
 Russell on 21 July, and Algernon Sidney on 7 Dec. 
 
 following, suffered death for being concerned in this 
 conspiracy. The name was derived from the con- 
 spirators' place of meeting, the Rye-house at Brox- 
 boume, Hertfordshire. 
 
 EYSWICK (Holland), where the celebrated 
 peace was concluded between England, France, 
 Spain, and Holland, signed, by their representa- 
 tives, 20 Sept., and by the emperor of Germany, 30 
 Oct. 1697. 
 
 S. 
 
 SAALFIELD (Saxony, N. Germany). Here 
 the Prussians, under prince Louis of Prussia, were 
 defeated and then- leader slain by the French under 
 Lannes, 10 Oct. 1806. 
 
 SAABBBUCK, the Roman Augusti Muri or 
 Sarce pons, an open town on the left bank of the 
 Saar, in Rhenish Prussia, founded in the tenth 
 century, long subject to the bishops of Metz, after- 
 wards ruled by counts (about 1237), and by the 
 house of Nassau about 1380. It was captured by 
 the French and retaken by the Germans 1676, 
 reunited to France 1794-1814, and ceded to Prussia, 
 1815. On 2 Aug. 1870, it was bombarded by the 
 French under Frossard (between I r and I in the 
 daytime), and the Prussians in small force were 
 dislodged, and the town occupied by the French 
 general Bataille. The mitrailleuses were said to be 
 very effective. The emperor Napoleon, who was 
 present with his son, said in a telegram to the 
 empress, " Louis has gone through his baptism of 
 fire. He has not been in the least startled. "We 
 stood in the foremost rank, and the rifle balls were 
 dropping at our feet, and Louis picked up one that 
 fell near him. His bearing was such as to draw 
 tears from the soldiers' eyes." On the 6 Aug. the 
 Prussian generals Goeben and Von Steinmetz, with 
 the first army, recaptured Saarbruck, after a 
 sanguinary conflict at the village of Spicheren. 
 The heights taken by the French on the 2nd are hi 
 Germain - , those taken by the Germans on the 6th 
 are in France, and both battles were fought between 
 Saarbruck and the town of Forbach, which was 
 captured and has given a name to the second con- 
 flict. Ihe loss was great on both sides. The 
 French general Franqois was killed, and the 2nd 
 corps under Frossard nearly destroyed. The French 
 retreated to Metz. They were greatly superior hi 
 numbers at the beginning of the fight, but were 
 badly commanded. 
 
 SABBATABIANS. Traces exist of Sabba- 
 tarii, or Sabbathaires, among the sects of the 16th 
 century on the continent. Upon the publication of 
 the "Book of Sports" in 1618, a violent contro- 
 versy arose among English divines on two points : 
 first, whether the Sabbath of the fourth command- 
 ment was in force among Christians ; and 
 secondly, whether, ; ndon what ground, the first day 
 of the week was en dtled to be distinguished and 
 observed as " the Sabbath." In 1628, Theophilus 
 Braboume, a clergyman, published the first work 
 in favour of the Seventh-day or Saturday, as the 
 true Christian Sabbath. He and several others 
 suffered great persecution for this opinion ; but 
 after the restoration there were three or four con- 
 gregations observing the last day of the week for 
 public worship in London, and seven or eight in 
 the country parts of England. In 1851 there were 
 three Sabbatarian or Seventh-day Baptist congre- 
 
 gations in England ; but in America (especially 
 in the New England states) they are more nume- 
 rous. — Joseph Davis suffered imprisonment hi 1670. 
 He and his son bequeathed property to maintain 
 the sect ; and litigation respecting its disposal was 
 settled by vice-chancellor Stuart in conformity with 
 their intentions in June, 1870. Very few Sabba- 
 tarians then remained. 
 
 SABBATH : ordained by God. Gen. ii. ; 
 Exod. xx. 8 ; Isaiah lviii. 13. Jews observe the 
 seventh day in commemoration of the creation of 
 the world, and of their redemption from the bondage 
 of the Egyptians ; Christians observe the first day 
 of the week in commemoration of the resurrection 
 of Christ from the dead, and the redemption of 
 man ; see Sunday. 
 
 SABBATH SCHOOLS. The first "Sab- 
 bath school ' ' was founded by Ludwig Hacker 
 between 1740 and 1747, at Ephrata, Lancaster 
 county, Pennsylvania, among the German Seventh- 
 day Baptists there. The school-room was used 
 as an hospital after the battle of Brandywine, 
 fought in 1777. This event occasioned the breaking 
 up of the schools, about five years before the first 
 Sunday-school was instituted in England, at Glou- 
 cester, b y Robert Raikes, about 1782; see Sunday 
 Schools. 
 
 SABBATICAL YEAE : a Jewish institution, 
 1491 B.C. Exodus xxiii. During every seventh 
 year the very ground had rest, and was not tilled ; 
 and every forty-ninth year all debts were forgiven, 
 slaves set at liberty, and estates, &c, that were 
 before sold or mortgaged, returned to their original 
 families, &c. 
 
 SABELLIANISM, from Sabellius (of Ptole- 
 mais in Egypt), who flourished in the 3rd century, 
 and who taught that there was but one person in 
 the Godhead, the other persons of the Trinity being 
 but different names of the same person. This 
 doctrine was condemned at a council at Rome, 260. 
 
 SABINES, from whom the Romans, under 
 Romulus, took away then daughters by force, 
 having invited them to some public sports or shows 
 on purpose. "When the Sabines determined to 
 revenge this affront, the women became mediators 
 to their fathers in behalf of their husbands, the 
 Romans, and a lasting peace was made between 
 them, 750 B.C. After many conflicts, the Sabines 
 became a part of the Roman people, about 266 B.C. 
 One of the ecclesiastical provinces is still called 
 Terra Sabina ; chief town, Magliano. 
 
 SACHEVEEEL EIOTS, see Riots, 17 10. 
 
 SACEAMENT (from sacramentum, an oath, 
 obligation, also mystery). The Christian sacra- 
 ments are baptism and the Lord's supper. The 
 
SACRAMENTO. 
 
 587 
 
 SALAMANCA. 
 
 council of Trent, in 1547, affirmed the doctrine of 
 the schoolmen that there are seven sacraments : 
 baptism, the Lord's supper, confirmation, penance, 
 holy orders, matrimony, and extreme unction. The 
 name was given to the Lord's supper by the Latin 
 fathers. The wine was laid aside, and communion 
 by the laity under one form alone, that of bread, 
 took its rise in the West, under pope Urban II. 
 1096. M. de March, Communion in one kind only 
 was authoritatively sanctioned by the council of 
 Constance, in 1414. Dr. Hook. Henry VII. of 
 Germany was poisoned by a priest in the conse- 
 crated wafer, 24 Aug. 1313. The sacramental wine 
 was poisoned by the gravedigger of the church at 
 Zurich, by which sacrilegious deed a number of 
 persons lost then- lives, 4 Sept. 1776. In 1614 
 members of both houses of parliament were ordered 
 to take the sacrament, as a guard against the intro- 
 duction of Roman Catholics. In 1673 the test act 
 was passed; repealed in 1828 ; see Transubstantia- 
 tion. 
 
 SACEAMENTO, St., a Portuguese settle- 
 ment in S. America, claimed by Spam in 1680, but 
 relinquished in 1713 ; several times seized; ceded in 
 1777 ; acquired by Brazil in 1825. 
 
 SACRED HARMONIC SOCIETY, see 
 
 Music. 
 
 SACRED WARS.— L Declared by the Am- 
 phictyons against Cirrha, near Delphi, for robbery 
 and outrage to the visitors to the oracle, 595 B.C. 
 Cirrha was razed to the ground, 586. — II. Between 
 the Phocians and Delphians for the possession of 
 the temple at Delphi, 448, 447. — III. The Phocians, 
 on being fined for cultivating the sacred lands, 
 seized the temple, 357. They were conquered by 
 Philip of Macedon, and their cities depopulated, 
 346. ' 
 
 SACRIFICE was offered to God by Abel, 3875 
 B.C. Sacrifices to the gods were introduced into 
 Greece by Phoroneus, king of Argos, 1773 B.C. 
 Human sacrifices seem to have originated with the 
 Chaldeans, from whom the custom passed into other 
 Eastern nations. All sacrifices to the true God were 
 to cease with the sacrifice of Christ, 33 a.d. Heb. 
 x. 12-14. Pagan sacrifices were forbidden by the 
 emperor Constantius II. 341. 
 
 SACRILEGE. In 1835, the punishment (for- 
 merly death) was made transportation for life. By 
 23 & 24 Vict. c. 96, s. 50 (1861), breaking into a 
 place of worship and stealing therefrom was made 
 punishable "with penal servitude for life. 
 
 SACRIPORTUS (Latium, Italy). Here 
 Sylla defeated the younger Marius and Papirius 
 Carbo with great slaughter, B.C. 82, and became 
 dictator, 81. 
 
 SADDLES. In the earlier ages the Romans 
 used neither saddles nor stirrups. Saddles were in 
 use in the 3rd century, and are mentioned as made 
 of leather in 304, and were known in England about 
 600. Side-saddles for ladies were introduced by 
 Anne, queen of Richard II. in 1388. Stow. 
 
 SADDUCEES, a Jewish sect, said to have 
 been founded by Sadoc, a scholar of Antigonus, 
 about 200 B.C., who, misinterpreting his master's 
 doctrine, taught that there was neither heaven nor 
 hell, angel nor spirit ; that the soul was mortal, and 
 that there was no resurrection of the body from the 
 dead. The Sadducees rejected the oral law, main- 
 tained by the Pharisees. 
 
 SADLER'S WELLS (N. London), so called 
 after Mr. Sadler, who built an orchestra to entertain 
 the invalids who used the waters medicinally, 1683. 
 In time the orchestra was enclosed, and the buila- 
 ing became a place for dramatic performances. 
 The present theatre was opened in 1765. Eighteen 
 persons were trampled to death at this theatre, 
 on a false alarm of fire, 18 Oct. 1807 ; see under 
 Theatres. 
 
 SADOWA, see Kbniggrdtz. 
 
 SAFETY LAMP. One was invented in 1815 
 by sir Humphry Davy, to prevent accidents which 
 happen in coal and other mines. The safety-lamp 
 is founded on the principle that flame, in passing 
 through iron-wire meshes, loses so much of its heat 
 as to be incapable of igniting inflammable gases. 
 The father of all safety- lamps was Dr. Reid Clanny, 
 of Sunderland, whose invention and improvements 
 are authenticated in the Transactions of the Society 
 of Arts for 1817. The " Geordy," constructed by 
 George Stephenson, the engineer, in 18 15, is said 
 to be the safest. A miner's electric light, by MM. 
 Dumas and Benoit, was exhibited in Paris on 8 
 Sept. 1862. On 14 Aug. 1867, safety-lamps were 
 rigidly tested by several mining engineers, and 
 serious doubts thrown upon their complete efficacy. 
 
 SAFFRON (sqfran, French ; saffrano, Italian), 
 the flower of crocus was first brought to England in 
 the reign of Edward III. by a pilgrim, about 1339, 
 probably from Arabia, as the word is from the 
 Arabic saphar. Miller. It was cultivated in Eng- 
 land in 1582. 
 
 SAGE {Sauge, French; Salvia, Latin), a whole- 
 some herb, comfortable to the brain and nerves. 
 Mortimer. A species of this garden plant grew 
 early in England, and some varieties were imported. 
 The Mexican sage, Salvia mexicana, was brought 
 from Mexico, 1724. The blue African sage, Salvia 
 africana, and the golden African sage, Salvia aurea, 
 were brought to England from the Cape of Good 
 Hope in 1731. 
 
 SAG-UNTUM, or Zacynthtjs, now Mur- 
 viedro, in Valentia, E. Spain, renowned for the 
 dreadful siege it sustained, 219 B.C. The citizens, 
 after performing incredible acts of valour for eight 
 months, chose to be buried in the ruins of then: city 
 rather than surrender to Hannibal. They burnt 
 themselves, with their houses, and the conqueror 
 became master of a pile of ashes, 218 b.c. 
 
 SAIGON, French colony in Cochin China, 
 founded in i860, after a defeat of the Chinese, 17 
 Feb. 1859. 
 
 SAILORS' HOME, in Wells-street, London 
 Docks, established by Mr. George Green in 1835. 
 In one year it admitted 5444 boarders, who, besides 
 a home, had evening instruction, the use of a 
 savings' bank, &c. The establishment is self-sup- 
 porting, aided by subscriptions. Similar institutions 
 have since been established. 
 
 SAINT. For names with this prefix, see the 
 names themselves throughout the book. 
 
 SALADO, a river, S. Spain; see Tarifa. 
 
 SALADS, are stated to have been in use in 
 the middle ages; lettuces are said to have been 
 introduced into England from the Low Countries, 
 1520-47. 
 
 SALAMANCA (W. Spain), taken from the 
 Saracens 861. The university was founded 1240, 
 and the cathedral built 15 13. Near here the British 
 
SALAMIS- 
 
 58S 
 
 SALUTE. 
 
 and allies, commanded by lord Wellington, totally 
 defeated the French army under marshal Marmont, 
 22 July, 1812. The loss of the victors was most 
 severe, amounting in killed, wounded, and missing, 
 to nearly 6000 men. Marmont left in the victor's 
 hands 7141 prisoners, 11 pieces of cannon, 6 stands 
 of colours, and 2 eagles. This victory was followed 
 by the capture of Madrid. 
 
 SALAMIS (near Athens) . In a great sea-fight 
 here, 20 Oct. 480 B.C., Themistocles, the Greek com- 
 mander, with only 310 sail, defeated the fleet of 
 Xerxes, king of Persia; which consisted of 2000 
 sail. — Near Salamis, in Cyprus, the Greeks defeated 
 the Persian fleet, 449 B.C.; and Demetrius Polior- 
 cetes defeated the fleet of Ptolemy and his allies, 
 306 B.C. 
 
 SALASSI, a, turbulent Alp hie tribe, were 
 thoroughly subdued by Terentius Varro, 25 B.C., 
 and a Roman colony established in their territories 
 (now Aosta). 
 
 SALDANHA BAY, S. Atlantic Ocean; north- 
 ward of the Cape of Good Hope. Here on 17 Aug. 
 1796, a Dutch squadron, under admiral Lucas, was 
 captured by vice-admiral sir George Keith Elphin- 
 stone, without resistance ; sir George was created 
 lord Keith. 
 
 . SALENCKEMEN, on the Danube. Here a 
 
 victory was gained by the imperialists, under prince 
 Louis of Baden, over the Turks, commanded by the 
 grand vizier Mustapha Kiuprigli, 19 Aug. 169 1. 
 
 SALERNO (Salemum, S. Italy), an ancient 
 Eoman colony. Its university, with a celebrated 
 school of medicine, reputed to be the oldest in 
 Europe, was founded by Kobert Guiscard the Nor- 
 man, who seized Salerno in 1077. Salerno suffered 
 much in the wars of the middle ages. 
 
 SALIQUE or SALIC LAW, by which females 
 are excluded from inheriting the crown of France, 
 is said to have been instituted by Pharamond, 424, 
 and ratified in a council of state by Clovis I., the 
 real founder of the French monarchy, in 511. 
 Henault. This law, introduced into Spain by the 
 Bourbons 1700, was formally abolished by decree 
 29 March, 1830 ; and on the death of Ferdinand VII. 
 his daughter succeeded as Isabella II., 29 Sept. 1833 ; 
 see Spain. By this law also Hanover was separated 
 from England, when queen Victoria ascended the 
 English throne, 1837. 
 
 .SALISBURY (Wilts), founded in the begin- 
 ning of the 13th century, on the removal of the 
 cathedral hither from Old Sarum . National councils 
 or parliaments were repeatedly held at Salisbury, 
 particularly in 1296, by Edward I. ; in 1328, by 
 Edward III. ; and hi 1384. Henry Stafford, duke of 
 Buckingham, was executed here by order of Bichard 
 III., in 1483. — On Salisbury Plain is Stone- 
 henge {which see). This plain was estimated at 
 500,000 acres. On it were so many cross roads, and 
 so few houses to take directions from, that Thomas, 
 earl of Pembroke, planted a tree at each milestone 
 from Salisbury to Shaftesbury, for the traveller's 
 guide. The autumn military manoeuvres took place 
 on Salisbury Plain, Aug., "Sept. 1872; see under 
 Army. — The first seat of the Bishopric was at 
 Sherborne, St. Aldhelm being prelate, 705. Her- 
 man removed the seat to Old Sarum, about 1072 ; 
 and the see was removed to Salisbury by a papal 
 bull, in 12 1 7. It has yielded to the church of Kome 
 one saint and two cardinals. The building of the 
 cathedral commenced 28 April, 1220, and was com- 
 pleted in 1258. This edifice is reckoned one of our 
 
 finest ecclesiastical erections. Its spire, the loftiest 
 in the kingdom, was considered in danger in April, 
 1864, and subscriptions were begun for its im- 
 mediate repair. The bishopric is valued in the 
 king's books at 1367/. us. 8d. Present income 
 5000I. 
 
 RECEST BISHOPS. 
 
 1797. John Fisher, died 2 July, 1825. 
 
 1825. Thomas Burgess, died 19 Feb. 1837. 
 
 1837. Edmund Denison, died 6 March, 1854. 
 
 1854. Walter Kerr Hamilton, died 1869. 
 
 1869. George Moberley, elected 9 Sept. 
 
 SALLEE, a port of Morocco, long a haunt for 
 pirates, destroyed by the British in 1632, and about 
 300 captives released. 
 
 SALLENTINT, allies of the Samnites, the 
 only Italian tribe not subject to Kome, were over- 
 come in war in 267 and 266 B.C., and Brundisium, 
 then port, taken. 
 
 SALMON FISHERIES. The laws relating 
 to them were consolidated and amended in 1861, 
 and the report of a commission of inquiry (in- 
 cluding sir "Win. Jardine) was published, in Feb. 
 1862. An act restricting the capture of salmon at 
 certain tunes, passed in 1863, was amended in 1869, 
 
 1870. During the " salmon fence," 14 Sept. to 
 1 Feb., it is unlawful to catch fish of the salmon 
 kind. A salmon-fishery congress opened at South 
 Kensington, 7 June, 1867. 
 
 SALONICA, see Thessalonica. 
 
 SALT (chloride of sodium, a compound of the 
 gas chlorine and the metal sodium) is procured from 
 the rocks in the earth, from salt-springs, and from 
 sea-water. The famous salt-mines of Wielitzka, 
 near Cracow in Poland, have been worked 600 
 years. The salt-works in Cheshire, called the 
 wiches (Nantwich, Northwich, and Middlewich), 
 were of great importance in the time of the Saxon 
 heptarchy. The salt-mines of Staffordshire were 
 discovered about 1670. Salt duties were first ex- 
 acted in 1702; they were renewed in 1732; re- 
 duced in 1823 ; and in that year were ordered to 
 cease in 1825. During the French war the duty 
 reached to 30/. per ton. For the salt-tax in France 
 see Gabellc. The government salt monopoly in India 
 was abolished hi May, 1863, by sir C. Trevelyan. 
 Since 1797 salt has been largely employed in the 
 manufacture of chloride of sodium or bleaching 
 powder (by obtaining its chlorine), and soap (by 
 obtaining its soda) . On this are based the chemical 
 works of Cheshire, Lancashire, and other places. 
 
 SALTAIRE, see Alpaca. 
 
 SALT LAKE, see Mormonitcs. 
 
 SALT-PETRE (from sal petra, salt of the 
 rock), or Nitre, is a compound of nitric acid and 
 potash (nitrogen, oxygen, and potassium), and 
 hence is called nitrate of potash. It is the explo- 
 sive ingredient in gunpowder, many detonating 
 powders, and lucifer matches. Boyle in the 17th 
 century demonstrated that salt-petre was composed 
 of aqua fortis (nitric acid) and potash; the dis- 
 coveries of Lavoisier (1777) and Davy (1807) showed 
 its real composition. Its manufacture in England 
 began about 1625. Dining the French revolu- 
 tionary war, the manufacture was greatly increased 
 by the researches of Berthollet. 
 
 SALUTE AT SEA. It is a received maxim at 
 sea, that he who returns the salute always fires 
 fewer guns than he receives, which is done even 
 between the ships of princes of equal dignity ; but 
 the Swedes and Danes return the compliment with- 
 
SALVADOE. 
 
 589 
 
 SANDWICH ISLANDS. 
 
 out regarding how many guns are fired to them. 
 The English claim the right of being saluted first 
 in all places, as sovereigns of the seas; the Vene- 
 tians claimed this honour .within their gulf, &c. ; 
 see Flag, and Naval Salute. 
 
 SALVADOE, SAN, one of the Bahamas, and 
 the first point of land discovered in the "West Indies 
 or America by Columbus. It was previously called 
 Guanahani, or Cat's Isle, and Columbus (in ac- 
 knowledgment to God for his deliverance) named it 
 San Salvador, II Oct. 1492. Population about 
 600,000. The capital, San Salvador, was destroyed 
 by an earthquake, 16 April, 1854, and is now 
 abandoned. 
 
 SALVADOE, SAN, one of the republics of 
 Central America, with a constitution established 
 24 Jan. 1859. General Barrios elected president 
 1 Feb. i860, was compelled to fly in Oct. 1863 ; 
 when Francis Duenas became provisional president ; 
 his formal election took place April, 1865. The ex- 
 president, Gerard Barrios, was surrendered by 
 Nicaragua, tried and shot, Aug. 1865. A re- 
 attempted revolution failed ; Zalawar fled ; general 
 Gonzales president, 1 Feb. 1872. Population about 
 600,000. The capital, San Salvador, was nearly 
 destroyed by an earthquake, 19 March, 1873, about 
 50 persons perished. The convulsion began 5 March 
 and thus gave timely warning. 
 
 SALZB ACH (Baden) . Here the French gene- 
 ral Turenne was killed, at the commencement of a 
 battle, 27 July, 1675. 
 
 SALZBUEG, an ancient city of Germany, was 
 annexed to Austria, 1805; to Bavaria, 1809; to 
 Austria again 18 15. It was the birthplace of 
 Mozart, 1756. The meetings of the emperors of 
 Austria and France here, 18 Aug. 1867, and the 
 emperors of Austria and Germany, 6 Sept. 1871, 
 which caused some anxiety, were reported to be in 
 favour of peace. 
 
 SAMANIDE DYNASTY, began with Ismail 
 Samani, who overcame the army of the Safferides, 
 and established himself in the government of 
 Persia, 902, his descendants ruled till 999. 
 
 SAMAECAND (in Tartary) was conquered by 
 the Mahometans, 707 ; by Genghis Khan, 1220, and 
 by Timur, or Tamerlane, who ruled here in great 
 splendour. Samarcand was occupied by the Bus- 
 sians under Kaufmann 26 May, 1868, after a con- 
 flict on the previous day. The garrison left, resisted 
 a fierce siege till relieved by Kaufmann, 13-20 June, 
 1868. 
 
 SAMAEITANS. Samaria was built by Omri, 
 925 B.C. ; and became the capital of the kingdom 
 of Israel. On the breaking up of that kingdom 
 (721 B.C.), the conqueror Shalmaneser placed natives 
 of other countries at Samaria. The descendants of 
 these mixed races were abominable to the Jews, and 
 much more so in consequence of the rival temple 
 built on Mount Gerizim by Sanballat the Samaritan, 
 332 B.C., which was destroyed by John Hyrcanus, 
 130 B.C. ; see John iv. & viii. 48, and Luke x. 33. 
 The Samaritan Pentateuch (of uncertain origin) 
 was published in his Polyglott by Morinus, 1632. 
 
 SAMNITES, a warlike people of S. Italy, who 
 strenuously resisted the Roman power, and were 
 not subjugated till after three sanguinary wars, 
 from 343 to 292 B.C. Their brave leader, Caius 
 Pontius, who spared the Eomans at Caudium, 320, 
 having been taken prisoner, was basely put to 
 death, 292. They did. not acquire the right of 
 citizenship till 88 B.C. 
 
 SAM OS, an island on the W. coast of Asia 
 Minor. Colonised by Ionians about 1043 B.C. The 
 city was founded about 986. Polycrates, ruler of 
 Samos (532-22 B.C.), was one of the most able, 
 fortunate, and treacherous of the Greek tyrants, 
 and possessed a powerful fleet. He patronised 
 Pythagoras (born here) and Anacreon. Samos was 
 taken by the Athenians, 440; and, with Greece, 
 became subject to Eome, 146. It was taken by the 
 Venetians, a.d. 1125, who here made velvet (samet), 
 and became subject to tbe Turks, about 1459. 
 
 SAMPFOED COUETENAY (Devon). 
 Here John, lord Russell, defeated the Cornish and 
 Devonshire catholic rebels, the middle of Aug. 1549. 
 
 SANCTION, see Pragmatic. 
 
 SANCTUAEIES, see Asylums. Privileged 
 places for the safety of offenders are said to have 
 been granted by king Lucius to churches and their 
 precincts. St. John's of Beverley was thus pri- 
 vileged in the time of the Saxons. St. Burian's, 
 in Cornwall, was privileged by Athelstan, 935 ; 
 ■Westminster, by Edward the Confessor ; St. Mar- 
 tin' s-le- Grand, 1529. Being much abused, the pri- 
 vilege of sanctuary was limited by the pope in 1503 
 (at the request of Henry VII.), and much reduced 
 in 1540. In London, persons were secure from 
 arrest in certain localities : these were the Minories, 
 Salisbury - court, Whitefriars, Ful wood's- rents, 
 Mitre-court, Baldwin' s-gardens, the Savoy, Clink, 
 Deadman's-place, Montague-close, and the Mint. 
 This security was abolished 1696, but lasted in some 
 degree till the reign of George II. (1727). 
 
 SANDALS, see Shoes. 
 
 SAND-BLAST. Gen. B. C. Tilghman, of 
 Philadelphia, has invented a method of cutting stone 
 or hard metal by a jet of quartz sand impelled by 
 compressed air or steam. A hole of 1 J inch diameter 
 and 1 1 inch deep was bored through a block of 
 corundum, nearly as hard as diamond, in 25 
 minutes. The invention was submitted to the Frank- 
 lin Institute, Philadelphia, 15 Feb. 1871. It may 
 be employed in the arts, for etching, &c. 
 
 SANDEMANIANS, see Glasites. 
 
 SANDHUEST, Boyal Militaky 
 COLLEGE, founded, first at High Wycombe, in 
 1799; removed to Great Marlow in 1802, and to 
 Sandhurst in 1812. It consists of the staff college 
 and cadets' college. Competitive examination for 
 entrance into the latter began in Feb. 1858. A wing 
 of the college was destroyed by fire, 21 Jan. 1868. 
 
 SANDWICH {Tortus Butupensis, Kent). It 
 suffered by Danish invaders in 851, 993, and 1014, 
 but was rebuilt by Canute, and became prosperous ; 
 it became chief of the cinque ports about 1066. It 
 contributed 22 ships and 504 mariners to Edward 
 III.'s French expedition. It was taken and plun- 
 dered by the French under Breze in Aug. 1457. 
 Flemish silk and woollen manufactories were set- 
 tled here by Elizabeth in 1561. 
 
 SANDWICH ISLANDSorHAw-Ai Abchi- 
 
 PELAGO, a group in the Pacific Ocean, discovered 
 by captain Cook in 1778. In Owhyhee or Sawai, one 
 of these islands, he fell a victim to the sudden re- 
 sentment of the natives, 14 Feb. 1779. The king 
 and queen visited London in 1824, and died there 
 in July. These people have made great progress in 
 civilisation, and embraced Christianity before any 
 missionaries were settled among them. Population 
 in 1866, 62,959. Tb -e late king Kamehameha 
 Y., succeeded his brother, Nov. 1863; died unmar- 
 
SAN FEANCISCO. 
 
 .590 
 
 SAPPHIRE. 
 
 ried, II Dec. 1872. The preceding king, Kanie- 
 hameha IV., manried Miss Emma Booker, 18^6. 
 She came to England in 1865 ; landing at South- 
 ampton, 13 July, and visited our queen, 9 Sept. An 
 English bishopric was established at Honolulu in 
 1861, for which Dr. Thomas Stalcy was consecrated, 
 18 Aug. 1862. He resigned Aug". 1870; bp. Alfred 
 "Willis consecrated, 2 Feb. 1872. The death of the 
 king was announced, and prince Wm. C. Lunalipo 
 proclaimed king, Dec. 1872. — The duke of Edin- 
 burgh was hospitably entertained at Honolulu, 
 where he arrived, 21 July, 1869. 
 
 SAN FEANCISCO (California) owes its 
 present prosperity to the gold discovery in 1847 ; 
 see California. 
 
 SANHEDEIM. An ancient Jewish council 
 of the highest jurisdiction, of seventy, or, as some 
 say, seventy-three members, usually considered to 
 be that established by Moses, Num. xi. 16, — 1490 
 B.C. It was yet in being at the time of Jesus 
 Christ, John xviii. 31. A Jewish Sanhedrim was 
 summoned by the emperor Napoleon I., 23 July, 
 1806. A meeting of Jewish deputies was held iS 
 Sept., and the Sanhedrim assembled, 9 March, 
 1807. 
 
 SANITAEY LEGISLATION, &c. Strict 
 cleanliness is enjoined in the law of Moses, 1490 B.C. 
 Great attention has been paid to the public health 
 in France since 1802. Tardieu published his " Dic- 
 tionnaire de Hygiene," 1852-54. To Dr. South- 
 wood Smith is mainly attributable the honour of 
 commencing the agitation on the subject of public 
 health in England about 1832 ; his " Philosophy of 
 Health" having excited much attention. Since 
 1838 he has published numerous sanitary reports, 
 having been much employed by the government. 
 Professors of hygiene are now appointed. 
 
 Nuisances Removal act passed (repealed) . 1845-1S60 
 Baths and Washhoases act .... 1846-1S47 
 Public Health act (subsequent Supplemental aits). 1S48 
 Common Lodging Houses act . . . 1851-1853 
 Labouring Classes Lodging Houses act . . . 1851 
 Smoke Nuisance Abatement act .... 1853 
 
 Diseases Prevention act 1855 
 
 Public Health act passed „ 
 
 Metropolitan Interments acts . . . 1850-1855 
 Labouring Classes Dwelling - house act passed, 
 
 March, 1866 
 New Sanitary act (stringent) passed Aug. 1866; 
 
 amended 1868, 1870 
 
 Public Health act passed . . . 10 Aug. 1872 
 Sanitary society proposed . . . March, 1S73 
 
 SAN JUAN ISLAND, see Jum. 
 
 SAN SALVADOE, see Salvador. 
 
 SANSCULOTTES, a term of reproach applied 
 to the leaders of the French republicans about 1790, 
 on account of their negligence in dress, and after- 
 wards assumed by them with pride. The comple- 
 mentary days of their new calendar were named by 
 the Mountain party Sansculottides. 
 
 SANSKEIT, the language of the Brahmins of 
 India, spoken at the time of Solomon, has been 
 much studied of late years. Sir Wm. Jones, who 
 published a translation of the poem Sakuntala, in 
 1783, discovered that a complete literature had been 
 preserved in India, comprising sacred books (the 
 Vedas), history and philosophy, lyric and dramatic 
 poetry. Texts and translations of many works have 
 been published by the aid of the East India Com- 
 pany, the Oriental Translation Fund, and private 
 liberality. The professorship of Sanskrit at Ox- 
 ford was founded by colonel Boden. The first pro- 
 fessor, H. H. Wilson, appointed in 1832, translated 
 
 part of the Eig-veda Sanhita, the sacred hymns of 
 the Brahmins, and several poems, &c. Professor 
 Monier Williams (elected i860) published an Eng- 
 lish and Sanskrit dictionary, 1851. Professor Max 
 Midler published his history of Sanskrit Literature 
 in 1859, and is editing tlie original text of the 
 Vedas. Philologists have discovered an intimate 
 connection between the Sanskrit, Persian, Greek, 
 Latin, Teutonic, Slavonian, Celtic, and Scandi- 
 navian languages. 
 
 SANTA CEUZ (Teneriffe, Canary Isles) . Here 
 admiral Blake, by daring bravery, entirely destroyed 
 sixteen Spanish ships, secured "with great nautical 
 skill, and protected by the castle and forts on the 
 shore, 20 April, 1657. Clarendon. In an unsuc- 
 cessful attack made upon Santa Cruz by Nelson, 
 several officers and 141 men were killed, and the 
 admiral lost his right arm, 24 July, 1797.* 
 
 SANTA FE DE BOGOTA, see Ken- Gra- 
 nada. 
 
 SANTA HEEMANDAD, see Hcrmandad. 
 
 SANTIAGO DE COMPOSTELLA(N.W. 
 
 Spain), was sacked by the Moors in 995, and held by 
 them till it was taken by Ferdinand III. in 1235. 
 The order of Santiago, or St. James, was founded 
 about 1 1 70 to protect pilgrims to the shrine of St. 
 James, said to be buried in the cathedral. The town 
 was taken by the French in 1809, and held till 1814. 
 —Santiago, the capital of Chili, S. America, 
 founded by Valdina m 1541, has suffered much by 
 earthquakes, especially in 1822 and 1829. 
 
 About seven o'clock in the evening of 8 Dec. i86-\ the 
 feast of the Immaculate Conception of the VhginMary 
 and the last day of a series of religious celebrations in 
 the "month of Mary," the church of the Campania 
 when brilliantly illuminated in a dangerous manner' 
 was burnt down, the fire beginning amidst the conil 
 bustible ornaments, and above 2000 persons, princi- 
 pally women, perished; the means of egress bein" 
 utterly insufficient. 
 
 On 20 Dec. the government ordered the church to be 
 razed to the ground, and much public indignation was 
 excited against the fanatical priesthood. 
 
 SAPPEES AND MlNEES, a name given in 
 1812 to the non-commissioned officers and privates 
 of the corps of Royal Engineers. Brande. 
 
 SAPPHIC VEESE, invented by Sappho, the 
 lyric poetess of Mitylene. She was "equally cele- 
 brated for her poetry, beauty, and a hopeless passion 
 for Phaon, a youth of her native countrv, on which 
 last account it is said she threw herself into the sea 
 from Mount Leucas, and was drowned, about 590 
 B.C. The Lesbians, after her death, paid her divine 
 honours, and called her the tenth muse, 594 B.C. 
 Some consider the story fabulous. 
 
 SAPPHIEE, a precious stone of an azure 
 colour, and transparent ; in hardness it exceeds the 
 ruby, and is next to the diamond. One was placed 
 in the Jewish high priest's breast-plate, 1491. 
 Thamas Kouli Khan is said to have possessed a 
 sapphire valued at 300,000/., 1733. Artificial sap- 
 phires were made in 1857 by M. Gaudin. Equal parts 
 
 * Captain Fremantle, the friend of Nelson, and his com- 
 panion in most of his brilliant achievements was also 
 wounded in the arm immediately before Nelson had re- 
 ceived Ins wound in the same limb. The following note 
 addressed to the lady of Captain Fremantle (who was on 
 board with her husband at the time he wrote) has been 
 preserved , as being the first letter written by the'hero with 
 his left hand:— " My dear Mrs. Fremantle,— Tell me 
 how Tom is. I hope lie has saved his arm. Mine is off- 
 but. thank God! I am as well asl hope he is. Everyours, 
 "Horatio Nelson." 
 
SARACENS. 
 
 591 
 
 SARDINIA. 
 
 of alum and sulphate of potash were heated in a 
 crucible. 
 
 SARACENS, an Arab race, the first disciples 
 of Mahomet, who within forty years after his death 
 (632), had subdued a great part of Asia, Africa, and 
 Europe. They conquered Spain in 711 et seq., and 
 (under Abderahman) established the caliphate of 
 Cordova in 755, which gave way to the Moors in 
 1237. ' The empire of the Saracens closed by Bagdad 
 being taken by the Tartars, 1258. Blair. 
 
 SAEAGOSSA (N.E. Spain), anciently Caosarea 
 Augusta, founded 27 B.C., was taken by the Goths, 
 470; by the Arabs, 712 ; by Alfonso of Spain, 1118. 
 Here Philip V. was defeated by the archduke 
 Charles, 20 Aug. 1710. On 17 Dec. 1778, 400 of the 
 inhabitants perished in a fire at the theatre. Sara- 
 gossa, after successfully resisting the French in 
 1808, was taken by them after a most heroic defence 
 by general Palafox, 20 Feb. 1809. The inhabitants, 
 of both sexes, resisted until worn out by fighting, 
 famine, and pestilence. 
 
 SARAH SANDS, see Wrecks, 1857. 
 
 SAEATOGA (New York State, N". America). 
 Here general Burgoyne, commander of a body of the 
 British army, after a severe engagement with the 
 Americans at Germanstown, in which he was vic- 
 torious, 3, 4 Oct., being surounded, surrendered all 
 his army (5791 men) to the American general Gates, 
 17 Oct. 1777. This was the greatest check the 
 British suffered in the war. 
 
 SARAWAK, see Borneo. 
 
 SARDINIA, an island in the Mediterranean, 
 successively possessed by the Phoenicians, Greeks, 
 Carthaginians (about 500 B.C.), Romans (238), 
 Vandals (a.d. 456), Saracens (720-40), Genoese 
 (1022), Pisans (1165), Arragonese (1352), and 
 Spaniards. From settlers belonging to these 
 various nations the present inhabitants derive their 
 origin. Victor Amadeus, duke of Savoy, acquired 
 Sardinia in 1720, with the title of king ; see Savoy. 
 Population of the Sardinian dominions in 1858, 
 5,194,807. The king of Sardinia was recognised as 
 king of Italy by his parliament in Feb. 1861 ; see 
 Italy. 
 
 Conquered by the English naval forces, under sir 
 
 John Leake and gen. Stanhope , . . . 1708 
 
 Ceded to the emperor Charles VI 1714 
 
 Recovered by the Spaniards . . 22 Aug. 1717 
 
 Ceded to the duke of Savoy with the title of Icing, 
 
 as an equivalent for Sicily 1720 
 
 Victor Amadeus abdicates in favour of his son . . 1730 
 Attempting to recover his throne, he is taken, and 
 
 dies in prison 1732 
 
 The court kept at Turin, till Piedmont is overrun 
 
 by the French 1792 
 
 Charles Emmanuel resigns to his brother, duke of 
 
 Aosta 4 June, 1802 
 
 Piedmont annexed to Italy ... 26 May, 1805 
 
 The king resides in Sardinia .... 1798-1814 
 Piedmont restored to its sovereign, with Genoa 
 
 added Dee. ,, 
 
 King Charles-Albert promulgates a new code . . 1837 
 Cavour establishes the newspaper "II Risorgi- 
 
 mento " (" the Revival ") 1847 
 
 The king grants a constitution, and openly espouses 
 
 the cause of Italian regeneration against Austria, 
 
 23 March, 1848 
 Defeats the Austrians atGoito ; and takes Peschiera 
 
 30 May, ,, 
 Incorporation of Lombardy with Sardinia, 28 June, 
 
 and Venice 4 July, ,, 
 
 Sardinian army defeated by Radetzky . 26 July, ,, 
 Sardinians at Milan capitulate to Radetzky, 5 Aug. ,, 
 Armistice signed 9 Aug. ,, 
 
 Hostilities resumed 12 March, 1849 
 
 Radetzky defeats a division of the Sardinians, and 
 
 occupies Mortara .... 21 March, ,, 
 Complete defeat of the Sardinians by the Austrians 
 
 at No vara 23 March, ,, 
 
 Charles-Albert abdicates in favour of his son, 
 
 Victor-Emmanuel . . . . 23 March, ,, 
 The Austrians occupy Novara, &c. . . 25 March, „ 
 Another armistice .... 26 March, ,, 
 Death of Charles-Albert, at Oporto . 28 July, „ 
 Treaty of Milan between Austria and Sardinia, 
 
 signed 6 Aug. ,, 
 
 Adoption of the Siccardi law, which abolishes 
 
 ecclesiastical jurisdictions ... 9 April, 1850 
 Arrest of the bishop of Turin . . . 4 May, ,, 
 He is released from the citadel . . 2 June, ,, 
 Cavour minister of foreign affairs .... 1851 
 Bill for suppression of convents and support of 
 
 clergy by the state passed ... 2 March, 1855 
 Convention with England and France signed ; a 
 contingent of 15,000 troops to be supplied against 
 
 Russia 10 April, ,, 
 
 10,000 troops under general La Marmora arrive in 
 
 the Crimea 8 May, ,, 
 
 "Who distinguish themselves in the battle of the 
 
 Tchemaya . . ' . . . .16 Aug. ,, , 
 The king visits London, &c. . . 30 Nov. &c. „ 
 
 Important note on Italy from count Cavour to 
 
 England 16 April, 1856 
 
 Rupture with Austria ; subsequent war (see Austria, 
 
 1857, et seq.) 
 Cavour declares in favour of free trade . June, 1857 
 Prince Napoleon Jerome marries princess Clotilde 
 
 (see Italy) 30 Jan. 1859 
 
 Preliminaries of peace signed at Villa Franca, n 
 July ; count Cavour resigns, 13 July ; Rattazzi 
 administration formed . . . -19 July, „ 
 The emperor Napoleon's letter to Victor-Emmanuel 
 advocating the formation of an Italian confedera- 
 tion : the latter declares it to be impracticable, 
 and maintains his engagements with the Italians, 
 
 20 Oct. ,, 
 Treaty of peace signed at Zurich . . Nov. ,, 
 Garibaldi retires into private life . . 17 Nov. ,, 
 Count Cavour returns to office . . .16 Jan. i860 
 The Sardinian government refers the question of 
 
 annexation of Tuscany, &c, to the vote of the 
 
 people 29 Feb. ,, 
 
 Annexation of Savoy and Nice proposed by the 
 
 French government ; the Sardinian government 
 
 refer it to the vote of the people . . 25 Feb. ,, 
 Annexation to Sardinia voted almost unanimously 
 
 by ./Emilia, 14 March ; by Tuscany, 16 March ; 
 
 accepted by Victor-Emmanuel . 18-20 March, „ 
 Treaty ceding Savoy and Nice to France, signed 
 
 24 March, „ 
 Prussia protests against the Italian annexations, 
 
 27 March, 
 New Sardinian parliament opens . . 2 April, ,, 
 Annexation to France almost unanimously voted 
 
 for by Nice, 15 April ; by Savoy . 22 April, „ 
 The government professes disapproval of Garibaldi's 
 
 expedition to Sicily (which see) . . 18 May, „ 
 The chambers ratify treaty of cession of Savoy and 
 
 Nice 29 May, ,, 
 
 The Sardinian troops enter the papal territories 
 
 (see Italy, and Rome) . . . .11 Sept. „ 
 Victor-Emmanuel enters the kingdom of Naples, 
 
 15 Oct. „ 
 Naples and Sicily vote for annexation to Sardinia, 
 
 21 Oct. „ 
 Railway from Sassari to the sea opened, 9 April, 1872 
 [For the disputes, and war with Austria, and the 
 
 events of 1859-61, see Austria, France, Rome, 
 Sicily, and fraples.] 
 [For future history see Italy.] 
 
 kings of sakdinia. See Savoy. 
 1720. Vietor-Amadeus I. king (as duke II.) ; resigned, in 
 
 1730, in favour of his son ; died in 1732. 
 1730. Charles-Emmanuel I. , son. 
 1773. Vietor-Amadeus II., son. 
 1796. Charles-Emmanuel II., sou ; resigned his crown 
 
 in favour of his brother 
 1802. Victor-Emmanuel I., brother; 4 June. 
 1805. [Sardinia merged in the kingdom of Italy, of which 
 
 the emperor Napoleon was crowned king, 26 
 
 May, 1805.] 
 
SAEDIS- 
 
 592 
 
 SAVINGS' BANKS. 
 
 1814. Victor-Emmanuel restored ; resigned in March, 
 
 1821 ; and died in 1824. 
 1821. Charles-Felix. 
 1831. Charles-Albert; abdicated in favour of his son, 23 
 
 March, 1849. Died at Oporto, 28 July, 1849. 
 1849. Victor-Emmanuel II., son; born 14 March, 1820; 
 
 the present king of Italy. 
 Heir : Humbert, prince of Piedmont ; born, 14 
 
 March, 1844. 
 
 SAEDIS, see under Seven Churches. 
 
 SAEMATTA, the ancient name for the country 
 in Asia and Europe between the Caspian Sea and 
 the Vistula, including Russia and Poland. The 
 Sarmata? or Sauromatae troubled the early Roman 
 empire by incursions. After subduing the Scythians 
 they were subjugated by the Goths, in the 3rd and 
 4th centuries, They joined the Huns and other 
 barbarians in invading Western Europe in the 5th 
 century. 
 
 SABNO (S. Italy). Near this river Teias, king 
 of the Goths, was defeated and slain by Justinian's 
 general Narses, March, 553. 
 
 SABUM, OLD (Wiltshire), an ancient British 
 town, the origin of Salisbury (tvhichsee). Although 
 completely decayed, it returned two members to 
 parliament till 1832. 
 
 SASSANIDES, descendants of Artaxerxes or 
 Ardishir, whose father, Babek, was the son of 
 Sassan. He revolted against Artabanus, the king 
 of Parthia ; defeated him on the plain of Hormuz, 
 226; and re-established the Persian monarchy. This 
 dynasty was expelled by the Mahometans, 652 ; 
 see Persia. 
 
 SATIEE. About a century after the introduc- 
 tion of comedy, satire made its appearance at Rome 
 in the writings of Lucilius, called the inventor of it, 
 116 B.C. Livij. The Satires of Horace (35 B.C.), 
 Juvenal (about a.d. 100), and Perseus (about a.d. 
 60), are the most celebrated in ancient times, and 
 those of Churchill (1761) and Pope (1729), in 
 modern times. Butler's " Hudibras," satirizing 
 the presbyterians, first appeared in 1663. Satire 
 Menippee, a celebrated satirical pamphlet, partly 
 in verse and partly in prose, attacking the policy of 
 -the court of Spain and the league, written in the 
 style of the biting satires of the cynic philosopher 
 
 -M™;~™-,o Tlio «vof r,ort " Pnthnlipivn rT'Efi-nnorin " 
 
 and Passerat, appeared in 1594. Bouillet. 
 
 SATEAPIES, divisions of the Persian empire, 
 formed by Darius Hystaspes about 516 B.C. 
 
 SATTAEA (W. India) was long a flourishing 
 state, founded by Sevajee about 1646; subjugated 
 by the Mahrattas about 1749; conquered by the 
 British, 1818 ; ruled by a rajah under the protection 
 of the company. The last rajah died without issue 
 in 1848 ; when the country was annexed. 
 
 SATTJEDAY (the last, or seventh day of the 
 week ; the Jewish Sabbath ; see Sabbath). It was 
 so called from an idol worshipped on this day by 
 the Saxons, and according to Verstegan, was named 
 by them Saterne's day. Pardon. It is more 
 
 Srobably from Saturn, dies Saturni. Saturday 
 levieiv, an independent literary weekly journal, 
 was first published, 3 Nov. 1855. 
 
 SATUEN, the planet, ascertained to be about 
 900 millions of miles distant from the sun, and its 
 ■diameter to be about 77,230 miles. One of the 
 eight satellites was discovered by Huyghens (25 
 
 March, 1655) ; four by Cassini (1671-84) ; two by 
 sir William Herschel (1789), and one by Bond and 
 Lassells (1848). The ring was observed by Galileo, 
 about 1610 ; its annular form determined'by Huy- 
 ghens, about 1655 ; and discovered to be two-fold 
 by Messrs. Ball, 13 Oct. 1665 ; an inner ring was 
 detected in 1850 by Dawes in England (29 Nov.), 
 and by Bond in America. 
 
 SATUEN ALIA, festivals in honour of Saturn, 
 father of the gods, were instituted long before the 
 foundation of Rome, in commemoration of the 
 freedom and equality which prevailed on the earth 
 in his golden reign. Some, however, suppose that 
 the Saturnalia were first observed at Rome in the 
 reign of Tullus Hostilius (673-640 B.C.), after a 
 victory obtained over the Sabines: whilst others 
 suppose that Janus first instituted them in gratitude 
 to Saturn, from whom he had learned agriculture. 
 Others assert that they were first celebrated after a 
 victory obtained over the Latins by the dictator 
 Posthumius, when he dedicated a temple to Saturn, 
 497 B.C. During these festivals no business was 
 allowed, amusements were encouraged, and dis- 
 tinctions ceased. Lenglet. 
 
 SAVANDEOOG (Mysore, S. India), a strong 
 fortress, was captured by the British without loss, 
 21 Dec. 1791. 
 
 SAVINGS' BANKS. The first of these was 
 instituted at Berne, in Switzerland, in 1787, by the 
 name of caisse de domestiques, being intended for 
 servants only ; another was set up in Basel, in 1792, 
 open to all depositors. The rev. Joseph Smith, of 
 Wendover, began a Benevolent Institution in 1799; 
 and in 1803-4, a " charitable bank" was instituted 
 at Tottenham by Miss Priscilla Wakefield. Henry 
 Dundas established a parish bank at Ruthwell in 
 1810. One was opened in Edinburgh in 1814. 
 The benefit clubs, among artisans, having accumu- 
 lated stocks of money for their progressive purposes, 
 a plan was adopted to identify these funds with the 
 public debt of the country, and an extra rate of 
 interest was held out as an inducement ; hence were 
 formed savings' banks to receive small sums, re- 
 turnable with interest on demand. 
 
 Rt. lion. Geo. Rose developed the system, and brought it 
 under parliamentary control, 1816. 
 
 In 1840 there were 550 banks ; 766,354 depositors ; amount, 
 22,060,904?. 
 
 Acts to consolidate and amend previous laws relating to 
 savings' banks were passed in 1828 and 1847 ; extended 
 to Scotland in 1835 ; again consolidated and amended 
 in 1863. 
 
 On 20 Nov. 1851, the number of savings' banks in Great 
 Britain and Ireland was 574, besides above 20,000 
 friendly societies and charitable institutions. The 
 depositors -(in the banks) were 1,092,581, while the 
 societies embraced a vast but unknown number of 
 persons : the amount of deposits was 32,893,511?. 
 
 Amount of computed capital of savings' banks in the 
 United Kingdom :— 1853, 33,362,260?. ; i860, 41,258,368?. ; 
 
 1870, 37,958,549?. — 1871, England, 31,496,088?. ; Wales, 
 1,065,914?. ; Scotland, 4,119,319?. ; Ireland, 2,224,425?. ; 
 total, 38,905,746?. 
 
 1871. Received by 'Trustees. raid. 
 England . . .£5,804,984 . . .,£6,204,795 
 Wales .... 178,303 . . 170,889 
 Scotland . . . 1,487,970 . . . 1,309,144 
 Ireland .... 566,765 . . 465,685 
 
 8,038,022 
 
 8,150.513 
 
 For Post-Office Savings' Banks, established in 1861, see 
 
 under Post Office. 
 The deposits in the old savings' banks had not diminished 
 
 in consequence in 1864. 
 Savings' Banks Investment acts, passed March, 1866, 
 
 and Aug. i860. 
 
SAVONA. 
 
 593 
 
 SAXE-WEIMAK-EISENACH. 
 
 by fire, 7 July, 1864, and was rebuilt at tbe queen's 
 expense, and re-opened 26 Nov. 1865. 
 
 SAW. Invented by Dsedalus. Pliny. Invented 
 by Talus. _ Apollodorus. Talus, it is said, having 
 found the jaw-bone of a snake, employed it to cut 
 through a piece of wood, and then formed an instru- 
 ment of iron like it. Saw-mills were erected in 
 Madeira in 1420 ; at Breslau in 1427. Norway had 
 the first saw-mill in 1530. The bishop of Ely, 
 ambassador from Mary of England to the court of 
 Rome, describes a saw-mill tbere, 1555. The 
 attempts to introduce saw-mills in England were 
 violently opposed, and one erected by a Dutchman 
 in 1663 was forced to be abandoned. Saw-mills 
 were erected near London about 1770. The 
 excellent saw-machinery in "Woolwich, dockyard is 
 based upon the invention of the elder Brunei, 
 1806-13. The saw-gin for separating cotton wool 
 from the pod, invented by Eli Whitney, an Ameri- 
 can, in 1793, led to the immense growth of cotton in 
 the southern states of the Union. Powis and James's 
 band-saw was patented in 1858. 
 
 SAXE-ALTENBUKG (formerly Hildburg- 
 hausen), a duchy in central Germany. Population, 
 1871, 141,122. The dukes are descended from 
 Ernest the Pious, duke of Saxony. Ernest, the 
 first duke, died in 1715. The present duke, Ernest, 
 bom 16 Sept. 1826 ; succeeded his father, George, 
 3 Aug. 1853 ; he entered into alliance with Prussia, 
 18 Aug. 1866. 
 
 SAXE-COBTTKG and GOTHA (central 
 Germany), capitals Gotha and Coburg. Population, 
 1871, 174,339. The reigning family is descended 
 from John Ernest (son of Ernest the Pious, duke of 
 Saxony), who died in 1729. 
 
 DUKES. 
 
 1S26. Ernest I. duke of Saxe-Saalfeld-Coburg ; born, 2 
 Jan. 1784 ; married Louisa, heiress of Augustus, 
 duke of Saxe-Gotha, and became by convention 
 duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 12 Nov. 1826 ; died, 
 29 Jan. 1844. 
 [His brother, Leopold, married the princess Char- 
 lotte of England, 2 May, 1816 ; became king of 
 the Belgians, 12 July, 1831 ; and Ferdinand, the 
 son of his brother Ferdinand, married Maria da 
 Gloria, queen of Portugal, 9 April, 1836.] 
 
 1844. Ernest II. son (brother of Albert, prince consort of 
 Great Britain) ; born 21 June, 1818 ; married 
 Alexandra na, duchess of Baden, 3 May, 1842 ; no 
 issue. He entered into alliance with Prussia, 18 
 Aug. 1866. 
 Heir (presumptive) : Prince Alfred of England, 
 duke of Edinburgh ; born, 6 Aug. 1844 (in whose 
 favour the prince of Wales resigned his rights 
 19 April, 1863.) 
 
 SAXE-MEININGEN (a duchy in central 
 Germany). Population, Dee. 1871, 187,884. The 
 dukes are descended from Ernest the Pious, duke of 
 Saxony. The first duke, Bernard (1680), died in 
 1706. Bernard (duke 24 Dec. 1803) abdicated in 
 favour of his son George, 20 Sept. 1866, who pro- 
 fessed his adhesion to the Prussian policy ; he was 
 born, 2 April, 1826. Heir, his son, Bernard, horn 
 1 April, 1 85 1. 
 
 SAXE - WEIMAE - EISENACH (central 
 Germany). The grand-dukes are descended from 
 John Frederic, the Protestant elector of Saxony, 
 who was deprived by the emperor in 1548 ; see 
 Saxony. The houses of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Saxe- 
 Gotha, Hilberghausen, and Saxe-Meiningen also 
 sprang from him. They are all termed the senior 
 or Ernestine branch of the old family. — Saxe- 
 TVeimar became a grand duchy in 1815. ' The dukes 
 have greatly favoured literature and their capital 
 
 a a 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF THE FIRST 20,000 DEPOSITORS. 
 
 Domestic servants 7245 
 
 Persons in trade, mechanics, &c 7473 
 
 Labourers and porters 672 
 
 Miners I4S 4 
 
 Friendly and charitable societies . . . . 58 
 
 Persons not classed, viz. , widows, teachers, sailors, 
 
 &c 3098 
 
 SAVONA (a manufacturing town, N. Italy, 
 long held by the Genoese) was captured by the king 
 of Sardinia in 1746; by the French in 1809, and 
 annexed ; restored to Sardinia at the peace. Pope 
 Pius VII. was kept here by Napoleon I., 1809-12. 
 Soap is said to have been invented here, and hence 
 its French name savon. 
 
 SAVOY, the ancient Sapaudia or Sabaudia, 
 formerly a province in N. Italy, east of Piedmont. 
 It became a Horn an province about 118 B.C. The 
 Alemanni seized it inA.D. 395, and the Franks hi 
 490. It shared the revolutions of Switzerland till 
 about 1048, when Conrad, emperor of Germany, 
 gave it to Humbert, with the title of count. Count 
 Thomas acquired Piedmont in the 13th century. 
 Amadeus, count of Savoy, bavin? entered his 
 dominions, solicited Sigismund to erect them into a 
 duchy, which he did at Cambray, 19 Feb. 1416. 
 Victor-Amadeus, duke of Savoy, obtained the 
 kingdom of Sicily from Spain, by a treaty, in 1713, 
 but afterwards exchanged it with the emperor 
 for the island of Sardinia, with the title of king, 
 1720. The French subdued Savoy in 1792, and 
 made it a department of France, under the name of 
 Mont Blanc, in 1800. It was restored to the king 
 of Sardinia in 1814; but with Nice annexed to 
 France in i860, in accordance with a vote by uni- 
 versal suffrage, 23 April, i860. Savoy was visited 
 by the emperor and empress of the French in 
 August, i860. The annexation was censured in 
 England. 
 
 DUKES OF SAVOY. 
 
 1391. Count Amadeus VIII. is made duke in 1416 ; he was 
 named pope, as Felix V. He abdicated as duke 
 of Savoy, 1439 : renounced the tiara, 1449 ; died 
 in 1451. 
 
 1439. Louis. 
 
 1465. Amadeus IX. 
 
 1472. Philibert I. 
 
 1482. Charles I. 
 
 1489. Charles II. 
 
 1496. Philip II. 
 
 1497. Philibert II. 
 1504. Charles III. 
 
 1553. Emmanuel-Philibert. 
 1580. Charles-Emmanuel I. 
 1630. Victor-Amadeus I. 
 
 1637. Francis-Hyacinthe. 
 
 1638. Charles-Emmanuel II. 
 
 1675. Victor-Amadeus II. become king of Sicily, 1713; 
 exchanged for Sardinia {ivhich see) in 1720. 
 
 SAVOY PALACE (London), was built by 
 Peter of Savoy, uncle of Eleanor, queen of Henry 
 III., in 1245, on land granted to him. He gave it 
 to the fraternity of Mountjoy (Monte Jovis), from 
 whom it was purchased by queen Eleanor for her 
 son Edmund. Here resided John, king of France, 
 when a prisoner, 1357 et seq. The Savoy was burnt 
 by "Wat Tyler and his followers, 138 1. It was 
 restored as an hospital of St. John the Baptist by 
 Henry VII. about 1505. The fruitless Conference 
 of bishops and eminent puritans for the revision of 
 the liturgy was held at the Savoy, April-July, 1661. 
 The hospital was dissolved in 1 702, and the build- 
 ings (then used as a military prison) removed for 
 "Waterloo-bridge and its approaches, 1817-19. The 
 ancient Chapel (which once possessed the privilege of 
 sauctuary), after several restorations, was destroyed 
 
SAXONY. 
 
 594 
 
 SCHOOLS. 
 
 "Weimar has been called the Athens of Germany. 
 Population of the duchy, 1871, 286,183. 
 
 GRAND-DUKES. 
 
 1815. Charles Augustus. 
 
 1828. Charles Frederic ; died, 8 July, 1853. 
 
 1853. Charles Alexander ; born, 24 June, 1818. He 
 
 entered into alliance with Prussia, 18 Aug. 
 
 1866. 
 Heir : Charles Augustus : born, 31 July, 1844. 
 
 SAXONY, a kingdom in 1ST. Germany. The 
 Saxons were a fierce warlike race, the terror of the 
 inhabitants of the later western empire, frequently 
 attacked France, and conquered Britain (which see). 
 After a long series of sanguinary conflicts they w r ere 
 completely subdued by Charlemagne, who instituted 
 many fiefs and bishoprics in their country. Witi- 
 kind, their great leader, who claimed descent from 
 Woden, professed Christianity about 785. From 
 him descended the first and the present ruling 
 family (the houses of Supplinburg, Guelf, and 
 Ascania intervened from 1106 to 1421). Saxony 
 became a duchy, 880 ; an electorate, 1 180; and a 
 kingdom, 1806. It was the seat of war, 1813; the 
 king being on the side of Napoleon. In the conflict 
 of 1866 the king took the side of Austria, and his 
 army fought in the battle of Koniggratz, 3 July. 
 The Prussians entered Saxony 18 June. Peace 
 between Prussia and Saxony was signed 21 Oct. 
 (subjecting the Saxon army to Prussia), and the 
 king returned to Dresden, 3 Nov. Population, 1861, 
 2,225,240; 1871,2,556,244. 
 
 ELECTORS. 
 
 1423. Frederic I. , first elector of the house of Misnia. 
 1428. Frederic II. 
 
 [His sons Ernest and Albert divide the states.] 
 1464. Ernest. 1464. Albert. 
 
 i486. Frederick III. 1500. George. 
 
 1525. John. 1539. Henry. 
 
 1541. Maurice. 
 1532. John Frederic ; deprived by the emperor Charles 
 
 V. ; succeeded by 
 1548. Maurice (of the Albertine line). 
 
 Augustus. 
 
 Christian I. 
 
 Christian II. 
 
 John George I. 
 
 John George II. 
 
 John George HI. 
 
 John George IV. 
 
 Frederic Augustus I. , king of Poland, 1697. 
 
 Frederic Augustus II. , king of Poland. 
 
 Frederic Augustus III. becomes king, 1806. 
 
 1553 
 1586. 
 1591 
 1611. 
 1656. 
 1680, 
 1691 
 1694 
 1733 
 i7 6 3 
 
 KINGS. 
 
 1806. Frederic Augustus I. ; increased his territories by 
 alliance with France, 1806-9 ; suffered by peace 
 of 1814. 
 1827. Anthony Clement. 
 1836. Frederic Augustus II. , nephew (regent, 1830) ; died 
 
 . 9 Aug. 1854. 
 1854. John, brother (born 12 Dec. 1801) ; celebrated his 
 golden wedding (50 years), 10 Nov. 1872. 
 Heir : His son, Albert ; born, 23 April, 1828. 
 
 SCANDALUM MAGNATUM, a special 
 statute relating to any wrong, by words or in 
 writing, done to high personages of the land, such 
 as peers, judges, ministers of the crown, officers in 
 the state, and other great public functionaries, by 
 the circulation of the scandalous statements, false 
 news, or horrible messages, by which any debate 
 or discord between them and the commons, or any 
 scandal to their persons, might arise. Chambers. 
 This law was first enacted 2 Kich. II. 1378. 
 
 SCANDINAVIA, the ancient name of Sweden, 
 Norway,' and great part of Denmark (which see), 
 whence proceeded the Northmen or Normans, who 
 conquered Normandy (about 900), and eventually 
 England (1066) . They were also called Sea-kings, 
 
 or Vikings. They settled Iceland and Greenland, 
 and, it is thought," visited the northern regions of 
 America, about the 9th century. A "National 
 Scandinavian Society" has been formed at Stock- 
 holm; see Sweden, Dec. 1864. 
 
 SCARLET, or kermes dye, was known in the 
 East in the earliest ages; cochineal dye, 1518. 
 Kepler, a Fleming, established the first dye-house 
 for scarlet in England, at Bow, 1643. The art of 
 dyeing red was improved by Brewer, 1667. Beck- 
 mann. 
 
 SCEPTICS, the sect of philosophers founded 
 by Pyrrho, about 334 B.C. He gave ten reasons for 
 continual suspense of judgment; he doubted of 
 eveiything, never made any conclusions, and when 
 he had carefully examined the subject, and inves- 
 tigated all its parts, he concluded by still doubting 
 of its evidence. He advocated apathy and un- 
 changeable repose. These doctrines were held by 
 Bayle (died 1706). 
 
 SCEPTRE, a more ancient emblem of royalty 
 than the crown. In the earlier ages the sceptres of 
 kings were long walking-staves ; afterwards carved 
 and made shorter. Tarquin the elder was the first 
 who assumed the sceptre among the Komans, about 
 468 B.C. The French sceptre of the first race of 
 kings was a golden rod, a.d. 481. Le Gcndre. 
 
 SCHAFFHAUSEN (N. Switzerland), a fish- 
 ing village in the 8th century, became an imperial 
 city in the 13th; was subjected to Austria, 1330; 
 independent, 1415 ; became a Swiss canton, 1501. 
 
 SCHAUMBURG LIPPE (Germany), was 
 formed into a county by Adolphus, of Sandersleben, 
 1033. In 1640, on the death of count Otho IV., 
 his mother, Elizabeth, transferred the domains to 
 Philip of Lippe, from whom descended the reigning- 
 prince (the title assumed in 1807). Adolphus, born 
 1 Aug. 181 7, succeeded his father, 21 Nov. i860. 
 Heir, prince George, born 10 Oct. 1846. Population 
 of the principality, 1871, 32,051. 
 
 SCHELDT TOLLS were imposed by the 
 treaty of Munster (or Westphalia), 1648. The tolls 
 were abolished for a compensation, 1867. The house 
 of commons voted 175,650^. for the British portion, 
 on 9 March, 1864. The Scheldt was declared free 
 on 3 Aug. with much rejoicing at Antwerp and 
 Brussels. 
 
 SCHIEHALLIEN, a mountain in Perthshire, 
 where Dr. Neville Maskelyne, the astronomer- 
 royal, made his observations with a plumb-line, 
 24 Oct. 1774, from which Hutton calculated that 
 the density of the earth is five times greater than 
 water. 
 
 SCHISM, see Heresy, and Popes. 
 
 SCHLESWIG, see Holstein, Denmark, and 
 Gastrin. 
 
 SCHOOLMEN or Scholastic Philoso- 
 phy, began in the schools founded by Charlemagne, 
 800-14; and prevailed in Europe from the 9th to 
 the 15th centuries ; see Doctors. 
 
 SCHOOLS. Charity schools were introduced 
 into London to prevent the seduction of the infant 
 poor into Roman catholic seminaries, 3 James II. 
 1687. Rapin. Charter schools were instituted in 
 Ireland, 1733. Scully. In England there were, in 
 1847, 13,642 schools (exclusively of Sunday schools) 
 for the education of the poor ; and the number of 
 children was 998,431. The parochial and endowed 
 schools of Scotland were (exclusively of Sunday 
 
SCHWAEZBUEG. 
 
 595 
 
 SCOTLAND. 
 
 schools) 4836; and the number of children, 181,467. 
 The schools in Wales were 841, and the number of 
 children, 38,164; in Ireland, 13,327 schools, and 
 774,000 children. In 1851 there were 2310 schools 
 in connection with the Education Committee 
 actually inspected in England and Scotland. They 
 included : 17 13 church of England schools in 
 England and Wales; 282 protestant dissenting 
 schools in England and Wales ; 98 Eoman catholic 
 schools in Great Britain; and 217 presbyterian 
 schools in Scotland, whereof 91 were of the free 
 church : the whole affording accommodation for 
 299,425 scholars ; see Education, Design, &c. 
 
 SCHWAEZBUEG (the seat of two princi- 
 palities, N. Germany). Gunther, count of Schwarz- 
 burg, whose family dates from the 12th century, was 
 elected emperor of Germany in 1349. From the 
 two sons of count Gunther, who died 1552, sprang 
 the present rulers. 
 
 SCHWARZBURG-RUDOLSTADT 
 
 (a principality, 1697 ; population (1871), 75,523). 
 1807. Albert (28 June), born 30 April, 1798 ; died 26 Nov. 
 
 1869. 
 1869. George, born 23 Nov. 1838. 
 
 SCHWARZBURG-SONDERSHAUSEN. 
 
 (principality, 1710 ; population (1871), 67,191.) 
 1835. Gunther (19 Aug.), born 24 Sept. 1801. 
 Heir : Charles, born 7 Aug. 1830. 
 
 SCHWEIDNITZ, Prussia, often besieged and 
 taken in the thirty years' and seven years' wars. 
 Near it Frederick II. defeated the Austrians under 
 marshal Daun, 16 May, 1762. 
 
 SCHWEIZ, a Swiss canton, which with Uri 
 and Unterwalden renounced subjection to Austria, 
 7 Nov. 1307. The name Switzerland, for all the 
 country, dates from about 1440. 
 
 SCIENCE, see Education, Chemistry, and 
 other branches. 
 
 SCIENTIFIC BELIEF FUND. In 1859, 
 several fellows of the Eoyal Society (Messrs. 
 Gassiqt, Wheatstone, Miller, Tyndall, and others) 
 commenced the collection of subscriptions with the 
 view of establishing a permanent fund to be ex- 
 pended in aiding necessitous men of science and 
 their families, in imitation of the "Literary Fund." 
 In the spring of i860, 3365Z. had been subscribed ; 
 in Jan. 1865, 5320^. ; in 1867, 6052^. ; and many 
 cases had been relieved. 
 
 SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES' HOUSE 
 COMPANY proposed March, 1873. 
 
 SCIENTIFIC SURVEYING EXPEDI- 
 TION, see Deep Sea. 
 
 SCILLY ISLES (the Cassiterides or Tin- 
 islands) . They held commerce with the Phoenicians ; 
 and are mentioned by Strabo. They were con- 
 quered by Athelstan, 936 ; and given to the monks. 
 They were granted by Elizabeth to the Godolphin 
 family, by whom they were fortified; the works 
 were strengthened in 1649 by the royalists, from 
 whom they were taken by Blake, 165 1 . Mr. Augus- 
 tus Smith, the owner, and termed the king of these 
 isles, after a long paternal rule, died in Aug. 1872. 
 A British squadron under sir Cloudesley Shovel were 
 wrecked here, when returning from an expedition 
 against Toulon ; he mistook rocks for land, and struck 
 upon them. His ship, the Association, in which were 
 persons of rank, and 800 brave men, went instantly to 
 the bottom. The Eagle, captain Hancock, and the 
 Romney and Firebrand, were also lost ; the rest of the 
 fleet escaped, 22 Oct. 1707. Sir Cloudesley's body was 
 conveyed to London, and buried in Westminster abbey, 
 where a monument was erected to his memory. 
 
 SCINDE, see Sinde. 
 
 SCIO MASSACEE, n April, 1822, see Chios. 
 
 SCLAVONIA, see Slavonia. 
 
 SCONE (near Perth). The Scotch coronation 
 chair was brought from Scone to Westminster abbey 
 by Edward I. in 1296. Here Charles II. was 
 crowned, 1 Jan. 165 1. 
 
 SCOTISTS. Those who adopted the doctrines 
 of John Duns Scotus (who died 8 Nov. 1308) 
 respecting the birth of the Virgin Mary, &c, 
 strongly opposed by the Thomists, disciples of St. 
 Thomas Aquinas, who died 7 March, 1274. 
 
 SCOTLAND, see Caledonia. At the death of 
 queen Elizabeth, 24 March, 1603, James VI. of 
 Scotland, as the most immediate heir, was called to 
 the throne of England, and proclaimed king of Great 
 Britain, 24 Oct. 1604. Each country had a separate 
 parliament till 1707, when the kingdoms were 
 united ; see England. 
 Camelon, capital of the Pi cts, taken by Kenneth II. and 
 
 every living creature put to the sword or destroyed, 843 
 The Norwegians occupy Caithness 9th Gentury. 
 
 Scotland ravaged by Athelstan 933 
 
 The feudal system established by Malcolm II. . . 1004 
 
 Invaded by Canute 1031 
 
 Divided into baronies 1032 
 
 The Danes driven out of Scotland .... 1040 
 Duncan I. is murdered by his kinsman Macbeth, by 
 
 whom the crown is seized ,, 
 
 Malcolm III., aided by Edward the Confessor, de- 
 feats the usurper at Dunsinane, 1054 ; Macbeth 
 
 killed by Macduff 1056 or 1057 
 
 The Saxon-English language introduced into Scot- 
 land by fugitives from England escaping from the 
 
 Normans 1080 
 
 Siege of Alnwick : Malcolm III. killed . . . 1093 
 Eeign of David I., a legislator .... 1124-53 
 Scotland invaded by Hacho, king of Norway, with 160 
 ships and 20,000 men ; the invaders are defeated by 
 Alexander III. , who now recovers the Western Isles 1263 
 Death of Margaret of Norway, heiress to the throne, 
 
 7 Oct. 1290 
 John Balliol and Bobert Bruce contend for the 
 throne, 1291 ; Edward I. of England, as umpire, 
 decides in favour of John .... Nov. 1292 
 John Balliol, king of Scotland, appears to a sum- 
 mons, and defends his own cause in Westminster 
 
 hall against the earl of Fife 1293 
 
 Edward, wishing to annex Scotland to England, 
 dethrones John, ravages the country, destroys 
 the muniments of Scottish history, and seizes the 
 prophetic stone (see Coronation) .... 1296 
 William Wallace defeats the English at Cambus 
 Kenneth, and expels them, 1297 ; is defeated at 
 Falkirk, 22 July, 1298 ; taken by the English, and 
 executed at Smithfield . . . .23 Aug. 1305 
 Robert Bruce, crowned, 1306 ; he defeats the Eng- 
 lish, 1307; and takes Inverness, 1313; defeats the 
 English at Bannockburn ... 24 June, 1314 
 Edward Balliol gains the throne for a little by his 
 victory at Dupplin, n Aug. 1332 ; and by the 
 victory at Halidon-hill . . . -19 July, 1333 
 David II. taken prisoner at the battle of Durham 
 
 (and detained in captivity n years) . . . . 1346 
 Battle of Chevy Chase, between Hotspur Percy and 
 
 earl Douglas (see Otterbnrn) ... 10 Aug. 1388 
 Murder of duke of Bothsay, heir of Bobert III. , by 
 
 starvation 3 April, 1401 
 
 The Scots defeated at Homildon-hill . 14 Sept. 1402 
 James I. captured by the English near Flamborough 
 
 head on his passage to France . . 30 March, 1406 
 St. Andrews university founded by bishop William 
 
 Turnbull 145 x 
 
 University of Aberdeen founded 1494 . 
 
 James IV. invades England, slain at Flodden Field, 
 
 and his army cut to pieces ... 9 Sept. 1513 
 James V. banishes the Douglases . . . . 1528 
 He establishes the court of session .... 1532 
 Order of St. Andrew, or the Thistle, is revived . 1540 
 Mary, the queen of Scots, born 7 Dec. ; succeeds 
 her father, James V., who dies . . 14 Dec. 
 
 The regent, cardinal Beaton, persecutes the re- 
 formers, 1539, 1546 ; he is assassinated at St. 
 Andrew's 29 May, 1546 
 
 q a 2 
 
SCOTLAND. 
 
 596 
 
 SCOTLAND. 
 
 The Scots defeated at Pinkie . . 10 Sept. 1547 
 
 Mary marries the dauphin of France . April, 1558 
 Francis II. dies, leaving Mary a widow . Dec. 1560 
 The Reformation in Scotland, by John Knox, and 
 
 others, during the minority of Mary, between 1550& „ 
 Mary, after an absence of thirteen years, arrives at 
 
 Leith from France .... 21 Aug. 1561 
 
 Upon an inquisition, which was officially taken, by 
 order of queen Elizabeth, only 58 Scotsmen were 
 
 found in London. Stow 1562 
 
 Mary marries her cousin, Henry Stuart, lord Darn- 
 ley 29 July, 1565 
 
 David Rizzio, her confidential secretary, murdered 
 
 by Darnley in her presence . . 9 March, 1566 
 Lord Darnley blown up by gunpowder, in his house 
 
 (Mary accused of conniving at his death), 10 Feb. 1567 
 James Hepburn, earl of Bothwell, carries off the 
 
 queen, who marries him . . . 15 May, ,, 
 Mary made prisoner at Carberry hill by her nobles, 
 
 15 June, „ 
 Resigns her crown to her infant son James VI. ; 
 
 the earl of Murray appointed regent . 22 July, ,, 
 Mary escapes from prison, and collects a large 
 army, which is defeated by the regent Murray, at 
 the battle of Langside, 13 May ; enters England, 
 
 16 May, 1568 
 The regent Murray murdered ... 23 Jan. 1570 
 The earl of Lennox appointed regent . 12 July, ,, 
 The earl of Lennox murdered, 4 Sept. ; the earl of 
 
 Mar chosen regent Sept. 1571 
 
 Death of the reformer John Knox . 24 Nov. 1572 
 
 [His funeral in Edinburgh is attended by most of 
 the nobility, and by the regent Morton, who ex- 
 claims, " There lies he who never feared the face 
 of man ! "] 
 The university of Edinburgh founded . . . . 1582 
 The Raid of Ruthven (see Ruthven) . . . . ,, 
 Mary having taken refuge in England, 16 May, 1568, 
 is after a long captivity, beheaded at Fotheringay 
 castle (see Fotheringay) . . . . 8 Feb. 1587 
 Gowrie's conspiracy fails .... 5 Aug. 1600 
 Union of the crown of Scotland with that of Eng- 
 land by the accession of James VI. . 24 March, 1603 
 James proclaimed " king of Great Britain, France, 
 
 and Ireland " 24 Oct. 1604 
 
 Charles I. attempts in vain to introduce the Eng- 
 lish liturgy ; tumult at Edinburgh . 23 July, 1637 
 Solemn league and covenant subscribed 1 March, 1638 
 
 A Scotch army enters England 1640 
 
 Charles joins the Scotch army, 1646 ; betrayed into 
 
 the hands of the English parliament . 30 Jan. 1647 
 Marquess of Montrose defeated at Philiphaugh, 13 
 
 Sept. 1645 ; executed at Edinburgh . 21 May, 1650 
 
 Charles II. crowned at Scone, 1 Jan. ; defeated at 
 
 Worcester 22 Aug. 1651 
 
 Scotland united to the English commonwealth by 
 
 Oliver Cromwell Sept. ,, 
 
 Charles II. revives episcopacy in Scotland . . 1661 
 
 Argyll beheaded 27 May, ,, 
 
 Scottish hospital, London, incorporated . . . 1665 
 The Covenanters defeated on the Pentland hills . 1666 
 Abp. Sharpe murdered near St. Andrew's, by John 
 
 Balfour of Burley and others . . 3 May, 1679 
 
 The Covenanters defeat Claverhouse nt Drnmelog 
 
 1 June ; are routed at Bothwell bridge, 22 June, ., 
 Resolution of a convention in favour of William III. ; 
 
 re-establishment of presbytery . . 14 March, 1689 
 Insurrection of Claverhouse : killed at Killiecrankie, 
 
 27 July, ,, 
 Massacre of the Macdonalds at Gleneoe 13 Feb. 1692 
 
 Legislative union of Scotland with England, 1 May, 1707 
 Insurrection under the earl of Mar in favour of the 
 
 son of James II. (see Pretender) .... 1715 
 The rebels defeated at Preston, 12 Nov. ; and at 
 
 Dumblane (or Sheriffmuir) . . . 13 Nov. ,, 
 Captain Porteous killed by a mob in Edinburgh (see 
 
 Porteous) 7 Sept. 1736 
 
 Prince Charles Edward proclaimed at Perth, 4 
 Sept. ; at Edinburgh, 16 Sept. ; with the High- 
 landers defeats sir John Cope at Prestonpans, 21 
 Sept. ; takes Carlisle, 15 Xov. ; arrives at Man- 
 Chester, 28 Nov. ; at Derby, 4 Dec. ; retreats to 
 
 Glasgow 25 Dec. 1745 
 
 Defeats general Hawley at Falkirk, 17 Jan. ; is 
 
 totally defeated at Culloden . . 16 April, 1746 
 The Highland dress prohibited by parliament, 12 Aug. ,, 
 Lords Kilmarnock and Balmerino executed for high 
 treason on Tower-hill .... 18 Aug. ,, 
 
 Simon Fraser, lord Lovat, aged 80, executed, 
 
 9 April, 1747 
 Heritable jurisdictions abolished by parliament . „ 
 Thomson, the poet, dies . . . -27 Aug. 1748 
 The Old Pretender, "Chevalier de St. George," dies 
 
 at Rome 30 Dec. 1765 
 
 Prince Charles Edward Louis Casimir, the Young 
 
 Pretender, dies at Rome . . . .31 Jan. 1788 
 Death of Robert Burns .... 21 July. 1796 
 Scott's " Lay of the Last Minstrel " published . 1806 
 
 Cardinal Henry duke of York (last of the Stuarts) 
 
 dies 31 Aug. 1807 
 
 The Court of Session is formed into two divisions . ,, 
 Royal Caledonian asylum, London, fouuded . . 1813 
 
 Scott's " Waverley " published 1814 
 
 The establishment of a jury court under a lord 
 
 chief commissioner 1815 
 
 Visit of George IV. to Scotland . . . Oct. 1822 
 
 Sir Walter Scott dies 21 Sept. 1832 
 
 Seven ministers of the presbytery of Strathbogie are 
 deposed by the General Assembly to the Church of 
 Scotland for obeying the civil in preference to the 
 ecclesiastical law. (Their deposition was formally 
 protested against by the minority of ministers ami 
 elders, headed by Dr. Cook) ... 28 May, 1841 
 The General Assembly condemn patronage as a 
 grievance to the cause of true religion that ought 
 
 to be abolished 23 May, 1842 
 
 Visit of the queen, prince Albert, and the court; 
 
 she lauded at Granton pier . . . 1-13 Sept. ,, 
 Secession of the non-intrusion ministers of the 
 church of Scotland (about 400) at the General As- 
 sembly (see Free Church) . . . 18 May, 1843 
 
 Death of Jeffrey 26 Jan. 1850 
 
 National Association for vindication of Scottish 
 
 rights formed Nov. 1853 
 
 Act for better government of the universities passed, 
 
 Aug. 1858 
 Salmon Fisheries act passed . . . July, 1864 
 
 The queen's visit to the borders, Kelso. Melrose, &c. 
 
 21-24 Aug. 1867 
 Scotch reform bill introduced into the commons, 
 
 17 Feb. passed 13 July, 1868 
 
 Procedure in court of session and justiciary and 
 
 other courts amended Jnly, ,, 
 
 Scotch Reform act passed . . . .13 July, ,, 
 Land Registers and Titles to Land act passed, July, 
 Commission appointed to inquire into the adminis- 
 tration of justice Oct. ,, 
 
 Municipal elections amendment act passed, 9 Aug. 1870 
 Act to unite counties for sheriffs' duties passed, 
 
 9 Aug. „ 
 Robert Chambers, author and publisher, died aged 69 
 
 17 March, 1871 
 Scott centenary celebrated in Edinburgh, Ac. (Scott 
 
 born 15 Aug. 1771) 9 Aug. ,, 
 
 See Edinburgh. 
 
 KINGS OF SCOTLAND. 
 
 BEFORE CHRIST. 
 
 [The early accounts of the kings are in a great measure 
 fabulous. The series of kings is carried as far back as 
 Alexander the Great.] 
 
 330. Fergus I. : ruled 25 years ; lost in the Irish Sea. 
 [Fergus, a brave prince, came from Ireland with an army 
 of Scots, and was chosen king. Having defeated the 
 Britons and slain their kingCoilus, the kingdom of the 
 Scots was entailed upon his posterity for ever. He 
 went to Ireland, and, having settled his affairs there, 
 was drowned on his return, launching from the shore, 
 near the harbour, called Carrick-Fergus to this day, 
 3699 A.M. Anderson.] 
 
 AFTER CHRIST. 
 
 357. Eugenius I. , son of Fineormachns ; slain in battle 
 by Maximus, the Roman general, and the Picts. 
 *»* Witli this battle ended the kingdom of the Scots, 
 after having existed from the coronation of 
 Fergus I., a period of 706 years ; the royal family 
 tie. 1 to Denmark. J',n,;r ; Buchanan. 
 [Interregnum of 27 years.] 
 
 404. Fergus II. (I.) great grandson of Eugenius, and 
 40th king ; slain in battle with the. Romans. 
 
 420. Eugenius II. or Evcnus : reigned 31 years. 
 
 451. Dongardue or Domangard, brother: defeated and 
 
 drowned. 
 457. Constantine I., brother : assassinated. 
 479. Congallus I. nephew ; just and prudent. 
 
SCOTLAND. 
 
 597 
 
 SCRIPTURE KNOWLEDGE. 
 
 501. Goramis, brother ; murdered. Boece. Died while 
 Donald of Athol was conspiring to take his life. 
 Scott. 
 
 535. Eugenius III. nephew; "none excelled him in 
 justice. " 
 
 558. Congallus II. brother. 
 
 569. Kinnatellus, brother ; resigned for 
 
 570. Aidanus or Aldan, son of Goranus. 
 
 605. Kenneth, son of Congallus II. 
 
 606. Eugenius IV. son of Aidanus. 
 
 621. Ferchard or Ferquhard I. son ; confined for mis- 
 deeds to his palace, where he laid violent hands 
 
 upon himself. Scott. 
 632. Donald IV. brother ; drowned in Loch Tay. 
 646. Ferchard II. son of Ferchard I. ; "most execrable." 
 664. Malduinus, son of Donald IV. ; strangled by his wife 
 
 for his supposed infidelity, for which crime she 
 
 was immediately afterwards burnt. 
 684. Eugenius V. brother. 
 688. Eugenius VI. son of Ferchard II. 
 698. Amberkeletus, nephew ; fell by an arrow from an 
 
 unknown hand. 
 6gg. Eugenius VII. brother; some ruffians designing 
 
 the king's murder, entered his chamber, and, he 
 
 being absent, stabbed his queen, Spontana, to 
 
 death. Scott. 
 715. Mordachus, son of Amberkeletus. 
 730. Etfinus, son of Eugenius VII. 
 761. Eugenius VIII. son of Mordachus ; sensual and 
 
 tyrannous ; put to death by his nobles. 
 764. Fergus III. son of Etfinus; killed by his jealous 
 
 queen, who afterwards stabbed herself to escape 
 
 a death of torture. 
 767. Solvathius, son of Eugenius VIII. 
 787. Achaius : just and wise. 
 819. Congallus III. ; a peaceful reign. 
 S24. Dongal or Dougal, son of Solvathius ; drowned. 
 831. Alpine, son of Achaius; beheaded by the Picts. 
 834. Kenneth II. son ; surnamed Mac Alpine ; defeated 
 
 the Picts, slew their king, and united them and 
 
 the Scots under one sceptre, and became the first 
 
 sole monarch of all Scotland, 843. 
 854. Donald V. brother : dethroned ; committed suicide. 
 858. Constantine II. son of Kenneth II. ; taken in battle 
 
 by the Danes and beheaded. 
 874. Eth or Ethus, surnamed Lightfoot ; died of grief in 
 
 prison ; confined for sensuality and crime. 
 876. Gregory the Great ; brave and just. 
 893. Donald VI. son of Constantine II. ; excellent. 
 904. Constantine III. sou of Ethus ; became a monk, and 
 
 resigned in favour of 
 944. Malcolm I. son of Donald VI. ; murdered. 
 953. Indulfus or Gondulph ; killed by the Danes in an 
 
 ambuscade. 
 961. Duff or Duffus, son of Malcolm ; murdered by 
 
 Donald, the governor of Forres castle. 
 965. Cullen or Culenus, son of Indulphus ; avenged the 
 
 murder of his predecessor * assassinated. 
 970. Kenneth III. brother of Duffus ; murdered by 
 
 Fenella, the lady of Fettercairn. 
 
 994. Constantine IV. son of Cullen ; slain. 
 
 995. Grimus or the Grim, son of Duffus ; routed and 
 
 slain in battle by Malcolm, the rightful heir to 
 
 the crown, who succeeded. 
 1003. Malcolm II. son of Kenneth III. ; assassinated on 
 
 his way to Glamis ; the assassins in their flight 
 
 crossing a frozen lake were drowned. 
 1033. Duncan I. grandson ; assassinated by his cousin. 
 1039. Macbeth, usurper; slain byMaeduff, the thane of Fife. 
 * s * Historians so differ up to this reign, in the number 
 
 of the kings, the dates of succession, and the 
 
 circumstances narrated, that no account can be 
 
 taken as precisely accurate. 
 1057. Malcolm III. (Canmore), son of Duncan; killed 
 
 while besieging Alnwick castle. 
 
 1093. Donald VII. (Donald Bane), brother ; usurper ; fled 
 
 to the Hebrides. 
 
 1094. Duncan II. natural son of Malcolm ; murdered. 
 ,, Donald VII. again ; deposed. 
 
 1098. Edgar, son of Malcolm (Henry I. of England 
 
 married his sister Maud). 
 1 107. Alexander I. the Fierce, brother. 
 1124. David I. brother; married Matilda, daughter of 
 
 Waltheof, earl of Northumberland. 
 1 153. Malcolm. IV. grandson. 
 1 165. William the Lion ; brother. 
 1214. Alexander II. son ; married Joan, daughter of John, 
 
 king of England. 
 
 1249. Alexander III. married Margaret, daughter of 
 Henry III. of England ; dislocated his neck, when 
 hunting near Kinghorn. 
 
 1285. Margaret, the "Maiden of Norway, "grand-daughter 
 of Alexander, "recognised by the states of Scot- 
 land, though a female, an infant, and a foreigner ; " 
 died on her passage to Scotland. 
 
 A competition for the vacant throne ; Edward I. of Eng- 
 land decides in favour of 
 
 1292. John Balliol, who afterwards surrendered his 
 crown, and died in exile. 
 [Interregnum.] 
 
 1306. Robert (Bruce) I. a great prince. 
 
 1329. David (Brace) II. son; Edward Balliol disputed 
 the throne with him. 
 
 1332. David II. again; a prisoner in England, 1346-57 
 (Edward Balliol king, 1332-4.) 
 
 1371. Robert (Stuart) II. nephew ; died 19 April. 
 
 1390. Robert (John Stuart) III. son; died 4 April. 
 
 1406. James I. second son ; imprisoned 18 years in Eng- 
 land ; set at liberty in 1423 ; conspired against, 
 and murdered at Perth, 20 Feb., 
 
 1437. James II. son; killed at the siege of Roxburgh 
 castle by a cannon bursting, 3 Aug., 
 
 1460. James III. son ; killed in a revolt of his subjects at 
 Baunockburn-field, n June, 
 
 1488. James IV. son ; married Margaret Tudor, daughter 
 of Henry VII. of England ; killed at the battle of 
 Flodden, 9 Sept. 
 
 1513. James V. son ; succeeded when little more than a 
 year old ; a sovereign possessing many virtues ; 
 died 14 Dec, 
 
 1542. Mary, daughter; born, 7 Dec. 1542; succeeded' 
 14 Dee. ; see Annals, above. 
 
 1567. James VI. son ; succeeded to the throne of England, 
 and the kingdoms were united, 1603. 
 See England. 
 
 SCOTT CENTENARY, celebrated in London 
 and throughout Scotland, 9 Aug. 187 1. Sir Walter 
 Scott was bom 15 Aug. 1771. 
 
 SCREW, was known to the Greeks. The 
 pumping-screw of Archimedes, or screw-cylinder 
 for raising water, invented about 236 B.C., is still 
 in use. It is stated that with the assistance of the 
 screw, one man can press down or raise up as much 
 as 150 men can do without it. — The Screw- Pro- 
 peller consists of two or more twisted blades, 
 like the vanes of a windmill, set on an axis, run- 
 ning parallel with the keel of a vessel, and revolving 
 beneath the water at the stern. It is driven by 
 a steam-engine. The principle was shown by 
 Hooke in 1681, and since by Du Quet, Bernouilli, 
 and others. Patents for propellers were taken out 
 by Joseph Bramah in 1784; by fin. Lyttelton in 
 1794; and by Edward Shorter in 1799. But these 
 led to no useful result. In 1836 patents were ob- 
 tained by Francis Pettit Smith (knighted July, 
 1871) and captain John Ericsson, and to them the 
 successful application of the screw-propeller must 
 be attributed. The first vessels with the screw were 
 the Archimedes, built on the Thames in 1838 by 
 H. Wimshurst, and the Rattler, built in the United 
 States (1844), and tried in England in 1845. Double 
 screw-propellers are now employed. 
 
 SCRLBLERUS CLUB, a literary club, 
 founded by Swift in 17 14, included amongst its 
 members, Bolingbroke, Pope, Gay, and Arbuthnot. 
 
 SCRIPTURE KNOWLEDGE INSTI- 
 TUTION, Bristol, was founded by George Muller, 
 a Prussian (born in 1805). He came to Bristol as a 
 minister of the "Brethren" in 1832, and on 5 March, 
 1834, founded this institution, the objects of which 
 are: 1. Assistance of schools giving instruction on 
 scriptural principles ; 2 . Circulation of the scrip- 
 tures; 3. Assistance to missions ; 4. Circulation of 
 tracts ; 5. Provision for destitute orphans, see 
 Orphan-houses. Without application, Mr. Muller, 
 since he began, up to 1868, had received by volun- 
 tary contribution, 430,000^. 
 
SCEOFULA. 
 
 598 
 
 SEBASTIAN. 
 
 SCEOFULA, see Eing's-evil. 
 
 SCULLABOGUE, see Massacres, 1798. 
 
 SCULPTUEE is said to have begun with the 
 Egyptians. Bezaleel and Aholiab built the taber- 
 nacle in the wilderness, and made all the vessels and 
 ornaments, 1491 b.c, and their skill is recorded as 
 the gift of God. JExocl. xxxi. 3. Dipoenus and 
 Scylks, statuaries at Crete, established a school at 
 Sieyon. Pliny speaks of them as being the first 
 who sculptured marble and polished it ; all statues 
 before their time being of wood, 568 B.C. Alex- 
 ander gave Lysippus the sole right of making his 
 statues, 326 B.C. He left no less than 600 pieces, 
 some of which were so highly valued in the age of 
 Augustus, that they sold for their weight in gold. 
 Sculpture did not flourish among the Romans, and 
 in the middle ages became generally degraded. 
 With the revival of painting, it revived also ; and 
 Donato di Bardi, bom at Florence, a.d. 1383, was 
 the earliest professor among the moderns. An in- 
 stitute of sculptors was established in 1861. 
 
 EMINENT SCULPTORS. 
 
 Pheidon flourished B.C. 869 
 
 Myron 480 
 
 Phidias (the greatest) 442 
 
 Praxiteles 363 
 
 Lysippus 32S 
 
 Chares 288 
 
 Michael Angelo Buonarotti . . . a.d. 1474-1564 
 
 Benvenuto Cellini 1500-1570 
 
 Giovanni L. Bernini 1598-1680 
 
 Louis Roubiliac (statue of sir I. Newton) . . died 1762 
 
 John Bacon 1740- 1799 
 
 Thomas Banks 1735-1805 
 
 Antonio Canova 1757-1822 
 
 John Flaxman 1 754-1826 
 
 Francis Chan trey 1781-1841 
 
 Albert Thorwaldsen 1770-1844 
 
 Sir Richard Westmacott 1775-1856 
 
 Christian Rauch 1777-1857 
 
 John Thomas 1813-1862 
 
 Wm. Behnes 1864 
 
 C. Kiss 1802-1865 
 
 John Gibson 1791-1866 
 
 SC UTAGE or ESCUAGE. The service of the 
 shield (scutum) is either uncertain or certain. 
 Escuage uncertain is where the tenant by his tenure 
 is bound to follow his lord ; and is called Castleward, 
 where the tenant is bound to defend a castle. 
 Escuage certain is where the tenant is set at a 
 certain sum of money to be paid in lieu of such un- 
 certain services. The first tax levied in England to 
 pay an army, 5 Hen. II. 1159. Coivel. 
 
 SCTJTAEI, Asiatic Turkey, opposite Constanti- 
 nople, of which it is a suburb. It was anciently 
 called Chrgsopolis, golden city, in consequence, it 
 is said, of the Persians having established a treasury 
 here when they attempted the conquest of Greece. 
 Near here Constantine finally defeated Licinius, 323. 
 The hospital was occupied by the sick and wounded 
 of the Anglo-French army, in 1854-5, whose suffer- 
 ings were much alleviated by the kind exertions of 
 Miss Florence Nightingale and a band of nurses 
 under her, aided by a large fund of money (15,000/.) 
 subscribed by the public and placed in the care of 
 the proprietors of the Times newspaper ; see Times. 
 
 SCYTHIA, situate in the most northern parts 
 of Europe and Asia. The boundaries were unknown 
 to the ancients. The Scythians made several irrup- 
 tions upon the more southern provinces of Asia, 
 especially 624 bc, when they remained in posses- 
 sion of Asia Minor for twenty-eight years, and at 
 different periods extended their conquests in Europe, 
 penetrating as far as Egypt ; see Tartar*/. 
 
 SEA. Lieut. Maury first published his " Physi- 
 cal Geography of the Sea" in 1854, and other im- 
 portant works since ; he died Feb. 1873 ; see Beep 
 Sea. 
 
 SEA BIEDS' PEESEEYATION ACT, 
 passed 24 June, 1869. 
 
 SEA FIGHTS, see Naval Battles. 
 
 SEA FISHEEIES, see Fisheries. 
 
 SEALS or SlGXETS. Engraved gems were used 
 as such by the Egyptians, Jews, Assyrians, and 
 Greeks; see Exod. xxviii. 14. Ahab's seal was 
 used by Jezebel, 899 B.C. (1 Kings xxi. 8.) The 
 Eomans in the time of the Tarquins (about 600 B.C.) 
 had gemmed rings. They sealed rooms, granaries, 
 bags of money, &c. The German emperor, Frederick 
 I. (a.d. 1 152) had seals of gold, silver, and tin. Im- 
 pressions of the seals of Saxon kings are extant ; 
 and the English great seal is attributed to Edward 
 the Confessor (1041-66). "A seal with armorial 
 bearings before the nth century, is certainly false." 
 Fosbroke. The most ancient English seal with arms 
 on it is said to be that of Eichard I. or John. White 
 and coloured waxes were used. Our present sealing- 
 wax, containing shellac, did not come into general 
 use in Germany and England until about 1556. 
 Red wafers for seals came into use about 1624 ; but 
 were not used for public seals till the 18th century. 
 — For Sealed Letters, see Lettres de Cachet. 
 
 SEAMEN. In consequence of the great loss of 
 life by wrecks of merchant vessels, attributed to bad 
 ships and overloading, a commission of inquiry was 
 agreed to by parliament on the motion of Mr. S. 
 Plimsoll (who published " Our Seamen : an Ap- 
 peal"), 4 March, 1873. The duke of Edinburgh 
 was on the commission; the duke of Somerset, 
 chairman. Mr. Plimsoll has been censured for 
 exaggeration. 
 
 SEAS, Sovereignty of the. The claim 
 
 of England to rule the British seas is of very ancient 
 date. Arthur is said to have assumed it, and Alfred 
 afterwards supported this right. It was maintained 
 by Selden, and measures were taken by government 
 in consequence, 8 Chas. I. 1633. The Dutch, after 
 the death of Charles I., made some attempts to 
 obtain it, but were roughly treated by Blake and 
 other admirals. Russia and other powers of the 
 north armed to avoid search, 1 780; again, 1800; 
 see Armed Neutrality and Flag. The international 
 rule of the road at sea was settled in 1862 ; yet near 
 Great Britain alone there have been 13,000 collisions 
 in six years. Mr. Wm. Stirling Lacon proposes to 
 reduce the rules from 749 words to 144, for sim- 
 plicity and security. His form has been nine times 
 before parliament (1873). 
 
 SEBASTIAN, ST. (N. Spain), was taken by 
 the French, under the duke of Berwick, in 1 7 19. 
 It was besieged by the British and allied army under 
 Wellington. After a most heavy bombardment, by 
 which the whole town was laid nearly in ruins, it 
 was stormed by general Graham (afterwards lord 
 Lynedoch), anil taken 31 Aug. 1813. — On 5 May, 
 1836, the fortified works, through the centre of 
 which ran the high road to Hemani, were carried 
 by the English auxiliary legion under general 
 Evans, after very hard fighting. The British naval 
 squadron, oft' St. Sebastian, under lord John Hay, 
 lent very opportune aid to the victors in this con- 
 test. — A" vigorous assault was made on the lines of 
 general De Lacy Evans, at St. Sebastian, by the 
 Carlists, 1 Oct. 1836. Both parties fought with 
 bravery. The Carlists were repulsed, after suffer- 
 ing severely. The loss of the Anglo-Spanish force 
 
SEBASTOPOL, 
 
 599 
 
 SEDAN. 
 
 was 376 men and 37 officers, killed and wounded. 
 General De Lacy Evans was slightly wounded. 
 
 SEBASTOPOL or Sevastopol, a town and 
 
 once a naval arsenal, at S.W. point of the Crimea, 
 formerly the little village of Aktiar. The buildings 
 were commenced in 1784, by Catherine II. after the 
 conquest of the country. The town is built in the 
 shape of an amphitheatre on the rise of a large hill 
 flattened on its summit, according to a plan laid 
 down before 1794, which has been since adhered to. 
 The fortifications and harbour were constructed by 
 an English engineer, colonel Upton, and his sons, 
 since 1830. The population in 1834 was 15,000. 
 This place underwent eleven months' siege, by the 
 English and French in 1854 and 1855. Immediately 
 after the battle of the Alma, 20 Sept. 1854, the allied 
 army marched to Sebastopol, and took up its position 
 on the plateau between it and Balaklava, and the 
 grand attack and bombardment commenced 17 Oct. 
 1854, without success.* After many sanguinary 
 encounters by day and night, and repeated bombard- 
 ments, a grand assault was made on 8 Sept. 1855, 
 upon the Malakhoff tower and the Eedans, the most 
 important fortifications to the south of the town. 
 The French succeeded in capturing and retaining 
 the Malakhoff. The attacks of the English on the 
 great Eedan and of the French upon the little Eedan 
 were successful, but the assailants were compelled 
 to retire after a desperate struggle with great loss of 
 life. The French lost 1646 killed, of whom 5 were 
 generals, 24 superior and 116 inferior officers, 4500 
 wounded, and 1400 missing. The English lost 385 
 killed (29 being commissioned and 42 non-commis- 
 sioned officers), 1886 wounded, and 176 missing. 
 In the night the Eussians abandoned the southern 
 and principal part of the town and fortifications, 
 after destroying as much as possible, and crossed 
 to the northern forts. They also sank or burnt the 
 remainder of their fleet. The allies found a very 
 great amount of stores when they entered the place, 
 9 Sept. The works were utterly destroyed in April, 
 1856, and the town was restored to the Eussians in 
 July; see Russo- Turkish Wat. 
 
 SECEDEES; SECESSION CHUECH, 
 see Burghers. 
 
 SECONDABY OF LONDON, an ancient 
 office, resembling that of under-sheriff in counties. 
 The place was purchaseable till early in the present 
 century, when it was bought up by the corporation. 
 
 SECEET SOCIETIES, Assassins, Fenians, 
 Ribbonism, Vehmie Tribunal, Rosicrucians, &c. 
 
 SECEETAEIES of State. The earliest 
 
 authentic record of a secretary of state is in the 
 reign of Henry III., when John Maunsell is de- 
 scribed as " Secretarius Noster," 1253. Rymer. 
 Towards the close of Henry VIII.'s reign, two 
 secretaries were appointed ; and upon the union 
 with Scotland, Anne added a third as secretary for 
 
 * In consequence of the sufferings and disasters of the 
 army in the winter of 1854-5, the Sebastopol Inquiry 
 Committee was appointed, and the Aberdeen administra- 
 tion resigned, Feb. 1855. The committee sat from 
 1 Marcli to 15 May, lord Aberdeen being the last person 
 examined. Its report was presented 18 June. Mr. Roe- 
 buck, the chairman, moved on 17 July that the house 
 should pass a vote of severe reprehension on every mem- 
 ber of the Aberdeen administration. On 19 July his 
 motion was lost by a majority of 107 against it. In 1855 
 the government sent sir John M'Neill and col. Tulloch 
 to inquire into the state of the armies in the Crimea. 
 Their report was presented to parliament in Feb. 1856. 
 A commission was appointed to consider the statements 
 in the report (which were very unfavourable to many 
 officers), but the substance of the report was unshaken. 
 
 Scotch affairs ; this appointment was afterwards laid 
 aside ; but in the reign of George III. the number 
 was again increased to three, one for the American 
 department. In 1782 this last was abolished by act 
 of Parliament ; and the secretaries were appointed 
 for home, foreign, and colonial affairs. When there 
 were but two secretaries, one held the portefeuille 
 of the Northern department, comprising the Low 
 Countries, Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Poland, 
 Eussia, &c. ; the other, of the Southern department, 
 including France, Switzerland, Italy, Spain, Portu- 
 gal, and Turkey ; the affairs of Ireland belonging to 
 the elder secretary ; both secretaries then equally 
 directed the home affairs. Beatson. There are now 
 five secretaries — home, foreign, colonial, war, and 
 (in 1858) India, all in the cabinet. See Adminis- 
 trations, and separate articles, Liverpool, &c, to 
 Gladstone. 
 
 SECTS, EELIGIOUS, see under Worship, 
 and their respective titles. 
 
 SECULAE GAMES {Ludi Sceculares), very 
 ancient Eoman games, celebrated on important 
 occasions. Horace wrote his " Carmen Sseculare " 
 for their celebration in the reign of the emperor 
 Augustus (17). They took place again in the reign 
 of Claudius (47), of Domitian (88), and for the last 
 time, of Philip (248), believed to be 2000 years after 
 the foundation of the city. 
 
 SECUEITY from Violence Act, passed 
 
 in 1863, appointed whipping as part of the punish- 
 ment for attempts at garotting. 
 
 SEDAN, an ancient fortified city in the valley 
 of the Meuse, N.E. of France, the seat of a princi- 
 pality long held by the dukes of Bouillon. On 6 
 July, 1641, avictorv was gained at La Marfee, near 
 Sedan, by the count of Soissons and the troops of 
 Bouillon and other French princes, over the royal 
 army supporting Eichelieu ; but the count was slain 
 on 23 June, 1642. The duke was arrested in the 
 midst of his army, and was made to cede Sedan to 
 the crown. The protestant university was abolished 
 after the revocation of the edict of Nantes, 22 Oct. 
 1685. Around this place a series of desperate con- 
 flicts on 29, 30, and 31 Aug. between the French 
 army of the north, under marshal MacMahon (about 
 150,000 men), and the greater part of the three 
 German armies under the king and crown-prince of 
 Prussia and the crown-prince of Saxony (about 
 250,000 men) was brought to a close on 1 Sept. 1870. 
 
 The battle began with attacks on the French right and 
 left about 5 a.m., and was very severe at 2 p.m. At 4 
 p.m. the Germans remained masters of the field, and 
 the crown-prince of Prussia announced a complete 
 victory, the chief part of the French army retreating 
 into Sedan. 
 
 The emperor Napoleon was present during the battle, 
 and, it is said, stood at Iges, near Sedan, exposed for 
 four hours to the German grenades. The impossibility 
 of further resistance was then evident. The Germans 
 had contracted their circle close round Sedan ; their for- 
 midable artillery held all the heights, from which they 
 could at pleasure wholly destroy the town and the 
 army, and only 2000 men were in a condition to 
 respond to their commander's call, and to make a 
 supreme effort to break through the enemy with the 
 emperor and escape to Montmedy. 
 
 At first general de Wimpffen (called to the command 
 when MacMahon was wounded) indignantly rejected 
 the terms ottered by the victor, and the emperor had 
 a fruitless interview with count Bismarck to endeavour 
 to mitigate them. 
 
 On 2 Sept the emperor wrote in autograph to the king of 
 Prussia, " Mon frere, n'ayant pu mourir a la tete de 
 mes troupes, je depose mon epee au pied de votre 
 majeste. Napoleon." A capitulation of Sedan and 
 the whole army ther an was signed by generals Von 
 
SEDAN CHAIES. 
 
 600 
 
 SENATE. 
 
 Moltke and De Wimpffen at the chateau of Bellevue, 
 near Frenois, at 1130 a.m., and at 2 p.m. an interview 
 took place between the king and the emperor, who 
 was downcast but dignified. 
 
 The conflict was principally carried on by the artillery, 
 in which (according to the emperor) the Germans had 
 the advantage, not only in number (600 to 500), but 
 also in weight, range, and precision. The carnage was 
 awful, and the field the next day was a mass of shat- 
 tered bones, torn flesh, and coloured rags. 
 
 About 25,000 French prisoners were taken in the battle, 
 and 83,000 surrendered the next day, together with 
 70 mitrailleuses, 400 field-pieces, and 150 fortress guns. 
 About 14,000 French wounded were found lying in 
 the neighbourhood, and about 3000 escaped into 
 Belgium and laid down their arms. The great army 
 of the north had ceased to exist. Among the killed 
 was lieut.-col. Pemberton, a correspondent of the 
 Times, who had approached too near the conflict. 
 
 The French emperor and his suite arrived at Wilhelms- 
 hohe, a castle near Cassel appointed for his residence, 
 (formerly inhabited by his uncle Jerome, when king 
 of Westphalia), in the evening of 5 Sept. 
 
 On 1 Sept. the village of Bazeilles was stormed by the 
 Bavarians and burnt, it was said, because the inhabi- 
 tants fired on the ambulances ; many women and 
 children perished. The French denied the provocation. 
 The place had been previously twice bombarded and 
 stormed by the maddened combatants. 
 
 In a letter dated 12 May, 1872, the emperor Napoleon 
 took upon himself the whole responsibility of the 
 surrender of Sedan. 
 
 SEDAN CHAIES (so called from Sedan), 
 were first seen in Eugland in 1581. One used in 
 the reign of James L, by the duke of Buckingham, 
 caused great indignation, and the people exclaimed 
 that he was employing his fellow-creatures to do 
 the service of beasts. Sedan chairs came into 
 London in 1634, when sir Francis Duncomb ob- 
 tained the sole privilege to use, let, aud hire a 
 number of such covered chairs for fourteen years. 
 They came into very general use in 1649. 
 
 SEDGMOOR (Somersetshire), where the duke 
 of Monmouth (natural son of Charles II. by Lucy 
 Walters), who had risen in rebellion on the acces- 
 sion of James II., was completely defeated by the 
 royal army, 6 July, 1685. The duke was made a 
 prisoner in the disguise of a peasant, at the 
 bottom of a ditch, overcome with hunger and 
 fatigue. He was tried and beheaded on 15 July 
 following. 
 
 SEDITION. Sedition acts were passed in the 
 reign of George III. The proclamation against 
 seditious writings was published May, 1792. The 
 celebrated Sedition bill passed Dec. 1795. Sedi- 
 tious societies were Suppressed by act, June, 1797. 
 The Seditious Meetings and Assemblies' bill passed 
 31 March, 1817. In Ireland, during the Roman 
 Catholic and Repeal agitation, acts or proclamations 
 against sedition and seditious meetings were pub- 
 lished from time to time until 1848. 
 
 SEEDS. An act was passed to prevent the 
 adulteration of seeds (a common practice), 11 Aug. 
 1869. 
 
 SEEKERS, see Quakers. 
 
 SEGEDIN, or S/EGEDIN, Hungary. Here 
 vas concluded a treaty between Ladislaus IV. and 
 AmurathLL, 12 July, 1444. It was treacherously 
 annulled at the instigation of cardinal Julian, who 
 with Ladislaus perished in the fatal battle of Varna, 
 10 Nov. 1444. See Varna. 
 
 SEICENTO, see Italian, p. 368. 
 
 SEIDLICE (Poland), where a battle was fought 
 10 April, 1831, between the Poles and Russians. 
 The Poles obtained the victory after a bloody con- 
 
 flict, taking 4000 prisoners and several pieces of 
 cannon ; but this success was soon followed by fatal 
 reverses. 
 
 SEISMOMETER (from seismos, Greek for 
 earthquake), an apparatus for measuring the vio- 
 lence of the shocks. One is described by Mr. Robert 
 Mallet in his work on earthquakes, published in 
 
 1858. 
 
 SELA, see Petra. 
 
 SELECTION, Natural, see Species. 
 
 SELENIUM, a grayish- white elementary sub- 
 stance (chemically resembling sulphur), discovered 
 in the stone riolite by Berzelius, in 181 7. 
 
 SELEUCIA (Syria), made the capital of the 
 Syrian monarchy by its builder, Seleucus Nicator, 
 312 B.C. On the fall of the Seleucidce, it became a 
 republic, 65 B.C. It was taken by Trajan, a.d. 
 116; several times given up and retaken; subju- 
 gated by the Saracens, and united with Ctesiphon, 
 636. 
 
 SELEUCIDES, Era of the, dates from 
 
 the reign of Seleucus Nicator. It was used in Syria 
 for many years, and frequently by the Jews until 
 the 15th century, and by some Arabians. Opinions 
 vary as to its commencement. To reduce it to our 
 era (supposing it to begin 1 Sept. 312 B.C.), sub- 
 tract 311 years 4 months. 
 
 SELF-DENYING ORDINANCE, which 
 ordained that no member of parliament should hold 
 any civil or military office or command conferred by 
 either or both of the houses, or by authority derived 
 from them, after much discussion, was passed 3 
 April, 1645, D y tue influence of Cromwell, who thus 
 removed the carl of Essex and other Presbyterians 
 out of bis way. A somewhat similar ordinance was 
 adopted by the parliament at Melbourne in Aus- 
 tralia, in 1858. The name was given to an arrange- 
 ment made respecting British naval promotions and 
 retirements in 1870. 
 
 SELLASIA (Laconia). Here the Spartans 
 under Cleomenes were defeated by AntigouusOoson 
 and the Achacans, 221 B.C. 
 
 SELSEY, see Chic/tester. 
 
 SEMAPHORE, see Telegraphs. 
 
 SEMINARA (Naples). Near here Gonsalvo 
 de Cordova, the great captain, was defeated by 
 the French, in 1495; but defeated them, 21 April, 
 I503- 
 
 SEMINCAS, see Simancas. 
 
 SEMPACH (Switzerland). Here the Swiss 
 gained a great victory over Leopold, duke of 
 Austria, 9 July, 1386. The duke was slain, and 
 the liberty of their country established. The day 
 is still commemorated. 
 
 SEMPER EADEM ("Always the same"), 
 one of the mottoes of queen Elizabeth, was adopted 
 by queen Anne, 13 Lee. 1702. Many suspected 
 this motto to denote her Jacobitism, and it ceased 
 to be used after her reign. 
 
 SEMPERINGHAM, see Gilbertmes. 
 
 SENATE {Senatus). In the ancient republics 
 the government was divided between the senatus 
 (from scnis, old; in Greek, gerousia, from gerun, 
 old), an assembly of elders, and the popular 
 assembly (eo/ititia, Latin; ecclesia, Greek), the 
 king being merely the executive. The Roman 
 
SENEFFE. 
 
 601 
 
 SEEINGAPATAM. 
 
 senate, said to have originally been composed of 
 IOO members, was raised to 300 by Tarquinius 
 Priscus ; to about 600 by Sylla, about 81 B.C. ; and 
 to goo by Julius Cajsar. It was reformed and 
 reduced to 600 by Augustus ; and gradually lost its 
 power and dignity under the emperors. The mere 
 form existed in the reign of Justinian. A second 
 senate, formed at Constantinople by Constantine, 
 retained its office till the 9th century. S. P.Q.R. on 
 the Soman standard stood for "Senatus Populusque 
 Romanus," "the Roman senate and people." A 
 senatus consultum was a law enacted by the senate. 
 
 The French senate was created by the constitution of the 
 year 8, promulgated 24 Dec. 1799, to watch over the 
 administration of the laws. The number of senators 
 was raised gradually from 60 to 137. The senate was 
 replaced by the chamber of peers in 1814 ; re-estab- 
 lished by Napoleon III. 14 Jan. 1852 ; and abolished, 
 5 Sept. 1870. Its re-establishment was proposed in 1873. 
 
 SENEFFE (Belgium). Near here was fought 
 a severe but indecisive battle between the Dutch, 
 under the prince of Orange (afterwards our William 
 III.) » an( i the French, led by the great Conde, 11 
 Aug. 1674. 
 
 SENEGAL, French colonies on the river of 
 that name in Senegambia, "W. Africa, settled about 
 1626; several times taken by the British, but 
 recovered by the French, to whom they were finally 
 restored in 1814. 
 
 SENESCHAL, a high officer of the French 
 royal household. In the reign of Philip I. 1059, 
 the office was esteemed the highest place of trust. 
 
 SENLAC, see Hastings. 
 
 SENONES (see Gauls), defeated by Camillus, 
 367 B.C. They defeated Metellus the consul at 
 j\rretium, 284, but were almost exterminated by 
 Dolabella, 283. They invaded Greece in 279 ; were 
 defeated by Antigonus Gonatas, 278 ; and sued for 
 peace. 
 
 SENTINUM (central Italy). The site of a 
 great victory of the Romans over the Samnites and 
 Gauls, whose general, Gellius Egnatius, was slain, 
 
 295 B.C. 
 
 SEPHAEDIM, the name given to the descen- 
 dants of the highly civilised Jews of Spain and 
 Puitugal, who fled from the persecutions of the 
 Inquisition, 1492- 1505. The Jews interpret Sepha- 
 rad, in Obadiah 20, as Spain. 
 
 SEPOYS (a corruption of sipdhi, Hindostanee 
 for a soldier), the term applied to the native troops 
 in India. Under able "generals they greatly aided 
 in establishing British rule in India. For their 
 mutinies, see Vellore, 1806 ; Madras, 1809 ; and 
 India, 1857. 
 
 SEPTEMBEE, the seventh Roman month 
 reckoned from March (from septimus, seventh). It 
 became the ninth month when January and 
 February were added to the year by Numa ; 713 
 B.C. The Roman senate would have given this 
 month the name of Tiberius, but the emperor 
 opposed it ; the emperor Domitian gave it his own 
 name Germanicus ; the senate under Antoninus Pius 
 gave it that of Antoninus ; Commodus gave it his 
 surname, Herculeus ; and the emperor Tacitus his 
 own name, Tacitus. — " September 4 government," 
 see France, Sept. 1870. 
 
 SEPTEMBEIZEES. In the French revolu- 
 tion a dreadful massacre took place in Paris, 2-5 
 
 Sept. 1792. The prisons were broken open, and the 
 prisoners butchered, among them an ex-bishop, and 
 nearly 100 non-juring priests. Some accounts 
 state the number of persons slain at 1200, others at 
 4000. The agents in this slaughter were named 
 Septembrizers. 
 
 SEPTENNIAL PABLIAMENTS. Ed- 
 ward I. held but one parliament every two years. 
 In the 4th Edward III. it Avas enacted, "that a 
 parliament should be holden every year once." 
 This continued to be the statute-law till 16th 
 Charles I. 1641, when an act was passed for holding- 
 parliaments once in three years at least ; repealed 
 in 1664. The Triennial act was re-enacted in 1694. 
 Triennial parliaments thence continued till the 
 2 Geo. I. 1716, when, in consequence of the allega- 
 tion that " a popish faction were designing to renew 
 the rebellion in this kingdom, and the report of an 
 invasion from abroad," it was enacted that "the 
 then parliament thould continue for seven years." 
 This Septennial act, entitled "an act for enlarging 
 the continuance of parliaments" (1715 in the 
 statutes, 4to., given as I Geo. I. stat. 2, c. 38), was 
 passed 7 May, 1716; see Parliaments. Several 
 unsuccessful motions have been made for its repeal ; 
 one in May, 1837. 
 
 SEPTIMANIA, a Roman province, S. France ; 
 
 see Languedoc. 
 
 SEPTUAGESIMA SUNDAY, 9 Feb. 1873; 
 1 Feb. 1874; 24 Jan. 1875; see Quadragesima 
 Sunday, and Week. 
 
 SEPTUAGINT VEBSION of the Bible, 
 
 made from Hebrew into Greek, 277 B.C. Seventy- 
 two translators were shut up in thirty-six cells ; 
 each pair translated the whole ; and on subsequent 
 comparison the thirty-six copies did not vary by a 
 word or letter. Justin Martyr. St. Jerome affirms 
 that they translated only the Pentateuch ; others 
 say they translated the whole. Ptolemy Philadel- 
 phus gave the Jews about a million sterling for a 
 copy of the Old Testament, and seventy translators 
 half a million more for the translation. Joseplius. 
 Finished in seventy-two days. Hewlett. The above 
 statements are merely traditional; see Bible, and 
 Alexandrian Codex. 
 
 SEQUESTEATION of Benefices Act passed 
 13 July, 187 1. 
 
 SEEAPIS, TEMPLE OF (near Naples), was 
 exhumed in 1750. The investigations of Lyell and 
 Babbage into the history of the sinking and burying 
 of this temple were of great geological interest. 
 
 SEEFS, see Slavery (note), and Russia, 1861, 
 1863. 
 
 SEEINGAPATAM (S. India), the capital of 
 Hyder Ali, sovereign of Mysore (-which see) . The 
 battle of Seringapatam, called also the battle of 
 Arikera, in which the British defeated Tippoo Sahib, 
 was fought 15 May, 1 79 1. The redoubts were 
 stormed, and Tippoo was reduced by lord Com- 
 wallis, 6 Feb. 1792. After this capture, prelimin- 
 aries of peace were signed, and Tippoo agreed to 
 cede one half of Mysore, and to pay 33,000,000 of 
 rupees (about 3,300,000/. sterling) to England, and 
 to give up to lord Cornwallis his two eldest sons as 
 hostages. — In a new war the Madras army, under 
 general Harris, arrived before Seringapatam, c, 
 April, 1799 ; it was joined by the Bombay army 14 
 April ; and the place was stormed and carried by 
 major-general Baird, 4 May, same year. In this 
 engagement Tippoo was killed. See Mysore. 
 
SERJEANTS-AT-LAW. 
 
 602 
 
 SEVEN" SLEEPERS. 
 
 SERJEANTS-AT-LAW are pleaders from 
 among whom the judges are ordinarily chosen, and 
 who are called Serjeants of the coif. The judges 
 call them brothers ; see Coif. 
 
 SERPENTINE, see Hyde Park. 
 
 SERVANTS. An act levying a duty on male 
 servants was' passed in 1777, which was augmented 
 in 1 781, et seq. A tax on female servants, imposed 
 in 1785, was repealed in 1792. The tax on servants 
 yielded in 1830 about 250,000^. per annum ; in 1840 
 the revenue from it had fallen to 201,482^. ; in 1850 
 it produced about the same sum. The licence duty 
 for male servants is now 15s. each. The law respect- 
 ing servants was amended by the Master and Ser- 
 vants act passed in 1867. 
 
 SERVIA, a hereditary principality nominally 
 subject to Turkey, south of Hungary. The Servians 
 are of Slavonic origin. They embraced Christianity 
 about 640. The emperor Manuel subj ugated them in 
 I ISO; but they recovered their independence in 
 1 180, and were ruled by princes, generally named 
 Stephen, till their country was finally subdued by 
 the sultan Mahomet II. in 1459. Population in 
 1854, 985,000 ; 1870, 1,306,674. 
 
 A Servian rebellion quelled 1737 
 
 The Servians aid Austria by free companies . 1788-90 
 Again rebel, and capture Belgrade . ■ 1806 
 
 Kara George, aided by the Russians, establishes a 
 
 government 1807-11 
 
 The Turks break a treaty, and Kara George flees . 1814 
 Their governor Milosch rebels . . . March, 1815 
 Kara George returning, is executed . . . .1816 
 Milosch I. Obrenovitch recognised as hereditary 
 
 prince by the sultan .... 15 Aug. 1829 
 Milosch becoming despotic, made to abdicate, and 
 
 a new constitution established . 13 June, 1839 
 
 His son Michael also retires ; Alexander, son of 
 
 Kara George, chosen prince . . 14 Sept. 1842 
 
 Alexander becoming unpopular, made to abdicate ; 
 
 Alexander Milosch re-elected prince . 23 Dec. 1858 
 Plot against Milosch frustrated, 11 July; the 
 
 Servian assembly meets . . -13 July, i860 
 
 Milosch dies ; succeeded by his son Michael III. 
 
 Obrenovitch, (bom 4 Sept. 1825) . 26 Sept. i860 
 
 Rising movement to render Servia independent of 
 
 Turkey March, 1861 
 
 Disputes between the Servians and the Turkish 
 
 garrison at Belgrade, which lead to bloodshed ; 
 
 the city bombarded, 15 June ; submits 17 June ; 
 
 the Turkish pacha dismissed . . 19 June, 1862 
 
 A conference of the representatives of the great 
 
 powers at Constantinople, Aug. ; the Porte agrees 
 
 to liberal concessions to the Servians, which their 
 
 prince accepts 7 Oct. ,, 
 
 Servians demand withdrawal of Turkish garrisons 
 
 from Belgrade and other fortresses . 5 Oct. 1866 
 Which are evacuated, March ; prince Michael, at 
 
 Constantinople, thanks the sultan 30 March, 1867 
 
 Prince Michael assassinated in Belgrade 10 June, 1868 
 Milan IV. nephew of prince Michael, chosen his 
 
 successor, 22 June ; 14 of the murderers were 
 
 executed, 28 July following. Constitution affirm- 
 ing the hereditary rights of the Obrenovitch 
 
 family 1869 
 
 Prince Karageorgevich accused of complicity with 
 
 murder ; imprisoned at Pesth, Jan. ; acquitted, 
 
 May, 1871 
 The regents surrender the government to prince 
 
 Milan at Belgrade .... 22 Aug. 1872 
 
 SERVILE WARS, insurrections of slaves 
 against their masters. Two were quelled in Sicily, 
 after much slaughter, 132, 99 B.C.; see Spartans." 
 
 SESSION COURTS in England were ap- 
 pointed to be held quarterly in 1413, and the times 
 for holding them regulated in 1831 ; see Quarter 
 Sessions, and Court of Session. The kirk session in 
 Scotland consists of the minister and elders of each 
 
 parish. They superintend religious worship and 
 discipline, dispense the money collected for the 
 poor, &c. 
 
 SESTTJS, on the Thracian Chersonesus; see 
 Hellespont. Near Sestus was the western end of 
 Xerxes' bridge, across the Hellespont, 480 B.c 
 Sestus was retaken from the Persians by the Athe- 
 nians, 478, and held by them till 404, giving them 
 the command of the trade of the Euxine. 
 
 SETTLEMENT, Act of, for securing the 
 succession to the British throne, to the exclusion 
 of Roman catholics, was passed in 1689. This name 
 is also given to the statute by which the crown, 
 after the demise of William III. and queen Anne, 
 without issue, was limited to Sophia, electress of 
 Hanover, grand-daughter of James 1., and her heirs 
 being protestants, 1702. The Irish act of settle- 
 ment, passed in 1662, was repealed in 1689; see 
 Hanover. 
 
 SEVEN BISHOPS, see Bishops, 1688. 
 
 SEVEN BROTHERS, martyrs at Rome, 
 under Antoninus ; their feast is kept 10 July. 
 
 SEVEN CHURCHES of ASIA, to the 
 
 angels (ministers) of which the apostle John was 
 commanded to write the epistles contained in the 
 2nd and 3rd chapters of his Revelation, viz., Ephesus, 
 Smyrna, Pergamos, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, 
 and Laodicea, 96. 
 
 1. Ephesus (which see). Paul founded the church here, 
 57. In 59, he was in great danger from a tumult created 
 by Demetrius ; to the elders of this church he delivered 
 his warning address, 60 (Acts xix. xx.). Ephesus was 
 in a ruinous state even in the time of Justinian (527), 
 and still remains so. 
 
 2. Smyrna. An ancient Greek city, claiming to be the 
 birth-place of Homer ; was destroyed by the Lydians ; 
 about 627 B.C. rebuilt by Antigonus and Lysimachus. 
 Its first bishop, Polycarp, was martyred here about 
 169. It has been frequently captured. It was sacked 
 by Tamerlane in 1402 ; and finally taken by the Turks, 
 1424. It is now the chief city of Asia Minor, and the 
 seat of the Levant trade. 
 
 3. Pergamos. Capital of the kingdom of the same name, 
 founded by Philetserus, whom Lysimachus, one of 
 Alexander's generals, had made governor, 283 B.C. He 
 was succeeded by Eumenes I., 263 : Attains (who took 
 the title of king), 241 ; Eumenes II. (who collected a 
 great library), 197; Attains IL, 159; Attains HI., 138. 
 He bequeathed his kingdom to the Romans, 133. It 
 revolted, was subdued, and made the Roman province, 
 Asia. Pergamos is still an important place, called 
 Bergamo. Parchment is said to have been invented 
 here. 
 
 4. Thyatira. Now a mean town of 2000 houses, called 
 Ak-hissar, "White Castle." 
 
 5. Sardis. Formerly the capital of Lydia, the kingdom 
 of Croesus (560 B.C.) ; taken by Cyrus, 548 ; burnt by the 
 Greeks, 499 ; it flourished under the Roman empire ; 
 was taken by the Turks ; and destroyed by Tamerlane 
 about 1462 ; it is now a miserable village, named Sart. 
 
 6. Philadelphia was built by Attalus (III.) Philadelphia, 
 kingof Pergamos(i59-i38 B.C.); was taken by Bajazet I., 
 a.d. 1390. It is now called Allah Shehr, "The city of 
 God," and is a miserable town of 3000 houses. 
 
 7. Laodicea. In Phrygia, near Lydia ; has suffered much 
 from earthquakes. It is now a deserted place, called 
 Eske-hissar, "The old castle." 
 
 SEVEN DAYS' WAR, see Army, 1871. 
 
 SEVEN-SHILLING PIECES in gold were 
 authorised to be issued 29 Nov. 1797. 
 
 SEVEN SLEEPERS. According to an early 
 legend seven youths, in 251, commanded to worship 
 a statue set up in Ephesus by the emperor Decius, 
 refused, and tied to a cavern in the mountain, where 
 they were enclosed, and slept, according to Durandus, 
 
SEVEN WEEKS' WAR. 
 
 603 
 
 SHAKSPEAEE'S PLAYS. 
 
 for 300 years. Other writers give shorter geriods, 
 and various accounts of the incidents which accom- 
 panied the awakening. A festival in their honour 
 is kept by the Roman church on 27 July. 
 
 SEVEN WEEKS' WAR, see Prussia, 1866. 
 
 SEVEN WONDEES, see Wonders. 
 
 SEVEN YEARS' WAR, the conflict main- 
 tained by Frederick II. of Prussia against Austria, 
 Russia, and France, from 1756 to 1763; see Battles. 
 He gained Silesia ; see Hubertsburg . 
 
 SEVENTH-DAY BAPTISTS, see article 
 Sabbatarians, &c. 
 
 SEVERNDROOG, see Savandroog. 
 
 SEVERUS'S WALL, see Roman Walls. 
 
 SEVILLE (S.W. Spain), the Hispalis of the 
 Phoenicians, and the Julia of the Romans, was the 
 capital until Philip II. finally established his court 
 at Madrid, 1563. It opened its gates to the Saracens 
 in 712, and was taken from them by the Christians in 
 1247, after an obstinate siege. The peace of Seville 
 between England, France, and Spain, and also a 
 defensive alliance to which Holland acceded, signed 
 9 Nov. 1729. In the peninsular war, Seville sur- 
 rendered to the French, 1 Feb. 1810; and was taken 
 by assault by .the British and Spaniards, after the 
 battle of Salamanca, 27 Aug. 1812. It was besieged 
 but not taken by Espartero, July, 1843. 
 
 SEVRES, see Porcelain. 
 
 SEWERS, see Cloaca Maxima. An act was 
 passed in 1847 enforcing the conveyance of the 
 sewage of houses in London into the public sewers. 
 The commissioners of sewers in London were super- 
 seded by the metropolitan commissioners of sewers, 
 nominated by the government. They abolished the 
 large brick sewers, introducing pipe drains, and 
 turned the contents of 30,000 cesspools into the 
 river Thames. The necessity for purifying tbe de- 
 filed river led to the construction of a new system 
 of drainage, under the superintendence of the 
 Metropolitan Board of Works {which see). The 
 main drainage (the plan of Mr. J. W. Bazalgette) 
 consists of the Northern High-level, Middle-level, 
 and Low-level, and Southern High-level and Low- 
 level. On 14 March, 1865, the works were said to 
 be completed, except the low-level sewer on the 
 north side, which was waiting for the completion 
 of the Thames embankment, &c. On 4 April, 1865, 
 the prince of Wales started the engines which com- 
 menced lifting the waters of the southern outfall, at 
 Crossness Point, near Erith.* Estimated total cost, 
 4,000,000^. See Carbolic Acid. 
 
 SEWING; MACHINE. The first really 
 practical sewing-machine was the invention of 
 Elias Howe, an American mechanic, of Cambridge, 
 in Massachusetts, about 1841, who uieuat-brooklyn, 
 2 Oct. 1867, aged 47. It is now known under an 
 improved form as Thomas's shuttle machine, by 
 whom it was introduced into England in 1846. 
 Many improvements have been since made. 
 
 * The utilisation of disinfected sewage as manure is now 
 much advocated. Great success is said to have been 
 attained at Edinburgh, Carlisle, Croydon, and other 
 places. Much hot controversy has arisen respecting this 
 disposal of the London sewage. On 15 Nov. 1864, the 
 Metropolitan board accepted a contract for its disposal 
 from Messrs. Hope and Napier. Sewage Utilisation acts 
 were passed in 1865 and 1867, and the Metropolitan 
 Sewage and Essex Reclamation acts were passed in June, 
 1865. The sewage farm, near Barking, Essex, was re- 
 ported to be flourishing in 1868 ; good grass and corn 
 crops raised. 
 
 SEXAGESIMA SUNDAY, see Quadra- 
 gesima Sunday, and Week. 
 
 SEXTANT, an instrument used like a quadrant, 
 containing sixty degrees, or the sixth part of a 
 circle, invented by Tycho Brahe, at Augsburg, in 
 1550. The Arabian astronomers are said to have 
 had a sextant of fifty-nine feet nine inches radius, 
 about 995. 
 
 SEYCHELLES ISLES (Lidian Ocean), 
 settled by the French about 1768 ; captured by the 
 British, 1794; ceded to them, 1815. 
 
 SHAFTESBURY'S ACT, Lord, 18 & 19 
 Yict. c. 86 (1855), relates to religious worship. 
 
 SHAKERS, an English sect, now chiefly found 
 in America, arose in the time of Charles L, and 
 derived its name from their voluntary convulsion. 
 It existed for a short time only, but was revived by 
 James Wardley in 1 747, and still more by Ann Lee 
 (or Standless), expelled quakers, about 1757. The 
 sect emigrated to America, May, 1772, and settled 
 near Albany, New York, 1774. They denounce 
 marriage as sinful, regard celibacy asi holy, oppose 
 war, disown baptism and the Lord's supper, and 
 use dancing as part of their worship. Marsden. 
 One of their elders, Fred. W. Evans, lectured in 
 London, Aug. 187 1. 
 
 SHAKSPEARE'S PLAYS. William Shaks- 
 peare was born at Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwick- 
 shire, 23 April, 1564, and died on his birthday, 1616. 
 The first collected edition of his works is dated 1623 
 [a facsimile of this edition was published, 1862-5] ; 
 the second, 1632 ;f the third, 1664 ; the fourth, 
 1685 ; all in folio. Critical editions of the text, 
 edited by Alexander Dyce, were published in 1857 
 and 1804-6; Boydell's edition, with numerous 
 plates, was published in nine vols., folio, in 1802. 
 Ayscough's Index to Shakspeare was published in 
 1790; Twiss's Index, in 1805, and Mrs. Cowden 
 Clarke's Concordance, 1847. 
 
 Shakspeare's Globe Theatre, London, built, 1594, 
 situated near the spot still called Bankside. Shak- 
 speare was himself part proprietor ; here some of his 
 plays were first produced, and he himself performed in 
 them. It was of a horse-shoe form, partly covered 
 with thatch. After it was licensed, the thatch took 
 fire, through the negligent discharge of a piece of 
 ordnance, and the whole building was consumed, 29 
 June, 1613. The house was crowded to excess, to 
 witness the play of Henry VIII., but the audience 
 escaped unhurt ; see Globe. 
 
 Shakspeare's Jubilee, projected by David Garrick, 
 was celebrated at Stratford, on- Avon, 6-8 Sept. 1769. 
 A similar festival was kept 23 April, 1836. The tercen- 
 tenary of Shakspeare's birth was celebrated, with 
 many festivities, at Stratford-on-Avon, 23-29 April, 
 1864. 
 
 Shakspeare's House. In 1847, a number of persons of 
 distinction interested themselves for the preservation 
 of the house in which Shakspeare was born, then 
 actually put up for sale : they held a meeting at the 
 Thatched-House tavern, London, 26 Aug. in that year, 
 and took measures for promoting a subscription set on 
 foot by the Shakspearian Club at Stratford-on-Avon ; 
 and a committee was appointed to carry out their 
 object. In the end Shakspeare's house was sold at 
 the Auction Mart in the city of London, where it was 
 
 t In 1849, Mr. J. P. Collier, editor of an edition of 
 Shakspeare, purchased a copy of the second folio, on 
 which was written in pencil, a number of corrections, 
 supposed to have been made soon after the time of pub- 
 lication. At first he thought little of these marks ; but 
 in 1853 he was induced to publish " Notes and Emenda- 
 tions" derived from this volume. Much controversy 
 ensued as to the authenticity of these corrections ; and 
 in 1859 it was generally agreed that they were of modern 
 date, and consequently of little value. 
 
SHAMROCK. 
 
 604 
 
 SHERIFF. 
 
 " knocked down " to the United Committee of London 
 and Stratford for the large sum of 3000?. 16 Sept. 1847. 
 In 1856, a learned oriental scholar, John Shakspeare 
 (no relation of the poet), gave 2500?. to purchase the 
 adjoining house, that it might be pulled down, in 
 order to ensure the poet's house from the risk of 
 fire. 
 
 Shakspeare Fund, established in Oct. 1861, to pur- 
 chase Shakspeare's garden, birth-plaee estate, and to 
 erect and endow a public library and museum at 
 Stratford-on-Avon. The catalogue of the library and 
 museum was published, Feb. 1868. 
 
 The Shakspeare Library, at Birmingham, was founded 
 in 1864, and formally opened, 23 April, 1868. 
 
 Shakspeare Forgeries, see Ireland. 
 
 SHAMROCK. It is said that the shamrock 
 used by the Irish was introduced by Patrick 
 M 'Alpine, since called St. Patrick, as a simile of the 
 Trinity, about 432. 
 
 SHANGHAE, or SHANGHAI (China), 
 captured by the British, 19 June, 1842 ; by the Tae- 
 ping rebels, 7 Sept. 1853 ; retaken by the imperial- 
 ists, 1855. The rebels were defeated near Shanghae 
 by the English and French, allies of the emperor, 1 
 March, 1862 ; see China. 
 
 SHARPSBURG (Maryland), see Antietam. 
 
 SHAWLS, of oriental origin, were introduced 
 into Paris after the return of Napoleon Bonaparte 
 from Egypt, 1801. The manufacture was intro- 
 duced by Barrow and "Watson, in 1 784, at Norwich. 
 It began at Paisley and Edinburgh about 1 805. 
 lire. 
 
 SHEEP were exported from England to Spain, 
 and, the breed being thereby improved, produced 
 the fine Spanish wool, which proved detrimental to 
 our woollen manufacture, 1467. Anderson. Their 
 exportation was prohibited on pain of fine and im- 
 prisonment, 1522. The number of sheep in the 
 United Kingdom has been variously stated — by some 
 at 43,000,000, by others at 49,000,000, and by more 
 at 60,000,000, in 1840. The number must have 
 progressively increased to the present time, particu- 
 larly as the unrestricted importation since 1846 
 vastly swells the amount. In 1851 there were 
 imported into England 201,859 sheep and lambs ; 
 in 1858, 184,482 ; in 1864, 496,243. In Aug. and 
 Sept. 1862, many sheep in Wiltshire died of small- 
 pox ; and on Sept. 1 1 government declared its 
 intention of enforcing the act for the prevention of 
 contagion. The evil soon abated. In April, 1866, 
 when the disease reappeared, the preventive regu- 
 lations were re-issued. In 1865, 914,170 sheep and 
 lambs were imported; in 1868,341,155; in 1871, 
 916,799. 
 
 SHEEPSHANKS' DONATIONS. On 2 
 
 Feb. 1857, Mr. John Sheepshanks, by a deed of gift, 
 presented to the nation his valuable collection of 
 paintings and drawings, valued at 6o,OOoZ. In ac- 
 cordance with the donor's directions, the pictures 
 were placed at the South Kensington Museum. The 
 collection is rich in the works of Mulread)", Land- 
 seer, and Leslie. He died 5 Oct. 1863.- — On 2 Dec. 
 1858, the trustees of his brother, the late rev. 
 Richard Sheepshanks, presented 10,000/. stock to 
 Trinity college, Cambridge, for the promotion of 
 the study of astronomy, meteorology, and mag- 
 netism. 
 
 SHEERNESS (N. Kent), a royal dockyard, 
 planned by Charles II. in 1663, was taken by 
 the Dutch, under De Kuyter, 9 June, 1667. Im- 
 proved since 1815 ; new fortifications still in pro- 
 gress. 
 
 SHEFFIELD, on the river Sheaf, West 
 Riding, Yorkshire ; renowned for cutlery, plated 
 goods, &c. Sheffield thwytles are mentioned by 
 Chaucer, in the time of Edward III. Sheffield in 
 the time of the Conqueror was obtained by lloger de 
 Buisli, and has since been held by the Lovetots, 
 Nevils, Talbots, and Howards. 
 
 St. Peter's church built temp. Henry I. 
 
 Hospital and almshouses erected by the earl of 
 
 Malmesbury 1616 
 
 Cutlers' company incorporated .... 1624 
 
 The castle (built in the 13th century) was taken by 
 the parliamentarians, and demolished . . . 1648 
 
 Cutlers' hall built 1726 
 
 Plate assay office established 1773 
 
 Made a borough by the Reform act .... 1832 
 
 Wesley college opened 1838 
 
 Sheffield and Manchester railway opened . . 1845 
 
 Athenaeum and Mechanics' Institution opened . . 1849 
 John A. Roebuck (grandson of Dr. Roebuck of 
 
 Sheffield), M. P. for Sheffield . . May, 1849-6S 
 Embankment of the Bradlield water reservoir broke 
 down, and flooded Sheffield and the country 12 or 
 14 miles round ; about 250 lives were lost ; many 
 buildings and much property destroyed ; esti- 
 mated loss, 327,000?. . . . 11 March, 1864 
 52,751?. collected for the sufferers by . 29 April, ,, 
 The Surrey music hall burnt . . 25 March, 1865 
 House of Fearnehough, a non-unionist saw -grinder, 
 blown up, attributed to unionists (no deaths), 
 
 8 Oct. 1S66 
 Great excitement ; meetings held ; subscriptions 
 made ; a Sheffield manufacturers' protection 
 society formed ; and rewards offered, 12 Oct, &c. ,, 
 A commission (headed by Mr. Overend) to enquire 
 
 into trade outrages met . . 3June-8July, 1867 
 [Several murders and outrages (including the above) 
 confessed to by Crookes, Hallam, and others, 
 instigated and paid by Wm. Broadhead, secretary 
 to the saw-grinders' union ; indemnity granted.] 
 A meeting of workmen expresses abhorrence, 
 
 8 July, „ 
 Mr. Roebuck loses his election (through opposing 
 rattening) Nov. 1868 
 
 SHELBURNE ADMINISTRATION, 
 
 formed at the death of the marquis of Rockingham, 
 July, 1782; terminated April, 1783 ; the " Coali- 
 tion" administration followed. 
 
 The earl of Shelburne* (afterward marquis of Lans- 
 downe), first lord of the treasury. 
 
 William Pitt, chancellor of the exchequer. 
 
 Lord (afterwards earl) Camden, president of the council. 
 
 Duke of Grafton, privy seal. 
 
 Thomas, lord Grantham, and Thomas Townsheud (after- 
 wards lord Sydney), secretaries. 
 
 Viscount Keppel, admiralty. 
 
 Duke of Richmond, ordnance. 
 
 Lord Thurlow, lord chancellor. 
 
 Henry Dundas, Isaac Bane, sir George Yonge, &c. 
 
 SHELLS, see Bombs. 
 
 SHERIFF, or shire-reve,_ governor of a shire 
 or county. London had its sheriffs prior to 
 William I.'s reign, but some say that sheriff's were 
 first nominated for every county in England by 
 William in 1079. According to other historians, 
 Henry Cornhili and Richard Reynere were the first 
 sheriff's of London, 1 Rich. I., 1*189. Ihe nomina- 
 tion of sheriffs, according to the present mode, took 
 place in 1461. Stoic. Anciently sheriff's were 
 hereditary in Scotland, and in some English coun- 
 ties, as Westmoreland. The sheriff's of Dublin (first 
 called bailiffs) were appointed in 1308, and obtained 
 the name of sheriff by an incorporation of Edward 
 VI. 1548. Thirty-five sheriff's were fined, and 
 eleven excused in one year, rather than serve the 
 
 * William Petty, earl of Shelburne, born 1737 ; secre- 
 tary of state under lord Chatham, July, 1766; premier, 
 1782-3 ; created first marquis of Lansdowne, 1784 ; died, 
 7 May, 1805. 
 
SHEEIFFMUIE. 
 
 605 
 
 SHOEBUEYNESS. 
 
 office for London, 1734; see Bailiffs. The high 
 sheriffs of the counties of England and Wales, ex- 
 cept Middlesex and Lancaster, are nominated on the 
 morrow of St. Martin, Nov. 12. 
 
 SHEEIFFMUIE, see JDumblane. 
 
 SHETLAND ISLES, see Orkneys. 
 
 SHIBBOLETH, the word by which the fol- 
 lowers of Jephthah tested then- opponents the 
 Ephraimites, on passing the Jordan, about 1143 
 B.C. Judges xii. The term is now applied to any 
 party watchword or dogma. 
 
 SHIITES, the Mahometan sect predominating 
 in Persia ; see Mahometanism. 
 
 SHILLING. The value of the ancient Saxon 
 coin of this name was fivepence, but it was reduced 
 to fourpence about a century before the conquest. 
 After the conquest the French solidus of twelve 
 pence, in use among the Normans, was called 
 shilling. The true English shilling was first coined, 
 some say, in small numbers, by Henry VII., 1504. 
 Jtuding. A peculiar shilling, value nine pence, but 
 to be current at twelve, was struck in Ireland, 
 1560 ; and a large but very base coinage in England 
 for the service of Ireland, 1598. Milled shillings 
 were coined 13 Chas. II. 1662 ; see Coins. 
 
 SHILOH, see Pittsburg. 
 
 SHIP-BUILDING. The first ship (probably 
 a galley) was brought from Egypt to Greece, by 
 Danaus, 1485 B.C. Blair. The first double-decked 
 ship was built by the Tyrians, 786 B.C. Lenglet. 
 The first double-decked one built in England was of 
 IOOO tons burthen, by order of Henry VII., was 
 called the Great Harry, and cost 14,000/. Stow. 
 Port-holes and other improvements were invented 
 by Descharges, a French builder at Brest, in the 
 reign of Louis XII., about 1500. Ship-building 
 was first treated as a science by Hoste, 1696. A 
 74-gun ship was put upon the stocks at Van Die- 
 men's Land, to be sheathed with India-rubber, 1829. 
 
 Iron is now greatly used in ship-building; see 
 
 Navy, Steam, Carrach, &c. 
 
 SHIP-MONEY was first levied about 1007, to 
 form a navy to oppose the Danes. This impost, 
 levied by Charles I. in 1634-6, was much opposed, 
 and led to the revolution. He assessed London in 
 seven ships, of 4000 tons, and 1560 men; York- 
 shire in two ships, of 600 tons or 12,000/.; Bristol 
 in one ship of 100 tons ; Lancashire in one ship, of 
 400 tons. Among others, John Hampden refused 
 to pay the tax ; he was tried in the Exchequer in 
 
 1636. The judges declared the tax legal, 12 June, 
 
 1637. Ship-money was included in the grievances 
 complained of in 1641. The five judges, who had 
 given an opinion in its favour, were imprisoned. 
 Hampden received a wound in a skirmish with 
 prince Kupert, at Chalgrove, 18 June, and died 
 24 June, 1643. 
 
 SHIPPING, British. Shipping was first 
 
 registered in the river Thames in 1786; and 
 throughout the empire in 1787. In the middle of 
 the 18th century, the shipping of England was but 
 half-a-million of tons— less than London now. In 
 1830, the number of ships in the British empire 
 was 22,785. The merchant shipping act of 1854 
 was amended in 1867 ; see Navy, and Navigation 
 Acts. 
 
 NUMBER OF VESSELS REGISTERED IN THE BRITISH 
 
 Country. 
 England . 
 Scotland 
 Ireland . 
 Guernsey, Jersey, and 
 
 Man 
 British Plantations 
 
 Total . 
 
 EMPIRE ON JAN. I, 1840. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 15,830 
 3.318 
 
 633 
 
 6,075 
 
 Ton noge. 
 
 :, 983,522 
 
 378.I94 
 
 39.630 
 497.798 
 
 Seamen. 
 H4.593 
 25.909 
 11,288 
 
 4.473 
 35.020 
 
 • • 27,745 3,068,433 191,283 
 
 The following are the numbers of the Registered 
 Sailing and Steam Vessels (exclusive of Eivers 
 Steamers) of the United Kingdom, engaged in the 
 home and foreign trade : — 
 
 1849. 
 
 1861. 
 
 1866. 
 
 1871. 
 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Men em- 1 
 ployed. 
 
 Vessels.* 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Vessels, t 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 19,650 
 2 ,557 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Men em- 
 ployed. 
 
 Sailing 
 Steamers . 
 
 Total . 
 
 17,807 
 414 
 
 2,988,021 
 108,321 
 
 144,165 
 8,446 1 
 
 19,288 
 997 
 
 3,918,511 
 441,184 
 
 20,212 
 1,506 
 
 4,705,049 
 747.813 
 
 4.343,558 
 1,290,003 
 
 141.035 
 58,703 
 
 18,221 
 
 3,096,342 
 
 152,611 
 
 20,285 
 
 4.359,69 
 
 21,718 
 
 5,452,862 
 
 22,207 
 
 5,633.561 
 
 I 99.738 
 
 * Men employed — sailing vessels, 144,949 ; steamers, 27,008 ; total, 171,957. 
 t „ ,, „ >>' 156,568; „ 39,803; „ 196,371! 
 
 SHIPWEECKS, see Wrecks. 
 
 SHIEES, see Counties. 
 
 SHIETS are said to have been first generally 
 worn in the west of Europe early in the 8 th century. 
 Du Fresnoy. "Woollen shirts were commonly worn 
 in England until about 1253, when linen, but of a 
 coarse kind (fine coming at this period from abroad), 
 was first manufactured in England by Flemish 
 artisans. Stow. 
 
 SHODDY, a kind of soft woollen goods, manu- 
 factured from old woollen rags, or the refuse, to 
 which new wool is added, is stated to have been first 
 manufactured about 1813, at Batley, near Dews- 
 bury, Yorkshire. 
 
 SHOEBLACK BEIGADES (Blue, Red, and 
 Yellow) were established at various times, especi- 
 ally 111 185 1, by the Ragged School Union [which 
 see), founded 1844. In 1855, 108 boys had cleaned 
 544,800 pairs of boots and shoes, and thus earned 
 2270^. ; of which 1235/. had been paid to the boys, 
 519/. to their bank, and 516/. to the society. The 
 brigades earned 4548/. in 1859 ; 11,031/. in. 1871. 
 
 SHOEBUEYNESS (Essex). Some ground 
 here, purchased m 1842 and 1855, by an act of par- 
 liament in 1862 was set apart as "ranges for the use 
 and practice of artillery," and a school for gunnery 
 was established; see Cannon, note. Experiments 
 with Mr. Whitworth's projectiles on 12 Nov. 1862 
 showed their great improvement in form and mate- 
 rial. Shells were sent through 5! inch plate and 
 
SHOES. 
 
 606 
 
 SIBYLS. 
 
 the wood-work behind it. It was objected, that 
 they might not do this with ships in motion. 
 
 SHOES, among the Jews were made of leather, 
 linen, rush,' or wood. Moons were worn as orna- 
 ments in their shoes by Jewish women. Isaiah iii. 
 18. Pythagoras would have his disciples wear shoes 
 made of the bark of trees ; probably that they might 
 not wear what were made of the skins of animals, as 
 they refrained from the use of everything that had 
 life. The Eomans wore an ivory crescent on then- 
 shoes; and Caligula enriched his with precious 
 stones. In England, about 1462, the people wore 
 the beaks or points of their shoes so long that they 
 encumbered themselves in walking, and were forced 
 to tie them up to their knees ; the fine gentlemen 
 fastened theirs with chains of silver or silver gilt, 
 and others with laces. This was prohibited, on the 
 forfeiture of 20*. and on pain of being cursed by the 
 clergy, 7 Edw. IV. 1467 ; see Dress. Shoes, as at 
 present worn, were introduced about 1633. The 
 buckle was not used till 1668. Stow; Mortimer. 
 The buckle-makers petitioned against the use of 
 shoe-strings in 1791. 
 
 SHOOTING STAKS, see Meteorites. 
 
 SHOP-TAX enacted in 1785; caused so great 
 a commotion, particularly in London, that it was 
 deemed expedient to repeal it in 1789. The statute 
 whereby shoplifting was made a felony, without 
 benefit of clergy, was passed 10 & 1 1 Will. III. 1699. 
 This statute has been some time repealed. 
 
 SHORE, JANE, the mistress of Edward IV. 
 and afterwards of lord Hastings. She did public 
 penance in 1483, and was afterwards confined in 
 Ludgate ; but upon the petition of Thomas Hymore, 
 who agreed to marry her, king Richard III., in 
 1484, restored her to liberty ; and sir Thomas More 
 mentions having seen her, which contradicts the 
 story of her having perished by hunger. Harleian 
 MSS. 
 
 SHORT-HAND, see Stenography. 
 
 " SHORT - LIVED " ADMINISTRA- 
 TION— that of William Pulteney, earl of Bath, 
 lord Carlisle, lord Winchelsea, and lord Granville, 
 existed from 10 Feb. to 12 Feb. 1746. 
 
 SHOT. In early times various missiles were 
 shot from cannon. Bolts are mentioned in 1413 ; 
 and in 1418 Henry V. ordered his clerk of the ord- 
 nance to get 7000 stone shot made at the quarries at 
 Maidstone. Since then chain, grape, and canister 
 shot have been invented, as well as shells ; all of 
 M-hich are described in Scoffern's work on " Pro- 
 j ectile Weapons of War, and Explosive Compounds," 
 1858 ; see Bombs and Cannon. 
 
 SHREWSBURY ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 Charles, duke of Shrewsbury, was made lord trea- 
 surer, 29 July, 1 7 14, two days before the death of 
 queen Anne. His patent was revoked soon after the 
 accession of George I., 29 Oct. following, when the 
 carl of Halifax became first lord of the treasury; see 
 Halifax. The office of lord treasurer has been exe- 
 cuted by commissioners ever since. 
 
 SHREWSBURY (Shropshire), arose on the 
 ruin of the Boman town Urieonium (see Wroxeter), 
 and became one of the chief cities of the kingdom, 
 having a mint till the reign of Henry III. Here 
 Bichard II. held a parliament in 1397. — On 23 July, 
 1403, was fought a sanguinary battle at Hately field, 
 near Shrewsbury, between the army of Henry IV. 
 and that of the nobles, led by Percy (surnamed 
 Hotspur), son of the earl of Northumberland, who 
 
 had conspired to dethrone Henry. Henry was seen 
 in the thickest of the fight, with his son, afterwards 
 Henry V. The death of Hotspur by an unknown 
 hand gave the victory to the king. Hume. — Shrews- 
 bury grammar school was founded by Edward VI. 
 in 1551, endowed by Elizabeth, and opened 1562. 
 Its arrangements were modified by the public school 
 act, 1868. 
 
 SHROPSHIRE, Battle of, in which the 
 
 Britons were completely subjugated, and Caractacus, 
 the renowned king of the Silures, became, through 
 the treachery of the queen of the Brigantes, a 
 prisoner to the Eomans, 50. 
 
 SHROVE TUESDAY, the day before Ash- 
 Wednesday, the first day of the Lent Fast; see 
 Carnival. 
 
 SIAM, a kingdom in India, bordering on the 
 Burmese empire. Siam was re-discovered by the 
 Portuguese in 151 1, and a trade established, in 
 which the Dutch joined about 1604. A British 
 ship arrived about 1613. In 1683, a Cephalonian 
 Greek, Constantine Phaulcon, became foreign min- 
 ister of Siam, and opened a communication with 
 France; Louis XIV. sent an embassy in 1685 with 
 a view of converting the king, without effect. After 
 several ineffectual attempts, sir John Bowring suc- 
 ceeded in obtaining a treaty of friendship and com- 
 merce between England and Siam, which was 
 signed 30 April, 1855, and ratified 5 April, 1856. 
 Two ambassadors from Siam arrived in Oct. 1857, 
 and had an audience with the queen ; they brought 
 with them magnificent presents, which, they de- 
 livered crawling, on 16 Nov. They visited "Paris 
 in June, 1861. By a treaty with France, the French 
 protectorate over Cambodia was recognised ; signed 
 15 July, ratified 24 Oct. 1867. The two sovereigns, 
 father and son, have reigned since 1 Oct. 1868 ; one 
 was entertained at Calcutta, 7-12 Jan. 1872. Popu- 
 lation of Siam (1871) about 6,300,000. 
 
 Siamese Twins. Two persons born about 1811, enjoy- 
 ing all the faculties and powers usually possessed by 
 separate and distinct individuals, although united to- 
 gether by a short cartilaginous band at the pit of the 
 stomach. They are named Chang and Eng, and were 
 first discovered on the banks of the Siam river by an 
 American, Mr. Robert Hunter, by whom they were 
 taken to New York, where they were exhibited. Cap- 
 tain Coffin brought them to England. After having 
 been exhibited for several years in Britain, they went 
 to America, where they settled on a farm, and mar- 
 ried two sisters. In 1865 they were said to be living 
 in North Carolina in declining health. Their exhibi- 
 tion in London began again 8 Feb. 1869. 
 
 SIBERIA (N. Asia). In 1580 the conquest was 
 begun by the Cossacks under Jermak Timofejew. In 
 1 7 10 Peter the Great began to send prisoners thither. 
 An insurrection broke out among the Poles in Siberia 
 in June, 1866, and was soon suppressed. 
 
 SIBYLS, Sibylla?, women believed to be in- 
 spired, who flourished in different parts of the 
 world. Plato speaks of one, others of two, Pliny 
 of three, JElian of four, and Varro of ten. An Ery- 
 threan Sibyl is said to have offered to Tarquin II. 
 nine books containing the Boman destinies, de- 
 manding for them 300 pieces of gold. He denied 
 her ; whereupon the sibyl threw three of them into 
 the fire, and asked the same price for the other 
 six, which being still denied, she burnt three more, 
 and again demanded the same sum for those that 
 remained ; when Tarquin conferring with the pon- 
 tiffs was advised to buy them. Two magistrates 
 were created to consult them on all occasions, 531 
 B.C. ; see Quindecemvirs. 
 
SICILIAN VESPERS. 
 
 607 
 
 " SICK MAN." 
 
 SICILIAN VESPERS, the terra given to the 
 massacre of the French (who had conquered Sicily, 
 1266), commenced at Palermo, 30 March, 1282. 
 
 On Easter Monday conspirators assembled at Palermo ; 
 and while the French were engaged in festivities, a 
 Sicilian bride passed by with her train. One Drochet, 
 a Frenchman, used her rudely, under pretence of 
 searching for arms. A young Sicilian stabbed him 
 with his own sword ; and a tumult ensuing, 200 French 
 were instantly murdered. The populace ran through 
 the city, crying out, " Let the French die !" and, with- 
 out distinction of rank, age, or sex, slaughtered all of 
 that nation they could find, to the number of about 
 8000. Even the churches proved no sanctuary, and 
 the massacre became general throughout the island. 
 
 SICILY (anciently Trinacria, three-cornered). 
 The early inhabitants were the Sicani, or Siculi, a 
 people of Spain, and Etruscans, who came from Italy 
 about 1294 B.C. A second colony, under Siculus, 
 arrived eighty years before the destruction of Troy, 
 1284 B.C. The Phoenicians and Greeks settled some 
 colonies here (735-582). It is supposed that Sicily 
 was separated from Italy by an earthquake, and 
 that the straits of the Charybdis were thus formed. 
 Its government has frequently been united with 
 and separated from that of Naples (which see) ; the 
 two now form part of the kingdom of Italy. Popu- 
 lation of Sicily in 1856, 2,231,020; 1871, 2,565,323. 
 
 Syracuse founded. Eusebius. . . about B.C. 732 
 Gela founded. Thiicydides. . . . 680 or 713 
 
 Agrigentum founded 582 
 
 Phalaris, tyrant of Agrigentum, put to death. See 
 
 Brazen Bull 549 
 
 Law of Petalism instituted 460 
 
 Athenian expedition fails 413 
 
 War with Carthage 409 
 
 Dionysius becomes master of Syracuse, makes 
 
 peace with the Carthaginians and reigns 406-367 
 Dionysius II. sells Plato for a slave, who is ran- 
 somed by his friends 360 
 
 Dionysius expelled by Timoleon 343 
 
 Who governs well ; and dies 337 
 
 Agathocles usurps sovereign power at Syracuse, 
 317 ; defeated at Himera by the Carthaginians, 
 
 310 ; poisoned 289 
 
 Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, invades Sicily ; expels the 
 Carthaginians from most of their settlements, but 
 
 returns to Italy . 278-277 
 
 The Romans enter Sicily (see Punic Wars) . . 264 
 Agrigentum taken by the Romans . . . . 262 
 Palermo besieged by the Romans .... 254 
 
 Archimedes flourishes about 236 
 
 Hiero II. defeated by the Romans, 263; becomes 
 
 their ally, and reigns till 216 
 
 The Romans take Syracuse, and make all Sicily 
 
 a province ; Archimedes slain 212 
 
 The Carthaginians lose half their possessions, 241; 
 
 all the remainder ,, 
 
 The Servile wars; much slaughter . . 133, 134, 132 
 Tyrannical government of Verres (for which he was 
 accused by Cicero) . . . . . . 73-71 
 
 Sicily held by Sextus Pompeius, son of the great 
 Pompey, 42 ; defeated ; expelled .... 36 
 
 Invaded by the Vandals, a.d. 440; by the Goths, 
 493 ; taken for the Greek emperors by Belisarius, 
 
 a.d. 535 
 
 Conquered by the Saracens 832-78 
 
 The Greeks and Arabs driven out by a Norman 
 prince, Roger I. , son of Tancred, 1058 ; who takes 
 the title of count of Sicily .... 1061-1090 
 
 Roger II., son of the above-named, unites Sicily 
 with Naples, and is crowned king of the Two 
 Sicilies .... .... 1131 
 
 Charles of Anjou, brother of St. Louis, king of 
 France, conquers Naples and Sicily, deposes the 
 Norman princes, and makes himself king . . 1266 
 
 The French massacred (see Sicilian Vespers) . . 1282 
 
 Sicily seized by a fleet sent by the kings of Aragon; 
 Naples remains to the house of Anjou . . . ,, 
 
 Alphonso, king of Aragon, takes possession of 
 Naples j , , » , r . . 1435 
 
 The kingdom of Naples and Sicily united to the 
 Spanish monarchy under Ferdinand the Catholic 1501 
 
 Victor, duke of Savoy, by the treaty of Utrecht, 
 made king of Sicily I7I -> 
 
 Which he gives up to the emperor Charles VI. , and 
 becomes king of Sardinia i-jio 
 
 Charles, son of the king of Spain, becomes king of 
 the Two Sicilies I735 
 
 The throne of Spain becoming vacant, Charles, who 
 is heir, vacates the throne of the Two Sicilies, in 
 favour of his third son Ferdinand, agreeably to 
 treaty I759 
 
 Dreadful earthquake at Messina, in Sicily, which 
 destroys 40,000 persons I7 8 3 
 
 The French conquer Naples (which see) ; Ferdinand 
 IV. retires to Sicily ^06 
 
 Political disturbances T $ IO 
 
 New constitution granted, under British auspices . 1812 
 
 The French expelled ; kingdom of Two Sicilies re- 
 established ; Ferdinand returns to Naples ; abol- 
 ishes the constitution n;Si5 
 
 Revolution at Palermo suppressed .... 1820 
 
 The great towns in Sicily rise and demand the con- 
 stitution ; a provisional government proclaimed, 
 
 T2 Jan 184S 
 
 The king nominates his brother, the count of Aquila, 
 viceroy, 17 Jan. ; promises a new constitution, 
 
 29 Jan. ,, 
 
 The Sicilian parliament decrees the exclusion of the 
 Bourbon family, 13 April; and invites the duke 
 of Genoa to the throne . . . n July, 1S48 
 
 Messina bombarded and taken by the Neapolitans,' 
 
 7 Sept. ,, 
 
 Catania taken by assault, 6 April ; Syracuse sur- 
 renders 23 April ; and Palermo . . 15 May, 1849 
 
 Insurrections suppressed at Palermo, Messina, and ' 
 Catania, 4 April et seq. ; the rebels retire into the 
 interior 21 April et seq. i860 
 
 Garibaldi and his followers (2200 men) embark at 
 Genoa.5 May; and land at Marsala, n May; he 
 abandons his ships ; and assumes the dictatorship 
 in the name of the king of Sardinia . 14 May, ,, 
 
 He defeats the royal troops at Calataflmi, 15 May; 
 storms Palermo, 27 May ; which is bombarded by 
 the royal fleet, 28 May ; an armistice agreed to, 
 
 31 May, ,, 
 
 A provisional government formed at Palermo, 
 3 June ; which is evacuated by the Neapolitans, 
 
 6 June, ,, 
 
 Garibaldi defeats the Neapolitans at Melazzo, 
 
 20, 21 July, „ 
 
 Convention signed, by which the Neapolitans agree 
 to evacuate Sicily (retaining the citadel of Mes- 
 sina) 30 July, „ 
 
 New Sicilian constitution proclaimed . 3 Aug. 
 
 Garibaldi embarks for Calabria (see Naples), 
 
 19 Aug. „ 
 
 Professor Saffl (late of Oxford), a short time dic- 
 tator Sept. „ 
 
 The Sicilians by universal suffrage vote for annexa- 
 tion to Sardinia (432,054 against 667) 21 Oct. ,, 
 
 Victor-Emmanuel visits Sicily . . .1 Dec. 
 
 Citadel of Messina blockaded, 28 Feb. ; surrenders 
 to general Cialdini ... i 3 March, 1861 
 
 King Victor-Emmanuel warmlyreceived at Messina, 
 
 May, 1862 
 
 Imprudent speeches of Garibaldi at Marsala, 19 
 July; he enters Catania, and establishes a pro- 
 visional government, 19 Aug. ; embarks for Italy, 
 
 24 Aug. ,, 
 
 Sicily placed under blockade ; removed in Sept. ; 
 tranquil Oct! ,, 
 
 Insurrection in Palermo, attributed to the priests 
 and brigands, 16 Sept.; suppressed with blood- 
 shed by Italian troops . . . 21-26 Sept. 1866 
 
 Revival of brigandage and murder . . Aug. 1872 
 
 SICK CHILDREN, Hospital for, Great 
 
 Orinond-street, London; established 1851. The 
 princess of Wales laid the foundation of new build- 
 ings, 11 July, 1872. A branch has been set up at 
 Highgate. 
 
 "SICK MAN," an epithet applied to Turkey, 
 by the czar Nicholas, 14 Jan. 1854; see Russo- 
 lurkish War, note. 
 
SICYON. 
 
 608 
 
 SIEGES. 
 
 SICYON, an ancient Grecian kingdom in the 
 Peloponnesus, founded, it is said, about 2080 B.C. 
 Its people took part in the wars in Greece, usually 
 supporting Sparta. In 252 it became a republic 
 and joined the Achaean league formed by Aratus. It 
 was the country of the sculptors Polycletes (436) 
 and Lysippus (238 B.C.). 
 
 SIDEROSTAT (from nidus, Latin for a star), 
 an apparatus constructed by M. Leon Foucault, 
 shortly before his death, II Feb. 1868, for observing 
 the light of the stars in precisely the same way in . 
 which the light of the sun may be studied in the 
 camera obscura. It consists of a mirror moved by 
 clockwork, and a fixed objective glass for concen- 
 trating the rays into a focus. 
 
 SIDON or ZlDON (Syria), a city of Phoenicia, 
 
 to the north of Tyre. It was conquered by Cyrus 
 about 537 B.C. ; and surrendered to Alexander," 332 
 B.C. ; see Phoenicia. The town was taken from the 
 pacha of Egypt by the troops of the sultan and of 
 his allies, assisted by some ships of the British 
 squadron, under commodore Charles Napier, 27 Sept. 
 1840 ; see Syria, and Turkey. 
 
 SIEGES. Azoth, which was besieged by Psam- 
 ruetiehus the Powerful, held out for nineteen years. 
 Usher. It held out for twenty-nine years. Hero- 
 dotus. This was the longest siege recorded in the 
 annals of antiquity. The siege of Troy was the 
 most celebrated, and occupied ten years, 1 184 B.C. 
 The following are the most memorable sieges since 
 the 12th century ; for details of many of them see 
 separate articles. 
 
 Acre, 1192, 1799, 1832, 18.10. 
 
 Algesiras, 1341. 
 
 Algiers, 1681 ; Bomb vessels first used 
 
 by a French engineer named Eenau; 
 
 1816. 
 Alkmaer, 1573. 
 Almeida, 27 Aug. 1810. 
 Amiens, 1597. 
 Ancona, 11 74, 1799, i860. 
 Antwerp, 1576, 1583, 1585, 1746, 1832. 
 Arras, 1640. 
 Azoff, 1736. 
 Badajoz, it March, 181 1 : 6 April, 
 
 1812. 
 Bagdad, 1258. 
 Barcelona, 1697, 1714. 
 Belgrade, 1439, 1456, 1521, 1688, 1717, 
 
 1739. J789- 
 Belle-Isle, 1761. 
 
 Bergen-op-Zoom, 1622, 1747, 1814. 
 Berwick, 1333, 1481. 
 Bethune, 1710. 
 Bois-le-Dnc, 1603, 1794. 
 Bologna, 1512, 1796, 1799- 
 Bommel : the invention of the covered 
 
 way, 1794. 
 Bonn, 1672, 16S9, 1703. 
 Bouchain, 1711. 
 Boulogne, 1544. 
 Breda, 1625. 
 
 Brescia, 1238, 1512, 1849. 
 Breslau, 1807. 
 Brisac, 1638, 1704. 
 Brussels, 1695, 1746. 
 Bomarsuiul, 1854. 
 Buda, 1541, 1686. 
 Burgos, 1812, 1813. 
 Cadiz, 1812. 
 Calais (1347 (British historians affirm 
 
 tltat cannon were used at Cressy, 
 
 1346, and here in 1347. First used 
 
 here in 1388. Rymer'sFced.), 1558, 
 
 1596. 
 Cam, 1794. 
 Candia: the largest cannon then known 
 
 in Europe, used here by the Turks, 
 
 1667. 
 Carthagena, 1706-7, 1740. 
 Chains, 1 199. 
 Charleroi, 1693. 
 Charleston, U.S., 1864-5. 
 Chartres, 1568. 
 Cherbourg, 1758. 
 Ciudad Rodngo, 1810, 1812. 
 Colchester, 1648. 
 Comorn, 1849. 
 
 Conipiegne (Joan of Arc), 1430. 
 Conde, 1676, 1793, 1794- 
 Coni, 1691, 1744. 
 Constantinople, 1453. 
 Copenhagen, 1658, 1801, 1807. 
 Corfu, 1716. 
 Courtray, 1646. 
 Cracow, 1702. 
 Cremona, 1702. 
 
 Dantzic, 1734, 1793, 1807, 1S13, 1S14. 
 Delhi, 1857 
 
 ! Douay, 17 10. 
 Dresden, 1756, 1813. . 
 
 Drogheda, 1649. 
 Dublin, 1500. 
 Dunkirk, 1646, 1793 
 Flushing, 15 Aug. 1809. 
 Frederickshald : Charles XII. killed, 
 
 1718. 
 Gaeta, 1435, 1734, 1860-1. 
 Genoa, 1747, 1800. 
 Gerona, 1809. 
 Ghent, 1708. 
 
 Gibraltar, 1734, 1779, 1782-3. 
 Glatz, 1742, 1807. 
 Gottingen, 1760. 
 Graves, 1674. 
 Grenada, 1491, 1492. 
 Groningen, 1594. 
 Haerlem, 1572, 1573. 
 Harfleur, 1415. 
 Heidelberg, 1688. 
 Herat, 1838. 
 Humaita, 1868. 
 Ismail, 1790. 
 Kars, 1855. 
 Kehl, 1733, 1796. 
 Landau, 1702 it seq., 1792. 
 Landrecy, 1712, 1794. 
 Laon, 988, 991. 
 Leipsic, 1757 et seij., 1813. 
 Lerida, 1647, "1707, 1810. 
 Leyden, 1574. 
 Liege, 1408, 1688, 1702. 
 Lille, 1708, 1792. 
 Limerick, 1651, 1691. 
 Londonderry, 1689. 
 Louisbourg, 1758. 
 Luxemburg, 1795. 
 Lyons, 1793. 
 Maastricht, 1579, 1673; Vaitban first 
 
 came into notice; 1676, 1748. 
 Magdala, 1868. 
 Magdeburg, 1631, 1806. 
 Malaga, 1487. 
 Malta, 1565, 1798, 1800. 
 Mantua, 1797, 1799. 
 Marseilles, 1524. 
 Menin, 1706. 
 Mentz, 1689, 1793. 
 Messina, 1282, 1719, 1848, 1861. 
 Metz, 1552-3, 1870. 
 Mons, 1691, 1709, 1792. 
 Montargis, 1426. 
 Montauban, 1621. 
 Montevideo, Jan. 1807. 
 Mother the French, taught by a Mr. 
 
 Mutter, first practised the art of 
 
 throwing shells, 1634. 
 Namur, 1692, 1746, 1794. 
 Naples, 1435, 1504, 1557, 1792, 1799, 
 
 1806. 
 Nice, 1706. 
 Nieuport, 1600. 
 Olivenza, 1801, 1811. 
 Olmutz, 1758. 
 Orleans, 1428, 1563. 
 Ostend, 1601, 1798. 
 
 Oudenarde, 1706. 
 Padua, 1509. 
 Pampeluna, 1813. 
 Paris, 1420, 1594, 1870, 1871. 
 Parma, 1248. 
 Pavia, 1524, 1655. 
 Perpignan, 1542, 1642. 
 Phalsbourg, 1814, 1815, 1870. 
 Philipsburg, 1644, 1676, i683, first ex- 
 periment of firing artillery a ricochet, 
 
 1734. 1799- 
 
 Pondicherry, 1748, 1793. 
 
 Prague, 1741-1744. 
 
 Quesnoy, 1793-1794. 
 
 Rlieims, 1359. 
 
 Rliodes, 1521. 
 
 Richmond, U.S., 1864-5. 
 
 Riga, 1700, 1710. 
 
 Roehelle, 1573, 1627. 
 
 Rome, 1527, 1798, 1849. 
 
 Romorentin; artillery first used in 
 sieges (Voltaire), 1356. 
 
 Rouen, 1419, 1449, I 59 I - 
 
 Roxburgh, 1460, 
 
 8t. Sebastian, 1813. 
 
 Saragossa, 1710, 1808, 1809; the two 
 hi<t dreadful. 
 
 Sebastopol, 1854-5. 
 
 Schweidnitzr^rsi experiment to reduce 
 a fortress by springing globes <f com- 
 pression, 1757-1762. 
 
 Scio (see Greece), 1822. 
 
 Seringapatam, 1799. 
 
 Seville, 1247-8. 
 
 Silistria, 1854. 
 
 Smolensko, 1632, 1812. 
 
 Stralsund : the method of throwing red- 
 hot balls first practised with certainty, 
 1715. 
 
 Strasburg, 1870. 
 
 Tarragona, 1811. 
 
 Temeswar, 1716. 
 
 Thionville, 1792. 
 
 Thorn, 1703. 
 
 Tortosa, 1811. 
 
 Toulon, 1707, 1793. 
 
 Toulouse, 1217. 
 
 Tournay, 1340, 1513, 1583, 1667, 1709 
 (this was the best defence ever drawn 
 from counter mines), 1792. 
 
 Treves, 1635, 1673, 1675. 
 
 Tunis, 1270, 1535. 
 
 Turin, 1640, 1706. 
 
 Valencia, 1705, 1707, 1712. 
 
 Valenciennes, 1677, 1793, 1794. 
 
 Valines, 1342. 
 
 Venloo, 1702. 
 
 Verdun, 1792. 
 
 Vicksburg, U.S., 1S63. 
 
 Vienna, 1529, 1683. 
 
 Wakefield, 1460. 
 
 Warsaw, 1S31. 
 
 Xativa, 1246. 
 
 Xeres, 1262. 
 
 Ypres, 1648. 
 
 Zurich, 1544. 
 
 Zutphen, 1586. 
 
SIENNA. 
 
 609 
 
 SILVEE. 
 
 SIENNA (formerly Sena Julia), Italy, in the 
 middle ages a powerful republic rivalling Florence 
 and Pisa, weakened through intestine quarrels, was 
 subjugated by the emperor Charles V., and given 
 to his son in 1555, who ceded it to Cosmo of 
 Tuscany, 1557. It was incorporated with France, 
 1808-14. 
 
 SIEEEA LEONE (W. Africa), discovered in 
 1460. In 1786, London swarmed with free negroes 
 living in idleness and want ; and 400 of them, with 
 sixty whites, mostly women of bad character and 
 in ill-health, were sent out to Sierra Leone, at the 
 ■charge of government to form a settlement, 9 Dec. 
 1786. The settlement was attacked by the French, 
 Sept. 1794; by the natives, Feb. 1802. Sir Charles 
 Macarthy, governor of the colony, was defeated and 
 killed by the Ashantee chief, 21 Jan. 1824. — 16 & 17 
 Vict. c. 16, relates to the government, &c, of this 
 colony. It was made a bishopric in 1852 ; see 
 jLshantees. 
 
 SIGNALS are alluded to by Polybius. Eliza- 
 beth had instructions drawn up for the admiral 
 and general of the expedition to Cadiz, to be an- 
 nounced to the fleet in a certain latitude ; this is 
 said to have been the first set of signals given to 
 the commanders of the English fleet. A system 
 for the navy was invented by the duke of York, 
 afterwards James II. 1665. Guthrie; see Fog- 
 
 SIGNBOAEDS were used by the Greeks and 
 Romans. A " History of Signboards." by Jacob 
 Larwood and John Hotten, was published in 1866. 
 
 SIGNETS, see Seals. 
 
 SIGN MANUAL, EOYAL, a stamp, imita- 
 ting the royal signature, employed when the sove- 
 reign was so ill as to be unable to write : in the 
 ■case of Henry VIII. 1547 ; James I. 1628 ; and 
 George IV., 29 May, 1830. Fosse. 
 
 SIKHS, a people of N. India, invaded the 
 Mogul empire, 1703-8; see Punjab, and India, 
 1849. 
 
 SILESIA, formerly a province of Poland, was 
 invaded by John of Bohemia, 1325, and ceded to 
 him, 1355. It was taken by the king of Hungary, 
 1478, and added to the Austrian dominion, 1526. It 
 was conquered and lost several times during the 
 Seven years' war by Frederick of Prussia, but was 
 retained by him at the peace in 1763. 
 
 SILICON or SlMCIUM (from silex, flint), a 
 non-metallic element, next to oxygen the most 
 abundant substance in the earth, as it enters into 
 the constitution of many earths, metallic oxides, 
 and a great number of minerals. The mode of pro- 
 •curing pure silicon was discovered by Berzelius in 
 1823. Gmelin. See Water-glass, and Pansome's 
 Stone. 
 
 SILISTEIA, a strong military town in Bul- 
 garia, European Turkey. It was taken by the 
 Russians, 30 June, 1829, and held some years by 
 them as a pledge for the payment of a large sum by 
 the Porte ; but was eventually returned. In 1854 
 it was again besieged by the Russians, 30,000 strong, 
 under prince Paskiewitch, and many assaults were 
 made. The Russian general was compelled to re- 
 tire in consequence of a dangerous contusion. On 
 2 June, Mussa Pacha, the brave and skilful com- 
 mander of the garrison, was killed. On 9 June, 
 the Russians stormed two forts, which were retaken. 
 A grand assault took place on 13 June, under prince 
 <jortschakoff and general Schilders, which was 
 
 vigorously repelled. On the 15th, the garrison as 
 sumed the offensive, crossed the river, defeated the 
 Russians, and destroyed the siege works. The siegb 
 was thus raised, and the Russians commenced then 
 retreat as Omar Tacha was drawing near. The gar- 
 rison was ably assisted by two British officers, 
 capt. Butler and lieut. Nasmy th, the former of whom, 
 after being wounded, died of exhaustion. They 
 were highly praised by Omar Pacha and lord Har- 
 dinge, and lieutenant Nasmy th was made a major. 
 
 SILK- "Wrought silk was brought from Persia 
 to Greece, 325 B.C. Known at Rome in Tiberius's 
 time, when a law passed in the senate prohibiting 
 the use of plate of massive gold, and also forbidding 
 men to debase themselves by wearing silk, fit only 
 for women. Heliogabalus first wore a garment of 
 silk,* a.d. 220. Silk was at first of the same value 
 with gold, weight for weight, and was thought to 
 grow in the same manner as cotton on trees. Silk- 
 worms were brought from India to Europe in the 
 6th century. Charlemagne sent Offa, king of 
 Mercia, a present of two silken vests, 780. The 
 manufacture was encouraged by Roger, king of 
 Sicily, at Palermo, 1146, when the Sicilians not 
 only bred the silk-worms, but spun and wove the 
 silk. The manufacture spread into Italy and Spain, 
 and also into the south of France, a little before 
 the reign of Francis I. about 1510 ; and Henry IV. 
 propagated mulberry-trees and silk-worms through- 
 out the kingdom, about 1600. In England, silk 
 mantles were worn by some noblemen's ladies at a 
 ball at Kenilworth castle, 1286. Silk was worn bv 
 the English clergy in 1534. Manufactured in Eng- 
 land in 1604 ; and broad silk wove from raw silk 
 in 1620. Brought to perfection by the French 
 refugees in London at Spitalfields, 1688. A silk- 
 throwing mill was made in England, and fixed up 
 at Derby, by sir Thomas Lombe, merchant of 
 London, modelled from the original mill then in 
 the king of Sardinia's dominions, about 1714. He 
 obtained a patent in 1718, and died 3 Jan. 1739. 
 Six new species of silk- worm were rearing in France, 
 1861* 
 
 Silkworm Disease. In 1853 the annual produce of 
 sericulture in South Prance was estimated at about 
 4,68o,oooZ. Soon after a disease broke out in the 
 worms, which reduced the value of the silk crop to 
 about one-third that amount. In 1858 a commission 
 was appointed to inquire into the nature of the disease, 
 then termed pebrine; and M. Quatrefages, in 1869, 
 proved that it is hereditary, contagious, and infectious. 
 M. Filippi discovered in the blood of the deceased 
 worms a multitude of cylindrical corpuscles, since 
 named panhistophyton, which Pasteur, who took up 
 the study in 1865, has demonstrated to be parasitical, 
 and the cause of the disease. He has since devised a 
 way by which the organic germs may be got rid of, and 
 the disease extirpated. 
 
 SILUEES, a British tribe, occupying the 
 counties of Monmouth and Hereford, was subdued 
 by the Roman general Ostorius Scapula, 50; see 
 Shropshire. From this tribe is derived the geolo- 
 gical term " Silurian strata," among the lowest of 
 the palaeozoic or primary series, from their occur- 
 rence in the above-mentioned counties. Murchison' $ 
 " Siluria " was published 1849. 
 
 SILVEE exists in most parts of the world, and 
 is found mixed with other ores in various mines in 
 Great Britain. The silver mines of South America 
 are far the richest. A mine was discovered in the 
 
 * In 1858, M. Guerin-Meneville introduced into France 
 a Chinese worm termed the Cynthia Bombyx, which feeds 
 on the Ailanthus glandulosa, a hardy tree of the oak kind 
 The cynthia yields a silk-like substance termed Ailantine 
 It was brought to Turin by Fantoni in 1856. 
 
SILVER BOOK. 
 
 610 
 
 SIX CLEEKS. 
 
 district of La Paz in 1660, which was so rich that 
 the silver of it was often cut out with a chisel. In 
 1749, one mass of silver weighing 370 lbs. was sent 
 to Spain. From a mine in Norway, a piece of silver 
 was dug, and sent to the Royal Museum at Copen- 
 hagen, weighing 560 lbs., and worth 1680/. In 
 England silver-plate and vessels were first used by 
 Wilfrid, a Northumbrian bishop, a lofty and am- 
 bitious man, 709. Tyrrell. Silver knives, spoons, 
 and cups, were great luxuries in 1300 ; see Mirrors. 
 In 1855, 561,906 oz., in 1857, 532,866 oz., in 1865, 
 724,856 oz., in 1870, 784,562 oz. were obtained from 
 mines in Britain. Pattinson's process for obtaining 
 silver from lead ore was introduced in 1829. See 
 Coins, Goldsmiths, Mirrors, and Plate. 
 
 SILVER BOOK (Codex Argenteus), see under 
 Bible, p. 90. 
 
 SIMLA CASE, see India, 1866. 
 
 SIMANCAS (Castile, Spain). Near it Rami- 
 rez II. of Leon, and Fernando of Castile, gained a 
 great victory over Abderahman, the Moorish king of 
 Cordova, 6 Aug. 938. 
 
 SIMNEL CONSPIRACY, see Rebellions, 
 i486. 
 
 SIMONASAKI, see Japan, 1864. 
 
 SIMONIANS, a sect named after the founder, 
 Simon Magus, the first heretic, about 41. A sect of 
 social reformers called St. Simonians sprang up in 
 France in 1819, and attracted considerable attention ; 
 the doctrines were advocated in England, particu- 
 larly by Dr. Prati, who lectured upon them in 
 London, 24 Jan. 1834. St. Simon died in 1825, 
 and his follower, Pere Enfantin, died 1 Sept. 1864. 
 
 SIMONY (trading in church offices), derives its 
 name from Simon desiring to purchase the gift of 
 the Holy Spirit {Acts viii. 18, 19). It is forbidden 
 in England by the canon law, and by statute 
 31 Eliz. c. 6, " for the avoiding of simony and cor- 
 ruption in presentations, collations, and donations 
 of and to benefices," &c, 1588-9; and by statute of 
 12 Anne 2, stat. 12 (1713). The rev. James John 
 Merest was convicted of simony, 26-29 Nov. 1869, 
 and deprived. 
 
 SIMPLON, a mountain road, leading from 
 Switzerland into Italy, constructed by Napoleon in 
 1801-7. It winds up passes, crosses cataracts, and 
 passes by galleries through solid rock, and has eight 
 principal bridges. The number of workmen em- 
 ployed at one time varied from 30,000 to 40,000. 
 
 SINALUNGA or AsiNALTJNGA (near Sienna, 
 Italy). Here Garibaldi, when about to enter the 
 papal territory, was seized and conveyed to Ales- 
 sandria, 23 Sept. 1867; see Italy. 
 
 SINDE (N. W. India), was traversed by the 
 Greeks under Alexander, about 326 B.C. ; conquered 
 by the Persian Mahometans in the 8th century a.d. ; 
 tributary to the Ghaznevide dynasty in the nth 
 century; conquered by Nadir Shah, 1739; reverted 
 to the empire of Delhi after his death, 1747 ; after 
 various changes of rulers, Sinde was conquered by 
 the English, and annexed, March, 1843. 
 
 SINGAPORE, see Straits Settlements. 
 
 SINGING, see Music, and Hymns. 
 
 SINKING FUND. First projected by sir 
 Robert Walpole to redeem the debt to the bank of 
 England ; act passed in 17 16. The act establishing 
 the sinking fund of Mr. Pitt, devised by Dr. Price, 
 
 was passed in March, 1786. A then estimated sur- 
 plus of 900,000/. in the revenue was augmented bv 
 new taxes to make up the sum of 1,000,000/. which 
 was to be invariably applied to the reduction of the 
 national debt. The fallacy of the scheme was 
 shown by Dr. Hamilton in 1813. In July, 1828, 
 the sinking fund was limited to one-fourth of the 
 actual surplus of revenue. 
 
 SINOPE, an important Greek colony on the 
 Euxine, after resisting several attacks was con- 
 quered by Mithridates IV., king of Pontus, and 
 made his capital. It was the birth-place of 
 Diogenes, the cynic philosopher. On 30 Nov. 1853, 
 a Turkish fleet of seven frigates, three corvettes, 
 and two smaller vessels, was attacked by a Russian 
 fleet of six sail of the line, two sailing vessels, and 
 three steamers, under admiral Nachimoff, and 
 totally destroyed, except one vessel, which con- 
 veyed the tidings to Constantinople. Four thou- 
 sand lives were lost by fire or drowning, and Osman 
 Pacha, the Turkish admiral, died at Sebastopol of 
 his wounds. In consequence of this act (considered 
 treacherous) the Anglo-French fleet entered the 
 Black Sea, 3 Jan. 1854. 
 
 SION COLLEGE and Hospital, situated 
 
 on the site of a nunnery, which, having failen to 
 decay, was purchased by William Elsynge, a citizen 
 and mercer, and converted into a college and hos- 
 pital, called from his name Elsynge Spital. In 
 1340 he changed it to an Austin priory, which was 
 afterwards granted by Henry VIII. to sir John 
 Williams, master of the jewel-office, who, with sir 
 Roland Hayward, inhabited it till its destruction 
 by fire. In 1623, Dr. Thomas White having be- 
 queathed 3000/. towards purchasing and building a 
 college and alms-house on the ancient site, his 
 executors erected the present college. It is held by 
 two charters of incoi-poration, 6 Chas. I. 1630 and 16 
 Chas.II. 1664. It contains a valuable library (easily 
 accessible to the public), and an almshouse for ten 
 men and ten women. 
 
 SIRENE, an instrument for determining the 
 velocity of aerial vibrations corresponding to the 
 different pitches of musical sounds, was invented 
 by baron Cagniard de la Tour of Paris in 1819. 
 The principle was shown in an apparatus exhibited 
 by Robert Hooke before the Royal Society, 27 July, 
 I681. 
 
 SISTERS OF CHARITY, an order for the 
 service of the sick poor, was founded by Vincent de 
 Paul, in 1634. Their establishment in London 
 began in 1834. 
 
 SIX ACTS, a term given to certain acts, also 
 named " Gagging Acts," 60 Geo. III. and 1 Geo. IV. 
 cc. 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 9, passed in 1819 to suppress sedi- 
 tious meetings and publications. 
 
 SIX ARTICLES, see Articles. 
 
 SIX CLERKS, officers of the court of chan- 
 cery, who were anciently clerici or clergy. They 
 were to conform to the laws of celibacy, and forfeit 
 their places if they married; but when the consti- 
 tution of the court began to alter, a law was made 
 to permit them to marry; statute 24 & 25 Hen. 
 VIII. 1533. The six clerks continued for many 
 years officers of the chancery court, and held their 
 offices in Chancery-lane, London, where proceed- 
 ings by bill and answer were transacted and filed, 
 and certain patents issued. Law Diet. The six 
 clerks were discontinued by 5 & 6 Vict. c. 103, 
 1841. 
 
SIXTEEN. 
 
 611 
 
 SLAVEEY. 
 
 SIXTEEN (seize), a large French political 
 club, in the reigns of Henry III. and IV., sixteen 
 members of which took charge of the sixteen 
 quarters of Paris. They at first supported the 
 catholic league, and attempted to overthrow Henry 
 III. in 1587, but vacillating in then policy, and 
 committing many crimes, their power was annihi- 
 lated by Mayenne in 1591, and. several of them 
 were executed. 
 
 SKALITZ (Bohemia), was stormed by the 
 Prussian general Steinmetz, 28 June, 1866; whereby 
 the junction of the divisions of the Prussians was 
 greatly facilitated. 
 
 SKINS- The raw skins of cattle were usually 
 suspended on stakes and made use of instead of 
 kettles to boil meat, in the north of England and 
 in Scotland, 1 Edw. III. 1327. Leland. In 1857, 
 4,489,163 skins of oxen, lambs, kid, &c, dressed 
 and undressed, in 1867, 9,593,798, were imported 
 into Great Britain. 
 
 SLATE. Fifteen persons were killed by the fall 
 of a mass of rock and rubble at the Delaboll slate 
 quarries, Cornwall, 21 April, 1869. 
 
 SLAVERY- The traffic in men came from 
 Chaldsea into Egypt, Arabia, and all over the East. 
 In Greece, in the time of Homer, all prisoners of 
 war were treated as slaves. The Lacedaemonian 
 youths, trained up in the practice of deceiving and 
 butchering slaves, were from time to time let loose 
 upon them to show their proficiency ; and once, for 
 amusement only, murdered, it is said, 3000 in one 
 night.— Alexander, when he razed Thebes, sold the 
 whole people for slaves, 335 b.c. ; seeSelots. There 
 were 400,000 slaves in Attica, 317 B.C. In Kome 
 slaves were often chained to the gate of a great 
 man's house, to give admittance to the guests in- 
 vited to the feast. By one of the laws of the XII. 
 Tables, creditors could seize their insolvent debtors, 
 and keep them in their houses, till by their services 
 or labour they had discharged the sum they owed. 
 C. Pollio threw such slaves as gave him the slightest 
 offence into his fish-ponds, to fatten his lampreys, 
 42 B.C. Csecilius Isidorus left to his heir 41 16 
 slaves, 12 B.C. The first Janissaries were Christian 
 slaves, 1329. 
 
 Serfdom was abolished by Frederick I. of Prussia 
 in 1702 ; by Christian VII. of Denmark in 1766 ; 
 by Joseph II. emperor of Germany, in his heredi- 
 tary states in 1781 ; by Nicholas I. of Russia in 
 the imperial domains in 1842 ; and by his suc- 
 cessor, Alexander II. throughout his empire, 
 3 March, 1861. 
 
 Slavery ceased in the Dutch "West Indies on 1 July, 
 1863. 
 
 It was decreed in Brazil in 1867 that all children 
 born to slaves henceforth were to be free, and all 
 slaves were to be free in 20 years from that time. 
 In Nov. slaves of the state became free when 
 made soldiers. Slavery was ordered to be abo- 
 lished gradually, 27 Sept. 1871. 
 
 Slavery abolished in Porto Rico ; see Spain. 
 
 SLAVEEY IN ENGLAND. Laws respecting 
 the sale of slaves were made by Alfred. The English 
 peasantry were commonly sold for slaves in Saxon 
 and Norman times ; children were sold in Bristol 
 market like cattle for exportation. Many were sent 
 to Ireland and to Scotland. Under the Normans 
 the vassals (termed villeins, of and pertaining to 
 the vilT) were devisable as chattels during the 
 feudal times. 
 
 Severe statutes were passed in the reign of Richard 
 II., 1377 and 1385; the rebellion of Wat Tyler, 
 1381, arose partly out of the evils of serfdom. 
 
 A statute was enacted by Edward VI. that a runa- 
 way, or any one who lived idly for three days, 
 should be brought before two justices of the 
 peace, and marked V with a hot iron on the 
 breast, and adjudged the slave of him who bought 
 him for two years. He was to take the slave and 
 give him bread, water, or small drink, and refuse 
 meat, and cause him to work by beating, chain- 
 ing, or otherwise ; and, if within that space, he 
 absented himself fourteen days, was to be marked 
 on the forehead or cheek, by a hot iron, with an 
 S, and be his master's slave for ever ; second de- 
 sertion was made felony. It was lawful to put 
 a ring of iron round his neck, arm, or leg. A 
 child might be put apprentice, and, on running 
 away, become a slave to his master . . . . 1547 
 
 Queen Elizabeth ordered her bondsmen in the 
 western counties to be made free at easy rates . 1574 
 
 Serfdom was finally extinguished in 1660, when 
 tenures in capite, knights' service, &c, were 
 abolished. 
 
 A slave named Somerset, brought to England, 
 was, because of his ill state, turned adrift by 
 his master. By the charity of Mr. Granville 
 Sharpe he was restored to health, when his mas- 
 ter again claimed him. A suit was the con- 
 sequence, which established, by decision of the 
 Court of King's Bench, in favour of Somerset, 
 that slavery could not exist in Great Britain, 
 
 22 June, 1772 
 
 Act for the abolition of slavery throughout the 
 British colonies, and for the promotion of in- 
 dustry among the manumitted slaves, and for 
 compensation to the persons hitherto entitled to 
 the services of such slaves by the grant from 
 parliament of 2o,ooo,oooL sterling, passed, 
 
 28 Aug. 1833 
 
 Slavery terminated in the British possessions ; 
 770,280 slaves became free . . . 1 Aug. 1834 
 
 Slavery was abolished in the East Indies 1 Aug. 1838 
 
 In 1853 John Anderson, a runaway slave, killed 
 Septimus Digges, a planter of Missouri, who at- 
 tempted to arrest him, and escaped to Canada. 
 The American government claimed him as a mur- 
 derer. The Canadian judges deciding that the 
 law required his surrender, Mr. Edwin James, 
 Q. C. (15 Jan.), obtained a writ of habeas corpus 
 for his appearance before the court of queen's 
 bench. Anderson was discharged on technical 
 grounds, 16 Feb. 1861 
 
 SLAVEEY in United States. Before the 
 
 war of independence all the states contained slaves. 
 In 1783 the statement in the Massachusetts Bill of 
 Rights, "All men are born free and equal," was 
 declared in the supreme court at Boston to bar 
 slave-holding in that state. Slaves in the United 
 States in 1790, 697,897; in 1810, 1,191,364; in 
 1820, 2,009,031; in 1850, 3,204,313; in i860, 
 4,002,996. In 1870, 4,889. 193, free coloured persons. 
 Congress passes unanimously the celebrated ordin- 
 ance "for the government of the territory to the 
 N.W. of the Ohio," which contained an "unaltera- 
 ble" article, forbidding slavery or involuntary servi- 
 tude in the said state, 13 July, 1787; after 1800, 
 several of the states prayed, without effect, to 
 be relieved from this prohibition. 
 Louisiana purchased, which was considered by 
 
 many as fatal to the constitution .... 1803 
 The enormous increase in the growth of cotton in 
 the southern states (see Cotton) led to a corre- 
 sponding increase in the demand for slave labour. 
 The Missouri Compromise (drawn up by Henry 
 Clay, by which slavery was permitted in that 
 state, but was prohibited in all that part of it to 
 the north of 36° 30' N. lat), carried . Feb. 1820 
 
 Contest between the slave-holders and their oppo- 
 nents at the annexation of Texas; a similar 
 division to that of Missouri obtained 25 Dec. 1845 
 Another compromise effected ; California admitted 
 as a free state : but the Fugitive Slave act passed 
 
 (ivhich see) jg- 
 
 The Missouri compromise was abrogated by the 
 admission of Nebraska and Kansas as slave- 
 holding states ; civil war ensued (see Kansas) . 1854 
 Dred Scot's case (see United States) .... x $ 5 j 
 
 R B 2 
 
SLAVE TRADE. 
 
 612 
 
 SMALLPOX. 
 
 John Brown's attempt to create a slave rebellion in 
 Virginia failed (see United States) . . Nov. 1859 
 
 Abraham Lincoln, the anti - slavery candidate, 
 elected president of the United States 4 Nov. i860 
 
 Secession of South Carolina (see United States), Dec. ,, 
 
 Slavery abolished in the district of Colombia, 
 
 16 April, 1862 
 
 President Lincoln proclaims the abolition of 
 slavery in the southern states, if they have not 
 returned to the union on 1 Jan. 1863 22 Sept. „ 
 
 The total abolition of slavery in the United States 
 officially announced .... 18 Dec. ,, 
 
 Mr. William Lloyd Garrison, a fervent champion for 
 emancipation, entertained at St. James's -hall, 
 London (he started the Liberator in 1831, and 
 had suffered much for his zeal) . . 29 June, 1867 
 
 A negro judge present in a court at New Orleans, 
 
 18 Sept. „ 
 
 Negro equality with the whites completely recog- 
 nised Feb. 1870 
 
 See United States, 1860-5. 
 
