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THE 
 
 DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE IN THE 
 
 LIGHT OF EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION 
 
l&urattottal Jfigrlinloga iHonngrapIiB 
 
 iE&itrb by (Sug ManttOBt B31]t;]]]U 
 No. 16 
 
 The 
 
 Doctrine of Formal Discipline in the 
 
 Light of Experimental Investigation 
 
 [i.'^ BY 
 
 Nellie Pi'Hewins, Ph.D., Pd.D. 
 
 New York University 
 Instructor in Biology, Newton High School, New York City 
 
 BALTIMORE: 
 
 WARWICK & YORK, Inc. 
 1916 
 

 v^\x 
 
 Copyright. 1916, by 
 Wabwick & York, Inc. 
 
 NOV -8 i9!5 
 ©CIA44553'; 
 
EDITOR'S PREFACE 
 
 The chief problems of educational psychology evi- 
 dently include the nature of mental endowment, or 
 the original nature of man, the nature of the learning 
 process and the nature of training. The last-named 
 issue has occasioned within the last decade a quite 
 unusual amount of debate, for, on the one hand, its 
 outcome is of the first importance for educational 
 theory, while, on the other hand, its solution, on ac- 
 count of the complexity of the questions involved, is 
 far from being obvious or simple. Not long ago, as a 
 result of the earlier experimental studies, it was felt 
 by many that transfer of training was present either 
 not at all or at least in such slight amounts as to be 
 negligible. More recently, the pendulum has certainly 
 swung in the other direction. Experimentation has 
 been directed less toward searching for the existence 
 of transfer than to searching for the kind of transfer 
 present and the conditions under which it appeared. 
 One factor in this shift of attack upon the problem as 
 a whole has been the conviction that experimentation 
 conducted upon children still in their formative years 
 and under the more natural conditions of their every- 
 day life might very well reveal the presence of formal 
 training that could not be demonstrated with adults 
 in the psychological laboratory. 
 
 The work presented by Dr. Hewins in the present 
 monograph will be found closely similar in general 
 conception to that presented by Dr. Rugg in his recent 
 monograph. In conjunction with the laboratory 
 testing of children reported in our series by Dr. Wang, 
 
VI THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 these monographs are bound to exert a considerable 
 influence upon current thinking as to the nature and 
 extent of the transfer of training. 
 
 Dr. Hewins' summary of previous work upon the 
 problem will prove most helpful to students. Her 
 own experiments have the particular merit of being 
 readily repeated by classroom teachers in the same 
 field. 
 
 G. M. W. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 Introduction 1 
 
 Part I. Historical 
 
 I. Aims of Investigators 4 
 
 Psychological 4 
 
 1. Experiments on the effect of training of one kind 
 
 of sensitiveness on other kinds of sensitive- 
 ness 4 
 
 2. Experiments on the accm-acy of voluntary ef- 
 
 fort and the effect of special training on the 
 general rapidity and accuracy of motor ad- 
 justments 5 
 
 3. Experiments on the effect of special training on 
 
 the general rapidity and accuracy of memor- 
 izing 5 
 
 4. Experiments on cross-education or the transfer- 
 
 ence of practice from one member to a sym- 
 metrical one 6 
 
 Pedagogical 7 
 
 II. Means, Methods, Results and Conclusions of Experi- 
 mental Investigations 9 
 
 Psychological Experiments 10 
 
 1. Effect of training of one kind of sensitiveness 
 
 on other kinds 10 
 
 2. Experiments on the accuracy of volimtary effort 
 
 and the effect of special training on the gen- 
 eral rapidity and accuracy of motor adjust- 
 ments 15 
 
 3. Experiments on the effect of special training on 
 
 the general rapidity and accuracy of memor- 
 izing 25 
 
 4. Data derived from experimentation in regard 
 
 to the effect of the training of one organ upon 
 the bilaterally symmetrical one, or closely 
 related member 28 
 
 vii 
 
Vlll CONTENTS 
 
 Pedagogical Experiments 31 
 
 1. Mathematics 31 
 
 2. Spelling 36 
 
 3. English Grammar 36 
 
 4. Mental Traits 37 
 
 A. Memory 37 
 
 B. Habits 42 
 
 C. Concentration of attention 42 
 
 D. Observation 43 
 
 E. Quickness, accm-acy, attention, etc 43 
 
 F. Ideas of Method 44 
 
 G. Ideals 44 
 
 III. Summary of the Historical Review 46 
 
 Pakt II. Original Investigation 
 
 I. Introduction 49 
 
 II. Subjects 50 
 
 III. Time Schedule of Tests 50 
 
 IV. Practice Series 51 
 
 V. Method of Conducting the Tests 52 
 
 VI. Details of the Tests 53 
 
 VII. Marking the Tests and Use of the Scores 71 
 
 VIII. Tables and summaries 74 
 
 CONCLTJSIONS Ill 
 
 Comparison of Results with Those of Pedagogical Experi- 
 ments 113 
 
 Bibliography 115 
 
 Appendix 119 
 
The Doctrine of Formal Discipline in the Light 
 of Experimental Investigation 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 It would seem to be entirely superfluous to explain 
 what is meant by the doctrine of formal discipline, 
 for since the epoch-making experiments of James 
 (25, 54)1 a little more than a decade ago, this theory 
 has occupied the center of the controversial stage of 
 pedagogical problems. Since the Middle Ages, when 
 the doctrine flourished in justification of the classical 
 learning, or even from earlier times as claimed by 
 Locke (31) in his statement "Formal disciphne has 
 been invoked from Plato's time to the present as a 
 defense of the courses in mathematics," the theory of 
 formal discipline has been held as almost axiomatic, 
 but with the abandonment of the old ''faculty" psy- 
 chology, it has lost its main prop and its subsequent 
 subjection to experimental investigation has left the 
 theory on a somewhat unstable foundation. We can- 
 not estabhsh the truth or the falsity of the doctrine 
 on a 'priori grounds in this scientific age, but must 
 subject it to many careful, scientifically conducted 
 and controlled experiments covering a wide range of 
 school subjects and performed with school children of 
 various ages, grades, mental attainments, and environ- 
 ments; for its reliability cannot be based longer upon 
 
 1 Reference numbers in parentheses refer to the bibliography at the 
 end of the book. 
 
Z THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 psychological experiments, pure and simple, per- 
 formed upon a few adults in college laboratories with 
 complex apparatus. 
 
 The experimental investigations until within the 
 last few years have been mainly psychological, con- 
 ducted by professors of colleges with college or uni- 
 versity students or instructors as subjects, neces- 
 sarily few in number; and only recently have tests 
 been made with school children. Of these, a small 
 number have been tried in this country, and they have 
 been for the most part confined to the elementary 
 schools. Judd (28) describes formal discipline as the 
 "great problem of High-School education." The sub- 
 jects of the elementary school are studied mainly for 
 their content value and their practical relationship to 
 the future normal life of the child fitted for the de- 
 mands of his environment. Grammar may be a pos- 
 sible exception, although this should be taught from 
 the standpoint of improving the child's English, 
 rather than as a mental discipline. In the high school, 
 however, nearly every study claims as one of the best 
 reasons for its introduction into, or continuance in, the 
 course of study, some definite mental training which 
 will carry over into other walks of life, however re- 
 motely related. Mathematics is said to train the reason- 
 ing powers, science the observational abilities, liter- 
 ature and history the imagination, etc. Thus we can 
 agree with Judd (28) that the ''final answer of the 
 question will relate to the work of the High School." 
 We must not argue or speculate about the matter, 
 but we must investigate these claims for the various 
 studies and support them by definite tests or refute 
 them by similar carefully conducted and controlled 
 experiments. Many experiments will be required 
 
INTEODUCTION 6 
 
 upon all the subjects and under varying conditions, 
 before we can generalize scientifically as to the validity 
 of the doctrine. But with the question of the value 
 of the disciplinary view of the studies in the balance, 
 it would be well to look to the content side until such 
 time as the theory has been definitely proved or dis- 
 proved. Burt's (10) advice is to ''emphasize and 
 extend the elements shared by the curriculum and the 
 conditions of school in common with the conditions 
 and requirements of life." 
 
 The experiments performed and described by the 
 author have been undertaken with the object of con- 
 tributing a mite to the countless ones necessary to 
 determine the validity or falsity of the disciplinary 
 conception^ especially as applied to high-school sub- 
 jects. 
 
PART I. HISTORICAL. 
 
 I. Aims of Investigators. 
 
 Reviewing the experimental researches on this 
 topic, we find that while the aims of the investigators 
 have been manifold, they may be grouped under sev- 
 eral main divisions. First, we may classify them as 
 primarily psychological or primarily pedagogical. 
 
 Psychological. 
 
 1. Experirnents on the effect of training of one kind 
 of sensitiveness on other kinds of sensitiveness. These 
 include those of Bennett (6) to test the effect on dis- 
 crimination of length by the eye as a result of practice 
 in discriminating length by arm^mov ements; those of 
 Wallin (58, 60) to attempt to control the reversions 
 in a number of reversible perspective outlines; those 
 of Seashore and Jenner (42) on the training of the 
 voice by the aid of the eye in singing; those of Coover 
 and Angell (12) to test the general practice effect of 
 special exercise, including experiments on the transfer 
 of practice effects in sound to light discriminations, 
 and the transference of practice in sorting cards to 
 ''typewriter reactions"; those of Thorndike and 
 Woodworth (53) on the effects of practice in estimating 
 length of lines on estimating length of lines, areas, 
 and weights; on the effects of practice in picking out 
 and marking words of some one special sort on the 
 observation of words containing certain combinations 
 of letters and picking out and marking certain letters; 
 and those of Urbantshitsch (56) on the effects of 
 
AIMS OF INVESTIGATORS 5 
 
 practice with sound stimuli on tactual, gustatory, 
 olfactory, and visual stimuli. 
 
 2. Experiments on the accuracy of voluntary effort 
 and the effect of special training on the general rapidity 
 and accuracy of motor adjustments. These experi- 
 ments include those of Davis (14) to test the accuracy 
 of voluntary effort in lunging at a target, those of 
 Jastrow (27) to test quickness of response to touch 
 and visual stimuli; those of Gilbert and Fracker 
 (reviewed by Thorndike, 54) to test quickness in 
 moving the finger at a given signal; those of Swift 
 (52) to test the acquisition of skill in the complex 
 muscular act of keeping three balls in the air, and in 
 typewriting; those of Judd (2) to test the influence of 
 training in the judgment of direction of lines, and the 
 transfer of practice in the Mijiler-Lyer illusion; those 
 of Foster (18) to test the effect of practice upon visual- 
 izing and upon the reproduction of visual impressions; 
 those of Whipple (62) to test the effect of practice 
 upon the range of visual attention and visual appre- 
 hension; those of Bergstrom (7) on sorting cards, 
 wherein was tested the interference of habits formed 
 with ability to perform opposite acts; those of Bair 
 (21, 54) to test effects of special training on general 
 power to meet new situations; those of Munsterberg 
 (21, 35) to test whether a habit associated with a 
 given sensory stimulus can continue automatically, 
 while some effect of a previous and different habit 
 associated with the same stimulus remains; those of 
 Ruger (41) to test the transfer of specific motor habits. 
 3. Experiments on the effect of special training on 
 the general rapidity and accuracy of memorizing. Here 
 are included those of James (21, 25, 54) to test improve- 
 ment in memory after special training in memorizing 
 
b THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 poetry; those of Ebert and Meumann (2, 21) to test 
 the effect of practice in memorizing meaningless 
 syllables on the power of immediate recall and reten- 
 tion of numbers, letters, monosyllabic nouns, words of 
 Italian prose and poetry, visual signs, etc.; those of 
 Fracker (19, 21) to test the effect of practice in memor- 
 izing four tones on memorizing poetry, four shades 
 of gray, nine geometrical figures, nine numbers, extent 
 of arm movements, etc.; those of Jansen (26) to test 
 similar points to those of Prof. Meumann; those of 
 Bennett (6) to test the effect of practice in memorizing 
 poetry on memorizing rows of figures and names of 
 places; those of Thorndike and Woodworth (21, 53) to 
 test the influence of special training in memorizing on 
 the general ability to memorize. 
 
 4. Experiments on cross-education or the transference 
 of practice from one member to a symmetrical one. These 
 comprise those of Davis (14, 54) to test transference 
 of motor ability from the practised right hand to the 
 unpractised left in lunging at a target; those of Scrip- 
 ture (44) to test transference of ability from the right 
 hand practised on a mercury dynamometer to the 
 unpractised left hand; those of Scripture, Smith, and 
 Brown (45, 54) to show transfer from the right hand, 
 practised on inserting a needle into a hole without 
 touching the sides, to the unpractised left hand; those 
 of Raif (37, 44), who performed similar experiments 
 in piano playing; those of Wallin (58, 60) to attempt 
 to control the reversions in a number of reversible 
 perspective outlines, in which he found that practice 
 with one eye afforded practice for the other unused 
 eye; those of Volkmann (21, 54), reviewed by Hender- 
 son and Thorndike, showing the effect of practice in 
 training the sensitiveness of the skin of the left arm, 
 
AIMS OF INVESTIGATORS 7 
 
 upon the right arm; those of Swift (52) to test the 
 acquisition of skill in the complex muscular act of 
 tossing three balls, in which he found that practice 
 transferred from the right to the left hand; those of 
 Starch (50), who found in the experiment of tracing 
 the outline of a six-pointed star as seen in a mirror 
 that improvement was transferred from the left to 
 the right hand; those of Davis (14, 54) to show the 
 transfer of tapping ability with the toe of one foot 
 to the unpractised toe and to show the increase in 
 girth of the right arm and the left arm through lifting 
 a weight with the right arm; and those of Woodworth 
 (54) showing a transfer of practice in hitting a dot 
 with the right hand to the unpractised left. 
 
 Pedagogical. 
 
 In the pedagogical field, the aims of the experi- 
 mental investigations have been more limited. The 
 experiments with school children have been confined 
 to few school subjects and few mental abilities. Miss 
 Aiken's (1) pioneer experiments, described in 1896, 
 and her astounding results argue well for the validity 
 of the doctrine of formal discipline. Recently, Dal- 
 lenbach (13) has made Aiken's experiments, together 
 with the laboratory studies of Whipple (62) and of 
 Foster (18) on visualization, the basis of an exhaustive 
 scientific test on elementary school-children. His 
 results tend to support those of Miss Aiken and lead 
 to the conclusion that experiments with adults are not 
 reliable tests of what occurs with school-children. 
 
 Pedagogical experiments relating to this topic may 
 be grouped under those concerned with college stu- 
 dents and those concerned with school children. The 
 school subjects utilized for investigatory purposes 
 
8 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 have been arithmetic, spelHng, and grammar and the 
 mental abiUties, memory, habits, and ideals. Arith- 
 metical experiments with college students include 
 those of Starch (49) to test the transfer of training in 
 arithmetical operations; those of Lewis (30) and Collins 
 (11) to ascertain the relation between mathematics 
 and general reasoning; and those of Rietz and Shade 
 (38) to discover the correlation of efficiency in mathe- 
 matics and in other studies, while with elementary or 
 high-school pupils Winch (67, 68) has experimented 
 to discover if improvement in numerical accuracy 
 transfers, Lewis (30) has found interesting data in 
 regard to the relation between mathematical and 
 practical reasoning, and Stone (51) has tested the 
 relation between distinctive procedures in arithmetic 
 work and the resulting abilities. Wallin (59) has 
 tested elementary pupils to ascertain if spelling ef- 
 ficiency acquired in column drill transfers to dictated 
 compositions, and Briggs (9) has investigated the 
 disciplinary effects of formal English grammar. 
 
 With reference to mental abilities, memory has re- 
 ceived most attention, although reason has been given 
 some attention, as in the experiments of Lewis and 
 Collins, cited above. College students have been 
 used by Sleight for experimentation in regard to the 
 transfer of memory, while elementary pupils have 
 been made subjects of investigation by Winch to test 
 immediate memory, both visual and auditory, and to 
 test the transfer of improvement in memory; and by 
 Sleight (46, 47) to ascertain if memory training is 
 general or specific. 
 
 The effect of special habits on the general conduct 
 or habits of school children has been tested by Squire 
 (3) and by Ruediger (40). Squire's aim was to test 
 the transfer of neatness and accuracy in arithmetic 
 
AIMS OF INVESTIGATORS 9 
 
 papers to other school subjects, while that of Ruediger 
 was to test the influence of ideals of neatness in im- 
 proving the written work of the 7th-grade school 
 children. Judd (2) in his target experiment has demon- 
 strated the value of a recognized method. 
 
 There is urgent need for investigation in regard to 
 other school subjects and other mental powers if the 
 problem is to be solved satisfactorily, and it is to be 
 hoped that the experiments may be undertaken by the 
 classroom teacher, drilled in the methods of experi- 
 mental pedagogy, for only then will there be sufficient 
 trained investigators and optimal conditions for work 
 that may produce unassailable conclusions. 
 
 11. Means, Methods, Results and Conclusions 
 OF Experimental Investigations. 
 
 The means employed by the various investigators 
 have been almost as numerous as their aims. Under 
 this heading are included apparatus and materials 
 used and the subjects of the investigation. In many 
 cases, especially in the psychological experiments, 
 the apparatus has been quite complicated, while the 
 subjects have been generally few in number and usually 
 those possessing psychologically trained minds. The 
 same is true of several of the pedagogical experiments, 
 while, as has been previously stated, few school chil- 
 dren, especially in this country, have been used as 
 reagents. 
 
 As widely different as are the aims and materials 
 of the many investigators of the doctrine of formal 
 discipline, just as widely divergent are the methods 
 pursued. 
 
 The results and conclusions obtained will warrant 
 a separation of the investigators into two groups — 
 those in favor of the doctrine and those opposed. 
 
10 THE DOCTRINE OF FOEMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 Psychological Experiments. 
 
 1. Effect of training of one kind of sensitiveness on 
 other kinds. The apparatus used by Bennett (6) in 
 discrimination of length by the eye as a result of prac- 
 tice in discriminating length by the knowledge gained 
 from arm-movements, consisted of 2 parallel, hori- 
 zontal, steel rods, 2 feet long and 13^2 inches apart. 
 On the lower rod were two spools fixed immovably 
 25 cm. apart, and on the upper rod were two spools 
 which were freely movable. In the training the two 
 subjects were required to move the two movable 
 spools on the upper rod to equate their distance to 
 that of the immovable spools on the lower rod, through 
 the sensation derived by arm-movement. The final 
 tests were visual estimates of length. The result of the 
 experiment was negative; one subject showed improve- 
 ment, but the other an equal degree of lack of im- 
 provement. 
 
 In the experiments of Wallin (58) to attempt to 
 control the reversions in a number of reversible per- 
 spective outlines, the apparatus consisted of drawings 
 of a parallelopiped, a book, a table, and a pyramid. 
 Two subjects practiced in attempting to envisage 
 uniformly the infrequent or non-predominant per- 
 spective, in all cases monocularly. Wallin found that 
 perspectivity was subject to a high degree of practice 
 control. In 9,246 trials, the per cent, of successful 
 control in three groups amounted to 40, 62, and 82. 
 There was an average gain of 42 per cent, between the 
 first and last 20 days of the series. He also found 
 that the practice effects were transferred to the un- 
 practised eye. ''In a given series of experiments in 
 which the figures were reversed in the direct and 
 indirect visual fields, it appeared that the reversions 
 
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS 11 
 
 occurred about 23^ times faster when the figures were 
 directly regarded instead of being seen by the peri- 
 pheral retina. But after practice with certain figures, 
 it sometimes happened that the figures reversed most 
 readily when a point outside the figures was fixated." 
 This furnishes an instance of the transference to the 
 peripheral retina of fixation motives attaching to the 
 fovea. Here an acquired foveal disposition spread to 
 the adjacent retinal elements, or the foveal tendency 
 was transmuted into a ''generalized retinal habit." 
 
 Seashore and Jenner's (42) experiments on the 
 training of the voice by the aid of the eye in singing, 
 made use of the voice tonoscope. Each of the six 
 observers sang before the speaking tube. The tests 
 were divided into: (1) accuracy in striking a required 
 pitch, (2) the least producible change in pitch (minimal 
 change). The preliminary practice was given with 
 six observers. Each period of practice consisted of 
 160 trials, which took about 45 minutes. Tests were 
 given for 12 days; the first 5 days "without aid," 
 the singer depended entirely on the ear; and the next 
 5 days with aid, that is, the record was read from the 
 tonoscope in each trial ; the eleventh day the record was 
 taken without aid again; and the record of the twelfth 
 day was taken with the aid. Their conclusions per- 
 tinent to the topic in hand are: (1) "The aid enhances 
 the ability to strike a tone which has been heard." 
 There was 42 per cent, superiority of the aided series 
 over the unaided. (2) "The aid enhances the ability 
 to sing an interval." The aided series was superior 
 to the unaided 50 per cent, in singing a major third, 
 50 per cent, in singing a fifth, and 60 per cent, in sing- 
 ing an octave. (3) The voluntary control of the 
 pitch of the voice is improved 26 per cent, by the aid. 
 
12 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 (4) ''There is probably some transfer of gain from the 
 aided training to the following unaided singing." 
 
 (5) "There is no evidence of the transfer of gain in 
 the accuracy of the memory image." (6) "The gain 
 in the discriminative control of the pitch of the voice 
 is fully transferred. (7) "Improvements in the ability 
 to strike a tone, or an interval, and the ability to 
 produce a minimal change are very much more pro- 
 nounced and more rapid in the aided than in the 
 unaided series." These seven points show that "by 
 the use of the tonoscope we facilitate in a decided 
 manner the ability to sing in true pitch and the im- 
 provement is almost immediate." (8) It seems prob- 
 able "that a higher degree of accuracy of pitch in 
 singing may be attained by aiding the ear in the train- 
 ing than would be possible to attain without such 
 aid." 
 
 Coover's and Angell's (12) investigations to test 
 the general practice effect of special exercise included 
 experiments on the transfer of practice effects in 
 sound to light discriminations and the transfer of 
 practice in card-sorting to "typewriter reactions." 
 In the former experiment, four reagents were trained 
 by means of a sound pendulum in discrimination of 
 intensities of sound for 17 days during a period of 57 
 days, and each reagent made 40 judgments in each 
 day's training. Before and after training, the reagents 
 were tested in the discrimination of shades of gray. 
 Each test consisted of three series, of 35 judgments 
 each, delivered on three separate days. Control 
 reagents were given the tests. It was found that 
 there was an improvement in three of the trained sub- 
 jects of 7, 5, and 15 per cent, respectively, but a 
 failure in one of them; the control reagents showed a 
 
EXPEEIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS 13 
 
 loss in discriminative ability in the final tests. Coover 
 and Angell concluded that the '^ improvement seems 
 to consist of divesting the essential process of the un- 
 essential factors," that "efficiency of sensible dis- 
 crimination acquired by training with sound stimuli 
 has been transferred to the efficiency of discriminating 
 brightness stimuli and that the factors in the transfer 
 are due in great part to habituation and to a more 
 economic adaptation of attention, i. e., are general 
 rather than specific in character." In their second 
 experiment just referred to, in which reaction with 
 discrimination (choice) was tested, four reagents 
 were trained through four days in card-sorting, during 
 which 4000 cards were distributed by each reagent. 
 They were tested for five days on 'typewriter reac- 
 tions" — about 3000 reactions in each case; and after 
 training in card-sorting, an after test was given for 
 three days which included about 1800 reactions. 
 The results warranted the conclusion that ''training 
 in card-sorting is the cause of the increased ease and 
 facility experienced by the regular reagents in the 
 second trial in 'typewriter reactions'"; but this im- 
 provement is not considered due to "identical ele- 
 ments." "The general condition that is common to 
 both is the habit of stripping the essential process of 
 unnecessary and complicating accessories." The cause 
 of transference of facility is the formation of a habit 
 of reacting directly to a stimulus, which results in an 
 equitable distribution of attention and the conse- 
 quent power of concentrating the attention. 
 
 Thorndike and Woodworth (53) in their tests of 
 improvement in mental functions used magnitudes, 
 such as lines of various lengths, areas of different 
 sizes, and weights of several magnitudes; the practice 
 
14 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 work was on estimating magnitudes of the same gen- 
 eral sort. They also tested the ''influence of training 
 in observing words containing certain combinations of 
 letters or some other characteristic, on the general 
 ability to observe words." The subject practised 
 picking out and marking words of some one special 
 sort until a high degree of proficiency was attained. 
 From four to six subjects were used in the various 
 experiments, all of which tested the "influence of 
 improvement in a function on other functions closely 
 allied to it." 
 
 Their conclusions were as follows: "It is misleading 
 to speak of sense discrimination, attention, memory, 
 observation, accuracy, quickness, etc., as multitudinous 
 separate individual functions are referred to by any 
 one of these words." "There is no reason to suppose 
 that any general change occurs corresponding to the 
 words 'improvement of the attention,' or 'of the power 
 of observation,' or 'of accuracy.'" "Improvement in 
 any single mental function rarely brings about equal 
 improvement in any other function, no matter how 
 similar, for the working of every mental function- 
 group is conditioned by the nature of the data in 
 each particular case." "The general consideration of 
 the cases of retention or of loss of practice effect seems 
 to make it likely that spread of practice occurs only 
 where identical elements are concerned in the influ- 
 encing and influenced functions." 
 
 Urbantschitsch (56) studied pathological cases with 
 diseases of the eye and ear and found that stimulation 
 also affects parts seemingly not immediately concerned. 
 An hour's operation on the right eye showed on the 
 left a relative enhancement of the capacity to see. In 
 many patients with chronic catarrh of the middle 
 
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS 15 
 
 ear, the observer was surprised to find that an import- 
 ant pathological influence was transferred from the 
 ear to vision. In a later investigation he demon- 
 strated that the sensitivity for tactual, gustatory, 
 olfactory, and visual stimulation can be increased by 
 practice with auditory stimulation. 
 
 To summarize the conclusions of the investigators 
 upon the topic of the effect on other kinds of sensi- 
 tivity of training one kind of sensitivity, we find that 
 Wallin, Seashore and Jenner, Coover and Angell, and 
 Urbantschitsch subscribe to the doctrine of transfer, 
 but Thorndike and Woodworth are opposed. Ben- 
 nett's tests must be disregarded, as the two reagents 
 obtained results diametrically opposed. The results of 
 Wallin and Bennett could be set aside on the ground 
 of having too few subjects, unless their results were 
 subsequently verified by other observers. In all of 
 the tests, the subjects were too few in number, but the 
 results of Seashore and Jenner, of Coover and Angell, 
 and of Urbantschitsch, seem to place the preponder- 
 ance of scientific conclusion on the affirmative side. 
 
