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BARNES'S ONE TERM HISTORY 
 
 BRIEF HISTORY 
 
 OF 
 
 FRANCE 
 
 flu 
 
 I J) 
 
 en 
 
 
 >N 
 
 IE OLD LOUVRE. 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 A. S. BARNES & CO., 
 
 NEW YORK AND CHICAGO, 
 1875. 
 
(the libra*? 
 
 lor CONG*l£$« 
 gWASHlNO TQlf 
 
 " I have already avowed my belief, that to each of the nations 
 of the earth belongs, by a Divine decree, the distinctive character 
 adapted to the peculiar office assigned to each, in the great and com- 
 prehensive system of human affairs. Thus to France was appointed, 
 by the Supreme Ruler of mankind, the duty of civilizing and human- 
 izing the European world." 
 
 Stephen's Lectures on the History of France. 
 
 Copyrighted, 1875, by A. S. Barnes & Co. 
 
o 
 
 phsf^s 
 
 HIS work, the second in order of publica- 
 tion of the Barnes's Brief History Series, is 
 ^ prepared upon the same general plan as 
 ^ the United States History, which has met 
 
 with such marked approval. The peculiar 
 features are : the division of the book into 
 great historical epochs ; the Summary at 
 the close of each dynasty ; the Chronological Review and the 
 References for Reading at the end of every epoch ; the 
 Geographical Questions at the beginning of each epoch to 
 familiarize the pupil with the names and location of the places 
 which were to become the scenes of great events ; the collec- 
 tion in foot-notes of anecdotes, biographies, and interesting 
 facts; the Historical Recreations; the frequent paragraphs 
 on the Condition of the Country ; the portraiture of the man- 
 ners, customs, and domestic life of the people ; the distinctive 
 description of each great battle by giving the pivotal point on 
 which its issue turned ; the use of bold, topical headings which 
 attract the eye at a glance ; the lists of distinguished persons 
 in the different eras ; and finally the linking of events by 
 tracing their cause and effect, and thus giving something of 
 the philosophy of history. 
 
 The spirit of the modern method of historical study is fully 
 recognized ; but great pains has been taken to avoid the 
 opposite error of ignoring those great political events and 
 characters by which the current of history has been guided. 
 Kings, queens, courts, battles and sieges have too largely 
 decided the fate of nations and the progress of civilization to 
 
VI PREFACE. 
 
 be lightly touched upon by one seeking to understand the 
 causes of events. In all times past, the lives of a few great 
 men have formed the warp of history, while that of the masses 
 have been but the filling. 
 
 To prevent frequent repetitions, and also to save space in 
 this Series, a careful distribution of topics has been made. 
 Thus the Merovingian and Carlovingian dynasties are treated 
 quite briefly in this work, as they were Frankish lines, and 
 occur again in the "German History." The Crusades and 
 Feudalism were general in their causes and effects, and will 
 therefore be described more particularly in the " Brief History 
 of the World." The numerous naval battles belong more 
 naturally to the " English," and the invasions of the Goths 
 and Vandals to the " Roman " History. 
 
 Within the brief limits of a Preface it would be impossible 
 to enumerate the authors who have been consulted in the 
 preparation of this book. On all doubtful points, down to the 
 Revolution, Henri Martin, the accepted authority in France, 
 has been taken as a standard ; for later dates, Duruy, except 
 during the time of Napoleon, where Lanfrey has been followed. 
 
 French history is full of warnings against despotism, an 
 aristocracy, the abandonment of religion, the degradation of 
 liberty into license, and the danger of an ignorant, excitable 
 population. In no other history can the hand of a Divine 
 Avenger be more clearly seen in the infliction of fearful national 
 punishments. The American youth who cons this story well 
 can but draw a lesson of experience to guide him amid the 
 perils which so grievously threaten our own national peace. 
 
 Note on Pronunciation. — For the benefit of pupils unacquainted with the 
 French language, the pronunciation of proper names is inserted after each, when it 
 first occurs. Where words have become Anglicized it does not seem best to disturb 
 their conventional pronunciation. In other cases, the proper sounds are indicated as 
 nearly as may be. The French nasal . which can only be learned by ear, is repre- 
 sented by a small capital n. 
 
T^££ <)f pQJfTSJW 
 
 EPOCH I. 
 
 ANCIENT GAUL. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 From the Earliest Accounts to the Accession of Clovis, 481 A.D.. . 9 
 
 EPOCH II. 
 
 GAUL UNDER THE GERMANS. 
 
 From the Accession of Clovis, 481 A.D., to the Crowning of Hugh 
 
 Capet, 987 a.d 17 
 
 EPOCH III, 
 
 FEUDAL FRANCE. 
 
 From the Founding of the Capetian Line, 987, to the Invasion of 
 
 Italy by Charles VIII., 1494 36 
 
 EPOCH IV. 
 
 PERIOD OF THE ITALIAN WARS. 
 
 From the Invasion of Italy by Charles VIII., 1494, to the Treaty 
 
 of Cateau-Cambresis and the Death of Henry II., 1559 106 
 
Vlll TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 EPOCH V. 
 
 PERIOD OF THE CIVIL-RELIGIOUS WARS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 From the Ascension of Francis II., 1559, to the Edict of Nantes, 
 
 1593 • 125 
 
 EPOCH VI 
 
 THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY. 
 
 From the Edict of Nantes, 1598, to the Meeting of the States- 
 General, 1789 144 
 
 EPOCH VII. 
 
 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 
 
 From the Meeting of the States-General, 1789, to the Present 
 
 Time 198 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 1. Historical Recreations iii 
 
 2. Chronological Tables x 
 
 3. Index xxvi 
 
Z/3 
 
 PCIENT G^UL 
 
 HE Ancient name of France 
 was Gaul. It included the vast territory lying between the 
 Rhine, the Alps, the Pyrenees, and the Ocean — a region 
 more than a quarter larger than the France of to-day. 
 
 The inhabitants, known to us by the general name of 
 Gauls, consisted of several savage tribes chiefly of Celtic 
 origin. A social race, they dwelt in villages, by clans, each 
 under its family leader. They were fond of dress and showy 
 
 Geographical Questions.— (See maps, Frontispiece, also pp. 73 and 198)— 
 Bound Ancient Gaul. (See text above.) Bound Modern France. Where is Pro- 
 vence (vOnss') ? Describe the Rhine. Rhone. Meuse (muz). Scheldt. Moselle. 
 Locate Marseilles (salz), Aix (aks), Orange, Nismes (n-eem). Aries (arlz), Nice (neess), 
 Lyons, Paris, Tours (toor), Poitiers (teerz), Amiens (e-ens), Treves (trav), Cologne, 
 Chalons (shal-on), Soissons (swas-s6n, almost swi-soii). 
 
10 ANCIENT GAUL. 
 
 ornaments. The men wore long, flowing hair. The women 
 aided their husbands in council and fought by their sides in 
 battle. Enthusiastic in attack, but impatient of reverse, 
 loving war for the sake of glory and conquest, excitable 
 and demonstrative in everything they did, the Gaul of 2,000 
 years ago was the unmistakable ancestor of the present 
 Frenchman.* The Gauls were pagans, and worshipped the 
 stars, the ocean, and the winds. Their priests were Druids, 
 who dwelt in the depths of the forest, and were the deposita- 
 ries of all the knowledge, poetry, science, and cultivation of 
 the people. 
 
 Emigrations. — For centuries, hordes of these barbarians 
 were constantly emigrating with their wives and children 
 into other lands. They swarmed over the Pyrenees, and 
 there became mingled with the native population. They 
 crossed the Alps, and carried fire and sword through Italy 
 and Greece, and even into Asia Minor, f They enlisted 
 under the banner of any great leader who promised them 
 the spoils of victory. "Whoever," says Michelet, "wished 
 to buy headlong courage J and blood cheaply, bought them." 
 
 The Conquest by the Romans is the first great fact 
 in Gallic history. Marseilles (Massilia), a city founded by 
 the Greeks (600 b. a), troubled by unruly neighbors, called 
 in the help of the Eomans (154 b. a). They came into Gaul 
 often after that. Aix (Aquas Sextise), the first Eoman settle- 
 
 * The young man who became fat was punished lest it might interfere with his 
 martial exercises ; and in order to teach promptness, the one who arrived last when 
 the army assembled was put to death. " A whole troop of strangers," said the old 
 Eoman soldier Ammianus, "could scarce resist a single Gaul in a fight, particularly 
 if he were assisted by his stout, blue-eyed wife, who, gnashing her teeth, distending 
 her neck, and brandishing her large snowy arms, would deliver blows like bolts 
 from the twisted strings of a catapult." 
 
 + Galatia, memorable by the address of one of St. Paul's Epistles, was named from 
 the debris of certain Gallic expeditions. . , 
 
 % "What do you fear?" demanded Alexander of some Gauls whom he met. 
 " Only the fall of the heavens," was the reply. " Swaggerers ! " said the con- 
 queror, but forthwith took them into his pay. 
 
122 b. c] 
 
 EOMAI EULE. 
 
 11 
 
 ROMAN ARCH AT ORANGE. 
 
 ment beyond the Alps, was founded 122 b. c. An extensive 
 district was soon conquered. Being made a province of the 
 empire, this region came to 
 
 be called Provence, by which it__ : ^/ j^ { 
 
 it is still popularly known. -SBBMPllilllliBiB^ 
 Its fertile valleys and pic- 
 turesque hills, with pleasant, 
 sunny slopes, were favorite 
 resorts for Roman families of 
 distinction.* About 50 B. c, 
 Julius Caesar carried the con- 
 quering Roman eagle through 
 the entire country, f and for 
 450 years Gaul was a Roman 
 province, governed by Roman laws. 
 
 Effects of the Roman Conquest. — From this dates 
 the civilization of the Gauls. It became a point of honor to 
 follow Roman customs and to bear Roman names. J The 
 clans were broken up, and the people betook themselves to 
 agriculture, commerce, the arts and sciences. Lyons, Paris, 
 Marseilles, and other cities became centres of learning and 
 trade. Roads were built connecting all parts of the country. 
 Colleges were established, rivaling the schools of Athens or 
 Alexandria. Gaul had her orators, poets, and historians, and 
 even furnished teachers of rhetoric to Rome. Gallic citizens 
 occupied posts of trust and honor, and were admitted to the 
 Roman Senate. The country became filled with Roman 
 
 * Remains of Roman triumphal arches at Aix and Orange, and of the amphithea- 
 tres at Aries and Nismes, with gigantic ruins of aqueducts and temples, still exist 
 to attest the architectural glories of that time, and to attract the admiration of the 
 traveler. 
 
 t Plutarch says that Caesar fought in Gaul against 3,000,000 of men ; one million 
 perished, one was enslaved, and one million only remained. 
 
 } One Vercundoridub, for example, changed his name to the smoother Caius Julius, 
 and became a priest in the temple of Augustus. 
 
12 ANCIEKT GAUL. [160 A. D. 
 
 families living in affluence and luxury. A Gallo-Eoman 
 population arose, sharing in all the grandeur of the empire. 
 Best of all, missionaries, coming from Asia Minor, introduced 
 the Christian religion (a. d. 160). Bitter persecutions fol- 
 lowed; but the pure doctrines of the new faith took deep 
 root, and finally triumphed over pagan superstitions. 
 
 The Decline of the Roman Empire left Gaul more 
 helpless than Rome itself. For centuries it was the field of 
 battle for rival generals who disputed the empire, v Crushed 
 by taxes, drained of money and men, the nobles enervated 
 by luxury, and the masses degraded by slavery, there was no 
 power to hold back the hordes of northern barbarians which 
 had been with difficulty restrained by the Roman legions. 
 
 The Conquest by the Germans, in the fifth century, 
 is the second great event in the history of Gaul. Tribes of 
 fierce warriors poured across the frontier and swept the land. 
 When order was somewhat restored, three Teutonic (Ger- 
 man) nations were found established : the Visigoths in the 
 south, the Burgundians in the east, and the Franks in the 
 north. 
 
 Invasion of Attila (461). — Battle of Chalons. — In the 
 midst of this indescribable tumult Attila, with a half mil- 
 lion of Huns, a fierce Scythian race, invaded the country.* 
 Everywhere his route was marked by fire and bloodshed.f 
 
 * This savage horde, wild with blood and pillage, bows with superstitious fear 
 before one man. With fiery mien and pompous gait he leads the march. A short 
 stature, a large chest, an enormous head, small eyes, a thin beard, gray hair, flat 
 nose, and tawny skin— such is his portrait. His name is Attila. Leaving to his 
 companions the gold and silver vases, spoils of his victories, he eats gross messes 
 from wooden dishes. From the stool which he calls his throne he proudly surveys 
 his chiefs and boasts : " The generals of emperors are slaves ; the generals of Attila 
 are emperors.'" Then, brandishing his sword, "At my approach the stars fall ; the 
 earth trembles ; lam the hammer of the universe. Grass ceases to grow where the 
 horse of Attila has passed ! " — Mennechet. 
 
 t St. Genevieve, the patron saint of Paris, is honored as having saved Paris from 
 the Hun. W'hile yet a little peasant girl at Nanterre, eight miles from Paris, Gene- 
 vieve attracted the attention of the good Bishop of Auxerre, and received a special 
 consecration. Coming, in her womanhood, to the capital, she met with the mingled 
 
4G1 A. D.] 
 
 CLO VIS. 
 
 13 
 
 Koman and barbarian Gaul combined against this common foe. 
 They met on the field of Chalons. Three hundred thousand 
 men are said to have perished. So prodigious was the number 
 engaged and so great the 
 confusion that it was im- 
 possible to tell who was 
 victor. Finally Attila fled 
 and Gaul was saved. 
 
 Triumph of the 
 Franks. — Not long after, 
 there arose among the 
 Salian * Franks CLOVis,f 
 a young chieftain of great 
 energy. He conquered 
 Sya-grius, the last Roman 
 governor in Gaul (486), 
 and became the founder 
 of a Frankish dynasty. 
 
 Power of the 
 Church. — Amid the 
 wreck of the old Eoman attila. 
 
 government and the de- 
 struction of all other forms of order and civilization, the 
 Christian Church alone survived. The common people 
 learned to look to it as their most powerful defender. ' The 
 
 veneration and contumely which great fervor in good works usually inspires. Attila 
 was approaching Paris and the people were preparing to flee. At the height of their 
 terror, Genevieve stepped forward. ''Forsake not your homes," she said. " for God 
 has heard my prayers. Attila shall retreat." Some believed ; some mocked ; some 
 spoke of drowning or stoning the false prophet. But the prediction was fulfilled and 
 Paris was saved. She lived sixty years afterward, revered by all. 
 
 * There were two general divisions of the Franks : the Salians, whom we shall 
 soon call Neustrians, and the Eipuarians or Australians-, the former between the 
 Scheldt and the Meuse, the latter between the Meuse, Moselle, and Rhine. 
 
 + His name was Hlodowig or Chlodwig, the same as the German Ludwig, the 
 French Louis, and the English Lewis, but he is generally known by his Latin name, 
 Clovis. 
 
14 ANCIENT GAUI. [480 a. d. 
 
 bishop was invested with a peculiar sanctity and regarded 
 with reverential awe. He redressed grievances, appeased 
 tumults, sheltered fugitives, and alleviated miseries. As the 
 Visigoths and the Burgundians were Arians,* the clergy 
 naturally preferred the Franks, who, though pagans, had no 
 prejudices, and might yet be converted, and become "the 
 sword of the Church." 
 
 Summary. — The ancient name of France is Gaul. The inhabitants 
 are of Celtic origin. They are a nation of warriors, and repeatedly 
 devastate other countries. In the second century the Romans settle 
 Provence, which becomes a famous resort. Caesar fearfully repays 
 the Gauls for their former invasion of Italy, and conquers the entire 
 country. The Gauls are made Roman citizens. From this dates their 
 civilization. Cities are built. Schools are founded. A Romo-Gallish 
 nation springs up. When Rome declines, the helpless Gauls become 
 the prey of tyrannical emperors and fierce generals. As hope dies, 
 there come the blessed ministrations of the gospel. The Franks, Bur- 
 gundians, and Visigoths, repulsed in former times by the Roman 
 legions, now burst across the Rhine and take possession of the land. 
 Next come the Huns, but they are defeated at Chalons. Amid the 
 general wreck the people learn to trust in the Church as their only 
 friend. Clovis puts an end to the Roman rule in Gaul and founds the 
 first Frankish dynasty. 
 
 Manners and Customs, — In his dress of skins, with- his long, yellow 
 hair floating over his shoulders, the ancient tattooed Gaul drank from 
 the skull of his enemy, and strangled the stranger wrecked on his coast. 
 In forest clearings, beside the rivers, on hill-tops whence the enemy 
 could be seen afar, or in retreats in wood or marsh protected by ditches 
 and palisades, restless, eager, garrulous, fierce in rivalries and strong 
 in clannish instinct, he marks the borders of savage existence. Further 
 on, we see him in gay plaided trowsers and short cloak, the latter 
 clasped over his shoulder, and glittering with gold and silver embroid- 
 ery. Grown sympathetic, hospitable, and curious, he no longer puts 
 the chance comer to death, but compels him to tarry and tell all he 
 has ever seen' and heard. In his round wattled hut, plastered with 
 clay and thatched with straw, he grows into a better civilization as the 
 years roll on. His table is well served; he has butter, honey, and 
 
 * The disciples of Arms, a bishop who had been "expelled from the Church for 
 rejecting the divinity of Christ. 
 
ANCIENT GAUL. 
 
 15 
 
 bread leo.vened with beer-foam : his hams and cheeses have gained a 
 foreign reputation. Fond to excess of glitter and parade, his improve- 
 ments often seek that form. He finds out brilliant dyes, prepares cos- 
 metics, plates one metal with another, and veneers with precious woods. 
 He walks on a carpet of his own manufacture, sleeps on a mattress 
 stuffed with wool, and drinks from a German silver cup the wine he 
 preserves in a wooden 
 cask. The Southern Gaul 
 leads the advance, ab- 
 sorbing Greek and Ro- 
 man polish. The Gallo- 
 Roman city gentleman 
 at last becomes a model 
 of sumptuous and idle 
 indulgence. The morn- 
 ing reception, the bustle 
 of the forum, and the 
 luxurious siesta, make 
 up the day ; baths, thea- 
 tres, gladiatorial sports, 
 and prodigal repasts em- 
 ploy the evening. His 
 elegant saloons glow 
 with the gorgeous tapes- 
 tries of Persia and Assyria. Reclining on couches draped in richest, 
 purple, his guests are served by robust slaves, who bend beneath the 
 weight of silver dishes. Flowers, music, perfumes, and graceful 
 dancing-girls make the air heavy with sensuous enjoyment. When 
 wearied with the pleasures of the town, he seeks his charming country 
 villa, nestled at the foot of some olive or vine-clad hill, or superbly 
 crowning some mountain adorned with oak and elm. From its stately 
 porticoes he watches the flow of the stream or ripple of the lake. One 
 part, cool and sequestered, wooes to a summer rest, while the other, 
 warmed by artificial heat, has every comfort for the winter home. 
 Games and the chase, the theatre and the bath, delight and entertain 
 his guests. Libraries and museums please their soberer moods, and 
 delicious retreats, sacraria, shut each one up at will to his own reve- 
 ries. Meantime, the ladies spin and read and gossip in their own 
 luxurious apartments. The grand repast, as in the city home, rounds 
 out and closes up the day. 
 
 Such is the picture which the records give. They reveal nothing of 
 the every-day life of the serf — bought and sold with the soil ; of the 
 small farmers, whose condition was even less tolerable by reason of 
 heavy taxes and the competition of large estates ; of the artisan and 
 
 GALLO-ROMAN COSTUMES. 
 
 (From Bas-reliefs discovered under Notre Dame in 1711.) 
 
16 ANCIENT GAUL. 
 
 mechanic, whose wages and profits were governed by laws so oppress- 
 ive that he fled for refuge into slavery, only to be hunted, captured, 
 and rebound to his deserted trade ; or of the Ctirial — city magistrate — 
 whose office, one of the highest in the land, was burdened with such 
 odious responsibilities that the unhappy men on whom it fell made 
 themselves bondsmen, married slave-women, or joined barbaric hordes, 
 in hope of escape — fleeing their homes as the workman did his trade, 
 like him to be pursued and forced to return. 
 
 Iiefere7ices for (Reading. 
 
 Caesar's Commentaries.— Napoleon 's Life of Ccesar.— Creasy' 's Fifteen Decisive, Bat- 
 tles of the World.— Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.— Sheppard' 's Fall 
 of Home and Rise of the Nationalities.— Hallam's Middle Ages.— Godwin's, White's, 
 Smith's, Sismondi's, Michelet's, Bonnechose's, Markham's, Crowe's, Kitchin's, and 
 Edwards's Histories of France.— Thierry's History of the Gauls.— Guizot's Popular 
 History of France.— Motley's Rise of tlie Dutch Republic (Int. Characteristics of Gauls 
 and Celts).— Russell's History of Ancient Europe.— Ritson's Memoirs of the Celts. — 
 Perry's The Franks. — Milman's History of Christianity in the First Three Centuries. 
 —Picot, Histoire des Gaulois. — Lestange, Histoire des Gaules et conquetes des Gaulois. 
 Martin, Histoire de France— Duruy, Histoire de France. 
 
 Invents of the First I?poch in Chronological Order. 
 
 B. C„ - PAGE 
 
 GOO. Marseilles (Massilia) founded by the Greeks . . . .10 
 
 154. Marseilles called in Roman help 10 
 
 122. Aix (Aquae Sextise) in Provence founded by the Romans 11 
 
 58. Csesar in Gaul 11 
 
 A. D. 
 
 160. Christians settled in Lyons 12 
 
 251. Dionysius founded the Church of Northern France at Paris 
 
 ' (Lutetia Parisiorum) -12 
 
 407. German settlements in Gaul began 12 
 
 461. Battle of Chalons. Attila defeated 12 
 
 486. Battle of Soissons. Syagrius defeated . . . . 13 
 
 ^Distinguished JVames of Ancient Gaul. 
 
 Vercinf/eiorix, bravest and noblest of the Gauls, and the last to resist the great 
 Boman conqueror. Defeated in battle, he gave himself up, hoping to save his people. 
 Attired in all his barbaric splendor, he rode into Caesar's camp, dismounted, and 
 throwing down his arms, silently awaited his doom. He was taken to Rome to adorn 
 the victor's triumph, and afterwards executed. 
 
 SI. Zrenceus (a.d. 130-202), second bishop of Lyons, and a Christian martyr. 
 
 St. Hilary (300-358), bishop of Poitiers, noted for his eloquence and his enmity 
 to Arianism. 
 
 St. Jfartm of Tours (360), introduced monasticism into Gaul. 
 
 ^2>ollinaris Sidonins (430-438), bishop of Clermont. His songs arc prized for 
 their historical information. 
 
G^UL UNDER THE GERIJPS 
 
 I. THE MEROVINGIAN- LINE. 
 481 to 752=271 Years. 
 
 LOVIS (481 to 511=30 years) had'a 
 Christian wife. In the midst of a 
 great battle, when the day seemed 
 lost, he suddenly invoked the God 
 of Clotilda, vowing, if victorious, to 
 adopt her faith. He won the day, 
 and, with three thousand of his men, 
 w T as afterward baptized at Eheims f 
 (496). "Burn that which thou 
 hast worshipped, and worship that 
 which thou hast burned," said the 
 
 bishop. Clovis obeyed. Henceforth the whole power of the 
 
 Church was enlisted on his side. 
 Conquests of the Franks. — The northern cities, as 
 
 far as the Loire, opened their gates to his soldiers. The 
 
 Geor/rrrjjhical Questions.- <See map, pp. .)— Locate Austrasia. Neus- 
 
 t-ria (nois). Septimania. Aquitaine (ak-we-tane). Brittany. Normandy. Testry. 
 Aix-la-Chapelle (aks-la-sha-peF). Ger., Aachen (a-ken). Colmar. Eheims (reemz). 
 Rouen (roo-en). Ingelheim. Fontenay. Verdun (ver'dun'). Strasburg. Describe 
 the Loire (lwar). Garonne. Vienne. Danube. Seine (san). Where is the German 
 Ocean ? Adriatic ? 
 
 * So called from Merovich or Merowing, the grandfather of Clovis, who was the 
 leader of the Franks at the battle of Chalons. 
 
 t From this fact Rhcims became the place for the coronation of all the French 
 kimrs. 
 
18 GERMAN GAUL. [500 A.D. 
 
 Catholic bishops in Burgundy chafing under Arian rule, 
 Clovis subdued the Burgundian king, forced him to respect 
 the rights of his Catholic subjects, and exacted an annual 
 tribute to himself. " It grieves me," said Clovis, " to see the 
 misbelieving Visigoths in possession of the fairest province of 
 Caul. Let us march." The Franks gladly responding to 
 the chance for spoil, they crossed the Loire, and rapidly pur- 
 sued their conquests to the source of the Garonne. On his 
 return Clovis received from Anastasius, emperor of the East, 
 a golden crown and the purple robes of a consul. This gave 
 great sanction to his authority among his Gallo-Roman sub- 
 jects. In him the Eoman empire seemed to live again. He 
 was no longer a barbarian chief, but an orthodox prince and 
 a consul of Rome. Before his death he had united under the 
 Frankish power the entire country between the Rhine, the 
 Rhone, the ocean, and the Pyrenees, and had fixed his resi- 
 dence at Paris* 
 
 Successors of Clovis. — The kingdom was now divided, 
 according to Frankish custom, among the four sons of Clovis. 
 There is little need to dwell upon their character or that of 
 the remaining kings of the Merovingian line. " Nowhere," 
 says Gibbon, "can we find more vice or less virtue." Clotaire, 
 the fourth son of Clovis (see Table in Appendix), murdered 
 two of his nephews with his own hand, and condemned his 
 rebellious son to be burned alive, with his wife and daughters. 
 Fredegonde and Brunehaut (bruH-ho), daughters-in-law of 
 
 * The following anecdote illustrates the rude manner of government among the 
 Frankish kings. At a division of spoil at Soissons, Clovis asked for himself a val- 
 uable consecrated vase, which the soldiers had taken from a church in Eheims, and 
 which he wished to return. All consented hut one, who shattered the vase with a 
 violent blow of his battle-axe, saying, " Never shalt thou have more than thy allotted 
 share. 11 Clovis held his peace. The next year, at a review of his troops, taking this 
 man's weapon, he threw it on the ground, with a reproof for not keeping it in better 
 order. As the soldier stooped to raise it, Clovis lifted his own battle-axe, and bury- 
 ing it in the skull of the unfortunate offender, exclaimed: "Thus didst thou cleave 
 the vase at Soissons. 11 
 
613A.D.] MEB.OVINGIAN KINGS. 19 
 
 Olotaire, have acquired an awful celebrity by their crimes. 
 The melancholy fate of Brunehaut,* who, in her old age, 
 was tied to the heels of a wild horse, and torn, dragged, and 
 stamped to pieces, excites a momentary pity. 
 
 Dagoherl, Fredegonde's grandson, murdered his brother, and 
 thus became sole monarch. He gained the good-will of his 
 people by his royal progresses through the kingdom, in which 
 he personally dispensed justice. In him — the Louis XIV. of 
 the seventh century — the Merovingian line culminated, and 
 at his death (638) fell to dust. Mental imbecility, which 
 grows out of moral degeneracy, reduced the race of Clovis 
 to a weak line of princes, who pass like a procession of pup- 
 pets across the stage of history. The remaining 
 monarchs of the dynasty are known as rois faine- 
 ants — the do-nothing kings. 
 
 Austrasia and Neustria. — During this time 
 the Salians came to be called Neustrians, and the 
 Ripuarians Austrasians. The general division be- 
 tween the two was the River Meuse. In Austra- 
 sia the German population and German habits 
 predominated. Their chiefs, upon whom Clovis 
 had conferred large estates, possessed great power, 
 which rendered them comparatively independent dagobert's 
 of the sovereign. In Neustria, on the other hand, 
 the Franks were few in number and isolated from their 
 fellow-countrymen. Roman civilization and customs here 
 
 * Few characters have been painted in more opposite colors by different writers 
 than that of this famous Queen of Austrasia. In the enthusiasm of her partisans, the 
 conceded beauty of her person, the romantic incidents of her career, the unlimited 
 praise and blame which one alternately meets in searching the old writers for her 
 history, and in her tragic death, one is strongly reminded of that unfortunate woman 
 of later days, Mary Queen of Scots. While the name of Erunehaut is associated with 
 dark and foul crimes, we yet find many great and redeeming qualities. Some of the 
 most eminent men of her time, such as St. Gregory the Great, Gregory of Tours, and 
 others, speak strongly in her praise. She was a liberal patron of the arts, and her 
 munificence and patriotic zeal were attested by many public works and buildings, 
 which remained for centuries to perpetuate her memory. 
 
20 GERM AH GAUL. [G38-782, 
 
 prevailed, and the monarchical feeling, so characteristic of 
 Eoman society, was firmly established. 
 
 The Mayors of the Palace, or " Stewards of the royal 
 household," took advantage of the weakness of the king to 
 usurp all the power. At the battle of Testry (687), the 
 Austrasians, under Pepin ( Ger. Pippin), Mayor of the Pal- 
 ace, utterly defeated the Neustrians. Henceforth Pepin was, 
 in effect, king of the Franks. He successively placed six 
 princes on the throne. Once a year he exhibited the mon- 
 arch at the grand meeting of the Franks. Alone, sad and 
 silent, the descendant of Clovis was paraded to church in a 
 cart, drawn, peasant-fashion, by a yoke of oxen. Here, with 
 long, floating hair and low-falling beard, he sat on a throne 
 of gold, and spoke a few words, which were put in his month 
 for the occasion. He was then, with great pomp, conducted 
 back to his palace. 
 
 The Success of the Mayors of the palace was the 
 triumph of the aristocracy over the monarchy, of the Ger- 
 mans over the Eomanized Gauls. " The Franks under Pepin 
 and his successors," says Sismondi, " seem to have conquered 
 Gaul a second time." 
 
 Invasion of the Saracens.— Battle of Tours (732).— 
 The empire of the Franks was now threatened by a more 
 terrible enemy than the Huns. The followers of Mahomet 
 seemed about to overturn Christianity, and establish a new 
 faith at the edge of the sword. They had already crossed the 
 Pyrenees, conquered Septimania, and were devastating the 
 rich fields of Aquitaine. Everywhere the Orescent had sup- 
 planted the Cross. Christian congregations met in terror, 
 and no litany was without a prayer for deliverance from the 
 infidel. Charles, the son of Pepin, and Mayor of the Palace, 
 gathered the Franks, and met the Moslem hosts "between 
 Poitiers and Tours." For seven days the two worlds, the two 
 
MEROVINGIAN" KING 
 
 21 
 
 CHARLES 3UARTEL AT THE BATTLE OF TOURS. 
 
 faiths, stood face to face. Then, in a terrible flood, the fear- 
 less riders of the desert, mounted on their Arab steeds, 
 poured down upon the army of the Franks. Their wild 
 enthusiasm broke in vain against the solid ranks of the 
 North. Damascus steel glanced harmless from the iron hel- 
 mets, while the heavy battle-axe crashed down with awful 
 force upon turbaned heads. In the midst of the carnage 
 the men of Aquitaine fell on the Mohammedan rear. Assailed 
 on both sides, the Saracens quailed. Charles seized the 
 moment and ordered an advance. The Franks bore down 
 all opposition. The slaughter lasted till nightfall. Morning 
 revealed the empty camp of the enemy, and Europe was 
 saved to Christianity. Charles received henceforth the 
 name of Martel (the hammer), for the valor with which he 
 pounded the Saracens on that memorable day. 
 
2;i GERMAN GAUL. [732. 
 
 Fall of the Merovingian Line (752). — Pepin the 
 Short, son of Charles Martel, wrote to the Pope, asking 
 whether he who possessed the power of King ought not to be 
 called by that name. Eeceiving a reply in his favor, he sent 
 the last phantom monarch, Childeric III., to the seclusion of 
 a convent, and was himself lifted on a shield, after the Prank- 
 ish, custom, and declared King of the Pranks.* Thus was 
 established the second or Carlovingian line. 
 
 Summary. — Clovis and liis wild Frankish followers are converted 
 and baptized. The Christian warrior extends his conquests until he is 
 acknowledged from the channel to the Mediterranean. His descend- 
 ants rule for nearly two and a half centuries. The kings divide their 
 inheritance among their sons, each of whom tries to seize the others' 
 share. Scenes of cruelty and blood ensue. Two women, Brunehaut 
 and Fredegonde, gain an historic immortality through crime. Amid 
 this anarchy the philosophic historian sees two races — the Roman and 
 the Teutonic, and two principles — the monarchy and the aristocracy, 
 contending for the mastery. Mayors of the Palace gain power through 
 the weakness of the do-nothing kings. Pepin makes six puppet- 
 monarchs in succession, whom he exhibits in public only on state 
 occasions. His son, Charles Martel, gains the great victory of Tours 
 over the Saracens. His grandson, Pepin the Short, becomes king. 
 In him triumphs the German aristocracy, and the second or Carlovin- 
 gian dynasty is established. 
 
 ^Distinguished Names of the Merovingian HJra. 
 
 Gregory of Tours (544-595), wrote in Latin a history of the Franks up to his 
 own day. It is the authority for the events of the early Merovingian reigns. 
 
 St. Columbanus (597), a pious, devoted missionary from Ireland, founded monas- 
 teries, taught agriculture, sought to promote peace and purity, and sturdily rebuked 
 the vices of the Merovingian courts. 
 
 •* In order to render his person sacred and inviolable, he was anointed with oil 
 from a phial which was said to have been sent from heaven for Clovis's baptism. 
 This phial, preserved at Rheims as a sacred relic, was used at the coronation of the 
 French kings till the time of the Revolution. 
 
PEPiisr 
 
 IL— THE CARLOVINGIAN LINE. 
 
 (752 to 987=235 Years.) 
 
 EPIN the Short* (752 to 
 
 768 = 16 years), carried on 
 long and sanguinary strug- 
 gles with the Bretons, f 
 Saxons, and Saracens. He 
 subdued Septimania; reliev- 
 ed Rome from the attacks 
 of the Lombards; and con- 
 quered Aquitaine. His fame 
 has been eclipsed by the 
 military glory of his father 
 and the imperial grandeur 
 of his son,}: yet he inaugurated the system which Charle- 
 magne developed, and which possessed most of the charac- 
 teristic features of feudal Europe. Pepin made the support 
 and advancement of the Church his chief duty, and sum- 
 moned the bishops to attend the great councils of the nation. 
 Even his wars had a religious aspect. At his decease his 
 empire was left to his two sons, Karloman and Karl, — better 
 known as Charles the Great, or Charlemagne. Soon after- 
 
 * Though short of stature he possessed great courage and prodigious bodily 
 strength. Combats of wild animals were one of the favorite amusements at the 
 court of the Frankish kings. Pepin, it is said, was at one of these in which a lion 
 contended with a hull ; the latter was being overpowered when the king cried out to 
 the lords of the court: "Which of you will dare to separate them ?" No one re- 
 sponded. Pepin then sprang into the arena, struck off the heads of both beasts with 
 his sword, and flinging the bloody weapon before his astonished courtiers, ex- 
 claimed, in a tone of triumph : " There ! Am I not worthy to be your king ? " 
 
 + This was a tribe driven out of England by the attacks of the Anglo-Saxons. 
 Fleeing across the channel, they took possession of the land which, after them, was 
 called Brittany. 
 
 $ It was inscribed on Pepin's tomb that he was " father to Charlemagne'.' 1 
 
24 
 
 GERMAN GAUL. 
 
 [763. 
 
 ward, by the death of his brother, the latter became king of 
 the Franks. 
 
 Charlemagne's Reign (768 to 814=46 years), like that 
 of his father Pepin, was almost a perpetual Avar. He under- 
 took no less than fifty- 
 three important military 
 expeditions, nearly all 
 of which were crowned 
 with success. These were 
 waged against twelve 
 different nations which 
 threatened the borders 
 of his empire. At their 
 conclusion his sceptre 
 was acknowledged from 
 the German Ocean to 
 the Adriatic, and from 
 the Channel to the 
 Lower Danube. 
 Charlemagne Crowned Emperor.— On Christmas Eve, 
 in the year 800, while Charlemagne was kneeling before the 
 high altar in St. Peter's Church at Eome, the Pope unex- 
 pectedly placed on his head an imperial crown,, and hailed 
 him Emperor of the Eomans. Henceforth Charlemagne was 
 esteemed the successor of the Caesars. He nominated kings 
 and pontiffs at his pleasure, and the potentates of the day 
 deemed it an honor to be admitted to his presence or to wait 
 in his antechamber. 
 
 Government. — Charlemagne sought to establish order 
 and unity among the different nations conquered by his 
 sword. Great national assemblies, called Champs de Mars, 
 were held every spring. In the fall there were councils of 
 the lords to advise with the king on measures of importance. 
 
 CHARLEMAGNE. 
 
SILVER COIN OF CHARLEMAGNE'S TIME. 
 
 763-814] CHARLEMAGNE. 25 
 
 After these meetings Charlemagne issued what were termed 
 Capitularies, a medley of decrees, advices, and opinions on 
 all subjects, religious, political, social, and domestic. The 
 empire was divided into districts, governed by counts. Dele- 
 gates (missi dominici) visited each district four times a year, 
 administering justice and re- 
 
 dressing grievances. The em- 
 peror promoted agriculture, 
 arts, and manufactures, and 
 gave his personal attention to 
 the coining and circulation cf 
 money. He was a munificent 
 patron of the Church, and the cross accompanied his armies 
 everywhere. 
 
 • Love of Learning. — Charlemagne founded libraries and 
 schools,* and spared no pains or rewards to gather scientific 
 men about his court. Persons were appointed to read to him 
 at his meals. He carried about with him writing materials, 
 that, at odd moments, he might practice this, in those days, 
 rare accomplishment. History offers few more striking spec- 
 tacles than that presented by this great monarch, surrounded 
 by the princes and princesses of his family and the chief 
 officers of his brilliant court, sitting as learners at the feet of 
 their Anglo-Saxon teacher, Alcuin (-kwin), in the school of 
 the palace at Aix-la-Chapelle. 
 
 Charlemagne's Death. — Shortly before he died he re- 
 vised a portion of the Scriptures, comparing the Latin version 
 
 * He sometimes satisfied himself of the progress of the pupils by a personal visit. 
 On one of these occasions he addressed them thus : "Because you are rich and are 
 the sons of the principal men in my kingdom, you think that your birth and your 
 wealth are sufficient for you, and that you stand in no need of these studies which 
 would do you so much honor. You only think of dress, play, and pleasure ; but I 
 swear to you I attach no estimation to these riches or this nobility which bring you 
 so much consideration ; and if you do not quietly repair, by assiduous studies, the 
 time you have lost in frivolity, never— no, never — will you obtain anything from 
 Charles,' 1 
 
 2 
 
2G 
 
 GERMAN GAUL 
 
 [768-814. 
 
 C N OE R M A N J^-rJ L Ji 
 
 } s &{ OCEAN ,*~'° ^ ' 
 t 1 '-r'SSs or y „*^?» r- 
 
 Boundary of Empire of Churkmagne 
 Division of ' < it 
 
 Boundaries of the Seven Kingdoms + 
 
 lnj Treaty of Verdun -f- + -»--( — i — i — i — h-4- 
 
 ■j- and and 
 
 EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE. 
 
 with the original Greek. He was buried in the cathedral 
 which he had built at Aix-la-Chapelle, placed sitting on a 
 chair, dressed in the imperial robes, with his beloved sword 
 by his side, a copy of the Gospels in his hand, and a golden 
 crown upon his head. 
 
 The Successors of Charlemagne seem to have in- 
 herited only a title from their magnificent ancestor. The 
 descendants of Clovis were wicked; those of Charlemagne 
 were weak. (See Table in Appendix.) 
 
 Louis and his Sons (814 to 840=26 years). Louis the 
 Good-Natured (le Debonnaire), the only son of Charlemagne, 
 
768-814.] CHARLEMAGNE'S SUCCESSORS. 27 
 
 succeeded him as emperor. His amiability was lost on his 
 wild Frankish warriors while it ruined the discipline of his 
 own household. Having divided his kingdom among his 
 three sons, he afterward foolishly attempted to provide for a 
 fourth, their step-brother, out of their inheritance. This led 
 to open warfare. In the hour of peril, when battling his 
 three sons, he was deserted by his own army.* Twice was 
 he forced to perform public penance, twice shut in a cloister, 
 and twice brought out to pacify the deadly quarrels of his 
 children. He died in the midst of a campaign against his 
 son Louis. 
 
 Battle of Fontenay.— The "Battle of the Brothers' 9 
 (841). — The great name of Emperor fell to Lothaire, the 
 eldest son. The other brothers, Charles and Louis, refused 
 submission to him, and rallied their forces to assert their 
 independence. A terrible battle ensued, in which 100,000 
 men are said to have perished. The flower of the Franks, 
 the descendants of the Teutonic conquerors of Gaul, fell on 
 this disastrous day,f and no end was gained.J 
 
 Treaty of Verdun (843). — Afterward the three brothers 
 made a peaceful partition of their lands. Louis received the 
 territory on the east of the Ehine, comprising the chief part 
 of modern Germany, and called East Frankland. To Lo- 
 thaire, with the title of Emperor, was assigned Italy and a 
 long strip extending across Europe to the North Sea. This 
 
 * The scene of this defection, near Colmar, was long called the "Field of Lies." 
 t The Gallo-Romans were considered unworthy to bear arms by the side of their 
 Frankish lords. 
 
 X It was soon after this that the famous " Oath of Strasburg" was taken, wherein 
 Charles and Louis formally renewed their alliance. Louis first explained the oath 
 to his men in the German speech; Charles did the same to his warriors in Franco- 
 Eoman, the parent of the present French language. Then Charles, standing before 
 the Germans, took oath in their language, while Louis, confronting the Frenchmen, 
 took the same oath in the Romance tongue. This incident shows how, already, the 
 two nations were becoming distinct in speech. The oaths still remain, and that 
 taken by Louis before his brother's troops is the oldest monument of the French 
 language. 
 
28 GERMAN GAUL. [813. 
 
 kingdom took his name, which part of it still keeps.* All of 
 old Gaul west of this fell to Charles, and was styled West 
 Frankland (in Latin, Francia), whence the name France,! 
 and the origin of the French as a distinct nation. Thus the 
 grandsons of Charlemagne dismembered the magnificent em- 
 pire which had been the work of his life. Three monarchies 
 arose from its ruins, henceforth to become more and more 
 distinct in language, character, and interests. 
 
 Kings of France (843-987). — France was now sepa- 
 rated from Germany, and her monarchs are sometimes styled 
 Kings of France rather than Kings of the Franks, though 
 they did not themselves assume the name. On the contrary, 
 they refused to identify themselves with the people of the 
 country, and clung to their Teutonic language, dress, and 
 manners. It is not worth while to mark their course, as, 
 unable to stem the tide of affairs, they slowly drifted on to 
 extinction. (See Table in Appendix.) 
 
 Invasions of the Normans, — During the last days of 
 Charlemagne the Danes and Normans had infested the coasts 
 of his empire. J In order to repel them he built barks at the 
 mouths of all the great rivers. Under his degenerate descend- 
 ants the seaboard was left without defence. The northern 
 barbarians were quick to take advantage of the opportunity. 
 In their light boats they ascended the rivers, burning, plun- 
 
 * Lotharingia (Lorraine) lay thus between the Germanic realm of Louis and the 
 Eomance realm of Charles, taking in, doubtless, then, asnoAV, lands of both speeches. 
 Placed like an embankment between the two families of Franks, this narrow strip 
 has been a debatable land ever since. It was a kingdom which had no principle of 
 unity. No tie of language, history, or natural boundaries held together Holland, 
 Provence, and the countries between. They, therefore, scon fell apart. Sometimes 
 we find Lorraine cut up into several separate kingdoms, and sometimes divided 
 between Germany and France. 
 
 + We shall, for convenience, now use the terms "France" and "French," though 
 they are by no means to be accepted in their modern sense. 
 
 % One day, in Southern Gaul, he saw some of these pirate ships approach, and 
 burst into tears. Addressing his wondering nobles, he said : " I know these pirates 
 cannot harm me ; but I weep for the calamities they will inflict on my posted; y when 
 I shall be here no more." 
 
845.] 
 
 CHARLEMAGNE'S SUCCESSORS 
 
 29 
 
 NORMAN SHIP (FROM THE BAYEUX TAPESTRY). 
 
 dering, and slaying. When there was no water, or a force 
 was raised to resist them, they carried their boats across the 
 land, launched them on brooks where their very name was 
 before unknown, and spread terror into the heart of the 
 kingdom. In 845, they reached Paris, rifled its rich abbeys, 
 and even carried away the timbers of which the houses 
 Were built. Charles the Bald, despairing of success by arms, 
 persuaded them to leave by the payment of seven hundred 
 pounds of silver. This made them eager enough to come 
 again. At length, after years of torment, Charles the Simple 
 proposed to give his daughter in marriage to Rollo, a famous 
 leader of the Normans, and offered him a part of Neustria, on 
 condition that he should be baptized, embrace the Christian 
 faith, and do homage to the crown.* Kollo accepted the 
 proposition, and was baptized under the name of Robert. 
 
 * This ceremony was always concluded by the recipients kissing the foot of the 
 sovereign. The haughty Kollo refused to do this, and on being told lhat it was 
 indispensable, he signed to one of his attendants to do it for him. Either through 
 
30 
 
 GERMAN GAUL. 
 
 [911 
 
 ROLLO PAYING HOMAGE TO CHARLES THE SIMPLE. 
 
 Effect. — Rollo gave up his predatory habits and protected 
 the coasts from any further invasions. He applied himself 
 to the development of his province, now called Normandy, 
 which soon became one of the most nourishing in the nation. 
 Adopting the religion and usages of the French, the Nor- 
 mans were soon distinguished as the bravest soldiers, the 
 boldest sailors, and the most skilful and tasteful artisans. 
 High-minded and patriotic, they took the lead in all daring 
 enterprises. Rouen, their capital, became a splendid city, 
 while in other places, cathedrals and churches of noble archi- 
 tecture arose, which still remain the admiration of the world. 
 
 Hugh the Great,* Count of Paris, obtained the power 
 
 awkwardness or insolence, this man brought the king's foot to his lips with such a 
 sudden jerk that the poor monarch lost his balance and fell upon his back. The 
 rude Normans uttered loud shouts of laughter, and the simple Charles, terrified by 
 thair boisterous mirth, was glad to reseat himself upon his throne, without noticing 
 the affront, while his courtiers. were content to pass it off as an agreeable pleasantry. 
 * Each of his three wives was a king's daughter. He maybe called the king-maker 
 of France, as the Earl of Warwick was of England. 
 
936.] GERMAN GAUL. 31 
 
 during the last days of the Carlovingian line, as the Mayors 
 of the Palace did in those of the Merovingian. Three times 
 the crown was at his disposal. On the death of Louis V, the 
 do-nothing, Hugh Capet (cap-a/), son of Hugh the Great, 
 was elected king. Thus the Carlovingian line ended, and 
 the Capetian began. 
 
 Summary. — Pepin is made king by the decision of the Pope, and in 
 turn favors the Church. Charlemagne founds a great Christian em- 
 pire, and is crowned emperor. His weak successors quickly dissipate 
 their vast inheritance. His grandsons fight for supremacy at Fon- 
 tenay. The Treaty of "Verdun and a division of the empire follow. 
 Modern nationalities begin to appear. Taking advantage of the ab- 
 sence of the kings, the fierce Norman Vikings devastate the country. 
 Rollo is baptized and founds Normandy. Under a waning dynasty the 
 nobles triumph. Hugh the Great, Count of Paris, gains strength and 
 becomes the " king-maker " of France. With a do-nothing sovereign 
 the Carlovingian line comes to an end. Hugh Capet is crowned, and 
 in his success the power of the nobles is assured. The German rule is 
 replaced by a national dynasty. Gaul, having received the impress of 
 Roman, Teutonic, and Norman influences, has at last a French king. 
 
 The Benedictine Monks established themselves in France during 
 the sixth century. Their quiet industry and attention to agriculture 
 made gardens out of neglected wastes. The half -civilized Franks 
 looked with a species of awe on the luxuriant fields which flourished 
 only around the monastery, and grateful kings heaped immunities on 
 a people who, having resigned the bustle and the pleasures of the 
 world, thus added to its richness and its beauty. " The inequalities 
 of race grew less before these missionaries and pioneers of modern 
 industry ; liberty seemed to rouse her fainting head within their walls ; 
 to labor, to sing, to build, to write — these were their four great tasks. 
 The world has few nobler histories than that of the Benedictine Order ; 
 few societies have left behind such monuments of ennobled toil." 
 
 Rise of Feudalism. — Portions of his immense domains conquered 
 from the Gauls were granted by the king to his followers on the con- 
 dition of feudal service.* At first these grants or "benefices," as they 
 
 * The relation was established by certain prescribed ceremonies. 1. Homage. 
 2. Fealty. 3. Investiture. In rendering the first the vassal, on bended knees, ungirt 
 and bareheaded, placed his joined hands in those of his lord or suzerain, and prom- 
 ised to become " his man " from that day forth. Fealty was the sworn promise of 
 service. Investiture was the placing in possession of the estate, either actually or 
 symbolically by means of some natural object, such as a stone, turf, or branch. The 
 
32 GEEMAN GAUL. 
 
 were called, were lield only at the royal pleasure, but in time they 
 became life-long and then hereditary. The more powerful chieftains, 
 however, claimed part of the conquered territory as their own inde- 
 pendent right, held not from the king, but of " God and their own good 
 swords." Such possessions were called allodial lands. That portion of 
 the country which was allowed to remain with its former possessors 
 was laid under tribute. Thus Gaul was held, part as independent or 
 allodial; part as a benefice by favor of king or chief; and part as trib- 
 utary, cultivated by Gallo-Roman rustics. Taking advantage of weak 
 kings, the dukes and counts, growing more and more powerful, levied 
 troops, coined money, made laws, and administered justice in their own 
 domains. In 877 their fiefs were declared hereditary ; henceforth they 
 were like independent sovereigns. The weaker allodial proprietors, 
 constantly harassed by these lawless neighbors, were glad at last to 
 find protection by becoming the vassals of some great lord. 
 
 Condition of Society. — The relations of society were all based on 
 feudal ideas and obligations. The aristocracy '• alone formed the nation. 
 The villains, or small tenant farmers, held their lands on condition of 
 a certain payment to their lords. The masses were serfs, chiefly of 
 Gallo-Roman descent, who were bought and sold with the land. They 
 possessed nothing of their own. Their time, the fruit of their labor, 
 their children even, belonged to their lord. If they incurred his dis- 
 pleasure, they could invoke no law in their behalf. In the cities the 
 counts exercised an authority quite as galling as that of the nobles on- 
 their estates. Tolls and duties were multiplied. The people were 
 obliged to maintain their lord and his train whenever he came within 
 their walls. Provisions, horses, furniture, carriages, fuel, were carried 
 away by force at the caprice of the master or any of his suite, without 
 payment or redress of any kind. 
 
 Manners and Customs. — The earliest Frankish invaders tied their 
 flaxen hair in a tuft above their foreheads, with the ends falling down 
 behind. The face was clean-shaved, with the exception of two long 
 mustaches. They wore cloth or leather garments, fitting tightly to the 
 limbs and body, and a broad belt, to which they hung their swords. 
 
 vassal was to serve his lord and the lord was to protect his vassal. If the vassal 
 failed in his ohligation, his land was forfeited; if the lord failed, he lost his seigni- 
 ory. The heneficiaries of king or chieftain conferred smaller grants on their depend- 
 ants, who in turn bestowed fiefs on those below. In this way fiefs and sub-fiefs were 
 multiplied to such an extent that, toward the close of the ninth century, France was 
 enveloped in a complete feudal network, from the liegeman of the king to the lowest 
 vassal in the kingdom. 
 
 * They comprised about one million persons, free and noble, who lived on and 
 derived their names from about seventy thousand separate fiefs or properties, of 
 Avhich three thousand carried titles with them, and at least one hundred were inde- 
 pendent sovereignties. 
 
GEEMAI GAUL. 
 
 33 
 
 But once settled in the land, the Franks soon adopted the Roman 
 fashions they had found. One great distinction, however, always 
 marked the Merovingian noble — the long and flowing hair. The peo- 
 ple wore theirs more or less short, according to the freedom of the 
 wearer. Thus, while the hair of the king's son was never cut, the 
 head of the serf was completely shaved. No greater insult could be 
 offered to a freeman than to touch him with the scissors. The free 
 and noble classas swore by their locks, and it was the height of polite- 
 noss to pull out a hair and make a gift 
 of it. When St. Germer, bishop of Tou- 
 louse, visited Clovis, the king thus hon- 
 ored him; the courtiers imitated their 
 sovereign, and the dolighted prelate 
 returned to his home with his hand 
 full of hairs, each one a precious com- 
 pliment. — The Merovingian court was a 
 moving one. The king and his attend- 
 ants occupied some one of the royal 
 manors, hunting and carousing, till its 
 produce was exhausted, and then passed 
 on to drain another. Around the king's 
 dwelling were grouped those of the offi- 
 cers of the palace — his immediate vas- 
 sals ; smaller houses were occupied by 
 tradesmen — jewellers, weavers, embroid- 
 erers, and manufacturers of arms : farm- 
 buildings, cow-houses, sheep folds, barns, 
 and the cabins of the serfs completed 
 the royal capital. Fighting, hunting, 
 feasting, and gambling were the favor- 
 ite sports. The feasts, to which all 
 came armed, often ended in a bloody 
 mslee. To correct the bent of their 
 unruly guests, some of the better Mero- 
 vingian kings were wont to invite bishops, who pronounced a blessing 
 on the company, and then recited chapters from the Bible, or sang 
 hymns throughout the repast,— With the Carlo vingian dynasty the 
 hair was shortened, and, in the ninth century, the fashion came in 
 of shaving the head and wearing the cowl. The favorite garment of 
 the Carlovingian lady was a long tunic, fastened in at the waist, and 
 closed at the wrist. Queens, princesses, and the higher nobility often 
 wore two tunics, the outer one shorter and fuller, with flowing sleeves 
 just reaching the elbow. About the time of Charlemagne silk stuffs 
 were introduced, and costly furs distinguished the upper classes. The 
 
 CARLOVINGIAN COSTUME 
 (After au early manuscript.) 
 
34 GESMAN GAUL, 
 
 great Charles, who was a model of thrift and economy in his domestic 
 affairs, frowned upon these new extravagances, and was simple in his 
 usual attire. An under-dress of linen, woven by his own daughters ; a 
 woollen tunic, with a silken hem, and breeches of the same ; a long 
 cloak of blue stuff, shortened at the sides to allow free use of his 
 " good sword Joyeuse," which he always wore ; leggings made of 
 various-colored bands crossed over one another, and leather shoes, 
 completed his daily costume. In winter he added a vest of ermine or 
 otter. On occasions of ceremony, however, his dress was magnificent, 
 and sparkled with gold and jewels. He dined at twelve with his fam- 
 ily, to whom he was tenderly attached. His food was as simple as his 
 dress. He restricted himself to four dishes, his favorite one being- 
 roast venison, newly killed, and served hot on the spit. The royal 
 family were waited upon by the dukes and chiefs of various nations, 
 who, in turn, were served by the counts, prefects, and superior court- 
 officers. These dined next in order, having for attendants the chiefs 
 of the household, who were waited upon and followed by the lower 
 servants. By this time it was often midnight, and the last comers had 
 to be content with what was left. 
 
 At the close of this epoch the elegant Gallo-Roman villa had given 
 place to the gloomy, strong, and massive fortress, whose dark, low 
 entrance was carefully guarded. Perched on the jutting edge of 
 some high rock, unclean, unwholesome, with little light save from the 
 inner court, it was safe from the invader, but comfortless for the in- 
 dwell er. Slaves had filled the Gallo-Roman household, but the feudal 
 Frank gathered his free and trusty comrades about his hearth and 
 spent the night in revelry. These faithful followers of the stalwart 
 baron stood guard with him over his herds and crops, or sallied out in 
 his train, to make war on his weaker neighbors. Each castle was a 
 fortress ; each chieftain a petty monarch ; and each domain a small 
 sovereignty. Meanwhile famine and pestilence stalked at noonday 
 through the wretched huts of the serf, where misery seemed to have 
 touched its lowest depth. 
 
 References for 'Headi7ig. 
 
 French Histories mentioned at the dose of the First Epoch.— (See p. 16.)—Vallee, 
 Ristoire des Francais, Vol. II. — Bryce's Holy Roman Empire, Chap. IV.—Milman's 
 Hist. Lat. Chris., Vol. I.— Thierry's Merovingian Era— Book of Golden Deeds, the 
 Shepherd Girl of Nanterre.—Guizot's Essays on Civilization in France. — Arnold's 
 Hist. Later Soman Commonwealth, Vol. I— Stephens's and Smythe's Lectures on Hist. 
 France.— WJiite's Lectures on Eighteen Christian Centuries.— James's Life of Charle- 
 magne.— Romance of French Hist., Bertha or the Court of, Charlemagne, and the Ad- 
 ventures of Eriland— Freeman's Hist. Essays, First Series, the Early Sieges of Paris 
 <—Buhver Lytton's Trans, of the Poem of Ron {Rollo). —Bullfinch's Age of Chivalry.— 
 
GERMAKGAUL. 35 
 
 Invents of the Second JZpoch in Chronological Order. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 496. Battle of Ziilpicli. Clovis (Hlodowig) became a Christian . 17 
 
 510. Clovis sole king- of the Franks 17 
 
 560. Death of Clovis. Division of Frankish empire . . .18 
 
 567. Three kingdoms in Gaul — Austrasia, Neustria, and Burgundy 18 
 
 613. Death of Brunehaut 19 
 
 632-8. Dagobert sole king . . . . - . . . .20 
 
 687. Battle of Testry, won by Pepin (Pippin) .... 20 
 
 732. Battle of Tours, won by Charles Martel 21 
 
 752-768. Pepin the Short 23 
 
 768-814. Charlemagne # 24 
 
 800. Charlemagne crowned emperor at Rome - 24 
 
 814-840. Louis the Good-Natured (le Dtbonnaire) . . . .26 
 
 841. Battle of Fontenay 27 
 
 843. Treaty of Verdun 27 
 
 885. The Normans besieged Paris . , . . . . 28 
 911. Rollo baptized. Normandy founded . . . .28 
 
 936-956. Hugh the Great held power 30 
 
 987. Hugh Capet crowned 30 
 
 Distinguished JVames of the Carlovingian JS'ra. 
 
 rtleuin (735-804), the most learned man of the day, taught at the court of Charle- 
 magne, and wrote poetry, theology, and elementary science. 
 
 HJ&inhard (died about 844), a pupil of Alcuin and secretary of Charlemagne, wrote 
 historical works of his times. According to a romantic tradition he married the 
 daughter of Charlemagne. 
 
 2\tul Warnefrid (740-799), taught Greek at the court of Charlemagne, and wrote 
 a history of the Lombards. 
 
 John Scotius Erigena (about 850), a scholastic philosopher, celebrated for his 
 classical acquirements and his subtlety in metaphysical discussions. He has been 
 called " the only learned layman of the dark ages.'' 
 
FEUDAL FRANCE. 
 
 987 to 1494 = 507 Years. 
 
 APET'S ascension to the throne 
 marks the real beginning of French 
 history. He was a French duke, 
 spoke the French language, and 
 had his capital at Paris. France, 
 however, was not then what it is 
 now, nor its king what he became 
 in after days. The royal domain 
 was little larger than the island 
 of Corsica. Hugh Capet himself 
 was only the feudal superior of 
 about fifty barons. True, he was 
 anointed from the sacred phial of 
 Rheims, but the Carlovingians 
 had sunk so low that he was considered by many to have 
 lost in dignity by becoming their successor. He was sur- 
 rounded by great feudatories, nominally his vassals, really 
 his peers. One, whom Capet reminded of his duty by say- 
 ing: "Who made you count ?" replied: "Who made you 
 
 Geographical Questions .—(Sw maps, pp. 1, 37 and 73.)— Locate Normandy, Brit- 
 tany, Burgundy, Aquitaine, Valois (val'-wa/), Lorraine (ren), Champagne (sham-pane), 
 Anjou (an-zh6o), Artois (twaV), Dauphiny (dO-fe-ne), Flanders, Maine, Toulouse, 
 Armagnac (ar-man-yak), Touraine (l6o-ren), Poitou (tooO, Languedoc (15n-geh-dok), 
 Laon (la-on), Langres (ISngV, Beauvais (bo-va), Beziera (ba-ze-a), Boulogne (boo- 
 lOnO, Orleans, Albi. 
 
 HUGH CAPET. 
 
987.] 
 
 HUGH CAPET. 
 
 37 
 
 king ?" In the success of the aristocracy feudalism bad 
 triumphed, and the nobles were the real sovereigns.* 
 
 III.— THE CAPETIAN LINE. 
 937 to 1328=311 Years. 
 Hugh Capet (987 to 99G = 9 years) is notable only as 
 
 PARAMOUNT FEUDATORIES 
 at the time of the accession of 
 
 HUGH CAPET 
 
 f- F h MEDITERRANEAN 
 
 SEA 
 
 Fisk&Se.. N. Y. 
 
 * France existed only in name. Normandy, Brittmy, Burgundy, Aquitaine, Cham- 
 pagne, etc., were the true states, each with its own life and history. Read Guizot'u 
 THistoire de France, Tome I, pp. 270-289. 
 
38 FEUDAL FEANCE. [987. 
 
 the founder of a new dynasty.* In the greater part of Gaul 
 the change from the Carlovingian to the Oapetian line was 
 scarcely felt.f Hugh, raised by his fellow-nobles, and know- 
 ing that he could be as easily deposed by them, was cautious 
 about interfering in their affairs. The country was dis- 
 tracted by innumerable wars among the great barons, in 
 which he took no part. He strengthened himself by bound- 
 less devotion to the Church. Indeed, he used the crown 
 only at his coronation, and continued through life to wear 
 the cape J of an abbot. 
 
 Robert (996 to 1031=35 years) the Pious, governed his 
 people more like a pastor than a king. He composed 
 
 a 
 
 hymns, § led the choir in the abbey of St. Denis, and de- 
 lighted in the society of pious monks. His palace was filled 
 with beggars, and a train of them accompanied him in his 
 travels.] His devotion to the Church did not save him 
 from its rigors. His wife Bertha was not only his fourth 
 
 * The Capetian line is the most ancient of any now existing in Europe. It had a 
 direct male succession for eight centuries, three and a half of which were unbroken 
 from father to son. Louis Philippe, driven from the French throne in 1848, was its 
 last crowned representative. < 
 
 t In Languedoc no notice was taken of Hugh's ascension, r.nd the inhabitants for 
 many years dated their public acts by the nominal reigns of the children of Charles 
 of Lorraine, the next heir of the Carlovingian line. 
 
 X Some say that from this circumstance he took his name. 
 
 § Robert once made a pilgrimage to Rome, where he deposited a packet, with great 
 solamnity, on the high altar. After his departure the monks rushed to open it, 
 expecting to find some great treasure, when they discovered— a scroll of music. He 
 was once desired by Constance to compose a song in her praise. Robert — who led 
 by no means a happy life with his second spouse-=-did not feel disposed to comply 
 with this request; but he sang a hymn which began : u O Constantia martyrum ! " 
 (perhaps the gentle king was not above enjoying the satire); and the queen, who 
 knew nothing of Latin, and only distinguished her own name in the words, listened 
 complacently, supposing her beauty and wit were the theme of his song. 
 
 || Many stories are told of his unworldly goodness. One day, while at prayers, a 
 thief cut off half his mantle. " That will do ; leave the remainder for another," the 
 king mildly suggested, without moving from his kneeling posture.— The queen had 
 given him a lance magnificently decorated with silver ornaments. Going to church 
 one morning with this in his hand, his pity was excited by a beggar, whom he im- 
 mediately beckoned into a corner, where they stripped the lance of all its ornaments. 
 Thrusting them into the poor man's wallet, Robert bade him " begone with all speed 
 list the queen should see him." 
 
998.] 
 
 ROBEKT THE PIOUS 
 
 39 
 
 cousin, but he had also been godfather to her child by a 
 former marriage. According to the severe laws then in 
 force, this marriage was illegal, and Pope Gregory V. com- 
 manded the royal pair to separate.* Eobert refused, 
 
 protested, and pleaded, 
 but in vain. Sen- 
 tence of excommunica- 
 tion was passed upon 
 
 KING ROBERT AND HIS CHOIR. 
 
 them. No Christian could henceforth eat, drink, or pray 
 with them. They were abandoned by friends and ser- 
 vants. After a struggle of a few years the young couple 
 sorrowfully parted. Bertha retired to a convent. Eobert 
 afterward married Constance of Toulouse, "beautiful and 
 masterful." She was accompanied by a crowd of young 
 
 * The real cause of opposition was political. Bertha had claims to the crown of 
 Burgundy. This crown had been bequeathed by its late owner to the emperor of 
 Germany, who easily prevailed on a German pope to annul a marriage which threat- 
 ened to unite this valuable kingdom to the French crown. 
 
40 m FEUDAL FRANCE. [1000-1033. 
 
 nobles from Aquitaine,* whose manners and dress shocked 
 the grave courtiers of the king. In his last days Robert, like 
 Louis the Good-lNTatured, was obliged to take up arms against 
 his rebellious children, and sank under the unnatural con- 
 flict. His attendants wept bitterly oyer his grave, saying : 
 " We have lost our father." 
 
 The Year 1000, it was generally believed, would mark 
 the end of the world. f As the time drew near, the hearts 
 of- men misgave them. The devastations of the Normans 
 and the contentions of the nobles had desolated the country. 
 Towns were burned; land was uncultivated; and famine 
 had mowed down whole populations. All interests were 
 suspended in the dread thought of eternity and judgment. 
 Men forsook their trades; soldiers laid aside helmet and 
 cuirass for the frock and hair-shirt. Lands J and money 
 were freely bestowed on the Church. For three years 
 (1030-1032) the seasons seemed to fail from their course, and 
 there w T as neither seed-time nor harvest. At Tournus human 
 flesh was offered for sale in the market-place. § Troops of 
 wolves came down from the mountains, and, prowling through 
 the streets, attacked the living and the dead. In the midst 
 
 * Aquitaine at that time retained the Roman civilization and manners, and was 
 centuries in advance of Northern France. The clergy at the Capetian court, how- 
 ever, despised and denounced their southern neighbors, and looked upon a man 
 dressed by an Aquitaine tailor as " in danger of perdition.'" The old chronicle thus 
 describes the queen's courtiers: "They were the most vain and frivolous of men. 
 Their manners and dress were disorderly; the arms and equipments of their horses 
 were equally strange. In the middle part of their heads they had no hair, and their 
 b sards were shaven like Merry- Andrews. Their leggings and buskins were shame- 
 fully fashioned. In short, they respected neither faith nor the promises of peace. 
 But oh, grief ! these abominable examples were immediately copied by the whole 
 race of Frenchmen 1 " 
 
 t This grew out of a strange interpretation of Rev. xx. 1-7. There was some 
 doubt whether the world was to come to an end on the thousandth year from the 
 birth or the death of Christ, and thus the excitement was prolonged for years. 
 
 % Most of the charters of endowment granted at this time begin : "The end of the 
 world approaching. 1 ' 
 
 § An innkeeper near Macon decoyed into his house no less than fcrty-eight unhappy 
 victims, whom he murdered and then devoured. 
 
1030-1033.] 
 
 HEIfSY I 
 
 41 
 
 THE YEAR IOOO. 
 
 of the desolation, the nobles, more to be dreaded than even 
 the wild beasts, continued their ambitions struggles. "At 
 length," says the chronicler, "by the mercy of God, the 
 waters were assuaged and the sky began to brighten; the 
 breath of the winds became propitious, and the calamities of 
 the earth drew toward their close." The harvest which fol- 
 lowed equalled that of three ordinary years. 
 
 Henry I. (1031 to 1060 = 29 years), opposed by his mother 
 Constance, who preferred her favorite son Robert, secured 
 his throne by the aid of Robert the Magnificent," Duke of 
 
 * Robert was the son of the famous Richard Sans Peur (the Fearless), so noted for 
 bravery, piety, and goodness, as well as for beauty of person— his long beard and 
 white hair being especially celebrated by Norman historians. Richard the Fearless 
 had a stone coffin, which he filled every Friday with wheat. The grain, with a 
 donation of money, was distributed among the poor. When he died, he ordered his 
 body to be laid in this coffin, and placed outside the church under the eaves, "that 
 the drippings of the rain from the holy roof may wash my bones as I lie. and may 
 cleanse them from the impurity contracted in life." The inheritance and title fell to 
 the elder brother, Richard. Soon afterward Robert invited him to a banquet at 
 
42 FEUDAL FRANCE. [1031-1080. 
 
 Normandy. He reigned quietly, and received little notice 
 from contemporary historians. Remembering the ills of his 
 father, and to prevent all possibility of marrying within the 
 prohibited degrees, he took for his third wife a princess of 
 Russia, a nation then scarcely known in Europe. 
 
 The Truce of God. — Though the kings were comparatively passive, 
 it was a time of intense activity among the great vassals. Count warred 
 against count; castle against castle. The Church, finding it could not 
 subdue, sought to regulate the fierce contests which devastated the 
 country. The truce of God was proclaimed (1041). This made it a sin 
 to shed blood from the setting of the sun on Wednesday eve until its 
 rising on Monday morn, as well as on all church festivals and fast 
 days. A perpetual safeguard was also given to churches, unarmed 
 clerks, and monks. Offenders were liable to excommunication,* ban- 
 ishment, and even death. This beneficent law, though often violated, 
 did much toward the restoration of confidence. It stands as a noble 
 monument of the clemency and power of the Church. 
 
 Church Building. — The impression made by all the calamities which 
 marked the beginning of the eleventh century was by no means tran- 
 sitory. Men's hearts were touched, even through their coats of mail. 
 They made liberal benefactions to the Church. The energies of lord 
 and abbot were turned from war and expended in the erection of mag- 
 nificent cathedrals and abbeys, whose ruins to-day attest their former 
 beauty, and attract admiring travelers from all parts of the world. 
 
 Philip I. (1080 to 1108 = 48 years), the eldest son of 
 Henry, was scarcely eight years old when he ascended the 
 throne. He early developed a low and depraved character. 
 
 Falaise. All the guests died within a few hours, and Robert was suspected of poi- 
 soning them. Be that as it may, he immediately seized the duchy, and in admiration 
 for his valor the Normans soon became reconciled to his rule. In defence of Henry 
 he showed such reckless daring as to acquire" the popular name of Robert le Diable 
 (the Devil). Some years afterward, according to the fashion of his time, he made a 
 pilgrimage to Jerusalem, from which he never returned. His natural son, William, 
 became heir to the estate, and afterward filled Europe with the renown which he 
 won as William the Conqueror. 
 
 * Five years before a law, known as " The Peace of God, 1 ' had been published, 
 which commanded all men to lay down their arms. All offenders were thus publicly 
 denounced : " May they be accursed ; may they be banished with Cain the fratricide, 
 with the traitor Judas, with Dathan and Abiram. who entered alive into hell; and 
 may their joy be extinguished at the aspect of the holy angels as these lights are 
 extinguished before your eyes. ,, At these words the priests, who held lighted wax 
 candles in their hands, turned them toward the earth and extinguished them, while 
 the people, seized with fear, repeated, as with one voice : " May God thus extinguish 
 the joy of those who will not accept peace and justice." 
 
1030-1108.] PHILIP I. 43 
 
 To procure money for the indulgence of his vices, he imposed 
 taxes on travelers, and sold to the highest bidder the bishop- 
 rics and offices of the Church. Growing hardened in sin, he 
 repudiated his wife Bertha, and married the wife of the 
 Count of Anjou.. The Church at once administered a whole- 
 some discipline and excommunicated them. Outwardly, 
 Philip professed obedience, but really made no change. In 
 old age, however, lie experienced a tardy remorse, and at his 
 death declared himself unworthy of burial with the monarchs 
 of France at St. Denis. 
 
 Three great events happened during this reign : the Inva- 
 sion of England by William, Duke of Normandy ; the Cru- 
 sades ; and the conquest of Sicily by Norman adventurers.* 
 Philip took no part in any of them, but they seemed to draw 
 off the restless, ambitious knights, especially the Normans, 
 whose energy and valor threatened the throne. 
 
 The Norman Conquest of England. — At the battle 
 of Hastings (1066), William, Duke of Normandy, won the 
 crown of England. Philip saw with dismay his vassal be- 
 come his equal in rank and his superior in power. This 
 complication of English rule and French allegiance was 
 henceforth a fruitful source of strife. During Philip's reign 
 war existed between himself and William the Conqueror for 
 twelve years, and William at last died while besieging the 
 city of Nantes. 
 
 PERIOD OF THE CRUSADES. 
 
 1095 to 1270=175 Years. 
 
 The First Crusades. — A pilgrimage to the Holy Land 
 had long been deemed the most acceptable of penances. 
 
 * For an account of this expedition, which does not directly concern French his- 
 tory, read Knight's The Normans in Sicily. 
 
44 
 
 FEUDAL FRANCE 
 
 [109: 
 
 " One touch of the sepulchre and one night on Calvary com- 
 pensated for all the errors of a life-time." The way was long, 
 the people hostile, and 
 few came back from this 
 terrible journey. Europe 
 was full of heart-rend- 
 ing accounts of the out- 
 rages endured by the 
 peaceful pilgrim at the 
 hands of the 
 t u r b a n e d 
 Moslem. 
 
 About the 
 close of the 
 eleventh cen- 
 tury, Peter 
 the Hermit,* 
 a pcor monk 
 
 W^~~\ of Amiens, came to France, calling -upon the 
 people to rescue the birthplace of our Saviour 
 from the Infidel. His words were caught up as 
 those of a messenger from heaven. f An army 
 mustered on the plains of Bithynia, 700,000 
 strong, under the command of Godfrey of Boui- 
 llon (boo-yojsr), Duke of Lorraine. Nice and 
 Antioch were captured. But, when, the Cru- 
 f Godfrey de saclers reached Jerusalem, only 60,000 were left 
 
 BOUILLON. ^ be gladdenGd by a gight of the Ho]y p lace> 
 
 * The missionary who preached the first crusade, the pope who sanctioned and 
 enjoined it, the principal leaders of the expedition, and two-thirds of the crusading 
 army, were French. A Frenchman founded the Christian kingdom of Jerusalem ; 
 Frenchmen were placed at the head of almost all the principalities established by the 
 crusaders in the East ; and, during the entire Christian occupation of Palestine, the 
 French language, manners, and political system prevailed. 
 
 t Those who engaged to go received a cross of red cloth, which they fastened to 
 
 THE TOME OF CGDFREY DE BOUILLON. 
 
 THE SWORD 
 
101)9." 
 
 LOUIS VI. 
 
 45 
 
 The city was stormed, and the banner of the cross floated 
 from the ramparts in triumph. " On that day," says Bobert 
 the Monk, "the victors rode in blood, to their horses' knees/"' 
 The Christian kingdom of Jerusalem was founded, and God- 
 frey appointed to its command. He refused to wear a diadem 
 of gold and purple where his Redeemer had w T orn a crown 
 of thorns, and hence was known only as Baron of the Holy 
 Sepulchre. 
 
 LOUIS VI. (THE FAT). 
 
 1103 to 1137=29 Years. 
 
 Louis VI. was the real founder of the French monarchy. 
 The four preceding Capets had been led by events ; Louis 
 controlled them. Many of 
 the great lords had become 
 robbers. From their strong 
 castles they sallied out, plun- 
 dering or murdering trav- 
 elers, or holding them 
 prisoners till they bouj 
 
 as 
 :ht 
 
 their freedom with a ruinous 
 ransom. Even the church, 
 and the monastery were not 
 safe from their reckless spolia- 
 tion. Louis appealed to the 
 bishops for help.* They 
 armed their serfs and ten- 
 ants, and the haughty barons 
 were checked, the great roads rendered safe, and the country 
 
 their right shoulders. Hence they were known as Croises, and the enterprise as a 
 Crusade. 
 
 * So low had the power of (he French kings sunk that Philip had, during his 
 whole life, tried in vain to get possession of the castle of Montlheri (Mon-la-ree)', the 
 stronghold of a brigand noble, only eight miles from Paris. 
 
 CASTLE OF MONTLHERI. 
 
46 FEUDAL FEAI^CE. [1137. 
 
 guarded from pillage. Just before his death, his son Louis, 
 already crowned, married Eleanor, the heiress of Aquitainc, 
 thus adding this rich possession to the royal domain. 
 
 Communes. — The union of the king, clergy, and peasants constitute 
 the marked feature of this reign. To obtain means by which to carry 
 out his measures, Louis granted to certain cities charters conferring 
 special privileges. The citizens organized themselves into communes, 
 or associations for mutual defence, elected magistrates, and organized 
 militia. In turn, they supplied the royal purse and furnished the king 
 with troops. Humbled and trodden under-foot by their feudal masters, 
 the people already began to show some signs of that power which they 
 were yet to assert. 
 
 Louis VII. the Young (1137 to 1180=43 years), gentle, 
 simple-minded, and devout, lacked the energy to carry on 
 his father's work. 
 
 The Second Crusade.* — News had arrived that Edessa, 
 the outpost of Christendom, had fallen to the Turks, and 
 that fears were felt for the little kingdom of Jerusalem. 
 France sprang to her feet. The king was the first to enlist in 
 a new crusade. So great was the crowd clamoring for the 
 red cross that the monks were compelled to tear up their 
 own garments to supply the demand. Louis received the 
 oriflamme \ with great pomp before the altar of St. Denis, 
 and with 100,000 men set off for the Holy Land. The whole 
 expedition was one series of disasters. At the end of two 
 years Louis returned with a few hundred knights, the scanty 
 wreck of his brilliant army. 
 
 * In a war with the Count of Champagne, the fortified town of Vitryhad been 
 taken by assault and set on fire by the king's troops. Thirteen hundred helpless 
 inhabitants, who had sought refuge in the parish church, perished in the flames. 
 The remorse which he suffered on account of- this disaster decided Louis on a pil- 
 grimage to the Holy Land. "The king did it as a penance for his crime ; penance 
 was throughout the leading thought ; the Crusade was a crusade of criminals." 
 
 t It was the custom for all Catholic churches of ndte to possess a banner. That 
 of St. Denis was said to have been sent from heaven in the time of Clovis. It was 
 made of red silk, covered with golden flames, and its staff was a golden spear. From 
 its glowing color it was called the oriflamme. Louis VI. adopted it as the royal 
 banner. 
 
1152.] LOUIS VII. 47 
 
 Divorce from Eleanor. — The king's popularity was 
 gone. His high-spirited queen taunted him with being 
 more of a monk than a monarch. She could not forgive his 
 pusillanimity, nor he forget certain follies of which she had 
 been guilty, and so they separated. She took hack her mag- 
 nificent dower, and the crown of France was shorn of half its 
 territory. Within six weeks she married Henry Plantagenet, 
 Duke of Normandy and Count of Anjou, who soon after be- 
 came Henry II. of England. 
 
 Difficulties with England. — Louis was no match for 
 the shrewd English monarch. Pleasing the weak vanity of 
 the French king by rendering him feudal homage for his 
 new possessions, Henry steadily pursued his schemes. He 
 thus managed to obtain the county of Nantes, and to become 
 feudal lord of Brittany.* In the conflict between Henry and 
 Thomas a Becket, Louis took the part of the latter, and a 
 petty war arose between France and England. The two 
 monarchs were finally reconciled. 
 
 PHILIP II. (AUGUSTUS). 
 
 1180-1223=43 Years. 
 