 SLAVE TRADE. The slave trade from Con- 
 gou and Angola was begun by the Portuguese in 
 1481. The commerce in man has brutalised a tract 
 fifteen degrees on each side of the equator, and forty 
 degrees wide, or of 4,000,000 of square miles ; and 
 men and women have been bred for sale to the 
 Christian nations during the last 250 years, and 
 war carried on to make prisoners for the Christian 
 market. The Abbe Eaynal computed (1777) that, at 
 time of his writing, 9,000,000 of slaves had been 
 consumed by the Europeans. The slave-trade is 
 now approachiDg extinction. 
 
 In 1768 the slaves taken from their own continent 
 
 amounted to 104,100. In 1786 the annual number was 
 
 about 100,000. 
 In 1807 it was shown by documents, produced by govern- 
 ment, that since 1792 upwards of 3,500,000 Africans 
 
 had been torn from their country, and had either per- 
 ished on the passage or been sold iu the West Indies. 
 Slave Trade of England : begun by sir John Hawkins. 
 
 His first expedition, with the object of procuring 
 
 negroes on the coast of Africa, and conveying them 
 
 for sale at the West Indies, took place in Oct. 1562 ; 
 
 see Guinea. 
 England employed 130 ships and carried off 42,000 slaves, 
 
 1786. 
 Slave-trade question debated in parliament, 1787. 
 The debate for its abolition ; two days, April, 1791. 
 Mr. Wilberforce's motion lost by a majority of 88 to 83, 
 
 3 April, 1798. 
 The question introduced under the auspices of Lord 
 
 Grenville and Mr. Fox, then ministers, 31 March, 1806. 
 The trade abolished by parliament, 25 March, 1807. 
 Thomas Clarkson, whose whole life may be said to have 
 
 been passed in labouring for the extinction of the slave 
 
 trade, died, aged 85, Sept. 1846. 
 Foreign countries : the trade was abolished by Austria 
 
 in 1782 ; by the French convention in 1794 ; by the 
 
 United States in 1808. 
 The allies at Vienna declared against it Feb. 1815. 
 Napoleon, in the hundred days, abolished the trade, 29 
 
 March, 1815. 
 Treaty for its repression with Spain, 1817 ; with the 
 
 Netherlands, May, 1818 ; with Brazil, Nov. 1826. 
 Its revival was proposed in the congress of the United 
 
 States of America, 14 Dec. 1856, and negatived by 183 
 
 votes to 58. 
 In June, 1857, the French government gave permission to 
 
 M. Regis to convey free negroes from Africa to Guada- 
 
 loupe and Martinido, French colonies. 
 This having led to abuses and consequent troubles (see 
 
 Charles et Georges), was eventually given up in Jan. 
 
 1859. 
 It is said that about 40,000 slaves were landed at Cuba in 
 
 i860. 
 A treaty between Great Britain and the United States for 
 
 the abolition of the slave trade, was signed 7 April ; 
 
 ratified 20 May, 1862. 
 The Spanish government denounce the slave trade as 
 
 piracy, Nov. 1865. 
 Sir Samuel Baker headed an expedition to put down 
 
 slave-trading on the Nile (see Egypt), Jan. 1870 ; reported 
 
 to be successful, 30 June, 1873. 
 
 A species of slave trade has lately risen in the South 
 Seas; the natives being enticed oil board certain 
 British vessels and shipped to Queensland, Australia, 
 and the Fiji isles ; the subject was brought before par- 
 liament (see Melanesia), 1871-2. 
 
 The ship Carl (owner, Dr. James P. Murray ; master, 
 Joseph Armstrong) left Melbourne for South Sea isles ; 
 it anchored off Malokolo, Solomon's and Bougainville 
 isles and kidnapped many natives as labourers for tin- 
 Fiji isles ; while about 20 miles from land, the prisoners 
 rose and attempted to set fire to the ship; were tired 
 on ; about 50 killed and 20 wounded were east into the 
 sea. At Melbourne Murray gave evidence, ami Ann- 
 strong was committed for trial, 16 Aug. ; the master 
 and mate sentenced to death, Nov. 1872. 
 
 Sir Bartle Frere went to Zanzibar on a mission to suppress 
 the East African slave trade ; see Zanzibar, 1872-3. 
 
 SLAVONIA or SCLAVONIA, a province of 
 Austria, derives its name from the Slaves, a Sarma- 
 tian people who replaced the Avars in Pannonia 
 early in the 9th century. In 864 Cyril and Metho- 
 dius, Greek missionaries, preached here, and adapted 
 the Greek alphabet to the Slavonian language ; the 
 letters of which have since been a little altered. 
 The country, after having been held at times by the 
 Greeks, Turks, and Hungarians, and the cause of 
 sanguinary conflicts, was ceded finally to Hungary 
 in 1699, at the peace of Carlowitz. Deputies from 
 the Slavonian provinces of Austria were entertained 
 at Moscow and St. Petersburg, May, 1867. The 
 Croatian-Slavonian diet, at Agram, was dissolved, 
 May, 1867. It protested against incorporation with 
 Hungary. The Slavonian family of languages in- 
 cludes Russian, Polish, Servian, Bohemian, Bul- 
 garian, "Wendic, Slovak, and Polabic. 
 
 SLESWIG, see Holstew. 
 
 SLIDING-SCALE, see Corn Laws. 
 
 SLING- In Judges xx. 16, is mentioned the 
 skill of the Benjamite slingers (about 1406 B.C.), 
 and with a sling David slew Goliath 1063 B.C. (1 
 Sam. xvii.) The natives of the Balearic isles 
 (Majorca, Minorca, and Iviqa) were celebrated 
 slingers, and served as mercenaries in the Cartha- 
 ginian and Roman armies. Slings are said to have 
 been used by the Huguenots at the siege of San- 
 cerre, in 1672, to economise their powder. 
 
 SLOANE'S MUSEUM, see British Museum. 
 
 SLUYS (Holland), near which Edward III. 
 gained a signal naval victory over the French. The 
 English had the wind of the enemy, and the sun at 
 their backs, and began this sanguinary action. Two 
 hundred and thirty French ships were taken ; thou- 
 sands of Frenchmen were killed, with two of their 
 admirals ; the loss of the English was inconsidera- 
 ble : 24 June, 1340. 
 
 SMALCALD (Hesse), TEEATY OF, entered 
 into between the elector of Brandenburg and the 
 other princes of Germany in favour of Protestantism. 
 31 Dec. 1530; see Protestants. The emperor, ap- 
 prehensive that the kings of France and England 
 would join this league, signed the treaty of Passau, 
 31 July, 1532, allowing liberty of conscience. 
 
 SMALLPOX, variola (diminutive of varus, a 
 pimple), a highly contagious disease, supposed to 
 have been introduced into Europe from the East by 
 the Saracens. Ehazes, an Arabian, described it 
 accurately, about 900. From Europe it was carried 
 to America, soon after its discovery, and raged there 
 with great severity, destroying the Indians by thou- 
 sands. In 1694, queen Mary of England died of 
 small pox, as did in 1711 and 1712 the emperor of 
 Gennany, the dauphin and dauphiness of France and 
 their son, in 1730 the emperor of Eussia, in 1741 
 the queen of Sweden, and in 1774 Louis XV. of 
 
SMALL TENEMENTS ACTS- 
 
 613 
 
 SOAP. 
 
 France. It is stated that in the middle of the last 
 century two millions perished by it in Kussia. In 
 London in 1723 one out of fourteen deaths was 
 caused by small pox, and in France in 1754 the rate 
 was one in ten. For the attempts to alleviate this 
 scourge, see Inoculation, introduced into England 
 in 1722, and Vaccination, announced by Dr. Jenner 
 in 1798. Small pox raged in parts of London, and 
 thousands died, 1870-1 ; a temporary hospital was 
 established at Hampstead {which see) . The Anti- 
 Vaccination society has been active, and many 
 parents have been fined for opposing the vaccina- 
 tion of their children, 1870-2. In Sept. and Oct. 
 1862, a great many sheep died of small pox in the 
 West of England, till successful preventive measures 
 were resorted to. 
 
 SMALL TENEMENTS ACTS (59 Geo. III. 
 c. 12, 1819) ; 1850 (13 & 14 Vict. c. 99), provided 
 for owners paying rates of houses instead of the oc- 
 cupiers. This was annulled by the new Eeform 
 act, 30 & 31 Vict. c. 102, s. 7 (1867). 
 
 SMITHFIELD, WEST, in the heart of 
 London, was once a favourite walk of the London 
 citizens, outside the city walls. Sir W. Wallace 
 was executed here, 23 Aug. 1305. On 15 June, 
 1381, Wat Tyler was met by .Richard II. at this 
 place, and was stabbed by Walworth the mayor. 
 Many tournaments were also held here. In the 
 reign of Mary (1553-8), many persons perished by 
 fire ; and Bartholomew Leggatt, an Arian, was 
 burnt here, 18 March, 1612. — Bartholomew fair was 
 held here till 1853. — This place is mentioned as the 
 site of a cattle market as far back as 1150. The 
 space devoted to this purpose was enlarged from 
 about three acres to four and a half, and in 1834 to 
 six and a quarter. The ancient regulations were 
 called the " statutes of SmithSeld." In one day 
 there were sometimes assembled 4000 beasts and 
 30,000 sheep. The annual amount of the sales was 
 about 7,000,000/. 
 
 Sold here 226,132 beasts, 1,593,270 sheep and lambs, 
 26,356 calves, 33,531 pigs. (About 160 sales- 
 men) 1846 
 
 The contracted space of the market, the slaughter- 
 ing places adjoining, and many other nuisances, 
 gave ground to much dissatisfaction, and after 
 investigation, an act was passed appointing 
 metropolitan market commissioners with powers 
 to provide a new market, slaughtering places, &c. ; 
 and to close the market at Smithfield . 1 Aug. 1851 
 
 Smithfield was used as a cattle market for the last 
 time on 11 June ; and the new market in Copen- 
 hagen-fields was opened on 13 June (see Metro- 
 politan Market) 1855 
 
 A dead-meat and poultry market was ordered to be 
 erected in Smithfield, and Newgate market to 
 cease 1861 
 
 A tender for its erection, from designs by Horace 
 Jones, accepted from Messrs. Browne and Robin- 
 son for 134, 460? Nov. 1866 
 
 The market inaugurated by the lord mayor Law- 
 rence, 24 Nov. ; opened to the public . 1 Dec. 1868 
 
 The Smithfield Club, to promote improvements in the 
 breed of cattle, was established in 1798. The members 
 established an annual cattle show, held first in Dolphin- 
 yard, Smithfield, Dec. 1799 ; next in Barbican, 1805 ; 
 in Goswell-street, 1806; removed to Baker-street, 1839; 
 and to the new Agricultural hall, Liverpool-road, 
 Islington, 1862. 
 
 The show, suspended in Dec. 1866, on account of the 
 plague, was partially resumed Dec. 1867 ; wholly, Dec. 
 1868. 
 
 . SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, "for the 
 increase and diffusion of knowledge among men," 
 a handsome building at Washington, U.S., was 
 founded in 1846, by means of a legacy of above 
 100,000/. bequeathed for the purpose to "the United 
 States government by James Bmithson, illegitimate 
 
 son of sir Hugh Smithson, who became duke of 
 Northumberland in 1766. It publishes and freely 
 distributes scientific memoirs and reports. The 
 library was burnt on 25 Jan. 1865. 
 
 SMOKE NUISANCE. An act was passed in 
 1853 to abate this nuisance, proceeding from chim- 
 ney shafts and steamers above London bridge. In 
 1856 another act, obtained for its further application 
 to steamers below London bridge, and to potteries 
 and glass-houses previously exempted, came into 
 operation, 1 Jan. 1858; enactments have been made 
 for all the kingdom. 
 
 SMOLENSKO (Russia). The French in most 
 sanguinary engagements here were three times re- 
 pulsed, but ultimately succeeded in entering Smo- 
 lensko, and found the city, which had been bom- 
 barded, burning and partly in ruins, r6, 17 Aug. 
 1 812. Barclay de Tolly, the Bussian commander- 
 in-chief, incurred the displeasure of the emperor 
 Alexander because he retreated after the battle, and 
 Kutusoff succeeded to the command. 
 
 SMUGGLEES- The customs duties, institu- 
 ted to enable the king to afford protection to trade 
 against pirates, afterwards became a branch of 
 public revenue, and gave rise to much smuggling. 
 The Smugglers' Act was passed in 1736, and its 
 severity was mitigated in 1781 and 1784. A re- 
 vision of these statutes took place 1826 and 1835. 
 
 SMYRNA, see Seven Churches. 
 
 SNEEZING. ' The custom of saying "God 
 bless you" to the sneezer originated, according to 
 Strada, among the ancients, who, through an 
 opinion of the danger attending it, after sneezing 
 made a short prayer to the gods, as "Jupiter, help 
 me." The custom is mentioned by Homer, the 
 Jewish rabbis, and others, and is found among 
 savages. Polydore Vergil says it took its rise at 
 the time of the plague, 558, when the infected fell 
 down dead sneezing, though seemingly in good 
 health. 
 
 SNIDER GUN, see under Firearms. 
 
 SNUFF-TAKING took its rise in England 
 from the captures made of vast quantities of snuff 
 by sir George Booke's expedition to Vigo in 1702, 
 and the practice soon became general. In 1839 
 there were imported 1,622,493 lbs. of snuff, of which 
 196,305 lbs. were entered for home consumption; 
 the duty was 88,263/. ; see Tobacco. In 1858, 
 2,573,925 lbs. of snuff and cigars, in 1861, 2,110,430 
 lbs. ; in 1871, 3,852,236 lbs. were imported. The 
 gross revenue from tobacco and snuff in the year 
 1871-2 was 6,797,018/. 
 
 SOANE MUSEUM, at No. 13, Lincoln' s-inn- 
 fields, was gradually formed by sir John Soane, the 
 architect, who died in 1837, after making arrange- 
 ments for its being open to the public by an act 
 passed in 1833. It contains Egyptian and other 
 antiquities, valuable paintings, rare books, &c. 
 
 SOAP is a salt, a compound of a fatty acid with 
 an alkali, soda or potash. The Hebrew borith, 
 translated soap, is merely a general term for 
 cleansing substances. Job ix. 30 ; Jer. ii. 22. 
 Pliny declares soap to be an invention of the Gauls, 
 though he prefers the German to the Gallic soap. 
 Nausicaa and her attendants, Homer tells us, 
 washed clothes by treading upon them with their 
 feet in pits of water. Odyssey, book vi. The 
 Bomans used fuller's earth. Savon, the French 
 word for soap, is ascribed to its having been manu- 
 factured at Savona, near Genoa. The manufacture 
 
SOBRAON- 
 
 614 
 
 SOCIETIES. 
 
 of soap began in London in 1524, before which 
 time it was supplied by Bristol at one penny per 
 pound. The duty upon soap, imposed in 1711, 
 after several reductions from yl. per pound, was 
 totally repealed in 1853. It then produced, accord- 
 ing to the chancellor of the exchequer, Mr. Glad- 
 stone, about 1,126,000^. annually. 
 
 SOBRAON (N.W. India). The British army, 
 35,000 strong, under sir Hugh (afterwards viscount) 
 Gough, attacked the Sikh force on the Sutlej, 10 
 Feb. 1846. The enemy was dislodged after a 
 dreadful contest, and all their batteries taken ; and 
 in attempting the passage of the river by a floating 
 bridge in their rear, the weight of the masses that 
 crowded upon it caused it to break down, and 
 thousands of Sikhs were killed, wounded, or 
 drowned. The British loss was 2338 men. 
 
 SOCIALISM was warmly advocated in Lon- 
 don, 24 Jan. 1834, by the celebrated Eobert Owen. 
 He had, beginning at New Lanark, in Scotland, 
 about 1801, established a settlement at New Har- 
 mony in America in 1824. He died 17 Nov. 1858, 
 aged 90. The French socialists, termed Communists, 
 became a powerful political body in that country, 
 were implicated in the revolution of 1848, and 
 made an insurrection at Paris, 187 1. See France, 
 and Working -mat. 
 
 .SOCIAL SCIENCE. The National Asso- 
 ciation for the Promotion of Social Science origin- 
 ated in a meeting at lord Brougham's in May, 1857. 
 Its object is to promote improvements in the 
 administration of law, in education, in public 
 health, and in social economy. It holds annual 
 meetings, and publishes its proceedings. 
 
 Birmingham, opened 12 Oct. 1857 
 
 Liverpool ...... n Oct. 1858 
 
 Bradford 10 Oct. 1859 
 
 Glasgow 24 Sept. i860 
 
 Dublin 14 Aug. 1861 
 
 London 6 June, 1862 
 
 Edinburgh 7 Oct. 1863 
 
 York 22 Sept. 1864 
 
 Sheffield 4 Oct. 1865 
 
 Manchester 2 Oct. 1866 
 
 Belfast 18 Sept. 1867 
 
 Birmingham 30 Sept. 1868 
 
 Bristol 29 Sept. 1869 
 
 Newcastle-on-Tyne .... 21 Sept. 1870 
 
 Leeds 4 Oct. 1871 
 
 Plymouth 11 Sept. 1872 
 
 Norwich (announced) .... 1 Oct. 1873 
 
 SOCIAL WARS, see Athens; and Marsi. 
 
 SOCIETIES AND INSTITUTIONS, LITE- 
 RARY AND SCIENTIFIC, in Great Britain. 
 Further details of many of these will be found 
 under their respective heads. All in the list below 
 are in London, except otherwise stated. An act 
 was passed n Aug. 1854, "to afford facilities for 
 the establishment of institutions for the promotion 
 of literature and science," by grants of land, &c. ; 
 and for their regulation. The Royal and London 
 Institutions were exempted from the operation of 
 the act. 
 
 Boyal Society Charter 1662 
 
 Christian Knowledge Society 1698 
 
 Society of Antiquaries . . . (Charter 175 1) 171 7 
 
 Society of Dilettanti 1734 
 
 Society of Arts .... (Charter 1847) 1753 
 Bath and West of England Society .... 1777 
 Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society . . 1781 
 Royal Society of Edinburgh . (Charter 1783) 1782 
 
 Highland Society 1785 
 
 Royal Irish Academy .... Charter 1786 
 
 Lumsean Society .... (Charter 1802) 1788 
 Newcastle Literary and Philosophical Society . . 1793 
 Royal Institution .... (Charter 1810) 1800 
 
 Royal Horticultural Society . . (Charter 1809) 1804 
 Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society 
 
 (Charter 1834) 1805 
 London Institution ....... M 
 
 Geological Society .... (Charter 1826) 1807 
 
 Russell Institution 1808 
 
 Swedenborg Society 1810 
 
 Liverpool Literary and Philosophical Society . .1812 
 
 Roxburghe Club ,, 
 
 Institution of Civil Engineers . (Charter 1828) 1818 
 Leeds Literary and Philosophical Society . . ,, 
 
 Egyptian Society 1819 
 
 Cambridge Philosophical Society . (Charter 1832) ,, 
 Royal Astronomical Society . . (Charter 1831) 1820 
 
 Medico-Botanical Society 1821 
 
 Hull Literary and Philosophical Society . . . 1822 
 
 Yorkshire Philosophical Society 
 
 Sheffield Literary and Philosophical Society . . „ 
 Royal Society of Literature . . (Charter 1826) 1823 
 Royal Asiatic Society . . . (Charter 1824) „ 
 
 Bannatyne Club, Edinburgh ,, 
 
 Mechanics' Institution, London , 
 
 Athenaeum Club 1824 
 
 Western Literary Institution 1825 
 
 Eastern Literary Institution ,, 
 
 Zoological Society 1826 
 
 Incorporated Law Society . . (Charter 1831) 1827 
 Society for Diffusion of Useful Knowledge . . . ,, 
 
 Ashmolean Society, Oxford 1828 
 
 Maitland Club, Glasgow „ 
 
 Boyal Geographical Society 1830. 
 
 Gaelic Society ,, 
 
 Royal United Service Institution .... 1831 
 
 Royal Dublin Society ,, 
 
 Harveian Society . . 
 
 British Association , 
 
 Marylebone Literary Institution .... 1832 
 
 Entomological Society 1833 
 
 Statistical Society 1834 
 
 Westminster Literary Institution 
 
 Surtees Society, Durham ,, 
 
 Royal Institute of British Architects (Charter 1837) „ 
 Leicester Literary and Philosophical Society . . 1835 
 Abbotsford Club, Edinburgh .... 1835-7 
 
 Numismatic Society 1836 
 
 Ornithological Society 1837 
 
 Electrical Society 1837-8 
 
 Etching Club 1838 
 
 English Historical Society . . . . • . 1838-56 
 
 Royal Agricultural Society 1838 
 
 Camden Society ,, 
 
 Royal Botanical Society 1839 
 
 Microscopical Society (Royal, 1866) . . . . ,, 
 Eeclesiological Society ....... 
 
 Spalding Club, Aberdeen ,, 
 
 Royal Botanical Society of London . . . . „ 
 
 Parker Society 1840-55 
 
 Percy Society 1840-52 
 
 Irish Archaeological Society, Dublin . . . . 1840 
 
 London Library - ,, 
 
 Shakespeare Society . . . . . . . ,. 
 
 Chemical Society 1841 
 
 Pharmaceutical Society . . . . . ,, 
 Wodrow Society, Edinburgh .... 1841-7 
 Philological Society 1842 
 
 .Elfnr Society 1843-56 
 
 Chetham Society, Manchester 1843 
 
 Spott is woode Society, Edinburgh 
 
 Archaeological Association ,, 
 
 Royal Archaeological Institute ....,, 
 
 Sydenham Society . . . . . . . ,, 
 
 Ethnological Society ,, 
 
 Law Amendment Society 
 
 Handel Society 1844 
 
 Syro-Egyptitm Society . ,, 
 
 Ray Society ,, 
 
 Caxton Society 1844-54 
 
 Celtic Society, Dublin 1845-53 
 
 Pathological Society 1846 
 
 Sussex Archaeological Society, Lewes ,, 
 
 Cambrian Archaeological Association . . . . „ 
 
 Cavendish Society „ 
 
 Hakluyt Society ,, 
 
 Palseontographical Society 1847 
 
 Institute of Mechanical Engineers (Birmingham) . ,, 
 
 Institute of Actuaries 1848 
 
 Arundel Society „ 
 
 (British) Meteorological Society . (Charter 1866) 1850 
 
SOCIETY ISLANDS. 
 
 615 
 
 SOLICITOR. 
 
 1850 
 
 1852 
 1853 
 1855 
 1857 
 
 i860 
 1863 
 
 1867 
 
 Epidemiological Society 
 
 North of England Institute of Mining Engineers, 
 
 Newcastle 
 
 Photographic Society 
 
 Philobiblon Society 
 
 Juridical Society 
 
 Genealogical Society 
 
 National Association for Social Science . . . 
 
 Horological Institute 
 
 Society for the Encouragement of Pine Arts . . 
 Institution of Naval Architecture .... 
 
 Anthropological Society 
 
 Early English Text Society ; began to publish 
 
 Victoria Institute 24 May, 
 
 London Mathematical Society 
 
 Aeronautical Society . . . .12 Jan. 
 
 Dialectic Society 
 
 Chaucer Society 
 
 Holbein Society 1868 
 
 Iron and Steel Institute 1869 
 
 Christian Evidence Society 1871 
 
 Society of Telegraph Engineers .... 1872 
 Society for Organization of Academical Study . . 1872 
 London Anthropological Society .... 1873 
 
 SOCIETY ISLANDS, Pacific Ocean, dis- 
 covered by De Quiros in 1606; re-discovered by 
 capt. WaHis, 1767, who gave Otaheite or Tahiti 
 the name of King George's Island. Capt. Cook, 
 who visited them in 1769 and 1777, named them 
 " Society Islands in honour of the Royal Society. 
 
 SOCINIANS, persons who accept the opinions 
 of Faustus Socinus (died 1562), and his nephew 
 Lselius (died 1604), Siennese noblemen. They held 
 — I. That the Eternal Father was the one only God, 
 and that Jesus Christ was no otherwise God than by 
 his superiority to all other creatures ; 2. That 
 Christ was not a mediator ; 3. That hell will endure 
 for a time, after which the soul and body will be 
 destroyed ; 4. That it is unlawful for princes to 
 make war. Hook. The Socinians established a 
 church at Rakow, in Poland, and made proselytes 
 in Transylvania, 1563. They were expelled from 
 Poland in 1658. The Eakovian catechism was 
 published in 1574 ; see Unitarians. 
 
 SODIUM, a remarkable metal, first obtained 
 in 1807 by sir Humphry Davy, from soda (which 
 was formerly confounded with potash, but proved 
 to be a distinct substance by Duhainel in 1736). 
 This metal, like potassium, was obtained by the 
 agency of the electric battery. In consequence of 
 Deville's improved processes, sodium is now manu- 
 factured by Bell Brothers, of Newcastle, at 10s. a 
 pound (1868). Common salt (chloride of sodium) 
 is a compound of sodium and chlorine. 
 
 SODOM and Gomorrah (Palestine), with 
 
 their inhabitants, were destroyed by fire from 
 heaven 1898 B.C., Gen. xix. 
 
 SODOR, said to be derived from Sodor-eys, or 
 south isles (the iEbrides or Hebrides) , in distinc- 
 tion from Orkneys, the north isles. The southern 
 or western isles were made an episcopal diocese by 
 Magnus, king of Norway, 1098, and joined to the 
 isle of Man about 1113. See Man. 
 
 SOFFARLDES DYNASTY reigned in Per- 
 sia 872-902. 
 
 SOHO THEATRE, see Theatres. 
 
 SOISSONS (France), capital of the Gallic 
 
 Suessiones, was subdued by Julius Ceesar, 57 B.C. 
 It was held by Syagrius, after his father JEgidius, 
 till his defeat by Clovis, a.d. 486. Several councils 
 have been held at Soissons (in 744, 1092, 1122). 
 Its academy was established in 1674. During the 
 Franco-Prussian war, Soissons, after three weeks' 
 investment and four days' bombardment, surren- 
 
 dered to the Gennans under the grand-duke of 
 Mecklenburg, 16 Oct. 1870. 99 officers, 4633 men, 
 128 guns, &c, were said to be taken. The Germans 
 thus obtained a second line of railway from Chalons 
 to Paris. 
 
 . SOLAR SYSTEM, nearly as now accepted, 
 is said to have been taught by Pythagoras of Samos, 
 about 529 B.C. He placed the sun in the centre, 
 and all the planets moving in elliptical orbits 
 round it — a doctrine superseded by the Ptolemaic 
 system {which see). The system of Pythagoras, 
 revived by Copernicus (1543), is called the Coper- 
 nican system. Its truth was demonstrated by sir 
 Isaac Newton in 1687. See Flanets. 
 
 SOLDIERS' DAUGHTERS' HOME was 
 
 established at Hampstead, near London, in Aug. 
 1857, by the surplus of the money collected by the 
 central association in aid of the wives and families 
 of soldiers in active service during the Crimean war, 
 and opened by the prince consort, 18 June, 1858. 
 It has been much indebted to the exertions of major 
 Powys. 
 
 SOLEBAY or SOTJTHWOLD BAY (Suffolk), 
 where a fierce naval battle was fought between the 
 fleets of England and France on one side, and the 
 Dutch on the other, the former commanded by the 
 duke of York, afterwards James II., 28 May, 1672. 
 The English lost four ships, and the Dutch three ; 
 but the enemy fled, and were pursued to their 
 coasts. The earl of Sandwich was blown up, and 
 thousands were killed and wounded. 
 
 SOL-FA SYSTEM, see Music. 
 
 SOLFERINO (in Lombardy), the site of the 
 chief struggle on the great battle of 24 June, 1859, 
 between the allied French and Sardinian army 
 commanded by their respective sovereigns, and the 
 Austrians under general Hesse ; the emperor being 
 present. The Austrians, after their defeat at 
 Magenta, gradually retreated across the Mincio, 
 and took up a position in the celebrated quadrila- 
 teral, and were expected there to await the attack. 
 But the advance of Garibaldi on one side, and of 
 prince Napoleon and the Tuscans on the other, in- 
 duced them to recross the Mincio and take the 
 offensive, on 23 June. The conflict began early on 
 the 24th, and lasted fifteen hours. At first the 
 Austrians had the advantage ; but the successful 
 attack of the French on Cavriana and Solferino 
 changed the fortune of the day, and the Austrians, 
 after desperate encounters, were compelled to 
 retreat. The French attribute the victory to the 
 skill and bravery of then emperor and the generals 
 M'Mahon and Niel ; the Austrians, to the destruc- 
 tion of their reserve by the rifled cannon of their 
 adversaries. The Sardinians maintained a fearful 
 contest of fifteen horns at San Martino, it is said 
 against double their number. Loss of the Austrians, 
 630 officers, and 19,311 soldiers; of the allies, 8 
 generals, 936 officers, and 17,305 soldiers killed 
 and wounded. This battle closed the war; pre- 
 liminaries of peace being signed at Villa Franca, 
 12 July. On 24 June, 1870, on the site of the 
 battle, three ossuaries, containing the bones of 
 thousands of the slain, were solemnly consecrated 
 in the presence of representatives of Austria, France , 
 and Italy. 
 
 SOLIFIDIANS (from solus, only, and fides, 
 faith) a name given to the Antinomians {which 
 see). 
 
 SOLICITOR, see Attorney. 
 
SOLICITOR-GENERAL. 
 
 616 
 
 SORCERERS. 
 
 SOLICITOR-GENERAL, the legal officer 
 next in rank, and deputy to the attorney-general, 
 whom he frequently succeeds. 
 
 Sir Thomas Wilde (afterwards lord Truro), 5 Dec. 
 
 Sir William Follett (second time), 6 Sept. 
 
 Sir Frederick Thesiger (since lord Chelmsford), 17 
 
 April. 
 Sir Fitzroy Kelly, 17 July. 
 Sir John Jervis, 4 July. 
 Sir David Dundas, 18 Jul}'. 
 Sir John Romilly, April 4. 
 Sir Alex. J. E. Cockburn, 11 July. 
 Sir W. Page Wood, 28 March. 
 Sir Fitzroy Kelly, Feb. 
 Sir Richard Bethell, Dec. 
 Rt. Hon. James Stuart Wortley, Nov. 
 Sir Henry Keating, May. 
 Sir Hugh M. Cairns, 26 Feb. 
 Sir Henry Keating, 18 June. 
 Sir William Atherton, Dec. 
 Sir Roundell Palmer, 27 June. 
 Sir Robert Porrett CoDier, 2 Oct. 
 Sir William Bovill, 13 July. 
 Sir John Burgess Karslake, 29 Nov. 
 Sir Charles Jasper Selwyn, July. 
 Sir Win. Baliol Brett, Feb. (made judge, Sept.) 
 Sir Richard Baggallay, 14 Sept. 
 Sir John Duke Coleridge, 12 Dec. 
 Sir George Jessel, Nov 
 
 1839. 
 
 1845. 
 
 1850. 
 1851. 
 1852. 
 
 1856. 
 
 1857- 
 1858. 
 1859- 
 
 1861. 
 1863. 
 1866. 
 
 1867. 
 
 1871. 
 
 SOLOMON'S TEMPLE, see Temple. 
 
 SOLWAY MOSS (Cumberland, bordering on 
 Scotland). On 13 Nov. 1771, it swelled, owing to 
 heavy rains. Upwards of 400 acres rose to such a 
 height above the level of the ground, that at last 
 it rolled forward like a torrent above a mile, sweep- 
 ing along with it houses, trees, &c. It covered 600 
 acres at Netherby, and destroyed about 30 small 
 villages. Near Solway Moss the Scots were defeated 
 by the English, 25 Nov. 1542. 
 
 SOMBRERO (West Indies). On this desert 
 isle, Robert Jeft'ery, a British man-of-war's man, 
 was put ashore by his commander, the hon. captain 
 W. Lake, for having tapped a barrel of beer when 
 the ship was on short allowance. After sustaining 
 life for eight days on a few limpets and rain-water, 
 he was saved by an American vessel, 13 Dec. 1807 ; 
 and returned to England. Sir Francis Burdett 
 advocated his cause in parliament, and he received 
 600/. as a compensation from captain Lake, who was 
 tried by a court-martial, and dismissed the service, 
 10 Feb. 1810. 
 
 SOMERSET-HOUSE (London), formerly a 
 palace, founded on the site of several churches 
 and other buildings levelled in 1549, by the pro- 
 tector Somerset, whose residence fell to the crown 
 after his execution, 22 Jan. 1552. Here resided at 
 times queen Elizabeth, Anne of Denmark, and 
 Catherine, queen of Charles II. Old Somerset- 
 house, a mixture of Grecian and Gothic, was de- 
 molished in 1775, and the present edifice, from a 
 design by sir William Chambers, was erected for 
 public offices. The Royal Academy of Arts first 
 assembled in the apartments given to the members 
 by the king, 17 Jan. 1771, and the Royal Society 
 met here, 1780-1857. Apartments here are held 
 by the Society of Antiquaries and the Geological 
 Society (1873). Large suites of government 
 buildings were erected in 1774. The Navy-office, 
 Pipe-office, Victualling and other offices, were 
 removed here in 1788, and various government 
 departments since. The east wing forming the 
 King's College (see King's College) was completed 
 in 1833. By an act passed in 1854, the offices of 
 the duchy of Cornwall were transferred to Pimlico. 
 
 SOMERSET THE BLACK, see Slavery in 
 
 England. 
 
 SOMNATH GATES, the gates of an ancient 
 Hindoo temple at Guzerat, which was destroyed by 
 Mahmoud of Ghuznee in 1025. The priests wished 
 to preserve the idol ; but Mahmoud broke it to 
 pieces and found it filled with diamonds, &c. He 
 carried the gates to Ghuznee. "When that city was 
 taken by general Nott, 6 Sept. 1842, lord Ellen- 
 borough ordered the gates to be restored after an 
 exile of 800 years, and issued a proclamation much 
 censured at the time. The gates are made of 
 sandal wood, and are described and figured in the 
 Archreologia of the Society of Antiquaries, vol. 
 
 XXX. 
 
 SONDERBUND, see Switzerland, 1846. 
 
 SONNET, a poem in fourteen lines, with 
 rhymes adjusted by rules, was invented, it is said, 
 by Guido d'Arezzo, about 1024. The most cele- 
 brated sonnets are those by Petrarch (about 1327), 
 Shakspeare (1609), Milton (about 1 650), and 
 Wordsworth (1820). 
 
 SONNITES, the orthodox Mahometans who- 
 now possess the Turkish empire ; see Maho- 
 metanism. 
 
 SONS OF THE CLERGY, see Clergy. 
 
 SONTHALS, a tribe of Northern India, 
 brought to Bengal about 1830, where they pros- 
 pered, till, partly from the instigation of a fanatic, 
 and partly from the exactions of money-lenders, 
 they broke out into rebellion in July, 1855, and 
 committed fearful outrages. They were quite sub- 
 dued early in 1856, and many were removed to the 
 newly- conquered province of Pegu. 
 
 SOPHIA, ST. (in Constantinople). The first 
 church was dedicated to St. Sophia (holy wisdom) 
 by Constantius II., 360 ; this having been destroyed, 
 the second, the present edifice, was founded by 
 Justinian, 532, and dedicated 527. Since the 
 Mahometan conquest in 1453, it has been used as 
 an imperial mosque. Its length is 269 feet, and its 
 breadth 243 feet. Six of its pillars are of green 
 jasper, from the temple of Diana, at Ephesus ; and 
 of porphyry, from the temple of the Sun, at Rome. 
 Four minarets were added by Selim II., who reigned 
 in 1566. The interior of the dome is beautifully 
 ornamented with mosaic work. 
 
 SOPHISTS, teachers of youth in Athens, who- 
 were censured by Socrates, and consequently were 
 instrumental in causing his judicial murder, 399 
 B.C. The controversy against them was carried on 
 by Plato and his disciples. 
 
 SORBONNE, a society of ecclesiastics at 
 Paris, founded by Robert de Sorbonne in 1252. 
 The members lived in common, and devoted them- 
 selves to study and gratuitous teaching. They 
 soon attained a European reputation as a facultyof 
 theology, their judgment being frequently appealed 
 to, from the 14th to the 17th centuries. The influ- 
 ence of the Sorbonne was declining when the society 
 was broken up in 1789. The buildings are now 
 devoted to education. 
 
 SORCERERS and Magicians. A law 
 
 was enacted against then- seductions, 33 Hen. VIII. 
 1 541; and another statute equally severe was 
 passed, 5 Eliz. 1563. The pretension to eorcery 
 was made capital, 1 James I. 1603; see Witch- 
 craft. 
 
SOUDAN. 
 
 617 SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM. 
 
 SOUDAN or SOUJAH, the title of the lieu- 
 tenant-generals of the caliphs, which they hore in 
 their provinces and armies. The officers afterwards 
 made themselves sovereigns. Saladin, general of 
 the forces of Noureddin, king of Damascus, was the 
 first that took upon him this title in Egypt, 1 165, 
 after having killed the caliph Caym. 
 
 SOULAGES COLLECTION. About 1827, 
 M. Soulages of Thoulouse, collected 790 specimens 
 of Italian art and workmanship, &c. These were 
 bought for n,ooo£. by 73 English gentlemen, with 
 the view of first exhibiting them to the public, and 
 afterwards selling them to the government (who 
 gradually purchased them between 1858 and 1865). 
 They formed part of the " Art Treasures " exhibited 
 at Manchester in 1857. 
 
 SOUND, see Acoustics. 
 
 SOUND DUTIES. Till the year 1857 no 
 merchant ship was allowed to pass the Sound (a 
 narrow channel separating Zealand from Sweden) 
 without clearing at Elsineur and paying toll. 
 These duties had their origin in an agreement 
 between the king of Denmark and the Hanse towns 
 (1348), by which the former undertook to maintain 
 lighthouses, &c, along the Cattegat, and the latter 
 to pay duty for the same. The first treaty with 
 England in relation to this was in 1450; other 
 countries followed. In 1855 the United States 
 determined to pay the dues no more ; and in the 
 same year the Danish government proposed that 
 these dues should be capitalised ; which was 
 eventually agreed to, the sum being 30,476,325 rix- 
 dollars. In Aug. 1857, the British government 
 paid 10,126,855 rix-doliars (1,125,206^) to the Danes 
 as their proportion. — The passage of the Sound was 
 effected, in defiance of strong fortresses, by sir Hyde 
 Parker and lord Nelson, 31 March, 1801 ; see 
 Baltic Expedition. 
 
 SOUNDINGS AT SEA. Captain Eoss, of 
 H.M.S. (Edipus, in 1840, took extraordinary 
 soundings at sea. One taken 900 miles west of St. 
 Helena, extended to the depth of 5000 fathoms. In 
 the latitude 33° S. and longitude 9° W. about 300 
 miles from the Cape of Good Hope, 2266 fathoms 
 were sounded ; the weight employed amounted to 
 450 lbs. On 13 July, 1857, lieut. Joseph Dayman, 
 in the North Atlantic Ocean, lat. 51 9' N., long. 
 40 2' W., in sounding, found a bottom at 2424 
 fathoms. 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA, see America. 
 
 SOUTHAMPTON, a seaport (S. England), a 
 county of itself, near the Eoman Clausentum and 
 the Saxon Hamtune. It frequently suffered by 
 Danish incursions : Canute, when king, occasionally 
 resided here. The charter was granted by Henry I. 
 and confirmed by Eichard I. and John ; and the free 
 grammar school was founded by Edward VI. On 
 17 July, 1861, a monument to Dr. Isaac Watts, 
 a native, was inaugiu-ated, and on 15 Oct. 1862. 
 the Hartley institution was opened by lord Pal- 
 mer ston. 
 
 SOUTH AUSTRALIA was visited by capt. 
 Sturt in 1830, and explored shortly after by capt. 
 Parker and Mr. Kent, the former of whom was 
 killed by the natives. The boundaries of the pro- 
 vince were fixed by 4 & 5 Will. IV. c. 95 (1834) ; 
 and it was occupied 26 Dec. 1836, by capt. Hind- 
 marsh, the first governor. It was colonised accord- 
 ing to Mr. E. Gibbon Wakefield's scheme, which 
 was carried out by the South Australian Colonisa- 
 tion Association. The colony for several years 
 
 underwent severe trials through the great influx 
 of emigrants, land-jobbing, building speculations, 
 &c, which produced almost universal bankruptcy 
 in 1839. In five years after, the energy of the 
 colonists had overcome their difficulties, and the- 
 prosperity of the colony appeared fully established. 
 In 1842 the highly productive Burra Burra copper 
 mines were discovered, and large fortunes were- 
 suddenly realised; but in 1851 the discovery of 
 gold in New South Wales and Victoria almost 
 paralysed this province by drawing off a large 
 part of the labouring population. Very little gold 
 was found in South Australia ; but a reaction took 
 place in favour of the copper mines and agricul- 
 ture, &c. Before the discovery of gold, little- 
 trade existed between Adelaide (the capital of 
 South Australia) and Melbourne ; but in 1852 
 gold was transmitted from the latter to the former- 
 to the amount of 2,215, 167^. principally for bread- 
 stuffs, farm produce, &c. The bishopric of Ade- 
 laide was founded in 1847. Sir Dominic Daly, 
 appointed governor in Nov. 1861, died 19 Feb. 
 1868 ; succeeded by sir James Fergusson, Dec. 
 1868 ; by Anthony Musgrave, Jan 1873. Popula- 
 tion in 1855, 85,821 ; in 1865, 156,605 ; in 1871, 
 185,626. 
 
 SOUTHCOTT, JOANNA, a fanatic, bom 
 in 1750, came from Exeter to London, where her 
 followers at one period amounted to many thou- 
 sands, the low and ignorant being her principal 
 dupes. In 1792 she announced herself as the 
 woman spoken of in Revelation, chap. xii. ; and 
 a disease favoured the delusion that she would be 
 the mother of the promised Shiloh. She died 27 
 Dee. 1814. In 1851 there existed in England four- 
 congregations, professing to expect her return. 
 
 SOUTHERN CONFEDERATE STATES, 
 see Confederates. 
 
 SOUTHERN CONTINENT. The Southern 
 Ocean was first traversed by Magellan in 1520 ; 
 and explored by Wallis and Carteret in 1766 ; and 
 by Cook in 1773 and 1774. Of the southern con- 
 tinent little more is known than that it is ice- 
 bound, and contains active volcanoes. It was dis- 
 covered in the first instance by capt. John Biscoe, 
 on 27 Feb. 1831, in lat. 65° 57' S., long. 47° 20'E., 
 extending east and west 200 miles, — this he named 
 Enderby Land, after the gentleman who had 
 equipped him for the voyage. Capt. Biscoe also- 
 discovered Graham's Land on 15 Feb. 1832, 
 situated in lat. 67 1' S., long. 71 48' W. The- 
 Messrs. Enderby equipped three other expeditions- 
 in search of the southern continent, the last (in 
 connection with some other gentlemen) in 1838, 
 when capt. Balleny had command, who, on 9 Feb. 
 1839, discovered the Balleny Islands, in lat. 67 
 S., long. 165 E., and in March, 1839, Sabrina 
 Land, in lat. 65 10' S., long. n8°30' E. In 1840, 
 a French expedition, under the command of admiral 
 D'Urville, and an American expedition, under the 
 command of commodore Wilkes, greatly added to 
 our knowledge in respect to the existence of a 
 southern continent, and this was again increased 
 by the expedition which sailed from England in. 
 1839, under the command of capt. sir James- 
 Clark Eoss, who discovered Victoria Land in 1841, 
 and subsequently penetrated as far south as 
 78° 11'. 
 
 SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM, 
 
 near Brompton old church (containing the pic- 
 tures presented by Mr. Vernon, Mr. Sheepshanks, 
 Mrs. Ellison, and those bequeathed by Turner, 
 the great painter, as well as specimens of sculpture 
 
SOUTH-SEA BUBBLE. 
 
 618 
 
 SPAIN. 
 
 and art, educational collections, products of the 
 animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms. &c), was 
 opened on 24 June, 1857. A special exhibition of 
 works of art, of immense value, lent for the occasion, 
 was opened here in the summer of 1862, and closed 
 in November. In July, 1873, a testimonial to Mr. 
 Henry Cole, C.B., was proposed for his exertions in 
 organizing this museum, andin promoting its objects. 
 
 SOUTH-SEA BUBBLE commenced with 
 the establishment of the South-sea company in 
 1 7 10, which was at first unwisely and afterwards 
 dishonestly managed. It exploded in 1 720, ruining 
 thousands of families ; and the directors' estates, 
 to the value of 2,014,000/., were seized in 1721 and 
 sold. Mr. Knight, the cashier, absconded with 
 100,000/. ; but he compounded the fraud for 
 10,000/. and returned to England in 1743. Almost 
 all the wealthy persons in the kingdom had become 
 speculators ; the artifices of the directors having 
 raised the shares, originally 100/., to the price of 
 IOOO/. A parliamentary inquiry took place in 
 Nov. 1720, and Aislabie, chancellor of the exche- 
 quer, and several members of parliament were 
 •expelled the house in 1721 ; see Laiv's Bubble. 
 
 SOUTHWAEK (S. London), was governed by 
 its own bailiffs till 1327. The city, however, found 
 great inconvenience from the number of malefac- 
 tors who escaped thither, in order to be out of the 
 reach and cognizance of the city magistrates ; and 
 a grant was made of Southwark to the city of 
 London by the crown, for a small annuity. In 
 Edward Vl.'s reign it was formed into a city ward, 
 and was named Bridge Ward "Without, 1550. — 
 Southwark bridge was designed by John Rennie, 
 and built by a company, 1815-19, at an expense 
 of 800,000/. It consists of three great cast-iron 
 arches, resting on massive stone piers and abut- 
 ments ; the distance between the abutments is 708 
 feet; the centre arch is 240 feet span, the two 
 others 210 feet each; and the total weight of iron 
 5308 tons. The bridge was freed from toll on 8 
 Nov. 1864, the company receiving a compensation 
 from the city. An act for the payment of divi- 
 dends to shareholders was passed in 1872. — Sontli- 
 wark park was opened, 19 June, 1869. 
 
 SOUTHWOLD, BBeSolebatf. 
 
 SOVEREIGN, an ancient and modern British 
 gold coin. In 1489 22i pieces, in value 20s., " to 
 be called the sovereign," were ordered to be coined 
 out of a pound of gold. Ruding. In 1542 sove- 
 reigns were coined in value 20s., which afterwards, 
 in 1550 and 1552 (4 & 6 Ed. VI.), passed for 24s. 
 and 30s. "Sovereigns" of the new coinage were 
 directed to pass for 20s. 1 July, and half-sovereigns 
 for 10*. 10 Oct. 1817; see Coin, and Gold. By the 
 Coinage act, 1 870, the weight of the sovereign is 
 fixed at I23"27447 grains troy; half-sovereigns, 
 61 63723. Ihe dragon sovereigns were re-issued 
 in 1871. 
 
 SPA-FIELDS (N. London). Here about 
 30,000 persons assembled to vote an address from 
 the distressed manufacturers to the prince regent, 
 15 Nov. 1816. A second meeting, 2 Dec. following, 
 terminated in an alarming riot ; the shops of 
 several gunsmiths were attacked for arms by the 
 rioters ; and in the shop of Mr. Beckwith, on Snow- 
 liill, Mr. Piatt was wounded, and much injury was 
 done before the tumult was suppressed. For this 
 riot, Cashman, a seaman, was hanged, 12 March, 
 1817. Watson, the ringleader, escaped to America. 
 
 SPAHIS, Turkish cavalry. African horsemen, 
 under this name, were incorporated by the French 
 
 in Algeria in 1834 \ three regiments of them came 
 to France in 1863. 
 
 SPAIN (the ancient Iberia and Hispania). The 
 first settlers are supposed to have been the progeny 
 of Tubal, fifth son of Japheth. The Phoenicians 
 and Carthaginians (360 k.c.) successively planted 
 colonies on the coasts ; and the Romans conquered 
 the whole country, 206 B.C. Population of Spain 
 in 1857, 1 15,464,078 ; of the colonies, 6,333,887. 
 In 1867, 16,090,546; colonies, 6,384,131; Balearic 
 Isles and Canaries, 551,434. Revenue : 1822, about 
 6,000,000/.; 1850, 12,722,200/.; i860, 18,921,000; 
 187 x, about 26,000,000/. 
 
 The Carthaginians, enriched by the mines of Spain B.C. 
 (480 b.c. et s&j.) form settlements . . . . 360 
 New Carthage (Carthagena) founded by Hasdrubal 242 
 Hamilcar extends their dominions in Spain . 238-233 
 At his death, Hannibal, his son, takes the com- 
 mand, 22t ; prepares for war, 220 ; takes Sagun- 
 tum, 219 ; crosses the Alps, and enters Italy . 218 
 The Romans carry the war into Spain ; two Scipios 
 
 defeated and slain by Hasdrubal . . . . 212 
 Pub. Cornelius Scipio Africanus takes New Car- 
 thage, 210 ; drives the Carthaginians out of Spain, 
 
 207 ; and annexes it 205 
 
 Celtiberian and Numantine war . . . 153-133 
 
 Viriathus, general of the Celtiberians and Lusi- 
 
 tanians, subdued all West Spain, 145 ; makes 
 
 peace with the consul Fabius Servilianus, 142 ; 
 
 assassinated by order of the Romans . . . 140 
 
 Insurrection of Sertorius, 78 ; subdued by Pompey, 
 
 and assassinated 72 
 
 Julius Casar quells an insurrection in Spain . . 67 
 
 Pompey governs Spain 60-50 
 
 Revolt through the rapacity of Crassus . . 48-47 
 
 Era of Spain : conquest by Augustus begun, 1 Jan. 38 
 The Vandals, Alani, and Suevi wrest Spain from a.d. 
 
 the Romans 409 
 
 Adolphus founds the kingdom of the Visigoths . . 414 
 The Vandals pass over to Africa .... 427 
 Theodnric I. vanquishes the Suevi . . . . 452 
 Assassinated by his brother Euric, who becomes 
 
 master of all Spain 466 
 
 Recared I. expels the Franks 587 
 
 He abjures Arianism, and rules ably . . till 601 
 Wamba's wise administration ; he prepared a fleet 
 
 for defence against the Saracens . . 672-677 
 
 The Arabs invited into Spain against king Roderic . 709 
 
 His defeat and death at Xeres 711 
 
 Establishment of the Saracens at Cordova . . ,, 
 
 Victorious progress of Musa and Tarik . . 712-13 
 Emirs rule at Cordova ; Pelayo, of Gothic blood, 
 
 rules in Asturias and Leon 718 
 
 The Saracens defeated at Tours by Charles Martel, 
 
 732 or 733 
 Abdtrahman the first king at Cordova . . . 755 
 
 Invasion of Charlemagne 777-78 
 
 Sancho Iiiigo, count of Navarre, &c. . . . 873 
 Saneho of Navarre becomes king of Castile . . 1026 
 The kingdom of Aragon commenced under Rami- 
 rez 1 1035 
 
 Leon and Asturias united to Castile . . . . 1037 
 Portugal taken from the Saracens by Hemy of 
 
 Besanijon (see Portugal) 1095 
 
 The Saracens, beset on all sides by the Christians, 
 call in the aid of the Moors from Africa, who seize 
 the dominions they came to protect, and subdue 
 
 the Saraeeus 1091 et so/. 
 
 Exploits of the Cid Rodrigo ; dies . . ' about 1099 
 Dynasty of the Aim oravides at Cordova . 1094-1144 
 The Moors defeated in several battles by Alfonso of 
 Leon ......... 1 144 
 
 Dynasty of the Almohades at Cordova . 1144-1225 
 Cordova, Toledo, Seville, &e., taken by Ferdinand 
 
 of Castile and Leon 1233-48 
 
 The kingdom of Granada begun by the Moors, last 
 
 refuge from the power of the Christians . . . 1238 
 The crown of Navarre passes to the royal family of 
 
 France 1274 
 
 200,000 Moors arrive to assist the king of Granada . 1327 
 They are defeated at Tarifa by Alfonso XL of Cas- 
 tile with great slaughter 1340 
 
 Reign of Pedro the Cruel 1350 
 
 His alliance with Edward the Black Prince . . 1363 
 
SPAIN. 
 
 619 
 
 SPAIN. 
 
 Defeated at Montiel and treacherously slain . . 1369 
 Ferdinand II. of Aragon marries Isabella of Castile, 
 
 18 Oct. 1469 ; and nearly the whole Christian 
 dominions of Spain are united in one monarchy . 1479 
 
 Establishment of the Inquisition . . . 1480-4 
 
 Persecution of the Jews 1492-8 
 
 Granada taken after a two years' siege ; and the 
 power of the Moors is finally extirpated by Ferdi- 
 nand 1492 
 
 Columbus is sent from Spain to explore the western 
 
 ocean 17 April, ,, 
 
 Mahometans persecuted and expelled . . 1499-1502 
 
 Death of Columbus 20 May, 1506 
 
 Ferdinand conquers great part of Navarre . . 1512 
 Accession of the house of Austria to the throne of 
 
 Spain ; Charles I. of Spain 1516 
 
 Able administration of Ximenes ; imgratefully 
 
 used, 1516 ; his death 1517 
 
 Charles elected emperor of Germany . . . .1519 
 
 Insurrection in Castile 1520-21 
 
 Philip of Spain marries Mary of England, 25 July, 1554 
 Charles abdicates and retires from the world . . 1556 
 "War with France ; victory at St. Quentin, 10 Aug. 1557 
 Philip II. commences his bloody persecution of the 
 
 protestants 1561 
 
 The Eseurial begun building 1563 
 
 Bevolt of the Moriscoes, 1567 ; suppressed . . . 1570 
 Naval victory of Lepanto over the Turks 7 Oct. 1571 
 Portugal united to Spain by conquest . . . 1580 
 
 The Spanish Armada destroyed ; see Armada. . 1588 
 Philip III. banishes the Moors (900,000) . 1598-1610 
 Ministry of the duke of Lerma . . . . 1598-1618 
 
 Ministry of Olivarez 1621-43 
 
 Philip IV. loses Portugal 1640 
 
 Death of Charles II. , last of the house of Austria ; 
 accession of Philip V. of the house of Bourbon . 1700 
 
 War of the Succession 1702-13 
 
 Gibraltar taken by the English 1704 
 
 Siege of Barcelona 1713 
 
 Able government of cardinal Alberoni ; he re-estab- 
 lished the authority of the king, reformed many 
 abuses, and raised Spain to the rank of a first 
 power, 1715-20 ; ordered to quit Spain . . . 1720 
 Charles, son of Philip V. , conquers Naples . . 1735 
 Charles III. king of the Two Sicilies, succeeds to 
 
 the crown of Spain 1759 
 
 War with England, 1762-3 ; and .... 1796 
 Battle of Cape St. Vincent ... 14 Feb. 1797 
 Spanish treasure-ships, valued at 3,000,000 dollars, 
 
 seized by the English .... Oct. 1804 
 
 Battle of Trafalgar (see Trafalgar) . . 21 Oct. 1805 
 Sway of Godoy, prince of peace .... 1806 
 The French enter Spain; a Spanish army sent to 
 
 the Baltic 1807 
 
 Conspiracy of the prince of Asturias against his 
 father ....... 25 July, ,, 
 
 Treaty of Fontainebleau .... 27 Oct. ,, 
 
 The French take Madrid . . . March, 1808 
 
 The prince of peace dismissed . . 18 March, ,, 
 
 Abdication of Charles IV. in favour of Ferdinand, 
 
 19 March ; and at Bayonne, in favour of his 
 "friend and ally" Napoleon, when Ferdinand 
 relinquished the crown 1 May, ,, 
 
 Revolution : the French massacred at Madrid, 
 
 2 May, 
 The province of Asturias rises en masse 
 Napoleon assembles the notables at 
 
 . 3 May, 
 Bayonne, 
 
 25 May, 
 of Spain, 
 . 29 July, 
 
 21 Aug. 
 Sept. 
 
 Joseph Bonaparte enters Madrid as kinj 
 
 12 July ; retires .... 
 Battle of Vimiera ; French defeated 
 Supreme Junta installed . 
 
 Madrid taken by the French, and Joseph restored, 
 
 2 Dec. 
 Napoleon enters Madrid . . . .4 Dec. 
 The royal family of Spain imprisoned in the palace 
 
 of Chambery in Savoy .... 5 Dec. ,, 
 The French defeated at Corunna, 16 Jan. ; take 
 
 Ferrol, 27 Jan. ; Saragossa, 21 Feb. ; Oporto, 
 
 29 Feb. ; Cordova and Seville, Nov. ; Gerona, 
 
 r2 Dec. 1809 
 Ney takes Ciudad Rodrigo ... 10 July, 1810 
 The Spanish cortes meet . . . .24 Sept. ,, 
 Wellington defeats Massena at Fuentes de Onoro, 
 
 5 May, 181 1 
 Soult defeated at Albuera . . . 16 May, ,, 
 Constitution of the cortes (democratic) . 8 May, 1812 
 Wellington takes Ciudad Rodrigo, 19 Jan. ; storms 
 
 Badajoz, 6 April ; defeats Marmont at Salamanca, 
 
 22 July, 1812 
 He occupies Madrid, and totally defeats the French 
 at Vittoria, 21 June ; defeats Soult in the Pyre- 
 nees, 28 July ; takes St. Sebastian, 31 Aug. ; and 
 
 enters France 8 Oct. 1813 
 
 Ferdinand VII. restored (constitution set aside), 
 
 14 May, 1814 
 Slave trade abolished for a compensation . . 1817 
 Insurrection at Valencia repressed . . . . 1819 
 Spanish revolution begun by Riego . . Jan. 1820 
 
 Ferdinand swears to the constitution of the cortes, 
 
 8 March, ,, 
 The cortes remove the king to Seville, and thence 
 
 to Cadiz March, 1823 
 
 The French enter Spain, 7 April ; and invest Cadiz, 
 
 25 June, ,, 
 Battle of the Trocadero .... 31 Aug. ,, 
 Despotism resumed ; the cortes dissolved ; execu- 
 tions of liberals Oct. ,, 
 
 Riego put to death 7 Nov. ,, 
 
 The French evacuate Cadiz ... 21 Sept. 1828 
 Cadiz made a free port . . . .24 Feb. 1829 
 Salique law abolished, 29 March ; Carlist and 
 
 Christina parties formed ....'.. 1830 
 Queen of Spain appointed regent dimng the king's 
 
 indisposition ; change in the ministry, 25 Oct. 1832 
 Don Carlos declares himself legitimate successor to 
 
 the king 29 April, 1833 
 
 Death of Ferdinand VII. ; his queen assumes the 
 title of governing queen until Isabella II. , her 
 infant daughter, attains her majority, 29 Sept. ,, 
 Constitution termed "Estatuto Real" granted by 
 
 advice of Martinez de la Rosa ,, 
 
 The royalist volunteers disarmed with some blood- 
 shed at Madrid 27 Oct. ,, 
 
 Queen Christina marries Ferdinand Mufioz (after- 
 wards duke of Rianzares) . . . .28 Dec. „ 
 The quadruple treaty establishes the right of 
 
 Isabella to the throne . . . .22 Aprd, 1834 
 Don Carlos suddenly appears in Spain . 10 July, „ 
 The peers vote his exclusion . . 30 Aug. „ 
 Mendizabal, prime minister ; Mina and Espartero 
 commanded the royalists ; the rebel leader, 
 Zumalacarregui, killed near Bilboa . June, 1835 
 Sir De Lacy Evans and others raise a British legion 
 
 for the queen of Spain „ 
 
 They defeat the Carlists at St. Sebastian, 1 Oct. 1836 
 Espartero gains the battle of Bilboa . 25 Dec. „ 
 General Evans takes Iran ... 17 May, 1837 
 
 Constituent cortes proclaimed , 
 
 Dissolution of the monasteries „ 
 
 The Carlists under Maroto desert Don Carlos and 
 
 conclude a treaty of peace . . .29 Aug. 1839 
 Don Carlos seeks refuge in France . 13 Sept. ,, 
 
 Surrender of Morello . . . .28 May, 1840 
 
 Cabrera, the Carlist general, unable to maintain the 
 
 war, enters France 7 July, „ 
 
 The British auxiliaries evacuate St. Sebastian and 
 
 Passages 25 Aug. „ 
 
 Revolutionary movement at Madrid : the authorities 
 
 triumphant 1 Sept. „ 
 
 Dismissal of the ministry, and dissolution of the 
 
 cortes 9 Sept. „ 
 
 Espartero, minister, makes his triumphal entry into 
 
 Madrid 3 Oct. „ 
 
 The queen regent appoints anew ministry, who are 
 
 nominated by Espartero, 5 Oct. ; she abdicates 
 
 and leaves the kingdom ; visits France and Sicily ; 
 
 returns to France .... 12 Oct. ,, 
 
 Espartero, duke of Victory, expels the papal nuncio 
 
 29 Dec. „ 
 The Spanish cortes declare Espartero regent during 
 
 the queen's minority ... 12 April, 1841 
 
 Queen Christina's protest ... 19 July, ,, 
 Insurrection in favour of Christina commenced at 
 Pampeluna by general O'Donnell and Concha, 
 
 2 Oct. ., 
 Don Diego Leon attacks the palace at Madrid ; his 
 followers repulsed, and numbers slain by the 
 queen's guards, 7 Oct. ; he is shot at Madrid, 
 
 15 Oct. „ 
 Zurbano captures Bilboa . . . 21 Oct. „ 
 Rodil, constitutional general, enters Vittoria, 
 
 21 Oct. ,, 
 Montes de Oca shot .... 21 Oct. ,, 
 General O'Donnell takes refuge in the French terri- 
 tory 21 Oct. „ 
 
SPAIN. 
 
 620 
 
 SPAIN. 
 
 Espartero decrees the suspension of queen Chris- 
 tina's pension 26 Oct. 1841 
 
 Foeros of the Basque provinces abolished, 29 Oct. „ 
 Borio and Gobernado, implicated in the Christina 
 
 plot, put to death at Madrid . . 9 Nov. „ 
 Espartero enters Madrid ... 23 Nov. ,, 
 General pardon of all persons not yet tried, con- 
 cerned in the events of October . . 13 Die. 
 The effective strength of the army fixed at 130,000 
 
 men 28 June, 1842 
 
 An insurrection at Barcelona; the national guard 
 joins the populace, 13 Nov. ; battle in the streets 
 between the national guard and the troops : the 
 latter lose 500 in killed and wounded, and retreat 
 
 to the citadel 15 Nov. ,, 
 
 Barcelona blockaded, 26 Nov. ; Espartero arrives 
 before it ; 29 Nov. ; its bombardment and surren- 
 der 3, 4 Dec. ,, 
 
 The disturbances at Malaga ... 25 May, 1843 
 The revolutionary junta is re-established at Barce- 
 lona . 11 June, ,, 
 
 [Corunna, Seville, Burgos, Santiago, and numerous 
 other towns, shortly afterwards "pronounce" 
 against the regent Espartero.] 
 Arrival of general Narvaez at Madrid, which surren- 
 ders 15 July, „ 
 
 Espartero bombards Seville . . .21 July, „ 
 
 The siege is raised 27 July, ,, 
 
 [The revolution is completely successful, and Espar- 
 tero flees to Cadiz, and embarks on board her 
 Majesty's ship Malabar.] 
 The new government deprives Espartero of his 
 titles and rank, 16 Aug. ; he arrives in London, 
 
 23 Aug. ,, 
 Reaction suppressed at Madrid . . . Aug. ,, 
 Isabella II. 13 years old, is declared by the cortesto 
 be of age ; Narvaez (friend of the queen-mother), 
 lieutenant-general .... 8 Nov. ,, 
 
 The queen-mother returns to Spain . 23 March, 1844 
 Zurbano's insurrection, 12 Nov. 1844 ; he is shot, 
 
 21 Jan. 1845 
 Don Carlos relinquishes his right to the crown in 
 favour of his son .... 18 May, ,, 
 
 Reactionary constitution ,, 
 
 Narvaez and his ministry resign, 12 Feb. ; return 
 
 to power, 17 March ; again resign . 28 March, 1846 
 Escape of Don Carlos from France . . 14 Sept. ,, 
 Marriage of the queen to her cousin, Don Francisco 
 dAssiz, duke of Cadiz, and marriage also of the 
 infanta Louisa to the due de Montpensier, 10 Oct. ,, 
 [The Spanish marriages disturb the friendly rela- 
 tions of the French and English governments.] 
 Amnesty granted to political offenders . 18 Oct. ,, 
 Two shots tired at the queen by an assassin, La Riva, 
 
 4 May, 1847 
 He suffers " death by the cord " .23 June, „ 
 
 Espartero restored " . . .3 Sept. ,, 
 
 Sir Henry Lytton Bulwer, British envoy, ordered 
 
 to quit Spain in 48 hours ... 17 May, 1848 
 Narvaez dismissed and recalled .... 1849 
 Diplomatic relations with England restored, 
 
 18 April, 1S50 
 The queen of Spain delivered of a male child, which 
 
 lives but ten minutes ... 12 July, ,, 
 
 The American expeditions under Lopez against 
 
 Cuba (see Cuba, and the United States) . 1850, 1851 
 Resignation of Narvaez .... 10 Jan. ,, 
 The infante don Henrique permitted to return to 
 
 Spain 2 Feb. ,, 
 
 Madrid-Aranjuez railway opened . . 9 Feb. „ 
 Law respecting the public debt (which has since 
 excluded Spain from the European money-mar- 
 kets) 1 Aug. ,, 
 
 Death of Godoy, prince of peace . . . 4 Oct. ,, 
 The queen jiardons the prisoners taken in the 
 
 attempt upon Cuba . . . .11 Dec. ,, 
 Her majesty gives birth to a princess . 20 Dec. „ 
 Attempt made on the life of the queen ; she is 
 slightly wounded by the dagger of Merino, a 
 
 Franciscan 2 Feb. 1852 
 
 Gen. Castaiios, duke of Baylen, renowned in the 
 
 French war, dies, aged 95 . . . 23 Sept. ,, 
 Narvaez exiled to Vienna .... Jan. 1853 
 
 Ministerial changes— Lersundi forms a cabinet, 
 
 11 April ; resigns : Sartorius's cabinet . Sept. ,, 
 Birth and death of a princess ... 5 Jan. 1854 
 General O'Donnell, Concha, and others banished, 
 
 17 Jan. ,, 
 
 Disturbances at Saragossa, '&c. . . . Feb. 1854 
 Don Francisco (father of the king consort), marries 
 
 an " unfortunate " woman . . . March, ., 
 Military insurrection, under O'Donnell, near Madrid, 
 
 28 June, 
 
 The movement headed by Espartero ; Barcelona 
 
 and Madrid pronounce against the goveniiin ut : 
 
 barricades in Madrid . . . 1-17JUI.V, ,, 
 
 Triumph of the insurrection: resignation of the 
 
 ministry ; the queen sends for Espartero, 
 
 19 July,, „ 
 Peace restored : the degraded generals reinstated, 
 &c. ; Espartero forms an administration, 31 July, 
 The queen mother impeached ; she quits Spam 
 
 28 Aug. „ 
 Ministerial crisis ; Espartero resigns, but resumes 
 
 office 21-30 Nov. ,, 
 
 New constitution of the cortes . . 13 Jan. 1855 
 
 The cortes vote that all power proceeds from the 
 people; they permit liberty of belief, but not of 
 
 worship Feb. ,, 
 
 Don Carlos dies 10 March, ,, 
 
 Insurrection of Valencia .... 6 April, 1856 
 
 Resignation of Espartero ; new cabinet formed, 
 
 headed by marshal O'Donnell ; insurrection in 
 
 Madrid, 14 July ; O'Donnell and the government 
 
 troops subdue the insurgents ; the national 
 
 guard suppressed .... 15-16 July, ., 
 
 Insurrection at Barcelona and Saragossa quelled by 
 
 O'Donnell, as dictator . . . 15-23 July, 
 
 O'Donnell compelled to resign; Narvaez becomes 
 
 minister 12 Oct. ,, 
 
 Amnesty granted to political offenders . 19 Oct. 
 Espartero resigns as senator ... 1 Feb. 1857 
 
 Insurrection in Andalusia ; quickly suppressed ; 
 cruel military executions ; 98 insurgents shot (24 
 at Seville) . . . . June and July, ,, 
 Ministerial changes ; Amiero minister . 26 Oct. ,, 
 Birth of the prince royal ... 28 Nov. ,, 
 Isturitz, minister, 14* Jan. ; O'Donnell, minister, 
 
 1 July, 185S 
 Cessation of state 1 if siege at Barcelona, &c. 20 Sept. ,, 
 Joint French and Spanish expedition against Cochin 
 
 China announced 1 Dec. ,, 
 
 War with Morocco (which see) . . Nov. -Dec. 1859 
 An association for reforming the tariff, &c. formed . ,, 
 O'Donnell commands the army in Africa ; indecisive 
 conflicts reported ; battle at Castillejos ; a Spanish 
 "Balaklava" charge .... 1 Jan. i860 
 The .Moors defeated near Tetuan, which surrenders 
 
 4 Feb. „ 
 An ineffectual truce .... 16-23 Feb. 
 The Moors defeated at Guad-el-ras . 23 March, ,, 
 Treaty of peace signed; 400,000,000 reals to be 
 paid by Moors, and Tetuan to be held till paid 
 
 26 Mar. 
 General Ortega, governor of the Balearic Isles, lands 
 nearTortosa, in Valencia, with 3000 men, and pro- 
 claims the comte de Montemolin king, as Charles 
 VI. ; his troops resist, and he is compelled to flee, 
 with the comte and others, 3 April ; Ortega shot 
 
 19 April, ,, 
 The comte de Montemolin and his brother Ferdi- 
 nand arrested at Tortosa, 21 April ; renounce their 
 claim to the throne . . . .23 April, ,, 
 
 An amnesty proclaimed . . . . 2 May, 
 Their brother Juan asserts his right, 5 June; and 
 they, when at Cologne, annul their renunciation, 
 
 28 June, „ 
 The emperor Napoleon's proposal to admit Spain as 
 a first-class power is opposed by England, and 
 
 given up Aug. ,. 
 
 Tie- comte de Montemolin and his wife die at Trieste 
 
 14 Jan. 1861 
 The annexation of St. Domingo to Spain ratified ; 
 slavery not to be re-established . .19 May, 
 Insurrection at Loja suppressed . . . July, ,, 
 The queen said to be governed by the nun Patrocinio 
 
 Dec. ,, 
 Intervention in Mexico (see Mexico) . 8 Dec. ,, 
 Much church property in course of sale . April, 1862 
 Jose Albania and Manuel Matamoras, protectant 
 propagandists, sentenced to 10 years' imprison- 
 ment 14 Oct. ,, 
 
 Don Juan de Bourbon renounces his right to the 
 
 throne 8 Jan. 1863 
 
 Resignation of the premier, marshal O'Donnell, 26 
 Feb. ; marquis de Mirafiores minister 4 March, „ 
 
SPAIN. 
 
 Insurrection in St. Domingo ; war ensues (see Do- 
 mingo) i Sept. 
 
 Empress of France visits the queen . . Oct. 
 
 Rupture with Peru (which see) '. . . April, 
 
 General Prim exiled for conspiracy . . 13 Aug. 
 
 Arrazola ministry, Jan. ; M011 forms a ministry, 1 
 March; resigns, 13 Sept. ; Narvaez forms a cabinet 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Queen Christina returns to Spain . . 26 Sept. 
 
 English government recognises the insurrection at 
 St. Domingo ; Narvaez advises abandonment of 
 the contest ; the queen refuses ; the ministry re- 
 sign ; but resume office . . . 14-18 Dec. 
 
 Peace with Peru, which has to pay a heavy indemnity 
 
 27 Jan. 
 
 The queen orders the sale of crown lands, giving up 
 three-fourths to the nation . . 20 Feb. 
 
 Student riots at Madrid ; several persons killed 
 
 10 April, 
 
 [Bravo Murillo accused of cruelty on this occasion.] 
 
 Decree relinquishing St. Domingo . . 5 May, 
 
 Suppression of a conspiracy at Valencia to re-unite 
 Spain and Portugal .... 10 June, 
 
 Resignation of Narvaez, 19 June ; O'Donnell forms 
 a liberal cabinet 22 Juue, 
 
 Kingdom of Italy recognised by Spain 26 June, 
 
 Father Claret dismissed from court . . 20 July, 
 
 Dispute with Chili ; M. Tavira's settlement (20 
 May) disavowed by the government . 25 July, 
 
 Emperor Napoleon visits the queen at St. Sebas- 
 tian, 9 Sept. ; she visits him at Biarritz, 11 Sept. 
 
 Disturbances at Saragossa suppressed . 3 Oct. 
 
 Admiral Pareja, at Valparaiso, insults the Chilian 
 government, 18 Sept. ; which declares war, 25 
 • Sept. ; Pareja declares a blockade . . Oct. 
 
 The Chilian captain Williams captures the Spanish 
 vessel Co vadonga (Pareja commits suicide) 26 Nov. 
 
 Intervention fruitless Dec. 
 
 Claret returns to court .... 25 Dec. 
 
 New cortes elected ; the great Progresista party 
 still abstains from action in public affairs ; queen 
 opens cortes 27 Dec. 
 
 Military insurrection at Aranjuez, headed by gen. 
 Prim, 3 Jan. ; martial law in Madrid, 4 Jan. ; 
 Concha and Zabala march against rebels, 4 Jan. ; 
 &c. ; riots at Barcelona, 9, 10 Jan. ; state of siege 
 in New Castile, Catalonia, and Aragon 6-12 Jan. 
 
 Prim enters Portugal and lays down arms ; the in- 
 surrection ends 20 Jan. 
 
 Queen. Victoria,, British sloop, seized by a guarda- 
 eosta 15 Jan. 
 
 Admiral Mendez bombards Valparaiso, destroying 
 much property, 31 March ; he is repulsed at Callao 
 with loss 2 May, 
 
 The queen declares the campaign in the Pacific ended 
 
 15 June, 
 
 Great military revolt in favour of Prim at Madrid ; 
 about 1200 men, headed by non-commissioned 
 officers, with cannon, quelled summarily by mar- 
 shals O'Donnell and Narvaez, with much blood- 
 shed ; 200 prisoners shot, 22 June ; 21 sergeants 
 shot 26 June, 
 
 Military revolts at Barcelona and at various other 
 places 23 June, 
 
 Resignation of O'Donnell as minister, succeeded by 
 Narvaez and Bravo, who adopt severe measures 
 against the liberals July, 
 
 The queen said to be subject to the influence of 
 the " bleeding nun," Patrocinio, and the priests 
 
 July, 
 
 Freedom of the press abolished, and writers trans- 
 ported to the colonies; a "reign of terror" 
 
 Aug. -Sept. 
 
 British screw steamer Tornado, com. E. Collier, 
 
 seized by Spaniards (charged with aiding Chili), 
 
 and carried to Cadiz .... 21-22 Aug. 
 
 33 persons condemned to death, many of whom had 
 
 fled 23 Sept. 
 
 Re-establishment of tranquillity declared at Madrid 
 
 3 Oct. 
 
 Public instruction placed under the clergy Oct. 
 
 Reform of the municipal institutions decreed on 
 account of revolutionary proceedings . . Oct. 
 
 Crew of Tornado detained as prisoners, 31 Oct. 
 the case referred to law .... Nov. 
 
 King and queen visit Lisbon . . .11 Dec. 
 Taxes for 1867 received in advance . . Dec. 
 The queen dismissed the cortes (and imprisoned 
 
 621 
 
 SPAIN. 
 
 1863 
 
 many eminent deputies for petitioning against it) 
 
 30 Dec. 
 
 O'Donnell and his colleagues residing in Paris Jan. 
 
 Decision in Tornado case — the ship a prize and the 
 crew prisoners of war, 18 Dec. 1866 ; lord Stanley 
 protests against the proceedings . . 8 Feb. 
 
 Decree for making secret publication of journals 
 and pamphlets penal . . . .16 Feb. 
 
 The Tornado prisoners released . . . Feb. 
 
 State of siege raised .... 7 March, 
 
 Queen Victoria sloop declared by Spain to have 
 been wrongfully seized; and reparation to be made 
 
 21 April, 
 
 Amnesty to revolters of June 1866 . 25 April, 
 
 Son of duchess of Montpensier born . 1 May, 
 
 Attempted insurrection in different parts (attributed 
 to Prim) failed through want of organisation, 
 
 about 15 Aug. 
 
 Insurrectionary movements reported in Catalonia 
 and Aragon .... July, Aug. 
 
 State of siege proclaimed . . . .17 Aug. 
 
 Insurrection suppressed ; amnesty . . Sept. 
 
 Death of marshal O'Donnell, duke of Tetuan 5 Nov. 
 
 Martial law annulled 16 Nov. 
 
 Parliament opened by the queen in person 27 Dec. 
 
 An armament bill adopted by the chamber of de- 
 puties . • 22 Jan. 
 
 Proposed settlement with national creditors at 20 
 per cent, of the debt .... Jan. 
 
 General amnesty proclaimed ... 23 Jan. 
 
 Death of marshal Narvaez, duke of Valencia (aged 67) 
 
 23 April, 
 New ministry formed by Gonzalez Bravo Murillo 
 
 24 April, 
 Marriage of princess Isabella, the queen's eldest 
 
 daughter, to the count of Girgenti, brother of ex- 
 king of Naples 13 May, 
 
 Law enacted abolishing normal schools and subject- 
 ing education to the priests . . 2 June, 
 
 Ministerial changes 16 June, 
 
 Duke and duchess of Montpensier arrested and 
 exiled 6 July, 
 
 Marshal Serrano, general Dolce, and others exiled 
 about 10 July, 
 
 Insurrection begins in the fleet, 18 Sept. ; joined by 
 the garrison and city of Cadiz, 19 Sept. ;' accepted 
 by nearly all Spain .... 19-30 Sept. 
 
 Prim arrives at Cadiz, 17 Sept. ; announces a provi- 
 sional government .... 19 Sept. 
 
 The ministers resign, 19, 20 Sept. ; Jose Concha be- 
 comes president of the council, 22 Sept. ; Bravo 
 Murillo and his colleagues flee to Bayonne 23 Sept. 
 
 [Royalist leaders : Jose Concha, marquis de Havana, 
 Manuel Concha, marquis de Duero, at Madrid ; 
 the marquis de Pezuela at Barcelona ; Eusebio 
 de Calonge in the north ; Pavia y Lacy, marquis 
 de Novaliches in Andalusia.] 
 
 Novaliches, the royalist general, defeated at Alcolea 
 by Serrano, 27 Sept. ; surrenders . 28 Sept. 
 
 The queen flies to Bayonne and thence to Pau, and 
 protests 29, 30 Sept. 
 
 The deposition of the queen declared at Madrid, 
 
 29 Sept. 
 
 A national guard organised . . .30 Sept. 
 
 Don Juan, son of Don Carlos, renounces his heredi- 
 tary rights in favour of his son, Carlos, 3 Oct. 
 
 Serrano enters Madrid, 3 Oct. ; Serrano, Prim, 
 and Olozaga constitute a provisional government 
 
 5 Oct. 
 
 Prim enthusiastically received at Madrid 7 Oct. 
 
 The education law of 2 June annulled ; the Jesuits 
 and other religious orders suppressed ; the laws 
 expelling the Jews abrogated ; freedom of reli- 
 gious worship decreed . about 12, 13 Oct. 
 
 All the local juntas dissolved by manifesto of the 
 provisional government ... 20 Oct. 
 
 The provisional government recognised by the 
 
 United States, 13 Oct. ; by England, France, and 
 
 Prussia, 25 Oct. ; by Austria, Sweden, and Belgium 
 
 about 31 Oct. 
 
 Manifesto of the government declaring for universal 
 suffrage, and free press and education 26 Oct. 
 
 Prim created a marshal . . about 6 Nov. 
 
 The queen arrives at Paris ... 6 Nov. 
 
 The joint electoral committee at Madrid declare in 
 favour of a limited monarchy . . 14 Nov. 
 
 Decree for formation of a citizen force of the Volun- 
 teers of Freedom . . .18 Nov. 
 
 1867 
 
SPAIN. 622 
 
 SPAIN. 
 
 Loan of 20,000,000?. proposed by Figueroa, minister 
 of finance; 4,000,000?. said to be undertaken by 
 Rothschilds ; about 2,000,000 subscribed from 
 Spain about 25 Nov. 1868 
 
 Insurrection against the provisional government 
 breaks out at Cadiz, 5 Dec. ; murderous conflicts. 
 6 Dec. ; the city invested ; surrenders ; entiy of 
 general Caballero de Roda, general of the army of 
 Andalusia 12 Dec. ,, 
 
 Peaceful elections for constituent cortes, 19, 20 Dec. ,, 
 
 Manifesto of the due de Montpensier, justifying his 
 recent entry into Spain . . dated 19 Dec. ,, 
 
 Violent insurrection at Malaga suppressed with 
 much slaughter 31 Dec. ,, 
 
 Election of members for the cortes . 17 Jan. 1869 
 
 The Spanish envoy at Rome not received 23 Jan. ,, 
 
 Gutierez de Castro, civil governor of Burgos, mur- 
 dered in the presence of priests while taking an 
 inventory of the artistic treasures of the cathedral 
 
 24 Jan. ,, 
 
 Insurrection in Cuba increasing . . Feb. ,, 
 
 Meeting of the Cortes, 11 Feb. ; Rivero elected 
 president 13 Feb. ,, 
 
 The provisional government resign ; Serrano re- 
 appointed head of the government with same 
 ministry 25, 26 Feb. ,, 
 
 Riots at Xeres on account of conscription, 16 March . ,, 
 
 Spanish Protestant religious service at Madrid 
 
 28 March, ., 
 
 Insurrection in Cuba fomented by Americans April, ,, 
 
 61st anniversary of the Madrid revolution and mas- 
 sacre of the French (1808) . . . 2 May, 
 
 The cortes vote for a monarchy (214 to 71), 21 May, .. 
 
 The new constitution promulgated . 6 June, 
 
 Marshal Serrano elected regent by the cortes, 15 
 June ; sworn 18 June, ,, 
 
 New ministry under Prim . . about 18 June, ,, 
 
 Carlist risings in La Mancha and at Ciudad Real, 
 suppressed July- Aug. ,. 
 
 United States' overtures respecting Ctiba indig- 
 nantly rejected .... about 18 Sept. 
 
 Candidature of the duke ofGenoa discussed Sept., Oct ,, 
 
 Republican risings at Tarragona, Barcelona, and 
 other places, suppressed with bloodshed, Sept. ; 
 republicans defeated near Reus, 4 Oct. : Saragossa 
 cannonaded, 8 Oct. ; Valencia surrendered, 16 
 Oct. ; tranquillity generally restored . 20 Oct. ,, 
 
 Warm discussions respecting the election of a king ; 
 Topete, minister of marine, resigns . b Nov. 
 
 General Dulce dies 23 Nov. 
 
 Powerful republican speech of Castelar in the cortes 
 
 about 18 Dec. 
 
 Resignation of Prim and the ministry on the Italian 
 government opposing the nomination of the duke 
 of Genoa as king of Spain ... 4 Jan. 1870 
 
 Prim resumes office with Topete and Rivero 10 Jan. ,, 
 
 Majority in the assembly for Prim against the com- 
 bined unionists and liberals . . 3 April, 
 
 Conscription riots at Barcelona; soon suppressed 
 
 7, 8 April, ,, 
 
 The due de Montpensier, after great provocation, 
 kills don Enrique de Borbon, brother of the ex- 
 king, in a duel, 12 March ; tried, condemned, and 
 fined 12 April, ,, 
 
 The offered crowu declined by Espartero . May, ., 
 
 Bill for gradual abolition of slavery in the colonies 
 presented to the cortes ... 28 May, 
 
 Two Englishmen of Gibraltar seized by brigands ; 
 ransomed for 5200?. ; brigands afterwards attacked 
 1 >y the Spanish civil guard ; several of them killed, 
 and part of the ransom recovered . . June, ,, 
 
 Rojo Arias carries a resolution requiring an abso- 
 lute majority in the cortes for any proposed si rve- 
 reign (179 out of 356); this excludes all present 
 candidates June, ,, 
 
 Isabella II. abdicates in favour of her son Alfonso, 
 
 25 June, ,, 
 
 Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern Sigmaringen nomi- 
 nated king, accepted by the regent and ministry, 
 6 July ; this justified by the government in a cir- 
 cular, 7 July ; on the strong opposition of France 
 he resigns 12 July, ,, 
 
 Neutrality in the war announced . . 27 July, ,, 
 
 Renewed agitation for a republic about 9 Aug. ,, 
 
 Amnesty for all political offences since 29 Sept. 1868, 
 
 published 10 Aug. ,, 
 
 Irruption of Carlists into Navarre, 27 Aug. ; defeated 
 
 28 Aug. ,, 
 
 The Basque provinces put into a state of siege, 
 
 28 Aug. 1869 
 
 The French republic warmly recognised . Sept. ,, 
 
 Ministerial crisis 15 Sept. ,, 
 
 Claret, the ex-queen's confessor, dies . . 4 Oct. ,, 
 
 Amadeus, duke of Aosta(born 30 May, 1845), accepts 
 the candidature for the crown . . 20 Oct.. ,, 
 
 Elected by the cortes by 191 votes : (63 for a repub- 
 lic ; 27 for the due de Montpensier) . 16 Nov. 
 
 Proclaimed king 17 Nov. ,, 
 
 The ex-queen, on behalf of her son Alfonso, protests 
 against the election .... 21 Nov. ,, 
 
 The duke accepts the crown from a deputation of 
 the cortes at Florence, and says " that his honesty 
 should rise above the struggle of parties, and that 
 he had no other object than the peace and pros- 
 perity of the nation" .... 4 Dec. „ 
 
 Stormy session in the cortes respecting arrange- 
 ments for the new king, 19 Dec. ; Rivero, the pre- 
 sident, resigns 25 Dec. ,, 
 
 Prim fired at and wounded in his carriage by six 
 men who escaped ; great indignation at Madrid, 
 27 Dee. ; Topete rejoins the ministry ; vote of con- 
 fidence in it 28 Dec. „ 
 
 Prim dies in the evening (aged 56) ; the king received 
 by Topete at Cartagena ... 30 Dec. „ 
 
 Funeral of Prim 31 Dec. ,, 
 
 The king enters Madrid, visits the body of Prim, 
 and takes the oath .... 2 Jan. 1871 
 
 New ministry under Serrano ... 5 Jan. ,, 
 
 Warm reception of the queen at Madrid 19 March, ,, 
 
 New cortes opened ; the king's speech much ap- 
 plauded 3 April, ,, 
 
 Del Castillo and other Alphonsists recognise the 
 king . . .... April, ,. 
 
 Olozaga elected president of the cortes 4 April, ,, 
 
 The Tornado difficulty settled (Aug. -Nov. 1866); 
 compensation to be paid by the Spanish govern- 
 ment May, ,, 
 
 Ministerial crisis through financial affairs; settled 
 by the king June, ,, 
 
 Marshal Serrano fails in forming a cabinet, 23 July ; 
 a ministry formed by Zorrilla . . 24 July, ,, 
 
 The king visits the provinces ; warmly received, 
 1 Sept. et scq. ; welcomed by Espartero at Logroiio. 
 
 30 Sept. ,, 
 
 Cortes opened, 1 Oct. ; Sagasta elected president in 
 opposition to Rivero(i23-ii3), 3 Oct. ; the Zorrilla 
 ministry resigns, 4 Oct. ; Malcampo forms a 
 ministry 5 Oct. ,, 
 
 Republican meeting at Madrid ; strong resolutions 
 passed 15 Oct. ,, 
 
 Defeat of the ministry in the cortes; dissolution, 
 
 24, 25 Nov. „ 
 
 Angulo, the finance minister, proposes to tax the 
 foreign national creditors 18 per cent. 27 Nov. ,, 
 
 Suicide of the count of Girgent! . . 27 Nov. ,, 
 
 Ministry formed under Sagasta . . 21 Dec. „ 
 
 Espartero, duke of Victory, made prince of Vergara, 
 
 Jan. 1872 
 
 Resignation of Sagasta and the ministry for a 
 trifling defeat ; refused by the king, dissolution 
 of the cortes ; much excitement ; troops under 
 arms 25, 26 Jan. ,, 
 
 Ministry reconstituted by Sagasta and Topete, 
 
 20 Feb. ,, 
 
 Union of the opposition against the ministry, who 
 determine to support the throne, about 8 March, ,, 
 
 Elections; majority of about 100 for ministers; 
 Madrid elects for the opposition . 4-6 April, ,, 
 
 Insurrection of Carlists incited by priests in 
 Navarre, Leon, &c. ; manifesto of don Carlos, 
 duke of Madrid ; Diaz de Rada, his general 
 
 about 20 April, ,, 
 
 The new cortes opened ; the king says, " I will never 
 impose myself on the Spanish people, but neither 
 will I allow myself to be accused of deserting the 
 1 iost which I occupy by their will " . 24 April, ,, 
 
 Navarre. <fcc, in state of siege . . 25 April, ,, 
 
 Marshal Serrano enters Navarre with 600,000 men; 
 don Carlos, calling himself Carlos VII., crosses 
 the frontiers near Vera, and takes the command, 
 Rada retiring, 2 May; totally defeated at Oro- 
 quieta (which see) 4 May, ,, 
 
 The Carlists surrender by hundreds, or disperse, 
 
 8, 9, 20, 21 May, ,, 
 
 Reported small defeats at Onate, <te. . 13, 20 May, 
 
 Resignation of the Sagasta ministry . . 22 May, ,, 
 
SPAIN. 
 
 Band of Carlists defeated near Gerona, about 22 May, 
 
 New ministry (supported by Serrano), adm. Topete 
 president 25 May, 
 
 Serrano offers amnesty to Carlists who surrender, 
 23 May ; it is accepted, 27 May ; he is censured, 
 but exonerated by the cortes, 8 June ; he assumes 
 the presidency of the ministry . . 4 June, 
 
 Carlism increases; the ministry propose martial 
 law; the king opposes it; the ministry resign, 
 
 12 June, 
 
 Ruiz Zorrilla (who had just retired from political 
 life) becomes president of a new ministry, 
 
 14 June, 
 Letter of the due de Montpensier advocating the 
 
 rights of prince Alfonso, 17 April ; published, June, 
 Dissolution of the cortes ... 29 June, 
 Attempted assassination of the king and queen by 
 
 about 15 men ; one assassin killed, two taken ; a 
 
 little after midnight of . . . 18-19 July, 
 The king's popular visit to the provinces, travelling 
 
 nearly 2000 miles . . .26 July-24 Aug. 
 Elections for the cortes ; highly favourable to the 
 
 Zorrilla ministry . . . .25 Aug. et seq. 
 The cortes opened by the king with a fine speech, 
 
 15 Sept. 
 Republican rising at Perrol ; red flag displayed ; 
 
 1500 men under Montojo and Bozas, 11 Oct. ; 
 town captured by the captain-general of Galicia, 
 
 13 Oct. 
 
 The insurgents disperse or surrender; about 500 
 prisoners 17 Oct. 
 
 Impeachment of the Sagasta ministry for financial 
 corruption proposed in the cortes ; much agitation, 
 
 end of Oct. 
 
 The country disturbed by Carlists and republicans, 
 
 Nov. -Dec. 
 
 Outbreak in Madrid suppressed . . 11 Dec. 
 
 Changes in the ministry announced . 20 Dec. 
 
 Bill for abolition of slavery in Porto Rico for com- 
 pensation, brought into congress . . 24 Dec. 
 
 Carlist bands defeated and several generals killed, 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Gen. Hidalgo appointed to a military command ; 
 the artillery officers resign .... Feb. 
 
 King Amadeus' message to the cortes, announcing 
 Ms abdication ; he states that he sees Spain in a 
 continual struggle, the era of peace more distant ; 
 he sought for remedies within the law, and did 
 not find them ; his efforts were sterile. The two 
 chambers combine as the sovereign cortes of 
 Spain, and vote for a republic (126-32) . u Feb. 
 
 Reported success of the Carlists ; agitation for the 
 due de Montpensier among the Orleanists in 
 France 12 Feb. 
 
 New ministry under Figueras . . 12 Feb. 
 
 King Amadeus arrives at Lisbon . . 13 Feb. 
 
 Irruption of Carlists ; they hold part of Catalonia ; 
 demonstrations in favour of a federal republic, 
 
 22, 23 Feb. 
 
 Ministry reconstituted ; Figueras chief, 24, 25 Feb. 
 
 Powerful circular to European powers from Castelar, 
 foreign minister 27 Feb. 
 
 Appointment of a permanent committee of the 
 cortes . . . . -. . 22 March, 
 
 Great dissensions between the radicals and repub- 
 licans ; fighting with Carlists in the provinces, 
 early in March, 
 
 Proclamation of the government calling for volun- 
 teers against the Carlists . . .25 March, 
 
 Mutinous spirit in the army . . . April, 
 
 The Carlists beaten in several encounters ; don 
 Alfonso de Bourbon re-enters France 23 April, 
 
 The old " monarchical volunteers " take possession 
 of the bull-ring at Madrid ; are disarmed and dis- 
 persed by the government troops ; the " perma- 
 nent committee" dissolved by the government, 
 which assumes supreme power . . 26 April, 
 
 Serrano and Sagasta have left Spain . 29 April, 
 
 More defeats of the Carlists; Madrid tranquil, 
 29, 30 April-4 May, 
 
 Elections for the cortes commence; monarchists 
 abstain from voting . . . .10 May, 
 
 Mr. Bradlaugh, the English republican, entertained 
 at Madrid 24 May, 
 
 More Carlist defeats reported; their alleged cruelties 
 denied by the Carlist committee . May, June, 
 
 The Intransigent's or Irreconcileables (extreme re- 
 publicans) very powerful . . . June, 
 
 623 
 
 SPAIN. 
 
 1872 
 
 1873 
 
 The new cortes opened; a speech by Figueras, 
 
 _ . , 1 June, 187 
 
 The federal republic voted by the cortes (210-2) and 
 
 proclaimed, 8 June ; Pi y Margall, president of a 
 
 new ministry, rejected ; Figueras and his ministry 
 
 resume office g June, 
 
 Carlists besieging Irun .... 7 June' 
 Ministerial crisis renewed, 10 June ; Pi y Margall 
 becomes minister; Figueras quits Spain, n June, 
 Carlists defeat Castanon near Murieta . 26 June, 
 Cadiz, Seville, Malaga, and Valencia very insubl 
 
 ordinate 2g j une> 
 
 The Intransigentes withdraw from the cortes, 1 July, 
 Defeat and death of Calvinety by Carlists ; insur- 
 rection at Alcoy, promoted by Internationalists ; 
 the mayor and others killed, announced, 11 July „, 
 
 Sovereigns of Spain. 
 
 gothic sovereigns. 
 
 411. Ataulfo; murdered by his soldiers. 
 
 415. Sigerico ; reigned a few days only. 
 
 ,, Valia, or Wallia. 
 
 420. Theodoric I. ; killed in a battle, which he gained, 
 against Attila. 
 
 451. Thorisnmnd, or Torrismund ; assassinated. 
 
 452. Theodoric II. ; assassinated by 
 
 466. Euric, the first monarch of all Spain. 
 
 483. Alaric II. ; killed in battle. 
 
 506. Gesalric ; his bastard son. 
 
 511. Ainalric, or Amalaric ; legitimate son of Alaric. 
 
 531. Theudis, or Theodat ; assassinated by a madman. 
 
 548. Theudisela, or Theodisele ; murdered. 
 
 549. Agila ; taken prisoner, and put to death. 
 S.54. Atanagildo. 
 
 567. Liuva, or Levua I. 
 
 568. Leuvigildo ; associated on the tlirone with Liuva,. 
 
 in 568 ; and sole king in 572. 
 
 586. Recaredo I. 
 
 601. Liuva II. ; assassinated. 
 
 603. Vitericus ; also murdered. 
 
 610. Gundemar. 
 
 612. Sisibut, or Sisebuth, or Sisebert. 
 
 621. Recaredo II. 
 
 ,, Suintila; dethroned. 
 
 631. Sisenando. 
 
 636. Chintella. 
 
 640. Tulga, or Tulca. 
 
 642. Cindasuinto ; died in 652. 
 
 649. Recesuinto ; associated ; in 653 became sole king. 
 
 672. Vamba, or Waniba; dethroned, and died in a, 
 
 monastery. 
 
 680. Ervigius, or Ervigio. 
 
 687. Egiea, or Egiza. 
 
 698. Vitiza, or Witiza, associated ; in 701 sole king. 
 
 711. Rodrigo, or Roderie; slain in battle. 
 
 [Six independent Suevic kings reigned 409-469 ; and 
 Two Vandalic kings : Gunderic 409-425 ; his successor 
 Genseric with his whole nation passed over to Africa. J 
 
 Mahometan Spain. 
 
 Emirs. The first, Abdelasis ; the last, Yussuf-el-Tehri : 
 
 a.d. 714-755. 
 Kings. The first, Abderahman I. ; the last, Abu Ali - 
 
 755-1238. 
 
 GRANADA. 
 
 Kings. The first, Mohammed I. ; the last, Abdalla 1 
 1238-1492. 
 
 Christian Spain. 
 
 718. 
 
 737- 
 739- 
 757- 
 
 768. 
 774- 
 
 KINGS OF ASTURIAS AND LEON. 
 
 Pelagius, or Pelayo; overthrew the Moors, and 
 
 checked their conquests. 
 Favila ; killed in hunting. 
 Alfonso the Catholic. 
 Froila ; murdered his brother Samaran, in revenge- 
 
 for which he was murdered by his brother, audi 
 
 successor 
 Aurelius or Aurelio, 
 Mauregato, the Usurper. 
 Veremundo (Bermuda) I. 
 Alfonso II. , the Chaste. 
 Ramiro I. : he put 70,000 Saracens to the sword in 
 
 one battle. EaUbe. 
 
SPAIN. 
 
 624 
 
 SPANISH GEANDEES. 
 
 850. 
 
 866. 
 
 910. 
 914. 
 923- 
 925- 
 93°- 
 950. 
 
 955- 
 956. 
 967. 
 
 933- 
 
 999. 
 
 3027. 
 
 873- 
 885. 
 9°5- 
 924. 
 
 •97°- 
 
 "°3S- 
 1054. 
 1076. 
 1094. 
 1 104. 
 "34- 
 1 1 50. 
 1 194. 
 1234. 
 1253. 
 1270. 
 1274. 
 
 i3°5- 
 13 1 6. 
 
 1322. 
 1328. 
 J 343- 
 1349- 
 1387- 
 1425- 
 
 1479. 
 
 1483. 
 
 J512. 
 
 1035. 
 
 1065. 
 
 1072. 
 1 109. 
 1126. 
 "57' 
 
 1214. 
 1217. 
 
 1252. 
 
 1284. 
 Z295. 
 1312. 
 I35°. 
 
 1369. 
 
 1379- 
 1390. 
 1406. 
 
 1454- 
 1474. 
 
 1504. 
 
 Ordoiio II. 
 
 Alfonso III., surnamed the Great; relinquished his 
 
 crown to his son. 
 Garcias. 
 Ordoiio II. 
 Froila II. 
 
 Alfonso IV., the Monk ; abdicated. 
 Ramiro II. , killed in battle. 
 Ordoiio III. 
 Ordoiio IV. 
 
 Sancho I., the Fat; poisoned with an apple. 
 Ramiro III. 
 
 Veremundo II. (Bermuda), the Gouty. 
 Alfonso V. ; killed in a siege. 
 Veremundo III. (Bermuda) ; killed. 
 
 KINGS OF NAVARRE. 
 
 Sancho Iiiigo. Count. 
 
 Garcia I., king. 
 
 Sancho Garcias ; a renowned warrior. 
 
 Garcias II. , surnamed the Trembler. 
 
 Sancho II., surnamed the Great (king of Castile 
 
 through his wife). 
 Garcias III. 
 Sancho III. 
 
 Sancho IV. , Ramirez, king of Aragon. 
 Peter of Aragon. 
 Alfonso I. , of Aragon. 
 Garcias IV. , Ramirez. 
 Sancho V. , surnamed the Wise. 
 Sancho VI. , surnamed the Infirm. 
 Theobald I. , count of Champagne. 
 Theobald II. 
 Henry Crassus. 
 
 Joanna; married to Philip the Fair of Prance, 1285. 
 Louis Hutin of France. 
 John ; lived but a few days. 
 Philip V., the Long, of Fiance. 
 Charles I., the IV. of France. 
 Joanna II. , and Philip, count d'Evreux. 
 Joanna alone. 
 Charles II. , or the Bad. 
 Charles III. , or the Noble. 
 Blanche and her husband John II. , afterwards king 
 
 of Aragon. 
 Eleanor. 
 
 Francis Phoebus de Foix. 
 Catherine and John d'Albret. 
 Navarre conquered by Ferdinand the Catholic-, and 
 
 united with Castile. 
 
 KINGS OF LEON AND CASTILE. 
 
 Ferdinand the Great. 
 
 Sancho II., the Strong, son of Ferdinand ; Alfonso 
 in Leon and Asturias, and Garcias in Galicia. 
 
 Alfonso VI. , the Valiant, king of Leon. 
 
 Uraca and Alfonso VII. 
 
 Alfonso VII., Raymond. 
 
 Sancho III. , surnamed the Beloved. 
 
 Alfonso VIII. , the Noble. 
 
 [Leon is separated from Castile under Ferdi- 
 nand II., 1157-88.] 
 
 Alfonso IX. , of Leon. 
 
 Henry I. 
 
 Ferdinand III., the Saint and the Holy. By him 
 Leon and Castile were permanently united. 
 
 Alfonso X., the Wise (the Alphonsine Tables were 
 drawn up under his direction). 
 
 Sancho IV. , the Great and the Brave. 
 
 Ferdinand IV. 
 
 Alfonso XI. 
 
 Peter the Cruel: deposed; reinstated by Edward 
 the Black Prince of England ; slain by his 
 natural brother and successor 
 
 Henry II., the Gracious ; poisoned by a monk. 
 
 John I. : he united Biscay to Castile. 
 
 Henry III. , the Sickly. 
 
 John II., son of Henry. 
 
 Henry IV. , the Impotent. 
 
 Isabella, sister (had married Ferdinand of Aragon, 
 18 Oct. 1469). 
 
 Joanna (daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella), and 
 Philip I. of Austria. On her mother's death 
 Joanna succeeded, jointly with her husband 
 Philip ; but Philip dying in 1506, and Joanna 
 becoming imbecile, her father Ferdinand con- 
 tinued the reign ; and thus perpetuated the 
 union of Castile with Aragon. 
 
 KINGS OF ARAGON. 
 
 1035. Ramiro I. 
 
 1065. Sancho Ramirez (IV. of Navarre). 
 
 1094. Peter of Navarre. 
 
 1 104. Alfonso I., the Warrior, king of Navarre. 
 
 1 1 34. Ramiro II. , the Monk. 
 
 1 1 37. Petronilla, and Raymond, count of Barcelona. 
 
 1 163. Alfonso II. 
 
 1196. Peter II. 
 
 1213. James I. ; succeeded by his son. 
 
 1276. Peter III. ; conquered Sicily (which see) in 1282. 
 
 1285. Alfonso III. , the Beneficent. 
 
 1291. James II., surnamed the Just. 
 
 1327. Alfonso IV. 
 
 1336. Peter IV., the Ceremonious. 
 
 1387. John I. 
 
 1395. Martin. 
 
 1410. [Interregnum.] 
 
 1412. Ferdinand the Just, king of Sicily. 
 
 1416. Alfonso V. , the Wise. 
 
 1458. John II. , king of Navarre, brother of Alfonso ; died 
 1479. 
 
 1479. Ferdinand II., the Catholic, the next heir; by 
 marriage with Isabella of Castile (styled the 
 Catholic kings), the kingdoms were united. 
 
 SPAIN. 
 
 1512. Ferdinand V. (of Castile), the Catholic ; having 
 conquered Granada and Navarre, became king 
 of all Spain. 
 
 1516. Charles I., grandson, son of Joanna of Castile and 
 Philip of Austria (emperor of Germany, as Charles 
 V., in 1519); resigned both crowns, and retired 
 to a monastery. 
 
 1556. Philip II. , son, king of Naples and Sicily ; a merci- 
 less bigot ; married Mary, queen-regnant of 
 England ; died covered with ulcers. 
 
 1598. Philip III., son, drove the Moors from Granada 
 and the adjacent provinces. 
 
 162 1. Philip IV., son : wars with the Dutch and French ; 
 lost Portugal in 1640. 
 
 1665. Charles II., son; last of the Austrian line; nomi- 
 nated, by will, as his successor 
 
 1700. Philip V., duke of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV. 
 of France : hence arose the "war of the Succes- 
 sion," terminated by the treaty of Utrecht in 
 1713 ; resigned. 
 
 1724. Louis I., son ; reigned only a few months. 
 ,, Philip V. again. 
 
 1 746. Ferdinand VI. , the Wise, son ; liberal and beneficent. 
 
 1759. Charles III. .brother, kingof the Two Sicilies, which 
 he gave to his third sou, Ferdinand. 
 
 1788. Charles IV., son ; the influence of Godoy, prince of 
 Peace, reached to almost royal authority in this 
 reign ; Charles abdicated in favour of his son in 
 1808, and died in 1819. 
 
 1808. Ferdinand VII., whom Napoleon of France also 
 forced to resign. 
 ,, Joseph Bonaparte, brother of Napoleon ; forced to 
 abdicate. 
 
 1813. Ferdinand VII. restored; died 29 Sept. 1833; suc- 
 ceeded by 
 
 1833. Isabella II., daughter (born, 10 Oct. 1830) ; declared 
 of age, 8 Nov. 1843 ; married her cousin, Don 
 Francis dAssisi, 10 Oct. 1846 ; deposed 30 Sept. 
 1868 ; separated from her husband, March, 
 1870; and abdicated, 25 June, 1870, in favour of 
 her son, Alfonso, prince of Asturias (born, 
 28 Nov. 1857). 
 
 1870. Amadeo I. (duke of Aosta, son of Victor-Emanuel II. 
 king of Italy); born, 30 May, 1845; married 
 Maria Victoria of Pozzo della Cisterna, 30 May, 
 1867; accepted the crown offered him by the 
 cortes, 4 Dec. 1870; abdicated 11 Feb. 1873. 
 
 Republic founded, n Feb. 1873. Very unsettled, June, 
 July, 1873. 
 
 SPALATEO or SPALATO (Dalraatia), the 
 ancient Spalatum, and Salona. At his palace here, 
 Diocletian spent his last nine years, and died July, 
 313. E. Adam published the " Antiquities of Dio- 
 cletian's Palace," 1764. 
 
 SPANISH AMERICA, ARMADA, &c, 
 
 see America, Armada-, and Eras. 
 
 SPANISH GRANDEES, the higher 
 nobility, at one time almost equal to the kings of 
 
SPANISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 625 SPAETACUS'S INSUKEECTION. 
 
 Castile and Aragon, and often setting their autho- 
 rity at defiance, were restrained on the union of the 
 crowns by the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella 
 in 1474, who compelled several to relinquish the 
 royal fortresses and domains which they held. 
 Charles V. reduced the grandees to sixteen families 
 (Medina- Sidonia, Albuquerque, &c), dividing them 
 into three classes. 
 
 SPANISH LANGUAGE (Lengua Castel- 
 lana), is a dialect of Latin largely intermingled 
 with Arabic, which was the legal language till the 
 14th century. Spanish did not become general till 
 the 1 6th century. 
 
 EMINENT SPANISH AUTHOBS. 
 
 Bom Died 
 
 Garcilasso de la Vega 1503 1536 
 
 Boscan 1496 1543 
 
 Las Casas ....... 1474 1566 
 
 Cervantes (author of Don Quixote) . . . 1547 1616 
 
 Mariana 1536 1623 
 
 Herrera 1565 1625 
 
 Lope de Vega 1568 1635 
 
 Quevedo 1570 1647 
 
 Calderon 1601 1682 
 
 Solis 1610 1686 
 
 Feyjos 1701 1765 
 
 Yriarte 1750 1798 
 
 Conde 1765 1820 
 
 SPANISH EEFOEMED CHUECH, con- 
 stituted at Gibraltar, 25 April, 1868. By permission 
 of general Prim its missionaries entered Spain soon 
 after the revolution, in Sept. following. 
 
 SPANISH SUCCESSION and MAE- 
 EIAGES, see Spain, 1700, and 10 Oct. 1846. 
 
 SPAETA, the capital of Laconia, or Lace- 
 dsemon, the most considerable republic of the Pelo- 
 ponnesus, and the rival of Athens. Though without 
 walls, it resisted the attacks of its enemies by the 
 valour of its citizens for eight centuries. Lelex is 
 supposed to have been the first king. From Lace- 
 daemon the fourth king, and his wife Sparta, who 
 are also spoken of as the founders of the city, it 
 obtained names. The Lacedaemonians were a na- 
 tion of soldiers, and cultivated neither the arts, 
 sciences, commerce, nor agriculture. 
 
 Sparta founded. Pausanias. . . . B.C. 1490 
 Tyndarus marries Leda : Helen born . . . 1388 
 Helen stolen by Theseus, king of Athens, but re- 
 covered by her brothers 1228 
 
 The princes of Greece demand Helen in marriage ; 
 
 she makes choice of Menelaus of Mycenae . . 1216 
 Paris, son of Priam, king of Troy, carries off Helen 1204 
 
 The Trojan war 1194 
 
 After a war of ten years, and a disastrous voyage of 
 
 nearly eight, Menelaus and Helen return to Sparta 1176 
 The kingdom seized by the Heraclidae . . . 1104 
 Establishment of two kings, Eurysthenes and 
 
 Procles, by their father Aristodemus . . . 1100 
 Eule of Lycurgus, who establishes the senate, and 
 
 enacts a code of laws. Eusebius. (Mythical) 884-850 
 Charilaus declares war against Polymnestor, king 
 
 of Arcadia 848 
 
 Alcamenes, known by his apophthegms, makes war 
 
 upon the Messenians 813 
 
 Nicander succeeds his father, Charilaus ; war with 
 
 the Argives 800 
 
 Theopompus introduces the Ephori, about . . 757 
 
 War declared against the Messenians, and Amphia 
 
 taken 743 
 
 The progeny of the Parthenise, the sons of Virgins . 733 
 Battle of Ithome ; Messenians beaten . . . . 730 
 Ithome taken; the Messenians become vassals to 
 
 Sparta, and the war of nineteen years ends . . 724 
 Conspiracy of the Partheniae with the Helots to 
 
 take Sparta 707 
 
 The Parthenise colonise Tarentum .... 706 
 The Messenians revolt, and league with Elis, Argos, 
 
 and Arcadia, against the Lacedaemonians. [This 
 
 war lasted fourteen years.] 685 
 
 Carnian festivals instituted 675 
 
 The Messenians settle in Sicily 669 
 
 War with the Argives, and celebrated battle be- 
 tween 300 select heroes of each nation . . . 547 
 
 War with Athens 505 
 
 The Spartans resist the king of Persia . . . 491 
 
 The states of Greece unite against the Persians . 482 
 Leonidas, at the head of 300 Spartans, withstands 
 the Persian arms at the defile of Thermopylae (see 
 
 Thermopylce) 480 
 
 Persians defeated by Pausanias, king of Sparta, at 
 
 Platsea 479 
 
 He is put to death for treason ; the Grecian armies 
 
 choose an Athenian general 472 
 
 An earthquake at Sparta destroys 30,000 persons ; 
 
 rebellion of the Helots 466 
 
 Sparta joins Macedon against Athens . . . . 454 
 
 Plataea taken by the Spartans 428 
 
 The Spartans, under Agis, enter Attica, and lay 
 
 waste the country 426 
 
 Agis (king 427) gains a great victory over the Argives 
 
 and the Mantinseans 418 
 
 The Lacedaemonian fleet, under Mindarus, defeated 
 
 at Cyzieum, and Mindarus slain . . . . 410 
 The Spartans, defeated by land and at sea, sue for 
 
 peace, which is denied by the Athenians . . 409 
 
 Reign of Pausanias 408 
 
 The Athenians defeated at ^gospotami by Lysander 405 
 Athens taken by him, which ends the Peloponnesian 
 
 war 404 
 
 Agesilaus (king 398) enters Lydia . . . . 396 
 The Athenians, Thebans, Argives, and Corinthians 
 enter into a league against the Spartans, which 
 
 begins the Corinthian war 39s 
 
 Agesilaus defeats the allies at Coronea . . . 394 
 The Lacedaemonian fleet, under Lysander, defeated 
 by Conon, the Athenian commander, near Cnidos; 
 
 Lysander killed in an engagement . . . „ 
 
 Peace of Antalcidas 387 
 
 The Thebans drive the Spartans from Cadmea . 378 
 The Spartans lose the dominion of the seas ; then- 
 fleet totally destroyed by Timotheus . . . 376 
 The Spartans defeated at Leuctra . . . . 371 
 Epaminondas, heading 50,000 Thebans, appears be- 
 fore Sparta 369 
 
 Battle of Mantinea ; the Thebans victors 27 June, 362 
 
 Philip of Macedon overcomes Sparta . . . . 344 
 
 Pyrrhus defeated before Sparta .... 294 
 
 Agis IV. endeavours to revive laws of Lycurgus . 244 
 
 Leonidas II. vacates the throne, and flies . . . 243 
 Recalled ; becomes sole sovereign ; Agis put to 
 
 death 241 
 
 Reign of Cleomenes III. the son of Leonidas . . 236 
 
 He re-establishes most of the laws of Lycurgus . 225 
 
 Antigonus defeats Cleomenes, and enters Sparta . 222 
 
 Cleomenes retires to Egypt ,, 
 
 The Spartans murder the Ephori . . . . 221 
 
 Machanidas ascends the throne, and abolishes the 
 
 Ephori 210 
 
 He is defeated and slain by Philopoemen, praetor of 
 
 the Achaean league 207 
 
 Cruel government of Nabis ,, 
 
 The Romans besiege Sparta, and the tyrant sues for 
 
 peace . 197 
 
 The jEtolians seize Sparta : Nabis assassinated . 192 
 
 The laws of Lycurgus abolished .... 188 
 Sparta, under the protection or rather subjugation 
 
 of Rome, retains its authority for a short time . 147 
 
 Taken by Alaric a.d. 396 
 
 Taken by Mahomet II 1460 
 
 Burnt by Sigismund Malatesta .... 1463 
 
 Rebuilt at Misitra ; it is now called Sparta, and is 
 part of the kingdom of Greece. 
 
 SPAETACUS'S INSUEEECTION (or 
 
 Servile War). Spartacus was a noble Thracian, 
 who served in an auxiliary corps of the Koman 
 army. Having deserted and been apprehended, he 
 was reduced to slavery and made a gladiator. With 
 some companions he made his escape, collected a 
 body of slaves and gladiators, 73 B.C. ; ravaged 
 southern Italy; and defeated the Roman forces 
 under the consuls sent against him. Knowing the 
 impossibility of successfully resisting the republic, 
 
 s § 
 
SPEAKERS- 
 
 626 
 
 SPINNING. 
 
 he endeavoured to conduct his forces into Sicily, 
 but on the way was defeated and slain by Crassus, 
 
 71 B.C. 
 
 SPEAKERS of the House of Commons. 
 
 Peter de Montford, afterwards killed at the battle 
 of Evesham, was the first speaker, 45 Hen. III., 
 1260 ; but sir Peter de la Mare is supposed to have 
 been the first regular speaker, 50 Edw. III., 1376. 
 The king refused his assent to the choice of sir 
 Edward Seymour, as speaker, 6 March, 1678 ; and 
 serjeant William Gregory was chosen in his room. 
 Sir John Trevor was expelled the chair and the 
 bouse for taking a gratuity after the act for the 
 benefit of orphans had passed, March, 1694; a 
 deputy speaker was appointed Aug. 1853. 
 
 KECENT SPEAKERS. 
 
 17S9. Henry Addington (aft. viscount Sidmouth), 5 June. 
 
 1801. Sir John Mitford (aft. baron Redesdale), 15 Feb. 
 
 X802. Charles Abbot (aft. lord Colchester), 10 Feb. 
 
 1817. Charles Manners Sutton (afterwards viscount Can- 
 terbury), 2 June. 
 
 1835. James Abercromby (afterwards baron Dunferm- 
 line), 19 Feb. 
 
 1839. Charles Shaw Lefevre (afterwards viscount Evers- 
 ley), 27 May. 
 
 1857. John Evelyn Denison, 30 April (afterwards viscount 
 Ossington). 
 
 1872. Henry Wm. Bouverie Brand, 9 Feb. 
 
 SPEAKER'S COMMENTARY, a name 
 
 given to an edition of the Bible with a revised text 
 and a commentary by several bishops and other 
 theologians, edited by F. C. Cook. The under- 
 taking originated, it is said, chiefly with Mr. John 
 Evelyn Denison, speaker of the house of commons, 
 with the view of opposing the interpretations of Dr. 
 Colenso, and was announced in Nov. 1863. The 
 publication began in 187 1. 
 
 SPEAKING-TRUMPET, used by ships at 
 sea. One is said to have been used by Alexander, 
 335 B.C. One was constructed from lurcher's de- 
 scription by Saland, 1652 ; philosophically explained 
 and brought into notice by Morland, 1670. 
 
 SPECIAL CONSTABLES are sworn in for 
 the preservation of the public peace when disturb- 
 ances are feared. The laws relative to their ap- 
 pointment were amended in 1831 and 1835. Louis 
 Napoleon, afterwards emperor, aided as a special con- 
 stable in London, 10 April, 1848 ; see Chartists, and 
 London, Dec. 1867. Instructions for their organisa- 
 tion were issued, 13 Jan. 1868. On 28 Jan. 52,974 
 in the metropolis, and 113,674 in the United King- 
 dom, had been sworn in. Their services were not 
 required, and they were honourably dismissed by an 
 order issued 31 March, 1868. 
 
 SPECIES. Much controversy among natural- 
 ists arose in consequence of the publication, in 1859, 
 of Mr. Charles Darwin's " Origin of Species," in 
 which he suggests that all the various species of 
 animals were not created at one time, but have 
 been gradually developed by what he terms "natural 
 selection," and the struggle for life in which the 
 strong overcome the weak; and which Herbert 
 Spencer terms " the survival of the fittest." 
 
 SPECTACLES, unknown to the ancients, are 
 generally supposed to have been invented by Alex- 
 ander de Spina, a monk of Florence, in Italy, about 
 1285. According to Dr. Plott, they were invented 
 by Koger Bacon, about 1280. Manni attributes 
 them to Salvino, who died 1317. On his tomb at 
 Florence is the inscription, " Qui giace Salvino 
 degli Armati, inventore degli orchiali : Dio gli per- 
 doni le peccata" (" Here lies Salvino degli Armati, 
 inventor of spectacles : May God pardon his sins"). 
 
 SPECTATOR. The first number of this peri- 
 odical appeared on 1 March, 1711; the last was 
 No. 635, 20 Dec. 1714. The papers by Addison have 
 one of the letters c l 1 o at the end. The most of 
 the other papers are by sir Richard Steele, a few by 
 Hughes, Budgell, Eusden, Miss Shephard, and 
 others. — The Spectator newspaper (philosophical, 
 whig), begun 5 July, 1828. 
 
 SPECTRUM, the term given to the image of 
 the sun or any other luminous body formed on a 
 wall or screen, by a beam of light received through 
 a small hole or slit, and refracted by a prism. The 
 colours thus produced are red, orange, yellow, green, 
 blue, indigo, and violet. The phenomena were first 
 explained by Newton, whose "Optics" was pub- 
 lished in 1704. Several of these colours are con- 
 sidered to be compounds of three primary ones : by 
 Mayer (1775), red, yellow, and blue ; — by Dr. Thos. 
 Young (1801), red, green, and violet; — by Prof. 
 Clerk Maxwell (i860), red, green, and blue. As 
 the colour of a flame varies according to the sub- 
 stance producing it or introduced into it, so the 
 spectrum varies. This led to the invention of a 
 method of chemical analysis by professors Bunsen 
 and Kirchhoff (i860), by which they have discovered 
 two new metals, and have drawn conclusions as to 
 the nature of the atmosphere of the sun and stars, 
 and of the light of the nebulae, by comparing the 
 spectrum with that produced by flames iuto which 
 iron, sodium, and other substances have been intro- 
 duced. For the invisible rays of the spectrum, see 
 Calorescence, and Fluorescence. 
 
 Fran iihnfer's Lines. In 1802 Dr. Wollaston observed 
 several dark lines in the solar spectrum ; in 1815 Joseph 
 Fraimhofer not only observed them, but constructed a 
 map of them, giving 590 Hues or dark bands. By the 
 researches of Brewster and others the number observed 
 is now above 2000. 
 
 Mr. Fox Talbot observed the orange line of strontium in 
 the spectrum in 1826; and sir David Brewster ob- 
 served other lines, 1833-42-3. In 1862-3 Mr. William 
 Huggins analysed the light of the iixed stars and of 
 the nebulre; and in 1865 Dr. Bence Jones, by means of 
 spectrum analyses, detected the presence of minute 
 quantities of metals in the living body, introduced only 
 a few minutes previously. 
 
 A spectroscopic society in Italy published a journal early 
 in 1872. 
 
 SPECULATIVE SOCIETY, Edinburgh 
 (which had included among its members David 
 Hume), celebrated its hundredth anniversary on 
 14 Oct. 1863 ; see Philosophy. 
 
 SPHERES. The celestial and terrestrial 
 spheres and sun-dials are said to have been in- 
 vented by Anaximander, 552 B.C. ; and the armil- 
 lary sphere by Eratosthenes, about 225 B.C. The 
 planetarium was constructed by Archimedes before- 
 212 B.C. Pythagoras maintained that the motions 
 of the twelve spheres must produce delightful 
 sounds, inaudible to mortals, which he called the 
 music of the spheres. 
 
 SPHYGMOGRAPH (from the Greek, sphyg- 
 nios, a pulsation), an instrument for investigating 
 disease, by showing the state of the pulse, invented 
 by M. E. J. Marey, of Paris, and described by him 
 in 1863. 
 
 SPICHEREN, see Saarbruck. 
 
 SPINNING was ascribed by the ancients to 
 Minerva, the goddess of wisdom. Areas, king of 
 Arcadia, taught his subjects the art about 1500 B.C. 
 Tradition reports that Lucretia with her maids was. 
 found spinning, when her husband Collatinus paid 
 a visit to her from the camp, that the wife of Tar- 
 quin was an excellent spinner, and that a garment 
 
SPIEES- 
 
 627 
 
 SPUES- 
 
 made by her, worn by Servius Tullius, was pre- 
 served in the temple of Fortune. Till 1767, the 
 spinning of cotton was performed by the hand 
 spinning-wheel, when Hargreaves, an ingenious 
 mechanic, near Blackburn, made a spinning jenny, 
 with eight spindles, and also erected the first card- 
 ing machine, with cylinders. Arkwright's machine 
 for spinning by water was an extension of the prin- 
 ciple of Hargreaves; but he also applied a large 
 and small roller to expand the thread, for which he 
 took out a patent in 1769. At first he worked his 
 machinery by horses ; but in 1771 he built a mill 
 on the stream of the Derwent, at Cromford. In 
 1774-9, Crompton invented the mule {which see). 
 
 SPIEES (in Bavaria). The emperors held 
 many diets at Spires since 1309, and it was the seat 
 of the imperial chamber till 1688, when the city 
 was burned by the French, and not rebuilt till after 
 the peace of Byswick, in 1697. The diet to con- 
 demn the reformers was held at Spires, called there 
 by the emperor Charles V. 1529 ; see Protestants. 
 
 SPIEITS, see Distillation. In all nations 
 
 spirituous liquors have been considered as a proper 
 
 subject of heavy taxation for the support of the 
 
 state ; see Alcohol, Brandy, Methylated Spirits, &c. 
 
 In 1840 England made about ten millions of gallons of 
 spirits, Scotland about seven millions of gallons, and 
 Ireland about nine millions of gallons. 
 
 In 18.51 the number of gallons on which duty was paid 
 for home consumption was 23,976,596. The total 
 amount paid was 6,017,218?., of which 3,758,186?. were 
 paid by England, 1,252,297?. by Scotland, and 1,006,735?. 
 by Ireland. 
 
 The total duty on home consumption paid in 1853 was 
 6,760,422?. 
 
 Iu 1858, 9,195,154?. were paid as duty on 27,370,934 
 gallons. 
 
 In 1855, methylated spirits of wine, for use in the arts and 
 sciences, were made duty free. 
 
 In 1859, 2 7>657,72i gallons of spirits were distilled in the 
 United Kingdom. The uniform duty of 8s. per gallon 
 was paid on 24,254,403 gallons for home consumption, 
 producing 9,701,764?. In the year 1865-6 the tax pro- 
 duced about 13,955,000?., being the largest sum then ever 
 raised by indirect taxation. In 1871-2, 16,798,344?. 
 (customs and excise). 
 
 In 1861 an act was passed repealing wholly or in part 
 26 previous acts, and embodying all regulations for the 
 guidance of manufacturers and dealers in spirits. 
 
 In 1870, about 89,000,000?. spent in spirits; 58,000,000?. 
 by working classes. 
 
 SPIBITUALISM or SPIEIT-BAPPING. 
 
 Spiritual manifestations (so called) began it is said 
 in America about 1848, and attracted attention in 
 this country about 1851, in the shape of rapping, 
 table-turning, &c. Many inquisitive or credulous 
 persons visited Mr. Daniel Dunglas Hume or Home 
 and Mr. Forster, noted "spiritual mediums." Mr. 
 Home, secretary of the Spiritual Atheneeuin, Sloane- 
 street, Chelsea, published, in 1863, "Incidents of 
 my Life," in which be states that the only benefit 
 he derived from the "gift" was the convincing 
 many unbelievers of the certainty of a life to come ; 
 see Trials, April, May, 1868. The " Spiritual 
 Magazine" began Jan. i860; the "Spiritualist," 
 9 Nov. 1869. The London Dialectical society pub- 
 lished a report on spiritualism in Nov. 187 1. Mr. 
 "W. Crookes, in 1871, investigated the phenomena, 
 and ascribed them to " psychic force" (" Quarterly 
 Journal of Science," July and Oct. 1871). Miss 
 Kate Fox, said to be the earliest American medium 
 (about 1852) was married to Mr. H. D. Jencken, in 
 London, Dec. 1872. 
 
 SPITALFIELDS (East London), so named 
 from the priory of St. Mary Spittle, dissolved 1534. 
 Here the French protestant refugees settled and 
 established the silk manufacture in 1685. In con- 
 
 sequence of commercial changes the weavers en- 
 dured much distress about 1829. 
 
 SPITHEAD, a roadstead near the Spit, a sand- 
 bank between Portsmouth and the Isle of "Wight. 
 See Naval Reviews, under Navy of England. 
 
 SPITZ BEE GEN, an archipelago in the 
 Arctic Ocean, discovered in 1553 by sir Hugh "Wil- 
 loughby, who called it Greenland, supposing it to 
 be a part of the western continent. In 1595 it was 
 visited by Barentz and Cornelius, two Dutchmen, 
 who pretended to be the original discoverers, and 
 called it Spitzbergen, or sharp mountains, from the 
 many sharp pointed and rocky mountains with 
 which it abounds ; see Phipps. 
 
 SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION of the 
 
 human body, declared by most chemists to be im- 
 possible, although many cases have been recorded. 
 The alleged case of the countess of Gorlitz, 1847, 
 was disproved by the confession of her murderer, 
 March, 1850. 
 
 SPONTANEOUS GENEEATION. The 
 
 origin of the germs of infusorial animalcules deve- 
 loped during putrefaction, &c, has been and is still 
 warmly debated by naturalists. Spallanzani (about 
 1766), and especially M. Pasteur and others at the 
 present time (1873), assert that these germs are 
 really endowed with organic life existing in the 
 atmosphere. Needham (about 1747), and especially 
 M. Pouchet and his friends in our day, assert that 
 these germs are spontaneously formed out of organic 
 molecules, and may beformedartificially. — Pouchet's 
 "Heterogenic" appeared in 1859; Bastian's "Be- 
 ginnings of Life," 1872. 
 
 . SPOETING NEWSPAPEES : Bell's Life 
 in London, began 1820 ; Sporting Life, 16 March, 
 1859 ; Sporting Gazette, 1862 ; Sporting Times, 
 1865 ; Sportsman, Aug. 1865 ; The Field, 1853. 
 
 SPOETS. The first "Book of Sports," under 
 the title of " The King's Majestie's Declaration to 
 his Subjects concerning Lawful Sports to be used" 
 on Sundays after evening prayers, was published by 
 king James I., 24 May, 1618. The second "Book 
 of Sports," with a ratification by his majesty Charles 
 I., is dated 18 Oct. 1633. On the publication of the 
 first "Book of Sports," there arose a long and 
 violent controversy among English divines on certain 
 points ; see Sabbatarians, Sunday, &c. — The book 
 was ordered to be burnt by the hangman, and the 
 sports were suppressed by the parliament. 
 
 SPOTTSYLVANIA (Virginia), see United 
 States, May, 1864. 
 
 SPEINGFIELD (Missouri), near which was 
 fought the desperate battle of Wilson's Creek, in 
 which the federals had the advantage over the con- 
 federates, but lost their brave general, Nathaniel 
 Lyon, 10 Aug. 1861. 
 
 SPUES. Anciently the difference between the 
 knight and esquire was, that the knight wore gilt 
 spurs (egues auratus), and the esquire silver ones. 
 Two sorts of spurs seem to have been in use at the 
 time of the Conquest, one called a pryck, having 
 only a single point, the other a number of points of 
 considerable size. Spurs nearly of the present kind 
 came into use about 1400 ; see Plating. 
 
 SPUES, BATTEE OF. . Henry VIII. of Eng- 
 land, the emperor Maximilian, and the Swiss, iu 
 1513, entered into an offensive alliance against 
 France. Henry VIII. landed at Calais in the 
 month of July, and soon formed an army of 30^000 
 
 s s 2 
 
STAB AT MATEE 
 
 628 
 
 STANDAEDS. 
 
 men. He was joined by the emperor with a good 
 corps of horse and some foot, the emperor as a mer- 
 cenary to the king of England, who allowed him a 
 hundred ducats a day for his table ! They invested 
 Teroiienne with an army of 50,000 men ; and the 
 due de Longueville, marching to its relief, was 
 signally defeated on the 16th of August, at Guine- 
 gate. This battle was called the battle of Spurs, 
 because the French used their spurs more than they 
 did their swords. The English king laid siege to 
 Toumay, which submitted in a few days. Henault; 
 see Courtrai, for another "battle of spurs." 
 
 S. S., see Collar. 
 
 STABAT MATEE, a Latin hymn, by Jaco- 
 pone, 14th century, sung during Passion week in 
 Catholic churches. Rossini's music to this hymn 
 (1842) is often performed. 
 
 STADE DUES. At a castle near the town of 
 Stade, in Hanover, certain dues on goods were 
 charged by the Hanoverian government. The 
 British government settled these dues in 1844. 
 They were resisted by the Americans in 1855, 
 and were abolished in June, 1861. Great Britain 
 paid 160,000/. as her share of the compensation 
 (3,000,000/.). 
 
 STADTHOLDEE, see Holland. 
 
 STAFF COLLEGE (Sandhurst), for pro- 
 viding an education to qualify military officers for 
 the duties of the staff. The foundation stone was 
 laid by the duke of Cambridge on 14 Dec. 1859. 
 
 STAGE COACHES, so called from the stages 
 or inns at which the coaches stopped to refresh 
 and change horses. Bailey. The stage-coach duty 
 act passed in 1785. These coaches were made sub- 
 ject to salutary provisions for the safety of passen- 
 gers, in 1810; to mileage duties, 1815. The acts 
 were consolidated in 1832, and amended in 1833 and 
 1842. See Mail Coaches, &c. 
 
 STAMP-DUTIES. By 22 & 23 Charles II. 
 (1670-1) duties were imposed on certain legal docu- 
 ments. In 1694 a duty was imposed upon paper, 
 vellum, and parchment. The stamp-duty on news- 
 papers was commenced in 1713, and every year 
 added to the list of articles upon which stamp-duty 
 was made payable. 
 
 Stamp act, which led to the American war, passed 
 22 March, 1765; repealed in 1766 
 
 Stamp duties in Ireland commenced . . . . 1774 
 
 Stamps on notes and bills of exchange in . . 1782 
 
 The stamp-duties produced in England, in 1800, a 
 revenue of 3,126,535!. 
 
 Many alterations made in 1853 and 1857. In June, 
 1855, the stamp-duty on newspapers as such was 
 totally abolished ; the stamp on them being hence- 
 forth for postal purposes. 
 
 In July and Aug. 1854. ig.ns.ooonewspaperstamps 
 were issued; in the same months, 1855, only 
 6,870,000. 
 
 Drafts on bankers to be stamped .... 1858 
 
 Additional stamp duties were enacted in i860 (on 
 leases, bills of exchange, dock warrants, extracts 
 from registers of births, <fec.) ; in 1861 (on teases, 
 licences to house-agents, <fcc). 
 
 Stamp-duties reduced in 1864, 1865. 
 
 All fees payable in the superior courts of law, after 
 31 Dec. 1865, are to be collected by stamps, by an 
 ct passed in June, 1865. Also in Public Record 
 office • . ■ l868 
 
 144,623,014 inland revenue penny stamps sold, be- 
 sides other stamps 1869 
 
 By the Stamp acts, 10 Aug. 1870, newspaper stamps 
 were abolished after . . . . 1 Oct. 1870 
 
 New stamp duties imposed ; came into effect 1 Jan., 1871 
 
 AMOUNT OF STAMP DUTIES RECEIVED IN THE 
 UNITED KINGDOM. 
 
 184O 
 1845 
 
 1855 
 
 . £6,726,817 
 7,710,683 
 6,558,332 
 6,805,605 
 
 i860 (to 31 Mar.) £8,040,091 
 1865 . . . 9,542,645 
 1870 . . . 9,288,553 
 1872 . . . 9,739,548 
 
 STANDAED for gold and silver in England 
 fixed by law, 1300. Standard gold is 22 parts out 
 of 24 of pure gold, the other two parts or carats 
 being silver or copper. The standard of silver is 
 11 oz. 2 dwts. of fine silver alloyed with 18 dwts. of 
 copper, or 37 parts out of 40 pure silver, and three 
 parts copper. In 1300 these of 12 oz. silver were 
 coined into 20 shillings ; in 1412 they were coined 
 into 30 shillings ; and in 1527 into 45 shillings. In 
 1545 Henry VIII. coined 6 oz. of silver and 6 oz. of 
 alloy into 48 shillings ; and the next year he coined 
 4 oz. of silver and 8 oz. of alloy into the same sum. 
 Elizabeth, in 1560, restored the old standard in 
 60 shillings; and in 1 601 in 62 shillings. It is 
 now 66 shillings. The average proportions of silver 
 to gold at the royal mint are 15I to 1 . The standard 
 of plate and silver manufactures was affirmed, 
 6 Geo. I. 1719 et seq.; see Gold, Goldsmiths, and 
 Coinage. 
 
 STAND AED, BATTLE OF THE, see North- 
 allerton. 
 
 STANDAED MEASURES- In the reign 
 of Edgar a law was made to prevent frauds arising 
 from the diversity of measures, and for the esta- 
 blishment of a legal standard measure to be used 
 in every part of his dominions. The standard 
 vessels made by order of the king were deposited in 
 the city of Winchester, and hence originated the 
 well-known term of " Winchester measure " of the 
 time of Henry VII. (1487). The bushel so made 
 is still preserved in the museum of that city. 
 Henry I. also, to prevent frauds in the measure- 
 ment of cloth, ordered a standard yard of the length 
 of his own arm to be made and deposited at Win- 
 chester, with the standard measures of king Edgar. 
 The Guildhall contains the standard measures of 
 succeeding sovereigns. Camden. — The standard 
 weights and measures were settled by parliament 
 in 1824. The pound troy was to be 5760 grains, 
 and the pound avoirdupois 7000 grains. The 
 " Standard yard of 1 760," in the custody of the 
 clerk of the house of commons, was declared to be 
 the Imperial Standard yard and the unit of mea- 
 sures of extension. This standard having been 
 destroyed by the fire in 1834, a new commission 
 was appointed to reconstruct it, and researches for 
 this purpose, in conformity with the act, which 
 directed the comparison of the standard with a 
 pendulum vibrating seconds of time in the latitude 
 of London, were begun by Franc^Baily (died in 
 1844), continued by the rev. R. w!eepshanks till 
 his death in 1855, and completed by G. B. Airy, 
 astronomer royal. In 1855 was passed "an act for 
 legalising and preserving the lost standards of 
 weights and measures." The parliamentary copies 
 of the standard pound and yard are deposited at 
 the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. The standard 
 weights and measures act was passed Aug. 1866. 
 
 " STANDAED," conservative newspaper ; 
 begun, morning, 1827; evening, 29 June, 1857. 
 
 STAND AEDS, see Banners, Flags, &c. The 
 practice in the army of using a cross on standards 
 and shields is due to the asserted miraculous appear- 
 ance of a cross to Constantine, previously to his 
 battle with Maxentius ; Eusebius says that he re- 
 ceived this statement from the emperor himself, 
 312. The standard was named Labarum. For 
 the celebrated French standard, see Auriftamme. — 
 
STANFOBD BEIDGE. 
 
 629 
 
 STATISTICS. 
 
 Standard of Mahomet ; on this ensign no infidel 
 dared look. Christians have been massacred by the 
 Turkish populace for looking on it. — The British 
 Imperial Standard was first hoisted on the Tower 
 of London, and on Bedford Tower, Dublin, and 
 displayed by the Foot Guards, on the union of the 
 kingdoms, I Jan., 1801. 
 
 STANFOED BEIDGE (York). In 1066, 
 Tostig, brother of Harold II., rebelled against his 
 brother, and joined the invading army of Harold 
 Hardrada, king of Norway. They defeated the 
 northern earls and took York, but were defeated at 
 Stanford -bridge by Harold, 25 Sept., aud were both 
 slain. The loss by this victory no doubt led to his 
 defeat at Hastings, 14 Oct. following. 
 
 STANHOPE ADMINISTEATION was 
 formed by James (afterwards earl) Stanhope and 
 the earl of Sunderland, 15 April, 1717. Stanhope 
 was premier and chancellor of the exchequer ; lord 
 (afterwards earl) Cowper, lord chancellor; earl of 
 Sunderland and Joseph Addison, secretaries of 
 state, &c. In March, 1718, Addison resigned, and 
 the earl of Sunderland became premier. 
 
 STANNAEY COUETS of Devon and Corn- 
 wall for the administration of justice among the 
 tin miners, whose privileges were confirmed by 
 33 Edw. I. 1305. They were regulated by parlia- 
 ment in 1641, and at many times since. A " Stan- 
 neries act" was passed in 1869. 
 
 STAPLE (literally that >hich is fixed). The 
 chief English staple commodities which were'-traded 
 in by privileged merchants, and on which customs 
 were levied, were avooI, skins, leather, tin, lead, 
 and sometimes cloth, butter, and cheese; certain 
 towns were appointed for the collection of the 
 duties ; statutes relating to the staple were passed 
 by Edward III., Richard II., and Henry 71. 
 Edward III. 's "ordinacio stapularum" (ordinance 
 of the staple) was enacted in 1353. 
 
 STAECH is a sediment produced at the bottom 
 of vessels wherein wheat has been steeped in water : 
 it is soft and friable, easily broken into powder, 
 and is used to stiffen and clear linen, with blue ; 
 its powder is employed to powder the hair. The art 
 of starching linen was brought into England by Mrs. 
 Dinghein, a Flemish woman, 1 Mary, 1553. Stow. 
 Patents for obtaining starch from other substances 
 have been taken out : from potatoes by Samuel 
 Newton and others in 1 707 ; from the horse-chest- 
 nut by Wm. Murray in 1796 ; from rice by Thomas 
 Wickhain in 1823 ; from various matters by Orlando 
 Jones in 1839-40. 
 
 STAE-CHAMBEE, Court of. So called 
 haply from its roof being garnished with stars. Coke. 
 This court of justice was called Star-Chamber, not 
 from the stars on its roof (which were obliterated 
 even before the reign of queen Elizabeth), but from 
 the Starra, or Jewish covenants, deposited there by 
 order of Richard I. No star was allowed to be 
 valid except found in those repositories, and here 
 they remained till the banishment of the Jews by 
 Edward I. The court was instituted or revived 
 3 Hen. VII. i486, for trials by a committee of the 
 privy council, which was in violation of Magna 
 Charta ; as it dealt with civil and criminal causes 
 unfettered by the rules of law. In Charles I.'s 
 reign it exercised its power upon several bold inno- 
 vators, who gloried in their sufferings, and con- 
 tributed to render government odious and con- 
 temptible. It was abolished in 1640. There were 
 
 in this court from 26 to 42 judges, the lord chan- 
 cellor having the casting voice. 
 
 STAE OF INDIA, a new order of knight- 
 hood for India, instituted by letters patent 23 Feb., 
 gazetted 25 June, 1861, and enlarged in 1866. It 
 comprised the sovereign, the grand master, 25 
 knights (Europeans and natives), and extra or 
 honorary knights, such as the prince consort, the 
 prince of Wales, &c. The queen invested several 
 knights on 1 Nov. 1861. 
 
 STABS, THE FIXED- They were classed into 
 constellations, itis supposed, about I200B.C. Hicetas, 
 of Syracuse, taught that the sun and the stars were 
 motionless, and that the earth moved round them, 
 about 344 B.C. (this is mentioned by Cicero, and 
 perhaps gave the first hint of this system to Coper- 
 nicus). Job, Hesiod, and Homer mention several 
 of the constellations. The Royal Library at Paris 
 contains a Chinese chart of the heavens, made 
 about 600 B.C., in which 1460 stars are correctly 
 inserted. The aberration of the stars was discovered 
 by Dr. Bradley, 1727; see Astronomy, and Solar 
 Si/stem. Maps of the stars were published by the 
 Society for the Diffusion of Knowledge in 1839, 
 and a set of Celestial Maps, issued under the super- 
 intendence of the Royal Prussian Academy, was 
 completed in 1859. 
 
 STATE PAPEE OFFICE was founded in 
 1578. In 1856 the British government began the 
 publication of Calendars of State Papers, invaluable 
 to future historians. 
 
 STATES-GENEEAL oe FEANCE.. An 
 
 ancient assembly of France, first met, it is said, in 
 1302 to consider the exactions of the pope. Pre- 
 vious to the Revolution, it had not met since 1 6 14. 
 The states consisted of three orders, the clergy, 
 nobility, and commons. They were convened by- 
 Louis XVI., and assembled at Versailles, 5 May, 
 1789 (308 ecclesiastics, 285 nobles, and 621 deputies 
 or tiers etat, third estate) . A contest arose whether 
 the three orders should make three distinct houses, 
 or but one assembly. The commons insisted upon 
 the latter, and assuming the title of the National 
 Assembly, declared that they were competent to 
 proceed to business, without the concurrence of the 
 two other orders, if they refused to join them. 
 The nobility and clergy found it expedient to con- 
 cede the point, and they all met in one hall ; see 
 National Assembly. 
 
 STATES OE THE CHUECH, see Tope, and 
 Tome. 
 
 STATIONEES- Books and papers were 
 formerly sold only at stalls ; hence the dealers were 
 called stationers. The company of stationers of 
 London is of great antiquity, and existed long 
 before printing was invented, yet it was not in- 
 corporated until 3 Philip & Mary, 1557. Their old 
 dwelling was in Paternoster-row. 
 
 STATISTICS, the science of the state, political 
 knowledge, is said to have been founded by sir 
 Wm. Petty, who died in 1687. The term is said to 
 have been invented by professor Achenwall of 
 Gottingen in 1749. The first statistical society in 
 England was formed at Manchester in 1833; the 
 Statistical Society of London, which publishes a 
 quarterly journal, was established 15 March, 1834, 
 for the purpose of procuring, arranging, and pub- 
 lishing " facts calculated to illustrate the condition 
 and prospects of society;" similar societies have 
 been established on the continent. International 
 Statistical Congresses are now held occasionally. 
 
STATUES. 
 
 630 
 
 STEAM ENGINE. 
 
 The ist at Brussels, chiefly through the agency of 
 M. Quetelet, in 1853 ; 2nd at Paris, 1855 ; 3rd at 
 Vienna, 1857 ; 4th at London, under the presidency 
 of the prince consort, 16-21 July, i860; 5th at 
 Berlin ; 6th at Florence ; 7th at the Hague ; 
 the 8th, at St. Petersburg, was opened 22 Aug. 
 1872. 
 
 STATUES, see Sculpture, &c. Phidias, whose 
 statue of Jupiter passed for one of the wonders of 
 the world, was the greatest statuary among the 
 ancients, 440 B.C. He had previously made a statue 
 of Minerva at the request of Pericles, which was 
 placed in the Parthenon. It was made of ivory 
 and gold, and measured 39 feet in height. Acilius 
 raised a golden statue to his father, the first that 
 appeared in Italy. Lysippus invented the art of 
 taking likenesses in plaster moulds, from which he 
 afterwards cast models in wax, 326 B.C. Michael 
 Angelo was the greatest artist among the moderns. 
 The first equestrian statute erected in Great Britain 
 was that of Charles I. in 1678.* By 17 & 18 Vict, 
 c. 10 (10 July, 1854), public statues are placed 
 under the control and protection of the Board of 
 "Works. The following are the chief public statues 
 in London: — 
 
 Achilles, Hyde-park, in honour of the duke of Wel- 
 lington, by the ladies of Great Britain 18 June, 1822 
 Albert, prince consort, Royal Exchange, 1850 ; Hor- 
 ticultural Society gardens, 1863; Holbom circus, 1873 
 Anne, queen, St. Paul's Churchyard . . .1711 
 
 Barry, sir Charles, Westminster 1865 
 
 Bedford, duke of, Russell-square .... 1809 
 Bentinck, lord George, Cavendish-square . after 1848 
 Canning, Geo., New Palace-yard, Westminster . . 1832 
 Cartwright, major, Burton-crescent .... 1831 
 
 Charles I. , Charing-cross 1678 
 
 Charles II., Soho-square * " * 
 
 Clyde, lord, Waterloo-place 1868 
 
 Cobden, Richard, Camden-town . . June, 1868 
 Cumberland, duke of, Cavendish-square . . . 1770 
 Elizabeth, queen, St. Dunstan's, Fleet-street . . 1586 
 Fox, Charles James, Bloomsbury-square . . . 1816 
 Franklin, sir John, Waterloo-place .... 1866 
 
 George I., Grosvenor-square 1726 
 
 Jeorge I., Leicester-square (destroyed) . . . ,, 
 
 George III. Somerset-house 1788 
 
 George III. Cockspur-strect 1836 
 
 Havelock, sir Henry, Trafalgar-square . . . 1861 
 Herbert, lord, Pall Mall .... 3 June, 1867 
 Howard, John ; first erected in St. Paul's . . . 1796 
 
 James II. Whitehall 1687 
 
 Jenner, Edward, Trafalgar-square, 1858 ; removed 
 
 tn Kensington-gardens 1864 
 
 Macgregor, sir James, Chelsea hospital . . . 1865 
 Myddelton, sir Hugh, Islingcon-green . . . . 1862 
 Napier, gen. sir Chas. J., Trafalgar-square . . 1856 
 Nelson, lord, Trafalgar-square [the lions at the base, 
 designed by sir E. Landseer, were uncovered 31 
 
 Jan. 1867] 1843 
 
 Outram, sir James, on Thames embankment, 17 Aug. 1871 
 Peabody, George, Royal Exchange .... 1869 
 Peel, sir Robert, Cheapside, 1855 ; near Westminster 
 
 abbey 1868 
 
 Pitt, William, Hanover-square 183 1 
 
 Queen Victoria, Royal Exchange 1845 
 
 Richard Coeur de Lion, near Westminster abbey . i860 
 Stephensbn, Robert, Euston-road, near L. & N. W. 
 
 station 1871 
 
 Wellington, duke of, Royal Exchange . . . 1844 
 Wellington, duke of, arch, Hyde-park-corner . . 1846 
 William III. St. James's-square .... 1717 
 
 William IV. King William-street 1845 
 
 York, duke of, Waterloo-place 1834 
 
 * This statue is of brass, cast by Le Sueur, in 1633, 
 at the expense of the Howard-Arundel family. During 
 the civil war, the parliament sold it to John River, a 
 brazier, in Holborn, with strict orders to break it to 
 pieces ; but he concealed it underground till the Restora- 
 tion, when it was erected, in 1678, on a pedestal executed 
 by Grinlin Gibbons. The first equestrian statue of 
 bronze, founded at one cast, was that of Louis XIV. of 
 France, 1699; it was elevated about 1724. 
 
 STATUTES, see Acts of Parliament, Clarendon, 
 Merton, &c. Statute Law Revision acts were passed 
 iu 1863- 1872. 
 
 STATUTORY DECLARATIONS. By 5 & 
 6 Will. IV. c. 62 (1835), persons objecting to oaths are 
 permitted to make declarations before magistrates, 
 
 judges, &c. ; commencing: "I , do solemnly 
 
 and sincerely declare that" — an indulgence some- 
 times abused. 
 
 Mr. Alexander) Chaffers having made a declaration 
 against the character of Lady Twiss, wife of sir 
 Travers Twiss, was prosecuted for libel. She with- 
 drew during the examination, and the prosecution 
 ceased: but Chatters was severely censured by the 
 magistrate, and by the attorney-general in parlia- 
 ment March, 1872 
 
 STEAM CARRIAGE (for ordinary roads), 
 invented by the earl of Caithness, was said to be 
 successful in i860. It travels over rough roads at 
 the rate of 8 miles an hour, at a cost of less than id. 
 per mile. His lordship made a journey of 140 miles 
 in two days ; see Road Steamers . 
 
 STEAM ENGINE and NAVIGATION. 
 
 Hero of Alexandria, in his " Pneumatics," describes 
 various methods of employing steam as a power ; 
 and to him is ascribed the JEolopile, which, although 
 a toy, possesses the properties of the steam-engine : 
 he flourished about 284-24.1 B.C. Roger Bacon ap- 
 pears to have foreseen the application of steam- 
 power ; see Railivays, Locomotives, Road Steamers, 
 &c. 
 
 Solomon de Caus, a French protestant, publishes a 
 
 work which Arago considers to have contained the 
 
 germs of the steam-engine 1615 
 
 The marquis of Worcester describes his steam-engine 
 
 in his " Century of Inventions " . . . . 1663 
 
 Papin's digester invented 1681-2 
 
 Captain Savery's engine constructed for raising 
 
 water 1698 
 
 Papin's engine exhibited to the Royal Society about 1699 
 Atmospheric engine by Savery and Newcomen . 1713 
 First idea of stea m navigation set forth in a patent 
 
 obtained by Jonathan Hulls 1736 
 
 Watt's invention of performing condensation in a 
 
 separate vessel from the cylinder .... 1765 
 His first patent, 1769 ; his engines erected in manu- 
 factories, and his patent renewed by parliament . 177s 
 Thomas Paine proposes steam navigation in America 1778 
 Engines made to give a rotary motion . . . . ,, 
 
 Watt's expansion engine ,, 
 
 Double-action engines proposed by Dr. Falck on 
 
 Newcom en's principle 1779 
 
 Watt's double engine and his first patent for it . 1781 
 Hornblower's double-cylinder engine . . . . 1781 
 The marquis Jouffroy constructed an engine on the 
 
 Saone , 
 
 Wm. Patrick Miller patented paddle-wheels . . 1787 
 [He and Mr. Symington are said to have constructed 
 
 a small steamboat which travelled at about 4 miles 
 
 an hour soon after.] 
 W. Symington made a passage on the Forth and 
 
 Clyde canal 1790 
 
 First steam-engine erected in Dublin by Henry 
 
 Jackson .... .... 1791 
 
 First experiment with steam navigation on the 
 
 Thames 1801 
 
 Trevethick's high-pressure engine , 
 
 Woolfs double -cylinder expansion engine con- 
 structed 1804 
 
 Manufactories warmed by steam 1806 
 
 Fulton's steamboat Clermont on the Seine, 9 Aug. 
 
 1803 ; at New York „ 
 
 Fulton started a steamboat on the river Hudson, 
 
 America 1807 
 
 Steam power to convey coals on a railway employed 
 
 by Blenkinsop 18 n 
 
 Comet built by Henry Bell, sailed on the Clyde 
 
 [John Robertson, who made the engine, died 
 
 20 Nov. 1868, aged 86] ... 18 Jan. 1812 
 
 [The Cornet, sailed from Glasgow to Greenock three 
 
 times a week ; fares, 3s. and 4s. ; speed, 7J miles 
 
 an hour.] 
 
 
STEAM ENGINE. 
 
 631 
 
 STEAM NAVIGATION. 
 
 Steam applied to printing in the Times office (see 
 Printing machines) 1814 
 
 There were rive steam-vessels in Scotland (Pari. Re- 
 turns) ,, 
 
 First steam-vessel on the Thames, brought by Mr. 
 Dodd from Glasgow 1815 
 
 First steamer built in England (Pari. Returns) . . ,, 
 
 The Savannah steamer, of 350 tons, came from New 
 York to Liverpool in 26 days . . 15 July, 1819 
 
 First steamer in Ireland ...... 1820 
 
 Steam-gun, invented by Perkins .... 1824 
 
 Sieam-jet applied . . . . . . . . 1825 
 
 Captain Johnson obtained io,oooZ. for making the 
 first steam voyage to India, in the Enterprise, 
 which sailed from Falmouth . . 16 Aug. „ 
 
 The locomotive steam-carriages on railways at Liver- 
 pool Oct. 1829 
 
 The railway opened (see Liverpool) .... 1830 
 
 Capt. Ericsson's screw steamer, " Francis Bogden," 
 speed 10 miles an hour, constructed : see Screw- 
 Propeller . . 1837 
 
 The Great Western arrives from Bristol at New York, 
 being her first voyage, in 18 days . 17 June, 1838 
 
 War-steamers built in England „ 
 
 War-steamers built at Birkenhead, named the .Ne- 
 mesis and Phlegetlwn, carrying each two thirty-two 
 pounders, sent by government to China . . 1840 
 
 The Cunard steamers began to sail . . 5 July, „ 
 [Sir Sam. Cunard died 28 April, 1865, aged 78.] 
 
 Peninsular and Oriental Steam Company began . 1841 
 [They possess 53 steamers and a fleet of tugs, Dec. 
 1866.] 
 
 The Great Britain sailed from the Mersey 26 July, 1845 
 [She arrived at New York 10 Aug. During her 
 second voyage, she ran aground in Dundrum 
 bay, Ireland, 22 Sept. 1846. Her passengers 
 were landed ; and she was extricated with 
 little injury, after long-continued and strenu- 
 ous efforts, by I. Brunei, jun. and Bremner, 
 27 Aug. 1847.] 
 
 The Collins steamers began 1850 
 
 The Pacific crosses the Atlantic in 9 days, 19 hours, 
 25 minutes, arriving at Holyhead . 20 May, 1851 
 
 Steam packets leave Galway for America . . . 1858 
 
 The merits of an attacking vessel termed a steam- 
 ram, advocated by sir G. Sartorius, were discussed 
 
 in 1859-60 
 
 An iron-plated frigate, La Gloire, completed in 
 France (see Navy, French) i860 
 
 The Warrior, an iron-plated vessel, launched 29 Dec. „ 
 
 The Far East, a vessel with two screws, launched at 
 Millwall 31 Oct. 1863 
 
 A cigar ship, a steam yacht, designed by Mr. Winan, 
 built by Hepworth, launched on the Thames 
 
 19 Feb. 1866 
 
 Trial trip of the Nautilus, with a hydraulic propeller 
 worked by steam, Ruthven's patent ; no paddle or 
 screw required 24 March, ,, 
 
 Successful trial trip of the Water-witch, a govern- 
 ment hydraulic propeller iron-clad gun-vessel 
 (Ruthven's patent), on the Thames . 19 Oct. ,, 
 
 Mr. Ruthven patented his system in 1849, anc ^ exhibited 
 his machinery at the International Exhibition in 1851. 
 His object is to increase speed and save fuel. In the 
 Water-witch a steam-engine gives the power of absorb- 
 ing and expelling the water, and no screw or paddle is 
 required. The water-wheel is 14J feet in diameter. 
 
 Trial trip of H.M. gun-boat Thistle ; explosion of 
 boiler, 8 killed 3 Nov. 1869 
 
 Steam vessels belonging to the British empire in 1814, 6 ; 
 in 1815, 10 ; in 1820, 43 ; in 1825, 168 ; in 1830, 315 ; in 
 I 83S, 545 ; in 1845, 1001 ; in 1850, 1187 ; in 1864, 2490 ; 
 in 1871, 3382. 
 
 See Navy, and Shipping. 
 
 LARGE STEAM VESSELS OP ENGLAND. 
 
 Long. Broad. 
 
 Great Western 236 feet 35 feet 
 
 Duke of Wellington . . . . 240 feet 60 feet 
 British Queen . . . . . 275 feet 61 feet 
 
 Great Britain 322 feet 51 feet 
 
 Himalaya 37 o feet 43 feet 
 
 Persia 390 feet 45 feet 
 
 Great Eastern, for a short time 
 (1857-8) called Leviathan . . 692 feet 83 feet 
 Horse Power : — Paddles, 1000 ; screw, 1600 : 
 Weight of ship, 12,000 tons ; ordinary light 
 draught, 12,000 tons. 
 
 She was designed by Mr. I. K. Brunei [who died 15 Sept' 
 1859], and built by Messrs. Scott Russell and Co., at 
 Millwall ; launching lasted from 3 Nov. 1857, to 31 Jan. 
 1858. 
 
 The capital subscribed having been all expended, a new 
 company was formed to fit her for sea. 
 
 On 7 Sept. 1859, she left her moorings at Deptford for 
 Portland-roads. On the voyage an explosion took place 
 (off Hastings), through some neglect in regard to the- 
 casting of one of the chimneys, when ten firemen were 
 killed and many persons seriously injured. After re- 
 pairs she sailed to Holyhead, arriving there 10 Oct. ; 
 she endured the storm of 25-26 Oct. well ; and pro- 
 ceeded to Southampton for the winter, 4 Nov. 
 
 She was fitted up to convey 5000 persons from London 
 to Australia, a distance of 22,500 miles, with accom- 
 modation for 800 1st classpassengers, 2000 2nd class, and 
 1200 3rd class. Her able captain (Harrison) was 
 drowned in the Solent 22 Jan. i860, deeply regretted. 
 She sailed for New York 17 June, under command of 
 captain Vine Hall, and arrived there 28 June. After 
 being exhibited she left New York 16 Aug. and returned 
 to England 26 Aug. 
 
 Owing to a lawsuit in April, the ship came into the hands 
 of sheriffs officers ; but was released and sailed for New 
 York on 1 May, 1861. On 12 Sept. she suffered much 
 loss through a violent gale. 
 
 In 1862 she performed several voyages to and from New 
 York ; but in Aug. ran on a rock near Long Island and 
 injured her bottom. 
 
 She was repaired and arrived at Liverpool 17 Jan. 1863, 
 and sailed to New York (16-27 May). 
 
 She was bought by Glass, Elliot, and Co. in March or 
 April, 1864, and was chartered to convey the Atlantic 
 telegraph cable ; sailed from Sheerness 15 July ; and 
 returned 19 Aug. 1865 ; see Electric Telegraph, p. 233. 
 
 She sailed for New York, prepared for 2000 passengers, 
 
 26 March, and returned with 191. She was seized by 
 the seamen, claiming their wages, May, 1867 ; and the 
 case was carried into chancery in July. 
 
 At the meeting of the shareholders 10 Feb. 1868, no divi- 
 dend was declared. 
 
 She conveyed the French Atlantic telegraph cable, 
 successfully laid Oct. 1869 
 
 Arrived at Bombay with Bombay and Suez cable, 
 
 27 Feb. ; returned to Sheerness . . June, 1870 
 Sailed with the fourth Atlantic telegraph cable 
 
 8 June ; which was completely laid . 3 July, 1873 
 
 Steam-whistles and steam-trumpets, used in factories to 
 summon or dismiss workmen, prohibited by an act 
 passed Aug. 1872. 
 
 STEAM-GUN ; suggested by ¥m. Murdock, 
 1803. One patented by Messrs. Perkins, in 1815, 
 was ineffectual. 
 
 In Oct. 1870, Mr. H. Bessemer proposed the application 
 of steam power to artillery. 
 
 STEAM HAMMEE, invented by Mr. James 
 Nasmyth in 1838, and patented by him 18 June, 
 1842. Its main feature is the absolutely direct 
 manner by which the elastic power of steam is 
 employed to lift up and let fall the mass of iron 
 constituting the hammer, which is attached direct 
 to the end of a piston-rod passing through the 
 bottom of an inverted steam cylinder placed imme- 
 diately over the anvil. 
 
 In 1842, Mr. Nasmyth applied his steam-hammer to 
 driving piles, which has importantly assisted in the 
 execution of great public works. Owing to its vast 
 range of power, forged iron-work can now by its means 
 be executed on a scale, and for a variety of purposes, 
 with an ease and perfection not previously possible. 
 Parts of gigantic marine steam-engines, anchors, and 
 Armstrong guns, as well as the most minute details of 
 
 . machinery, as in Enfield rifles, are executed by the 
 steam-hammer. 
 
 STEAM-MAN. A figure constructed to drag 
 a phaeton received this name in New York in 
 March, 1868. 
 
 STEAM NAVIGATION, see under Steam. 
 
STEAM PLOUGHS. 
 
 632 
 
 STEREOTYPE. 
 
 STEAM-PLOUGHS were patented by G. 
 Callaway and R. A. Purkes, 1849; H. Cowing, 
 1850 ; and others. John Fowler's of 1854 is much 
 approved. 
 
 STEAM-RAM (to be used in naval warfare), 
 was invented by Mr. James Nasmyth in 1836, and 
 communicated to the admiralty in 1845. Steam- 
 rams built by Mr. James Laird of Birkenhead for 
 the confederates in N. America, were stopped and 
 eventually bought by the British government in 
 1864. 
 
 , STEARLNE (from stear, suet), that part of 
 oils and fats which is solid at common temperature. 
 The nature of these substances was first made 
 known by Chevreul, in 1823, who showed that they 
 were compounds of peculiar acids, with a base 
 termed glycerine; of these compounds the chief arc 
 stearine, margarine, and elaine ; see Candles. 
 
 STEEL, metal, a compound of iron and carbon, 
 exists in nature, and has been largely fabricated 
 from the earliest times. A manufactory for cast 
 steel is said to have been set up by Benjamin Hunts- 
 man at Handsworth, near Sheffield, in 1740. The 
 manufacture of shear steel began at Sheffield about 
 1800. German steel was made at Newcastle pre- 
 viously by Mr. Crawley. The inventions of Mushat 
 (1800) and Lucas (1804) were important steps in 
 this manufacture; see Engraving. In 1856, Mr. 
 H. Bessemer made steel by passing cold air through 
 liquid iron; in 1859, tungsten steel was made in 
 Germany; and in 1861, M. Fremy made steel by 
 bringing red-hot iron in contact with carbonate of 
 ammonia. The subject has been much investigated 
 by M. Caron, 186 1-5. In i860, much attention was 
 excited by cutlery made from a metallic sand, 
 brought from Taranaki or New Plymouth, in New 
 Zealand. In consequence of improved modes, steel 
 is now made cheaply in large masses, and will be 
 employed in the manufacture of cannon, &c. A 
 steel bridge, in connection with the exhibition was 
 constructed at Paris by M. Joret in 1866. 
 
 STEEL PENS- "Iron pens" are mentioned 
 by Chamberlayne in 1685. Steel pens, made long 
 before, began to come into use about 1820, when the 
 first gross of three-slit pens was sold wholesale for 
 Jl. 4s. In 1830, the price was 8s., and in 1832, 6s. 
 A better pen is now sold for 6d. a gross. Birming- 
 ham in 1858 produced about 1000 million pens per 
 annum. Women and children are principally em- 
 ployed in the manufacture. Perry, Mitchell, and 
 Gillott are eminent makers. Joseph Gillott, origin- 
 ally a mechanic, made a large fortune by steel-pen 
 making. He died 5 Jan. 1872, aged 72. 
 
 STEEL- YARD. An ancient instrument, the 
 same that is translated balance in the Pentateuch. 
 The Statera Bomana, or Roman steel r yard, is men- 
 tioned in 315 B.C.— The Steel-yakd or Still- 
 yard Company, London merchants, who had the 
 steel-yard in Thames-street assigned to them by 
 Henry III., about 1232, were Flemings and Ger- 
 mans, and the only exporters, for many years after, 
 of the staple commodities of England. Anderson. 
 The company lost its privileges, finally, in 1578; 
 and the merchants were expelled from England in 
 1597- 
 
 STEENKIRK, see Enghien. 
 
 STENOGRAPHY (from stenos, narrow), the 
 art of short-hand, said to have been practised by 
 the ancients. Its improvement is attributed to the 
 poet Ennius, to Tyro, Cicero's freedman, and still 
 more to Seneca. The Ars Scribendi Characteris, 
 
 written about 1412, is the oldest system extant. 
 Dr. Timothy Bright's " Characterie, or the Art of 
 Short, Swift, and Secret Writing," published in 
 1588, is the first English work on short-hand. 
 Peter Bales, the famous penman, published on 
 stenography in 1590; and John Willis published 
 his "Stenographic" in 1602. There are now 
 numerous systems : Byrom's (1750), T. Gurney's 
 (1740), Taylor's (1786), Mavor's (1789), Pitman's 
 (phonographic), 1837. 
 
 STEPHEN'S CHAPEL, ST. (Westminster), 
 built by king Stephen, about 1 135. It was rebuilt 
 by Edward III. in 1347, and by him made a col- 
 legiate church, to which a dean and twelve secular 
 priests were appointed. Soon after its surrender to 
 Edward VI., about 1548, it was applied to the use of 
 Parliament ; see Parliament. It was destroyed by 
 fire, 16 Oct. 1834. The Society of Antiquaries pub- 
 lished memorials of it about 1810; and Mr. Mac- 
 kenzie's work appeared in 1844. The restoration of 
 the beautiful crypt was complete in Jan. 1870. 
 
 .STEPNEY, a parish, E. London, the Steben- 
 hide of Domesday book. Edward I. summoned a 
 parliament here, 1299. Stepney suffered severely 
 by the plague, 1625 and 1665. Stepney-green was 
 restored and opened as a park by the Metropolitan 
 Board of Works, Aug. 1872. 
 
 STEREOCHROMY, a mode of painting in 
 which water-glass (an alkaline solution of Hint, 
 silex) serves as the connecting medium between the 
 colour and the substratum. Its invention is ascribed 
 to Von Fuchs, who died at Munich on t; March, 
 1856. Fine specimens of this art by Kaulbach and 
 Echter exist in the Museum at Berlin, and also at 
 Munich. 
 
 STEREOMETER, by which is compassed the 
 art of taking the contents of vessels of liquids by 
 gauging, invented about 1350. Anderson. M. Say's 
 stereometer, for determining the specific gravity of 
 liquids, porous bodies, and powders as well as solids, 
 was described in 1797. 
 
 STEREOSCOPE (from stereos, solid, and 
 shopein, to see), an optical instrument for repre- 
 senting in apparent relief natural objects, &c, by 
 uniting into one image two plane representations 
 of these objects as seen by each eye separately. The 
 first stereoscope by reflection was constructed and 
 exhibited by professor Charles Wheatstone in 1838, 
 who had announced its principle in 1833. Since 
 1854, stereoscopes have been greatly improved. 
 
 STEREOTYPE, a cast from a page of move- 
 able printing-types, so named by the Parisian 
 printer, Didot, 1798. It is said that stereotyping 
 was known in 171 1. It was practised by Wm. Ged 
 of Edinburgh, about 1 730. Some of Ged's plates 
 are at the Royal Institution, London. A Mr. James 
 attempted to introduce Ged's process in London, 
 but failed, about 1735. Nichols. Stereotype print- 
 ing was in use in Holland, in the last century ; and 
 a quarto Bible and a Dutch folio Bible were printed 
 there. Phillips. It was revived in London by 
 Wilson in 1804. Since 1850 the durability of stereo- 
 types has been greatly increased by electrotyping 
 them with copper or silver. 
 
 In the library of the Royal Institution is an edition of 
 Sallust, with this imprint: " Edinburgh Gulielmus 
 Ged, auri faber Edinensis, non typis mobilibus, ut 
 vulgo fieri solet, sed tabellis seu laminis fusis, excude- 
 bat. 1744." (Printed at Edinburgh by William Ged of 
 Edinburgh, goldsmith, not with moveable types, as is 
 commonly done, but with cast tablets or plates.) 
 
STEELING. 
 
 633 
 
 STOCKS. 
 
 STEELING (money). Ducange says (1733). 
 " Esterlingus, sterlingus, are English words re- 
 lating to money, and hence familiar to other 
 nations, and applied to the weight, quality, and 
 kind of money." " Denarius Anglise, quo vocatur 
 sterlingus," stat. Edw. I. (The penny of England, 
 which is called sterling.) Camden derives the word 
 from easterling or esterling, observing that the 
 money brought from Germany, in the reign of 
 Richard I., was the most esteemed on account of 
 its purity, being called in old deeds "niimmi easter- 
 ling." Others derive the word from the Easterlings, 
 the first moneyers hi England. 
 
 STETHOSCOPE. In 1816 Laennec, of Paris, 
 by rolling a quire of paper into a kind of cylinder, 
 and applying one end to the patient's chest and the 
 other to his own ear, perceived the action of the 
 heart in a much more distinct manner than by the 
 immediate application of the ear. This led to his 
 inventing the stethoscope, or "breast-explorer," 
 the principle of which, now termed "auscultation," 
 was known by Hippocrates (357 B.C.), and by 
 Robert Hooke, 1681. 
 
 STETTIN (Pomerania), an ancient city, for- 
 merly held by the Sidini and Venedes, was taken 
 by Boleslas of Poland in 112 1. After being con- 
 quered by the Swedes, Russians, and French, it was 
 awarded to Prussia in 1814. 
 
 STEWAED of England, Lord High. 
 
 The first grand officer of the crown. This office 
 was established prior to the reign of Edward the 
 Confessor, and was formerly annexed to the lord- 
 ship of Hinckley, Leicestershire, belonging to the 
 family of Montfort, earls of Leicester, who were, in 
 right thereof, lord high stewards of England ; but 
 Simon de Montfort, the last earl of this family, 
 having raised a rebellion against his sovereign 
 Henry III. , was attainted, and his estate forfeited 
 to the king, who abolished the office, 1265. It is 
 now revived only pro hac vice, at a coronation, or 
 the trial of a peer. The first afterwards appointed 
 was Thomas, second son of Henry IV. The first for 
 the trial of a peer was Edward, earl of Devon, on 
 the arraignment of the earl of Huntingdon, in 1400. 
 The last was lord Deirman at the trial of the earl of 
 Cardigan, 16 Peb. 1841. The duke of Hamilton 
 was lord high steward at the coronations of 
 ■William IV. 1831, and Victoria, 1838. 
 
 STEWAED of the Household, Lord 
 
 (an ancient office), has the sole direction of the 
 king's house below-stairs ; he has no formal grant 
 of his office, but receives his charge from the 
 sovereign in person, who, delivering to him a white 
 wand, the symbol of his office, says, " Seneschal, 
 tenez le baton de notre maison." This officer has 
 been called lord steward since 1 540; previously to 
 the 31st of Henry VIII. he was styled grand master 
 of the household. His function as a judge was 
 abolished in 1849. 
 
 STICKLESTADT (Norway). HereOlafLL, 
 
 aided'by the Swedes, was defeated in his endearours 
 to recover his kingdom from Canute, king of Den- 
 mark, and slain, 29 July, 1030. He was after- 
 wards sainted, on account of his zeal for Christianity. 
 
 STIPENDIAEY MAGISTEATES, see 
 
 Magistrates. 
 
 STIELING (S. Scotland). The strong castle 
 was taken by Edward I. of England, 1304. Here 
 James II. stabbed the earl of Douglas, 13 Feb. 1452, 
 and here James VI. was crowned, 24 July, 1567. 
 Stirling surrendered to Monk, 14 Aug. 1651. 
 
 STIEEUPS were unknown to the ancients. 
 Gracchus fitted the highways with stones to enable 
 the horsemen to mount. Warriors had projections- 
 on their spears for the same purpose. Stirrups 
 were used in the 5th century, but were not common 
 even in the 12th. 
 
 STOCKACH, a town in Baden, near which 
 the Austrians, under the archduke Charles, de- 
 feated the French, 25 March, 1799; and Moreau 
 defeated Kray, 3 May, 1800. 
 
 STOCKHOLM, capital of Sweden (built on 
 holmen, or islands), was fortified by Berger Jarl 
 about 1254. Here the Swedish nobility was mas- 
 sacred by Christian II. in 1520 ; see Sweden. 
 
 Peace of Stockholm, between the king of Great 
 Britain and the queen of Sweden, by which the 
 former acquired the duchies of Bremen and Ver- 
 den as elector of Brunswick . . .20 Nov. 1719 
 
 Treaty of Stockholm, between Sweden and Russia, 
 in favour of the duke of Holstein-Gottorp, 
 
 24 March, 1724. 
 
 Another between England and Sweden . 3 March, 1813 
 
 And between England, France, and Sweden, 
 
 21 Nov. 1855 
 
 STOCKINGS of silk are said to have been first 
 worn by Henry II. of France, 1547. In 1560 queen 
 Elizabeth was presented with a pah of knit black 
 silk stockings, ty her silk-woman, Mrs. Montague, 
 and she never wore cloth ones any more. Howell. 
 He adds, "Henry VIII. wore ordinary cloth hose, 
 except there came from Spain, by great chance, a. 
 pah of silk stockings ; for Spam very early abounded 
 with silk." Edward VI. was presented with a pair 
 of Spanish silk stockings by his merchant, sir 
 Thomas Gresham ; and the present was then much 
 taken notice of. Idem. Others relate that William 
 Rider, a London apprentice, seeing at the house of 
 an Italian merchant a pair of knit worsted stockings 
 from Mantua, made a pair like them, the first made- 
 in England, which he presented to the earl of Pem- 
 broke, 1564. Stow. The art of weaving stockings- 
 in a frame was invented hi England by the rev. 
 Mr. Lee, of Cambridge, in 1589, twenty- five years- 
 after he had learnt to knit them with wires or 
 needles. Cotton stockings were first made in 1730 ; 
 see Cotton. 
 
 STOCKPOET (hi Cheshire) has become emi- 
 nent on account of the cotton trade. Heaton 
 Norris, hi Lancashire, is united to it by a bridge 
 over the river. Here the Manchester blanketeers- 
 were dispersed, II March, 1817 ; and here was a 
 serious religious riot, when two Roman catholic 
 chapels were destroyed, and the houses of many 
 Roman catholics gutted, and their furniture and 
 other contents smashed or burnt, 29 June, 1852. 
 
 STOCKS, i* 1 which drunkards were placed. 
 The last in London was removed from St. Clement's- 
 Danes, Strand, 4 Aug. 1826. 
 
 STOCKS. The public funding system originated 
 in Venice, about 1 173, and was introduced into- 
 Florence in 1340. The English funding system 
 may be said to have had its rise in 1690. 
 
 Act to prevent stock-jobbing passed March, 1734 ; 
 repealed i860 
 
 The foundation of the Stock Exchange, in Capel- 
 court, the residence of the lord mayor, sir ffm. 
 Capel, in 1504, was laid on 18 May, 1801. It was 
 stated on the first stone that the public debt was 
 then 552,730,924?-. 
 
 The memorable Stock Exchange hoax, for which ad- 
 miral lord Cochrane (afterwards lord Dundonald), 
 Johnstone, and others were convicted, 22 Feb. 
 1814. Lord Cochrane was in consequence expelled 
 the house of commons. His innocence was after- 
 wards proved, and he was restored to his rank by 
 
STOICS. 
 
 634 
 
 STORMS. 
 
 king William IV. , and to the honours belonging 
 to it by queen Victoria. 
 Stock-exchange coffee-house destroyed by fire 
 
 ii Feb. 1816 
 The number of stock-holders in 1840 amounted to 
 
 337,48i- 
 Three per cent, annuities created . . . .1 726 
 
 Three per cent, consols created 1731 
 
 Three per cent, reduced 1746 
 
 Three per cent annuities, payable at the South Sea- 
 house : . 1751 
 
 Three-and-a-half per cent, annuities created . . 1758 
 
 Long annuities 1761 
 
 Four per cent consols 1762 
 
 Five per cent, annuities . . . 1797 and 1802 
 Five per cents, reduced to four .... 1822 
 Old four per cents, reduced to three-and-a-half in 1824 
 Further reductions made in 1825, 1830, 1834, 1841, 
 and 1844 ; the maximum being now three per 
 cent. 
 
 By a return of the average price of the public funds 
 by the commissioners for the reduction of the 
 national debt, it appears that Consols (i. e., consoli- 
 dated annuities, paying 3 per cent, per annum) 
 ■averaged in the year — 
 
 1749 . . £100 
 
 1815 
 
 
 £58 13 9 
 
 1780 . . . 63 13 6 
 
 1820 
 
 
 68 12 
 
 1785 . . 68 6 6 
 
 1825 
 
 
 . 90 8 
 
 1790 . . . 71 2 6 
 
 1830 
 
 
 89 15 7 
 
 1795 • • 74 8 6 
 
 1840 
 
 
 . . 89 17 6 
 
 .1798 . . . 59 10 
 
 1845 
 
 
 93 2 6 
 
 1800 . . 66 3 3 
 
 1848 
 
 
 . 86 15 
 
 1805 . . . 58 14 
 
 1850 
 
 
 96 10 
 
 1810 . . 67 16 3 
 
 1852 
 
 
 . 99 12 6 
 
 The price of £100 stock vt 
 
 tried in 
 
 
 1853, fr° m £101 to £90^ 
 
 1863, 
 
 from 
 
 £94 to £90 
 
 J 854» ». 96 ,, 85! 
 
 1864, 
 
 ,, 
 
 9'i » 8 7 i 
 
 1855, ,, 93! .. 86| 
 
 1865, 
 
 ,, 
 
 8 7 i „ 86i 
 
 1856, ,, 96^ „ 87! 
 
 1866, 
 
 average 88 
 
 1857, „ 95i „ 86| 
 
 1867, 
 
 ,, 
 
 93 
 
 1858, „ 9 8| „ 94 
 
 1868, 
 
 ,, 
 
 93* 
 
 1859, „ 97§ „ 89 
 
 1869, 
 
 ,, 
 
 9 2 J 
 
 1861, „ 94J „ 89J 
 
 1870, 
 
 ,, 
 
 9 2 l 
 
 1862, ,, 94J ,, 903 
 
 1871, 
 
 „ 
 
 9*1 
 
 "During the greatest crisis ever developed in the 
 history of the world the funds remain day after day 
 without a fractional movement." Times, n Oct. 1870. 
 
 STOICS, disciples of Zeno, the philosopher 
 (about 290 u.c.) ; obtained the name because they 
 listened to his instructions in a porch (Greek Stoa) 
 at Athens. Zeno taught, that man's supreme hap- 
 piness consisted in living agreeably to nature and 
 reason, and that God was the soul of the world. 
 Stanley. 
 
 STOKE, EAST (near Newark, Nottingham- 
 shire). Near here, on 16 June, 1487, the adherents 
 of Lambert Simnel, who personated Edward, earl 
 of Warwick, and claimed the crown, were defeated 
 by Henry VII. John De la Pole, the earl of 
 Lincoln, and most of the leaders were slain. 
 Simnel was afterwards employed in the king's 
 household. 
 
 STONE. Stone buildings erected in England by 
 Benedict Biscop about 670. A stone bridge built at 
 Bow, in the nth or 12th centuries, is accounted the 
 first ; but a bridge exists at Crowland, which is said 
 to have been built in 860 ; see Bridges. The first 
 stone building in Ireland was probably a round 
 tower ; see Building. Stone china-ware was made 
 by "Wedgwood in 1762. Artificial stone for statues 
 was manufactured by a Neapolitan, and introduced 
 into England, 1776. Stone paper was made in 
 1776 ; see Ransom's Artificial Stone, and Lithotomy. 
 For stone implements, see Flints. 
 
 STONEHENGE (on Salisbury Plain, Wilt- 
 shire) is said to have been erected on the counsel of 
 Merlin, by Aurelius Ambrosius, in memory of 460 
 
 Britons, who were murdered by Hengist the Saxon 
 about 450. Geoffrey of Monmouth. Erected as a 
 sepulchral monument of Ambrosius, 500. Polydore 
 Vergil. An ancient temple of the Britons, in which 
 the Druids officiated. JJr. Stukeley. The Britons 
 are said to have held annual meetings at Abury and 
 Stonehenge, when laws were made and justice 
 administered. The cursus near Stonehenge was 
 discovered by Dr. Stukeley, 6 Aug. 1723. 
 
 STONEWALL BRIGADE, see United 
 States, 1862, note. 
 
 STORM- WARNINGS, see under Meteor- 
 ology. 
 
 STORMS, see Meteorology, and Cyclones. The 
 following are recorded : — 
 In London a storm raged which destroyed 1500 houses, 
 
 944- 
 
 In several parts of England, the sky being very dark, 
 the wind coming from the S.W. ; many churches were 
 destroyed ; and in London 500 houses fell, 5 Oct. 1091. 
 
 On the coast of Calais, when Hugh de Beauvais and 
 several thousand foreigners, on their voyage to assist 
 king John against the barons, perished, 1215. Holin- 
 shed. 
 
 It thundered 15 days successively, with tempests of rain 
 and wind, 1233. 
 
 Storm with violent lightnings ; one flash passed through 
 a chamber where Edward I. and his queen were con- 
 versing, did them no damage, but killed two of their 
 attendants, 1285. Hoveden. 
 
 Violent storm of hail near Chartres, in France, which 
 fell k on the army of Edward III. then on its march. 
 The hail was so large that the army and horses suffered 
 very much, and Edward was obliged to conclude a 
 peace, 1339. Matt. Paris. 
 
 When 'Richard II. 's queen came from Bohemia, on her 
 setting foot on shore an awful storm arose, and her 
 ship and a number of others were dashed to pieces in 
 the harbour, Jan. 1382. Holinshed. 
 
 Richard's second queen also brought a storm with her to 
 the English coasts, in which the king's baggage was 
 lost, and many ships cast away, 1396. Holinshed. 
 
 Hurricane, throughout Europe, which did very con- 
 siderable damage, on 3. Sept. 1658, the day that 
 Cromwell died. Mortimer. 
 
 Storm on east coast of England : 200 colliers and coasters 
 lost, with most of their crews, 1696. 
 
 The " Great Storm," one of the most terrible that ever 
 raged in England. The devastation on land was im- 
 mense ; and in the harbours and on the coasts, the loss 
 in shipping and in lives was still greater, 26-27 Not, 
 1703. The loss sustained in London alone was calcu- 
 lated at 2,000,000?. sterling. The number of persons 
 drowned in the floods of the Severn and Thames, and 
 lost on the coast of Holland, and in ships blown from 
 their anchors and never heard of afterwards, is thought 
 to have been 8000. Twelve men-of-war, with more than 
 1800 men on board, were lost within sight of their 
 own shore. Trees were torn up by the roots, 17,000 
 of them in Kent alone. The Eddystone light-house 
 was destroyed, and in it the ingenious contriver of it, 
 Winstanley, and the persons who were with him. The 
 Bishop of Bath and Wells and his lady were killed in 
 bed in their palace in Somersetshire. Multitudes of 
 cattle were also lost : in one level 15,000 sheep 
 were drowned. 
 
 Snow-storm in Sweden, when 7000 Swedes, it is said, 
 perished upon the mountains, in their march to attack 
 Drontheim, 1719. 
 
 One in India, when many hundreds of vessels were cast 
 away, a fleet of Indiamen greatly damaged, and some 
 ships lost, and 30,000 persons perished, n Oct. 1737. 
 
 Dreadful hurricane at the Havannah : many public 
 edifices and 4048 houses were destroyed, and 1000 
 inhabitants perished, 25 Oct. 1768. 
 
 Awful storm in the north of England, in which many 
 vessels were destroyed, and four Dublin packets 
 foundered, 29 Oct. 1775. 
 
 One at Surat, in the East Indies ; "destroyed 7000 of the 
 inhabitants, 22 April, 1782. 
 
 One hundred and thirty-one villages and farms laid waste 
 in France, 1785. 
 
 One general throughout Great Britain : several hundred 
 sail of shipping destroyed or damaged, 6 Oct. 1794. 
 
STORMS. 
 
 635 
 
 STRASBURG. 
 
 One which did vast damage in London, and throughout 
 almost the whole of England, 8 Nov. 1800. 
 
 A tremendous storm throughout Great Britain and 
 Ireland, by which immense damage was done, and 
 many ships wrecked, 16-17 Dec. 1814. 
 
 An awful gale, by which a great number of vessels were 
 lost, and much damage was done to the shipping in 
 general on the English coast, 31 Aug. 1816. 
 
 Dreadful hurricane, ravaged the Leeward Islands, from 
 the 20th to the 22nd Sept. 1819. At the island of 
 St. Thomas alone, 104 vessels were lost. 
 
 Great storm along the coast from Durham to Cornwall ; 
 many vessels lost, Nov. 1821. 
 
 In Ireland, particularly in the vicinity of Dublin, many 
 houses were thrown down, and vast numbers unroofed, 
 12 Dec. 1822. 
 
 Awful storm on the coast of England : many vessels lost, 
 and 13 driven ashore and wrecked in Plymouth alone, 
 12-13 J an - 1828. 
 
 At Gibraltar, where more than 100 vessels were de- 
 stroyed, 18 Feb. 1828. 
 
 Dreadful storm at the Cape of Good Hope, where 
 immense property was lost, 16 July, 1831. 
 
 A hurricane visited London and its neighbourhood, 
 which did great damage to the buildings, but without 
 the destruction of human life, though many serious 
 accidents occurred, 28 Oct. 1838. 
 
 Awful hurricane on west coast of England, and in 
 Ireland. The storm raged through Cheshire, Stafford- 
 shire, and Warwickshire ; 20 persons were killed in 
 Liverpool, by the falling of buildings, and 100 were 
 drowned in the neighbourhood ; the coasts and har- 
 bours were covered with wrecks, the value of two of 
 the vessels lost being nearly half-a-million sterling. 
 In Limerick, Gal way, Athlone, and other places, more 
 than 200 houses were blown down, and as many more 
 were burnt, the winds spreading the fires. Dublin 
 suffered dreadfully ; London and its neighbourhood 
 scarcely sustained any damage, 6-7 Jan. 1839. 
 
 [The winter of 1852-3 (Dec. and Jan.) was one of storms, 
 many of which were very destructive.] 
 
 Great storm in the Black Sea, 13-16 Nov. 1854, causing 
 much loss of life, shipping, and stores sent for the 
 allied armies in the Crimea. 
 
 Great storm on N. coast of Europe, <&c, 31 Dec. 1854. 
 
 Great storm on N.E. coast of Scotland ; 42 fishermen 
 lost, 23 Nov. 1857. 
 
 Dreadful storm on the night 25-26 Oct. : the Boyal 
 Charter totally lost, and many other vessels ; another 
 storm, 31 Oct. and 1 Nov. 1859. 
 
 Great storm in the channel, causing much loss of life 
 and property, 1 Jan. i860. 
 
 Dreadful gales, doing much mischief, 26, 27, 28 Feb. ; 
 28 May ; and 2 June, i860. 
 
 Great storm : part of the Crystal Palace blown down ; 
 Chichester cathedral steeple fell, 20-21 Feb. 1861. 
 
 Great storm on British coasts, 143 wrecks, 28 May, 1861. 
 
 Storm on the north-east ; 50 wrecks, 13-14 Nov. 1861. 
 
 At Market Laverton, <&c. ; hail six and seven feet deep ; 
 much damage to crops, 2 Sept. 1862. 
 
 Storm on British coasts ; ' many wrecks, 19, 20 Oct. 1862. 
 
 There were severe gales, doing much damage, and loss of 
 life, 19 Jan. &c. 1863 ; and 14 Jan. <fcc. 1865 (see under 
 Wrecks). 
 
 Dreadful hurricane in the Indian Ocean, &c. (see Cyclone, 
 Calcutta), 5 Oct. 1864. 
 
 Hurricane at Lisbon, causes much damage, worst for 
 many years, 13 Dec. 1864. 
 
 Severe gales ; many vessels and lives lost (see Wrecks), 
 6-11 Jan. 1866; 2-4 Dec. 1867; 22 Jan. and 31 Jan. and 
 1 Feb. 1868; 11-12 Sept. 1869. 
 
 Severe storm; much damage; barometer very low, 
 24 Jan. 1872. 
 
 After several days' intense heat, violent storms, and 
 deluges of rain in midland and southern counties; 
 several persons killed, 24-26 June, 1872. 
 
 Very stormy in July and August, 1872. 
 
 Violent pale and much destruction, 8 Dec. i8-'2. 
 
 Awful storms in Scotland, and N. England ; loss of life, 
 and much damage, 22, 23 July, 1873. 
 
 STORTHINGr, the Norwegian parliament, 
 said to have been first held at Bergen by Haco Y. 
 in 1223. 
 
 STOVES. The ancients used stoves which 
 concealed the fire, as the German stoves yet do. 
 
 They lighted the fire also in a large tube in the 
 middle of the room, the roof being open. Apart- 
 ments were warmed by portable braziers. Stoves 
 on this old principle, improved, continue in use in 
 many houses and public establishments in England, 
 and generally on the continent. Dr. Franklin and 
 count Rumford pointed out the waste of fuel in our 
 open fires; and Dr. Neil Amott patented his "im- 
 provements in the production and agency of heat," 
 14 Nov. 1821. See Chimneys, and Cottager's 
 Stove. 
 
 STOWMARKET EXPLOSION, see Gun- 
 Cotton, 187 1. 
 
 STRAIGHT-OUT DEMOCRATS, a party 
 
 which advocates limiting the powers of a govern- 
 ment to police purposes, arose in the United States 
 of America in 1872, and nominated Charles O'Connor 
 for the presidency. A state convention was con- 
 voked to meet at Harrisburg, 16 Oct. 1872. 
 
 STRAITS SETTLEMENTS,, including 
 Malacca, Penang or Prince of Wales island, and 
 Singapore, secured to Great Britain in 1824, were 
 made a separate dependency in 1853, and placed 
 under the governor- general of India. They were 
 separated from India, and constituted an indepen- 
 dent settlement by an act passed 10 Aug. 1866, 
 which took effect April, 1867. Governor, sir Harry 
 St. George Ord, 1867. 
 
 STRALSUND (Pomerania), a strong fortified 
 Hanse-town, built about 1230. It resisted a fierce 
 siege by Wallenstein in 1628 ; was taken \>j Frede- 
 rick William, of Brandenburg, in 1678; restored to 
 the Swedes, 1679; re-captured by the Prussians and 
 their allies, Dec. 1715. It surrendered to the French 
 under Brune, 20 Aug. 1807 ; was awarded to Prussia, 
 1815. 
 
 STRAND (London). Houses were first built 
 upon the Strand about 1353, at which period it was 
 the court end of the town, or formed the communi- 
 cation between the two cities of London and West- 
 minster, being then open to the Thames and to the 
 fields. Somerset and other palaces were erected 
 1547-1605. Stow. The Strand bridge was com- 
 menced rr Oct. 181 1 ; see Waterloo bridge. The 
 Strand improvements were commenced in 1829. 
 
 STRASBURG, the Roman Argentoratum, the 
 capital of Alsace. Here Julian defeated the Ale- 
 manni, 357, who captured it, 455. It was annexed 
 to Germany, 870. Louis XIV. seized it 28 Sept. 
 1681, and retained it by the treaty of Ryswick, 1697. 
 The citadel and fortifications, which he constructed, 
 have been so much augmented that Strasburg may 
 be considered one of the strongest places in Europe. 
 It was confirmed to France by the peace of Ryswick 
 in 1697, but captured by the Germans, 28 Sept. 1870, 
 and retained at the peace, May, 1871. The cathe- 
 dral, an epitome of Gothic art, was founded by 
 Clovis, and reconstructed by Pepin and Charle- 
 magne. After destruction by Ughtning, 1007, it was 
 principally rebuilt by Erwin de Steinbach and his 
 son in the 14th century. The lofty tower was com- 
 pleted in 1439. The celebrated astronomical clock, 
 after a long stoppage, was repaired by M. Schwil- 
 gue, and inaugurated I Jan. 1843. 
 
 An attempt at insurrection in the city was made by 
 prince Louis Napoleon (afterwards president of 
 the French republic, and emperor), aided by two 
 officers and some privates . . 30 Oct. 1836 
 
 It was instantly suppressed by their arrest, and the 
 prince was shipped off to America by the French 
 government. 
 
STRATFORD-UPON-AVON. 
 
 636 
 
 STYLE. 
 
 Strasburg invested by the Germans, principally from 
 Baden, during the Franco-Prussian war 10 Aug. 1870 
 
 Gen. von Werder assumed the command of the be- 
 siegers, and the bombardment began 14 Aug., 
 and a vigorous sally was repulsed . 16 Aug. „ 
 
 Gen. Ulirich, the commander, declared that he 
 would not surrender except upon a heap of 
 ashes ; but after a heroic resistance, and when a 
 breach had been made and an assault was im- 
 pending, notice was given, and the place surren- 
 dered at 2 a.m.; at 8 a.m. 17,150 men and 400 
 officers laid down their arms . . 27 Sept. ,, 
 
 The German loss was said to be 906 men, of whom 
 43 were officers . ■ . . . . 28 Sept. „ 
 
 The Germans entered Strasburg on the anniversary 
 of its surrender to the French in 1681 by a sur- 
 prise 30 Sept. „ 
 
 Ulirich received the grand cross of the legion of 
 honour Oct. 1870 
 
 The invaluable library was destroyed and the cathe- 
 dral much injured. About 400 houses were de- 
 stroyed, and 8000 persons rendered homeless. 
 
 STRATFORD-UPON-AVON (Warwick- 
 shire), see Shakespeare. 
 
 STRATHCLUYD, a kingdom formed by the 
 Britons, who retired northward after the Saxon con- 
 quest, about 560. It extended from the Clyde to 
 Cumberland. The Britons in it submitted to Ed- 
 ward the Elder, in 924. 
 
 STRATHFIELD-SAYE, a parish partly in 
 Berkshire and Hampshire, in which is situate the 
 estate bought of lord Rivers by the nation for 
 263,000/., and presented to the duke of Wellington, 
 1817. An act to provide a suitable residence for his 
 grace and his heirs was passed 11 July, 1815. 
 
 STRATHMORE ESTATES. Miss Bowes, 
 of Durham, the then richest heiress in Europe, 
 whose fortune was 1,040,000/., with vast additions 
 on her mother's death, and immense estates on the 
 demise of her uncle, married the earl of Strathmore, 
 25 Feb. 1766. Having, after the earl's death, mar- 
 ried Mr. Stoney, she was forcibly carried off by him 
 and other armed men, 10 Nov. 1786. She was 
 brought up to the King's Bench by habeas corpus 
 and released, and he committed to prison, 23 Nov. 
 The lady recovered her estates, which she had as- 
 signed to her husband under the influence of terror, 
 in May, 1788. 
 
 STRATTON-HILL, Battle of, in Corn- 
 wall, 16 May, 1643, between the royal army under 
 sir Ralph Hopton, and the forces of the parliament 
 imder the earl of Stamford. The victory was gained 
 over the parliamentarians, who lost numbers in 
 killed and wounded. 
 
 STRAWBERRY, see Fruits. 
 
 STRAWBERRY-HILL, Surrey, the Gothic 
 villa of Horace Walpole, constructed 1 750, at Twick- 
 enham, near London. In April and May, 1842, his 
 collection of pictures and articles of taste and virtu 
 were sold by auction for 29,615/. 8*. gd. The villa has 
 been enlarged by its present owners, Mr. Chichester 
 Fortescue and the countess of Waldegrave. 
 
 STREET MUSIC. An act was passed in 
 1864 for the better regulation of street-music in the 
 metropolitan police districts. 
 
 STREET RAILWAYS, see Tramways. 
 
 STRELITZ, the imperial guard of Russia, 
 established by Ivan IV. about 1568. Becoming fre- 
 quently seditious, it was suppressed by Peter the 
 Great ; great numbers were put to death, many by 
 the czar's own hand, 1698- 1704. 
 
 STRIKES, see Preston, and London, 1859-61. 
 
 1834 
 
 The tailors of London struck for increase of wages ; 
 
 they yield April, 
 
 Tin' strike of the calico printers of Glasgow . . „ 
 Staffordshire potters strike ; obtained an advance 
 
 after much loss . . Nov. 1834-March, 1835 
 
 The strike of the amalgamated engineers took place 1852 
 Strike of the London cabmen . . 27-30 July, 1853 
 
 Builders' strike Aug. -Oct. 1859 
 
 A strike among the silk-workers at Coventry came 
 
 to an end 30 Aug. i860 
 
 An unsuccessful attempt to get op a strike in the 
 
 building trade began . . . .23 March, 1861 
 A strike of the puddlers in the iron trade occurred 
 
 in the spring of (see Iron, and Railwayi) . . 1865 
 Strike of London west-end tailors (about 2000), 
 
 lasted 22 April-Oct. 1867 
 
 Great strike of colliers near St. Helens, April, 1867; 
 
 about 40,000 men on strike . . . April, 1868 
 Colliery strike at Thorncliffe, near Sheffield ; dread- 
 ful riots and devastation ... 21 Jan. 1870 
 Strike of 10,000 miners at Le Creuzot, Burgundy, 
 
 the property of M. Schneider ; soon over Jan. „ 
 Strike of builders employed by Messrs. Brass and 
 Jackson & Shaw, for a 9 hours' day, at gd. an 
 hour, 1 June ; after negotiation led to a lock-out 
 by the masters, beginning . . 19 June, 1872 
 
 The lock-out of the masons ceased, the carpenters 
 going on, 9 July ; arrangements were made, and 
 
 strike ceased about 27 Aug. ,, 
 
 Strike of London journeymen bakers, 23 Sept. -9 Oct. ,, 
 Strike of firewood cutters .... Sept. ,, 
 Lock-out of miners in Wales for their excessive 
 
 demands Oct. ,, 
 
 Strik e of London gas-stokers (see das) . 2 Dec. ,, 
 Strike of about 60,000 colliers in S. Wales, refusing 
 to submit to 10 per cent, reduction in wages, 
 1 Jan. Strike ended . . about 25 March, 1873 
 Powerful speech of earl Fitzwilliam to his colliers 
 of Low Stubbin after a strike . . 5 June, „ 
 
 See Newcastle, and Trials, Aug. 1867. 
 
 STRONTIUM. The native carbonate of 
 strontia was discovered at Strontian, in Argyle- 
 shire, in 1787. Sir Humphry Davy first obtained 
 from it the metal strontium in 1808. 
 
 STRYCHNIA, a poisonous vegetable alkaloid, 
 discovered in 1818 by Pelletier and Caventou in the 
 seeds of the strychnos Ignatia and mix vomica, and 
 also in the upas poison. Half a grain blown into 
 the throat of a rabbit occasions death in four 
 minutes ; its operation is accompanied by lock-jaw. 
 Much attention was given to strychnia in 1856, 
 during the trial of William Palmer, who was exe- 
 cuted for the murder of Cook, 14 June, 1856. 
 
 STUART, House of, see Scotland, p. 597 ; 
 England, p. 243 ; and Pretenders. 
 
