N-f^ '"^ v'v-' A X ■'^- II I ^ ° vV .>> v^-^- \- . 't/'.V ^9^^ "^^^ 3 0^ .•^ Oo. oo' /■ Oo^ ^^y. v^' o 0' ,0 o. ''^, -S- ' t -0- .. - o:^ -^ri. kV "V, tr^ C/i THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. BY ALBERT GARDNER BOYDEN, A. M., Principal Emeritus State Normal School, Bridgeiaater, Massachicsetts. 1913: ARTHUR H. WILLIS, PRINTER, BRIDGEWATER, MASS. v^^"^^'^ ,0-^ COPYRIGHT, 1913, BY ALBERT GARDNER BOYDEN. / ©CI.A346i84 To My Pupils and My Associate Teachers This Book is Gratefully Dedicated. Preface. rpHE modern teacher must be a live person with a live pur- -*- pose, which he must execute in a live manner. The purpose of this volume is to set forth in brief topical outline the scope and aim of the work of the modern teacher, how he is to prepare himself for his great work; and how he is to come into the skilful practice of his art. Its subject matter, drawn from many sources, and ar- ranged to facilitate consideration, has been the basis for study and discussion in the preparation of thousands of young men and women who have become teachers in our public schools. It is the product of fifty-three years of ob- servation and study in teaching the graduating classes as principal, or principal emeritus, of the Bridgewater State Normal School. It has a message for teachers, for those who are prepar- ing to teach, for parents who are the co-partners of teachers, and for the general public who share with the parent and teacher in building character in the young. In response to requests for its publication, the volumne is sent forth in the hope that it will be helpful to many who are striving to educate the children and youth of today, who tomorrow will be the men and the women to do the world's work. Albert G. Boyden, March, 1913. Contents. PART I. SCOPE AND AIM OF THE TEACHER'S WORK. Chapter Page I. Introduction ...... 11 II. The Point of View ..... 15 III. The Teacher With His Pupils . . 24 IV. The Teacher a Practical Idealist . . 35 PART II. THE TEACHER IN PREPARATION FOR HIS WORK. V. The Educational Study of Man . . 40 VI. Man's Plack In the World .... 43 VII. The Study of the Body . . . . 51 VIII. The Mind. Definitions. Intellect . . 67 IX. The Mind Presenting the External World 79 X. The Mind Presenting the Inner World . 95 XI. The Mind Representing. Memory . . 98 XII. The Mind Representing. Imagination . 108 XIII. The Mind Generalizing .... 118 XIV. The Mind Judging 135 XV. The Mind Reasoning 139 XVI. The Mind Systematizing .... 147 XVII. The Mind Feeling. Sensibility . . 157 XVIII. The Mind Choosing. The Will . . . 170 XIX. Recapitulation ..... 185 XX. Educational Study of Subjects . . . 189 PART III. THE TEACHER IN THE SKILFUL PRACTICE OF HIS ART. XXI. The Art of Teaching .... 195 XXII. School Organization . ... 220 XXIIL Principles of Government . . . 230 XXIV. Observation of Parental Teaching . . 242 XXV. Observation of Kindergarten . . . 261 XXVI. Observation of the Four Primary Grades 254 XXVII. Observation of the Five Grammar Grades 259 XXVIIT. Observation of the High School . . 269 XXIX. Preliminary Practice In Teaching . 279 XXX. Personality of the Teacher . . . 280 XXXI. In Conclusion ...... 285 The Teacher In Modern Life. PART I. SCOPE AND AIM OF TEACHER'S WORK. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION. He most" lives who thinks most, feels the noblest, acts the best. — Bailey. 1. Life. Life in itself is the |[nscrutable mystery of God, but the phenomena of hfe— nutritive, animal, and rational, — are ever before us and present the most interest- ing, the most helpful, and the most important subjects for study that can engage our attention. 2. Human Life. We are individual human beings with our inheritance of natural ability of one, two, five, or ten talents; members of the great brotherhood of man; children of "Our Father," living in his world of marvelous beauty, wonderful in its adaption to our needs, big with opportunity for the unfolding and perfecting of our lives individually, socially, and filially. 3. Modern Life. The modern life into which the teacher of today in our country enters as a living factor is a com- munity of more than ninety-one millions of persons of all nationalities, one great state composed of smaller states, holding international relations with all the states of the world; living on a territory extending into all climes and to the distant isles of the sea, rich in all the natural resources necessary to sustain a high state of civilization; limited by the ocean on the east, south, and west, by the Great Lakes and the territory of a sister nation of the same blood on the north; under a republican form of government founded upon the intelligence and virtue of its citizens, "which aims to secure the prevalence of justice by self imposed law," to give every man "a square deal," to educate every man to "square his life by the Ten Commandments," to seek the 12 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. higher moral and spiritual life and the social righteousness which exalteth a nation. 4. Builders of the Nation. We have our systems of public schools for the building of character in our children and for Americanizing the children from foreign shores. The quality of the education given in our public schools is measured by the competency and character of our public school teachers. "The builders of the Nation are the fathers, the mothers, the teachers. They are educating the children from the cradle. ' ' 5. Question. (1) The primary question for every man is not. How many tafents have I, but, Am I using every talent I have to the full measure of my ability? Am I living for self, or am I living the larger, higher life in the service of God and my f ellowmen ? (2) How did I come by all that which I call my own, — "my life, my home, my friends, my education, my money, my power, my work," — all the opportunities of my life? They are all the result of forces which were in action before I arrived in this world. (3) How can I ever pay the debt I owe to God and my f ellowmen for the rich inheritance to which I was born? Surely I have freely received. All these riches have been loaned to me. I have had but to reach out my hand and receive these gifts of my life. 6. The Higher Life. The one great business of every human being is to live the higher life in the service of God and his f ellowmen. The Great Teacher says, * ' Seek ye first the kingdom of God and His righteousness, and all things needful shall be added unto you." "And whosoever will be great among you, let him be your minister; and whosoever will be chief among you, let him be your servant." " Freely ye have received, freely give." 7. The Evolution of the Earth. The age-long process of the evolution of the earth as the home of man in this life while he is being educated in this great world school is a strong indication that man was made for an endless life, of which this life is only the beginning. INTRODUCTION. 13 8. The Gift of Rational Life. God gave man the great gift of rational life that he might have the power of dominion over all the earth. The earth is the great laboratory in which man is to work out the problems of life. It is only by the righteous exertion of all his powers that man finds the high- est good and the whole good of his life and comes into the full joy of living. The course of study in this great world school of life is endless. God is constantly opening to man new manifesta- tions of powerg, new revelations of truth and beauty, new exhibitions of love for his children. 9. Laws of Life. The laws of life are God's laws and they remain the same through all generations. The nature of all men is one. There is no new psychology, but psycho- logy is new to each generation. The principles of education are universal. There is no new education, but education is new to each succeeding generation. The changes come in adapting the application of the principles of education to the advancing stages in man's development and progress. 10. The Master. The master [of the great school of life in which we all are pupils has infinite wisdom, power, and goodness. He knows every need of every pupil, he has the ability to supply every need, and the love which constantly seeks every good for every pupil, and He has a plan for the life of every pupil. 11. New Pupils. Every day anew generation of pupils enters this great school of life seeking their places among their fellow pupils. They come helpless, and dependent upon their parents and teachers. They have everything to learn. The Great Teacher, the friend of every child, says, "Suffer the little children to come unto me and forbid them not, for of such is the kingdom of heaven." 12. The Problem to be Solved. The great problem given to the parent and the teacher to solve is. How to discover the young human soul to himself; to lead him to find the forces and powers which are active in nature and in man; to lead him to find the conditions and products of the normal activity of these forces and powers; to lead him to the command of / 14 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. his body for the rational expression of himself; to lead him to that self-command and self-direction that will enable him to hve and do his share in the world's work. 13. The Solution of the Problem. How to set our better self to work to achieve the solution of this life problem is the object of our thought in this series of discussions upon the Teacher in Modern Life. 14. The True Teacher is a Practical Idealist, who has a clear idea of the nature and scope of his work; and a skilful working knowledge of the natural modes of expressing him- self; of the modes of activity common to men; of what is peculiar to the individual man; of the principles of education; of character building; of the subjects to be used in teaching; of the art of teaching; of the organization of the school; of the principles of government; of the power of the teacher's personality. 15. An Educational Course of Study. The preparation of the teacher calls for an educational course of study to set forth the Gospel of service in teaching. The purpose of this course is manifold and involves many subjects. The subject matter of the course needs to be organized and expressed in topical arrangement, that the teacher may see clearly and connectedly what he has to do, and go on to learn definitely how he is to accomplish his work. Keen observation, clear thinking, simple expression, and the spirit of loving service along all the lines of the teacher's work, are essentials of its successful accomplishment. " Four things a man must surely do If he would make his record true; To think without confusion, clearly, To act from honest motives purely, To love his fellowmen sincerely, To trust in God and heaven securely" — Dr. Henry Van Dyke. CHAPTER II. THE POINT OF VIEW. That men may have life abundantly. — The Master. § I. The Purpose of the Teacher. 1. Abundant Life for the Pupil. The Great Teacher said, in speaking of himself as the Good Shepherd, "I came that men may have life and that they may have it abun- dantly." Every true teacher comes to his pupils that they may have abundantly, physical, intellectual, esthetic, moral, and spiritual life. He is to enter into the whole life of his pupils and bear them on in his own life towards perfection of character. 2. Three Fundamental Questions. What is the young human being? What is it to live? What is teaching? need to be answered broadly at the outset, to get the point of view from which the teacher can see the scope and aim of his work in clear perspective; see how he is to prepare himself for his work; and how he is to come into the skilful practice of his art. §11. What is the Young Human Being? 1. He is the Greatest and Most Beautiful Object in This World. Greatest in the possibilities which are involved in his power to think, to love and hate, to will and achieve. Most beautiful, in his appeal to our sense of the perfection to which he may attain. He is fresh from the hand of his Crea- tor, who breathed into his nostrils the breath of life and he became a living soul. He is that most mysterious union of matter and mind, body and soul, flesh and spirit. 2. He Has a Six Story Life. (1) The nutritive life of 16 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. eating, drinking, digestion, and sleeping for sustaining the body. (2) The animal life of sensation and voluntary motion which puts him into active communication with the external world. (3) The intellectual life of perception, memory, imagi- nation, and reflection which impels him to think. (4) The emotional life of instinct, emotion, desire, and affection by which he is impelled to choice and action. (5) The moral life of feeling obligation to choose the higher good and the right way of action, and of feeling approbation after right action and guilt after wrong action, for governing his natural impulses which have no limit in themselves. (6) The spiritual life of God-consciousness by which he is to choose the principle that shall rule his life and give him dominion over himself and the world. Each lower story of his life is in condition for all the stories above it, and the individual is to live the life of each story in the way that will best promote the life of the stories above it and enable him to rise to the full stature of true manhood. 3. He is Under the Action of His Heredity. * ' Like be- gets like " is the law of every species. He is the outcome of the lives that have flowed together into his being from his ancestors. He inherits the vital force, the mental aptitudes, and the personal traits of his parents according to the meas- ure of their development. 4. He is Under the Ever Changing Pressure of His Six- fold Environment. (1) He lives in constant relation to the natural world which encircles him at every step of his course, and furnishes him with new ideas for his thinking and his sense of beauty, and with the re-action of her forces upon his will. (2) He lives in the home in close relation to father and mother, brother and sister, under authority, in the atmos- phere of love, in which he learns the great lessons of obedi- THE POINT OF VIEW. 17 ence, industry, fidelity, and love, in proportion to the quality of the home. (3) He lives in the school in intimate relation w^ith his teachers and fellow-pupils, in which his life is developed by all-round teaching and training in proportion to the good quality of the school. (4) He lives in relation to the church, either directly or indirectly, in which he is to learn the lessons of righteous- ness. (5) He lives in relation to the larger community of society, the state, the nation, and the race, in which he is to learn the lessons of justice. (6) He lives, moves, and has his being in God, who speaks to him in the inner man bidding him follow the lead- ing of his spirit. 5. He Has a Long Period of Infancy. In the language of Henry Ward Beecher, ' ' The nature of man is one which, when brought fully up to its divine ideal, will produce con- stant happiness. But man is not born into an ideal state — into a perfect state, even. On the contrary he is born farther from his nature than any other creature on earth. Nothing is so far from perfection when it starts as man. There is nothing so far from the perfection of even his physical powers as man. Born as a babe, what is a man that neither sees nor hears; that distinguishes nothing; that knows nothing? And yet that child is a son of God, and is destined yet, through evolu- tion, education, and inspiration, to rise and be but little lower than the angels. But, oh, how long is the journey from the cradle to the crown." 6. He Has Distinctly Marked Stages of Development, infancy, childhood, boyhood, youth, young manhood, and maturity. He is longer in coming to maturity than any other animal. He has great capacity for progress and for the development of character. This capacity makes his education a matter of the highest moment. 7. Sex.— Sex is a strong, pervasive, and controlling ele- ment which must be kept steadily in mind in the education of 18 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. human beings. " Male and female created He them." Each is the complement of the other. The family is the unit of human society. The definite and permanent relationships of father and mother, brother and sister, are the conditions for the cultivation of the social virtues which are the foundations of human society. 8. Stimulus and Direction. The human being needs stimulus and direction adapted to his heredity, his environ- ment, the different stages of his development, his sex, his individuality. Such in broad perspective are the human beings whom the teacher is to incite to live. §111. What is it to Live? 1. W^e Live Under Law. The one great fact for us to remember about the action of a law is its uniformity. There is no variableness in a law. Law gives stability, certainty, and liberty, which are fundamental conditions of life. There cannot be a law without a penalty for its violation and there is no escape from the penalty of a violated law. 2. Law is the Condition of Life. The laws of our being are the conditions which infinite wisdom has established to govern the unfolding of our life. They are prompted by His infinite love, which causes all things to work together for our good. " Looking outward, looking soulward, We would learn life's perfect law, What the law is and the prophets, Simply love for God and man." 3. Reason for Law. ' * Every law of God finds its reason in the highest well-being of man." Obedience to the laws of our being brings joy and peace and perfection of character. Disobedience to these laws brings unrest and sorrow and degradation of the soul. The weak, impoverished, degraded, human being is the product of disobedience of the laws of human life, either by himself or by his ancestors. 4. "Law is the Mother of Liberty."— As we conform to the laws of our being we have the highest thought, the purest joy, and the greatest freedom and strength of will. THE POINT OF VIEW. 19 5. *' Submission to Law is the Price of Power." The whole range of our being in the full exercise of all our power must conform to the laws of our Creator, if we would secure the highest good of which we are capable, and the whole good we were made to enjoy. This can come to us only through the free, conscious exertion of all our power. 6. Every Human Being is Dependent Upon His Fel- lows. The child, the boy, the youth is dependent upon the parent and teacher for support, care, and the right beginning in life. The young man is dependent upon his elders for stimulus, direction, and encouragement to push on in the right course. The mature man is dependent upon his fellows for stimulus, direction, and fellowship; and all are dependent upon infinite wisdom for inspiration, illumination, strength, and guidance in the struggle of life. 7. Every Person is in a Struggle. His natural appe- tites, desires, and affections contend with his reason and conscience for excessive indulgence. He is in a struggle with his natural environment to secure food, clothing, shel- ter, and the property he must have to enjoy his existence. He is in struggle with his fellows contending for his place among them that he may be one with them. He is in strug- gle with the laws of his Maker, often unwilling to obey them and come into harmony with the divine mind. 8. The Life of Today is the Outcome of the Thought, the Invention, the Toil, the Struggle and the Sacrifice of the Past. Motley thus tersely sums up the evolution of American hfe: — "Speech, the alphabet, Mt. Sinai, Egypt, Greece, Rome, Nazareth, the feudal system, the Magna Charter, gunpowder, the printing press, the mariner's compass, America." This is the stream of life into which the individ- ual American is born, which is flowing on into the genera- tions which are to follow. 9. Life Becomes Complex as Civilization Advances. A century ago the population was largely in the country, there were few cities. The rural home was the centre of industrial and social life. As the century moved on there came the evolution of mechanical power in the steam engine, the loco- 20 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. motive, and the steamship; there came the substitution of machinery for hand labor in the shop, in the factory, and on the farm; there came the telegraph and the telephone, the electric motor and the electric light. These inventions have greatly facilitated travel, transportation, trade and com- merce; have made numerous divisions and subdivisions of labor; have brought the people into large centers of popula- tion; have intensified the desire for property, knowledge, and power; and call for a corresponding evolution in esthetic, moral, spiritual, and educational thought. 10. The Modern School System. With these great changes in the industrial and social conditions of Hfe there has come the modern school system of the graded school, and its supplement, the free high school, and the industrial school. In the modern home, often the father is so much absorbed in business, and the mother is so much engaged in social Hfe, that they do not take sufficient time or thought for the educa- tion of their children ; they devolve this most important duty upon the school in large measure. The school and the teacher have become a larger and constantly enlarging factor in the education of the children. 11. Aim of Life. The aim of life is the unfolding and perfecting of the whole man, the securing of knowledge, power,— physical, intellectual, moral, and spiritual,— and skill, to the full measure of his ability, that he may keep the law of love for God and man. 12. Living. Living is the conscious exertion and control of all our powers, up to the full measure of our ability, under the laws of our being. Whatever the vocation, whatever the condition, whatever the times in which one lives, he should be a true man, living to the full measure of true manhood. If he lives he will be in harmony with himself, with his fel- lowmen, and with God. §IV. What is Teaching? 1. Teaching Has Three Prime Factors, the teacher who teaches, and the pupil who is taught, -standing face to face, eye to eye,— and the truth, beauty, and goodness which the THE POINT OF VIEW. 21 pupil needs to acquire and which the teacher causes him to gain. 2. Concerning the First Factor, the Teacher W^ho Teaches- It has been said, that the essence of teaching is causing another to know; and that the essence of training is causing another to do; and it may be said, that the essence of educa- tion is causing another, through knowing and doing, to become what he ought to be. Since knowing, feehng, and wilHng are inseparable ele- ments in the conscious mental current of the pupil, the teacher cannot stop with causing him to know, he must also cause him to feel and will, to do and become. The secret of power in teaching is the personality of the teacher. The teacher teaches unconsciously by what he is, consciously by what he does. Definition: Teaching is the subtle play of the teacher's life upon the pupil's life, causing him to know the truth he would not learn by himself, to do what he would not do of himself, and to be the person he would not alone become. 3. Concerning the Second Factor, the Pupil W^ho is Taught. He must give himself to follow the lead of the teacher in the full exertion of his mental power. Learning is an active mental process. 4. Concerning the Third Factor. The acquisition of truth, beauty, and goodness by the active, intelligent exer- tion of the pupil is the condition for the unfolding and per- fecting of his life. 5. The Aim of Teaching is the Perfection of Character. The assimilation of truth, beauty, and goodness by the pupil is the condition for the accomplishment of this aim. "Know the truth and the truth shall make you free," is the word of the Master. 6. School Teaching. School teaching implies a company of young persons, organized, who are to be taught as a means to their education, and a person who is competent to stimulate and direct these young persons, both individually and collectively; which means, one who can teach every mem- ber of the class while he teaches the individual pupil; who 22 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. can hold every pupil up to his best effort; and who is able to enter into the social life of his pupils to lead them out and up in their thought into the larger and better life of the commu- nity, the state, the nation, and the race. In these days of rapid communication, the life of the individual is related to the life of the whole race. 7. Instruction is the W^ork of Building In, which is Two- fold. Instruction on the part of the pupil is the constant building into his mind of knowledge and power by his own exertion. Instruction on the part of the teacher is the constant, intelligent stimulation and direction of the pupil's exertion with a view to his education. Teaching is the condition for instruction. 8. Education. (1) The constant upbuilding of the pupil by instruction results in his education. Left to him- self, the child would run wild, in his ignorance of the laws of life, and the unlimited impelling power of his natural im- pulses. Under continuous wise stimulation and direction he is brought up into the state in which he has these impelling powers under the control of the governing power of reason and conscience. When he has gained control of his powers so that he chooses and acts rationally in his relations to nature, man and God, he may be said to be educated. Educa- tion is to be gauged by the degree of self-command one has acquired in meeting the demands of life. (2) There is much in the homely definition of the mechanic, who said, "Education is knowing how to get onto your job." The "job" of the human being is to get com- plete control of all his powers, physical, intellectual, emo- tional, moral, and spiritual, so that he may live. (3) Education as a means is the influence which the educator exerts in bringing up the child from his helpless- ness and ignorance at birth into complete command of him- self, that he may move on under his own direction in the unfolding and perfecting of his life. (4) Education as an end is the state of the person in THE POINT OF VIEW. 23 which he has complete command of all his powers, physical, and rational. (5) Education in its widest meaning includes all the influences which act upon the person to determine his normal activity and make him a true man. It includes all his envi- ronment, natural, human, and divine. (6) Education begins with life and continues through life. We are educated by living. Life is continual increase in power and self control. (7) " The end of education is the development of char- acter; the test of character is capacity for service." CHAPTER III. . THE TEACHER WITH HIS PUPILS. I am among you as he that serves.— The Master. §1. Qualifications of the Teacher. 1. The Personal Relation of Teacher and Pupil is Most Intimate. The teacher is the controlling power in the life of the school, the guide, guardian, governor, exemplar, friend, educator of his pupils. (1) The teacher's personal appearance and bearing at once attract or repel his pupils. (2) His personal habits are a constant help or hindrance in forming good habits in them. (3) His thinking gives tone and coloring to their thoughts. (4) His taste has much influence in forming their tastes. (5) His moral character impresses itself upon their moral natures. (6) His spirit is imbibed by them. The unspoken, unconscious influence of the teacher, v^rhich gives tone, qual- ity, power, to all his instruction, enters so deeply into the life of his pupils that his life affects their lives for good or evil with great power. (7) We cannot emphasize too strongly the personal fitness of the teacher for his work. If he is not fit to exert a wholesome spiritual influence upon the young lives under his control let him turn quickly to another vocation. 2. Spirit of the Teacher. David P. Page, author of Theory and Practice of Teaching, says, "The spirit which should actuate the true teacher is a spirit that seeks not alone pecu- THE TEACHER WITH HIS PUPILS. 25 niary emolument, but desires to be in the highest degree useful to those who are to be taught; a spirit that elevates above everything else the nature and capabilities of the human soul, and that trembles under the responsibility of attempting to be its educator; a spirit that seeks the highest of all rewards, an approving conscience and an approving God; a spirit that earnestly inquires what is right, and dreads to do what is wrong; a spirit that can recognize and reverence the handiwork of God in every child, and that burns with a desire to be instrumental in training it to the highest degree of which it is capable. Such a spirit is the first thing to be sought by the teacher, and without it, the highest talent cannot make him truly excellent in his profes- sion." With this spirit the teacher will love his work, will have a personal interest in his pupils, will be willing to work and to sacrifice for their welfare. It is the spirit of seeking to make other lives richer and fuller through service. 3. Good Character. The teacher must have genuine good character, must be in the spirit of his life, what he would have his pupils be. The character of the teacher is the strongest moral influence in the school. "We do more good by being good than in any other way." 4. Sympathy. The teacher must have the power to enter into the life of the pupil, to think with him, to feel with him, to serve with him, to put himself in the pupil's place. We are governed by sympathy. Sympathy wanting, all is wanting. 5. Power to Lead. The teacher must have the power to lead. He must be able to present truth clearly, forcibly, persuasively. The truth must prevail when once it is brought home to the soul. ' ' Truth comes home to the mind so natu- rally that when we learn it for the first time, it seems as though we did no more than recall it to memory. " " Truth is the most powerful thing in the world, since even fiction must be governed by it, and can only please by its resem- blance." Teaching truth is the most effective way to sup- plant error. 26 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 6. Condition of Leadership. If the teacher would pre- sent truth, beauty, and goodness clearly he must see them with clear vision; if he would present them forcibly he must lay hold of them with all his strength; if he would present persuasively, he must love them with all his heart. They must possess his own soul, and find expression through his own personality. 7. Power to Train. The teacher must incite his pupil to do with his might what he has to do, and to hold on to the end. This is the secret of successful effort. Mental discip- line consists in the power to concentrate energy and to con- tinue effort at will. To accomplish this result requires the aid of a strong teacher, who illustrates in himself this power to work. 8. Power to Inspire. The teacher must awaken high ideals in his pupil. Horace Mann said: "The teacher who is attempting to teach without inspiring the pupil with the desire to learn is hammering on cold iron," The perfect character is never attained without the noble purpose which surmounts all difficulties in the way of its attainment. To inspire this purpose is the highest achievement of the teach- ing art. It is by the enthusiasm of the teacher's own life, as manifest in his high resolve, his love for work, and his per- sonal interest in his pupils, that he inspires them to their best efforts. 9. Large Knowledge. The teacher must have large knowledge of human nature, of the individual pupil, of the subjects he is to use in teaching. He must know much, that he may teach a little well. His knowledge must be at ready command, that he may use it without hesitation. "The first step to knowledge is to know that we are ignorant." The teacher must be a keen observer and a diligent student that he may have fresh thought and mental vigor for daily use. 10. Skill and Tact. The teacher must have skill and tact. Skill is that ready command of the means of teaching which comes from an intelligent acquaintance with the details of his work and with the motives by which the pupil is to be incited to right activity. * ' Tact is the open eye, the quick THE TEACHER WITH HIS PUPILS. 27 ear, the judging taste, the keen smell, and the lively touch; it is the interpreter of all riddles, the surmounter of all diffi- culties, the remover of all obstacles." 11. Must Grow. The teacher must grow. To this end he must Go Right On Working. He must be like "the brave old oak who stands in his pride alone" battling with the storms, bearing fruit, giving a grateful shade in the noon-tide heat to the flocks gathered beneath him. He has year by year spread out his roots, extended his stems, and built a ring of new wood around his trunk and branches. So the teacher must constantly increase in wisdom and in stature. 12. The Transcendent Power. The teacher who has the right spirit, the genuine character, the warm sympathy, the power to lead, to train, to inspire, and the requisite know- ledge, skill, tact, and growth^ is the transcendent power in the development of human lives. §n. The Teacher Must be Taught by His Pupils. 1. The Pupil is an Individual. Every pupil has his own will and purpose, and these must be recognized and respected. The needs of the pupil must guide the teaching. We can teach the pupil only as he teaches us through our study of him what we are to do for him. He is constantly showing what he needs. The teacher must be on the alert to study these manifestations. 2. Three Phases of Activity. Three fundamental phases of self-activity reveal themselves in the pupil, which the teacher should be quick to appreciate. The fiy^st phase is the conscious recognition by the pupil of the self that he is and the ideal self that he desires to be, and strives to become. This aspiration for the ideal self, when once awakened, pos- sesses his soul and controls his activity. It is in this phase of the pupil's activity that the life of the teacher touches the life of the pupil to affect his ideals of life and kindle his aspiration to higher Hving. The second phase is^^^the conscious recognition by the pupil of himself, and the not-self, the object which he is eager to know; of which he asks, What is it? Why is it? 28 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. What can I do with it? This desire of knowledge is the working point for the teacher, in which he can incite the pupil to right activity by bringing him into sympathetic rela- tion with the right objects of thought. The third phase is the eager desire of the pupil to plunge into the larger life of the world about him; he feels his kin- ship to the universal mind. He is seeking to be one with the larger life of which he is a part. He is keenly susceptible to personal influence. The question is, What does he seek? In what phase of life is he most interested? This element is a powerful incentive which the teacher is to measure and wisely direct. 3. To Some the Child is Only a Little Animal. He is indeed an animal with strong animal propensities, but a rational animal, to whose rationality we can appeal, and thereby lead him to higher life. The thoughtful observer sees that his rational life dominates his activity, and raises him far above the animal. Lowell says: " Children are the apostles of God, day by day, Sent forth to preach of love and hope and peace." If we are in touch with them, they are to us the highest of the ministries of life, and bring out the best that is in us, as we serve them. "Nature has laid for each child the foundations of a divine building, if the soul will build thereon." The teacher can help the child to the divine building, only as he makes a careful study of the child's manifestations. §111. The Teacher Must Study the Environment OF His Pupils. 1. Relation of Person to Environment. All the rights, duties, and privileges of human beings arise from the rela- tions of man to his environment. 2. Natural Environment. Nature is the primary teacher of the child. (1) She teaches him many things better than they can be taught by man. Nature exerts a direct and posi- tive influence upon every pupil's life. (2) She speaks to him a various language. She tells one story to the child who THE TEACHER WITH HIS PUPILS. 29 dwells by the sea, another to him who lives among the hills, and still another to him who dwells upon the plain, and no two persons are affected to the same degree by the same phenomena. (3) The teacher has to adapt his teaching to the primary ideas which the pupil has acquired from his natural environment. Hence the teacher must study with great care the natural environment in which the lives of his pupils are unfolding. 3. Human Environment. The teacher must study the development of the pupil in his relation to his fellowmen, because he is pre-eminently a social being. Nothing affects a person so much as the influence of other persons, either because they are so much like himself that he can warmly sympathize with their experience, or because they are so unlike him as to be attractive or repellant. The child's desire of society, of the esteem of others, and his natural tendency to imitate, make him keenly susceptible to his fel- lows. He is, therefore, strongly influenced by the examples and ideals which he most frequently sees. (1) The Home. The teacher must study the home life of the pupil. The family exerts the strongest social influence. " There is no place like home, be it ever so humble." There are no words so full of meaning to the child as father, mother, sister, brother. There is no love so tender and strong, no fellowship so sweet, no condition so favorable for the unfolding of the life of the child as that found in the true home. (2) The School. The child comes into a new exper- ience at school. He is deeply affected by contact and compe- tition with his fellows. He is brought into close relation with those who are inferior, equal to, or superior to himself in ability and attainment. He gets the measure of himself by his intercourse with others. He is obliged to consider his relations to them, and to conform his conduct to these new conditions. The school is the opportunity for bringing him into right relation to his fellows. Society can be what it should be only as its individual members are trained from infancy to live together in the right spirit. 30 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. The public school brings the children into a larger organ- ized social life than that of the family, and trains them to live with their fellows. It has the elements of the life of the state. The school trains the child to obedience, truthfulness, industry, order, reverence for law, a just regard for the rights of others, in short, to all the virtues of a good citizen. (3) The Church. The life of the church, the commu- nity, and the state outside the home and the school strongly influences the child's thought, feeling, and action. Its influ- ence comes into the mental current of the child to affect the unfolding of his life, as quietly as the inflowing of the air into the blood that nourishes his body; and its effects upbn his spiritual life, like that of the air upon the blood, is deter- mined by the quality of the inflowing current. The human environment of the child is a mighty power in his develop- ment. He is to be "Taught to look through manhood up to manhood's God." 4. Divine Environment. The teacher must study human development in its relation to the "Life of life," in whom we live. A man becomes a true man only by conforming his life to the standard which Divine wisdom sets for him. Philips Brooks says: " The meaning of life, of its happiness and its sorrow, of its successes and its disappointments, is this, — that man must be fastened close to God, and live by divine life not his own, by the divine life made his own, by the close binding of the two together by faith and love." The study of man's relation to his Maker in the spirit of loving rever- ence is a vital element in teaching. §IV. The Teacher Must Cultivate the Whole Pupil. Complete Development. The most practical thing for any child is to be trained to the full command of all his powers. A person thus trained is fitted to enter upon any vocation to which his ability adapts him. The teacher should strive in all his teaching and training for the complete development of his pupils. 1. The Sound Body. The first essential of complete THE TEACHER WITH HIS PUPILS. 31 development is a sound body. A good stomach with a rational master, who will not suffer it to be overworked, free circulation of the blood, full respiration, vigorous and graceful muscular training, a generous supply of nervous energy and sleep are the primary conditions of physical life. 2. Intellectual Power. The second essential of complete development is intellectual power in thought and expression. Keen observation, quick, strong memory, vivid imagination, clear, distinct thought and expression, and the ability to arrange and systematize, are the essential qualities of intel- lectual power. There is a prevalent tendency to center the teaching upon the development of the subjects studied, more than upon the development of mental power. Every school is a troop of thinkers. There is no stronger test of a teach- er's real character than his power to stimulate and direct the thought of his pupils. 3. Refinement of Feeling. The third essential of com- plete development is refinement of feeling. Self-respect, delicacy of expression, good judgment, consideration for others, a warm heart, courtesy, and kindness are the ele- ments of this refinement. It finds expression in the manner, bearing, and behavior of the person. The teacher needs to cultivate in his pupils that (1) self-respect which will keep them from descending to any- thing which is low, coarse, vulgar or mean; that delicacy of perception and feeling which makes them quick to perceive and appreciate the beautiful in nature, in art, and in human life; that (2) good judgment which will enable them to decide correctly concerning the true, the beautiful and the good, and which will awaken their love for these objects; that (3) consideration for the feelings, rights, and privi- leges of others which will make them truly courteous and kind in their manner, bearing, and behavior towards all with whom they have to do. (4) ' 'Above all things reverence yourself. ' ' — Pythagoras. "The truest self-respect is not to think of self."— Beecher. (5) ' * Delicacy is to the mind what fragrance is to the flower." 32 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. (6) " Good taste is the flower of good sense." — Poincelot. (7) "Kindness is the golden chain by which society is bound together. ' '—-Goethe. (8) " Politeness is real kindness kindly expressed." — Withe7'spoon. (9) These virtues, like all others, are most effectively taught by example. To teach them successfully, the teacher must appreciate and practice them, and keep them so con- stantly in mind that he will improve the opportunities which are so frequently coming in the school life, to lead his pupils to practice them. 4. Supremacy of Conscience. The fourth essential of complete development is the supremacy of conscience. (1) When inclination and conscience both move to the right choice it is easy to make that choice. It is when they move to opposite choices that the struggle comes, and the test of character is made. (2) It is just here that we make the right moral choice or the wrong moral choice, which deter- mines the moral quality of our character. Clear teaching on this point is vitally important. True living comes from obedience to an enlightened conscience. (3) The teacher cannot escape the responsibihty of moral training. The pupil cannot be divided, he must move on as a whole. The moral trend of his life must be either upward or downward, in school as well as out of school. 5. The Rightly Trained Will. The highest essential of complete development is the rightly trained will which deter- mines that the man will make the best use of himself and his possessions. The teacher's work is to train his pupil to choose and act rationally, that the power of rational self- control may be established, and he may be prepared for self- direction. Every man determines his own destiny by his own choice and action. 6. Emphasis in Due Proportion. True teaching must emphasize in due proportion the cultivation of the physical, the intellectual, the emotional, and the moral natures, and the will. Upon this development depends the elevation of THE TEACHER WITH HIS PUPILS. 33 all individual, family, social, political, and religious life. The moral and spiritual life of society is no higher than that of its individual members. Every vocation calls for a manly man or womanly woman for its prosecution. The teacher must seek for his pupil the sound body, the vigorous intel- lect, the refined taste, the regnant conscience, and the robust will. §V. The Teacher Must Make the School Home Attractive. 1. The School Home. Upon a sunny knoll between two streets in the central part of the village, in the middle of spacious grounds, there stands, with its portals sheltered by the pendent branches of graceful elms, an attractive two story building inclosing ten large rooms, each having a smaller room adjoining, for the supplies and convenience of each class by itself. In each of the larger rooms a variety of plants are growing in the windows, slate boards skirt the walls, beautiful pictures hang above against the softly tinted walls, and polished desks with chairs stand adjusted on the floor, with a larger desk and tables alongside. The seats and desks are adapted to the physical comfort of the pupils. In each of the smaller rooms is a supply of good water, a col- lection of well selected natural objects and apparatus for the illustration of the various studies, and a carefully chosen library for the children's reading. The house is properly heated and ventilated, properly supplied with sanitaries, and so located that the sunshine brightens every room. 2. Decoration of Schoolroom. It is a remunerative out- lay of effort on the part of the teacher to secure, through the help of the children, the decoration of the schoolroom with growing plants, the flowers, the foliage of the different sea- sons as they come, and works of art. It removes friction, and sweetens Hfe for both pupils and teacher. It furnishes objects for study, and quickens observation, thought, and expression. An attractive schoolroom diminishes absence and tardiness. " Hqme is the chief school of human virtue." The more homelike we make the school, the better we 34 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. develop the child. 3. School Grounds. The school grounds are well laid out, and hard, dry walks lead to the building. In front is a well kept lawn, in a part of which is the school garden, where the children are encouraged to plant and care for flowers and shrubs which are used in their study of natural objects. In the rear of the school building are ample play- grounds for the boys and girls, with trees so planted as not to interfere with the children at play. The children are taught to appreciate the school premises, and to have an interest in keeping them in good condition. This is the modern home of the central village school. 4. Value of the School Home. Such a school home, with its pleasant outlook and surroundings, its convenient furnishings, decorated with beautiful natural objects and pictures, with its comfortable physical conditions, puts the child at ease physically and mentally, and silently appeals to him to make the best use of his power, time, opportunities and privileges. It makes the school life gladsome, exerts a strong educative influence, and is indispensable to the great- est usefulness of the school. Especially is this true for those children who come from homes in which these comforts and attractions are wanting. To these children the school home is the brightest spot in their lives. 5. Incitement to Live. One thing is to be kept con- stantly in mind. The pupil is to be incited to live. The lessons of the school are of value only so far as they are lessons in true living. Is it said that the teacher in the public schools, with all his limitations, cannot reach the ideal set forth in this perspective of teaching? The question is not shall we reach our ideal, but what shall we strive for. The higher the ideal, the nobler the striving. "The virtue is in the struggle, not in the prize." "Perfection will always be in advance. The point will never be reached where there is not a better and a higher beyond. There is a real attainment. But each height gained commands a broader view. On the stepping stones of our living selves we evermore rise to higher things." — Dr. George Harris. CHAPTER IV. THE TEACHER A PRACTICAL IDEALIST. What we most need is not so much to realize the ideal as to idealize the real. — F. H. Hedge. §1. Ideals and Their Expression. 1. Ideals Rule the Life. The work of our life is the expression of our ideals. The teacher must have true ideals of life and education and he must be able to give his ideals effective expression. He must have the happy combination of the theoretical and the practical in his work, hence we are led to consider the relation of theory and art in life and teaching. Every art has its theory. 2. Art is Two-fold. Art is man's power to form, in dis- tinction from God's power to create. This power is two-fold, the power to discern clearly what is to be formed, and the power to execute the ideal discerned. {!) Distinct dis- cernment is the primary condition for skilful execution. Nicholas Tillinghast, the first principal of the Bridgewater State Normal School, who was a man of rare power of dis- cernment, said to his pupils one day: " If I had two minutes in which to save my life, I would spend the first minute in deciding what was to be done to save it, and the second in executing my decision." The power to discern distinctly is the result of careful practice in discerning. (2) The power to execute effectively is the outcome of a life of doing one's best. Father Taylor, the chaplain of the Seaman's Bethel, in Boston, preached a sermon one Sunday morning to a company of seamen which moved them power- fully. As he came from the pulpit he was asked: "How long did it take you to prepare that sermon?" "Forty 36 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. years," he replied quickly; "I have been preaching forty years." 3. There is Art in All Lines of Human Activity. (1) There is art in the simple transfer of masses of matter from one position to another. The art in manual labor is in dis- cerning the line of least resistance, and in making the trans- fer with the least expenditure of physical force. (2) There is art in working metals for use in utensils, tools, machinery, building material, or objects of taste. The art of working a metal is in clearly discerning its qualities, and in the skilful employment of the forces of nature to bring the metal to the desired condition. (3) There is art in designing buildings, monuments, ships, bridges, and carriages to adapt these structures to the needs of our life. The art in designing is in clearly conceiv- ing the design, and in the adequate expression of the ideal in drawing. (4) There is art in constructing the various designs. The art in constructing is in clearly conceiving the structure to be built, and in the skilful use of material and machinery in its construction. (5) There is art in painting the ideal picture, in the invention, composition, design, coloring, and expression, which produces the thing of beauty that satisfiies the culti- vated taste. The art in painting is in imagining the beautiful ideals and in the masterly expression of the ideas upon can- vass. (6) There is art in the vivid presentation of truth which inspires the soul of the listener, and persuades him to do the things desired by the speaker. The art of the orator is in the clear discernment of the working of the mind of the hearer, and in the skilful appeal to the feelings which move him to the desired action. (7) There is art in bringing up a child into true man- hood or womanhood. The art in educating is in clearly dis- cerning the needs of the child, and in the wise use of the means that will incite him to take the steps necessary to sat- isfy his needs. THE TEACHER A PRACTICAL IDEALIST. 