 2. Experiments on the accuracy of voluntary effort 
 and the effect of special training on the general rapidity 
 and accuracy of motor adjustments. Here, many 
 diverse methods have been used, with resultant dis- 
 similarity of results and inferences. 
 
 Davis (14) used a target and a fencer's foil, and 
 worked with six subjects. He had 10 thrusts made 
 with the right hand and recorded on a paper target. 
 After five minutes, the record of 10 thrusts with the 
 left hand was made on another paper target. The 
 initial tests were repeated after 10 days' practice of 
 10 thrusts daily with the right hand. It was found 
 that the subjects could be educated in accuracy and 
 
16 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 co-ordination of voluntary movement. The left hand 
 improved from 57.2 per cent, to 36.5 per cent, nearer 
 the center of the target ; while the right hand improved 
 from 50.5 per cent, to 24.3 per cent. Increase in ac- 
 curacy is due to practice in lunging. His experiments 
 did not test the transfer of this special training to other 
 motor adjustments, but only to the bilaterally sym- 
 metrical organ. 
 
 Jastrow (27), in testing quickness of response to 
 tactile and visual stimuli, experimented with two 
 *'Sleight-of-Hand Experts," Kellar and Hermann, 
 and with miscellaneous individuals for the control. 
 The tests included measurements with the aesthesi- 
 ometer, judgments of weights of different magnitudes, 
 and tests of sensitiveness to texture, for which coils of 
 different sized wire were utilized. The results showed 
 that Hermann's and Kellar's tactual and muscular per- 
 ception were below normal. With the Weber compass, 
 Hermann could distinguish the points at 3.5 mm. 
 distance, Kellar at 2.5 mm., and the average for mis- 
 cellaneous individuals at 2 mm. Herman was unsuc- 
 cessful, Kellar successful, in arranging in correct order 
 five weights, each of which weighed y^ more than 
 the previous weight. In a general series of tests, 
 92 per cent, of those tested arranged the series cor- 
 rectly. In the tests with the different sized wires, 
 "both Mr. Hermann and Mr. Kellar succeeded in ar- 
 ranging both series correctly, but this was also done 
 by nine out of ten persons who were tested in the 
 same way." Quite a number of tests of the quickness 
 of movement and of mental processes, and of visual 
 perception, were made. Some of the ordinary forms 
 of reaction experiments were also tried. Tests to find 
 out the comprehensiveness of perception were likewise 
 
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS 17 
 
 given. Selecting those tests in which the records of 
 Hermann and of Kellar differ markedly from the 
 normal, Jastrow finds: "In the quickness of response 
 to a touch and a visual stimulus both the special sub- 
 jects, and Mr. Kellar as well in response to an audi- 
 tory stimulus, excelled to a considerable extent the 
 average individual." But in the ''most complicated 
 reaction they both fall considerably below the normal." 
 There are decided indications of unusual quickness 
 for both; but no very decided excellence appears in 
 the scope and accuracy of visual perception. "In 
 tests involving mainly tactual and muscular percep- 
 tion, the indication is rather that they are below than 
 above the normal." Thus Jastrow concludes that 
 "the positive results of the investigation are thus 
 small, but as far as they go they are consistent with 
 the forms of dexterity that are utilized in sleight-of- 
 hand performances." "They also indicate that it 
 may well be that special skill in one very specialized 
 form of training may be only slightly influential upon 
 other forms of capacity." 
 
 In Gilbert's and Fracker's (54) experiments, re- 
 viewed by Thorndike, two subjects were tested for 
 their quickness in moving the finger, (1) when they 
 heard a certain sound, (2) when they felt a certain 
 electric shock, (3) when they felt a certain blow, and 
 (4) when they saw a blue surface. They were also 
 tested for their quickness in moving the finger at these 
 same stimuli when either the given sound or one less 
 loud, either the given shock or one less intense, either 
 the given blow or one less hard, and either a blue or 
 a red might appear. They were trained for a number 
 of days in quickness in reacting to the sound, (a) 
 when only it was given, (b) when either it or the weaker 
 
18 THE DOCTEINE OP FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 sound might be given. Then they were tested as 
 before. It was found that there was an improvement 
 in all cases, except one case with one observer. One 
 observer was trained only in (a) quickness in reacting 
 to sound. He improved markedly in the correspond- 
 ing tests, but not so much as the others in the second 
 set of tests. Thorndike explains this improvement on 
 the ground of "identical elements." Elements com- 
 mon to all these tests are concentrated attention, 
 alertness, effort, co-ordination of sensory and motor 
 areas, and rapidity of discrimination. 
 -' Swift's (52) experiments on the testing of the 
 acquisition of skill in keeping two balls going with 
 one hand, were made with solid rubber balls. There 
 were six subjects — five university students and one 
 professor. Ten series were given; each of which con- 
 sisted in throwing until failure to catch one or both 
 balls. Practice was with the right hand, but there 
 was a preliminary test with the left. He discovered 
 that progress was at first slow and then more rapid. 
 There was great irregularity of advance. Progress 
 was by ''jumps." A ''warming up" is necessary but 
 "steady and calm intensity makes for progress." He 
 also found transference of practice effects from the 
 right hand to the left. Swift, himself, performed an 
 experiment which combined physical and mental 
 tests, in the acquisition of skill in typewriting. He 
 wrote one hour each day from copy. Here, he also 
 found that the rise of the practice curve is rapid, but 
 that there is irregularity from day to day. In both 
 of Swift's experiments, there is no test of the transfer 
 to other abilities of special ability gained by practice. 
 It was discovered that training of the right hand was 
 effective upon the left, but he does not believe that 
 
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS 19 
 
 this gives any support to the doctrine of ''formal 
 education." "There is no evidence to show that 
 training has general value." 
 
 Judd's (2) method in testing the influence of train- 
 ing in the judgment of direction of lines, was to place 
 his one subject with his right hand hidden from his 
 own view by a screen. On the left of the screen, nine 
 different lines were shown in succession and the ob- 
 server was required to place a pencil held in the unseen 
 right hand in the direction indicated by the several 
 lines seen by him. The subject was trained to the 
 more accurate localization of one line, No. 5. After 
 improvement, the original conditions were restored 
 and the tests again made. Every line was affected in 
 the final test. ''This means that there had been a 
 transfer of effects under the conditions of the training 
 described." A new practice series was begun with 
 Line No. 2, and the amount of practice given was 
 much greater in quantity and more radical in type, 
 but the subject remained relatively unaffected. Judd's 
 conclusions are that "joint improvement is only one 
 of the possible forms of transfer; reciprocal inter- 
 ference is just as significant a type of relation and 
 just as certainly a type of transfer as is joint improve- 
 ment," and "the closing up of the possibilities of future 
 practice is much more important a consequence of 
 any practice series than the direct transfer of effects 
 to other functions." In the experiments on the 
 transfer of practice in the Miiller-Lyer illusion, two 
 observers were tested in the comparison of two com- 
 plex geometrical figures. Judd found that both 
 learned to apprehend the lines correctly in about the 
 same number of comparisons. When the figures 
 were reversed and a second series of tests begun, the 
 
20 THE DOCTKINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 observer who knew about the effect of practice ad- 
 justed himself to the new demands and rapidly over- 
 came the illusion. The other showed greater error 
 and no disposition to improve. Judd concluded that 
 "the practice gained in the first series was transferred 
 in both cases; in one case, it worked improvement; in 
 the other, it increased the illusion, and rendered the 
 observer incapable of rapid readjustment." 
 
 In Foster's (18) experiments on the effect of prac- 
 tice upon visualizing and upon the reproduction of 
 visual impressions, real objects, pictures, and non- 
 sense-drawings were exposed to three observers for 
 10-60 seconds. They were required to reproduce by 
 drawing and description. He found ability to repro- 
 duce increased with practice, it was rapid at first and 
 slow later. 
 
 Whipple (62), in testing the effect of practice upon 
 the range of visual attention used a disc-tachistoscope 
 and 5-, 6-, and 7-place nonsense combinations of letters. 
 The subjects were six college students, each of whom 
 observed 124-250 exposures of .08 second's duration. 
 His results show that the average number of letters 
 that can be grasped in a single exposure lies between 
 4 and 5 (4.82). ''Attention and effortful observa- 
 tion through a series of from one to two hundred or 
 more exposures has a curiously small effect upon the 
 range of attention." ''Adult observers very quickly 
 reach a physiological limit of visual observation when 
 the exposure is so restricted as to prohibit eye-move- 
 ments and roving of attention." In studying the 
 range of visual apprehension, the form of material to 
 be used — dots, pictures, nonsense-syllables, drawings, 
 or stanzas of poetry — was stated and the exposure 
 with the tachistoscope for 3 seconds was made when 
 
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS 21 
 
 the observers were thoroughly prepared by fixation 
 and attention to receive it. Again, groups of ten 
 objects upon a table were exposed for 6 seconds. 
 Three observers performed these experiments. ''The 
 most striking quantitative results of these tests is the 
 very small increase for certain kinds of material in 
 the number of items observed with the exposures of 3 
 and 6 seconds as compared with the exposure of .08 
 seconds (range of attention tests)." "With an ex- 
 posure of 6 seconds, the average number of objects 
 named was 6.05, while with an exposure only tV as 
 long, between 4 and 5 objects could be named." The 
 tables show facts that "negative the idea of general 
 ability in apprehension or even of general ability in 
 visual apprehension: we may state only that a given 
 individual excels in the attentive observation of pic- 
 tures, of drawings, of words, or of certain kinds of 
 objects, etc., not that he excels in all-round observa- 
 tion." The table also "seems to show the improb- 
 ability of a series of classroom exercises training and 
 developing general capacity to attend." 
 
 Bergstrom (7), in his study of the relation of the 
 interference effect to the practice effect of an associ- 
 ation, sorted 80 cards into 10 different piles, each 
 containing 8 cards with the same picture. In sorting 
 the same pack a second time, a given card could be 
 placed in the same position as the first time or in one 
 of nine other positions. If put in the same, it is a 
 simple practice effect, and if in a different one it is an 
 interference effect. The cards were sorted with the 
 greatest possible speed. He found that the "inter- 
 ference effect of an association bears a constant rela- 
 tion to the practice effect and is in fact equivalent to 
 it." The variations are due to memory. 
 
22 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 Bair's (54) method in his studies of the influence of 
 special training on general power to meet new situa- 
 tions was to label 6 keys of a typewriter with 6 sym- 
 bols (letters or figures). Fifty-five of these letters or 
 figures (in chance order) were now shown one by one, 
 and the subject on seeing one taps the corresponding 
 key. Record was kept of the time taken to tap out 
 the series. Six different symbols were then used in a 
 new series and the subjects' time-record taken as 
 before. In a similar manner, twenty different sets of 
 symbols were used. There were four subjects. A 
 steady improvement was found in the time taken to 
 tap out a series. In another experiment, he took daily 
 records for twenty days of the time required to repeat 
 the alphabet from memory, repeating it forwards 
 and backwards and inserting the letter 7i between 
 each letter in two other repetitions. The test exer- 
 cises consisted of repeating the alphabet forwards and 
 backwards and inserting x and r. He again found 
 improvement in the tested series. 
 
 Miinsterberg (35) studied the interesting theo- 
 retical problem whether a habit associated with a 
 given sensory stimulus can continue automatically, 
 while some effect of a previous and different habit 
 associated with the same stimulus remains. The 
 experiments were made with his inkstand, his watch, 
 and the doors of his laboratory. For instance he exer- 
 cised the habit of taking his watch out of his pocket 
 on the left side until it became automatic. Then he 
 practised taking it out on the right side until the new 
 habit was automatic. He then returned to the old 
 habit and found that it took less time to relearn this 
 than it did to learn the second. He concluded that 
 some effect of the first habit remained, although the 
 
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS 23 
 
 second had become automatic. When this process 
 was repeated several times, the time required for re- 
 learning each of the two habits decreased, following 
 the laws of the practice curve. He maintains that 
 apparently contradictory habits do not destroy each 
 other; at fii'st, it is hard to create the new habit, but 
 once formed, it is easy to shift back and forth from 
 one to the other. 
 
 Ruger (41) in testing the transfer of specific motor 
 habits in his study of the Psychology of Efficiency, 
 had his subjects from the psychological laboratory, 
 use ''animal" and ''human" methods in taking 
 apart or putting together various puzzles. The pre- 
 liminary and final tests consisted in testing a subject 
 with a puzzle thrown in chance positions. The train- 
 ing consisted in handling four special but important 
 positions. The training of another subject consisted 
 entirely of chance positions in a series about half the 
 length of the first subject's series. The second tests 
 of the first subject showed no improvement over the 
 initial results and were inferior to those of the second 
 subject. "This failure to profit by the highly special- 
 ized training seems to have been due to the lack of a 
 generalized rule of procedure." Ruger therefore con- 
 cluded that "in general, the value of specific habits 
 under a change of conditions depended directly on 
 the presence of a general idea which would serve for 
 their control." In regard to concrete imagery he 
 found that "the value of the image as well as of the 
 motor habit depended on the precision of the analysis." 
 As regards attitude and attention, he concluded that 
 "no evidence was secured in favor of an automatic 
 change in level of attention but there were indications 
 of its indirect control by means of ideals of what 
 
24 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 constituted an efficient state of attention." Among 
 the most important of the ideals of method were the 
 ''idea of efficiency as a goal to be reached, ideals of 
 scientific method, and the ideal of an optimum per- 
 sonal attitude." 
 
 Summarizing the results and conclusions of the 
 eleven authors whose experiments have just been briefly 
 described, it will be readily seen that not a great deal 
 of evidence has been produced either for or against 
 the doctrine of transference. The inference that 
 improvement results from practice is supported almost 
 unanimously. Some interesting evidence is deduced 
 in regard to the interference of practice effects. Some 
 of the experiments give data in regard to "cross- 
 education." Where it was desired to secure informa- 
 tion upon the subject of the transfer of practice, the 
 practice was in all cases so similar to the tests that 
 improvement in the practice series naturally resulted 
 in improvement in the final tests. Obviously, some 
 of the tests in both the preliminary and final series 
 should be as dissimilar to the practice series as possible. 
 This similarity warrants the explanation of transfer- 
 ence as due to "identical elements" or "similarity of 
 method or ideas." In some cases, the limited number 
 of the subjects precludes generalization, as does also 
 the securing of results diametrically opposed by inde- 
 pendent investigators. Davis, Swift, Judd, Foster, 
 Bair, Miinsterberg, and Ruger all found that improve- 
 ment results from practice. Judd and Bergstrom 
 emphasized the importance of interference as well as of 
 practice effects, but in their experiments only one or 
 two subjects were used, while Bah' and Miinsterberg 
 claim that apparently contradictory habits do not 
 destroy one another. Davis and Swift in their tests 
 
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS 25 
 
 obtained evidence with regard to the transference of 
 practice from the right to the left hand. Of those 
 who entered upon the investigation of transfer, Gil- 
 bert and Fracker, Judd, and Ruger admitted that 
 some transfer occurred while Jastrow and Whipple 
 found no evidence of its existence. In most of the 
 cases the subjects were too few in number and the 
 practice too similar to the tests to warrant trust- 
 worthy conclusions. 
 
 3. Experiments on the effect of special trainhig on 
 the general rapidity and accuracy of memorizing were 
 tried by James, Bennett, Ebert and Meumann, and 
 Fracker with contradictory results on the question of 
 improvement with practice and transfer. 
 
 James (25) took account of the time necessary for 
 each of five observers to learn a given amount of 
 poetry. Then all practised; James learned the first 
 book of Paradise Lost and the others varying amounts 
 of poetry. Then the time required to learn an amount 
 similar to that of the first test was taken for each of 
 the observers. James found that two subjects re- 
 quired more time for memorizing (one considerably 
 more) after training, and the other three subjects a 
 little less time; but he concluded that the tests were 
 long enough to give training on the test-verse, so the 
 experiment may be regarded as giving no evidence in 
 favor of transfer. 
 
 Bennett's (6) method was to have one observer 
 commit to memory 5 rows of figures, 30 figures in 
 each row, at the rate of one row per day. The train- 
 ing was carried on for 4 weeks, 16 lines from In Memor- 
 iam being memorized each day. The second ob- 
 server wrote out five lines of names of places, 15 
 names in each line, and committed one line each day. 
 
26 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 The practice was on two stanzas of the Faerie Queen 
 committed daily for 5 weeks. In each case the final 
 test was similar to the preliminary. Bennett found 
 that the final test in memorizing numbers required 
 58 per cent, of the time of the first test; while that in 
 memorizing names of places required 22 per cent, of 
 the time of the first test. He concluded that ''the 
 possible increase in the ability to remember figures, 
 could readily come from the special training in doing 
 that very thing in so many subjects of the curricu- 
 lum." "There is some sort of transfer from memor- 
 izing one class of facts to memorizing another class 
 of facts, and from memorizing prose to memorizing 
 poetry. Memorizing poetry gives increased ability 
 to memorize figures or names of places." 
 
 Ebert and Meumann (2, 6, 21) in their investiga- 
 tion to determine the effects of training in learning 
 material of one kind upon the capacity to learn mater- 
 ial of the same and different kinds, used eight subjects 
 whose memories were tested for ease of learning dif- 
 ferent sorts of material, such as series of letters, num- 
 bers, nonsense syllables, words, Italian words, strophes 
 of poetry, and selections of prose. They learned 32 
 series of nonsense syllables, 12 in a row; two series of 
 syllables on one day and tested the retention of two 
 more. Thus, they learned four series of 12 syllables 
 each on each of 16 days. At the end of this time the 
 first test material was relearned and the facility of 
 relearning was compared with the original. Then 
 there was another period of learning; four men trained 
 on 16 series of the same material as before; and four 
 had 32 series. Then the final test was given. Tests 
 were also made after 75-156 days of vacation. Their 
 results favor a belief in a general effect from special 
 
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS 27 
 
 training. There was a gain in the average perform- 
 ance of the 8 observers for each kind of material used. 
 There is a tendency for the gain to be greater in 
 material that is most closely related to that on which 
 practice was obtained, 59 per cent, of gain in memor- 
 izing numbers, 58.2 per cent, in letters, 42 per cent, 
 in nonsense syllables, while Italian words, poetry and 
 prose showed gains of 30 per cent., 27 per cent., and 
 29 per cent, respectively. They found that retentive- 
 ness was increased as well as quickness. Tests made 
 after the lapse of from 75-156 days of vacation showed 
 no loss of training; in some, an increase in memory 
 capacity. 
 
 Fracker (19) in his study of the transference of 
 training in memory, tested memory for poetry, the 
 order of four shades of gray, the order of nine tones, 
 the order of nine shades of gray, the order of four 
 tones, the order of nine geometrical figures, the order 
 of nine numbers, and the extent of arm-movement; 
 the training series was memory for four tones. The 
 subjects were eight college students and professors. 
 The instruments employed were the psychergograph 
 and the telephone. The four tones consisted of a 
 major chord and the nine numbers were of two figures 
 each. The following results were obtained: The 
 gain in the tests for poetry was not very great in the 
 case of any observer. The gain in the four shades of 
 gray was often greater than the gain in the training; 
 it was usually as great, seldom less. Four observers 
 gained more in the nine tones than in the training 
 series; two made the greatest gain in the nine tones of 
 any of the test experiments. He judged that the 
 ''influence of training seems to be very strong." 
 Three observers made a greater gain in the nine grays 
 
28 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 than in the training. One gained more in the four 
 tones (major chord) than in the training series, but no 
 observer made the greatest gain in this test. This 
 test was most like the training series and should have 
 shown the greatest gain, according to many investi- 
 gators' results as to the effects of practice. Fracker 
 thinks that the failure to gain was due to a different 
 method of response. One made the greatest gain in 
 the nine numbers' test. Fracker draws the general 
 conclusion that the "central or most essential ele- 
 ment in improvement is individual imagery" and the 
 ''improvement is more rapid if the imagery is con- 
 sciously developed." He also concluded that trans- 
 ference is due to ''identical elements" or a "spread 
 of training"; and he is in favor of the former, or in 
 favor of a "limited spread of training." 
 
 Reviewing these investigations, it is evident that 
 James reached conclusions leading him to discredit 
 the belief in transference effects when applied to mem- 
 ory tests, whereas Bennett, Ebert and Meumann, 
 and Fracker all obtained results which appear to be 
 overwhelmingly in favor of a "spread of training." 
 Bennett had only two reagents, but both showed a de- 
 cided amount of improvement, while the experiments 
 of Ebert and Meumann and of Fracker because of 
 the increased number of observers, the variety of 
 material used in the tests, and the number of the 
 tests, point almost conclusively to the reliability of 
 the belief in the spread of practice effects, at least in 
 memory work, even to material not closely related to 
 that used in the practice series. 
 
 ^. Data derived from experimentation in regard to 
 the effect of the training of one organ upon the bilater- 
 ally symmetrical one, or closely related member, have 
 
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS 29 
 
 been advanced in favor of the doctrine of formal 
 discipline. Investigations upon this subject have 
 been made by Davis, Scripture, Raif, Wallin, Volk- 
 mann, Swift, Starch, and Woodworth, among others. 
 The experiments of Davis (14), Swift (52), and Wallin 
 (58), in which they found a decided transference from 
 a practised to an unpractised member, have already 
 been referred to in other connections. 
 
 Scripture (44) had his subject take 10 records of 
 the right hand with a mercury dynamometer and 10 
 records of the left hand. Only the right hand was 
 practised and final tests taken with the left hand. 
 He found that the left hand had gained 50 per cent, 
 in strength. In another experiment, he had 20 trials 
 of each hand in inserting a needle into a hole without 
 touching the sides. The right hand was practised 
 200 times and the left hand again tested. The un- 
 practised left hand increased from 50 per cent, to 76 
 per cent, of successful trials. 
 
 Raif (37) tested the average speed of the finger 
 movements of each hand in 18 pupils. The exercises 
 to develop rapidity began with the right hand only. 
 The right hand increased from an average speed of 
 116 to 176 strokes per minute after 2 months' prac- 
 tice, whereas the left hand, entirely without practice, 
 increased from 112 to 152. 
 
 Volkmann (6, 14, 21, 54), in his experiments on the 
 influence of practice on the power of perceiving small 
 distances, tested the sensitiveness of both arms of 
 one subject for the two points of a Weber's compass. 
 The left arm was then practised for several weeks. 
 It was found that in the right arm, the distance of the 
 perception of the two points was reduced from 26.4 
 to 15.7 mm., while in the practised left, the reduction 
 
30 THE DOCTEINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 was from 23.6 to 11.2 mm. He also found that prac- 
 tice on one finger of the left hand gave increase in 
 ability in all the fingers, but none in the arm. 
 
 Starch (50) had two subjects trace the outline of a 
 six-pointed star as seen in a mirror. The subjects 
 traced one-half of one outline with the left hand. 
 Then one subject made ten complete outlines with 
 the right hand while the other made fifty. Both then 
 traced another half with the left hand. He found 
 that the average improvement in the right hand 
 after practice was 88 per cent, while the unpractised 
 left hand had improved 83 per cent. The subject 
 who had made 50 tracings with the right hand showed 
 an improvement of 82 per cent, and 68 per cent, with 
 the unpractised left hand. "Altogether the left hand 
 profits to the extent of 90 per cent, of the gain made 
 by the right hand." Ten laboratory students made 
 ten records with the right hand and improved on the 
 average 53 per cent. 
 
 Davis (14, 54) had six subjects tap on a telegraph 
 key with the right and left index fingers and right and 
 left great toes. The right great toe was practised 
 from 10-20 days. He found that improvement with 
 the right toe was accompanied by 151 per cent, as 
 much improvement in the left foot, 100 per cent, as 
 much in the right hand, and 83 per cent, as much in 
 the left hand. In another experiment, he took the 
 girth measurements of both arms of six subjects and the 
 number of times that each arm could raise five pounds. 
 The subjects were practised from two to four weeks 
 on the flexion of the right arm with weight. The 
 result showed that practice had effected an increase 
 in the girth measurements. The right arm increased 
 twice as much as the left, but the left made marked 
 gains. 
 
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS 31 
 
 Woodworth (54) practised the left hand of one 
 subject in hitting a dot at speeds of 40, 120, and 200 
 strokes a minute and tested the right hand before and 
 after practice. He found improvement in both hands. 
 
 Although in some instances the number of the 
 subjects of the investigations was quite limited, 
 still, because of the unanimity of results of the eight 
 investigators, there can be no question of the effects 
 of practice of one member upon its fellow. With 
 one exception, all of the paired external organs were 
 subjected to experimentation. Experiments were per- 
 formed with the hands, fingers, arms, toes, and eyes. 
 I do not recall any one's testing the effect of the prac- 
 tice of one ear upon the other, nor is it certain that 
 this would prove feasible because of the practical 
 impossibility of effectively closing up either avenue 
 of auditory stimuli. Practice was given to left-hand 
 members as well as to right-hand and with the same 
 results. While all the results are consistent, differ- 
 ences appear in the explanation of the results, in the 
 conclusions reached. Some are not in favor of per- 
 mitting results of experiments in cross-education to 
 contribute to the support of the doctrine of formal 
 discipline, while others consider them due to the 
 presence of "identical elements," a "transfer of 
 training" or a "co-ordination of movements." 
 
 Pedagogical Experiments. 
 
 1. Mathematics — A. College students. Starch (49), 
 in investigating the transfer of training in arith- 
 metical operations, used eight observers each having 
 fourteen days' practice in mental multiplication. 
 Seven others were also given the preliminary and 
 final tests which consisted of six tests in arithmetical 
 
32 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 operations and two tests in immediate auditory mem- 
 ory span. He found that the practised observers 
 showed from 20-40 per cent, more improvement in 
 the arithmetical tests than the unpractised; but that 
 there was Uttle change in memory span for either 
 group. He concludes that the "improvement in the 
 end test was due therefore to the 'identical elements' 
 acquired in the training series." 
 