 STUCCO WORK was known to the ancients, 
 and was much prized by them, particularly by the 
 Romans, who excelled in it. Lenglet. It was re- 
 vived by D'Udine, about 1550; and in Italy, France, 
 and England in the 18th century. 
 
 STUHM (W. Prussia). Here Gustavus Adol- 
 phus of Sweden defeated the Poles, 1628. 
 
 STURGES BOURNE'S ACT, 58 Geo. HI. 
 c. 69 (1818), relates to parish vestries. 
 
 STUTTGART (Wiirtemburg), first mentioned 
 in 1229, was made his residence by count Eberhard, 
 1320; enlarged by Ulric, 1436; and made capital of 
 the state, 1482. It has been greatly adorned during 
 the last and present centuries. 
 
 STYLE. The style was altered by Augustus 
 Caesar's ordering leap-year to be once in four years, 
 
STYLE EOYAL. 
 
 637 
 
 SUGAE. 
 
 and the month Sextilis to be called Augustus, 8b. c; 
 see Neiv Style. 
 
 STYLE EOYAL, see Majesty, and Titles. The 
 styles of the English sovereigns are given in the 
 later editions Nicolas' s " Chronology of History." 
 
 STYLITES, see IIonacMsm. 
 
 STYEIA (Austria), part of the ancient Noricum 
 and Pannonia, was held successively by the Romans, 
 Ostrogoths, and Avars. It was conquered by Charle- 
 magne, and divided among his followers, styled 
 counts, among whom the count of Styria, about 
 876, was the most powerful. The count became 
 margrave about 1030 ; and Ottocar VI., in 1 180, was 
 made duke. At his death, 1 192, Styria was annexed 
 to the duchy of Austria. In 1246 it was acquired 
 by Bela IV. of Hungary ; in 1253, by Ottocar II. of 
 Bohemia ; after whose defeat and death, at March- 
 feld, in 1278, it reverted to Rudolph of Austria, and 
 was annexed to his possessions. 
 
 SUBMAEINE LAMP, _ one invented by 
 Siebe and Gorman, has been in use since 1850, 
 especially at Cherbourg. Heinke and Davis's lamp 
 was exhibited, 187 1. 
 
 SUBMAEINE TELEGEAPH, see Tele- 
 graph (under Electricity). 
 
 SUBSIDIES to the kings of England were 
 formerly granted in kind, particularly in wool ; 
 30,000 sacks were voted to Edward III. on account 
 of the war with France, 1340. Anderson. Subsi- 
 dies were raised upon the people of England by 
 James I. 1624 ; but they were included in a bill for 
 the redress of grievances, 1639. Four subsidies (the 
 last) were granted to Charles II. in 1663.* 
 
 SUCCESSION ACTS, see Settlement. 
 
 SUCCESSION, War op (1702-1713), distin- 
 guished by the achievements of the duke of Marl- 
 borough and the earl of Peterborough, and then- 
 unprofitable results, arose on the question whether 
 an Austrian prince or a French prince should suc- 
 ceed to the throne of Spain. The British court 
 opposed Louis, and Marlborough was victorious ; but 
 the allies withdrew one after another, and the French 
 prince succeeded ; see Spain, and Utrecht. 
 
 SUCCESSION DUTY ACT (16 & 17 Vict. 
 c. 51), after much discussion, was passed 4 Aug. 
 1853. By this act the legacy duty was extended to 
 real estate, and was made payable on succession to 
 both landed and personal property. 
 
 SUDBUEY, in Suffolk, was disfranchised for 
 bribery in 1844. 
 
 SUEVI, a warlike Gothic tribe, which, with the 
 Alani and the Visigoths, entered Spain about 408, 
 were overcome by the latter, and absorbed into tneir 
 kingdom about 584. 
 
 SUEZ CANAL. The caliph Omar about 640 
 opposed cutting the isthmus. A plan for a canal 
 between the head of the Red Sea and the bay of 
 Pelusium was brought forward by M. Ferdinand de 
 Lesseps in 1852. He understood to cut a canal 
 through 90 miles of sand, to run out moles into the 
 Mediterranean ; to deepen the shallow waters ; to 
 create ports to receive the ships from India and 
 Australia, and to adapt the canal to irrigation . The 
 consent of the Egyptian, Turkish, Russian, French, 
 
 * England granted subsidies to foreign powers in seve- 
 ral wars, particularly in the war against the revolutionists 
 in Prance, and against Bonaparte. 
 
 and Austrian governments was gradually obtained, 
 but not that of the British. A company was formed 
 for the purpose, and the work commenced in 1858. 
 The cost was estimated at 8,000,000^. Engineer, M. 
 L. Monteit. 
 
 M. Delaeour, a French engineer, after viewing the 
 works which were "employing 25,000 men in the 
 desert," expressed his conviction that they would 
 he completed in four or five years . . 7 Nov. 1862 
 
 The waters of the Mediterranean admitted into a 
 narrow channel communicating with Lake Tim- 
 sah Dec. „ 
 
 The new town Timsah named Ismaila 4 March, 1863 
 
 The works visited by the Sultan and by Mr. Hawk- 
 shaw 
 
 The company compelled by the Egyptian govern- 
 ment to give up employment of compulsory 
 labour ; litigation ensued .... Aug. ,, 
 
 M. de Lesseps reported that a vessel containing 30 
 persons had been tugged along the canal the 
 whole distance between the two seas . Feb. 1865 
 
 Delegates from the British chambers of commerce 
 visited the works, and reported that the success 
 of the scheme was only an affair of time and 
 money 1? April, „ 
 
 The flood gates of the smaller Suez canal were 
 opened, the fresh water of the Nile admitted ; a 
 coal vessel passed from the Mediterranean to the 
 Red Sea z $ Aug. ,, 
 
 The Primo, 80 tons burden, passed through the 
 canal from the Mediterranean into the Red Sea, 
 
 17 Feb. 1867 
 
 A loan raised in France ,, 
 
 French and English vessels enter the canal Nov. 1868 
 
 Mr. John Fowler, the engineer, reported the canal 
 as suitable for steamers and mail traffic, but not 
 for vessels requiring tugs . . . .5 Feb. 1869 
 
 Water of the Mediterranean admitted to the salt 
 lakes 18 March, „ 
 
 The works visited by the prince and princess of 
 Wales 23 March, ,, 
 
 The canal successfully opened in the presence of the 
 emperor of Austria, the empress of the French, 
 the viceroy of Egypt, and others . . 17 Nov. ,, 
 
 M. de Lesseps entertained in London . 4 July, 1870 
 
 Traffic in 1870-1 doubled 1872-3 
 
 Charges upon vessels passing through the canal in- 
 creased 50 per cent. ; the British appeal for a 
 national conference ; Turkey declines . April, , , 
 
 SUFFEAGAN BISHOPS. Power to ap- 
 point them was given by parliament in 1534 to 
 Henry VIII. as head of the church ; see Bishops 
 and Supremacy . 
 
 SUGAE* (Saccharum officinarum) is supposed 
 to have been known to the ancient Jews. Found in 
 the East Indies by Nearchus, admiral of Alexander, 
 325 B.C. Strabo. An oriental nation in alliance 
 with Pompey used the juice of the cane as a common 
 beverage. Lucan. It was prescribed as a medicine 
 by Galen, 2nd century. Brought into Europe from 
 Asia, a.d. 625 ; — in large quantities, 1 150. Attempted 
 to be cultivated in Italy ; not succeeding, the Portu- 
 guese and Spaniards carried it to America about 
 1510. 
 
 The sugar-cane transported from Tripoli and Syria 
 to Sicily and Madeira about 1138 
 
 It is not known at what date sugar was introduced 
 into England, but it seems to have been prior to 
 
 * Sugar, long considered a neutral substance, without 
 congeners, has of late years become the head of a nume- 
 rous family, viz. : Cane-sugar (sucrose, from the sugar- 
 cane ; boiled with dilute acids it becomes glucose) ; Fruit- 
 sugar (from many recent fruits) ; Grape-sugar (glucose, 
 from dried fruits and altered starch) ; sugar of milk ; 
 Melitose (from eucalyptus, by Berthelot in 1856) ; sorbin 
 (from the berries of the mountain ash, by Pelouze) ; inosite 
 (from muscular tissue, Scherer) ; dulcose (by Laurent) 
 mannite (from manna, obtained from the fraxinus ornus 
 a kind of ash) ; quercite (from acorns) ; to these have been 
 lately added mycose, by M. Mitscherlich, and melezetosr. 
 and trehalose, by M. Berthelot. 
 
SUICIDE. 
 
 638 
 
 SUICIDE. 
 
 the reign of Henry VIII. Mr. Whittaker, in the 
 History of Whalley, p. 109, quotes an instance in 1497 
 A manuscript letter from sir Edward Wotton to 
 lord Cobham, dated Calais, advertises him that 
 sir Edward had taken up for his lordship twenty- 
 five sugar-loaves at six shillings a loaf, "whiche 
 is eighte pence a pounde " . . . 6 March, 1546 
 
 Sugar first taxed (by James II.) 1685 
 
 Duties on free and slave-grown sugars equalized, 
 
 Aug. 1846 
 Duties reduced and regulated .... Sept. 1848 
 
 Duty increased (war) 1855 
 
 Reduced, 1857, l86 4 : modified, 1867 ; greatly re- 
 duced, 1 Aug. 1870; further reduced . May, 1873 
 Sugar-refining was made known to Europeans by a 
 Venetian, 1503, and was first practised in England 
 in 1659, though some say we had the art a few 
 years earlier. The invaluable vacuum-pan was 
 invented by Howard, 1812. Dr. Scoffem's pro- 
 cesses were patented in 1848-50, but not adopted 
 in Britain. 
 
 Raw Sugar imported into Great Britain. — 1853, 
 7,284,290 cwts. ; i860, 8,817,277 cwts. ; 1865, 
 10,250,524 cwts. ; 1871, 12,126,508 cwts. 
 See Beet-root. 
 
 SUICIDE (from sui, self; ccedere, to kill), the 
 slayer of himself. The first instances recorded in 
 Jewish history arc those of Samson, about n 20, 
 and Saul, 1055 B.C. The Greek and Koman philoso- 
 phers deemed it a crime, and burned the offending 
 hand apart from the rest of the body. In the reign 
 of Tarquin I., the Koman soldiers, thinking them- 
 selves disgraced by being ordered to make common 
 sewers, destroyed themselves, 606 B.C. Cato com- 
 mitted suicide, 46 B.C.* In the Koman catholic 
 church, in the 6th century it was ordained that no 
 commemoration should 1)6 made in the Eucharist 
 for such as committed self-murder. This ecclesias- 
 tical law continued till the Reformation, when it 
 was admitted into the statute law of England by the 
 authority of parliament, with the confiscation of 
 land and goods. Till 1823 the body of the suicide 
 was directed to be buried in a cross-road, and a 
 stake to be driven through it. It is now usually 
 buried in consecrated ground without a religious 
 ceremony. 
 
 memorable recent cases of suicide. 
 
 Gen. Pichegru 7 April, 1804 
 
 Miss Champante 15 Aug. 
 
 Sellis, valet of the duke of Cumberland . 31 May, 1810 
 Abraham Goldsmid, an eminent merchant . . . „ 
 
 "Williams, murderer of the Marr family . 15 Dec 1S11 
 
 Lord French 9 Dec. 1814 
 
 Marshal Berthier 1 June, 1815 
 
 Samuel Whitbread, esq 6 Sept. ,, 
 
 Sir Richard Croft 13 Feb. „ 
 
 Sir Samuel Romilly 2 Nov. 1818 
 
 Christophe, king of Hayti ... 8 Oct. 1820 
 
 Adm. sir George Campbell . . . .23 June, 1821 
 
 Marquis of Londonderry . . . . 12 Aug. 1822 
 
 Hon. colonel Stanhope . . . .26 Jan. 1825 
 Mr. Montgomery in Newgate (see Prussia Acid), 
 
 4 July, 1828 
 
 Miss Charlotte Both 3 Jan. 1830 
 
 Lord Greaves 7 Feb. ,, 
 
 Colonel Brereton 13 Jan. 1832 
 
 Major Thompson 13 June, ,, 
 
 Mr. Simpson, the traveller . . . 24 July, 1840 
 
 Lord James Beresford . . . .27 April, 1841 
 
 * Three instances of self-destruction by fire : thephilo- 
 pher Empedocles threw himself into the crater of Mount 
 Etua ; a Frenchman threw himself, in 1820, into the 
 crater of Vesuvius ; and an Englishman, who jumped 
 into the furnace of a forge about the year 181 1. Plutarch 
 relates that an unaccountable passion for suicide seized 
 the Milesian virgins, from which they could not be pre- 
 vented by the tears and prayers of their friends ; but a 
 decree being issued that the body of every young maid 
 who did self-murder should be drawn naked through the 
 streets, a stop was soon put to the extraordinary frenzy. 
 
 Gen. sir Rufane Shaw Donkin . . .1 May, 1841 
 
 The earl of Minister 20 March, 1842 
 
 Lord Congleton 8 June, ,, 
 
 Laman Blanchard ... -15 Feb. 1845 
 Colonel J. Gurwood, editor of ""Wellington's De- 
 spatches" 25 Dec. 
 
 Rear-admiral Collard . . . .18 March, 1846 
 Haydon, the eminent painter . . 22 June, ,, 
 
 Count Bresson 2 Nov. 1847 
 
 Colonel King, in India . . . .12 July, 1850 
 Walter Watts, lessee of Olympic theatre, 13 July, ,, 
 
 Rev. Dr. Rice 20 Jan. 1853 
 
 Lieut. -col. Layard 27 Dee. ,, 
 
 Rev. T. Robinson (threw himself off Shakspere's 
 
 Cliff, Dover) t6 Aug. 1854 
 
 Dr. Franks, late editor of the Allgemeine Zei'vnij, 
 
 after killing his son 3 Nov. 1855 
 
 John Sadleir, M.P. (in 1852, a lord of the treasury), 
 
 by prussic acid ; on Hampstead Heath (He was 
 
 found to have been guilty of enormous frauds upon 
 
 the Tipperary bank, &c.) ... 16 Feb. 1856 
 
 A. Smart, a watchmaker, threw himself from the 
 
 whispering-gallery in St. Paul's . 14 March, ,, 
 Charles Russell, esq., late chairman of Great 
 
 Western Railway 15 May, ,, 
 
 Hugh Miller, geologist, author of The Old Bed Sand- 
 stone (insane, through overwork) . . 23 Dec. ,, 
 Major-gen. Stalker, C.B., of Indian army (14 March), 
 and commodore Ethersey, of the Indian navy. 
 (Both through physical and mental depression 
 while 011 the expedition against Persia : see 
 
 BusMre) 17 March, 1857 
 
 Major Warburton, M.P. for Harwich, brother of 
 
 Eliot, lost in the Amazon ... 23 Oct. ,, 
 Henry M. Witt, a promising young chemist, at the 
 
 Government School of Mines . . .19 June, 1853 
 Dr. Sadleir, Senior Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin, 
 
 July, „ 
 Rev. G. Martin, chancellor of the diocese of Exeter, 
 
 27 Aug. i860 
 Lord Forth, son of earl of Perth . . .8 Oct. 1861 
 Wm. G. Prescott, banker . . . .29 April, 1865 
 Admiral Robert Fitz-Roy (see New Zealand, and 
 
 Meteorology) . . ... 30 April, ,, 
 
 Col. Hobbs (connected with the suppression of 
 
 Jamaica outbreak) on his way to England, 9 May, 1867 
 G. W. Green, merchant, jumped off Clifton Suspen- 
 sion bridge 11 May, ,, 
 
 Dr. A. W. Warder, murderer of his wife, at Brighton, 
 
 12 July, „ 
 Thos. Lee, threw himself from the north tower of 
 
 the Crystal palace 18 Feb. 1868 
 
 Theodore, emperor of Abyssinia . . 13 April, ,, 
 Mr. Stephenson, better on races; the "leviathan 
 
 book-maker" 9 Feb. 1869 
 
 G. H. Townsend, historical scholar . . 25 Feb. ,, 
 
 Lord Cloncnrry 3 April, ,, 
 
 Sir Robert H. J. Harvey, Norwich banker, 15 July ; 
 
 died 19 July, 1870 
 
 31. Prevost-Paradol, the accomplished French 
 minister at Washington, formerly a correspondent 
 for the !T£mes .... 19 July, ,, 
 
 Mr. Robert K. Bowley, 15 years manager of the 
 
 Crystal palace company ... 25 Aug. ,, 
 Dr. Augustus Matthiessen, eminent chemist, pro- 
 fessor at St. Bartholomew's hospital . 6 Oct. ,, 
 
 Lord Walsingham 31 Jan. 1871 
 
 Sir James Shaw Willes, justice of common pleas 
 
 (overwrought mind) .... 2 Oct. 1872 
 
 Earl Delawarr (insane) .... 22 April, 1873 
 
 INQUESTS ON SUICIDES IN ENGLAND AND WALES. 
 
 1856 
 185S 
 
 1862 
 1863 
 1864 
 1865 
 1866 
 1867 
 
 1870 
 1871 
 
 Males. 
 919 
 909 
 961 
 961 
 938 
 1048 
 978 
 1028 
 973 
 98S 
 1138 
 1 165 
 "35 
 '°73 
 
 Females. 
 395 
 366 
 396 
 363 
 346 
 337 
 359 
 369 
 387 
 37i 
 408 
 397 
 382 
 39i 
 
 Total. 
 1314 
 1275 
 1357 
 1324 
 1284 
 
 138S 
 1337 
 1397 
 1360 
 1356 
 1546 
 1562 
 1517 
 1464 
 
SUITORS' FUND. 
 
 639 
 
 SUNDAY. 
 
 SUITORS' FUND (in the court of chancery), 
 in 1862 amounted to 1,290,000^. As this money has 
 no specific owner, a proposal was made by govern- 
 ment to apply it to the building of new law-courts, 
 payment of all legal claims being guaranteed, which 
 was directed by the "Courts of Laws Pees" act, 
 passed 20 Aug. 1867. 
 
 SULPHUR has been known from the earliest 
 times. Basil Valentine mentions its production 
 from green vitriol. Sulphuric acid (vitriol), pro- 
 duced from the burning of sulphur, was introduced 
 into England about 1720. Sulphur has been the 
 object of research of many eminent chemists during 
 the present century, and many discoveries have 
 been made, such as its allotropic condition, &c. It 
 is the inflammable constituent in gunpowder, and a 
 deleterious ingredient in coal gas. — The sulphur 
 mines of Sicily have been wrought since the 16th 
 century, but the exportation was inconsiderable till 
 about 1820 ; in 1838 the trade increased so much 
 that Great Britain alone imported 38,654 tons. In 
 that year the Neapolitan government was induced 
 to grant a monopoly of the trade to a French 
 company ; but a firm remonstrance from the British 
 government led to a discontinuance of this impolitic 
 restriction in 1 84 1, which, however gave a great and 
 lasting impetus to the British sulphur manufacture. 
 In 1871, only 937,049 tons were imported into the 
 united kingdom. 
 
 SULTAN, or ruler, a Turkish title, from the 
 Arabic, given to the grand signior or emperor of 
 Turkey. It was first given to the Turkish princes, 
 Angrolipez and Musgad, about 1055. Vattier. It 
 was first given, according to others, to the emperor 
 Mahmoud, in the 4th century of the Hegira. 
 
 SUMATRA, an island in the Indian ocean, 
 called Java Minor by Marco Polo, and visited by 
 Nicolo di Conti prior to 1449. Mainly on account 
 of the pepper trade, the Dutch formed a settlement 
 at Padang about 1649, an( i the British at Bencoolen 
 about 1685. The Dutch possessions with Java were 
 acquired by the British in 181 1 ; but were restored 
 in 1816. In 1824 the Dutch acquired all the British 
 settlements in Sumatra, in exchange for Malacca 
 and some possessions in India. Restrictions on 
 then - progress in Sumatra were removed by treaty 
 Feb. 1872. Severe fighting between the Dutch and 
 the A Chinese natives, April 1873. 
 
 SUMPTUARY LAWS restrain excess in 
 dress, furniture, eating, &c. The laws of Lycurgus 
 were severe against luxury, probably about 881 B.C. 
 Those of Zaleucus ordained that no sober woman 
 should go attended by more than one maid in the 
 street, or wear gold or embroidered apparel, 450 B.C. 
 Diog. Laert. The Lex Orchia among the Romans 
 (181 B.C.) limited the guests at feasts, and the 
 number and quality of the dishes at an entertain- 
 ment; and it also enforced that during supper, 
 which was the chief meal among the Romans, 
 the doors of every house should be left open. The 
 English sumptuary laws, chiefly of the reigns of 
 Edward III. and Henry VIII. , were repealed in 
 1856 ; see Dress. 
 
 SUN.* Pythagoras taught that the sun was one 
 
 * The estimated diameter is 840,000 miles, and the dis- 
 tance from the earth, till lately given as 95,000,000 miles, 
 has been recently corrected to 94,000,000, by the result of 
 the experiments and calculations of MM. Fizeau and 
 P'oucault (1864). "The error corrected corresponds to 
 the apparent breadth of a human hair at 125 feet, or of a 
 sovereign 8 miles off." Ilersehel. The sun is now de- 
 
 of the twelve spheres, about 529 b. c. The relative 
 distances of the sun and moon were first calculated 
 geometrically by Aristarchus, who also maintained the 
 stability of the sun, about 280 b . c . Numerous theories 
 were ventured duringfifteen centuries, and astronomy 
 lay neglected till about a.d. 1200, when it was. 
 brought into Europe by the Moors of Barbary and 
 Spain. The Copernican system was made known in 
 1530 ; see Copernican System, and Solar System. 
 Galileo and Newton maintained that the sun was an 
 igneous globe. The transit of Mercury was observed 1 
 by Gassendi. For recent discoveries, see Eclipses 
 and Spectrum. 
 
 By the observations of Dr. Halley on the spot which 
 darkened the sun's disc in July and August, 1676, 
 he established the certainty of its motion round 
 its own axis. 
 
 Parallax of the sun, Dr. Halley 1702? 
 
 Solar spots were observed by Fabricius and Harriot 
 in 1610. A macula three times the size of the earth 
 passed the sun's centre, 21 April, 1766, and fre- 
 quently since. 
 
 Dr. Wilson observed the motion of a spot . . 1769* 
 
 Herschel measured two spots, whose length together 
 exceeded 50,000 miles .... 19 April, 17791 
 
 Schwabe discovered that a cycle of changes (from 
 maximum to minimum and minimum to maxi- 
 mum) in the number of spots occurs in 11 years, 
 confirmed by Wolf and others . . . 1826-51 
 
 Mr. Warren De la Rue took two photographs at the 
 time of total obscuration . . .18 July, 186* 
 
 Mr. James Nasmyth discovers the lenticular-shaped 
 objects on the sun (termed by him " willow- 
 leaves," by Stone "rice-grains") . . 28 Aug. „ 
 
 Red flames, or protuberances, during an eclipse of 
 the sun, observed by capt. Stannyan, 1706 ; by 
 Halley, 1715 ; by F. Baily (hence termed " Baily's 
 beads,") 1842. 
 
 Determined by M. Janssen to be due to the accu- 
 mulated hydrogen of the photosphere, at the solar 
 eclipse (see Eclipses) .... 18 Aug. 1868 
 
 Mr. Ericsson proposed condensation of the sun's 
 rays and their employment as a motive power, 
 
 Oct. „ 
 
 The observations of the eclipse of 22 Dec. 1870 and 
 12 Dec. 1871 led to the opinion that an unknown 
 substance (represented in the spectrum by line 
 1474) existed in the sun. 
 
 " Solar jrfiysics " especially studied by Messrs. War- 
 ren De la Rue, Balfour Stewart, &e. . . 1865-6 
 
 SUNCION, TREATY OF, between general 
 Urquiza, director of the Argentine confederation, 
 and C. A. Lopez, president of the republic of Para- 
 guay, recognising the independence of Paraguay, 14 
 July, 1852. . 
 
 SUNDA ISLES, include Java and Sumatra 
 (ivhich see). 
 
 SUNDAY was the day on which, anciently, 
 divine adoration was paid to the Sun. Among 
 Christians it is commonly called Dies Dominica, or 
 Lord's day, on account of our Saviour's appearance 
 on that day, after his resurrection. The first civil 
 law that was issued for the observance of this day, 
 combined it with that of the seventh-day Sabbath 
 and other festivals {Euscbius, Life of Constantme), 
 and it was followed by several imperial edicts, in 
 favour of this day, which are extant in the body of 
 Roman law, the earliest being that of Constantino 
 the Great, dated 7 March, 321. See Sabbath, Sab- 
 batarians, Sports, Book of, &c— For Sunday 
 Letter, see Dominical Letter. 
 
 The council of Orleans prohibited country labour . 338 
 The Sabbath-day was ordained to be kept holy iu 
 
 scribed as consisting of a 'solid or liquid nucleus, sur- 
 rounded by a luminous envelope (photosphere) over which 
 is a dense atmosphere, containing the vapours of various, 
 metals and other elements (1865) ; see Spectrum. 
 
SUNDAY LECTUKE SOCIETY. 640 SUEEEY ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS. 
 
 England, from Saturday at three in the afternoon 
 
 to Monday at break-of-day, 4th Canon, Edgar . 960 
 
 Act of parliament, levying one shilling on every 
 person absent from church on Sundays, 3 James I. 1606 
 
 James I. authorised certain sports after divine ser- 
 vice on Sundays (see Sports) 1618 
 
 Act restraining amusements, 1 Charles I. . . 1625 
 
 Act restraining the performance of servile works, 
 and the sale of goods except milk at certain hours 
 and meat in public-houses, and works of necessity 
 and charity, on forfeiture of five shillings, 29 
 Charles II 1676 
 
 The Sunday act passed 1781 
 
 Lord Lord Robert Grosvenor (since lord Ebury), in- 
 troduced a bill to suppress Sunday trading. (It 
 met with much opposition and was withdrawn), 
 
 April-July, 1855 
 
 The Jews released from the compulsory observance 
 of Sunday began 28 May, 1871 
 
 Sunday act (1676) amended . . . 17 Aug. ,, 
 
 SUNDAY LECTURE SOCIETYwas 
 founded 25 Nov. 1869. It began its proceedings by 
 a lecture delivered by Dr. "W. B. Carpenter at St. 
 George's -hall, Regent -street, 16 Jan. 1870. Its 
 success was reported at the first annual meeting, 
 
 7 July, 1870. See Recreative Religionists. 
 
 SUNDAY SCHOOLS were established it 
 England about 178 1, by Robert Raikes, an eminent 
 printer of Gloucester, conjointly with Rev. Thos. 
 Stock. It is said that a Sunday school existed at 
 Catterick, Yorkshire, 1763-4. Sunday-school build- 
 ings exempted from rates in 1869. The Sunday 
 School Union was founded in 1802 ; in 1867 it sup- 
 ported 652 schools; see Education, and Sabbath 
 Schools. 
 
 SUNDERLAND ADMINISTRATION, 
 
 formed in 17 18, arose out of a modification of the 
 Stanhope ministry. After various changes, it was 
 broken up in 172 1. 
 
 Charles, earl of Sunderland, first lord of the treasury. 
 
 Earl Cowper, lord chancellor. 
 
 Earl Stanhope and Mr. Craggs, secretaries. 
 
 Mr. Aislabie, chancellor of the exchequer, &c. 
 
 SUN DIALS, see Dials. 
 
 SUNNITES, or SONNITES (ivhich see). 
 
 SUPERANNUATION ACTS for the Civil 
 Service were passed in April, 1859, and Aug. 1866. 
 
 SUPPER, see lord's Supper. 
 
 SUPREMACY over the church was claimed 
 by pope Gelasius I. as bishop of Rome, 494. On 
 15 Jan. 1535, Henry VIII. by virtue of the act 26 
 Hen. VIII. c. 1, formerly assumed the style of "on 
 earth supreme head of the church of England," 
 which has been retained by all succeeding sove- 
 reigns. The bishop of Rochester (Fisher) and the 
 ex-4ord chancellor (sir Thomas More) and many 
 others were beheaded for denying the king's supre- 
 macy in 1535 ; and in 1578, John Nelson, a priest, 
 and Thomas Sherwood, a young layman, were exe- 
 cuted at Tyburn for the same offence. The " act of 
 Supremacy," repealed by 1 & 2 Phil, and Mary, c. 
 
 8 (1554), was re-enacted I Eliz. c. I (1559). 
 
 SURAT (E. Indies). Before the English East 
 India company obtained possession of Bombay, the 
 presidency of their affairs on the coast of Malabar 
 was at Surat ; and they had a factory here estab- 
 lished under captain Best in 1611. The Great 
 Mogul had here an officer who was styled his ad- 
 miral. An attack of the Mahratta chief Sivajee, 
 on the British factory, was defeated by 6ir George 
 Oxenden, 1664. The English were again attacked 
 
 in 1670 and 1702, and often subsequently. The 
 East India company, in 1759, fitted out an arma- 
 ment, which dispossessed the admiral of the castle ; 
 and, soon after, the possession of this castle was 
 confirmed to them by the court of Delhi. Surat 
 was vested in the British in 1 800 and 1803. 
 
 SURGEONS- Barbers and surgeons were united 
 in one company in 1540 ; but it was enacted that "no 
 person using any shaving or barbery in London shall 
 occupy any surgery, letting of blood, or other matter 
 excepting only the drawing of teeth." In 1745 
 the surgeons and barbers of London were made dis- 
 tinct corporations. The college of surgeons obtained 
 charters in 1745, 1800, and 1843 (w r henit was styled 
 the " Royal College of Surgeons of England"), 1852, 
 and 1859. Since that period, various legislative and 
 other important regulations have been adopted to 
 promote their utility and respectability ; and no per- 
 son is legally entitled to practise as a surgeon in the 
 cities of London and "Westminster, or within seven 
 miles of the former, who has not been examined at this 
 college. The college in Lincoln' s-inn- fields was 
 re-modelled in 1836, and the interior completed in 
 1837. The premises were enlarged in 1852-3. The 
 museum began with the Hunterian collection, 1800; 
 and the library was founded in 1801. See Medical 
 Council. 
 
 SURGERY. It was not until the age of Hip- 
 pocrates that diseases w r ere made a separate study 
 from philosophy, &c, about 410 B.C. Hippocrates 
 mentions the ambe, the ancient instrument with 
 which they reduced dislocated bones. Celsus flour- 
 ished about a.d. 17; Galen, 170; Aetius, 500; 
 Paulus .iEgineta, in 640. The Arabians revived 
 surgery about 900; and in the 16th century a new 
 era in the science began; between these periods 
 surgery was confined to ignorant priests and bar- 
 bers. Anatomy was cultivated under Vesalius, the 
 father of modern surgery, in 1538. Surgeons and 
 doctors were exempted from bearing arms or serving 
 on juries, 1513, at which period there were only 
 thirteen in London ; see Physic. 
 
 SURINAM (Dutch Guinea), discovered by 
 Columbus, 1498. The factories established by the 
 English in 1640 were occupied by the Portuguese, 
 1643 ; by the Dutch, 1654 ; taken by the British, 
 1799, 1804; and restored to the Dutch, 1802, 1814. 
 
 SURNAMES were introduced into England by 
 the Normans, and were adopted by the nobility 
 about 1 100. The old Normans used Fits, which 
 signifies son, as Fitz-herbert. The Irish used 0, 
 for grandson, O'Neal, O'Donnell. The Scottish 
 Highlanders used Mac, as Macdonald, son of Donald. 
 The northern nations added the word son to the 
 father's name, as Williamson. Many of the most 
 common surnames, such as Johnson, "Wilson, Dyson, 
 Nicholson, &c, were taken by Brabanters and other 
 Flemings, who were naturalised in the reign of 
 Henry VI., 1435. M. A. Lower's " Dictionary of 
 English Surnames" was published in i860. 
 
 SURPLICES were first worn by the Jewish 
 
 priests, and ai - e said to have been first used in 
 churches in the fourth century, and encouraged by 
 pope Adrian, 786. "Every minister saying public 
 prayers shall wear a comely surplice with sleeves," 
 Canon 58. The garb prescribed by stat. 2 Edw. VI. 
 154.7; again 1 Eliz. 1558; and 13 & 14 Chas. II. 
 1662; see Ritualism. 
 
 SURREY ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS 
 
 (near London) were established in 183 1, by Mr. 
 Edward Cross, who brought hither the menagerie 
 
SURTEES SOCIETY. 
 
 641 
 
 SWEDEN. 
 
 formerly at Exeter change. Various picture models 
 have been exhibited here since 1837, viz., Vesuvius, 
 Iceland, &c, accompanied by fireworks. In 1856, 
 a company which had taken the gardens, erectecl a 
 large yet elegant building for concerts ; the archi- 
 tect being Mr. Horace Jones. On 19 Oct. 1856, 
 ■when the hall contained about 9000 persons, attend- 
 ing to hear the Eev. C. H. Spurgeon, seven were 
 killed and thirty seriously injured, by a false alarm 
 of fire. It was burnt II June, 1801 ; see Fires. 
 In 1862 the hall was temporarily taken for the re- 
 ception of the patients of St. Thomas's hospital. 
 
 SURTEES SOCIETY for publishing MSS. 
 relating to the northern counties, established 1834. 
 
 SURVEY ACT, passed 12 May, 1870. See 
 Ordnance Survey. 
 
 SUSA, or ShuSHAN, capital of Susiana, a pro- 
 vince of Persia, was taken by Alexander the Great, 
 
 331 B.C. 
 
 SUSPENDING POWER, see Dispensing 
 Tower. 
 
 SUSPENSION BRIDGES are ancient in 
 China. The Hungerford (or Charing- cross) suspen- 
 sion bridge, opened May 1, 1845, was removed to 
 Clifton and opened there, 8 Dec. 1864. Parliament 
 empowered the commissioners of woods to erect 
 (among other improvements there) a suspension 
 bridge at Battersea, Sept. 1846 ; and many bridges 
 of similar construction have been erected in various 
 jjarts of the kingdom. Lambeth and Westminster 
 suspension bridge was opened 10 Nov. 1862 ; see 
 Menai Strait, Hungerford, Clifton, Sec. 
 
 SUSPENSORY BILL, the name given to 
 "a bill to prevent for a limited time [to 1 Aug. 
 1869] new appointments in the church of Ireland ; 
 and to restrain, for the same period, in certain 
 respects, the proceedings of the Ecclesiastical Com- 
 missioners for Ireland." This bill was introduced 
 into the commons by Mr. Gladstone, 14 May, and 
 passed through committee, 5 June ; rejected by the 
 lords (192 to 97), 30 June, 3 a.m., 1868. 
 
 SUSSEX, see Britain. 
 
 SUTLEJ, a river in N.W. India, the ancient 
 Hyphasis or Hypana, on the banks of which were 
 fought the desperate battles of Aliwal, 28 Jan., and 
 Sobraon, 10 Feb. 1846 {which see). 
 
 SUTTEE, the burning of widows. This cus- 
 tom began in India from one of the wives of 
 " Bramah, the Son of God," sacrificing herself at 
 his death, that she might attend him in heaven. 
 Seventeen widows have burnt themselves on the 
 funeral pile of a rajah ; and in Bengal alone, 700 
 have thus perished in a year. The English govern- 
 ment, after long discouraging suttees, formally 
 abolished them, Dec. 1829; but they have since 
 occasionally taken place The wife of the son of 
 the rajah of Beygoon thus perished, June, 1864. 
 
 SWABIA, a province in S. Germany; was con- 
 quered by Clovis, and incorporated into the king- 
 dom of the Franks, 496. After various changes of 
 rulers, it was made a duchy by the emperor Conrad 
 I., ia 912, for Erchanger; according to some, in 
 916, for Burckhardt. The duchy became hereditary 
 in the house of Hohenstaufen in 1080. Duke 
 Frederick III. became emperor of Germany as 
 Frederick I. (usually styled Barbarossa, red beard), 
 in 1 1 52. Conradin, his descendant, was defeated at 
 the battle of Tagliacozzo (which see), in 1268, and 
 beheaded shortly after. The breaking up of the 
 
 duchy gave rise to many of the small German 
 states ; part of Swabia is included in "Wiirtemberg 
 and Switzerland. Swabia was made a circle of the 
 empire in 1387 and 1500. A league, composed of 
 Swabian cities and states, about 1254, was the germ 
 of the great Swabian league, formed for the preser- 
 vation of the peace of Germany, under the auspices 
 of the emperor Frederick, in 1488. 
 
 SWAN RIVER SETTLEMENT, see 
 Western Australia. 
 
 SWEABORG, a strong fortress in Finland, the 
 Gibraltar of the north, 3! miles south of Helsing- 
 fors; it is situated on seven rocky islands; the 
 fortifications were commenced by the Swedes in 1748, 
 and completed after Finland was united to Russia 
 in 1809. On 6 Aug. 18^5, the English and French 
 fleet anchored off Sweaborg, and bombarded it by 
 mortar and gun-boats from the 9th to the nth, 
 causing the destruction of nearly all the principal 
 buildings, including the dockyard and arsenal. Few 
 casualties and no loss of life ensued in the allied 
 squadron, but this success was not followed up. 
 
 SWEARING on the Gospels, first used 
 
 about 528, and introduced in judicial proceedings 
 about 600. Rapin.— Profane Swearing made 
 punishable by fine ; a labourer or servant forfeiting 
 is., others 2s. for the first offence; for the second 
 offence, 4s. ; the third offence, 6s. ; 6 Will. III., 
 1695 ; see Oaths. 
 
 SWEATING SICKNESS, see Plague. 
 
 SWEDEN (N. Europe). The ancient inhabi- 
 tants were the Fins, now the modern inhabitants of 
 Finland, who retired to their present territory on 
 the appearance of the Scandinavians or Goths, who 
 have ever since been masters of Sweden; see 
 Scandinavia. The internal state of this kingdom 
 is little known previous to the nth century. By 
 the union of Calmar in 1397, Sweden became a 
 province of Denmark, and was not wholly rescued 
 from this subjection till 1521, when Gustavus Vasa 
 recovered the kingdom from the Danish yoke. He 
 became king in 1523, and his descendants ruled till 
 1809. The government of Sweden is a limited 
 monarchy. The diet consists of four orders, the 
 nobles, the clergy, the peasants, and the burghers, 
 and meet every three years (last time, 20 Jan. 1873). 
 The king is, as in Britain, the head of the executive. 
 There are two universities, Upsal and Lund ; and 
 Sweden can boast, among its great men, Linnseus, 
 Celsius, Scheele, Bergman, Berzelius, Thorwaldsen, 
 and Andersen. Population (1871) of Sweden, 
 4,204,117; of Norway, 1,741,621. 
 
 Odin said to arrive in the north, and die . . b. c. 70 
 
 His son Skiold reigns , Q 
 
 The Skioldungs reign till Olaf the infant is baptized, 
 and introduces Christianity among his people, 
 
 about a.d. 1000 
 Waldemar I. of Denmark subdues Rugen, and de- 
 stroys the pagan temples ngs 
 
 Stockholm founded I2 5 
 
 Magnus Ladulses establishes a regular form of 
 
 government 127 q 
 
 The crown of Sweden, which had been hereditary) 
 is made elective ; and Steenehel Magnus, sur- 
 named Smaak, or the foolish, king of Norway, is 
 
 elected ' I3I „ 
 
 Waldemar lays Gothland waste . . . I3 6i 
 
 Albert of Mecklenburg reigns ....'. 1363 
 Treaty or union of Oalmar (which see), by which 
 Sweden is united to Denmark and Norway, under 
 
 Margaret I3g _ 
 
 University of Upsal founded . . . ' . '. 1476 
 Christian II. of Denmark, "the Nero of the North " 
 massacres the Swedish nobility . . ' . x e a 
 
 T T 
 
SWEDEN. 
 
 642 
 
 SWEDEN. 
 
 The Swedes delivered from the Danish yoke by the 
 
 valour of Gustavus Vasa 1521 
 
 Gustavus Vasa raised to the throne .... 1523 
 He introduces Lutheranisin and religious liberty . 1527 
 
 Makes the crown hereditary 1544 
 
 Gustavus Adolphus heads the protestant cause in 
 
 Germany 1628 
 
 He takes Magdeburg and Munich, 1630 ; slain at 
 
 Lutzen 16 Nov. 1632 
 
 Rugen ceded to Sweden by Denmark . . . 1648 
 
 Abdication of Christina . . . 16 June, 1654 
 
 Charles X. overruns Poland 1655 
 
 Arts and sciences begin to flourish . . . . 1660 
 
 University of Lund founded 1666 
 
 Charles XII. "the Madman of the North," begins 
 his reign ; he makes himself absolute ; abolishes 
 the senate, 1699 ; and defeats the Russians at 
 Narva ....... 30 Nov. 1700 
 
 Battle of Pultowa, where Charles is defeated by the 
 
 czar of Russia (see Pultowa) . . .8 July, 1709 
 He escapes to Bender, where, after three years' pro- 
 tection, he is made a prisoner by the Turks . . 1713 
 He is restored ; and after ruinous wars, and fighting 
 numerous battles, is killed at the siege of Frede- 
 
 rickshald 11 Dec. 1718 
 
 Queen Ulrica abolishes despotism .... 1719 
 Bremen and Verden ceded to Hanover . . Nov. ,, 
 Royal Academy founded by Linnaeus . . . 1741 
 Conspiracy of counts of Brahe and Home, who are 
 
 beheaded 1756 
 
 The Hats and Caps (French and Russian parties), 
 1738-57 : put down by Gustavus III. . . . 1770 
 
 Despotism re-established 1772 
 
 Order of the Sword instituted „ 
 
 Assassination of Gustavus III. by count Anker- 
 
 strom, at a ball, 16 March ; he expired 29 March, 1792 
 The regicide was scourged with whips of iron 
 thongs three successive days ; his right hand 
 was cut off, then his head, and his body impaled, 
 
 18 May, ,, 
 Gustavus IV. dethroned and the government as- 
 sumed by his uncle the duke of Sudermania 
 (Charles XIII.) .... 13 March, 1809 
 Representative constitution established . 7 June, ,, 
 Sweden cedes Finland to Russia . . 17 Sept. ,, 
 Marshal Bernadotte, the prince of Ponte Corvo (one 
 of Bonaparte's generals), chosen the crown prince 
 
 of Sweden 21 Aug. 1810 
 
 Gustavus IV. arrived in London . . .12 Nov. ,, 
 Swedish Pomerania seized by Napoleon . 9 Jan. 1812 
 Alliance with England .... 12 July, ,, 
 
 Sweden joins the grand alliance against Napoleon, 
 
 13 March, 1813 
 Norway is ceded to Sweden by the treaty of Kiel, 
 
 14 Jan. ; carried into effect . . . Nov. 1814 
 
 Bernadotte king, as Charles John XIV. . 5 Feb. 1818 
 
 Canals and roads constructed 1822 
 
 Treaty of navigation between Great Britain and 
 
 Sweden 19 May, 1826 
 
 Death of Charles John ; his son Oscar I. king, 8 Mar. 1844 
 Alliance with England and France . 21 Nov. 1855 
 
 Banishment decreed against catholic converts from 
 
 Lutheranism . Oct. 1857 
 
 Demonstration in favour of Italy . . 17 Dec. 1859 
 Increased religious toleration . . . May, i860 
 
 The king visits England and France . . Aug. 1861 
 He is warmly received in Denmark . 17 July, 1862 
 Treaty of commerce with Italy, signed 14 June, ,, 
 Demonstration in favour of Poland . . April, 1863 
 Inauguration of free trade .... 1 Jan. 1864 
 Sweden protests against the occupation of Sleswig 
 
 by the allies 22 Jan. „ 
 
 Excitement throughout the country ; March : pre- 
 paration for war ; (no result) . . . April, ,, 
 Foundation of a " National Scandinavian Society" 
 at Stockholm to obtain by legal means a confede- 
 ration of the three kingdoms for military and 
 foreign affairs, reserving independent interior ad- 
 ministration Dec. 1864 
 
 New constitution passed by the chambers, 4-8 Dec. ,, 
 Commercial treaty with France approved . Feb. 1866 
 Severe famine in North Sweden . . Oct. -Dec. 1867 
 Resignation of ministers, 9 April ; new ministry 
 
 under M. Wachtmeister ... 4 June, 1868 
 Princess Louisa was married to Frederic, crown- 
 prince of Sweden .... 28 July, 1869 
 Neutrality in the Franco-Prussian war was pro- 
 claimed 4 Aug. 1870 
 
 The queen dies 13 March, 1871 
 
 Prince Oscar visits England ; lays foundation of a 
 
 Scandinavian church at Rotherhithe 27 July, ,, 
 Re-organization of the army proposed, Aug. ; nega- 
 tived Oct. „ 
 
 Death of king Charles XV. . . . 18 Sept. 1872 
 
 The diet opened by king Oscar II. . 20 Jan. 1873 
 
 The king and queen crowned . . .12 May, ,, 
 
 KINGS OF SWEDEN (previously Kings of UpSdl). 
 
 1001. Olaf Schotkonung, or Olif Schcetkonung the Infant, 
 is styled king, 1015. 
 
 1026. Edmund Colbrenner. 
 
 1051. Edmund Slemme. 
 
 1056. Stenkill. 
 
 1066. Halstan. 
 
 1090. Ingo I. the Good. 
 
 1 1 12. Philip 
 
 1 1 18. Ingo II. 
 
 1 1 29. Swerker or Suercher I. 
 
 1 1 55. St. Eric IX. 
 
 1 161. Charles VII. ; made prisoner by his successor 
 
 1167. Canute, son of Eric I. 
 
 1 199. Swerker or Suercher II. ; killed in battle. 
 
 1210. Eric X. 
 
 1216, John I. 
 
 1222. Eric XI. the Stammerer. 
 
 1250. Birger Jarl, regent. 
 ,, Waldemar I. 
 
 1275. Magnus I. Ladulses. 
 
 1290. Birger II. 
 
 1 319. Magnus II. Sniiek ; dethroned. 
 
 1350. Eric XII. 
 
 1359. Magnus restored ; deposed 1363. 
 
 1363. Albert of Mecklenburg : his tyranny causes a re- 
 volt of his subjects, who invite Margaret of Den- 
 mark to the throne. 
 
 1389. Margaret, queen of Sweden and Norway, now also 
 of Denmark, and Eric XIII. 
 
 1397. [Union of Calmar, by which the three kingdoms 
 • are united under one sovereign.] 
 
 1412. Eric XIII. governs alone ; deposed. 
 
 1440. Christopher III. 
 
 1448. Charles VIII. Canuteson, king of Sweden only. 
 
 1471. [Interregnum.] Sten Sture, Protector. 
 
 1483. John II. (I. of Denmark). 
 
 1502. [Interregnum.] 
 
 1503. Swante Sture, Protector. 
 1 512. Sten Sture, Protector. 
 1520. Christiern, or Christian II., 
 
 the " Nero of the North ;" 
 
 ties. 
 1523. Gustavus I. Vasa ; by whose valour the Swedes are 
 
 delivered from the Danish yoke. 
 1560. Eric XIV., son ; dethroned and slain by 
 1568. John III., brother. 
 1592. Sigismund III. , king of Poland, son ; disputes for 
 
 the succession continued the whole of this 
 
 reign. 
 1604. Charles IX. brother of John ni. 
 161 1. Gustavus II. Adolphus, the Great, son ; fell at the 
 
 battle of Lutzen, 16 Nov. 1632. 
 
 1632. [Interregnum.] 
 
 1633. Christina, daughter of Gustavus. Resigned tin; 
 
 crown to her cousin, 16 June, 1654 ; died at 
 
 Rome in 1689. 
 1654. Charles X. Gustavus, son of John Casimir, count 
 
 palatine of the Rhine. 
 1660. Charles XL, son ; the arts and sciences flourished in 
 
 this reign. 
 1697. Charles XII., son ; styled the "Alexander," and the 
 
 " Madman of the North ;" killed at Fredericks- 
 
 hald, 11 Dec. 1718. 
 1 718. Ulrica Eleanora, sister, and her consort, Frede- 
 rick I. landgrave of Hesse Cassel. Ulrica relin- 
 quishes the crown, and in 
 1741. Frederick reigned alone. 
 1751. Adolphus Frederick of Holstein Gottorp, descended 
 
 from the. family of Vasa. 
 1771. Gustavus III. Adolphus, son ; assassinated by 
 
 count Ankerstrom at a masked ball. 
 1792. Gustavus IV. Adolphus, son ; dethroned, and the 
 
 government assumed by his uncle, the duke of 
 
 Sudermania. 
 1809. Charles XIII. duke of Sudermania. 
 
 Treaty of Kiel (1814), by which Norway falls under 
 
 the sovereignty of Sweden. 
 
 of Denmark, styled 
 deposed for his cruel- 
 
SWEDENBOEGIANS. 
 
 643 
 
 SWITZEELAND. 
 
 1818. Cliarles (John) XIV. Bernadotte, the French prince 
 of Ponte Corvo. 
 
 1S44. Oscar I., son ; born 4 July, 1799 ; died 8 July, 1859. 
 
 1859. Charles XV., son ; born 3 May, 1826 ; died 18 Sept. 
 1872 ; a poet ; brave and impulsive ; much be- 
 loved. 
 
 1872. Oscar II., brother; born 21 Jan. 1829; married 
 princess Sophia of Nassau, 6 June, 1857. 
 Heir : Gustavus, born 16 June, 1858. 
 
 SWEDENBOEGIANS, call themselves "the 
 New Church," or " the New Jerusalem Church ;"* 
 and hold the opinions of baron Emanuel Sweden- 
 borg (born at Stockholm, 1688 ; died at London, 29 
 March, 1772). He stated that he began to receive 
 spiritual manifestations in 1745, of which an 
 account is given in his numerous works. The sect 
 arose about 1760, and began to spread in 1783 in 
 England, where there were 50 congregations in 
 1851. 
 
 SWEET-BAY, Laurus nobilis, was brought to 
 these realms from Italy before 1548. Laurus indiea, 
 or Eoyal Bay, was brought from Madeira in 1665. 
 The Sweet-Fern bush, Comptonia asplenifolia, came 
 from America, 1714. Laurus aggregata, or the 
 Glaucous Laurel, came from China in 1806. 
 
 SWIMMING- Leander is said to have swam 
 across the Hellespont, between Sestos and Abydos, 
 about one mile ; and Lord Byron, and lieut. Eken- 
 head did the same, 3 May, 1810. On 24 Aug., 1872, 
 Mr. Johnson, styled the "hero of London-bridge," 
 and swimming champion of the world, attempted to 
 swim from Dover to Calais, 19 miles, but was pre- 
 vented by cold. He was said to have swum seven 
 miles in about sixty-five minutes. 
 
 SWING. Between 1830 and 1833 many hay- 
 stacks and barns were fired in the rural districts of 
 England, and attributed to an imaginary person 
 named " Swing." Many persons were caught and 
 punished. The probable cause was disputes between 
 the fanners and their deluded labourers. 
 
 SWISS GITAEDS, Royal, in France, formed 
 in 1616 ; massacred while defending the Tuileries, 
 10 Oct. 1792; re-organised Sept. 1815 ; defeated 
 during the insurrection, 28 July, 1830; dismissed 
 by Charles X. Aug. 1830. 
 
 . SWITHIN'S DAY, ST., 15 July. St. Swithin 
 lived in the 9th century ; and, having been the 
 preceptor to king Ethelwulf, was made bishop of 
 "Winchester in 852, and died 2 July, 862. The 
 tradition states that it rained forty days in conse- 
 quence of the proposed removal of his remains from 
 the churchyard to the cathedral. 
 
 SWITZEELAND, the ancient Helvetia, was 
 conquered by the Romans, 15 B.C.; and was suc- 
 cessively subject to the Burgundians, Germans, and 
 Franks. The canton of Schweitz was peopled by 
 the Cimbrians, who, leaving their original habita- 
 tion in Scandinavia, invaded Italy, and were de- 
 feated by the Roman general Marius ; and fled into 
 Helvetia, about IOOB. c. This canton has given name 
 to the whole confederacy. — The present national 
 council is elected every third year, at the rate of 
 
 * They do not receive the usual doctrine of the Trinity, 
 but believe that the three persons are one in Christ ; they 
 reject the doctrine of justification by faith alone, and the 
 imputed righteousness of Christ, and hold that salvation 
 cannot be obtained except by faith and good works. 
 They accept baptism and the Lord's Supper, and use a 
 liturgy and hymns. A society for disseminating the 
 writings of Swedenborg was established at Manchester in 
 1782: from this was developed the London society, in 
 
 one member for 2000 persons. — Population, Dec. 
 1860,2,507,170; 1870,2,669,095. 
 
 The Helvetians invading Gaul, severely defeated by 
 
 Julius Csesar b.c. 58 
 
 The Helvetians converted to Christianity by Irish 
 
 missionaries a.d. 612 
 
 Helvetia ravaged by the Huns 909 
 
 Becomes subject to Germany 1032 
 
 Friburg built by Berthold IV. 1179 
 
 Berne built ngi 
 
 Tyranny of Gesler, heroism of William Tell, and re- 
 volt (demonstrated to be mythical), dated . . 1306 
 Confederation against Austria ; declaration of Swiss 
 
 independence 4 Nov. 1307 
 
 A malignant fever carries off, in the canton of Basle, 
 1100 souls ........ 1314 
 
 Form of government made perpetual . . . . 1315 
 
 Leopold of Austria defeated at Morgarten, 15 Nov. ,, 
 
 Lucerne joins the confederacy 1335 
 
 The canton of Zurich joins and becomes head of the 
 
 league i 350 
 
 Berne, Glaris, and Zug join 1351 
 
 Leopold II. of Austria defeated and slain at Sempach 
 
 9 July, 1386 
 The Austrians defeated at Nafels, 9 April, 1388 ; 
 
 make peace 1389 
 
 The Grisons league (see Caddee) .... 1400 
 
 Second league of the Grisons 1424 
 
 The third league of the Grisons .... 1436 
 Battle of St. Jacobs on the Birs, near Basle (1600 
 Swiss resist 30,000 French, and are all killed, the 
 enemy losing 10,000) .... 26 Aug. 1444 
 
 The Swiss defeat Charles the Bold at Granson, 5 
 
 March ; and at Morat . . . .22 June, 1476 
 And aid the duke of Lorraine at Nancy, where 
 
 Charles is slain 5 Jan. 1477 
 
 Swiss soldiers first enter into the pay of France, 
 
 under Louis XI I4 8o 
 
 Fribourg and Soleure join ; confederation formed . 1481 
 Maximilian I. emperor, acknowledges Swiss inde- 
 pendence I499 
 
 Schaflfhausen and Basle join the union . . . 1501 
 The Swiss invade Milan and defeat the French at 
 
 Novara 6 June, 1513 
 
 Defeated by them at Marignano . 13, 14 Sept. 1515 
 The Swiss confederacy acknowledged by France and 
 
 other powers 1516 
 
 The Reformation begins at Basle ; the bishop com- 
 pelled to retire i Sr g 
 
 The Reformation adopted by some cantons ; battle 
 of Cappel, Zwingli killed and reformers defeated, 
 
 12 Oct. 1531 
 The Grison leagues join the Swiss confederacy as 
 
 allies I544 
 
 Appenzel joins the other Cantons . . . . 1597 
 Charles Emanuel of Savoy attempts Geneva by sur- 
 prise, scales the walls, and penetrates the town, 
 
 but in the end is defeated 1602 
 
 [This circumstance gave rise to an annual festival 
 
 commemorative of their escape from tyranny.] 
 Independence of Switzerland recognised by the 
 
 treaty of Westphalia (see Westphalia) . . . 1648 
 Peace of Aargau, end of religious war . .Aug. 1712 
 [From this period until the French revolution the 
 cantons enjoyed tranquillity, disturbed only by 
 the changes arising out of their various constitu- 
 tions.] 
 
 Alliance with France 25 May, 1777 
 
 Strife in Geneva, between the aristocratic and demo- 
 cratic parties ; France interferes . . . . 1781 
 1000 fugitive Genevese seek an asylum in Ireland 
 
 (see Geneva) 17 82 
 
 Swiss guards ordered to quit France . . . . 1792 
 Helvetic confederation dissolved ; its subjugation 
 
 by France I7g s 
 
 Helvetian republic formed 
 
 Switzerland the seat of war . . . . . 1799-1802 
 The number of cantons increased to 19 ; the federal 
 government restored ; and a landamman appointed 
 
 by France i 2 May, 1802 
 
 Uri, Schweitz, and Underwald separate from the 
 
 republic I3 July, 
 
 Switzerland joins France with 6000 men 24 Aug. 1811 
 The allies entered Switzerland in the spring of . 1814 
 The number of cantons increased to 22, and the in- 
 dependence of Switzerland secured by the treaty 
 of Vienna . 2 8 I5 
 
 T T 2 
 
SWITZERLAND. 
 
 644 
 
 SYNAGOGUE. 
 
 .Revision of the constitution of the cantons . . 1830 
 Law to make education independent of the clergy . 1839 
 It leads to dissensions between the catholics and 
 
 protestants 1840-4 
 
 Dispute about the convents of Aargau, 1844 ; to put 
 education into the hands of the Jesuits, &c. ; op- 
 position of the protestant cantons . . . . 1846 
 Lucerne, Uri, Schweitz, Unterwalden, Freiburg, 
 Zug, and Valais (Roman catholic cantons), form a 
 separate league (Sonderbund) to support educa- 
 tion by the Jesuits, &c „ 
 
 Insurrection at Geneva against Jesuit teaching ; a 
 temporary provisional government established, 
 
 7 Oct. ,, 
 The diet declares the Sonderbund illegal, and dis- 
 solves it, 20 July ; the seven cantons protest, 22 
 July ; the diet orders the expulsion of the Jesuits, 
 3 Sept. ; communal assemblies held to resist it, 
 
 26 Sept.; 3, 10 Oct. 1847 
 The diet prepares to repress the Sonderbund, 4 
 Nov. ; civil war ; the Sonderbund defeated ; sub- 
 mits to the expulsion of the Jesuits, and the secu- 
 larisation of monastic property . . 19-29 Nov. „ 
 New federal constitution . . . .12 Sept. 1848 
 Dispute about Neufchatel (which see) . . . . 1857 
 Declaration of neutrality in the coming Italian war, 
 
 14 March, 1859 
 Mutiny and punishment of the Swiss mercenary 
 troops at Naples ; the confederation forbid foreign 
 
 enlistment July and Aug. ,, 
 
 Swiss government protests against the annexation 
 
 of Savoy to France . . . .15 March, i860 
 150 Swiss attempt to enter Savoy ; stopped by 
 
 Genevese government ... 30 March, ,, 
 M. Thorel, a Swiss, obtains a prize at the national 
 
 shooting match at Wimbledon . . July, „ 
 
 The government forbid the Swiss to enlist in foreign 
 • service Without permission . . .30 July, ,, 
 Proposed European congress to preserve Swiss 
 
 neutrality, put off July, ,, 
 
 Glarus destroyed by fire .... 3 May, 1861 
 
 French troops occupy Vallee des Dappes, 28 Oct. ; 
 the Swiss announce the violation of their territory, 
 
 5 Nov. ,, 
 Treaty of France settles the question of the Vallee 
 
 des Dappes by mutual cession of territory ; no 
 military works to be constructed on territory 
 ceded ; signed 8 Dec. 1862 
 
 Serious election riots at Geneva, with bloodshed, 
 22 Aug. ; federal troops arrive . . 23 Aug. 1864 
 
 Federal troops quit Geneva . .11 Jan. 1865 
 
 International Social Science Congress meets at 
 Berne 28 Aug. 1865 
 
 Revision of the constitution ; deliberations begin 
 
 23 Oct. „ 
 
 Nearly all the revised articles of the federal consti- 
 tution rejected by the vote of the Swiss burgesses 
 
 14 Jan. 1866 
 
 J. J. Stehlen elected president . . 1 July, 1867 
 
 Workmen's international congress at Lausanne, 
 
 2-7 Sept. ,, 
 
 M. Dubs elected president of the confederation, 
 
 6 Dec. 
 Queen Victoria visits Lucerne . . Aug. Sept. 1S68 
 Meeting of the federal assembly . 6-25 July, 1868 
 International peace and liberty congress, at Geneva, 
 
 9-12 Sept. 1867 ; at Berne, 22-26 Sept. . . ,, 
 
 Neutrality in the Franco-Prussian War proclaimed, 
 
 July, „ 
 New constitution adopted by Zurich . 18 April, 1869 
 The French army under Clinchant (84,000), crosses 
 
 the frontiers and is disarmed . 1 Feb. 1871 
 
 fhe French soldiers interned at Zurich, and oppose 
 
 German demonstrations . . 9-12 Mar. „ 
 
 Extraordinary session of the federal assembly to 
 
 revise the constitution ... 6 Nov. „ 
 Plebiscite respecting a new constitution, re-organ- 
 izing the army, and promoting uniform educa- 
 tion, &c. rejected by majority of 4967 out of 
 509,921 12 May, 1872 
 
 SWISS CONFEDERATION OF 1815. 
 
 Zug 
 
 Freiburg 
 
 Solothurn 
 
 Basle 
 
 Grisons 
 
 Aargau 
 
 Thurgan 
 
 Tessins 
 Pays dc Vaud 
 Valais 
 Neufchatel 
 Geneva 
 
 Uri, 1307 ") first con- 
 
 Schweitz {■ federa- 
 
 Unterwalden ) tion. 
 Zurich 
 LJerne 
 
 Lucerne 
 Schaffhausen 
 Appenzell 
 St. Gall 
 
 Claris 
 
 SWORDS were formed of iron taken from a 
 mountain by the Chinese, 1879 B - c - Univ. Hist. 
 The Roman swords were from 20 to 30 inches long. 
 The broadsword and scimitar are of modern adop- 
 tion. The sword of state carried at an English 
 king's coronation by a king of Scotland, 1 194. 
 Damascus steel swords were most prized ; the 
 next the sword of Ferrara steel. The Scotch 
 Highlanders from the artificer Andrea di Ferrara, 
 called their swords Andretv Ferraras. The large 
 sword shown at Dumbarton castle as Wallace's is 
 asserted to be one of Edward IVth's (1872). The 
 broadsword was forbidden to be worn in Edinburgh 
 in 1724. 
 
 SYBARIS, a Greek colony in S. Italy, founded 
 about 720 B.C. ; destroyed by the Crotonians about 
 5 10 k. c. The people were greatly addicted to luxury, 
 hence the term Sybarite. 
 
 SYCAMORE TREE, called the Egyptian 
 fig-tree. In Mrs. Jameson's "Memoirs of Female 
 Sovereigns,' ' we are told that Mary queen of Scots 
 brought over from France a little sycamore tree, 
 which she planted in the garden at Holyrood, and 
 that from this have sprung all the beautiful groves 
 of sycamore now to be seen in Scotland. 
 
 SYDNEY, capital of New South Wales; 
 founded by governor Phillip, on a cove on Port 
 Jackson, 26 Jan. 1788, as a British settlement for 
 the colony of convicts originally intended for Botany 
 bay. It was named after lord Sydney, secretary 
 for the colonies. See Australia, New South Wales, 
 Convicts §c. 
 
 A legislative council first held . . 13 July, 1829 
 The university opened . . . n Oct. 1852 
 Sydney erected into a bishopric (afterwards an arch- 
 bishopric) 1836 
 
 Lit with gas, the first place so lit in Australia May, 1841 
 Roman Catholic cathedral burnt, and valuable pro- 
 perty destroyed .... 29 June, 1865 
 Visited by the duke of Edinburgh . . Feb. 1868. 
 At Port Jackson he narrowly escaped assassination ; 
 O'Farrell, a Fenian, who shot him in the back on 
 12 March, was convicted on 31 March, and executed 
 
 21 April, ,, 
 The duke sailed for England 4 April, and arrived 
 
 26 June, ,, 
 New cathedral consecrated . . .30 Nov. „ 
 Foundation of eapt. Cook's monument laid by the 
 
 duke of Edinburgh .... 28 March, 1869 
 A conference of delegates from the Australian 
 colonies met here for customs, postal and railway 
 purposes, 'without effect .... Jan. 1873 
 An exhibition opened here about . 25 April, ,, 
 
 SYLLABUS OF ERRORS in modem times ; 
 80 paragraphs divided into 10 chapters, issued by 
 pope Pius IX., with an encyclical letter, 8 Dec. 
 1864. It condemned heresy, modern philosophy, 
 and liberalism in politics ; was forbidden to be read 
 in French churches, and was generally opposed, but 
 was adopted by the council at Rome 1870. 
 
 SYMPIESOMETER, a species of barometer 
 invented by Adie of Edinburgh in 1819. 
 
 SYNAGOGUE (literally an assembly), a con- 
 gregation of the Jews, and the place where such 
 assembly is held for religious purposes. When 
 these meetings were first held is uncertain ; some 
 refer them to the times after the Babylonish cap- 
 tivity. In Jerusalem were 480 synagogues. In 
 1851 there were in London 10 synagogues, in 
 
SYNOD. 
 
 645 
 
 SYEIA. 
 
 England and "Wales, 53. A magnificent synagogue 
 was consecrated at Berlin, 5 Sept. 1866; see Jews. . 
 
 SYNOD. The first general synods were called 
 by emperors, and afterwards by Christian princes ; 
 but the pope ultimately usurped this power, one of 
 his legates usually presiding ; see Councils. The 
 first national synod held in England was at Hert- 
 ford, 673; the last was held by cardinal Pole in 
 1555. Made unlawful to hold synods but by royal 
 authority, 25 Henry VIII. 1533; see Dort, and 
 Thurles. 
 
 SYNONYM, a word having the same or 
 nearly the same meaning as another, as valour, 
 courage. Books of Greek and Latin synonyms were 
 early compiled. Gr. Crabbe's dictionary appeared, 
 1816; Dr. P. M. Koget's excellent "Thesaurus of 
 English Words and Phrases," 1852. 
 
 SYPHILIS, a-disease said to have been intro- 
 duced into Europe at the siege of Naples, 1495 ; but 
 was probably known to the ancients. 
 
 SYEACUSE, S. E. Sicily, founded by Archias, 
 734 B.C.; 732 B.C. JEusebius; 749 b.c. TIniv. Hist.; 
 
 see Sicily. 
 
 Gelon becomes supreme . . . . B.C. 485 
 
 Succeeded by Hiero 478 
 
 Republic established . . . . . . . 467 
 
 Becomes predominant in Sicily . . . 453 
 
 Athenian expedition against Syracuse, under Nicias 415 
 Gylippus the Lacedaemonian succours Syracuse; 
 
 defeats Nicias 413 
 
 Government of Dionysius the elder, 406 : he receives 
 
 Plato well 389 
 
 Dionysius, the younger, succeeds . . . . 367 
 Opposed by Dion, 361 ; who is banished, and Plato, 
 who endeavoured to reconcile them, is sold for a 
 
 slave 360 
 
 Dion returns with a Greek army and fleet, and 
 expels Dionysius, 356 ; rules Syracuse, 355 ; 
 
 assassinated by Calippus 353 
 
 Dionysius recovers his authority, 347 ; but is 
 banished to Corinth by Timoleon, 343 ; who 
 
 governs well till his death 337 
 
 Agathocles usurps power, 317 ; defeated at Himera 310 
 He is poisoned by Hicetas, and the republic re- 
 stored 289 
 
 Hiero, praetor of Syracuse, 275 , elected king, 270 ; 
 rules in peace till his death, 216 ; Hieronymus, 
 his grandson, succeds, 216 ; murdered . . 214 
 
 Syracuse declares against Rome, 215 ; besieged by 
 Marcellus, 214, and taken ; Archimedes, the illus- 
 trious mathematician, slain .... 212 
 Syracuse taken by the Saracens . . . a.d. 669 
 Retaken by count Roger, the Norman . . . 1088 
 Destroyed by earthquakes in 1542, Jan. 1693; and 
 
 nearly destroyed 6 Aug. 1757 
 
 In the insurrection, Syracuse surrendered to the 
 Neapolitan troops 8 April, 1849 
 
 SYEEN, see Sirene. 
 
 SYEIA. The capital was originally Damascus ; 
 but after the battle of Ipsus, Seleucus founded 
 Antioch. 
 
 Alliance of David king of Israel and Hiram king of 
 
 Syria B.C. 1049 
 
 Syria conquered by David 1040 
 
 Liberated by Rezin 980 
 
 Benhadad, king of Syria, makes war on the Jews . 898 
 
 Benhadad II. reigns about 830 
 
 Syria subjugated by Tiglath-pileser, king of Assyria 740 
 
 Syria conquered by Cyrus 537 
 
 And by Alexander 333 
 
 Seleucus Nicator enters Babylon 312 
 
 iEra of the Seleueidae (which see) ....,, 
 Great battle of Ipsus ; death of Antigonus, defeated 
 by Ptolemy, Seleucus, and Lysimachus . . . 301 
 
 The city of Antioch founded 299 
 
 Antiochus, son of Seleucus, falling in love with his 
 
 father's queen, Stratonice, he pines away nearly 
 to death ; but the secret being discovered, she is 
 divorced by the father, and married by the son . 297 
 
 Battle of Cyropedium ; Lysimachus slain by Seleu- 
 cus 281 
 
 Seleucus foully assassinated by Ceraunus; Anti- 
 ochus I. king 280 
 
 Antiochus I. (Soter, or Saviour,) defeats the Gauls . 275 
 
 Antiochus II. surnamed by the Milesians Theos 
 (God) king 261 
 
 Poisoned by Laodice 246 
 
 Seleucus II. (king, 246) makes a treaty of alliance 
 with Smyrna and Magnesia . . . . 243 
 
 Seleucus III. Ceraunus (or Thunder), king . . 226 
 
 Antiochus III. the Great (king, 223), conquers Pales- 
 tine, but is totally defeated at Raphia . . 217 
 
 Again conquers Palestine, 198; but gives it to 
 Ptolemy 193 
 
 Enters Greece, 192 ; defeated by the Romans at 
 Thermopylae, 191 ; and at Magnesia . . . 190 
 
 Makes peace with the Romans giving up to them 
 Asia Minor 188 
 
 Seleucus Philopator king . . . . . . 187 
 
 Antiochus IV. king, who assumes the title of Theos- 
 Epiphanes, or the illustrious God . . . . 175 
 
 He sends Apollonius into Judea; Jerusalem is 
 taken ; the temple pillaged ; 40,000 inhabitants 
 destroyed, and 40,000 more sold as slaves . . 168 
 
 Antiochus V. Eupator (king, 164), murdered by De- 
 metrius Soter, who seizes the throne . . . 162 
 
 Demetrius is defeated and slain by his successor 
 Alexander Bala, 150; who is also defeated and 
 slain by Demetrius Nicator 146 
 
 Antiochus VI. Sidetes (son of Demetrius Soter) 
 rules during the captivity of his brother Deme- 
 trius Nicator (after siaying the usurper Trypho) . 137 
 
 Antiochus grants peace to the Jews, and placates 
 the Romans, 133 ; invades Parthia, 129 ; and is 
 defeated and slain 128 
 
 Demetrius Nicator restored ,, 
 
 Cleopatra, the queen, murders her son Seleucus with 
 her own hand 124 
 
 Her son Antiochus VII. Grypus (king, 125), whom 
 she attempts to poison; but he compels his 
 mother to swallow the deadly draught herself . 123 
 
 Reign of Antiochus VIII. Cyzicenus at Damascus, 
 and of Grypus at Antioch in 
 
 Seleucus, king 95 
 
 Antiochus IX. Eusebes, king 94 
 
 Dethroned by Philip 85 
 
 Tigranes, king of Armenia, acquires Syria . . 83 
 
 Antiochus X. Asiaticus, solicits the aid of the 
 Romans 75 
 
 Defeat of Tigranes by Lucullus, 69 ; he submits to 
 Pompey, who enters Syria, and dethrones Anti- 
 ochus Asiaticus 65 
 
 Syria made a Roman province 63 
 
 ****** 
 
 Syria invaded by the Parthians . . . a.d. 162 
 
 By the Persians 256 
 
 Violent earthquakes 341 
 
 Invaded by the Saracens, 497, 502, 529 ; by the Per- 
 sians 607 
 
 Conquered by the Saracens 638 
 
 Conquest of Syria by the Fatimite caliphs . . . 970 
 Revolt of the emirs of Damascus , . . 1067 
 
 The emirs of Aleppo revolt 1068 
 
 The crusades commence (see Crusades) . . . 1095 
 Desolated by the Crusades (which see) . 1096-1272 
 
 Noureddin conquers Syria 1166 
 
 Saladin dethrones the Fatimite dynasty . . .1171 
 
 The Tartars overrun all Syria 1259 
 
 The sultans of Egypt expel the Crusaders . . .1291 
 
 Syria overrun by Tamerlane 1400 
 
 Syria and Egypt conquered by the Turks . . 1516-17 
 Syria continued in possession of the Turks till the 
 invasion by the French, 1799; Bonaparte overruns 
 the country, Gaza and Jafta taken March, 1799 
 
 Siege of Acre begun by the French, 16 March; 
 
 raised 20 May, „ 
 
 Bonaparte returns to France from Egypt 23 Aug. „ 
 Egypt and Syria evacuated by the French army, 
 
 10 Sept. 1801 
 Mehemet Ali attacks and captures Acre, and over- 
 runs the whole of Syria 1831 
 
 Ibrahim Pacha, his son, defeats the army of the 
 
 grand signior at Konieh ... 21 Dec. 1832 
 
 Numerous battles and conflicts follow with various 
 
TABERNACLE. 
 
 646 
 
 TALLY OFFICE. 
 
 success ; the European powers intervene, and 
 peace is made 6 May, 
 
 The war renewed, May ; Ibrahim defeats the Turks 
 at Nezib 24 June, 
 
 The Turkish fleet deserts to Mehemet Ali, and ar- 
 rives at Alexandria .... 14 July, 
 
 The five powers unite to support the Porte July, 
 
 Death of lady Hester Stanhope . . 23 June, 
 
 Treaty of London (not signed by offended France), 
 
 15 July, 
 
 Capture of Sidon (see Sidon) . . .27 Sept. 
 
 Fall of Beyrout (see Beyrout) . . 10 Oct. 
 
 Fall of Acre (see Acre) .... 3 Nov. 
 
 Long negotiations ; the sultan grants hereditary 
 rights to Mehemet, who gives up Syria . Jan. 
 
 The Druses said to have destroyed 151 Christian 
 villages and killed 1000 persons (see Druses), 
 
 29 May to 1 July, 
 
 The Mahometans massacre Christians at Damascus; 
 about 3300 slain ; many saved by Abd-el-Kader, 
 
 9 July, &e. 
 
 1833 
 1839 
 
 The English and French government intervene : a 
 convention signed at Paris ; 12,000 men to be sent 
 by France 3 Aug. i860 
 
 Vigour of Fuad Pacha ; he punishes the Mahome- 
 tans implicated in the massacres at Damascus 
 very severely; 167 of all ranks, including the 
 governor, executed . . . 20 Aug., et seq. ,, 
 
 4000 French soldiers, under general Hautpoul, land 
 at Beyrout 22 Aug. ,, 
 
 Lord Dufferin, the British commissioner in Syria, 
 arrives at Damascus .... 6 Sept. ,, 
 
 The French and Turks advance against Lebanon ; 
 14 emirs surrendered .... Oct. ,, 
 
 Pacification of the country effected . Nov. ,, 
 
 The French occupation ceases . . 5 June, 1861 
 
 Prince of Wales visits Syria . . . April, 1862 
 
 Insurrection of Joseph Karaman, Maronite, in Le- 
 banon ; suppressed .... March, 1866 
 
 Another suppressed : Karaman flies to Algeria, 
 
 31 Jan. 1867 
 
 T. 
 
 _ TABERNACLE, the Holy Place of the Israel- 
 ites, till the erection of Solomon's temple, was con- 
 structed by Divine direction, 1491 B.C. The taber- 
 nacle set up at Shiloh by Joshua, 1444 B.C. was 
 replaced by the temple erected by Solomon, 1004 
 B.C. — The chapel erected for George "Whitefield in 
 Moorfields in 1 74 1, being of a temporary nature, 
 received the name of Tabernacle, which was after- 
 wards given to their chapels by the Calviuistic 
 Methodists. Whitefield's Tabernacle in Totten- 
 ham-court-road was erected in 1756, and enlarged 
 in 1760. His lease expired in 1828 ; and the chapel 
 was opened by the Independents in 1830. A large 
 metropolitan tabernacle, erected for the ministra- 
 tions of Mr. C. H. Spurgeon, a Baptist, near the 
 " Elephant and Castle," Kennington-road, Surrey, 
 was opened on 31 March, 1861. 
 
 TABINET, see Poplin. 
 
 TABLES, see Decemvirs. 
 
 TABLET, Roman Catholic weekly paper, esta- 
 blished 1840. 
 
 TABLE TURNING. This delusion, which 
 came from America, and was popular in 1853, was 
 attributed by Faraday and others to mechanical 
 action. See Spirit-Papping. 
 
 TABOR, in Bohemia, was founded by Ziska in 
 1420, and became a chief seat of the Hussites ; see 
 Hussites. 
 
 TADMOR, see Palmyra. 
 
 TAEPINGS, see China, 1851, note. 
 
 TAFFETY, an early species of silken manu- 
 facture, more prized formerly than now, woven 
 very smooth and glossy. It was worn by our 
 elder queens, and was first made in England by 
 John Tyce, f Shoreditch, London, 41 Eliz. 1598. 
 Stow's Chron. 
 
 TAGLIACOZZO, in the Abruzzi mountains, 
 S. Italy, where, on 23 Aug. 1268, Charles of Anjou, 
 the usurping king of Naples, defeated and made 
 prisoner the rightful monarch, young Conradin 
 (the last of the Hohenstaufens, and grandson of the 
 emperor Frederick II.), who had been invited into 
 Italy by the Ghibelline or Imperial party; their 
 opponents, the Guelfs, or papal party, supporting 
 
 Charles, 
 lowing:. 
 
 Conradin was beheaded, 29 Oct. fol- 
 
 TAGLIAMENTO, a river in Lombardy, N. 
 Italy, near which the Austrians, under the arch- 
 duke Charles, were defeated by Bonaparte, 16 
 March, 1797. 
 
 TAHERITES, a dynasty of Persia, 813-872. 
 
 TAHITI. The French abbreviated name for 
 Otaheite ; see Otaheite. 
 
 TAILLEBOURG (W. France). Near here 
 Henry III. of England was defeated and nearly 
 captured by Louis IX. of France, 20 July, 1242. 
 
 TAKU FORTS, China, taken by the allies, 
 21 Aug. i860. 
 
 T ALA VERA DE LA REYNA (central Spain), 
 was taken from the Mahometans by Ordofio, king 
 of Leon, 913. Here a battle was fought 27, 28 
 July, 1809, between the united British and Spanish 
 armies under sir Arthur Wellesley, and the French 
 army commanded by marshals Victor and Sebas- 
 tiani. After a conflict on the 27th, both armies 
 remained on the field during the night, and the 
 French at break of day renewed the attack, and 
 were again repulsed by the British with great 
 slaughter. At noon Victor charged the whole 
 British line, was repulsed at all points, and retreated 
 with a heavy loss. As Soult, Ney, and Mortier 
 were in the rear, the British retired after the 
 victory. 
 
 TALBOTYPE, see Photography. 
 
 TALKING-MACHINE, see Automatons. 
 
 TALLY OFFICE in the Exchequer took its 
 name from the French word tailler, to cut. A tally 
 is a piece of wood written upon both sides, contain- 
 ing an acquittance for money received; which, 
 being cloven asunder by an officer of the exchequer, 
 one part, called the stock, was delivered to the 
 person who paid, or lent, money to the government ; 
 and the other part, called the counter-stock, or 
 counter-foil, remained in the office, to be kept till 
 called for, and joined with the stock. This manner 
 of striking tallies is very ancient. Beatson. The 
 practice was ordered to be discontinued in 1782. 
 See Exchequer. On 16 Oct. 1834, the houses of 
 
TALMUD. 
 
 647 
 
 TAEGUMS. 
 
 parliament were burnt down by too many of these 
 tallies being used in heating the stoves in the house 
 of lords. 
 
 TALMUD- The ancient Jewish oral or un- 
 written law, as distinguished from the Pentateuch, or 
 written law; its origin is coeval with the return 
 from the Babylonish captivity, 536 B.C. Its com- 
 pilation in Hebrew was begun by the Scribes, and 
 by their successors the work was carried on till 220 
 B.C. It is composed in prose and poetry, and con- 
 tains two elements, legal and legendary ; divided into 
 the Mischnah and the Gemara. After being almost 
 universally condemned, and the MSS. often burnt, 
 its defence was mainly undertaken by the German 
 reformer Eeuchlin, in the 16th century, and be- 
 tween 1520 and 1523, the "Talmud Babylonicum," 
 in 12 vols, fol., and the " Talmud Hierosolytanum," 
 in 1 vol. fol., were printed at Venice. Its morality 
 resembles that of the New Testament, and its phi- 
 losophy is rather Platonic than Aristotelian. A 
 discourse on the Talmud was given at the Koyal 
 Institution, 15 May, 1868, by Mr. Emanuel Deutsch, 
 whose article in the " Quarterly Eeview," Oct. 
 1867, had attracted much attention. 
 
 TAMMANY FRAUDS, see New York, 1871. 
 
 TAN AGRA (Bceotia). Here the Spartans 
 defeated the Athenians 457 B.C., but were defeated 
 by them in 456 and in 420, when Agis II. headed 
 the Spartans and Nicias the Athenians. 
 
 TANDY ARREST. James Napper Tandy 
 proposed a plan of reform in 1791. In the French 
 expedition against Ireland he acted as a general, 
 Aug. 1798. After its failure he fled to Hamburg, 
 and was there delivered up to the English, 24 Nov.; 
 for which Bonaparte declared war upon Hamburg, 
 15 Oct. 1799. Tandy was liberated after the peace 
 of Amiens in 1802. 
 
 TANGIER (Morocco, N. W. Africa), besieged 
 by prince Ferdinand of Portugal, who was beaten 
 and taken prisoner, 1437. It was conquered by 
 Alfonso V. of Portugal in 147 1, and given as a dower 
 to princess Catherine, on her marriage with Charles 
 II. of England, 1662 ; who, in 1683, caused the 
 works to be blown up, and the place abandoned. 
 Tangiers afterwards became a piratical station. 
 
 TANISTRY (in Ireland), the equal division of 
 lands, after the decease of the owner, amongst his 
 sons, legitimate or illegitimate. If one of the sons 
 died, his son did not inherit, but a new division was 
 made by the tanist or chief. Abolished 1604. 
 Davies. 
 
 TANJORE (W. India). About 1678, Vencajee, 
 a Mahratta chief, brother of the great Sevajee, 
 made himself rajah. In 1749 a British expedition 
 endeavoured to restore a deposed rajah without 
 success ; the reigning prince bought them off by the 
 cession of territories. Much intervention ensued. 
 In 1799 the company obtained possession of the 
 country, engaging to support the raj ah with nominal 
 authority. The last is said to have died in 1855. 
 
 TANNENBERG (E. Prussia). Here Ladis- 
 laus V. Jagellon of Poland defeated the Teutonic 
 knights with great slaughter, the grand master being 
 among the slain, 15 July, 1410. The order never 
 recovered from this calamity. 
 
 TANNING leather with the bark of trees was 
 early practised. Tan was introduced into these 
 countries from Holland by William III. for raising 
 orange trees about 1689. It was discontinued until 
 about 1719, when ananas were first brought into 
 
 England. Great improvements have been recently 
 made in tanning by means of chemical knowledge. 
 
 TANTALUM, a rare metal, discovered in an 
 American mineral by Hatchett, in 1801, and named 
 by him columbium ; and in a Swedish mineral by 
 Ekeberg, who gave it its present name. Wollaston 
 pointed out the identity of the two metals in 1809 ; 
 and Berzelius prepared pure metallic tantalum in 
 1824. In 1840 Rose discovered that tantalum was 
 really a mixture of three metals, which he named 
 tantalum, niobium, and pelopium. Gmelin. 
 
 TAPESTRY. An art of weaving borrowed 
 from the Saracens, and hence its original workers in 
 France were called Sarazinois. The invention of 
 tapestry hangings belongs [the date is not men- 
 tioned] to the Netherlands. Guieciardini. Manu- 
 factured in France under Henry IV. by artists 
 invited from Flanders, 1606. The art was brought 
 into England by William Sheldon; and the first 
 manufactory of it was established at Mortlake by 
 sir Francis Crane, 17 James I. 1619. Salmon. 
 Under Louis XIV. the art of tapestry was much 
 improved in France ; see Gobelin Tapestry. "Very 
 early instances of making tapestry are mentioned by 
 the ancient poets, and also in Scripture ; so that the 
 Saracens' manufacture is a revival of the art. For 
 the tapestry said to have been wrought by Matilda, 
 queen of England, see Bayeux Tapestry. 
 
 TAR. The chemist Becher first proposed to make 
 tar from pit-coal — the earl of Dundonald's patent, 
 1781. The mineral tar was discovered at Colebrook- 
 dale, Shropshire, 1779; and in Scotland, Oct. 1792. 
 Tar- water was first recommended for its medicinal 
 virtues by the good Dr. Berkeley, bishop of Cloyne, 
 about 1744. From benzole, discovered in coaltar, 
 many brilliant dyes are now produced ; see Aniline. 
 
 TARA, a hill in Meath, Ireland, where the 
 kings of Ireland were inaugurated. Near here, on 
 26 May, 1798, the royalist troops, 400 strong, 
 defeated the insurgent Irish (4000 men), 500 killed. 
 On 15 Aug. 1843, Daniel O'Connell held a monster 
 meetrng here (250,000 persons said to have been 
 assembled) . 
 
 TARANTISM, see Dancing. 
 
 TARBES (S. France, near the Pyrenees), 
 capital of Bigorre, the property of the English kings 
 in the" middle ages. The French, under Soult, 
 were forced from their position at Tarbes, with con- 
 siderable loss, by the British army commanded by 
 Wellington, 20 March, 1814. See Toulouse. 
 
 TARENTUM (now Taranto, S. Italy), was 
 founded by the Greek Phalantus, B.C. 708. The 
 people of Tarentum, assisted by Pyrrhus, king of 
 Epirus, supported a war which had been undertaken 
 B.C. 281 by the Romans, to avenge the insults the 
 Tarentines had offered to their ships when near 
 their harbours ; it was terminated after ten years : 
 300 000 prisoners were taken, and Tarentum became 
 subject to Rome. Except the citadel, Tarentum 
 was captured by the Carthaginians, 212, but re- 
 covered by Fabius, 209 B.C. Tarentum has shared 
 in the revolutions of Southern Italy, and only ruins 
 remain. 
 
 TARGUMS or Explanations, names given 
 
 to certain ancient Chaldee paraphrases of the Old 
 Testament. The most remarkable are those of 
 Onkelos, Jonathan-ben-Uzziel, and Joseph the Blind, 
 The Targum of Onkelos is referred by some writers 
 to the first century A d. 
 
TARIFA. 
 
 648 
 
 TCHERNAYA. 
 
 TARIFA (S. Spain), the ancient Joza and Julia 
 Traducta, where Muza landed when invading Spain, 
 712. It was taken from the Moors by Sancho IV. 
 of Castile, 1291 or 1292 ; and was relieved, when 
 besieged by them, after a great victory over the 
 kings of Morocco and Granada, by Alfonso XI. of 
 Castile and Alfonso IV. of Portugal, 28 or 30 Oct. 
 1340. The conflict is called the battle of Salado, 
 having been fought on the banks of that river. 
 Tarifa was taken by the French in 1823. 
 
 TARIFF (said to have been derived from 
 Tarifa, where duties were formerly collected), a 
 book of duties charged on goods exported or imported. 
 Our tariff" in 1840 comprised 1042 articles; the 
 number was reduced (by sir Eobert Peel) in 1845 
 and 1847. It comprised 439 articles in 1857 ; this 
 number was greatly reduced in i860. 
 
 TARPEIAN" ROCK (Home), owed its name 
 to the tradition that Tarpeia, daughter of the 
 keeper of the Koman citidal, was here crushed to 
 death by the shields cast on her by the Sabines, 
 whom she treacherously admitted, having bargained 
 for the gift of what they wore on their left arms, 
 meaning their bracelets ; about 750 B.C. 
 
 TARRAGONA (N.E. Spain), occupied as a 
 naval station by the British before their capture of 
 Gibraltar in 1704. It was stormed and sacked by 
 the French under Suchet, 29 Jan. 1811, and the 
 inhabitants put to the sword. 
 
 TARTAN or Highland Plaid, the dress of 
 
 the Scottish Highlanders, said to have been derived 
 from the ancient Gauls, or Celtae, the Galli non 
 braccati. 
 
 TARTARIC ACID is said to have been the 
 first discovery of the eminent chemist, Scheele, 
 who procured it in a separate state by boiling tar 
 with lime, and in decomposing the tartrate of lime 
 thus formed by means of sulphuric acid, about 1 7 70. 
 In 1859 baron Liebig formed tartaric acid from 
 other sources. 
 
 TARTARY (Asia). The Tatars, or Tartars, or 
 Mongols, or Moguls, were known in antiquity as 
 Scythians. During the decline of the Koman 
 empire, these tribes began to seek more fertile 
 regions ; and the first who reached the frontier of 
 Italy were the Huns, the ancestors of the modem 
 Mongols. The first acknowledged sovereign of this 
 vast country was the famous Genghis Khan. His 
 empire, by the conquest of China, Persia, and all 
 central Asia (1206-27), became one of the most 
 formidable ever established ;. but it was split into 
 parts in a few reigns. Timur, or Tamerlane, again 
 conquered Persia, broke the power of the Turks in 
 
 Asia Minor (1370-1400), and founded the Mogul 
 dj-nasty in India, which began with Baber in 1525, 
 and formed the most splendid court in Asia till the 
 close of the 1 8th century ; see Golden Horde. The 
 Calnmcks, a branch of the Tartars, expelled from 
 China, settled on the banks of the Volga in 1672, 
 but returned in 1771, and thousands perished on the 
 journey. 
 
 TASMANIA, the name now given to the 
 British settlement in Van Diemen's Land (which 
 see). 
 
 TATTERSALL'S, see Races. 
 
 TAUNTON (Somerset), was taken by Perkin 
 "Warbeek, Sept. 1497 ; and here he was surrendered 
 to Henry VII. 5 Oct. following. The duke of 
 Monmouth was proclaimed king at Taunton, 20 
 June, 1685; and it was the scene of the "bloody 
 assize" held by Jeffreys upon the rebels in August. 
 
 TAVERNS may be traced to the 13th century. 
 "In the raigne of king Edward the Third, only 
 three taverns were allowed in London : one in 
 Chepe, one in "Walbrok, and the other in Lombard- 
 street." Spelman. The Boar's Head, in East- 
 cheap, existed in the reign of Henry IV., and was 
 the rendezvous of prince Henry and his dissolute 
 companions. Shakspeare mentions it as the resi- 
 dence of Mrs. Quickly, and the scene of FalstafFs 
 merriment. Shakspeare, "Henry IV." The White 
 Hart, Bishopsgate, established in 1480, was rebuilt 
 in 1829. Taverns were licensed in 1752. 
 
 Taverns were restricted by 7 Edward VI. 1552-3, to 40 in 
 London, 8 in York, 4 in Norwich, 3 in Westminster, 6 
 in Bristol, 3 in Lincoln, 4 in Hull, 3 in Shrewsbury, 4 
 in Exeter, 3 in Salisbury, 4 in Gloucester, 4 in Chester, 
 
 3 in Hereford, 3 in Worcester, 3 in Southampton, 4 in 
 Canterbury, 3 in Ipswich, 3 in Winchester, 3 in Oxford, 
 
 4 in Cambridge, 3 in Colchester, 4 in Newcastle-upon- 
 Tyne. 
 
 TAXES were levied by Solon, the first Athenian 
 legislator, 540 B.C. The first class of citizens paid 
 an Attic talent of silver, about 55/. of our money. 
 Darius, the son of Hystaspes, levied a land-tax by 
 assessment, which was deemed so odious that his 
 subjects styled him, by way of derision, Daiius the 
 Trader, 480 B.C. If Eon. Taxes in specie were 
 first introduced into England b) r William L, 1067, 
 and he raised them arbitrarily; yet subsidies in 
 kind, as in wool, leather, and other products of the 
 country, continued till the accession of Richard II., 
 1377. Camden; see Revenue, and Income Tax. 
 " Taxes on Knowledge " (see Advertisement 
 Duly, Newspaper Stamp, and Paper Duty) . For his 
 exertions in repealing these, a testimonial was pre- 
 sented to Mr. T. Milner Gibson in 1861. 
 
 Assessed Taxes. 
 
 1800 £3,468,131 
 
 1805 4,508,752 
 
 1810 6,233,161 
 
 1815 6,524,766 
 
 1820 ..... 6,311,346 
 
 1825 5,176,722 
 
 1830 5,013,405 
 
 1835 3.733,997 
 
 1840 3,866,467 
 
 Land, Tax. 
 1800 ..... £1,307,941 : 
 
 1805 1,596,481 I 
 
 1810 1,418,337! 
 
 1815 
 1820 
 1825 
 1830 
 1835 
 
 1,084,251 
 1,192,257 I 
 1.288,393 I 
 
 1,203,579 
 1,298,622 : 
 
 TCHERNAYA, a river in the Crimea. On 
 16 Aug. 1855, the lines of the allied army at this 
 place were attacked by 50,000 Russians under prince 
 Gortschakoff, who was repulsed with the loss of 
 3329 slain, 1658 wounded, and 600 prisoners. The 
 brunt of the attack was borne by two French regi- 
 ments under general D'Herbillon. The loss of the 
 
 Gross Amount. 
 
 £4.365,033 
 3,160,641 
 3,232,000 
 3,292,000 
 3,350,000 
 3,468,000 
 3,509,000 
 3,494,000 
 4,500,000 
 
 725,000 
 330,000 
 
 allies was about 1200; 200 of these were from the 
 Sardinian contingent, which behaved with great 
 gallantry, under the command of general La Mar- 
 mora. The Russian general Read, and the Sardinian 
 general Montevecchio, were killed. The object of 
 the attack was the relief of Sebastopol, then closely 
 besieged by the English and French. 
 
 Assessed Taxes. 
 1851 (to Jan. 5) . 
 1855 (year end March 31) 
 i860 „ „ 
 
 1865 ,, „ 
 
 1866 
 1867 
 
 1870 „ ,, -4. 
 
 „ (" Land-tax and ) 
 
 I ° 71 I house-duty only, V 2 - 
 
 72 ( ' see Licences. ) 2 ' 
 
TEA. 
 
 649 
 
 TELESCOPES. 
 
 TEA was brought to Europe by the Dutch, 1610. 
 It is mentioned as having been used in England on 
 very rare occasions prior to 1657, and sold for 61. 
 and even 10I. the pound. Price of inferior kinds, 
 1801, 4s. 2\d. the pound; in 1871, is. \od. 
 
 Samuel Pepys records Ms first " cup of tea," 
 
 25 Sept. 1660 
 A duty of 8d. was charged upon every gallon of tea ' 
 
 made for sale (12 Cli. II. c. 13) . . . . ,, 
 The East India Company first import it . . 1669 
 
 Brought into England in 1666, by lord Ossory and 
 • lord Arlington, from Holland : and being admired 
 by persons of rank, it was imported from thence, 
 and generally sold for 60 shillings per pound, till 
 our East Indian Company took up the trade. 
 Anderson. 
 
 Green tea began to be used 1715 
 
 Price of black tea per lb. 13s. to 20s., of green, 12s. 
 to 30s. ......... 1728 
 
 The duty imposed on tea in America, 1767 : this tax 
 occasioned the destruction of 17 chests at New 
 York, and 340 at Boston, Dec. 1773, and ulti- 
 mately led to the American war (see Boston). 
 The tea-plant brought to England . . about 1768 
 Tea-dealers obliged to have sign-boards fixed up, 
 
 announcing their sale of tea . . . Aug. 1779 
 Commutation act for reducing the duty on tea from 
 50 to 12J per cent, and taxing windows in lieu, 
 
 June, 1784 
 " Millions of pounds' weight of sloe, liquorice, and 
 ash-tree leaves, are every year mixed with Chinese 
 teas in England." Report of the House of Com- 
 mons . . ' 1818 
 
 "The consumption of the whole civilised world, 
 exclusively of England, is about 22,000,000 of 
 pounds, while the annual consumption in Great 
 Britain is 30,000,000." Evidence in House of 
 
 Commons 1830 
 
 The first tea-sale in London on the abolition of the 
 exclusive privilege of the East India Company 
 took place in Mincing-lane ... 19 Aug. 1834 
 New duties were charged, 1796 ; the duty was 96 and 
 
 100 per cent. , made 2s. id. per pound . . . 1836 
 The duty derived from the import of tea in 1850 
 amounted to 5,471, 461Z. : and the amount was 
 
 5,902,433^ in 1852 
 
 Various changes made in 1854, I 85S - ■ and 1856 
 Duty of is. sd. per pound begun . . April, 1857 
 
 The duty upon tea gradually reduced from 2s. v\d. 
 to is. per pound; reduced to 6d. per pound, 
 
 1 June, 1865 
 
 Licences to sell tea abolished 1869 
 
 Tea duty 6d., continued till 1 Aug. 1872 . . . 1871 
 
 1726 
 1766 
 1792 
 
 1810 
 1815 
 1820 
 1825 
 1830 
 1835 
 1840 
 
 TEA IMPORTED 
 tt> 700,000 
 
 7,000,000 
 . 13,185,000 
 . 23,723,000 
 . 24,133,000 
 . 25,414,000 
 . 26,368,000 
 
 . . 25,662,474 
 . 24,803,668 
 
 • • 30.544,404 
 • 44,3 O,55O 
 
 . . 38,068,555 
 
 1850 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 . " . ft 
 
 govt, re 
 
 1870 
 
 44,193.- 
 50,512, 
 86,200, 
 75,432, 
 9 6 ,577.- 
 124,359, 
 139,610, 
 128,028; 
 154,845. 
 139,223.- 
 141,020. 
 169,898.. 
 
 "TEAELESS VICTORY," was won by 
 ArchidamusIIL, king of Sparta, over the Arcadians 
 and Argives, without losing a man, 367 B.C. 
 
 TEA-ROOM MEETING of members of the 
 house of commons, 8 April, 1867 ; see Reform, 1867. 
 
 TECHNICAL EDUCATION, see Educa- 
 tion. 
 
 TE BETJM, a song of praise used by the Romish 
 and English churches, beginning " Te Deum 
 Laudamus — We praise thee, God," supposed to 
 be the composition of Augustin and Ambrose, 
 about 390. 
 
 TEETOTALLER, a term applied to an ab- 
 stainer from all fermented liquors, originated with 
 Richard Turner, an artisan of Preston, who, con- 
 tending for the principle at a temperance meeting 
 about Sept. 1833, asserted " that nothing but te-te- 
 total will do." The word was immediately adopted. 
 He died 27 Oct. 1846. These facts are taken from 
 the " Staunch Teetotaller," edited by Joseph Live- 
 sey, of Preston (an originator of the movement in 
 August, 1832), Jan. 1867 ; see Encratites, Tem- 
 perance, and United Kingdom. 
 
 TEFLIS, see Tiflis. 
 
 TEGYRA, Bceotia. Here Pelopidas defeated 
 the Spartans, 375 B.C. 
 
 TEHERAN was made capital of Persia about 
 1795- 
 
 TELEGRAPHS, from the Greek, tele, afar, 
 and grapho, I write. JEschylus, in his Agamemnon 
 (B.C. 500), describes the communication of intel- 
 ligence by burning torches as signals. Polybius, 
 the Greek historian (who died about 122 b a), calls 
 the different instruments used by the ancients for 
 communicating information, pyrsice, because the 
 signals were always made by fire. In 1663, a plan 
 was suggested by the marquis of Worcester, and a 
 telegraph was suggested by Dr. Hooke, 1684. M. 
 Amontons is also said to have been the inventor of 
 telegraphs about this period. James II., while duke 
 of York, originated a set of navy signals, which 
 were systematised by Kempenfeldt in 1780; and a 
 dictionary was compiled by sir Home Popham. 
 M. Chappe then invented the telegraph first used 
 by the French in 1 792, and two were erected over 
 the Admiralty-office, London, 1796. The sema- 
 phore was erected there 1816. The naval signals 
 by telegraph enabled 400 previously concerted sen- 
 tences to be transmitted from ship to ship, by 
 varying the combinations of two revolving crosses. 
 Acts relating to telegraphs were passed in 1863 and 
 1866. The telegraph act, passed 31 July, 1868, 
 enabled the postmaster-general to purchase existing 
 electric telegraphs. Mr. Scudamore was appointed 
 director, Jan. 1872. The Society of Telegraph 
 Engineers held first general meeting, 28 Feb. 1872, 
 Chas. Wm. Siemens, president. See Electric Tele- 
 graph, under Electricity. 
 
 TELESCOPES. Their principle was de- 
 scribed by Roger Bacon about 1250, and Leonard 
 Digges (who died about 1573) is said to have 
 arranged glasses so that he could see very distant 
 objects. 
 
 Telescopes constructed by John Lipperhey and 
 Zacharias Jansen, spectacle-makers of Middle- 
 burg, and James Metius of Alkmaer . . about 1608 
 Galileo (from a description of the above) constructed 
 telescopes (May, 1609), gradually increasing in 
 power, till he discovered Jupiter's satellites, <fec, 
 
 Jan. 1 6 10 
 The telescope explained by Kepler .... 161 r 
 Huyghens greatly improved the telescope ; dis- 
 covered the ring and satellites of Saturn, &c. 1655-6 
 Telescopes improved by Gregory, about . . . 1663 
 Reflecting telescope invented by Newton . . 1668 
 Achromatic telescopes made by Chester More Hall, 
 
 about 1723 ; re-invented by John Dollond . . 1758 
 Sir Wm. Herschel (originally an organist at Bath) 
 greatly improves telescopes, and discovers the 
 planet Uranus (ivhich see), 21 March, 1781, and a 
 volcanic mountain in the moon, in 1783 ; he com- 
 pletes his forty-feet focal length telescope in 
 1789, and he discovers two other volcanic moun- 
 tains ; he lays before the Royal Society a cata- 
 logue of 5000 nebulee and clusters of stars . . 1802 
 A telescope made in London for the observatory of 
 Madrid, which cost 1 i,oooJ., in. . . . 
 
TELL. 
 
 650 
 
 TENASSERIM. 
 
 Telescopes improved by Guinand and Fraunhofer, 
 
 1805-14 
 
 The great telescope taken down, and one of twenty- 
 feet focal length erected by sir John Herschel 
 (who afterwards took it to the Cape of Good 
 Hope, and made with it his observations) . . 1822 
 
 The earl of Rosse erected at Parsonstown, in Ire- 
 land, a telescope (at a cost exceeding 20,000?.) 
 7 feet in diameter, and 52 feet in length ; it is 
 moved with ease 1828-45 
 
 Mr. Lassell constructed a telescope by which he 
 discovered the satellite of Neptune, 1846 ; and the 
 eight satellites of Saturn 1848 
 
 One of gigantic size, 85 feet in length (very imper- 
 fect), completed at Wandsworth by the rev. John 
 Craig 1852 
 
 Magnificent equatorial telescopes set up at the 
 national observatories at Greenwich and Paris . i860 
 
 M. Foueault exhibits at Paris a reflecting telescope, 
 the mirror 31^ inches in diameter ; the focal 
 length 17J feet 1862 
 
 Mr. Newall's telescope (with object glass 25 inches 
 aperture), the largest yet made, set up at Gates- 
 head by Cookes of York .... . 1870 
 
 TELL, WILLIAM. The popular stories re- 
 specting him were demonstrated to be mythical by 
 Professor Kopp of Lucerne, 1872. 
 
 TELLERS, see under Exchequer. 
 
 TELLURIUM, a rare metal, in its natural 
 state containing small quantities of iron and gold, 
 was discovered by Miiller of Beichenstein, hi 1782, 
 and named by Klaproth. 
 
 TELODYNAMIC TRANSMITTER, in- 
 vented by M. Him, is an arrangement of water- 
 wheels, endless wires, and pulleys, for conveying 
 and using the power of water-falls at a distance, 
 and has been much used since 1850. The apparatus 
 was shown at Paris in 1862. 
 
 TEMESWAR (Hungary), capital of the Banat, 
 often besieged by the Turks. On 10 Aug. 1849, 
 Haynau totally defeated the Hungarians besieging 
 this town, and virtually ended the war. 
 
 TEMPERANCE SOCIETIES originated 
 with Mr. Calhoun, who, while he was secretary of 
 war in America, in order to counteract the habitual 
 use of ardent spirits among the people, prohibited 
 them altogether in the United States' army, 1818; 
 see Teetotaller. 
 
 The first public temperance society in America was 
 projected in 1825, and formed . . 13 Feb. 1826 
 
 Many temperance societies immediately afterwards 
 formed in America, England, and Scotland. 
 
 British and foreign temperance society formed, 
 
 29 June, 1831 
 
 In Ireland, the rev. Dr. Edgar, of Belfast, published 
 upon temperance in 1829-31 ; and Father Mathew, 
 a Roman catholic clergyman, affirmed that he had 
 made more than a million of converts to temper- 
 ance 1841 
 
 Father Mathew arrived in America in July, 1849 • 
 was not so successful there ; hedied, aged 66, 8 Dec. 1856 
 
 In England, the National Temperance Society, 
 formed 1843 
 
 London Temperance League 1851 
 
 The United Kingdom Alliance for the legislative 
 suppression of the sale of intoxicating liquors, 
 
 1 June, 1853 
 
 The National Union for suppression of intemperance 
 by means of "few houses, shorter hours, and 
 better provisions," established end of . . . 1871 
 
 Church of England temperance society inaugurated 
 by the archbishop of Canterbury and others at 
 Lambeth 18 Feb. 1873 
 
 TEMPLARS. The military order of " soldiers 
 of the Temple," to protect pilgrims, was founded 
 about 1 1 18 by Baldwin II.. king of Jerusalem, 
 confirmed by pope Honorius II., 1128. The Tem- 
 
 plars were numerous in several countries, and came 
 to England before 1 185. Their wealth having ex- 
 cited the cupidity of the French kings, the order 
 was suppressed by the council of Vienne, and part 
 of its revenues was bestowed upon other orders about 
 1312. Numbers of the order were tried, condemned, 
 and burned alive or hanged in 1308- 10, and it 
 suffered much persecution throughout Europe : 68 
 knights were burnt at Paris, 1310. Pope Clement 
 V. abolished the order, April, 1312. The grand 
 master Molay was burnt alive at Paris, 18 March, 
 13 14. Their property in England was given to the 
 Hospitallers, and the head of the order in England 
 died in the Tower. 
 
 TEMPLE (London), the dwelling of the 
 Knights Templars, 1185, at the suppression of the 
 order, was purchased by the professors of the 
 common law, and converted into inns, 1311, after- 
 wards called the Inner and Middle Temple. Essex 
 house, also a part of the house of the Templars, 
 was called the Outer Temple, because it wa3 
 situated without Temple-bar. 
 
 The Temple hall was built in 1572 
 
 St. Mary's, or the Temple Church, situated in the 
 Inner Temple, is a Gothic stone building, erected 
 by the Templars in 1240, and is remarkable for its 
 circular vestibule, and for the tombs of the 
 crusaders, who were buried here. The church 
 was recased with stone by Mr. Smirke in . . 1828 
 
 The new Middle Temple library was opened by the 
 prince of Wales 31 Oct. 1861 
 
 New Inner Temple hall opened by princess Louise, 
 
 14 May, 1870 
 
 Temple bar was erected by sir Christopher Wren, 
 and completed in 1672. It was reported to be in 
 an unsafe condition in . . . . March, 1868 
 
 " Temple" at Paris, formerly an asylum fordebtors, 
 and a prison during the republic, was made the 
 site of a market in 1809, and rebuilt in 1864. 
 
 TEMPLES originated in the sepulchres built 
 for the dead. Eusebius. The Egyptians were the 
 first who erected temples to the gods. Herodotus. 
 The first erected in Greece is ascribed to Deucalion. 
 Apollonius. 
 
 The temple of Jerusalem built by Solomon, 1012 B.C. ; 
 consecrated 1004 ; pillaged by Shishak, 971 ; repaired 
 by Joash, 856 ; profaned by Ahaz, 740 ; restored by 
 Hezekiah, 726 ; pillaged and fired by Nebuchadnezzar, 
 588, 587; rebuilt, 536; pillaged by Antiochus, 170; 
 rebuilt by Herod, 18 ; destroyed by Titus, a.d. 70. 
 
 The temple of Apollo, at Delphi, first a cottage with 
 boughs, built of stone by Trophonius, about 1200 B.C. ; 
 burnt by the Pisistratidaj, 548 ; a new temple raised by 
 the family of the AlcmaeonidsB, about 513. 
 
 Temple of Diana at Ephesus, built seven times ; planned 
 by Ctesiphon, 544 B.C. ; fired by Eratostratus or 
 Herostratus, to perpetuate his name, 356 B.C. ; to re- 
 build it employed 220 years; destroyed by the Goths, 
 a.d. 260. 
 
 The temple of Piety was built by Acilius, on the spot 
 where once a woman had fed with her milk her aged 
 father, whom the senate had imprisoned, and excluded 
 from all aliments. Vol. Max. 
 
 Temple of Theseus, built 480 b.c, is at this day the most 
 perfect ancient edifice in the world. 
 
 Most of the heathen temples were destroyed throughout 
 the Roman empire by Constantine the Great, 331 ; see 
 separate articles. 
 
 TENANT, see Rent. Bills to amend the posi- 
 tion of Irish tenants in relation to their landlords 
 were brought into parliament by Mr. Sharman 
 Crawford, 1835, su * J° se ph Napier, 1852, Mr. Card- 
 well, i860, Mr. Chichester Fortescue, 1866, Lord 
 Naas, 1867. The Irish land bill settling the ques- 
 tion passed 8 July, 1870. See Ulster. 
 
 TENASSERIM (N.E. India), ceded by Bur- 
 mah to the British, 24 Feb. 1826. 
 
TENEBIFFE. 
 
 651 
 
 TEXEL. 
 
 TENEBIFFE (Canaries, N.W. coast of Africa). 
 The peak of Tenerift'e, 15,396 feet above the level of 
 the sea, was ascended in 1856 by professor C. Piazzi 
 Smyth for astronomical observations. An earth- 
 quake in this island destroyed several towns and 
 many thousands of people in 1 704; see Santa Cruz. 
 
 TEN MINUTES' BILL, see Reform. 
 
 TENNESSEE, a southern state of North 
 America, was settled about 1 760, and admitted into 
 the union 1 June, 1796. An ordinance of secession 
 from the union was passed — it is asserted illegally 
 — on 6 May, 1861. On 23 Feb. 1862, the federal 
 general Nelson entered Nashville, and in March, 
 Andrew Johnson (afterwards the president of the 
 United States) was made military governor over a 
 large part of Tennessee. In Sept. 1863, Eosencrans 
 expelled the confederate government. The repre- 
 sentatives of Tennessee were re-admitted to the 
 congress, July, 1866. 
 
 TENNIS- This game, brought from France, 
 became fashionable in England in the reign of 
 Charles II. 1660-85 > see J eu c ^ e Taume. 
 
 TEN TABLES, see Decemvirs. 
 
 TENTEBDENS ACT, Loed, 2 & 3 Will. IV. 
 c. 71) f° r shortening the time of prescription in 
 . certain cases (such as rights of way, and use of 
 light), passed 1 Aug. 1832. 
 
 TENTHS, see Tithes. 
 
 TENURES, the mode in which land is held. 
 Military tenures in England were abolished in 
 1660. Lyttelton's book on Tenures is dated 1481. 
 
 TEBBIUM, a metal sometimes found with 
 yttrium {which see) . 
 
 TEBCEIBA, see Azores. 
 
 TEBMS of Law and Vacations. They 
 
 were instituted in England from the Norman usage, 
 the long vacation being suited to the time of the 
 vintage in France, 14 Will. I. 1079. Glanville de 
 Leg. Anglic. They were gradually formed. Spel- 
 man. The terms were fixed by statute 11 Geo. IV. 
 and 1 Will. IV. 22 July, 1830: Hilary Term to 
 begin 11 Jan. and end 31 Jan.; Easter, 15 April, 
 to end 8 May ; Trinity, 22 May, to end 12 June ; 
 Michaelmas, 2 Nov. to end 25 Nov. This act was 
 amended 1 Will. IV. 15 Nov. 1830. 
 
 TEBBA DEL FUEGO, see Missions. 
 
 TEEBOB, see Reign of. 
 
 TEST ACT, directing all officers, civil and mili- 
 tary, under government, to receive the sacrament 
 according to the forms of the church of England, 
 and to take the oaths against transubstantiation, 
 &c. ; enacted 29 March, 1673. The Test and Cor- 
 poration acts were repealed, 9 May, 1828. See 
 University Tests. 
 
 TESTAMENT, see Bibles, and Wills. 
 
 TESTEB, testone, a silver coin struck in France 
 by Louis XII. 1513 ; and also in Scotland in the 
 time of Francis II. and of Mary, queen of Scots, 
 1559. It was so called from the head of the king, 
 stamped upon it. In England the tester was of I2d. 
 value in the reign of Henry VIII., afterwards of 
 6d. (still called a tester). 
 
 TESTEI (N. France). Pepin d'Heristal, in- 
 vited .by malcontents, here defeated and captured 
 Thierry III., king of Austrasia, and established 
 himself as duke, 687. 
 
 TETTENHALL (Staffordshire). It was pro- 
 bably at this place, then named Testenheal, that 
 the Danes were defeated by the Saxon king, Edward 
 the Elder, 6 Aug. 910. 
 
 TETUAN (Morocco) was entered by the Span- 
 iards 6 Feb. i860, after gaining a decisive victory 
 on 4 Feb. The general, O'Donnell, was made a 
 grandee of the first class. 
 
 TEUTOBEBG FOBEST (the Teutobergiensis 
 saltus, Tacitus), probably situate between Detmold 
 and Paderbom, where Hermann, or Arminius, and 
 the Germans defeated the Eomans under Varus, 
 with very great slaughter, a.d. 9. Varus and many 
 of his officers preferred suicide to captivity. This- 
 defeat was regarded at Rome as a national calamity, 
 and Augustus, in agony, cried, "Varus, give me 
 my legions!" 
 
 TEUTONES, a people of Germany, who with 
 the Cimbri made incursions upon Gaul, and cut to. 
 pieces two Eoman armies, 113 and 105 b.c. They 
 were at last defeated by the consul Marius at Aix, 
 and a great number made prisoners, 102 B.C. (see 
 Cimbri), with whom authors commonly join the 
 Teutones. The appellation came to be applied to- 
 the German nation in general (hence Deutsche) . 
 
 TEUTONIC OEDEB, military knights estab- 
 lished in the Holy Land about 1191, through the 
 humanity of the Germans (Teutones) to the sick 
 and wounded of the Christian army in the Holy 
 Land, under Guy of Lusignan, before Acre. The 
 order was confirmed by a bull of pope Coeles- 
 tine III. On their return to Germany, the knights 
 were invited to subdue and christianise the country 
 now called Prussia and its neighbourhood, which 
 they gradually accomplished. Their territories were 
 invaded, and their army was defeated, with great 
 slaughter, near Tannenberg, in East Prussia, by 
 Jagellon, duke of Lithuania, 15 July, 1410, when the- 
 grand master and many of the knights were slain. 
 A large part of their possessions was incorporated 
 into Poland in 1466, and into Brandenburg about 
 1521. In 1525, the grand master was made the 
 prince of the empire, and the order much weakened.. 
 Its remaining possessions "were seized by Napoleon I. 
 in 1809 ; see Prussia, &c. 
 
 TEWKESBURY (Gloucestershire), where Ed- 
 ward IV. gained a decisive victory over the Lan- 
 castrians, 4 May, 1471- Queen Margaret, the consort 
 of Henry VI. and her son were taken prisoners. 
 The queen was conveyed to the Tower of London, 
 where king Henry expired soon after this fatal engage- 
 ment; being, as is generally supposed, murdered 
 by the duke of Gloucester, afterwards Eichard III. 
 The queen was ransomed in 1475 by the French 
 king, Louis XL, for 50,000 crowns. See Moses. 
 
 TEXAS (N. America) was settled by the French, 
 1687, who were expelled soon after. It revolted 
 from Mexico in 1835 ; was helped by the Americans- 
 in 1836. Its independence was acknowledged in 
 1840. Its proposed annexation led to war between 
 Mexico and. the United States. It was admitted 
 into the Union by the latter in 1846 ; seceded from 
 it in 1861 ; submitted in 1865 ; re-admitted to state 
 rights, March, 1870. 
 
 TEXEL (at the mouth of the Zuyder Zee, Hol- 
 land) . Its vicinity has been the scene of memor- 
 able naval engagements. An engagement between 
 the English under Blake, Dean, and Monk, and 
 the Dutch under Van Tromp and De Euyter, in 
 which the latter were worsted and admiral Van 
 Tromp was killed, 31 July, 1653. Again, in the 
 
THALLIUM. 
 
 652 
 
 THEATRES. 
 
 mouth of the Texel a sharp indecisive action took 
 place between the allied English and French fleets 
 under prince Rupert and comte d'Estrees, and the 
 Dutch fleet under De Ruyter, II Aug. 1673. The 
 Dutch fleet was vanquished by admiral Duncan 
 on 11 Oct. 1797 ; see Campcrdoivn. The Dutch fleet 
 ■of 12 ships of war and thirteen Indiamen surren- 
 dered to admiral Mitchell, who, entering the Texel, 
 possessed himself of them without firing a shot, 30 
 Aug. 1799. 
 
 THALLIUM, a metal, occurring in the sul- 
 phuric-acid manufacture, discovered by Mr. Wm. 
 Crookcs, by means of the spectrum analysis, March, 
 1861. 
 
 THAMES (London), the Eoman Tamesis or 
 Tamesa, Saxon Temese, Temesa, rises in four 
 springs, at Ullen farm, near Coates, Gloucestershire. 
 The head of the river in Wiltshire is about 170 
 miles from London bridge, and its whole course 
 from source to mouth about 220 miles. See London 
 and London-bridge. 
 
 The river rose so high at Westminster that the 
 lawyers were brought out of the hall in boats . . 1235 
 
 It rose to a great height, 1736, 1747, 1762 . -1791 
 
 The conservation of the Thames was given to the 
 mayors of London . 1489 
 
 The Thames was made navigable to Oxford . . 1624 
 
 It ebbed and flowed twice in three hours, 1658 ; 
 again, three times in fours hours, 22 March, 1682 ; 
 again, twice in three hours ... 24 Nov. 1777 
 
 An act of parliament gave the conservation of the 
 Thames to the corporation of London ; twelve 
 conservators were to be appointed — three by the 
 government 1857 
 
 In consequence of the great contamination of the 
 Thames by the influx of the sewage of London, 
 and the bad odours emanating from it in the 
 summer of 1858, an act was passed empowering 
 the Metropolitan Board of Works (which see) to 
 undertake its purification by constructing new 
 drainage 1858 
 
 The Thames Angling Preservation Society (estab- 
 lished about 1838) is revived in . . . . 1863 
 
 Mr. Leach, engineer of the conservators, reported 
 that "the river is dreadfully mismanaged from its 
 source to its mouth " .... 23 July, ,, 
 
 The Thames navigation acts, appointing Ave more 
 conservators, &c, and prohibiting pollution by 
 sewage, &c. , passed .... Aug. 1866 
 
 The powers of the act extended up to Staines . . 1867 
 
 New bye-laws to protect the fish in the Upper 
 Thames passed by the conservators . 14 June, 1869 
 
 Thames Tunnel. One proposed, 1799 ; shaft 
 sunk, 1804. The present one proposed by I. K. 
 Brunei, to form a communication between 
 Rotherhithe and Wapping, 1823. The bill re- 
 ceived the royal assent ... 24 June, 1824 
 
 The shaft was begun, and the first brick laid by Mr. 
 Smith, 2 March ; the excavation commenced, 1 
 April ; the first horizontal excavation in Dec. 1825 
 
 At a distance of 544 feet from the shaft, the first 
 irruption took place . . . .18 May, 1827 
 
 The second irruption, by which six workmen 
 perished 12 Jan. 1828 
 
 The tunnel was opened throughout for foot-passen- 
 gers, 25'March, 1843. [The length of the tunnel 
 is 1300 feet ; its width is 35 feet ; height, 20 feet ; 
 clear width of each archway, including foot-path, 
 about 14 feet ; thickness of earth between the 
 crown of the tunnel and the bed of the river, about 
 1 5 feet.] 
 
 The Thames Tunnel Company was dissolved in . 1866 
 
 The tunnel, transferred to the East London railway 
 company, was closed . . . .21 July, „ 
 
 The Tower subway, an iron tube tunnel beneath the 
 Thames, constructed by Messrs. Barlow, was 
 begun 16 Feb. 1869, and privately opened, April, 
 1870. It was said to have cost only i6,ooo£. 
 
 Thames Embankment : recommended by sir 
 Christopher Wren, 1666, and by Wm. Paterson, 
 
 founder of the bank of England, about 1694. The 
 corporation embanked a mile in 1767. It was 
 further recommended by Gwynne, 1767 ; by sir 
 Frederick Eden, 1798 ; by sir Frederick Trench, 
 1824 ; by James Walker ; by the duke of New- 
 castle, 1844 ; and by John Martin the painter, 
 1856. In i860, the Metropolitan Board of Works 
 recommended that the north bank of the Thames 
 should be embanked, whereby the bed of the 
 river would be improved ; a low-level sewer 
 could be easily constructed beneath a broad 
 roadway ; docks to be constructed within the 
 embankment wall ; the expense to be defrayed 
 by the city duties on coal, and by means provided 
 by government. The principle of this recommen- 
 tion was approved by parliament, and a committee 
 was appointed, which sat for the first time, 
 
 30 April, 1861 
 
 An act for "embanking the North side of the 
 Thames from Westminster bridge to Blackfriars 
 bridge, and for making new streets in and near 
 thereto," passed 7 Aug. ; the work begun in Nov. 1862 
 
 First stone of the northern (Victoria) embank- 
 ment laid by Mr. Thwaites near Whitehall stairs, 
 20 July, 1864 ; the footway opened to the public, 
 30 July, 1868 ; the roadway opened by the prince 
 of Wales 13 July, 1870 
 
 The proposal to build public offices upon the re- 
 claimed land negatived by the house of commons, 
 
 July, ,, 
 
 The subject under agitation 1S71-2 
 
 Mr. J. W. Bazalgette presented a report, with a 
 plan for embanking the South side of the Thames, 
 6 Nov. 1862 ; act for carrying it out passed, 
 
 28 July, 1863 
 
 Southern (Albert) Embankment. First stone laid by 
 Mr. (aft. sir Wm.) Tite, 28 July, 1866 ; partially 
 opened 24 Nov. 1869 
 
 Chelsea Embankment. Authorised by parliament, 
 13 July, 1868 ; commenced ... 5 Aug. 1871 
 
 THANE, a Saxon title of nobility, abolished in 
 England at the conquest, upon the introduction 
 of the feudal system, and in Scotland by king 
 Malcolm III., when the title of earl was adopted, 
 
 1057- 
 
 THANET (Kent) was the first permanent 
 settlement of the Saxons, about 449. The Danes 
 held a part of it, 853-865, and ravaged it 980, 988 
 et seq. 
 
 THANKSGIVINGS, special national, were 
 offered up at St. Paul's cathedral for the defeat of 
 Spanish Armada, queen Elizabeth present, 8 Sept. 
 and 24th Nov. 1588; for Marlborough's victories, 
 12 Nov. 1702, and 7 Sept. 1704; for George LTI.'s 
 recovery from illness, 23 April, 1789; for Duncan's 
 and other naval victories, 19 Dec. 1797; and for 
 the recovery of the prince of Wales, 27 Feb. 1872. 
 
 THAPSUS (N. Africa). Near here Julius 
 Caesar totally defeated the amiy of the party which 
 supported the policy of Pompey, Feb. 46 b.c. The 
 suicide of Cato followed soon after. 
 
 THEATINES, a religious order, the first who 
 assumed the title of regular clerks, founded by 
 Caraffa, bishop of Theate, or Chieti, in Naples 
 (afterwards pope Paul IV.), 1524, to repress heresy. 
 They first established themselves in France, ac- 
 cording to Henault, in Paris, 1644. The Theatines 
 vainly endeavoured to revive among the clergy the 
 poverty of the apostles. 
 
 THEATEES. That of Bacchus, at Athens, 
 built by Philos, 420 B.C., is said to have been the 
 first erected. Marcellus' theatre at Rome was 
 begun by Csesar, and dedicated by Augustus, 12 
 B.C. Theatres were erected in most cities of Italy. 
 Most of the inhabitants of Pompeii were assembled 
 
THEATEES. 
 
 653 
 
 THEATEES. 
 
 at a theatre on the night of 24 Aug. 79, when an 
 eruption of Vesuvius covered the city. Scenes were 
 introduced into theatres, painted by Balthazar 
 Sienna, a.d. 1533 ; see Drama, Plays, Sec. 
 
 THEATEES IN ENGLAND. The first royal 
 licence for a theatre in England was in 1574, to 
 master Burbage and four others, servants of the 
 earl of Leicester, to act plays at the Globe, Bank- 
 side; see Globe. The prices of admission in the 
 reign of queen Elizabeth were — galleiy, 2d. ; lords' 
 rooms, is. ; see Drama, Drury Lane, and. other 
 theatres. The theatres were closed by parliament, 
 1642-60. 
 
 The first play-bill was dated 8 April, 1663, and 
 issued from Drury-lane ; it runs thus: "By his 
 Majestie his company of Comedians at the New 
 Theatre in Drury-lane, will he acted a comedy 
 called the Humovrous Lievtenant." After detailing 
 the characters, it concludes thus : " The play will 
 begin at three o'clock exactly " . .8 April, 1663 
 
 Lincoln's-inn theatre (the duke's theatre) opened by 
 sir Win. Davenant's patent, 25 April, 1662 ; 
 rebuilt 1695 
 
 Acts for licensing plays and play-houses (placing 
 them under the lord chamberlain) 10 Geo. II. 
 c. 28 . . . . . . . . . . 1737 
 
 Act for regulating theatres (6 & 7 Vict. c. 68), 
 
 22 Aug. 1843 
 
 Marionettes or Puppets produced at the Adelaide 
 Gallery 1852 
 
 Several of the theatres first opened on Sunday 
 evenings for religious worship, and filled . Jan. i860 
 
 Theatres in Great Britain, 166 ; in London, 33 ; 
 
 summer of 1868 
 
 DRURY LANE. 
 
 Killigrew's patent 25 April, 1662 
 
 Opened 8 April, 1663 
 
 Nell Gwynn performed 1666 
 
 Theatre burnt down with 60 houses . . Jan. 1672 
 Bebuilt by sir C. Wren, and opened. 26 March, 1674 
 
 Cibber, Wilkes, Booth 171 2 
 
 Garrick's debut here 1742 
 
 Garrick and Lacy's tenure (revival of Shakspeare) . 1747 
 Interior rebuilt by Adams ; opened . 23 Sept. 1775 
 
 Garrick's farewell 10 June, 1776 
 
 Sheridan's management ,, 
 
 Theatrical fund founded by Mr. Garrick . . . ,, 
 Mrs. Siddons' debut as a star . . .10 Oct. 1782 
 Mr. Kemble's debut as Hamlet . . .30 Sept. 1783 
 The theatre rebuilt on a large scale, and re-opened, 
 
 12 March, 1794 
 Charles Kemble's first appearance (as Malcolm in 
 
 Macbeth) 21 April, „ 
 
 Dowton's first appearance (as Slieva in the Jew), 
 
 11 Oct. 1796 
 Hatfield fired at George III. . . .11 May, 1800 
 
 The theatre burnt 24 Feb. 1809 
 
 Bebuilt by Wyatt, and re-opened with a prologue 
 
 by lord Byron 10 Oct. 1812 
 
 Edmund Kean's appearance (as Shyloch) 26 Jan. 1814 
 
 Mr. Blliston, lessee 3 Oct. 1819 
 
 Madame Vestris's first appearance . 19 Feb. 1820 
 Beal water introduced in the Cataract of the Ganges, 
 
 27 Oct. 1823 
 
 Mr. Price, lessee July, 1826 
 
 Ellen Tree's appearance (as Violante) . 23 Sept. ,, 
 Charles Kean's appearance (as Norval) . 1 Oct. 1827 
 Mrs. Nisbet's first appearance (as the Widow Cheerly) 
 
 9 Oct. 1829 
 Mr. Alexander Lee's and captain Polhill's manage- 
 ment 1830 
 
 Mr. Alfred Bunn, lessee 1831 
 
 Mr. Forrest's first appearance (as Spartacus), 
 
 17 Oct. 1836 
 
 Mr. Hammond's management 1839 
 
 German operas commenced here . '. 15 March, 1841 
 
 Mr. Macready's management ,, 
 
 Mr. Bunn, again lessee 1843 
 
 Miss Clara Webster burnt on the stage, 14 Dec. ; 
 
 and died 16 Dec. 1844 
 
 Mr. Anderson's management 1849 
 
 Mr. Macready's farewell . . . .26 Feb. 1851 
 
 Mr. Bunn, lessee and manager . . . T Sr->. 
 
 Mr. E. T. Smith j 853 . , 
 
 English opera (Mr. Harrison and Miss Pyne) . . 1858 
 
 Italian opera z g 5 n 
 
 Opened by Mr. E. T. Smith ... 15 Oct! i860. 
 
 Suddenly closed 20 April, 1861 
 
 Mr. G. V. Brooke appears (as Othello) . 27 Oct. ,, 
 [Drowned in the London: see Wrecks, n Jan. 1866.]' 
 
 Mr. Falconer Dec. 1862-1865. 
 
 Messrs. Falconer and Chatterton, managers, Jan. i866> 
 Opened by Mr. Mapleson with Italian opera,28 March, 1868 
 Be-opened with Halliday's "King o' Scots," 
 
 26 Sept. ,, 
 Manager, F. B. Chatterton ... 22 Sept. 1866-73, 
 
 C0VENT GARDEN. 
 
 The theatre opened by Bich ... 7 Dec. 1732 
 Beef-steak Society, founded by Bich and Lambert . 1735, 
 Theatrical fund instituted ..... 1765 
 
 Mr. Harris's tenure I7 6t- 
 
 Lewis's first appearance, as Belcour . 15 Sept. 1773. 
 Miss Eeay killed by Mr. Hackman, coming from 
 
 the house 7 April, 1779 
 
 Jack Johnstone's first appearance in Irish characters 
 «■ a > 3 Oct. 1783 
 
 Munden s appearance .... 2 Dec. 1790 
 Fawcett's first appearance (as Caleb) . 21 Sept. 1791 
 G. F. Cooke's appearance (as Richard III.), 31 Oct. 1800- 
 Braham's appearance .... 9 Dec. 1801 
 
 Mr. Kemble's management 1802- 
 
 Appearance of Master Betty, the Infant Roscius, 
 
 1 Dec. 1803. 
 Lewis's last appearance (as the Copper Captain), 
 
 28 May, 1808 
 
 Theatre burnt down 2Q Sept, 
 
 Bebuilt by B. Smirke, B.A., and re-opened with 
 
 Macbeth x s Sept. 1809, 
 
 The O. P. Biot {which see) . . 18 Sept. to 10 Dec. „ 
 Horses first introduced ; in Bluebeard . 18 Feb. 181 1 
 The farewell benefit of Mrs. Siddons (immense house) 
 
 29 June, 1812 
 [Mrs. Siddons performed once afterwards, in June, 
 
 1819, for Mr. and Mrs. C. Kemble's benefit.] 
 Miss Stephens' first appearance (as Mandane), 
 
 7 Sept. 1813, 
 Miss Foote's appearance here (as Amanthis), 
 
 26 May, 1814 
 Miss O'Neill's appearance (as Juliet) . 6 Oct. „ 
 Miss Kelly fired at by George Barnet, in the house, 
 
 7 Feb. 1816- 
 Mr. Macready's first appearance (as Orestes), 
 
 16 Sept. ,, 
 Mr. J. P. Kemble's farewell (as Coriolanus), 
 
 23 June, 1817 
 
 Henry Harris's management 1818 
 
 Charles Kemble's management .... 1823. 
 Miss Fanny Kemble's appearance (as Juliet), 5 Oct. 1829 
 Mr. Fawcett's farewell .... 21 May, 1830. 
 Charles Young's farewell . . . .30 May, 1832 
 
 Mr. Macready's management 1837 
 
 Madame Vestris's management .... 1839 
 Miss 'Adelaide Kemble's appearance (as Norma),. 
 
 2 Nov. 1 84 1 
 Charles Kemble again . . . .10 Sept. 1842- 
 Mr. Laurent's management . . . .26 Dec. 1844 
 Opened for Italian opera .... 6 April, 1847 
 Destroyed by fire (during a bal masque, conducted 
 
 by Anderson the Wizard) ... 5 March, 185& 
 New theatre (by Barry) opened by Mr. F. Gye (Les 
 
 Huguenots) . . . ... .15 May, 1858 
 
 English opera (Miss Pyne and Mr. Harrison), Oct. 1859. 
 All principal actors perform parts of plays for the 
 
 benefit of the Dramatic College . 29 March, i860 
 Balfe's Bianca brought out ... 6 Dec. „ 
 Italian opera (Mr. Gye) .... April, 1861 
 
 Last appearance of Grisi .... 3 Aug. „ 
 English opera (Pyne and Harrison) . . 31 Oct. ,, 
 Italian opera (Mr. Gye) .... April, 1862 
 English opera (Pyne and Harrison) . 25 Aug. ,, 
 
 Italian opera (Mr. Gye) .... 7 April, 1863; 
 
 Gounod's Faust July, 
 
 English opera (Pyne and Harrison) . . 12 Oct. ,' 
 Italian opera (Mr. Gye) .... April, 1864 
 English opera, &c. (Opera Company, Limited), 
 
 17 Oct. „ 
 Italian opera (Mr. Gye) ... 28 April, 1865 
 Becomes the property of a company, Mr. Gye, 
 
 manager Aug. „ 
 
THEATEES. 
 
 654 
 
 THEATEES. 
 
 Reopened (Mr. Gye) April, 1866 ; 2 April, 1867 ; 
 
 31 March, 1868 
 Opened by Mr. Mapleson's company . 24 Oct. „ 
 Opera season (Gye and Mapleson) . 2g May, 1869 
 Mr. Dion Boucicault lessee and manager 29 Aug. 1872 
 Italian opera J 873 
 
 ITALIAN OPERA-HOUSE, OR QUEEN'S THEATRE. 
 
 Opera-house opened. Pennant. (See Opera-house). 1705 
 
 The theatre was enlarged 1720 
 
 Burnt down 17 June, ^89 
 
 Rebuilt, and reopened .... 22 Sept. 1791 
 
 Exterior improved by Mr. Nash 1818 
 
 The rilievo by Mr. Bubb 1821 
 
 Madame Rachel's appearance . . 10 May, 1841 
 
 Mr. Lumley's management 1842 
 
 Jenny Lind's first appearance . . .4 May, 1847 
 Association formed for conducting financial affairs 
 
 of the house 1852 
 
 Jullien's concerts Oct. 1857 
 
 Festive performances on the marriage of the prin- 
 cess royal Jan. 1859 
 
 Maefarren's Robin H ood brought out . . 11 Oct. i860 
 
 [Not opened in 1861.] 
 Italian opera (Mr. Mapleson) .... 1862-67 
 Burnt down ; great loss . . . . 6 Dec. 1867 
 Rebuilt— its affairs in Chancery .... 1872 
 
 HAYMARKET. 
 
 Built ■ • J702 
 
 Opened by French comedians ... 29 Dec. 1720 
 
 Fielding's Mogul company J 734-5 
 
 A French company prohibited from acting by the 
 
 audience 1 738 
 
 Mr. Foote's patent 1747 
 
 The Bottle-conjuror's dupery (see Bottle Conjuror), 
 
 16 Jan. 1748 
 
 The theatre rebuilt -1767 
 
 Mr. Colman's tenure 1 Jan. 1777 
 
 Miss Fan-en's appearance here (afterwards countess 
 
 of Derby) » 
 
 Royal visit-great crowd— 16 persons killed and 
 
 many wounded 3 F eD - *794 
 
 Mr. Elliston's debut here . . . 24 June, 1796 
 First appearance of Mr. Mathews (as Limgo) z6 May, 1803 
 
 Mr. Morris's management 1805 
 
 Appearance of Mr. Liston (as Shcepfacc) . 8 June, „ 
 
 The tadors' riot 1 5 Aug. ,, 
 
 Appearance of Mr. Young (as Hamlet) . 22 June, 1807 
 Of Miss F. Kelly (as Floretta) . . 12 June, 1810 
 Theatre rebuilt by Nash ; opened . . 4 July, 1821 
 Miss Paton's(Mrs. Wood) appearance (as Susannah), 
 
 3 Aug. 1822 
 Mr. Webster's management ... 12 June, 1837 
 Mr. Charles Kean's appearance here . . . 1839 
 
 Mr. Webster's management (16 years) terminated 
 
 with his farewell appearance . . 14 March, 1853 
 Mr. Buckstone's management .... 1853-73 
 First appearance of Our American Cousin (said to be 
 
 by Tom Taylor, and to have been acted 800 times 
 
 in America), Mr. Sothern, Lord Dundreary (played 
 
 496 nights) 11 Nov. 1861 
 
 ENGLISH OPERA-HOUSE, OR LYCEUM. 
 
 Built by Dr. Arnold i794"5 
 
 Winsor experiments with gas-lighting . . . 1803-4 
 
 Opened as the Lyceum in 1809 
 
 Appearance of Mr. Wrench (as Belcoiir) . 7 Oct. „ 
 Be-opened with an address spoken by Miss Kelly, 
 
 15 June, 1816 
 House destroyed by fire . . . . 16 Feb. 1830 
 Rebuilt, and re-opened .... 14 July, 1834 
 Equestrian performances . . . • 16 Jan. 1844 
 Mrs. Keeley's management ... 8 April, ,, 
 Madame Vestris and Mr. C. Mathews' management, 
 
 Oct. 1847-56 
 Retirement of Mr. C. Mathews . . . March, 1855 
 Appearance of Madame Ristori . . . June, 1856 
 Taken by Mr. Gye for Italian opera for forty nights, 
 
 14 April, 1857 
 Opened for English opera by Miss Louisa Pyne and 
 
 Mr. Harrison 21 Sept. ,, 
 
 Balfe's opera, Rose of Castile, produced . . Oct. ,, 
 Mr. G. Webster and Mr. Falconer, July, 1858 ; closed, 
 
 April, 1859 
 Opened by Madame Celeste, Nov. 1859, and Oct. i860 
 The " Savage Club" perform before the queen and 
 
 prince 7 March, ,, 
 
 Italian opera . ... 8 June, 1861 
 
 Mr. Falconer, manager (English comedy) 19 Aug. 1861 
 Peep 0' Day brought out .... 9 Nov. ,, 
 
 Mr. Fechter 10 Jan. 1863 et seq. 
 
 Japanese troupe Spring, 1868 
 
 Lord Lytton's Rightful Heir brought out 3 Oct. ,, 
 Mr. H. L. Bateman, present lessee and manager . 1873 
 
 ADELPHI THEATRE. 
 
 Formerly called the Sans Pareil, opened under the 
 
 management of Mr. and Miss Scott . . 27 Nov. 1806 
 Under Rodwell and Jones, who gave it the present 
 
 name 1820-21 
 
 Terry and Yates 1825 
 
 Messrs. Mathews and Yates' management join 
 
 (Mathews at Home) 1828 
 
 New front 1840 
 
 Madame Celeste's management . . 30 Sept. 1844 
 Rebuilt and opened, with improved arrangements, 
 
 27 Dec. 1858 
 Colleen Bawn represented ... 10 Sept. i860 
 
 [Immense run ; above 360 nights.] 
 Miss Bateman appears as Leah, 1 Oct. 1863, to 
 
 11 June, 1864 
 Mr. B. Webster, lessee 1844-73 
 
 st. James's, late prince's. 
 This theatre was built by and opened under the 
 
 management of Mr. Braham . . .14 Dec. 1835 
 German operas performed here under the manage- 
 ment of Mr. Bunn 1840 
 
 Mr. Mitchell's tenure ; performance of French plays, 
 
 22 Jan. 1844 
 
 German plays 1852 
 
 Mrs. Seymour's tenure . . . .22 Oct. 1854-5 
 
 French plays 1857 
 
 Neapolitan buffo-opera Nov. ,, 
 
 Italian plays 1858 
 
 French operas Jan. 1859 
 
 French plays May, „ 
 
 Euglish comedy, under Mr. F. Chatterton, manager, 
 
 Oct. „ 
 
 French plays 28 May, i860 
 
 English plays 12 Aug. ,, 
 
 Mr. Wigan, manager 1860-2 
 
 French plays .... May, 1868, April, 1869 
 French plays 1871-3 
 
 princess's theatre, oxford street. 
 
 First opened 1840 
 
 Sold for 16,400! 9 Sept. 1841 
 
 Mr. Bartley's farewell here ... 18 Dee. 1852 
 Mr. Charles Kean's management, 1850 : closed, 
 
 29 Aug. 1859 
 Mr. A. Harris's management ; opened 29 Sept. ,, 
 
 Zouave Crimean company ... 23 July, i860 
 Mr. Fechter appears (as Hamlet) . . 20 March, 1861 
 
 Mr. Harris, lessee 1860-1 
 
 Mr. Lindus, manager .... 20 Oct. 1862 
 Mr. G. Vining, lessee and manager . . May, 1863-66 
 Mr. F. B. Chatterton, manager .... 1872 
 French plays 1873 
 
 OLYMPIC. 
 
 Erected by the late Mr. Astley, and opened with 
 
 horsemanship 18 Sept. 1806 
 
 Here the celebrated Elliston (1813), and afterwards 
 Madame Vestris, had managements ; the latter 
 
 until 1839 
 
 Mr. George Wild's tenure 1840 
 
 Miss Davenport's tenure .... 11 Nov. 1844 
 
 Mr. Watts's management 1848 
 
 The theatre destroyed by fire . . 29 March, 1849 
 Rebuilt and opened— Mr. Watts resumes his man- 
 agement 26 Dec. ,, 
 
 Mr. William Farren's management .... 1850 
 Lessee and manager, Mr. A. Wigan . 17 Oct. 1853-7 
 Messrs. Robson and Embden's management, 
 
 Aug. 1857-62 
 Mr. Horace Wigan, manager .... 1864-68 
 
 Lessee, Mr. B. Webster 1868 
 
 Present lessee and manager, Miss Ada Cavendish . 1873 
 
 STRAND THEATRE. 
 
 First opened — Mr. Rayner and Mrs. Waylett . . 1831 
 Mr. William Farren's management . . . . 1849 
 Lessee, Mr. F. Allcroft ; manager, Mr. T. Payne . 1855 
 
 Lessee, Miss Swanborough 1858-61 
 
 Mr. Swanborough, sen. . . . Dec. 1862 
 
 Mrs. Swanborough ... . 1865-73 
 
THEATEES. 
 
 655 
 
 THEATEES. 
 
 ASTLEV S AMPHITHEATRE. 
 
 Built by Philip Astley, and opened .... 1773 
 Destroyed by fire, with numerous adjacent houses, 
 
 17 Sept. 1794 
 
 Rebuilt 1795 
 
 Burnt again, with forty houses . .1 Sept. 1803 
 
 Ducrow's management 1825 
 
 Again destroyed by fire .... 8 June, 1841 
 
 Rebuilt and re-opened by Mr. Batty . 17 April, 1843 
 Lessee and manager, Mr. W. Cooke . . . 1855-60 
 
 Mr. W. Cooke's farewell benefit . . . 30 Jan. i860 
 
 A man killed by a lion . . . 7 Jan. 1861 
 
 Opened by Mr. Batty 6 Dec. ,, 
 
 Opened by Mr. Boueicault, as the Theatre Royal, 
 
 "Westminster 26 Dec. 1862 
 
 Horsemanship and opera (under Mr. E. T. Smith), 
 
 June, 1865 
 
 Sold by auction 1868 
 
 CIRCUS, NOW SURREY THEATRE. 
 
 [Originally devoted to equestrian exercises, under 
 
 Mr. Hughes] 4 Nov. 1782 
 
 Opened for performances ... 4 Nov. 1783 
 
 Destroyed by fire 12 Aug. 1805 
 
 Mr. Elliston's management 1809 
 
 Mr. Elliston again 4 June, 1827 
 
 Mr. Davidge's tenure 1833 
 
 Mr. Shepherd and Mr. Anderson, managers, 
 
 12 Sept. 1863-5 
 Destroyed r by fire, 31 Jan. ; rebuilt and opened, 
 
 26 Dec. 1865 
 
 COBURG, NOW VICTORIA. 
 
 {The erection was commenced under the patronage 
 of the late princess Charlotte and the prince Leo- 
 pold of Saxe-Coburg] 1816 
 
 The house was opened 1818 
 
 Messrs. Egerton and Abbott had the management in 1833 
 
 Mr. Osbaldiston's tenure 1840 
 
 Alarm of fire, sixteen persons killed . 27 Dec. 1858 
 
 SADLER'S WELLS. 
 
 Opened as an orchestra 1683 
 
 Present house opened 1765 
 
 Eighteen persons trampled to death on a false 
 
 alarm of fire 15 Oct. 1807 
 
 Management of Mrs. Warner and Mr. Phelps, 
 
 20 May, 1844-59 
 Management of Mr. Josephs . . .25 March, 1861 
 Re-opened by Mr. Phelps .... 7 Sept. ,, 
 Lessee, Miss C Lucette .... 27 Sept. 1862 
 Miss Marriott, manager . 5 Sept. 1863 — 20 May, 1864 
 
 Miss C. Lucette, for opera 1865 
 
 Miss Marriott, legitimate drama (with intervals) 1865-8 
 Miss Hazlewood, Miss Marriott, and others . 1868-73 
 
 OTHER THEATRES. 
 
 Queen's Theatre, Tottenham-court-road . . . 1828 
 Garrick Theatre, Goodman's-fields .... 1830 
 
 City Theatre, Norton-Polgate 1837 
 
 Miss Kelly's Theatre (since named Soho and New 
 
 Royalty) t . . 1840 
 
 Marylebone, opened 1842 
 
 Standard Theatre, built 1854 ; burnt, 21 Oct. 1866 ; 
 
 rebuilt 1868 
 
 Pavilion Theatre burnt .... 23 Feb. 1856 
 
 New Royalty (Soho) 31 Aug. 1863 
 
 Holborn Theatre opened ... 8 Oct. 1866 
 
 Royal Amphitheatre (for horses, &c), Holborn, 
 
 opened 25 May, 1867 
 
 New East London, opened ... 12 Oct. „ 
 
 " New Queen's Theatre," formerly St. Martin's hall, 
 
 opened by Alfred Wigan . . . -24 Oct. ,, 
 St. George's Opera-house, Langham-plaee, opened 
 
 by Mr. German Reed .... 18 Dec. ,, 
 The Globe, Strand, opened . .28 Nov. 1868 
 
 The Gaiety, Strand, opened . . . 21 Dec. ,, 
 Charing Cross, opened . . . .19 June, 1869 
 Vaudeville, opened . . . .16 April, 1870 
 
 Opera Comique, 299, Strand, opened (for Mdlle. 
 
 Dejazet) 29 Out. „ 
 
 Court Theatre, Chelsea, opened . . 25 Jan. 1871 
 Royal Alexandra Theatre, Park-street, Camden- 
 
 town, opened 31 May, 1873 
 
 DUBLIN THEATRES. 
 
 Werburg-street, commenced 
 
 Orange-street, now Smock-alley 
 
 Aungier-street (Victor) . 
 
 Ditto, management of Mr. Hitchcock 
 
 Crow-street Music-hall . 
 
 Rainsford-street Theatre . 
 
 Smock-alley Theatre, rebuilt 
 
 Fishamble-street Music-hall 
 
 Capel-street Theatre 
 
 Crow-street, Theatre Royal 
 
 Ditto, Mr. Daly's patent 
 
 Ditto, Mr. Fred. Edw. Jones's patent 
 
 Peter-street, Theatre Royal . 
 
 Hawkin's-street, Theatre Royal 
 
 Ditto, Mr. Abbott, lessee 
 
 Ditto, Mr. Bunn, lessee 
 
 Ditto, Mr. Calcraft, lessee . 
 
 Queen's Theatre, Brunswick-street . 
 
 EDINBURGH THEATRES. 
 
 Theatre of Music . 
 Allan Ramsay's . 
 Theatre, Shakspeare-square 
 The Caledonian Theatre . 
 Adelphi Theatre burnt down 
 
 1( 535 
 1662 
 1728 
 1733 
 1731 
 1732 
 1735 
 1 741 
 
 I74S 
 1758 
 1786 
 1798 
 1789 
 1821 
 1824 
 1827 
 1830 
 1844 
 
 Royal Theatre burnt down (several lives lost) 
 
 1672 
 1736 
 1769 
 1822 
 
 24 May, 1853 
 
 13 Jan. 1865 
 
 FIRST OR LAST APPEARANCES. 
 
 Quin's first appearance 
 
 Macklin at Lincoln's-inn-fields . . ."'.'! 
 Garrick's at Goodman's-fields, as Richard III.,' 
 
 19 Oct. 
 Miss Fan-en (afterwards countess of Derby) first ap- 
 pears at Liverpool 
 
 Garrick's last appearance . . . .10 June' 
 Mrs. Robinson, Perdita : her last appearace, 24 Dec' 
 Braham's first appearance at the Royalty, 20 April, 
 Madame Storace ; her first appearance in London! 
 
 24 Nov. 
 Incledon's first appearance .... 
 Miss Mellon, her first appearance as Ly'dia Languish, 
 
 Liston's first appearance in London . 1 June, 
 Romeo Coates appears as Lothario . 10 April,' 
 
 Mrs. Jordan's last appearance, as Lady Teazle, 
 
 1 June, 
 Miss O Neill, as Juliet .... 6 Oct. 
 Mr. Macready's first appearance at Bath, as Romeo, 
 
 29 Dec. 
 Booth s first appearance . . . . 12 Feb. 
 W. Farren's first appearance . . . . . ! 
 Munden's last appearance ... 31 May', 
 
 Fanny Kemble's first appearance . . 5 Oct! 
 Edmund Kean's last appearance, as Othello, 
 
 25 March, 
 Liston's last appearance ... 
 Adelaide Kemble's first appearance 
 Jenny Lind's first appearance 
 Mrs. Glover's farewell 
 Mr. Bartley's farewell 
 Mr. "W. Farren's farewell . 
 Clara Novello's farewell .... 21 Nov! 
 Adelina Patti's first appearance at Covent Garden] 
 
 14 May, 
 Miss Bateman appears as Leah . . . 1 Oct. 
 Her farewell at H. M. 's theatre . . . 22 Dee. 
 Madlle. Nillson's first appearance at H.M.'s theatre 
 
 as Violetta 8 June 
 
 Miss Kate Terry's last appearance (JwZieifattheNew 
 
 Adelphi) 3I Aug- 
 
 Madlle. Kellogg's debut at Drury-lane . 2 Nov. 
 Mr. Bandmann's debut .... 17 Feb! 
 Mr. Paul Bedford's farewell at New Queen's theatre! 
 
 16 May, 
 Mile. Marimon's debxit, as Amina . . 6 May 
 Mario's farewell in La Favorita at Italian opera! 
 
 19 July, 
 Miss Isabella Bateman's debut . . . I2 Sept 
 Mr. and Mrs. Alfred Wigan's last appearance (at 
 
 Drury Lane) 6 Ju ] y . ) 
 
 31 May, 
 
 2 Nov. 
 
 4 May, 
 
 12 July, 
 
 18 Dec. 
 
 1716 
 1725 
 
 1741 
 
 1773 
 1776 
 1779 
 1787 
 
 1789 
 1790 
 
 I79S 
 1805 
 1811 
 
 1814 
 
 1817 
 1818 
 1824 
 1829 
 
 1833 
 
 1847 
 1850 
 1852 
 1855 
 i860 
 
 1861 
 1863 
 
 1867 
 
 1871 
 
 1872 
 
 MEMORANDA. 
 
 David Garrick died I7 
 
 Charles Macklin died . . . . ' ^.'Jt 
 
 Mr. Palmer died on the stage at Liverpool, 2 Aug 1708 
 Bannister retired from the stage . . .181? 
 
THEATEICAL FUNDS. 
 
 656 
 
 THEOPHILANTHROPISTS. 
 
 John P. Kemble died 1823 
 
 Talma died in Paris 1826 
 
 "Weber came to London Feb. ,, 
 
 The Brunswick theatre fell, owing to the weight of 
 a 'newly-erected roof, ami numbers of persons 
 
 were wounded and some killed . . 29 Feb. 1828 
 
 Sarah Siddons died 1831 
 
 Edmund Kean died 1833 
 
 Madame Malibran died at Manchester . 23 Sept. 1836 
 
 Paganini died 29 May, 1840 
 
 Power lost in the President steamer, about 13 March, 1841 
 
 Elton lost in the Pegasus ... 18 July, 1843 
 
 Theatres' Registry Act passed . . . 22 Aug. ,, 
 
 Madlle. Mars died at Paris ... 23 March, 1847 
 
 Madame Catalini died at Paris . . .13 June, 1849 
 
 Alexander Lee died 9 Oct. 1851 
 
 Mrs. Warner died 5 Se P*- 1854 
 
 Charles Kemble died .... 12 Nov. ,, 
 
 John Braham died .... 17 Feb. 1856 
 
 Madame Vestris died .... 8 Aug. ,, 
 
 Madlle. Rachel died 4 J<™ 1858 
 
 Mrs. Nisbet (lady Boothby) died . . 16 Jan. „ 
 
 Louis Lablache (buffo singer) died . . 23 Jan. „ 
 
 John Pritt Harley died .... 22 Aug. ,, 
 
 Flexmore, celebrated clown, died . . 20 Aug. i860 
 
 Mrs. Yates died 3° Oct. ,, 
 
 Alfred Bunn died 20 Dec. ,, 
 
 William Farren died 25 Sept. 1861 
 
 Mr. Vandenhoff died 4 Oct. „ 
 
 M. Tree (Mrs. Bradshaw) died .... Feb. 1862 
 Subscription testimonial (value 2000?.) presented to 
 
 C. J. Kean : Mr. Gladstone in the chair, 22 March, ,, 
 
 Sheridan Knowles died .... 30 Nov. ,, 
 
 Mrs. Wood (Miss Paton) died ... 21 July, 1864 
 
 Mr. F. Robson died .... 11 Aug. ,, 
 
 Madame Pasta died, aged 66 . .1 April, 1865 
 
 Charles J. Kean died .... 23 Jan. 1868 
 
 Robert Keeley died, aged 74 . . . 3 Feb. 1869 
 
 Madame Grisi died .... 25 Nov. „ 
 Wm. Brough, burlesque-writer, died, aged 44, 
 
 13 March, 1870 
 
 Paul Bedford died 11 Jan. 1871 
 
 T. W. Robertson, dramatist, died . . .3 Feb. „ 
 Lady Wrixon Becher (Miss O'Neill, Juliet), died 
 
 29 Oct. 1872 
 
 William Macready died .... 27 April, 1873 
 
 THEATRICAL FUNDS. The Theatrical 
 fund of Covent Garden was established in 1765; 
 that of Drury Lane in 1776. They grant pensions 
 to members and their families. The General Thea- 
 trical fund was established in 1839. 
 
 THEBAN LEGION, according to tradition, 
 ■was composed of Christians, and submitted to martyr- 
 dom rather than attack their brethren during the 
 the persecution of the emperor Maximin, or sacri- 
 fice to the gods, about a.d. 286. Their leader 
 Maurice was canonised. 
 
 THEBES or LUXOR, in Egypt, called also 
 Hecatompylos on account of its hundred gates, and 
 Diospolis, as being sacred to Jupiter. In the time 
 of its splendour (1600-800 B.C.) it is said to have 
 extended about thirty-three miles. Thebes was 
 ruined by Cambyses, king of Persia, 525 B.C., and 
 by the foundation of Alexandria, 332 B.C.; it re- 
 helled and was taken by Ptolemy Lathyrus, 86 b.c, 
 and few traces of it were seen in the age of 
 Juvenal ; see Mem noneium . After centuries of neg- 
 lect, it has been greatly visited since the explora- 
 tions of Belzoni, 1817. — Thebes, N. Greece (the 
 capital of the country successively called Aonia, 
 Messapia, Ogygia, Hyantis, and Bceotia) was called 
 Cadmeis, from Cadmus, its founder, 1493 B.C. It 
 hecame a republic about 1 120 B.C., and flourished 
 under Epaminondas 378-362 B.C. Its seven gates 
 are mentioned by Homer ; see Bozotia, and Greece. 
 
 THEFT was punished by heavy fines among 
 the Jews ; by death at Athens, by the iaws of Draco ; 
 see Draco. The Anglo-Saxons nominally punished 
 theft with death, if above nd. value ; but the 
 criminal could redeem his life by a ransom. In the 
 
 9th of Henry '1. this power of redemption was 
 taken away, 1108. The punishment of theft was 
 very severe in England, till mitigated by Peel's 
 acts, 9 & 10 Geo. IV. 1829. The laws respecting 
 theft were consolidated in 1862. 
 
 THEISTS (T/ieos, God), a name given to deists 
 about 1660. Dean Martin. See Deists. 
 
 THELLUSSON'S WILL, a most singular 
 document. Mr. Peter Isaac Thellusson, a Gene- 
 vese and an affluent merchant of London, left 
 100,0007. to his widow and children ; and the re- 
 mainder of his property, more than 600,000/., he 
 left to trustees, to accumulate during the lives of 
 his three sons, and the lives of their sons ; then 
 the estates, directed to be purchased with the pro- 
 duce of the accumulated fund, were to be conveyed 
 to the eldest lineal male descendant of his three 
 sons, with the benefit of survivorship. Should no 
 heir then exist, the whole was to be 'applied, by 
 the agency of the sinking fund, to the discharge of 
 the national debt. It is said that Mr. Thellusson 
 held much property in trust, and that he desired a 
 sufficient interval of time to elapse for the appear- 
 ance of just claimants. He died 21 July, 1797. 
 His will incurred much public censure, and was 
 contested by the heirs-at-law, but finally estab- 
 lished by a decision of the house of lords, 25 June, 
 1805. The last surviving grandson died in Feb. 
 1856. A dispute then arose whether the eldest male 
 descendant or the male descendant of the eldest 
 son should inherit the property. The question was 
 decided on appeal by the house of lords (9 June, 
 1859), in favour of the latter, lord Rendlesham, 
 and Charles S. Thellusson, confirming the decision 
 of the Master of the Rolls in 1858. In consequence 
 of the legal expenses the property is said not to ex- 
 ceed greatly its value in the testator's lifetime. On 
 28 July, 1800, the Thellusson act was passed, re- 
 straining testators from devising their property for 
 purposes of accumulation for longer than 21 years 
 after death ; any other direction to be void. 
 
 THEOCRACY, government by God, existed 
 among the Israelites till Saul was made king, about 
 1095 B.C. (Sam. viii. 7 ) 
 
 THEODOLITE, an instrument for measuring 
 horizontal angles, used in surveying, consists of a 
 telescope and a divided circle. It was probably 
 first constructed in the 1 7th century. Jesse Rams- 
 den, in 1787, completed the great theodolite em- 
 ployed in the trigonometrical survey of England and 
 Wales by general Roy. 
 
 THEODOSIAN CODE, see Codes. 
 
 THEOLOGY (from the Greek Theos, God), 
 the science which treats of the nature and attributes 
 of God, of his relations to man, and of the manner 
 in which they may be discovered. It is generally 
 divided into two heads. I. Inspired, including the 
 Holy Scriptures, their interpretation, &c. 2. 
 Natural; which lord Bacon calls the first part of 
 philosophy. — Butler's "Analogy of Religion" 
 (1736) and Paley's "Natural Theology" (1802) 
 are eminent books on the latter subject. — Abelard 
 (died 1 142) wrote "Theologia Christiania." The 
 " Summa Totius Theologia?" by Thomas Aquinas 
 (bom about 1224), a standard Roman catholic work, 
 was printed with commentaries, &c, in 1596. 
 
 THEOSOPHISTS, followers of Paracelsus in 
 the 1 6th century. 
 
 THEOPHILANTHROPISTS (lovers of God 
 and man), a sect formed in France in 1796; and 
 
THEEMIDOE REVOLUTION. 
 
 657 
 
 THIETY-NINE AETICLES. 
 
 headed by one of the five directors, Lepaux, in 
 1797; was dissolved in 1802. 
 
 THEEMIDOE BEVOLUTION. On the 
 9th Thermidor of the 2nd year (27 July, 1794), 
 the Convention deposed Eobespierre, and on the 
 next day he and twenty- two of his partisans were 
 executed. 
 
 THEEMO-ELECTEICITY, see under Elec- 
 tricity, and Seat. 
 
 THEEMOMETEE. Freezing point: Fah. 
 32 ; S. o°; C. 0°. Boiling point : Fah. 212°, F. 
 80, C. 100. 
 
 Invented by Galileo, before 1597. Libri. 
 
 Invented by Drebbel of Alcmaer, 1609. Boerhaave. 
 
 Invented by Paulo Sarpi, 1609. Fulgentio. 
 
 Invented by Sanctorio in 1610. Borelli. 
 
 Fahrenheit's thermometer invented about 1726; Reau- 
 mur's and Celsius's (the latter now termed centigrade) 
 soon after. [Fahrenheit's scale is usually employed in 
 England, and Reaumur's and the centigrade on the 
 continent.] 
 
 The mode of construction by substituting quicksilver for 
 spirits was invented some years subsequently. Halley 
 proposed it in 1697. 
 
 Mr. L. M. Casella issued a minimum thermometer in 
 Sept. 1861. It registers degrees of cold by means of 
 mercury. 
 
 THEEMOPYL^E (Doris, N. Greece) . Leoni- 
 das, at the head of 300 Spartans and 700 Thes- 
 pians, at the defile of Thermopylae, withstood the 
 whole force of the Persians during three days, 7, 
 8, 9 Aug. 480 B.C., when Ephialtes, a Trachmian, 
 perfidiously leading the enemy by a secret path 
 up the mountains, brought them to the rear of the 
 Greeks, who, thus placed between two assailants, 
 perished gloriously on heaps of their slaughtered 
 foes. One Greek only returned home, and he was 
 received with reproaches for having fled. Here 
 Antiochus the Great, king of Syria, was defeated 
 by the Eomans, 191 B.C. 
 
 THEEMUM, Thermits, or Therma 
 (Greece), a strong city, the Acropolis of .ZEtolia, N. 
 Greece, was captured and ravaged by Philip V. 
 of Macedon, 218 and 206 B.C., on account of its 
 favouring the Eomans. 
 
 THESAUEUS (treasury), a title given in the 
 17th and 18th centuries to large collections of small 
 works on history and archaeology. The most cele- 
 brated are — 
 
 " Thesaurus Antiquitatum GrEecorum," by J. Grono- 
 
 vius. 13 vol. fol 1697-1702 
 
 " Thesaurus Antiquitatum Romanorum," by J. G. 
 
 Graevius. 12 vol. fol. ...... 1694 
 
 " Thesaurus Antiquitatum et Historicum Italian, 
 
 Sicilise," &c, by G. Grsevius and P. Burmannus. 
 
 45 vol. fol. . 1725 
 
 " Thesaurus Antiquitatum Sacraram," by B. Ugo- 
 
 linus. 34 vol. fol. 1744-69 
 
 THESPLZE, a city of Boeotia, N. Greece. 700 
 of its citizens perished, with Leonidas at Thermo- 
 pylae, Aug. 480 B.C. It suffered much through the 
 jealousy of the Thebans, who destroyed its walls 
 in 372 B.C. 
 
 THESSALONICA (now Salonica), a city in 
 Macedonia, N. Greece, originally Therme, but re- 
 built by Cassander, and said to have been named 
 after his wife, Thessalonica, daughter of Philip, 
 after 315 B.C. Here Paul preached, 53 ; and to the 
 church here he addressed two epistles in 54. In 
 consequence of seditions, a frightful massacre of 
 the inhabitants took place in 390, by order of the 
 emperor Theodosius. Thessalonica partook of the 
 changes of the Eastern empire. Thessalonica was 
 
 taken by the Saracens, with great slaughter, 20 
 July, 904; by the Normans of Sicily, 15 Aug. 1185; 
 and after various changes was taken from the 
 Venetians by the Turks under Amurath, 1430. 
 
 THESSALY (N. Greece), the seat of many of 
 the adventures described by the poets. The first 
 king of whom we have any certain knowledge was 
 Hellen, son of Deucalion, from whom his subjects 
 were called Hellenists, a name afterwards extended 
 to all Greeks. From Thessaly came the Achseans, 
 the JEtolians, the Dorians, the Hellenes, &c. The 
 two most remarkable events in the early history 
 of this country are the deluge of Deucalion, 1548 B. c, 
 and the expedition of the Argonauts, 1263 B.C. ; 
 see them severally. Thessaly long aimed at neu- 
 trality in Grecian affairs, but became involved 
 through its rulers, the tyrants of Phera? ;— Lyco- 
 phron, about 404 B.C. ; his son Jason, 374, assassi- 
 nated 370; Alexander, the most eminent, defied 
 Athens and Thebes; assassinated 359. Philip of 
 Macedon, after a defeat (353 B.C.), gained a victory 
 over the tyrants, 352 ; and subjugated the country 
 wholly, 343. The Eomans gave a nominal freedom 
 to Thessaly after their victory at Cynoscephalos, 
 197. It is now included in the kingdom of Greece. 
 
 THETFOED (Norfolk), said to have been the 
 Eoman Sitomagus, and an important Saxon town, 
 was a bishopric from 1075 to 1091, when the see 
 was removed to Norwich. It was made a suffragan 
 bishopric by Henry VIII. by the power given him 
 in 1534- 
 
 THIBET or TIBET (central Asia), is said to 
 have been a kingdom 313 B.C., conquered by 
 Genghis Khan 1206, and gradually subdued by and 
 annexed to China, 1255-1720. Buddhism became 
 the dominant religion about 905 ; and the Lamas 
 have absolute power in religious affairs. An 
 astronomical survey was carried on surreptitiously 
 by two plundits of semi-Thibet origin, under the 
 superintendence of capt. Montgomerie, 1865-7. 
 
 THIEVES' ISLAND, see Ladrones. 
 
 THIEVES' SYNOD, at Ephesus, 349 or 449, 
 where the doctrines of Eutyches respecting Christ's 
 incarnation were approved, received the name 
 because his opponents were either silenced or 
 excluded. 
 
 THIMBLES are said to have been found at 
 Herculaneum. The art of making them was 
 brought to England by John Lofting, a mechanic, 
 from Holland, who set up a workshop at Islington, 
 near London, and practised the manufacture in 
 various metals with profit and success, about 1695. 
 Anderson. 
 
 THIONVILLE, the ancient Theodonis villa, 
 a fortified city on the Moselle, N. E. France. It 
 was the occasional residence of Charlemagne and 
 his successors, and on the extinction of his race, it 
 was successively held by private lords, the counts 
 of Luxemburg, the dukes of Burgundy, the house 
 of Austria, and the kings of Spain. It was taken 
 by the duke of Guise, 23 June, 1558, after an 
 obstinate defence, and returned to Philip II. by the 
 peace of Chateau Cambresis. It successfully resisted 
 the marquis de Feuquieres in 1637, but was taken 
 after four months' siege by the due d'Enghien, 10 
 Aug. 1643, and remained with France. It success- 
 fully resisted the Austrians in 1 792, and the Prussians 
 in 1814. It was invested by the Germans in Aug. 
 1870, and after bombardment, being in flames, 
 surrendered 24 Nov. following. 
 
 THIETY-NINE AETICLES, see Article* 
 
THIETY TYRANTS. 
 
 658 
 
 THRASHING-MACHINES. 
 
 THIRTY TYRANTS, a term applied to the 
 governors of Athens, in 404 B.C., who were ex- 
 pelled by Thrasybulus, 403; and also to the 
 numerous aspirants to the imperial throne of Rome 
 during the reigns of Gallienus and Aurelian, a.d. 
 259-274. 
 
 THIRTY YEARS' WAR, in Germany, 
 between the catholics and protestants. It began 
 in Bohemia in 1618. and ended with the peace of 
 "Westphalia in 1648. It is renowned for the 
 victories of "Wallenstein and Gustavus Adolphus 
 of Sweden, and for its history by Schiller, published 
 1790-93. See Battles, 1618-48. 
 
 THISTLE,* Order of the, Scotland, 
 founded by James V. 1540. It consisted originally 
 of himself, as sovereign, and twelve knights, in 
 imitation of Christ and his twelve apostles. In 
 1542, James died, and the order was discontinued, 
 about the time of the Reformation. The order was 
 renewed by James VII. of Scotland and II. of Eng- 
 land, by making eight knights, 29 May, 1687 ; 
 increased to twelve by queen Anne in 1703 ; to 
 sixteen by George IV. in 1827. The original knights 
 of 1687 were 
 George, duke of Gordon. 
 John, marquis of Athol. 
 James, earl of Arran, afterwards duke of Hamilton ; 
 
 killed in a duel, 1712. 
 Alexander, earl of Moray. 
 James, earl of Perth ; attainted. 
 Kenneth, earl of Seaforth ; attainted. 
 George, earl of Dumbarton. 
 John, earl of Melfort ; attainted. 
 
 THISTLEWOOD'S CONSPIRACY, see 
 
 Cato-street Conspiracy. 
 
 THOMAS'S HOSPITAL, ST. (Southwark), 
 was founded as an almshouse by Richard, prior of 
 Bermondsey, in 1213, and surrendered to Henry 
 VIII. in 1538. In 1 55 1 the mayor and citizens of 
 London, having purchased of Edward VI. the 
 manor of Southwark, including this hospital, 
 repaired and enlarged it, and admitted into it 260 
 poor, sick, and helpless objects; upon which the 
 king, in 1553, incorporated it, together with Beth- 
 lehem, St. Bartholomew's, &c. It was rebuilt in 
 1693. In 1862, the site was sold to the south- 
 eastern railway company, and the patients were 
 removed to the Surrey music hall. The foundation 
 stone of the new hospital, erected at Stangate, near 
 the Surrey side of Westminster-bridge, was laid by 
 the queen, 13 May, 1868; and the new hospital 
 -was opened by her majesty, 21 June, 1871. 
 
 THOMAS, ST., see Virgin Isles. 
 
 THOMISTS, see Scotists. 
 
 THOMITES or TOMITES, a body of enthu- 
 siasts who assembled at Broughton, near Canter- 
 bury. An insane Comish publican named John 
 Uicholls, called Thorn, or Tom, assumed the name 
 of sir W. Courtenay, knight of Malta and king of 
 Jerusalem, came into Kent, was an unsuccessful can- 
 didate for parliament, and incited the rabble against 
 
 * Some Scottish historians make the origin of this 
 order very ancient. The abbot Justinian says it was 
 
 instituted by Achaius I. of .Scotland, 809, when that 
 monarch made an alliance with Charlemagne, and then 
 took for his device the thistle. It is stated that the king 
 Hungus, the Pict, had a dream, in which St. Andrew 
 made a midnight visit, and promised him a sure victory 
 over his foes, the Northumbrians ; and that the next 
 day St. Andrew's Cross (x) appeared in the air, and the 
 Northumbrians were defeated. On this story, it is 
 said, Achaius framed the order more than 700 years lie- 
 fore James V. 
 
 the Poor Law act. On 31 May, 1838, a farmer of 
 the neighbourhood, whose servant had joined the 
 crowd which attended Thoin, sent a constable to 
 fetch him back ; but on his arrival on the ground 
 he was shot dead by Thorn. The military were then 
 called out, and lieut. Bennett proceeded to take the 
 murderer into custody ; but Thorn advanced, and, 
 firing a pistol, killed the lieutenant on the spot. 
 One of the soldiers fired at Thorn, and laid him dead 
 by the side of lieut. Bennett. The people then 
 attacked the military, who were compelled to tire, 
 and eight more persons were killed before the mob 
 dispersed. 
 
 THORACIC DUCT, discovered first in a 
 horse, by Eustachius, about 1563 ; in the human 
 body, by 01. Budbec, a Swedish anatomist. Thomas 
 Bartholine, of Copenhagen, and Dr. Jolin'e, of 
 England, also discovered it about 1654; see 
 Lacteals. 
 
 THORINUM, a very rare metal (a heavy gray 
 powder), discovered by Berzelius in 1828. 
 
 THORN (on the Vistula* Poland) was founded 
 by the Teutonic Knights in 1231. Here they 
 acknowledged themselves to be vassals of Poland in 
 1466. Thorn was taken by Charles XII. of Sweden 
 in 1703. Many protestants were slain here (after a 
 religious riot) at the instigation of the Jesuits, 7 
 Dec. 1724. Thorn was acquired by the Prussians in 
 1793; taken by the French in 1806; restored to 
 Prussia at the peace in 1815. 
 
 THRACE (now Boiimelia, in Turkey) derived 
 its name from Thrax, the son of Mars. Aspin. The 
 Thracians were a Avarlike people, and therefore 
 Mars was said to have been born and to have had 
 his residence among them. Euripides; see 
 Odrysce. 
 Byzantium, the capital, founded by the Megarians, 
 
 about B.C. 675 
 Invasion of Darius I. 513 ; Thrace subdued by 
 
 Megabazus 508 
 
 Xerxes marches against Greece through Thrace, and 
 
 retreats 480 
 
 Other Greek colonies established . . . 450-400 
 
 Wars between Macedon and the Odrysse (»:h ich see) 
 
 429-343 
 Philip II. acquires Amphipolis, 358 ; and gradually 
 
 all the Greek colonies .... 357-341 
 
 Death of Alexander ; Thrace allotted to Lysima- 
 
 chus, 323 ; who builds Lysimachia . . . 309 
 Lysimachus defeated and slain by Seleucus at Coru- 
 
 pedion 2 8i 
 
 Thrace overrun by the Gauls 279 
 
 Lysimachia and the chief towns seized by the fleet 
 
 of Ptolemy Euergetes 247 
 
 Recovered by Philip V. of Macedon . . 205-200 
 Lost by him to the Romans . . . 196 
 
 Seized by Antiochus III. of Syria, who is defeated 
 
 at Magnesia, 190 ; and surrenders Thrace . . 188 
 Perseus defeated in his attempt to regain Thrace, 
 
 171-16S 
 TheThracian kings rule nominally under the Romans 
 
 148 ct seq. 
 Rebellion of Vologa^sus quelled .... 14 
 Rheemetalces II. last king . . a.d. 38 
 
 Thrace made a Roman province, about ... 47 
 
 Invaded by the Goths 255 
 
 Settled by Sarmatians . . " . . . 334-376 
 Ravaged by Alaric, 395 ; by Attila . . . .447 
 Conquered by the Turks, who made Adrianople 
 
 their capital 1341-53 
 
 Constantinople captured by Mahomet II., 29 May, 1453 
 
 THRASHING-MACHINES. The flail was 
 the only instrument formerly in use for thrashing 
 corn. The Eomans used a machine called the 
 tribulum, a sledge loaded with stones or iron, 
 drawn over the corn-sheaves by horses. The first 
 machine attempted in modern "times was invented 
 
THEASYMENE. 
 
 659 
 
 TIBUE. 
 
 "by Michael Menzies, at Edinburgh, about 1732; and was, after various changes and many conflicts, 
 Andrew Meilde invented a machine in 1776. Many absorbed into Saxony in the 15th century. In 181s 
 improvements have been since made. it was surrendered to Prussia. 
 
 THEASYMENE or Trasimene (N. Italy). 
 A most bloody engagement took place near the 
 Trasimene lake between the Carthaginians under 
 Hannibal and the Romans under Flaniinius, 217 
 b.c. No less than 15,000 Romans were left dead 
 on the field of battle, and 10,000 taken prisoners ; 
 or, according to Livy, 6000 ; or Polybius, 15,000. 
 The loss of Hannibal was about 1500 men. About 
 10,000 Romans made their escape, all covered with 
 wounds. Livy; Polybius. On the same day, an 
 earthquake occurred, which desolated several cities 
 in Italy. 
 
 THREATENING LETTEES. Sending 
 letters, whether anonymously written, or with a 
 fictitious name, demanding money, or threatening 
 to kill a person, or fire his house, was made punish- 
 able as a felony, without benefit of clergy, by the 
 Black Act, in 1722. Persons extorting money by 
 threatening to accuse others of such offences as are 
 ■subjected to death, or other infamous punishments, 
 were to be adjudged imprisonment, whipping, or 
 transportation, by 30 Geo. II., 1756; and other acts, 
 the latest 24 & 25 Vict. cc. 96, 97^ (i860). 
 
 THEEE DENOMINATIONS, see Denomi- 
 nations. 
 
 THUGS, organised secret fanatical murderers 
 in India, who considered their victims to be sacri- 
 iices to their gods. The English commenced sup- 
 pressing them about 18 10, but did not succeed till 
 about 1830, when a plan for the purpose was adopted 
 by lord Win. Bentinck. 
 
 THUMB-SCEEW, an instrument used in the 
 first stages of torture by the Spanish inquisition. 
 In Great Britain, rev.Wm. Carstares, a presbyterian 
 minister, was the last who suffered by it, before 
 the Scotch privy council, to make him divulge 
 secrets entrusted to him, which he firmly resisted. 
 After the revolution in 1688, the thumb-screw was 
 presented to him by the council. King William 
 expressed a desire to see it, and tried it on, bidding 
 the doctor to turn the screw ; but, at the third turn, 
 he cried out "Hold — hold! doctor: another turn 
 would make me confess anything." 
 
 THUNDEEING LEGION.. During a con- 
 test with the invading Marcomanni, the prayers of 
 some Christians in a Roman legion are said to 
 "have been followed by a storm of thunder, light- 
 ning, and rain, which tended greatly to discomfit 
 the enemy; and hence the legion received the 
 name, 174. 
 
 THUEII or ThuRIUM, a Greek city, S. Italy, 
 founded after the fall of Sybaris, about 452 B.C. 
 It suffered from the incursions of the Lucanians, by 
 whom the Thurians were severely defeated, 390 
 B.C. It became eventually a dependent ally of 
 Rome ; was ravaged by the troops of Hannibal, 
 .204 ; was established as a colony by the Romans, 
 194; and was captured by Spartacus in the Ser- 
 vile war, who levied upon it heavy contributions, 
 72. 
 
 THUEINGIA, an early Gothic kingdom in 
 •central Germany, was overrun by Attila and the 
 Huns, 451 ; the last king, Hermanfried, was 
 defeated and slain by Thierry, king of the Franks, 
 who annexed it to his dominions, 530. It formed 
 two duchies, 630-717, and 849-919 ; a margraviate, 
 960-1090; landgraviate and county, 1 130-1247; 
 
 THUELES (S. Ireland). Here was held a 
 synod of the Roman catholic archbishops, bishops, 
 inferior clergy, and religious orders, under the 
 direction of archbishop Cullen, the Roman catholic 
 primate, 22 Aug. 1850. It condemned the Queen's 
 Colleges, and recommended the foundation of ? 
 Roman catholic university, 10 Sept. following. Tht 
 acts were forwarded to Rome for approval of the 
 pope, Pius IX., and published, 1 Jan. 1852. 
 
 THUEOT'S INVASION. Thurot, an Irish 
 commodore in the French service, became a terror 
 to all the merchant-ships of this kingdom. He had 
 the command of a small armament, and landed 
 1000 men at Carrickfergus in Ireland, and plun- 
 dered the town. He reached the Isle of Man, and 
 was overtaken by captain Elliot, with three frigates, 
 who engaged his little squadron, which was taken, 
 and the commodore killed, 28 Feb. 1760. Thurot's 
 true name was O'Farrell. His grandfather had 
 followed the fortunes of James II. ; but his mother 
 being of a family of some dignity in France, he 
 assumed her name. Burns. 
 
 THUESDAY, the fifth day of the week, named 
 from Thor, the most valiant son of Odin, a deified 
 hero worshipped by the northern nations, particu- 
 larly by the Scandinavians and Celts. His autho- 
 rity was said to extend over the winds, seasons, 
 thunder and lightning, &c. Thursday is in Latin 
 dies Jovis, or Jupiter's day. 
 
 THYATIEA (Asia Minor), the place assigned 
 for the battle at which the rebel Procopius was 
 defeated by the army of the emperor Valens, 366 ; 
 see Seven Churches. 
 
 THYMBEA (Asia Minor). Here Cyrus the 
 Great defeated the confederate army aiding Croesus, 
 and obtained supremacy in Asia, b.c. 548. 
 
 TIAEA, head ornament of the ancient Persians. 
 The name is given to the triple crown of the pope 
 (anciently called regnum), indicative of his civil 
 rank, as the keys are of his ecclesiastical jurisdic- 
 tion. The right to wear a crown is said to have 
 been granted to the bishops of Rome by Constantine 
 the Great, and by Clovis, founder of the French 
 monarchy. Their ancient tiara was a high round 
 cap. Pope Damasus II. first caused himself to be 
 crowned with a tiara, 1048. " Boniface VIII. 
 encompassed the tiara with a crown; Benedict 
 XII. added a second; and John XXIII. a third." 
 Sees. 
 
 TIBEE (central Italy), the river on whose 
 banks Rome was built. In the flourishing times of 
 the city the navigation of the river was enormous. 
 Livy states that the Tiber was frozen over, 398 
 B.C. A commission was appointed to dredge the 
 bed of the river near Rome. Dec. 1871. 
 
 TIBEEIAS, a city in Palestine, built by 
 Herod Antipas, and named after the emperor 
 Tiberius, 39. Near it Guy de Lusignan, king of 
 Jerusalem, and the crusaders, were defeated by 
 Saladin, 3, 4 July, 1187 ; and Jerusalem fell into 
 his hands. 
 
 TIBET, see Thibet. 
 
 TIBUE (now Tivoli) , a Latin town more ancient 
 than Rome, and frequently at war with it. The 
 Tiburtines were defeated 335 B.C., and the subjec- 
 tion of all Latium followed ; for which Furius 
 
 u u 2 
 
TICHBORNE CASE. 
 
 660 
 
 TIMES NEWSPAPER. 
 
 Camilhis obtained a triumph and an equestrian 
 statue in the forum. 
 
 TICHBORNE CASE, see Trials, 1871-3. 
 
 TICINO or TESSIN, a Swiss canton south of 
 the Alps, conquered by the Swiss early in the 16th. 
 century; made a separate canton in 1815. It 
 suffered by internal disputes 1839 and 1841. 
 
 TICINUS, a river, N. Italy. Here Hannibal 
 defeated the Romans, 218 b.c. 
 
 TICKETS OF LEAVE, see Transportation, 
 and Crime. 
 
 TICONDEROGA (N. America) . The French 
 fortress here was unsuccessfully besieged by Aber- 
 cromby in July, 1758; taken 26 July, 1759. The 
 Americans took it in 1775, but retired from it in 
 July, 1777. The British retired from it shortly 
 after. 
 
 TIDES. Homer is the earliest profane author 
 who speaks of the tides. Posidonius of Apamea 
 accounted for the tides from the motion of the 
 moon, about 79 b.c. ; and Caesar speaks of them in 
 his fourth book of the Gallic war. The theory of 
 the tides was first satisfactorily explained by Kepler, 
 1598; but the honour of a complete explanation of 
 them was reserved for sir Isaac Newton, about 
 1683. 
 
 TIEN-TSIN, see China, June, 1858-Jan. 1861, 
 and 1870. 
 
 TIERRA DEL FUEGO, see Missions, note. 
 
 TIERS ETAT, see States- General 
 
 TIFLIS (Asiatic Russia), built about 469 by 
 Vakhtang; became the capital of Georgia. It was 
 taken by Genghis Khan in the 12th century; by 
 Mustapha Pacha, 1576 ; by the Persians, 1796 ; and 
 by the Russians, 1801, who have made it capital of 
 their Trans-Caucasian possessions. 
 
 TIGRANO-CERTA, capital of Armenia, 
 built by Tigranes the Great, and taken by Lucullus 
 and the Romans, after a great victory, B.C. 69. 
 
 TIGRIS, a river forming the eastern boundary 
 of Mesopotamia, celebrated for the cities founded 
 on its banks : Nineveh, Seleucia, Ctesiphon, and 
 Bagdad. It was explored by an English steamer 
 in 1838. Colonel Chesney, in 1850, published an 
 account of his survey in 1835-7- 
 
 TILBURY (Essex). The camp formed here 
 in 1588 to resist the Spanish invasion was visited 
 by queen Elizabeth. 
 
 TILES are said to have been first made in 
 England about 1246. They were taxed in 1784. 
 The number of tiles taxed in England in 1820 was 
 81,924,626; and in 1830, 97,318,264. The tax was 
 repealed in 1833. 
 
 TILSIT (on the Niemen). on which river, on a 
 raft, the emperors of France and Russia met, 25 June, 
 1807. By a treaty concluded between France and 
 Russia, signed 7 July, Napoleon restored to the 
 Prussian monarch one-half of his territories, and 
 Russia recognised the Confederation of the Rhine, 
 and the elevation of Napoleon's three brothers, 
 Joseph, Louis, and Jerome, to the thrones of Naples, 
 Holland, and Westphalia. 
 
 TILTS, see Tournaments. 
 
 TIMBER. The annual demand of timber for 
 the royal navy, in war, was 60, 000 loads, or 40,000 
 full. grown trees, a ton each, of wliich 3? will stand 
 on an acre ; in peace, 32,000 tons, or 48,000 loads. 
 
 A 74 gun ship consumed 3000 loads, or 2000 tons of 
 trees, the produce of 57 acres in a century. Hence 
 the whole navy consumed 102,600 acres, and 1026 
 per annum. Allnntt. Iron is now used in pre- 
 ference to timber. In 1843 we imported 1,317,645 
 loads of timber (cut and uncut) ; in 1857, 2,495,964 
 loads; in 1866, 3,638,344 loads ; in 1871, 4,497,136 
 loads. In 1866, we imported 53,458 tons of ma- 
 hogany ; in 1871, 29,256 tons. The duties on tim- 
 ber were modified in 185 1. 
 
 TIMBER BENDING- Apparatus was in- 
 vented for this purpose by Mr. T. Blanchard, of 
 Boston, U.S., for which a medal was awarded at 
 the Paris Exhibition of 1855. A company was 
 formed for its application in this country in 1856. 
 
 TIMBUCTOO (N. Africa), a city built by 
 Mansa Suleiman, a Mahometan, about 1214, 
 and frequently subjugated by the sovereigns of 
 Morocco. Since 1727 it has been partially inde- 
 pendent. 
 
 TIME- Our ideas in regard to time have been 
 of late greatly extended. The distant planet Nep- 
 tune, discovered by Adams and Le Verrier in 1846, 
 requires above 900' of our years for a single revolu- 
 tion ; and the coal measures in Wales, a thick- 
 ness of strata of more than twelve miles, would 
 require for its deposition hundreds of thousands of 
 years ; while other formations could only be esti- 
 mated in millions. See Clock, Sundials, Watches, 8co. 
 
 TIMES NEWSPAPER. On 13 Jan. 1785, 
 Mr. John Walter published the first number of the 
 Daily Universal Register, price 2\d., printed on the 
 logographic system (invented by Henry Johnson, a 
 compositor), in which types containing syllables- 
 and words were employed instead of single letters. 
 
 On 1 Jan. 1788, the paper was named the Times. 
 
 In 1803, when Mr. Walter gave up the paper to his son, 
 the circulation was about 1000 ; that of the Morning 
 Post being 4500. 
 
 Dr. Stoddart (satirised as Dr. Slop by Moore the poety 
 became editor in 1812, but five years after retired and 
 set up in opposition the New Times, an unprofitable 
 speculation. Thomas Barnes became next editor. He- 
 died 7 May, 1841. The succeeding editors were William 
 F. A. Delane, who died in 1858, and John Thaddeus 
 Delane (his son). 
 
 On 28 Nov. 1814, the Times was first printed by steam. 
 power (the invention of F. Konig), 1200 per liour, 
 afterwards increased to 2000 and 4000. 
 
 The powerful articles contributed by Edward Stirling 
 gained the paper the name of the Thunderer. 
 
 On 19 Jan. 1829, the first double number appeared. 
 
 In July, 1834, an attack of Mr. O'Connell in the house of 
 commons on the correctness of the reports of the 
 debates in t\\e Times was signally defeated. 
 
 Shortly after began the convenient summary of the de- 
 bates, written in the first instance by Mr. Horace- 
 Twiss. 
 
 In 1841 the Kmcs wps instrumental in detecting and expos- 
 ing a scheme organised by a company, to defraud by 
 forgery all the influential bankers of Europe. This 
 brought on the proprietors an action for libel (in the 
 case Bogle v. Lawson). The jury found the charge to- 
 be true, giving a verdict of one farthing damages, but 
 the judges refused costs. Subscriptions were set on 
 foot in all parts of Europe to reimburse, the pro- 
 prietors for the immense outlay in defending the 
 action. This they firmly declined ; and the money 
 was expended in establishing Times Scholarships at 
 Oxford and Cambridge, and at Christ's Hospital, and 
 other schools ; marble tablets also, commemorating 
 the event, were set up in the Royal Exchange and in 
 other places. These were the greatest honours ever 
 conceded to a newspaper. 
 In Oct. 1845, the Times express was for the first time 
 conveyed to India overland, by the agency of lieut. 
 Waghorn. 
 Of the number of the Times containing the life of the 
 duke of Wellington for 19 Nov. 1852, 70,000 were sold — 
 
TIN. 
 
 661 
 
 TOBACCO. 
 
 the ordinary number being then 36,000 ; the circula- 
 tion is stated to vary from 50,000 to 60,000 (1868). 
 In 1854, the proprietors sent Mr. W. H. Russell as their 
 special correspondent to the seat of war in the Crimea ; 
 iu 1857 to India, and in 1861 to the southern states of 
 North America. 
 Times Fund. — On the 12th of Oct. 1854, su ' Robert Peel 
 originated by a letter in the Times a subscription for 
 the sick and wounded in the Crimean war, and in less 
 than a fortnight 15,000^. were sent to the Times office 
 to be thus appropriated. Mr. Macdonald (the present 
 manager) was sent out by the proprietors as special 
 commissioner to administer the fund, from which large 
 quantities of food and clothing were supplied to the 
 sufferers, with inestimable advantage ; see Scutari, and 
 Nightingale. 
 
 In Dec. 1858, the Times drew attention to the state of the 
 houseless poor of London ; and in a few days 8000Z. 
 were subscribed for their relief. ■ 
 
 In 1851, 13,000,000 copies were sold ; in 1857, 16,100,000; 
 in 1859, 16,900,000 ; in i860, 16,670,000. 
 
 In i860, 16,400 copies per hour were printed. 
 
 On 21 June, 1861, the Times consisted of 24 pages, con- 
 taining 4076 advertisements (about 1810 it contained 
 150 advertisements). 
 
 Stereotypes from papier-mache moulds introduced, 
 1856 ; much improved i860. 
 
 The " Walter press " invented by Macdonald & Calverley, 
 prints about 17,000 an hour, perfected, 1862-9. 
 
 A list of the contents, inserted over the first leader, ap- 
 peared first, 3 Feb. 1869. 
 
 3^ pages tables of metropolitan charities appeared 
 11 Feb. 1869. 
 
 Mr. Palmer's " Index to the Times" begun 1867. 
 
 TIN. The Phoenicians traded with England for 
 more than 1100 years before the Christian era. 
 Under the Saxons, our tin mines appear to have 
 heen neglected ; but under the Normans, they pro- 
 duced considerable revenues to the earls of Corn- 
 wall, particularly to Richard, brother of Henry III. 
 A charter and various immunities Avere granted 
 by Edmund, earl Richard' s brother, who framed the 
 Stannary Laws (which see), laying a duty on the 
 tin. Edward III. confirmed the tinners in their 
 privileges, and erected Cornwall into a dukedom, 
 with which he invested his son, Edward the Black 
 Prince, 1337. Since that time the heirs-apparent 
 to the crown of England, if eldest sons, have en- 
 joyed it successively. Tin mines were discovered 
 in Germany, which lessened the value of those in 
 England, till then the only tin mines in Europe, 
 1240. Anderson. Discovered in Barbary, 1640 ; 
 in India, 1740; in New Spain, 1782. In 1857, 
 9783 tons, in i860, 10,462 tons, in 1864, 10, 108 
 tons, in 1865, 10,039 tons, in 1870, 10,200 tons of 
 metallic tin were procured from British mines. Of 
 tin plates we exported in value, in 1847, 484,184^. ; 
 in 1854, 1,075,531^. ; in i860, 1,500,8121?. ; in 1864, 
 1,263,246^.; in 1866,1,896,341^.; in 1871,2,900,610^. 
 
 TINCHEBEAY (N. W. France), where a 
 battle was fought between Henry I. of England 
 and his brother Robert duke of Normandy. Eng- 
 land and Normandy were reunited under Henry, 
 at the decease of William Rufus, who had already 
 possessed himself of Normandy by a mortgage from 
 his brother Robert, at his setting out for Pales- 
 tine. Robert, on his return, recovered Normandy 
 by an accommodation with Henry; but having 
 afterwards quarrelled, Robert was defeated in the 
 battle of Tinchebray, 28 Sept. 1106, and Normandy 
 was annexed to the crown of England. Senault. 
 
 TIPPEBMUIE (near Perth) . Here the mar- 
 quis of Montrose defeated the covenanters under 
 lord Elcho, 1 Sept. 1644. 
 
 TITANIUM, a rare metal, discovered by Gregor 
 in menakite, a Cornish mineral, in 1791, and in 
 1794 by Klaprotlu 
 
 TITHES or TENTHS, were commanded to be 
 given to the tribe of Levi, 1490 B.C. Lev. xxvii. 
 30. Abraham returning ' from his victory over the 
 kings (Gen. xiv.), gave tithes of the spoil to 
 Melchisedek, king of Salem, priest of the most 
 high God (1913 B.C.) For the first 800 years of 
 the Christian church they were given purely as 
 alms, and were voluntary. Wicldiffe. " I will 
 not put the title of the clergy to tithes upon any 
 divine right, though such a right certainly com- 
 menced, and 1 believe as certainly ceased, with the 
 Jewish theocracy." Blackstone. They were estab- 
 lished in France by Charlemagne, about 800, and 
 abolished 1789. Tenths were confirmed in the 
 Lateran councils, 1215. Rainailda. —The payment 
 of tithes appears to have been claimed by Augustin, 
 the first archbishop of Canterbury, and to have been 
 allowed by Ethelbert, king of Kent, under the term 
 " God's fee," about 600. 
 
 The first mention of them in any English written law, 
 is a constitutional decree made in a synod strongly 
 enjoining tithes, 786. 
 
 Offa, king of Mercia, gave unto the church the tithes of 
 all his kingdom, to expiate the death of Ethelbert, 
 king of the East Angles, whom he had caused to be 
 basely murdered, 794. 
 
 Tithes were first granted to the English clergy in a gene- 
 ral assembly held by Ethelwold, 844. Henry. 
 
 In England, in 1545, tithes were fixed at the rate of zs. gd. 
 in the pound on rent; since then, many acts have 
 been passed respecting them. 
 
 The Tithe Commutation act, passed 13 Aug. 1836. It 
 was amended in 1837, 1840, and 1846. 
 
 A rector is entitled to all the tithes ; a vicar to a small 
 part only, frequently to none. 
 
 Several acts relating to tithes in Ireland have been passed 
 in 1832-47, altering and improving the tithe system. 
 
 TITHING. The number or company of ten 
 men with then- families knit together in a society, 
 all of them being bound to the king for the peace- 
 able and good behaviour of each of their society ; 
 of these companies there was one chief person, who, 
 from his office, was called (toothingman) tithing- 
 man ; but now he is nothing but a constable, 
 formerly called the headborough. Coivel. 
 
 TITLES EOYAL. Henry IV. had the title 
 of "Grace" and "My liege," 1399. Henry VI., 
 "Excellent Grace," 1422. Edward IV., "Most 
 High and Mighty Prince," 1461. Henry VII., 
 " Highness," 1485 ; Henry VIII. the same title, 
 and sometimes " Grace," 1509 et seq. Francis I. of 
 France addressed Henry as "Your Majesty" at their 
 interview in 1520 ; see Field of the Cloth of Gold. 
 Henry VIII. was the first and last king who was 
 styled "Dread Sovereign." James I. coupled to 
 " Majesty " the present " Sacred," or "Most Ex- 
 cellent Majesty." "Majesty" was the style of 
 the emperors of Germany ; the first king to whom 
 it was given was Louis XI. of France, about 1463. 
 
 TITLES TO LAND CONSOLIDATION 
 
 ACT (Scotland), passed 31 July, 1868, and amended 
 in 1869. 
 
 TIVOLI, see Tibur. 
 
 TOBACCO, Nicotiana tabacum, received its 
 name from Tabacco, a province of Yucatan, New 
 Spain ; some say from the island of Tobago, one of 
 the Caribbees ; others from Tobasco, in the Gulf of 
 Florida. It is said to have been first observed at St. 
 Domingo, in Cuba, 1492; and to have been used 
 freely by the Spaniards in Yucatan in 1520. 
 Tobacco was either first brought to England in 
 1565, by sir John Hawkins; or by sir Walter 
 Raleigh and sir Francis Drake, in 1586. It was 
 manufactured only for exportation for some years. 
 
TOBAGO. 
 
 662 
 
 TONSURE. 
 
 Stoic's Chroti. The Pied Bull inn, at Islington, is 
 said to have been the first house in England where 
 tobacco was smoked. In 1584 a proclamation was 
 issued against it. James I. published " A Counter- 
 blaste against Tobacco," and the star-chamber 
 ordered the duties to be 6s. lod. per pound, 1614. 
 Its cultivation was prohibited in England by 
 Charles II., 1684. Act laying a duty on the im- 
 portation was passed 1684. The cultivation was 
 allowed in Ireland, 1779. The tax was increased 
 and put under the excise, 1789. Anderson; Ashe. 
 Various statutes have passed relative to tobacco. 
 Act to revive the act prohibiting the culture of 
 tobacco in Ireland passed 2 "Will. IV., Aug. 1831. 
 Act directing that tobacco grown in Ireland be pur- 
 chased in order to its being destroyed, 24 March, 
 1832. The quantity consumed in England in 1791 
 was nine millions and a half of pounds, and in 1829 
 about fifteen millions of pounds. We imported in 
 1850, 35,166,358 lbs., and 1,557,558 lbs. manufac- 
 tured (cigars and snuff): in 1855, 36,820,846 lbs., 
 and 2,651,544 lbs. manufactured ; in i860, 48,936, 
 471 lbs., and 2,110,430 lbs. manufactured; in 1864, 
 61,042,667 lbs., and 6,578,707 lbs., manufactured; 
 in 1866, 54,374,800 lbs., and 3,171,906 lbs. manu- 
 factured ; m 1871, 73,042,305 lbs., and 3,852,236 
 manufactured. The tobacco duties were modified in 
 1863. 
 
 TOBAGO (West Indies), discovered by Colum- 
 bus in 1498 ; settled by the Dutch 1642. Taken by 
 the English, 1672 ; retaken, 1674. In 1748, it was 
 declared a neutral island ; but in 1763 it was ceded 
 to the English. Tobago was taken by the French 
 under De Grasse in 1781, and confirmed to them 
 in 1783. Again taken by the English, 14 April, 
 1793, but restored at the peace of Amiens, 6 Oct. 
 1802. The island was once more taken by the 
 British under general Grinfield, 1 July, 1803, and 
 was confirmed to them by the peace of Paris, in 
 1814. Population in 1861, 15,410. Governor, 
 Cornelius H. Kortright, 1864 ; Herbert Taylor 
 Ussher, 1872. 
 