37 4. Definition of Art. Art is the power to discern what needs to be done and the skilful use of means to accomplish the desired end. The term art also indicates the finished product of the exertion of the power to discern and execute, as when we speak of the gallery of art. 5. Degrees of Art. There are degrees of art in the vari- ous lines of human activity. (1) There is the laborer who brings the raw materials to the mechanic; there is the me- chanic who builds the structure; there is the architect who discerns the elements of fitness, strength, proportion, sym- metry, and imagines and traces the ideal building which the mechanic constructs. (2) There is the copyist who applies color in imitation of the picture which the master has given him. There is the master who originates and paints the ideal picture in its exquisite beauty of expression. (3) There is the speaker who gives his hearers infor- mation upon the subject which he presents. There is the orator who holds his hearers spell-bound by his power to stir the depths of their souls. (4) There is the formal teacher who keeps an orderly school; the intellectual teacher who keeps order and causes his pupils to know; the all-round teacher who keeps order, causes his pupils to know, and inspires them to noble living. 6. Theory and Practice. Theory is the principles, the primary truths, upon which the art depends. Practice is the particular expression of these principles. The ideal cannot be executed until it is formed in the mind. All practice must be guided by theory. Theory and practice may be distin- guished in thought, but cannot be separated in life. Theory guides practice, practice modifies theory. If one says, " I do not believe in theory, one should follow his experience; " this man has his theory, which is, that experience should guide practice. He has a narrow theory which holds him to a limited practice. The knowledge of the principles which guide the practice broadens the view and solves many a diffi- cult problem. 38 the teacher in modern life. §11. The Artist. 1. The Artist Works From an Ideal. The artist works from an ideal which is ever in advance of his attainment. He has a constant succession of ideals. He is constantly striving for higher excellence, which gives him the inspira- tion and joy of continued progress. The artist is a person of fine mental fiber, he has keen perception, vivid imagination, sound judgment, quick sensibility. 2. Qualifications of the Artist. (1) He must have natu- ral aptitude. This quality draws him to his art, he is in love with it, he has a yearning for it which cannot be satisfied outside its pursuit. He can discern and execute to a degree that would be unattainable without this yearning. (2) Dominant moral purpose is a potent element in an artist. He must be a true man. His character determines what use he will make of his ability, the line of thought he will pursue, the ideals he will set before himself. It is this purpose that nerves him to persistent effort for the realiza- tion of his ideals. His character gives quality to all his work. (3) He must know the nature of that upon which he works. He must know the principles which govern the prac- tice of his art. He cannot work the metals, design the com- plex structure, paint the beautiful picture, carve the life-like statue, stimulate the human being to live to the highest degree, without knowledge of these principles. This attain- ment means long and patient study. The artist must know all the details of good practice in his art. He must be both scientific and practical. He must know his tools and have skilful command of them that he may effectively apply the principles of his art. (4) The artist must have experience. Experience veri- fies the principles deduced by scientific study, shows the limitations of their application in practice, and gives skill in the use of means. Skill is the product of practice guided by the discernment which comes from intelligent experience and the study of principles. The highest attainment by any artist is made by the THE TEACHER A PRACTICAL IDEALIST. 39 combination in due proportion of natural aptitude, character, knowledge, and experience. §111. The Teacher is an Artist. 1. Teaching is the Highest of the Fine Arts. The teacher is working on human souls, his work calls for the wisest theory and the highest artistic skill. The teacher must be a keen observer of nature and men that he may have the ele- ments for high ideals; he must have a vivid imagination to use the elements gained by observation in forming the high- est ideals. He must have the artistic appreciation of beauty to set forth these ideals attractively. He must have the sound judgment which sharply dis- criminates the sensational and the essential, which holds the fundamental and enduring, and avoids all educational "fads." He must have the milk of human kindness which nour- ishes sympathy; the iron in the blood which gives the strong sense of justice; the faith that believes in God and his fel- lowmen; the hope that never gives up; and greatest of all, the love which never falters in striving for the highest and whole good of his pupils. 2. The Function of the Teacher in modern life, broadly and briefly stated, is to stimulate and direct young human beings in the unfolding and perfecting of their lives, that they may live and do their share in the world's work. The Teacher in Modern Life. PART 11. IN PREPARATION FOR HIS WORK. CHAPTER V. EDUCATIONAL STUDY OF MAN. An individual man is a fruit which it cost all the foregoing ages to form and ripen. He is strong, not to do, but to live; not in his arms, but in his heart; not as an agent, but as a fact. — Emerson. §1, This Study Indispensable. We have answered broadly and briefly the fundamental questions, What is the young human being? What is it to live? What is teaching? and have reached the point of view^ where we see the scope and aim of the teacher's work in the great field of human life. 1. The Question Now Is, How Shall the Teacher Prepare Himself for His Great Work ? (1) The aim of teaching, as we have seen, is the unfolding and perfecting of the whole man in the acquisition of knowledge, the development of power— physical, intellectual, moral, and spiritual— and skill, to the full measure of his ability, that he may fulfil the law of love for God and man. (2) It is evident that if the teacher is to stimulate and direct the development of young human beings, he must study man in his unity of body and mind; in his relation to the worlds of matter and of mind of which he is a part, with which he holds constant intercourse; and in his relation to his Maker, in whom he lives, moves, and has his being. (3) The educational study of man becomes imperative. The study is invaluable for its influence in expanding the mind, enlarging the views, elevating the aims, and strength- ening the character of the teacher. EDUCATIONAL STUDY OF MAN. 41 § II. The Object of the Educational Study of Man Is Three-fold. First, to find the modes of activity common to men. Second, to find how individual men differ. Third, to find the conditions and the products of the normal exertion of these activities. In finding the conditions of the normal exertion of these activities, w^e find the principles of education which guide the art of teaching and show how to bring up a child in the way he should go. §111. The Method of the Study is Three-fold. First, One must study the modes of activity in himself, and give close attention to the natural modes of expressing himself. Second, One must study others, must accurately observe the bodily manifestations of mental activity in others and compare them with his own manifestations. We cannot directly observe the action of another mind. We observe the bodily expression, compare it with our own expression, and infer the inner activity which underlies the outward manifestation. "Know thyself" is the condition for knowing the mani- festation of another mind. Third, One must learn by hearing and reading the testi- mony of other observers and thinkers upon the subject. We can hear and read intelligently upon any subject only as we have acquired by our own observation the ideas which the spoken and written words express. Observation must pre- cede reading. By finding, from wide observation and testimony, the modes of activity which are common to men, we acquire definite, general knowledge, which enables us to deal wisely with classes of men. By observing and comparing individual men with respect to the difference in their activities, we acquire definite par- ticular knowledge, which enables us to deal wisely with the individual man. 42 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. §IV. The Difficulties in Prosecuting this Study ARE Three-fold. First, There is difficulty in attending to the action of one's own mind. The sights and sounds of the external world strongly solicit the mind, and the mental states we would consider pass so swiftly by. Second, There is difficulty in observing others. The cor- rect interpretation of their manifestations implies keen obser- vation. We often fail to make our observations sufficiently accurate. Furthermore we are inclined to project our own modes of thinking and feeling into others. Often others, especially children, are in conditions very different from our own. We find it difficult to put ourselves in their places, and failing to do this, we misinterpret their act. Third, There is difficulty in receiving the testimony of observers arising from the language used. The same word often suggests different ideas to different minds, which occa- sions misunderstanding. §V. The Requisites of this Study are Three- fold. First, Keen observation to gain definite knowledge of facts. Second, Definite thinking to gain knowledge of relations and to increase the power of thought along these lines. Third, The study of the accurate expression of thought to increase the vocabulary and the power of expression. Every subject has its own vocabulary, which must be made fa- miliar. CHAPTER VL MAN'S PLACE IN THE WORLD. Man is greater than a world, than systems of worlds; there is more mystery in the union of a soul with the physical than in the creation of a universe. — Henry Giles. §L Primal Questions. 1. The Questions. The thoughtful man asks early and often, Whence came I? What am I? What is my place in the world? Whither am I going? These questions will con- tinue till we find their answer. 2. Story of the Generation of the Earth and the Genesis of Man. In the story of the generation of the heavens and the earth and the genesis of man, Genesis, chapters 1 and 2 we are told that, "In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth. And the earth was without form and void," that is, all the matter of our solar system was in the gaseous form. "And the Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters." God was moving to accomplish his purpose in the evolution of the earth. He has continued to move from the beginning. The order of Creation, as we are told in this story, was first the creation of mineral bodies, the earth, the sea, the air, and the heavens; then the plants; then the ani- mals; and then man, the crowning work of Creation. In following this story of the Creation of the world we find what expressions of creative force have been made to produce the different orders of beings now existing and man's place in the world. It begins with §11. The Forces Active in Mineral Bodies. 1. Gravitation. The force of gravitation which draws every particle of matter in the universe towards every other 44 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. particle must have acted from the beginning. It is the lowest force, a condition for every other force, the expression of the will of the Creator to hold in equilibrium the vast portions of matter comprising the universe. 2. Cohesion. The force of cohesion manifests itself by controlling the force of gravitation and unites the molecules of every separate body, solid, liquid, or gaseous. It is the expression of the will of the Creator for the production of the infinite variety and beauty of individual material objects. 3. Chemical Affinity. The force chemical affinity mani- fests itself by controlling the two lower forces of gravitation and cohesion, unites elements into compounds, evolving light, heat, and electricity. It gives the light and heat of the sun by the intense combustion which it generates in the sun, which makes the earth habitable. It generates the heat of the animal body. It gives fire for the working of metals, for the generation of steam to impel the locomotive, the steam engine, the steamship, the machinery of the factory, the motor which sends the street car on its way, and the dynamo which generates the electric light for the home and the street. It gives the mineral colors with which we deco- rate our pottery, furniture, and homes. Chemical affinity acting from the beginning, is an ex- pression of the will of the Creator for the production of the numberless combinations of the elements with their varying quahties which fit them for their manifold uses; and for the production of the wonderful effects of Ught, heat, and elec- tricity which accompany its action. 4. Mineral Bodies. These three lower and higher forces produce mineral bodies — the solid earth, the sea, and the air, — but with no living creature to be found on the land, in the sea, or in the air. The earth in this state is the condition for something higher. §111. Forces Active in Plants. 1. Manifestation of Plant Life. Plant life manifests itself by controlling the three lower forces active in mineral bodies, reaches down into the mineral soil and takes up mineral mat- MAN'S PLACE IN THE WORLD. 45 ter, reaches up into the air and takes in the gases, and trans- forms these elements into the plant cell filled with proto- plasm; multiplies these cells into tissues; and forms these tissues into the organs, — the root, stem, and leaf of the plant. In direct opposition to gravitation, plant life sends the mole- cules up into the topmost leaf of the stalwart tree. Plant life gives the grass of the field, the waving wheat, and the tasseled corn; it plants a flower in every nook and cranny, paints the violet and the lily, and perfumes the rose; it branches into the graceful willow life, the sturdy oak life, the pendent elm life, the ever-green pine life, the towering sequoia life, and covers the hills and vales with the forest. 2. The Plant is an Organism. Plant life forms a body with organs, co-ordinates the action of the organs, makes the plant an organism, an up and down structure, marked by the repetition of similar parts in the root and stem. 3. The Plant is the Laboratory of the World's Food. The plant eats, breathes, and grows from within. It is commonly fixed, rooted, takes its food from the earth and air and con- verts it into its own living substance which becomes food for animals. ' ' The plant is the laboratory in which is prepared the food of the world. It stands at the border-land of life. On one side is the lifeless mineral, on the other the helpless animal" depending on the plant for its food. Ultimately every animal, including man, feeds upon the plant. 4. Reproduction of the Plant. Plant life acting under law, starts each plant from the single cell, but always develops each after its own kind. It brings the mystery of flower and seed, "the marriage of the flowers," by which one life must touch another life that the plant may be reproduced. It is an expression of the will of the Creator for clothing the earth with the marvelous organisms of the plant kingdom. 5. The Plant Kingdom. Under the united action of the forces of gravitation, cohesion, and chemical affinity domi- nated by the force nutritive life, the earth brings forth the numberless, marvelous plant organisms, each after its kind, and with its mineral and plant kingdoms becomes the condi- tion for a higher order of life. 46 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. §IV. Forces Active in Animals, 1. Manifestion of Animal Life. Animal life manifests itself by controlling the four forces active in plants, and con- verts the plant tissues into animal tissues and combines these tissues into the organs and systems of the animal organism. 2. Branches of Animal Life. Animal life acts along dif- ferent lines branching like a tree, and each branch is per- fected after its kind. It evolves v^onderful gradations of animal structure and function. It starts with "single celled animals as structureless as a drop of jelly, that feel v^^ithout nerves, move without muscles, and digest without a stom- ach," and moves on with its branches mollusk, insect, fish, frog, reptile, bird, to the highest mammal man. 3. Distinctive Marks of Animals. (1) The animal begins in a cell having an albuminous wall, and containing proto- plasm, (2) Different organs for special work mark the animal. (3) Animals feed upon organic compounds formed by plants, and could not exist without plants. In the process of respiration, plants inhale carbon dioxide and exhale oxygen, while animals inhale oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide. (4) The tendency of animals is oxidation; that of plants is de-oxidation. The nutritive life of the animal is construc- tive, its function is growth and propagation. (5) The great distinctive mark of animals is sensation and voluntary motion. Some animals are stationary, but most animals have the power of locomotion. (6) The function of the animal life of sensation and voluntary motion is communication with the external objects which impress the sense organs, and its action is destructive, wasting the tissues of the body. 4. Reproduction of Animals. " While many of the lower animals may be reproduced by budding, or by natural divi- sion, most, and probably all, are reproduced by the union of the sperm cell with the germ cell, and these are from differ- ent animals. " 5. The Animal Kingdom. Under the united action of MAN'S PLACE IN THE WORLD. 47 the forces of gravitation, cohesion, chemical affinity, and nutritive Hfe, dominated by animal life, the waters, the earth, and the air bring forth the numberless animals, each after its kind, with marvelous adaptation to their different modes of life, and the earth with its plant and animal king- doms becomes the condition for a still higher life. §V, Forces Active in Man. 1. Manifestation of Rational Life. Rational life including the intellectual, emotional, moral, and spiritual life of man, manifests itself by controlling the five forces active in ani- mals, and produces man, an order of being much higher than animals. 2. Distinctive Marks of Man. (1) Man differs from animals in his body. "He is clearly two-handed and two- footed. He is fitted for an erect posture. He has a perfect hand. His hands are free for use. By his hands he controls nature, and by his erect position he studies the heavens. No animal can do either. His cranium greatly predominates over his face. He has a chin." (2.) Man differs from animals in his intellectual life. He has the power of abstract thought, which the animal has not. He uses articulate and written language in the commu- nication of his thoughts. He is capable of great progress. He uses the lower forces to promote his physical and rational development. He uses fire, metals, artificial clothing, invents and uses machinery, and buys and sells. He communicates with his fellows, distant from him in space and time, by written language and by various other means which he is able to use. (3) He differs in his emotional Hfe. He has the power to perceive and appreciate the beautiful in nature and in man, which the animal cannot do. (4) He differs in moral life. He can discern right and wrong, and feels obligation to do the right and refrain from wrong doing, which the animal cannot do. (5) He differs in spiritual life. ' ' He compares different principles of action, and chooses which principle shall rule 48 THE TEACHERHN MODERN LIFE. his life. Here is the great difference between man and animals. Man can choose his own supreme end, the brute cannot. A brute acts from impulse, and is driven by its con- stitution to its end." 3. Forces in Man. Their Products. Relation of Pro- ducts. *6. Rational Life. Man. Goal of Creation. 5. Animal Life. Animals. Condition for Man. 4. Nutritive Life. Plants. Condition for Animals. 3. Chemical Affinity. Mineral Bodies. Condition for Plants. 2. Cohesion. 1. Gravitation. * Read upwards. Gravitation, cohesion, and chemical affinity acting as lower and higher forces produce mineral bodies. Nutritive life added to the forces active in mineral bodies and controlling these forces, produces plants, which feed on mineral matter and form organic compounds for the food of animals. Animal life, added to the forces active in plants and con- trolHng these forces, produces animals, which feed on plants, and man uses the animals for food, clothing, motive power, and other purposes. Rational life, added to the forces active in animals and dominating these forces, produces man, the goal of creation. 4. Man's Place in the World. Rational life enables man to comprehend all that is below him, and to bring it under his control. He is the goal towards which all these added mani- festations of infinite power in the creation, were tending. He has the highest place in the creation, the place oj domin- ion. The six forces are all active in him and bring him into sympathy with the whole creation. They make all things a condition for him. 5. Higher and Lower Forces. We see that the higher force reveals itself only as it overmasters the lower, which fact indeed runs up through the various grades of organiza- tion. Man stands between nature and God, fitted to be a co- worker with Him. Harmony of the whole being of man with God is the culmination of man's life. MAN'S PLACE IN THE WORLD. 49 §VI. The Elements of Human Nature. L A Nature. We eat food and immediately the animal nutritive life acts spontaneously to digest and assimilate the food. Here is a uniform necessitated activity v^hich differs from all others. A nature is a uniform necessitated activity which can be distinguished from all others. 2. Natures of Man. (1) The physical nature of man is the uniform necessitated activity of the animal-nutritive life to build and nourish the organism and incite locomotion. (2) The intellectual nature is the uniform necessitated activity of thinking. (3) The emotional nature is the uniform necessitated activity of feeling which accompanies thinking. (4) The moral nature is the uniform necessitated acti- vity of feeling obligation to do right and refrain from doing wrong and the feeling of approbation or guilt after the act. Choice either in accord with, or in opposition to, the sense of obligation is a moral act. 3. The Soul. In the two-fold view of man he is spoken of as body and mind or soul. In the three-fold view of man Paul speaks of him as spirit and soul and body in which the spirit seems to be within the soul. 4. The Spirit. Every nature is a necessitated activity. With choice comes freedom. Man knows the right and the wrong. He is free as to which he will choose. Without freedom there can be no choice. Man originates choice and action, he is a cause. As an intelligent, free, moral cause he is in the image of God, he is a spirit. As a spirit he is above his natures, he has indirect control of their products. 5. Forces in Man. Natures. Function. ( Spirit. Decides choice, character. ^^ P .. , rWilHng J Moral nature. Bids make right choice. T -fp "^ -\ Feeling, j Emotional nature. Seeks beauty. ^Thinking. ^Intellectual nature. Seeks truth. 5. Animal Life. f 4. Nutritive Life. | 3. Chemical Affinity. ■{ Physical nature. Builds and nourishes the body. 2. Cohesion. | 1. Gravitation. i^ * Read upwards. 50 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. § VII. The Earth as the Home of Man. 1. Man's Home in This Life. The earth was made for the home of man in this Hfe in which he is to be educated for the life beyond the present. The earth is adapted to the development of man, it furnishes incentives to the exertion of all his powers; it is beautiful and grand. The alternation of day and night, — periods of activity and rest, -the chang- ing sky, the mighty waters, the majestic mountain peaks, the vast forests, the myriads of flowers, the hosts of animals that move in the waters, upon the earth, and through the air, and the succession of seasons with all their gifts, are all and each tokens of God's loving thought for his children in the home he has made for them in this life. 2. God is in Our Home. He is our Father in whom we Hve, as the branch in the vine. We find with the Psalmist that "The earth is the Lord's and the fullness thereof. The sea is His, and He made it. The heavens declare the glory of God and the firmament showeth His handiwork. The law of the Lord is perfect restoring the soul." We find that the laws of life are God's laws. That "all truth is really God's truth." That all science is the re- thinking of God's thoughts. That ' ' all beauty is really a manifestation of the perfection of God." That "all goodness is the goodness of God." One cannot work out his own life unless he has a just appreciation of the world in which he lives? And we can- not educate the child except we bring him into just relation with his ivhole environment and its Author? CHAPTER VII. THE STUDY OF THE BODY. The human body is a study for one's whole life.— i?. W. Beecher. § I. The Body as a Whole. 1. Carlyle Says, "We touch heaven when we lay our hand upon a human body. This sounds much like a flourish of rhetoric; but it is not so. If well meditated, it will turn out to be a scientific fact; the expression, in such words as can be had, of the actual truth of the thing. We are the miracle of miracles, the great inscrutable mystery of God. We cannot understand it, we know not how to speak of it; but we may feel and know, if we like, that it is verily so." 2. The Body. A sound body is the basis of an efficient life. The body is not merely the changing matter of which it may be composed at any given moment, but "the perma- nent, invisible, automatic, selecting, and arranging animal- nutritive life, which begins with us and goes on with us to the end, building and nourishing the organism " and keeping its identity amid its everchanging material, leaving the mind free to perform its function. 3. Relation of the Body to the Mind. ' ' The human body, filled with life, the features radiant with intelligence and love, would realize the highest conception that man can form of the power of the material, both to veil and to reveal the spiritual." It is a fit dwelling for that immortal spirit which is made in the image of God, and it is a perfect instrument through which the mind finds expression and holds inter- course with the external word. 4. ^A/hy Study the Body. The study of the body is an essential element of the teacher's preparation, both for his 52 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. own perfection and that of his pupil, who is to be in constant training for the intelligent care and command of the body as the condition for the best expression of himself in all the relations of his life. Every one needs to keep in mind the prominent facts concerning the normal action of the systems of the body. Body and mind must act together, their study should go on together. 5. The consideration of the subject in this chapter assumes the previous study of Physiology. We shall consider briefly the function and hygiene of the nutritive systems which build and nourish the body; and the same of the ani- mal systems of sensation and voluntary motion, with the purpose to emphasize the requisites for the intelligent care and command of the body as the instrument of the mind. 6. Plan of the Body. The body as a whole consists of a vertical, longitudinal, bony, curved axis, with the cranial cavity at the top of the axis containing the brain; the spinal canal behind the axis containing the spinal cord; a large cavity in front of the axis in two compartments, the thorax inclosing the heart and lungs, and the abdomen inclosing the digestive and reproductive organs; the upper limbs attached to the ribs, which connect with the upper part of the axis, and the lower limbs attached to the pelvic bones, which con- nect with the lower part of the axis. This frame-work is composed of more than two hundred bones freely articulat- ing, and is covered with more than five hundred muscles con- nected with this bony frame-work, and numberless nerves distributed upon these muscles, and stimulating them to co-ordinate action, §11. The Nutritive Systems. The Nutritive Systems have a three-fold function: the introduction of food; its conversion into tissue; and the removal of the worn out tissue. 1. The Digestive System. This system receives the food and prepares from it the materials which are to nourish the body. The hygiene of this system is most important, because it is the base of supply for the whole body. THE STUDY OF THE BODY. 53 (1) In quality, the food should be simple, without great variety; nutritious, containing the elements needed by all parts of the body; bulky, having innutritious matter mingled with the nutritious to give healthful exercise to the intestinal canal, which is between five and six times the length of the body, and needs full exercise to secure its health- ful action; and the food should be properly cooked. (2) The quantity of food taken should be proportioned to the needs of the body occasioned by action and waste. Too much food clogs the body and clouds the mind. An insuffi- cient supply diminishes the vigor of both body and mind. (3) The food should be thoroughly masticated. The alkaline saliva mingled with the food by thorough mastica- tion is the normal stimulus of the gastric glands of the stomach in secreting the acid gastric juice. If the mastica- tion is imperfect it hinders the chymification of the food, and often leads to indigestion and fermentation in the stomach. Drink should not be used to wash down the food into the stomach. It may be taken after the full mastication. If one cannot take time to masticate his food he should postpone eating until he can use the proper time for it. (4) The food should be eaten when the body is compar- atively at rest, so that the digestive system shall be properly supplied with blood and nervous energy. The intervals between eating should be long enough for a rest of the diges- tive system after the digestion of the meal. Keeping the digestive system continually at work will sooner or later work its ruin. (5) Vigorous physical exercise is essential to the healthy action of the digestive system. Cheerfulness is indispensable to good digestion. These conditions of health are dependent upon the good judgment and will of the indi- vidual, hence, he is mainly responsible for good digestion. Violation of the conditions of good digestion is a sin. 2. The Absorbent System takes from the digestive sys- tem the chyle prepared for nourishing the body, and the lymph from the tissues, and conveys them to the blood in the circulatory system. The hygiene of this system depends 54 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. upon the healthy action of the digestive system and physical exercise. 3. The Circulatory System conveys the blood, which con- tains the nutriment, to every tissue of the body and receives into the blood the waste tissue. (1) The hygiene of this system depends upon the free- dom of action of the circulatory organs. Free circulation forbids wearing tight boots and shoes and gloves, or tight clothing about any part of the body. (2) All parts of the body should be kept at such tem- perature that the blood vessels shall not be contracted by cold. The clothing should protect the whole person from sudden and severe changes of temperature. (3) Vigorous physical exercise and a cheerful state of mind are essential to good circulation. 4. The Respiratory System supplies oxygen for the puri- fication of the blood, which is indispensable to life and health. (1) The hygiene of this system depends upon a constant supply of pure air without which it is impossible to keep the blood pure. (2) The respiratory organs must have free and full action. This is apparent from their action in breathing. Any restriction of the free and full action of the respiratory muscles is suicidal. Health forbids absolutely the wearing of tight jackets, (3) Physical exercise in the open air promotes health- ful respiration by increasing the action of the respiratory and circulatory organs. An erect carriage of the body is essen- tial to full respiration. Good breathing is a primary condition for good vocal expression. 5. The Secretory System secretes special fluids for the lubrication of the organs and for digestion. (1) Health in connection with this system, depends upon a sufficient supply of good blood, a proper amount of physical exercise, and cheerfulness, that there may be the normal amount of these fluids. 6. The Excretory System removes the waste products of the body through the action of the lungs, the skin, the kid- THE STUDY OF THE BODY. 55 neys, and the intestinal canal. They poison the blood if retained. (1) The conditions of health in relation to this system are sufficient physical exercise, very much depends on this; cleanliness of the skin and of the clothing worn next the skin, and the regular evacuation of the excretions. Irregu- larity in the evacuation of the waste matter deranges the action of the whole body and depresses the mind. (2) The function of these six systems working together is to build and nourish the body, and keep it in tune as the instrument of the mind. § III. The Animal Systems of Sensation and Mo- tion. The animal systems of sensation and voluntary motion are the medium through which the mind communicates with the external world. 1. The Osseous System. (1) Structure. This system is composed of more than two hundred firm bones, tipped with elastic cartilage, articulating freely, and bound together by strong ligaments, thus forming many joints, which facili- tates the greatest variety of movement. The primary part of the osseous system is the spinal column, composed of twenty-six bones, called the vertebrae, piled one upon the other, with cushions of cartilage between them, so as to give a compound curve, which secures an elastic movement of the column vertically. The skull is balanced upon the top of this column, and holds and protects the brain. The spines, extending from the sides of the vertebrae backward form the spinal canal, which contains and protects the spinal cord. Twelve ribs on each side are attached to the spines upon the upper part of the spinal column. The ribs are united in front by cartilage with the breast bone, forming the cavity of the chest, or thorax, which contains the heart and lungs. The spinal column, skull, and ribs are called the axial skeleton. A collar bone and shoulder blade are attached to the upper part of the axial skeleton on each side, to which the 56 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. upper limbs are attached by ball and socket joints. Two pelvic bones, one on each side, are firmly attached to the lower end of the spinal column. They come together in front and form the pelvic basin, to which the lower limbs are attached by deep ball and socket joints. The pelvic basin, with the muscular walls between it and the thorax, forms the cavity of the abdomen, which con- tains the digestive and reproductive organs and the kidneys. The two lateral halves of the osseous system are symmetrical. (2) This osseous skeleton has a dual structure, being composed of mineral matter and gelatinous animal matter. If the skeleton be subjected to great heat, the gelatinous animal matter will be consumed, leaving the mineral skele- ton. If the skeleton be put into a bath of hydrochloric acid solution, the mineral part will be taken away, leaving the gelatinous animal skeleton. (3) The function of the osseous system is to protect the vital organs in the skull and spinal column, and in the thorax and abdomen; to support the other parts of the body, and to furnish leverage for the movement of the limbs and the trunk. (4) The health of the osseous system requires good blood and proper physical exercise. 2. The Muscular System. (1) The muscles by their contraction and relaxation, with the tendons by which they are attached to the bones, move the framework, and its joints and levers, and give roundness and shapeliness to the body. They help to enclose cavities, as the mouth and abdomen, and to hold the bones together at the joints. The muscles of the body number more than five hundred. ' ' They are by weight about forty- three per cent, of the average adult male human body. They expend a large fraction of all the kinetic energy of the adult body, which a recent estimate places as high as one- fifth. The cortical centers for the voluntary muscles extend over most of the lateral psychic zones of the brain, so that their culture is brain building. In a sense they are organs of digestion, for which function they play a very important role. Muscles are in a most intimate and peculiar sense the organs of the will. They have built all the roads, cities, and machines, in the world, written all the books, spoken all the words, and, THE STUDY OF THE BODY. 57 in fact done everything that man has accomplished with matter. Tf they are undeveloped or grow relaxed and flabby, the dreadful chasm between good intentions, and their execution is liable to appear and widen." — G. Stanley Hall. (2) The muscles vary in form, size, and length, accord- ing to their position and work. The two lateral halves of the muscular system are symmetrical. Most muscles are paired off; for example, the biceps muscle in front of the humerus, which flexes the elbow, and the triceps muscle back of the humerus, which extends the elbow. There is a similar arrangement in the lower limbs. Antagonistic muscles, like those mentioned, usually contract alternately. If, as in con- vulsions, they contract at the same time, the body is made rigid. (3) The fundamental muscles and movements are those of the trunk and large joints, neck, back, hips, shoulders, knees, and elbows. "Their activities are few, mostly simul- taneous, alternating, and rythmic, as of the legs in walking. (4) " The accessory movements are those of the hand, tongue, face, and articulatory organs, and these may be con- nected into a large and greatly diversified series, as those used in writing, talking, and piano playing. These smaller muscles for finer movements come into function later, and are chiefly associated with psychic activity, which plays upon them by incessantly changing their tension, if not causing actual movements." (5) The function of the muscles is to move by their eon- traction all parts of the body, and to give expression to thought, feeling, and will. (6) The health of the muscles depends upon the supply of good blood, and properly regulated exertion of them. Vigorous walking is a healthful exercise, and is always avail- able. 3. The Nervous System acts upon the other systems in some unexplained manner to excite or modify the functions peculiar to them. It controls the action of every organ in the body, so that each one acts with every other for the good of the whole at the right time and in the right direction. It 68 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. is the medium through which the external world acts upon the mind and through which the mind acts upon objects external to itself. (1) Definitions: The nerve cells which compose the ner- vous system are cells set apart to command the action of the other cells of the body. Each of these cells is an individual whole to which scientists have given the name "neuron." The neuron has three parts, the gray cell-body which has a nucleus, numerous short arms of the cell-body called ' ' dend- rites, " and one long arm of the cell-body called an "axon," which is a microscopic thread extending from the cell-body as a center to the surface where it receives impressions, or to the tissue which it stimulates. No neurons are added after birth. The dendrites may increase in number on the differ- ent cells. The axon grows in length as the child grows. A nerve center is any portion of gray nervous matter consisting of cells of various forms and sizes intermingled with nervous filaments. The cell-bodies of the neurons are bunched together in masses forming large nerve centers. A nerve is a bundle of microscopic white threads— axons — each running from a central nerve cell to the cells of the body, invested with a layer of fibrous tissues in which run the blood vessels which feed the nerves. The axons of the cell- bodies which are massed in centers form bundles of white fibers called nerves. The primary bundles of nerves may be united into larger bundles extending from the nerve centers; and when the larger bundle running to any part of the body, as the arm or leg, divides and sub-divides it is by one of the smaller bundles taking a different direction. The bundle divides into axons when it reaches its destination. The axons are continuous from center to terminal. Each axon acts independently of the other. One transmits an impression from without to its center, and another transmits nervous force from the center to the tissue which is to be moved. Each transmits only in one direction. The axons which transmit influences from the cells of the body to the nerve centers often produce sensation hence THE STUDY OF THE BODY. 59 are called sensory nerves. Those which transmit orders for action from the centers to the cells of the body are called motor nerves. (2) Kinds of tissue. The nervous system consists of two kinds of tissue, the gray vesicular tissue, and the white fibrous tissue. "The gray matter is found in the central parts of the spinal cord, at the base of the brain in isolated masses, and is also spread out as a continuous layer on the external portions of the cerebrum and cerebellum. It also constitutes the substance of all the ganglia of the sympa- thetic division of the system." ' ' The white fibrous matter constitutes the whole of the substance of the nervous trunks and branches, and is found in large quantities on the exterior of the spinal cord, and interior of the cerebrum and cerebellum." (3) The main nerve centers are the cerebrum (the large brain), the cerebellum (the small brain), and the medulla oblongata, all within the skull, and the spinal cord, which together are called the cerebrospinal center. Twelve pairs of cranial nerves start from the brain. These are nerves of special sense, motor nerves, and sensitive nerves, which are distributed over the fa6e, tongue, neck, and to some of the vital organs in the thorax and abdomen. {If) The spinal cord is a soft white cylinder of nervous tissue continuous with the brain, about half an inch in diam- eter and hung in the spinal tube. It is made up of a central mass of gray matter surrounded by white matter. The gray matter is made up of nerve cells from which nerve fibers extend both to the brain and to the cells of the body. The white matter is composed of nerve threads which connect the cells of the cord with the brain and with the cells of the body. (5) Spinal nerves. The spinal cord gives off thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves, each nerve about the size of a quill tooth pick, which come out of the holes between the spines on each side of the spinal column. Each of these sixty-two nerves is made up of two roots, the posterior sensory root on which there is a ganglion, and the anterior motor root, 60 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. which join each other before they come out of the backbone through the hole. These spinal nerves are distributed to the trunk and limbs. Every message of every kind that goes to the brain from the body travels upward through the poster- ior sensory root. Every message of every kind that goes to any part of the body from the brain travels downward through the anterior motor root. (6) The cerebrospinal division is the brain, the spinal cord, and the spinal nerves. These are the nerves of animal life. They co-ordinate the intellectual, sensitive, respiratory, and locomotive functions. This division is symmetrical in its lateral halves, as the organs are over which it presides. (7) The sympathetic division of the nervous system consists of bunches of nerve cells called ganglia and both sensory and motor nerves which follow the course of the arte- ries. On each side of the front of the backbone is a row of twenty-four ganglia extending from the skull to the coccyx. Four of these ganglia connect with some of the cranial nerves. Each ganglion is connected by nerves with its neighbor above and its neighbor below. Each is also con- nected by a sensory and a motor nerve with the centers of the spinal cord. The cells of the spinal cord send impulses to the ganglia and they in turn distribute them to the arte- ries and glands and organs of the chest and the abdomen. The ganglia controls the contraction and dilation of the arte- ries, the peristalsis of the intestines, the secretions of the glands, and the growth of the cells of the body. The nerves from the ganglia run mainly along the course of the large arteries. (8) Solar plexus. Upon the aorta and its branches in the chest and the abdomen, nerves and small ganglia form intricate networks, each called a plexus. Just back of the stomach is a large plexus called the solar plexus, whose nerves supply the muscles of the organs of the abdomen. A plexus within the heart controls the action of the heart. (9) Nerves of nutritive life. The nerves distributed from these series of ganglia are distributed to the organs of the nutritive systems over which the will has no direct con- THE STUDY OF THE BODY. 61 trol, and are called the nerves of the nutritive life. This division of the nervous system is caMed the sympathetic division because the parts connected by these nerves feel together. (10) There are three kinds of nerve centers. First, those which send forth nervous force when no impression is received from without the center. These are called auto- matic nerve centers. The nerve center which excites the ac- tion of the heart is an example of this kind. Second, centers which unconsciously receive a stimulus through a sensory nerve, and send out nervous force through a motor nerve. These are called reflex centers. If the toe of one asleep be pricked, the sensory nerve carries the impression to one of the lower spinal ganglia, which sends out nervous force through the motor nerve to the muscles which move the foot, and the toe is withdrawn without any consciousness of the act on the part of the sleeper. The reflex centers are the ganglia of the sympathetic system, the spinal cord, the medulla oblongata, and the cerebellum. Third, those centers whose action is excited by some mental activity. The mind sends an order to the nerve center for all voluntary motions. These are called conscious centers. They lie in the cerebrum. (11) The function of the automatic and reflex centers is to relieve the mind of all care of the involuntary processes and movements. The mind, through the connection of these automatic and reflex centers with the cerebrum, is able to exert considerable influence over the involuntary activities. (12) Nerve habit. Every time a nerve center acts in a certain way, it tends to act in that way more easily, thus a nerve habit is formed. For this reason many acts at first difficult to perform are, after much practice, almost uncon- sciously performed. The act of walking is an example. (13) Nerves of sense. The nerves of sense are special nerves whose centers are in the cerebrum. They are called special nerves because the endings of each class can be excited only in a particular way. The nerves of sense of touch are the myriad sensory nerves which have their endings in the skin which are im- 62 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. pressed by the body in contact with the cuticle over the nerves. The special nerves of the sense of sight are the sensory nerves w^hich form the retina of the eye, v^hich are impressed by the impact of light. The special nerves of the sense of hearing are the sen- sory nerves v^hose endings are on the lining membrane of the inner ear, w^hich are impressed by the impact of the vibrations of matter. The special nerves of the sense of taste are the sensory nerves whose endings are upon the upper surface of the tongue and on the soft palate, which are impressed by the impact of soluble solids and fluids. The special nerves of the sense of smell are the sensory nerves whose endings are on the lining membrane of the nostrils, which are impressed by the impact of volatile parti- cles. The sensorium. Each sense has a different part of the cerebrum for its center. The sense centers are united by nerve fibers. Collectively they are called the sensorium. The nervous system is a larger sensorium. {IJf) The function of the nerve centers is to receive im- pressions and send out nervous force. {15) The sole function of nerves is to transmit impres- sions and nervous force. {16) The cerebrum is the conscious center through which the mind acts. We can have special sensations only as the impressions on the nerves extend to the cerebrum. {17) The function of the cerebellum is to co-ordinate the movements of the voluntary muscles. {18) The medulla oblongata is the center for seven pairs of the cranial nerves, and for the nerves which control the muscles concerned in respiration. (1.9) The spinal cord, in its gray matter, is a center for unconscious movements, and its white matter transmits ner- vous impressions to, and nervous force from, the brain. {20) The function of the sympathetic division is to con- THE STUDY OF THE BODY. 63 trol the involuntary processes of the nutritive systems, and the other organs over which it presides. (21) Sensation is the state of mind which comes when the sensoriuTYi is affected. {22) The function of all the other systems are dependent upon the nervous system; nervous energy is needed in nutri- tion and motion and in every exertion of the mind. The amount of energy which the brain puts forth is shown by the fact that, while the brain is usually about one-fortieth the weight of the body, it receives about one-fifth of the volume of the blood. {23) The health of the nervous system depends upon the healthy action of all the nutritive systems, a full supply of nourishment, a cheerful and vigorous mental activity, and a regular and sufficient amount of sleep, "tired nature's sweet restorer." 