 Lewis (30) examined the records of ten different 
 classes of Dartmouth students who had taken law 
 and mathematics, to discover the relation of reason- 
 ing in these two subjects. Fifty per cent, of the best 
 students in law were conspicuous for their poor show- 
 ing in mathematics, while 42 per cent, of those poorest 
 in law stood at the head of the series in mathematics. 
 
 Collins (11), in order to verify Lewis' results in the 
 above experiment and in a high-school experiment 
 to be described later, had eight instructors rank cer- 
 tain students in percentages as to their reasoning 
 power. These students were ranked in their ability 
 to carry on miscellaneous kinds of reasoning. By 
 means of marks from the school records, mathematics 
 grades were contrasted with the averages in United 
 States history and commercial geography. His results 
 are almost exactly opposite to those of Lewis and lead 
 to the conclusion that "with the exception of from 20- 
 25 per cent, of erratic people, those good in mathe- 
 matics are good in other subjects, those of average 
 ability in mathematics are of average ability in other 
 subjects and those poor in mathematics are poor in 
 other subjects." 
 
 Rietz and Shade (38) used college records and found 
 high correlation between efficiency in mathematics 
 and natural science and also between efficiency in 
 mathematics and in foreign languages. 
 
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS 33 
 
 B. Elementary and High-School Pupils. Winch 
 (67, 68) was most painstaking in his elaborate investi- 
 gations with school children. In his efforts to de- 
 termine if improvement in numerical accuracy trans- 
 fers, he tried five series of experiments, using different 
 schools, standards or grades, and neighborhoods. 
 In the first four series he divided the class into two 
 groups on the basis of record in arithmetical process. 
 After one-half had been trained on exercises in "rule" 
 sums, a final test in arithmetical reasoning was given 
 to both groups. There was an improvement in ac- 
 curacy of numerical computation during practice. 
 The first series of experiments was performed with 
 girls from a poor neighborhood. Standards VI and 
 VII, and ages 13 years. He found that, while an im- 
 provement was shown by the practised group in 
 numerical accuracy, it was insufficient to transfer. 
 In his second series of experiments, he used girls from 
 a poor neighborhood. Standard II, age 10 years. He 
 found considerable improvement in the practice series 
 and this was transferred to the final problem work. 
 ''Whereas the numerical accuracy of the non-practised 
 group was decidedly superior to that of the practised 
 group in the preliminary tests, yet after the practice 
 period, the position of the two groups, section by 
 section, is reversed." But from one of his tables, he 
 decided that it would be unsafe to conclude that any 
 transfer of accuracy had taken place. The third 
 series of experiments was given to girls of a good neigh- 
 borhood but of poor ability in arithmetic. Standard 
 III, age 10 years. He found a positive correlation 
 between reasoning and accuracy and improvement in 
 numerical accuracy within the practice series. He 
 states that ''there certainly appears to be an advan- 
 
34 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 tage on the side of the practised group in the second, 
 third, and lowest sections, but the highest is worse 
 in comparison of the preUminary and final tests." 
 In the fourth series of experiments, boys were em- 
 ployed; they were from a poor neighborhood, did good 
 work in arithmetic, were from Standard III, and 
 aged 10 years. There was found to be a high correla- 
 tion between reasoning and accuracy and very con- 
 siderable improvement in the practice series. Every 
 section in both groups showed improvement in arith- 
 metical reasoning. He thinks that the improvement 
 may possibly be due to natural growth and to other 
 branches of school instruction. From these four 
 series of experiments, he concludes that it seems pos- 
 sible to improve the accuracy of numerical computa- 
 tion without any certainty of thereby improving the 
 accuracy of arithmetical reasoning. ''Therefore, pend- 
 ing more conclusive experiments, numerical accuracy 
 should be sought for because it is valuable in actual 
 life and not because of improvement." In a later 
 investigation, he utilized a class of 72 boys, of Stand- 
 ard III, with an average age of 10 years. He gave six 
 tests in arithmetical reasoning, which enabled him to 
 divide the class into two equal groups, one of which 
 was practised in arithmetical computation while the 
 other was occupied in drawing. After 10 practice 
 exercises, six final tests were given to all. There was 
 marked improvement in the computation, but he 
 found no evidence of the transfer of this improvement 
 to arithmetical reasoning. 
 
 Stone (51) investigated the arithmetical abilities of 
 6A pupils, the time expended, and the materials of 
 the course of study used in securing these abilities. 
 Twenty-six school systems from various parts of the 
 country were examined. Tests in fundamentals and 
 
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS 35 
 
 reasoning were used, requiring the marking of 6000 
 papers. He reached the conclusion that there is a 
 lack of correspondence among the systems in funda- 
 mentals and reasoning; likewise in the four funda- 
 mental operations; and in rapidity and accuracy. 
 "On the whole, ability in reasoning impUes ability in 
 fundamentals no more than ability in such a subject 
 as English implies ability in mathematics in general, 
 and not so much as ability in Enghsh implies ability 
 in such subjects as geography and history." In 
 answer to one of his problems, he stated that the nature 
 of the product of the first six years of arithmetic is 
 complex and that the ''net result is several products, 
 rather than a product." He also discovered that 
 there was a lack of relationship between time-cost 
 and abilities produced, likewise a lack of relation 
 between abilities and a good course of study. 
 
 Lewis (30) in his high-school tests, asked the ques- 
 tion: "Is there a reasoning faculty, w^hich, by exer- 
 cise m mathematics, can be made stronger for other 
 kinds of reasoning, as in law or business?" Two tests, 
 one containing originals in geometry and the other 
 questions in practical reasoning, were given to 24 dif- 
 ferent groups of pupils. He found that 63 per cent, 
 of the good mathematicians were at the foot of the 
 practical reasoning series, and of those at the foot of 
 mathematical reasoning, 47 per cent, were at the 
 head of practical reasoning. From this and from his 
 investigation with the Dartmouth students, he con- 
 cluded that the "reasoning faculty is a myth," for 
 "students able in mathematical reasoning are not 
 even generally able in practical reasoning and law."^ 
 
 * I am informed by Professor Rietz, of the University of Illinois, that 
 the original data obtained by Lewis do not, in fact, warrant the con- 
 clusions drawn from them. — Editor. 
 
36 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 2. Spelling. Wallin (59) investigated the question 
 whether speUing efficiency acquired in column drills 
 transfers to dictated compositions. He dictated work 
 in which lists of words occurred which had been pre- 
 viously learned by drill. He also dictated a column 
 of words. Only words on the list in both cases were 
 counted. He concluded that the ''data obtained 
 furnished conclusive evidence in favor of an affirm- 
 ative answer." The average loss of efficiency through 
 transfer from dictated column to composition was 
 1.44 per cent, while there were five instances in which 
 there was an actual transfer gain. He concluded 
 therefore "that column drills in spelling may produce 
 a positive increment of spelling efficiency in dictated 
 compositions or connected writing." 
 
 3. English Grammar. Briggs (9), in order to ascer- 
 tain the disciplinary effects of formal English gram- 
 mar, gave 54 tests to from 25-30 children of the 2d- 
 7th grades in the Horace Mann School. Among the 
 tests were those to discover the ability to see likenesses 
 and differences; the ability to judge, amend when 
 faulty, and to apply a definition thoroughly; the 
 ability to make a rule, to judge reasons, to select facts, 
 to reason in arithmetic; the ability to reason syllo- 
 gistically, to detect catches, to make prompt and 
 accurate associations, to follow directions, to correct 
 errors and point off sentences, and tests of the knowl- 
 edge of formal grammar after the training period. 
 Three 30-minute periods per week during six months 
 were devoted to the investigation. The first set of 
 tests was given to all the children. Then for three 
 months, the children of one room were drilled in 
 formal grammar, wherein emphasis was laid on gram- 
 mar as a strict science and an attempt to secure a 
 
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS 37 
 
 general ideal of method (like Ruediger's) was made. 
 During this time, the second room of children did 
 work in composition and language. There were then 
 given the second set of tests, after which the condi- 
 tions were reversed for three months in the two rooms. 
 Finally, the first set of tests was given again to all 
 the children. From his results Briggs concludes that 
 "these particular children after the amount of formal 
 grammar that they had, do not, as measured by the 
 means employed, show in any of the abilities tested 
 improvement that may be attributed to their training 
 in formal grammar." "The burden of proof now 
 rests with those who believe in a strengthening mental 
 discipline from formal grammar." 
 
 4. Mental Traits. A. Memonj. Sleight (46), in order 
 to discover if memory training is general or specific, 
 experimented with two classes of women students in 
 a Training College, the average age being 18-19. 
 The tests were of immediate memory and made use 
 of letters, nonsense syllables, dates, poetry, and prose 
 substance. 
 
 Sleight also investigated the same question with 
 three classes of pupils aged 11-12 years in tliree dif- 
 ferent schools. Each class was tested with 10 differ- 
 ent kinds of memory material and then sorted into 
 four groups of equal average ability. One group was 
 practised on poetry, the second on tables, the third 
 on reproducing the gist of prose, while the fourth re- 
 ceived no training. After three weeks of practice, a 
 second series of tests was followed by three more 
 weeks of practice, in turn followed by a third series 
 of tests. The tests made use of letters, dictation, 
 names, geographical places, nonsense syllables, dates, 
 poetry, prose, substance of prose, and points in a 
 
38 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 cii'cle. A new feature was a cyclic arrangement by 
 means of which all three test series could be considered 
 equal in difficulty. Finally, some time after the third 
 series, a fourth series was given. 
 
 The results with both the college and elementary 
 pupils showed no general improvement of the prac- 
 tised over the unpractised. In nonsense syllables 
 there was considerable improvement of the trained 
 over the untrained, but only with those who practised 
 on poetry or tables. This was ascribed to the presence 
 of rhythm as a common element and the deduction 
 is made that the effects of practice are transferable 
 when common elements exist. Practice in prose 
 substance effected an improvement in that form of 
 memory, and in no other; it had, in fact, a disastrous 
 effect on the power to memorize mechanically. The 
 conclusion is reached that ''we must therefore face the 
 fact that some practice has the effect of diminishing 
 the power to memorize some other material," 
 
 Winch (63-66) has conducted four elaborate series 
 of memory experunents with school children, two to 
 ascertain if memory is improvable with practice and 
 two to discover if improvement in memory is trans- 
 ferable. In studying immediate memory, he exposed 
 sets of consonants to view for a short time. The 
 subjects were 25 girls of Standard VII, ages 12-15, 
 and 33 boys of Standards VI and VII, ages 11-14. 
 His conclusion from these two sets of experiments 
 was that a wider range of age and standard would be 
 necessary to answer questions as to the improvability 
 of memory by practice, improvement with age, and 
 relation to general intellectual proficiency. A second 
 series of experiments was then given to 39 girls, 
 Standards II-VIII, and ages 8-14, chosen on an age 
 
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS 39 
 
 basis. Results were compared with the school marks 
 over the space of one year. He concluded that mem- 
 ory improved with practice, that general mental 
 ability is accompanied by ''good memory," that 
 "good memory" is usually accompanied by general 
 proficiency, and that there is a general improvement 
 rising with age and standard. Another series of 
 experiments was given to girls from two divisions of 
 Standard VI, six from the upper and six from the 
 lower division, and with the same results. In a later 
 series of experiments on auditory memory, conducted 
 along similar lines to those just described, he verified 
 his conclusions with visual memory. He attempted 
 to answer the question: ''Is the improvement in mem- 
 ory gained through practice in one subject of instruc- 
 tion, transferred to another subject which has not 
 been practised?" He divided each class into two 
 groups of equal ability, determined partly by test and 
 partly by the opinion of the teacher. He gave three 
 series of experiments to girls from Standards VI and 
 VII, average age of 12-13, and from three schools of 
 different neighborhoods. In all cases, the practice 
 was on poetry, while in two cases the tests were his- 
 torical and in the other geographical. WTiile the prac- 
 tised half was studying poetry, the other group was 
 occupied in writing or working sums. In the three 
 series, he found that the practised group was superior 
 to the unpractised and therefore concluded that 
 "improvement, gained by practice in memorizing one 
 subject of instruction, is transferred to memory work 
 in other subjects whose nature is certainly diverse 
 from that in which the improvement was gained." 
 This conclusion, he goes on to say, is true for this 
 age and the attainments of these children. In another 
 
40 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 article on the transfer of improvement in memory in 
 school children, he reported his results in answer to 
 the problems: ''Whether there is any transfer of im- 
 provement in rote memory for meaningless things to 
 substance memory for stories (1) by an auditory 
 method, (2) by a visual method," and ''whether there 
 is any transfer of improvement in rote memory for 
 things with meaning — for example, poetry — to sub- 
 stance memory for stories." He conducted three 
 series of experiments. The first series was given to 
 boys and gu-ls of Standard III, of an average age of 
 10 years. Three preliminary tests in substance mem- 
 ory consisting of stories read aloud, also some tests in 
 rote memory for meaningless things consisting of 
 consonants read aloud, were given, and the class was 
 divided into two equal groups on the basis of the 
 tests in substance memory. One group received 
 three practice exercises in rote memory, while the 
 other group drew difficult geometrical designs. Then 
 a further test in substance memory was given to both 
 groups. The results showed an improvement within 
 the practice medium itself from 11.9, the first prac- 
 tice test's average mark per child per test to 15.8 
 average mark per child for the third test, out of a 
 maximum of 24. The comparison of the final and 
 preliminary tests shows that there is a steady improve- 
 ment, which is greatest in the practised group; and 
 "about as much or more improvement, reckoned in 
 percentages, as has been made in the practice medium 
 itself — rote memory for meaningless things — has been 
 transferred to the substance memory." The second 
 series of experiments was with girls of Standard IV, 
 age 10 years. Four tests in substance memory, con- 
 sisting of written stories, were given, and as a result, 
 
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS 41 
 
 the class was divided into two equal groups. Through 
 several weeks one of the groups did 13 practice per- 
 iods of 9 exercises each in rote memory, consisting of 
 the learning of consonants exposed visually, and the 
 other group worked exercises in arithmetic. Then 
 both groups worked four more tests in substance 
 memory. There was an improvement within the 
 practice medium itself; also "both groups show im- 
 provement in the final tests and it seems fair to sup- 
 pose that the excess of improvement in the practised 
 over the unpractised group may be a measure of im- 
 provement due to the special practice in rote memory." 
 In the unpractised group there was an improvement 
 of 16 per cent., while in the practised group there was 
 an improvement of 21 per cent., probably due to 
 special practice. In the third series of experiments, 
 the girls were from Standard V, 12 years of age and 
 backward in scholarship. There were four tests on 
 substance memory for stories, followed by division 
 of the class into two equal groups. One group prac- 
 tised rote exercises on poetry. Then four final tests 
 were given to both groups. All the work was done 
 visually. The results showed an improvement in 
 rote memory for every individual in the practised 
 group; and "the excess improvement of the practised, 
 about 6 per cent, in the final test, may perhaps be 
 attributed to the effect of the practice exercises in 
 rote memory." His conclusions from these experi- 
 ments in regard to the transfer of improvement in 
 memory are: "Improvement through practice in 
 rote memory is followed by improvement in substance 
 memories for stories." "Improvement by practice 
 in one mental function may produce an improvement 
 in the other." 
 
42 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 B. Habits. Squire (3) insisted on neatness and 
 accuracy in the preparation of the arithmetic papers 
 by the 13 pupils in the second half of a third grade. 
 It was found that there was an improvement in the 
 arithmetic papers, but that this did not transfer to 
 the language and spelling papers, in which there was 
 a decrease in both accuracy and neatness. 
 
 C. Concentration of attention. Miss Aiken's (1) 
 experiments on the concentration of attention by the 
 use of daily exercises to quicken the perceptive facul- 
 ties, to cultivate the habit of accuracy in seeing and 
 hearing, and to cultivate quickness of discrimination, 
 and their amazing results have already been referred 
 to. 
 
 Dallenbach's (13) problem was to find out the 
 effect of a daily drill for 15 minutes conducted during 
 a period of 17 weeks. The subjects were 11 girls and 
 18 boys, of ages 7-10. The materials consisted of 
 charts, of numbers, letters, words, geometrical figures, 
 etc. The experiment lasted for 17 weeks, and com- 
 prised a week of fore-practice foHowed by a week of 
 tests with 4 weeks of drill; the two latter alternated 
 until 4 weeks of tests and 12 weeks of drill series had 
 been given. Ten months later, another test series 
 was given to 31 children, 19 of whom had had the 
 training. His conclusions are that the effect of drill 
 is persistent, and that boys surpass girls in visual 
 apprehension. During the following school term, 
 there was a striking general rise in the school grades 
 of these pupils, seemingly due to his formal drill 
 exercises, also a special test by the Aussage method, 
 showed that the practised children were superior in 
 recall and description to their unpractised school- 
 mates when tested some 50 weeks after the termina- 
 
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS 43 
 
 tion of the special drill. ''Original work of drilling 
 the children has produced a training that has not only 
 persisted, but also 'spread' to some extent to other 
 functions." He concluded that he has "evidence in 
 favor of a restricted belief in formal discipline." 
 
 D. Observation. Bennett (6) investigated to find 
 the result of special practice in discriminating different 
 saturations of blue upon other sense powers in the 
 case of 16 children, 11 years old, from the Speyer 
 School of Teachers College. A Milton-Bradley color 
 wheel was used with a set of the larger and smaller 
 disks. The children recorded their judgments with 
 an 7 or according as the saturation of the inner disk 
 or outer disk was greater or with an S if it was the 
 same for both. Preliminary and final tests were in 
 discriminating different mixtures of red and white, 
 of yellow and green, of orange and black, and different 
 pitches. They practised with the blue and white 
 disks for half an hour, twice a week, from October to 
 March. Bennett found that ability to discriminate 
 different saturations of blue increased with practice 
 in the training series. Ability to discriminate differ- 
 ent mixtures of red and white, of yellow and green, 
 and of orange and black was greatly improved in the 
 final tests. In most cases, there was an improvement 
 in the test series, both before and after training. 
 There was an improvement of 20 per cent, for the 
 boys and 23 per cent, for the girls in discrimination 
 of pitch, but it was "not at all commensurate with 
 that in the color field." He concludes that "training 
 in the discrimination of some colors is highly effective 
 in the discrimination of others, much less so with 
 tones." 
 
 E. Quickness, accuracy, attention, etc. Norsworthy 
 (36) sought to find individuals with differences in one 
 
44 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 trait, then to measure those individuals in other 
 traits and to compare the results. Tests were given 
 in multiplication, in observing misspelled words, in 
 marking words containing e and r, in observing the 
 word hoy wherever it occurred, and in marking semi- 
 circles scattered amongst all sorts of geometrical 
 forms. Results led to the conclusion that it is "prob- 
 able that certain functions which are of importance in 
 school-work, such as quickness in arithmetic, accuracy 
 in spelling, attention to forms, etc., are highly special- 
 ized and not secondary results of some general func- 
 tion." In other words, there is no such thing as 
 general memory, quickness, accuracy, or observation, 
 y/ F. Ideas of Method. Judd (2) required two groups 
 ^ of pupils in the 5th and 6th grades to hit with a small 
 dart a target which was placed under twelve inches of 
 water. The difficulty involved was due to deflection 
 of light through refraction. One group was given a 
 full theoretical explanation of refraction while the 
 other was kept in ignorance. The results of the first 
 test were the same for both groups. Then the twelve 
 inches of water were reduced to four. The boys 
 ignorant of the theory were very much confused, while 
 the others were not. ''Theory was not of value until 
 it was backed by practice." The conclusion is there- 
 fore drawn that ''every experience has in it the possi- 
 bilities of a generalization." Here there was a trans- 
 ference of method. 
 
 G. Ideals. Ruediger (40) tested the point: "Does 
 the ideal of neatness brought out in connection with, 
 and applied in, one school subject function in the 
 other school subjects?" He experimented with 83 
 pupils from the 7th grade of three schools, each in a 
 different city. In the written work of one school 
 
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS 45 
 
 subject, he paid all the attention possible to the habit 
 and ideal of neatness. He talked with the class 
 about neatness, though not referring specifically to 
 the other school subjects. He collected at least three 
 papers in each subject before he brought up the matter 
 of neatness and then one or more papers a week in 
 three or more subjects. The experiment covered 
 eight weeks. The marks for all school subjects were 
 raised although the gain was greater in the subject in 
 which neatness had been emphasized. ''Evidently 
 neatness made conscious as an ideal or aim in connec- 
 tion with one school subject does function in other 
 school subjects." He would ascribe transference to 
 ''identity of aim." 
 
 Reviewing the pedagogical experiments, as in the 
 psychological, we find two camps with reference to 
 the question of transfer. Starch, Collins, Rietz 
 and Shade, Wallin, Winch, Ruediger, Dallenbach, 
 Aiken, Bennett, and Judd found evidences of a spread 
 of training or of correlation of abilities. Lewis, 
 Stone, Briggs, Sleight, and Squire, because of their 
 results, would not subscribe to the doctrine, at least 
 in the aspects that they studied. Of these investi- 
 gators, certainly the most elaborate experiments were 
 performed by Winch and Sleight; and unfortunately 
 for the solution of the problem, they disagree. Starch 
 ascribes the evident transfer to the "identical ele- 
 ments" in the practice and test series, while there 
 was no transfer from arithmetical computation to 
 auditory memory span. In Wallin's expermients, 
 transfer of spelhng efficiency from column drills to 
 dictated composition may likewise be ascribed to 
 "identical elements." Winch's conclusion that "un- 
 provement gained by practice in memorizing one 
 
46 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 subject is transferred to memory work in other sub- 
 jects whose nature is certainly diverse from that in 
 which the improvement was gained" is criticised by 
 Bagley (3) on the ground that ''the nature of the 
 subject-matter is not so diverse as to exclude alto- 
 gether the operation of identical elements, nor is the 
 difference between the two groups in memory capacity 
 at the close of the test so great that one needs to as- 
 sume a 'general' function of memory has been trained." 
 Ruediger ascribes transference to "identity of aim," 
 and Judd's target experiment illustrates the trans- 
 ference of "identity of procedure or method." Lewis, 
 while finding no evidence of the correlation of reason- 
 ing ability in mathematics and law, believes like 
 Ruediger, and Bagley in the transference of ideals. 
 Sleight, like Judd and Bergstrom, found evidence of 
 interference effects. From such a varied mass of re- 
 sults and explanations, it is impossible to do more 
 than speculate as to the validity or falsity of the 
 doctrine in connection with pedagogical investiga- 
 tions. 
 
 Summary of the Historical Review. 
 
 After this necessarily brief review of some thirty 
 psychological experiments and twenty-odd pedago- 
 gical ones, it is important to discover the consensus 
 of belief arrived at by scientific investigation. Ebert 
 and Meumann, Coover and Angell, Judd, Winch, 
 Wallin, Fracker, Urbantschitsch, Miinsterberg, Dal- 
 lenbach, and Spearman may be considered among 
 the more prominent proponents of the doctrine of 
 formal discipline. On the' other hand Thorndike 
 and Woodworth, Stone, Sleight, Burt, Heck, Whipple, 
 Swift, Bolton, DeGarmo, Henderson, Jastrow, Nors- 
 worthy, and Squire, either as a result of personal in- 
 
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS 47 
 
 vestigation, or a review of experimental work in this 
 field, align themselves in the main with the opposi- 
 tion. Nearly all admit improvability with practice 
 and its transference to material, similar or closely 
 related in content or form. Prominent among the 
 believers in a ''spread of training" where "identical 
 elements" exist are Thorndike and Woodworth, 
 Whipple, Starch, and Sleight. The term "Identical 
 Elements" covers much; it includes identity of sub- 
 stance or content, identity of form or procedure, 
 identity of aim or ideal. All psychologists seem to be 
 in accord that where there is identity of substance, 
 improvement increases according to the general laws 
 of a practice curve until a physiological limit has been 
 reached. Among those who emphasize identity of 
 method or procedure as an explanation of transfer- 
 ence, with great stress on the importance of concen- 
 tration of attention, are Thorndike and Woodworth, 
 Munsterberg, Angell, Coover, Bagley, Ruger, Judd 
 and Tracker. Ruediger, Ruger, Lewis, and Bagley 
 are impressed with the necessity for an aim or ideal. 
 
 Probably Spearman (48), in his able article on 
 Qualified and Unqualified "Formal Training," has 
 expressed the idea that will bring reconciliation be- 
 tween the two opposing factions when he states that 
 the "attack is not against formalism utterly, but 
 against unqualified formalism." He advances four 
 qualifications: (1) Transference is not peculiar to 
 form. "As far as economy is concerned, all sorts of 
 training, formal, material, or a mixture, would ap- 
 pear to be about on an equal footing." (2) Transfer 
 must always be regarded quantitatively. After a 
 review of Sleight's experiments, the conclusion is 
 drawn that "it is evident that the training is indeed 
 
48 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 transferred from one material to another, but only in 
 proportion to the similarity between them." (3) 
 Transference is not always improvement. He cites 
 conclusions of Judd, Fracker, and Sleight in support. 
 (4) There is a need of separation for transfer. For 
 example, procedure may be developed into a clearly 
 conceived method; this thenceforth becomes an inde- 
 pendent, and sometimes exceedingly useful tool of 
 thought. An instance is Judd's experiment with the 
 target under water. ''An even more important in- 
 stance of separating an element from the complex in 
 which it occurs is the evolution of particular impulses 
 into a general maxim or ideal." Compare Squire's 
 negative results with Ruediger's positive ones. He 
 concludes by saying that the 'Hwo chief opposing 
 schools are at cross purposes; the one is defending what 
 may be called qualified formalism, while the other is 
 attacking unqualified formalism." The great problem 
 is ''how these facts are to be utilized in the re-ordering 
 of our educational system." 
 
PART II. ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION. 
 