 TOBITSCHAU (Moravia). In a sharp action 
 here, on 15 July, 1866, the Austrians were defeated 
 by the army of the crown prince of Prussia with 
 the loss of 500 killed and wounded and 500 prisoners, 
 and seventeen guns. 
 
 TOISON D'OR or Golden Fleece {which 
 see). 
 
 TOKENS, BANK, silver pieces issued by the 
 Bank of England, of the value of 5s., 1. Jan. 1798. 
 The Spanish dollar had a small profile of George III. 
 stamped on the neck of the Spanish king. They 
 were raised to the value of 5s. 6d. 14 Nov. 181 1. 
 Bank tokens were also current in Ireland, where 
 those issued by the bank passed for 6s. and lesser 
 sums until 181 7. They were called in on the revi- 
 sion of the coinage. Tradesmen were permitted to 
 issue tokens as small coins from 1648 till 16 Aug. 
 1672, when their circulation was prohibited by royal 
 proclamation. These tokens are figured and de- 
 scribed in a work by "Wm. Boyne, 1858. 
 
 TOLBIAC (now Zulpich), near the Rhine, 
 where Clovis totall)- defeated the Allemanni, 496. 
 
 TOLEDO, the ancient Toletum (Central Spain), 
 made capital of the Visigothic kingdom by Athana- 
 gild, 554 ; taken by the Saracens, 712. Toledo 
 was taken after war, begun 1081, by Alfonso, I. of 
 Castile, 25 May, 1085. In 1088 the archbishop was 
 made primate of Spain. The university was founded 
 in 1490. Toledo sword-blades have been famed 
 since the 15th century. 
 
 TOLENTINO (Italy, formerly in the Papal 
 states), where a treaty was made between the pope 
 and the French, 19 Feb. 1797. Here Joachim Murat, 
 having resumed arms against the allies, was de- 
 feated by the Austrians, 3 May, 1815, taken pri- 
 soner, and shot. 
 
 TOLERATION ACT, passed in 1689, to re- 
 lieve Protestant dissenters from the church of Eng- 
 land. Their liberties were, however, greatly en- 
 dangered in the latter days of queen Anne, who 
 died on the day that the Schism bill was to become 
 a law, 1 Aug. 1714. 
 
 The toleration granted was somewhat limited. It 
 exempted persons who took the new oath of allegiance 
 ami supremacy and made also a declaration against 
 popery, from the penalties incurred by absenting 
 themselves from church and holding unlawful conven- 
 ticles ; and it allowed the quakers to substitute an 
 affirmation for an oath, but did not relax the provi- 
 sions of the Test act (which see). The party spirit of 
 the times checked the king in his liberal measures. 
 
 TOLLS were first paid by vessels passing the 
 Stade on the Elbe, 1109. They were first demanded 
 by the Danes of vessels passing the Sound, 1341 ; see 
 Stade, and Sound. Tollbars in England originated 
 in 1267, on the grant of a penny for every waggon 
 that passed through a certain manor; and the 
 first regular toll was collected a few years after for 
 mending the road in London between St. Giles's 
 and Temple-bar. Gathered for repairing the high- 
 ways of Holborn-inn-lane and Martin's-lane (now 
 Aldersgate-street), 1346. Toll-gate or turnpikes 
 were set up in 1663. In 1827, 27 turnpikes near 
 London were removed by parliament ; 81 turnpikes 
 and toll-bars ceased on the north of London on 
 I July, 1864; and 61 on the south side, ceased on 
 31 Oct. 1865; and many others on the Essex and 
 Middlesex roads ceased on 31 Oct. 1866; the re- 
 mainder on the north of London ceased 1 July, 1872 ; 
 see Wales, 1843. The tolls on the Commercial roads, 
 London, E., were abolished 5 Aug. 1871. 
 
 TOLOSA- On the plain named las Navas de 
 Tolosa, near the Sierra Morena, S. Spain, Alfonso, 
 king of Castile, aided by the kings of Arragon and 
 Navarre, gained a great victory over the Moors, 
 16 July, 1212. This conflict is sometimes termed 
 the battle of Muradal. 
 
 TONK, Rajpootana, India. The nawab and his 
 minister for a massacre of Hindoo chiefs, 1 Aug. 1867, 
 was deposed by the British. In 1872 he demanded 
 investigation, and his case came before parliament 
 without any issue. 
 
 TONNAGE, see Tunnage. 
 
 TONOMETER, a delicate apparatus for tuning 
 musical instruments, by marking the number of 
 vibrations, was invented by H. Scheibler of Crefeld, 
 about 1834. It received little notice till M. Kcenig 
 removed some of the difficulties opposed to its suc- 
 cessful use, and exhibited it at the International 
 Exhibition of 1862. 
 
 TONQUIN, South Asia, part of the kingdom 
 of Anam. Here a French missionary bishop, Mel- 
 chior, was murdered with great barbarity 27 July, 
 1858 : the abbe Neron was also murdered, 3 Nov. 
 i860 ; see Anam. 
 
 TONSURE, the clerical crown, adopted, it is 
 said, in imitation of St. Peter, or of Christ's crown 
 of thorns, was disapproved of in the fourth century 
 as pertaining only to penitents, and not made 
 essential till the end of the fifth or beginning of the 
 sixtb century. 
 
TONTINES. 
 
 663 
 
 TOULOUSE. 
 
 TONTINES, loans given for life annuities with 
 benefit of survivorship, invented by Laurence Tonti, 
 a Neapolitan. They were first set on foot at Paris 
 to reconcile the people to cardinal Mazarin's 
 government, by amusing them with the hope of 
 becoming suddenly rich, 1653. Voltaire. Tonti died 
 in the Bastille after seven years' imprisonment. A 
 Mr. Jennings was an original subscriber for a 100I. 
 share in a tontine company; and being the last 
 survivor of the shareholders, his share produced 
 Mm 3000^. per annum. He died aged 103 years, 
 19 June, 1798, worth 2,115,244^; see Alexandra 
 Park. 
 
 TOPLITZ (Bohemia). Here were signed, in 
 1813, two treaties — one between, 1 Austria, Russia, 
 and Prussia, 9 Sept. ; and one between Great Britain 
 and Austria, 3 Oct. 
 
 TORBANEHILL MINERAL. Mr. Gil- 
 lespie, of Torbanehill, granted a lease of all the 
 coal in the estate to Messrs. Russell. In the course 
 of working, the lessees extracted a combustible 
 mineral of considerable value as a source of coal- 
 gas, and realised a large profit in the sale of it as 
 gas-coal. The lessor then denied that the mineral 
 was coal, and disputed the right of the lessees to 
 work it. At the trial in 1853 there was a great 
 array of scientific men and practical gas engineers, 
 and the evidence was most conflicting. One side 
 maintained the mineral to be coal, the other that 
 it was a bituminous schist. The judge set aside the 
 scientific evidence, and the jury pronounced it to 
 be coal. The authorities in Prussia have since 
 pronounced it not to be coal. Percy. 
 
 TORDESILLAS (near Valladolid). Here was 
 signed, 7 June, 1494, a treaty modifying the 
 boundary line which pope Alexander VI. had as- 
 signed, in May, 1493, in his division of the new 
 world between Spain and Portugal. 
 
 TORGAU (Saxony, N. Germany), the site of a 
 battle between Frederick II. of Prussia and the 
 Austrians, in which the former obtained a signal 
 victory; the Austrian general, count Daun, being 
 wounded, 3 Nov. 1760. He had, in 1757, obtained 
 a great victory over the Prussian king. Torgau 
 was taken by the allies in 1814 ; and given to 
 Prussia, 1815. 
 
 TORIES, a term given to a political party 
 about 1678 ; see Whig. Dr. Johnson defines a Tory 
 as one who adheres to the ancient constitution of 
 the state, and the apostolical hierarchy of the 
 Church of England. The Tories long maintained 
 the doctrines of "divine hereditary indefeasible 
 right, lineal succession, passive obedience, prero- 
 gative," &c. Bolingbrohe ; see Conservatives. For 
 the chief Tory administrations, see Pitt, Perceval, 
 Liverpool, Wellington, Peel, Derby, and Disraeli. 
 
 TORONTO, the capital of Canada "West, 
 founded in 1 794 as York ; it received its present 
 name in 1834. It was made a bishopric in 1839. 
 
 TORPEDO SHELLS, a name given to ex- 
 plosives placed under ships, an invention ascribed 
 to David Bushnell, in 1777. Torpedo shells ignited 
 by electricity were employed in the war in the 
 United States, 1861-5. On 4 ^ ct - 1865, Messrs. 
 M'Kay & Beardslee tried them at Chatham before 
 the duke of Somerset and others. An old vessel 
 the Terpsichore, was speedily sunk. The pre- 
 liminary arrangements are considered rather com- 
 plicated. Magneto-electricity was employed. Tor- 
 pedos, made by professor F. Abel, of Woolwich, 
 were tried in May, 1866. A torpedo invented by 
 
 Mr. Wightman and an Austrian, tried and reported 
 successful at Sheerness ; an old hulk was sunk, 
 8 Oct. 1870. Torpedoes to be ignited from a dis- 
 tance by an electric battery are now made at 
 Woolwich (1873). 
 
 TORRES STRAIT, dividing Australia from 
 Papua or New Guinea, was discovered by Torres, 
 a Spaniard, in June, 1606. 
 
 TORRES VEDRAS (a city of Portugal). 
 Near here Wellington, retreating from the French, 
 took up a strong position, called the Lines of Torres 
 Veclras, 10 Oct. 18 ro. 
 
 TORTOLA, see Virgin Lsles. 
 
 TORTURE was only permitted by the Romans 
 in the examination of slaves. It was applied to 
 heretics by the Roman catholic clergy, and was 
 used 'in England so late as 1640 (when Archer, 
 who took part in an attack on Laud's palace, was 
 racked), and in Scotland until 1690. The trial by 
 torture was abolished in Portugal, 1776 ; in France, 
 by Louis XVI., in 1789; and in Sweden by Gus- 
 tavus III., 1786. General Picton was convicted of 
 allowing the torture to be applied to Louisa Cal- 
 deron, in Trinidad, at his trials, 21 Feb. 1806, and 
 II June, 1808. 
 
 TOTAL ABSTINENCE, see Teetotaller. 
 
 TOTNES (Devon) : thought to be the Roman 
 Ad Duriuni Amnem. It was held by Judhael de 
 Totneis, who built the castle about 1085. It was 
 disfranchised for gross corruption and bribery, by 
 the Reform act, 15 Aug. 1867. 
 
 TOUL, the Roman Tulli Leucorum, a fortified 
 town on the Moselle, N.E. France, one of the most 
 ancient in the empire. The city and diocese ac- 
 quired great privileges from Charles the Simple, 
 925, when it was united with the German empire. 
 It was reunited with France, 1552. The fortifica- 
 tions, begun in 1238, were rebuilt and enlarged in 
 1700, according to the plans of Vauban. After a 
 vigorous resistance to the Germans, commencing 
 14 Aug. 1870, Toul surrendered with its garrison of 
 3000 men, 23 Sept., when the town was burning in 
 twenty-three places. The Germans thus acquired 
 an uninterrupted railway communication to Paris. 
 
 TOULON, the ancient Telo Martius (S. France), 
 an important military port. It was taken by the 
 constable of Bourbon, 1524, and by the emperor 
 Charles V. in 1536. In 1707 it was bombarded by 
 the allies, both by land and sea, by which almost 
 the whole town was reduced to a heap of ruins, and 
 several ships burned; but the allies were at last 
 obliged to raise the siege. It surrendered 27 Aug. 
 1793, to the British admiral, lord Hood, who took 
 possession both of the town and shipping, in the 
 name of Louis XVII., under a stipulation to assist 
 in restoring the French constitution of 1789. A 
 conflict took place between the English and French 
 forces, when the latter were repulsed, 15 Nov. 1793. 
 Toulon was retaken by Bonaparte, 19 Dec, when 
 great cruelties were exercised towards such of the 
 inhabitants as were supposed to be favourable to 
 the British. — A naval battle off this port was fought 
 II Feb. 1744, between the English under Mathews 
 and Lestock, against the fleets of France and Spain: 
 in this engagement the brave captain Cornewall 
 fell. The victory was lost by a misunderstanding 
 between the English admirals. Mathews was after- 
 wards dismissed for misconduct. 
 
 TOULOUSE, the ancient TOLOSA (S. France), 
 founded about 615 B.C.; was the capital of the 
 
TOULOUSE. 
 
 664 
 
 TOWTON. 
 
 Visigothic kings in a.d. 419 ; and was taken by 
 Clovis in 508. The dukes of Aquitaine reigned 
 here, 631-761. A university was established here, 
 1229, and a parliament, 1302. The inquisition was 
 established here to extirpate heretics, 1229. The 
 troubadours, or rhetoricians of Toulouse, had their 
 origin about 850, and consisted of a fraternity of 
 poets, whose art was extended throughout Europe, 
 and gave rise to the Italian and French poetry; 
 see Troubadours. The allied British and Spanish 
 army entered this city on 12 April, immediately 
 after the Battle of Toulouse, fought between 
 the British Peninsular army under lord Welling- 
 ton, and the French led by marshal Soult, 10 April, 
 1814. The French were forced to retreat, after 
 twelve hours' fighting. Neither of the com- 
 manders knew that Napoleon had abdicated the 
 throne of France. 
 
 TOULOUSE. The county was created out of 
 the kingdom of Aquitaine by Charlemagne, in 778. 
 It enjoyed great prosperity till the dreadful war of 
 the Albigenses {which see), when the count Ray- 
 mond VI. was expelled, and Simon de Montford 
 became count. At his death, in 1218, Rapnond VII. 
 obtained his inheritance. His daughter Jane and 
 her husband, Alphonse (brother of Louis IX. of 
 France), dying without issue, the county of Toulouse 
 was united to the French monarchy in 1271. 
 
 TOURAINE, the garden of France, was con- 
 quered by the Visigoths about 480. It was ceded 
 to Geoffroy count of Anjou, 1044, and thus became 
 the property of the Plantagenet Icings of England. 
 It was seized by Philip Augustus in 1203, and was 
 made a duchy by John 1360. It was finally united 
 to the crown on the death of the duke of Anjou, 
 1584. 
 
 TOURNAMENTS or JOUSTS, were martial 
 sports of the ancient cavaliers. Tournament is 
 derived from the French word tourncr, " to turn 
 round." Tournaments were frequent about 890; 
 and were regulated by the emperor Henry I., about 
 919. Tournaments were introduced into England 
 early in the 12th century ; prohibited by Henry II., 
 but revived by Richard I., his son. Solemn tourna- 
 ments were held by Edward III., 25 Sept. 1329, in 
 London; and 19 Jan. 1344, at Windsor; and by 
 Richard II. in Smithfield, London, 10 Oct. 1319; 
 and also by Henry VIII., in May 1513. The 
 Lateran council published an article against their 
 continuance in 1136. Henry II. of France, in a 
 tilt with the couite de Montgomerie, had his eye 
 struck out, an accident which caused the king's 
 death in a few days, 29 June, 1559. Tournaments 
 were then abolished in France. — A magnificent 
 feast and tournament, under the auspices of Archi- 
 bald, earl of Eglintoun, took place at Eglintoun 
 castle, 29 Aug. 1839, and the following week : 
 many of the visitors (among whom was the late 
 emperor of the French) assumed the characters of 
 ancient knights, lady Seymour being the "Queen 
 of Beauty." Among the festivities at the marriage 
 of prince Humbert, at Turin, was a tournament, 
 24 April, 1868. 
 
 TOURNAY (S. Belgium) was very flourishing 
 till it was ravaged by the barbarians in the 5th 
 century. It has sustained many sieges. Taken by 
 the allies in 1709, and ceded to the house of Austria 
 by the reaty of Utrecht; but the Dutch were 
 allowed to place a garrison in it, as one of the 
 barrier towns. It was taken by the French under 
 general La Bourdonnaye, 8 Nov. 1792. Several 
 battles were fought near Tournay in May, 1793, 
 and Maj, 1794. 
 
 TOURNIQUET (from tourner, to turn), an 
 instrument for stopping the flow of blood into a 
 limb, by tightening the bandage, employed in ampu- 
 tations, is said to have been invented by Morelli at 
 the siege of Besanc^on, 1674. J. L. Petit, in France, 
 invented the screw tourniquet in 17 18. 
 
 TOURS, an ancient city, central France, near 
 which Charles Martel gained a great victory over 
 the Saracens, and saved Europe, 10 Oct. 732, and 
 from which he acquired the name of 3lartcl, signi- 
 fying hammer. This conflict is also called the battle 
 of Poitiers. When Paris was invested by the Ger- 
 mans, M. Cremieux and several of the members of 
 the French government of defence went to Tours, 
 together with the representatives of foreign powers, 
 18 Sept. On 9 Oct. these were joined by Gambetta, 
 minister of the interior, afterwards of war (who 
 escaped from Paris by a balloon), 7 Oct. In con- 
 sequence of the defeat of the army of the Loire near 
 Orleans, the government removed to Bordeaux, 1 1 Dec. 
 
 TOWERS- That of Babel, the first of which we 
 read, built in the plains of Shinar {Gen. xi.) 2247 
 B.C. ; see Babel. The Tower of the Winds at 
 Athens, built 550 B.C. The Tower of Pharos (see 
 Pharos), 280 B.C. The round towers in Ireland 
 were the only structures of stone found at the 
 arrival of the English, 1169, except some buildings 
 in the maritime towns founded by the Danes. 
 These towers are tall hollow pillars, nearly cylin- 
 drical, but narrowing towards the top, pierced with 
 lateral holes to admit the light, and covered with 
 conical roofs. Fifty-six of them still remain, from 
 50 to 130 feet high ; see Pisa. 
 
 TOWER OF 'LONDON. The tradition that 
 Julius Ca'sar founded a citadel here (about 54 B.C.) 
 is very doubtful. A royal palace, consisting of no 
 more than what is now called the White Tower, 
 which appears to have been first marked out by 
 William the Conqueror, 1076, was commenced in 
 1078, and completed by his son, William Rufus, 
 who, in 1098, surrounded it with walls and a broad 
 deep ditch. Several succeeding princes made addi- 
 tions to it, and king Edward III. built the church. 
 In 1638, the old White Tower was rebuilt; and 
 under king Charles II., it was thoroughly repaired, 
 1680-5, ana a great number of additional build- 
 ings made to it. Here are the Armoury, Jewel- 
 oflice, and various other divisions and buildings of 
 peculiar interest. Here took place many executions 
 of illustrious persons, and many murders (king 
 Henry VI., 1471 ; king Edward V. and his brother, 
 1485; sir Thomas Overbury, 1 613). The armoury 
 and 280,000 stand of arms, &c, were destroyed by 
 fire, 30 Oct. 1841. The "New Buildings" in the 
 Tower were completed in 1850. See Blood; for 
 Tower- Subways, see Thames. The more recent 
 constables of the Tower have been the duke of Wel- 
 lington, lord Combermere, and sir John Burgoyne. 
 Sir George Pollock, who became constable Oct. 
 1871, died 6 Oct. 1872, and was succeeded by sir 
 Win. Gomm, 31 Oct. 
 
 TOWNLEY MARBLES, in the British 
 Museum, were purchased in 1805 and 1814. 
 
 TOWTON (Yorkshire), where a sanguinary 
 battle was fought, 29 March, 1461, between the 
 houses of York (Edward IV.) and Lancaster (Henry 
 VI.), to the latter of whom it was fatal, and on 
 whose side more than 37,000 fell. Edward issued 
 orders to give no quarter, and the most merciless 
 slaughter ensued. Henry and his queen, Margaret, 
 fled to Scotland; and Edward IV. was settled on 
 the throne. 
 
TOXOPHILITES. 
 
 665 
 
 TEANSIT. 
 
 TOXOPHILITES (from toxon, a bow, and 
 philos, a lover), a society established by sir Aston 
 Lever in 1781. In 1834 they took grounds in 
 the inner circle of Eegent's-park, and built the 
 archery lodge. They possess a very curious piece 
 of plate, given by Catherine, queen of Charles II., 
 to be shot for by the Finsbury archers, of whom the 
 Toxophilites are the representatives. 
 
 TEACT SOCIETIES. The Society for Pro- 
 moting Christian Knowledge was founded in 1698; 
 the Eeligious Tract Society, London, in 1799; and 
 other similar societies since. 
 
 TBACTAEIANISM, a term applied to certain 
 opinions on church matters propounded in the 
 "Tracts for the Times," of which ninety numbers 
 were published, 1833-41. The principal writers 
 were the revs. Lr. E. Pusey, J. H. Newman, 
 J. Keble, J. Froude, and I. Williams — all of the 
 university of Oxford; see JPuseyism. The tracts 
 were condemned by the authorities at Oxford, 
 15 March, 1841. 
 
 TEACTION-ENGINES were used on com- 
 mon roads in London in i860, but afterwards re- 
 stricted. In Aug. 1862 one of Bray's traction- 
 engines conveyed through the city a mass of iron 
 which would have required 29 horses ; see Road- 
 steamers, and Railways. 
 
 TEADE of GEEAT BBITAIN, see Ex- 
 ports and Imports. In 1871 the two amounted to 
 614,590,180^. 
 
 TEADE AND PLANTATIONS, Board 
 
 OF. Cromwell seems to have given the first notions 
 of a board of trade : in 1655 he appointed his son 
 Eichard, with many lords of his council, judges, 
 and gentlemen, and about twenty merchants of 
 London, York, Newcastle, Yarmouth, Dover, &c, 
 to meet and consider by what means the trade and 
 navigation of the republic might be best promoted. 
 Thomas's Notes of the Rolls. Charles II., on his 
 restoration, established a council of trade for keep- 
 ing a control over the whole commerce of the 
 nation, 1660 ; he afterwards instituted a board of 
 trade and plantations which was remodelled by 
 William III. This board was abolished in 1782.; 
 and a new council for the affairs of trade on its 
 present plan was appointed, 2 Sept. 1786. 
 
 TEADES' MUSEUMS. The formation of 
 . one was undertaken in 1853, jointly by the com- 
 missioners of the Great Exhibition of 185 1, and the 
 Society of Arts. The animal department was opened 
 17 May, 1855, when a paper on the mutual rela- 
 tions of trade and manufactures was read by pro- 
 fessor E. Solly. The contents of this museum were 
 removed to the South Kensington Museum, which 
 was opened 24 June, 1857. The Prench " Con- 
 servatoire des Arts et Metiers," was established 
 I79S- 
 
 TEADES' UNIONS. By 6 Geo. IV. c. 129 
 (1825), the combination laws were repealed, and 
 other provisions made. As trades' unions formed 
 for maintaining the rate of wages, &c, are not 
 recognised by law, a commission . (including lord 
 Elcho, Thomas Hughes, and others, with sir Wm. 
 Erie as chairman) was appointed to inquire into 
 their constitution, 14 Feb. 1867, and an act to 
 facilitate their proceedings was passed 5 April fol- 
 lowing. Their reports were issued during the year, 
 disclosing the existence of murderous practices, 
 with great intimidation ; see Sheffield, and Man- 
 chester. An act to protect union funds from em- 
 
 bezzlement was passed in 1869. A trade union act 
 passed 29 June, 1871. 
 
 TEAF ALGAE (Cape S. Spain), off which a 
 great naval victory was gained by the British, under 
 Nelson, over the combined fleets of Prance and 
 Spain, commanded by admiral Villeneuve and two 
 Spanish admirals, 21 Oct. 1805. The enemy's force 
 was eighteen French and fifteen Spanish vessels, 
 all of the line : that of the British, twenty-seven 
 ships. After a protracted fight, Villeneuve and the 
 other admirals were taken, and nineteen of their 
 ships captured, sunk, or destroyed. Nelson was 
 killed, and admiral Collingwood succeeded to the 
 command. Nelson's ship was the Victory ; and Ms 
 last signal was, " England expects every man will 
 do his duty;" see Nelson. Trafalgar-square, Lon- 
 don, begun 1829; completed 1845. 
 
 TBAFFIC in the metropolis is now regulated 
 by the Metropolitan Streets act, passed 20 Aug. 
 1867. 
 
 TEAGEDY, see Drama. 
 
 TEAINING SCHOOLS, begun by the Na- 
 tional Society, 181 1 . One was founded at Battersea in 
 1840, by sir J. Kay Shuttleworth, and Mr. E. C. 
 Tufnell ; the latter, who was then in the Poor Law 
 Commission, devoting a year's salary towards the 
 expenses. Mr. Mann stated, in 1855, that there 
 were about forty of these schools in different parts 
 of the country. 
 
 TEA JAN'S COLUMN (hi Eome), erected 
 114, by the Eoman senate and people, to com- 
 memorate his victories, and executed by Apollo- 
 dorus. It was built in the square called the Forum 
 Romanum; it is of the Tuscan order, and from 
 its base, exclusive of the statue and pedestal, is 
 127I feet high. 
 
 TBAM-BOADS, an abbreviation of Outram- 
 roads, derived the name from Mr. Benjamin Outram, 
 who, in 1800, made improvements in the system of 
 railways for common vehicles, then in use in the 
 north of England. The iron tram-road from Croydon 
 to Wandsworth was completed on 24 July, 1801. 
 Mr. Outram was father of the late sir James 
 Outram, the Indian general. Chambers. — Street 
 railways or tramways for omnibuses drawn by 
 horses," previously established by Mr. Train in New 
 York, were opened by him at Birkenhead, Cheshire, 
 30 Aug. i860, and at Bayswater, London, 23 March, 
 1861. (See Ireland, 1868.) A street railway bill 
 was rejected by the house of commons in April, 
 1861. Several of these railways existed for a time 
 in various parts of the metropolis in 1861, but were 
 all taken up in 1862. An act to facilitate the con- 
 struction of tramways passed 9 Aug. 1870. Tram- 
 ways from Brixton to Kennington, and from White- 
 chapel to Bow, were opened 9 May, 1870 ; and 
 others since. Then- introduction into the city was 
 much recommended but opposed, March- May, 
 1873- 
 
 TBANQUEBAE (East Indies), the Danish 
 settlement here, founded in 1618, was purchased by 
 the English in 1845. 
 
 TEANSFIGUEATION- The change of 
 Christ's appearance on Mount Tabor, in the pre- 
 sence of Peter, James, and John, a.d. 32 {Matt. 
 xvii.). The feast of the Transfiguration, kept on 
 6 Aug., was instituted by pope Calixtus II. in 
 1455- 
 
 TEANSFUSION OF BLOOD, see Blood. 
 
 TEANSIT, see Venus. 
 
TRANSLATION. 
 
 666 
 
 TRAUTENAU. 
 
 TRANSLATION to Heaven. The trans- 
 lation of Enoch to heaven at the age of 365 years, 
 3017 b.c. The prophet Elijah was translated to 
 heaven in a chariot of fire, 896 B.C. — The possibility 
 of translation to the abode of eternal life has been 
 maintained by some extravagant enthusiasts. The 
 Irish house of commons expelled Mr. Asgill from 
 his seat, for his book asserting the possibility of 
 translation to the other world without death, 1703. 
 
 TRANSPADANE REPUBLIC, comprising 
 
 Lombardy and part of the Venetian territories, was 
 established by Bonaparte after his victory at Lodi, 
 10 May, 1796. With the Cispadane republic, it 
 merged into the Cisalpine republic, Oct. 1797. 
 
 TRANSPORTATION, see Banishment. 
 Judges were given the power of sentencing offenders 
 to transportation " into any of Ms majesty's domi- 
 nions in North America," by 18 Charles II. c. 3 
 (1666), and by 4 Geo. I. c. II (1718). Transporta- 
 tion ceased in 1775, but was revived in 1786. The 
 reception of convicts was successfully refused by the 
 Cape of Good Hope (in 1849) and by the Australian 
 colonies (1864). Transportation, even to West 
 Australia, where labour is wanted, is to cease in a 
 few years, through the fierce opposition of the 
 eastern colonies. In consequence of the recent diffi- 
 culty experienced in transporting felons, 16 & 17 
 Vict. c. 99 was passed to provide other punishment, 
 namely, penal servitude, empowering her majesty 
 to grant pardon to offenders under certain condi- 
 tions, and licences to others to be at large : such 
 licences being liable to be revoked if necessary ; 
 and many have been. These licences are termed 
 " tickets of leave." The system was much assailed 
 in Oct. and Nov 1862, on account of many vio- 
 lent crimes being traced to ticlcet-of-leavers ; see 
 Crime. 
 
 Jolm Eyre, esq., a man of fortune, was sentenced to 
 transportation for stealing a few quires of paper. 
 Phillips 1 Nov. 1 771 
 
 The Rev. Dr. Halloran, tutor to the earl of Chester- 
 field, was transported for forging a frank (iod. 
 postage) 9 Sept. 1818 
 
 The first transportation of felons to Botany Bay was 
 in May, 1787 ; where governor Phillip arrived 
 with about 800 on 20 Jan. 1788 ; convicts were 
 afterwards sent to Van Diemen's Land, Norfolk 
 Island, &c. 
 
 Returning from transportation was punishable with 
 death until 5 Will. IV. c. 67, Aug. 1834, when an 
 act was passed making the offence punishable by 
 transportation for life. 
 
 A shipment of convicts to West Australia (which 
 had already received 10,000) in 1867. 
 
 TRANSUBSTANTIATION, the doctrine of 
 the "real presence." That the bread and wine in 
 the Eucharist are changed into the very flesh and 
 blood of Christ by the consecration, was broached in 
 the days of Gregory III. (731), and accepted by 
 Amalarius and Radburtus (about 830), but rejected 
 by Rabanus Maurus, Johannes Ibcotus Erigena, 
 Berengarius, Wieliffe, and others. In the Lateran 
 council, held at Rome by Innocent III., the word 
 " Transubstantiation " was used to express this 
 doctrine, which was decreed to be incontrovertible ; 
 and all who opposed it were condemned as heretics. 
 This was confirmed by the council of Trent, 18 Jan. 
 1562. John Huss, Jerome of Prague, and other 
 martyrs of the reformation, suffered for denying 
 this dogma, which is renounced by the church of 
 England (28th article), and by all protestant dis- 
 senters. The declaration against transubstantia- 
 tion, invocation of the saints, and the sacrifice of 
 the mass, on taking any civil office, was abolished 
 by an act passed 25 July, 1867. 
 
 Luther maintained the doctrine of con-substantiation , 
 viz., that after consecration the body and blood of 
 Christ are substantially present in the bread and wine. 
 He was opposed by Bucer, Carlstadt, Zwingle, and 
 others (termed sacramentarians), who asserted that the 
 Lord's supper is only a commemorative rite. 
 
 TRANSVAAL REPUBLIC (South Africa), 
 founded by emigrants, 1848. Its independence was 
 declared 17 Jan. 1852; and its constitution pro- 
 claimed 13 Feb. 1858. President (1871), C. J. 
 Bodenstein. Population between 20,000 and 30,000 
 whites, and about 250,000 blacks. 
 
 TRANSYLVANIA, an Austrian province, 
 was part of the ancient Dacia (which see). In 
 1526, John Zapoly rendered himself independent of 
 the emperor Ferdinand I. by the aid of the Turks. 
 His successors ruled with much difficulty till Jan. 
 1699, when the emperor Leopold I., by the treaty 
 of Carlowitz, finally incorporated Transylvania 
 into the Austrian dominions. The Transylvanian 
 deputies did not take their seat in the Austrian 
 parliament till 20 Oct. 1863. A decree for the 
 convocation of the Transylvanian diet was issued 
 12 Sept. 1865. The inhabitants are about 1,100,000 
 ignorant Roumans, 1,500,000 Saxon colonists, and 
 550,000 Magyars, the last being the ruling class. 
 The union of Trans ylvania with Hungary in 1848, 
 which has caused much discontent, was ratified by 
 the Transylvanian diet, 25 Dec. 1866. 
 
 PRINCES OF TRANSYLVANIA. 
 
 1526. John Zapoly. 
 
 1540. John Sigismund. 
 
 1571. Stephen Zapoly I. Bathori. 
 
 1576. Christopher Bathori. 
 
 1581. Sigismund Bathori. 
 
 1602. Emperor Rodolph. 
 
 1605. Stephen II. Bottskai. 
 
 1607. Sigismund Ragotzski. 
 
 1608. Gabriel I. Bathori. 
 
 1613. Gabriel II. (Bethlem Gabor). 
 1631. George I. Ragotzski. 
 1648. George II. Ragotzski. 
 1660. John Kemin. 
 1662. Michael I. Abaffi. 
 1690-99. Michael II. Abaffi. 
 
 TRAPPISTS- The first abbey of La Trappe 
 in Normancly was founded, in 1 140, by Rotrou, 
 comte de Perche. The present order of Trappists 
 owes its origin to the learned Jean le Bouthillier 
 de la Ranee (editor of Anacrem when aged 14), 
 who renounced the world, and sold all his property, 
 giving the proceeds to the abbey of La Trappe, to 
 which he retired in 1662, to live there in great 
 austerity. After several efforts he succeeded in 
 reforming the monks, and in establishing a new 
 rule, which commands silence, prayer, reading, and 
 manual labour, and which forbids study, wine, fish, 
 &c. Ranee was born in 1620, and died in 1700. 
 The Trappists' new building was consecrated in 
 Aug. 1833. 
 
 A number of these monks, driven from Prance in the 
 revolution of 1790, were received by Mr. Weld, of Lul- 
 worth, Dorsetshire, who gave them some land to culti- 
 vate and a habitation, where they remained till 1815. 
 This order was charged with rebellion and conspiracy 
 in France, and sixty-four English and Irish Trappists 
 were shipped by the French government at Paimbceuf, 
 19 Nov. , and were landed from the Hebe, French 
 frigate, at Cork, 30 Nov. 1831. They established them- 
 selves at Mount Melleray, county of Waterford. 
 
 TRASIMENE, see Thrasymene. 
 
 TRAUTENAU (Bohemia). On 27 June, 1866, 
 the first corps of the army of the crown-prince of 
 Prussia seized Trautenau, but was defeated and 
 repulsed by the Austrians under Gablenz ; on the 
 
TEAVELLEES' CLUB. 
 
 667 
 
 TEEATIES. 
 
 28th, the Prussians defeated the Austrians with 
 great loss. 
 
 .TEAVELLEES' CLUB (Pall-mall), estab- 
 lished in 1815. A member must have " travelled 
 out of the British islands to a distance of at least 
 500 miles from London, in a direct line." 
 
 TEAVELLING in England. In 1707 it 
 
 took in summer one day, in winter nearly two days, 
 to travel from London to Oxford (55 miles). In 
 181 7 the journey was accomplished in six or seven 
 hours. By the Great Western Eailway express (63 
 miles) it is done in i| hour. In 1828, a gentleman 
 travelled from Newcastle to London (273 miles) 
 inside the best coach in 35 hours, at an expense of 
 61. IKS. 3d. or bcl. per mile (including dinner, &c). 
 In 1857, the charge of the Great Northern railway 
 (2755 miles) first-class express (6 hours) was 
 50s. gd. 
 
 TEEAD-MILL, an invention of the Chinese, 
 to raise water for the irrigation of the fields. The 
 complicated tread-mill introduced into the prisons 
 of Great Britain is the invention of Mr. (afterwards 
 sir William) Cubitt, of Ipswich. It was erected at 
 Brixton gaol, 181 7, and soon afterwards in other 
 large prisons. 
 
 TEE A SON, see Sigh Treason. Petty 
 TREASON (a term abolished in 1828, defined by 
 the statute of 25 Edw. III. 1352) was a wife's mur- 
 der of her husband ; a servant s murder of his mas- 
 ter; and an ecclesiastical person's murder of his 
 prelate or other superior. 
 
 TEEASON-EELONY. By the Crown and 
 Government Security Act, 11 Vict. c. 12 (1848), 
 certain treasons heretofore punishable with death 
 were mitigated to felonies, and subjected to trans- 
 portation or imprisonment. The Penians in Ire- 
 land were tried under this act ; see Trials, 1865. 
 
 TEEASUEEE oe England, Lord High, 
 
 the third great officer of the crown, a lord by virtue 
 
 of his office, having the custody of the king's trea- 
 sure, governing the upper court of exchequer, and 
 formerly sitting judicially among the barons. The 
 first lord high treasurer in England was Odo, earl 
 of Kent, in the reign of William I. This great 
 trust is now confided to a commission, and is vested 
 in five persons, called " lords commissioners for 
 executing the office of lord high treasurer," and of 
 these the chancellor of the exchequer is usually 
 one ; the first lord being usually the premier ; see 
 Administrations, for a succession of these officers. 
 A third lord of the treasury (Mr. Stansfeld) was 
 appointed, Dec. 1868, succeeded by Mr. w. EL 
 Gladstone, Dec. 1869. 
 
 The first of this rank in Ireland was John de St. John, 
 Henry III. 1217 ; the last, William, duke of Devon- 
 shire, 1766; vice- treasurers were appointed till 1789; 
 then commissioners till 1816, when the revenues of 
 Great Britain and Ireland were united. 
 
 The first lord high treasurer of Scotland was sir "Walter 
 Ogilvie, appointed by James I. in 1420 ; the last, iu 
 1641, John, earl of Traquair, afterwards commissioners- 
 were appointed. 
 
 TEEASUEEE of the Chamber, for- 
 merly an officer of great consideration, and always 
 a member of the privy council. He discharged the 
 bills of all the king's tradesmen, and had his office 
 in Cleveland-row, in the vicinity of the royal 
 palace. His duties were transferred and the office 
 suppressed at the same time with the offices of 
 master of the great wardrobe and cofferer of the 
 household in 1782. Beatson. 
 
 TEEATIES. The first formal and written 
 treaty made in England with any foreign nation 
 was entered into at Kingston between Henry III. 
 and the dauphin of Prance (then in England and 
 leagued with the barons), n Sept. 1217. The first 
 commercial treaty was with Guy, earl of Planders, 
 2 Edw. 1274 : the second with Portugal and Spain, 
 1308. Anderson. The chief treaties of the nations 
 of Europe will be found described in their respec- 
 tive places : the following forms an index ; see 
 Coalitions, Leagues, &c. 
 
 1743 
 1829 
 
 7 Aug. 
 
 14 Sept. 
 
 2 May, 
 
 4 Sept. 1826 
 
 24 Sept. 
 3 Sept. 
 
 25 Mar. 
 4 April, 
 
 Abo, peace 
 
 Adrianople, peace 
 
 Aix-la-Chapelle 
 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, peace 
 
 Akermann, peace 
 
 Allahabad (Bahar, &c, ceded to 
 E. I. Company) 
 
 Alt Radstadt, peace 
 
 America, peace . 
 
 Amiens, peace 
 
 Antwerp, truce . 
 
 Armed Neutrality, convention, 
 16 Dec. 
 
 Arras . . . 22 Sept. 
 
 Arras 
 
 Augsburg, league of . . 
 
 Austria with England, conven- 
 tion ; the latter agrees to 
 accept 2,500,000?. as a compo- 
 sition for claims on Austria, 
 amounting to 30,000,000?. ster- 
 ling 
 
 Baden, peace . . 7 Sept. 
 
 Bagnalo (Venice, Naples, &c.) . 
 
 Balta Liman . . 1838 and 
 
 Barcelona (France and Spain) . 
 
 Barrier treaty . . 15 Nov. 
 
 Barwalde (France and Sweden) . 
 
 Basel, peace (France and Spain) 
 22 July, 
 
 Bassein (Great Britain and Mah- 
 rattas) 
 
 Bayonne ... 5 May, 
 
 Belgrade, peace . 18 Sept. 
 
 Berlin, peace . . 28 June, 
 
 1765 
 1706 
 
 1S00 
 1435 
 1482 
 
 1824 
 1714 
 
 1493 
 1715 
 1631 
 
 I79S 
 
 1802 
 1808 
 
 1739 
 1742 
 
 5 Nov. 
 
 1808 
 
 31 Aug. 
 
 1839 
 
 25 July. 
 
 1667 
 
 8 May, 
 
 1360 
 
 28 May, 
 
 1812 
 
 10 Dec. 
 
 1508 
 
 5 Aug. 
 
 i,S2<? 
 
 17 Oct. 
 
 1797 
 
 20 May, 
 
 1815 
 
 26 Jan. 
 
 1609 
 
 1 Aug. 
 
 1819 
 
 ce. 
 
 IS ,59 
 
 1 Mar. 
 
 1814 
 
 Berlin, decree . 29 Nov. 
 
 Berlin, peace (Prussia & Saxony) 
 21 Oct. 
 Berlin convention 
 Beyara 
 Breda, peace 
 Bretigny, peace 
 Bucharest . 
 Cambray, league 
 Cambray, peace . 
 Campo Formio 
 Capua, convention 
 Carlowitz, peace 
 Carlsbad, congress of 
 Chateau-Cambresis, peace . 
 Chaumont . 
 Chunar, India 
 Cintra, convention . 22 Aug. 
 Closterseven, convention 8 Sept. 
 Coalition, first, against France 
 26 June, 
 Coalition, second . 22 June, 
 Coalition, third . 8 Sept. 
 
 Coalition, fourth . 6 Oct. 
 Coalition, fifth . 9 April, 
 Coalition, sixth . . 1 March, 
 Commerce (Great Britain and 
 
 Turkey) . . 16 Nov. 
 Commerce (Great Britain and 
 
 the Two Sicilies) 25 June, 
 Concordat, with France, 15 July, 
 
 Conflans 
 
 Constantinople, peace, 16 April, 
 Constantinople . 8 July, 
 
 Constantinople . . 8 May, 
 
 1792 
 1799 
 
 1465 
 1712 
 
 1833 
 1854 
 
 Copenhagen, peace . 27 May, 1660 
 Copenhagen (composition for 
 Sound dues) . 14 March, 1857 
 
 Crecy iS44 
 
 Dresden, peace . 25 Dec. 1745 
 Egypt, viceroy and admiral Cod- 
 
 rington, convention 6 Aug. 1828 
 Eliot convention . April, 1835 
 England, convention with Aus- 
 tria, Russia, Prussia, and Tur- 
 key, for settlement of the East 
 
 15 July, 1810 
 England and United States, 
 
 convention . .13 Nov. 1826 
 Evora Monte . . 26 May, 1834 
 Family Compact . . 15 Aug. 1761 
 Fontainebleau, peace ■ 2 Sept. 1679 
 Fontainebleau . . 8 Nov. 1785 
 Fontainebleau, concordat 
 
 25 Jan. 1813- 
 France and England, convention 
 respecting the slave trade 
 
 29 May, 1845 
 France and Italy, convention 
 respecting the occupation of 
 Rome . . .15 Sept. 1864 
 Frankfort (peace between Ger- 
 many and France) 10 May, 1871 
 French commercial treaty 
 
 23 Jan. i860 
 Friedwald . . .5 Oct. 1551 
 Fuessen, peace . . 23 April, 1745 
 Gastein convention 14 Aug. 1865 
 
 Ghent, pacification . 8 Nov 1576 
 Ghent, peace (America) 24 Dec. 1814 
 
TEEBIA. 
 
 668 
 
 TEENT STEAMER. 
 
 Golden Bull .... 1356 
 
 Grand alliance . 12 May, 1689 
 
 Hague . . .21 May, 1659 
 
 Hague ... 7 May, 1669 
 
 Halle 1610 
 
 Hamburg, peace . . 2 May, 1762 
 
 Hanover ... 3 Sept. 1725 
 
 Hanover and England 22 July, 1834 
 
 Holy alliance . . 26 Sept. 1815 
 
 Hubertsburg, peace 15 Feb. 1763 
 
 "Interim". . . 15 May, 1548 
 
 Jay's treaty . . 19 Nov. 1794 
 Japan and Great Britain 
 
 26 Aug. 18^8 
 Kaynardji, or Koutschouc-Kay- 
 
 Paris . . .11 April, 
 Paris . . . .10 June, 
 Paris .... April, 
 Paris (settlement of Neufehatel 
 
 nardji 
 Kiel. 
 
 Laybach, congress 
 League, holy . 
 Leipsic, alliance . 
 Leoben, peace 
 Lisbon, peace 
 
 21 July, 1774 
 
 14 Jan. 1814 
 
 6 May, 1821 
 
 ■ ■ 1576 
 
 April, 1 63 1 
 
 • • 1797 
 
 13 Feb. 1668 
 
 affair) 
 Partition, first 
 Partition, second 
 Passarowitz, peace . 
 Passau 
 
 Pekin, peace . 
 Persia, peace 
 Petersburg, St., peace 
 Petersburg, St. 
 Petersburg, St. 
 
 26 May, 
 
 11 Oct. 
 
 13 Mar. 
 
 12 Any. 
 24 Aug. 
 
 ; March, 
 5 May, 
 5 Aug. 
 
 8 April, 
 
 London (settlement of Greece) 
 
 6 July, 1829 
 London (separating Belgium 
 
 from Holland) . 15 Nov. 183 1 
 London (convention respecting 
 
 Belgium) . -19 April, 1839 
 London (Turkey and Egypt) 
 
 15 July, 1840 
 London (succession to crown of 
 
 Denmark) .... 1852 
 London (neutrality of Luxem- 
 burg settled) . 11 May, 1867 
 Lubeck, peace . . 22 May, 1629 
 Luneville, peace . . 9 Feb. 1801 
 Madrid, concord . . . 1526 
 Metlmen treaty . . . . 1703 
 Milan decree . . 17 Dec. 1807 
 Milan (Austria and Sardinia) 
 
 6 Aug. 1849 
 Munster, peace . 24 Oct. 1648 
 Nankin, peace . 29 Aug. 1842 
 
 Nantes, edict . . 13 April, 1598 
 
 Naumberg 1554 
 
 Nice 1518 
 
 Nimeguen, peace 
 
 Noyon 
 
 Nuremberg 
 
 Nystadt 
 
 Oliva, peace . 
 
 Paris, peace (Peri*) 
 
 Paris 
 
 Paris . . . . 
 
 Paris, peace (Sweden) 
 
 10 Aug. 1678 
 
 16 Aug. 1516 
 
 2 Aug. 1532 
 30 Aug. 1 72 1 
 
 3 May, 1660 
 10 Feb. 1763 
 
 20 June, 1784 
 
 15 May, 1796 
 
 6 Jan. 1810 
 
 Peterswald, convention 8 July, 
 Pilnitz, convention . 20 July, 
 Poland, partition . 25 Nov. 
 
 Pragmatic sanction . 
 Pragmatic sanction 17 April, 
 Prague, peace . . 30 May, 
 Prague (peace between Austria 
 
 and Prussia) . 23 Aug. 
 Presburg, peace . . 26 Dec. 
 Public good, league for the 
 Pyrenees, peace . . 7 Nov. 
 Quadruple alliance . 2 Aug. 
 Radstadt, peace . 6 March, 
 Radstadt, congress . 9 Dec. 
 Ratisbon, peace . 13 Oct. 
 
 Ratisbon . . . 1 Aug. 
 Reichenbaeh, treaties . June, 
 Religion, peace of 
 Rhine, confederation . 1 Aug. 
 Ryswick, peace . 20 Sept. 
 St. Cloud, convention 3 July, 
 St. Germains, peace . . . 
 St. Germain-en-Laye, peace 
 
 29 June, 
 St. Ildefonzo, alliance 19 Aug. 
 Siorod, peace . . . . 
 
 Sistowa, peace . . 4 Aug. 
 Smalcald, league . 31 Dec. 
 
 Spain, pacification . 22 April, 
 Spain convention, satisfying 
 
 British claims . . 26 June, 
 Stettin, peace . 13 Dec. 
 
 Stockholm, peace . 20 Nov. 
 Stockholm . .24 March, 
 Stockholm . . s .3 March, 
 Stockholm, treaty of (Sweden 
 
 and allies) . . 21 Nov. 
 Suncion ... 15 July, 
 
 Temeswar, truce . 7 Sept. 
 Teschen, peace . 12 May, 
 Teusiu, peace . . 18 May, 
 
 014 
 
 S17 
 S56 
 
 S57 
 
 690 
 
 700 ' 
 
 7.3 
 
 552 
 
 860 
 
 Ss 7 
 
 762 
 
 772 
 
 805 
 
 813 
 
 791 
 
 795 
 43S 
 713 
 635 
 
 464 
 n 5 Q 
 71S 
 7M 
 797 
 630 
 806 
 813 
 555 
 S06 
 697 
 8.5 
 570 
 
 670 
 796 
 
 613 
 
 79 1 
 529 
 
 S34 
 
 828 
 57° 
 719 
 
 724 
 813 
 
 Ss6 
 S52 
 664 
 
 779 
 595 
 
 Tien-Tsin, China, peace 
 
 
 
 26 June, 
 
 1858 
 
 Tilsit, peace 
 
 7 July, 
 
 1807 
 
 Tolentino 
 
 . 19 Feb. 
 
 1793 
 
 Toplitz 
 
 9 Sept. 
 
 1813 
 
 Triple alliance 
 
 . 28 Jan. 
 
 1668 
 
 Triple alliance . 
 
 4 Jan. 
 
 1717 
 
 Troppeau, congress 
 
 . 20 Oct. 
 
 1820 
 
 Troyes 
 
 21 May, 
 
 1420 
 
 Turin (cession of 
 
 Savoy and 
 
 
 Nice) . 
 
 24 March, 
 
 i860 
 
 Turkmauchay, peace 22 Feb. 
 
 1828 
 
 Ulm, peace 
 
 3 July, 
 
 1620 
 
 Unkiarskelessi 
 
 . 8 July, 
 
 1833 
 
 Utrecht, union 
 
 22 Jan. 
 
 1579 
 
 Utrecht, peace 
 
 11 April, 
 
 1713 
 
 Valencay . 
 
 8 Dec. 
 
 1813 
 
 Verona, congress. 
 
 . 25 Aug. 
 
 1822 
 
 Versailles, peace 
 
 20 Jan. 
 
 1783 
 
 Vienna 
 
 . 30 April, 
 
 1725 
 
 Vienna, alliance 
 
 16 March, 
 
 1731 
 
 Vienna, jieace 
 
 . 18 Nov. 
 
 1738 
 
 Vienna, peace . 
 
 14 Oct. 
 
 1809 
 
 Vienna, convention 
 
 . 28 Sept. 
 
 1814 
 
 Vienna, 25 March ; 
 
 31 May; 
 
 
 
 9 June, 
 
 1815 
 
 Vienna (Austria and Prussia), 
 
 
 commercial 
 
 . 19 Feb. 
 
 1853 
 
 Vienna 
 
 . 30 Oct. 
 
 1864 
 
 Vienna (Austria & Great Britain, 
 
 
 commerical) 
 
 . 16 Dec. 
 
 1865 
 
 Vienna (peace between Austria 
 
 
 and Italy) 
 
 3 Oct. 
 
 1866 
 
 Villa Franca (prelim 
 
 .) 12 July, 
 
 1859 
 
 Vossem, peace 
 
 . 16 Jan. 
 
 1673 
 
 Warsaw, alliance 
 
 . 31 March, 
 
 1683 
 
 Warsaw . 
 
 . 24 Feb. 
 
 1768 
 
 Washington, reciprocity treaty 
 between Great Britain and the 
 United States, respecting New- 
 foundland fishery, commerce, 
 <fec. ... 2 July, 1854 
 Washington (settling Alabama 
 
 claims, &c.) . . 8 May, 1871 
 Westminster, peace . 19 Feb. 1674 
 Westminster (with Holland) . 1716 
 Westphalia, peace . 24 Oct. 1648 
 Wilna, treaty of . . . 1561 
 
 Wurms, edict of 1521 
 
 Wurtzburg league . . . . 1610 
 Zurich, convention . 20 May, 1S15 
 Zurich (Austria, France, and 
 Sardinia) . . 10 Nov. 1859 
 
 TEEBIA, now Trebbia, a river in North Italy, 
 near which Hannibal defeated the Koman consul 
 Sempronrus, 218 B.C. ; and Suvarrow, after a 
 struggle, defeated the French marshal Maedonald 
 and compelled hini to retreat, 17-19 June, 1799. 
 
 TEEBIZOND, a port of Asia Minor in the 
 Black Sea, was colonised by the Greeks, and became 
 subject to the kings of Pontus. It enjoyed self- 
 government under tbe Roman empire, and when 
 the Latins took Constantinople in 1204, it became 
 the seat of an empire which endured till 1461, 
 when it was conquered by the Turks under Ma- 
 homet I. 
 
 EMPERORS. 
 
 1204. Alexis I. Comnenus. 
 1222. Andronicus I. 
 1235. John I. 
 1238. Manuel I., great cap 
 
 tain. 
 1263. Andronicus II. 
 1266. George. 
 1280. John II. 
 1285. Theodora. 
 1285. John II. 
 1297. Alexis II. 
 1330. Andronicus III. 
 
 1332. Manuel II. 
 „ Basil. 
 
 1340. Irene. 
 
 1 341. Anna. 
 
 1343. John III. 
 
 1344. Michael. 
 1349. Alexis III. 
 1390. Manuel III. 
 1417. Alexis IV. 
 
 1446. John IV. (Calo-Jo- 
 
 annes). 
 1458-61. David. 
 
 TEECENTO, see Italian. 
 
 TEEES OF LIBEETY were planted in 
 Paris and other parts of France during the revolu- 
 tionary eras, 1790 and 1848. These trees were cut 
 down in Paris in Jan. 1850, when riots ensued, put 
 down by the military. 
 
 TEENT (the ancient Tridentum), in the Tyrol, 
 belongs to Austria. The council held here is 
 reckoned in the Roman catholic church as the 18th 
 general council. Its decisions have been implicitly 
 received as the standard of faith, morals, and disci- 
 pline in that church. It first sat 13 Dec. 1545, 
 and continued (with interruptions) under pope 
 Paul III., Julius III., and Pius IV. to 4 Dec. 1563 ; 
 its last sitting (the 25th). A jubilee in relation to 
 this council was celebrated in June, 1863. Trent was 
 several times taken during the French war. 
 
 At this council was decreed, with anathemas : the 
 canon of scripture (including the apocrypha), and the 
 church its sole interpreter ; the traditions to be equal 
 with scripture ; the seven sacraments (baptism, con- 
 firmation, the Lord's supper, penance, extreme unction, 
 orders, and matrimony) ; transubstantiation ; purgatory ; 
 indulgences ; celibacy of the clergy ; auricular confes- 
 sion, &c. 
 
 TEENT STEAMEE, see United States, Nov.- 
 Dec. 1861. 
 
TREVES. 
 
 669 
 
 TRIALS. 
 
 TREVES, or TRIER, the Roman Treviri, in 
 Rhenish Prussia, was a prosperous city of the Gauls 
 12 B.C. The emperor Gallienus held his court here 
 A.D. 255. The church of St. Simeon dates from the 
 4th century. Treves was made an electorate in the 
 14th century, and became subject to the archbishop 
 in 1585. Councils held here, 385-1423. The arch- 
 bishopric is said to have been founded before the 
 7th century and to be the oldest in Germany. 
 After various changes. Treves was acquired by 
 Prussia, June 1815. In 1844 much excitement was 
 occasioned by miracles said to have been wrought 
 by a " Holy Coat." 
 
 " TRIA JUNCTA IN UNO" (three joined in 
 one), the motto of the knights of the military order 
 of the Bath, signifying " faith, hope, and charity;" 
 see Bath. 
 
 TRIAL AT BAR, signifies by the whole court 
 or a plurality of judges. This plan was adopted at 
 Bristol after the riots hi 1832 ; also at O'Connell's 
 trial, 1844 ; and arranged for the trial of the 
 claimant of the Tichborne estates for perjury, in 
 April, 1873. 
 
 TRIALS. Regulations for conducting trials 
 were made by Lothaire and Edric, kings of Kent, 
 about 673 to 680. Alfred the Great is said to have 
 begun trial by jury ; but there is good evidence of 
 such trials before his time. See Appeal. 
 
 REMARKABLE TRIALS. 
 
 King Charles I. : 20 Jan. ; condemned . 27 Jan. 1649 
 
 Oates's Popish Plot: Edward Coleman, convicted, 
 27 Nov. ; Wm. Ireland and other priests 17 Dec. 1678 
 — Bobt. Green and others, 10 Feb. ; Thos. "Whit- 
 bread and other Jesuits, 13 June ; Richard 
 Langhome, counsellor, 14 June ; convicted . . 1679 
 
 Sir George Wakeman, the queen's physician ; ac- 
 quitted 13 Jul J', ,, 
 
 Viscount Stafford : convicted . 30 Nov. -7 Dec. 1681 
 
 Rye House Plot : convicted ; William lord Russell, 
 13 July; Algernon Sidney . . . 21 Nov. 1683 
 
 The Seven Bishops ; acquitted . . 29 June, 1688 
 
 Captain Porteous, for murder, see Porteous, 
 
 6 July, 1736 
 
 Jenny Diver, for felony, executed . 18 March, 1740 
 
 "William Duell, executed for murder at Tyburn, but 
 who came to life when about undergoing dissec- 
 tion at Surgeons' Hall ... 24 Nov. „ 
 
 Lords Kilmarnock and Balmerino for high treason 
 
 28 July, 1746 
 
 Mary Hamilton, for marrying with her own sex, 14 
 wives 7 Oct. ,, 
 
 Lord Lovatt, 80 years of age, for high treason ; 
 beheaded 9 March, 1747 
 
 Preney, the celebrated Irish robber, who surren- 
 dered himself 9 July, 1749 
 
 Amy Hutchinson, burnt at Ely, for the murder of 
 her husband 5 Nov. 1750 
 
 Miss Blandy, the murder of her father (hanged) 
 
 3 March, 1752 
 
 Ann Williams, for the murder of her husband, 
 burnt alive 11 April, 1753 
 
 Eugene Aram, for murder at York; executed 
 
 13 Aug. 1759 
 
 Earl Ferrers, for the murder of his steward ; exe- 
 cuted 16 April, 1760 
 
 Mr. MacNaughten, at Strabane, for the murder of 
 Miss Knox 8 Dec. 1761 
 
 Ann Bedingfield, for the murder of her husband ; 
 burnt alive 6 April, 1763 
 
 Mr. Wilkes, alderman of London, for an obscene 
 poem (" Essay on "Woman ") . •. 21 Feb. 1764 
 
 Murderers of captain Glas, his wife, daughter, 
 mate, and passengers, on board the ship Earl of 
 Sandwich, at sea .... 3 March, 1766 
 
 Elizabeth Brownrigg, for the murder of one of her 
 female apprentices ; hanged . . 12 Sept. 1767 
 
 Lord Baltimore, the libertine, and his female accom- 
 plices, for rape .... 28 March, 1768 
 
 Great cause between the families of Hamilton and 
 Douglas 27 Feb. 1769 
 
 Great Valencia cause in the house of peers, in Ireland 
 
 18 March, 1772 
 Cause of Somerset the slave (see Slavery) 22 June ,, 
 Elizabeth Herring, for the murder of her husband : 
 
 hanged, and afterwards burnt at Tyburn 13 Sept. 1773 
 Messrs. Perreau brothers, bankers, forgery ; hanged 
 
 17 Jan. 1776 
 Duchess of Kingston, for marrying two husbands ; 
 
 guilty (see Kingston) . . , I5 April,' 
 
 Dr. Dodd, for forging a bond of 4200L in the name 
 
 of the earl of, Chesterfield, 22 Feb. (see Forgery ;) 
 
 executed 27 June, 1777 
 
 Admiral Keppel, by court-martial ; honourably ac- 
 quitted 11 Feb. 1779. 
 
 Mr. Hackman, for the murder of Miss Reay, when 
 
 coming out of the theatre-royal, Covent-garden 
 
 16 April, „ 
 Lord George Gordon, on a charge of high treason ; 
 
 acquitted 5 p e b. i 7 8r 
 
 Mr. Woodfall, the celebrated printer, for a libel on 
 
 lord Loughborough, afterwards lord chancellor 
 , „ 10 Nov. 1786' 
 
 Lord George Gordon, for a libel on the queen of 
 
 France ; guilty 2g j an . I7 g 8 . 
 
 Mr. Warren Hastings : a trial which lasted seven 
 
 years and three months (see Hastings, Trial of), 
 
 commenced I3 p e \) 
 
 The Times newspaper, for a libel on the prince of 
 
 Wales ; guilty 3 Peb _ I?Q!> 
 
 Renwick Williams, called the Monster, for stabbing 
 
 women in London 8 July, 
 
 Barrington, the pickpocket, most extraordinary 
 
 adept ; transported . . . .22 Sept 
 Thomas Paine, political writer and deist, for libels 
 
 in the Rights of Man; guilty . . . 18 Dec. i7g"- 
 Louis XV. of France (see France) . . 1792-^ 
 
 Archibald Hamilton Rowan, for libel ; imprisoned ° 
 
 and fined 29 Jan. 1794. 
 
 Mr. Purefoy, for the murder of colonel Roper in a 
 
 duel : acquitted x . Au°\ 
 
 Mr. Robert Watt and Downie, at Edinburgh, for 
 
 treason 3 Sept. „ 
 
 Messrs. Hardy, Home Tooke, Thelwall, and Joyce, 
 
 for high treason ; acquitted . . 29 Oct. 
 Earl of Abingdon, for his libel on Mr. Serman- 
 
 guilty 6 Dec. „ 
 
 Major Semple, alias Lisle, for felony . 18 Feb. 1795 
 Redhead Yorke, at York, libel . . .27 Nov! ,, 
 Lord Westmeath v. Bradshaw, for crim. con. ; dam- 
 ages, io,ooo£ 4 March, 179& 
 
 Lord Valentia v. Mr. Gawler, for adultery, damages, 
 
 20001 16 June' „ 
 
 Daniel Isaac Eaton, for libels on kinglv government ; 
 
 guilty 8 July,' „ 
 
 Sir Godfrey Webster v. lord Holland, for adultery ; 
 
 damages, 6000Z 27 Feb.' 1797 
 
 Parker, the mutineer at the Nore, called admiral 
 
 Parker (see Mutinies) ... 27 June 
 
 Boddington v. Boddington, for crim. con. ; damages^ 
 
 i°,oooZ 5 Sept. „ 
 
 William Orr at Carrickfergus, for high treason; 
 
 executed I2 Oct! 
 
 Mrs. Phepoe, alias Benson, murderess . 9 Dec! " 
 The murderers of col. St. George and Mr. Uniacke, 
 
 at Cork IS April, 1798: 
 
 Arthur O'Conner and O'Coigley, at Maidstone, for 
 
 treason ; latter hanged . . . .21 May, 
 Sir Edward Crosbie and others for high treason ; 
 
 hanged T June,' 
 
 Beauchamp Bagenal Harvey, at Wexford, for high 
 
 treason 2I j U ne, „ 
 
 Two Messrs. Sheares, at Dublin, for high treason ; 
 
 executed . . . . . . 12 July,' ,, 
 
 Theobald Woulffe Tone, by court-martial (he com- 
 mitted suicide, died on the 19th) . 10 Nov. 
 Sir Harry Brown Hayes, for carrying off Miss Pike 
 
 of Cork 13 April, 1800 
 
 Hatfield, for shooting at George III. ; see Hatfield 
 
 26 June, ,, 
 Mr. Tighe of "Westmeath v. Jones, for crim. con. ; 
 
 damages, io,oooZ 2 D ec ' 
 
 Mutineers at Bantry Bay, hanged; see Ban try Hay ' 
 
 Charles Hayes, for an obscene libel . . 9 Jan. 
 Governor Wall, for cruelty and murder, twenty years ' 
 before (tried under 33 Hen. VIII. c. 23) (see Gone) 
 
 20 Jan. ,„ 
 
TRIALS. 
 
 670 
 
 TRIALS. 
 
 Crawley, for the murder of two females in Peter's- 
 
 row, Dublin 6 March, 1802 
 
 Colonel Despard and his associates, for high treason : 
 hanged on the top of Horsemonger-lane gaol (see 
 
 Despard) 7 Feb. ^03 
 
 M. Peltier, for libel on Bonaparte, first consul of 
 
 France, in VAmbigue : guilty . . 21 Feb. ,, 
 Kobert Aslett, cashier at the bank of England, for 
 embezzlement and frauds ; the loss to the bank, 
 320,000?. ; found not guilty, on account of the in- 
 validity of the bills .... 18 July, ,, 
 Robert Emmett, at Dublin, for high treason ; exe- 
 cuted next day ... 19 Sept. ,, 
 Keenan, one of the murderers of lord Kilwarden ; 
 
 hanged 2 Oct. ,, 
 
 Mr. Smith for the murder of the supposed Hammer- 
 smith Ghost 13 J» n - 1804 
 
 Lockhart and Laudon Gordon for carrying off Mrs. 
 
 Lee 6 March, ,, 
 
 Rev. C. Massy v. marquis of Headfort, for crim. 
 
 con. ; damages, 10,000? . . . 27 July, ,, 
 William Cooper, the Hackney Monster, for offences 
 
 against females 17 April, 1805 
 
 General Picton, for applying the torture to Louisa 
 Calderon, to extort confession, at Trinidad, tried 
 (under 42 Geo. III. c. 85) in the court of King's 
 Bench; guilty [new trial, same verdict, 11 June, 
 
 1808] 24 Feb. 1S06 
 
 Hamilton Rowan, in Dublin; pleaded the King's 
 
 pardon 1 July, ,, 
 
 Judge Johnson, for a libel on the Earl of Hard- 
 
 wicke; guilty - 23 Nov. ,, 
 
 Mr. Patch, for the murder of his partner, Mr. 
 
 Bligh 6 April, „ 
 
 Lord Melville, impeached by the house of com- 
 mons ; acquitted .... 12 June, ,, 
 The Warrington gang, for unnatural offences ; 
 
 executed 23 Aug. ,, 
 
 Palm, the bookseller, by a French military com- 
 mission at Brennau .... 26 Aug. ,, 
 Lord Cloncurry v. Sir John B/Piers, for crim. con. ; 
 
 damages, 20,000? 19 Feb. 1807 
 
 Holloway and Haggerty, the murderers of Mr. 
 Steele ; thirty persons were crushed to death at 
 their execution, at the Old Bailey . 20 Feb. ,, 
 Sir Home Popham, by court-martial ; repri- 
 manded 7 March, ,, 
 
 Knight v. Dr. Wolcot, alias Peter Pindar, for crim. 
 
 con 27 June, ,, 
 
 Lieut. Berry, of H.M.S. Hazard ; for an unnatural 
 
 offence 2 Oct ,, 
 
 Lord Elgin v. Ferguson, for crim. con. ; damages, 
 
 10,000? 22 Dec. „ 
 
 Simmons, the murderer of the Boreham family, at 
 
 Hoddesdon 4 March, ,, 
 
 Sir Arthur Paget, for crim. con. with Lady Bor- 
 
 rington 14 July, ,, 
 
 Major Campbell, for killing Captain Boyd in a duel ; 
 
 hanged 4 Aug. ,, 
 
 Peter Finnerty and others, for a libel on the duke 
 
 of York 9 Nov. „ 
 
 The duke of York, by inquiry m the house of 
 commons, on charges preferred against him by 
 colonel Wardle, from 26 Jan. to 20 March, . . 1809 
 Wellesley v. Lord Paget, for crim. con. ; damages, 
 20,000?. ...... 12 May, ,, 
 
 Tne king v. Valentine Jones, for breach of duty as 
 commissary-general .... 26 May, ,, 
 
 The earl of Leicester v. Morning Herald, for a libel ; 
 
 damages 1000? 29 June, ,, 
 
 Wright v. colonel Wardle, for Mrs. Mary Ann 
 
 Clarke's furniture . . . . 1 June, ., 
 William Cobbett, for a libel on the German legion ; 
 
 convicted 9 July, ,, 
 
 Hon. captain Lake, for putting Robert Jeffery, a 
 British seaman, 011 shore at Sombrero ; dismissed 
 the service (see Sombrero) ... 10 Feb. 1810 
 Mr. Perry for libels in the Morning Chronicle ; ac- 
 quitted 24 Fel). ,, 
 
 The Vere-street gang, for unnatural offences; 
 
 guilty 20 Sept. ,, 
 
 Peter Finnerty, for a libel on lord Castlereagh ; 
 
 31 Jan. 1811 
 The king v. Messrs John and Leigh Hunt, for 
 
 libels; guilty 22 Feb. ,, 
 
 Ensign Hepburn, and White the drummer ; both 
 were executed ... 7 March, ,, 
 
 Walter Cox, in Dublin, for libels ; he stood in the 
 
 pillory 12 March, 1811 
 
 The king v. W. Cobbett, for libels ; convicted 
 
 15 June, „ 
 Lord Louth, in Dublin ; sentenced to imprison- 
 ment and fine, for oppressive conduct as a ma- 
 gistrate 19 June, „ 
 
 The Berkeley cause, before the house of peers, 
 
 concluded 28 June, ,, 
 
 Dr. Sheridan, physician, on a charge of sedition ; 
 
 acquitted . . . . , . 21 Nov. ,, 
 Gale Jones, for seditious and blasphemous libels ; 
 
 convicted 26 Nov. ,, 
 
 William Cundell and John Smith, for high treason 
 
 (see High Treason) .... 6 Feb. 1812 
 Daniel Isaac Eaton, on a charge of blasphemy ; 
 
 convicted 6 March, ,, 
 
 Bellingham, for the murder of Mr. Perceval, prime 
 
 minister 15 May, ,, 
 
 The king v. Mr. Lovell, of the Statesman, for 
 
 libel ; guilty 19 Nov. „ 
 
 Messrs. John and Leigh Hunt, for libels in the 
 
 Examiner ; convicted .... 9 Dec ,, 
 Marquis of Sligo, for concealing a sea-deserter 
 
 16 Dec. „ 
 The murderers of Mr. Horsfall ; at York ; exe- 
 cuted 7 Jan. 1813 
 
 Mr. Hugh Fitzpatriek, for publishing Scully's His- 
 tory of the Penal Laws .... 6 Feb. „ 
 The divorce cause against the duke of Hamilton 
 
 for adultery n April ,, 
 
 Mr. John Magee, in Dublin, for libels in the Even- 
 ing Post; guilty 26 July, ,, 
 
 Nicholson, the murderer of Mr. and Mrs. Bonar ; 
 
 hanged 21 Aug. „ 
 
 Tuite, murder of Mr. Goulding ; executed 7 Oct. ,, 
 The celebrated Mary Ann Clark, for a libel on the 
 right lion. Wm. Vesey Fitzgerald, afterwards lord 
 
 Fitzgerald ' 7 Feb. 1814 
 
 Lord Cochrane, Cochrane Johnstone, Berenger, 
 Butt, and others, for frauds in the public funds, 
 22 Feb. ; convicted (see Stocks) . 8, 9 June, ,, 
 Admiral Bradley, at Winchester, for frauds in ship 
 
 letters 18 Aug. „ 
 
 Colonel Quentin, of the 10th Hussars, by court- 
 martial 1 Nov. ,, 
 
 Sir John Henry Mildmay, liart. , for crim. con. 
 with the countess of Roseberry ; damages, 
 15,000?. ....... 5 Dec, ,, 
 
 George Barnett, for shooting at Miss Kelly, of 
 
 Covent Garden theatre ... 8 April, 1816 
 Captain Hutchinson, sir Robert Wilson, and Mr. 
 Bruce, in Paris, for aiding the escape of count 
 Lavalette (see Laralette) ... 24 April, ,, 
 " Captain Grant," the famous Irish robber at Mary- 
 borough 16 Aug. ,, 
 
 Vaughan, a police officer, Mackay, and Browne, for 
 conspiracy to induce men to commit felonies to 
 obtain the reward ; convicted . . 21 Aug. „ 
 Colonel Stanhope, by court-martial, at Canibray, 
 
 in France 23 Sept. ,, 
 
 Cashman, the intrepid seaman, for the Spahelds 
 riots and outrages on Snowhill ; convicted and 
 hanged (see Spafields) .... 20 Jan. 1817 
 Count Maubreuil, at Paris, for robbing the queen 
 
 of Westphalia 2 May, ,, 
 
 Mr. R. J. Butt, for a libel on lord chief-justice 
 
 Ellen borough 23 May, ,, 
 
 Mr. Wooler, for libels on the government and 
 
 ministers 6 June, ,, 
 
 Thistiewood, Dr. Watson, Hooper, and others, for 
 
 treason . .... 9 June, „ 
 
 The murderers of the Lynch family at Wildgoose- 
 
 lodge, Ireland . . . . 19 July, ,, 
 
 Mr. Roger O'Connor, on a charge of robbing the 
 
 mail; acquitted 5 Aug. „ 
 
 Brandreth, Turner, and others, at Derby, for high 
 
 treason 15 Oct. ,, 
 
 Hone, the bookseller, for parodies; three trials 
 before Lord Ellen borough : extemporaneous and 
 successful defence ... 18, 19, 20 Dec. ,, 
 ili-. Dick, for abduction and rape of Miss Crockatt 
 
 21 March, 1818 
 Appeal of murder case, Ashford, the brother of 
 Mary Ashford, against her murderer, Abraham 
 Thornton (see Battle) . . . 16 April, ,, 
 Rev. Dr. O'Halloran, for forging a frank (see Trans- 
 portation) 9 Sept. 
 
TRIALS. 671 
 
 TRIALS. 
 
 Robert Johnston, at Edinburgh ; his dreadful exe- 
 cution 30 Deo. 1818 
 
 Sir Manasseh Lopez, for bribery at Grampound 
 
 (see Bribery) 18 March, 1819 
 
 Mosely, Woolfe, and other merchants, for conspiracy 
 
 and fraud 20 April, „ 
 
 Carlile, for the publication of Paine's Age of 
 
 Reason, &c 15 Oct. „ 
 
 John Scanlan, at Limerick, for murder of Ellen 
 
 Hanly ...'.. 14 March, 1820 
 Sir Francis Burdett, at Leicester, for a seditious 
 
 libel 23 March, „ 
 
 Henry Hunt, and others, for their conduct at the 
 Manchester meeting ; convicted (see Manchester 
 Reform Meeting) .... 27 March, ,, 
 Sir Charles Wolseley and rev. Mr. Harrison, for 
 
 sedition ; guilty 10 April, ,, 
 
 Thistlewood, Ings, Brunt, Davidson, and Tidd, for 
 conspiracy to murder the king's ministers ; com- 
 menced (see Cato-street) ... 17 April, ,. 
 Louvel, in France, for the murder of the duke de 
 
 Berri 7 June, ,, 
 
 Lord Glerawley v. John Burn, for crirn. con. 
 
 18 June, ,, 
 Major Cartwright and others at Warwick, for sedi- 
 tion 3 Aug. ,, 
 
 "Little Waddington," for a seditious libel; ac- 
 quitted 19 Sept. „ 
 
 Lieutenant-colonel French, 6th dragoon guards, by 
 
 court-martial 19 Sept. „ 
 
 Caroline, queen of England, before the house of 
 lords, for adultery, commenced 16 Aug. ; it ter- 
 minated (see Queen Caroline's Trial) . 10 Nov. „ 
 The female murderers of Miss Thompson, in 
 
 Dublin; hanged 1 May, 1821 
 
 David Haggart, an extraordinary robber, and a man 
 of singularly eventful life, at Edinburgh, for the 
 murder of a turnkey .... 9 June, ,, 
 Samuel D. Hayward, the favourite man of fashion. 
 
 for burglary 8 Oct. ,, 
 
 The murderers of Mrs. Torrance, in Ireland, con- 
 victed and hanged .... 17 Dec „ 
 Cussen, Leahy, and others, for the abduction of 
 
 Miss Gould 29 July, 1822 
 
 Barthelemi, in Paris, for the abduction of Elizabeth 
 
 Florence 23 Sept. „ 
 
 Cuthbert v. Browne, singular action for deceit 
 
 28 Jan. 1823 
 The famous " Bottle Conspirators," in Ireland, by 
 
 ex-officio ... . . 23 Feb. ,, 
 
 The extraordinary "earl of Portsmouth's case" 
 
 commenced 18 March, „ 
 
 Probert, Hunt, and Thurtell, murderers of Mr. 
 Weare ; Probert turned king's evidence ; after- 
 wards hanged for horse-stealing (see Executions) 
 
 5 Jan. 1824 
 Mr. Henry Fauntleroy, banker of London, for for- 
 gery ; hanged 30 Oct. ,, 
 
 Foote v. Hayne, for breach of promise of mar- 
 riage ; damages, 3000Z. ... 22 Dec. ,, 
 Mr. Henry Savary, a banker's son at Bristol, for 
 
 forgery 4 April, 1825 
 
 O'Keefe and Bourke, murderers of the Franks 
 
 family 18 Aug. ,, 
 
 The case of Mr. Wellesley Pole, and the Misses 
 
 Long; commenced .... 9 Nov. ,, 
 Captain Bligh v. the hon. Wm. Wellesley Pole, for 
 
 adultery 25 Nov. ,, 
 
 Fisher v. Stockdale, for libel in Harrietts Wilson 
 
 20 March, 1826 
 Edward Gibbon Wakefield, and others, for abduc- 
 tion of Miss Turner ... 24 March, 1827 
 Rev. Robert Taylor for blasphemy ; found guilty 
 
 24 Oct. „ 
 Richard Gillan, for the murder of Maria Bagster, 
 
 at Taunton 8 April, 1828 
 
 Mr. Montgomery, for forgery ; he committed suicide 
 in prison on the morning appointed for his exe- 
 cution 4 July, 
 
 Brinklett, for the death of lord Mount Sandford 
 
 by a kick 16 July, 
 
 William Corder, for murder of Maria Marten ; exe- 
 cuted 6 Aug. 
 
 Joseph Hunton, a quaker merchant, for forgery ; 
 
 hanged 28 Oct. 
 
 Burke, at Edinburgh, for the Burking murders ; 
 Hare, his accomplice, became approver (see 
 Burking) 24 Dec. 
 
 The king v. Buxton, and others, for fraudulent 
 
 marriage 2I March, 1829 
 
 Jonathan Martin, for setting fire to Yorkminster 
 
 31 March, ,, 
 Stewarb and his wife, noted murderers, at Glasgow ; 
 
 hanged I4 July, „ 
 
 Reinbauer, the Bavarian priest, for murders of 
 
 women 4 Aug. „ 
 
 Captain Dickenson, by court-martial, at Ports- 
 mouth ; acquitted .... 26 Aug. ,, 
 Mr. Alexander, editor of the Morning Journal, for 
 libels on the duke of Wellington ; convicted 
 
 10 Feb. 1830 
 Clune, &c, at Ennis, for cutting out the tongues of 
 
 the Doyles 4 March, „ 
 
 Mr. Comyn, for burning his house in the county of 
 
 Clare ; hanged 6 March, „ 
 
 Mr. Lambrecht, for murder of Mr. Clayton in a 
 
 duel 2 April, „ 
 
 Captain Moir, for murder of William Malcolm; 
 
 hanged 30 July, „ 
 
 Captains Smith and Markham, for killing Mr. 
 
 O'Grady in a duel .... 24 Aug. ,, 
 Captain Helsham, for murder of lieut. Crowther in 
 
 a duel s Oct. „ 
 
 Mr. St. John Long, for manslaughter of Miss 
 
 Cashin ; see Quacks .... 30 Oct. ,, 
 Polignac, Peyronnet, and others, ministers of 
 
 France (see France) .... 21 Dec. „ 
 Carlile, for a seditious libel, inciting to a riot ; 
 
 guilty 10 Jan. 1831 
 
 Mr. D. O'Connell, for breach of proclamation; 
 
 pleaded guilty 12 Feb. „ 
 
 St. John Long, for manslaughter of Mrs. Lloyd (see 
 
 Quacks) I9 Feb. „ 
 
 Major Dundas, for the seduction of Miss Adams ; 
 
 damages, 3000? 26 May, „ 
 
 Mr. Cobbett, for a seditious libel ; the jury could 
 
 not agree 7 July, „ 
 
 Rev. Robert Taylor (who obtained the revolting 
 distinction of "the Devil's Chaplain "), for reviling 
 the Redeemer : convicted ... 6 July, „ 
 Mr. and Mrs. Deacle v. Mr. Bingham Baring, M.P. 
 
 14 July, ' „ 
 Bird, a boy of 14 years of age, for the murder of a 
 
 child ; hanged . . . - . . 1 Aug. „ 
 The great cause, earl of Kingston v. lord Lorton ; 
 
 commenced g Nov. 
 
 Bishop and Williams, for murder of the Italian boy 
 
 (see Burking) 3 Dec. ,, 
 
 Earl of Mar, in Scotland, for shooting at Mr'. 
 
 Oldham I7 Dec. ,, 
 
 Elizabeth Cooke, for murder of Mrs. Walsh, by 
 
 " Burking " 6 Jan. 1832 
 
 Colonel Brereton, by court-martial, at Bristol (see 
 
 Bristol) g Jan. ,, 
 
 The murderers of Mr. Blood, of Applevale, county 
 
 of Clare 28 Feb. „ 
 
 William Duggan, at Cork, for murder of his wife 
 
 and others 26 March, „ 
 
 Mr. Hodgson (son of the celebrated Miss Aston) v. 
 
 Greene 26 July, „ 
 
 Mayor of Bristol, for neglect of duty in the 
 
 Bristol riots 26 Oct. „ 
 
 Rev. Mr. Irving, by the Scots church, for heresy 
 
 13 March, 1833 
 Lord Teynham, and Dolan, a tailor, for swindling ; 
 
 guilty 10 May, „ 
 
 Attorney-general v. Shore (lady Hewley's charity, 
 
 which is taken from the Unitarians) . 23 Dec. „ 
 Captain Wathen, 15th hussars, by court-martial, at 
 Cork ; honourably acquitted ; his colonel, lord 
 Brudenell, cashiered .... Jan. 1834 
 Proprietors of the True Sun, for libels ; guilty, 
 
 6 Feb. „ 
 Mary Ann Burdock, the celebrated murderess, 
 
 at Bristol 10 April, 1835 
 
 Sir John de Beauvoir, for perjury ; acquitted, 
 
 29 May, „ 
 Fieschi, at Paris, for attempting the life of the 
 king, Louis Philippe, by exploding an infernal 
 machine (see Fieschi) .... 30 Jan. 1836 
 Hon. G. C. Norton v. lord Melbourne, in court of 
 Common Pleas, for crim. con. with the hon. Mrs. 
 Norton ; verdict for defendant . . 22 June, „ 
 Lord de Roos v. Gumming, for defamation, charg- 
 ing lord de Roos with cheating at cards ; verdict 
 in favour of Mr. Cumming ... 10 Feb. 1837 
 
TRIALS. 
 
 672 
 
 TEIALS. 
 
 James Greenacre and Sarah Gale, for the murder of 
 Hannah Browne; Greenacre convicted and 
 hanged ; Gale transported . . 10 April, 1837 
 Francis Hastings Medhurst, esq., for killing Mr. 
 
 Joseph Alsop ; guilty . . . 13 A P nl > l8 39 
 Bolam, for murder of Mr. Millie ; verdict, man- 
 slaughter 3° July, " 
 
 Rev. Mr. Stephens, at Chester, for inflammatory 
 
 language T 5 Aug. >> 
 
 John Frost, an ex-magistrate, and others, for high 
 treason ; guilty : sentence commuted to transpor- 
 tation (see Newport) 3 1 D eu - ,, 
 Benjamin Courvoisier, for murder of lord William 
 
 Russell ; hanged .... 18-20 June, 1840 
 Gould, for murder of Mr. Templeman ; transported 
 
 22 June, „ 
 Edward Oxford, attempted the life of the queen ; 
 adjudged insane, and confined in Bethlehem (see 
 
 Otfford) 9. 1° July. » 
 
 Madame Lefarge, in France, for the murder of her 
 
 husband ; guilty 2 Sept. ,, 
 
 Prince Louis Napoleon, for his descent upon France 
 
 (see France) 6 Oct. ,, 
 
 Captain R. A. Reynolds, nth hussars, by court- 
 martial ; guilty : the sentence excited great popu- 
 lar displeasure' against his colonel, lord Cardigan 
 
 20 Oct. , , 
 Lord Cardigan before the house of peers, capitally 
 charged for wounding captain Harvey Tucket in 
 a duel ; acquitted .... 16 Feb. 1841 
 The Wallaces, brothers, merchants, for having wil- 
 fully caused the destruction of the ship Dryad at 
 sea,' to defraud the underwriters ; transported 
 
 4 March, 
 Josiah Mister, for attempting the life of Mr. 
 
 Mackreth; guilty .... 23 March, „ 
 Bartholomew Murray, at Chester, for the murder of 
 
 Mrs. Cook S April, ,, 
 
 Earl of Waldegrave and captain Putt, for an aggra- 
 vated assault on a police constable ; guilty : judg- 
 ment six months' imprisonment, and fines of 
 
 200L and 2o7 3 May, ,, 
 
 Madame Lefarge again, for robbery ol diamonds 
 
 7 Aug. ,, 
 The great case, Allen Bogle v. Mr. Lawson, pub- 
 lisher of the Times newspaper, for an alleged 
 libel, in stating the plaintiff to be connected with 
 numerous bank forgers throughout Europe 111 
 their schemes to defraud Messrs. Glyn ami Com- 
 pany, bankers of London, by means of fictitious 
 letters of credit : damages, one farthing. This 
 exposure, so honourable to the Times, led to the 
 Times Testimonial .... 16 Aug. 
 Mr. MacLeod, at Utica, America, for taking part 
 in the destruction of the Caroline, commenced: 
 acquitted after a tri al that lasted eight day s , 4 Oct. , , 
 Robert Blakesley, for murder of Mr. Burdon, of 
 
 Eastcheap ; hanged .... 28 Oct. „ 
 Mr Beaumont Smith, for forgery of Exchequer 
 bills to an immense amount ; he pleaded guilty, 
 and was sentenced to transportation for life 
 
 4 Dec. ,, 
 Sophia Darbon a. Rosser; breach of promise of 
 
 marriage ; damages, 1600I. ... 8 Dec. ,, 
 Mr John Levick and Antonio Mattel, principal and 
 s'ecbnd in the duel in which lieut. Adams was 
 killed at Malta : both acquitted . 10 March, 1842 
 Yivier courier of the Morning Herald, at Boulogne, 
 for conveying the Indian mail through France, 
 for that journal, contrary to the French regula- 
 tions ■ ■ i3 April, „ 
 
 Daniel Good, for murder of Jane Jones ; the Roe- 
 hampton murder ; found guilty, and sentenced to 
 
 be hanged ' • . 13 May, ,, 
 
 John Francis, for attempting to assassinate the 
 
 queen (see Fra net's) .... 17 June, ,, 
 Thomas Cooper, for the murder of Daly, the police- 
 man ; hanged 4 July. >' 
 
 Nicholas Suisse, valet of the late marquis of Hert- 
 ford, at the prosecution of that nobleman's exe- 
 cutors charged with enormous frauds ; acquitted 
 
 6 July, ,, 
 M'Gill and others, for abduction of Miss Crellin ; 
 
 guilty 8 Aug. „ 
 
 Nicholas Suisse again, upon like charges, and again 
 
 acquitted 24 Aug. „ 
 
 Bean, for pointing a pistol at the queen : 18 months 
 imprisonment 2 5 Aug. ,, 
 
 The rioters in the provinces, under a special com- 
 mission, at Stafford .... 1 Oct. 1842 
 The Cheshire rioters, under a special commission, 
 
 before lord Abinger .... 6 Oct. ,, 
 The Lancashire rioters, also under a special com- 
 mission 10 Oct. ,, 
 
 Alice Lowe, at the prosecution of lord Frankfort ; 
 
 acquitted . .... 31 Oct. ,, 
 Mr. Howard, attorney v. sir William Gosset, ser- 
 jeant-at-arms s Dec. ,, 
 
 Mr. Egan, in Dublin, for the robbery of a bank 
 
 parcel ; acquitted .... 17 Jan, 1843 
 Rev. W. Bailey, LL.D., for forgery; guilty: trans- 
 portation for life ... .1 Feb. ,, 
 Mac Naughten, for the murder of Mr. Drummond, 
 secretary to sir Robert Peel : acquitted on the 
 ground of insanity .... 4 March, ,, 
 The Rebeccaites, at Cardiff, under a special com- 
 mission 27 Oct. ,, 
 
 Samuel Sidney Smith, for forgery ; sentenced to 
 
 transportation for life ... 29 Nov. ,, 
 Edward Dwyer, for the murder of his child at 
 
 Southwark ; guilty .... 1 Dec. ,, 
 Mr. Holt, of the Age ; libel on the duke of Bruns- 
 wick ; guilty 29 Jan. 1844 
 
 Lieut. Grant, second to lieut. Munro, in his duel 
 
 with col. Fawcett ; acquitted . . 14 Feb. ,, 
 Fraser v. Bagley, for crim. con. ; verdict for the de- 
 fendant 19 Feb. ,, 
 
 Lord William Paget v. earl of Cardigan for crim. 
 
 con. ; verdict for defendant . . 26 Feb. ,, 
 Mary Farley, for the murder of her child in an 
 
 agony of despair . . . . 16 April, ,, 
 The will-forgers, William Henry Barber (since de- 
 clared innocent), Joshua Fletcher, Georgiana 
 Dorey, William Saunders, and Susannah his wife : 
 all found guilty, 15 April : sentenced 22 April, ,, 
 [In 1848 Mr. Barber returned to England with a 
 free pardon, and an acknowledgment of his inno- 
 cence by his prosecutors : he was re-admitted to 
 practise as an attorney ; and on the 3rd of 
 August, 1859, in conformity with the recom- 
 mendation of a select committee of the house of 
 commons, the sum of 5000?. was voted him " as 
 a national acknowledgment of the wrong he had 
 suffered from an erroneous prosecution."] 
 Crouch, for the murder of his wife ; found guilty, 
 
 8 May ; hanged 27 May, ,, 
 
 Messrs. O'Connell, sen., O'Connell, jun., Steele, 
 Ray, Barrett, Grey, Duffy, and rev. Thomas 
 Tierney, at Dublin, for political conspiracy : the 
 trial commenced 15 Jan., and lasted twenty-four 
 days : all the traversers were found guilty, 12 Feb. 
 Proceedings on motions for a new trial, &c, ex- 
 tended the case into Easter term ; and sentence 
 was pronounced upon all but the clergyman, on 
 whom judgment was remitted . . 30 May, ,, 
 Augustus Dalmas, for the murder of Sarah Mac- 
 
 farlane ; guilty 14 June, ,, 
 
 Wm. Burton Newenham, for the abduction of Miss 
 
 Wortham ; guilty . . . . 17 June, „ 
 Bellamy, for the murder of his wife by prussic 
 
 acid; acquitted 21 Aug. ,, 
 
 John Tawell, for murder of Sarah Hart ; hanged 
 
 13, 14 March, 1845 
 Thomas Henry Hocker, for murder of James De- 
 
 larue n April, ,, 
 
 Joseph Connor, for murder of Mary Brothers, 16 May, 
 The Spanish pirates, for murder of ten Englishmen 
 
 at sea 26 July, „ 
 
 Rev. Dr. Wetherall, for crim. con. with Mrs. Cooke, 
 
 his own daughter .... 16 Aug. ,, 
 Captain Johnson, of the ship Tory, for the murder 
 
 of several of his crew .... 5 Feb. 1846 
 Miss. M. A. Smith v. earl Ferrers ; breach of pro- 
 mise of marriage 18 Feb. ,, 
 
 Lieut. Hawkey, for the murder of Mr. Seton, in a 
 
 duel ; acquitted 16 July, ,, 
 
 Richard Dunn, for perjury and attempted fraud on 
 
 Miss A. Burdett Coutts ... 27 Feb. 1847 
 
 Mitchell, the Irish confederate ; transported for 14 
 
 years (see Ireland) .... 26 May, 1848 
 Wm. Smith O'Brien, Meagher, and other confede- 
 rates, sentenced to death; the sentence after- 
 wards commuted to transportation (pardoned in 
 
 1856) 9 Oct. „ 
 
 Bloomfield Rush, for murder of Messrs. Jenny, at 
 Norwich ; hanged .... 29 March, 1849 
 
TRIALS. 673 
 
 TRIALS. 
 
 Gorham v. the bishop of Exeter; ecclesiastical 
 case ; judgment given in the court of Arches 
 against the plaintiff .... 2 Aug. 1849 
 
 {The bishop had refused to institute the rev. Mr. 
 Gorham into the living of Brampton-Speke, in 
 Devonshire, alleging want of orthodoxy in the 
 plaintiff, who denied that spiritual regeneration 
 was conferred by baptism ; the court held that 
 the charge against the plaintiff of holding false 
 doctrine was proved, and that the bishop was 
 justified in his refusal. Mr. Gorham appealed to 
 the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, 
 which pronounced its opinion (8 March, 1850) 
 that " the doctrine held by Mr. Gorham was not 
 •contrary or repugnant to the declared doctrine of 
 the church of England, and that Mr. Gorham 
 ought not, by reason of the doctrine held by him, 
 to have been refused admission to the vicarage of 
 Brampton-Speke." This decision led to subse- 
 quent proceedings in the three courts of law, suc- 
 cessively, for a rule to show cause why a prohi- 
 bition should not issue, directed to the judge of 
 the Arches court, and to the archbishop of Can- 
 terbury, against giving effect to the judgment of 
 her majesty in council. The rule was refused in 
 each court, and in the end Mr. Gorham was insti- 
 tuted into the vicarage in question, 7 Aug. 1850.] 
 
 Manning and his wife, for murder of O'Connor ; 
 guilty : death 27 Oct. „ 
 
 "Walter Watts, lessee of the Olympic theatre, for 
 forgery, &c. 10 May, 1850 
 
 Robert Pate, a retired lieutenant, for an assault on 
 the queen .... .11 July, „ 
 
 The Sloanes, man and wife, for starving their ser- 
 vant, Jane Wilbred .... 5 Feb. 1851 
 
 The Board of Customs v. the London Dock Com- 
 pany, on a charge of defrauding the revenue of 
 duties ; a trial of 11 days ended in a virtual ac- 
 quittal 18 Feb ,, 
 
 Sarah Chesham, for murder of husband, by poison ; 
 she had murdered several of her children and 
 others by the same means ; hanged . 6 March, „ 
 
 Thomas Drory, for the murder of Jael Denny: 
 hanged 7 March, „ 
 
 Doyle v. Wright, concerning the personal custody 
 of Miss Augusta Talbot, a Roman catholic ward 
 of chancery, before the lord chancellor : pro- 
 tracted case 22 March, „ 
 
 The murderers of the rev. George Edward Holiest, 
 of Frimley, Surrey ; guilty . ■ 31 March, ,, 
 
 Miller v. aid. Salomons, M.P., for voting as a mem- 
 ber without having taken the required oath ; ver- 
 dict against the defendant . . 19 April, 1852 
 
 The case " Bishop of London v. the rev. Mr. Glad- 
 stone :" judgment of the Arches court against 
 the defendant 10 June, ,, 
 
 Achilli v. Newman, for libel ; tried before lord 
 chief justice Campbell in the Queen's Bench : 
 verdict for the plaintiff, Nov. 1852 ; . 31 Jan. ,, 
 
 Lord Frankfort, for scandalous and defamatory 
 libels ; guilty 3 Dec. ,, 
 
 Richard Bourke Kirwan, for the murder of his wife ; 
 guilty 10 Dec. ,, 
 
 Eliot Bower, for murder of Mr. Saville Morton, at 
 Paris ; acquitted 28 Dec. „ 
 
 Henry Horler, for murder of his wife ; hanged at 
 the Old Bailey 15 Jan. 1853 
 
 James Barbour, for murder of Robinson ; hanged 
 at York 15 Jan. ,, 
 
 George Sparkes and James Hitchcock, for the mur- 
 der of William Blackmore at Exeter ; guilty 
 
 19 March, „ 
 
 Five Frenchmen (principal and seconds) for the 
 murder of a sixth Frenchman in a duel at Egham ; 
 verdict, manslaughter ... 21 March, ,, 
 
 Moore and "Walsh, for the murder of John Black- 
 burn, at Stafford ; hanged . . 21 March, „ 
 
 Saunders, for murder of Mr. Toler ; hanged at 
 Chelmsford '30 March, ,, 
 
 The Stackpole family, four in number ; two of them 
 females, and wives to the others, for the murder 
 of their relative, also a Stackpole ; hanged at 
 Ennis 28 April, „ 
 
 Case of Holy Cross Hospital, "Winchester, decided 
 against rev. earl of Guildford . . 1 Aug. „ 
 
 Smyth v. Smyth, ended in the plaintiff being com- 
 mitted on a charge of forging the will on which 
 he grounded his claim . . 8. 9 10 Aug. „ 
 
 The Braintree case respecting liability to church- 
 rates, decided by the house of lords, against the 
 rate 12 Aug. 
 
 Case of Lumley v. Gye, respecting Madlle. Wagner ; 
 decided 22 Feb. 
 
 Mr. Jeremiah Smith, mayor of Rye, convicted of 
 perjury 2 March, 
 
 Duchess of Manchester's will case . . April, 
 
 Mr. Carden, for abduction of Miss E. Arbutlmot, 
 and assault upon John Smithwick ; convicted 
 
 28, 29 July, 
 
 Mary Anne Brough, for murdering her six children; 
 not guilty (insanity) q Aug. 
 
 Case of Pierce Somerset Butler v. viscount Mount- 
 garret ; verdict for plaintiff, who thus came into 
 a peerage, defendant being proved illegitimate 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Courts-martial on lieuts. Perry and Greer; sen- 
 tences reversed by lord Hardinge 29 July- Aug. 
 
 Courts-martial on sir E. Belcher, captain McClure, 
 &c, for abandoning their ships in the Arctic 
 regions ; acquitted Oct. 
 
 Emanuel Barthelemy, for murder of Charles Col- 
 lard and Mr. Moore (executed) ; . . 4 Jan. 
 
 Handcock v. Delacour, otherwise De Burgh (cruelty 
 of Mrs. Handcock, and charges against lord 
 Clanricarde) ; compromised 
 
 Earl of Sefton v. Hopwood (will set aside) 
 
 3-10 April, 
 
 Luigi Baranelli, for murder of Joseph Latham (or 
 Lambert) ; (executed 30 April) . 12 April, 
 
 Charles King, a great thief-trainer; transported 
 
 13 April, 
 
 Wm. Austin (governor), for cruelties in Birming- 
 ham gaol ; acquitted .... 3 Aug. 
 
 Sir John Dean Paul, William Strahan, and Robert 
 M. Bates, bankers, for disposing of their cus- 
 tomers' securities (to the amount of 113, 625Z.): 
 convicted 27 Oct. 
 
 Joseph Wooler, on charge of poisoning his wife ; 
 acquitted 7 Nov. 
 
 Westerton v. Liddell(on decorations, &c.,in church 
 in Knightsbridge ; decision against them) 5 Dec 
 
 [Decided again by privy council, partly for both 
 parties ; each to pay his own costs, 21 March, 
 1857-] 
 
 Celestina Sommers, for murder of her children ; 
 convicted (but reprieved) . . . 6 March, 
 
 "Wm. Palmer, for murder of J. P. Cook by poison 
 
 14-27 May, 
 
 [He was executed at Stafford on 14 June, in the pre- 
 sence of 50,000 persons. If he had been ac- 
 quitted, he would have been tried for the murder 
 of his wife and brother.] 
 
 Wm. Dove, for murder of his wife (executed 9 Aug.) 
 
 iq July, 
 
 Ditcher v. archdeacon Denison, respecting the doc- 
 trine of the eucharist ; defendant deprived, and 
 appeal disallowed .... 22 Oct. 
 
 "W. S. Hardwicke and H. Attwell ; convicted of 
 forgery 31 Oct. 
 
 Wm. Robson, for frauds of Crystal Palace Com- 
 pany (to the amount of about 28,000?.); trans- 
 ported for twenty years 1 Nov. 
 
 Earl of Lucan v. Daily News for libel ; verdict for 
 defendant 3 Dec. 
 
 Pearce, Burgess, and Tester; see Gold Robbery, 
 
 14 Jan. 
 
 Leopold Redpath, for forgeries (to the amount of 
 150,000?.) upon Great Northern Railway Com- 
 pany : transported for life ... 16 Jan. 
 
 Miss Madeline Smith, on charge of poisoning 
 
 Emile L'Angelier, at Glasgow; not proven 
 
 30 June-9 July, 
 
 Thos. Fuller Bacon, for poisoning his mother, con- 
 victed 25 July, 
 
 [He was acquitted on a charge of murdering two 
 children, 13, 14 May, same year. His wife con- 
 fessed the murder, but appeared to be insane.] 
 
 James Spollen, on charge of murder of Mr. Little, 
 near Dublin ; acquitted . . . 7-1 1 Aug. 
 
 Jem Saward, a banister (called the Penman), Wm. 
 Anderson, and others, convicted of extensive 
 forgeiy of bankers' cheques . . 5 March, 
 
 W. Attwell and others, convicted of stealing the 
 
 X X 
 
 1853 
 1854 
 
 1855 
 
 1856 
 
 1857 
 
TEIALS. 
 
 674 
 
 TEIALS. 
 
 countess of Ellesmere's jewels (value 15,000/.) 
 from the top of a cab .... 15 Dec. 1857 
 Strevens v. Campion, for slander, in charging the 
 plaintiff with complicity in the murder of his 
 aunt, Mrs. Kelly ; damages 6<1. . . 31 Dec. ,, 
 
 The directors of the British Bank, Humphry Brown, 
 Edw. Esdaile, H. D. Macleod, alderman R. H. 
 Kennedy, W. D. Owen, James Stapleton, and 
 Hugh Innes Cameron, for fraud (see Banks, p. 67) ; 
 convicted 13-27 Feb. 1858 
 
 Rev. B. Smith and his wife, for murderous assault 
 on John Leech ; convicted . . 6-7 April, „ 
 
 Edw. Auchmuty Glover, M.P., for false declaration 
 of qualification of M.P 9 April, „ 
 
 Simon Bernard, as accessory to the conspiracy 
 against the life of the emperor Napoleon ; acquitted 
 
 12-17 April, ,, 
 
 The earldom of Shrewsbury case ; earl Talbot's claim 
 allowed 1 June, ,, 
 
 James Seal, for the murder of Sarah Guppy; con- 
 victed (and executed) . . . .23 July, „ 
 
 The Berkeley peerage case ... 23 July, „ 
 
 Patience Swynfen v. F. H. Swynfen; a will case; 
 the will affirmed 27 July, ,, 
 
 [The plaintiff was Patience Swynfen, widow of Henry 
 John Swynfen, son of the testator, Samuel Swyn- 
 fen. Her husband died 15 June, 1854, and his 
 father on 16 July, following, having made a will 
 19 days before his death, devising the Swynfen 
 estate (worth about 6o,oooi.) to his sou's wife, 
 but leaving a large amount of personal estate un- 
 disposed of. The defendant, F. H. Swynfen, son 
 of the testator's eldest half-brother, claimed the 
 estate as heir-at-law on the ground of the testator's 
 insanity. The issue was brought to trial in March, 
 1856 ; but proceedings were stayed by Mrs. Swyn- 
 fen's counsel, sir F. Thesiger, entering into an 
 agreement with the opposite counsel, Sir Alex- 
 ander Cockbum, without her consent, and in de- 
 fiance of her instructions. After various pro- 
 ceedings, the court of chancery ordered a new 
 trial. She gained her cause, mainly through the 
 energy of her counsel, Mr. Chas. R. Kennedy, to 
 whom she had promised to pay 20,000/. for his 
 extraordinary sendees. Mrs. Swynfen, however, 
 married a Mr. Broun, and repudiated Mr. Ken- 
 nedy's claim. The latter, in an action against 
 her, obtained a verdict in his favour on 29 March, 
 1862, which was, on appeal, finally reversed in 
 Feb. 1864. Mrs. Swynfen was non-suited in an 
 action brought against her counsel (afterwards 
 lord Chelmsford and lord chancellor), in July, 
 1859, and June, i860.] 
 
 Lemon Oliver, a stockbroker, convicted of exten- 
 sive frauds 10 Nov. „ 
 
 Marchmont v. Marchmont ; a disgraceful divorce 
 case, begun 30 Nov. ,, 
 
 W. H. Guernsey, for stealing Ionian despatches 
 from the Colonial Office ; acquitted . 15 Dec. ,, 
 
 Evans r. Evans and Rose, divorce case . Dec. „ 
 
 Lieut. -col. Dickson v. earl of Wilton, for libel ; ver- 
 dict for the plaintiff .... 14 Feb. 1859 
 
 Black v. Elliott, 850 sheep poisoned by a sheep- 
 wash sold by defendant ; damages 1400/. 23 Feb. „ 
 
 Wagner, Bateman, and others, a gang of bank 
 forgers ; convicted 13 May, ,, 
 
 Earl of Shrewsbury v. Hope Scott, and others ; the 
 earl gains the Shrewsbury estates . 3 June, ,, 
 
 Tnellusson will case decided (see TheUv.sson) 9 June, ,, 
 
 T. R. Marshall, E. A. Mortimer, and H. S. Eicke,' 
 convicted of illegal sale of army commissions, 
 
 29 June, ,, 
 
 Thomas Smethurst, a surgeon, for the murder by 
 poison of Isabella Bankes, whom he had married 
 during his wife's lifetime ; convicted 15-19 Aug. ,, 
 
 [He was reprieved 011 the ground of insufficient evi- 
 dence ; but was tried and found guilty of bigamy, 
 16 Nov. 1859. On 11 Nov. 1862, he proved Miss 
 Bankes's will, and obtained her property.] 
 
 Oakley v. the Moulvie Ooddeen, "ambassador of 
 the king of Oude." Verdict for the defendant, 
 who seems to have fallen among bill-sharpers, 
 
 17 Dec. „ 
 
 David Hughes, an attorney, convicted of gross 
 frauds upon his clients .... Jan. i860 
 
 Eugenia Plummer, aged 11 years, convicted of per- 
 jury against rev. Mr. Hatch . . . 14 May, ,, 
 
 Nottidge v. Prince see Agcqiemone) . 25 July, ,, 
 
 Thomas Hopley, a schoolmaster, convicted of man- 
 slaughter of Reginald Cancellor, by flogging, 
 
 23 July, i 
 
 Mr. W. H. Leatham, M.P., convicted of bribery at 
 Wakefield 19 July, 
 
 Rev. J.Bonwell, of Stepney, degraded forimmorality, 
 
 29 Aug. 
 
 James Mullens, convicted for the murder of Mrs. 
 Elmsley; by endeavouring to inculpate one Ems, 
 he led to his own conviction . . 25 Oct. 
 
 Miss Shedden v. Patrick. (The plaintiff ably 
 pleaded her own cause when the case was opened ; 
 her object, to prove the legitimacy of her father, 
 was not attained) . . . .9 Nov. et seq. 
 
 Hooper v. Ward ; disgraceful profligacy of a magis- 
 trate ; verdict for plaintiff . . .19, 20 Dec. 
 
 Brook v. Brook ; see Marriage with Wife's Sister. 
 The house of lords on appeal decided against the 
 validity of such marriages, even when celebrated 
 in a foreign country ... 18 March, : 
 
 Thelwall v. hon. Major Yelverton. The plaintiff 
 sued for expenses incurred by defendant's wife ; 
 the major denied the validity of his marriage 
 with Miss Longworth, having since married the 
 widow of professor Edward Forbes, the eminent 
 naturalist. The court in Dublin supported the 
 first marriage ... 21 Feb. to 4 March, 
 
 [Miss Longworth endeavoured to establish her 
 marriage. On appeal, the Scotch court annulled 
 the marriage, July, 1862, and this judgment was 
 affirmed by the house of lords, 28 July, 1864, and 
 again finally, 30 July, 1867. An attempt to set 
 aside the judgment of the house of lords rejected 
 by the court of session, 29 Oct. 1868.] 
 
 Reade v. Lacy; the dramatising a novel restrained, 
 
 17 April, 
 
 Beamish r. Beamish ; the lords on appeal decide 
 that a clergyman cannot perform the ceremony of 
 marriage for himself . . . .22 April, 
 
 Emperor of Austria v. Day; verdict for plaintiff. 
 The defendant had printed 100 millions florin 
 notes on the bank of Hungary, for Louis 
 Kossuth. The notes were ordered to be destroyed 
 within one month, 6 May; judgment affirmed 
 
 12 June, 
 
 Cardross case. John MacMillan, a free-church 
 minister, was expelled for drunkenness and mis- 
 conduct, May, 1858. The Glasgow synod and 
 the general assembly of the free church affirmed 
 the sentence. He appealed to the court of 
 session, which set aside the decree (which in- 
 volved temporalities), asserting that the assembly 
 had only spiritual authority . . . July, 
 
 W. B. Turnbull v. Bird, secretary of protestant 
 alliance ; libel ; verdict for defendant 8-10 July, 
 
 J. C. Charlesworth, M.P., convicted of bribery at 
 the Wakefield election . . . .20 July, 
 
 Baron de Vidil ; convicted of wounding his son ; the 
 latter refused to give evidence against his father, 
 
 23 Aug. 
 
 Vincent Collucci : convicted of obtaining money on 
 false pretences, from Miss F. Johnstone 23 Oct. 
 
 John Curran, a Dublin cabman; convicted of a 
 violent assault on Miss Jolly, who heroically de- 
 fended herself 25-30 Oct. 
 
 Patrick McCaffery; shot col. Crofton and capt. 
 Hanham, at Preston ; convicted . . 13 Dec. 
 
 Inquiry into sanity of Win. Fred. Wyndham (on 
 behalf of his relatives), with a view of annulling 
 an injudicious marriage ; trial lasted 34 days : 140 
 witnesses examined ; verdict sane mind (see 
 Lunacy) . . .16 Dec. 1861, and 30 Jan. 
 
 [Each party adjudged to pay its own costs, March, 
 1862.] 
 
 Capt. Robertson, by court-martial ; convicted of 
 submitting to ungentlemanly conduct from his 
 brother officers : — 30 days' inquiry : ended, 
 
 24 March, 
 
 [The court was much blamed by the public and the 
 sentence was annulled.] 
 
 Mrs. A. C. Vyse for poisoning her two children ; 
 acquitted as insane 9 July, 
 
 Roupell v. Waite; during the trial, W. Roupell, 
 M.P., a witness, confessed himself guilty of 
 forging a will, and other frauds . 18, 19 Aug. 
 
 Jessie McLachlan ; convicted for the murder of 
 Jessie Macpherson, at Glasgow; she confessed to 
 being accessory after the murder, which she im- 
 
 862 
 
TEIALS. 
 
 puted to Mr. Fleming, a gentleman 80 or go years 
 
 old 17-20 Sept. iS 
 
 [She was respited 27 Oct. 1862.] 
 
 Win. Boupell, M.P., for forgery; convicted on his 
 own confession 24 Sept. , 
 
 Catherine Wilson, convicted of poisoning Mrs. 
 Soames in 1856 25-27 Sept. , 
 
 27 indictments and 24 convictions for savage per- 
 sonal outrages in the streets of the metropolis 
 during the month Nov. , 
 
 Wm. Digby Seymour, M.P., v. Butterworth; libel; 
 verdict for plaintiff, damages 40s. . . 3 Dec. , 
 
 Hall v. Semple ; verdict for plaintiff, who had been 
 consigned to a lunatic asylum through his wife's 
 getting the defendant to sign a certificate of lunacy 
 with culpable negligence; damages 150L 10 Dec. , 
 
 George Buncher, Wm. Burnett, Bichd. Brewer, and 
 James Griffiths, for forging bank-notes, printed 
 on paper stolen from the paper-mill at Laver- 
 stoke; convicted 7-12 Jan. 18 
 
 Clare v. The Queen ; petition of right for infringe- 
 ment of a patent ; verdict for defendant 2-6 Feb. , 
 
 Eev. John Campbell v. Spottiswoode (as printer of 
 a libel in Saturday Review) : verdict for plaintiff, 
 
 27 Feb. , 
 
 Queen on appeal of earl of Cardigan v. col. Calthorpe 
 for libel, charging the earl with deserting his 
 men at Balaclava, 25 Oct. 1855 ; verdict for de- 
 fendant (who, however, admitted his error), 
 
 9, 10 June, , 
 
 Attorney-general v. Sillim and others, for having 
 built the Alexandra for the Confederates, against 
 the Enlistment act; verdict for defendants, 
 
 25 June, , 
 
 [Decision finally affirmed on appeal to the house of 
 lords, 6 April, 1864.] 
 
 Col. Lothian Dickson v. viscount Combermere, earl 
 of Wilton, and gen. Peel, for conspiracy to expel 
 him from the army ; verdict for defendants, 
 
 27 June, et seq. , 
 
 Morrison (Zadkiel) v. sir Edward Belcher; libel; 
 verdict, 20s. damages .... 29 June, , 
 
 Bichard Boupell v. Haws : arising out of Boupell 
 forgeries ; no verdict . . . 16-24 July, j 
 
 Woolley v. Pole for Sun Fire Office; verdict for 
 plaintiff, awarding him his claim for 29,000^. for 
 his insurance of Campden-house ; burnt 23 March, 
 1862 29 Aug. , 
 
 George Victor Townley, for murder of Miss Good- 
 man, through jealousy ; convicted . . 12 Dec. , 
 
 [He escaped execution through a certificate of in- 
 sanity, too hastily signed : and committed suicide 
 in prison, 12 Feb. 1865.] 
 
 Lieut. -col. Crawley, by court-martial at Aldershot, 
 for alleged oppression and cruelty to sergeant- 
 major John Lilley, in consequence of a court- 
 martial at Mhow, in India; honourably acquitted, 
 
 17 Nov. -23 Dec. , 
 
 Franz Miiller, for murder of Mr. Briggs in a railway 
 carriage, 9 July ; convicted . . 27-29 Oct. 18 
 
 Gedney v. Smith, a supposititious child detected 
 and deprived of much property . . 10 Nov. , 
 
 E. K. Kohl, for murder of Theodore Fuhrkop; con- 
 victed 11, 12 Jan. iS 
 
 Queen v. Wm. Bumble, for infringement of Foreign 
 Enlistment act, in equipping the Rappahannock 
 for the Confederate government; acquitted, 
 
 4 Feb. 
 
 Woodgate v. Bidout (for Morning Post), for libel 
 respecting the great will case of the earl of Eg- 
 mont v. Darell ; verdict for plaintiff, 1000Z. , 10 Feb. 
 
 Bishop Colenso's appeal to privy council against 
 decision of bishop of Capetown, deposing him, 
 which is annulled .... 21 March, 
 
 Boberts, Jeffery, Casely, and others, for jewel rob- 
 beries in London ; convicted . . 13 April, 
 
 J. W. Terry and Thos. Burch, for misdemeanor 
 in connection with the Unity Bank; acquitted, 
 
 April, 
 
 Edw. Wm. Pritchard, M.D., for murder of his wife 
 and her mother, by poisoning ; guilty 3-7 July, 
 
 Charlotte Winsor, a child murderer, convicted on 
 the evidence of an accomplice . . July, 
 
 [On account of legal irregularities in her trial, her 
 execution was long deferred, and her sentence was 
 commuted to life-imprisonment, 23 May, 1866.] 
 
 Trials of Fenians for treason-felony ; Thos. Clarke 
 Luby, convicted and sentenced to 20 years' penal 
 
 675 
 
 TEIALS. 
 
 servitude, 28 Nov.-i Dec. ; O'Leary and others 
 convicted ; O'Donovan Bossa (previously con- 
 victed) sentenced to imprisonment for life, 1 3 Dec. ; 
 others convicted at Cork .... Dec. 
 
 Stephen Forwood (or Ernest Southey), for murder 
 of his wife and children : guilty . 20-21 Dee. 
 
 Other Fenians convicted at Dublin (see Fenians), 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Breadalbane peerage ; succession decided in favour 
 of Campbell of Glenfalloch. . . 26 Jan. 
 
 Byves and Byves v. the attorney-general; an en- 
 deavour to prove the marriage of king George III. 
 with Hannah Wilmot, and that of his brother 
 Henry, duke of Cumberland, with Olive Wilmot ; 
 the jury decided that the claim was not made out, 
 and that Olive Serres, the alleged mother of Mrs. 
 Byves, was not the legitimate daughter of the 
 duke of Cumberland, and that the 82 documents 
 brought in evidence were forged (Mrs. Byves died 
 7 Dec. 1871) 13 June, 
 
 Banda and Kirwee prize case (Indian mutiny); 
 court of admiralty decide that 700,000?. are to be 
 divided between the soldiers commanded by 
 generals Whitelocke, Bose, Boberts, and others, 
 
 30 June, 
 
 Bishop Colenso v. Gladstone and others, trustees of 
 colonial bishopric fund (for withholding his 
 stipend) ; verdict for plaintiff, with costs 6 Nov. 
 
 Hunter v. Sharpe (Pall Mall Gazette), for libel 
 (charging him with quackery); one farthing 
 damages gained by plaintiff . . 1 Dec- 
 
 James J. Wilkinson, manager of joint stock bank, 
 convicted of fraud .... 9 &c. Jan. 
 
 [Liberated with free pardon, after investigation, 
 July, 1868] 
 
 Bryant v. Foot ; decision against prescriptive right 
 of a rector to claim a marriage-fee . 23 Jan. 
 
 C. W. Lee Webb, Lionel Holdsworth, and others, 
 convicted of fraud (scuttling a ship, and claiming 
 insurance) 4 Feb. 
 
 C. Anderson, a Swede ; convicted of murdering a 
 mulatto, from superstition . . 12 April, 
 
 Breadalbane peerage; Wm. J. Campbell declared 
 heir, on appeal to house of lords . 16 July, 
 
 Smith v. Tebbitt and others ; a will case, disposing 
 of upwards of 400,000?. ; verdict for defendants, 
 annulling the will of Ann Thwaites, who is de- 
 clared of unsound mind, after a long trial, in 
 April and May ; judgment given . 6 Aug. 
 
 Oakes v. Turquand, aud others ; appeal case, house 
 of lords ; decision affirming liability of share- 
 holders of the company of Overend, Gurney, and 
 Co. (limited) 15 Aug. 
 
 Geo. Druitt, M. Lawrence, and John Anderson, 
 leaders of the operative tailors' association, con- 
 victed of a misdemeanor (organising the system 
 of "picketing," or watching men on strike; and 
 intimidating non-unionists ; which began 24 
 April, 1867) 21 Aug. 
 
 13 tailors convicted of "picketing" . 22 Aug. 
 
 Fenian trials at Manchester, Allen, &e. (see 
 Fenians) 30 Oct. -12 Nov. 
 
 Frederick Baker convicted of brutal murder of a 
 child 6 Dec. 
 
 Mr. Bigby Wason v. Walter (for publication of an 
 alleged libel in the Times ; viz. , a correct report 
 of a debate in the house of lords, &c.) ; verdict 
 for defendant, settling that such a report is 
 
 privileged 18-20 Dec. 
 
 [Verdict affirmed again, 25 Nov. 1868.] 
 
 Martin v. Mackonochie (for ritualistic practices) ; 
 before dean of arches, 4 Dec. 1867, and 14 days ; 
 recommenced; closed . . . 18 Jan. 
 
 Crossley v. Elsworthy for fraudulent misrepresen- 
 tation; verdict for plaintiff, damages 35,000?. 
 
 18 Feb. 
 
 Flamank v. Simpson ; similar case ; begun 5 Feb. ; 
 verdict condemning elevation of sacrament, use 
 of incense, and mixture of water with the wine in 
 the communion service . . 28 March, 
 
 Trial of Fenians for Clerkenwell outrage (see 
 Fenians), begun 90 April ; all acquitted except 
 Michael Barrett . . . . 20-27 April, 
 
 Lyon v. Home (the spiritual medium). The plain- 
 tiff, a widow, sought to recover 60,000?. stock, 
 given to Home at the alleged command of her 
 deceased husband's spirit, between Oct. 1866 and 
 Feb. 1867 ; suit instituted 15 June, 1867 ; trial, 21 
 
 x x 2 
 
 1865 
 
 [866 
 
 1867 
 
TEIALS. 
 
 676 
 
 TEIALS. 
 
 April to i May, 1868 ; verdict given for plaintiff, 
 by the vice-chancellor, sir G. M. Giffard, 22 May, 1868 
 [The judge, in concluding, said, regarding 
 spiritualism, that " the system, as presented 
 by the evidence, is mischievous nonsense ; 
 well calculated on the one hand to delude 
 the vain, the weak, the foolish, and the 
 superstitious ; and on the other, to assist the 
 projects of the needy, and the adventurer."] 
 Richard Burke (alias Geo. Berry, &c), Theobald 
 Casey, and Henry Shaw (alias Mullady), Fenians, 
 for treason felony, at Old Bailey ; Burke and 
 Shaw convicted, Casey acquitted ; 28-30 April, „ 
 Mornington v. Wellesley, and Wellesley v. Morning- 
 ton, a 29 years' suit in chancery, decided (costs 
 above 30,000/.); 22,000/. awarded to the countess 
 
 of Mornington 7 Mav > » 
 
 Esmonde will case, Dublin; Lady Esmonde 
 
 bequeathed property to support protestantism in 
 
 Ireland, by endowing a college, &e. : will disputed 
 
 by her family : no verdict by jury 3— 1 3 June, ,, 
 
 [New trial; will affirmed, Aug. 1869.] 
 
 Thomas Edgeley, convicted of fraud against Leeds 
 
 Banking Company . . . 11— 13 June, „ 
 
 Risk Allah v. Whitehurst (for Daftly Telegraph): 
 
 libel case; damages for plaintiff, 960?., 19 June, „ 
 Attorney-general v. Dakin : appeal case ; decision 
 that privilege of exemption from execution of 
 legal process does not extend to Hampton Court 
 
 palace 20 June, ,, 
 
 Madame Sarah Rachel Leverson convicted of con- 
 spiracy 25 Se Pt- >> 
 
 [Writ of error : new trial refused, n May, 1869.] 
 Fred. Aug. Farrar convicted of forgery against lord 
 Dudley .... 30 Oct. 
 
 Chornford v. Lingo : female suffrage declared illegal 
 
 7 — 9 Nov. ,, 
 Baxter v. Langley : Sunday evening lectures 
 
 declared not illegal .... 19 Nov. „ 
 
 Martin v. Mackonochie : see Church of England, 
 
 23 Dec. ,, 
 Phillips v. Eyre : verdict for defendant ; see 
 
 Jamaica 20 J au - ^ 6 9 
 
 Saurin v. Star and another (convent case ; a sister 
 sued her mother superior, for ill-usage and ex- 
 pulsion); verdict for plaintiff, damages 500/. 
 r 3— 26 Feb. „ 
 
 [Case compromised, April, 1870.] 
 
 James Thos. Gambier, admiralty clerk, and Win. 
 Rumble, engineer, convicted of fraud and seeking 
 bribes from contractors ... 9 April, „ 
 
 Cooper v. Gordon : verdict for plaintiff ; the vice- 
 chancellor decides that a congregation of dissen- 
 ters may dismiss their minister for unsound 
 doctrine 28 May, „ 
 
 Major Frederick Beswick, constable of Birkenhead, 
 convicted of forgery . . - - 10 June, „ 
 
 Farrer (president of the Amalgamated Carpenters' 
 Society) v. Close (the secretary), for misappro- 
 priation of money. In 1867 the justices dismissed 
 the charge because the society had illegal rules. 
 At the trial at the Queen's bench the court was 
 equally divided, and no verdict given . 3 July, ,, 
 
 Fanny F. M. Oliver convicted of murder of her 
 husband • 2° July, " 
 
 Lyons v. Rev. N. Thomas and others, for abduction 
 of Esther Lyons, a Jewish girl, a proselyte ; 
 damages 50/ - 3 1 Ju ly. »» 
 
 Frederick Hinson convicted of murder of his para- 
 mour, Maria Death, and Wm. Douglas Boyd 
 
 24 Nov. ,, 
 Rev James John Merest, convicted of simony ; 
 
 deprived , 26-29 Nov. „ 
 
 Martin v. Mackonochie : before judicial committee 
 of privy council, defendant censured for evading 
 verdict, and condemned in costs . . 4 Dec. „ 
 
 Mrs. Kelly v. Rev. J. Kelly ; judicial separation for 
 ill usage (not violence) decreed, . 7 Dec. „ 
 
 Messrs. Gurney and others, for conspiring to de- 
 fraud; acquitted .... 13-23 Dec. „ 
 
 Smith v. Earl Brownlow : after long litigation de- 
 cision against the enclosure of the common at 
 Berkhampstead by lord of the manor 14 Jan. 1870 
 
 James Clifford, a retired artilleryman, convicted of 
 " sweating" sovereigns by the voltaic battery, 
 
 1 Feb. „ 
 
 Jacob Spinass, a Swiss, convicted of murder of 
 Cecilia Aldridge, an unfortunate . . 3 March, „ 
 
 Dr. Kinglake convicted of bribery on behalf of his 
 brother at Bridgewater ... 26 March, 1870 
 
 Wicklow peerage case : claim for an infant declared 
 to be unfounded by House of Lords (remarkable 
 evidence) 31 March, „ 
 
 Demetrius Pappa, a bank manager, sentenced to 
 5 years' penal servitude for embezzlement, 6 May, ,, 
 
 Sir Charles Mordaunt v. lady Mordaunt, and others, 
 for divorce : preliminary trial of her sanity (de- 
 clared insane on 30 April, 1869), 16-25 Feb. 1870; 
 appeal, 27 April, 1870; judgment affirmed 2 June, ,, 
 
 Bishop Goss (R.C.) v. Hill and Whittaker: will 
 case; Mr. Moreton's will, bequeathing the chief 
 of his property to the bishop, set aside 16 June. „ 
 
 Phillips v. Eyre, for imprisonment during Jamaica 
 rebellion ; verdict for defendant . . 23 June, „ 
 
 Chelsea Murders : Walter Miller convicted of murder 
 of Rev. Elias Huelin and Anne Boss, his house- 
 keeper (8 or 9 May, 1870) . . . 13, 14 July, ,, 
 
 Michael Davitt and John Wilson, treason felony; 
 see Fenians 18 July, ,, 
 
 John Jones or Owen, convicted of murder of Ema- 
 nuel Marshall and family (7 persons, early 22 May, 
 1870), at Denham, near Uxbridge . 22 July, ,, 
 
 Shepherd v. Bennett (Arches) ; decision that defen- 
 dant had retracted heresy; appeal to privy council, 
 
 23 July, ,, 
 
 Margaret Waters convicted of murder of John 
 Cowen, infant ; her sister and accomplice, Sarah 
 Ellis, was convicted of fraud, 22 Sept. (baby 
 farming case ; see Infanticide) . 21 — 23 Sept. ,, 
 
 Rev. C. Voysey v. Noble: appeal to privy council 
 judicial committee against condemnation for 
 heresy ...... 10 Nov. ,, 
 
 Ebdy v. McGowan : verdict against an architect for 
 refusing to give up the plans of a building he was 
 about to erect 16 Nov. ,, 
 
 Catch v. Shaen: for libel on master of Lambeth 
 workhouse ; verdict for plaintiff, 600/. damages ; 
 execution stayed .... 13 Dec. „ 
 
 Diamond Robbery : London and Ryder's man made 
 insensible and robbed of diamonds, 12 Jan.; Mar- 
 tha Torpey acquitted, 1 March ; James Torpey 
 pleaded guilty (sentenced to 8 years' penal servi- 
 tude) 1 May, 1871 
 
 E. Boulton, L. C. Hurt, F. W. Park, and others 
 (frequently dressed as women) tried for a conspi- 
 racy; acquitted .... 9-15 May, ,, 
 
 Tichborne v. Lushington : the plaintiff declared 
 himself to be sir Roger Charles Tichborne, sup- 
 posed to have been lost at sea ; and claimed the 
 baronetcy and estates, worth about 24,000/. 
 a year. 
 
 Roger Charles Tichborne, sou of sir James, born . 1829 
 
 Educated in France till .... about 1843 
 
 Entered the army 1849 
 
 Proposed marriage to his cousin Kate Doughty; 
 declined Jan. 1852 
 
 Sailed from Havre for Valparaiso (March), and ar- 
 rived there 19 June, 1853 
 
 Sailed from Rio Janeiro in the Bella, which foun- 
 dered at sea 20 April, 1854 
 
 [A Chancery suit was instituted, and his death legally 
 proved. ] 
 
 His mother advertised for her son . 19 May, 1865 
 
 The claimant (found by Gibbes and Cubitt in Aus- 
 tralia) asserted that lie and eight of the crew were 
 saved from the wreck of the Bella ; that he went 
 to Australia, and lived there, roughly, 13 years 
 under the name of Castro; married as Castro, 
 Jan. ; as Tichborne 3 July, 1866 
 
 He set up his claim ; and is accepted by the dow- 
 ager lady Tichborne as her son at Paris . Jan. 1867 
 
 [No others of the family recognised him ; but sir 
 Clifford Constable and some brother officers did.] 
 
 His claim was resisted on behalf of sir Henry (a 
 minor), son of sir Alfred Tichborne; and after 
 chancery proceedings, a trial began in the court 
 ofcommon pleas before chiefjustiee Bo vi 11, uMay, 1871 
 
 The claimant was examined 22 days ; the trial ad- 
 journed on 40th day, 7 July ; resumed, 7 Nov. ; 
 case for claimant closed ... 21 Dec. ,, 
 
 Trial resumed, 15 Jan.; the attorney-general, sir J. 
 D. Coleridge, spoke 26 days ; on 4 March the 
 jury expressed themselves satisfied that the claim- 
 ant was not sir Roger; on the 103rd day he was 
 declared nonsuited . . . .6 March, 1872 
 
TRIALS. 
 
 677 
 
 TRINCOMALEE. 
 
 He was lodged in Newgate to "be tried for perjury, 
 7 March; indicted as Thos. Castro, otherwise 
 Arthur Orton, for perjury and forgery 9 April, 1872 
 
 The court of queen's bench decide that he may he 
 admitted to bail, 23 April; released . 26 April, ,, 
 
 Lady Doughty, mother of sir Henry Tichborne, dies 
 
 13 Dec. „ 
 
 The trial of the claimant for perjury and forgery 
 begun before chief justice Cockburn, and justices 
 Mellor and Lush at bar 23 April, (proceeding, July) 1873 
 
 Eltham Murder: E. W. Pook for murder of Jane 
 Maria Clousen ; acquitted . . 12-15 July, 1871 
 
 Hannah Newington, or Flora Davey; convicted of 
 manslaughter of Frederick Moon; she was his 
 mistress, and excited by insult . . 15 July, ,, 
 
 Capt. H. Hamilton Beamish and others tried for 
 stranding the Agincourt (see Navy), 26 July ; re- 
 primanded by the court ... 8 Aug. „ 
 
 Eobert Kelly: for murder of Talbot (a police-con- 
 stable and informer against Fenians) on night of 
 12 July ; acquitted (extraordinary verdict) 
 
 30 Oct. — 10 Nov. ,, 
 
 Peek v. Gurney and others (Overend and Co. : plain- 
 tiffs claim for loss incurred through misrepresen- 
 tations in the company's prospectus ; disallowed 
 by master of rolls on account of his neglecting to 
 verify the prospectus and his too late claim; 
 costs refused to defendants . . .6 Nov. „ 
 
 Mr.Pigott condemned to imprisonment for illegal 
 comments on a trial, in the Irishman . 13 Nov. „ 
 
 Rev. John Selby Watson, eminent scholar, killed 
 his wife in a fit of passion, 8 Oct. ; convicted and 
 imprisoned for life . . . . 10-12 Jan. 1872 
 
 Christiana Edmunds ; convicted of poisoning at 
 Brighton; she purchased chocolate creams, and 
 returned poisoned ones to the confectioner, and 
 thus caused death to one child and nearly killed 
 other persons ; reprieved as insane 15, 16 Jan. ,, 
 
 The Queen v. the Lords of the Treasury : for not 
 repaying expenses for prosecutions to the county 
 of Lancaster ; mandamus refused . . 29 Jan. ,, 
 
 Park-lame Murder: Margaret Dixblancs, a Belgian 
 emigrant, murdered her mistress, madame Riel, 
 on Sunday, 7 April; escaped; taken at Paris; 
 confessed to killing her mistress in a quarrel; 
 convicted, but recommended to mercy, n-14 
 June ; sentence commuted to penal servitude for 
 life 21 June, ,, 
 
 Ellen Kettel : charged with poisoning her husband's 
 first wife in order to marry him ; acquitted, 
 
 24, 25 Oct. ,, 
 
 Chelsea Tragedy: Hermann Nagel and Paul May, 
 young Prussians, came to London to avoid con- 
 scription ; their money being spent, they agreed 
 to commit suicide; after wounding May, Nagel 
 shot himself dead, 21 Aug.; May recovered, and 
 was indicted for murder, tried, and acquitted, 
 
 21 Nov. „ 
 He was convicted and punished for forgery at 
 Berlin, Feb. 1873.] 
 
 Baker v. Loader: widow, to whom 107,000^. had 
 been bequeathed; in ten years is reduced to 
 poverty by imposition; she sues the widow of 
 her friend Loader and solicitors ; verdict of vice- 
 chancellor Malins, ordering deeds to Loader to 
 be cancelled ; the solicitor to pay his own costs, 
 
 20 Nov. „ 
 
 Mr. Hepworth Dixon v. Smith {Pall-Mall Gazette), 
 for libel; damages, one farthing . 26-29 Nov. ,, 
 
 Mr. Guildford Onslow and Mr. G. H. Whalley, 
 M.P.'s, fined for contempt of court in speeches 
 respecting the Tichborne case, 20 Jan. ; Mr. 
 Skipworth, barrister, for same offence, condemned 
 to three months' imprisonment and fined; the 
 claimant made to give securities for 1000Z. , for a 
 similar offence 29 Jan. 1873 
 
 Parke v. Harvey Lewis, sir Joseph McKenna, and 
 others : for misuse of a company's funds while 
 directors; iodays'trial; verdict for plaintiff, 30 Jan. „ 
 
 Omagh Murder: (of Mr. Glass, 29 June, 1871); 
 sub-inspector Montgomery tried; 12 days; strong 
 evidence ; jury not agreed . . -19 March, ,, 
 
 Broughton v. Knight : will of Mr. Knight set aside 
 on account of unsound mind . 31 March, ,, 
 
 Andrews v. Salt: decision by lord-chancellor that a 
 child shall be educated as a protestant by grand- 
 mother, not by Roman catholic uncle ; confirmed 
 on appeal . . . . 6 May, ,, 
 
 O'Keefe v. Cardinal Cullen (for libel, and virtually 
 suspending him from his office) ; consideration of 
 demurrer; judges (at Dublin) divided in opi- 
 nions ; three decide that the papal ordinance on 
 which the cardinal relied was prohibited by the 
 statutes of Elizabeth ; demurrer set aside, 7 May; 
 the trial begun 12 May ; verdict for plaintiff; the 
 jury gave one farthing damages . 27 May, 1873 
 
 TRIB ITNES of the People (TribuniPlebis), 
 
 magistrates of Home, first chosen from among the 
 commons to represent them, 494 B.C., when the 
 people, after a quarrel with the senators, had retired 
 to Mons Sacer. The first two tribunes were C. 
 Lieinius and L. Albums; out their number was 
 soon after raised to five, and 37 years after to ten, 
 which number remained, fixed. The office was 
 annual, and as the first had been created on the 4th 
 of the ides of December, that day was chosen for 
 the election. In a.d. 1347, Nicolo di Eienzi 
 assumed absolute power in Kome as tribune of the 
 people, and reformed many abuses ; but committing 
 extravagances, he lost his popularity and was com- 
 pelled to abdicate. He returned to Eome and was 
 assassinated, 8 Sept. 1354. 
 
 TRICHURIASIS, a fatal disease, occasioned 
 by eating raw or underdone pork containing a 
 minute worm named Trichina spiralis. Professor 
 Owen discovered these worms in cysts, in human 
 muscle, in 1832. The trichinae are thoroughly 
 destroyed by proper cooking. The disease excited 
 much attention in 1865, and was the subject of a 
 lecture by Dr. Thudichum at the Society of Arts on 
 18 April, 1866. 
 
 TRICOTEUSES (knitters), a name given to 
 a number of French republican females, who zeal- 
 ously attended political meetings and executions in 
 1792, knitting at intervals. 
 
 TRIDENTINE, see Trent, and Catechism. 
 
 TRIENNIAL PARLIAMENTS. On 15 
 
 Feb. 1641, an act was passed providing for the meet- 
 ing of a parliament at least once in three years. 
 This law was broken by the Long Parliament, and 
 was repealed in 1664. Another triennial bill, passed 
 in 1694, was repealed by the Septennial act, 17 16; 
 see Parliaments, and Septennial Parliaments. 
 
 TRIESTE, an Austrian port on the Adriatic, 
 declared a free port by the emperor Charles VI., 
 1 7 19, confirmed by Maria Theresa in 1750. It was 
 held by the French in 1797 and 1805. Since the 
 establishment of the overland mail to India, it has 
 risen to great commercial importance. After 
 various changes of rulers it was restored to Austria 
 in 1814; see Lloyd's, note. 
 
 TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY, see 
 
 Ordnance. 
 
 TRIMMER, a term applied to Charles Monta- 
 gue, earl of Halifax, and others who held similar 
 political opinions, midway between those of the 
 extreme Whigs and Tories, about the latter part of 
 the 17th century. He assumed the title as an 
 honour, asserting that it could be rightly given to 
 the British constitution and church. Macaulay 
 says that Halifax was a trimmer on principle, and 
 not a renegade. He died in 1715. 
 
 TRINACRIA, a name of Sicily. The title 
 "King of Trinacria," w r as temporarily assumed by 
 Frederick II. (1302), and Frederick III. (1373). 
 
 TRINCOMALEE (Ceylon), was taken from 
 the Dutch, by the English, in 1782 ; it was retaken 
 by the French the same year ; but was restored to 
 
TRINIDAD. 
 
 678 
 
 TRIVIUM. 
 
 the Dutch by the peace of 1783. It surrendered to 
 
 the British, under colonel Stewart, 26 Aug. 1795, 
 and was continued to England by the peace of 
 Amiens, in 1802 ; see Ceylon. Of a series of actions 
 off Trincotnalee between sir Edward Hughes and 
 the French admiral Sufl'rein, one was fought 18 
 Feb. 1782, the enemy having eleven ships to nine ; 
 on 12 April following, they had eighteen ships to 
 eleven, and on 6 July, same year, they had fifteen 
 ehips to twelve. In all these conflicts the French 
 were defeated. 
 
 TRINIDAD, an island in the West Indies, 
 discovered by Columbus in 1498, was taken from the 
 Spaniards by sir Walter Raleigh in 1595 ; by the 
 French from the English in 1676. Taken by the 
 British, with four ships of the line, and a military 
 force under command of sir Ralph Abercromby, to 
 whom the island capitulated, 18 Feb. 1797; they 
 captured two, and burnt three Spanish ships of war 
 in the harbour. This possession was confirmed to 
 England by the peace of Amiens in 1802. The in- 
 surrection of the negroes occurred 4 Jan. 1832. 
 Population in 1861, 84,438. Governor, Hon. Arthur 
 H. Gordon, 1866 ; James R. Longden, 1870. 
 
 TRINITY AND TKINITARIANS. Theophilus, 
 bishop of Antioch, who flourished in the 2nd cen- 
 tury, was the first who used the term Trinity, to 
 express the three sacred persons in the Godhead. 
 His "Defence of Christianity" was edited by 
 Gesner, at Zurich, in 1546. Watkina. An order of 
 the Trinity, termed Mathurins, was founded about 
 1 198 by John de Matha and Felix de Valois. The 
 Trinity fraternity, originally of fifteen persons, was 
 instituted at Rome by St. Philip Neri, in 1548. 
 The act to exempt from penalties persons denying 
 the doctrine of the Trinity (such as Unitarians and 
 Swedenborgians) passed in 1813. 
 
 TRINITY COLLEGES, see Cambridge, and 
 Oxford. Trinity College, Dublin, called the Uni- 
 versity : grant of the Augustine monastery of All 
 Saints within the suburbs for erecting this college, 
 conferred by queen Elizabeth, 1591. First stone 
 laid by Thomas Smith, mayor of Dublin, I Jan. 
 1593. New charter, 1637. Made a barrack for 
 soldiers, 1689. Burns. The principal or west front 
 erected, 1759. Library erected, 1732. This college 
 grants degrees upon examination without residence. 
 The Roman Catholics desire exemption from mixed 
 education and special privileges. Great changes 
 were proposed by the Irish University bill, which 
 was brought into parliament Feb. 1873, but with- 
 drawn. Religious tests were abolished in the same 
 year. 
 
 . TRINITY HOUSE, London, founded by 
 
 sir Thomas Spert, 15 12, as an "association for 
 piloting ships," was incorporated in 1^14, and re- 
 incorporated in 1604, 1660, and 1685. The present 
 Trinity House was erected in 1795. By their charter 
 the brethren of the Trinity House have the power 
 of examining, licensing, and regulating pilots, and 
 of erecting beacons and lighthouses, and of placing 
 buoys in the channels and rivers. Spert, the first 
 master, died 8 Sept. 1541. — Trinity Houses, 
 originally guilds or fraternities, founded at Dept- 
 ford, Hull, and Newcastle, were incorporated by 
 Henry VIII., 1536-41. 
 
 RECENT MASTERS. 
 
 William Pitt 1790 
 
 Earl Spencer 1806 
 
 Duke of Portland 1807 
 
 Earl Camden 1809 
 
 Earl of Liverpool 1815 
 
 Marquis Camden 1828 
 
 Duke of Clarence 1829 
 
 Marquis Camden 1831 
 
 Duke of Wellington 1836 
 
 The Prince Consort 1852 
 
 Viscount Palmerston .... 16 June, 1862 
 Duke of Edinburgh .... 15 March, 1866 
 
 TRINITY SUNDAY, the Sunday following 
 Whitsunday. The festival of the Holy Trinity was 
 instituted by pope Gregory IV. in 828, on his 
 ascending the papal chair, and is observed by the 
 Latin and protestant churches on the Sunday next 
 following Pentecost or Whitsuntide, of which, 
 originally, it was merely an octave. The observance 
 of the festival was first enjoined in the council of 
 Aries, 1260. It was appointed to be held on the 
 present day by pope John XXI. in 1334. 
 
 TRINOBANTES, a British tribe which occu- 
 pied Middlesex and Essex, and joined in opposing 
 the invasion of Julius Csesar, 54 n.c. ; but soon 
 submitted. They joined Boadicea and were defeated 
 by Suetonius Paulinus near London, 61. 
 
 TRIPLE ALLIANCE was ratified between 
 the States-General and England against F ranee, for 
 the protection of the Spanish Netherlands ; Sweden 
 afterwards joining the league, it was known as the 
 Triple Alliance, 23 Jan. 1668. — Another Triple 
 Alliance was that between England, Holland, and 
 France against Spain, Jan. 1 7 1 7. — Another between 
 Great Britain, Russia, and Austria, 28 Sept. 1795. 
 
 TRIPOLI (three cities). I., in Syria, com- 
 prised three quarters built by the Tyrians, Sidonians, 
 and Arabians; was taken by the Crusaders 11 09, 
 and made a county for Raymond of Toulouse. It 
 was conquered by the Egyptians in 1832 ; restored 
 to the Porte 1835 ; surrendered to the British 1841. 
 II., a Turkish province, N. Africa, comprised the 
 cities Sabrata, (Ea (the present Tripoli, the capital), 
 and Leptis (the ancient Tripolitana), after having 
 been held by Greeks, Romans, Vandals, and Sara- 
 cens, was conquered .and annexed by the Turks 
 15=51. Hamet Bey, pacha in 1741, made himself 
 independent, and the government remained in his 
 family till 1835, when Tripoli was restored to nomi- 
 nal subjugation to the sultan. Population (1871) 
 about 1,150,000. 
 
 TRIPOLITZA (Greece), was stormed by the 
 Greeks, who committed dreadful cruelties, 5 Oct. 
 182 1 ; retaken by the Egyptians, 30 June, 1825 ; 
 given up to the Creeks, 1828. 
 
 TRIREMES, galleys with three banks of oars, 
 are said to have been invented by the Corinthians, 
 784 or 700 B.C. 
 
 TRIUMPHS were granted by the Roman senate 
 to generals of armies after they had won great vic- 
 tories. They were received into the city with great 
 magnificence and public acclamations. There were 
 the great, called the Triumph; and the less, the 
 Ovation; see Ovation. 
 
 TRIUMVIRATES, Roman. In 60 b.c, 
 
 Julius Ca-sar, Pompey, and Crassus formed a coali- 
 tion to rule the state. This lasted ten years, and 
 tiis civil war ensued. The second triumvirate, 43 
 B.C., was formed by Octavius Cassar, Mark Antony, 
 and Lepidus, through whom the Romans totally lost 
 their liberty. Lepidus was expelled in 36 ; Antony 
 was subdued in 31, and Octavius made himself 
 absolute ; see Rome. In Feb. 1849, a triumvirate 
 was appointed at Rome, consisting of Joseph Maz- 
 zini, Armellini, and Saffi, which resigned on I July, 
 1849, when the city was taken by the French. 
 
 TRIVIUM, see Arts. 
 
TEOPPAU. 
 
 679 
 
 TUBULAR BRIDGES. 
 
 TROPPAU, CONGRESS OF, in Austrian 
 Silesia. The emperors Francis of Austria and 
 Alexandria of Russia met at Troppau, 20 Oct. 1820. 
 The congress between them and the king of 
 Prussia, against Naples, took place 10 Nov. ; and 
 the conference was transferred to Laybach, as nearer 
 to Italy, 17 Dec. 1820; see Laybach. 
 
 TROUBADOURS and Trouveres (from 
 troubar, trouver, to find or invent), the poets of the 
 middle ages (from the nth to the 15th century) . 
 The former flourished in the south of France and 
 north of Spain, and used the Langue d'oc (that is, 
 oc for oui, yes) ; the latter flourished in the north of 
 France, and used the Langue d'o'il (that is, oil {or 
 oui). The Troubadours produced romances, but 
 excelled chiefly in lyric poetry ; the Trouveres ex- 
 celled in romances, several of which are extant ; as, 
 the Brut d' Angleterre, and the Eou, by Wace ; the 
 "Romance of the Rose," by Guillaume de Lorris 
 and Jean de Meung. The Troubadours were usually 
 accompanied by Jongleurs, who sang then- masters' 
 verses, with the accompaniment of the guitar. 
 Histories of these French poets, and specimens of 
 then- works, have been published in France. These 
 poets, although frequently very licentious, tended 
 to promote civilisation during those warlike times. 
 
 TROY or Ilium, capital of the Troas, Asia 
 Minor ; see Homer. 
 
 Arrival of Scamancler in Phrygia. Blair. . B.C. 1546 
 
 Teucer succeeds his father 1502 
 
 Dardanus succeeds ; builds Dardania . . . 1480 
 
 Reign of Erichthonius 1449 
 
 Reign of Tros ; from whom the, people are called 
 
 Trojans, and the city Troas 1374 
 
 Ilus, his son, reigns ; the city called Ilium . . . 1314 
 
 Reign of Laomedon 1260 
 
 Arrival of Hercules in Phrygia. Hesione delivered 
 
 from the sea monster. Blair; Usher . . . 1225 
 War of Hercules and Laomedon .... 1224 
 
 Reign of Priam or Podarces ,, 
 
 Rape of Helen, by Alexander Paris, son of Priam, 
 20 years before the sacking of Troy. Homer's 
 
 Iliad, booh xxiv. 1204 
 
 Commencement of the invasion of the Greeks to 
 
 recover Helen 1193 
 
 Troy taken and burnt in the night of the nth of 
 June, i.e., 23rd of the month Thargelion.. Parian 
 Marbles. 408 years before the first Olympiad. 
 Apollodorus, Hales, and Clinton, 1183 ; others . . 1184 
 
 iEneas arrives in Italy. Lenglet 1183 
 
 [Some time after the destruction of Troy, a new ' 
 city was built with the same name, about thirty 
 stadia distant from the old site. It was favoured 
 by Alexander the Great in his Asiatic expedition, 
 but never rose to much importance, and in the 
 age of Strabo was nearly in ruins. Priestley.'] 
 Dr. Schliemann, during his excavations at Hissar- 
 lek in the Troad, discovered the remains of a very 
 ancient city with temples, which he named 
 " Novum Ilium" a.d. 1872-3 
 
 TROY WEIGHT. The Romans introduced 
 then - ounce, our avoirdupois ounce, into Britain. 
 The present ounce was brought from Grand Cairo 
 into Europe, about the time of the Crusades, 1095, 
 and was first adopted at Troyes, a city of France, 
 whence the name. It is used to weigh gold, silver, 
 and precious stones. The Troy weight, Scots, was 
 established by James VI. (our James I.) in 1618 ; 
 see Standard. 
 
 TROYES (Central France), where a treaty was 
 concluded between England, France, and Burgundy, 
 whereby it was stipulated that Henry V. should 
 marry Catherine, daughter of Charles VI., be ap- 
 pointed regent of France, and, after the death of 
 Charles, should inherit the crown, 21 May, 1420. 
 
 Troyes was taken by the allied armies, 7 Feb. ; re- 
 taken by Napoleon, 23 Feb. ; and again taken by 
 the allies, 4 March, 1814. 
 
 TRUCE OF GOD (Frera or Treuga Dei), a 
 term given to a cessation of the private feuds and 
 conflicts so general during the middle ages all over 
 Europe, said to have been strongly advocated by the 
 bishop of Aquitaine, in 1032. The clergy strenu- 
 ously exerted their influence for the purpose. A 
 synod at Roussillon, 1027, decreed that none should 
 attack his enemy between Saturday evening (at 
 nones) and Monday morning (at the hour of prime). 
 Similar regulations were adopted in England, 1042 
 (sometimes Friday and Wednesday being chosen for 
 the time). The truce of God was confirmed by 
 many councils of the church, especially the Lateran 
 Council, in 1 179. 
 
 TRUCK SYSTEM of paying workmen's 
 wages, in goods (sold at " tommy shops") instead 
 of money, was prohibited by parliament in 183 1. 
 By the Truck act a commission to inquire into its 
 alleged prevalence was appointed ; act passed 10 
 Aug. 1870. 
 
 TRUMPET. Some of the Greek historians 
 ascribe the invention of the trumpet to the Tyr- 
 rhenians, and others to the Egyptians: It was in 
 use in the time of Homer. First torches, then 
 shells of fish, sounded like trumpets, Avere the 
 signals in primitive wars. Potter. The Jewish 
 feast of trumpets was appointed 1490 b.c. {Lev. 
 xxiii. 24). Otfa, king of Mercia, is said to have 
 had trumpets sounded before him when trayelling, 
 about a.d. 790- The speaking trumpet is said to 
 have been used by Alexander the Great in 335 b.c. ; 
 improved by Kircher in a.d. 1652 ; by Salland, 1654 ; 
 and. philosophically explained by Morland, 1671. 
 
 TRUMPET-FLOWER, Bignonia radicans y 
 was brought hither from North America, about 
 1640. The Trumpet Honeysuckle, Lonicera semper- 
 virens, came from North America in 1656. The 
 Bignonia capensis was brought to England from the 
 Cape in 1823. The Large - flowered Trumpet- 
 flower, or Bignonia grandiflora, was brought from 
 China in 1800. 
 
 RUSS- A transverse spring-truss for ruptures 
 was patented by Robert Brand in 1771, and by 
 many other persons since. The National Truss 
 Society, to assist indigent persons, was established 
 in 1786 ; and many similar societies since. 
 
 TUAM (W. Ireland). St. Jarlath, the son of 
 Loga, who lived about 501, is looked upon as the 
 first founder of the cathedral of Tuam, though the 
 abbey is said to have been founded in 487. The 
 church was anciently called Tuaim-da-Grualand. 
 In 1 151, Edan O'Hoisin was the first archbishop, at 
 least the first who received the pall, for some of his 
 predecessors are sometimes called bishops of Con- 
 naught, and sometimes archbishops, by Irish his- 
 torians. The see of Mayo was annexed to Tuam in 
 1559. Tuam is valued in the king's books, by an 
 extent returned anno 28 Eliz., at 50^. sterling per 
 annum. Beatson. It ceased to be archiepiscopal, 
 conformably with the statute 3 & 4 Will. IV., 1833; 
 and is now a bishopric only, to which Killala and 
 Aehonry, a joint see, has been added; see Arch- 
 bishops. 
 
 TUBULAR BRIDGES. The Britannia Tu- 
 bular Suspension Bridge, then the most wonderful 
 enterprise in engineering in the world, was con- 
 structed, 1846-50 (Mr. R. Stephenson and Mr, Fair- 
 
TUDELA. 
 
 680 
 
 TUNNELS. 
 
 bairn, engineers), about a mile southward of the 
 Menai Strait Suspension Bridge.* 
 
 On the Britannia rock, near the centre of the Menai 
 Strait, the surface of which is about ten feet 
 above low water level, is built a tower two hun- 
 dred feet above high water (commenced building, 
 May, 1846), and on which rest two lines of tubes 
 or hollow girders strong enough to bear their 
 weight and laden trains in addition, the ends 
 resting on the abutments on each shore ; each 
 tube being more than a quarter of a mile in 
 length. The height of the tube within is thirty 
 feet at the Britannia tower, diminishing to 
 twenty-three feet at the abutments. The lifting 
 of these tubes to their places was a most 
 gigantic operation, successfully performed, 
 
 27 June, 1849 
 The first locomotive passed through . March, 1850 
 The Conway tubular bridge, a miniature copy of 
 the Britannia (principal engineers, Mr. Robt. 
 Stephenson and Mr. Fairbairn) erected . . 1846-8 
 At Chepstow, a railway tubular bridge . . . 1852 
 A bridge or viaduct on the tubular principle (called 
 the Albert viaduct) over the river Tamar at Ply- 
 mouth, opened by the prince consort . 2 May, 1859 
 The most stupendous tubular bridge in the world is 
 that over the St. Lawrence, Canada ; see Victoria 
 Bridge. 
 
 TUDELA (N. Spain). Near here marshal 
 Lannes totally defeated the Spaniards, 23 Nov. 
 1808 ; see JEbr'o. 
 
 TUDOE SOVEREIGNS ; see England, 1485- 
 1603. 
 
 TUESDAY, in Latin Dies Mortis, the day of 
 Mars, the third day of the week, so called from 
 Tuisto, Tiiv, or Tuesco, a Saxon deity, worshipped 
 on this clay. Tuisto is mentioned by Tacitus ; see 
 Week Days. 
 
 TUGENDBUND ("league of Virtue"), 
 formed in Prussia soon after the peace of Tilsit, 
 June, 1807, ostensibly for relieving the sufferers by 
 the late wars, and for the revival of morality and 
 patriotism, mainly by the instrumentality of the 
 statesman von Stein, gradually became a formidable 
 secret political society, opposed to the French pre- 
 dominance in Germany. Its head-quarters were at 
 Konigsberg. It excited the jealousy of Napoleon, 
 who demanded its suppression in 1809. It was dis- 
 solved at the peace in 1815. 
 
 TUILEEIES (Paris), the imperial palace of 
 France, commenced by Catherine de Medicis, after 
 the plans of Philibert de i'Orme, 1564; continued 
 by Henry IV. ; and finished by Louis XIV. This 
 palace was stormed by the mob, 10 Aug. 1792 ; 
 and ransacked in the revolutions of July, 1830, and 
 Feb. 1848. Louis Napoleon made it his residence 
 in 1 85 1, and greatly renovated it. The restoration 
 of the Tuileries (much injured by fire by the com- 
 munists, May 1871), was determined on Oct. 1872. 
 
 TULIPS, indigenous in the east of Europe, came 
 to England from Vienna about 1578. It is recorded 
 
 * The Britannia tubular bridge was intended to supply 
 the place of one of the finest bridges in the kingdom"; 
 and the railway, of which the tubular bridge forms a 
 part, is in like manner a substitute for one of the finest 
 mail-coach roads ever constructed. The road from 
 London to Holyhead has been long regarded as the 
 highway from the British metropolis to Dublin ; and the 
 late Mr. Telford was applied to by the government to 
 perfect this route by the London and Holyhead mail- 
 coach road, which he did by erecting a beautiful suspen- 
 sion bridge over the river Conway and over the Menai 
 Strait ; commenced in July, 181S, and finished in July, 
 1825. 
 
 in the register of Alkmaer in Holland, that in 1639, 
 120 tulips, with the offsets, sold for 90,030 florins : 
 and that one, called the Viceroy, sold for 4203 
 guilders ! The States stopped this ruinous traffic". 
 The tulip tree, Liriodtndron tulipifera, was brought 
 to England from America, about 1663. 
 
 TUNBEIDGE WELLS (Kent). The spring* 
 were discovered, it is stated by Dudley, lord North, 
 who, Avhen very ill, was restored to health by the 
 use of the waters, 1606. The wells were visited by 
 the queens of Charles I. and II., and soon became 
 fashionable. 
 
 TUNGSTEN (also called wolfram and schee- 
 lium), a hard whitish brittle metal. From tungstate 
 of lead, Scheele in 1781 obtained tungstic acid, 
 whence the brothers I)e Luyart in 1 786 obtained 
 the metal. In 1859 it was employed in making a 
 new kind of steel. 
 
 TUNIS (N. Africa) stands nearly on the site of 
 Carthage. Tunis was besieged by Louis IX., of 
 France, who died near it 25 Aug. 1270. It remained 
 under African kings till taken by Barbarossa, for 
 Solyman the Magnificent, 153 1. Barbarossa was 
 expelled, by the emperor Charles V., when 10,000 
 Christian slaves were set at liberty, June 1535. 
 The country was recovered by the Turks under 
 Selim II. The bey of Tunis was first appointed in 
 1574 ; Tunis was reduced by admiral Blake, on the 
 bey refusing to deliver up the British captives, 
 1655. In July, 1856, the bey agreed to make con- 
 stitutional reforms. He died 22 Sept. 1859 ; and 
 his brother and successor Mohamed Essadok took 
 the oath of fidelity to the constitution. An insur- 
 rection broke out 18 April, 1864, and in May the 
 European powers sent ships of war to protect their 
 subjects. Tunis, previously a regency, and often in- 
 subordinate, was decreed to be an integral part of the 
 empire, 23 Oct. 187 1. 
 
 TUNNAGE AND POUNDAGE were ancient 
 duties levied on every tun of wine and pound of 
 other goods, imported or exported, and were the 
 origin of our "customs." They commenced in 
 England about 1346, and were granted to the kings 
 for life, beginning with Edward IV. Charles I. 
 gave great offence by levying them on his own 
 authority, 1628. They were granted to Charles II. 
 for his lifetime, 24 June, 1660. By the act 27 
 Geo. III. c. 13, these and other duties were repealed, 
 1787, and a new arrangement of excise and customs 
 was introduced. 
 
 TUNNELS, for drainage, are ancient. The 
 earliest tunnel for internal navigation was executed 
 by M. Biguet, in the reign of Louis XIV., at Bezieres 
 in France. The first in England was by Mr. 
 Brinley, on the duke of Bridgewater's navigation, 
 near Manchester, about 1766. Project of the 
 Gravesend tunnel, 1800 — the report upon it, 1801. 
 The Thames Tunnel was projected by Mr. Brunei 
 in 1823, and opened for foot passengers, 25 March, 
 1843 J see Thames Tunnel. Innumerable tunnels 
 have been made for railways. The railway tunnel 
 at Liverpool was completed in the middle of 1829, 
 lit up with gas, and exhibited once a week. On the 
 London and Birmingham railway there are eight 
 tunnels (the Primrose-hill, Watford, Kilsby, &c), 
 their total length being 7336 yards. Smiles. It 
 was computed by Mr. Fowler, that there were 80 
 miles of tunnels in the United Kingdom in 1865, 
 which cost about 6,500,000/., at the average of 45/. 
 a yard; see Alps and Thames. A tunnel for a 
 
TURAN. 
 
 681 
 
 TURKEY. 
 
 railway beneath the channel from Dover to Calais, 
 was proposed by Messrs. J. F. Bateman and J. Revy 
 in Aug. 1869. M. Thome de Gamond, after many 
 years' study, exhibited his plans in Paris, 1867 ; 
 his scheme was revived in France, July, 1871. 
 
 TURAN, see Turkestan. 
 
 TURCKHEIM, see TilrJcheim. 
 
 TURIN, the ancient Augusta Taurinorum in 
 Piedmont, capital of the Sardinian States, and of 
 the kingdom of Italy, till 1864, when it was super- 
 seded by Florence. Its importance dates from the 
 permanent union of Savoy and Piedmont in 1416. 
 The French besieged this city ; but prince Eugene 
 defeated then- army, and compelled them to raise 
 the siege, 7 Sept. 1706. In 1798, the French 
 republican army took possession of Turin, seized all 
 the strong places and arsenals of Piedmont, and 
 obliged the king and his family to remove to the 
 island of Sardinia. In 1799, the French were 
 driven out by the Austrians and Russians ; but the 
 city and all Piedmont surrendered to the French, 
 June 1800. In May 1814, it was restored to the 
 king of Sardinia ; see Italy, 1864. Here prince 
 Humbert was married to his cousin Margherita 
 amidst great rejoicing, 22 April, 1868. See 
 Treaties. 
 
 TURKESTAN, called by the Persians Turan, 
 Independent Tartary, the original country of the 
 Turks, in Central Asia, was reached by Alexander, 
 331 B.C. The Russians are gradually encroaching 
 on this country ; on 14 Feb. 1865, a new province, 
 Turkestan, was created by decree, and gen. Kauff- 
 mann made governor, 26 July, 1867. 
 
 TURKEY. The Turks were originally a 
 tribe of Tartars ; but, by incorporation with the 
 peoples they have conquered, have become a mixed 
 race. About 760, they obtained possession of a 
 part of Armenia, called from them Turcomania. 
 They gradually extended their power ; but in the 
 13th century, being harassed by other Tartar tribes, 
 they returned to Asia Minor. The Turkish empire 
 comprehends the almost independent principalities 
 of Moldavia and Wallachia, Servia, and Monte- 
 negro, the hereditary vice-royalty of Egypt, and 
 Tunis. The population of the empire is estimated 
 at 43,600,000 (1871). 
 
 Alvp Arslan and the Turks conquer Armenia and 
 
 Georgia 1065-8 
 
 Asia Minor conquered, 1074-84 ; Jerusalem taken . 1076 
 Soliman Shah drowned in the Euphrates, while on 
 the march ; his son Ertoghul, granted territories 
 
 near Angora, dies 1288 
 
 Othman, his son, emir of the sultan of Iconium, 
 founded the Ottoman empire at Prusa, Bithynia, 
 
 by policy and conquest, in 1299 
 
 Organisation of Janissaries by Orcan about . . 1330 
 Nicsea conquered, 1330 ; and the Morea . . . 1346 
 The Turks penetrate into Thrace, and take Adrian- 
 
 ople 1361 
 
 Amurath I. remodels the Janissaries . . . . 1362 
 Bajazet I. overruns provinces of the Eastern empire 
 
 1389 et seq. 
 He defeats Sigismund of Hungary at Nicopolis 
 
 28 Sept. 1396 
 He besieges Constantinople ; but is interrupted by 
 the approach of Tamerlane (or Timour), by whom 
 he is defeated and made prisoner, at Ancyra, 
 
 28 July, 1402 
 
 Macedonia annexed 1430 
 
 Ladislas of Hungary defeated and slain at Varna 
 
 by Amurath 10 Nov. 1444 
 
 Amurath defeats John Huniades at Kossova Oct. 1448 
 The Turks, invading Hungary, repelled by Huni- 
 ades 1450 
 
 Constantinople taken by the Turks under Mahomet 
 II., which ends the Eastern Roman empire, 
 
 29 May, 1453 
 Belgrade relieved by Huniades' victory over the 
 
 Turks July, 1456 
 
 Greece subjected to the Turks (see Greece) . 1458-60- 
 The Turks take Otranto, diffusing terror through- 
 out Europe 1480 
 
 Selim I. raised to the throne by the Janissaries ; 
 
 murders his father, brothers, &e. . . . .1512 
 He takes the islands of the Archipelago . . . 1514 
 
 He overruns Syria 1515 
 
 Gains Egypt by defeat of Mamelukes . . Aug. 1516 
 Solyman takes Belgrade, Aug. 1521 ; and Rhodes, 
 
 Dec. 1522- 
 Defeats Hungarians at Mohatz . . 29 Aug. 1526 
 
 Repulsed before Vienna Oct. 1529 
 
 Peace with Austria 1533, 
 
 Cyprus taken from the Venetians. . . Aug. 1571 
 Great battle of Lepanto (which see) . . 7 Oct. ,, 
 Treaty of commerce with England . . . . 1579, 
 Turks driven out of Persia by Shah Abbas . . 1585, 
 
 Great fire in Constantinople 1606 
 
 War with the Cossacks, who take Azof . . . 1637 
 The Turks defeat the Persians and take the city of 
 
 Bagdad 163& 
 
 Candia (Crete) taken from Venice, after a 25 years' 
 
 siege 1669, 
 
 Vienna besieged by Mahomet IV. but relieved by 
 
 John of Poland 12 Sept. 1683 
 
 Peace of Carlovitz 26 Jan. 1699. 
 
 Mustapha II. deposed by Janissaries . . . . 1703 
 The Morea retaken by the Turks .... 1715 
 The Turks defeated at Peterwaradein . . . . 1716 
 They lose Belgrade ; and their power declines . 1717 
 
 Peace of Erivan (with Persia) 1732 
 
 Belgrade taken from Austria ; and Russia relin- 
 quishes Azof 17391 
 
 The Turks defeated at Kars 1745 
 
 Insurrection of Wahabees I 749- 
 
 Great sea-fight in the channel of Scio ; the Russian 
 
 fleet defeats the Turkish 1770 
 
 The Crimea ceded to Russia .... Jan. 1784. 
 Disastrous war with Russia and Austria, the Turks 
 lose more than 200,000 men . . . 1787-91 
 
 Cession of Oczacow 1791 
 
 War with the French, who invade Egypt . . . 1798 
 Insurrection of Mamelukes at Cairo .... 1803 
 War against Russia and England . . 7 Jan. 1807 
 Passage and repassage of the Dardanelles effected 
 by the British fleet, but with great loss ; see Dar- 
 danelles 19 Feb. ,, 
 
 Murder of Hali Aga 25 May, ,, 
 
 The Janissaries massacre the newly disciplined 
 
 troops 180S 
 
 The Russians defeated at Silistria .... 1809. 
 Treaty of Bucharest (which see) . . 28 May, 1812 
 A caravan consisting of 2000 souls, returning from 
 Mecca, destroyed by a pestilential wind in the 
 deserts of Arabia ; 20 saved . . 9 Aug. ,, 
 
 Subjugation of the Wahabees (which see) . 1818-191 
 Ali Pacha of Janina, in Greece, declares himself 
 
 independent 1820 
 
 Insurrection in Moldavia and Wallachia, 6 March, 1821 
 Persecution of Christians, 6 March ; the Greek 
 patriarch put to death at Constantinople, 
 
 23 April, ,, 
 [For the events in connection with the independ- 
 ence of Greece, see Greece.] 
 Horrible massacre at Scio (see Chios). 23 April, 1823 
 Sea-fight near Mitylene ; Turks defeated . 6 Oct. 1824 
 New Mahometan army organised . . 29 May, 1826 
 Insurrection of the Janissaries at Constantinople ; 
 
 they are suppressed and massacred, 14-16 June, „ 
 6000 nouses burnt at Constantinople . 30 Aug. ,, 
 Battle of Navarino ; the Turkish fleet destroyed 
 by the fleets of England, France, and Russia (see 
 
 Navarino) 20 Oct. 1827 
 
 Banishment of 132 French, 120 English, and 85 
 Russian settlers from the empire . 5 Jan. 1828 
 
 War with Russia 26 April, 
 
 The czar Nicholas takes the field . . 20 May, 
 Capitulation of Brahilow .... 19 June, 
 Surrender of Anapa .... 23 June, 
 Eminences of Shumla taken by Russians, 20 July, 
 The czar arrives before Varna . 5 Aug. 
 
 Battle of Akhalzic 24 Aug. 
 
 Fortress of Bajazet taken ... 9 Sept. 
 
TURKEY. 
 
 682 
 
 TURKEY. 
 
 The sultan proceeds to the camp with the sacred 
 
 standard 26 Sept. 1828 
 
 Dardanelles blockaded l Oct. ,, 
 
 Surrender of Varna 11 Oct. ,, 
 
 Russians retreat from Shumla . . 16 Oct. ,, 
 
 Surrender of the castle of the Morea to the French, 
 
 30 Oct. ,, 
 Siege of Silistria raised by Russians . 10 Nov. ,, 
 Victory of the Russians at Kuleftscha, near Shumla 
 
 11 June, 1829 
 Battle near Erzerouni .... 2 July, „ 
 Adrianople is entered by the Russians, 20 Aug. ; 
 
 armistice agreed on . . .29 Aug. „ 
 
 Treaty of peace at Adrianople . . 14 Sept. ,, 
 Fire at Constantinople ; extinguished by the men 
 
 of H. M.S. Blonde .... 22 Jan. 1830 
 
 The Porte acknowledges the independence of Greece 
 
 25 April ,, 
 Treaty with America .... 7 May, „ 
 Great fire at Pera ; British embassy destroyed, 
 
 2 Aug. 1831 
 New military " order of glory " (Nischan) founded 
 
 19 Aug. „ 
 St. Jean d'Acre taken by Ibrahim Pacha, son of 
 
 Mehemet Ali 2 July, 1832 
 
 He defeats the army of the Sultan at Konieh, 
 
 21 Dec. „ 
 Ibrahim Pacha inarches within eighty leagues of 
 Constantinople, and the sultan asks the aid of 
 
 Russia Jan. 1833 
 
 The Russians enter Constantinople . 3 April, ,, 
 Treaty with Russia, offensive and defensive, 
 
 8 July, „ 
 Office of grand vizier abolished . . 30 March, 1838 
 Treaty of commerce with England, concluded by 
 
 lord Ponsonby, ratified ... 16 Aug. ,, 
 [For the events of 1839 and 1840 in relation to 
 
 Syria ; see Syria.] 
 Christians admitted to office in Turkey . June, 1849 
 The Turkish government refuses to surrender the 
 Hungarian and Polish refugees on the joint de- 
 mand of Russia and Austria . . 16 Sept. ,, 
 {The Porte (countenanced by England) firmly resists 
 
 this demand.] 
 Russia suspends intercourse with the Porte, 
 
 12 Nov. ,, 
 The British fleet, under sir W. Parker, anchors in 
 
 Besica bay 13 Nov. „ 
 
 Diplomatic relations between Russia and the Porte 
 resumed, 31 Dec. ; the latter sending the refugees 
 to Konieh Jan. 1850 
 
 Turkish Croatia in a state of rebellion . . Jan. 1851 
 
 Treaty with France respecting the Holy Places 
 (which see) 13 Feb. 1852 
 
 Imperial order of Medjidie founded . . Aug. ,, 
 
 Prince Mensehikoff repairs to Constantinople as 
 Russian negotiator, 28 Feb. ; his peremptory 
 demands rejected . . . .19 April, 1853 
 
 Rescind Pacha becomes foreign minister; the 
 ultimatum being rejected, Mensehikoff quits 
 Constantinople . . . . ,21 May, „ 
 
 Hatti-sheriff issued, confirming the rights of the 
 Greek Christians 6 June, ,, 
 
 Russian manifesto against Turkey . . 26 June, „ 
 
 Russian arniy crosses the Pruth . . 2 July, ,, 
 
 Grand national council — war to be declared if the 
 principalities are not evacuated . . 26 Sept. ,, 
 
 War declared against Russia . . .5 Oct. ,, 
 [See Russo-Turkish War.} 
 
 Insurrection in Epirus and Albania, favoured by 
 the Greek government at Athens— Hellenic em- 
 pire proclaimed 27 Jan. 1854 
 
 Volunteers from Athens join it . . 14 March, ,, 
 
 Rupture between Greece and Turkey 28 March, „ 
 [Several conflicts ensue with varied success.] 
 
 Osman Pacha storms Peta, the central point of the 
 insurrection 25 April, ,, 
 
 English and French governments, after many 
 remonstrances, send troops, which arrive at the 
 Piraeus ; the king of Greece submits, and pro- 
 mises strict neutrality : the Greek volunteers 
 are recalled .... 25 and 26 May, „ 
 
 Abdi Pacha and Fuad Effendi take the intrenched 
 camp at Kolampaka, and the insurrection shortly 
 after ceases 18 June, ,, 
 
 Reschid Pacha, having retired (3 June), resumes 
 his office T July, ,, 
 
 Convention between Turkey and Austria 14 June, „ 
 
 The Russians retire from the principalities, which 
 are thei'eupon occupied by the Austrians, Sept. 1854 
 
 Peace with Russia by treaty of Paris . 30 March, 1856 
 
 Austrians quit the principalities . . March, 1857 
 
 Misunderstanding among the allied powers re- 
 specting Moldavian elections, which are annulled, 
 
 July, „ 
 
 Death of Reschid Pacha . . . .7 Jan. 1858 
 
 Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, many years English 
 ambassador at Constantinople, returned to Eng- 
 land, Jan. ; he is succeeded by sir H. Lytton 
 Bulwer ; accredited . . . .12 July, „ 
 
 Indecisive conflicts in Montenegro between the 
 natives and the Turks .... July, ,, 
 
 Massacre of Christians at Jedda (which see), 1 5 June, , , 
 
 Turkish financial reforms begun . . Aug. ,, 
 
 The first Turkish railway opened (from Aidan to 
 Smyrna) 19 Sept. ,, 
 
 Base coinage called in ; a fictitious Turkish coinage 
 begun at Birmingham suppressed . . Oct. ,, 
 
 The allied powers determine the Montenegrine 
 boundaries 8 Nov. ,, 
 
 Prince Alexander Cousa elected hospodar of both 
 Moldavia and Wallachia . . 5 and 7 Feb. 1859 
 
 [The Porte at first objects, but afterwards accedes 
 to the double election.] 
 
 Electric telegraph completed between Aden and 
 Suez May, „ 
 
 Great fire at Constantinople ; 1000 houses destroyed 
 
 10-14 Sept. ,, 
 
 Conspiracy against the sultan, 17 Sept.; his brother 
 implicated ; several condemned to die ; reprieved, 
 
 Sept. and Oct. „ 
 
 Great agitation for financial reform . . Oct. ,, 
 
 Alleged ill treatment of Christians in Turkey ; pro- 
 posed intervention of the great powers, 5 May ; 
 the Turkish government promises investigation 
 and redress, 30 May ; all the powers satisfied 
 except Russia June, i860 
 
 War between the Druses and Maronites in Lebanon ; 
 massacres (see Druses) .... June, ,, 
 
 Massacre of Christians at Damascus (see Damascus, 
 and Syria) 9-1 1 July, „ 
 
 Convention on behalf of the Great Powers at Paris ; 
 armed intervention of the French agreed to, 
 
 2 Aug. ,, 
 
 Inundations at Galatz ; loss about 175,000?.. 
 
 24 Feb. 1861 
 
 Christians revolt in the Herzegovina, aided by the 
 Montenegrins March, ,, 
 
 Great need of financial reform : the British am- 
 bassador, sir H. Lytton, proposes a scheme, 
 
 April, ,, 
 
 Discussion respecting the French occupation of 
 Syria ; it ceases 5 June, „ 
 
 Death of the sultan, Abdul-Medjid ; accession of 
 Abdul-Aziz, his brother . . .25 June, „ 
 
 Economical reforms begun ; Fuad Pacha made 
 president of the council . . . . July, ,, 
 
 The late sultan's jewels sold in London . Aug. ,, 
 
 Imperial order of knighthood (Osmaneh) to include 
 civil as well as military persons, founded, Sept. „ 
 
 Imperial guard reorganised . . . Oct. „ 
 
 Fuah Pacha made grand vizier . . 22 Nov. ,, 
 
 He puts forth a budget ; treaties of commerce with 
 Sweden, Spain, &c. .... March, 1862 
 
 A Turkish loan (8,ooo,oooL) taken up in London, 
 
 May, „ 
 
 Secularisation of the property of the mosques, 
 (value about 3,000,000?.) said to be determined on, 
 
 Oct. „ 
 
 Insurgents in the Herzegovina submit ; peace made 
 with Montenegro .... 23 Sept. ,, 
 
 Dispute with Servia (which see) settled . 7 Oct. ,, 
 
 Ministerial crisis through the sultan's attempt at 
 reaction ; Fuad Pacha and others resign, but 
 resume office 7 Jan. 1863 
 
 A new bank established .... 28 Jan. ,, 
 
 Fuad Pacha becomes seraskier . . 12 Feb. ,, 
 
 Exhibition of the produce of the empire opened in 
 March ; closed 26 July, ,, 
 
 The sultan visits Egypt . . .7-17 April, ,, 
 
 Fuad Pacha made grand vizier . . 1 June, ,, 
 
 Great immigration of the Caucasian tribes April, 1864 
 
 Financial reforms ; conversion and verification of 
 the Turkish debt Aug. 1865 
 
 Cholera rages at Constantinople, nearly vj.ooo 
 deaths, Aug. ; cholera subsides, Sept. ; great fire 
 
TUEKEY. 
 
 683 
 
 TUENEES LEGACIES. 
 
 there, about 2500 buildings (mosques, dwellings, 
 
 &c.) destroyed 6 Sept. 1865 
 
 Fuad Pacha proposes confiscation of the property 
 of the mosques : opposition of the Sheikh-ul-Islam 
 
 21 Sept. ,, 
 Lord Lyons, ambassador at Constantinople . Oct. „ 
 Eevolt of the Maronites under Joseph Karam, 
 
 30 Dec. ,, 
 The grand vizier, Fuad Pacha, superseded by 
 
 Ruchdi Mehemed AH .... 5 June, 1866 
 Revolution in Bucharest (see Danubian 'princi- 
 palities). 
 Insurrection in Candia (which see) . . Aug. ,, 
 
 International conference respecting cholera at Con- 
 stantinople . . . . 13 Feb. -26 Sept. ,, 
 
 European Turkey very unsettled . . Jan. 1867 
 
 Maronite revolt, under Joseph Karam, suppressed ; 
 
 his flight, Jan. ; Turks leave . . 28 March, ,, 
 Ministerial changes : Ali Pacha becomes grand- 
 vizier; Fuad Pacha, foreign minister n Feb. ,, 
 The recommendation of the European powers to 
 the sultan to give up Candia finally declined 31 Mar. ,, 
 
 Omar Pacha, commander-in-chief of the Turkish 
 army April, „ 
 
 Destruction of the dockyards in the Golden horn by 
 Are 2 April, ,, 
 
 The Sultan, with his son and nephew, visits Paris, 
 1-12 July ; arrives at Buckingham Palace, 
 London, 12 July; entertained by the queen at 
 Windsor, 13 July ; by the lord mayor, 18 July ; 
 at a ball at New India House, 19 July ; gives 
 2500/. to the poor of London, 22 July ; sails from 
 Dover, 23 July ; at Vienna, 27 July-i Aug. ; re- 
 turns to Constantinople ... 7 Aug. „ 
 
 The Sultan declines the proposition of Russia, for 
 the suspension of hostilities in Crete, and an in- 
 ternational commission ... 4 Sept. ,, 
 
 Ministerial crisis ; Fuad Pacha resigns, but re- 
 sumes his office Jan. 1868 
 
 Meeting of the new council of state (including 
 Jews and Christians), with legislative, but not 
 executive, functions .... 18 May, „ 
 
 Arrival of prince Napoleon Jerome at Constanti- 
 nople 26 June, „ 
 
 Arrests on account of a supposed plot against the 
 sultan 30 Sept. ,, 
 
 Dispute with Greece for intervention in the Cretan 
 insurrection ; see Greece .... Dec. ,, 
 
 Fuad Pacha dies Feb. 1869 
 
 The prince and princess of "Wales's visit April, ,, 
 
 Memorial of the porte to the European powers de- 
 siring the abolition of the consular jurisdictions 
 termed " capitulations "... June, ,, 
 
 The khedive or viceroy of Egypt censured for 
 assuming sovereign powers encroaching on those 
 of the sultan Aug. „ 
 
 System of compulsory education promulgated, Oct. ,, 
 
 Arrival of the empress of the French at Constanti- 
 nople 15 Oct. „ 
 
 Inauguration of the Suez canal . . 17 Nov. ,, 
 
 The khedive submits to the sultan . . ' Dec. ,, 
 
 Modification of the " capitulations " . April, 1870 
 
 Great fire at Pera ; British embassy and about 7900 
 houses destroyed ; great loss of life . 5 June, „ 
 
 Another fire at Constantinople ; about 1500 houses 
 burnt 11 July, ,, 
 
 Change in the cabinet ; Mustapha Fazyl, finance 
 minister 14 Aug. „ 
 
 Reported treaty between Turkey and Greece to re- 
 sist European aggression in the East . 21 Oct. „ 
 
 Russia repudiates the treaty of Paris, 1856, 31 Oct. 
 
 A note delivered to the porte (see Russia), 15 Nov. ,, 
 
 The sultan agrees to a conference on the Black Sea 
 question alone .... about 3 Dec. ,, 
 
 Mustapha Fazyl, replaced by Mehemed Ruchdi 
 
 about 15 Jan. 1871 
 
 The Black Sea question settled by the conference 
 at London (see Russia) . . . ' 13 March, ,, 
 
 Omar Pacha, general, dies ... 18 April, „ 
 
 Insurrection in Yemen, subdued . . . May, „ 
 
 Great fires at Constantinople . . 7 June, „ 
 
 Aali Pacha, grand vizier, an able statesman, dies 
 
 6 Sept. „ 
 
 Mahmoud Pacha, grand vizier . . . Sept. ,, 
 
 Tunis made an integral part of the empire, by de- 
 cree 23 Oct. ,, 
 
 Political reforms inaugurated by the new ministry 
 
 Nov. „ 
 
 Important speech of the sultan to his council re- 
 specting the finances .... 16 May, 1872 
 
 Mahmoud Pacha, grand vizier, having made 
 enemies through dismissing foreign employes, &c, 
 is dismissed and replaced by Midhat Pacha, 
 
 about 30 July, ,, 
 
 Midhat Pacha, who favoured Austria, dismissed ; 
 replaced by Mehemed Ruchdi about 20 Oct. „ 
 
 The Roumelian railway connecting Constantinople, 
 Adrianople, &c, opened . . . 17 June, 1873 
 
 See Candia, Egypt, Greece, Montenegro, and Servia. 
 
 TURKISH SULTANS. 
 1299. Othman, Osman, or Ottoman, founded the empire; 
 
 retained the title emir, but ruled despotically. 
 1326. Orchan, son, took the title " sultan." 
 1360. Amurath (or Murad), I. ; stabbed by a soldier, 
 
 of which wound he died. 
 1389. Bajazet I., Uderim, son; defeated by Tamerlane, 
 
 and died imprisoned. 
 1403. Solyman, son: dethroned by his brother. 
 1410. Musa-Chelebi : strangled. 
 1413. Mahomet I., son of Bajazet. 
 1421. Amurath II., son. 
 
 1451. Mahomet II. , son : took Constantinople, 1453. 
 1481. Bajazet II., son. 
 1512. Selim I., son. 
 
 1520. Solyman I. or II., the Magnificent, son. 
 1566. Selim II, son. 
 1574. Amurath III., son : killed his five brothers ; their 
 
 mother, in grief, stabbed herself. 
 1595. Mahomet III., son: strangled all his brothers, 
 
 and drowned his father's wives. 
 1603. Ahmed (or Achmet) I., son. 
 
 1617. Mustapha I., brother : deposed by the Janissaries, 
 
 and imprisoned. 
 
 1618. Osman II., nephew: strangled by Janissaries. 
 
 1622. Mustapha I. again : again deposed, sent to the 
 
 Seven Towers, and strangled. 
 
 1623. Amurath IV. , brother of Osman II. 
 
 1640. Ibrahim, brother : strangled by the Janissaries. 
 
 1648. Mahomet IV., son : deposed by 
 
 1687. Solyman II. or III., brother. 
 
 1691. Ahmed (or Achmet) II., son of Ibrahim, nephew. 
 
 1695. Mustapha II., eldest son of Mahomet IV. : de- 
 posed. 
 
 1703. Ahmed (or Achmet) III., brother: deposed, and 
 died in prison in 1736. 
 
 1730. Mahmud I. (or Mahomet V.), son of Mustapha II. 
 
 1754. Osman III. , brother. 
 
 1757. Mustapha III., brother. 
 
 1774. Abdul-Ahmed, brother. 
 
 1789. Selim III., sou of Mustapha III. ; deposed by the 
 Janissaries. 
 
 1807. Mustapha IV. , son of Abdul- Ahmed ; deposed, 
 
 and, with the late sultan Selim, murdered. 
 
 1808. Mahmud II., or Mahomet VI., brother. 
 
 1839. Abdul-Medjid (son), 2 July (born 23 April, 1823) ; 
 
 died 25 June, 1861. 
 1861. Abdul- Aziz, brother, born 9 Feb. 1830. 
 Heir presumptive ; Murad (son of Abdul-Medjid), bom 
 
 21 Sept. 1840. 
 
 TUEKEY TRADE, commenced in the year 
 1550. The Turkey or Levant Company of London 
 was instituted by charter of Elizabeth, in 1579- 
 
 TUEKEYS and Guinea Fowls, first 
 
 brought to England about 1523, and to France in 
 1570. Turkeys are natives of America, and were 
 consequently ivnknown to the ancients. 
 
 TUEKHEIM (E. France). Here the elector 
 of Brandenburg and the Imperialists were defeated 
 by the French under Turenne, 5 Jan. 1675. 
 
 TUEKISH BATHS, see Baths. 
 
 TUEKOMANS, see White Sheep. 
 
 TUENEE'S ACT, 13 & 14 Vict. c. 35 (1850), 
 
 relates to the court of chancery. 
 
 TUENEE'S LEGACIES. Joseph M. W. 
 Turner, a great landscape painter, was born in April, 
 
 1775, and died 19 Dec. 1851. He bequeathed to the 
 nation all the pictures and drawings collected by 
 
TURNING. 
 
 684 
 
 TWINS. 
 
 him and deposited at his residence, 47, Queen Anne- 
 street, London, on condition that a suitable gallery 
 should be erected for them within ten years ; and 
 directed his funded property to be expended in 
 founding an asylum at Twickenham for decayed 
 artists. The will was disputed by his relatives, but 
 a compromise was made. The oil-paintings (100 in 
 number) and the drawings (1400) were obtained by 
 the nation, and the engravings and some other pro- 
 perty were transferred to the next of kin. The 
 drawings were cleaned and mounted under the 
 careful superintendence of Mr. Ruskin, and the 
 pictures were sent to Marlborough-house for ex- 
 hibition. In 1861, many of the pictures were re- 
 moved from the South Kensington Museum to the 
 National Gallery, others in 1869. The sketches, 
 plates, &c; of Turner's Liber Studiorum, were 
 sold for about 20,000/. 28 March, 1873. 
 
 TURNING, see Lathe. In our dockyards, 
 blocks and other materials for our ships of war are 
 now produced by an almost instantaneous process, 
 from rough pieces of oak, by the machinery of Mr. 
 (afterwards sir Mark Isambard) Brunei (died 1849) ; 
 see Blocks. 
 
 TURNPIKES, see Tolls. 
 
 TURPENTINE TEEE,Pwte«'« Terebinth™, 
 came from Barbary, before 1656. Spirits of turpen- 
 tine were first applied, with success, to the rot in 
 sheep ; one-third of the spirit diluted with two-thirds 
 water. 1772. 
 
 TURRET SHIPS, see Navy of England. 
 
 TUSCAN ORDER of Architecture, a 
 debased Doric, used in Tuscany for buildings, in 
 which strength is chiefly required. Wotton. 
 
 TUSCANY, formerly a grand duchy in Central 
 Italy, the northern part of the ancient Etruria 
 {which see) . It formed part of the Lombard king- 
 dom, after the conquest of which by Charlemagne, 
 774, it was made a marquisate for Boniface about 
 828. His descendant, the great countess Matilda, 
 bequeathed the southern part of her domains to the 
 pope (11 15). In the northern part (then called 
 Tuscia), the cities, Florence, Pisa, Sienna, Lucca, &c, 
 gradually became flourishing republics. Florence 
 became the chief under the government of the 
 Medici family ; see Florence. The duchy in that 
 family began in 1531 ; and the grand-duchy in 
 1569. After the extinction of the Medicis in 1737, 
 Tuscany was given by the treaty of Vienna (1738) 
 to Francis, duke of Lorraine (married to Maria 
 Theresa of Austria in 1736), who had ceded his 
 hereditary estates to France. Population in i860, 
 1,826,830 
 
 The French enter Florence . . 28 March, 1799 
 The grand-duke is dispossessed, and his dominions 
 
 given to Louis duke of Parma (of the royal house 
 
 of Spain), with the title of king of Etruria . 1801 
 
 Tuscany incorporated with the French empire . 1807 
 The grand-duchy given to Eliza, sister of Napoleon 1808 
 
 Ferdinand III. restored! 1814 
 
 Lucca united to Tuscany 1847 
 
 Leopold II. grants a free constitution . 15 Feb. 1848 
 Insurrection at Florence ; republic proclaimed ; the 
 
 grand-duke flies 11 Feb. 1849 
 
 He is restored by the Austrians . . July, 1830 
 Rigorous imprisonment of the Madiai, husband 
 
 and wife, converts to protestantism, for reading 
 
 the Bible May, 1852 
 
 The earls of Shaftesbury and Roden and others in 
 
 vain intercede for them at Florence . Oct. ,, 
 
 They are released after the intervention of the 
 
 British government ... March, 1853 
 [An annuity was provided for them by subscription.] 
 
 The '(Tuscan army demand alliance with the Sar- 
 dinians ; the grand-duke refuses, and departs to 
 Bologna ; the king of Sardinia is proclaimed dic- 
 tator, and a provisional government formed 
 
 27 April, 1859 
 
 The king assumes the command of the army, but 
 declines the dictatorship ... 30 April, ,, 
 
 The Sardinian commissary Buoncompagni invested 
 with the powers of government . 11 May, „ 
 
 Prince Napoleon arrives at Leghorn, addresses the 
 Tuscans, and erects his standard . 23 May, „ 
 
 The grand-duke Leopold II. abdicates in favour 
 of his son Ferdinand ... 21 July, ,, 
 
 Tuscan constituent assembly meets . n Aug. „ 
 
 It declares against the house of Lorraine, and 
 votes for annexation to Sardinia . . Sept. ,, 
 
 Prince Eugene of Savoy-Carignan elected governor- 
 general of central Italy ; he declines : but recom- 
 mends Buoncompagni, Nov. ; who is accepted by 
 the Tuscans 8 Dec. „ 
 
 Annexation to Sardinia voted by universal suffrage, 
 11, 12 March; decreed . . . 22 March, i860 
 
 Prince Eugene appointed governor . 26 March, ,, 
 
 Florence made the capital of Italy, by decree pub- 
 lished . . 11 Dec. 1864 
 
 (See Italy, and Florence.) 
 
 SOVEREIGNS OF TUSCANY. 
 
 DUKES. 
 
 1531. Alexander I. 
 1537. Cosmo I. 
 
 GRAND-DUKES. 
 
 1569. Cosmo I., .Medici. 
 
 1574. Francis I. 
 
 1587. Ferdinand I. 
 
 1608. Cosmo II. 
 
 1621. Ferdinand II. 
 
 1670. Cosmo III. (visited England, and wrote an ac- 
 count of his travels). 
 
 1723. John Gaston (last of the Medici). 
 
 1737. Francis II. (duke of Lorraine), became emperor of 
 Germany in 1745. 
 
 1765. Leopold I. (emperor in 1790). 
 
 1790. Ferdinand III. (second son of Leopold I.) ; ex- 
 pelled by the French in 1800. 
 
 KINGS ON ETRURIA. 
 
 1801. Louis I., duke of Parma. 
 1803. Louis II. 
 
 GRAND-DUCHESS. 
 
 1808-14. Eliza Bonaparte (married to Bacciochi, made 
 prince of Lucca). 
 
 GRAND-DUKES. 
 
 1814. Ferdinand III. restored. 
 
 1824. Leopold II., 18 June (born 3 Oct. 1797 ; abdicated, 
 21 July, 1859), died 29 Jan. 1870. 
 
 1859. Ferdinand IV., 21 July (born 10 June, 1835); pro- 
 tested against the annexation of his grand duchy, 26 
 March, i860. 
 
 TUSCULUM (now Frascati), a city of Latium 
 (S. Italy). The Tusculans supported Tarquinius 
 Superbus against the Komans, by whom they were 
 totally defeated, 497 B.C. The Tusculans, on ac- 
 count of their friendship with Rome, suffered much 
 from the other Latins, who took their city, 374, but 
 were severely chastised for it. Here Cicero during 
 his retirement wrote his " Tusculana) Disputationes," 
 about 46 B.C. 
 
 TWELFTH-DAY, the feast of the Epiphany, 
 or manifestation of Christ to the Gentiles, 6 Jan'. ; 
 see Epiphany. 
 
 TWELVE TABLES, see Decemvirs. 
 
 TWINS, joined together have been bom fre- 
 quently, but seldom lived long. Helen Judith, 
 joined Hungarian twins, were bom in 1715, and 
 died in 1723. Millie-Christine, negro twins, born 
 in North Carolina in 185 1, were wholly distinct in 
 the upper part of the body, but one in the lower 
 part of the spinal column and pelvis ; the four legs 
 obojing nerves from a common centre. They sang 
 and' danced well, and were named the " Two-headed 
 
TYBUEN. 685 
 
 ULSTEE. 
 
 Nightingale." _ The will, understanding, and con- 
 science were distinct. See Siamese Twins. 
 
 TYBUEN (W. London), at the west end of 
 Oxford-road (now street), the chief place in London 
 for the execution of malefactors till 1783. Pennant 
 (who died 1798) remembered Oxford-street as "a 
 deep, hollow road, and full of sloughs, with here and 
 there a ragged house, the lurking-place of cut- 
 throats." 
 
 "TYBUENIA" (aN.W. suburb of London), 
 was built between 1839 and 1850, on the green 
 fields and nursery grounds in Paddington belonging 
 to the see of London. 
 
 TYLEE'S INSUEBECTION, in opposition 
 to the poll-tax imposed on all persons above 15. 
 5 Nov. 1380. One of the collectors, acting with in- 
 decent rudeness to Wat Tyler's daughter, was struck 
 dead by the father, June, 1381. His neighbours 
 took arms, and in a short time almost the whole of 
 the population of the southern and eastern counties 
 rose, extorting freedom from their lords, and plun- 
 dering. On 12 June, 1381, they gathered upon 
 Blackheath to the number of 100,000 men, and on 
 14 June murdered Simon of Sudbury, archbishop of 
 Canterbury, and sir Eobert Hales ; the royal trea- 
 surer. The king, Eichard II., invited Tyler to a 
 parley, which took place on the 15th at Smithfield, 
 where the latter addressed the king in a menacing 
 manner, now and again lifting up his sword. On 
 this the mayor, Walworth, stunned Tyler with a 
 blow of his mace, and one of the king's knights 
 dispatched him. Richard temporised with the 
 multitude by promising a charter, and thus led 
 them out of the city, when sir R. Kuollys and a 
 hand of knights attacked and dispersed them with 
 much slaughter. The insurrection in Norfolk and 
 Suffolk was subdued by the bishop of Norwich, and 
 1500 of the rebels were executed. 
 
 TYPE-COMPOSING MACHINES, see 
 
 under Printing, \%t\2-']2. 
 
 TYPE-FOUNDING, see under Printing, 
 1452, 1720. 
 
 TYEANT. In early Greek history, the term 
 was applied to any man who governed with irre- 
 sponsible power. Solon objected to the term, and 
 chose the name Archon (ruler), 594 B.C. The 
 earliest tyrants were those at Sicyon, beginning 
 with Cleisthenes, in the 7th century B.C. Tyranny 
 declined in Greece about 490 B.C., and revived after 
 
 the close of the Peloponnesian war, 404 B.C.: see 
 Thirty Tyrants. 
 
 TYEE (Phoenicia), a great city, said to have 
 been first built by Agenor. Another city was built 
 1257 (about 2267, Hales) B.C. It was besieged by 
 the Assyrians, who retired from before it, after a 
 siege of upwards of five years, 713 b.c. Taken by 
 Nebuchadnezzar, 572 B.C., and the city demolished, 
 when the Tyrians removed to an opposite island, 
 and built a new and magnificent city. It was taken 
 by Alexander with much difficulty, after a siege of 
 seven months, July, 332 B.C. He joined the island 
 to the continent by a mole. Strabo. Tyre was 
 captured by the Crusaders, 7 July, 11 24; by the 
 French, 3 April, 1799; and by the allied fleet, 
 during the war against Mehemet Ali, 1841. 
 
 TYEE, Era OF, began on 19 Oct. 125 b.c, 
 with the month of Hyperberetseus. The months 
 were the same as those used in the Grecian era, 
 and the year is similar to the Julian year. To 
 reduce this era to ours, subtract 124; and if the 
 given year be less than 125, deduct it from 125, and 
 the remainder will be the year before Christ. 
 
 TYEOL, the eastern part of ancient Rhsetia, 
 now a province of the Austrian empire, was ceded to 
 the house of Hapsburg in 1359 by Margaret, the 
 heiress of the last count. It became an appanage 
 of the younger (or Tyrol) branch of the imperial 
 house, which came to the throne in the person of 
 Maximilian II., in 1618. The French conquered 
 the Tyrol in 1805, and united it to Bavaria ; but in 
 1809 an insurrection broke out, headed by Andrew 
 Hofer, an innkeeper, who drove the Bavarians out 
 of the Tyrol, thoroughly defeated some French de- 
 tachments, but laid down his arms at the treaty of 
 Vienna. He was subsequently accused of corre- 
 sponding with the Austrians, captured and sent to 
 Mantua, and there shot by order of the French 
 government, 20 Feb. 18 10. The Austrian emperor 
 ennobled his family in 1819, and erected his statue 
 in Inspruck in 1834. The Tyrolese riflemen were 
 very effective in the Italian w r ar in 1859. 
 
 TYEONE (near Ulster, N. Ireland), formerly 
 the territories of the O'Neills, and the seat of the 
 insurrection in 1641. 
 
 TYEEHENI, included the ancient Etruscans, 
 and other tribes, said to have come from Lydia, Asia 
 Minor. 
 
 U. 
 
 UBIQUITAEIANS or Ubiojtamans, . a 
 small German sect, originated by John Brentius 
 about 1560, who asserted that the body of Christ 
 was present everywhere (ubique) . 
 
 UHLANS, the German lancers, very effective 
 in the war in 1870. 
 
 UKEAINE (Polish for a frontier), a vast 
 fertile plain in Russia, ceded to the Cossacks by 
 Poland in 1672, and obtained by Russia in 1682. 
 The country was divided, Poland having the West 
 side of the Dnieper, and Russia the east. The 
 whole country was assigned to Russia by the treaty 
 of partition in 1795. 
 
 ULM, in Wiirtemberg, S. Germany, where a 
 peace was signed, 3 July, 1620, by which Frede- 
 
 rick V. lost Bohemia (having been driven from it 
 previously). Ulm was taken by the French in 
 1796. After a battle between the French and 
 Austrians, in which the latter, under general Mack, 
 were defeated with dreadful loss by marshal Ney, 
 Ulm surrendered with 28,000 men, the flower of the 
 Austrian army, 17-20 Oct. 1805. 
 
 ULPHILAS'S BIBLE, see under Bible. 
 
 ULSTEE, the N. division of Ireland. After 
 the death of Strongbow, 1 176, John de Courcy was 
 made earl of Ulster; Hugh de Lacy was earl, 1243 ; 
 and Walter de Burgh, 1264; whose descendant, 
 Elizabeth, married Lionel, son of Edward III., 
 1352. In 161 1, the British colonisation of the 
 forfeited lands (termed the Ulster settlements or 
 
ULTRAMONTANISTS. 
 