 Philip Augustus f never swerved from the work of 
 building up the French monarchy, so well begun by his 
 royal grandfather. Philip's sole purpose was to humble the 
 great lords and bring them under the power of the crown. 
 He pursued this end for nearly half a century J with crafty 
 
 * Afterward ho successively betrothed two of his sons by Eleanor to two of Louis's 
 daughters by a second wife. The little brides, about three yeais old, were sent to 
 England to be educated. 
 
 t At his ascension the power of the French crown was still so feeble that a large 
 part of what is at present known as France was feudally held by neighboring mon- 
 archs. The provinces on the west principally obeyed the king of ^England, those on 
 the east the emperor of Germany, while Provence and a part cf Languedoc were fiefs 
 of the king of Arragon. 
 
 X There is a story that one day his courtiers found him gnawing a green bough and 
 glaring wildly around. When asked what he was thinking about, he answered : ' k I 
 
48 
 
 FEUDAL FRANCE. 
 
 [1180. 
 
 cunning. He aroused baron against baron. He chastised the 
 great feudatories. He encouraged the growth of the communes. 
 
 He stirred up sedition 
 in Normandy. He ex- 
 cited the sons of Henry 
 II. of England to rebel- 
 lion,supporting Richard 
 (afterward the famous 
 Cceur de Lion, or Lion- 
 Hearted,) in open revolt. 
 Humbled by domestic 
 trouble and civil strife, 
 Henry was forced at 
 last to accept the con- 
 ditions of a humiliating 
 peace. 
 The Third Crusade (1190) for a lime interrupted this 
 scheme of aggrandizement. The Latin kingdom of Jerusa- 
 lem had fallen before the conquering arms of Sal'-adin. Philip 
 and Richard (now king of England) assumed the cross, as- 
 sembled their forces, and joined the Crusaders under the 
 walls of Acre (a-ker). Philip, however, w T as jealous of Rich- 
 ard's wonderful feats at arms, while Richard resented the 
 superiority claimed by Philip as his feudal lord. The French 
 king finally returned home, having first taken an oath to 
 defend his rival's lands as his own. 
 
 Philip Pursues his Scheme. — No sooner, however, was 
 Philip safe home than, allying himself with John, Richard's 
 brother, who was plotting for the English throne, he invaded 
 Normandy.* The lion-Hearted, coming back from the East, 
 
 am wondering whether God will grant me or my heirs grace to raise France to the 
 height she reached in the days of Charlemagne. ■' 
 
 * Before he attacked the states of his brother-in-arms, he compounded with Heaven 
 for the violation of his oath by throwing eighty Jews into the lire. When he first 
 
1194] PHILIP AUGUSTUS. 49 
 
 defeated him at Vendome (1194), and regained all he had 
 lost. Kichard's death (1199) relieved Philip of this dreaded 
 foe. Shaking off John, who had become king of England, 
 he now supported the cause of Arthur of Brittany, John's 
 nephew and rival. War ensued. Arthur fell into the 
 hands of his uncle, who, it was believed, stabbed him with 
 his own hands, and threw his body into the Seine. This 
 unnatural crime aroused universal indignation. Philip sum- 
 moned John, as his vassal, to clear himself before the French 
 peers.* Failing to comply, he was adjudged to have forfeited 
 his fiefs. Philip soon conquered nearly all the English pos- 
 sessions in France. Aquitaine and the channel islands alone 
 remained to England. 
 
 Battle of Bouvines (1214). — Meanwhile, John having 
 been excommunicated for his treatment of the clergy, Philip 
 was summoned by Pope Innocent III. to invade England. 
 He accordingly raised an immense army. John, alarmed, 
 hastened to make peace with the Roman Pontiff. There- 
 upon Philip turned his arms against Flanders, the plunder 
 of whose rich fields was to compensate him for his disappoint- 
 ment. John and his nephew Otto, emperor of Germany, 
 allied with the count of Flanders for its defence. But at 
 Bouvines Philip achieved a brilliant victory. The militia 
 from sixteen communes for.^ht at his side, and rivalled the 
 knights in their exploits. 
 
 ascended the throne, a boy of fifteen, he plundered the Jews— whom his milder father 
 had protected— and drove them out of his kingdom, canceling the debts of his Chris- 
 tian subjects by making it death for a Hebrew to receive any money, but requiring 
 the debtor to give the king one-fifth of the obligation. 
 
 * All vassals under the same lord were styled peers, to signify their equality among 
 themselves. Those who held directly from the crown were called Peers of France. 
 The number was not limited under the feudal system, but in time was confined to 
 six laymen and six ecclesiastics. The six lay peers were the dukes of Burgundy, 
 Normandy, and Aquitaine ; the counts of Flanders, Champagne, and Toulouse. The 
 six clerical peers were f he archbishop of Rheims, and the bishops of Laon, Langres, 
 Chalons, Noyon, and Beauvais. 
 
 3 
 
50 
 
 FEUDAL FRANCE. 
 
 [1214. 
 
 The Effect. — John purchased a truce by the payment of 
 sixty thousand marks. The counts of Flanders and Boulogne 
 forfeited their fiefs. It was the triumph of royalty over feud- 
 alism, and the first great French victory. Intoxicated by 
 success, the nation began to acquire a thirst for military 
 glory. 
 
 Success of Philip's Plans. — In the fruits of Philip's 
 politic reign, one almost forgets the unscrupulousness of 
 
 PARIS IN THE TIME OF PHILIP AUGUSTUS. 
 
 many of his acts. He established the first permanent taxes. 
 He gave regular pay to soldiers. He foresaw the importance 
 of the cities and encouraged their growth. He added to the 
 power of law and the influence of the courts. He gathered 
 learned men about the throne. He beautified Paris, paving 
 the streets, and erecting markets, churches, hospitals, and 
 other public edifices. He built Notre Dame. He founded 
 the University of Paris. He gained Normandy, Maine, An- 
 jou, Touraine, and Poitou, and thus doubled the extent of 
 his dominions. 
 
1208.] PHILIP AUGUSTUS. 51 
 
 The Southern Provinces were very unlike the northern. 
 They had another language * and other customs. Eemoved 
 from Teutonic influence, their cities still retained the con- 
 sular form of government handed down from Gallo-Koman 
 times, while they were centres of wealth, luxury, and refine- 
 ment. 
 
 Crusade against the Albigenses.f — Among the inde- 
 pendent southerners, there had long been great liberty in 
 religious views and discussions. Sects had arisen which cast 
 aside certain doctrines of the Church of Eome. Pope Inno- 
 cent now determined to suppress what was fast becoming an 
 organized opposition to his authority. The heretic trouba- 
 dour (see p. 54) Eaymond, count of Toulouse, was excommu- 
 nicated. One of his vassals, indignant at the disgrace of his 
 suzerain, assassinated the pope's legate (1208). Crusade after 
 crusade was then preached against this unhappy people. The 
 northern knights, gross and barbarous beside the southern* 
 took the occasion to avenge a hated superiority and to pillage 
 the cities of which they had heard so many marvels. The 
 war opened by the siege of Beziers. The city was stormed 
 and 15,000 people massacred. Thirty -five years of the 
 sword, stake, and scaffold accomplished their work. The 
 cities were laid in ruins. Commerce was destroyed. The 
 sweet Provencal language ceased to be heard. Democratic 
 institutions perished, and feudalism was established. 
 
 Louis VIII. 's (1223 to 1226 = 3 years) brief reign was only 
 a continuation of his father's. He is known in history as the 
 son of an excellent father, the father of an excellent son, and 
 
 * The inhabitants of Languedoc spoke a dialect called the Provencal, or langue 
 <Toc, which differed from that used in Northern France, known as the langue cToui, 
 or langue d'oil. The distinction arose from the word employed for yes. In the south 
 it was oc, from the Latin hoc ; in the north oc was compounded with il, and shortened 
 into oil (oui).— See Craik's Literature and Language, p. 123. 
 
 t This sect was so called because its adherents were numerous around Albi, a city 
 of Toulouse. 
 
52 feudal feance. [1223-6. 
 
 the husband of an excellent wife — Blanche of Castile. He 
 led a new crusade against the Albigenses, and captured Avig- 
 non, but died of disease contracted during the siege. 
 
 Condition of Society. — During the first century of the Capetian 
 kings we have noticed the miseries marking the close of the millenary 
 from Christ's birth and crucifixion. The Truce of God greatly mitigated 
 these, but did not prevent extreme distress and confusion. Of the 
 seventy-three years which cover the reigns of Hugh Capet and his suc- 
 cessors, forty-eight were years of famine. — Great enthusiasm arose in 
 
 SERFS OF THE TWELFTH CENTURY. 
 (From MSS. of the time.) 
 
 founding religious edifices. In a few years three hundred and twenty- 
 six monasteries were added to the eleven hundred already existing. — 
 Education was mostly confined to the monks. A taste for learning 
 sprang up during the reign of Louis VI.,* the road to church prefer- 
 ment having been opened to all irrespective of rank or wealth. It was 
 the sole dignity accessible to the common people, and the effect of an 
 avenue for ambition was speedily seen. — As one means of raising 
 money for the Crusades, many of the nobles had allowed their serfs 
 to purchase their freedom. On their return they were highly incensed 
 at the wealth and numbers of the freemen. — Crests and coats-of-arms 
 had already been introduced among the nobles. Family surnames were 
 now assumed, as a further distinction between the nobility and middle 
 classes, but the fashion was soon followed by the latter, and became 
 general. 
 
 * A geography written in the early part of the eleventh century, describes Sweden 
 and Norway as "two vast realms unknown to the civilized world," and Eussia as "a 
 country where the people have hut one eye and one leg." 
 
FEUDAL FRANCE. 53 
 
 Tlie Commune was to the middle classes what chivalry was to the 
 nobles ; more, indeed ; for, while the latter was a field for glory, the 
 former was a struggle toward liberty. Swearing to devote their labor, 
 goods, and blood to the defence of their common rights, the people 
 formed a brotherhood, seized the ramparts of their towns, elected 
 municipal officers, and compelled the nobles to give them a written 
 charter as a protection against future despotism. Bloody opposition 
 often accompanied the establishments of the communes ; as in that of 
 Cambrai, " four times created, four times destroyed." Sometimes, 
 however, they purchased their freedom ; sometimes the lords volun- 
 tarily granted it. — In the orders of Louis VI. the title of bourgeois 
 (boor-zhwa) first appears. • 
 
 The Knights.— To misty Germanic traditions of honor and valor 
 were added the religious fervor of the Crusades, the spirit of exclu- 
 siveness among the nobles, and a growing refinement and tenderness 
 toward woman. All these combined and aided in the growth of 
 Chivalry, a system which budded, and blossomed, and tinctured cen- 
 turies with a roseate hue. The most fascinating hero of romance is a 
 knight of the Middle Ages. Always of noble blood, brave, courteous, 
 munificent," true to his word and the Church, above all devoted to 
 womankind ; now battering at the walls of Jerusalem, now tilting in 
 the gorgeous tournament, amid the sound of martial music, the jingle 
 of armor, and the rustle of fair dames, the model of honor and of 
 prowess, this is the ideal chevalier. Every step of his life is tinged 
 with romance. A lad of seven, he enters as page the castle of some 
 noble distinguished for deeds of arms. There he attends my lady in 
 her boudoir, lets fly and recalls her falcon in the chase, and carries her 
 messages of love. In return he is instructed in chess, music, the 
 refinements of manners, and the principles of religion. During the 
 long winter evenings the spacious hall, hung with knightly armor and 
 full of chivalric souvenirs, rings with heroic recitals of love or of war, 
 or the strains of the wandering troubadour. He glows with emulous 
 ardor as he listens, and vows to become the bravest of the brave. At 
 fourteen he is made squire, and assigned to some office about the cas- 
 tle — any duty being an honor in the knightly apprenticeship. His 
 physical, moral, and military education becomes more rigid. Seated 
 
 * The knight's idea of courtesy and liberality was limited to hi? equals in station. 
 Joinville tells a story of a certain count of Champagne, when importuned for money 
 by a knight who lacked dowry for his daughters. A rich burgess, standing near, 
 thinking to win the count's favor by his wit and service, said to the petitioner: " My 
 lord has given away so much he has nothing left." "Sir villain, " answered the. 
 haughty count, "I have yourself. Here, Sir Knight. T <_ r ive you this man and warrant, 
 your possession."' The happy knighl seized the unlucky burgess and compelled him 
 to give a ransom of five hundred pounds for his release. The incident is put on 
 record as a proof of this count's generosity! 
 
54 FEUDAL FKANCE. 
 
 on his horse, he learns to manage arms, to scale walls, to leap ditches. 
 He leads the war-steed of his lord to the tournament or the battle, and 
 when the hour comes, panting after the glorj for which he cannot yet 
 compete, he " rivets with a sigh the armor he is forbidden to wear." 
 At twenty-one his probation is ended. Fasting, ablution, confession, 
 communion, and a night in prayer at the altar, precede the final cere- 
 mony. He takes the vow to defend the faith, protect the weak, and 
 honor womankind ; his belt is slung around him ; his golden spurs are 
 buckled on. He kneels ; receives the accolade,* and rises a chevalier. 
 His horse is led to the church door, and, amid the shouts of the crowd 
 and the peal of trumpets, he rides away into the wide world, which 
 holds her honors at his winning. Not all knights were like Godfrey 
 or Bayard (p. 113). The very virtues of chivalry often degenerated 
 into vices ; but any approach to courtesy and gentleness in this brutal 
 and ferocious age was a wonderful advance, and the weakest chevalier 
 was a happy exchange for the robber baron. 
 
 The Troubadours, the pioneers of rhyme in France, flourished during 
 the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Wandering poets, singing of love 
 and beauty, exalting the graces or sighing over the cruel coldness of 
 fair ladies, their delightful flatteries opened every castle gate and won 
 the warmest welcome. Their verse had neither imagination nor vivid 
 description. The gallant deeds of chivalry were too soul-stirring for 
 their ribboned guitars ; they sang only of the heart, and charmed by 
 the very sensuousness of sound. Their lyrics lose their grace by trans- 
 lation. — The Trouveres, the poets of the north, took up the pen after 
 the troubadours had ceased to sing. Their style was elaborate and 
 prolix. The allegory was their delight. A celebrated poem of this 
 species, called " The Romance of the Rose," begun about 1250 by one 
 poet and completed nearly half a century later, contained 22,000 
 verses. The Trouveres also indulged in comic tales or fables, in 
 romances of chivalry and fictitious history. 
 
 Tournaments. — These were true knightly pastimes, sharing the 
 meed of honor with the battle-field. The sharp end of the lance used 
 in tilting was usually sheathed in a circular piece of wood, to prevent 
 danger, but a knight might challenge his opponent by touching his 
 shield with the bare point, when the encounter took place as in actual 
 battle. The lists were formed by railing in an oval space, from the 
 extreme ends of which, at the sound of the trumpet and the voice of 
 the herald, the combatants dashed at full speed to meet in the centre. 
 From the raised galleries which overlooked the lists thousands of eyes 
 looked on, and bursts of applause rang out after each brilliant feat of 
 
 * This is a blow on the neck of the candidate with the flat of a sword, given by 
 the conferring prince, who, at the same time, pronounces the words: "I dub thee 
 knight, in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost.' 1 
 
FEUDAL ERANCE. 55 
 
 arms or horsemanship. The ladies, arrayed in magnificent costume, 
 were among the most eager of spectators. They cheered their favorite 
 knights by decking them with ribbons and scarfs from their own dress. 
 " During a long and anxious combat the poor ladies would appear at 
 last stripped of their finery, which was seen tied to the armor of the 
 combatants." The fluttering of brilliant hues among the gay specta- 
 tors, the fresh, soft green of the turf, the sheen of knightly armor, the 
 rich caparison of noble steeds, the blaza of trumpets and the shouts of 
 heralds, all lent to the gorgeousness of a scene whose excitement was 
 yet greater than its splendor. And when the conquering knight bent 
 to receive the prize from the hand of some fair lady, the whole air 
 trembled with the shouts of " honor to the brave," and " glory to the 
 victor." 
 
 Courts of Love. — While the knights had tournaments and trials 
 of skill at arms, the ladies presided over courts of love, whither poets 
 were summoned to measure their genius and wit. They were most 
 pompously conducted, with judges and prizes. In these courts were 
 also settled disputes concerning precedence, nice points of etiquette, 
 and the deserts of false lovers. In them seem to have culminated all 
 extravagance of sentimental folly. 
 
 Manners and Customs, — Had we visited Paris in the early part of 
 the twelfth century, we should have found narrow, filthy streets, reek- 
 ing with offensive odors and filled with rubbish, in and out of which 
 droves of swine were rioting .* Had it chanced to be one October day, 
 1181, when the oldest son of Louis VI. — already crowned as the next 
 king — was riding through the capital, we might have witnessed the 
 fatal stumble of his horse over one of these unsightly animals, and the 
 death-fall of the young prince. After that, we should have heard pro- 
 claimed the royal order that none but " the swine belonging to the 
 abbey of St. Anthony," and these with "bells about their necks to 
 warn of their approach," might roam the city highways. — On a holiday 
 we should have seen the country-folk wild with merriment. Here is 
 a circle. Two men, blindfolded, each with a birch bough in one hand, 
 and in the other a rope attached to a stake. A fat goose or a pig is 
 introduced. Now begins the sport. Here, there, everywhere within 
 their little round, they strike, seldom hitting the game they seek, but 
 often each other, amid the shouts of the uproarious crowd. This was a 
 favorite pastime even for kings to witness. There, two men are wrest- 
 
 * Standing by his palace window one day, watching the flow of the river Seine, 
 Philip Augustus was almost overpowered by the stench from the filthy streets. 
 According to the Chronicle of St. Denis, " he turned away in great abomination of 
 heart, which gave him courage to conceive a magnificent idea." His next orders 
 were that Paris should be paved with stone— a design which was, however, only 
 imperfectly carried out. 
 
56 
 
 FEUDAL FRANCE 
 
 ling- ; and yonder, for humanity ebbed low in the Middle Ages, a poor 
 old horse is tied to a post to be worried and tortured by dogs. Com- 
 panies of acrobats and jugglers, with dancing-bears and trained monkeys, 
 complete the rustic revelry. 
 
 If we enter the castle of some knightly baron in this twelfth century, 
 we shall see a primitive simplicity in all its pertainings. Against the 
 walls — many of bare stone, some whitened with mortar — hang arms 
 and armor arranged in suits, banners and emblazoned standards, all 
 the cherished symbols of chivalry. The great hall of state is draped 
 with tapestry, whereon grotesque figures of men, towers, trees, and 
 animals appear — a commemoration of some heroic 
 deed in history or romance. The stone or tiled 
 floor, if it be winter, is strewn with straw; * if 
 summer, with sweet-scented herbs, which fill the 
 air with fragrance. At the head of the massive 
 oak table in the dining-hall sits the lord of the 
 castle in a large arm-chair, overhung with silken 
 canopy. His guests, according to their rank, are 
 placed on either side of him, and below- the large 
 salt-cellar sit the servants. After the repast, the 
 ladies assume fresh toilettes. A fine linen cap ; a 
 tight, short-waisted gown, with a round golden 
 buckle at the collar, and two silken bands forming 
 a sort of necklace, with perhaps a long, loose cloak 
 to complete the costume. Long bands are the 
 fashion ; they depend from my lady's belt in 
 front and from the wrists of her sleeves, while 
 the lappets of her cap hang over her shoulders. 
 Male and female attire differ slightly from each 
 other, save that the lord's robe is shorter, and 
 his belt has no hangings. His velvet cap is 
 pointed at the top, with a long streamer attached, and has a peak 
 turned up in front. For peaks also are in vogue. Those on my lord's 
 shoes are two feet long, and shaped like a scorpion's tail. The knights, 
 in full armor, lead the dance, which follows the meal. A minstrel ac- 
 companies the harp with his song, and the young ladies join in the refrain. 
 At the top of the high towers are the sleeping-rooms. Small, unfur- 
 nished, save with a large bed, a chest for clothing, which serves also 
 for a seat, and one chair used for devotions, containing prayer and 
 other sacred books. A loop-hole in the walls serves for a window, and 
 is closed by a square of oiled paper or thin horn. 
 
 MALE COSTUME. 
 (Eleventh and Twelfth Cen- 
 turies). 
 
 * There is a curious letter extant from Philip Augustus desiring that the straw 
 with which the floors of his palace were strewed might be given each day, u for the 
 good of his soul," to the Maison de Dieu— a hospital for the poor. 
 
1226.] ST. LOUIS. 57 
 
 We find the bourgeois now rising above the level of the serfs, with 
 whom the nobility have so long included them. With growing wealth 
 they ape the manners and the luxuries of the aristocracy, who as stub- 
 bornly resist any encroachments on their own peculiar dignities. The 
 law forbids their use of ornaments and stuffs exclusively reserved for 
 the nobility, but the favor of Philip Augustus emboldened them to the 
 very verge of forbidden indulgences, and private life in the home of 
 the bourgeois is already an imitation of that in the chateaux. 
 
 LOUIS IX. 
 
 1226 to 1270 = 44 Years. 
 
 Louis IX., known as St. Louis, a child of twelve years, 
 was crowned soon, after the death of his father. The haughty 
 barons could ill brook the regency of his Spanish mother, and 
 seized the opportunity for revolt, hoping to recover their lost 
 importance. But all opposition was vain. With the aid of 
 the militia she subdued the nobles, and, by her wonderful 
 prudence, reconciled them to the crown. Count Eaymond 
 yielded, and a treaty was made (1229) whereby Languedoc 
 was ultimately annexed to France. Blanche trained her son 
 in such habits of purity, honesty, and worth, that, says Vol- 
 taire, "It is not given to man to carry virtue to a higher 
 point."* Even after Louis reigned alone, she exacted from 
 him the same submission as before, extending not alone to 
 the concerns of state, but also to the details of his private 
 life.f 
 
 * He wore the roughest sackcloth next his body. Ou every Friday, and thrice a 
 week during Lent, he bared his shoulders to his confessor to be beaten with a 
 scourge. He tasted fruit but once a year; he constantly washed the feet of beggars, 
 invited the poor and sick to his table, and performed the most menial offices at public 
 hospitals. A leper on the farther side of a swamp once begged of him ; the king 
 crossed over, not only gave him alms, but kissed his hand ! He "loved all mankind 
 with a boundless love, except Jews, heretics, and infidels, whom he hated with as 
 boundless hatred." 
 
 t When Louis was nineteen years old he married. Although the bride was her 
 own choice, the queen-mother could not submit to have her influence lessened, and 
 watched the young pair with such jealousy that they were obliged to meet by stealth, 
 having signals to guard against her coming. 
 
58 
 
 FEUDAL PRANCE. 
 
 [1243. 
 
 Seventh Crusade (1248-54). — In a time of dangerous 
 illness Louis assumed the red cross. From that moment, it 
 is said, he began to mend. On his recovery he prepared for 
 
 the fulfilment of his vow. 
 Not the remonstrances of 
 Blanche, who " shuddered 
 as if he lay dead before 
 her," when she saw the 
 sign of the cross, not the 
 tears of his wife, nor the 
 
 ST. LOUIS LANDING IN EGYPT. 
 
 counsels of the prelates, could shake his determination.* He 
 received the oriflamme at St. Denis, and confiding the gov- 
 
 * It was the custom to give each courtier a new robe at Christmas. On the eve 
 of that day (1245) the king bade all his court be present at early morning mass. At 
 the chapel door each man received his new cloak, put it on, and went in. At first all 
 was dark; but as the day rose, each saw the cross on his neighbor's shoulder. "Then 
 they jested and laughed, seeing that their lord king had taken them piously, preach- 
 ing by deeds, not by words." Soon remembering, however, that they could not 
 decently throw down the sacred sign, their laughter became mixed with tears, for 
 they were not eager to undertake the holy war.— Matthew Paris, p. 604. 
 
1248.] LOUIS IX. 59 
 
 eminent to his mother, departed for the East. His expedition 
 was directed first to Egypt, where the Saracens had achieved 
 new successes. Arriving upon the coast, he leaped into the 
 sea, sword in hand, and at the head of his knights repulsed 
 the enemy. Louis, however, was no general. Delays oc- 
 curred ; he was beaten in battle ; a pestilence broke out in 
 camp; and he was finally forced to surrender. But even in 
 irons the captive monarch maintained the majesty of a king 
 and the resignation of a Christian. He was afterward ran- 
 somed, and spent several years in visiting and fortifying Tyre, 
 Sidon and other places held by the Christians. Hearing of 
 the death of his mother, he returned to France. 
 
 Government. — Louis immediately set himself about grave 
 matters of state. All men intuitively relied upon him ; the 
 baron on his justice, the church on his piety, and the people 
 on his kindness. Troubled in conscience as to the legality 
 of the acquisitions made from England by his grandfather, 
 he restored several districts to Henry III. He never wearied 
 in making peace among the quarreling barons. He com- 
 piled the first code of justice instituted by the house of 
 Capet. He summoned to court counsellors well versed in 
 Roman law, and made all men equal before its bar.* He 
 suppressed private wars, and forbade trial by wager of battle. 
 He raised the standard of coin, and made it current in all the 
 states. He protected the lower orders, and sitting, as was 
 his custom of the afternoon, under a shady oak, still shown 
 at Vincennes, he admitted the people to his presence without 
 
 * The lord of Coucy, proudest among the feudal landowners, caught three students 
 rabbiting in his warren, and hung them up at once. Their friends brought the mat- 
 ter before the king. St. Louis summoned his vassal, and when he refused, compelled 
 him to appear. The angry knight would not submit to the judgment of the king's 
 court, and offered wager of battle. St. Louis compelled the judges, though they all 
 sympathized with their friend, the lord, to condemn him to death. This sentence 
 was afterward commuted to a heavy fine and loss of privileges. 
 
60 
 
 FEUDAL FRANCE. 
 
 [1270. 
 
 GOLD FLORIN, LOUIS 
 
 form or ceremony, heard the story of their simple wants, and 
 redressed their grievances. What the ambition and cunning 
 
 of Philip Augustus had 
 commenced, the gentle 
 piety of his grandson 
 accomplished. Eoyalty 
 in Franca was estab- 
 lished when the cross 
 and the crown were 
 borne by a saint. 
 The Last Crusade (1270). — Louis's desires still wandered 
 back to the Holy Land. In vain his nobles, his people, and 
 even the Pope, protested against a new crusade. As he was 
 before attracted to Egypt, so now he turned his army toward 
 Tunis, to punish the insolence of the Moors. Landing near 
 the ruins of Carthage, its crumbling walls were taken by 
 assault. The enemy swarmed on every side. It was mid- 
 summer. Water was scarce, and fever began to rage. ■ First 
 his son and then Louis himself was stricken. Finding his 
 last moments approaching, the good king commanded that 
 he should be laid on a bed of ashes. Here he crossed his 
 arms on his breast, murmured the name "Jerusalem," and 
 died. That very day his brother, Charles of Anjou, arrived 
 with reinforcements. Alarmed at the silence which pervaded 
 the camp, he hastened to the royal tent, where the first object 
 that met his eye was the dead body of the king. 
 
 Philip III. (1270 to 1285 = 15 years), eldest son of Louis, 
 returned to France, bearing in his train five coffins, those of 
 his father, brother, brother-in-law, wife, and son. During his 
 reign, by inheritance and marriage, Toulouse, Champagne, 
 Alencon, Valois, and Navarre were added to the crown. 
 Philip espoused the cause of his uncle, Charles of Anjou,* 
 
 * In 1265 Charles of Anjou, under the protection of the Pope, had conquered Sicily 
 
1285.] PHILIP THE FAIR. 61 
 
 against Don Pedro of Arragon, and marched into Spain. He 
 met with terrible reverses, was borne back in a litter, accom- 
 panied by the miserable remnant of his army, and soon after 
 died. 
 
 PHILIP IV. 
 
 1235 to 1314 = 29 Years. 
 
 Philip the Fair, son of Philip III., was only seventeen 
 years of age at his accession. A boy, like Philip Augustus, 
 he had similar lofty ideas of the royal prerogative. Hand- 
 some in figure, fascinating in manners, unscrupulous in char- 
 acter, cold, proud, haughty, and taciturn in disposition, he 
 was an apt pupil in every lesson of diplomacy. Unscrupulous 
 attorneys were the tools he used to execute his will. Lawyers 
 henceforth held the highest place in Parliament.* Where he 
 could not force, he swindled. He levied enormous taxes. He 
 passed sumptuary laws (see p. 70). He debased the coinage 
 of the country to one-fifth of its legal value, and then refused 
 to receive it himself. He banished the Jews, sweeping their 
 riches into his coffers. He seized the merchants, and, by 
 torture, forced them to buy their liberty. 
 
 and Naples, and taken possession of the crown. His cruelty and want of faith had 
 excited the hatred of a naturally vindictive people. A number of Sicilian exiles, 
 with John of Procida (-che-), who had been dispossessed of his estates by Charles, 
 fled to Arragon. Don Pedro, between whose house and that of France there was a 
 bitter feud, was only too glad to aid them in their scheme. In the disguise of a monk 
 John made his way back to Sicily, and prepared his countrymen for a terrible revenge. 
 On March 30, 1282, at the first sound of the vesper-bell, the infuriated natives of 
 Palermo rose en masse, and falling, sword in hand, upon their unsuspecting oppress- 
 ors in every part of the city, slaughtered them without mercy. As the news spread 
 the same tragedy was repeated in every part of the island ; and, when the first of 
 April dawned, there was scarcely a Frenchman alive in Sicily. This massacre is 
 known in history as the Sicilian Vespers. Don Pedro of Arragon then landed, and 
 was proclaimed king in place of Charles of Anjon. 
 
 * This body, under the Capets, was a supreme council of the immediate feudal 
 vassals of the crown, high prelates, and officers of the royal household. Under 
 St. Louis it was made a court of justice. It had no power to pass laws, like the 
 English Parliament, but only to register and execute them. Philip the Fair fixed it 
 at Paris (1302), gathered in it all the courts, and made it the machine of the govern- 
 ment. This century has been called the Age of the Lawyers. 
 
62 FEUDAL FRAKCE. [1293. 
 
 Difficulty with England. — Edward I., king of England, 
 was at war with the Scots. Taking advantage of this, Philip 
 summoned him before his court to answer charges growing 
 out of certain difficulties between some Norman and English 
 sailors. Edward sent his brother to arrange the matter. He 
 unsuspectingly allowed several towns of Guienne to be given 
 up to Philip pending the negotiations. No sooner was the 
 crafty French monarch in possession than he announced sail 
 Edward's fiefs forfeited. The English king, outraged by this 
 violation of good faith, immediately declared war, and formed 
 an alliance with Guy, Count of Flanders, whose daughter, 
 Philippa, was betrothed to the Prince of Wales.* Philip, in 
 return, sent an army into Flanders, whose rich lands he 
 coveted, and intrigued with the Scots against Edward. A re- 
 conciliation was at last effected between the two kings. Each 
 was to desert his allies — Philip, the Scots, and Edward, the 
 Flemings — while the Prince of Wales was betrothed to 
 Philip's daughter, Isabella, then only six years of age. 
 
 Battle of Courtrai (1302).— Thus left to Philip's mercy, 
 Flanders was quickly subdued and annexed to France. Mean- 
 while the Flemings, who had at first welcomed the French, f 
 were irritated beyond endurance by taxes, forced contribu- 
 tions, and the insolence of their new masters. They rose 
 in revolt. At dead of night the tocsin sounded through 
 all quarters of Bruges, and the panic-stricken Frenchmen 
 were massacred on every side. Philip once more ordered his 
 
 * Philip heard of this proposed marriage, and resolved that so rich a dowry should 
 not go over the sea to his enemy. Summoning Guy to Paris on "affairs pertaining 
 to the kingdom, 1 ' he threw him into the tower of the Louvre. He only gained his 
 release by giving Philippa as a hostage. Once in Paris, the prospective young bride 
 found herself a captive for life. 
 
 t A few months afterward Philip and his wife made a royal progress through the 
 new province. The queen saw with envy the rich dresses of the burghers' wives. 
 " 1 thought," said she, at an entertainment given at Bruges, where the toilettes were 
 especially magnificent, " I was the only queen present, but I should think then were 
 five hundred queens here." 
 
1302.] 
 
 PHILIP IV 
 
 63 
 
 army into Flanders. They met the Flemings under the walls 
 of Courtrai. On one side were 50,000 knights and disci- 
 plined soldiers; on the other 20,000 weavers and traders. 
 Disdaining to reconnoitre the ground, the horsemen charged 
 at full gallop, but they fell headlong into a ditch which lay 
 
 BATTLE OF COURTRAI. 
 
 in front of the Flemish line. The sturdy weavers plied their 
 staves upon the floundering mass. That day the flower of 
 the French chivalry lay crushed and bleeding in the ditch 
 and on the field.* Philip now raised a new army. The 
 Flemings were routed in the first engagement (Mons-en- 
 Puelle, 1303), but they shut up their shops, abandoned their 
 work, and in three weeks poured out, sixty thousand strong. 
 Philip, seeing such a host, cried out in dismay : " Does it rain 
 Flemings ? " When their herald came with the brief mes- 
 
 * Four thousand— some say even seven thousand — gilt spurs were picked up, and 
 hung in the cathedral at Courtrai. Hence this contest has come to be known as 
 " The Battle of the Spurs." 
 
64 
 
 FEUDAL FRANCE 
 
 [130? 
 
 sage, " Peace or war ? " he chose the former, and made an 
 honorable treaty. 
 
 Contest with the Pope. — Philip 
 and Pope Boniface had long been 
 enemies. They came at last to an 
 open quarrel. The pope summoned 
 the clergy to Rome, and Philip con- 
 vened the States-General.* On this 
 memorable occasion, which has been 
 well styled " the birthday of the na- 
 tion," there assembled not alone the 
 barons and the bishops, but also 
 representatives of the communes, 
 thus forming the Three Estates of 
 the Eealm. They supported the 
 king. The pope's bull was burned. 
 Boniface excommunicated Philip. 
 The king, through his parliament, 
 denounced Boniface as an infidel 
 and a heretic. The pope threatened 
 to depose the king. At this juncture a conspiracy in Philip's 
 favor was organized in Italy. An armed party forced the 
 gates of the pope's palace at Anagni, and with brutal indig- 
 nities made him a prisoner. Eescued by his friends, Boniface 
 hurried to Rome, but, overcome by age, want, and shame, 
 soon after died. Benedict XL, his successor, excommuni- 
 cated all who had been concerned in the attempt upon the 
 late pontiff. At supper, one night, a woman, closely veiled, 
 presented him with a basket of figs. He ate them and died 
 the next morning. Philip now secured the election of the 
 archbishop of Bordeaux, who was pledged to carry out his 
 plans. The new pope, Clement V., took up his residence e.t 
 
 * This was the name given to the great national council or congress. 
 
 SOLDIER OF THE TIME OF PHILIP IV. 
 
1309.] philip IV. 65 
 
 Avignon (1309), where he was largely under the influence of 
 the French monarch. 
 
 Suppression of the Templars.— During the crusades 
 the Templars bravely fought the 'battles of Christendom. 
 They seemed to combine the heroism of the knight with the 
 humility of the monk. Since then, however, they were believed 
 to have become corrupt, and they had thereby fallen into dis- 
 repute. Their haughty spirit offended the king ; their riches 
 excited his cupidity. He resolved 
 on their destruction. Without any 
 warning (October 13, 1307), the 
 Templars in all parts of France 
 were seized and imprisoned. Ac- 
 cused of frightful crimes, many in 
 the agonies of the rack confessed 
 what they afterward quickly re- 
 canted. Over fifty were burned at SEAL 0F THE templars.* 
 the stake in Paris at one time. 
 
 The last days of Philip now drew on apace. He had 
 accomplished his ends. He had humbled the Church through 
 its popes, and feudalism through the Templars. His govern- 
 ment daily grew more oppressive. Finally a league having 
 been formed to resist his tyranny, Philip promised redress of 
 grievances. Soon after he was fatally injured by a fall from 
 his horse while hunting in the forest of Fontainebleau. 
 
 Louis X., the Quarrelsome, Philip V., the Long, and 
 Charles IV., the Fair, sons of Philip the Fair, in succession 
 filled the throne. The eldest reigned only two years. In 
 order to fill his empty coffers, he made freedom an article 
 of merchandise, and sold it to the serfs. On the accession 
 of the second son there was an attempt to support the claims 
 
 * Representing two knights on one horse, indicative of the original poverty of the 
 order. 
 
66 FEUDAL FRANCE. [1314-1328. 
 
 of the daughter of the late king. The States-General decided 
 against her, the lawyers who had now gained so much power 
 declaring that, according to the Salic law,* no woman was 
 eligible to the crown. 
 
 Discontent prevailed. Troops of "pastorals," as they were 
 called, under the pretence of being pilgrims to the Holy Land, 
 traversed the country. From beggars they became robbers. 
 Armed with stones and staves, they murdered all the Jews 
 they met. At last these banditti were hunted down and 
 massacred like wild beasts. Popular indignation now turned 
 against the lepers. They were accused of poisoning the wells. 
 No mercy was shown, and they were slain by the pitiless 
 sword or perished in the flames. The Jews were accused of 
 being their accomplices, and suffered likewise, f Charles IV. 
 took the Jews and lepers under his protection. This act of 
 charity is almost all we know of his reign. At his death he 
 left no male heir to succeed. 
 
 Charles of Valois,J brother of Philip the Fair, had been 
 prime minister during these last reigns, and had enjoyed 
 almost royal power. His son, Philip, was chosen king, and 
 thus the crown passed to the house of Valois.§ 
 
 * The law of the Salian Franks declared that " no part of Salic land could fall to a 
 woman,*" as only men could render the service required of a feudal lord. It is a 
 curious fact that, while France is the only country in Europe which forbids a woman 
 to reign, there is no other in which women have so controlled political affairs. 
 Strangely, too, Philip V., who procured the establishment of this custom, and thus 
 wronged his niece of her claims, was the first king to suffer by its application. He 
 left at his death four daughters and no son. Hence the throne passed to his brother 
 Charles, in virtue of the Salic law. Women, however, held all other fiefs. Half of 
 the provinces attached to the crown had come to it by marriage. At the coronation 
 of Philip V. the crown was supported on his head by the Countess of Artois, as one 
 of the peers of France. See Guizofs Hist, of Civ., vol. i., sec. 9. 
 
 t At Chinon, in Touraine, an enormous pit was dug near the castle, a fire lighted 
 at the bottom, and one hundred and sixty wretched victims of both sexes were hurled 
 into the flames. 
 
 X It has been said of him, as of the English John of Gaunt, that he was the son, 
 the brother, the uncle, and the father of kings, but was never a king himself. 
 
 § It is a noticeable fact that, near the close of the Merovingian line, Charles Martel, 
 Mayor of the Palace, gained the management of affairs, and that his son was made 
 the first king of the next dynasty. In a similar way Hugh, Count of Flanders, became 
 
1328.] FEUDAL FRANCE. 67 
 
 Philip IV. (the Fair), brother to Charles, Count of Valois. 
 
 Philip VI. 
 John the Good. 
 
 Louis X. Philip V. Charles IV. Isabella, 
 
 (Hutin) (the Long.) (the Fair.) w. of Edw. II. 
 
 Edward III. 
 
 (the Pretender.) 
 
 Summary. — Hugh Capet, Count of Paris, founds a national dynasty. 
 Surrounded by great barons, he has little power. The feudal system 
 is supreme. France is distracted by constant quarrels between pow- 
 erful lords jealous of their rights. The conquest of England by the 
 Normans introduces a new element of discord. The ferocity of the 
 age is alone alleviated by the romance, of chivalry and the refinements 
 of knighthood. The Truce of God stays at times the passions of war. 
 The crusades set all France ablaze. The Holy Land is not conquered, 
 but great social changes ensue, v Barons barter their estates for a purse 
 of gold, people buy their rights, and reckless knights spend their 
 strength on foreign soil. Louis the Fat first makes the royal power 
 respected. To get help against the nobles, he grants charters, and 
 the communes are established. Civil liberty grows apace. Eleanor, 
 divorced from her craven-hearted husband, Louis VII., carries to Eng- 
 land half the domains of France. Philip Augustus resumes the work 
 of his grandfather. Normandy is conquered from the English. The 
 battle of Bou vines is gained by the militia. The Albigensians are per- 
 secuted, and Languedoc is added to the crown. The gentle St. Louis, 
 sitting beneath the oak at Vincennes, wins all hearts, makes peace 
 among the warring barons, and renders royalty still stronger: but 
 yearning for the East, leaves France, and dies on a foreign shore. 
 Philip the Fair, cold, cruel, and crafty, plunders his people and bur- 
 dens them with taxes. He humbles the nobility, subdues the pope, 
 and destroys the Templars. The people, however, get their first rights 
 from a tyrant, and are represented in the States-General. Lawyers 
 gain control, and the law becomes supreme. Under his three sons the 
 people suffer pitiably. Pastorals infest the country. The Jews are 
 massacred. Lepers are murdered. Amid general discontent the direct 
 Capetian line ends. It has given birth to Hugh, Louis VI., St. Louis, 
 
 powerful at the end of the Carlovingian line, and his son, Hugh Capet, was the first 
 king of the succeeding dynasty. Just so, Charles, Count of Valois. held swa}' as 
 prime minister under the reigns of the three sons of Philip the Fair, and his son was 
 the first king of the next reigning family. 
 
68 FEUDAL FRANCE. 
 
 Philip Augustus, and Philip the Fair. It has shaped out a kingdom, 
 and laid a firm foundation for the monarchy. 
 
 Condition of Society. — A growing extravagance in dress and the 
 expenses attending the grand tournaments greatly increased trade. 
 Shops and warehouses had taken the place of the roving peddler who 
 supplied the former dynasties. Merchants grew in wealth. Foreign 
 commerce began to flourish. Guilds and Trade Corporations, which 
 sprang up in the time of Philip Augustus, acquired importance. Under 
 St. Louis a Book, of Trades was compiled, containing the rules of one 
 hundred different trade associations.* The highways were still in- 
 fested by robbers St. Louis passed a law requiring the nobles to guard 
 the roads from sunrise to sunset, making them responsible for all the 
 robberies committed on travelers in their domains. He set an example 
 by himself refunding the value of goods stolen through the negligence 
 of his own officers. — Measures of length and contents varied greatly, 
 and no uniform standard was known. The ' ' foot of the king " was the 
 least varying measure, and was from ten to twelve inches. The pound 
 was everywhere in use, but its weight differed in the various cities 
 and provinces from twelve to sixteen ounces. The lords generally 
 profited by the confusion. 
 
 Manners and Customs. — The nobility grow in extravagance of 
 dress and style. Court-robes blaze with gold and silver, pearls and 
 precious stones. Over the gown and high, close-sleeved, tight-fitting 
 bodice, the ladies wear an open mantle of cloth of gold, slashed here 
 and there to show the costly lining. Gold and silver lace, elaborate 
 embroideries, and expensive furs are favorite trimmings. Scarlet, 
 blue, and reddish-brown are the fashionable colors. Massive belts 
 of gold encircle the waist, and the plaited hair, falling down on either 
 side of the face, is crowned with a jeweled coronet. At the call of 
 the hunting-horn they sit down to sumptuous repasts in vast halls 
 hung with brilliant tapestries. " The tables are covered with fringed 
 table-cloths, and strewn with sweet-smelling herbs ; one of them, called 
 the Great Table, is reserved for persons of distinction. The guests are 
 taken to their seats by two butlers, who bring rose-water in silver 
 basins for the customary hand-ablution. The Great Table is laid out 
 by a butler, with silver salt-cellars, golden goblets with lids, spoons, 
 and silver drinking-cups. For the other tables the salt is placed on 
 pieces of bread, scooped out for that purpose by the attendants. Some 
 dishes are also eaten on large slices of thick bread, which are after- 
 
 * The freedom of each trade was given as a perquisite to some of the king's 
 officers. Thus the Lord Chamberlain had command over all the drapers, mercers, 
 tailors, shoemakers, and other dealers in wearing apparel; the king's valet and 
 barber governed the barbers ; his baker ruled the bakers, etc. 
 
FEUDAL FRANCE 
 
 69 
 
 ward thrown into vases called drainers. The different courses are 
 brought in by varlets and two of the principal squires ; and in wed- 
 ding-feasts the bridegroom sometimes walks in front of them." In 
 certain repasts connected with chivalry the servants, in 
 full armor, are mounted on caparisoned horses. 
 
 One course, which may be seen still reproduced in the 
 grand restaurants of Paris, is " composed of sweet dishes, 
 colored jellies of swans, of peacocks, or of pheasants, 
 adorned with their feathers, having the beak and feet 
 gilt, and placed on the middle of the table on a sort of 
 pedestal. After the last course the guests wash their 
 hands, say grace, and retire to the drawing-room, where 
 wines and spices ' for the digestion ' are passed. The 
 servants then sit down and dine." — (Menagier de Paris.) 
 In this grand dinner the gallant knight eats from his 
 lady's plate, who graciously returns the compliment.- 
 He also politely offers her the crust from his little loaf 
 of bread, that she may soak it in her soup. 
 
 The bourgeois, proud of his wealth and growing im- 
 portance, emulates the noble in expenditure. We find a 
 certain master-butcher of this time who has four country 
 houses besides his Parisian mansion, " all well supplied 
 with furniture, drinking-cups, vases, cups of silver and 
 of onyx, with silver feet," etc. His wife has "jewels, 
 belts, purses, and trinkets," of value equal to $2."),000 
 present money ; " long and short gowns, trimmed with 
 fur, and three fur mantles." His storehouses are fat 
 with possessions ; and lastly, " as if he were a noble, he 
 uses a silver seal." We read of a rich Valenciennes 
 merchant who visits the king's court in a fur cloak cov- 
 ered with gold and pearls. No one offering him a cushion, 
 he proudly sits on his cloak. Leaving it behind when 
 he departs, a servant reminds him of the fact. "It is not 
 the custom in my country for people to carry away their 
 cushions with them," he replies, and haughtily walks 
 away. — All this is intolerable to the exclusive spirit 
 of the aristocracy. They loudly complain to the king. 
 
 STYLUS, t 
 
 (Thirteenth & Four- 
 teenth Centuries.) 
 
 * This was thought so great a mark of politeness that a gentleman sitting next a 
 lady was considered extremely rude if he did not help himself from her dish. "The 
 romance of Perceforest tells of a feast where eight hundred knights had each of them 
 a lady eating off his plate. In Launcelot du Lac, a lady, who was troubled with a 
 jealous husband, complains that it was a long lime since a knight had eaten off her 
 plate.* , — Hallam.— This curious custom perhaps arose from the fact that at fust 
 only one cup and plate were given to each couple. 
 
 t The style or stylus was the chief instrument of writing during the Middle 
 
70 FEUDAL FRANCE. 
 
 Philip the Fair issues his Sumptuary Laws, whereby he makes 
 himself the arbiter of dress and diet for all classes. Strict rules 
 graduate the breadth and richness of the trimming on ladies' robes and 
 gentlemen's cloaks. The price and number, quality and style of all 
 garments are carefully denned according to the rank of the wearer. 
 The nobles may wear the chaperon or hood large enough to let it hang 
 down the back ; the common people will keep to the small sugar-loaf 
 affair. " No bourgeois shall have a chariot, nor wear gold, precious 
 stones, or crowns of gold and silver." No person can have more than 
 one dish of soup and two dishes of meat for dinner or supper. This 
 law being sometimes evaded by putting different sorts of meat into the 
 same dish, the meddling king hears of the ingenious device, and issues 
 an edict expressly forbidding it. He sets an example of economy in 
 his own household, after his own fashion. The cloth for the royal 
 garments is carefully dealt out to the tailors, and a strict account of 
 its use required. The queen, who seems the more frugal of the two, 
 is content with four or five lady attendants and two carriages, one for 
 herself and one for her maids of honor. After her death expenses 
 greatly increase, and we hear of a gilt chariot of state and magnificeut 
 displays at the marriages of the three sons. 
 
 Peasants and Serfs. — For the first time we are now able to see the 
 peasant in his own home. " A fire of vine branches and faggots blaze 
 in the large chimney, which is furnished with an iron pot-hanger, or 
 tripod, a shovel, large fire-irons, a cauldron, and a meat-hook. Next to 
 the fireplace is an oven, and in close proximity to this an enormous 
 bedstead, on which the villain, his wife, his children, and even the 
 stranger who asks for hospitality, can all be easily accommodated ; a 
 kneading-trough, table, bench, cheese-cupboard, jug, and a few bas- 
 kets, make up the rest of the furniture." On the thatched roof of this 
 little cottage and the cow-shed near by, the wild cats hunt rats and 
 mice. Two small buildings, one for grain and one for hay and straw, 
 and a little kitchen -garden, protected by a large watch-dog, adjoin the 
 cot. No one is ever idle, and the little ones begin to work when they 
 begin to walk. The serf goes to his labor in short woolen trousers, 
 and a cloth or skin blouse, fastened by a leather belt, from which hang 
 his wallet and a sheath for his knife. His feet are protected by shoes 
 or large boots. If it be cold or rainy, he wears a broad-brimmed cap 
 of felt or of thick woolen stuff, like the short mantle which falls from 
 
 Ages. With the pointed end the letters were cut on the waxen tablet, while the rounded 
 head was used in making erasures. If the writing was to be preserved, it was after- 
 ward copied by a scribe on parchment or vellum, with a rude pen made of reed, and 
 dipped in a colored liquid. The style was sometimes made of bone or ivory, some- 
 times of glass or iron, while those used by persons of rank were made of gold or 
 silver, the heads of which were often ornamented with curious figures. 
 
 
FEUDAL FRANCE. 71 
 
 his shoulders. In fine weather he goes bareheaded. His farming 
 utensils are limited, but he has a wagon "with harness for several 
 horses, so as to be able to accomplish the different tasks required of 
 him under feudal rights." Umbrellas and covered carriages being still 
 unknown, a large waterproof -cape, with sleeves, is a necessary article 
 of dress. A special servant, called a porte-chape (carry cape), carries 
 this behind his master. The poor folk sling it over their backs, or 
 fold it under the arm when it is not needed for service. 
 
 Distinguished JVames of the Capetian £Jra. 
 
 oibetard (1079-1142), a famous scholastic philosopher. At one time 5,000 persons 
 attended his lectures. His life, however, was the shipwreck of genius.* 
 
 Suffer (su-zha, 1085-1152), abbe of St. Denis, and the chosen adviser of Louis VI. 
 and VII. He was a politician far in advance of his times, sagacious and practical, 
 and one of the true founders of France. 
 
 SI. jBernaj'd (1091-1153), " the champion of orthodoxy, the oracle of France, the 
 soul of councils, the bulwark of dogma, the reformer of the clergy, and the preacher 
 of crusades." 
 
 Jehan de Joinville (1223-1317), seneschal of Champagne, who wrote a history 
 of St. Louis. He was the inventor of memoirs for which the French have since 
 been so famous. In his chronicle, the Christian, the man of the world, the soldier, 
 the friend of the king, gossips on with a minute detail and simple naturalness that 
 bring far-off events close to us with a curious reality. 
 
 * His unfortunate love for the beautiful Heloise has served to perpetuate his 
 name, and their tomb in the cemetery of Pere-la-Chaise, Paris, is still the shrine of 
 ill-starred lovers, who keep it constantly piled with wreaths of everlasting flowers. 
 
72 
 
 FEUDAL FRANCE. 
 
 IV.— THE VALOIS BRANCH. 
 
 1328 to 1589=261 Years. 
 
 PERIOD OF TrJE HUNDRED YE^RS W4R, 
 
 HILIP VI's (1328 to 1350 = 22 
 years) ruling passion was a love of 
 pomp. The great barons flocked to 
 his brilliant court, and in balls, fetes, 
 and tournaments, grew careless of 
 their liberties and the progress of 
 the crown. Even the kings of Na- 
 varre, Bohemia, and Majorca forsook 
 their own palaces to revel in Philip's 
 sumptuous hospitality. Yielding to 
 
 PHILIP VI 
 
 the request of the Count of Flanders 
 for help against his revolted subjects, Philip summoned the 
 feudal lords, with their retainers, and marched into that 
 country. At Cassel (1328) they slew 13,000 out of 16,000 
 Flemish weavers who stubbornly resisted their advance. 
 Having thus wiped out the disgrace of Courtrai, Philip 
 returned to .Paris in great glory. 
 
 "Hundred Years War."— Edward HI. of England, 
 
 Geographical Questions '.—(See maps, pp. 1, 73).— Locate Sluys (slois). Crecy. 
 Avignon (a ven-yOn). Azincourt. Vincennes (vin-senz). Bruges. Verneuil. Cre- 
 vant. Sur-Yonne. Orleans. Domremy. Vauconleurs. Jargeau (zhar-zhO). Patay'. 
 Troyes (trwa). Castillon (te-y5n). Arras. Kosebecque. Leige (leej). Conflans 
 (kon-flQii). Peronne (pa-ronn). Montereau. Granson (gran-son). Morat. Nancy. 
 Plessis. Bourges (boorzh). Rennes (ren). Amboise (Qnb-waz). Guinegate. Calais 
 (ka-la). Bayonne (yon). Cambray. Gbent (gent). Cressy. Toul (tool). Verdun. 
 Metz (mets, or mas). St. Quentin (san-k5n-tan.) Vassy. Dreux (drub). Blois 
 (blwa). St. Germain (san-zher-man). Rochelle. Courtrai (koor-trfi). Locate 
 Guienne (ge-en). Artois (twa). Bern, Bourbon (boor-bon). Anjou (Sn-zhoo). 
 Lorraine. Gascony. Cbampaigne. Maine. Cbarleroi (shar-le-rwa). County of 
 Burgundy (Franche Comte). Mvernois (ne-ver-nwa). Picardy. Vermandois (ver- 
 man-dwa). Beaujeau (bo-zbo). Navarre. 
 
1328.] 
 
 PHILIP VI. 
 
 73 
 
 whose mother, Isabella, was daughter of Philip the Fair, laid 
 claim to the French throne. He contended that, though a 
 woman could not inherit the crown herself, she could trans- 
 
 Purple Territory of French King 
 
 lied Territory of Enylixh Ki in, 
 
 FRANCE AT THE TIME OF VALOIS, 
 
 mit the right to her son. To this source of trouble was 
 added a disagreement concerning the vassalage exacted by 
 the French kings on account of Guienne and other fiefs. The 
 contest — laiown as the Hundred Years War — lasted from 
 
 4 
 
74 FEUDAL FRANCE. [1346. 
 
 1328 to 1453, the historians giving good measure in their 
 estimate of this bloody century. There were occasional 
 truces, only to enable the rival kings to take breath and 
 prepare for a new struggle. 
 
 Commencement.— The storm was long gathering. Ed- 
 ward welcomed Robert of Artois,* who had been banished 
 from the French court. He also assumed the title of French 
 king, and quartered the lilies of France with the lions of 
 England. Philip, on his side, interfered with the English 
 trade with Flanders, and aided the revolt of Robert Bruce in 
 Scotland. A war of succession broke out in Brittany, and 
 the rival kings took opposite sides. Edward, with his army, 
 hovered for two years about the borders of France. On land 
 he gained nothing. At sea, however, he won a great naval 
 victory off Sluys f (1340). 
 
 Battle of Crecy (1346). After a brief truce Philip's 
 treachery renewed the strife. Having invited the great 
 barons of Brittany to a tournament at Paris, he beheaded 
 fifteen of them without form of trial. Edward, thereupon, 
 invaded France, and marched nearly to Paris, pillaging and 
 burning. During the retreat he was overtaken near Crecy 
 by the French army. Philip ordered the Genoese archers, 
 who were in the van, to immediately charge. Out of breath 
 from their rapid march, dazzled by the sun in their faces, 
 and with their strings wet from a recent rain, they recoiled 
 
 * Robert of Artois has been called "The stormy petrel of the hundred years war." 
 Enraged at not receiving an inheritance to which he laid claim, and vowing ven- 
 geance against Philip, he fled to the English court, where he did his utmost to foment 
 ill-will. Philip learned with terror that Robert was employing magical arts for his 
 destruction, and that he was " envoulted." It was a current superstition that if a 
 little waxen image were baptized by a priest, and then pierced with a needle at the 
 place where the heart should be, tbe person represented would die from the wcund. 
 Demons were evoked in this operation, which was called " envoulting." 
 
 t It is said that when the tidings came to Paris, none dare tell the hasty king the 
 bad news till a court-fool bethought him to cry out that the English were cowards. 
 When the king asked "Why?" he replied: "Because they did not dare to jump 
 boldly into the sea at Shiys as our brave French and Normans did.'" 
 
1346.] PHILIP VI. 75 
 
 before the storm of English arrows. " Kill the lazy ribalds/' 
 shouted the Duke d'Aleii9on. The French knights, dashing 
 furiously forward, trampled the hapless Italians under feet. 
 In the midst of the confusion the English poured down 
 upon the struggling ranks. Eleven princes, 1,200 knights, 
 the kings of Bohemia* and Majorca, and 30,000 soldiers 
 were slain. Philip, twice wounded, was dragged off the 
 field by his attendants, and reached Amiens with only five 
 knights. 
 
 The Loss of Calais was one of the fatal results of this 
 defeat. After nearly a year's siege, this city was starved to 
 surrender. Edward consented to spare the inhabitants if six 
 of the principal citizens, barefooted and with halters about 
 their necks, should bring him the keys of the town and give 
 themselves up to his vengeance. When they appeared, he 
 commanded their heads to be struck off. His good Queen 
 Philippa threw herself at his feet, and with tears begged 
 their lives. The king relented, and taking the burgesses by 
 the halters, led them to Philippa, and, "out Of love for her, 
 released from death all the men of Calais." 
 
 Condition of the Country.— The Black Death (1348-9), a terrible 
 pestilence from the East, now swept over the land. Two-thirds of the 
 inhabitants of Provence and Languedoc fell victims. On some days 
 eight hundred died in Paris alone. The sweet charities of life were 
 forgotten, and all fled who could, leaving a few heroic monks and nuns, 
 who devoted themselves to the sick and dying. The Jews were again 
 accused of poisoning the wells, and thousands were burnt and mas- 
 sacred. Bands of enthusiasts, called flagellants, wandered about, half- 
 clothed, and scarifying their shoulders with whips, to take away the 
 sins of the world. Devastation everywhere marked the footsteps of 
 the English army.f The land lay waste, the ploughs rusted in the 
 
 * The blind king of Bohemia, hearing the sound of the strife, begged his knights 
 to lead him forwai'd where he could have a stroke with his sword. So they tied their 
 horses 1 reins together and all rode in to death. 
 
 t The spirit in which this war was carried on is shown from the fact that, at the 
 beginning, the knights and gentlemen of England, assembled in full court, bound 
 
76 FEUDAL FRANCE. [1850-1356. 
 
 furrows, and the homes were blackened ruins. Grass grew even in 
 the streets of Paris, and many quarters were deserted. Philip tam- 
 pered with the coin, so that (1342) its value changed almost weekly, 
 alienated the merchants, drove trade to- foreign countries, and insti- 
 tuted the gdbelle, a most oppressive tax on salt. 
 
 Death of the King. — While France was thus plunged in 
 misery, Philip, whose wife had died of the pestilence, found 
 heart to marry the beautiful Blanche of Navarre, and burden 
 his impoverished people with fresh taxes for the marriage fes- 
 tivities. It was the last act of this gloomy, troubled reign, 
 for ho died in the midst of the court gayeties. 
 
 JOHN "THE GOOD."* 
 
 1350 to 1364=14 Years. 
 
 John the G-ood was very like his father on his worst side. 
 Versed in the rules of knighthood, he was ignorant of the 
 laws of government. He made a royal progress through his 
 distracted realm, and imagined that he was adjusting affairs 
 by holding tournaments. Gay, proud, rash, and ignorant, it 
 was not difficult to foresee his fate when opposed to the prac- 
 tical common sense of Edward III. "There were Crecys 
 written on every line of his character. " 
 
 Charles the Bad, the powerful king of Navarre, seemed 
 born to be the evil genius of France. He was constantly 
 exciting opposition to the king. At a great dinner given by 
 the Dauphin,! at Rouen, John rushed into the hall with a 
 
 themselves upon the Heron— a touch of conscience, let us hope, prevented them from 
 swearing it upon the Gospels— "to ravage and massacre without pity, to spare 
 neither mill nor altar, nor relation nor friend.''' — White. 
 
 * The epithet Le ben means properly " the good fellow," and points out an extrava- 
 gant, prodigal character. ° 
 
 t During the reign of Philip VI., the province of Dauphiny was given to the eldest 
 son of the king. The heir-apparent to the throne thenceforth took the title of 
 Dauphin. 
 
1856.] 
 
 JOHN" THE GOOD. 
 
 77 
 
 body of armed men, and seized the king of Navarre, with 
 several of his nobles. The former was imprisoned, the 
 latter were executed. The friends of Charles appealed to 
 Edward III., who willingly took tip the quarrel, and the 
 scarcely slumbering war broke out anew. An army invaded 
 Normandy, while the Prince of Wales — known as the Black 
 Prince, from the color of his armor — carried fire and sword 
 to the heart of the kingdom. 
 Battle of Poitiers (1356).— John, with 60,000 men, 
 
 KING JOHN AND HIS SON AT POITIERS. 
 
 eager to avenge the defeat at Crecy, came upon the Black 
 Prince near Poitiers. The little English army, 8,000 strong, 
 was drawn up on a high hill, accessible only by a deep 
 ravine, through which led a narrow road. The hedges on 
 either side were filled with archers. As the French knights 
 charged at full speed up this lane, they were overwhelmed 
 by the shafts of the English bowmen. Disordered, they fell 
 
78 • FEUDAL FRANCE. [1353. 
 
 back on the main corps below. The Black Prince there- 
 upon, bidding his men to mount quickly, charged down the 
 hill. The dauphin fled like a craven, with eight hundred 
 lances, the primest warriors in the field. The king sprang 
 from his horse and fought till he and his youngest son 
 Philip, a boy of fourteen, were left almost alone.* The 
 losses of Crecy were not avenged, but multiplied. f 
 
 Effect. — The remains of the French army quickly melted 
 away. The common soldiers formed companies — free-lancers 
 — who plundered friend and foe alike. Great numbers of 
 prisoners returned on pledge of enormous ransoms, which 
 were squeezed from the hapless peasants. All industry was 
 at an end. Only in the cities, defended by walls and ditches, 
 was there any safety ; and thither the country folk flocked to 
 escape the misery of their homes. 
 
 Attempts to Reform the Government— In this emer- 
 gency the dauphin assembled the States-General. Under 
 the leadership of Marcel, Provost of Paris, they made a 
 determined stand for popular liberty. Men and money were 
 voted to meet the national crisis, but on certain conditions. 
 Among these were that there should be no more tampering 
 with the coin, that no property should be seized for the 
 royal service without payment, and that the dauphin should 
 not appropriate to his private use the funds raised for the 
 public good. Charles agreed to the conditions, but did not 
 keep them. Paris rose to resist him. The insurgents, wear- 
 ing parti-colored hoods of red and white, broke into the pal- 
 
 * This heroic youth held himself closely to the side of his father, crying out every 
 instant : " Father, take care at the right ! Father, take care at the left ! " The king 
 was pressed on every side, each one being eager to capture so great a prize. He 
 finally surrendered to a renegade French knight, one Denis de Morbeque. 
 
 t The Black Prince conducted his royal captive to England with great pomp and 
 true knightly courtesy. When they entered London, he rode bareheaded at the side 
 of the king, and at table waited upon him as if they were father and son, instead of 
 vanquished and victor. 
 
1358.] JOHN THE GOOD. 79 
 
 ace, iii the presence of the dauphin, and murdered two of his 
 advisers. The dauphin, escaping, declared war. Mistrust 
 and jealousy of Parisian authority arose among the cities. 
 Marcel, despairing, offered the crown to the king of Navarre.* 
 The nobles, alarmed at this manifestation of power by the 
 commons, nocked to the royal standard. Civil war ensued. 
 
 The Jacquerie. — Meanwhile, despised by his master, held 
 unworthy to wield the lance or the sword, pillaged as if he 
 were a Jew, Jacques Bonhomme f grew wild with rage and 
 thirst for revenge. He rose at last, and swore death to the 
 nobles (1358). Everywhere, at night, the skies were aflame 
 with burning castles. Lords and ladies were massacred or 
 tortured with brutal barbarity. The war-clad nobles, how- 
 ever, soon poured down upon the half-naked peasants, and 
 stamped out the insurrection in blood. This defeat was 
 fatal to the bourgeoisie— the middle class — who had made 
 the peasants their allies. 
 
 The Dauphin marched to Paris; Marcel was slain in a 
 tumult, and his party was dissolved. Thus ended this memo- 
 rable attempt of the people to check the arbitrary power of 
 the crown and the license of the nobles. 
 
 Treaty of Bretigny (1360). — John, weary of his long 
 captivity, had agreed to surrender to England half of France. 
 These humiliating terms were rejected by the States-General. 
 After a year of war a new treaty was made, whereby Edward 
 renounced his claim to the French throne, but retained Ca- 
 lais, and was accorded Aquitaine, with other rich provinces. 
 
 The Captive King, promising to pay for his ransom 
 
 * If the Salic Law were set aside, his right by descent was better even than that 
 of Edward III., as he was a grandson of Louis X., while Edward was only the 
 nephew of that king. 
 
 t This was the nickname given to the peasantry by the nobles. A current proverb 
 of the time says: "Jacques Bonhomme (James Goodfellow) never parts with his 
 money unless he is well cudgelled ; but Jacques Bonhomme will pay, for he shall be 
 beaten. " 
 
80 FEUDAL FEAICE. [1360. 
 
 3,000,000 crowns, returned to his country, to find it devas- 
 tated by war, smitten by pestilence, and infested by robbers. 
 Afterward one of his sons, who had been left as his hostage, 
 escaped to Paris. John, declaring that "good faith, if ban- 
 ished from the earth, ought to find itself in the heart of 
 kings," went back to London. Here he died (1364). 
 
 CHARLES V. (THE WISE). 
 
 1361 to 1380 = 16 Years. 
 
 Charles the Wise was very unlike his father. He had 
 no taste for knightly exercises, but was studious and unsocial. 
 Weak,* pale, mean-looking, and cowardly, he was yet cun- 
 ning, clear of aim, and coldly unfaltering in earning out his 
 designs. His famous saying : " Lordship is better than glory," 
 reveals his determination to have the power as well as the 
 honor of a king. His aim was to regain his kingdom from 
 the English and to raise royalty above the nobles. Shut up 
 in his closet f at Paris, he planned what others executed. 
 
 The Free Lances. — France was now overrun by thou- 
 sands of disbanded soldiers, who would neither return to 
 their own homes nor obey the laws. They quartered them- 
 selves among the farmers, where they committed every ex- 
 cess, or, gathering in companies, besieged and ransomed 
 towns. In self-defence bulwarks were raised about cities, 
 villages, and houses. Every church became a fortress, and 
 every chateau a stronghold. 
 
 War against Don Pedro. — Unable to subdue, Charles 
 
 * Charles the Bad (of Navarre), in return for his arrest at Rouen, had mixed poison 
 in the dauphin's food. The prince's life was saved by opening an issue in his arm, 
 which was never allowed to heal. 
 
 t The superstition of the times, unable to account for his success in any other 
 way, accused him of magical arts, and so his title, the Wise, came to have a peculiar 
 significance. Edward said that of all his enemies Charles V. was the one who never 
 appeared against him, and yet gave him the most trouble. 
 
1385.] CHARLES V. 81 
 
 decided to employ these marauders. So Du Gaesclin, his 
 best general, and himself a Free Lance, rallied his old com- 
 panions, and led them across the Pyrenees, to help Henry 
 of Castile against the oppressions of his brother, Pedro the 
 Cruel. The detested Pedro was quickly expelled, and Henry 
 seated upon the vacant throne. Pedro, however, fled to the 
 Black Prince, who marched to his relief, defeated the French 
 army, and captured Du Guesclin.* The Black Prince re- 
 turned to Aquitaine with the disgrace of having restored to 
 his throne the wicked Pedro. Besides, forced to raise heavy 
 taxes for the support of the war, he alienated his subjects, 
 who appealed to the French king for help. Charles saw his 
 opportunity. The Black Prince was ill of a disease con- 
 tracted in Spain, and King Edward III. was old and feeble. 
 
 The Hundred Years War Renewed. — Charles the 
 Wise now summoned the Black Prince to appear before him, 
 as his suzerain, to answer the complaints of his subjects, f . 
 " We shall come," indignantly returned the hero of Crecy and 
 Poitiers, " but with helmet on head and with 60,000 men." 
 Borne on a litter at the head of his army, he captured the 
 city of Limoges, but stained his memory by brutally putting 
 to death 3,000 inoffensive citizens. From this massacre, from 
 blackened ruins and corpses of warriors and women, the 
 prince was borne home to die. The English army, deprived 
 of its great leader, met with constant reverses. The French 
 no longer rushed headlong at the enemy as in the days of 
 
 * The Prince promised to release him for 100,000 gold florins. The Princess of 
 Wales herself gave 20,000, and the brave Chandos, the English rival of Du Guesclin, 
 offered his own purse. The French general was set free on his parole to raise the 
 balance. Having secured the money, Guesclin was on his return when he met ten 
 poor knights who were unable to raise their ransom. He gave them all he had, and 
 went back to prison empty-handed. Charles V. afterward paid the amount, and 
 secured the services of his great captain. 
 
 t To fully prove his intention of war, Charles also sent letters of defiance to the 
 king of England. The message and the messenger equally astonished Edward and 
 his court, for it was sent by the hands of a kitchen page. 
 
82 FEUDAL FRANCE. [1373-1380. 
 
 Philip VI. and John. They simply hung on the flanks of 
 the English army, cutting off the stragglers, and harassing 
 it at every turn. France recovered nearly all her provinces. 
 Edward III. dying, left his sceptre to a child, Kichard II. 
 Hardly was the great king cold in his coffin when the French 
 fleet was ravaging the English coast, burning and plunder- 
 ing, and this, too, only twenty years from the battle of Poitiers. 
 
 Government. — Charles never forgot the excesses of the 
 common people while he was dauphin, and never trusted 
 them. He convoked the States-General but once, and then 
 he was sure of no opposition, as he was about making war 
 against England. He never adulterated the coin. He pun- 
 ished robbers, and made traveling safe on the jHiblic roads. 
 He created a navy. He encouraged letters and the arts, and 
 rewarded merit wherever found. The Eoyal Library, which 
 he established at Paris, contained at his death 910 volumes — 
 a rich collection for those days. 
 
 Charles V.'s last years were full of trouble. Kevolts 
 broke out in Brittany and Languedoc. Sects arose in the 
 Church. Du Guesclin, now Constable of France, while be- 
 sieging a castle in Auvergne, was stricken by death * (1380). 
 The king survived his famous general only a few months. 
 
 CHARLES VI. (THE WELL-BELOVED). 
 1380 to 1422=42 Years. 
 
 Charles VL, at his coronation, was a beautiful boy of only 
 twelve years. His fickle disposition, easy good-nature, and 
 love of show, gave no promise for the future. 
 
 I. Rule of the Guardians. — He fell to the guardianship 
 
 * The governor of the fortress had promised to surrender on a certain clay. At 
 the appointed time, true to his word, he struck his flag, marched out his garrison, 
 and laid the keys of the castle on the heiVs coffin. 
 
1382.] CHAELES VI. 83 
 
 of four princes of the blood — his uncles — the Dukes of Anjou, 
 Berri, Bourbon, and Burgundy. Their tyrannical sway soon 
 plunged the people into misery and anarchy. 
 
 Battle of Rosebecque (1382). — Burgundy, who soon 
 gained the direction of affairs, had married the heiress of the 
 Count of Flanders, and was eager to put down a new revolt 
 of the Flemings against their feudal lord. The nobles en- 
 couraged the design, as the Flemish burghers favored the 
 popular risings in the French cities. The boyish king, 
 pleased with the prospect of a campaign, unfurled the ori- 
 flamme, and accompanied an army into Flanders. At Kose- 
 becque he found the Flemings, 50,000 strong, drawn up in a 
 solid square phalanx. The French knights, with their heavy 
 mailed horses and long lances, dashed upon the dense mass 
 on either flank. The Flemings had tied themselves together 
 to strengthen their lines, and were unable to fight. It was 
 not a battle, but a massacre. Thousands perished without 
 a wound. The nobles were triumphant. The Flemish cities 
 were given up to fire and plunder. 
 
 Uprising of the People Crushed (1383). — Paris was 
 the first of the communes to feel the vengeance of the aris- 
 tocracy. Early in this reign it had revolted against the 
 despotism of the Duke of Anjou, and demanded the removal 
 of some of the most oppressive taxes. It had then been 
 quieted with fair promises. Now was the time for revenge. 
 On the return of the king, though the gates were open, he 
 ordered a breach made in the walls, through which he en- 
 tered as into a conquered city, passing through the streets 
 helmet on head and lance in hand. Three hundred of the 
 richest citizens were sent to the scaffold, and the rest pur- 
 chased their lives by the payment of heavy fines, which went 
 to the royal dukes. Other cities received as cruel a punish- 
 ment. 
 
84 FEUDAL FE AN CE. [1386-1392. 
 
 Preparations to Invade England (1386) were now 
 made on a gigantic scale. Fourteen hundred ships were 
 collected, "enough/' avers ■ Froissart, " to reach from Calais 
 to Dover." After a prodigious expense the attempt was 
 abandoned. The soldiers, disbanded without pay, pillaged 
 the whole country on their way home. France was more 
 exhausted by this, says the old chronicler, than it would have 
 been by a long war. 
 
 II. Rule of the King (1388-1392).— Eight years of die- 
 aster found Charles twenty-one years of age. He now opened 
 his eyes and saw his kingdom a wreck. The finances were 
 plundered, justice was abused, schools were abandoned, roads 
 were impassable, and many castles in the heart of the king- 
 dom were held by brigands. He dismissed his royal guard- 
 ians, and placed at the head of the council the constable 
 Du Clisson, friend and successor of Guesclin. All hailed the 
 advent of better times. Charles, however, with his beautiful 
 but dissolute queen, Isabella of Bohemia, was soon absorbed 
 in frivolity and dissipation. The princes plotted against the 
 new ministers, whom they contemptuously styled " monkeys." 
 Clisson was stabbed on his way home from the palace. The 
 assassin escaped to the Duke of Brittany, wdio refused to give 
 him up to justice. Charles swore vengeance, and marched 
 northward with his army. 
 
 Insanity of the King (1392). — On a sultry day in Au- 
 gust, as the army w T as passing through a deep forest, a tall 
 and ghastly man rushed suddenly out from behind a tree, 
 seized the king's bridle, and exclaimed, in a terrible voice: 
 "Go no further, King! Thou art betrayed!" Charles, 
 weak from recent illness, was greatly agitated. Soon after- 
 ward they entered upon a sandy plain, where the burning 
 rays of the vertical sun poured full upon them. Here one of 
 the pages falling asleep, accidentally dropped his lance upon 
 
1392.] 
 
 CHARLES VI 
 
 85 
 
 his companion's helmet. The brain of the poor king was 
 startled out of reason by this sudden clatter, Bushing on 
 
 CHARLES AND THE WILD MAN. 
 
 his attendants, he sought to slay them all. He was at last 
 secured and carried back — a maniac* 
 
 III. Rule of the Factions.— For thirty years after this 
 sad event the history of France affords a picture of a madman 
 sitting on the throne, while princes without private honor or 
 public virtue struggle around him for the spoils which can 
 be wrung from an unhappy people. Each of the princes 
 tried to get possession of the king and rule in his name. 
 
 * Charles partially recovered from this terrible stroke, but afterward suffered a 
 serious relapse. At a masked ball given at the court (1393), the king and five of 
 his nobles were disguised as savages, in close-fitting dresses, covered with pitch 
 and tow to reserfible hair. The young Duke of Orleans, in sport, approached these 
 grotesque figures with a lighted torch. Their inflammable costumes caught fire. 
 Charles was rescued, but four of his companions were burned to death. One saved 
 his life by jumping into a tub of water, which fortunately was near by. 
 
86 FEUDAL FEAKCE. [1392-1415. 
 
 Unfortunately for France his insanity had lucid intervals, so 
 that the dukes could seem to be his agents, and shelter them- 
 selves behind his authority and the pity his misfortune ex- 
 cited. Burgundy first seized the power. Bitter animosity 
 arose between him and the Duke of Orleans, brother to the 
 king, who had gained great influence at court, and rivalled 
 his uncle in rapacity and crime. 
 
 The Burgundians and Armagnacs {man-yac).— All 
 France, at last, ranged itself in two parties, Burgundian and 
 Orleanist — afterward called Armagnac.* The Burgundians 
 pretended to espouse the popular cause, and were friendly to 
 England ; the Orleanist was the aristocratic side, and nursed 
 the opposition to England. 
 
 Assassination of Orleans (14.07). — On the death of 
 Burgundy the dukedom fell to his son, John the Fearless. 
 By the intercession of their uncle, Duke of Berri, the two 
 cousins were reconciled, attended mass, and took the com- 
 munion together. Three days afterward the Duke of Orleans 
 was waylaid and murdered in the streets of Paris. John 
 attended the funeral and held the pall of his victim. Sus- 
 picion being excited he fled, but soon returned, and openly 
 justified his crime. Paris received him with transports of 
 joy. Even the king publicly pardoned the murderer of his 
 brother. 
 
 Effect— The contest between the rival parties now grew 
 more bitter than ever. It was the old hatred between the 
 nobles and the common people, inflamed by private rivalries 
 and rapacity. All patriotism died in the heat of factional 
 rage. 
 
 Battle of Azincourt (1415).— Henry, deeming this a pro- 
 
 * Bernard, Count of Armagnac, brought the Gascon free-lances to the help of the 
 next Duke of Orleans, his son-in-law. He became the real head of the party, which 
 was named after him. 
 
1415-1419.] CHAELESVI. 87 
 
 pitious moment, renewed the claims of England to the crown 
 of France, and invaded the country. Even the presence of the 
 national enemy could not reconcile the jealousies of the con- 
 tending parties. The Armagnacs would not allow the Bur- 
 gundians to join their ranks. The burghers from the cities 
 offered their help, but, to quote an old chronicler, were < ; vili- 
 fended and despised." 
 
 The army which at Azincourt barred Henry's advance was 
 a host of nobles. The French were five times as numerous 
 as the English, but were drawn up between two thick woods, 
 so that they could not deploy their lines, while in front were 
 newly-ploughed fields, wet with a fortnight's rain. The 
 knights, as usual, charged with reckless bravery, but they 
 were checked by the rapid volleys of arrows, while their 
 horses wallowed in the mud. The English now rushed for- 
 ward with battle-axe, sword, and pike upon the struggling 
 mass. Of the 10,000 Frenchmen who fell on that terrible 
 day, four-fifths were of gentle blood. Henry returned to 
 England with his captives, who, as at Crecy and Poitiers, 
 outnumbered their victors.* 
 
 The Rival Factions. — The Armagnacs were weakened 
 by this fearful blow, but the desperate fight of the factions 
 was unabated. The queen joined the Burgundians. The 
 dauphin was the tool of the Orleanists. Paris, conquered by 
 the Burgundians, ran with blood. The two eldest sons of 
 the king were said to have been poisoned. Great officers 
 were seized and imprisoned till ransom was paid. Estates 
 were forcibly taken and held by pow T er of the sword, 
 without even a pretence of law or right. Barons kept their 
 
 * During the night preceding the hattle Henry commanded silence in his camp, on 
 the penalty of the loss of his horse to a gentleman and an ear to a private soldier. 
 The French nobles, sure of success, spent the hours in rioting and feasting. They 
 even gambled for the ransoms of the English prisoners they were to capture on the 
 morrow. 
 
88 FEUDAL FRANCE. [1419-1422. 
 
 retainers on the plunder of the neighboring country, and 
 peaceful citizens who ventured to travel were inhumanly tor- 
 tured until they yielded their possessions. Henry again 
 crossed the channel, captured Rouen, and threatened Paris. 
 
 Assassination of Burgundy (1419). — The princes, in 
 the face of this imminent danger, thought of reconciliation. 
 The dauphin and the Duke of Burgundy met for conference. 
 The latter doffed his plumed hat and bent his knee before 
 the dauphin. At that instant an Orleanist leaped the barrier 
 and struck the duke dead at the feet of his prince. The 
 consequences were fatal. Philip the Good, son of the mur- 
 dered duke, hastened at once to the English camp. 
 