4. Tegumentary System. The function of the skin is to cover and protect the body. It is directly connected with most of the other systems. It acts as an organ of sensation, of secretion, of excretion, of absorption and as regulator of animal temperature. This intimate connection with the other systems makes its normal action a matter of great import- ance to the health of the body. Cleanliness of the skin and of the garments worn next to it are indispensable conditions of health. An even tempera- ture of the skin is essential to the proper performance of its functions. 5. Assimilation. The conversion of the prepared mate- rial in the blood into the various kinds of living tissue seems to be made in connection with the capillaries. 6. Calorification. The generation of the heat of the body seems to be produced by the chemical action which accom- panies assimilation and the destruction of the tissues. The generation of heat is most where there is the highest degree of activity. This excess of heat is distributed by the circula- tion of the blood to parts having a lower temperature. When the temperature of the whole body is raised by vigorous exertion, the heat is reduced by the evaporation of the liquid 64 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. portion of the sensible perspiration upon the surface of the skin. By this distribution and regulation of heat, the inte- rior of the body is kept at a uniform temperature of 98.6° F., which is a vital condition of health. 7. Relation of the Systems. The nutritive systems build and repair the body; they are lower systems; their action is involuntary; they are placed in the cavities of the body; they are unsymmetrical. The animal systems are built up as instruments of the mind in thought, feeling, and action; they are higher sys- tems; their action is chiefly voluntary; they have their organs in pairs making the lateral halves of the body symmetrical. 8. The Reproductive System is for the perpetuation of the race, and involves the sexual relation which is so univer- sal and controlling in the structure of the organized bodies. It requires intelligent control. Parents and teachers should be well informed concerning its legitimate use, should faith- fully guard their children against its abuse, and should teach them to obey the laws of life and health relating to this sys- tem. 9. Adaptation of the Body. The human body is marvel- ous in its adaptation to the needs of the mind. It is the highest handiwork of the Creator, perfect in its construction. The processes of nutrition are wonderful. We have only to take proper food properly masticated into the body when the nutritive life involuntarily and immediately proceeds to digest it and to send nourishment to every cell and fiber of the body. We have a perfect system of drainage for the removal of all waste matter with the least possible inconven- ience to the mind. The animal systems and the organs of the senses are marvelous in their perfection as instruments of communica- tion with nature and men along the avenues of hfe. The pleasure which comes with the proper use of them makes the exertion a delight and the pain which comes with their abuse is the signal of danger to save us from destruction. The laws which govern the forces active in the body are the laws of God and no man can escape the penalty of their violation. THE STUDY OF THE BODY. 66 The severity of the penalty for disobedience measures the greatness of the blessing of obedience. § IV. The Appetites. 1. The Appetites Defined. The waste of the body conse- quent upon its activity produces the need of food, drink, air, and sleep. These needs occasion cravings which impel us to seek their supply, that the body may be kept in its normal condition. ''The appetites are the cravings of the animal nature that have for their object the well-being of the body and the continuance of the race." 2. Action of the Appetites. These cravings are a part of our nature, and act with an intensity proportional to the need until they are satisfied, then cease to act, until the need returns. They have a physical limit. The appetites properly regulated, sustain the vigor of life; followed to excess, as they may be, they may corrupt and degrade the man to the lowest depths. 3. Artificial Appetites. The artificial appetites, such as arise from the abuse of stimulants and narcotics, "often bring men into a bondage more absolute and degrading than that from any natural appetite. These have all the charac- teristics of an appetite except its beneficial effects." Teachers should make every possible effort to save their pupils from the formation of artificial appetites by teaching them to observe the laws of health; by teaching that alcohol and narcotics are poisons to the human body and the only safe course is to let them alone. §V. Principles of Education. 1. The appetites are strong impelling powers, their gratification is pleasurable, and the danger is that they will be followed to excess. Hence, the first principle of educa- tion: — The pupil must be educated to obey the conditions of health and to such control of his appetites as will secure the highest well-being of the body. 2. The mind must make all its manifestations through the body, hence, the second principle of educatioTgfMThe 66 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. pupil must be educated to such command of his body as will make it the most efficient instrument for the expression of his mind. 3. Ends to be Sought in the Body. We are to seek health as a fundamental condition of life. We are to seek strength that we may bring into the work of life the best energy we can command. We are to cultivate beauty and grace to meet the needs of our natures which cannot be satis- fied without these elements. ' ' The ancient Greeks put health so high as to deify it. Hygeia was a goddess, young and smiling and beautiful. We are catching glimpses of her laughing face, and ere long we shall deify her. It is a part of our sin that we are sick; it is apart of our religious duty to be well."— r. T. Hunger. CHAPTER VIII. THE MIND. DEFINITIONS. INTELLECT. It is the mind that makes us rich and happy in what condition soever we are. — Seneca. §1. What is the Mind? 1. Mind Defined. When we come to answer this ques- tion we have no visible, tangible, material thing which we can present to our sense organs and perceive its qualities; but we have an object of whose existence and modes of activ- ity we are just as certain as we are of the existence and quality of any material thing. When we think of an object, as a tree, or of a subject, as geography, we know that we can think. Our thinking of the object or subject awakens an agree- able or a disagreeable feeling and we know that we can feel. We choose the object which occasions the agreeable feel- ing and reject the object which occasions the disagreeable feeling and we know that we can choose. The mind is the I (the ego) who thinks, feels, and wills. Thinking, feeling, willing are mental operations. 2. The Mind is Self-active. Matter is Inert. The power to think manifests itself by thinking; the power to feel mani- fests itself by feeling; the power to will manifests itself by willing. The mind has the original power to think, feel, and will. It originates and puts forth different degrees of force. Mind is self -active and the permanent, indivisible cause of its own actions. Matter is inert, it will continue in a state of rest or of motion without change of state, unless the change is pro- duced by something outside itself. 68 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. Mind and matter are radically different. We cannot know either in its essence. We know each only by its mani- festations. §11. Psychology Defined. 1. Phenomena. If we think of the external objects that are in our presence their qualities will appear to the mind. If we give attention to the operations of the mind mental states will appear. A phenomenon is anything which appears to the mind as it thinks. There are two kinds of phenomena: qualities of material objects — material phenomena; mental states — mental phe- nomena. 2. Knowledge. When we compare our idea of the color of a blue lily with the known idea of blue color we are con- scious of the agreement of the two ideas, and we know the lily is blue. When we compare our idea of the color of the lily with the known idea red color, we are conscious of the disagreement of the two ideas and we know the lily is not red. Knowledge is the consciousness of the agreement or dis- agreement of ideas. 3. Object of Knowledge. An object of knowledge is that of which the mind is knowing. 4. Definition. Psychology is the knowledge which has for its object the phenomena of the human mind. These phenomena include thinking, feeling, and willing; their relations to one another as activities; and the conditions and products of these activities. 5. Three Modes of Mental Activity. The one indivisible mind manifests itself in three different, co-existent modes of activity, thinking, feeling, and willing, which we cannot separate in the action, which we distinguish in our thought, to which we give different names. The mind thinking is called Intellect. The mind feeling pleasure or pain as it thinks is called Sensibility. THE MIND. DEFINITIONS. INTELLECT. 69 The mind choosing as it thinks and feels is called the Will. 6. The Relation of These Modes. Intellect is the condi- tion- for Sensibility, there is no feeling without knowledge. These two, Intellect and Sensibility, are the condition for the Will, one cannot choose and execute his choice without both knowledge and feeling. This is the natural order for a rational being. Before beginning the study of Intellect we need to define some terms in frequent use in the study of mind that we may all use them with the same meaning. §111. Definition of Terms. 1. Disposition. Some persons are naturally inclined to think of the bright side of things and persons. They are hopeful, life is joyous, and the world is growing better. Others are naturally inclined to think of the dark side of everything. They are despondent, life is somber, and the world is growing worse. Some persons are slow in coming to a decision to act, others act promptly and with decision. This natural tendency to act in a certain way is a Disposi- tion. The disposition may facilitate living or it may hinder it and have to be struggled against. 2. Habit. By the frequent repetition of any form of mental activity the mind acquires facility in exerting itself in that form and acquires an inclination to continue to act in that mode. Habit is an acquired facility to act in a certain way accompanied by an inclination to act in this way. "Habit is the deepest law of our nature," says Carlyle, Habit must begin to be formed in every line of activity as soon as the activity begins. Habit is the great economy in our life. When we become habituated to an act it almost does itself. Habit determines our personality. It is his own habitual way of acting which distinguishes one person from another. Habit determines character. Habits either good or bad, must be formed in early life, and these habits are the basis of character. 70 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. " Sow an act and you reap a habit. Sow a habit and you reap a character. Sow a character and you reap a destiny." 3. Law. ' ' A laiv implies a being, exerting force, uni- formly, to accomplish an end.'' God is the one law giver. The forces and powers active in nature and in man are the expressions of his will for the accomplishment of his purpose. 4. The Law of Things. Gravitation draws every por- tion of matter towards every other portion directly as the mass of the portion and inversely as the square of the dis- tance between the portions. Cohesion always unites the molecules of a body in the same way for the same kind of matter, as in gold, or in iron. Chemical affinity unites elements in definite proportions. Plant life always develops germ cells each one after its kind. Animal life always develops germ cells each one after its kind. The law of the physical force is the expression of the uniform way in ivhich the force is conti'olled in producing the end. This is the law of things. The law of the mental power which acts spontaneously is the same as the law of things. For example, the law of the association of thoughts is the uniform tendency which the recurrence of one associated thought has to excite another. The law of this mental power is the expression of the uniform way in which the power is controlled in accomplishing an end. 5- The Law of Persons. The moral and civil laws which are for the control of the voluntary action of mental power are addressed to persons, who have power to discern right and wrong and who feel obligation to do the right and to refrain from wrong doing, and who are free to choose whether they will obey or disobey the law. For example, the two great commandments: "Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy mind, and with all thy strength; " and "Thou shalt love thy neigh- bor as thyself." THE MIND. DEFINITIONS. INTELLECT. 71 Moral and civil laws differ from the law of things, — which is the expression of the uniform way in which the force is controlled, — in that they are the expression of the uniform way in which the power should be controlled. Every person should obey the law of love for God and man, but we may choose to disobey this law. 6. Rule. Names of persons should begin with a capital letter, is a rule to be observed in writing. A rule is a pi^escrihed mode for conduct. Rules are tem- porary, laws are permanent. Civil laws are spoken of as rules of action, they are of human origin and may be re- pealed. The laws of God are permanent. 7. A Principle. A principle is a law of the mind which controls its activity in the acquisition of knowledge and in the development of power. 8. Development. Mental development is the facility which the mind acquires in the use of its power by the right exertion of its power. 9. Consciousness. Whenever the mind acts by thinking, feeling, or willing it knows that itself is the permanent indi- visible I (or ego) which underlies its own operations. This knowledge is known as consciousness. Consciousness is the knowledge by the mind of itselj as the permanent, indivisible subject of its own operation. ' ' 10. Inferences. First, Since the mind knows itself as the subject of its operations, consciousness, as the name indi- cates, must accompany every mental act of which we have knowledge. Second, I must trust my own consciousness; if I cannot trust consciousness I cannot trust anything. Consciousness cannot deceive one; it must be infallible. Third, Since consciousness must accompany every men- tal operation which we know, it is not a distinct mode of putting forth energy, neither is it under the control of the will. Fourth, ' * The office of consciousness is to bind all the operations of the mind into unity." Sub-conscious means partially or feebly conscious, for 72 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. example, the state of mind in the transition from the waking to the sleeping state, or the reverse. Or, it may mean with- out consciousness. We say we are not conscious during sleep or in a fit of fainting. This means that we are not conscious of any men- tal activity occasioned by the action of external objects upon the sensory nerves. The mind however holds on its way and wakes the sense organs in due time, and restores the con- nection with the outer world. Observations made by Dr. Mosso of the University of Turin, Italy, upon the brain of Bertino through a hole in his skull, showed that in sound sleep any sound whatever pro- duced a throbbing in his brain, which increased with the increase of the sound. This action of the brain indicates action of the mind during sleep. 11. Attention. (1) Attention — literally the act of stretch- ing to — is keeping the mind fixed upon the object it desires to know. It implies an object and the continuity of the con- sciousness of the presence of the object. (2) The objects of attention are the material and men- tal phenomena that come into consciousness. (3) Continuance of attention depends upon the degree of interest the object awakens in the mind. An unattractive object may become interesting by giving attention to it until we become acquainted with it, or with its relation to other things in which we are interested. Continuance of attention also depends upon strength of will in concentrating thought upon the object, and in over- coming distractions. Sights and sounds without, and thoughts and feehngs within are constantly soliciting the mind. The attractive object favors attention to itself, but opposes atten- tion to less interesting objects. A beautiful melody sung in our hearing overcomes the strongest effort for attention to a lesson, so does a severe pain. Distractions must be reduced to the minimum, and the strongest incentive to attention must be secured. (4) Power to attend is acquired by requiring the mind to perceive distinctly external objects which are in its pre- THE MIND. DEFINITIONS. INTELLECT. 73 sence and to think definitely of what is in the mind. And by requiring the mind to transfer attention quickly from one object of thought to another. (5) Attention implies that its object should excite the desire of knowledge; that it should awaken interest; that its relation to other objects should be considered; that distrac- tions should be avoided; that the entire will power should be exerted; that the act should be repeated and the habit kept up. Attention is most readily secured when body and mind are vigorous. (6) Attention of the child. The child in beginning a systematic course of study in school finds it very diflEicult to attend to any one object. A multitude of objects are before him and he is inclined to pass quickly from one to another. He cannot deal with ideas apart from objects. He needs to have the object before him and to have the teacher to inter- est him in the object to which he is to give attention. Gradu- ally he gains in power to attend. (7) How secured. The attention of the child is to be secured "by engaging his sympathy, by interesting him, by finding him something to do, by rendering the object to which we wish him to give his mind more attactive than his surroundings." His effort to attend should be continued only so long as interest can be kept up. Consciousness and attention are the primary conditions for acquiring knoivledge. 12. An Idea. A red rose is before me. I am conscious of its presence, and the image of this visible thing is the imme- diate object of my consciousness. Again, as I think of the rose I am conscious of a sensa- tion of sight, and of the perception of its color. This color, a quality of the rose, is the immediate object of my conscious- ness. Again, as I think of the action of my mind in relation to the rose I am conscious of the act of seeing, and seeing, an attribute of the mind, is the immediate object of my con- sciousness. 74 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. When we think of any external object as a whole, or of any quality of the external object, or any attribute of the mind, the immediate object of our consciousness is the image of the thing, or the quality, or the attribute of the mind. (1) An idea is the immediate object of consciousness when we think. (2) ' ' The two distinctive marks of an idea are, first, an idea is the immediate object of consciousness when we think; second, an idea is named by a single word," (3) The presence of the proper objects of thought is the occasion of ideas in the mind. (4) The first ideas of either objects or qualities must be acquired from the objects in the presence of the mind. 13. A Word. When we formed the idea of the rose, we associated the idea with the word rose. When we formed the idea of the color of the rose we associated the idea with the word red. When we formed the idea seeing we asso- ciated the idea with the word seeing. A word is a vocal sound or a character which is the sign of an idea. The use of the word is to hold the idea by association so that the recurrence of the word to the ear or the eye shall suggest the idea. 14. Thinking. I perceive the color of a pink and compare it with the known color crimson; the two ideas agree and I think the pink is crimson. I compare the color of the pink with the known color scarlet; the two ideas disagree and I think the pink is not scarlet. Defi'Yiition. Thinking is the act of comparing ideas to find their agreement or disagreement. "Our thinking depends upon our ideas, and we never think beyond them, nor contrary to them." We comprehend a thought only as we know all the ideas of which it is composed. Each word of the sentence that expresses the thought expresses an idea. 15. Elementary Knowledge. Knowledge has been defined as the consciousness of the agreement or disagreement of our THE MIND. DEFINITIONS. INTELLECT. 76 ideas. We depend upon our thinking for our knowledge of the relations of ideas. Knowledge is also that which is known as fact or truth. The dog is black is a fact. Dogs are barking animals is a general truth. A fact is that which is. Our first knowledge is of the facts of the existence and qualities of individual objects, which are known by direct observation, or directly through consciousness. The language of facts consists of the names of things and of descriptions of the phenomena of things. The knowledge of facts is Elementary Knowledge. 16. Scientific Knowledge. By thinking of the qualities we have perceived in individual objects, taking the qualities in which they are alike, and leaving the qualities in which they differ, we consider the qualities found common to the indi- viduals observed, common to all the individuals of that kind and form a general, abstract idea or concept composed of the common qualities; and group in our thought all the individ- uals having these common qualities, and thus form a class of objects. For example, the class man, the class animal. We compare classes and find general truths, for example, man is an animal. We also consider th'e forces which produced the individ- uals of a class. The knowledge of general truths concerning classes and forces is Scientific Knowledge. The language of scientific knowledge consists of propositions and definitions. Elementary knowledge is definite, particular knowledge. Scientific knowledge is definite, general knowledge. Scientific knowledge depends upon elementary know- ledge. 17. Information. We acquire knowledge of things by our own direct observation of them as they are presented to our minds. After we have acquired knowledge of things in their kind, another observer may tell us, either orally or in writ- ing, what he knows of them that we did not know, and give us information, or second hand knowledge. If the informer reports to us what another observer has told him, he gives us second hand information or third hand knowledge. Definition. Information is that which another observer 76 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. tells US that he knows and we did not know, of a kind of object known to us. Information comes to us in some form of descriptive language as we listen to oral statements or read books. Unless the learner knows the kind of things of which the informer is speaking or writing, he cannot be informed of those things, because he does not understand the meaning of the words used. Observation by the learner must precede reading. 18. The Book. The book is a record of thoughts. Its value in itself is proportional to the amount of truth which the record represents. Its value to the reader is proportional to his ability to interpret the record. The ability of the reader to interpret the record is pro- portional to his knowledge of the things for which the words of the record stand. The book helps one to record the ideas he has acquired; gives one new combinations of these ideas in the thoughts of others; stimulates and directs thinking; increases informa- tion; and brings one into the society of other minds. The right use of books is of great value. A large part of our knowledge is the information which comes from books. Objects must come first. The book is secondary in teaching and must not be allowed to take the first place. §IV. Rational Intuitions of the Intellect. 1. Intuitive Ideas. We turn now to the study of the Intellect, the mind's power to know, the lowest form of rational activity. We ask first. What are the conditions and products of the action of Intellect? Second, What operations upon its products can we per- form with this power? Given the mind which has original power to know and we have certain ideas which originate in Intellect, which regulate our knowing. We begin by knowing; knowing some object. There is THE MIND. DEFINITIONS. INTELLECT. H the mind which knows and the object which is known. Let the object be a book. I grasp the book and I know it as an external object. In knowing the book I am certain that I am, that the book is. To know is to be certain of the existence of the thing known, and also to be certain of the existence of the being knowing. We begin with certainty. The object cannot be known unless it exists; the being cannot know unless he exists. These necessary ideas may be illustrated. Being. In knowing the book the idea being must spring in the mind; it does not come from the object through sensa- tion, it originates in the mind. The occasion of its springing in the mind is the consciousness of knowing an external object. This idea being must come with every act of know- ing, hence it regulates knowing. We have two sources of knowledge, one the external world giving a great variety of objects; the other the mind itself,' giving the ideas which must spring in it from its nature. The mind must be certain of existence. Space. If I attempt to put my hand where the book is I cannot, the book occupies the space. I cannot know the book and not know that it is in space. The occasion of the idea space springing in the mind is the consciousness of knowing a body. The idea space must accompany the perception of every material object. Time. If I move the book from place to place it takes time. The idea time must spring in the mind with every act of knowing a change. The mind must know changes in time. Personal Identity. I cannot remember the book without having the idea spring in the mind that the I who remembers the book is the same I who perceived the book. The occa- sion of the idea personal identity springing in the mind is the consciousness of remembering. Mental states must be known by the same I. Number. As I perceive several books, I cannot distin- 78 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. guish one from more than one without the idea number springing in the mind. The occasion of this idea is the con- sciousness of knowing several objects. The mind must number objects. Difference. I cannot distinguish one book from another without having the idea difference come in the mind. The occasion of this idea is the consciousness of thinking one thing apart from another. The mind must distinguish objects by a difference. Resemblance. I cannot perceive books of the same kind without having the idea resemblance spring in the mind. The occasion of this idea is the consciousness of knowing the objects. The mind must class objects by resemblance. Intuitive Ideas. Occasions of Them. Being Knowing any object. Space Knowing matter. Time Knowing changes. Personal Identity Knowing mental states. Number Knowing objects. Difference Knowing objects unlike. Resemblance Knowing objects alike. 2. Intuitive Truths. There are certain propositions expressing the relations of these intuitive ideas that must be thought true as soon as they are stated. It is impossible to think they are not true, for example, the propositions, This body is in space, This pendulum swings in time, must be thought true as soon as they are stated, as surely as the ideas of space and time must spring in the mind. These ideas and truths are necessary, hence universal. They regulate our knowing. They are rational intuitions, the manifestations of Reason in Intellect. CHAPTER IX. THE MIND PRESENTING THE EXTERNAL WORLD. " Say not I have a soul; I am a soul, And have a body builded to my need That I, a soul, may in this great world school, Study the Master's works." --Mary F. Butts. §1. Sensation and Sense Perception. Reason in Intellect originates the intuitive ideas Being, Space, Time, Personal Identity, Number, Difference, and Resemblance, which condition our knowing. All men have these ideas. 1. How Does the Mind Gain Knowledge of the External World ? The mind is first conscious of its own states. We touch the parts of our own body and are immediately con- scious of its existence as an extended whole occupying space. The hands, the eyes, the ears, the tongue, and the nos- trils, with the sensory nerves attached to them and extending to the brain, are the sense organs, or the senses, each per- forming its special work. Each sense has its own center in the brain and these centers are connected. Collectively they are called the sensorium. Given the sensorium and an external object impressing the sensorium, as when I press the table, and we have a state of mind called sensation. The movement in sensation is from the external object inward aifecting the mind; sen- sation is subjective, the element of feeling. Definition. Sensation is the feeling which comes when an external object impresses the sensorium. Sensation is known by the mind as from the body, as produced through the sensorium, and as directing the mind to the external object acting upon the sensorium. It is the 80 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. connecting link between mind and matter. Through the sensation we acquire the idea of the existence of the table and of its quality of hardness. Definition. Sense Perception is the knowledge through sensation of the existence and qualities of the external object. The movement in perception is from the sensation within outward to the external object; it is objective, the element of knowledge. The mind gains the knowledge of the external world through sensation and perception, or through Sense Percep- tion. 2. Sensation and Perception Involve Four Conditions. (1) Contact of an external object with the sense organs. The only object ever perceived is the object in immediate contact with the organ. (2) A co-existent sensation and perception occasioned by this contact. The sensation and perception both exist only as they co-exist. They do not always co-exist with the same degree of intensity. (3) Conscious attention to the sensation and perception. (4) Association of the idea perceived with its name and with ideas previously perceived. External objects affect the mind through the sense organs. The mind goes out through the sense organs to study the Master's works. We inquire next for the kind of knowledge gained through each sense acting by itself. § II. What the Mind Perceives Through Touch WITH Pressure. 1. The Immediate Knowledge of a Body. First. If any point of the skin be pricked without any pressure, by a sharp needle, we shall be conscious only of a sensation of touch without knowing what produced it. We may be touched upon any part of the skin. When we touch we use mainly the tips of the fingers. The muscular sense, the consciousness of sensation aris- ing from muscular exertion, acts with the sense of touch. THE MIND PRESENTING THE EXTERNAL WORLD. 81 I clasp an apple in my hand. I am conscious of resis- tance to my muscular exertion, and I have immediate know- ledge of the existence of a body external to my own through the resistance it offers to my muscular effort. Touch with pressure gives immediate knowledge of the existence of external bodies. 2. The Necessary Qualities of a Body. We know the qualities a body must have by thinking of it as occupying space and as being contained in space. Since every body must occupy space it must have trinal extension; hence it must have form or figure, a quality which arises from the limitation of extension; size, a quality which arises from the amount of space occupied; divisibilty, a qual- ity arising from the fact that an extended whole must be susceptible of separation into parts; density, a quality which arises from the amount of matter in a body; absolute incom- pressibility, a quality which arises from the fact that a body cannot be compressed so as to occupy no space; since a body must be contained in space, it must have position, a quality arising from the fact a body must be somewhere in space; and mobility, a quality which arises from the motion of a body. These eight qualities are essential to the existence of a body. 3. The Classification of Qualities. Qualities which are essential to the existence of a body are classed as Primary qualities. Qualities which are not essential to the existence of a body are classed as Secondary qualities. Qualities which are known at once as belonging to a body are classed as Objective qualities. Qualities which are known at once as a change in self are classed as Subjective qualities. The Primary and Objective qualities are extension, form or figure, size, divisibility, density, absolute incompressibil- ity, position, nobility. 4. Degrees of Resistance. Second. We know through touch and pressure the degrees of resistance arising from Attraction, Repulsion, and Inertia. 82 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. First. When we press upon steel it offers a high degree of resistance because its particles are held firmly together by attraction and we say the steel is hard. When we press upon dough it yields readily to pressure because there is a lower degree of attraction among its particles, and we say the dough is soft, When we move the fingers over the surface of broken granite it offers a high degree of resistance from attraction and we say the broken granite is rough. When we move the fingers over the surface of polished granite it offers a low degree of resistance from attraction and we call the polished granite smooth. Some of the relative degrees of attraction known through touch and pressure are: Hardness and softness. Roughness and smoothness. Toughness and brittleness. Rigidity and flexibility. Firmness and fluidity. Ductility and inductility. Elasticity and inelasticity. Second. When we attempt to compress an iron ball into a smaller space we are conscious of a high degree of resis- tance offered by the force of Repulsion and we say the ball is incompressible. When we attempt to compress air in a closed vessel there is a lower degree of resistance offered by repul- sion and we find the air is compressible. We learn that bodies are compressible or incompressible. Third. When we catch a ball we are conscious of a degree of resistance arising from bringing a body in motion into a state of rest. When we attempt to move the wall of the house we are conscious of a high degree of resistance arising from bringing a body at rest into a state of motion. The resisting force in these two cases is Inertia. We learn that bodies are movable or immovable. Fourth. Secondary-primary qualities. In classifying the qualities known as degrees of resistance we may take hardness as a type of the class. Hardness whenever known THE MIND PRESENTING THE EXTERNAL WORLD. 83 is known as essential to the body which has it, therein it is like primary quahties; but hardness is not essential to some bodies, therein it is like secondary qualities. A quality like a primary and a secondary quality is called a Secondary-pri- mary quality. Hardness is known at once, when known, as belonging to the object, therein it is objective; it is known also as a change in self, therein it is subjective; hence it is called a Subjective-objective quality. What is true of hard- ness is true of all the degrees of resistance known through touch. They are relative ideas, known in pairs. Sense. Knowledge. QUALITY. Touch and 1. Existence of bodies. Primary. Objective. Muscular Sense. 2. Degress of resistance Secondary-primary. from attraction, re- Subjective-objective. pulsion, and inertia. 5. Use of the Hands. Touch with the muscular sense gives immediate knowledge of the world of matter, a know- ledge of the forces active in bodies, and the uses to which these bodies may be put. The hands are the chief instru- ments in supplying personal needs; in shaping matter into useful and beautiful forms; in making and using tools and machinery in all the trades, manufactures, and industries. It is of primary importance that the mind should be trained to use the hands skilfully. §111. What the Mind Perceives Through Sight Alone. 1. Notes on Light and Color by John Tyndall, F. R. S. (1) The substance which transmits light is assumed to be of both extreme elasticity and extreme tenuiity. This substance is called the Luminiferous ether. (2) It fills space; it surrounds the atoms of bodies; it extends through the humors of the eye. The molecules of luminous bodies are in a state of vibration. The vibratious are taken up by the ether, and transmitted through it in waves. These waves impinging on the retina excite the sensation of light. (3) Solar light is found to be composed of an infinite number of rays of difi'erent degrees of refrangibility; when such light is sent through a prism, its constituent rays are drawn asunder. This act of drawing apart is called dispersion. 84 ^ THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. (4) Some of the waves of ether generated by luminous bodies are longer than others. In refracting substances the short waves are more retarded than the long ones; hence the short waves are more refracted than the long ones. This is the cause of the dispersion. (5) The luminous image formed when a beam of white solar light is thus decomposed is called the solar spectrum. The solar spectrum consists of a series of vivid colors, which, when reblended, produce the original white light. Commencing with that which is least refracted, we have the following order of colors in the solar spectrum: — Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Violet. (6) The Color of Light is determined solely by its wave-length. The ether waves gradually diminish in length from the red to the violet. The length of a wave of red is about ^^^o^y of an inch; that of a wave of violet light is about 5^73^00 ^^ ^" inch. The waves which produce the other colors of the spectrum lie between these extremes. (7 The velocity of light being 192,000 miles, or 12,165,120,000 inches per second, if we multiply this number by 39,000 we obtain the number of waves of red light in 192,000 miles; the product is 474,439,680,000,000. All these waves enter the eye in a second. In the same interval 699 mil- lion millions waves of violet light enter the eye. At this prodigious rate is the retina hit by the waves of light. (8) Natural bodies possess the power of absorbing the light that enters them. This power is selective, and hence, for the most part, arise the phenomena of color. (9) When the light which enters a body is ivholly absorbed the body is black; a body which absorbs all the waves equally, but not totally, is grey; while a body which absorbs the various waves unequally is colored. Color is due to the extinction of certain constituents of the white light within the body, the remaining constituents which return to the eye imparting to the body its color. (10) Bodies of all colors, illuminated by white light, reflect white light from their exterior surfaces. It is the light which has plunged to a certain depth within the body, which has been sifted there by the elec- tive absorption, and then discharged from the body by interior reflection, that, in general, gives the body its color. 2, The Perception of Colors. If rays of light from a luminous body fall upon a material body and are reflected upon the network of nerves upon the inner coat of the eye ball, called the retina, we have a sensation of sight and per- ceive a color. (1) The color as seen is an idea acquired through a sensation of sight. The color is known in consciousness only as a change in self, is purely subjective. It is the light THE MIND PRESENTING THE EXTERNAL WORLD. 85 in contact with the retina that we perceive, from which we infer the quahty of the distant body which reflects the \ight to the eye. The quahty of the distant body is its power to modify the light which falls upon it. Colors are the original and direct gift of sight. We know colors only through the eye because no other sense is impressed by light. A person born blind cannot know colors. (2) The modifications of light extend from the perfectly white sunlight to the blackness of darkness. There are two classes of colors: Colors proper, including the colors of the solar spectrum; and neutral colors, including the blacks, whites, and greys. (3) When we see a color, we see surface extension col- ored and limited by a surrounding color. This color must give the qualities form, size, and number. (4) We see the form of extension in three dimensions. The light reflected from a spherical surface covers a suflficient surface on the retina to indicate a spherical form. A cubical body may be so held before the eye that the light reflected from the three surfaces forming a solid angle may enter the eye at once, thus indicating a cubical form. "The two eyes receive images of different forms; these are blended by a mental operation into a compound image, which education has taught us to associate with the distance of the several parts of the object. The effect is that of out- standing rehef. " (5) Sight gives a knowledge of relative distance. We always seem to see colors on something outside of self. A color near the eye seems large, if moved farther away it appears smaller. By these observations we know whether a body is approaching us or receding from us. In this way we have an idea of relative distance. (6) The color of a body is the kind of light which it reflects. Very early in life, by the action of touch and sight, we associated the sensation of light with a body which reflects the light, and ever after when we see a color we infer that there is a body from which the light is reflected to the eye, and we say we see a body. 86 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 3. Through Sight Acting Alone We Know Colors; which are secondary and subjective qualities. We know through colors, surface extension and volumet- ric extension, which give the qualities form, size, number, which are primary and objective qualities. "Through sight we are able to clothe external objects with color, form, size, and proportions." Sense. Knowledge. Quality. Sight. Color. Secondary and Surface Extension and Subjective. Volumetric Extension which imply: — Form, Size, Number, Distance, Posi- Primary and tion, Mobility. Objective. 4. Sight is the Noblest of the Five Senses. The rays of Hght which minister to this sense and the eye which receives them are adapted to one another with consummate wisdom and perfect skill. The eye, a ball and socket about an inch in diameter, without change of position lifts its lid and perceives instantly the figure of a magnificent cathedral, or all the variety of a landscape, or the wide expanse of the ocean, as the light shines over all. Sight gives an infinite variety of colors, ever changing in all their matchless beauty. It gives us an infinite variety of forms, irregular, regular, symmetrical, simple, complex, through all the range of the mineral, plant, and animal kingdoms. It gives the unlimited range in size from the microscpic cell to the mountain mass, the wide sea, and the vast canopy of the heavens. It gives the endless series of numbers from the single object to the leaves on the trees, the sands on the shore, and the stars in the sky. It gives the endless combination of color, form, size, and number, all that we infer from this combination, and all that it suggests to our thought. "The light of truth, the light of beauty, and the light of goodness comes intp every soul that has the eye to see light, and the light shineth more and more unto the perfect day." THE MIND PRESENTING THE EXTERNAL WORLD. 87 "The eye observes only what the mind, the heart, and imagination are gifted to see; and sight must be reinforced by insight before souls can be discerned as well as manners." §IV. What the Mind Perceives Through Hearing Acting Alone. 1. The Perception of Sounds. If a piano string be vibrated near us, there is a line of matter extending from the string to the auditory nerves, made up of the air, the drum head of the ear, the chain of bones in the middle ear, and the liquid in the inner ear. This line of matter conveys the vibration from the string to the auditory nerves and we have a sensation of hearing and perceive a sound which is known in consciousness only as a change in self, and is purely sub- jective. (1) A sound as heard is an idea acquired from a sen- sation of hearing. Hearing gives only a knowledge of sounds. We know sounds only through hearing. From what body the sound comes, from what direction it comes, and what it means, we have to learn by experience. (2) Sounds are of two kinds, noises and tones. Noise is produced by irregular vibrations, as when a load of stones is dumped upon the ground. Tones are produced by regular vibrations. They differ in pitch, which depends upon the frequency of the vibrations; in loudness, which depends upon the amplitude of the vibrations; and in quality, which depends upon the complexity of the tones. There is an infi- nite variety in the quality of tones. (3) Hearing does not connect the sensation of hear- ing with the vibration of the body which occasioned the sen- sation. From early life, we have been accustomed to hold the body when struck, and through touch and hearing acting together we have associated the sound heard with the vibrat- ing body which occasioned the sensation, hence, we say when we hear a sound it is the sound of a body. The sound of a body is the vibration of the body which impresses the audi- tory nerves. (4) Through the sense of hearing acting alone we per- 88 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. ceive only sounds, which are secondary and subjective quali- ties. 2. Uses of the Sense of Hearing. (1) Hearing gives num- berless sounds, and all we infer through them of distance, direction, and the presence and approach of bodies. It gives all the power and joy of speech. The use of the speech voice depends upon our ability to hear. The tones of the voice express ideas, the kind and degree of emotion felt, and the strength of the will. Oral reading and recitations are very important means in training the mind to hear as well as to communicate. The speech voice, by training, becomes one of the most effective instruments of expression. (2) Hearing opens to the mind the sweet melody of music, both vocal and instrumental. Vocal music is a very important element in education for the refining influence which it exerts; for the cheerful relief it gives; for the enthusiasm it awakens; for its power to move the will, and for the expression of the soul in worship. The sense of hear- ing should receive the most careful cultivation. §V. What the Mind Perceives Through Taste Acting Alone. 1. The Perception of Flavors. When a soluble body is placed upon the tongue we have a sensation of taste and per- ceive the idea of a flavor. It is known only as a change in self, is subjective. (1) A flavor is an idea acquired from a sensation of taste. Taste gives only a knowledge of flavors. We know flavors only by taste. We recognize four classes of flavors, — sour, sweet, salt, and bitter. The nerves of touch and the nerves of taste upon the upper surface of the tongue are so closely related that it is difficult to separate their action. Touch acting with taste connects the flavor with the body. (2) The flavor of a body is that in the body ivhich impresses the nerves of taste. (3) Through the sense of taste acting alone we know only flavors, which are secondary and subjective qualities. THE MIND PRESENTING THE EXTERNAL WORLD. 89 2. The Uses of Taste. Taste gives knowledge of flavors, which aids in the preparation of food, and makes eating and drinking pleasureable. §VI. What the Mind Perceives Through Smell Acting Alone. 1. The Perception of Odors. If we place alcohol in a bottle with a glass stopper it remains there, which shows it cannot escape through the glass. If the stopper be left out, the alcohol disappears, which shows it flies away, is volatile. Placing the nostrils over the open mouth of the bottle con- taining the alcohol we have a sensation of smell and we infer that it was produced by volatile alcohol. The same experi- ment with ether, musk, camphor, and many other substances gives a like result. We infer from these experiments that it is the impact of the volatile particles, coming from the body upon the olfactory nerves which gives the sensation of smell from which we perceive the idea of an odor. (1) An odor is an idea acquired from a sensation of smell. It is known only as a change in self; it is not con- nected with any body by smell. Smell gives only a know- ledge of odors. We know odors only by smell. Touch and smell acting together connect the odor with the body. (2) The odor of a body is that in the body which im- presses the nerves of smell. Odors are known as agreeable or disagreeable; we do not further classify them. The organs of taste and smell are situated so near together that we often confound flavors and odors. (3) Through the sense of smell acting alone we know only odors, which are secondary and subjective qualities. 2. Uses of Smell. Smell gives the knowledge of odors, which enables us to detect the presence of noxious gases, and to enjoy fragrant objects; it also increases the pleasure of eating. 3. Immediate Perceptions. Our own bodies are in the immediate presence of our minds hence we have immediate perceptions of their existence. We have immediate percep- 90 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. tions of bodies external to our own when we press upon them through the resistance they offer to our muscular exertions. 4. Mediate Perceptions. In touch without pressure, and in each of the other senses we have a sensation which is wholly within us from which we infer the quality of the body external to us which occasions the sensation in us. 5. Quality of Body Defined. The quality of a body, viewed in relation to the mind, is the effect in the mind which the body produces. The quality of a body, viewed in relation to the body, is that in the body which produces the peculiar effect in the mind. 5. Percept Defined. A percept is the simple idea of a single quality perceived through one sense organ. Through each sense we acquire knowledge of percepts. All percepts of degrees of resistance must be acquired through the organ of touch; all percepts of color must be acquired through the eye; of sounds through the ear; of flavors, through the tongue; of odors, through the olfactory nerves. §VII. What the Mind Perceives Through the United Action of the Senses. 1. Ideas of Individual Objects. I pass my hand through space, something offers resistance, I perceive a body; I press it, I perceive it is soft; I move my fingers over its surface, I perceive it is rough; I look at it, I perceive it is yellow; I strike it on the desk, I perceive a dull sound; I taste it, I per- ceive a sour flavor; I smell it, I perceive an agreeable odor. I think together these percepts of the different senses and form the idea of an individual material object which is a body, soft, rough, yellow, makes a dull sound, is sour, and has an agreeable odor; I call it a lemon. Again, I pass my hand through space, something offers resistance, I perceive a body; I press upon it, it moves freely, I perceive it is fluid; I look at it and perceive its color is so faint that I call it colorless; I strike it, I perceive a gurgling sound; I taste it, I perceive so little flavor I call it tasteless; I smell it, I perceive it is odorless. I think together these percepts of the different senses and form the idea of an indi- THE MIND PRESENTING THE EXTERNAL WORLD. 