 686 
 
 UNIONS. 
 
 plantations) began, much land being granted to the 
 corporation of London; see Irish Society. The 
 rebellion of the Irish chieftains, Roger More, 
 Phelim O'Neale, McGuire, earl of Inniskillen, and 
 others, broke out on 23 Oct. 1641. Ulster King of 
 Arms appointed for Ireland, 1553.— By the ancient 
 "Ulster tenant-right," the outgoing tenant of a 
 farm received from his successor a sum of money 
 for the privilege of occupancy. A modified form 
 of this right was adopted in the Irish land act, 
 passed 8 July, 1870. 
 
 ULTRAMONTANISTS (from ultra montes, 
 beyond the mountains), a term originally applied in 
 France to those who upheld the extreme authority 
 of the pope in opposition to the freedom of the 
 Gallican church, which had been secured by various 
 bulls, and especially by the concordat of 15 July, 
 1801. Ultramontanists now are those who main- 
 tain the official infallibility of the bishop of Rome. 
 
 UMBRELLA, described in early dictionaries 
 as "a portable pent-house to carry in a person's 
 hand to screen him from violent rain or heat." 
 Umbrellas appear in the carvings at Persepolis. 
 Niebuhr saw a great Arabian prince returning from 
 a mosque, he and each of Ms family having a large 
 umbrella carried by his side. Old chinaware shows 
 the Chinese shaded by umbrellas. It is said that 
 the first person who generally used an umbrella in 
 the streets of London was the benevolent Jonas 
 Han way, who died in 1786. 
 
 John Macdonald, a footman, who wrote his owiT life, in- 
 forms us that lie had "a fine silk umbrella, which he 
 brought from Spain ; hut he could not with any comfort 
 to himself use it, the people calling out, ' Frenchman ! 
 why don't you get a coach ? ' " The hackney-coachmen 
 and chairmen were clamorous against their rival. The 
 footman says he " persisted for three months, till they 
 took no further notice of this novelty. Foreigners 
 began to use theirs ; and then the English." 1778. 
 
 UNCTION, EXTREME, see Anointing. 
 
 UNDULATOKY THEORY of Light, 
 
 supposes a progressive wave- like motion between 
 the eye and the luminous body seen. It is said to 
 have been suggested by Francisco Grimaldi about 
 1665, and was propounded by Robert Hooke and 
 Huyghens, about 1672 ; opposed by Newton ; but 
 confirmed by Thomas Young by experiments in 
 1801, and is now generally adopted; see Emission. 
 
 UNIFORMITY ACTS. That of 2 & 3 Ed- 
 ward VI., 1; Jan. 1549, ordained that the order of 
 divine worship, drawn up by Cranmer and others, 
 " with the aid of the Holy Ghost," should be the 
 only one used after 20 May. The penalties for 
 refusing to use it were fine and imprisonment. 
 This act was confirmed in 1552; repealed by Mary, 
 1554; and re-enacted by Elizabeth in 1559. The 
 act of Uniformity, 14 Charles II. c. 4, was passed in 
 1 662 . It enj oined uniformity in matters of religion, 
 and obliged all clergy to subscribe to the thirty- 
 nine articles, and use the same form of worship, 
 and same book of common prayer. Its enforcement 
 on 24 Aug. 1662, termed Black Bartholomew's day, 
 caused upwards of 2000 ministers to quit the church 
 of England. This day was commemorated by dis- 
 senters in 1862. The Act of Uniformity Amendment 
 act, whereby shortened services were authorised, 
 and other changes made, was passed 18 July, 1872. 
 The Uniformity of Process act, which made many 
 law changes, was passed 23 May, 1832. 
 
 UNIFORMS. Military uniforms were first 
 used in France, "in a regular manner," by 
 Louis XIV. about 1668. In England the uniform 
 was soon afterwards adopted in the military service, 
 
 but with little analogy to the modern dress. See 
 under Navy. 
 
 UNIGENITUS, see Bull. 
 
 UNINFLAMMABLE SALTS- At the 
 
 British Association, 15 Sept. 1859, MM. Versmann 
 and Oppenheim announced their discovery that 
 fabrics steeped in solutions of tungstate of soda, or 
 sulphate or phosphate of ammonia, burn without 
 flame. 
 
 UNION OF Calmar, 1397 ; of Utrecht, 1579. 
 
 UNION of England and Scotland by 
 
 the accession of James VI. of Scotland as James I. 
 of England, 24 March, 1 603. The legislative union 
 of the two kingdoms (as Great Britain) was at- 
 tempted, but failed in 1604 and 1 670 ; in the reign 
 of Anne, commissioners were appointed, the articles 
 discussed, and, notwithstanding a great opposition 
 made by the Tories, every article in the union was 
 approved by a great majority, first in the house of 
 commons, and afterwards by the peers, 22 July, 
 1706; was ratified by the Scottish parliament, 16 
 Jan. 1707, and became law, 1 May, same year. 
 
 UNION of Great Britain and Ireland 
 
 effected, 2 July, 1800. 
 
 Proposed in the Irish parliament . . 22 Jan. 1799 
 
 Rejected by the commons of Ireland, the votes 
 being 105 for, to 106 against the union, 24 Jan. ,, 
 
 The English house of commons on the same question 
 divided, 140, 141, and 149 for the union ; against 
 it, 15, 25, and 28 respectively . . . . „ 
 
 Lord Castlereagh detailed his plan of the union, in 
 the Irish house of lords, founded on the resolu- 
 tions of the British parliament thereon 5 Feb. 1800 
 
 Votes of the commons agreeing to it, 161 against 
 115, x 7 Feb- ; and again, 152 against 108 21 Feb. „ 
 
 The houses of lords and commons wait on the lord 
 lieutenant with the articles of union, 27 March, ,, 
 
 The act passed in the British parliament 2 July, „ 
 
 The imperial united standard first displayed at 
 the tower of London, and upon Bedford Tower, 
 Dublin Castle, on the act of legislative union he- 
 coming an operative law . . . . 1 Jan. 1801 
 
 For attempts to dissolve this union, see Repeal. 
 
 UNION JACK. The original flag of England 
 was the banner of St. George, i.e.. white with a red 
 cross, which, 12 April, 1606 (three years after 
 James I. ascended the throne) was incorporated with 
 the .banner of Scotland, i.e., blue with a white 
 diagonal cross. This combination obtained the name 
 of " Union Jack," in allusion to the union with 
 Scotland, and the word Jack is considered a corrup- 
 tion of the word Jacobus, Jacques, or James. This 
 arrangement continued until the union with Ire- 
 land, 1 Jan. 1801, when the banner of St. Patrick, 
 i.e., white with a diagonal red cross, was amalga- 
 mated with it, and forms the present Union flag. 
 
 UNION CHARGEABILITY ACT, pro- 
 viding for the better distribution of the charge for 
 relieving the poor in unions, was passed in June, 
 1865. One object of the act is the improvement of 
 the dwellings of agricultural labourers. 
 
 . UNION RELIEF ACT, passed in 1862, con- 
 tinued in 1863, to enable boards of guardians of 
 certain unions to obtain temporary aid to meet the 
 extraordinary expenditure for relief occasioned by 
 the distress in the cotton manufacturing districts. 
 
 UNION APPEAL ASSOCIATION, Ire- 
 land, see Repeal of the Union. 
 
 UNIONISTS. A Spanish political party, long 
 headed by marshal Serrano. In 1869 they advocated 
 the election of the due de Montpensier as king. See 
 Progresistas and Spain. 
 
 UNIONS, see Poor, and Trades. 
 
UNIT. 
 
 687 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 UNIT, a gold coin, value 20s. , issued by James I. 
 in 1604. 
 
 UNITARIANS, termed Socinians from Lselius 
 Socinus, who founded a sect in Italy about 1546. 
 They profess to believe in and worship one only 
 self-existent God, in opposition to those who wor- 
 ship the Trinity in unity. They consider Christ to 
 hare been a mere man ; and do not admit the need 
 of an atonement or of the complete inspiration of the 
 Scriptures. Michael Servetus printed a tract in dis- 
 paragement of the doctrine of the Trinity. In 1553, 
 proceeding to Naples through Geneva, Calvin in- 
 duced the magistrates to arrest him on a charge of 
 blasphemy and heresy. Servetus, refusing to re- 
 tract his opinions, was condemned to the flames, 
 which sentence was carried into execution, 27 May, 
 1553. Servetus is numbered among those anato- 
 mists who made the nearest approach to the doctrine 
 of the circulation of the blood, before Harvey estab- 
 lished that doctrine. Matthew Hamont was burnt 
 at Norwich for asserting Christ not to be the Son 
 of God, 1 June, 1573. The Unitarians were nume- 
 rous in Transylvania in the 17th century; they 
 came to England about 1700, and many of the 
 original English presbyterian churches became 
 Unitarians about 1730. They were not included in 
 the Toleration act till 18 13. There were 229 con- 
 gregations in England hi 1 85 1. Then - tenets re- 
 semble those of the Arians and Socinians {which see) . 
 The Unitarian marriage bill was passed, June, 1827. 
 In Dec. 1833, by a decision of the vice-chancellors 
 the Unitarians (as such) lost the possession of lady 
 Hewley's charity ; the decision was affirmed on ap- 
 peal in 1842. 
 
 UNITED BRETHREN, see Moravians. 
 
 UNITED IRISHMEN, a political society 
 which met secretly, was formed to establish a re- 
 public about 1795. Theobald "Wolf Tone, the 
 founder, was captured by sir John "Warren in the 
 Soche, one of six frigates destined to support the 
 rebellion, in Oct. 1798. He anticipated his punish- 
 ment by suicide in prison Nov. 1798. 
 
 UNITED KINGDOM. England and "Wales 
 were united in 1283 ; Scotland to both in 1707 ; and 
 the British realm was named the United Kingdom 
 on the union of Ireland, 1 Jan. 1801 ; see Union. — 
 The United Kingdom Alliance, for the total sup- 
 pression of liquor traffic, was founded, 1 June, 
 1853. See Permissive Bill. The subscribed mani- 
 festo of this alliance occupied a page of the Times, 
 11 Dec. 1871. 
 
 UNITED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, 
 
 in Scotland, was formed 13 May, 1847 ; see Burghers, 
 and Relief Church. 
 
 UNITED PROVINCES (Holland, Zealand, 
 Utrecht, Friesland, Groningen, Overyssell, and 
 Guelderland), the deputies of which met at Utrecht, 
 23 Jan. 1579, and signed a treaty for their mutual 
 defence ; see Holland. 
 
 UNITED SERVICE INSTITUTION, 
 
 "Whitehall, London, was established in 1830. Its 
 museum contains many remarkable military and 
 naval relics. The lectures given are reported in its 
 journal, which first appeared in 1857. The United 
 Service Gazette first published 9 Feb. 1833. 
 
 UNITED STATES of AMERICA were 
 so styled by the congress of the revolted British 
 provinces, 9 Sept. 1776. Their flag was declared 
 to be thirteen stripes, alternately red and white, 
 and thirteen stars in a blue field, con-esponding with 
 the then number of states of the union, 20 June, 
 1777. The government of the United States is a 
 pure democracy. Each of the 37 states has a sepa- 
 rate and independent legislature for the administra- 
 tion of its local affairs, but all are ruled in matters 
 of imperial policy by two houses of legislature, the 
 senate, elected for six years, and the house of repre- 
 sentatives, elected for two years, to which delegates- 
 are sent from the different members of the con- 
 federacy. The president of the United States is 
 elected every fourth year by the free voice of the 
 people. The election of Abraham Lincoln as presi- 
 dent on 4 Nov. i860, was followed by the secession 
 of eleven slaveholding states, and led to the great 
 civil war, 1861-5; see Confederates, and below. 
 
 The thirteen states of the union at the declaration of 
 independence in 1776 : the italics indicate the then 
 slaveholding states; those with a * prefixed, seceded 
 from the federal government in t86o and 1861, and 
 were subdued in 1865. 
 
 New Hampshire. 
 Massachusetts. 
 Bhode Island. 
 Connecticut. 
 New York. 
 New Jersey. 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 Delaware. 
 Maryland. 
 
 * Virginia. 
 
 * North Carolina. 
 
 * South Carolina. 
 
 * Georgia. 
 
 See separate articles . 
 
 The following have been added :— 
 
 Vermont (from New York) 
 
 *Tennessee (from North Carolina) 
 
 Kentucky (from Virginia) 
 
 Columbia district (under the immediate government 
 of congress) contains Washington, the seat of 
 government 1 
 
 Ohio (created) 
 
 *Lmtisiana (bought from France in 1803) . . . 
 
 Indiana (created) 
 
 *Mississippi (from Georgia) 
 
 Illinois (created) 
 
 * Alabama (from Georgia) 
 
 Maine (from Massachusetts) ... 
 
 Missouri (from Louisiana) 
 
 ^Arkansas 
 
 Michigan 
 
 *Florida (ceded by Spain, 1820) ; made a state 
 
 *Texas 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 California 
 
 Minnesota (territory, 1849) ; state .... 
 
 Or ego n (territory, 1850); state 
 
 Kansas (territory, 1854) ; state 
 
 New Mexico (territory) 
 
 Utah (territory) 
 
 "Washington (territory) 
 
 1 791 
 1796 
 1792 
 
 790-1 
 1802 
 1812 
 1816 
 1817 
 1818 
 1819 
 1820 
 1821 
 1836 
 1837 
 1845 
 
 1846 
 
 1857 
 1859 
 
 1850 
 1853 
 
 Nevada (territory, 1861) ; state 1 
 
 Colorado (territory) 1861 
 
 Dakota (territory) „ 
 
 Arizona (territory) 1863 
 
 Idaho (territory) „ 
 
 West Virginia (from Virginia) ; state . . . . ,, 
 
 Montana (territory) 1864 
 
 Nebraska (territory, 1854); state 1867 
 
 Wyoming (territory) 1868 
 
 Alaska (territory) ,, 
 
 Electoral College in 1872, 366 members : 40 for New 
 
 England, 95 for the southern States, 12 for the Pacific 
 
 States, 84 for the middle States, and 135 for the 
 western States. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Slaves. Total. \ 
 
 1776 2,614,300 1 1830. 
 
 1800 . . 896,849 . 5>3°9>75 6 l8 5° 
 
 1810 . . 1,191,364 7,239'9°3 I 
 
 See Slavery in America. 
 
 Slaves. Total. 
 
 2,009,050 . 12,858,670 
 3,204,313 . 23,191,876 
 
 i860. 
 1870 
 
 Slaves. Total. 
 
 3,952,801 . 31,445,980 
 • • 38,546,677 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 The senate is composed of 2 members for each state, 
 elected for 6 years. The representatives in congress 
 were formerly elected for 2 years in the ratio of 1 in 
 93,423 persons (five slaves were counted as three per- 
 
 sons); but this system ended with the abolition of 
 slavery. In 1872 the number of representatives was 
 raised from 233 to 283, to commence 3 March, 1873. 
 
 Revenue. — Total receipts, 1 July, 1854, to 30 June, 1855 . . 65,003,930 dollars. 
 
 ditto 1 July, 1858, to 30 June, 1859 . . 53,405,071 dollars, 
 
 ditto 1 July, 1862, to 30 June, 1863 . . 888,082,128 dollars. 
 
 ditto 1 July, 1865, to 30 June, 1866 . . 1,273,960,215 dollars, 
 ditto June, 1870, 411,255,478 dollars. 
 
 Expenditure. — 1 July, 1854, to 30 June, 1855 . . 56,365,393 dollars, 
 
 ditto 1 July, 1858, to 30 June, 1859 . . 66,346,226 dollars, 
 
 ditto 1 July, 1862, to 30 June, 1863 . . 714,709,996 dollars. 
 
 ditto i July, 1865, to 30 June, 1866 . . 1,141,072,666 dollars, 
 ditto June, 1870, 309,653,561 dollars. 
 Public Debt. — June, 1867, 2,515,615,936 dollars, 
 ditto June, 1871, 2,292,030,835 dollars. 
 
 1764 
 1765 
 
 1766 
 
 1767 
 1768 
 
 1773 
 !774 
 
 Army.— That which achieved independence was dis- 
 banded at the end of the war. In 1789, a war depart- 
 ment was established, and in 1790 the army consisted 
 of 1216 men for the Indian frontier. In 1808, the 
 militia was newly equipped. When war with Great 
 Britain was declared on 18 June, 1812, 35,000 men were 
 voted ; and this army was disbanded at the peace in 
 1815. Armies were voted for the wars in 1833 and 
 and 1835, afterwards disbanded. 
 
 In 1855, Army, 11,658. Militia, 1,873,558. Fleet, 72 
 vessels (2290 guns). 
 
 In i860, the United States Militia were 3,070,987. Fleet, 
 92 vessels (of all kinds); in Oct. 1862, 256 vessels of war. 
 
 Federal Army, 29 July, 1861, estimated at 660,971. In 
 Dec. 1862, nearly 1,000,000 men. In April, 1865, about 
 1,500,000, at the end of the war, when the reduction 
 began at once. Number of soldiers in 1867, 54,890 ; in 
 July, 1871, 32,135 men. 
 
 Fleet, in July, 1867, 261 vessels of all kinds, 2218 guns ; 
 Jan. 1871, 179 vessels, 1440 guns. 
 
 Act of the British parliament, imposing new heavy 
 duties on imports .... n March, 
 
 Obnoxious stamp act passed . . 22 March, 
 
 First American congress held at New York, June ; 
 the stamp-act resisted . . . .1 Nov. 
 
 Stamp-act repealed . 18 March. 
 
 British act, levymg duties on tea, paper, painted 
 glass, &c 14 June, 
 
 Gen. Gates sent to Boston .... Oct. 
 
 840 chests of tea destroyed by the populace at 
 Boston, and 17 chests at New York . . Dec. 
 
 Boston port bill (port rights annulled) 25 March, 
 
 Deputies from the states meet at Philadelphia, 
 5 Sept. ; Declaration of Rights issued 4 Nov. 
 
 First action between the British and Americans, at 
 Lexington '9 April, 
 
 Act of perpetual union between the states 20 May, 
 
 George Washington appointed commander-in-chief, 
 May; battle of Bunker's-hill, the Americans 
 retire after a severe conflict . . 17 June, 
 
 America declared "free, sovereign, and inde- 
 pendent " 4 July. 
 
 General Howe takes Long Island, 27 Aug. ; new 
 York, 15 Sept. ; victor at White Plains, 20 Oct. ; 
 takes Rhode Island 8 Dec. 
 
 The Hessians surrender to Washington 25 Dec. 
 
 La Fayette and other French officers join the 
 Americans ■ 
 
 Washington defeated at Brandywine . 11 Sept. 
 
 Lord Cornwallis takes Philadelphia . . Sept. 
 
 Burgoyne victor at German town, 3, 4, Oct. ; sur- 
 rounded ; capitulates at Saratoga . .17 Oct. 
 
 A federal government adopted by congress 15 Nov. 
 
 The states recognised by France . . 16 Dec. 
 
 Alliance with France 6 Feb - 
 
 The king's troops quit Philadelphia . . June, 
 
 Americans defeated at Brier's Creek . 3 March, 
 
 Charleston surrenders to the British . . 13 May, 
 
 Cornwallis defeats Gates at Camden . 16 Aug. 
 
 Major Andre hanged as a spy . - • .2 Oct. 
 
 [Andre (born 1751) was an adjutant-general in the 
 British army, and was taken in disguise on his 
 return from a secret expedition to the traitorous 
 American general Arnold, 23 Sept. 1780. He was 
 sentenced to execution as a spy by a court of 
 general Washington's officers at Tappan, New 
 York, and suffered death, 2 Oct. following. His 
 remains were removed to England in a sarco- 
 phagus, 10 Aug. 1 82 1, and interred in Westminster 
 
 1776 
 
 1778 
 
 1779 
 1780 
 
 abbey. Impartial judges justify the severity of 
 this punishment.] 
 
 American Academy of Arts and Sciences at Boston 
 founded 
 
 The federal government accepted by all the states, 
 1 March; congress assembles . . 2 March, 
 
 Cornwallis defeats Green at Guildford, 15 March ; 
 Arnold defeats the Americans at Butaw 8 Sept. 
 
 Surrender of lord Cornwallis and his whole army of 
 7000 men to generals Washington and Rocham- 
 beau, at Yorktown 19 Oct. 
 
 Arrival of sir Guy Carleton to treat for peace, 5 May ; 
 provisional articles signed at Paris by commis- 
 sioners 30 Nov. 
 
 Definitive treaty of peace signed at Paris, 3 Sept. 
 1783; ratified by congress . . . 4 Jan. 
 
 Samuel Seabury consecrated bishop of the episcopal 
 church in America 
 
 John Adams, first American ambassador's first in- 
 terview with the king of England . . 1 June, 
 
 The cotton plant introduced into Georgia 
 
 New constitution signed by a convention of states, 
 
 17 Sept. 
 
 The same ratified 23 May, 
 
 The quakers of Philadelphia emancipate their slaves, 
 
 1 Jan. 
 
 New government organised, 4 March ; George Wasli- 
 ington, 1st president, 6 April ; present depart- 
 ments of state established . . .27 July, 
 
 Death of Benjamin Franklin . . . 17 April, 
 
 Bank instituted ; capital, 10,000,000 dollars, 7 June, 
 
 City of Washington chosen the capital of the states, 
 
 8 July, 
 
 Eli Whitney's invention of the cotton-gin gives an 
 immense impetus to the growth of American 
 cotton 
 
 Re-election of general Washington as president, 
 4 March, 1793 ; resigns ... 17 Sept. 
 
 John Adams, 2nd president . . . 4 March, 
 
 Washington dies ; universal sorrow . 14 Dec. 
 
 The seat of government removed to Washington 
 
 Tlmmas Jefferson, 3rd president . . . 4 March, 
 
 Louisiana purchased from the French . 30 April, 
 
 Discussion between England and America respect- 
 ing the rights of neutrals 
 
 American ports closed to the British, July ; trade 
 suspended 9 Dec. 
 
 Importation of slaves abolished . . .1 Jan. 
 
 James Madison, 4th president . . • 4 March, 
 
 War with Great Britain (New England States 
 opposed to it, threatened to secede) . 18 June, 
 
 Action between the American ship Constitution, and 
 the British frigate Guerricre, an unequal contest, 
 
 19 Aug. 
 
 Fort Detroit taken 21 Aug. 
 
 The. British sloop Frolic taken by the American 
 sloop Wasp !8 Oct. 
 
 The ship United States of 54 guns, great calibre 
 (ci immodore Decatur), captures the British frigate 
 Macedonia 25 Oct. 
 
 Battles of Frenchtown (which see) . . 22-24 J al1 - 
 
 The Hornet captures the British sloop of war Peacock 
 
 25 Feb. 
 
 Fort Erie and Fort George abandoned by the British, 
 
 27 May, 
 
 The American frigate Chesapeake captured by the 
 Shannon frigate, captain Broke . . 1 June, 
 
 At Burlington Heights, Americans defeated, 6 June' 
 
 H.M. sloop Pelican takes the sloop Argus 14 Aug. 
 
 Buffalo town burnt by the British . . Dec. 
 
 1780 
 1781 
 
 1782 
 178* 
 
 1785 
 1786 
 
 1787 
 1788 
 
 1789 
 1790 
 1791 
 
 J793 
 
 1796 
 
 1797 
 1799 
 1800 
 1 801 
 1803 
 
 1807 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 689 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 American frigate Essex taken by the Phoebe and 
 
 Cherub 29 March, 
 
 The British defeat the Americans in a severe conflict, 
 
 2 July, 
 
 [Several engagements with various success followed.] 
 
 The British, under Ross, defeat the Americans at 
 
 Bladensburg ; the city of Washington taken and 
 
 public edifices burnt .... 24 Aug. 
 
 The British sloop of war Avon sunk by the American 
 
 sloop Wasp 8 Sept. 
 
 The British squadron on Lake Champlain captured, 
 
 11 Sept. 
 Attack on Baltimore by the British ; general Boss 
 
 killed 12 Sept. 
 
 Treaty of peace with Great Britain, signed at Ghent, 
 
 24 Dec. 
 The British repulsed at New Orleans . 8 Jan. 
 The British ship Endymion captures the President, 
 
 15 Jan. 
 The Ghent treaty ratified . . . - 17 Feb. 
 James Monroe, 5th president . . . 4 March, 
 Centre foundation of the eapitol of 'Washington laid, 
 
 24 Aug. 
 The "Missouri Compromise" of Henry Clay, re- 
 garding slavery passed .... Feb. 
 Spain cedes Florida to the American States 24 Oct. 
 The States acknowledge the independence of South 
 
 America 8 March, 
 
 Treaty with Columbia .... 3 Oct. 
 John Quincey Adams, 6th president . 4 March, 
 Death of the two ex-presidents, Adams and Jeffer- 
 son, on the 50th anniversary of the independence 
 of the American States . . . .4 July, 
 Convention with Great Britain concerning indemni- 
 ties for war 1812-14 13 Nov. 
 
 American Tariff Bill imposing heavy duties on 
 
 British goods 13 May, 
 
 General Jackson, yth president . . .4 March, 
 Treaty between the United States and the Ottoman 
 
 Porte 7 May, 
 
 Ports re-opened to British commerce . 5 Oct. 
 
 New tariff laws 14 July, 
 
 Commercial panic 
 
 Great fire at New York, 647 houses and many public 
 edifices burnt ; loss estimated at 20,000,000 dol- 
 lars ; see New York .... 15 Nov. 
 
 National debt paid off 
 
 Martin Van Buren, 8th president . . 4 March, 
 
 In the Canadian insurrection, many Americans 
 
 assist the insurgents . . . Oct. to Dec. 
 
 The American steamboat Caroline is attacked and 
 
 burnt by the British, near Schlosser, to the east 
 
 of the Niagara, on the territory of the United 
 
 States 29 Dec. 
 
 Proclamation of the president against American 
 
 citizens aiding the Canadians ... 5 Jan. 
 
 The Great Western steam-ship first arrives at New 
 
 York 17 June, 
 
 American banks suspend cash payments . Oct. 
 Alex. MacLeod, charged with aiding in the de- 
 struction of the Caroline ; true bill found against 
 him for murder and arson . . . .6 Feb. 
 The United States bank again suspends payment, 
 
 7 Feb. 
 Gen. W. H, Harrison, gth president . . 4 March, 
 
 Died 4 April, 
 
 Mr. Fox, British minister, demands the release of 
 
 Mr. MacLeod 12 March, 
 
 John Tyler, 10th president .... April, 
 The case of MacLeod removed to supreme court at 
 
 New York 6 May, 
 
 A party of British volunteers from Canada carry off 
 
 col. Grogan 9 Sept. 
 
 Resignation of all the United States ministers, with 
 the exception of Mr. Webster . . . n Sept. 
 President's proclamation against lawless attempts of 
 American citizens to invade British possessions, 
 and to suppress secret lodges, clubs, and associa- 
 tions 25 Sept. 
 
 Grogan restored to the Americans . . 4 Oct. 
 Trial of MacLeod at Utica, 4 Oct. ; acquitted, 12 Oct. 
 Colossal statue of Washington placed in the eapitol 
 
 at Washington 1 Dec. 
 
 Affair of the Creole ; dispute with England Dec. 
 
 [This American vessel was on her voyage to New 
 
 Orleans with a cargo of slaves : they mutinied, 
 
 murdered the owner, wounded the captain, and 
 
 compelled the crew to take the ship to Nassau, 
 
 1817 
 1818 
 1820 
 
 1822 
 1824 
 1825 
 
 1826 
 
 1828 
 1829 
 
 1830 
 
 1832 
 
 1835 
 1836 
 1837 
 
 New Providence, where the governor, considering 
 them passengers, allowed them, against the pro- 
 test of the American consul, to go at liberty.] 
 Announcement of lord Ashburton's mission to the 
 
 United States 1 Jan. 1842 
 
 Arrest of Hogan, implicated in the Caroline affair, 
 
 2 Feb. „ 
 Lord Ashburton arrives at New York . 1 April, ,, 
 Washington treaty, defining the boundaries between 
 the United States and the British American pos- 
 sessions, and for suppressing the slave trade, and 
 giving up fugitive criminals ; signed at Washing- 
 ton, by lord Ashburton and Mr. Webster, 9 Aug. ,, 
 The tariff bill is passed .... 30 Aug. „ 
 Lord Ashburton leaves the United States . 5 Sept. „ 
 Death of Dr. Channing .... 2 Oct. „ 
 
 James Knox Polk, nth president . . 4 March, 1845 
 War declared against the United States by Mexico, 
 on account of the proposed annexation of Texas, 
 
 4 June, „ 
 [Several actions are fought between the belligerents, 
 
 adverse to Mexico ] 
 Resolution of the senate and house of representa- 
 tives for terminating the joint occupancy of 
 
 Oregon 20 April, 1846 
 
 Annexation of New Mexico to the United States, 
 
 after a protracted war . . . .23 Aug. ,, 
 Mexicans defeated by Taylor at Palo Alto, 8, 9 May, „ 
 Treaty fixing the north-west boundary of the U.S. 
 at the 49th parallel of latitude, and giving the 
 British possession of Vancouver's island, the free 
 navigation of the Columbia river, &c, signed 
 
 12 June, ,, 
 The Mexicans defeated by general Taylor, at Bueno 
 
 Vista 22, 23 Feb. 1847 
 
 Vera Cruz taken by storm, 29 March ; the Mexicans 
 everywhere worsted. Great battle of Sierra Gorda ; 
 the Mexicans signally defeated by general Scott, 
 
 18 April, „ 
 Treaty between Mexico and the United States, rati- 
 fied 19 May, 1848 
 
 Gen. Zachary Taylor, xzth president . 4 March, 1849 
 Riot at the theatre, New York, occasioned by the 
 dispute between Mr. Forrest and Mr. Macready, 
 
 10 May, „ 
 Proclamation of the president against the maraud- 
 ing expedition to Cuba .... 11 Aug. ,, 
 [Lopez, a Spanish adventurer, landed 600. men at 
 Cuba ; after a short but obstinate struggle they 
 took the town of Cardenas ; and soon after had a 
 land engagement with some Spanish soldiers, in 
 which many of them were killed or taken pri- 
 soners ; the others embarked with Lopez in the 
 Creole steamer, and thus escaped from a Spanish 
 war steamer, the Pizarro, May, 1850.] 
 The French ambassador dismissed from Washington, 
 
 14 Sept. 
 Treaty with England for a transit way across Pana- 
 ma (see Buhner), 19 April ; ratified . 4 July, 1850 
 President Zachary Taylor dies ; death of M. Cal- 
 houn 31 March, ,, 
 
 Millard Fillmore, x^th president . . March, ,, 
 California admitted a state ... 15 Aug. ,, 
 
 Fugitive slave bill passed Aug. ,, 
 
 President Filknore issues a second proclamation 
 against the promoters of a second expedition to 
 Cuba, and the ship Cleopatra, freighted with 
 military stores destined for that island, is seized, 
 
 25 April, 1851 
 Census of the United States taken, the population 
 ascertained to amount to 23,347,884, in the whole 
 
 union 16 June, ,, 
 
 Henry Clay, American statesman, dies . 29 June, „ 
 Failure of the second expedition against Cuba by 
 Lopez and his followers ; they are all defeated and 
 taken ; 51 are shot by the Cuban authorities, 
 Lopez is garotted, and the rest are sent prisoners 
 to Spain, where, after some negotiation, they are 
 mercifully set at liberty (see Cuba) Aug.-Sept. ,, 
 J. F. Cooper, American novelist, dies . 14 Sept. ,, 
 The president issues a proclamation against the 
 sympathisers with the revolutionary movemgnt 
 
 in Mexico 22 Oct. „ 
 
 Part of the eapitol of Washington, and the whole of 
 the library of the United States congress, de- 
 stroyed by fire 24 Dec. 
 
 M. Kossuth, the Hungarian chief, arrives at Wash- 
 
 Y Y 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 690 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 ington, on the invitation of the United States 
 
 legislature 30 Dec. 1851 
 
 Publication of "Uncle Tom's Cabin," by Mrs. 
 Stowe .... . . 20 March, 1852 
 
 The dispute with England relating to the Fisheries 
 occurs about this time; Mr. Webster's note upon 
 
 the subject 14 July, ,, 
 
 Lone Star Society (see Lone Star) . . . Aug. ,, 
 The United States Ship Crescent City boarded at 
 Havannah, and not allowed to land her mails or 
 
 passengers 3 Oct. „ 
 
 Death of the eminent statesman Daniel Webster in 
 
 his 70th year 24 Oct. ,, 
 
 Expedition to Japan , , 
 
 Address to the women of America on slavery, 
 adopted by the duchess of Sutherland and other 
 ladies (signed afterwards by 576,000 English- 
 women) 26 Nov. „ 
 
 Gen. Franklin Pierce, 14th president . 4 March, 1853 
 Affair of Koszta at Smyrna (see Koszta) 21 June, ,, 
 Crystal palace opens at New York . . 14 July, „ 
 Duel between M. Soule (American minister at 
 
 Madrid) and M. Turgot . . . 18 Dec. „ 
 Great fire at New York— Great Republic clipper de- 
 stroyed 26 Dec. „ 
 
 Astor Library, New York, opened . . 9 Jan. 1854 
 William Walker proclaims the republic of Sonora 
 divided into two states— Sonora and Lower Cali- 
 fornia !% Jan. ,, 
 
 American steamer Black Warrior seized at Cuba, 
 
 28 Feb. „ 
 The Spanish government remitted the fine, but con- 
 sidered the seizure legal .... April, „ 
 Commercial treaty concluded between Japan and 
 United States by commodore Perry (sent there 
 
 for the purpose) 23 March, „ 
 
 Reciprocity treaty between Great Britain and 
 United States (respecting Newfoundland fishery, 
 international trade, &c.) concluded . 7 June, ,, 
 Captain Hollins in American sloop Cyane, bombards 
 
 San Juan de Nicaragua . . . .13 July, „ 
 Negotiation for the annexation of the Sandwich 
 
 Islands Oct. „ 
 
 Dreadful election riots in Kansas, March and April, 1855 
 Indian war : they are defeated . . 25, 29 April, „ 
 Dispute with British government on enlistment (see 
 
 Foreign Legion) July, ,, 
 
 Gen. Harney gains a victory over the Sioux Indians,' 
 
 3 Sept. ,, 
 Senator Charles Sumner savagely assaulted by 
 senator Preston Brooks in the senate-house for 
 speaking against slavery ... 2 May, 1856 
 Mr. Crampton, British envoy, dismissed, 28 May, „ 
 John C. Fremont nominated the " Republican" can- 
 didate for the presidency . . . i7J..t_t, ,, 
 Battle in Kansas ; the slavers (under capt. Reid) 
 
 defeat Brown and the abolitionists . 30 Aug. ,, 
 James Buchanan, elected 15th president . 4 Nov. ,, 
 The Resolute presented to queen Victoria (see Frank- 
 lin) 12 Dec. ,, 
 
 Lord Napier appointed British envoy to United 
 
 States (16 Jan.) ; warmly received 18 March, 1857 
 
 Central American question settled . . March, ,, 
 Judgment given in the " Dred Scott " case in the 
 supreme court. (He was claimed as a slave in a 
 free state : 2 judges declared for his freedom, 5 
 against it, which causes great dissatisfaction 
 throughout the free states) . . . March, ,, 
 Disorganised state of Utah ; troops march to sup- 
 port new governor . . . May and June, ,, 
 Riots in Washington against Irish electors ; and in 
 New York on account of changes in the police 
 
 arrangements June, „ 
 
 Insurrection in Kansas quelled . . . July, ,, 
 Commercial panic in New York . . . Aug. ,, 
 Outrage at Staaten Island ; quarantine house burnt, 
 
 7 Sept. ,, 
 Dispute respecting right of search, settled May, 1858 
 Tranquillity restored in Utah . . . June, ,, 
 Great rejoicing at the completion of the Atlantic 
 
 telegraph (see Electric Telegraph) . . Aug. ,, 
 Lieut. Moffat seizes the American slave ship Echo 
 
 and takes her to Charleston . . . Sept. „ 
 
 Death of W. H. Prescott, the historian . 28 Jan! 1859 
 Daniel Sickles, a government official, killed Philip 
 Barton Key, for adultery with his wife ; acquitted 
 
 of murder 26 Feb. 
 
 The American commodore Tatnall assists the Eng- 
 
 lish at the Chinese engagement on the river 
 Peiho, saying, "Blood is thicker than water," 
 
 25 June, 
 
 Gen. Ward, the United States envoy, goes to Pekin, 
 but does not see the emperor . . . July, 
 
 Gen. Harney sends troops to San Juan Island, near 
 Vancouver's Island, " to protect the American 
 settlers ; " moderation of the British, who have a 
 naval force at hand ; governor Douglas also sends 
 troops 27 July, 
 
 Insurrection at Harper's Ferry . . 16 Oct. 
 
 [John Brown, called captain Brown and old Brown, 
 was a prominent leader in the violent conflicts in 
 Kansas, during the agitation respecting the ques- 
 tion of its becoming a slave state. He was a 
 monomaniac on the slavery question, and con- 
 tended that all means for annihilating slavery were 
 justifiable. He gathered together a band of despe- 
 rate characters, wlio so much annoyed Missouri 
 and other slave states, that a reward was offered 
 fur his head He had arranged for the successful 
 issue of the insurrection above mentioned, so far 
 as to devise a provisional government and a new 
 constitution. On 16 Oct. lie and his band, aided 
 by a mob, seized the arsenal at Harper's Ferry, a 
 town on the borders of Virginia and Maryland, 
 stopped the railway trains, and cut the telegraph 
 wires ; a conflict with the military ensued, when 
 many of the insurgents were killed. Temporary 
 panic in southern states.] 
 
 Gen. Harney superseded by gen. Scott at San Juan, 
 who makes conciliatory overtures ; accepted by 
 governor Douglas Nov. 
 
 Death of Washington Irving . . .28 Nov. 
 
 John Brown captured and tried ; executed 2 Dec. 
 
 Great agitation in the congress, Nov. 1859 ; no 
 speaker elected till .... 1 Feb. 
 
 President Buchanan protests against a proposed in- 
 quiry into his acts .... 28 March, 
 
 Companions of John Brown executed . March, 
 
 The national republican convention meet at 
 Chicago ; Abraham Lincoln chosen as candidate 
 for the presidency . . . . 16 May, 
 
 Japanese embassy received by the president at 
 Washington 17 May, 
 
 Fresh disputes at San Juan, through gen. Harney, 
 who is recalled May, 
 
 William Goodrich (Peter Parley) dies . May, 
 
 The national democratic convention meet at Balti- 
 more ; a large number of delegates secede ; the 
 remainder nominate Stephen Douglas as presi- 
 dent : the seceders nominate John Breckinridge, 
 
 18 June, 
 
 The Great Eastern arrives at New York 23 June, 
 
 The prince of Wales arrives at Detroit in the United 
 States, 20 Sept. ; visits Washington, 3 Oct. ; 
 Philadelphia, 9 Oct. ; New York, 11 Oct. ; Bos- 
 ton, 17 Oct. ; embarks at Portland . 20 Oct. 
 
 Abraham Lincoln, the republican candidate, circled 
 16th president (see Southern Confederacy), 6 Nov. 
 
 [303 electors are appointed to vote for a president ; 
 152 to be a majority. The numbers were, for A. 
 Lincoln, 180 ; John C. Breckinridge, 72 ; John 
 Bell, 39 ; Stephen A. Douglas, 12.] 
 
 Intense excitement at Charleston, South Carolina, 
 and in other southern states . . . Nov. 
 
 South Carolina secedes from the union . 20 Dec. 
 
 Major Anderson, of United States army, occupies 
 Fort Sumter in Carolina . . . .26 Dec. 
 
 Delegates from South Carolina not received by the 
 president 30 Dec. 
 
 Vacillating policy of president Buchanan ; the secre- 
 taries Cass, Cobb, Floyd, and Thompson resign, 
 Dec. 1860-Jan. 
 
 New York and other northern states protest against 
 the secession ; a general fast proclaimed ; observed 
 on 4 Jan. 
 
 Vicksburg, Mississippi, fortified . . .12 Jan. 
 
 Kansas admitted a state . . . 21 Jan. 
 
 Secession (by convention) of Mississippi, 8 Jan. ; 
 Alabama, Florida, 11 Jan. ; Georgia, 19 Jan. ; 
 Louisiana, 26 Jan. ; Texas (by legislature), 
 
 1 Feb. 
 
 Jefferson Davis, elected by the six seceding states, 
 8 Feb. ; is inaugurated president of the "southern 
 confederacy," at Montgomery, Alabama, 18 Feb. 
 
 New (Morrill) tariff bill passed (nearly prohibits 
 commerce with England) . . .2 March, 
 
 1859 
 
 i860 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 691 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 President Davis prepares for war (100,000 men to 
 be raised) March, 1861 
 
 Abm. Lincoln, inaugurated president at Washing- 
 ton, says, "the central idea of secession is the 
 essence of anarchy " . . . . 4 March, „ 
 
 Southern commissioners not received by the presi- 
 dent at Washington . . . .12 March, „ 
 
 Gen. Winfield Scott, in a letter to president Lin- 
 coln, sets before him four courses : either, I. , to 
 surrender to slavery half the territory acquired or 
 to be acquired ; II. , to blockade all revolted ports ; 
 III., to say to seceding states, "Wayward sisters, 
 go in peace ! " or IV. , to conquer the south, which 
 would require 300,000 men and afterwards a resi- 
 dent army [the letter became public Oct. 1862] 
 
 March, „ 
 
 Great excitement at the operation of the new 
 Morill tariif, which begins . . .1 April, ,, 
 
 The war begins : Major Anderson refuses to surren- 
 der Port Sumter, Charleston, when summoned, 11 
 April ; it is taken by the secessionists, after a 
 bloodless conflict .... 13 April, „ 
 
 President Lincoln summons the congress to meet 
 on 4 July ; issues a proclamation, calling on the 
 states to furnish a contingent of 75,000 men, &c. 
 
 15 April, „ 
 
 Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, and 
 other states zealously respond, with vigorous 
 preparations for war ; Kentucky, North Carolina, 
 Virginia, Tennessee, and Missouri, decidedly re- 
 fuse, asserting the proposed coercion to be wicked, 
 illegal, and unconstitutional . . April, „ 
 
 The mob in Baltimore, Maryland, attack some 
 Massachusetts regiments on their way to Wash- 
 ington ; several persons killed in the conflict, 
 
 19 April, „ 
 
 President Davis issues letters of marque, 17 April ; 
 president Lincoln proclaims the blockade of the 
 ports of seceding states . . -19 April, „ 
 
 U.S. Arsenal at Harper's Perry, Virginia, fired by 
 command, and 15,000 stand of arms destroyed, 
 18 April ; 9 ships of war and naval stores in the 
 navy yard, Norfolk, Va. , burnt to prevent them 
 falling into the hands of the southern confede- 
 rates, who occupy the place . . 21 April, ,, 
 
 Virginia (except West Virginia) secedes by ordi- 
 nance (the 8th state) ... 25 April, ,, 
 
 Lincoln calls for 42,034 volunteers for three years, 
 3 May, and informs foreign powers of his inten- 
 tion to maintain the union by war . 4 May, ,, 
 
 The confederates under Beauregard and Johnston, 
 in Virginia, threaten Washington, defended by 
 the federals under generals Winfield Scott and 
 George McClellan May, „ 
 
 The British queen commands her subjects to be 
 neutral in the ensuing war . . -13 May, „ 
 
 The federals enter Virginia; Beauregard calls on 
 the Virginians to rise and expel them 1 June, ,, 
 
 Formal secession of Arkansas, 6 May ; North Caro- 
 lina, 20 May; Tennessee (9th, 10th, and nth), 
 
 8 June, ,, 
 
 Several British vessels seized while endeavouring to 
 break the blockade ; the southern privateer 
 Savannah captured .... June, „ 
 
 Neutrality announced by the French emperor, 
 
 10 June, ,, 
 
 Fast-day in confederate states . . 13 June, ,, 
 
 Missouri. — Gen. Lyon raises a federal army, and 
 defeats the state troops, 17 June ; the federals 
 successful at Carthage, 5 July ; Fremont takes 
 command in West Missouri, 26 July ; federals 
 victorious at Athens, 5 Aug. ; at Wilson's Creek 
 (gen. Lyon killed), 10 Aug. ; Fremont proclaims 
 martial law, and freedom to slaves or rebels, 31 
 Aug. ; Lexington surrenders to confederates, 20 
 Sept. ; Fremont blamed, retires ; succeeded by 
 Hunter , . 2 Nov. „ 
 
 Virginia. — Federals defeated at Big Bethell, 10 
 June ; occupy Harper's Ferry, evacuated by the 
 confederates, 16 June ; col. Pegrim and 600 con- 
 federates surrender at Beverley . 13 July, „ 
 
 [Very many skirmishes, with various results.] 
 
 McClellan defeats confederates at Rich Mountain, 
 11 July ; Paterson permits the junction of the 
 confederates under Johnston and Beauregard 
 near Manassas, 15 July ; who are repulsed at 
 Blackburn's Ford, near Centreville . 18 July, „ 
 
 Battle of Bull Run (which see) or Manassas, Vir- 
 
 ginia; the federals, seized with panic, flee in 
 utter disorder 21 July, 
 
 Meeting of U. S. Congress, 4 July ; a loan of 250 
 million dollars authorised . . .17 July, 
 
 Meeting of confederate congress at Richmond, 
 Virginia 20 July, 
 
 Passport system introduced into the northern 
 states, and the liberty of the press greatly re- 
 stricted Aug. 
 
 The charges in the Morrill tariff greatly raised ; 
 the confederates prohibit exportation of cotton 
 except by southern ports . . . Aug. 
 
 Battle of Springfield or Wilson's Creek ; confede- 
 rates defeated 10 Aug. 
 
 McClellan assumes command of the army of the 
 Potomac 20 Aug. 
 
 Federal gen. Butler takes Fort Hatteras, N. 
 Carolina (700 prisoners and 1000 stand of arms), 
 
 29 Aug. 
 
 Fast-day in federal states ... 26 Sept. 
 
 Garibaldi declines command in the federal army, 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Battle of Ball's Bluff; federals defeated and gen. 
 Baker killed, near Leesburg, Virginia ; hundreds 
 drowned 21 Oct. 
 
 The federals and confederates enter Kentucky ; 
 the governor protests ; many skirmishes, 
 
 Sept. -Dec. 
 
 Resignation of lieut.-gen. Scott, 31 Oct. ; George 
 McClellan made commander-in-chief of the 
 federal army 1 Nov. 
 
 The federal general Sherman takes Port Royal forts, 
 S. Carolina 7, 8 Nov. 
 
 Capt. Wilkes, of federal war steamer San Jacinto, 
 boards the Royal British mail packet Trent, 
 and carries off Messrs. Mason and Slidell, con- 
 federate commissioners, and their secretaries, 8 
 Nov., and conveys them to Boston . 19 Nov. 
 
 Great rejoicings in the northern states at the 
 capture of Mason and Slidell . . . Nov. 
 
 McClellan reviews 70,000 men . . .20 Nov. 
 
 Capt. Pegram, of confederate steamer Nashville, 
 burns the federal ship Harvey Birch, 19 Nov., and 
 brings the crew on to Southampton . 21 Nov. 
 
 A secession ordinance passed by a party in Mis- 
 souri, 2 Nov. ; the same in Kentucky . 30 Nov. 
 
 Dissensions increase between the republicans (abo- 
 litionists) and the democrats in New York, &c. 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Jefferson Davis elected president of confederate 
 states for six years .... 30 Nov. 
 
 President Lincoln states that the federal armies 
 comprise 660,971 men . . . . 2 Dec- 
 Meeting of congress, which votes thanks to capt. 
 Wilkes, 2 Dec. ; the foreign envoys at Washington 
 protest against his act .... 3 Dec. 
 
 The federals commence sinking hulks filled with 
 stones to block up Charleston harbour (S. Caro- 
 lina) [much indignation in England] . 21 Dec. 
 
 Banks at New York, <fec. , suspend cash payments, 
 
 3oDec. 
 
 A firm despatch from the British government 
 arrives, 18 Dec. 1861 ; Mason, &c, surrendered, 
 sail for Europe ..... 1 Jan. 
 
 Phelps' fruitless expedition to Ship Island, Missis- 
 sippi Sound . . . .3 Dec. 1861-Jan. 
 
 Confederate general Zollicoffer defeated by Thomas 
 and slain at Mill Springs or Somerset, Kentucky, 
 
 19 Jan. 
 
 Tennessee. — The federals (Grant) take Fort Henry, 
 6 Feb. ; Fort Donnelson, with 15,000 prisoners, 
 16 Feb. ; and Nashville ... 23 Feb. 
 
 Confederates defeated at Pea Ridge, Arkansas, 
 6, 7, 8 March, 
 
 Confederate iron-plated ship Merrimac destroys 
 federal vessels Cumberland and Congress in Hamp- 
 ton roads, 8 March ; is repulsed by federal iron- 
 clad floating battery Monitor . . 9 March, 
 
 McClellan and his army (100,000) cross the Potomac 
 and find the confederate camp at Bull Run 
 evacuated 10 March, 
 
 McClellan resigns general command, and assumes 
 that of the army of the Potomac only ; Fremont 
 that of the Mountain department ; and Halleek 
 that of the Mississippi . . . n March, 
 
 Burnside's expedition sails, n Jan. ; takes Roanoke. 
 N. Carolina, 7, 8 Feb. ; Newbern . 14 March. 
 
 Capt. Wilson (British) boldly rescues his vessel, 
 
 Y Y 2 
 
 1862 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 692 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 Emily St. Pierre, a merchantman, from the federals 
 
 21 March, iS 
 
 [She was sailing from Calcutta to New Brunswick, 
 and while attempting to inquire whether a block- 
 ade existed, was captured off Charleston bar by a 
 federal ship of war. Her captain, and his cook 
 and steward, were permitted to remain on board 
 on her voyage to Philadelphia. On 21 March, 
 Wilson with his two associates succeeded, by 
 stratagem and courage, in recovering the com- 
 mand of the vessel, overcoming two U.S. officers 
 and 13 sailors, and brought her into Liverpool. 
 The owners of the ship gave him 2000 guineas, 
 and the Liverpool merchants presented him with 
 a magnificent testimonial of their admiration of 
 his gallantry. The British government refused 
 to restore the vessel when claimed by the 
 Americans.] 
 
 Confederates defeated at Winchester 23 March, 
 
 General Burnside occupies Beaufort and Fort Macon 
 
 1 April, 
 
 Slavery abolished in district of Columbia, 4 April, 
 
 McClellan advances into Virginia, with the view of 
 taking Richmond ; he besieges York town, held 
 by 30,000 confederates ... 5 April, 
 
 Correspondents of English newspapers excluded 
 from federal army . . . . 5 April, 
 
 Great battles of Shiloh or Pittsburg Landing, near 
 Corinth, Teunessee; confederates victorious, but 
 lose their able gen. Albert Johnstone ; they retire 
 
 6, 7 April, . 
 
 Treaty between Great Britain and the United 
 States for the suppression of the slave trade, 
 
 7 April, , 
 
 Federals take Fort Pulaska on the Savannah, n 
 April ; and New Orleans . . 25-28 April, , 
 
 Yorktown evacuated by confederates . 3 May, , 
 
 The Seward-Lyons treaty between Great Britain 
 and the United States, for suppression of the 
 slave trade, signed 7 April ; ratified . 20 May, , 
 
 Confederates repulsed at Williamsburg, 5 May; their 
 naval depot at Norfolk, Virginia, surrenders, 10 
 May ; they burn the Merrimcw . .11 May, , 
 
 Commodore Farragut with a flotilla ascends the 
 Mississippi May, , 
 
 Little Rock, Arkansas, taken by federals . May, , 
 
 Stonewall Jackson defeats Banks at Winchester, 
 
 18 May, , 
 
 McClellan takes Hanover court-house . 27 May, , 
 
 Skirmishes in Virginia ; success varying . May, , 
 
 Severe battles of Fair Oaks, before Richmond 
 (indecisive) . . . -31 May, 1 June, , 
 
 Beauregard and the confederates retreat from 
 Corinth, Tennessee, 30 May ; pursued byHalleck 
 and the federals June, , 
 
 Memphis, on the Mississippi, taken . 6 June, , 
 
 Federals defeated near Charleston . . 16 June, , 
 
 Federal forces under Fremont, Banks, and 
 McDowell, placed under Pope ; Fremont resigns, 
 
 27 June, , 
 
 Federals suffer through several severe engagements 
 in Virginia 2 5"3° June, , 
 
 General Butler excites great indignation by his 
 military rigour at New Orleans May and June, , 
 
 United States debt estimated at 100,000,000?. June, , 
 
 Seven days' conflict on the Chickahominy before 
 Richmond ; the confederate gen. Lee compels 
 McClellan to abandon the siege and retreat 17 
 miles, taking up a position at Harrison's Land- 
 ing, on James's river . . 25 June-i July, , 
 
 The tariff still further raised . . . . July, , 
 
 Many conflicts in Kentucky, Missouri, and Ten- 
 nessee, through confederate guerilla parties 
 
 June ami July, , 
 
 Lincoln visits and encourages the army of McClellan, 
 and calls for 300,000 volunteers . . July, , 
 
 Lincoln's assent to a bill confiscating the property 
 and emancipating the slaves of all rebels in arms 
 after 60 days 17 July, , 
 
 Halleek supersedes McClellan as commander-in-chief 
 
 26 July, , 
 
 Slow volunteering ; many emigrations to Canada 
 and Europe ; habeas corpus suspended ; the pre- 
 sident ordains a draft if the volunteers are not 
 ready by 15 Aug July, ,, 
 
 Public debt of United States estimated at 
 1,222,000,000 dollars . . . . 1 July, ,, 
 
 Pope takes command in Virginia . . 14 July, ,, 
 
 Lincoln's proclamation of confiscation of property 
 of rebels 26 July, 1S62 
 
 Fierce attack of Breckenridge (confederates) on 
 Baton Rouge ; the federals soon after retire, 
 
 5 Aug. „ 
 
 Pope's troops ravage Virginia ; Banks, his subordi- 
 nate, defeated at Cedar Mountain by gen. Thos. 
 " Stonewall " Jackson .... 9 Aug. ,, 
 
 [According to some accounts he obtained the name 
 by promising Beauregard, at the battle of Bull 
 Run, that his brigade should stand like a " stone 
 wall ; " others say that Beauregard gave the name 
 himself.] 
 
 McClellan retreats from Harrison's Landing (said 
 to have lost 70,000 men, killed, wounded, prison- 
 ers, and deserters) .... 16 Aug. „ 
 
 The federals surprised, and Pope loses his baggage, 
 
 25 Aug. „ 
 
 Jackson turns the flank of Pope's army, and attacks 
 him at Groveton, 29 Aug. ; and when reinforced 
 by Lee, defeats him and McDowell at Bull Run, 
 30 Aug. ; Pope retreats to Centreville 1 Sept. ,, 
 
 The remains of Pope's army flee behind the lines 
 of Washington, 2 Sept. ; he is removed to the 
 north-west to act against the Indian insurrection 
 
 3 Sept. ,, 
 
 McDowell superseded ; charged with treachery, he 
 claims a trial Sept. ,, 
 
 McClellan appointed commander-in-chief, saves 
 Washington, and marches against the confede- 
 rates under Lee, who have crossed the Potomac 
 and entered Maryland . . . 5, 6 Sept. ,, 
 
 Severe conflicts at South Mountain Gap (or Middle- 
 town), 14-16 Sept. ; confederates, after a great 
 fight near Antietam Creek and Sharpsburg road, 
 retreat 17 Sept. ,, 
 
 Harper's Ferry surrendered to Jackson, 15 Sept. ; 
 he crosses Potomac and joins Lee's army 17 Sept. ,, 
 
 Federal cause declining in the west ; they lose 
 Lexington, Aug. ; and Munsfordville 17 Sept. ,. 
 
 Thanksgiving-day in southern states, 18 Sept. ,, 
 
 Rosencrans defeats the confederates at Iuka 
 
 19 Sept. ,, 
 
 Confederates re-enter Virginia laden with stores 
 
 22 Sept. ,, 
 
 Lincoln proclaims freedom to the slaves in the con- 
 federate states, on 1 Jan. 1863, if the states have 
 not returned to the union . . 22 Sept. ,, 
 
 Secret convention of 16 governors of states at 
 Altoona, Pennsylvania, approve Lincoln's policy 
 
 24 Sept. „ 
 
 Draught of 40,000 men ordered in New York state 
 by 15 Oct Sept. ,, 
 
 Lincoln suspends habeas corpus writ, and autho- 
 rises severe measures against disloyal persons 
 
 25-27 Sept. „ 
 
 Desperate but indecisive conflicts near Corinth, 
 Tennessee, 3-5 Oct. ; and at Perrysville, Kentucky 
 
 8, 9 Oct. ,, 
 
 Confederate gen. Stuart crosses Upper Potomac, 
 and enters Pennsylvania ; enters Chambersburg 
 and other places, carrying off horses, ammunition, 
 &c. ; rides round the federal army, and returns to 
 his camp 10, 13 Oct. ,, 
 
 Gold at 29 premium at New York . . Oct. 
 
 Great democratic meeting at New York, condemning 
 the president's policy .... 12 Oct. ,, 
 
 At New Orleans Butier compels all persons who 
 refuse to take the oath of allegiance to send in 
 their names and register their property to the 
 provost marshal .... 12 Oct. ,, 
 
 McClellan's head-quarters at Harper's Ferry 17 Oct. „ 
 
 Raid of confederate gen. Morgan in Kentucky ; he 
 carries off 80 federal waggons of ammunition, &c. 
 
 18 Oct. „ 
 
 Ten confederate prisoners at Palmyra shot by order 
 of gen. McNeil in consequence of the disappear- 
 ance of Abraham Allsman . . 18 Oct. ,, 
 
 Rosencrans supersedes Buell in the west, 30 Oct. ,, 
 
 M. Drouyn de Lhuys, on behalf of the French 
 government, proposes joint mediation in the 
 American conflict to Great Britain and Russia, 
 30 Oct. ; declined by Gortschakoff, 8 Nov. ; by 
 earl Russell 13 Nov. ,, 
 
 The confederate steamer Alabama, capt Semmes, 
 captures many U.S. vessels, and excites much 
 alarm at New York . . . Oct. -Dec. ,, 
 
 Elections for next congress ; great majority for the 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 693 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 democratic (opposition) candidates in New York 
 and several other states ... .4 Nov. 
 
 McClellan, while advancing towards Richmond, 
 is superseded by gen. Bumside, 5 Nov., who 
 advances towards Richmond . . 7 Nov. 
 
 President Davis threatens reprisals if general 
 McNeil is not surrendered (see 18 Oct.) 17 Nov. 
 
 Burnside summons Fredericksburg to surrender; 
 confederate gen. Lee with about 80,000 men near 
 
 22 Nov. 
 
 100,000 federal soldiers on the sick list . Nov. 
 
 Great honour shown to McClellan ; he is proposed 
 as the next president .... Nov. 
 
 The federal government orders release of disaffected 
 persons in prisons . . . .25 Nov. 
 
 Annual session of U.S. congress; the president 
 recommends compensated emancipation of all 
 slaves in the loyal states before the year 1900 
 
 1 Dec. 
 
 Battle of Fredericksburg (which see) ; Burnside 
 crosses the Rappahannock, 10 Dec. ; bombards 
 Fredericksburg, 11 Dec. ; a series of desperate 
 attacks on the confederates ; Burnside totally 
 defeated, 13 Dec. ; recrosses the river 15 Dec. 
 
 Engagements in Tennessee with varying results, Dec. 
 
 Discovery of frauds on the U.S. army financial 
 accounts ; public dissatisfaction with the govern- 
 ment ; secretaries Chase and Seward resign, but 
 resume office . . . . . . Dec. 
 
 Battles near Murfreesboro', or Stone River, between 
 Rosencrans and the federals and Braxton Bragg 
 and the confederates : begin 29 Dec. ; severe but 
 indecisive, 31 Dee. ; battle continued, 1 Jan. ; 
 Bragg defeated, retreats ... 2 Jan. 
 
 £" There have been about 2000 battles and skirmishes 
 since the commencement of the war." — American 
 Almanack.] 
 
 President Lincoln proclaims the freedom of slaves 
 in the rebel states, except in parts held by the 
 U. S. army 2 Jan. 
 
 Burnside superseded by Joseph Hooker in com- 
 mand of army of the Potomac . . 26 Jan. 
 
 The French government's offer of mediation, 9 Jan. 
 declined 6 Feb. 
 
 The George Griswold, a vessel containing provisions 
 and other relief for the distressed cotton workers 
 in Lancashire, arrives ... 9 Feb. 
 
 A conscription bill (for men between 18 and 45) 
 passed 25 Feb. 
 
 The congress authorises the suspension of the 
 habeas corpus act, 3 March ; and establishes a 
 National Academy of Sciences at Washington 
 
 4 March, 
 
 Confederate loan for 3,000,000?. well taken up in 
 Europe March, 
 
 Charleston, South Carolina, attacked by monitors 
 and gunboats ; the Keokuk, a monitor, sunk 
 
 7 April, 
 
 Battle of Chancellorsville (which see) ; the federals 
 under Hooker cross the Rappahannock, 28 April ; 
 defeated (gen. Stonewall Jackson is mortally 
 wounded), 2-4 May ; Hooker recrosses the Rappa- 
 hannock S May, 
 
 Stonewall Jackson dies ... 10 May, 
 
 Grant's successful campaign in Tennessee ; he defeats 
 the confederates under Joseph Johnstone at 
 Jackson, 14 May; and under Pemberton at 
 Champion Hills, 16 May ; and invests Vicksburg, 
 Mississippi, which is strongly fortified, 18 May, 
 a dreadful assault on it repelled . . 22 May, 
 
 Great peace meeting at Norfolk . 5 June, 
 
 Confederate invasion under Lee ; invade Maryland 
 
 and Pennsylvania, and take various towns 
 
 14 June, et seq. 
 
 The federal gen. Hooker superseded by George 
 H. Meade 27 June, 
 
 Meade advances against Lee ; great battle of 
 Gettysburg, indecisive ; but the ' confederates 
 evacuate Pennsylvania and Maryland 1-3 July, 
 
 Vicksburg bombarded, 3 July ; surrendered by 
 Pemberton to Grant and Porter . 4 July, 
 
 Port Hudson, a confederate fortress on the 
 Mississippi, surrenders ... 8 July, 
 
 Fierce riots at New York against the conscription ; 
 many negroes murdered, and much property 
 destroyed 13-16 July, 
 
 The Sioux defeated, 7 Aug. ; gen. Pope reports that 
 the Indian war is ended . . . . Aug. 
 
 1863 
 
 New York rioters tried and convicted, 12 Aug. ; 
 conscription going on peaceably . . 21 Aug. 
 
 Siege of Charleston ; defended by Beauregard — 
 attacks with varied success, July ; Fort Sumter 
 bombarded and destroyed (and so-called Greek 
 fire employed); attacks on the ruins repulsed 
 
 2r, 22 Aug. 
 
 Knoxville occupied by Burnside . . 10 Sept. 
 
 A Russian squadron warmly received at New York 
 Sept. and Oct. 
 
 Battles of Chiekamauga, Tennessee; Rosencrans 
 defeated by Bragg . . . . 19, 20 Sept. 
 
 Mason, the confederate commissioner in England, 
 protests against the mode of his reception, and 
 quits 22 Sept. 
 
 Confederates defeated at Blue-Springs, Tennessee 
 
 10 Oct. 
 
 Rosencrans' command of the federal army in Tennes- 
 see superseded by Grant, and Thomas, and 
 Sherman 19 Oct. 
 
 The steam rams El Tousson and El Monassir, built 
 by Mr. Laird at Birkenhead, and suspected to be 
 for the confederates, are placed under charge of a 
 government vessel in the Mersey . 31 Oct. 
 
 Lincoln calls for 300,000 volunteers . 17 Oct. 
 
 British consuls dismissed from the southern states 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Meade captures a part of Lee's army on the N. side 
 of the Rappahannock . . . .7 Nov. 
 
 The chief justices Lowrie, Woodward, and Thomp- 
 son declare that the Conscription act is uncon- 
 stitutional 12 Nov. 
 
 Longstreet defeats Burnside, and compels him to 
 retire into Knoxville . . . 14-17 Nov. 
 
 Sherman and Thomas defeat Bragg at Chattanooga 
 
 23, 24 Nov. 
 
 Longstreet's attack on Knoxville, defended by 
 
 Burnside, fails, and he retreats into Virginia 
 
 29 Nov. and 1 Dec. 
 
 The confederate general Bragg superseded by 
 Hardee 2 Dec. 
 
 Lincoln's message to congress warlike ; he proffers 
 amnesty to all except heads of governments <fec, 
 4 Dec. : Davis's message, firm, but acknow- 
 ledging reverses 7 Dec. 
 
 Gen. Joseph Johnston takes command of the con- 
 federate army in Georgia ... 27 Dec. 
 
 President Lincoln orders a draft of 500,000 men in 
 3 years 1 Feb. 
 
 Federal expedition into Florida; defeated at 
 Olustee 20 Feb. 
 
 Failure of attack of Kilpatrick and Dahlgren on 
 Richmond . . . .27 Feb. -4 March, 
 
 Ulysses Grant made commander-in-chief, succeeding 
 Halleck 12 March, 
 
 Confederate raids into the Western states March, 
 
 Sherman's expedition against Mobile, 2 March ; 
 defeated by Kirby-Smith . . .5 April, 
 
 James E. Stuart, the celebrated confederate cavalry 
 officer, killed . . . . .11 May, 
 
 Campaign in Virginia ; the army of the Potomac 
 crosses the Rapidan ; advance of Lee (now sup- 
 ported by Longstreet), 2 May ; severe battle in the 
 "Wilderness" (near Chancellorsville), indecisive, 
 5, 6 May ; battle of Spottsylvania ; the federals 
 remain on the field ; much carnage 10-12 May, 
 
 Sherman (in Georgia) beats the confederates at 
 Resacca, 14 May, and at Dallas . 28 May, 
 
 Fugitive slave act repealed by the house of represen- 
 tatives . 13 June, 
 
 After a succession of attacks on both sides, Grant 
 compels Lee to retire gradually, and by a flank 
 movement marches to the other side of Richmond, 
 and faces Petersburg, 15 June ; where, having 
 taken the first intrenchments after desperate 
 assaults, he is repulsed with considerable loss 
 
 18 June, 
 
 The confederate steamer Alabama (capt. Semmes) 
 attacked and sunk by the U. S. corvette Kearsage 
 (capt. Winslow) near Cherbourg, France, 19 June, 
 
 Mr. Chase, secretary to the U.S. treasury, resigns ; 
 succeeded by Mr. Fessenden . . July, 
 
 Part of Lee's army invades Maryland, 1 July ; 
 defeats Wallace near Monocracy river, 9 July ; 
 threatens Baltimore and Washington, and retreats 
 
 12, 13 July; 
 
 Sherman's 3 battles at Atlanta (Georgia), 20, 22 July); 
 victory remains with the federals . 28 July, 
 
 1863 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 694 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 Confederates again invade Maryland and Pennsyl- 
 vania, and destroy Chambersburg . 30 July, 1864 
 Grant orders tlie explosion of a mine at Petersburg, 
 whereby 250 confederates are killed : but the 
 assault following is repulsed with great slaughter 
 
 30 July, ,, 
 The Tallahassee confederate steamer(builtin London) 
 
 destroys many U.S. merchantmen July, Aug. ,, 
 Severe conflicts in the Shenandoah valley : the 
 
 federals victors Aug. „ 
 
 The confederate flotilla near Mobile destroyed by 
 
 Farragut, 5 Aug. ; Fort Gaines taken 8 Aug. „ 
 
 McClellan nominated for the presidency by the 
 
 " Democratic" Chicago convention 1 Sept. ,, 
 
 Sherman occupies Atlanta ; the confederate general 
 
 Hood retires 1 Sept. ,, 
 
 Sherman orders the depopulation of Atlanta, 
 
 7 Sept. ,, 
 McClellan declares for maintaining the union ; the 
 
 democratic party divided . . 13 Sept. ,, 
 
 Sheridan (federal) defeats Early at Winchester, in 
 the Shenandoah valley, but with very great loss 
 
 19 Sept. „ 
 Longstreet replaces Early in the command of the 
 
 confederates Oct. ,, 
 
 Longstreet defeats the federals at Cedar Creek ; 
 Sheridan arrives, rallies his troops, and defeats 
 the confederates .... 19 Oct. ,, 
 
 St. Alban's Raid. — Between 20 -and 30 armed men 
 enter St. Alban's, Vermont ; rob the bank and 
 carry off horses and stores ; fire on and kill 
 several persons, and flee to Canada, 19 Oct. ; 
 where 13 of them are arrested . . 21 Oct. ,, 
 Lincoln re-elected president ; McClellan resigns his 
 
 command in U.S. army ... 8 Nov. ,, 
 
 Sherman destroys Atlanta and begins his march 
 
 through Georgia to Savannah . . 13 Nov. „ 
 Hood's attack on Thomas (federal), at Franklin, 
 
 rerjulsed with severe loss . . -30 Nov. „ 
 Lincoln's message to congress considered "bold" 
 
 6 Dec. „ 
 The St. Alban's raiders discharged by Judge 
 Coursol ; general Dix issues an intemperate order 
 for reprisals (disannulled by the president) 
 
 14 Dec. ,, 
 Hood defeated by Thomas (federal) near Nashville 
 
 14-16 Dec. ,, 
 Sherman storms fort M'Allister, 13 Dec. ; enters 
 
 Savannah . . . .' . .21 Dec. „ 
 Wilmington bombarded ; the attack of general 
 
 Butler and admiral Porter repulsed 24, 25 Dec. „ 
 The St. Alban's raiders recaptured and committed 
 
 for trial 27 Dec. et seq. „ 
 
 The federal congress abolishes slavery in the United 
 States ... ... 1 Feb. 1865 
 
 Fruitless meeting of president Lincoln and secretary 
 Seward with the confederate secretary Stephens, 
 and 2 commissioners to treat for peace at Fort 
 
 Monroe 2, 3 Feb. ,, 
 
 The Canadian government surrenders Burley, a 
 
 raider, to the federals .... 3 Feb. „ 
 Lee takes the general command of the confederate 
 armies ; he recommends enlistment of negroes 
 
 18 Feb. „ 
 Wilmington captured by Schofield ; Charleston 
 evacuated by the confederates ; retreat of Beaure- 
 gard 22 Feb. ,, 
 
 The confederate congress decree the arming of the 
 
 slaves 22 Feb. „ 
 
 Abraham Lincoln and Andrew Johnson inaugurated 
 
 as president and vice-president . . 4 March, „ 
 A new stringent tariff comes into operation, 
 
 1 April, „ 
 Three days' sanguinary conflict at Five Forks, be- 
 gan 31 March; Sheridan turns Lee's front, and 
 totally defeats him, 1 April ; Lee retreats, 
 
 2 April, ,, 
 Kichmond and Petersburg evacuated by the con- 
 federates and occupied by Grant . 2, 3 April, ,, 
 
 Sheridan overtakes and defeats Lee at Sailor's 
 Creek, 6 April ; Lee surrenders witli the army of 
 Northern Virginia to Grant, at Appomatox court- 
 house 9 April, ,, 
 
 Mobile evacuated by the confederates 12 April, ,, 
 
 The Union flag replaced at Fort Sumter, Charleston, 
 
 14 April, ,, 
 
 President Lincoln shot in the head at Ford's Thea- 
 tre, Washington, about 11 o'clock, p.m., 14 April, 
 
 by Wilkes Booth, who escapes; Mr. Seward, the 
 foreign secretary, and his son, wounded in his 
 own house by an assassin about the same time; 
 Lincoln dies at 7.30 a.m., 15 April; Andrew 
 Johnson, vice-president, sworn in as ijth president, 
 
 15 April, 1865 
 The convention between Sherman and Johnston 
 (favourable to confederates), 17 April, disavowed 
 by the government, 21 April; Johnston surren- 
 ders on same terms as Lee . . 26 April, „ 
 Wilkes Booth shot, and his accomplice Harrold 
 
 captured, in a farmhouse . . 26 April, „ 
 
 The confederate general Dick Taylor (near Mobile) 
 
 surrenders 4 May, ,, 
 
 President Jefferson Davis captured at Irwinsville, 
 
 Georgia ; imprisoned . . . .10 May, 
 
 The confederate general Kirby Smith, in Texas, 
 
 surrenders ; end of the war . . 26 May, ,, 
 President Johnson proclaims a conditional amnesty, 
 
 26 May, „ 
 President Johnson proclaims the opening of the 
 southern ports, 22 May; and an amnesty with 
 certain exemptions . . . .29 May, „ 
 
 Solemn fast observed for death of president Lincoln, 
 
 i June, ,, 
 The armies on both sides rapidly disbanding ; fierce 
 riots at New York between whites and negroes, 
 
 June, ,, 
 Galveston, Texas, the last seaport held by the 
 
 south, surrendered by Kirby-Smith . 5 June, ,, 
 The British and French governments rescind their 
 recognition of the confederates as belligerents, 
 
 2, 6 June, ,, 
 President Johnson, uniting with the democrats, 
 and acting leniently towards the south ; reorgan- 
 isation of the state governments . . June, „ 
 Close of the long trial of the assassination conspira- 
 tors, 29 June; execution of Payne, Atzerott, 
 Harrold or Herold, and Mrs. Suratt 7 July, „ 
 
 The president declines recognition of the emperor 
 
 of Mexico 18 July, ,, 
 
 All southern prisoners of war to be released on 
 
 parole on taking oath of allegiance . 29 July, „ 
 Federal debt declared 2,757,253,275 dollars, 
 
 31 July, „ 
 The confederate privateer Shenandoah (captain 
 Waddell) captures and destroys many federal 
 
 vessels (about 30) Aug. ,, 
 
 Pacific policy of president Johnson ; he declares 
 himself opposed to centralisation and in favour 
 of state rights ; and is bitterly opposed by the 
 
 radicals Sept. ,, 
 
 Correspondence between earl Russell and Mr. 
 Adams (U.S. minister, London) respecting the 
 Alabama, confederate privateer; proposal of a 
 commission to whom claims for reparation shall 
 be referred .... 7 April-18 Sept. „ 
 Alex. Stephens and other southern officials par- 
 doned 11 Oct. „ 
 
 Great meeting of Fenians at Philadelphia; the Irish 
 
 republic proclaimed . . . 16-24 Oct. „ 
 Much public discussion respecting equal negro 
 
 suffrage July-Oct. ,, 
 
 The national debt stated to be 600,000,000?. Oct. ,, 
 General Robert Lee becomes president of Wash- 
 ington College, Virginia ... 2 Oct. „ 
 Several southern states pass ordinances annulling 
 secession, abolishing slavery, and renouncing 
 confederate debt .... Sept. Oct. Nov. „ 
 National thanksgiving for the peace . 2 Nov. ,, 
 
 Captain Waddell arrives at Liverpool, 6 Nov. ; sur- 
 renders the Shenandoah to the British govern- 
 ment, stating that he had not heard of the end of 
 the war till 2 Aug. ; he and his crew paroled, 
 8 Nov. ; the vessel given up to the American 
 
 consul 9 Nov. ,, 
 
 Capt. Wirz, after long military trial, executed far 
 cruelty to the federal prisoners at Andersonsville, 
 
 10 Nov. „ 
 A negro convention at Charleston, appeals for jus- 
 tice and generosity . . . -25 Nov. ,, 
 Ex-president Buchanan publishes his justification, 
 
 Nov. ,, 
 
 Habeas corpus act restored in N. states 1 Dec. „ 
 
 Close of correspondence between the British and 
 
 U.S. governments respecting depredations of 
 
 Alabama, Shenandoah, &c. The earl of Clarendon 
 
 maintains that " no armed vessel departed during 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 695 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 the war from a British port, to cruise against the 
 commerce of the United States " . .2 Dec. 
 
 Congress and government protest against the French 
 intervention in Mexico, Nov.; . 6, 16 Dec. 
 
 Opening of 39th congress; president Johnson's 
 message conciliatory and firm (he requires from 
 the southern states — repeal of their act of seces- 
 sion, abolition of slavery, and repudiation of 
 confederate debt) 4 Dec. 
 
 The radical party, opposed to the president, and to 
 clemency to the south, predominate in the con- 
 gress, and move violent resolutions against resto- 
 ration of southern states to the union . Dec. 
 
 Estimated federal debt, 6oo,ooo,oooZ. ; revenue, 
 8o,ooo,oooL ...... Dec. 
 
 85 members for the southern states excluded from 
 congress; the conservative party support the 
 president in his endeavours to reconstruct the 
 union ; the radicals violently oppose his policy, 
 requiring the south to undergo previously a 
 severe probation; the president has restored 
 state government to all the southern states ex- 
 cept Texas and Florida ... 29 Dec. 
 
 The radicals demand for the negroes, personal, 
 civil, and political rights, equal to those of the 
 whites; the president proposes gradual enfran- 
 chisement, in separate states . . Feb. 
 
 The president vetoes the Freedmen's Bureau bill, 
 21 Feb.; and the bill for the civil rights of the 
 blacks 27 March, 
 
 The president fiercely opposed by the radicals ; the 
 conservatives and democrats unite to support 
 him March, 
 
 He proclaims the rebellion at an end . 3 April, 
 
 The Civil Rights bill passed in spite of the veto, 
 
 9 April, 
 
 The veto on the admission of Colorado as a state, 
 15 May ; set aside May, 
 
 Fenian raids in Canada . . 31 May-7 June, 
 
 The radical reconstruction clause termed the " con- 
 stitutional amendment" (granting negro suffrage 
 to be enforced by the different states ; the whites 
 and the blacks to be equal in the sight of the 
 law, <fcc), passed by the senate . 13 June, 
 
 Death of general "Winfield Scott, aged 80, 29 May ; 
 and of Lewis Cass, aged 83 . . . 17 June, 
 
 Continued dissension between the president and 
 the congress July, 
 
 The representatives of Tennessee re-admitted to 
 the congress (10 states still excluded) . July, 
 
 The Atlantic telegraph completed (see Electric 
 Telegraph) 27 July, 
 
 The congress adjourns .... 28 July, 
 
 Great meeting at Philadelphia of the National 
 Union Convention, consisting of delegates, the 
 (moderate men of all the parties, in eveiy state, 
 north and south, now termed the conservative 
 party), whose object is to establish the national 
 union, restore the south to its rights, and vindi- 
 cate the president's policy . . 14 Aug. 
 
 Tour of the president ; he visits Philadelphia, New 
 York, Chicago, &c. ; he is very enthusiastically 
 received ; and speaks warmly, and often injudi- 
 ciously .... 28 Aug.-i8 Sept. 
 
 Elections for congress go in favour of the republi- 
 cans Oct. 
 
 [They demand that three-fifths of the blacks in the 
 south shall be entitled to vote ; that where negro 
 suffrage is not established, only whites shall 
 count ; and that all persons who have taken any 
 part in the rebellion shall be disqualified to 
 vote.] 
 
 Death of Martin Van Buren, ex-president Oct. 
 
 Trial of Jefferson Davis deferred till spring Oct. 
 
 Elections in all the states except Delaware and 
 Maryland in favour of the radicals (about 2,200,000 
 to 1,800,000); two coloured deputies elected in 
 Massachusetts Oct. -Nov. 
 
 Government policy declared to be " dead " Nov. 
 
 Meeting of congress; president's message; he de- 
 clares that he adheres to his policy . 3 Dec. 
 
 Bills to provide territorial governments in southern 
 states ; and resrietion of president's appointing 
 powers proposed 3 Dec. 
 
 The president charged with being " silent and mo- 
 tionless ; " congress absorbs all the power Dec. 
 
 A bill admitting negroes to the suffrage in district 
 of Columbia passed . . . .13 Dec. 
 
 1865 
 
 Veto of president set aside .... Jan. 
 
 Supreme court decides that congress has not power 
 to appoint military tribunals . . . Jan. 
 
 Impeachment of president by a judicial committee 
 agreed to 7 Jan. 
 
 Division among the radicals ; Stevens successfully 
 opposed by Ashley .... 29 Jan. 
 
 Debt of the United States reported 2,543,000,000 
 dollars 1 Feb. 
 
 Nebraska admitted as the 37th state, over presi- 
 dent's veto ........ 9 Feb. 
 
 Bill for establishing military government in the 
 southern states, divided into five districts, dis- 
 cussed 13-15 Feb. 
 
 Modified and passed, 20 Feb.; vetoed by the presi- 
 dent 28 Feb. 
 
 Mr. Peabody gives 1,000,000 dollars to promote 
 education in the south . Feb. 
 
 40th congress opened .... 4 March, 
 
 Supplementary reconstruction bill for the south 
 passed 20 March, 
 
 Tenure of Office act passed . . . March, 
 
 Russian America purchased for 7,000,000 dollars ; 
 treaty ratified by the senate . . .9 April, 
 
 "Protection" rife: taxation on British manufac- 
 tures 80 per cent. ; much smuggling ; public debt 
 not diminishing; many strikes amongst opera- 
 tives April, 
 
 Jefferson Davis released on bail, 13 May; pro- 
 ceeded to New York, and thence to Canada, 
 
 20 May, 
 
 Supplementary reconstruction bill adopted over 
 the president's veto . . . .15 July, 
 
 Long trial of John H. Suratt, for complicity in 
 assassination of president Lincoln; jury not 
 agreed on verdict (discharged, 6 Nov. 1868), 
 
 10 Aug. 
 
 Insubordination of gen. Sheridan, favoured by 
 Edw. Stanton, secretary of war, who refuses to 
 resign at the requisition of the president, 5 Aug. ; 
 suspended ; succeeded by gen. Grant 12 Aug. 
 
 General amnesty proclaimed by the president, 
 
 9 Sept. 
 
 Removal of gen. Sheridan from the government of 
 Louisiana, and of Sickles from N. Carolina, for 
 insubordination to the president Aug. -Sept. 
 
 National cemetery at Antietam (which see) dedi- 
 cated in jiresence of the president . 17 Sept. 
 
 Sir Fred. Bruce, British ambassador, died at Boston, 
 
 9 Sept. 
 
 Russian America ceded . . . .8 Oct. 
 
 Jefferson Davis's trial adjourned . . 26 Nov. 
 
 Elections in the south give supremacy to the ne- 
 groes; in the north, great majorities for the 
 democrats Oct. -Nov. 
 
 President's message, maintaining his principles on 
 reconstruction 3 Dec. 
 
 Revenue of the states fallen off; public debt about 
 520,000,000?. ...... Dee. 
 
 Proposed impeachment of the president negatived 
 in congress (108 to 57) . . • -8 Dec. 
 
 Treaty for purchase of Danish "West Indies (St. 
 Thomas and St. John), for 7,500,000 dollars, 
 signed Dec. 
 
 Great general storm of snow and sleet; many 
 perish ; many wrecks . . . 11-15 Dec. 
 
 President Johnson censured; and gen. Sheridan 
 thanked by house of representatives (see Aug. 
 1867) 4 Jan. 
 
 General Grant replaced by Stanton (by the senate), 
 
 14, 15 Jan. 
 
 The house of representatives declare that there is 
 no valid government in the south ; and transfer 
 the jurisdiction from president Johnson to Grant, 
 as general of the army ... 21 Jan. 
 
 Great commercial depression; Mr. Wells, the revenue 
 commissioner, recommends " peace, retrench- 
 ment, and reform " . . . . Jan. 
 
 The inland cotton tax repealed . about 1 Feb. 
 
 Edward Thornton, new British ambassador, and 
 -Charles Dickens received by the president, 
 
 7 Feb. 
 
 Angry correspondence between the president and 
 gen. Grant .... 28 Jan. -14 Feb. 
 
 President Johnson orders dismissal of Stanton, 
 and appoints gen. Thomas secretary of war, 21 
 Feb. ; declared illegal by the senate . 22 Feb. 
 
 The impeachment of the president voted by house 
 
 1867 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 696 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 of representatives (126 to 47), 24 Feb.; reported 
 at the bar of the senate by Thaddeus Stevens and 
 Bingham 25 Feb. 186 
 
 Nine articles of impeachment (for issuing order for 
 removal of E. M. Stanton from war-office, and 
 following proceedings) adopted by representa- 
 tives (127 to 47) 2 March, ,, 
 
 Bill of impeachment of Johnson sent up to the 
 senate by the house of representatives, 4 March, ,, 
 
 Judicious speech of lord Stanley in the British 
 house of commons on the Alabama claims, 
 
 6 March, ,, 
 
 Trial of president Johnson comes before the senate, , , 
 
 23 March, „ 
 
 Impeachment opened by gen. Butler 30 March, ,, 
 
 Mr. Dickens sails from New York, after most affec- 
 tionate parting 22 April, „ 
 
 National republican convention at Chicago; an- 
 nounce their "platform"; approving the con- 
 gress reconstruction policy; severely condemning 
 president Johnson ; denouncing repudiation of 
 the debt ; declaring for protection of naturalised 
 citizens, <fec. , 20 May ; and proposing general 
 Ulysses Grant as the next president, and Mr. 
 Colfax as vice-president . . . 21 May, „ 
 
 The senate reject the nth article of the impeach- 
 ment . . ." . . .16 May, „ 
 
 Reject 2nd and 3rd articles ; and adjourn sine die; 
 intense excitement among republicans, 26 May, ,, 
 
 Mr. Stanton resigns, 27 May ; succeeded by gen. 
 Schofield 30 May, „ 
 
 Death of the ex-president James Buchanan, 1 June, ,, 
 
 Chinese embassy received by the president, 5 June, ,, 
 
 Bill for re-admitting North and South Carolina, 
 Georgia, Louisiana, Florida, and Alabama, to 
 representation in congress, passed by the senate, 
 
 11 June, ,. 
 
 Mr. Reverdy Johnson nominated ambassador to 
 Great Britain 12 June, ,, 
 
 Arkansas re-admitted over the president's veto, 
 
 20 June, „ 
 
 The democratic convention nominate Horatio Sey- 
 mour for president, and Francis P. Blair for vice- 
 president 4 — 7 July, ,, 
 
 General amnesty (with exceptions) issued 4 July, ,. 
 
 Wyoming territory organised ... 22 July, ,. 
 
 Act for protection of naturalised citizens abroad 
 passed 27 July. ,. 
 
 Thaddeus Stevens dies .... 12 Aug. ,, 
 
 Total debt declared, 2,641,002,572 dollars . 1 Nov. ,. 
 
 General Ulysses Grant, elected iZth president 3 Nov. „ 
 
 General Sheridan's victory over insurgent Indians ; 
 a village burnt 27 Nov. ,, 
 
 Any repudiation of debt renounced by the house of 
 representatives (154 to 6) . -14 Dec. , 
 
 General pardon issued . . . .25 Dec. , 
 
 Connell university founded , 
 
 Convention respecting Alabama claims signed by 
 lord Clarendon and Mr. Reverdy Johnson, 14 Jan. 18 
 
 Prosecution of Jefferson Davis dropped; a nolle 
 prosequi entered 6 Feb. , 
 
 Indian war reported over .... Feb. , 
 
 Alabama treaty rejected by committee of senate, 
 
 18 Feb. , 
 
 Suffrage bill, abolishing all distinctions of race, 
 colour, and property, passed . . 21 Feb. , 
 
 General Schenk's bill, declaring that all national 
 obligations shall be paid in coin, passed 3 March, , 
 
 Adjournment of 40th congress ; meeting of 41st 
 congress ; gen. Grant assumes office . 4 March, , 
 
 Schenk's bill for cash payments passed by senate, 
 
 15 March, , 
 
 Convention respecting Alabama claim rejected by 
 the senate 13 April, , 
 
 John Lothrop Motley appointed minister at London, 
 
 April, , 
 
 Naturalisation treaty with Great Britain ratified by 
 senate . 15 April, , 
 
 Great peace jubilee held at Boston ; colossal con- 
 cert (10,371 voices, 1094 instruments, with anvils, 
 bells, &e.) began .... 15 June, , 
 
 Wm. Pitt Fesseuden, financier, died . 8 Sept. ,, 
 
 Steam-boat, Stonewall, burnt on the Mississippi ; 
 about 200 persona perish . . .27 Oct. ,, 
 
 Free-trade agitation prevalent . . Oct. — Dec. „ 
 
 Adm. Charles Stewart, " old iron-side," aged 92, died 
 
 6 Nov. „ 
 
 Correspondence respecting Alabama claims, Asc. 
 
 between lord Clarendon and Mr. Hamilton Fish 
 (June — Oct. 1869), published . . . Dec. 1869 
 
 Renewal of the reciprocity treaty with Canada re- 
 jected by congress .... 13 Dec. ,, 
 
 U. S. corvette Oneida sunk by collision with British 
 P. & O. steamer Bombay ; 112 lives lost, 24 Jan. 1870 
 
 [Capt. Eyre, of the Bombay, severely censured for 
 not waiting to give succour. ] 
 
 Darien canal scheme approved by congress, Jan. ; 
 treaty signed 26 Jan. ,, 
 
 Prince Arthur presented to president Grant, 24 
 Jan. ; attended Mr. Peabody's funeral . 8 Feb. „ 
 
 Virginia (15 Jan.) and Mississippi re-admitted to 
 congress 3 Feb. ,, 
 
 Bill for purchase of St. Thomas's isle rejected by 
 senate 23 March, „ 
 
 Texas (15 Mar.) and Georgia re-admitted to congress, 
 
 20 April, ,, 
 
 By amendments of the constitution, negroes ad- 
 mitted to equal rights with whites . April, ,, 
 
 The tariff bill opposed by freetraders . . May, ,, 
 
 Non-recognition of Cuba affirmed . . June, „ 
 
 Lincoln state (out of New Mexico) constituted, 
 
 tJune, ,, 
 
 Strong opposition to Chinese immigration ; citizen- 
 ship refused by the senate . . .4 July, ,, 
 
 Admiral J. A. Dahlgreu died . . 12 or 13 July, „ 
 
 Session of congress closed . . . 15 July, ,, 
 
 J. L. Motley, minister to Great Britain, recalled, 
 
 July, „ 
 
 New tariff bill passed (new rates take effect, 1 Jan. 
 1871) 
 
 Admiral David Farragut died, aged 70 . 14 Aug. „ 
 
 Strict neutrality in the Franco-Prussian war pro- 
 claimed Aug. ,, 
 
 Senator Oliver P. Morton accepts the embassy to 
 Great Britain 23 Sept. „ 
 
 Great loss of life and property through floods in 
 Virginia and Maryland, end of . Sept. -2 Oct. „ 
 
 Total debt, 2,346,913,645 dollars . . . Oct. „ 
 
 Total public debt, the principal and interest, 
 2,346,913,652 dollars 1 Oct. „ 
 
 Great reduction of the heavy internal taxation 
 begins 1 Oct. ,, 
 
 Movement against the Mormons on account of their 
 polygamy 1 Oct. „ 
 
 Meeting of the southern convention at Cincinnati 
 for political and commercial affairs . 4 Oct. „ 
 
 General Robert Lee dies, aged 62 . . 12 Oct. ,, 
 
 President Grant issues a proclamation against 
 Fenianism, and attacks on Cuba . . 13 Oct. M 
 
 Mr. Morton declines the embassy to Britain for 
 party reasons .... about 25 Oct. „ 
 
 The republican majority in the congress greatly 
 reduced by the "fall" election (the first in which 
 all races are duly represented) . . Nov. „ 
 
 Gen. Cox, secretary of interior, dismissed ; quarrel 
 between him and the president . . Nov. „ 
 
 Total debt, 2,334,308,494 dollars . . 1 Dec. „ 
 
 Annual message of the president : he regrets 
 failure of proposal for annexing St. Domingo ; 
 and of the non-settlement of the Alabama claims ; 
 and complains of Canadian aggression . 5 Dec. „ 
 
 Population : 33,581,680 whites ; 4,879,323 coloured ; 
 Indians, 25,733; Chinese, 63,196 ; Japanese, 55 ; 
 total, 38,549,987 Dec. „ 
 
 Mr. Motley terms his recall "an outrage " 7 Dec. „ 
 
 Gen. Robert Schenk appointed minister in Lon- 
 don ; accepts 21 Dec. „ 
 
 New tariff in operation 1 Jan. 1871 
 
 George Ticknor, historian, dies . . .26 Jan. „ 
 
 Statue of Abraham Lincoln in the capitol at Wash- 
 ington, unveiled 25 Jan. „ 
 
 42nd congress meets (senate, 47 republicans ; 15 
 democrats) 4 March, „ 
 
 Proclamation against the Ku Klux in N. Carolina, 
 
 5 March, ,, 
 
 Commission to settle disputes with Great Britain 
 respecting the Alabama, &c, fishery question, and 
 the San Juan affair : for the British, the earl de 
 Grey (since marquis of Ripon), sir Stafford North- 
 cote, and others ; for the Americans, secretary 
 Fish, gen. Schenk, and others ; announced 10 
 Feb. ; meet at Washington, 27 Feb. ; sign treaty, 
 agreeing to arbitration at Geneva, &o. (see Ala- 
 bama, dw\ San Juan), 8 May ; ratified, 26 May, „ 
 
 General Schenk warmly received at Liverpool, 
 
 3 June, ,, 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 697 
 
 UNIVERSITIES. 
 
 An American fleet, accompanied by English and 
 French and German ships, arrives at Corea to 
 conclude a treaty for protection of mariners ; on 
 attempting to explore the island the Europeans 
 are assailed from masked batteries ; the Corean 
 forts are then attacked and destroyed ; and nego- 
 tiations renewed June, 
 
 Formation of the "new departure" democrat party 
 advocating perfect freedom of all males irrespec- 
 tive of race and colour ; full political restoration 
 of the southern states ; and free trade, about July, 
 
 Chicago destroyed by fire ; great exertions to re- 
 lieve the sufferers ; see Chicago ; about 2000 lives 
 lost by fires in N. W. forests . . .8-11 Oct. 
 
 Col. Hodge, paymaster of the regular army, con- 
 fesses great defalcations since 10 Sept. 1864 ; con- 
 demned to long imprisonment . . . Nov. 
 
 European and North American railway opened at 
 Bangor, Maine, by lord Lisgar and gen. Grant, 
 
 18 Oct. 
 
 Dispute between the U.S. foreign minister, Hamil- 
 ton Fish, and the Russian envoy Katakazy (for 
 undue interference) ; Katakazy dismissed Nov. 
 
 Grand duke Alexis of Russia warmly received at 
 New York 18 Nov. 
 
 Congress opened ; president in his message refers to 
 peace abroad and prosperity at home . 4 Dec. 
 
 Formal meeting of the Alabama arbitration commis- 
 sion at Geneva (adjourned to 15 June) . 18 Dec. 
 
 Gen. Halleck died Jan. 
 
 General amnesty bill passed . . .16 Jan. 
 
 American case under the treaty of Washington ; 
 
 • claims indirect damages by Alabama and other 
 vessels ; much excitement in England . Jan. 
 
 Despatch from the British minister sent 2 Feb. ; 
 reply received (not divulged to parliament), 
 
 14 March, 
 
 Further correspondence (see Alabama), March, 
 
 April, 
 
 Horace Greeley, editor of the Neio York Tribune, 
 nominated president by many republicans, 4 May, 
 
 New tariff, reduced duties to begin from 1 Aug. ; 
 passed 4 June, 
 
 General Grant nominated for re-election as president 
 by the republicans at Pennsylvania . 6 June, 
 
 Continued negotiations respecting the Alabama 
 affair, May ; nothing settled ; congress adjourns 
 to December 10 June, 
 
 Dispute with Spain respecting unjust imprison- 
 ment of Dr. Howard, an American citizen, in 
 Cuba since 13 Dec. 1870 ; settled ; Dr. Howard 
 released June. 
 
 Formation of straight-out democrat party, about 
 
 June, 
 
 Great international music il peace jubilee at Boston, 
 17 June — 4 July, 
 
 Coalition between the democratb nd the liberal 
 republicans at Baltimore to support Greeley, 
 
 10 July, 
 
 Trial of Edward S. Stokes for murder of James 
 Fisk of the Erie Ring (see New York, 1872), 
 
 15 July, 
 
 United States squadron at Southampton, England, 
 visited by the prince of Wales . . 13 Aug. 
 
 Judge Barnard convicted of corruption, and removed 
 from office and disqualified . . .19 Aug. 
 
 The "straight-out democrats" nominate Charles 
 O'Connor for president .... Sept. 
 
 Announcement of the award of the Geneva arbitra- 
 tion on the Alabama, &c. (about 3,229,1662.) Sept. 
 
 Wm. Henry Seward, statesman, died . 10 Oct. 
 
 The emperor of Germany, arbitrator in the San 
 Juan difficulty, awards the island to the United 
 States 23 Oct. 
 
 Total debt of the States, 2,276,828,101 dollars, 1 Nov. 
 
 Gen. Grant re-elected president (by 300 electoial 
 
 votes ; 68 for Greeley) .... 5 Nov. 
 
 Death of Horace Greeley, aged 6r '. 29 Nov. 
 
 Sergeant William Bates walked from Gretna Green 
 to London, carrying the American flag ; warmly 
 received everywhere (the feat originated in a 
 
 1872 
 
 wager) ; arrived 29 Nov. ; rode through London to 
 Guildhall 30 Nov. 1872 
 
 Gen. Grant in his message says that the results of 
 the arbitration leave Great Britain and the United 
 States without a shadow upon their friendly rela- 
 tions 2 Dec. ,, 
 
 Modoc Indians, near Oregon, defeat troops sent to 
 expel them 17 Jan. 1873 
 
 Visit of professor Tyndall ; he lectures in Boston, 
 Philadelphia, Washington, New York, &c. , 
 
 Sept. 1872— Feb. ,, 
 
 Vice-president Colfax accused of perjury Feb. ,, 
 
 Civil war in Louisiana, fighting at New Orleans, 
 
 Feb. „ 
 
 The congress opened, great Credit Mobilier scandal, 
 members accused of bribery . . March, „ 
 
 General Canby and others massacred (see Modoes), 
 11 April; capt. Jack and others captured; end 
 of the war 1 June ,, 
 
 Death of chief justice Chase . . . . 7 May, ,, 
 
 Hiram Powers, sculptor of "the Greek Slave," 
 died at Florence 27 June, „ 
 
 PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 
 
 1789 & 1793. General George Washington, elected first 
 
 president. 6 April. 
 1797. John Adams. 4 March. 
 1801 & 1805. Thomas Jefferson. 4 March. 
 1809 & 1813. James Madison. 4 March. 
 1817 & 1821. James Monroe. 4 March. 
 1825. John Quincey Adams. 4 March. 
 1829 & 1833. General Andrew Jackson. 4 March. 
 1837. Martin Van Buren. 4 March. 
 1841. General William Henry Harrison. 4 March. Died 
 
 4 April, succeeded by 
 1841. John Tyler (formerly vice-president). 
 1845. James Knox Polk. 4 March. 
 
 1849. General Zachary Taylor. 4 March. Died 9 July, 
 
 1850, succeeded by the vice-president, 
 
 1850. Millard Fillmore. 
 
 1853. General Franklin Pierce. 4 March. 
 1857. James Buchanan. 4 March. 
 
 1861 & 1865. Abraham Lincoln. 4 March. Shot 14 April; 
 died 15 April, 1865; succeeded by vice-president, 
 1865. Andrew Johnson. 15 April. 
 1869 & 1873. Ulysses S. Grant. 4 March. 
 
 UNIVERSALISTS, who believe in the final 
 salvation of all men. This doctrine, declared in the 
 Talmud, and ascribed to Origen, about 230, was 
 advocated by other early fathers, but opposed by 
 St. Augustin, about 420 ; and condemned by the 5th 
 general council at Constantinople, May, June, 553. 
 It was received by the Unitarians in the 17th cen- 
 tury, and avowed by numerous clergymen of the 
 church of England. James Kelly, who published 
 his " Union" in 1760, founded the sect of Uniyer- 
 salists in Britain ; and John Murray, in America, 
 about 1770. The sect barely exists in Britain, but 
 flourishes in America. 
 
 UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE (Plebiscitum), 
 one of the six points of the charter (see Chartists), 
 was adopted by the French in their constitution of 
 1 791 ; and used in the election of their president in 
 1851, and of their emperor in 1852 ; and by the 
 Italian States in voting for annexation to Sardinia 
 in i860, 1861, 1866, and 1870. 
 
 UNIVERSITIES. The most ancient in 
 Europe are those of Bologna, Oxford, Cambridge, 
 Paris, and Salamanca. In old Aberdeen was a 
 monastery, in which youths were instructed in 
 theology, the canon law, and the school philosophy, 
 at least 200 years before the university and King's 
 College were founded ; see Degrees. The following 
 dates are generally given : 
 
 Aberdeen founded . . . . 1494 
 Abo, Finland .... 1640 
 Andrews, St., Scotland . . . 1411 
 Angers, chiefly law . . . 1364 
 Anjou, 1349; enlarged . . . ,, 
 Athens 1836 
 
 Barcelona, revived. . . . 1841 
 Basle, Switzerland . . . 1460 
 
 Berlin 1810 
 
 Berne 1834 
 
 Besangon, Burgundy . . . 1676 
 Bologna, Italy . . . .1116 
 
 Bonn .... 1784, 1818 
 
 Bordeaux 1472 
 
 Bourges 1465 
 
 Breslau 1702 
 
 Bruges, French Flanders . . 1665 
 
 Brussels 1834 
 
UNIVEESITY BOAT-EACE. 
 
 698 
 
 UEUGUAY. 
 
 Caen, Normandy, 1436 ; revived . 1803 
 Cambridge, began about 635 (?) ; 
 
 revived 11 09 
 
 Cambridge, New England, pro- 
 jected 1630 
 
 Christiania 181 1 
 
 Cologne, in Germany, refounded 1385 
 Compostella, Spain . . -1517 
 Coimbra, Portugal. . . . 1279 
 Copenhagen .... 1476 
 Cordova, Spain . . . . 968 
 
 Corfu 1823 
 
 Cracow, Poland, 700; revived . 1364 
 Dijon, France 17: 
 
 Dillingen, Swabia 
 
 Dole, Burgundy . . . . 
 
 Dorpat 
 
 Douay, French Flanders . . 
 Dresden, Saxony 
 Drumcondra (catholic), Ireland . 
 Dublin (see Trinity College) . . 
 
 Durham 
 
 Edinburgh, founded by James 
 
 VI 
 
 Erfurt, Thuringia; enlarged 
 
 1565 
 1422 
 1632 
 1568 
 1694 
 
 1582 
 1390 
 
 Erlangen 1743 
 
 Evora, Portugal . . . . 1533 
 
 Florence, Italy, enlarged . . 1439 
 
 Frankfort-on-the-Oder . . . 1506 
 
 Franeker 15S5 
 
 Fribourg, Germany . . . 1460 
 
 Geneva 1368 
 
 Ghent 1816 
 
 Glasgow 1450 
 
 Gottingeu 1735 
 
 Granada, Spain .... 1537 
 
 Gripswald 1547 
 
 Groningen, Friesland . . . 1614 
 
 Halle, Saxony . . . . 1694 
 
 Harvard, U.S 1638 
 
 UNIVEESITY BOAT-EACE. The contest 
 between the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, 
 at first near Oxford, afterwards on the river Thames, 
 began 10 June, 1829, and has been annual since 
 1856. In 1864, after 20 contests, the opposing 
 parties were equal; but on 8 April, 1865, 24 March, 
 1866, 13 April, 1867, 4 April, 1868, and 17 March, 
 1869, Oxford won ; the last time being the 9th in 
 succession. Cambridge Avon, 6 April, 1870, I April, 
 1871, 23 March, 1872, and 29 March, 1873. In the 
 international boat-race between the universities of 
 Oxford and Harvard, Massachusetts, U.S., Oxford 
 won, 27 Aug. 1869. 
 
 UNIVEESITY COLLEGE (London), see 
 London University, and Oxford. 
 
 UNIVEESITY ELECTIONS, see Dodson's 
 Act. 
 
 UNIVEESITY TESTS (Religious). A bill 
 for their abolition was rejected by the lords, 19 July, 
 1869, and 14 July, 1870; passed, and received royal 
 assent, 16 June, 1871. A similar act for Trinity 
 College, Dublin, was passed in May, 1873. 
 
 UNKNOWN TONGUES, see Irvmgites, 
 
 note. 
 
 UNLEAENED PAELIAMENT, see Par- 
 liament, 1404. 
 
 UPSAL (Sweden). The Swedish rulers were 
 kings of Upsal till 1001. The university was 
 founded in 1476, by Sten Sture, the "protector." 
 
 UEANIUM, a brittle grey metal discovered by 
 Klaproth in 1789, in the mineral pitch-blende. It 
 has lately been employed in the manufacture of 
 glass for certain philosophical purposes. 
 
 URANUS, a planet with eight satellites, was dis- 
 covered by William Herschel, 13 March, 178 1, first 
 
 Heidelberg 1386 
 
 Helmstadt 1575 
 
 Ingolstadt, Bavaria . . . 1573 
 Jena, or Bala, Thuringia . . 1547 
 Kiel, Holstein .... 1665 
 King's College, London {which 
 
 see) 1829 
 
 Konigsberg, Prussia . . . 1544 
 Leipsic, Saxony . . . . 1409 
 Leyden, Holland . . . 1575 
 
 Liege 1816 
 
 Lima, in Peru .... 1614 
 Lisbon, 1290; removed to Coim- 
 bra 1391 
 
 London University {which see) . 1826 
 Louvaine, Flanders, 926 ; en- 
 larged 1426 
 
 Lyons, France . . 830, 1300 
 
 Madrid 1836 
 
 Mantua 1625 
 
 Marburg 1527 
 
 Mechlin, Flanders . . . . 1440 
 
 Mentz 1477 
 
 Milan 1565 
 
 Montpellier .... 1289 
 Moscow, 1754; again . . . 1803 
 
 Munich 1826 
 
 Munster 1491 
 
 Nancy 1769 
 
 Nantes 1460 
 
 Naples 1224 
 
 Orange 1365 
 
 Orleans, France .... 1305 
 Oxford (see Oxford) . . . 879 
 
 Paderborn 1592 
 
 Padua, Italy 1228 
 
 Palenza, 1209; removed to Sala- 
 manca 1249 
 
 Palermo 1447 
 
 Paris, 792 ; renovated . . . 1200 
 
 Parma 1482 
 
 Pau 1722 
 
 Pa via, 1360; enlarged . . . 1599 
 
 Perpignan 1349 
 
 Perugia, Italy . . . . 1307 
 
 Petersburg, St., 1747; again . 1819 
 
 Pisa, 1343; enlarged . . . 1552 
 
 Poitiers 1431 
 
 Prague 1348 
 
 Queen's University (Ireland) . . 1850 
 
 Rheims, 1 145; enlarged . . 1548 
 
 Rome 1245 
 
 Rostock, Mecklenburg . . 1419 
 
 Salamanca 1239 
 
 Salerno 1233 
 
 Salzburg 1623 
 
 Saragossa, Aragon . . . 1474 
 
 Seville 1504 
 
 Sienna 1380 
 
 Siguenza, Spain . . . .1517 
 
 Sorbonne, France . . . 1253 
 
 Strasbourg 1538 
 
 Stutgardt 1775 
 
 Toledo, Spain 1499 
 
 Toulouse 1229 
 
 Treves, Germany . . . . 1473 
 
 Tubingen, Wurtemberg . . 1477 
 
 Turin 1405 
 
 Upsal, Sweden .... 1476 
 
 Utrecht, Holland . . . . 1634 
 
 Valence, Dauphine . . . 1454 
 
 Valencia 1209 
 
 Valladolid 1346 
 
 Venice 1592 
 
 Vienna 1365 
 
 Wittenburg 1502 
 
 Wurtzburg 1403 
 
 Wilna 1803 
 
 Zurich 1832 
 
 called Georgium Sidus, after George III.; next 
 Herschel ; and, finally, Uranus. It is about twice 
 as distant from the sun as the planet Saturn. The 
 anniversary of its first revolution (in 84 years 
 7 days) since its discovery, was celebrated on 
 20 March, 1865. Its perturbations led to the dis- 
 covery of Neptune, in 1846. Uranus has 8 satel- 
 lites ; 6 discovered by Herschel, 2 in 1787, 2 in 
 1790; 2 in 1794; and I by Lassell, and 1 by Struve, 
 in 1847. 
 
 UEBANISTS, see Clementines, and Clare. 
 
 UEBINO, the ancient Urbinum Hortensc, 
 central Italy, capital of a duchy created for 
 Malatesta, 1474. It was treacherously seized by 
 Csesar Borgia, 1502 ; captured by Julius II., 1503 ; 
 and given to Borgia, 1 504; given to Lorenzo de' 
 Medici by Leo X. 1516; after many vicissitudes re- 
 covered by the duke Francesco, 1522; on the duke's 
 resignation annexed to the papal states, 1631 ; an- 
 nexed to Italy, i860. 
 
 UEICONIUM, see Wroxeter. 
 
 UEIM AND THUMMIM, Light and 
 
 PERFECTION {Exodus xxviii. 30), words con- 
 nected with the breastplate worn by the high priest 
 when he entered into the holy place, with the view 
 of obtaining an answer from God (1490 B.C.). 
 
 UBSULINE NUNS (so called from St. 
 Ursula), founded originally by St. Angela of 
 Brescia), about 1537. Several communities existed 
 in England ; and some still exist in Ireland. 
 
 UEUGUAY, BANDA ORIENTALE, a republic 
 in South America, formerly part of the vice-royalty 
 of Buenos Ayrcs ; declared its independence, 25 Aug. 
 1825; recognised 4 Oct. 1828; constitution pro- 
 claimed 18 July, 1830. Population about 450,000. 
 
USEFUL KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY. 699 
 
 VACCINATION. 
 
 The president of the executive, G. A. Pereyra, 
 
 elected in 1856 ; succeeded by B. P. Berro . . i860 
 Civil war broke out in consequence of the invasion 
 of the ex-president, general Venancio Flores, 
 
 26 June, 1863 
 The vice-president Aguirre became president, 
 
 1 March, 1864 
 He refused to modify his ministry according to the 
 desire of general Flores, who marched towards 
 
 the capital June, ,, 
 
 Flores became provisional president. . Feb. 1865 
 F. A. Vidal elected president . . 1 March, 1866 
 During an insurrection of the Blanco party (headed 
 by Berro), at Montevideo, general Flores was 
 assassinated ; the troops remained faithful ; in- 
 surrection soon suppressed, and Berro shot, 
 
 19 Feb. 1868 
 Gen. Lorenzo Battle elected president . 1 March, ,, 
 Blanco insurrection repressed, July, 1871 ; ended, 
 
 Jan. 1872 
 
 USEFUL KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY, 
 
 see Diffusion. 
 
 USES, Statute of, 27 Hen. VIII. c. 10 
 (1535-6) ; see Charitable Uses. 
 
 USHANT, an island near Brest, N.W. France, 
 near which two naval battles were fought between 
 the British and French fleets. 
 
 (1.) On 27 July, 1778, after an indecisive action of three 
 hours, the French, under cover of the night, withdrew 
 
 ' into the harbour of Brest. Admiral Keppel com- 
 manded the English fleet ; the count d'Orvilliers the 
 French. The failure of a complete victory was attri- 
 buted to admiral sir Hugh Palliser's non-compliance 
 with the admiral's signals. Palliser preferred articles 
 of accusation against his commander, who was tried 
 and acquitted, and the charge against him declared to 
 be "malicious and ill-founded." 
 
 (2.) Lord Howe signally defeated the French fleet, taking 
 six ships of the line, and sinking one of large force, and 
 several others, i June, 1794. While the two fleets were 
 engaged in this action, a large fleet of merchantmen, 
 on the safety of which the French nation depended for 
 its means of prosecuting the war, got safely into Brest 
 harbour, which gave occasion to the enemy to claim 
 the laurels of the day, notwithstanding their loss in 
 ships, and in killed and wounded, which was very 
 great. The day was long termed iu England the 
 "glorious first of June." 
 
 USURY from a stranger was permitted to the 
 Jews, but forbidden from then- brethren, 1491 B.C. 
 (Exod. xxii. 25. Deut. xxiii. 13.) This law was 
 enforced by Nehemiah, 445 B.C. (Neh. v.) Usury 
 was prohibited by the English parliament, 1341. 
 Until the 15th century, no Christians were allowed 
 to receive interest of money, and Jews were the 
 only usurers, and therefore often banished and per- 
 secuted; see Jews. By the 37th of Henry VIII. 
 
 the rate of interest was fixed at 10 per cent., 1545. 
 This statute was repealed by Edward VI., but re- 
 enacted 13 Eliz. 1570. For later legislation, see 
 Interest. 
 
 UTAH, a western territory of North America, 
 Avas organised 9 Sept. 1850 ; the capital, Great Salt 
 Lake City, became the chief seat of the Mormonites 
 {which see). 
 
 UTICA (N. Africa), an ancient Tyrian colony, 
 an ally of Carthage, named in the treaty with the 
 Komans 348 B.C. Here Cato the younger, after the 
 defeat of the partisans of Pompey at Thapsus, com- 
 mitted suicide, 46 B.C. Utica flourished greatly 
 after the fall of Carthage, and was made a Boman 
 city by Augustus on account of its favouring Julius 
 Caesar. It suffered by the invasion of the Vandals, 
 439 ; and of the Saracens, about 700. 
 
 UTILITARIANISM, termed the "greatest 
 happiness principle," the philosophy which pro- 
 poses the attainment of the greatest happiness of 
 the greatest number. The doctrine is found in the 
 writings of Locke, Hartley, Hume, and Paley ; but 
 was chiefly propounded by Jeremy Bentham in his 
 "Introduction to the Principles of Morals and 
 Legislation," 1780-89, and by John Stuart Mill, 
 who died 9 May, 1873. 
 
 UTRAQUISTS, see Calixtins. __ 
 
 UTRECHT (the Eoman Trajectum adRhenwn) 
 became the seat of an independent bishopric about 
 695. The last prelate, Henry of Bavaria, weary of 
 his turbulent subjects, sold his temporal govern- 
 ment to the emperor Charles V. in 1528. The 
 union of the Seven United Provinces began here 
 (see United Provinces) 1579. The treaty of Utrecht, 
 which terminated the wars of queen Anne, "was 
 signed by the ministers of Great Britain and France, 
 and all the other allies, except the ministers of the 
 empire, n April, 17 13. This treaty secured the. 
 Protestant succession in England, the separation cf 
 the French and Spanish crowns, the destruction of 
 the works of Dunkirk, the enlargement of the 
 British colonies and plantations in America, and a 
 full satisfaction for the claims of the allies. Utrecht 
 surrendered to the Prussians, 9 May, 1787; was 
 acquired by the French, 18 Jan. 1795, and restored 
 at the peace, 1814. 
 
 UXBRIDGE (W. Middlesex). On 30 Jan. 
 1645, commissioners met here to discuss terms of 
 peace between Charles I. and the parliament ; they 
 separated without effect, 22 Feb. The latter re- 
 quired absolute control of the army and navy, the 
 abolition of the episcopacy, liturgy, &c. 
 
 V. 
 
 VACCINATION (from Variola Vaccina, the 
 cow-pox), discovered by Dr. Edward J enner. He 
 was bom in 1749, and educated for the medical 
 profession, partially under John Hunter. Having 
 heard that milkmaids who had had the cow-pox 
 never took the small-pox, he, about 1780, conceived 
 the idea of vaccination. He made the first experi- 
 ment by transferring to a healthy child, on 14 May, 
 1796, the pus from the pustule of a milkmaid who 
 had caught the cow-pox from the cows. He an- 
 nounced his success in a memoir published 1798, 
 and vaccination, begun 21 Jan. 1799, soon became 
 general, after much opposition. For this Dr. Jenner 
 
 received io,ooo£. from parliament, 2 June, 1802, and 
 20,000^. in 1807. The first national institution for 
 vaccination, the Boyal Jennerian Institution, was 
 founded 19 Jan. 1803. The emperor Napoleon 
 valued Dr. Jenner so highly, that he liberated Dr. 
 Wickham, when a prisoner of war, at Jenner' s re- 
 quest, and subsequently whole families of English, 
 making it a point to refuse him nothing that he 
 asked. Vaccination, although much opposed, was 
 practised throughout all Europe previously to 1816. 
 Dr. Jenner died suddenly, 26 Jan. 1823. 
 The Vaccination act, 3 & 4 Vict, passed . 23 July, 1840 
 An important blue-book, entitled " Papers on the 
 
VADIMONIS LACUS. 
 
 700 
 
 VANADIUM. 
 
 History and Practice of Vaccination," edited by 
 Mr. John Simon, was published by the board of 
 health in 1857 
 
 A statue, subscribed for by all nations, was erected 
 to Jenner's memory in Trafalgar-square 30 April, 1858 
 
 It was removed to Kensington in .... 1862 
 
 Vaccination was made compulsory in England in 
 1853, an| l m Ireland and Scotland . . . . 1863 
 
 A statue was erected by the French at Boulogne, 
 and inaugurated n Sept. 1865 
 
 These laws were consolidated and amended by 
 30 & 31 Vict. c. 84, 12 Aug. 1867 (see Small-pox 
 and Inoculation), and amended in. . . . 1871 
 
 Much opposition to vaccination ; an anti-vaccina- 
 tion society formed, 1870-71 ; a parliamentary 
 commission appointed . . . 13 Feb. 1871 
 
 VADIMONIS LACUS, the Vadimonian lake, 
 Umbria, central Italy, near which the Etruscans 
 were totally defeated in two severe engagements by 
 the Roman consuls : 1, by Fabius Maximus, 309 B.C. ; 
 2, by Cornelius Dolabella, 283. 
 
 VAGBANTS- By law, after being whipped, a 
 vagrant was to take an oath to return to the place 
 where he was bom, or had last dwelt for three 
 years, 1530. A vagarant a second time convicted 
 was to lose the upper part of the gristle of his right 
 ear, 1535 ; a third time convicted, death. A vaga- 
 bond to be branded with a V, and be a slave for 
 two years, 1547. If he absconded and was caught, 
 he was to be branded with S, and be a slave 
 for life. Vagrants were punished by whipping, 
 gaoling, boring the ears, and death for a second 
 offence, 1572. The milder statutes were those of 
 17 Geo. II.; 32, 35, and 59 Geo. III. The present 
 Vagrant Act (5 Geo. IV. c. 83) was passed in 1824. 
 There were about 33,000 tramps in England and 
 "Wales in 1865. 
 
 VALDENSES, see Waldenscs. 
 
 VALENQAY, a chateau near Chateauroux, 
 central France, where Napoleon I. imprisoned 
 Ferdinand of Spain from 1808 to 1813. His king- 
 dom was restored to Ferdinand by a treaty signed 
 8 Dec. 1813. 
 
 VALENCIA (E. Spain), the Valentin Edeta- 
 norum of the Romans, became the capital of a 
 Moorish kingdom 1000 ; annexed to Arragon 1238. 
 Its university, founded, it is said, in the 13th 
 century, was revived in the 15th. Valencia was 
 taken by the earl of Peterborough in 1 705, but 
 submitted to the Bourbons after the unfortunate 
 battle of Almanza, in 1707. It resisted the attempts 
 made on it by marshal Moncey, but was taken from 
 the Spaniards with a garrison of more than 16,000 
 men, and immense stores, by the French under 
 Suehet, 9 Jan. 1812. 
 
 VALENCIENNES (N. France). This city 
 (founded about 399 B.C.), after many changes, was 
 taken by Louis XIV. in 1677, and annexed 1678. 
 It was besieged from 23 May to 28 July, 1793, when 
 the French garrison surrendered to the allies under 
 the duke of York. It was retaken, together with 
 Conde, by the French, 27-30 Aug. 1794 ; on capitu- 
 lation, the garrison and 1100 emigrants were made 
 prisoners, with immense stores. 
 
 VALENTIA, a Roman province, including the 
 country between the walls of Severus and Adrian, 
 was reconquered from the Picts and Scots by Theo- 
 dosius, and named after Valentinian I. the reigning 
 emperor, 368. 
 
 . VALENTINE'S DAY (14 Feb.). Valentine 
 is said to have been a bishop, who suffered martyr- 
 dom under Claudius II. at Rome ; others say under 
 
 Aurelian, in 271. 618,000 letters passed through 
 the post-office on 14 Feb. 1856. 530,300 was the 
 estimated number of valentines delivered in 1864; 
 in 1870, 1,545,755. The origin of the ancient 
 custom of "choosing a valentine" has been much 
 controverted ; see Post. 
 
 VALENTINIANS, followers of Valentine, a 
 priest, who, on being disappointed of a bishopric, 
 forsook the Christian faith, declaring there were 
 thirty gods and goddesses, fifteen of each sex, which 
 he called iEones, or Ages. He taught in the 2nd 
 century, and published a gospel and psalms : his 
 followers added other errors. 
 
 VALLADOLID (Spain), the Roman Pintia 
 and the Moorish Belad Walid : was recovered for 
 the Christians by Ordono II., the first king of Leon, 
 914-23. It became capital of Castile in the 15th 
 century. It was taken by the French Jan. 1 808 ; 
 and captured by the English, 4 June, 1813. Here 
 died Christopher Columbus, 20 May, 1506. 
 
 VALLAMBEOSA (Central Italy). A Bene- 
 dictine abbey was founded here by John Gualbert, 
 about 1038. The monks were termed Vallam- 
 brosians. 
 
 VALMY (N.E. France). Here the French, 
 commanded by Kellermann, defeated the Prussians, 
 commanded by the duke of Brunswick, 20 Sept. 
 1792. The victory was of immense moral advan- 
 tage to the republicans ; and Kellermann was made 
 duke of Valmy in 1808. 
 
 VALOIS, a county (N. France) given by 
 Philip III. to his younger son Charles, whose son 
 Philip became king as Philip IV. in 1328; see 
 France, p. 285. 
 
 VALOE ECCLESIASTICUS, a report of 
 the annual value of church property, made by order 
 in 1534, was published by the Record Commission 
 in 1810-34. 
 
 VALPAEAISO, principal port of Chili, South 
 America, was bombarded by the Spanish admiral 
 Mendez Nunez, on 31 March, 1866, when much 
 property was destroyed. It suffered by earthquakes 
 in 1822, 1829, and 1851. 
 
 VALTELLINE (N. Italy), a district near the 
 Rhastian Alps, seized by the Grison league, 1512, 
 and ceded to it, 1530. At the instigation of Spain, 
 the catholics rose and massacred the protestants, 
 19-21 Jul j', 1620. After much contention between 
 the French and Austrians, the neutrality of the 
 Valtelline was assured in 1639. It was annexed to 
 the Cisalpine republic in 1797; to Italy, 1807; to 
 Austria, 1814; to Italy, i860. 
 
 VALUATION OF PEOPEETY ACT- 
 
 to provide for the uniform assessment of rateable 
 property in the metropolis, was passed 9 Aug. 1869. 
 
 VALVASOE or VAVASSOR. The first dignity 
 beneath a peer was anciently that of ridames, vice- 
 domini, or valvasors. Valvasors are mentioned by 
 our ancient lawyers as viri magna dignitatis, and 
 sir Edward Coke speaks highly of them. Now, the 
 first personal dignity after the nobility is a knight 
 of the order of St. George or of the Garter. 
 Blackstone. 
 
 VANADIUM (from Vanadis, the Scandina- 
 vian Venus), metal discovered by Sefstrom, in 1830, 
 combined with iron ore. A similar metal, dis- 
 covered in lead ore by Del Rio in 1801, and named 
 Erythronium, was proved by Wohler to be Vana- 
 
VANCOUVER'S ISLAND. 
 
 701 
 
 VAUXHALL GARDENS. 
 
 dium. Vanadium was discovered in the copper- 
 bearing beds in Cheshire, in 1865, by H. E. Boscoe, 
 by whom its peculiarities were further studied, and 
 published in 1867-8. 
 
 VANCOUVER'S ISLAND, North Pacific 
 ocean, near the main land. Settlements were made 
 here by the English in 178 1, which were seized by 
 the Spaniards in 1789, but restored. By a treaty 
 between the British government and that of the 
 United States in 1846, this island was secured to 
 the former. It has become of much greater im- 
 portance since the discovery of gold in the neigh- 
 bouring main land in 1858, and the consequent 
 establishment of the colony of British Columbia 
 {which see) . Victoria, the capital, wasfoundedin 1857. 
 The island was united with British Columbia by 
 act passed in Aug. 1866; and on 24 May, 1868, 
 Victoria was declared the capital ; see Juan, San. 
 
 VANCOUVER'S VOYAGE. Captain Van- 
 couver served as a midshipman under captain Cook, 
 and was appointed to command during a voyage 
 of discovery, to ascertain the existence of any 
 navigable communication between the North Pacific 
 and North Atlantic oceans. He sailed 7 Jan. 1791, 
 and returned 24 Sept. 1795. He compiled an ac- 
 count of this voyage of survey of the north-west 
 coast of America, and died in 1798. 
 
 VANDALS, a [Germanic race, attacked the 
 Roman empire in the 3rd century, and began to 
 ravage Germany and Gaul, 406-14 ; then- kingdom 
 in Spain was founded in 411 ; under Genseric they 
 invaded and conquered the Roman territories in 
 Africa, 429, and took Carthage, Oct. 439. They 
 were subdued by Belisarius in 534. They were 
 driven out by the Saracen Moors. The dukes of 
 Mecklenburg style themselves princes of the 
 Vandals. 
 
 VANDAL KINGS IN AFRICA. 
 
 429. Genseric (see Mecklen- 496. Thrasimund. 
 
 burg). 523. Hilderie. 
 
 477. Humieric, his son. 531. Gelimer. 
 484. Gundamund. 
 
 VAN DIEMEN'S LAND (called Tasmania 
 since 1853), was discovered by Abel Jansen Tasman, 
 24 Nov. 1642, and named after the governor of the 
 Dutch East Indies. 
 
 Visited by Fumeaux, 1773; Cook . . . . 
 
 Proved to be an island by Flinders, who explored 
 Bass's Straits 
 
 Taken possession of by lieut. Bower . . . . 
 
 Arrival of col. Collins, the first governor, with con- 
 victs ; Hobart Town founded .... 
 
 Bishopric of Tasmania established . . . . 
 
 Transportation abolished 
 
 Visited by the duke of Edinburgh . 7-18 Jan. 
 
 Population, 1857, 81,492; 1865, 95,201 (only 4 re- 
 mained of the aborigines); 1870, 99,328. 
 
 Col. Thos. Gore Brown, governor . . . . 1862 
 
 Charles Ducane, governor .... Aug. 1868 
 
 VARENNES, a town in N.E. France, is cele- 
 brated for the arrest of Louis XVI., his queen, 
 sister, and two children. They fled from the 
 Tuileries on 21 June, 1791 ; were taken here the 
 next day, and conducted back to Paris, mainly 
 through Drouet, the postmaster, who, at an inter- 
 mediate town, recognised the king. 
 
 VARIABLE STARS- The variation of 
 brightness in certain stars is said to have been first 
 observed in a small star of Cetus, or the Whale, 
 by Daniel Eabricius, 13 Aug. 1596. In Oct. of 
 same year the star had vanished. Since then many 
 similar variations have been observed by Goodricke, 
 Herschel, and other astronomers ; and Mr. Pogson 
 
 1777 
 1799 
 
 1853 
 
 has constructed a table of 38 variable stars. No 
 satisfactory explanation has yet been given of the 
 phenomena. Eng. Cyc. 
 
 VARNA, a fortified town and seaport in Bul- 
 garia, European Turkey. A great battle was fought 
 near this place, 10 Nov. 1444, between the Turks- 
 under Amurath II. and the Hungarians under their 
 king Ladislaus and John Hunniades. The latter 
 were defeated with great slaughter : the king was 
 killed, and Hunniades made prisoner, who had 
 opposed the Christians breaking the truce for ten 
 years, recently made at Segedin. The emperor 
 Nicholas of Russia arrived before Varna, the head- 
 quarters of his army, then besieging the place, 
 5 Aug. 1828. The Turkish garrison made a vigorous 
 attack on the besiegers, 7 Aug. ; and another on 
 the 2 1st, but were repulsed. Varna surrendered, 
 after a sanguinary conflict, to the Eussian arms, 
 11 Oct. 1828. It was restored at the peace in 1829; 
 its fortifications were dismantled, but have since 
 been restored. The allied armies disembarked at 
 Varna, 29 May, 1854, and sailed for the Crimea, 
 3 Sept. They suffered severely from cholera. 
 
 VASSALAGE, see Feudal Laws, and Slavery. 
 
 VASSAR COLLEGE (on the east bank of 
 the Hudson, United States), for the higher education 
 of women, was founded by Matthew Vassar in 1861. 
 
 VASSY (N.E. France). The massacre of the 
 protestants at this place by the duke of Guise on 
 I March, 1562, led to desolating civil wars. 
 
 VATICAN (Rome), the ancient Mons Vati- 
 canus, a hill of Borne. The commencement of the 
 palace is ascribed to Constantine, Liberius, and 
 Symmachus. It became the residence of the pope 
 at his return from Avignon, 1377. The palace i8 
 said_ to contain 7000 rooms, rich in works of art, 
 ancient and modern. Tbe library, founded by pope 
 Nicholas V., 1448, is exceedingly rich in printed 
 books and MSS. — Pistolesi's description of the 
 Vatican, with numerous plates, was published 
 1829-38.— The phrase "Thunders of the Vatican" 
 was first used by Voltaire, 1748. — The ancient 
 Vatican Codex of the Old and New Testament in 
 Greek was published at Eome in 1857. 
 
 VAUD, a Swiss canton, after having been suc- 
 cessfully held by the Franks, the kings of Burgundy, 
 emperors of Germany, dukes of Zahringen, and 
 dukes of Savoy, was conquered by the Bernese, Jan. 
 1536, and annexed, 1554. Vaud, made independent 
 in 1798, joined the confederation in 1815. A new 
 constitution was obtained in 1830, after agitation. 
 
 VAUDOIS, see WaUenses. 
 
 VAUXHALL BRIDGE, constructed of iron 
 under the direction of Mr. Walker, at an expense of 
 150,000/. (to be defrayed by a toll). The first stone 
 was laid 9 May, 181 1, by prince Charles, eldest son 
 of the duke of Brunswick ; and the bridge was 
 opened on 4 June, 1816. 
 
 VAUXHALL GARDENS (London), were 
 so denominated from the manor of Vauxhall, Falkes- 
 hall, Fox-hall, or Faukeshall, said to have been the 
 property of Fulke de Breaute about 1282. The 
 tradition that this house or any other adjacent was 
 the property of Guy Fawkes is erroneous. The 
 premises were the property of Jane Vaux in 1615, 
 and the mansion-house was then called Stockden's. 
 From her it passed through various hands, till it 
 became the property of Mr. Tyers in 1732. There 
 is no certain account of the time when these pre- 
 mises were first opened for the entertainment of the 
 public but the New Spring Gardens at Vauxhall 
 
VEDAS. 702 
 
 VENICE. 
 
 are mentioned by Pepys 1665, "Wycherley 1672, and 
 in the Spectator 171 i, as a place of great resort. 
 The gardens were opened for a " ridotto al fresco " 
 7 June, 1 732, by Jonathan Tyers, who spared no pains 
 or expense to maintain his success . The greatest season 
 was in 1823, when 133,279 persons visited the gar- 
 dens, and the receipts were 29,590^. The greatest 
 number of persons in one night was 2 Aug. 1833, 
 when 20,137 persons paid for admission. The 
 number on the then supposed last night, 5 Sept. 
 1839, was 1089 persons. Vauxhall was sold by 
 auction, 9 Sept. 1841, for 20,200^., and again 20 
 Aug. 1859. The last performances at Vauxhall took 
 place on 25 July, 1859. The ground has been sold 
 for building purposes. 
 
 VEDAS, the sacred books of the Hindoos, in 
 Sanskrit, were probably written about iooo B.C. 
 Veda means knowledge. These books comprise 
 hymns, prayers, and liturgical formula;. The edition 
 by professor Max Miiller, printed under the patron- 
 age of the East India Company, appeared in 1849- 
 72. Four volumes of a translation by H. H. 
 Wilson appeared in 1 850-67. 
 
 VEGETABLES for the table were brought 
 from Flanders about 1520; see Gardening. 
 
 VEGETARIAN SOCIETY, founded 1847, 
 whose members restrict themselves to a vegetable 
 diet, held their fifteenth anniversary in London, 4 
 Sept. 1862. 
 
 VEHMIC TRIBUNAL : Vehmgerichte, Fehm- 
 aerichte, or Femgericlite, were secret tribunals estab- 
 lished in Westphalia to maintain religion and the 
 public peace, had their origin in the time of Charle- 
 magne, and rose to importance in 1182, when 
 Westphalia became subject to the archbishop of 
 Cologne. Persons of the most exalted rank were 
 subjected to their decisions, being frequently seized, 
 tried, and executed. The emperors endeavoured to 
 suppress them, but did not succeed till the 16th 
 century. Their last court, it is said, was held in 
 1568. Sir W. Scott has described them in " Anne 
 of Geierstein." A remnant of this tribunal was 
 abolished by Jerome Bonaparte, king of Westphalia, 
 in 1811. 
 
 VEII, an independent Latin city near Eome. 
 Between the Romans and Veientes frequent wars oc- 
 curred, till Veii was utterly destroyed, after ten 
 years' siege, 396 B.C. The Roman family, the 
 Fabii, who had seceded from Rome for political 
 reasons, were surprised and destroyed at the river 
 Cremera, by the Veientes, 477 B.C. 
 
 VELLORE (S.E. India) became the residence 
 of the family of the dethroned sultan of Mysore, and 
 was strongly garrisoned by English troops, 1799. 
 The revolt of the sepoys, in which the family of the 
 late Tippoo took an active part, took place 10 July, 
 1806. The insurgents were subdued by colonel Gil- 
 lespie, and mostly put to the sword; about 800 
 sepoys were killed. 
 
 VELOCIPEDES. A machine of this kind was 
 invented by Blanchard the aeronaut, and described 
 in the Journal de Paris, 27 July, 1779; and one 
 was invented by Nicephore Niepce in 1818. The 
 "dandy-horse" or " Draisena, a machine called a 
 velocipede," was patented for the Baron von Drais, 
 in Paris and London in 1818, and described in 
 " Ackermann's Repository," Feb. 1819. These 
 machines came again into use in 1 861 ; and since 
 1867 have been very common under various forms, 
 termed bicycles and tricycles. Velocipede races took 
 place at the Crystal palace, 26 May, 1869, and fre- 
 
 quently since. Mr. John Mayall and two friends 
 travelled to Brighton on velocipedes, 17 Feb. 1869. 
 
 VELVET. The manufacture, long confined to 
 Genoa, Lucca, and other places in Italy, was carried 
 to France, and thence to England, about 1685. 
 Velvet is mentioned by Joinville in 1272 ; and our 
 king Richard II., in his will, directed his body to be 
 clothed "in velveto," 1399. Jerome Lanyer in 
 London patented his " velvet paper" in 1634. 
 
 VENAISSIN COMTAT, or Comtat (S. 
 France) , after various changes, was ceded to pope 
 Gregory X. 1274 ; and retained by his successors 
 till 1 791, when, with Avignon, it was re-united to 
 France. 
 
 VENDEE, see La Vendee. 
 
 VEND6ME COLUMN (132 feet 2 inches 
 high), erected in the Place Vendome, Paris, by 
 Napoleon I. in 1806, to commemorate his successful 
 campaign in Germany in 1805. On its side were 
 bas-reliefs by Launay. It was pulled down by the 
 communists "in the name of international frater- 
 nity," 16 May, 187 1 ; and ordered to be restored by 
 the national assembly. 
 
 VENETL maritime Gauls inhabiting Armorica, 
 N.W. France. They rose against the Romans 57 
 B.C., and were quelled by Julius Caesar, who defeated 
 their fleet, 56, and cruelly exterminated an active 
 commercial race. 
 
 VENETIA, see Venice. 
 
 VENEZUELA, the seat of a South American 
 republic. When the Spaniards landed here in 1499, 
 they observed some huts built upon piles, in an 
 Indian village named Cora, in order to raise them 
 above the stagnated water that covered the plain ; 
 and this induced them to give it the name of Vene- 
 zuela, or Little Venice. This state in July, 1814, 
 declared in congressional assembly the sovereignty 
 of its people, which was recognised in 1818. It 
 fonned part of the republic of Columbia till it 
 separated from the federal union, Nov. 1829. 
 
 Its independence was recognized by Spain . . 1845 
 General D. T. Monagas was elected president . . 1855 
 A new constitution promulgated . . . Dec. 1858 
 A revolution ; Don Jose Castro became president, 
 March, 1858 ; compelled to resign in Aug. 1859 '■ 
 and Dr. Pedro Glial assumed the government, 
 
 Aug. 1859 
 The population about 1,565,000 . . . . „ 
 General Jose Paez elected president . . 8 Sept. 1861 
 He resigned ; and Juan E. Falcon succeeded, 
 
 17 June, 1863 
 General Febres Cordero protested, and set up a 
 
 rival government at Porto-Cabello . . Oct. „ 
 Marshal J. C. Falcon proclaimed president, 
 
 18 March, 1865 
 A revolution in Caraccas ; president Falcon fled, 
 
 22 — 26 June, „ 
 The president Monagas dies, 18 Nov. and Pulgar 
 
 becomes provisional president . . . Dec. ,, 
 Caraccas captured by general Guzman Blanco, after 
 
 three days' conflict 27 April, 1870 
 
 He is made president, virtually dictator 13 July, ,, 
 
 Arebel general, Salazar, tried and shotabout i7May, 1872 
 
 (See Columbia.) 
 
 VENI, VIDL VICI— " I came, I saw, I con- 
 quered;" see Zela. 
 
 VENICE r (N. Italy) . The province of Venetia, 
 held by the Veneti, of uncertain origin, was invaded 
 by the Gauls about 350 B.C. The Veneti made an 
 alliance with the Romans, 215 B.C., who founded 
 Aquileia, 181, and gradually acquired the whole 
 
VENICE. 
 
 703 
 
 VERDUN. 
 
 country. Under the empire, Venetia included 
 Padua, Verona, and other important places. Popu- 
 lation of the city of Venice in 1857, 118,173; in 
 1871, 128,901. New line of steamers for the east 
 started from Venice by the Peninsular and Oriental 
 Company, July, 1872. 
 
 Venice, founded by families from Aquileia and 
 
 Padua fleeing from Attila . . . about a.d. 452 
 First doge (or duke) chosen, Anafesto Paululio . . 697 
 
 Bishopric founded 733 
 
 The doge Orso slain ; an annual magistrate (maestro 
 
 di niiliti, master of the militia) appointed . . 737 
 Diodato, son of Orso, made doge .... 742 
 Two doges reign : Maurizio Galbaio, and his son 
 
 Giovanni . . 777 
 
 The Rialto made the seat of government . . 811 
 
 Venice becomes independent of the eastern empire, 
 and acquires the maritime cities of Dalmatia and 
 
 Istria 997 
 
 Its navy and commerce increase . . . 1000-1100 
 The Venetians aid at the capture of Tyre and ac- 
 quire the third part, 1124 ; and ravage the Greek 
 
 archipelago 1125 
 
 Bank of Venice established 1157 
 
 Ceremony of wedding the Adriatic instituted, about 1177 
 Zara captured by the Venetians . 24 Nov. 1202 
 
 The Venetians aid the crusaders with men, horses, 
 
 and ships ,, 
 
 Crete purchased 1204 
 
 Venice helps in the Latin conquest of Constantino- 
 ple, and obtains power in the Bast . . 1204-5 
 The four bronze horses l>y Lysippus, brought from 
 Constantinople, placed at St. Mark's by the doge 
 
 Pietro Ziani, who died 1229 
 
 The Venetians defeat the Genoese near Negropont, 1263 
 
 War with Genoa 1293 
 
 The Venetian fleet severely defeated by the Genoese 
 in the Adriatic, 8 Sept. 1298 ; peace between 
 
 them 1299 
 
 Louis of Hungary defeated at Zara . . 1 July, 1346 
 Severe contest with Genoa .... 1350-81 
 The doge Marino Faliero, to avenge an insult, eon- 
 spires against the republic ; beheaded 17 April 1355 
 The Venetians lose Istria and Dalmatia . . . 1358 
 War with the Genoese, who defeat the Venetians at 
 Pola, and advance against Venice, which is vigor- 
 ously defended 1377 
 
 The Genoese fleet is captured at Chiozza . . . 1380 
 
 And peace concluded 1381 
 
 Venice flourishes under Antonio Vernieri . 1382-1400 
 War with Padua ; conquest of Padua and Verona . 1404 
 War against Milan ; conquest of Brescia, 1425 ; of 
 
 Bergamo 1428 
 
 The city suffers from the plague .... 1447 
 War against Milan, 1430 ; conquest of Ravenna . . 1454 
 War with the Turks ; Venice loses many of its 
 
 eastern possessions 1461-77 
 
 The Venetians take Athens, 1466 ; and Cyprus . . 1475 
 Venice excommunicated, 1483 ; joins league against 
 Naples, 1493 ; helps to overcome Charles VIII. of 
 
 France 1495 
 
 Injured by the discovery of America (1492), and the 
 
 passage to the Indies 1497 
 
 The Venetians nearly ruined by the league of Cam- 
 bray formed against them 150S 
 
 They assist in defeating the Turks at Lepanto, 
 
 7 Oct. 1571 
 
 The Turks retake Cyprus ,, 
 
 Destructive fire at Venice 1577 
 
 The Rialto bridge .and the Piazza di San Marco 
 
 erected about 1592 
 
 Paul V.'s interdict on Venice (1606) contemptuously 
 
 disregarded 1607 
 
 Naval victories over the Turks ; at Scio, 1651 ; and 
 
 in the Dardanelles 1655 
 
 The Turks take Candia, after 24 years' siege . . 1669 
 Venice recovers part of the Morea, 1683-99 ; loses it, 
 
 171S-39 
 Venice occupied by Bonaparte, who, by the treaty 
 of Campo Formio, gives part of its territory to 
 Austria, and annexes the rest to the Cisalpine re- 
 public 1797 
 
 The whole of Venice annexed to the kingdom of 
 
 Italy by the treaty of Presburg . . 26 Dec. 1805 
 All Venice transferred to the empire of Austria . 1814 
 Venice declared a free port ;. . . .24 Jan. 1830 
 
 1849 
 
 1867 
 
 Insurrection begins 22 March, 1848 ; the city, de- 
 fended by Daniel Manin, surrenders to the Aus- 
 trians after a long siege ... 22 Au°\ 
 
 [During the Italian war in 1859, the country was 
 much disorganised, and many persons emigrated 
 in 1860-1.] 
 
 Venetian deputies will not attend the Austrian par- 
 liament at Vienna May 
 
 Venetia surrendered to France for Italy (by the 
 treaty of Vienna, signed 3 Oct.), and transferred 
 to Italy I? Oct. 
 
 Plebiscitum : 651,758 votes for annexation to Italy ; 
 69 against 22 Oct! 
 
 Result reported by Venetian deputies, and the iron 
 crown given to the king at Turin . . 4 Nov. 
 
 He enters Venice * 7 Nov. 
 
 Master-piece of Titian ("Death of Peter Martyr") 
 destroyed at the burning of a chapel . 15 Aug. 
 
 The remains of Daniel Manin (brought from Paris) 
 buried in St. Mark's . . '. .23 March, 1868 
 
 [Venice has had 122 doges ; Anafesto, 697, to Luigi 
 Manin, 1797.] 
 
 VENLOO (Holland), surrendered to the allies, 
 under Marlborough, 23 Sept. 1702; and to the 
 French, under Pichegru, 26 Oct. 1794. 
 
 r VENNER'S INSURRECTION, see Ana- 
 baptists, 1661. 
 
 VENTILATORS were invented by the rev. 
 Dr. Hales, and described to the Eoyal Society of 
 London, May, 1741 ; and the ventilator for the use 
 of ships was announced by Mr. Triewald, in Novem- 
 ber, same year. The marquis of Chabannes' plan 
 for warming and ventilating theatres and houses for 
 audiences was applied to those of London about 
 1819. The systems of Dr. Eeid (about 1834) and 
 others followed, with much controversy. Dr. 
 Amott's work on this subject was published in 1838. 
 A commission on warming and ventilation issued a 
 report in 1859. 
 
 . VENTRILOQUISM (speaking from the belly), 
 is evidently described in Isaiah xxix. 4 (about 712 
 B.C.). Among eminent ventriloquists were baron 
 Mengen and M. Saint Gille, about 1772 (whose ex- 
 periments were examined by a commission of the 
 French Academy) ; Thomas King (about 1716) ; 
 Charles Mathews (1824) ; and M. Alexandre 
 (1822). 
 
 VENUS- Her transit over the sun on 24 Nov. 
 1639 was first ascertained by Horrox in 1633. The 
 astronomer-royal Maskelyne observed her transit at 
 St. Helena, 6 June, 1761. Capt. Cook made his 
 first voyage in the Endeavour, to Otaheite, to 
 observe a transit of Venus, 3 June, 1769 ; see Cook's 
 Voyages. The diurnal rotation of Venus was dis- 
 covered by Cassini in 1667. The transit on 8 Dec. 
 1874, and 6 Dec. 1882, may be observed in Eastern 
 Europe, Asia, New Zealand, Australia, the Mauri- 
 tius, &c. 
 
 VERA CRUZ (Mexico), built about 1600; was 
 taken by the Americans in 1847, and by the allies 
 on 17 Dec. 1861 during the intervention; retaken 
 by the liberals, under Juarez, 27 June, 1867. 
 
 VERCELLI, the ancient Vercellse, Piedmont, 
 near which Marius defeated the Cimbri, 101 B.C. It 
 was the seat of a republic in the 13th and 14th cen- 
 turies. It was taken by the Spaniards, 1630; 
 French, 1704; and allies, 1706; and afterwards 
 partook of the fortunes of Piedmont. 
 
 VERDEN (Hanover). Here Charlemagne 
 massacred about 4500 Saxons, who had rebelled and 
 relapsed into idolatry, 782. 
 
 VERDUN (the ancient Verodunum), a first- 
 class fortress on the Meuse, N.E. France, made a 
 
VERMANDOIS. 
 
 704 
 
 VESTA. 
 
 magazine for Ms legions by Julius Caesar. It was 
 acquired by the Franks in the sixth century, and 
 formed part of the dominions of Lothaire by the 
 treaty of Verdun, 843, when the empire was divided 
 between the sons of Louis I. It was taken and 
 annexed to the empire by Otho I. about 939. It 
 surrendered to France in 1552; and was formally 
 ceded in 1648. It was taken and held by the Prus- 
 sians 43 days, Sept. — Oct. 1792. Gen. Beaurepaire, 
 the commandant, committed suicide before the sur- 
 render, and 14 ladies were executed on '28 May, 
 1794, for going to the king of Prussia to solicit his 
 clemency for the town. Verdun surrendered to the 
 Germans 8 Nov. 1870, after a brave defence ; two 
 vigorous sallies being made 28 Oct. Above 4000 
 men were captured, with a large number of arms 
 and ammunition. 
 
 VERMANDOIS (N. France), a county given 
 by Charlemagne to his second son Pepin, whose 
 family held it till the nth century; in 1156 it 
 came, by marriage, to the counts of Flanders ; and 
 in 1 185 it was seized by Philip II., and incorporated 
 with the monarchy in 1215. 
 
 VERMONT, a northern state in North America, 
 was settled by the French, 1724-31; and ceded to 
 Great Britain "in 1763. It was freed from the autho- 
 rity of New York, and admitted as a state of the 
 union in 1791. 
 
 VERNEUIL (N.W. France), the site of a 
 battle fought 17 Aug. 1424, between the Burgundians 
 and English under the regent duke of Bedford, and 
 the French, assisted by the Scots, commanded by 
 the count de Narbonne, the carls of Douglas and 
 Buchan, &c. The French at first were successful ; 
 but some Lombard auxiliaries, who had taken the 
 English camp, commenced pillaging. Two thousand 
 English archers came then fresh to the attack ; and 
 the French and Scots were totally defeated, and 
 their leaders killed. 
 
 VERNON GALLERY. , The inadequate 
 manner in which modem British art was repre- 
 sented in the National Gallery was somewhat 
 remedied in 1847 *>y the munificent present to the 
 nation, by Mr. Kobert Vernon, of a collection of 157 
 pictures, all but two being by first-rate British 
 artists. They were first exhibited at Mr. Vernon's 
 house in Pall-mall, next in the vaults beneath the 
 National Gallery, afterwards at Marlborough House, 
 and are now at the South Kensington Museum. In 
 1857, Mr. John Sheepshanks followed Mr. Vernon's 
 example ; see Sheepshanks' Donations. 
 
 VERONA (N. Italy) was founded by the Gauls 
 or Etruscans; see Campus llaudius. The amphi- 
 theatre was built by Titus, a.d. 82. Verona has 
 been the site of many conflicts. It was taken by 
 Constantine3l2 ; and on 27 Sept. 489 Theodoric de- 
 feated Odoacer, king of Italy. Verona was taken 
 by Charlemagne 774. About 1260 Mastino della 
 Scala was elected podesta, and his descendants (the 
 Scaligeri) ruled, till subdued by the Visconti, dukes 
 of Milan, 1387. Verona was conquered by the 
 Venetians 1405, and held by them with some inter- 
 missions till its capture by the French general Mas- 
 sena, 3 June, 1796. Near to it Charles Albert of 
 Sardinia defeated the Austrians 6 May, 1848. 
 Verona is one of the four strong Austrian fortresses 
 termed the Quadrangle, or Quadrilateral (ivhichsee), 
 and here the emperor Francis Joseph, on 12 July, 
 1859, in an order of the day, announced to his army 
 that he must yield to circumstances unfavourable to 
 his policy, and thanked his people and army for 
 their support. It was surrendered to the Italian 
 
 government, 16 Oct. 1866 ; and the king was re- 
 ceived by 70,000 persons in the amphitheatre, 18 
 Nov. 1866. 
 
 VERSAILLES (near Paris) was a small vil- 
 lage, in a forest thirty miles in circuit ; where Louis 
 XIII. built a hunting-seat about 1632. Louis XIV. 
 between 1661 and 1687 enlarged it into a magnificent 
 palace, which became the usual residence of the 
 kings of France. By the treaty between Great 
 Britain and the revolted colonies of British North 
 America, signed at Paris, the latter power was ad- 
 mitted to be a sovereign and independent state, 3 
 Sept. 1783. On the same day a treaty was signed 
 at Versailles between Great Britain, France, and 
 Spain, by which Pondicherry and Carical, with other 
 possessions in Bengal, were restored to France, and 
 Trincomalee restored to the Dutch. Here Avas held 
 the military festival of the royal guards 1. Oct. 
 1789, which was followed (on the 5th and 6th) by 
 the attack of the mob, who massacred the guards 
 and brought the king back to Paris. Versailles 
 became the residence of Louis-Philippe in 1830. 
 The historical gallery was opened in 1837. Ver- 
 sailles, with the troops there, surrendered to the 
 Germans 19 Sept. 1870, and the crown prince of 
 Prussia entered the next day ; and on 26 Sept. he 
 awarded the iron cross to above 30 soldiers at the 
 foot of the statue of Louis XIV. The palace was 
 converted into an hospital. The royal head-quarters 
 were removed here from Ferrieres 5 Oct. After the 
 peace, Versailles became the seat of the French 
 government {me France) March, 187 1. 
 
 VERSE, see Poetry, Hexameter, Elegy, Iambic, 
 &c. Surrey's translation of part of Virgil's JEneicl 
 into blank verse is the first English composition of 
 the kind, omitting tragedy, extant in the English 
 language (published in 1547). The verse previously 
 used in our grave compositions was the stanza of 
 eight lines, the ottava rima (as adopted with the 
 addition of one line by Spenser in his Faery 
 Qxeene), who probably borrowed it from Ariosto and 
 Tasso. Boccaccio introduced it into Italy in his 
 Tescide, having copied it from the old French chan- 
 sons. Trissino is said to have been the first intro- 
 ducer of blank verse among the moderns, about 
 1508. Vossius. 
 
 VERULAM, see Allan's, St. 
 
 VERVINS (N. France) . Here was concluded 
 the peace between Philip II. of Spain and Henry 
 IV. of France, with mutual concessions, 2 May, 
 1598. 
 
 VESERONCE (S.E. France), near Vienne. 
 Here Gondemar, king of the Burgundians, defeated 
 and killed Clodomir, king of Orleans, and revenged 
 the murder of his brother Sigismond and his family, 
 524. This conflict is called also the battle "of 
 Voiron. 
 
 VESPERS, see Sicilian Vespers. In the house 
 of the French ambassador at Blackfriars, in Lon- 
 don, a Jesuit was preaching to upwards of three 
 hundred persons in an upper room, the floor of which 
 gave way with the weight, when the whole congre- 
 gation was precipitated to the street, and the 
 preacher and more than a hundred of his auditory, 
 chiefly persons of rank, were killed. This catas- 
 trophe, termed the Fatal Vespers, occurred 26 Oct. 
 1623. Stow. 
 
 VESTA. The planet Vesta (the ninth) was dis- 
 covered by Dr. Olbers, of Bremen, on 29 March, 
 1807. She appears like a star of the sixth magni- 
 tude. 
 
VESTALS. 
 
 705 
 
 VICTOEIA. 
 
 VESTALS, virgin priestesses, took care of the 
 perpetual fire consecrated to Vesta. The mother of 
 Epmulus was a vestal. Numa is said to have ap- 
 pointed four, 710 B.C., and Tarquin added two. 
 Minutia was buried alive for breaking her virgin 
 vow > 337 B.C. ; Sextilia, 273 B.C.; and Cornelia 
 Maxinnliana, a.d. 92 ; see Chastity. The order 
 was abolished by Theodosius, 389. 
 
 "VESTIGES or the Natural History 
 
 OF CREATION," a work which upholds the doctrine 
 of progressive development as a hypothetic history 
 of organic creation, first appeared in 1844. 
 
 VESUVIUS. By . an eruption of Mount 
 Vesuvius, the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum 
 (which see) were overwhelmed 24 Aug. 79 a.d., and 
 more than 200,000 persons perished, among them 
 Pliny the naturalist. Numerous other disastrous 
 eruptions have occurred. Torre del Greco, with 
 4000 persons, was destroyed, 17 Dec. 1731. One of 
 the most dreadful eruptions ever known took place 
 suddenly, 24 Nov. 1759. The violent burst in 1767 
 was the 34th from the time of Titus. One in June, 
 1794, was most destructive : the lava flowed over 
 5000 acres of rich vineyards and cultivated land, 
 and Torre del Greco was a second time burned ; the 
 top of the mountain fell in, and the crater is now 
 nearly two miles in circumference. Eruptions in 
 May, 1855, May and June, 1858, and June, 1859, 
 • caused great destruction, and in the spring and 
 summer of i860. A series of violent eruptions 
 causing much damage occurred in Dec. 1861, and 
 in Feb. 1865. Torre del Greco was again destroyed 
 in Dec. 1861. Another eruption began 12 Nov. 
 1867, and continued increasing in grandeur and 
 danger, March, 1868. The phenomena were ob- 
 served by professors Tyndall and Miller, sir John 
 Lubbock, and other scientific men, in April, 1868. 
 A great eruption began 8 Oct. 1868, and continued, 
 causing much destruction, 19, 20 Nov. A severe 
 eruption began 23 April and ended about 3 May, 
 1872 ; above 60 rives were lost. Professor John 
 Phillips' " Vesuvius " was published 1869. 
 
 VETEBINAEY COLLEGE (London), was 
 established at Camden-town, 1791 ; and Albert 
 Veterinary College was opened in 1865. 
 
 VICE, an instrument of which Archytas of 
 Tarentum, disciple of Pythagoras, is said to have 
 been the inventor, along with the pulley and other 
 implements, 420 b.c. 
 
 VICE-ADMIEALTY.COUETS ACT, 1863, 
 was extended and amended in 1867. 
 
 VICE-CHANCELLOE of. ENGLAND 
 
 an equity judge, appointed by parliament, first took 
 his seat 5 May, 1813. A new court was erected for 
 him about 1816 contiguous to Lincoln's-inn-hall. 
 Two additional vice-chancellors were appointed 
 under act 5 Vict., Oct. 184.1. The office of vice- 
 chancellor of England ceased in August, 1850, and 
 a third vice-chancellor was appointed in 185 1, when 
 two more equity judges, styled lords justices, were 
 appointed. 
 
 VICE-CHANCELLORS OF ENGLAND. 
 
 1813. Sir Thomas Plumer, 13 April. 
 
 1818. Sir John Leach, 13 Jan. 
 
 i827; Sir Anthony Hart, 4 May. 
 
 1827-50. Sir Lancelot Shadwell, 1 Nov. the last. 
 
 VICE-CHANCELLORS. 
 
 1852. Sir John Stuart, sat last, 27 March, 1871. 
 
 1853. Sir Win. Page Wood, made a justice of appeal, 
 
 - 1868 ; lord chancellor, Dec. 1868. 
 1866. Sir Richard Malins. 
 
 1868. Sir Geo. Markham Giffard, died 1870. 
 
 1869. Sir Wm. M. James, Jan. ; made a lord justice of 
 
 appeal, June, 1870. 
 
 1870. Sir James Bacon. ^ 
 
 1871. Sir John Wickens, April. 
 
 VICENZA (the ancient Vicentia, N. Italy) was 
 the seat of a republic in the 12th century. It 
 greatly suffered by the ravages of Alaric, 401, and 
 Attila, 452. Having joined the Lombard league, it 
 was sacked by Frederic II. 1236. After many 
 changes it was subjected to Venice, and with it fell 
 under the French domination, 1796 ; and was given 
 to Austria in 1814. Having revolted, it was re- 
 taken by Kadetzky, II June, 1848. It was annexed 
 to the kingdom of Italy, Oct. 1866. 
 
 VICE-PEESIDENT of the Board of 
 
 TRADE- This office was abolished in 1867, and a 
 secretary with a seat in parliament substituted. 
 
 VICKSBUEG, see United States, 1863. 
 
 VICTOEIA, formerly PORT PHILLIP, 
 
 (Australia), situated between New South "Wales and 
 South Australia. In 1798, Bass, in his whale-boat 
 expedition, visited Western Port, one of its harbours ; 
 and in 1802 Flinders sailed into Port Phillip Bay. 
 
 Colonel Collins lands with a party of convicts with, 
 the intention of founding a settlement at Port 
 Phillip, but afterwards removed to Van Dienien's 
 
 Land 1804 
 
 Messrs. Hume and Hovell, two stock-owners from 
 New South Wales, explore part of the country, 
 but do not discover its great advantages . . 1824 
 Mr. Edward Henty, (of a Sussex family), comes 
 from Tasmania with cattle, sheep, shepherds, &c, 
 and settles in Portland Bay ; his brothers, 
 Stephen George and John, follow soon . . 1834 
 Mr. John Batman enters between the heads of 
 Port Phillip, and purchases a large tract of land 
 from the aborigines for a few gewgaws and 
 blankets : he shortly after, with fifteen associates 
 from Hobarton, took possession of 600,000 acres 
 in the present Geelong country . . May, 1835 
 The Launceston associates and Mr. John Pascoe 
 Falkner ascend the Yarra-Yarra (or everflowing) 
 river, and encamp on the site of Melbourne . ,, 
 The colonists (450 in number) possess 140,000 
 sheep, 2500 cattle, and 150 horses ; sir R. Bourke, 
 governor of New South Wales, yisits the colony, 
 determines the sites of towns, and causes the 
 land to be surveyed and resold, setting aside 
 many contending claims ; he appoints captain 
 Lonsdale chief-magistrate (see Melbourne) . . 1837 
 
 The colony named Victoria 1839 
 
 Its prosperity brings great numbers to it, and in- 
 duces much speculation and consequent em- 
 barrassment and insolvency .... 1841-2 
 Mr. C. J. Latrobe appointed lieutenant-governor 
 
 under sir G. Gipps 1839 
 
 The province declared independent of New South 
 
 Wales ; a reward of 200I. offered for the discovery 
 
 of gold in Victoria, which was soon after found 
 
 near Melbourne, and was profitably worked Aug. 1851 
 
 7000 persons were at Ballarat, Oct. ; 10,000 round 
 
 Mount Alexander Nov. ,, 
 
 From 30 Sept. to 31 Dec. 1851, 30,311 ounces of 
 gold were obtained from Ballarat ; and from 29 
 Oct. to 31 Dec. 94,524 ounces from Mount 
 Alexander — total 124,835 ounces 
 The production was still very great . . . 1859 
 
 Immense immigration to Melbourne (see Melbourne) 1852 
 Sir Charles Hotham, governor, . . June, 1854 
 A representative constitution granted . . . 1855 
 
 Sir Henry Barkly appointed governor . . . 1856 
 The parliament was opened ... 26 Nov. 1857 
 Four administrations had been formed in . 1857-1860 
 Exhibition of the products of the colony opened by 
 
 the governor 1 Oct. 1861 
 
 Sir Charles Darling appointed governor, 'May : 
 
 arrives 10 Sept. 1863 
 
 Great opposition to reception of convicts in any 
 part of Australia ; a ship containing them sent 
 
 back Oct. 1864 
 
 Important land act passed . . 22 March. 186s 
 
 z z 
 
VICTORIA. 
 
 706 
 
 VIENNA. 
 
 The assembly passes the new government tariff, 
 Jan., which is rejected by the legislative council; 
 the governor raises money for the public service 
 
 irregularly July, 1865 
 
 The crisis still continues ; appeal to the queen pro- 
 posed Oct. ,, 
 
 Parliament prorogued .... Dec. ,, 
 Sir Charles Darling recalled ... 26 Feb. 1866 
 Ministerial difficulties : Mr. McCulloch becomes 
 
 premier April, „ 
 
 The assembly votes 20,000?. to lady Darling ; sir 
 
 Charles departs May, „ 
 
 New governor, sir John H. T. Manners Sutton, 
 
 (viscount Canterbury in 1869) arrived 13 Aug. „ 
 Intercolonial Exhibition opened . . 25 Oct. ,, 
 "Vote of 20,000?. to lady Darling rejected by legisla- 
 tive council 20 Aug. 1867 
 
 Ministerial crisis ; dispute continues between the 
 
 assembly and the council . . . Oct. ,, 
 Duke of Edinburgh arrives ; great rejoicings 
 
 23 Nov. ,, 
 An address presented to him by Mr. Edward 
 
 Henty, the first settler, and others . . ,, 
 
 Parliament dissolved . . . ' . 30 Dec. ,, 
 New parliament ; ministry resigned because the 
 governor objected to insertion of the Darling 
 grant in the appropriation bill . 12 March, 1868 
 First woollen and paper manufactories established 
 
 May, „ 
 The M'Culloch ministry arrange the Darling affair 
 
 July, „ 
 The M'Pherson ministry announced . . Oct. 1869 
 Mr. M'Culloch forms a ministry including Mr. 
 
 M'Pherson, April ; is knighted . . May, 1870 
 The federation of the Australian colonies, proposed 
 by Mr. Gavan Duffy in 1857, revived by him and 
 discussed in the legislative assembly . June, ,, 
 Industrial Museum at Melbourne, opened 8 Sept. ,, 
 Mr. M'Culloch resigns ... 14 June, ,, 
 
 Mr. Duffy minister July, 1871 
 
 He resigns on a vote against him . . 29 May, 1872 
 Mr. Francis forms a ministry . . . June, ,, 
 Payment (300?. a year) to M. P.'s begins . . ,, 
 
 Sir George Bowen succeeds viscount Canterbury 
 
 Feb. 1873 
 Population of the colony iu 1836, 224 ; in 1841, 
 11,738 ; in 1846, 32,879 ; in 1851, 77,345 ; 31 Dec. 
 1852, about 200,000 ; in March 1857 there were 
 258,116 males" and 145,403 females ; in all 403,519. 
 In 1859, in all 517,366 ; in 1861, 540,322 ; Dec. 
 1865, 626,639 ; in 1871, 729,654. 
 
 VICTORIA, see Hong Konq, Vancouver's 
 Island, Bocks, Thames 1870, Wrecks 1852. 
 
 VICTORIA CROSS, a new order of merit, 
 instituted to reward the gallantry of persons of all 
 ranks in the army and navy, 5 Feb. 1856. It is a 
 Maltese cross made of Russian cannon from Sevas- 
 topol. The queen conferred the honour on 62 
 persons (of both services) on Friday, 26 June, 1857 ; 
 and on many of the Indian army, 2 Aug. 1858. 
 
 VICTORIA INSTITUTE, or Philosophi- 
 cal Society of Great Britain, established 
 
 22 June, 1865 ; its primary object being the attempt 
 to reconcile apparent discrepancies between Chris- 
 tianity and science. 
 
 VICTORIA PARK (E. London), was origi- 
 nated by an act passed in 1 84 1, which enabled her 
 majesty's commissioners of woods and forests to 
 purchase certain lands for a royal park, with the 
 sum of 72,000^. raised by the same act, by the sale 
 of York-house to the duke of Sutherland. The 
 act described the land to be so purchased, contain- 
 ing 290 acres, situate in the parishes of St. John, 
 Hackney; St. Matthew, Bethnal-green ; and St. 
 Mary, Stratford-le-bow. The park was completed 
 and opened to the public in 1845. Lady (then Miss) 
 Burdett Coutts presented a handsome drinking 
 fountain, and was present at its inauguration, 28 
 June, 1862. The park was visited by the queen, 
 2 April, 1873. 
 
 VICTORIA RAILWAY BRIDGE (tubu- 
 lar), over the St. Lawrence, Montreal, erected by 
 Mr. James Hodges, under the superintendence of 
 Mr. Robert Stephenson and Mr. A. M. Ross, 
 engineers, was begun 24 May, 1854, and formally 
 opened by the prince of Wales, 25 Aug. i860. It 
 forms part of the Grand Trunk railway, which con- 
 nects Canada and the seaboard states of North 
 America. The length is about sixty yards less than 
 two English miles, and about "]\ times longer than 
 Waterloo bridge, and ten times longer than new 
 Chelsea bridge ; the height sixty feet between the 
 summer level of the river and the under surface of 
 the central tube. It is supported by 24 piers. The 
 cost was 1,700,000^. On 5 Jan. 1855, while con- 
 structing, the bridge was much injured by floating 
 ice, but the stonework remained firm. 
 
 VICTORIA REGIA, the magnificent water- 
 lily brought to this country from Guiana by sir 
 Robert Schomburgk, in 1838, and named after the 
 queen. Fine specimens are at the Botanic G ardens 
 at Kew, Regent's Park, &c. It was grown in the 
 open air in 1855, by Messrs. Weeks, of Chelsea. 
 
 VICTORY, Man-of-War, of ioo guns, the 
 finest first-rate ship in the navy of England, was 
 lost in a violent tempest near the race of Alderney, 
 and its admiral, sir John Balchen, and 100 gentle- 
 men's sons, and the whole crew, consisting of IOOO 
 men, perished, 8 October, 1744. — The Victory, the 
 flag-ship of Nelson, at the battle of Trafalgar, 21 
 Oct. 1805, is kept in fine preservation at Ports- 
 mouth. 
 
 VICTUALLERS, an ancient trade in Eng- 
 land. The Vintners' company of London was 
 founded 1437 ; their hall rebuilt in 1823. 
 
 None shall sell less than one full quart of the best 
 beer or ale for id. and two quarts of the smaller 
 
 sort for id 1603 
 
 The power of licensing public-houses was granted 
 
 to sir Giles Mompesson and sir Francis Mitchel . 1621 
 The number in England then was about 13,000 . ,, 
 In Great Britain about 76,000 public-houses . . 1790 
 England, 59,335 ; Scotland, 15,081 ; Ireland, 
 
 14,080 ; total, 88,496 in 1850 
 
 Public-houses allowed to be opened on Sundays 
 from 1 o'clock till 3, and from 5 till iip.m . 1828 
 
 The prescribed time enlarged 1855 
 
 127,352 licences were issued for the sale of beer, 
 cider, and perry in the United Kingdom, produc- 
 ing a revenue of 304,688?. ; and 93,936 licences 
 for the sale of spirits : revenue 560,557?. . . 1858 
 Licensed Victuallers' School established . . . 1803 
 Licensed Victuallers' Asylum established 22 Feb. 1827 
 Licensed Victuallers in the United Kingdom 
 
 99.465 • • J 872 
 
 Between 100,000,000?. and 150,000,000?. said to be 
 invested in the liquor trade. The licensed vic- 
 tuallers actively opposed Mr. Bruce's licensing 
 bill, which was withdrawn . . summer of 1871 
 New licensing act, regulating hours of opening and 
 shutting, &c, passed and came into execution 
 
 10 Aug. 1872 
 [It caused much irritation and excitement.] 
 
 VICTUALLING OFFICE (Lo-ndon), for 
 managing the victualling of the royal navy, was 
 instituted Dec. 1663. The number of commis- 
 sioners was five, afterwards seven, and then reduced 
 to six. The various departments on Tower-hill, St. 
 Katherine's, and Rotherhithe, were removed to 
 Deptford in Aug. 1785, and the office to Somerset- 
 house, 1783. In 1832 the office of commissioners 
 was abolished, and the victualling-office made one 
 of five departments under the lords of the ad- 
 miralty. 
 
 VIENNA (the Roman Vindebona), was capital 
 of the margraviate of Austria, 984 ; virtual capital 
 
VIENNA. 
 
 707 
 
 VILLA FRANCA. 
 
 of the German empire, 1273 ; since 1806, capital of 
 the Austrian dominions only. Population in 1857, 
 476,222 ; 1872, 901,000; see Austria. 
 
 Vienna made an imperial city 1136 
 
 Walled and enlarged with the ransom paid for 
 
 Ei chard I. of England, 40, 000Z .... 1194 
 Besieged by the Turks under Solyman the Magnifi- 
 cent, with an army of 300,000 men ; hut he was 
 forced to raise the siege with the loss of 70,000 of 
 
 his best troops 1529 
 
 Besieged by the Turks July, 1683 
 
 The siege raised by John Sobieski; king of Poland, 
 
 who defeats the Turkish army of 100,000, 12 Sept. „ 
 Vienna taken by the French under prince Murat, 
 14 Nov. 1805, evacuated ... 12 Jan. 1806 
 
 Captured by Napoleon 1 13 May, 1809 
 
 Bestored on the conclusion of peace . 14 Oct. ,, 
 Congress of sovereigns at Vienna . . Nov. 1814 
 Imperial Academy of Sciences founded . . . 1846 
 The revolt in Hungary induces an insurrection in 
 
 Vienna 13 March, 1848 
 
 The emperor retires, 17 May; returns . Aug. ,, 
 A second insurrection : Count Latour, the war 
 
 minister, is murdered . . . . 6 Oct. „ 
 The emperor again takes flight . . .7 Oct. „ 
 Vienna is bombarded by Windischgratz and 
 
 Jellachich, 28 Oct. ; its capitulation . 30 Oct. ,, 
 Conferences respecting the Busso-Turkish war held 
 
 at Vienna* 1853-5 
 
 The fortifications demolished, and the city enlarged 
 
 and beautified 1857-8 
 
 The imperial parliament (Beichsrath) assembles 
 
 here 31 May, i860 
 
 The Prussians encamp near Vienna ; state of siege 
 
 proclaimed July, 1866 
 
 Visited by the sultan .... 27 July, 1867 
 New palace of the fine arts founded by the emperor 
 
 about 18 Sept. 1868 
 The great international exhibition opened by the 
 emperor ; the prince of "Wales and many digni- 
 taries present 1 May, 1873 
 
 [The enormous building with annexes was designed 
 by Mr. Scott Bussell, most ably supported by the 
 Austrian engineers ; the grand central rotunda, 
 312 feet in diameter, with lofty dome, is an 
 exaggerated Pantheon, suspended on iron girders 
 in place of masonry, and dwarfs St. Peter's at 
 Borne.] 
 Great financial failures ; affect all Europe, 9 May, „ 
 Visit of the czar, 1-7 June ; of the shah of Persia, 
 
 30 July, „ 
 
 TREATIES OF VIENNA. 
 
 i. The treaty between the emperor of Germany and the 
 king of Spain, by which they confirmed to each 
 other such part's of the Spanish dominions as they 
 were respectively possessed of ; and by a private treaty 
 the emperor engaged to employ a force to procure the 
 restoration of Gibraltar to Spain, and to use means 
 for placing the Pretender on the throne of Great 
 
 * A conference of the four great powers, England, 
 France, Austria, and Prussia, was held 24 July, when a 
 note was agreed on and transmitted for acceptance to St. 
 Petersburg and Constantinople, 31 July. This note was 
 accepted by the czar, 10 Aug., but the sultan required 
 modifications, which were rejected by Bussia, 7 Sept. 
 The sultan's note (31 Dee.) contained four points : — 
 1. The promptest possible evacuation of the princi- 
 palities. 2. Bevision of the treaties. 3. Maintenance 
 of religious privileges to the communities of all con- 
 fessions. 4. A definite settlement of the convention re- 
 specting the holy places. It was approved by the four 
 powers, and the conferences closed on 16 Jan. 1854. — A 
 new conference of plenipotentiaries, from Great Britain 
 (lord John Bussell), France (M. Drouyn de l'Huys), 
 Austria (count Buol), Turkey (Arif Effendi), and Bussia 
 (count Gortschakoff), took place, March, 1854. Two 
 points, the protectorate of the principalities and the free 
 navigation of the Danube, were agreed to ; but the pro- 
 posals of the powers as to the reduction of the Bussian 
 power in the Black Sea were rejected by the czar, and the 
 conference closed, 5 June, 1854. The English and French 
 envoys' assent to the Austrian propositions was not ap- 
 proved of by their governments, and they both resigned 
 their official positions. 
 
 Britain. Spain guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction. 
 30 April, 1725. 
 
 2. Treaty of alliance between the emperor of Germany, 
 Charles VI., George II., king of Great Britain, and 
 the states of Holland, by which the Pragmatic Sanc- 
 tion was guaranteed, and the disputes as to the 
 Spanish succession terminated. (Spain acceded to 
 the treaty on the 22nd of July.) Signed 16 March, 
 1731- 
 
 3. Treaty of peace between the emperor Charles VI. of 
 Germany and the king of France, Louis XV, by which 
 the latter power agreed to guarantee the Pragmatic 
 Sanction, and Lorraine was ceded to France. Signed 
 18 Nov. 1738 ; see Pragmatic Sanction. 
 
 4. Treaty between Napoleon I. of France and Francis 
 (II. of Germany) I. of Austria, by which Austria ceded 
 to France the Tyrol, Dalmatia, and other territories, 
 which were shortly afterwards declared to be united 
 to France under the title of the Elyrian Provinces, and 
 engaged to adhere to the prohibitory system adopted 
 towards England by France and Bussia. 14 Oct. 
 1809. 
 
 5. Treaty between Great Britain, Austria, Bussia, and 
 Prussia, confirming the principles on which they had 
 acted by the treaty of Chaumont, 1 Mar. 1814. Signed 
 23 March, 1815. 
 
 6. Treaty between the king of the Netherlands on the 
 one part, and Great Britain, Bussia, Austria, and 
 Prussia on the other, agreeing to the enlargement of 
 the Dutch territories, and vesting the sovereignty in 
 the house of Orange. 31 May, 1815. 
 
 7. Treaty by which Denmark ceded Swedish Pomerania 
 and Bugen to Prussia, in exchange for Lauenburg. 
 4 June, 1815. 
 
 8. Commercial treaty for twelve years between Austria 
 and Prussia. Signed at Vienna, 19 Feb. 1853. 
 
 9. Treaty for the maintenance of Turkey, by the repre- 
 sentatives of Great Britain, France, Austria, and 
 Bussia. Signed 9 April, 1854. 
 
 10. Treaty between Austria and Prussia and Denmark, 
 by which Denmark ceded the duchies. 30 Oct. 1864. 
 
 11. Treaty of peace between Austria and Italy ; Venetia 
 given up to Italy. 3 Oct. 1866. 
 
 VIENNE, the ancient Vienna Allobrogum 
 (S.E. Prance). Here the emperor Valentinian II. 
 was put to death by Arbogastes, 15 May, 392, and a 
 short reaction in favour of paganism followed. 
 Vienne was capital of the kingdom of Burgundy in 
 432 and 879, and sometimes gave its name to the 
 kingdom. A general council was held here in 
 13 1 1 . Vienne was annexed to the French monarchy, 
 1448. 
 
 VIGO (N. W. Spain) was attacked and burned 
 by the English, under Drake and Norris in 1589. 
 Sir George Eooke, with the combined English and 
 Dutch fleets, attacked the French fleet and the 
 Spanish galleons in the port of Vigo, when several 
 men-of-war and galleons were taken, and many 
 destroyed, and abundance of plate and other 
 valuable effects fell into the hands of the conquerors, 
 12 Oct. 1702. Vigo was taken by lord Cobham 
 in 1 719, but relinquished after raising contribu- 
 tions. It was again taken by the British, 27 March, 
 1809. 
 
 VIKINGS. Scandinavian chiefs, Swedes, 
 Danes, and Norsemen, who in the 4th century 
 migrated — eastward, to the countries beyond the 
 Baltic ; westward and southward, chiefly to the 
 British isles. 
 
 VILLA FRANCA. Near here, and Llerena, 
 Spain, the British cavalry, under sir Stapleton 
 Cotton, defeated the French cavalry under marshal 
 Soult, n April, 1812.— Villa Fbanca, a small 
 port on the Mediterranean, near Genoa, was bought 
 for a steam-packet station by a Russian company, 
 about Aug. 1858, which caused some political 
 excitement.— At VlLLA FBANCA, in Lombardy, 
 the emperors of France and Austria met, on 1 1 July, 
 1859 (after the battle of Solferino), and on 12 July 
 
 z z 2 
 
VILLA VICIOSA. 
 
 ros 
 
 VIRGIN ISLANDS. 
 
 signed the preliminaries of peace, the basis of the 
 treaty of Zurich {which see). 
 
 VILLA VICIOSA. I. in Portugal. Here 
 the Portuguese, under the French general Schom- 
 bcrg, defeated the Spaniards, 1665. 2. in Castile, 
 Spain. Here the struggle for the Spanish crown 
 ■was decided in favour of Philip V. by Vendome's 
 victory over Stareniberg and the Austrians, 10 Dec. 
 1710. 
 
 VILLAIN, or VlLLEIN", see Slavery in 
 England. 
 
 VILLETA (Paraguay, South America) . Here 
 Lopez and the Paraguayans were totally defeated 
 by the Brazilians and their allies, n Dec. 1868. 
 Lopez and 200 men fled ; 3000 prisoners were made ; 
 and the war was considered to be ended. 
 
 VIMEIRA (in Portugal), where the British 
 and Spanish forces, under sir Arthur Wellesley, 
 defeated the French, under marshal Junot, duke of 
 Abrantes, 21 Aug. 1808. The attack, made with 
 great bravery, was gallantly repulsed ; it was 
 repeated by Kellermann at the head of the French 
 reserve, which was also repulsed. The French, 
 charged with the bayonet, withdrew on all points 
 in confusion, leaving many prisoners. 
 
 VINCENNES, a strong castle near Paris ; a 
 residence of the French kings from the 12th to the 
 14th centuries. Henry V. of England died at the 
 Bois de Vincennes, 31 Aug. 1422. At the fosse of 
 the castle, Louis due d'Enghien was shot by order 
 of Napoleon, after a hasty trial, early on the morn- 
 ing of 22 March, 1S04. 
 
 VINCENT, Cape St. (S. W. Portugal). 
 See Cape St. Vincent, and Rodney's Victories. 
 
 VINCENT, ST. (West Indies), long a neutral 
 island ; but at the peace of 1 763, the French agreed 
 that the right to it should be vested in the English. 
 The latter soon after engaged in a war against the 
 Caribs, on the windward side of the island, who 
 were obliged to consent to a peace, by which they 
 ceded a large tract of land to the British crown. In 
 1779 the Caribs greatly contributed to the reduction 
 of this island by the French, who, however, restored 
 it in 1783. In 1795 the French landed some 
 troops, and again instigated the Caribs to an insur- 
 rection, which was not subdued for several months. 
 The great eruption of the Seoufirier mountain, after 
 the lapse of nearly a century, occurred in 1812. 
 Population in 1861, 31,755. Lieut. -governor, AY in. 
 Hepburn Eennie, 187 1. 
 
 VINCENT DE PAUL, ST., Charitable 
 SOCIETY, founded in 1833, in France, by twelve 
 young men. It extends its extremely beneficial 
 operations into Britain. Its power excited the 
 jealousy of the French government, which sup- 
 pressed its central committee of Paris, in Oct. 1861. 
 St. Vincent de Paul was born, 1576; established 
 the congregation of Lazarists, or Vincentines, 1625; 
 Sisters of Charity, 1634 ; a foundling hospital, 1648. 
 He died 1660. 
 
 VINCY, N. France. Here Charles Martel 
 defeated the Neustrians, 21 May, 717, and acquired 
 their country. 
 
 VINE. The vine was planted by Noah, 2347 
 B.C. Gen. ix. 20. A colony of vine-dressers from 
 Phocea, in Ionia, settled at Marseilles, and in- 
 structed the South Gauls hi tillage, vine-dreflsing, 
 and commerce, about 600 B.C. Some think that 
 vines are aborigines of Languedoc, Provence, and 
 
 Sicily, and that they grew spontaneously on the 
 Mediterranean shores of Italy, France, and Spain. 
 The vine was carried into Champagne, and part of 
 Germany, by the emperor Probus, about a.d. 279. 
 The vine and sugar-cane were planted in Madeira 
 in 1420. In the gardens of Hampton-court palace 
 is an old and celebrated vine, said to surpass any 
 known vine in Europe ; see Grapes, and Wine. 
 The Tokay vines were planted in 1350. 
 
 Vine Disease. In the spring of 1845, Mr. E. Tucker, of 
 Margate, observed a fungus (since named O'idiwm 
 Twkeri) on grapes in the hot-houses of Mr. Slater, of 
 Margate. It is a whitish mildew, and totally destroys 
 the fruit. 
 
 The spores of this o'idium were found in the vineries at 
 Versailles in 1847. The disease soon reached the trel- 
 lised vines, and in 1850 many lost all their produce. 
 
 Iu 1852, it spread over France, Italy, Spain, Syria, and 
 in Zante and Cephalonia attacked the currants, reduc- 
 ing the crop to one-twelfth of the usual amount. 
 
 Through its ravages, the wine manufacture in Madeira 
 eeased for several years. 
 
 Many attempts have been made to arrest the progress of 
 this disease, but without much effect. Sulphur dust is 
 the most efficacious remedy. 
 
 The disease had much abated in France, Portugal, and 
 Madeira, in 1S63. In 1862 Californian vines were 
 introduced into the two latter. 
 
 New malady (microscopic insect, phylloxera, vastatrix), 
 in S. France, observed, 1866 ; increased, 1868-72. 
 
 VINEGAR. The ancients had several kinds, 
 which they used for drink. The Eoman soldiers 
 were accustomed to take it in their marches. The 
 Bible represents Boaz, a rich citizen of Bethlehem, 
 as providing vinegar for his reapers (1312 B.C.), a 
 custom still prevalent in Spain and Italy. 
 
 VINEGAR-HILL (near Emuacorthy, in 
 
 Wexford, S. E. Ireland). Here the Irish rebels, 
 headed by father John, a priest, encamped and com- 
 mitted many outrages on the surrounding country. 
 They were gradually surrounded by the British 
 troops, commanded by Lake, 21 June, 1798, and 
 after a fierce struggle, with much slaughter, totally 
 dispersed. 
 
 VINTNERS, see Victuallers. 
 
 VIOL AND VIOLIN. The lyre of the Greeks 
 became our harp, and the viol of the middle ages 
 became the violin. The violin is mentioned as early 
 as 1200, in the legendary life of St. Christopher, ft 
 was introduced into England, some say, by Charles 
 II. Straduarius (or Stradivarius) of Cremona, was 
 a renowned violin-maker (1700 to 1722). The 
 eminent violinist Paganini visited England, 1831 ; 
 died at Nice, 27 May, 1840. 
 
 VIRGINIA, see Rome, 449 b.c. 
 
 VIRGINIA, the first British settlement in 
 North America, was discovered by John Cabot in 
 1497. and was taken possession of and named by 
 Baleigh, after the virgin-queen Elizabeth, 13 July, 
 1584. Vain attempts were made to settle it in 1585. 
 Two expeditions were formed by patent in 1606, and 
 others in 1610. In 1626, it reverted to the crown ; 
 and a more permanent colony was established soon 
 afterwards. George Washington was delegate for 
 Virginia in the congress of 1774. Eastern Virginia 
 seceded from the Union, 25 April, 1861, but Western 
 Virginia declared for the Lnion, 13 Feb. and elected 
 .1 governor, 20 Feb. 1861. Virginia was a chief seat 
 of the war. The state was readmitted to the con- 
 gress, Jan. -Feb. 1870; see United States, and Rich- 
 mond. 
 
 VIRGIN ISLANDS (West Indies), an eastern 
 group (discovered by Columbus, 1494) : Virgin 
 
VIRGIN MARY. 
 
 709 
 
 VOLSCI. 
 
 Gorda, Tortola, Anegada, &c, and the Danish. Isles, 
 St. Thomas and St. John. 
 
 Tortola settled by Dutch buccaneers about 1648 ; 
 expelled by the English (who have held it since) 1666 
 
 St. Thomas settled by Danes 1672, and St. John 
 a few years after ; held by the British 1801-2 ; 
 1807-15 ; proposed sale to the United States for 
 1,500,5002. to be made a "territory." Danish 
 proclamation, 25 Oct. 1867; purchase declined 
 by U. S. senate ... 23 March, May, 1870 
 
 By a dreadful hurricane off St. Thomas, the Royal 
 Mail steamers Rhone and Wye were entirely 
 wrecked ; the Conway and Derwent, and above 50 
 other vessels, driven ashore ; about 1000 persons 
 said to have perished. 
 
 Much suffering occasioned in Tortola ; houses blown 
 down or unroofed, &c. (a report reached London 
 that the isle was submerged) . . 29 Oct. 1867 
 
 Earthquake at St. Thomas's and other isles ; much 
 damage ; few lives lost .... Nov. ,, 
 
 VIRGIN MARY. The Assumption of the 
 Virgin is a festival in the Greek and Latin churches, 
 in honour of the miraculous ascent of Mary into 
 heaven, according to their belief, 15 Aug. a.d. 45. 
 The Presentation of the Virgin is a feast celebrated 
 21 Nov., said to have been instituted among the 
 Greeks in the nth century; its institution in the 
 "West is ascribed to pope Gregory XI. 1372 ; see 
 Annunciation, and Conception, Immaculate. 
 
 VIRTUE, LEAGUE OE, see Tugendbund. 
 
 VISCONTI, the name of a noble Italian 
 family, Avhich ruled in Milan from about 1277 to 
 1447 ; the heiress of the family was married to 
 Francesco Sforza, who became duke 1450. 
 
 VISCOUNT ( Vice Comes) , anciently the name 
 of the deputy of an earl. The first viscount in 
 England created by patent was John, lord Beaumont, 
 whom Henry VI. created viscount Beaumont, giving 
 him precedence above all barons, 10 Feb. 1440. 
 Ashmole. This title is of older date in Ireland and 
 France. John Barry, lord Barry, was made vis- 
 count Buttevant, in Ireland, 9 Rich. II. 1385. 
 Beatson. 
 
 VISIBLE SPEECH, a term applied by Mr. 
 Alex. Melville Bell to his " Universal Self-Inter- 
 preting Physiological Alphabet," comprising thirty 
 symbols representing the conformations of the 
 mouth when uttering sounds. He stated that about 
 fifty different types would be required to print all 
 known languages with these symbols. He ex- 
 pounded his system to the Society of Arts, London, 
 1 14 March, 1866 ; and published a book in 1867. 
 
 VISIGOTHS, separated from the Ostrogoths 
 about 330 ; see Goths. The emperor Valens, about 
 369, admitted them into the Boman territories upon 
 the condition of their serving when wanted in the 
 Roman armies ; and Theodosius the Great permitted 
 them to form distinct corps commanded by their own 
 officers. In 400, under Alaric, they invaded Italy, 
 and in 410 took Rome. They founded their king- 
 dom of Toulouse, 414; conquered the Alani, and 
 extended then rule into Spain, 414 ; expelled the 
 Romans hi 468 ; and finally were themselves con- 
 quered by the Saracens under Muza, in 711, when 
 their last king, Roderic, was defeated and slain ; see 
 Spain for a list of the Visigothic kings. Then- rule 
 in France ended with then defeat by Clovis at 
 Vougle, in 507. 
 
 VITAL FORCE, defined by Humboldt "as an 
 unknown cause preventing the elements from obey- 
 ing then primitive affinities." This theory is now 
 opposed by many physiologists, and animal motion 
 
 is attributed to muscular and nervous irritability * 
 illustrated by the researches of Galvaui, Humboldt, 
 sir Charles Bell, Marshall Hall, and others. The 
 subject has been much discussed recently by Huxley 
 and other eminent physiologists. 
 
 VITTORIA (N. Spain), the site of a victory 
 obtained by Wellington over the French army com- 
 manded by Joseph Bonaparte, king of Spain, and 
 marshal Jourdan, 21 June, 1813. The hostile armies 
 were nearly equal, from 70,000 to 75,000 each. 
 After a long and fearful battle, the French were 
 driven, towards evening, through the town of Vit- 
 toria, and in then retreat were thrown into irre- 
 trievable confusion. The British loss was 22 officers 
 and 479 men killed; 167 officers and 2640 men 
 wounded. Marshal Jourdan lost 151 pieces of can- 
 non, 451 waggons of ammunition, all his baggage, 
 provisions, cattle, and treasure, with his baton as a 
 marshal of France. Continuing the pursuit on the 
 25th, Wellington took Jourdan' s only remaining 
 gun.' 
 
 VIVARIUM, see Aquavivarium. 
 
 VIVISECTION. Physiological experiments 
 upon living animals, having much increased, the 
 societies for the prevention of cruelty to animals in 
 Dresden and Paris in 1859 requested the opinion of 
 a committee of eminent scientific men on the merits 
 of the knowledge thus acquired. Then judgment 
 was not unanimous. The London society took up 
 the question in i860 ; and printed a pamphlet by 
 Mr. G. Macilwain against vivisection. In Aug. 
 1862 an international conference to discuss the 
 question was held at the Crystal Palace, Sydenham. 
 The subject was discussed in 1866, and a prize 
 awarded by the London society. Sir Charles Bell's 
 opinion of vivisection was, that it either obscured 
 the subject it was meant to illustrate, or misled men 
 into practical errors of the most serious character. 
 
 VIZIER, GRAND, an officer of the Ottoman 
 Porte, first appointed about 1326. The office was 
 abolished in 1838 ; but since revived. 
 
 VLADIMIR (central Russia), a city founded in 
 the 12th century, and the capital of a grand duchy 
 from 1 157 to about 1328. 
 
 VOIRON, see Veseronce. 
 
 VOLCANOES- In different parts of the earth 
 there are above 200 volcanoes which have been 
 active in modern times ; see Etna, Vesuvius, and 
 Iceland. In Mexico, a plain was filled up into a 
 mountain more than a thousand feet in height by 
 the burning lava from a volcano, in 1759. A vol- 
 cano in the isle of Ferro broke out 13 Sept. 1777, 
 which threw out an immense quantity of red water, 
 that discoloured the sea for several leagues. A new 
 volcano appeared in one of the Azore islands, 1 May, 
 1808. 
 
 VOLHYNIA, a Polish province, annexed to 
 Russia 1793. 
 
 VOLSCI, an ancient Latin people, frequently at 
 war with the Romans. From their capital, Corioli, 
 Caius Martius (who defeated them about 490 B.C.) 
 derived his name Coriolanus. The story of his 
 banishment by his ungrateful countrymen; of his 
 revenge on them by bringing the Volsci to the gates 
 of Rome, yet afterwards sparing the city at the 
 entreaties of his mother, Volumnia (487 B.C.), is 
 considered by many as a poetical legend. The 
 Volsci and then allies were totally defeated at 
 Sutrium by the consul Valerius Corvus (346), and 
 incorporated with the Roman people about 338. 
 
VOLSINII. 
 
 710 
 
 VOLUNTEERS. 
 
 VOLSINII, the inhabitants of an Etrurian city, 
 who, after a sharp contest, were completely over- 
 come by the Eoman consul Titus Coruncanius, 
 280 B.C. 
 
 VOLTAIC PILE or BATTERY, was con- 
 structed by Galvani ; see Galvanism in article 
 Electricity. The principle was discovered by Ales- 
 sandro Volta, of Como (born 1745), for thirty years 
 professor of natural philosophy at Pavia, and an- 
 nounced by him to the Royal Society of London in 
 1793. The battery was first set up in 1800. Volta 
 was made an Italian count and senator by Napoleon 
 Bonaparte, and was otherwise greatly honoured. 
 "While young he invented the electrophorus, electric 
 pistol, and hydrogen lamp. He died in 1826, aged 
 81. The form of the Voltaic battery has been greatly 
 improved by the researches of modem philosophers. 
 The nitric acid battery of sir "W. 11. Grove was 
 constructed in 1839 ; Alfred Smee's battery iu 1840 ; 
 the carbon battery of professor Eobert Bunsen in 
 1842. The first is very much used in this country ; 
 that of Bunsen on the continent. 
 
 VOLTUENO, a river in S. Italy, near Capua, 
 near to which Garibaldi and his followers held a 
 strong position. This was furiously assailed by the 
 royal troops on 1 Oct. i860, who were finally re- 
 pulsed after a desperate struggle, the fiercest in 
 which Garibaldi had yet been engaged. He was 
 aided greatly by a band of Piedmontese from 
 Naples. On 2 Oct. general Bixio completed the 
 victory by capturing 2500 fresh Neapolitan troops 
 and dispersing others. 
 
 VOLUNTARY CONTRIBUTIONS. Pub- 
 lic contributions for the support of the British 
 government against the policy and designs of 
 Prance '.amounted to two millions and a half ster- 
 ling in 1798. About 200,000/. were transmitted to 
 England from \ India in 1799. Sir Bobert Peel, of 
 Bury, among other contributions of equal amount, 
 subscribed 10,000/. Annual Register ; see Pa- 
 triotic Fund. In 1862 nearly a million pounds were 
 subscribed in the British empire for the relief of the 
 Lancashire cotton spinners ; see Cotton. 
 
 VOLUNTEERS were enrolled in England for 
 the American war, 1778, and especially in conse- 
 quence of the threatened invasion of revolutionary 
 France, 1793-4- Besides our large army, and 
 85,000 men voted for the sea, we subsidised 40,000 
 Germans, raised our militia to 100,000 men, and 
 armed the citizens as volunteers; the yeomanry 
 formed cavalry regiments. Between 1798 and 1804, 
 when this force was of greatest amount, it num- 
 bered 410,000, of which 70,000 were Irish.* On 
 26 Oct. 1803, king George III. reviewed in Hyde 
 Park 12,401 London volunteers, and on 28 Oct. 
 14,676 more. The English volunteers were, accord- 
 
 * The first regiment of Irish volunteers was formed 
 at Dublin, under command of the duke of Leinster, 12 
 Oct. 1779. They armed generally to the amount of 
 20,000 men, and received the unanimous thanks of the 
 houses of lords and commons in Ireland, for their 
 patriotism and spirit, for coming forward and defending 
 their country. At the period when the force appeared, 
 Irish affairs bore a serious aspect ; manufactures had 
 decreased, and foreign trade had been hurt by a pro- 
 hibition of the export of salted provisions and butter. 
 No notice of the complaints of the people had been taken 
 in the English parliament, when, owing to the alarm of 
 an invasion, ministers allowed the nation to arm, and an 
 immense force was soon raised. The Irish took this 
 occasion to demand a free trade, and government saw 
 there was no trifling with a country with arms in its 
 hands. The Irish parliament unanimously addressed the 
 king for a free trade, and it was granted, 1779. 
 
 ing to official accounts, 341,600 on 1 Jan. 1804 ; see 
 Naval Volunteers. In May, 1859, in consequence 
 of the prevalence of the fear of a French invasion, 
 the formation of volunteer corps of riflemen com- 
 menced under the auspices of the government, and 
 by the end of the year many thousands were 
 enrolled in all parts of the kingdom. The volun- 
 teers were said to be "a force potentially the 
 strongest defence of England," 19 April, 1870 ; see 
 Artillery Association. 
 
 Yeomanry were enrolled by lord Chatham in 1761. 
 The present 49 regiments of cavalry (about 300 
 
 each), cost 8o,oooL 1870 
 
 [The first Middlesex volunteers were formed in 
 1803 as the duke of Cumberland's sharpshooters. 
 They retained their organisation as a rifle club, 
 when other volunteers were disbanded. In 1835 
 they were permitted by the duchess of Kent to 
 take the name of the Royal Victoria Rifle Club.] 
 
 National Volunteer Association for promoting the 
 practice of Rifle-shooting, was established in Lon- 
 don, under the patronage of the queen and prince 
 consort, Mr. Sidney (afterwards lord) Herbert, 
 secretary at war, president, and the earl of Derby 
 and other noblemen vice-presidents. (Annual 
 subscription one guinea, or a composition for life 
 of ten guineas) 16 Nov. 1859 
 
 2500 volunteer officers presented to the queen ; a 
 dinner followed, with the duke of Cambridge in 
 the chair; and a ball .... 7 March, i860 
 
 The queen reviews about 18,450 volunteers in 
 Hyde-park 23 June, „ 
 
 [Mr. Tower, of Wealdhall, Essex, aged 80, was pre- 
 sent as a private; he had been present as an 
 officer in a volunteer review in 1803.] 
 
 First meeting of the National Association for rifle- 
 shooting held at Wimbledon ; captain Edw. Ross 
 (North York) obtained the queen's prize of 250Z. 
 and the gold medal of the association 2-7 July, ,, 
 [M. Thorel, a Swiss, obtained a prize.] 
 
 Successful sham-fight at Bromley, Kent 14 July, ,, 
 
 Above 20,000 volunteers reviewed by the queen at 
 Edinburgh 7 Aug. „ 
 
 Above 10,000 Lancashire volunteers reviewed by 
 the earl of Derby at Knowsley . . 1 Sept. „ 
 
 Lord Herbert stated that the association had a 
 capital of 3000?. and an annual income of 1500/., 
 
 16 Feb. 1861 
 
 Volunteers in Britain estimated at about 160,000, 
 
 May, ,, 
 
 Second meeting at Wimbledon ; Mr. Jopling (S. 
 Middlesex) gains the queen's prize and the asso- 
 ciation medal 4-10 July, ,, 
 
 Review of 11,504 volunteers at Wimbledon, 13 July; 
 of 9000 at Warwick .... 24 July, ,, 
 
 Registered number of volunteers, 162,681 1 April, 1862 
 
 20,000 volunteers reviewed by lord Clyde at 
 Brighton 21 April, „ 
 
 Third meeting at Wimbledon ; Mr. Pixley (S. Vic- 
 toria) gains the queen's prize, <fec. 1-14 July, ,, 
 
 A commission recommends that an annual grant of 
 either 20s. , 30s. , or 34s. , be given to each volun- 
 teer according to circumstances . . Oct. „ 
 
 Fourth meeting at Wimbledon, 7 July, &c. ; queen's 
 prize, <fcc, won by sergeant Roberts (12th Shrop- 
 shire) 14 July, 1863 
 
 An act to amend and consolidate the acts relating 
 to the volunteer force of Great Britain was passed, 
 
 21 July, „ 
 
 22,000 volunteers reviewed by the prince of Wales 
 in Hyde-park (great improvement noticed), 
 
 28 May, 1864 
 
 Fifth meeeing at Wimbledon, n July, &c. ; the 
 queen's prize, <fec. , won by private John Wyatt 
 (London rifle brigade) ... 23 July, ,, 
 
 Volunteers estimated at 165,000 in 1864. 
 