 The Treaty of Troyes (1420) was concluded soon after. 
 Henry was declared regent, and married Catherine, daughter 
 of Charles VI., with the understanding that, on the death 
 of the king, the crown of England and Erance were to be 
 united. So general were the detestation and fear of the civil 
 war, that this surrender of the nation to a foreigner was 
 hailed with acclamation in Paris and the north of France. 
 The south, however, remained faithful to the Armagnacs, 
 who were now recognized as the true French party. 
 
 Death of Henry and Charles.— In the midst of his tri- 
 umph Henry died, leaving the crown to his infant son. Two 
 months afterward the hapless Charles was borne to his grave. 
 
 CHARLES VII. (THE VICTORIOUS). 
 
 1422 to 1461=39 Years. 
 
 Henry VI., of England, was proclaimed king at Pans, 
 with great pomp, the Duke of Bedford acting meanwhile 
 as regent. The dauphin was also crowned* by his party. 
 
 * The English termed him "King of Bo-urges," as he fixed his headquarters in 
 that city. 
 
1422.] CHARLES VII. 89 
 
 Idle, good-natured, and listless, Charles was as incapable as 
 his unfortunate father of saving the country. His affairs 
 steadily grew more desperate.* He lost the battles of Ver- 
 neuil and Orevant-sur-Yonne. The regent had besieged Or- 
 leans, and that city — the last refuge of Chaiies ; s party — had 
 offered to surrender. The disastrous " Day of the Herrings"! 
 seemed to give the final blow to his cause. France, however, 
 had seen her bitterest hour.t A deliverer was at hand — 
 Jeanne Darc.§ Charles was at Chinon, when it was an- 
 
 * The annals of the time record that the king was actually in want of hoots, the 
 shoemaker refusing to furnish them until he was paid. 
 
 t This was a hattle fought by the French and Scotch, who made a sally from the 
 city to intercept a convoy of salted herrings en route to the English camp for the use 
 of the army during Lent. The barrels of fish were broken open by the artillery and 
 their contents scattered. 
 
 % King and peasant were alike miserable. u There appeared nothing but a horrible 
 confusion, poverty, solitariness, and feare. The lean and bare laborers in the country 
 did terrifie, even theeves themselves, who had nothing left them to spoile but the 
 carkasscs of those poore, miserable creatures, wandering up and downe like ghostes 
 drawne out of their graves. Even the cattett; accustomed to the larume bell, the signe 
 of the enemy 's approach, icould at its sound run home of themselves.'''' — (De Serres.) 
 The open land from the Loire to the Somme was a desert overgrown with wood and 
 thickets ; wolves fought over the bodies in the burial-grounds of Paris. In the Ceme- 
 tery of the Innocents, crammed with the pestilential dead, the wretched people in- 
 dulged in the wildest orgies, and danced over the graves of the happier ones who 
 had closed their eyes on their country's misery. 
 
 § Jeanne came from a humble family in Domremy. From childhood she had her 
 rapt moods ; and, when tending her little flock of sheep in the wood, would often 
 slip away from her companions to muse in silence or to pray. After her day's work 
 was over, she would spend hours in quiet contemplation before the altar in the little 
 village church. There was a current prophecy that France, which had been ruined 
 by a woman (Isabella), should be saved by a woman. In Jeanne's country the popu- 
 lar version was that the maid was to come from the marches of Lorraine. This 
 thought, nursed in the heart of the imaginative girl, grew into a vivid hope, then 
 into a daring expectation. She fasted often and long. Her own account is that, 
 " when she was thirteen years old, being in the garden alone one hot sttmmer day, 
 suddenly a great light shone upon her, and she heard a voice saying : v Jeanne, the 
 King of Heaven hath chosen thee to restore France.' " From that time she began to 
 "hear voices and see visions." She treasured her secret for four years, meantime 
 developing physically into a magnificent womanhood. Then her time had come, she 
 said. The voices bade her "raise the siege of Orleans, and conduct the prince lo 
 Rheims to be crowned." " I would rather stay at home and spin by my poor mother's 
 side," she affirmed, " but go I must, for no one else in the world, neither king nor 
 duke, can recover this realm of France." The commander of Vaucouleurs, to whom 
 the first appeal was made, replied : " Box the girl's ears and send her home." Noth- 
 ing daunted, Jeanne persevered, until at last an escort was provided, and she started 
 on her journey of one hundred and fifty leagues to meet the prince. At the same 
 time, for her safety and convenience, she assumed male attire. 
 
90 
 
 FEUDAL FRAKCE 
 
 [1429. 
 
 nounced that a rustic maiden, who professed herself divinely 
 commissioned to save France, desired an audience. Jeanne 
 Dare, on entering, walked directly to him, although he was 
 among a crowd of nobles. "I am not the king, that is he/' 
 said Charles, -pointing to a courtier who was dressed to per- 
 -^X. :/%\ sonate him. "You 
 
 are the king and 
 none other," replied 
 the maid, kneeling 
 before him. " The 
 King of Heaven 
 sends me to succor 
 you, and to con- 
 duct you to Kheims 
 for your corona- 
 tion." Charles was 
 surprised at this 
 recognition, and, 
 upon further ques- 
 tioning her, de- 
 clared that she 
 seemed to know the secrets of his heart. A committee was 
 appointed to examine her religious faith. Her simplicity and 
 straightforwardness swept away all prejudice. Her enthu- 
 siasm won the hearts of the soldiers. Eude warriors were 
 softened by her gentle piety, and in her presence checked the 
 oath that trembled on their lips. 
 
 The Maid at Orleans. — Soon, clad in armor, bearing a 
 silken banner,* and mounted on a white charger, Jeanne led 
 
 * This she loved "forty times better than her sword," she said, for her " mission 
 was not to kill, but to lead brave men to battle, .and to cheer them on, in God's 
 name." Her " voices" had told her that an ancient sword, with five crosses on the 
 blade, by waiting for her, buried behind the altar in a church at Fierbois. Search 
 was there made, and such a weapon was indeed found. Her banner had a white 
 ground, besprinkled with the lilies of France. On one side was a figure of the 
 
 JEANNE DARC — JOAN OF ARC. 
 
1429.] 
 
 CHARLES VII. 
 
 91 
 
 an army to the relief of Orleans. She entered the city with- 
 out opposition,* and forthwith headed the sallies against 
 the enemy. Wounded, she fainted, but soon recovering, 
 plucked out the arrow and rushed again to the front. The 
 
 French were swept along 
 I as by supernatural im- 
 " pulse. The English, be- 
 lieving her a veritable 
 witch, ran at her ap- 
 proach. In nine days after 
 her arrival the regent 
 broke up camp and fled, 
 abandoning baggage and 
 artillery. 
 
 clip 
 
 THE CROWNING OF CHARLES AT RHEIMS. 
 
 Charles Crowned at Rheims (1429).— The Maid of 
 Orleans, as she was thenceforth called, now urged the king 
 to march through the English line of possession to Rheims. 
 
 Saviour in the clouds, holding the world in His hands ; on the other was an image 
 of the Blessed Virgin, and the words Jhesus Maria. 
 
 * "The priests, the chants, the mysterious banner, and the peculiar apparel of the 
 maid, struck the English with a superstitious fear. The generals, seeing the dispo- 
 sition of their troops, kept them shut up in their camps and fortresses."— Martin. 
 
92 FEUDAL FRANCE. [1429. 
 
 The generals protested, but Jeanne replied that her "voices" 
 commanded it. The soldiers believed in her, and the won- 
 derful march began. Jargeau was stormed. At Patay the 
 English were defeated, and their general, the celebrated Tal- 
 bot, captured. Troyes resisted a few days ; then, struck with 
 sudden terror, surrendered. Eheims was evacuated. The 
 royal army entered, and the next day Charles was anointed 
 and crowned, Jeanne standing by his side, and holding her 
 sacred banner in her hand- 
 Capture of the Maid. — Jeanne's mission was now ended, 
 and she longed to return home, and lead the cattle and feed 
 the sheep as of old. But her aid had become too valuable to 
 the king and his generals, and she reluctantly consented to 
 remain. She was surrounded, however, by those who were 
 jealous of her success. Treachery was rife, and Charles him- 
 self, fickle and pleasure-loving, listened to her enemies. Pre- 
 cious time was wasted. An unsuccessful attack on Paris 
 followed. In an encounter at Compiegne she was taken 
 prisoner. 
 
 Death of the Maid. — No one seemed to care for her 
 now. Her ungrateful king made no sign. Her Burgundian 
 captors sold her to her English foes for 10,000 francs. She 
 was confined in a dungeon at Eouen, and afterward tried for 
 sorcery. Day after day learned judges endeavored to entrap 
 this simple girl. Her apt replies amazed the spectators, 
 many of whom were in sore doubt whether she were a saint 
 or a witch. She was condemned and burnt at the stake 
 (May 30, 1431).* 
 
 English Reverses. — The Maid was more fatal to Eng- 
 land when dead than when bearing her white banner on the 
 
 * Twenty-seven years afterward tardy justice was done to her memory. A new 
 trial was held, the sentence was reversed, and a cros3 erected on the scene of her 
 martyrdom. 
 
1435.] CHARLES VII. 93 
 
 battle-field. The patriotism which she had evoked grew 
 apace. The Duke of Burgundy at last declared for Charles. 
 The famous treaty of Arras (1435) settled the terms of this 
 reconciliation, and the Burgundians and Armagnacs embraced 
 as brothers. The regent dying a few days afterward, the 
 English were left without a head. Paris opened its gates to 
 the king's heralds (1436), and the garrison of the Bastille 
 was forced to surrender. 
 
 End of the Hundred Years War. — Thus far Charles 
 had been borne on to success by others. With his rising 
 fortune there came a change in his character.* He now 
 evinced a vigilance, energy, and nobility no one had sup- 
 posed him to possess. On the other hand, Henry VI. was 
 incompetent, and England was rent by factions. Charles 
 eagerly seized the chance thus offered. Under the brave 
 Dunois (nwd), the famous "Bastard of Orleans," the French 
 soon recovered Normandy and Gascony. The gallant Talbot, 
 who had been released, was killed at Castillon (1453), and his 
 cause died with him. Of all the possessions of the Edwards 
 on the continent, the patrimony of William the Conqueror, 
 the dower of Eleanor, the conquests of Henry V., there was 
 left scarcely anything save the city of Calais. 
 
 Government. — Charles, with his reviving power, set him- 
 self energetically to the task of reorganizing his kingdom. 
 The States-General were convened ; the nobles were forbid- 
 den to enrol troops without the royal consent ; and a perma- 
 nent tax was established to maintain a regular army. The 
 new military enforced order. The Free Lances were bidden 
 to disperse; in a fortnight they had disappeared. The old 
 
 * This change has been attributed to Agnes Sorrel, the king's favorite. Her in- 
 fluence was undoubtedly great in arousing him from his apathy, but it was more 
 than supplemented by a judicious weeding out of worthless advisers, and the sub- 
 stitution in their place of upright soldiers like Richemont, and of prudent statesmen 
 like Jacques Cosur. (See next page.) 
 
94 FEUDAL FRANCE. [1438. 
 
 lawless warfare of the feudal barons was at an end ; the era 
 of standing armies had commenced. An ordinance, known 
 as the Pragmatic Sanction, made the Gallican Church more 
 independent of the pope, and thus more national. Two 
 noblemen during these days obtained power at court — Riche- 
 mont (resh-moisr), the constable, and the merchant-prince, 
 Jacques Coeur * (zhiik kur). France, feeling a new sense of 
 security, awoke to fresh energies. 
 
 Charles VII's last days, however, were full of sorrow. 
 His habitual indolence, returning, gave uncertainty to his 
 acts, while he more and more became the tool of worthless 
 favorites. The dauphin revolted against him, and finally fled 
 to the court of Burgundy. Charles, in constant dread of his 
 son's plots, and believing that he intended to poison him, at 
 last refused food and died of starvation. 
 
 LOUIS XI. 
 
 1461 to 1483 = 22 Years. 
 
 Louis XL was thirty-eight years of age when he ascended 
 the throne. Selfish, cunning, cruel,- false to all sense of 
 honor and affection, he has been called " the wickedest son 
 and the worst father in French annals." f United with all 
 these despicable traits was such gross superstition that it 
 would be ludicrous, were it not associated with most hideous 
 
 * This famous citizen is said at one time to have transacted more business than 
 all the other merchants of France. Called to the charge of the state finances, he car- 
 ried his clear head into the management of public affairs. He lent from his own 
 coffers the money— 24,000.000 francs— to reconquer Normandy. "Sire, all that I have 
 is yours, " he said to the king. The courtiers, jealous of his influence, instituted a 
 process against him ; they divided the spoils, and shut him up in a convent at Beau- 
 caire. His old clerks joined to rescue him, and conducted him to Rome. 
 
 + To this might be added "the most brutal husband." Married in his youth to 
 the beautiful Margaret of Scotland, he so succeeded in breaking her heart, deliber- 
 ately and vulgarly crushing out all the poetry and hope of her young life, that, being 
 attacked with an illness which might easily have been cured, she refused medicines 
 and chose to die. 
 
1461.] 
 
 LOUIS XI. 
 
 95 
 
 crimes.* Louis was a politician and a diplomatist. Where 
 his predecessors would have used force, he resorted to bribery 
 and fraud. His great aim was to overthrow the system of 
 feudalism, and to reduce the nobles and the princes of the 
 blood, who had regained 
 their power during the 
 anarchy of the preced- 
 ing reigns. Henceforth 
 there was to be no 
 tyrant in France but 
 Louis XL 
 
 "League of the 
 Public Good" (1404). 
 — The severe measures 
 which Louis adopted 
 greatly irritated the 
 nobles. To divide the 
 two most formidable 
 of these foes, the Duke 
 of Brittany and the 
 
 *> LOUIS XI. 
 
 Count of Charolois — 
 
 afterward known as Charles the Bold — Louis offered to them 
 both the government of Normandy. Instead of quarreling 
 over it as he had intended, they united and formed a con- 
 spiracy to dethrone him. After an indecisive battle at Mont- 
 Hurl, Louis had recourse to his usual arts. Plentiful bribes 
 scattered the conspirators, and the Treaty of Conflans relieved 
 him from immediate danger. Afterward, by craftily evading 
 and repudiating its terms, he escaped w T ith little loss of land 
 
 * Among his absurd acts, he bestowed on the Holy Virgin the titles of Countess of 
 Boulogne and colonel of the Royal Guards ! Whenever he was planning any detest- 
 able crime he redoubled his devotions, and was to be seen running around to all 
 the shrines in the vicinity. '•' People trembled when they saw the meanly-dressed, 
 slouch-gaited, sallow-faced man traveling from altar to altar, and sticking his bonnet 
 full of little images of saints, for a talc of blood was sure to follow." 
 
96 FEUDAL FRANCE. [146G. 
 
 or money, and only the very trifling forfeit of his royal word. 
 Soon he was not only in quiet possession of Normandy him- 
 self, but had compelled the Dukes of Berri and Brittany to 
 desert the League and join in his support. 
 
 Louis at Peronne. — Charles the Bold, by the death of 
 his father, Philip the Good (1467), became Duke of Bur- 
 gundy.* Indignant at the defection of his allies, he still 
 demanded of the king the fulfilment of the treaty of Con- 
 flans. Louis, relying on his powers of persuasion, visited the 
 duke at Peronne. Scarcely had he arrived when news came 
 of a revolt which had broken out at Liege, in the duke's 
 Flemish territory. Charles, finding that it was instigated by 
 Louis, was greatly enraged, confined the king to his room, 
 and even threatened his life. Louis only recovered his liberty 
 on the most abject terms. To crown all, he was compelled 
 to go with the duke to attack Liege. Here he was forced 
 to hear the citizens, whom his own money and agents had 
 aroused, shouting:. "The king forever! France forever!" 
 to see the city stormed and sacked ; and then to accompany 
 Charles to the old cathedral, to give thanks for the victory. 
 After this humiliation he was allowed to depart, f 
 
 Struggle between Louis and Charles.— Henceforth 
 
 * Burgundy is a kingdom which has now almost vanished from history. It com- 
 prised at this time the Duchy of Burgundy, the county of Burgundy (Franche comte), 
 the Mvernois, and a great part of Picardy. Its natural boundaries were quite as Avell 
 marked as those of any other kingdom. The country was rich and populous. There 
 seemed no reason why it might not become an independent state, lying as a break- 
 water between France and Germany. This idea Charles steadily pursued throughout 
 his meteoric life. 
 
 t Entering Paris, he found hung along his route lines of cages filled with jays and 
 magpies, from whence came shrill cries of " Peronne," with various derisive epithets. 
 He soon discovered that his favorite cardinal, La Balue, was the friend and adviser 
 of Charles, and had proposed the degradation he had endured at Peronne. " The son 
 of the tailor in the red stockings had outwitted the son of St. Louis with the crown 
 on his head. 11 La Balue was imprisoned in an iron cage, about eight feet square, and 
 kept in the castle of Loches for eleven years, like a wild beast in his den. As an in- 
 stance of the frequent recoil of cruelty, the instrument of his torture was one of his 
 own invention. 
 
1472-77.] 
 
 LOUIS XI 
 
 97 
 
 there was bitter enmity between the king and his powerful 
 vassal. The complications, " never ending, still beginning," 
 are wearisome enough. Charles, rash and impetuous, was no 
 match for his cold, cunning adversary. Edward IV. of Eng- 
 land crossed the channel with a fine army to the help of the 
 
 A MOVABLE IRON CAGE. 
 (Fifteenth Century.) 
 
 duke, his brother-in-law, but Louis offered him 75,000 crowns 
 down, an annual pension, and the dauphin as a husband to 
 his daughter Elizabeth. These arguments were irresistible, 
 and the English returned. The French called this peace the 
 "Treaty of the Merchants." 
 
 Charles and the Swiss. — At last Charles turned his 
 arms against the Swiss, who were secretly instigated by 
 Louis. These gallant mountaineers routed the Burgundians 
 at Granson* (1476), and again at Morat. Turning then to 
 
 * Charles was fond of comparing himself with Hannibal. "We are getting well 
 Hannibalized to-day, my lord,''' said the court-fool as they rode off from the field of 
 Granson. Never had such riches greeted the eyes of these simple peasant people 
 as they found in the camp of Chai-les. Gold was so plentiful that they distributed it 
 in hats. Precious embroidery was used to decorate their miserable huts. A diamond, 
 weighing 139| carats, was picked up in the road and sold for a florin. The bones of 
 the Burgundians who fell at Morat were thrown into a mound, which remained for 
 ^hree centuries as a ghastly memento of this fearful day. 
 
 5 
 
98 FEUDAL FEAKCE. [1477. 
 
 conquer Lorraine;, Charles was defeated at Nancy, and his 
 dead body was found the next day with his face frozen in a 
 pool of water. Thus perished the last Duke of Burgundy. 
 
 Mary of Burgundy, the beautiful daughter of Charles, 
 was his only heir. Louis, disregarding her claims, at once 
 seized upon the Duchy of Burgundy and Franche Comte, 
 and sought to marry her to the dauphin, although she was 
 twenty and he a sickly boy of eight years. Not content with 
 this, he fomented revolts in her Flemish domains. Mary, 
 disgusted at his duplicity, gave her hand to Maximilian of 
 Austria. War ensued, and Maximilian gained the battle of 
 Guinegate (1479). Mary's premature death led to the peace 
 of Arras* (1482). Her infant daughter, Margaret, was then 
 betrothed to the dauphin, although he was already promised 
 to the English Princess Elizabeth, who had in consequence 
 assumed the title of Dauphiness of France. 
 
 Government. — One wearies of reading how, during these 
 years, by treachery, murder, execution, and assassination, 
 Louis subdued the feudal lords one by one. Yet from his 
 tortuous policy much good came to France. The enemies 
 he subdued were her enemies. He gave a fatal wound to 
 chivalry. He extended the frontiers to the Alps. He made 
 travel safe, maintained public peace, and protected commerce 
 and manufactures. Parliament became independent, schools 
 acquired new life, and letters new consideration. He had, 
 moreover, some good traits. It must have been in virtue of 
 them that he obtained from the Pope the title of "Most 
 Christian Majesty." He was industrious and indefatigable ; 
 he was attentive to the common people ; and he spared the 
 blood of his soldiers. 
 
 * The former treaty at Arras (1435), it will be remembered, between Charles VII. 
 and Philip the Good, was in the duke's favor, and added to his possessions. The 
 present treaty was in Louis's favor, and secured to him Burgundy and Artois. 
 
1483.] CHARLES VIII. 99 
 
 The last days of Louis were spent in the society of 
 his hangman, barber, and physician. He recoiled with terror 
 at the thought of death, which he had inflicted on so many. 
 Few now dared to approach the moody tyrant. Shut up in 
 his castle of Plessis,* he grew each day more pitiless and more 
 fanatical. He besieged every saint in heaven with prayers, 
 not for the forgiveness of his sins, but for the prolongation 
 of his life. He was anointed from the holy vial of Rheims. 
 He weighed himself down with mouldering relics. He even 
 drank the blood of infants, to revive the failing current of 
 his own. At last the end came (1483), and every one rejoiced. 
 
 CHARLES VIII. (THE AFFABLE), 
 
 1483 to 1498 = 15 Years. 
 
 Charles VIII., the heir to the throne, was only thirteen 
 years of age, deformed in person, and lamentably ignorant. f 
 He was left in the care of his sister Anne, known in history 
 as the "Lady of Beaujeu" (bo-zhu), a woman inheriting much 
 of the energy and diplomacy of her father. The prince near- 
 est the throne was the Duke of Orleans, who was married to 
 the king's youngest sister. A contest for the chief authority 
 arose, which was referred to the States-General. This body, 
 having committed the executive power to a Council of State, 
 
 * Ten thousand mantraps were placed in the grounds, and passers-hy could not 
 approach within a league. Suspicious persons were hung instantly without form of 
 trial. There was scarcely a tree in the forest hut bore on its branches the body of 
 some hapless trespasser, while corpses lay on the ground like bones around the lair 
 of a wild beast. Within the walls the precautions were no less. The king lived in 
 a suite of thirty rooms, which communicated with one another, and were secured by 
 six complicated locks. No one knew in which of these he slept, and he never inhab- 
 ited the same for two successive nights. 
 
 t His father— remembering, perhaps, his own tmfilial youth— was fearful lest his 
 ambition should become dangerous. All the Latin he allowed him to learn was a 
 single sentence, which contains a faithful summary of his own policy : Qui nescit 
 dissimulare nescit regnare. 
 
100 FEUDAL FRAiXCE. [1483. 
 
 with Orleans at the head, considered various necessary 
 reforms.* Little attention, however, was paid to its sug- 
 
 SCENE IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 gestions. Anne soon drove the duke out of his place as 
 head of the council. Supported by Francis, duke of Brit- 
 
 * The complaint which the tiers-etat made to the States was most pitiable. 
 41 During the last four years," said they, " the king's troops have been continually 
 passing and repassing through France, and all living on the poor people. Though 
 employed to prevent oppression, they are themselves the worst of all oppressors. 
 The poor peasant must pay for the man who beats him, who turns him out of his 
 house, who carries off his substance, and who compels him to lie on the bare earth. 
 When the poor man has, with extreme difficulty, and by the sale of the coat on his 
 back, managed to pay his tax, and is comforting himself with the hope that he may 
 live out the year on the little he has left, then comes a new troop of soldiers, eating 
 and destroying that little ; and, not satisfied with what they find in the poor man's 
 cottage, compelling him, with many blows, to seek in the town for wine, white 
 bread, fish, groceries, and other luxuries ; so that, if God did not comfort the poor 
 man, he would fall into utter despair. In Normandy a great and countless multitude 
 have died of hunger; others, in despair, have killed their wives, their children, and 
 themselves. From the want of beasts of labor, men, women, and children are com- 
 pelled to yoke themselves to cattle ; and others, fearing that, if seen in the day-time, 
 they will be seized for not having paid their faille, are compelled to labor during the 
 niijht. All which things being considered, it seemeth to the States-General that the 
 kin? ou<jht to have pity on his poor people, and ought to relieve them from the said 
 failles and charges." This wail of distress was disregarded. In striking contrast 
 with the distress of the common people were the pomp and splendor of the knights 
 and the riches and security of the middle classes in the cities. 
 
1491.] CHARLES VIII. 101 
 
 tany, and other distinguished nobles, he took tip arms. The 
 royal forces were victorious, and he was captured and con- 
 fined in an iron cage at Bourges. 
 
 The Duchy of Brittany, by the death of Francis, soon 
 after fell to his oldest daughter, Anne, scarcely twelve years 
 of age. This young heiress was sought by as many suitors 
 as Mary of Burgundy had been. Maximilian was again the 
 favored one, and Anne was to become Mary's successor. 
 This arrangement was highly unsatisfactory to Charles and 
 his sister, who had been striving in every way to annex Brit- 
 tany to the crown. A French army at once poured into the 
 duchy. Maximilian, who had only been married by proxy, 
 had never seen his bride, and, being then at war in Hungary, 
 could render her no help. Charles captured the city of 
 Bennes, and with it the fair duchess. His engagement with 
 Maximilian's daughter — who had come to the French court 
 at two years of age to be educated as the future queen — was 
 broken off, and a marriage with Anne of Brittany imme- 
 diately consummated. Thus Brittany, the last of the great 
 independent provinces which had, during this epoch, threat- 
 ened royalty, was annexed to the crown. France, united at 
 home, was now prepared to assert her power among other 
 European nations. 
 
 Summary. — The Hundred Years War, the feature of the fifteenth 
 century, covers the reigns of Philip VI., John I., Charles V., VI., and 
 VII. — Edward III. and the Black Prince of England win the great 
 battles of Crecy and Poitiers, and devastate the country. Charles V. 
 and Guesclin gain back a large share of the lost territory. The Bur- 
 gundians and Armagnacs reduce France to anarchy, while a maniac 
 sits on the throne. Henry V. gains the battle of Azincourt, and an 
 English king (Henry VI.) is proclaimed in Paris King of France. The 
 Maid of Orleans comes to the rescue of her distracted country. The 
 English, terror-stricken, flee at her approach, and Charles VII is 
 crowned at Rheims. She is taken at last and burned at the stake. 
 But French patriotism is aroused, and France has once more her own 
 
102 
 
 FEUDAL FRANCE 
 
 king. Talbot, the last of the English captains, falls on the field. The 
 English retain only Calais. Louis XI., cold and calculating, subdues 
 the feudal lords to his power. The Duke of Burgundy long holds out, 
 but at Granson, Morat, and Nancy, is beaten by the Swiss. The Lady 
 of Beaujeu proves a true daughter of a wily king. Brittany, last of 
 the great fiefs, is annexed to the crown. France is welded into one 
 compact kingdom, and the feudal system is fast expiring. 
 
 Manners and Customs, — It is early morning, and Paris is just astir. 
 The death-crier, in his sombre robes, adorned with skull and cross- 
 bones, is already out with bell and 
 lantern, and we hear his dismal 
 voice begging the prayers of all 
 good Christians for the newly-de- 
 parted soul. — As the mists creep 
 away, other sounds grow louder 
 and more distinct. "Hot baths" 
 are announced, and the people are 
 exhorted to ' ' make haste before the 
 water cools." Cries of fresh fish, 
 fruits, and vegetables mingle in 
 discordant clamor. Of the last, gar- 
 lic is in greatest demand, as the 
 basis of a sauce which takes the 
 place of butter on bread. The day 
 is now fairly opened, and out of 
 their close quarters come the va- 
 rious small artificers who ply their 
 trades in the open air. Not the least curious of these is the mender of 
 old clothes, who scans the garments of the passers-by with a greedy 
 look, ready with his needles and thread to repair any rent at a mo- 
 ment's warning. — In yonder doorway stands a sad-faced man, wringing 
 his hands, and proclaiming the recent disaster which has befallen his 
 house or fortunes. The mendicant monks waylay the wanderer at 
 every turn, and are seconded by the begging scholars, whose pale and 
 haggard faces, neglected hair, and ragged clothes, are a comment on 
 the refining influence of schools where cruelty and neglect are the dis- 
 cipline of the poor, and fawning favor the award of the rich. — It is 
 1389, and Queen Isabel is making her "joyous entry" into Paris. The 
 city is ablaze with splendor. One entire street is canopied with rich 
 scarlet and silk cloths. The houses are hung with tapestry, and only 
 women arrayed in brilliant stuffs and golden necklaces are seen at the 
 windows. — Fountains, flowing with milk and spiced wines, are attended 
 by beautiful girls, who sing as they offer drink from golden goblets. 
 
 FRENCH DEATH-CRIER. 
 
FEUDAL FRANCE. 103 
 
 There are elaborate tableaux ; mimic castles ; gay scaffolds whereon 
 crusading heroes fight ; Saladin and the Saracens all in full costume ; 
 a representation of Paradise, with singing angels; the holy Virgin, and 
 the Christ child amusing himself with a toy windmill ; 1,200 mounted 
 citizens of Paris, in green silk uniform, on one side the road, and on 
 the other an equal number of the king's cavaliers, in bright scarlet, 
 forming a hedge to protect the grand procession. The queen herself is 
 borne on a gorgeous litter. Some of her ladies are in open litters, and 
 some on magnificently-caparisoned palfreys, led by knights in full armor. 
 There are various ingenuities of mechanism. Now an angel is made 
 to descend " as if from the skies," and place a jewelled crown upon the 
 head of the young queen. Now a large white stag, "having its horns, 
 mouth, and all its limbs put in motion by a man within its body," 
 accompanied by a lion and an eagle, plays a part in a little drama sym- 
 bolical of loyalty to the king. Charles himself is there in disguise. 
 Mounted behind one of his courtiers, they press through the crowd. 
 In their struggles to get near they are well beaten by the faithful 
 sergeants, who keep order with heavy staves. In the evening, after 
 supper, the king talks it over amid the dancing festivities, and " laughs 
 with the ladies at the blows he has received. " — In spite of prohibitory 
 laws, the bourgeoisie so closely imitate the luxury and the extrava- 
 gance of the aristocracy, that Charles VII. declares ' ' there is no possi- 
 bility of discovering by their dress the state of persons, be they princes, 
 nobles, bourgeois, or working men, because all are allowed to dress as 
 they think proper, whether in gold or silver, silk or wool, without any 
 regard to their calling." We read of the invalid wife of "a simple 
 retail dealer, who was not above selling articles for four sous," who 
 reclines between sheets of "fine linen of Rheims, costing over three 
 hundred pounds ; " and under a quilt, which " is a new invention of 
 silk and silver tissue." " She wears an elegant dress of crimson silk, 
 and rests her head and arms on pillows ornamented with buttons of 
 oriental pearls. The carpet is like gold, and the walls are hung with 
 precious tapestry of Cypress, embroidered with her motto and initials." 
 — A great change in the fashion of male attire takes place in the four- 
 teenth century. The loose flowing robe is discarded, and the fashion- 
 able young courtier wears his clothes so tight that "it requires the 
 help of two persons to dress him ; and, when he disrobes, appears as 
 if being skinned." The heavy misfortunes which visit France in her 
 wars with England are publicly ascribed to the shameful extravagance 
 and absurdities in dress. Head-dresses and sleeves reach almost to the 
 ground, and a favorite shoe is " shaped like a bird, the front projecting 
 into a sharp point like a beak, and the heel lengthened out like a 
 claw." The youngest son of King John purchases 10,000 marten 
 skins, " to trim only five mantles and as many overcoats; " and the 
 
104 
 
 FEUDAL FRANCE 
 
 Duke of Orleans has 2,790 ermine skins, put into one mantle, at a 
 price of about twenty dollars a skin. The female costume is charac- 
 terized by the close-fitting waist, and by long trains which, in walking, 
 
 are tucked up under the* 
 arms, or borne by maids or 
 pages. The hair is worn over 
 lolls and puffs, piled some- 
 times to an enormous height, 
 and mounted by a high con- 
 ical bonnet. Long veils pend 
 from the tip of these gro- 
 tesque hats, and fall almost 
 to the feet. — Toward the end 
 of the fifteenth century, short 
 mantles, broad-brimmed hats, 
 covered with feathers, and 
 wide knee-breeches, are worn 
 by gentlemen. There are 
 some glimpses of rural enjoy- 
 ment even among the wretch- 
 ed peasantry. The church 
 festivals give them frequent 
 holidays, " in which they 
 drink, talk, sing, dance, and, 
 above all, laugh with a noisy 
 glee." At the wakes, or evening-parties, marvellous stories are told by 
 the old women, which are devoutly believed by the wondering and 
 superstitious company. — Not to clear the distaff on Saturday night, 
 they affirm, insures bad linen from the next week's thread ; and to 
 enter a cow-house without saying "God and St. Bridget bless you," 
 is to run the risk of kicking cows, broken pails, and spilt milk. A 
 collection of like ridiculous oracles is one of the first efforts at printing 
 at the close of the fifteenth century. 
 
 costume (fifteenth century). 
 
 References for 'Reading. 
 
 Histories of France already named— Mill's History of the Crusades.— Midland's 
 Crusades.— Mackay's Popular Delusions, art. The Crusades— Addison's Hist, of the 
 Knight Templars— Tasso's Jerusalem Delivered {poetry). — Chronicles of the Crusades 
 {Bonn's Library}.— Longfellow's Belfry of Bruges {poetry).— Shakspere's King John 
 {Arthur).— Yonge's Three Cent. Mod. Hist.— Bell's Studies of Feudalism.— Lacroix's 
 Manners and Customs of the Middle Ages.—Thierry' c s Hist. Norman Conquest.— 
 Byron's Childe Harold {Moral).— James's Philip Augustus, Mary of Burgundy, and 
 Jacquerie {fiction). —Southey's Joan of Arc {poetry).— Harriet Parr's Joan of Arc— 
 Scott's Quenlin Durward {fiction).— Jamison's Berlrand du Ouesclin.—Kirke's Life 
 
FEUDAL FRANCE. 105 
 
 of Charles the Bold.— The Chronicles of Froissart and Monstrelet, those unrivalled 
 ■pictures of the times.— Nicolas' 's History of the Battle of Azincourt— Philip de Comines, 
 Memoirs of France and Burgundy.— Ireland's Memoirs of Joan of Arc. 
 
 JZyents of the Third Mpoch in Chronological Order. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 987-998. Hugh Capet. Capetian line founded ... 86 
 
 996-1031. Robert the Pious 38 
 
 1031-1060. Henry I. Truce of God 41 
 
 1080-1108. Philip I. Conquest of England. First Crusade . 42-3 
 
 1108-1137. Louis VI. (the Fat) 45 
 
 1137-1180. Louis VII. (the Young). Second Crusade. Divorce of 
 
 Eleanor . 46 
 
 1 180-1223. Philip II. (Augustus). Normandy taken. Albigensian 
 
 Crusade. Battle of Bou vines 47-9 
 
 1223-6. Louis VIII 51 
 
 1228-1270. Louis IX. (St. Louis.) Blanche. Languedoc annexed 
 
 to France. Fifth and Sixth Crusades . . . 57-60 
 1270-1285. Philip III. (the Bold). Sicilian Vespers . . 60 
 
 1285-1314. Philip IV. (the Fair). Battle of Couitrai. Contest with 
 
 Pope Boniface. Abolition of the Templars . . 61-5 
 1314-1316. Louis X. (the Turbulent). Salic Law ... 65 
 
 1316-1322. Philip V. (the Long) 66 
 
 1322-1328. Charles IV. (the Handsome) 63 
 
 1323-1350. Philip VI. House of Valois. Hundred Years War 
 
 begun. Battles of Sluys and Crecy. Loss of Calais 72-6 
 1350-1334. John I. (the Good-Natured). Battle of Poitiers. The 
 
 Jacquerie. Marcel. Treaty of Bretigny . . 76-80 
 1364-1380. Charles V. (the Wise). Charles the Bad. Du Guesclin 80-2 
 1330-1422. Charles VI. (the Maniac). Battle of Rosbecque. Bur- 
 gundians and Armagnacs. Assassination of the 
 Duke of Orleans. Battle of Azincourt. Assassina- 
 tion of the Duke of Burgundy. Treaty of Troyes 82-8 
 1422-1481. Charles VII. (the Victorious). Battle of Verneuil. 
 " Day of the Herrings." " Joan of Arc." Siege of 
 Orleans raised. Charles VII. crowned at Rheims. 
 End of Hundred Years War. Standing army and 
 
 fixed taxes 88-94 
 
 1461-1483. Louis XL Charles the Bold. Burgundy, Anjou, Maine, 
 
 and Provence annexed to France . . . 94-9 
 
 1483-1498. Charles VIII. Lady of Beaujeu. Mary of Burgundy. 
 Anne of Brittany. Last of the great independent 
 provinces ........ 99 
 
WSJ* !¥• 
 
 PERIOD OF Tt^E lTJ^Lip WpS, 
 
 1494 to 1559 = 65 Years. 
 
 SsNVASION of Italy (1494).— 
 II Charles, romantic and visionary, 
 and longing to rival the deeds of 
 Charlemagne, was determined to 
 assert his claim to the throne of 
 Naples,* and even dreamed of chas- 
 ing the Turks from Constantinople 
 and restoring the Christian king- 
 dom of Jerusalem ! He accord- 
 ingly crossed the Alps with 50,000 
 men.f The discords of the little Italian republics favored 
 
 Geographical Questions.— Locate Milan, Naples, Rome, Sicily, Genoa, Venice, 
 Ravenna, Pavia, Lombardy, Agnadello, Novarra, Mantua, Turin, Gaeta, Fornovo, 
 Marignano, Sesia, Garigliano. Locate Amboise, Nice, Savoy, Metz, Toul, Strasburg, 
 Verdun, St. Quentin (san kon tan). 
 
 * Charles claimed Naples as the representative of the Anjevin— house of Anjou. 
 The " good king Rene " left Provence and his right to Naples to his nephew, Charles 
 of Maine, who, dying without children, bequeathed them to Louis XI. Louis was 
 too sagacious to mingle in the maze of Italian politics. 
 
 t His army tarried for the dilatory king at the foot of the Alps, amusing themselves 
 with tournaments and gay festivities, until they had exhausted the money raised for 
 the war. Charles was forced to borrow 50,000 crowns of a merchant of Milan, and 
 finally pawned the jewels of the Duchess of Savoy and the Marchioness of Montfer- 
 rat. — The great success of this expedition was largely due to the field-artillery. The 
 French guns, mounted on carriages drawn by horses, and ready to go into battle at 
 a moment's warning, presented a marked contrast to the Italian bombards, dragged 
 with great difficulty by bullocks, and only firing stone-balls. 
 
1493.] CHARLES VIII. 107 
 
 his advance. Florence, Rome, and Naples threw open their 
 gates. 
 
 The Reaction, — This wonderful triumph intoxicated the 
 boyish king and his thoughtless advisers. They gave them- 
 selves up to feasting and frivolity. The chief powers of 
 Europe, alarmed at the progress of the French arms, formed 
 a league to cut off his retreat. Charles turned back, laden 
 with plunder, broke through the allied host at Fornova 
 (1495), and escaped into France. His expedition, which at 
 first was like a triumphal procession, at the last was little 
 else than an ignominious flight. 
 
 Effect. — This invasion marks an era in French history. 
 The feudal system being broken up, the strength of the 
 king, instead of being wasted in fighting the great vassals of 
 the crown, was henceforth largely devoted to foreign enter- 
 prises and to schemes of conquest. From this dazzling but 
 useless exploit of Charles VIII. dates the interference of 
 French kings in the affairs of Italy, as well as the general 
 confederation of European states, to preserve the balance of 
 power between them all. 
 
 Last Days of Charles VIII.— On his return the king 
 plunged into luxury and pleasure. Late in life he broke off 
 his dissolute course, reformed abuses, and attended person- 
 ally to the complaints of his people. But life was nearly 
 gone ere he awoke to the responsibilities of a king, and he 
 was an old man at twenty-eight. One day at Amboise, as 
 he was leading the queen to a little gallery to watch some 
 tennis-players in the court below, he accidentally struck his 
 head against the low passage-way. Taking no notice of it, 
 he remarked to a courtier : " I hope never to commit another 
 wilful sin as long as I live." Scarcely had he spoken the 
 words when he fell heavily in a fit of apoplexy, and died soon 
 after on a pallet in the gallery. 
 
108 
 
 THE ITALIAN WARS. 
 
 [1498. 
 
 The direct line of the Valois bouse being now extinct, 
 the crown passed to the Duke of Orleans, of the Valois-Orleans 
 branch of the same family. (See Table in Appendix.) 
 
 V.— THE VALOIS-ORLEANS BRANCH. 
 
 1498 to 1589 = 91 Years. 
 LOUIS XII. (THE FATHER OF HIS PEOPLE). 
 
 OUI8 XII. (1498 to 1515 = 17 
 years), as king, appears very 
 differently from the restless, in- 
 triguing antagonist of the Lady 
 of Beaujeu. He nobly an- 
 nounced, on his ascension, that 
 "the king of France would 
 take no revenge on the enemies 
 of the Duke of Orleans." For 
 his second wife he married the 
 LOUIS xn - widow of Charles VIII. (Anne 
 
 of Brittany), and thus continued the union of Brittany and 
 France. He purified the morals of the court. He forbade 
 plunder by the soldiers, so that villagers no longer fled to 
 the churches for safety when troops were quartered near 
 them for the night. His economy was so marked that he 
 was even accused of parsimony.* Men talked with amaze- 
 ment of a king who paid as punctually as a merchant on 
 'Change. Notwithstanding the numerous wars in which he 
 was engaged, the taxes were reduced nearly one-third. The 
 states gratefully conferred upon him (1506) the title of the 
 " Father of his Country." 
 
 * On hearing this, he answered : "I would rather have my courtiers laugh at my 
 avarice than to have my people weep at my expense." 
 
1499.] 
 
 LOUIS XII. 
 
 109 
 
 Invasion of Italy (1499). — Unfortunately, Louis cher- 
 ished the same schemes of Italian conquest as Charles VIII. 
 To the claim upon the throne of Naples he added that of 
 the dukedom of Milan * He crossed the Alps, and made an 
 
 Sforza, its reigning 
 The French rule, 
 
 easy capture of Lombardy. Milan fell, 
 duke, fled to his son-in-law Maximilian, 
 however, becoming 
 oppressive, the people 
 revolted, and Sforza 
 recovered his capital ; 
 but La Tremouille, 
 the French general, 
 arriving with rein- 
 forcements, block- 
 aded him in No vara. 
 The majority of the 
 troops in the oppos- 
 ing armies were Swiss 
 mercenaries. Natu- 
 rally unwilling to 
 fight against each 
 other, those in the 
 service of " the Moor," as Sforza was called, were bribed to 
 surrender. J Milan was recaptured. 
 
 ANNE OF BRITTANY. f 
 
 * This claim was in right of his grandmother, Valentina Visconti, sister of Filippo 
 Mario, the last of the great Visconti family. 
 
 t Anne of Brittany is one of the most charming female characters of French his- 
 tory. Her gentle piety and purity stand out in bold relief against the dark vices of 
 her age. She transformed the most dissolute court of Europe into the most virtuous 
 and orderly. She frowned upon intrigues of all kinds. She encouraged art and learn- 
 ing at a time when they were but little appreciated. Her Book of Hours, still sacredly 
 preserved in one of the great libraries of Paris, is probably the most sumptuous and 
 elegant specimen extant of the illuminated works of the sixteenth century. 
 
 % "Give us up the duke before you go, 1 ' said the French commander. "No, our 
 honor forbids," was the reply ; " but you may find and take him if you can." So the 
 Swiss troops passed in double file through the French army— each man being searched 
 to see if the duke could be recognized. One, more knavish than the rest, pointed 
 
110 THE ITALIAN WARS. [1503. 
 
 Capture of Naples. — Louis now agreed with Ferdinand 
 to divide Naples between France and Spain.* Their armies 
 were accordingly poured into that devoted kingdom; but, 
 when it came to dividing the spoils, the victors quarreled. 
 The great Spanish captain, Gonsalvo, took Naples. Louis, 
 thereupon, raised three great armies, two of which he sent 
 against Spain, and one, under the veteran La Tremouille, into 
 Italy. At this crisis the death of Pope Alexander VI., and 
 the illness of Caesar Borgia, his son, threw all into confusion. \ 
 Deprived of these powerful friends, beset by Gonsalvo, and 
 embarrassed by the illness of Tremouille, the French were 
 irretrievably routed (Garigliano, 1503). Gaeta, their last 
 stronghold, surrendered. Naples had been won and lost a 
 second time. 
 
 The Three Leagues. — Still eager to acquire a broader 
 foothold in Italy, Louis now entered into a confederation, 
 known as the League of Carnival, between his enemies, Fer- 
 dinand, Maximilian, and Pope Julius II., against the Vene- 
 tians, his only friends south of the Alps. Louis descended 
 into Italy with a powerful army, and defeated the Venetians 
 (Agnadello, 1509), who retired to their inaccessible lagoons. 
 The Pope, thereupon, persuaded Ferdinand, the Swiss, and 
 the Venetians to form the Holy League, as he called it, 
 
 him out in his disguise. He was sent to the cas'.le of Loches, where he died ten 
 years after. Such had been his crimes that no one pitied his fate. 
 
 * This was a most iniquitious scheme. The Neapolitan and Spanish sovereigns 
 were friends and relations. Therefore, when pressed by the French, Frederick of 
 Naples would naturally seek help from his cousin, Ferdinand. Spanish troops would 
 then be sent to man his fortresses, and would be ready to deliver them to the French 
 when they appeared. The perfidy of this plot was enhanced by the fact that Fred- 
 erick was an estimable and popular prince. 
 
 t The story is that he and his son coveted the riches of a wealthy cardinal, and 
 determined to poison him. Inviting themselves to sup with him at his country- 
 house, they brought with them a present of some choice wine, in which, however, 
 they had mixed poison. On their arrival, being thirsty, they asked for some refresh- 
 ment. By mistake the cardinars servants gave them the very wine they had brought. 
 Alexander drank heartily of it, and died in a few hours. Cuesar escaped with the loss 
 of his health. 
 
1513.] LOUIS XII. Ill 
 
 against Franco. The French, under the brilliant Gaston de 
 Foix, then only twenty-two years of age, gained three victo- 
 ries in as many months. In the last battle (Ravenna, 1512), 
 this gallant prince, calling out, " He that loves me follows 
 me," charged upon the enemy, and fell, pierced by twenty 
 wounds from sword and lance. The League of Malines, com- 
 posed of Henry VIII. of England, Maximilian, Ferdinand, 
 and Leo X., the new pope, was next formed. La Tremouille, 
 the brave old general, now over eighty years of age, once 
 more took the field. Again Louis longingly turned his eyes 
 toward Milan. The city, as twice before, submitted, and 
 La Tremouille wrote boastingly to Louis that he could send 
 back the son of the Moor in chains as he had the father 
 thirteen years before. But the Swiss garrison of Novara, 
 sallying out by night, captured his intrenchments, and turned 
 Jiis own guns upon his camp. All was over. La Tremouille, 
 wounded, recrossed the Alps with his army. The guilty in- 
 vader of Italy had lost all the prizes which had cost so much 
 crime and misery. 
 
 France Threatened. — Meanwhile, Louis was forced to 
 look to the defence of France itself, now threatened on the 
 east by the Swiss, on the south by the Spaniards, and on the 
 north by the English. The last had already won the victory 
 of Guinegate, near Calais (1513).* Weary of war and vexed 
 by his defeats, Louis now gladly made peaco with all the 
 hostile powers. 
 
 Last Days of Louis. — Queen Anne was no more, and, 
 to confirm the alliance with England, Louis married the 
 Princess Mary, Henry's sister. But his health was already 
 feeble, and he soon after died (January 1, 1515), a victim to 
 
 * This is known as the second Battle of the Spurs, not, as at Courtrai, hecanse of 
 the number taken from the dead, hut because of the good use made of them by the 
 living— the French cavalry—who plied them lustily in ignominious flight. 
 
112 
 
 THE ITALIAN WARS. 
 
 [1515. 
 
 the amusements and dissipation into which he entered to 
 please his young bride. Leaving no direct male heirs, he was 
 succeeded by Francis, of the Valois-Angouleme * branch of 
 the same family. 
 
 FRANCIS I. (KING OF THE GENTLEMEN). 
 
 1515 to 1517 = 32 Years. 
 
 Francis I., of noble stature, handsome, joyous, brilliant, 
 warm-hearted, and luxurious in his tastes, was just the man 
 
 to dazzle all classes of 
 society. The decay of 
 feudal privileges during 
 the gradual growth of 
 " the royal power," had 
 lessened the importance 
 of the nobility, who now 
 left their castles to clus- 
 ter about the throne. 
 The Parisian court be- 
 came the centre of all 
 that was gay and at- 
 tractive.! 
 
 Battle of Marig- 
 nano. — Inspired by the 
 ambition and untaught 
 
 FRANCIS I.— (AFTER TITIAN.) 
 
 * When Louis XII. was dying, his thoughts turned toward the future of France. 
 44 1 have done all for the best," he said, " butihatbig boy dAngouleme will spoil all." 
 
 t The elegance, refinement, and luxury of his court presented a striking contrast 
 to the ascetic frugality of Louis XL and the homely practicality of Louis XII. His 
 chivalric nature can be traced in his dealings with Mary, the late king's widow. She 
 had come to France, a reluctant sacrifice to state policy, for her heart was already 
 given to the Duke of Suffolk. Her brother, Henry VIII., knowing this, had assured 
 her that if she would consent to this French marriage— which was not likely to be 
 of long duration — she should have her own choice the second time. Her freedom had 
 come sooner than was expected, and her lover was already in France by her side. But 
 
1515.] F KAN" CIS I. 113 
 
 by the failures of his predecessors, Francis inaugurated his 
 reign by crossing the Alps with a great army. At Marig- 
 nano lie encountered the Swiss allies of Milan. The des- 
 perate struggle lasted till midnight, when both French and 
 Swiss, overpowered by exhaustion, lay down where each hap- 
 pened to stand. Francis himself found no better resting- 
 place than a gun-carriage. No food could be obtained, and 
 the water which one of his troopers brought him was discol- 
 ored with blood. At early dawn they arose and resumed 
 the fight. Suddenly the battle-cry of the coming Venetians 
 sounded on the Swiss rear. This decided the day, and the 
 brave mountaineers left the field to their victors. Francis, 
 who had fought throughout like a hero, received the order 
 of knighthood at the hands of the Chevalier Bayard.* By 
 this victory Milan was again won. 
 
 The "Perpetual Peace" and. the "Concordat"— 
 Francis now made two treaties : one with the Swiss, and one 
 
 Francis, ignorant of the state of affairs, had his own projects. Could he arrange 
 some feasible alliance for her in France,. her valuable dower would be retained, and 
 he hiight possibly evade the payment of the large revenue to which, as queen- 
 dowager, she was entitled. Worn out by her anxiety and fears, Mary at last resolved 
 to confess the truth to the young king, and appeal to his manly sympathy and gene- 
 rosity. Francis was touched by her confidence, and at cnce responded. Thrusting 
 aside his ambition, he became her most earnest adviser. He entreated, as a per- 
 sonal favor, the consent of Henry to the alliance; and, when the opposition of the 
 English aristocracy threatened to again disappoint her hopes, he secretly abetted a 
 private marriage between the two in the little oratory chapel of Hotel deCluny, Paris. 
 * The Chevalier Pierre de Bayart (as his name is spelled in his signature preserved 
 at Paris) was of a warlike family. His father fought and suffered many wounds 
 under Louis XL ; his grandfather was killed at Montlheri ; his great-grandfather at 
 Crecy ; his great-great-grandfather at Poitiers. When only eighteen Pierre fought 
 under Charles VHL, and took a stand of colors at Fornova. At the siege of Milan, 
 under Louis XII., he was swept within the gates of the city by the crowd of fugitives, 
 but was set free without ransom by the enemy in admiration of his valor. At Garig- 
 liano he held a bridge alone against two hundred Spanish soldiers, and secured the 
 retreat of the French. At Guinegate, with a rear-guard of only fourteen men, he 
 kept the English back until the French had time to rally from their panic. With a 
 little body of 1,000 he defended Mezieres for six weeks against 35,000, under the 
 Count of Nassau. For this gallant service he received the collar of St. Michael, and 
 was appointed over one hundred men-at-arms— a position until then only held by a 
 prince of the blood. Higher, however, than his valor was his courtesy, loyalty, benev- 
 olence, and integrity. The universal admiration of the age conferred upon him the 
 title of the " chevalier without fear and without reproach." 
 
114 
 
 THE ITALIAN WARS, 
 
 [1516. 
 
 with the Pope Leo X. The former (1516) converted the 
 Swiss Eepublic into an ally of France, and lasted till the 
 Kevolution. The latter annulled the famous Pragmatic 
 
 BAYARD KNIGHTING FRANCI5. 
 
 Sanction of Charles, and restored to the Pope the immense 
 revenues of the annates* 
 
 Francis I. and Charles V.— On the death of Maxi- 
 milian, both Francis and Charles, the youthful king of 
 
 * The first year's revenues of vacant benefices were termed annates, or first-fruits. 
 
1520.] FRANCIS I. 115 
 
 Spain,* sought to be elected in his stead. The latter was 
 successful. A bitter rivalry ensued, which led to four dis- 
 astrous wars.f 
 
 Field of the Cloth of Gold (1520).— Both monarchs 
 appealed to Henry VIII. of England for help. Henry and 
 Francis met near Calais. The magnificence displayed on this 
 occasion gave to the place its name — the Field of the Cloth 
 of Gold. For three weeks the two kings feasted, sported, and 
 even wrestled together like school-boys. They measured their 
 height, found they were of equal size, and exchanged apparel. 
 Meantime, their followers vied in the gorgeousness of their 
 equipments. Festivals and tournaments of almost fabulous 
 splendor were held. Soon after Charles quietly sailed across 
 the channel, and, while he flattered the bluff and good- 
 natured Henry, won his minister and favorite, Cardinal Wol- 
 sey, by profuse presents and hopes of the papacy. Within 
 two years the vows of friendship, so luxuriously taken on the 
 Field of the Cloth of Gold, were forgotten, and Henry was 
 fighting with the emperor against his " dear brother." 
 
 The First War broke out in 1521. Francis suffered 
 humiliating reverses. The Constable de Bourbon, the fore- 
 most general in France, went over to Charles,! and was put 
 at the head of his armies. The noble Bayard was killed 
 while gallantly guarding the passage of a bridge across the 
 Sesia § (1524). 
 
 * The three mightiest sovereigns of Europe in the beginning of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury—Henry VIII. of England, Charles V. of Spain, and Francis I. of France— all 
 assumed their crowns before reaching their majority. 
 
 t Francis, at the beginning, declared, with the greatest courtesy : " We are two 
 gallants courting the same mistress ; he who fails will have no excuse for ill-temper.'" 
 Fine words, but soon forgotten. 
 
 $ Louise of Savoy, mother of Francis, had fallen in love with Bourbon, and sought 
 to marry him. The constable shunned her on. account of her infamous character. 
 Bent on revenge, she deprived him of his proper post in the army, held back his 
 pensions, and finally stripped him of his estates. Bourbon, in desperation, turned 
 to the enemies of France. 
 
 § The " good knight, 11 as he was lovingly called, was wounded by a stone ball from 
 
116 THE ITALIAN WARS. [1525. 
 
 Battle of Pavia (1525). — Francis again led a magnificent 
 army over the Alps, recaptured Milan, which had been lost 
 the third time within twenty years, and invested Pavia. 
 Bourbon attempted to raise the siege. His troops advanced 
 steadily, though suffering terribly from the French artillery. 
 Francis, seeing them scatter to escape this fire, mistook the 
 movement for a retreat, and rashly hurled himself upon them 
 at the head of his cavalry. As he came in front, the imperial 
 troops closed their ranks with admirable discipline. At this 
 
 FAC-SIMILE OF THE WRITING OF FRANCIS I. 
 
 critical moment the cannon which had served him so well 
 ceased firing lest they should endanger him. He was quickly 
 hemmed in on all sides. With his knights he performed 
 prodigies of valor. Thrown from his horse, twice wounded, 
 and covered with blood, he was at last forced to yield his 
 sword.* Many renowned generals fell fighting about him. 
 The royal captive, on his arrival in Madrid, was imprisoned 
 in a gloomy tower of the Alcazar. Overwhelmed by his 
 misfortunes and broken down by sickness, after a year's im- 
 prisonment, he agreed to sign the Treaty of Madrid, prom- 
 
 an arquebus. He was placed at the foot of a tree, with his face to the enemy. The 
 Constable of Bourbon coming up in the pursuit, stopped to console him. "Pity not 
 me, 11 said the dying hero, "I die as an honest man. I rather pity you, in arms 
 against your king, your country, and your oath." 
 
 * The reputed letter wherein Francis conveyed the news to his mother in a single 
 terse sentence: "Madame, all is lost save honor," is purely imaginary. The real 
 one was quite long, and has no claim to any historic renown. 
 
1526] FRANCIS I. 117 
 
 ising to relinquish Burgundy and his Italian claims, and to 
 surrender his two sons as hostages. On these hard terms he 
 was set free. Once past the Bidassoa, he sprang on horse- 
 back, exclaiming, " I am again a king," and galloped, scarcely 
 drawing rein, to Bayonne. His freedom gained, he refused 
 to fulfil the treaty. Charles, enraged at being thus duped, 
 turned his wrath upon the helpless boys. 
 
 The Second War. — Charles was too great, too fortu- 
 nate, and too reaching. So Francis easily formed an alliance 
 against him, with Henry, the Pope, and the Venetians, called 
 the Holy League (152G). Paralyzed, however, by the misfor- 
 tunes of Pavia, Francis showed little spirit, and gave him- 
 self up to the fascinations of a new mistress, the Duchess 
 D'Etampes. Bourbon, at the head of an army wild for 
 plunder, assaulted Eome, but was shot as he mounted a 
 ladder. His troops scaled the walls, and plunged into the 
 city like madmen. They spared neither age, sex, nor rank. 
 The Pope escaped into the castle of St. Angelo, but was 
 forced to surrender.* Pictures of priceless value were de- 
 stroyed. The splendor which had survived so many heathen 
 invasions perished before the brutality of a Christian army. 
 The French, under Lautrec, now made another triumphant 
 invasion of Italy. It ended, as usual, in disaster. Finally, 
 the Treaty of Cambrai (1529), knowm as the "Ladies' 
 Peace," \ brought a lull in the conflict. Francis recovered 
 his sons, and paid 2,000,000 crowns for Burgundy. Italy 
 was abandoned to the emperor. 
 
 Third War (1536). — Difficulties soon arose, chiefly about 
 Lombardy. Charles, vowing that he would make "the king 
 
 * Charles, hearing of Pope Clement's capture, put himself and court into mourn- 
 ing, and ordered prayers to he offered for the Pope's release. It was, in effect, 
 praying to himself, and he did not yield until his prisoner had paid roundly. 
 
 t So called hecause it was negotiated hy Louise of France, mother of the king, and 
 Margaret of Austria, the emperor's " well-heloved aunt." 
 
118 THE ITALIAN WARS. [1541. 
 
 of France as poor as any gentleman in his dominion," invaded 
 Provence, but was glad to get back again with half his army. 
 
 The Two Kings become Friends. — The Pope at last 
 brought about a reconciliation between the rival monarchs. 
 Soon after, Ghent, revolting against the Spanish authority, 
 offered itself to Francis. He not only refused the tempting 
 bait, but promised to Charles V. a safe passage from Spain 
 across France, to punish the rebellious burghers. The em- 
 peror accepted, and was received everywhere with rejoicings.* 
 Once safe across, however, Charles refused to fulfil the promise 
 he had made of giving Milan to the son of the French king. 
 
 Fourth War. — Francis, thereupon, formed an alliance 
 with the Turkish sultan, Solyman, who ravaged Hungary. 
 The celebrated Algerine corsair, Barbarossa, with one hun- 
 dred and ten ships, joined the French fleet, and Christian 
 people saw with amazement the union of the lilies of France 
 with the ensign of the Infidel. The coasts of Italy were 
 devastated, and 14,000 Christian prisoners taken back to Con- 
 stantinople as slaves. By the brilliant victory of Cerisolles 
 (1544), Francis gained all Piedmont. Meanwhile, Henry, 
 fickle as ever, declared for the emperor. Both w T ere to march 
 upon Paris, and then divide France between them. This 
 double invasion came to nought. The treaty of Crespjj 
 (1544) finally put an end to the rivalries of the two mon- 
 archs, who for twenty-five years had deluged Europe with 
 blood. 
 
 * There were not a few who counselled Francis to retain the emperor till he ful- 
 filled his promise of granting Milan. " Do you see that fair lady ? " said Francis, one 
 evening, pointing out to Charles the Duchess d'Etampes : " she advises me not to 
 let you depart from Paris until you have revoked the treaty of Madrid. " The emperor 
 was at first disconcerted, but rallied, and replied, coolly: "If the advice is good, it 
 should he followed." He, nevertheless, contrived on the following clay to drop 
 a diamond ring at her feet; she picked it up, and he begged her to retain it. 
 Thus he won her favor.— The court-fool of Francisset down Charles "to head his 
 list of fools," for daring to pass through France. " But if I let him go ? '.' said 
 Francis. "Then," replied he, "I will rub cut his name and will write yours in its 
 place." 
 
1541] TEAK CIS I. 119 
 
 The Reformation. — Early in the sixteenth century Lu- 
 ther began in Germany a religious reform. The Protestant 
 princes had united against Charles V., who sustained the 
 Catholic cause. Calvin had preached in France, and his 
 famous work on the Institutes of the Christian Religion was 
 afterward dedicated to Francis I. The Calvinistic doctrines 
 took deep root among the French nobility. They were even 
 cherished by the king's sister Marguerite, Queen of Navarre, 
 and Calvin was received at her court when driven from 
 Paris by Francis. There had been occasional efforts made 
 to repress the reformers, but the necessity of allying himself 
 with their leaders in Germany against Charles V. compelled 
 Francis to relax his hostility toward the Protestants in his 
 own dominions. By the treaty of Crespy, however, Francis 
 and Charles bound themselves to re-establish the Catholic 
 Church in all its integrity. 
 
 The Waldenses, or Vaudois (vo-dwah), a Calvinistic 
 community living in the valleys of Piedmont, were now treated 
 with terrible severity. Three thousand persons are said to 
 have been massacred ; their houses were burned ; the fields 
 were laid waste, the woods cut down, and the district was 
 converted into a desert. 
 
 Government. — Francis aimed at a despotism. The States- 
 General were no longer convoked. Parliament proclaimed 
 the doctrine of implicit obedience. Patriotism became synon- 
 ymous with loyalty to the king. Singularly enough, how- 
 ever, while so intolerant of any curtailment of his dignity, 
 Francis was yet largely ruled by female influence. In the 
 early part of his reign his mother, Louise of Savoy, was really 
 queen of France. Later, the famous Diana of Poitiers be- 
 came his favorite, and she in turn was succeeded by the 
 Duchess d'Etampes. Thus the public service was corrupted, 
 and even state secrets were betrayed. In the glitter of a 
 
120 
 
 THE ITALIAN WARS 
 
 [1547. 
 
 dissolute and fashionable court the sweet domestic charities 
 were made to seem vulgar, while vice was veiled under the 
 guise of sentiment and refinement. The long wars with 
 Charles V. led to increase of taxes, which pressed heavily on 
 the people. 
 
 The Renaissance. — Francis, however, did much to nat- 
 uralize in France that love of art, for the encouragement of 
 -v __, ^_ which she has since been 
 
 so renowned. Eight well 
 did he merit his title of 
 " Patron of Letters and 
 the Arts." He brought 
 back from Italy sculptors 
 and painters. * He gath- 
 ered treasures of art from 
 all parts of Europe. He 
 made munificent dona- 
 tions to schools and col- 
 leges. He was the friend and patron of scholars. A new 
 style of architecture — the French Eenaissance — was intro- 
 duced. The sumptuous palaces of Fontainbleau and St. 
 Germain, and the chateaux of Chenonceaux and Chambord, 
 are among its magnificent monuments. 
 
 Death of the King (1547).— Francis died, a victim of 
 his own excesses, only two months after his alternate friend 
 and enemy, Henry VIII. His last words to his son, Henry, 
 were to lighten the taxes, and to beware of the ambitious 
 house of Guise. 
 
 CHENONCEAUX. 
 
 * Leonardo da Vinci, the immortal painter of the Last Supper— which still remains 
 faded and mutilated on the walls of Santa Maria della Grazie, in Milan— was his 
 especial favorite. They met, for the first time, in full sight of the Last Supper. 
 '* Inasmuch as I am unable to carry this chef d'oeuvpe home with me, I should like to 
 take the artist whose work it is," said the king. Leonardo bowed his assent, and, 
 after three years of quiet happiness— for he was already an old man and had seen 
 much sorrow— he expired (so says tradition) in the arms of his royal Mend. 
 
1547.] 
 
 THE I T A LIAK W A R S 
 
 121 
 
 HENRY II. 
 
 1547 to 1559 = 12 Years. 
 
 Henry II. was handsome, affable, and skilled in the use 
 of arms, but his feeble mind gave no signs of greatness or 
 virtue. Neglecting his wife, Catherine d' Medici, he de- 
 voted himself to the infamous Diana de Poitiers, twenty 
 years his senior. Forgetful of his father's dying advice, he 
 gave his confidence to the constable Montmorenci, whom he 
 
 TESTON d' ARGENT TROISSANT HENRY II.* 
 
 familiarly called his "gossip," and to Francis d'Aumale, 
 afterward Duke of Guise. The court was rent by rival 
 favorites, for whom the people were plundered without 
 mercy, f 
 
 War with Charles V. — Every Frenchman feels that 
 the natural boundary of France on the east is the Rhine. 
 To realize this idea, Henry made a treaty with the Protestant 
 princes of Germany against Charles V. ; and, assuming the 
 high-sounding title of "Protector of the liberties of Ger- 
 many," took forcible possession of Toul, Verdun, and Metz. 
 
 * During this reign a decree was issued to the effect that thereafter the effigy of the 
 king should be stamped on all moneys. 
 
 t The men and women who surrounded Henry were a set of harpies, whose appe- 
 tite for plunder could not be satisfied. Spies were abroad to report the sick and 
 dying, that not a moment might be lost in begging for reversions ; and doctors were 
 kept in pay who had the reputation of anticipating Nature by an extra dose. — Gurnet. 
 
 6 
 
122 THE ITALIAN WARS. [1552-9. 
 
 Siege of Metz (1552). — Furious at his loss, Charles, with 
 100,000 men, laid siege to Metz. It was defended by Francis, 
 Duke of Guise, and the knights of France nocked thither as 
 to a tournament. The emperor was finally forced to retire, 
 bitterly declaring that "Fortune, like the rest of her sex, 
 favors the young and neglects the old." * 
 
 Battle of St Quentin (1567).— While the Duke of 
 Guise was fighting in Italy with the best troops of France, 
 a Spanish-English army invaded Pieardy, and besieged St. 
 Quentin, where Admiral Coligny was stationed with only 
 seven hundred men. The constable Montmorenci, marching 
 to his relief, rashly attacked the enemy, who outnumbered 
 him two to one, and was terribly beaten. The town was 
 stormed, and the veteran Coligny captured while defending 
 the breach, sword in hand. The road to Paris lay open to 
 the victors, but they failed to follow up their success.f 
 
 Capture of Calais (1558). — The Duke of Guise, return- 
 ing from an inglorious campaign in Italy, and eager to 
 avenge the defeat of St. Quentin, captured Calais, by an 
 unexpected attack, in the dead of winter. Thus England 
 lost the last remnant of her continental domains, after having 
 retained it over two centuries. This exploit raised to the 
 highest pitch the glory of the Duke of Guise. 
 
 The Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis (1559), called the 
 Unfortunate Peace, closed the contest between Henry and 
 Philip. France relinquished no less than one hundred and 
 eighty-nine towns and fortresses in the Low Countries and in 
 Italy; but retained Calais, Toul, Metz, and Verdun. 
 
 * Two years afterward he retired to a monastery, and his immense kingdom was 
 divided between his son, Philip II., and his brother Ferdinand. 
 
 t When Charles, in bis retirement, heard of this victory, he exclaimed : "Is not 
 my son now in Paris ?" Philip, however, derived ho advantage from it, except the 
 glory of the day and the plan of the huge palace of the Escurial, which is built in 
 parallel rows like the bars of a gridiron, in memory of St. Lawrence, on whose day 
 the battle was fought, and whose martyrdom consisted in beingbroiled over a slow fire. 
 
1559.] 
 
 HENRY II. 
 
 123 
 
 Death of the King. — A double marriage was to cement 
 the peace ; one between the Princess Elizabeth of France and 
 Philip II., the other between Margaret, the king's sister, and 
 the Duke of Savoy. In celebration of the first a grand tour- 
 nament was held, in which the king and the Duke of Guise 
 
 A TOURNAMENT.— (SIXTEENTH CENTURY.) 
 
 held the lists against all comers. .At length the king desired 
 Count Montgomery, a Scotch officer of the guard, to break 
 a lance with him. The challenge was reluctantly accepted. 
 Their lances shivered, a splinter entered Henry's eye, and 
 he fell mortally wounded. 
 
 Summary. — The close of the fifteenth and the first half of the six- 
 teenth centuries are marked by the Italian wars. Charles VIII. and Louis 
 XII. waste therein their strength and treasure. The Father of his People 
 Is followed by the King of the Gentlemen. Francis I. wins Marig- 
 nano, and is knighted by Bayard. For thirty years he struggles against 
 Charles V. Taken at Pavia, imprisoned at Madrid, and driven out of 
 Italy, he yet preserves French territory, and holds the Austrian-Spanish 
 
124 THE ITALIAN WARS. 
 
 house in check. The renaissance brightens the realm of art, but 
 bribery and selfishness corrupt the state, while the king becomes 
 absolute in power. Henry II. annexes Metz, Verdun, and Tool. The 
 French are defeated at St. Quentin, but the Duke of Guise gloriously 
 defends Metz against the emperor, captures Calais from the English, 
 and frees France from the lingering step of the invader. 
 
 References for 'Heading. 
 
 Mrs. Elliot's Court Life in France {romance) .— James" s Henry of Guise (fiction.— 
 James's Memoirs of Great Commanders (Gonsalvo cle Cordova).— PrescoWs Ferdi- 
 nand and Isabella, Vol. Ill— Robertson's Charles V.—Gurnefs Chapters in French 
 History.— Violet le Due, Annals of a Fortress. 
 
 Brents of the Fourth I?j)oc?i in Chronological Order. 
 
 tags 
 1494-1498. Charles VIII. First descent of French into Italy 106 
 
 1498-1515. Louis XII. (Father of his People). Expedition to 
 
 Italy. Exploits of Gaston de Foix. Battle of 
 
 the Spurs 108-11 
 
 1515-1547. Francis I. Battle of Marignano. Strife between 
 
 Francis I. and Charles V. Exploits of Bayard. 
 
 Battle of Pavia . . . . . . . 112-16 
 
 1547-1559. Henry II. Metz and Verdun annexed to France. 
 
 Defeat of St. Quentin. Capture of Calais. Peace 
 
 of Cateau-Cambresis . . . . . 121 
 
 Distinguished Names of the f&th and f6th Centuries. 
 
 Jehan Froissari (1337-1410), "the Walter Scott of the Middle Ages." His 
 chronicles present a most brilliant and life-like picture of the feudal life of the 14th 
 century. 
 
 Christina (1383-1420), daughter of Thomas of Pisa, astrologer of Charles V., wrote 
 a life of that monarch. She was the most accomplished woman of her time. 
 
 sitian Chartier* (1386-1458), wrote a history of Charles VII., was a poet and a 
 moralist. 
 
 jphilijy cle Comines (1445-1509), author of Memoirs of Louis XI. and Charles 
 VIII., marked an epoch in historical literature. He aimed, not to amuse, but to 
 instruct ; and by exact truthfulness and a critical examination of events, to paint the 
 past and draw a lesson for the future. 
 
 * His patroness, Margaret of Scotland, wife of the Dauphin, afterward Louis XL, 
 one day finding him asleep, astonished her companions by kissing his lips, taking 
 care, however, to explain that she paid the homage, not to the man, but to the 
 " mouth whence had issued so many golden words." 
 
PERIOD OF TIjE CIVIURELIGIOUS WpS, 
 
 1553 to 1533-39 Years. 
 
 The three sons of Henry II. came to the throne in 
 succession. Francis was only sixteen, Charles ten, and Henry 
 twenty-three years of age, when called to rule. Young and 
 
 inexperienced, they were 
 entirely unfitted to deal 
 with the turbulent fac- 
 tions and profound ques- 
 tions which then agitated 
 the country. 
 
 Francis II., a weak 
 and sickly hoy, was de- 
 voted to his beautiful 
 young bride, the ill-fated 
 Mary Queen of Scots. 
 During his short reign 
 of sixteen months, Mary's 
 uncles, the Duke of Guise 
 and Cardinal Lorraine, through her controlled the king, 
 while the queen-mother, Catherine de' Medici, plotted and 
 intrigued to secure power for herself. 
 
 The Huguenots. — The Calvinists, or, as they began to 
 
 Geographical Questions— Locate Vassyj Dreux, Amboise, Blois, Orleans, 
 Eochelle (she!), Bayonne (ba-yon), St. Denis, Jarnac (znar-nac), Contras (trah), 
 Arques (arks), Ivry, Vervins, Nantes (nants). 
 
 CATHERINE DE 1 MEDICI. 
 
1-26 THE. CIVIL-RELIGIOUS WARS. [1532. 
 
 be called, the Huguenots,* had now over 2,000 houses of 
 worship. Conscious of their power, they began to demand 
 the same rights as their Lutheran brethren in Germany had 
 secured, and to threaten a great religious revolution. At their 
 head were the king of Navarre, the princes of Conde — both 
 of the royal house of Bourbon, which claimed descent from 
 St. Louis — and Admiral Coligny (len-ye), nephew of Constable 
 Montmorenci. The Bourbons, ambitious for political power, 
 hated their rivals, the Guises, who stood at the head of the 
 Catholic party. The Guises, by their arrogance and tyranny, 
 aroused deep hatred among all classes. The malcontents 
 naturally allied themselves with the Huguenots. Thus, 
 what began as a revolt against the authority of the pope, 
 became one against that of the king. Political parties min- 
 gled with religious, and the contest was little more than a 
 struggle for the ascendancy of rival chiefs. 
 
 Conspiracy of Amboise (1560). — A plot, in which the 
 enemies to the government of all classes and views united, 
 was formed to get possession of the king. The leader was 
 the Prince of Conde (da), known among the conspirators only 
 as the " Dumb Captain." The plan failed through treachery, 
 and the court was removed to the castle of Amboise for 
 safety. The vengeance of the Guises was fearful. f The 
 Prince of Conde was arrested, condemned, and only saved by 
 th 3 death of Francis II. 
 
 Charles IX., a boy of ten, next ascended the throne. 
 Catherine de' Medici now occupied a place like that once 
 held by Blanche of Castile ; but there was a vast difference 
 
 * Said to be so named from a corruption of the German word cidgenossen, asso- 
 ciated by oath, the name assumed by the Calvinists of Geneva. 
 
 t The carnage lasted for a month. The victims were tortured, and then hung, 
 beheaded, or drowned in the Loire. The streets of Amboise ran with blood, while a 
 crowd of swollen corpses, fastened together by long poles, floated in the river. The 
 young king, Catherine de 1 Medici, and many ladies of the court, assembled daily to 
 witness these barbarous executions. 
 
15G2.] CHAELES IX. 127 
 
 in the character and record of the two mothers. Bred in the 
 wily Italian court, Catherine was true to no party and faith- 
 ful to no creed.* She sought to hold the balance of power 
 between the two parties; called the States-General ; prohib- 
 ited persecution in matters of religion ; and introduced various 
 reforms. But the recklessness of party spirit and selfish am- 
 bition could not be restrained. In vain the excellent Chancellor 
 l'Hopital exhorted to peace. Events steadily moved on to war. 
 
 "Massacre of Vassy." — One Sunday (1562) the Duke 
 of Guise was riding through the little town of Vassy as the 
 Huguenots were gathering for worship. His attendants, 
 going to the church, commanded the congregation to dis- 
 perse. A fierce brawl ensued. The duke hurried to the 
 spot, and was met by a shower of stones. The soldiers opened 
 fire, and sixty persons were slain. 
 
 This was the signal for a war which, seven times suspended 
 by precarious treaties, was as many times renewed, and for 
 thirty-two years covered France with blood and ruin.f Each 
 party appealed to its friends for help — the Guises to Philip of 
 
 * She careel nothing about the religious questions of the day. She -was ambitious, 
 and to this was ready to sacrifice any party or principle. She even corrupted her 
 own sons to pave her way to power. " She trusted nothing except the predictions 
 of astrologers and the course of the stars. The direful traditions of her race, the 
 philters, the perfumes, the powders— swift and deadly poisons— were imported by 
 her into France. She had poisons for flowers, for gloves and handkerchiefs, for the 
 folds of royal robes, for the edge of gemmed drinking-cups, for rich and savory 
 dishes. One by one all who stood in the way of her ambition were quietly ' removed ' 
 by these secret agencies." 
 
 + "On both sides, 11 remarks Lingard, "inhuman atrocities were perpetrated by 
 men who professed to serve under the banners of religion and for the honor of God. 1 ' 
 " One may easily know, 11 says Montluc, in his memoirs, " which way I have passed ; 
 for upon the trees by the roadside hang my ensigns. 11 He was always accompanied 
 by two hangmen, whom he called his lackeys. Briquemont wore a string of priests' 
 ears as a necklace. Things finally came to such a pass that all bonds of society were 
 dissolved. The towns took arms, and the bnrghers kept watch and ward. The 
 peasants, with axe and club, and in self-defence, massacred all soldiers of whatever 
 party. A gentleman with loaded musket watched the visitor who might be coming 
 up the walk to his house, and. according to his trust or suspicion, gave orders to 
 open the door, or shot him down without further notice. Even if it were his most 
 intimate acquaintance, he called out to him, from an aperture in the wall, to leave 
 his arms outside before he could enter. 
 
128 
 
 THE CIVIL-RELIGIOUS WARS 
 
 [1562. 
 
 Spain, and the Huguenots to Elizabeth of England. Like 
 most civil and religious contests, it was conducted with brutal 
 ferocity. It would be a useless task to note the details of 
 such a complicated strife. 
 
 Fate of the Leaders.— The king of Navarre, having 
 been won over by the Guises, fell while leading an assault at 
 
 Eouen. In the first bat- 
 tle (Dreux, 1562), the 
 constable Montmorenci 
 was captured by the 
 Huguenots, and Conde * 
 by the royalists. Soon 
 after, while besieging 
 Orleans, the Duke of 
 I 'IBH^ Guise was treacherously 
 
 >Jlil§ ' - lUfct sno ^ kv a Huguenot. 
 
 Montmorenci and Conde, 
 being released, were kill- 
 ed in battle, the former 
 at St. Denis, and the lat- 
 ter at Jarnac, where, after having given up his sword, he was 
 shot by a Swiss captain, while lying helpless and bleeding. 
 
 The Henrys, f — Jeanne of Navarre, widow of the king 
 of Navarre, now came to the Huguenot camp with her son 
 Henry, Prince of Beam — afterward Henry of Navarre — and 
 his cousin Henry, Prince of Conde, son of the fallen general. 
 Henry of Beam was chosen leader under the veteran Coligny. 
 
 * Conde was taken to the tent of the Duke of Girise, who received him more like a 
 comrade than a captive, and, as a mark of his confidence, shared his hed with him. 
 Conde afterward declared that Guise slept as soundly as if his dearest friend, instead 
 of his greatest enemy, were lying by his side ; hut as for himself, he " did not close 
 his eyes during the entire night." 
 
 t Four Henrys now figured at the head of the armies, none of whom was yet out 
 of his teens: Henry of Lorraine, duke of Guise, son of the one killed at Orleans; 
 Henry of France, duke of Anjou (afterward Henry III.) ; Henry of Bourbon, prince 
 of Conde ; and Henry of Beam, prince of Navarre and Beam (afterward Henry IV.). 
 