 I. Introduction. 
 
 The original investigation was undertaken to secure 
 experimental data in regard to one of the aspects of 
 the doctrine of formal discipline, expressed in familiar 
 language of ''training observation." Little has been 
 done upon this problem experimentally. Several per- 
 sons, as has been noted in the historical part of this 
 essay, have investigated the transfer of improvement 
 of rote memory to substance memory, the transfer of 
 arithmetical abilities, and the transfer of reasoning 
 abilities. This particular "faculty" or habit of obser- 
 vation was selected because the writer, a teacher of 
 biology, could give the tests in the ordinary routine 
 of the classroom without seriously disturbing the re- 
 quired work and also without the subjects suffering the 
 disadvantages incurred when the tests are foreign to 
 the immediate school program and conducted by a 
 stranger. No explanations were made to the pupils 
 as to the object of the experiments. In connection 
 with a previous experiment, they had had a few tests 
 somewhat similar to several of the non-biological tests. 
 The results of these tests had been reported to the 
 pupils individually at the conclusion of the entire set 
 of tests and had been tabulated on the board by record- 
 ing the name and percentage of the pupil receiving the 
 highest rating in each test. This previous experience 
 may have acted as an incentive in the present work, as 
 they were told that they would again be informed of 
 the results. When all three series of experiments had 
 been completed, pupils were given their individual 
 
 49 
 
50 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 ratings in the various tests, with tabulation of the 
 names and percentages of the leaders for each test of 
 the three series of all three classes. 
 
 II. Subjects. 
 
 The subjects were all pupils in the first term of the 
 freshman class of a New York City High School. 
 When the third series of tests was given they had entered 
 upon the second term. These pupils were distributed 
 in three classes. 
 
 Class 1 had 12 boys and 20 girls; Class 2 had 10 boys 
 and 18 girls; Class S had 12 boys and 12 girls whose 
 results are tabulated in the following pages. Several 
 others in each class took the tests, but because of irre- 
 gular attendance, absence from one whole series of 
 tests or more, or because there was an odd number of 
 boys or girls after division into two equal groups, their 
 results had to be discarded. 
 
 The ages of the pupils varied from 12 to 17. 
 
 Class 1, average age, boys 13.7 
 Class 2, '' " " 14.1 
 Class 3, " " " 13.8 
 
 girls 14 years. 
 13.8 " 
 14.1 " 
 
 III. Time Schedule of Tests. 
 
 The tests in the first and second series were given in 
 the afternoon. Class 1 recited from 12:50-1:30; Class 
 2 recited from 1:35-2:15; Class 3 recited from 2:15- 
 2 :55. The tests were given immediately after the class 
 had assembled. 
 
 The first series of tests was given on April 22, 23, 
 24, 25, 26, 29, 30. The practice series occurred on the 
 10 school days from May 15 to 28. The second series 
 of tests was given on June 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11. The 
 third series of tests was given on November 4, 6, 8, 11, 
 
ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION 51 
 
 12, 13, 14. Between the second and third series, the 
 classes were promoted and were not kept intact. The 
 classes during the third series recited during the three 
 periods from 9 :30 to 1 1 :45. 
 
 IV. Practice Series. 
 
 On the basis of averages obtained from the tests of 
 the first series, each class was divided as nearly possible 
 into two groups. In each class effort was made to 
 place the pupil receiving the higher average of the two 
 highest pupils on the side which was to receive no prac- 
 tice, while the second highest was placed in the division 
 to be practised. This method was continued until the 
 list was exhausted. Thus among successive pairs, there 
 was usually a slight advantage on the non-practised side, 
 and the totals of the two groups in all three classes 
 showed the non-practised side to have the advantage 
 at the end of the preliminary tests. 
 
 On May 15, the practice series was begun and con- 
 tinued for ten minutes daily until the expiration of 
 two weeks. While the one half of the class was observ- 
 ing and describing the biological material of the prac- 
 tice series, the other half was writing answers to ques- 
 tions on topics previously assigned for home-study from 
 the text-book. The text-book work was required of 
 all for outside study, but only the non-practised half 
 wrote answers to questions. In order to prevent 
 failure to do the assignment, the pupils were not in- 
 formed in regard to the procedure until the class assem- 
 bled each day of the practice tests. All the other 
 biological work was the same for all classes. The 
 classes were kept in ignorance of the reason for division 
 into two groups during the practice weeks, and al- 
 though they were quite interested as to the cause and 
 
52 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 speculated somewhat about it, no reference to the 
 previous tests was made as an explanation. It ap- 
 peared, however, that the non-practised half considered 
 that the practised half must be superior as they were 
 chosen to do the extra tests. The reverse, however, 
 was true for successive pairs as far as the preliminary- 
 tests were concerned. None of the pupils knew that a 
 second or a third series was to be undertaken until 
 each was actually begun. They were then reminded 
 of the previous tests, informed that they would learn 
 their results later, and that comparisons would be made 
 between their work in the first and second series of 
 the tests. Absolutely no reference was made to the 
 practised or unpractised half, and it was not apparent 
 that the pupils thought that there was any connection 
 between the practice and the series of tests. 
 
 During the practice series, while actually engaged 
 in the ten minutes' daily practice, the practised were 
 separated from the unpractised. During both the 
 first and second series and throughout the term, the 
 pupils occupied the seats which had been individually 
 assigned to them at the beginning of the term. 
 
 V. Method of Conducting the Tests. 
 
 The directions were given orally. Before each test, 
 paper was distributed to each pupil, who ruled it, if 
 the nature of the test so required, inscribed his name 
 thereupon, and was informed of the content or material 
 of the test. From previous experiments, the pupils 
 had learned to obey directions, and collect papers with 
 almost military precision. The signals used were: 
 Start! Stop! Look! Write! Draw! Collect! 
 
 Time was kept by the second-hand of a watch. 
 
OEIGINAL INVESTIGATION 53 
 
 VI. Details of the Tests. 
 Series I, April 22 to 30. 
 
 Test 1. April 22. Each pupil received a twig of 
 horse chestnut with an unopened bud and one with 
 developing leaves. The direction given was to write a 
 complete description of these stems. Time 10 minutes. 
 
 Test 2. April 23. A picture was suddenly exposed 
 for 30 seconds, and the pupils were permitted 5 minutes 
 to write down their descriptions. 
 
 The picture represented a girl clad in an old fashioned, gaily colored 
 dress. Standing up on its hind legs beside the girl, was a large dog, 
 while several puppies were froUcking on the ground. The background 
 indicated a country scene with rocks, trees, and hills in the distance and 
 a water-fall near-by. 
 
 Test 3. April 23. Each pupil received a forsythia 
 flower and was directed to write a complete description. 
 Time 5 minutes. 
 
 Test 4. April 24. Ten nonsense syllables of two 
 letters each, printed in two rows on oak tag, were ex- 
 posed for 30 seconds. (See Fig. 1.) Pupils were 
 directed to place the right syllable in the right place. 
 One minute was allowed to write them. 
 
 Test 5. Branches of lilac leaves were distributed to 
 each pupil, and directions given to write a complete 
 description of the lilac leaves. Time 8 minutes. 
 
 Test 6. April 25. A nonsense figure (Fig. 2) con- 
 sisting of 10 lines, drawn with black pencil on oak tag, 
 was exposed for 30 seconds and one minute was allowed 
 for drawing it. 
 
 Test 7. April 25. A chart (Fig. 3) having 10 
 geometrical figures in two rows, drawn with black pen- 
 cil on oak tag, was exposed for 30 seconds, following the 
 direction to draw the right figure in the right space of 
 their paper, which had been ruled beforehand by the 
 
54 
 
 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 
 
 
 
 « 
 
 s 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 It 
 
 
 s 
 
 c 
 
 
 o 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 
 
 b 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION 
 
 55 
 
 6 
 
5Q THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION 
 
 57 
 
 CM 
 
 V 
 
 
 OD 
 
 lO 
 
 
 W 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 t-4 
 
 
 W 
 
 « 
 
 
 e» 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ■o 
 
 t^ 
 
 
 w 
 
 (M 
 
 
 ft 
 
 <» 
 
 
 » 
 
 «> 
 
 
 6 
 
58 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 pupils. Three minutes were allowed for reproduction 
 of the figures. 
 
 Test 8. April 26. A chart having ten two-place 
 numbers in two rows printed on it (Fig. 4) was exposed 
 for 30 seconds with the direction to place the right 
 combination in the right space on their ruled paper. 
 One minute was allowed for recording. 
 
 Test 9. April 29. Pupils were permitted to ex- 
 amine specimens of scouring rush or horsetail for one 
 minute and then, with the specimens hidden from view, 
 were given five minutes to describe their observations. 
 
 Test 10. April 29. In a similar manner, they were 
 allowed one minute to examine a maple seedling and 5 
 minutes to describe it from memory. 
 
 Test 11. April 30. A colored chart with various 
 anatomical features of the pea flower was exposed for 
 30 seconds, an allowance of 5 minutes was made for 
 description. This test was not used in the comparison 
 of the three series, because it was found that, as the 
 pupils had not yet studied flowers, they were unable 
 through lack of technical terms to describe much that 
 they had seen. 
 
 Test 12. April 30. A figure was outlined in the air 
 with a pencil point. (See Fig. 5). Pupils were in- 
 formed that 10 lines would be drawn and that at the 
 end they were to reproduce them on paper. 
 
 Test 13. May 1. A colored chart of the potato 
 plant, similar to Test 11, was exposed, but was not 
 used in the series, for the same reason as in Test 11. 
 
 For the nature of the practice series which was 
 carried on May 15 to 19 and May 22 to 26, consult the 
 tabular statement, page 69. 
 
 Series II. June 3 to 11. 
 Test 1. June 3. Each pupil received a twig of 
 sassafras and was allowed 10 minutes to write as com- 
 
ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION 
 
 59 
 
60 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 plete a description as possible. Because of a change in 
 the program, Class 3 did not recite on this day and 
 was unable to take the test. 
 
 Test 2. June 4. Another picture was exposed for 
 30 seconds and five minutes were permitted for a descrip- 
 tion of the picture. 
 
 A little girl in a pink dress was standing near a brass table in a richly 
 furnished room. Rugs covered the hard-wood floor and an easy chair 
 and pillow were in the foreground. A large vase of cattails and palms 
 was on the floor and another containing pampas grass was on the table. 
 
 Test 3. June 4. Sjn-inga flowers were distributed 
 to each pupil and five minutes' allowance was made for 
 a description. 
 
 Test 4. June 5. Another chart with ten nonsense 
 syllables of two letters each was exposed for 30 seconds. 
 The arrangement was like Fig. 1, but the syllables were: 
 ro, fe, cu, eh, ad, in, og, na, qi, ub. One minute was 
 given for recording the syllables in the right place. 
 
 Test 5. June 5. A branch of forsythia leaves was 
 distributed to each pupil, and eight minutes' time was 
 given in which to write as complete a description as 
 possible. 
 
 Test 6. June 6. Another nonsense figure of ten 
 Imes (Fig. 6) was exposed for 30 seconds. Allowance 
 for reproduction was one minute. 
 
 Test 7. June 6. Ten geometrical figures (Fig. 7) 
 were exposed on a chart for 30 seconds after the ad- 
 monition to place the figure in the correct place. 
 Three minutes were allowed to draw the figures. 
 
 Test 8. June 7. Ten two-place figures (similar to 
 Fig. 4) were exposed on a chart for 30 seconds. One 
 minute was allowed for recording in the proper places. 
 
 Test 9. June 10. A fruiting moss plant was dis- 
 tributed to each pupil. After one minute's observa- 
 
ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION 
 
 61 
 
 
62 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 d 
 
 d 
 
ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION 63 
 
 tion the material was put out of sight and five minutes 
 were allowed to record observations. 
 
 Test 10. June 10. A pumpkin seedling was treated 
 in a similar manner to Test 9. 
 
 Test 11. June 11. A colored chart of a grape 
 flower was exposed for 30 seconds and 5 minutes' time 
 was allowed for recording. This was not used in the 
 comparison of the series. 
 
 Test 12. June 11. Another figure of ten lines 
 (Fig. 8) was indicated by tracing the figure with a 
 pencil point in the air. When completed the pupils 
 drew what they had seen. 
 
 Test 13. June 12. A colored chart of the wild 
 carrot was exposed for 30 seconds and 5 minutes were 
 allowed for a description. This test was not used in 
 the final comparison. 
 
 Series III. November 6 to 14- 
 
 After the summer vacation, the writer, having in an 
 advanced class all of the pupils that had both remained 
 in school and had been promoted and not having had 
 time yet to rate the papers of the second series, deemed 
 that it might be useful to give a third series of tests. 
 The pupils were now studying zoology and physiology, 
 whereas during the previous term they had been study- 
 ing botany. The pupils were reminded of the previous 
 tests, told that they would learn their results (which 
 had been delayed because of the interruption of the 
 investigator's plans by other imperative demands) 
 and were asked to undertake a third series of tests. 
 
 The third series could not be conducted until Novem- 
 ber, and unfortunately, the biological material avail- 
 able afforded little variety and was, I think, on the 
 whole more difficult to describe. Besides, the pupils 
 had not studied botany since June, and moreover, 
 
64 
 
 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION 65 
 
 they may have thought that botanical material would 
 not count toward their grades in a zoological course. 
 
 Test. 1. Nov. 4, Pupils received branches of 
 willow. Ten minutes were allowed for a complete 
 description. 
 
 Test 2. Nov. 6. Another picture was exposed for 
 30 seconds, and five minutes were allowed for writing. 
 
 A typical Holland scene was indicated by the wooden shoes and the 
 peasants' caps of the boy and girl in the foreground. The girl (hold- 
 ing a baby in her arms) was standing on a wharf, while the boy who 
 was seated on a pile was just pulling something out of the water at the 
 end of a long line attached to his fishing pole. In the background were 
 lawns, trees, and several smaU houses. 
 
 Test 3. Nov. 6. Each pupil received a flower of 
 sweet alyssum and was allowed five minutes for record- 
 ing observations. 
 
 Test 4. Nov. 8 A chart with 10 nonsense syllables 
 of two letters each, printed on oak tag, was exposed for 
 30 seconds and one minute allowed for recording. 
 The arrangement was like that of Fig. 1, but the syl- 
 lables were : gi, re, qo, ib, om, ep, da, uh, av, cu. 
 
 Test 5. Nov. 8. Honeysuckle branches were dis- 
 tributed and eight minutes given for descriptions. 
 
 Test 6. Nov. 11. A nonsense figure (Fig. 9) was 
 exposed for 30 seconds and one minute was allowed for 
 its reproduction. 
 
 Test 7. Nov. 11. A chart (Fig. 10) with 10 geo- 
 metrical figures was exposed for 30 seconds. Three 
 minutes were given for reproduction. 
 
 Test 8. Nov. 12. A chart with ten two-place 
 figures (like Fig. 4) was exposed for 30 seconds. One 
 minute for recording. 
 
 Test 9. Nov. 13. Each pupil received a pressed 
 fern frond, was allowed one minute for observation, 
 and five minutes for description from memory. 
 
 Test 10. Because of inability to obtain any material, 
 suitable for comparison with these tests in the other 
 series, the test was omitted. 
 
66 
 
 THE DOCTRINE OF FOEMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 
ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION 
 
 67 
 
 (CD 
 
 a 
 
 
68 
 
 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 
ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION 
 
 69 
 
 Test 11. Nov. 14. The chart of the buttercup 
 flower was exposed for 30 seconds and 5 minutes were 
 allowed for description. This test was not used. 
 
 Test 12. Nov. 14. Another figure of ten lines 
 (Fig. 11) was outlined in the air with the tip of the 
 experimenter's pencil. The pupils reproduced it on 
 paper. 
 
 Test 13. Nov. 15. A chart of the poppy flower was 
 exposed for 30 seconds and five minutes allowed for 
 description, but it was not used in the series. 
 
 The following tabular arrangement will serve to bring the arrange- 
 ment of the test material into compact presentation. 
 
 No. Date 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 5 
 6 
 7 
 8 
 9 
 10 
 
 April 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 May 
 1 
 
 Date 
 May 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 22 
 23 
 24 
 27 
 28 
 
 SERIES 1 
 
 Test Exposure Time for 
 
 recording 
 
 Horsechestnut stem 10 min. 
 
 Picture 30 sec. 5 min. 
 
 Forsythia flower 5 min. 
 
 10 syllables 30 sec. 1 min. 
 
 Lilac leaves 8 min. 
 
 Nonsense figure 30 sec. 1 min. 
 
 Geometrical figures 30 sec. 3 min. 
 
 10 2-place figures 30 sec. 1 min. 
 
 Scouring rush 1 min. 5 min. 
 
 Maple seedling 1 min. 5 min. 
 
 Pea chart 30 sec. 5 min. 
 Figure in air 
 
 Potato chart 30 sec. 5 min. 
 Practice Series 
 
 Material Recording 
 
 Description of the lilac flower Ten 
 
 Description of the box-elder leaf minutes 
 
 Description of the stem, leaf, and for 
 
 flower of gill-run-over-the-groimd each 
 
 Description of flower-stalk and test 
 
 flowers of the Uly-of-the-valley 
 Description of the horsechestnut flower 
 Description of the buttercup flower 
 Description of the mustard flower 
 Description of the dogwood flower 
 Description of the deutzia flower 
 Description of the columbine flower 
 
70 
 
 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 
 
 SERIES 2 
 
 
 
 No. 
 
 Date 
 June 
 
 Test 
 
 Exposure 
 
 Time for 
 recording 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 Sassafras stem 
 
 
 10 min. 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 Picture 
 
 30 sec. 
 
 5 min. 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 Syringa flower 
 
 
 5 min. 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 10 syllables 
 
 30 sec. 
 
 1 min. 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 Forsythia leaves 
 
 
 8 min. 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 Nonsense figure 
 
 30 sec. 
 
 1 min. 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 Geometrical figures 
 
 30 sec. 
 
 3 min. 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 10 2-place figures 
 
 30 sec. 
 
 1 min. 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 Moss plant 
 
 1 min. 
 
 5 min. 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 Pumpkin seedling 
 
 1 min. 
 
 5 min. 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 Grape chart 
 
 30 sec. 
 
 5 min. 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 Figure in air 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 Wild carrot 
 
 SERIES 3 
 
 30 sec. 
 
 5 min. 
 
 No. 
 
 Date 
 
 Test 
 
 Exposure 
 
 Time for 
 recording 
 
 
 Nov. 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 Willow stem 
 
 
 10 min. 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 Picture 
 
 30 sec. 
 
 5 min. 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 Alyssimi flower 
 
 
 5 min. 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 10 syllables 
 
 30 sec. 
 
 1 min. 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 Honeysuckle leaves 
 
 
 8 min. 
 
 6 
 
 11 
 
 Nonsense figm-e 
 
 30 sec. 
 
 1 min. 
 
 7 
 
 11 
 
 Geometrical figures 
 
 30 sec. 
 
 3 min. 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 10 2-place figures 
 
 30 sec. 
 
 1 min. 
 
 9 
 
 13 
 
 Fern frond 
 
 1 min. 
 
 5 min. 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 14 
 
 Buttercup chart 
 
 30 sec. 
 
 5 min. 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 Figm-e in air 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 15 
 
 Poppy chart 
 
 30 sec. 
 
 5 min. 
 
ORIGINAL INVESTIGATIONS 71 
 
 VII. Marking the Tests and Use of the Scores. 
 
 The author was assisted in the marking of the tests 
 by her sister, who had had four years of office experience 
 in one of New York's elementary schools. She rated 
 the 4th, 7th, and 8th tests of each series. Both rated 
 together the 6th and 12th tests of each series. The 
 author herself rated Tests 1, 2, 3, 5, 9, 10. Tests 11 
 and 13 were discarded. 
 
 Rating of the Tests of Series 1. 
 
 Tests 1, 2, 3, 5, 9, 10 were rated in the following 
 manner: one credit was allowed for every descriptive 
 noun, adjective, verb, and adverb. In fact, every 
 word or statement presenting an idea, a modification 
 of that idea, or an action, was allowed one credit. 
 Credit was not allowed for the same word repeated 
 in several connections. The rating therefore indicates 
 the sum total of the observations made in regard to 
 the object. 
 
 Tests 4, 7, 8 were rated in the following manner: 
 10 credits were allowed for each correct syllable, correct 
 geometrical figure and correct two-place number which 
 was also correctly placed; thus as there were 10 of 
 each, it was possible to obtain 100 per cent. If the 
 correct syllable, correct geometrical figure, or correct 
 two-place number was displaced one more to the right, 
 left, above, or below, one credit was deducted, if two 
 places to the right or left, two credits were deducted, 
 etc. 
 
 Tests 6 and 12 were rated in the following manner: 
 one credit was given to each correct line of the ten 
 comprising the figure. It was not required that the 
 figures of Test 12 should be entirely symmetrical, but 
 full credit was given for each line that indicated that 
 the subject knew approximately the direction of the 
 lines. 
 
72 THE DOCTKINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 Use of Results of Series 1 . 
 
 The average was obtained of the results of each 
 pupil's work in the eleven tests. These averages 
 formed the basis of the division of the classes for the 
 practice series. 
 
 In each class, the boy receiving the highest average 
 was placed on the non-practised side while the boy with 
 the next highest average was placed on the side to 
 receive practice. This was continued until the list 
 was exhausted. The same method was followed with 
 the girls. 
 
 Rating of the Practice Series. 
 
 All of the ten tests of the practice series were rated 
 by the investigator in the same manner as were Tests 
 1, 2, 3, 5, 9, 10. The tests were rated in the order in 
 which they had been given: No. 1 first and No. 10 last. 
 
 Rating of the Tests of Series 2 and 3. 
 
 Test 1 of Series 2 was rated and then Test 1 of Series 
 3 was rated for the same pupil. The grading of these 
 tests was then carefully compared with the rating 
 of Tests 1 of Series 1 to avoid as much as possible any 
 discrepancy in the rating. This method was followed 
 for each pupil throughout the six tests. 
 
 Tests 4, 7, 8, of the 2d and 3d series were rated in 
 the following manner: After the assistant had carefully 
 reconsidered her marking of Test 4 in Series 1, she 
 rated Test 4 of Series 2 and then of Series 3. The 
 same method was followed in Tests 7 and 8. 
 
 Tests 6 and 12 were rated by both markers, working 
 together. Each pupil's three test papers in the three 
 series were compared individually to establish improve- 
 ment or decrease of ability of that particular individual. 
 The investigators then agreed upon the rating to be 
 allowed each test. 
 
ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION 73 
 
 Method of Treating the Scores. 
 
 Averages were made for each pupil in each series 
 from the rating given to each test as described above. 
 
 Ratings of Tests 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, and 12 were re- 
 duced to the percentage basis by multiplying each 
 rating by the fraction in each test of each series re- 
 quired to make the highest rating 100 per cent, for that 
 test in that particular series. 
 
 On the basis of the data acquired by both methods, 
 tables have been made to compare the practised and the 
 unpractised pupils of each class in two respects in 
 regard to (1) their ability in the biological tests and 
 (2) their ability in the non-biological tests. 
 
 In case of the occasional absence of a pupil, the 
 figures for that test had to be omitted from similar 
 tests in each of the three series, in other words, the 
 series were made homogeneous. 
 
 Therefore, another table was made, consisting only 
 of pupils who had been present at all the tests of two 
 or more series, while still another table was compiled 
 of the data of those pupils who had been present at 
 all three series of tests. 
 
 Tables showing the basis of the division for the prac- 
 tice groups are presented. 
 
 The class ratings in biology of the test pupils for the 
 year during which the tests were performed, are recorded 
 together with their ratings in the state examination. 
 
 From all of these various tables, comparisons and 
 conclusions are made, and finally the results of the 
 present investigation are compared with those of other 
 workers in the pedagogical field. 
 
74 
 
 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 TABLE I. ORIGINAL SCORES. 
 Class I, Series I. 
 
 Boys 12 3 
 
 Garratt 14 23 20 
 
 Hart 12 11 18 
 
 Hugger 18 19 16 
 
 Jaegers 8 15 6 
 
 Johnston.. . .16 27 6 
 
 Lefkowitz... 5 14 17 
 
 Rhodius 22 41 22 
 
 Riconda 10 23 17 
 
 Waller 29 23 32 
 
 Walsh 17 19 16 
 
 Weber 14 23 15 
 
 Wetjen 9 16 
 
 Wild 22 18 18 
 
 Girls 
 
 Clute 26 30 23 
 
 Cohen 
 
 Conradi 21 21 20 
 
 Engels 35 30 26 
 
 Geffert 22 34 16 
 
 Haag 17 20 15 
 
 Hamilton. ..21 37 28 
 
 Howard 33 30 19 
 
 Ilch 36 47 33 
 
 Kolsch 27 29 16 
 
 Kelly 25 32 30 
 
 Kelly, K....24 34 20 
 
 Krumholz...25 39 23 
 
 Manwaring..29 39 21 
 
 McGreevy...28 39 32 
 
 Millang 17 27 20 
 
 Murtagh. . . . 16 24 21 
 
 Perry 26 17 10 
 
 Savage 28 24 19 
 
 Schmidt 31 40 26 
 
 Tests 
 7 8 
 
 10 12 Total Aver. Age 
 
 69 
 
 21 
 
 10 
 
 71 
 
 60 
 
 22 
 
 18 
 
 7 
 
 335 
 
 30.45 
 
 70 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 28 
 
 59 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 249 
 
 22.63 
 
 68 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 70 
 
 79 
 
 18 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 
 330 
 
 30 
 
 80 
 
 14 
 
 6 
 
 80 
 
 70 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 305 
 
 27.72 
 
 80 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 57 
 
 37 
 
 7 
 
 17 
 
 
 257 
 
 25.7 
 
 47 
 
 13 
 
 8 
 
 43 
 
 40 
 
 19 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 226 
 
 20.54 
 
 49 
 
 21 
 
 6 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 27 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 311 
 
 28.27 
 
 49 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 49 
 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 8 
 
 192 
 
 19.2 
 
 78 
 
 23 
 
 8 
 
 69 
 
 70 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 6 
 
 368 
 
 33.45 
 
 60 
 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 37 
 
 50 
 
 15 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 244 
 
 22.18 
 
 70 
 
 14 
 
 8 
 
 50 
 
 58 
 
 14 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 282 
 
 25.63 
 
 50 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 70 
 
 67 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 240 
 
 24 
 
 40 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 42 
 
 67 
 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 250 
 
 22.72 
 
 40 
 
 14 
 
 9 
 
 60 
 
 73 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 279 
 
 31 
 
 80 
 
 19 
 
 4 
 
 75 
 
 83 
 
 26 
 
 20 
 
 2 
 
 309 
 
 38.62 
 
 48 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 60 
 
 29 
 
 13 
 
 22 
 
 1 
 
 253 
 
 23 
 
 69 
 
 25 
 
 6 
 
 60 
 
 50 
 
 24 
 
 19 
 
 9 
 
 353 
 
 32.09 
 
 100 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 80 
 
 70 
 
 19 
 
 23 
 
 9 
 
 389 
 
 35.36 
 
 70 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 48 
 
 50 
 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 5 
 
 270 
 
 24.54 
 
 49 
 
 29 
 
 7 
 
 79 
 
 50 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 3 
 
 351 
 
 31.9 
 
 68 
 
 27 
 
 4 
 
 38 
 
 38 
 
 17 
 
 21 
 
 1 
 
 296 
 
 26.9 
 
 80 
 
 37 
 
 6 
 
 40 
 
 39 
 
 25 
 
 24 
 
 7 
 
 374 
 
 34 
 
 50 
 
 29 
 
 1 
 
 36 
 
 80 
 
 17 
 
 22 
 
 3 
 
 310 
 
 28.18 
 
 
 25 
 
 3 
 
 60 
 
 
 21 
 
 21 
 
 5 
 
 222 
 
 24.66 
 
 70 
 
 20 
 
 8 
 
 40 
 
 69 
 
 16 
 
 18 
 
 7 
 
 326 
 
 29.63 
 
 90 
 
 23 
 
 6 
 
 50 
 
 74 
 
 28 
 
 18 
 
 7 
 
 383 
 
 34.81 
 
 60 
 
 17 
 
 4 
 
 70 
 
 50 
 
 10 
 
 17 
 
 3 
 
 320 
 
 29.09 
 
 70 
 
 31 
 
 8 
 
 70 
 
 60 
 
 26 
 
 30 
 
 4 
 
 398 
 
 36.18 
 
 50 
 
 22 
 
 9 
 
 70 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 272 
 
 30.22 
 
 50 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 50 
 
 56 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 258 
 
 23.45 
 
 69 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 60 
 
 58 
 
 14 
 
 13 
 
 3 
 
 289 
 
 26.27 
 
 79 
 
 18 
 
 8 
 
 60 
 
 70 
 
 11 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 336 
 
 30.54 
 
 60 
 
 33 
 
 9 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 23 
 
 28 
 
 8 
 
 378 
 
 34.36 
 
ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION 75 
 
 TABLE 1. ORIGINAL SCORES (Continued). 
 