91 vidual object which is a body, fluid, colorless, makes a gur- gling sound, tasteless, and odorless, which I call water. The mind through the united action of the senses per- ceives the qualities of the individual object and forms the complex idea of the object. 2. Strength of Primary Ideas. The strength of these primary ideas depends first, upon the perfection of our sense organs; second, upon the accuracy of our sense perception; third, upon our ability to interpret the ideas. 3. Thinking as We Perceive. As I perceive each quality I think this quality belongs to the object, so that each percep- tion of a quality implies an act of thinking. In sense per- ception our world is a world of individual things. 4. The Natural Order in the Use of the Senses. The natural order in the use of the senses is sight, touch, hearing, taste, and smell. Sight is used first because the eye has the widest range of action, receiving light from all directions. We see a color which has form and size and infer there is a body of the same form and size, from which the light comes to the eye. We immediately proceed to acquire knowledge of the body through touch. Hearing comes next in the extent of its range, and enables us to judge of the quahty of sounds and of the position, direction, and approach of objects, and is the means of oral communication. Taste and smell follow and are closely associated in their action. They indicate the character of the food we eat, the air we breathe, and the chemical qualities of bodies having flavor and odor. 5. Order in the Acquisition of Ideas. First. We acquire a clear idea of the whole object, then of its parts, and their names. We have a clear idea of an object when we perceive its color, form, and size so as to distinguish it as a whole from other objects. Second. We acquire from the objects a distinct idea of the single quality and the fit word for the expression of the quahty. Third. We acquire the complex idea of the individual object, and its expression. We can describe the object defi- 92 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. nitely only as we have distinct ideas of its qualities and the fit words for their expression. Fourth. We compare objects for definite ideas of differ- ences and resemblances. We separate objects according to the qualites in which they differ; we form the idea of a class by thinking together the qualities in which individuals are alike, and (1) In dealing with objects, we proceed from the whole object to its parts and their relations. (2) In'[acquiring ideas, we proceed from the simple idea of the single quality to the complex idea of the whole object. (3) In comparison of objects, we proceed from the par- ticular idea of the individual to the general idea of the class. (J/.) hi forming a class of individual objects, the mirid unconsciously notes the qualities in which individuals are alike, thinks them together and forms a concept composed of the qualities common to the individuals; gives it a class name and groups the individuals which have the common qualities. §VIII. Use of Acquired Perceptions. 1. The Senses Are in Close Partnership. The percepts they give are strongly associated, because the senses have always lived and worked together. Sight is constantly using the ideas furnished by the muscular sense. We can know the existence of a body, and the degrees of resistance offered by it, only through touch with pressure. Yet we say that we see the body, and that we see the steel is hard, the butter is soft, the granite is rough, the glass is smooth, the water is fluid, the wax is sticky, the snow is cold. We say also that we see the bell is sonorous, the orange is sweet, the lemon is sour, and the rose is fragrant. In all this the sight is using the ideas that have been acquired through the other senses, and which have been associated with the colors seen through the eye. The mind is not fully satisfied with what it sees, for immediately on seeing a new color we make a movement to handle the body from which the light comes, that we may verify the inference made through sight. So strong is this tendency that the salesman has to place his THE MIND PRESENTING THE EXTERNAL WORLD. 93 choicest goods in glass cases to prevent their being spoiled by handhng. Hearing the voice of a friend through the tele- phone, or hearing his footsteps or his knock brings him dis- tinctly before the mind. Here, as in sight, the mind is using percepts acquired through other senses. 2. W^e Are Sometimes Deceived by the Inference. I see the color of an orange and I infer it is sweet, but find upon tasting, it is sour. I think I see a pillar projecting from the frescoed wall of a church. I find upon examination that there is no pillar, I only saw the color. Sight could not give the complete idea of the pillar. It requires great care in the use of each sense to make correct inferences from previous per- ceptions. We must be careful how we substitute inferences from other perceptions for the direct perception by the pro- per sense. § IX. Language in Relation to Sense Perception. The First Meaning. Language in its primary meaning is the power by which we form ideas and associate them with their proper signs, that we may give them effective expres- sion. We must associate the idea with its sign to hold it for use, so that the recurrence of the spoken word or the written word shall suggest the idea of the object. When a new object comes before the mind we immediately ask " What is it?" The mind at once seeks to associate the idea it per- ceives with its sign, the class name, and to place the object in its class. The cultivation of this power should be carried on in connection with every exercise of the perceptive power. The Second Meaning. Language is the system of signs by which we express ideas. As such it is an object to be studied and should be constantly studied in connection with the acquisition of the knowledge of objects. The pupils should be trained to choose the word that best fits the idea to be expressed. In the choice of derivative words he should be taught the meaning of their component parts. 94 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. §X. Cultivation of Sense Perception. 1. Basis of Development. The cultivation of this power is the foundation of mental development. The child seeks first knowledge of things through his sense organs. His first work is to find his place in the natural world. And all through his life he has to make his way by extending his knowledge of the external world through sense perception. 2. Exact Observation. The pupil should be educated to exact observation in the use of each sense: (1) That he may acquire definite elementary knowledge through each sense as food for thinking; (2) That he may acquire the broader scientific know- ledge which depends upon exact elementary knowledge; (3) That he may lay the foundation for the develop- ment of taste and the appreciation of the beautiful; (4) That he may gain command of nature and men; (5) That he may cultivate the power of language whose use is co-incident with his observation. 3. Habit of Perceiving. We may allow objects to pass before the mind without perceiving the qualities we ought to observe, which forms the habit of neglecting to perceive. We may require the mind to perceive quahties we ought to notice distinctly whenever external objects come into its presence, which forms the habit of perceiving distinctly through each sense. We form one habit or the other. 4. Course of Lessons. A systematic course of lessons for acquisition of distinct ideas of forms, of colors, of sounds is essential as a preparation for acquiring distinct ideas of individual objects. These courses should be a part of the daily lessons, until the habit of observing forms, colors, and sounds is established. 5. Knowledge of An Object. Complete knowledge of a material object requires that we know it as a whole; in its elements, if , unorganized, in its parts if organized; in its qualities; in the uses to which its qualities adapt it; in its relation to our needs; and that we have the definite expres- sion of this knowledge. CHAPTER X. THE MIND PRESENTING THE INNER WORLD. Whatever that be which thinks, which understands, which wills, which acts, it is something celestial and divine; and upon that account must be eternal. — Cicero. §1. The Inner Sense. 1. The World of Mind. We have considered the mani- festation of Reason in Intellect which gives to all men the necessary ideas which regulate our knowing, and Sense Per- ception which gives the knowledge of the infinity of objects in the external world of sense. We have now to consider the action of the Inner Sense by which the mind knows, its modes of thought, feeling, and willing and their products. We have this knowledge imme- diately, for nothing can come between the mind and its own activity. Definition. The Inner Sense is the mind knowing its own activities and their products. 2. The Inner Sense is the Condition for Self Knowledge, which means that we know our activities in thinking, feeling, and willing in themselves; in their relations to one another; and in their adaptation to attain the ends of our being. 3. The Inner Sense is the Condition for Rational Self- government. We govern ourselves rationally only as we take into view the activity of all our powers, with the purpose which they serve, only as we know which powers are lower and which are higher, which are impulsive and which are governing. We must be able to see what their action is, and to determine what it shall be. 4. The Inner Sense is the Condition for Knowing Our Fellowmen. Because men are alike in having the same modes 96 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. of activity we may judge others by ourselves. We cannot directly observe the action of another mind. We can observe only its manifestations. I must know my own mental activ- ity and its natural mode of expression. It is only by compar- ing the manifestations of another mind with my own mani- festion that I infer the activity which underlies his expres- sion. Hence, we can judge others truly only as we truly know ourselves. It is of vital importance to the teacher that he judge truly the activity of his pupil. 5. Character of the Inner World. "We have revealed through the Inner Sense a world more wonderful even than that which is without,— a world of intelligence, of compre- hension, of feeling, of will, of personality, and of moral instead of physical law. It is a world whose phenomena we can study and arrange as we do those of the external world." §11. Presentative Power. 1. The Power by Which W^e Gain Knowledge of Mate- rial and Mental Objects as they are presented to the mind is called the Presentative Power. The two modes of this power are Sense Perception and the Inner Sense. We have three departments of knowledge. We have necessary and univer- sal ideas and truths; we have the world of matter; and the world of mind. "Each is necessary to the others, and all combine in giving us a rational being, standing face to face with an unlimited universe which he is to investigate." 2. The Condition for Objective Presentation is attention to the object of thought when it is present in consciousness with the purpose to acquire knowledge. 3. The Products of Effective Presentation are definite knowledge of material and mental objects, power to observe, and power to express accurately. 4. W^e Have Found the Elements of All Our Knowledge and How We Get Them. First. We have regulative ideas which are given by reason. Second. We have the primary ideas of the single quali- ties of individual objects, called percepts, and the complex ideas of individual objects given by Sense Perception. THE MIND PRESENTING THE INTERNAL WORLD. 97 Third. We have the phenomena of thinking, feeling, and willing, which are given by the Inner Sense. Material objects are presented in space and time. Mental objects are presented in self and time. §111. The Principles of Education Derived from THE PrESENTATIVE PoWER. 1. Presence of the Object. The object of thought from which primary ideas are acquired must be in the presence of the mind. 2. Attention to Object. Attention to the object present is to be secured by the interest and skill of the teacher in presenting the object of thought. 3. Acquisition of Ideas. Definite ideas and thoughts must be acquired and must be definitely expressed in good English, orally and in writing. 4. Natural Order. The natural order, proceeding from the whole object to its parts and their relations must be fol- lowed. 5. Repetition. Ideas and their expression become the permanent possession of the mind only by much repetition. 6. Adaptation. The Teaching must be adapted to the unfolding of the mind. The perceptive power leads, but memory, imagination, and reflection are active, the sensibil- ity is active, and the will is exerted with increasing strength. CHAPTER XI. THE MIND REPRESENTING. MEMORY. Without memory there could be no other intellectual operation. — Johnson, §1. How Does the Mind Represent? 1. Representative Power. What does the mind do with the elements of knowledge which it has acquired by the Pre- sentative Power? We ask first, where are the ideas which we have acquired when we are not thinking of them? For example, where are the ideas of home and friends when we are not thinking of them? We do not know where they are. "All that we know is, that when the mind has been in a state of knowing, feeling, or willing, it may, on certain conditions, be caused to return to a similar state." The former and the subse- quent states are so much alike that they seem to be identical, and we speak of them as being the same. We are conscious of the power to produce mental states similar to those we have had before. This power is called the Representative Power. 2. The Mental Current. We are SO constituted that we must think, feel, and will. This is our nature. When once the mind has started on its course, there is through the Representative power, in connection with the other powers, a constant succession of thoughts, feelings, and volitions passing in continuous flow. This current began with our life, and was very narrow at first, but it has been constantly enlarging and now takes in all our experience. It moves on involuntarily furnishing the material on which the voluntary powers act. (1) This involuntary current we know as ourself. We THE MIND REPRESENTING. MEMORY. 9d watch its movements and note what thought, feeling, pur- pose, or desire comes in it. We cannot stop its flow but we can and do choose which object of thought in it we will dwell upon, which feeling we will cherish, and thus we determine the direction of the current, and the quality of our character. "As he thinketh in his heart so is he." (2) The current seems to flow in waves. Now we are perceiving, remembering, imagining or reflecting, and the wave of thought is highest, and we say we are thinking. Now we are loving, hating, or rejoicing, and the wave of feeling is highest, and we say we are feeling. Again, we are struggling under the influence of conflicting motives to decide what we will do or not do, and the wave of willing is highest, and we say we are willing. When we are quietly resting, the waves seem to be equal in height. The predomi- nant element gives name to the mental state. (3) The past mental state never returns. Only that portion of the current that is now passing is before the mind, just as we see only the portion of the stream of water that is now passing by. The mental state that has passed by never returns. A state so much like the state which has passed that we call it the same may come, as when the same object returns, or we have the memory of the state. {4-) The portion passing is complex. Every definite image we know in the current is accompanied by those less definite, and there is also a sense of relations near and remote, as when I am thinking of my absent home, I have a distinct image of my home, and the objects associated with it appear less distinct as related to it. {5) The rate of the flow varies. It may move with a rush of thoughts, feelings, and decisions, as when we wit- ness an exciting game; or it may move moderately, or very slowly, as when we rest in an easy chair. The rate of the current varies in different persons. 3. Association of Ideas. How do we hold the ideas we have acquired? We have seen that ideas are brought into company, at the time they are acquired, with the objects from which they come, with ideas previously known, and 100 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. with words. It is because of this relation of companionship that they suggest or excite one another. Definition. The association of ideas or thoughts is the relation of companionship by which one idea or thought excites another. 4. Principle of Association. How are ideas brought back? The thought of a tall man was associated with the thought of a short man when we first knew these ideas because they are related ideas. The thought of the smooth pebbles, as we saw them on the beach, was associated with the thought of the action of the waves which made them smooth. The recurrence of one of these associated thoughts tends to excite the other. We find in every instance, when thoughts are associated, that the recurrence of one of the thoughts tends to excite the other. Definition. The principle or law of association is the uniform tendency which the recurrence of one associated thought has to excite another. §11. Primary and Objective Principles of Asso- ciation. 1. Time. If two things are known at the same time, as when we meet two persons on the street; or in immediate succession, as when we hear a singer and the applause which follows his singing, and then, afterwards one of these objects comes to mind, we think of the other. The principle of time is that thoughts are associated when their objects hold the relation of co-existence, or of immediate succession in time. This principle of time shows the necessity of observing closely the things which come before the mind at the same time. 2. Place. The home of our childhood and the events which occurred there are strongly associated; also the village common and the buildings located around it, because they hold the relation of nearness of place. The principle of place is that thoughts are associated when their objects hold the relation of nearness in place. This principle of place shows the need of observing care- THE MIND REPRESENTING. MEMORY. 101 fully all the objects which come before the mind in one group. 3. Resemblance. If we saw a house yesterday, and today see another which resembles it, we think of the house we saw yesterday, because they are alike.' The principle of resemblance is that thoughts are associated when their objects hold the relation of resemblance. This principle shows the importance of observing accu- rately points of resemblance by which objectsare classified. 4. Contrast. Sweetness and sourness, darkness and light, heat and cold, friendship and enmity hold the relation of contrast. The principle of contrast is that thoughts are associated when their objects hold the relation of contrast. This principle shows the importance of observing the differences by which objects are distinguished. 5. Cause and Effect. The thought of a tempest suggests the thought of a wreck. The thought of a rifted oak excites the thought of the lightning which rent it because these objects hold the relation of cause and effect. These are cor- relative terms; the one implies the other. The principle of cause and effect is that thoughts are associated when their objects hold the relation of cause and effect. This principle shows the importance of observing the relation of cause and effect because of the importance of the ideas associated and because of the permanent relation which the ideas hold to each other. These principles arise from the relations which the objects of thought hold to one another, and are called pri- mary principles because these relations come to the mind first, and because they are in distinction from other princi- ples of association which arise from the relations which the objects of thought hold to the mind. § III. Secondary and Subjective Principles of Association. To determine what particular ideas will be suggested under the action of the primary principles of association, we 102 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. must consider the states of mind which existed when the ideas were acquired which are afterwards recalled. 1. Interest. A lesson upon the animal itself excites deeper interest than a lesson upon the description of the animal. The ideas of the former lesson are more readily recalled. The principle of interest is that ideas come back more readily the greater the vivacity with which they are acquired. This principle shows the benefit of teaching from the object. 2. Attention. A lesson to which we have given much time and close attention is more readily recalled than one to which we have given but little attention, other things being equal. The principle of attention is that ideas come back more readily the greater the amount of attention which was given to their acquisition. This principle shows the benefit of concentration of thought. 3. Repetition. A lesson which has been many times repeated is easily recalled. The principle of repetition is that ideas come back more readily the more frequently they have been before the mind. This principle shows the benefit of reviews. 4. Lapse of Time. A lesson recently learned is recalled more readily than one learned a long time ago. The princi- ple of lapse of time is that ideas come back more readily the more recently they have been in mind. This principle shows the benefit of keeping in touch with our work. 5. Bodily Vigor. A lesson learned when the body is in good condition is more readily recalled than one learned when the body is weary. The principle of bodily vigor is that ideas come back more readily as the bodily powers were more vigorous when they were acquired. This principle shows the benefit of good physical health. The five secondary principles may be reduced to one principle, attention. The knowledge of these principles will emphasize the necessity of securing attention. 6. W^e Are Sometimes Unable to Tell How We Come to Think of a Thing. The best explanation of this is ' ' that something comes into the mind and introduces something THE MIND REPRESENTING. MEMORY. 103 else, but disappears so instantaneously that all trace of it is lost." These secondary principles modify the action of the pri- mary principles, which vary with every person. No two persons have the same succession of ideas, but with every person the deeper the interest, the greater the amount of attention, the more frequent the repetition, the more vigor- ous the body, the stronger will be the association. 7. We Have Learned, That every idea is associated with a word and with other ideas when it is acquired. That it has its companions, and the reproduction of one of the group leads to the coming of the others. That thoughts are associated according to the relations which the objects of thought hold to one another and to the mind. That these are the conditions for the reproduction and recognition of our past mental states. 8. Three Modes of the Representative Power. The first and the lowest mode is Fancy, in which the mental current flows on without control. There is simply the reproduction of images without any effort of will, without any recognition of the time when they were known before. "This involun- tary current is the source of dreams, of reveries, of fantas- ies, of insanity, of temptation. The second mode of representation is Memory, which is the mind reproducing and recognizing past mental states. It differs from fancy in the recognition of the state and in the element of past time. The third mode of representation is Imagination, which is the reproduction, recognition, and modification of past states in the production of images. Imagination differs from memory in the modifying and combining the past states. § IV. Memory. 1. Memory is the mind reproducing and recognizing past mental states. 2. Remembering is the immediate reproduction of past states as occasion calls for them without effort of the will. 104 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. Instantly, on the question being asked how many are three fours, twelve comes into the mind. 3. Recollecting is the reproduction of past states by an effort of the will. A story is called for, I cannot tell it at once, but by an effort of will, I am able to re-collect the details of the story, and tell it. 4. Quickness and Strength Are the Qualities of a Good Memory. The mind that remembers has quick memory and always has something to say. The mind that is able to recol- lect a large portion of past knowledge as occasion calls for it has strong memory and always says something. 5. Memory is Circumstantial when the mind associates its ideas chiefly under the relations of time and place. Then there is danger that the reproduction will have an excess of details, and the person will be tedious in the expression of his ideas. There may be great memory for details, without sound judgment; but there cannot be sound judgment with- out strong memory to hold the thought. A trained mind, acting under the principles of time and place, will be very efficient in work requiring much attention to details. 6. Memory is Philosophical when the mind associates its ideas chiefly under the principles of resemblance and cause and effect. Then it makes relations and causes promi- nent in its thinking. For example, "The physical causes of the climate of a country are latitude, elevation above the sea level, slope of the lands, prevailing winds, ocean currents, relation to large bodies of water. If we consider the causes of climate they will suggest an idea of climate as an effect on account of the philosophical relation that a cause holds to the effect it produces. " " If we study the phenomena of matter or of mind for a knowledge of their resemblances and differ- ences, and especially for a knowledge of the causes that pro- duced the phenomena, we shall acquire our knowledge in a philosophical manner, and associate our ideas by their per- manent relations. By such modes of activity we may culti- vate the philosophical memory." A trained mind acting under these principles of associa- tion will be efficient in work requiring the knowledge of THE MIND REPRESENTING. MEMORY. 105 general principles, and the ability to form plans, and direct affairs. 7. Varieties of Memory. These are the kinds of mem- ory dependent upon the principles of association. There seem to be varieties of memory that depend upon the natural aptitude of the mind, as a memory for names, for dates, for words in general, for places, and resemblances. §V. Cultivation of Memory. 1. Memory is Cultivated in the Acquisition of Knowledge. There are three conditions for remembering. First, the habit of giving undivided attention to the object of thought in the acquisition of ideas. Second. The study of objects in the natural order, and subjects in the logical order, to find their relations, that the ideas may be strongly associated. Third. The repetition of the ideas in their relations until they are fixed in their association so as to be easily reproduced. A man met a friend in the street and said to him, I have just heard a good story, let me tell it to you that I may keep it. Habits of Attention, Association, Repetition are the con- ditions for remembering. 2. Memorizing Verbatim. Memorizing verbatim is mem- orizing a thought word for word. The thought is to be known definitely before the words are memorized. The words are the means for the definite .expression of the thought. The habit of memorizing verbatim is best formed before twelve years of age, when the mind associates words with greater facility than at a later period. It should be kept up through life. 3. V^hat Should Be Memorized Verbatim. The pupil should memorize verbatim choice passages of prose and poetry; helpful moral precepts which he understands; state- ments of principles which he has been led to work out by his own observation and thought; rules which he has derived by thinking out the steps of the process which the rule ex- presses. These thing are the best products of thought and 106 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. expression, and when they have been tvorked out, in the best form, they should be kept in that form Hke any piece of fine work. 4. Advantages of Memorizing Verbatim: It fixes in the mind the best thought and expression. It cultivates a taste for good expression. It furnishes food for reflection. It increases one's vocabulary. It strengthens the power to use good language. Professor James says: "Constant exercise in verbal memorizing must still be an indispensable feature in all sound education. Nothing is more deplorable than an inartic- ulate and helpless sort of mind that is reminded by every- thing of some quotation, case, or anecdote, which it cannot exactly recollect. Nothing, on the other hand, is more con- venient to its possessor, or more delightful to his comrades, than a mind able in telling a story to give the exact words of the dialogue or to furnish a quotation accurate and com- plete." 5. Memorizing " by rote " is memorizing words without attention to the thought which they express. It forms the habit of taking words without knowledge, and is subversive of all true mental training. It violates every one of the con- ditions of remembering. 6- Memory Unifies All Modes of Thinking. It connects the present with the past and makes experience possible. In perception, for example, a child sees a squirrel for the first time. He takes its pattern and gets its name. He sees a second squirrel; memory immediately connects it with the first, and so on, every new squirrel seen is connected by memory with those before known. Unconsciously, the mind through memory compares the squirrels perceived, notes the qualities in which they are alike, thinks them together, forms the idea of the class squirrel, gives it a name, and brings the power of language into activity. Thus sense perception through memory becomes conception. The mind goes through this elementary generalization unconsciously. There- THE MIND REPRESENTING. MEMORY. 107 after the child perceives the individual squirrel as one of a class and uses the common name. The mind judges of the relations of concepts only as memory holds them in consciousness. In feeling, memory enables us to enjoy again the emotional states we have had by bringing them again into consciousness. In willing, memory enables us to live over again the struggles and achievements of the past and to find in them incentives to strenuous life in the present. 7. Memory Strengthened. Memory is strengthened along those lines in which the mind is exerted. The memory of forms is strengthened by the draftsman; of colors by the painter; of sounds by the musician; of flavors by the coffee taster; of odors by the smeller of teas. Memory for any class of facts can be improved only by training in this class of facts. A young man was a very poor speller. His teacher perceived that he had not been trained to observe the letters which form the word. He accordingly required the pupil to copy five hundred words a week from the spelling book, for sev- eral weeks, and to bring the list to the teacher for correction. Then the teacher required him to copy whole chapters from a book. In a few months, the pupil had become a good speller, because he had formed the habit of observing the order of the letters in words. We need to take much care to cultivate in due proportion the memory of the things we need to use. "Memory is the cabinet of imagination, the treasury of reason, the registry of conscience, and the council chamber of thought." — Basile. CHAPTER XII. THE MIND REPRESENTING. IMAGINATION. Imagination is the eye of the soul. — Joubert. §1. The Imaging Power. 1. Reproductive Imagination. In reading Mother- Goose Melodies or any other vivid story, the mind images the objects and scenes narrated and seems to see them distinctly as if they w^ere present to the eye. A w^atermelon is spoken of and the mind images it as a whole with its ruddy inside and bright black seeds. A familiar house is mentioned and the mind images the house with all its faces and its interior. Definition. The mind distinctly reproducing the image of an existing thing is called the Reproductive Imagination. 2. Productive Imagination. (1) I think of a landscape in which the open, undulating stretch of land is the most pleasing feature; of another in which a beautiful body of water is the most attractive feature; of a third in which trees in beautiful groups are very pleasing. I combine these thoughts of parts of different landscapes, modifying them as I please, into the thought of a landscape more beautiful than I have seen. I have thus formed an ideal landscape. (2) An artist sits down before his canvas. Thoughts of human faces come into his mind. He sketches the outline of a perfectly symmetrical face. He draws the eye according to his highest ideal of a beautiful eye. He does the same with the nose, the mouth, with each feature. He paints each feature with the highest beauty of color which he can command. He has combined the thoughts of parts of differ- ent faces, modifying them to suit his ideal, and has painted on the canvas an ideal human face. THE MIND REPRESENTING. IMAGINATION. 109 (3) A writer is thinking of an evening scene, in which the "hours passed swiftly and silently; many stars appeared in the sky and were reflected in the sea." Other thoughts are suggested, and she writes the following description of the scene: The evening hours like birds flew by, As lightly and as free; Ten thousand stars were in the sky, Ten thousand in the sea; For every wave with dimpled cheek. That leaped upon the air, Had caught a star in its embrace. And held it trembling there. — Mrs. Amelia B. Welby. Her mind takes thoughts of parts of different scenes and combines them in the way most pleasing to her, into the thought of this ideal poetic picture. (4) I am thinking of a person who manifests a kind, courteous, loving spirit; of another who is highly cultivated, noble, upright in his actions; of a third who is reverently and cheerfully obedient to God in all things. I combine these thoughts of different persons into the thought of a person who has all these qualities of character in high degree and form a7i ideal person. In forming the ideal person we com- bine thoughts of qualities of different persons, instead of combining thoughts of pa7is of different extended wholes. Definition. Productive imagination is the mind taking thoughts of parts of different wholes, modifying them at pleasure, and combining them into the thought of a new whole. 3. Elements of Imagination. The elements in imagining are reproduction, abstraction, and combination. Reproduc- tion is reproducing the wholes from which thoughts of parts are taken. Abstraction is the mind thinking of a part sepa- rate from the other parts of the whole by thinking away from the other parts. Combination is the mind modifying and combining the thoughts of the parts of different wholes into the thought of a new whole. The luholes of which the mind takes thoughts of parts in 110 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. imagining are ideas of sensible objects which the mind has perceived, of objects seen, of objects heard, of objects acting, of objects handled. The new whole which is formed by the combination is an ideal object, an image, a picture, such as might be pre- sented to the senses. In imagining these sensible objects, the mind seems to use again the senses through which the ideas of which they are formed were originally perceived. 4. The Products of the Imagination Are Ideal Objects. First. The imagination may separate a part from its whole, as in the hand that wrote upon the wall in the king's palace; or it may simply combine parts without modification, as in the centaur and mermaid; it may greatly diminish objects, as the Lilliputians in Gulliver's Travels; or it may greatly enlarge objects, as in the gaint Atlas carrying the earth upon his shoulders. The new whole may be formed with but a slight modification, or the modification may be such as to bring the new whole as near as possible to perfection, as in the illustrations of the ideal landscape, the ideal face, the beautiful picture of the poet, and the ideal man. Second. The parts combined may be congruous, as in the ideal landscape, the ideal face, the poetic picture, and the ideal man, or they may be incongruous, as in cartoons, form- ing wholes which are grotesque, extravagant, unnatural, and strange. Third. The product may be an imitative picture, as when we hear or read descriptions of persons, places, and events, and the imagination forms its picture from the description; or it may bean original picture of the mind's own creation, as when we select and combine ideas in speak- ing, writing, in painting, sculpture, architecture, landscape gardening, and poetry. §11. The Uses of the Imagination. 1. In the Interpretation of Speech and Writing. For example, we hear or read the following narrative. I visited my friend, Mr. Brighthope, in his beautiful home on the shore of Massachusetts Bay. I slept in the front chamber, THE MIND REPRESENTING. IMAGINATION. Ill rose early. It was a glorious morning. I went out down the front steps, crossed the street, passed through an arched gateway, down a gentle slope, following a path which wound around a beautiful pond in the hollow, and led up a steep incline upon the other side and out upon a round hill-top, from which I looked upon the Bay, and saw boats, schooners, and large steamers gliding across the sparkling sea. As we hear or read this narrative, imagination pictures the friend, his chamber, the morning, the stroll, and the view, and we seem to pass through the experience of the visit. One's ability to learn from narration and description depends largely upon his power of imagination in selecting ideas and combining them into new wholes. The study of Geography and History when considering objects beyond the sphere of the pupil's observation calls directly upon the imagination. 2. In Conversation and Writing. It is the imagination which enables one to select and combine ideas so as to form vivid and interesting descriptions of things, places, events, and persons in conversation and writing. The power of expression is largely dependent on the imagination. 3. In Imitative Construction. We are continually select- ing, modifying, and recombining our movements, as new cir- cumstances and new needs require. We do this in imitating the actions of others, as in learning to write, draw, sing, dance, and in all sorts of actions. Children are especially active in imitative construction. 4. In Inventive Construction. Imagination is active in the invention of utensils and machines of all kinds. We do this experimentally by separating, dividing, manipulating, and combining material, as imagination suggests. 5. The Poetic Imagination which is what is commonly understood by imagination, seeks, not knowledge nor inven- tion, but enjoyment, both in its receptive and in its creative activity; as in reading and in originating stories, myths, legends, fiction, and poetry; in ideal painting, sculpture, architecture, landscape gardening; and in ideals of character and conduct. The imaginary actions and scenes give a feel- 112 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. mg of pleasure akin to the feeling which the perception of the objects awakens. 6. Different Ideals. (1) The imagination may form vivid sensual ideas which make vice alluring. It may dwell so much upon the fictitious and wonderful that we become discontented with actual life. It may so misinterpret the action of others as to make us suspicious of them. It may be so lively as to confound fact and fiction. By giving ourselves up to the pleasurable feeling which it awakens we may become "dreamers." Such activity of the imagination degrades thought, feeling, and action. (2) The imagination may form vivid ideals of the beau- tiful in nature and art. It may form noble ideals of the true and good in conduct. Such activity of the imagination awakens hope, strengthens faith, and elevates all our thought, feeling, and action. 7. " Imagination is the Evidence of Things Unseen. The power to see the unseen may be used in one of three ways; it may conjure up sensual and brutal images; it may conjure up mere pleasing pictures; it may conjure up ideals superior to the life by which we are surrounded. In the first use it degrades; in the second it pleases; in the third it elevates. The first use promotes vice; the second may produce innocent pleasure; the third brings inspiration. "~Li/man Abbott. §111. The Importance of Imagination. 1. In Human Progress. The importance of imagination to human progress can hardly be over-estimated. *' It is the great spring of human activity, and the principal source of human improvement." It will be active. It must exert a strong influence upon the life either for good or evil. "Espe- cially is it of value in holding before the mind an ideal of excellence in whatever we pursue." Its highest use is in forming ideals of true manhood. The evil effects of imagi- nation come from leaving it to follow its own bent without regulation. Right training of the imagination from early childhood is imperative. ' ' Its value will depend upon the original strength of the THE MIND REPRESENTING. IMAGINATION. 113 power, the way in which it has been trained, and the use to which it is put." 2. Imagination at Different Ages. (1) Children find great pleasure in the exercise of the imagination. Through its transforming power the doll of the little girl becomes a living child, and with the boy the broomstick becomes a prancing horse, and Mother Goose Melodies a great delight. Children differ very much in the power of imagination. Some have very Httle imagination, they think and act slowly, they picture objects, places, persons, with difficulty. Others have a high degree of imaginative power, they see things large, they picture vividly, they speak so extravagantly that they seem to be telling what is untrue, their imagination is too active and needs to be offset by calling judgment and reasoning into greater activity. (2) The action of imagination varies very much in the child at different periods; at first, it is very fanciful, because of his want of experience and judgment; as he grows older and knowledge increases, his ideals change, life becomes more real, and he is governed by the desire for what is true to nature and to life. The action of imagination in children needs careful study. (3) The imagination of youth idealizes the future, paints it in roseate colors. ' ' Youth is the period of the hero, of romance and adventure, of fiction and good history." (4) The imagination of manhood pictures life in the light of sober reality. "Manhood is the period of the artist, the prophet, the poet, the inventor, the discoverer, and the captains of finance and industry." It is the day of the man's purposes. §IV. Cultivation of Imagination. 1. Indirect Cultivation. (1) The imagination is culti- vated indirectly, by the study of natural objects and men, to acquire the primary ideas which the imagination is to use in forming its ideals. The more carefully the perceptive power is trained, the more fully the imagination will be supplied with individual objects for its use. 114 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. (2) Natural objects furnish the highest models of beauty and mechanism. They are the source of ideas for all inventions. The child should be led to discover the beauties of natural objects in color, form, expression, and combina- tion. The coloring of the sky at sunrise and sunset, the rose, the gazelle, are models of beauty. The boring of the ship- worm gave the engineer Brunei his model for the Thames tunnel. The spider's v^eb suggested the model for the sus- pension bridge. (3) Drawing aids in acquiring correct ideas of form. If we draw a bird, we soon return to the object to gain a more definite idea of its form. Painting aids in acquiring correct ideas of color. If we attempt to paint a flower, we soon are looking at it again to see its color more definitely. We should observe noble, courageous, generous, and right conduct, that we may have the materials for forming high ideals of char- acter. 2. By Forming Imitative Ideals. The imagination is cultivated by the exercise of it upon imaginative works. Beginning with the child: The imagination is cultivated by hearing wholesome and interesting stories. By giving an account of the things described in the read- ing lessons. By reading pictures. By learning choice extracts which furnish beautiful pic- tures. By reading fiction and poetry which is true to nature and elevating in tone. By reading paintings, models of sculpture, and architec- ture. These exercises call the imagination into activity in forming the ideals of other minds, tend to improve the taste, and to furnish the mind with standards of comparison. 3. By Forming Original Ideals. The imagination is cul- tivated by using it in forming original ideals. Beginning with the child: The imagination may be directly cultivated by his telling and writing imaginative stories. THE MIND REPRESENTING. IMAGINATION. 115 By making problems. By using figurative language. By writing imaginative compositions. By drawing ideal objects and scenes. By forming high ideals of conduct, and constant striv- ing for their attainment. 4. The Imaginative Teacher. ' * Happy indeed is the lot of the pupils who sit at the feet of the imaginative teacher, and thrice happy is that teacher who discovers an imagina- tion to itself." " It is because teachers could see in imagination a chance for infinite improvement in the human race that we have our schools and colleges." "It is the man with imagination that improves things." Great characters have been made possible because men and women saw greater men and women in themselves than actually existed." 5. Control of the Mental Current. (1) We have seen that all our ideas, thoughts, feelings, and volitions are repro- duced according to the principles of association under which they were associated. And we have seen the different modes of association. We now ask, what besides the principles of association controls the mental current? (2) Sense perception is constantly presenting something new from without. New sights, sounds, sensitive pleasures and pains, all the changes going on in nature, conversation, and reading are continually modifying the current. (3) The will by controlling the presentative power con- trols the mental current. The mind chooses what objects, scenes, or pictures it will perceive, what associates it will have, what conversation it will hear, what books it will read, and thus determines, in large measure, what ideas shall be added to the mental current, and the order of their succes- sion. (4) The will by controlling the choice of thoughts con- trols the current. The mind chooses what thoughts in the mental current it will consider, what thoughts it will reject. It is in this that all mental labor consists; it is hard work. 116 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. Whoever can do this when he pleases, and especially if he has come to do it with pleasure, is said to have a well disci- plined mind. (5) The will has the strongest and widest control of the mental current in controlling the habits of association. One may voluntarily look either on the bright side or on the dark side of everything, and form the habit of associating ideas according to either view. The will can adopt some object of pursuit, some purpose, that will hold us to helpful thought and feeling and keep us on the right course until the whole current shall be changed. (6) It appears from this observation of the action of the mind, that we can determine the order and material of the current, by choosing the objects of thought we will dwell upon, and the feelings we will cherish. We do thus choose and we determine our character by the choice. The parent and the teacher are to lead the child to do this until he is taught to know himself, and has gained the power of self- control. We are called upon to govern this involuntary cur- rent, that is, to govern ourselves. If we do not govern it, it will govern us. § V. Representation. 1. Representation Defined. Representation is the mind reproducing past mental states in memory and imagination. In memory the mind reproduces and recognizes past mental states as they were known. In imagination it reproduces images, modifies them at pleasure, and combines them into ideal objects. 2. Conditions of Activity. The conditions of its activity are, the previous activity of the mind in the acquisition of ideas; the recurrence of the signs of ideas and thoughts; or the recurrence of one of the group of associated ideas; and the action of the will in determining the direction of the mental current. 3. Products of Its Activity. The products of the laws of association are ideas associated with their signs, and clus- ters of associated ideas; of memory, past mental states; of THE MIND REPRESENTING. IMAGINATION. 117 imagination, ideal objects, which are embodied in works of art, poetry, and persons. §VI. Principles of Education from Representa- tion. 1. The study of memory shows the necessity of making a strong association of ideas, as they are acquired, with other known ideas, and with proper words for their expression. The principle of education derived from the study of memory is:— The pupil must be trained to habits of attention, asso- ciation, and repetition, in the acquisition and expression of knowledge. 2. The study of imagination shows that the ideals which the imagination forms depend upon what we observe, upon our choice of objects of thought, and upon controlling our habits of association. The principle of education derived from the study of imagination is: — The pupil must he trained to vigorous use of the imagination in forming ideals which elevate the mind. CHAPTER XIIL THE MIND GENERALIZING. The key to every man is his thought. — Emerson. §1. Three Stages of Thought. 1. The First Stage. The thoughtful mind in possession of definite ideas of individual objects, goes on to think defi- nitely of the relations and causes of these objects, and of the Maker and sustainer of all things in the world of which we are a part. We note three stages of thought. The first stage of thought is thinking of individual objects. When we perceive a quahty of an individual object we think the quality perceived belongs to the individual object in which it is perceived. This stage of thought gives us a world of unrelated things. 2. The Second Stage. It is not enough that we know that a thing is, we desire to know how and why the thing is as it is. In the first stage of thought, we think of each oak as an individual tree standing by itself. As we extend our observation and think of what we observe, we find that the individual oak springs from an acorn, grows, bears acorns, and finally dies. Each oak is related to other oaks, and to the conditions of its growth. It is a part of a process that is going on, and the individual oak is constantly changing. We see that things are not permanent, that forces and processes are the reality. The word oak then stands in our thought for the oak producing force, for the oak producing process, and for the great class of oaks of which the individual oak is only a part. The second stage of thought is the mind think- ing of the essential relations of objects, and the particular forces which produce them. THE MIND GENERALIZING. 