1573] CHARLES IX. 129 
 
 The peace of St. Germain, soon after, gave a temporary lull 
 to hostilities. 
 
 Marriage of Henry and Margaret. — Every effort was 
 now made to conciliate the Huguenots. Henry espoused 
 Elizabeth, daughter of Maximilian II., who was favorably 
 disposed toward them, and Margaret, the king's sister, was 
 married to Henry of Navarre. 
 
 Coligny at Court. — Meanwhile Ooligny Avas received 
 with marked consideration at court, where he soon obtained 
 great influence oyer the king.* Under his direction troops 
 were sent into the Netherlands to aid the Protestants. Nego- 
 tiations w r ere opened with the reformed princes of Germany, 
 and a declaration of war against Spain appeared imminent. 
 
 Attempt to Assassinate Coligny. — Catherine, fearful 
 of Coligny's power, resolved to put him out of the way.f 
 Three days after the marriage of Henry and Margaret, 
 Coligny was fired upon while returning from the Louvre. 
 Charles, full of indignation, Avent at once to the admiral. 
 The threats cf the Huguenots alarmed Catherine. On the 
 king's return to the palace she waited upon him with her 
 advisers, assured him that he or the Huguenots must fall, 
 and besought him to consent to the death of their chiefs. 
 Charles, finally starting up, shouted : " Perish all the Hugue- 
 nots then ! Let not one remain to reproach me!" Lists of 
 the Huguenots were accordingly distributed; the conspira- 
 tors were to be distinguished by a white badge on the left 
 arm and a white cross on the hat; and the signal for the 
 slaughter was to be given in the early morning of St Bar- 
 tholomew's Day by the bell of the Palace of Justice. 
 
 * " My father," said the king, taking the venerable admiral caressingly by the hand, 
 " we hold yon now, and you shall never escape us again." 
 
 + It was planned that the assassin should be a retainer of the Guises. The Hugue- 
 nots would naturally rise to defend their leader, and then the royal troops would fall 
 upon both parties as violators of the public peace. 
 
130 
 
 THE CIVIL-RELIGIOUS WARS. 
 
 [1572. 
 
 Massacre of St. Bartholomew (1572). — While it was 
 yet dark, Catherine, impatient lest Charles should waver, 
 ordered the great bell of St. Germain l'Auxerrois to be 
 
 tolled. Lights sud- 
 denly streamed out 
 from the windows, 
 and the streets were 
 thronged with armed 
 men. Presently a 
 fl pistol shot was heard. 
 fj| The Duke of Guise 
 jlljl hurried with a party 
 i of soldiers to Co- 
 ligny's house. He 
 remained below, un- 
 willing to face his victim, but the men rushed up stairs. 
 They found an old man at prayer. "Are you Coligny?" 
 snouted the leader. " I am," was the calm reply. He was 
 quickly dispatched and his body thrown out of the window, 
 that Guise might feast his eyes on the spectacle. In every 
 street and house the slaughter now raged. Neither women 
 nor children were spared. Private revenge satisfied itself 
 under the reigning terror, and suitors murdered their rivals, 
 debtors their creditors, and heirs-at-law their nearest kin., 
 Charles, who had reluctantly ordered the crime, was now 
 wild to assist in it. "He was seen," says Bran tome, "firing 
 from a window of the Louvre upon the miserable fugitives."! 
 
 ST. GE.IIt.-AIN L AUXERROIS. 
 
 * This church is supposed to have been founded by King Childebert, in the sixth 
 century. Destroyed by the Normans, it was rebuilt by Robert the Pious. It was the 
 favorite place of worship of the English during their occupation of Paris in 1423, 
 and was by them liberally repaired and beautified. The early artists of France took 
 great pride in its adornment. Many eminent persons have been interred within its 
 walls ; and from its pulpit, in more recent times, the thrilling eloqueuce of Bourda- 
 loue and Masillon has charmed the world. 
 
 t This incident is unfortunately well authenticated. Voltaire informs us, in ono 
 
1572.] 
 
 CHARLES IX 
 
 131 
 
 Henry of Navarre and the Prince of Conde were brought 
 before him, and only saved their lives by changing their 
 faith. Three long days of terror passed ere silence fell upon 
 
 I HE MASSACRE OF ST. BARTHOLOMEW (AUGUST 24, I572). 
 
 this fearful scene. Meanwhile the news of the massacre 
 traveled with marvellous speed over France, and each city 
 in turn had its own St. Bartholomew. No less than 30,000 
 persons perished in all. 
 
 Renewal of the War. —This great crime, says Duruy, 
 was as useless as are all crimes. The war broke out with 
 greater fury than ever. The Huguenots were exasperated, 
 
 of the notes to the Henriade, that he had heard the Marshal de Tesse mention that, 
 having in his youth met an old gentleman ahove a hundred years of age, who had 
 served in the guards of Charles IX., he questioned him on the suhject of the mas- 
 sacre, and asked him if it was true that the king had fired on his subjects as they fled 
 in terror past the Louvre. " Yes," answered the old man, " it is true. I myself, sir, 
 loaded his carbine for him. 1 ' 
 
132 THE CIVIL-RELIGIOUS WARS. [1574. 
 
 not daunted, while with them were allied great numbers of 
 the more moderate Catholics. Kochelle defended itself so 
 desperately that Charles was forced to accord liberty of wor- 
 ship to the Huguenots of the district. 
 
 Death of Charles. — The health of the king declined 
 from the fatal day of St. Bartholomew. He was a prey to 
 the> keenest remorse, and in his dying hours was haunted by 
 the spectres of the murdered Huguenots. 
 
 Henry III. (1574 to 1589 = 15 years), king cf Poland, 
 on learning of his brother's death,* lied from his Polish sub- 
 jects by night and returned to Prance. Cold, cruel, and 
 frivolous, he neglected all state affairs, and spent his time, 
 with a band of boon companions, in orgies so disgraceful as 
 to shock the society of even that infamous age.f 
 
 The League. — Henry, then Duke of Anjou, had been a 
 prominent adviser of Catherine during St. Bartholomew. The 
 Huguenots rose once more as they saw him on the throne. 
 Plenry of Navarre and Conde, escaping from Paris, again 
 took the field. They were joined by Swiss and German 
 troops, and their party became so strong that the king and 
 Catherine were forced to grant them terms which filled the 
 Catholics with dismay. A league was formed, headed by 
 the brilliant Duke of Guise,| which gained multitudes of 
 adherents, and at the States-General (1576) was all-pow T erful. 
 Henry, with a gleam of unaccustomed shrewdness, declared 
 
 * It wns considered remarkable in those days of slow traveling and no telegraphs, 
 that the tidings reached him at Cracow in thirteen days. 
 
 t Now he attended a hall, dressed in female attire, with rich necklaces on his bare 
 neck, and affecting the mien and gait of a fashionable beauty ; now in the garb of a 
 penitent, and with coarse buffoonery, he followed the shrines of saints through the 
 streets; and now, with his wife, he went from doer to door seeking to buy little 
 dogs, monkeys, and paroquets, of which he was very fond. 
 
 % He was known as Le Balafre (the scarred), because of a scar on the cheek. lie 
 was the idol of Paris. His partisans claimed the throne for him as the descendant 
 of Charlemagne, and talked of deposing Henry III., " whose ancestor was that usurper, 
 Hugh Capet, 1 ' and of shutting him up in a elokte:-, "as Pepin did Cailderic." 
 
1576.] HENRY III. 133 
 
 himself the chief of the League, and required his officers to 
 take its oath. 
 
 Progress of the Strife. — This step of the king deprived 
 Guise of all excuse for disloyalty, but it drove the Huguenots 
 to arms. The hostility of the Guises led Catherine to favor 
 the Huguenots, and (1578) she went to Navarre with her 
 " flying squadron " of court beauties, and spent over a year 
 at the south, seeking to conciliate her rebellious subjects. 
 Henry of Navarre gained a brilliant victory at Coutras,* but, 
 neglecting his advantage, he hastened into Beam, like a 
 knight-errant of the Middle Ages, to lay his trophies at the 
 feet of his favorite Countess de Grammont. Soon after 
 Conde died of poison. On the death of the Duke of Anjou 
 (formerly Duke of Alencon), brother of the king, Henry 
 became next heir to the throne, f The king, dreading almost 
 equally the success of either party, grew more and more 
 into discredit. Guise and his friends artfully fomented the 
 popular dissatisfaction. Henry III. had forbidden Guise to 
 enter Paris. He came, however, and was received with all the 
 honors of a king. Henry, alarmed, sent for his Swiss guards. 
 Their appearance excited the populace. Pavements were torn 
 up, barricades erected, and. chains stretched across the streets. 
 The soldiers were quickly overpowered. The terrified mon- 
 arch appealed to Guise to check the mob. He went out with 
 only a riding-whip in his hand. The barricades fell as 'by 
 magic, and the Swiss were liberated. Paris could not con- 
 tain two kings, and that night Henry III. fled to Blois. Ne- 
 gotiations being opened, the weak Henry yielded, and agreed 
 
 * After this battle Henry rushed among his infuriated soldiers, crying : " No more 
 blood ! Spare them all ! They are Frenchmen, and brave men ! " And at supper, 
 when some of his officers were indulging in pleasantry, he checked them, saying: 
 "Gentlemen, surely this is a time of grief, even for the conquerors." 
 
 + Seldom has a claim to the throne been traced from so distant an ancestor. His 
 relationship to Henry III. was in the twenty-first degree, and he was nine removes 
 from St. Louis. 
 
134 
 
 THE CIVIL-EELIGIOUS WARS. 
 
 [1583. 
 
 to make Guise lieutenant-general of the kingdom, and to 
 convoke the states. 
 Assassination of Guise.— The scene now shifts to 
 
 the picturesque castle of 
 Blois. The states met 
 (1588), and all eyes were 
 turned to Guise. Henry 
 resolved to be rid of his 
 dreaded rival. One day 
 the duke was summoned 
 to the royal cabinet. As 
 he lifted the tapestry 
 hanging, the assassins 
 closed about him, and 
 the work was soon done. 
 The duke's brother, Car- 
 dinal Lorraine, shared a 
 similar fate.* 
 
 The Two Henrys United. — This murder aroused Paris 
 to frenzy. f Henry was excommunicated by the Pope. The 
 Sorbonne declared the people released from their allegiance. 
 Whole provinces revolted. Driven to desperation, Henry 
 turned for help to the Huguenots, and effected a reconcilia- 
 tion with Henry of Navarre. Their combined forces then 
 marched upon Paris. At this juncture the hand of an as- 
 sassin turned the tide of affairs. 
 Assassination of the King. — A fanatical monk, by means 
 
 HENRY, DUKE OF GUISE. 
 
 * Catherine lay dying in the chamber beneath. "Madame,'' 1 said Henry, as he 
 entered, "I have made myself King of France; I have killed the King of Paris.'" 
 Catherine, startled, exclaimed: "God grant that it may not make you king of 
 nothing. 1 ' 
 
 t Processions thronged the churches, in which prayers for the martyred saint 
 were mingled with execrations of his hated murderer. Bands of half-clothed men, 
 women, and children marched, with wax-lights in their hands, to the Cemetery of 
 the Innocents, where they solemnly extinguished their tapers, crying : " Thus perish 
 the detestable race cf the Valois." 
 
1589.] HENRY III. 135 
 
 of a forged note, secured admission to the royal tent. As Henry 
 opened the message to read it, the assassin drew a knife and 
 plunged it into his body. The guards rushed in and quickly 
 dispatched the murderer. But Henry's hour had come. 
 Nothing in all his life had so become him as hisunanner of 
 leaving it. He forgave his enemies, and, embracing Henry 
 of Navarre, caused all his nobles, in his dying presence, to 
 take the oath of allegiance to him. 
 
 FAC-SIMILE OF THE WRITING OF CATHERINE DE' MEDICI. 
 
 The House of Valois was now extinct. Its thirteen kings had ruled 
 France for two and a half centuries. It is a house distinguished in 
 history for its singular misfortunes. Every monarch save one (Charles 
 V.) left a record of loss or shame. Philip VI. was defeated at Sluys 
 and Crecy, and lost Calais. John was beaten at Poitiers, and died a 
 prisoner in England. Charles VI. was conquered at Azincourt, and 
 forced to acknowledge, by treaty, the English monarch heir of his 
 kingdom. Charles VII. was only a shadow of a king, owed his crown 
 to the devotion of a peasant girl, and finally starved himself for fear 
 of poisoning by his son. Louis XI. was taken prisoner by the Duke 
 of Burgundy, and for days was in hourly danger of being put to death ; 
 he died hated by all, and dreading the revenge of those he had so 
 cruelly wronged. Charles VIII. and Louis XII. met nothing but re- 
 verse in Italy. Francis I. was taken prisoner at Pavia. Henry II. 
 suffered the mortification of the French defeat at St. Quentin, and was 
 slain in a tilting match. His three sons are linked in history with 
 their mother, Catherine de' Medici. Francis II. fortunately died young. 
 Charles IX. perished with the memory of St. Bartholomew resting 
 heavily upon him ; and Henry III. fell by the hand of a murderer.* 
 
 * ' : The assassinations take place in a connected series; the assassin, generally, 
 being in his tarn assassinated. Francis, Duke of Guise, the deliverer of Calais, is 
 assassinated by the pistol-shot of a fanatic. The Prince of Conde is assassinated by 
 
13G 
 
 HENRY I Y 
 
 
 [1589 
 
 HENRY IY. 
 
 VL— THE BOURBON HOUSE. 
 
 1539 to 1789 = 200 Years. 
 
 | ENRY of Navarre (1589 to 
 
 Jk 1610 = 21 years) now suc- 
 ceeded to the throne as 
 Henry IV. His position was 
 full of danger. The League, 
 the Pope, and Philip of Spain 
 were banded against him. 
 The Catholic nobles insisted 
 upon his abandonment of 
 the Protestant religion as 
 the price of his crown, and 
 20,000 soldiers quitted his 
 standard. He retained a few 
 of the leaders by promising to protect the Catholic faith. 
 This concession offended in turn the stern Huguenots of 
 Poitou and Gascony. Scarcely one-sixth of France declared 
 for Henry and against the League. In Paris the Duke of 
 Mayenne, brother of the murdered Guise, assumed the title 
 of Lieutenant-General, and the Cardinal of Bourbon — who 
 was then Henry's prisoner— was proclaimed king, under the 
 title of Charles X. 
 
 Five years of civil war ensued before Henry secured 
 possession of Paris. A successful resistance of Mayenne's 
 superior forces at Argues * was a favorable augury. Elizabeth 
 
 a shot in the hack of the head while he is helpless and getting his wounds dressed. 
 Henry, Duke of Giiis- 3 , assists at the murder of Coligny, and is assassinated hy the 
 daggers of Henry III. Henry in turn is assassinated by Clement, a monk, acting 
 under the orders of the Duke of Guise's sister. 11 — Chambers. 
 
 * After this battle he wrote to the Duke of Crillon : "Go hang yourself, brave 
 Crillon ! We have fought at Arques, and you wern't there.'" 
 
1589.] 
 
 HENRY IV. 
 
 137 
 
 sent him some English regiments; the Venetians acknowl- 
 edged him king of France; and even the Pope began to 
 waver, saying that "Mayenne spent more time over his 
 dinner than Henry in bed." The famous battle of Ivry* 
 occurred the next year. " My comrades," said Navarre, "if 
 
 you lose sight of your stand- 
 ards, rally to my white plume; 
 you will find it on the road 
 to victory and honor." Every- 
 where on the field where the 
 blows fell thickest, was Henry 
 to be seen, conspicuous for 
 valor and prowess. The Leaguers 
 
 THE BATTLE OF IVRY. 
 
 were 
 
 utterly routed, f 
 
 * At supper, on the night before this battle, he had spoken harshly to a German 
 officer named Schomberg. While he was marshaling his troops for the fight, he 
 stopped his horse before him. "Monsieur de Schomberg," he said, "I know ycur 
 valor and ask your pardon, embrace me." " Ah, sire," cried the poor officer, over- 
 . come by the condescension of the king, " your majesty wounded me yesterday, to-day 
 you kill me." 
 
 t The weather was stormy, with heavy rain, lightning, thunder, and violent gusts 
 of wind. For a moment the clouds rolled away, and then " the strange spectacle was 
 
138 THE CIVIL-RELIGIOUS WARS. [1590. 
 
 Paris was again besieged, but just as its fall seemed inevita- 
 ble, the Duke of Parma came to the rescue, and Henry had 
 to withdraw, foiled and humbled. Disasters followed thick. 
 All Navarre's daring tactics glanced harmlessly from the im- 
 perturbable caution of this great Spanish general. The fruits 
 of Ivry were lost. Henry's treasury was empty.* Even in 
 his own camp the nobles forwarded the war, hoping to dis- 
 member France and recover their feudal powers. 
 
 Henry becomes a Catholic. — Convinced that only a 
 Catholic king could unite distracted France, Henry finally 
 resolved upon what he himself termed "the perilous leap." 
 In the cathedral of St. Denis, upon his bended knees, he 
 publicly abjured his Calvinistic errors^ and was restored to 
 the bosom of the Church (1593). One year afterward he was 
 crowned king of France and Navarre. 
 
 Close of the Civil War. — It was a proud moment for 
 Henry when he was presented with the keys of Baris, amid 
 shouts of " Long live the king ! " The Spanish garrison sur- 
 rendered, and marched out with the honors of war.f No act 
 of revenge marred his triumph. His generous bearing, as he 
 passed through the city, J quickly stole the hearts of the 
 populace. The provinces rapidly followed the example of 
 the capital. The great nobles, however, hung back, bargain- 
 presented of two great armies fighting in the air. Fresh clouds withdrew the com- 
 batants from sight before the issue of the ghostly contest could be ascertained. " 
 This curious mirage, in that superstitious time, impressed both armies with the be- 
 lief that other warriors than themselves were deciding the fate of that eventful day. 
 
 * "He was the poorest of gentlemen, this most lovable of kings ; and hints were 
 given that his majesty's apparel was not altogether free from darns or his boots from 
 holes. Nothing kept its gloss but the plume of white feathers which swayed above 
 his head, his bright sword, and his unruffled good humor.' 1 — White. 
 
 + Henry stood at the gate of St. Denis as they defiled past. " Good-by, gentle- 
 men," said he, laughingly, in reply to their salute ; " my compliments to your master, 
 but don't come here f.gain." 
 
 % One of his soldiers took a loaf of bread from a baker's shop. Henry, who saw 
 the act, ran after him, sword in hand, saying: " Carry that back instantly or I will 
 kill you." 
 
1594.] 
 
 HEKRY IV 
 
 lc9 
 
 ing for their loyalty, and no less than 30,000,000 francs were 
 spent in purchasing their allegiance. 
 
 War with Spain (1595-8) grew out of the fact that Henry 
 considered Philip II. his bitterest foe, and also that a foreign 
 war would unite rival factions. 
 At first Henry met with some 
 successes, but his finances were 
 low and his army small. Many 
 Huguenots, disgusted by his 
 defection, or disappointed at 
 seeing the honors they had 
 earned bestowed upon their 
 enemies, deserted his cause. He 
 himself was fond of pleasure, 
 and, in the society of his female 
 favorites, sometimes forgot the 
 duties of , a king. The loss 
 of Calais and Amiens finally 
 aroused him from his lethargy. 
 " My friends," said he, " I have 
 long enough played king of 
 France; it is time for me to 
 show them kino- of Navarre." 
 
 O FH1LIF II. OF SPAIN. 
 
 He took the field. Amiens was 
 
 recaptured after an obstinate siege, and, by the peace of 
 
 Verv ins (1598), Philip surrendered all his conquests except 
 
 Cambrai. 
 
 End of the League. — Meanwhile Henry having received 
 absolution from the Pope, who had acknowledged him king 
 of France, Mayenne, the leader of the League, sent in his 
 submission.* He was treated so generously that henceforth 
 
 * Henry received him in the garden, find, during the long conversation, walked 
 him briskly up and down the avenue. Panting and puffing, the poor Mayenne— who 
 
140 THE CIVIL-RELIGIOUS WARS. [1598. 
 
 lie became one of the king's most faithful servants. The 
 League quickly dissolved. 
 
 The Edict of Nantes (1598) finally closed this devas- 
 tating civil war. It guaranteed to the Huguenots liberty of 
 conscience and of worship, eligibility to all public employ- 
 ments and offices, and a chamber of justice to protect them 
 in their rights. They were allowed to maintain ministers, 
 and to hold certain fortified places. They were to pay tithes 
 to the Church, and to observe its festivals and holy-days. For 
 nearly a century the Protestants enjoyed substantial toleration 
 under this edict. 
 
 Summary. — The three sons of Henry II. successively ascend the 
 throne. Young and inexperienced, they are only the tools of their 
 crafty mother, Catherine de' Medici, and the ambitious house of Guise. 
 The wars which they wage against the Huguenots headed by Conde, 
 Coligny, and Henry of Navarre, characterize the latter half of the cen- 
 tury. The massacre of St. Bartholomew, the assassination of Coligny, 
 Francis Duke of Guise, Conde, Henry Duke of Guise, and Henry III., 
 are horrible epochs in this bloody era of history. Henry of Navarre 
 wins the battles of Arques and Ivry ; becomes a Catholic ; the Leaguers 
 submit ; the edict of Nantes ends the religious wars of France. 
 
 Manners and Customs. — Hunting was the favorite pastime. Louis 
 XI , himself fond of the chase, forbade it to all classes under penalty 
 of hanging. He even searched the castles of the nobles for concealed 
 nets or sporting-arms. Charles VIII. hunted daily, and extended the 
 privilege to the nobility. Great splendor was displayed in sporting 
 equipages. The netting establishment of Francis I. included "one 
 captain, one lieutenant, twelve mounted huntsmen, six varlets to 
 attend the bloodhounds, six whips, who had under their charge sixty 
 hounds, and one hundred men on foot, carrying large stakes for fixing 
 the nets and tents, which were borne on fifty six-horse chariots." 
 We can imagine a train of hunters issuing from the gates of a castle 
 on a clear morning. The pack of hounds, eager for the chase, are fol- 
 
 was immensely fat and short cf breath— dared not interrupt his royal master, but 
 dragged his ponderous bulk around till he was nearly dead with fatigue. At last he 
 stopped and begged to be allowed to rest. " Well, cousin," cried the king, laughing 
 heartily, "I am glad you have finally spoken. This is the only punishment 1 intend 
 to inflict on you in return for all your opposition." 
 
THE CIVIL-KELIGIOUS WAKS. 141 
 
 lowed by the mounted sportsmen, each with his trained leopard or pan- 
 ther sitting behind him on the saddle, or a falcon perched on his wrist. 
 Ladies are there ; some in gay six-horse chariots, and some on horse. 
 There is a host of pages and varlets, and all are in handsome apparel, 
 with ribbons fluttering to the breeze. When the dogs start the game, 
 the leopard jumps from the saddle and springs after it. As soon as he 
 has caught it, the hunters throw him a piece of raw flesh, when he 
 gives up his prey and remounts behind his master. — The falcon was 
 used in hunting feathered game. These birds were imported at great 
 cost, and a long course of training was necessary to perfect them. A 
 well-trained falcon was a present fit for a king. — At a hunting-party 
 given by Louis XII. to the Archduke Maximilian, the archduchess was 
 killed by a fall from her horsa. The king, " with a view to divert 
 his mind,'" gave his best falcons to the bereaved husband, which, we 
 are told, " materially lessened his sorrow." — Animal combats were still 
 a royal pastime. On one such occasion the excitable Charles IX. was 
 with difficulty dissuaded from leaping into the arena alone to attack a 
 lion which had torn some of his best dogs to pieces. His brother, 
 Henry III., was differently disposed, for dreaming one night that his 
 lions were devouring him, he had them all killed the next day. — Many 
 tales are told of the adroitness of thieves in these days. Charles IX., 
 wishing to test their skill, sent for ten of the most expert to attend a 
 grand banquet, with full liberty to pursue their profession. After the 
 dinner and ball were over, they showed their plunder to the king-, 
 which was "over 3,000 crowns," including money, jewels, and even 
 cloaks, " at which the king thought he should die with laughter." 
 This royal host allowed them to keep what they had earned at the 
 expense of his guests, but forbade them to " continue this sort of life," 
 making them soldiers instead. — At mourning and funerals the king 
 never wore black, but scarlet or violet ; the queen wore white. Thus 
 Mary of England was called " La Reine blanche " (white queen), after 
 the death of Louis XII. A royal widow kept her couch for six weeks 
 in a darkened apartment, lighted only by wax tapers, and attended by 
 a few of her ladies. Etiquette required the same for a duchess ; but 
 the Wife of a knight arose on the tenth day, and sat in front of the 
 bed, on a black sheet, during the remaining days of the six weeks. 
 Ladies attended the funerals of their parents, but not of their hus- 
 bands. The manner in which grand funerals were celebrated is curi- 
 ously illustrated by that of the husband of " The Lady of Beaujeu," in 
 1503. A famous tight-rope dancer performed on a very high rope, 
 with e< all sorts of graceful tricks, such as dancing grotesque dances to 
 music, and hanging to the rope by his feet and his teeth." A female 
 dancer also added to the entertainment, " throwing somersaults, and 
 performing graceful Moorish and other peculiar dances," These re- 
 
142 THE CIVIL-RELIGIOUS WARS. 
 
 markable obsequies lasted two or three days, and were observed by 
 the king and 30,000 persons. — Coaches were introduced in the time ox 
 Henry II. For a long time there were only three in Paris : one for the 
 queen, one for Diana of Poitiers, and one owned by a corpulent noble- 
 man, who, " being too fat to ride on horseback, had to be carried in a 
 coach like a woman." — Anne of Brittany introduced a low head-dress, 
 consisting of strips of velvet, or of black and violet silk, over bands 
 of white linen, which encircled the face, and fell down over the back 
 and shoulders. Men adopted short tunics, plaited, and tight at the 
 waist, with full or puffed sleeves. Catherine de' Medici brought the 
 fashions of paint, patches, and perfumes from Italy. She also intro- 
 duced high-starched ruffs, kept out by wires, which were not only 
 worn by ladies, but supplanted the small, upright collar in male attire. 
 Francis I. led the styles in his time. "Those were the days of broad 
 sombrero hats, fringed with gold and looped up with precious jewels 
 and feathers ; of costly cloaks, heavy with gold or silver embroidery, 
 and hung over the shoulder ; of slashed hose and richly-chased rapiers; 
 of garments of cloth of gold and of satin, covered with diamonds, emer- 
 alds, and Oriental pearls. The ladies wore Eastern silks and golden 
 tissues, with trimmings of rare furs ; sparkling coifs and jewelled nets, 
 with glittering veils. They rode on horses whose pedigrees were as 
 undoubted as their own, covered with velvet housings and silken nets, 
 woven with jewels, their manes plaited with gold and precious stones. 
 But these illustrious ladies considered gloves a royal luxury, and were 
 weak in respect of stockings."— [Mrs. Elliot.] Henry III. was a de- 
 votee of fashion, and the day his queen was crowned spent its greatest 
 part in assisting at her toilet. He covered his face with cosmetics 
 every night to improve his complexion.— Table-cloths came in use 
 among the nobility in the 16th century. Fine linens as well as costly 
 garments were counted sufficient treasures to be bought second-hand, 
 even by kings and queens. At the sale of a deceased nobleman's effects 
 in 1572, we find Catherine de' Medici adding to her table-linen. The 
 dead man's garments were auctioned off, his mantles, breeches, boots, 
 slippers, and other wearing apparel being eagerly bidden for by such 
 high-bred noblemen as the Duke d'Aumale, the Cardinal de Bourbon, 
 and the Duke d'Anjou, whose dignity was not above making the best 
 of a bargain in a dead friend's old clothes. 
 
 References for lieadhig. 
 
 Smiles, The Huguenots.— Epochs of Hist., Era of the Protestant Reformation.— 
 Fisher's and D'Aubigne's Histories of the Reformation— Martyn \s and Browning's 
 Histories of the Huguenots.— Hanna's Wars of the Huguenots.— Freer 's Histories of 
 Henry III. and Marie de" Medici.— Lingard' 's Hist, of England (Era of the Reforma- 
 tion).— Macaulay's Ivry {poem).—SeivanVs Anecdotes and Biographiana, 
 
THE CIVIL- RELIGIOUS WARS. 143 
 
 Events of the Fifth Fpoch in Chronological Order. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 1559-1560. Francis II. Power of the Guises. The Reforma- 
 tion. Party of the Huguenots. Conspiracy of 
 Amboise 125-6 
 
 1560-1574. Charles IX. Catherine de' Medici. " Massacre of 
 Vassy." First War (1562-3). Battle of Dreux. 
 Death of Guise. Peace of Amboise. Second 
 War (1567-8). Battle of St. Denis. Peace of 
 Lonjumeau. Third War (1568-70). Battle of 
 Jarnac. Death of Conde. Battle of Moncon- 
 tour. Peace of St. Germain. St. Bartholomew. 
 Fourth War (1573). Peace of Rochelle . . 126-32 
 
 1574-1589. Henry III. Fifth War (1575-6). Peace of Mon- 
 sieur.* The League. Le Balafre. Sixth War 
 (1577). Peace of Bergerac. Seventh War (1580), 
 called the War of the Lovers. Peace of Fleix. 
 Eighth War (1586-9), the War of the Three 
 Henrys. Battle of Coutras. Day of the Bar- 
 ricades. Assassination of the Duke of Guise 
 and of Henry III 182-5 
 
 1589-1610. Henry IV. Battles of Arques and Ivry. Edict of 
 
 Nantes 136-40 
 
 distinguished Names of the 16th Centiry. 
 
 Stabetais (1483-1553), a monk and then a physician ; a famous satirist of the age. 
 
 Clement Marot (1495-1544), the first French poet of the century. 
 
 Z, 'Jfopitat (1505-1573), Chancellor of France, and a statesman of singularly pure 
 and upright character. 
 
 Montaigne (1533-1592), author of delightful moral essays, tinged, however, with 
 skepticism. 
 
 Jacques Auguste de Thou (1553-1617), " the one historian of the 16th century." 
 
 Francois de Malherbe (1555-1628), u was proud of being called the tyrant of 
 words and syllables ; choosing this word and rejecting that, he may be said to have 
 created modern French. He would often spoil half a ream of paper in perfecting a 
 single stanza." 
 
 * This name in France was given to the eldest brother of the king. The Duke of 
 Anjou negotiated this treaty. 
 
TrjE ABSOLUTE IJONARCIJY, 
 
 1598 to 1789 = 191 Years. 
 
 .TATE of the Country'.— France 
 was now bleeding from a hundred 
 wounds. During the forty years 
 since the accession of Charles IX., 
 128,000 houses had been destroyed 
 and 800,000 persons killed. Thou- 
 sands had been reduced to beg- 
 gary. Agriculture was almost a 
 forgotten art. Vast districts were 
 covered by marshes and forests, 
 traversed by neither roads nor canals. There was a heavy 
 debt. The people paid as taxes about 200,000,000 francs 
 annually, but only one-sixth of it found its way into the 
 treasury. His warrior life over, Henry, now sought to reform 
 these gigantic abuses, restore the health and strength of the 
 kingdom, and give to France its former position among the 
 nations of Europe. 
 
 Sully and the Finances. — The regulation of the finances 
 was intrusted to the king's tried friend, the illustrious 
 
 Geo(/)*ap7iica2 Questions.— "Locate Catalonia. IRoussillon (sel-yon). Corbie. 
 Bocroi (rwa). Courtrai. Dunkirk. Sens. Charleroi. Tournay. Brussels. Ant- 
 werp. Amsterdam. Maestrecht. Seneffe. Philipsburg. Cassel. Mayence. Worms 
 Spires. Heidelberg. Fleurus. Namur. Steinkirk. Byswick. Blenheim. Eamil- 
 lies. Malplaquet. Eaucous. 
 
1598.] 
 
 H E H It Y I V . 
 
 145 
 
 Sully.* This famous minister traveled over France, exam- 
 ining accounts, reforming the collection of revenue, com- 
 pelling the disgorgement of 
 ill-gotten wealth, and estab- 
 lishing a system hitherto un- 
 known. The laying of taxes, 
 except by royal order, regis- 
 tered by parliament, was for- 
 bidden. This put an end to 
 the plunder hitherto exacted 
 by nobles and governors on 
 their own account. The ex- 
 emption from taxation of the 
 nobility and all who made 
 arms a profession was abol- 
 ished. So well were affairs 
 
 managed that, with one-fourth the former taxes, by the end of 
 the reign a surplus of 20,000,000 francs lay in the treasury. 
 Public Improvements. — Every avenue of business felt 
 the impulse of this vigorous and beneficent administration. 
 France began to smile again. Sheltered from the pelting 
 storm of war, the people basked in the calm of a blessed 
 peace. f Public works were undertaken ; the old highways 
 were repaired and new roads built ; the capital was embel- 
 
 * Sully entered the service of Henry of Navarre when only eleven years old, and 
 followed him in all his adventures and battles. Devoted to his master and to France, 
 he cut down his own woods at Kosny to aid the king in his extremity ; and, although 
 himself a zealous Protestant, counselled Henry to become a Catholic, in order to 
 finish the war and save the country. He dared to tell the most unwholesome truths 
 to the king— for whose faults he had little indulgence— and Henry had the good sense 
 to take all in kindness, and everywhere to support his faithful, clear-headed minister. 
 Motley, in his John of Barneveld, sums up Sully's character thus : " Hard worker, 
 good hater, conscientious politician, who filled his own coffers without dishonesty, 
 and those of the state without tyranny; unsociable, arrogant, pious, very avaricious 
 and inordinately vain, there was but one living being for whom Sully had greater 
 reverence and affection than for the king, and that was the Duke of Sully himself." 
 
 t " If I live,'" said Henry, " every man shall have a fowl to put in his pot for his 
 Sunday dinner." 
 
14G THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY. [1598. 
 
 lished with churches, hospitals, bridges, and quays ; fortresses 
 arose; the army was re-equipped; and new dockyards her- 
 alded a growing navy. Workmen were allured from Holland 
 and Italy ; and the famous silk manufactures of Lyons and 
 the tapestry workers of Paris soon outshone their masters. 
 
 Government. — While questions of finance were thus left 
 to his ministers, Henry labored assiduously to establish the 
 authority of the law, and, by reducing the privileges . of the 
 nobles, to strengthen the throne. In spite of his popularity 
 and good-humor, he had high ideas of the royal prerogative, 
 and ill brooked any interference with his kingly pleasure.* 
 He thus laid anew the foundation of that despotism which 
 culminated in the reign of his grandson, Louis XIV. 
 
 Henry's Domestic Relations were unfortunate. Mar- 
 garet, the bride, so linked with the events of St. Bartholo- 
 mew, led a life of unblushing infamy. The king secured a 
 divorce, and married Marie de' Medici, who deceived and 
 hated her husband, and who conspired not only against his 
 policy but his life. At the same time Henry's notorious gal- 
 lantries f grieved his friends, and furnished a pretext to his 
 enemies for constant revolt. 
 
 A Formidable Conspiracy was fomented by the Duke 
 of Savoy and the king of Spain to kill Henry, and divide up 
 France among the great nobles. At the head of this rebel- 
 lion was Marshal de Biron (bi-roN), known as the " lightning 
 of France," who had fought at Henry's side at Arques and 
 Ivry, and was his bosom friend. Forgiven once, on a renewed 
 
 * When Parliament hesitated to register the edict of Nantes, he said to them : " My 
 will is reason enough for you; and, where subjects are loyal, princes need give no 
 other. I am king now, and speak as a king, and mean to he obeyed." 
 
 + His name was long connected with Gabrielle d'Estrees, whom he would have 
 married had Margaret consented to a divorce during the life-time of the favorite. 
 Her sudden and mysterious death threw him into ah agony of grief for three tvee/cs, 
 by which time he had met Henriette d'Entragues, otherwise known as the Marchion- 
 ess de Verneuil, a cold, ambitious, designing woman, who kept him more or less her 
 slave to the end of his life. 
 
1602.] HE^itY IV. 147 
 
 attempt the marshal was executed for treason. The sup- 
 pression of this and other revolts firmly established the king's 
 authority at home. 
 
 "The Grand Design." — Henry and his minister had 
 now for some time meditated a great political scheme. Eu- 
 rope was to be reorganized into fifteen monarchies and repub- 
 lics, forming a grand confederation of states. A general 
 council, consisting of deputies from each, was to decide any 
 question of dispute. The reign of right was to replace that 
 of might, and universal peace was to be supreme. Prepara- 
 tory to this the house of Habsburg was to be humiliated. 
 All Europe was breathlessly watching the launching of his 
 tremendous armies, when a tragedy occurred which changed 
 the fate of France. 
 
 Assassination of the King. — Marie de' Medici had 
 been crowned as queen of France, and invested with the 
 regency of the kingdom during the absence of the sovereign 
 with his army. Henry had driven out to watch the prepara- 
 tions for her triumphal entrance into Paris. Passing through 
 a narrow street, a confusion in the road stopped the coach. 
 At that instant a man named Eavaillac plunged a knife into 
 the king's breast. " The gigantic fabric of an European con- 
 federation was shattered by the stroke of a broken table- 
 knife, sharpened on a carriage-wheel." 
 
 LOUIS XIII. 
 
 1610 to 1643 = 33 Years. 
 
 The Regency. — Louis XIII.* was a spoiled child of nine 
 years at his father's death. His mother, Marie de' Medici, 
 
 * It is related that the night after the assassination of Henry IV., his little son, 
 Louis XIII., screaming with terror, cried out that he saw the same men who had 
 murdered his father coming to kill him. Louis was not to be pacified until he was 
 carried to his mother's bed. To this infantile terror, this early association with 
 
148 
 
 THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY. 
 
 [1G10. 
 
 who became regent, was a woman of weak character, ruled 
 by an unprincipled Italian named Concini, and his wife, 
 Leonora. Sully, surrounded by those who had sworn his 
 
 MARIE DE' MEDICI INVESTED WITH THE REGENCV. 
 (From a painting by Rubens.) 
 
 ruin, lost all influence and retired to his estates. The no- 
 bles, as of old, levied taxes, exacted tolls, conferred letters of 
 nobility, and increased the imposts. "The time of the kings 
 has passed," said they. 
 
 Royal Marriages. — Marie's sympathies being with Spain, 
 a marriage was negotiated between Louis XIII. and Anne 
 
 death and murder, may be traced his strange character; weak in body and mind, 
 timid, suspicious, melancholy, superstitious, an undutiful son, a bad husband, and 
 an unworthy king. To his credit, however, be it said, he was pure in morals— a 
 rare virtue in the kings of his race.— Mrs. Elliott. 
 
1614] 
 
 LOUIS XIII 
 
 149 
 
 of Austria, daughter of the Spanish king. Louis's sister 
 Elizabeth was also betrothed to the Prince of Spain, after- 
 ward Philip IV.* 
 
 The States-General were assembled the same year the 
 king became of age (1614). The three orders were loud 
 in relating their several 
 grievances ; the iiers-etat 
 especially urged the op- 
 pressed condition of the 
 people ; f but there was no 
 agreement in anything ex- 
 cept among the two higher 
 orders, to overbear the third. 
 This is memorable in his- 
 tory as the last meeting of 
 the states \ for one hundred 
 and seventy-four years. L0UIS XIII# 
 
 Louis becomes King. — By the advice of a favorite named 
 De Luynes, who had won the regard of the king by his skill in 
 laying sparrow-traps, Louis, now sixteen years old, determined 
 to assert his royalty. Concini was assassinated in the Louvre; 
 Leonora was executed as a sorceress: Marie was banished 
 
 * A league of the cobles, headed by Conde (a grandson of the Conde killed at Jar- 
 nac), was formed to oppose these unpopular marriages. When Louis went to Bor- 
 deaux to meet his bride, he was followed by two armies— one to protect and one to 
 attack him — but neither came to blows. After his return from his bridal tour, Louis 
 entertained Conde and his friends as his loyal subjects, declared ihey had done noth- 
 ing to his disfavor, and actually paid the troops levied against him ! 
 
 t The speaker for the bourgeoisie, who was obliged to kneel in addressing the 
 king, having ventured to say that the French formed but one family, of which the 
 seigneurs were the elder members and the common people the younger, the nobility 
 complained bitterly of this affront: "It is a great insolence," said their president, 
 "to wish to establish any sort of equality between us and them; they are only to us 
 as the valet to his master.' 1 — In their memorials the nobles demanded that "the com- 
 mon people be forbidden to carry pistols, to wear velvet or satin, or to own any but 
 ham-strung dogs. 1 ' 
 
 X In their stead were introduced assemblies of the notables, consisting of princes 
 of the blood, and certain peers, archbishops, councillors of state, marshals, and 
 judges— the time of calling and the members being optional with the king. 
 
150 THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY. [1617. 
 
 from court. Seven years of confusion ensued. Marie, like 
 the other Medici, insatiate for power, constantly plotted to 
 regain it. Louis was ruled as completely by De Luynes as 
 she had been by Concini. Meantime the Huguenots, aspiring 
 to form in France a Calvinistic state, levied taxes, kept up 
 fortresses, employed soldiers, and called political assemblies. 
 Two years of war (1621-23) checked but did not destroy 
 their hopes. 
 
 Richelieu. — Fortunately for Louis, De Luynes died, and 
 the king found in Richelieu* (1624) a minister able to as- 
 sert the royal dignity. Henceforth, for years, the history of 
 France and her king f is but the biography of her minister. 
 Richelieu had three distinct aims : (1) to destroy the Hugue- 
 nots as a party; (2) to subdue the nobles; (3) to humble the 
 house of Austria — all of which would tend to unify France 
 and make the royal authority absolute. 
 
 I. Overthrow of the Huguenots. — In 1627 the royal 
 army laid siege to Rochelle, the capital and stronghold of the 
 Huguenots. Richelieu superintended every operation. To 
 cut off the town from the sea, he ordered a gigantic mole 
 of stone to be built across the harbor. Twice the dyke was 
 swept away by a storm ; twice it was rebuilt. Twice a pow- 
 erful English fleet essayed to relieve the starving citizens ; 
 twice it was forced to retire. When the city surrendered, 
 after a siege of over a year.J scarcely one hundred and fifty 
 
 * Richelieu, then bishop of Lucon, made his first appearance, as a modest-looking 
 ecclesiastic, at the states (1614). Two years after he was admitted to the royal coun- 
 cil by Concini. The spiritual adviser of Marie de' Medici, he shared in her disgrace. 
 By his tact the quarrel between the king and the queen-mother was made up. Riche- 
 lieu obtained a cardinal's hat by her intercession, and was restored to his place in the 
 council (1622). 
 
 + It is characteristic of Louis that, while he hated his powerful minister, he was 
 his veriest slave. The policy of Richelieu soon made Louis the first man in Europe, 
 but the second in France. 
 
 X On the day following the king 1 * entry, a violent tempest arose, which finally 
 washed away the fatal dyke. 
 
1G27.] 
 
 LOUIS XIII. 
 
 151 
 
 soldiers survived, and the streets were strewn with bodies, 
 which the living were too weak to bury. The fortifications 
 were razed to the ground, the municipal privileges forfeited, 
 
 THE SIEGE OF ROCHELI.E. 
 (From a print of the time.) 
 
 and the Catholic religion established. To the surprise of all, 
 however, the Huguenots were granted the free exercise of 
 their worship. The next year their remaining cities were 
 captured. Henceforth the Huguenots ceased to form a state 
 within the state. 
 
 II. Abasement of the Nobles. — The princes had, so 
 far, retained their feudal fortresses, which were at once a 
 reminder to them of their former strength, a terror to the 
 neighboring people, and a menace to royalty. Kichelieu 
 ordered (1626) their destruction. Numerous plots, some of 
 which the cardinal was suspected of having himself *encour- 
 aged for this very purpose, gave him an opportunity of 
 wreaking his vengeance upon the heads of the aristocracy, 
 and thus crushing their power. 
 
152 THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY. [1G80. 
 
 The Count of Chalais headed a conspiracy of many of 
 the highest nobles, including Gaston, the king's only brother, 
 and even Anne of Austria. The plan was to ruin Eichelieu, 
 depose Louis, and crown Gaston, who was to marry Anne of 
 Austria. The cardinal feigned to yield to the storm and to 
 resign his position ; but, as he expected, he was recalled by 
 the king. Chalais was executed ; the other nobles were ban- 
 ished; Anne of Austria was brought before the council and 
 reprimanded ; * and Gaston alone escaped. With character- 
 istic baseness, when he found the plot discovered, he hastened 
 to the king and betrayed his accomplices. His treachery was 
 rewarded with the Duchy of Orleans. 
 
 Duelling. — In the Place Royal e, in broad daylight, as if 
 to defy the king and his edict against duelling,f the Count 
 de Bouteville killed the Count de Bussy, it being the twenty- 
 second duel in which the former had been engaged. Al- 
 though allied to one cf the most illustrious houses in 
 France, he and his second were executed in the Place du 
 Greve (1627). 
 
 "Day of the Dupes" (1630).— Marie de' Medici, finding 
 Richelieu superior to her intrigues, became his bitter foe. 
 By tears and prayers she finally prevailed upon Louis to 
 banish his "insolent minister." The courtiers nocked to the 
 palace of the Luxembourg for mutual congratulation. The 
 happy news was sent to Madrid, Vienna, Brussels, and Turin. 
 Richelieu had ordered his coach when a messenger arrived 
 from Versailles summoning him to the king's presence. Once 
 there, the minister was restored to his place, and made more 
 
 * Being openly reproached by the king with having 'wished his death that she 
 might marry his brother, she coolly replied: "I should not have gained enough by 
 the change." 
 
 t "During the eighteen years preceding 1600, four thousand gentlemen had been 
 thus fashionably murdered.'" 
 
1636.] 
 
 LOUIS XIII. 
 
 153 
 
 powerful even than before. The executioner's axe was long 
 busy ere the cardinal's vengeance was satiated. 
 
 The Count of Soissons (1636) was drawn into a plot for 
 the assassination of Eichelieu by the incorrigible Gaston. The 
 day came. The unconscious cardinal left the council-cham- 
 ber, passed down the 
 staircase, and stood 
 waiting for his car- 
 riage in the midst 
 of the conspirators. 
 But Gaston, who 
 was to have given 
 the signal, quailed 
 when the decisive 
 m o m e n t arrived. 
 Fearful of a dis- 
 covery, Soissons fled 
 to Sedan, where he 
 took up arms. Spain 
 lent him aid, but he fell at the close of a victorious battle. 
 Orleans was once more pardoned. 
 
 Cinq-Mars, a brilliant young noble, was the last of the 
 king's favorites. Knowing Louis's dislike to Eichelieu, he 
 plotted the latter's overthrow. All the cardinal's old enemies 
 joined in the conspiracy. A treaty of alliance was signed 
 with Spain. A copy of this falling into Richelieu's hands, he 
 sent it to the king. The contemptible Orleans, as usual, 
 betrayed his friends. His life was spared, but he was com- 
 manded to retire from court. Cinq-Mars was executed. 
 
 III. Abasement of Austria and Spain. — Richelieu 
 lost no opportunity to weaken the Austro-Spanish power, 
 and thus exalt France. He secured a marriage between 
 Henriette Marie, the king's sister, and Charles Stuart, Prince 
 
 / 
 
 
 CARDINAL RICHELIEU. 
 
154 THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY. [16CG. 
 
 of Wales — afterward the ill-fated diaries I. — who was engaged 
 to the Spanish Infanta.* He supported the Protestant Gri- 
 sons, and enabled them to recover the Valteline,f a province 
 of which they had been despoiled by the Spaniards; and 
 twice he led an army against the Duke of Savoy and the 
 Spaniards, to help the Duke of Nevers, a French noble, to 
 get possession of his inheritance of Mantua. 
 
 In the Thirty Years "War Kichelieu did not hesitate 
 to take the part of the German Protestant princes, in order 
 to weaken the power of the emperor. He carried on the 
 contest, however, with chequered fortune. True, Artois, 
 Alsace, Catalonia, and Eousillon were finally annexed to 
 France; but disasters were frequent, and once (1636) the 
 Imperialists, taking advantage of the absence of his armies, 
 penetrated to Corbie, scarce fifty miles from Paris. J They 
 could have captured the cit} T , but fortunately preferred to 
 retire and enjoy the immense booty already secured. 
 
 Government. § — Parliament was compelled to register the 
 royal edicts without examination.! Richelieu had no sym- 
 pathy with the common people. He compared them to 
 " mules, spoiled sooner by long rest than long work." "If 
 they are too happy," he said, " it will not be possible to keep 
 them in duty; if they were freed from taxes, they would 
 
 * ' ; I must scandalize the world once more," said Richelieu, in allusion to this 
 alliance. He had already acquired, for his leniency to the Huguenots, the name of 
 Cardinal of Rochelle, or Pontiff of Ihe Protestants. 
 
 t This was a small valley which formed communication between the Italian and 
 German possessions of the two houses of Austria. 
 
 t So great was the terror in Paris, and so deep their recollection of it, that the 
 citizens long styled the time the Year of Corbie. 
 
 § Richelieu said with regard to his policy: "I go straight to my object; I cut 
 down every thing, and then cover every thing with my scarlet robe." Words that 
 make one shudder. 
 
 || The French kings were accustomed to have their ordinances imposing taxes 
 registered by the Parliament of Paris. When this body refused, the king could 
 attend in person and command the registration to be made. On such occasions he 
 tat in a canopied chair, and was said to hold a " bed of justice." 
 
1642.] 
 
 LOUIS XIII. 
 
 155 
 
 learn to be disobedient." He abolished the offices of Grand 
 Admiral and Constable, that all power might be centred in 
 himself. He appointed Intendants throughout the country, 
 to take charge of justice, police, and finance. Docile agents 
 of the government, they exercised a constant control over 
 the nobles and local authorities. Royalty gained, but the 
 precious remains of local liberty perished. In finance, Riche- 
 lieu failed. His ^- 
 costly wars antici- ' 
 pated the revenues 
 for three years ; 
 while the taxes be- 
 came intolerable. 
 Richelieu favored 
 commerce and pa- 
 tronized civiliza- 
 tion. Under him 
 the French firmly 
 
 established their foothold in Canada. [Brief Hist. U. S., p. 32.] 
 He encouraged industry, and left more monuments of his 
 liberality than any of the French monarchs. The French 
 Academy, the Garden of Plants, the Palais Royal, and the 
 Sorbonne, still cast a lustre on his memory. 
 Three Deaths. — Richelieu did not live to see the full 
 
 THE SORBOiVNE. 
 
 * The Sorbonne, one of the most famous of the educational institutions of Paris, is 
 generally associated with the name of Cardinal Richelieu, its great patron. It was 
 originally founded, however, in the thirteenth century, by Robert de Sorbon, the 
 chaplain and confessor of St. Louis, and. was designed to afford poor students an 
 opportunity of perfecting themselves in the sciences and theology. Many of the 
 most eminent men of France of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries were gradu- 
 ates of the Sorbonne. Tradition says that, when at the height of its celebrity, a can- 
 didate for its diploma was required, without eating or drinking or quitting the 
 place, to sustain himself in argument against twenty assailants, who, relieving each 
 other every half hour, beset him from five in the morning until seven at night. 
 Richelieu was a pupil of this institution, and under his patronagp, when at the head 
 of the government, it was enlarged and completely reconstructed. Public lectures 
 are delivered there gratuitously by the first scholars of France, to which students, 
 rich and poor, flock from all parts of the country. 
 
156 THE ABSOLUTE MONAKCHY. [1642. 
 
 triumph of his plans. While on his way to the seat of war 
 in Eoussillon he fell sick. He was borne back to Paris with 
 more than Oriental pomp. His guards, bareheaded, carried 
 him upon their shoulders in a sort of furnished chamber, and 
 the city gates too narrow to let them pass were torn down. 
 When pressed to forgive his enemies, he replied: "I have 
 none but those of the state." "The great minister died," 
 says Chateaubriand, '-'admired and detested." — While Kiche- 
 lieu lay thus in his magnificent palace, the exiled Marie de' 
 Medici had closed her eyes, in the midst of poverty, at 
 Cologne. — The unfeeling Louis shrugged his shoulders when 
 he heard of the cardinal's death, and coldly remarked : " There 
 is a great politician gone." And now, as if to show how 
 closely his life was linked with that of the powerful minister, 
 Louis survived him but six months, dying on the anniversary 
 of his fathers assassination (May 14, 1643). Thus passed 
 away, within the space of about a year, the three prominent 
 actors in this great drama of the first half of the seventeenth 
 century. 
 
 LOUIS XIV; 
 
 1613 to 1715 = 72 Years. 
 
 Louis XIV., being but five years old at his father's 
 death, Anne of Austria was made regent. Cardinal Mazarin, 
 an Italian, schooled in the policy of Kichelieu, became min- 
 ister. The long reign of Louis XIV. naturally divides itself 
 into three epochs : (1) the ministry of Mazarin, during which 
 Louis took no part in the government, and in w T hich the 
 fruits of Eichelieu's plans were gathered; (2) that of Colbert, 
 his successor, when Louis governed actively; (3) the period 
 from the death of Colbert to .that of Louis, during which 
 
1643.] 
 
 LOUIS XIV. 
 
 157 
 
 great errors marred bis success, and unparalleled disasters 
 befell the country. 
 
 I. Thirty Years War. — Five days after the death of 
 Louis XIII., the Duke of Engbien (oN-ge-aN), a young man 
 of twenty-two, afterward known as the great Conde, won the 
 
 BATTLE OF FKIBOURG. 
 
 battle of Rocroi (1643), over three experienced generals and 
 a body of Spanish infantry, then considered the finest in 
 Europe. Joined by Turenne, the next year, he conquered 
 the Imperialists at Fribourg. The contest lasted two days, 
 in one of which, according to tradition, Conde threw his 
 marshal's baton into the enemy's trenches, and then recov- 
 ered it, sword in hand. The following year they gained the 
 bloody battle of Nordlingen. With the aid of the great 
 Dutch admiral, Von. Tromp, Conde, in sight of the Spanish 
 
158 THE ABSOLUTE MONAKCHY. [1648. 
 
 army, captured Dunkirk, with its valuable harbor. In 1648, 
 with the battle-cry of "Remember Rocroi, Fribourg, and 
 Nordlingen,* he routed the Imperialists and Spaniards at 
 Lens, and ended this long and bloody war. 
 
 The Treaty of Westphalia (1648), between France and 
 Germany, gave to the French Alsace and the long-coveted 
 boundary of the Rhine. They also retained Philipsburg and 
 Pignerol — the keys of Germany and of Piedmont — and Toul, 
 Verdun, and Metz, which had been annexed a century 
 before. The independence of the United Provinces was 
 acknowledged ; and the rights of conscience were granted to 
 the Lutherans in Germany. Spain refusing to enter into the 
 treaty, the war with that nation dragged on. 
 
 The Wars of the Fronde. \— When the queen first 
 came into power she was anxious to conciliate all parties. 
 The witty Cardinal de Retz, in speaking of the general feel- 
 ing of the court at this time, says: "The French language 
 contains but five words — i The queen is so good.' " Jeal- 
 ousies, however, arose. The nobles were aggrieved by the 
 favor shown to foreigners. The enormous expenses of the 
 war having called for fresh taxes, Parliament refused to 
 register the new tariff, and demanded various reforms. 
 
 Day of the Barricades (August 26, 1648).— The queen 
 retorted by arresting some of the leaders of the opposition. 
 On this the populace flew to arms, shut up the shops, 
 stretched chains across the streets, and besieged the palace, 
 shouting "Kill ! kill !" a cry which had not been heard since 
 St. Bartholomew. Anne yielded, but soon after fled to St. 
 
 * This, as well as the tradition of the baton, though sometimes questioned, accord 
 well with the dash and daring of the great Conde. 
 
 t Fronde, a sling. The leaders showed so much indecision that one of the reform- 
 ing committee compared them to school-hoys slinging stones ; when the police came 
 near* they ran away, only to resume their sport when the officer's back was turned. 
 The jest spread and hit the general fancy. The name was taken up at once ; every- 
 thing was the Fronde, and the ruling fashion was a sling. 
 
1648.] LOUIS XIV. 159 
 
 Germain. The Mazarins and Frondeurs marshaled their 
 forces. Many of the nobles and princes took the side of 
 Parliament. The various cliques were headed by the most 
 fascinating women of France. With its mingling of factions, 
 rapid changing of sides, and want of purpose,* the Fronde 
 was a burlesque on civil war. Raillery and sport were uni- 
 versal, f The troops went forth from Paris each day decked 
 with feathers and ribbons; at night, coming back defeated, 
 they were received with hootings and laughter. Principles 
 weighed nothing; patriotism was forgotten. Turenne was 
 first a Frondeur, then went over to the Spaniards, and 
 finally became a loyalist, and led the armies of the king. J 
 Conde, in the beginning, declared for the court ; § then for the 
 Frondeurs, and ended by selling his sword to Spain. At last 
 Paris was wearied with this chaotic war, and entreated the 
 return of the king. One of his first acts was to recall 
 Mazarin, who had been outlawed by Parliament, and who 
 was welcomed back by the same fickle crowd which had 
 clamored for his exile. Thus ended the Fronde ; a bloody 
 farce, in which an archbishop, beautiful women, and learned 
 
 * " In the midst of all the trouble," says Voltaire, " the nobles assembled. It was 
 believed to be in order to reform France, and to call the States-General ; but, no ! it 
 was about the honor of a footstool that the queen had accorded to Madame de Pons ! " 
 
 t The Cardinal de Retz, archbishop of Corinth, the great rival of Mazarin, and 
 chief instigator of the rebellion, wore a dagger in his belt. This was nicknamed his 
 " breviary ; " his troops were called the ''Regiment of Corinth ; " and, when they were 
 routed, the defeat was styled the "First to the Corinthians.'" 
 
 % While Turenne was commanding the royal army in the neighborhood of the 
 Loire, thinking that Conde was one hundred and twenty miles away, he allowed his 
 troops to become scattered. At night his lines were stormed and several quarters 
 carried. Turenne, observing the movements by the light of the flames, with the 
 instinct of genius declared : " Conde has come. He commands that army.'" Rallying 
 his troops, he awaited the onset. It was now Conde's turn to recognize Turenne's 
 scientific arrangement, when he quietly retired. 
 
 § While in the queen's own party, his pride and intolerance were so intolerable 
 that she imprisoned him. To effect this she obtained from him an order for the 
 seizure and detention of three or four persons whose names were left in blank ; and, 
 on the authority of his own signature, the hero cf Rocroi was led quietly down a 
 back stair and given over to the police. 
 
160 
 
 THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY. 
 
 [1659. 
 
 magistrates figure by the side of the two most famous cap- 
 tains of Europe. Amid the confusion the philosophic his- 
 torian detects the last struggle of the aristocracy against the 
 despotism of the crown. 
 
 Peace of the Pyrenees (1659).— During the troubles 
 of the Fronde, Spain had gained some advantages. Her 
 
 troops were now directed by 
 the great Conde. Turenne 
 was sent to oppose him. 
 These two masters of the 
 art of war prolonged the 
 contest with varying success. 
 Mazarin, at last, secured the 
 aid of Englan d . This turned 
 the scale. The tattle of the.. 
 Dunes* (1658) gave Dun- 
 kirk to the French, who im- 
 mediately made it over to 
 the English. Other victories 
 followed. Spain sued for 
 A treaty was signed by which Louis retained Artois 
 and Roussillon, with a part of Flanders, Hainaut, and Lux- 
 emburg. Conde was pardoned ; and Louis agreed to marry 
 the daughter of Philip (Maria Theresa), who renounced all 
 claim to the Spanish succession. 
 
 Death of Mazarin (1661). — Mazarin had now secured 
 the great results of Richelieu's policy. Like his predecessor, 
 however, the hour of triumph found him approaching the 
 
 CARDINAL MAZARIN. 
 
 peace. 
 
 * So called because the Spaniards were attacked by Turenne while they were 
 entangled in the dunes or sand-hills. The incapacity and obstinacy of the Spaniards 
 on this occasion greatly irritated Conde. " Were you ever in a battle ? " he asked 
 of the young Duke of Gloucester, son of Charles I., who had joined him as a volun- 
 teer. " No, 1 ' responded the prince. " Eh, Men / '■' returned Conde, " in half an hour 
 you will sec how one is lost. 1 ' 
 
.1661.] LOUIS XIV. 1G1 
 
 grave. Rapacious, frivolous, indolent, and prodigal, bis in- 
 ternal administration had been deplorable. The finances 
 had fallen to the level from which Sully raised them. Com- 
 merce and agriculture had been neglected, and the navy was 
 nearly extinct. 
 
 II. Louis Reigns for Himself (1661-1683)—" To whom 
 shall I hereafter refer questions of state ? " asked the presi- 
 dent of the assembly of clergy, the day after Mazarin's death.* 
 " To me" was the king's significant reply. Louis had the 
 most extravagant ideas of the royal prerogative, and claimed 
 to possess absolute right over the life and property of his 
 subjects. His motto was: "The state is myself. 5 ' The 
 times were favorable for his appearance. Richelieu had 
 crushed the nobles, and Mazarin the Parliament, France 
 was depleted by foreign and civil wars. The people longed 
 for rest, and to secure it were willing to be ruled by an 
 autocrat. 
 
 Ministry of Colbert. — Colbert was soon given control 
 of the finances. From that moment order replaced chaos. 
 Mainly by frugality and system he trebled the total revenues 
 of the country. The laces of Chantilly, the glasses of Cher- 
 burg, the cloths of Louviers, the carpets of La Savonnerie, 
 
 * Mazarin had already detected the strength of the king's character. " There is in 
 him," he said, " stuff enough for four kings and one honest man.' 1 — When Louis 
 was only eight years old, his love of wrestling greatly disturbed Laporte, his attend- 
 ant. Once he was struggling with his cousin, the Count of Artois ; all commands 
 and entreaties that they would cease were fruitless. Laporte gravely put on his hat 
 and sat down. Louis noticed it at once, and, tearing himself away from his cousin's 
 arms, he quickly demanded : " How can you allow yourself to cover your head in 
 my presence, and to sit down without my permission?" "Pardon, sire, replied 
 Laporte, as he arose and took off his hat, " I did not think that a king was in the 
 room." This answer made a great impression upon the hoy. He assumed a digni- 
 fied air, and turned to his playmate with the proud words : "Monsieur, my cousin, 
 you are at liberty to depart."— His imperious will was soon manifest. As early as 
 1655. when Parliament attempted to' revise certain taxes which had already been 
 registered in a bed of justice, he .presented himself in their chamber, riding-whip in 
 hand, and ordered the assembly to disperse, adding that hereafter they should mind 
 their proper duties and not interfere with his ordinances. 
 
162 
 
 THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY. 
 
 [1667. 
 
 the silks of Lyons, and the Gobelin tapestry of Paris, bear 
 witness to his protection. Colonies were founded; manufac- 
 tures established; the capital was paved, policed, and lighted; 
 French merchant-vessels swarmed the sea; and the navy 
 
 soon numbered one hundred 
 ships. — Under the guidance 
 of Vauban (aw), the great 
 engineer, a triple line of 
 fortresses was erected on the 
 frontiers of the east and 
 north. The canal of Lan- 
 guedoc united the sea with 
 the ocean. Dunkirk was 
 purchased from England. — 
 Under Louvois (vwa), the 
 minister of war, the troops 
 were disciplined and uni- 
 formed, magazines were pre- 
 pared, and the army received 
 an organization and equip- 
 ment which made it at once 
 the admiration and the dread 
 of Europe. Military life be- 
 came a profession in which 
 merit was sure to rise, and valor could supply the place of 
 birth and fortune. 
 
 War of Flanders (1667-8).— On the death of his father- 
 in-law, Philip IV. of Spain, Louis, in the name of his queen, 
 Maria Theresa, set up a claim to Flanders. War was de- 
 clared. In a month Turenne conquered Flanders almost 
 without a blow. Conde took Franche-Comte even more 
 quickly. Holland, England, and Sweden, alarmed by these 
 rapid conquests, formed a Triple Alliance to mediate peace. 
 
 COLBERT. 
 
1672.] LOUIS XIV. 163 
 
 By the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, Louis restored Franche- 
 Comte. 
 
 Invasion of Holland (1672-3). — Louis's wounded pride 
 could not forgive a nation which had presumed to set bounds 
 to his conquests. Strengthened by an alliance with Eng- 
 land,* he entered Holland with a magnificent army. With 
 him were Conde. Turenne, Louvois, Luxemburg, Vauban, and 
 Martinet, f Louis, advancing to within four leagues of Amster- 
 dam, demanded outrageous terms of peace. The Prince of 
 Orange, being made dictator, though a young man of twenty- 
 two, who had never seen battle or siege, exerted all his genius 
 for the salvation of his country. Despair gave the nation a 
 heroic courage. The dykes were cut and the land inun- 
 dated. "Better," said they, "let the sea drown our farms 
 than the French destroy our liberties." The Dutch admiral, 
 De Buyter, repeatedly fought the combined fleets of England 
 and France, and thus kept the coasts safe from their attacks. 
 William aroused all Europe in favor of little Holland and 
 with dread of the ambition of Louis. The Empire, Spain, and 
 several German princes, leagued with the Dutch. Charles 
 II. was forced to make peace by an indignant Parliament. 
 
 War of the First Coalition (1673-8).— The invasion 
 of Holland had now brought on an European war. Louis 
 seemed to rejoice in the opportunity this gave him to show 
 his superiority. The French frontier swarmed with soldiers. 
 Franche-Comte was conquered in six weeks. Turenne crossed 
 the Rhine, defeated the Imperialists at Sintzheim (1674), forced 
 them back of the Neckar, and, returning, barbarously ravaged 
 
 * Charles II., notwithstanding his recent policy, hated the Dutch no less than 
 Lonis. Moreover, he was in distress for money. His heautiful sister, Henrietta, 
 was Duchess of Orleans. Louis sent her to England on a secret mission, and with 
 her one of the most fascinating ladies of the court (afterward the dissolute Duchess 
 of Portsmouth), that they might use their influence for him. 
 
 t General Martinet attended to the order of march and details of the drill. His 
 name is still the word for a punctiliousness in discipline unknown hefore his time. 
 
164 
 
 THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY 
 
 [1674. 
 
 the Palatinate. The Imperialists, in turn, passed the Ehine 
 with 70,000 men, and occupied Alsace. They thought the 
 campaign finished ; with Turenne it was only begun. With 
 20,000 men he marched over the Vosges mountains in the 
 depth of winter, fell suddenly on the astonished enemy, who 
 
 supposed him fifty leagues 
 -r^=- g; ^ away, routed their forces in 
 
 repeated engagements, and 
 drove them back beyond the 
 Ehine. 
 
 Last Campaign of Tu- 
 renne and Conde. — The 
 emperor now sent against 
 Turenne the famous Mon- 
 tecuculi. The two generals 
 tested each other in a series 
 of brilliant manoeuvres, and 
 at length were on the point 
 of joining battle. Turenne 
 went to the front to make 
 the final arrangements when 
 he was struck by a cannon- 
 ball and instantly killed.* 
 Louis, as a mark of respect, 
 caused the body of his great general to be buried in the tomb 
 of the French kings in the ancient church of St. Denis. f 
 
 * The same ball carried off" the arm of St. Hiliare, commaucler of the artillery. " It 
 is not to me," said the wounded general to his weeping son, who bent over him, 
 u but to that great man our tears are due/''— The news of Turenne's death threw 
 France into consternation and grief. " Yesterday," writes Madame de Sevigne, " all 
 were in tears in the streets— every other business was suspended. The king is 
 greatly afflicted; the whole people are in trouble and emotion." 
 
 t Prior to this Du Guesclin was the only French subject whose remains were thus 
 honored. Next to Notre Dame, St. Denis is considered the finest, as it is one of the 
 most ancient, churches in France. Founded by St, Genevieve in the fifth century, it 
 was successively enlarged and improved byDagobert in the seventh, Charlemagne in 
 the eighth, and St. Louis in the thirteenth centuries. 
 
 -?vJ^\, 
 
 ST. DENIS. 
 
1674.] LOUIS XIV. 165 
 
 Meanwhile Conde, opposed to the Prince of Orange in Flan- 
 ders, had also fought his last battle. At Seneffe (1674) he 
 beat the allied forces ; but William, with that self-possession 
 which always made him more dangerous in defeat than 
 in victory, took a new position, and held it against every 
 attack. The successors of Turenne, being unable to oppose 
 any resistance to Montecuculi, Conde was called thither to 
 check this great captain. Conde having accomplished this 
 by some strategic moves, feeling the weight of years, re- 
 tired to private life. Montecuculi also relinquished his 
 command, saying that a man who had had the honor to 
 oppose Turenne and Conde should not risk his laurels 
 against tyros. 
 
 Treaty of Nimeguen (1678-9). — Two brilliant cam- 
 paigns ensued. The French fleet gained the command of 
 the Mediterranean. Luxemburg, by his successes, rivalled 
 the victor of Rocroi. With the king, he captured Valen- 
 ciennes by a charge of musketeers in broad daylight. With 
 Monsieur, Duke of Orleans, he defeated the Prince of Orange 
 at Oassel (1677). Louis found himself the arbitrator of Eu- 
 rope. The war was begun against Holland, but Spain paid 
 its cost, being obliged to abandon to France Franche-Comte, 
 and several places of great strength on the frontiers of 
 Flanders. 
 
 Conquests in Time of Peace. — To the advantages 
 afforded by this treaty Louis added others gained by fraud. 
 Courts were established to interpret its provisions. His 
 armies enforced their decisions as in time of war. No less 
 than twenty important cities, among wdiich were Strasburg, 
 Luxemburg, and Saarbruck, were thus wrested from neigh- 
 boring princes. 
 
 The "Grand Monarque" was now at the height of his 
 glory. The subservient magistrates of Paris voted him the 
 
166 
 
 THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY. 
 
 [1G78. 
 
 title of '• The Great," and erected in honor of his victories 
 the magnificent arches of Porte St. Denis and St. Martin, 
 which still ornament the boulevards of Paris. Everywhere 
 his arms triumphed. The French fleet drove the pirates 
 from the Mediterranean, bombarded Algiers and Tripoli, and 
 humiliated Genoa. One hundred vessels of the line lay in 
 
 the ports of Tou- 
 lon, Brest, Havre, 
 and Dunkirk; one 
 hundred fortresses, 
 monuments of the 
 skill of Vauban, 
 covered the front- 
 iers; and an army 
 of 140,000 men, 
 under Luxem- 
 burg, Catinat,Ven- 
 dome, and Villars, 
 waited the word to 
 move. Louis was 
 jealous to excess, 
 and the slightest affront was the prelude to an invasion, and 
 a breacli of etiquette the precursor to a blockade.* His 
 subjects, dazzled by the brilliancy of his conquests and the 
 magnificent prosperity of his reign, gave up the few political 
 rights they had so far retained. 
 
 The "Age of Louis XIV." forms a brilliant epoch in 
 literature and art. Never had so many great men clustered 
 
 * The Spanish ambassador at London having taken precedence of the French 
 envoy, Louis threatened war against his father-in-law, Philip. That monarch made 
 an unqualified submission, and his ambassador at Paris, in full court, renounced his 
 sovereign's claim to equality.— The Corsican guard of the Pope, at Eome, insulted 
 the French ambassador. Innocent X. was forced to offer an apology, dismiss the 
 guard, and erect an obelisk, with an inscription declaring the offence and its punish- 
 ment. 
 
 PORT ST. DENIS. 
 
1643-1715.] LOUIS XIV. 167 
 
 about a throne. Poorly educated * and narrow-minded him- 
 self, Louis had the good sense to retain them by rewards, 
 while he appropriated their glory as his own. The fame of 
 their scientific discoveries and literary achievements rivaled 
 the triumphs of his generals. The sermons of Bourdaloue, 
 Bossuet, Fenelon, and Massillon ; the poetry of Moliere, Cor- 
 neille, Racine, and La Fontaine ; the writings of Pascal and 
 Descartes; the paintings of Le Brun, Poussin, and Claude 
 Lorraine ; the sculpture of Puget and Giraudon ; the archi- 
 tectural creations of Mansard and Perrault, have immortal- 
 ized the age. The wisest philosophers and statesmen, the 
 most graceful writers and poets, all were drawn into the 
 vortex of obedience and flattery. Then it was that French 
 tastes, thought, and language were impressed on foreign na- 
 tions, and all Europe took a Parisian tinge. 
 
 Adulation of the Court. — Louis's courtiers prostrated 
 themselves at his feet like the slaves of some Oriental despot. 
 To be allowed to accompany him in his walks, to carry his 
 cane or sword, to hold a taper during his toilette, to draw on 
 the royal shoes, or even to stand and watch the robing of the 
 monarch, w T ere honors to live and die for. This servility was 
 necessary to secure the favor of the king. It was only by the 
 grossest flattery, and by ascribing their success to him alone, 
 that his ministers retained their places. Colbert, alarmed at 
 the extravagant expenses of the court, ventured to urge econ- 
 omy. From that hour he was in disgrace, and was treated 
 with such harshness and neglect that at last he died (1683), 
 worn out by hard service and the ingratitude of his king.f 
 
 * This "Grand Monarque" could hardly read or write, much less spell. Of the 
 history of his own country or the laws of political economy he was utterly ignorant. 
 
 t When he was on his death-bed, Louis wrote him a letter. Expecting nothing 
 but fresh blame and sneers, he declined to open it, exclaiming, as did Wolsey of 
 Henry VIII. : "Had I done one-tenth for God that I have for the king, I might long 
 since have worked out my salvation ; but now what awaits me ? "—He left a fortune 
 which he had honestly gathered, but the people, who remembered Mazarin and Fou- 
 
168 THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY. [1G83. 
 
 III. Decline of Louis XIV.— Eejecting Colbert's ad- 
 vice, Louis had already persecuted the Huguenots, wasted 
 the public wealth in gigantic structures at Versailles,* and 
 incurred a prodigal expense in the last war. His chief advi- 
 sers were Madame de Maintenon,f and the cold and selfish 
 Louvois. 
 
 The Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685).— 
 The privileges enjoyed by the Huguenots under the edict of 
 Nantes were now revoked ; their ministers ordered to leave 
 France ; their schools closed, and their form of worship for- 
 bidden. They were excluded from the liberal professions, 
 from the universities, and from various branches of trade 
 and industry. Squadrons of cavalry were quartered in sus- 
 pected houses. By these " dragonades," as they were termed, 
 the people were driven to despair. Numbers were loaded 
 with chains, imprisoned in dungeons, broken on the wheel, 
 or condemned to the gibbet. Although emigration was for- 
 bidden under severe penalties, the roads leading from France 
 streamed with fugitives, escaping in every conceivable dis- 
 
 quet (former minister of finance), believed otherwise, and he was buried by night, 
 to save his remains from the fury of the mob. 
 
 * To obtain sufficient room for the grounds to this palace, an area of sixty miles in 
 circumference was graded. Water was supplied by pipes from the Seine, and later 
 the river Eure was turned from its bed, and brought hither, a distance of thirty 
 leagues. While the wretched peasants were groaning in misery and nearly starving 
 in their cheerless cots, Louis expended upon this useless estate over 400,000,000 
 francs. To this clay it is the wonder of the traveler. The long, shaded avenues are 
 lined with graceful statuary, and beautiful grottos and fountains furnish a constant 
 surprise. The side of the palace which fronts the gardens is over a quarter of a mile 
 in length. The interior is grand beyond description, and its picture-galleries contain 
 miles of valuable works of art. 
 
 t Louis's private life had been shamelessly immoral, and his example had told 
 grievously on the whole nation. Even the language was affected, and the very term 
 which had hitherto implied virtuous integrity {honnete homme) came to mean nothing 
 better than an unpolished, unsuspicious fool. It has been said of him that "his 
 long reign may be divided into three periods, corresponding with the characteristics 
 of the three women who successively possessed all the love he could spare from him- 
 self. He was gentle, humane, and domestic with Mademoiselle La Valliere ; arrogant, 
 heartless, and warlike with Madame de Montespan ; e'elfish, bigoted, and cruel with 
 Madame de Maintenon." The last was a woman of fine talents and engaging manners, 
 but cold and ambitious. On the death of the queen, in 1683, Louis privately married her. 
 
1685.] LOUIS XI v. 169 
 
 guise. Before the close of the century 200,000 at least had 
 left, many of whom were skilled artisans, carrying with them 
 the- industries and arts hitherto known only to France. Large 
 numbers enlisted in foreign armies, and in the next war 
 Louis had to meet on every field brave soldiers whom he had 
 driven into the ranks of the enemy. More than all else, it 
 enabled Louis's bitter enemy, the vigilant William Prince of 
 Orange, now king of England,* to organize a coalition — the 
 famous League of Augsburg (1686) — to. resist the ambition 
 of the French king. 
 
 War of the Second Coalition f (1688-97).— Louis, 
 anxious to strike the first blow, sent an army of 80,000 men, 
 under the Dauphin, into Germany. Mayence, Heidelberg, 
 Treves, Spires, and many other places were taken. Unable 
 to hold his conquests, Louis, at the instigation of Louvois, 
 gave orders to again devastate the Palatinate (1689). Forty 
 cities and many villages were destroyed. Houses were blown 
 up; vineyards and orchards cut down. Even the cemeteries 
 were profaned, and the ashes of the dead scattered to the 
 wind. One hundred thousand homeless peasants wandered 
 to and fro, calling for vengeance. A cry of execration went 
 up from the civilized world. England, Holland, Germany, 
 Spain, Sweden, the Electors of Bavaria and Saxony, and the 
 Count Palatinate, joined the " Grand Alliance" against Louis. 
 The allies took the field, drove the French from the line of 
 the Sambre, and recaptured the Palatinate. Luxemburg was 
 now sent into Holland. This illustrious successor of Conde 
 and Turehne conquered the allies at Fleurus (1690), cap- 
 tured the strong fortresses of Mons and Namur, in spite of 
 King "William's exertions to save them, and defeated him at 
 
 * James II., the dethroned king of England, was Louis's ally, and came to France, 
 where his cause was espoused against William with knightly courtesy. 
 
 t This war in America, hetween the English and the French, is known as King 
 William's War. (See Brief Hist, J7. £„ p, 77.) 
 8 
 
SIGNATURE OF LOUIS XIV. 
 
 170 THE ABSOLUTE MOIAECHI. [1663. 
 
 the great battles of Steinkirk* (1692), and Necrioinden 
 (1693). Besides these noted victories, the French, under 
 Catinat (cii-te-na), had beaten the forces of the Duke of 
 Savoy in Piedmont ; and on sea the gallant Tourville had 
 retrieved the disaster of La Hogue. 
 
 Misfortunes. — Meanwhile, however, Prince Eugene, f 
 coming to the aid of tl\a Duke of Savoy, bad not only driven 
 the French across the Alps, but had invaded Provence, and 
 
 taken revenge for the devas- 
 tation of the Palatinate. The 
 Dutch had captured Pondi- 
 cherry, a colony founded in 
 Hindoostan by Colbert, and 
 ruined French commerce in 
 the Indies. The English had destroyed their plantations in 
 St. Domingo, had bombarded Havre, Calais, and Dunkirk, and 
 laid Dieppe in ashes. "William's stubborn resistance in Hol- 
 land prevented any marked advantage from the victories of 
 Luxemburg. And now this great commander % was no more. 
 Villeroi (vel-rwa), his successor, unable to check William, 
 
 * Luxemburg was here taken by surprise. To gain time, the Duke of Orleans^ 
 then a lad of fifteen— charged at the head of the king's household. Young princes of 
 the blood, grandsons of the great Conde and of Henry IV., and the highest nobles of 
 the court, desperately held the ground till Luxemburg could establish his lines. The 
 people, carried away by enthusiasm for these gallant youths, poured flowers and 
 crowns upon them as they returned to Paris. The road was lined with congratu- 
 lating and shouting crowds. The young nobles, hurrying into battle, had hastily 
 thrown on the fashionable lace cravats upon whose arrangement they were wont to 
 bestow much pains. Henceforth the '■'•negligee'''' style was universal. Ornaments 
 were manufactured upon this model, so that not only Steinkirk cravats, but Stein- 
 kirk watch-chains, seals, necklaces, and bracelets were the popular rage. 
 
 t This prince belonged, through his father, to the house of Savoy ; his mother was 
 a niece of Mazarin. Louis had a personal dislike for him, and refused him either a 
 regiment or an abbey, saying: "Eugene is too girl-like for a soldier, and too gallant 
 for a churchman." Eugene quitted France, but, full of indignation, silenlly vowed to 
 return. 
 