 Sixth meeting at Wimbledon, began n July; the 
 queen's prize was won by private Sharman (4th 
 West York), 18 July; the meeting ended with a 
 review by the duke of Cambridge . 22 July, 1865 
 
 Seventh meeting at Wimbledon began 9 July; 
 queen's prize won by Angus Cameron (6th Inver- 
 ness), 17 July; the value of about -joool. distri- 
 buted iu prizes ; and review by duke of Cam- 
 bridge 21 July, 1866 
 
VOLUNTEEKS. 
 
 711 
 
 WAGES. 
 
 The volunteers reviewed by the prince of "Wales at 
 Brighton, 2 April; at York, 11 Aug.; by duke of 
 Cambridge at Hyde-park ... 23 June, 1866 
 Estimate of volunteers : 135,000 infantry, 27,000 
 
 artillery, and 4000 engineers. Times . 9 Oct. „ 
 About 1 100 volunteers visit Brussels, headed by col. 
 Loyd Lindsay : warmly received ; first prize 
 gained by Curtis, of the nth Sussex rifles, 
 
 11-22 Oct. „ 
 Parliamentary vote for volunteers, 361,009?. 
 
 6 June, 1867 
 Metropolitan and Berkshire volunteers reviewed in 
 
 Windsor Great park . . . .10 June, „ 
 ■Eighth meeting at Wimbledon, began 8 July ; Bel- 
 gian Garde civique and volunteers (above 2000) 
 received by prince of Wales, 13 July; resignation 
 of lord Elcho, chairman of the council ; succeeded 
 by earl Spencer, 18 July ; grand review by prince 
 of Wales, the sultan, &c; the queen's prize given 
 to sergeant Lane (Bristol) by the princess of Teck, 
 
 20 July, „ 
 Grand review in New Sefton park, Liverpool, 5 Oct. „ 
 About 28,000 volunteers reviewed by the queen at 
 
 Windsor 20 June, 1868 
 
 Review of regulars and volunteers at Edinburgh, 
 
 4 July, „ 
 Ninth meeting at Wimbledon, 13 July; the queen's 
 prize gained by lieut. Carslake (5th Somerset), 
 
 25 July, „ 
 Lord Elcho re-elected chairman of the council (earl 
 
 Spencer resigned) Feb. 1869 
 
 Memorial to government respecting the capitation 
 grant ; signed by noblemen and gentlemen, 
 
 19 Feb. „ 
 Volunteers reported to number 170,000 . . . „ 
 Review of volunteers of southern and western 
 
 counties at Portsmouth . . .26 April, „ 
 
 Tenth meeting at Wimbledon, 3 July ; queen's prize 
 gained by corporal Angus Cameron (6th Inver- 
 ness), 2nd time, 13 July ; grand review 24 July, „ 
 Volunteers' act, 1863, amended . . 9 Aug. „ 
 "Army Service Corps" to be composed of volun- 
 teers; established by royal warrant 12 Nov. ,, 
 Eleventh meeting at Wimbledon, 1 1 July ; queen's 
 prize won by corporal Humphries (6th Surrey), 
 
 ig July, 1870 
 Letter from the lord mayor recommending the en- 
 largement of the volunteer system, and its greater 
 
 efficiency 22 Sept. „ 
 
 Establishment of an extensive rifle range, drill 
 ground, armoury, &c. , for the London volunteers 
 
 resolved on 3 Oct. „ 
 
 Distribution of breech-loaders commenced Nov. ,, 
 Lord Elcho (chairman) resigned ; succeeded by the 
 
 earl of Ducie . . June, 1871 
 
 Twelfth meeting at Wimbledon, 8 July; queen's 
 prize won by ensign A. P. Humphry, undergra- 
 duate (Cambridge university), aged 19 18 July, „ 
 Vote for volunteer force, 1872-3, 473,200?. 24 June, 1872 
 Thirteenth meeting at Wimbledon, 8 July ; queen's 
 prize won by colour-sergeant Michie (London 
 
 Scottish) 16 July, „ 
 
 The Elcho shield, the International trophy, and the 
 Irish International trophy (all won by the Eng- 
 lish) placed in the custody of the lord mayor, 
 
 27 July, ,, 
 Some volunteers visit Ghent . . 14-21 Sept. „ 
 Fourteenth meeting at Wimbledon, 7 July ; queen's 
 prize won by sergeant Robert Menzies (1st Edin- 
 burgh) 15 July, 1873 
 
 EASTER MONDAY EEVIEWS AND SHAM FIGHTS. 
 
 Brighton . . 21 April, 1862, and 5 April, 
 
 Guildford 28 March, 
 
 Brighton . . 17 April, 1865; and 2 April, 
 
 Dover 22 April, 
 
 Portsmouth (the most successful hitherto, 29,490 
 
 volunteers present) . . . .13 April, 
 
 Dover (bad weather) .... 29 March, 
 
 Brighton . . 18 April, 1870 ; 10 April, 
 
 Mock battle between sir Arthur Hors- 
 
 1863 
 1864 
 1866 
 1867 
 
 1868 
 1869 
 1871 
 
 1872 
 1873 
 
 ford (12,180 men, 22 guns) and gen. Lysons (11,082 
 men, 20 guns) 1 April, 
 
 Easter; small reviews at Wimbledon and other 
 places 14 April, 
 
 VOSSEM, PEACE OP, between the elector of 
 Brandenburg and Louis XIV. of France ; the latter 
 engaged not to assist the Dutch against the elector ; 
 signed 6 June, 1673. 
 
 VOTING PAPEES. See Dodson's Act. The 
 proposal to use them was negatived in the debates 
 on reform in 1867 ; adopted by the ballot act in 1873. 
 
 VOUGLE or VOUILLE, S.W. France (near 
 Poitiers), where Alaric II., king of the Visigoths, 
 was defeated and slain by Clovis, king of France, 
 507, who subdued the whole country from the Loire 
 "to the Pyrenees. A peace followed between the 
 Franks and Visigoths, who had been settled above 
 one hundred years in that part of Gaul called 
 Septimania. Clovis soon afterwards made Paris 
 his capital. 
 
 VOYAGES. By order of Pharaoh -necho, of 
 Egypt, some Phoenician pilots sailed from Egypt 
 down the Arabian Gulf, round what is now called 
 the Cape of Good Hope, entered the Mediterranean 
 by the Straits of Gibraltar, coasted along the north 
 of Africa, and at length arrived in Egypt, after a 
 navigation of about three years, 604 b. c. Jlerodotus. 
 The iirst voyage round the world w r as made by a 
 ship, part of a Spanish squadron which had been 
 under the command of Magellan (who was killed at 
 the Philippine Islands in a skirmish) in 1519-20; 
 see Crcumnavigators, and North- West Passage. 
 
 VULCAN, see Planets. 
 
 VULCANITE (vulcanised india-rubber), also 
 termed Ebonite. 
 
 VULGATE (from vulgatus, published), a ter 
 applied to the Latin version of the Scriptures 
 which is authorised by the council of Trent (1546), 
 and which is attributed to St. Jerome, about 384. 
 The older version, called the Italic, is said to have 
 been made in the beginning of the 2nd century. A 
 critical edition was printed by order of pope Sixtus 
 V. in 1590, w r hich being considered inaccurate, was 
 superseded by the edition of pope Clement V. in 
 1592. The earliest printed vulgate is without date, 
 by Gutenburg and Fust, probably about 1455, the 
 first dated (Fust and Schcefi'er) is 1462. 
 
 W. 
 
 WADBAM COLLEGE (Oxford). Founded 
 by Nicholas Wadham, and Dorothy, his wife, in 
 1613. In this college, in the chambers of Dr. Wil- 
 kins (over the gateway), the founders of the Boyal 
 Society frequently met prior to 1658. 
 
 WAGEE OP BATTLE, see Appeal. 
 
 WAGES IN ENGLAND. The wages of 
 sundry workmen were first fixed by act of parlia- 
 ment 25 Edw. III. 1350. Haymakers had but one 
 penny a day. Master carpenters, masons, tilers, 
 and other coverers of houses, had not more than 3d. 
 per day (about gd. of our money) ; and their ser- 
 vants, lid. Viner's Statutes. 
 
WAGGONS. 
 
 712 
 
 WALCHEREN. 
 
 By the 23 Henry VI. the wages of a bailiff of hus- 
 bandry was 23s. 4(7. per annum, and clothing of 
 the price of 5s. with meat and drink ; chief hind, 
 carter, or shepherd, 20s. , clothing, 4s. ; common 
 servant of husbandry, 15s. , clothing, 401I. ; woman- 
 servant, ios., clothing, 4s 1444 
 
 By the n Henry VII., a like rate of wages with a 
 little advance : as, for instance, a free mason, 
 master carpenter, rough mason, bricklayer, mas- 
 ter tiler, plumber, glazier, carver or joiner, was 
 allowed from Easter to Michaelmas to take 6d. a 
 
 day without meat and drink ; or, with meat and 
 drink, 4c?. ; from Michaelmas to Easter, to abate 
 id. A master having under him six men was 
 allowed a id. a day extra ... . . 1495 
 
 In 1866 the annual amount of wages paid in the 
 United Kingdom was estimated by Mr. Gladstone 
 at 250,000,000?. ; by Mr. Bass at 350,000,000?. ; and 
 by professor Leone Levi at 418,300,000?., earned 
 by 10,697,000 workers, ages 20 to 60. 
 In 1872-3 many trades struck for increase of wages, 
 and generally were successful. 
 
 WAGES OF HARVEST-MEN IN ENGLAND AT DIFFERENT PERIODS. 
 
 Year. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 Year. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 Year. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 In 1350 
 
 . per diem 1 
 
 Ini7i6 
 
 par diem 9 
 
 In 1800 
 
 per diem 2 
 
 1460 . 
 
 • • >. 02 
 
 1740 . 
 
 ,, 10 
 
 1811 . . . . 
 
 >> 21 
 
 1568 . 
 
 ,, 04 
 
 1760 
 
 ,, 10 
 
 1850 
 
 3° 
 
 1632 . 
 
 „ 6 
 
 1788 . 
 
 .., 1 4 
 
 1857 . . 
 
 5° 
 
 1688 
 
 ,, 08 
 
 1794 
 
 „ 16 
 
 Since then increased. 
 
 
 WAGGONS 'were rare in the last century. 
 They, with carts, &c, not excepting those used in 
 agriculture, were taxed in 1783. The carriers' 
 Avaggons are now nearly superseded by the rail- 
 ways. 
 
 WAGHORN'S NEW OVERLAND 
 ROUTE TO INDIA. Lieut. Waghorn devoted 
 a large portion of his life to connect India with 
 England. On 31 Oct. 1845, he arrived in Loudon, 
 by a new route, with the Bombay mail of the 1st of 
 that month. His despatches reached Suez on the 
 19th, and Alexandria on the 20th, whence he pro- 
 ceeded by steamboat to a place twelve miles nearer 
 London than Trieste. He hurried through Austria, 
 Baden, Bavaria, Prussia, and Belgium, and reached 
 London at half-past four on the morning of the 
 first-mentioned day. The authorities of the differ- 
 ent countries through which he passed eagerly 
 facilitated his movements. The ordinary express, 
 via Marseilles, reached London 2 Nov. following. 
 Mr. "Waghorn subsequently addressed a letter to 
 the Times newspaper, in which he stated that in a 
 couple of years he would bring the Bombay mail to 
 London in 21 days. He died 8 Jan. 1850. 
 
 The Overland Mail, which had left Bombay on 1 Dec. 
 1845, arrived early on the 30th in London, by way of 
 Marseilles and Paris. The speedy arrival was owing 
 to the great exertions made by the French government 
 to show that the route through France was shorter 
 and better. 
 
 W A GRAM, a village near Vienna, where 
 Napoleon I. totally defeated the archduke Charles, 
 5, 6 July, 1809. The slaughter on both sides was 
 dreadful; 20,000 Austrians were taken by the 
 French, and the defeated army retired to Moravia. 
 An armistice was signed on the 12 th ; and 011 24 
 Oct., by a treaty of peace, Austria ceded all her 
 sea-coast to France ; the kingdoms of Saxony aud 
 Bavaria were enlarged at her expense ; part of 
 Poland in Galicia was ceded to Russia ; and Joseph 
 Bonaparte was recognised as king of Spain . 
 
 WAHABEES or WahaBITES, a warlike 
 Mahometan reforming sect, considering themselves 
 the only true followers of the prophet, established 
 themselves in Arabia about 1750, under the rule of 
 Abd-el-Wahab, who died 1787. His grandson, 
 Saoud, in 1801, defeated an expedition headed by 
 the caliph of Bagdad. In 1803 this sect seized 
 Mecca and Medina, and continued their conquests, 
 although their chief was assassinated in the midst 
 of his victories. His son, Abdallah, long resisted 
 Mahommed Ali, pacha of Egypt, but in 18 18 was 
 defeated and taken prisoner by Ibrahim Pacha, who 
 
 sent him to Constantinople, where he was put to 
 death. The sect, now nourishing, is well described 
 by Mr. "W. Gifford Palgrave, in his " Journey and 
 Eesidence in Arabia in 1862-3," published in 
 1865. It is influential in India, and is suspected 
 of a tendency to insurrection. 
 
 WAHLSTATT, see Kalzbach. 
 
 WAITS, the night minstrels who perform shortly 
 before Christinas. The name was given to the 
 musicians attached to the Icing's court. We find 
 that a company of waits was established at Exeter 
 in 1400 to " pipe the watch." The waits in London 
 and Westminster were long officially recognised by 
 the corporation. 
 
 WAKEFIELD (W. Yorkshire), an ancient 
 town. Near it a battle was fought between the ad- 
 herents of Margaret, the queeen of Henry VI., and 
 the duke of York, in which the latter was slain, and 
 3000 Yorkists fell upon the field, 31 Dec. 1460. The 
 earl of Warwick supported the cause of the duke's 
 son, the earl of March, afterwards Edward IV., 
 and the civil war was continued. An art and indus- 
 trial exhibition was opened at "Wakefield, 30 Aug. 
 1865. 
 
 WAKES, the ancient parish festivals on the saint's 
 day to commemorate the dedication of the church ; 
 regulated in 1536, but gradually became obsolete. 
 
 WALBROOK CHURCH (London), amaster- 
 pieceofsir Christopher Wren, completed in 1679. 
 There was a church here in 1135, and a new church 
 was erected in 1429. 
 
 WALCHEREN (an island at the mouth of the 
 Scheldt, Holland). The unfortunate expedition of 
 the British to this isle in 1809 consisted of 35 ships 
 of the line, and 200 smaller vessels, principally 
 transports, and 40,000 land forces, the latter under 
 the command of the earl of Chatham, and the fleet 
 under sir Richard Strachan. For a long time the 
 destination of the expedition remained secret ; but 
 before 28 July, 1809, when it set sail, the French 
 journals had announced that Walchcren was the 
 point of attack. Flushing was invested in August; 
 a dreadful bombardment folio wed, and the place was 
 taken 15 Aug. ; but no suggestion on the part of the 
 naval commander, nor urging on the part of the 
 officers, could induce the earl to vigorous action, 
 until the period of probable success was gone, and 
 necessity obliged him to return with as many of the 
 troops as disease and an unhealthy climate had 
 spared. The place was evacuated, 23 Dec. 1809. The 
 house of commons instituted an inquiry, and lord 
 
WALDECK. 
 
 713 
 
 WALES. 
 
 Chatham resigned his post of master-general of the 
 ordnance, to prevent greater disgrace ; but the 
 policy of ministers in planning the expedition was, 
 nevertheless, approved. The following epigram, of 
 which various readings exist, ajspeared at the 
 time : — ■ 
 
 "Lord Chatham [or the warrior earl] with [his] sabre 
 
 drawn, 
 Stood waiting for sir Richard Strachan ; 
 Sir Richard, longing [or eager] to lie at 'em, 
 Stood waiting for the earl of Chatham." 
 
 "WALDECK AND PYEMONT, united Ger- 
 man principalities, established in 1682. The late 
 reigning family claim descent from the Saxon hero, 
 Witikind, who nourished about 772. Prince George 
 Victor, born 14 Jan. 1831, succeeded his father, 
 George, 15 May, 1845 > abdicated ; and 011 22 Oct. 
 1867, the states approved a treaty of annexation, 
 and the administration was transferred to Prussia, 1 
 Jan. 1868. Population in Dec. 1867, 756,807. 
 
 WALDENSES (also called Valdenses, Vallen- 
 ses, and Vaudois), a sect inhabiting the Cottian 
 Alps, derives its name, according to some authors, 
 from Peter de Waldo, of L3 T ons (1170). They had 
 a translation of the Bible, and allied themselves to the 
 Albigenses, whose persecution led to the establish- 
 ment of the Holy Office or Inquisition. See Albigen- 
 ses. The Waldenses settled in the valleys of 
 Piedmont about 1375, but were frequently dreadfully 
 persecuted, especially in the 17th century, when 
 Charles I. of England interceded for them (1627-9) 
 and Oliver Cromwell (1655-6) obtained them some 
 degree of toleration. They were permitted to have 
 a church at Turin, Dec. 1853. In March, 1868, 
 it was stated that there were in Italy 28 ordained 
 Waldensian ministers, and 30 other teachers. 
 
 WALES, Cambria, Cymru, the land of the 
 Cymry, called by the Romans Britannia Secunda. 
 Welsh and Wales are corruptions of Teutonic 
 epithets applied to foreigners, especially Gauls. 
 After the Roman emperor Honorius gave .up Britain, 
 Vortigem was elected king of South Britain. He 
 invited over the Saxons to defend his country 
 against the Picts and Scots ; but the Saxons per- 
 fidiously sent for reinforcements, consisting of 
 Saxons, Danes, and Angles, by which thej' made 
 themselves masters of South Britain. Many of the 
 Britons retired to Wales, and defended themselves 
 against the Saxons, in then- inaccessible mountains, 
 about 447. In this state Wales remained uncon- 
 quered till Henry II. subdued South Wales in 1157 ; 
 and in 1282 Edward I. entirely reduced the whole 
 country, putting an end to its independence by the 
 death of Llewelyn, the last prince.* In 1284 the 
 queen gave birth to a son at Caernarvon, whom Ed- 
 ward styled prince of Wales, now title of the heir to 
 the crown of Great Britain. Wales was united and 
 incorporated with England by act of parliament, 
 1536 ; see Britain. 
 
 Ostorius Scapula, proprietor of Britain, defeats the 
 Cymry a.d.' 50 
 
 The supreme authority in Britannica Secunda in- 
 
 * The statute of Wales, enacted at Rhuddlan, 19 March, 
 1284 (or March, 1283), alleges that — "Divine Providence 
 has now removed all obstacles, and transferred wholly 
 and entirely to the king's dominion the land of Wales and 
 its inhabitants, heretofore subject unto him in feudal 
 right." The ancient laws were to be preserved in civil 
 causes ; but the law of inheritance was to be changed, 
 and the English criminal law to be put in force. Annals 
 of England. 
 
 trusted to Suetonius Paulinus, who caused deso- 
 lating wars 58-61 
 
 Conquests by Julius Frontinus 70 
 
 The Silures totally defeated ,, 
 
 The Roman, Julius Agricola, commands in Britain . 78 
 Bran ab Llyr, the Blessed, dies about . . . . 80 
 The Druidical class gradually dissolved by the influ- 
 ence of Christianity in 300-400 
 
 The Britons defeat the Saxons .... 447-448 
 
 Vortigem king 448 
 
 The renowned Arthur elected king . . about 500 
 
 Defeats Saxons about 527 
 
 Cadwallawn, king of Gwynedd, defeated and slain 
 by the Saxons at Denisburn . . . about 634 
 
 Reign of Roderic the Great 844 
 
 He unites the petty states into one principality; 
 
 his death 877 
 
 Division of Wales — into north, south, and central 
 
 (or Powys-land) ,, 
 
 The Welsh princes submit to Alfred . . . 885 
 
 The Danes land in Anglesey 900 
 
 Laws enacted by Howel Dha, prince of all Wales, 
 
 about 920 
 
 Athelstan subdues the Welsh 933 
 
 Civil wars at his death ...... about 948 
 
 Great battle between the sons of Howel Dha and 
 the sons of Idwal Voel ; the latter victorious . 954 
 
 Edgar invades Wales about 973 
 
 Danes invade Wales ; lay Anglesey waste, &c. 
 
 980-1000 
 Devastations committed by Edwin, the son of 
 
 Eineon 980 
 
 The country reduced by Aedan, prince of North 
 
 Wales 1000 
 
 Aedan, the usurper, slain in battle by Llewelyn . 1015 
 Part of Wales laid waste by the forces of Harold . 1063 
 William I. claims feudal authority over Wales . . 1070 
 Rhys ab Owain kills king Bleddyn, 1073 ; defeated „ 
 
 and slain . . 1077 
 
 Ravaging invasion of Hugh, earl of Chester . 1079-80 
 Invasion of the Irish and Scots .... 1080 
 
 William I. invades Wales 1081 
 
 Battle of Llechryd 1087 
 
 [In this conflict the sons of Bleddyn ab Cynyyn 
 were slain by Rhys ab Tewdwr, the reigning 
 prince. ] 
 Rhys ab Tewdwr slain ; S. Wales conquered by the 
 
 English 1090 
 
 Invasion of the English under William II. . 1095-7 
 The settlement in Wales of a colony of Flemings . 1106 
 Violent seizure of Nest, wife of Gerald de Windsor, 
 
 by Owain, son of Cadwgan ab Bleddyn . . . 1108 
 Cardigan conquered by Strongbow .... 1109 
 
 Cadwgan assassinated 1112 
 
 Gruffydd ab Rhys lays claim to the sovereignty . n 13 
 Another body of Flemings settle in Pembrokeshire ,, 
 
 [The posterity of these settlers are still distinguished 
 from the ancient British population by their lan- 
 guage, manners, and customs]. 
 
 Civil war in South Wales and Powysland leads to 
 the subjugation of the country by the English ; 
 Henry I. erects castles in Wales . . . 1114 & seq. 
 Owain killed in battle with Gerald de Windsor . 1116 
 Revolt of Owen Gwynedd on the death of Hen. I. ; 
 
 part of South Wales laid waste . . . -1135 
 The English defeated in several battles . . . 1136 
 Strongbow, earl of Pembroke, invested with the 
 
 powers of a count palatine in Pembroke . . 1138 
 Henry II. invades Wales, receives a stout resistance 
 
 from Owen Gwynedd, but subdues S. Wales . . 1157 
 Confederacy of the princes of Wales for the recovery 
 
 of their independence 1164 
 
 Prince Madoe said to have emigrated to America, 
 
 about 1 1 69 
 
 Anglesey devastated 1173 
 
 The crusades preached in Wales by Baldwin, arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury ... . .. 1188 
 
 The earl of Chester's inroad into North AVales . . 1210 
 King John invades Wales, laying waste a great part 
 of the principalities ; exacts ^tribute and alle- 
 
 gianee 1211 
 
 The pope incites the Welsh to resist John . .1212 
 
 Revolt of the Flemings 1220 
 
 Llewelyn, prince of North Wales, commits great 
 
 ravages ; overcomes Henry III 1228 
 
 The earl of Pembroke and other nobles join Llewelyn 
 against Henry I. 1233. a truce . . . . 1234 
 
WALES. 
 
 714 
 
 WALES. 
 
 Prince David ravages the marches, &e. . . . 1244 
 
 Invasion of Henry III 1245 
 
 Anglesey cruelly devastated by the English Sept. 1245 
 Llewelyn ap Griffith, the last prince . . .1246 
 Welsh princes combine against the English . . 1256 
 Great invasion of the English ; threatened extermi- 
 nation of the Welsh, compelled to retreat with 
 
 loss 11257 
 
 Welsh offers of peace refused .... 1257-62 
 Llewelyn's incursions into English territory. . 1263 
 Reported conference between him and Simon de 
 
 Montfort against the Plantagenets . . . 1265 
 Llewelyn does homage to Henry III. for a treaty 
 
 Sept. 1267 
 Edward the I. summons Llewelyn to Westminster ; 
 on his refusal to come, deposes him, 1276 : and 
 
 invades Wales June, 1277 
 
 Llewelyn submits and obtains good terms 10 Nov. „ 
 He marries Eleanor de Montfort . . 13 Oct. ,, 
 The sons of Grufydd treacherously drowned in the 
 river Dee, by the earl Warrenne and Roger 
 Mortimer ; great insurrection .... 1281 
 Hawarden castle taken by surprise by Llewelyn and 
 his brother David, 21 March ; they destroy Flint 
 and Rhuddlan castles. Fruitless negotiations 
 
 Nov. 1282 
 Great battle between Llewelyn and the English : 
 Llewelyn slain, after the battle, by Adam Frankton 
 
 11 Dec. ,, 
 Prince David surrenders, and is executed . . 1283 
 
 Wales finally subdued by Edward I „ 
 
 The first English prince of Wales, son of Edward, 
 born at Caernarvon castle (see Princes of Wales, 
 
 P- 7 x s) 25 April, 1284 
 
 Statute of Wales (seep. 713) enacted . 19 March, 1284 
 Many insurrections suppressed and the leaders 
 
 executed 1287-1320 
 
 Great rebellion of Owain Glyndwr, or Owen 
 Glendower (descendant of the last prince, 
 
 Llewelyn), commences 1400 
 
 Radnor and other places taken by Owain Glyndwr 1401 
 Allies with the Scots and the Percres ; besieges 
 
 Caernarvon . . 1402 
 
 And seizes Harlech castle 1404 
 
 Makes a treaty with France . . 10 May, ,, 
 
 Harlech castle retaken by the English forces . 1407 
 
 Loses his allies by their defeat at Bramham moor 
 
 19 Feb. 1408 
 Ravages the English territories . . . 1409 
 
 Refuses to ask for terms or submit ; dies 21 Sept. 1415 
 
 His son submits 24 Feb. 1416 
 
 Margaret of Anjou, queen of Henry VI., takes 
 
 refuge in Harlech castle 1459 
 
 Town of Denbigh burnt 1460 
 
 The earl of Richmond, afterwards Henry VII., lands 
 
 in Pembroke, and is aided by the Welsh Aug. 1485 
 Palatine jurisdiction in Wales abolished by Henry 
 
 VIII 1535 
 
 Monmouth made an English county; counties of 
 
 Brecknock, Denbigh, and Radnor formed . . 1535 
 Act for " laws and justice to be administered in 
 Wales in same form as in England," 27 Henry 
 
 VIII . . . „ 
 
 Wales incorporated into England by parliament . 1536 
 
 Divided into twelve counties 1543 
 
 Dr. Ferrar, bishop of St. David's, burnt at the stake 
 
 for heresy 30 March, 1555 
 
 Lewis Owain, a baron of the exchequer, attacked 
 
 and murdered while on his assize tour . . . „ 
 The bible and prayer-book ordered to be translated 
 into Welsh, and divine service to be performed in 
 
 that language 1562 
 
 Welsh bible printed 1588 
 
 First congregation of dissenters assembled in Wales ; 
 
 Vavasour Powel apprehended while preaching . 1620 
 Beaumaris castle garrisoned for king Charles I. . 1642 
 Powys castle taken by sir Thos. Myddelton Oct. 1644 
 Dr. Laud, formerly bishop of St. David's, beheaded 
 
 on Tower hill 10 Jan. 1645 
 
 Surrender of Hawarden castle to the parliament 
 
 general Mytton , 
 
 Charles I. takes refuge in Denbigh . . . . ,, 
 
 Rhuddlan castle surrenders „ 
 
 Harlech castle surrenders to Cromwell's army under 
 
 Mytton 1647 
 
 Battle of St. Fagan's ; the Welsh defeated by col. 
 
 Horton, Cromwell's lieutenant . . 8 May, 1648 
 
 Beaumaris castle surrenders to Cromwell . . ,, 
 
 Pembroke castle taken ; colonel Poyer shot, 25 Apr.* 1649 
 The lords marchers court suppressed . . . 1688 
 " Charitable society of Ancient Britons " and Welsh 
 
 charity schools, established 1715 
 
 The French land in Pembrokeshire, and are made 
 
 prisoners . . ... Feb 1797 
 
 Rebecca or "Becca" riots broke out against toll- 
 gates, Feb. ; an old woman, a toll-keeper, was 
 murdered, 10 Sept. ; many persons were tried and 
 
 punished Oct. 1843 
 
 Cambrian Archajological Association founded . 1846 
 
 Subscriptions begun for a university in Wales Dec. 1863 
 A national unsectarian University college at 
 
 Aberystwyth opened . . 9 Oct. 1872 
 
 Great strike of colliers in S. Wales, 1 Jan. ; ends 
 about 27 March, 1873 
 
 SOVEREIGNS OF WALES. 
 
 630. Cadwallawn, king of Gwynedd. 
 
 634. Cadwaladyr, his son. 
 
 661. Idwal, son. 
 
 728. Rhodri, or Roderic ; heroic defender. 
 
 755. Cynan and Howel, sons ; incessant war. 
 
 818. Mervyn ; son-in-law, and Essylt, (wife). 
 
 844. Roderic the Great, son. 
 
 PRINCES OF GWYNEDD OR NORTH WALES AND FREQUENTLY 
 OF ALL WALES. 
 
 877. Anarawd, son of Roderic. 
 
 915. Idwal Voel. 
 
 943. Howel Dha the Good, prince of all Wales. 
 
 948. Iefan and Iago ; sons of Idwal. 
 
 972. Howel ap Iefan, the Bad. 
 
 984. Cadwallon, brother. 
 
 985. Meredith ap Owen ap Howel Dha. 
 
 992. Idwal ap Meyric ap Edwal Voel : able, brave. 
 
 998. Aedan, a usurper. 
 1015. Llewelyn ap Sitsyllt, good sovereign. 
 1023. Iago ap Idwal ap Meyric. 
 1039. Griffith ap Llewelyn ap Sitsyllt ; killed. 
 1067. Bleddyn. 
 1073. Trahaern ap Caradoc. 
 
 1079. Griffith ap Cynan ; able ; warlike ; generous. 
 1 137. Owain Gwynedd ; energetic, successful warrior. 
 1 169. Howel, son. 
 1169. David ap Owain Gwynedd, brother; married sister 
 
 of Henry II. 
 1 1 94. Llewelyn, the Great. 
 1240. David ap Llewelyn. 
 
 1246. Llewelyn ap Griffith, last prince of the blood ; slain 
 after battle, n Dec, 1282. 
 
 ENGLISH PRINCES OF WALES, t 
 
 1284. Edward Plantagenet (afterwards king Edward II.) 
 son of Edward I., born in Caernarvon Castle on 
 the 25th April, 1284. It is asserted that imme- 
 diately after his birth he was presented by his 
 father to the Welsh chieftains as their future 
 sovereign, the king holding up the royal infant 
 in his arms, and saying, in the Welsh language, 
 
 * At the commencement of the civil war, Pembroke 
 castle was the only Welsh fortress in the possession of 
 the parliament, and it was entrusted to the command of 
 col. Laughame. In 1648, he, and colonels Powel and 
 Poyer, embraced the cause of the king, and made 
 Pembroke their head quarters ; after the defeat at 
 St. Fagan's, they retired to the castle, followed by an 
 army led by Cromwell. They capitulated, after having 
 endured great sufferings from want of water. Laugharne, 
 Powel, and Poyer were tried by a court-martial, and 
 condemned to death ; but Cromwell having been induced 
 to spare the lives of two of them, it was ordered that 
 they should draw lots for the favour, and three papers 
 were folded up, on two of which were written the words, 
 "Life given by God ; " the third was left blank. The 
 latter was drawn by colonel Poyer, who was shot 
 accordingly on the above-mentioned day. Pennant. 
 
 t Wales, Princess of. This title was held, some 
 authors say, during the early period of her life, by the 
 princess Mary of England, eldest daughter of Henry VIII. , 
 and after tvards queen Mary I. She was created, they state, 
 by her father princess of Wales, in order to conciliate the 
 Welsh people and keep alive the name, and was the only 
 princess of Wales in her own right ; a rank she enjoyed 
 until the birth of a son to Henry, who was afterwards 
 Edward VI., born in 1537. This is however denied by 
 Banks. 
 
WALHALLA. 
 
 715 WALPOLE'S ADMINISTRATIONS. 
 
 " Eich Dyn" literally in English, "This is your 
 man," but signifying, " This is your countryman 
 and king." See, however, " Ich Dien." 
 1301. Edward of Carnarvon made prince of Wales and 
 
 earl of Chester. 
 1343. Edward the Black Prince. 
 1376. Richard, his son (afterwards Richard II.). 
 1399. Henry (afterwards Henry V.), son of Henry IV. 
 1454. Edward, son of Henry VI. ; slain at Tewkesbury, 
 
 4 May, 1471. 
 1471. Edward (afterwards Edward V.), son of Edward 
 
 IV. 
 1483. Edward, son of Richard III. ; died in 1484. 
 1489. Arthur, son of Henry VII ; died in 1502. 
 1503. Henry, his brother (afterwards Henry VIII.). 
 
 Edward, his son (afterwards Edward VI.) was duke 
 of Cornwall, and not prince of Wales. 
 1610. Henry Frederic, son of James I. ; died 6 Nov. 1612. 
 1616. Charles, his brother (afterwards Charles I.). 
 
 Charles, his son (afterwards Charles II.), never 
 created prince of Wales. 
 1714. George Augustus (afterwards George II.). 
 1729. Frederic Lewis, his son ; died 20 March, 1751. 
 1751. George, his son (afterwards George III.). 
 1762. George, his son (afterwards George IV.) : born 
 
 12 Aug. 
 1841. Albert-Edward, son of queen Victoria : born q Nov. 
 Baptized, king of Prussia a sponsor, 15 Jan. 1842. 
 Travelled on the continent, and studied at Oxford 
 
 and Edinburgh, in 1859. 
 Visited Canada, with the dignity of a viceroy, and 
 
 the United States, i860. 
 Entered the university of Cambridge in Jan. : 
 attended the camp at the Curragh, Dublin, July 
 to Sept. ; opened New Middle Temple Library, 
 31 Oct. 1861. 
 Ordered to be prayed for as Albert-Edward, 
 instead of Albert, 8 Jan. ; visited the continent, 
 Syria, and Egypt, March-June ; Germany and 
 Italy, Aug-Dee. 1862. 
 Admitted to the house of peers, 5 Feb. ; a privy 
 
 councillor, 8 Dec. 1863. 
 Married to princess Alexandra of Denmark, 10 
 
 March, 1863. 
 Visited Denmark and Sweden, Sept. -Oct. 1864 ; 
 
 Russia, Nov. -Dec. 1866. 
 Visited International Exhibition, Paris, May, 1867. 
 Visited Ireland ; arrived at Dublin, 15 April, 1868. 
 Installed knight of St. Patrick, 18 April, 1868. 
 Opened Leeds Fine Arts Exhibition, ig May, 1868. 
 With the Princess at Glasgow, laid foundation of 
 
 new university, 8 Oct. 1868. 
 Sail for the continent, 17 Nov. ; call at Paris ; 
 arrive at Copenhagen, 29 Nov. ; visit Berlin, 
 Vienna, and arrive at Cairo, 3 Feb. 1869. 
 Examine the Suez canal, Feb. ; arrive at Constan- 
 tinople, 1 April; at Sebastopol, 13-17 April; 
 at Athens, i9-24April; landatDover, 13 May 1869. 
 Inaugurated Victoria Embankment (Thames) 13 
 
 July, 1870 
 Opened Workmen's International Exhibition, 
 
 Islington, 16 July, 1870. 
 Attacked with typhoid fever, about 19 Nov. 1871 ; 
 greatest danger, 6-13 Dec. ; amendment began 
 14 Dec. ; last bulletin, 13 Jan. 1872. 
 Went to St. Paul's with the queen for thanksgiving, 
 27 Feb.; sailed for the continent, 11 March; 
 visited the Pope, 27 March. 
 Opened new grammar school at Yarmouth, 6 June ; 
 
 the East London Museum, 24 June, 1872. 
 At the opening of the great exluLnuou at Vienna, 
 1 May, 1873. 
 
 Issue : Albert-Victor, born 8 Jan. 1864 ; 
 George-Frederick, born 3 June, 1865 ; 
 Louise Victoria, born 20 Feb. 1867. 
 Alexandra, born 6 July, 1868. 
 Maud, born 26 Nov. 1869. 
 Alexander John, born 7 April, died 8 April, 1871. 
 
 WALHALLA or Valhalla (the Hall of 
 
 Glory), a temple near Eatisbon, erected by Louis, 
 king of Bavaria, to receive the statues and 
 memorials of the great men of Germany, com- 
 menced 18 Oct. 1830, and inaugurated 18 Oct. 1842, 
 The name is derived from the fabled meeting-place 
 of Scandinavian heroes after death. 
 
 WALKING, see Pedestrianism. 
 
 WALLACE MONUMENT, at Abbey Craig, 
 near Stirling, was inaugurated 27 Aug. 1869, and 
 soon after given into the charge of the magistrates 
 of Stirling. It cost about 13,000/. The telescope 
 there was presented by the Scotch inhabitants of 
 Ipswich 24 June, 1865. 
 
 WALLACHIA, see Danubian Principalities. 
 On 23 Dec. 1861, the union of Wallachia and 
 Moldavia, under the name of Eoumania, was pro- 
 claimed at Jassy and Bucharest. 
 
 WALLER'S PLOT. Edmund Waller, the 
 poet, and others, conspired to disarm the London 
 militia and let in the royalists, May, 1643. The 
 plan was detected and punished, June-July, 1643. 
 Waller betrayed his confederates, and was suffered 
 to emigrate. 
 
 WALLIS'S VOYAGE. Captain Wallis 
 sailed from England on his voyage round the world, 
 26 July, 1766; and returned to England, 19 May, 
 1768. 
 
 WALLOONS, descendants of the ancient 
 inhabitants of the Low Countries. Some of them 
 fled to England from the persecution of the duke of 
 Alva, the governor of the Low Countries for Philip 
 II. of Spain, 1566. A church was given to them by 
 queen Elizabeth at Sandwich, and they still have one 
 at Canterbury. Then- language is considered to be 
 based on that of the ancient Gauls. 
 
 WALLS, see Roman Walls, China. 
 
 WALNUT-TREE has long existed in Eng- 
 land.* The black walnut-tree (juglans nigra) was 
 brought to these countries from North America 
 before 1629. 
 
 WALPOLE'S ADMINISTRATIONS. 
 
 Mr. Walpole (afterwards sir Kobert, and earl of 
 Oxford) was born in 1676 ; became secretary-at-war 
 in 1708 ; was expelled the house of commons on a 
 charge of misappropriating the public money, 1711 ; 
 committed to the Tower, 17 Jan. 1712 ; became 
 first lord of the treasury and chancellor of the 
 exchequer in Oct. 1715. He resigned, on a disunion 
 of the cabinet, in 1 71 7, bringing in the sinking 
 fund bill on the day of his resignation. On the 
 earl of Sunderland retiring in 1721, he resumed his 
 office, and held it till Feb. 1742. He died 18 
 March, 1745. 
 
 SECOND WALPOLE ADMINISTRATION (APRIL, 1721). 
 
 Sir Robert Walpole, first lord of the treasury. 
 
 Thomas, lord Parker, created earl of Macclesfield, lord 
 chancellor. 
 
 Henry, lord Carleton (succeeded by William, duke of 
 Devonshire), lord president. 
 
 Evelyn, duke of Kingston (succeeded by lord Trevor), 
 privy seal. 
 
 James, earl of Berkeley, first lord of the admiralty. 
 
 Charles (viscount Townshend), and John, lord Carteret 
 (the latter succeeded by the duke of Newcastle), secre- 
 taries of state. 
 
 Duke of Marlborough (succeeded by the earl of Cadogan), 
 ordnance. 
 
 George Treby (succeeded by Henry Pelham), secretary-at- 
 war. 
 
 Viscount Torrington, &c. 
 
 * Near Welwyn, in Hertfordshire, there was the largest 
 walnut-tree on record ; it was felled in 1627, and from it 
 were cut nineteen loads of planks ; and as much was 
 sold to a gunsmith in London as cost 10I. carriage ; 
 besides which there were thirty loads of roots and 
 branches. When standing it covered 76 poles of ground ; 
 a space equal to 2299 square yards, statute measure. 
 
WALRUS. 
 
 716 
 
 WARRANTS, GENERAL, 
 
 WALRUS- One placed in the Zoological Gar- 
 dens in 1853 lived a few days only; another was 
 placed there in the autumn of 1867, and died 25 
 Dec. 
 
 WALTZ, the popular German national dance, 
 was introduced into England by baron Neuraan and 
 others in 1813. See Raikcs. 
 
 WANDEWASH (S. India), Here the French, 
 under Lally, were severely defeated by colonel Eyre 
 Coote, 22 Jan. 1760. 
 
 WANDSWORTH, near London. Here was 
 organised a "presbytery," 20 Nov. 1572. In Gar- 
 
 ratt-lane, near this place, a mock election of a mayor 
 of Garratt was formerly held, after every general elec- 
 tion of parliament, to which Foote's dramatic piece, 
 The Mayor of Garratt (1763), gave no small cele- 
 brity. 
 
 WAR, called by Erasmus ' ' the malady of 
 princes." Osymandyas of Egypt, the first warlike 
 king, passed" into Asia, and conquered Bactria, 
 2100 B.C. Usher. He is supposed by some to be 
 the Osiris of the priests. It is computed that, up to 
 the present time, no less than 6,86o,000,000 of men 
 have perished on the field of battle ; see Battles, 
 and Secretaries. 
 
 
 
 FOREIGN WARS OF 
 
 ENGLAND SINCE 
 
 THE CONQUEST. 
 
 
 
 War with 
 
 
 Peace. 
 
 War with 
 
 
 Peace. 
 
 War with 
 
 
 Peace. 
 
 Scotland . 
 
 . 1068 . 
 
 . 1092 
 
 France 
 
 
 . 1422 . 
 
 • 1471 
 
 Spain . 
 
 ■ 1588 
 
 . 1604 
 
 France 
 
 . 1116 
 
 . 1118 
 
 Scotland . 
 
 
 . 1480 
 
 . i486 
 
 Spain 
 
 . 1624 
 
 . . 1629 
 
 Scotland . 
 
 . 1138 . 
 
 • "39 
 
 France 
 
 
 . 1492 . 
 
 • 1492 
 
 France 
 
 . 1627 
 
 . 1629 
 
 France 
 
 . 1161 
 
 . . 1186 
 
 France 
 
 
 • I5 12 
 
 • 1514 
 
 Holland . 
 
 . 1651 
 
 • • 1654 
 
 France . 
 
 . 1194 . 
 
 • "95 
 
 France 
 
 
 • 1522 . 
 
 • 1527 
 
 Spain . 
 
 • 1655 
 
 . 1660 
 
 France 
 
 . 1201 
 
 . . 1216 
 
 Scotland . 
 
 
 • 1522 
 
 • !54 2 
 
 France 
 
 . 1666 
 
 . . 1668 
 
 France 
 
 . 1224 . 
 
 • 1234 
 
 Scotland 
 
 
 • 1542 • 
 
 • 1546 
 
 Denmark . 
 
 . 1666 
 
 . 1668 
 
 France 
 
 • 1294 
 
 . . 1299 
 
 Scotland . 
 
 
 • 1547 
 
 • I 55° 
 
 Holland . 
 
 . 1666 
 
 . . 1668 
 
 Scotland . 
 
 . 1296 . 
 
 • 1323 
 
 France 
 
 
 ■ 1549 • 
 
 • 155° 
 
 Algiers 
 
 . 1669 
 
 . 1671 
 
 Scotland 
 
 • 1327 
 
 . . 1328 
 
 France 
 
 
 ■ 1557 
 
 • 1559 
 
 Holland . 
 
 . 1672 
 
 . . 1674 
 
 France 
 
 • 1339 • 
 
 . 1360 
 
 Scotland 
 
 
 • 1557 • 
 
 . 1560 
 
 France 
 
 . 1680 
 
 • l6 97 
 
 France 
 
 • 1368 
 
 . 1420 
 
 France 
 
 
 • 1562 
 
 • 1564 
 
 Peace of Ryswick, 20 
 
 Sept. 1697 
 
 War of the Succession, commenced 4 May, 1702. Peace 
 
 of Utrecht, 13 March, 1713. 
 War with Spain, 16 Dec. 1718. Peace concluded, 1721. 
 War; Spanish War, 23 Oct. 1739. Peace of Aix-la-Cha- 
 
 pelle, 30 April, 1748. 
 War with France, 31 March, 1744. Closed also on 30 
 
 April, 1748. 
 War; the Seven Years' War, 9 June, 1756. Peace of Paris, 
 
 10 Feb. 1763. 
 War with Spain) 4 Jan. 1762. General peace, 10 Feb. 
 
 17% 
 War with the United States of North America, 14 July, 
 
 1774. Peace of Paris, 30 Nov. 1782. 
 War with France, 6 Feb. 1778. Peace of Paris, 20 Jan. 
 
 1783- 
 War with Spain, 17 April, 1780. Closed same time, 20 
 
 Jan. 1783. 
 War with Holland, 21 Dec. 1780. Peace signed, 2 Sept. 
 
 1783- 
 War of the Revolution, 1 Feb. 1793. Peace of Amiens, 27 
 
 March, 1802. 
 War against Bonaparte, 29 April, 1803. Finally closed, 
 
 18 June, 1815. 
 War with America, 18 June, 1812. Peace of Ghent, 24 
 
 Dec. 1814. 
 War with Russia, 27 March, 1854. Peace of Paris, 31 
 
 March, 1856. 
 For the wars with India, China, Persia, and Abyssinia, 
 
 see those countries respectively. 
 
 WAR AFFAIRS- On account of the war with 
 
 Russia, the duke of Newcastle, previously colonial 
 secretary, was appointed a secretary for war affairs, 
 and a cabinet minister, 9 June, 1854 ; see Secre- 
 taries. War Office act, passed 20 June, 1870, ap- 
 points a financial secretary (who may sit in parlia- 
 ment) and other officers. An act for the protection 
 of war department stores was passed in 1867. By 
 the warrant abolishing purchase in the army, in 
 1871, Mr. Cardwell became virtually uncontrolled 
 minister of war. 
 
 WAR, GAME OF (German, Kriegspiel) , invented 
 by a civilian in Germany (after the war which ended 
 1815), and completed by a Prussian officer about 
 1824. A society (including von Moltke) was formed 
 at Magdeburg to study it. Prince Arthur lectured 
 on this game at Dover, 13 March, 1872. 
 
 WARBECK'S INSURRECTION. Perkin 
 Warbeck, the son of a Florentine Jew, to whom 
 
 Edward IV. had stood godfather, was persuaded by 
 Margaret, duchess of Burgundy, sister to Richard III. , 
 to personate her nephew Richard, Edward V.'s 
 brother, which he did first in Ireland, where he 
 landed, 1492. The imposture was discovered by 
 Henry VII. 1493. Some writers consider that War- 
 beck was not an impostor. 
 
 Warbeck attempted to land in Kent, with 600 men, 169 
 
 were taken prisoners, and executed, July, 1495. 
 Recommended by the king of France to James TV. of 
 
 Scotland, who gave him his kinswoman, lord Huntley's 
 
 daughter, in marriage, when he assumed the title of 
 
 Richard IV. James IV. invaded England in his favour, 
 
 1496. 
 Left Scotland, and went to Bodmin, in Cornwall, where 
 
 3000 joined him, Sept. 1497. 
 On the approach of Henry took sanctuary at Beaulieu ; 
 
 surrendered ; taken to London, Oct. 1497. 
 Said to have been set in the stocks at Westminster and 
 
 Cheapside, and sent to the Tower, June, 1499. 
 Accused of plotting with the earl of Warwick to escape 
 
 out of the Tower, by murdering the lieutenant, Aug. ; 
 
 the plot failed, and he was hanged at Tyburn, 23 Nov. ; 
 
 the earl beheaded, 28 Nov. 1499. 
 
 WARBURG (N. Germany). Here the French 
 were defeated by the duke of Brunswick and the 
 allies, 31 July, 1760. 
 
 WARDIAN CASES- In 1829, Mr. N. B. 
 Ward, from observing a small fern and grass grow- 
 ing in a closed glass bottle, in which he had placed 
 a chrysalis covered with moist earth, was led to con- 
 struct his well-known closely (/lazed cases, which 
 afford to plants light, heat, and moisture, and ex- 
 clude deleterious gases, smoke, &c. They are par- 
 ticularly adapted for ferns. In 1833 they were first 
 employed for the transmission of plants to Sydney, 
 &c, with great success, and professor Faraday 
 lectured on the subject in 1838. 
 
 WARDMOTES, meetings of the citizens of 
 London in their wards, where they elect annually 
 their common councilmen. The practice is said to 
 have begun in 1386. They had previously assembled 
 in Guildhall. 
 
 WARRANTS, GENERAL, do not specify 
 the name of the accused. They were declared to be 
 illegal by lord chief justice Pratt, 6 Dec. 1763, in 
 
WAEEIOE. 
 
 717 
 
 WATEE. 
 
 relation to the seizure and committal of Mr. Wilkes 
 for a libel on the king ; see North Briton. 
 
 WAEEIOE, see under Navy of England, i860. 
 
 "WAESAW, the metropolis of Poland. The diet 
 was transferred to this city from Cracow in 1566, and 
 it became the seat of government in 1689. Popula- 
 tion in 1859, 162,777. 
 
 The Poles defeated in three days' battle by the 
 Swedes 28-30 July, 1656 
 
 Alliance of "Warsaw, between Austria aud Po- 
 land, against Turkey, in pursuance of which, John 
 Sobieski assisted in raising the siege of Vienna 
 (September following), signed . . 31 March, 1683 
 
 Warsaw surrenders to Charles XII 1703 
 
 Treaty of Warsaw between Russia and Poland, 
 
 24 Feb. 1768 
 
 The Russian garrison here expelled with the loss of 
 2000 killed and 500 wounded, and 36 pieces of 
 cannon 17 April, 1794 
 
 The Poles defeated by the Russians at Maciejovice, 
 
 4 Oct. „ 
 
 The king of Prussia besieges Warsaw, July ; com- 
 pelled to raise the siege, Sept. ; it is taken by the 
 Russians Nov. ,, 
 
 Suwarrow, the Russian general, after the siege and 
 destruction of Warsaw, cruelly butchered 30,000 
 Poles, of all ages and conditions, in cold blood, 
 
 4 Nov. ,, 
 
 Warsaw constituted a duchy, and annexed to the 
 house of Saxony Aug. 1807 
 
 The duchy overrun by the Russians ; Warsaw made 
 the residence of a Russian viceroy . . . 1813 
 
 The last Polish revolution commences at Warsaw, 
 
 29 Nov. 1830 
 
 Battle of Grochow, near Warsaw, in which the Rus- 
 sians were defeated, and forced to retreat with the 
 loss of 7000 men 25 Feb. 1831 
 
 Battle of Warsaw, when, after two days' hard 
 fighting, the city capitulated, and was taken pos- 
 session of by the Russians ; and great part of the 
 Polish army retired towards Plock and Modlin, 
 
 6-8 Sept. „ 
 
 The czar meets the emperor of Austria and the 
 regent of Prussia ; no result . . 20-25 Oct- i860 
 (See Poland, 1861-5.) 
 
 WAETBUEG, a castle in Saxony (N. Ger- 
 many) , where Luther was conveyed for safety after 
 the diet of Worms, April, 152 1, and where he trans- 
 lated the Bible into German. 
 
 WAEWICK CASTLE (Warwickshire), the 
 seat of the Beauchamps, Nevilles, Plantagenets, 
 Dudleys, Riches, and Grevilles, successively, and 
 frequently besieged ; suffered much hy fire, 3 Dec. 
 187 1, some of the more ancient part being destroyed. 
 
 WASHING MACHINES. Severalhave been 
 invented by Americans. At an hotel in New York 
 hundreds of garments are washed in a few minutes 
 by steam, and dried by a centrifugal machine 
 (1862). The ingenious machines of Messrs. Homs- 
 by, of Norwich, appeared in the great exhibition 
 of London, 1862. 
 
 WASHINGTON (in Columbia district, partly 
 in Virginia and partly in Maryland, on the bank of 
 the Potomac, N.E. Virginia), the capital of the 
 United States, founded in 1791, and made the seat 
 of government in 1800. 
 
 The house of representatives opened . . 30 May, 1808 
 Washington was taken by the British forces under 
 
 general Ross, after his victory at Bladensburg ; 
 
 its superb structures and national library burnt, 
 
 24 Aug. 1 8 14 
 General Ross killed by some American riflemen, in 
 
 adesperate engagement at Baltimore 12 Sept. „ 
 Smithsonian institute (which see) founded . . . 1846 
 Part of the capitol and the whole of the library of 
 
 the United States congress destroyed by fire, 
 
 24 Dec. 1851 
 
 The prince of Wales entertained by the president 
 
 here Oct. i860 
 
 Washington fortified in . . . . April, 1861 
 
 President Lincoln shot by Booth in Ford's theatre, 
 
 14 April; died 15 April, 1865 
 
 See United States. 
 
 IMPORTANT TREATIES OF WASHINGTON. 
 
 Fixing N.W. boundary of British America and 
 United States, &c .12 June, 1846 
 
 " Reciprocity " treaty regulating trade with Canada, 
 
 7 June, 1854 
 
 Referring the Alabama claims and the San Juan 
 boundary question to arbitration, and settling 
 disputes respecting fisheries (see Alabama and 
 Juan) 8 May, 1871 
 
 WASIUM (named from the royal house of 
 Wasa or Vasa), a supposed new metal, discovered by 
 F. Bahr, of Stockholm, in 1862. In Nov. 1863 Nickles 
 declared it to be a compound of didymium, yttrium, 
 and terbium. 
 
 WASTE LANDS- The inclosure of waste 
 lands and commons, in order to promote agriculture, 
 first began in England about the year 1547, and gave 
 rise to Ket's rebellion, 1549. Enclosures were again 
 promoted by the authority of parliament, 1785. The 
 waste lands in England were estimated in 1794 to 
 amount to 14 millions of acres, of which there were 
 taken into cultivation, 2,837,476 acres before June, 
 1801. In 1841, there were about 6,700,000 acres of 
 waste land, of which more than half was thought to 
 be capable of improvement ; see Agriculture. 
 
 WATCH OF LONDON, at night, appointed 
 1253, proclaimed the hour with a bell before the in- 
 troduction of public clocks. Hardie. The old wateh 
 was discontinued, and a new police (on duty day 
 and night) commenced, 29 Sept. 1829 ; see Police. 
 
 WATCHES are said to have been first invented 
 at Nuremberg, 1477, although it is affirmed that 
 Eobert, king of Scotland, had. a watch about 1310. 
 
 Watches first used in astronomical observations by 
 Purbach Isoo . 
 
 Authors assert that the emperor Charles V. was 
 the first who had anything that might be called a 
 watch, though some call it a small table-clock . 1530 
 
 Watches first brought to England from Germany in 1577 
 
 A watch which belonged to queen Elizabeth is pre- 
 served in the library of the Royal Institution, 
 London. 
 
 Spring pocket-watches (watches properly so-called) 
 have had their invention ascribed to Dr. Hooke 
 by the English, and to M. Huyghens by the Dutch. 
 DrJDerham, in his Artificial Clockmalcer, says that 
 Dr. Hooke was the inventor ; and he appears cer- 
 tainly to have produced what is called the pendulum 
 watch about 1658 ; manifest, among other evi- 
 dences, from an inscription on one of the double- 
 balance watches presented to Charles II, "Rob. 
 Hooke, inven. 1658; T. Tompion, fecit, 1675." 
 
 Repeating watches invented by Baiiowe . 
 
 Harrison's first time-piece produced (see Harrison). 
 
 Watches and clocks were taxed in . . . 
 
 The tax was repealed in 1798. See Clocks. 
 
 1676 
 
 J 735 
 1797 
 
 WATEE. Thales of Miletus, founder of the 
 Ionic sect, considered water to be the original 
 principle of everything, about 594 b.c. Stanley. 
 In the Roman Church water was first mixed with 
 the sacramental wine, a.d. 122. Lenglet. 
 
 Cavendish and Watt demonstrated that water is 
 composed of 8 parts of oxygen and 1 part of hy- 
 drogen I78l _. 
 
 Water was decomposed into oxygen and hydrogen 
 gases by Lavoisier, 1783 ; by the voltaic battery 
 by Nicholson and Carlisle, 1800 ; by the heat -of 
 the oxy-hydrogen flame by W. R. Grove . . 1846 
 
 In freezing, water contracts till it is reduced to 42 
 or 40 Fahr. ; it then begins to expand till it be- 
 comes ice at 32 . 
 
WATEE-BED. 
 
 718 
 
 WATERLOO BRIDGE. 
 
 Water was first conveyed to London by leaden pipes, 
 21 Henry III. 1237. Stow. It took nearly fifty 
 years to complete it ; the whole being finished, 
 and Cheapside conduit erected, only in . . . 1285 
 
 The New River water brought to London from Am- 
 well in Hertfordshire, at an immense expense, by 
 sir Hugh Myddelton, in 1613 
 
 The city was supplied with its water by convey- 
 ances of wooden pipes in the streets and small 
 leaden ones to the houses, and the New River 
 Company was incorporated, 1620. So late as queen 
 Anne's time there were water-carriers at Aldgate- 
 pump. 
 
 The water-works at Chelsea completed, and the 
 company incorporated 1722 
 
 London-bridge ancient water-works destroyed by 
 fire 29 Oct. 1779 
 
 An act to supply the metropolis with water, 15 & 16 
 Vict. c. 84, was passed, 1 July, 1852. This act was 
 amended by an act passed 21 Aug. 1871. The 
 companies were bound to provide a constant 
 supply when required ; the owner or occupier of 
 the house to provide the prescribed fittings. 
 
 [The supply is now considered to be much improved 
 in quality and quantity.] 
 
 A company was formed to carry out Dr. Normandy's 
 patent for converting salt water into fresh, in 
 
 Jan. 1857 
 
 Commissioners for metropolitan water supply ap- 
 pointed, 27 April, 1867 ; report signed 9 June, 1869 
 
 London supplied by nine companies : the New River 
 (the best), East London, Chelsea, Grand Junction, 
 Southwark and Vauxhall, Kent, West Middlesex, 
 Lambeth, and South Essex ; who deliver about 
 108,000,000 gallons daily 1867 
 
 New schemes for supplying London with water, 
 1867 :— 
 
 1. Mr. Bateman ; from the sources of the Severn. 
 
 2. Messrs. Hemans and Hassard ; from the Cum- 
 
 berland lakes. 
 3 Mr. Telford Macneill ; Thames water filtered 
 through Bagshot sand. 
 
 4. Mr. Bailey Denton ; storage reservoirs near the 
 
 sources of the Thames. 
 
 5. Mr. Remington ; from the Derbyshire and 
 
 Staffordshire hills. 
 The water from the first two sources analysed and 
 highly approved by professors Frankland and 
 
 Odling April, 1868 
 
 Water from the chalk districts softened by Homer- 
 sham's process strongly recommended . Jan. 1871 
 See Artesian Wells. 
 
 WATER-BED, CLOCKS, see Beds, Clocks. 
 
 WATER-COLOUR PAINTING was gra- 
 dually raised from the hard dry style of the last 
 century to its present brilliancy, by the efforts of 
 Nicholson, Copley Fielding, Sandby, Varley, the 
 great Turner, Pyue, Cattermole, Prout, &c, within 
 the present century. The Water-Colour Society's 
 exhibition was begun in 1805. 
 
 WATER-GLASS, a name given to a liquid 
 mixture of sand (silex) and one of the alkalies 
 (potash or soda) . Glauber {Be Lithiase) mentions 
 a similar mixture in 1644. Dr. Von Fuchs, the 
 modern inventor, gave an account of his process in 
 1825 ; and Mr. Frederick Ransome, of Ipswich, 
 ignorant of Von Fuchs' s discovery, patented a mode 
 of preparing water-glass in 1845, which he has since 
 greatly improved upon. In 1857, M. Kuhlmann, of 
 Lille, published a pamphlet setting forth the 
 advantageous employment of water-glass in harden- 
 ing porous stone and in stereochromy {which see). 
 It has been applied to the exterior of many buildings 
 in France and England. The memoirs of Von 
 Fuchs and Kuhlmann were translated and printed 
 in England, in 1859, by direction of the prince 
 consort. 
 
 WATERING STREETS. Mr. Cooper's plan 
 for using solutions of chloride of lime or of sodium 
 (which dry slowly and attract moisture and ammonia 
 
 and other gases, and combine them with the material 
 of the road) was partially used in the parish of St. 
 Mary-le-bone in 1868, and also in Liverpool, Boston, 
 and other towns. The plan was ordered to be tried 
 in Westminster in July, 1870. 
 
 WATER-MILLS, used for grinding com, are 
 said to have been invented by Belisarius, the general 
 of Justinian, while besieged in Rome by the Goths, 
 555. The ancients parched their corn, and pounded 
 it in mortars. Afterwards mills were invented, 
 which were turned by men and beasts with great 
 labour ; yet Pliny mentions wheels turned by water. 
 See Telo-dynamic transmitter. 
 
 WATERFORD (S. Ireland), built 879, was 
 totally destroyed by fire 111981. Rebuilt and con- 
 siderably enlarged by Strongbow in 1171, and still 
 further in the reign of Henry VII., who granted 
 considerable privileges to the citizens. Richard II. 
 landed and was crowned here in 1399 ; in 1690, 
 James II. embarked from hence for France, after 
 the battle of the Boyne ; and William III. resided 
 here twice, and confirmed its privileges. Memorable 
 storm here, 18 April, 1792. The cathedral of Water- 
 ford, dedicated to the blessed Trinity, was first 
 built by the Ostmen, and by Malchus, the first 
 bishop of Waterford, after his return from England 
 from his consecration, 1096. This see was united 
 with that of Lismore in 1363. It was valued in 
 the king's books, by an extent returned 29 Henry 
 VIII., at 72/. 8s. id. Irish per annum. By stat. 
 3 & 4 Will. IV., c. 37 (the Irish Church Tempo- 
 ralities act), the see of Waterford and Lismore was 
 united with the see of Cashel and Emly, 14 Aug. 
 1833. The interior of the cathedral, organ, &c., 
 were destroyed by fire, 25 Oct. 1815. 
 
 WATERLOO, in Belgium, the site of the 
 great battle, on Sunday, 18 June, 1815, between the 
 French army, of 71,947 men and 246 guns, under 
 Napoleon, and the allies, commanded by the duke 
 of Wellington ; the latter, with 67,661 men and 
 156 guns, resisted the various attacks of the enemy 
 from about ten in the morning until five in the 
 afternoon. About that time, 16,000 Prussians 
 reached the field of battle ; and by seven, the force 
 under Blucher amounted to above 50,000 men, with 
 104 guns. Wellington then moved forward his 
 whole army. A total rout ensued, and the carnage 
 was immense. Of the British (23,991), 93 officers 
 and 1916 men were killed and missing, and 363 
 officers and 4560 men wounded — total, 6932 ; and 
 the total loss of the allied army amounted to 4206 
 killed, 14,539 wounded, and 4231 missing, making 
 22,976 hors ae combat. Napoleon, quitting the wreck 
 of his army, returned to Paris ; and, finding it 
 impossible to raise another, abdicated. P. Nicolas. 
 
 By the side of the chapel of Waterloo, which was 
 uninjured by shot or shell on 18 June, 1815, Marlborough 
 cut off a large division of the French forces, 17 Aug. 1705. 
 The conquerors on the same field are the only British 
 commanders whose career brought them to dukedoms. 
 
 WATERLOO BRIDGE, London. Abridge 
 
 over this part of the Thames was repeatedly sug- 
 gested during the last century, but no actual pre- 
 parations to carry it into effect were made till 1806, 
 when Mr. G. Dodd procured an act of parliament, 
 and gave the present site, plan, and dimensions of 
 the bridge ; but, in consequence of some disagree- 
 ment with the committee, he was superseded by 
 Mr. John Rennie, who completed this noble struc- 
 ture. It was commenced 11 Oct. 1811, and opened 
 18 June, 1817, on the anniversary of the battle of 
 Waterloo, when the prince regent, the duke of 
 
WATEESPOUT. 
 
 719 
 
 WEEK. 
 
 "Wellington, and other distinguished personages, 
 were present. Its length within the abutments is 
 1242 feet; its width within the balustrades is 42 
 feet ; and the span of each arch, of which there are 
 nine, is 120 feet. 
 
 On Oct. 9, 1857, two youths, named Kilsby, found on 
 one of the abutments of the bridge a carpet bag, con- 
 taining human bones and flesh, which had been cut up, 
 salted, and boiled, and some foreign clothes. No clue 
 could be found respecting these remains, which were 
 interred in Woking cemetery. 
 
 WATEESPOUT. Two waterspouts fell on the 
 Glatz mountains in Germany, and caused dreadful 
 devastation to Hautenbach and many other villages ; 
 many persons perished, 13 July, 1827. A water- 
 spout at Glanflesk, near Killamey, in Ireland, 
 passed over a farm of Mr. John Macarthy, destroy- 
 ing farm-houses and other buildings ; seventeen 
 persons perished, 4 Aug. 1831. The estimated 
 length of one seen near Calcutta, 27 Sept. 1855, was 
 IOOO feet. It lasted ten minutes, and was absorbed 
 upwards. One seen on 24 Sept. 1856, burst into 
 heavy rain. 
 
 WATEE TOFANA, see Poisoning. 
 
 WATLING-STEEET, see Roman Roads. 
 
 WATTIGNIES (N. France). Here Jourdan 
 and the French republicans defeated the Austrians 
 under the prince of Coburg, and raised the siege of 
 Maubeuge, T4-16 Oct. 1793. 
 
 WAT TYLEE'S INSURRECTION, see 
 
 Tyler. 
 
 WAVE PRINCIPLE (in accordance with 
 which the curves of the hull of a ship should be 
 adapted to the curves of a wave of the sea) formed 
 the subject of experiments begun by Mr. John Scott 
 Eussell in 1832, with the view of increasing the 
 speed of ships. Colonel Beaufoy is said to have 
 spent 30,000^. in researches upon this matter. It 
 was also taken up by the British Association, who 
 have published reports of the investigations. The 
 principle has been adopted by naval architects ; see 
 Undulatory Theory, and Yacht. 
 
 WAVEELEY NOVELS- The publication 
 of the series began with " Waverley; or, 'Tis Sixty 
 Years since," in 1814, and closed with " Tales of 
 my Landlord," fourth series, in 183 1. The author- 
 ship was acknowledged by sir Walter Scott, at a 
 dinner, 23 Feb. 1827. The original MSS. of several 
 of Scott's poems and novels were sold by auction by 
 Christie and Manson for 1255 guineas, 6 July, 1867. 
 
 WAWZ or WAVER (Poland). The Poles 
 ■under Skrzynecki attacked the Russians at Wawz, 
 and after two days' hard fighting, all the Russian 
 positions were carried by storm, and they retreated 
 with the loss of 12,000 men and 2000 prisoners, 
 31 March, 1831. The loss of the Poles was small, 
 but their triumph was soon followed by defeat and 
 Tuin. 
 
 WAX came into use for candles in the 12th 
 century; and wax candles were esteemed a luxury 
 in 1300, being but little used. In China, candles of 
 vegetable wax have been in use for centuries ; see 
 Candleberry. The wax tree, Ligustrum lucidicm, 
 was brought from China before 1794. — Sealing- 
 Wax was not brought into use in England until 
 about 1556. Its use has been much superseded by 
 the introduction of adhesive envelopes, about 1844. 
 
 WE- Sovereigns generally use we for I, which 
 style began with king John, 1199. Coke. The 
 German emperors and French kings used the plural 
 about 1200. 
 
 WEATHEE, see Meteorology. 
 
 WEAVING appears to have been practised in 
 China more than a thousand years before it was 
 known in Europe or Asia. The Egyptians ascribed 
 the art to Isis ; the Greeks to Minerva ; and the 
 Peruvians to the wife of Manco Capac. Our 
 Saviour's vest, or coat, had not any seam, being 
 woven from the top throughout, in one whole piece. 
 The print of a frame for weaving such a vest may 
 be seen in Calmet's Dictionary, under the word 
 Vestments. Two weavers from Brabant settled at 
 York, where they manufactured woollens, which, 
 says king Edward, "may prove of great benefit to 
 us and our subjects" (133 1). Flemish dyers, cloth 
 drapers, linen-makers, silk-throwsters, &c, settled 
 at Canterbury, Norwich, Colchester, Southampton, 
 and other places, on account of the duke of Alva's 
 persecution, 1567 ; see Loom, and Electric Loom. 
 
 WEDDINGS. Silver weddings are celebrated 
 after a union of 25 years ; golden weddings after a 
 union of 50 years. John, king of Saxony, celebrated 
 his golden wedding, 10 Nov. 1872. 
 
 WEDDING-RINGS were used by the 
 ancients, and put upon the wedding finger, from a 
 supposed connection with a vein there with the 
 heart. According to Pliny they were made of iron ; 
 in the time of Tertullian of gold. Wedding-rings 
 are to be of standard gold, by statute, 1855 ; see 
 Adriatic. 
 
 WEDGE-LIKE Characters, see Cunei- 
 form. 
 
 WEDGWOOD WAEE, pottery and porce- 
 lain produced by Mr. Josiah Wedgwood, of Stafford- 
 shire, in 1762. His potteries, termed Etruria, were 
 founded in 1771. Previously to 1763, much earthen- 
 ware was imported from France and Holland. 
 
 WEDNESDAY, the fourth day of the week, 
 so called from the Saxon idol Woden or Odin, 
 worshipped on this day. Woden was the reputed 
 author of magic and the inventor of all the arts, 
 and was thought to answer to the Mercury of the 
 Greeks and Romans. 
 
 WEEDON INQITIEY (Northamptonshire). 
 Commissioners were appointed to inquire into the 
 accounts of Mr. Elliot, superintendent of the great 
 military clothing establishment at this place, in 
 July, 1858, and commenced sitting in September. 
 Many of the statements were afterwards disputed, 
 and caused much dissatisfaction. 
 
 WEEK, the space of seven days, supposed to be 
 first used among the Jews, who observed the 
 sabbath every seventh day. They had three sorts of 
 weeks — the common one of seven days ; the second 
 of years, seven years ; the third of seven times 
 seven years, at the end of which was the jubilee. 
 All the present English names are derived from 
 the Saxon : — 
 
 Latin. French. 
 
 Dies Solis, Day of the Sun, Dimanche. 
 
 Dies Lunae, Day of the Moon, Lundi. 
 
 Dies Martis, Day of Mars, Mardi. 
 
 Dies Mercurii, Day of Mercury, Mercredi. 
 
 Dies Jovis, Day of Jupiter, Jeudi. 
 
 Dies Veneris, Day of Venus, Vendredi. 
 
 Dies Saturni, Day of Saturn, Samedi. 
 
 English. Saxon. German. 
 
 Sunday, Sun's day, Sonntag. 
 
 Monday, Moon's day, Montag. 
 
 Tuesday, Tiw's day, Dienstag. 
 
 Wednesday, Woden's day, Mittwoche. 
 
 Thursday, Thor's day, Donnerstag. 
 
 Friday, Friga's day, Freitag. 
 
 Saturday, Saterne's day, Samstag, or Sonn 
 
 abend. 
 
WEEKLY DISPATCH. 
 
 720 
 
 WELLINGTON'S VICTOEIES. 
 
 WEEKLY DISPATCH, liberal weekly 
 paper, established 1801. 
 
 WEIGHTS and MEASUEES. These and 
 the stamping of gold and silver money, are attributed 
 to Pheidon, tyrant of Argos, 895 B.C. ; see Arun- 
 delian Marbles. "Weights were originally taken 
 from grains of wheat, the lowest being still called a 
 grain. Chalmers. 
 
 The standard measure was originally kept at Win- 
 chester by the law of king Edgar .... 972 
 
 Standards of weights and measures were provided 
 for the whole kingdom of England by the sheriffs 
 of London, 9 Rich. I. 1197 
 
 A public weighing-machine was set up in London, 
 and all commodities ordered to be weighed by the 
 city-officer, called the weigh-master, who was to 
 do justice between buyer and seller, stat. 3 Edw. 
 II. (Stow) 1309 
 
 Edward III. ordered that there should be "one 
 weight, measure, and yard," throughout the king- 
 dom 1353 
 
 First statute, directing the use of avoirdupois 
 weight, of 24 Hen. VIII 1532 
 
 Weights and measures ordered to be examined by 
 the justices at quarter-sessions, 35 Geo. III. . . 1795 
 
 Again regulated • 1800 
 
 Statute for establishing a uniformity of weights and 
 measures, 1824, took place throughout the United ' 
 Kingdom 1 Jan. 1826 
 
 New acts relating thereto passed in 1834, 1835, 1855, 
 and in 1859 
 
 16 & 17 Vict. c. 29, regulates the weights to be used 
 iu the sale of bullion, and adopts the use of the 
 Troy ounce 1853 
 
 A commission (consisting of Mr. G. B. Airy, gen. 
 E. Sabine, lord Rosse, Mr. T. Graham and others), 
 appointed to examine the standards . 9 May, 1867 
 
 3rd report of the Standards commission state that 
 errors exist in official standards, dated 24 July, 1868 
 (See Standard ; and Metrical System.) 
 
 WEIMAE, capital of the grand-duchy of Saxe 
 "Weimar (which see) . 
 
 WEINSBEEG, see Guelphs. 
 
 WEISSENBTJEG, see Wissembourg. 
 
 WELLINGTON ADMINISTRATION, 
 
 succeeded that of viscount Goderich, Jan. 1828. The 
 duke resigned 16 Nov. 1830. 
 
 Duke of Wellington,, first lord of the treasury. 
 
 Lord Lyndhurst, lord chancellor. 
 
 Henry Goulburn, chancellor of the exchequer. 
 
 Earl Bathurst, president of the council. 
 
 Lord Ellenbo rough, privy seal. 
 
 Mr. (afterwards sir) Robert Peel, earl Dudley, and Mr. 
 
 Wm. Huskisson, home, foreign, and colonial secretaries. 
 Viscount Melville, boa/rd of control. 
 Mr. Charles Grant, board of trade. 
 Lord Palmerston, secretary'-at-war. 
 J. C. Herries, master of the mint. 
 Earl of Aberdeen, duchy if Lancaster. 
 Mr. Huskisson, earl Dudley, viscount Palmerston, and 
 
 Mr. Grant quitted the ministry, and various changes 
 
 followed in May and June same year. 
 The earl of Aberdeen and sir George Murray became, 
 
 respectively, foreign and colonial secretaries. 
 Sir Henry Hardinge. seerrtarii-at-trar. 
 Mr. Vesey Fitzgerald (afterwards lord Fitzgerald), India 
 
 board. 
 Lord Lowther, first commissioner of land revenues, &c, 
 
 May and June, 1828. 
 Mr. Arbuthnot, Mr. Vesey Fitzgerald, &c. 
 
 WELLINGTON COLLEGE (Sandhurst), 
 was erected by subscription in memory of the great 
 duke of "Wellington, for the support and education 
 of orphan sons of commissioned officers. The first 
 stone was laid by the queen on 2 June, 1856 ; and 
 the building was opened by her majesty on 29 Jan. 
 1859. Out of the 159,000/. subscribed, 55,000/. were 
 
 expended on the building, and the rest invested for 
 the maintenance of the institution. 
 
 WELLINGTONIA GIGANTEA, the 
 
 largest tree in the world, a native of California, 
 was discovered by W. Whitehead, June, 1850 ; a 
 specimen first gathered by Mr. W. Lobb in 1853, 
 and described by Dr. John Lindley. "When full 
 grown it is about 450 feet high, and 116 feet in 
 circumference. The prince consort (5 June, 1861) 
 and the queen (24 July, 1861) planted W r eliing- 
 tonias at the new gardens of the Royal Horti- 
 cultural Society. 
 
 WELLINGTON'S VICTOEIES, &c. For 
 
 details see separate articles. 
 
 Arthur Wellesley was born, according to some 
 authorities, in March ; to others . . 1 May, 1769 
 
 Appointed to command in the Mahratta war in 
 India; takes Poonah and Ahmednuggur, 12 Aug. ; 
 gains his first victory at Assaye, 23 Sept. ; defeats 
 Scindiah at Argaum, Nov. ; and at Gawalghur 
 
 13 Dec. 1803 
 
 Becomes secretary for Ireland .... 1807 
 
 Takes the command in Portugal, defeats Junot at 
 Vimeira 21 Aug. 1808 
 
 Defeats Victor at Talavera, 28 July ; created 
 viscount Wellington .... 4 Sept. 1809 
 
 Repulses Massena at Busaco, 27 Sept. ; and occupies 
 the lines at Torres Vedras . . .10 Oct. 1810 
 
 Defeats Massena at Fuentes de Onoro, 5 May ; takes 
 Almeida 10 May, 181 1 
 
 Passes the Douro and defeats Soult . 12 May, 1812 
 
 Storms Ciudad Rodrigo, 19 Jan. ; and Badajos, 
 6 April ; defeats Marmont at Salamanca, 23 
 July ; enters Madrid 12 Aug. ,, 
 
 Defeats Joseph Bonaparte and Jourdan at Vittoria, 
 21 June; storms St. Sebastian, 31 Aug.; enters 
 France - 8 Oct. 1813 
 
 Defeats Soult at Orthez, 27 Feb. ; and at Toulouse 
 
 10 April, 1814 
 
 Created duke of Wellington, with an annuity of 
 13,000?. and a grant of 300,000?. . . May, 1814 
 
 First appeared in the house of lords ; his patents 
 of creation as baron, earl, marquis, and duke being 
 read at the same time ... 28 June, 1814 
 
 Commands the army in the Netherlands ; repulses 
 an attack of Ney at Quatre Bras, 16 June : defeats 
 Napoleon at Waterloo, 18 June ; invests Paris 
 
 3 July, 1815 
 
 Commands the army of occupation in France 
 
 1815 till Nov. 1818 
 
 His assassination attempted by Cantillo,n, who 
 escapes 10 Feb. ,, 
 
 Appointed master-general of the ordnance . . 1819 
 
 The Wellington shield and supporting columns 
 designed by Stothard, commemorating all the 
 above-mentioned victories, presented to the duke 
 by the merchants and bankers of London. (It 
 was manufactured by Green and Ward, and cost 
 11,000?.) 16 Feb. 1822 
 
 The duke appointed commander-in-chief, 22 Jan. ; 
 resigns 30 April, 1827 
 
 Becomes first minister Jan. 1828 
 
 Aids in carrying the Catholic Emancipation bill 
 
 April, 1829 
 
 Asserts that no reform in parliament is needed , 2 
 Nov. ; resigns t6 Nov. 1,330 
 
 Transacts all the business of the country, after the 
 resignation of lord Melbourne, till the arrival of 
 sir R. Peel from Italy, Nov. ; and becomes foreign 
 secretary under sir R. Peel, Dec. 1834; resigns 
 
 April, 1835 
 
 Dies at Walmer castle . . . -14 Sept 1852 
 
 Removed to Chelsea hospital, where he lay in state 
 
 10 Nov. ,, 
 
 Removed to the Horse Guards . . 17 Nov. ,, 
 
 Public funeral at St. Paul's cathedral . 18 Nov. ,, 
 
 A multitude of all ranks, estimated at a million and a 
 half of persons, were congregated in the line of mule, 
 a distance of three miles, to witness and share in the 
 imposing spectacle. 
 
 The military consisted of the household regiments of 
 horse and foot guards, the 2nd battalion of the riflesj a 
 battalion of the Royal Marines, the 33rd regiment, the 
 
WELLS. 
 
 721 
 
 WESTERN CHUKCH. 
 
 17th Lancers, and the 18th Light Dragoons, the regi- 
 ment of Scots Greys ; a body of Chelsea pensioners, and 
 men of different arms of the Indian army. 
 
 The body was placed upon a sumptuous funeral car, 
 drawn by twelve horses richly caparisoned, and the 
 coffin was thus seen by the whole of the crowd. 
 
 The procession moved about seven o'clock, and it was 
 three o'clock before the body was lowered into the 
 vault beside the remains of Nelson, under the dome of 
 St. Paul's cathedral. 
 
 Memorial by Marochetti erected by the present duke, his 
 son, and tenants at Strathfieldsaye, July,, 1866. 
 Wellington Monument, in St. Paul's. 
 
 A number of models exhibited in Westminster hall ; none 
 chosen, 1857. 
 
 The execution of the monument entrusted to Mr. A. 
 Stevens, sculptor, and Mr. Penrose, architect. The 
 stone sarcophagus was completed in 1858. 
 
 In Aug. 1870, above 17,000?. had been expended, and it 
 was stated that 15,000?. more were required. Parlia- 
 ment had granted 20,000?. Fresh arrangements were 
 made with Mr. Stevens. 
 
 WELLS were dug by Abraham, 1892 B.C., and 
 Isaac, 1804 {Gen. xxi. 30, and xxvi. 19). Danaus 
 is said to have introduced well-digging into Greece 
 from Egypt. Norton's "tube- well," patented Oct. 
 1867, is said to be the invention of Hiram J. 
 Messenger, Stephen Brewer, and Byron Mudge, 
 Americans of the state of New York. The appa- 
 ratus consists of an iron tube perforated with holes 
 at the lower end, and shod with a steel point, which 
 readily enters the hardest soil when forcibly driven. 
 It was used with great advantage during the civil 
 war 1861-4, and by the British in their campaign in 
 Abyssinia in 1867-8. 
 
 WELLS (Somerset). The cathedral church 
 was built by Ina, king of the West Saxons, 704, and 
 by him dedicated to St. Andrew. Other West 
 Saxon kings endowed it, and it was erected into a 
 bishopric in 909, d\iring the reign of Edward the 
 Elder. The present church was begun by Robert, 
 18th bishop of this see, and completed by his imme- 
 diate successor. The first bishop was JEthelni or 
 Adelmus (afterwards bishop of Canterbury) . Beat- 
 son. The see was united with Bath (which see) in 
 1088. 
 
 WENDS- a branch of the Slavonic family which 
 spread over Germany in the 6th century, and settled 
 especially in the north-eastern parts. 
 
 WESLEYAN METHODISTS, a sect 
 founded by John Wesley (bom 1703, died 1791) 
 and his brother Charles, who in 1727 with a few 
 other students formed themselves into a small society 
 for the purpose of mutual edification in religious 
 exercises. From their strictness of life they were called 
 Methodists, in 1729. John Wesley went to Georgia 
 in America, in 1735, with a view of converting the 
 Indians. On his return to England, in 1738, he 
 commenced itinerant preaching, and gathered many 
 followers. On finding many churches shut against 
 him, he built spacious meeting-houses in London, 
 Bristol, and other places. For some time he was 
 united with George Whitefield; but differing with 
 him respecting the doctrine of election, they sepa- 
 rated in 1 741; see Whitefield. Wesley was almost 
 continually engaged in travelling through the 
 United Kingdom. His two leading doctrines were 
 the instantaneousness of conversion, and Christian 
 perfection, or deliverance from all sin. His society 
 was well organised, and he preserved his influence 
 over it to the last. " His genius for government 
 was not inferior to that of Bichelieu." Macaulay. 
 In 1 85 1 there were 428 circuits in Great Britain, 
 with between 13,000 and 14,000 local or lay 
 preachers, and about 920 itinerant preachers, and 
 6579 chapels. 
 
 The Conference, the highest Wesleyan court, is com- 
 posed of 100 ministers, who meet annually. It 
 was instituted by John Wesley in . . . . Z jZ± 
 At the centenary of the existence of Methodism 
 216,000?. were collected, to be expended on the 
 
 objects of the society jggg 
 
 Out of the original connection have seceded :— 
 
 Chapels in 1851 
 
 New Connection (in 1796) 30I 
 
 Primitive Methodists (1810) 2871 
 
 Bible Christians, or Bryanites (1815) . . . 403 
 Wesleyan Methodist Association (1834) . . . 329 
 Wesleyan Methodist Reformers (1849) • • • 2000 
 The last arose out of the publication of "Ply 
 Sheets," advocating reform in the body (1844-8). 
 The suspected authors and their friends were ex- 
 pelled. By these disruptions the main body is 
 thought to have lost 100,000 members. — This 
 sect in America numbered about a million in 
 1844, when a division took place on the slavery 
 question. 
 Wesleyan Methodist church members in 1868, 
 
 342,380; in 1872, 346,580. 
 Letter from Dr. Pusey requesting aid in opposing 
 Coleridge's bill for admitting dissenters to the 
 universities, read at the conference, but not 
 
 received 13 Aug. 1868 
 
 The establishment of a high school for Wesleyaus 
 at Cambridge (to prepare for the university) pro- 
 posed May, 1872 
 
 WESSEX, see Britain. 
 
 WEST AFRICAN SETTLEMENTS— 
 
 Sierra Leone, Gambia, Lagos. Governor, sir Arthur 
 E. Kennedy, 1867. 
 
 WESTERN AUSTRALIA, formerly Swan 
 River Settlement, which was projected by 
 
 colonel Peel in 1828. Regulations issued from the 
 colonial office, and Captain Stirling, appointed 
 lieutenant-governor, Jan. 17, 1829, arrived at the 
 appointed site in August following. The three 
 towns of Perth, Freemantle, and Guildford were 
 founded same year. In March, 1830, fifty ships, 
 with 2000 emigrants, with property amounting to 
 1,000,000^., had arrived before hardly any dwellings 
 had been erected or land surveyed. The more 
 energetic settlers left for home, or the neighbouring 
 colonies, and the colony languished for twenty years 
 for want of suitable inhabitants — the first settlers, 
 from their previous habits and rank in life, proving 
 unfit for the rough work of colonisation. In 1848, 
 the colonists requested that convicts might be sent 
 out to them, and in 1849 a band arrived, who were 
 kindly received and well treated. The best results 
 ensued. By 1853, 2000 had arrived, and the in- 
 habitants of Perth had requested that 1000 should 
 be sent out annually. The reception of convicts is 
 to cease in after-years, in consequence of the ener- 
 getic opposition of the other Australian colonies 
 (1865). — The settlement of King George's Sound 
 was founded in 1826 by the government of New 
 South Wales. It was used as a military station for 
 four years. In 1830, the home government ordered 
 the settlement to be transferred to Swan Biver. 
 Since the establishment of steam communication, 
 the little town of Albany here, employed as a coal- 
 ing station, has become a thriving sea-port. It 
 possesses an excellent harbour, used by whalers. A 
 journal called the Freemantle Gazette was published 
 here in March, 1831. Population of Western Aus- 
 tralia in 1859, 14,837; Jan. 1862, 15,555; Jan. 1866, 
 20,260. Governor John Stephen Hampton, ap- 
 pointed 1861 ; sir Benjamin C. C. Pine, May, 1868: 
 Frederick A. Weld, 1869. 
 
 WESTERN CHURCH (called also the; 
 Latin or Roman) broke off communion with the 
 Greek or Eastern Church, 653 ; see Greek Church. 
 Its history is mainly comprised in that of the popes 
 
WESTERN EMPIRE. 
 
 722 
 
 WESTMINSTER BRIDGES. 
 
 and of the European kingdoms ; see Popes. This 
 church was disturbed by the Arian heresy about 
 345 and £00 ; by Pelagianism, about 409 ; by the 
 introduction of image-worship about 600; by the 
 injunction of the celibacy of the clergy and the rise 
 of the monastic orders about 649 ; by the contests 
 between the emperors and the popes respecting 
 ecclesiastical investitures between 1073 and 11 73 ; 
 by the rise and progress of the Reformation in the 
 15th and 1 6th centuries ; by the contests between 
 the Jesuits and Jansenists in the 17th and 18th 
 centuries; and by the progress of modem philosophy 
 and rationalism, and by ultramontanism, in the 
 19th ; see Roman Catholics. 
 
 WESTERN EMPIRE. The Roman empire 
 was divided into Eastern and Western by Dio- 
 cletian in 296; but was reunited under Constans 
 in 340. It was again divided into Eastern and 
 "Western by Valentinian and Valens, the former 
 having the Western portion or Rome, 364; see 
 Eastern Empire, Italy, and Rome. 
 
 EMPERORS. 
 
 364. Valentinian, son of Gratian, takes the Western, and 
 
 his brother Valens the Eastern empire. 
 367. Gratian, a youth, son of Valentinian, made a col- 
 league in the government by his father. 
 375. Valentinian II., another son, also very young, is, on 
 the death of his father, associated with Gratian, 
 who is assassinated by his general, Andragathius, 
 in 383. Valentinian murdered by one of his officers, 
 Arbogastes, in 392. 
 392. Eugenius, a usurper, assumes the imperial dignity ; 
 
 he and Arbogastes are defeated by 
 394. Theodosius the Great, who becomes sole emperor. 
 [Andragathius threw himself into the sea, and Arbo- 
 gastes died by his own hand. ] 
 3gS- Honorius, son of Theodosius, reigns, on his father's 
 death, in the West, and his brother Arcadius in 
 the East. Honorius dies in 423. 
 423. Usurpation of John, the Notary, defeated and slain 
 
 near Ravenna. 
 425. Valentinian III. , son of the empress 1 Placidia, daugh- 
 ter of Theodosius the Great : murdered at the in- 
 stance of his successor 
 455. Maximus : he marries Eudoxia, widow of Valen- 
 tinian, who, to avenge the death of her first 
 husband and the guilt of her second, invites the 
 African Vandals into Italy, and Kome is sacked. 
 Maximus stoned to death. 
 455. Marcus Mtecilius Avitus ; forced to resign, and dies 
 
 in his flight towards the Alps. 
 457. Julius Valerius Majorianus ; murdered at the instance 
 
 of his minister, Ricimer, who raises 
 461. Libius Severus to the throne, but holds the supreme 
 
 power ; Severus poisoned by Ricimer. 
 465. [Interregnum. Ricimer retains the authority, with- 
 out assuming the title of emperor.] 
 467. Anthemius, chosen by the joint suffrages of the 
 senate and army ; murdered by Ricimer, who dies 
 soon after. 
 
 472. Flavius-Anicius Olybrius : slain by the Goths soon 
 
 after his accession. 
 
 473. Glycerius : forced to abdicate by his successor, 
 
 474. Julius Nepos : deposed by his general, Orestes, and 
 
 retires to Salome. 
 
 475. Romulus (called Augustulus, or Little Augustus), 
 
 son of Orestes. Orestes is slain, and the emperor 
 deposed by 
 
 476. Odoacer, king of the Heruli : takes Rome, assumes 
 
 the style of king of Italy, and completes the fall of 
 the Western empire. 
 
 See Italy, Rome, and Germany. 
 
 WEST INDIES, islands discovered by Colum- 
 bus, St. Salvador being the first land he made in 
 the New World, and first seen by him in the night 
 between the nth and 12th Oct. 1492. The largest 
 are Cuba, Hayti (or St. Domingo), Jamaica, Porto 
 Rico, Trinidad, and Guadaloupe; see the Islands 
 respectively. 
 
 WESTMINSTER, so called on account of its 
 western situation with regard to St. Paul's cathe- 
 dral, or from there being formerly a monastery 
 named East Minster, on the hill now called Great 
 Tower-hill. This city joins London at Temple-bar. 
 Formerly Westminster was called Thomey, or 
 Thomey Island : and in ancient times Canute had 
 a palace here, burnt in 1263. Westminster and 
 London were one mile asunder in 1603, when the 
 houses were thatched, and there were mud walls in 
 the Strand. It is said that the great number of 
 Scotsmen who came over after the accession of 
 James I. occasioned the building of Westminster, and 
 united it with London. Ilowel's Londinopolis ; see 
 Palace of West minster, and Parliament 
 
 WESTMINSTER ABBEY. Christopher 
 Wren, in his survey of the present edifice, found 
 nothing to countenance the belief that it was erected 
 on the ruins of a pagan temple. The erection of 
 the first abbey in the 7th century is ascribed to St. 
 Sebert, king of Essex. 
 
 The church becoming ruinous, splendidly rebuilt by 
 Edward the Confessor (1055-65) and filled with 
 monks from Exeter (Pope Nicholas II. constituted 
 it the place for the inauguration of the kings of 
 England); dedicated .... 28 Dec. 1065 
 
 Re-built in a magnificent style by Henry III. 1220-69 
 
 In the reigns of Edward II., Edward III., and 
 Richard II. the great cloisters, abbot's house, and 
 principal monastic buildings, erected . . 1300-1400 
 The western parts of the nave and aisles rebuilt 
 
 between 1340 and 1483 
 
 The west front and the great window built by 
 Richard III. and Henry VII. ; the latter com- 
 menced the chapel which bears his name ; the first 
 
 stone laid 24 Jan. 1502-3 
 
 The abbey dissolved and made a bishopric . . 1540 
 Made a collegiate church by Elizabeth . . . 1560 
 Made a barrack for soldiers (Mercurius Rustieus), 
 
 July, 1643 
 The great west window and the western towers re- 
 built in the reigns of George I. and II. . . 1714-60 
 The choir injured by Are . . . .9 July, 1803 
 Mr. Wyatt commenced restoring the dilapidated 
 
 parts at an expense of 42,000?. in . . . . 1809 
 A fire, without any serious injury . 27 April, 1829 
 The evening services for the working classes, when 
 a sermon was preached by the dean, Dr. Trench, 
 
 commenced on 3 Jan. 1858 
 
 The 800th anniversary of the foundation celebrated, 
 
 28 Dec. 1865 
 7000Z. voted by parliament to restore the chapter- 
 house (G. Gilbert Scott employed), 1 May, 1866; 
 re-opened 29 April, 1872 
 
 WESTMINSTER BISHOPRIC and 
 
 DEANERY. At the dissolution of monasteries, 
 Westminster abbey was valued at 3977^. per annum ; 
 king Henry VIII. in 1539 erected it into a deanery; 
 and in 1540 into a bishopric, and appointed Thomas 
 Thirlby prelate. Having wasted the revenues 
 allotted by the king for the support of the see, he 
 was translated to Norwich in 1550, and with him 
 ended the bishopric of Westminster ; Middlesex, his 
 diocese, being restored to London. The dean pie- 
 sided until the accession of Mary, who restored the 
 abbot. Elizabeth displaced the abbot, and erected 
 the abbey into a collegiate church of a dean and 
 twelve prebendaries, as it still continues. On the 
 revival of the order of the Bath, in 1725, the dean 
 of Westminster was appointed dean of that order, 
 which honour has been continued. Dr. NicholasWise- 
 man was created archbishop of Westminster by the 
 pope Pius IX. 30 Sept. 1850; see Papal Aggression. 
 Dr. Wiseman died 8 Feb. 1865 ; Henry Manning 
 was consecrated his successor 8 June, following. 
 
 WESTMINSTER BRIDGES. The hand- 
 some old bridge was begun (after a design of M. 
 
WESTMINSTEE. 
 
 723 
 
 WHEAT. 
 
 Labelye), 13 Sept. 1738, the first stone laid 29 Jan. 
 1738-9; opened for passengers 18 Nov. 1750; cost 
 426,650^. It was built of Portland stone, and crossed 
 the river where the breadth is 1223 feet. 
 
 Owing to the sinking of several of its piers, most 
 of the balustrades on both sides were removed, to 
 relieve the structure of its weight. 
 
 By 16 & 17 Vict. c. 46 the estates of its commis- 
 sioners were transferred to her majesty's commis- 
 sioners of works, who were empowered to remove 
 the then existing bridge, and build a new 
 bridge (near the old one) . . . .4 Aug. 1853 
 
 The contract required the completion of the works 
 by 1 June, 1857 
 
 The works were suspended for a time, in conse- 
 quence of the failure of Messrs. Mare the contrac- 
 tors. The government eventually undertook the 
 building, which they entrusted to Mr. Thomas 
 Page, the engineer. One half of the new bridge 
 was opened for use early in i860 ; the whole on 
 
 24 May, 1862 
 
 WESTMINSTEE Confession of Faith 
 
 AND CATECHISMS were drawn up by the " Assem- 
 ■ hly of Divines" (partly consisting of laymen), who 
 sat by authority of parliament in Henry VTI.'s 
 chapel, Westminster, from 1643 to 1647. These 
 have ever since been the doctrinal standards of 
 Scotch Presbyterians. 
 
 WESTMINSTEE HALL (London), first 
 built by William Eufus in 1097, for a banqueting- 
 hall ; and here in 1 099, on his return from Nor- 
 mandy, "he kept his feast of Whitsuntide very 
 royally." The hall became ruinous before the 
 reign of Eichard II. who repaired it in 1397, raised 
 the walls, altered the windows, and added a new 
 roof, as well as a stately porch and other buildings. 
 In 1236 Henry III. on New-year's day caused 6000 
 poor persons to be entertained in this hall, and in 
 the other rooms of his palace, as a celebration of 
 queen Eleanor's coronation; and here Richard II. 
 held his Christmas festival in 1397, when the num- 
 ber of the guests each day the feast lasted Avas 
 10,000. Stow. The courts of law were established 
 here by king John. Idem. Westminster hall was 
 stated to be the largest room in Europe unsupported 
 by pillars (except a hall of justice at Padua) ; it is 
 270 feet in length, 74 feet broad. The hall under- 
 went a general repair in 1802. Concurrently with 
 the erection of the palace of Westminster, many 
 improvements and alterations have lately been 
 made in this magnificent hall. The Volunteer 
 Bifle corps were drilled in the hall in the winter of 
 1859, and since. 
 
 WESTMINSTEE PALACE, see under 
 Palace of Westminster, and Parliament. 
 
 WESTMINSTEE EEVIEW, liberal in reli- 
 gion and politics, first appeared, 1824. 
 
 WESTMINSTEE SCHOOL or St. Peter's 
 
 COLLEGE, was founded by queen Elizabeth in 1560, 
 for the education of forty boys, denominated the 
 Queen's scholars, who are prepared for the univer- 
 sity. It is situated within the abbey enclosure. 
 Besides the scholars on the foundation, many of the 
 nobility and gentry send their sons to Westminster 
 for instruction. A proposal in i860 to remove the 
 school was disapproved of in 1861. 
 
 WESTMINSTEE, Statutes of, are 3 and 
 13 Edward I., 1275-90 ; see Acts of Parliament. 
 
 WESTMOEELAND. This county and Cum- 
 berland were granted as a fief to Malcolm of Scot- 
 land by Edward the Elder in 945 ; but resumed by 
 
 Henry III. in 1237. Neville, earl of Westmore- 
 land, revolted against Elizabeth in 1569, and was 
 attainted in 1570. 
 
 WESTPHALIA (Germany). This duchy be- 
 longed in former times to the dukes of Saxony, and 
 afterwards became subject to the archbishop of 
 Cologne. On the secularisation in 1802, it was 
 made over to Hesse Darmstadt; and in 1814, was 
 ceded for an equivalent to Prussia. The kingdom 
 of Westphalia, one of the temporary kingdoms of 
 Bonaparte, composed of conquests from Prussia, 
 Hesse-Cassel, Hanover, and the smaller states to 
 the west of the Elbe, was created by decree 18 Aug. 
 
 1806, and Jerome Bonaparte appointed king, 1 Dec. 
 
 1807. Hanover was annexed to it, 1 March, 1810. 
 The kingdom was abolished in 1813, and the coun- 
 tries restored to then- former rulers. 
 
 WESTPHALIA or Mtwster, Peace of ; 
 
 the treaties signed at Osnaburg 6 Aug., and at 
 Munster 24 Oct. 1648, between France, the emperor, 
 and Sweden; Spam continuing the war against 
 France. By this peace (ending the thirty years' 
 war) the principle of a balance of power in Europe 
 was first recognised ; Alsace given to France, and 
 part of Pomerania and some other districts to 
 Sweden ; the Lower Palatinate restored to the 
 elector palatine ; the religious and political rights 
 of the German states established ; and the inde- 
 pendence of the Swiss Confederation recognised by 
 Germany. 
 
 WEST SAXONS, see Wessex, in Britain. 
 
 WHALE-FISHEEY, it is said, was first 
 carried on by the Norwegians in the ninth century. 
 Lenglet. Whales were killed' at Newfoundland and 
 Iceland for their oil only 1578 ; the use of their 
 fins and bones was not yet known, consequently (a 
 writer adds) no- stays were worn by the ladies. The 
 English whale-fishing commenced' at Spitzbergen in 
 1598 ; but the Dutch had been previously fishing 
 there. The fishery was much promoted by an act of 
 parliament passed in 1749. From 1800 to 2000 
 whales have been killed annually on the coast of 
 Greenland, &c. The quantity of whale-oil imported 
 in 1814 was 33,567 tuns ; in 1826, when gas-light 
 became general, 25,000 tuns; in 1840, about 22,000 
 tuns; in 1850, 21,360 tuns; in 1861, 19,176 tuns; 
 in 1864, 14,701 tuns; in 1867, 15,945 tuns; in 1871, 
 24,963 tuns. 
 
 WHAENCLIFFE MEETINGS of public 
 companies (held to give enlarged powers under 
 certain prescribed conditions) are so called because 
 the standing orders of the house of lords, under 
 which they are held, were introduced by lord 
 Wharncliffe, about 1846. 
 
 WHEAT. The Chinese ascribe to their empe- 
 ror, Ching-Noung, who succeeded Fohi, the art of 
 husbandry, and method of making bread from 
 wheat, about 2000 years before the Christian era. 
 Wheat was introduced into Britain in the 6th cen- 
 tury, by Coll ap Coll Frewi. Roberts. The first 
 wheat imported into England of which we have a 
 note was in 1347. Various statutes have regulated 
 the sales of wheat, and restrained its importation, 
 in order to encourage its being raised at home. 
 In 1862 attention was drawn to the probable 
 utility of considering the pedigree of wheat. In 
 1871 it was estimated that 3,850,000 acres in the 
 United Kingdom ^vere devoted to wheat ; see Bread, 
 and Corn Laws. 
 
 3 a 2 
 
WHEEL. 
 
 724 
 
 WHITE HOODS. 
 
 IMPORTED INTO GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 
 Flour. 
 
 
 
 1854, 
 
 2,656,455 qrs. 
 
 
 6,329,038 
 
 5wte. 
 
 
 1861, 
 
 29.955,532 ,, 
 
 
 6,152,938 
 
 ,, 
 
 
 1862, 
 
 41,033,503 ,, 
 
 
 7,207,113 
 
 ,, 
 
 
 1864, 
 
 23,196,714 cwts. 
 
 
 4,512,391 
 
 ,, 
 
 
 1866, 
 
 23,156,329 „ 
 
 
 4,972,280 
 
 ,, 
 
 
 1868, 
 
 32,639,768 „ 
 
 
 3,093,022 
 
 ,, 
 
 
 1871, 
 
 39,389,803 „ 
 
 
 3,977.939 
 
 " 
 
 VALUE OF WHEAT IMPORTED INTO THE UNITED KINGDOM. 
 
 j8 5 4 
 
 
 • £11,693,737 
 
 1863 
 
 
 £12,015,006 
 
 l3 5 5 
 
 
 9,679,578 
 
 1864 
 
 
 10,674,654 
 
 1856 
 
 
 • 12,716,349 
 
 1865 
 
 . . 
 
 9,775,616 
 
 1857 
 
 
 9,563,099 
 
 1866 
 
 
 12,983,090 
 
 l8 5 8 
 
 
 9,050,467 
 
 1867 
 
 
 24,985,096 
 
 1859 
 
 
 8,713,532 
 
 1868 
 
 
 22,069,353 
 
 i860 
 
 
 16,554,083 
 
 1869 
 
 
 19,515,758 
 
 1861 
 
 
 19,051,464 
 
 1870 
 
 
 16,264,027 
 
 1862 
 
 
 23,203,800 
 
 1871 
 
 
 23,345,630 
 
 WHEEL, Breaking on the. A barbarous 
 
 mode of death, of great antiquity, ordered by 
 Francis I. for robbers, about 1515 ; see Ravaillac, 
 &c. 
 
 WHEEL-WORK, see Spinning^ Looms, Auto- 
 maton. 
 
 WHIGS- In the reign of Charles II. the name 
 Whig was a term of reproach given by the court 
 party to their antagonists for holding the principles 
 of the " whigs," or fanatical covenanters in Scot- 
 land ; and in return the name Tory was given to 
 the court party, comparing them to the Tories, or 
 popish robbers in Ireland. Baker. The distinction 
 arose out of the discovery of the Meal-tub plot 
 (tohich see) in 1678. Upon bringing up the meal 
 plot before parliament, two parties were formed : 
 the ones who doubted the plot styled those who 
 believed in it Whigs ; these styled then- adversaries 
 Tories. In time these names, given as marks of 
 opprobrium, became honoured distinctions. Hume. 
 The Whigs brought about the revolution of 1688-9, 
 and established the protestant succession. They 
 were chiefly instrumental in obtaining the abolition 
 of the slave trade and slavery, the repeal of the 
 Test and Corporation act, Catholic emancipation, 
 parliamentary and municipal reform, the repeal of 
 the corn laws, and similar measures. The Whig 
 Club was established by Charles James Fox ; one of 
 its original members was the great Francis, duke of 
 Bedford, who died in 1802. For the principal Whig 
 ministries, see Godolphin, Halifax, Walpolc, Rock- 
 tuf/ham, Grenrille, Grey, Melbourne, Russell, 
 JPalmerston, and Gladstone. 
 
 WHISKY, the spirit distilled from malt and 
 other corn in Scotland and Ireland, of which about 
 eight millions of gallons have been distilled 
 annually in the former, and upwards of nine mil- 
 lions of" gallons in the latter. The duty upon this 
 article once produced annually about three millions. 
 The distillation of whisky is referred to the 1 6th 
 century ; but some authors state it to have been 
 earlier ; see Distillation. In 1855 the duties on 
 spirits distilled in Scotland and Ireland were 
 equalised with those distilled in England. 
 
 WHIST, a game at cards, became general at the 
 end of the 17th century. "Hoyle's Whist," pub- 
 lished by Edmund Hoyle, author of a treatise on 
 Avliist ; died 1 769. 
 
 WHITEBAIT DINNER (now discontinued), 
 when the cabinet ministers met at the end of 
 each session, is said to have begun at the end of 
 the last century, through sir Hubert Preston and 
 Mr. George Rose inviting Mr. Pitt and his colleagues 
 to dine at Dagenham, and afterwards at Greenwich. 
 
 Another account dates its origin in 1721. The 
 whitebait {clupea alba) is a subject of controversy. 
 Albert Giinther, of the British Museum, in his 
 Catalogue of Fishes, says the whitebait is "a purely 
 nominal species," and that all the examples which 
 he has examined were young herrings (1868). 
 
 WHITEBOYS, a body of ruffians in Ireland, 
 so called on account of then wearing linen frocks 
 over their coats. They committed dreadful outrages 
 in 1 761, but were suppressed by a military force, 
 and their ringleaders executed in 1762. They rose 
 and were again suppressed in 1786-7. The insurrec- 
 tion act was passed on their account in 1822. 
 
 WHITEFIELDITES. George Whiteneld, 
 the founder of the " Calvinistic Methodists," born 
 1 7 14, was the son of an innkeeper at Gloucester, 
 where he received his first education. He was ad- 
 mitted a servitor at Oxford in 1732, became a com- 
 panion of the Wesleys there, and aided them in 
 establishing Methodism. He parted from them in 
 1741, on account of their rejection of the doctrine 
 of election. He was the most eloquent preacher of 
 his day. His first sermon was preached in 1736, and 
 he commenced field preaching in 1739. He is said 
 to have delivered 18,000 sermons during his career 
 of 34 years. He visited America in 1737, 1730, and 
 1744. His followers are termed "the countess of 
 Huntingdon's connection," from his having become 
 her chaplain in 1748, and from her energetic support 
 of the sect, by establishing a college at Trevecca, 
 1767. There were 109 chapels of this connection in 
 1 85 1 ; but many of his followers have joined the 
 Independents. He died 30 Sept. 1770, and the 
 countess died 17 June 1 791 ; see Tabernacle. 
 
 WHITE FRIARS, see Carmelites, White. 
 
 WHITEHALL (London), built by Hubert de 
 Burgh, earl of Kent, before the middle of the 13th 
 century. It afterwards devolved, by bequest, to the 
 Black Friars of Holbom, who sold it to the arch- 
 bishop of York, whence it received the name of 
 York-place, and continued to be the town residence 
 of the archbishops till taken by Henry VIII. from 
 cardinal Wolsey, in 1530. At this period it became 
 the residence of the court. Queen Elizabeth, who 
 died at Richmond in 1603, was brought from thence 
 to Whitehall, by water, in a grand procession. It 
 was on this occasion, Camden informs us, that the 
 following quaint panegyric on her majesty was 
 written : 
 
 "The queen was brought by water to Whitehall, 
 At every stroke the oars did tears let fall. 
 More idling about the barge : fish under water 
 Wept out their eyes of pearl, and swam blind after. 
 I think the bargemen might, with easier thighs, . 
 Have rowed her thither in her people's eyes ; 
 For howsoe'er thus much my thoughts have scann'd, 
 She had come by water, had she come by land." 
 
 Whitehall was partly burnt 9-10 April, 1691 ; 
 totally destroyed by fire, 4 Jan. 1697-8, except the 
 banqueting-house, which had been added to the 
 palace of Whitehall by James I., according to a 
 design of Inigo Jones, in 1619. In the front of 
 Whitehall Charles I. was beheaded 30 Jan. 1649. 
 George I. converted the hall into a chapel 1723-4. 
 The exterior of this edifice underwent repair be- 
 tween 1829 and 1833. 
 
 WHITE HATS, a party in the Low Countries 
 formed about 1377, against Louis, count of Flanders, 
 the struggle lasted till 13S4, when it was settled by 
 Philip, duke of Burgundy. 
 
 WHITE HOODS, see Catechumens. 
 
WHITE HOUSE. 
 
 725 
 
 WILLS. 
 
 WHITE HOUSE (Washington), built of free- 
 stone, the residence of the president, gives name to 
 the United States government, as St. James's palace 
 does to that of Great Britain. 
 
 WHITE PLAINS (N. America), where a 
 battle was fought 28 Oct. 1776, between the revolted 
 Americans and the British forces under sir William 
 Howe. It terminated in the defeat of the Americans, 
 who suffered considerable loss in killed, wounded, 
 and prisoners. 
 
 WHITE SHEEP, a name given to the Turco- 
 mans who conquered Persia about 1468, and perse- 
 cuted the Shiites, but were expelled by Ismail, who 
 founded the Sophi dynasty in 1501. 
 
 WHITE TOWEE, the keep or citadel in the 
 Tower of London, a large, square, irregular buiding, 
 erected in 1070, by abbot Gandulph, afterwards 
 bishop of Eochester. It measures 1 16 feet by 96, 
 and is 92 feet in height : the walls, which are 1 1 
 feet thick, having a winding staircase continued 
 along two of the sides, like that in Dover Castle. It 
 contains an extensive armoury. Within this tower 
 is the ancient chapel of St. John, originally used by 
 the English monarchs. The turret at the N.E. 
 angle, the highest of the four by which the White 
 Tower is surmounted, was used for astronomical 
 purposes by Flamsteed previously to the erection of 
 the royal observatory at Greenwich. 
 
 WHITSUNTIDE, a festival appointed to com- 
 memorate the descent of the Holy Ghost upon the 
 apostles : the newly-baptized persons, or catechu- 
 mens, are said to have worn white garments on 
 Whitsunday. This feast is moveable, being always 
 exactly seven weeks after Easter. Rogation week 
 (which see) is the week before Whitsunday. Whit- 
 sunday 1873, I J une > 1874, 24 May ; 1875, 16 May. 
 
 WHITTINGTON'S CHAEITIES- Sir 
 
 Eichard Whittington, a citizen and mercer of Lon- 
 don, served the office of lord mayor three times, the 
 last in 1419. Many false stories are connected with 
 his name, and bis munificent charities are little 
 known. He founded his college, dedicated to the 
 Holy Ghost and the Virgin Mary, in 1424 ; and his 
 almshouses in 1429 ; the latter, originally built in 
 London,now stand on Highgate-hill (built i8o8)near 
 the supposed site of the supposed famous stone which 
 commemorated the legend of his return to London, 
 after leaving it in despair. 
 
 WHITWOETH FOUNDATIONS. Mr. 
 
 (now sir) Joseph Whitworth, the eminent engineer, 
 in a letter to the first lord of the treasury, dated 18 
 March, 1868, offered to found 30 scholarships of the 
 annual value of 100I. each, to be applied for the 
 further instruction of young men, natives of the 
 United Kingdom, selected by open competition for 
 their intelligence and proficiency in the theory and 
 practice of mechanics and its cognate sciences, with 
 a view to the promotion of engineering and mechani- 
 cal industry in this country ; and he expressed hopes 
 that means might be found for bringing science and 
 industry into closer relation with each other than 
 at present obtains here. This offer was accepted by 
 the lords of the committee of the privy council, 28 
 March, 1868. 
 
 WICKLIFFITES, the followers of John 
 Wicklifi'e (born 1324) , a professor of divinity in the 
 university of Oxford and rector of Lutterworth in 
 Leicestershire. He was a forerunner of the reforma- 
 tion of the English Church from popery, being 
 among the first who opposed the authority of the 
 pope, transubstantiation, the celibacy of the clergy 
 
 &c. Wickliffe, protected by John of Gaunt, Ed- 
 ward's son and Richard's uncle, was virulently 
 persecuted by the church, and only saved from mar- 
 tyrdom by a paralytic attack, which caused his 
 death, 31 Dec. 1384, in his 60th year. The Council 
 of Constance, in 1414, decreed his bones to be disin- 
 terred and burnt, which was done by the bishop of 
 Lincoln, and his dust was cast into the river Swift, 
 1415. Wickliff'e's English version of the Bible 
 was commenced in 1380 ; a noble edition of it was 
 printed at Oxford in 1850. See Lollards. 
 
 WIDOWS. The Jewish law required a man's 
 brother to marry his widow (1490 B.C.). For the 
 burning of Avidows ia India, see Suttees. Among 
 the numerous associations in London for the relief of 
 widows are, one for the widows of musicians, insti- 
 tuted in 1 738 ; for widows of naval men, founded in 
 1739; for widows of medical men, 1788: a law 
 society, for widows of professionol gentlemen, 1817; 
 and a society for artists' widows, 1827. — Widowers 
 were taxed in England as follows: a duke, 12I. ios. ; 
 lower peers, smaller sums; a common person, is. ; 
 7 Will. III. 1695. 
 
 WIG, see Peruke. 
 
 WIGAN (Lancashire) . The king's troops, com- 
 manded by the earl of Derby, were defeated and 
 driven out of the town in 1643 by the parliamentary 
 forces under sir John Smeaton. The earl was again 
 defeated by colonel Ashton, who razed the fortifica- 
 tions of Wigan to the ground, same year ; and once 
 more by a greatly superior force commanded by 
 colonel Lilbume, 165 1. In this last engagement, 
 sir Thomas Tildersley, an ardent royalist, was slain ; 
 a pillar Avas erected to his memory in 1679. The 
 colliers in the neighbourhood struck, and- acting 
 riotously 17, 18 April, 1868, were quelled by the 
 military. Arrangements were soon after made Avith 
 the employers. The prince and princess of Wales 
 at their Aisit, 4 June, 1873, opened a neAV hospital, 
 &c, and received a hearty Avelcome. 
 
 WIGHT, Isle OF, the Eoman Vecta or Victis, 
 was conquered by Vespasian in the reign of Clau- 
 dius. It Avas conquered by the Saxons under Cerdie 
 about 530 ; by the Danes, 787, and in 1001, AA T hen 
 they held it for several years. It was taken by the 
 French, 13 July, 1377, and has several times 
 suffered from invasion by them. In 1442, 
 Henry VI. alienated the Isle to Henry de 
 Beauchamp, first premier earl of England and 
 then duke of Warwick, and afterwards croAvned him 
 king of the Isle of Wight, Avith his own hands ; but 
 dying without heirs male, his regal title died Avith 
 Mm, and the lordship of the isle returned to the 
 crown. Charles I., after his flight from Hampton- 
 court, Avas a prisoner in Carisbrook castle, in 1647. 
 In the time of Charles II. timber was so plentiful, 
 that it is said a squirrel might have travelled 
 on the tops of the trees for many leagues together ; 
 but it is noAV much reduced, through supplying the 
 dockyards for the British navy. In this isle is the 
 queen's marine residence, Osborne-house. 
 
 WILD BIEDS' PEOTECTION ACT passed 
 10 Aug. 1872. 
 
 WILDEENESS BATTLES, see United, 
 States, May, 1864. 
 
 WILKES'S NUMBEE, 45, see North Briton, 
 and also Warrants, General. 
 
 WILLOW-LEAVES, see Sun. 
 
 WILLS ant> Testaments are of very high 
 
 antiquity, see Genesis xlviii. Solon introduced 
 them at Athens, 578 B.C. There are regulations 
 respecting wills in the Koran. Trebati us Testa the 
 
WILLS. 
 
 726 
 
 WILLS. 
 
 Chilian, introduced codicils to wills at Rome, 31 B.C. 
 The power of bequeathing lands by the last will and 
 testament of the owner was confirmed to English 
 subjects 1 Henry I. noo; but with great restric- 
 tions and limitations respecting the feudal system, 
 which were taken off by the statute of 32 Hen. VIII. 
 1 54 1. Blachstone's Commentaries. The first will 
 of a sovereign on record is stated (but in error) to 
 be that of Richard II. 1399 ; Edward the Confessor 
 made a will, 1066. Various laws have regulated 
 the wills and testaments of British subjects. All 
 previous statutes were repealed by the " Wills Act," 
 7 Will. IV. and I Vict. c. 26, 1837, and the laws 
 with relation to wills amended.* The present 
 Probate Court (which see) was established in 
 1857. An office for the reception of the wills of 
 riving persons was opened in Jan. 1861. See Thel- 
 lusson's Will. In 1869 twenty probates of wills or 
 letters of admiuistration were stamped for personal 
 property, each exceeding a quarter of a million ; 
 one had a stamp of 21,000^. 
 
 EXTRACTS FROM THE LAST WILL OF NAPOLEON I., 
 EMPEROR OF FRANCE.* 
 
 [He died 5 May, 1821, eleven days after lie had signed 
 
 these documents. The original in French occupies 
 
 about twenty-six pages in Peignot's " Testamens Re- 
 
 marquables," 1829.] 
 
 "This day, 24 April, 1821. at Longwood, in the island 
 of St. Helena. This is my testament, or act of my last 
 will: 
 
 " I leave to the comte de Montholon 2,000,000 francs 
 as a proof of my satisfaction for the attentions he has 
 paid to me for these six years, and to indemnify him for 
 the losses which my residence in St. Helena has occa- 
 sioned him. I leave to the comte Bertrand 500,000 
 francs. I leave to Marchand, my first valet-de-chambre, 
 400,000 francs ; the services he has performed for me are 
 those of a friend. I desire that he may marry a widow, 
 sister, or daughter of an officer or soldier of my old 
 guard. To St. Denis, 100,000 francs. To Novarre, 100,000 
 francs. To Pijeron, 100,000 francs. To Archambaud, 
 50,000 francs. To Cuvier, 50,000 francs. To Chandelle, 
 idem. 
 
 "To the Abbe Vignali, 100,000 francs. I desire that 
 he may build his house near Ponte Novo de Rossino. To 
 the comte Las Casas, r ioo,ooo francs. To comte Ls.va- 
 lette, 100,000 francs. To the surgeon-in-chief, Larrey, 
 100,000 francs. He is the most virtuous man I have 
 known. To general Brayer, 100,000 francs. 
 
 " To general Lefevre Desnouettes, 100,000 francs. To 
 general Drouet, 100,000 francs. To general Cambronne, 
 100,000 francs. To the children of general Muton l)u- 
 vernais, ico.ooo francs. To the children of the brave 
 Labedoyere, 100,000 francs. To the children of general 
 Girard, killed at Ligny, 100,000 francs. To the children 
 of general Chartrand, 100,000 francs. To the children of 
 the virtuous general Travost, 100,000 francs. To general 
 Lallemand, the elder, 100,000 francs. To general Clausel, 
 100,000 francs. To Costa Bastiliea, also 100,000 francs. 
 To the baron de Menevalle, 100,000 francs. To Arnault, 
 author of Marius, 100,000 francs. 
 
 "To colonel Marbot, 100,000 francs : I request him to 
 continue to write for the defence and glory of the French 
 armies, and to confound the calumniators and the apos- 
 tates. To the baron Bignon, 100,000 francs : I request 
 him to write the history of French Diplomacy from 1792 
 to 1815. To Poggi de Talaro, 100,000 francs. To the 
 surgeon Emmery, 100,000. 
 
 " These sums shall be taken from the six millions 
 
 * By this act the testator must be above 21, not a 
 lunatic or idiot, not deaf and dumb, not drunk at the 
 time of signing, not an outlawed or unpardoned felon. 
 All kinds of property may be devised. The will must be 
 written legibly and intelligibly, and signed by the 
 testator, or by his direction, in the presence of two or 
 more witnesses, who also must sign. A married woman 
 may bequeath only her pin money or separate mainten- 
 ance, without the consent of her husband. 
 
 t These documents, dated from 15-24 April, deposited 
 since 1821 in England, have been given up to the autho- 
 rities at Paris, at the request of the French Govern- 
 ment. 
 
 which I deposited on leaving Paris in 1815, and from the 
 interest at the rate of 5 percent, since July, 1815; the 
 account of which shall be adjusted with the bankers by 
 the counts Montholon and Bertrand, and by Marchand. 
 
 " These legacies, in case of death, shall be paid to the 
 widows and children, and in their default, shall revert to 
 the capital. I institute the counts Montholon, Ber- 
 trand, and Marchand my testamentary executors. This 
 present testament, written entirely by my own hand, is 
 signed and sealed with my arms. 
 
 "NAPOLEON. 
 
 " 24 April, 1821, Longwood." 
 
 The following are part of the eight Codicils to the pre- 
 ceding will of the emperor : — 
 
 " On the liquidation of my civil list of Italy — such as 
 money, jewels, plate, linen, coffers, caskets of which the 
 viceroy is the depository, and which belong to me, I dis- 
 pose of two millions, which I leave to my most faithful 
 servants. I hope that without their showing any cause, 
 my son Eugene Napoleon will discharge them faithfully. 
 He cannot forget the forty millions which I have given 
 him in Italy, or by the right {parage) of his mother's 
 inheritance, 
 
 " From the funds remitted in gold to the empress 
 Maria Louisa, my very dear and well-beloved spouse, at 
 Orleans, in 1814, there remain due to me two millions, 
 which I dispose of by the present codicil, in order to 
 recompense my most faithful servants, whom I beside 
 recommend to the protection of my dear Maria Louisa. 
 I leave 200,000 francs to count Montholon, 100,000 francs 
 of which he shall pay into the chest of the treasurer (Las 
 Casas) for the same purpose as the above, to be employed 
 according to my dispositions in legacies of conscience. 
 
 " 10,000 francs to the sub-officer Cantillon (died July, 
 1869), who has undergone a prosecution, being accused 
 of a desire to assassinate lord Wellington, of which he 
 has been declared innocent. Cantillon had as much right 
 to assassinate that oligarch, as the latter had to send me 
 to perish on the rock of St. Helena, &c. <fec. <fec. 
 
 LETTER TO M. LAFITTE. 
 
 "Monsieur Lafitte, — I remitted to you in 1815, at 
 the moment of my departure from Paris, a sum of nearly 
 six millions, for which you gave me a double receipt. I 
 have cancelled one of these receipts, and I have charged 
 comte de Montholon to present to you the other receipt, 
 in order that you may, after my death, deliver to him the 
 said sum with interest at the rate of five per cent., from 
 the 1st of July, 1815, deducting the payments with which 
 yon have been charged in virtue of my order. I have 
 also remitted to yon a box containing my medallion. I 
 beg you will deliver it to comte Montholon. 
 
 " This letter having no other object, I pray God, Mon- 
 sieur Lafitte, that He may have you in His holy and 
 worthy keeping. 
 
 "NAPOLEON. 
 
 "Longwood, in the island of St. Helena, 25 April, 
 1821." 
 
 The following Will of Napoleon III. was published 
 in the Times, 30 April, 1873: — 
 
 " April 24, 1865. 
 "This is my will. I commend my son and my wife to 
 the high constituted authorities of the state (aux grands 
 corps de l'Etat), to the people, and the army. The em- 
 press Eugenie possesses all the qualities requisite for 
 conducting the regency well, and my son displays a dis- 
 position and judgment which will render him worthy of 
 his high destinies. Let him never forget the motto of the 
 head of our family, 'Everything for the French people.' 
 Let him fix in his mind the writings of the prisoner 
 of St. Helena; let him study the emperor's deeds and 
 correspondence ; finally, let him remember, when circum- 
 stances so permit, that the cause of the peoples is the 
 cause of Fiance. Power is a heavy burden, because one 
 cannot always do all the good one could wish, and be- 
 cause your contemporaries seldom render you justice, so 
 that, in order to fulfil one's mission, one must have faith 
 in, and consciousness of, one's duty. It is necessary to 
 consider that from heaven on high those whom you have 
 loved regard and protect you ; it is the soul of my illus- 
 trious uncle that has always inspired and sustained me. 
 The like will apply to my son, for he will always be 
 worthy of his name. I leave to the empress Eugenie all 
 my private property. It is my desire that on the ma- 
 jority of my son she shall inhabit the Elysee and Biar- 
 ritz. I trust that my memory will be dear to her, and 
 
WILMINGTON. 
 
 727 
 
 WINDSOR CASTLE. 
 
 that after my death she will forget the griefs I may have 
 caused her. "With regard to my son, let him keep as a 
 talisman the seal I used to wear attached to my watch, 
 and which comes from my mother; let him carefully 
 preserve everything that comes to me from the em- 
 peror, my uncle, and let him be convinced that my heart 
 and my soul remain with him. I make no mention of my 
 faithful servants. I am convinced that the empress and 
 my son will never abandon them. I shall die in the 
 Catholic, Apostolic, and Roman religion, which my son 
 will always hou our by his piety. Done, written, and signed 
 with my hand at the palace of the Tuileries, the 24th of 
 April, 1865. (Signed) "NAPOLEON." 
 
 WILMINGTON (N. Carolina, U.S.) was held 
 by the confederates ; resisted severe attacks of the 
 federals in Dec. 1864. Fort Fisher was taken by 
 assault on 15 Jan., and Wilmington was evacuated 
 by the confederates, 22 Feb. 1865. 
 
 WILMINGTON ADMINISTRATION, 
 
 succeeded that of sir Robert Walpole, Feb. 1742. 
 
 Earl of Wilmington, first lord of the treasury. 
 
 Lord Hardwicke, lord cluuicellor. 
 
 Earl of Harrington, president of the council. v 
 
 Earl Gower, lord privy seal. 
 
 Mr. Sandys, chancellor of the exchequer. 
 
 Lord Carteret and the duke of Newcastle, secretaries of 
 state. 
 
 Earl of Winchilsea, first lord of the admiralty. 
 
 Duke of Argyll, commander of the forces eaidmaster-general 
 of the ordnance. 
 
 Mr. Henry Pelham, paymaster of the forces. 
 
 With several of the household lords. 
 
 [On lord Wilmington's death, 26 July, 1743, Mr. Pel- 
 ham became prime minister ; and in Nov. 1744, he 
 formed the " Broad - bottom " administration; see 
 Pelham. ] 
 
 WILMOT'S ACT (Sir E.), 3 & 4 Vict. c. 77 
 (1840) relates to schools. 
 
 WINCHESTER, (Hampshire), a most ancient 
 city, whose erection maj* reasonably be ascribed to 
 the Celtic Britons, -with the fabulous date 392 B.C. 
 It was made the capital of the West Saxon king- 
 dom under Cerdic, about 520 ; and of England by 
 Egbert, 827; it became the residence of Alfred, 
 879-991. In the reign of William I. London be- 
 gan to rival it; and the destruction of religious 
 houses by Henry VIII. almost ruined it. Several 
 kings resided at Winchester, and many parliaments 
 ■were held there. Memorials of its ancient superi- 
 ority exist in the national denomination of measures 
 of quantity, as Winchester ell, Winchester bushel, 
 &c, the use of which has but recently been replaced 
 by imperial measures. The cathedral church was 
 first founded and endowed by Cynegils, or Zene- 
 gilsus, the first Christian king of the West Saxons. 
 Becoming ruinous, the present fabric was begun 
 by bishop Walkelyn, the 34th bishop, 1073. The 
 church was first dedicated to St. Amphibalus, then 
 to St. Peter, and afterwards to St. Swithin, once 
 bishop here. Dedicated to the Holy Trinity by Henry 
 VLTI. St. Birinus was the first bishop of the West 
 Saxons, his seat Dorchester, 636; Wina, in 660, 
 was the first bishop of Winchester. The see is 
 valued in the king's books at 2793^. 4s. 2d. annually. 
 Present income, 10,500^. 
 
 Taken by the Danes, 871-3; ravaged by Sweyn . 1013 
 
 William Rufus buried here 1100 
 
 Hospital of Holy Cross, founded by bishop Henry 
 
 de Blois 1132 
 
 Winchester school, founded by bishop William of 
 
 Wykeham 1382-7 
 
 Winchester several times taken and re-taken, 1641-3 ; 
 
 taken by Cromwell and the castle dismantled . 1645 
 Charles II. began a palace here by Wren . . . 1683 
 Charitable Society of Natives founded . . . 1699 
 Winchester Cross restored .... 1866 
 
 New Guildhall opened by lord-chancellor Selborne, 
 
 ■11 May, 1873 
 
 recent bishops. (Prelates of the Order of 
 the Garter.) 
 1781. Brownlow North, died 12 July, 1820. 
 1820. George Pretyman Tomline, died 1827. 
 1827. Charles Richard Sumner, resigned, 1869 
 T869. Samuel Wilberforce, elected Nov. ; killed, through 
 
 the fall of his horse, 19 July, 1873. 
 1873. Harold Browne, translated from Ely (announced 
 Aug.). 
 
 WINCHESTER SCHOOL, the oldest of our 
 great schools, " Seinte Marie College of Wyn- 
 chestre," the charter of which is dated Oct. 1382, 
 was founded in 1387, by William (Long) of Wyke- 
 ham, bishop of Winchester, who had established a 
 school here in 1373. The ancient statutes were 
 revised in 1855; and still further altered by the 
 Public Schools act of 1868. In Nov.-Dec. 1872 there 
 was much published correspondence respecting the 
 tunding — the excessive punishment of the boys by 
 boy prefects. 
 
 WINDING-UP ACTS (to facilitate the 
 winding up the affairs of joint -stock companies 
 which are unable to meet their engagements) were 
 passed in 1848, 1849, 1857, and 1862. 
 
 WINDMILLS are of great antiquity, and 
 stated to be of Koman or Saracen invention. They 
 are said to have been originally introduced into 
 Europe by the knights of St. John, who took the 
 hint from what they had seen in the crusades. 
 Baker. Windmills were first known in Spain, 
 France, and Germany, in 1299. Anderson. Wind 
 saw-mills were invented by a Dutchman, in 1633, 
 w r hen one was erected near the Strand, in London. 
 
 WINDOWS. There were glass windows in 
 Pompeii, a.d. 79, as is evident from its ruins. It 
 is certain that windows of some kind were glazed 
 so early as the 3rd century, if not before, though 
 the fashion was not introduced until it was done by 
 Benedict Biscop, about 650. Windows of glass 
 were used in private houses, but the glass was im- 
 ported 1177. Anderson. In England, in 1851, 
 about 6000 houses had fifty windows and upwards in 
 each; about 275,000 had ten windows and up- 
 wards ; and 725,000 had seven windows, or less 
 than seven. 
 
 Window-tax first enacted in order to defray the 
 
 expense of and deficiency in the re-coinage of gold 1695 
 The tax increased, 5 Feb. 1746-7; again in 1778; 
 
 and again on the commutation-tax for tea 1 Oct. 1784 
 The tax again increased in . 1797, 1802, and 1808 
 
 Beduced 1823 
 
 The revenue derived from windows was in 1840 
 about a million and a quarter sterling; and in 
 1850 (to April 5), 1,832,6842. 
 The tax repealed by act 14 <fc 15 Vict. e. 36 (which 
 act imposed a duty upon inhabited houses in lieu 
 thereof) 24 July, 1851 
 
 WINDSOR CASTLE (Berkshire), a resi- 
 dence of the British sovereigns, begun by William 
 the Conqueror, and enlarged by Henry I. about 
 1 1 10. Edward III., who was born here, 13 Nov. 
 1312, caused the old building, with the exception of 
 three towers at the west" end, to be taken down, and 
 re-erected the whole castle, under the direction of 
 William of Wykeham, 1356, and built St. George's 
 chapel. He assessed every county in England to 
 send him workmen. James I. of Scotland was im- 
 prisoned here, 1406-23. Several additions were 
 made by Henry VIII. Elizabeth made the grand 
 north ten-ace ; and Charles II. repaired and beauti- 
 fied it, 1676-80. 
 
 The chapel repaired and opened . . . Oct. 1790 
 The castle repaired and enlarged, 1824-8; George 
 
 IV took possession . . . . .8 Dec. 1828 
 Royal stables built 1839 
 
WINDSOR KNIGHTS. 
 
 728 
 
 WITCHCRAFT. 
 
 Our sovereigns have here, entertained many royal 
 personages, as the emperor and empress of the 
 French, in April, 1855 
 
 A serious lire in the prince of Wales's tower, owing 
 to some defect in the heating apparatus, 
 
 19 March, 1853 
 
 Here died the prince consort . . 14 Dec. 1861 
 
 Windsor Forest, situated to the south and west of 
 the town of Windsor, was formerly 120 miles in 
 circumference; in 1607, it was 77^ miles round, 
 but it has since been reduced in its hounds to 
 about 56 miles. It was surveyed in 1789, and found 
 to contain 59,600 acres. 
 
 Virginia Water and the plantations about it were 
 taken out of the forest. 
 
 The marshes were drained and the trees planted for 
 William, duke of Cumberland, about 1746; and 
 much was done by George IV. , who often resided 
 at the lodge. 
 
 Cumberland Lodge partially destroyed by fire ; pic- 
 tures burnt 14 Nov. 1869 
 
 On the south side is Windsor Great Park ; it con- 
 tains about 3800 acres. 
 
 The Little Park, on the north and east sides of the 
 castle, contains about 500 acres. The gardens are 
 elegant, and have been considerably improved by 
 the addition of the house and gardens of the duke 
 of St. Alban's, purchased by the crown. 
 
 WINDSOR KNIGHTS, see Poor, and 
 Knights. 
 
 WINDWARD ISLES (West Indies)-Bar- 
 badoes, St. Vincent, Grenada, Tobago, and St. 
 Lucia. Governor, Kawson W. Eawson, 1868. 
 
 WINE. " Noah planted a vineyard, and drank 
 of the wine," 2347 b.c. {Gen. ix. 20); see Vine. 
 Ching-Noung, emperor of China, is said to have 
 made rice wine, 1998 B.C. The art of making wine 
 is said to have been brought from India by Bac- 
 chus. Christ changed water into wine at the mar- 
 riage of Cana in Galilee, a.d. 30. John ii. 310. 
 
 "Wine sold in England by apothecaries as a cordial 
 in 1300, and so continued for some time after, 
 although there is mention of "wine for the king" 
 so early as John. 
 
 The price was twelve shillings the pipe in . . 1400 
 
 A hundred and fifty butts and pipes condemned, 
 for being adulterated, to be staved and emptied 
 into the channels of the streets, by Rainwell, 
 mayor of London. Stair's Chron 1427 
 
 The price regulated by statute, 5 Richard II. . . 1381 
 
 An act for licensing sellers of wine in England 
 passed 25 April, 1661 
 
 By the Methuen treaty, Portuguese wines were 
 highly favoured, and French wines discouraged by 
 heavy duties 1703 
 
 Wine duties to be 2s. gil. per gallon on Cape wine, 
 and 5s. 6<1 on all other wines 1381 
 
 In year ending 31 March, 1856, the customs duties 
 on wines produced 1,856, 120Z.; 1111858, 1,733,729?.; 
 in 1867, 1,391,192?. 
 
 By the French treaty of commerce, the duty on 
 wines was much reduced .... Jan. i860 
 
 Licences granted to refreshment houses by an act 
 passed in ,, 
 
 The Oporto Wine Company (a monopoly), estab- 
 lished in 1756, and abolished 1865 
 
 WINE IMPORTED INTO UNITED KINGDOM. 
 
 Gallons. 1 Gallons. 
 
 1800 . . . 3,307,460 1859 . . . 8,195,513 
 
 1815 . . . 4,306,528 I 1861 . . . 11,052,436 
 
 1830 . . . 6,879,558 1864 . . . 15,451.593 
 
 1839 . . . 9,909,056 1867 . . . 15,442,581 
 
 1845 . . . 8,469,776 I 1868 . . . 16,953,429 
 
 1850 . . . 9,304,312 1869 . . . 17,184,330 
 
 1854 . . . 10,875,855 [ 1870 . . . 17,774,782 
 
 1857 • • • 10 >336,485 : 1871 . . . 18,224,899 
 
 WINTER, see Frosts. 
 
 WIRE. The invention of drawing wire is 
 ascribed to Eodolph of Nuremberg, about 1410. 
 Mills for this purpose were first set up at Nurem- 
 
 berg in 1563. The first wire-mill in England was 
 erected at Mortlake in 1663. Mortimer. 
 
 WIRTEMBERG, see Wurtemberg. 
 
 WISCONSIN, a N.W. state of N. America, 
 was organised as a territory in 1836; and received 
 into the union, 29 May, 1848. 
 
 WISSEMBOURG, or Weissenburg. N.E. 
 France, in the department of the Lower Bhine, 
 situate on the right bank of the river Lauter, the 
 boundary of France and the Palatinate. It was 
 formerly an imperial city of Alsace, and was seized 
 by Louis XIV. in 1673, and annexed to France by 
 the treaty of Kyswiek, 1697. The " lines" of "\Vis- 
 sembourg, erected by Villars 1705, were taken by 
 the Austrians and retaken by the French, 1793, 
 after Hoche's victory at Geisberg. On 4 Aug. 
 1870, the crown - prince of Prussia crossed the 
 Lauter and gained a brilliant but bloody victory 
 over the French (a part of MacMahon's division), 
 storming the lines, and the Geisberg. General Abel 
 l)ouay was mortally wounded, and about 500 pri- 
 soners were made. The killed and wounded on 
 both sides appear to have been nearly equal. The 
 German army, composed of Prussians, Bavarians, 
 and Wiirtembergers, were, it is said, about 40,000, 
 against about 10,000 French, who fought with des- 
 perate bravery. 
 
 WITCHCRAFT. The Jewish law (Exodus 
 (xxii. 18), 1491 B.C., decreed, " Thou shalt net 
 suffer a witch to live " Saul, after banishing or 
 condemning witchcraft, consulted the witch of 
 Endor, 1056 B.C. (1 Sam. xxviii.) Bishop Hutch- 
 inson's historical "Essay on Witchcraft" was pub- 
 lished in 1 718. Pope Innocent VIII. issued a bull 
 against witchcraft in 1484. Thousands of innocent 
 persons were burnt, and others killed by the tests 
 applied. 
 
 Many Templars burnt at Paris for witchcraft, Arc, 1309. 
 Joan of Arc burnt at Rouen as a witch, 30 May, 1431. 
 About five hundred witches burnt in Geneva, in three 
 
 months, 1515. 
 Many burnt in the diocese of Como in a year, about 
 
 1524. 
 A great number in France, about 1520, when one sorcerer 
 
 confessed to having 1200 associates. 
 Nine hundred burnt in Lorraine, 15S0-1595. 
 One hundred and fifty-seven bund, at Wurtzburg, old 
 
 andyoung, learned and ignorant, between 1627 and 1629. 
 Grandier, the parish priest at Loudon, burnt on a charge 
 
 of having bewitched a whole convent of nuns, 1634. 
 Iii'Bretagne, twenty poor women put to death as witches, 
 
 1654. 
 Disturbances commenced on charges of witchcraft in 
 
 America, at Massachusetts, 1648-9 ; and persecutions 
 
 raged dreadfully in Pennsylvania in 1683. 
 At Salem, in New England, nineteen persons hanged (by 
 
 the Puritans) for witchcraft, eight more condemned; 
 
 fifty confessed themselves to be witches and were 
 
 pardoned, 1692. 
 Maria Renata burnt at Wurtzburg in 1749. 
 At Kalisk, in Poland, nine old women charged with 
 
 having bewitched and rendered unfruitful the lauds 
 
 belonging to that palatinate, were burnt 17 Jan. 1775. 
 Five women condemned to death by the Brahmins, at 
 
 Patna, for sorcery, and executed, 15 Dec. 1802. 
 
 WITCHCRAFT IN ENGLAND. 
 
 A statute enacted declaring all witchcraft and sor- 
 cery to be felony without benefit of clergy. 33 Hen. 
 VIII. 1541. Again, 5 Eliz. 1562, and 1 James I. 1603. 
 
 The 73rd canon of the church prohibits the clergy from 
 casting out devils, 1603. 
 
 Barringtou estimates the judicial murders for witchcraft 
 in England in 200 years at 30,000. 
 
 Matthew Hopkins, the ' ' witch-finder," causes the judicial 
 murder of about 100 persons in Essex, Norfolk, and 
 Suffolk, 1645-7. 
 
 Sir Matthew Hale burnt two persons for witchcraft in 
 1664. 
 
WITENA-MOT. 
 
 729 
 
 WOMEN. 
 
 Northamptonshire and Huntingdon preserved the super- 
 stition about witchcraft later than other counties. 
 
 Seventeen or eighteen persons burnt at St. Osyths, in 
 Essex, about 1676. 
 
 Two pretended witches were executed at Northampton 
 in 1705, and five others seven years afterwards. 
 
 In 1716, Mrs. Hicks, and her daughter, aged nine, were 
 hanged at Huntingdon. 
 
 In Scotland, thousands of persons were burnt in the 
 period of about a hundred years. Among the victims 
 were persons of the highest rank, while all orders in 
 the state concurred. James I. even caused a whole 
 assize to be prosecuted for an acquittal. The king 
 published his Dcemonologie in Edinburgh, 1597. The 
 last sufferer in Scotland was at Dornach in 1722. 
 
 The laws against witchcraft had lain dormant for many 
 years, when an ignorant person, attempting to revive 
 them, by finding a bill against a poor old woman in 
 Surrey for the practice of witchcraft, they were repealed, 
 10 Geo. II. 1736. 
 
 Credulity in witchcraft still abounds in the country dis- 
 tricts of England. On 4 Sept. 1863, a poor old para- 
 lyzed Frenchman died in consequence of having been 
 ducked as a wizard at Castle Hedingham, Essex, and 
 similar cases have since occurred. 
 
 WITENA-MOT or Witena-gemot, the 
 assembling of the wise men, the great council of the 
 Anglo-Saxons. A witena-mot was called in Win- 
 chester by Egbert, 800, and in London, 833, to 
 consult on the proper means to repel the Danes ; 
 see Parliament. 
 
 WITEPSK (in Russia), where a battle_ was 
 fought between the French under marshal Victor, 
 duke of Belluno, and the Russians commanded by 
 general "Wittgenstein. The French were defeated 
 after a desperate engagement, with the loss of about 
 3000 men on both sides, 14 Nov. 1812. 
 
 WITNESSES. Two or more -witnesses were 
 required by the law of Moses, 145 1 B.C. (Dent. 
 xvii. 6,), and by the early Christian Church in cases 
 of discipline (2 Cor. xiii. 1), a.d. 60. The evidence 
 of two witnesses required to attaint for high treason, 
 25 Edw. III. 1352. In civil actions between party 
 and party, if a man be subpoenaed as a witness on a 
 trial, he must appear in court on pain of 100I. to be 
 forfeited to the king, and 10I., together with the 
 damages equivalent to the loss sustained by the 
 want of his evidence to the party aggrieved. Lord 
 Ellenborough ruled that no witness is obliged to 
 answer questions which may tend to degrade him- 
 self, 10 Dec. 1802. New act relating to the exam- 
 ination of witnesses passed 13 Geo. III. 1773. 
 Act to enable courts of law to order the examination 
 of witnesses upon interrogations and otherwise, 
 I Will. IV. 30 March, 1831. 
 
 WIVES, see Marriage. By the Divorce and 
 Matrimonial Causes act, passed in 1857, the con- 
 dition of married women has been much benefited. 
 When ill-used they can obtain a divorce or judicial 
 separation ; and while in the latter state any 
 property they may acquire is secured to them per- 
 sonalty, as if unmarried. By another act passed in 
 1857, they are enabled to dispose of reversionary 
 interests in personal property or estates. An act 
 to amend the law relating to the property of married 
 women was passed 9 Aug. 1870. By it the separate 
 earnings of a wife were secured to her own use, as 
 well as personal and freehold property bequeathed 
 to her. She may maintain an action at law, and 
 acquires other rights. The husband is declared not 
 liable for debts contracted by his wife prior to 
 marriage, and she may be sued for them. Another 
 married women's property bill brought in, making 
 them nearly independent (by Mr. Ilinde Palmer), 
 Feb. 1873. 
 
 WIVES' POISON or Water Tofana, see 
 Poisoning. 
 
 WQSRTH SUE SatjeR, a town in the depart- 
 ment of the Lower Rhine, N.E. France. After 
 storming Wissembourg (which see) on 4 Aug. 1870, 
 the crown-prince of Prussia, with the 3rd army 
 (about 150,000) marched rapidly forward and 
 surprised part of the French army under Marshal 
 MacMahon, including the corps of Canrobert and 
 part of that of Failly (about 47,000), and defeated it 
 in a long, desperate, and sanguinary engagement 
 near this place 6 Aug. The battle lasted from 9 a.m. 
 till 4 p.m. The chief struggles occurred in the 
 country round Reiehshoffen and in the village of 
 Froeschweiller ; the French are said to have charged 
 the Cerman line eleven times, each time breaking 
 it, but always finding a fresh mass behind. The 
 ridge on which Wcerth stands was not captured 
 until the French were taken in flank by the 
 Bavarians and Wthtembergers. Nearly all Mac- 
 Mahon' s staff were killed, and the marshal himself, 
 unhorsed, fell fainting into a ditch, from which he 
 was rescued by a soldier. He then, on foot, directed 
 the retreat towards Saveme, to cover the passes of 
 the Vosges. The victory is attributed to the very 
 great numerical superiority of the Germans as well 
 as to their excellent strategy. The French loss has 
 been estimated at 5000 killed and wounded, and 
 55,000 prisoners, 2 eagles, 6 mitrailleuses, 35 can- 
 non, and much baggage. The Germans are stated 
 to have had above 8000 men put hors de combat. 
 It was admitted that MacMahon had acted as an 
 able and brave commander. 
 
 WOLVERHAMPTON (Staffordshire), an old 
 town formerly named Hamton; owes its present 
 name to the foundation ' of a college here by 
 Wulfrana, sister of king Edgar, and widow of 
 Aldhelm, duke of Northampton, 996. The queen 
 was present at the inauguration of the prince con- 
 sort's statue here, 30 Nov. 1866, and the church 
 congress was opened here 1 Oct. 1867. Wolver- 
 hampton is eminent for its manufactures in metal. 
 
 WOLVES were once very numerous in England, 
 Then- heads were demanded as a tribute, particu- 
 larly 300 yearly from Wales, by king Edgar, 961. 
 by which step they were falsely said to be totally 
 destroyed. Carte. Edward I. issued his mandate 
 fa- the destruction of wolves in several counties of 
 England; 1289. Ireland was infested by wolves for 
 many centuries after then extirpation in England ; 
 for there are accounts of some being found there so 
 late as 17 10, when the last presentment for killing* 
 wolves was made in the county of Cork. Wolves 
 still infest France, in which kingdom 8384 wolves 
 and cubs were killed in 1828-9. 
 
 WOMEN. The employment of women is regu- 
 lated by the Factory and Workshop Regulation acts 
 (which see). 
 
 (See Female Medical School, and Wives.) 
 Female medical society and obstetrical college 
 
 founded about 1864 
 
 Female suffrage for members of parliament was pro- 
 posed by J. S. Mill, and negatived by 196 against 
 
 73 20 May, 1867 
 
 Lily Maxwell, a shopkeeper at Manchester, voted 
 
 for Jacob Bright 26 Nov. „ 
 
 First annual meeting of the Manchester national 
 
 society for women's suffrage . . 30 Oct. 1868 
 
 Female suffrage decided to be illegal, by the court 
 
 of common pleas . . . . 7, 9 Nov. ,, 
 "Women's Club and Institute, Newman-street, 
 
 London W. opened Jan. 1869 
 
 Women's Disabilities bill, rejected by the commons 
 
WONDERS. 
 
 730 
 
 WOOLWICH. 
 
 (220 to 94) 12 May, 1870; (222 — 143) 1 May, 1872 ; 
 
 (223—155) 30 April, i3 7 3 
 
 Miss Garrett and Miss Davies elected members of 
 
 the metropolitan school-board . . 29 Nov. ,, 
 Women's hospitals founded : 80110,1842 ; Marylebone, 1871 
 
 WONDERS OF THE WOKLD. I. The pyra- 
 mids of Egypt. 2. The mausoleum or tomb built for 
 Mausolus, king of Caria, by Artemisia, his queen. 
 3. The temple of Diana, at Ephesus. 4. The walls 
 and hanging gardens of the city of Babylon. 5. 
 The vast brazen image of the sun at Rhodes, called 
 the Colossus*. 6. The ivory and gold statue of 
 Jupiter Olympus. 7. The pharos or watch-tower, 
 built by Ptolemy Fhiladelphus, Icing of Egypt; 
 see separate articles. 
 
 WOOD-CUTS, see Engraving on Wood. 
 
 WOODS, Forests, &c, see Forests. The 
 board of woods, forests, and land revenues was con- 
 stituted in 1810. The oversight of works and 
 public buildings was added to its duties in 1832, but 
 transferred to a separate board of commissioners in 
 1851. 
 
 WOOD'S HALF-PENCE, for circulation in 
 Ireland and America, were coined by virtue of a 
 patent, passed 1722-3. Against them, Dr. Jonathan 
 Swift, by his Drapier's letters, raised such a spirit 
 that Wood was virtually banished the kingdom. 
 The half-pence were assayed in England by sir 
 Isaac Newton, and proved to be genuine, in 1724. 
 
 WOODEN PAVEMENT (expensive and 
 perishable) seemed at one time likely to supersede 
 stone in the principal thoroughfares of London. A 
 wooden pavement was laid down at Whitehall in 
 1839 ; and in Oxford-street, the Strand, and other 
 streets. The principal part was soon taken up, but 
 some still exists near the bank. In Nov. 1872, the 
 improved wood pavement company put forth a 
 prospectus. 
 
 WOODSTOCK (Oxfordshire). In Wood- 
 stock, now Blenheim-park, originally stood a 
 royal palace, in which king Ethelred held a par- 
 liament, and Alfred the Great translated Boetius 
 de Consolatione Philosoplim, 888. Henry I. beau- 
 tified the palace; and here resided Rosamond, 
 mistress of Henry II. 1154. In it were born 
 Edmund, second son of Edward I., 1301, and 
 Edward, eldest son of Edward III., 1330 ; and here 
 the princess Elizabeth was confined by her sister 
 Mary, 1554. A splendid mansion, built at the 
 expense of the nation, for the duke of Marlborough, 
 was erected here to commemorate his victory at 
 Blenheim in 1704. At that time ever)- trace of the 
 ancient edifice was removed, and two elms were 
 planted on its site ; see Blenheim. Scott's romance, 
 " Woodstock," was published, June, 1826. 
 
 WOOL. From the earliest times to the reign 
 of queen Elizabeth the wool of Great Britain was 
 not only superior to that of Spain, but accounted 
 the finest in the universe ; and even in the times 
 of the Romans a manufacture of woollen cloths was 
 established at Winchester for the use of the em- 
 perors. Anderson. In later times wool was manu- 
 factured in England, and is mentioned 1 185, but 
 not in any quantity until 1331, when the weaving 
 of it was introduced by John Kempe and other arti- 
 zans from Elanders. Tins was the real origin of 
 our now unrivalled manufacture, 6 Edw. III. 1331. 
 Jii/mer's Fcedera. 
 
 Duties on exported wool were levied by Edw. I. . 1275 
 
 The exportation prohibited 1337 
 
 Staples of wool established in Ireland, at Dublin, 
 
 Waterford, Cork, and Drogheda, 18 Edw. III. . . 1343 
 
 Sheep were first permitted to be sent to Spain, 
 
 which has since injured our manufacture. Stow. 1467 
 First legislative prohibition of the export of wool 
 
 from Ireland 1521 
 
 The exportation of English wool, and the importa- 
 tion of Irish wool into England prohibited . . 1696 
 The export forbidden by act passed . . . . 1718 
 Bill to prevent the running of wool from Ireland to 
 
 France 1738 
 
 The duty on wool imported from Ireland taken off 1739 
 
 Woolcombers' act, 35 Geo. Ill 1794 
 
 The non-exportation law was repealed, 5 Geo. TV. . 1824 
 In 1851 we imported 83,311,97s tt>. of wool and 
 alpaca; in 1856, 116,211,392 lb.; in 1859, 
 133,284,6341b. ; in 1861, 147,172,8411b. ; in 1864, 
 206,473,645 lb. ; in 1866, 239,358,689 lb. ; in 1871, 
 323,036,299 lb. 
 We imported from Australia, in 1842, 12,979,8561b.; 
 in 1856, 56,052,139 lb. ; in 1861, 68,506,222 lb. ; in 
 1866, 113,773,6946). ; in 1871, 187,710,567 ft). 
 
 WOOLLEN CLOTH. Woollen cloths were 
 made an article of commerce in the time of Julius 
 Caesar, and are familiarly alluded to by him ; see 
 Weaving. 
 
 The Jews were forbidden to wear garments of 
 woollen and linen together .... b.c. 1451 
 
 70 families of cloth-workers (from the Netherlands) 
 settled in England by Edward III. Rymer. A.D. 1331 
 
 Worsted manufacture in Norfolk . . . . 1340 
 
 A kind of blankets were first made in England. 
 Camden about ,, 
 
 Woollens made at Kendal 1390 
 
 No cloth but of Wales or Ireland to be imported 
 into England 1463 
 
 Medleys, or mixed broad-cloth, first made . . . 1614 
 
 Manufacture of fine cloth began at Sedan, in France, 
 under the patronage of Cardinal Mazarine . . 1646 
 
 Broadcloth first dressed and dyed in England, by 
 Brewer, from the Low Countries . . . . 1667 
 
 British ami Irish woollens prohibited in France . 1677 
 
 All persons obliged to be buried in woollens and 
 the persons directing the burial otherwise to for- 
 feit 5/., 29 Charles II. 1678 
 
 The manufacture of cloth greatly improved in Eng- 
 land by Flemish settlers 1688 
 
 Injudiciously restrained in Ireland, 11 Will. III. . 1698 
 
 The exportation from Ireland wholly prohibited, 
 except to certain ports of England . . . 1701 
 
 English manufacture encouraged by 10 Anne, 1712, 
 and 2 Geo. 1 1715 
 
 Greater in Yorkshire in 1785 than in all England at 
 the revolution. Chalmers. 
 
 Value (if woollen manufactures of all kinds exported 
 in 1847, 6,896,038?. ; in 1854, 9,120,759/. ; in 1861, 
 11,118,692/. ; in 1864, 18,569,089/. ; in 1871, 
 27,184,704/. 
 
 WOOL-COMBERS in several parts of Eng- 
 land have a procession on 3 Feb., in commemoration 
 of bishop Blaise, who is reported to have discovered 
 their art. He is said to have visited England, and 
 to have landed at St. Blazy, in Cornwall. He was 
 bishop of Sebaste, in Armenia, and is said to have 
 suffered martyrdom in the Diocletian persecution, 
 289. 
 
 WOOLSACK, the seat of the lord high chan- 
 cellor of England in the house of lords, so called 
 from its being a large square bag of wool, without 
 back or arms, covered with led cloth. Wool was 
 the staple commodity of England in the reign of 
 Edward III., when the woolsack first came into 
 use. 
 
 WOOLWICH (Kent), the most ancient mili- 
 tary and naval arsenal in England. Its royal 
 dockyard, where men-of-war were built in the 
 reign of Henry VIII., was closed, 1 Oct. 1869. Here 
 Harry Gruce de Dieu was built, 1512; and here 
 she was burnt in 1552. The royal arsenal was 
 formed about 1720, on the site of a' rabbit-warren ; 
 it contains vast magazines of great guns, mortars, 
 bombs, powder, and other warlike stores ; a foundry, 
 
WOECESTEE. 
 
 731 
 
 WOEMS. 
 
 •with, many furnaces, for casting ordnance ; and a 
 great laboratory, where fireworks, cartridges, gren- 
 ades, &c, are made for the public service. The 
 Royal Military Academy was erected in the royal 
 arsenal, but the institution was not completely 
 formed until 19 Geo. II. 1745. 
 
 The arsenal, storehouses, <fec, "burnt (loss of 2oo,oooL) 
 
 20 May, 1802 
 
 Another great fire .... 30 June, 1805 
 
 Fatal explosion of gunpowder . . 20 Jan. 1813 
 
 The hemp-store burnt down . . .8 July, ,, 
 
 Another explosion by gunpowder . . 16 June, 1814 
 The Royal Military Academy nearly destroyed by 
 
 fire ; loss about ioo,oooZ. . . ' 1 Feb. 1873 
 
 Visited by the shah of Persia . . 21 June, ,, 
 
 WOECESTEE. successively an important 
 Welsh, Konian, and Saxon town, was burnt by 
 the Danes (1041) for resisting the tribute called 
 Danegelt. William I. built a castle, 1090. The 
 city was frequently taken and retaken during the 
 civil wars of the middle ages, and by Cromwell in 
 1651. — The Bishopric was founded by Ethelred, 
 king of the Mercians, 680, and taken from the see 
 of Lichfield, of which it composed a part. The 
 married priests of the cathedral were displaced, and 
 monks settled in then - stead, 964. The church was 
 rebuilt by Wolstan, 25th bishop, 1030. The see 
 has yielded to the church of Eome four saints, and 
 to the English nation five lord chancellors and three 
 lord treasurers. It is valued in the king's books at 
 1049^. 16s. $\d. per annum. Present income, 
 5000^. 
 
 RECENT BISHOPS. 
 
 1781. Richard Hurd, died 28 May, 1808. 
 
 1808. Folliott H. Cornwall, died 5 Sept. 1831. 
 
 1831. Robert James Carr, died 24 April, 1841. 
 
 1841. Henry Pepys, died 13 Nov. i860. 
 
 i860. Henry Philpott (present bishop). 
 
 WOECESTEE, Battle of, 3 Sept. 1651, 
 
 when the Scots army which came to England to 
 reinstate Charles II. was defeated by Cromwell, 
 who called it his crowning mercy. Charles with 
 difficulty escaped to France. More than 2000 of the 
 royalists were slain, and of 8000 prisoners most 
 were sold as slaves to the American colonists ; see 
 Boscobel. 
 
 WOEKHOUSES, see under Poor. 
 
 . WOEKING- MEN. Since the great Exhibi- 
 tion of 1 85 1, much has been done to benefit the 
 labouring classes by organisation. See Artisan. 
 
 Working Men's Clubs considered to have begun with 
 the Working Men's Mutual Improvement and 
 Recreation Society, established in Lancaster by 
 the instrumentality of the rev. H. Soils in . . i860 
 
 The Westminster Working Men's Club, in Duck-lane, 
 originated with Miss Adeline Cooper ; opened in 
 
 Dec. „ 
 
 The Working Men's Club and Institute Union esta- 
 blished by lord Brougham and others, 4 June, 1862 
 
 The Working Men's Club and Lodging-house, Old 
 Pye-street, "Westminster, was opened 20 April, 1866 
 
 Working Men's Colleges, &o. The first, established 
 in Sheffield, by working-men. The second, in 
 London, by the rev. professor Frederick D. 
 Maurice, as principal, in Oct. 1854 (died 1 April, 
 1872) ; a third in Cambridge ; and, in 1855, a 
 fourth at Oxford ; all wholly for the working 
 classes, and undertaking to impart such know- 
 ledge as each man feels he is most in want of. 
 The colleges engage to find a teacher wherever 10 
 or 12 members agree to form a class, and also to 
 have lectures given. There were eleven classes 
 at the one in Bloomsbury, London, in 1856 ; Mr. 
 Ruskin gave lessons in drawing. These colleges 
 have been found to be self-supporting. 
 
 A Working Women's College, begun at Queen's-street, 
 Bloomsbury 1864 
 
 Act to establish councils of conciliation, to adjust 
 differences between masters and workmen passed 
 
 20 Aug. 1867 
 The Arbitration (Masters and "Workmen) Act passed 
 
 6 Aug. 1872. 
 
 Working Men's College, for South London, opened 
 with a lecture by professor Huxley . 4 Jan. 1868 
 
 Workmen's International Exhibition proposed by 
 the duke of Argyll, lord Elcho, and others, 
 March, 1868 ; meeting for arrangements, 10 Jan. 
 1870, held in the Agricultural Hall, Islington (16 
 classes and a fine arts department) ; opened by 
 the prince of "Wales, 16 July ; closed by Mr. Glad- 
 stone 31 Oct. 1870. 
 
 National trades societies congress meet at Birming- 
 ham Aug. 1869, 
 
 Demonstration of working men in Hyde park 
 against certain clauses relating to masters and 
 servants in the Criminal Law Amendment act, 
 
 2 June, 1873 
 
 Working Men's International Association (termed 
 the International) owes its origin to some German 
 socialists in London, 1847, and was much pro- 
 moted by the foreign visitors to the great exhibi- 
 tion in 1862. It was definitely organised, 28 Sept. 
 1864, George Odger first president. Its professed 
 object is the complete emancipation of labour 
 from the tyranny of capitalists. It has held 
 congresses at Geneva, Sept. 1866 ; Lausanne, 
 Sept. 1867; Brussels, 6-13 Sept. 1868 ; Basel, 6-n 
 Sept. 1869; Barcelona, June, 1870; at the Hague, 
 when great dissensions arose ; and the political 
 part including the council seceded from the trade 
 portion, and adjourned to New York, 3-10 Sept. 1872 
 
 Four of its members were elected into the French 
 national assembly Feb. 1871. 
 
 The association took part in the communist insur- 
 rection at Paris .... 18 March, „ 
 
 It made a demonstration at New York, Dec. 1871. 
 It is said to have about 2,500,000 members in all 
 countries, and to be allied with several secret 
 societies, such as Fenians, the Mary Anne, &c. 
 
 A proposal from Spain that European governments 
 should combine for its suppression, 9 Feb. , was 
 declined by Great Britain, 8 March. It was pro- 
 scribed in France by the national assembly, 
 
 14 March, 1872 
 
 The British section met at McQueen's club-house, 
 Parliament-street . . . . 21 July, „, 
 
 Workmen's Peace Association held its first annual 
 meeting in London . . . .20 Sept. 1871 
 
 Report of an alliance between conservative peers 
 and the working men for the improvement of the 
 condition of the latter, about 15 Oct. ; explained 
 by Mr. Scott Russell (Times, 14 Nov. 1871), who 
 issued a programme .... Jan. 1872 
 
 See Co-operative Societies. 
 
 WOEKS and Public Buildings, see 
 
 Woods. 
 
 WOEKSHOPS, see Ateliers. 
 
 WOEKSHOP EEGULATION ACT, sup- 
 plement to Factory acts, passed 21 Aug. 1867 ; 
 amended, 1871. 
 
 WOELD, see Creation, and Globe. 
 
 WOEMS, a city on the Rhine, in Hesse-Darm- 
 stadt. The Eoman city, Borbetomagus, was 
 plundered by the Alemanni, 354, and by Attila, 
 451 ; rebuilt by Clovis I. about 475. Here Charle- 
 magne resided in 806 B.C. Here was held the 
 imperial diet before which Martin Luther was 
 summoned, 4 April, 1521, and by which he was 
 proscribed. Luther was met by 2000 persons on 
 foot and on horseback, at the distance of a league 
 from "Worms. When Spalatin sent to warn him of 
 his danger, he answered, "If there were as many 
 devils in Worms as there are tiles upon the roofs- 
 of its houses, I would go on." He appeared before 
 the emperor, the archduke Ferdinand, six electors, 
 twenty-four dukes, seven margraves, thirty bishops 
 and prelates, and many princes, counts, lords, and 
 ambassadors, 17 April, acknowledged his writings 
 
WORSHIP. 
 
 732 
 
 WRECKS. 
 
 and opinions, and left Worms, in fact, a conqueror. 
 Yet, to save his life, he had to remain in seclusion 
 under the protection of the elector of Saxony for 
 ahout a year. The edict putting him under the 
 ban of the empire was issued 26 May, 152 1. 
 "Worms was burnt, by order of Louis XIV., 1689, the 
 cathedral excepted ; and was taken by the French, 
 under Custine, 4 Oct. 1792. A memorial statue of 
 Luther at Worms was uncovered, 25 June, 1868, 
 in the presence of the king of Prussia and other 
 sovereigns. 
 
 WORSHIP. The first worship mentioned is 
 that of Abel, 3872 b.c. {Gen. iv.) "Men began 
 to call on the name of the Lord," 3769 B.C. {Gen. 
 iv.) The Jewish order of worship was set up by 
 Moses, 1490 B.C. Solomon consecrated the temple, 
 1004 B.C. To the corruptions of the simple worship 
 of the patriarchs all the Egyptian and Greek idola- 
 tries owed their origin. Athotes, son of Menes, 
 king of Upper Egypt, is supposed to be the Copt 
 of the Egyptians, and the Tot/i, or Hermes, of the 
 Greeks, the Mercury of the Latins, and the Teutates 
 of the Celts or Gauls, 2112 B.C. Usher. 
 
 WORSHIP EST ENGLAND. The Druids were 
 the priests here, at the invasion of the Romans 
 (55 B.C.), who eventually introduced Christianity, 
 which was almost extirpated by the victorious 
 Saxons (455), who were pagans. The Roman 
 catholic form of Christianity was introduced by 
 Augustine, 596, and continued till the Reformation 
 {which see). 
 
 PLACES OF WORSHIP IN ENGLAND AND WALES 
 IN 1851. 
 
 Places of Worsh Ip. .sitting*. 
 
 Church of England .... 14,077 5,317,915 
 
 Wesleyan Methodists . . . . 6,579 2,194,298 
 
 Independents 3,244 1,067,760 
 
 Baptists 2,789 752,343 
 
 Roman Catholics .... 570 186, in 
 
 Society of Friends . . . . 371 91,559 
 
 Unitarians 229 68,554 
 
 Scottish Presbyterians . . . 160 86,692 
 
 Latter- day Saints (liormonites) . 222 30,783 
 
 Brethren (Plymouth) .... 132 (?) 18,529 
 
 Jews 53 8,438 
 
 New Church (Swedenborgians) . . 50 12,107 
 
 Moravians 32 9,305 
 
 Catholic and Apostolic Church ) 
 
 (Irviugites) . J 32 7.437 
 
 Greek Church 3 291 
 
 Countess of Huntingdon's Con- ) 
 
 nection | io 9 35,2io 
 
 "Welsh Calvinistic Methodists. . 828 198,242 j 
 
 Various small bodies, some with- ) , 
 
 out names .... J 546 105,557 , 
 
 See Wesleyan Methodists, note. 
 
 116 sects having 20,330 places of worship, Oct. 1871. 
 
 WORSTED, spun wool, obtained its name from 
 having been first spun at a town called Worsted, in 
 Norfolk, in which the inventor lived, and where 
 manufactures of worsted are still extensively carried 
 on, 14 Edw. III. 1340. Anderson. " A worsted- 
 stocking knave " is a term of reproach or contempt 
 used by Shakspeare. 
 
 WORTH, sec Wcerth. 
 
 WORTHIES, NINE, a term long ago given 
 to the following eminent men: — 
 
 Jews. Died. 
 
 Joshua b.c. 1426 
 
 David IOI5 
 
 ■Judas Maccabfeus ^1 
 
 Heathens. 
 Hector of Troy_ H84 
 
 323 
 
 44 
 
 Alexander the Great 
 Julius Caesar 
 
 Christians. 
 
 King Arthur of Britain .... a.d. 542 
 
 Charlemagne of France 814 
 
 Godfrey of Bouillon 1100 
 
 In some lists, Gideon and Samson are given, instead 
 of Hector and Arthur. In Shakspeare's Lo\ 
 Lost, act v. se. 2, Hercules and Pompey appeal- as 
 worthies. 
 
 WOTHLYTYPE, see under Photography. 
 
 WOUNDED IN BATTLE, see Geneva 
 Convention, and Aid to Sic/c and Wounded. 
 
 WOUNDING. Malicious wounding of another 
 was adjudged death by the English statutes. The 
 Coventry act was passed in 167 1 ; see Coventry Act. 
 By lord Ellenborough's act, persons who stab or 
 cut with intent to murder, maim, or disfigure 
 another were declared guilty of felony without 
 benefit of clergy. Those guilty of maliciously 
 shooting at another in any dwelling-house or other 
 place, are also punishable tinder the same statute 
 in the same degree, 43 Geo. III. 1802. This offence 
 is met by some later statutes, particularly the act 
 for consolidating and amending the acts relating to 
 offences against the person, 9 Geo. IV., June, 1828. 
 This last act is extended to Ireland by 10 Geo. IV., 
 
 1829. An act for the prevention of maliciously 
 shooting, stabbing, &c, in Scotland, 6 Geo. IV., 
 1825; amended by 10 Geo. IV., 4 June, 1829. 
 16 <Sc 17 Vict. c. 30, 1853, was passed for the pre- 
 vention and punishment of assaults on women and 
 children. 
 
 WRECKS. The loss of merchant and other 
 ships by wreck upon lee-shores, coasts, and disasters 
 in the open sea, was estimated at Lloyd's, in 1800, 
 to be about an average of 365 ships a year. In 
 
 1830, it appeared by Lloyd's Lists that 677 British 
 vessels were totally lost, under various circum- 
 stances, in that year. The laws respecting wrecks 
 were consolidated in 1846 and 1854. See Seamen 
 (commission of inquiry). 
 
 British vessels wrecked in 1848, were, sailing vessels, 
 
 501 ; steamers, 13 ; tonnage, 96,920. 
 In 1851, there were wrecked 611 vessels, of which number 
 
 n were steamers: the tonnage of the whole being 
 
 111,976. 
 The year 1852-3, particularly the winter months (Dec. 
 
 and Jan.), was very remarkable for the number of 
 
 dreadful shipwrecks and tires at sea ; but a few of them 
 
 are recorded. 
 Many vessels were lost in the great storms, 25, 26 Oct. 
 
 1859 ; 28 May, 1861 ; 19, 20 Oct. 1861 ; and 13, 14 Nov. 
 
 1862 : by a cyclone, India, 5 Oct. 1864 ; in the West 
 
 Indies, Oct. 1867. 
 From the establishment of the Royal National Lifeboat 
 
 institution, in 1824, to the end of 1867, 16,987 lives had 
 
 been saved by its life-boats. 
 Lives saved, principally by the life-boats, in 1867, 5845 ; 
 
 in 1869, 5121 ; in 1871, 4336. 
 
 WRECKS OF VESSELS ON BRITISH COASTS. 
 
 Vessels. Lives lost. 
 
 1852 .... 1115 .... 920 
 
 1853 832 . . . . 689 
 
 1854 .... 987 ... . 1549 
 1855 1141 . . . . 469 
 
 Vessels wrecked or suffering Vessels 
 
 other casiudties. totally wrecked. Lireslost. 
 
 1856 1153 . . . . — . . . 521 
 
 1857 1143 384 . .532 
 
 1858 1170 . . . . 354 . . . 340 
 
 1859 1416 — . 1645 
 
 i860 1379 . . . . 541 . • . 536 
 
 1861 1494 — . . 884 
 
 1862 1488 .... 455 . . . 690 
 
 1863 1664 503 . . 620 
 
 1861 1390 .... 467 . . . 516 
 
WEECKS. 
 
 733 
 
 WEECKS. 
 
 Vessels wrecked or suffering Vessels 
 
 other casualties. totally lureclced. 
 
 1865 1656 — 
 
 1866 i860 . . . . — . 
 
 1867 2090 . .... 656 
 
 1868 1747 . . . . — . 
 
 1869 2114 — 
 
 1870 1502 .... 411 . 
 
 1871 1575 398 
 
 Lives lost. 
 
 1333 
 824 
 
 933 
 774 
 626 
 
 .REMARKABLE CASES OF BRITISH VESSELS WRECKED 
 OR BURNT. 
 
 Mary Rose, 60 guns, going from Portsmouth to Spit- 
 head, upset in a squall ; all on board perished, 
 
 20 July, 1545 
 Coronation, 90 guns, foundered off the Ramhead ; 
 
 crew saved : Harwich, 70 guns, wrecked on 
 Mount Edgcumbe ; crew perished . 1 Sept. 1691 
 
 Royal Sovereign, 100 guns ; burnt in the Medway, 
 
 29 Jan. 1696 
 
 Stirling Castle, 70 guns ; Mary, 70 guns ; Northum- 
 berland, 70 guns, lost on the Goodwin ; Vanguard. 
 70 guns, sunk at Chatham ; York, 70 guns, lost 
 near Harwich ; all lost but four men ; Resolution, 
 60 guns, coast of Sussex ; Neivcastle, 60 guns, at 
 Spithead, 193 drowned ; Reserve, 60 guns, at Yar- 
 mouth, 173 perished ; in the night of 26 Nov. 1703 
 
 Association, 70 guns, and other vessels, lost with 
 admiral sir C. Shovel, off the Seilly isles (which see) 
 
 22 Oct. 1707 
 
 Solebay, 32 guns, lost near Boston neck ; crew 
 perished 25 Dec. 1709 
 
 Edgar, 70 guns, blew up at Spithead ; all on board 
 perished 15 Oct. 1711 
 
 Victory, 100 guns, near the isle of Alderney ; all 
 perished 5 Oct. 1744 
 
 Colchester, 50 guns, lost on Kentish Knock ; 50 men 
 perished 21 Sept. „ 
 
 Namur, 74 guns, foundered near Fort St. David, 
 East Indies ; all perished except 26 persons ; 
 Pembroke, 60 guns, near Porto Novo ; 330 of her 
 crew perished 13 April, 1749 
 
 Prince George, 80 guns, burnt in lat. 48 N. , on way 
 to Gibraltar ; about 400 perished . 13 April, 1758 
 
 Lichfield, 50 guns, lost on the coast of Barbary ; 130 
 of the crew perished . . . .29 Nov. „ 
 
 Tilbury, 60 guns, lost off Louisbourg ; most of the 
 crew perished 25 Sept. 1759 
 
 Ramilies, 90 guns, lost on the Bolt-head ; only 26 
 persons saved ; Conqueror, lost on St. Nicholas's 
 Island, Plymouth .... 15 Feb. 1760 
 
 Due d'Aquitaine, 64 guns, and Sunderland, 60 guns, 
 lost off Pondicherry ; all perished . 1 Jan. 1761 
 
 Raisonnable, 64 guns, lost at the attack of Marti- 
 nique 3 Feb. 1762 
 
 Repulse, 32 guns, foundered off Bermuda; crew 
 perished . . . 1775 
 
 Thunderer, 74 guns ; Stirling Castle, 64 ; Defiance, 
 64 ; Phaznix, 44 ; La Blanche, 32 ; Laurel, 28 ; 
 Shark, 28 ; Andromeda, 28 ; Deal Castle, 24 ; Pene- 
 lope, 24 ; Scarborough, 20 ; Barbadoes, 14 ; Came- 
 leon, 14 ; Endeavour, 14 ; and Victor, 10 guns : all 
 lost in the same storm, in the West Indies, in 
 
 Oct. 1780 
 
 Gen. Barker, Indiaman, off Scheveling . 17 Feb. 1781 
 
 G-rosvenor, Indiaman, coast of Caffraria . 4 Aug. 1782 
 
 Swan, sloop of war, off Waterford ; 130 drowned, 
 
 4 Aug. ,, 
 
 Royal George ; above 600 perished . . 29 Aug. ,, 
 
 Centaur, 74 guns, foundered on her passage from 
 Jamaica; capt. Inglefield and 11 of the crew saved 
 
 21 Sept. „ 
 VUle de Paris, of 104 guns, one of admiral Rodney's 
 
 prizes ; the Glorieux, of 74 guns, lost in the West 
 
 Indies 5 Oct. „ 
 
 Superb, 74 guns, wrecked in Tellicherry roads, East 
 
 Indies 5 Nov. 1783 
 
 Cato, 50 guns, admiral sir Hyde Parker, on the 
 
 Malabar coast ; crew perished . . . . „ 
 Count Bclgioioso, Indiaman, off Dublin Bay ; 147 
 
 souls perished 13 March, „ 
 
 Menai, ferry-boat, in the Strait ; 60 drowned, 
 
 sDec. 1785 
 •Jfalsewell, E. Indiaman; 100 persons perished, 
 
 6 Jan. 1786 
 Hartwell, Indiaman, with immense wealth on board 
 
 24 May, 1787 
 
 Charlemont .Packet, from Holyhead to Dublin ; 104 
 
 drowned 22 Dec. 1790. 
 
 Pandora, frigate on a reef; 100 perished . 28 Aug. 1791 
 Union, packet of Dover, lost. off the port of Calais ; 
 a similar occurrence had not happened for 105 
 
 years before 28 Jan. 1792 
 
 Wi nterton, E. Indiaman : many perished 20 Aug. „ 
 Impehieux, 74 guns, burnt at Portsmouth 24 Aug. ,', 
 Scorpion, 74 guns, burnt at Leghorn . 20 Nov. 1793 
 Ardent, 64 guns, burnt off Corsica . . April, 1794. 
 Boyne, by fire, at Spithead (see Boyne) . 4 May, 1795 
 Courageux, 74 guns, capt. B. Haliowell, near Gib- 
 raltar ; crew, except 124, perished . 18 Dec. 1796 
 La Tribune, 36 guns, off Halifax ; 300 souls perished 
 
 16 Nov. 1797 
 Resistance, blown up in the straits of Banca, 
 
 24 July, 1798 
 Royal Charlotte, East Indiaman, blown up at Culpee, 
 
 1 Aug. ,, 
 Proserpine frigate ; in the Elbe ; 15 lost . 1 Feb. ,, 
 Lutine, 36 guns, wrecked off the Vlie island, coast 
 of Holland ; only two saved (crown jewels of 
 Holland lost) . ... 7 or 9 Oct. 1799 
 
 , Impregnable, 98 guns, wrecked between Langstone 
 
 and Chichester ig Oct. „ 
 
 Sceptre, 64 guns, wrecked in Table Bay, cape of Good 
 
 Hope; 291 of the crew perished . . . . ,, 
 Nassau, 64 guns, on the Haak Bank ; 100 perished, 
 
 25 Oct. „ 
 Ethalion, frigate, 38 guns, on the Pemnarks, 
 
 24 Dee. „ 
 Queen, transport, on Trefusis Point; 369 souls 
 
 perished 14 Jan. 1800 
 
 Mastiff, gunbrig, on the Cockle Sands . ig Jan. „ 
 Repulse, 64 guns, off Ushant . . .10 March, 
 Queen, W. Indiaman, by Are, off Brazil . 9 July,' „ 
 Brazen, sloop of war, off Newhaven ; all lost except 
 
 one man 
 
 Invincible, 74 guns, near Yarmouth; capt. John 
 Rennie, and the crew, except 126 souls, perished, 
 
 16 March, 1801 
 Margate, Margate-hoy, near Reculver ; 23 persons 
 perished ...... 10 Feb. 1802 
 
 Bangalore, E. Indiaman, Indian Sea . 12 April, ,, 
 Active, West Indiaman, in Margate Roads 10 Jan! 1803; 
 Hindustan, East Indiaman, went to pieces on the 
 
 Culvers n Jan. „ 
 
 La Determinee, 24 guns, in Jersey Roads; niany 
 
 drowned 26 March, „ 
 
 Resistance, 36 guns, off Cape St. Vincent . 31 May, „ 
 Lady Hobart, packet, on an island of ice 
 
 28 Onue, „. 
 Seine, frigate, 44 guns, off Schelling . 31 July, „ 
 Antelope, capt. Wilson, off Pellew Islands . 9 Aug. ,, 
 Victory, Liverpool ship, at Liverpool ; 27 drowned, 
 
 30 Sept. ,, 
 Ci rce, frigate, 32 guns, off Yarmouth . 16 Nov. ,, 
 Nautilus, E. Indiaman, on Ladrones . 18 Nov. 
 Fanny, in Chinese Sea: 46 souls perish 29 Nov.. ',', 
 Suffisante, sloop, 16 guns, off Cork . . 25 Dec. ', 
 Apollo, frigate, on coast of Portugal . 1 April, 1804. 
 Cumberland Packet, on Antigua coast . 4 Sept. 
 Romney, 50 guns on Haak Bank, Texel 18 Nov. ", 
 
 Venerable, 74 guns, at Torbay ; lost 8 men 24 Nov. ' ,) 
 Severn, on a rock, near Grouville . . 21 Dec. ", 
 
 Doris, frigate, on the Diamond Rock, Quiberon Bay, 
 
 12 Jan. 1805 
 Abergavenny, East Indiaman, on the Bill of Port- 
 land ; more than 300 persons perished 6 Feb. 
 Naias, transport, on Newfoundland coast 23 Oct! " 
 jEneas, transport, off Newfoundland ; 340 perished, 
 
 23 Oct. ,, 
 Aurora, transport, on the Goodwin Sands; 300 
 
 perished 2 i Dec. 
 
 King George, packet, from Park-gate to Dublin, lost 
 on the Hoyle bank ; 125 persons, passengers and 
 
 crew, drowned 2I Sept. I 8o6 
 
 Athenien, 64 guns, near Tunis ; 347 souls perished, 
 
 Glasgow, packet, off Farm Island; several drowned, 
 _"' 17 Nov. 
 
 Felix, 12 guns, near Santander; 79 souls lost 
 _, , . 22 Jan. 1807 
 
 Blenheim, 74 guns, admiral sir T. Troubridge, ami 
 Java, 23 guns, foundered neax island of Rodriguez, 
 
 East Indies x _p e ;,' 
 
 Ajax, 74 guns, by fire, off the island of Tenedos- ' 
 250 perished 14 Feb! ,„ 
 
WRECKS. 
 
 734 
 
 WRECKS. 
 
 Blanche, frigate, on the French coast; 45 men 
 perished 4 March, 1807 
 
 Ganges, East Indiaman, off the Cape of Good Hope, 
 
 29 May, ,, 
 
 Prince of Wales, Park-gate packet, and Rochdale, 
 transport, on Dunleary point, near Dublin; nearly 
 300 souls perished .... 19 Nov. ,, 
 
 Boreas, man-of-war, upon the Hannois rock in the 
 Channel . . . . . . 28 Nov ,, 
 
 Anson, 44 guns, wrecked in Mount's Bay; 60 lives 
 lost 29 Dec. „ 
 
 Agatlm, near Memel; lord Royston and others 
 drowned 7 April, 1808 
 
 Astrea, frigate, on Auagada coast . . 23 May, ,, 
 
 Frith, passage-boat, in the Frith of Dornoch; 40 
 persons drowned . . . . 13 Aug. 1809 
 
 Foxhound, 18 guns, foundered on passage from 
 Halifax ; crew perished .... 31 Aug. ,, 
 
 Sirius, 36 guns, and Magicienne, 36 guns, wrecked 
 when advancing to attack the French, off Isle of 
 France 23 Aug. 1810 
 
 Satellite, sloop of war, 16 guns, upset, and all on 
 
 , board perished 14 Dec. ,, 
 
 Minotaur, of 74 guns, wrecked on the Haak Bank ; 
 360 persons perished .... 22 Dec. ,, 
 
 Pandora, sloop of war, off Jutland; 30 persons 
 perished 13 Feb. 1811 
 
 Si'.hbinha, frigate, on the Irish coast; 300 persons 
 perished 4 Bee. „ 
 
 St. George, of 98, and Defence, of 74 guns, and the 
 Hero, stranded on the coast of Jutland, adm. 
 Reynolds and all the crews (about 2000 persons) 
 perished, except 18 seamen . . .24 Dec. ,, 
 
 Manilla, frigate, on the Haak Sand; 12 persons 
 perished 28 Jan. 1812 
 
 British Queen, packet, from Ostend to Margate, 
 wrecked on the Goodwin Sands, and all on board 
 perished 17 Dec. l8l 4 
 
 Jinrhess of Wellington, at Calcutta, by fire 21 Jan. 1816 
 
 Sealiorse, transport, near Tramore Bay; 365 persons, 
 chiefly soldiers of the 59th regiment, and most of 
 the crew, drowned .... 30 Jan. ,, 
 
 Lord Melville and Boadicea, transports, with up- 
 wards of 200 of the 82nd regiment, with wives and 
 children, lost near Kinsale ; almost all perished, 
 
 31 Jan. ,, 
 
 Harpooner, transport, near Newfoundland ; 100 per- 
 sons drowned 10 Nov. ,, 
 
 William and Mary, packet, struck on the Willeys 
 rocks, near the Holmes lighthouse, Bristol Chan- 
 nel ; nearly 60 persons perished . . 24 Oct. 1817 
 
 ■Queen Charlotte, East Indiaman, at Madras ; all on 
 board perished 24 Oct. 1818 
 
 Ariel, in the Persian Gulf; 79 souls perished, 
 
 18 March, 1820 
 
 JZarl of Moira, on the Burbo Bank, near Liverpool ; 
 40 drowned 8 Aug. 1821 
 
 BlendonHall, on Inaccessible Island ; many perished, 
 
 23 July, ,, 
 
 ■Juliana, East Indiaman, on the Kentish Knock; 40 
 
 drowned 26 Dec. ,, 
 
 Thames, Indiaman, off Beachey Head; several 
 drowned 3 Feb. 1822 
 
 Drake, 10 guns, near Halifax; several drowned, 
 
 20 June, ,, 
 
 FJlesmere, steamer; 11 persons lost . 14 Dec. „ 
 
 Alert, Dublin and Liverpool packet; 70 souls 
 perished 26 March, 1823 
 
 Robert, from Dublin to Liverpool ; 60 souls perished, 
 
 16 May, ,, 
 
 Fanny, in Jersey Roads; lord Harley and many 
 
 drowned 1 Jan. 1828 
 
 Venus, packet, from Waterford to Dublin, near 
 Gorey ; 9 persons drowned . . 19 March, „ 
 
 Newry, from Newry to Quebec, with 360 passengers ; 
 cast away nearBardsy, about 40 persons were 
 drowned 16 April, 1830 
 
 Lady Sherbrooke, from Londonderry to Quebec ; lost 
 near Cape Ray ; 273 souls perished ; 32 only were 
 
 saved 19 Aug. 1831 
 
 Experiment, from Hull to Quebec; wrecked near 
 Calais 15 April, 1832 
 
 Hibernia, burnt in W. long. 22°, S. lat. 4"; 150 per- 
 sons (out of 232) perished . . -15 Feb. 1833 
 Ea rl <>f Wemyss, near Wells, Norfolk : the cabin filled, 
 and 11 ladies and children were drowned ; all on 
 deck escaped 13 July, ,, 
 
 Amphitritc, ship with female convicts to New South 
 
 Wales; lost on Boulogne Sands; out of 131 per- 
 sons, 3 only were saved . . . .30 Aug. 1833 
 
 United Kingdom, W. Indiaman, with rich cargo; run 
 down by the Queen of Scotland steamer off North- 
 fleet, near Gravesend . . . . 15 Oct. ,, 
 
 Waterwitch, steamer, on the coast of Wexford ; 4 
 drowned 18 Dec. ,, 
 
 Lady Munro, ' from Calcutta to Sydney; of 90 
 persons on board, not more than 20 were saved, 
 
 9 Jan. 1834 
 
 Cameleon, cutter, run down off Dover by the Castor 
 frigate ; 13 persons drowned . . 27 Aug. „ 
 
 Killarney, steamer, off Cork; 29 persons perished, 
 
 26 Jan. 1838 
 
 Forfarshire, steamer, from Hull to Dundee ; 38 per- 
 sons drowned. Owing to the courage of Grace 
 Darling and her father, 15 persons were saved (see 
 Forfarshire) 6 Sept. ,, 
 
 Protector, E. Indiaman, at Bengal ; of 178 persons on 
 board, 170 perished . . . 21 Nov. ,, 
 
 William Huskisson, steamer, between Dublin and 
 Liverpool ; 93 passengers saved by capt. Clegg, of 
 the Hvddersficld 11 Jan. 1840 
 
 Lord William Bentinck, off Bombay ; 58 recruits, 
 20 officers, and 7 passengers perished ; the Lord 
 Castlereagh also wrecked, most of her crew and 
 passengers lost 17 June, „ 
 
 H.M.S. Fairy, captain Hewitt; sailed from Harwich 
 on a surveying cruise, and was lost next day in a 
 violent gale, off the coast of Norfolk. 13 Nov. ,, 
 
 City of Bristol, steam packet, 35 perished 18 Nov. ,, 
 
 Thames, steamer, captain Gray, from Dublin to 
 Liverpool, wrecked off St. Ives ; the captain and 
 55 persons perished .... 4 Jan. 1841 
 
 Governor Fenncr, from Liverpool for America ; run 
 down off Holyhead by the Nottingham steamer out 
 of Dublin; 122 persons perished . 19 Feb. ,, 
 
 Amelia, from London to Liverpool; lost on the 
 Heme Sand 26 Feb. „ 
 
 President, steamer, from New York to Liverpool, 
 with many passengers on board; sailed on n 
 March, encountered a terrific storm two days 
 afterwards, and has never since been heard of, 
 
 13 March, ,, 
 
 [In this vessel were, Mr. Tyrone Power, the come- 
 dian ; a son of the duke of Richmond, &c] 
 
 William Browne, by striking on the ice ; 16 passen- 
 gers who had been received into the long boat 
 were thrown overboard by the crew to lighten her 
 
 19 April, ,, 
 
 Isabella, from London to Quebec; struck by an 
 iceberg 9 May, ,, 
 
 Solway, steamer, on her passage between Belfast 
 and Port Carlisle ; crew saved . . 25 Aug. ,, 
 
 Amanda, off Metis; 29 passengers and 12 of the 
 crew lost 26 Sept. 
 
 James Cooke, of Limerick, coming from Sligo to 
 Glasgow 21 Nov. ,, 
 
 Abercrombie Robinson and Waterloo transports, in 
 Table Bay, Cape of Good Hope : of 330 persons 
 on board the latter vessel, 189, principally con- 
 victs, perished 28 Aug. 1842 
 
 Spitfire, war-steamer, off Jamaica. . 10 Sept. ,, 
 
 Reliance, East Indiaman, from China to London, off 
 Merlemont, near Boulogne : of 116 persons on 
 board, seven only were saved . .13 Nov. ,, 
 
 Hamilton, on the Gunfleet sands, near Harwich ; n 
 of the crew perished . . . . 15 Nov. ,, 
 
 Conqueror, East Indiaman, homeward bound, near 
 Boulogne; crew and passengers lost . 13 Jan. 1843 
 
 Jessie Logan, East Indiaman, on the Cornish coast; 
 many lives lost 16 Jan. ,, 
 
 Solway, royal mail-steamer, near Corunna; 28 lives 
 lost, and the mail .... 7 April, ,, 
 
 Catht eine, trader, blown up off the Isle of Pines ; 
 most of the crew were massacred by the natives, 
 or afterwards drowned . . . 12 April, ,, 
 
 Amelia Thompson, near Madras, part of crew saved 
 
 23 May, ,, 
 
 Albert, troop-ship, from Halifax, with the 64th 
 regiment on board, which was miraculously saved 
 
 13 July, ,, 
 
 Pegasus, steam-packet, from Leith ; off the Fern 
 islands ; of 59 persons (including Mr. Elton, the 
 actor), 7 only were saved ... 19 July, „ 
 
 Phoenix, in a terrific snow-storm, off the coast of 
 Newfoundland ; many lives were lost 26 Nov. „ 
 
 Elbmfeldt, iron steam-ship, from Briellc 22 Feb. 1844 
 
WRECKS. 
 
 735 
 
 WEECKS. 
 
 Manchester, steamer, from Hull to Hamburg, off the 
 Vogel Sands, near Cuxhaven ; about 30 lives lost, 
 
 16 June, 1844 
 Margaret, Hull and Hamburg steamer ; many lives 
 
 lost . . v 22 Oct. 1845 
 
 Great Britain, iron steam-ship, grounded in Dun- 
 drum bay (see Great Britain) . . .22 Sept. ,, 
 [Recovered by Brunei, &c, 27 Aug. 1847.] 
 John Lloyd, by collision, in the Irish sea ; several 
 
 lives lost 25 Sept. „ 
 
 Tweed, W. India mail-packet ; 72 souls perished, 
 
 19 Feb. 1847 
 Carrick, brig; a gale in the St. Lawrence; 170 
 
 emigrants perished . . . . ig May, „ 
 Avenger, H.M. steam-frigate; off N. coast of 
 
 Africa ; officers and crew (nearly 200) lost 20 Dec. ,, 
 Exmouth, emigrant-ship, from Londonderry to 
 Quebec ; of 240 persons on board, nearly all were 
 
 drowned 28 April, „ 
 
 Ocean Monarch {which see) . . . .24 Aug. 1848 
 Caleb Grimshaw, emigrant-ship, fire ; 400 persons 
 
 miraculously escaped .... 12 Nov. 1849 
 Royal Adelaide, steamer, wrecked on the Tongue 
 Sands, off Margate, above 400 lives lost, 
 
 30 March, 1850 
 Orion, steam-ship, off Portpatrick (see Orion), 
 
 18 June, ,, 
 Rosalind, from Quebec ; a number of the crew 
 
 drowned ... 9 Sept. „ 
 
 Edmund, emigrant-ship, with nearly 200 passengers 
 from Limerick to New York (of whom more than 
 one-half perished), wrecked off the Western coast 
 
 of Ireland 12 Nov. ,, 
 
 Amazon, W. India, mail-steamer (see Amazon), 
 
 4 Jan. 1852 
 Birkenhead, troop-ship, iron paddle-wheeled, and 
 of 556 horse-power, sailed from Queenstown, 7 
 Jan. 1852, for the Cape, having on board detach- 
 ments of the 12th Lancers, 2nd, 6th, 12th, 43rd, 
 45th, and 60th Rifles, 73rd, 74th, and 91st regi- 
 ments. It struck upon a pointed pinnacle rock 
 off Simon's bay, South Africa, and of 638 persons, 
 only 184 were saved by the boats ; 454 of the crew 
 and soldiers perished . . . .26 Feb. ,, 
 Victoria, steam-packet, wrecked near Wings beacon 
 
 off Gottenburg ; many lives lost . 8, 9 Nov. ,, 
 
 Lily, stranded and blown up by gunpowder, on the 
 Calf-of-Man ; by which more than 30 persons 
 
 lost their lives 24 Dec. ,, 
 
 •St. George, steam-ship, bound from Liverpool to 
 New York, with 121 emigrant passengers (chiefly 
 Irish), and a crew consisting of twenty-nine sea- 
 men (the captain inclusive), was destroyed by fire 
 at sea. The crew and seventy of the passengers 
 were saved by the American ship Orlando, and 
 conveyed to Havre, in France ; 51 supposed to 
 
 have perished 24 Dec. ,, 
 
 •Queen Victoria, steam-ship, bound from Liverpool, 
 was wrecked off the Bailey lighthouse, near Dub- 
 lin ; mistook her course in a snow-storm : 67 lost 
 
 out of 120 15 Feb. 1853 
 
 Independence, on the coast of Lower California, and 
 which afterwards took fire ; 140 persons were 
 drowned or burnt to death, a few escaping, who 
 underwent the most dreadful additional sufferings 
 on a barren shore . . . . 16 Feb. „ 
 Duke of Sutherland, steamer, from London to Aber- 
 deen ; wrecked on the pier at Aberdeen, and the 
 captain (Hoskins) and many of the crew and pas- 
 sengers perished 2 April, „ 
 
 Rebecca, on west coast of Van Diemen's Land, capt. 
 
 Shephard and many lives lost . . 29 April, ,, 
 William and Ma.ry, an American emigrant ship, 
 near the Bahamas. She struck on a sunken rock ; 
 about 170 persons perished ... 3 May, „ 
 Aurora, of Hull ; sailed from New York, 26 April, 
 
 and foundered ; about 25 lives lost . 20 May, ,, 
 Bourneuf, Australian emigrant vessel'; struck on a 
 reef near Torres Straits ; the captain (Bibby) and 
 
 six lives lost 3 Aug. ,, 
 
 Annie Jane, of Liverpool, an emigrant vessel, 
 driven on shore on the Barra Islands, on west 
 coast of Scotland ; about 348 lives lost 29 Sept. „ 
 Harwood, brig, by collision with the Trident 
 steamer, near the Mouse light near the Nore ; 
 foundered ; six of the crew perished . 5 Oct. „ 
 Dalhousie, foundered off Beachey Head ; the cap- 
 tain. (Butterworth), the passengers, and all the 
 
 crew (excepting one), about 60 persons in all, 
 perished ; the cargo was valued at above 100,000?. 
 
 19 Oct. 1853 
 Marshall, screw-steamer, in the North Sea, ran 
 into the barque Woodhouse; about 48 persons 
 supposed to have perished . . 28 Nov. ,, 
 
 Tayleur, emigrant ship, driven on the rocks off 
 Lambay Island, north of Howth ; about 380 lives 
 lost 20 Jan. 1854* 
 
 Favourite, in the Channel, on her way from Bremen 
 to Baltimore, came into violent contact with the 
 American barque Hesper, off the Start, and imme- 
 diately went down ; 201 persons were drowned 
 
 29 April, 1854 
 
 Lady Nugent, troop-ship, sailed from Madras, 10 
 May, 1854 : foundered in a hurricane ; 350 rank 
 and file of the Madras light infantry, officers, and 
 crew, in all 400 souls, perished . . May, „ 
 
 Forerunner, African mail-steamer, struck on a 
 sunken rock off St. Lorenzo, Madeira, and went 
 down directly afterwards, with the total loss of 
 ship and mails, and 14 lives . . 25 Oct. „ 
 
 Nile, iron screw-steamer, struck on the Godevry 
 rock, St. Ives' Bay, and all perished . 30 Nov. ,, 
 
 City of Glasgow, a Glasgow steamer, with 480 persons 
 on board, disappeared in „ 
 
 In the storm which raged in the Black Sea, 13-16 
 Nov. 1854, eleven transports were wrecked and 
 six disabled. The new steamship Prince was lost 
 with 144 lives, and a cargo worth 500,000?. indis- 
 pensable to the army in the Crimea. The loss 
 of life iu the other vessels is estimated at 340 . „ 
 
 George Canning, Hamburg and New York packet, 
 near the mouth of the Elbe : 96 lives lost, and 
 Stately, English schooner, near Neuwiek, in a great 
 storm 1 Jan. 1855 
 
 Mercury, screw-steamer, by collision with a French 
 ship : passengers saved . . . n Jan. ,, 
 
 Janet Boyd, bark, in a storm off Margate Sands ; 28 
 lives lost • 20 Jan. „ 
 
 Will 0' the Wisp, screw-steamer, on the Burn Rock, 
 off Lambay; 18 lives lost . . . 9 Feb. ,, 
 
 Morna, steamer on rocks near the Isle of Man ; 21 
 lives lost 25 Feb. „ 
 
 John, emigrant vessel, on the Muncles rocks off 
 Falmouth ; 200 lives lost . . . .1 May, „ 
 
 Pacific, Collins steamer, left Liverpool for New 
 York, with 186 persons on board ; never since 
 heard of (supposed to have struck on an iceberg) 
 
 23 Jan. 1856 
 
 Josephine Willis, packet-ship, lost by collision with 
 the screw-steamer Mangerton, in the Channel; 
 about 70 lives lost 3 Feb. „ 
 
 John Rutledge, from Liverpool to New York, ran on 
 an iceberg and was wrecked ; many lives lost 
 
 20 Feb. ,, 
 
 Many vessels and their crews totally lostt 1-8 Jan. 1857 
 
 Violet, royal mail-steamer, lost on the Goodwin; 
 many persons perished ... 5 Jan. ,, 
 
 Tyne, royal-steamer, stranded on her way to South- 
 ampton from the Brazils . . . 13 Jan. ,, 
 
 St. Andrew, screw-steamer, totally wrecked near 
 Latakia ; loss about 145,000?. . . 29 Jan. „ 
 
 Charlemagne, iron clipper, wrecked by the coast of 
 Canton : passengers saved ; loss, about 110,000?. 
 