119 3. The Third Stage. The mind is not satisfied with the knowledge of the essential relations of things and the partic- ular forces which produce them and asks, how are all the objects in this world produced and sustained? Man is a con- scious personal cause producing effects. We reason that the infinite number of effects manifest in the worlds of matter and of mind must be produced by the conscious action of an Infinite Person who originates all forces, processes, and beings. We are led to think of the particular forces as dif- ferent manifestations of His will. This view regards the world as the work of a Personal Creator. The third stage of thought is the mind thinking of the Infinite Person who is the God and Father of all beings, relations, and forces, i^ II. Generalizing from Individual Objects. 1. We Must Generalize. The number of individual objects in the natural world is infinite. It is impossible to keep them in the mind as unrelated objects and give each individual a separate name. We must generalize and group objects into classes and so reduce the many to one. 2. Unconscious Generalization. We generalize first with- out noticing that we generalize. For example, the child sees for the first time an object covered with feathers and flying. He is told it is a bird. He takes its pattern and holds its name. He sees a second feathered, winged object. He imme- diately connects it with the first object and calls it a bird, and so on every bird seen is connected with those before known, and called by the same name. Unconsciously the child notes the qualities in which the objects arealike, thinks them together, and so far as common qualities extend makes all the objects alike, and so reduces the many to one, and calls each one of the class by one name. By this unconscious generalization, we form the idea of a class, give it the class name, and bring general terms into use in our speech. This extends our thought to the relations of objects and shows that we are rational beings. We go on to learn how the mind acts in reflective gener- alization when the mind considers the relations of the ideas 120 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE: of the individual objects in the absence of the objects. We first inquire for 3. The Elements of Thought. We have the ideas of three individual objects before the mind in their qualities as given below: The duck " Fanny." The parrot " Polly." The canary " Frert." is black, is mottled, is yellow, ^ Qualities in boat-shaped, stout, slender, . which they large, medium, small, differ swimmer, climber, percher, J feathered, feathered, feathered, 1 winged, winged, winged, air-breathing, air-breathing, air-breathing, 1 Qualities in warm-blooded, warm-blooded, warm-blooded, y which they are oviparous, oviparous, oviparous, I alike, vertebrate, vertebrate, vertebrate, | animal. animal. animal. J Comparison. We compare these individual objects to find in what qualities they differ and in what qualities they are alike. They differ in color, they are alike in being feath- ered. Comparison is the first element of thought. Compar- ison is noticing differences and resemblances. We distinguish one object from another by thinking of some quality in which the objects differ. We classify objects by thinking of the qualities in which the objects are alike. "Scientific classifi- cation depends on the observation of resemblances; practical skill on the observation of differences." Abstraction. Comparison in respect to one quality of the two objects implies that we think of this one quality of the object by thinking away from the other qualities. This act of withdrawal is Abstraction, the second element of thought. Abstraction is thinking of one quality of an object by thinking away from the other qualities. Analysis. If we think of each quality of the object by abstraction we shall think the qualities of the object apart from one another. This is Analysis, the third element in thinking. Analysis is separating any complex whole into its constituent elements. Synthesis. After thinking apart the qualities of the object we think them together into the thought of the object. This is synthesis, the Jourth element of thought. Synthesis THE MIND GENERALIZING. 121 is combining the constituent elements of a complex whole. Synthesis implies comparison, abstraction, and analysis. Thought has these four elements. 4. Reflective Generalization. In generalizing from the ideas of the three individual objects given above we find seven qualities in which they are alike. All the objects of this kind that we have observed or heard of are alike in having these qualities; hence we think that all the individ- uals of this kind have these seven qualities. We think together these seven qualities found common to the individ- uals observed, form a concept or notion and give it the name bird. Definition. Generalization is considering the qualities found common to the individuals observed, common to all the individuals of that kind, and giving them a common name. We may apply a common name only on the ground of such resemblance that what we affirm of all shall be true of each. (1) Generalization is based on extended observation and testimony. ' ' Testimony is the declaration of one who pro- fesses to know the truth of that which he affirms." "He who declares a thing may be mistaken, or he may intend to deceive. The evidence of testimony is therefore only pro- bable." (2) Two products of generalization are concepts or notions and general terms. The concept formed includes in itself the qualities which belong to all the objects of that kind, and includes under it all the objects which have the common qualities. The concept is general because it includes all the qualities in which the individuals are alike. The con- cept is abstract, because the mind is withdrawn from the qualities in which the individuals differ. The concept is a general, abstract idea. There is no individual which has only the common qualities of the concept. The name is general because it may be applied to any one of the class, and to the whole class. (3) A third product of generalization is the reduction of an unlimited number of objects to one. Since we take into the concept only common qualities every individual of 122 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. the class is made one with every other. Such reduction is a necessity as it is impossible for us to keep separate in our thought an unlimited number of individuals. 5. Classification is the Act of Forming a Class. It in- cludes forming a concept and grouping under it in our thought the objects which have the common qualities included in the concept. §111. Comprehension and Extension of Concepts. 1. Concepts Have Two ^A^holes. The comprehension of a concept is the number of qualities included in it. The extension of the concept is the number of objects included under it. Every concept has two wholes, the one whole of comprehension composed of qualities, the other whole of extension composed of objects. 2. The Relation of the Comprehension and Extension of Concepts. Different concepts may be formed by generaliza- tion from the same individual object, differing in the number of qualities included in each concept, and differing in the number of objects included under each concept; as shown in the following illustration, in which the concepts are formed by generalization from the same individual persons: Comprehension Extension. Concepts formed. Qualities in Concept. Objects under Concept. A being. Being. All objects. Organized being. Being, life. All plant and animal substances. Animal. Being, life, sensation, volun- tary motion. All animals. Vertebrate. Being, life, sensation, volun- tary motion, vertebra. Being, life, sensation, volun- All vertebrates. Mammal. tary motion, vertebra, viviparous. Being, life, sensation, volun- All mammals. Man. tary motion, vertebra, viviparous, reason. All men. Individual Plato. All qualities of the individual object. One object. Comparing the comprehension and extension of this suc- cession of concepts, we see that as the comprehension of the THE MIND GENERALIZING. 123 concept increases the extension diminishes. The comprehen- sion and extension of the concept are in inverse ratio. We see that the comprehension may increase from a single qual- ity to the qualities of the individual object, and the exten- sion decrease from all objects to one object. These are the limits. 3. Five Relations in Extension. There are five different relations possible in the extension of concepts. Exclusion. We notice the different possible relations of concepts in extension. If we compare the notions bird and cat in their extension, we find that the objects included under the notion cat are shut out from those under the notion bird. This relation may be expressed to the eye by two circles placed each outside the other, supposing all birds to be inclosed by one circumference and all cats by the other. Notions hold the relation of exclusion when none of the objects under one is included under the other. Co-extension. It we compare the notions living body and organized body, we find that the objects under one are the same as those under the other. This relation may be ex- pressed by two equal circles placed so as to coincide. Notions hold the relation of co-extension when the objects under one are the same as those under the other. Subordination. If we compare the notions mammal and animal, we find that the objects under the notion mammal are a part of those under the notion animal. This relation may be expressed by placing the circle inclosing mammals within the circle inclosing animals. One notion is subordi- nate to a second, when the objects under the first are a part of those under the second. Co-ordination. If we compare the three notions triangle, quadrilateral, and polygon with one another in their exten- sion we find that they are mutually exclusive. If we com- pare them with the notion rectilinear figure, we find that they are equally subordinate to it, and that the objects under the three notions taken together equal the objects included under the notion rectilinear figure. This may be expressed by a circle divided into three parts, the whole circle inclosing 124 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. the objects under the notion rectihnear figure, the parts respectively inclosing the objects under the different notions. Notions are co-ordinate when they are mutually exclusive and equally subordinate to the same notion. Intersection. If we compare the notions round body, and red body, we find that some of the objects under each notion are included under the other. This may be expressed by two circles intersecting. Notions hold the relations of intersec- tion when some of the objects under one are included under the other. An examination of the position of the figures representing these five relations, will show that these five are all the relations possible in extension. The knowledge of these relations is essential 'to the study of logical arrange- ment. The relations of subordination and co-ordination are most frequently used. §IV. Generalization from Concepts. 1. Forming a Series of Concepts and Classes. The mind goes on to think of the relations of difference and resem- blance which concepts hold to one another, and forms by generalizing from concepts a series of lower and higher con- cepts, as shown in the following illustration from geometrical concepts. We think away from the differences in the con- cepts, think together the common qualities and so form the higher concept: THE MIND GENERALIZING. 125 Individ- uals. Common Qualities. Plane bounded by 1 4.^- J lines, plane tn-<^ j^j^^^ straight, [^number, 3. Three angles. First Concepts. "1 1 Plane [Triangle. Three quadrilat- erals. Three polygons. Three circles. Three ellipses. Three ovals. r Plane bounded by J lines, ! kind, straight, [^nwmber, A. r Plane bounded by J lines, 1 kind, straight, [number, 5 or more. { Plane bounded by J a line, I curved, l^ circumference. f Plane bounded by I a line, 1 curved, l^elliptical. { Plane bounded by I a line, 1 curved, oval. 1 I Quadrila- 1 teral. 1 I J- Polygon. 1 -j Circle 1 I Ellipse. Second Concepts. Rectilinear ! figure. ^ Plane bounded by lines, straight. Third Concepts. Plane figure. -Plane bounded by one or more lines. 1 Curvilinear figure. , Plane ' bounded by one or more lines, curved. Oval. J J The first concepts are formed by generalization from individual objects. The second concepts are formed by gen- eralization from the first concepts. The third concepts are formed by generalization from the second concepts. The first, second, and third concepts form a succession of con- cepts holding the relation of subordination. Definition. A series of concepts is a succession of three or more concepts formed by successive generalizations, and holding the relation of subordination. The concepts from which other concepts are formed are lower concepts. The concepts formed from other concepts are higher concepts. We have, then, a series of lower and higher concepts. Definition. (1) A genus is any concept formed from lower concepts. In the series formed above the second and third concepts are genera. (2) A species is any one of the lower concepts from 126 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. which a higher concept is formed. In the series above the first and second concepts are species. The first or lowest concept of a series cannot be a genus. (3) Degrees of Genera and Species. The highest notion of a series cannot be a species. The degrees of genera are highest and lower. The degrees of species are lowest and higher. (4) Genus and species are relative terms. We have defined them as general terms applicable to any two concepts in the series holding the relation of higher and lower con- cepts. (5) Genus and species are also used technically as in the classification of the animal kingdom, in which a series of seven concepts is formed, named as below: Kingdom, Highest genus. { Sub-Kingdom, "1 I Class, I Lower genus. Higher Species. ^ Order, )■ The concepts between the lowest I Family, | concept of the series and the highest l^ Genus, J are both species and genera. Lowest Species. Species. (6) An animal is located by finding his place in each concept of the series; for example, the Species ox belongs to the genus Bos; the Family, hollow-horned; the Order, herbi- vora; the Class, mammal; the Sub-Kingdom, vertebrate; the Kingdom, animal. (7) The specific difference is the quality by which a species differs from its genus and from the species with which it is co-ordinate. The generic difference is the quality by which a lower genus differs from the genus to which it is subordinate, and from the genera with which it is co-ordi- nate. The specific difference in the species plane triangle, quadrilateral, and polygon is the number of bounding lines. The specific difference in the species rectilinear figure and curvilinear figure is the kind of bounding line. Regarding these two concepts as genera the kind of bounding line is the generic difference. (8) We form series of smaller and larger classes by grouping under each notion of the series its objects. The THE MIND GENERALIZING. 127 lower concept has the greater comprehension, hence includes the smaller class. The higher concept has less comprehen- sion, hence includes the larger class. 2. The Perfecting of Our Thinking Depends Upon Three Things: First. Determining what we think, that is, th^ comprehension of our notions, which gives clearness to our thought. Second. Determining how many objects are included under the notions, that is, the extension of the notions, which gives distinctness and completeness of thought. Third. Determining the order of dependence of our thoughts, which gives harmony of thought. Fourth. The comprehension of the notion is made clear by logical definition. The extension of the notion is made clear by logical divi- sion. The harmony of thought is made apparent by logical arrangement. §V. Logical Definition of Concepts. 1. Logical Definition Defined. To illustrate logical defi- nition we will logically define the notion plane triangle. We observe individual plane triangles and find that each one is a plane bounded by lines, that each is bounded by straight lines, that the number of bounding lines in each is three. We have found the sum of the essential qualities of all plane tri- angles. This finding is logical definition. The first two of these essential qualities form the concept rectilinear figure, which is the genus of the concept plane triangle; the third quality is the specific difference of plane triangle. We have found the genus and, the specific difference of the concept plane triangle. Definition. Logical definition of a concept is finding the sum of the essential qualities of the concept, or, it is finding the genus and the specific difference of the concept. 2. The Use of Logical Definition is to make the compre- hension of the concept clear, and separate it from all other concepts. 128 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 3. The Expression of Logical Definition is made by a pro- position in which the subject represents the concept defined, and the predicate expresses the qualities which form the con- cept. 4. Rules of Logical Definition. If we think, Every plane triangle is a rectilinear figure having three sides, the thought includes the sum of the essential qualities of the concept plane triangle, and the definition is adequate. If we think, Every plane triangle is a rectilinear figure, the thought is too broad in its extension. If we think, Every plane triangle is a rectilinear figure having three sides and no two sides equal, the thought is too narrow in its extension. Rule 1. Logical definition must be adequate, that is, must equal the sum of the essential quahties of the notion; if it includes less than the sum it is too broad, if it includes more, it is too narrow. In the logical definition the extension of the subject and predicate are equal. Hence, to apply this rule, if the con- verse of the proposition expressing the definition is true the definition is adequate. If we think. Every quart is a volume which is one-fourth of a gallon, the definition is adequate. If we think, Every quart is two pints, which means every quart is two half-quarts, or every quart is a quart; the thought is tautological, expressing the same thought in different words. Rule 2. Logical definition must not be tautological; that is, the concept must not be defined by itself. If we think, "Logic is the cynosure of truth," the word cynosure is not intelligible. If we think, " Logic is the physic of the mind," the word physic is ambiguous. If we think, "Logic is the Pharos of the understanding, " the word Pharos is figurative. If we think, "Logic is the knowledge which has for its object the laws of thought," the language is intel- ligible. Rule 3. Logical definition should be perspicuous; that is, should be expressed in language which is intelligible, not ambiguous, not figurative. A straight line is a line which has the same direction throughout. Affirmative. A curved line is a line no part of which is straight. Negative. The aflfirmative definition of a curved line is impossible, hence the negative form has to be THE MIND GENERALIZING. 129 used, and may be used since there is only one other kind of line. Rule J/.. Logical definition should be affirmative if possible. Logical definition should conform to each one of the four rules. 5. Application of Rules. Apply the rules to the follow- ing statements, to decide whether they are correct defini- tions: A geometrical figure is a surface or space limited on all sides. Inadequate. A geometrical figure is a surface or a volume having dis- tinctly defined boundaries. Adequate. A yard is three feet. Tautological. A yard is the primary unit of length established by law. Adequate. A rod is a length of five and one-half yards. Adequate. Geometry is the science of form. Not perspicuous. Geometry is the knowledge which has for its object the properties and relations of lines, angles, surfaces, and vol- umes. Adequate. Arithmetic is the science of numbers and the art of com- puting with them. Not perspicuous. Arithmetic is the knowledge which has for its object numbers, the expression of numbers, the operation on num- bers, and the relations of numbers. Adequate and perspic- uous. Geography is the description of the earth. Inadequate. Geography is the knowledge which has for its object the earth as the home of man. Adequate and perspicuous. 6. Only Species. From the definition of logical defini- tion, it is evident that it applies only to concepts which have a genus and a specific difference, hence only species can be logically defined. 7. An Individual is Defined by naming the class to which he belongs and giving a sufficient number of his peculiar marks to distinguish him from all other individuals of his class. Individual definition is required to identify the indi- 130 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. vidual, as when a thing, or animal is "lost, strayed, or stolen," or a person has committed a crime. 8. What Definition Requires. Definition begins with an illustration, that is, with one or more individuals which repre- sent the class to be defined; requires accurate observation of the individuals for definite knowledge of their qualities; pre- cise discrimination of the qualities in which they are alike; thinking together the like qualities into one concept; and accurate expression of the concept. §VI. Logical Division of Genera. 1. Logical Division Defined. To illustrate logical division we will divide logically the genus plane figure taken from the subject of geometry. We formed this genus plane figure by taking from the species below its common qualities and leav- ing the specific differences of those species. By reversing this process, we find in the definition of the genus to be divided the specific differences, add them to the quality in the genus and form all the species of which the genus is composed. Noticing the quahty bounded by lines, in the definition of the genus given below, we find involved in it the two specific differences, straight lines and curved; adding these to the genuses, we find the two species of this genus — rectilinear figure and curvilinear figure. We have thus divided this genus into its species: The Genus. Plane figure is a plane bounded by lines. Plane bounded by lines, Plane bounded by lines, straight. curved. Species. Rectilinear figure. Curvilinear figure. We divide the two genera Rectilinear figure and Curvi- linear figure as shown below: The Genus. Rectilinear figure is a plane bounded by lines, straight. Plane b'ded by lines, Plane b'ded by lines, Plane b'ded by lines, straight, straight, straight, three. four. more than four. Species. Triangle. Quadrilateral. Polygon. THE MIND GENERALIZING. 131 The Genus. Curvilinear figure is a plane bounded by a line, curved. Plane b'ded by a line, Plane b'ded by a line. Plane b'ded by a line, curved, curved, curved, circumference. elliptical. oval. Species. Circle. Ellipse. Oval. Definition. Logical division is finding the species of which a genus is composed by adding the specific differences to the quahties of the genus. We have reached the lowest species in this series. This species is composed of individuals. An individual cannot be divided. Varieties. The lowest species may vary in their parts, and may be divided into their varieties, as illustrated below: Plane triangles vary in relative length of their sides. No two sides equal. Two sides equal. Three sides equal. Scalene. Isosceles Equilateral. Triangles vary in relative size oj angles. One right angle. All angles oblique. Right angled. Clique angled, j Qbtuse! Quadrilaterals vary in relative direction of sides. Opposite sides parallel. Two sides parallel. No sides parallel. Parallelogram. Trapezoid. Trapezium. Parallelograms vary in relative size of angles. All right angles. All oblique angles. Right angled. Oblique angled. Right angled parallelograms vary in relative length of sides. All equal. Only opposite sides equal. Square. Rectangle. Obtuse angled parallelograms vary in relative length of sides. All equal. Only opposite sides equal. Rhombus. Rhomboid. Different species of fruit are divided into varieties, as the varieties of apples, of pears, of peaches, and plums. 2. Logical Division Implies the definition of the genus which is to be divided, because in that we find the specific differences. 132 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 3. The Use of Logical Division is to give the mind the distinct and complete knowledge of the extension of the con- cept. 4. A Logical Division is Expressed by a disjunctive pro- position, in which the subject represents the genus divided, and the predicate represents the species; for example, Every rectilinear figure is either a triangle, or a quadrilateral, or a polygon. 5. The Principle of Division is the specific difference found in the definition of the genus to be divided. 6. Rules of Logical Division. If we attempt to divide the genus plane figure without any principle of division, or according to the number and kinds of bounding lines, we shall be in confusion. Rule 1. (Concerning the principle of division. ) Every division must have some one principle of division which must be an essential quality. In the division, Every geometrical figure is either a vol- ume, or a plane figure; species taken together are less than the genus. In the division, Every geometrical figure is either a volume, or a surface, or a line, or an angle; the species are more than the genus. In the division. Every geometrical figure is either a volume, or a surface, having distinctly defined limits; the species equal the genus. Rule 2. (Con- cerning the relation of the species to the genus. ) The species taken together must equal the genus. In the division, Every human action is either free, or beneficial. The species intersect. In the division. Every human action is either beneficial or detrimental. The species exclude each other. Rule 3. (Concerning the relation of the species to one another. ) The species must exclude one another. In the division. Every plane figure is either a polygon, or a circle, or an oval, there is confusion because we have passed over one division. Rule k. (Concerning the order of division. ) The division should proceed from the genus to the species next below. 7. The Division of a Subject proceeds after the same manner as that of any other concept. We begin with defin- THE MIND GENERALIZING. 133 ing the subject which presents it as a comprehensive whole; in the definition we find the specific differences which distin- guish the main divisions of the subject. We proceed in the same way with each main division and the subdivisions until the whole subject is completely outlined in the mind. Logical division requires that we consider definitely all the divisions of the subject. It gives a distinct and complete knowledge of the extension of the subject by showing all its parts in their relation to one another and to the whole. 8. Basis of Arrangement. Logical definition and division are the basis of logical arrangement in the presentation of every subject. The teacher needs them in the arrangement of every subject. The teacher is to lead his pupils to think logically and to have a distinct and complete knowledge of the subjects studied by presenting a logical arrangement of the thoughts and requiring the pupil to follow this arrange- ment; the pupil thereby becomes habituated to this mode of thinking. 9. The Mind Has Degrees of Knowledge. When we can discriminate the concept plane triangle from other concepts, we have a clear knowledge of it; when we cannot, the con- cept is obscure. When we know the qualities which define it we have a distinct knowledge of it; when we know only a part of these, our knowledge is indistinct. When we can not only define and divide the concept, but know all its proper- ties through reasoning, we have an adequate knowledge of it; when we know less of it, our knowledge is inadequate. We may know intuitively what a triangle, or a square, or a small number is; we know what a chiliagon, a figure of one thousand sides is, by its symbol. The knowledge of such a concept is symbolical. In large numbers in arithmetic, and in algebra, we deal chiefly with symbols— our knowledge then is symbolic. "Knowledge of the concept is either obscure or clear; either indistinct or distinct; either inadequate or adequate; either intuitive or symbolic. Perfect knowledge must be clear, distinct, adequate, intuitive; if it fails in any of these 134 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. i-espects, it is more or less imperfect." This view of know- ledge is from Leibnitz, Some of our concepts are clear, a less number distinct, a very much smaller number adequate, and very few perfect. When one " knows but cannot tell," it shows that he has not reached distinct knowledge. The teacher must discriminate these different degrees of knowledge in the mind of his pupil, and adapt his teaching accordingly. CHAPTER XIV. THE MIND JUDGING. "Judgment is a special talent which cannot be taught, but must be practiced. ' ' — Kant. %l. Meaning of Judgment. 1. Judgment. Judgment is involved in all thinking. We cannot assert the agreement or disagreement of one idea with another, as we do in the first stage of thought, without judging. This is the elementary form of judgment in which we assert any one thing of another. Definitiofi. Judgment in its logical meaning is the mind affirming or denying one concept of another. It means deter- mining directly the relation of two concepts. In the thought, Man is an animal, we compare the two concepts man and animal, and affirm their agreement. In the thought. No man is an angel, we compare the concepts man and angel, and deny their agreement. Each of these acts is a judgment. The mind judges of the relations which concepts hold, either in their comprehension or extension. The product of judging is a judgment. ^ II. Parts of a Judgment. 1. The Judgment Must Have Three Parts. The first part is the notion of which something is affirmed or denied, which is called the subject of the judgment; the second is the notion which is affirmed or denied of the subject, which is called the predicate; the third is the idea of the agreement or disagreement of the subject and predicate, which is called the copula. The subject and predicate are called the terms of the judgment, because they are definitely limited. 136 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. ^III. Expression of a Judgment. 1. A Judgment is Expressed By a Proposition, that is, by a declarative sentence. The words which express the subject of the judgment are the subject of the proposition. The words which express the predicate of the judgment are the predicate of the proposition. The word or words which express the copula of the judgment are the copula of the proposition. In the proposition, no man is an angel, the word " man " is the subject; the words "an angel " are the predicate; the words "no" and "is" are the copula, the negation is expressed by the adjective no which modifies the subject man. Every proposition must express the three ideas of the judgment. A judgment is composed of ideas; a sen- tence is composed of words. ^IV. Judgments are True or False. 1. The Judgment is True or False. In judging we are seeking the reality of the relation of the two terms of the judgment. If we find this reality, the judgment we make is true. The judgment, Every man is mortal, is true because it agrees with what is. If we fail to find the reality of the relation, as we may, and often do, the judgment we make is false. The judgment. Every man is wise, is false, because it disagrees with what is. 2. The Reason of False Judgment. False judgment may come from want of ability to judge, or from lack of know- ledge of the subject matter. Want of knowledge may come from the lack of observation to gain the primary ideas which enter into the concepts; or, from want of sufficient thought in the analysis of the concepts; or, from depending on the thought of others and not thinking for ourselves; or, from prejudging prompted by feeling without knowledge; or, from lack of experience in the line of the judgment. 3. True Judgment, so far as knowledge is concerned, requires accurate observation; definite and independent thinking; the control of feeling to avoid prejudice; and the extension of our field of judging. THE MIND JUDGING. 137 §V. Division of Judgments. 1. According to Quality. Judgments are divided accord- ing to their quality, into Affirmative judgments w^hich assert the agreement of the subject and predicate, as Gold is a metal; and Negative judgments which assert the disagree- ment of the subject and predicate, as Gold is not easily fusible. 2. According to Quantity. Judgments are divided ac- cording to their quantity into Universal judgments, in which the predicate agrees or disagrees with the whole of the sub- ject, as in the judgments. Every whale is an animal, No whale is a fish; and Particular judgments in which the predi- cate agrees or disagrees with a part of the subject, as in the judgments, Some men are wise. Some men are not wise. 3. According to Convertibility. Judgments are divided according to their convertibility. Convertible judgments are those in which the extension of the subject equals that of the predicate, as in the judgments, Every plane triangle is a rectilinear figure having three sides; and. Every plane tri- angle has the sum of its angles equal to two right angles. The first of these judgments asserts the definition of the sub- ject, the second asserts a property of the subject, that is a quality which is essential but not used in the definition. Inconvertible judgments are those in which the extension of the subject is not equal to that of the predicate, as in the judgments, Every man is an animal; Every man is wise. The first of these judgments asserts the genus of the subject, the second, asserts an accident of the subject. Judgment is conditioned upon generalization, which gives the notions that we compare in judging. In judgment we assert the relation of the notions directly. §VI. Value of Trained Judgment. 1. Its Fruit. Trained judgment makes a person effi- cient; independent in thinking; self-reliant; gives him self- respect and self-confidence; and fits him for large social ser- vice. These are elements of character of great value in 138 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. every person, and pre-eminently valuable in the teacher, as an example for his pupils. 2. Principles to be Applied. There are a few principles the teacher should constantly keep in mind and apply: First. Stimulate the pupil to observe, that he may gain ideas for his own thinking. Second. Require the pupil not only to acquire the know- ledge of facts, but to consider the uses of this knowledge. Third. Encourage the pupil to do his own thinking and give questions that will provoke thought. Fourth. Require the pupil to discuss his lessons; direct his thinking, but do not tell him what to think. Fifth. The main point is to give the pupil intelligent exercise in judging. Sixth. Lead the pupil to judge his fellows in the right spirit, and to remember the teaching of the Master. "For with what judgment ye judge, ye shall be judged; and with what measure ye mete, it shall be measured to you." "All things therefore whatsoever ye would that men should do unto you, even so do ye also unto them." Seventh. The mind judging is gaining clearer vision of the truth, a larger appreciation of beauty, a higher concep- tion of goodness. Judgment is the basic element in the study of science, of arts, and of morals. Training the judgment is a large factor in the education of the pupil. CHAPTER XV. THE MIND REASONING. What can we reason but from what we know. — Pope. §1. Reasoning in Its Broader Meaning. 1. "Why We Reason. We judge that man is an animal immediately because we know the concept animal is included in the concept man. If we could know all things intuitively we should not reason. Our power to know intuitively is limited, and we have to learn some things through their rela- tion to other things. 2. Reasoning Defined. We see a rainbow and we ask what causes it. We have learned that light is decomposed in passing through a prism, that the different colored rays are differently refracted, and that they are reflected from plane curved surfaces. We notice the direction of the sun's rays as they fall upon the raindrops, and infer that they are decomposed, refracted, and reflected as they pass through the raindrops, and thus the rainbow is produced. We find the cause of the rainbow through our knowledge of hght. Definition. This passing from a thing to its cause • through other knowledge is called reasoning. We reason when we explain things, or give reasons, or assign causes. 3. We Reason from Experience. We say that we know that the sun will rise tomorrow morning. Strictly, what we know is that the sun has risen every morning in the past, and we infer from this experience that it will continue to rise in the future as it has in the past. We "feel the same cer- tainty of our conclusion that we do in the continuance of the laws of nature." We reason from experience when we infer from what has been in the past what will be in the future. 140 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 4. By Experience is Meant the knowledge of material objects acquired by Sense Perception and the knowledge of mental objects acquired by the Inner Sense, either by one's own perception or by the perceptions of others. 5. Primary Conditions of Experience. "Experience sup- poses as its primary condition a series of perceptions either of material phenomena or of mental phenomena which are associated and repeated so that they may be reproduced in memory and imagination. Experience further requires that there shall be a comparison together of the series of percep- tions acquired and reproduced, a mental separation of the different and a mental combination of the similar into con- cepts, for without concepts there can be no judgment, and without judgment there is no knowledge." 6. Inference of Induction Defined. When we have ob- served that one man after another dies; that every species of horned animal we have known is cloven-footed; that every crow we have seen is black; and we have never heard of any exception to these observations; we are inclined to think that all men are mortal, that all horned animals are cloven-footed, that all crows are black. We are naturally inclined to carry over that which we have observed in many individuals of the class which have not been observed. Definition. Inference of Induction is the process of thought in which having observed that many individuals of a kind have a certain attribute, we infer that all the objects of the kind have this attribute. 7. Principle of Induction. In Induction, we look to the one in many. "The principle of induction is that whatever belongs (or does not belong) to many things of the same kind, belongs (or does not belong) to all the things of the same kind." The general truths obtained by inference of induction are judgments that we use in probable reasoning. They give various degrees of probability but can never give absolute certainty. 8. Inference of Analogy Defined. We have seen a man with bright, sharp, black eyes, and he was sarcastic and domineering. We see another man with such eyes, and we THE MIND REASONING. l4l infer that he is sarcastic and domineering. The physician observes in his patient some of the symptons of others who have had typhoid fever, and he infers that all the symptoms of this fever v^ill appear, that is, that his patient has typhoid fever. When we have observed that the second object re- sembles the first in several points, we are naturally inclined to conclude that it resembles the first in other points which we have not observed. Definition. Inference of Analogy is the process of thought in which, having observed that one object is like the other in several attributes, we conclude that it is like the other in the attributes which we have not observed. 9. Principle of Analogy. In analogy, we look for many in one. The principle of analogy is * ' that things that have many observed attributes in common, have other not observed attributes in common." Inference of Analogy like Inference of Induction cannot give absolute certainty, only degrees of probability. 10. Inductive in Forms. Inference from experience, in- ference of induction, and inference of analogy are all induc- tive, they proceed from the individual and the concrete to the general and the abstract; they are based directly upon observation, they give the illustration, then state the princi- ple, they furnish truths for probable reasoning, they are the beginning, the means of acquiring knowledge, of objective truth. §11. Reasoning in Its Logical Meaning. 1. Probable Reasoning Defined. In Probable Reasoning we start with a subject notion and a certain predicate notion whose relation to each other is not manifest from the notions themselves. (1) For example, the subject notion man and the predicate notion free agent. I am in doubt concerning their agreement or disagreement and I ask. Is man a free agent or not? I must find a third notion which will enable me to decide. As I think of the notion free agent, I come upon the notion morally responsible agent, and then I think at once this third notion is comprehended under the notion 142 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. free agent, and the notion man is contained under the notion morally responsible agent, then my doubt is gone and I must think that man is a free agent. Stating the relations of these three notions I have three judgments: 1. Every morally responsible agent is a free agent; 2. Man is a morally responsible agent; 3. Therefore, man is a free agent. I have found that the subject notion and the predicate notion each agree with the same third notion, hence I judge them to agree with each other. This is an affirmative con- clusion. (2) We take another example of probable reasoning: Is the rat a carnivorous animal or not? In thinking of the sub- ject notion rat I come upon the notion rodent, and I think at once the notion rat is contained under the notion rodent, and that the notion rodent is not contained under the notion car- nivorous animal, then I must think that the notion rat is not contained under the notion carnivorous animal. Stating the relations of the notions I have three judgments: 1. No rodent is carnivorous; 2. The rat is a rodent; 3. Therefore, the rat is not a carnivorous animal. Having found that the subject notion agrees and the predicate notion disagrees with the same third notion I must judge them to disagree with each other. This is a negative conclusion. Definitio7i. Probable reasoning is the act of mediate judgment, in which, finding that two notions agree with the same third notion, we judge them to agree; or, finding that one agrees and the other disagrees with the same third, we judge them to disagree. 2. Principle of Affirmative Conclusion. In the first act of reasoning above, the relations of the three notions may be expressed to the eye by the relations of three circles, the largest circle inclosing all free agents, the middle circle placed within the largest including all morally responsible agents, the smallest circle placed within the middle including all men, thus showing that whatever is a part of a part must THE MIND REASONING. 143 be a part of the containing' whole. This is the principle of affirmative conclusions. 3. Principle of Negative Conclusion. In the second act the largest circle will enclose all carnivora, the middle placed outside the largest will include all the rodents, the smallest placed within the middle will include all rats, thus showing that when the middle whole is excluded from the largest whole every part of the middle whole must be excluded from the largest whole. This is the principle of negative conclu- sions. When the reasoning proceeds from the whole to the parts, as in this form of reasoning, it is called deductive. 4. Terms and Premises. Every act of probable reason- ing must have three terms, the largest whole, called the major term; the smallest whole, called the minor term; and the middle whole, called the middle term; through which we find the relation of the major and the minor terms. This reasoning implies two judgments from which the third must follow. These two judgments from which the third is derived are called premises. The third, which must follow from these two, is called the conclusion. The premise which expresses the relation of the major and middle term is called the major premise, the premise which expresses the relation of the minor and middle term is called the minor premise, and the judgment which expresses the relation of the major term to the minor term is called the conclusion. An act of reasoning regularly and fully expressed, as in the illustra- tions above, is called a syllogism. 5. Truth of Conclusion. If the premises be true and the reasoning correct the conclusion will be true. Since the pre- mises are derived by induction which gives only probability, we have in this form of reasoning the uncertainty connected with observation and testimony. In argument the disputant may refuse to admit the conclusion of his opponent either by denying the truth of the premises or by denying the correct- ness of his reasoning. 6. Demonstrative Reasoning. In Demonstrative or Math- ematical Reasoning, we begin with an hypothesis, and see that each step of the reasoning, and the conclusion, is true 144 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. beyond a doubt. We employ necessary truths. For example. /3 Suppose the straight line 3-4 meets the straight line 1-2 at the point 4. Erect the 2 perpendicular 4-5 at this point. First act of reasoning, concerning angle 1-4-3. Every whole equals the sum of its parts; the angle 1-4-3 is a whole; therefore, 1-4-3 = the right angle plus the angle 5-4-3. Second act of reasoning, concerning the angle 3-4-2. Every part equals the whole less the other parts; the angle 3-4-2 is a part; therefore the angle 3-4-2 = the right angle less the angle 5-4-3. Third act of reasoning, concerning these two conclusions. If equals be added to equals the sums will be equal; these conclusions are equals; therefore the angle 1-4-3 plus the angle 3-4-2 = two right angles. The reasoning begins with an hypothesis, we make such suppositions or constructions as are needed, as we go on, and the truth of each conclusion, on to the end, is made evident beyond the possibility of doubt. A demonstration is a course o/ reasoning which establishes the conclusion beyond the possibility of doubt. 7. Principle of Demonstrative Reasoning. The principles on which this reasoning proceeds are equality and identity. 8. Probable Conclusions. Probable reasoning is deduc- tive, it proceeds from the whole to the parts, from the gen- eral to the particular, it explains principles, it employs pro- bable truths, it furnishes the probable conclusions which are the basis of the probable sciences. 9. Certain Conclusions. Demonstrative reasoning gives the absolutely certain conclusions upon which the exact sciences are founded. -T- ^1- rvu V 4. ■ \ The mind thinks, feels, chooses. 10. Truth. The fact IS [ ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^^^g_ rru 4.x. 1,+ • I The mind thinks, feels, chooses. The thought IS [tj^^^^^^^^^^^^^^_ rru 4. + ^ Ar ■ i The mind thinks, feels, chooses. The statement is f rj.^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^^^^ Truth is the agreement of our thought with its object, the fact. THE MIND REASONING. 145 (1) Real truth is the agreement of the thought and statement with the fact. (2) Moral truth is the agreement of our thought with our statement. (3) Physical truth is the agreement of statement and fact. (4) The first truth, in the illustration, is a necessary- truth, so is " two and three are five." A necessary truth is one which must be true, one which we cannot think other- wise without absurdity. The second truth in the illustration is a probable truth which is truth that has more evidence for than against it, yet admits of doubts. 11. Certainty Defined. When we know or believe a pro- position, we think or feel that it must be as it is presented, we cannot think or feel it otherwise. Certainty is the con- sciousness of the necessity of what we know or believe. "Knowledge is a certainty founded upon insight. Belief is a certainty founded upon feeling. The one is perspicuous and objective; the other is obscure and subjective. Each, however, supposes the other, and an assurance is said to be a knowledge or belief, according as one element or the other predominates." 12. Inference and Proof. When we infer, we are seeking the truth contained in the premises; when we prove, we are seeking to show that a given hypothesis is true; we reason in both acts, but to a different end. In court, one lawyer seeks to prove that the person accused is innocent; the oppos- ing counsel seeks to prove that the accused is guilty. These lawyers are advocates. The judge seeks to infer the truth from the evidence. Every seeker after truth should hold his mind open to its reception from whatever source it may come. The advocate often shuts off the truth he does not desire to use. 13. Relation of Generalization and Judgment. Generaliza- tion is the comparison of individual objects to find their com- mon qualities and to combine these into concepts, which are made permanent by language; and the comparison of con- cepts to form a series of concepts and classes. 146 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. Judgment is the immediate comparison of concepts to find their relation. Reasoning is mediate judgment, the comparison of two concepts through the medium of a third concept to find their relation. Generalization is the condition for Judgment and Reasoning. CHAPTER XVI. THE MIND SYSTEMATIZING. Order gave each thing view. — Shakespeare. §1. Illustration of Systematizing. 1. Systemization" What does the mind do with the thoughts it acquires by judging and reasoning of the rela- tions of concepts? The answer is, it seeks, in relation to itself, to know what it knows clearly, distinctly, completely, and in connection; and in relation to the object known, it seeks to know that what is known has a true and real exis- tence, that is, it seeks to make the truths it knows in relation to itself and other objects stand together in unity and form a science, and seeks to form a system of sciences. It uses the products of generalizing, judging, and reasoning to this end. In a word it systematizes its knowledge. The principles of the several branches of knowledge which constitute the course of studies in the public schools have been systematized into sciences. It is only by the study of the principles of each branch in their systematic arrange- ment for teaching that the teacher can learn the method of teaching each subject as a means to the education of his pupils. The study of systemization is therefore a matter of primary importance to every teacher. To illustrate systemization we will proceed to systematize the subject of ARITHMETIC. An elementary course of study upon the facts of num- bers must precede the study of the subject as a science. Definition of the abstract terms used in the science are required. 