 X Luxemburg was styled the upholsterer of Notre-Dame, from the number of cap- 
 tured flags he sent to be hung as trophies in that cathedral. "Would to God, 11 said 
 he, on his death-bed, " that I could offer Him, instead of so many useless laurels, the 
 merit of a cup of water given to the poor in His name,'" 
 
1697.] LOUIS XIV. 171 
 
 allowed him to retake Namur. It was the first of Louis's 
 conquests taken from him by force. Louvois, like Colbert, 
 had died in disgrace, and no one had been found to fill his 
 place. France was worn out by its nine years struggle. * 
 
 Peace of Ryswick (1697). — Louis was forced to propose 
 peace ; to acknowledge William king of England ; to give up 
 nearly all his new conquests, and level the frontier fortifica- 
 tions on which he had spent so much. The seventeenth 
 century closed in quiet. 
 
 The Spanish Succession. — Another reason influenced 
 Louis in making the treaty of Kyswick. The feeble Charles 
 II., king of Spain, was evidently near his end, and his rich 
 inheritance was a matter of fierce contention. There were 
 two heirs : Philip, Duke of Anjou, second son of the Dauphin, 
 and the Archduke Charles, son of the emperor. Louis, having 
 persuaded Charles II. to make a will leaving his possessions 
 to Anjou, accepted the inheritance in behalf of his grand- 
 son, and sent him to claim his throne. Europe, however, 
 was so disinclined to a new struggle that it might have been 
 arrested had not Louis provoked it, (1) by giving Philip let- 
 ters preserving his rights to the crown of France; (2) by 
 sending troops (1701) to occupy the frontier fortresses of the 
 Netherlands, then held by the Dutch ; and (3) by recognizing 
 the Pretender, son of the deposed James II., as the lawful 
 king of England. The Third Coalition was promptly formed 
 to check the power of France. It comprised England, the 
 Empire, Holland, Prussia, and the Elector Palatine. 
 
 * The general distress and misery which marked the close of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury surpassed all modern record. " The people were perishing to the sound of 
 Te Deumsy Even the Bordeaux vine-dressers— the best-paid laborers in France- 
 could only earn eight cents a day! "Their usual food was rye and water, and only 
 on very rare occasions could they buy some refuse from the butcher's shop." Most 
 distressed of all were the families on the frontier, who, though never affording such 
 a luxury as meat on their own table, were yet obliged to furnish three meals of meat 
 each day to the troopers which were billeted upon them. 
 
172 HISTORY OF FRANCE. [1701. 
 
 War of the Spanish Succession* (1701-13).— Louis 
 was now opposed by the greatest generals he had yet met 
 in the field — Marlborough and Eugene. They sent his best 
 armies flying from Blenheim (1704), Ramillies \ (1707), Oude- 
 narde (1708), and Malplaquet% (1709). Eugene overwhelmed 
 the French in Italy, and approached the borders of France. 
 Gibraltar was wrested from Spain and attached to England. 
 The French fleet was burned at Vigo. Louis's conquests 
 were gone, and he fought no longer for glory, but only for 
 existence. The utmost exertions of Marshals Villars, Bouf- 
 flcrs, and Vendome only threw occasional gleams of success 
 upon his arms. The resources of the country were dried up, 
 and every means of raising money was exhausted. The ter- 
 rible winter of 1709 § completed the general misery. The 
 king and his nobles sent their plate to the mint. The most 
 illustrious families in Versailles lived on oaten bread, Madame 
 de Maintenon setting the example. In the provinces the 
 people were dying of hunger. Insurrections broke out, and 
 the payment of taxes was refused. Louis humbled him- 
 self afresh and asked for peace. The allies, as the first 
 condition, insisted that he should drive his grandson out of 
 Spain. "If I must make war/'' he replied, "I had rather 
 fight my enemies than my children.'' As if in response to 
 this generous determination, more hopeful news arrived. 
 Vendome, by two brilliant victories,! overthrew the forces 
 
 * This is known in American as Queen Anne's War. (See Barnes's Brief Hist. 
 U. #, p. 79.) 
 
 t When Villars, the French marshal, appeared at court after this defeat, Louis only- 
 remarked to him: " One is not fortunate at our age.' 1 
 
 X The French had just received their rations of Dread, but, half-starving as they 
 were, they threw it aside when the signal for battle was given. 
 
 § The cold was so severe that even the impetuous waters of the Ehone were cov- 
 ered with ice. and the olive froze in the ground. Whole families of peasants perished 
 in their wretched hovels. Labor and commerce were almost suspended ; all kinds 
 of provisions rose to famine prices, and the distress of the poor was beyond descrip- 
 tion. 
 
 || After one of these battles Philip, exhausted with fatigue, sought to sleep. " Sire, 1 
 
1713.] LOUIS XIV. 173 
 
 of Charles, and reseated Philip on the throne. The em- 
 perors death left Charles III. heir to the throne of Austria. 
 England was as unwilling that Spain should be joined to 
 Austria as to France. A change of ministry at home threw 
 Marlborough into disgrace, and that dreaded general was 
 recalled. 
 
 Treaty of Utrecht (1713). — A treaty was now negotiated 
 by England, but the other powers refused to sign it. Prince 
 Eugene, with a superior force, continued the war. Paris 
 itself was threatened with a siege. The king w T as in despair. 
 Domestic bereavements pressed heavily upon him. His son, 
 two grandsons, and one of his great-grandsons, had all died 
 within the space of a year, and only a sickly infant,* the 
 Duke of Anjou, remained to claim the royal succession. 
 Louis, now seventy-four years of age, had resolved to place 
 himself at the head of his nobles, and die with them in a 
 last effort, when Villars, by his brilliant victories in Flan- 
 ders and upon the Rhine, saved the country, and secured the 
 long-wished-for peace. It was, however, little honorable to 
 France. Gibraltar, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and Hud- 
 son's Bay were given up to England, and Anne was ac- 
 knowledged as queen. Holland received a line of fortresses 
 in the Pays Bas, to protect her in future against French 
 aggression. Philip was recognized as king of Spain, on con- 
 dition that the French and Spanish crowns should not be 
 united. Louis seemed to have gained his end; his grandson 
 w r as on the throne of Spain ; but France was impoverished. 
 
 Death of Louis. — The last days of Louis XIV. were as 
 sombre as his first had been brilliant. In spite of disaster, 
 
 said Vend6me to him, spreading beneath a tree the colors taken from the enemy, 
 "I will prepare you the most noble bed that ever king reposed upon." 
 
 * This was of great importance, however, in influencing the allies to make peace, 
 since if this feeble child should die before the treaty was ratified, Philip of Spain, 
 being next heir to the French throne, would after all unite both crowns. 
 
174 THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY. [1715. 
 
 however, he continued to dazzle the eyes of his people with a 
 splendor that only gilded the national ruin. Yet he had few 
 friends. The atmosphere about his dying bed was only that 
 of the coldest indifference. Even Madame de Maintenon left 
 him, and her desertion, it is said, affected him more than his 
 bodily sufferings. Exhorting his great-grandson, the little 
 heir of five years, to shun his errors, to cultivate peace, avoid 
 extravagance, and study the welfare of the people, Louis XIV. 
 closed his long reign of seventy-two years (1715). 
 
 LOUIS XV. 
 
 1715 to 1743 = 33 Years. 
 
 Regency. — Here, again, was a child-king. Philip, Duke 
 of Orleans, nephew of Louis XIV., and nearest prince of the 
 blood, was appointed regent by the Parliament of Paris. 
 Agreeable and easy in his address, well versed in languages 
 and science, he was devoted only to pleasure, and his orgies 
 at the Palais Royal were the scandal even of that dissolute 
 age. His prime-minister was Dubois, a false, base man, who 
 pandered to his vices. The regent's early measures were 
 humane. He recalled many who had been proscribed for 
 their religious opinions, and opened the doors of the Bastille 
 to prisoners whose offences were unknown.* 
 
 * Ever since the reign of Louis XI., it had been the custom of kings to quietly put 
 away obnoxious persons. In everything connected with these prisoners the utmost 
 secrecy was observed. They were seized at dead of night, fictitious names given to 
 them, and all ti'aces of their fate obliterated. Every one has heard of the " Man in 
 the Iron Mask," who figured in the time of Louis XIV. His majestic bearing, the 
 deference with which his jailers served him, and, above all, the strange mask— of 
 velvet, not of iron— which never left his face asleep or awake— all these have been 
 the theme for romances ever since Voltaire first gave the fact to the world, fifty years 
 after man and mask were buried. (See Steele of Louis XIV., Chap. XXV.) Who be 
 was has long been the study of the curious, though most historians now believe him 
 to have been only a foreign embassador, who had been false to Louis. 
 
1718.] 
 
 LOUIS XV 
 
 175 
 
 The Public Debt was now equal to 5,000,000,000 francs, 
 the revenues for three years were consumed in advance, and 
 the government had no credit. The great question, there- 
 fore, was a financial one. A chamber of justice was appoint- 
 ed for the examination of accounts. Government contracts 
 were destroyed; rents 
 
 and pensions were re- ; 
 
 duced; offices were 
 suppressed, and the 
 currency was recoin- 
 ed.* These, however, 
 were temporary expe- 
 dients, and only ag- 
 gravated the coming 
 evil. Meanwhile Philip 
 of Spain conspired 
 against the regent, 
 and hoped, in case of 
 the death of the young king, to succeed to the French 
 throne, in spite of his renunciation. 
 
 The Quadruple Alliance (1718) of France, England, 
 Holland, and the empire, was formed to check this scheme. 
 Orleans had now leagued himself with the ancient enemies 
 of France. To complete the contrast to the policy of Louis 
 
 THE BASTILLE (1700). 
 
 * By this recoinage the currency was depreciated one-fifth ; those who took a 
 thousand pieces of gold or silver to the mint received an amount of coin of the same 
 nominal value, but only four-fifths the weight of metal. The chamber of justice, 
 which at first exposed the frauds of the farmers-general and loan-contractors, soon 
 became a chamber of tyranny. The most atrocious means, including torture, were 
 used to obtain convictions. Eesearches were carried back twenty-seven years, and 
 a person needed only to be rich to insure a prosecution. Servants were permitted to 
 testify against their masters, and one-tenth of all concealed effects belonging to the 
 guilty was promised to the informer. The Bastille soon overflowed with prisoners. 
 Some were punished with death ; many committed suicide. Courtiers bargained for 
 their influence in remitting fines, and so came in for the chief share in the spoils. 
 "The court of France,'" says Bonnechose, "was no longer anything but the scan- 
 dalous market of a kingdom given over to pillage." 
 
176 THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY. [1718. 
 
 XI V., he sent the Duke of Berwick — son of James II. — into 
 Spain with a French army, acting in concert with an English 
 squadron, to overthrow Philip V. ; for whose enthronement 
 French soldiers had so stoutly fought, and who bore' upon 
 his banner the lilies of France. This war, which confirmed 
 the power of Austria in Italy, established the naval supremacy 
 of England, and weakened a Bourbon house, the only natural 
 ally of France, and multiplied the distresses of the kingdom. 
 After considerable losses, Philip of Spain made peace, Sicily 
 was given to the empire, and the regent agreed to demolish 
 the important fortifications of Dunkirk. 
 
 The Mississippi Scheme. — The regent was now led to 
 embrace the plan of Law, a shrewd Scotch adventurer and 
 gambler, who proposed to establish a royal bank, to issue 
 paper money based on the revenues of the government, and 
 with the profits to pay oif the public debt. Dazzled by the 
 rapid success of this scheme, Law afterward organized the 
 West India Company, to colonize and trade in Louisiana. 
 (See Brief Hist. U. 8., p. 202.) The public were stimu- 
 lated by marvellous stories of gold and silver to be found 
 on the banks of the Mississippi. New privileges were 
 granted to the company. All classes began to speculate in 
 the stock. The shares rose in value, often hour by hour, so 
 that they reached thirty or forty times their cost. Law's 
 house was besieged by those who were eager to purchase. 
 Enormous fortunes were made. The regent, sharing in the 
 universal intoxication, would see nothing but greater success 
 in greater ventures, and paper money was issued to the 
 amount of nearly 2,000,000,000 francs, or several times the 
 coin of the realm. Soon the inevitable reaction drew near. 
 The ships laden with gold never cajne to harbor. Public 
 confidence became shaken, and a run was made on the bank. 
 The regent now issued the most arbitrary laws. ISTo one was to 
 
1723.] LOUIS XV. 177 
 
 have in his possession over five hundred francs cash. Pay- 
 ments in specie of over one hundred francs were forbidden. 
 Finally a regulation was made to let the shares down, step 
 by step, to their par value ; but as panics cannot be regu- 
 lated by law, the shares tumbled to nothing. The bubble 
 
 N.° I A ft <ly> ^ mt ^ res Toununs* 
 
 L 
 
 My*-?/ 
 
 A Banq.ue promet payer au Porteur a viie Cent livres Toumofs 
 en Eipeces d'Argent, valeur receiie. A Paris Ie premier Janvier mil 
 
 Bourgeois. 
 
 ^wftejtT^s. 
 
 PAPER MONEY OF LAW S ROYAL BANK. 
 
 burst ; fortunes disappeared ; Law fled as a fugitive, and his 
 famous scheme was at an end. The public debt was not 
 paid but increased ; while society was imbued with a spirit 
 of gambling and intrigue, and a restlessness fruitful of peril. 
 
 Ministry of Bourbon (1723-6). — Louis, now thirteen 
 years old, being declared of age, Orleans retired from the 
 regency. He followed Dubois in the prime ministry, but 
 both died within the year from the effects of their debauch- 
 eries. The Duke of Bourbon, who had all the depravity of 
 Orleans,, with none of his talents, now succeeded to the office. 
 The choice of a wife for the boy-king was the chief event of 
 his ministry. The little Spanish princess, who was being 
 educated at Paris as future queen, was sent back to Madrid 
 without even the courtesy of a polite excuse, and Marie 
 Leczinski, daughter of Stanislaus, ex-king of Poland, was 
 selected as the royal bride. Enraged at this gross insult, 
 
178 
 
 THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY. [1726-36. 
 
 Philip V. made friends with Charles VI. of Austria against 
 France and England, who, in turn, allied themselves with 
 Prussia. Everything foreboded another European war. For- 
 tunately the wretched administration of Bourbon and his 
 creatures caused his dismissal, and Cardinal Eleury, the 
 king's preceptor and adviser, was made minister of state. 
 
 Ministry of Fleury 
 (1726). — For seventeen 
 years this simple, quiet, 
 conscientious priest 
 sought to preserve peace, 
 that France might re- 
 pair her enormous losses 
 and enrich herself by 
 commerce. The taxes 
 were reduced; the reve- 
 nues augmented, and 
 credit was re-established. 
 In spite of all his exer- 
 tions, however, he was 
 dragged into three wars, 
 which his habits of economy rendered him incapable of 
 conducting with energy. 
 
 The War for the Succession of Poland (1733-5) had 
 for its object the restoration of the Polish crown to Stanis- 
 laus. On the death of Augustus, whom Eussia had placed 
 on the throne of Poland, Stanislaus received the votes of 
 60,000 Poles, and was proclaimed king. Eussia, Austria, and 
 Denmark opposed his election to the throne. Fleury could 
 but defend his king's father-in-law, but, with culpable par- 
 simony, sent only 1,500 men to his assistance. The Eussian 
 army marched on Warsaw. The French were captured. 
 Stanislaus fled. His rival, Angus tus III., was crowned at 
 
 f0fpvc 
 
 CARDINAL FLEURY. 
 
1741.] LOUIS XV. 179 
 
 Cracow. The courts of Paris, Madrid, and Turin now com- 
 bined against that of Vienna, and the wars of Louis XIV. 
 were resumed on the same old ground. The veteran Villars 
 reappeared on the field of battle in Italy, while the Duke of 
 Berwick * was opposed to Prince Eugene on the Ehine. The 
 French carried all before them. The Spanish army, at the 
 same time, invaded South Italy, and Don Carlos, son of 
 Philip V. of Spain, became king of the two Sicilies. His 
 position was confirmed by the treaty of Vienna (1738), and 
 thus an additional crown was secured to the Bourbon house. 
 Stanislaus, in lieu of Poland, received the Duchy of Lorraine, 
 which, on his death, was to revert to Louis XV. ; and the 
 joint powers agreed to the Pragmatic Sanction, as it was 
 termed, which secured the succession of the empire to Maria 
 Theresa, daughter of Charles VI. 
 
 War for the Succession of Austriaf (1741-8). — Two 
 years elapsed. The emperor died, and Maria Theresa as- 
 cended the throne. Despite their solemn guarantee, all the 
 great powers, except England, united to rob her of her inher- 
 itance. Frederick, king of Prussia, overran Silesia. J The 
 Elector of Saxony invaded Bohemia. France supported the 
 claim of the Elector of Bavaria to the imperial crown, and a 
 French and Bavarian army pushed within a few leagues of 
 Vienna. Fleeing to the Diet of Hungary, the queen com- 
 mended to them her infant son. The brave Magyar nobles, 
 drawing their sabres, shouted : K We will die for our king, 
 
 * At the siege of Philipsburg, Berwick was killed by a cannon-ball. On hearing of 
 his death. Villars remarked : " That man was always lucky ; " and Eugene, with the 
 fame soldierly spirit, exclaimed: "For the first time in my life I am jealous." 
 Within a week afterward Villars died at Turin, in the same room where he was born 
 eighty-five years before. 
 
 t The reflex of this struggle was felt, in America, and is known as King George 1 s 
 War. (See Brief Hist. U. 8'., p. 80.) 
 
 t The magnificent strategy by which Frederick the Great resisted Europe in arms, 
 and established the prestige of Prussia, is best shown in connection with the History 
 of Germany, and is not attempted in the description of this or the Seven Years War. 
 
180 
 
 THE ABSOLUTE MOKAECHY. 
 
 [1743. 
 
 Maria Theresa." A powerful army was formed in her de- 
 fence. Sardinia declared for the queen. Frederick treated 
 with her for Silesia. The French, left single-handed to bear 
 the brunt of the battle, were blockaded in Prague, and at 
 last, by disastrous flight, only 12,000 out of 60,000 escaped to 
 the frontier. King George II. had 
 now taken the field with the Euglish 
 and Hanoverian troops, and the same 
 year (1743) defeated the French, 
 under Marshal de Noailles, at Det- 
 tingen. 
 
 Victories of Marshal Saxe. 
 — In 1744 Louis placed himself at 
 the head of his army.* Under him 
 was Maurice of Saxony, known in 
 history as Marshal Saxe. This fa- 
 mous general restored the honor of 
 the French arms by the brilliant 
 victories of Fontenoy \ (1745), Rau- 
 
 MARSHAL SAXE. 
 
 * Louis was taken violently ill at Metz at the close of this campaign. To the sui'- 
 prise of all he recovered. The people, who had been touched by the story of his 
 repentance, were overjoyed, and gave him the name of Well-Beloved. The cold- 
 hearted king, who had already determined to disgrace the good bishop by whose 
 entreaties he had renounced his pet sins at the gate of death, was astonished at the 
 devotion of his subjects, and exclaimed : "What have I done that they should love 
 me so much ? " 
 
 t The courtesies exchanged between the opposing generals in this contest are 
 memorable. Arrived at fifty paces from our line, says Duruy, the English officers 
 removed their caps in salute to us. Our officers of the guard returned the compli- 
 ment. Milord Hay cried : " Gentlemen of the French Guard, it is for you to begin— 
 fire ! " The Count d'Auteroche responded in a loud voice : " Gentlemen, we never 
 fire first ; it is for you to begin." The next response was from the English in a 
 rolling fire, that brought clown twenty-three officers and three hundred and eighty 
 soldiers.— Carlyle rather discredits the "courtesy" on this occasion, and says it was 
 braggadocio and "chaffing." — On his return to Paris, after this campaign, Louis was 
 hailed with great enthusiasm as a conqueror. He seems to have been as ready as 
 Louis XIV. to appropriate to himself the success of r his generals, as one can but feel, 
 when standing by the magnificent tomb of Marshal Saxe, in the church of St. Thomas, 
 Strasbourg, whereon we read, after the illustrious titles of this truly great general : 
 "Louis XV. the author and witness of his victories, caused this monument to bo 
 srected," etc. 
 
1746.] LOUIS XV. 181 
 
 coux (1746), and Lawfelt (1717). Nearly all the Austrian 
 Netherlands lay at the feet of the conqueror. 
 
 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748).— Meanwhile the ob- 
 ject for which France commenced the war had been decided. 
 On the death of the Elector of Bavaria (1745), his son submit- 
 ted to Maria Theresa, and her husband Francis was elected 
 emperor. Since .then France had fought only to secure an 
 honorable peace. The capture of the fortress of Maestrecht 
 was followed by a suspension of hostilities. It was expected 
 that, after the signal successes of Marshal Saxe, Louis would 
 demand an accession of territory ; but he declared that he 
 treated like a prince, not like a merchant. By the peace of 
 Aix-la-Ohapelle, France restored all her conquests, and did 
 not retain a foot of land to show for seven years of unjust 
 and exhausting war. The debt was increased, and the navy 
 was almost annihilated. 
 
 Royal Favorites. — After the death of Cardinal Fleury 
 (1743), Louis, affecting the example of Louis XIV., appointed 
 no prime minister. The real ruler of public affairs, however, 
 was the king's favorite. For twenty years Madame de Pom- 
 padour, a woman of low birth but great accomplishments, 
 was the most powerful person in France. Generals, minis- 
 ters, and ambassadors transacted business in her boudoir. 
 The entire patronage of the government was in her hands. 
 Even the generals of the army were selected from her court- 
 iers, and to win her favor was a surer passport to promotion 
 than to gain a battle. She was succeeded after her death by 
 the Countess Du Barri, who was still more infamous and 
 lavish of the public money. Becent investigations show that 
 $100,000,000 of the national debt was incurred for expenses 
 too ignominious to bear the light. 
 
 The Seven Years War. — The boundaries between the 
 French and English possessions in North America being 
 
182 THE ABSOLUTE MOIAKCHY. [1754-63. 
 
 poorly defined, a contest, known to us as the French and 
 Indian War, broke out in 1754 {Brief Hist U. S., p. 81), 
 though there was no formal declaration for two years afteiv 
 ward. All Europe was soon fired. Maria Theresa made an 
 attempt to recover Silesia, with the help of Russia, Saxony, 
 Poland, and Sweden. Louis, under the influence of Madame 
 Pompadour,* deserted his natural allies and declared for 
 Austria. England alone joined with Prussia. The French 
 were at first successful. Minorca was captured by a brilliant 
 dash, and the Hanoverian army, under the Duke of Cumber- 
 land, at Closter-Seven was forced to capitulate (1757). But 
 disasters soon thickened fast on sea and land. There were 
 disgraceful defeats at Rosbach (1757), Crevelt (1758), and 
 Minden (1759). Preparations were made to invade England, 
 but one squadron was overthrown by the British off Cape 
 Lagos, another off Belle Isle, and a descent made on Ireland 
 failed ignominiously. In America, Louisburg was taken and 
 Cape Breton lost. Wolfe {Brief Hist. U. 8., p. 87) captured 
 Quebec, and Canada fell. In Africa, Senegal was wrested 
 from France. In Asia, Lord Clive captured Pondicherry, and 
 gave a death-blow to French rule in the East, Spain, be- 
 coming involved in the war by virtue of the " Family Com- 
 pact," f lost many of her colonies in the Philippine Islands 
 and the West Indies. 
 
 Peace of Paris (1763.)— The accession of Peter III.— 
 who was a warm admirer of Frederick the Great — to the 
 throne of Russia, decided the issue of the war. France ceded 
 
 * Maria Theresa wrote Madame Pompadour a cajoling letter, styling her " my very 
 clear friend," " my cousin," etc. This skilful manoeuvre decided the alliance. The 
 wit of one woman and the vanity of another had set aside an inveterate enmity of 
 two countries. 
 
 t This famous treaty between the French and Spanish branches of the House of 
 Bourbon was negotiated by Choiseul, minister of foreign affairs (1701). They guar- 
 anteed their respective thrones, and agreed to aid one another in time of war. A 
 medal was struck to commemorate this alliance, and bore the motto: "Pcrpetua 
 Consanjruinitatis Fides." 
 
1773.] 
 
 LOUIS XV. 
 
 183 
 
 MEDAL OF THE FAMILY COMPACT. 
 
 to England Canada with its dependencies, a part of the 
 Antilles, Senegal, and nearly all her possessions in India. 
 Spain relinquished Florida in exchange for the English con- 
 quests, and France gave her the rest of Louisiana. This 
 peace, so ignomi- 
 nious and humili- 
 ating for France,* 
 brought on the 
 king and court the 
 scorn of the na- 
 tion. Henceforth 
 loyalty was dead. 
 
 Government — Louis, indolent f and indifferent, was yet 
 a despot. Frequent conflicts arose between the king and 
 the Parliament, which terminated in the suppression of the 
 latter. The last shadow of liberty was thus abolished. Louis 
 XIV. had destroyed the political importance of the nobles; 
 Louis XV. that of the magistracy. What hope was there 
 left for the ancient throne and dynasty? The deplorable 
 condition of the finances,;); caused by Louis's personal extrav- 
 agance and the excesses of a profligate court, was evident to 
 all. Ministers followed each other in quick succession, like 
 the shifting figures of a magic lantern. Perils lurked on 
 every side, but the infatuated courtiers shut their eyes and 
 
 * As part compensation for this loss of territory, Lorraine, en the death of Stanis- 
 laus in 1766, reverted to France ; and in 176Sthe island of Corsica gave up its struggle 
 for independence, and hecame incorporated with France. Two months afterward 
 Napoleon Buonaparte was born. 
 
 t One of his favorite diversions was the spectacle of cruel sports, where birds of 
 prey were let loose in vast apartments filled with sparrows, among which they made 
 a hideous carnage. His great accomplishment, however, was the art of cutting off 
 the top of an egg. When, by a quick evolution of his knife, he neatly removed the 
 end of his egg, shouts of "Vive le roi" rewarded the performance. 
 
 $ One of the infamous ways of raising money was by selling orders of imprison- 
 ment, often in blank. Any one who bought or received one of these as a gift could 
 gratify a revenge at pleasure. St. Florentin, one of Louis's ministers, is said to have 
 given away 50,000 of these orders. 
 
184 THE ABSOLUTE MOHAKCHY. [1774 
 
 ears, and plunged deeper into revelry. Louis foresaw the 
 storm, but contented himself that "things would last his 
 day;" and Madame Pompadour shouted with him: "After 
 us the deluge." He joined with the Abbe Terray,* controller 
 of the finances, in a shameful speculation, called a " treaty 
 of famine." To all complaints the answer was : " The king 
 is master," and the dungeons of the Bastille silenced those 
 who were troublesome. 
 
 Death of Louis. — In the midst of accumulating abuses 
 and perils, Louis, tired even of his 'pleasures, disgusted with 
 everything, and despised by all, died of malignant small-pox. 
 Like Louis XIV., domestic losses had left him almost alone. 
 His queen, eldest son, and two grandsons, were dead. 
 
 Condition of Society. — The people were overwhelmed with taxes, 
 while the nobility and clergy, who owned two thirds of all the land 
 in the country, were nearly exempt. The taxes were "farmed out," 
 that is, leased for a certain sum to persons who retained all they could 
 collect over the specified amount. The unhappy tax-payers were treated 
 with relentless severity, in order to swell the profits 'of these farmers- 
 general. The Gdhelle was rigidly enforced, each family being com- 
 pelled to buy four times per year a certain amount of salt, whether 
 needed or not. The peasants were obliged to labor on roads, bridges, 
 or other public works, without pay. In some districts every farmer 
 had been ruined by these corvees, as they were called. Large tracts of 
 land, or capitaineries, regardless of private rights, were declared game- 
 preserves, wherein wild boars and deer might roam at pleasure. The 
 power given to the noble over the peasants living on his estate was 
 absolute. Lest the young game might be disturbed or its flavor im- 
 paired, the starving peasant could not weed his little plot of ground 
 or suitably enrich it. He must grind his corn at the lord's mill, bake 
 his bread in the lord's oven, and press his grapes at the lord's wine- 
 press, paying therefor whatever sum the lord might impose. To com- 
 plete the picture of rural wretchedness, 150,000 serfs were bought and 
 sold with the land on which they were born. Even in the middle 
 
 * He said the people were "only a sponge to be squeezed.' 1 By prohibiting ex- 
 portation of grain in one province, he lowered the price, and then bought up the sur- 
 plus and sold it in another province where he had raised the price by promoting 
 exportation till there was a great scarcity. 
 
1774] LOUIS XVI. 185 
 
 classes rights of business and profession were a matter of purchase. 
 When the royal treasury needed replenishing, a restriction of trade 
 was imposed, and licenses issued at a high price for even the com- 
 monest callings. The strife between classes had awakened an intense 
 hatred. The nobles not only placed their haughty feet on the necks of 
 the peasants,*" but spoke contemptuously of the bourgeoisie, the mer- 
 chants, traders, artisans, etc., whom they called " Boturiers," a word 
 signifying a laborer. In turn the wealthy merchants hated and de- 
 spised the spendthrift, dissolute, arrogant hangers-on at court, whose 
 ill-gotten revenues were yet far below their own. — The corruption of 
 court-life could but infect the lower classes. A general demoralization 
 spread through France. A boastful skepticism prevailed, and all 
 that is amiable in religion or elevating in morals was made a subject 
 .of ridicule. The writings of Rousseau and Voltaire, with their bril- 
 liant and fascinating theories of liberty, weakened long-cherished truths 
 and taught their readers to mock at Divine revelation. Other able but 
 infidel writers contributed to the same end. The people, ignorant of 
 the first principles of civil and religious freedom, were intoxicated by 
 these sparkling speculations. Meanwhile society drifted on, no one 
 knew whither. 
 
 LOUIS XVI. 
 
 1774 to 1789 = 15 Years. 
 
 Louis XVI., at the death of his grandfather,! was twenty 
 years old. Unlike so many of his predecessors, he was good 
 in heart and pure in life ; but he was awkward in person, 
 slouching in gait, shy in manner, squeaking in voice, slow in 
 speech, weak in judgment, vacillating in purpose, and totally 
 inexperienced in public affairs. His queen, Marie Antoinette, 
 
 * A curious book, published in 1698, called The Titles by which all Sorts of People 
 are Qualified, says: "There remain the men and women who should not be given 
 any title, either because of their low birth or vulgar trades. These are country-men 
 and women, or the lower sort of mechanics. They should be simply called by their 
 surname, adding to the woman the article La, at the same time making signs of the 
 head or hands expressive of a species of contempt.' 1 '' 
 
 t Louis and Marie Antoinette were in another part of the palace awaiting the 
 news. Suddenly a sound, "terrible and absolutely like thunder, ,, was heard. It 
 was the crowd of courtiers rushing from the dead sovereign's ante-chamber to salute 
 the new king and queen. Overpowered with emotion, by a spontaneous movement 
 the young pair threw themselves upon their knees, and, with tears, exclaimed: "O 
 God, guide us! Protect its ! We arc too young to govern.'" 
 
18G 
 
 THE ABSOLUTE MONAECHY 
 
 [1774. 
 
 daughter of Maria Theresa, was a beautiful and innocent but 
 thoughtless woman, who unfortunately added to the general 
 hatred toward the House of Austria by her dislike of the 
 ceremony and artificial manners of the French.* This youth- 
 ful pair, whose real virtues might in happier days have won 
 the hearts of their subjects, were now confronted by the 
 errors, follies, and crimes of a long line of kings. 
 
 Louis's Ministers. — 
 Maurepas was appointed 
 prime minister, Males- 
 herbes (mal-zerb) was 
 placed at the head of 
 the household, and Tur- 
 got (go) was put in charge 
 of the finances. The king- 
 hoped to find in the first 
 a sage whose years would 
 make amends for his own 
 youth ; he found only a 
 superannuated, frivolous courtier. Malesherbes was an upright 
 lawyer, who seconded Turgot's views of reform. Turgot was 
 a man of pre-eminent abilities, who sought to make all classes 
 bear equally the burdens of state. He proposed the abolition of 
 the corvee, the gabelle, the duties on the grain trade between 
 
 * Coming from the ease and freedom of her mother's court, the excessive etiquette 
 of Versailles was almost insufferable to her. " She was not allowed to put on a 
 single article of attire with her own hands, or without the intervention of a series of 
 honorary servants, each of whom had a distinct duty. In dressing, one would take 
 up a garment and hand it to another, who would put it on the queen. One would 
 pour water on her hands ; another would hold the towel wherewith to dry them. 
 One had the right to put on the petticoat: another the gown. Gloves, shawls, head- 
 dresses, were all subject to fixed 1 ules. Sitting, walking, standing, riding, all had their 
 regulations ; and visiting and receiving visits, even so much as speaking to any one, 
 were matters of hi^h concern. At table, dishes were presented as if to a divinity— 
 the attendants humbly kneeling on a foot-stool." — All these ceremonies were deemed 
 vital by the courtiers, to whom a breach of etiquette was a far greater sin than a 
 breach of morals. 
 
1774] LOUIS. XVI. 187 
 
 the different provinces, and various other usages which bore 
 heavily on the people. He met with opposition on every 
 hand. Those who lost privileges were loud in complaints. 
 The clergy and nobility refused to give up their ancient 
 rights. The courtiers were furious at his plans of retrench- 
 ment. Louis lacked energy to support him against the cabals 
 of nobles, clergy, and court, and at last grew weary of the 
 great designs which he could not comprehend. Turgot was 
 dismissed. With him perished all hope of reform. Males- 
 herbes had already retired. 
 
 Neckar, a Swiss banker, succeeded to the post. His in- 
 tegrity and brilliant reputation enabled him to easily nego- 
 tiate loans. That he might the more consistently reduce the 
 salaries of others, he accepted none himself. He accomplished 
 many small reforms, and abolished over six hundred super- 
 fluous offices, but failed to strike at the root of the evils 
 which afflicted France. An official report of the state of the 
 finances, which he made public, was the first instance of the 
 kind, and produced a profound sensation. It especially 
 offended the privileged classes, as it showed the glaring 
 exceptions in their favor. Not long after Neckar, conscious 
 of growing unpopularity, resigned. 
 
 War of America (1778-1783).— This was the era of our 
 War of Independence. Benjamin Franklin, Arthur Lee, and 
 Silas Deane had just arrived in Paris, to solicit aid for the 
 new republic. Their presence aroused great enthusiasm.* The 
 nation was eager to repair the disgrace of the last war, to 
 
 * "Franklin appeared at court in the costume of an American farmer; his long, 
 unpowdered hair, round hat, and drab coat, contrasted oddly with the embroidered 
 and bespangled dresses, the full-blown and perfumed perukes, of the Versailles 
 courtiers. This novelty charmed the dizzy heads of all the French women. Elegant 
 fetes were given in honor of the great philosopher and apostle of liberty. At one of 
 these the most beautiful of three hundred women affixed on the gray hairs of the 
 American philosopher a crown cf laurel, and saluted his cheeks with a kiss." — 
 Madame Campan. 
 
188 
 
 THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY 
 
 [1778-83. 
 
 MEDAL COMMEMORATING THE ALLIANCE OF FRANCE 
 AND THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 humble England, and regain French naval superiority. In 
 the free and equal government across the ocean the philos- 
 ophers saw their ideal. La Fayette renounced the pleasures 
 of his delightful home, equipped a vessel, and gave himself to 
 the cause of freedom. Louis and his ministers would gladly 
 have avoided a conflict with England, but popular sympathy 
 drove them on to form a treaty with the United States. In 
 
 1778 a squadron, under 
 Count d'Estaing,' ap- 
 peared off the coast of 
 Rhode Island. The next 
 year, reinforced by a 
 Spanish fleet, under 
 Count de Grasse, D'Es- 
 taing captured several of 
 the West India Islands, 
 and afterward joined General Lincoln in the attack upon 
 Savannah. Count de Grasse, with a land force under Count 
 Rochambeau, subsequently aided in the capture of the Eng- 
 lish army at Yorktown (1781). This victory decided the 
 American war. 
 
 Treaty of Versailles (1783). — A change of ministry 
 having made the English government desirous of peace, the 
 war closed advantageously for France. The independence 
 of the United States was acknowledged. France received 
 considerable colonial possessions in Africa and the Indies, 
 while the article in the treaty of Utrecht concerning Dun- 
 kirk was rescinded. This was the last triumph of the old 
 monarchy. 
 
 Growing Difficulties of the Government. —The dis- 
 tress of the people was constantly increasing, and the state 
 of the finances becoming more desperate. Louis had turned 
 from Neckar to Fleury, from Fleury to D'Ormesson, but 
 
1783.] LOUIS XVI. 189 
 
 found no solace in either. At length Calonne was hit upon, 
 who appeared to the court like an angel of deliverance. As 
 Neckar had preached economy, he taught extravagance. He 
 borrowed on all sides, and gave to every one who asked. 
 Credit, however, soon failed, and the pleasing dream was 
 over. The spendthrift minister had only hastened the inevi- 
 table crisis. The conviction was now fast gaining ground that 
 the only hope lay in a change of government. Democratic 
 doctrines had been fostered by the American war, and the 
 successful establishment of a republic across the Atlantic* 
 The Palais Royal and the salons of Paris swarmed with 
 brilliant men and women, who discussed political abuses and 
 their remedies, with dangerous fluency. 
 
 Feebleness of the King. — Meanwhile Louis was with- 
 drawn from the national life like the faineant kings of old. 
 One day he said to Turgot, on entering his cabinet : " See, I 
 am working, too ! " He was preparing a pamphlet on the 
 destruction of rabbits in the neighboring fields. He amused 
 himself at the locksmith's trade and in drawing geographical 
 maps, and passed entire days in hunting, f The queen, young, 
 beautiful, and ambitious, had great power over him, but her 
 favorite courtiers brought only disaster, while her childish 
 follies awakened contempt. J Such was the occupation of the 
 
 * The government seemed strangely insensible to the progress and power of public 
 opinion. For example, when aid was sent to our republic, commissions were refused 
 to all who could not prove a noble descent for at least one hundred years. 
 
 t It is a significant fact that his retainers were accustomed to say on days when 
 his hounds and horses were at home: "His majesty will not do anything to-day." 
 In his diary, now preserved in the national archives at Paris, one sees long columns 
 of dates,- opposite each of which is the simple word ".fftere," varied only with "The 
 king went to hunt, 1 ' or " The king attended church." When Joseph II. (1777) came 
 to France, where he studied its arts and industries, he learned with astonishment 
 that his brother-in-law, so far from visiting the cities of the provinces, had not even 
 seen the Invalides or the military school at Paris. 
 
 % To this period belongs the mysterious affair of the diamond necklace ; the parties 
 most interested in which were the Cardinal de Rohan, grand almoner to the king, a 
 certain Madame de la Motte, and the queen. A magnificent diamond necklace, valued 
 at 1,600,000 francs, had been shown to Marie Antoinette, who exceedingly admired 
 
190 
 
 THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY 
 
 [1787. 
 
 royal family" on the eve of a revolution. An event, which had 
 happened three times already in French history, was again 
 about to occur. Another line of kings had nearly spent 
 itself. But now there was no Mayor of the Palace, no Count 
 of Paris, no Henry IV., to found a new dynasty. 
 
 The Notables and the States -General.— In this 
 emergency the notables were assembled (1787). The mem- 
 bers, however, refused to 
 yield their exclusive privi- 
 leges, and so accomplished 
 nothing. Calonne now 
 gave place to his rival, 
 the Archbishop of Brienne. 
 New imposts were ordered 
 by the government. Par- 
 liament resisted their re- 
 gistration. A terrible con- 
 test arose, which spread 
 throughout the kingdom. 
 A clamor arose for the 
 re-assembling of the long-forgotten States- General, to which 
 the government at last yielded. In this crisis Neckar was 
 recalled (1788). He endeavored to undo the mistakes of the 
 preceding ministers, and to relieve the distress of the com- 
 
 but, refused to buy it, saying : " France needs vessels of war more than jewels." 
 Afterward Rohan was persuaded by Madame de la Motte that her majesty, who had 
 been his bitter enemy, was ready to take him into her favor if he would procure her 
 the necklace unknown to the king. He had an evening interview in the garden at 
 Versailles with a woman who strongly resembled and successfully personated the 
 queen. Having bought the necklace on credit, as by the queen's order, he delivered 
 it to Madame de la Motte. In course of time the jewellers, uneasy at not receiving 
 their pay, ventured to send the bill to the queen herself. She indignantly repudiated 
 all knowledge of it, and made complaint to the king, A suit was instigated against 
 Rohan, as the result of which Maria Antoinette was acquitted of complicity in the 
 affair. The people, however, were only too ready to believe anything against " the 
 Austrian," and her reputation, already endangered by various imprudencies, suffered 
 terribly from the color given to this strange transaction. 
 
1789.] LOUIS X VI . 191 
 
 mon people. But it was too late to save the country by 
 petty measures. The election of members for the states took 
 place amid indescribable tumult. By Neckar's advice the 
 number of deputies for the tiers-Hat was made equal to that 
 of the nobles and clergy combined. Meanwhile Paris was 
 flooded with pamphlets* upon the all-absorbing theme. The 
 States-General met at Versailles May 5, 1789. It was the last 
 day of the monarchy and the first of the revolution. 
 
 Summary. — Sully pays the debts, fills the treasury, and sets the 
 hammers ringing in every town and dockyard of France. Henry 
 thinks to remodel all Europe, but the dagger of Ravaillac ends his 
 scheme. His son, Louis XIII., ascends the throne, with his mother, 
 Marie de' Medici, as regent. The favorites, Concini and De Luynes, 
 in succession rule the state. Disorder follows. Sully retires. Riche- 
 lieu, clear, crafty, pitiless, rises to power. He has his three aims : to 
 abase the nobles, the Huguenots, and the House of Austria. He takes 
 Rochelle, yet joins the Protestants of Germany in the Thirty Years 
 War. He degrades the king, but makes the reign illustrious ; he 
 saves France from anarchy, but establishes a despotism. With his 
 dying breath he commends Mazarin to his master. Louis soon follows 
 his minister. Anne of Austria, left as regent with her little son Louis 
 XIV., gives Mazarin her confidence. The fruits of Richelieu's policy 
 are reaped by the great Conde at Rocroi, Fribourg, Nordlingen, and 
 Lens. The treaty of Westphalia gives Metz, Toul, Verdun, and nearly 
 all Alsace to France. The Fronde — the last insurrection of the nobles 
 — for six years convulses the land. Mazarin dies, and the king governs 
 for himself. Colbert fills his treasury ; Louvois drills and equips his 
 troops ; Vauban fortifies his cities ; Conde and Turenne lead his armies. 
 Turenne takes French Flanders in three weeks, and Conde Franche- 
 Comte in a month. The Triple Alliance bars their progress, and the 
 peace of Aix-la-Chapelle gives a brief rest. Louis again invades Hol- 
 land. The Dutch let in the sea, and the Prince of Orange comes to 
 the front. Turenne fights the Germans and Austrians on the Rhine, 
 wastes the Palatinate, and dies in battle. The treaty of Nimeguen 
 gives Franche-Comte and a part of Flanders to France, and raises the 
 
 * The most celebrated was one in which the Abbe Sieyes thus answered these 
 three questions: "Who is the third estate? The nation. What is it? Nothing. 
 What ought it to be ? Everything." To the saying of Louis : "The state, it is I,*' 
 Sieyes responded : " The state, it is we."— Among the most active in secretly arousing 
 the masses was the Duke of Orleans, the richest man in the kingdom, but a notorious 
 profligate, who hoped to rise to power on the ruins of the throne. 
 
192 THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY. [1598-1789. 
 
 Grand Honarque to tlie height of his glory. " The Age of Louis XIV." 
 gives tone and character to all Europe. In time of peace Louis takes 
 Strasbourg. The Edict of Nantes is revoked, and the dragonnades 
 drive out of France thousands of her most skilful artisans. The League 
 of Augsburg is formed against France. Louis supports the claim of 
 James II. to England. Luxemburg wins the battles of Fleurus, 
 Steinkirk, and Neerwinden. The Palatinate is again devastated. 
 Louis loses his great officers ; his fleet is defeated off La Hogue, and 
 he submits to the treaty of Ryswick. The war of the Spanish suc- 
 cession comes on, and the Third Coalition is formed against Louis. 
 His fortunes forsake him. Boufflers, Villars, and Villeroi are beaten 
 by Marlborough and Prince Eugene at Blenheim, Ramillies, Oude- 
 narde, and Malplaquet. Smarting under these defeats, Louis gladly 
 makes the treaty of Utrecht, and, deserted, lonely, humbled, closes his 
 reign of seventy-two years. Philip, Duke of Orleans, becomes regent 
 for the child-king, Louis XV. The Quadruple Alliance is formed. The 
 Mississippi bubble bursts, and plunges the country in ruin. France 
 engages in the war for the succession of Austria, Marshal Saxe gains 
 the victories of Fontenoy, Raucaux, and Lawfelt. The peace of Aix- 
 la-Chapelle gives a breathing spell to worn-out Europe. The Seven 
 Years War begins, and spreads over both continents. AH goes wrong 
 with France. Beaten at Rosbach, Crevelt, and Minden, by the treaty 
 of Paris she loses Canada, Nova Scotia, Florida, and nearly all her 
 Indian possessions. The court, ruled by Pompadour and Du Barry, 
 sinks to the last depths of glittering shame. Louis XVI. succeeds his 
 grandfather, but the people despise the awkward though amiable king, 
 and hate his Austrian bride. France is sunk in debt. The common 
 people, loaded with burdens, groan in misery. The clergy and the 
 nobles, free from taxation, possess broad lands and abundant privi- 
 leges. The court blazes with festivity and luxury. The American 
 Revolution sows ideas of liberty throughout the land. Infidel writings 
 lead men to scorn all restraints. Turgot devises wise plans, but is not 
 sustained. Neckar holds the purse for a time, and is popular with the 
 masses, but not with the court. All now await the States-General. 
 
 Condition of Society. — The nobility were divided into two dis- 
 tinctive classes — that of. the court and that of the provinces. The 
 latter were poor, sometimes to the verge of suffering. The chateaux 
 of their ancestors crumbled to ruin for lack of means to repair them ; 
 their farms were without cattle, their fields neglected, their children 
 uneducated, yet their pride of rank was such that they suffered and 
 died rather than degrade themselves byo honest labor. The court- 
 nobility, meanwhile, revelled in luxury and splendor. The bourgeoisie 
 had also its distinctions. The high bourgeois not unfrequently became 
 a noble by purchase of title or otherwise ; yet the noble of long descent 
 
1598-1789.] THE ABSOLUTE MONAKCHY. 193 
 
 never admitted liim to an equality with himself, and he still rested, 
 only a titled bourgeois. In pride of manner and of living, the high or 
 great bourgeoisie, which comprehended members of parliament, great 
 financiers, etc., rivalled the nobility ; in riches it often excelled. It had 
 as magnificent chateaux, as superb equipages, and as numerous ser- 
 vants. The great dignitaries of parliament were more honored than the 
 great seigneurs, and the financiers more coveted than princes. The mid- 
 dle bourgeoisie included the old bourgeois families, municipal officers, 
 magistrates, etc. The third and most numerous class, the small bour- 
 geoisie, embraced wealthy farmers, merchants, etc. The People, like the 
 nobility and the bourgeoisie, were self -divided. There were the peojile 
 of Paris, of provincial cities, and of the country. Three other distinct 
 classes there were among them — artisans, domestics, and cultivators. No 
 tie of affinity existed between artisan and cultivator, but both equally 
 hated the domestic, as a deserter attached to the service of the common 
 enemy, and all hated the bourgeoisie far more than the real aristocracy. 
 — By the time of Louis XIV. the original or feudal aristocracy, the 
 descendants of the men who had been the king's peers rather than his 
 subjects, had been extinguished. A second aristocracy had arisen among 
 the survivors of the English and Italian wars. This embraced not only 
 the proprietors of ancestral lands, but the Noblesse of the Roll, as they 
 were called, being the great law officers and the ennobled bourgeoisie — 
 the two latter not being considered identical in rank with the first. — 
 Louis XIV. created a third aristocracy, founded on court-favor alone. 
 
 Manners and Customs. — During the sixteenth century the pride of 
 great houses lay in the splendor of their carpets, tapestry, and bed- 
 hangings. Furniture was very plain and meagre ; a few chests, which 
 also served for seats, some stools, two or three benches, and one or two 
 arm-chairs for the heads of the family, sufficing for halls, whose hang- 
 ings were of the richest material. The sons and daughters, whether 
 single or married, sat on little stools in the presence of their parents, 
 after having received permission. The walls of commoner houses were 
 sometimes wainscoted in panels, sometimes covered with gilt leather. 
 Hunting apparatus was a prominent decoration, and the dogs rested 
 upon clean straw under the benches. Huge two-tined steel forks — a 
 new and refined invention— were used at royal tables. The dandy of 
 the time of Henry IV. wore bright satin doublets, stiff with embroidery 
 and seed-pearls. His sleeves were slashed with silver tissue. From his 
 costly neck-chain pended an immense medallion, set in diamonds. His 
 velvet cap, adorned with jewelled clasp and white ostrich plume, was 
 perched jauntily over his ear. Broad golden lace bordered his hose, and 
 huge gilt spurs were attached to his white or amber-leather boots. His 
 heavily-ringed fingers glistened as they toyed with the scented snuff in 
 his enameled snuff-box. The full-dressed belle was often so weighted 
 
194 
 
 THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY, 
 
 [1598-1789. 
 
 by the gold, silver, and jewels which adorned her dress and person, as 
 to be unable to move or even to stand. Black velvet masks were worn 
 by both sexes, and were considered indispensable to a lady's street toilet. 
 The streets continued filthy, and were so narrow that a popular amuse- 
 ment was to jump across them from roof to roof of the houses. These 
 close, dirty passages so abounded with thieves that it was dangerous 
 to traverse them at night without arms and a large train of attendants. 
 They were lighted at the corners by large 
 vessels filled with pitch and other com- 
 bustibles. Afterward lamps were adopted, 
 which were suspended on chains stretched 
 across the street. The extravagant reign 
 of Louis XIV. only increased the poverty 
 and miseries of the common people. Mo- 
 rality was at a low ebb. Cheating at cards 
 was a coveted accomplishment among the 
 higher classes, and young nobles invited 
 highway robbers to their tables to amuse 
 them by spicy details of crime. — The Grand 
 Monarque, never sated with the most ser- 
 vile flattery, lived and was treated as a 
 demi-god. He was most proud of his de- 
 portment. " He walked with the tramp of 
 dignity, rolling his eyes and turning out his toes, while the courtiers burst 
 into loud applause. The red heels of his shoes, four inches high, added 
 much to his stature, but did not yet bring him up to the standard of 
 ordinary men. In imitation of their royal master, all gentlemen tied 
 themselves in at the waist, stuck out their elbows, and walked with a 
 strut. They also wore immense wigs, covered with flour, flowing over 
 their shoulders, and silver-buckled shoes, that came nearly up to the 
 ankle. A hat was impossible on the top of the enormous periwig, so 
 they carried the three-cornered cockaded superfluity under their arms 
 or in their hands. Rich velvet coats, with amazingly wide skirts, bro- 
 caded waistcoats, half-way to the knee, satin small-clothes, and silk 
 stockings, composed their apparel, which received its crowning adorn- 
 ment in a gold-headed cane and diamond-hilted sword." — [White.] 
 In 1699 the royal decree went forth against the high head dresses 
 which were in vogue, when, says St. Simon, " the pyramids fell in one 
 day from the extremity of height to the extremity of flatness." In the 
 time of Louis XVI. high head-dresses were revived, and the fashion- 
 plates of the time reveal the most absurd c fancies, from the immense 
 panache (panash) — looking like a large feather duster — to a full-rigged 
 ship. In the eighteenth century patches again came in favor, and a fash- 
 ionable lady always wore seven or eight bits of court-plaster, to represent 
 
 FEMALE HEAD-DRESS (l8TH 
 CENTURY.) 
 
1593-1789.] THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY, 
 
 195 
 
 the sun, moon, stars, comets, etc., until, according to a critic of the 
 time, a lady s face resembled all the signs of the zodiac. Each patch 
 had a characteristic name. On the middle of the cheek it was the gal- 
 lant; upon the nose the impudent; near the lips the coquette, etc.— The 
 clamor in the close, pestiferous streets of Paris is described by a writer 
 of the eighteenth century as something fearful. The clashing and 
 clanging of clocks and bells in convent and cathedral, joined with the 
 screeching or croaking cries of the venders of herbs, fruits, salads, 
 brooms, fagots, baked potatoes, rabbit-skins, prime vinegar, etc., etc., 
 followed by the bellows menders, scissors-grinders, gatherers of broken 
 glass, old iron, cast-off clothing, and screamers of various crafts. There 
 were no less than 20,000 water-carriers, whose voices, says La Croix, 
 " took the highest key in this in- 
 fernal concert." The old houses, 
 most of which had stood two or 
 three centuries, tottered forward 
 over the street, their dilapidation 
 only relieved by the singing- 
 birds and pots of flowers which 
 graced the windows. Their in- 
 teriors were squalid, with dark 
 and infected courts, damp al- £ 
 leys, and narrow, steep stair- 
 cases. Space was rare, and 
 houses were built on the bridges 
 across the Seine. The gutters 
 ran midway of the streets, and, 
 when swollen by rains, one might 
 see here and there small bridges 
 on wheels, which some gatherer 
 of farthings would run out over 
 the road for the benefit of the 
 pedestrian who was willing to pay. 
 gave out, when the stalwart bridge-owner would safely convey his 
 lady customers across on his back. No account was taken of those 
 wounded, crushed, and trampled under- foot in the crowded highways. 
 Every day, at the angle of certain narrow streets, one or two dead or 
 wounded persons were found ; dead or wounded, they were carried 
 alike to the Morgue. Persons drowned in the Seine were taken to the 
 same place, no effort being made to resuscitate them. A silver medal 
 reward was indeed offered by the city to whoever would save a drown- 
 ing person, but there was no organization for that purpose till 1782. — 
 Of country life we- have a very pretty picture in 1770. The author, 
 speaking of his father's household, says : " At supper the whole 
 
 FRENCH FAGOT-VENDER. 
 
 Sometimes the treacherous planks 
 
19G THE ABSOLUTE MONAKCHY. [1598-1789. 
 
 family — twenty-two in number, including servants— sat down together. 
 There was no rank except among the children, where the eldest took 
 precedence. After supper my venerable father read a chapter from 
 the Scriptures. In summer a short prayer followed, in which all 
 joined. Then the children recited a lesson from the catechism, and 
 silently retired, for, after evening prayer, laughter or loud talking 
 were severely prohibited. In winter the children were allowed to sit 
 up, while my father told historical tales. As comments and inquiries 
 were allowed during their recital, it was the most delightful recreation 
 we knew. The servants were also present, and during the next day 
 the subject of the reading was always made the topic of conversa- 
 tion." — [Vie de Mon Pere. Restif de la Bretonne.] In contrast to this 
 we have the following from La Bruyere (1688): "There are certain 
 ferocious animals, male and female, spread over the country, black, 
 livid, and sun-burnt; they have an articulate voice., and, when they 
 stand on their feet, they show a human face ; in fact, they are men 
 and women. At night they retire into their dens, where they live on 
 black bread, water, and roots ; they sow, labor, and gather entirely for 
 other people, and have at least a right to enough of the bread they 
 have sown to sustain their own lives." 
 
 ^References for 'Reading, 
 
 Prefixes Life of Henry IV.— Motley's John of Barneveld {SuUy and the " Great 
 Design ").— Robeon's Life of Richelieu.— Bulwer Lytton's Richelieu {drama).— Cousin 's 
 Secret Hist, of French Court under Richelieu and Mazarin.— Capejigue's Richelieu, 
 Mazarin. and the Fronde— Jameses Memoirs of Great Commanders {Conde and Tu- 
 renne).— Stanhope's Life of Conde.— Voltaire, Steele de Louis XIV— James's Life of 
 Louis XIV— Clemenfs Life and Administration of Colbert.— Bridge's France under 
 Richelieu and Colbert.— MacTcay 's Popular Delusions, art. The Mississippi Scheme.— 
 Lacretelle's Hist, of France during the Eighteenth Century.— Allison's Hist. Europe, 
 Vol. I -II— Stephens' 's Lectures on French History .—Memoirs of the Duke of Sully.— 
 Memoirs of Cardinal de Retz.— Par doe's Louis XIV.—Bungener's Preacher and King 
 {reign Louis XIV.) and Priest and Huguenot {reign Louis XV.).— Account of the Bas- 
 tille and its Remarkable Prisoners.— Scenes and Characters of the English Wars in 
 France {Murray's National Library).— Lang' s Ballads and Lyrics of Old France.— 
 De Tocqueville's France before the Revolution— Challice's Memories of French Palaces. 
 — Tounge's History of France under the Bourbons. 
 
 JfJrents of the Sixth JZpoch in Chronological Order. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 1598-1715. Henry IV. Sully. Marshal de Biron. The 
 
 " Grand Design." Assassination of Henry . 144-47 
 
 1610-1643. Louis XIII. The Regency of Marie de' Medici, 
 Concini, Leonora, and De Luynes. Richelieu. 
 Capture of Rochelle. Day of the Dupes. Con- 
 spiracies. The Thirty Years War. Alsace, 
 Artois, etc., annexed to France .... 147-56 
 
1598-1789.] THE ABSOLUTE MOJfABCHY. 197 
 
 16-13-1715. Louis XIV. Cardinal Mazarin. The "Great 
 Conde." Battles of Eocroi, Fribourg, Nord- 
 lingen, and Lens. Treaty of Westplialia. The 
 Fronde. Day of the Barricades. Peace of the 
 Pyrenees. Colbert. Invasion of Flanders and 
 Holland. Turenne. Treaty of Nimeguen. Age 
 of Louis XIV. Revocation of the Edict of 
 Nantes. Devastation of the Palatinate. Lux- 
 emburg. Battles of Fleurus, Steinkirk, and 
 Neerwinden. Peace of Ryswick. War of the 
 Spanish Succession. Battles of Blenheim, Ra- 
 millies, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet. Treaty 
 of Utrecht. ........ 156-74 
 
 1715-1774. Louis XV. The Regency of the Duke of Orleans. 
 The Quadruple Alliance. Law and the Mis- 
 sissippi Scheme. Cardinal Fleury. War for 
 the Succession of Austria. Marshal Saxe. 
 Battles of Dettingen, Fontenoy, Raucoux, and 
 Lawfelt. Treaty of Aix-la-ChapeUe. Madame 
 de Pompadour. The Seven Years War. Bat- 
 tles of Rosbach, Crevelt, and Minden. Peace 
 of Paris . 174-85 
 
 1774-1789. Louis XVI. Marie Antoinette. Maurepas.' Males- 
 herbes. Turgot, Caloime, and Neckar. War 
 in the United States. Treaty of Versailles. 
 The States General . . ". . . . 185-91 
 
 Distinguished Names of the 77th and /8th Centuries. 
 
 Corneille (1606-1684), the father of French tragedy— the " Cid" made his fame. 
 
 Descartes (1598-1650), an illustrious philosopher and mathematician. 
 
 Pascal (1628-1662\ mathematician and philosopher, author of the celebrated 
 Provincial Letters. On the mountain, called Puy de D6rne, with the barometer, he 
 proved that the air has weight, and exploded the ancient theory of a vacuum. 
 
 •#/"<?/«<?>-e.(1622-1693), comic author and orator ; ridiculed the follies and vices of 
 his time unsparingly.* 
 
 * The HStel de Rambouillet was the centre of a literary coterie. Three ladies, 
 mother, daughter, and granddaughter, here ruled in succession the most brilliant 
 minds of the age. To Julie d'Augennes, the last and most famous of the thr^e, 
 "every one burnt incense as to a divinity." The avowed object of this exclusive 
 circle was to devulgarize popular conversation. A mystical, enigmatical form of 
 language grew into favor, which was copied by other imitators and societies until 
 their extravagance, first attacked by Desmarets in his comedy of " Les Visionnaires " 
 (1637), received a death-blow in Molierc's "Les Precieuses Ridicules " (1659). 
 
198 THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY. 
 
 La Fontaine (1621-1895), poet and fabulist — the modern iEsop. 
 
 Madame de Sevigne (1627-1696), famed for her delightful letters to her daughter. 
 
 Racine (1639-1699), rivalled, if he did not surpass, the tragedies of Corneille. 
 
 Fenelon (1651-1715), a distinguished preacher and author— chief work, " Les Aven- 
 tures de Telemaque," a school-book of to-day. 
 
 liotlin (1661-1741), professor of rhetoric ; best known as an author of an ancient 
 history still in use. 
 
 Ze Sage (1668-1747), romancer and dramatist ; author of " Gil Bias.'" 
 
 Dossuet, Rourdaloue, and Massillon, the three great pulpit orators of the 
 age of Louis XIV. They all uttered their solemn warnings before the Grand Mon- 
 arque, and the last pronounced over his grave the sublime words, "God alone 
 is great." 
 
 Rousseau (1712-1778), a skeptic, maintained the equal rights of all men; his 
 Essay,* "Contrat Social,'' obliged him to leave France. 
 
 Montesquieu (1689-1755), a writer far in advance of his times, as an advocate of 
 liberty and humanity. His *'* Spirit of the Laws " ran through 22 editions in eighteen 
 months. 
 
 Voltaire (1694-1778), wrote with equal ease tragedy, satire, romance, poetry, 
 history, and philosophy ; was a kind of national idol among the French, and his free- 
 thinking had a prodigious influence. 
 
 jBuffon (1707-1788), a naturalist and philosopher. His celebrated Natural History 
 was one of the greatest works of the 18th century. 
 
 r Diderot and Ifrtlembert, fathers of the Encyclopaedia, a dictionary in 22 folio 
 volumes. It contained much valuable information, but its teachings were saturated 
 with skepticism, hatred of the past, and upset even morality itself. 
 
 Lavoisier (1743-1794), discoverer of the accepted theory of combustion, and the 
 father of modern chemistry. 
 
 Laptace (1749-1827), author of the "Treatise on Celestial Mechanics." 
 
 Legendre (1752-1833), an eminent mathematician, best known from his Elements 
 of Geometry. 
 
 * " The effect of his writings upon the French mind is not badly typified at his 
 tomb in the Pantheon in Paris, where a hand is represented as holding through a 
 partially opened door a flaming torch to set fire to the world." 
 
J-.WeUs Del. 
 
REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE 
 
 17S9 to Present Time. 
 
 I.— The Revolution (ll 
 
 -1814). 
 
 1. Abolition of the Monarchy and the 
 Reign of Terror. 
 The Directory, 
 lie Consulate. 
 The Empire. 
 
 II.— The Restoration (1814-1830), including The Hundred Days (1815). 
 III.— The House of Orleans (1830-1848). IV.— The Second Republic (1848-1852). 
 V.— The Second Empire (1852-1870). VI.— The Third Republic (1871). 
 
 -! 2. Tl 
 
 8. Tl 
 [ 4. Tl 
 
 BOLITION of the Mon- 
 archy and Reign of Ter- 
 ror.— The States-General 
 
 were convened with great 
 pomp.* Men's hearts were 
 profoundly stirred by the 
 return of a body of which 
 France had been so long 
 deprived, and from which so 
 much was expected. The 
 strength of the Third Es- 
 tate soon made itself felt. 
 
 Geoc/rapMcal Questions— Locate Varennes (ren). Valmy. Jemappes. Neer- 
 winden. Lyons. La Vendee. Nice. Lodi. Parma. Pavia. Castiglione (kas-tel- 
 yo-na). Bassano. Arcole. Mantua. Mt. Cenis. Simplon Pass. Marengo. Vienna. 
 Hohenlinden. Ulm. Jena (ya-na). Austerlitz. Eylau (low). Friedland. Tilsit! 
 Oporto. Talavera. Torres Vedras (va-dras). Sara^ossa. Salamanca. Vittoria. 
 Madrid. Wagram. Essling. Berlin. Hamburg. Bremen. Dresden. Borodino. 
 Moscow. Leipsic. Ligny (leen-ya). Quatre Bras (kat'r-bra). Waterloo. 
 
 * The costumes and ceremonies used in 1614 were reproduced. The lower clergy 
 in cassocks, large mantles, and square caps; bishops and archbishops in violet robes, 
 
200 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [1789. 
 
 The first question that arose was whether the three orders 
 should vote collectively or separately. The nobles and 
 clergy haying retired to their own chambers, according 
 to custom, the tiers-etcd refused to act until they re- 
 turned. After five weeks spent in useless parleys, the Com- 
 mons decided itself to be the National Assembly,* and pro- 
 ceeded to deliberate upon the affairs of the state without 
 reference to the other bodies. Louis thereupon closed the 
 hall and suspended the meetings, preparatory to a royal 
 sitting. 
 
 The Tennis-Ccnrt Oath. — The members then withdrew 
 to a tennis-court near by, and solemnly swore not to separate 
 until they had given France a constitution. 
 
 Royal Sitting. — Three days after, the king held a royal 
 sitting. f The concessions he made would at an earlier day 
 have awakened transports of joy. Now they were received 
 in profound silence. He however censured the conduct of 
 the Assembly, annulled its decrees, and threatened to dis- 
 solve it, if he met with further opposition. As he rose, he 
 ordered the members to retire, and thereafter to assemble in 
 their respective rooms. The nobles and a greater part of the 
 clergy obeyed. The tiers-etat retained their seats. After a 
 time the grand-master of ceremonies reappeared and re- 
 minded them of the king's command. "Go and tell your 
 
 tunic, and surplice ; the nobles in gold-embroidered cloaks, lace cravats, and white- 
 plumed, up-turned hats, a VHenri Quatre, made a magnificent display, while the 
 Commons, equal in number to both the other orders, were allowed only short, plain, 
 black cloaks, muslin cravats, and slouched hats. Far from being overawed, as was 
 intended, by the splendor of the higher ranks, or humbled by the freezing treatment 
 they received, the Commons felt only indignation. "How is all this pomp sup- 
 ported ? " they asked of each other. " Out of the sweat of the people ! '•' was wrath- 
 fully answered. 
 
 * This name is said to have been suggested to La Fayette by Jefferson, then min- 
 ister plenipotentiary to France. 
 
 + The tiers-etat were made to wait outside, in a heavy rain, till the clergy and 
 nobility had entered and taken their seats on the right and left of the throne. Just 
 as they were about to retire, drenched with the shower and thoroughly indignant, a 
 side door opened and admitted them to the hall. 
 
1789.] ABOLITION OF THE MONARCHY. 201 
 
 master," retorted the fiery Mirabeau, " that we are here by 
 the will of the people, and nothing but the bayonet shall 
 drive us hence" " We are to-day," added Sieyes, with calm- 
 ness, "just what we were yesterday. Let us deliberate. 5 ' 
 From that day the royal authority was lost. The next after- 
 noon the clergy and nobles flocked in to join the tiers-etat, 
 Louis himself advising the few who stood out to yield. 
 
 Storming of the Bastille. — Authority having failed, the 
 king had now no resource but submission or the bayonet. 
 On Sunday, July 12, Paris was raised to a ferment of ex- 
 citement by hearing that Neckar had been dismissed, and 
 troops were rapidly collecting at Versailles. An immense 
 crowd, ready for anything, flocked to the Palais Eoyal. 
 Here a young man, Camille Desmoulins, more daring than 
 the rest, mounted a table, pistol in hand, and shouted : 
 " Citizens, if we would save our lives, we must fly to arms." 
 Plucking a leaf from a tree and placing it in his hat, ho 
 gave the signal to the crowd, who soon stripped the trees 
 bare. The lawless procession then commenced their wild 
 march through the street. This Was the beginning of an 
 insurrection which grew in violence and lawlessness* till 
 Tuesday morning, when the cry was raised : " To the Bas- 
 tille ! " Onward surged the maddened crowd to the foot of 
 the gloomy prison. Marquis de Launay, a stanch old soldier, 
 with a little garrison of thirty-two Swiss and eighty- two 
 invalids, made desperate defence. For four hours, amid 
 "smoke as of Tophet, confusion as of Babel, noise as of the 
 crack of r'oom," he held the pack at bay; then, yielding to 
 the cannon of the French guards, gaye up the grim old for- 
 
 * The French guards, when called out to disperse the mob, refused to fire. The 
 citizens formed themselves into a National Guard, and took the blue and i*ed colors 
 of Paris for a cockade ; La Fayette added white— the Bourbon color— saying : " Here 
 is a cockade that will make the tour of the world.'" This was the origin of the famous 
 tricolor. 
 
202 
 
 KEVOLUTIONAEY FRANCE. 
 
 [1789. 
 
 tress. The furious mob rushed in. De Launay was dragged 
 to the Place du Greve and cruelly murdered. Others shared 
 his fate, and their bleeding heads were borne on pikes along 
 
 SCENE IN PARIS AFTER THE STORMING OF THE BASTILLE. 
 
 the streets. The famous stronghold which Conde had be- 
 sieged in vain had fallen.* It was the first scene in the 
 tragedy of the Ee volution. f 
 
 Progress of the Revolution. — Humbled and sorrowful, 
 the king now ordered away the troops, went on foot to the 
 Assembly, and promised to recall Neckar. He then visited 
 Paris, where he repeated his efforts at pacification.^ But his 
 
 * The keys of the Bastille were presented hy La Fayette to Washington, and still 
 hang in the mansion at Mt. Vernon. 
 
 t On hearing the news, Louis exclaimed: "Why, this is a revolt I" "Sire," was 
 the reply, " it is a revolution." 
 
 X He was received at the gates hy Bailly, mayor of the city, who handed him the 
 keys, sayiug: "These are the same keys that were presented to Henry IV. Ke had 
 conquered his people ; now it is the people who have conquered their king." 
 
1789.] ABOLITION OF THE MONARCHY. 203 
 
 power was gone. In the grand apartments at Versailles, amidst 
 stately avenues and beautiful flower-gardens, all through 
 these bright summer days, sad and fearful in heart, waited 
 the royal family. Hither, from time to time, came startling 
 news. The insurrection was sweeping like wildfire. Every- 
 where throughout the country the peasantry were rising, 
 torch in hand. Convents and castles were in flames. Title- 
 deeds and feudal charters were scattered to the winds. Tax- 
 collectors were being burnt at slow fires, or hacked to pieces 
 before their wives and children. Even in Paris, Bailly and 
 La Fayette, with the National Guard, were unable to keep 
 order, and crowds of women continually traversed the streets, 
 noisily demanding bread; while thousands of half-starved 
 wretches, flocking in from the provinces, were encamped on 
 the heights of Montmartre, overlooking Paris. 
 
 Abolition of Privileges. — "It was plain," says Mrs. 
 Edwards, " that the First Estate must bow its proud head 
 before the five-and-twenty savage millions, make restitution, 
 speak well, smile fairly — or die." On the memorable night 
 of August 4th, the nobles set the example by the sacrifice of 
 their privileges. Old feudal rights were yielded. Serfdom 
 was abolished. Taxes were equalized. The clergy relin- 
 quished their tithes and fees. The tiers-etat surrendered 
 privileges of cities and provinces. All these sweeping decrees 
 Louis accepted, and, amid long and tumultuous applause, was 
 hailed " The restorer of French liberty." 
 
 The Assembly was now the strongest body in the state. 
 The corporations depended upon it; the National Guard 
 obeyed it ; the king feared it. In imitation of our Declara- 
 tion of Independence, it drew up a "Declaration of the 
 Eights of Man." It also marked out the leading principles 
 of a limited monarchy based on a constitution. 
 
 The Mob; at first encouraged in popular demonstration 
 
204 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [1789. 
 
 by the Assembly, in order to intimidate the court, had 
 already begun to feel its strength. The Commune * of 
 Paris, various political clubs, and a huge, incongruous assem- 
 blage, which met daily and nightly at the Palais Royal, were 
 fast getting control of the revolution. 
 
 Attack upon Versailles (October 5, 6).— News of a 
 banquet,! given by the king's guards to the Flanders regi- 
 ment at Versailles, again roused hungry, revolutionary Paris. 
 An immense rabble of women, armed with various weapons, 
 and crying " Bread ! Bread ! " poured into Versailles. They 
 flooded the Assembly chamber. Some even pushed into the 
 presence of the king. There was a brawl and some blood- 
 shed. La Fayette's arrival about midnight, with the Parisian 
 army, quieted affairs for a few hours. Toward morning a 
 party of rioters, finding a gate unfastened, rushed, with hor- 
 rible threats, across the court and up the marble staircase 
 toward the queen's apartments. She had barely time to 
 escape to the king's bedchamber. La Fayette again came to 
 the rescue with a body of grenadiers, and drove the mob out 
 of the palace. The cry of " The king to Paris," however, 
 could not be resisted, and the royal family set out for the 
 city. They were escorted the entire distance by the savage 
 mob, J singing songs and dancing with cruel glee. "We shall 
 
 * After sending their members to the States-General, the electors of Paris had 
 formed themselves into permanent committees, and taken possession of the Hotel de 
 Ville. This was the origin of the Commune. 
 
 t The court, alarmed by the menacing aspect of affairs, had persuaded the king to 
 recall some troops to Versailles. At a welcoming feast, given in the palace theatre, 
 great enthusiasm prevailed ; and, when the royal family appeared on the stage, they 
 were greeted with wild applause. As they withdrew, the band struck up " O Eichard ! 
 O Mon Roi ! Funivers t'abandonne I " Oaths of fidelity were taken amid sobs and 
 tears ; the health of the royal family was drank with swords drawn ; and, while white 
 cockades were freely distributed by the ladies of the court, it was rumored that the 
 tricolors were trampled under foot. 
 
 t Part of them had left in the morning, carrying with them the bleeding heads of 
 two of the king's body-guard. They stopped at Sevres on the way, and compelled 
 a barber to cut and powder the hair, that all might recognize them as aristocrat 
 heads. 
 
1789.] 
 
 ABOLITION OF THE MONARCHY. 
 
 205 
 
 not die of hunger now," shouted they, on reaching the Tuil- 
 eries, "for here is the baker, his wife, and his boy." Thus 
 closed the second scene in the revolution. 
 
 MM |l/7"*5v 
 
 
 THE MOB MARCHING TO VERSAILLES. 
 
 Emigration of the Nobility. — At the first alarm, the 
 princes of the blood and other members of the nobility, who, 
 by their foolish advice and stubborn resistance to reform, 
 had. done so much to precipitate the revolution, sought safety 
 in flight. Other members of the court now followed. Ere 
 long the king, queen, their two children, and the king's sis- 
 ter, Elizabeth, were * left alone. Before the end of the year 
 three hundred deputies had deserted their posts in the As- 
 sembly. Some of them joined the allied armies, and came 
 back in the ranks of their country's enemies. Many who 
 had disdained any honorable labor at home, begged for bread 
 or sought menial employment in foreign cities. 
 
 Work of the Assembly. — A year of comparative quiet 
 
206 EEVOLUTIONAEY FE'ANCE. [1790. 
 
 now ensued. The Assembly, having followed the court to 
 Paris, went on with the work of reform. Liberty of con- 
 science, of the press, and of industry, were proclaimed. The 
 laws of primogeniture were abrogated. All titles and ranks 
 were abolished. Civil and military employments were thrown 
 open to all. Universal suffrage was virtually proclaimed. The 
 courts of justice were reformed.* Intendants were abolished, 
 and France was divided into eighty-three departments. The 
 vast estates of the clergy were confiscated. Promissory notes, 
 or assignats, secured upon this property were issued, and soon 
 became the only currency. 
 
 Fete of the Federation (July 14, 1790).— The anni- 
 versary of the taking of the Bastille was celebrated by im- 
 posing ceremonies in the Champs de Mars. Amid the 
 thunders of the cannon and shouts of " Vive le roi ! " Louis 
 took the oath to support the new constitution. At this 
 moment the queen raised the dauphin in her arms to show 
 him to the people, who burst into new rounds of applause. 
 A hymn of thanksgiving closed the day. It was a, fete which 
 had no morrow. 
 
 Political Clubs now began to control affairs. The Jacobins 
 — so called because their meetings were held in the hall of a 
 former Jacobin convent— comprised the most rabid of the 
 revolutionists, such as Danton, Marat, St. Just, and Eobes- 
 pierre. Over 2,000 auxiliary clubs throughout the country 
 helped to feed the central fire. The Cordeliers, also named 
 from a monastic hall, were like the Jacobins, but less power- 
 ful. Opposed to these was the Club of J 89, containing the 
 moderates who supported the constitution. 
 
 * About this time a proposal was made by Dr. Guillotin to change the form of 
 capital punishment from hanging to beheading. The instrument which was after- 
 Avard adopted for this purpose was called by his name, and soon obtained an infa- 
 mous notoriety. 
 
1791.] ABOLITION OF THE MONARCHY. 207 
 
 Complications. — Day by clay affairs grew more confused. 
 The troops had fallen into general disorganization. The no- 
 bles who remained derided the Assembly, and endeavored to 
 hedge up its work ; while those who had fled sought to arouse 
 Europe in their own behalf. Even the king, after having 
 sworn to keep the constitution, addressed letters to foreign 
 powers seeking their aid. The clergy, seeing the hostility 
 of the revolution, declared war against it. A large majority 
 refused to take the oath of fealty to the constitution, and 
 were ejected from their places. Thus religious hatred be- 
 came mingled with civil strife. Emigration continued. The 
 roads to the Ehine were crowded with elegant equipages, car- 
 rying away the noblest families in France. Assignats were 
 issued to an enormous amount. JSTeckar, returning to 
 Geneva, barely escaped with his life along the highway he 
 had so lately traversed in triumph ; — the revolution had out- 
 stripped and discarded him. There was but one man "whose 
 powerful genius might have yet moderated the revolution 
 into a reformation. This was Mirabeau, then President of 
 the Assembly, who now entered into a private alliance with 
 the court, His untimely death destroyed the last hope.* 
 
 The Flight of the King (June 20, 1791).— Louis now 
 decided to escape with his family to the army commanded by 
 the loyal Marquis de Bouille. Stealing out of the palace by 
 night, they reached a carriage which awaited them. Seventy 
 miles had been passed in safety, when at Varennes they were 
 arrested and forced to return. They entered the Tuileries 
 amid a sinister silence. f It was only after a stormy debate 
 
 * Mirabeau was a worn-out debauchee. "I am paying dear," he often said, "for 
 the follies of my youth.'" Once he broke a solemn silence by these impressive 
 words: "Oh, if I had brought to the revolution a character like Malesherbes, what 
 destinies I should have assured to my country ! What glory I should have attached 
 to my name ! " 
 
 t A strange fatality seemed to hang over this journey from the first. The queen 
 lost her way on leaving the palace, and wandered over an hour about the streets of 
 
208 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [1791. 
 
 that a decree was passed to reinstate the king on the throne. 
 The Assembly, having finished the constitution, which was 
 ratified by Louis, then adjourned. 
 
 The Legislative Assembly (1791), which now met, was 
 composed of new men, as the National Assembly had passed 
 a resolution declaring its members ineligible for re-election. 
 The old Assembly had consisted largely of persons from the 
 middle class— the bourgeoisie ; this was composed mainly of 
 the lower classes — and the members were generally as noisy, 
 coarse, and presumptuous as they were rude and ignorant. 
 
 Three Powerful Factions soon began to struggle for 
 the mastery. (1.) The Feuillants, as they were styled, from 
 the hall in which they met, supported the constitution and 
 work of the late Assembly. (2.) The Girondists, so called 
 because the brilliant orators from the department of the 
 Gironde were at its head, were republicans. (3.) The Moun- 
 tain, thus named because it occupied the highest seats in the 
 chamber, was composed of demagogues, Jacobins, Cordeliers, 
 and anarchists, without principles, who relied on the rabble, 
 and aimed to sweep away all distinctions. 
 