 20 March, „ 
 
 H.M.S. Raleigh, 50 guns, wrecked on south-east 
 coast of Macao 14 April, „ 
 
 Catherine Adamson, Australian vessel, wrecked 
 25 miles from Sydney, 20 lives lost, about 3 June, „ 
 
 H.M.S. Transit, wrecked on a reef in the Straits of 
 Banca 10 July, „ 
 
 Dunbar, clipper, wrecked on the rocks near Sydney : 
 121 persons, and cargo valued at 22,000?. lost; 
 one person only saved, who was on the rocks 30 
 hours 20 Aug. „ 
 
 Sarah Sands, an iron-screw steamer, sailed from 
 Portsmouth to Calcutta, in Aug. 1857 > 3°° soldiers 
 on board. On n Nov. the cargo (government 
 
 * Arctic, U. S. mail steamer, by collision in a fog with 
 the Vesta, French steamer, off Newfoundland ; above 300 
 lives lost, 27 Sept. 1854. 
 
 t A large American vessel, Northern Belle, was 
 wrecked near Broadstairs. The American government 
 sent 21 silver medals and 270?. to be distributed among 
 the heroic boatmen of the place, who saved the crew. 
 5-6 Jan. 1857. 
 
WRECKS. 
 
 736 
 
 WRECKS. 
 
 .stores) took tire. By the exertions of major Brett 
 an<l captain Castle, the master of the vessel, who 
 directed the soldiers and the crew, the flames 
 were subdued, although a barrel of gunpowder 
 exploded during the conflagration. A new danger 
 then arose— the prevalence < if a strong gale ; water 
 was shipped heavily where the port quarter hail 
 been blown out. Nevertheless, after a fearful 
 struggle, the vessel arrived at the Mauritius, 21 
 Nov., without losing a single life 11-21 Nov. 
 
 Windsor, emigrant-ship, struck on a reef near the 
 Cape de Verde Islands . 1 Dec. 
 
 Ava, Indian mail-steamer, with ladies and others 
 from Lucknow on board; wrecked near Ceylon 
 
 16 Feb. 
 
 Eastern City, burnt about the equator on her way to 
 Melbourne; by great exertions all oh board were 
 saved 23, 24 Aug. 
 
 Austria, steam-emigrant ship, burnt in the middle 
 of the Atlantic. Of 538 persons on board, only 
 67 were saved. The disaster due to carelessness 
 
 13 Sept. 
 
 St. Paul, captain Pennard, from Hong Kong to 
 Sydney, with 327 Chinese emigrants, wrecked on 
 the island of Rossel, 30 Sept. 1858. The captain 
 and eight of the crew left the island in search of 
 assistance, and were picked up by the Prime of 
 Denmctrk schooner. The French steamer Styx was 
 dispatched to the island, and brought away one 
 Chinese, 25 Jan. 1859. All the rest had been 
 massacred and devoured by the natives 
 
 Czar, steamer, wrecked off the Lizard ; 14 lives lost 
 
 23 Jan. 1 
 
 Eastern Monarch, burnt at Spithead ; out of 500, 
 eight lives lost. The vessel contained invalid 
 soldiers from India, who, with the crew, behaved 
 admirably 2 June, 
 
 Alma, steamer, grounded on a reef near Aden, Red 
 Sea, about 35 miles from Mocha ; all persons 
 saved ; after i{ days' exposure to the sun, with- 
 out water, they were rescued by H.M.S. Cyclops: 
 sir John Bowring, who was on board ; lost valua- 
 ble papers 12 June, 
 
 Admella, steamer, running between Melbourne and 
 Adelaide, struck on a reef ; of about 72 persons, 
 only 23 were saved j many perished through ex- 
 posure to cold 6 Aug. 
 
 Royal Charter, screw-steamer, captain Taylor, totally 
 wrecked off Moelfra, on the Anglesea coast ; 446 
 lives lost. The vessel contained gold amounting 
 In value to between 700,000?. and 800,000/. ; much 
 of this has been recovered night of 25-26 Oct. 
 
 Indian, mail-steamer, wrecked off the coast of 
 Newfoundland ; out of 116, 27 lives lost 21 Nov 
 
 Blervie Castle, sailed from London docks for 
 Adelaide ; lost in the Channel and all on board, 
 57 persons ; last seen on . . .25 Dec. 
 
 Northerner, steamer wrecked on a rock near Cape 
 Mendorino, between San Francisco and Oregon ; 
 38 lives lost 6 Jan. 
 
 Endymion, sailing-vessel, burnt in the Mersey ; loss 
 above 20,000/. ..... 3 1 Jan. 
 
 Dreadful gales ; and many wrecks on the coast, t 
 
 15-19 Feb. 
 
 Ondine, steamer; lost through collision with the 
 Heroine, of Bideford, abreast of Beachey Head ; 
 the captain and about 50 persons perished 19 Feb. 
 Lvnn, American emigrant vessel, wrecked on rocks 
 off Barfleur; about 100 lives lost . 19 Feb. 
 Hungarian, new mail-steamer, wrecked off coast of 
 Nova Scotia ; all on board (205) lost on the night 1 if 
 
 19-20 Fell. 
 Nimrod, steamer, wrecked on rocks near St. David's 
 
 Head; 40 lives lost 28 Feb. 
 
 Malabar, iron ship, on her way to China, with lord 
 Elgin and baron Gros: wrecked off Point de Galle, 
 Ceylon. The ambassadors displayed much heroism; 
 
 1857 
 
 * Pomona, an American ship, captain Merrihew ; 419 
 persons 011 board, from Liverpool to New York; was 
 wrecked on Blackwater Bank, through the master 
 mistaking the Blackwater for the Tuskar light, only 24 
 persons saved, night of 27-28 April, 1859. 
 
 t American barque Lima, with emigrants, wrecked off 
 Barfleur ; above 100 lives lost, 17 Feb. i860. On the 
 .same rock, on 25 Nov. 1120, was wrecked the Blanche 
 JVe/, containing the children of Henry I. and a large 
 number of attendants ; in all 363 persons perished. 
 
 no lives lost. Of much specie sunk, a good deal 
 was recovered 22 May, 
 
 Lady Elgin, an American steamer, sunk through 
 collision with schooner Augusta mi lake Michigan : 
 of 385 persons mi board, 287 were lost, including 
 Mr. Herbert Ingram, M.P. , founder of the "Illus- 
 trated London News," and his son; morning of 
 
 8 Sept. 
 
 Ant if, Hull steamer, wrecked off Jutland; many 
 persons saved by Mr. Earle, who lost his own life 
 while endeavouring to save others . . 5 Oct. 
 
 Connaught, steamer, burnt; crew saved through 
 the gallantry of the crew nf an American brig, 
 
 7 Oct. 
 
 Juanita, wrecked through collision with an Ameri- 
 can vessel, Joseph Fish, 13 lives lost . 15 March, 
 
 Canadian, steamer, struck on a field of ice in the 
 straits of Belle-isle, and foundered in half an hour : 
 35 lives lost 4 June, 
 
 H.M.S. Conqueror, stranded on Rum Cay, near 
 Bahamas, and lost [the captain and master were 
 censured for neglect of duty] . . 29 Dec. 
 
 Harmony, lost with all hands oft" Plymouth 27 Feb. 
 
 Lotus, merchantman, off Chale Bay, in the great 
 storm ; crew all lost except two . . 19 Oct. 
 
 Orrun Monarch, 2195 tons, sailed from New York, 
 5 March, laden with provisions ; foundered in a 
 gale 9 March, 
 
 Upwards of 60 merchantmen lost during gales in 
 
 March, 
 
 Mars, Waterford steamer, struck on a rock near 
 Milford haven ; about 50 lives lost . . April, 
 
 Bencoolen, East Indiaman, 1400 tons ; struck on 
 sands near Bude haven, Cornwall ; about 26 lives 
 lost 19 Oct. 
 
 Many vessels lost during storm . . .19 Oct. 
 
 Colombo, East India mail steamer, in thick weather, 
 wrecked on Minicoy Island ; 440 miles from Point 
 de Galle, Ceylon ; no lives lost (the crew and pas- 
 sengers taken off by the Ottawa from Bombay, 
 30 Nov.) 19 Nov. 
 
 Lifeguard, steamer, left Newcastle, with about 41 
 passengers; never since heard of; supposed to 
 have foundered off Flamborough head 20 Dec. 
 
 Orpheus, H.M.S. steamer, new vessel, 1700 tons; 
 commander Burnett ; wrecked on Manakau bar, 
 W. coast New Zealand; 70 persons saved ; about 
 190 perished 7 Feb. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon, mail steamer, captain Burgess, in 
 dense fog, wrecked on reef off Cape Race, New- 
 foundland; about 237, out of 446, lives lost. 
 
 27 April, 
 
 All Serene, Australian ship; gale in the Pacific; 
 above 30 lives lost (the survivors suffered much 
 till they reached the Fiji isles in a punt) 21 Feb. 
 
 Many shipwrecks in consequence of the cyclone at 
 Calcutta 5 Oct. 
 
 H.M.S. Racehorse, off Chefoo Cape, Chinese coast; 
 99 lives lost 4 Nov. 
 
 The Stanley, Friendship, &c, in the gale off Tyne- 
 mouth ; and the Dalhousie, screw steamer, mouth 
 of the Tay ; same gale ; 34 lives lost. 24 Nov. 
 
 H.M.S. Bombay, burnt off Flores Island, nearMon- 
 tendes ; 91 lives lost .... 14 Dee. 
 
 J.iiia, cutter, off Great Orme's Head, during a gale; 
 several lives lost; 7 persons drowned by upsetting 
 of the life-boat 14 Jan. 
 
 Eagle Speed, emigrant vessel, foundered near Cal- 
 cutta ; 265 coolies drowned ; great cruelty and 
 neglect imputed . " . . . . 24 Aug. 
 
 Duncan Dunbar, wrecked on a reef at Las Rocas, 
 S. America ; no lives lost ... 7 Oct. 
 
 Ibis, steamer, machinery damaged, off Bally croneen 
 bay ; 15 lives lost; sailed from Cork . . 18 Dec. 
 
 Samphire, mail-steamer; collision with an American 
 barque; several lives lost . . . 13 Dec. 
 
 London, steamer, on her way to Melbourne; foun- 
 dered in Bay of Biscay; about 220 persons 
 perished (including captain Martin, Dr. Woolley, 
 principal of the university of Sydney, G. V. 
 Brooke, the tragedian); about the same time the 
 
 Amalia steamer went down with a cargo worth 
 200,000/. ; no lives lost . . . . 11 Jan. 
 
 Many wrecks and much loss of life during gales, 
 especially off Torbay .... 6-11 Jan. 
 
 Spirit of the Ocean, steamer; wrecked on a rock 
 near Dartmouth ; all lost except 4 . 23 March, 
 
 General Grant, on voyage from Melbourne to London, 
 
 1865 
 
 1866 
 
WEECKS. 
 
 737 
 
 WUBTEMBEEG. 
 
 wrecked off Auckland isles ; only 13 out of about 
 
 100 saved May, 1866 
 
 Amazon, H.M. screw sloop, sunk by collision with 
 screw steamer Osprey, near Portland; several 
 passengers and sailors drowned . 10 July, „ 
 Bruiser, steamer, sunk by collision with the Has- 
 
 well, off Aldborough; about 15 lives lost 19 Aug. „ 
 Bhima, Indian steamer; foundered through collision 
 with Nana, steamer, between Bombay and Suez; < 
 
 19 lives lost 11 Sept. ,, 
 
 H.M.S. Berenice, burnt in Persian Gulf; none 
 
 perished 13 Oct. ,, 
 
 Ceres, near Carnsoe, Ireland; about 36 lives lost 
 [captain Pascoe censured for neglecting to sound] 
 
 10 Nov. ,, 
 Many wrecks in the Channel . . . 5, 6 Jan. 1867 
 James Crosfield, iron ship ; wrecked off Langness, Isle 
 
 of Man ; all on board lost .... 5 Jan. ,, 
 Singapore, Peninsular and Oriental steamer, struck 
 on a sunken rock, and went down ; no lives lost, 
 
 20 Aug. ,, 
 Rhone and Wye, Royal Mail steamers, totally lost, 
 and about 50 other vessels driven ashore ; great 
 loss of life by a hurricane, off St. Thomas (see 
 
 Virgin Islands) 29 Oct. „ 
 
 Hibemia, screw steamer; the shaft of screw pro- 
 peller broke, 600 miles off coast of Ireland ; many 
 lives lost . . .. 24 or 25 Oct. or Nov. 1868 
 Many wrecks on the Cornish coast during a gale, 
 
 19-20 March, 1869 
 Italian, merchant steamer, struck on a rock near 
 
 Finisterre ; about 26 lives lost about 21 March, „ 
 Carnatic, Peninsular and Oriental steamer, wrecked 
 off Shad wan in the gulf of Suez ; about 25 lives lost, 
 
 13 Sept. „ 
 Oneida, American vessel, run down by collision with 
 P. & O. steamer Bombay off Yokohama ; about 115 
 lives lost (captain of Bombay suspended for 6 
 
 months) 24 Jan. 1870 
 
 City of Boston, Inman steamer from America, long 
 missing; a board stating that she was sinking 
 (April, 1S69) found in Cornwall . . n Feb. ,, 
 
 Normandy, S. W. company's steamer, by collision 
 with the steamer Mary, off the Isle of Wight, sunk ; 
 the captain, C. B. Harvey, and 33 others perish, 
 
 17 March, „ 
 H. M. S. Slaney, wrecked by a typhoon near Hong 
 
 Kong ; about 42 lives lost . . . .9 May, „ 
 H.M.S. Captain, iron-clad, sank in a squall off 
 
 Finisterre (see Navy of England) . . 7 Sept. „ 
 Cambria, iron screw steamer, lost in a storm off 
 Inishtrahul island, N.W. Ireland; about 170 lives 
 
 lost 19 Oct. ,, 
 
 Queen of the Thames, magnificent vessel, sailed from 
 London to Sydney by the Cape in 58 days ; re- 
 turning, was lost by striking on sands off Cape 
 Agultras, Africa ; 4 lives and valuable cargo lost ; 
 the captain was censured ... 18 March, 1871 
 Cornwall, wrecked by collision with the HUncdaya 
 
 steamer off Hartlepool . . . 19 March, ,, 
 Megcera, government iron screw-steamer, sailed 
 with about 400 on board for Australia, Feb. 1871; 
 sprang a leak, 8 June; when it was discovered 
 that her bottom was nearly worn away by corro- 
 sion ; she was beached on St. Paul's Isle, in the 
 Indian ocean, 16 June ; huts were erected, and the 
 crew settled, and stores landed ; lieut. Jones was 
 taken on board a Dutch vessel, 16 July; the 
 Oberon brought provisions, 26 Aug.; the crew was 
 carried off during a storm, the stores being left 
 behind, by the Malacca ... 3 Sept. „ 
 
 [The vessel was reported unfit for service in 
 1867; capt. Thrupp was tried and acquitted 
 of blame, 17 Nov.; sir Spencer Robinson and 
 various admiralty officials were censured by a 
 government commission, 6 March, 1872.] 
 
 Rangoon, Peninsular and Oriental steamer, valued 
 at 78,000^. , wrecked on Kadir rock, off Pont de 
 Galle; cargo lost; no lives . . . 1 Nov. ,, 
 
 Norfolk Hero, fishing lugger, lost off Norfolk coast, 
 
 2 Dec. ,, 
 
 Delaware, large steamer ; wrecked off Scilly rocks ; 
 only 2 out of 47 saved .... 20 Dec. ,, 
 
 Severe gales ; many wrecks, and lives lost : — 
 
 Kinsale, steamer, off Waterford; Albion, schooner, 
 off Looe ; Dee, schooner, &c. . . 22-23 Nov. 1872 
 
 Royal Adelaide, emigrant vessel; went ashore on 
 
 Chesil beach, between Weymouth and Portland ; 
 
 _ 5 lOSt 2S Nov. !g 7 2 
 
 bermania, mail packet; wrecked off La Rochelle; 
 about 24 perished .... 21 Dec. 
 
 Northfleet, vessel laden with railway iron for Van 
 Diemen's Land, and railway navigators; run into by 
 a foreign steamer (probably the Murillo, a Spanish 
 vessel) off Dungeness, about n p.m.; about 300 
 
 -_ lost , 22 Jan. 1873 
 
 Lhacabuco, iron ship ; sunk in the Channel, 15 miles 
 from Orme's head, by collision with the Torch 
 steamer; 24 lost .... 1 March, ,, 
 
 Boyne, barque; wrecked off Mohilo bay, Cornwall; 
 13 lost x March, „ 
 
 Atlantic, steamer, of White Star company, struck 
 on Meagher rock, west of Sambro ; said to have 
 fallen short of coals steaming for Halifax; 300 or 
 250 (including capt. Williams) saved out of 1038 
 persons— about 560 lost, 1 April, 1873; many on 
 the rigging perished through cold and want. The 
 case was investigated, and the captain was sus- 
 pended for two years .... 18 April, ,, 
 
 WBITING-. Pictures are considered to be the 
 first essay towards writing. The most ancient re- 
 mains of writing are upon hard substances, such as 
 stones and metals, used by the ancients for edicts, 
 and matters of public "notoriety. Athotes, or 
 Hermes, is said to have written a history of the 
 Egyptians, and to have been the author of the 
 hieroglyphics, 21 12 B. c. Usher. Writing is said to 
 have been taught to the Latins by Europa, daughter 
 of Agenor, king of Phoenicia, 1494 b.c. Thucydides. 
 Cadmus, the founder of Cadmea, 1493 b.c, brought 
 the Phoenician letters into Greece. Vossius. The 
 commandments were written on two tables of stone, 
 1491 b.c. Usher. The Greeks and Eomans used 
 wax table-books, and continued the use of them 
 long after papp-us was known ; * see Papyrus, 
 Parchment, Paper. Thos. Astle's " History of 
 Writing" was first published in 1784; Natalis de 
 Wailly's "Elemens de Paleographie," 1838. 
 
 WBOXETEE (in Shropshire), the Roman city 
 UHconium. Roman inscriptions, ruins, seals, and 
 coins were found here in 1752. New discoveries 
 having been made, a committee for further investi- 
 gation met at Shrewsbury on n Nov. 1858. Exca- 
 vations were commenced in Feb. 1859, which were 
 continued till May. Large portions of the old town 
 were discovered; also specimens of glass and pottery, 
 personal ornaments and toys, household utensils and 
 implements of trade, cinerary urns, and bones of 
 man and of the smaller animals. A committee was 
 formed in London in Aug. 1859, with the view of 
 continuing these investigations, which were re- 
 sumed in 1 86 1, through the liberality of the late 
 Beriah Botfield, M.P. The investigations, stopped 
 through want of funds, were resumed for a short 
 time_ in 1867. Mr. Thomas Wright published 
 " Uriconium " in 1872. 
 
 WtJBTEMBEEG, originally part of Swabia, 
 was made a comity for Ulric I., about 1265, and a 
 duchy for Eberhard in 1494. The dukes were pro- 
 testants until 1722, when the reigning prince became 
 a Roman catholic. Wiirtemberg has been repeatedly 
 traversed by armies, particularly since the great 
 French revolution of 1793. Moreau made his cele- 
 brated retreat, 23 Oct. 1796. The political consti- 
 tution is dated 25 Sept. 1819. Wiirtemberg opposed 
 Prussiainthe war June, 1866, but madepeace, 13 Aug. 
 
 * " I would check the petty vanity of those who slight 
 good penmanship, as below the notice of a scholar, by 
 reminding them that Mr. Fox was distinguished by' the 
 clearness and firmness, Mr. Professor Porson by the cor- 
 rectness and elegance, and sir William Jones by the ease 
 and beauty of the characters they respectively employed,'* 
 Dr. Parr. 
 
 3 B 
 
WURSCHEN. 
 
 738 
 
 XIMENA. 
 
 following; in Oct. 1867, joined the Zollyerein 
 {which see), but sent a contingent to Prussia in the 
 war, 1870. Population of Wiirtemberg in Dec. 
 1867, 1,778,396; of Stuttgardt, the capital, 75,781. 
 
 DUKES. 
 
 Eberliard I. 
 
 Eberhard II. 
 
 Ulric ; deprived of his states by the emperor 
 
 Charles V. ; recovers them in 1534. 
 Christopher the Pacific. 
 Louis the Pious. 
 Frederic I. 
 John Frederic ; joined the protestants in the Thirty 
 
 years' war. 
 Eberhard III. 
 William Louis. 
 Eberhard Louis ; served under William III. in 
 
 Ireland; and with the English armies on the 
 
 continent. 
 Charles Alexander. 
 Charles Eugene. 
 
 Louis Eugene (.joins in the war against France). 
 Frederic I., makes peace with France, 1796. 
 Frederic II. marries the princess royal of England, 
 
 18 May ; made elector of Germany, 1803 ; acquired 
 
 additional territories, and the title of king in 
 
 1805. 
 
 KINGS. 
 
 1805. Frederic I. supplies a contingent to Napoleon's 
 Russian army ; yet joined the allies at Leipsic in 
 1813. Died in 1816. 
 
 j8i6. William I., 30 Oct. ; son (born 27 Sept. 1781). He 
 
 1494. 
 1496. 
 
 1593- 
 1608. 
 
 1628. 
 1674. 
 1677. 
 
 1733- 
 1737- 
 1793- 
 *795' 
 T797. 
 
 abolished serfdom in 1818 ; instituted represen- 
 tative government in 1819 ; entered into :i con- 
 cordat with Rome in 1857 ; was the oldest living 
 sovereign, 1862 ; died 25 June, 1864. 
 1864. Charles I., son; born 6 March, 1823; married 
 princess Olga of Russia, 13 July, 1846. No 
 issue. 
 Heir presumptive : Augustus, cousin ; born 24 Jan. 
 1813. 
 
 WURSCHEN, see Bautzen. 
 
 WURZBURG (in Bavaria), was formerly a 
 bishopric, and its sovereign one of the greatest 
 ecclesiastic princes of the empire. It was given as 
 a principality to the elector of Bavaria in 1803 ; and 
 by the treaty of Presburg, in 1805, was ceded to the 
 archduke Ferdinand of Tuscany, whose electoral 
 title was transferred from Salzburg to this place. In 
 1 8 14 this duchy was again transferred to Bavaria, 
 in exchange for the Tyrol, and the archduke Ferdi- 
 nand was reinstated in his Tuscan dominions. 
 Ministers from the second-rate German states met 
 at Wurzburg to promote union amongst them, 21-27 
 Nov. 1859. Near here the archduke Charles de- 
 feated the French under Jourdan, 3 Sept. 1796; and 
 the Prussians defeated the Bavarians, 28 July, 1866. 
 
 WYATT'S INSURRECTION, see Rebel- 
 lions, 1554. 
 
 WYCLIFFITES, see WicUiffites. 
 
 X. 
 
 XANTHIAN MARBLES, see British 
 Museum. 
 
 XANTHICA, a military festival observed by 
 the Macedonians in the month called Xanthicus 
 (our April), instituted about 392 B.C. 
 
 XANTHUS, Lycia, Asia Minor, was taken by 
 Harpagus for Cyrus, about 546 B.C., when the in- 
 habitants buried themselves in the ruins. It was 
 besieged by the Romans under Brutus 42 B.C. After 
 a great struggle the inhabitants set fire to their city, 
 destroyed their wives and children, and perished. 
 The conqueror wished to spare them, and offered 
 rewards to his soldiers if they brought any of the 
 Xanthians into his presence, but only 150 were 
 saved. Plutarch. 
 
 XENOPHON, see Retreat of the Greeks. 
 
 XERES DE LA FRONTERA (S.W. Spain), 
 the Asta Regia of the Romans, and the seat of the 
 wine-trade in Spain, of which the principal wine is 
 that so well known in England as Sherry, an 
 English corruption of Xeres. The British impor- 
 tations of this wine in 1850 reached to 3,826,785 
 gallons; and in the year ending C Jan. 1852, to 
 3,904,978 gallons. Xeres is a handsome and large 
 own, of great antiquitv. At the battle of Xeres, 
 
 19-26 July, 711, Roderic, the last Gothic sovereign 
 of Spain, was defeated and slain by the Saracens, 
 commanded by Tarik and Muza. 
 
 XERXES' CAMPAIGN. Xerxes crossed the 
 Hellespont by a bridge of boats, and entered Greece 
 in the spring of 480 B.C., with an army which, 
 together with the numerous retinue of servants, 
 eunuchs, and women that attended it, amounted 
 (according to some historians) to 5,283,220 souls. 
 Herodotus states the armament to have consisted of 
 3000 sail, conveying 1,700,000 foot, besides cavalry 
 and the marines and attendants of the camp. This 
 multitude was stopped at Thermopylae (which see) 
 by the valour of 300 Spartans under Leonidas, 7-9 
 Aug. 480 B.C. The fleet of Xerxes was defeated at 
 Artemisium and Salamis, 20 Oct. 480 b.c. ; and he 
 hastened back to Persia, leaving behind Mardonius, 
 the best of his generals, who, with an army of 
 300,000 men, was defeated and slain at Platea, 22 
 Sept. 479 B.C. Xerxes was assassinated by Art;i- 
 banus, 465 B.C. 
 
 XIMENA (S. Spain), the^ site of a battle be- 
 tween the Spanish army under the command of 
 general Ballasteros, and the French corps com- 
 manded by general Regnier, 10 Sept. 1811. The 
 Spaniards defeated their adversaries ; the loss was 
 great on both sides. 
 
YACHT 
 
 739 
 
 YEAR. 
 
 Y. 
 
 YACHT (from the Dutch, jaght) ; a light vessel 
 for pleasure or races. 
 
 Royal London Yacht Club, established as Arundel 
 Yacht Club, 1838, assumed present name . . 1849 
 
 Yacht Races. — The America, au American yacht 
 schooner, built on the wave principle, 171 tons ; 
 at Cowes regatta, in a match round the Isle of 
 Wight, open to all comers, came in first by 8 
 miles, gaining the queen's cup worth 100J. 
 
 22 Aug. 1851 
 
 Three American yachts, the Henrietta, Vesta, and 
 Fleetioing, sailed from New York, n Dec. 1866, at 
 1 p.m. The Henrietta arrived at Cowes at 5.40011 
 25 Dec, the quickest voyage ever made in a sail- 
 ing vessel. Her rivals were only a few hours after 
 her. 
 
 In a contest off the Isle of Wight, between the 
 American vessel Sappho and the English cutters 
 Aline, Cambria, Oimara, and Condor, the Oimara 
 won 25 Aug. 1868 
 
 In a triangular race between Sappho and Cambria, 
 Sappho Avon, 10 May ; no race, 14 May ; won 
 
 17 May, 1870 
 
 In a yacht race off Staten island, New York, for the 
 squadron or queen's cup, the Magic won, Cambria 
 being the 8th in 16 Aug. ,, 
 
 In a series of matches off Staten island between 
 Mr. Ashbury's Livonia, and the vessels of the 
 New York Club, she was beaten by the Columbia, 
 16, 18 Oct ; by the Dauntless, 21 Oct. The two 
 vessels were disabled by a gale in attempting the 
 race 25 Oct. 1871 
 
 International Yacht Race : English, 3 vessels ; 
 French, 7 vessels. English Iona won by 30 
 seconds ; American Sappho did not start. 
 
 YANKEE, from "Yengees," a corruption 0* 
 *' English," the name originally given by the Mas- 
 sachusetts Indians to the colonists : applied solely 
 to the New Englanders by the British soldiers in the 
 American war (1775-81) ; afterwards by foreigners 
 to all natives of the United States ; and latterly by 
 the confederates of the south to the federals of the 
 north during the war 1861-64. 
 
 YARD. The word is derived from the Saxon 
 ffeard, or gyrd, a rod or shoot, or from gyrdan to 
 enclose, being anciently the circumference of the 
 T)ody, until Henry I. decreed that it should be the 
 length of his arm ; see Standard Measures. 
 
 YARMOUTH, GREAT (Norfolk), was a royal 
 demesne in the reign of William I., as appears from 
 Domesday Book, 1086. It obtained a charter from 
 John, and one from Henry III. In 1348, a plague 
 here carried off 7000 persons ; and did much havoc, 
 again in 1579 and 1664. 
 
 Theatre built in 1778 
 
 Nelson's pillar, a fluted column 140 feet in height, 
 erected 1817 
 
 Suspension chain bridge over the Bure built by Mr. 
 R. Cory, at an expense of about 4000L ; owing to 
 the weight of a vast number of persons who 
 assembled on it to witness an exhibition on the 
 water, it suddenly gave way, and seventy-nine 
 lives (mostly children) were lost . . 2 May, 1845 
 
 Yarmouth disfranchised for bribery and corruption 
 by the Reform Act Aug. 1867 
 
 The prince of Wales opened a new grammar school, 
 
 6 June, 1873 
 
 YEAR. The Egyptians, it is said, were the 
 first who fixed the length of the year. 
 
 The Roman year introduced by Romulus, 738 B.C. ; cor- 
 rected by Numa, 713 b.c. ; and again by Julius Caesar, 
 45 B.C. (see Calendar). 
 
 The solar or astronomical year was found to comprise 365 
 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, 51 seconds, and 6 decimals. 
 265 B.C. 
 
 The lunar year (twelve lunar months, or 354 days, 8 
 hours, 48 minutes) was in use amongst the Chaldseans, 
 Persiaus, and Jews. Once in every three years was 
 added another lunar month, so as to make the solar 
 and the lunar year nearly agree. But though the 
 months were lunar, the year was solar ; that is, the 
 first month was of thirty days, and the second of 
 twenty-nine, and so alternately : and the month added 
 triennially was called the second Adar. The Jews 
 afterwards followed the Roman maimer of compu- 
 tation. 
 
 The sidereal year, or return to the same star, is 365 days, 
 6 hours, 9 minutes, 11 seconds. 
 
 The Jews dated the beginning of the sacred 5 r ear in 
 March, and civil year in September ; the Athenians 
 began the year in June ; the Macedonians on 24 Sept. ; 
 the Christians of Egypt and Ethiopia on 29 or 30 Aug. ; 
 and the Persians and Armenians on 11 Aug. Nearly 
 all Christian nations now commence the year on 1 
 January. 
 
 In Prance, the Merovingian kings began the year with 
 March ; the Carlovingians sometimes began the year 
 with Christinas, 25 Dec. ; and sometimes with Easter, 
 which, being a moveable feast, led to much confusion. 
 
 Charles IX. of France, in 1564, published an arret, the 
 last article of which ordered the year for the time to 
 come to be constantly and universally begun, and 
 written on and from 1 January. 
 
 The beginning of the year has been reckoned from the 
 day celebrating the birth of Christ, 25 Dec. ; his cir- 
 cumcision, 1 Jan. ; his conception, 25 March ; and his 
 resurrection, Easter. 
 
 The English began their year on the 25th of December, 
 until the time of William the Conqueror. This prince 
 having been crowned on 1 Jan. gave occasion to the 
 English to begin their year at that time, to make it 
 agree with the then most remarkable period of their 
 history. Stow. Until the act for altering the style, in 
 1752 (see Style), the year did not legally and generally 
 commence in England until 25th March. In Scotland, 
 at that period, the year began on the 1st of January. 
 This difference caused great practical inconveniences ; 
 and January, February, and part of March sometimes 
 bore two dates, as we often find in old records, 1745- 
 1746, or 1745-6, or 174^. Such a reckoning often led 
 to chronological mistakes ; for instance, we popularly 
 say the "revolution of 1688," as that event happened 
 in February, 1688, according to the then mode of 
 computation : but if the year were held to begin, as it 
 does now, on the first o'f January, it would be the 
 revolution of 1689. 
 
 The year in the northern regions of Siberia and Lapland 
 is described in the following calendar, given by a 
 traveller : — "23 June, snow melts. 1 July, snow gone. 
 
 9 July, fields quite green. 17 July, plants at full 
 growth. 25 July, plants in flower. 2 Aug., fruits ripe. 
 
 10 Aug., plants shed their seed. 18 Aug., snow." 
 The snow continues upon the ground from 18th Aug. 
 of one year to 23rd June of the year following, being 
 309 days out of 365 ; so that while the three seasons of 
 spring, summer, and autumn are together only fifty-six 
 days, or eight weeks, the winter is of forty-four weeks' 
 duration in these countries. 
 
 See New Style, Platonic Year, Sabbatical Year, French 
 Revolutionary Calendar. 
 
 Year of our. Lord ; see Anno Domini. 
 
 Year of the Reign. From the time of William the 
 Conqueror, 1066, the year of the sovereign's reign has 
 been given to all public instruments. The king's 
 patents, charters, proclamations, and all acts of parlia- 
 ment have since then been generally so dated. The 
 same manner of dating is used in most of the European 
 states for all similar documents and records ; see List 
 of Kings under England, p. 242. 
 
 Year and a Day. A space of time in law, and in many 
 cases establishes and fixes a right ; as in an estray, on 
 proclamation being made, if the owner does not claim 
 
 3 b 2 
 
YEAR-BOOKS. 
 
 740 
 
 YOEK. 
 
 it within the time, it is forfeited. The term arose in 
 the Norman law, which enacted that a beast found on 
 another's land, if unclaimed for a year and a day, he- 
 longed to the lord of the soil. It is otherwise a legal 
 space of time. 
 
 YEAR-BOOKS contain reports in Norman- 
 French of cases argued and decided in the courts 
 of common law. The printed volumes extend from 
 the beginning of the reign of Edward II. to nearly 
 the end of the reign of Henry "VIII., a period of 
 about 220 years ; but in this series there are many 
 omissions. These books are the first in the long 
 line of legal reports in which England is so rich, 
 and may be considered as, to a great extent, the 
 foundation of our unwritten law, "Lex mon seripta." 
 In 1863 et seq. various year-books of Edward I. 
 (1292-1304) have been edited by Mr. A. J. Horwood, 
 or the series of the Chronicles and Memorials pub- 
 lished at the expense of the British government. 
 
 YEAST, a substance causing fermentation, was 
 discovered by Cagniard de la Tour and Schwann, 
 independently, in 1836, to be a vegetable cell or 
 fungus. 
 
 YELLOW FEVER, an American pestilence, 
 made its appearance at Philadelphia, where it 
 committed great ravages, 1699. It appeared in 
 several islands of the West Indies in 1732, 1739, 
 and 1745. I* raged with unparalleled violence at 
 Philadelphia in Oct. 1762; and most awfully at 
 New York in the beginning of Aug. 1 79 1. This 
 fever again spread great devastation at Philadelphia 
 in July 1 703 ; carrying off several thousand persons. 
 Harciic. It again appeared in Oct. 1797; and spread 
 its ravages over the northern coast of America, 
 Sept 1798. It reappeared at Philadelphia in the 
 summer of 1802 ; and broke out in Spain, in Sept. 
 1803. The yellow fever was very violent at 
 Gibraltar in 1804 and 1814; in the Mauritius, July 
 1815 ; at Antigua, in Sept. 1816 ; and it raged with 
 dreadful consequences at Cadiz, and the isle of St. 
 Leon, in Sept. 1819. A malignant fever raged at 
 Gibraltar in Sept. 1828, and did not terminate until 
 the following year. 
 
 YELVERTON CASE, see Trials, 186 1. 
 
 YENIKALE, see Azof. 
 
 YEOMANRY, see under Volunteers. 
 
 YEOMEN OF THE GUARD, a peculiar body 
 of foot guards to the king's person, instituted at 
 the coronation of HenrjiVII. 30 Oct. 1485, which 
 originally consisted of fifty men under a captain. 
 They were called beef-eaters, a corruption of btttfe- 
 tiers, being attendants on the king's buffet or 
 sideboard ; see Battle- Axe. They were of a larger 
 stature than other guards, being required to be 
 over six feet in height, and were armed with 
 arquebuses and other amis. The band was in- 
 creased by Henry's successors to one hundred men, 
 and seventy supernumeraries; and when one of the 
 hundred died, it was ordered that his place should 
 be supplied 'out of the seventy. They were clad 
 after the manner of king Henry VIII. AshmoMs 
 Instil. This is said to have been the first perma- 
 nent military band instituted in England. John 
 earl of Oxford, was the first captain in i486. Beat- 
 son's Pol. Index. 
 
 YERMUK (Syria). Near here the emperor 
 Heraclius was totally defeated by the Saracens, after a 
 tierce engagement, Nov. 636. Damascus was taken, 
 and his army expelled from Syria. 
 
 YEW-TREE (TuxHs). The origin of planting 
 yew-trees in churchyards was (these latter being 
 feuced) to secure the trees from cattle, and in this 
 
 manner preserve them for the encouragement of 
 archery. A general plantation of them for the use 
 of archers was ordered by Richard III. 1483. Sloiv's 
 Chron. Near Fountains Abbey, Yorkshire, were 
 seven yew-trees, called the Seven Sisters, supposed 
 to have been planted before 1088 ; the circum- 
 ference of the largest thirty-four feet seven inches 
 round the trunk. In 1851 a yew-tree was said to 
 be growing in the churchyard of Gresford, North 
 "Wales, whose circumference was nine yards nine 
 inehes, being the largest and oldest yew-tree in the 
 British dominions ; but tradition states that there 
 are some yews in England older than the introduc- 
 tion of Christianity. The old yew-tree mentioned 
 in the survey taken of Richmond palace in 1649, is 
 said to be still existing. 
 
 YEZDEGIRD, or Persian Era, was 
 
 formerly universally adopted in Persia, and is still 
 used by the Parsees in India, and by the Arabs, in 
 certain computations. This era began on the 26th 
 June, 632. when Yezdegird was elected king of 
 Persia. The year consisted of 365 days only, and 
 therefore its commencement, like that of the old 
 Egyptian and Armenian year, anticipated the Julian 
 year by one day in every four years. This differeuce 
 amounted to nearly 112 days in the year 1075, 
 when it was reformed by Jelaledin, who ordered 
 that in future the Persian year should receive an 
 additional day whenever it should appear necessary 
 to postpone the commencement of the following 
 year, that it might occur on the day of the sun's 
 passing the same degree of the ecliptic. 
 
 YNGLINGS (youths, or off-shoots), descend- 
 ants of the Scandinavian hero Odin, ruled Sweden 
 till 830, when the last of the pontiff kings, Olaf 
 Trsetelia, being expelled, led to the foundation of 
 the Norwegian monarchy. 
 
 YOKE is spoken of as a type of servitude. The 
 ceremony of making prisoners pass under it was 
 practised by the Samnites towards the Romans, 
 321 B.C.; see Caudine Forks. This disgrace was 
 afterwards inflicted by the Romans upon their van- 
 quished enemies. . Imfresmy. 
 
 YOKOHAMA, see Japan. 
 
 YORK (N. England), a town of the Brigantes, 
 named Evrauc, settled by the Romans during the 
 second campaign of Agricola, about 79, and named 
 Ehoracam or Eburacum, and became the metropolis 
 of the north. 
 
 The emperor Severus died here . . 4 Feb. 211 
 Here Constantius Chlorus died, and his son Con- 
 
 stantine the Great was proclaimed emperor, 
 
 25 July, $06 
 Abbey of St. Mary's, founded by Seward the Dane 1050 
 York burnt by the Danes, allies of Edgar Atheling, 
 
 and all the Normans slain 1069 
 
 The city and many churches destroyed by fire, 
 
 3 June, 1137 
 Massacre and suicide of many Jews . . . ngo 
 York received its charter from Richard II., and the 
 
 mayor was made a lord 1389 
 
 The Guildhall erected 1446 
 
 Richard III. crowned again here . . 8 Sept. 1483 
 At a parliament held here Charles I. professed his. 
 
 intention to govern legally . . 13 June, 1642 
 York taken for the parliament, after the battle of 
 
 Marston-moor 16 July, 1644 
 
 Injured during the civil war by Fairfax . April, ,, 
 The corporation built a mansion-house for the lord 
 
 mayor 1728 
 
 The castle was built by Richard III., 1484, and was 
 
 rebuilt as a gaol 1741 
 
 The York petition to parliament, to reduce tlis 
 
 expenditure and redress grievances . . Dec. 1779 
 Yorkshire Philosophical Society established . . 1822 
 First meeting of the British Association held here 
 
 27 Sept. 1831 
 
YOEK. 
 
 741 
 
 YORK. 
 
 Population, 45,385 1861 
 
 Fall of the iron bridge over the Ouse ; Ave persons 
 
 killed 27 Sept. „ 
 
 Social Science Association met here . 22 Sept. 1864 
 Fine Arts and Industrial Exhibition opened 
 
 24 July, 1866 
 Visit of prince and princess of Wales . 9-11 Aug. ,, 
 Meeting of the church congress . . 9 Oct. „ 
 Population, 50,761 .... 3 April, 1871 
 
 1385. Edmund Plantagenet (fifth son of king Edward 
 
 III.) ; created duke, 6 Aug. ; died 1402. 
 1406. Edward (his son), was degraded by Henry IV. in 
 1399, but restored in 1414 ; killed at Agincourt, 
 1415 ; succeeded by his nephew, 
 1415. Richard (son of Richard, earl of Cambridge, who 
 was beheaded for treason in 1415) ; became 
 regent of France in 1435 ; quelled the rebellion 
 in Ireland in 1449 ; claimed the throne, and was 
 appointed protector in 1454 : his office was 
 annulled, and he began the civil war in 1455, 
 and was slain after his defeat at Wakefield in 
 1460. 
 1460. Edward (his son) afterwards king Edward IV. 
 , 1474. Richard (his second son), said to have been mur- 
 dered in the. Tower, 1483. 
 1494. Henry Tudor, afterwards Henry VIII. 
 1605. Charles Stuart, afterwards Charles I. 
 1643. James Stuart (his second son), afterwards 
 
 James II. 
 1716. Ernest (brother of George I.) ; died 1728. 
 1760. Edward (brother of George III.) ; died 1767. 
 1784. Frederic (son of George III.), born 16 Aug. 1762 
 Marries princess Frederica of Prussia, 
 
 29 Sept. 1791 
 Commands the British forces at Antwerp, 
 
 8 April, 1793 
 Present at the siege of Valenciennes 23 May, ,, 
 Defeated at Dunkirk ... 7 Sept. ,, 
 At Bois-le-Duc, 14 Sept. : and at Boxtel, 
 
 17 Sept. 1794 
 Appointed commander-in-chief . . . . 1798 
 Defeated near Alkmaar, 19 Sept. and 6 Oct. 1799 
 Accused by colonel Wardle of abuse of his 
 
 patronage ; he resigns . . 27 Jan. 1809 
 Becomes again commander-in-chief . . . 1811 
 Strongly opposes the catholic claims . . 1825 
 Dies 5 Jan. 1827 
 
 .YOEK, Archbishopric of. The most an- 
 cient metropolitan see in England, being, it is 
 said, so made by king Lucius about 180, when 
 Christianity was first partly established in England. 
 The bishop Eborius was present at the council of 
 Aries, 314. The see was overturned by the Saxons, 
 and was revived by pope Gregory on their con- 
 version, and Paulinus is said to have been conse- 
 crated ai-chbishop, 21 July, 625. York and Dur- 
 ham were long the only two sees in the north 
 of England, until Henry I. erected a bishopric at 
 Carlisle, and Henry VIII. another at Chester. 
 York was the metropolitan see of the Scottish 
 bishops ; but during the time of archbishop Nevil, 
 1464, they withdrew their obedience, and had arch- 
 bishops of their own. Much dispute arose between 
 the two English metropolitans about precedency, as 
 by pope Gregory's institutions it was thought he 
 meant, that whichever of them was first confirmed, 
 should be superior : appeal was made to the court 
 of Eome by both parties, and it was determined in 
 favour of Canterbury. The archbishop of York was 
 allowed to style himself primate of England, while 
 the archbishop of Canterbury styles himself primate 
 of all England. The province of York now con- 
 tains the dioceses of York, Carlisle, Chester, Dur- 
 ham, Sodor and Man, Manchester, and Bipon 
 (which see). York has yielded to the church of 
 Eome eight saints and three cardinals, and to 
 England twelve lord chancellors, tAVO lord trea- 
 surers, and two lord presidents of the north. It is 
 rated in the king's books, 39 Henry VII J 11546, at 
 
 1609^. 19s. 2d. per annum. Beatson. Present in- 
 come io,ooo£. 
 
 ARCHBISHOPS. 
 
 1501. Thomas Savage, died, 3 Sept. 1507. 
 
 1508. Christopher Bainbrigg, poisoned at Rome, 14 July, 
 
 1514- 
 1514. Thomas Wolsey, died, 29 Nov. 1530. 
 1531. Edward Lee, died, 13 Sept. 1544. 
 1545. Robert Holgate, deprived, 23 March, 1554. 
 1555. Nicholas Heath, deprived. 
 1561. Thomas Young, died, 26 June, 1568. 
 1570. Edmund Grindal, translated to Canterbury, 10 Jan. 
 
 1576. 
 1577. Edwin Sands or Sandys, died, 10 July, 1588. 
 1589. John Piers, died, 28 Sept. 1594. 
 1595. Matthew Hutton, died, 16 Jan. 1606. 
 1606. Tobias Matthew, died, 29 March, 1628. 
 1628. George Mountaigne, died, 24 Oct. 1628. 
 
 „ Samuel Harsnet, died, 25 May, 1631. 
 1632. Richard Neyle, died, 31 Oct. 1640. 
 1641. John Williams, died, 25 March, 1650. 
 
 [See vacant ten years.] 
 1660. Accepted Frewen, died, 28 March, 1664. 
 1664. Richard Sterne, died, 18 June, 1683. 
 1683. John Dolben, died 11 April, 1686. 
 [See vacant two years.] 
 1688. Thomas Lamplugh, died, 5 May, 1691. 
 1691. John Sharp, died, 2 Feb. 1714. ' 
 1 714. Sir William Dawes, died, 30 April, 1724. 
 1724. Launcelot Blackburn, died, 23 March, 1743. 
 1743. Thomas Herring, translated to Canterbury, Oct. 
 
 1747- 
 1747. Matthew Hutton, translated to Canterbury, March. 
 
 1757- 
 1757. John Gilbert, died 1761. 
 1 761. Robert Hay Drummond, died, 10 Dec. 1776. 
 1777. William Markham, died, 3 Nov. 1807. 
 1808. Edward Venables Vernon, died, 5 Nov. 1847. 
 1847. Thomas Musgrave, died, 4 May, i860. 
 i860. Charles T. Longley, translated to Canterbury (from 
 
 Durham), 1862. 
 1862. William Thomson, translated from Gloucester. 
 
 YOEK MINSTEE (dedicated to St. Peter). 
 The first Christian church erected here, which 
 appears to have been preceded by a Eoman temple, 
 was built by Edwin, king of Northumbria, of wood, 
 about 625, and of stone about 635. It was damaged 
 by fire in 741, and was rebuilt by archbishop 
 Albert, about 780. It was again destroyed by fire 
 in the year 1069, and rebuilt by archbishop 
 Thomas, of Bayeux. It was once more burnt down 
 in 1137, with St. Mary's abbey, and 39 paiish 
 churches in York. Archbishop Eoger huilt the 
 choir, 1 154-81; "Walter Gray added the south 
 transept in 1227 ; John de Eomayne, the treasurer 
 of the cathedral, built the north transept in 1260. 
 His son, archbishop Eomanus, laid the foundation 
 of the nave in 1291. In 1330, William de Melton 
 built the two western towers, which were finished 
 by John de Birmingham in 1342. Archbishop 
 Thoresby, in 1361, began to rebuild the choir, in 
 accordance with the magnificence of the nave, and 
 he also rebuilt the lantern tower. The minster was 
 set on fire by Jonathan Martin, a lunatic, and the 
 roof of the choir and its internal fittings destroyed, 
 2 Feb. 1829; the damage, estimated at 60,000^., 
 was repaired in 1832 under sir Eobert Smirke. An. 
 accidental fire broke out, and in one hour reduced 
 the belfry to a shell, destroyed the roof of the 
 nave, and much damaged the edifice, 20 May, 
 1840. This was restored by Sidney Smirke, at a 
 cost of 23,000^., 1841. 
 
 YOEK and Lancaster, Wars of, see 
 
 Hoses. 
 
 YOEK (Upper Canada), founded in 1794; since 
 1834 named Toronto. In the war between America 
 and Great Britain, the United States' forces made 
 several attacks upon the province of Upper Canada, 
 
YORK TOWN. 
 
 742 
 
 ZINC. 
 
 and succeeded in taking York, the seat of the 
 government, 27 April, 1813; but it was soon after- 
 wards again retaken by the British. 
 
 YOEK TOWN (Virginia, United States). 
 Lord Comwallis had taken possession of York town 
 in Aug. 1 781 ; but after sustaining a disastrous 
 siege, he was obliged to surrender his army, con- 
 sisting of about 7000 men, to the allied armies of 
 France and America, under the command of general 
 Washington and count Eochambeau, 19 Oct. 1781. 
 This mischance was attributed to sir Henry 
 Clinton, who had not given the garrison the 
 necessary succour they expected; and it mainly 
 led to the close of the war. The town was strongly 
 fortified by the confederates in the American civil 
 war, but surrendered to M'Clellan, May, 1862. 
 
 YTTRIUM, a rare metal. The earth yttria 
 was discovered by professor Gadolin in a mineral at 
 Ytterby, in Sweden, 1794. The metal was first 
 obtained by Wohler in 1828. It is of a dark grey 
 colour, and brittle. 
 
 YUCATAN, Mexico, discovered by Hernandez 
 Cordova, 1517 ; conquered by Bemal Diaz, 1522; 
 declared for independence, 1813. Its ancient cities 
 are described in works by the American traveller 
 Stephens, 1838 and 1842. 
 
 YVRES (now Ivry, N. W. France), where a 
 battle was fought, 14 March, 1590, between Henry 
 IV. of France, aided by his chief nobility, and 
 the generals of the catholic league, over whom the 
 king obtained a complete victory. 
 
 Z. 
 
 ZAGBAB (Hungary). Here Andrew II. de- 
 feated the invader Charles Martel, to whom the 
 pope had assigned his crown, 1292. 
 
 ZAHRINGEN (Baden), the seat of dukes, 
 ancestors of the grand dukes of Baden, descended 
 from Herman I., margrave, 1074; see Baden. 
 
 ZAMA (near Carthage, N. Africa), the scene of 
 the battle between the two greatest commanders in 
 the world at the time, Hannibal and Scipio 
 Africanus. The victory was won by Scipio, and 
 was decisive of the fate of Carthage ; it led to an 
 ignominious peace the year after, which closed the 
 second Punic war. The Romans lost about 2000 
 killed and wounded, while the Carthaginians lost 
 in killed and prisoners more than 40,000; some 
 historians make the loss greater; 202 B.C. 
 
 ZAMBESI, river of E. Africa, explored by 
 Livingstone 1851-6, 1858-64. His book published, 
 Nov. 1865. 
 
 ZAMORA (Spain). Here Alphonso the Great 
 defeated the Moors, in 901. 
 
 Z ANTE • One of the Ionian Islands (ivh ich see) . 
 
 ZANZALEENS. This sect rose in Syria, 
 under Zanzalee, 535 ; he taught that water baptism 
 was of no efficacy, and that it was necessary to be 
 baptized by fire, with the application of a red-hot 
 iron. The sect was at one time very numerous. 
 
 ZANZIBAR or ZANGUEBAR, an island, 
 east Africa, metropolis of the possessions of the 
 Iniaum of Muscat, and chief market for ivory, 
 gum, coral, and cloves, and also for slaves ; popula- 
 tion about 380,000. The sultan, Bourgoseh ben 
 Said, succeeded his brother, 7 Oct 1870. An ex- 
 pedition for the purpose of suppressing the slave 
 trade was sent to Zanzibar, under the command of 
 sir Bartle Frere, 20 Nov. 1872, arrived about 12 
 Jan. 1873. After some delay and negotiation by 
 Dr. Eirke, a treaty was signed, abolishing the trade, 
 5 June, 1873. The contract for the mail to Zanzibar 
 was censured in July, 1873, an d altered. The sultan 
 intends to visit Europe in Sept. 1873. 
 
 ZARA, capital of Dalmatia, a Roman colony 
 under Augustus. It revolted from Venice and was 
 recaptured, 18 Nov. 1202 ; unsuccessfully besieged 
 by the Turks 1572, 1577 ; given up to Austria, 1791. 
 
 ZE, ZOW, ZIERES, for ye, you, and yours. 
 The letter z was retained in Scotland, and was 
 
 commonly written for the letter y so late as the 
 reign of queen Mary, up to which period many- 
 books in the Scottish language were printed in 
 Edinburgh with these words, 1543. 
 
 ZEALAND, one of the 13 provinces which 
 formed the League of Utrecht, 1579; see Holland, 
 and New Zealand. 
 
 ZELA, N.E. Asia Minor, where Julius Caesar 
 defeated Pharnaces, king of Pontus, son of 
 Mithridates. Caesar, in announcing his victory, 
 sent his famous despatch to the senate of Rome, in 
 these words : " Veni, vidi, vici," — " I came, I saw, 
 I conquered" (perhaps the shortest despatch on 
 record). This battle ended the war; Pharnaces 
 escaped into Bosporus, where he was slain by his 
 lieutenant, Asander; Pontus was made a Roman 
 province, and Bosporus given to Mithridates of 
 Perganius, 47 B.C. 
 
 ZELLi (Hanover), see Denmark, 1772, 
 
 ZEND-AVESTA, ancient sacred books of the 
 Parsees ; of which 3 out of 21 are extant. The 
 age of these books is much disputed. Professor 
 Max Miiller says that the MSS. had been preserved 
 by the Parsee priests at Bombay, where a colony 
 of fire-worshippers had fled in the 10th century. 
 Anquetil Duperron's French translation, from a 
 modern Persian version, was published in 1771 ; 
 edition by Eugene Burnouf, 1829-43. 
 
 ZENO or ZENCCtf , see Stoies. 
 
 ZENOBIA, Queen of the East, see Palmyra. 
 
 ZENTA, in Hungary, the scene of a battle 
 where the Germans, under prince Eugene, defeated 
 the Turks, 11 Sept. 1697. This victory led to the 
 peace of Carlowitz, ratified January, 1699. 
 
 ZETUNIUM. After defeating Samuel king of 
 Bulgaria here, 29 July, 1014, the emperor Basil II. 
 blinded his 15,000 prisoners, except one in a hun- 
 dred, to whom he left one eye. The king died of 
 grief. 
 
 ZIDON, see Sidon. 
 
 ZINC- The ore of zinc, calamine or spelter, 
 known to the Greeks, who used it in the manufac- 
 ture of brass. It is said to have been known in 
 China also, and is noticed by European writers as 
 early as 1231 ; though the method of extracting it 
 
ZIRCONIUM. 
 
 743 
 
 ZUEICH. 
 
 from the ore was unknown for nearly five hundred 
 years after. The metal zinc is mentioned by 
 Paracelsus (died 1541). A mine of zinc was dis- 
 covered on lord Ribblesdale's estate, Craven, York- 
 shire, in 1809. Zincography was introduced in 
 London shortly after lithography became known in 
 England, in 1817; see Lithography. Zinc is much 
 used in voltaic batteries ; and its application in 
 manufactures has greatly increased of late years ; 
 see Photozincography. 
 
 .ZIRCONIUM, the metallic base of the earth 
 Zirconia, which was discovered by Klaproth in 
 1789; from this Berzelius obtained the metal in 
 1824. Zirconia is found in the sand of the rivers of 
 Ceylon. The metal exists in the form of a black 
 powder. 
 
 ZIZYPHUS VULGARIS. A shrub brought 
 from the south of Europe about 1640. The 
 Zizyphus Paliurus shrub (Christ's Thorn) was 
 brought from Africa before 1596 ; see Flowers. 
 
 ZODIAC. Its obliquity was discovered, its 
 twelve signs named, and their situations assigned 
 them by Anaximander, about 560 b.c. The Greeks 
 and Arabians borrowed the zodiac from the Hindoos. 
 Sir W. Jones. The zodiacal light was observed 
 by Tycho Brahe, Descartes, and others, and named 
 by Cassini, 1683. 
 
 ZOLLVEREIN {Customs' Union), the name 
 given to the German commercial union, pro- 
 jected by Prussia 1818, and gradually joined by 
 nearly all the German states except Austria. On 
 19 Feb. 1853, an important treaty of commerce and 
 navigation, between Austria and Prussia, to last 
 from Jan. 1854 to Dec. 1865, was signed, to which 
 the other states of the Zollverein gave in their ad- 
 hesion on 5 April, 1853. In Nov. 1861, Prussia 
 threatened to withdraw unless certain changes 
 were made. By the treaty of 8 July, 1867, be- 
 tween the North German confederation, and the 
 southern states (Bavaria, Wurtemberg, Baden, and 
 Hesse), various changes were made, and by other 
 treaties signed in Oct. these states agreed to send 
 delegates to a customs parliament to be held at 
 Berlin. A session of this parliament was opened 
 by the king of Prussia, 27 April, and closed 23 May, 
 1868. Federal chancellor, the count von Bismarck. 
 
 ZOOLOGY (from zoon, Greek for animal) is 
 the division of biology which treats of animals ; 
 Aristotle (322-284 B.C.) the founder of the science. 
 Systems of classification have been made by John 
 Bay (1628-1705), Charles Linne (1707-78), G. 
 Buffon (1707-88), and George Cuvier (1709-1832). 
 
 Linncens divided the animal kingdom into six classes, 
 — Mammalia, which, includes all animals that suckle 
 their young ; Aves, birds ; Amphibia, or amphibious 
 animals ; Pisces, fishes ; Insecta, insects ; Vermes, 
 worms ; 1741. 
 
 Cuvier (died in Paris, 13 May, 1832), in his great work, 
 Eigne Animal, published in 1816, distributed the 
 animals into four great divisions, the Vertebrata (back- 
 boned) ; the Mollusca (soft-bodied) ; the Articulata 
 (jointed) ; and the Badiata (the organs disposed round 
 a centre). 
 
 In 1859, professor Owen made known a system of 
 arranging the class Mammalia according to the nature 
 of their brains 
 
 The Zoological Society or London (originally the 
 Zoological Club) was founded in 1826, and its gardens 
 in the Regent's Park were opened in April, 1827 ; the 
 society was chartered 27 March, 1829. 2072 animals 
 in th& gardens, 31 Dec. 1871. 
 
 Dr. James Murie was appointed by the society to be 
 their first "anatomical prosector," 3 May, 1865. 
 
 On the demolition of Exeter 'Change, in 1829, the 
 menagerie of Mr. Cross was temporarily lodged in the 
 King's Mews, whence it was removed to the Surrey 
 Zoological Gardens, 1832. 
 
 The Zoological Gardens of Dublin were opened, 1832. 
 
 See Aquariam, Hippopotamus, Giraffe, and Acclimatiza- 
 tion, &c. 
 
 ZORNDORFF, Prussia, where a battle was 
 fought between the Prussian and Russian armies ; 
 the former, commanded by the king of Prussia, 
 obtained a victory over the forces of the czarina, 
 whose loss amounted to 21,529 men, while that 
 of the Prussians was about 11,000: 25, 26 Aug. 
 1758- 
 
 ZOUAVES and Foot Chasseurs. _ "When. 
 
 the French established a regency at Algiers, in 
 1830, they hoped to find the employment of native 
 troops advantageous, and selected the Zooaouas, a 
 congregation of daring Arab tribes. J_n time, 
 numbers of red republicans, and other enthusiastic 
 Frenchmen, joined the regiments, adopting the 
 costume, &c. : eventually the Africans disappeared 
 from the ranks, and no more were added. Among 
 their colonels were Lamoriciere and Cavaignac. 
 The French Zouaves formed an important part of 
 the army in the Crimean war, 1854-5.* 
 
 ZUG, the smallest canton of Switzerland, joined 
 the confederation, 1352, and the Sonderbund, 1846. 
 
 ZUINGLIANS, the followers of the reformer, 
 Ulric Zuingli, who at Zurich declaimed against the 
 church of Borne, and effected the same separation 
 for Switzerland from the papal dominion, which 
 Luther did for Saxony. He procured two assemblies 
 to be called ; by the first he was authorised to pro- 
 ceed, by the second, the ceremonies of the Romish 
 church were abolished 15 19. Zuingli died in arms, 
 being slain in a skirmish against his popish 
 opponents, 11 Oct. 153 1. The Zuinglians were also 
 called Sacramentarians. 
 
 ZULLICHAU (Prussia). Here the Russians, 
 under Soltikow, severely defeated the Prussians 
 under Wedel, 23 July, 1759. 
 
 ZULPICH, see Tolbiac. 
 
 ZURICH was admitted a member and made 
 head of the Swiss confederacy, 1351, and was the 
 first town in Switzerland that separated from the 
 church of Rome ; see Zuinglians. A grave-digger 
 at Zurich poisoned the sacramental wine, by which 
 8 persons lost their lives and many others were 
 grievously injured, 4 Sept. 1776. The French, 
 under Massena, after repelling an attack of the 
 Austrians, retired from Zurich, 5 June, 1799. The 
 Imperialists were defeated by Massena, the former 
 losing 20,000 men in killed and wounded, 25, 
 26 Sept. 1799; see Switzerland. A new democratic 
 constitution was adopted, 18 April, 1869. 
 
 On 24 June, 1859, the Austrians were defeated by the 
 
 allied French and Sardinian army at Solferino. 
 Preliminaries of peace were signed at Villa Franca by 
 
 the emperors of Austria and France on 12 July 
 
 following. 
 A conference between the representatives of the powers 
 
 concerned having been appointed, the first meeting 
 
 took place at Zurich, on 8 Aug. 
 After many delays a treaty was signed 10 Nov. Lom- 
 
 bardy was ceded to Sardinia; the formation of an 
 
 * The Zouave organization and drill were introduced 
 into the federal army in the great civil war in America, 
 by Ephraim E. EUesworth, early in 1861. He was 
 assassinated on 24 May same year, at Alexandria, just 
 after taking down a secession flag. 
 
ZUTPHEN. 
 
 744 
 
 ZWITTAU. 
 
 Italian Confederation, under the presidency of the 
 pope, was determined on, and the rights of the ex- 
 sovereigns of Tuscany, Modena, and Parma were re- 
 served. 
 The formation of the kingdom of Italy in 1861 annulled 
 the treaty of Zurich, 
 
 ZUTPHEN, in Holland. At a battle here 
 22 Sept. 1586, between the Spaniards and the Dutch, 
 the amiable sir Phillip Sidney, author of "Arcadia," 
 was mortally wounded. He died 7 Oct. He was 
 
 serving with the English auxiliaries, commanded 
 by the earl of Leicester. 
 
 ZUYPER SLTJYS (Holland). Here sir 
 Ealph Abercromby defeated an attack of the French 
 under Brune ; the latter suffered great loss, 9 Sept. 
 1799. 
 
 ZWITTAU, Moravia. Here the Prussians de- 
 feated the Austrians and captured provisions, 
 9 July, 1866. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 [The references are to articles in the body of the work ; the italics refer to articles in this Index. The year given is 
 a.d. when b.c. is not mentioned; two dates, thus, 1508-82, signify the year of the person's birth and death ; 
 b., horn ; d., died ; fl.., flourished ; m., murdered ; k., killed. The year of the birth and death is given of many 
 eminent persons who are not mentioned in the body of the work.] 
 
 Abbadies expl. Ethiopia, 1837-45 
 Abbas, Persia 
 
 Abbot, abp. ; Canterbury, 1611 
 Abbot, Charles ; speaker, 1S02 
 Abd-el-Kader ; Algiers, 1835 
 Abderahman I. — V., caliphs, 755- 
 
 1023 
 Abdul-Medjid, Turkey, 1839-61 
 Abdul- Aziz, Turkey, 1839 
 Abel, P. A., glyoxiline, 1866, gun 
 
 cotton 
 Abel Oghlan, Dzoungeria, 1864 
 Abelard, d. 1142; Abelard, theology 
 Abercorn, Jas. marquis of, b. 1811; 
 
 Ireland, Id. lieut. 
 Abercromby, Jas., speaker, 1835 
 Abereromby, sir R., 1738 - 1801 ; 
 
 Trinidad, Alexandria 
 Aberdeen, earl of, 1784-1860; Aber- 
 deen adm. , note 
 Abernethy, J., surgeon, 1764-1831 
 Abingdon, earl of; trials, 1794 
 Abinger, Id., att.-gen., 1827; ex- 
 chequer 
 Abrantes, duke of; see Junot 
 Absalom, killed 1023 B.C. 
 Abubeker; Ali, 632 
 Acacius, Acacians, henoticon, 482 
 Accum, P.; adulterations, 1822 
 Achilli v. Newman ; trials, 1852-3 
 Achmet; see Ahmed 
 Acilius ; statues, temples 
 Ackermann, R.; lithography, 18 17 
 Acron; acromatics, 473 B.C. 
 Acton, Mrs., Royal Inst., 1838 
 Actuarius; purgatives, 1245 
 Adair, serj.; Junius, 1769 
 Adalbert, St. ; Prussia, 997 
 Adam; duels, 1779 
 Adam, R. and bros., architects, 
 
 1728-92 
 Adams, J. C, mathemat. ; Neptune, 
 1845; J. (1797) and J. Q. (1825), 
 United States {presidents) 
 Adams v. Diuidas ; trials, 1831 
 Adderley, Mr.; Birmingham, 1856 
 Addington, H., 1757-1844; Addingt. 
 Addison, Joseph, 1672-1719, Spec- 
 tator, 171 1 ; Stanhope administra- 
 tion, 1717; allegory, Clio, clubs ' 
 Adelais ; Adelaide ; England, queens 
 
 (Henry I., William IV.) 
 Adeodatus ; pope, 672 
 Adolphus, Frederic; Sweden, 1751 
 Adrian, Rome; emperor, 117; edicts, 
 
 persecutions; popes 
 Aetius, Aetians 
 iEgeus ; Athens, 1283 b c. 
 ..Egineta, Paulus ; surgery, 640 
 jEgisthus; Mycene, 1201 B.C. 
 
 iEmilianus; Rome, 146 B.C. 
 iEneas; Italy, Alba, 1182 b.c. 
 iEschines, Gk. orator, 389-314 B.C. 
 Jischylus, Greek tragedy, 525-456 
 
 B.C.; drama 
 iEsop; fables (about 600 b.c.) 
 Africanus ; see Scipio 
 Agamemnon; Mycense, 1201 B.C. 
 Agathocles, d. 289 b.c; Carthage, 
 
 Sicily, Syracuse 
 Age, proprietor of; trials, 1844 
 Agesander; Laocoon 
 Agesilaus ; Sparta, 398 B. c 
 Agis; Sparta, 427 B.C. 
 Aguew, Mr. Vans ; India, 1848 
 Agnodice; midwifery 
 Agricola; Britain, d. 93; Lancaster, 
 
 Caledonia, Roman wall 
 Agricola, John, d. 1566; Antino- 
 
 mians 
 Agrippa, d. 12 B.C.; Pantheon, 27 
 
 B.C. 
 
 Ahmed I. — III.; Turkey, 1603, et seq. 
 
 Aholiab; sculpture 
 
 Airy, G. B., 6. 1801; Greenwich, 
 1835 ; pendulum, standard, Royal 
 Society, 1871 
 
 Aislabie, Mr.; Sunderland adminis- 
 tration, 1718 ; South Sea 
 
 Akbar, India; 1556 
 
 Akenside, Mark, poet, 1721-70 
 
 Alamayou, Abyssinia, 1868 
 
 Alaric, d. 410 ; Rome, France 
 
 Albemarle, Geo. Monk, duke of, 
 1608-70; administration, 1660 
 
 Alberoni, card, 1664-1752; Spain, 
 
 1715 
 
 Albert ; Austria, Bohemia, Germany, 
 
 Hungary 
 Albert (prince consort), 1819 - 61 ; 
 England, 1840; regency bill, duel- 
 ling 
 Albertus, Magnus ; automatons 
 Alboin the Longobard, killed 573 
 Albrecht; Austria, 1866; Custozza 
 Albuquerque (viceroy), d. 151 5; In- 
 dia, 1503 
 Alcibiades, killed 404 b.c; Athens 
 Alcippe; Areopagita? 
 Alcock, Mr. ; duelling, 1807 
 Alcuin (theologian), about 725-804 
 Aldebert; impostors, 743 
 Aldhelme; Salisbury, 705; ballads 
 Alectus; Britain, 294 
 Alengon, due d'; Agincourt, 1415 
 Alexander of Paris ; Alexandrine 
 Alexander the Great, 356-323 33. c; 
 Macedon, Egypt, Gordon, Tyre, 
 Memphis 
 Alexander Severus; Rom. em., 222 
 
 Alexander I. d. 1825 ; Russia, 1801 ; 
 
 Austerlitz, 1805 ; Leipsic, 18T3 
 Alexander ; Scotland (kings) ; Pope 
 Alexander, sir W. ; Nova Scotia, 
 
 1722 
 Alexius, East (emperors), 1081-1203 
 Alfleri, Victor, Ital. poet, 1749-1803 
 Alfred the Great, 849-901 ; England, 
 
 councils, clocks, crown, militia 
 Alfred, prince ; Godwin, 1053 
 Alfred, auke of Edinburgh, b. 1844 ; 
 
 England, royal family 
 Alibaud ; France, 1836 
 Ali Pacha ; Rosetta ; Turkey, 1820 ; 
 
 Albania 
 Alison, Arch., hist., 1792-1867 
 Allen and others ; Fenians, 1867 
 Alleyne, Edwd., d. 1617; Dulwich 
 Almagro ; Abancay, 1537 
 Almansour ; Bagdad, 762 
 Almeida, L. ; Madagascar, 1506 
 Alphonso ; Sicily, Spain, Portugal 
 
 (kings) 
 Alsop, Joseph ; trials, 1839 
 Althorp, vise. ; Grey administration, 
 
 1830 ; Melbourne, 1835 
 Alva, duke of, 1508-82 ; Antwerp, 
 
 Holland 
 Alvanley, lord ; duel, 1835 
 Alvinzi, marshal ; Areola, 1796 
 Alyattes ; Lydia, 761 B.C. 
 Alypius of Alexandria ; dwarfs 
 Amadeus, Savoy; annunciation 
 Amadeus, duke of Aosta, b. 1845 ; 
 
 king of Spain, 1870-3 
 Ambrose, St., d. 397; anthems, Te 
 
 Deum, liturgies 
 Ambrosius ; Stonehenge 
 Amenophis ; Egypt, 1821 b.c. 
 Americus Vespucius, 1451-1516 ; 
 
 America, note 
 Amherst, lord ; China, 1816 ; India, 
 
 1823 
 Ammianus Marcellinus, Lat. hist. 
 
 d. 390 
 Amontons, W. ; 1663-1705, tele- 
 
 Amos, prophesies about 787 b.c. 
 Ampere, O. M., 1775-1836; electricity 
 
 (galvanism and telegraph) 
 Amulius Alba, 974 b.c. 
 Amurath ; Turkey, Beyrout 
 Amyntas : Macedon, 540 b. c. 
 Anacharsis, 592 B.C. ; anchors, 
 
 bellows 
 Anacletus ; pope, 78 
 Anacreon, Gr. poet, fl. abt. 557 b.c 
 Anastasius ; pope ; East ; emperors 
 Anaxagoras, 480 B.C. ; earthquakes 
 Anaximander, 547 B.C. ; maps 
 
746 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Anaximenes, 548 B.C. ; air 
 Anderson, J. ; slavery (in United 
 
 States), 1853 
 Andrassy ; Hungary, 1867 
 Andre, maj. ; United States, 1780 
 Andrew ; Hungary, kings 
 Andrews, H., d. 1820; almanacs 
 Andrews v. Salt ; trials, 1873 
 Andronicus, 240 B.C. ; drama 
 Andronicus ; Eastern empire, 1113, 
 
 1328 
 Angela, St. ; Ursuline nuns, 1537 
 Angerstein, J., d. 1823; National 
 
 Gallery 
 Anglesey, Hemy, marquis of, 1768- 
 
 1854 ; Ireland (lord-lieutenant), 
 
 1828, 1830 
 Angus, earl of ; Linlithgow 
 Anjou, Plantageuet, Jarnac, 1569; 
 
 Naples, 1266 
 Ankerstrom (kills Gustavus III.), 
 
 Sweden, 1792 
 Anna, St. ; Mexico, 1853 
 Anne of Brittany, d. 1514 ; maids of 
 
 honour 
 Anne of Austria, d. 1666 ; iron mask 
 Anne, queen, b. 1664 ; England, 1702- 
 
 14 ; semper eadem 
 Ansell, G. ; fire-damp, 1865 
 Ansehn, abp. ; Canterbury, 1093 
 Anson, admiral; Acapuico, 1744; 
 
 naval battles, 1747 
 Anson, general ; India, 1857 
 Anthony ; monachism, 4th century ; 
 
 — arson, 1871 
 Antigonus ; Ipsus, 301 b. c. ; profiles 
 Antiochus I. — X., 280-65 B.C. ; Syria, 
 
 Jews, 170 or 168 B.C. 
 Antipater ; Cranon, 322 B.C. 
 Antisthenes ; cynics, 396 B.C. 
 Antonelli, card. b. 1806 ; Rome, 1848 
 Antoninus Pius, Home, emperors, 
 
 138 ; Roman wall 
 Antony, Mark, d. 30 ; Rome, 43 B.C.; 
 
 Armenia, Philippi, 42B.C; Actium, 
 
 31 B.C. 
 
 Anviti, col., killed ; Parma, 1859 
 Apelles, painter, 352-308 B.C. 
 Apollodorus ; Trajan's pillar, 114 
 Apollonius ; Syria, 168 B.C. 
 Appian, hist.,/, about 147 
 Appiua Claudius ; Rome, 449 B.C. ; 
 
 aqueducts, decemviri, Virginia 
 Applegath ; printing machines 
 Apries ; Egypt, 571 B.C. 
 Apsley, Id. ; North adminis., 1770 
 Apuleius, Latin novelist, d. 174 
 Aquinas, Thos. , theol., d. 1274 
 Arago, D. F., nat. phiL, 1786-1853 
 Aram, Eugene ; trials, 1759 
 Aratus ; Achaia, 245 B.C. 
 Arbogastes ; Aquileia, 394 
 Arcadius and Honorius ; eastern and 
 
 western empire, 395 
 Archdale, J., quaker, 1699 
 Archelaus ; Cappadocia, 20 B.C. ; 
 
 Macedon, 413 b.c. 
 Archemorus ; Nemsean games 
 Archer, F. S. ; collodion, 1851 
 Archidamus ; Sparta, 648 b. c. 
 Archilochus, 708 B.C. ; Iambic verse 
 Archimedes, 287-212 B.C. ; circle, 
 cranes, mechanics, mensuration, 
 organs, reflectors, screw, plane- 
 tarium 
 Archytas ; math., about 400 B.C.; 
 
 automaton, pulley 
 Ardesoif, Mr. ; cockfighting, 1788 
 Aretin, Gui ; musical notes, 1025 
 Arfastus, chancellor, 1067 
 Arfwedson, Mr. ; lithium, 1817 
 Argyll, duke of; Dunblane, 1715 ; — 
 
 Gladstone, 1868 
 Ariarathes ; Cappadocia (kings) 
 Ariobarzaues, 322 B.C. ; Cappadocia, 
 93 B.C. 
 
 Ariosto, L. Ital. poet, 1474-1533 
 Aris, gov. ; prisons, 1800 
 
 Aristarchus, 156 B.C. ; sun, globe 
 Aristajus ; conic sections, 330 B.C. 
 Aristides the Just, d. 468 B.C. ; 
 
 Athens 
 Aristippus; Cyrenaic sect, 392 b.c 
 Aristocrates ; Arcadia, 715 B.C. 
 Aristodemus; biarchy, u 02 B.C. 
 Aristophanes, (/. 380 b.c. ; comedy 
 Aristotle, 384-322 b.c. ; Aristotelian 
 
 philosophy, acoustics, botany, 
 
 Macedon, mechanics, metaphysics, 
 
 philosophy 
 Arius, d. 336 ; Arians 
 Arkwright, R., 1732-92 ; cotton, Man- 
 chester, spinning 
 Arles-Dufour ; see Dufour 
 Arlington, lord ; cabal, 1670 
 Arminius, or Hermann ; Teutoburg, 9 
 Arminius, J., d. 1609; Arminians, 
 
 Dort 
 Armstrong, sir W. G. ; electricity, 
 
 1840 ; cannon, 1859 
 Arne, T., music composer, 1710-78 
 Arnold, gen. ; United States, 1780 
 Arnold, Dr. Thos., hist., 1795-1842 
 Arnott, Neil, b. 1788 ; stove, 1821 ; 
 
 bed, 1830 ; ventilators 
 Arrian, hist.,/. 148 
 Arsaces ; Arsacidae, Parthia, 250 b.c 
 Arsenius, Arsenians, 1261 
 Artabazus ; Pontus, 487 B.C. 
 Artaxerxes ; Persia (kings) 
 Artemisia; mausoleum, 350 B.C. 
 Artemon ; battering-ram, 441 B.C. 
 Arthur, king ; Britain, 506 
 Artois, count d' ; duelling, 1778 
 Arundel, abp. ; Canterbury, 1397-9 
 Arundel, Henry, earl of; adminis- 
 trations, 1547 
 Ascanius ; Alba, 11 52 B.C. 
 Asdrubal ; see Hasdrubai 
 Aselli, G.~ Iacteals(i622), lymphatics 
 Asgill, Mr. ; translation, 1703 
 Ashburton, lord ; Ashb. treaty, 1842 
 Ashe, gen. ; Briar's creek, 1779 
 Ashford, Mary ; appeal, 1818 
 Ashley, lord ; cabal, 1670 
 Ashley, sir Arthur ; cabbages 
 Ashton, colonel ; Wigan, 1643 
 Aske ; pilgrimage of grace, 1536 
 Aslett, Rob. ; exchequer bills, 1803 
 Assheton, Wm. ; clergy charities 
 Astley, lord ; Naseby, 1645 
 Aston, sir A. ; Drogiieda, 1649 
 Astyages ; Media, 594 b.c. 
 Athanasius, d. 373 ; Athan. creed 
 Athelstan ; England (king), 924 ; 
 
 mint, 928 
 Athenajus, Greek, fl. 228 
 Atherton, sir Wm., att. gen., 1861 
 Athol, duke of; Man, sold by, 1765 
 Athothes ; hieroglyphics, writing 
 Atlay, bp., Hereford, 1868 
 Atossa ; marriage by sale 
 Attalus, d. 197 b.c. ; seven churches 
 
 (Pergamus), parchment 
 Atterbury, bp. F. ; banished, 1723 
 Attila ; Hungary, Chalons, 451 
 Attwood, T. ; chartists, 1838 
 Atwell, W. ; trials, 1857 
 Auber, D., music composer, 1784-1871 
 Auchmuty, sir Samuel ; Batavia, 
 
 1811 ; Monte Video, 1807 
 Auckland, Id. lip. ; Bath and Wells, 
 
 1854 
 Auckland, lord ; Grey administration, 
 
 1830 ; India, 1835 
 Augereau, gen. ; Castiglione, 1796 
 Augustenburg, duke of; Denmark, 
 
 1863 
 Augustin, St. (of Hippo), 354-430 
 Augustinthe monk, abp. Canterbury, 
 
 602 ; Rochester 
 Augustus (emperor) ; Rome, 27 B.C. ; 
 
 pnetorian guards 
 Aulus Gellius, Latin misc../. 169 
 Aumale, due d' ; France, 1871-2 ; 
 
 Orleans 
 
 Aurelian ; Rome, emp. 270 : Ale- 
 
 manni 
 Aurelius ; Rome, emp. 161 
 Aurungzebe ; India, 1658 
 Ausonius, Lat. poet, d. 394 (?) 
 Austin ; see Angtistin 
 Austin, capt. ; Franklin 
 Austin, W. ; trials, 1855 
 Austria, John of; Lepanto, 1571 
 Averroes, med. writer,/. 1149-1198 
 Avieenna, med. and phil., 980-1037 
 Avisa ; queens (John) 
 Ayesha, Mahomet's widow; camel, 
 
 day of, 656 
 Ayrton, A. A. ; Gladstone, 1868 
 Azeglio, marchese d' ; Italian patriot, 
 
 1800-66 
 
 B. 
 
 Babbage, C, 1792-1871; calculating 
 
 machine 
 Baber; India, 1525 
 Babeuf, d. 1791 ; agrarian law 
 Babrius : fable 
 Babyngton (which see), 1586 
 Bach, J. Sebastian; music, 1685-1754 
 Bachelier, M. ; encaustic, 1749 
 Bacciocchi, j>rinces Piombino 
 Bachmeier, A.; paeigraphy, 1871 
 Back, G. ; north-w. passage, 1833 
 Bacon, F., lord, 1561-1626; lawyers, 
 
 aeronautics. 
 Bacon, sir Nicholas; keeper, Id., 
 
 1558 ; baronet 
 Bacon, John, sculptor, 1740-99 
 Bacon, Roger, d. 1292; astrology, 
 camera lucida, loadstone, magic- 
 lantern, magnet, optics, spectacles 
 Bacon. T. F. ; trials, 1857 
 Baez, B. Hayti, 1865-71 
 Baffin, W. M. ; Baffin's Bay, 1616 
 Bagnal, lieut. ; duel, 1812 
 Bagot, bishop ; Oxford, 1829 
 Bagration, pr. ; Mohilows, 1812 
 Bagster, Miss M. ; trials, 1828 
 Bailey, rev. W. ; trials. 1843 
 Baillie, col. ; Arcot, 1780 
 Baillie, general ; Alford, 1645 
 Baillie, Joanna, poet, 1762-1851 
 Bailly, M., philos., executed, 1793 
 Bainhrigg, abp.; York, 1508 
 Baines, M. T.; Palmerston adm. 1855 
 Baird, sir David ; Cape, 1806 ; Seringa- 
 
 patam, 1799 
 Bajazet; Turkey, 1389 
 Baker, colonel ; Bull's Bluff, 1861 
 Baker, H. ; Bakerian lecture, 1765 
 Baker, sir S. W. ; Africa, 1864 ; Egypt, 
 
 slave trade, 1870 
 Baker v. Loder ; trials, 1872 
 Balard, M. ; amylene, 1844 
 Balchan, admiral; Alderney, 1744 
 Baldwin I. — V. ; Jerusalem, 1100-85; 
 
 East Flanders 
 Bales, P. ; caligraphy 
 Balfe, M. W., nms. comp., 1808-70 
 Balfour, John ; Scotland, 1679 
 Ballarat, Melbourne, 1854 
 Ballard, John; Babyngton's con- 
 spiracy, 1586 
 Ballasteros, gen. ; Ximena, 1811 
 Balliol, Edw.; Scotland, kings, 1329 
 Balliol, John; Scotland, 1293; Ox- 
 ford, Dunbar 
 Balmerino, lord ; rebellion, Scotland, 
 
 1745; trials, 1746 
 Baltimore, lord; America, 1632; 
 
 trials, 1768 
 Bancroft, abp. ; Canterbury, 1604 
 Bancroft, G., Am. hist, b. 1800 
 Banks, sir J., 1743-1820; hort. soc. , 
 
 Royal Institution, 1799 
 Bannister, Mr., actor; retired, 1815 
 Bar, due de; Agincourt, 1415 
 BaradEeus; Eutychians, Jacobites 
 Barauelli, L. ; trials, 1855 
 
INDEX. 
 
 747 
 
 Barante, A. G. de, Fr. Mst. , 1787-66 
 Barantz, north-w. passage, 1594 
 Barbarossa, Fred. I. ; emp. Germany, 
 
 1152-9° 
 Barbarossa, d. 1546 ; Tunis, Algiers 
 Barbauld, Mrs. A. L., 1743-1825 
 Barber, Fletcher, Saunders, and 
 
 Dorey ; trials, 1844, and note 
 Barberini ; Portland vase 
 Barbou ; printers, 1539-1813 
 Barbour, J. ; trials, 1853 
 Barbour, John, Scot, poet, 1316-95 
 Barclay, capt.; pedestrianism, 1809 
 Barclay, Perkins, <fc Co. ; porter 
 Barclay, Kob., 1648-90; quakers 
 Bai'ham, lord ; admiralty, 1805 
 Baring, Alex.; Peel administ. 1834; 
 sir P.; London Inst. 1805; Russell 
 adm. 1846 
 Barker, Robert; panorama, 1788 
 Barkly, sir H. ; cape, 1870 
 Barlaam ; Barlaamites, 1337 
 Barlow; clocks, 1676 
 Barlow, rev. J.; Royal Institut., 1842 
 Barlow, sir G. ; India (governors), 1805 
 Barlowe, William; compass, 1608 
 Barnard, general; India, 1857; judge, 
 
 United States, 1872 
 Barnes, T., d. 1841; Times 
 Barnett, Geo. ; trials, 1816 
 Barre, Isaac ; Rockingham adminis- 
 tration, 1782 
 Barrett ; Cumberland, naval battles, 
 
 1811; Fenians, 1868 
 Barrie, capt. ; naval battles, 1811 
 Barrington, bp. ; Durham, 1791 
 Barrington, Mr.; duel, 1788 
 Barrington ; trials, 1790 
 Barrot, O. ; France, 1848 
 Barrow, Isaac, theol. and philos., 
 
 1630-77 
 Barry, sir Charles, architect, 1795- 
 
 1860; parliament, note 
 Barth, Dr. ; Africa, 1849 
 Barthelemy, E. ; trials, 1855 
 Barton, Bernard, poet, 1784-1849 
 Barton, Dr.; insurance, 1667 
 Barton, Elizabeth; impostor, 1534 
 Baschi, Matt.; Capuchins, 1525 
 Basil, St., d. 380; Basilians 
 Basil ; East. emp. 867 ; Russia 
 Basilowitz ; Russia, czars, 1462 
 Bateman, J. F. Glasgow, 1859; tun- 
 nels, 1869 ; water, 1867 
 Bates, M. van. Buren ; grants, 1871 
 Bates, W. ; United States, 1872 
 Bath, earl of; Bath admin., 1746 
 Bathou; Transylvania, 1851, &c. 
 Bathurst, bp. ; Norwich, 1805 
 Bathurst, earl ; Liverpool administra- 
 tion, 18 1 2 
 Bathyllus ; pantomimes 
 Batman, J.; Victoria, 1835 
 Batthyany; Hungary, 1848 
 Battus; Cyrene, 631 B.C. 
 • Baumgarten; Eesthetics, 1750 
 Bavaria, elector of; Ramifies, 1706 
 Baxter, sir D. ; Dundee, 1863; d. 1872 
 Baxter, G. ; printing in colours, 1836 
 Baxter, Rd., theologian, 1615-91 
 Baxter v. Langley ; trials, 1868 
 Bayard, chevalier, killed, 1524 
 Bayle, P., d. 1706; dictionary, 1697 
 Bayley, lieut. ; duel, 18 18 
 Baynard, Geoffrey; combat 
 Bazaine, marshal; Franco-Prussian 
 
 war, 1 8 70- 1 ; Metz 
 Bazalgette, J. W., 0. 1819; sewers, 
 
 Thames 
 Beadon, bishop; Bath, 1802 
 Beamish, capt.; trials, navy, 1871 
 Bean aims at the queen ; trials, 1842 
 Beaton, cardinal ; murd. 1546 
 Beattie, Jas.; poet, 1735-1803 
 Beauclerc, lord Charles, drowned 
 
 while assisting at a wreck, 1861 
 Beau Nash ; ceremonies 
 Beauchamp, Henry de ; Wight 
 
 Beauchamp, John de ; barons 
 Beaufort, cardinal, d. 1447 
 Beauharnais, Eugene, 1781-1824 ; 
 
 Italy, 1805 ; Mockern 
 Beaulieu, general; Lodi, 1796 
 Beaumont, sir G., painter, 1 753-1827; 
 
 National Gallery 
 Beaumont, Mr.; duel, 1821-1826 
 Beaumont ; viscount, 1440 
 Beauregard, P. G., b. 1818; United 
 
 States, 1861 
 Beaurepaire, gen.; Verdun, 1794 
 Beauvoir, sir J. de ; trials, 1835 
 Becket, T., m. 11 70; Becket 
 Beckford, W. ; Fonthill abbey 
 Bede, Venerable, d. 735 
 Bedford, duke of; duel, 1822; Ireland, 
 
 lord-lieutenants, 1490-1757 ; France, 
 
 1422; admiralty, 1744; nobility, 
 
 1470 
 Bedingfleld, Ann; trials, 7763 
 Beeby, William ; longevity 
 Beeching, J.; lifeboat, 1851 
 Beethoven, L., mus. comp., 1 770-1827 
 Begum charge; Chunar, 1781 
 Behem, Martin; Azores 
 Behnes, Win., sculpt., 1800-64 
 Behring, d. 1741 ; Behring's straits 
 Bela; Hungary, kings 
 Belasyse, lord L.; adm., 1687 
 Belcher, sir E.; circumnavigation, 
 
 1836; Franklin 
 Belcredi, count Rd., 0. 1823; Austria, 
 
 1865 
 Belisarius, d. 565 ; Africa, east emp. 
 Bell, And., 1752-1832; Lancasterian 
 
 schools 
 Bell, sir C, 1 774-1842; nerves 
 Bell, Henry ; steam, 1812 
 Bell, rev. Patrick ; reaping machine, 
 
 1826 
 Bellamont, lord ; duel, 1773 
 Bellamy ; trial, 1844 
 Bellarmine, card., 1542-1621 
 Bellingham, Perceval, adm., 1812 
 Bellingham, sir Daniel, mayor (of 
 
 Dublin), 1665 
 Bellini; Ital. music, 1802-35 
 Bellot, lieut., d. 1853; Franklin 
 Belochus; Assyria, 1446 B.C. 
 Belus; Assyria, 2245 B.C. 
 Belzoni, J. B., traveller, d. 1823 
 Bern, gen. Joseph, d. 1850; Hungary 
 Benbow, adm.; naval battles, 1702 
 Benedek, L., 1804-72; Koniggratz 
 Benedict, Benedictines; popes, 574- 
 
 1758 
 Bennett, James ; Africa, 1872 
 Bentham Jer. (1746-1832); savings' 
 
 banks; deontology; utilitarianism 
 Bentinck, lord G., d. 1848; protec- 
 tionists. 
 Bentinck, lord W. ; Assam, India, 
 
 1827 
 Bentley, Rd., scholar, 1662-1742 
 Beranger, J. P. de, poet, 1780-1857 
 Berengaria, queen (of Richard I.), d. 
 
 1230 
 Berengarius ; fete de Dieu 
 Berenger, Butt, lord Cochrane, and 
 
 others; trials, 18 14 
 Beresford, lord; Albuera, 181 1 
 Beresford, lord J. ; suicide, 1841 
 Beresford, Wm. ; Derby adm., 1852 
 Berg, gen. ; Poland, 1863 
 Bergeret, gen.; France, 1871 
 Berkeley; trials, 1811, 1858 
 Berkeley, hon. C. ; duel, 1842 
 Berkeley, lord ; admiralty, 1717 
 Berkeley, lord; America, N., 1644; 
 
 Brest, 1694 ; Carolina 
 Bernadotte, 1764-1844 ; Dennewitz, 
 
 Sweden (king) 
 Bernard, St., 1091-1153 
 Bernard, S. ; trial, 1858 
 Bernard, sir Thomas ; British Inst,. 
 
 1805 ; Royal Institution, 1799. 
 Bernini, G. L. Ital. artist, 1598-1680 
 
 Berri, duke and duchess of ; France, 
 1820 & 1833 
 
 Berry, lieut. ; trials, 1807 
 
 Berthelot, P. M., b. 1827; acetylene, 
 defiant gas, 1862 
 
 Berry er, P. A., Fr. advt. 1790-68 
 
 Berthier, gen. ; marshal, 1753-1815 
 
 Berthollet, C. L., Fr. chemist, 1748- 
 1822 ; chlorine 
 
 Bertie, lady G. C. ; lord great cham- 
 berlain 
 
 Berwick, duke of, d. 1734 ; Landen, 
 Almanza, Newry 
 
 Berzelius, Jas., 1779- 1848 ; chemistry, 
 silicium 
 
 Bessemer, H. ; iron, steel, steam-gun 
 
 Bessus ; Persia, 331 B.C. 
 
 Best, capt. ; duel, 1804 ; Surat, 1611 
 
 Beswick, F. trials, 1869 
 
 Bethell, bp. ; Gloucester, 1824 
 
 Bethell, sir R., solicitor-gen., 1852, 
 attorney-gen., 1859 (see Westbury) 
 
 Betheneourt ; Canaries, 1400 
 
 Betty, master ; theatres, 1804 
 
 Beust, F. F. v., b. 1809; Austria, 
 1866 
 
 Bevern, prince; Breslau, 1757 
 
 Bewick, T., 1753-1828 ; wood en- 
 graving 
 
 Bexley, Vansittart, lord ; Liverpool 
 administration, 1812 
 
 Beza, Thedore, theologian, 1519- 
 1605 
 
 Bialobrzeski, abp. ; Poland, 1861 
 
 Bickersteth, bp. ; Ripon, 1856 
 
 Biela, W. von, comet, 1826 
 
 Big Sam ; giants, 1809 
 
 Bingley, lord ; Oxford adm. 1711 
 
 Bird, the boy ; trials, 1831 
 
 Birkbeck, Dr., d. 1841 ; mechanics'' 
 institutes 
 
 Biscoe, capt. ; southern continent, 
 1832 
 
 Bishop ; burking, 1831 
 
 Bishop, A. ; derrick, 1857 
 
 Bishop, sir H. ; music, 1 786-1855 
 
 Bishop, J. F. ; Italy, 1862 
 
 Bismarck, O. von, 5, 1813 ; Prussia, 
 1862 ; France, 1870-3 ; Franco- 
 Prussian War, 73 
 
 Black, Dr. ; duel, 1835 
 
 Black, Jos. ; chemist, 1728-99 ; mag- 
 nesia, air, balloon 
 
 Blackburn, abp. ; York, 1724 
 
 Blackstone, sir W, 1723-80 ; law 
 
 Blair, Hugh, 1717-1800 ; rhetoric, 
 verse ; — John, chronologist, d. 
 
 J 797 , . 
 
 Blake, adm. R., 1 599-1657; Algiers, 
 
 Dover straits, Portlancl isle, Santa 
 
 Cruz 
 Blakesley, Robt. ; trials, 1841 
 Blanqui, France, 1872 
 Blanc, Louis, b. 1813 ; France, 1848 
 Blanchard; balloon, 1784-1819 
 Blanchard, Laman ; suicide, 1845 
 Blanchard, T. ; timber bending, 
 
 1855 
 Blandy, Miss ; trials, 1752 
 Bligh, captain ; bread fruit tree ; 
 
 Adventure bay, Bounty mutiny 
 Bligh, captain, v. Mr. Wellesley Pole ; 
 
 trials, 1825 
 Bligh, Mr. ; trials, 1806 
 Blomfield, bp. ; Chester, 1824 ; 
 
 London, 1828 
 Blondin ; crystal palace, 1861 
 Blood, col., d. 1680; Blood, crown 
 Blood, Mr. ; trials, 1832 
 Bloomer, Mrs. ; dress, 1849 
 Bloomfield, R, poet, 1766-1823 
 Blucher, marshal, d. 1819 ; Jan- 
 
 villiers, Ligny, Waterloo 
 Blum, R., shot in 1848 
 Blumenbach, J. F. ; physiol. 1759- 
 
 1840 
 Blundell, lieut. ; duel, 1813 
 Boabdil, Abencerrages 
 
748 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Boadioea, d. 61 ; Britain, Iceni 
 Boardman, captain; duel, 1811 
 Boccaccio, 1313-75 ; Decameron 
 Boccold, John, anabaptists, 1534 
 Boddington ; trials, 1797 
 Boden, col ; Sanscrit, 1832 
 Bodley, T. ; Bodleian lib., 1602 
 Boerhaave, H., med. writ., 1668-1738 
 Boethius, killed, 524 
 Boeticher ; Dresden china, 1700 
 Bogle v. Lawson ; trials, 1841 
 Bohemia, king of, "Ich Dien ;" 
 
 Crecy, 1346 
 Boileau, Nic, Fr. poet, 1636-1711 
 Bois de Chene, Mdlle. ; beards, 1834 
 Bolam, Mr. ; trials, 1839 
 Boldero, capt. ; duel, 1842 
 Boleslas ; Poland (kings), 992 
 Boleyn, Anne ; England (queen Hen. 
 
 VIII.) 
 Boleyn, earl of Wiltshire ; adminis- 
 trations, 1532 ; deism 
 Bolingbroke, lord ; Oxford adminis- 
 tration, 1711 ; deism 
 Bolivar, gen., 1783-1830 ; Columbia 
 Bolland, Acta Sanctorum, 1643 
 Bonaparte family ; p. 100, France 
 Bonaparte, P.; France, 1870;— Napo- 
 leon Jerome ; France, 1859-72 
 Bonar, Mr. and Mrs. ; trials, 1813 
 Bonaventura, 1221-74 : conclave 
 Bonavisa, Anthony ; distaff, 1505 
 Bond ; magnetism, 1668 
 Bond, prof. ; photography, 1851 
 Bonelli ; electric loom, 1854 
 Bonheur, Rosa, Fr. painter, b. 1822 
 Bonner, bishop of London ; adminis- 
 trations, 1554 
 Bonnet, C, Fr. naturalist, 1720-93. 
 Bonnycastle, J., mathematician, d. 
 
 1821 
 Bonpland, A., naturalist, 1 773-1858 
 Bonwell, rev. J. ; trials, i860 
 Boon, colonel ; America, 1754 
 Boosey, T. ; copyright, 1854 
 Booth, B. ; book-keeping, 1789 
 Booth, Wilkes, assassin ; U. States, 
 
 1865 
 Booth, Mr. ; theatres, 1817 
 Bopp, F. Ger. linguist, 1781-67 
 Borde, Andrew ; Merry-andrew 
 Borden, Gail ; milk 
 Borelli ; mechanics, 1679 
 Borgese, H. ; diamond 
 Borgia, Caesar, killed, 1507 
 Boroiinhe, Brian ; Ireland, 1014 
 Borowlaski, ct. ; dwarf, 1739-1837 
 Borrington, lady ; trials, 1808 
 Boromeo, abp. Carlo, 1538-84; Milan, 
 
 1576 
 Boscan, Span, poet, abt. 1496-1544 
 Boscawen, adm., 1711-60 ; Lagos 
 Bosquet, marshal, 1810-61 ; Inker- 
 
 mann, 1854 
 Bossuet, J., Fr. theol., 1627-1704 
 Boswell, sir A. ; duel, 1822 
 Bos well, James, biogra., 1740-95 
 Both well, earl of; Scotland, 1567 
 Bottle conspirators ; trials, 1839 
 Bouchet, Anthony ; illuminati 
 Bouchier ; Canterbury, abp. 1454 
 Boufflers, Fr. marshal; 1644-1711 
 Bougainville, d. 1811 ; circumnavi- 
 gation, New Hebrides 
 Bouille, marquis de ; Eustatia, 1781 
 Boulby, Mr. ; China, i860 
 Boulton, Mat., d. 1809; Birmingham 
 Boulton and others, trials, 1871 
 Boulton and Watt ; coinage, 1788 
 Bourbaki, gen. ; Franco-Pruss. war, 
 
 1870-1 
 Bourbon family ; Bourbon, duke of ; 
 
 duels, 1778 
 Bourgeois, sir F. ; Dulwich, 1813 
 Bourke, sir R. ; Victoria, Australia, 
 
 1831 
 Bourmont, marshal ; Algiers, 1830 
 
 Bourne, Sturges ; Canning adminis- 
 tration, 1827 
 Bousfleld, W. ; executions, 1856 
 Bovill, sir W., 6. 1814; com. pleas, 
 
 1866 
 Bo wen, sir G. ; Queensland, 1859 
 Bower, Mr. Elliott ; trials, 1852 
 Bowes, Miss ; Strathmore, 1766 
 Bowley, R. ; crystal palace, 1870 
 Bowring, sir J. ; Canton, China, 
 
 Siam 
 Bowstead, bishop ; Lichfield, 1843 
 Bowyer, bp. ; Ely, Chester, 1812 
 Boyd, captain ; duel, 1808 
 Boyd, Hugh ; Junius 
 Boydell, aid., d. 1804; British In- 
 stitution 
 Boyle, earl of Orrery ; Orrery 
 Boyle, Rob., 1626-91 ; phosphorus, 
 
 Royal Society 
 Boyle, Henry ; Godolphin adminis- 
 tration, 1702 
 Brabant, duke of; merchants, 1296 
 Braddock, gen. ; Fort Duquesne 
 Bradbury, H. ; nature-printing, 
 
 1855-6 
 Bradley, admiral ; trials, 1814 
 Bradley, Jas., 1693-1762 ; aberration, 
 
 astronomy, Greenwich 
 Bradwardine, abp. ; Canterbury, 
 
 1349 
 Braganza, John of; Portugal, 1640 
 Bragg, gen. ; United States, 1862-3 
 Braham, John, singer, 1774-1856 ; 
 
 theatres 
 Brahe, Tycho, 1546-1601 ; astronomy, 
 
 globe 
 Braidwood. Jas. ; fires, k. 1861 
 Bramah, J., 1749-1814; hydrostatics, 
 
 planing-machme 
 Brande, W. T., chemist, 1788-1866 ; 
 
 Royal and London Institutions 
 Brandreth, the Luddite ; Derby 
 
 trials, 1817 
 Brandt, count; Zell, 1772 
 Brandt; cobalt, phosphorus, 1667 
 Brantome, P., historian, 1527-1614 
 Brassey, Thos. ; rail, eng., 1805-70 
 Brasidas ; killed, Amphipolis, 422 
 
 B.C. 
 
 Braun, K. nephoscope, 1868 
 Breadalbane peerage ; trials, 1866-7 
 Breakspeare, Nicholas; pope, 1154 
 Brederode, H. de ; gueux, 1566 
 Bremer, sir Gordon ; China, 1840 
 Bremer, Fred., novelist, 1802-65 
 Brendon, St. ; Clonfert, 558 
 Brenn, captain ; Hibernia, 1833 
 Brennus ; Rome, 390 B.C. 
 Brereton, col. ; Bristol, 1832 
 Bresson, count ; suicide, 1847 
 Brett, J. W. ; submarine telegraph, 
 
 1845 
 Brett, sir W. B., solio. gen. 1868 
 Brewster, David, nat. phil., 1781- 
 
 1868 ; kaleidoscope, British asso- 
 ciation 
 Brie, Mr. ; duel, 1826 
 Bridgewater, earl ; admiralty, 1699 
 Bridgewater, duke of, 1729-1803 ; 
 
 Bridgewater Canal 
 Bridport, lord ; L'Orient, 1795 
 Brienne, M. de ; notables, 1788 
 Bright, corpulency, 1809 
 Bright, John, b. 181 1 ; Adullam, 
 
 agitators, peace congress 
 Bright, T. ; shorthand 
 Brindley, Jas., 1716-72; tunnels, 
 
 Bridgewater canal, Barton 
 Brinklett ; trials, 1828 
 Brinvilliers, madame de, executed, 
 
 1676 ; poisoning 
 Bristol, mayor of ; trials, 1832 
 Bristol, John, earl of ; administ. 1621 
 Brock, C. F., fireworks 
 Brodie, sir B. C, surgeon, 1783-1862; 
 
 —(son) chemist, 6. 1817 ; graphite, 
 
 1862 ; ozone 
 
 Broke, captain; Chesapeake, 1813 
 
 Brome, Adam de ; Oriel, 1337 
 
 Bromley, sir Thomas ; administra- 
 tions, 1579 
 
 Brongniart, A., geol., 1770-1847 
 
 Brooke, sir James, 1803-68 ; Borneo 
 
 Brothers, R., d. 1824 
 
 Brough, M. A. ; trials, 1854. 
 
 Brougham, H., 1778-1868 ; chancellor, 
 impeachment, social science 
 
 Broughton, v. Knight, trials, 1873. 
 
 Brough ton, lord ; Russell adm., 1846, 
 1851 
 
 Brown, gen. ; Prague, 1751 
 
 Brown, H., trials, 1858 
 
 Brown, sir J. ; iron, 1867 
 
 Brown, captain John ; United States. 
 1859 
 
 Brown, R., d. 1630; Browmsts, 
 independents 
 
 Brown, Rob., botanist, 1773-1858 ; 
 Brownian 
 
 Brown, W., 1783-1864 ; Liverpool, 
 
 1857 
 Browne, American gen. ; Chippawa, 
 
 18 14 ; Fort Erie 
 Browne, George ; Dublin, 1554 
 Browne, Hannah ; trials, 1837 
 Brownrigg, Eliz. ; trials, 1767 
 Brownrigg, gen. ; Candy, 1815 
 Bruck, baron ; Lloyd's, note 
 Bruce, David ; Scotland, king, 1328 ; 
 
 Nevill's cross, 1346 
 Bruce, Edward ; Dundalk, 1318 
 Bruce, H. A. Gladstone adm. 1868 
 Bruce, Michael ; Lavalette, 1816 
 Bruce, Robert, d. 1329 ; Scotland, 
 
 king, 1306 ; Bannockburn, 1314 
 Bruce, com. ; Lagos, China, 1851 
 Bruce, V. , traveller, 1730-94; Africa, 
 
 Bruce, Nile, Palmyra 
 Brucher, Antonio ; coinage, 1553 
 Brudenell ; trials, 1834 
 Brueys, admiral; Nile, 1798 
 Brunei, I. K., 1769-1849 ; blocks. 
 
 steam, Thames tunnel 
 Brunei, I. K., jun., 1806-59; steam 
 Bruno, d. 1101 ; Benedictines, Char- 
 treuse, Cologne, turnery 
 Brunswick, duke of; Valmy, 1792: 
 
 Quatre Bras, 1815 
 Brunt, Davidson, Thistlewood, Ings, 
 
 and Tidd ; Cato-street, 1820 
 Brutus, Lucius Junius ; consuls, 
 
 Rome, 508 
 Brutus and Cassius; Philippi, 42 
 
 B.C. 
 
 Bryan (or Brian) Boroiinhe ; harp, 
 
 Clontarf, Ireland, 1014 
 Bubb ; opera-house, 1821 
 Buehan, captain ; N.-W. passage, 
 
 1819-22 
 Buehan, M. ; Buchanites, 1779 
 Buchanan, J., pres. U. States, 1856, 
 
 d. 1868 
 Buckhurst, Thomas, lord ; adminis- 
 trations, 1599 
 Buckingham, Stafford, duke of; 
 
 constable, 1521 
 Buckingham, G. Villiers, duke of; 
 
 administrations, 161=;, 1621; dress : 
 
 killed, 1628 
 Buckingham, duke of; cabal ministry, 
 
 1670 ; Peel administrations, 1841 ; 
 
 duel, 1822 ;— (&. 1823) ; Disraeli 
 
 adm., 1868 
 Buckingham, marquis of; Ireland, 
 
 lord lieutenant, 1787 
 Buckinghamshire, earl of ; Liverpool 
 
 administration, 1812 
 Buckland, F. ; fisheries, 1863 
 Buckland, W. ; geologist, 1 784-1856 
 Buckle, H. T. ; historian, 1822-62 
 Bufahnaco ; caricatures, 1330 
 Buffon, G., 1707-88 ; geology, zoology, 
 
 J 749 
 Bugeaud, marshal, 1784- 1849 ; Mo- 
 rocco, 1844 
 
Bulkeley, bishop ; Bangor, 1553 
 Bull, J., " God save the King," 1606 
 Bull, G., bishop, 1634-1710 
 Bulwer, see Lytton, Id. 
 Bimning, J. B. ; coal-exchange, 1849 
 Bunsen, baron C. J. ; Germ. hist. 
 
 andphil., 1791-1860 
 Bunsen, B. ; voltaic pile, 1842 ; spec- 
 tram, i860 
 Bunyan, J., 1628-88; Bedford, alle- 
 gory, pilgrim's progress 
 Buonarotti, Michael Angelo, 1474- 
 
 1564 
 Burbage, James ; plays, drama 
 Burdett, sir F, 1770-1844; duel, 
 1807 ; riots, trial, 1820. See Coutts. 
 Burdock, Mary Anne ; trials, 1835 
 Bunion, Mr. : trials, 1841 
 Burger, G. ; Germ, poet, 1748-94 
 Burgess, bishop ; David's, St. 1825 ; 
 
 Salisbury 
 Burgh, Hubert de ; Whitehall 
 Burgoyne, gen. ; Saratoga, 1777; sir 
 J. P. 1782-1S61 ; capt. H. Captain, 
 1870 
 Burke, Edmund, 1729-97 ; Rocking- 
 ham administrations, 1782; Canada, 
 Junius 
 Burke, E. ; Fenians, 1867-8 
 Burke and Willis ; Australia, 1860-3 
 Burleigh, lord ; administrations, 1558 
 Burlington, Rd. earl of, 1695-1753 
 Biuinann, P. thesaurus 
 Burnes, sir A., murdered; India, 
 
 1841 
 Burnet, Dr. ; antediluvians 
 Burnet, bp. Gilbert, 1643-1715 
 Burnett, Mr., cl. 1784; Burnett prizes 
 Burns, R., Scot, poet, 1759-96 
 Burnside, gen. A. ; U. States, 1862 
 Burr, colonel ; duel, 1804 
 Burton, Rob. (Anat. of Melancholy), 
 
 1576-1640 
 Bury, Richard de ; libraries, 1341 
 Bute, earl of, 1713-92 ; Bute adm. 
 Butler, bp. S. ; Lichfield, 1840 
 Butler, bp. J., 1692-1752 
 Butler, captain ; Silistria, 1854 
 Butler, Sam. (Hudibras), abt. 1612-80 
 Butler, gen. B. ; New Orleans, 1862 
 Butt, Mr. ; trials, 1817 ; Ireland, 1871 
 Buttevant ; viscount, 1385 
 Button, sir Thomas ; N.-W. passage, 
 
 1612 
 Buxton, Mr. ; trials, 1829 
 Buxton, sir T. F., 1786-1845 ; prisons, 
 
 1815 
 Byng, adm. J., exec. 1757; Gibraltar, 
 
 Byng, 1757 
 Byrne, Miss ; riot, 1819 
 Byron, comm. ; port Egmont, 1765 
 Byron, George, lord, poet, 1788-1824 
 
 Greece, Missolonghi, swimming 
 Bysse, Dr. ; music (festivals) 
 
 Cabot, Sebastian and John; Ame- 
 rica, 1497 
 Cabral, Alvarez de; Brazil, 1500 
 Cabrera, general; Spain, 1840 
 Cade, Jack; Cade's insurrection, 
 
 1450 
 Cadell, Captain; Australia, 1867 
 Cadmus, 1453 b.c. ; .alphabet, Bceotia 
 Cadogan, captain; duels, 1809 
 Cadwallader ; Britain, 678 
 Caecilius Isidorus ; slavery in Rome, 
 
 12 B.C. 
 
 Cffidmon ; Anglo-Saxons, 680 
 
 Csesar, Julius, 100-44 B - c -: Rome, 
 Britain, calendar, ides; Dover, 
 Pharsalia, Rubicon, Zela 
 
 Caesar, Octavius, 63 b.c. -14 a.d. ; 
 Rome, Actium, massacres, tri- 
 umvirate, Philippi, emperor 
 
 Csesalpinus; blood, circulation, 1569 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Cagliostro, cl. 1795; diamond neck- 
 lace 
 Caithness, earl of; steam-carriage, 
 
 i860 
 Cairns, Hugh, lord, h. 1819, att.-gen. 
 
 1866, lord chan. 1868 
 Calaphilus ; wandering Jew 
 Calas, J., judicially murdered, 1761 
 Calder, sir Robt. ; naval batt. 1805 
 Calderon, P., Span, dramatist, 1601-87 
 Calepino; dictionaries, 1500 
 Calhoun, Mr.; temperance soc, 1818 
 Caligula; Rome, emperor, 37 
 Calippus ; Calippic period, 330 b. c. 
 Calixtus, pope; Calixtius, 1656 
 Callcott, J. W.; music. 1766-1821 
 CaUicrates ; caligraphy 
 Callimaehus ; abacus, architecture, 
 
 Corinthian, 540 b. c. 
 Callinicus ; Greek fire, wildfire 
 Callisthenes ; Chaldean, Macedon, 
 
 328 B.C. 
 Calonne; notables, 1788 
 Calthorpe, Id. ; Birmingham, 1857 
 Calverly ; pressing to death, 1605 
 Calvert and Co.; porter, 1760 
 Calvin, John, 1509-64; Calvinism 
 Cambaceres; directory, 1799 
 Cambridge, dukes of ; Cambridge 
 Cambridge, George, duke of, 6. 1819; 
 
 com. -in-chief, 1856; army, 1872 
 Cambyses; Egypt, Persia, 525 b.c. 
 Camden, lord; chancellor, Percival 
 adm., 1809; exchequer, Ireland 
 (lord-lieut.) 
 Camden, W., antiquary, 1551-1623 
 Camelford, lord ; duel," 1804 
 Cameron, H. I.; trials, 1858 
 Cameron, consul; Abyssinia, 1863 
 Camillus, Rome; 391 b.c. 
 Camoens, Port, poet, 1524-79 
 Campbell, bishop ; Bangor, 1859 
 Campbell, sir C. ; see Clyde 
 Campbell, John, lord i78i(?)-i86i ; 
 attorney - general, king's bench, 
 chancellor, Palmerston 
 Campbeli, Rev. J. ; trials, 1863 
 Campbell, major; duel, trials, 1808 
 Campbell, capt.; marriages, forced, 
 
 1690 
 Campbell, Thos., poet, 1777-1844 
 Camper, Peter, 1722-89; facial angle 
 Campion; trials, 1857 
 Canaletti, Ven. painter, 1697-1768 
 Canby, gen.; killed, Modoc, 1873 
 Canning, George, 1 770-1827; Can- 
 ning, duel, 1809; grammarians, 
 king's speech 
 Canning, viscount, 1812-62; India, 
 
 1855 
 Canova, A., sculptor, 1757-1822 
 Cantillon ; wills (Napoleon's), 1821 
 Canton, J., d. 1772; phosphorus, 
 
 magnetism 
 Cantor, Theod. ; Cantor lectures, 
 
 1853 
 Canute; England, 1017; Alney 
 Cape Town, Grav, bp. of; Africa, 
 
 1866 ; Church of England 
 Capel, H. ; admiralty, 1679 
 Capet family ; France, 987 
 Capo d'Istria, count ; Greece, 1831 
 Car; augury 
 Caracalla; Rome, emp. 211 ; Ale- 
 
 manni 
 Caracci, L., painter, 1555-1619; An., 
 
 1568-1609 
 Caraccioli, adm., executed, Naples, 
 
 1799 
 Caractacus ; Britain, 50 
 Caraffa, bishop ; Theatines, 1524 
 Carauasius; Britain, 281 
 Cardan, J., 1501-76; algebra 
 Garden, Mr.; trials, 1854 
 Cardigan, lord; duel, 1840; trials, 
 
 1841 and 1863 ; Balaklava, 1854 
 Cardross case ; trials, 1861 
 Cardwell. Edward, li. 1813 ; Pal- 
 
 749 
 
 merstonadm., 1855-59; Gladstone 
 adm. 1868; army, 1872 
 Carey, bishop; St. Asaph, 1830 
 Carleton, sir Guy ; U. States, 1782 
 Carlier, fire-annihilator 
 Carlile,, R.; atheist; trials, 1810, 
 
 1831 
 Carlisle, earl of; Ireland, lord-lieu- 
 tenant, 1859 
 Carlos, don; Spain, 1833-73 
 Carlyle, Thos., phil. and hist., 6. 
 
 1795 
 Carmarthen, marquis of; adminis- 
 trations, 1689 
 Carnot, L., Fr. mathem., 1 753-1823 
 Caroline; queen (George II.), parks 
 Caroline; queen (George IV.), Bran- 
 denburg-house, delicate investiga- 
 tion 
 Carpenter, W. B. ; deep sea 
 Carpenter, gen.; Preston, 1715 
 Carr, bishop; Worcester, 1831 
 Carr, Howell ; national gallery, 1824 
 Carre; congelation, i860 
 Carstares, rev. W- : thumbscrew 
 Carrier; America, 1534 
 Carrier, Richard ; alchemy, 1476 
 Carteret; circumnavigator, 1766 
 Carteret, lord; Walpole adm., 1721 
 Carthage, St.; Lismore, 636 
 Cartwright, major; trials, 1820 
 Carvilius, Spurius ; divorces, 231 B.C. 
 Casella, L.; thermometer, 1861 
 Cashin, Miss; quackery, 1830 
 Cashman ; Spafields, riots, 1816 
 Casimir; Poland 
 Cassander; Macedon, 316 b.c. 
 Cassibelaunus ; Briton, 54; chariots 
 Cassini, 1625-1712; astronomy; Bo- 
 logna, latitude, Saturn, 1655 
 Cassius ; Philippi, 42 b. c. 
 Castanos; Spain, 1852 
 Castel, M.; Dartmouth, 1404 
 Castelar; Spain, 1869-73. 
 Castlereagh, lord; union with Ire- 
 land, 1800; Pitt admin., 1804; 
 Liverpool admin., 1812 ; duel, 1809 ; 
 suicide, 1822 
 Catesby, Rob.; gunpowder, 1605 
 Catch v. Shaen, trials, 1870 
 Cathcart, Id.; Copenhagen, 1807 
 Cathcart, general ; Kaffraria ; Inker- 
 
 mann, 1854 
 Catlierine ; England (queens, Hen. 
 
 V., VIII., Charles II.) 
 Catlierine ; Russia, 1725 ; Odessa ; 
 
 Sebastopol 
 Cato (the censor) ; agriculture ; 149 
 b.c. ;— (the tribune), kills himself, 
 
 46 B.C. 
 
 Catullus, poet, d. abt. 47 b. c. 
 
 Catulus ; Cimbri, 101 b.c. 
 
 Caulaincourt ; Chatillon, 1814. 
 
 Cans, S. de ; steam-engine, 1615 
 
 Cautley, sir P., 1802-71; Ganges, 
 1S54 
 
 Cavaienac, general ; France, 1848 
 
 Cavalier, camisards 
 
 Cavaliere, Emilio di; opera, recita- 
 tive, 1600 
 
 Cavendish, circumnavigator, 1586 
 
 Cavendish, H., 1731-1810 ; balloons, 
 electricity, chemistry, nitrogen, 
 hydrogen, water 
 
 Cavendish, John de ; judges, 1382 
 
 Cavendish, lord John ; Portland ad- 
 ministration, 1783 
 
 Cavendish, W. ; Devonshire, 1618 
 
 Cavour, Camille de, 1809-61 ; Sar- 
 dinia, Austria, Italy 
 
 Caxton, Wm., about 1412-91 ; print- 
 ing 
 
 Caylus, count; encaustic painting, 
 1765 
 
 Cecil, Wm. ; administrations, 1572 
 
 Cecrops ; Athens, 1556 B.C. 
 
 Celeste, madame ; theatres, 1844 
 
 Celestin ; popes, 1143 
 
750 
 
 Celsus ; midwifery, &e. , 37 
 Cerdic ; Britain (Wessex) 
 Cerinthus ; apocalypse 
 Cervantes, M.S., 1547-1616 ; don 
 
 Quixote 
 Cbabannes, ecorcheurs, 1438 
 Chaconiac ; planets, 1853 
 Chad, St. ; baths, 667 
 Chaffers, Alex., statutory declaration 
 Challoner, T. ; alum, 1608 
 Chalmers, Dr. T., 1780- 1847 
 Chambers, bishop ; Peterborough, 
 
 1541 
 Chambers ; encyclopaedia, 1728, 1859; 
 
 — R. , 1802-71 
 Chambers, sir William ; Somerset- 
 house, 1775 
 Chambord, comte de, b. 1820 ; France, 
 
 1870-3 
 Changarnier, general ; France, 1851 
 Channing, W. , 1780-1842 
 Chantry, F., sculpt., 1782-1841 
 Chanzy, gen., Franco- Prussian war, 
 
 1870-1 
 Chappe, M. ; telegraphs, 1793 
 Chares ; colossus, 288 B.C. 
 Charlemagne, 742-814 ; academy, 
 couriers, Avars, Bavaria, Chris- 
 tianity, France, Germany, Navarre 
 Charles Albert ; Sardinia, 1831 ; No- 
 
 vara, 1849 
 Charles ; England, France, Spain, 
 Savoy, Germany, Sweden, Sicily, 
 <fcc. 
 Charles V. ; emperor, 150x3-58; Spain, 
 
 Austria, Germany, Spires 
 Charles V. ; Bastile, 1369 
 Charles VI. ; picquet, 1390 
 Charles XII., 1682-1718 ; Sweden, 
 
 Frederickshald 
 Charles the Bold ; Burgundy, 1468, 
 
 Nancy, Liege 
 Charles, archduke, 1771-1847; As- 
 
 perne, Eekmuhl, Essling 
 Charles of Anjou ; Naples, 1266 
 Charles of Houenzolleru, prince, b. 
 
 1839 ; Danub. princ. 1866 
 Charles of Lorraine ; Lissa, 1757 
 Charles Stuart, prince; pretender, 
 
 Culloden, 1746 
 Charlesworth, J. C. ; trials, 1861 
 Charlotte, queen, England (George 
 
 III.) 
 Charlotte, princess of Wales, 1796- 
 
 1817 ; Claremont 
 Charteris, col. ; trials, 1730 
 Chasse, gen. ; Antwerp, 1832 
 Chateaubriand, viscount, French 
 
 writer, 1768- 1848 
 Chatham, earl of, 1708-78; Newcas- 
 tle admin., 1757 ; Chatham admin. , 
 1766 ; Walcheren, 1809 
 Chatterton, T., poet, 1752-70 
 Chaucer, G., 1328-1400; Canterbury 
 
 tales 
 Chaves, marq. of; Portugal, 1826 
 Chelmsford, Id. ; Derby adm., 1858 
 Chcrubini, music, comp., 1760-1842 
 Chesham, Sarah ; trials, 1851 
 Cheshire rioters ; trials, 1842 
 Chesney, col. ; Assyria, 1835 ; Eu- 
 phrates, 1850 
 Chevallier, M., b. 1806 
 Chevreul, E., chemist, &c, h. 1786; 
 
 candles, glycerine 
 Chicheley, archbishop ; Canterbury, 
 
 1414-1443 . 
 
 Childeric ; France (kings) 
 Childers, H. C, admiralty; Glad- 
 stone, 1868 
 Chillingworth, W., theol., 1602-44 
 ChingNoung ; China, wine, 1998 B.C. 
 Chladni, E., 1756-1827; acoustics 
 Choisenl, E., due de, 1719-85 
 Cholmondeley, gen. ; horseguards, 
 
 1693 
 Chosroes I. ; Persia, 531 
 Christian ; Denmark, Sweden, 1448 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Christian IV. : Christiania, 1624 
 Christian VII. ; Denmark, 1775 ; 
 
 Oldenburg 
 Christina; Sweden, 1633; Spain, 
 
 1833 
 Christophe ; Hayti, 1811 
 Christopher ; Denmark (kings), 1252, 
 
 1320 
 Christopher, Robt. Adam ; Derby 
 
 adm., 1852 
 Chrysostom ; fathers, 354-407 
 Churchill, C. ; satires, 1731-64 
 Cialdini, gen. ; Italy, i860 ; Castel 
 
 Fidardo, Gaeta 
 Cibber, C, 1671-1757; poet-laureate 
 Cicero, 106-43 BC - ; Athens, Rome, 
 
 Catiline, Philippics 
 Cid (Spanish hero), '/. 1099 
 Cimabue, painter, 1240-1300 
 Cimarosa, musician, 1754-1801 
 Cimon ; Eurymedon, 466 b.c. 
 Cincinnatus, dictator, 458 b.c. 
 China, consul, killed, 84 B.C. 
 Clanny, Dr. Reid ; safety lamp, 1817 
 Clanriearde, marq. of; postmaster, 
 1846 ; Russell administration, 
 1851 ; Palmerston administration, 
 1855 
 Clappertoji, Hugh, traveller, 1788- 
 
 1827 
 Clare, John, poet, 1793-1864 
 Clare, earl of ; duel, 1820 
 Clarence, duke of; Anjou, Claren- 
 cieux ; rebellion, 1478 ; admiralty, 
 1827 
 Clarendon, earl of (Hyde), 1608-74 ; 
 administrations, 1660, 1685 ; — earl 
 of, G. F. Villiers, 1800-70; — Ire- 
 land, lord-lieut. ; Aberdeen, Pal- 
 merston 
 Clark, sir James, phys., 1788-1870 
 Clarke, Adam, theol., 1760-1832 ; — 
 Sam., theol.. 1675-1729 ; — Edw. D., 
 traveller, 1768- 1822 
 Clarke, M. A. ; trials, 1814 
 Clarke, gen. ; Cape, 1795 
 Clarke, M. C, b. 1809 ; Shakspeare, 
 
 concordance, 1847 
 Clarkson, Thomas, 1 760-1846 ; slav- 
 ery 
 Claude Lorraine, painter, 1600-82 
 Claudian, Latin poet, d. about 408 ; 
 
 archery 
 Claudius; Rome, emperor, 41 ; II., 
 
 Goths, 269 ; Naissus 
 Claudius, App. ; decemviri, 451 b.c. 
 Clausel, marshal ; Algiers, 1836 
 Claussen, chev. ; flax, 1851 
 Claverhouse ; Bothwell, 1679 
 Clay, Mr.; slavery, U. S., 1820; 
 
 Liberia 
 Clayton, Mr. ; duel, 1830 
 Clayton, Dr. ; gas, 1739 
 Cleaver, bishop ; Bangor, St. Asaph, 
 
 1806-1815 
 Cleisthenes ; ostracism, 510 B.C. 
 Clemens Romanus ; popes, 662; — 
 
 Alexandrinus, d. abt. 213 
 Clement ; popes, 91 ; IV. ; conclave, 
 1268 ; — VII. ; pontiff, benefices, 
 Clementines, 1378 ;— VIII. ; index ; 
 — X t V . (Ganganelli), 1769 ; 
 Jesuits 
 Clement, Jacques ; France, 1589; — 
 Joseph ; planing machine, 1825 ; — 
 Julian ; midwifery, 1663 
 Clementi, M., music, d. 1832 
 Cleombrotus ; Sparta, 380 B.C. 
 Cleomenes ; Sparta, 520 b.c. 
 Cleon, Athenian demagogue, killed 
 
 422 B.C. ; Amphipolis 
 Cleopatra ; Egypt, 69-30 B.C. ; rose 
 Clifford, C. ; life-boat, 1856 
 Clifford, J. ; trials, 1870 
 Clifford, lord ; Roman Catholics, 
 
 1829; — sirTho., cabal, 1670 
 Clinton, II. Fynes, 1781-1852 ; chro- 
 nology 
 
 Clinton, sir H. ; Yorktown, 1781 
 Clinton, Geoffrey de ; Kenilwortli, 
 
 1120 
 Clive, Robt., lord, 1725-74; Arcot, 
 
 India, Plassey 
 Cloncurry, lord, v. Piers ; trials, 1807 
 Close, Mr. ; duels, 1836 
 Clotaire ; France (kings), 558 
 Clovis (Chlodowig, Ludwig, Ludo- 
 vicus, Louis) ; France, 481 ; Nor- 
 mandy, Paris, Clovis, Salique, 
 fleur-de-lis, Alemanni 
 Cloots, Anacharsis, exec. 1794 
 Clune, &c. ; trials, 1830 
 Cluseret, gen. ; Lyons, 1870 ; France, 
 
 1871 ; Fenians, 1872 
 Clyde, lord ; India, 1857 
 Clymer ; printing-press, 1814 
 Cobbett, William, 1762-1835 ; trials, 
 
 1809, 1811, 1831 
 Cobden, R., 1804-65; anti-coro-law 
 league, free trade, French treaty, 
 peace congress 
 Cobham, Id. ; Lollards, 1418 
 Coburg, prince of; Fleurus, 1794 (see 
 
 Saxe-Coburg) 
 Cochrane, lord (afterwards Dun- 
 donald), d. i860 ; Basque roads, 
 stocks, trials, 1814 
 Cockburn, sir A., 6. 1802 ; solicitor- 
 general, 1858 ; attorney-general, 
 king's bench, ch. j., Alabama 
 Cocking, Mr. ; balloons, 1837 
 Codrington, admiral sir E. ; Nava- 
 
 rino, 1827 
 Codrus ; Athens, 1092 B.C. 
 Cohorn, B. van, military engineer, 
 
 1641-1704 
 Coke, sir Edw., 1560-1634 ; parlia- 
 ments, 1592 
 Colbert, J. B., 1619-33 ; tapestry 
 Colborne, sir John ; Canada, 1838 
 Colclough, Mr. ; duels, 1807 
 Coleman, St. ; Cloyne, 6th cent. 
 Coleman, Mrs. ; actress, 1656 
 Colenso, bp., b. 1814 ; church of 
 
 England, 1863 ; trials, 1866 
 Coleridge, Samuel T. , poet, &c, 
 1772-1834; — sir J.,solic.-gen. ; att.- 
 gen., 1871 
 Coles, capt. Cowper, 1831-70 ; navy 
 
 of England, 1855-70 ; captain 
 Colet, J. ; Paul's school, 1512 
 Coligni, admiral, killed, 1572 
 Collard, rear-adml. ; suicide, 1S46 
 Collier, J. P. ; Shakspeare, 1849 
 Collier, Jeremy; eccles.-hist., 1650- 
 
 1726 
 Collier, sir R. P. ; att.-gen., 1868 
 Collingwood, lord, 1748-1810 ; Trafal- 
 gar, 1805 ; naval battles, 1809 
 Collins, govr. ; Hobart Town, 1804 
 Collinson, capt. ; Franklin, 1850 
 Collucci, V. ; trials, 1861 
 Colman, G., d. 1794 ;— G. jun., 1762- 
 
 1836; theatres, 1777 
 Colonna family flourish, 1288-1555 
 Colonna, V., poetess, 1490-1547 
 Colpoys, admiral ; mutinies, 1797 
 Colt, colonel ; pistols, 1853 
 Columba, St., 521-97 ; isles 
 Columhanus, d. 614 or 615 
 Columbiere ; armorial bearings, 1639 
 Columbus, Chr., 1436 or 1442-1506 ; 
 America, Bahama, Garaccas, 
 Christopher's, Salvador, Domingo 
 Columbus, Bartholomew ; maps, 1489 
 Columella, medical writer, abt. 46 
 Colville, sir C. : Cambray, 1815 
 Combe, G., 1788-1858 ; craniology 
 Combermere, Id. ; Bhurtpore, 1826 
 Comines, Ph. de, Fr. hist., 1445-1509 
 Commodus ; Rome, emperor, 180 
 Comneni ; eastern emperors, 1057 ; 
 
 Pontus, Trebizond, 1204 
 Comte, A., 1 795-1857 ; positive phi- 
 losophy 
 Comyu, Mr. ; trials, 1830 
 
Concha, gen. ; Spain, 1868 
 Conde, Louis ; Jarnac, 1569 
 Conflans ; Quiberon, 1759 
 Confucius, d. 479 B.C. ; China 
 Congleton, lord ; suicide, 1842 
 Congreve, W., dramatist, 1670-1729 
 Congreve, sir Wm., 1772-1828 ; fire- 
 works, 1814 
 Conolty, J., 1795-1866; lunatics, 
 
 1839 
 Conon ; Sparta, 394 b. c. ; Arginusae 
 Conrad; Germany, emperor, 911 
 Conrad II. ; Germany, 1024 ; Bur- 
 gundy 
 Conradin ; Naples, Germany, 1268 
 Constans ; Aquileia, 340 
 Constantine ; Eome, emp., 323 ; 
 Adrianople, aruspices, banner, 
 Britain, Eastern empire, Rome, 
 York, Scotland 
 Constantine II. ; Aquileia, 340 
 Constantine IV. ; monasteries 
 Constantius ; Rome, emps. , 305 
 Contarini (doges at Venice), 1041- 
 
 1694 
 Conway, sir Edw. ; administrations, 
 1621 : — general, Chatham adminis- 
 tration, 1766 
 Cook, capt James, 1728-79 ; Austra- 
 lia, Cook's voyages, Behring's 
 Straits, Botany Bay, Flattery Cape, 
 New Hebrides, New Zealand, Nor- 
 folk Island, Otaheite, Owhyhee, 
 Port Jackson, Society isles 
 Cook, Mrs., murdered ; trials, 1841 
 Cook, J. P., murdered; trials, 1856 
 Cooke, sir George ; Chatham 1766 
 Cooke, E. W., R.A., b. 1810 or 1811 
 Cooke, Eliz. ; trials, 1832 
 Cooke, Geo. Fred., actor, 1755-1812 
 Cooke, W. F., electric teleg., 1837 
 Cooper, Astley, surgeon, 1768-1841 
 Cooper, J. Fenimore, Am. novelist, 
 
 1789-1851 
 Cooper, Mr. ; slave trade, 1787 
 Cooper; trials, 1805, 1842 
 Coote, sir Eyre; India, Arcot, 1760; 
 
 Carnatie, Cuddalore, Porto Novo 
 Cope, sir John ; Prestonpans, 1745 
 Copernicus, Nic, 1473-1543; astro- 
 nomy, attraction, solar system 
 Copleston, bishop ; LlandafF, 1827 
 Copley, J., painter, 1738-1815 
 Coram, capt. Thos., d. 1751; found- 
 ling hospital, 1739 
 Corday, Charlotte ; France, 1793 
 Corder, William ; trials, 1828 
 Cordova, general de ; Granada, 1492 
 Corelli, A., musician, 6. 1653 
 Corin; libertines, 1525 
 Coriolanus; Rome, Volsci, 490 B.C. 
 Cormac ; Cashel, 901 
 Corneille, P., tragedy, 1606-84 
 Cornelia, Maximiliana; vestals, 92 
 Cornelius; Spitzbergen, 1595 
 Cornelius, P. von; Ger. paint., 1787- 
 
 1867 
 Cornell, E.; Cornell univ., 1868 
 Cornhill, Henry; sheriff, 1189 
 Cornwall, bp. ; Worcester, 1808 
 Cornwallis, abp.; Canterbury, 1768; 
 
 Lichfield, 1781 
 Cornwallis, marquis, 1738-1805; ad- 
 miralty, India, America, Banga- 
 lore, Ireland (lord-lieut), Seringa- 
 patam 
 Coroebus; Olympiads, 776 B.C. 
 Correggio, A., painter, 1494-1534 
 Corry; duel, 1800 
 Corry, H. T. L., 6. 1803; admiralty, 
 
 1867 
 Cort, H.; iron, 1781 
 Corte Real ; America, north-west 
 
 passage, 1500 
 Cortez, F., 1485-1554; Mexico, 1521 
 Coryate, Thomas; forks, 1608 
 Cosmo, I.; Port Ferrajo, 1548 
 Costa, M., musician, 6. 1810 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Coster, L. ; printing 
 
 Cottenham, lord; chancellor, lord 
 
 high, 1836 
 Cottington, lord ; administrations, 
 
 1635 
 Cotton, R. ; Cottonian library, 1600 
 Cotton, M. A.; poisoning, 1873 
 Cotton, sir Stapleton ; Villa Franca, 
 
 1812 
 Coulomb, C, 1736-1806; electricity, 
 
 1785 
 Courtanvaux ; ether, 1759 
 Courtenay, abp. Canterbury, 1381 
 Courtenay; Thomites, 1838 
 Courtenay, sir Wm. ; Exeter, 1469 
 Courtois, M. de; iodine, 1812 
 Courvoisier; trials, 1840 
 Cousin, V, Fr. philos., 1 792-1 867 
 Coutts, baroness A. Burdett, 6. 1814 ; 
 
 trials, 1847; Columbia, 1869 
 Coventry, sir John; Coventry act, 
 
 1670 
 Coventry ; administrations, 1628- 
 
 1672 
 Coverdale, Miles, b. 1487 ; Bible, 
 
 1535 
 Cowan, Mr. Kookas, 1872 
 Cowen, J., Newcastle, 1871 
 Cowley, Abraham, poet, 161S-67 
 Cowper, lord ; Burford, Halifax, 
 
 1714 
 Cowper, E. ; printing-machine, 1815 
 Cowper, Wm., poet, 1731-1800 
 Cox, Walter; trials, 1811 
 Coyle, Mr. Bernard ; duel, 1802 
 Crabbe, Geo., poet, 1754-1832 
 Craggs, Mr. ; Sunderland admin., 
 
 1718 
 Crampton, Mr. ; United States, 1856 
 Crane, sir Francis ; tapestry, 1619 
 Cranfield, Lionel, lord; administra- 
 tions, 1621 
 Cranmer, archbp., 1489-1556; Can- 
 terbury, administrations, 1529 ; 
 
 Cranmer, homilies, martyrdom 
 Cranworth, lord; chancellor, 1852 
 Crassus, Marcus, slain; ovation 53 
 
 B.C. 
 
 Craterus; Cranon, 322 
 
 Crawfurd, earl of; Brechin, 1452 
 
 Crawley; trials, 1802-1863; steel 
 
 Crellin, Miss ; trials, 1842 
 
 Crespigny, Mr.; duel, 1828 
 
 Cresswell, sir C, 1794-1863; probate, 
 1857 
 
 Creswick, T. ; paint., 181 1-69 
 
 Crewe, bp.; Bambrough, 1778 
 
 Crichton, Jas. (the admirable), m. 
 about 1560 
 
 Crillon, due de; Gibraltar, 1782 
 
 Crockatt v. Dick; trials, 1818 
 
 Croesus; Lydia, 560 b.c. 
 
 Croft; impostors, 1553 
 
 Croft, sir Richard ; suicide, 1818 
 
 Crofts, Mr.; dwarfs, 1653 
 
 Crollius; calomel, 1608 
 
 Croly, Geo.; poet, 1780-1860 
 
 Crompton, Sam., 1753-1827; cotton; 
 mule, 1779 
 
 Cromwell, Oliver, 1599-1658 ; admin- 
 istrations, 1653 ; Amboyna, agita- 
 tors, commonwealth, England, 
 Drogheda, Dundalk, mace, Ire- 
 land, Marston Moor, Naseby, Wor- 
 cester 
 
 Cromwell, Richard ; administrations, 
 1658; England 
 
 Cromwell, T., lord Essex; adminis- 
 trations, 1532; registers 
 
 Crookes, Wm. ; thallium, 1861 ; spirit- 
 ualism 
 
 Crosbie, sir Edward; trials, 1798 
 
 Cross, E.; Surrey Gardens, 183 1 
 
 Crossley, F. ; Halifax, 1857 
 
 Crouch; trials, 1844 
 
 Crowse, E.; needles 
 
 Crowther, lieut. ; duel, 1829 
 
 Crozier, capt.; N.-W. passage, 1845 
 
 751 
 
 Cruden, Alex.; concordance, 1737 
 Cruikshank, G., 6. 1794; wood-en- 
 graving 
 Ctesias; hist., 398 b.c. 
 Ctesibius, 140 b.c. ; clock, organ, 
 
 pump 
 Cubitt, Mr. ; treadmill, 1817 ; J., 
 
 Blackfriars, 1867 
 Cullen, W., physician, 1712-90 
 Cumberland, duke of; Closterseven, 
 
 Culloden, Fontenoy, 1745 
 Cumberland, R. ; comedies, 1732- 
 
 1811 
 Cumming, lord de Roos v.; trials, 
 
 1837 
 Cumming, Gordon ; lion 
 Cumming, rev. Dr. John, b. 1810 
 Cunard, Sam., 1787-1865; steam 
 Curio; amphitheatres, abt. 50 B.C. 
 Curran, John Philpot, Irish orator, 
 
 1750-1817; duel, 1790 
 Cursor, Papirius; dials, 293 B.C. 
 Curtius, Quintius ; earthquakes, 364 
 
 B.C. 
 
 Cuthbert, St., d. 686; Canterbury 
 Cuthbertu Browne; trials, 1829 
 Cuvier, G., naturalist, 1769 -1832; 
 
 zoology 
 Cuyp, A., painter, 1606-67 
 Cyprian, father, m. 258 
 Cyriacus ; Abrahamites 
 Cyril, father, d. 386 
 Cyrus the Great, killed, 529 B.C. ; 
 
 Bactriana, Cyprus, Jerusalem, 
 
 Media, Persia 
 Cyrus the younger; Cunaxa, 401 B.C. 
 Czermak, Dr. ; laryngoscope, 1861 
 
 D. 
 
 Dacier, mad., 1654-1720; Delphin 
 
 Dacre, lady Anne; Emmanuel hos- 
 pital, 1594 
 
 Daedalus; labyrinth, axe, 1240 b.c? 
 
 Dagobert; Denis, St., 673 
 
 Daguerre, M., d. 1851 ; photography 
 
 Dahl, professor ; dahlias 
 
 DAlembert, Fr. phil., 1717-83; acous- 
 tics 
 
 Dahlgren, J. A.; engin., 1809-70 
 
 Dalhousie, marquis of, 1812-60; India 
 (gov. -gen.), 1848 
 
 Dalmas, A.; trials, 1844 
 
 Dalling, H. Bulwerld.; 1805-72 
 
 Dalmatia ; see Smrtt 
 
 Dalrymple, sir Hew ; Cintra, 1808 
 
 Dalton, John, chemist, 1766-1844; 
 atomic theory, 1808 
 
 Damasus, pope, 366 ; pontiff, crown, 
 poi>e, tiara 
 
 Damiens, Damiens' attempt, 1757 
 
 Dampier; circumnavigator, 1689 
 
 Dampier, bishop; Ely, 1808 
 
 Damremont, marshal; Algiers, Con- 
 stantia, 1837 
 
 Danaus; Greece, 1485 B.C.? 
 
 Danby, earl of; administrations, 
 1673 ; physic garden 
 
 Dangerfield ; meal-tub plot, 1679 
 
 Daniel prophesies, 606 b.c. 
 
 Daniel, Sam. ; poet-laureate, 1619 
 
 Danneker, J., sculptor, 1758-1841 
 
 Dannenberg, gen.; Oltenitza, 1854 
 
 Dante, Alighieri, Italian poet, 1265- 
 1321 
 
 Danton, G., exec. 1794; clubs, Fren. 
 
 Darboy, abp. of Paris ; killed, France, 
 1871 
 
 D'Arblay, mad. (Burney), novelist, 
 1752-1840 
 
 Darbonv. Rosser; trials, 1841 
 
 DArcon, M. ; Gibraltar 
 
 Dardanus, Ilium, 148 b.c. 
 
 Dargan.W., d. 1867; Ireland, Dublin 
 exhibition, 1853 
 
 Darius; Persia, 521 b.c; Greece 
 
752 
 
 Darling, Grace ; Forfarshire, 1838 
 Darling, sir C. ; Jamaica, 1857; Vic- 
 toria, 1S63 
 Darmes; France, 1840 
 Darnley, lord; Scotland, 1565 
 Dartmouth, earl of; Oxford adminis- 
 tration, 1711; Rockingham admin., 
 1766 
 Darwin, Charles, naturalist, b. 1809, 
 
 species, development 
 Darwin, Erasmus, naturalist, 1731- 
 
 1802 
 Dashwood, sir Fr. ; Bute admin., 
 
 1762 
 D'Aul rigne, Merle, ecclesiastical hist. , 
 
 1794-1872 
 Daulieny, C; 1795-1867; atomic the- 
 ory, 1850 
 Dauglish, Dr. ; bread, 1856 
 Dau'n, count, d. 1766, HochMrchen, 
 
 Torgau 
 Davenant, William; drama, opera, 
 
 1684 
 Davenport, Miss; theatres, 1844 
 David; Jews, 1065 B.C. 
 David, George; impostors, 1556 
 David, I.; Scotland, 1124; Carlisle 
 David, J., painter, 1748-1825 
 Davidson, D.; trials, 1855 
 Davila, E. C, Ital. hist., 1576-1631 
 Davis, Jefferson, 6. 1808; United 
 
 States, 1861 
 Davis; N.-W. passage, 1585; quad- 
 rant, China 
 Davonst, marshal ; Krasnoi, Mo- 
 
 hilow, Jena, Eckmiihl, 1809 
 Davitt and Wilson ; trials, 1870 
 Davy, sir Humphry, chemist, &<■., 
 1778-1829; Penzance, Royal Insti- 
 tution, barium, electricity, phos- 
 phorus, calcium, magnesium, po- 
 tassium, sodium, safety lamp, 
 strontium 
 Davys, bp. ; Peterborough, 1839 
 Dawes, abp.; York, 1714 
 Dawson, lieut. ; Africa, 1872 
 Day (Kossuth's notes case), trials, 
 
 i860 
 Day, Mr.; Fairlop fair 
 Deaele v. B. Baring; trials, 1831 
 Deane, adml. ; naval battles, 1653 
 Deane, abp.; Canterbury, 1501 
 Debain ; harmonium 
 De Balton; duels, 181 1 
 De Burgh, Hubert; Whitehall 
 De Candolle, A., botanist, 1778-1841 
 De Courcy. baron; peers, 1181 
 Deeius Mus sacrifices himself, 
 
 295 B.C. 
 
 Dee, Dr. J., d. 1608; astrology 
 Deerfoot, pedestrianism, 1861 
 De Foe, Daniel, 1663-1731; Robinson 
 
 Crusoe, Juan, plague 
 De Foix, Gaston; Ravenna, 1512 
 De Gasparis, A.; planets, 1849 
 De Genlis, mad., 1746-1830 
 De Grasse, admiral; Chesapeake, 
 
 naval battles, Tobago, 1781 
 De Grey, earl ; Ireland, lord lieu- 
 tenant, 1427 
 De Grey, Gladstone adm. , 1868 
 De Haven, lieut. ; Franklin, 1850 
 Delabeche, H., 1796-1855 ; geology 
 De la Clue, admiral; Lagos, 1759 
 Delambre, J., Fr. mathemat, 1749- 
 ..1822 
 
 De la Rue ; trials, 1845 
 De la Rue, Warren ; photography, 
 
 1857 ! eclipse, i860 
 De la Roche, Paul, Fr. paint., 1797- 
 
 1856 
 De l'Epee, abbe, 1712-89; deaf 
 De Lesseps, M.; Suez, 1857 
 De Loundres, Henry; Dublin, 1205 
 D'Estaign, count; Bencoolen, 1760; 
 
 Georgia 
 D'Esterre, Mr.; duels, 1815 
 D'Etrees, adml.; Texel, 1673 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Delille, J., Fr. poet, 1738-1813 
 
 Demetrius ; Athens, Macedon, im- 
 postors, Poland 
 
 Democritus, b. about 470 B.C. 
 
 De Moivre; annuities, 1724 
 
 De Morgan, A., mathemat., 1806-71 ; 
 almanacs, 1851 ; paradoxes, 1872- 
 
 Demosthenes, about 382-322 b.c. ; 
 philippics 
 
 Denison, archdeacon ; trials, 1856 
 
 Denison, bishop; Salisbuiy, 1801 
 
 Denison, E. B. ; bells, 1856 
 
 Denison, J. E. ; speaker, 1857 
 
 Denman, lord, 1 779-1854; att.-gen., 
 king's bench 
 
 Denmark, prince George, admiralty, 
 1702, queens (Anne) 
 
 Denser, J., clarionet, about 1690 
 
 Denny, J.; trials, 1851 
 
 De Quincey, Thos., essayist, 1785- 
 
 1859 
 Derby, earl of, races, 1779 
 Derby, earl of, 1 799-1869 ; Derby 
 
 admin., 1852, 1858, 1866 
 Derby, countess of; Latham-house, 
 
 1644 
 Derby, earl of; Man, Wigan, Derby 
 De Roos, lord, v. Gumming; trials, 
 
 1837 
 De Rossi, catacombs 
 lie Ruyter, adml.; Sheerness, 1667; 
 
 Chatham, Texel 
 Derwentwater, earl of, executions, 
 
 1716 ; Greenwich 
 Des Cartes, Rene, 1596-1650; carte- 
 sian, rainbow 
 iX'smoiilins, Camille, exec. 1794; 
 
 clubs, 1782 
 Dessaix, general ; Marengo, 1800 
 Dessalines ; Hayti, 1803 
 De Stael, niadame, 1766-1817 
 Deucalion; deluge, 1503 B.C. 
 De Veres, earls of Oxford ; Id. gt. 
 
 chamberlain, marquis, duke 
 Devigne, Hen.; billiards, 1571 
 Deville, H. St. C. ; aluminium, 1856 ; 
 
 platinum, 1859 
 Devon, W. R., earl of, b. 1807; Dis- 
 raeli, 1868 
 Devonshire, duke of; Devonshire ad- 
 ministration, 1756 
 De Winipft'en, gen.; Sedan, 1870 
 He Winter, adm.; Camperdown, 1797 
 De Witt ; chain shot, 1666 ; (pen- 
 sionary) murdered, 1672; Hague 
 Dhuleep Singh; India, 1849; Punjab 
 Diaz, B., discovers Cape of Good 
 
 Hope, 1487 
 Di Bardi, Donato ; sculpture, 13S3 
 Dibdin, C., 1745-1814; ballads 
 Dibutades ; models 
 Dick, .Mr.; trials, 1818 
 Dickens, Chas., novelist, 1812-70 
 Dickinson, capt. ; trials, 1829 
 Dickson, col.; trials, 1859, I 863 
 Diderot, D., philos., 1713-S4 
 Didius Julianus; Rome, emp. 193 
 Dido; Carthage, 869 B.C. 
 Didot, M.; paper-making, stereotype 
 Diebitsch, gen.; Balkan, 1829 
 Diesbaoh ; prussic acid, 1709 
 Digby, E. ; gunpowder plot, 1605 
 Digges, L. ; optics, 1671 
 Dillon, Mr. Luke; trials, 1831 
 Diocletian; Rome, emp. 284; Dal- 
 mat ia 
 Diodati, J., theologian, 1576-1649 
 Diodorus Siculus, 50 B.c-13 AD - ; 
 
 Etna 
 Diogenes, cynic, d. 323 B.C. 
 Dionysius; Portugal, anno domini, 
 
 catapults 
 Dionysius Halicarnassus, Gr. poet, 
 
 fl. 30 B.C. 
 Dionysius; Syracuse, 406 B.C. 
 Diophantus; algebra, 370 
 Dipoenus ; sculpture, marble 
 Dircks, H.; ghosts, 1858 
 
 Disraeli, I., 1767-1848; — Benjamin. 
 b. 1805; Derby admin., 1852, 1858; 
 Disraeli admin., 1868 
 
 Ditmar, C. ; dualin, 1870 
 
 Diver, Jenny; trials, 1740 
 
 Dixblaiics, M. ; trials, 1872 
 
 Dixon, capt.; Apollo 
 
 Dixon, Hepworth, b. 1821 ; Ebelians, 
 mormonites ; — v. Smith (Pall Mall 
 Gazette); trials, 1872 
 
 Dobereiner, J. W., nat. phil., 1780- 
 1849; diffusion, philos. lamp 
 
 Dockwra, Mr.; penny post, 1683 
 
 Dodd, Mr. ; steamer, 1815 
 
 Dodd. Dr.; trials (executed for for- 
 gery), 1777; Magdalens, forgery 
 
 Doddridge, Philip, theol., 1702-51 
 
 Dodsley, R. ; annual register, 1758 
 
 Dodson, sir John; admiralty court, 
 
 1857 
 Doggett, Thos.; Doggett prize, 1715 
 Dolce, gen.; Spain, 1868-9 
 Dolci, C., painter, 1616-86 
 Dolben, abp.; York, 1683 
 Dollingcr, Dr. ; papal infallibility, 
 
 old catholics, 1871 
 Dollond, John, 1706-61; achromatic 
 
 telescopes, 1753 ; optics 
 Domeniehino, 'L. , painter, 1581-1641 
 Dominic, St.: Dominicans, 1215 
 Domitian; Rome, emp. 81 
 Donald of the Isles; Harlaw, 1411 
 Donatus, grammarian, fl. 355 
 Donders, phenophthalmoscope, 1870 
 Donizetti, G. ; music, 1798-1848 
 Donkin, sir R.; suicide, 184.1 
 Donne, W. B., examiner (of plays), 
 
 1857 
 Donovan ; duels, 1779 
 Dore, Gustav, artist, b. 1833 
 Doria, And., Genoese adml., 1468- 
 
 1560 
 Dormer, lord ; Roman Catholics, 1829 
 Dorset, duke of; administrations, 
 1689; Pelbam administration, 1744 
 D'OrvUliers ; Ushant, 1778 
 Dost Mahomed; Afghanistan, 1829 
 Douay, gen. A.: Wissembourg, 1870 
 Douglas, earl of; Homildon, 1402 
 Douglas, James; British Columbia, 
 
 1858 
 Douglas. Wm.; Otterburn, 1388 
 Douglass, sir John; delicate investi- 
 gation. 1806 
 Douw. Gerard, Dutch paint., 1613-74 
 Dove, H., 6. 1803; dichrooscope, i860 
 Dove, W. ; trials, 1856 
 Dowdeswell, William; Rockingham 
 
 administration, 1765 
 Doyle, sir John ; Portugal, 1828 
 Doyle, J. ; caricatures 
 Doyle /•. Wright; trials, 1851 
 Draco, Athens, 621 b.c; laws, Draco 
 Drake, Francis, 1545-96; Armada, 
 Cadiz, California, Chatham circum- 
 navigators, Drake's circumnaviga- 
 tion, Deptford, New Albion. 
 Drayton, M., poet, 1563-1631 
 Drebbel; optics, 1621; microscope, 
 
 thermometer 
 Dred Scott case; slavery, U.S. 
 Dreyse, J. N.; needle-gun 
 Drouet: Varennes, 1791 
 Druitt, G. ; trials, 1867 
 Drunnnond, abp.; York, 1761 
 Drunimond, gen.; Chippawa, 1814 
 Drummond, lieut. ; lime-light, about 
 
 1826 
 Drummond, Mr., m.; trials, 1840 
 Drvden. John, poet, 1631-1701 ; poet 
 
 laureate 
 Dubois, cardinal, 1656-1723 
 Duboscq, M.; electric lamp, 1855 
 Dubritius, St.; Caerleon, Llandaff, 
 
 612 
 Duchesne, Pere, see Hebert 
 Duckworth, sir J.; Dardanelles, 1807 
 Ducnm ; theatres, Astley's, 1825 
 
Dudley, earl of Leicester; adminis- 
 trations, 1558 
 
 Dudley, lord; administrat., 1551 
 
 Duell, William; trials, 1740 
 
 Dufay; electricity, 1733 
 
 Duff, captain ; trials, 1841 
 
 Dufferin, Id. ; Gladstone, 1868; Canada, 
 1872 
 
 Dufour- Aries, J. B. ; France, 1870-2 
 
 Dugdale, W., antiquary, 1605-86 
 
 Duggan, Win.; trials, 1832 
 
 Du Guesclin, B. ; Montiel, 1369 
 
 Duilius defeats Carthaginians, 260 
 
 B.C. 
 
 Dulong, P. L., 1785-1838; acids 
 Dumas, A. D., Pr. nov., 1803-70 
 Dumouriez, gen., 1739-1823; Jem- 
 
 mappes, 1792 
 Dun, John ; bailiff 
 Dunant, H. , Geneva convention 
 Duncan, Dr. ; ichnology, 1828 
 Duncan I. ; Scotland, 1033 
 Duncan, admiral lord ; Camperdown, 
 
 1797 ; Texel 
 Duncannon, viscount ; Melbourne ad- 
 ministration, 1834-5 
 Duncombe, P.; sedan-chairs, 1634 
 Dundas, Henry; savings banks, 1810 ; 
 
 Pitt administration, 1804 
 Dundas, sir D. ; solicitor-general, 
 
 1846; com. -in-chief, 1809 
 Dundas, gen. ; Kileullen, 1798 
 Dundas, lieut. -col. ; Prescott, 1838 
 Dundas, major; trials, 1831 
 Dundas, sir R. ; Baltic, 1855 
 Dundee, vise. ; Killiecrankie, 1689 
 Dundonald, earl, 1775-1860 (see Coch- 
 rane) 
 Dunn, Richard; trials, 1847 
 Dunstan, abp., d. 988; Canterbury, 
 
 959; coronation 
 Duns Scotus, d. 1308; burying alive, 
 
 Scotists 
 Dupetit-Thouars ; Otaheite, 1843 
 Dupont, gen. ; Baylen, 1808 
 Durand, sir H. ; India, 1871 
 Durazzo, Charles of, m. 1386 ; Naples, 
 
 kings, 1381 
 Dtirer, A. U., 1471-1528; engraving 
 Durham, earl of, 1792-1840; Grey 
 
 admin., 1830; Canada, 1838 
 Duroc, marshal; Bautzen, 1813 
 Dutrochct, R. J. H., 1 776-1847; en- 
 
 dosmosis 
 Du Val, Claude ; robbers, 1670 
 Dwyer; trials, 1843 
 Dyce, Win. ; painter, 1806-64 
 Dymocke family ; chaminonship. 
 
 E. 
 
 Eadbald ; convents, 630 
 
 Eadmer, d. about n 24 
 
 Eastlake, sir C, 1793-1865; Boyal 
 
 Academy 
 Eaton, Daniel; trials, 1796, 1812 
 Ebdy v. McGowan ; trials, 1870 
 Eden, bp. ; Man, 1847 
 Edgar; England, kings, 958 
 Edgar, rev. Mr.; temperance, 1829 
 Edgeley, T. ; trials, 1868 
 Edgeworth, Maria ; novels, 1767- 
 
 1849 
 Edmund ; England, 940, 1016 
 Edmunds, Christiana; poisoning, 
 
 trials, 1872 
 Edmunds, Mr. ; patents 
 Edward the Confessor; England, 
 
 kings, 1042; Danegeld 
 Edward I. ; England, kings, 1272 ; 
 
 Lewes, Scotland, Wales 
 Edward III.; England, kings, 1327; 
 
 Cressy, Sluys, garter 
 Edward IV. ; England, kings, 1461 ; 
 
 Barnet, Tewkesbury, Towton 
 Edward VI.; England, kings, 1547; 
 
 Christ's hospital 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Edward, Black Prince, 1330-76; duke, 
 
 Cressy, Poitiers 
 Edwardes, lieut. ; India, 1848 
 Edwy; England, 955 
 Egan, Mr.; trials, 1843 
 Egbert ; England, kings, 828 
 Egerton, sir Thomas ; chancellor, lord 
 
 high, 1596 
 Egg, Aug., painter, 1816-63 
 Eglinion, earl of; Ireland, lord-lieu- 
 tenant, 1852; tournament 
 Egmont, lord; administrations, 1763 
 Egremont, earl of; Grenville adminis- 
 tration, 1762 
 Ehrenberg, C, naturalist, 6. 1795 
 Eick, H. ; trials, 1859 
 Eirinus, Dr. asphalt, 1712 
 Ekenhead, lieut., swimming 
 Elcho, Id., 6. 1818; Adullam, 1866; 
 
 cabs, volunteers 
 Eldon, lord, 1751-1838; chancellor, 
 
 1801 
 Eleanor; queens (Edward I., Hen. II. 
 
 and III.) 
 Elgin, Lord ; Elgin marbles ; d. 1841 ; 
 —James, lord, 1811-63; Canada, 
 1846; China, 1857; Japan, Palmer- 
 ston, India, 1861 ; govr.-gen., 1861 
 Elgin, lord, v. Ferguson ; trials, 1807 
 Elijah prophesies about 910 b.c. 
 Elisha prophesies, 896 b.c. 
 Elizabeth, queen, 1533-1603; England, 
 1558 ; goose, poor laws, Richmond, 
 Whitehall 
 Elizabeth ; England, queens (Edward 
 
 IV. and Henry VII.) 
 Elizabeth; Prance, trials, 1794 
 Elkington ; gilding, electrotype 
 Ellenbo rough, lord; att.-gen., 1801 ; 
 king's bench, delicate investiga- 
 tion; lord (son), 1790-1872; Wel- 
 lington admin., 1828; India, govr.- 
 gen., 1842; Derby adm., 1858 
 Ellesmere, lord ; administrations, 
 
 1615 ; chancellors, Id., 1603 
 Ellice, E. ; Melbourne administra- 
 tion, 1834 
 Eliott, gen. ; Gibraltar, 1781 
 Eliott, sir Gilbert ; North adminis- 
 tration, 1770 
 Elliot, captain ; China, 1840 
 Elliotson, Dr. J., 1785-1868 
 Ellis, sir H. , lib. Brit. Mus., 1777-1869 
 Ellis, Wellbore; Grenville adminis- 
 tration, 1770 
 Elphinstone, admiral ; Cape of Good 
 
 Hope, 1795 ; Saldanha 
 Elsynge, Win. ; Sion college, 1340 
 Elzevir family, printers, 1583-1680 
 Emerson, R. W. ; essayist, b. 1803 
 Emmet, Robert; rebellions, conspi- 
 racies, trials, 1803 ; press 
 Empedocles; suicide 
 Eneke, J. F., 1791-1865; comets, 1818 
 Enderby, Messrs. ; southern conti- 
 nent, 1838 
 Engels, prof. ; lithofracteur, 1869 
 Enghien, due d', executed, 1804 
 Ennius, 239-169 B.C. ; stenography 
 Eotvos, Joseph ; Hung. nov. 1813-71 
 Epaminondas, 371 b.c. ; Leuctra, 
 
 Mantinea 
 Epictetus, philoso.,^. 118 
 Epicurus, 342-270 b.c. ; philosphy 
 Epiphanius, St. ; abstinence 
 Erasistratus ; anatomy, ab. 300 B.C. 
 Erasmus, D., 1467-1536 ; Greek lan- 
 guage, Rotterdam 
 Eratosthenes; degree, 250 B.C. ; ar- 
 
 millary sphere 
 Eratostratus (or Herostratus) fires 
 
 Diana's temple, 356 B.C. 
 Erechtheus ; Athens, 1383 B.C. 
 Eric ; Denmark 
 
 Erichthonius ; Troy, 1449 B.C., car 
 Ericsson, capt. ; heat, 1853 
 Erie, sir W. ; common pleas, 1859 
 Ermeland, bp. of; Prussia, 1871 
 
 753 
 
 Emley, sir John; administrations, 
 
 1685 
 Erroll, earls of; constable of Scot- 
 land, lord high 
 Erskine, lord ; chancellor, lord ; 
 
 Grenville administration, 1806 
 Erskine, gen. ; India, 1795 
 Esdaile, E. ; trials, 1858 
 Esmonde case ; trials, 1868 
 Espartero ; Spain, 1841-72 ; Bilboa, 
 
 1836 
 Esquirol, E. ; lunatics, 1810 
 Essex, earl of; administrations, 1532, 
 
 1579 ; Newbury, 1643 
 Este, sir Augustus d' ; marriage act, 
 
 royal, 1844 
 Ethelbert, 560, Canterbury 
 Etheldreda ; Ely, 673 
 Ethelred, 979 ; coronation, Danegeld 
 Ethersey, com. ; suicide, 1857 
 Etty, W. painter, 1787-1849 
 Euchidas ; pedestrianism 
 Euclid ; geometry, 300 b. c. 
 Euler, L., 1707-83; acoustics 
 Eugene, prince, 1663-1736 ; Belgrade, 
 
 Turin, Zenta 
 Eugenie, empress ; France, 1853 
 Eugenius ; popes, Aquileia 
 Eumenes ; parchment, 190 B.C. 
 Eumolpus ; Eleusinian mysteries 
 Euripides, 480-406 b.c. ; tragedy 
 Eurysthenes ; biarehy, 1102 b.c. 
 Eurystheus ; MycensB, 1289 B.C. 
 Eusden, L. ; poet laureate, d. 1730 
 Eusebius, of Cassarea, ab. 275-340 
 Eustachius ; thoracic duct, 1563 
 Euthalius ; accents, 458 
 Eutyches, fi. 447 
 Evander ; Circensian games 
 Evans, general de Lacy ; British 
 
 legion, 1835 ; Spain, 1835 ; Irun, 
 
 Sebastian 
 Evans ; trials, 1858 
 Evans, J. ; man 
 
 Evans, W. E. ; harmonium, 1841 
 Evelyn, J., 1620-1706; horticulture, 
 
 lime-tree 
 Examiner, the ; trials, 1812 
 Exmouth, lord ; Algiers, 1816 
 Eyre, John ; transportation, 1771 
 Eyre, E. J. ; Jamaica, 1864-7 
 Ezekiel prophesies about 595 b.c. 
 
 F. 
 
 Fabius, Quintus ; painting, 311 B.C. ; 
 — Maximus; Allobroges, 121 B.C. 
 
 Fabii, killed, Cremera, 477 B.C. ; 
 Fabii 
 
 Faber, P. ; oratorians, 1848 
 
 Fahrenheit, G. D., 1686-1736; ther- 
 mometer, about 1726 
 
 Faidherbe, gen. ; Franco-Pruss. war, 
 1871 ; St. Quentin, 1871 
 
 Fairbairn, Mr. ; tubular bridge, 1849 
 
 Fairfax, T. ; Naseby, 1645 
 
 Falck, Dr. ; steam-engine, 1779 
 
 Falconbridge ; London, 1453 
 
 Falconer, H. ; geologist, d. 1865 
 
 Falieri, Marini ; Venice, 1335 
 
 Falkland, viset. ; Newbury, 1643 
 
 Falstaff, sir John ; taverns 
 
 Fancourt, Samuel ; circulating li- 
 braries, 1740 
 
 Faraday, Michael, 1791-1867; Royal 
 Institution, chemistry, electricity, 
 gas, magnetism, magneto-electri- 
 city, ice, Albert medal . 
 
 Farquhar, Mr., buys Fonthill abbey, 
 1822 
 
 Farragut, D., admiral, 1866 ; United 
 States, 1864 
 
 Farrar, F. A. ; trials, 1868 
 
 Farr, Dr. ; annuities, 1864 
 
 Farren, Miss, actress, retires, 1797 
 
 Farrer ; trials, 1859 
 
 Fatima ; Mahometanism, note. 
 
 3 c 
 
754 
 
 Faulkner, G. ; newspapers, 1728 
 
 Fauntleroy, H. ; forgery, 1824 
 
 Faust, John ; printing, 1442 
 
 Faustin I. ; Hayti, 1849 
 
 Faustulus ; Alba, 770 B.C. 
 
 Faux, Guy ; gunpowder plot, 1605 
 
 Favre, Jules ; France, 1870-2 
 
 Fawcett, col. ; duel, 1843 
 
 Felix, popes, 269 et seg. 
 
 Fellows, C. ; Lyeia, 1840 
 
 Felton assassinates Buckingham at 
 Portsmouth, 1628 
 
 Fenelon, abp., 1651-1715; Cam bray 
 
 Fenning, Eliza; executions, 1815 
 
 Fenwick, J. ; executions, 1697 
 
 Ferdinand ; Austria, Naples, Portu- 
 gal, Sicily, Spain, Tuscany, Castile, 
 Cordova 
 
 Ferdinand of Brunswick, Minden, 
 
 1759 
 
 Fergus ; Scotland, coronation 
 
 Ferguson, J. ; planets, 1854 
 
 Ferre ; France, 18 71 
 
 Ferrers, earl ; trials, 1760 
 
 Fessel ; gyroscope, 1852 
 
 Field, Cyrus ; electric telegraph, 
 
 1868 
 Fielding, H., novelist, 1707-54; 
 
 magistrates 
 Fieschi ; France, 1836 
 Figueras ; Spain, 1S73 
 Figueroa; Spain, 1868 
 Fillmore, M. ; United States, presi- 
 dent, 1850 
 Finch, sir John : chancellor, lord ; 
 administrations, 1640 ; Heneage, 
 chancellor, 1673 
 Finch, D. ; admiralty, 1680 
 Finiguerra ; engraving, 1460 
 Finnerty, Peter; trials, 1808, 181 1 
 Finnis, T. ; lord mayor, 1856 
 Finnis, col. ; India, 1857, note 
 Fisher, bp. ; administrations, 1509; 
 
 Salisbury ; executed, 1535 
 Fisher; duels, 1806 
 Fisk, James ; New York, 1871 
 Fitzgerald, H. ; life-boat, 1856 
 Fitzgerald, lord ; attainder, 1798 
 Fitzgerald, lord, v. Mrs. Clarke ; 
 
 trials, 18 1 4 
 Fitzgerald, lord ; Wellington adminis- 
 tration, 1830 
 Fitz-Osborn ; justiciars, 1067 
 Fitzpatrick ; Grenville administra- 
 tion, 1806 
 Fitzpatrick, Hugh ; trials, 1813 
 FitzRoy, R., 1805-65 ; circumnavi- 
 gation, 1826; New Zealand, 1843; 
 meteorology, 1857 
 Fitzwalter, Robert de ; Dunmow, 
 
 1244 
 Fitzwilliam, earl ; Grenville admin., 
 
 1806 ; Ireland (lord lieut.) 
 Flad, Mr. ; Abyssinia, 1866 
 Flaminius ; Thrasymene, 217 B.C. 
 Flamsteed, J. ; Greenwich, 1745 
 Flammock ; rebellions, 1497 
 Flavins, Titus Lartius ; dictators, 
 
 498 B.C. 
 Flaxman, J., sculptor, 1754-1826 
 Fletcher of Saltoun, fl. 1700 ; ballads 
 Fletcher, will-forger ; trials, 1S44 
 Flight and Robson ; apollonicon, 
 
 1817 
 Flinders, captain, explores New Hol- 
 land, 1801 
 Flood, Mr. ; absentees, 1773 
 Florence, Eliz. ; trials, 1822 
 Flores, gen. ; Uruguay, 1863-8 
 Morns, Rom. historian, ft. 106 
 Flourens, M. J. P., philos., 1794- 
 
 1867 ; — Gustav ; France, 1870-1 
 Fohi ; China, 2240 B.C. 
 Foix, Gaston de ; Ravenna, 1512 
 Folengio, Thru. ; macaroni 
 Foley, J. H., sculp., b. 1818 ; Albert 
 
 mem., Faraday mem. 
 Folkestone, lord ; arts, soc. of, 1754 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Follett, sir Wm. ; solicitor-gen., at- 
 torney-gen., 1844 
 Folliott, bp. ; Hereford, 1803 
 Foote, Sam., 1721-77; theatres 
 Foote v. Hayne ; trials, 1824 
 Forbes, lord ; horse-guards, 1702 
 Forbes, Edwd., naturalist, 1815-54 
 Forbes, J. D., nat. philos., 1809-68 
 Forster, Mr. ; Preston, 1715 
 Forster, M. ; planets, i860 
 Forsythe, Rev. Mr. ; fire-arms, 1807 
 Fortescue, lord ; Ireland, lord-lieu- 
 tenant, 1839 
 Fortescue, C. S. ; Gladstone, 1868 
 Forwood, S. (Southey) ; executions, 
 
 1866 
 Foscaro, doge ; Venice, 1457 
 Foster, John, essayist, 1 770-1843 
 Fottrell, capt. ; duels, 1817 
 Foucault, M., 1819-68 ; pendulum, 
 
 siderostat 
 Fouehe, J., due d'Otranto, 1763-1820 
 Fould, Achille, 1800-67 ; France, 
 
 1861 
 Foulis, R. & A., printers, 1707-76 
 Fourdrinier, M. ; paper, 1807 
 Fourier, C, d. 1837 ; Fourierism 
 Fowke, capt. ; exhibition, 1862 ; Al- 
 bert hall 
 ■ Fox & Henderson ; crystal palace, 
 
 1851 
 Fox, bishop of Winchester ; adminis- 
 trations, 1509 ; privy seal 
 Fox, Charles James, 1749-1806 ; duel, 
 1779 : Portland admin., 1783; India 
 bill, people 
 Fox, George, 1624-90; quakers 
 Fox, Henry ; Newcastle administra- 
 tion, 1757 
 Fox, sir Stephen ; Chelsea, 1628 
 Foxe, John, martyrologist, 1517-87 
 Francia, Dr., 1755-1840; Paraguay 
 Francis, St., 1182-1226; Cordeliers 
 Francis I., emperor ; Germany, 1745 ; 
 
 Austria, 1804 
 Francis I. ; France, 1515 ; duelling, 
 cloth of gold, Marignan, Pavia, 
 Sicily 
 Francis ; trials, 1842 
 Francis, sir Philip, 1740-1818 ; Ju- 
 nius 
 Francisco dAssise ; Spain, 1846 
 Franke, A. ; orphanhouses, 1698 
 Frankfort, lord, v. Alice Lowe ; trials, 
 
 1842, 1852 
 Frankland, Edw. ; amyl, ethyl, 
 
 methyl, 1849 
 Franklin, Benjamin, 1706-90 ; elec- 
 tricity, 1752: lightning 
 Franklin, sir John ; north-west pas- 
 sage, 1825 ; Franklin 
 Franks ; suicide, trials, 1825 
 Fraser v. Bagley ; trials, 1844 
 Frederick, duke of York, 1762-1827; 
 
 York 
 Frederick II. ; Corte Nuova, 1237 
 Frederick ; Germany, Prussia, Hesse, 
 Nuremberg, Palatinate, Prague, 
 Hochkirchen, Torgau 
 Frederick-Augustus 1 ; Poland, 1697 
 Frederick-Charles, prince of Prussia, 
 Franco-Pruss. war, 1870-1 ; Metz, 
 1870 
 Frederick-Lewis, prince ; Wales, 1729 
 Fremont, J. C, b. 1813 ; U. States, 
 
 1856 
 Fremy, M. ; steel, 1861 
 French, col. ; trials, 1820 
 Freney ; trials, 1749 
 Frere, sir Bartle ; slave trade, Zanzi- 
 bar, 1872 
 Frewen, abp. ; York, 1660 
 Frith, W. P., painter, />. 1820 
 Frivell, Wm., post-office, 1631 
 Frobisher, sir Martin, d. 1594; north- 
 west passage, 1576 
 Froissart, historian. 1337-1410 
 Frost, John, chartist ; Nvwport, 1S39 
 
 Fronde, J. A., historian, b. 1818 
 
 Frumentius ; Abyssinia, 329 
 
 Fuact Pasha, 1814-69 ; Damascus, 
 
 Turkey, 1860-9 
 Fuller, J. ; Royal Institution, 1833 
 Fulton, R., 1765-1815; steam-engine, 
 
 1803 
 Furley, Mary ; trials, 1844 
 Furneaux, capt. ; Adventure Bay, 
 
 New Holland ; returns, 1774 
 Fuseli, H., painter, 1741-1825 
 
 G. 
 
 Gage, gen. ; America, 1775 
 
 Game, W. ; parchment paper, 1857 
 
 Gainsborough, Thomas, painter, 1727- 
 
 88 
 Galba ; Rome, emp. , 68 
 Gale ; balloons, gunpowder, 1865 
 Gale Jones ; trials, 1811 
 Gale, Sarah, and Greenacre ; trials, 
 
 1857 
 Galen, 130-200 ; physic 
 Galgacus, 84 ; Grampians 
 Galileo di Galilei, 1564-1642 ; acous- 
 tics, astronomy, falling bodies, 
 harmonic curve, ice, inquisition, 
 pendulum, planets, sun, tele- 
 scopes 
 Gall, J., 1758-1828; craniology 
 Galle, Dr. ; Neptune, 1846 
 Gallien ; balloons, 1755 
 Gallienus ; Rome, emp. 260 
 Galvani, Louis, 1737-98 ; electricity, 
 
 1 791 ; voltaic pile 
 Galway, earl of; Almanza, 1707 
 Gama, Vaseo de, d. 1525 
 Gambetta, L. b. 1838 ; France, 1870-3 
 Gambier, lord ; Basque Roads, 1809 ; 
 
 Copenhagen 
 Gambier and Rumble, trials, 1869 
 Gamonil, Thome de, tunnels, 1867 
 Ganganelli; Clement XIV., popes, 
 
 1769 
 Gangeland ; apothecary 
 Gardiner, bp. ; administrations, 1529 
 Gardiner, lieut. Alan ; missions, 1850 
 Garibaldi, Joseph, 1). 1807 ; Italy, 
 1859-67 ; Solferino, Sicily, Naples, 
 Volturno ; Franco- Prussian war, 
 1870 
 Garnerin, M. ; balloons, 1802 
 Garnet ; gunpowder plot, 1605 
 Garnet, Dr. Thos. ; Royal institu- 
 tion, 1801 
 Garrick, David, 1716-79 ; theatres, 
 
 Drury-lane, jubilees 
 Garrison, W. L. ; slavery in United 
 
 States, 1831 
 Garrow, Wm. ; att.-gen., 181 3 
 Garth, Dr. ; Kit-Cat club, 1703 
 Gaskell, Mrs. E. C. novelist; 1811-65 
 Gassendi, 1592-1655 ; sun, sound 
 Gaston de Foix ; Ravenna, 1512 
 Gates, gen. ; Saratoga, 1777 ; Camden, 
 
 1780 
 Gauden, bp. ; eikon basilike, 1649 
 Gauden, M. ; sapphire, 1857 
 Gaunt, John of, 6. 1340 ; Ghent, 
 
 roses, wars 
 Gausius, 335 B.C. ; caustic 
 Gavarni, Fr. caric. 1801-66 
 Gavestons, beheaded, 1312 ; rebellions 
 Gay, John, 1688-1732 ; fables, operas 
 Gay-Lussac, J., 1778-1850; balloons 
 Ged, William: stereotvpe, 1730 
 Geffrard, gen. Fabre; Hayti, 1858 
 Gelasius I. ; popes 492 ; breviary, 
 
 pall ; Candlemas 
 Gellert, C. F-.Germ. fabulist, 1715-69 
 Gellius, Aulus, Latin miscellany, fl. 
 
 117-180 
 Gclon : Syracuse, 485 B.C.. Himera 
 Genghiskhan ; see JengMs Khan 
 Genseric lands in Africa, 429 
 
George, David, d. 1536 ; family of love 
 George, St. : garter 
 George I. — IV. ; England (kings) 
 George I. ; accession, 171 4. 
 George II. ; Dettingen, 1743 
 Georgi ; dahlia, 1815 
 Geramb, baron ; aliens, 1812 
 Gerard, J. ; physic garden, 1567 
 Gerbert, d. 1003 ; arithmetic 
 Germaine, lord George Sackville ; 
 
 Minden, 1759 
 Germanus ; Sodor, 447 
 Gerstenzweig, general ; Poland, m. 
 
 1861 
 Gervinus, G. G. Germ. hist. 1805-71 
 Gesler ; Switzerland, 1306 
 Geta; Rome, emp. 211 
 Gibb, W., A. ; corn, 1868 
 Gibbins, Mr., killed; riots 1831 
 Gibbon, Edward, historian, 1737-94 
 Gibbons, Grinlin, sculptor, 1648- 
 
 1721 
 Gibbons, Orlando ; music, 1583-1625 
 Gibbs, J., architect, 1674-1754 
 Gibbs, sir V.; attorney-gen., 1807; 
 
 common pleas 
 Gibson, J., sculptor, 1 791-1866 
 Gibson, T. M. ; Palmerston adminis- 
 tration, 1859 
 Giesmar, general ; Praga, 1831 
 Gifford, lieut. ; Kildare, 1798 
 Gifford, R. ; attorney -gen. , 1819 
 Gifford, Wm., 1757-1826; Quarterly 
 
 Rev., 1809 
 Gilbert, archbp. : York, 1757 
 Gilbert, sir Humphry, 1539 - 84 ; 
 
 Newfoundland 
 Gilbert, Dr., 1540-1603; electricity, 
 
 1600 ; magnetism 
 Gilbert, gen. ; Ferozeshah, 1845 
 Gilbert, G. ; executions, 1862 
 Gilchrist, earl (of Angus), 1037 
 Gildas, historian, 516-570 
 Gillam, Rd. ; trials, 1828 
 Gillespie, col. ; Vellore, 1806 
 Gillespie, gen. ; Kalunga, duel, 1788 
 Gillott, J. ; steel pens. 
 Ginckel, gen. ; Aughrim, 1691 
 Gioberti, Italian writer, 1801-52 
 Gioja, P. ; compass, 1302 
 Giotto, painter, 1276-1336 
 Gladstone, rev. Mr. ; trials, 1852 
 Gladstone, W. E. ; b. 1809, Gladstone, 
 
 1868, suspensory act 
 Glaisher, J. ; meteorology, 1850 ; 
 
 balloons, 1862 
 Glanville, R. de, eh. justice, 1180 
 Glas, capt., murdered; "trials, 1766 
 Glas, John, 1698-1773 ; Glasites, 1727 
 Glenelg, lord (Charles Grant), d. 1866 ; 
 
 Wellington adm., 1828 
 Glendower, Owen ; Wales, 1400 
 Glerawley, lord, v. Burn ; trials, 1820 
 Gloucester, duke of; marriage act, 
 
 1772 
 Glover, E. A. ; trials, 1858 
 Gliick, C. ; music, 1714-87 
 Gobelin, G. ; tapestry, Gobelins 
 Goderich, lord, d. 1859 ; Goderich 
 Godfrey, M. ; bank of England, 1694 
 Godfrey of Bouillon ; Jerusalem, 1099 
 Godolphin, earl ; Godolphin adm. 
 
 1684 
 Godoy, M. , prince of peace ; Spain, 
 
 1806 ; d. 1851 
 Godwin, Wm., 1756-1836 ; politics, 
 
 novels 
 Godwin, sir G. ; Pegu, 1852 
 Goethe, or Gothe ; German miscel. 
 
 1749-1832 
 Gog and Magog ; Guildhall 
 Goldoni, Ch., Ital. dramatist, 1707-93 
 Goldschmidt (Jenny Lind), &. 1821 ; 
 
 Nightingale fund 
 Goldschmidt, H., 1802-66; planets, 
 
 1852 
 Goldsmith, Oliver ; poet, miscel. 1728- 
 74 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Gonsalvo de Cordova, gen., d. 1515 ; 
 
 Garigliano 
 Good, Daniel ; trials, 1842 
 Goodrich, bp. ; administrations, 1551 
 Goodwin, bp., H., Carlisle, 1870 
 Goodyear, C. ; caoutchouc • 
 Gordian ; Rome, emps. 237 
 Gordon, lord G., d. 1793 ; riots, libel, 
 
 trials, 1781, 1788 
 Gordon, col.; duels, 1783; China, 
 
 1863 
 Gordons, L. and L. ; trials, 1804 
 Gorgey, gen. ; Hungary, 1849 
 Gorham v. bishop of Exeter ; trials, 
 
 1849 
 Gortschakoff, gen. ; Kalafat, 1854 ; 
 
 Silistria, Tchernaya 
 Gortschakoff, jinnee ; Vienna con- 
 ference, 1853 ; Poland, 1861 
 Goschen, J. G. 6. 1831 ; Gladstone, 
 
 1868 
 Goss, v. Whitlake, trials, 1870 
 Gossett, sir W. ; trials, 1842 
 Gough, sir Hugh, 1772-1869 : China, 
 1841 ; India, 1846 ; Goojerat, So- 
 braon, Ferozeshah 
 Goulburn, H. ; Wellington admin- 
 istration, 1828 
 Gould, J., 6. 1804; birds, works on, 
 
 1832-64 ; humming-birds, 1862 
 Gould, Jay, New York, 1872 
 Gould, Miss ; trials, 1822 
 Gould, murderer; trials, 1840 
 Gourlay, captain; duels, 1824 
 Gower, earl ; Wilmington adm., 1742; 
 
 North adm., 1770 
 Gower, J., poet ; d. 1402 
 Grsebe and Liebermann, alizarine 
 Gracchus, Tiberius, slain, 133 ; — 
 
 Caius slain, 121 b.c. 
 Grsevius, J. G. and G. thesaurus 
 Grady, Mr. ; duel, 1827 
 Grafton, duke of; Rockingham adm., 
 
 1765: Grafton adm., 1767 
 Graham, bp. ; Chester, 1848 
 Graham of Claverhouse, 1650-89 ; 
 
 Killiecrankie 
 Graham, A. ; planets, 1848 
 Graham, gen. ; Barossa, 1811 ; Se- 
 bastian, Bergen-op-Zoom 
 Graham, Mr. ; pendulum, 1715 ; 
 
 magnetism, 1722 
 Graham, Mr. ; duels, 1791 
 Graham, Thos., 1805-69; mint, dif- 
 fusion, dialysis, atmolysis 
 Graham, sir James, 1792-1861 ; Grey, 
 
 Peel 
 Grammont, due de, Dettingen, 1743 
 Granard, Arthur, earl of; Kilmain- 
 
 ham, 1675 
 Granby, marquis of; Chatham ad- 
 minis., 1766 
 Grant, capt. John ; cookery, 1857 ; 
 
 cottager's stove 
 Grant, sir Colquhoun ; duel, 1835 
 Grant, lieut. ; trials, 1816, 1844 ; 
 
 Central Africa, 1863 
 Grant, see Glenelg ; Pittsburg, 1862 
 Grant, gen. Ulysses, &. 1828 ; United 
 
 States, 1863-73 
 Grantham, Id. ; Shelburne adm. 1872 
 Grantley, F. Norton, Id. ; attomey- 
 
 gen., 1763 
 Granville, earl ; Russell, Palmerston 
 
 admin., 1851 
 Gratian; cannon law, 1151 
 Gratian, Rome, emp. 367-83 
 Grattan, Henry, orator, 1750-1820; 
 
 duelling, 1800, 1820 
 Grattoni, Alps (tunnel) 
 Graves, adm. sir T. Basseterre, 1782 
 Gray, bp. ; Bristol, 1827 ; see Cape- 
 town. 
 Gray, lord ; Pomfret castle, 1483 
 Gray, Thomas, poet, 1716-71 
 Greathead, Mr. ; life-boats, 1789 
 Greatrix, Val. ; impostors 1666 
 Greaves, lord ; suicide, 1830 
 
 755 
 
 Greeley, Horace, 181 1-72; United 
 
 States, 1872 
 Green, Charles, 1786-1870; balloons, 
 
 1828 
 Greenacre, J. ; trials, 1837 
 Greene, general; Camden, 1781 
 Greenwood, T. ; file, i860 
 Gregoire, M. ; national convention, 
 
 1792 
 Gregory the Great, d. 1604; Aber- 
 deen, chanting, Christianity 
 Gregory I.— XVI. ; popes, 590 et seq. 
 Gregory VII. ; Italy, 237 
 Gregory XI. , pope ; pallium 
 Gregory XIII. ; calendar, 1582 
 Gregory Nazianzen, Greek father, 
 
 326-390? 
 Grenville, George ; Newcastle ad- 
 ministration, 1754; Grenville ad- 
 ministration, 1763 
 Grenville, F. ; British Museum, 1846 
 Grenville, lord; Grenville admin., 
 
 1806 ; delicate investigation 
 Grevy, France, 1871-3 
 Gresham, sir T., d. 1579 ; Gresham 
 Grey, bp. ; Hereford, 1832 
 Grey, earl, 1764-1845 ; Grey, reform 
 Grey, Henry, earl ; Russell adminis- 
 tration, 1835 
 Grey, lady Jane, exec. 1554 ; Eng- 
 land, queens 
 Grey, sir George; Russell admin., 
 
 1846; Palmerston admin., 1855 
 Grey, sir G. ; Cape, 1856 
 Grey, Stephen ; electricity, 1720 
 Griesbach, J., critic, 1745-1812 
 Grimaldi, Joseph, clown ; retires, 
 
 1828 
 Grimm, Jacob, 1785-1863 ; Wilhelm, 
 
 1786-1859 ; dictionary (German) 
 Grindall, abp. ; York, 1570; Canter- 
 bury, liturgy 
 Grinfleld, general ; Demarara, 1803 ; 
 
 Tobago 
 Grinnell, Mr. ; Franklin expedition, 
 
 1850 
 Grisi, mad. d. 1869 
 Grocyn, Wm. ; Greek, 1490 
 Grogan, col., captured; U. States, 
 
 1841 
 Gronovius, J., thesaurus, 1657-1702 
 Gros, baron ; China, 1858 
 Grote, G., historian, 1794-1861 
 Grotius, H, 1583-1645 ; philosophy 
 Grove, sir W. R, 6. 1811 ; voltaic 
 battery, 1839 ; correlation, 1842 ; 
 continuity, 1866 
 Growse, Elias ; needles 
 Guelph ; Bavaria, Brunswick 
 Guericke, Otto von, d. 1686 ; air, 
 
 electricity, 1647 '■> Magdeburg 
 Guerin-Meneville, silk (ailantine), 
 
 1858 
 Guernsey, W. H. ; trials, 1858 
 Guesclin, B. du, d. 1380 
 Guicciardini, F., hist,, 1482-1540 
 Guido, Aretino, fl. 1030 
 Guido, Reni, painter, 1575-1642 
 Guilford, earl of; trials, 1853 
 Guinness, sir B., 1798-1868; Patrick, 
 
 St., 1893 
 Guiscard ; Naplej, 1059 ; conspira- 
 cies, 1710 
 Guise, dukes of ; Guise , 
 Guizot, F. , b. 1787 ; France, 1840-48-70 
 Gunter, E. ; Gunter's chain, 1606 
 Gurney, G. ; Bude light, 1841 
 Gurney, Russell ; recorder, 1856 
 Gurney, Messrs. ; trials, 1869 
 Gurwood, colonel ; suicide, 1845 
 Gustavus Adolphus, killed, Lutzen, 
 
 1632; Sweden, Munich 
 Gustavus Vasa ; Sweden, 1521 
 Gustavus I. —IV. ; Sweden 
 Gutenberg, J., d. 1467; printing 
 Guter, of Nuremberg; air, 1659 
 Gutierrez, T., Peru, 1872 
 Guy Faux ; gunpowder plot, 1605 
 
 . 3 c 2 
 
756 
 
 Guy, Thos. ; Guy's hospital, 1721 
 Guyton-Morveau ; balloons, 17S4-94 
 Guzman, Dominic de ; beads, 1202 
 Gwynne, Nell ; bell-ringing, 1687 
 Gyges ; Lydia, 718 b.c. 
 Gylippus, 414 b.c. ; Syracuse 
 
 Habakkuk, prophet, ab. 326 b.c. 
 Hachette, Jeanne de la ; Beauvais, 
 
 1472 
 Hacker, L. ; Sabbath schools, 1740 
 Hackett, Wm. ; impostors, 1591 
 Hackman, Mr. ; trials, 1770 
 Haddington, earl of; Ireland (lord- 
 lieu t.), 1834 
 Hadley ; quadrant, 1731 
 Hadrian; Rome, emperor, 117 
 Heecker ; magnetism, 1851 
 Haflz, Persian poet, fi. 14th century 
 Haggai prophesies about 630 B.C. 
 Haggart, David ; trials, 1821 
 Haggarty and Holloway ; trials, 
 
 1807 
 Hahnemann, Sam., 1755-1843; 
 
 homoeopathy 
 Hakluyt, R. ; geog., 1553-1616 
 Hale, sir Matthew, judge, 1609-76 
 Hales, Stephen, philosopher, 1677- 
 
 1761 
 Halevy> J. E. F. mus. com. 1799- 
 
 1862 
 Halifax, earl of ; Halifax administra- 
 tion, 1714; trimmer; see Wood 
 Hall, sir B. ; health, Palmerston ad- 
 ministration, 1855 
 Hall v. Semple ; trials, 1862 
 Hall, Marshall, physiol., 1790-1857 
 Hall, Rev. Robert, 1764-1831 
 Hall, Sam. , d. 1862 ; lace 
 Hallam, Henry, hist., 1778-1859 
 Haller, A. von; physiol., 1708-77 
 Halley, Edmund, astronomer ; Green- 
 wich, 1719 
 Halloran, Dr. , transported for forging 
 
 a frank, 1818 
 Hamel, J. ; Mont Blanc, 1820 
 Hamilcar; Carthage, 237 B.C. 
 Hamilton and Douglas cause ; trials, 
 
 1769 
 Hamilton, bp. ; Salisbury, 1854 
 Hamilton, duke of; duelling, 1712 ; 
 
 trials, 1813 
 Hamilton, James, marquis of; ad- 
 ministrations, 1640 
 Hamilton, J. ; court of honor 
 Hamilton; duels, 1748, 1804 
 Hamilton, Mary ; trials, 1736 
 Hamilton, sir W. ; Herculaneum 
 Hammond, Mr. ; ambassadors, 1791 
 Hampden, Richard; administrations, 
 
 1690 
 Hampden, John, killed, 1643 ; ship- 
 money, Chalgrove 
 Hampton, H. ; free church, 1859 
 Hancock, T. ; caoutchouc, 1843 
 Handcock ; trials, 1855 
 Handel, G. F., 1684-1759 ; Handel, 
 opera, oratorios, Messiah, Rule 
 Britannia 
 Hannen, sir James ; divorce ct., 1872 
 Hannibal, Carthaginian, 247-183 B.C. ; 
 Rome, Bernard, Saguntum, Spain, 
 Canna?, Carthage, Zama 
 Hanson, capt. ; duels, 1776 
 Hans Sachs, 1494-1578 ; minne- 
 singers 
 Hanway, Jonas, d. 1768 ; umbrella 
 Harcourt, lady ; fete de vertu 
 Harcourt, lord ; Oxford administra- 
 tion, 1 71 1 
 Hardicamite ; England, 1039 
 Harding, prof. ; planets, 1804 
 Hardinge, sir Henry (aft. lord), 1846; 
 
 India 
 Hardinge, Mr. ; journals, 1752 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Hardwicke, earl of ; Pelham admin., 
 1744; Derby admin., 1852; Ireland 
 (lord-lieut.), 1801 
 Hare, R. ; blowpipe, 1802 
 Hargrave, J. ; cotton, 1767 
 Hargraves, E. ; Australia, 1851 
 Harley, Robert ; Godolphin adminis- 
 tration, 1702 ; Harleian library, see 
 Oxford 
 Harmodius kills Hipparchus, 514 B.C. 
 Harney, gen. ; United States, 1855 
 Harold II. ; Hastings, 1066 
 Haroun-al-Raschid, caliph, 765-S09 
 Harpur, W. ; Bedford, 1561 
 Harrington, J. ; oceana, 1656 
 Harrington, earl of; Pelham admin- 
 istration, 1744 
 Harriot, T., algebra, 1631 
 Harris, Mr. ; organs, 1682 ; clocks, 
 
 apples, fluxions, pendulum 
 Harris, sir W. S., 1792-1867 ; light- 
 ning conductors, 1820-54 
 Harrison, gen. ; United States, presi- 
 dent, 1841 
 Harrison, J. ; pneumatic loom, 1864; 
 
 Harrison, 1714 
 Harrison, Mr. ; congelation, 1857 
 Harrowby, earl of ; Pitt administra- 
 tion, 1804 ct seq. 
 Harsnet, archbp. ; York, 1628 
 Hartinger, Mr. ; duels, 1820 
 Hartiugton, marquis of; Gladstone 
 
 administration, 1868 
 Hartland, sir R. ; Madras, 1771 
 Harvey, B. Bagenal ; trials, 1798 
 Harvey, Dr. William, 1578-1657 ; 
 
 blood, anatomy, midwifery 
 Harwood ; porter, 1730 
 Hasdrubal ; Carthage, Spain ; Me- 
 
 taurus, 207 b.c 
 Hastings, marquis of; India, gov.- 
 
 gen. 1813 
 Hastings, Warren, 1733-1S18; India, 
 
 1772 ; Chunar, Hastings 
 Hatchell, Mr. ; duels, 1814 
 Hatfield fires at George III. ; trials, 
 
 1800 
 Hatfield ; executions, 1803 
 Hatherley, Id. chancellor, 1868 
 Hatton, sir Christopher, d. 1591 ; 
 chancellor (lord high), master in 
 chancery 
 Haiiy, R., 1 743-1 822; crystallography 
 Haiiy, V. ; blind school, 1804 
 Hausmann ; Paris, France, 1869 
 Havelock, gen. ; India, 1S57 : Cawn- 
 
 pore 
 Hawthorne, Nat. Amer. nov. 1804-64 
 Hawke, adm. ; naval battles, 1747 
 Hawkesbury, lord ; administrations, 
 
 1807 ; Amiens 
 Hawkey, lieut. ; duels, trials, 1846 
 Hawkins, sir John, d. 1595 ; Guinea, 
 slave trade, 1562 ; potatoes, 
 tobacco, Chatham 
 Hay, lord John ; British legion, 
 
 1835 ; St. Sebastian's 
 Haydn, Joseph [first compiler of this 
 
 book], d. 1856 
 Haydn, Joseph, mus. comp. ; 1732- 
 
 1809 
 Haydon, Benj., painter, 1786-1846 
 Hayes, Mr. ; duels, 1728, 1806; trials, 
 
 1802 
 Hayes, sir H. B. ; trials, 1800 
 Haynau, gen ; Hungary, 1849 
 Hayter, sir G. ; painter, 1 792-1871 
 Hayward ; trials, 1821 
 Haywood, W. ; Holborn, 1869 
 H. B. ; caricatures 
 Head, sir Francis ; Canada, 1836 
 Headfort, marquis of ; trials, 1805 
 Hearn, north-west passage, 1769 
 Heath, archbp. ; York, 1555 
 Heberden, Dr. ; Humane Society, 
 
 1774 
 Hebert, J. R. (pere Duchesne), exe- 
 cuted, 1794 
 
 Hector of Troy, slain, 1183 B.C. 
 Heenan, J. ; boxing, i860 
 Hegel, G. , philosopher, 1770-1831 
 Helil ; animal magnetism, 1774 
 Heine, H., German poet, 1799-1856 
 Helena, St. ; cross, 328 ; Bethlehem 
 Heliodorus, fi. 398; romances 
 Heliogabalus ; Rome, emp. 218 ; 
 
 silk 
 Helmholtz, H, b. 1821 ; ophthalmo- 
 scope, 1851 ; acoustics 
 Heloise, d. 1164 ; Abelard 
 Helps, sir Arthur, hist, and miseel., 
 
 b. 1811 
 Helsham, capt ; duels, 1829 
 Hemans, Felicia, poet, 1794-1835 
 Henderson, col. police, — . A. ; pro- 
 verbs 
 Hencke ; planets, 1845 
 Hengist ; octarch, Salisbury 
 Henley, lord; Grenville administra- 
 tion, 1763 
 Henley, Jos. ; Derby adm., 1852 
 Henley, orator, d. 1756 
 Hennis, Dr. ; duels, 1833 
 Henrietta; queens (Charles I.) 
 Henry ; kings ; England, France, 
 
 Germany, Spain 
 Henry I. ; Tinchebray, 1106 
 Henry V. ; Agincourt, 1415 ; Cher- 
 bourg 
 Henry VII. ; Bosworth, 1485 
 Henry VIII. ; England, 1509 ; age, 
 defender, field, monasteries, spurs 
 Henry II., France ; tournaments, 1559 
 Henry IV. ; France, 1589 ; Nantes, 
 
 Ravaillac, Yvres 
 Henry, Paul and Prosper; planets, 
 
 1872 
 Henry the Lion ; Brunswick, 11 39 
 Henshaw, Mr. ; duels, 1820 
 Henty, Mr. ; Victoria, 1834 
 Hepburn, ensign ; trials, 1811 
 Heraclitus, philosopher, fi. 500 B.C. 
 Heraclius ; cross, 615 
 Herbert, adm. ; Bantry Bay, 1689 
 Herbert, George, ch. poet, 1593- 
 
 1633 
 Herbert of Cherbury, lord, 1581- 
 
 1648 ; deism 
 Herbert, Sidney (aft. lord), 1810-61 ; 
 
 Peel, Palmerston admins. 
 Hercules Tyrius ; purple 
 Herder, J. G. von, philosopher, 1744- 
 
 1803 
 Hermann (Arminius), Germany, 9 
 Hero of Alexandria,}?. 284-221 B.C. 
 Herod ; Jews, 42 b.c. 
 Herodian hist., fi. 173 
 Herodotus, b. 484 B.C. ; history 
 Herophilus ; anatomy, 302 b. c. 
 Herostratus fires the temple at 
 
 Ephesus, 356 b.c. 
 Herries, J. C. ; Peel adm. 1834 
 Herring, abp. ; Canterbury, 1747 
 Herring, Mrs. ; trials, 1773 
 Herschel, W., 1738-1822 ; Saturn, 
 astronomy, telescope, sun, Uranus, 
 nebular hypothesis 
 Herschel, J. F, 1790-1871; actino- 
 
 meter, photography 
 Hertford, earl of; administrations, 
 
 1547; Pinkey 
 Hertford, marquis of ; his executors 
 
 v. Suisse, trials, 1842 
 Hervie, H. ; doctors' commons, 
 
 1560 
 Hesiod, Greek poet, fi. 850 B.C. 
 Hess, gen. ; Solferino, 1859 
 Heytesbury, lord ; Ireland (lord- 
 lieut.), 1844 
 Hiero, Syracuse, 478-275 B.C. 
 Hieronymus, see Jerome 
 Hilary ; hymns, 431 
 Hill, lord ; commander-in-chief, 1828 
 Hill, Rowland, b. 1795 ; post-office 
 Hillsborough, lord ; North adminis- 
 tration, 1770 
 
INDEX. 
 