 Class I, Series II. 
 
 Tests 
 
 Boys 123456 7 89 10 12 Total 
 
 Garratt 36 24 24 90 22 10 80 80 22 24 8 420 
 
 Hart 16 27 21 59 13 7 30 80 20 14 3 290 
 
 Hugger 8 26 15 70 8 10 70 100 12 13 10 342 
 
 Jaegers 20 13 19 79 18 10 66 77 17 19 4 342 
 
 Johnston 22 19 10 70 13 8 90 50 15 10 8 315 
 
 Lefkowitz 26 27 20 40 36 10 60 30 20 23 7 299 
 
 Rhodius 41 44 24 60 22 9 80 40 22 22 5 369 
 
 Riconda 11 18 18 60 12 7 80 80 13 16 9 324 
 
 Waller 19 13 18 60 15 10 79 92 14 11 7 338 
 
 Walsh 12 35 13 70 12 6 70 50 16 9 1 294 
 
 Weber 16 28 18 79 14 9 90 80 15 13 7 369 
 
 Wetjen 22 9 9 77 15 10 70 53 10 10 5 290 
 
 Wild 24 18 10 57 9 5 49 49 14 9 8 252 
 
 Girls 
 
 Clute 30 28 22 60 26 10 80 89 20 19 2 386 
 
 Cohen 27 32 14 40 26 9 60 71 23 23 3 328 
 
 Conradi 25 24 16 50 25 9 47 58 15 18 7 294 
 
 Engels 35 30 28 38 40 8 60 36 24 31 7 337 
 
 Geffert 28 22 18 100 27 9 100 100 26 20 7 457 
 
 Haag 36 32 23 59 19 7 70 54 21 19 3 343 
 
 Hamilton 37 35 33 50 35 8 70 25 29 3 325 
 
 Howard 34 40 23 89 31 2 50 26 22 19 3 339 
 
 Ilch 31 39 27 60 22 7 90 74 23 22 6 401 
 
 Kolsch 37 27 19 76 31 5 47 57 19 22 340 
 
 Kelly 38 27 26 50 29 5 80 42 19 21 337 
 
 Kelly, K 26 37 16 70 18 9 90 74 16 16 6 378 
 
 Krumholz 29 24 19 60 25 8 80 68 22 17 3 355 
 
 Manwaring 25 29 22 60 20 7 90 80 24 19 4 380 
 
 Millang 33 22 24 80 29 10 50 77 19 18 2 364 
 
 Perry 34 14 15 30 13 8 78 80 14 12 1 299 
 
 Savage 25 20 20 90 21 7 70 70 17 16 5 361 
 
 Schmidt 42 35 30 58 39 8 60 48 22 31 9 382 
 
76 
 
 THE DOCTRINE OF FOEMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 TABLE 1. ORIGINAL SCORES (Continued). 
 Class I, Series III. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tests 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Boys 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 Total 
 
 Garratt 
 
 20 
 
 36 
 
 27 
 
 70 
 
 25 
 
 10 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 14 
 
 5 
 
 327 
 
 Hugger 
 
 28 
 
 19 
 
 13 
 
 60 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 80 
 
 58 
 
 13 
 
 7 
 
 294 
 
 Johnston.. . . 
 
 29 
 
 37 
 
 12 
 
 80 
 
 18 
 
 10 
 
 50 
 
 70 
 
 13 
 
 9 
 
 328 
 
 Lefkowitz. . . 
 
 25 
 
 27 
 
 27 
 
 40 
 
 27 
 
 10 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 15 
 
 8 
 
 279 
 
 Rhodiua 
 
 21 
 
 39 
 
 20 
 
 70 
 
 24 
 
 10 
 
 60 
 
 69 
 
 20 
 
 7 
 
 340 
 
 Waller 
 
 22 
 
 33 
 
 20 
 
 90 
 
 22 
 
 10 
 
 70 
 
 70 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 354 
 
 Walsh 
 
 24 
 
 26 
 
 13 
 
 68 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 56 
 
 59 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 279 
 
 'Wetjen 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 48 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 59 
 
 46 
 
 22 
 
 3 
 
 258 
 
 WUd 
 
 23 
 
 23 
 
 19 
 
 80 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 58 
 
 49 
 
 17 
 
 5 
 
 295 
 
 Girls 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Engels 
 
 34 
 
 29 
 
 24 
 
 38 
 
 28 
 
 9 
 
 70 
 
 69 
 
 24 
 
 2 
 
 327 
 
 Geffert 
 
 23 
 
 37 
 
 22 
 
 80 
 
 24 
 
 10 
 
 52 
 
 72 
 
 14 
 
 5 
 
 339 
 
 Hamilton . . . 
 
 26 
 
 32 
 
 31 
 
 50 
 
 24 
 
 8 
 
 50 
 
 46 
 
 23 
 
 10 
 
 300 
 
 Howard 
 
 , 22 
 
 44 
 
 29 
 
 60 
 
 30 
 
 6 
 
 60 
 
 50 
 
 18 
 
 5 
 
 324 
 
 Ilch 
 
 , 34 
 
 44 
 
 28 
 
 69 
 
 26 
 
 10 
 
 67 
 
 54 
 
 28 
 
 10 
 
 370 
 
 Kolsch 
 
 , 32 
 
 38 
 
 19 
 
 40 
 
 27 
 
 9 
 
 20 
 
 53 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 253 
 
 Kelly, K... 
 
 . 17 
 
 36 
 
 20 
 
 80 
 
 24 
 
 9 
 
 50 
 
 57 
 
 22 
 
 10 
 
 325 
 
 Krumholz. . 
 
 . 27 
 
 34 
 
 20 
 
 80 
 
 29 
 
 9 
 
 80 
 
 63 
 
 17 
 
 10 
 
 369 
 
 Manwaring. 
 
 . 33 
 
 38 
 
 21 
 
 60 
 
 26 
 
 10 
 
 59 
 
 60 
 
 27 
 
 5 
 
 339 
 
 Millang 
 
 . 25 
 
 21 
 
 18 
 
 50 
 
 31 
 
 10 
 
 39 
 
 79 
 
 21 
 
 8 
 
 302 
 
 Murtagh 
 
 . 25 
 
 29 
 
 23 
 
 79 
 
 22 
 
 9 
 
 55 
 
 60 
 
 13 
 
 3 
 
 318 
 
 Perry 
 
 . 18 
 
 32 
 
 23 
 
 40 
 
 14 
 
 8 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 20 
 
 3 
 
 268 
 
 Savage , 
 
 , 30 
 
 26 
 
 24 
 
 60 
 
 23 
 
 10 
 
 60 
 
 70 
 
 17 
 
 2 
 
 322 
 
 Schmidt 
 
 , 29 
 
 39 
 
 27 
 
 50 
 
 29 
 
 10 
 
 79 
 
 20 
 
 31 
 
 10 
 
 324 
 
ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION 
 
 77 
 
 TABLE 1. ORIGINAL SCORES (Continued). 
 Class II, Series I. 
 
 Boys 
 
 3 
 
 Tests 
 5 6 
 
 7 8 9 10 12 Total Aver. Age 
 
 Andrews 23 46 28 
 
 Bernhardt... 25 30 29 
 
 Demarest. . .23 29 27 
 
 Dinneen 24 27 25 
 
 Franklin.... 35 28 24 
 
 Friedland. ..28 32 22 
 
 Kartell 15 25 19 
 
 MuUady.. ..24 14 18 
 
 Schuler 20 32 20 
 
 Smyth 26 11 22 
 
 Vandevel....20 30 20 
 
 Girls 
 
 Blanc 35 34 22 
 
 Bliimen 17 33 17 
 
 Brady 22 16 13 
 
 Dale8san....20 30 17 
 
 Dehn 14 26 9 
 
 Gannon 
 
 Geissen 12 35 25 
 
 Grodzic 14 30 18 
 
 Hynes 30 29 34 
 
 Inglis 23 34 24 
 
 Keane 19 11 18 
 
 Luft 23 25 30 
 
 Lutz 48 34 
 
 Meyer 16 18 17 
 
 Rehm 34 29 16 
 
 Rudolf 25 33 24 
 
 Schnering. . . 19 21 15 
 
 Schreiner....l9 22 20 
 
 Wunder 19 42 36 
 
 50 
 
 27 
 
 2 
 
 40 
 
 60 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 320 
 
 29.09 
 
 14 
 
 65 
 
 20 
 
 4 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 14 
 
 24 
 
 3 
 
 314 
 
 28.54 
 
 14 
 
 69 
 
 29 
 
 9 
 
 80 
 
 68 
 
 24 
 
 19 
 
 7 
 
 384 
 
 34.905 
 
 I 14 
 
 67 
 
 19 
 
 5 
 
 69 
 
 67 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 4 
 
 343 
 
 31.18 
 
 15 
 
 59 
 
 28 
 
 5 
 
 90 
 
 55 
 
 22 
 
 22 
 
 5 
 
 373 
 
 33.9 
 
 12 
 
 60 
 
 17 
 
 3 
 
 50 
 
 39 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 299 
 
 27.18 
 
 13 
 
 80 
 
 19 
 
 5 
 
 50 
 
 
 18 
 
 14 
 
 3 
 
 248 
 
 24.8 
 
 15 
 
 77 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 50 
 
 
 24 
 
 16 
 
 3 
 
 249 
 
 24.9 
 
 14 
 
 90 
 
 22 
 
 3 
 
 50 
 
 69 
 
 22 
 
 18 
 
 10 
 
 356 
 
 32.36 
 
 13 
 
 70 
 
 15 
 
 9 
 
 50 
 
 67 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 6 
 
 303 
 
 27.54 
 
 14 
 
 60 
 
 29 
 
 6 
 
 70 
 
 55 
 
 14 
 
 17 
 
 7 
 
 328 
 
 29.81 
 
 17 
 
 100 
 
 20 
 
 9 
 
 70 
 
 66 
 
 28 
 
 20 
 
 8 
 
 412 
 
 37.45 
 
 14 
 
 50 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 80 
 
 50 
 
 8 
 
 18 
 
 4 
 
 296 
 
 26.9 
 
 14 
 
 70 
 
 18 
 
 7 
 
 50 
 
 59 
 
 17 
 
 14 
 
 9 
 
 295 
 
 26.81 
 
 15 
 
 80 
 
 19 
 
 4 
 
 60 
 
 80 
 
 21 
 
 19 
 
 7 
 
 357 
 
 32.45 
 
 14 
 
 70 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 70 
 
 67 
 
 10 
 
 13 
 
 5 
 
 298 
 
 27.09 
 
 15 
 
 69 
 
 26 
 
 7 
 
 59 
 
 66 
 
 15 
 
 21 
 
 9 
 
 272 
 
 34 
 
 14 
 
 77 
 
 16 
 
 9 
 
 70 
 
 90 
 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 8 
 
 368 
 
 33.45 
 
 14 
 
 90 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 80 
 
 60 
 
 15 
 
 17 
 
 5 
 
 355 
 
 32.27 
 
 14 
 
 58 
 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 59 
 
 30 
 
 16 
 
 24 
 
 
 306 
 
 30.6 
 
 15 
 
 90 
 
 18 
 
 7 
 
 60 
 
 80 
 
 16 
 
 21 
 
 6 
 
 379 
 
 34.45 
 
 13 
 
 79 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 50 
 
 29 
 
 9 
 
 15 
 
 2 
 
 246 
 
 22.36 
 
 15 
 
 90 
 
 18 
 
 5 
 
 68 
 
 58 
 
 22 
 
 21 
 
 5 
 
 365 
 
 33.18 
 
 14 
 
 57 
 
 26 
 
 
 
 39 
 
 21 
 
 26 
 
 2 
 
 253 
 
 31.62 
 
 14 
 
 90 
 
 23 
 
 6 
 
 40 
 
 79 
 
 18 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 326 
 
 29.63 
 
 13 
 
 70 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 60 
 
 84 
 
 20 
 
 19 
 
 
 357 
 
 35.7 
 
 13 
 
 60 
 
 22 
 
 4 
 
 69 
 
 49 
 
 19 
 
 24 
 
 6 
 
 335 
 
 30.45 
 
 13 
 
 80 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 46 
 
 70 
 
 13 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 309 
 
 28.09 
 
 15 
 
 30 
 
 17 
 
 2 
 
 90 
 
 27 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 3 
 
 275 
 
 25 
 
 13 
 
 57 
 
 29 
 
 3 
 
 79 
 
 44 
 
 31 
 
 34 
 
 7 
 
 381 
 
 34.63 
 
 12 
 
78 
 
 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 TABLE I. ORIGINAL SCORES (Continued). 
 Class II, Series II. 
 
 Boys 
 
 Tests 
 5 6 7 
 
 10 12 Total 
 
 Andrews 32 43 
 
 Bernhardt 34 22 
 
 Demarest 42 27 
 
 Dinneen 25 24 
 
 FranJdin 34 41 
 
 Friedland 40 35 
 
 HarteU 24 16 
 
 MuUady 21 22 
 
 Schuler 23 25 
 
 Smyth 31 18 
 
 Vandevel 29 27 
 
 Girls 
 
 Blanc 37 35 
 
 Blumen 24 25 
 
 Brady 22 20 
 
 Dalessan 25 33 
 
 Dehn 21 
 
 Gannon 29 30 
 
 Geissen 29 24 
 
 Grodzic 29 26 
 
 Hynes 34 28 
 
 IngUs 35 39 
 
 Keane 19 22 
 
 Luft 29 23 
 
 Lutz 46 37 
 
 Meyer 20 25 
 
 Rehm 29 27 
 
 Rudolf 30 34 
 
 Schnering 18 24 
 
 Schreiner 25 33 
 
 Wunder 35 38 
 
 28 
 
 39 
 
 19 
 
 9 
 
 60 
 
 59 
 
 20 
 
 22 
 
 6 
 
 337 
 
 24 
 
 70 
 
 22 
 
 9 
 
 79 
 
 90 
 
 17 
 
 25 
 
 5 
 
 397 
 
 28 
 
 69 
 
 36 
 
 7 
 
 70 
 
 70 
 
 20 
 
 26 
 
 6 
 
 401 
 
 18 
 
 48 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 87 
 
 69 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 317 
 
 30 
 
 90 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 100 
 
 64 
 
 19 
 
 25 
 
 6 
 
 435 
 
 32 
 
 60 
 
 34 
 
 9 
 
 50 
 
 56 
 
 29 
 
 25 
 
 4 
 
 374 
 
 17 
 
 80 
 
 19 
 
 7 
 
 70 
 
 50 
 
 21 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 322 
 
 14 
 
 60 
 
 30 
 
 8 
 
 54 
 
 57 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 2 
 
 313 
 
 25 
 
 
 30 
 
 6 
 
 75 
 
 77 
 
 23 
 
 21 
 
 6 
 
 311 
 
 26 
 
 60 
 
 29 
 
 10 
 
 60 
 
 78 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 7 
 
 360 
 
 27 
 
 70 
 
 28 
 
 6 
 
 60 
 
 67 
 
 19 
 
 19 
 
 6 
 
 358 
 
 25 
 
 100 
 
 27 
 
 9 
 
 100 
 
 67 
 
 24 
 
 27 
 
 8 
 
 459 
 
 16 
 
 69 
 
 21 
 
 10 
 
 100 
 
 59 
 
 19 
 
 17 
 
 5 
 
 365 
 
 16 
 
 50 
 
 22 
 
 7 
 
 80 
 
 80 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 9 
 
 341 
 
 17 
 
 100 
 
 13 
 
 8 
 
 80 
 
 60 
 
 14 
 
 23 
 
 3 
 
 376 
 
 
 60 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 
 89 
 
 18 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 222 
 
 17 
 
 62 
 
 22 
 
 7 
 
 79 
 
 70 
 
 17 
 
 21 
 
 3 
 
 357 
 
 24 
 
 70 
 
 22 
 
 10 
 
 100 
 
 80 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 7 
 
 401 
 
 22 
 
 100 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 98 
 
 68 
 
 11 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 404 
 
 24 
 
 50 
 
 18 
 
 9 
 
 53 
 
 44 
 
 19 
 
 24 
 
 3 
 
 306 
 
 22 
 
 90 
 
 30 
 
 10 
 
 90 
 
 80 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 5 
 
 446 
 
 12 
 
 48 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 76 
 
 40 
 
 11 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 258 
 
 28 
 
 57 
 
 30 
 
 8 
 
 69 
 
 71 
 
 25 
 
 21 
 
 7 
 
 368 
 
 33 
 
 50 
 
 33 
 
 5 
 
 64 
 
 58 
 
 27 
 
 33 
 
 2 
 
 388 
 
 15 
 
 70 
 
 22 
 
 8 
 
 70 
 
 87 
 
 19 
 
 11 
 
 6 
 
 353 
 
 22 
 
 69 
 
 16 
 
 5 
 
 79 
 
 70 
 
 26 
 
 13 
 
 9 
 
 365 
 
 25 
 
 58 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 90 
 
 43 
 
 29 
 
 19 
 
 7 
 
 365 
 
 17 
 
 80 
 
 20 
 
 9 
 
 80 
 
 69 
 
 19 
 
 16 
 
 3 
 
 355 
 
 34 
 
 70 
 
 24 
 
 9 
 
 69 
 
 50 
 
 19 
 
 16 
 
 6 
 
 355 
 
 20 
 
 59 
 
 33 
 
 9 
 
 90 
 
 49 
 
 22 
 
 22 
 
 6 
 
 383 
 
ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION 
 
 79 
 
 TABLE I. ORIGINAL SCORES (Continued). 
 Class II, Series III. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tests 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Boys 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 Total 
 
 Andrews. . 
 
 . 17 
 
 34 
 
 20 
 
 49 
 
 32 
 
 10 
 
 50 
 
 38 
 
 24 
 
 5 
 
 279 
 
 Bernhardt. 
 
 . 29 
 
 33 
 
 25 
 
 68 
 
 23 
 
 10 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 13 
 
 5 
 
 316 
 
 Friedland . 
 
 . 20 
 
 36 
 
 28 
 
 38 
 
 23 
 
 7 
 
 49 
 
 80 
 
 18 
 
 5 
 
 304 
 
 Kartell.... 
 
 . 28 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 80 
 
 17 
 
 9 
 
 60 
 
 56 
 
 18 
 
 2 
 
 301 
 
 Mullady. . 
 
 . 30 
 
 27 
 
 13 
 
 60 
 
 22 
 
 8 
 
 43 
 
 69 
 
 19 
 
 3 
 
 294 
 
 Schuler. . . 
 
 
 37 
 
 23 
 
 59 
 
 25 
 
 7 
 
 60 
 
 36 
 
 23 
 
 3 
 
 273 
 
 Girls 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Blanc 
 
 . 40 
 
 33 
 
 28 
 
 90 
 
 24 
 
 10 
 
 67 
 
 70 
 
 26 
 
 5 
 
 393 
 
 Blum en. . . 
 
 . 31 
 
 44 
 
 17 
 
 78 
 
 18 
 
 7 
 
 90 
 
 53 
 
 19 
 
 5 
 
 362 
 
 Brady. . . . 
 
 . 22 
 
 25 
 
 14 
 
 40 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 80 
 
 60 
 
 23 
 
 5 
 
 295 
 
 Dalessan. . 
 
 . 25 
 
 36 
 
 19 
 
 64 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 50 
 
 80 
 
 14 
 
 6 
 
 320 
 
 Gannon . . . 
 
 .. 27 
 
 33 
 
 14 
 
 80 
 
 21 
 
 7 
 
 64 
 
 68 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 329 
 
 Geissen. . . 
 
 . 29 
 
 38 
 
 19 
 
 70 
 
 19 
 
 10 
 
 90 
 
 70 
 
 21 
 
 10 
 
 376 
 
 Grodzic. . . 
 
 . 16 
 
 36 
 
 21 
 
 59 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 
 90 
 
 50 
 
 17 
 
 4 
 
 317 
 
 Inglis .... 
 
 . 32 
 
 41 
 
 30 
 
 70 
 
 27 
 
 10 
 
 80 
 
 80 
 
 27 
 
 5 
 
 402 
 
 Keane. . . . 
 
 . 10 
 
 17 
 
 10 
 
 47 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 49 
 
 38 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 203 
 
 Luft 
 
 . 22 
 
 32 
 
 23 
 
 68 
 
 25 
 
 10 
 
 70 
 
 56 
 
 18 
 
 4 
 
 328 
 
 Lutz 
 
 . 37 
 
 45 
 
 28 
 
 60 
 
 33 
 
 9 
 
 80 
 
 80 
 
 29 
 
 5 
 
 406 
 
 Meyer. . . . 
 
 . 30 
 
 32 
 
 16 
 
 40 
 
 21 
 
 10 
 
 58 
 
 59 
 
 19 
 
 2 
 
 287 
 
 Rehm 
 
 . 23 
 
 31 
 
 18 
 
 59 
 
 24 
 
 10 
 
 69 
 
 38 
 
 13 
 
 5 
 
 290 
 
 Rudolf.... 
 
 . 30 
 
 32 
 
 26 
 
 80 
 
 22 
 
 10 
 
 90 
 
 50 
 
 22 
 
 6 
 
 368 
 
 Schreiner. . 
 
 .. 25 
 
 33 
 
 23 
 
 70 
 
 24 
 
 8 
 
 80 
 
 59 
 
 17 
 
 4 
 
 343 
 
 Wunder. . . 
 
 . 37 
 
 35 
 
 27 
 
 62 
 
 36 
 
 6 
 
 48 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 6 
 
 311 
 
80 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 TABLE I. ORIGINAL SCORES (Continued). 
 
 Class III, Series I. 
 
 Tests 
 
 Boys 123456789 10 12 Total Aver. Age 
 
 Alliano 15 27 13 78 14 7 70 67 12 14 3 320 29.09 15 
 
 Archimal....26 33 24 39 24 8 80 74 25 21 3 357 32.45 12 
 
 Baldelli 27 21 15 59 21 7 90 69 15 21 3 348 31.63 14 
 
 Bonomo 22 33 25 60 30 10 90 70 25 23 4 392 35.63 14 
 
 Cohen 25 32 23 49 18 6 70 59 16 8 5 311 28.27 14 
 
 Cullum 20 24 26 40 21 2 80 60 22 21 7 323 29.36 15 
 
 Diiff 28 39 16 80 27 5 90 70 22 30 6 413 37.54 14 
 
 Friedman. .. 17 22 26 66 13 8 70 60 20 16 8 326 29.63 15 
 
 Miethke....27 31 13 36 18 4 60 30 17 19 7 262 23.81 14 
 
 Ruppell 29 37 18 80 24 9 100 86 20 26 7 436 39.63 13 
 
 Steiner 13 24 13 56 18 40 56 9 11 6 246 22.36 12 
 
 Timmann...20 28 22 30 31 3 60 70 16 19 7 306 27.81 14 
 
 Girls 
 
 Brown 27 31 26 90 17 3 48 70 16 14 3 345 31.36 15 
 
 Busby 20 32 26 68 19 3 77 70 18 20 6 359 32.63 13 
 
 Duffy 28 27 26 90 5 48 27 15 266 33.25 14 
 
 Dure 17 26 19 80 16 7 60 70 16 23 4 338 30.72 14 
 
 GaUo 16 33 24 79 12 4 48 79 18 24 3 340 30.9 15 
 
 George 18 35 19 80 15 6 50 48 16 20 307 27.9 15 
 
 Hacker 24 25 25 50 25 80 23 22 8 282 31.33 15 
 
 Hill 19 27 14 90 15 100 23 19 3 310 34.44 14 
 
 Johnson 22 22 17 90 20 3 58 70 16 16 4 338 30.72 14 
 
 Morton 15 18 20 90 22 6 89 20 17 8 305 30.5 14 
 
 Netz 14 33 19 50 20 5 60 76 17 24 4 322 29.27 14 
 
 Sbarra 16 20 14 90 19 7 68 80 11 23 2 350 31.81 14 
 
 Schulz 19 23 6 50 18 4 79 90 11 17 2 319 29 14 
 
 Weed 23 21 19 50 14 2 59 50 19 13 2 272 24.72 16 
 
 Woodbury... 27 29 29 60 32 5 90 68 19 16 5 380 34.54 13 
 
ORIGINAL INVESTIGATIONS 
 
 81 
 
 TABLE I. ORIGINAL SCORES (Continued). 
 Class III, Series II. 
 