 Paris before she found the carriage. The roads were had, and the cumbersome coach 
 which they took outside the city was obliged to stop for repairs before twenty miles 
 were over. At Chalons the horses broke their traces, and another precious half- 
 hour was lost. At Pont de Sommevesle their waiting escort had excited the sus- 
 picions of the inhabitants, and, after lingering four hours beyond the appointed 
 time, had dispersed, believing the plan defeated. At Ste. Menehould the second 
 detachment in waiting had stabled their horses for the night, Here the fate of the 
 royal flight was decided. The awkward Louis, who had no better success in playing 
 his assumed part as valet than his real part as king, thrust his head outside the win- 
 dow, and, in an agitated voice, inquired about the cross-road to Varennes. The 
 sharp eyed postmaster, Drout, had been to Paris and seen the king. Peering into the 
 carriage, he caught under the gypsy hat of the pretended lady's maid the Austrian 
 features of Maine Antoinette. They were allowed to pass on, but the fiery patriot 
 mounted his swiftest horse, and, with a host of strong republicans, was at Varennes 
 to bar the road and capture the prize. The different natures of the king and queen 
 were curiously manifest at the little tallow-chandler's shop where the royal family 
 were taken after their arrest. While Marie Antoinette was weeping and entreating 
 the woman of the shop to aid their escape— her hair having turned gray through the 
 terror of a single night— the phlegmatic Louis had called for refreshments, of which 
 he heartily partook, blandly assuring the grocer that his "wine was very good 
 indeed! 1 ' 
 
1792] ABOLITION OF THE MONARCHY. 209 
 
 Declaration of War. — Austrian and Prussian armies, 
 actively encouraged by the emigrants and the disaffected 
 clergy, were now collecting in threatening numbers on the 
 frontier. To meet this emergency the Assembly pronounced 
 death and confiscation of property against the nobles * if 
 found in arms, and decreed that the nonjuring priests should 
 be deprived of the scanty pension they yet received. Louis 
 was forced to dismiss his Feuillant ministry and appoint a 
 Girondist cabinet.f War was declared against the empire 
 (1792). 
 
 Insurrection of the Faubourgs (1792).— The first 
 campaign proving a failure, it was attributed to treachery. 
 The Assembly thereupon decreed the exile of the refractory 
 clergy, and the establishment of a camp of 20,000 soldiers 
 under the walls of Paris. Louis could not consent to banish 
 his friends, and in the proposed camp he saw an attempt to 
 overawe Paris. He therefore vetoed both measures. The 
 Jacobins were in a frenzy. The king was nicknamed Mon- 
 sieur Veto, and represented as an imbecile and a traitor. The 
 breach between him and the Assembly widened daily. He 
 dismissed his Girondist ministry, and sent a secret messenger, 
 to the allied princes. The Jacobins and Girondists combined 
 in stirring up the mob. On the 20th of June a rabble of 
 30,000 men, women, and children, armed with guns and pikes, 
 
 * Louis vetoed these measures, and was hence held to sympathize with the emi- 
 grants. The court also committed the strange mistake of supporting Petion. a 
 Girondist, as mayor of Paris, against La Fayette, whom the queen especially dis- 
 liked. 
 
 t M. Koland, the new minister of the interior, was a man of moderate abilities, 
 who owed his distinction almost entirely to his wife, a graceful enthusiast, twenty 
 years younger than himself. Beautiful, talented, and a rabid republican, Madame 
 Roland was her husband's oracle and the soul of the Gironde. In character, Roland 
 was strictly moral, a fearless adviser, and an honest patriot. M. Dumouriez, minis- 
 ter of foreign affairs, possessed what Roland lacked and lacked what Roland pos- 
 sessed. Witty and able, he had no profound political convictions. Fresh from the 
 club where he had worn the red cap of liberty and sung the Ca Ira — a favorite repub- 
 lican song — he could calmly sit in council with his unfortunate king. A courtier up 
 to 1789, he was afterward, in turn, a constitutionalist, a Girondist, and a Jacobin, 
 
210 
 
 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 
 
 [1792. 
 
 after having been allowed to pass through the Assembly hall, 
 made a rush on the Tuileries. Louis received them with 
 placid composure. Taking the red cap which was thrust 
 toward him on the end of a pike, he placed it on his head ; 
 
 while from a bottle handed 
 him by a half-drunken work- 
 man he drank to the health of 
 the nation. After four hours 
 of threat and insult, the mob 
 yielded to the persuasion of 
 Mayor Petion, and slowly 
 dispersed.* 
 
 Attack upon the Tui- 
 leries (August 10). — The 
 heroic conduct of the royal 
 family, and the brutal inso- 
 lence to which they were 
 subjected, aroused a momentary reaction. But just at 
 this juncture the Duke of Brunswick, in command of the 
 allied armies, issued a proclamation announcing his coming 
 
 MARIE ANTOINETTE, AND THE 
 DAUPHIN. 
 
 * Let us imagine this uproarious red-capped rabble, headed by a pair of ragged, 
 black silk breeches, stretched on a tall cross-staff, with the motto " Tremble Tyrants ! 
 The Sans-Culottes are coming ; " bearing a calf s heart, transfixed by a pike, and 
 labelled " Aristocrat's heart;" singing vile songs and waving menacing banners; 
 hooting, pushing, dancing, and steaming with perspiration from their long, hot 
 march, as they burst into the majestic chambers of the Tuileries. The patient 
 Louis, crowned with the grotesque red cap, stands behind a barricade of tables, and 
 joins for his life in the deafening cry of " Long live liberty ! Long live the nation ! " 
 In another corner is the proud Marie Antoinette, Avith an enormous tricolor cockade 
 in her hair. The little dauphin shrinks as a rough patriot clasps the red cap on his 
 head; and the heroic Princess Elizabeth would fain have the mob believe Aer"the 
 Austrian, 1 ' that she may die to save the queen. Orators on tables, orators on men's 
 shoulders, fifty orators at once, make a distracting bedlam; while women shriek 
 their inane curses, and butchers and brewers fight for the supremacy in bringing 
 down -the royal pride. — As the crowd press on, a woman's voice overtops the rest in 
 gross abuse of the queen. "What have I ever done to you that you should hate me 
 so ? " asks Marie Antoinette. " You are the curse of the nation and the cause of all 
 our woes," the woman fiercely answers. "Alas!" says the queen, "so you have 
 been told; but you are deceived. W r ife of your king, mother to the dauphin, I am 
 a true Frenchwoman. Never can I be happy or unhappy but in France. I was happy 
 when you all loved mc ! " The Fury is touched to the heart and goes out weeping. 
 
1792.] ABOLITION OF THE MONARCHY. 211 
 
 to enforce the royal authority, and threatening, in case of 
 any outrage to the king, to deliver up Paris to instant 
 destruction. Popular indignation flamed out at this insult- 
 ing language. It gave just the opportunity Dan ton, Marat, 
 Kobespierre,* and the other Jacobins desired to execute 
 their scheme of dethroning the king by force. Federate 
 bands were called in from various cities. The one from 
 Marseilles, conspicuous for its brutality, brought with it a 
 song destined to become famous, and to fire the hearts of 
 Frenchmen long after the revolution itself was past. The 
 court made such arrangements as it could for defence. 
 Long-hidden men of rank, armed with swords and pistols; 
 serving men with pokers and tongs, uncouth weapons that 
 even in this hour of extremity provoked a smile ; the Swiss 
 Guard, loyal to the last ; and a few of the National Guard, 
 whom it was thought could still be relied upon, were gath- 
 ered at the Tuileries. Mandat, however, commander of the 
 National Guard, was treacherously slain. The presence of so 
 many well-known loyalists excited discontent. "When Louis, 
 urged by the queen, reviewed his troops in the early morn- 
 ing, they shouted " Vive le nation ! " while some of the can- 
 noneers shook their fists in his face and loaded him with 
 abuse. The mob surrounded the palace, and their guns 
 
 * These three formed what was called the triumvirate. Danton, gigantic in stature 
 and with a voice like thunder, excelled all his colleagues in audacity. A starving 
 advocate in 1789, prodigal in tastes and hopelessly in debt, his personal interests 
 whetted his revolutionary zeal. Pitiless in general measures, he was humane and 
 even generous in individual instances. Robespierre was in* many respects his oppo- 
 site. He was small in figure, feeble in voice, frugal in living, and free of debt. He 
 had the reputation of being incorruptible. Personal vanity was one of his ruling 
 passions. His dingy little apartment was lined with mirrors. While the other revo- 
 lutionary leaders affected a squalid dress and soiled linen, Robespierre always dressed 
 neatly and tastefully, powdered his hair, and usually appeared with a flower in his 
 button-hole. Neither bribe nor personal intercession could move him. His heart 
 was set on 300,000 aristocrat heads. Marat was a blood-thirsty ruffian, without one 
 redeeming quality. Unclean in his person, he was ugly even to hideousness in form 
 and features. He urged the most ferocious measures without pity or remorse. His 
 cruelty was only equalled by his cowardice. He edited a p;iper called The Friend of 
 the Peojrte, by which name his admirers soon came to designate himself. 
 
212 KEVOLUTIONAEY FRANCE. [1792. 
 
 threatened it on every side. A deputation from the Assem- 
 bly came to offer a refuge to the royal family.* Under the 
 protection of the Swiss Guard they reached the Assembly 
 hall in safety, where for fifteen hours they listened to the 
 wild harangues within and the furious shouts without. 
 Meanwhile the Tuileries was carried, ransacked, and plun- 
 dered by the frenzied mob. The faithful Swiss guards were 
 cruelly massacred, and the palace became a frightful scene of 
 blood and confusion. At one o'clock in the morning the 
 royal family were conducted to the hall of the Feuillants, 
 and two days afterward to the gloomy fortress of the 
 Temple. 
 
 Massacres of September. — For several days there was 
 a general destruction of all memorials of the monarchy. The 
 legislative body itself was as wild as the mob. Searching 
 visits to private houses having filled the prisons, it was de- 
 cided to dispose of the captives en masse. The Commune hired 
 three hundred ruffians, at twenty-four francs per day, which 
 was paid by the magistrates. Each prison was visited in 
 turn. To afford amusement to the crowd, seats were arranged 
 at the doors, and at night lamps were lighted. The unhappy 
 victims, driven from their cells, were greeted with savage 
 yells and the fast-falling strokes of the sabre, as they issued 
 into the street. For four days the terrible slaughter went 
 on. Skilful in inventing tortures for those whom they could 
 not reach, the ferocious mob held up to the windows of the 
 Temple, under the eyes of the queen, the head of her dearest 
 friend, the beautiful Princess de Lauiballe. 
 
 War with Germany. — While Paris had been witnessing 
 these terrible scenes, the Prussian army, admirably equipped 
 
 * "I would ralher be nailed to the walls of the palace than leave it," exclaimed the 
 quaen ; and, seizin? a pistol, she handed it to the kin?, saying : " Now, sire, is the 
 time to show yourself. 1 ' He was silent. "He had," remarks Alison, "the resigna- 
 tion of a martyr, not the courage of a hero." 
 
1792.] ABOLITION OF THE MONARCHY. 213 
 
 and disciplined, and containing a body of cavalry 15,000 
 strong, the very elite of the French nobility, was making 
 rapid progress. It had taken Longwy and Verdun, and 
 seemed likely to perform "the military promenade*' to Paris, 
 of which it gayly talked. At this juncture Dnmouriez, the 
 French general, by his skill and the gallantry of his troops, 
 unexpectedly checked the Prussian advance at Valmy (1792). 
 The enemy, already weakened by sickness and famine, soon 
 recrossed the Rhine. 
 
 The effect was electrical. The raw revolutionary levies were 
 emboldened to contend with the standing armies of the an- 
 cient regime. The soldiers acquired confidence in them- 
 selves. The desire of military achievement was quickened 
 throughout France. " From this place and this day forth," 
 wrote Goethe, " commences a new era in the world's history." 
 The French Revolution entered on a career of conquest which 
 led it to Vienna and the Kremlin. The xictory of Jemmapes 
 over the Austrians followed. This opened Belgium, which at 
 the close of the year was proclaimed a republic. 
 
 The National Convention (1792), as the next Assembly 
 was styled, contained the most violent revolutionists, such as 
 Robespierre, Marat, Dantan, Camille Desnioulins, Anacharsis 
 Clootz,* and the Duke of Orleans, who, to gain popular favor, 
 had taken the name of Philip Egalite. Royalty was immedi- 
 ately abolished and the republic proclaimed. Assistance was 
 proffered to the nations of the world desiring liberty. The 
 French generals were directed to confiscate the property of 
 priests and nobles, and to abolish the existing governments 
 wherever they went. 
 
 * Renouncing his name of Jean Baptiste, which savored too much of the Christian- 
 ity he hated, Clootz took that of the old Scythian philosopher. His title of Baron he 
 exchanged for " Orator of Mankind." In 1790 he visited the Assembly chamber, fol- 
 lowed by a motley crowd, dressed in the costumes of different nations, which he 
 pompously introduced as "An embassy from the Human Race come to assist the 
 happy French to raise the cap of Liberty and push the triumphal car." 
 
214 REVOLUTIONARY TRANCE. [1793. 
 
 Trial and Death of Louis XVI. — Having lain in prison 
 several months, Louis was finally brought to trial. He was 
 accused of plotting against the liberty of the people, and cf 
 intriguing with the emigrant nobles and the European pow- 
 ers. The venerable Malesherbes, at the peril of life, volun- 
 teered for his defence. The Girondists hoped to save him, 
 but their timid efforts failed. Louis conducted himself with 
 singular dignity and resignation. His case, however, was pre- 
 judged.* " Louis Capet/' as they insisted upon styling him, 
 was, after a stormy debate, declared guilty and sentenced to 
 die. A respite for three days for which he asked was re- 
 fused. Amid profound silence he Avas conducted to the 
 scaffold. At the last moment he attempted to address the 
 multitude, but the drums beat, the executioner dragged him 
 to the guillotine, and in an instant he was no more. The 
 bleeding head was lifted up, and the crowd answered by 
 shouts of " Vive la Republique ! " 
 
 Terrible Energy of the Convention. — "There is now," 
 exclaimed Marat, "no retreat: we must conquer or die." On 
 hearing of Louis's execution, England, Holland, Spain, and 
 the Empire flaw to arms. "It was," says Duruy, "a crusade 
 of all the European royalties and aristocracies, not to avenge 
 Louis XVI., but to strangle the principles of new social 
 order thrown into the world by the revolution." England 
 was the soul of this coalition, and her fleets and subsi- 
 dies were freely offered. The province of La Vendee, resist- 
 ing the conscription of troops ordered by the Convention, 
 broke into insurrection. f Dumouriez lost the battle of Neer- 
 
 * A savage mob, gathered about the doors of the Assembly, heaped threats on all 
 who dared to be merciful. Even the brave President Vergniaud, who at first pleaded 
 for him with passionate eloquence, finally wavered jn his allegiance. The infamous 
 Orleans, amid a murmur of horror, voted fur his death. 
 
 t This country, bounded by the Loire and the sea, and crossed by few roads, had 
 retained its ancient feudal customs. The nobles habitually Jived on their estates, 
 keeping up a kind intercourse with their simple and sturdy tenants, who, in turn, 
 
1793.] ABOLITION OF THE MONARCHY. 215 
 
 winden (1793) against the Austrians, evacuated Belgium, and, 
 disgusted with the turn of affairs, went over to the allied 
 camp. At one time over sixty departments were in arms 
 against the revolutionists. Menaced thus on every hand, the 
 Jacobins evinced an energy and fury which have no parallel 
 in history. An entirely new order of men had arisen. Daring 
 spirits, who in common times would have dragged out an 
 obscure life in country towns, had grasped the reins of 
 power. Heedless, savage, enthusiastic, they were appalled 
 by no danger. The Girondists, thoroughly alarmed, in vain 
 endeavored to check the torrent they had let loose. The 
 Eevolutionary Tribunal was established (1793) to try the 
 enemies of the republic. Fouquier-Tinville, a man who de- 
 lighted in a death-sentence, was made public accuser. In each 
 of the 48,000 communes of France a committee was appointed 
 to bring suspected persons before local tribunals; while a 
 General Committee of Public Safety was decreed for the 
 entire country. The arrest of the Girondists was ordered. 
 Some were taken on the spot ; those who escaped were out- 
 lawed and pursued with unrelenting vengeance. A few found 
 refuge at Caen,* where they entered into communication 
 with the disaffected. Fourteen armies, containing 1,200,000 
 soldiers, were at once put under arms against the rebellious 
 provinces. Lyons made a desperate resistance, but was con- 
 quered after a two months' siege,f upon which the Conven- 
 
 were devotedly attached to their landlords, their religion, and the old monarchical 
 government. 
 
 * About this time Charlotte Corday, a beautiful young woman of excellent parent- 
 age in Caen, inspired by the sentiments of the Girondists, went to Paris, determined 
 to avenge their misfortunes. Obtaining admission to Marat on pretence of imparting 
 important information, she stabbed him to the heart. She was instantly arrested and 
 condemned to execution. Glorying in her deed, and declaring that she had only 
 killed one man to save 100,000 others, she met her fate with a smile. 
 
 + The Revolutionary Tribunal was set up in that city under the supervision of 
 Couthon, Fouche. and Collot d'Herbois. The latter was an actor, who had been 
 hissed from the Lyons stage ten years before. Finding the guillotine too slow for 
 his vengeance, he had the victims brought out in batches, and mowed down with 
 
21G REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [1793. 
 
 tion decreed that it should be destroyed, that its name should 
 be changed, and a monument erected on its ruins, with the 
 inscription: "Lyons made war upon liberty; Lyons is no 
 more." Fifteen thousand persons perished at Nantes in one 
 month. Toulon called in an English fleet, but Napoleon 
 Buonaparte, a young major of artillery, planted his bat- 
 teries and drove away the ships. The city fell, and the old 
 atrocities were renewed. La Vendee was surrounded by 
 intrenched camps, and pierced through and through by 
 "infernal columns." All opposition was crushed. France 
 lay helpless. 
 
 The Reign of Terror w T as now fairly inaugurated. The 
 Jacobins, under the lead of the infamous Bobespierre, knew 
 no mercy. Kevolutionary tribunals, committees of public 
 safety, and the guillotine were at work in every part of 
 France. Two hundred thousand persons of all ranks and 
 ages crow T ded the prisons. Thence every morning the tum- 
 brils carried to the place of execution the victims of the day. 
 In Paris the most illustrious persons swelled the lists of the 
 condemned. The crowd screamed with delight as they saw 
 Marie Antoinette brought forth to the Place de la Eevolu- 
 tion (October 16, 1793). Clad in white, pale and calm, no 
 cries disturbed her peace as she mounted the same scaffold 
 where Louis XVI. had perished." The Girondists, twenty- 
 muskets and cannon. On one occasion it was told him that the number was greater 
 than the list called for. "What does it signify V" was his cold reply; ''if they die 
 to-day they will not die to-morrow ! " 
 
 * In July the dauphin had been taken from his mother and placed in the care of 
 one Simon, a tool of Robespierre, who spared no pains to corrupt, his character and 
 destroy his health. Dressed in a red cap and coarse jacket, this innocent child of 
 eight years, royally born and tenderly reared, might be seen at the window of Lis 
 prison-room, flushed with wine, and shouting vile oaths and Jacobin songs to the 
 laughing soldiers below. After six months Simon left him, and then, if possible, his 
 condition was still more pitiable. Locked and bolted in a room alone, his young 
 strength daily sinking under neglect and suffering, the long days passed without 
 resource or amusement, and the evenings without glimmer of light. " His bed was 
 not stirred for six months, and for more than a year he had no change of shirt or 
 stockings." When at last more humane attendants were allowed, the poor boy was 
 
1793.] 
 
 THE REIGN OF TERROR. 
 
 217 
 
 two iii number, who had lain in prison since their arrest, 
 spent their last evening together in singing hymns to France, 
 and, as they marched to execution, chanted the "Marseillaise," 
 and died with a shout of " Vive la Kepublique." Madame 
 
 GIRONDISTS ON THE WAY TO EXECUTION. 
 
 Eoland fell with the rest.* Her husband, on hearing the 
 news, killed himself in the highway. Bailly, the astronomer 
 and mayor; Malesherbes, the illustrious minister; Lavoisier, 
 the learned chemist ; De Noailles, the octogenarian marshal 
 of France; and a host of others, the wisest, noblest, and 
 
 beyond recovery, and he died in June, 1795.— After her separation from her son, Marie 
 Antoinette never looked up. At two o'clock one morning she was awakened and 
 ordered to the conciergerie. As she was passing through a low doorway, hurried by 
 her guard, she struck her forehead a violent blow. With a momentary show of sym- 
 pathy one of them asked if she was hurt. " Nothing can hurt me now," was her 
 pathetic answer. 
 
 * When she mounted the scaffold, it is said, she bowed her head toward a colossal 
 tstatue of Liberty near by, and exclaimed : " O Liberty 1 what crimes are committed 
 in thy name ! " , 
 
 10 
 
218 EEYOLUTIONAEY FEANCE. [1793. 
 
 best, were now hurried to the scaffold.* The saint-like 
 Elizabeth, sister to Louis XVI., shared the same fate as the 
 notorious Philip Egalite, whose cold-blooded vote for death 
 to the king went for naught when suspicion fell upon him- 
 self. In the midst of the carnage a new calendar f was in- 
 stituted, to date from September 22, 1792, which was to be 
 the first day of the year 1., the epoch of the foundation of 
 the republic. Already the names of the streets had been 
 changed, and all emblems of royalty removed. The tombs 
 of the kings at St. Denis were rifled and their contents scat- 
 tered to the winds. Churches and convents were desecrated, 
 plundered, and burned. Worship was prohibited. Marriage 
 was declared only a civil contract, which could be broken 
 at pleasure. Notre Dame was converted into a Temple of 
 Eeason, and a gaudily-dressed woman, wearing a red cap 
 of liberty, was enthroned as goddess. Over the entrance to 
 the cemeteries were inscribed the words : Death is an eternal 
 she}). 
 
 The Terrorists Divided. — Divisions now arose among 
 the leaders in these atrocities. Robespierre denounced the 
 Anarchists as seeking to bring ridicule on the revolution, 
 and Hebert, Clootz, and others were sent to the scaffold. 
 The Dantonists, who sought a return to a milder government, 
 were arraigned, and Danton, Camille Desmoulins, and his 
 
 * The work of the guillotine formed a daily entertainment, and hands of women 
 gathered around it, chatting and knitting, whence they came to be called " the knit- 
 ters." 
 
 + There were to be twelve months of thirty days each, with five complementary 
 days in an ordinary and six in a leap- year. To the months were given names sig- 
 nificant of the weather or the seasons. Beginning with the autumn, September 22, 
 they were as follows :. Vendemiaire, vintage month ; Brumaire, fog month ; Trimaire, 
 sleet month ; Nivose, snow month ; Pluvipse, rain month ; Ventose, wind month ; 
 Germinal, blossom month; Floreal, flower month; Prairial, meadow month; Mes- 
 sidor, harvest month ; Thermidor, hot month ; Fructidor, fruit month. Each month 
 was divided into three parts, called decades. The first day of a decade was called 
 Primidi ; the second, Duodi ; and so on. The last day, called Decadi, was to be a 
 holiday.— Chambers. 
 
1794.] 
 
 THE REIGN OE TERROR 
 
 219 
 
 associates, took their turn at the guillotine. Robespierre, for 
 three months, was supreme. Fouquier-Tinville and the Revo- 
 lutionary Tribunal were busier than ever. The accused were 
 forbidden defence, and were tried en masse. To be suspected 
 was equivalent to a death-sentence.* It was now proposed to 
 set up the guillotine in a hall 
 adjoining the tribunal, with fa- 
 cilities for dispatching five hun- 
 dred persons a day. 
 
 Revolution of the Ninth 
 Thermidor. — The Convention, 
 seeing that Kobespierre would 
 doom friends and foes alike, as 
 suited his bloody caprice, formed 
 a combination to impeach him. 
 Robespierre attempted a defence, 
 but cries of "Down with the 
 tyrant ! " drowned his voice. He 
 
 raved like a madman, supplicated for a hearing, and at last 
 sunk into his seat exhausted and foaming. The night passed 
 in a furious struggle. When the day had fairly dawned, Robes- 
 pierre lay on a table in the Tuileries, a prisoner, self-wounded 
 and insensible. Before night his head had fallen, and the 
 long Reign of Terror was over (July 28, 1794). 
 
 A Reaction now set in and milder counsels began to 
 prevail. After a "desperate struggle the Jacobin club was 
 broken up, the Terrorists were disarmed, and several of 
 Robespierre's accomplices sent to the guillotine. Forms 
 of trial were re-established and thousands of prisoners re- 
 leased. The decrees of expulsion against priests and nobles 
 
 ROBESPIERRE. 
 
 * In the national archives of Paris is to be seen an order of execution which was 
 signed in blank and afterward filled up with the names of twenty-seven persons, one 
 of whom was a boy of sixteen. 
 
220 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [1794. 
 
 were revoked. Divine worship was restored and the Revolu- 
 tionary Tribunal abolished. The young men of Paris formed 
 an association known as "La Jeunesse Doree," broke open 
 the Jacobin hall, and drove out its occupants. The club 
 itself was finally dissolved. 
 
 Triumph of the French Arms (1794-95).— While the 
 Terrorists were sending long lines of victims to the scaffold, 
 the defenders of the new republic were pouring toward the 
 threatened frontiers. During the pauses of the guillotine all 
 Paris accompanied the troops outside the city gates, shouting 
 the Marseillaise. Carnot (no), who organized the military forces, 
 recalls, by his energy and skill, the days of Louvois. In 1794 
 he had half a million men in the field. Pichegrn, Hoche, 
 Jourdan, Moreau, and other republican generals led them 
 on to continued success. Belgium was captured, and sev- 
 eral strongholds on the Rhine were taken. La Vendee, 
 having arisen again, was finally pacified. A number of 
 places on the frontiers of Spain, Mt. Cenis, and the passages 
 of the Maritime Alps — the keys of Italy — submitted to the 
 French, arms. Even winter did not stop their progress. 
 Pichegrn led his troops across the Meuse on the ice, and, 
 conquering Holland without a battle,* organized the Bata- 
 vian Republic. Peace was made with Prussia and Spain, but 
 England and Austria continued the war. 
 
 The Day of the Sections (October 5, 1795).— It was 
 now apparent that the union in one legislative house of all 
 the orders in the States-General was a mistake. It was, 
 therefore, decided to have a Council of Five Hundred to pro- 
 pose laws, and a Council of the Ancients — composed of two 
 hundred and fifty members over forty years of age — to pass 
 or reject them. The executive power was to be lodged in a 
 
 * The Dutch ships, hecoming frozen up in the Zuycler Zee, the French dragoons 
 performed the unexampled feat of capturing a fleet hy a charge of horses. 
 
1795.] THE REIGN OF TERROR.; 221 
 
 Directory of five persons. One of the directors and one-third 
 of each council were to be changed each year. The new con- 
 stitution was accepted by the people. The royalists, during 
 the reaction, had gained so rapidly that they now hoped to 
 carry the elections. The Convention thereupon decreed that 
 two-thirds of the council should be appointed from their own 
 number. The royalists, enraged at this, excited the sections 
 to rise in arms. Forty thousand men prepared to march 
 upon the Convention. General Barras (rah), who w T as in 
 command of the defence, called to his aid Napoleon Buona- 
 parte, of whose ability he had formed a high opinion at 
 Toulon. The young general skilfully posted his troops about 
 the Tuileries, and planted cannon raking the approaches by 
 the bridges, quays, and streets in front and flank. As the 
 insurgents came in range of his pitiless guns, they were in- 
 stantly broken and put to flight, leaving five hundred of 
 their number on the pavement. It was the last insurrection 
 of the people. Their master had come, and street tumults 
 were at an end. The Convention now organized the new 
 government and dissolved. 
 
 The Three Years of the Convention had been the 
 most bloody and tyrannical of any in the annals of France. 
 Over a million persons had perished. The great abuses 
 which had afflicted the country were abolished, but at w T hat 
 a cost ! Chateaux were in ruins ; towns half destroyed ; 
 religious rites and observances ridiculed; churches closed 
 or occupied as stables or warehouses; schools deserted; 
 educated men driven off; and the youth ignorant. The tax 
 returns had nearly ceased; trade and commerce were anni- 
 hilated, and the treasury was empty. The issue of assignats 
 reached the enormous amount of 45,000 millions of francs, 
 and their value was so depreciated that " 24,000 francs w T ere 
 paid for a load of wood, and 6,000 for a ride in a hack." 
 
222 
 
 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 
 
 [1795. 
 
 2 .— T HE DIRECTORY. 
 
 1795 to 1799 = 4 Years. 
 
 The Directory * contained only two men of rank — Car- 
 not and Barras. Its glory, like that of the Convention, lay 
 in the achievements of its armies. Carnot's plan was for 
 Moreau and Jourdan to invade Germany, while Buonaparte 
 
 was to cross the Alps into 
 Italy, and all three were 
 to converge on Vienna. 
 Henceforth, for fourteen 
 years, the life of Napoleon 
 Buonaparte f is the his- 
 tory of France, almost 
 that of Europe. 
 
 Campaign in Italy 
 (1796-7).— When Buona- 
 parte arrived in camp at 
 Nice, the generals, Mas- 
 sena, Augereau, Serrnrier, 
 and Joubert, looked cold- 
 ly on their young com- 
 mander. But at their first council Massena said to Augereau : 
 "We have our master." Buonaparte found his army of 
 38,000 men destitute of everything, while opposed to him 
 was a well-equipped body of 60,000. He did not hesitate. 
 
 * When they entered the Luxembourg, which had been assigned for their use, such 
 was the general poverty tnat they were compelled to borrow of the porter an old 
 wooden table and four rush chairs in order to organize their first meeting. 
 
 t Napoleon Buonaparte was born at Ajaccio, Corsica, August 15, 17G9, two months 
 after the conquest of the island by the French. Properly speaking, he was an 
 Italian. His father, Charles Buonaparte, was a respectable lawyer. We read that, 
 when Napoleon was a child, his favorite plaything was a small brass cannon, and 
 that he loved to drill the children of the neighborhood to fight in battle with stones 
 
 NAPOLEON BUONAPARTE. 
 
1796.] THE DIRECTORY. 223 
 
 Issuing one of those electrical proclamations for which he 
 was afterward so famous, he suddenly forced the passes of 
 Montenotte, and pierced the centre of the enemies' line. He 
 had now placed himself between the Piedmontese and Aus- 
 trians who were opposed to him, and could follow either. He 
 pursued the former to within ten leagues of Turin, when the 
 king of Sardinia, trembling for his crown and capital, stopped 
 the conqueror by an armistice, which was soon converted into 
 a peace, in which he gave up to France his strongholds and 
 the passes of the Alps. 
 
 Battle of Lodi. — Delivered from one foe, Buonaparte 
 turned upon the other. At Lodi he found the Austrians, 
 under Beaulieu, strongly intrenched upon the opposite bank 
 of the Adda. Charging at the head of his grenadiers, amid 
 a tempest of shot and ball, he crossed the bridge in front of 
 
 and wooden sabres. At ten he was sent to the military school at Brienne. Resolute, 
 quarrelsome, gloomy, not much liked by his companions, he lived apart. He was 
 popular with his teachers, and became the head scholar in mathematics. At sixteen 
 he went to Paris to complete his studies. Poor and proud, discontented with his 
 lot, tormented by the first stirrings of genius, he became a thorough misanthrope. 
 The following year ^_ 
 
 he entered the army S. | 
 
 as second lieuten- § $ ) 
 
 those fascinating y '""v 
 
 traits of character ~~ V^~~ "^ ^ -— 
 
 for which he was 
 
 afterward so distin- fac-simile of the signature of napoleon buonaparte, 
 guished At the musee des archives nationales, paris. 
 
 time he so suddenly 
 
 came into view as the defender of the Directory, he was out of employment, and 
 impatiently waiting for some turn in the wheel of fortune that would bring him 
 to the top. A few days after the disarming of the sections, Eugene Beauharnais, a 
 boy of ten years, came to Buonaparte to claim the sword of his father, who had 
 fallen on the scaffold during the revolution. Touched by his tears, Buonaparte 
 ordered the sword to be given him. This led to a call from Madame de Beauhar- 
 nais. The beauty, wit, and grace of the Creole widow won the heart of the Corsican 
 general. Their mutual friend, Barras, promised them, as a marriage gift, Buona- 
 parte's appointment to the command of the army of Italy. The marriage took place 
 March 9, 1796. The bride being thirty-three and the groom but twenty-seven, she 
 entered her age on the register as four years younger than she was and he one year 
 older. 
 
224 EEVOLUTIONAKY FKANCE. [1796. 
 
 their position, and bayoneted the cannoneers at their guns. 
 The Austrians fled and took refuge in the mountains of 
 the Tyrol. 
 
 Authorized Pillage. — Now commenced a system of spo- 
 liation unknown to modern warfare. Not only was war to 
 support war, but to enrich the victor. Contributions were 
 levied upon the vanquished states. A body of savants was 
 sent to Italy to select the treasures of art from each con- 
 quered city. The Pope was forced to give twenty-one mil- 
 lions of francs, one hundred pictures, and five hundred manu- 
 scripts. The Duke of Parma was assessed two millions of 
 francs and twenty pictures. The wants of the army were 
 supplied, and millions of money were sent to Paris. The 
 officers and commissioners seized whatever they wished — 
 provisions, horses, etc. — without pay. Pavia made some little 
 resistance, and was given up to pillage for twenty-four hours. 
 Moreover, a swarm of jobbers, contractors, and speculators of 
 all sorts, hovered about the army, and gorged themselves to 
 repletion. Most of the generals acquired fortunes during 
 the campaign. Napoleon alone returned as poor as when he 
 went. The Italians, weary of the Austrian yoke, had at first 
 welcomed the French with fetes and rejoicings, but they soon 
 found that their new masters, who came as brothers, plun- 
 dered them like robbers. 
 
 Battles of Castiglione and Bassano. — Sixty thousand 
 Austrians, under Wurmser, were now marching in separate 
 divisions on opposite sides of Lake Garda, in order to envelop 
 the French in their superior numbers. Buonaparte, throw- 
 ing all his strength first to the left, checked the force on 
 the western bank ; then turning to the right, routed the main 
 body at Castiglione (teel-yo-na). "Wurmser, like Beaulieu, fell 
 back into the Tyrol. Reinforced, he made a new essay. 
 But ere he could debouch from the passes, Buonaparte 
 
1784.] "THE DIRECTORY. 225 
 
 plunged into the gorges of the mountains, and fallen upon 
 him at Bassano. Wurmser, shut up by the Adige on one side 
 and an army in hot pursuit on the other, fled down the river, 
 seeking anxiously a place for crossing. At last, by a mere 
 chance, he escaped and took refuge behind the walls of 
 Mantua. 
 
 Battle of Arcole. — Owing to successes in Germany,* 
 the Austrians were able to concentrate their forces on Buo- 
 naparte. Two armies had already disappeared ; a third now 
 arrived under Alvinzi. Leaving Verona by the southern gate, 
 Buonaparte, with only 14,000 men, took the road for Milan. 
 It was the route to France. Suddenly, however, turning to 
 the north, he descended the Adige, crossed the river, and 
 placed his army in the midst of a vast marsh, traversed only 
 by two causeways. Fighting on these narrow roads, numbers 
 were of no account. Augereau and Massena led the col- 
 umns. At the bridge of Arcole Buonaparte, seeing his 
 grenadiers hesitate, seized a banner, and exclaiming, " Fol- 
 low your general," rushed forward. Lannes, while protect- 
 ing him, received a third wound. An aide-de-camp dropped 
 at his feet. Borne back in the arms of his soldiers, in the 
 melee, he fell into the marsh, and was with difficulty rescued. 
 A ford was finally found, the bridge turned, and the Aus- 
 trians, half-destroyed, were put to flight. The French en- 
 tered Verona in triumph by the opposite gate from that by 
 which they had gone out four days before. 
 
 Battle of Rivoli. — Alvinzi, reinforced, again descended 
 
 * Unfortunately, Carnot ordered the armies of Jourdan and Moreau to operate 
 separately. Prince Charles concentrated the Austrians on Jourdan, and beat him at 
 Wurtzburg, whence he soon after recrossed the Rhine. Moreau was now left far 
 advanced in the enemies' territory. Charles turned upon him, but Moreau retired 
 through the Black Forest, stopping to inflict a severe lesson on his pursuers when- 
 ever they appeared too near, and, after twenty-six days, reached the French frontier 
 without having left behind a gun or a man. The Austrians had attempted the same 
 manoeuvre as the French at the opening of the Italian war. but Prince Charles was 
 not Buonaparte, neither was Moreau Beaulieu. 
 
226 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [1797. 
 
 into Italy. The principal army advanced in two columns, 
 the infantry in one and the cavalry and artillery in the other. 
 Buonaparte saw that the only point where they could unite 
 was on the semicircular plateau of Rivoli. As they debouched, 
 he launched Joubert and then Massena upon them. Both 
 columns recoiled in inextricable confusion. Leaving Joubert 
 to complete the victory, Buonaparte hurried off with the 
 division of Massena* to attack General Pro vera, who was 
 hastening to the rescue of Mantua. Beaten twice and hunted 
 on every track like a wounded stag, Provera was forced to 
 lay down his arms. Wurmser, reduced to extremity, capit- 
 ulated. Having vanquished three imperial armies in Italy, 
 Buonaparte now forced the Alps, and advanced to within 
 seventy-five miles of Vienna. The Austrian government, in 
 consternation, asked for a suspension of arms. 
 
 Downfall of Venice. — Meanwhile insurrections had 
 broken out against the French in various parts of the Vene- 
 tian territory. Buonaparte took summary vengeance. Troops 
 w T ere marched into the city, the government abolished, a con- 
 tribution levied of 6,000,000 francs, and the usual ransom of 
 pictures and manuscripts. 
 
 The Treaty of Campo Formio f (1797) closed this 
 famous campaign.;); Belgium was ceded to France, with the 
 long-coveted boundary of the Rhine. A Cisalpine Republic 
 
 * This division fought at Verona on the 13th of January, marched all that night to 
 help Jouhert who was exhausted by forty-eight hours' fighting, was in the battle of 
 Rivoli the 14th, and marched that night and the 15th to reach Mantua on the 16th. 
 Marches, which with ordinary generals were merely the movements of troops, with 
 Buonaparte meant battles, and often decided the fate of a campaign. 
 
 t So called from a ruined castle near Udine, where it was concluded. 
 
 % There being some delay on the part of the Austrian ambassador, Buonaparte rose 
 suddenly in the midst of a conference, and, seizing a valuable vase — which was a 
 present to the count from the Empress Catherine — dashed it to the floor, saying, "•In 
 this way, before the end of autumn, I will break in pieces your monarchy." Bowing 
 to the minister he then retired, and dispatched a courier to the archduke announcing 
 that he should resume hostilities in twenty-four hours. The terrified ambassador 
 followed Buonaparte, and at once accepted the conditions of peace. 
 
1797.] THE DIRECTORY. 227 
 
 was formed in Northern Italy. Austria was allowed to take 
 Venice and its dependencies. 
 
 At Paris. — On Buonaparte's return to Paris the capital 
 shone with a splendor not seen since the days of Louis XIV. 
 The Directory, dressed in Roman costume, received him in 
 the court of the Luxembourg, at the foot of the altar of his 
 country. As the youthful general came forward, his pale, 
 slight form, his classical figure, his modest mien, struck every 
 imagination.* While the air was still ringingwith his praises, 
 Buonaparte returned to his quiet home. Here he studiously 
 shunned the public gaze, devoted himself to literary and 
 scientific studies, and adopted a plainness of manners and 
 life in striking contrast Avith the brilliancy of his late ex- 
 ploits. 
 
 Neighboring Republics. — The Directory endeavored to 
 control neighboring governments as if they were French de- 
 pendencies. The Assembly of Holland proving refractory, a 
 military despotism was established. Insurrections were excited 
 in Switzerland, the country was invaded by French armies, 
 the Helvetian republic set up, and the usual rapacious con- 
 tributions were exacted. The constitution of the Cisal- 
 pine Republic was twice arbitrarily altered, and the people 
 forced to maintain 25,000 soldiers. Naples was invaded, and 
 the Parthenopean added to the list of republics. Rome was 
 occupied by the army,f and a republican government created. 
 Before Napoleon left Italy, Genoa and the neighboring terri- 
 tory had been formed into the Ligurian Republic. At the 
 close of 1798 the Directory found itself at the head of no less 
 
 * He was presented with a standard, on which were inscribed the recent achieve- 
 ments of the army of Italy: " 150,000 prisoners, 170 flags, 1,100 cannon, 67 engage- 
 ments, and 18 pitched battles." 
 
 t Never had Rome suffered such pillage as now. Not only were the palaces, 
 churches, and convents robbed by the agents of the Directory, but the Vatican was 
 stripped to its walls, the very clothes of the Pope sold, and the rings torn from his 
 fingers. The aged pontiff himself was taken to France, where he died. 
 
228 
 
 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 
 
 [17$ 
 
 than six republics, which included Holland, Switzerland, and 
 Italy. 
 
 An Expedition to Egypt (1798-9) having been pro- 
 posed by Buonaparte, the plan was gladly accepted by the 
 Directory,* and the conqueror of Italy set sail with 36,000 
 men, the heroes of Rivoli and Areola. He was accompanied 
 by a numerous body of learned men, naturalists, geographers, 
 artists, etc. On the way the island of Malta was taken, the 
 
 THE PYRAMIDS OF EGYPT. 
 
 knights of St. John opening the gates of their fortress. 
 Narrowly escaping the English cruisers under Nelson, the 
 army was safely landed near Alexandria. 
 
 Battle of the Pyramids. —Buonaparte hastened toward 
 Cairo. Here the Mamelukes f had gathered to dispute his 
 advance. The French, drawn up in hollow squares, facing 
 outward, with the artillery at the corners and baggage at the 
 
 * The Directory was jealous of the homage paid to Buonaparte, and distrustful of 
 the part he might play in any future crisis ; while Buonaparte's ardent mind was full 
 of visions of glory to be achieved in the East, the seat of ancient empire. To all this 
 was added the fact that the conquest of Egypt would pave the way to a blow at the 
 English supremacy in India. 
 
 t The Mamelukes were the descendants of Caucasian slaves. Bred to military 
 service, mounted on Arab steeds, and armed with Damascus scimetars, they were 
 the finest horsemen in the world, and the real rulers of Egypt. 
 
1793.] THE DIRECTORY. 229 
 
 centre, awaited the attack. " Soldiers ! " exclaimed Buona- 
 parte, "from yonder pyramids forty centuries look down 
 upon you." On came the magnificent horsemen of the 
 desert, but they recoiled from the steady line of steel, while 
 the rolling fire mowed them down on every side. The cap- 
 ture of Cairo and the submission of Lower Egypt followed. 
 Meanwhile the fleet left in the Bay of Aboukir was destroyed 
 by Nelson. 
 
 Organization of the Country. — Cut off from Europe, 
 Buonaparte accommodated himself to the habits of the peo- 
 ple, and rode a dromedary with the simplicity of an Arab 
 sheik. He respected the religious belief of the inhabitants, 
 who called him the favorite of Allah. He introduced the 
 civilization and arts of the West. He established the Insti- 
 tute of Cairo, in which the savants accompanying the expe- 
 dition began their labors.* Desaix, "the just sultan," as the 
 Arabs termed him; pushed into Upper Egypt, captured 
 Thebes, and encamped beyond the cataracts of the Nile. 
 
 Campaign in Syria. — Buonaparte now advanced into 
 Syria, where he could at once protect Egypt and menace 
 India and Constantinople. He crossed the desert, stormed 
 Jaffa, and laid siege to Acre. Here he was checked by the 
 bravery of the Turkish garrison, aided by Sydney Smith, the 
 admiral of a small English fleet lying in the harbor. The 
 Turks having advanced from Damascus to the relief of the 
 city, Buonaparte, with Kleber and Murat, defeated them at 
 the foot of Mount Tabor, with terrible slaughter. The siege 
 was now renewed more fiercely than ever; but finally 
 even Buonaparte's resolution gave way, and a retreat was 
 ordered. 
 
 * This proved the only permanent and valuable result of the expedition. Scientific 
 men were the true conquerors of Egypt. During this occupation a French engineer 
 discovered the famous "Rosetta stone"— the key to reading the Egyptian hierogly- 
 phics. 
 
230 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [1798. 
 
 Retreat. — All the horrors of war fell upon the army 
 during its retreat through the desert. Thirst, burning heat, 
 and the ravages of the plague,* decimated their ranks. The 
 road was strewn with those who, falling to die, with out- 
 stretched arms reproached their fellows for their desertion. 
 Buonaparte, dismounting, marched at the head of his men, 
 sharing in their hardships and cheering them by his resolu- 
 tion. Arriving in Egypt, Buonaparte almost annihilated a 
 body of troops who had landed at Aboukir, thousands of 
 these turbaned warriors throwing themselves into the sea 
 to escape the sabres of Murat's cavalry. 
 
 Return to France. — After the battle, negotiations were 
 entered into for the exchange of prisoners. Sydney Smith 
 having sent Buonaparte a package of newspapers, he spent 
 all night in eagerly devouring the tidings from France. He 
 saw the crisis which had arrived in its affairs — that "the 
 pear was ripe," as he said — and resolved to abandon his 
 brothers-in-arms and return home. Giving up the command 
 to Kleber, and taking with him his favorite officers, Lannes, 
 Murat, Berthier, Marmont, and Dnroc, he set sail, escaped 
 as by a miracle from the English cruisers, and surprised 
 Josephine by his sudden appearance at their little home in 
 Paris. 
 
 The History of the Directory during these years 
 (1797-9), aside from the exploits of Buonaparte, had been 
 one of little promise to the republic. The grapeshot of the 
 young Oorsican on the 13thVendemiaire extinguished neither 
 the Jacobins nor the Koyalists. The latter obtained a ma- 
 jority in the Council of Five Hundred (1797), where they 
 
 * At Jaffa the army rested two days. The plague was at its height. Buonaparte, 
 it is said, visited the hospital and walked through the Wards, affecting a careless air 
 and striking his hoots with his riding-whip as he passed. When the army left, there 
 were a few patients too ill to be removed. As they would probably be murdered by 
 the Turks, Buonaparte proposed to Desgenettc, the physician, to poison them. His 
 noble reply was : " My art teaches me to cure men. not to kill them. 1 ' 
 
1797-9.] THE DIEECTOEY. 231 
 
 elected Pichegru— an avowed friend of the Bourbons — as 
 President, and Barthelemy — one of their partisans — as Direc- 
 tor. Priests and emigrants returned in crowds, and Louis 
 XVIII., brother of Louis XVI., already began to make his 
 terms. 
 
 Revolution of the 18th Fructidor (September 4, 
 1797). — The majority of the Directory in this emergency 
 resolved upon a coup cT etat* Augereau marched into Paris 
 with 12,000 men and forty pieces of cannon, surrounded the 
 Tuilleries, and arrested Picliegru and the leading Royalists. 
 The Republican minority in the Councils hereupon rescinded 
 the unfavorable elections in forty-eight departments, sen- 
 tenced fifty- three deputies to transportation, together with 
 two obnoxious Directors — Barthelemy and Carnot, who was 
 opposed to using violence — annulled the offensive acts of 
 their predecessors, and even sacrificed to their resentment 
 the editors and proprietors of forty-two journals. New 
 Jacobins coming in, the public exercise of the Christian reli- 
 gion was forbidden, and the laws against priests and emigrants 
 re-enacted in all their rigor. It was by the Directory thus 
 revolutionized that Buonaparte was received on his return 
 from Italy. The next year "their five majesties of the Lux- 
 embourg," as the Directors were termed, again resorted to 
 arms, and by a second coup cV etat (22d Floreal, May 11, 
 1798), expelled from the Council the ultra-Republicans. 
 
 Foreign Disaster had been added to domestic anarchy. 
 The arrogant pretensions of the Directory and the rapid 
 spread of republican principles caused a Second Coalition to 
 be formed against Prance, composed of England, Russia, 
 Austria, Turkey, and the two Sicilies. The campaign which 
 followed had little interest. Buonaparte was in Egypt, and 
 
 * This is a word for which as yet, happily, wc have no English equivalent. It is 
 literally "a stroke-of-state."' 
 
232 REVOLUTIONARY TRANCE. [1799. 
 
 the fruits of Campo Formio were quickly lost. The French 
 in Italy were defeated again and again by the Austrians and 
 Kussians, under the famous Suwarrow (su-or-ro), the Invin- 
 cible. Elsewhere there was a gleam of success. The English 
 made an inglorious failure in an attempted descent on the 
 coast of Holland, while in Switzerland Massena routed the 
 Eussian general Korsakoff at Zurich, and Suwarrow lost 
 three-fourths of his army in trying to support his colleague. 
 
 Condition of the Country. — The Directory, meanwhile, 
 had become notoriously corrupt as well as tyrannical. Bar- 
 ras, its most conspicuous member, was styled " the rotten." 
 The state was on the verge of dissolution. Bands of bri- 
 gands abounded. The armies driven back upon the frontier 
 were in want. All respect for law seemed gone, and force 
 alone was master. A panic of fear and despair seized upon 
 all. A dictatorship, royalty, anything which gave promise of 
 quiet and safety, was better than the ruin which seemed to 
 impend. At this moment it was announced that Buonaparte 
 had landed at Frejus. Enthusiastic masses met him at every 
 stage of his journey to Paris. All eyes turned to him as the 
 only hope of France. 
 
 Revolution of the 18th Brumaire (November 9, 1799). 
 — For a time Buonaparte watched the turn of affairs. He 
 exchanged his uniform for the costume of the Institute. 
 Eefusing to identify himself with any party, he silently drew 
 about him his friends. Talleyrand, minister of foreign 
 affairs, was among the first to join the crowd. Sieyes,* the 
 most influential of the Directors, gave himself to the task of 
 arranging a new coup d' Stat. On the pretense of a Jacobin 
 plot both the Councils were transferred to St. Cloud, so as to 
 
 * "It needs, 1 ' said Sieyes, "to save France a head and a sword." He proposed to 
 furnish the former; for the latter he allied himself with Buonaparte. In the sequel 
 he found, as he predicted, the Corsican had hoth, saying to Talleyrand : "Nous avons 
 tin maitre qui sait tout faire, qui pent tout faire, et qui veut tout faire." 
 
THE DIRECTORY. 
 
 233 
 
 be removed from the sympathy and aid of the capital. 
 Buonaparte was given command of the army in Paris. 
 Sieves and his colleague Ducos broke up the government b\ 
 resigning their offices. The next day Buonaparte appeared 
 before the Council of Five Hundred. His explanations were 
 received with indignation. 
 The President, his brother 
 Lucien, was unable to re- 
 strain the tumult. The 
 
 BUONAPARTE BEFORE THE COUNCIL OF FIVE HUNDRED. 
 
 crowd rushed forward with threatening gestures. Buona- 
 parte turned pale and was borne away by his grenadiers, 
 who rushed in to save their chief. The cry of outlaw was 
 raised. It was the terrible cry which had ruined Eobes- 
 pierre. Lucien refused to put the question to vote. Buona- 
 parte sent in a platoon of grenadiers to bring out his brother, 
 who, mounting a horse, harangued the troops and pronounced 
 the Council dissolved. Then taking a sword, he turned 
 
234 EEV0LU1I0NAKY FRANCE. [1789. 
 
 toward Buonaparte, exclaiming, " I swear to run this through 
 my own brother if ever he strikes a blow at the liberties of 
 the French.' 7 He was answered by a cheer. Murat at once 
 led forward a column of men at a quick step. They entered 
 the hall with fixed bayonets. The officers waved their swords 
 and shouted " Forward ! ; ' The roll of the drums drowned 
 the last cry of Vive la Eepublique. The deputies escaped at 
 the windows. The revolution was achieved. As Buonaparte 
 boasted, it had not " cost a drop of blood." Liberty only was 
 strangled. Lucien, collecting about thirty of the Council 
 who were friendly, hastened to establish a temporary govern- 
 ment. Buonaparte, Sieyes, and Ducos were appointed pro- 
 visional consuls, and a committee nominated to revise the 
 constitution. 
 
 The Constitution of the Year VIII. was elaborately 
 contrived by Sieyes. There were to be three consuls chosen 
 for ten years — Buonaparte and two others named by him. 
 The laws, prepared under the order of the consuls by a 
 Council of State named by the consuls and liable to be re- 
 voked by them, were to be discussed by a Tribune, and 
 voted or rejected by a Legislature. The 5,000,000 of electors 
 in France — all persons over twenty-one years — Avereto choose 
 one-tenth of their number; this tenth, a tenth of its num- 
 bers; and this again a tenth. From the last list of about 
 5,000 a senate was to select the Tribune and Legislature. 
 
 Satisfaction of France. — This constitution was ratified 
 by a popular vote of over 3,000,000 against 1,500. It was 
 evident that, in the overthrow of the Directory and in his 
 assumption of power, Buonaparte had France on his side. 
 The fire of the Eevolution had died out. The people desired 
 neither the ancient despotism nor Jacobinic anarchy. They 
 had failed to secure anything between these extremes. Buo- 
 naparte, by his splendid military success, had only hastened a 
 
1799.] B U K A P A 11 T E . 235 
 
 change which was certain. "The hour had come and found 
 the man." Tired of strife, France longed for a strong hand 
 to steady and control the raging factions. 
 
 3.— THE CONSULATE. . 
 
 1799 to 1804-5 Years. 
 
 The Consular Government. — Buonaparte now took 
 up his residence in the Tuileries, where the consular court 
 was established. As he entered the palace he saw a few caps 
 of liberty which had been accidentally left hanging on some 
 spears. " Take away that rubbish," said he. Every branch 
 of government quickly felt Buonaparte's magic touch. Forced 
 taxes on the rich were abolished. Provision w 7 as made for 
 the payment of the debt. At the first sign of order, trade 
 revived and the revenue increased. Banditti were extir- 
 pated ; the churches thrown open for worship ; the law of 
 hostages was repealed; the heathenish decade abolished 
 and the Sabbath restored; the imprisoned priests were re- 
 leased, and the laws against emigrants relaxed. The former 
 intendants of departments were revived under the name of 
 Prefects, who were responsible only to the First Consul. 
 Within six months, confidence was restored, but all jour- 
 nals opposed to him had been suppressed, and a system of 
 secret police * established, to keep him informed of what 
 was transpiring in all parts of France. 
 
 War against Austria (1800). — Buonaparte at first sought 
 to maintain friendly relations with the other powers of Europe. 
 Austria rejected his advances, and George III. of England did 
 not deign even to reply to his letter. Hostilities, therefore, 
 
 * Fouche was the head of this department. A man of wonderful ability, hut one 
 in whom Buonaparte had so little confidence that he appointed spies to watch him. 
 
236 REVOLUTIONARY TRANCE. [1800. 
 
 soon broke out. Two armies were placed in the field; one 
 tinder Moreau in Germany, and one under Massena in Italy. 
 The former, by superior strategy, drove the Austrian army, 
 under General Kray, from point to point, until he took refuge 
 in an intrenched camp at Ulm. Massena, overwhelmed by 
 General Melas, with superior forces, was driven, with half his 
 army, behind the entrenchments of Genoa. While the two 
 Austrian armies were thus detained so far distant, Buona- 
 parte secretly gathered his forces on the Swiss frontier, in 
 order to cross the Alps, and renew the glories of his Italian 
 conquests. 
 
 Passage of St. Bernard. — Great difficulties were ex- 
 perienced in this famous undertaking. The cannon were 
 dismounted, placed in hollow logs, and one hundred men 
 harnessed to each. The ammunition and baggage were car- 
 ried on mules. A division set off at a time, starting just 
 after midnight, to avoid the avalanches. On the edge of 
 precipices and amid eternal snow and ice the French soldiers 
 encouraged each other with songs, and, when an almost in- 
 surmountable obstacle appeared, dashed forward with cheers, 
 the trumpets sounding the charge. When all difficulties 
 seemed conquered, the advance was unexpectedly checked 
 by the little fortress of Bard, which commanded a narrow 
 pass. The infantry and cavalry forced a way along the pre- 
 cipitous sides of the mountain. Straw was strewn on the 
 road by night, and the artillery drawn past under the very 
 guns of the fort. Other divisions crossed by Mont Cenis and 
 Mont St. Gothard, and the entire army entered Milan in 
 triumph. 
 
 Battle of Marengo. — Melas was long ignorant of the 
 storm gathering on the crest of the Alps. Informed that 
 an enemy was in his rear, he refused to believe it. When 
 he could no longer doubt, he hastily gathered his scattered 
 
1800.] BUONAPARTE. 237 
 
 forces, and surprised the French in march across the fields 
 of Marengo. Buonaparte was caught. Defeat seemed in- 
 evitable. Desaix, however, who was miles away, heard the 
 roar of the cannon. Without waiting for orders, he turned 
 back with his division. On the road he met courier after 
 courier urging him to hasten. As he rushed upon the field 
 through the frightened fugitives, he found Buonaparte. 
 " One battle is lost," said Desaix, " but there is time to win 
 another." The consul rode down the lines, exclaiming: 
 " Soldiers, we have gone far enough ; you know it is my 
 custom to sleep on the field of battle." Desaix now charged 
 upon the advancing columns of the Austrians,but fell pierced 
 by a ball. At that moment Kellermann, who was hidden 
 behind a vineyard, hurled his terrible dragoons on the ene- 
 mies' flank. Six thousand Austrians laid down their arms in 
 dismay. The rest fled. Melas was forced to retire beyond 
 the Mincio, and surrender Northern Italy. Buonaparte re- 
 turned to Paris, from which he had been absent only two 
 months. 
 
 Surrender of Massena. — During all this time Buona- 
 parte had done nothing for Massena ; and in the pursuit of 
 his own glory had left his lieutenant and his little army in 
 Genoa to starve and finally surrender. For nearly two weeks 
 their only food had been a few ounces daily of a miserable 
 bread made of starch and cocoa, while the inhabitants lived 
 on roots and grass gathered from the ramparts. Apparently 
 Massena had failed, but by occupying the attention of so 
 large a part of the Austrian army, he had rendered Marengo 
 possible. 
 
 Battle of Hohenlinden. — Moreau, having taken Munich, 
 now advanced against the Austrians under the Archduke 
 John. He at last caught them entangled in long columns in 
 the gloomy forest of Hohenlinden, and beat them with great 
 
238 EEYOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [1801. 
 
 loss. Thence he rapidly pushed forward to the gates of 
 Vienna, when the frightened monarch begged for a suspen- 
 sion of arms. 
 
 The Treaty of Luneville (1801), concluded soon after 
 with Austria, was nearly identical with that of Oampo For- 
 mic England, however, refused to make peace. She was 
 now mistress of the sea, as France was of the land. Malta 
 having surrendered to the British, communication with Egypt 
 became difficult. Kleber, who had been left in command, 
 was assassinated the same day that Desaix fell at Marengo. 
 Menou, his successor, defeated by the English, evacuated 
 the country (1801). Soon after, Pitt, the English prime 
 minister, and most bitter enemy of France, retired from 
 office. 
 
 The Treaty of Amiens (1802) sheathed the sword for 
 a time. England surrendered all her conquests except Trin- 
 idad and Ceylon. Malta was to be restored to the Knights 
 of St. John. 
 
 Government. — "I shall now give myself to the adminis- 
 tration of France," said Buonaparte. The social frame was 
 broken and disjointed, but feudal shackles had been thrown 
 off, land had been set free, and the nation, in general, had 
 perfect confidence in its young and brilliant leader. The 
 opportunity for reorganization was a rare one. Commerce, 
 agriculture, manufactures, education, religion, arts and sci- 
 ences, each received his careful thought. He restored the 
 Catholic Church in accordance with the celebrated Con- 
 cordat (1801), the Pope renouncing all claims to the lands 
 confiscated by the revolution, and the government agree- 
 ing to provide for the maintenance of the clergy. He 
 established a uniform system of weights and measures, now 
 familiar as the Metric System (November 2, 1801). He fused 
 the heterogeneous and conflicting mass of laws into what is 
 
1806. J BUOKAPAKTE, 239 
 
 still known as the Napoleonic Code.* He instituted a sys- 
 tem of public instruction. He abolished the fantastic repub- 
 lican calendar (January 1, 1806). He repaired the roads and 
 built new ones, among which was the magnificent route over 
 the Simplon Pass into Italy, even now the wonder of travel- 
 lers. He organized the Bank of France on its present basis. 
 He erected magnificent bridges across the Seine. He created 
 the Legion of Honor, which was to be a means of rewarding 
 distinguished merit in every department of life. 
 
 Conspiracies. — Buonaparte, by his amazing success, had 
 disappointed and enraged both the Eoyalists and the Jacob- 
 ins. Both parties plotted, and the former nearly succeeded 
 in an attempt at assassination (1800). A barrel of powder 
 and projectiles, placed on a cart, and furnished with a slow 
 match, was left in a narrow street through which it was 
 known Buonaparte would go on his way to the opera. The 
 explosion occurred just after he had passed. Fifty-two per- 
 sons were killed or wounded. A second conspiracy (1804) 
 was detected by Fouche, in which were implicated Pichegru, 
 Moreau, and Cadoudal.f They were arrested. Moreau, who, 
 it was found, had revolted at the idea of assassination, was, 
 however, banished to the United States. Pichegru was found 
 dead in prison. Cadoudal was executed. 
 
 Duke d' Enghein. — In the course of this examination 
 reference was made to a prince who was implicated in the 
 plot. Suspicion fell on the Duke d' Enghein (oN-ge-on), a 
 descendant of Conde the Great, then residing in Baden. 
 With no evidence to support the charge, he was seized by 
 Buonaparte's agents, though in a foreign country, brought to 
 Paris, tried by a military commission, condemned, and shot 
 
 * Voltaire said that a person travelling by post through France changed laws 
 oftener than horses. There were at least three hundred separate systems. 
 
 + A Breton chief of the Chouans, already noted for his hardihood during the Ven- 
 dean War. 
 
240 
 
 11 EVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 
 
 [1805. 
 
 the same night in the fosse of the fortress of Vincemies. 
 The violation of neutral territory, the mockery of a trial, the 
 hour and haste of the execution, all gave to this act the 
 appearance of an assassination. It aroused the most intense 
 excitement throughout Europe, and remains a dark blot on 
 Buonaparte's life.* 
 
 "War with England (1805).— The prosperity and growth 
 of France was a constant menace and source of jealousy to 
 
 England; while causes of 
 dissension were continually 
 arising between these old- 
 time foes. England at last 
 refused to evacuate Malta 
 according to the treaty of 
 Amiens, and seized all the 
 French vessels lying in 
 English ports. In return, 
 Buonaparte took into custo- 
 dy over 10,000 English trav- 
 ellers in France. The most 
 extensive preparations were made for an invasion of England. 
 One hundred and fifty thousand men were trained and admi- 
 rably disciplined for this enterprise. A vast fleet of trans- 
 ports were collected at Boulogne and other ports, where the 
 troops was practiced in embarking and disembarking rapidly, 
 so that within a single tide the entire flotilla could be ready 
 for sea.f England was thrown into a paroxysm of alarm, 
 while her coasts were thronged with camps and volunteers, 
 and the Channel crowded with ships of war. 
 
 THE CHAIR OF DAGOBERT. 
 
 * "It was," said Talleyrand, in his cynical language, " more than a crime, it was a 
 blunder." 
 
 t A grand review of the "Army of England" was held at Boulogne. Buonaparte, 
 seated in the chair of Dagobert, distributed rewards to the most deserving, amid the 
 wildest enthusiasm. 
 
1804.] NAPOLEON I. 241 
 
 4 .— T HE EMPIRE. 
 
 1804 to 1814=10 Years. 
 
 Buonaparte Becomes Emperor. — Buonaparte Lad al- 
 ready been declared consul for life by the almost unanimous 
 suffrages of the nation (1802). Immediately after the last 
 conspiracy, he was proclaimed by the Senate emperor, under 
 the title of Napoleon I. The nation, alarmed by the recent 
 peril of its idolized chief, sanctioned the decree by a vote of 
 over 3,500,000 against 2,500. All the European kingdoms, 
 except England, Eussia, and Turkey, recognized the new 
 monarch. Pius VII. himself crossed the Alps to assist in 
 the coronation. Never had Notre Dame witnessed a more 
 gorgeous ceremony. The Pope poured on the head of the 
 kneeling sovereign the mystic oil ; but, as he lifted the 
 crown, Napoleon took it from his hands, placed it on his 
 own head, and afterward crowned Josephine Empress. As 
 the hymn was sung which Charlemagne heard when saluted 
 Emperor of the Eomans, the shouts within the walls of 
 Notre Dame reached the crowd without, and all Paris rung 
 with the acclamations. Crossing the Alps, the new emperor 
 took at Milan the iron crown of the Lombards, and his step- 
 son, Eugene Beauharnais, received the title of Viceroy of 
 Italy. The Genoese territory was annexed to France. Hol- 
 land and the German states along the Ehine were entirely 
 under French influence. Switzerland, overawed, had pro- 
 claimed Napoleon "The Grand Mediator of the Helvetic 
 Confederation." The empire of Charlemagne seemed already 
 revived, with its seat at Paris instead of Aix-la-Chapelle. 
 
 A Third Coalition was now formed to resist the ambi- 
 tions projects of Napoleon. It consisted of England, Austria, 
 and Eussia. Napoleon, unable to get the command of the 
 11 
 
24; 
 
 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 
 
 [1805. 
 
 Channel, gave up the project of invading England, and sud- 
 denly threw his army across Prance, in order to attack the 
 Austrian s before the arrival of the Russians. While he was 
 thought to be still watching the white cliffs of Albion, he 
 suddenly crossed the Rhine, and, throwing a " circle of iron 
 
 and fire" about General 
 Mack, compelled him to 
 capitulate, with his entire 
 army, at TJlm (1805). 
 Within three weeks a 
 force of 80,000 men 
 had disappeared. Vienna 
 opened its gates to the 
 conqueror.* 
 
 Battle of Auster- 
 litz. — Thence Napoleon 
 pushed forward to Brunnf 
 against the Austro-Rus- 
 sian army, under the 
 Emperors Francis and 
 Alexander. They advanced to the heights of Austerlitz, 
 manoeuvring to outflank the French and cut off their retreat 
 to Vienna. With ill-concealed joy Napoleon watched their 
 forces during the whole day moving on the heights in front. 
 "Before to-morrow night that army is ours," he triumphantly 
 declared. In the morning, as the sun rose clear and bright. 
 Napoleon rode down the lines, exclaiming: "This campaign 
 must be finished by a clap of thunder." The men answered 
 with a shout. Twenty-five thousand men were suddenly 
 launched against the enemy's weakened centre. The height 
 
 * Two thousand cannon were found in the arsenals. Prom the brass pieces was 
 cast the column of Place VendOme, Paris. 
 
 EMPRESS JOSEPHINE. 
 
 t In three months the soldiers had marched 1,^00 miles. 
 said they, " with our legs instead of our arms." 
 
 "He makes us fight,' 
 
1805.] NAPOLEON" I. 243 
 
 of Pratzen, the key of their position, was taken, and their 
 line cut. The catastrophe was terrible. Whole divisions 
 laid down their arms. Two thousand men tried to escape on 
 a frozen lake, but the ice, broken by the cannon-shot which 
 rained upon it, gave way, and the whole number sank with 
 a cry of despair. The sun of Austerlitz saw the coalition go 
 down in this crushing defeat. 
 
 Battle of Trafalgar. — In the midst of these successes 
 came news of a great disaster. The day after Mack's sur- 
 render, the combined fleets of France and Spain, assembled 
 to cover the expected descent on England, were attacked by 
 Nelson off Cape Trafalgar, and totally destroyed. The ques- 
 tion of English naval supremacy was henceforth settled, 
 and Napoleon was forced to fight on land. 
 
 The Treaty of Presburg. — Two days after "the battle 
 of the three emperors," Francis came a suppliant to Napo- 
 leon's tent. He was forced to surrender his Venetian spoils 
 to Italy. The electors of Bavaria and Wurtemberg were 
 made kings, and their territories increased at the expense 
 of Austria. Soon after (1806) Francis gave up the title of 
 Emperor of Germany, which had existed for one thousand 
 years, and assumed that of Emperor of Austria. The king 
 of Naples was dethroned for having joined the coalition. 
 The Russian army was allowed to return home. The king 
 of Prussia,* who was awaiting the result of this campaign, 
 ready to join either side, received Hanover as the price of an 
 alliance with France. 
 
 Royal Vassals and New Nobles.— Napoleon, in order 
 to strengthen his power, now sought to surround France by 
 royal vassals and fiefs of the empire, after the manner of 
 
 * During a visit of the Czar at Berlin, he and Frederick William of Prussia, at the 
 tomb of Frederick the Great, swore eternal hatred to Napoleon. Within a month 
 William sent to congratulate the conqueror of Austerlitz. Napoleon coldly remarked ; 
 kl This compliment was meant for another, hut Fortune has changed the address." 
 
244 EEVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [1806. 
 
 Charlemagne, his grand ideal. Seventeen states of Ger- 
 many were united in the Confederation of the Rhine, in 
 close alliance with France. Royalties were assigned to his 
 brothers : to Louis, that of Holland ; Jerome, that of West- 
 phalia ; Joseph, that of Naples. His sisters, Eliza and Pau- 
 line, were made duchesses. Murat received the grand duchy 
 of Berg; Berthier, the province of Neuchatel; Talleyrand, 
 that of Benevento; and Bernadotte, that of Ponte-Corvo. 
 Twenty-two duchies were distributed among his companions 
 in arms and most deserving servants. Titles and orders were 
 lavishly bestowed. A new order of nobility, which had found 
 its parchments on the field of battle, was formed around the 
 crowned soldier. All were fiefs of the emperor, all owed 
 power to him, and depended upon him for their existence. 
 
 War with Prussia (1806). — Prussia was restive under 
 the galling yoke of the emperor. At last, discovering that 
 Napoleon had secretly offered to restore Hanover to England, 
 she drew the sword. A fourth coalition was formed by Prus- 
 sia, Russia, England, Saxony, and Sweden. But Napoleon 
 was already in Germany. The grand army soon poured 
 through the defiles of Eranconia, and at Jena repeated the 
 audacious exploits of Marengo and of Ulm. By cutting a 
 road up the almost impassable heights of the Landgrafen- 
 berg, Napoleon stole into the rear of the Prussians, who 
 were expecting his advance in the opposite direction. Early 
 the next morning the French broke through the mist like 
 a torrent, and defeated them with fearful slaughter. Mean- 
 while Davout, at Auerstadt, with only 26,000 men, barred 
 the route of the Duke of Brunswick, who had 60,000. The 
 marshal had orders to hold his post to the death. He did 
 more. He routed the enemy. The fugitives from the two 
 fields of battle mingled in the retreat and scattered over 
 the country. Cities and fortresses surrendered without a 
 
1806.] NAPOLEON I. 245 
 
 shot. " The dates of October were but resting-places of the 
 French eagles in their flight from victory to victory." In a 
 single month the conquest of Prussia was complete. Napo- 
 leon entered Berlin amid the tears of the populace. He rifled 
 the tomb of Frederick the Great, plundered the museums 
 and galleries, and threatened to reduce the haughty nobility 
 so low that they would be forced to beg their bread.* 
 
 Berlin Decrees (1806). — Unable to meet England on the 
 ocean, Napoleon determined to destroy her commerce. The 
 famous decrees issued at Berlin declared the British Isles in 
 a state of blockade, prohibited all trade with England, confis- 
 cated the property or merchandise of British subjects, and 
 forbade any vessel from an English port or colony to land in 
 France. The "Continental System," as it was called, was, 
 however, from the first a failure. Napoleon had no navy to 
 enforce it. English goods were smuggled wherever a British 
 vessel could float, often with the connivance of French offi- 
 cials themselves. It is said that Manchester prints were worn 
 even in the Tuileries. 
 
 War with Russia (1807). — The Eussians taking the 
 initiative, a winter campaign in Poland ensued. The battle of 
 Eylau, fought amid blinding snow, was bloody but indecisive. 
 It was the first contest in which Napoleon could only claim 
 the field. Eeinforcements were summoned from every quar- 
 ter. Eighty thousand conscripts — the third levy since the 
 war began — were enrolled by the obsequious Senate. The 
 Confederation of the Rhine increased its contingent. In the 
 spring Napoleon renewed the struggle. The Russian General 
 Beningsen having crossed the River Alle to attack the ex- 
 posed corps of Marshal Lannes at Friedland, the main body 
 of the French came up, and he was compelled to fight a 
 
 * Such enormous contributions were levied, that, to raise the amount, the women 
 gave up their ornaments, and wore rings of Berlin iron— since then noted in the 
 patriotic annals of Prussia. 
 
U8 
 
 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 
 
 [1809. 
 
 Battle of Wagram. — The island was quickly fortified. 
 Eeserves were summoned from Italy and the Ehine. Within 
 six weeks they began to arrive, and in two days 150,000 men 
 were gathered under the imperial eagles. One dark night, 
 in the midst of a terrible thunder-storm, six bridges were 
 
 THE BATTLE OF WAGRAM. 
 
 thrown across the Danube below the island, and the morning 
 found the French grouped in a dense mass on the opposite 
 bank. The Austrians, abandoning the formidable but now 
 useless entrenchments they had thrown up to debar the 
 passage in front of Lobau, took up their position on the 
 heights of Wagram. The archduke,-, attempted to cut off 
 the French from the river. His powerful right wing swept 
 along the Danube, driving everything before it, like chaff. 
 
1809.] NAPOLEON I. 249 
 
 The cry, " The bridges are taken/' was already heard in the 
 ranks. Word came to Napoleon that the rear was threat- 
 ened, but he did not answer. His eye was fixed on the 
 right, where Davout was to begin the attack. Suddenly 
 he caught the roar of his guns. At once he ordered 
 Macdonald to charge upon the centre of the Austrian line. 
 Drouet (drua), with 100 guns, advanced at the gallop to 
 open a path. Steadily Macdonald toiled up the hill in the 
 face of a terrible fire. When he stopped at the crest and 
 looked back, a windrow of bodies marked the way by which 
 he had come. But he had pierced the centre. The Young 
 Guard, under Reille, came to his aid. Napoleon ordered an 
 instant advance along the whole line. Soon the Austrians 
 were in full retreat, and Napoleon stood in triumph on the 
 hills of Wagram.* 
 
 The Peace of Vienna was more humiliating than that 
 of Presburg. Napoleon exacted a territory containing 
 3,400,000 inhabitants, a reduction of military power, a large 
 money indemnity, the blowing up of the walls of Vienna, 
 and adherence to the Continental System. 
 
 War in Spain (1809-10). — During the campaign in 
 Austria, over 300,000 French soldiers were in Spain, but 
 Napoleon was not there. Jealousies, lack of co-operation, 
 and the difficulties of a guerilla warfare, prevented any great 
 success. Soult invaded Portugal, and occupied Oporto. 
 Wellesley, being appointed to the chief command of the 
 English troops, crossed the Douro in open day in the face 
 of the Marshal, and at last drove him out of the country. 
 Joining the Spaniards, Wellesley then defeated Joseph in the 
 
 * Tt was such a blow as Napoleon had delivered at Austerlitz and Jena, but it 
 produced no such consequences as upon those brilliant fields. The Austrians retired 
 in good order. Napoleon's old veterans had perished. The conscripts and the 
 strangers be now led had none of the revolutionary fire. His genius won many more 
 victories after that, but he never saw another Austerlitz. 
 
250 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [1810. 
 
 great battle of Talavera. Soult, Ney, and Mortier coming 
 up, he retreated into Portugal. The next year he fell back 
 before the superior forces of Massena into the fortified lines 
 of Torres Yedras. Massena remained in front of this im- 
 pregnable position until starvation forced him to retire into 
 Spain. His watchful antagonist instantly followed him, and 
 it was only by consummate skill that the French captain 
 escaped with the wreck of his army. The victories of 
 Albuera and Salamanca, and the capture of Ciudad Kodrigo 
 and Badajoz cost the French the peninsula south of Madrid. 
 Joseph's throne was only held up on the point of French 
 bayonets. 
 
 Divorce and Marriage. — Disappointed at having no 
 heir to succeed to his empire, Napoleon now committed the 
 coldest and most heartless act of his reign. Josephine — to 
 whom he was indebted for his first appointment to the Army 
 of Italy, and no small share of his subsequent popularity; 
 who had always manifested for him the most intense affec- 
 tion, and who had presided over his court with singular grace 
 — was divorced (1809). "With sorrowful dignity she retired 
 to Malmaison. In the spring of 1810, Napoleon married the 
 young Archduchess Marie Louise, daughter of the emperor 
 of Austria. Pretty and amiable, she brought him no 
 strength of character; while his desertion of Josephine 
 cost him the sympathy of many of his people, and seemed 
 an abandonment of the principles which had raised him 
 to power. 
 
 Despotism of the Napoleonic Rule. — The Pope hav- 
 ing refused to continue the Continental blockade, was de- 
 throned. Excommunicating Napoleon, he was seized and 
 finally carried captive to Fontainebleau. " Learn," said the 
 emperor to the kings, his brothers, " that your first duties 
 are due to me and France." Louis, failing to execute the 
 
1810.] NAPOLEON I. 251 
 
 Continental System, was forced to abdicate. The Hanseatic 
 towns — Hamburg, Bremen, and Lubeck — the Duchy of 
 Oldenburg, Holland, and the Eoman States were arbitrarily 
 annexed to the empire. The Tribune, the only body in the 
 French government with the right of discussion, was abol- 
 ished. The Council of State, the Senate and the Legislative 
 bodies were appointed by Napoleon himself and subject to 
 his control. The educational system was reorganized by 
 the establishment of the University of France, which em- 
 braced every school in the country, and the officers of which 
 were responsible to him alone. The press was subjected to 
 the severest censorship. No news could be published, unless 
 it had already appeared in the Ifoniteur, a journal exclu- 
 sively under his control. The ordinary tribunals were too 
 slow, and Napoleon summarily imprisoned or exiled those 
 who incurred his displeasure. Many of the best writ- 
 ers, as Madame de Stael and Chateaubriand, fled to escape 
 his vengeance. The prisons were rilled with persons arrested 
 by processes as arbitrary as the old Icttres de cachet. 
 
 Glory of the Napoleonic Rule. — The French Empire 
 now comprised 130 departments and 50 millions of people. 
 It was surrounded by a cordon of dependent kings and 
 nobles. Bernadotte, a French marshal, had been elected 
 king of Sweden. The Continental blockade was acknowl- 
 edged over the entire continent. Paris was adorned by such 
 structures as the Madeleine and the Arch of Triumph — 
 which are to-day the admiration of travellers, and render 
 that city the most beautiful in the world. Vast improve- 
 ments were made in all parts of the country. Canals, roads, 
 quays, bridges, palaces, public buildings, museums, fountains, 
 betokened the wisdom of his administration. The birth of a 
 son — proclaimed King of Kome in his cradle — seemed to 
 have set the seal on Napoleon's fortune. 
 
252 
 
 REVOLUTIONARY FEAICE. 
 
 [1810. 
 
 Perils of the Napoleonic Rule.— The storm destined 
 to overwhelm all this greatness was fast gathering. The 
 peninsula was devouring his best soldiers. The prestige of 
 his invincibility was gone. The superb strategy of Welling- 
 ton had kindled 
 hopes of at last stay- 
 ing the tide. Ger- 
 many was drawing 
 together, and secret 
 societies were form- 
 ing at every point to 
 resist the hated in- 
 vader. The Conti- 
 nental System had 
 caused frightful distress in every commercial city, checked 
 trade and commerce, deprived the people of the conveniences 
 of life, and awakened general discontent. Almost every fam- 
 ily on the Continent secretly wished for the overthrow of his 
 vexatious tyranny. In France the Austrian marriage was 
 unpopular, f Taxation and bankruptcies had enormously in- 
 creased. The conscription had anticipated the regular 
 
 THE MADELEINE. 
 