148 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 1. The first step is to bring the subject as a whole before the mind by defining it. The definition presents the subject as a whole (not the whole of the subject) by separat- ing it from other subjects. 2. In Arithmetic we deal with numbers, hence number is the first term to be defined. Number is the necessary idea which springs in the mind whenever we distinguish more than one from one, as when we perceive several oranges. A number answers the questions, How many objects? How many units of measure in any mass? One is a number because it is the basis of all numbers. A number is one or a collection of ones. 3. Numbers are to be expressed. The number expressed by the word five, the figure 5, and by the letter V, shows that numbers are expressed in three ways, by words, by figures, and by letters. 4. Numbers are combined. We may increase a number by adding, or multiplying; or diminish a number by sub- tracting, or dividing. Combination of numbers is the opera- tions by which they are increased or diminished. 5. Numbers hold relatione to one another. Five is one- half of ten; ten is two-thirds of fifteen. 6. The definition of Arithmetic may now be stated as follows: Arithmetic is the branch of knowledge which has for its object the numbering of objects; the expression of numbers; the combination of numbers; and the relations of numbers. 7. By analysis of the definition we find that the subject has four main divisions as follows: Numbering objects, or Numeration. The expression of numbers, or Notation. The combination of numbers. The relations of numbers, or Fractions and Ratio. NUMERATION. By analysis of the first main division we find the follow- ing subdivisions: THE MIND SYSTEMATIZING. 149 1. The counting 0/ objects. Noting them one by one and giving the number. 2. The principle of numbering. Let it be required to find how many dots there are in group one, then how many in group two: .' > • * < > — * . ' * The attempt to number the dots in the first group shows that numbering objects depends upon arranging them in groups with a definite number in each group. Group two is easily numbered. The principle of numbering is that ten units of one order make one of the next higher order. Notice further that one thousand ones is one thousand; one thousand thousands is one million; one thousand milhons is one billion, one thousand bilHons is one trillion. We count the larger numbers in thousands. 3. The order of units. Million, Ten-million, Hundred-million, Billion, Ten-billion, Hundred-billion, 4.. The system of numbering objects is counting the objects in the regular order of dependence according to the principle of numbering. NOTATION. By the analysis of the second main division of the sub- ject we find the following subdivisions: 1. The system of naming numbers. One, Ten, Hundred, Thousand, Ten-thousand, Hundred-thousand, Trillion, Ten-trillion, Hundred-trillion, Quadrillion, Ten-quadrillion, Hundred-quadrillion, etc. 150 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. (1) The principle of naming numbers is the combining of the names of the numbers united. (2) The system of naming numbers is the using of the names of the numbers in the regular way of the formation of the numbers. 2. Arabic Notation. (1) Notation is the expression of ideas by characters. (2) Arabic notation is the expression of all numbers by ten figures. (3) Principles of Arabic notation. Each figure always expresses the same number of units. Each figure expresses units of the order of the place it occupies. Each figure in any place expresses ten times what it would in the next place to the right. Each figure in any place expresses one-tenth what it would in the next place to the left. (4) The system of Arabic notation is the expression of numbers by ten different figures used successively in differ- ent places, each figure being used in each place as many times as the name of the place indicates. 3. Roman Notation. (1) Roman notation is the expression of all numbers by seven letters. (2) Principles of Roman notation. Repeating a letter indicates the repetition of the number expressed by the letter. Placing a letter after another expressing a larger number indicates the addition of the numbers. Placing a letter before another expressing a larger num- ber indicates the subtraction of the smaller number. Placing a straight Hne above a letter indicates the multi- plication of the number by one thousand. (3) The system of Roman notation is the expression of all numbers by seven different letters used in relative posi- tions. THE MIND SYSTEMATIZING. 151 COMBINATION OF NUMBERS. By analysis of the third main division we find the follow- ing subdivisions: 1. All numbers are united by the process of addition, and separated by the process of subtraction. 2. Equal numbers are united by the process of multi- plication and separated by the process of division. 3. Addition—the principle, the process and its verifica- tion, the rule. Jf. Subtraction — the principle, the process and its verifi- cation, the rule. 5. Multiplication— the. principle, the process and its verification, the rule. 6. Division— the principle, the process and its verifica- tion, the rule. 7. Properties of numbers — Factors, Multiples, Powers, Roots. RELATION OF NUMBERS. By the analysis of the fourth main division we find the following subdivisions: 1. The fraction and fractional numbers; 2. The expression of fractions, — finding equivalent ex- pressions; 3. Addition of fi-actions, — the process and the rule; ^. Subtraction of a fraction, — the process and the rule; 5. Multiplication of a fraction, — the process and the rule; 6. Division of a fraction,— the process and the rule; 7. The relations of fractions; 8. Ratio and projjortion. We have now made the analysis of pure Arithmetic. The illustration and definition of the terms used makes the comprehension of the subject clear. The division and subdivision of the subject gives a dis- tinct and complete view of its extension. The science of Arithmetic is the principles of the subject systematically arranged. 152 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. APPLICATIONS OF ARITHMETIC. The applications of Arithmetic to denominate numbers, to mensuration, and to the various problems in the business affairs of life are numerous. The solution of problems is two-fold. It calls for rea- soning to work from the conditions given to what is required, and then the performance of the arithmetical process which the conditions require. Defiyiition. Systemization is bringing into logical ar- rangement the principles of any branch of knowledge so that they stand in unity and form a science. 2. Science Defined. (1) A science is the principles of any branch of knowledge systematically arranged. (2) " Science is knowledge evident and certain in itself or by the principle from which it is deduced, or with which it is certainly connected. It is subjective as existing in a mind; — objective as embodied in truths, — speculative, as resting in the attainment of truths, as in physical science - practical, as leading to do something, as in ethical science." 3. Systemization in Its Further Application is employed to bring the different sciences in the field of human know- ledge into logical arrangement with one another so that they stand together in one comprehensive system. Note, for illustration, the relation of the different branches of mathematics-Geometry, Arithmetic, and Alge- bra. The science of Geometry is the earhest and the simplest of the sciences. It deals purely with space. It is the logical arrangement of the principles of the properties and relations of lines, angles, surfaces, and volumes. It includes the sciences of plane geometry, volumetric geometry, descriptive geometry, trigonometry, and analytical geometry. The science of Arithmetic deals purely with numbers and comes next to Geometry. The science of Algebra deals with ideas of time, or progression, and follows arithmetic. The knowledge of the mathematical sciences is a condi- tion for the study of the sciences relating to the material world; the sciences of Physics, Chemistry, Physiology, THE MIND SYSTEMATIZING. 153 Botany, and Zoology. And so we may go on to the system- atic arrangement of all the sciences until we form the one great comprehensive system of the universe of matter and mind. § II. The Logical Phases of Thought. 1. Gradual Development. The young mind deals with the concrete, that is, with the individual, the particular ob- ject. Perception, memory, imagination take the lead in the mental activity of the young in acquiring elementary know- ledge. As the pupil advances through youth and young manhood reflection increases, and the mind seeks to know the relations and causes of things. The development of the power of abstract thinking is gradual. The teacher must make much use of illustration in lead- ing his pupil from observation of individual objects to the formation of concepts and definite, general, abstract, or scientific thinking. Much care will be needed in extending the pupil's vocabulary so as to gain intelligent command of general terms in the expression of abstract thought. Illus- trations from the formation of geometrical concepts are very helpful at first, because geometrical terms are exact, have only one meaning, and make the thought shine out definitely, briefly, distinctly. 2. Cultivation of Thoughtfulness. Much attention needs to be given to the logical phases of thought and expression, for the very good reason that thoughtfulness, is the strength of our life; the bedrock on which we lay the foundations of truth, beauty, and goodness. If we do not sow the seeds of thoughtfulness in the mellow soil of young lives and cultivate the habit as life moves on, surely the enemy will sow the seeds of thoughtlessness that will spring and grow up to choke the life of the soul. Superficial thinking and flippant expression are super-abundant in the individual and social life of today. The wise man says, "Take fast hold of instruction; let her not go; keep her; for she is thy life." Without the culture of thoughtfulness, our thinking must be weak, our whole life must be superficial. 154 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 3. " The Possibilities of Thought Training Are Infinite, its consequences eternal. There can be no more important study, no higher duty owed to ourselves and those about us, than this of thought control, of self-control, which results in self-development. ' ' §111. Method in Study. 1. Study Defined. (1) Study implies an object of thought of which the mind would acquire knowledge. The object of thought may be a material object or a mental object considered in itself as an individual. It may be the relations which individual objects hold to one another. It may be the forces or powers which cause objects. It may be the logical arrangement of the principles of a branch of knowledge as a science. It may be the book, the record of the thoughts of observers and thinkers in different branches of knowledge. (2) Study implies concentration and continuity of thought upon the object of thought with the purpose to gain as much knowledge of the object as possible. The thought implies observation, memory, imagination. Study is to be dis- tinguished from reading. Reading may be an instrument of study, or it may be simply for information or for amusement. (3) Study implies zeal and interest to sustain the con- centration and continuity of thought. (4) Study may be under the stimulus and direction of an instructor. The larger part of the study in schools is under this influence. Or the study may be by one's self under the stimulus of his purpose to meet the requirements of his life. (5) Definition. Study is the concentration and continu- ity of thought upon an object or subject with zeal and inter- est, with the purpose to gain from this work all possible knowledge and power. 2. Method. Method is the orderly way of proceeding to the attainment of an end. The orderly way of proceeding to the attainment of the ends of study is to follow the conditions of the normal activity of the mind in thinking and knowing. THE MIND SYSTEMIZING. 155 3. Method of Study. We find that in acquiring knowl- edge of any single object by observation we proceed analyti- cally from the whole object to its parts, qualities, and uses, and then think together what we have learned. In the study of any subject we proceed analytically from the subject as a whole to its division and subdivisions, and then think together what we have thought out separately; from which we learn that the true method of study is analysis followed by synthesis, which must result in system. §IV. Elaboration of Thought. 1. Modes of Elaboration. Elaboration has four modes, generalizing, judging, reasoning, and systematizing. In generalization, we analyze the ideas of individual objects, think together their common qualities, form the con- cept, name it, group under it all the individuals which have the common qualities and form the class, in which all the individuals are alike, thus reducing the many to one. We do the same with concepts and form series of concepts and classes. In judging, we compare two concepts directly and assert their agreement or disagreement. In reasoning, we acquire the knowledge of some things through the knowledge of others, by mediate judgment. In systematizing, we bring the principles of a subject into logical arrangement and form a science and system. The right method of study is analysis followed by syn- thesis. 2. The Condition of Elaboration in generalization is the possession of distinct ideas of individual objects; in judging and reasoning, the possession of clear and distinct concepts; in systemization, the knowledge gained by generalization, judgment, and reasoning. 3. The Products of Elaboration are knowledge of classes and their relations, and knowledge of causes; the power to think logically and to express accurately. The product of comparison is knowledge of differences and resemblances; of abstraction, abstract ideas; of generalization, concepts, and 156 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. general terms; of judgment and reasoning, general truths, and principles; of systemization, science, and systems. 4. The Principle of Education derived from the study of the elaborate power is, — The pupil must be trained to logical thinking and effective expression. §V. Summary of the Mind Thinking. 1. Modes of Intellectual Activity. Reason in Intellect originates rational intuitions which regulate our thinking. Sensation is subjective in which the mind is affected and brought into relation with external objects. Presentation in Sense Perception is objective in which the mind goes out to the object of its thought and through sensation and attention gives distinct ideas of material objects. Presentation in the Inner Sense through consciousness and attention gives distinct ideas of mental objects. Representation in Memory through attention, association, and repetition gives distinctly similar past mental states. Representation in Imagination by attention, abstraction, and combination gives images of actual and ideal objects. Elaboration in Generalization forms concepts and gen- eral terms, reducing many to one, and forms series of con- cepts and classes. Elaboration by Judging gives immediately the relation of concepts. Elaboration by Reasoning gives mediately the relation of concepts. Elaboration by Systematizing gives the logical arrange- ment of principles insciences, and system. 2. Products of Intellectual Activity. (1) Knowledge of facts, or elementary knowledge. Knowledge of relations and causes, or scientific know- ledge. Knowledge of language. (2) Power to observe accurately; to remember and imagine vividly; to think logically; to express easily and effectively. CHAPTER XVII. THE MIND FEELING. SENSIBILITY. God made man to go by motives and he will not go without them. — H. W. Beecher. Motives are everything. — Horace Mann. § I. Sensibility. 1. The Study of Sensibility. We learn in the study of Intellect how we acquire, retain, and elaborate knowledge. We come now to the study of Sensibility in joint action with the Intellect, to find the different modes of Sensibility and the conditions and products of their activity. 2. Sensibility Defined. Sensibility is the capacity to enjoy or suffer, to feel pleasure or pain, as we think. 3. Condition of Sensibility. As thinking beings we have the original capacity to feel as we think. We feel because we think, the Intellect is the condition of all the higher forms of feeling. Sensibility does not include sensation. Sensa- tions are feelings which arise from changes in the body. 4. Varieties of Feeling. Since feeling must accompany thinking and willing there are as many varieties of feeling as there are distinct modes of mental activity. {1) Feeling in perception. We look with pleasure upon a smooth green lawn and a well kept garden, and with un- pleasant feeling upon a disorderly yard and a dirty street. We listen with delight to a sweet melody, and with displeas- ure to discordant notes. {2) Feeling in memory and imagination. We revel in the pleasure accompanying the memory of past joys, and feelings of shame and regret are awakened by the unpleasant memories of the past. We dwell with pleasure upon the 158 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. bright anticipations of success, and are made miserable by the dread of failure, which the imagination pictures. (3) Feeling in thought, duty, and loorship. We have the pleasure of victory in thinking out a hard problem, and the unpleasant depression of defeat upon failing to solve it. We have the feeling of obligation to do what we judge to be right, the feeling of approbation when we have done right, and the feeling of guilt when we have done wrong. We have feelings of adoration, praise, and thanksgiving as we con- template the greatness, the glory, and goodness of God. 5. Position of Feeling. The character and rank of the feeling varies with the object of knowledge which awakens the feeling. We choose the object which excites the agree- able feeling, and refuse the object which awakens the dis- agreeable feeling. Feeling is the condition for choice and action, hence its great importance. Feeling is intermediate between thinking and willing. Thinking begets feeling, feeling inspires, will executes. 6. Centers of Feeling. In childhood, when knowledge and experience are limited, the feelings naturally center largely about self. As knowledge increases and experience broadens, the sphere of feeling is steadily enlarging. In early adolescence the feeling for other selves is prominently manifest. As the sphere of knowledge and experience con- tinues to widen, in later adolesence and on through maturity, the ideals of truth, beauty, and goodness are more prominent and the feelings center more fully about these ideals. 7. Classes of Feelings. The feelings which center in self as love of self, of pleasure, of possession, pride, and vanity are called egoistic feelings. The feelings which center about others, as love and hate, friendship, respect, emula- tion, and sympathy are called altruistic feelings. The feel- ings which center about ideals of truth, beauty, and goodness are called ideal feelings. The egoistic, altruistic, and ideal feelings continue on through life with varying degrees of relative strength according to the experience and cultivation of the person. 8. Relation of Feeling to Nervous Energy. When any THE MIND FEELING. SENSIBILITY. 159 person, especially a child or a youth, is rested and full of nervous energy, he feels pleasure in working off this nervous energy in a normal way. Herein is the pleasure of games and of manual work. When one is weary there is pleasure in resting while the nervous energy is being restored. When- ever we continue the effort beyond the normal supply of nervous energy, there comes a feeling of pain. Strong feel- ing reduces nervous energy. This is why worry, fear, and grief are so exhausting. The function of /pain seems to be to tell us when we have reached the limit of proper exercise, and to give a just appreciation of pleasurable feeling. §11. Rational Intuitions of Intellect and Sensi- bility. There are certain ideas and emotions which spring spon- taneously in every mind as the sensibiHty in joint action with the different modes of thinking is awakened. They are the joint product of thought and feeling, and they regulate our thinking and feeling. First, is the Idea and Emotion of a Good. Given, the capacity to enjoy and suffer and the object which awakens in us an agreeable feeling must he thought good. For example, the food which we know as having an agreeable flavor we say is good; the games which afford us pleasure we say are good; and the person who awakens in us a friendly feeling we say is good. Any object known which affords enjoyment must be thought good. And the enjoyment must be regarded as a good. It is not true that every object which affords us enjoy- ment is beneficial to us, stimulants and narcotics may be agreeable but may not be beneficial; but so long as the object gives us enjoyment it is alluring, we are drawn to it as some- thing we think to be good. This is the natural action of the mind. The idea and emotion of good is fundamental in our mental activity. If there were not a good which appealed to us there would be nothing to choose, no motive to choice. Definition. A good is the fundamental, necessary, and universal idea and emotion given by sensibility on occasion 160 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. of our knowing any object which affords us enjoyment. (1) A good and goodness. We must carefully distin- guish between a good and goodness. A good is given by the normal action of the sensibility, it is regarded as something valuable in itself, it is therefore a motive to choice, but it does not have a moral quality. Goodness is the state of being morally good. Persons are morally good when their moral choices are right, hence "goodness is given by the normal action of the will." (2) Sources of a good. * ' The product of sensibility is a good, a feeling of enjoyment. The good may be from the action upon our organization of those surroundings which God has so wonderfully correlated to it; or from our indepen- dent activity; or from the interaction of our minds with other minds; or, which is highest of all, from such spiritual revelations as God can make of Himself directly, and not through his works Always, however induced, there is an activity of our own from which the enjoyment is the immediate outcome as the fragrance is from the flower." (3) The not good. The object which awakens in us a disagreeable feeling we must regard as not good. It is true that we are capable of suffering to the same extent that we are capable of enjoying, but suffering is not dominant, the sensibility was constituted to give a good. A merchant has goods on sale. They are goods because they are desired by customers for the enjoyment they will afford. If no one desires the articles they will not sell and they cease to be goods. Second, is the Idea and Emotion of Beauty. When we see the solar spectrum on the screen, or the rainbow on the cloud, it appeals to our sense of the perfect in color and there springs in the mind the necessary idea and emotion of beauty. The question What is beauty? has been much dis- cussed. Some have said it belongs to the object, it is an idea. Others have said, it is a feeling; as such it must be what it is felt to be in the mind. The better view is that it is the joint product of thought and feeling. Definition. Beauty is the necessary and universal idea THE MIND FEELING. SENSIBILITY. 161 and emotion given by sensibility when the object adapted to awaken it is known. (1) Beautiful objects. It is not all objects that awaken this emotion. We call those which are adapted to awaken it beautiful. Bright and delicate colors, and simple, regular, and symmetrical forms are adapted to awaken this emotion. Generous, noble, unselfish conduct is beautiful. Some minds are much more appreciative of beauty than others. "It is his who has the eye to see it." 2 Basis of personal beauty. Orison Swett Marden in Every Man a King, says, "The basis of all real beauty is a kindly, helpful heart, and a desire to scatter sunshine and good cheer everywhere, and this, shining through the face, makes it beautiful. The longing and the effort to be beauti- ful in character cannot fail to make the life beautiful, and since the outward is but an expression of the inward, a mere outpicturing on the body of the habitual thought and domi- nating motives, the face, the manners, the bearing, muse follow the thought, and become sweet and attractive. If you hold the beauty thought, the love thought, persistently in the mind, you will make such an impression of harmony, of sweetness, and soul beauty wherever you go that no one will notice any plainness or deformity you may possess." Third, is the Idea and Emotion of The Ludicrous. No one can see a daintily dressed fop tumble into the mud with- out having the idea and the emotion of the ludicrous. It is awakened by perceiving objects come into relation which are not naturally associated. Definition. The Ludicrous is the necessary and univer- sal idea and emotion given by sensibility on the occasion of perceiving some form of incongruity. This sensitivity is the condition of the ludicrous, of wit, ridicule, humor, fun, and drollery in all their forms. It is an element of rational life, it is denied to brutes. 4. Affective Reason. The power which orginates these necessary ideas and emotions is called the Affective Reason. It is reason manifest in the sensibility, affective in that it has the element of feeling in its products. 162 the teacher in modern life. §111. The Appetites. The natural appetites were considered in the study of the body. These physical feelings have a strong influence upon our choice and action and require careful consideration and control. "As the means of sustaining and continuing the race, they are the condition of all forms of the Sensi- bility." §IV. The Instincts. 1. Instinct Defined. Instinct is the natural inward prompting to action without any conscious end in view. In- stinct is needed where Intellect cannot act. Instinct directs to ends, but presupposes that means and conditions are sup- plied by intelligence outside itself. Immediately on feeling the impulse, the bee proceeds to build the honey-comb, the duck to swim, the bird to build his nest, the beaver to build his dam. The new born child has no knowledge or experience to direct him; he must act wholly from instinct at first, and one instinct after another appears as a new form of activity is needed. At birth, he has the instinct to suck, to cry for his food, to carry every thing to his mouth; to bite when the teeth are coming; the instinct to sit up, to creep, to walk, to speak, to imitate his fellows, to emulate them, to play; the instinct of sociability, of sympathy, of self preservation. This is not a complete list of our instincts. 2. Experience and Knowledge Modify Instinctive Action. Some forms of activity are no longer necessary and the in- stinct to act that way ceases, as crying for food is no longer necessary when speech comes. Other instincts, as self-pre- servation, are needed through life and continue to act in a modified form. 3. The Play Instinct is an Essential of Life, both in ani- mals and in human beings. Each species has play peculiar to itself. The birds play in a way peculiar to them; dogs after their manner; cats in their way; monkeys in another way; and children in their own way. Animals and children THE MIND FEELING. SENSIBILITY. 163 are self-active beings, and as such play, which is activity as an end, is a delight and a necessity. 4. Play a Delight, Play is a delight because it has free- dom and gives happiness. The child at play is free to take the initiative. He may make his own plans, follow his own ideals, originate, and construct as he pleases. 5. Play a Necessity. Play is necessary for the develop- ment of the child and the youth, it brings his whole self, body and mind, into exertion. In games and sports, he comes into competition with his fellows, he must be keen to observe, quick to decide, prompt to execute, must exert all his power, endure hardness, and learn how to accept victory or defeat as it comes. "Play is as necessary to a child as food, as vital as sunshine, as indispensable as air." 6. Play is Nature's Way of Training. Play seems to be nature's way of training the young in the very activities which they must seriously practice later on in life. It gives a relish for exertion, and prepares the way for work. Work differs from play in being activity for an end instead of activity as an end. In work, we have an end before us which we desire to gain, and we persistently exert ourselves till the end is accomplished. Having in play felt the joy of whole souled activity as an end, we have only to associate this joy with whole souled activity for an end. This may be accomplished by awakening a strong desire for the end we are to work for. Work and play are not antagonistic, each is the complement of the other, and each gives zest to the other. Both are necessary. Life means work, and work means relaxation in play. 7. Play Shows Aptitudes. The best opportunity for learning a child's tendencies and aptitudes is when he is at play freely following his bent. It happens not unfrequently that the teacher is annoyed by a boy full of fun and frolic, when he is cutting up his capers. The teacher should regard the lively play instinct as a hopeful indication of power to work. 8. The Instinct of Imitation is Prominent in Every Life. The child is born into a world of incessant activity with in- 164 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. numerable ways of acting to learn, which are necessary to his welfare and to placing him in pleasant relations with his fellows; hence, he has the instinct of imitation. "Imitation is one of the earliest, deepest, strongest of human instincts." 9. Unconscious Imitation. The young child imitates without choice the ways of acting by those with whom he lives. He imitates their ways of eating, drinking, sitting, walking, talking, dressing, and doing almost everything. As he grows older he takes views of Hfe, of its achievements, and of its social standards, similar to those possessed by those with whom he is most intimately associated. His manners, his language, his conduct, and his standards of action are very strongly influenced by the tendency to think and act as others do. This tendency is the root of the controlling power of fashion. 10. The Individuality of the Person Modifies His Ten" dency to Imitate. Some persons are thoroughly inclined to be followers, other persons of greater individuahty and intel- ligence are stimulated by what they see others do to take the initiative in independent action. 11. "What Models do Children of Younger or Older Growth Imitate? We cannot answer that they imitate the good and not the bad. Rather their unreflective deeds are almost indifferent to this distinction. But the interesting deeds, the fascinating, the compelling, even the inherently uninteresting deeds of interesting people; the deeds of a supposed superior; and the deeds of the heroes of all times, — all these catch their attention, appeal to native interests, solicit action. The children imitate the captivating fellow, the play-ground leader, their parents, the teachers they like, and the characters in their favorite stories The striking personalities about the child, and the heroes of story, biography, history, — these make the virtues imitable to children, these are the examples that influence." — Dr. H. H. Home. THE MIND FEELING. SENSIBILITY. 165 §V. The Emotions. 1. Emotions Defined. Emotions are transient feelings which vary with the object of thought. We unexpectedly meet a friend, we are much moved and the feeling finds ex- pression in cordial greetings. We hear of the death of a friend, we are deeply moved and our feeeling is manifested in expressions of grief. We observe a bright healty little child and the face brightens with delight. We observe a deformed child and the face saddens with an expression of pity. We think of one who has done us a great favor and we are moved to the lively expression of appreciation. We think of one who has insulted us and we are strongly moved to an expression of our anger. Definition. Emotions are feelings which arise from what we perceive or think and manifest their existence and char- acter by some sensible effects upon the body. 2. There are Two Classes of Emotions. Agreeable emo- tions, Disagreeable emotions. We may also distinguish the coarser emotions, those in which the bodily expression is prominent, as fear, joy, anger, grief, jealousy; and the Uner emotions, in which the bodily expression is small, as self- respect, sympathy, wonder, and the esthetic emotions. 3. Sad Emotions. ' ' Whatever tends to produce, prolong, or intensify the sad emotions is wrong, whether it be dress; drama, or what-not. Happiness is a means rather than an end— it creates energy, promotes growth, and nutrition, and prolongs life. The emotions and other feelings give us all there is of [enjoyment in life, and their scientific study and rational training constitute an important step in the art of using the mind more skilfully and efficiently. By proper train- ing the depressing emotions can be practically eliminated from life, and the good emotions rendered permanently dominant." §VI. The Desires. 1. Desires Defined. There are certain goods which are essential to the unfolding and perfecting of the mind and 166 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. there are natural cravings for these needs of the mind, which are called desires. The Desires are cravings which arise from the needs of the mind and which have for their object the well-being of the mind. 2. Specific Desires. (1) The mind is self-active, to act it must continue to exist, hence, it must have the Desire of Continued Existence. (2) The mind cannot enjoy existence unless it can hold the things which it needs as its own, hence, it must have the Desire of Property. (3) The mind must come into conscious relation to nature and men, it must know them, hence, it must have the Desire of Knowledge. (4) The mind must be able to use itself and to become what it is capable of becoming, hence, it must have the Desire of Power. (5) The mind must live with other minds to secure its own development and to promote the well-being of others, hence, it must have the Desire of Esteem. These Desires of Life, Property, Knowledge, Power, and Esteem are specific desires for objects which we seek by specific acts of choice. 3. General Desires. The object of each specific desire is known as a good. (1) The desire of a good is common to all these specific desires, hence, there is the General Desire of Good. (2) When we choose any one of the objects of the speci- fic desires, we need to be able to carry out that choice in action, hence, there is the General Desire of Liberty. (3) The social relation is an element in the action of all our powers, hence, we have the General Desire of Society. This desire of society is so strong that solitary confinement is the severest form of punishment. 4. Control of Desires. The desires have for their object the well-being of the mind. They have no limit in them- selves. They increase in strength by indulgence. They may become selfish. They must be controlled. THE MIND FEELING. SENSIBILITY. 167 §VII. The Natural Affections. 1. Affections Defined. This mode of the sensibility arises from thinking of our relations to others. The child awakens in the parent an emotion of pleasure accompanied by a desire to do good to the child. A person strikes me without cause, he awakens a disagreeable emotion accom- panied by a desire to do him harm in self-defense. A man has committed murder, he awakens a painful emotion accom- panied by a desire to do him such harm that the crime shall not be repeated. The affections are feelings which impel us to do good, or to do harm to others. The affections differ from the desires in that their object is the well-being of others, they impel us to act for others instead of for self. 2. The Natural Affections are Complex. When a person excites in us a pleasurable emotion, we desire for him the good we would desire for ourselves. When he awakens a disagreeable emotion we desire to be free from him. The affection includes an emotion, pleasurable or painful, and a desire to do good or to do harm to the person according to the emotion which he awakens. 3. The Object of the Affections. The affections are a part of our nature and have for their object the well-being of others. This is evident when the affection prompts to do good to its object. It is equally for the good of others when the affection prompts to do another harm. In the case of the one who would injure us without cause, it is not for his good or for ours that he should perform this act. In the case of one who would murder, it is not for his good, or for the good of society, that he should perform this deed. On the contrary, it is for the good of all that these acts should be prevented. The affection is put into our nature for this pur- pose. It acts spontaneously, we are not responsible for its existence, but for its regulation. 4. The Division of Natural Affections, The natural affec- tions which prompts us to do good to others are called Bene- ficent, which signifies well doing. The prominent beneficent affections are love of kindred, friends, benefactors, home, 168 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. and country. Those affections which prompt us to do harm in self-defense are called Defensive. The prominent defen- sive affections are resentment, indignation, anger. Those which prompt us to do harm to one, for the good of the com- munity of which he is a part are called Punitive. The moral affections depend upon the will for their being and character, and will be considered in connection with the will. 5. Feelings Conditioned Upon Desires and Affections. Hope is the feeling which comes with the prospect of attaining the object of desire or affection. Fear is the feeling which comes with the prospect of not attaining the object of desire or affection or from the expectation of evil. Joy is the feeling which comes when the object of desire or affection is at- tained. Sorrow is the feeling which comes when the object of desire or affection is not attained or is lost. Cheerfulness is the state of feeling which arises from being habitually hopeful. Despondency is the state of feeling which arises from being habitually fearful. §VIII. Cultivation of Sensibility. 1. Conditions of Cultivation. (1) Since the desires and affections are inherent tendencies in our nature, their strength depends primarily upon their natural intensity. (2) The sensibility is conditioned upon the intellect, the more distinctly and strongly the mind comprehends the object of desire and affection, the stronger will be the feeling excited by that object. (3) We must cultivate the sensibihty indirectly by thinking of those objects which call forth the different forms of feeling in the right measure. We must bring about the conditions that will produce the right feeling. (4) We must remember that thinking, feeling, and wilHng are co-existent elements, and that the right feelings are secured only through right thinking and willing. (5) The aim of all emotional education is to secure the love of truth, of beauty, of goodness. Hence, the persistent purpose of the teacher should be so to unfold every subject THE MIND FEELING. SENSIBILITY. 169 in the school curriculum, and so to associate it with the pupil's life as the most effectively to accomplish this aim. The teacher must never forget that " The teacher's feel- ing is the pupil's feeling." 2. The Principle of Education derived from the study of the sensibility is, The pupil must be trained to the rational control of his appetites, desires, and affections. §IX. Summary of the Sensibility. The Sensibility, conditioned upon thinking, gives motives to choice and action. A motive is a feeling v^hich influences or determines an act of will. The Affective Reason manifest in Sensibility originates rational intuitions which regulate our thought and feeling. The Appetites are conditioned upon the needs of the body and move the will to secure the well-being of the body. The Instincts and Emotions conditioned upon the needs of the body and mind, secure the well-being of the person. The Desires conditioned upon the needs of the mind move the will to secure the well-being of the mind. The Affections conditioned upon our relations to others move the will to secure the well-being of others. The Appetites, Instincts, Desires, and Affections are the Natural Impulses to choice and action. They are in our nature what steam is to the locomotive the impelling power. Rightly controlled they secure the well-being of the man; uncontrolled they insure his destruction. CHAPTER XVIIL THE MIND CHOOSING. THE WILL. Man makes himself great or little by his own will. — Schiller. §1. Rational Choice and Action. 1. Introductory Statement. We have considered the In- tellect and the Sensibility in the different modes of their activity to find the conditions and products of their action. We are rational beings endowed v^ith the rational will. We come now to the study of the mind choosing and acting as it thinks and feels. 2. Conditions of Rational Willing. The mind must think; thinking gives rationality and knowledge. The mind must feel as it thinks; the Sensibility gives motives in the differ- ent objects of the appetites, desires, and affections which are known and felt as good. These elements of rationality and knowledge, and feeling, given by the intellect and sensibility are the indispensable condition of rational willing. 3. Various Acts of Willing. (1) I know an object, if it awakens a feeling of pleasure, I may choose the object and seek to obtain it; if the object awakens a feeling of pain I choose to reject it and turn away. (2) I think of my work, choose to do it, and immedi- ately make ready for it. (3) I see platable food, I choose the food and eat. (4) I see beautiful flowers by the wayside, I desire them, and proceed to gather them. (5) My friend says. Come on! and instantly I choose, and rush into the scrimmage with him. (6) I have a composition to write; thoughts on the sub- ject come in the mental current, I find it difficult to select THE MIND CHOOSING. THE WILL. 171 the right thoughts, I make the effort again and again, but without success. Here is indecision, failure to choose and act definitely. We note that an act of will is performed under varying conditions of thought and feeling. It may be performed in the habitual easy manner; it may be from a quick impulse; it may be by instant decision; it may be de- Jayed by indecision; or it may be by deliberate choice and action. 4. Will Defined. We will analyze a deliberate act of will to find its essential elements. I observe a fine book, I know the object, here is knowl- edge. I regard the book as good, I desire it, here is feeling of desire. I need the book, I ought to have it, here is feeling of obligation. I can decide to buy or not to buy, here is freedom to choose. I decide to buy the book, here is choice. I buy the book, here is execution of the choice. Desire and obligation both influence to buy. This act of will is easy to perform. It might have been as follows: I do not need the book, I ought not to buy it. Desire moves to choose to buy. Obligation moves to choose not to buy. I decide to buy as before. I might have decided not to buy, as I am free to choose. Definition. The will is the mind choosing and executing the choice, knowing itself to be capable thus to act. 5. Necessary to an Act of Choice. It is necessary to an act of choice, that there should be something to choose, as the buying or not buying the book; some reason for choosing, as the motives— desire and obligation — which were excited by the object known as good; and choice itself, as the deci- sion to buy. 6. Two Elements in Will. There are two elements in the will, the power of choice, and the power of volition. These two elements need to be clearly distinguished to avoid confusion of thought. 172 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. (1) The poiver of choice implies the comprehenson of the object as good, which means the joint action of the intel- lect and the sensibility. There can be no rational choice without this comprehension. (2) The power of choice is fundamental because there can be no volition without previous choice. (3) It is the voluntary element of the will, because in the choice we are free. There cannot be choice unless we are free. ' 'The freedom of the will is in choice and in that only." (4) The moral element is in the choice, because choice, either in accordance with the feeling of obligation, or in op- position to it, is a moral act. The power of choice is the fundamental, voluntary, moral element of the will. (5) The moral choice determines the moral quality of the character as soon as the choice is made, and the charac- ter is known at once to Him who reads the heart. 6. The Power of Volition Implies the Exertion of Force. The strength of the will is shown in the force with which the mind holds to the choice until it is executed. We will a state of mind when we choose, we will an act when we execute the choice. The act depends upon the choice and follows it. The act may follow at once, or in a shorter or longer time, or not at all. We may be prevented from executing the choice by sickness, or by accident, or by the opposition of others. The execution of the choice reveals the character of the man to his fellowmen. 7. The Position of the Will. To see this clearly we need to review the succession of added forces and powers active in us from our lowest nature upward, each one higher than the preceding and bringing us upon a plane of higher activity. First, We have our physical nature, in which we have the physical forces of gravitation, cohesion, and chemical affinity; and the vital forces of nutritive life and animal life; each acting of necessity and under law. Second, We have our intellectual nature, in which the mind rises through the different stages of thought in sense THE MIND CHOOSING. THE WILL. 173 perception, the inner sense, memory, imagination, and re- flection. Third, We have our emotional nature in which we have the different modes of the sensibihty, the appetites, instincts, emotions, desires, and affections furnishing motives to action. Fourth, We have in connection with the will, our moral nature, the sense of obligation to choose the higher good and the right way of action, and the feeling of approbation, or guilt, after the moral action. Fifth, And then comes the Will, which is conditioned upon these natures and is above them, in which we have freedom of choice, and causation, or the origination of both choice and motion. The will makes man a free moral cause. 8. Transition to Higher Activity. We see that from the beginning with each added force or power, there is a transi- tion to higher activity; nutritive life is higher than the phy- sical forces; animal life is higher than nutritive life; rational life is higher than animal life; and each form of rational life is higher than the preceding. But in adding the will there is made the greatest transition in the whole series of addi- tions. By this transition we have risen to the highest level human of activity. The will is the culmination of the man. Man is intellect, sensibility, and will. He is a person. Thought is mighty, feeling is powerful, but will is supreme, controlling both thought and feeling. It sets the purpose and executes it and makes or breaks the man' §11. Rational Intuitions which Regulate The Will. 1. Intuitive Ideas. With the action of intellect, sensi- bility, and will there spring spontaneously in the mind cer- tain necessary and universal ideas or feelings which regulate the action of the will. 2. Personality. Every man is consciously a person, not a thing. With this consciousness there must come the idea of Personality. 3. Causation. We consciously exert force and produce 174 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. effects; from this consciousness must come in the mind the idea of force and of Causation. 4. Freedom. With the conscions exertion of the power of choice there must come in the mind the idea of Freedom. There can be no person, no choice, without freedom. 5. Right and Obligation. If one has acquired by his own effort any good, as property, and another would take it from him, the idea of a Right must spring at once in the mind. Every man has a Right to his own good, and every other man is under Obhgation to respect this Right. 6. Right Over Others. One jnay have a Right over others in connection with their good. For example, the good of the child depends upon the power, care, and guidance of the parent. This relation gives the parent the right to con- trol the child, or Authority. The parent, because he is the parent, is under obligation, first, to exercise his authority; second, to exercise it for the good of the child. The child is under the obligation of Obedience to his parent. The right is founded on good, and Obligation is its correlative. 7. Obligation to Choose. The primary motive to choice is the feeling awakened by some good; choice implies some good to be chosen with an alternative. One good may be presented, as food, the alternative then is that we may choose to accept it or to reject it. The choice is usually be- tween a higher good and a lower good. We may choose the one or the orther, but we must choose. We are as much under the necessity of choosing as we are under the neces- sity of thinking, but we are free as to what we will choose. Wherein is the obigation to choose? Suppose a choice must be made between two goods, as integrity and property, — between paying a note and preserving integrity, and evad- ing the payment and holding the property. We know that integrity is the higher good. ' ' When we know one good to be higher in kind and more valuable than the other, we must feel obligation to choose the higher good. We are not obliged to choose the higher good, but we must feel that we ought to choose it." This feeling of obligation is the manifestation of THE MIND CHOOSING. THE WILL. 175 our moral nature. The obligation to choose arises from the knoivledge of the higher good. 8. Obligation to Act. When we know the higher good, we have simply to choose it. In carrying out this choice, means are to be used, we must act in one way or another. This brings us to a choice of means. For example, I have chosen teaching as my vocation, and two schools are offered to me, either of which I am competent to teach, but one offers a larger compensation than the other. I need the larger compensation. It is a good to be secured. It will be right for me to secure it, and I feel that I ought to take that school. "Of two courses of action, equally compatible with the rights of others, one, it may be, more effectively secures the good sought than the other. Such a course will be right and there will immediately arise a sense of obligation, to pur- sue it. ' ' The obligation to act in a certain way arises from the knowledge of the rightness of the act, that is, from its tendency to secure the good sought. 