 Boys 
 
 Tests 
 5 6 
 
 10 12 Total 
 
 Alliano 25 13 60 11 10 
 
 Archimal 26 26 50 31 8 
 
 Baldelli 18 22 70 20 6 
 
 Bonomo 23 70 35 10 
 
 Cohen 30 24 50 30 6 
 
 Cullum 24 23 60 24 5 
 
 Duff 35 34 70 31 5 
 
 Friedman 32 24 70 23 8 
 
 Miethke 25 20 80 32 9 
 
 Ruppel 33 21 80 24 8 
 
 Steiner 23 21 69 27 9 
 
 Timmann 42 27 59 35 
 
 Girls 
 
 Brown 38 29 58 31 5 
 
 Busby 31 26 80 23 6 
 
 Duffy 32 34 49 15 5 
 
 Duro 36 24 37 26 6 
 
 GaUo 36 18 69 19 4 
 
 George 80 13 
 
 Hacker 33 21 60 24 9 
 
 HiU 30 9 78 19 10 
 
 Johnson 30 18 90 21 4 
 
 Morton 27 20 78 13 6 
 
 Netz 39 16 68 23 9 
 
 Sbarra 17 IS 68 24 9 
 
 Schulz 27 8 50 24 6 
 
 Weed 24 25 70 18 6 
 
 Woodbury 31 18 64 29 9 
 
 80 
 
 41 
 
 8 
 
 
 3 
 
 251 
 
 90 
 
 50 
 
 28 
 
 37 
 
 8 
 
 354 
 
 80 
 
 73 
 
 21 
 
 20 
 
 7 
 
 337 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 28 
 
 36 
 
 7 
 
 409 
 
 40 
 
 69 
 
 22 
 
 19 
 
 4 
 
 294 
 
 70 
 
 79 
 
 22 
 
 21 
 
 6 
 
 334 
 
 70 
 
 70 
 
 30 
 
 34 
 
 4 
 
 383 
 
 90 
 
 40 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 3 
 
 333 
 
 100 
 
 68 
 
 22 
 
 22 
 
 3 
 
 381 
 
 80 
 
 100 
 
 29 
 
 27 
 
 2 
 
 404 
 
 80 
 
 39 
 
 15 
 
 21 
 
 4 
 
 308 
 
 70 
 
 69 
 
 26 
 
 26 
 
 2 
 
 356 
 
 58 
 
 38 
 
 27 
 
 24 
 
 4 
 
 312 
 
 80 
 
 58 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 346 
 
 37 
 
 68 
 
 19 
 
 21 
 
 8 
 
 288 
 
 70 
 
 70 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 4 
 
 318 
 
 90 
 
 80 
 
 24 
 
 22 
 
 3 
 
 365 
 
 70 
 
 69 
 
 15 
 
 17 
 
 2 
 
 266 
 
 90 
 
 100 
 
 18 
 
 27 
 
 8 
 
 390 
 
 100 
 
 90 
 
 18 
 
 14 
 
 8 
 
 376 
 
 86 
 
 90 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 5 
 
 376 
 
 90 
 
 60 
 
 22 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 330 
 
 70 
 
 60 
 
 21 
 
 18 
 
 3 
 
 327 
 
 90 
 
 90 
 
 18 
 
 25 
 
 3 
 
 359 
 
 80 
 
 80 
 
 16 
 
 20 
 
 4 
 
 315 
 
 80 
 
 100 
 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 353 
 
 85 
 
 39 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 315 
 
82 
 
 THE DOCTEINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 TABLE I. ORIGINAL SCORES (Continued). 
 Class III, Series III. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tests 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Boys 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 Total 
 
 Archimal — 
 
 . 35 
 
 45 
 
 24 
 
 60 
 
 29 
 
 10 
 
 84 
 
 75 
 
 24 
 
 5 
 
 391 
 
 Baldelli.... 
 
 . 24 
 
 30 
 
 16 
 
 70 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 79 
 
 58 
 
 27 
 
 5 
 
 332 
 
 Bonomo... . 
 
 . 26 
 
 38 
 
 27 
 
 46 
 
 36 
 
 7 
 
 80 
 
 78 
 
 29 
 
 2 
 
 369 
 
 Cohen 
 
 . 39 
 
 34 
 
 23 
 
 30 
 
 33 
 
 10 
 
 76 
 
 38 
 
 29 
 
 2 
 
 314 
 
 Cullum .... 
 
 . 25 
 
 40 
 
 29 
 
 50 
 
 21 
 
 8 
 
 40 
 
 82 
 
 27 
 
 3 
 
 325 
 
 Duff 
 
 . 34 
 
 45 
 
 27 
 
 69 
 
 36 
 
 10 
 
 70 
 
 60 
 
 24 
 
 4 
 
 379 
 
 Friedman. . 
 
 . 17 
 
 36 
 
 22 
 
 39 
 
 24 
 
 10 
 
 50 
 
 70 
 
 27 
 
 6 
 
 301 
 
 Miethke. . . 
 
 . 27 
 
 31 
 
 13 
 
 60 
 
 23 
 
 10 
 
 60 
 
 59 
 
 27 
 
 8 
 
 318 
 
 RuppeL . . . 
 
 . 27 
 
 38 
 
 25 
 
 70 
 
 27 
 
 10 
 
 90 
 
 37 
 
 25 
 
 3 
 
 352 
 
 Steiner 
 
 . 28 
 
 33 
 
 21 
 
 50 
 
 22 
 
 8 
 
 40 
 
 70 
 
 17 
 
 2 
 
 291 
 
 Girls 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Busby 
 
 . 30 
 
 38 
 
 28 
 
 100 
 
 23 
 
 10 
 
 80 
 
 78 
 
 28 
 
 5 
 
 420 
 
 Duffy 
 
 . 29 
 
 39 
 
 27 
 
 56 
 
 22 
 
 3 
 
 50 
 
 66 
 
 28 
 
 5 
 
 325 
 
 Duro 
 
 . 24 
 
 30 
 
 15 
 
 50 
 
 19 
 
 10 
 
 59 
 
 66 
 
 24 
 
 2 
 
 299 
 
 Gallo 
 
 . 33 
 
 37 
 
 22 
 
 68 
 
 20 
 
 9 
 
 68 
 
 40 
 
 21 
 
 3 
 
 321 
 
 Hacker . . . 
 
 . 26 
 
 39 
 
 31 
 
 50 
 
 39 
 
 10 
 
 70 
 
 50 
 
 26 
 
 5 
 
 346 
 
 Hill 
 
 . 30 
 
 27 
 
 21 
 
 
 32 
 
 10 
 
 90 
 
 70 
 
 14 
 
 3 
 
 297 
 
 Johnson 
 
 . 22 
 
 33 
 
 16 
 
 39 
 
 19 
 
 10 
 
 70 
 
 80 
 
 24 
 
 3 
 
 316 
 
 Morton 
 
 . 24 
 
 33 
 
 19 
 
 70 
 
 13 
 
 9 
 
 80 
 
 80 
 
 22 
 
 8 
 
 358 
 
 Netz 
 
 . 13 
 
 38 
 
 17 
 
 46 
 
 16 
 
 7 
 
 67 
 
 69 
 
 21 
 
 6 
 
 300 
 
 Sbarra 
 
 . 23 
 
 22 
 
 14 
 
 80 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 58 
 
 70 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 311 
 
 Weed 
 
 . 25 
 
 32 
 
 22 
 
 49 
 
 16 
 
 9 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 13 
 
 5 
 
 271 
 
 Woodbury.. 
 
 . 28 
 
 31 
 
 28 
 
 48 
 
 21 
 
 10 
 
 88 
 
 58 
 
 29 
 
 4 
 
 345 
 
ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION 83 
 
 Explanation of Table 1 
 
 The original ratings and totals of each pupil in 
 Series I, II, and III, together with the average of each 
 pupil in Series I and the age at the time of the tests of 
 Series I, are presented in Table I. 
 
 Blanks indicate that pupils were absent from the 
 tests. 
 
 As absences were so frequent, it seemed advisable 
 during the tests of Series II and III, in order to have 
 sufficient data to secure results, to require the pupils to 
 perform the tests either before or after school as soon 
 as possible after their return. No deviation from the 
 method of procedure occurred. A careful record was 
 kept of those who did not perform the tests with the 
 class. As far as could be discovered, there seemed to 
 be no great difference between the ratings secured when 
 the test was performed independently and the average 
 ratings of that pupil when the tests were performed with 
 the class. Of course, it is impossible to state whether 
 the pupil's rating in a particular test would have been 
 higher or lower if performed with the class. Some- 
 times a pupil did better and sometimes worse. 
 
 Comparison of Practised and Unpractised Groups. 
 
 Table 2 is based upon the scores of the practised 
 and unpractised pupils in all three series, reduced to 
 percentages as explained above under method of treat- 
 ing the scores. 
 
 In computing it we disregarded absences and also 
 the omission of Test 1 in Series II by Class III and 
 Test 10 from Series III. As the absences are about 
 equally divided among the practised and unpractised, 
 no very great discrepancy is made with such large 
 totals. 
 
84 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 From the summary, that Table 2 provides, it will 
 be noticed that in Series 1, in each of the three classes, 
 the unpractised boys and unpractised girls have higher 
 totals than the practised. This, of course, is due to 
 the intentional division for the practice groups to 
 favor the unpractised. 
 
 In spite of the omission of Test 1 from Series 2 by 
 Class 3, it is interesting to note that there is an im- 
 provement in Series 2 over Series 1 by the practised 
 boys of Class 3 and by both the practised and unprac- 
 tised girls. 
 
 With two exceptions, the unpractised boys of Class 
 3 and the unpractised girls of Class 1, there is an im- 
 provement in Series 2 over Series 1. These two excep- 
 tions are undoubtedly due to the omission of Test 1 
 by Class 3 from Series II and in the case of the girls 
 of Class 1, by the omission of the whole eleven tests 
 of Series II by one girl of the unpracticed half. 
 
 The increase of Series II over Series I of the seven- 
 teen practised boys, even with the omission of Test 1 
 of Series II by Class 3, is 1342.80. Disregarding ab- 
 sences, these seventeen boys performed 187 tests in 
 Series II, thus making an increase of 7.18 for each 
 individual test. Whereas the increase of Series II 
 over Series I of the 17 unpractised boys with the omis- 
 sion of Test 1 of Series II by Class 3 is only 399.88, 
 thus making an increase of only 2.13 for each of the 
 187 tests in Series II. 
 
 The twenty-five girls of the practised half of Series 
 II, even with the omission of Test I by Class 3, show 
 an increase over the twenty-six girls of Series I of 
 1436.98. Disregarding absences, these twenty-five 
 girls performed 275 tests in Series II, thus there is an 
 increase of 5.22 for each test. Whereas the twenty- 
 
ORIGINAL IX^'ESTIGATION 
 
 85 
 
 TABLE 2. 
 
 C0iIPARI30N OP PlUCTISED AN'D UXPRACTISED GbOXJPS IK AlL TeSTS. 
 
 Practised 
 
 Unpractised 
 
 i 
 
 a 
 
 X 
 
 >> 
 
 T. 
 
 
 
 r. 
 
 z. 
 
 ? — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 - 
 
 X 
 
 "^ 
 
 gQ 
 
 " 
 
 SQ 
 
 I 
 
 12' 3143.04 
 
 12 
 
 3963.28 
 
 8 
 
 2532.78 
 
 II 
 
 10, 3121.47 
 
 10 
 
 3538.55 
 
 6 
 
 1816.04J 
 
 III 
 
 12; 3879.82 
 
 12 
 
 *3985. 30101 3499.54'] 
 
 Total 
 
 34 
 
 10144.33 
 
 34 
 
 11487.13 
 
 24 
 
 7848.36" 
 
 3344.63 3627.60] 2362.35 
 
 3300.551 3534.46; 1781.72 
 
 4048.53 *393 1.53, 3432.99 
 
 10693. 71-11093. 59' 7577.06 
 
 Increase in Series 11 1342. 80 
 
 399.88 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 III 
 
 To:; 
 
 87'^ 
 
 18 6630.22 121 4124.03 6429.35 
 •' :- 0118' 6651.89112; 4104.17 5848.47 
 411^.51 14*4207. 2(^ 8; 2735.44' 422* (j9 
 
 16052.39:50,17489.37 
 
 5941.74 
 
 6200.93 
 
 *4449.69 
 
 4011.01 
 4144.15 
 2606.43 
 
 3210963.6; :rr ; 1 1 : ^'>2. 3610761. 59 
 
 Increase in Series 11 1436. 98 
 
 * Test I omitted, 
 t Test 10 omitted. 
 
 five girls of the unpractised half, show an increase of 
 S6.45 in Series II over the twenty-six girls of Series I. 
 Thus for the 275 tests, there is an LQcrease of only ,31 
 for each test. 
 
 With regard to Series III, with the exception of 
 the girls of the unpractised half of Class 2, the totals 
 of the practiced half are higher than those of the cor- 
 responding unpractised half lq each class for both boys 
 and girls. 
 
86 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 It is self-evident that these figures are necessarily 
 inexact, but even with this crude comparison, the 
 general trend of the results of the experiment can be 
 foreseen. 
 
 Comparison of Practised and Unpractised Halves 
 
 in Regard to Ability in Biological and 
 
 Non-Biological Tests. 
 
 Table 3 shows the comparative results of the prac- 
 tised and unpractised halves in the Biological tests 
 and in the Non-Biological tests. 
 
 In this computation, if a pupil was absent from a test 
 in Series I or Series II, the corresponding test for this 
 pupil was omitted from Series II or Series I, thus 
 making the two series homogeneous. 
 
 In Class (1), one girl in the practised half and one in 
 the unpractised half were absent from most of the 
 tests of Series II, therefore their tests in Series I had 
 to be omitted, although, of course, these latter had 
 helped to form the basis of division for the Practice 
 Series. The ratings of the unpractised one were much 
 superior to those of the practised one in Series I. 
 
 In Class 1, there is an extra boy on the practised 
 side; in Class 2, an extra boy on the unpractised side; 
 and in Class 3, an extra girl on the unpractised side. 
 Their percentages were not added in the totals of 
 Series I and II, but in Series III of Class 2, the ratings 
 of the extra unpractised boy were included in place 
 of one who had left school. 
 
 In Series II, Test 1 was omitted by Class III and, 
 therefore, had to be omitted in Series I for that class. 
 
 Test 10, in Series III was omitted by all three classes. 
 
TABLE 3. 
 Comparison of Biological and Non-Biological Tests in Series I and II. 
 
 Practised 
 
 Unpractised 
 
 
 Biol. 
 
 Non-Biol. 
 
 Biol. 
 
 Non-Biol. 
 
 Class 
 
 B 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 B 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 III 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 6 
 
 1345.24 
 1586.83 
 1355.96 
 
 1614.64 
 
 1555.62 
 1803.54 
 
 1797.80 
 1534.64 
 2135.24 
 
 2268.64 
 1932.93 
 2181.76 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 6 
 
 1193.43 
 1474.27 
 1333.33 
 
 1064.62 
 1697.33 
 1496. 78 
 
 2155.20 
 1725.32 
 2216.20 
 
 2439.24 
 1771.13 
 2434.75 
 
 Totals 
 
 17 
 
 4288.03 
 
 4973.80 
 
 5467.68 
 
 6383.33 
 
 17 
 
 4001.03 
 
 4258.73 
 
 6096.72 
 
 6645.12 
 
 
 
 
 4288.03 
 
 
 5467.68 
 
 
 
 4001.03 
 
 
 6096. 72 
 
 
 685.77 
 
 915.65 
 
 257.70 
 
 548.40 
 
 Class 
 
 G 
 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 III 
 
 9 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 2555.00 
 2560.21 
 1434.81 
 
 2979. 25 
 2772.88 
 1600.23 
 
 3150.12 
 3122.80 
 2147.64 
 
 3329. 20 
 3575.01 
 2447.03 
 
 9 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 2641.27 
 2429.39 
 1542.05 
 
 2523.60 
 2410.76 
 1523.14 
 
 2964. 28 
 3269.68 
 2291.28 
 
 3245.75 
 3579. 16 
 2541.05 
 
 Totals 
 
 25 
 
 6550.02 
 
 7352.36 
 
 8420.56 
 
 9351.24 
 
 25 
 
 6612.71 
 
 6457.50 
 
 8525.24 
 
 9365.96 
 
 
 
 
 6550.02 
 
 
 8420.56 
 
 
 6457.50 
 
 
 
 8525.24 
 
 
 802.34 
 
 930.68 
 
 ♦155.21 
 
 840.72 
 
 Decrease. B = Boys; G = Girls. 
 
 TABLE 3 (Continued). 
 Gains or Losses in Series II over Series I. 
 
 Practised 
 
 Unpractised 
 
 
 Class 
 
 Biol. 
 
 Non-Biol. 
 
 Biol. 
 
 Non-Biol. 
 
 
 Gains 
 
 Losses 
 
 Gains 
 
 Losses 
 
 Gains 
 
 Losses 
 
 Gains 
 
 Losses 
 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 III 
 
 269.40 
 
 447.58 
 
 31.21 
 
 470.84 
 
 398.29 
 
 46.52 
 
 
 223.06 
 163.45 
 
 128.81 
 
 284.04 
 
 45.81 
 
 218.55 
 
 .^ 
 
 
 Totals 
 
 716.98 
 
 31.21 
 
 915.65 
 
 
 386.51 
 
 128.81 
 
 548.40 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 III 
 
 424.25 
 212.67 
 165.42 
 
 
 179.08 
 452.21 
 299.39 
 
 
 
 117.67 
 18.63 
 18.91 
 
 281.47 
 309.48 
 249.77 
 
 
 
 Totals 
 
 802.34 
 
 
 930.68 
 
 
 
 155.21 
 
 840.72 
 
 
88 
 
 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 TABLE 3 (Continued). 
 Numbers of the Tests Omitted to Secure Better Comparison.* 
 
 
 
 Biological 
 
 Non-Biological 
 
 
 Class 
 
 Practised 
 
 Unpractised 
 
 Practised 
 
 Unpractised 
 
 o 
 
 m 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 III 
 
 
 1 
 10 
 
 12 
 8 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 4,8 
 
 2 
 
 
 Totals 
 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 III 
 
 9, 10, 9, 10 
 
 1 
 3 
 
 1,3 
 3, 1,3 
 
 5 
 
 7,4,8 
 
 12, 6, 7 
 
 6,7,2 
 
 2 
 12, 2, 7, 2 
 6, 7, 8, 12 
 
 
 Totals 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 * Tests omitted from Series 1 if absent from Series 2 or vice versa, 
 in order to make the comparison of practised and unpractised of Series 
 1 and 2 homogeneous. The entire set of tests of Murtagh of the 
 practiced half and McGreevy of the unpracticed of Class 1 were omitted 
 because of protracted absence. 
 
 TABLE 3 (Continued). 
 
 Comparison of Biological and Non-Biological Tests in Series 
 
 III 
 
 
 Practised 
 
 Unpractised 
 
 Class 
 
 Boys 
 
 Biol. 
 
 Non-Biol. 
 
 Boys 
 
 Biol. 
 
 Non-Biol. 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 III 
 
 4 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 916.62 
 
 747.34 
 1519.88 
 
 1616.16 
 1068.70 
 1979.66 
 
 4 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 793.45 
 
 701.38 
 
 1421.05 
 
 1568.90 
 1080.34 
 2031.94 
 
 Totals 
 
 12 
 
 3183.84 
 
 4664. 52 
 
 12 
 
 2915.88 
 
 4681.18 
 
 Class 
 
 Girls 
 
 Biol. 
 
 Non-Biol. 
 
 Girls 
 
 Biol. 
 
 Non-Biol. 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 III 
 
 6 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 1753.43 
 1578.87 
 1114.86 
 
 2370.36 
 2525.30 
 1620.58 
 
 6 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 1571.81 
 1593.97 
 1083.27 
 
 2439.20 
 2550. 18 
 1507.74 
 
 Totals 
 
 16 
 
 4447.16 
 
 6516.24 
 
 16 
 
 4249.05 
 
 6497.12 
 
ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION 89 
 
 In Series III, a corresponding number of pupils on 
 the practised and unpractised side were used for the 
 comparison of totals. The integrity of the practised 
 and unpractised sides was preserved as far as was pos- 
 sible, considering the withdrawal of some of the pupils. 
 
 From this summary provided by Table 3 it will 
 be seen that there is a decrease in the totals of the Bio- 
 logical tests of Series II for the unpractised boys of 
 Class 1 and the unpractised girls of Classes 1, 2, and 
 3, while the practised boys alone of Class 2 show a 
 slight decrease. 
 
 Both practised and unpractised groups of all classes, 
 both boys and girls, show an increase in Series II in the 
 Non-Biological tests; but the greater increase in the 
 case of both boys and girls is on the side of the prac- 
 tised group. 
 
 The division for the practice group was based on the 
 average of the original ratings of the eleven tests of 
 each pupil in Series I, regardless of the distinction be- 
 tween Biological and Non-Biological material, but this 
 summary shows that in each case except the girls of 
 Class I, the unpractised side had higher totals in the 
 Non-Biological tests of Series I than the practised half, 
 and in every case, they had higher totals in the Non- 
 Biological tests of Series II, except the boys of Class 2 
 and the girls of Class 1, but, as has been said, the 
 greater improvement was in the practised group. It 
 would seem that the superior pupils in the Non-Bio- 
 logical tests were in the unpractised groups, but that 
 something had caused an improvement in the prac- 
 tised groups, although they could not attain to the 
 superior position of their rivals. 
 
 The seventeen boys in the practised group in the 
 Non-Biological tests gained in Series II 915.65; thus 
 
90 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 in each of the 102 tests there was an average improve- 
 ment of 8.97, while the corresponding unpractised 
 half gained only 548.40 — an average increase for each 
 of the 102 tests of 5.37. 
 
 The twenty-five girls of the practised half in the 
 Non-Biological tests made a gain in Series II of 930.68, 
 or an average of 6.2 for each of the 150 tests, whereas 
 the unpractised half gained 840.72, an average of 5.6 
 for each of the 150 tests. Could it be that the increase 
 of the practised group was due to a transfer from the 
 practice series? Or, is it possible that the unpractised 
 group may have been nearer their physiological limit 
 and therefore could not increase in proportion to the 
 practised? 
 
 Turning to the Biological tests, as has been noted, 
 only one of the practised divisions, that of the boys of 
 Class 2, lost slightly, while four of the unpractised 
 lost. It is difficult to explain this loss. If the Biologi- 
 cal material of Series II was more difficult, then it 
 would be hard to explain the great gain of both boys 
 and girls in the practised group. 
 
 When the fu'st series of tests was performed, most 
 of the biological material was comparatively new to the 
 subjects; that is, they did not know any of the technical 
 or scientific terms used in describing stems, flowers, 
 leaves, buds, etc. In the course of their school work 
 between the tests of Series I and II, the pupils learned 
 many technical terms. I felt that this would lower their 
 ratings in the second series, because they might be 
 able to use a single word which would express about 
 the same meaning as a sentence had been required for 
 in the first series. To my surprise, I found that 
 this was not always the case. May it not be possible 
 that the unpractised did exactly this very thing, while 
 
ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION 91 
 
 the practised, having had ten extra biological speci- 
 mens to describe, had acquired some skill in enumer- 
 ating more at length the characteristics necessary to 
 distinguish one from another? 
 
 It happened that when the Biological were separated 
 from the Non-Biological tests of Series I, the advantage 
 in the Biological tests in each class of boys and in 
 Class 2 of the girls was with the practised group. In 
 only one class, the boys of Class 2, did the unpractised 
 reach a higher total in Series II than the practised 
 group. Therefore, we cannot assume that the physio- 
 logical limit had anything to do with these tests, as 
 far as the boys were concerned, since those that were 
 better made more improvement, while with the Non- 
 Biological tests, the reverse was true. With the girls, 
 while the advantage was slightly in favor of the un- 
 practised group in Series I, the totals of Series II 
 showed a decrease, while the practised side showed con- 
 siderable increase. 
 
 In the Biological tests the seventeen boys in Series II 
 made an improvement over Series I of 685.77; thus 
 for the 85 tests, there was an increase of 8.06 per test; 
 whereas the unpractised boys made an increase of 
 257.70, or for the 85 tests, of 3.03 per test. The 
 twenty-five girls of the practised division, in Series II 
 made a gain of 802.34 over Series I, or for the 125 
 tests, of 6.41 per test, while the unpractised side lost 
 155.21, or for the 125 tests, 1.24 per test. Clearly in 
 Series II, the advantage seems to be with the practised 
 side. 
 
 In computing the average gain or loss per test, no 
 allowance was made for the omission of Test 1 from 
 Series II by Class 3 nor for absences from the tests, 
 therefore the average per test would be slightly greater, 
 
92 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 but since practically the same number of tests was 
 omitted by both sides, as can be seen from the table 
 of "Tests Omitted," no material difference would be 
 made in the relationship of the practised and unprac- 
 tised sides. 
 
 The summary of Series III shows the comparison 
 of the totals of twelve boys and sixteen girls in the 
 practised and unpractised groups in both the Biological 
 and Non-Biological tests. 
 
 Here there is seen in general the same relationship 
 as was shown in the comparison of Series I and II. 
 
 In Series III, the twelve boys of the practised half 
 have a higher rating than the unpractised in the Bio- 
 logical tests, as they did in both Series I and II; while 
 in the Non-Biological tests, the advantage is with the 
 unpractised as it was in both Series I and II. 
 
 The sixteen girls show an advantage in the practised 
 side in both Biological and Non-Biological tests, which 
 was just the opposite in Series I, while in Series II, 
 the Biological ratings of the practiced were much 
 higher and the Non-Biological were slightly lower. 
 More accurate comparison will be made later, but all 
 these data seem to show a general advantage in favor 
 of the practised side. 
 
ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION 
 
 93 
 
 TABLE 4. 
 
 Comparison of Series I and IL 
 
 Net Gains and Losses When Made Homogenous for Corresponding 
 
 Pairs of Pupils. 
 