 757 
 
 Hind, J. R., b. 1823 ; planets, 1847 : 
 
 comets 
 Hindes, lieut. ; duel, 1817 
 Hinds, bp. ; Norwich, 1849 
 Hinrichs, prof. ; atomic theory, 1855 
 Hipparchus,^. 162 B.C. ; astronomy, 
 
 Canary, constellation, degrees, 
 
 latitude, longitude 
 Hippias ; ostracism, 510 B.C. 
 Hippocrates, d. 357 b.c. ; anatomy, 
 
 surgery, loadstone 
 Hoadley, B., bp., d. 1761 ; Ban- 
 
 gorian 
 Hobart, lord; Addington adm., 
 
 1801 
 Hobbes, T., 1588-1679 ; academies 
 Hobbima, painter, fl. 1681 
 Hobhouse, sir J. C. (aft. lord 
 
 Broughton), 1869 ; Melbourne, 
 
 adm., 1834 
 Hoche, gen. ; Dunkirk, 1793 
 Hocker, murderer ; trials, 1845 
 Hodgson, gen. ; Belleisle, 1761' 
 Hodgson v. Greene ; trials, 1832 
 Hofer, Andrew ; Tyrol, 1809-10 
 Hofmann, A., 6. 1818 ; chemistry, 
 
 ammonia, aniline, crith 
 Hogarth, W., painter, 1697-1764 
 Hogg, James, Se. poet, 1772-1835 
 Holbein, Hans, Ger. paint, d. 1543 
 Holcroft, T., 1745-1809 ; melo-drama, 
 
 1793 
 Holdernesse, earl of; Devonshire ad- 
 ministration, 1756 
 Holgate, abp. ; York, 1545 
 Holinshed, Ralph ; d. about 1580 
 Holkar ; India, 1804 
 Holland, lord; Melbourne adm., 1835 
 
 et seq. ; trials, 1797 
 Holland, sir H, b. 1788 ; pres. Roy. 
 
 Inst., 1865 
 Holiest murderers ; trials, 1851 
 Holmes, adm. ; Cape Coast, 1663 
 Holt, sir John ; King's Bench, 1689 
 Holt ; trials, 1844 
 Holwell, Mr. ; suttees, 1743 
 Home or Hume, D. ; spiritualism; 
 
 trials, 1868 
 Home, lieut. ; Delhi, 1857 
 Homer, fl. 962 b. c. (Clinton) ; poetry 
 Hompesch, baron ; duels, 1806 
 Hone, Win., 1779-1842; trials, 1817; 
 
 almanacs 
 Honey and Francis ; riots, 1821 
 Honorius ; "West, empire, 395 
 Hood, admiral ; Madeira, 1807 ; 
 
 Toulon 
 Hood, Thomas, comic writer, 1798- 
 
 1845 
 Hook, Theodore, novelist, 1788-1841 
 Hooke, Rob., 1635-1702; air, boiling, 
 camera, geology, mechanics, mi- 
 croscope, telegraphs 
 Hooker, Rich., theol., 1553-1600 
 Hooker, W., botanist, 1785-1865 ; — 
 J. D. (son), b. 1816;— Gen. R., 
 U. S., 1862-3; Fredericksburg 
 Hopkins, Matthew ; witches, 1645 
 Hopley, T. ; trials, i860 
 Horace, 65-8 b. c. , Latin poet ; Athens, 
 
 satires 
 Holier, H. ; trials, 1853 
 Hormisdas ; Persia, 272 
 Horn, count; Nordlingen, 1634 
 Home, G., bp. ; Norwich, 1790 
 Home Tooke, John, d. 1812 ; Home 
 
 Tooke, &c. 
 Horner, Fr. ; bullion, 18 10 
 Hornor, Mr. ; Colosseum, 1824 
 Homsby, Dr. ; Radcliffe, observa- 
 tory, 1 771 ; — Messrs., washing-ma- 
 chine, 1862 
 Horrebow ; astronomy, 1659 
 Horrox, Jer., d. 1641 ; astronomy, 
 
 "Venus 
 Horsfall, Mr. ; trials, 1813 
 Horsfall, Messrs. ; cannon, 1856 
 Horsley, bp. ; St. Asaph, 1802 
 
 Horsman, Edwd., b. 1807 (sec. for 
 
 Ireland, 1855-7) : Adullam, 1866 
 Hosea prophesies about 785 B.C. 
 Hotham, adm. ; naval battles, 1795 
 Hotspur ; Otterburn, 1388 
 Houblon, sir J. ; bank of England, 
 
 1695 
 Houghton, John, executed, 1535 ; 
 
 Charterhouse 
 Howard, John, 1726-go; prisons; — 
 
 potatoes 
 Howard, Luke, d. 1864 ; clouds 
 Howard, adm. sir Edward ; naval 
 
 battles, 1513 
 Howard of Effingham, lord ; armada, 
 
 1588 
 Howard v. Gossett ; trials, 1842 
 Howe, sir William; Long Island, 
 
 1776 
 Howe, lord, 1784 ; Pitt, 1783 ; Brest, 
 
 Ushant 
 Howel Dha ; Wales, 920 
 Howley, Dr., abp. ; Canterbury, 
 
 1828 ; Lambeth 
 Huber, F., 1750-1831 ; bees 
 Hudson, Jeffrey, 1626 ; dwarf 
 Hudson, H. ; Hudson's Bay 
 Huggins, Wm. ; spectrum 
 Hughes, sir E. ; Trincomalee, 1782 ; 
 
 — J., bp., Asaph, 1870 
 Hugo, Victor, Fr. poet and novel., 
 
 6. 1802 
 Hullah, J., b. 1812; music, 1840 
 Humbert, gen. ; Killala, 1798 
 Humboldt, A. de., Ger. phU., 1769- 
 
 1859 
 
 Humboldt, W. de, Ger. lit., 1767- 
 1835 
 
 Hume, David, hist., 171 1-76; — Jos., 
 politics, 1777-1855 ; see Home 
 
 Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, d. 
 at Bury, 1447 
 
 Hunniades, J. ; Hungary, 1442 ; 
 Turkey, Varna 
 
 Hunt, Geo. "Ward ; Disraeli adminis- 
 tration, excheq., 1868 
 
 Hunt, Henry, reformer ; trials, 1820; 
 Clerkenwell, Manchester 
 
 Hunt, John and Leigh ; trials, 181 1- 
 1812 ; James, d. 1869, anthro- 
 pology. 
 
 Hunt, Wm. Holman, painter, b. 1827 
 
 Hunter, John, surgeon, 1728-93 ; — ■ 
 W., 1718-83 
 
 Huntingford, bp. ; Hereford, 1802 
 
 Huntly, earl of ; Brechin, 1452 
 
 Hunton, Jos. , forgery ; executions, 
 1828 
 
 Hurd, bishop ; "Worcester, 1781 
 
 Huskisson, Wm., 1770-1830 ; "Wel- 
 lington admin., 1828; Liverpool, 
 1830 
 
 Huss, John, burnt, 1415 ; Hussites 
 
 Hutchinson, Amy; trials, 1750 
 
 Hutchinson, John, d. 1737 ; Huteh- 
 insonians 
 
 Hutchinson, major ; Alexandria, 
 1801 
 
 Hutchinson, J. H. ; Lavalette's 
 escape, 1815 
 
 Hutton, abp. ; Canterbury, 1757 
 
 Hutton, W., d. 1815 ; geology 
 
 Huyghens, d. 1695 ; astronomy, 
 optics, pendulum 
 
 Hyacinthe (Loyson) father, France, 
 1869 
 
 Hyde, sir Edward ; chancellor, lord 
 high, 1660 
 
 Hyde, Laurence ; administrations, 
 1689 et seq. 
 
 Hyder Ali, d. 1782 ; India, Arcot, 
 Carnatic, Mysore 
 
 Hyginus, pope, 139 ; martyr 
 
 Hypatia, philosopher, m. 415 B.C. ; 
 hydrometer 
 
 Hyperides ; Cranon, 322 b. c. 
 
 Hyrcanus, John, d. 106 B.C. ; Sa- 
 maritans 
 
 Ibrahim Pacha, 1789-1848 ; Antioch, 
 Beyrout, Egypt, Greece, Syria, 
 Turkey, Damascus, Wahabees 
 
 Ignatius, St., mart., 115 ; liturgies 
 250 
 
 Impey, major; duels, 1801 
 
 Inachus ; Argos, 1856 B.C. 
 
 Incledon, C, d. 1826 
 
 Inez de Castro ; Coimbra, 1355 
 
 Inglefield, capt. ; Franklin, 1852 
 
 Inglis, col. ; Albuera, 1811 
 
 Ingram, Herbert, d. i860 ; must. 
 London News, 1842 
 
 Innocent I. — XII. ; popes, 402 et seq. 
 
 Innocent III., pope, 1198 ; transub- 
 stantiation 
 
 Irenasus, martyr, 202 
 
 Irving, E., 1792-1834 ; Irvingites, 
 trial, 1832 ; unknown tongues 
 
 Irving, Washington, 1783-1859 
 
 Isabella ; salique law, Spain, 1833 
 
 Isaiah prophesies about 760 b. c. 
 
 Islip, abp. ; Canterbury, 1349 
 
 Isocrates, Gr. orator, 436-338 b.c 
 
 Iturbide ; Mexico, 1821-1865 
 
 Ivan ; Russia, 1462 ; czars 
 
 J. 
 
 Jack, capt. ; Modoc, 1873 
 Jackson, bp. ; Oxford, 1812; Lin- 
 coln, 1852; London, 1869 
 Jackson, gen. ; United States, 1829 
 Jackson, Thos., "Stonewall," 1826- 
 63 ; Manassas, United States, 1862 ; 
 Chancellors ville 
 Jackson, T. ; executions, 1861 
 Jackson, C. T. ; ether, 1846 
 Jackson, J, B. ; printing in colours, 
 
 1720 
 Jacob, Dr. ; Christ's hospital, 1854 
 Jacobi ; Baltic, note, electrotype 
 Jacobs, S. ; abstinence 
 Jacquard loom, 1806 
 James ; England, Scotland, Spain 
 
 (kings) 
 James IV. ; Flodden, 1513 
 James, H. ; photozincography, i860 
 Jane, England, queens, 1554 ; Sicily 
 Jansen, C, 1 585-1 638; Jansenism 
 Janssen, M. ; eclipse, 1868 
 Janvier de la Motte ; France, 1872 
 Jason, argonautic exp., 1263 b.c. 
 Jebb, Joshua, prison reformer, 1793- 
 
 1863 
 Jeffcott, sir John W. ; duels, 1833 
 Jefferson, Thos., 1743-1826; United 
 
 States, president, 1801-8 
 Jeffery, Robert ; Sombrero, 1807 
 Jeffery, Francis, critic, 1773-1850 
 Jeffreys, George (afterwards lord) ; 
 administrations, 1685; king'sbench, 
 chancellor, lord high, bloody as- 
 size ; d. 1689 
 Jellachich ; Hungary, Vienna, 1848 
 Jenghis Khan ; Tartary, 1206 ; Hun- 
 gary, India, Moguls, Afghanistan 
 Jenkins, Henry ; longevity, d. 1670 
 Jenkinson, bp. ; David's, St., 1825 
 Jenner, E., 1749-1823 ; vaccination 
 Jennings, Mr. ; tontines, 1798 
 Jeremiah prophesies about 629 B.C. 
 Jerningham, Mrs. ; blue-stockings. 
 
 1760 
 Jerome, St., Latin father, 345-420 
 
 ascension, liturgies 
 Jerome of Prague ; burnt, 1416 
 Jersey, countess of; delicate investi- 
 gation, 1806 
 Jervis, sir John, 1734-1823 ; Cape St. 
 Vincent ; — solicitor-gen. , at. -gen. , 
 common pleas, d. 1856 
 Joan of Arc, burnt, 1431 ; Joan 
 
758 
 
 Joan ; queens (Henry IV.), Naples 
 Joel prophesies about 800 b.c. 
 John, St. , d. 100 ; baptism, accusers, 
 
 evangelists, gospels 
 John I. — XXIII. ; popes, 523 et seq. 
 John of Austria ; Lepauto, 1571 
 John, king; Bohemia, Portugal, 
 
 Spain, France, Poitiers 
 John, king ; England (1199), charter 
 
 of forests, magna charta, " We " 
 John of Leyden ; anabaptists, 1534 
 John the Fearless ; Burgundy, 1404 
 Johnson, Andrew, 6. 1809; United 
 
 States, 1865-8 
 Johnson, Sam., 1709-84 ; dictionary, 
 
 literary club, 1764 
 Johnson, judge ; trials, 1805 
 Johnson, capt. ; trials, 1846 
 Johnson, Mr. ; swimming 
 Johnston, capt. ; steam, 1825 
 Johnston, gen. ; Ross, N., 1798 
 Johnston, Albt., k. Pittsburg, 1862; 
 
 —Jos., U. S., 1863 
 Johnston, Robert; trials, 1818 
 Johnston,sir John ; marriages, forced, 
 
 1690 
 Johnston, W. ; orangemen, 1868 
 Joinville, Jean de, French historian, 
 
 1224-1318 
 Joinville, prince de, &. 1818 ; Ocean 
 
 Monarch, 1848 
 Jomini, baron H, strategist; 1779- 
 
 1869 
 Jonah prophesies about 862 b.c. 
 Jones, colonel ; Dungan, 1647 ; Rath- 
 mines 
 Jones, H. Bence, 1813-73 ; Royal 
 
 Institution, i860 ; fluorescence, 
 
 spectrum 
 Jones, Gale; trials, 1811 
 Jones, Horace ; foreign cattle market, 
 
 guildhall 
 Jones, Inigo, architect, 1572-1652 
 Jones, Jane ; trials, 1842 
 Jones, Mr. ; riots, 1819 
 Jones, J. ; trials, 1870 
 Jones, Mr. Todd ; duel, 1802 
 Jones, Owen, Alhambra, 1842; 
 
 James's-hall, St. 
 Jones, sir fa, 1746-94; Asiatic, 
 
 chess, Menu, Sanskrit 
 Jones, T. ; book-keeping, 1821 
 Jonson, Ben., 1574-1637 ; poet-laur. 
 Joquemin, M. ; picquet, 1390 
 Jordan, Mrs., actress, d. 1816 
 Joseph ; Germany, Namur, Portugal 
 Josephine, empress, 1763-1814 ; 
 
 France, 1809 
 Josephus, Jewish hist. , 38-100 
 Jotham ; fables, 1209 b.c. 
 Joubert, gen. ; Novi, 1799 
 Jourdan, marshal ; Cologne, Fleurus, 
 
 Vittoria, 1813 
 Jovian, Rome, emps., 363 
 Juarez, B. ; Mexico, 1858-72 ; d. 1872 
 Judas Maccabajus rules, 168-160 b.c. 
 Judith ; Abyssinia, 960 
 Jugurtha, d. 104 B.C. ; Numidia, 
 
 Jugurthine war 
 Julian ; Rome, emp. , 360 ; edicts, 
 
 Paris 
 Julianus Salvius ; edicts, 132 
 Julius, Mr. ; duels, 1791 
 Julius II. ; popes, 1503 ; Rome, 
 
 Bologna, Laocoon, Cambray 
 Julius Csesar ; see Ccesar, Julius 
 Jung Bahadoor ; Nepaul, 1857-60 
 Junot, marshal, 1771-1813; Cintra, 
 
 Vimiera, 1808 
 Jussieu, A. L. de ; Fr. botanist, 1748- 
 
 1836 
 Justin, emp. ; Rome, 518 and 565 
 Justin, St. ; Rochester, 604 
 Justinian ; eastern empire, 527 
 Justin Martyr, 164 ; millennium 
 Juvenal, 59-128 ; satires 
 Juxon, apb. ; administrations, 1640 ; 
 
 Canterbury, 1660; 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 K. 
 
 Kane, Dr. ; Franklin, 1843 
 Kant, Imman., 1 724-1804; metaphy- 
 sics 
 Karaman, Joseph ; Syria, 1866-7 
 Karslake, sir J., 6. 1821 ; att.-gen., 
 
 1867 
 Kassa; Abyssinia, 1871 
 Kastenbein ; printing, 1872 
 Kaufmann, gen. ; Samarcand, 1868 ; 
 
 Khiva, 1873 
 Kaunitz, prince W. A., Aust. states- 
 man, 1711-94 
 Kaye, bishop; Bristol, 1820; Lin- 
 coln 
 Kean, Charles, 1811-68 ; theatres 
 Kean, Edmund, actor, 1 787-1833 
 Keane, lord ; Ghiznee, 1839 
 Keats, John ; poet, 1796-1821 
 Keble, rev. John, poet, 1792-1866; 
 
 Keble 
 Keenan ; trials, 1803 
 Keith, George ; earl-niarischal of 
 
 Scotland, Aberdeen, 1593 
 Keith, George ; quakers," 1646 
 Keller, Dr. ; lake dwellings, 1865 
 Kellerman, gen. ; Valmy, 1792 
 Kellet, capt. ; Franklin, 1848 
 Kelly ; trials, 1869, 1871 
 Kelly, Miss ; theatres, trials, 1816 
 Kelly, sir Fitzroy, 6. 1796; sol. -gene- 
 ral, att.-gen., ch. baron, 1866 
 Kemble, Charles, actor, 1775-1854 
 Kemble, John, actor, 1757-1823 
 Kemble, Fanny, actress, 6. 1811 
 Kembles ; examiners (of plays) 
 Kemp, abp. ; Canterbury, 1452 
 Kempe, John ; wool, 1331 
 Kempenfeldt, adm. ; Royal Geoi-ge, 
 
 1782 
 Kempis, T. a, 1380-1471 ; imitation, 
 
 theology 
 Kennedy, alderman ; trials, 1858 
 Kennedy, Mr. ; Franklin, 1851-53 
 Kennedy, C. R. ; trials, 185S note 
 Kent, Edw. duke of, 1767-1820 
 Kent, Odo, earl of ; treasurer, 1066 
 Kent, G. ; knives (cleaner), 1844 
 Kentigern, St. ; abstinence, Glasgow, 
 
 Asaph, 560-83 
 Kenyon, lord ; attorney-general, 1782 ; 
 
 king's bench 
 Kepler, J., 1571-1630; optics, plane- 
 tary motions, 1609 ; rainbow, tides, 
 dyehouses 
 Keppel, adm. ; Belleisle, Ushant, 
 trials, 1799; coalition, naval bat- 
 tles 
 Keppel, commodore ; China, 1857 
 Keratry, gen. ; Franco-Pruss. war, 
 
 1870 
 Kettel, E. ; trials, 1872 
 Keying ; China, 1842-58 
 Killigrew, Thos. ; drama, 1662 
 Kilmarnock, lord ; rebellions, trials, 
 
 executions, 1746 
 Kihvarby, abp. ; Canterbury, 1272 
 Kihvarden, lord ; king's bench ; trials, 
 
 1803 
 Kimberley, see Wodehousc ; Glad- 
 stone, 1868 
 King, Thus. ; ventriloquism, 1716 
 King, Mr. Locke ; administrations, 
 
 1851 
 King, Dr. ; Cesarean operation 
 King, col. ; suicide, 1850 
 King, C. ; trials, 1855 ; gems, i860 
 Kinglake, Dr. ; trials, 1870 
 Kinglake, A. W. ; hist., 5. 1802 
 Kingsley, C. ; novels, &c, b. 1819 
 Kingston, duchess of; trials, 1776 
 Kingston, Evelyn, duke of ; Walpole, 
 
 1721 
 Kirby and Wade, capts., shot, 1702 ; 
 naval battles, note 
 
 Kircher; iEolianharp, 1653 : philoso- 
 pher's stone, trumpet 
 Kirkman ; piano-forte 
 Kirwan, Richard B. ; trials, 1852 
 Kiss, Karl, Ger. sculptor, 1802-65 
 Klapka, general G., 6. 1820 
 Kleber, J. B., Fr. gen., 1754-1800; 
 
 El Arisch 
 Kleist ; electricity, 1745 ; Leyden 
 Klopstoek, F. T., Germ, poet, 1724- 
 
 1803 
 Kmety, gen. (Ismail Pacha), d. 1865 ; 
 
 Hungary, Kars 
 Knatchbull, sir E. ; Peel administra- 
 tions, 1834-5 
 Kneller, sir Godfrey, painter, 1648- 
 
 1723 
 Knight, Chs., hist., <fcc. ; diffusion 
 
 soc, 1827 ; England 
 Knight, G. ; magnetism, 1756 
 Knight, Mr. ; north-west passage, 
 
 1602 ; South Sea bubble, bribery 
 Knight v. Wolcot ; trials, 1807 
 Knowles, J. S., dramat,, 1 784-1862 
 Knox, John, 1505-72 ; Presbyterians, 
 
 congregation, queen, Scotland 
 Knutzen, Matthias ; atheism, 1674 
 Kock, Paul de, Fr. novelist, b. 1794 
 Kohl, F. ; execution, 1865 
 Konig, F. ; printing-machine, 1814 
 Konig, M. ; phonoscope, tonometer, 
 
 1862 
 Kcirner, Th., Germ, poet, 1791-1813 
 Kosciusko ; Poland, 1794 ; Cracow 
 Kossuth, L. , b. 1802 ; Hungary, 1849- 
 
 68 ; United States, 1851 
 Koster, Laurence ; printing, 1438 
 Kotzebue ; north-west passage, 1815, 
 
 Aug. dramatist ; killed, 1819 
 Kouli Khan ; Moguls, India, Persia, 
 
 1730 
 Kunckel, J., 1630-1703 ; phosphorus, 
 
 1670 
 Kutusoff, gen. M., 1745-1813; Russia, 
 
 Borodino, Smolensko, 1812 
 Kyhl, P. ; nature-printing, 1833 
 
 Labouehere, Henry, lord Taunton ; 
 Russell administration, 1846 ; Pal- 
 merston administration, 1855 
 Labourdonnaye ; Tournay, 1792 
 La Bruyer*, French essays, 1639-96 
 Lachaise. Pere, 1624-1709; cemetery 
 Lacon, W. S. ; sea 
 Lacordaire, Pere H. D., 1802-61 
 Lactantius, d. abt. 325 ; fathers 
 Ladislas ; Bohemia, Hungary 
 Laennee, K., physician, 1781-1826 
 Lafarge, Madame ; trials, 1840 
 Lafayette, marq. ; 1757-1834 
 Latitte, d. 1844 ; wills (Napoleon's) 
 La Fontaine, J., Fr. fabulist, 1621-95 
 Lagava, 6c. ; execution, 1856 
 Lagny, circle, 1719 
 La Grange, J. L., 1736-1813; acous- 
 tics, astronomy, 1780 
 Laing, Sam., eryst. pal. 1S52 ; India, 
 
 1861-2 
 Laird, Mr. ; Birkenhead, Alabama, 
 
 navy, 1870 
 Lake, gen. ; Bhurtpore, 1805 ; Delhi, 
 
 Lincellas 
 Lake, capt. ; Sombrero, 1807 
 Lalande, J., astron., 1732-1807 
 Lally, gen. Thos. de ; beheaded, 1766 
 La Marmora, gen. A., 6. 1804 ; Tcher- 
 
 naya, 1S55 ; Italy, 1862 
 Lamartine, A. de, 1792-1869, miscel. 
 
 writer ; France, 1848 
 Lamb, C. , 1775-1834 ; essays 
 Lamb, Dr., killed, 1628 ; riots 
 Lamballe, princesse de ; France, 
 
 1792 
 Lamberg, rt. ; Austria, 1848 
 Lambert, Mr., d. 1809; (corpulency 
 Lambert (Latham), J. ; trials, 1855 
 
Lambrecht, Mr. ; duels, trials, 1830 
 Lambton, Mr. ; duels, 1826 
 Lamennais, Pere, P. R. cle, 1782-1854 
 Lamirande, M. ; extradition, 1866 
 Lamorieiere, gen., 1806-65; Prance, 
 
 1851 ; Pome, i860 
 Lamplugh, arclibp. ; Yurk, 1688 
 Lancaster, capt. ; Bantam, 1603 
 Lancaster, duke of; Lancaster 
 Lancaster, Joseph, 1771-1838; Laia- 
 
 easterian scliools, education 
 Lander, Ricliard, 1804-34 ; Africa 
 Landseer, sir E., painter, 6. 1803 
 Lanfranc, arclibp. Canterbury, 1070 
 Langara, adm. ; naval battles, 1780 
 Langdale, Id. ; master of rolls, 1836 
 Langdale, sir M. ; Naseby, 1645 
 Langham, abp.; Canterbury, 1366 
 Langton, abp.; Canterbury, 1206 
 Langiewicz, M. ; Poland, 1863-5 
 Lannes ; marshals, Asperne, 1809 
 Lansdowne, marquis of, 1780-1863 ; 
 see Petty, Shelburne; Goderich 
 adm. 1827; Russelladm. 1846, 1851; 
 Aberdeen adm. 1852; Palmerston 
 adm. 1855, et seq. 
 Laomedon; Troy, 1260 b.c. 
 Laplace, P. de; Pr. mathemat., 1749- 
 
 1827 
 Latimer, bp., burnt, 1555; pro- 
 
 testants 
 Latimer, viscount; administrations, 
 
 1672-3 
 Laud, William, abp., 1573-1645; Can- 
 terbury, administrations 
 Lauderdale, duke of; cabal, 1670 
 Laura; Petrarch, 1327 
 Lautrec, Pr. gen., d. 1528 
 Lavalette's escape, 1815 
 Lavater, J., 1741-1801; physiognomy 
 Lavoisier, A, 1743-94; carbon, hydro- 
 gen, nitric acid, phlogiston, water 
 Law, bishop ; Chester, Bath, 1824 
 Law's bubble, 1720 
 Lawes, H., mus. comp., 1600-62 
 Lawless, Mr. ; riots, 1828 
 Lawrence, gen. H., 1800-57; India, 
 
 1857 
 Lawrence, sir J., aft. Id., b. 1811; 
 
 India, 1863 
 Lawrence, sirT., painter, 1 769-1830 
 Layard, Austen, b. 1817; Nineveh, 
 
 Gladstone, 1868 
 Layer's conspiracy, 1722; Layer 
 Leake, adm., d. 1720; admiralty, Gib- 
 raltar, Mediterranean, Minorca 
 Leatham, W. H.; trials, 1861 
 Le Clerc, critics, 1696 
 Leclru Rollin, A., 5. 1808 ; Prance, 1848 
 Lee, Alexander ; theatres, 1830 
 Lee, Ann, shakers 
 
 Lee Boo, prince; Pelew Islands, 1783 
 Lee, abp.; York, 1544 
 Lee, W. ; stocking-frame, 1589 
 Lee, gen. Robt., 1808-70; United 
 
 States, 1862 
 Leech, John, 1817-64; caricatures 
 Leeds, duke of; administrations, 1689 
 Leeke, H. ; Bushire, 1856 
 Leeuwenhoek, 1632-1723; animal- 
 cules, polypus 
 Lefevre, C. Shaw ; speaker, 1839 
 Leggatt, B.; burning, 1612 
 Legge, bishop ; Oxford, 1827 
 Legge, H. B., Newcastle adm., 1754 
 Le Gros, Raymond; Dublin, 1171 
 Leibnitz, Gottfried, 1646-1716; mathe- 
 matics, fluxions 
 Leicester, earl of; administrations, 
 
 1558 ; national associations 
 Leicester, earl of, v. Morning Herald ; 
 
 trials, 1809 
 Leighton, abp. Robt., 1613-84 
 Leighton, G. C. ; printing in colours, 
 
 1849 
 Le Jay ; polyglot, 1628-45 
 Lelewel ; Poland, 1863 
 Lely, sir P., painter, 1617-80 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Le Maire ; circumnavigator, 1615 
 
 Lennox, col.; duels, 1789 
 
 Lenoir,; gas, 1861 
 
 Le Notre; James's-park, St., 1668 
 
 Leo; popes, 440; Eastern empire, 457 
 
 Leo I. ; coronation 
 
 Leo IV. ; Leonine city 
 
 Leo X. ; popes, 1513 ; indulgences 
 
 Leon, Diego de ; Spain, 1841 
 
 Leon, Ponce de; America, 1512 
 
 Leonarda of Pisa; algebra, 1202 
 
 Leonardo da Vinci, painter, 1452-1520 
 
 Leonidas; Thermopylae, 480 B.C. 
 
 Leopardi, Italian orat. 1 798-1837 
 
 Leopold, Germany; Morgarten, 1315; 
 
 Sempach, 1386; Belgium, 1830; 
 
 Spain, France, 1870 
 Lepidus; triumvir, 43 b.c. 
 L'Epee, abbe de, 1712-89, deaf 
 Lerdo de Tejado ; Mexico, 1872 
 Le Pique, M. ; duels, 1808 
 Le Sage, French novelist, 1668-1747 
 Leslie, C. R., painter, 1794-1859 
 Lesseps, M. ; Suez, 1852 
 Lessing, G. E., German philosopher, 
 
 1729-81 
 Lestock, admiral ; Toulon, 1744 
 L'Estrange, sir R. ; newspapers, 1663 
 Lettsom, Dr. ; Humane soc, 1774 
 Lever, sir Ashton ; museum 
 Leverson, S. R. ; trials, 1868 
 Leverrier, U., 6. 1811 ; Neptune, 1846 
 Levy, Mr. Lyon ; monument, 1810 
 Lewis, Mr. ; theatres (Covent-garden), 
 
 1773 
 Lewis, sir G. Cornewall, 1806-63 ; 
 
 Palmerston adm., 1855 
 Lewishain, vise. ; Addington adm., 
 
 1801 
 Leybourne, William de ; admiral, 1297 
 Liakut, Ali ; India, 1871-2 
 Libanius, Gr. orator, 314-390 
 Liddon, lieut. ; north-west passage, 
 
 1819 
 Lieber, T. ; Erastianism, 1523-84 
 Liebig, J., 1803-73; acids, agricul- 
 ture, chemistry 
 Light, F. ; Penang, 1786 
 Ligonier, lord ; Bute, 1762 
 Lilburne, col. ; levellers, Wigan, 1651 
 Lilly, Win., 1602-81; astrology, 1647 
 Lily, George, d. 1559; charts 
 Lily, Win. , grammarian, d. 1523 
 Lin ; China, 1840 
 Linacre, Dr., d. 1524; gardening, 
 
 lectures, physicians 
 Lincoln, Abm., 1809-65; United 
 
 States, 1860-5 
 Lincoln, earl of ; administrations, 1759 
 Lind, Dr. ; anemometer, wind 
 Lind, Jenny (Goldschmidt), b. 1821 
 Lindley, John; hot., 1799-1865; 
 
 horticulture 
 Lindsay, earl of ; Edgehill, 1642 
 Lindsay, sir John ; Madras, 1770 
 Lingard, J., 1771-1851 ; historian 
 Linlithgow, lord ; guards, 1660 
 Linne, Linn, C. von, 1707-78; botany, 
 
 Linnsean, zoology 
 Linus, poet,/. 1281 b.c. 
 Liprandi ; Balaklava, Eupatoria, 1855 
 Lisle, lord; administrations, 1544 
 Lisle, sir G. ; Colchester, 1648 
 Lisle, visct. ; Portsmouth, 1544 
 Liston, J., actor, retires, 1838 
 Liszt, P. ; music, 1811-68 
 Little, John ; Sherwood forest 
 Littleton, lord; chancellor, Id., 1641 
 Littleton, Mr. ; Melbourne adminis- 
 tration, 1834 
 Littre, E, 6. 1801 ; dictionaries, 
 
 positive philosophy 
 Liverpool, earl of, 1770-1828 ; — Liver- 
 pool adm., 1812 
 Livingstone, D., 5. 1817; Africa, 1856 
 Livius, Titus, Roman hist., d 18 
 Llewellyn ; Wales, 11 94 
 Lloyd, bishop ; Oxford, 1827 
 
 759 
 
 Lloyd, Catherine ; quackery, 1831 
 Lloyd, Charles, esq. ; Junius, 1769 
 Lloyd, W. ; Portland vase, 1845 
 Locke J., 1632-1704 ; physics, car- 
 tesian, coin 
 Locke, W. ; ragged schools, 1844 
 Lockyer, major ; duel, 1817 
 Lockyer, J. N. ; eclipse, 1866 
 Lofting, John ; thimble, 1695 
 Logeman ; magnetism, 1851 
 Lollard, Walter ; Lollards, 1315 ; 
 
 burned, 1322 
 Lombe, sir Thomas ; silk, 1714 
 London dock company ; trials, 185 1 
 Londonderry, lord ; see Castlereagh ; 
 
 suicide, 1822 
 Long, sir R. ; administrations, 1660 
 Long, Misses Tilney ; trials, 1825 
 Long, St. John ; quack, trials, 1830-1 
 Longfellow, H. W.,&. 1807 
 Longinus, Gr. philos., killed, 273 
 Longley, abp. York, i860 ; Ripon 
 Longstreet, gen. ; Chicamauga, 1863 ; 
 
 U. States 
 Lonsdale, bishop ; Lichfield, 1843 
 Lonsdale, earl of; duels, 1792; Der- 
 by administration, 1852 
 Lopez ; Cuba, 1850 ; United States 
 Lopez, gen. ; Paraguay 
 Lopez, sir Manasseh ; Grampound, 
 
 trials, 1 8 19 
 L'Orme, Philibert de ; Tuileries, 1564 
 Lome, marquis of (marriage), Eng- 
 land, 1 8 70- 1 
 Lorraine, Chas. of; Lissa, Mohatz, 
 
 1687 
 Lorraine, duke of; Crecy, 1346 
 Lorraine, Claude, painter, 1600-82 
 Losinga, H. ; Norwich, 1091 
 Loudon, C. J., 1783-1843; botany 
 Loughborough; att.-gen., coalition, 
 
 1783 
 Louis ; France, kings ; Spam, 1724 
 Louis III. ; landgrave, 1830 ; Hesse 
 Louis XL; "Christian;" blood, 
 
 posts, 1470 ; Provence 
 Louis XII. ; tester, 1513 
 Louis XIII. ; Louis d'or, 1640 
 Louis XIV. ; Dieu-donne, Nantes, 
 
 1685 
 Louis XVIII. ; Hartwell, 1807-14 ; 
 
 Prance 
 Louis, king ; Hungary, Buda, 1526 
 Louis, prince of Conde ; Jarnac, 1569 
 Louis Bonaparte ; Holland, 1806 
 Louis-Napoleon ; Bonaparte ; France, 
 
 1848, and p. 286 
 Louis-Philippe; France, 1830 
 Louisa- Maria, infanta ; Spain, 1846 
 Louise, queen ; Belgium, 1832 ; d. 
 
 1850 
 Louth, lord; trials. 1811 
 Loutherbourg, Mr. ; panorama 
 Lovat, lord ; conspiracy, trials, 1747 
 Lovell ; trials, 1812 
 Lover, Sam., Irish nov., 1797-1868 
 Lowe, Alice ; trials, 1842 
 Lowe, R. ; Gladstone, 1868 ; London 
 
 univ. 
 Lowther, vise. ; Wellington adm., 
 
 1828 
 Loyola, Ignatius ; Jesuits, 1534 
 Luby, Thos. ; Fenian, trials, 1865 
 Lucan, earl of; trials, 1856 
 Lucan, killed, 65 ; Rome, Cordova 
 Lucas, Mr. ; steel, 1804 
 Lucian, Gr. satirist, about 120-200 
 Lucilius ; satire, 116 b.c. 
 Lucretia, d. 47 b.c. ; Rome, spinning 
 Lucretius, Lat. phil. poet, d. 52 b.c. 
 Lully ; nitric acid, 1287 ; (music), 
 
 1633-72 
 Lumley v. Gye ; trials, 1854 
 Lunardi, M. ; balloons, 1784 
 Lushington, S. ; admiralty court, 
 
 1838 
 Lutatius ; naval battles, 241 B.C. 
 Luther, Martin, 1480-1546 ; Angus 
 
760 
 
 tins, Lutheranism, Dort, Protes- 
 tantism, Augsburg, Calvinists, 
 Worms 
 
 Luther, R. ; planets, 1852 
 
 Luxemburg, marshal; Enghien, 1692 
 
 Luxmoore, bishop ; Bristol, 1807 
 
 Lycurgus ; Sparta, 881 B.C. 
 
 Lyell, sir C, b. 1797 ; geology, man 
 
 Lyly, W. ; euphuism, 1581 
 
 Lyndhurst, lord, 1772-1863 ; chancel- 
 lor ; Canning adm. 1827; Welling- 
 ton adm. 1828; Peel adm., 1834, 
 1841 
 
 Lynch murder ; trials, 1817 
 
 Lynedoch, lord ; Barosa, 1811 ; Ber- 
 gen-op-Zoom, St. Sebastian 
 
 Lyon, capt. ; north-west passage, 
 1821 ; — gen. N., Springfield, 1861 
 
 Lyons v. Thomas ; trials, 1869 
 
 Lyon, John ; Harrow school, 1571 
 
 Lysauder; Sparta, 405 B.C. 
 
 Lysimaelms ; Ipsus, 301 b.c ; Corus 
 
 Lysippus ; Lysistratus, sculpture, 
 busts, 328 b. c. 
 
 Lyttelton, Geo., lord; dreams, 1779 
 
 Lytton, E. Buhver, Id., novelist and 
 poet, 1805-73 ; guilds 
 
 Macadam, J. ; macadamising, 1819 
 Macarthy, sir Charles ; Siena Leone, 
 
 Ashantees, 1825 
 Macartney, earl; duel, 1786; China, 
 
 1793 ; India 
 Macaulay, T. B., Id., 1800-1859 ; Mel- 
 bourne adm., 1837 
 Macbeth ; Scotland, 1057 
 MacCabe ; robbers, 1691 
 MacClellan, gen. George, b. 1826 ; 
 
 United States, 1861-4 
 Macclesfield, earl of ; chancellor, lord 
 
 high, 1718 
 MacCormack ; reaping-machine, 1831 
 Macdonald, marshal ; Parma, Trebia, 
 
 1799 
 Macdonald, Mr. ; Times, printing 
 Macdonald, capt. ; Prussia, 1861 
 Macdonalds massacred ; Glencoe, 
 
 1692 
 MacDowell, gen. J. ; Manassas, 1861 
 Macduff, Mr. ; duel, 1790 
 Macfarlane, S. ; trials, 1844 
 MaeGrath ; dogs 
 Macgregor, J. ; bank, British, 1849; 
 
 canoe, 1865 
 Machiavelli, N., 1469-1527 
 Machiewicz, abbe ; Poland, 1863 
 Mack, gen. ; Ulm, 1805 
 Maekay, gen. ; Killiecrankie, 1689 
 Mackay and Vaughan ; trials, 1816 
 Mackenzie, bp. C. F. ; Africa, i860 
 Mackie, A. ; printing, 1871 
 Mackintosh, sir James, 1765-1872 
 Macklin, C, actor, d. 1797 
 Macklin ; Bible, books 
 Mackonochie, rev. Mr.; trials, 1867; 
 
 ritualists 
 MacLachlan, Jessie ; trials, 1862 
 Macleod, H. D. ; trials, 1858 
 Maeleod, Mr. ; United States, 1841 
 Maclise, D., painter, 1811-70 
 MacMahon, marshal, b. 1808 ; Magen- 
 ta, 1859 ! Franco-Prussian, Sedan, 
 
 France, 1873 
 McMillan, J. ; trials, 1861 
 MacNamara, capt. ; duels, 1803 
 M'Clure, capt. ; Franklin, 1850 ; 
 
 north-west passage 
 M'Culloch, J. R., polit. eeon., 1789 — 
 
 1864 
 M'Neill, sir J. ; Sebastopol, 1855 
 McCarty, gen. ; Enniskillen, 1689 
 McClintock, capt. ; Franklin, 1859 
 McGill, Mi. ; trials, 1842 
 McKenzie, Mr. ; duel, 1788 
 McNaghten, sir W., killed 1841 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 McNaughten, Mr. ; trials, 1761, 1843 
 Macready, W. ; actor, 1 793-1873 
 Macreath, Mr. ; trials, 1841 
 Macrobius ; Lat. writer, d. 415 
 Madan, bp. ; Peterborough, 1794 
 Madiai, the ; Tuscany, 1852 
 Madison, James ; United States, 
 
 president, 1809 
 Maecenas, d. 8 ; dedications, baths 
 Maelzel, J. ; metronome, 1815 
 Magee, J. ; trials, 1813 
 Magee, W. C, bp. Peterborough, 
 
 1868 
 Magellan ; killed, 1521 ; circumnavi- 
 gation, Philippine 
 Magi ; fire worshippers, Epiphany 
 Magnin, C. ; puppets, 1872 
 Magnus ; king, Norway, Sweden 
 Maguire, capt. ; Franklin, 1848 
 Magus, Simon ; Simonians, heretics 
 Mahomet, 570-632 ; Hegira, 622 ; 
 
 Mahometanism, Mecca, Medina, 
 
 Beder, Turkey, Koran 
 Mahomet II., d. 1481 ; eastern empire, 
 
 Turkey, Adrianople, Constantino- 
 ple, Albania 
 Mahony, F. (Prout), d. 1866 
 Mai'monides (Maimouii), Moses, 
 
 Jewish wr., d. 1208 
 Maitland, capt. ; France, 1815 
 Maitland, sir Fred. ; China, 1838 
 Majendie, bishop ; Chester, 1800 
 Major ; conchology, 1675 
 Majorian, coronation 
 Malachi prophesies about 397 B.C. 
 Malcolm ; Scotland, kings, clanships, 
 
 Alnwick, Dunsinane 
 Malebranche, N. ; philos., 1638-1715 
 Malherbe ; Fr. poet, 1556-1628 
 Malibran, niadame ; music, 1808-36 
 Mailet, R. ; earthquakes, seismo- 
 meter, 1858 
 Malmesbury, lord, b. 1807 ; Derby 
 
 administrations, 1852, 1858 
 Malpighi, M. ; anatomist, 1628-94 
 Maltby, bishop ; Durham, 1836 
 Malthus, T., 1766-1834, polit. econ. 
 Manasseh, Ben Israel ; Jews, 1657 
 Manby, capt. ; life-preserver, 1809 
 Manchester, eari of; administrations, 
 
 1620 
 Manchester will ; trials, 1854 
 Mandeville, visct. ; administrations, 
 
 1620 
 Manes, killed, 274 ; Manicheans 
 Manfred, killed, 1266 ; Naples 
 Manlius ; Cimbri, 102 b.c, Rome 
 Manners, lord John, b. 1818; Derby 
 
 adm., 1852, 1858, 1866 
 Manning, H., b. 1809; archbishop, 
 
 1865 
 Mannings ; murderers, trials, 1849 
 Manny, sir W. ; charter-house, 1371 
 Mansel, bishop ; Bristol, 1808 
 Mansell, T. ; executions, 1857 
 Mansfield, lord ; att.-gen. 1754 j 
 
 Dumblain, 1715; fictions in law, 
 
 king's bench 
 Mansfield, C.B. ; benzole, 1849 
 Manteufl'el, gen., Franco-Pruss. war, 
 
 1870-1 
 Manuel ; Eastern empire, Trebizond 
 Manzoni, A., Ital. nov., 1784-73 
 Manutius, see Aldus 
 Mar, earl of ; Harlaw, 141 1 
 Marat, stabbed; France, 1793 
 Marcel, S. communes, 1356 
 Marcellus ; Rome, 212 B.C. 
 Marceau, gen., killed, Altenkirchen, 
 
 1796 
 March, Roger, earl of; rebellions, 
 
 1398 
 March, R. ; rope-making, 1784 
 Marchmont ; trials, 1858 
 Marcion ; Marcionites, 140 
 Marcus Aurelius ; Rome, emp. 161 
 Marcus Curtius ; Rome, 362 b.c 
 Mardonius ; Mycale, Plattea, 497 b.c. 
 
 Margaret ; England, queen of Ed- 
 ward I. 
 Margaret of Anjou, England (queen 
 of Henry VI.), d. 1481 ; Tewkes- 
 bury, Towton, Wakefield 
 Margaret of Norway ; Calmar, 1393 
 Margaret (governess of the Nether- 
 lands, 1559) ; beards 
 Margraff ; beet-root, 1747 
 Maria da Gloria ; Portugal, 1826 
 Maria-Louisa, d. 1847 ; France,. 
 
 p. 286 ; wills (Napoleon's). 
 Maria-Theresa ; Germany, 1711 
 Maria-Antoinette ; France, 1793 ;. 
 
 diamond necklace 
 Marias, d. 86 b.c ; Ambrones, Cimbri 
 Markham, abp. ; York, 1776 
 Marlborough, earl of ; administra- 
 tions, 1628 
 Marlborough, duke of, 1650-1716 r. 
 com. -in-chief, marshals, Blenheim,. 
 Douay, Liege, Lisle, Malplaquet, 
 Oudenarde, Ramilies 
 Marlborough, John, duke of, b. 1822; 
 Derby adm., 1867; Disraeli adm., 
 1868 
 Marlowe, Chr. ; dramatist, d. 1593 
 Maroiont, marshal ; Salamanca, 1812- 
 Marmontel, J. F., Fr. novel. 1723-99 
 Marot, Clement ; Fr. poet, 1495-1544: 
 Mar, earl of; trials, 1831 
 Marsh, bp. ; Llandaff, 1816 
 Marsh, Catherine, convalescent hos- 
 pital 
 Marshall, Mr. ; California, 1847 
 Marshal, T. R. ; trials, 1859 
 Martel, Charles ; France, 714 
 Marten, Maria ; trials, 1828 
 Marth ; planets, 1854 
 Martial ; epigrams, fl. 100 
 Martin, John, painter, 1790-1854 
 Martin, Jon. ; York minster, 1829 
 Martin ; popes, 640 et seq. 
 Martin, Rd. ; animals, 1822 
 Martin, rev. G. ; suicide, i860 
 Martyr, Peter, reformer, 1500-62 
 Marvell, And., d. 1678 ; ballot 
 Mary I., 1516-58; England (queen), 
 
 1553 ; Calais 
 Mary II., 1662-94; England (queen), 
 
 1689 
 Mary, queen of Scotts, 1542-87 r 
 Scotland, Carlisle, Edinburgh, 
 sycamore, Langside, Lochleven- 
 castle, Fotheringay 
 Maryborough, lord ; postmaster, 
 
 1835 
 Masaniello ; Naples, 1647 
 Maskelyne, N, astronomer, 1732-n; 
 Greenwich, 1765; almanacs, Schie- 
 hallien, Venus 
 Mason, Mr. ; U. States, 1861 
 Mason, Josiah, orphan houses, Bir- 
 mingham 
 Massena ; Zurich, 1799 ; Almeida, 
 
 Busaco 
 Massey v. Headfort ; trials, 1804 
 Massey, W. ; India, 1865 
 Massillon, J. B. ; Fr. preacher, 1663- 
 
 1742 
 Mathew, Theobald, d. 1856 ; tem- 
 perance 
 Mathews, Chas. ; actor, 1776-1835 p 
 
 (son) C. J., 6. 1803 
 Mathias; anabaptists, 1534 
 Matilda ; England, (queen of, Wil- 
 liam I.); Bayeux tapestry, 1066 
 Matilda ; England (queen of Stephen} 
 Matilda (empress) ; England, 1135 
 Matilda ; Denmark, 1772 ; Zell 
 Matilda, countess ; Canossa, 1077 ; 
 
 Italy 
 Matthew, T., abp. ; York, 1606 
 Matthews, adm. ; Toulon, 1744 
 Maud ; see Matilda 
 Maule, Fox (lord Panmure); Russell 
 
 administration, 1846 
 Maunsell, col. ; meal-tub plot, 1679 
 
Maupertuis, P. L. de, 1698-1759 ; 
 
 latitude 
 Maurice, rev. F. D., 1805-72 ; work- 
 ing-men's college, 1854 
 Maury, lieut. M., 1806-73 ; sea 
 Mausolus, 377 b.c. ; mausoleum, 
 
 wonders 
 Maximin ; Rome, emp. 235 ; giants, 
 
 persecutions 
 Maximilian ; emperors, Germany, 
 
 1493 ; Mexico, 1864-67 
 Mayne, sir Richd., 1796-1868 ; police, 
 
 1829 
 Mayo, earl of, 6. 1822 ; Disraeli adm. 
 
 1868 ; assassinated, 1872"; India, 
 
 Andaman 
 Mazarin, cardinal ; France, 1643 ; 
 
 tontines ; printing, 1450 
 Mazzini, J., Ital. patriot, 1808-72 ; 
 
 Rome, 1831 ; triumvirate, 1849 
 Mazzuoli, F. ; engraving, 1532 
 Mead,Dr. Rich. , 1673-1 754; inoculation 
 Mead, Geo., gen., 1816-72 ; United 
 
 States, 1863 
 Meagher; Ireland, 1848 
 Mecklenburg, grand duke, Franco- 
 
 Pruss. war, 1870-1 
 Medail, M. Alps (tunnel), 1848 
 Medhurst, Frs. H. ; trials, 1839 
 Medici ; Medici family 
 Medicis, Catherine de, d. 1589 ; Bar- 
 tholomew, St. 
 Medina-Sidonia, duke of; armada 
 Medon; Athens, 1044 B.C. 
 Mehemet Ali ; Egypt, Syria 
 Mehemet Ruchdi, Turkey, 1871-2 
 Meikle, A., threshing-machine, 1776 
 Melanchthon, Philip, 1497-1560 ; 
 
 Augsburg confession 
 Melas, general ; Marengo, 1800 
 Melbourne, viscount, 1779-1849 ; Mel- 
 bourne ; trials, 1836 
 Mellon, Miss (afterwards duchess of 
 
 St. Alban's), first appearance, 1795 
 Melville, lord ; impeachment, 1806 
 Memnon said to invent alphabet, 
 
 1822 B.C. 
 Menabrea, count L. F. ; Italy, 1867 
 Menander, d. 291 B.C. ; drama 
 Mendelssohn, F. Bartholdy, 1809-47 
 Mendizabal ; Spain, 1835 
 Mendoza,Pedro de; BuenosAyres, 1530 
 Menou, general ; Alexandria, 1800 
 Menschikoff, prince ; Holy Places, 
 
 1853 ; Russia, Alma, Russo-Turk- 
 
 ish war 
 Mercator, Ger., 1512-94 ; charts 
 Merimee, Prosper, Fr. hist., 1803-70 
 Merovseus ; Merovingians, France, 448 
 Mesmer, Frederic Ant.; mesmerism, 
 
 1766 
 Metastasio, Pet., It. poet, 1698-1782 
 Metellus; Achaia, 147 B.C. 
 Metius; telescopes, 1590-1609 
 Meton; golden number, 432 B.C. 
 Metternich, prince, Aust. statesman, 
 
 1773-1859 
 Metz, M. de; reformatory, 1839 
 Meux and Co. ; porter 
 Meyer, H. von, archseoi>teryx, 1861 
 Meyer, Simon; Saturn, 1608-9-10 
 Meyerbeer, J. M., Germ, mus., 1794- 
 
 1864 
 Mezentius ; indiction, 312 
 Micah, prophesies about 750 b. c. 
 Michael Angelo Buonaroti, Ital. ar- 
 tist, 1474-1564 
 Michael ; eastern empire, Servia 
 Michaelis, J. W., bib. critic, 1717-91 
 Michaud, abbe ; old catholics, 1872 
 Michelet, J., Fr. hist., b. 1798 
 Middlesex, earl of; administrations, 
 
 1621 
 Middleton, Con.; (Cicero), 1683-1750 
 Middleton; N.W. passage, 1742 
 Middleton (or Myddelton), sir Hugh, 
 
 1565-1631 ; New River 
 Middleton, John; giants, 1578 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Miecislas ; Poland, 962 
 Mieroslawski, L.; Poland, 1863 
 Miguel, dom, 1802-66; Portugal, 1824 
 Mildmay, sir J. H.; trials, 1814 
 Mildmay, sir Walter; administra- 
 tions, 1579 
 Mill, Jas., hist, of Ind., 1773-1836 
 Mill, John Stuart, d. 1873, logic 
 Millais, J. E., painter, b. 1829 
 Miller, Hugh ; geology, suicide, 1856 
 Miller v. Salomons ; trials, 1852 
 Miller, W.; trials, 1870 
 Millie, Mr.; trials, 1839 
 Milman, H. H, 1791-1868; poet and 
 
 hist., b. 1791 
 Milosch; Servia, 1815 
 Miltiades; Marathon, 490 B.C. 
 Milton, John, 1608-74 ; Paradise Lost, 
 
 Cripplegate 
 Mina, gen., d. 1836; Spain, 1835 
 Minos; Crete, 1015 B.C. 
 Minto, earl of ; India, gov. -gen., 1807 
 Miramon, gen.; Mexico, 1859; exe- 
 cuted, 1867 
 Mires, M.; Mexico, 1861 
 Mister, Josiah; trials, 1841 
 Mitchell, sir F. ; monopolies, victual- 
 lers, 1 62 1 
 Mitchell, D.; aquarium, 1853 
 Mitchell, adm. ; Bantry bay, 1801-2 
 Mitchell; Ireland, 1848 
 Mitford, sir John; att. -general, 1800; 
 speaker, 1801 ; — W., hist, of Greece, 
 1 744-1827 
 Mithridates the Great, 131-63 b.c. ; 
 Pontus, comets, electuary, massa- 
 cres, omens 
 Mitra, gen. B. ; Buenos Ayres, 1859 
 Moffat, colonel; wrecks, 1857 
 Molmn, lord; duels, 1712 
 Moir, capt.; trials, 1830 
 Moira, earl of; India, gov. -gen., 1813 
 Mole, count, d. 1855 
 Molesworth, sir William; Aberdeen 
 
 adm., 1852 
 Moliere, Fr. comic drama, 1622-73 
 Molinos, 1627-96; quietists 
 Molyneux, Mr.; absentee, 1738 
 Mompesson, Giles ; monopolies, vic- 
 tuallers, 1621 
 Monck, visct. C. S., b. 1819; Canada, 
 
 1861 
 Moncrieff, capt. cannon, 1868 
 Monk, general ; administrations, 
 
 1660; guards; d. 1670 
 Monk, bishop; Gloucester, 1830 
 Monmouth, duke of, 1649-85; Mon- 
 mouth, Bothwell, Sedgemoor, iron 
 mask 
 Monroe, Mr.; United States, presi- 
 dent, 1817-21 
 Monstrelet, E. de, French historian, 
 
 d. 1453 
 Montacute, marquis of ; Man, 1314-43 
 Montagu, lord ; administrations, 
 
 1660-89 
 Montagu, lady M. W. ; inoculation, 1 71 8 
 Montague, Mrs., d. 1800; May-day 
 Montaigne, M. de, Fr. essayist, 
 
 I533-9 2 
 Montalembert, comte de; 1810-70; 
 
 France, 1858 
 Montanus ; Montanists, polyglot, 1559 
 Monteflore, sir Moses ; Jews, 1837 
 Montemolin, comte de ; Spain, 1860-1 
 Montesquieu, C. de L., Fr. phil., 
 
 1689-1755 
 Monteverde; opera, 1607 
 Montfort, Simon de; barons' war, 
 commons, Kenilworth, steward, 
 lord high, speaker, Lewes; killed 
 at Evesham, 1265 
 Montfort, Amauri de ; Albigenses, 
 
 1268 
 Montgolfier, M.; balloons, 1782 
 Montgomery, Mr. ; suicide, duels, 1803 
 Montgomerie, comte de ; tourna- 
 ments, 1559 
 
 761 
 
 Montholon, comte de; will (Napo- 
 . leon's), 1821 
 
 Monti, Ital. poet, 1754-1828 
 Montpensier; France, Spanish mar- 
 riage, 1846; Spain, 1868-72 
 Montrose, duke of; Pitt adm. 1804, 
 
 Derby adm., 1866 
 Montrose, marquis of, executed, 1650 ; 
 Corbiesdale, Scotland, Alford, 
 Philiphaugh 
 Moor, abp.; Canterbury, 1783 
 Moore ; almanac, 1698-1713 
 Moore, murdered; trials, 1853 
 Moore, capt. ; Franklin, 1848 
 Moore, Serjeant; leases, 1535 
 Moore, Anne; abstinence, 1808 
 Moore, Geo. ; mansion-house fund, 
 
 1871 
 Moore, sir John, fc. at Corunna, 1809 
 Moore, sir Jonas ; Greenwich 
 Moore, Thos., poet, 1780-1852 
 Morales, H. A., Bolivia, 1872 
 Mordaunt, Charles, viscount; ad- 
 ministrations, 1689 
 Mordaunt divorce ; trials, 1870 
 More, sir Thomas, 1480 -1535; ad- 
 ministrations, 1529 ; chancellor, 
 supremacy 
 More, Hannah, 1745-1833 
 More, Roger; rebellion, 165 1 
 Moreau, general, 1763-1813 ; Ales- 
 sandria, Augsburg, Wurtemberg, 
 Dresden 
 Morland, Sam., d. 1695 ; capstan, 
 
 speaking-trumpet 
 Morelli; tourniquet, 1674 
 Moreton, John, earl of; Ireland, 11 77 
 Morgan; buccaneer, 1668 
 Morgan, colonel ; Lincoln 
 Morgan, confederate general ; U. 
 
 States, 1862 
 Morland, Geo., animal painter, 1763- 
 
 1804 
 Morley, T.; music; d. 1604 
 Morning Chronicle; trials, 1810, 1830 
 Morning Herald ; trials, 1809 
 Morning Post; libel, 1792 
 Mornington, lord; India, 1798 
 Morpeth, viscount (aft. earl of Car- 
 lisle); Melbourne adm., 1835; Ire- 
 land, lord-lieut. 
 Morris, George; flowers, 1792 
 Morris, Mr.; theatres, 1805 
 Mortara, E. ; Jews, 1858 
 Mortier, mar.; Romainville, 1814 
 Mortimer, E. A.; trials, 1859 
 Mortimer, earl of March; Berkeley, 
 
 1327 
 Morton, arch. ; Canterbury, i486 
 Morton, regent of Scotland, 1572 
 Morton, sir Albert ; administrations, 
 
 1628 
 Morton, Thomas; ether, 1846 
 Morton; trials, 1852 
 Moryson, Fynes ; forks 
 Moseley, Wolf, &c. ; trials, 1819 
 Moses, 1572-1451 b.c. 
 Moshesh, cape of G. H, 1870 
 Mosquera, gen.; New Granada, 1861 
 Moss, bishop ; Oxford, 1807 
 Mosse, Dr.; lying-in hospital, 1745 
 Mothe-Guyon, madame de la; quiet- 
 ists, 1697 
 Mountaigne, abp.; York, 1628 
 Mount-Sandford, lord, killed ; trials, 
 
 1828 
 Mouravieff; Kars, 1855 
 Mourzoufle; Constantinople, eastern 
 
 empire, 1204 
 Mozart, W. A.; music, 1756-91 
 Mudie, C; circulating library, 1842 
 Muirhead, J. G.; trials, 1825 
 Mulgrave, earl ; Liverpool adm., 1812 
 
 Ireland, lord-lieut. 
 Mullens, J.; trials, i860 
 MiiUer, F.; execution, 1864 
 Miiller, F. Max, &. 1823 ; Vedas, San- 
 skrit, language 
 
762 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 M idler, Geo. ; 6. 1805 ; orphan-houses ; 
 
 scripture knowledge 
 Mulot, M. ; Artesian well, 1841 
 Mulready, Win.; painter, 1786-1863 
 Mummius, L. ; Corinth, 146 b.c. ; 
 
 painting 
 3Iunich, marshal ; Perekop, 1736 
 Muiioz, duke ; Spain, 1833 
 Munro, H. ; Buxar, 1764 
 Munster, earl of; suicide, 1842 
 Munzer, T. ; anabaptists, 1524-5, level- 
 lers ; Frankenhausen 
 Murat, Joachim, 1771-1815; Erfurt, 
 
 Naples 
 Muratori, L.; hist, 1672-1750 
 Murchison, sir Roderick I., 1792- 
 
 1871 ; geology, Brit. Assoc. 
 Murdoch, Mr.; gas, 1792 
 Murillo, Bravo, Spain, 1865, 1868 
 Murillo, B. S., Sp. painter, 1618-82 
 Murray, Mr.; penny post, 1683 
 Murray, earl of; Scotland, 1567 
 Murray, lady Aug. ; marriage act, 1793 
 Murray, B. ; trials, 1841 
 Murray, bishop; David's, St., 1800 
 Murray, sir James ; Tarragona, 1813 
 Murray, sir Geo. ; Peel adm., 1S34 
 Musa; Spain, 712 
 Musa:gs, fl. 1413 B.C. 
 Musgrave, abp. ; Hereford, 1837 
 Musgrave, sir Richard ; duel, 1802 
 Mushat, Mr.; steel, 1800 
 Myddelton, sir Hugh, is65?-i63i; 
 
 New River 
 My lue, R. ; architect, 1734-181 1 ; Black- 
 friars 
 Myron, sculptor,./?. 480 B.C. 
 Mytton, general ; Wales, 1645 
 
 N. 
 
 Nabis ; Sparta, 206 b. c. 
 
 Nabonasser, fl. 747 b. c ; astronomy 
 
 Nachimoff, admiral ; Sinope, 1853 
 
 Nadar ; balloon, 1863 
 
 Nadir Shah ; Persia, 1732 ; Delhi, 
 Afghanistan, Cabal 
 
 Nagel, H., trials, 1872 
 
 Nahuin prophesies about 713 b.c. 
 
 Nana Sahib ; Cawnpore, India, TS57 
 
 Napier of Merehlston ; logarithms ; 
 Napier's bones, 1614 
 
 Napier, admiral sir C. ; Portugal, 
 Sidon, cape St. Vincent, Baltic, 
 1854 
 
 Napier, gen. sir C. ; Meeanee, 1843 
 
 Napier, lord; China; Edinburgh; 
 United States, 1856 
 
 Napier, Mr. ; coin, 1844 
 
 Napier, sir R., b. 1S10; Abyssinia, 
 1867 ; Arogee, Magdala 
 
 Napoleon, Jerome ; Bonaparte 
 
 Napoleon I., 1769-1821, France, abat- 
 toirs Bonaparte ; confederation, 
 legion of honour, models, notables, 
 Cairo, Egypt, Elba, Fontainebleau, 
 Malta, Mamelukes, St. Helena, 
 Simplon, vaccination : his battles : 
 Acre, Areola, Asperne, Auerstadt, 
 Austerlitz, Bautzen, Borodino, 
 Castiglioue, Charleroi, Dresden, 
 Eckmiibl, Essling, Eylau, Fried- 
 land, Hanau, Italy, Jena, La 
 Rothiere, Leipsic, Liguy, Lodi, 
 Lutzen, Marengo, Montereau, 
 National guard, Pultusk, St. 
 Dizier, Simplon, Tilsit, Troyes, 
 Vienna, Waterloo, Wurtzburg 
 
 Napoleon, II., king of Rome ; France, 
 p. 286 
 
 Napoleon III., 1808-73 ; France, 
 p. 286 ; Boulogne, Strasburg, 
 Cherbourg, Italy, Magenta, Sol- 
 ferino. Wills 
 
 Napoleon, imperial prince, b. 1856; 
 Bonaparte, France, Saarbriick 
 
 Nai'ses ; East, empire, 552 ; Goths, 
 Italy, Rome 
 
 Narvaez, gen. Ramon, 1800-1868 ; 
 Spain, 1846 
 
 Nash, Mr. ; theatres, parks, 1818 
 
 Nasmyth, J. ; steam-hammer, 1838 
 
 Nasmyth, lieut. ; Silistria, 1854 
 
 Nasr-ed-Din ; Persia, 1848-73 
 
 Nearchus ; sugar, 325 B.C. 
 
 Nebuchadnezzar; Jews, 605 B.C., 
 Tyre, Babylon 
 
 Necho ; Egypt, 634 B.C. 
 
 Neil, col. ; India, 1857 : Allahabad, 
 Benares 
 
 Neild ; legacy to the queen, 1852 
 
 Neilson, J., 1792-1865; blowing- 
 machine, 1828 
 
 Nelson, Horatio, admiral lord, 1758- 
 1805 ; Nelson 
 
 Nero ; Rome, emperor, 54 
 
 Nesselrode, comte de, Russian states- 
 man, 1780-1862 
 
 Newcastle, marquis of; Marston- 
 
 llloflV, 1644 
 
 Newcastle, duke of; Pelliam adm., 
 1749 ; Newcastle adm., 1754 ; Aber- 
 deen adm. , 1852 
 Newenham, W. B. ; trials, 1844 
 Newington, H. (Flora Davey), trials, 
 
 1871 
 Newman, rev. J., and Achilli ; trials, 
 
 1852 ; Tractarians 
 Newport, sir John ; exchequer, 1834 
 Newton, sir Isaac, 1642-1727 ; air, 
 binomial, coin, diamond, astro- 
 nomy, royal society, hydrostatics, 
 gravitation, mechanics 
 Ney, marshal, 1769-1815 ; Dennewitz, 
 
 France, Quatre-Bras, Ulm, Ney 
 Neyle, archip. ; York, 1632 
 Niccoli, Nicholas ; libraries, 1436 
 Nicephori, emperors ; east, empire, 
 
 802-963 
 Nicephorus ; comets 
 Nicholas I., Russia, 1825-55 
 Nicholas V. ; popes, 1447-55 ; St. 
 
 Peter's, Rome 
 Nichols, col. ; New York, 1664 
 Nicholson ; trials, 1813 
 Niebuhr, B. H. ; hist., 1776-1831 
 Niepce ; photography, 1814, veloci- 
 pedes, 1818 
 Niger, P. ; Rome, amp. ; killed, 127 
 Nightingale, F., 0. 1820; Scutari, 
 
 Nightingale 
 Nillson, Mr., prehistoric archa?ology 
 Ninus ; Assyria, 2059 b. c. 
 Nisbet, sir John ; advocates, 1685 
 Noad, H. M. ; electricity, 1855 
 Noah, 2347 B.C. ; ark, Armenia 
 Noailles, marshal : Dettingen, 1743 
 Nobel, Alf. ; nitro-glycerine, 1864, 
 
 dynamite, 1868 
 Norfolk, Thomas, duke of ; adminis- 
 trations, 1540 ; people 
 Norman, sir J. ; mayor, 1453 
 Norman, Robert ; magnet, 1576 
 Norman, justice, murdered, India, 
 
 1871 
 Normanby and Buckingham, duke 
 
 of; Godolphin adm., 1702 
 Normanby, marquis of; Ireland (lord 
 
 lieut), 1835 
 North, bishop ; Winchester, 1781 
 North, lord; North adm., 1770 
 North, sir F. ; king's counsel, 1663 
 Northampton, Henry, earl of; ad- 
 ministrations, 1609 
 Northbrook, Id., India, 1872 
 Northcote, sir Stafford, 6. 1818 ; 
 Derby adm., 1866; Disraeli adm., 
 1868 
 Northumberland, Algernon, duke of; 
 
 Derby administration, 1852 
 Northumberland, Dudley, duke of; 
 
 administrations, 1551 
 Northumberland, Hugh, duke of; 
 
 Ireland (lord-lieut), 1763 
 Northumberland, earl of; coaches, 
 Man 
 
 Norton, sir Fletcher; att-gen., 1763 
 
 Norton, Jeffrey de ; recorder, 1298 
 
 Norton v. lord Melbourne ; trials, 
 1836 
 
 Nostradamus ; almanacs, 1566 
 
 Nott, gen. ; Ghiznee, 1842 
 
 Nottingham, earl of; administra- 
 tions 1684 
 
 Novaliches, marquis de, Spain, 1868, 
 Alcolea, 1868 
 
 Numa Pompilius ; Rome, kings 715 
 b.c. ; calendar 
 
 Numitor ; Alba, 795 B.C. 
 
 Nunez, A. ; Paraguay, 1535 
 
 (i. 
 
 Oaklev, sir Charles ; Madras, 1792 
 
 Oates^ T. ; Gates' plot, 1678 
 
 Obadiah prophesies about 587 B.C. 
 
 O'Brien, king; Limerick, 1200 
 
 O'Brien, W. S. ; Ireland 1846, 1848; 
 giants, 1785 
 
 O'Connell, Mr. Daniel, 1775-1847 ; 
 duels, 1815 ; agitators, emancipa- 
 pation, repeal, trials (1831, 1844), 
 Ireland 
 
 O'Connell, Mr. Morgan ; duels, 1835 
 
 O'Connor, Arthur: press, riote, 
 trials, 1798 
 
 O'Connor, Fergus, d. 1855 ; chartists 
 
 O'Conncir, Roger; trials, 181 7 
 
 Ochus ; Persia, 359 B.C. 
 
 Octavius ; Rome, 37 B.C. 
 
 Odin; Sweden, 70 B.C. 
 
 Odo, earl of Kent ; treasurer 
 
 Odo, abp. ; Canterbury, 941-58 
 
 Odoacer ; Italy, 476, Heruli 
 
 O'Donnell, marshal Leopold, 1808-67 ; 
 Spain 1841 
 
 CEdipus ; Bceotia, 1266-76 B.C. 
 
 (Enotrus' ; Arcadia, Greece, 1710 B.C. 
 
 Oersted, H. C, 1777-1851 ; elec- 
 tricity, 1819 
 
 Ogle, George ; duel, 1802 
 
 Oglethorpe, gen. ; Georgia, 1732 
 
 O'Grady, Mr. ; duels, 1803 
 
 Ogyges ; deluge, 1764 B.C. 
 
 O'Hagan, lord chancellor (Ireland) 
 1868 ; Roman Catholics 
 
 O'Halloran, Dr. ; trials, 1818 
 
 O'Keefe ; trials, 1825 
 
 Olbers, M. ; planet, 1802 
 
 Oldcastle, sir J., burnt, 1418 ; Lollards 
 
 Oliphant, sir Win., advocate 
 
 Olivarez governs Spain, 1621-43 
 
 Oliver ; trials, 1858, 1869 
 
 Ollivier, E. : France, 1870 
 
 Ollendorff, H. G. (linguist); 1803-65 
 
 Ollivant, bp. ; Llandaff, 1849 
 
 O'Loghlen, sir M. ; Roman catholics, 
 1836 
 
 Olozaga, Spain, 1871 
 
 Omar, caliph, 634 : Alexandria, Ali 
 
 Omar Pacha ; Citate, Montenegro, 
 Oltenitza, Ingour, Russo-Turkish 
 war, 1855 
 
 Ommaney, capt. ; Franklin, 1850 
 
 O'Keett'e v. Culleli, trials, 1873 
 
 O'Moore, Rory ; Carlow, 1577 
 
 O'Neil, rebellion ; massacre, Black- 
 water, 1598 
 
 O'Neil. Miss (lady Becher), appears 
 at Covcnt Garden, 1814 ; d. 1872 
 
 Onslow, G. and Whalley, G. H. ; trials 
 1872 
 
 Onslow, sir R. ; Halifax adm., 1714 
 
 Opie, John; painter, 1761-1807 
 
 Oppian, poet,/. 171 
 
 Orange, William, prince of; Holland, 
 Maestricht, revolution, 1572 ; Eng- 
 land, 1689 
 
 Orange, prince of ; Quatre-Bras, 1815 
 
 Orbelhana ; Circassia, 1857 
 
 Orellana ; Amazonia, 1540 
 
 Orestes; Mycenae, Sparta, 1175B.C 
 
 Orfila, M. J. ; physician, 1787-1853 
 
 Orford, earl of ; admiralty, 1709 
 
Orloff, count ; diamonds, 1772 
 Ormoiid, James, duke of; Ireland, 
 
 lord-lieuts. , 1643 et seq 
 Ormoiid, earl of; combat, 1446 
 Ormond, marquis of; Rathmines, 
 
 1649 
 Orr, Win. ; trials, 1797 
 Orrery, earl of ; orrery 
 Orsini, Felix, 1819-58; France, 1858 
 Ortega, gen. ; Spain, i860 
 Osborn, Sherard ; Franklin, 1854' 
 Osborne, sir Thomas ; administra- 
 tions, 1672 
 Oscar ; Sweden, 1844 
 Osgodeby, Adam de ; master of the 
 
 rolls, 1295 
 Ospina ; New Grenada, 1857 
 Ossory, lord ; tea, 1666 
 Osymandyas ; Egypt, 2100 B.C.; ob- 
 servatories, painting 
 Othman ; Turkey, 1298 
 Otho; Rome, emp., 69; Germany, 
 
 936 ; Greece, 1832-62 
 Otto, M. ; Amiens, 1802 
 Ottocar ; Bohemia, 1197 
 Oudinot, marshal ; Rome, 1849 
 Outram, sir James ; 1802-63 ; Mo- 
 
 hammerah, India, 1857 
 Overbury, sir T., poisoned, 1613 
 Overend, Gurney, & Co. ; trials, 1867 
 Ovid ; poet, cl. 18 
 Owen, W. D. ; trials, 1858 
 Owen, Robert; socialists, 1834 
 Owen, Richard, b. 1804; odonto- 
 graphy, palaeontology, zoology 
 Owens, J., Owens college 
 Oxenden, sir George ; Surat, 1664 
 Oxford, Edward ; trials, 1840 
 Oxford, earl of; Godolphin adm., 
 
 1702 ; Oxford adm. 
 Oxford, John, earl of ; yeomen, i486 
 
 Paciolo ; algebra, 1494 
 Paddon, lieut., takes Cerbere, 1800 
 Paget, lord ; duels, trials, 1809 
 Paget, lord fin, , v. Cardigan ; trials, 
 
 1844 
 Paget, sir A. ; trials, 1808 
 Paget, sir William; administns., 1547 
 Paine, Thomas ; trials, 1792 
 Pakington, sir John, b. 1799 ; Derby 
 
 and Disraeli adm. 
 Palafox, gen. ; Saragossa, 1809 
 Palamedes ; alphabet, backgammon, 
 
 battle, dice, chess, 680 b.c. 
 Palestrina, 1529-49 ; music 
 Palladio, A. ; architect, 1518-80 
 Palliser, capt. cannon, 1866 
 Palliser, sir Hugh ; Ushant, 1778 
 Palm, the bookseller ; trials, 1806 
 Palm, cardinal, shot ; Rome, 1848 
 Palmer, J. ; mail coaches, 1784 
 Palmer ; duels, 1815 ; trials, 1856 
 Palmer, Roundell ; see Selbome 
 Palmer, S. Times (index) 
 Palmerston, Henry, vise. ; 1784-1865 ; 
 
 Palmerston, lady, d. 1869 
 Panckoucke, C. J. ; Moniteur, 1789 
 Panizzi, sir Antonio ; British Mu- 
 seum, 1859 
 Panmure, lord ; Russell adm., 1851 
 Paoli, Pascal; Corsica, 1753 
 Papachin, adm. ; flag, 1688 
 Papin ; steam-engine, 1681 
 Papineau ; Canada, 1837 
 Japirius Cursor ; sun-dial, 293 B.C. 
 Pappa, D. ; trials, 1870 
 Paracelsus, d. 1541 ; alchemy, theoso- 
 
 phists 
 Pareja, adm. ; Chili, 1865 
 Parini, Guis., Ital. poet, 1729-99 
 Paris, count of, b. 1838 ; Orleans 
 Parke, Mungo, d. 1805 ; Africa 
 Parke v. Lewis and others ; trials, 1873 
 Parker, adm. ; Copenhagen, 1801 . 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Parker, abp. Matthew ; Canterbury, 
 
 1558 ; liturgy, Nag's Head 
 Parker (mutineer) ; trials, 1797 
 Parker, capt. ; Boulogne 
 Parker, J. H., Rome 
 Parker, sir Peter ; Bellair, 1814 
 Parker, Thomas, lord; chancellor, 
 
 lord, 1718 
 Parkes, consul ; China, i860 
 Parma, duke of ; Parma 
 Parma, prince of ; Antwerp, 1585 
 Parmenio ; Macedonia, 329 B.C. 
 Parnell, sir Henry ; Melbourne adm. 
 
 1835 
 Parr, Thomas ; 1483-1635 ? longevity 
 Parrhasius ; painting : fl. 397 B.C. 
 Parry, E. ; north-west passage, 1818 
 Parsons, bp. ; Peterborough, 1813 
 Parsons family ; cock-lane ghost, im- 
 postors, 1762 
 Pascal, B. ; 1623-62 ; air, calculating 
 
 machine, barometers 
 Paskiewitch ; Silistria, 1854 
 Pasteur, M. ; fermentation, 1861 
 Patch, Mr. ; trials, 1806 
 Pate, lieut. ; trials, 1850 
 Paterculus, Rom. hist, d. 31 
 Paterson, W. ; bank, 1694 ; Darien 
 Paton, Miss, at Haymarket, 1822 
 Patrick, St. , preaches, 433 ; Ardagh, 
 
 Armagh, Dublin, isles, shamrock 
 Patrocinio, nun ; Spain, 1861, 1866 
 Patten, col. John W., b. 1802 ; Dis- 
 raeli adm. 
 Patteson, J. C, Melanesia, murdered, 
 
 1871 
 Paul, St. , martyred, 65 ; popes 
 Paul, see Sa/rpi 
 Paul I. ; Russia, 1796 
 Paul II. ; popes, 1464 ; purple 
 Paul, sir J., &c. ; trials, 1855 ; 
 
 fraudulent trustees 
 Paulinus ; bells, 400 
 Paull, Mr. ; duels, 1807 
 Paululio, Anafesto ; doge, 697 
 Paulus iEmilius ; Cannae, 216 B.C. 
 Paulus, Marcus ; compass, 1260 
 Paulus ; Abrahamites 
 Pausanias ; Sparta, 480 B.C. ; Platsea, 
 
 Macedon, 336 B.C. 
 Pausias of Sicyon, 360-330 B.C. ; 
 
 painting 
 Paxton, sir Joseph, 1803-65 ; exhibi- 
 tion of 1851 ; crystal palace 
 Payne, Mr. G. ; duels, 1810 
 Peabody, G., 1795-1869; Peabody 
 Peace, the prince of; Spain, 1806 
 Pearce, &c. ; gold robbery, 1857 
 Peckham, abp. ; Canterbury, 1279 
 Pedro ; Portugal, Brazil, 1822 
 Peek v. Gumey ; trials, 1871 
 Peel, capt. sir F. ; India, 1858 
 Peel, col. ; West Australia, 1828 
 Peel, sir Robert ; cotton manuf. , 
 1750-30; — (son) statesman, 1788- 
 1850 ; Peel adm. (see note), 1834- 
 1841 ; acts of parliament, conserva- 
 tive, com bill, duels, 1815 ; in- 
 come-tax, tariff; — (grandson), b. 
 
 Peele, James ; book-keeping, 1509 
 Pelham, H. ; Wilmington adm., 1742 ; 
 
 Pelhamadm., 1744 
 Pelham, bp. ; Bristol, 1807 ; Norwich, 
 
 1857 
 Pelham, sir W. ; engineers, 1622 
 Pelissier, due de Malakhoff; 1794- 
 
 1864 ; Algiers, Dahra 
 Pelletier ; quinine, 1820 
 Pellew, sir Ed. ; naval battles, 1795 
 Pelouze, F. J., 6. 1807 ; formic acid 
 Peltier, M. ; libel, trials, 1803 
 Pemberton, sir Francis ; king's bench, 
 
 168 1 
 Pembroke, earl of ; Godolphin adm. 
 1702 ; lord lieutenant, Lincoln, 
 protectorates, Salisbury, admir- 
 alty 
 
 763 
 
 Pengelly, W. ; man 
 
 Penn, admiral ; Jamaica, 1655 
 
 Penn, Wm., d. 1718 ; Pennsylvania, 
 
 Quaker 
 Penny, captain ; Franklin, 1850 
 Pepe, gen. F. ; Naples, 1820 
 Pepin ; France, 752 ; Ferrara 
 Pepys, bp. ; Worcester, 1841 
 Perceval, Spencer; Perceval 
 Percy (Hotspur) ; Otterburn, 1388 
 Percy, lord ; Durham, 1346 ; Homol- 
 
 don 
 Perdiccas ; Macedon, 454 B.C. 
 Perdita, Mrs. Robinson ; theatres, 
 
 J779 (P- 655) 
 Pereire, M. ; credit mobilier, 1852 
 Pereyra; Uruguay, 1856 
 Pericles; Athens, 469 B.C. 
 Perillus ; brazen bull, 570 B.C. 
 Perkin Warbeck ; Warbeck, 1492 
 Perkin, W. H. ; aniline, 1857 
 Perkins ; engraving, copper-plate 
 
 printing, 1819 
 Perreaus ; forgery, trials, 1776 
 Perring, John ; mayor, 1803 
 Perry, Mr. ; trials, 1816 
 Perry, lieut. ; trials, 1854 
 Persana, adm. ; Lissa, Italy, 1866-7 
 Perseus: Pydna, 168 b.c. 
 Persigny, J. G., 1808-72 ; France, 
 
 i860 
 Persius, 34-62 ; satires 
 Perugino, Paolo, 1446-1524 
 Peter the Cruel ; Montiel, 1369 
 Peter the Great ; 1672-1725 ; Russia, 
 
 Deptford, Petersburg, Narva, Pul- 
 
 towa 
 Peter the Hermit ; crusades, 1094 
 Peters, C. H ; planets, 1862 
 Petion ; Port-au-Prince, 1806 
 Peto, S. M., 1809 : diorama, 1855 
 Petrarch, 1304-74 ; Petrarch, sonnets 
 Petre, sir Wm. ; administrations, 1547 
 Petronius ; Ethiopia, 22 b.c. 
 Petronius Arbiter, Lat. satirist, 
 
 d. 66 
 Pettigrew, T. ; epitaphs, 1857 
 Petty, lord H. ; Grenville adm., 1807 
 Petty, Win. ; Royal Society, 1660 
 Pezet, J. A. ; Peru, '1863-5 
 Phsedrus writes fables, 8 
 Phalaris, brazen bull, 599 b. c. 
 Pharamond ; France, 418? 
 Pharaohs ; Egypt, 1899 B - c - 
 Pharnaces ; Pontus, Cappadocia, 744 
 
 B.C. 
 
 Pheidon, fl. 869 b.c ; coinage, silver, 
 scales, weights 
 
 Phelps, Mr. ; theatres (Sadler's Wells), 
 1844 
 
 Phepoe, Mrs. ; trials, 1797 
 
 Phidias, fl. 43 b. c. ; statues 
 
 Philip ; France, Macedon, Spain, 
 Hesse, Orleans, 1640 
 
 Philip Neri, St. ; oratorios, 1550 
 
 Philip the Good ; Burgundy, Hol- 
 land, 1419-67 
 
 Philip the Great, killed 336 B.C. ; 
 Macedon, iEtolia, Chaeroneea, Lo- 
 cri, Thessaby 
 
 Philip II. ; Spain, 1556 
 
 Philippa, England, queen (Ed- 
 ward III.); Durham, 1346 
 
 Philipps, T. ; Newport, 1839 
 
 Phillimore, sir R. J. ; admiralty, 
 1810 
 
 Phillip, gov. ; Australia, 1788 
 
 Phillips, J. ; Brit. Assoc, 1831 ; — 
 fire-aimihilator, 1849 
 
 Phillips, John, geologist ; Vesuvius, 
 1869 
 
 Phillips v. Eyre ; trials, 1869-70 
 
 Philopoemen ; Achaia, 194 B.C. 
 
 Philpott ; bp. ; Worcester, 1861 
 
 Phipps, capt. ; north-west passage, 
 
 1773 
 Phocas ; east. emp. , 602 
 Phocion, killed 317 B.C. 
 
764 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Pboroneus ; Argos (1807 b.c), sacri- 
 fice, laws 
 
 Photius, Gallus ; rhetoric, 87 B.C. 
 
 Piastus ; Poland, 842 
 
 Piazzi, M. ; planet, 1801 
 
 Pichegru j Manheim : suicide, 1804 
 
 Picard, sir H. ; lord mayor, 1357 
 
 Pieton, gen. ; trials, 1806 ; Quatre- 
 Bras, Waterloo, 1815 
 
 Pierce ; United States, president, 
 1853 
 
 Piers, abp. ; York, 1589 
 
 Pigot, David Richard ; exchequer, 
 1846 
 
 Pigot, Id. ; India, Pigot diamond, 
 1802 
 
 Pigot, major-gen. ; Malta, 1800 
 
 Pigott, Mr. ; trials, 1871 
 
 Pike, Miss ; Cork, trials, 1800 
 
 Pilkington, bishop ; liturgy 
 
 Pilpay ; Anvar, fables 
 
 Pindar, abt., 522-439 b.c. — Peter (Dr. 
 Woleot), 1738-1819 ; trials, 1807 
 
 Pinel, M. ; lunatics, 1792 
 
 Pinzon; America S., 1500; Peru, 
 1863 
 
 Pisander ; naval battles, 394 B.C. 
 
 Pisistratus ; Athens, 527 B.C. 
 
 Pitman, I. ; phonography, 1837 
 
 Pitt ; diamond, 1720 
 
 Pitt, Win. ; see Chatham, earl of 
 
 Pitt, Win., 1759-1806; Pitt adm., 
 1783; India company, E., reform, 
 duels, 1798; income-tax 
 
 Pius ; popes, 142 et seq. 
 
 Pius IV. ; confession, 1504 
 
 Pius VII. ; concordat, 1801 
 
 Pius IX. ; popes ; Rome, 1846 ; papal 
 aggression, conception 
 
 Pizarro ; America, 1524 
 
 Plato, Gr. phil., 429-347 b.c. ; acade- 
 demics, anatomy, antipodes, names, 
 Sicily 
 
 Platts, John ; executions, 1847 
 
 Plautus, Lat, b. 184 b.c. ; drama 
 
 Plimsoll, S. ; seamen, 1873 
 
 Pliny the elder, 23-79 ! pearls, Vesu- 
 vius ; —the younger, d. 100 
 
 Plowden, Mr. ; Abyssinia, 1849 
 
 Plumer, sir Th. ; att.-gen., 1812 
 
 Plummer, Eugenia ; trials, i860 
 
 Plunket, lord ; chancellor, lord (Ire- 
 land), 1830 
 
 Plutarch, ft. 80 ; biography 
 
 Pocock, admiral ; Cuba, 1762 
 
 Poerio, C. ; Naples, 1850-59-60 
 
 Pogson, N. ; planets, 1856 
 
 Poitevin, M. ; balloons, 1852-58 
 
 Poitiers, Roger de ; Liverpool, 1089 
 
 Pole, Wellesley ; mint, trials, 1825 
 
 Pole, abp. ; Canterbury, 1556 
 
 Polignac, prince de ; France, 1830 
 
 Polk, Jas. ; United States, president, 
 1845 
 
 Pollio, C. ; slavery, 42 b. c. 
 
 Pollock, gen. G. ;' India, 1842; tower 
 
 Pollock, sir Frederick, 1783-1863 ; at- 
 torney-general, exchequer, 1834- 
 1844 
 
 Polo, Marco, writes about 1298 
 
 Polybius, 207-122 (?) b.c. ; signals, 
 telegraphs, Achaia, physic 
 
 Polycarp martyred, 166 
 
 Polydorus ; Laocoon 
 
 Pomare ; Otaheite, 1799 
 
 Pompey, killed 48 B.C.; Rome, Spain, 
 Pharsalia 
 
 Pond, J. ; Greenwich, 181 1 
 
 Pontius, C. ; Caudine forks, 321 b.c. 
 
 Pook, E. ; trials, 1871 
 
 Poole, A. ; auricular confession, 1858 
 
 Pope, Alex., 1688-1744; Alexandrine 
 verse, satire ; Homer, 1714 
 
 Pope, gen. J. ; Manassas, United 
 States, 1862 
 
 Popham, sir Home ; Buenos Ayrcs, 
 Cape, trials, 1807 
 
 Popptea (wife of Nero) ; masks 
 
 Porsenna ; labyrinth, 520 b.c. 
 Porson, prof., 1759-1808 ; writing 
 Porter, sir Charles ; Limerick 
 Porteus, bp. ; London, 1787 
 Portland, duke of, Portland adm., 
 
 1783 ; Ireland (lord lieutenant), 
 
 Junius 
 Portmau, sir Wm. ; king's bench, 
 
 1554 
 Portsmouth, earl of; trials, 1823 
 Porus, Hydaspes, 327 b.c. 
 Posidonius, ft. 86 b.c. ; atmosphere, 
 
 moon, tides, air 
 Potamon ; eclectics, about 1 
 Potter, abp. ; Canterbury, 1737 
 Pottinger, sir H. ; China, 1841 
 Pouchet, M. ; spoilt, generation, 1859 
 Pouillet, C. S. M., Fr. nat. phil., 
 
 1791-1868 
 Poussin, N. ; painters, 1594-1665 
 Pouyer-Quertier ; France, 1871 
 Powell, Langharne, and Poyer, colo- 
 nels ; Wales, 1647 
 Power, Mr. ; wrecks, 1841 
 Powys, bishop ; Man, 1854 
 Poyer, colonel ; Wales, 1647 
 Prado, M. ; Peru, 1824-67 
 Praslin murder, 1847 
 Praxiteles, ft. 363 b. c. ; mirrors 
 Premislaus ; Poland, 1295 
 Prescott, Wm., 1796-1859 
 Preston, lord ; conspiracy, 1691 
 Pretender, old, 1688-1765 ; young, 
 
 1720-88 ; Pretender, Falkirk, Pres- 
 
 tonpans, Culloden 
 Pretsch, P. ; photo-galvanography, 
 
 1854 
 Prevost, sir George; Plattsburg, 1814 
 Priam; Ilium, Troy, 1224 b.c. 
 Price, Mr. ; duels, 1816 ; alchemy ; 
 
 annuities 
 Price, adm. ; Petropaulovski, 1854 
 Prichard, Dr., 1785-1848 ; ethnology 
 Pride, col. ; Pride's purge, 1648 
 Priessnitz, V. ; hydropathy, 1828 
 Priestley, Joseph, 1733-1804 ; earth- 
 quakes, eudiometer, nitrous gas, 
 oxygen, fluorine 
 Prim, gen. Juan, 1814-70; Castel- 
 le.jos, Guad-el-ras, i860 ; Spain, 
 1S66-70 
 Prince, H. J. ; agapemone, 1845 
 Prior, M., poet, 1664-1721 
 Priscillian ; gnostics, 384 
 Pritchard, Dr. E. W. ; trials, exe- 
 cution, 1865 
 Probert ; trials, 1824 
 Probus ; Rome, emp. 276 ; massacre 
 Procles ; biarch, 1 102 b. c. 
 Proeopius ; Nacolea, 366 
 Procopius, Lat. hist. 500-565; Hus- 
 sites, 1431 
 Propertius, Lat. poet, 26 B.C. 
 Proudhon, P. de, socialist, 1809-65 
 Prynne, W., legal antiquary, 1600-69 
 Psammetichus, 650 B.C. ; Egypt, 
 
 labyrinth, languages, sieges 
 Pseusennes, 971 B.C. ; Egypt 
 Ptolemy (astronomer), d. 161 
 Ptolemy; Egypt, Bible, Septuagint, 
 Ipsus, pharos, arithmetic, acade- 
 mies 
 Ptolemy Epiphanes, 205 b.c; Egypt, 
 
 Rosetta 
 Puckering, sir John ; chancellor, lord 
 
 high, 1592 
 Pugin, A. W., 1811-52, decorat. art 
 Pullen, capt. ; Franklin, 1852 
 Pulteney, Mr. ; Halifax adm., 1714 
 Pulteney, sir James ; Ferrol, 1800 
 Punshon, R. ; gunpowder, 1872 
 Purcell, Henry, music, 1658-95 
 Purehas, Sam. ; 1577-1628 
 Pardon, col. ; Ashantees, 1826 
 Purefoy; duels, 1788; trials. 1794 
 Pusey, Dr. E., b. 1800; Puseyism 
 Pye, Henry J. ; poet-laureate, 1790 
 Pym, J. ; politician, d. 1643 
 
 Pyrrho ; sceptics, 334 b.c 
 
 Pyrrhus ; Maeedon,~287B.c. ; Epirus, 
 
 318-272 B.C. ; Tarentum, Asculum, 
 
 279 
 Pythagoras, ft. 555 B.C. ; acoustics, 
 
 astronomy, Copernicus, Egypt, the 
 
 globe, harmonic strings, shoes, 
 
 solar system, spheres 
 
 Q. 
 
 Queen v. Lords of Treasury; trials, 
 
 1872 
 Quekett, prof; histology, 1857 
 Quentin, col.; duels, 1815; trials, 
 
 1814 
 Quevedo, Span, writer, 1580-1645 
 Quintilia; Quintilians 
 Quintin ; libertines, 525 
 Quintus Fabius, 291 B.C.; painting 
 Quiros; New Hebrides, 1606 
 
 R. 
 
 Rabelais, F., satirist, 1483-1553 
 Rachel, mademoiselle, d. 1858 ; — ma- 
 dame; enamelling; trials, 1868 
 Racine, J.; Fr. dramat., 1639-99 
 Radcliffe, Dr. John ; Radcliffe library, 
 
 1737 
 
 Radetsky, marshal, 1766-1858; Aus- 
 tria, Custozza, Novara, Italy 
 
 Radnor, earl of; administrations, 
 1684 
 
 Rae, Dr.; Franklin, 1848 
 
 Raglan, lord ; Russo-Turkish war, 
 
 1857 
 Ragotski ; Transylvania 
 Raikes, Mr., 1781; Sunday-schools, 
 
 education, infanticide 
 Raleigh, sir Walter, 1552-1618; dress, 
 Pennsylvania, Trinidad, Virginia, 
 England 
 Rameses; Egypt, 1618 
 Ramirez II.; Semincas, 938 B.C. 
 Ramsay, David; combat, 1631 
 Ramsay, sir George; duels, 1790 
 Ramsden, Jesse, 1735-1800; theodo- 
 lite, 1787 
 Ranee; trappist, 1662 
 Randolph, T. ; post-office, 1581 
 Randolph, bp. ; Bangor, London, 1809 
 Raphael, 148 3-1520; cartoons 
 Raphael, Alex. ; Roman catholics, 1834 
 Rarey, J. S. ; horse, 1858 
 Rassam, H. ; Abyssinia, 1864 
 Rattazzi, U., 1808-73; Italy, 1862 
 Ranch, C. ; sculptors, 1777-1857 
 Ravaillac kills Henry IV., 1610 
 Rawdon, lord ; Camden, 1781 
 Rawlinson, col. sir H, b. 1810; As- 
 syria, Babylon, Behistiin, 1844 
 Ray, John, naturalist, 1628-1705 
 Rayhere; Bartholomew's, 1100 
 Raymond, lord ; attorney - general, 
 
 1725; king's bench 
 Reay, Miss, killed ; trials, 1779 
 Reay, lord; combat, 1631 
 Rebeccaites; trials, 1843 
 Redanies, D. ; execution, 1857 
 Redesdale, lord; att.-gen., 1800 
 Redpath, L. ; trials, 1857 
 Reece, R. ; bogs, 1849 
 Reed, Andrew, 1787-1862 ; orphan, 
 
 idiots, incurables 
 Reed, E. J.; navy, 1863-71 
 Reeves, Mr. John; levellers, 1792 
 Regnier, gen. ; Kalitsch, Maida, 
 
 Ximera, 1811 
 Regulus, 250 B.C.; Carthage 
 Reich, F.,and Richter, T. ; indium, 
 
 1863 
 Reiehehbaeh, C. ; b. 1788; paraffine, 
 
 1 83 1 ; odyl 
 Reichenstein ; tellurium, 1782 
 Reichstadt, duke de , France, p. 286 
 
Beid, gen.; India, 1857 
 Beinbauer; trials, 1829 
 Belly, Jas. ; universalists, 1760 
 Rembrandt, Paul ; painter, 1608-69 
 Bemigius de Fescamp ; Lincoln, 1086 
 Bemusat, C. de; France, 1871-3 
 Bemy, St.; Bheims 
 Benata, Maria; witchcraft, 1749 
 Benaudot, M. ; newspapers, 1631 
 Bendel, J.; Portland 
 Bennie, J. (1761-1821), and sir J.; 
 breakwater, 1812; Waterloo-bridge, 
 London-bridge 
 Repton, Humphry, landscape gar- 
 dener, 1752-1818 
 Beschid Pacha ; Turkey, 1853 
 Beuchlin, J. , reformer, d. 1522; Tabnud 
 Beuss; engraving 
 Beuter, J. de; Persia, 1872 
 Beynere, Bichard; sheriff, 1189 
 Beynolds, sir Joshua, 1723-92; royal 
 
 academy, 1768 
 Beynolds, abp. ; Canterbury, 1313 
 Beynolds, capt. ; trials, 1840 
 Beynolds, George; duels, 1788 
 Biall, gen. ; Chippawa, 1814 
 Bicasoli, B., 6. about 1803; Italy, 
 
 1861-7 
 Bice, Spring (lord Monteagle); ad- 
 ministrations, 1834 
 Bich, Bichard, lord ; chancellor, lord, 
 
 1547 
 Bichard I., England, 1189; Acre, 
 Ascalon, Cceur de Lion, Dieu et 
 mon droit, laws, Oleron, naviga- 
 tion laws 
 Bichard III., fc. 1485; Bosworth 
 Bichardson, sir John ; naturalist, 
 
 1783-1865; Franklin 
 Bichardson, H. ; life-boat, 1852 ;— 
 
 Sam.; novels, 1689-1761 
 Bichelieu, card., 1585-1642; France, 
 
 1624 
 Bichelieu, duke of ; Closterseven, 1757 
 Bichelieu, duke of; Rockingham ad- 
 ministration, 1782, &c; Ireland, 
 duels : Derby and Disraeli admin- 
 istrations 
 Bichter, J. Paul, Ger. novel, 1763-1825 
 Bidel, Stephen, 1189 ; chancellor, 
 
 lord, Ireland 
 Bider, William ; silk hose 
 Bidley, bp., burnt, 1555 
 Biego put to death; Spain, 1823 
 Biel, L. ; Hudson's bay 
 Bienzi, N., m. 1354; tribune, Borne 
 Biguet, M. ; tunnels 
 Binuccini, Octavio, 6. 1621 ; opera 
 Bipon, earl of, 1782-1859; Goderich 
 
 administration, 1827 
 Bisk Allah ; trials, 1868 
 Bitson, Joseph, critic, 1752-1803 
 Bivers, earl, m. 1483 ; Pomfret 
 Bizzio, David, m. 1566 ; Scotland, 
 
 France, Naples 
 Bobert, duke of Normandy ; Tinche- 
 
 bray, 1106; Scotland, 1306 
 Bobert II. ; pilgrimages, 1060 
 Boberts, D., B.A., 1796-1864 
 Boberts, J. B., Liberia 
 Bobertson, capt; trials, 1862 
 Bobertson, T. W., dramatist, 1829-71 
 Bobertson, Dr. Wm., hist., 1721-93 
 Bobespierre, F. M. ; reign of terror, 
 
 France, 1793-4 
 Bobin Hood; robbers, archery, 1189 
 Bobinson ; see Perdita 
 Bobinson, F.; Goderich, note 
 Bobinson, James ; ether, 1848 
 Bobinson, B., 1735-90; independents 
 Bobinson, sir Thomas ; Newcastle 
 
 administration, 1754 
 Bobinson of York, murdered ; trials, 
 
 1853 
 Bobiquet and Colin; alizarine, 1831 
 Bobson, W.; trials, 1856 
 Bochambeau; Yorktown, 1781 
 Bochefort, H. ; France, 1870-72 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Bochefoucauld,F.Dela,philos. 1630-80 
 Bochester, earl of; administrations, 
 
 1679 
 Bock, Dan., 1779-1871; mass 
 Bockingham, marq. of; Bockingham 
 
 administrations, 1765 
 Eoderick ; Spain, 709 ; Wales, 843 
 Bodney, G. ; Eustatia, 781 
 Bodolph of Hapsburg ; Austria, 1278 
 Bodolph of Nuremberg; wire, 1410; 
 
 of Suabia, fc. Fladenheim, 1080 
 Boebuek, J. ; duel, 1835 ; Sebastopol 
 Bcemer, light, 1676 
 Beaumur, d. 1757; light 
 Boger; Sicily, Naples, 1130 
 Bogers, John, burnt, 1555 
 Bogers, Sam., poet, 1763-1855 
 Boggewein, circumnavigator ; Easter 
 
 Island, 1722 
 Boget, P. M., M.D., philologist, 1799- 
 
 1869 
 Bohan, card. ; diamond necklace, 1786 
 Bollin, Chas., Fr. hist., 1661-1741 
 Bolt, sir J.; att.-gen., 1866; justice 
 
 of appeal, 1867 
 Bomain, M.; balloons, fc. 1785 
 Bomilly, sir Samuel; criminal law, 
 
 suicide, 1818 
 Bomilly, sir J., aft. Id. ; solicitor- 
 general, master of the rolls, 1851 
 Bomney, Geo.; painter, 1734-1802 
 Bomulus; Bome, 753 B.C.; calendar, 
 
 Alba, aruspices 
 Bomulus Augustulus; western em- 
 pire, 47S 
 Bonalds, F. ; electric telegraph, 1823 
 Bonge, J.; kinder-garten, 1851 
 Booke, sir George; Gibraltar, 1704; 
 
 snuff, Alderney, Cadiz, Cape la 
 
 Hogue, Cape St. Vincent, Vigo 
 Boper, colonel; duels, T788 
 Bosas; Buenos Ayres, 1852 
 Boscoe, W., hist, 1753-1831 
 Bose, sir Hugh; India, Calpee, 1858 
 Boseberry, countess of; trials, 1814 
 Bosencrans, gen.; United S., 1862 
 Boss, sir J.; Franklin, north-west 
 
 passage, 1848 
 Boss, colonel; duelling, 1817 
 Boss, gen.; Baltimore, Washington, 
 
 1814 
 Bosse, earl of, 1800-67; telescopes, 
 
 1828 ; Boyal Society, 1848 
 Bossel, France, 1871 
 Bosser, Mr. and Miss Darbon ; trials, 
 
 1841 
 Bossi, count, m. 1848; Bome 
 Bossini, G., mus. comp., 1792-1868 
 Bostopchin; Moscow, 1812 
 Bothsay; duke, Scotland, 1401 
 Bothschild, Anselm (the first), d. 
 
 1812; Bothschild, Evelina hosp. 
 Bothschild, baron; Jews, 1849 
 Boubiliac; sculptor, 1695-1762 
 Boupell, W., M.P.; trials, 1862 
 Bousseau, J. J., Fr. phil., 1712-1778 
 Boutledge v. Lowe; copyright, 1868 
 Bowan, A. H.; trials, 1794, 1805 
 Bowe, Nicholas, 1673-1718 ; poet- 
 laureate, d. 1715 
 Bowlandson, Thos., caricaturist, 1756- 
 
 1827 
 Bowley, admiral J.; Bourbon, 1810 
 Boxana; Macedon, 311 b.c. 
 Boxburgh, duke of, 1812; Boccaccio 
 Eozier, M.; balloons, 1783 
 Bubens, P. P.; painters, 1577-1640 
 Budbeck, 01. ; thoracic duct 
 Budolph; Austria, Germany 
 Buhmkorff, induction coil, 1851 
 Bunjeet Singh; Affghanistan, 1818; 
 
 diamonds 
 Bupert, prince, 1619-82; engraving, 
 
 Birmingham, Edgehill, Marston- 
 
 moor, Naseby, Newark 
 Buric ; Bussia, 862 
 Bush, Bloomfield, murderer ; trials, ! 
 
 765 
 
 Buskin, John, art critic, 6. 1819 
 Bussell, C. ; suicide, 1856 
 Bussell, colonel ; guards 1660 
 Bussell, adm. Edw. ; La Hogue, 
 
 1692 
 Bussell, J. Scott, engineer, 6. 1808 ; 
 
 fires, steam-nav. Vienna, wave 
 Bussell, lord John, aft. earl, 0. 1792 ; 
 
 Bussell administration, note, Aber- 
 deen, reform 
 Bussell, lord W., trials, 1840 
 Bussell, W. H. ; Times, 1854, ^S?, 
 
 1861 
 Buthven, Mr. ; duels, 1836 
 Butland, duke of; Ireland (lord 
 
 lieutenant), 1784 
 Buyter, see De Ruyier 
 Byder, bp. ; Gloucester, 1815 
 Byder, sir Dudley, king's bench, 
 
 1 754 
 Byves, Mrs. ; trials, 1866 
 
 S. 
 
 Sabatta, Levi, 1666 
 
 Sabine, gen. sir Edw. ; Boyal Society, 
 
 1861 ; magnetism 
 Sacheverel, Dr. ; high church, 1709 
 Saekville, lord George ; Minden, 1759 
 Sadleir, J.; suicide, 1856; — Dr., 
 
 1858 
 Sadler, Mr. ; balloons, 1812 
 Sadler, Mr. ; Sadler's Wells, 1863 
 Sadler, sir Balph; administrations, 
 
 1540 
 Safford, Mr. ; planets, 1862 
 Sagarelli ; Apostolici, 300 
 Sagasta, Spain, 1871-3 
 Saget, gen. Hayti, 1870 
 St. Arnaud, marshal ; Busso-Turkish 
 
 war, Alma, 1854 
 St. Charo ; concordance, 1247 
 St. Cyr, marshal ; Dresden, 1813 
 St. George, Mr. ; trials, 1798 
 St. John, John de ; treasurer, 1217 
 St. John Long ; quack, 1830 
 St. John, Henry, aft. lord Boling- 
 
 broke ; Oxford adm., 1711 
 St. John, O. ; benevolences, 1615 
 St. John, William ; chancellor, lord 
 
 high, 1547 
 St. Leonards, lord ; chancellor, lord 
 
 high, 1852 
 St. Mars, M. de ; iron mask 
 St. Buth, general ; Aughrim, 1691 
 St. Vincent, earl ; admiralty, 1801 ; 
 
 Cape St. Vincent 
 Saladin, sultan, 1136-1193; Ascalon, 
 
 Damascus, Egypt, Syria, Aleppo 
 Sale, lady ; Cabul, India, 1842 
 Sale, sir Bobert; Moodkee, 1845 
 Salisbury, bishop of; assay 
 Salgar, E. Columbia, 1871 
 Salisbury, countess of; garter 
 Salisbury, Bobert, earl of; adminis- 
 trations, 1603 
 Salisbury, earl of, 1604 ; coronets, 
 
 Orleans 
 Salisbury, marquis of ; Derby admin- 
 istrations, 1852, 1858 
 Salkeld ; Delhi, 1857 
 Sallo, Denis de ; critics, reviews, 
 
 1655 
 Sallust, Lat. hist., d. 34 b.c. ; Mauri- 
 tania, Catiline 
 Salnave, gen. ; Hayti, 1865-70 
 Salomons, D. ; Jews, 1835 ; mayor 
 Salt, Titus ; alpaca, 1852 
 Salvator Bosa ; painter, 1615-1673 
 Salviati, Dr. ; mosaic, 1861 
 Salvino degli Ai'mato ; spectacles 
 Salvius Julianus ; edicts, 132 
 Samuel rules Israel, 1140 B.C. 
 Sanballat ; Samaritan, 332 B.C. 
 Sancho, king ; Portugal, Spain, 970 
 Sanoroft, abp., Canterbury, 1678; 
 bishops, England 
 
766 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Sanders, will-forger ; trials, 1844 
 Sandwich, earl of: administrations, 
 
 1660 ; naval battles, Solebay, Aix- 
 
 la-Chapelle 
 Sandys; administrations, 1742, 1767 
 Sandys, Edwin, abp. ; York, 1577 
 Sapor; Persia, 240 
 Sappho writes 611 B.C. ; Sapphic 
 Sardanapalus ; Assyria, 820 B.C. 
 Sarmiento, col. D., Argentine confed., 
 
 1868 
 Sarpi, Paul, 1552-1623 ; thermome- 
 ter, blood 
 Saul, Jews, 1096 b. c. ; Ammonites 
 Saumarez, sir James : Algesiras, 1801 
 Saunders ; trials, 1853 
 Saunders, com. ; Franklin, 1849 
 Saunders, sir Charles ; Chatham 
 
 administration, 1766 
 Saussure, d. 1 799 ; hygrometer 
 Saurin v. Star ; trials, 1869 
 Savage, John ; Babyngton's con- 
 spiracy, 1586 
 Savage, abp. ; York, 1501 
 Savage, Rich., poet, i698?-i743 
 Savage, W. ; printing in colours, 
 
 1819-22 
 Savary, trials, 1825 
 Savary, capt. ; steam-engine, 1698 
 Savonarola, Jerome ; burnt, 1498 
 Saward, J. ; trials, 1857 
 Sawtre, sir William ; burning alive, 
 
 1401 ; Lollards 
 Saxe, count; Fontenoy, 1745 ; Laf- 
 
 feldt, 1747 
 Saye and Sele, lord ; administrations, 
 
 1660 
 Saye, lord, beheaded, 1450; Cade 
 Sayers, T. ; boxing, i860 
 Scanderbeg ; Albania, 1443 
 Scanlan, Mr. ; trials, 1820 
 Schamyl ; Circassia, 1859 
 Scheele, 1742-86 ; nitrogen, oxygen, 
 
 prussic acid, tartaric acid, pho- 
 tography, glycerine, chlorine 
 Seheffer, Ary ; painter, 1795-1858 
 Scheibler M. ; tonometer, 1834 
 Scheiner, Chr. ; heliometer, 1625 
 Schenk, gen. ; United States, 1870 
 Scheutz ; calculating machine, 1857 
 Schiaparelli ; planets, 1861 ; comets, 
 
 1866 
 Schilders, general ; Silistria, 1834 
 Schiller, F., Ger. poet, 1759-1805 
 Schimmelpenninck ; Holland, 1805 
 Schlegel, W., German writer, 1767- 
 
 1845 ; — F., 1772-1829 
 Schliemann, Dr. Troy, 1872 
 Schmidt ; organs, 1682 
 Schceffer, Peter ; printing, 1452 
 Schonbein, M. ; i797-i868;gun cotton, 
 
 1840 ; ozone, 1846 
 Schomberg, capt. ; naval battles, 
 
 1811 
 Schomberg, duke of ; Boyne, Ireland, 
 
 Londonderry, Carrickfergus, 1689 
 Schomburgk, sir R. ; Victoria regia, 
 
 1838 
 Schroeder; pianoforte, 1717 
 Schrotter ; phosphorus, 1845 
 Schwabe, sun 
 
 Schwann ; cell theory, 1839 
 Schwartz, C, missionary, d. 1798 
 Schwartz, M. : gunpowder, 1320 
 Schwartzenberg, prince of ; Dresden, 
 
 1813 
 Schwerin, marshal; Prague, 1757 
 Scipio Africanus ; honour, Numantia, 
 
 Rome, Zama, 202 B.C.* 
 Scott, G. Gilbert ; architect, 6. 1811 ; 
 
 Alban's; midland 
 Scott, gen. Wintield, 1786-1866 ; 
 
 Mexico, 1847 ; United States, 
 
 1861-2 
 Scott; duelling, 1821, 1836 
 Scott, Walter, 1771-1832 ; Waverley 
 Scott, Dred ; United States, 1857 
 Scribe, E., dramatist, d. 1861 (ict. So 
 
 Scudamore, lord ; apples 
 Seabury, Samuel ; bishoprics, 1784 
 Seaforth, earl of ; thistle, 1687 
 Seal, J. ; trials 1858 
 Searle ; planets, 1858 
 Sebacon ; Egypt, 737 B.C. 
 Sebastiani, marshal; Talavera, 1809 
 Sebert ; Westminster Abbey 
 Seeker, abp. ; Canterbury, 1758 
 Sedgwick, Adam, </. 1873, geology 
 Sefton v. Hopwood ; trials, 1855 
 Sejanus, d. 31 
 
 Selborne, chancellor, Id. 1872 
 Selden, J., 1584-1654; seas, poet- 
 laureate 
 Seleucus Nicator ; Seleucides, Syria, 
 
 omens, Ipsus, 311 B.C. 
 Selim ; Turkey, Syria, 1512 
 Selkirk, Alexander; Juan Fernandez, 
 
 1705 
 
 Sellis, the valet ; suicide, 1810 
 
 Selwyn, sir C. J., justice, Id., 1868 
 
 Semiramis, queen ; Assyria, eunuchs, 
 2007 B.C. 
 
 Semmes, capt., Alabama, 1862 
 
 Semple ; trials, 1795, 1862 
 
 Sen, Baboo, deism, 1869 
 
 Seneca, put to death, 65 ; Cordova 
 
 Seunacherib ; Assyria, 710 B.C. 
 
 Sennefekler; lithography, 1796 
 
 Sergius ; popes, nativity, 690 ; puri- 
 fication, Koran 
 
 Serrano, marquis de, and duke de la 
 Torre, Spain, 1868-73 ; Alcolea, 1868 
 
 Sertiirner, morphia, 1803 
 
 Servetus, Michael, burnt, 1553; 
 Unitarians, Arians, blood 
 
 Servius Tullius ; coins, census, 566 
 
 B.C. 
 
 Sesostris ; Egypt, 1618 B.C. 
 
 Setalla ; burning glasses 
 
 Severus ; Rome ; emp. 193 ; Britain, 
 
 Roman walls, Memphis. 202 
 Sextus Pompeius ; Mylas, 36 B.C. 
 Seymour, sir Edw. ; speaker, 1678 
 Seymour, sir M. ; China, 1856 
 Seymour, v. Butterworth ; trials, 
 
 1862 
 Seymour, Edward, duke of Somerset ; 
 administrations, 1547 ; protectors, 
 admiralty 
 Seymour, lord ; duels, 1835 
 Seymour, lady ; tournament, 1839 
 Shadwell, Thomas ; poet-laureate, d. 
 
 1692 
 Shaftesbury, earl of; administra- 
 tions, 1672 (present earl, b. 1801) 
 Shakspeare, W, 1564-1616; Shak- 
 
 speare, drama, mulberry-tree 
 Shalmaneser; Assyria, 730 b.c. 
 Sharp, A.; circle (squared), 171 7 
 Sharp, archbp. ; Scotland, 1679 
 Sharp, Granville ; slavery, 1772 
 Shaw, sir James ; mayor, 1805 
 Shaw, sir John ; Greenock 
 Sheares, the Messrs.; trials, 1798 
 Shedden v. Patrick ; trials, i860 
 Sheepshanks, R. ; astronomy, stand- 
 ard, 1855 ; Sheepshanks' donations, 
 1857-8 
 Sheil, R. L. ; mint, 1846 
 Shelburne, earl of ; Shelburne ad- 
 ministration, 1782; duel, 1780 
 Sheldon, abp. ; Canterbury, 1663 
 Sheldon, William ; tapestry 
 Shelley, Percy B., poet, 1792-1822 
 Sheppard, Jack; execution, 1724 
 Shepperd v. Bennett ; trials, 1872 
 Shere Ali, kills Id. Mayo, 1872 ; An- 
 daman, India 
 Sheridan, Richard Brinsley, 1751- 
 1816 ; Grenville administration, 
 comedy, theatres 
 Sheridan, Dr. ; trials, 181 1 
 Sherman, gen. ; United States, 1861 
 Sherward, Wm. ; Norwich, 1869 
 Shillibeer ; omnibuses, 1829 
 Shipley ; arts, soc. of, 1754 
 
 Shirley, bishop ; Man, 1846 
 
 Short, bishop ; Man, St. Asaph, 1841 
 
 Shovel, sir Cloudesley ; Sicily, 1707 
 
 Shrapnel, bombs 
 
 Shrewsbury peerage cases ; trials, 
 1858, 1859 
 
 Shrewsbury, duke of; administra- 
 tions, 1714 
 
 Shrewsbury, earl of; Patay, 1429 
 Castillon, 1453 
 
 Sibour, abp. ; France, 1857 
 
 Sicard, abbe ; deaf and dumb, 1742 
 
 Biddons, Sarah, actress ; retired, 1819 
 
 Sidniouth, Henry Addington, vis- 
 count, rf. 1844; Addington udm., 
 1800 ; green bag, speaker 
 
 Sidney, sir P., 1554-86; Algernon, 
 1617-83 ; Rye house plot 
 
 Siemens, C. Wm., heat, pvrometer, 
 1871 
 
 Sieyes, abbe ; directory, France, 1799 
 
 Sigismond ; Germany, Bohemia, 
 Hungary, Nieopolis, Poland, Prus- 
 sia 
 
 Silius, Italicus, poet, about 25-99 
 
 Sillim, Mr. ; trials, 1863 
 
 Simeon the Stylite ; abstinence 
 
 Simmons ; trials, 1808 
 
 Simnel, Lambert ; conspiracies, re- 
 bellion, i486 ; Stoke 
 
 Simon Magus ; Simonians, 41 
 
 Simonides ; letters, mnemonics, 477 
 
 B.C. 
 
 Simplicius, St. ; collar of SS., 1407 
 Simpson, Dr. ; chloroform, 1848 
 Simpson, traveller; suicide, 1840 
 Sindercomb; conspiracy, 1756 
 
 Singh, Runjoor ; Aliwal, 1846 
 Sismondi, C., hist, 1773, 1842 
 Sisyphus ; Corinth, 1326 B.C. 
 Sixtus ; popes, 119 
 Sixtus V. , pope ; interdict, 1588 
 Skrznecki, gen. ; Praga, Wawz, 1831 
 Skipwith, Mr. ; trials, 1872 
 Slidell, Mr. ; United States, 1861 
 Sligo, marquis of; trials, 1812 
 Sloane, sir Hans, 1660-1752 ; apothe- 
 cary, Jesuit's bark, British Mu- 
 seum, Chelsea 
 Sloanes ; trials, 1851 
 Smart, A. ; suicide, 1856 
 Smart ; chimneys, 1805 
 Snieaton, Mr. ; Eddystone, canal, 1759 
 Smeaton, sir John ; Wigan, 1643 
 Smethurst, T. ; trials, 1859 
 Smirke, R. ; post-office, 1825 
 Smirke, S. ; Bethlehem, British Mu- 
 seum 
 Smith, Adam, 1723-90; political 
 
 economy, 1776 
 Smith, Mr. Beaumont ; exchequer, 
 
 trials, 1841 
 Smith, capt. ; duel, trials, 1830 
 Smith, F. P. ; screw propeller, 1836 
 Smith, sir J. E. ; botanist, 1759-1828 
 Smith, J. ; bribery, trials, 1854 
 Smith, Joseph ; savings' bank, Mor- 
 
 monites, 1823 
 Smith, Madeleine ; trials, 1857 
 Smith, Miss v. earl Ferrers ; trials, 
 
 1846 
 Smith, Dr. R. Angus ; air, 1858 
 Smith, Dr. Southwood, 1790-1861 ; 
 
 sanitary legislation, 1832 
 Smith, sir Sidney ; Acre, 1799. 
 Smith, rev. Sydney, 1769-1845 
 Smith, rev. S. ; trials, 1858 
 Smith, Sam. Sidney ; trials, 1843 
 Smith, sir C. Eardley ; evangelica 
 
 alliance, 1845 
 Smith, sir Harry ; India, Aliwal, 
 
 Eaflraria, 1850 
 Smith, Mr. Thomas ; customs 
 Smith, Thomas ; lord mayor, 1809 
 Smith, Win. ; geology, d. 1840 
 Smith v. earl Brownlow ; trials, 1869 
 Smith, and Markham, captains; duels, 
 trials, 1830 
 
Smithson, J. ; Smithsonian Institu- 
 tion, 1846 
 Smollett, Tobias, novelist, 1721-77 
 Smyth (will case) ; trials, 1855 
 Smyth, W. H., astron., 1788-65 
 Snellius ; optics, 1624 
 Snider, Jacob, d. 1866 ; fire-arms 
 Snow, Dr. ; amylene, 1856 
 Soames ; cocoa-nut tree oil, 1829 
 Soane, sir J., architect, 1753-1837 
 Sobieski, John ; Poland, Cossacks, 
 
 Hungary, Vienna 
 Sobrero, nitro-glycerine, 1847 
 Socinus, Lselius (d. 1562), and Faus- 
 tus (d. 1694) ; anti-trinitarians, 
 arians, unitarians 
 Socrates, 468-399 b. c. ; Athens, philo- 
 sophy 
 Solomon; Jerusalem, 1004 b.c. 
 Solon ; Athens, 594 b. c. ; laws, tax 
 Sob/man ; Turkey, Belgrade, Vienna, 
 
 1529 
 Solyman II. ; Hungary, Buda, Mo- 
 
 hatz, 1526 
 Somers, lord ; administrations, 1690 ; 
 
 corn 
 Somers, sir George ; Bermudas, 1609 
 Somerset the black declared free, 
 
 1772 ; slavery in England 
 Somerset, see Seymour; admiralty, 
 
 1859 
 Sophia, princess ; Hanover, 1659 
 Sophia Dorothea, d. 1796; England 
 
 (queens, Geo. I.) 
 Sophocles, 495-405 b.c. ; tragedy, 
 
 drama 
 Sorel, Agnes ; jewellery, 1434 
 Soro, Zuan ; cipher, 1516 
 Sostratus ; pharos, 280 B.C. 
 Soto, Ferdinand de ; Louisiana, 1541 
 Soult, marshal, 1769-1851 ; Albuera, 
 
 Oporto, Orthes, Pyrenees, Tarbes, 
 
 Toulouse, Villa Franca, Douro 
 Southey, Rob., 17 74-1 843 ; poet-lau- 
 reate 
 Soyer, A. (000k), d. 1858 
 Spalding, Mr. ; diving-bell, 1783 
 Sparks, George ; trials, 1853 
 Speke, capt., 1827-64 ; Africa, 1863-4; 
 
 — B. ; London, 1868 
 Speilman, sir John ; paper-making, 
 
 Dartford, 1590 
 Spencer, earl; Grenville adm., 1806 ; 
 
 Boxburghe club ; Gladstone adm., 
 
 1868 ; Ireland, 1868-73 
 Spencer, Mr. ; electrotype, 1837 
 Spener, Phil. J. ; theolog. 1635- 1705 ; 
 
 pietists 
 Spenser, E., 1553-98 ; allegory, 
 
 faery queen, poet-laureate, verse 
 Spert, sir Thos. ; Trinity-house, 1512 
 Spina, Alexander de ; spectacles, 
 
 1285 
 Spinass, J. ; trials, 1870 
 Spinoza, B. de, 1632-77 ; atheism 
 Spohr, L., mus. comp., 1783-1859 
 Spollen, Jas. ; trials, 1857 
 Sprengel, Dr. ; air-pump, note 
 Spurgeon, C. H., 6. 1834; Surrey 
 
 gardens, crystal palace, tabernacle 
 Spurzheim, J. G. ; craniology, 1800 
 Stackpole, capt. ; duel, 1814 
 Stackpoles, trials ; 1853 
 Stael, mad. de, novelist, d. 1817 
 Stafford, abp. ; Canterbury, 1443 
 Stafford, lord ; popish plot, 1680 
 Stafford, marquis of, d. 1803 ; Blooms- 
 bury 
 Stahl, G. E. ; chemist, 1660-1723 ; 
 
 phlogiston 
 Staines, sir William; lord mayor, 
 
 1800 
 Stair, earl of; Glencoe, 1692; Det- 
 
 tingen, 1743 
 Staite ; electric light, 1848 
 Stalker, gen. ; Bushire, suicide, 1857 
 Stanberry, John ; Eton, 1448 
 Stanhope, earl; Halifax adm., 1714 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Stanhope, Charles, earl, 1753-1816 ; 
 printing-press; present earl (for- 
 merly lord Mahon, historian), 0. 1805 
 Stanhope, col. ; trials, 1816 
 Stanhope, hem. col. ; suicide, 1825 
 Stanhope, lieut.-gen. ; Minorca, 1708 
 Stanislaus ; Poland, 1704 
 Stanley, bishop, Norwich, 1837 
 Stanley, H. ; Africa, 1872 
 Stanley, sir John ; Man, 1406 
 Stanley, sir W. ; chamberlain ; Bos- 
 worth, 1485 
 Stanley, lord ; see Derby 
 Stanley, lord, of Alderley, b. 1802 ; 
 
 Aberdeen, Palmerston adm. 
 Stanley, Edw., lord, Z>. 1826 ; Derby, 
 
 Disraeli adm. 
 Stanley, H. M. ; Africa, 1872 
 Stapleton, J. ; trials, 1858 
 Stapleton, Walter, bp. ; Exeter, 1319 
 Statius, Lat. poet, fl. 79 
 Staunton, Mr. ; China, 1840 
 Steele, sir R., 1671-1729; Tatler, 
 
 Spectator, clubs, Kit-Cat club 
 Steele, Mr. ; murdered, trials, 1807 
 Steenchel, Magnus ; Sweden, 1314 
 Stenhouse, J. ; dyes, charcoal, 1853 
 Stephen ; popes, England, Hungary, 
 
 997 ; Poland 
 Stephens, Miss ; theatres, Covent- 
 
 garden, 1813 
 Stephens, rev. Mr. ; trials, 1839 
 Stephens, Robert ; Bible, 1551 
 Stephenson, George, 1781-1848 ; rail- 
 ways, Chatmoss 
 Stephenson, Robert, 1803-59 ; tubular 
 
 bridges 
 Sterne, Laurence, humorist, 1713-68 
 Sternhold, T. ; Psalms, 1555 
 Stevens, A. ; Wellington (monument), 
 
 1858 
 Stesichorus ; choruses, 556 B.C. 
 Stewart, col. ; Trincomalee, 1795 
 Stewart, gen. ; Madras, 1783 
 Stewart, capt. ; Franklin, 1850 
 Stewart, Dugald, philosopher, 1753- 
 
 1828 
 Stewart, Duncan ; Ctesarean 
 Stewarts ; trials, 1829 
 Stifelius ; algebra, 1544 
 Stigand, abp.; Canterbury, 1052 
 Stillmgfleet, B. ; blue-stocking 
 Stock-Dr. ; Sunday-schools, 1781 
 Stockdale; trials, 1826 
 Stoddart, Dr.; Times, 1812 
 Stokes, E. S.; New York, 1872 
 Stopford, adm. Acre, Sidon, 1840 
 Storaee, madame, d. 1814 
 Storck; anabaptists, 1524; levellers 
 Storks, H; Ionian Isles, 1859 ; army, 
 
 1868 
 Stormont, vise; Portland admin., 
 
 1783 
 Strabo, geog., writes, 14 
 Strachan, admiral sir Richard; Havre, 
 
 Walcheren, 1809 
 Straduarius ; viol, 1700-22 
 Strafford, lord, administrations, 1640; 
 
 beheaded, 1641 
 Strafford, earl; admiralty, 171 2 
 Strangford, lord; bribery, 1784 
 Stratford, abp.; Canterbury, 1333 
 Stratford de Redcliffe, lord, b. 1788 
 Strevens, Mr. ; trials, 1857 
 Strickland, Hugh; nat. hist., 1811-53 
 Stromeyer; club-foot, 1831 
 Strongbow; Ireland, n 76 
 Struensee, count; Zell, 1772 
 Strutt, Edw.; Aberdeen adm., 1852 
 Struve, F., astron., 1793-1864 
 Strzelecki, count; Australia, 1838 
 Stuart, Alexander; marquis 
 Stuart, conf. gen. ; United States, 
 
 1862 
 Stuart, gen.; Cuddalore, 1783 
 Stuart, sir John ; Maida, 1806 
 Stukeley, Dr.; earthquakes 
 Sturmius; magnet 
 
 767 
 
 Sturt, capt. ; South Australia, 1830 
 Succoth (St. Patrick) preaches, 433 
 Suchet, marshal; Valencia, 1812 
 Sudbury, abp.; Canterbury, 1375 
 Sue, Eug., Fr. novelist, 1804-57 
 Suetonius, C. T., Lat. hist., 118 
 Suetonius Paulinus ; Menai, 61 
 Suffolk, Thomas, earl of; adminis- 
 trations, 1540 
 Suffrem, Thos.; Trincomalee, 1782 
 Sugden, sir Edward (aft. lord St. 
 
 Leonards); chancellor, lord, 1852 
 Suisse, Nicholas; trials, 1842 
 Sullivan, Mr.; Lima, 1857 
 Sulpicius, Servius; civil law, code, 
 
 53B.C. 
 Sumner, archbp. ; Chester, 1828 ; Can- 
 terbury, 1848 
 Sumner, bishop ; Llandaff, 1826 ; 
 
 Winchester, 1827 
 Sumner, C. ; United States, 1856 
 Sunderland, earl of; administrations, 
 
 1684 
 Surajah Dowlah; Black-hole, India, 
 
 Plassey, 1757 
 Surrey, earl of; Flodden, 1513; Ro- 
 man catholics, 1829 
 Susarion and Dolon; comedy, 562 
 
 B.C. 
 
 Sussex, Aug. Fred., duke of, 1773- 
 1843; rnarriage, 1793; Royal So- 
 ciety 
 Sutter, capt.; California, 1847 
 Sutton; air-pipe, 1756 
 Sutton, abp.; Canterbury, 1805 
 Sutton, C. M. ; speaker, 1817 
 Sutton, Thos.; charter-house, 1611 
 Suwarrow, marshal, 1730-1800; Ales- 
 sandria, Ismael, Novi, Parma, Po- 
 land, Praga, Warsaw, Trebia, 1799 
 Swan, Mr., M.P.; bribery, 1819 
 Sweyn ; Denmark, 985 ; England 
 Swift, Dean J., 1667-1745; Drapier, 
 
 Scriblerus 
 Swynfen; trials, 1858 
 Sydenham, Floyer, d. 1788 ; literary 
 
 fund 
 Sydenham, lord ; Melbourne adminis- 
 tration, 1834 
 Sydenham, Thos., physic, 1624-89 
 Sydney, Henry, viscount; Ireland, 
 
 lord-lieutenant, 1690 
 Sydney, see Sidney 
 Sykes and Rumbold, Messrs. ; bri- 
 bery, 1776 
 Sylla; Rome, Athens, 86 B.C. 
 Symington; steam-engine, 1789 
 Symonds, rev. Symon; Bray, 1533-58 
 Symons, G. J.; rainfall 
 
 Tacitus, M. C. , Latin hist., about 
 62-117; Rome, emp. , 275 
 
 Tait, bp. ; London, 1856 ; Canter- 
 bury, 1868 
 
 Talbot, Miss Augusta; trials, 1851 
 
 Talbot, H. F.; photography, calo- 
 type, &c, 1840 
 
 Tal'fourd, sir T. N., poet, judge; 1795- 
 1854 
 
 Tallard, marshal; Blenheim, 1704 
 
 Talleyrand, 1 754-1838; Benevento 
 
 Tallis, Thos., musician, d. 1585 
 
 Talma, Fr. actor, d. 1826 
 
 Tamerlane, d. 1405 ; India, Damascus, 
 Tamerlane 
 
 Tandemus ; Adamite 
 
 Tankerville, Ford, earl of; adminis- 
 trations, 1699 
 
 Tantia Topee ; India, 1857 
 
 Tarquin ; Rome, kings ; Sibylline 
 books 
 
 Tarquinius Priscus ; Rome, kings ; 
 ' cloaca, 588 B.C. 
 
 Tasman, Abel ; circumnavigator, 
 
70S 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Australia, 1642 ; New Zealand, 
 
 Van Diemen's Land 
 Tasso, Torquato ; It. poet, 1544-95; 
 
 Jerusalem Delivered 
 Tate, Nahum, d. 1715 ; poet-laureate 
 Tatian, about 170 ; aquarians, encra- 
 
 tites 
 Tattersall, E. ; races, 1766 
 Tavemier ; pearls, 1633 
 Tawell, John ; trials, 1845 
 Taylor, bp. Jeremy, 1613-67 
 Taylor, gen. Zaehary ; rjresidents, 
 
 United States, 1849 
 Taylor, Messrs. ; oil-gas 
 Taylor, Dr. Brook ; acoustics, 1714 
 Taylor, rev. Robert ; atheism, trials, 
 
 1827, 1831 
 Taylor, rev. W. ; blind, bells, 1855-6 
 Teba, countess ; (empress) France, 
 
 1853 
 Tekeli ; Hungary, revolts, 1676 
 Teleki; Austria, i860; Hungary, 
 
 1861 
 Telesphorus ; Lent, 130 
 Telford, T. ; chain-bridges, 1819 
 Tell, William ; Switzerland, 1307 
 Tempel ; planets, 1861 
 Temple, earl ; Newcastle adm., 1757 
 Temple, sir R. ; India, 1869-72 
 Teniers, D. (two), 1582-1694 
 Tenison, abp. ; Canterbury, 1694 
 Tennant, Mr. ; bleaching, 1798 
 Tennent, sir J. E. ; Ceylon 
 Tenniel, John, b. 1820 ; Punch 
 Tennyson, Alfred, 6. 1809 ; poet-lau- 
 reate 
 Teuterden, lord ; king's bench, 1818 
 Terence, 195-159 B.C. ; drama 
 Terentius Varro ; Cannes, 216 b.c. 
 Tertullian writes 197 ; cross, Monta- 
 
 nists 
 Teucer; Troy, 1502 b.c. 
 Texier, F. ; drowning 
 Teynham, lord ; trials, 1833 
 Thackeray, W. M., novelist, 1811-63 
 Thales, Miletus; globe, 640 B.C. 
 
 Ionic sect. , moon, water, world 
 Thalestris ; queens 
 Thanet, earl of; riots, 1799 
 Thecla ; Alexandrine codex 
 Themistocles ; Marathon, Salamis, 
 
 480 B.C. 
 
 Theobald; civil law, 11 38 
 Theocritus; verse, 265 B.C. 
 Theodore; Corsica, 1736; Samos, 
 
 keys, lathe 
 Theodore, emperor, 1818-68; Abys- 
 
 sina, 1855-68 ; Magdala 
 Theodoric ; Spain, Goths, 553 
 Theodosius ; Eastern emp. , 379 ; 
 
 Aquileia, Ostrogoths, massacre, 
 
 paganism 
 Theodosius, the younger ; academies, 
 
 Bologna 
 Theophilus ; Antioch, chronology 
 Theophrastus, nat. ph., 370-287 B.C. 
 Theopompus ; Ephori, funeral ora- 
 tions, Sparta, 353 b.c. 
 Theseus; Athens, 1235 B.C. 
 Thesiger, sir F. ; solicitor-general, 
 
 1844; attorney-general, chanc, 
 
 lord high, 1858 ; trials, 1850 
 Thespis ; drama, 536 B.C. 
 Thevenot, M. ; cotfee, 1662 
 Thierry ; Holland, 936 
 Thiers, A., 5. 1798; France, 1836 
 
 1871-3 ; Bordeaux 
 Thirleby ; Westminster, 1541 
 Thirl wall, bp. ; St. David's, 1840 
 Thomas, col. ; duel, 1783 
 Thome de Gammond, tunnels, 1867 
 Thompson, Miss ; trials, 1821 
 Thompson, major ; suicide, 1832 
 Thompson, William ; lord mayor, 
 
 1828 
 Thomson, R., road steamers, 1868 
 Thomson, Mr. Poulett; Melbourne 
 
 administration, 1835 ; calico 
 
 Thomson, Jas. (the "Seasons"), 
 1700-48 ; Richmond, Rule Britannia 
 Thornton, Abraham ; appeal, 1817 
 Thorpe, William de ; bribery, 1351 
 Thorpe, John T. ; lord mayor, 1820 
 Thorwaldsen, Alb., sculp., 1777-1844 
 Thoth ; mythology, 152 B.C. 
 Thouvenel, E. A. Fr. statesman, 
 
 1818-66 
 Thrasybulus ; Athens, 403 B.C. 
 Thucydides, Gr. hist., 470-404 B.C. 
 Thurlow, lord ; chancellor, lord high, 
 
 1778 ; great seal 
 Thurtell, J. ; executions, 1824 
 Thwaites, sir John, 1815-70; metro. 
 
 board of works 
 Thyra, Dannawerke 
 Tiberius, 903 B.C. ; Capri, Rome, 
 
 emp. 14 
 Tiberius Gracchus; agrarian law, 
 
 132 B.C. 
 Tibullus, Lat. poet, 50-18 b.c 
 Tichbome, trials, 1871-3 
 Ticknor, G., amer. hist. 1791-1861 
 Tieck, L., Ger. poet, 1773-1853 
 Tierney, George ; duel, 1798 ; Gode- 
 
 rich 
 Tighe, Mr. ; trials, 1800 
 Tigranes ; Armenia, 93 B.C. ; Pontus 
 Tildesley, sir Thomas ; Wigan, 1651 
 Tilghman, B. C. sand-blast, 1871 
 Tilloeh, Mr. ; stereotype 
 Tillotson, abp. ; Canterbury, 1691 ; 
 
 universalists 
 Tilly ; Magdeburg, 1631 ; Palatinate, 
 
 Lech 
 Times newspaper ; Times, trials, 1790 
 Timoleon ; Syracuse, 343 B.C. 
 Timour ; see Tamerlane 
 Tindal and Coverdale ; Bible, 1526 
 Tippoo Sahib ; Arikera, Madras, 
 
 Seriugapatam, Mysore, 1792 
 Titian, painter, 1477-1576 
 Titus, Rome, emp. 79 ; Jerusalem, 
 
 Tyre, arches 
 Tofts, Mary ; impostor, 1726 
 Toler, Mr. ; in., trials, 1853 
 Tolly, Barclay de ; Smolensko, 1812 
 Toliiiidas ; Coronea, 447 b.c 
 Tomline, bp. ; Lincoln, Winchester, 
 
 1820 
 Tom Thumb ; dwarfs, 1846 
 Tone, Theobald W. ; trials, 1798 
 Tonson, Jacob, bookseller, d. 1736 
 Tonti, Laurence ; Tontines 
 Tooke, J. Home, 1736-1812 
 Tooke, W. ; prices 
 Topete, adm., Spain, 1868-73 
 Toro, M. M., Columbia, 1872 
 Torpey, trials, 1870 
 Torrence, Mrs. ; trials, 1821 
 Torrens, lieut. ; duel, 1806 
 Torres ; Australasia, 1606 
 Torricelli ; d. 1647 > an- > micro- 
 scopes 
 Torrington, Herbert, lord ; Walpole 
 
 admin., 1727 
 Toselli, diving, 1871 
 Totila ; Italy, 541 
 
 Toussaint, 1794 ; Hayti, St. Do- 
 mingo 
 Tower, Mr. ; volunteer, 1803, i860 
 Townley, G. V. ; trials, 1863 
 Townshend, lord ; duel, 1773 ; Ire- 
 land 
 Townshends ; Rockingham, Chat- 
 ham, and Grafton admins., 1765-7 
 Train, G. F. ; street railways, i860; 
 
 Ireland, 1868 
 Trajan; Rome, emp., 98; Trajan's 
 
 pillar, Dacia 
 Traugott, R. ; Poland, 1864 
 Travers, Samuel ; poor knights of 
 
 Windsor 
 Treby, George ; Walpole, 1721 
 Tresylian ; king's bench 
 Trevelyan, C. ; Madras, 1859-60 
 Trevethick ; steam engine, 1802 
 
 Trevor, sir John ; speaker, 1694 
 Troas ; Troy, 1374 B.C. 
 Trochu, gen., France, 1870-1 
 Tropman, France, 1869 
 Troubridge, sir T. ; wrecks, 1807 
 True Sun, prop, of ; trials, 1834 
 Truman, Hanbury, & Co. ; porter, 
 
 1815 
 Truro, lord ; chancellor, lord, 1850 
 Tucker, E. ; vine disease, 1845 
 Tuckett, capt. Harvey; duel, 1840 
 Tufnell, E. C. , training schools 
 Tuite, murderer ; trials, 1813 
 Tuke, W. ; lunatics, 1792 
 Tull, William ; posting 
 Tulloch, col. ; Sebastopol, 1855 
 Tullus Hostilius ; Alba, saturnalia 
 Tunstall, bp. ; administrations, 1529 ; 
 
 arithmetic, privy seal 
 Turenne, marshal, 1611-75 
 Tumbull, W. B. ; trials, 1861 
 Turner, J. W. ; painter, 1775-1851 
 Turner, Miss ; trials, 1827 
 Turner, Richard ; teetotaller, 1831 
 Turner, Sydney; reformatory schools, 
 
 1849 
 Turner ; trials, 1817 
 Turpin, or Tilpin, bp. ; writes, 818 
 Turton, bishop ; Ely, 1845 
 Tusser : agriculture, 1562 
 Tyce, John ; taffety, 1598 
 Tyeho Brahe, 1546-1601 ; astronomy, 
 
 platonic year, globe 
 Tyler, John ; United States presi- 
 dent, 1841 
 Tyler, Wat ; killed, 1381 
 Tyndal.Wm. ; martyred, 1536 
 Tyndall, J. ; Roy. Inst, 1853; mag- 
 netism, Mont Blanc, 1857 ; calor- 
 escence, sound, dust, Niagara, 
 United States, 1872 
 Tynclarus ; Sparta, 1490 B.C. 
 Tyrconnel, earl of; Ireland, 1687 
 Tyrone ; rebellion, 1599 
 Tysias, or Stesichorus ; choruses, 
 epithalamium, 536 b.c 
 
 U. 
 
 Udine ; stucco-work, 1530 
 
 Ugolinus, B. ; thesaurus 
 
 Ultilas, bp. ; Bible, about 373 
 
 Ulloa, Antonio ; platinum, 1741 
 
 Ulpian (lawyer) ; slain, 228 
 
 Ulysses ; Trojan war 
 
 Upton, colonel ; Sebastopol, 1830 
 
 Urban ; popes, 223 
 
 Urban II. ; communion, crusades, 
 
 1094 
 Urban VIII., pope, "Eminence, 
 
 1630 
 Urioli, gen. ; Strasburg, 1870 
 Ursula, St. ; Cologne, Ursulines, 
 
 1537 
 Usher, abp. ; articles, 1614 
 
 V. 
 
 Valens ; eastern empire, western 
 
 empire, 364 
 Valeutia, lord ; duel, 1798 ; trials, 
 
 1796 
 Valentia cause ; trials, 1772 
 Valentine, B. ; antimony, 1410 
 Valentinian ; western empire, 364 
 Valerian ; persecutions, 257 
 Vallaret, Foulques de ; Malta, 1310 
 Valliere, madame de la ; midwifery, 
 
 1663 
 Valverde, gen. ; Hayti, 1858 
 Van Artevelde ; Ghent, 1379-83 
 Vanbrugh, sir J. ; 1670-1726, Claren- 
 don printing office, opera 
 Van Buren (president) ; United 
 States, 1837 
 
INDEX. 
 
 769 
 
 Vancouver ; north-west passage, 
 
 Vancouver, 1790 
 Vander Heyden ; Are engines, 1663 
 Vandyck, painter, 1599-1641 
 Vane, sir Henry ; administrations, 
 
 1640 
 Van Eyck ; painting, 1366 
 Van Horn ; "buccaneer, 1603 
 VanLeyden; engraving on wood, 1497 
 Van Marum ; electricity, 1785 
 Van Miklert, bishop ; Llandaft", Dur- 
 ham, 1826 
 Vansittart, Nicholas ; Liverpool 
 
 adm., 18 1 2 
 Van Tromp ; Holland, naval battles, 
 
 Portland Isle, 1653 
 Varole, M. ; optic nerves, 1538 
 Varro; writes "de Re Rustica," 37 
 
 B.C. ; grammarians, illuminated 
 
 books 
 Varus, Alfrenus ; civil law, 66 b. c. ; 
 
 code, digest 
 Vasali, or Basil : Russia, 1270 
 Vasco de Gama ; Cape, 1497 ; India 
 Vattel, E. de, publicist, 1714-67 
 Vauban, S., 1633-1707 ; fortifications, 
 
 Cherbourg 
 Vaughan, sir Tlios. ; Pomfret, 1483 
 Vaughan, Mackay, &c. ; trial, 1816 
 Vauqueliu ; chromium, glucinium, 
 
 1798 
 Vaux, Jane, Mrs. ; Vauxhall, 1615 
 Vega, G. de, 1503-36 ; — Lope de, 
 
 1562-1635, poets 
 Velasquez, painter, 1599-1660 ; Cuba, 
 
 Venables, Wm. ; lord mayor, 1825 
 Vernier, T. ; anabaptists, 1661 
 Vergara, gen. ; New Grenada 
 Vergennes, M. de; notables, 1788 
 Vermandois, count de ; iron mask 
 Vermuyden, Cornelius ; levels, 1621 
 Vernet, C. J., 1714-89; A. C. H, 
 
 1758-1836; J. E. Horace, 1789-1863; 
 
 painters 
 Vernon, adm.; grog, Portobello, 1739 
 Vernon, abp. ; York, 1808 
 Verres ; Sicily, 70 B. c. 
 Verroochio, Andrea; plaster, 1466 
 Vesalius; anatomy, surgery, 1538 
 Vespasian ; Rome, emp. 69 ; amphi- 
 theatres, Coliseum, Rhodes 
 Vespucius, Americas, 1498 ; America 
 Victor Ainadeus ; Sardinia, 1630 
 Victor Emmanuel, b. 1820 ; Sardinia, 
 
 1849; Italy, i860 
 Victor, marshal; Talavera, 1809; Bar- 
 
 rosa, Witepsk 
 Victor; pope, 193 
 Victoria, queen, 6. 1819 ; England, 
 
 Scotland, Ireland, India 
 Victory, Espartero, duke of; Spain, 
 
 1840-72 
 Vidil, baron de; trials, 1861 
 Vieta, Francis; algebra, 1590 
 Vigilius; pope, 537 
 Villars, marshal; Malplaquet, 1709 
 Villeneuve, adm. ; Trafalgar, 1805 
 Villeroy, marshal; Brussels, 1695; 
 
 Ramilies, 1706 
 Villiers, sir George ; administrations, 
 
 1615 
 Villiers, bp. ; Durham, i860 
 Vincent de Paul, 1576-1660; sisters of 
 
 charity 
 Vincent, B. , Royal Inst, library cata- 
 logue, 1857; bible index, 1848 
 Vincent, H. ; chartists _ 
 Vinoy, gen. ; Prance and Franco- 
 
 Pruss. war, 1870-71 
 Virgil, Lat. poet, 70-19 B.C. 
 Virginia; killed, 449 B.C. 
 Vitalianus; pope, 537 
 Vitellius, Rome, emp., 69 
 Vitruvius, abt. 27 B.C.; ink 
 Vivier; trials, 1842 
 Volta, Alex.; 1745-1826, electricity, 
 
 Volte 
 
 Voltaire, F. M. A. de; 1694-1778 
 
 Von Fuchs, Dr., d. 1856; water-glass, 
 stereochromy 
 
 Von der Tann, gen. ; Franco-Prussian 
 war, 1870-1; Coulmiers, Orleans 
 
 Von Gceben, gen. ; Saarbriick, Franco- 
 Prussian war, 1870-1 
 
 Von Moltke, gen.; Franco-Prussian 
 war, Sedan, 1870 
 
 Von Mulder, Prussia, 1872 
 
 Von Stein, Prussia, 1807 
 
 Vortigern; Wales, 447 
 
 Voss, poet, 1751-1826 
 
 Voysey, C; trials, 1870 
 
 Vyse, Mrs. A; trials, 1862 
 
 W. 
 
 Waddington; trials, 1820 
 Wager, C; admiralty, 1733 
 Waghorn, lieut., 1800-50; Waghorn 
 Waithman, Robert ; lord mayor, 1823; 
 
 obelisk, bank 
 Wake, abp.; Canterbury, 1715 
 Wakefield, Eliz. ; sa.vings banks, 1804 
 Wakefield, Ed. Gibbon; marriages, 
 
 South Australia, trials, 1827 
 Wakley, T., Lancet, 1823 
 Waldegrave, earl of; trials, 1841 
 Waldegrave, bp.; Carlisle, i860 
 Waldemar; Denmark, 1157 
 Walden, abp.; Canterbury, 1398 
 Wales, George, prince of, v. Times; 
 
 trials, 1790; regency 
 Walker, Mr.; Vauxhall, congelation, 
 
 ice, 1782 
 Walker, George; Londonderry, Boyne, 
 
 1689 
 Walker, gen. ; filibusters, Nicaragua, 
 
 1855, executed, i860 
 Wall, governor ; trials, 1802, Goree 
 Wall, Mr. Baring ; trials, 1833 
 Wall, Jas. ; copying-machine 
 Wallace, sir W. ; exec. 1305 ; Fal- 
 kirk, Cambuskenneth, 1297 
 Wallaces ; trials, 1841 
 Wallenstein, Albert, general, 1583- 
 
 1634 ; Mecklenburg 
 Waller, sir W. ; Abingdon, 1644 
 Wallis, circumnavigator ; Otaheite, 
 
 Wallis, 1766 
 Walpole, Horace, 1717-97 ; letters 
 Walpole, sir Robert, 1676-1745 ; Wal- 
 pole adm. ; sinking fund 
 Walpole, Spencer-Horatio, 6. 1806 ; 
 
 Derby adm., 1852-66 
 Walsh, Mrs. ; murdered, trials, 1832 
 Walsh, Nicholas ; printing, 1571 
 Walsingham, lord ; att.-gen., 1766 
 Walsingham, sir F. ; administra- 
 tions, 1587 
 Walter, E. ; commissionaires, 1859 
 Walter, J., 1739-1812 ; Times, .785; 
 
 printing, 1872 
 Waltheof ; beheading, 1076 
 Walton, Brian, 1600-61 ; polyglot 
 Walton, Izaac, 1593-1683 ; angling 
 Walworth ; Blackheath, mace, 1381 
 Warburton, Eliot (lost), Amazon, 
 
 1852 
 Ward, Mr. ; forgery, 1726 
 Ward, N. B. ; aquarium, Ward's 
 
 cases, 1829 
 Wardle, col. ; impeachment, Wardle 
 
 v. duke of York; trials, 1809 
 Wardley, James ; shakers 
 Warenne, earl of; Dunbar, 1296 
 Warham, abp. ; Canterbury, 1503 ; 
 
 administrations, 1509 
 Warington, R. ; aquarium, 185c 
 Warner, Mrs., d, 1854; theatre 
 Warner, Messrs. ; bells, 1856 
 Warren, admiral sir John Borlase ; 
 
 naval battles, 1798 
 Warrington gang; trials, 1806 
 
 Warsop, Geo. ; aero-steam engine, 
 
 1869 
 Warton, Thomas ; poet-laureate, 1785 
 Warwick, earl of ; Barnet, St. Aibaiw, 
 
 Wakefield, 1460 
 Warwick, John Dudley, earl of ; ad- 
 ministrations, 1551 
 Washington, George, 1732-99 ; United 
 
 States, York Town, Virginia 
 Wason, Rigby ; trial, 1867 
 Waters, M. ; infanticide, trials, 1870 
 Waterton, Chas. ; naturalist, 1782- 
 
 1865 
 Wathen, capt. ; trials, 1634 
 Watson, admiral; India, 1756 
 Watson, J. C. ; planets, 1862 
 AVatson, rev. J. S. ; trials, 1871 
 Watson, bishop ; Llandaff, 1782 ; 
 
 phlogiston 
 Watson, sir Wm. ; electricity, 1740 ; 
 
 lightning conductor ; trials, 1817 
 Watt and Do wine ; trials, 1794 
 Watt, Jas., 1736-1819; steam engine 
 Watteau, Ant., French painter, 1684- 
 
 1721 
 Watts, Isaac, 1674-1748 ; hymns 
 Watts ; theatres, trials, 1859 ; suicide 
 Watts, T. ; newspapers, 1766 
 Weare, Mr. ; trials, 1824 
 Weathershed, abp. ; Canterbury, 
 
 1229 
 Webbe, Sam., music, 1740-1817 
 Weber, Carl von, 1786-1826 ; music 
 Webster, Daniel, d. 1852 ; United 
 
 States 
 Webster, Dr. ; trials, 1842 
 Webster, sir Godfrey ; trials, 1797 
 Wedgwood, Josiah, 1730-95 ; earthen- 
 ware, Wedgwood (porcelain) 
 Wedgwood, T. ; photography, 1802 
 Weld, Mr. ; trappists 
 Wellesley, sir A. ; see Wellington 
 Wellesley, marquis ; India, 1798 
 Wellesley, Mr. Long ; duel, 1828 
 Wellesley Pole, v. Misses Long ; 
 
 trials, 1825 
 Wellesley v. Paget ; trials, 1809 ; v. 
 
 Mornington, trials, 1868 
 Wellington, duke of, 1769-1852 
 
 Wellington ; commander-in-chief, 
 
 duels, 1829 ; trials, 1830 
 Wells, W. ; dew, 1814 
 Wells, lord Lyon ; Ireland (lord lieut. ), 
 
 1438 
 Weltmann, poisoning, 1859 
 Wensleydale, lord ; lords, note 
 Werner, A. G., 1750-1817; geology. 
 
 I77S 
 Wesley, J., 1703-91 ; Wesleyans 
 West, Benj., 1738-1820 Royal Acade- 
 my, 1792 
 Westbury, lord chancellor ; Palmers- 
 ton adm., 1861 ; \d. 1873 
 Westerton v. Liddell ; trials, 1855 
 Westmacott, sir R, sculpt., 1775- 
 
 1856; R. 1799-1872 
 Westmeath, lord ; trials, 1796 
 Westmorland, earl of ; Ireland (lord 
 
 lieut.), 1790 
 Weston, Richard lord ; administra- 
 tions, 1628 
 Wetherell, sir Chas. ; attorney-gen., 
 
 1826 ; Bristol 
 Wetherell, rev. Mr. ; trials. 1845 
 Weyland, Thomas de ; bribery, 1288 
 Weymouth ; North-West passage, 
 
 1602 
 Weymouth, visct. ; Graf toil adm., 
 
 1767 
 Wharncliffe, Id. ; Peel adm., 1834 
 Wharton, Thomas, marquis of ; 
 
 Halifax adm. , 1714 
 Wharton, Miss ; marriages, 1690 
 Whately, abp. R., 1 787-1863 ; logic, 
 
 &c. 
 Wheatstone, sir C. , b. 1802 ; cryp- 
 tography ; stereoscope, electricity, 
 1834 ; electric telegraph, and clock 
 
 3 D 
 
JO 
 
 Wheeler, sir Hugh ; Cawnpore, 1857, 
 Whiston, W. , theoL, d. 1752 
 Whitbread, Samuel ; suicide, 1815 
 "White, H. K., poet, 1785-1806 
 White, Tlios., Sion College, 1623 
 Whitelield, G., 1714-70; WhitefieM- 
 
 ites, AVesleyans, 1741 
 Whitehead, AV. d. 1785 ; poet laureate 
 Whitelock, gen. j Buenos Ayres, 1807 
 AVhitgift, abp. ; Canterbury, 1583 
 "Whitney, Eli; cotton, 1793 
 AVhittington ; lord mayor, 1403 ; 
 
 Leadenhall 
 "Whittlesey, archbp. ; Canterbury, 
 
 1268 
 Whitworfch, Mr. ; cannon, Shoebury- 
 
 ness, 1861 ; Whitworth 
 "Whitworth, earl ; Ireland, 1813 
 Whyte, maj.-gen. ; Denierara, 1796 
 Wickham, William of, 1324-1405; 
 
 education, Oxford, Winchester 
 Wicklitfe (Wyeliffe), John, 1324-87; 
 
 Wickliffltes, Bible 
 Wicklow peerage, trials, 1870 
 Wieland, C. ; Germ, mi seel., 1733- 
 
 1813 
 Wigram, bp. : Rochester, i860 
 AViliicrforee, lip. ; Oxford, 1846 
 Wilberforce, AV., 1759-1833 ; slave- 
 trade; — S. Winchester, bp. 
 Wild, Jonathan ; executed, 1725 
 Wilde, sir James, b. 1816; probate 
 
 court, 1863 
 Wilfride, lip. ; Chichester, 673 
 Wilkes, capt. ; circumnavigation, 
 
 1838 ; United States, 1861 
 Wilkes, John; North Briton, obe- 
 lisk, warrants; duel, 1763; trials, 
 1764 
 Wilkie, sirD., painter, 1785-1841 
 Wilkins J)r. ; AVadham, 1613 
 Wilkinsofc, Catherine ; baths, 1832 
 William I., England, 1066; Battle- 
 abbey, conquest, Domesday, cas- 
 tles 
 William II. ; England, 1087 
 William III.; England, 1689, revolu- 
 tion. Boyne, Enghien, Je main- 
 tiendrai, New Forest 
 William IV.; England, kings, 1830; 
 
 admiral 
 William I. ; emperor, Germany, 1870-3 
 William; Holland, Scotland 
 Williams, Ann; trials, 1753 
 Williams, David, d. 1816; literary 
 
 fund 
 Williams, John, dean ; adminis., 1621 
 Williams; see Burking 
 Williams, Roger; America, 1635 
 Williams, gen. W. F. ; Kars, 1855 
 Williamson, sir Joseph; administra- 
 tions, 1629 
 Willoughby, sir Hugh ; north-west 
 
 passage, 1553 
 Willoughby de Eresby, lord; cham- 
 berlain, lord great, 1626 
 Willoughby, lieut,; Delhi, 1857 
 Wills, gen.; Preston, 1715 
 Wilmington, earl of ; Wilmington 
 
 adm., 1742 
 Wilson, capt.; Pelew Islands, 1783 
 Wilson, sir A. ; Delhi, 1857 
 Wilson, H. H. ; Sanskrit professor, 
 
 1832 
 Wilson, sir Robert; Lavalette, 1815 
 Wilson, prof. John, 1785^854 
 Wilson, sir John M., Hampstead 
 Wilson, Mrs. C. ; poisoning, trials, 
 
 1862 
 Wilson, capt. W. ; United States, 
 1862. note 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Wilson, Dr. ; sun 
 Wilton, earl of; trials, 1859 
 Winchelsea, abp. ; Canterbury, 1293 
 Winchester, gen. ; Frenchtown, 1813 
 Winchester, Henry ; mayor, lord, 
 
 1834 
 Winchester, W., marquis of; adminis- 
 trations, 1554 
 Winchilsea, earl of; duel, 1829 
 Winchilsea, earl of ; Wilmington 
 
 adm., 1742; Bath adm., 1746 
 Windebank, sir Francis ; administra- 
 tions, 1635 
 Windham, general ; India, 1857 
 Windham, W. P.; trials, 1861-2 
 Windham, Wm.; Grenvilleadni., 1806 
 Windischgratz, prince ; Vienna, 1848 
 Winsor, Charlotte; trials, 1865 
 Wmstanley ; Eddy stone, 1696 
 Winter, T. ; boxing 
 Winwood, sir Ralph : administra- 
 tions, 1612 
 Winzengerode, gen. ; Kaliseh, 1813 
 Wiseman, cardinal Nicholas, 1C02-65; 
 ecclesiastical titles, papal aggres- 
 sion, Rome, Ireland, 1858 
 Withers, Dr. ; libel, 1789 
 Witherings, Thomas ; post-office, 1631 
 Witlierington, W., painter, 17S6-1865 
 Withing, Richard; Glastonbury, 1539 
 Witikind (Saxon chief), d. after 793 
 Wittgenstein, gen. ; Polotsk, Witepsk, 
 
 1812 
 Witts, De ; massacred, 1672 
 Wodehouse, lord ; Ireland (lord- 
 
 lieut.), 1864 
 Wodehouse, sir P. ; Bombay, 1872 
 Woden ; AVednesday 
 Wbhler, F. ; aluminium, 1827 
 AVolcot, Dr., alias Peter Pindar; 
 
 trials, 1807 
 Wolf, F. A. ; Homer 
 Wolfe, gen. ; Quebec, 1759 
 AVolfius ; anemometer, 1709 
 AVollaston, Win. ; 1766-1828 ; cryo- 
 phorus, camera, blow pipe, pal- 
 ladium, rhodium, hypsometer 
 AA T olseley, sir Charles ; trials, 1820 
 AVolsey, cardinal, 1471-1530 ; adms., 
 1514 ; Hampton, Whitehall, York 
 Wood, sir Charles (aft. lord Halifax) ; 
 Russell adm., 1846; Palmerston 
 adm., 1855 
 Wood, Matthew ; mayors of London, 
 
 1815 
 Wood, sirW. P., justice, chancellor, 
 
 1868 
 Wood ; Palmyra, 1751-53 
 Woodfall, Mr. ; trials, 1786 
 Woodmason ; ruling machines 
 Wooler, Mr. ; trials, 1817, 1855 
 AVoolley, Mr. ; trials, 1863 
 AVorcester, marquis of; steam, tele- 
 graph, 1663 
 AVorcester, Edward, earl of; adms., 
 
 1621 
 Wordsworth, Wm. ; 1770-1850; poet- 
 laureate 
 Wortley, col. H. Stuart ; mansion- 
 house fund, 1871 
 Wotton, sir Edward ; sugar, 1546 
 AVouvermanns, painters, 1620-83 
 AVray, sir C. ; King's Bench, 1573 
 AVrede, gen. ; Hanau, 1813 
 AVren, sir Christopher, architect, 
 1632-1723 ; Chelsea, engraving, 
 Greenwich, monument, St. Paul's, 
 AValbrook 
 AVren, Matthew ; Royal Society 
 Wrench, Mr. j theatres, 1809 
 Wright ; Mercator's charts, 1556 
 
 Wright, sir Rob. ; King's Bench, 1687 
 
 AVright and Doyle ; trials, 1851 
 AVriothesley, lord ; administrations, 
 
 J S47 
 Wnrmser, gen. ; Castiglione, 1796 
 Wyat, sir Thos. ; rebellions, 1554 
 AVyld, S. ; globe, 1851 
 AYynkyn de AVorde; angling, 1496' 
 
 printing 
 AVynn, AV. ; Canning adm., 1827 
 AA T yon, AV., medallist, 1795-1851 
 
 X. 
 
 Xavier, Francis ; 1506-52 ; Jesuits 
 
 Xenophanes, d. 465B.C. ; Eleaticsect, 
 Pantheism 
 
 Xenophoii ; anatomy, couriers, cym- 
 bals, retreat of the Greeks, 401 B.C. 
 
 Xerxes ; Persia, 485 b.c. ; Mycale, 
 Salamis 
 
 Ximenes, card., 1437-1517; polyglot 
 
 y. 
 
 Yakoob, Afghanistan, 1870 
 A'ale, Elisha ; auctions, 1700 
 Yeh, commissioner ; China, 1857 
 Yelverton, major; trials, i860 
 Yonge, sir Geo. ; Shelburne adm., 
 
 1783 
 York, bishop ; Ely, 1781 
 York, cardinal ; Scotland, 1807 
 York, Fred., duke of, 1763-1827; 
 
 York 
 York, James, duke of; Solebay, 1672 
 Yorke, Charles, chancellor, lord high, 
 
 1770 
 Yorke, sir Philip ; att.-gen. ; king's 
 
 bench, 1733 
 Yorke, Mr. Redhead ; trial, 1795 
 Young ; impostors, 1692 
 Young, major ; Prescott, 1838 
 Young, Charles ; theatre, 1807 
 Young, Brigham, b. 1801 ; Mormon- 
 
 ites 
 Young, Edw., poet, 1684-1765 
 Young, Thos., 1773-1829 ; Royal In- 
 stitution, colour, spectrum 
 Youngman, AV. ; executions, i860 
 
 Z. 
 
 Zacharias ; pope, 741 
 
 Zaleucus ; sumptuary laws, 450 B.C. 
 
 Zamoyski, count ; Poland, 1862 
 
 Zeehariah prophesies about 520 b.c. 
 
 Zeno (stoic), fl. 299 B.C. ; eastern 
 empire, 474 
 
 Zenobia ; Palmyra, 263 
 
 Zenon ; Armenia, 18 
 
 Zephaniah prophesies abt. 630 B.C. 
 
 Zephyrinus ; pope, 202 
 
 Zeuxis, Jl. 455-400 B.C. ; painting 
 
 Zimmerman ; physiognomy, 1776 
 
 Ziuzendorf, 1700-60 ; Moravians 
 
 Ziska ; Bohemia, 1417 
 
 Zoh ; eastern empire, 1034 
 
 Zollicoffer, gen. ; U. States, 1861 
 
 Zorilla, R.; Spain, 1872-3 
 
 Zoroaster (supposed author of " Zen- 
 davesta"); about 555 B.G., fire- 
 worshippers 
 
 Zosimus ; alchemy, 410 
 
 /um.d-i: uregui (Carbst) killed near 
 Bilbao, 1835 
 
 Zumpie, M. ; pianoforte, 1766 
 
 Zurbano, gen. ; Spain, 1844 
 
COBBECTIONS AND ADDITIONS. 
 
 g. Administrations. — 1806, Mr. Fox's death took 
 place 13 Sept. 1806. 
 
 10. Gladstone ministry resigned, 17 Feb. Disraeli 
 
 ministry received seals, 21 Feb. 1874. 
 
 11. Admiralty. — First lord, George Ward Hunt, 21 
 
 Feb. 1874. 
 
 14. Africa. — David Livingstone died, 4 May, 1873. 
 
 Sir Samuel Baker appointed sole commander of a 
 military expedition to suppress the slave-trade up 
 the Nile, with absolute authority over the country 
 south of Gondokoro (for four years from 1 April, 
 1869), 19 May, 1869. 
 
 Departure from Khartoum, 8 Feb. 1870. 
 
 Many delays and impediments ; proceeds to explore 
 White Nile, 11 Aug. 1870. 
 
 Arrives at Gondokoro, 15 April ; names it Ismailia, 
 and officially annexes it to Egypt, 26 May, 1871. 
 
 War with the warlike and treacherous Baris of 
 Belinian ; beats them in several engagements, July 
 —Sept. 1871. 
 
 Supported by his model corps, "the forty thieves," he 
 quells disaffection and mutiny in his troops, Oct. 
 1871. 
 
 Sends vessels with women, children, and sick, to 
 Khartoum, 3 Nov. 1871. 
 
 Makes peace with the Baris, and returns to Gondo- 
 koro, 19 Nov. 1871. 
 
 Advances south ; suffers much by negro treachery, 
 and inefficiency of his Egyptian troops ; heroism 
 of lady Baker, Jan. Feb. 1872. 
 
 Arrives at the African Paradise, Faliko ; meets there 
 his enemy Abou Saoud, the slave-dealer, 6 March ; 
 at Masindi, in Unyoro, 25 April, 1872. 
 
 Received by Kabba Rega, the young king ; who 
 attempts to jioison Baker's party, and attacks 
 them in the night ; he is defeated, and Masindi 
 burnt, 8 June, 1872. 
 
 Baker marches to Foweera ; received by Baongi, 
 enemy of Kabba Rega, 18 July ; returns to Faliko, 
 and suppresses an insurrection of slave-dealers, 
 probably incited by Abou Saoud, 2 Aug. 1872. 
 
 Slave-trade apparently subdued; "peace, and pro- 
 spect of prosperity," 31 Dec. 1872. 
 
 Baker returns to Gondokoro, 1 April ; receives 
 honours from the Khedive at Cairo, 25 Aug. ; 
 arrives in London, 9 Oct. 1873. 
 
 Col. Gordon appointed his successor ; Abou Saoud 
 his subordinate, 1874. 
 
 Baker's work " Ismailia " published, Nov. 1874. 
 
 15. Agonistica. — read Agonistici. 
 
 25. Alphabet. — Italian ; 22 (not 20) letters. 
 
 27. Amalfi. — read Guiscard. 
 
 31. Anhalt. — last line ; read Leopold died 22 May (not 
 March), 187 1. 
 
 33. Anthems. — last line ; read Farrant. 
 
 46. Ashantees. — Col. Purdon defeated them on 7 (not 27) 
 Aug. 1826. 
 
 Offended at the British occupation of Elmina, these 
 people attacked the Fantees, our allies, with vary- 
 ing success, in April. They were severely repulsed 
 on 13 June, when Elmina was partially bombarded 
 by the British for favouring them, 14 June, 1873. 
 
 Sir Garnet Wolseley defeated them at Amoaful 31 
 Jan. and after several other conflicts entered 
 Coomassie, the capital, 4 Feb. A treaty of peace 
 1 was signed by the king Koffee. 13 Feb. 1874. 
 
 54. Auricular Confession. — In May, 1873, 483 clergy- 
 men of the Church of England, presented a petition 
 to convocation for the education, selection, and 
 licensing of duly qualified confessors, in accordance 
 with the provisions of canon law. Strongly dis- 
 approved of by the bishops. 
 
 67. Bank Discount : 1873, Reduced to 5 per cent. July 
 10 ; to 4^, July 17 ■ ; to 4, July 24; to 3 J, July 31 ; 
 to 3, Aug. 21 -; raised to 4, Sept. 25 ; to 5 (panic in 
 New York), Sept. 29 ; to 6, Oct. 14 ; to 7, Oct. 18 ; 
 to 8, Nov. 1 ; to 9, Nov. 7 ; reduced to 8, Nov. 20 ; 
 to 6, Nov. 27 ; to 5, Dec. 4 ; to 4J, Dec. 11. 
 
 1874. Reduced to 4, Jan. 8 ; to 3I, Jan. 15 ; raised 
 to 4, April 30 ; reduced to 3^, May 28 ; to 3, June 
 4 ; to i\, June 18 ; raised to 3, July 30 ; to 4, Aug. 
 6 ; reduced to 3^, Aug. 20 ; to 3, Aug. 27 ; raised 
 to 4, Oct. 15 ; to 5, Nov. 16 ; to 6, Nov. 30. 
 
 1875. Reduced to 5, Jan. 7 : to 4, Jan. 14. 
 34. For Anvar-i-Suhaih, read Suhaili. 
 
 38. Arch^opteryx : — read Haberlein. 
 45. Arts.— Society for Encouragement of the Fine Arts, 
 founded Dec. 1858. 
 
 77. Battles. — 1760, for Campen, read Kloster Kampen 
 (British and Hanoverians attach Freneh; inde- 
 cisive), 15, 16 Oct. 1760. 
 Accra (Ashantees defeated by col. Purdon), 7 (not 27) 
 Aug. 1826. 
 91. Bilbao (not Bilboa), besieged by Carlists, Feb. 
 Siege raised by marshal Concha, who entered the 
 town, 2 May, 1874. 
 95. — Blackfriars Bridge. — Foundation laid 20 July, 
 
 1865, not 1869. 
 99. Boiling. — read 1683 for 1863. 
 106. — Brazil. — last line ; Louis comte d'Eu, born 29 
 
 April, 1842. 
 107. Breeches. — end; read 1560 for 1570. 
 122. — Calculating Machines. — Thomas De Colmar's 
 (not Thomas's) Arithmometer was patented 1822. 
 G. B. Grant described a simpler machine in the 
 "American Journal of Science," Oct. 1874. 
 
 133. — Cards are said to have been invented to amuse 
 
 Charles VI. (not IV.) of France. 
 143.— Chancellor, lord. — Hugh lord Cairns, 21 Feb. 
 
 1874. 
 151. China. — Foreign ministers for the first time received 
 
 by the emperor, 29 June, 1873. 
 
 155. Church of England. — Memorial (signed by 60,200 
 persons) against Romanist teaching, &c, in the 
 church, presented at Lambeth to the archbishop 
 by the Church Association, 5 May, 1873. 
 
 The archbishops in reply admit the danger, and recog- 
 nise their duty, as well as the difficulties of action, 
 saying, "We live in an age when all opinions and 
 beliefs are keenly criticised, and when there is less 
 inclination than ever was before to respect autho- 
 rity in matters of opinion. In every state, in every 
 religious community, almost in every family, the 
 effect of this unsettled condition may be traced," 
 1 June, 1873. 
 
 Mr. Miall's motion for disestablishing the church, 
 lost (356-61), 16 May, 1873. 
 
 483 clergymen petition convocation for the licensing 
 of duly qualified sacramental confessors, May, 1873. 
 
 Public Worship Regulation bill introduced by the 
 two archbishops, 21 April, after much discussion 
 passed ; received royal assent, 7 Aug. 187 
 
772 
 
 ADDENDA. 
 
 164. Coal Explosions.— 1874, Astley pit, Dukinfield, 
 
 near Manchester, 54 deaths, 14 April; Saw Mills 
 pit, near Wigan, 15 deaths, 18 July ; Rawiuarsh, 
 near Rotheram, about 23 killed, 20 Nov. ; Bignall 
 Hall, near Audley, Staffordshire, 17 killed, 24 Dee. 
 
 165. Colorado. — Still a territory ; capital, Denver city. 
 
 Desolated by grasshoppers, autumn, 1874. 
 
 171. Common Pleas. — Chief-justice sir W. Bovill died 
 1 Nov. 1873 ; succeeded by sir J. D. Coleridge. 
 
 177. Constance. — General council, 1414-18. 
 
 185. Councils. — Read II. Constantinople condemned 
 heresies and made several canons, 381. 
 III. Ephesus condemned and deposed Nestorius. 431. 
 V. Condemned errors in "The Three Chapters," 553. 
 
 192. Cuba. — The Virgiiiius, American schooner, while 
 conveying men and arms from New York to the 
 insurgents in Cuba, is captured by the Spanish 
 gun-boat Tornado, 31 Oct. ; conveyed to Cuba : 
 above go insurgents and sailors (some British and 
 Americans), tried and shot, 4 — -7 Nov. After 
 much correspondence the Virginias was sur- 
 rendered to the Americans ; she foundered on her 
 way to New York, 19 Dec. 1874. 
 
 208. Dieu-Donne. — The comte de Chambord is son of the 
 duchess of Berri, not of the duchess of Angouleme. 
 
 210. Disraeli Administration, 2nd ; received seals 21 
 
 Feb. 1874. 
 216. Drunkards. — Read 1 Cor. v. 11, for 1 Cor. vii. 
 
 222. Earthquakes. — San Salvador nearly destroyed ; 
 
 about 50 killed ; the rest escaped through timely 
 
 warning, 19 March, 1873. 
 North of Italy : at Feletto, near Conegliano, Venetia, 
 
 church destroyed ; about 50 killed ; lives lost at 
 
 Belluno, &c. ; shock felt at Venice, Verona, &c, 29 
 
 June, 1873. 
 Antigua and other places destroyed ; great loss of 
 
 life, 3 Sept. 1874. 
 
 224. East India Stock Dividend Redemption Act 
 passed 15 May, 1873. It finally abolished the 
 company on 1 June, 1874, and made needful 
 arrangements. 
 
 230. Egypt. — The sultan, liy a firman, renders the Khe- 
 dive practically independent : (lie must not coin 
 money, make treaties, or build iron-clads), 8 June. 
 1873. 
 
 First Egyptian budget produced ; asserted revenue, 
 10,166,000/. ; expenditure, 9,040,000?. (doubted), 
 Oct. 1873. 
 
 For sir S. Baker's expedition, see Africa. 
 
 233. Electric Telegraph. — Death of sir Francis Ron- 
 alds, aned 8s, 8 Aug. 1873. 
 
 The fourth Anglo-American telegraph laid by the 
 Great Eastern, 8 June — 3 July, 1873 ; the fifth, by 
 the same, Aug. Sept. 1874. 
 
 The direct United States company's cable laid by 
 the Faraday, May and seq. 1874. 
 
 244. England.— 1649. Commonwealth ; Oliver Cromwell 
 made protector, 16 (not 12) Dec. 1653. 
 
 Proposed marriage of the duke of Edinburgh to the 
 grand-duchess Marie of Russia announced I13- the 
 queen, 17 July ; Annuity bill for the duke passed 
 5 Aug. 1873 ; marriage, 23 Jan. ; prince born, 15 
 Oct. 1874. 
 
 Prince Arthur created duke of Connaught, 23 Mav, 
 1874. 
 
 251. Exchequer: Chancellor, Sir Stafford Northeote, 21 
 Feb. 1874. 
 
 252 Exclusion Bill rejected 1680. 
 
 254. Executions.— Henry Evans, at Aylesbury; and Ben- 
 jamin Hudson, at Derby, for murder of their wives, 
 4 Aug. 1873. 
 
 Tims. Hartley, Montgomery, murder of Mr. Glasse, 
 Omagh, 26 Aug. 
 
 James Connor, murder of James Gaffney, Liverpool, 
 8 Sept. 
 
 Charles Dawson, William Thompson, and Edward 
 Gough, murders, Durham, 5 Jan. 1874. 
 
 Thos. Corrigan, murder of mother, Liverpool, 5 Jan. 
 1874. 
 
 Edward C. Butt, murder of Miss Phipp, through 
 jealousy : Edwin Bailey and Ann Barry, murder of 
 child, Gloucester, 12 Jan. 
 
 Thos. Chamberlain, murder, Northampton, 30 March. 
 
 James Godwin, murder of wife, Newgate, 25 May. 
 
 Frances Stewart, murder of grandchild, Newgate, 
 29 June. 
 
 Tims. Macdonald, murder of paramour, Exeter, 10 
 Aug. 
 
 Wm. Jackson, murder of sister, York, 18 Aug. 
 
 James H. Gibbs, murder of wife, Usk, 24 Aug. 
 
 Henry Flanigan, murder of aunt : Mary Williams, 
 murder of Nicholas Manning, Liverpool, 31 Aug. 
 
 John W. Coppen, murder of wife, Horscniongcr- 
 lane, 13 Oct. 
 
 Private Thos. Smith, 40th Hussars, murder of Capt. 
 Bird, in revenge for slight punishment, Winches- 
 ter, 16 Nov. 
 
 Robert Taylor, murder of Mrs. Kidd, Stafford, 23 Dec. 
 
 259. Feejee or Fiji — or Viti isles, above 200 in number. 
 Their unconditional cession to the British govern- 
 ment was accepted by sir Hercules Robinson, 
 July : and announced by him 25 Oct. 1874. Sir 
 Arthur Hamilton Gordon, first governor. 
 
 272. France. — Last line: Peace of Ryswic.k, 20 Sept. 
 
 1697. 
 284. Changes in the ministry : — Casimir Perier, 
 interior; W. H. Waddington, of Cambridge, public 
 instruction (in room of De Goulard and* Jules 
 Simon), 18 May, 1873. 
 
 Meeting of the national assembly, 19 May; the 
 government introduce their constitutional bills, 
 21 May; the due. de Broglie leads an attack on 
 the government, 23 May; speech of Thiers; the 
 government defeated (362-348) at a sitting, 2 p.m., 
 24 May. 
 
 Resignation of Thiers and his ministry accepted 
 (368-339), 24 May ; marshal McMahon (born 1808) 
 elected president of the republic by 390 votes (the 
 left did not vote); he accepts the office, declaring 
 his independence, of party, 24 May ; in his message 
 to the assembly he says, " The post in which you 
 have placed me is that of a sentinel, who has to 
 watch over the integrity of your sovereign power," 
 26 May, 1873. 
 
 The due de Broglie chief of the new ministry, 
 26 May, 1873. 
 
 General Ladmirault succeeds MacMahonin the com- 
 mand of the army of Versailles, 3 June, 1873. 
 
 Private circular of the minister to prefects request- 
 ing them to sound newspapers of his department ; 
 censured in the assembly, 11 June, 1873. 
 
 The assembly (by a large majority) order the prose- 
 cution of Ranc, formerly a communist, now deputy 
 for Lyons, 19 June, 1873. 
 
 Visit of the shah of Persia, 5 July, 1873. 
 
 Grand review of the renovated army at Paris, and 
 assembly prorogued, 10 July, 1873. 
 
 Renewal of the Anglo-French treaty of 23 Jan. i860 
 (till 30 June, 1877); signed 24 July; ratified, 29 
 July, 1873. 
 
 Evacuation of all the French territories by the Ger- 
 mans, except Verdun, by 2 Aug. 1873. 
 
 Fusion of the Legitimists and Orleanists after an 
 
 interview of the comte de Paris with the comto de 
 
 Chambord : the latter recognised as chief, 5 Aug. 
 
 1873- 
 
 France divided into 18 military regions, 30 Sept. 
 
 1873- 
 
 Trial of marshal Bazaine begins, 6 Oct., sentence of 
 death, 10 Dec. ; commuted to imprisonment for 20 
 years, 12 Dec. 
 
 MacMahon appointed president for seven years, 20 
 Nov. 1873. 
 
 New ministry under the due de Broglie, 26 Nov. 
 
 Demonstration at Chisellmrst on prince Louis Na- 
 poleon coming of age, 16 March, 1874. 
 
 The president reviews 60,000 men at Longchamps, 
 28 June. 
 
 Bazaine escapes from his prison on St. Marguerite, 
 9 Aug. 
 
 Resignation of the due de Broglie and his ministry, 
 16 May ; M. Goulard failing, the president re- 
 appoints the ministry without de Broglie, its 
 nominal head being general de Cissey, 22 May, 1874. 
 
ADDENDA. 
 
 773 
 
 Resignation of the ministry (on the assembly reject- 
 ing the bill proposing a second chamber), 6 Jan. ; 
 not accepted by the marshal, 7 Jan. 1875. 
 
 286. Franche-Comte annexed to France, 1678. 
 
 299. Gagging-Bill enacted 11 Dec. 1795. 
 
 312. Gladstone Administration. — Changes in Aug. 
 1873: — Mr. Gladstone became chancellor of the 
 exchequer as well as first lord of the treasury ; 
 Mr. Austin Bruce (lord Aberdare), lord president 
 of the council in room of the marquis of Ripon, 
 resigned; Mr. Lowe, home secretary, in room of 
 Mr. Bruce; Mr. fm. Patrick Adam, first com- 
 missioner of works, succeeded Mr. Ayrton, who 
 was made judge advocate-general ; Mr. John Bright, 
 chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, in room of 
 Mr. Childers, resigned; — changes also in subor- 
 dinate offices. Not having obtained a majority in 
 in the general election, the ministry resigned, 17 
 Feb. 1874. 
 
 316. Gorilla. — Read Gaboon river. 
 
 326. Gunpowder. — Explosion of five tons on the barge 
 Tilbury, on the Regent's canal, near the Zoological 
 gardens ; tkrea men killed ; immense damage ; 
 about s a.m., 2 Oct. 1874. 
 Verdict of Inquest. — Explosion caused by ignition 
 of vapour from benzoline by a fire or light in the 
 cabin of the Tilbury. The Junction Canal Com- 
 pany guilty of gross negligence, and the present 
 laws inadequate for public safety, 19 Oct. 1874. 
 
 329. Read Hanaper Of* ice. 
 
 332. Hay market opened in 1664, not in 1864. 
 
 333. Heat. — Sir George Cayley invented a heated-air 
 
 engine in 1807, and Mr. Stirling applied it to rais- 
 ing water in Ayrshire in 1818. One invented by 
 Mr. Wenham was described in 1873. Improve- 
 ments have been made by Mr. C. Wm. Siemens. 
 
 338. Hochkirchen. — End : Read 21 May, 1813. 
 
 339. Holland. — Commencement of canal to connect 
 
 Amsterdam with the North Sea, 8 March, 1865. 
 
 342. Hospital Sunday. — 25,5112. received from about 
 1200 places of worship on 15 June ; — 18592. since, 
 July, 1873. The first hospital Sunday is said to 
 have been at Birmingham, 13 Nov. 1859. Hospital 
 Sunday, 14 June, 1874, about 24,0002. received up 
 to 24 June. Hospital Saturdays in London began 
 17 Oct. 1874, the movement being greatly promoted 
 by capt. Charles Mereier and lord Brabazon ; 
 about 3,5002. said to have been collected, 21 Oct. 
 1874. 
 
 348. Iceland. — A new constitution comes into effect, 1 
 
 Aug. 1874, while the long of Denmark is present 
 at the millennial anniversary of the colonisation of 
 the country. 
 
 349. Illustrated Times was purchased by, not estab- 
 
 lished by Mr. Ingram. 
 
 351. Income Tax reduced to 2d. April, 1874. 
 
 351. Independents — end: The first independent church 
 in America was founded, not by John Robinson, 
 but by his followers. 
 
 356. India. — Great famine in Bengal, Jan. ; relieved by 
 government-works and donations and liberal public 
 subscriptions in India and Great Britain ; reported 
 at an end, Sept. 1874. 
 A person said to be Nana Sahib captured at Gwalior 
 by the Maharajah Scindia (identity since much 
 doubted), 21 Oct. 1874. 
 
 372. Italy. — Lanza and Sella resign, 26 June ; a ministry 
 formed by Minghetti, about 10 July, 1873. 
 Monuments to Cavour and Massimo d'Azeglio, 
 founders of the kingdom, inaugurated by the king, 
 8 Nov. 1873. 
 
 360. Intransigentes, or Irreconcilables, a party of 
 extreme republicans in Spain, who withdraw from 
 the Cortes and become very troublesome, 1 July, 
 1873- 
 
 375. Japan.— Successful expedition against pirates of 
 Formosa ; jealousy of the Chinese, May, June, 1874 ; 
 the dispute arranged, Nov. 1874. 
 
 376. Jesuits.— Expulsion from Italy, Oct. Nov., 1873. 
 
 378. Jews.— Targum of Onkelos written about 100. 
 
 384. Khiva. — After several small conflicts Khiva sur- 
 rendered 10 June, 1873 ; and the khan declared 
 himself to be a vassal of the czar, and abolished 
 slavery. 
 
 395. Law.— Lord Selborne's Judicature Bill, with amend- 
 ments, passed 5 Aug. 1873 ; operation deferred till 
 1 Nov. 1875. 
 
 405. Ltterary Fund. — Note : David Williams died 29 
 June (not July), 1816. 
 
 409. London (metropolitan district, 690 square miles), 
 contains 6612 miles of streets ; 528, 794 inhabited 
 houses; population, 4,025,659, June, 1873. 
 412. Hospital Sunday, 15 June, 1873. 
 
 Visit of the Shah of Persia, iR June, <&c, 1873. 
 
 The duchess of Edinburgh enters London, 12 March, 
 1874. 
 
 The czar entertained at Guildhall, 18 May, 1874. 
 
 Fourth and last annual international exhibition 
 opened, 6 April ; closed 31 Oct. 1874. 
 
 Hospital Sunday, 14 June ; Hospital Saturday, 17 
 Oct. 1874. 
 
 429. Marriage. — 2nd column (figures fallen out) : 
 For 18, read 1837 I For 185 read 1857 
 „ 185 „ 1856 ! „ 187 „ 1873 
 
 434. Mazarine Bible ; see Printing, 1450-5. 
 
 437. Mendicity Society in 1872 gave 26,330 meals, and 
 investigated 2192 begging letters. 
 
 435. Mecklenburg. — Last paragraph, read "Charlotte, 
 
 a daughter of the duke in 1761," not "of Cumber- 
 land." 
 
 479. North-West Passage. — Mr. B. Leigh Smith sailed 
 to lat. 81° 24', and discovered land to the N. E. of 
 Spitzbergen, 1871 ; in other voyages he discovered 
 under-currents of warm water flowing into the 
 polar basin ; he relieved the Swedish expedition, 
 1872-73. 
 
 An Austro-Hungarian expedition in the Admiral 
 Tegethoff, and the Isborjnen, under Weyprecht 
 and. Payer, sailed from Tromso, in Norway, 14 
 July, 1872 ; the ships parted company, and the 
 Tegethoff sailed northward and discovered Franz- 
 Joseph Land, 31 Aug. 1873 ; frozen in, abandoned 
 ship, May, 1874 ; reached Vardoe, Norway, by 
 sledges, 3 Sept. ; arrived at Vienna, 25 Sept. 1874. 
 
 Mr. Disraeli consents to a new British arctic expedi- 
 tion, 17 Nov. 1874 ; now preparing, Jan. 1875. 
 
 [Charts of the latest discoveries are published in 
 Petermann's " Mittheilungen der Geographie."] 
 
 503. Patronage in the church of Scotland abolished by 
 37 & 38 Vict. c. 82 ; passed 7 Aug. 1874. 
 
 522. Poets-Laureat. — Henry James Pye, 1790; died, 
 
 1813 
 542. Printing.— 2nd col. : Lord's Prayer printed by 
 
 Caxton, 1483 ; not 1413. 
 
 545. Protestantism.— Bead John, elector of Saxony; 
 
 George, margrave of Brandenburg, &c. 
 
 546. Prussia.— Omit Frederick II. visits England, 1744. 
 
 556. Races. — Winner of the Derby, 1874, George 
 
 Frederick. 
 550. Public Worship Regulation Act passed 7 Aug. 
 1874. See Church of England. 
 
 554. Quietism condemned by pope Innocent XH. in 
 
 1699. 
 
 555. Quo Warranto Act passed 1289. 
 
 557. Railways. — Great Western opened to Bristol, 30 
 
 June, 1841. 
 
 558. Norwich and Yarmouth opened, 1 May. 1844. 
 South-Eastern (to Dover), 7 Feb. 1844 
 
 559. Railway Accidents. — Wigan (London and North 
 
 Western) : carriages thrown off the line ; sir John 
 Anson and others (13 persons) killed, 23 Aug 1873 : 
 Retford Junction (Great Northern, Manchester and 
 Sheffield) : collision ; 3 killed, 23 Aug. 1873. 
 
 3 B 
 
774 
 
 ADDENDA. 
 
 Near Hartlepool (North Eastern) : train thrown off 
 the line ; 3 killed, 2 Sept. 1873. 
 
 Peamarsh crossing, near Guildford (South Western) : 
 collision with a bullock ; train thrown off the hue ; 
 3 killed, 9 Sept. 1873. 
 
 Barkstone Junction, near Grantham (Great North- 
 ern) ; 2 killed, 10 Jan. 1874. 
 
 Near Manuel and Bo'ness Junction, between Edin- 
 burgh and Glasgow (North British) : collision of 
 London express with mineral train ; 16 killed, 
 27 Jan. 1874. 
 
 Euxton Junction, between Preston and Wigan ; col- 
 lision through fog and too great speed ; 2 killed, 
 20 Feb. 1874. 
 
 Thorpe, near Norwich (East Norfolk) : collision ; two 
 trains met (mistake of John Robson, a telegraph 
 clerk, committed for trial for manslaughter) ; 26 
 deaths ; about 50 injured ; 8.30 p.m. 10 Sept. 1874. 
 
 Shipton, near Oxford (Great Western) ; tire of car- 
 riage-wheel broke ; train driven over an embank- 
 ment ; 34 deaths ensued, about 70 injured ; 24 
 Dec. 1874. 
 
 Many accidents, where only 1 or 2 persons killed and 
 others injured. 
 579. Royal George, off Spithead, was keeled over for 
 repair, when a sudden gust of wind washed the 
 sea into her ports, and she sank, 29 Aug. 1782. 
 
 583. Russia. — The czar visits Vienna, 13 Feb. 1874. 
 
 Marriage of the Duke of Edinburgh to the grand- 
 duchess Marie, 23 Jan. 1874. 
 
 Visit of the czar to England, 13-21 May ; and of the 
 czarina and czarewitch, 15 Oct. 1874. 
 623. Spain. — Don Carlos enters Spain, 15 July, 1873. 
 
 Desperate fighting at Igualada, Catalonia, 17, 18 
 July, 1873. 
 
 Four prevailing parties : — 1. The government, highly 
 democratic; 2. The Intransigent's, or irreconcil- 
 ables: extremely democratic ; 3. The International, 
 or communists ; 4. The legitimists, Carlists. 
 
 Murcia and Valencia proclaim themselves federal 
 cantons, 18 July, 1873. 
 
 Pi y Margall compelled to resign ; Salmeron forms a 
 ministry opposed to the Intransigentes, 15 July, 
 1S73. 
 
 Igualada taken by the Carlists under don Alfonso, 
 19 July, 1873. 
 
 The government determine to put down insurrec- 
 tion, 24 July, 1873. 
 
 Troops attack Valencia, 26 July; it surrenders 8 
 Aug. 1873. 
 
 Insurgents repulsed in their attack on Almeria; 
 beaten in fights at Seville, 28-30 July ; gen. Pavia 
 warmly received, 31 July, 1873. 
 
 New constitution printed, 27 July ; discussed, Aug. 
 1873. 
 
 Alleged Carlist victories at Elgueta, &c, 5-10 Aug. 
 1873- 
 
 Reported defeat of the insurgents at Chinchilla, 
 while marching on Madrid, 10 Aug. 1873. 
 
 Cartagena besieged, 22 Aug. 1873. 
 
 The Dcerhound, English yacht, assisting Carlists, 
 seized by the Spaniards, 13 Aug. 1873. 
 
 Capt. Werner (German) captures the Almanza and 
 Vittoria, iron-clads, which had been seized by the 
 rebel Intransigentes of Carthagena, 1 Aug. : sur- 
 renders them to the British admiral Yclverton, 
 who takes them to Gibraltar, 1 Sept. 1873. 
 
 He surrenders them to the Spanish government, 
 26 Sept. 1873. 
 
 Castelar elected president of the cortes, 26 Aug. ; 
 becomes dictator 15 Sept. 1873. 
 
 Indecisive battle of Maneria between government 
 troops and Carlists, 6 Oct. 1873. 
 
 Intransigente vessel, Fernando el Catouca, sunk by 
 collision with the Numancia, 18 Oct. 1873. 
 
 Cartagena bombarded, 26 Nov. ; taken by Lopez 
 Dominguez, 12 Jan. 1874. 
 
 Castelar put in a minority in the Cortes ; resigns 
 2 Jan. 1874. 
 
 Pavia, captain-general of Madrid, forcibly dissolves 
 the Cortes, 3 Jan. ; Marshal Serrano becomes 
 president, 4 Jan. 1874. 
 
 Siege of Bilbao by Carlists, Feb. ; three days' fight 
 at Somorrostro, 25-27 March ; siege raised ; C. nig- 
 ral Concha enters Bilbao, 2 May ; several conflicts, 
 May, June, 1874. 
 
 Concha wounded at Peiia Mura, near Abarzura ; 
 dies, 27 June, 1874. 
 
 The Carlists caj>ture Cuenca and treat it barbarously, 
 
 13 July, 1874. 
 
 The republican government under Serrano recog- 
 nised by all the great powers except Russia, about 
 
 14 Aug. 1874 
 
 Many conflicts reported, Aug. Oct. 1874. 
 
 Bombardment of Irun by Carlists, 4 Nov. ; defeated 
 in several conflicts, they retreat to the mountains, 
 10, 11 Nov. 1874. 
 . Marshal Serrano takes command of the army in the 
 North, Nov. ; prince Alfonso's manifesto de- 
 claring himself a true Spaniard, catholic, and 
 liberal, 1 Dec. ; he is proclaimed king by the army 
 at Murviedro, 29 Dec. ; at Madrid, 31 Dec. 1874 1 
 recognised generally, enters Barcelona, 9 Jan. j 
 Madrid, 15 Jan. 1875. 
 
 638. Sugak. — Duty wholly repealed from 1 May, 1874. 
 
 653. Theatres. — Covent Garden : Master Betty appeared, 
 1 Dec. 1804 (not 1803) ; died, Aug. 1874. 
 
 673. Trials. — Erase, David M. Davidson,&e. 14 May, 1855 
 
 677. Trials. — Tichbornc case^-for the prosecution closed, 
 10 July ; resumed (for defence), 21 July, 1873. 
 The claimant convicted of perjury : sentenced to 
 
 14 years' imprisonment with hard labour, 28 Feb. 
 1874. 
 
 Sub-inspector Montgomery, at his third trial for the 
 
 brutal murder of Mr. Glass, at Newton-Stewart, 
 
 Ireland, on 8 June, 1871 ; convicted and confessed, 
 
 28 July ; executed, 26 Aug. 1873. 
 Bank Forgery. — A. B. Bidwell, George Macdonnell, 
 
 George Bidwell, and Edwin Noyes, Americans, 
 
 convicted of discounting forged bills at the Bank 
 
 of England, 18-26 Aug. 1873. 
 Dr. Hayman v. the governing body of Rugby school : 
 
 verdict for defendants, 21 March, 1874. 
 Jean Luie (Lindgren) and captain Brown convicted 
 
 of forgery in the Tichborne trial, 9, 10 April, 1874. 
 Epping forest case : decision against the enclosures 
 
 of the lords of the manors as illegal ; see Commons, 
 
 10 Nov. 1874. 
 
 697. United States. — Insurrection of whites at New 
 Orleans agaiust R. D. Kellogg, the governor of 
 Louisiana, whom they depose, 15 Sept. ; they 
 submit to the president ; and Kellogg is restored, 
 18 Sept. 1874. 
 Lincoln monument, Springfield, Illinois, inaugurated, 
 
 15 Oct. 1874. 
 
 Triennial convention of the episcopal church ; canon 
 passed against ritualism, 27 Oct. 1874. 
 
 Majority for the democrats (or conservatives) in the 
 congress elections reported, 4 Nov. 1874. 
 
 Fresh disturbances at New Orleans ; intervention of 
 the military in the assembly house, Jan. 1875. 
 
 University Boat Rage. 
 March, 1874. 
 
 - Cambridge wins, 28 
 
 703. Venus. — Her transit over the sun's disk took place 
 on 8 Dec. astronomical day ; ordinary day, 9 Dec. 
 1874. 
 Expeditions for the accurate observation of the 
 phenomena were sent to different parts of the 
 globe by all the great powers, and favourable re- 
 sults have been reported, Jan. 1875. 
 
 737. Wrecks. — Cospatrick, emigrant vessel (capt. Elms- 
 lie), on her way to Auckland, New Zealand ; took 
 fire, midnight, 17-18 Nov. ; only 3 (out of 476) 
 escaped ; picked up, 27 Nov. ; arrived at St. 
 Helena, 6 Dec. 1874. 
 La Plata, steamer (capt. Dudden), 1600 tons ; sailed 
 from Gravesend with telegraph cable for Brazil, 26 
 Nov. : foundered in a gale in the Bay of Biscay ; 
 17 escape out of 85, 29 Nov. 1874. 
 
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