 * This magnificent edifice was the special pride of Napoleon, who intended it as a 
 Temple of Fame, in honor of the Grand Army. It is alleged that it was secretly de- 
 signed as an expiatory monument to the memory of Louis XVI., Marie Antoinette, 
 and other victims of the Revolution ; hut popular passion ran so high at the time that 
 Napoleon did not consider it prudent to announce it as such. It was not thoroughly 
 completed until the reign of Louis Philippe. The hailding is surrounded by fifty- 
 two Corinthian columns, fifty feet high. The entablature is highly decorated with 
 sculptures, and the beautiful bronze doors are second only to those of St. Peter's at 
 Rome. The interior is profusely ornamented with specimens of the choicest paint- 
 ing and statuary. 
 
 + Napoleon's cruel divorce from Josephine, and subsequent marriage with Marie 
 Louise, have been warmly defended by many of his English and American apol- 
 ogists. It is claimed as a noble illustration of his strength of character and his 
 unselfish devotion to France, showing that he was thus capable of sacrificing even 
 his most sacred affections on the altar of his country? No such patriotic impulse, 
 however, prompted Napoleon to this step. He shrewdly thought, that a marriage 
 with a member of one of the royal families of Europe would disarm the hostility of 
 the others. 
 
1812.] NAPOLEON I. 253 
 
 growth of the nation,* and boys filled the army. Napoleon's 
 policy of treating other nations had rendered it necessary 
 that either France should conquer all Europe, or Europe 
 should conquer France. To rest was to totter. He dared 
 too much and fell. 
 
 War with Russia. — The w r arm friendship between 
 Napoleon and Alexander had long since cooled. New 
 causes of disagreement now arose. Alexander, bitterly re- 
 senting the injury done his brother-in-law, Duke Oldenburg, 
 (page 251) opened his ports to English, and closed them to 
 French goods. Eussian troops began to collect along the 
 frontiers. Bitter recriminations followed. Meanwhile the 
 overbearing demands of Napoleon and the actual invasion 
 of Sweden, forced Bernadotte to appeal to Alexander for 
 help. War became inevitable. Napoleon madly resolved 
 to invade Eussia. 
 
 Invasion of Russia. — In the spring of 1812, armies, 
 magnificently equipped and disciplined, from all nations 
 subject to Napoleon's sway, French, Austrians, Prussians, 
 Poles,f Italians, Germans, Swiss, and even Spaniards and 
 Portuguese, thronged the roads leading to the rendezvous in 
 Poland. There were 640,000 infantry, 60,000 horse, and 
 over 1,200 pieces of cannon. At Dresden, Napoleon held 
 court for some weeks. Monarch s waited in his ante- 
 chamber ; while queens were Marie Louise's maids of honor. 
 He crossed the Niemen (June 14). The Eussians retired as 
 the French advanced, clouds of Cossacks cutting off strag- 
 
 * "Natural death for a Frenchman had become that on the field of battle. In one 
 year, 1,100,000 soldiers were drafted from a population already exhausted by 3000 
 combats." The standard of height was reduced to five feet. 
 
 t Large numbers of Poles enlisted in Napoleon's army led by ardent hopes that he 
 would restore the ancient independence of their country. At Wilna a deputation 
 met him, and urged him to take this step. He was, however, withheld by fear of 
 his Austrian and Prussian alliances. Many attribute his ultimate failure to this 
 mistake. 
 
254 KEVOLUTIOHAKY FKAKCE. [1812. 
 
 glers and foraging parties, destroying crops, burning towns, 
 and rendering the country a desert. But Napoleon pushed 
 on, constantly pursuing an ever-receding victory. At Boro- 
 dino, the Eussians made a stand. After a fearful struggle 
 the French only gained possession of the battle-field, the 
 Eussians retreating in good order. The loss on both sides 
 was over 75,000. Forty-seven French generals were wounded. 
 Eight days afterward, the vanguard from the heights of 
 Mt. Salutation caught sight of the gilded domes of Moscow. 
 To their surprise they found it deserted. The next night the 
 Eussians fired the city in a thousand places. It soon became a 
 sea of flames, swept by the wind. Nearly all Moscow sank 
 into ashes. The French had found a new Spain under 
 the pole. 
 
 The Retreat. — Weeks were now wasted in useless nego- 
 tiations. The blackened ruins of the city furnished no 
 supplies. Famine was making sad havoc in the ranks of the 
 army. Dread forebodings filled the hearts of all. The cold 
 winds of a Eussian winter were already beginning to blow. 
 To advance was impossible. France was 3,000 miles away, 
 yet retreat was the only alternative. Eeluctantly the Em- 
 peror yielded and Moscow was evacuated. The rear-guard 
 blew up the Kremlin, the ancient palace of the Moscovite 
 emperors. "Your war is ended, ours is about to begin," 
 said old Kutusoff, the Eussian general. Cold set in earlier 
 than usual. The mercury suddenly sank to zero. The sol- 
 diers, unused to the rigors of the north, died as they w T alked ; 
 they perished if they stopped to rest. Hundreds lay down 
 by the fires at night, and never rose in the morning. The 
 horses failing, the cannon were abandoned and the cavalry 
 dismounted. Wild Cossack troopers hovered about the rear, 
 and hidden by the gusts of snow, dashed down upon the 
 blinded column, with their long lances pierced far into the 
 
1812.] 
 
 NAPOLEON I. 
 
 255 
 
 line, and ere the 
 French with their 
 stiffened fingers 
 could raise a mus- 
 ket, the Tartars, 
 dropping at full 
 
 THE RETREAT FROM MOSCOW. ldlgth Oil the backs 
 
 of their ponies, vanished in the falling sleet. At Krasnoi, 
 Napoleon himself charged with the Old Guard. At the 
 crossing of the Beresina, the bridges were broken down, 
 while the rear-guard was still fighting the enemy. Thou- 
 sands were drowned, thousands fell under the Russian sabres, 
 and thousands were made prisoners. At Smorgoni, Napoleon 
 gave up the command to Murat, and in disguise set off for 
 Paris. All idea of discipline was now lost. The officers hid 
 their eagles in their haversacks, or buried them in the 
 ground. The army rapidly dissolved into a mass of straggling 
 fugitives. Ney alone, " The bravest of the brave," with the 
 rear-guard, fighting, gun in hand, kept back the pursuers, 
 and was the last of the Grand Army to leave the Russian 
 
256 EEVOLUTIOKAEY FRANCE. [1813. 
 
 territory. Scarce 50,000 escaped over the Niemen, the shat- 
 tered wreck of the mighty host which had crossed it only 
 six months before. 
 
 Uprising of Europe. — "The flames of Moscow were 
 the funeral pyre of the empire." Northern Germany rose 
 as by an inspiration. - A sixth confederation against French 
 domination was formed of Bussia, Prussia, England and 
 Sweden. France, though cruelly stricken, strained every 
 nerve to meet the crisis. Old soldiers were called out, the 
 National Guards ordered into the ranks of the regular army, 
 and the conscription of the next year anticipated. Half a 
 million men were thus gathered about the eagles. Again 
 Napoleon took the field (1813). Successful at Liltzen and 
 at Bautzen, his star seemed about to emerge once more from 
 the threatening clouds. An armistice and a Peace Con- 
 gress at Paris gave the allies time for preparation. Austria 
 now threw her sword in the scale. France stood alone 
 against all Europe in arms. After a two-days battle at 
 Dresden, the allies were defeated. The coalition seemed 
 overcome. But where Napoleon was absent was utter failure. 
 Macdonald was conquered in Silesia ; Ney, near Berlin ; Van- 
 damme, at Kulm ; and Soult, at Vittoria ; while Wellington, 
 having crossed the Bidassoa (Oct. 7), flushed with victory, 
 set foot on French soil. 
 
 Battle of Leipsic (Oct. 18). — The allies, now certain of 
 success, converged from all sides. Napoleon fell back to 
 Leipsic. Here was fought the " battle of the nations," the 
 greatest struggle of modern times. For three days, under 
 the walls of this beautiful city, Napoleon, fairly brought to 
 bay, struggled against enormous odds. At last the Saxons 
 and the Wurtembergers deserted in the heat of the contest, 
 and turned upon Napoleon their cannon charged with 
 French bullets. The ammunition began to fail. A retreat 
 
1813.] NAPOLEON I. 257 
 
 was ordered across the Elsfcer. All at once the single bridge 
 by which the troops were passing was blown up. Twenty 
 thousand men fell into the enemy's hands.* One-fifth only 
 of the army escaped across the Khiiie. 
 
 Dissolution of Napoleon's Empire. — The gigantic 
 empire which Napoleon had created by military force, now 
 rapidly crumbled to pieces. The French yoke was thrown 
 off everywhere. The Confederation of the Rhine was dis- 
 solved. The garrisons left in Germany surrendered. The 
 kingdom of Westphalia ceased to exist. Hanover reverted 
 to England. Holland recalled the Stadtholders. Murat, 
 hoping to save his crown, offered to join Austria against 
 France. ' Eugene fought for existence in Italy. A million 
 soldiers, Austrians, Prussians, Russians, English, Swedes, 
 Spaniards, closed in upon their prey. The emperor found 
 himself fighting, not for glory and conquest, but for the 
 sacred soil of France. The field of battle which in 1812 
 had reached to Moscow, in 1813 shrunk back to Dresden 
 and in 1814 was at Paris. The allies, hoping to separate the 
 emperor from the nation, proclaimed that they fought not 
 'the French, but Napoleon. The effect was evident. To 
 many they seemed not enemies, but liberators. At this mo- 
 ment of peril, the Legislature stopped to exclaim against 
 Napoleon's despotism and the war. In the hour of prosper- 
 ity the emperor had sacrificed the interests of France to his 
 ambition, and in the hour of his peril she left him alone. 
 
 Invasion of France (1814). — The English and Spanish 
 advanced from the south ; 80,000 Austrians approached the 
 Alps on the south-east; as many Swedes and Germans under 
 Bernadotte menaced Belgium ; two great armies under 
 Bliicher and Schwartzenberg poured along the Seine and 
 
 * The gallant Poniatowski cut his way to the river, hut. the current hore him off, 
 and he perished. 
 
258 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [1814. 
 
 Marne. Napoleon, with only 60,000 young conscripts, took 
 the field against the latter two. Never did he display such 
 genius, such profound combinations, such fertility of resource. 
 Marching great distances by night, through by-roads and 
 amid mud and rain, he seemed everywhere present. He 
 headed every advance, and dashing from one army to an- 
 other, dealt swift, terrible, and unexpected blows. In one 
 month he had fought fourteen battles, and gained twelve 
 victories; while the invading armies had fallen back, and 
 Schwartzenberg asked for an armistice. Even now, Napoleon 
 might have secured peace by consenting to retire to the 
 ancient boundaries of France. But all or nothing, was his 
 motto. Napoleon, however, could not be everywhere present. 
 Eugene was driven out of Italy; Maison evacuated Bel- 
 gium ; Augereau surrendered Lyons ; Wellington entered Bor- 
 deaux, and Louis XVIII. was proclaimed. The end was 
 near. Napoleon suddenly threw his army in the rear of the 
 allies to gather up the garrisons left behind, and then fall on 
 his enemies, as on Melas at Marengo. They paused for a 
 moment amazed by this daring manoeuvre. A letter from 
 Talleyrand assured them, " You venture nothing, when you 
 may safely venture everything." 
 
 Capture of Paris. — Bliicher and Schwartzenberg at 
 once united their forces, and rapidly advanced on Paris. 
 Marmont with a few troops fought a brief, bloody battle un- 
 der its walls. The city surrendered. The next day the 
 allied emperors defiled through the boulevards at the head 
 of their armies. The fickle mob received them with shouts 
 of " Long live the Emperor Alexander ! " " Long live the Em- 
 peror of Austria ! " The senate declared that Napoleon had 
 forfeited the crown, and the Bourbons were restored to the 
 throne. 
 
 Abdication of Napoleon. — Meanwhile Napoleon was 
 
1789-1815.] NAPOLEON I. 259 
 
 hurrying with breathless speed to the defence of his capital. 
 When only ten miles away, he received the fatal news. All 
 thought of resistance was vain. He submitted to his fate, 
 and abdicated the throne. In the court of the palace at 
 Fontainebleau, he bade an affecting farewell to the veterans 
 of the Old Guard, and set out for the Island of Elba, which 
 had been assigned for his residence.* 
 
 Summary. — I. — The States-General forces the coronets and mitres 
 to join it, and declares itself the National Assembly. Louis closes the 
 hall and places bayonets at the door ; the deputies reply by the Tennis- 
 Court oath. The tiers- etat, which had so long been nothing, becomes 
 everything. Troops collect ; Neckar is dismissed, and the mob rises. 
 The Bastille is taken and its dungeons are razed to the ground. The 
 National Guards are formed. A swarm of women crying ' ' Bread ! 
 Bread ! " march upon Versailles, and take back the royal family to 
 Paris. France is divided into departments, titles are abolished, church 
 property is forfeited and assignats are issued. Louis in vain attempts to 
 flee. The Marseillaise is heard in Paris. The Jacobins bring the mob 
 into the Tuileries, and force the king to put on the red cap. The 
 Prussians invade France, but instead of saving the king, hasten his 
 fall. The army revolts ; the Swiss guards are massacred ; the Tuile- 
 ries is sacked, and Louis sent to the Temple. The Jacobin and Corde- 
 lier clubs become supreme. Danton, Marat and Bobespierre acquire 
 an infamous celebrity. The prisons of Paris are emptied by paid 
 assassins. France is declared a republic. Louis dies on the scaffold. 
 Europe rises in vengeance. La Vendee revolts for God and the king. 
 The Reign of Terror begins. The Girondists perish. Revolutionary 
 tribunals and committees of public safety are hard at work. The 
 guillotine reaps a rich harvest of the best blood of France. Noyades 
 and fusillades help on the work of death. A new calendar is devised ; 
 Christianity is abolished ; death declared an eternal sleep, and the 
 Sabbath is no more. At last the revolution turns upon itself. The 
 hands of a young girl have already prostrated Marat. Now Danton's 
 and Robespierre's heads fall. A just God works the punishment of 
 wicked men through the reaction of their own crimes. A million per- 
 sons have perished in this grand carnival of crime. 
 
 * His imperial consort shook him off as she would a disagreeable dream, -while his 
 discarded plebeian wife, refused the privilege of sharing in his banishment, died of 
 a broken heart at the ruin of her Cid. The widow of Napoleon afterward appeared 
 at the Congress of Verona leaning on the arm of Wellington, and sank at last into 
 the degraded wife of her own chamberlain.— (Alison.) 
 
260 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [1789-1815. 
 
 II. — The Directory is formed. Buonaparte pitilessly subdues the 
 last insurrection of the people. Henceforth the sword triumphs. The 
 life of Buonaparte is now the history of France, almost of Europe. 
 He goes to Italy, scatters the Austrian armies at Lodi, Arcole, Rivoli ; 
 captures Mantua ; sweeps northward, and fifty leagues from Vienna 
 dictates the peace of Campo Formio. Panting for Eastern empire, he 
 crosses to Egypt, defeats the Mamelukes under the shadow of the 
 Pyramids, and the Turks at the foot of Mt. Tabor ; but Sidney Smith 
 at Acre robs him of his destiny. He comes home, routs their " majes- 
 ties of the Luxembourg," scatters the council of five hundred at the 
 point of the bayonet, and makes himself first consul. England, 
 Austria, and Russia continue the war against him. He climbs the 
 Alps and overwhelms the Austrian s on the plains of Marengo, while 
 Moreau wins the battle of Hohenlinden. Peace comes again. A con- 
 cordat is negotiated with the Pope ; bells ring on the Sabbath once 
 more, and the emigrants return home. The Code Napoleon, the Legion 
 of Honor, the Madeleine, the Arch of Triumph, illustrate the domestic 
 administration of the consulate and the empire. 
 
 III. — The Pope comes to Paris to crown Napoleon. The lieutenant 
 of artillery becomes the Emperor of France. Europe refuses to 
 acknowledge him. English gold and Pitt's energy combine the oppo- 
 sition. From the heights of Boulogne he suddenly throws his army 
 across France, and captures the astonished Mack at'Ulm. Russia and 
 Austria both go down together on the day of Austerlitz, and the peace 
 of Presburg sanctions the empire, as that of Campo Formio had his 
 generalship, and Luneville, the consulate. The English, however, 
 triumph at Trafalgar. Napoleon establishes a chain of tributary king- 
 doms, and parcels out western Europe at his will. Prussia revolts at 
 his tyranny, but disappears for years on the battle-field of Jena. Russia 
 is beaten at Eylau and Friedland, and the treaty of Tilsit cements the 
 friendship of the two emperors. The Berlin and Milan decrees estab- 
 lish a continental blockade against English commerce. Blinded by 
 ambition, Napoleon seeks to gain possession of the throne of Spain. 
 Wellington, at the head of the British, arrests the French eagles in 
 their flight. Austria rises again. The bridges being swept away, 
 Napoleon is defeated for the first time at Aspern, but wins the battle 
 of Wagram and conquers the peace of Vienna. The papal states are 
 annexed to France. The Pope excommunicates the emperor whom he 
 crowned, but is himself carried captive to Fontainebleau. Napoleon 
 divorces Josephine and weds the daughter of the Csesars. Spain and 
 Portugal are flooded with troops, but the lines of Torres Vedras stay 
 the tide. Napoleon invades Russia with more than a half million of 
 men, conquers at Borodino, and enters Moscow. But the Russians fire 
 their capital and force him to retreat. The snow and wind, more ter- 
 
1789-1815.] NAPOLEON I. 261 
 
 rible than the Cossacks, wrap his famished army in their winding-sheet. 
 Only the phantom escapes the icy grasp of the Russian winter. The 
 beaten conqueror gathers a new army of conscripts, but at Leipsic — 
 the battle of nations — is driven back, flees to France, and collects a 
 handful of men for the final struggle. Over a million of foes swarm 
 in on every side. He strikes now here, now there, and holds them 
 back, but makes a false move, the allies capture Paris ; he resigns. 
 The little island of Elba is all that is left him of the empire that 
 stretched from the Mediterranean to the Baltic. 
 
 Manners and Customs. — During the Reign of Terror the theatres 
 and places of amusement in Paris were kept open as usual and well 
 attended. The close of that bloody period was signalized by balls 
 called The Balls of the Victims, where they " danced to the memory of 
 the dead," only those being admitted who had lost relatives by the 
 guillotine, or had narrowly escaped it themselves. " After the 9th 
 Thermidor nothing was more common than for the accuser and the 
 accused, the executioner or the assassin and the daughter of the 
 murdered father to meet together in the same company. The most 
 ferocious men of the time waltzed with the niece of their old seigneur ; 
 their hands, still stained with the blood of her relations, would press 
 hers most affectionately. What they had been was all forgotten in 
 what they now were ; — the past was thrust aside in order to fly on the 
 wings of the present." (Secret Memoirs of the Empress Josephine.) 
 A favorite play in fashionable circles was Tlie Play of the Guillotine, in 
 which a light sliding fire-screen was made to fall on the neck of one 
 or more of the party in imitation of the terrible knife. Then they 
 all laughed and shouted, ' II n'etait que cela, rien que cela ! ' (It was 
 only that, nothing but that.) — The Reign of Terror was succeeded by a 
 reign of luxury. The middle classes, grown rich by speculations in 
 the spoils of a crushed aristocracy and in the necessities of the army, 
 brought out their long-concealed gains, and plunged into an excess of 
 dissipation. Apartments were furnished in gorgeous style, and the 
 prices of articles of luxury rose enormously. " Brilliant soirees, ele- 
 gant supper parties, balls, theatres, cards and excitements of every 
 kind effaced the horrors that had gone before. To the red caps, the 
 rags and the sabots of the revolutionists, succeeded the graceful cos- 
 tumes of classic antiquity. Beautiful citizenesses put into requisition 
 the glittering fillets, the scarlet and amber tunics and the fairy sandals 
 of the maids of ancient Greece. The men plaited their hair upon 
 their temples, and confined it at the back with a comb, carried bou- 
 quets at their button-holes, wore two watches, affected cloths and 
 linens of the finest quality, and called themselves the Golden Youth 
 of France." — (Miss Edwards.) With the consulate, new styles and 
 fashions came in, and republican deformities were gradually wiped 
 
262 REVOLT TIONAEY FRANCE. [1789-1815. 
 
 out. Classic names and costumes disappeared, and everything assumed 
 a military hue in honor of the new power who moulded all things to 
 his will. As to Napoleon, nothing seemed beneath his notice. His 
 criticisms extended to the color of a livery, or the cut of a court-dress. 
 He revived the use of silk stockings and reestablished the opera balls. 
 In matters of etiquette he was very punctilious. Having caused an 
 exact account to be drawn up of all the ceremonies which were in use 
 at the courts of Louis XV. and XVI., he commanded their scrupulous 
 observance. In his promotions, however, he always regarded merit 
 rather than high birth. His court and camp blazed with commanders 
 who had risen from a humble station in life. There was Hoche, whose 
 father was an under-groom in the royal stables at Versailles, and who 
 received his first education from his aunt, a j)oor woman who kept a 
 fruit-stall ; he became minister-of-war and a central figure in fashion- 
 able favor. Murat's father was an innkeeper, and he, himself, a waiter 
 in a restaurant ; his brilliant feats of arms caused Napoleon to de- 
 signate him as his "right hand," and to give him for a bride his 
 sister Caroline. Kleber, the son of a garden laborer, was raised from 
 a private to be a general of division. Massena, once a ship-boy, died a 
 peer of France. Augereau was the son of a tradesman : he became 
 peer and marshal of France. — Josephine was not so severe in matters 
 of etiquette as the emperor. Her affability, grace and beauty charmed 
 every one. Her taste in dress was exquisite, and she led the luxurious 
 fashions of the new day. At the same time, she delighted in the sim- 
 ple pleasures of life. On her little farm at Malmaison she had a flock 
 of merino sheep of which she was especially fond. Under her care 
 this little retreat assumed a new creation. The choicest of flowers 
 and plants adorned her gardens, and such was her knowledge of 
 botany that when her gardener was at a loss for the name of a new or 
 rare flower, he went to her for information. — Napoleon's habits in eat- 
 ing and sleeping were peculiar. He rarely slept over two or three hours 
 at a time, taking his rest day or night, as most convenient. Fifteen or 
 twenty minutes at table was his limit, and when he rose, all his guests 
 must also rise and retire. Those who dined with him for the first time 
 were obliged to go hungry ; those who knew his habits, provided 
 themselves an extra meal accordingly. On the marriage of Prince 
 Eugene at Munich, two hundred guests were invited. The emperor's 
 table was in the shape of a horseshoe, and overlooked that of the 
 guests, illuminating it with the glitter of diamonds and splendid chan- 
 deliers. " It being a day of great pomp, Napoleon remained with his 
 guests a quarter of an hour, and then went to Josephine and gave 
 orders that the company should retire. The order was given before 
 the table was filled or napkins unfolded. The good Germans were 
 
1789-1815.] NAPOLEON I. 263 
 
 utterly surprised. They expected a splendid repast, but were com- 
 pelled to go and sup at home." (Secret Memoirs of Empress Josephine.) 
 
 References for Reading. 
 
 Alison's History of Europe— the French Revolution.— Freeman's Eistorical Course 
 —the French Revolution (The Appendix contains an excellent resume of reading on 
 this subject, by President White, which every student should examine).— Lamarline's 
 History of the Girondists.— Carlyle's, Mignet's, Macfarlane's, Redhead's, Michelet's, 
 Thiers' 1 s and Von SybeVs Histories of the French Revolution— Lanfrey 's History of 
 Napoleon. —Burke's Reflections on the French Revolution.— Lewis' 's Life of Robes- 
 pierre. — Adams's Democracy and Monarchy in, France (excellent and discriminating). 
 — Dickens's Tale of Two Cities (Fiction) .— Thiers' s Consulate and Empire.— Memoirs 
 of Madame Campan and of Madame Roland.— Erckmann-Chatrian's Blockade, 
 Conscript, Waterloo, &c. (Fiction). The Student's Hume's History of England, 
 pp. 691-2 (Description of the lines of Tories Vedras). — Creasy' s Decisive Battles 
 (Valmy).— Abbott's, HazliWs, Scott's and Jomini's Lives of Napoleon ; Goodrich's 
 Court of Napoleon.— Headley's Napoleon and his Generals.— Ireland's Anecdotes of 
 Napoleon.— Williams's Napoleon Dynasty.— Reeve's Royal and Republican France.— 
 Smyth's Lectures on the French Revolution— Faine's Rights ofMan.—Russel's Essay 
 on the Cause of the French Revolution.— Mackintosh's Defence of the French Revolu- 
 tion.— Le Plularque Frangais and Galerie Francaise.— Napier's Peninsular War — 
 Davies's Recollections of Society in France.— Challice's Illustrious Worn en of France- 
 Tales of the French Revolution.— Citoyenne Jacqueline or a Woman's Lot in the French 
 Revolution.— Madame Junot's (the Duchess D'Abrantes) Memoirs of Napoleon, his 
 Court and Family. 
 
 Events of the Revolution in Chronological Order. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 1739. Meeting of the States-General, May 5. National As- 
 sembly, June 17. Tennis-Court oath, June 20. Capture 
 of Bastille, July 14. Abolition of Feudal privileges, 
 August 4. Mob at Versailles, October 5-6 . . . 199-205 
 
 1790. Assignats issued, April 1. Fete of the Federation, 
 
 July 14 208 
 
 1791. Death of Mirabeau, April 2. Flight of Louis, June 20. 
 Legislative Assembly, October 1 , 207-8 
 
 1792. War against the Empire, April 25. Mob invades the 
 Tuileries, June 20. First Coalition against France. 
 Swiss Guards massacred, August 10. Prisoners mas- 
 sacred, September 2-6. Battle of Valmy, September 20. 
 The Convention, and the Republic declared, September 
 
 21. Battle of Jemmapes, November 6 . . . . 209-13 
 
 1793. Execution of Louis XVI., January 21. Eevolutionary 
 Tribunal, March 10. Battle of Neerwinden, March 18. 
 Committee of Public Safety, May 27. Girondists over- 
 
264 [REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [1789-1815. 
 
 thrown, June 2. Reign of Terror. Assassination of 
 Marat, July 13. Uprising of La Vendee. Execution 
 of Marie Antoinette, October 16. Fall of Toulon, De- 
 cember 19 . . . 214-18 
 
 1794. Death, of Hebert, Cloots, and Danton, April 6. Robes- 
 pierre triumphant. Battle of Fleurus, June 28. Execu- 
 tion of Robespierre, July ^8 ..... . 218-19 
 
 1795. Battle of Nimeguen, January 11. Day of the Sections, 
 October 5 (13th Vendemiaire) 220 
 
 1796. The Directory. Battles of Lodi, May 10 ; Castiglione, 
 August 5 : Bassane, September 8 ; and Arcole, No- 
 vember 14 222-5 
 
 1797. Battle of Rivoli, January 14. Capitulation of Mantua, 
 February 2. Revolution of 18th Fructidor (September 4). 
 Treaty of Campo Formio, October 17 . . . 225-6 
 
 1798. Expedition to Egypt. Battle of Pyramids, July 21. 
 French fleet destroyed, August 1. Siege of Acre. 
 Battle of Mt. Tabor, April 16. Revolution, 22d Floreal 
 
 (May 11). Battle of Aboukir, July 11 .... 226-30 
 
 1799. Revolution of 18th Brumaire (November 9). The Con- 
 sulate 232-5 
 
 1800. Battle of Marengo, June 14. Battle of Hohenlinden, 
 December 2 235-7 
 
 1801. Treaty of Luneville, February 9. Concordat signed, 
 
 July 15 238 
 
 1802. Treaty of Amiens, March 27. Legion of Honor estab- 
 lished, May 19. Napoleon consul for life, August 2 . 238-40 
 
 1803. Code Napoleon promulgated, March 21 ... 239 
 
 1804. Execution of Duke d'Enghien, March 21. The Empire. 
 Napoleon proclaimed emperor, May 18 .... 241 
 
 1805. Surrender of Ulm, October 20. Battle of Trafalgar, 
 October 21. Battle of Austerlitz, December 2. Treaty 
 
 of Presburg, December 26 ...... 243 
 
 1806. Battles of Jena and Auerstadt, October 14. Berlin 
 Decrees, November 21 244-5 
 
 1807. Battles of Eylau, February 8 ; and Friedland, June 14. 
 Peace of Tilsit, July 7. Invasion of Portugal . . 245 
 
 1808. War in Spain. Battle of Vimeira ; August 21 . . . 246-7 
 
 1809. Death of Moore, January 16. Battles of Aspern, May 
 
 20 ; Wagram, July 6 ; and of Talavera, July 28 . . 247-8 
 
 1810. Marriage with Marie Louise, April 2. English retreat 
 
 to lines of Torres Vedras, October 9 .... 250 
 
 1811. Battle of Albuera, May 16 250 
 
1789-1815.] NAPOLEON I. 265 
 
 1812. Invasion of Russia. Battles of Salamanca, July 22 ; 
 Borodino, September 7. Moscow taken, September 15. 
 Retreat began, October 10 253-5 
 
 1813. Battles of Liitzen, May 2 ; Bautzen, May 20-1 ; Vittoria, 
 June 21; Dresden, August 26-7; and Leipsic, October 
 
 16-18 255 
 
 1814. Invasion of France. Capture of Paris, March 30. Ab- 
 dication of Napoleon, April 11 257-9 
 
 distinguished Names of the First Half of the 
 Nineteenth Cent my. 
 
 Guizot (1788-1875), a philosophical historian and a politician of the highest rank. 
 His best known work is the " History of Civilization in Europe.'" 
 
 Madame de Siael (1766-1817), daughter of Neckar, centre of a circle composed 
 of the ablest scholars of her day ; wrote " Corinna " and " Germany." 
 
 Chateaubriand (1768-1848), a skeptic who, touched by his dying mother's pray- 
 ers " wept and then believed." Visited America in 1791, and dining with Washing- 
 ton said he felt " warmed and refreshed by it the rest of his life." His great works 
 are "The Genius of Christianity," " Atala Rene," and " Martyrs." 
 
 Zamartine (1790-1869), a poet, historian and politician, and excelled as each. 
 "History of the Girondists," and "History of the French Revolution." 
 
 Mignei, Thiers, Thierry, Sismondi, Michelel, and Martin are standard 
 historians of France. 
 
 Cousin (1792-1867) a metaphysician, author of " The True, the Beautiful, and 
 the Good." 
 
 virago (1786-1853), a philosopher who did much to popularize science. With 
 Gay-Lussac founded the " Annales de Chiniie et de Physique." 
 
 Gay-Zussac (1778-1850), with Biot made the first balloon ascension for scientific 
 purposes : proved that the air at a great height has the same composition as at the 
 surface of the earth ; and discovered the law by which gases expand uniformly by 
 an increase of temperature. 
 
 Fresnel (1788-1827), a physical optician of great renown, invented a system of 
 light-house lamp-lenses called by his name. 
 
 Hugo (1802 ), a poet and a novelist. His " Les Miserables " and " The 
 
 Toilers of the Sea " are most popular. 
 
266 EEVOLUTIONAEY FRANCE. [1814. 
 
 II, THE RESTORATION. 
 
 1814 to 1821 = 7 Years. 
 
 Louis XVIII., brother of Louis XVI., set out from his 
 residence near London, to take possession of the throne of 
 his ancestors, on the same day that Napoleon bade adieu to 
 Fontainebleau. He entered Paris* amid the acclamations 
 of the royalists, while the masses looked on in wondering 
 silence. By the treaty of Paris, France resumed very nearly 
 the old boundaries of 1792. A constitution was granted, 
 making the government very like that of Great Britain. It 
 provided for a king, a cabinet of ministers, chambers of peers 
 and deputies elected by duly qualified voters — freedom of 
 the press, liberty of conscience, and equality of taxation. 
 The new monarch, bulky of figure, tormented by the gout,f 
 and feeble with age, was unable to carry out his own well- 
 intentioned measures. In his weakness he only wished for 
 rest and quiet. The government was therefore largely con- 
 trolled by his brother, the Count d'Artois,J who ignored all 
 the convulsions of the Revolution, and aimed to restore the 
 good old times. 
 
 The Bourbons during their exile had "learned nothing, 
 forgotten nothing." Louis declared himself king by divine 
 right ; signed his ordinances after the formula of Louis XIV., 
 " for such is our good pleasure ; " abolished the tricolor and 
 replaced the white cockade ; dated his charter in 1814 as the 
 nineteenth year of his reign, and declared that he bestowed 
 
 * By his side sat the Duchess of Angouleme, daughter of Louis XVI., and so long 
 a prisoner in the Temple. In their route, they passed along the same avenue 
 through which her mother had been borne to the scaffold. 
 
 t Like all the Bourbons, he was given to tbe pleasures of the table. He had to be 
 borne to his carriage, and was unable to mount his horse. 
 
 X The Count of Artois was the first to leave France on the breaking out of the 
 revolution, and the first to return. 
 
1814.] LOUIS XVIII. 267' 
 
 it of his royal will, rather than accepted it as the condition 
 of his restoration. The emigrants, who now flocked back, 
 clamored loudly for their old lands, which had been bought 
 and sold many times since their confiscation. The noblesse 
 talked of reclaiming their feudal rights, and looked with 
 insolent contempt upon the upstarts who had followed the 
 fortunes of the Corsican adventurer.* No wonder that 
 people's thoughts began again to turn toward Napoleon. f 
 
 The Hundred Days (March 20 to June 22, 1815).— 
 Napoleon, from "his island speck in the Mediterranean," 
 watched the growing discontent, and resolved to return to 
 France. Embarking with about one thousand men, he 
 escaped the English cruisers, and landed near Cannes. 
 At Grenoble he met a body of troops drawn up to bar 
 his advance. The leader refused to parley and threatened 
 to fire upon him. Wearing his familiar gray coat and 
 cocked hat, Napoleon advanced alone in front of the line 
 exclaiming, "Soldiers, if there be one among yon, who 
 would kill his emperor, here he is." The soldiers dropped 
 their arms and shouted, "Vive T Empereiir ! " Colonel 
 Labedoyere joined him with his regiment. Each soldier 
 took from the bottom of his knapsack the tricolor cockade, 
 which he had carefully hidden for ten months. Ney was 
 sent with a division to check the advance. He promised "to 
 bring back, the Corsican to Paris in an iron cage." But 
 when he saw the colors under which he had fought, and 
 heard the shouts of the men he had so often led to battle, he 
 forgot all, threw himself in the arms of the emperor, and 
 
 * "Fourteen thousand officers who had worn their epaulettes in the face of the 
 enemy, were replaced by men who had never borne the sword, and who prated of 
 the white plume of Henry of Navarre to men who had carried the eagles into every 
 great capital of the continent.'" 
 
 t "Corporal Violet, as they called him. Ladies Avore violets in their bonnets. 
 Little sketches were circulated in which the figure of a violet was so arranged that 
 the interval between the leaves formed the well-known countenance of the emperor, 
 with his gray coat and cocked hat. 11 — White. 
 
268 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [1815. 
 
 was again the "sword of France," and the right arm of 
 Napoleon. The emigrant noblesse made no pause, but 
 rushed off to resume " their scissors and dancing kit in their 
 ancient haunts." Louis XVIII. fled incontinently. Napo- 
 leon was reseated on the throne without shedding a drop of 
 French blood. 
 
 The Commissioners of the allied powers were at Vienna 
 arranging a general peace when they heard of the return of 
 Napoleon. They received the news with incredulity and 
 then with roars of laughter. The former coalition was 
 renewed, and their armies, a million strong, were sent back 
 this time to subdue France as well as Napoleon. 
 
 Battles of Ligny and Quatre Bras. — By the most 
 strenuous exertions Napoleon was able to take the field at the 
 head of about 125,000 men. With these he hastened north- 
 ward to Belgium in order to defeat the English and Prus- 
 sians before the Austrians and Eussians could arrive from^the 
 Rhine. Finding the Prussians* drawn up at Ligny, Napoleon 
 determined to attack them in person, while Ney took posses- 
 sion of Quatre Bras, kept the English from sending reinforce- 
 ments to Blucher (bloo'ker), and then falling upon the rear 
 of the Prussians made of Ligny a second Jena. Napoleon 
 forced the Prussians to retreat ; but Ney found Quatre Bras 
 already occupied by the English, whom he failed to drive out. 
 Napoleon, thinking the English and Prussians fairly sepa- 
 rated, detached Grouchy with 34,000 men to watch Blucher, 
 while he turned to attack the English at Waterloo, where 
 Wellington had retired to a battle-field, which he had care- 
 fully selected. 
 
 Battle of Waterloo (June 18). — The two greatest 
 
 * He expected to surprise the Prussians, but General Bourmont deserted and in- 
 formed Blucher of all his plans, who therefore had time to concentrate his forces. 
 Fouche also, who had in turn served each administration, and was a traitor to each, 
 it is said, kept Wellington posted as to the plan of the campaign. 
 
1815.] NAPOLEOK I. 269 
 
 generals of Europe were now opposed for the first time. 
 Each had about 75,000 men. Napoleon opened the battle 
 with a feigned but fierce attack on the chateau of Hougou- 
 mont with its little garden and orchard on the British right. 
 Then, under cover of a tremendous artillery-fire, he massed 
 a heavy column against the centre. La Haye Sainte — a farm- 
 house in front of Wellington's line — was taken, and the 
 cavalry streamed up the heights beyond. The English threw 
 themselves into squares, upon which the French cuirasseurs 
 dashed with the utmost fury. For five hours they continued 
 charging up to the very muzzles of the British guns. Eng- 
 lish tenacity struggled with French enthusiasm. At last 
 disorder spread through Wellington's ranks. Already fugi- 
 tives from the battle-field had carried to Brussels the news of 
 a defeat. Wellington himself, momentarily consulting his 
 watch, longed, it is said, for night or Bliicher. Napoleon, 
 equally anxious, hurried messenger after messenger to recall 
 Grouchy to his help. Meanwhile the Prussians, eluding 
 Grouchy, had pounded away for hours on the French right, 
 distracting Napoleon's attention, and weakening his reserves. 
 Just at evening their efforts slacking, Ney with the Old and 
 Young Guards made a last effort. These veterans, whose 
 presence had decided so many battles, swept to the very top 
 of the slope. Wellington, turning to the British Guards who 
 were lying down behind the crest, exclaimed, " Up and at 
 them!" They rose and poured in a withering fire. The 
 English converged from all sides. Suddenly a fierce can- 
 nonading was heard on the extreme French right. " It is 
 Grouchy," cried the soldiers. It was Bluchers masses carrying 
 all before them. The terrible " sauve qui pent " arose. Whole 
 ranks of the French melted away. "They are mingled," 
 shouted Napoleon, and putting spurs to his horse, fled from 
 the field. A few squares of the Old Guard fought despair- 
 
270 
 
 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 
 
 [1815. 
 
 ingly, refused to yield, and cried out, "The Old Guard dies, 
 but never surrenders." Ney, with his clothes torn by bullets, 
 tried to rally the fugitives, saying, "Follow me, that I may 
 show you how dies a Marshal of France." But these efforts 
 were vain. On this fearful day the French lost 30,000 men, 
 and of the survivors few ever appeared in arms again. The 
 retreat was as destructive as that of Moscow or Leipsic. The 
 campaign of four days- was ended. 
 
 Second Abdication. — "I see," said La Fayette, "only 
 one man between us and peace. We have done enough for 
 
 him. It is necessary 
 to save France." Na- 
 poleon, abdicating the 
 throne once more, went 
 to Rochefort, intend- 
 ing to embark for the 
 United States ; but 
 finding every harbor 
 guarded, went on board 
 the English ship Belle- 
 rophon, and cast him- 
 self on British hospi- 
 tality. The government treated him as a prisoner of war, 
 and sent him to the Island of St. Helena, where he dragged 
 out the remainder of his life * in recalling the glories of the 
 past, and complaining of the annoyances of the present. 
 
 TOMB OF NAPOLEON AT £T. HELENA. (1830.) 
 
 * Napoleon died of a cancer in the stomach, a disease hereditary in his family, and 
 from which he had long suffered. On the evening of May 5, 1821, there was a fearful 
 storm of wind and rain raging, in the midst of which, as in the case of Cromwell, the 
 soul of the conqueror went to its final account. The howling of the tempest seemed 
 to recall to his wandering mind the roar of hattle, and his last words were u Tete 
 d' armee." Ho was buried near a fountain shaded by a few weeping willows, which 
 had been his favorite resort. In his will was a request Chat his " body might repose 
 on the banks of the Seine, among the people he had loved so well." In the reign of 
 Louis Philippe his remains were carried to Paris and laid beneath a magnificent 
 mausoleum connected with the Hotel des Invalidcs. 
 
1815.] LOUIS XVIII. 271 
 
 Second Restoration. — Again were the Bourbons forced 
 upon the French by the bayonets of foreign armies. Paris 
 was treated as a conquered city. Louis XVIII. returned to 
 the Tuileries with his hungry herd of satellites and nobles. 
 Bliicher was with difficulty prevented from blowing up the 
 Pont de Jena and destroying the column in the Place Ven- 
 dome. The treasures of art which Napoleon had gathered 
 from the conquered cities of Europe were returned to 
 their rightful owners. An indemnity of 700 millions francs 
 was imposed, besides damages for the occupation of the 
 territories of the allies by French armies. A foreign army 
 of 150,000 men was to guard the frontier for five years at 
 the expense of France. A territory containing a population 
 of two and a half millions was cut off, so that France, 
 after twenty-five years of victories, was left smaller than it 
 was at the close of the reign of Louis XIV. Marshal Ney 
 and General Labedoyere were tried for treason and shot. 
 
 Royalist Reaction. — Louis, with his able minister, M. 
 Decazes, endeavored to support moderate and constitutional 
 men and measures, against the "Liberals" on the one hand, 
 and the " Ultra-royalists " on the other. Unfortunately, the 
 Duke de Berri, the younger son of the Count d' Artois, w T as 
 assassinated (1820) as he was conducting his wife to her car- 
 riage from the opera. The Liberals, though with no reason, 
 were held responsible for this attempt to destroy the Bourbon 
 line. Decazes was removed, and power fell into the hands of 
 the Ultra-royalists. Individual liberty was suspended; the 
 censorship of the press re-established; and the law of the 
 " double vote " * enacted. The death of Louis, who was per- 
 
 * The electors of each arrondisement or district were to nominate a list of candi- 
 dates, from which the electors of the department— which included only the highest 
 tax-payers— were to select the members of (he Legislature. This gave the rich land- 
 holders two votes, one in their arrondisement with the other electors— afterward, one 
 in their department. 
 
272 
 
 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 
 
 [1822. 
 
 sonally moderate, assured the triumph of these measures. 
 The dying monarch committed the charter to his successors 
 as the best inheritance he could leave. 
 
 The Holy Alliance (1822). — The sovereigns of Eussia, 
 Austria, and Prussia, after their triumph in 1815, formed a 
 compact, agreeing " to regulate their conduct by the precepts 
 of the Gospel," and also, as is generally believed, to aid one 
 another in suppressing the principles of liberty aroused by 
 the French Eevolution. At this time, the misgovernment of 
 the restored Bourbon dynasty in Italy and Spain was so 
 flagrant, that insurrections had broken out in both kingdoms. 
 A secret society, termed the Carbonari, numbered 500,000 
 members in Italy alone, with branches in various other coun- 
 tries. * Ferdinand of Spain was forced to banish the Jesuits, 
 to suppress the Inquisition, and to grant a free press and a 
 liberal constitution. An Austrian army overthrew the repub- 
 lican movement in Italy. Louis, in the last year of his reign, 
 
 sent troops into Spain to restore 
 Ferdinand to power. This was 
 a conquest without glory or 
 profit. The Spanish monarch 
 at once cruelly wreaked . his 
 vengeance on his subjects. In 
 France, this easy victory over 
 free institutions encouraged the 
 royalists in all their pretensions. 
 Charles X. (1824 to 1830 
 =6 years), Count d'Artois and 
 brother of Louis XVI. and 
 Louis XVIIL, who now ascend- 
 ed the throne, was crowned in 
 the great cathedral at Kheims 
 after the minutest detail of the old times ; even the miracu- 
 
 CATHEDRAL AT RHEIMS. 
 
1824.] CHARLES X. 273 
 
 lous vial, broken during the Kevolutionary days, was repaired, 
 and a drop of the oil being discovered, he was anointed 
 seven times. This ceremony was typical of his. purpose. 
 He was bent on restoring the old monarchy, with all its 
 rights and privileges. 
 
 Expedition to (3-reece (1827). — The Greeks had long 
 been struggling heroically to throw off the Turkish yoke. 
 France, England, and Eussia sent a joint naval squadron to 
 their assistance. In the battle of Navarino, the Turkish fleet 
 was destroyed. A French army then retook the cities occu- 
 pied by the Ottoman troops, and restored to the Greeks their 
 lost independence. 
 
 Expedition to Algiers (1830). A series of insults and 
 injuries having been received from the Dcy of Algiers, an 
 expedition was sent to obtain redress by force of arms. The 
 camp of the enemy was taken, the city captured, and this 
 nest of pirates destroyed. Algiers has since remained a per- 
 manent colony of France. 
 
 Revolution of 1830. — Foreign successes could not blind 
 the people to the danger of despotism at home. Step by step 
 the struggle went on between the king, determined on an 
 absolute government, and the liberals, resolved on preserving 
 the rights conquered by the Eevolution. Finally, as if to 
 defy France, he dismissed the moderate cabinet of M. de Mar- 
 tignac, and replaced it by the ministry of M. de Polignac.* 
 It was a declaration of war against the charter and liberty 
 itself. The contest widened into one between the nation and 
 the Bourbon monarchy. Intense excitement was aroused. 
 The chambers voted that the new ministrv had not the con- 
 
 * This cabinet contained as ministers three of his most devoted adherents, Polig- 
 nac, Labourdonnaye, and Bourmont. They were personally obnoxious to the people. 
 The first was an emigrant, and represented all the rancor, bitterness, and bigotry of 
 that class. The second had been prominent in the proscription and bloodshed of the 
 2d Restoration. The third had deserted on the ere of Waterloo. (See p. 268.) 
 
274 
 
 REVOLUTIONARY. FRANCE. 
 
 [1830. 
 
 fidence of the country, diaries stood by Iris cabinet.* The 
 chamber was dissolved. The obnoxious deputies, however, 
 were returned. Charles now decided on a coup cVetat. A 
 series of arbitrary ordinances was issued, suppressing the 
 liberty of the press, dissolving the recently elected chambers, 
 and prescribing a new system of elections. 
 
 The Three Pays of July (27, 
 28 and 29) was the response of the 
 people to this flagrant usurpation. 
 Barricades arose as by magic. La 
 Fayette once more appeared on the 
 scene, waving the tricolored flag. 
 The whole population of Paris be- 
 
 |ir came an army; each house a for- 
 
 tress. Bloody contests ensued. The 
 troops after a time fraternized with 
 the populace. f The Tuileries was 
 sacked. Charles was forced to flee.J; 
 The chambers called the Duke of 
 Orleans, son of Egalite and cousin 
 of Charles X., to the throne. 
 
 COLUMN OF JULY § 
 
 * "No compromise, no sin-render," was his motto. He kept saying, "Louis XVI. 
 lost his throne by concessions, and was led to the scaffold for having always yielded." 
 
 t It is stated as characteristic of the temper of the people that on the 29th a body 
 of men carried off a quantity of timber from the lumber yard of an English architect, 
 to make barricades, and on the following day returned it with scrupulous honesty. 
 
 + It is a singular fact, and significant of the utter lack of political foresight on the 
 part of the Bourbons, that Louis XVI. was out hunting at Meuden the day the mob 
 was gathering for the march on Versailles (October 5, 1789), and Charles X. was shoot- 
 ing rabbits at St. Cloud, while Paris was heaving with the preparatory throes of a 
 new Revolution (July 26, 1830). 
 
 § The Column of July, one of the most beautiful pieces of architecture of the kind 
 extant, was erected in 1840 by the French nation to the memory of the victims who 
 fell during the memorable three days of July 1830, and whose remains were deposited 
 beneath it. 
 
1830.] LOUIS PHILIPPE. 275 
 
 III.— HOUSE OF ORLEANS. 
 
 1830 to 1848 = 13 Years. 
 
 Louis Philippe was elected as "King of the French," 
 and therefore the leader of the nation. The charter of 
 Louis XVIII. was given of his own good pleasure, that* of 
 Louis Philippe was accepted by him from the Chamber of 
 Deputies. Thus France repudiated the doctrine of the 
 " divine right of kings," and founded a throne on the theory 
 that sovereignty rests with the people. The liberties gained 
 by the revolution were at last guaranteed by a constitutional 
 monarch. Shrewd, economic, with excellent business habits, 
 tried by adversity, having none of the arrogance of the elder 
 Bourbons, and irreproachable in private life, Louis Philippe's 
 character merited confidence. The remembrance of his 
 valor at Jemmapes and Valmy, his constant association 
 with liberal leaders, his charming family, the education given 
 his sons in the public schools, all conspired to render him 
 popular with the people. 
 
 Difficulties of the Government. — There were now 
 three parties in France: (1) the Legitimists, the adherents 
 of the elder branch of the Bourbons, who upheld the claims 
 of the Duke of Bordeaux, grandson of Charles X., better 
 known as Comte de Chambord, or Henry V. ; (2) the Eepub- 
 licans, eager for the establishment of a republic; (3) the 
 Orleanists, to which Louis Philippe belonged, who were firm 
 supporters of the constitutional monarchy. In the eyes of 
 the first, "the king of the barricades," as Louis Philippe 
 was styled, was a usurper, while the second considered him 
 a tyrant. There began to be developed also an intense 
 
 * " Behold," said La Fayette, as he presented the new king to the people, from 
 the Hotel de Villc, '• the best of republics. n 
 
276 R EVOLUTIONARY PRANCE. [1830. 
 
 hatred against the bourgeoisie or middle classes, of which 
 Louis Philippe was a representative. They were accused of 
 selfishness and a systematic robbing of the poor by not giving 
 them just returns for their labor. It was held that the gov- 
 ernment should protect the workingman, and assure him in 
 return for light labor a sufficient remuneration. This social- 
 istic doctrine was very acceptable to the idle and turbulent. 
 Various political associations and insurrectionary clubs fo- 
 mented the disorders of society, and took advantage of every 
 indication of popular discontent. Among the Eed or Eadical 
 Republicans there were several vigilant, energetic leaders, 
 who in secret organized and directed every movement of the 
 people. The favorite motto was, "Liberty, Equality, and 
 Fraternity." There was great distress among the workmen 
 who had been discharged by their employers on account of 
 the disturbance of business during the late revolution. Ob- 
 scure plots were continually being formed against the gov- 
 ernment. Lamentable riots took place in Paris and provin- 
 cial cities, which were only suppressed by military force and 
 after much loss of life. No less than seven different attempts 
 were made to assassinate the king.* Louis Philippe, in the 
 existing state of affairs, was exceedingly anxious to avoid 
 any cause of disturbance with the other European nations. 
 His conciliatory spirit and moderate temper gave great of- 
 fence to a people so ambitious of conquest and jealous of the 
 national honor. New complications constantly arose. The 
 
 * One of these has become historical. A miscreant named Fieschi devised an 
 "infernal machine," consisting of twenty-five musket barrels, diverging fan-like 
 from a centre, and made to be fired instantaneously by a train of gunpowder. As 
 the king was riding in a procession through the Boulevard du Temple on the anni- 
 versary of the Revolution (July 28, 1835), what seemed a volley of musketry suddenly 
 issued from a building near by. followed by the shrieks of the crowd. Louis Phi- 
 lippe escaped injury, but several persons were killed or wounded. The victims of 
 this tragedy were buried a few days after. The first of the funeral cars contained the 
 remains of Mortier, a marshal of the Empire, and the last, the body of a little girl 
 who had fallen as she stoo^ gazing on the glittering pageant. 
 
1830.] LOUIS PHILIPPE. 277 
 
 opposition to the government was watchful and powerful. 
 The reign was therefore characterized by frequent changes 
 of the ministry; the cabinet being organized no less than 
 seven times to meet the varying phases of public sentiment. 
 
 Belgium, by the convention of 1815, had been annexed to 
 Holland. The people of Brussels revolted against the Dutch 
 rule, raised the tricolor, and established a provisional govern- 
 ment. The five great powers of Europe acknowledged the 
 independence of the country. Though the Belgians offered 
 the throne to a son of Louis Philippe, the king wisely 
 refrained from thus exciting the jealousy of other nations. 
 Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, who was chosen king, after- 
 ward married the eldest daughter of the French monarch. 
 Supporting his authority, the French and English joined in 
 expelling the Dutch from Belgium. 
 
 The Quadruple Alliance (1840).— Mehemet Ali, vice- 
 roy of Egypt, a man of great ability and energy, having 
 aroused his own people from their lethargy, had raised a 
 powerful army, conquered Syria, . and threatened Constan- 
 tinople. The Sultan, too weak to defend himself, appealed 
 to the Western powers. France supported the viceroy's am- 
 bitious views. England, Austria, Prussia, and Russia there- 
 upon formed an alliance to compel the Pacha to resign the 
 territory he had conquered. France was not consulted in 
 the agreement. General indignation was felt at this slight. 
 A rupture with England seemed imminent. The work of 
 fortifying Paris, twice taken so easily by foreigners, was at 
 once commenced. Thiers (te-er), the minister of foreign 
 affairs, who was thought not sufficiently anxious to vindicate 
 French honor, was forced to resign. Meanwhile the treaty 
 had been executed, and the viceroy had agreed to its pro- 
 visions. Guizot, the new minister, acquiesced in the arrange- 
 ment. He was sustained by both chambers, and war was 
 
278 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [1845. 
 
 thus happily averted. The fortifications were continued, and 
 excited increased bitterness, as it was thought they were in- 
 tended not so much for a protection against foreign invaders, 
 as to overawe the city itself. 
 
 The Algerian Colony carried on a long and severe con- 
 test with the native Arabs, prominent among whom was 
 Abd-el Kader, a chief of great genius and power. In 1833 
 the French army numbered 25,000 men. Many bloody bat- 
 tles were fought, and, within five years, one hundred native 
 tribes had submitted. Eoads were opened, towns founded, 
 and a flourishing settlement established. Abd-el Kader, 
 driven from place to place, maintained an obstinate resistance, 
 until at last he retreated to a rocky fortress of the Great 
 Atlas. Here he was surprised and taken prisoner by the 
 chasseurs d'Afrique, under the Duke d'Aumale. The French 
 losses had been very great, owing to the unhealthiness of the 
 climate, and the continued warfare. Before the close of 1845, 
 the colony cost $200,000,000, and the lives of 300,000 men. 
 
 Louis Napoleon, the son of Louis Bonaparte and Hor- 
 tense Beauharnais, on the death of the Duke of Eeichstadt, 
 son of Napoleon I. (July 22d, 1832), was next heir of the 
 empire. In 1836 he came to Strasburg, and presented him- 
 self to the garrison, dressed in the costume of the emperor, 
 and called them to support his pretensions to the throne. 
 He met with little encouragement, and was arrested. Louis 
 Philippe declined to bring him to trial, and sent him to 
 America. The attempt merely excited general merriment. 
 Undiscouraged by his failure, he made a second equally 
 absurd descent upon Boulogne. He landed here with a few 
 friends and a tame eagle, expecting to arouse the memory of 
 Napoleon's conquering eagles. He was arrested, tried and 
 sentenced for life to the fortress of Ham, while the eagle was 
 turned over as a curiosity to the Zoological Gardens at Paris. 
 
1842.] LOUIS PHILIPPE. 279 
 
 Louis afterwards escaped and fled to England, where he 
 brooded over his "destiny," as he called it. 
 
 The popularity of the " citizen king " had been steadily 
 waning. Though possessing a fortune, he manifested an 
 intensely selfish spirit. While France w T as groaning under 
 the burden of taxation, he demanded for himself and court 
 an enormous salary, and donations for his sons on the slight- 
 est pretexts. The death of the Duke of Orleans, his eldest 
 son (July 13, 1842), was a heavy blow, and cast a cloud over 
 the future of the Orleans dynasty. The Prince was an able 
 general, a liberal politician, and a loyal man. All were look- 
 ing forward to his rule as most hopeful. The next heir to 
 the throne was the Count of Paris, only four years old, and 
 this gave the prospect of a long minority and a regency, with 
 their attendant dangers and perplexities. The anxiety of the 
 king to secure royal alliances for his family caused great scan- 
 dal. The " Spanish marriages " * were especially obnoxious. 
 
 Reform Banquets. — The memorable "laws of Septem- 
 ber" (1835) had placed the press under a severe censorship. 
 Out of a population of 35,000,000 only 220,000 had the right 
 of franchise. Nearly half the members of the Chamber of 
 Deputies held positions under the government. The oppo- 
 sition repeatedly demanded a few necessary reforms. The 
 ministry refused. Seventy reform banquets, as they were 
 called, were accordingly held in the principal cities. At 
 these, the leaders of the opposition met to express their views 
 in toasts and speeches. 
 
 Revolution of 1848. — A banquet announced at Paris 
 was forbidden by the government. Barricades sprang up. 
 Several conflicts took place with the soldiers. Meanwhile, a 
 
 * The Duke of Montpensier, fifth son of the king, was married to Isabella, Infanta 
 of Spain ; while the Spanish Queen Isabella was sacrificed to the selfish scheme by 
 being allied to a half idiotic cousin. The former marriage was in direct violation of 
 a distinct promise made by Guizot, then minister to the English Government, which 
 opposed the alliance. 
 
280 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [1848. 
 
 liberal ministry was nominated under the presidency of 
 Thiers. The people supposed the end was gained. But the 
 direction of the movement had passed out of the hands of 
 those who began it, into those of skillful conspirators and the 
 veterans of the barricades. A multitude bearing a red flag 
 were marched into the boulevards already crowded by the 
 people rejoicing over the change of ministry. They came in 
 front of the Hotel of Foreign Affairs, where they were stopped 
 by the troops. A pistol-shot was fired by — no one knows 
 whom. The soldiers responded with a volley which stretched 
 upon the pavement fifty inoffensive bystanders. The multi- 
 tude fled. The dead bodies were placed on wagons which 
 were already at hand for the purpose, and paraded through 
 the streets to arouse the populace. On all sides arose cries of 
 "vengeance." The bells pealed from every steeple. Armed 
 men went from house to house in the faubourgs, summoning 
 the inhabitants to arms. The National Guards fraternized 
 with the people. What was commenced as a reform, speedily 
 became a revolution. The regular army proved faithful, and 
 had already begun to put down the tumult, when the new 
 ministry ordered it to fall back to the Tuileries. All resist- 
 ance was at once paralyzed. Louis Philippe lost heart, and 
 while the firing was still going on at the Palais Eoyal, abdi- 
 cated in favor of his grandson, the Count of Paris. Soon 
 after, he escaped to England. The Duchess of Orleans, with a 
 heroism worthy of a better fate, went to the Chambers leading 
 her little son, the Count of Paris, and pleaded for his rights. 
 It was too late. The rabble burst into the hall and demanded 
 the republic. A provisional government was now formed, the 
 republic proclaimed (Feb. 20), universal suffrage declared, 
 and a National Assembly soon after elected. For days, Paris 
 was ruled by an armed mob. They filled the Place de Greve ; 
 they crowded the Hotel de Ville ; the wildest leveled their 
 
1818.] LOUIS NAPOLEOK. 281 
 
 bayonets upon Lamartine, the new Minister of Foreign Affairs. 
 But by his wonderful eloquence and undaunted firmness, he 
 at last restored order. 
 
 IV. THE SECOND REPUBLIC. 
 
 1843 to 1852 = 4 Years. 
 
 Difficulties of the Government. — The finances were 
 thoroughly disorganized. Thousands of laborers were idle. 
 The Socialists or Red Republicans constantly taught that the 
 government should provide work and wages for every one. 
 Anxious only for anarchy, they opposed every movement 
 looking to the establishment of a settled government. The 
 clubs, over fifty in number, were schools of sedition. To re- 
 lieve the present distress, national workshops were founded, 
 and soon 60,000 workmen were enrolled. Their chief em- 
 ployment was careering through the streets, roaring revolu- 
 tionary songs, proclaiming " Liberty, Fraternity, and Equal- 
 ity," and planting sorry-looking poplars along the streets, 
 which they compelled unwilling priests to consecrate as 
 " trees of liberty." Trade was paralyzed. Specie payments 
 ceased. The financial pressure was as severe as in the days 
 of Robespierre. Measures were finally taken to close the 
 national shops, which all saw to be a crying evil, and disperse 
 the workmen to legitimate employment. The Reds took 
 advantage of the opportunity, and organized an outbreak. 
 Three hundred barricades were thrown up. For three days 
 a fearful battle raged in the streets of Paris, General 
 Oavaignac was made Dictator. By his skill and energy the 
 insurgents were routed from their strongest positions. The 
 good Archbishop of Paris, anxious to save life, ventured be- 
 
282 KEVOLUTIONAEY FRANCE. [1848. 
 
 hind one of the barricades near the Bastille, and was killed 
 while exhorting the multitude to make peace. The insurrection 
 was finally suppressed, but not until 5,000 persons had fallen. 
 
 Louis Napoleon. — There were two candidates for the 
 presidency, General Cavaignac who was the saver of the 
 country from anarchy, and Louis Napoleon, who though 
 now a representative in the Assembly, was yet mainly known 
 by his strange adventure at Boulogne. There was magic, 
 however, in the name. Louis Napoleon was elected by an 
 overwhelming majority, and took the oath to the constitu- 
 tion (December 20, 1848). 
 
 A Coup d'Etat (December 2, 1851). — Before Napoleon's 
 term of office had expired, difficulties arose between him 
 and the Assembly. He quelled all opposition by his famous 
 Coup cVEtat. One evening, the president held a brilliant 
 party at the Elysee. He was in high spirits, laughing and 
 chatting with his guests. That night troops moved silently 
 to their posts. The members of the opposition, the street 
 captains and the leaders of the clubs were arrested in their 
 beds. In the morning, to the amazement of the people, the 
 street-corners were held by soldiers, and the walls were pla- 
 carded by proclamations announcing that the Assembly was 
 dissolved, universal suffrage proclaimed, and a ministry ap- 
 pointed. There were insurrections, but the army was 
 ready, and every rising was quelled with Napoleonic sever- 
 ity. The disaffected were summarily arrested, tried by 
 military tribunals, and transported. France, tired of the 
 rule of the mob, welcomed an authority which promised 
 peace and security. The attempt to reconcile liberty with 
 order had again failed, and the people gave up the former 
 to gain the latter. A new constitution which made Napo- 
 leon president for ten years was accepted by a popular vote 
 of over 7,000,000 out of 8,000,000. 
 
1852.] 
 
 LOUIS NAPOLEON, 
 
 283 
 
 Establishment of the Empire.— The prisoner of Ham 
 now took up his residence in the Tuileries with almost 
 absolute power and a salary of 12,000,000 francs. As the 
 constitution of the year VIII. led to the establishment of 
 the Empire under Napoleon I., so the regime inaugurated 
 
 PROCLAIMING THE COUP D ETAT. 
 
 by the coup d'etat of '5.1, was fol- 
 lowed by the restoration of the em- 
 pire under Napoleon III. In 1852, 
 Louis Napoleon was declared Em- 
 peror by a still more unanimous 
 vote than that which sanctioned his 
 violent overthrow of the republic 
 
 he had sworn to maintain. Soon after his accession to 
 the throne, he married Eugenie de Montijo, Countess of 
 Teba, a Spanish lady of beauty and ancient family. 
 
284 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [1852. 
 
 V. THE SECOND EMPIRE. 
 
 1852 to 1370 = 13 Years. 
 
 Napoleon III. — The policy of the emperor was closely 
 modeled on that of Napoleon I. He relied on the army 
 for support, and centralized all power. Under his vigorous 
 and able administration a new era of glory opened before 
 France. "The Empire is peace/' was proclaimed as the 
 imperial maxim. The nation set itself at work to develop 
 its latent energies and wealth. Fresh industries were 
 opened. Railroads were extended over the country. Val- 
 uable reforms w r ere instituted. The army was reorganized, 
 and became the finest in the world. The navy was in- 
 creased, and made second only to that of England. Agri- 
 culture was encouraged. The fine arts received a wonder- 
 ful development. Paris was almost rebuilt under the plans 
 of M. Haussmann. Provincial cities followed the example of 
 widening the narrow streets, and admitting into the lowest 
 quarters the great friends to health — the sun and the air. 
 The confidence of the people in the government was shown 
 by the method of raising money. Instead of resorting to 
 the large capitalists, a subscription was opened and preference 
 given to those offering the smallest sums. Many times the 
 amount required was signed before the lists could be closed. 
 The emperor's lavish expenditure thus became a source of 
 gain to the peasants and persons of small means by afford- 
 ing them a safe and lucrative investment for their savings. 
 The French became a nation of investors, and the creditors 
 of the government were to be found among the industrious 
 rather than the moneyed classes. 
 
 Crimean War (1854-6). — While Napoleon sought to 
 develop the prosperity of the nation, he was also bent upon 
 
1854.] NAPOLEON III. 285 
 
 restoring France to the political 'situation she had lost by 
 the reverses of 1815, and making her influence felt in all 
 parts of the world. The Emperor Nicholas of Eussia, 
 anxious to seize the spoil of the <* sick man/*' as the Sultan 
 of Turkey was called, under the pretext of supporting the 
 claims of the Greek Christians to certain holy places in 
 Jerusalem, took possession of some provinces on the Danube. 
 France and England united to aid the Sultan.* An allied 
 army 70,000 strong, was landed in» the Crimea. The vic- 
 tory of the Alma enabled the troops to advance upon Sebas- 
 topol, a formidable fortress which gave the Czar the com- 
 mand of the Black Sea, and in whose harbor lay the fleet 
 which menaced Constantinople and the Bosphorus. This 
 remarkable siege lasted nearly a year. Innumerable com- 
 bats, two desperate battles — Balaklava and Inkermann — 
 incessant watchfulness by day and night, the fatiguing labor 
 of the trenches, the unhealthiness of the climate, tried the 
 valor of the French and the constancy of the English. 
 Finally the French stormed the Malakhoff, and the Eussians, 
 finding the city indefensible, evacuated it. Forts, churches, 
 palaces and vessels, all were destroyed. When the con- 
 querors entered they found such ruin, flame, and devastation 
 as greeted Napoleon and his army in the streets of Moscow. 
 By the treaty of Paris (1856) the Czar agreed to abandon his 
 protectorate over the Danubian provinces; the navigation 
 of the Danube was made free; and the Eussians were for- 
 bidden to have vessels of war on the Black Sea. France 
 obtained no substantial benefit from a war on which she had 
 lavished her army and treasure. 
 War of Italy (1859). — In the Crimean war, Victor 
 
 * There is a beautiful description of the causes of this war in Kinglake's Invasion 
 of the Crimea, ending thus, " A crowd of monks with hare foreheads stood quarrel- 
 ing for a key at the sunny gates of a church in Palestine ; hut beyond and above all, 
 towering high in the, misty north, men saw the ambition of the Czar. 1 ' 
 
286 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [1859. 
 
 Emmanuel II., king of Sardinia, had furnished 15,000 troops. 
 This welcome support had secured him the friendship of the 
 allied powers. The predominance of Austria in Italy had 
 long awakened the jealousy of France, and when, despite the 
 efforts of England, the Austrians invaded Sardinia, Napoleon 
 at once took the field. A success at MonteMlo* and a 
 brilliant victory at Magenta brought him to Milan in tri- 
 umph. Thence, pushing on to Solferino, he again routed 
 the Austrians. The mysterious Peace of Villafranca sud- 
 denly concluded the war. Lombardy was ceded to Sardinia, 
 and the different States of the Peninsula were to form a Con- 
 federation under the presidency of the Pope. Soon after, 
 Nice and Savoy were annexed to France. This treaty 
 greatly disappointed the Italians and the friends of liberty 
 everywhere, as on taking the field, the emperor had promised 
 that " Italy should be free from the Ticino to the Adriatic."! 
 Napoleon, however, hesitated to proceed further against 
 Austria, and Prussia threatened to interfere. 
 
 War in Mexico (1862). — In 1862 France, England, and 
 Spain sent an expedition into Mexico to obtain redress for 
 injuries suffered by foreign residents in that country, and 
 also to induce the people to elect a ruler and put an end to 
 the anarchy which had so long distracted the nation. Diffi- 
 culties arose, and the Spaniards and the English abandoned 
 the enterprise. The French thereupon advanced inland, and 
 
 * Here was seen a novelty in the art of war. The troops were rapidly brought on 
 the field of battle by railroad, train after train disgorging its load and returning 
 for more. 
 
 + Now began the wonderful campaign of Garibaldi, the "hero of the red shirt. 11 
 which gave liberty to Naples and Sicily. Victor Emmanuel steadily pursued his 
 successes until (1861) he became king of Italy. When Napoleon was president, he 
 sent a body of troops to Rome to the support of th© Pope, and to overcome the 
 republic which had been set up in that city. A French garrison remained in Rome 
 until the war between France and Germany (1870) caused the troops to be with- 
 drawn, when Rome was taken, the temporal power of the Pope overcome, and Italy 
 became free and united. 
 
1867.] NAPOLEON III. 287 
 
 after many reverses succeeded in taking the city of Mexico. 
 Refusing to treat with the liberal government under Juarez, 
 the French commander called an assembly, which decided 
 that Mexico should be an empire, and tendered the throne 
 to Archduke Maximilian of Austria. He accepted on certain 
 conditions, one of which was that the call should be a spon- 
 taneous expression of the whole nation. After his accession, 
 the new emperor found that he had been deceived in every 
 particular, that the republican feeling was strong, that the 
 empire was not demanded, least of all the rule of a European 
 and the interference of a foreign power in American affairs. 
 The French troops being withdrawn (1867), Maximilian was 
 unable to maintain his authority against Juarez. He was 
 captured, tried by court martial and executed. With him 
 fell the empire. 
 
 World's Fair. — In the year 1867, a grand exhibition of 
 the industry of the world was held at Paris. It attracted 
 great numbers of distinguished visitors from all countries. 
 All were impressed with the evidences of a wonderful mate- 
 rial prosperity. France and the Empire seemed at the height 
 of their glory. Under the emperor, the French at home ap- 
 peared happy and prosperous, and abroad their influence was 
 felt, and their power respected.* 
 
 Dangers of the Government.— Amid all this prosperity 
 there were grave causes for fear. Liberty had been sacrificed. 
 The people had no intelligent ideas of government. There 
 was no effective system of popular education, and the masses 
 were grossly ignorant. Despotic power was vested in one 
 man. Prefects interfered in the elections. Prosecutions of 
 
 * In conjunction with England, it had given security to the Turks, and gained 
 admission for French commerce into China and Japan. It had aided the Italians in 
 throwing off the Austrian yoke, and protected the Christians of Syria against their 
 Mohammedan oppressors. 
 
288 REVOLUTIONARY PRANCE. [18T0. 
 
 journals were common. Public meetings were so restricted, 
 as to be of little value ; and the police were invoked if any 
 measure was taken which was susceptible of a political mean- 
 ing. Legitimists, Orleanists, Republicans, and Socialists were 
 resolute in their hostility. Many had not forgiven the em- 
 peror for his coup d'etat of December 2d. The health of 
 Napoleon was failing, and his policy was said to lack its 
 former vigor. The debt was increasing. The lavish expense 
 on the improvements of Paris excited bitter opposition. The 
 Mexican expedition was a failure, and sympathy for Maxi- 
 milian was openly expressed. The French garrison at Borne 
 for the protection of the Pope offended the anti-Catholic 
 party. Events showed that the Empire was in its deca- 
 dence. 
 
 Attempt at Reform. — In fulfilment of his often-repeated 
 promises, Napoleon began the task of reforming the govern- 
 ment, so as to make it more liberal. He accordingly granted 
 a constitution, a popularly elected assembly, and a respon- 
 sible ministry. To ratify this, as well as the imperial rule, 
 an appeal was made to the people. The measures were 
 accepted by an overwhelming majority, though the large 
 cities were generally adverse, and over 50,000 opposing votes 
 were cast in the army. The latter was most alarming, as 
 here the emperor had looked for unfaltering support. 
 
 War with Germany (1870-1). For some time there 
 had been a bitter feeling between France and Prussia. The 
 latter was rapidly increasing in territory and military strength. 
 This aroused the jealousy of the French, so proud of their 
 martial power, and their pre-eminence in Europe. The Prus- 
 sians were anxious to avenge the disgrace of Jena, recover the 
 Rhine, and consolidate the petty German States into one grand 
 empire with Prussia at its head. Both sides were in reality 
 anxious for a war, and were only waiting for a pretext. It 
 
1870.] NAPOLEON III. 289 
 
 soon appeared. Among the candidates for the vacant throne 
 of Spain was Prince Hohenzollern. France protested against 
 this extension of Prussian influence. The prince, to preserve 
 the peace, withdrew his claim. This seemed to end the mat- 
 ter, but France demanded assurances from King William of 
 Prussia that he would not support such a claim thereafter. 
 The refusal was construed into an insult, and war was 
 declared. 
 
 Preparation. — The Minister of War announced to Napo- 
 leon that the army was in readiness, and it was currently 
 believed in Paris that not even a shoebuckle would be 
 needed for a year. The result proved that the French were 
 entirely unprepared. The troops left Paris to the cry of 
 " On to Berlin ! " but they never crossed the Ehine. Instead 
 of an invasion of Germany by the French, the war became an 
 invasion of France by the Germans. The emperor lost two 
 weeks in taking the field. He had then but 240,000 men. 
 The army seemed to have no head. Lacking unity, the dif- 
 ferent corps were beaten in detail. The troops had no respect 
 for their officers, and lacked discipline and confidence. The 
 generals were ignorant of the country and of the position of 
 the enemy. The maps were full of blunders. The mitrail- 
 leuse,* on which much dependence was placed, proved of 
 little value. The smaller states of Germany, which were 
 jealous of the influence of Prussia and supposed to be ready 
 to declare against her, put their armies at the disposal of the 
 Prussian king. 
 
 Invasion of France. — A slight encounter of the advance 
 posts at Saarhrilch \ opened the campaign, and was magnified 
 
 * This consisted of several guns mounted on one carriage, and was designed to 
 fire grapeshot with great rapidity. 
 
 t The young Prince Imperial rode out to the front at this time, and showed great 
 coolness when he came within the range of hullets. The emperor, describing it, 
 spoke of his having received his "baptism of fire.'" 
 
 13 
 
290 REVOLUTIONARY PRAKCE. [1870. 
 
 into a French victory. From this time the German armies 
 moved forward, crushing all opposition with their superior 
 discipline and overwhelming numbers. Part of McMahon's 
 corps was beaten at Weissenburg , and the whole cut to pieces 
 at Worth. Marshal Bazaine, defeated at Courcelles, fell back 
 with nearly 200,000 men into the fortress of Metz. The em- 
 peror now resigned the entire command to Bazaine, who, in 
 obedience to reiterated orders, attempted to retreat to Cha- 
 lons, where McMahon was gathering the reserve forces. He 
 delayed his movement one day. Meanwhile the Germans 
 were straining every nerve to head off his flight* Defeated 
 at Mpiiis-la-Tour, Vionville, and finally in the terrible battle 
 of Gravelotte, Bazaine was fairly driven back into Metz. 
 The emperor, with McMahon's army, now moved north, in 
 the hope of joining Bazaine, who was expected to make an 
 effort to break out in that direction. Bazaine, however, 
 made no serious exertion to escape. The Germans swung 
 their left wing around with tremendous force, and brought 
 the centre sharply into line, thus pushing the French army 
 against the Belgian frontier at Sedan. After a desperate 
 battle, the emperor was compelled to surrender with his 
 entire force, 80,000 strong. France had now no regular 
 troops in the field. Her armies were all either prisoners, or 
 shut up in fortresses. Thenceforth the war consisted mainly 
 of sieges. There were attempts made to raise new armies, but 
 the fresh levies were quite unable to make head against the 
 veteran German forces, and their efforts, though gallant, were 
 fruitless. Strasburg surrendered after a bombardment which 
 injured the tower of its beautiful cathedral, and destroyed its 
 famous library. Bazaine, as it proved afterward, was a traitor, 
 
 * One corps, the 3d Brandenburgers, planted itself directly across Bazaine's p-.th, 
 and held the French at bay for three hours, until reinforcements arrived. At one 
 time, it is said, there were 150,000 French against 38,000 Germans. Whole regiments 
 were sacrificed in this tremendous struggle. 
 
1871.] NAPOLEON III. 291 
 
 and, after making a weak defence, surrendered the fortress of 
 Metz with 180,000 men able to bear arms. The people had 
 already lost all confidence in the government. On the day 
 of the defeat at Worth, bulletins announcing a French vic- 
 tory were posted up in the Bourse at Paris. It was believed 
 that the ministers had issued them for purposes of specula- 
 tion. There was great excitement, and the ministry of 
 Ollivier was forced to resign. A new " ministry of public 
 defence " under Count Palikao was thereupon organized. 
 
 Downfall of the Empire. — On the news of the dis- 
 aster at Sedan, the blame of all the bitter reverses of the war 
 was conveniently thrown on the emperor. Eugenie, who 
 had been appointed regent, attempted to organize a new 
 ministry, but in vain. The Paris mob,* the first to act in 
 any revolution, broke into the Legislative hall, the members 
 dispersed, and the empire was at an end. The same day 
 (Sunday, September 4) a handful of politicians met in the 
 Hotel de Ville, proclaimed a republic, and selected a com- 
 mittee of "National Defence." General Trochu was ap- 
 pointed president, and Jules Favre minister of foreign affairs. 
 Every preparation was made to defend Paris. Troops were 
 rapidly organized and drilled, and the defences strengthened. 
 
 The Siege of Paris. — While the sieges of the other 
 fortified places were still progressing, the German troops had 
 been closing in upon Paris, and the city was slowly but 
 surely invested.! A population of 2,000,000, with a garrison 
 of a half million, was entirely shut off from the outside 
 
 ■* Busts of the emperor were torn down ; his portrait and that of the empress tram- 
 pled under foot ; names of streets were changed, and the same hostility shown to the 
 emblems of the monarchy as in 1793. The Germans in Paris were hrutally mal* 
 treated, and thousands driven from the city. 
 
 t The walls of Paris were thirty- three feet high, and twenty miles long, with a 
 moat forty feet broad. At a distance of several miles was a girdle of sixteen de- 
 tached forts. 
 
292 REVOLUTION A J! Y FEANCE. [1870-1. 
 
 world.* The spirits of the people were kept up by delusive 
 expectations. It was announced that the garrisons of 
 Metz, Tou], and Strasburg would break out to aid the 
 beleaguered capital. Gambetta, minister of the interior, who 
 had taken balloon passage from Paris, was stirring up the 
 people everywhere through the provinces by his fiery elo- 
 quence. Thiers was supplicating foreign governments to aid 
 France. Now the army of the Loire and then that of the 
 North was about to accomplish wonders. Trochu himself 
 was preparing a grand sortie that was to save Paris. But 
 none of these schemes availed. The Germans mounted 
 tremendous artillery, and soon their shells searched out all 
 the city on the left of the Seine. Provisions began to fail.f 
 Cats, dogs, and rats sold at high prices. Food was dealt out 
 to the citizens in meagre morsels scarcely sufficient to support 
 life. Horse flesh was a dainty. Every sortie was repulsed. 
 Every hope of aid failed. After enduring a siege of a hundred 
 and thirty-one days and a bombardment of a month, the 
 city capitulated. The defences were disarmed, and the Ger- 
 mans marched in triumph through the Champs d'Elysee. 
 An armistice was granted, during which an Assembly should 
 be elected to arrange conditions of peace. Large quantities 
 of provisions were sent from England to the famishing 
 Parisians, while seed was freely distributed among the ruined 
 
 * Various means were adopted to secure occasional means of communication. 
 After the underground telegraph was cut off, they used halloons which carried mails 
 and passengers who were willing to trust themselves to this hazardous mode of 
 conveyance ; and also carrier-pigeons having a quill containing a roll of tissue paper 
 on which were photographed thousands of words. 
 
 t The small villages environing Paris are built of stone, and the gardens are sur- 
 rounded by stone walls about two feet thick and five feet high. They, in fact, con- 
 stituted so many forts. By piercing these walls for musketry, and planting bat- 
 teries, the Germans soon formed a girdle about the city completely impregnable. 
 The numerous market-gardens were full of vegetables, hay was in the stack sufficient 
 for the horses, and the abandoned houses furnished excellent quarters. Thus while 
 the French were famishing, the Germans enjoyed every comfort and even luxury. 
 