 
 Practised 
 
 Unpractised 
 
 Class 
 
 Boys 
 
 Gains 
 
 Losses 
 
 Gains 
 
 Losses 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 III 
 
 12 
 10 
 12 
 
 372 
 171 
 201 
 
 
 149 
 156 
 219 
 
 
 Total 
 
 34 
 
 744 
 
 
 524 
 
 
 Class 
 
 Girls 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 III 
 
 18 
 18 
 14 
 
 387 
 350 
 160 
 
 
 56 
 
 212 
 
 28 
 
 
 Total 
 
 50 
 
 897 
 
 
 296 
 
 
 TABLE 4 (Continued). 
 Comparison op Pupils in Series I and II and III. 
 Net Gains and Losses Made Homogeneous for Corresponding Pupils in 
 All 3 Series. 
 
 
 Practised 
 
 Unpractised 
 
 Class 
 
 Boys 
 
 I and II 
 
 I and III 
 
 I and II 
 
 I and III 
 
 
 
 Gain 
 
 Loss 
 
 Gain 
 
 Loss 
 
 Gain 
 
 Loss 
 
 Gain 
 
 Loss 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 III 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 250 
 
 112 
 
 37 
 
 
 159 
 19 
 
 53 
 
 
 2 
 124 
 246 
 
 
 21 
 
 4 
 
 36 
 
 
 Totals 
 
 24 
 
 399 
 
 
 231 
 
 
 372 
 
 
 61 
 
 
 Class 
 
 Girls 
 
 134 
 191 
 122 
 
 
 14 
 30 
 62 
 
 
 52 
 
 158 
 
 57 
 
 
 56 
 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 III 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 8 
 
 28 
 53 
 
 Totals 
 
 30 
 
 447 
 
 
 106 
 
 
 267 
 
 
 56 
 
 81 
 
TABLE 4 (Continued). 
 Summary op Pupils Present at All Tests. 
 
 Net Scores. 
 
 
 
 
 Practised 
 
 
 
 
 Unpractised 
 
 
 ♦Class 
 
 B 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 III 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 III 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 III 
 
 8 
 8 
 8 
 
 1121 
 1335 
 1213 
 
 1378 
 1463 
 1318 
 
 828 
 1148 
 
 1019 
 
 1222 
 
 946 
 1167 
 
 1230 
 1329 
 1266 
 
 1301 
 1516 
 1456 
 
 916 
 1179 
 
 899 
 1366 
 
 943 
 1224 
 
 Totals 
 
 24 
 
 3669 
 
 4159 
 
 1976 
 
 2241 
 
 2113 
 
 3825 
 
 4273 
 
 2095 
 
 2265 
 
 2167 
 
 
 G 
 
 1710 
 1703 
 1527 
 
 3669 
 
 
 1976 
 
 1976 
 
 
 3825 
 
 
 2095 
 
 2095 
 
 Class 
 
 490 
 Gain 
 
 1899 
 1914 
 1644 
 
 1353 
 
 1321 
 
 853 
 
 265 
 Gain 
 
 1455 
 
 1479 
 
 961 
 
 137 
 Gain 
 
 1329 
 
 1342 
 
 911 
 
 1708 
 1728 
 1635 
 
 448 
 Gain 
 
 1794 
 
 1878 
 1742 
 
 1346 
 
 1318 
 
 937 
 
 170 
 
 Gain 
 
 1424 
 1445 
 1002 
 
 72 
 Gain 
 
 I 
 II 
 
 III 
 
 10 
 10 
 10 
 
 1386 
 
 1369 
 
 899 
 
 Totals 
 
 30 
 
 4940 
 
 5457 
 
 3527 
 
 3895 
 
 3582 
 
 5071 
 
 5414 
 
 3601 
 
 3871 
 
 3654 
 
 
 
 
 4940 
 
 
 3527 
 
 3527 
 
 
 5071 
 
 
 3601 
 
 3601 
 
 
 517 
 Gain 
 
 
 368 
 Gain 
 
 55 
 Gain 
 
 
 343 
 Gain 
 
 
 270 
 Gain 
 
 53 
 Gain 
 
 * Series III. 14 boys, 22 girls. 
 
 TABLE 4 (Continued). 
 
 Comparison of All Pupils Who Were Present at All Tests op 
 
 Series i and II. 
 
 Net Gains and Losses. 
 
 
 Practised 
 
 Unpractised 
 
 Class 
 
 Boys 
 
 Gains 
 
 Losses 
 
 Gains 
 
 Losses 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 III 
 
 8 
 8 
 8 
 
 257 
 128 
 105 
 
 
 71 
 187 
 190 
 
 
 Totals 
 
 24 
 
 490 
 
 
 448 
 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 III 
 
 10 
 10 
 10 
 
 189 
 211 
 117 
 
 
 86 
 150 
 107 
 
 
 Totals 
 
 30 
 
 517 
 
 
 343 
 
 
OKIGINAL INVESTIGATION 
 
 95 
 
 TABLE 4 (Continued). 
 Comparison op Pupils Who Were Present at All Tests op Series 
 
 I, II AND III. 
 
 Net Gains and Losses. 
 
 
 Practised 
 
 Unpractised 
 
 
 
 I and II 
 
 I and III 
 
 I and II 
 
 I and III 
 
 Class 
 
 Boys 
 
 Gain 
 
 Loss 
 
 Gain 
 
 Loss 
 
 Gain 
 
 Loss 
 
 Gain 
 
 Loss 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 III 
 
 6 
 
 
 8 
 
 191 
 74 
 
 
 118 
 19 
 
 
 187 
 
 17 
 
 27 
 45 
 
 
 Totals 
 
 14 
 
 265 
 
 
 137 
 
 
 187 
 
 17 
 
 72 
 
 
 Class 
 
 Girls 
 
 102 
 158 
 108 
 
 
 21 
 
 58 
 
 24 
 
 78 
 
 127 
 
 65 
 
 
 40 
 51 
 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 III 
 
 8 
 8 
 6 
 
 38 
 
 Totals 
 
 22 
 
 368 
 
 
 79 
 
 24 
 
 270 
 
 
 91 
 
 38 
 
 In Table IV, a comparison is made of the original 
 ratings based on Table I of the practised and unprac- 
 tised groups. 
 
 Test 1 of Series II was omitted by Class 3, and Test 
 10 of Series III was omitted by all three classes. If a 
 pupil was absent from a test, that test was omitted 
 from his ratings in each of the other series, and also 
 from the ratings of all of the series of his partner. Thus 
 pairs of pupils, chosen when division for the practice 
 groups was made, are compared in exactly the same 
 tests in each of the three series. 
 
 The Table giving the comparison of Series I and II 
 shows more improvement of the practised group in 
 
96 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 every class except the boys of Class 3. In Series I, 
 in every case, the unpractised group had higher ratings 
 than the corresponding practised group. In Series 
 II, this is true only in the case of the unpractised boys 
 and girls of Class 3. But the total improvement is 
 greater for the practised group. The seventeen boys 
 of the practised group made a gain of 744 in Series II 
 over Series I. With fourteen of the 187 tests omitted, 
 the practised boys made an average gain of 4.3 per 
 test in their ratings while the corresponding unprac- 
 tised boys gained 524 in Series II with an average 
 gain per test of 3.02. 
 
 The twenty-five girls of the practised group made 
 a gain of 897 in Series II. Omitting 34 of the 275 
 tests, the practised girls made an average gain of 3.72 
 per test, while the unpractised girls gained 296 in 
 Series II, an average of 1.22 per test. 
 
 A comparison of the 24 boys and 30 girls in Series I, 
 II and III, shows the greater improvement to be in 
 the practised group. This is true for both Series II 
 and Series III. The only loss is in Series III by the 
 unpractised groups of girls in Classes 1 and 3. 
 
 A summary of the 24 boys and 30 girls present in all 
 the tests, again shows the advantage to rest with the 
 practised group. Twelve boys performing eleven tests 
 each, with a total of 132 tests, gained 490 or 3.71 per 
 test, while fifteen girls performing a total of 165 tests, 
 gained 517 or 3.13 per test. The twelve boys of the 
 unpractised group gained 448, with an average of 
 3.39 per test while the fifteen girls gained 343, average 
 2.08 per test. The seven boys of the practised group 
 in Series III compared with Series I showed greater 
 improvement than the unpractised, and the eleven 
 girls showed a very little more improvement than their 
 corresponding group. 
 
ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION 
 
 97 
 
 A comparison of pupils who were present at all tests 
 of Series I, II and III, again shows for the fourteen 
 boys and twenty-two girls, the former to manifest great- 
 er improvement for the practised group in both series, 
 while the girls show a greater improvement in Series 
 II but very little difference in Series III. 
 
 TABLE 5. 
 Class I, Series 1. 
 Division op Classes for Practice Groups. 
 
 
 
 No. of 
 
 
 
 No. of 
 
 
 Average 
 
 Missing 
 
 
 Average 
 
 Missing 
 
 Boys 
 
 
 Tests 
 
 Boys 
 
 
 Tests 
 
 Garratt 
 
 30.45 
 
 
 Waller 
 
 33.45 
 
 
 Rhodius 
 
 28.27 
 
 
 Hugger 
 
 30.00 
 
 
 Johnston 
 
 25.70 
 
 1 
 
 Weber 
 
 27.70 
 
 
 Hart 
 
 22.63 
 
 
 Wild 
 
 22.72 
 
 
 Walsh 
 
 22.70 
 
 
 Wet j en 
 
 24.00 
 
 1 
 
 Lefkowitz 
 
 18.60 
 
 
 Riconda 
 Total 
 
 19.20 
 
 1 
 
 Total 
 
 148.35 
 
 157.07 
 
 
 Jaeger 
 
 27.72 
 
 
 
 
 
 Girls 
 
 
 
 Girls 
 
 
 
 *Engels 
 
 32.09 
 
 
 Kolsch 
 
 28.18 
 
 
 Geflfert 
 
 35.36 
 
 
 McGreevy 
 
 36.18 
 
 
 Schmidt 
 
 34.36 
 
 
 Krumholz 
 
 34.81 
 
 
 Hamilton 
 
 31.90 
 
 
 Ilch 
 
 34.00 
 
 
 Millang 
 
 30.22 
 
 2 
 
 Savage 
 
 34.66 
 
 
 Man waring 
 
 29.09 
 
 
 KeUy, K. 
 
 29.63 
 
 
 Haag 
 
 24.54 
 
 
 Howard 
 
 26.90 
 
 
 Murtagh 
 
 23.45 
 
 
 Perry 
 
 24.18 
 
 
 *KeUy 
 
 24.66 
 
 2 
 
 Conradi 
 
 19.44 
 
 
 Clute 
 
 33.30 
 
 t 
 
 Cohen 
 Total 
 
 43.83 
 
 t 
 
 Total 
 
 298.97 
 
 311.81 
 
 
 * Indicates names should have been transferred, because of higher 
 averages. 
 
 t Six experiments alike. 
 

 
 TABLE 5 I 
 
 (Continued). 
 
 
 
 » 
 
 
 Class II 
 
 , Series I. 
 
 
 
 
 Division 
 
 OF Classes 
 
 FOR Practice Group. 
 
 
 
 
 No. of 
 
 
 
 No. of 
 
 
 Average 
 
 Missing 
 
 
 Average 
 
 Missing 
 
 Boys 
 
 
 Tests 
 
 Boys 
 
 
 Tests 
 
 Andrews 
 
 29.09 
 
 
 Vandevel 
 
 29.81 
 
 
 Friedland 
 
 27.18 
 
 
 Smyth 
 
 27.54 
 
 
 Kartell 
 
 24.80 
 
 1 
 
 MuUady 
 
 24.90 
 
 1 
 
 Franklin 
 
 33.90 
 
 
 Demarest 
 
 34.90 
 
 
 Dinneen 
 
 31.18 
 
 
 Schuler 
 Total 
 
 32.36 
 
 
 Total 
 
 146.15 
 
 149.51 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bernhardt 
 
 28.54 
 
 
 Girls 
 
 
 
 Girls 
 
 
 
 Rehm 
 
 35.70 
 
 1 
 
 Blanc 
 
 40.4 
 
 
 Inglis 
 
 34.45 
 
 
 Wunder 
 
 34.63 
 
 
 Luft 
 
 33.18 
 
 
 Geissen 
 
 33.45 
 
 
 Grodzic 
 
 32.27 
 
 
 Dalessan 
 
 32.45 
 
 
 *Rudolf 
 
 32.90 
 
 
 Hynes 
 
 30.60 
 
 
 Schnering 
 
 28.09 
 
 
 Meyer 
 
 29.63 
 
 
 Brady 
 
 26.81 
 
 
 Blumen 
 
 26.90 
 
 
 Schreiner 
 
 25.00 
 
 
 Dehn 
 
 27.09 
 
 
 Lutz 
 
 28.50 
 
 t 
 
 Gannon 
 Total 
 
 34.33 
 
 
 Total 
 
 276.90 
 
 289.48 
 
 
 
 
 
 Keane 
 
 22.36 
 
 
 t Six experiments alike. 
 
 TABLE 5 (Continued). 
 
 Class III, Series I. 
 
 Division op Classes for Practice Groups. 
 
 
 
 No. of 
 
 
 
 No. of 
 
 
 Average 
 
 Missing 
 
 
 Average 
 
 Missing 
 
 Boys 
 
 
 Tests 
 
 Boys 
 
 
 Tests 
 
 Duff 
 
 37.54 
 
 
 Ruppel 
 
 39.63 
 
 
 Archimal 
 
 32.45 
 
 
 Bonomo 
 
 35.63 
 
 
 Timman 
 
 27.81 
 
 
 Alhano 
 
 29.09 
 
 
 Friedman 
 
 29.63 
 
 
 BaldelU 
 
 31.63 
 
 
 Cohen 
 
 28.27 
 
 
 CuUum 
 
 29.36 
 
 
 Steiner 
 
 22.36 
 
 
 Miethke 
 
 23.81 
 
 
 Total 
 
 178.06 
 
 189.15 
 
 
 Girls 
 
 
 
 Girls 
 
 
 
 Hacker 
 
 31.33 
 
 
 Hill 
 
 34.44 
 
 2 
 
 Busby 
 
 32.63 
 
 
 Woodbury 
 
 34.54 
 
 
 Brown 
 
 31.36 
 
 
 Sharra 
 
 31.81 
 
 
 Duro 
 
 30.72 
 
 
 Johnson 
 
 30.72 
 
 
 Weed 
 
 24.72 
 
 
 Gallo 
 
 30.90 
 
 
 Schulze 
 
 29.00 
 
 
 Netz 
 
 29.27 
 
 
 George 
 
 30.50 
 
 
 Duffy 
 Total 
 
 33.25 
 
 
 Total 
 
 210.26 
 
 224.93 
 
 
 Morton 
 
 30.50 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION 99 
 
 
 TABLE 5 
 
 (Continued). 
 
 
 
 Summary of Practice Groups. 
 
 
 
 
 Practised 
 
 Unpractised 
 
 Class 
 
 Boys 
 
 Total Average 
 
 Total Average 
 
 I 
 
 12 
 
 148.35 
 
 157.07 
 
 II 
 
 10 
 
 146.15 
 
 149.51 
 
 III 
 
 12 
 34 
 
 178.06 
 
 189.15 
 
 Total 
 
 472.56 
 
 495.73 
 
 
 
 
 472.56 
 
 
 23.17 
 
 Class 
 
 Girls 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 20 
 
 298.97 
 
 311.81 
 
 II 
 
 18 
 
 276.90 
 
 289.48 
 
 III 
 
 14 
 52 
 
 210.26 
 
 224.93 
 
 Total 
 
 786.13 
 
 826.22 
 
 
 
 
 786.13 
 
 40.09 
 
 From the results of the tests ot Series I, the three 
 classes were divided into two groups, one for the extra 
 practice and the other for comparison. In each class, 
 boys and girls considered separately, the two pupils 
 having their averages from the original ratings of 
 Series I, Table I, nearest alike, were chosen for com- 
 parison and the one with the higher rating was placed 
 in the unpractised group. In case of absence from 
 one or more tests, the same test was omitted from the 
 nearest pupil's average. In three cases, through 
 faulty manipulation or computation, pupils having 
 higher ratings were placed with the practised group. 
 It is possible now, to see a few changes that might 
 have made an improvement. But in every case, in 
 every class, the higher total for both boys and girls 
 was in the unpractised group. 
 
 The summary shows that in Series I, the unprac- 
 tised group of boys was ahead in their averages by 
 23.17 while the unpractised girls outran the practised 
 by 40.09. 
 
100 
 
 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 TABLE 6. 
 
 Class Marks in Botany, February to June, 1912; Zoology, Sep- 
 tember TO February, 1913. 
 
 Boys 
 
 Garratt 
 
 Rhodius 
 
 Johnston 
 
 Hart 
 
 Walsh 
 
 Lefkowitz 
 
 Total 
 
 Jaegers 
 
 Practised 
 
 Class I. 
 
 1 2 
 
 February to June, 1912. 
 3 4 Total Boys 
 
 83 70 80 80 313 WaUer 
 
 70 80 80 80 310 Hugger 
 
 60 55 50 65 230 Weber 
 
 50 45 55 40 190 Wild 
 
 62 55 70 65 252 Wet j en 
 
 55 60 62 65 242 Riconda 
 
 380 365 397 395 1537 Total 
 
 70 75 75 75 295 
 
 
 Unpractised 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 '■ 
 
 Total 
 
 55 
 
 55 
 
 40 
 
 60 
 
 210 
 
 60 
 
 80 
 
 70 
 
 75 
 
 285 
 
 63 
 
 60 
 
 70 
 
 73 
 
 266 
 
 60 
 
 57 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 227 
 
 60 
 
 50 
 
 65 
 
 67 
 
 242 
 
 65 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 40 
 
 205 
 
 363 352 345 375 1435 
 
 Girls 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Girls 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Engles 
 
 75 
 
 80 
 
 82 
 
 83 
 
 320 
 
 Kolsch 
 
 80 
 
 83 
 
 80 
 
 85 
 
 328 
 
 Geffert 
 
 70 
 
 75 
 
 77 
 
 75 
 
 297 
 
 McGreevy 
 
 75 
 
 60 
 
 65 
 
 60 
 
 260 
 
 Schmidt 
 
 80 
 
 82 
 
 85 
 
 85 
 
 332 
 
 Krumholz 
 
 78 
 
 80 
 
 85 
 
 85 
 
 328 
 
 Hamilton 
 
 55 
 
 60 
 
 65 
 
 65 
 
 245 
 
 Ilch 
 
 72 
 
 70 
 
 70 
 
 73 
 
 285 
 
 Millang 
 
 77 
 
 82 
 
 85 
 
 85 
 
 329 
 
 Savage 
 
 70 
 
 55 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 245 
 
 Man waring 
 
 78 
 
 75 
 
 75 
 
 80 
 
 308 
 
 Kelly, K. 
 
 74 
 
 72 
 
 70 
 
 72 
 
 288 
 
 Haag 
 
 70 
 
 60 
 
 65 
 
 70 
 
 265 
 
 Howard 
 
 75 
 
 80 
 
 75 
 
 80 
 
 310 
 
 Mm-tagh 
 
 70 
 
 68 
 
 60 
 
 65 
 
 263 
 
 Perry 
 
 73 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 65 
 
 248 
 
 Kelly 
 
 55 
 
 55 
 
 60 
 
 47 
 
 217 
 
 Conradi 
 
 60 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 230 
 
 Clute 
 
 60 
 
 55 
 
 60 
 
 62 
 
 237 
 
 Cohen 
 
 70 
 
 60 
 
 50 
 
 45 
 
 225 
 
 Total 
 
 690 692 714 717 2813 
 
 Total 
 
 727 660 675 685 2747 
 
 1 — March. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2— April 30. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3— May 31. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4r— June 28. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
OEIGINAL INVESTIGATION 
 
 101 
 
 TABLE 6 (Continued). 
 
 Class II. 
 Practised 
 
 February to June, 1912, 
 Boys 12 3 4 Total Boys 
 
 Andrews 55 60 70 65 250 Vandevel 
 Friedland 62 65 60 65 252 Smyth 
 HarteU 70 65 62 65 262 MuUady 
 
 Franklin 78 85 87 87 337 Demarest 
 Dinneen 70 60 60 63 253 Schuler 
 
 Unpractised 
 
 12 3 4 Total 
 
 60 78 80 75 293 
 
 70 72 60 65 267 
 
 65 60 70 68 263 
 
 78 75 70 75 298 
 
 55 78 75 75 283 
 
 Total 
 
 Girls 
 Rehm 
 Inglis 
 Luft 
 Grodzic 
 Rudolf 
 Schnering 
 Brady 
 Schreiner 
 Lutz 
 
 335 335 339 345 1354 Total 
 
 328 363 355 358 1404 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bernhardt 
 
 72 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 65 
 
 257 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Girls 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 73 
 
 75 
 
 70 
 
 80 
 
 298 
 
 Blanc 
 
 75 
 
 90 
 
 90 
 
 87 
 
 342 
 
 82 
 
 88 
 
 90 
 
 87 
 
 347 
 
 Wunder 
 
 84 
 
 92 
 
 93 
 
 90 
 
 359 
 
 74 
 
 92 
 
 88 
 
 87 
 
 341 
 
 Geissen 
 
 72 
 
 72 
 
 80 
 
 80 
 
 304 
 
 73 
 
 80 
 
 80 
 
 82 
 
 315 
 
 Dalessan 
 
 70 
 
 60 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 240 
 
 79 
 
 82 
 
 83 
 
 82 
 
 326 
 
 Hynes 
 
 72 
 
 55 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 227 
 
 80 
 
 80 
 
 82 
 
 83 
 
 325 
 
 Meyer 
 
 70 
 
 65 
 
 60 
 
 65 
 
 260 
 
 70 
 
 60 
 
 65 
 
 65 
 
 260 
 
 Blumen 
 
 70 
 
 80 
 
 80 
 
 80 
 
 310 
 
 72 
 
 76 
 
 75 
 
 75 
 
 298 
 
 Dehn 
 
 65 
 
 50 
 
 45 
 
 40 
 
 200 
 
 78 
 
 85 
 
 85 
 
 83 
 
 331 
 
 Gannon 
 
 70 
 
 55 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 235 
 
 681 
 
 718 718 724 2841 
 
 Total 
 
 648 
 
 619 
 
 598 
 
 612 
 
 2477 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Keane 
 
 70 
 
 55 
 
 50 
 
 45 
 
 220 
 
 
 
 TABLE 6 (Continued). 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Class III. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Practised 
 
 
 
 
 Unpractised 
 
 
 
 
 February to June, 1912. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 ' 
 
 Total 
 
 Boys 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 '■ 
 
 Total 
 
 75 
 
 80 
 
 70 
 
 80 
 
 305 
 
 Ruppel 
 
 63 
 
 72 
 
 83 
 
 80 
 
 298 
 
 80 
 
 92 
 
 85 
 
 86 
 
 343 
 
 Bonomo 
 
 70 
 
 80 
 
 83 
 
 80 
 
 313 
 
 65 
 
 70 
 
 55 
 
 60 
 
 250 
 
 AUiano 
 
 50 
 
 70 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 230 
 
 65 
 
 64 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 239 
 
 BaldelU 
 
 75 
 
 80 
 
 80 
 
 80 
 
 315 
 
 70 
 
 80 
 
 70 
 
 70 
 
 290 
 
 Cullum 
 
 60 
 
 80 
 
 75 
 
 75 
 
 290 
 
 68 
 
 50 
 
 65 
 
 65 
 
 248 
 
 Miethke 
 
 80 
 
 70 
 
 65 
 
 70 
 
 285 
 
 423 
 
 436 395 
 
 421 
 
 1675 
 
 Total 
 
 398 452 
 
 436 445 
 
 1731 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Girls 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 72 
 
 78 
 
 79 
 
 75 
 
 304 
 
 Hill 
 
 63 
 
 60 
 
 65 
 
 60 
 
 248 
 
 80 
 
 92 
 
 85 
 
 88 
 
 345 
 
 Woodbury 
 
 80 
 
 75 
 
 85 
 
 85 
 
 325 
 
 70 
 
 80 
 
 75 
 
 70 
 
 295 
 
 Sbarra 
 
 78 
 
 60 
 
 70 
 
 73 
 
 281 
 
 80 
 
 70 
 
 73 
 
 75 
 
 298 
 
 Johnson 
 
 75 
 
 85 
 
 86 
 
 85 
 
 331 
 
 76 
 
 70 
 
 73 
 
 75 
 
 294 
 
 Gallo 
 
 70 
 
 74 
 
 78 
 
 75 
 
 297 
 
 75 
 
 55 
 
 50 
 
 45 
 
 225 
 
 Netz 
 
 79 
 
 85 
 
 87 
 
 85 
 
 336 
 
 55 
 
 50 
 
 55 
 
 40 
 
 200 
 
 Duffy 
 
 80 
 
 82 
 
 70 
 
 80 
 
 312 
 
 508 
 
 495 
 
 490 
 
 468 
 
 1961 
 
 Total 
 
 525 
 
 521 
 
 541 
 
 543 
 
 2130 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 240 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
102 
 
 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 TABLE 6 (Continued). 
 
 Class I. 
 
 Practised 
 
 Unpractised 
 
 Septeviber to February, 1913. 
 
 State 
 
 Boys 12 3 Total Exam. Boys 
 
 Garratt 75 70 70 215 70 WaUer 
 
 Rhodius 70 70 87 227 87 Hugger 
 
 ♦Johnston 65 70 71 206 *71 Weber 
 
 Hart Wild 
 
 Walsh 65 60 60 185 Wetjen 
 
 Lefkowitz 70 61 62 193 62 Riconda 
 
 Total 
 
 280 261 279 820 219 Total 
 
 Girls 
 Engles 
 *Geffert 
 Schmidt 
 Hamilton 
 Millang 
 
 80 75 80 235 79 
 
 70 60 73 203 73 
 
 83 75 70 228 63 
 
 70 50 62 182 
 
 85 83 81 249 81 
 
 Manwaring 80 75 75 230 
 
 Haag 
 
 Murtagh 65 65 73 203 73 
 
 Kelly 
 
 Clute 
 
 State 
 12 3 Total Exam. 
 
 50 56 70 176 70 
 75 63 80 218 80 
 
 60 55 62 177 62 
 70 63 70 203 
 
 255 237 282 774 212 
 
 80 65 73 218 73 
 
 Girls 
 
 Kolsch 
 
 McGreevy 
 
 Krumholz 80 82 90 252 90 
 
 70 50 65 185 65 
 
 68 45 50 163 
 
 75 70 68 213 68 
 
 70 65 74 209 74 
 
 65 45 50 160 
 
 Ilch 
 
 Savage 
 
 Kelly, K. 
 