9. Condition of Obligation. The sense of obligation must come with the knowledge of the higher good or of the right- ness of the act. It comes necessarily before choice. Choice either in accordance with or in opposition to the sense of obligation is a free moral act; it makes one a moral being. 10. Merit and Demerit. The idea of Merit, or praise- worthiness must come immediately with the consciousness of performing an act in accord with the sense of obligation. The idea of Demerit, or blameworthiness must come immedi- ately with the performance of an act in opposition to the sense of obligation. These ideas come after the act, but are implied in the obligation. 11. Responsibility and Punishment. To one who has au- thority over us, founded upon a right, we must feel that we are Responsible. With the violation of authority, the idea of Punishment must come in the mind. The fear of punishment is in our constitution; we cannot eliminate it. Punishment is in two forms. First, there is the feeling of guilt which is inseparable from all wrong doing. This is the natural Pen- alty for the violation of authority. Second, Punishment is 176 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. the infliction of pain upon the body or mind of the offender by the one in authority over him. Necessary Ideas. Occasions of Them. Personality. Conscious of being a person. Causation. Conscious exertion of force. ^ Freedom. Conscious free choice. Right. Conscious possession of a good. Obligation. Conscious moral choice. Merit. Conscious right action. Demerit. Conscious wrong action. Responsibility. Conscious of being a subject. Punishment. Conscious. violation of authority. These ideas must come in every mind. They regulate our will. They are the condition of government both human and divine. They are the product of the Moral or Practical Reason, that is of Reason manifest in choice and action. 12. There are Three Classes of Rational Intuitions which Regulate Our Mental Activity. The first are those of pure Intellect, being, space, time, personal identity, number, dif- ference, resemblance, which regulate our knowing; the second are those of Intellect and Sensibihty, a good, beauty, the ludicrous, which regulate our feeling. The third are those of Intellect and Sensibility and Will, given above which regu- late our willing. These three different classes of regulative ideas, open three lines of study, the study of pure thought, or truth; the study of the sensibilities or beauty; and the study of morals, or goodness. These departments of study constitute an ascending series, growing broader and more difficult as we go up. They indicate clearly the scope of the teacher's work in the education of his pupils. § III. Conscience. 1. Conscience Defined. We consider Conscience in con- nection with the will as it acts when we choose. We analyze an illustration of its action to find its definition. Shall I steal fruit? Inclination says, take the fruit. The Sense of Obligation says, you ought not to take the fruit. I know the moral quality of the choice before I make it. THE MIND CHOOSING. THE WILL. 177 I choose not to steal, and do not take the fruit. I feel approbation after this decision. Or, I choose to steal and take the fruit. I feel guilt after this act. Definition. Conscience is the mind judging the moral quality of its choice, feeling obligation before choosing, and feeling approbation or guilt after the act. Conscience is knowing with. We know our choice and we know its quality. Conscience judges choices and motives. 2. The Conscience has Two Elements. First, the judging which is the higher good and which is the right way of acting; second, the feeling of obligation before the choice, and of approbation or guilt after the act. The conscience is falHble in judging which is the higher good; it is infallible in affirming that we should choose in accordance with our sense of obligation. Men differ much in judging which is the higher good. They all agree that we should follow the affir- mation of obligation. No human judgment is infallible, hence conscience must be enlightened by the divine standards of choice and action. 3. An Enlightened Conscience Should Alw^ays be Fol- lowed. It is the voice of God speaking within us bidding us do what we feel we ought to do. We do right in following conscience, but if, because conscience is not enlightened, we err in judging of the higher good and the right way, we shall do wrong as we follow conscience, however sincere we have been in our judging. Sincerely thinking an act to be right does not make it right. A man took a dose of laudanum by mistake. He was perfectly sincere in thinking it was the medicine which his physician had prescribed, but his mistake was fatal. Judging implies that we take the utmost pains to know which is the higher good, and which is the right way of acting. The power of conscience depends upon unceasing effort to know what we ought to choose and upon always following its dictates. 178 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. §IV. Cultivation of the Will. 1. The Will is Cultivated: (1) By cultivating the in- tellect. Thoughtfulness is the primary condition of right choice and action. " As a man thinketh in his heart so is he, " in his feeling and choice. (2) By listening to the voice of conscience in regulating the natural impulses. The more we feel the responsibilty of right choice the more likely we are to make it. (3) By resolving always to do what ought to be done. I am a rational being; I ought to choose and act rationally; I can do this; I tvill do so. (4) Dr. T. T. Miinger says, " It is not only quite pos- sible, but an easy and natural thing, for a young person fronting life to say, I will make the most of myself; I will recognize my whole nature; I will neglect no duty that be- longs to all men; I will carry with an even and a just hand those relations that make up a full manhood." (5) Man's six-fold life, his nutritive, animal, intellec- tual, emotional, moral, and spiritual life is a ladder extending from earth to heaven, as Jacob saw at Bethel. And as the individual man rises upon the successive rounds of this ladder, he gets a broader, clearer vision of truth, a fuller appreciation of beauty, a higher enjoyment, a stronger grasp upon goodness, and his life culminates in a "Hope which is an anchor to the soul, a Joy that is unspeakable, and a Peace that is Hke a river." 2. The principle of education derived from the study of the will is The pupil must he trained to rational choice and action in all his conduct. §V. Formation of Character. 1. The Present Inquiry. We have found how man is constituted and how his mind is furnished. We come now to consider his conduct, to ask what character a person consti- tuted as man is ought to form and build up. 2. Man is a Free Moral Cause. "Herein, as respects freedom and power, he is in the image of God. He is a being THE MIND CHOOSING. THE WILL. 179 capable of character, of being loved, respected, venerated, rew^arded; capable also of being despised, contemned, ab- horred, punished. You may train an animal, but in no pro- per sense can he be said to have guilt, and therefore he can- not be punished." Man has freedom of choice and the pov\^er to originate choice and motion, he is a Spirit. 3. We Learn from the Study of the Will. (1) That the culmination of the man is in "the completely fashioned will;" (2) That the moral element of the will is in the choice; (3) That the execution of the choice depends largely upon the amount of will force. (4) That the condition for the activity of the will is the clear comprehension of the higher and lower goods from which we are to choose, given by the intellect; the impelling principles, the appetites, desires, and affections, given by Sensibility as motives; and the governing principle, the sense of obligation, given by our moral nature; (5) That the products of the will are choices, volitions, and character; (6) That character is what a person is as the result of his own free choice and action. 4. Principles of Action and Objects of Choice. In the columns below are set forth (1) The moral nature; (2) in kind, every principle of action active in our constitution, each legitimate and desirable in its place; (3) the different objects of choice which address the principles of action; (4) and the character resulting from the principle of action which rules the man; that we may learn how a choice is made and how character is formed, (We read the columns from below upward. ) 180 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. LIGATION. Moral Love. Benevolence, as Moral Affections, Benevolence. Justice, Truth, Righteousness, Benevolent. Just, True, Righteous, For Country. For Family, as Natural Affections, Country, Family. ■ Patriotic Amiable, o o Esteem, Power, Knowledge, Property, Desires, of Esteem. Power, Kjilowledge, Pro^>er#ty, Ambitious. Covetous. Ed 1. Appetites, for 2. 3. Sex. Sleep, Air, Drink, Food, Sensual. 4. Moral Nature. Governing Principle Irai)elling princi- ples of action lower and higher in the Objects which ad- dress the principles of action. Character formed by the principle ruling the man. constitution of man 5. " The Sense of Obligation acts at every point where a choice is to be made between a higher and lower principle of action, or between a higher and lower good. When such a choice is to be made, the moral nature always affirms obliga- tion to choose the higher." This affirmination is a manifes- tation of the moral nature, which stands by itself in our con- stitution for the control of the appetites, desires, and affec- tions, which have not a limit in themselves. 6. How a Choice is Made. "The proper motives to choice are the objects which address the different principles of action, or those principles themselves prompting us to act in view of the object. The objects present themselves a good; the principles of action promise a good if we will per- mit them to act, and, in view of the object and of the affir- mation of obligation, ive are to choose which object we will have, what principle of action we will adopt, what end we will pursue." The sense of obligation is awakened only when a good is presented to the Sensibility as a motive. Obliga- tion is affirmed whenever there is a conflict of motives as higher and lower. The man has the power to set aside the affirmation of obligation, he can be wise or foolish. 7. The Relation of the Principles of Action. The princi- ples of action and the objects which address them hold the relation of lower and higher. The appetites and their objects are lower than the desires and their objects; and the latter THE MIND CHOOSING. THE WILL. 181 are lower than the affections and their objects. And the ends we seeks are lower and higher. 8. The Generic Choice. Our moral nature acquires that some end should be chosen and made supreme. ''A supreme end is that which we seek as a good in itself, which is placed by us above all others." A generic choice is the choice of some end as supreme which shall govern all specific acts of choice. 9. How Character is Formed. A person in view of the different principles of action or ends in his constitution (as shown in the second column above) may seem to act first from one principle then from another without making any one supreme. Then he has chosen to drift, to enjoy the gratification of self. "Since in the gradation of principles of action, or ends, from the lowest to the highest, obliga- tion says at every step until we reach the highest choose the higher, the person may take a stand at any point and the end chosen at that point becomes the supreme end." And the generic choice so made determines the quality of the charac- ter. Doubtless every person makes a generic choose. He may not have stated it to himself, and he may not reveal it to others until he is tested. We see that character is formed by choosing any one of the principles of action as supreme, and subordinating all other action to this prinbiple. 10. The Kind of Character Formed by the different prin- ciples of action ruling the person is shown in the fourth column above. If the appetites rule the man, the character will be sensual. If money rules the man, the character will be covetous. If power rules the man, the character will be ambitious. If affection for family rules, the character will be ami- able. If affection for country rules, the character will be patriotic. "If Benevolence, or Moral Love, love hke that of God, which seeks the good of its object, rules, the character will be righteous, true, just, benevolent." 182 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 11. If the Generic Choice be Made in Conformity with the Sense of Obligation, we must make the highest end, — God and his service, — and the highest principle of action, moral love supreme. ' ' Moral Affections. This choice will bring into being and action the Moral Affections of Complacent Love for right doing, and Moral Indignation for wrong doing. Moral Emotions. From these moral affections, will spring the moral emotions of Hope, Joy, and Peace as fra- grance springs from the flower. Religions Emotions. There will follow the religious emotions of "Adoration, Thanksgiving, and Praise, called forth in view of the greatness, the goodness, and the glory of God;" which move the mind to worship in "the ascrip- tion of Blessing, Honor, Glory, Power, to God." Thus man finds the satisfaction of his whole being in communion with the Father of his spirit. 12. If the Generic Choice is in Opposition to the Sense of Obligation, then we make some lower principle of action supreme and its object the supreme end. As the result of this choice there must be continual strife within the man from the effort to subordinate higher principles of action to the lower principle which has been made supreme; because violence has been done to the moral nature. This choice will bring into being and action the moral affections "Envy, Hatred, Wrath, Revenge; and the Moral Emotions of Hope, Joy, Pride, Vanity; and the Worship will become Idolatry. ' ' 13. Relation of the Will to Obligation. "Every principle of action has connected with it its own sensibility and differs in quality from every other. Especially is this true of the moral nature as we require the faculties to act in harmony with that, or in opposition to it. The deepest harmony of our nature is that of the Will with the Moral nature; and the most fearful discord is their opposition. From these we have a quality of enjoyment and of suffering wholly different from any other. " — Hopkitis. 14. What the Study of the Principles of Action Shows. THE MIND CHOOSING. THE WILL. 183 It shows First, that the highest good of the man is secured by making the highest end supreme, and holding fast to this end under all conditions. This choice is in accord with our nature, and is what the sense of obligation requires of us. Second, Since every principle of action is good in its place and from the action of every one there comes a good; we see that the whole good of the man will be secured when the forces of his whole nature are acting in harmony. Third, We see the law of limitation by which the whole good of the man is attained. We have found that each lower principle of action is a condition for the principles above it. The appetites are a condition for the desires, and the desires are a condition for the affections; "And it is to be noticed that the relative force of the lower is always pre- cisely that which is requisite for the best operation of that which is higher." 15. The Law of Limitation in Regard to Conduct. "As the faculties and motive principles are higher or lower, so are the duties, the pleasures, the satisfactions connected with them." To what extent shall we follow any particular principle, as the desire of property? Just so far as will best promote the act of the principles above it. Eat so far as will best promote the action of the principles above appetite. The law of limitation is, "We may go just as far under any principle of action as will best promote the action of the principles above it." — Hopkins. 184 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. §VL Summary of the Will. The Moral or Practical Reason manifest in willing gives rational intuitions which regulate the action of the will. The action of the Will conditioned upon thinking and feeling, produces character. The power of choice, conditioned upon something to choose, produces choices. The power of volition conditioned upon previous choice, produces action. Conscience, conditioned upon a moral choice, secures the best good of the man. The generic choice, which makes conscience supreme, brings into being and action the Moral Affections or Compla- cent Love and Moral Indignation. The Moral Affections give rise to the Moral Emotions of Hope, Joy, and Peace. The Moral Affections in view of the attributes of God give rise to the Religious Emotions of Adoration, Thanksgiv- ing, Praise, and Worship. CHAPTER XIX. RECAPITULATION. §1. General View of the Mind's Activity. 1. The activity of the Intellect gives knowledge, in- tellectual power, and skill. Reason manifest in knowing gives necessary idea which regulate intellectual activity. Presentation, conditioned upon the presence of the object and attention, gives ideas of individual objects. Presentation in Sense Perception, conditioned upon the presence of the external object and attention, gives know- ledge of material phenomena. Presentation in the Inner Sense, conditioned upon con- sciousness of the mental state and attention, gives knowledge of mental phenomena. Language, conditioned upon acquiring ideas, gives the association of ideas with their signs. Representation, conditioned upon previous mental activ- ity, gives knowledge of the past. Representation in Memory, conditioned upon the recur- rence of the sign or an associated idea gives past mental states. Representation in Imagination, condition upon the pos- session of distinct ideas of sensible objects, gives ideal objects. Elaboration, conditioned upon distinct ideas of individual objects, gives knowledge of relations and causes. Elaboration in Generalization, conditioned upon distinct ideas of individual objects, gives concepts, general terms, and classes. 186 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. Elaboration in Judgment and Reasoning, conditioned upon the possession of concepts, gives general truths. Elaboration in Systemization, conditioned upon the pro- ducts of judgment and reasoning, gives sciences and system. 2. The activity of Sensibility, conditioned upon think- ing, gives motives. Affective Reason, manifest in feeling, gives necessary ideas and emotions which regulate thought and feeling. Appetites, conditioned upon the needs of the body, secure the well-being of the body. Instincts and Emotions, conditioned upon the needs of body and mind, secure the welfare of the person. Desires, conditioned upon the needs of the mind, secure the well-being of the mind. Natural Affections, conditioned upon knowledge of our relations to others, secure the well-being of others. 3. The activity of the Will conditioned upon thinking and feeling, gives character. The Moral or Practical Reason, manifest in willing, gives necessary ideas or feelings which regulate the action of the will. The power of choice, conditioned upon something to choose, produces choices. The power of volition, conditioned upon previous choice, produces action. Conscience, conditioned upon a moral choice, secure the best good of the man. The generic choice of the highest principle of action brings into being and action the Moral Affections of Compla- cent Love and Moral Idignation. The Moral Affections give rise to the Moral Emotions of Hope, Joy, and Peace. The Moral Affections in view of the attributes of God give rise to the Religious Emotions of Adoration, Thanksgiv- ing, Praise, and Worship. recapitulation. 187 §11. Summary of the Principle of Education. From the Whole Man. 1. Self-Control. We must be active either for our ele- vation or our degradrtion; hence, the necessity for self-con- trol, with which comes elevation, without which comes degradation. Z. Development. We can be developed only by the vigor- ous exertion of our powers, under the laws of our being. 3. Imitation. As social beings desiring the esteem of our fellows we must be imitators of their example. 4. Habit. Every repetition of any form of activity in- creases the tendency to act in that way; hence, we must form habits, either good or bad, early in life. 5. The Function of the Educator. The work of the edu- cator is to stimulate, direct, and sustain the activity by which the learner is educated. From the Physical Nature. 6. Care of the Body. The pupil must be educated to obey the conditions of health, and to such control of his appe- tites as will secure the highest well-being of the body. 7. Command of the Body. The pupil must be educated to such command of his body as will make it the most effi- cient instrument for the expression of his mind. From Presentation. 8. Presence of the Object. The object of thought from which primary ideas are to acquired must be in the presence of the mind. 9. Securing Attention. Attention to the object present is to be secured by the interest and skill of the teacher in presenting the object of thought. 10. Definite Acquisition and Expression. Definite ideas and thoughts must be acquired and definitely expressed in good English, orally and in writing. 11. Natural Order. The natural order, proceeding from the whole object to its parts and their relations, must be fol- lowed. 188 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 12. Repetition. Ideas and their expression become the permanent possession of the mind only by much repetition. 13. Adaptation. The teaching must be adapted to the un- folding of the mind. From Representation. 14. Habit of Association. The pupil must be trained to habits of attention, association, and repetition, in the acquisi- tion and expression of knowledge. 15. Forming High Ideals. The pupil must be trained to the vigorous use of the imagination in forming ideals which elevate the mind. From Elaboration. 16. Definite Thought and Expression. The pupil must be trained to logical thinking and effective expression. From the Sensibility. 17. Rational Feeling. The pupil must be trained to the rational control of his desires and affections. From the Will. 18. Rational Willing. The pupil must be trained to ra- tional choice and action in all his conduct. CHAPTER XX. THE EDUCATIONAL STUDY OF SUBJECTS. Any particular study, art, or science rises and improves in propor- tion to the application we bestow upon it. — Addison. §1. What is the Educational Study of a Subject? 1. The Study for Teaching. In the elementary and in the secondary school, the student is a learner, seeking the knowledge of the object and the mental discipline which comes from right exertion in learning. The teacher must think the object with the learner, he must also think the pro- cess by which the learner knows. For example, the teacher is leading the pupil to acquire the knowledge of a bird. The learner, directed by the teacher, is occupied in studying the bird as a whole, in find- ing the parts, qualities, movements, habits of the bird. In doing this, the pupil perceives, remembers, imagines, com- pares, generalizes, reasons, but he does not notice these modes of activity through which his mind moves. The teacher thinks the facts with the learner; he also must observe the movement of the learner's mind, and think how he shall incite him to the most effective thinking. Studying a subject as a teacher is much more than studying the same subject as a learner. The study of the subject for teaching is educational study. § II. Each Study Must be Studied Educationally. 1. Why Study Each Subject. It is a law of mental activity that the mind proceeds from the concrete to the ab- stract. We must proceed from the knowledge of many red objects to the abstract idea of redness. The same law con- 190 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. trols the learning of the teaching process. The student teacher must be led through the learning and teaching pro- cess in each subject; he must buckle himself to the subject, and study it definitely for teaching; then teach and be criti- cised on his work until he has firmly grasped the process. 2. No Substitute for This Study. No one can produce the best quality of teaching in any grade without this educa- tional study of the subjects he is to use as instruments in the unfolding of the life of the pupil. The end cannot be accom- plished by reading about it, by hearing lectures upon it, or by observing others do it. The separation of the student teacher's work into "the academic study of subjects and the study of methods" is not sound educational practice. 3. The Advantages. When the student teacher has gone through the study of the concrete process of teaching in the several subjects, he can compare his experiences in these several studies, and grasp the aim, the steps and the means of the teaching process, and the general method. This is the law which governs all learning. We can acquire skill in any mechanical or mental process only by g»)ing through the intelligent performance of the process. §111. Three Views of Each Subject. 1. Scientific View. The teacher should consider each subject scientifically, that he may know its principles in their logical arrangement, and place the subject in its true relation to other subjects. The principles of the subject in their logi- cal arrangement are the things essential to be taught, if the pupil is to be able to use his knowledge in solving the pro- blems of life. Without this scientific study of the subject, the teacher's work will be fragmentary, and will lack order, method, vitality. 2. Philosophical View. The teacher should consider each subject philosophically, to know why it has its place in the course of studies. Take the subject reading as an exam- ple of the need of this view. What is it to be able to read an author? What is this power as a factor in life? Why should reading be taught? What is its place in the course of study? THE EDUCATIONAL STUDY OF SUBJECTS. 191 These questions must be answered by the teacher before he can effectively teach reading. Without this philosophical study of the subject, the teacher will be formal, and fall into routine. 3. Pedagogical View. The teacher should study each subject pedagogically, to know its value to the pupil, to know which parts are to be used and emphasied in teaching, and the best method of using them. Without this pedagogi- cal study of the subject, the teacher will fail to adapt his teaching to the needs of the pupil. The teacher needs to consider each subject from this three-fold point of view. The study of one subject in this way does not enable him to use another subject in teaching without studying it in the same way. §IV. The Relation of School Studies. 1. Relation of Dependence. Elementary knowledge is the condition for scientific knowledge. The physical forces are the condition for the vital forces, and these are the con- dition for the rational powers. The habits formed in child- hood are the condition for character in manhood. The teach- ing in the lower grades is the condition for the teaching in the higher grades. To be thoroughly equipped for teaching in the elementary schools, the teacher must take the educa- tional study of the secondary school subjects as well as that of the elementary school subjects. The teacher in any grade cannot do his own work properly unless he knows the rela- tion it holds to what precedes and follows. He must know more than he teaches. Confining one's effort to any one grade is narrowing in its effect upon teacher and pupil. 2. Relation of Part to Whole. The teacher cannot teach arithmetic and elementary algebra and geometry in their proper relation to the study of higher mathematics without the educational study of algebra and geometry; he cannot teach geography intelligently without this study of the sev- eral sciences upon which geography depends; he cannot teach nature study acceptably without this study of the natural sciences; he cannot effectively use the myths and 192 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. stories from ancient history called for in the lower grades, or make United States history a living study, without this study of general history ; he cannot use the gems of literature and art with the best effect without something of this study of literature and art; and to these must be added the study of drawing, vocal music, manual training, and physical culture. All philosophy and experience show that theory and practice must be conjoined in the concrete teaching process. It is the Function of the Normal School to lead the stu- dent teacher carefully through the educational study of the subjects of the public school curriculum. The Teacher in Modern Life. PART III. IN SKILLFUL PRACTICE OF HIS ART. CHAPTER XXI. THE ART OF TEACHING. To rear the tender thought, to breathe the enHvening spirit, to fix the generous purpose in the glowing breast. — Thomson. §1. The Nature of the Art. 1. Teaching Defined. Teaching is the art of inciting young human beings to the conscious exertion and control of all their powers, to the full measure of their ability, under the laws of their being. 2. The Generic Aim of Teaching is the perfection of the pupil's character by causing him to make the rational use of all his powers and possessions. 3. The Soul of Teaching is the spirit of the teacher in- spiring the pupil to his highest self-activity. 4. The Means to Teaching is the use of the objects and subjects adapted to incite the pupil to rational activity, arranged in the order of mental development in its diiferent stages, and in the order of their logical dependence. This means a well digested course of studies skilfully used. 5. The One Method. Since every human being is one with every other human being in the natures with which he is endowed; in the conditions of their normal activity; and in the kind of their product; the method of teaching is one and universal. 6. The One Method of Developing Each Power is to Follow the Conditions of Its Normal Activity. {1 ) Of developing perception. Since every person must acquire the knowledge of the external world through sense perception, the one method of teaching the pupil this knowl- edge and developing this power is to bring the material 196 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. object distinctly into the presence of his mind and stimulate and direct his perceptive power. (2) Of developing introspection. Since every one must acquire the knoweledge of his own mental activities by intro- spection, the one method of teaching this knowledge and developing this power is to aid the pupil to bring the action of his mind distinctly into his own consciousness and stimu- late and direct his introspection. (3) 0/ developing memory. Since every person remem- bers by giving undivided attention to the ideas he would acquire; by associating these ideas with those he has pre- viously acquired; and by much repetition of this action, the one method of teaching to remember is to lead the pupil into the habit of attention, association, and repetition in acquir- ing ideas and their expression. (^) Of developing comprehension. Since every person must come to a clear knowledge of the comprehension of con- cepts by definition, the one method of teaching this know- ledge is to lead the pupil to observe the essential qualities of the individuals which represent the class, and to think these qualities together into the concept. (5) Of develojying the sense of beauty. Since every person must come to an appreciation of beauty through a distinct knowledge of the objects which awaken the idea and emotion of beauty, the one method of cultivating beauty is to lead the pupil to acquire the distinct knowledge of the objects which awaken the idea and and the emotion of beauty. {6) 0/ devolping the will. Since every man must choose and act under the influence of motives, the one method of controlling the will is to incite the pupil to the knowledge which awakens the feelings that will move him to rational choice and action. 7. The One Method of Using the Object or Subject of Thought in Teaching is the Objective, Analytic Method. All teaching implies the distinct presentation of the object or subject of thought, hence the teaching must be objective. Every object and every subject of thought comes before the mind first as a whole and then the mind proceeds THE ART OF TEACHING. 197 to its parts, hence teaching must be analytic, and when we have analyzed the object into its parts and qualities, or the subject into its divisions and subdivisions we must think them together again into the thought of the whole object or subject hence teaching must be synthetic. From the nature of the mind the one method of using the object or subject in teaching is the objective, analytic, and synthetic method. 8. Individual Application of Method. Since every person differs from every other in his personality, every teacher will have his own individual way of applying the method of teaching. A careful distinction is to be made between the method and the devices which the individuality of different teachers may use in the application of the method. 9. Introduction of a Subject. The first condition to be observed in introducing any subject in teaching is to show the pupil how it comes into life to help him to live. The dis- like of a subject which the pupil sometimes feels often comes from the fact that he does not see any benefit coming to him from its study. This feeling must be removed before the pupil can profit from the study. Hence the necessity of awakening the pupil's interest in the study at the outset. 10. Four Questions. Four questions should be answered by the teacher in planning every teaching exercise: What is the need of the pupil? What steps must the pupil take to supply his need? What means are to be used to incite the pupil to take these steps? What is the educational value of this exercise? The answering exercise of these questions will give a definite aim to the act; the right application of the method; the use of the best means; and will make the act valuable to the pupil. All effective work of the school, of the class, of the individual, every teaching act, every lesson, every class exercise should have a definite aim. 11. Four Parties to School Teaching. In the public school the pupils must be grouped in classes. Every pupil is to be taught as an individual, in the class, in the school. There 198 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. are four parties directly concerned in the teaching, — the teacher, the pupil, the class, which is a social unit, and the school, which is a larger social unit. The class and the school exert a great influence upon the pupil. The teacher must have all these parties in mind and keep each in its proper relation to the others. §11. The Four Stages in Teaching. The first stage is: Preparation by the Teacher, before coming to his pupils. The spirit, personality, aptitude, knowledge, and skill of the teacher determine his value to the pupil. These are essential parts of his preparation. Broad general culture and definite special preparation are indispensable to good teaching. The second stage is: Introductory Teaching, when the work is assigned. The purpose of this teaching is to indicate clearly to the pupils what they are to study; the order and method of their study; and to excite their interest in the work. No more is to be done for the pupil than is necessary to secure the best use of time and energy. The third stage is: Study by the Pupils. After the introductory teaching, the pupils must study their lessons according to their ability. They can develop power and acquire knowledge only by study. The fourth stage is: The Examination of the Class, after study by the pupil. We do what is exacted of us. Thorough examination of the pupil is necessary to secure from him the proper study. §111. The Three Steps of the First Stage. First step. The Teacher Must be Constantly Extending His Knowledge. (1) Of human nature. Every day in the schoolroom calls for definite knowledge of the conditions of health in the human body, and how to use the body effectively as the in- strument of the mind; for accurate knowledge of the con- ditions and products of the different modes of the mind's activity, that the teacher may read intelligently the mental THE ART OF TEACHING. 199 activity of his pupils and guide their action collectively; for specific knowledge of each pupil, that each one may be trained in the way he should go. (2) Of the subject used in teaching. The teacher must know the object or subject to be considered in teaching in all its relations, that each part may be presented in its true relation to the other parts, and that it may be used according to the need of the pupil. The teacher must have a ready command of this knowledge, that he may give his attention to the pupil, the class, and the school, and be one with them in their work. (3) Of the art of teaching. The teacher must keep up his study of the art of teaching and frequently recur to the principles of education that he may have them more clearly in mind; and daily observe the application of the principles in his teaching, that he may see wherein he succeeds and wherein he fails in their use, and be steadily gaining from his own experience, in his power to teach. Second step. The Selection of the Proper Objects of Thought for Teaching. (1) Selection is a necessity, because the objects of thought are so numerous, and the proper object is the pri- mary condition for exciting right activity in the learner. This selection implies a well digested and carefully graded course of studies to begin with. (2) The selection should include, (1) a sufficient number of pertinent illustrations to meet the need of every pupil; (2) the apparatus which is best suited to the teaching must be selected and put in complete order for effective use; (3) the experiments to be used in teaching are to be carefully selected and verified before they are performed in the class, that they may be made conclusive; (4) the words for the expression of the ideas taught are to be fitly chosen before coming to the class, that their meaning may be impressed upon the mind of the learner. (5) All this requires thought, the teacher can lead the pupil no farther than he has been himself. Proper selection requires wide knowledge, much care, and skill. Third step. The Arrangement of Ideas to be Taught. 200 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. (1) The natural order in teaching an object, is to pro- ceed from the whole object to its parts in the order in which they exist, and to their relations; to the qualities; and the uses to which the qualities adapt the objects. (2) The logical order in teaching a subject. We begin by defining it, which presents the subject as a whole. We find its main divisions by analyzing the definition. We ana- lyze each main division into its subordinate divisions, and continue this process till we have found and arranged all the divisions of the subject in the order of their dependence. Then we combine the thoughts of these divisions so arranged into the thought of the whole subject. The mind proceeds from the whole subject to its parts and their relations, in the order of their dependence. This is the logical order. (3) Topical arrangement. A distinct subject of thought may be called a topic. Every lesson should be arranged topically. This arrangement is especially necessary in les- sons given to young pupils, which have to be learned by oral repetition with the teacher. The lesson so arranged is easily understood and remembered. Lessons in text-books for pupils able to study by themselves should be topically ar- ranged. If the text-book is not so arranged, the topical arrangement should be made in writing as a guide in teach- ing and study. {If) Rules for topical arrangement: Rule 1. Present elementary ideas first. Rule 2. Present the object or subject first as a whole, then the parts, and the relation of the parts. Rule 3. Arrange the topics for teaching an object in the natural order. Rule k. Arrange the topics for teaching a subject in the logical order. (5) Advantages' oj topical arrangement: First, in teaching. If the teacher thinks through the lesson with reference to teaching, and arranges it topically, he knows what is to be taught, the steps to be taken, and the means to be used in the teaching. THE ART OF TEACHING. 201 Second, in the study. If the lesson is topically arranged the pupils know what to study, in what order, and how. Third, in the examination of the class. Both teacher and pupils know what is to be considered, and the order and method of the examination. All the minds in the class are turned to the same thing, thus securing the interest and attention, and the work proceeds promptly. Fourth, in the thought and the knowledge. The topical arrangement aids the pupil to comprehend and remember the lesson, accustoms him to think logically, and he acquires knowledge of objects in their relations. (6) The finding of the objective, analytic, topical method of teaching lets light and order into every hne of mental activity in the school, and sets the teacher to work to have all the subjects in the course of study arranged on the topical plan. This method makes the comprehension and extension of every subject in the course distinct and complete in the mind of the teacher, and of the pupil as he comes to its study. He knows what he is to work for, he knows how to go to work to accomplish his purpose. It is the key to self instruction. (7) This method is expensive in time and labor for the teacher. He must give much time to preparation for teach- ing, that he may be able to stand before his pupils and pre- sent the object or subject clearly, forcibly, persuasively; to train his pupils to vigorous self-activity; and to inspire them to the highest achievement. It requires the construction of laboratories with approved modern appliances for teaching; the gathering of collections of illustrative minerals, plants, and animals; the furnishing of each department with its own libray of works devoted to the subjects taught in the department; and ample school grounds for outdoor teaching and training. The method is expensive in equipment but fruitful in good results. It is the high-way for all round teaching and training in the development of young human lives. 202 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. §IV. The Five Steps of the Second Stage. First step. Presenting the Object of Thought. The ob- ject of thought from which the primary ideas of our knowl- edge are acquired must be brought distinctly before the mind of the learner. We note the different classes of objects which are used in teaching, and their value. (1) The real object. The mind can acquire the distinct idea of a material object only through the impression which the object makes upon the sense-organ. Hence, the material object should always be presented when it is possible to furnish it. The mind can acquire a distinct idea of a mental object only when the object is distinctly in consciousness. The presence of the object is indispensable to getting distinct and complete ideas of the object. (2) The model. When the real material object cannot be presented, its form, color, and size, and the form, color, size, and relative position of its parts may be acquired from a model of the object; as for example, a manikin which may be taken apart. The model cannot show anything of the function of an organism. It is next to the real object in value in teaching. (3) The picture. The picture represents the appear- ance of an object upon a surface, plane or curved. It gives a more or less imperfect idea of the form, color, and position of the object and of the relative position of its parts, and may suggest the use or habits of the thing pictured. The picture is next in value to the model. To be effective in teaching, the picture should represent graphically the prominent ideas to be learned; the teacher should lead the pupil to imagine the object in its main features before the picture of it is pre- sented, that the pupil may look directly for the things the teacher would have him see, when the picture is shown. (^) The diagram. The diagram represents the view of the section of an object. It gives the sectional view of the relative position of the parts. The diagram is often used in teaching. (5) The experiment. An experiment is subjecting ob- THE ART OF TEACHING. 203 jects to certain conditions and observing the result; its pur- pose is to test some principle, or discover something new. The experiment is necessary in presenting the effects of the action of forces for observation and inference, and for test- ing objects. (6) The drawing. The drawing shows imperfectly the form and size of an object and the relative position of its parts. It is used to show the plan and elevation of struc- tures. Buildings and machines are made from working drawings. The drawing is valuable because it can be so easily and promptly used in expressing ideas. Drawing is a mode of language which every one can understand. (7) Language. The power of language is in constant use. Language is an ever present object of thought, and should be constantly studied. The language of action is ac- quired by the study of the natural signs, — facial expressions, intonations of the voice, and muscular movements. The idea of the formation of a word is acquired only by forming the word; the idea of the construction of a sentence is gained only by constructing the sentence; the idea of the use of language comes only through using the language. Language is to be cultivated in connection with every study. Ideas are not definitely acquired until they are properly expressed in words. (8) Illustration and definition. An illustration is one or more individuals which evidence the essential qualities of the whole class. Definition is finding the sum of the essen- tial qualities of the class by observing these qualities in the illustration and thinking them together into the concept. Illustration and definition are indispensable in securing clear thought and expression. They bring concepts distinctly before the mind. (9) Elustration and division. The learner is led to ob- serve definitely the qualities in which individuals of the class differ, and to separate them according to these differences into smaller classes. Division gives distinct and complete knowledge of the extension of the class or the subject by 204 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. showing all the parts in their relation to one another and to the whole. (10) The book. The book is a record of thoughts. Its value in itself is proportional to the amount of truth which the record represents. Its value to the reader is proportional to his ability to interpret the record. The ability of the reader to interpret the record is proportional to his knowl- edge of the things for which the words of the record stand. The book helps one to recall the ideas he has acquired; gives one new combinations of these ideas in the thoughts of others; stimulates and directs thinking; increases informa- tion; and brings one into the society of superior minds. The right use of books is of very great value. Objects are the primary source of ideas aside from the necessary and univer- sal ideas which come intuitively in the mind. The book is secondary in teaching and should not be allowed to take the first place. Second step. Direction of the Pupil's Activity. When the object of thought is brought before the learner, his thought and expression are to be directed by the teacher in such measure as will best facilitate the right exertion of his mind. This direction of the pupil's activity is given by pre- liminary questioning; by instructive questioning; by direct statement; and by due clearness and deliberation in the whole process. (1) By Tpreliminary questioning. 1. To question a pupil is to ask for something in a way which impels him to seek for it until he finds it. 2. The purpose of preliminary questioning is first to ascertain precisely what the pupil knows of the object of thought which is to be studied, and second, to secure his attention to what he needs to know. 3. The pupil must answer from experience. One's past experiences in thought, feehng, and action interpret the new experiences that come to him. The pupil has been learning by direct experience, and this process continues through life. The new ideas to be acquired must be associated with the related ideas which the pupil has previously acquired, and THE ART OF TEACHING. 205 the pupil must be made conscious of this connection of the new ideas with the old. The teacher must therefore ascer- tain what the pupil knows that he may intelligently connect this with what he would lead him to know. 4. The preliminary questioning must be definite, aimed directly at its purpose; be conducted in such a spirit that the pupil will not feel that the teacher is trying to show up his ignorance; and in such a manner that the pupil's desire to know what is to be taught will be excited. The following concrete example of preliminary question- ing will show its two-fold object: Mr. Tillinghast, the first principal of the Bridgewater Normal School, was giving out text-books in arithmetic to the entering class at the opening of the term. A young woman in the class returned the book given her, saying, I finished arithmetic eight years ago, I shall not need this book. Mr. Tillinghast quietly said, you may find the book convenient for reference, and she retained it. The next day in the class exercise Mr. Tillinghast asked this young woman, what is the object of thought in the study of arithmetic? She had no answer. What is the principle of our system of numbering objects? She gave no answer. What is the principle of the Arabic system of notation? She could not tell. This preliminary questioning showed the teacher where to begin his teaching of this pupil, and showed her that she had something to learn in this subject. She said after the class exercise that she was never so ashamed as when these simple questions showed her her ignorance of the first principles of arithmetic. 5. Preliminary questioning should touch as many related points in the pupil's own personal experience as possible. The aim of the lesson should be given in simple words and briefly so as to be easily held and followed. For example, the teacher says, I am going to teach you concerning the largest bird in the world. He lives in Africa and Asia and I cannot show you the bird himself. I shall ask you questions about where he lives, how he lives, and what he is; and then I shall show you a picture of the bird from which you can learn how he looks. 206 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. How many of you have run along on a dry sandy beach near the ocean in a hot summer day? How many of you have looked out over the ocean when you saw nothing but water as far as you could see? The surface of the country where this bird lives is covered with sand like the beach, and it stretches away like the ocean as far as you can see. In this desert country there are at long distances from one another, little ponds about which grass and a few trees grow, these spots are called oases. This bird is so large and his wings are so small that he cannot fly. Where must he get his food and water? (From the oases. ) What kind of legs must he have to hold up his large body, and to run so far and so fast to get his food and drink? (Long, large legs.) What must he have on the bottom of his feet that he may run on the dry hot sand and not be foot sore? (A pad.) What kind of a neck must he have? (A long neck.) Why? The wind blows over this desert and drives the sand through the air. What must the bird have to protect his eyes so that he can see when the sand blows? (He has a third eyelid, which is tough and transparent, that he draws over his eyeball. ) Now I show you the picture of this bird. What do you see? (His great body, small wings, long strong legs, the pads on his feet, his long neck, and third eyelid.) Some of these birds weigh 300 pounds. What is the name of this bird? How many of you have seen feathers from these birds? For what are they used? (2) By instructive questioning. 