1871.] THE THIRD REPUBLIC. 293 
 
 peasants to sow their land laid waste by the passage of 
 the army. 
 
 VI. THE THIRD REPUBLIC. 
 
 1871 to Present Time. 
 
 Peace. — The assembly was elected without difficulty, the 
 Germans who occupied a large portion of the country afford- 
 ing every facility. It met at Bordeaux. Thiers was ap- 
 pointed chief executive, and afterward president of the 
 republic (August 31). The treaty which was finally nego- 
 tiated was most humiliating — an indemnity of 5,000,000,000 
 francs, payable in three years; Alsace and the German 
 part of Lorraine with Metz to be ceded to Germany; and 
 Champagne to be occupied at the cost of France by the Ger- 
 man troops, who were to remain in the neighborhood of Paris 
 until 500,000,000 francs were paid. Thus Strasburg, taken 
 by Louis XIV., and Metz by Henry II., were lost, and France 
 itself, which in 1814 had been conquered only by all Europe, 
 lay completely at the mercy of one nation. Jena and all 
 the cruel indignities which Napoleon had inflicted on Ger- 
 many were sadly expiated. 
 
 The Commune (1871).— While a German army was yet 
 at hand, the indemnity unpaid, and the country devastated 
 by war, the Parisian rabble inaugurated a second reign of 
 terror.* An attempt to disarm the National Guard was 
 resisted. Barricades were thrown up, the middle classes 
 
 * There were numerous causes for this uprising. The workmen thrown out of 
 employment by the war, during the siege had nocked into the National Guards, and 
 been kept alive by a payment of thirty cents a day. The government had unfor- 
 tunately suspended the payment of rents, debts, interest, &c. With peace and the 
 establishment of a regular authority, the old relations between debtor and creditor 
 would be renewed. The new government showed an intention of escaping the 
 Paris rabble, and held its meetings at Versailles. The Socialist and Internationa] 
 leaders again controlled this excitable crowd as in the days of the second republic, 
 and taught them their foolish ideas about the rights of property. 
 
294 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [1871. 
 
 refused to aid the government, and Paris was soon in the 
 hands of the Eed Kepublicans. The tricolor was hauled, 
 down and the red flag, symbol of anarchy, hoisted on the 
 Tuileries. A commune* was established at the Hotel de 
 Ville. Banks, insurance companies, etc., were laid under con- 
 tributions. Churches and private dwellings were pillaged, 
 and individuals arrested ; executions increased daily ; the old 
 revolutionary calendar was inaugurated, and even an attempt 
 made to resume the red caps of liberty. The Assembly 
 gathered at Versailles, and raised its forces. A second siege 
 of Paris now began, still more destructive than the first. 
 Again a bombardment commenced. The wretched inhabit- 
 ants hid in cellars to escape its dangers and the still greater 
 peril from the violent and drunken rabble who composed the 
 insurgent army. The ramparts were forced, and a combat 
 ensued which lasted seven days. The communists, finding 
 that all was lost, took a terrible revenge. They determined 
 to destroy the city which they could not hold. Committees 
 were appointed, the city was divided, and, by means of petro- 
 leum, an effort made to lay Paris in ruins. The Tuileries, 
 the Hotel de Ville, and many other public buildings were 
 destroyed. 
 
 The Assembly, having now the control of the entire 
 country, assumed the functions of government. Though 
 chosen originally only to make peace with Germany, it 
 refused to resign, and new members were elected to fill 
 vacancies in this self-constituted body. The administration 
 of Thiers was singularly successful. Order was re-established. 
 
 * There was a conflict of intei'ests between the cities, which were strongly repub- 
 lican, and the country districts, which were monarchical. The assembly was thought 
 to favor the latter. Paris was the advocate of municipal rights and the republic. 
 Each city was to have its own commune, to levy taxes and make it;? laws, i. e.. to be 
 a little republic, while all the communes were to form a sort of federal union repre- 
 sented in the National Assembly, and thus resist the representatives from the 
 rural districts. 
 
1873.] THE THIED REPUBLIC. 295 
 
 The war indemnity was paid, and on September 6, 1873, the 
 last German soldier recrossed the French frontier. But, 
 meanwhile, a powerful opposition had arisen against Thiers 
 in the Assembly.* Failing to secure the appointment of such 
 ministers to his cabinet as he desired, lie was forced to resign, 
 May 24, 1873. Marshal McMahon was elected the same 
 evening in his place, and afterward (Nov. 19) his power was 
 prolonged to seven years. Meantime, France is only a pro- 
 visional republic, no constitution has been adopted, the 
 powers of the President and the Assembly are almost dicta- 
 torial,! while all titles are retained, even the President of the 
 Eepublic signing himself Duke of Magenta. 
 
 The Recuperative Power of the country has excited 
 universal admiration. Trade has revived; specie has become 
 abundant, and the premium on gold merely nominal ; the 
 army has been reorganized, equipped and made effective; 
 the educational system has been thoroughly revised; and 
 provisions have been introduced for reaching the masses. 
 The ruins of the commune are being removed ; the traces of 
 war are fast disappearing; and to-day France is ready to 
 compete for her old-time supremacy in European affairs. 
 
 * The names applied to the different parties in the French Assembly are of inter- 
 est. The Monarchists occupy the seats at the right of the President, and the Repub- 
 licans those at the left. Political opinions deepen in shade from the centre outward. 
 The occupants of the seats at the right of the centre isle— hence called the Eight 
 Centre— are moderate or constitutional Monarchists ; those sitting next on the right 
 are absolute Monarchists ; and the extreme right is the Clerical or Ultramontane 
 party. At the left of the centre isle-hence called the Left Centre— are the very mod- 
 erate [Republicans ; next the solid, determined Republicans ; and on the extreme 
 left, the fire-eaters, the Reds, the Radicals, the Socialists, etc. Thus on both sides, 
 the wings are radical, the centre conservative, and at the middle of each half sit the 
 rear rank and file of the party. 
 
 t For example, by a law of April 8th, Thiers secured to the government the power 
 of appointing mayors of all cities having over 20,000 inhabitants. 
 
296 
 
 EEVOLUTION AE Y FRANCE. 
 
 [1875. 
 
 A FEMALE COMMUNIST AT BAY. 
 
 Manners and Customs of 
 the Present Day. — The Com- 
 munists in the late war burned 
 the magnificent Hotel de Ville, 
 destroyed the whole front of 
 the Tuileries, made utter wreck 
 of the public buildings along 
 the Rue "de Rivoli,and left their 
 hideous impress here and there 
 over the whole city of Paris, 
 yet the French capital is to- 
 day the most beautiful city in 
 Europe. The wide boulevards, 
 lined with shops where exqui- 
 site articles of vertu are ar- 
 ranged with that perfection of 
 taste which we call " French ; " 
 the brilliantly decorated Cafes, 
 shimmering with reflections 
 from gilt ornaments in count- 
 less mirrors ; the tete-a-tete 
 tables on the side- walks behind which on chairs or benches sit the 
 social Frenchmen and chat over their absinthe or eau-de-sucre ; the 
 magnificent Louvre with its treasures of art on canvas and in marble ; 
 the Rue de Rivoli with its stately colonnades ; the Place de la Con- 
 corde, with its ornate fountains playing and skipping as gayly as if the 
 terrible guillotine had never towered in its midst and scattered bloody 
 spray as king and queen, princes and princesses, fair heads and gray, 
 bowed and fell at its touch ; the Gardens of the Tuileries — the witness 
 of so many terrors — where little children walk with their bonnes and 
 play merry games under the trees, or push mimic boats across the little 
 lake ; above all the Champs d'Elysees — true elysian fields — a wonder- 
 ful avenue extending from the Place de la Concorde in a straight broad 
 line to the Arc de Triomphe, Napoleon's honor to his victories ; all 
 these, and scores of elegant buildings, churches and cathedrals, — some 
 fresh with comparatively recent finish, some old and quaint with the 
 rust of centuries and the mystery of over-hanging legends, — attract and 
 fascinate the visitor. Born and bred in such an atmosphere of bril- 
 liancy, with so much to delight the eye and intoxicate the senses, the 
 true Parisian learns young to shed sorrow. Whatever cloud may 
 hang over the country, whatever of doubt or peril or doom, the real 
 Frenchman will not suffer his spirits to be depressed or his pleasures 
 to be curtailed. He cultivates the little graces of life, neglects no op- 
 portunity to bestow a compliment, and smooths over petty annoyances 
 
187o.] THE THIRD EEPUBLIC. 297 
 
 with a suavity and nonchalance that takes away the sting of many a 
 misfortune. This trait, so defective in our more serious and anxious 
 American character, constitutes the great charm of French society. In 
 manners and in conversation, tact and politeness mark the French gen- 
 tleman or lady. An example will illustrate. One afternoon twenty 
 years ago the old Due de Doudeauville was slowly coming down stairs 
 when he met a young gentleman of twenty bounding up toward the 
 drawing-room he had just quitted. On seeing each other, both stopped 
 short. Both bowed low, both were bare-headed, neither would pass 
 the other. ' ' Je vous en prie, Monsieur," said the duke, waving his hat 
 toward the room above. '■' Jamais, Monsieur la Due," replied the other. 
 After a half dozen polite entreaties from the senior and as many 
 equally polite refusals by the junior, a happy inspiration came to the 
 relief of the latter. With a smile, and bending to his knees, he stepped 
 up, uttering the following beautiful sentiment : " I obey, Monsieur le 
 Due ; obedience is the first duty of youth." 
 
 The habit of living in flats is almost universal in Paris. Each flat 
 or story has its own conveniences for housekeeping, and is complete in 
 itself. Houses of five or six flats thus contain as many distinct fami- 
 lies. The great doors opening into the common court on the ground 
 floor are attended by a " concierge," without whose knowledge no one 
 can leave or enter, so that a visitor is spared the annoyance of mount- 
 ing several flights of stairs to seek some friend who may be absent. — 
 A French breakfast consists of a long roll, fresh butter, and a cup of 
 cafe-au-lait (coffee with milk) — often served in bed. At twelve o'clock 
 is the dejeuner-d-la-fourchette, which includes soup, meats, and vege- 
 tables. Dinner occurs generally at six o'clock, p.m., and consists of 
 from five to ten courses, between each of which plates are changed. 
 At hotels, the red wine of the country is usually furnished free of 
 charge, and is placed upon the table, one bottle to every two persons. 
 — The education of a French girl is very different from that of an 
 American. She is never allowed to go into society, not even to appear 
 on the street, without her mother or some older attendant. As to 
 walking or riding alone with a young gentleman, it is a thing not to be 
 mentioned to reputable ears. Marriages are contracted for by the' 
 parents of the bride, her wishes being supposed to be entirely subject 
 to their own. Marriage notices are not advertised in newspapers, as 
 with us, but circulars or billets are issued on large" sheets of paper. 
 Two of these are sent to each person whom the parties wish to remem- 
 ber. One runs after this manner : " Monsieur and Madame A. have the 
 honor to inform you of the marriage of Monsieur Alphonse A., their 
 son, with Mademoiselle Julie B." The duplicate simply reverses the 
 names thus : " Monsieur and Madame B. have the honor to inform you 
 of the marriage of Mademoiselle Julie B., their daughter, with Mon- 
 
298 REVOLUTIONARY FRAKCE. [1875. 
 
 sieur Alphonse A." To those invited to the wedding, eacli circular 
 contains the additional' sentence, " and beg you to be present at the 
 
 nuptial benediction which will be given to them on day, in 
 
 church." Every couple, high or low, is obliged to go to the mayor's 
 office to have the legal ceremony performed. That at the church is 
 simply what the invitation purports, a "benediction," and may be 
 received immediately, or after the lapse of some days, as desired. The 
 law is very rigid in France in matrimonial affairs. It must first be 
 understood that every birth is obliged to be registered within twenty- 
 four hours by the mayor of the arrondissement wherein it occurs — it 
 was formerly the law to take the child — with exact dates, station of 
 parents, data of their birth, etc. When a couple wish to marry, a copy 
 of this birth-registry must be taken to the mayor, and also a paper con- 
 taining the consent of the parents of both parties to the proposed mar- 
 riage. If the parents of a young man refuse, and he is twenty-five 
 years of age, he can engage a lawyer to plead his case with them ; if 
 they still withhold their consent, the lawyer has power to grant him a 
 paper to be used in its stead. Banns are then published and posted in 
 the arrondissement where each party resides. At the marriage cere- 
 mony all the above papers are required to be read. It will thus be seen 
 that "marriages in haste "are not compatible with French customs. 
 The ceremonies at the church vary greatly, being graduated according 
 to the expense desired by the parties. Thus a wedding in the aristo- 
 cratic church of St. Roch is a costly affair ; especially if it be in the 
 chapel dedicated to the Holy Virgin ; the length of the ceremony also 
 depending upon the economy or extravagance of the parties. Funerals 
 are regulated in the same manner, and one can be ordered at 25, 50, 
 100 or 1000 francs, the feelings of the mourning relatives being often 
 wrought upon to induce them to make as much display as possible. 
 On grand funeral occasions the church-doors are hidden behind a mass 
 of gloomy drapery, whereon appear the initials of the deceased and 
 various emblems of sorrow. Black cloths are sometimes spread from 
 the carriages, so that the ostentatious mourner may not for a moment 
 lose sight of his affliction. In a spacious cathedral containing dif- 
 ferent chapels, a wedding, a christening, and a funeral may often be 
 witnessed at the same time. — It is only in the provinces of France that 
 we now find glimpses of ancient and picturesque costume. The style 
 of head-dress worn by Anne of Brittany is still in vogue among the 
 peasant women of that country. Brittany itself, sparsely peopled, 
 has many a quaint old town which stands almost as it stood in the 
 middle ages. Among the sailors and fishermen in Finisterre, the old 
 rich embroidered costumes are still much worn, and men in undressed 
 sheep-skin cloaks, with long hair falling over their shoulders, remind 
 the traveler of centuries gone by. The wars and conscriptions have 
 
1875.] THE THIRD REPUBLIC. 299 
 
 greatly thinned the male population, but a conspicuous sight is the 
 groups of market-women on a fine morning, hurrying along with their 
 wares, pushing and beating their obstinate, over-laden donkeys with 
 no gentle hand, and clad in white starched caps, short kirtles, coarse 
 black hose, and enormous wooden sabots. Indeed the click-clank of 
 these sabots is something almost deafening as one stands on the steps 
 of some cathedral to see the crowd gather for religious service. In 
 some parts of Brittany a custom is observed of disinterring a skull 
 after a certain time, inscribing it with the names and titles of the 
 deceased, and placing it in a niche in the church porch as a sort of 
 monument ! Industries in these old towns are still carried on in the 
 highways. Women walk through the streets spinning, with distaff 
 under the arm, or knitting, while they balance loads of milk-jars or 
 ' piles of bread-loaves on their heads. In solid, out-door work, women 
 take equal part with men. The Brittany farmer breakfasts on soup- 
 generally milk-soup — at half-past four in the morning. From five to 
 ten are working hours. Then comes the dinner, of buckwheat pan- 
 cakes, or buckwheat porridge and milk. When milk fails, as it often 
 does in winter, porridge is made of fermented oats. In the summer 
 season, rest and sleep is taken from dinner-time till noon, when work 
 is renewed. At three comes a luncheon of bread, or fried cakes, with 
 milk or butter. At seven comes supper of soup and bacon. This is 
 good farm living. In many a province, families subsist from year to 
 year on less than a franc a day, paying nearly half of it for a pound of 
 black bread, — a piece of meat being a luxury to be dreamed over, but 
 not possessed. In the midst of such stolid poverty, how can education 
 be a source of ambition ? A bit of cheese to soften coarse, black bread, 
 may cause hungry eyes to glisten, but not till animal want is satisfied, 
 and wages bear some adequate proportion to labor, can an ability to 
 read and write be expected to possess one charm for the poor French 
 peasant. 
 
d 
 
 ^uih, 
 
j-tljSTORJCyVL T^ECREy\TIOJ\l£ 
 
 1. What French king never wore the crown except at his coronation ? __ 
 
 2. What two kings owed their power to their conversion? i 
 
 3. What was the " Battle of the Brothers " ? // ^m^?^ 
 
 4. Describe the similarity which exists in the close of the first three 
 
 lines of kings. ; 
 
 5. How many Henrys were there among the kings of France? H~ 
 
 6. How many French kings have surrendered to the Germans? 
 
 7. Name the great battles fought between the French and the 
 
 English. 
 
 8. What three men of note perished during the Keligious Wars? 
 
 9. What three great European monarchs were contemporaneous in 
 
 the 16th century ? 
 
 10. How many French kings have been dethroned ? ^ 
 
 11. What century was the " age of the lawyers " ? / <j 
 
 12. How many Revolutions have there been in France ? 
 
 13. What king was styled " The father of the people " ? 
 
 14. How many Johns have reigned in France ? 
 
 15. Name the principal victories of Turenne. 
 
 16. Who said, on his ascension to the throne, " The king of France takes 
 
 no revenge on the enemies of the Duke of Orleans " ? 
 
 17. Name the causes and effects, the duration, the principal battles, and 
 
 the prominent generals of the " Seven Years War." 
 
 18. What French king had the longest reign ? The shortest ? 
 
 19. Which kings had the title of " Handsome," " Fai*r" etc. ? 
 
 20. In what battle did the hungry soldiers throw away their bread for 
 
 the sake of fighting ? 
 
 21. To how many kings of France has a siege proved fatal? 
 
 22. What was the " Day of the Herrings " ? 
 
 23. Who was the " Grand Monarch " ? 
 
 24. Name the best kings in the Capetian line. The Carlovingian line. 
 
 25. Who was the " Well-beloved " ? KjJZI— 
 
 26. What king became insane? Of^ A ^j£Av ~P r 7" r 
 
 27. What kings had titles referring to physical qualities? To mental 
 
 qualities ? 
 
 28. What king came to the throne bearing five coffins? *^ 
 
 29. What king used to wear images of saints, angels, etc., in his cap ? 
 
 30. What marriage laid the foundation of the rivalry between the houses 
 
 of Austria and France ? 
 
iV FRENCH HISTORY. 
 
 31. What battle did Turenne gain by a winter march over the snow- 
 
 clad mountains? 
 
 32. Describe the battles of Fontenay and Fontenoy. 
 
 33. Compare Richelieu and Wolsey. 
 
 34. How many great battles did Napoleon lose ? 
 
 35. Name the causes, effects, duration, principal battles, and prominent 
 
 generals of the " War of the Spanish Succession." 
 
 36. What event in English history did Napoleon's dispersion of the 
 
 Five Hundred resemble ? 
 
 37. What king said " If honor perish from the rest of the world, it 
 
 should survive in the breasts of kings " ? 
 
 38. Tell the story of Jeanne Dare — the Maid of Orleans. 
 
 30. How many coalitions leading to war have been made against France ? 
 
 40. How many years have the descendants of Capet occupied the throne 
 
 of France ? 
 
 41. How many years has the government of France been a republic? 
 
 An empire? 
 
 42. What monarch was styled " The King of the Barricades " ? 
 
 43. What was the famous "Oath of Strasburg"? What interest is 
 
 connected with it ? 
 
 44. Name the great battles of Conde. 
 
 45. In how many great battles were the Austrians defeated by Napoleon ? 
 
 46. What French king made the first invasion of Italy ? The last ? 
 
 47. How many so-called • " Battles of the Spurs " have there been? 
 
 48. When did the Germans first invade France ? 
 
 49. Who were the " do-nothing kings " ? 
 
 50. Who was Charles X. ? Louis XVII. ? 
 
 51. Name the great victories of Luxembourg. 
 
 52. Describe the two devastations of the Palatinate. 
 
 53. What victories did the Prince of Orange win over the French ? 
 
 54. How is Anne of Brittany's story allied to that of Mary of Burgundy ? 
 
 55. What impress did the Romans give to the Gallic character ? The 
 
 Teutons ? The Normans ? 
 
 56. Whence did the French derive their love of a strong, centralized 
 
 government ? 
 
 57. Bound France at the ascension of Capet. 
 
 58. What was the origin of the power of the French cities ? 
 
 59. What curious story is told of Rollo's doing homage for his fiei ? 
 
 60. What were the Capitularies of Charlemagne.? 
 
 61. Name some incident of the battle of Ivry. fa : " 
 
 62. Give the causes, effects, duration, principal battles, and prominent 
 
 generals of the " Hundred Years War." 
 
 63. What English general, eighty years old, died on the last battle- 
 
 field of this war ? 
 
HISTOEICAL RECREATIONS. V 
 
 64. What was the League of the Hague? 
 
 65. Of what queen was it said " The French language has only five 
 
 words, The queen is so good " ? 
 
 66. Name some Italians who have attained great prominence in French 
 
 politics. 
 
 67. What child-kings have occupied the throne of France ? 
 
 68. What was the Quadruple Alliance ? 
 
 69. What great general won a battle while his king was being borne 
 
 to the tomb ? 
 
 70. Illustrate how often, in French history, a strong king has been fol- 
 
 lowed by a weak one. 
 
 71. For what are the dates, June 20, July 14, August 10, and September 
 
 2-6, memorable in the French Revolution ? 
 
 72. What were the Dragonades ? 
 
 73. Whom did Louis XIV. marry ? Louis XV. ? Louis XVI. ? 
 
 74. Who was Madame Roland ? jj^ q^ £^; ^^J^J 
 
 75. Show how, in the French Revolution, the bourgeoisie overthrew the 
 
 court and the privileged classes ; the mob, the bourgeoisie; and 
 finally, the reaction crushed the mob ? 
 
 76. Explain the following sentence used by a historian : " Pope Gregory 
 
 XIII. saw in Henry III. a second Louis V., and in Henry Duke 
 of Guise, a new Hugh Capet." 
 
 77. What French king was accustomed to go around buying paroquets ? M '' 
 
 78. What king married a Russian princess ? 
 
 79. For what is Francis I. noted in history ? Louis XIV. ? Louis XV. ? 
 
 Henry IV. ? 
 
 80. What was the characteristic trait of Louis IX.? Henry III.? 
 
 Charles V. ? Philip II. ? 
 
 81. Of what service to France was Louis XI. ? 
 
 82. What male king was the son of an excellent father, father of an ex- 
 
 cellent son, and husband of an excellent wife? **<Z<FUS*# —X-LLL— 
 
 83. What great events occurred in the time of Philip I. ? 
 
 84. What French kings reigned during the time of the Crusades ? 
 
 85. How many took part in them ? 
 
 86. What was the Renaissance ? 
 
 87. What was the " Day of the Dupes " ? 
 
 83. Who were the three great French Ministers of Finance ? 
 
 89. What dying warning did Francis I. give his son ? 
 
 90. What French kings reigned during the time of the Hundred Years 
 
 War ? J 
 
 ,91. What king was the first man in Europe, but the second in France ^Zt 
 
 92. What was the " Year of Corbie " ? 
 
 93. Why are there so many French artisans in England ? 
 
 94. Who said he did not make peace like a merchant? 
 
 95. Who was " Corporal Violet " ? g^'^ i s^ ^y4^r^^v^^ ^H 
 
Yl FRENCH HISTORY. 
 
 96. Who was the " bravest of the brave " ? 
 
 97. When did a charge of a small body of cavalry decide a great 
 
 battle ? 
 
 98. How many times have foreign armies taken Paris ? 
 
 99. What was the Holy Alliance ? 
 
 100. What is meant by the " Three days of July " ? 
 
 101. W T hat two kings were out hunting when a revolution was im- 
 
 pending ? 
 
 102. Who was the first king of the French ? 
 
 103. Who was the last king of France ? 
 
 104. What two great generals and statesmen died during a tempest ? 
 
 105. What were the causes of the Revolution of 1789 ? 1830 ? 1848 ? 
 
 1871 ? Effects of each ? 
 
 106. Who was the " Little Corporal " ? 
 
 107. What was the " Tennis-court oath " ? 
 
 108. What was the cause of the downfall of Napoleon I. ? Napoleon III. ? 
 
 109. Where was the last States-General held ? 
 
 110. What was the origin of the tricolor ? 
 
 111. Where are the keys of the Bastille ? 
 
 112. What were the assignats ? 
 
 113. What was the origin of the French National Guards? 
 
 114. Did any of the royal family who left the Tuileries for the Assem- 
 
 bly, Aug. 10, 1792, ever enter the palace again ? 
 
 115. What was the first victory of the French Republic? Its effect ? 
 
 116. Should Louis XVI. be blamed for the Revolution ? 
 
 117. How many times did Napoleon enter Vienna as a conqueror ? 
 
 118. What battle did Napoleon lose on account of the rise of a river 
 
 in his rear ? 
 
 119. What was the " Battle of the Nations" ? 
 
 120. What was the " Day of the Sections " ? 
 
 121. What was the " Seven Years War " called in America ? 
 
 122. What battle was decided by a wonderful charge under Macdonald ? 
 
 123. What great capitals of Europe did Napoleon enter in triumph ? 
 
 124. What were " Steinkirk Cravats " ? 
 
 125. What was Napoleon's first great victory ? His last ? 
 
 126. What German emperor married a French princess, and yet never 
 
 saw his bride ? ^ * -^ 
 
 127. When was a '■' bump of the head " fatal to a king ? 
 
 128. What was the Concordat? 
 
 129. What was the Perpetual Peace ? 
 
 130. What were the Annates ? 
 
 131. What king spoke of his successor as "a big boy who would spoil 
 
 all " ? 
 
 132. What was the Pragmatic Sanction ? 
 
HISTORICAL RECREATIONS. Vll 
 
 133. What two great monarchs once wrestled and changed clothes, like 
 
 schoolboys ? 
 
 134. What three kings in succession led great armies into Italy? 
 
 135. Who was the chevalier " without fear and without reproach " ? 
 13G. What king sent his own sons to prison in order to release himself? 
 
 1 37. Who was the " Dumb Captain " ? 
 
 138. In what contest were there four Henrys engaged ? 
 
 139. Who was called "Monsieur" in France? 
 
 140. Who was styled the ' ' King of Paris " ? 
 
 141. Who led the first French expedition into Italy? State its effect. 
 
 142. What great king, when dauphin, ran away from battle like a 
 
 coward ? 
 
 143. Who was the Black Prince ? 
 
 144. Illustrate how dependent upon its king France was, during the 
 
 middle ages. 
 
 145. What great war was marked by the capture of a king and a pope, 
 
 and the sack of Rome ? 
 
 146. What kings left each three sons to reign? 
 
 147. Who was " Le Balafre " ? 
 
 148. Which Charles was called " the victorious " ? 
 
 149. Name the principal battles of Napoleon I. 
 
 150. Give an account of Napoleon at the Bridge of Lodi. 
 
 151. What were the Berlin decrees ? 
 
 152. On all the public buildings in Paris are inscribed the words — '■ 
 
 " Liberte, Egalite, Equalite." When and where did this motto 
 take its rise ? 
 
 153. Illustrate Charles VII. 's apathy. Louis XL's cruelty. Henry IV. 's 
 
 good humor. Louis XIV. 's dignity. Louis IX.'s goodness. 
 Charles IX.'s weakness. Napoleon I.'s despotism. Francis I.'s 
 bravery. Philip II. 's ambition. Henry Ill's buffoonery. 
 Louis XV.'s profligacy. Philip IV. 's unscrupulousness. 
 
 154. Who was the " Bastard of Orleans "? 
 
 155. After what battle were a large number of soldiers drowned by the 
 
 breaking of the ice under a shower of cannon balls? 
 
 156. In what siege was Buonaparte a captain of artillery? 
 
 157. What peculiar tactics did Napoleon adopt at Marengo? 
 
 158. What is meant by the " sun of Austerlitz " ? 
 
 159. Who raised the first standing army in France? 
 
 160. When Louis XL met Edward IV. of England, we read that " being 
 
 mindful of the catastrophe of Montereau, he took great pains 
 to guard against treachery." Explain. 
 
 161. What French king first obtained the title of " His Most Christian 
 
 Majesty " ? 
 
 162. Who was the lady of Beaujeu ? 
 
 163. What queens of France were divorced? 
 
Vlll FEENCH HISTOEY. 
 
 164. When, where, and between whom was the battle of Guinegate 
 
 fought? Steinkirk? Sens? Blenheim? Jena? Pa^via? 
 Waterloo ? Wagram ? Oudenarde ? 
 
 165. What monarch persecuted the Protestants in France, and pro- 
 
 tected them in Germany ? 
 
 166. What monarch wore high-heeled shoes ? 
 
 167. What is meant by the elder and the younger branches of the 
 
 Bourbons ? 
 
 168. What were the Reform banquets ? 
 
 169. What became of Napoleon I.'s son? 
 
 170. Of Louis' XVI. 's son? 
 
 171. What relation was Napoleon III. to Napoleon I. ? 
 
 172. Explain the coup d'etat of December 2. 
 
 173. What were the causes of the riots of June '51 ? 
 
 174. Why was Gen. Cavaignac called the " saver of France " ? 
 
 175. What is meant by the " Constitution of the year VIII." ? 
 
 176. Who was the "prisoner of Ham"? 
 
 177. Who was the "exile of St. Helena " ? 
 
 178. Duruy says, " Napoleon III. was not a royal do-nothing." Ex- 
 
 plain the allusion. • 
 
 179. What was the cause of the long hatred between England and 
 
 France ? 
 
 180. Who is styled Napoleon IV. ? 
 
 181. Who is styled Henry V. ? 
 
 182. Explain the calendar adopted during the French Revolution. 
 
 183. Describe the retreat from Moscow. 
 
 184. What king was mocked by magpies ? 
 
 185. What was the duration of the so-called Hundred Years War ? 
 
 186. Who was Napoleon II. ? 
 
 187. What kings were assassinated ? 
 
 188. What king occupied a different bed every night ? >A V3^ 
 
 189. Illustrate the love of the soldiers for Napoleon I. 
 
 190. What king was killed in a tournament ? 
 
 191. Who said he " would rather have his people laugh at his economy 
 
 than weep over his taxes " ? 
 
 192. What were the " Spanish marriages " ? 
 
 193. Who was the " Citizen king " ? 
 
 194. Give an account of the assassination of the Duke of Berri. Its 
 
 political importance. 
 
 195. Why was Louis Philippe called a tyrant by the republicans, a 
 
 usurper by the legitimists, and an illegal ruler by the Buona- 
 partists ? 
 
 196. What was the " Infernal machine " ? 
 
 197. What was the Treaty of Paris ? Vienna? Presburg? Luneville? 
 
 Amiens ? Campo Formio ? 
 
HISTORICAL RECREATIONS. IX 
 
 198. What was the League of Cambrai ? 
 
 199. Who said " He who loves me follows me " ? 
 
 200. How many times has France been declared a republic? 
 
 201. What is meant by " The Revolution " ? " The Hundred Days " ? 
 
 " The Restoration " ? 
 
 202. To what line of kings did Charles V. belong? Henry IV? 
 
 Louis XV. ? Charles the Simple ? 
 
 203. Who is the Count of Chambord ? What relation is he to the fam- 
 
 ous Egalite of the Revolution ? 
 
 204. What was the Mountain ? 
 
 205. Give an account of the Mississippi Scheme. 
 
 206. Who was the "phantom Charles X."? 
 
 207. Which kings were the most despotic ? 
 
 208. Who were the Girondists ? 
 
 209. Who was the "Btarnois"? 
 
 210. Give an account of the death of the Duke d'Enghien. 
 
 211. What was a bed of justice? 
 
 212. What infant in his cradle received the title of the "King of Rome" ? 
 
 213. In what battle were spurs of more service than swords? 
 
 214. Who were the Leaguers ? 
 
 215. For what is Neckar noted ? 
 
 216. What was the " Day of the Barricades " ? 
 
 217. In what century was the " Age of Louis XIV." ? 
 
 218. Who suppressed the Templars? 
 
 219. Who were styled " The Monkeys " ? 
 
 220. Who was the " King of Bourges " ? 
 
 221. What king pawned a lady's jewels to get money to carry on a war ? 
 
 222. What was the " ninth Thermidor " ? 
 
 223. Name the great men who clustered about the throne of Louis XIV. 
 
 224. What women have exerted a great influence on French history ? 
 
 225. For what is Malmaison noted ? Fontainebleau ? 
 
 226. What two kings reigned the same number of years ? 
 
 227. Who were the" " Knitters " ? 
 
 228. In what did Louis Philippe differ from all other French monarchs? 
 
 229. What are " Lettres de cachet " ? 
 
 230. What dynasties ended with the reigns of three brothers ? 
 
 231. Who was the " King of the Gentlemen" ? 
 
 232. What king married Mary, afterward Queen of Scots ? 
 
 233. What great minister was buried at night ? 
 
 234. What were the last words of Louis XIV. ? Francis I. ? Napoleon I. ? 
 
 235. What encomium did Edward III. pass on Charles V. ? 
 
 236. What was the "La Jeunesse Doree"? 
 
 237. Name the kings of the fourteenth century. The eighteenth. 
 
 238. Who was king of France in 1066 ? 1572? 1648 ? 1776 ? 
 
GENEALOGICAL TABLES. 
 
 GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF TtjE JJEROYINGIJ^N DYNASTY. 
 
 Thierry I., 
 k. of Metz. 
 
 Caribert, 
 k. of Paris 
 (ob. 567). 
 
 Cloclion 
 
 (427-448). 
 
 Meroveus 
 
 (448-458). 
 
 Childeric I. 
 (458-481). 
 
 Clovis 
 
 (481-511). 
 
 I 
 
 Chlodomir, 
 k. of Orleans. 
 
 Childebert I. 
 k. of Paris. 
 
 Clotaire I., 
 
 k. of Soissons, 
 
 sole king 
 
 (558-561). 
 
 Goritran, 
 k. of Burgundy. 
 
 I 
 
 Sigeberfc I., 
 
 k. of Austrasia 
 
 (ob. 575). 
 
 Childebert II., 
 k. of Austrasia 
 and Burgundy. 
 
 Childeric I., 
 
 k. of Soissons 
 
 (ob. 584). 
 
 Clotaire II., 
 sole king 
 (613-628). 
 
 Theodebert, 
 
 k. of Austrasia 
 
 (ob. 612). 
 
 Thierry II., 
 
 k. of Burgundy 
 
 (ob. 613)). 
 
 Dagobert I. 
 sole king 
 (628-638). 
 
 Sigebert II., 
 k. of Austrasia. 
 
 Dagobert II., 
 k. of Austrasia. 
 
 Clotaire TV., 
 
 k. of Austrasia 
 
 (ob. 719). 
 
 Clovis II. 
 (638-656). 
 
 I 
 
 Caribert, 
 
 k. of Aquitaine. 
 
 Boggis, 
 d. of Aquitaine. 
 
 Eudes, 
 d. of Aquitaine 
 
 (888-735). 
 
 Clotaire III., 
 
 k. of Neustria, 
 
 (656-670). 
 
 Childeric II., 
 k. of Austrasia. 
 
 Thierry III., 
 k. of Burgundy. 
 
 Clovis 
 (673-674). 
 
 Childeric II. Clovis III. 
 
 Childeric III. 
 
 (742-752), 
 deposed by Pepin le Bref. 
 
 Childebert III 
 (695-711). 
 
 Dagobert III. 
 (711-715). 
 
 Thierry IV. 
 
 (720-737). 
 
GENEALOGICAL TABLES. 
 
 XI 
 
 GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE C4RLOVINGI4NS. 
 
 Pepin of Landen, 
 
 mayor of the palace in Austrasia 
 
 (ob. 639). 
 
 Grimoald 
 (ob. 656). 
 
 Arnulf, 
 brother of Pepin. 
 
 Drogo, 
 d. of Champagne. 
 
 Begga = Anseghis. 
 
 Pepin of Heristal, 
 
 d. of the Franks 
 
 (ob. 714). 
 
 I 
 
 Grimoald, 
 mayor in Meustria. 
 
 Charles Martel 
 (ob. 741). 
 
 Carloman, 
 becomes a monk 
 
 (747). 
 
 I 
 
 Pepin le Bref, 
 
 k. of the Franks 
 
 (752). 
 
 Charlemagne 
 
 (788-814). 
 
 I 
 
 Louis le Debonnaire 
 
 (814-840). 
 
 Grypho 
 (ob. 753). 
 
 Lothaire, 
 emperor 
 (ob. 855). 
 
 Louis II., 
 emperor 
 (ob. 875). 
 
 Lothaire, 
 
 k. of 
 Lorraine 
 (ob. 869). 
 
 Charles, 
 
 k. of 
 Burgundy 
 
 and 
 Provence 
 (ob. 863). 
 
 Pepin 
 (ob. ~~ 
 
 Pepin II. , 
 
 k. of 
 Aquitaine. 
 
 Louis the Charles the 
 German Bald, 
 
 (ob. 876). k. of France, 
 (ob. 877). 
 
 Charles 
 the Fat, 
 
 k. and 
 emperor 
 (ob. 888). 
 
 Louis 
 le Begue 
 (ob. 879). 
 
Xll 
 
 GENEALOGICAL TABLES 
 
 GENEALOGICAL TJJBLE OF TIJE C^PETI^N DYNASTY. 
 
 I. Feom the Accession of Hugh Capet to the Accession of the 
 House of Valois. 
 
 Robert the Strong, count of Anjou, ob. 867. 
 
 Eudes, count of Paris, 
 king, 888-898. 
 
 Robert, duke of France, 
 ob. 923. 
 
 Hugh le Grande or le Blanc, 
 duke of France and count of Paris, 
 ob. 956. 
 
 Emma = Rodolph, king of France. 
 
 Hugh Capet, king, 987-996. 
 Robert, king, 996-1031. 
 
 Hugh, crowned in his father's 
 lifetime (ob. 1026). 
 
 Henry I., 
 king, 1031-1060. 
 
 Philip I., king, 1060-1108. 
 
 Louis VI. (le Gros), king, 1108-1137. 
 
 Louis VII. (de Jeune), king, 1137-1180. 
 
 Philip II. (Augustus), king, 1180-1223. 
 
 Louis VIII., king, 1223-1226. 
 
 Robert, duke of Burgundy 
 
 Louis IX. (St. Louis) 
 king, 1226-1270. 
 
 I 
 
 Charles, count of Anjou and Provence, 
 founder of the royal house of Naples. 
 
 Philip III. (le Hardi), 
 king, 1270-1285. 
 
 I 
 
 Robert, count of Clermont, 
 founder of the house of Bourbon. 
 
 Philip IV. (le Bel), 
 king, 1285-1314. 
 
 Charles, count of Valois, 
 founder of the house of Valois. 
 
 Louis X. (le Hutin), 
 king, 1314-1316. 
 
 Jeanne, m. Philip, 
 
 king of Navarre, 
 
 ob. 1349. 
 
 Charles, 
 king of Navarre. 
 
 Philip V. (le Long), 
 king, 1316-1322. 
 
 iV. 
 
 Charles IV. (le Bel), 
 king, 1322-1328. 
 
 Isabella, 
 
 m. Edward II. of 
 
 England. 
 
 Edward III. of 
 England. 
 
 II. House of Valois. 
 
 Philip VL-Charles VIII. 1328-1498. 
 
 III. House of Valois-Oeleans. c 
 
 Louis XII.— Henry III. 1498-1589. 
 
 IV. House of Bourbon. 
 
 Henry IV.— Charles X. 1589-1.93 ; and 1814-1830. 
 V. House of Orleans. 
 
 Louis Philippe, 1830-1848. 
 
GENEALOGICAL TABLES Xlll 
 
 GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE FjOUSE OF Y^LOIS. 
 
 Charles, count of Valois, younger son of King Philip III. 
 
 Philip VI., king, 1328-1350. 
 
 John (le Bon), king, 1350-13G4. 
 ^J 
 
 I t " I I 
 
 Charles V. (le Sage), Louis, duke of Anjou, John, duke Philip, d. of Burgundy, 
 king, 1364-1389. founder of the 2d royal of Berry. ob. 1404 
 
 house of Naples. (see below). 
 
 I I . 
 
 Charles VI. (le Bien-aime), king, 1380-1423 Louis, dukb of Orleans, 
 
 = Isabella of Bavaria. assassinated 1407, 
 
 founder of the line of Valois-Orleans. 
 
 Louis, John, Charles VLT. Isabella Catharine 
 
 ob. 1415. ob. 1416. (le Victorieux), = 1. Richard II. of England. = Henry V. 
 king, 1422-1461. 2. Duke of Orleans. of England. 
 
 Louts XL, king, 1461-1483. Charles, duke of Berry. Four daughters. 
 
 Charles VIII., king, Anne = Jeanne = 
 
 1483-1498. Sire de Beaujeu. Duke of Orleans. 
 
 afterward Louis XIL 
 
 GENEALOGICAL T^BLE OF TrjE SECOND DUC^L rjOUSE OF 
 BURGUNDY. 
 
 John, king of France, inherits the duchy as nearest heir male of the late Duke 
 Philippe de Rouvre, 1361. 
 
 Philip, fourth son of King John, created Duke of Burgundy, 1364. 
 
 Jean sans Peur, killed at Montereau, 1419. 
 
 Philip (le Bon), ob. 1467. 
 
 Charles (le Temeraire), ob. 1477. 
 
 Mary, duchess of Burgundy = Maximilian, archduke of Austria. 
 
 Philip, archduke of Austria, = Juana, heiress of Castile and Aragon. 
 and sovereign of the Netherlands, I 
 ob. 1506. I 
 
 Charles V., king of Spain, sovereign of the Netherlands, and emperor, 1519. 
 
XIV 
 
 GENEALOGICAL TABLES. 
 
GENEALOGICAL TABLES, 
 
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XVI GENEALOGICAL TABLES. 
 
 GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE IJOUSE OF BOURBON. 
 
 Eobert, count of Clermont = Beatrice, heiress of Bourbon, 1212. 
 younger son of St. Louis. I 
 
 Louis, duke of Bourbon, ob. 1341. 
 
 Peter, duke of Bourbon, James, count de la Marche. 
 
 ancestor of the Constable | 
 
 Charles, duke of Bourbon. John, count de la Marche = Catharine, heiress of VendOme. 
 
 Louis, count of Vendome, ob. 1447. 
 
 John, count of Vend<5me, ob. 1477. 
 
 I I 
 
 Francis, count of Vend6me. Louis, prince of La Roche-sur-Yon 
 = Louisa, countess of Montpensier. 
 | This branch became extinct 1608. 
 
 Charles, first duke of VcndOme. 
 
 Antoine, duke of Vend6me= Jeanne d'Albret, queen of Navarre, ob. 1572. 
 
 Henry IV., kins: of France and Navarre, ob. 1589-1610. 
 = 1. Marguerite de Valois, d. of Henry II. 
 2. Mary de'Medici. 
 
 Louis XIII. , king, 
 
 1610-1643=Anne 
 
 of Austria, d. of 
 
 Philip III. of Spain. 
 
 Gaston, duke of 
 
 Elizabeth 
 
 Christiana 
 
 Henrietta Maria 
 
 Orleans, 
 
 = Philip IV. 
 
 =duke of 
 
 = Charles I. 
 
 ob. 1650. 
 
 of Spain, 
 
 Savoy, 
 
 of England, 
 
 
 ob. 1664. 
 
 ob. 1663. 
 
 ob. 1669. 
 
 Louis XIV., king, 1643-1715 Philip, duke of Orleans 
 
 =Maria Theresa, d. of (founder of the branch of Bourbon-Orleans), 
 
 Philip IV. of Spain. ob. 1701. 
 
 Louis, the dauphin, ob. 1711= Mary Anne Christine Victoire of Bavaria. 
 
 Philip V of Spain. 
 
 Louis, duke of Burgundy, 
 
 ob. 1712=Mary Adelaide 
 
 of Savoy. 
 
 Louis XV,, king, 1715-1744= Mary Leczynska of Poland. 
 
 Charles, duke of Berry, 
 ob. 1714. 
 
 Louis, the dauphin, ob. 1765. 
 
 Six daughters. 
 
 Louis XVI., 
 
 king, 1774-1793 
 
 = Marie Antoinette 
 
 of Austria. 
 
 I 
 
 Louis Stanislas Xav : 
 count of Provence, 
 afterward Louis XVTII. 
 
 king, 1814-1824. 
 
 I | 
 
 Charles Philip, Three 
 
 ount of Artois, daughters, 
 afterward Charles X.. 
 king, 1824-1830, ob. 1836. 
 I 
 
 Maria Theresa Louis XVII. 
 = Louis, duke never reigned, 
 of Ansouleme. ob. 1795. 
 
 Louis, duke of Charles Ferdinand, duke of 
 Angouleme Berry, assassinated, Feb. 1820. 
 = Maria Theresa, 
 daughter of Louis XVI. 
 
 Henry, duke of Bordeaux, 
 comic de Chambord— "Henry V," 
 
 Louisa, 
 duchess of Pan 
 
GENEALOGICAL TABLES. 
 
 XV11 
 
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 GENEALOGICAL TABLES 
 
 FEUDAL STATES OF SOUTHERN FRANCE. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 819 
 839 
 852 
 
 872 
 
 878 
 
 1036 
 1052 
 
 1271 
 
 1422 
 
 TOULOUSE 
 
 (Count). 
 
 Raymond I. 
 
 wlio lias 
 
 twelve 
 
 GOTHIA or 
 NARBONNE 
 
 (Duke or Marquis), 
 
 Bernard I. dies, 
 
 five beneficiary 
 
 dukes 
 
 to 
 
 Bernard III. 
 
 William the Pious 
 dies childless, 918 
 the duchy falls to 
 Toulouse. 
 
 successors, 
 
 to 
 
 Raymond VII., who cedes half to 
 Louis IX., and half to his daugh- 
 ter, who marries the brother of 
 St. Louis, and he, dying childless 
 leaves the rest to Philip HI 
 (1271). 
 
 GUIENNE or 
 AQUITAINE 
 
 (Duke). 
 
 Rainulf (son of 
 Bernard II. of 
 
 Gothia), 
 
 eleven heredi- 
 tary 
 
 dukes to 
 
 William X, 
 
 (whose daugh- 
 ter Alienor m. 
 Henry, Count of 
 Anjou, and King 
 of England. 
 
 The duchy finally ceded to 
 France under Charles VII. 
 
 GASCONY 
 
 (Duke). 
 
 Lupus I., 
 four Dukes to 
 
 Waiffer, 
 five bene- 
 ficiary 
 dukes 
 to 
 
 Sancho 
 Milarra, 
 
 seven heredi- 
 tary 
 
 dukes 
 
 to 
 
 Berenger 
 
 (who dies 
 childless, and 
 Gascony falls 
 to Aquitaine). 
 
ABSOKPTION OF STATES. 
 
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XX 
 
 AUDITIONS TO FRENCH MONARCHY. 
 
 SUCCESSIVE ADDITIONS TO THE FRENCH 
 MONARCHY. 
 
 Late. 
 
 1068 
 1032 
 1100 
 
 1183 
 
 1185 
 1203 
 
 1205 
 1209 
 
 1229 
 
 1233 
 1255 
 1257 
 
 1270 
 
 1285 
 
 1343 
 
 District. 
 
 Gatinais 
 French Vexin 
 Bourges 
 
 Vermandois, Amiens 
 
 Valois 
 
 Touraine, Anjou, 
 Maine, Poitou 
 
 Saintonge 
 
 Normandy 
 Auvergne 
 
 Beziers, Narbonne, 
 Nimes, Velay, Al- 
 bigeois 
 
 Blois, Chartres 
 
 Gevaudan 
 
 Perche 
 
 Languedoc. Vivarais, 
 Rouergue 
 
 Champagne and Brie 
 
 Lyonnais 
 
 Dauphine 
 
 King. 
 
 Philip I. 
 
 Philip Augustus 
 
 St. Louis (IX.) 
 
 Philip III. 
 Philip IV. 
 
 Philip VI. 
 
 Circumstances. 
 
 Acquired from Fulk of Anjou. 
 
 Acquired from Simon of Valois. 
 
 Bought of Herpin its Count going 
 on Crusade. 
 
 Taken from Philip of Flanders, on 
 his wife's death. 
 
 Ditto. 
 
 Confiscated from King John of 
 England. [Permanently ac- 
 quired by St. Louis, 1258] . 
 
 Confiscated from King John of 
 England. [Ceded at Bretigny, 
 1380, to England; reconquered 
 by Charles V. and Charles VII.] 
 
 Taken by conquest from King 
 John of England. 
 
 Confiscated from Guy its Count. 
 [Finally secured to the Crown 
 by Louis XIII.] 
 
 After Albigensian war. 
 
 Bought from Thibault of Cham- 
 pagne. 
 
 Bought from Count of Barcelona. 
 [Confirmed to Philip IV., 1306.] 
 
 Fell in on extinction of the 
 Perche family. 
 
 On extinction of the House of St. 
 
 Gilles. 
 
 By marriage with the heiress. 
 
 By agreement with the Archbishop 
 and Burghers. 
 
 Bought from the last Dauphin of 
 Vienne. 
 
Date. 
 
 1370 
 
 1453 
 1479 
 
 1487 
 1523 
 
 1531 
 
 1547 
 
 1548 
 1552 
 1589 
 
 1601 
 1648 
 
 1659 
 
 1665 
 
 1668 
 
 1678 
 
 1681 
 
 1684 
 1766 
 
 ADDITIONS TO FRENCH MONARCHY. XXI 
 District. King. Circumstances. 
 
 Limousin 
 
 Guienne and Gascony 
 
 Burgundy 
 
 Marche 
 
 Provence 
 
 An«?oumois, Forez, 
 Beaujolais 
 
 Bourbon and Dau- 
 phin e d'Auvergne 
 
 Brittany 
 
 Coniniinges 
 
 Trois-Ev§ches [Metz, 
 Verdun, Toul] 
 
 Beam, Navarre, Bi- 
 gorre, Foix, Ar- 
 magnac 
 
 Bresse and Bugey 
 
 Alsace 
 
 Roussillon and Artois 
 
 Nivernois 
 
 Flanders and Hain- 
 
 ault 
 Franche-Comte 
 
 Strasburg 
 
 Charolais 
 Lorraine 
 
 Charles V. 
 
 Charles VII. 
 
 Louis XI. 
 
 Francis I. 
 
 Charles VIII. and 
 Louis XII. 
 
 and Francis I. 
 
 Henry II. 
 Henry IV. 
 
 Louis XIII. and 
 Louis XIV. 
 
 Louis XIV. 
 
 Louis XV. 
 
 Conquered from the English. 
 [Vise, of Limoges secured 
 finally under Henry IV.] 
 
 Conquered from the English. 
 
 Annexed on death of Charles the 
 Rash, Duke of Burgundy. 
 
 Confiscated from the House of 
 Armagnac. 
 
 On death of the last Count. 
 
 Patrimony. 
 
 Confiscated from the Constable 
 de Bourbon. 
 
 By marriage with Anne of Brit- 
 tany. 
 
 By marriage with the daughter 
 of Anne of Brittany. 
 
 On extinction of the Comminges 
 family. 
 
 Secured to France by the Treaty 
 of Westphalia, 1648. 
 
 Patrimony. 
 
 Exchanged against Saluces with 
 the Duke of Savoy. 
 
 By conquest from Germany. Se- 
 cured to France by the Treaty 
 of Westphalia, 1648. 
 
 By conquest. Secured by the 
 Treaty of the Pyrenees, 1659. 
 
 On extinction of the Mvernois 
 family. 
 
 Secured by the Treaty of Aix-la- 
 Chapelle. 
 
 Secured by the Treaty of Nim- 
 
 wegen. 
 Secured by Treaty of Ryswick, 
 
 1697. 
 Confiscated from Spain. 
 Secured by Treaty of Vienna, 1815. 
 
XX11 
 
 HOUSES OF LORRAINE AND GUISE. 
 
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CLAIMS TO SPANISH SUCCESSION. xxiii 
 
 CL4INIS TO TrjE SPpSFj SUCCESSION. 
 
 (1.) Claim op France. 
 Louis XIV. = Maria Theresa, d. of Philip IV. of Spain. 
 
 Louis, Dauphin = Maria Anna of Bavaria. 
 I 
 
 Louis, duke of Burgundy. Philip, duke of Anjou, Charles, duke of Berry. 
 
 King of Spain as Philip V., 
 Nov., 1700. 
 Louis XV. 
 
 (2.) Claim of Bavarl.. 
 
 Leopold I., Emperor = Maria Margarita, younger d. of Philip IV. of Spain. 
 
 Maria Antonia, Archduchess = Maximilian, elector of Bavaria. 
 
 Joseph Ferdinand, electoral prince of Bavaria, 
 declared heir to the Spanish throne, 1698 ; oh. Feb. 6, 1699. 
 
 13.) Claim of Austria. 
 
 Maria Anna, younger d. of = Ferdinand III., Emperor. 
 Philip III. of Spain. 
 
 Leopold I., Emperor = Maria Margarita, d. of Philip IV. 
 
 Joseph I., Emperor, 1705. Charles Francis Joseph, 
 
 declared King of Spain, 1700 ; 
 Emperor, 1711. 
 
XX1Y 
 
 CpONOLOGIG^L TJJBLE OF TrjE FRENCty KINGS. 
 [see the genealogical tables. 
 
 KINGS OF THE FRANKS. 
 
 MEROVINGIAN LINE. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 481. 
 
 Clovis. 
 
 511. 
 
 Thierry, Chlodomlr, Childebert I., Clotaire. 
 
 559. 
 
 ClOtaire. 
 
 561. 
 
 CARIBERT, GrONTRAN, CHILPERIC I., SlGEBERT. 
 
 584. 
 
 Childebert II. 
 
 596. 
 
 Theodebert, Thierry II., Clotaire II. 
 
 628. 
 
 Dagobert I. 
 
 638. 
 
 Clovis II., Sigebert II. . 
 
 656. 
 
 Clotaire III., Childeric II. \ 
 
 673. 
 
 Thierry III., Dagobert II. J 
 
 691. 
 
 Clovis III. / 
 
 695. 
 
 Childebert III. \ Faineants. 
 
 711. 
 
 Dagobert III. ( _^-- 
 
 715. 
 
 Chilperic II. 1 
 
 720. 
 
 Thierry IV. J 
 
 742. 
 
 Childeric III. / 
 
 
 CARLOVINGIAN line. 
 
 752. 
 
 Pepin. 
 
 768. 
 
 Charlemagne. 
 
 814. 
 
 Louis (le Debonnaire). 
 
 
 KINGS OF FRANCE. 
 
 843. 
 
 Charles (the Bald). 
 
 877. 
 
 Louis (the Stammerer). 
 
 879. 
 
 Louis III., and Carloman. 
 
 884. 
 
 Charles (the Fat of Germany). 
 
 892. 
 
 Charles III. (the Simple). . 
 
 936. 
 
 Louis IV. (d'outre-mer). 
 
 954. 
 
 LOTHAIRE. 
 
 986. 
 
 Louis V. (the Idle). 
 
 
 CAPETIAN LINE. 
 
 987. 
 
 Hugh Capet. 
 
 996. 
 
 Robert. 
 
 1031. 
 
 Henry I. 
 
 1060. 
 
 Philip I. 
 
FRENCH KINGS. XXV 
 
 AD. 
 1108. 
 
 Louis VI. (the Fat). 
 
 1137. 
 
 Louis VII. (the Young). 
 
 1180. 
 
 Philip II. (Philip Augustus). 
 
 1223. 
 
 Louis VIII. 
 
 1226. 
 
 Louis IX. (Saint Louis). 
 
 1270. 
 
 Philip III. (the Hardy). 
 
 1285. 
 
 Philip IV. (the Handsome). 
 
 1S14. 
 
 Louis X. (le Hutin, or Quarrelsome). 
 
 1316. 
 
 Philip V. (the Long). 
 
 1822. 
 
 Charles IV. (the Handsome). 
 
 
 VALOIS BRANCH. 
 
 1328. 
 
 Philip VI. (de Valois). 
 
 1350. 
 
 John (the Good-natured). 
 
 1364. 
 
 Charles V. 
 
 1380. 
 
 Charles VI. 
 
 1422. 
 
 Charles VII. 
 
 1461. 
 
 Louis XI. 
 
 1483. 
 
 Charles VIII. 
 
 
 VALOIS-ORLEANS. 
 
 1498. 
 
 Louis XII. 
 
 
 VALOIS-ANGOULEME. 
 
 1515. 
 
 Francis I. 
 
 1547. 
 
 Henry II. 
 
 1559. 
 
 Francis II. 
 
 1560. 
 
 Charles IX. 
 
 1574. 
 
 Henry III. 
 
 
 BOURBON BRANCH. 
 
 1589. 
 
 Henry IV. 
 
 1610. 
 
 Louis XIII. 
 
 1643. 
 
 Louis XIV. 
 
 1715. 
 
 Louis XV. 
 
 1774. 
 
 Louis XVI. 
 
 1793. 
 
 The First Republic. 
 
 1804. 
 
 The First Empire — Napoleon. 
 
 1814. 
 
 Louis XVIII. 
 
 1824. 
 
 Charles X. 
 
 KING OF THE FRENCH. 
 
 BOURBON-ORLEANS. 
 
 1830. Louis Philippe. 
 1848. The Second Republic. 
 
 1852. The Second Empire. 
 
 .1870. The Third Republic. 
 
I: ¥ $ % % • 
 
 Abd-el-Kadek, 278. 
 Abelard, 71. 
 Aboukir, battle of, 229. 
 Acre, siege of, 229. 
 Agnadello, battle of, 110. 
 Aix, 10. 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, 25. 
 
 u treaty of, 163, 181. 
 Albi, 51. 
 Albigenses, 51. 
 Alcuin, 25, 35. 
 Alencon, Duke of, 75. 
 Alexander, the Emperor, 242. 
 Algeria, 278. 
 Allodial lands, '32. 
 Alsace, 154. 
 
 Amboise, conspiracy of, 126. 
 America, war in, 187. 
 Amiens, peace of, 238. 
 Ancients, council of, 220. 
 Angouleme, Duke of, 112. 
 Anjou, Duke of, 83, 133. 
 Annates, 114. 
 Anne of Austria, 149, 152. 
 
 " " Beaujeu, 99. 
 
 " " Brittany, 101, 108, 109. . 
 Aquitaine, 23, 40. 
 Arc, Joan of, 89. 
 Arcole, 225. 
 Arians, 14. 
 Armagnacs, 88. 
 Arques, battle of, 136. 
 Arras, treaties of, 93, 93. 
 Aspern, battle of, 247. 
 Assembly, Constituent, 198. 
 " Legislative, 208. 
 " National, 213. 
 Assignats, 207. 
 Attila, 12. 
 
 Augsburg, League of, 169. 
 Augustus, Philip II., 47. 
 Austerlitz, battle of, 244. 
 Austrasia, 13, 19. 
 Avignon, 52, 65. 
 Azincourt, 86. 
 
 Baillt, 202, 
 Balafre,le, 132. 
 Banquets, political, 279. 
 Barbarossa, 118. 
 Barras, 221. 
 Barricades, day of the, 153. 
 
 Barri, Countess du, 181. 
 Barthelemy, 231. 
 
 Bartholomew, St, , massacre of, 130. 
 Bassano, battle of, 225. 
 Bastille, 175, 201. 
 Bautzen, battle of, 256. 
 Bayard, 113. 
 Bazaine, 290. 
 Beam, 128. 
 
 Bearnois (Henry of Navarre), 128. 
 Beauharnais, Eugene de, 223. 
 Beaujeu, lady of. 99. 
 Becket, Thomas a, 47. 
 Bed of justice, 154. 
 Benedictine monks, 31. 
 Beresina, passage of the, 255. 
 Berlin decrees, 245. 
 Bernard, St., passage of, 236. 
 Bernadotte, Marshal, 251. 
 Berri, Duke of, 83. 
 Bertha, wife of Robert; 38. 
 Bertrand du Guesclin, 81. 
 Biron, Marshal, 146. 
 Black death, 70. 
 Blanche of Castille, 52. 
 Blenheim, battle of, 172. 
 Blois, castle of, 134. 
 Bliicher, General, 258. 
 Boniface, Pope, 64. 
 Borgia, Caesar, 110. 
 Borodino, battle of, 254. 
 Bossuet, 167. 
 Boufflers, Marshal, 172. 
 Bourbon, Antoine de (King of Navarre). 
 126, 128. 
 
 " Constable de, 115, 117. 
 
 " Cardinal of, 136. 
 Duke of, 177. 
 Houce of, 136. 
 Bourdaloue, 167. 
 Bourgeois, 57, 69, 149. 
 Bouvines, battle of, 49. 
 Bretigny, treaty of, 79. 
 Brienne, de, Archbishop, 190. 
 Brittany, 23, 101. 
 Bruges, 62. 
 Brunehaut^ 19, 
 Buonaparte, Napoleon, 221. 
 Burgundians, 12, 14, 86. 
 Burgundy, 96. 
 
 " Duke of, Jean sans Peur, 86. 
 
 11 " Philip the Bold, 95, 96. 
 
INDEX 
 
 XXV11 
 
 Burgundy, Duke of, Philip the Good, 88. 
 Mary of, 98. 
 
 Cadotjdal, Georges, 239. 
 
 Caesar, Julius, 11. 
 
 Calais, 75, 122. 
 
 Calonne, 190. 
 
 Calvin, 119. 
 
 Cambrai, league of, 110. 
 
 " peace of, 117. 
 Campo Formio, treaty of, 226, 
 Capet. Hugh, 31, 36. 
 Capetian line, 37. 
 Capitularies. 25. 
 Carbonari, 272. 
 Carloman, 23. 
 Caiiovingian line, 23. 
 Carnot, 220. 
 
 Cassel, battle of, 72, 165. 
 Castiglione, battle of, 224. 
 Cateau-Cambresis. peace of, 122. 
 Catherine de' Medici, 121, 125. 
 Catinat, Marshal, 170. 
 Castillon, 93. 
 Cavaignac, 282. 
 Chalais, Count of, 152. 
 Ciialons, battle of, 12. 
 Chambord, Count of, 275. 
 Champagne, 60. 
 Champ de Mars, 24 
 Chandos, 81. 
 Charlemagne, 23. 
 Charles Martel, 20. 
 Charles I., xxiv., table in Appendix. 
 " II., the Fat, xxiv., table in App. 
 " III., the Simple, xxiv., " 
 
 IV., le Bel, 65. 
 
 V., the Wise. 80. 
 " VI., the Well-beloved, 83. 
 " VII., the Victorious, 88. 
 " VIII., 1' Affable, 99. 
 " IX., 126. 
 
 X., 136, 272. 
 " of Anjou, 60. 
 
 ofValois, 66. 
 
 V. of Spain, 114. 
 
 the Bold, 95. 
 
 the Bad, 76. 
 Charlotte Corday, 215. 
 Childeric, 22. 
 Chivalry, 53. 
 Chlodowig, 13. 
 Choiseul, 182. 
 Christian church, 13. 
 Church, the, 14. 
 Church building, 142. 
 Cinq-Mars, 153. 
 
 Civil-religious wars, period of, 125. 
 Clisson, Constable, 84. 
 Clootz, Anacharsis, 213. 
 Closter-seven, 182. 
 Clotaire, 18. 
 Clotilda, 17. 
 Clovis, 13, 17. 
 Colbert, 161. 
 Coligny, Admiral, 12G. 
 Committee of Public Safety, 215, 
 Communes. 46, 53, 204. 
 Concini, 148. 
 
 Concordat, 113. 
 
 Condition of society, &c, 32, 52, 68, 75, 
 
 144, 184, 192. 
 Conde the Great, 157. 
 
 " Prince of, 126, 128. 
 Confederation: of the Rhine, 244. 
 Confians, treaty of, 95. 
 Constance of Toulouse, 39. 
 Consulate, the, 235. 
 Continental system, the, 245. 
 Corbie, siege of, 154. 
 Corday, Charlotte, 215. 
 Cordelier Club, 206. 
 Corneille, 167. 
 Corvee, the, 184. 
 Coup d'etat, 282. 
 Courtrai, 62. 
 Courts of Love, 54. 
 Coutras, battle of, 133. 
 Crecy, battle of, 74. 
 Crespy, treaty of, 118. 
 Crevant-sur-Yonne, 89. 
 Crevelt, battle of, 182. 
 Crillon, Duke of, 136. 
 Crimean war, 284. 
 Crusade, period of, 43. 
 
 Dagobert, 19. 
 Danton, 211. 
 D'Arc, Jeanne, 89. 
 Dauphin, origin of name, 76, 
 Day of the Herrinsrs, 89. 
 " Dupesri52. 
 " " Barricades, 158. 
 Decades, 218. 
 Denis, St., 128, 164. 
 Descartes, 197. 
 Desmoulins, Camille, 201. 
 Dettingen, battle of, 180. 
 Diana of Poitiers, 119, 121. 
 Directory, the, 222. 
 
 Distinguished Men, lists of, 16, 22, 71, 197, 
 Dresden, battle of, 256. [265. 
 
 Dreux, battle of, 128. 
 Dubois, 174. 
 Dumb Captain, 126. 
 Dumouriez, 209. 
 Dunes, battle of, 160. 
 Dunois, bastard of, 93. 
 Dupes, the day of the, 152. 
 
 Edward I. of England, 62. 
 
 III. " 76,82. 
 
 the Black Prince, 77. 
 
 IV., 97. 
 Eginhard, 35. 
 
 Egypt, campaign in, 59, 228. 
 Eleanor, 46. 
 Emigrants, the, 10, 205. 
 Enghien, Duke of, 157, 239. 
 Envoult, to, 74. 
 Estaing, Count d\ 188. 
 Etampes, Duchess d,', 117, 119. 
 Eugene, Prince, 170. 
 Eugenie, Empress, 283. 
 Eylau, battle of, 245. 
 
 Faineants, Rois, 19. 
 Family compact, 182. 
 Federation, fete of, 203. 
 
XXV111 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Feudalism, 31. 
 Fenelon, 167. 
 Feuillants, 208. 
 Field of cloth of gold, 115. 
 Fleurus, battle of, 169. 
 Fleury, 178. 
 Foix, Gaston de, 111. 
 Fontenay, battle of, 27. 
 Foutenoy, 180. 
 Fornova, 107. 
 
 Franche Comt6 (Free County), 98. 
 Francis I., 112. 
 " II., 125. 
 Franklin, 187. 
 Frederick of Prussia, 179. 
 Fredegonde, 18. 
 Free lances, 80. 
 French language, 27. 
 Fribourg, battle of, 157. 
 treaty of, 114. 
 Friedland, battle of, 245. 
 Fronde, war of, 158. 
 
 Gabelle, the, 76. 
 Gabrielle d'Estrees, 146. 
 Garigliano, battle of, 110. 
 Gaston, 152. 
 Gaul, 9. 
 
 Genevieve, St., 12. 
 George II. of England, 180. 
 Girondists, the, 208. 
 Godfrey de Bouillon, 44. 
 Godoy, Don Manuel, 246. 
 Grand Design, 147. 
 Granson, battle of, 97. 
 Grasse, Count de, 188. 
 Guesclin, Bertrand du, 81, 82. 
 Guinegate, battle of, 98, 111. 
 Guise, Francis, Duke of, 121. 
 44 Henry, " 1£4. 
 
 Guizot, 277. 
 
 Henry I., 41. 
 II., 121. 
 " III., 132. 
 IV., 136. 
 
 V. , Count de Chambord, 275. 
 II., of England, 47,48. 
 III. " 59. 
 
 V. " 86,88. 
 
 VI. " 88,93. 
 VIH. " 115. 
 
 Henrys, the, 128. 
 Herrings, day of, 89. 
 Hohenlinden. battle of, 237. 
 Hopital, L\ Chancellor, 127, 197. 
 Hugh the Great, 30. 
 
 " Capet, 31. 
 Huguenots, 125. 
 Hundred Days, the, 267. 
 Hundred Years War, 72. 
 
 Innocent, Pope, 51. 
 Iron mask, 174. 
 Italian wars, period of, 106. 
 Ivry, battle of, 137. 
 
 Jacobins, the, 206. 
 Jacquerie, the, 79. 
 
 Jacques Coeur, 94. 
 Jaffa, 229. 
 
 James II. of England, 169. 
 Jarnac, battle of, 128. 
 Jeanne D'Arc, 89. 
 Jemmapes, battle of, 213. 
 Jena, battle of, 244. 
 Jeunesse Doree, la, 220. 
 John, le Bon, 76. 
 
 u of England, 48. 
 Josephine, 250. 
 July, the three days of, 274. 
 
 Knights, 53. 
 
 Labedoyere, General, 271. 
 Ladies' peace, 117. 
 Lafayette, General, 188, 204. 
 Lamartine, 28L 
 Langue cVoc, 51. 
 d'oil, 51. 
 Languedoc, 47, 51, 57. 
 Launay, de, 201. 
 Law, John, 176. 
 Lawfelt, battle of, 181. 
 League, the Catholic, 132. 
 " Holy, 110, 117. 
 " of the Public Good, 95. 
 LeiDsic, battle of, 256. 
 Lens, battle of, 158. 
 Leo X., Pope, 114. 
 Ligny, battle of, 268. 
 Limoges, 81. 
 Lodi, battle of, 223. 
 Lorraine, 28, 183. 
 Lothaire, 27. 
 Lotharingia, 28. 
 Louis I, le Debonnaire, 26. 
 
 " II., le Begue. See table in App. 
 
 " III. See table in Appendix. 
 
 " IV., d'Outremer. See table in App. 
 
 '■ V., le Faineant. See table in App. 
 
 " VI, le Gros, 45. 
 
 " VII., le Jeune, 46. 
 
 " VIII., 51. 
 
 " IX., Saint, 57. 
 
 14 X., le Hutin, 65. 
 
 " XI, 94. 
 
 ■" XII., 108. 
 
 44 XIII, 147. 
 
 " XIV., 156. 
 
 " XV., 174. 
 
 44 XVI, 185. 
 
 44 XVII., 231. 
 
 44 XVIIL, 266. 
 
 44 Philippe, 275. 
 
 44 Napoleon, 282. 
 Louise of Savoy, 115. 
 Luneville, treaty of, 238. 
 Louvois, 162. 
 Liitzen, battle of, 256. 
 Luxemburg, Duke of, 163. 
 Luynes, the, 149. 
 
 Macdonald, Ilarshal, 249. 
 Madrid, treaty of, 116. 
 Magenta, battle of, 286. 
 Maid of Orleans, 90. 
 Maintenon, Madame do, 168. 
 Malesherbes, 186. 
 
I N D E X . 
 
 XXIX 
 
 Malhies, league of, 111. 
 
 Malplaquet, battle of 172. 
 
 Malta, 232. 
 
 Manclat, 211. 
 
 Manners and customs, 14, 31, 55, 
 
 110, 193, 261. 
 Mansard, 167. 
 Marat, 211. 
 Marcel, 78. 
 
 Marengo, battle of, 236, 
 Marie de' Medici, 146. 
 Maria Theresa, 179. 
 Marie Antoinette, 185, 216. 
 Marignano, battle of, 113. 
 Martel, Charles, 20. 
 Martinet, 163. 
 Mary of Burgundy, 98. 
 Mary Stuart, 125. 
 Massena, General, 237. 
 Massilia (Marseilles), 10. 
 Massillon, 167. 
 Maurepas, 186. 
 Mayenne, Duke of, 135. 
 Mayors of the palace, 20. 
 Maximilian of Austria, 98, 101. 
 Mazarin, 158. 
 Medici, Catherine de 1 , 125. 
 
 " Marie de', 146. 
 Merovingian line, 17. 
 Metz, 122, 153. 
 Milan, 109, 111. 
 Minden, battle of, 182. 
 Mirabeau, Count, 207. 
 Mississippi scheme, 176. 
 Mol ere, 13T. 
 
 Moneontour, battle of, 143. 
 Moniteur, 251. 
 
 Mons-en-Puelle, battle of, 63. 
 Monsieur, peace of, 143 
 Montebello, battle of, 233. 
 Montecuculi, 184. 
 Mountain, the, 233. 
 Montlherry, battle of, 95. 
 " castle of, 45. 
 
 Montmorency, Constable, 121. . 
 Moore, Sir John, 247. 
 Morat, battle of, 97. 
 Moreau, General, 225. 
 Mount Tabor, battle of, 229. 
 
 Nantes, edict of, 140. 
 Naples, 108. 
 Napoleon I., 241. 
 
 II., 251. 
 
 Ill, 284. 
 National Guard, 201. 
 Navarre, king of, 126, 128. 
 " Jeanne, 128. 
 Henry of, 138. 
 Navarino, battle of, 273. 
 Necker, 187. 
 
 Neerwinden, battle of, 170. 
 Neustria, 13, 19. 
 Nice, 44. 
 
 Nime^uen, treaty of, 165. 
 Nismes, 11. 
 
 Nordlingen, battle of, 157. 
 Normandy, 30, 50. 
 Normans, the, 28. 
 
 102. 
 
 Notables, Assembly of, 149, 100. 
 Notre Dame, 50. 
 Novara, battle of, 109. 
 
 Orange, 11. 
 Oriflamme, 40. 
 Orleans, 90. 
 
 Louis, Duke of (Louis XII.), 99, 
 
 108. 
 Gaston, Duke of, 152. 
 Philip, Duke of, 174. 
 Philip Egalite, Duke of, 218. 
 " Louis Philippe, Duke of, 275. 
 
 Maid of, 89, 90. 
 " siege of, 90. 
 Ormesson, d', 188. 
 Oudenarde, battle of, 172. 
 
 PAIX PERPETUELLE, 113. 
 
 Palatinate, 169. 
 Paris, treaty of, 182. 
 Parliament, 61. 
 Pascal, 167. 
 Pavia, battle of. 116. 
 Peace of God, 42. 
 Peasants, 70, 100, 171, 184. 
 Pedro the Cruel, 81. 
 Peers of France. 49. 
 Pepin d'Heristal, 20. 
 Pepin the Short, 23. 
 Peroune, 96. 
 | Peter the Hermit, 44. 
 Petion, 210. 
 Philip 1., 42. 
 
 " II., 47. 
 
 " III.,leIIardi, 60. 
 
 " IV.. le Bel, 61. 
 
 " V., le Long, 65. 
 
 " VI., 72. 
 
 " II. of Spain, 139. 
 
 " Egalite, 218. 
 Pichegru, General, 220. 
 Poitiers, battle of, 77. 
 
 " Diana de, 121. 
 Pompadour, Madame de, 181. 
 Pouiatowski, Marshal, 257. 
 Poussin. 187. 
 Pragmatic Sanction, 179. 
 Presburg, treaty of, 243. 
 Procida, John of, 61. 
 Provence, 11, 47. 
 Pyramids, battle of, 228. 
 Pyrenees, peace of, 160. 
 
 Quadruple Alliance, 175, 277. 
 Quatre Bras, battle of, 268. 
 Quebec, 182. 
 Quentin, St., 122. 
 
 Racine, 167. 
 
 Ramillies, battle of, 172. 
 
 Raucoux, battle of, 180. 
 
 Ravaillac, 147. 
 
 Ravenna, battle of, HI. 
 
 Raymond, 51. 
 
 References for reading, 16, 34, 104, 124, 
 
 142, 196. 
 Reformation, 119. 
 Reign of Terror, 216. 
 
XXX 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Renaissance, 120. 
 
 Rene, 106. 
 
 Retz, Cardinal de, 159. 
 
 Revolutionary Tribunal. 215. 
 
 Iiheims, 17, 91. 
 
 Richard, Cceur de Lion, 48. 
 
 " Sans Peur, 41. 
 Richelieu, 150. 
 Richemont. 94. 
 Rivoli, battle of, 225. 
 Robert the Magnificent, 41. 
 le Diable, 42. 
 the Pious, 38. 
 " of Artois, 72. 
 Robespierre, 213. 
 Rochelle, 150. 
 Rocroi, battle of, 157. 
 Rois Faineants, 19. 
 Roland, 209. 
 Rollo, £9. 
 Rome, 117. 
 
 Rosbach, battle of, 182. 
 Roscbecque, " 83. 
 Roturiers, 185. 
 Rouen, 30. 
 Roussillon, 198, 
 Russia, invasion of, 249. 
 Ryswick, treaty of, 171. 
 
 Saltans, 13. 
 Salic law, 66. 
 Saracens, 20. 
 SaarbriicU, battle of, 289. 
 Savoy, Duke of, 146. 
 
 u Louise of, 115. 
 Saxe, Marshal, 180. 
 Rebomberg, 137. 
 Sedan, battle of, 290. 
 Seneffe, " 165. 
 
 September massacre, 212. 
 Septimania, 23. 
 Serfs, 32, 70. 
 Seven Years War, 181. 
 Sforza, 109. 
 
 Sieyes, Abbe, 191, 232. 
 Sintzheim, battle of, 163. 
 Sluys, 74. 
 Soissons, 18. 
 
 " Count of, 153. 
 Solferino, battle of, 286. 
 Sorbonne, 155. 
 Sorrel, Agnes, 92. 
 Spanish succession, 171-2, 229. 
 Spurs, battles of, 63, 111. 
 Stanislaus Seczynski. 177. 
 States-General, 64, 149, 190. 
 Steinkirk, battle of, 170. 
 Stylus, 69. 
 Suger, 71. 
 Sully, 144. 
 Summary, 14, 22, 31, 67, 101, 123, 135, 
 
 140, 191. 
 Suwarrow, 228. 
 Swiss, 97, 109, 113. 
 Syagrius, 13. 
 
 Taxavera, battle of, 250. 
 Talbot, 92, 93. 
 Templars, 65. 
 
 Tennis-court oath, 199, 200. 
 Terray, Abbe, 184. 
 Testry, battle of, £0. 
 Thiers, 293. 
 
 Thirty Years War, 154, 157. 
 Tie s-etat, 64, 100, 149, 200. 
 Tilsit, treaty of, 246. 
 Toul, 158. 
 
 Tournaments, 54, 123. 
 Tours, battle of, 20. 
 Trafalgar, battle of. 243. 
 Tremouille, General, 109. 
 Tricolor, 201. 
 Triple alliance, 162. 
 Troubadours, 54. 
 Troveres, 54. 
 Troyes, treaty of, 88. 
 Truce of God, 42. 
 Turenne, 159. 
 Turgot, 186. 
 
 Ulm, 242. 
 
 University of Paris, 50. 
 
 Utrecht, peace of, 173. 
 
 Valmt, battle of, 213. 
 Valois Line, 60. 
 
 " -Angouleme, 112. 
 
 " -Orleans Line, 108. 
 
 " -House, 72. 
 Valteline, 154. 
 Vassy, massacre of, 127. 
 Vauban, 162. 
 Vaudois, 119. 
 VendSme. battle of, 49. 
 " Marshal, 172. 
 Verdun, 27, 158. 
 
 treaty of, 27. 
 Verneuil, battle of, 89. 
 Versailles, 168, 188. 
 
 " storming of, 204. 
 Vervins, treaty of, 139. 
 Vespers, Sicilian, 61. 
 Vienna, treaties of, 179, 249. 
 Villars, Marshal, 172, 179. 
 Villeroi, 170. 
 Vinci, Leonardo da, 120. 
 Viouville, battle of, 290. 
 Visigoths. 12, 14, 18. 
 Vittoria, battle of, 256. 
 Vitry, 46. 
 Voltaire, 185. 
 
 Wagram, battle of, 248. 
 Waldenses, 119. 
 Waterloo, battle of, 268. 
 Weissenburg, " 290. 
 Wellington, 268. 
 Westphalia, ireaty of, 158. 
 William of Orange, 169. 
 
 kt the Conqueror, 42, 43. 
 
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