 *Howard 
 
 Perry 
 
 Conradi 
 
 Cohen 
 
 Total 
 
 463 423 441 1327 369 Total 
 
 438 357 396 1191 370 
 
 Omit. 
 
ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION 
 
 103 
 
 TABLE 6 (Continued). 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Clabs II. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Practised 
 
 
 
 
 Unpractised 
 
 
 
 
 
 September to February, 1913. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 State 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 State 
 
 Boys 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 S '. 
 
 Total Exam. 
 
 Boys 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 '. 
 
 Total Exam. 
 
 Andrews 
 
 70 
 
 55 
 
 55 
 
 180 
 
 55 
 
 Vandevel 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Friedland 
 
 70 
 
 53 
 
 63 
 
 186 
 
 63 
 
 Smyth 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Kartell 
 
 65 
 
 66 
 
 68 
 
 199 
 
 68 
 
 MuUady 
 
 70 
 
 70 
 
 60 
 
 200 
 
 60 
 
 Franklin 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Demarest 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dinneen 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Schuler 
 
 75 
 
 62 
 
 75 
 
 212 
 
 75 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bernhardt 
 
 70 
 
 65 
 
 65 
 
 200 
 
 65 
 
 Total 
 
 205 
 
 174 
 
 186 
 
 565 
 
 186 
 
 Total 
 
 215 
 
 197 200 
 
 612 200 
 
 Girls 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Girls 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rehm 
 
 83 
 
 85 
 
 87 
 
 255 
 
 87 
 
 Blanc 
 
 82 
 
 85 
 
 90 
 
 257 
 
 90 
 
 Inglis 
 
 85 
 
 85 
 
 80 
 
 250 
 
 78 
 
 Wunder 
 
 90 
 
 85 
 
 97 
 
 272 
 
 97 
 
 Luft 
 
 80 
 
 77 
 
 82 
 
 239 
 
 82 
 
 Geissen 
 
 70 
 
 80 
 
 82 
 
 232 
 
 82 
 
 Grodzic 
 
 80 
 
 75 
 
 75 
 
 230 
 
 *75 
 
 Dalessan 
 
 70 
 
 50 
 
 65 
 
 185 
 
 
 *Rudolf 
 
 83 
 
 80 
 
 75 
 
 238 
 
 *66 
 
 Hynes 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Schnering 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 *Meyer 
 
 60 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 170 
 
 
 Brady 
 
 70 
 
 70 
 
 70 
 
 210 
 
 90 
 
 Blumen 
 
 73 
 
 68 
 
 88 
 
 229 
 
 88 
 
 *Sclireiner 
 
 80 
 
 80 
 
 75 
 
 235 
 
 *72 
 
 Dehn 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lutz 
 
 80 
 
 65 
 
 83 
 
 228 
 
 *83 
 
 Gannon 
 
 65 
 
 50 
 
 40 
 
 155 
 
 
 Total 478 457 477 1412 337 Total 
 
 TABLE 6 (Continued). 
 
 450 418 462 1330 357 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Class III. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 Practised 
 
 
 
 
 Unpractised 
 
 
 
 
 September to February, 1913. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 State 
 
 
 
 
 
 State 
 
 Boys 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 S 
 
 Total Exam. 
 
 Boys 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 Total Exam. 
 
 Duff 
 
 75 
 
 75 
 
 78 
 
 228 
 
 78 
 
 Ruppel 
 
 80 
 
 83 
 
 80 
 
 243 78 
 
 Archimal 
 
 85 
 
 90 
 
 95 
 
 270 
 
 95 
 
 Bonomo 
 
 75 
 
 80 
 
 75 
 
 230 70 
 
 Timman 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 AUiano 
 
 
 
 
 
 Friedman 
 
 65 
 
 80 
 
 75 
 
 220 
 
 70 
 
 BaldelU 
 
 85 
 
 90 
 
 95 
 
 270 95 
 
 Cohen 
 
 75 
 
 80 
 
 80 
 
 235 
 
 80 
 
 Cullum 
 
 75 
 
 80 
 
 79 
 
 234 78 
 
 Steiner 
 
 72 
 
 65 
 
 62 
 
 199 
 
 
 Miethke 
 
 75 
 
 80 
 
 81 
 
 236 *81 
 
 Total 
 
 372 
 
 390 
 
 390 
 
 1152 
 
 323 
 
 Total 
 
 390 413 
 
 410 
 
 1213 321 
 
 Girls 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Girls 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hacker 
 
 80 
 
 75 
 
 77 
 
 232 
 
 77 
 
 Hill 
 
 70 
 
 65 
 
 65 
 
 200 
 
 Busby 
 
 82 
 
 85 
 
 80 
 
 247 
 
 77 
 
 Woodbury 
 
 90 
 
 89 
 
 96 
 
 275 96 
 
 Brown 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 *Sbarra 
 
 78 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 178 
 
 Duro 
 
 80 
 
 62 
 
 65 
 
 207 
 
 
 Johnson 
 
 85 
 
 85 
 
 96 
 
 266 96 
 
 Weed 
 
 75 
 
 75 
 
 72 
 
 222 
 
 71 
 
 Gallo 
 
 70 
 
 63 
 
 68 
 
 201 68 
 
 Schulze 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 *Netz 
 
 82 
 
 85 
 
 78 
 
 245 *73 
 
 George 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 *Duffy 
 
 80 
 
 63 
 
 77 
 
 220 *77 
 
 Total 
 
 317 
 
 297 294 
 
 908 225 
 
 Total 
 
 315 
 
 302 
 
 325 
 
 942 260 
 
 Morton 
 
 65 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 165 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
104 
 
 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 TABLE 6 (Continued). 
 
 SUMMAKY OF TeRM's RATINGS. NeT ScORES. 
 
 February to June, 1912. 
 
 Practised Unpractised 
 
 Class 
 
 Boys 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 6 
 
 1537 
 
 1435 
 
 II 
 
 5 
 
 1354 
 
 1404 
 
 III 
 
 6 
 
 1675 
 
 1731 
 
 Total 
 
 17 
 
 4566 
 
 4570 
 
 Class 
 
 Girls 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 10 
 
 2813 
 
 2747 
 
 II 
 
 9 
 
 2841 
 
 2477 
 
 III 
 
 7 
 
 1961 
 
 2130 
 
 Total 
 
 26 
 
 7615 
 
 7354 
 
 September to February, 1913. 
 
 Class 
 
 Boys 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 4 
 
 820 
 
 774 
 
 II 
 
 3 
 
 565 
 
 612 
 
 III 
 
 5 
 
 1152 
 
 1213 
 
 Total 
 
 12 
 
 2537 
 
 2599 
 
 Class 
 
 Girls 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 6 
 
 1327 
 
 1191 
 
 II 
 
 6 
 
 1412 
 
 1330 
 
 III 
 
 4 
 
 908 
 
 942 
 
 Total 
 
 16 
 
 3647 
 
 3463 
 
 
 State Examinations. 
 
 
 Class 
 
 Boys 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 219 
 
 212 
 
 II 
 
 3 
 
 186 
 
 200 
 
 III 
 
 4 
 
 323 
 
 321 
 
 Total 
 
 10 
 
 728 
 
 733 
 
 Class 
 
 Girls 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 5 
 
 369 
 
 370 
 
 II 
 
 4 
 
 337 
 
 357 
 
 III 
 
 3 
 
 225 
 
 260 
 
 Total 
 
 12 
 
 931 
 
 987 
 
ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION 105 
 
 Table VI records the class ratings in biology of the 
 test pupils during the one year of the test. 
 
 Too much reliabihty must not be placed upon regard- 
 ing these marks as actually showing the degree of 
 intelligence or ability of the pupil in general or in 
 biology in particular. Various other factors besides 
 general ability and intelligence are considered in giving 
 the ratings, some of which are absence, attention, 
 preparation of home-work, ability to recite the lesson, 
 neatness, accuracy, preparation of a note-book, abil- 
 ity to pass an examination, effort, etc. 
 
 The March rating had been given before the begin- 
 ning of the tests and the April rating was given during 
 the tests. From the computation of the totals of the 
 March ratings, it will be seen that upon the basis of 
 school marks, the unpractised boys are slightly in- 
 ferior to the practised, while the unpractised girls are 
 superior to the practised girls. The April rating shows 
 exactly the reverse to be true. The May mark shows a 
 similar condition to that obtaining in April. In the 
 June rating, the comparative positions are still un- 
 changed, the unpractised boys lead and the practised 
 girls. 
 
 The summary of the totals of the term's ratings 
 shows the unpractised boys to be superior by four 
 credits while the practised girls are superior by 261 
 credits. With seventeen boys, the advantage of the 
 unpractised group is only .23 per pupil, while the 
 twenty-six practised girls are superior to the un- 
 practised to the extent of 10.03 per pupil. 
 
 Thus, it might be said that the boys' practice groups 
 were very evenly divided in ability when based on 
 class ratings. 
 
106 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 Anti-disciplinarians might also claim that the super- 
 iority of the girls of the practised group might have 
 some influence on their greater improvement, which 
 otherwise might be ascribed to the transfer of practice. 
 
 The totals of the ratings of the second term's work 
 show the same comparison. The unpractised boys 
 excel their opponents by 62 credits, while the practised 
 girls outrun the unpractised by 184 credits. If this 
 means anything, it points to the better boys being in 
 the unpractised group while the reverse is true with 
 the girls. 
 
 At the conclusion of the first term's work, one prac- 
 tised and one unpractised boy, and three practised 
 and three unpractised girls failed to be promoted as 
 indicated by the percentages below 60 in the fourth 
 rating. Thus, as regards deficient pupils according 
 to school ratings, both practised and unpractised sides 
 were equal. 
 
 Of those who were promoted and remained in school 
 during the second term, one practised boy, one prac- 
 tised girl, and four unpractised girls failed to be pro- 
 moted, thus indicating, on the basis of school ratings, 
 that four of the poorest girls were on the unpractised 
 side. 
 
 At the close of the first term, 94.4% of the 36 boys- 
 in the tests passed the work and were promoted while 
 88.8% of the 54 girls also advanced a grade. 
 
 At the close of the second term, 96% of the 25 boys 
 studying biology and who had performed the three 
 series of tests, successfully completed the work, and 
 87.8% of the 41 girls studying biology and who had 
 also been in all three series of tests, passed on to a 
 higher grade. 
 
ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION 
 
 107 
 
 At the end of a year's work in biology, 24 boys of the 
 original 36 who began the tests, were still in school and 
 promoted to an advanced grade an average of 66.6%. 
 Likewise, 36 girls of the original 54 were promoted, an 
 average of 66.6%. , 
 
 At the conclusion of the first year's work m biology, 
 a state examination is given by the Regents' Depart-' 
 ment of the University of the State of New York. 
 Of the 52 of the test pupils of all series who took this 
 examination, 98.07%, passed. 
 
 From a consideration of these percentages and re- 
 membering the statistical data in regard to the great 
 mortality in the first year of the high school, it is 
 evident that if these series of tests cannot be claimed 
 to have profited these pupils it can at least be said 
 that they were not detrimental. Personally, recalling 
 the experiments of Dallenberg, I am inclined to be- 
 lieve them in some degree accountable for the very 
 satisfactory showing in the state examination. 
 
 Comparing the state examination ratings of the 
 10 pairs of boys and 12 pairs of girls, we find that the 
 unpractised boys exceed the practised by an average 
 of .5% per pupil while the unpractised girls exceed the 
 practised by an average of 4.6% per pupil. _ Thus 
 again, the unpractised boys show superior ability ac- 
 cording to examination ratings; as do also the unprac- 
 tised girls, contrary to former comparisons. As only 
 the better pupils entered the state examination and 
 only 44 of the original 86 test pupils are compared, 
 it would be unwise to emphasize this comparison of the 
 practised and unpractised groups. 
 
108 
 
 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 TABLE 7. 
 Computed from Tables I and V. 
 
 Number of tests 
 improred in 
 
 Number of tests 
 decreased in 
 
 Tests 
 omitted 
 
 Number 
 of pupils 
 in tests 
 
 
 
 
 Biol. 
 
 Non-Biol. 
 
 
 
 
 Same 
 
 
 Same 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ser. Ser. 
 
 Ser. 
 
 Ser. 
 
 Ser. 
 
 Ser. 
 
 Ser. 
 
 Ser. 
 
 Ser. 
 
 Ser. 
 
 Ser. Ser. 
 
 II I & 
 
 Ill 
 
 I & 
 
 II 
 
 Ill 
 
 II 
 
 Ill 
 
 II 
 
 Ill 
 
 II III 
 
 II 
 
 
 III 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Practised 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Boys' 
 Class 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 49 3 
 
 26 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 
 6 4 
 
 2 32 7 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 5 2 
 
 *3 43 5 
 
 32 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 21 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 
 7 6 
 
 Totals 124 15 
 
 171 
 
 9 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 34 
 
 23 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 18 12 
 
 Girls' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 57 9 
 
 39 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 20 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 1 
 
 10 7 
 
 2 55 11 
 
 47 
 
 5 
 
 13 
 
 9 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 9 8 
 
 t3 42 9 
 
 29 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 3 
 
 7 5 
 
 Totals 154 29 
 
 115 
 
 13 
 
 26 
 
 21 
 
 44 
 
 43 
 
 33 
 
 8 
 
 26 20 
 
 Unpractised 
 Boys' 
 
 Class 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 37 8 
 
 17 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 6 4 
 
 2 35 2 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 5 2 
 
 *3 39 8 
 
 37 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 15 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 7 6 
 
 Totals 111 18 
 
 64 
 
 10 
 
 23 
 
 16 
 
 34 
 
 26 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 18 12 
 
 Girls' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 50 6 
 
 41 
 
 4 
 
 17 
 
 10 
 
 23 
 
 15 
 
 14 
 
 
 10 7 
 
 2 52 8 
 
 42 
 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 13 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 9 8 
 
 3 36 7 
 
 24 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 7 5 
 
 Totals 138 21 
 
 107 
 
 11 
 
 42 
 
 29 
 
 53 
 
 47 
 
 32 
 
 6 
 
 26 20 
 
 * Bernhardt and Jaegers counted with Class 3. 
 t Morton counted in Ser. III. 
 
ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION 109 
 
 Table 7 was computed from Table 1, comparing the 
 practised 18 boys and 26 girls with a similar number 
 of unpractised in Series 1 and 11 and the practised 
 12 boys and 20 girls with a similar number of unprac- 
 tised in Series I and III. 
 
 In every class for both boys and girls, the totals ot 
 the number of tests which remained the same and in 
 which improvement was made in Series 11 is greater 
 for the practised pupils. In Series 111, the totals of 
 the tests which remained the same as in Series I and in 
 which an improvement was made is greater for the 
 unpractised in two of the six cases, the boys of class 3 
 and the girls of class 1. j • » 
 
 In Series II, the unpractised boys decreased m 7 
 more biological tests than the practised and in the 
 same number of non-biological; whereas the unprac- 
 tised girls decreased in 16 more biological and 9 more 
 non-biological than the practised girls. 
 
 In Series III, both practised and unpractised boys 
 decreased in the same number of biological tests while 
 the unpractised boys decreased in 3 more non-bio- 
 logical tests. The unpractised girls decreased m 8 
 more biological and 4 more non-biological than their 
 practised opponents. 
 
 Three more tests were omitted by the unpractised 
 boys in both Series II and III, while the unpractised 
 gu-ls omitted one less in the biological and 2 less m the 
 non-biological than their corresponding practised neigh- 
 bors. 
 
 The conclusions to be drawn from this table are 
 necessarily similar to those presented heretofore. 
 Throughout the advantage is with the practised group. 
 
110 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 SUMMARY OF ALL TABLES OF COMPARISON OF SERIES I AND II 
 
 Practised 
 
 Unpractised 
 
 BOYS 
 
 Table 
 
 Ser. II 
 
 Av. 
 
 Biol. 
 
 Av. 
 
 Non B 
 
 Av. 
 
 Ser. 11 
 
 Av. 
 
 Biol. 
 
 Av. 
 
 NonB 
 
 Av. 
 
 II 
 
 1342.80 
 
 7.18 
 
 
 
 
 
 399.88 
 
 2.13 
 
 
 
 
 
 III 
 
 
 
 685.77 
 
 8.06 
 
 915.65 
 
 8.97 
 
 
 
 257.70 
 
 3.03 
 
 548.40 
 
 5.37 
 
 IV 
 
 744 
 
 4.3 
 
 
 
 
 
 524 
 
 3.02 
 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ser. I 
 23.17 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 VI 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 .23 
 
 
 
 
 
 VII 
 
 Increase 
 124 
 
 
 Deer. 
 16 
 
 
 Deer. 
 
 34 
 
 
 111 
 
 
 Deer. 
 23 
 
 
 Deer. 
 
 34 
 
 
 GIRLS 
 
 II 
 III 
 
 1436.98 
 
 5.22 
 
 802.34 
 
 6.41 
 
 930.68 
 
 6.2 
 
 86.45 
 
 .31 
 
 Deer. 
 155.21 
 
 Deer. 
 
 1.24 
 
 840.72 
 
 IV 
 
 897 
 
 3.72 
 
 
 
 
 
 296 
 
 1.22 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 VI 
 
 261 
 
 10.03 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ser. I 
 40.09 
 
 
 
 
 
 VII 
 
 Increase 
 154 
 
 
 Deer. 
 
 26 
 
 
 Deer. 
 
 44 
 
 
 138 
 
 
 Deer. 
 42 
 
 
 Deer. 
 
 53 
 
 5.6 
 
CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 Combining the results and conclusions noted in the 
 seven tables with their several sub-divisions, some con- 
 clusion may be reached in regard to the object of our 
 search — the transfer of special practice in biological 
 material to non-biological. 
 
 In the summary of all the tables, we see from Table 
 2, that the average gain per test of the practised boy 
 in the 11 tests is 7.18 while that of the unpractised boy 
 is 2.13; the average gain per test of the practised girl is 
 5.22, that of the unpractised girl only .31 per test. 
 
 Table 3 shows that in the biological tests, the 
 average gain of each practised boy was 8.06 per test 
 for the 5 tests while the unpractised showed a gain of 
 3.03. The practised girls averaged 6.41 gain per test, 
 while the unpractised lost 1.24 per test. In the non- 
 biological, the practised girls gained 6.2 per test for 
 the 6 tests while the unpractised gained 5.6; the prac- 
 tised boys gained 8.97 per test and the unpractised 
 boys gained only 5.37 per test. 
 
 In Table 4, based on the original ratings, the prac- 
 tised boy gained 4.3 per test to the unpractised's gain 
 of 3.02; while the practised girls exhibited a gain of 
 3.72 to the unpractised girls' gain of 1.22. 
 
 Table 5 shows that at the end of Series 1, when the 
 class had been divided into practice groups, the group 
 of unpractised boys had a total score 23.17 higher 
 than the practised, while the unpractised girls had a 
 total of 40.09 higher than their opponents. 
 
 Table 6 gives the ratings of the pupils in their 
 biological class-work and shows the unpractised boys 
 
 111 
 
112 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 to excel the other group by an average of .23, while 
 the practised girls surpass their fellow competitors by 
 10.03 per pupil. 
 
 Table 7 shows that the practised boys gained in 13 
 more tests and the practised girls in 16 more tests 
 than their opponents. The practice boys lost in 7 
 fewer biological tests and the girls in 16 fewer biological 
 tests than the unpractised side; while the practised 
 and the unpractised boys lost in the same number of 
 non-biological tests but the practised girls in 9 fewer 
 than the opposite side. 
 
 It is evident from these general summaries and com- 
 parisons that the practised pupils have done better 
 in the second and third series than the unpractised. 
 The question difficult to solve is: ''What is the cause?" 
 No doubt growth, familiarity with procedure, benefits 
 of class-work and study, and desire to excel, have all 
 contributed their share toward the gain, but these fac- 
 tors may have aided both sides equally. We have no 
 means of telling. Then why the difference? 
 
 Judging from the division of the practice groups, the 
 better pupils in these tests were on the unpractised 
 side. While the class term marks showed the better 
 boys to be on the unpractised side, the contrary was 
 true as far as the girls were concerned. The March 
 rating showed the reverse condition of affairs. Very 
 little significance can be attached to class marks as 
 denoting general intelligence or superiority, because 
 so many extraneous factors enter in. 
 
 Considering Table 3, we would naturally expect 
 both practised boys and girls to earn in the second 
 series a bigger gain than their opponents in the bio- 
 logical tests; but how shall we explain their greater 
 efficiency in the non-biological tests, other than to 
 ascribe it to the effects of the practice series? 
 
CONCLUSIONS 113 
 
 Feeling that the balance of arguments and scientific 
 proofs were against formal discipline when this investi- 
 gation was begun, I am forced by the results obtained 
 to admit that in this experiment, the proof seems to be 
 on the affirmative side. 
 
 A valuable lesson, I think, can be drawn from one 
 phase of this investigation. By consulting the tables 
 and summaries, it will be seen that sometimes one 
 division does not fall in line with the general trend, but 
 that a larger number outweighs the negative and shows 
 positive results. This would warn us against drawing 
 conclusions from experimentation with too few sub- 
 jects, as has been done in several of the investigations 
 cited in the historical part. 
 
 As can be seen by the averages per test of Tables 2 
 and 4 the boys have done better than the girls, although 
 the curves of the practice series seem to indicate that 
 the girls are superior in that series. This may be 
 ascribed to the boys' general lack of intensive applica- 
 tion to uninteresting or monotonous work but it is likely 
 that greater effort was put into the shorter tests of the 
 three series. 
 
 COMPARISON OF RESULTS WITH THOSE 
 OF PEDAGOGICAL EXPERIMENTS. 
 
 Winch found that boys of the same age and standard 
 were slightly superior to girls in immediate visual 
 memory. As many of the tests of this experiment 
 were of a similar type to those of Winch, it may be 
 stated that this investigation supports Winch's con- 
 clusion. 
 
 Winch found in his experiments on memory that a 
 steady improvement was shown in both the practised 
 
114 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 and unpractised groups but that the practised group 
 was superior. This conforms exactly to my conclu- 
 sions. 
 
 In his experiments on the ''transfer of numerical 
 accuracy" he found in some of the series that the lower 
 practised side after practice reversed positions with 
 the higher unpractised. This investigation gives the 
 same results. 
 
 Wallin in his spelling tests found that his "data 
 furnished conclusive evidence in favor of transfer." 
 
 Starch found from 20 to 40 per cent, more improve- 
 ment in the practised observers in arithmetical opera- 
 tions; and ascribes it to "identical elements"; as did 
 Thorndike and Woodworth in their investigations. 
 Ruediger found evidences of transfer in his tests on 
 ideals and ascribed it to "identity of aims." 
 
 In our own investigation there are certainly conclu- 
 sive evidences of transfer. The improvement in the 
 biological material can be ascribed to "identical ele- 
 ments," but the "identity of aim" and "identity of 
 procedure" and "identical elements" were common 
 equally to both sides, except for the advantage for 
 the practised in the biological tests. The greater in- 
 crease of the practised must be ascribed to some in- 
 tangible psychological effects of practice. 
 
 Thus a few more data have been added to the big 
 problem of the High School and along slightly different 
 lines from those along which experimental tests have 
 been attempted heretofore. 
 
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116 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
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GRADUATES OF THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 
 Class I — Boys 
 
 
 Practised 
 
 
 Unpractised 
 
 Garratt 
 
 
 Weber 
 
 * Rhodius 
 
 Class I — Girls 
 
 Wetjen 
 Riconda 
 
 * Engels 
 
 
 
 Manwaring 
 
 Class II — Boys 
 
 * ICrumholz 
 Ilch 
 
 * Howard 
 
 Friedland 
 
 
 * Schuler 
 
 HarteU 
 
 
 
 t Franklin 
 
 Class II — Girls 
 
 
 *Rehm 
 
 
 * Blanc 
 
 * Inglis 
 
 
 * Wunder 
 
 *Luft 
 
 
 * Geissen 
 
 Rudolf 
 
 
 Blumen 
 
 * Schreiner 
 
 
 
 *Lutz 
 
 Class III— Boys 
 
 
 Archireal 
 
 
 Ruppel 
 
 * Cohen 
 
 Class III — Girls 
 
 * BaldelU 
 Cullum 
 Miethke 
 
 * Hacker 
 
 
 * Woodbury 
 
 * Busby 
 
 
 Duffy 
 
 Duro 
 
 * Graduated Jan., 1916. 
 t Graduated June, 1915. 
 Others graduated in June, 1916. 
 
 119 
 
120 THE DOCTRINE OF FORMAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 Participants in Tests Graduates 
 
 34 boys 15 boys 44% 
 
 50 girls 20 girls 40% 
 
 Practised Unpractised 
 
 Boys graduated in Jan., 1916 2 2 
 
 Boys graduated in June, 1916 4 6 
 
 Boy graduated in June, 1915 1 
 
 Totals 7 8 
 
 Girls graduated in Jan., 1916 8 6 
 
 Girls graduated in June, 1916 3 3 
 
 Totals 11 9 
 
 The commencement program furnished the Hst of 
 January and June graduates. 
 
 Of the original 84 pupils in the tests, 35 have gradu- 
 ated; 40% of the girls and 44% of the boys. It is 
 interesting to note that 18 were in the practised group 
 and 17 in the unpractised, thus showing that on the 
 basis of graduation, the groups were nearly evenly 
 divided. 
 
 Of the 7 graduates among the practised boys, 1 
 graduated from the four-year general course in 33^ 
 years, and of the 8 graduates among the unpractised, 
 1 graduated from the three-year co-operative course in 
 4 years; thus indicating a still more even division of 
 the two groups. 
 
 Of the 9 graduates among the unpractised girls 1 
 graduated from the three-year household arts course 
 in 4 four years. It would appear, that as far as gradu- 
 ation is concerned, the better girls were in the prac- 
 tised group. 
 
 These general deductions fall in line with inferences 
 made heretofore. It would be futile, however, in this 
 connection to attempt to draw any conclusions in 
 regard to the main object of this monograph. 
 
LIBRARY OF CONGRESa|^ 
 
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