1. The purpose of instructive questioning is to stimulate and direct the observation, thought, and expression of the learner in acquiring new knowledge for effective use. 2. Instructive questioning should be definite. What can you tell me about the robin? is an indefinite question. What is the color of the robin? is a definite question. It should be stimulating, setting the learner on the alert to seek the answer. For example. How does the robin mas- ticate his food? Where are the robin's ears? It should contain no part of the answer, in so far as it does it destroys the quest. If the robin has no teeth and has THE ART OF TEACHING. 207 a gizzard containing gravel stones how does he masticate his food? This question lacks zest. It should have a logical sequence, following the order of the steps the pupil must take to accomplish the definite aim of the lesson, — one question preparing the way for the next one. 3. The teacher must keep a close watch of the move- ment of the pupil's mind, to determine the questions that he must ask to lead the pupil to think the thoughts of the lesson in logical sequence. 4. It is evident that this questioning requires distinct knowledge, a definite aim, quick perception of mental activ- ity, and skill on the part of the teacher. 5. Pupils appreciate skilful questioning. A little fellow in the Oswego Practice School, when the pupil teacher was endeavoring to get an answer to her question, said to her: "I know what answer you want but that question won't fetch it." (3) By direct statement. Some things cannot be devel- oped by questioning. Questioning requires skill, and it takes more time than we can sometimes command. 1. Direct statement is necessary, first, to tell the pupil what he cannot discover without spending too much time and effort; second, to give the pupil a* connected view of the re- sults of teaching and study; third, to inspire the pupil with interest in his work. 2. Statement should have a direct purpose; and should be simple, expressed in words easily understood; and precise, expressing neither more nor less than is meant. The pupil is to be trained to the intelligent use of books that he may avail himself of the treasures of other minds, by direct statement. (4) By clearness. Every class is composed of persons of different degrees of mental power and attainment. Some are quick and others are slow; some know more, others less. The teaching must be conducted with such clearness of thought and expression that every pupil shall comprehend it to the measure of his ability. (5) By deliberation. It is not possible to have all the 208 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. pupils in the class of the same degree of attainment nor to bring all up to the same degree of comprehension. The teaching must therefore proceed with such degree of deliber- ation that all shall keep on together without weariness to the bright pupils and without discouragement to the dull pupils. This is not easy of accomplishment, it requires much skill in questioning, large resources in illustration, and quickness in perceiving each pupil's need, and often it will require addi- tional teaching with slower pupils. The brighter pupils should have additional work to keep them fully employed, either more work in the lesson or by taking another study. Third step. The Use of Motives to Secure Voluntary Exertion. (1) Spirit of the teacher. Since teaching is the inter- play of the teacher's life and the pupil's life the most influ- ential motive is the spirit of the teacher as manifested in his love for his work, in his forgetfulness of self, and in his per- sonal interest in the pupil. The pupil feels at once the per- sonal influence of the teacher, whether it be the atmosphere of the cold intellect or of the warm heart. (2) The manner of the teacher is the expression of his spirit, hence it is a strong motive. The qualities of a good manner are cheerfulness, animation, self-possession, enthu- siasm, decision, and a good attitude. 1. Cheerfulness is the state of being habitually hopeful. A cheerful teacher is sunshine in the schoolroom. 2. Animation is the state of being alive, on the alert. Animation in the teacher is the stimulus of life. 3. Self-possession is the state of being in repose in ac- tion, in command of life. Self-possession in the teacher is power to influence others. 4. Enthusiasm is the state of being inspired. Enthu- siasm in the teacher is a kindling fervor of soul which for- gets himself in being completely absorbed by his work. 5. Decision is the act or habit of cutting short. Decision in the teacher is the promptitude and energy which brings things to pass without delay. 6. Attitude is the manner in which the parts of one's THE ART OF TEACHING. 209 body are disposed; it expresses the internal feeling. A good attitude in the teacher expresses a feeling which commends itself to the observer. Every movement of the teacher is observed. The position of the teacher should be where his eye can meet every eye in the class, that he may have direct communication with each one. The teacher's manner has great influence and should be worthy of imitation in every quality. (3) The voice of the teacher, in which his spirit uncon- sciously finds expression, has great influence upon the pupil. The essentials of a good voice are cheerful conversational tones, purity, distinctness, the right pitch and degree of force, and fluency. The teacher should listen to his own voice to know its quality, and should use every means to secure the essentials of good speaking in himself and in his pupils. {J^) The language of the teacher has much influence on his pupils. Its importance is two-fold, it is the medium of his thought; it is a model for his pupils. 1. As the medium of his thought, it should be simple, and precise, To secure simplicity and precision the teacher must study the meaning of individual words to get first the primary meaning of the word, then the modifications of this meaning in its other uses, so that he can compare one mean- ing with another, and one word with another, and choose the one which best fits the idea he is to express. And he must suit his language to the comprehension of his pupils; this greatly increases the effect of what he says. 2. As a model for his pupils, the teacher's language should be correct in pronunciation, in construction and in the choice of words. The teacher must observe the language he uses; if he is in doubt about pronounciation he should con- sult the dictionary; if he has any question concerning con- struction he should go at once to his grammar; if he would use words fitly chosen he must look well to his own thinking, and observe carefully the language of good speakers and writers. 3. Pupils unconsciously imitate the language they hear 210 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. and read, and especially the language of the teacher; they look to him as an authority in the use of language. The teacher has a continual opportunity for cultivating language and a corresponding responsibility. (5) The dictate of conscience should be the ruling motive with the pupil. What ought I to do? is the primary question in relation to every moral act. To do what I ought should be the rule of action with every pupil. Hence, the teacher should lead the pupil to consider the value of what he is about to do, and to do whatever is necessary to be done because it ought to be done and to find pleasure in so doing. The example of the teacher, his precepts, and his appeals to the pupil should all be means to this end. {6) Power of these motives. The spirit, manner, voice, language, and moral principle of the teacher are motives which constantly appeal to the pupil and are potent for good or evil according to their quality. Fourth step. Acquisition and Expression of Ideas by Pupils. The pupil with the proper object of thought before him, directed by the instructive questioning of the teacher, and influenced by right motives, will be led to acquire and express ideas from the object in a living way. His mind is appealed to through the eye and ear, and by his own exertion he acquires knowledge and appreciates it. He puts himself into his acquisition. {!) Oral expression. As the pupil acquires the ideas, he is to be led to make the expression of them orally in good English with attention to all the particulars of good expres- sion. {2) Written expression. And he must be required to express his ideas in writing with such frequency as to acquire facility in writing. Brief exercises in writing in connection with daily lessons is effective in cultivating written expres- sion. Every lesson thus becomes a lesson in language. It is not mere facts of knowledge that he gets, but power of thought and expression. Fifth step. Recapitulation; The last step in the intro- THE ART OF TEACHING. 211 ductory teaching is the recapitulation by the learner of what has been taught. (1) Orally. In teaching young pupils, the teacher should have the pupils repeat the points of the lesson, that they may take it into their minds as a whole. (2) In luriting. In teaching a lesson to older pupils, the points should be briefly written on the board as they are made and then recapitulated by the pupils in closing the lesson, thus representing to their minds the analytic and synthetic view of what has been taught, through the two senses, sight and hearing. When the pupils have been taught a lesson in the manner indicated above they know what they are to do, and how to do it, and have an interest in the study. §V. Third Stage. Study by the Pupils. (1) The class must make thorough study of what has been considered in the introductory teach- ing, for the assimilation of the thought, for its accurate ex- pression, and for its application. (2) Young pupils, who are not able to study by them- selves must repeat the lesson with the teacher to fix it in the mind. As fast as he is able, the pupil should be required to study the lesson by himself. (3) The order of study. The lesson should be studied first in outline to get its aim and scope, then to get the main thoughts in the order of their dependence with the subordi- nate thoughts under each. The study of the lesson should follow the order of the introductory teaching. Both the thought and the expression are to be studied with reference to using them. This trains the pupils to systematic thought and expression. § VI. The Fourth Stage, Examination of the Class. 1. Systematic and Thorough Examination of the Class is Necessary to Secure the Requisite Study. Study is work and must have an incentive. If the pupil knows he is sure to be tested he will prepare for it to avoid failure. When the love 212 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. of study is awakened, it is a strong incentive. The exami- nation should follow the order and cover the ground of the teaching. 2. Presentation of Topics. The first mode of examina- tion is by having the pupils present the topics of the lesson, starting with the outline of the lesson, then presenting the successive thoughts of the lesson. (1) To present a topic is to lay it before the hearers' perception clearly, forcibly, and persuasively. (2) After the presentation of a topic by a pupil, addi- tions to the subject matter should be made by the pupils and by the teacher if need be. (3) And criticism of the subject and its presentation should be made by pupil and teacher in the form of discus- sion. (4) Examination by presentation requires of the pupil thorough preparation, he must begin, go on, and finish his presentation without help; it cultivates self-reliance and power of expression in the pupil, to stand before the class, think on his feet, and express his thought so as to hold the attention of the class. (5) The opportunity to add to the subject matter and to discuss after the presentation by a pupil encourages the pupils to extend their research in the study of the lesson; to give close attention to what is said and done in the class; and to take voluntary part in the discussion ; all of which is train- ing for life among their fellows outside the school. (6) Examination questioning should accompany pre- sentation, that all the class may be engaged in the lesson. 3. Teaching the Topics. The second way of examina- tion is to require the pupils to teach the different topics of the lesson with criticism by pupils and teacher. (1) This secures close attention to the method of study, that one may be able to lead other minds to acquire knowl- edge. Teaching requires more thoughtful preparation than presenting. (2) This method of examining may be used in the grades when the teacher has his class in good training; in THE ART OF TEACHING. 213 normal school teaching it is essential, to give the pupil com- mand of himself, of the subject, and of the class. (3) Examination questioning should accompany teach- ing the topics, that all the class may take part in the exer- cise. 4. Questioning the Class. The third mode of examina- tion is to question the class upon all the important points of the lesson. (1) Not all the class can present or teach in one class exercise, but by adding the questioning all the class can be tested. (2) Examination questioning shoujd be definite and searching; its purpose is to test the pupil. It should be prompt and keep the class on the alert. If it appears in the testing of the class that they have failed to understand a point in the lesson, instructive questioning or direct state- ment should be used to make it clear. (3) All the pupils should be questioned, and they should be called promiscuously. The question should be put before calling the pupil who is to answer. This course holds the attention of the class, as no one knows when his turn is coming. (4) A good answer is a complete statement which shows thoughtfulness. There is a tendency in answering to give only the predicate of the answer. Answers should be received in a way which will encourage the pupil to answer freely, by giving him credit for what is good, and showing wherein the answer is defective. Imperfect answers should not be accepted as good. Neither should the teacher say frequently to the answer, "right," or "that is right," or " very good." 5. Written Answers. The fourth mode of examination is by wTitten answers. (1) The questions for this exercise should require appli- cation of what has been taught. This examination is needful to cultivate the pupil's power of extended written expression. (2) The written papers should be carefully examined and marked by the teacher. Pupils should be so placed as to 214 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. secure individual work in written answers. New topics may be presented in writing after the manner in which similar topics have been considered by the class. This examination tests the pupil's grasp of the method of treating the topics. (3) Written examinations should not be given so often as to have the examination of the papers exhausting to the teacher. He needs to come to his daily work in the school- room refreshed and vigorous. 6. Laboratory Exercises. The fifth mode of examining is by exercises in laboratory work similar to those which have been taken requring the application of what has been learned, and the results should be briefly stated, either orally or in writing. 7. Cumulative Examination. Examinations should be cumulative, coming at frequent intervals, each ranging over all of the subject that has been considered. These are in every way better than to give only final examinations at the end of the term and of the year. The cumulative examina- tion comes under the law of repetition, by which the mind strengthens the association of its ideas, and holds them for use as occasion calls for them. Final examinations coming at long intervals favor indolence, foster cramming, fret the spirit, and fail to secure the knowledge. 8. Recapitulation. Recapitulation of the thoughts of the lesson, of a division of the subject, and of the whole subject is necessary to teach the relation of the parts of the lesson and the subject. Repetition strengthens the representative power and the association of thoughts by which the knowl- edge is held for use. 9. Reviews. (1) The review of a lesson, division, or subject is necessary to fix in the mind the previous view, and to acquire a new and more extended view of it and of the relations of its parts. (2) Every review should be an advance in the knowl- edge of the subject, not a mere recitation of former state- ments. (3) A large part of the time given to the acquisition of a subject should be allowed for review under the law of THE ART OF TEACHING. 215 repetition. The advance in the study of a subject is like lay- ing shingles on a roof, a constant lapping of the parts. (4) Each lesson should be reviewed and'connected with the lesson that follows. Each main division of the subject should be reviewed as the condition for the intelligent study of the next division. The subject should be reviewed as a whole to strengten the association of the parts. (5) The review should follow the order of the topical arrangement, the subject, the main division of the subject the principal topics of each division, then the subordinate thoughts of each principal topic. (6) The form of the review should be so varied as to keep a lively interest. This is essential to prevent the re- view from becoming formal, routine work. Definitions should be given verbatim. • (7) Much application of what is taught is necessary to give the pupil power and the command of his knowledge. This should be conducted with skill and care so that it shall not be a tread-mill performance. 10. Criticism Defined. Criticism is impartial judgment without prejudice. (1) "Neither praise nor blame is the object of true criticism, but to discriminate justly, to establish firmly, to present wisely, to award honestly." This means that the purpose of true criticism is neither to praise nor to blame; this thought should be kept in mind definitely. Its purpose is to discriminate justly both excellences and defects; to establish firmly in the mind the true, the beautiful, the good, to the exclusion of all that is false, defective, or bad; to pre- sent the excellences and defects so wisely that the excellence shall be chosen and the defect shall be avoided; to award honestly to each one what is due to him in this impartial judgment. (2) Criticism should take the form of discussion, not of dogmatic approval or condemmation, which gives it the form of praise and blame. One who can criticise truly has reached a high attainment. (3) Criticism by pupils and teacher is an essential of 216 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. teaching. It secures close attention to what is done in the class, and prepares the pupil to make and receive criticism in a kindly spirit, which is a valuable acquisition for every day life. Everybody criticises. Shall it be done harshly, or kindly, in the spirit of helpfulness? There is a prevalent misconception that criticism is mere faultfinding. So strong is the tendendency to harsh judgment that the Master made it a special topic in his teaching the application of the golden rule in his sermon on the mount. Matthew, chap. 7. §VIL Teacher's Daily Work for Teaching. 1. Special Preparation Daily. The teacher should make careful special preparation for each day's work. (1) He should carefully consider each lesson before coming to it with his class; to fix definitely in mind the aim of the lesson; to freshen and extend his knowledge of the subject; to secure the best arrangement of ideas; to make ready the best illustrations; and to connect the preceding and subsequent lessons. (2) He should carefully provide for the full employment of all his pupils for the day; and he should think through the day's work in the morning before beginning it, that he may be ready for any emergency. (3) He should review the day's work at night, that he may profit by the experience of the day. Such preparation will make teaching interesting and profitable. 2. General Culture Daily. The teacher should be a daily student in lines outside his school work, that he may have mental vigor and fresh thought for his daily use. He cannot keep up his own growth without this study. " Cultivation is as necessary to the mind as food is to the body." (1) He should study natural objects, that he may know how to use them and be in sympathy with nature; (2) Men, that he may know how to serve them and come into Hving touch with them; (3) The Bible which is the book of the child in the beautiful and simple stories of its children; the book of the youth in " the aspirations after ideals, and friendships, and THE ART OF TEACHING. 217 heroism, and love" so strikingly illustrated in its youths; the book of the mature man in the stimulus and self-revela- tion of the lives of the multitude of noble men and women which it portrays, and above all in the perfect life of Jesus. It is a personal book, it gives something for every one, it fits every need of the soul, and gives the highest principles of action, the highest standards of literature and wisdom; (4) Educational works, that he may understand his own professional work; (5) Standard writings, that he may gather the best thoughts of men; (6) Current literature, that he may know the thought of his own time; (7) The principles of government, that he may know how to control himself and others. (8) "Books like friends should be few and well chosen. '' (9) The teacher is to read the best, and take some time daily for this study and reading. 3. How Shall the Teacher Secure Daily Preparation and General Culture? (1) By possession of good natural ability and aptitude for his work. (2) By a thorough general and special preparation before starting upon his school work. Scholarship, general and vocational, is indispensable to good teaching. (3) By obeying the laws of his physical life. (4) By obeying the laws of his rational life. (5) By diligent use of time and energy. (6) By making out the general plan for each study in advance, that he may have only specific points to prepare daily. (7) By having "a study " where he can work by him- self, which is always ready for study. (8) By working freely and systematically in his study. (9) By securing all the helps to his work which he can command. (10) " By having a place for everything and everything in its place. ' ' 218 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. (11) By having a time for everything and everything in its time. (12) By association with his fellow teachers and the observation of their work. (13) By going into good society to a reasonable extent. (14) By using his vacation as much as he can for travel and study of nature. (15) By observing the occupations of men and asking information of them concerning their specialties. (16) By securing the aid of pupils and parents in provid- ing means of illustration for class teaching. (17) By looking on the bright side of everything and everybody. (18) It will be seen from this view of the subject that the principles of education are the general, the art of teach- ing is the particular, expression of the same facts. §VIII. Directions for Study and Class Work. 1. Preparation of Lessons. Lessons given in topics, arranged in natural and logical order. Study every lesson with reference to teaching. 1. Study the outline of topics given to get the scope of the lesson. 2. Study the topics in the order given: (1) To get distinct and complete ideas of the object of thought. (2) To arrange the ideas in the order of their depen- dence. (3) To get the right mode of communicating the ideas. (a) Get illustrations of the ideas, pertinent, plain, a sufficient number. (b) Get an expression of the ideas, simple, correct, precise. (c) Rehearse the lesson. In outline, to fix the order of topics. Each topic just as you would teach or present it. 2. Class Work. Teaching. 1. Illustrate. One thing at a time. In the order of dependence. According to its importance. Econo- THE ART OF TEACHING. 219 mize time. Keep the attention of every pupil. 2. Ask definite questions. No leading question. Question before name of pupil. Complete answers. No repetition of answer of pupil. No telling pupil what he already knows. 3. Indi- cate neatly the points, as made, on the blackboard. Dis- tinctly impress each point. 4, Recapitulate. Require a complete, connected statement of points taught. Presenting. 1. Illustrate. 2. Present points distinctly in order. According to their importance. Be prompt. Look at the class, and keep the attention of all. 3. Indicate the points neatly on the board. 4. Recapitulate. Examining the Class. 1. By pupils teaching the topics, with criticism, by class, by teacher. 2. By pupils presenting the topics, with additions, by pupils, by teacher. Criticism, by class, by teacher. 3. By teacher questioning class to test their knowledge of lesson. Questions definite, searching, to contain no part of the answer, on all important points of lesson. Answers correct, complete. Test every pupil. Criticism: by Class, by Teacher. Of good quahties and defects in preparation and class-work. A kind spirit in all criticism. Its object is improvement. Teacher point out the cause of defects. Criticism should take the form of discus- sion. Assigning Lesson. By topics. Teach topics which re- quire it. Class note carefully the topics and method of teach- ing. Distinctly indicate how to prepare lesson. The Right Spirit. Resolve to do always what ought to be done. Work for others. Manner. Qualities of a good manner are cheerfulness, animation, self-possession, enthusiasm, decision. Note posi- tion and hearing, as affecting control of the class. Use of the Voice. Secure cheerful, conversational tones, purity, distinctness, right pitch, force, and modulations, and fluency. Use of Language. Use simple words and sentences. Be precise. Make accurate and complete statements. Be correct, in pronunciation, grammatical construction, and choice of words. CHAPTER XXII. SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. Order is the Child of Beauty and Wisdom. — Johnson. §1. Organization and Its Utility. 1. A School of All Grades. We consider the organiza- tion of a single school which includes all the grades of pupils below the high school under the control of one teacher in one room. Such a school furnishes all the problems of or- ganization except a few which come to the principal of a large school composed of all the grades of pupils having one or more classes of each grade. 2. Organization Defined. To organize a school is to ar- range and assign the work of each pupil so that every one shall constantly have full employment, and all shall work in harmony. Pupils expect to be set to work and kept at work by a teacher in whose leadership they have confidence. (1) The arrangement of work is to be made, as far as possible, before coming to the school that the assignment may be made promptly and the school move on in its work without any delay. (2) Provision must be made for constant and full em- ployment of every pupil. Unless each one is at work under the direction of the teacher, he will find employment for him- self along other lines and disorder will arise. (3) It is indispensable to the effective working of an organism that every part of it shall work in harmony with every other part; if it does not, there is friction, which will soon wreck the organism. 3. Advantages of Organization. A good organization en- ables the teacher to do the most work possible in the time of the school session. SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 221 (1) It is vitally important that there should be no loss of time in the school, because there is not sufficient time for all the work that needs to be done. (2) A good organization enables the teacher to govern the school more easily. If pupils are kept fully employed under skilful direction there is no time for mischief on their part. (3) It places the pupils under the most favorable condi- tions for advancement. If the pupil knows just w^hat he is to do, and how^ to do it, it only remains to furnish the incen- tive for work. If the pupil has it in himself he moves on, if he has not, the teacher must stimulate him to effort. §11. Preliminary Preparations. 1. The Beginning Decides the Issue. The way in which the teacher begins his work decides what is to follow. The new teacher is a stranger to the pupils. Their first work is to take the measure of his bearing, his acts, and his words, to decide what relation he is to hold to them, hence the im- portance that first impressions shall be correct and favorable. 2. A Definite Plan of Work. A definite plan for all work in school is indispensable, and especially is this true at the' beginning. Suppose a building contractor is to start on Monday morning upon the construction of a building with forty men in his employ; it is apparent that he should have a complete plan of the building, that he should have all build- ing materials needed ready on the ground, and that he should be ready to set every man to work. It is more important that a teacher who is to begin school on Monday morning with forty pupils should be definitely ready to set every one profit- ably to work, because these pupils are less qualified and less inclined to set themselves to work. The teacher must be de- finitely ready for doing the first day's work, and for assign- ing lessons for the second day, hence, he must have, at least, the work of the first two days definitely arranged before he begins. 3. Going Early to His Work. It is necessary that the teacher should go to his work before the day of beginning. 222 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. (1) He must get his certificate from the school commit- tee. He is not the teacher of the school until he has this cer- tificate, and he must have his school register for use the first day of school. He must secure a boarding place and become settled there, that he may be ready to give attention to his school work without interruption. (2) He should visit his schoolroom, become familiar with its appointments, see that it is in order, and learn who is to take care of it, and make a plan of the seats of the pupils. He should learn what text books and supplies are needed and should see that they are ready for use at the opening of the school. In Massachusetts, he looks to the superintendent for supplies and books. (3) He should learn as far as possible the actual condi- tion of the school, its classification, and the status of the dif- ferent classes in their studies. The best source for this information is the preceding teacher. If this source is not available, he should get all the information he can from the superintendent and the school committee. (4) He should ascertain, as far as he can, the public sentiment in relation to schools, the degree of interest which the parents and the community have in the education of the children, and the standard of school government they are willing to sustain. This information may be obtained from the superintendent, the school committee, and from intelli- gent persons in the community who are accessible to the teacher. 4. Make Definite Preparation. After making his own observations and getting this preliminary information the teacher should go to his room and make definite preparation for opening his school. §111. Opening of the School. 1. Be Early at Schoolroom. The teacher should be early at the schoolroom to open it, to prepare for the day's work, and to observe his pupils as he has opportunity. The teacher is responsible for the proper use of the school premises dur- SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 223 ing the school days and he is to see to the opening and clos- ing of the school building. 2. Manner of Meeting Pupils. The spirit and manner in which the teacher meets his pupils is very important. He should be easy of approach to all his pupils and yet keep them at a respectful distance. He should enter into their life in work and play in such a way that they will feel that he has a personal interest in them, and yet have them under full control as their teacher. In so far as he joins in the sports of his pupils the teacher must be able to hold his posi- tion as leader or as a quick learner. His pupils expect him to lead and to lead well in everything. 3. Calling School From Playground. In calling the school from the playground the teacher should use a hand bell, un- less there is a gong on the school building. The bell gives a clear, ringing sound, is easily heard, and is the instrument generally used for calling people together. The teacher should be sure to have the bell ready for use the first morn- ing. To be without it is to invite defeat in the control of the school. Use a call-bell to get the attention of the school in the schoolroom. 4. Devotional Exercises. The school should be opened daily by brief, devotional exercises. The law of Massachu- setts requires the reading daily in the public schools of a portion of the Bible. To the reading of an appropriate "se- lection from the Bible may be added the singing of a hymn and a prayer. It is best that the reading should be by the teacher. Singing a hymn as a part of the devotional exercises is desirable; the teacher should know that it can be done before attempting it. The Lord's prayer may be used or the teacher may pray orally, or he may read a written prayer. In some states reading the Bible and prayer are not allowed. 5. Assigning Seats and Work. After the opening exer- cises, the pupils should be seated with the understanding that changes may be made if necessary; then proceed to assign work and issue books to the pupils so far as necessary to keep them employed. Adopt temporarily the classification of the preceding term, and follow this until such changes as are 224 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. necessary can be. intelligently made. If the teacher has not been able to learn before-hand the classification of the school and the status of the classes, he will have to call upon each class to stand, and then inquire of one of them where they left off in the subject at the end of the preceding term; then assign the lesson to the class. He must decide which subject shall be assigned first, and what in it shall be assigned. The teacher must be prepared to assign several kinds of seat work to the younger pupils who cannot study books, so that as soon as they tire of one kind another may be given them. All the pupils should be provided with full employment. 6. Registering Pupils. In registering pupils prepare a blank for the purpose and record as follows: — Names. yrs. mos. R'g. S'g. Arith. Geog. Hist. Gram. Ames, Wm. E. 14 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 Bird, Jos. A. 10 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 The figures under the names of the subjects indicate the class in which the pupil is. The teacher should stand before the school and take from each pupil his record in the order of their seats. In taking this record, the teacher should asso- ciate the face of each pupil with his name, so far as he can, that he may be able as soon as practicable to call the pupil by his name. 7. Hearing Lessons. After taking this record, the teacher should hear the lessons that were assigned, give another lesson in the same subject for the next day, then assign a lesson in another subject for immediate preparation, and so continue through the day. The object to be obtained in conducting the class exercises of the first few days is to ascertain the ability and attainments of each pupil prepara- tory to permanent classification. When this knowledge is obtained, proceed carefully to make such changes in the classification as are necessary. Make general regulations promptly as occasion calls for them. The pupils will then follow them more readily because they see that they were made from necessity. 8. Work of First Night. At night the teacher should use the record taken in the morning and enter the names of SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 225 the pupils in the register, alphabetically arranged. It is well to have a scratch register, arranged for two weeks, for use through the day, from which to copy into the school register, so as to keep it clean and correct. Also, enter the pupils' names in the plan of seats to keep on his table for reference in calling the pupils by name. He should make lists of the pupils in the different classes on separate slips of paper to use in conducting the class exercises, and should notice what studies each pupil has, to see that every one has proper em- ployment. The teacher should take time to observe the working of the classification in the daily exercises, and to consider the changes carefully before making them. §IV. Classification of Pupils. 1. Classification Defined. Classification is placing in a class those pupils whose abilities and attainments enable them to work together profitably in the Same studies. Some- times the age of the pupil must be considered. If an older pupil is backward it may be better to place him with those near his own age than with the younger pupils. If a young pupil is precocious it may be better for him to keep him with pupils of his own age than to let him go on with older pupils. The best classification is to have all the members of the class take the same studies. Sometimes it is necessary for a pupil to take different studies with different classes. 2. The Effect of a Large Class upon the teaching lis to require more effort and skill on the part of the teacher to hold the attention of all, and keep every one up to his best work. Its effect upon the study by the pupil and upon the examination of the class is to make it less thorough, because each pupil cannot be so frequently and fully tested. 3. The Effect of a Small Class upon the teaching is to require a less expenditure of energy by the teacher; upon study by the pupil to make it more thorough, because the pupil knows he may be brought up on all parts of the lesson; upon the examination of the class, to make it close, because there is time to test every pupil. 4. The Size of the Class is to be Determined : By the 226 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. age of the pupils, with young pupils the classes must be small because each pupil must receive more individual atten- tion; by the form of the class exercise, if it requires individual work the class must be smaller, if it permits work in concert the class may be larger; by the skill of the teacher, if he is skilful he can deal successfully with the larger class; by the amount of work the teacher has to do, if he has much work he will have to make his classes larger. 5. The Steps in Forming Classes: — Ascertain the ability and attainments of each pupil; Make a list of the studies of each grade; Compute the time for class exercises by deducting the time for devotional and general exercises and recesses from the total time of the school sessions; Decide upon the number of class exercises you ought to have; Form that number of classes. §V. Order of Exercises. 1. An Order of Exercises. The teacher should make an order of daily exercises and adhere to it so that all may know when each exercise is to come and be ready for it. Devia- tion from the order produces confusion; regularity promotes efficiency. Such an order helps to form habits of order and punctuality, to control the school, and to save time; because everyone knows what he is expected to do, when he is to do it, and when it will be done. 2. Distribution of Time on Subjects. In deciding the time to be given to each subject, the relative importance of the study should be considered. Those studies which are instru- ments in the acquisition of other knowledge, as reading, spelling, penmanship, drawing, composition, and arithmetic, should have sufficient time to make them so familiar that the pupil may use them effectively in pursuing other subjects. The condition of the school with respect to a need of the study should be a consideration. If any one study has re- ceived undue attention less time may be allowed to it; if any study has been neglected, it should receive more attention SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 227 until it is brought up to its proper place. A just distribution of time to each subject should be insisted upon. 3. The Time and Length of Class Exercises should be fixed that the pupils may know when each is to come, may be prepared for it, and come to it promptly. Study and class exercises should alternate as far as practicable, especially with the younger pupils. The length of the class exercises for young pupils should not exceed fifteen minutes, for gram- mar grades it may be twenty to thirty minutes. The larger the number of classes to be heard the shorter the exercises must be, but the time must not be too short. 4. The General Exercise with the whole school is an im- portant exercise for teaching things which every pupil needs, and for giving unity to the school life. It is economy of time and effort to deal with the school as a whole in things helpful to all. This exercise should come in the morning, immediately after the devotional exercises, when the school is fresh and ready to give attention. 5. Order of Taking Subjects. The severer studies should come in the earlier part of the day, because the pupils are then more vigorous. The studies should be taken in such order as to give variety of mental exercise, so as to keep up the interest of the pupils. A daily lesson in each subject is the best order. With the youngest pupils the lesson in the same subject should come every half day. When classes are small, the teacher may economize time by conducting two or three classes in the same subject in the same period. This can be done in arithmetic. The pupils can be doing examples in different parts of the subject at the same time, and the teacher can examine one class while another is working ex- amples, so as to hear all within the limit of the class period. The next best plan is to alternate daily two related studies, as drawing and writing, history and geography; or to have one study for half a term, or for a term, and then the other for the same time. 6. Steps in Making the Order of Exercises: Make a list of class exercises for each grade. Divide the time of class work among the several studies; 228 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. Determine the time and length of each exercise; Write the order and place it before the school; A good clock, placed where both teacher and pupil can see it, is a necessity in the schoolroom, that all may come to time in their work, §VL Provisions Relating to Order. 1. School Limits and School Property. Pupils should be kept on the grounds upon which they have a right to play, and within call of the teacher, to keep them from trespassing and under control. They should be trained to a proper re- gard for the school property, and to respect all public pro- perty. The out-buildings should be under the daily inspec- tion of the teacher, that they may be kept in a cleanly condi- tion. They should be kept under lock and key when not in use. This training is essential to good behavior, at school and in the community. 2. Recesses. Recesses need careful attention from the teacher. His time at recess should be wholly given to look- ing after the movement of the school, to see that there is good behavior by all pupils, and to keep in check any immoral tendencies. The length of the recess is usually fifteen min- utes in the three hour session, and is taken soon after the middle of the session. Both sexes should take the out-door recess at the same time, if they have separate yards and out- buildings; if not, the boys should have half the fifteen min- utes outside while the girls have recess indoors, and the reverse. Every pupil should have a recess. If it is neces- sary to deprive a pupil of recess with his fellows on account of misconduct with them, he should have his recess alone. 3. Calling and Dismissing School and Classes. The teacher should be careful about calling and dismissing the classes and the school. The school should be called at least five minutes before the time for the session to begin, so that every pupil shall be ready in his place for the beginning. It takes at least five mintes for all to be ready. Tardiness in beginning the session means tardiness all through the ses- sion. The class should be called by the voice rather than by SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 229 the bell. It is the easier, pleasanter, and more effective way of calling. The pupils should move in files to prevent con- fusion and delay. The school session should close punctually, to train the pupils to punctuality and promptness in their work. The school should file out and go quietly from the school grounds, observing the law of the highway. This law requires that we shall not obstruct the highway, and that we turn to the right and give half the road or sidewalk to those we meet. 4. Making Requests. Pupils should be trained to make requests at the right time and in the proper manner, and not to make unnecessary requests. Class exercises should not be interrupted by requests except they are really necessary. Directions for the work should be given so definitely by the teacher as to make it unnecessary to ask for explanations. Pupils should be trained to work independently, and to pro- vide themselves beforehand with the things needed for doing their work. If it is necessary for a pupil to ask for a privi- lege, he should indicate his want by raising his hand and have the privilege by permission from the teacher. The teacher should notice the request and grant the priv- ilege when it is necessary. The pupil should not be allowed to tell tales of his fellow pupils, but there are complaints that he may properly make and information that he may properly give and they should receive the attention of the teacher. Any violation of the pupil's rights either of person or pro- perty is just ground for complaint. The teacher should prac- tice the "Golden Rule" and train his pupils to do the same. 5. Value of Good Organization. Careful attention to all the details of a good organization is very remunerative to the teacher. In a well organized school the teacher has only to keep up the motive power and everything runs smoothly, be- cause every member of the school knows what he has to do, how it is done, and when, and he finds pleasure in the doing. The school moves on quietly and forcefully, like a great en- gine with every part fitted to its place, and every cog and bearing well lubricated. A good organization works for righteousness, peace, and true living. CHAPTER XXIII. PRINCIPLES OF GOVERNMENT. The best government is that which teaches self government. — Goethe. §1. Moral Training. 1. Moral Training Defined. Moral training is training the pupil to choose and act rationally. Choice and action are rational when they meet the approval of an enlightened con- science. Our tendency is to choose an act according to our likes and dislikes. To control our natural impulses hy reason and conscience often requires strenuous effort. The neces- sity for moral training is apparent to every one who thinks of what he is. 2. What Moral Training Requires. Moral training re- quires warm sympathy, to hold the pupil close to the teacher; tact to prevent unpleasant issues; patience, the art of waiting for fruit; and an even temper, to make life run smoothly. 3. How Pupil Must be Led. The teacher as governor, must make a careful study of his pupil to note the trend of his thinking, feeling, and wilhng. The pupil is led to know what he ought to do by being required to do it regularly. He is to be led to know why he should do as he ought that he may act from principle. He should be led to feel the power of right motives. He should be led to exert his will in doing what he knows to be right, until the habit of right doing is established. 4. Requisite Knowledge. The teacher must have a thorough knowledge of self-control and self-direction. He will find his greatest help in gaining this knowledge in the thoughtful reading of the Bible, which holds the mirror up before every phase of human life. PRINCIPLES OF GOVERNMENT. 231 5. Example of the Teacher. The most effective presen- tation of these principles is made through the example of the teacher who exhibits in himself a wise self-control and a steady self-direction. Opportunities for teaching the princi- ples of self-control and self-direction come every day in school life, and pupils greatly need help in coming to a clear comprehension of these principles, and in the extension of them to all their conduct. § II. Government. 1. To Govern Defined. To govern either one's self or others is to direct and control his action according to the laws of life. We live under physical, vital, intellectual, emotional, moral, and spiritual laws. These laws are established by the Creator. By them all things consist; without them nothing is stable. All the blessings of life come through obedience to law. The first duty of every teacher is to feel and to teach reverence for law. Lawlessness is the great sin. 2. How Right to Govern Arises. The right to govern arises from the relation which the one who governs holds to the subject. God has the right to govern all because he is the Creator and sustainer of all. The chief executive of the state or nation has the right to govern because he holds to the people the relation of ruler. The parent has the right to control his child, because he holds to the child the relation of parent. The teacher has the right to govern his pupil, be- cause he holds to the pupil the relation of teacher. 3. What Government Requires of the Governor. Gov- ernment requires that the governor shall exercise his author- ity as occasion calls for its exercise, and that he shall exer- cise it for the good of the subject. The exercise of authority requires in the governor wisdom, to judge truly concerning the rights and the duties of both the ruler and the subject; power, that he may execute his decisions; and goodness, that he may make the right use of his power. If the one in au- thority lacks wisdom he cannot govern; if he lacks power, his government is weak; if he lacks goodness, his govern- ment is despotic. 232 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. 4. W^hat Government Requires of the Subject. Govern- ment requires of the subject compliance with the require- ments of authority; it may be mere conformity to the will of the governor, given because the subject feels that he must comply with the requirement; or it may be obedience, which is prompt, implicit, and cheerful compliance with the require- ments of authority. John is requested to clean the black- board, he starts at once, asks no questions, and does it with manifest willingness. He obeys. Obedience implies that the subject has faith in the governor; his request or com- mand is 'sufficient reason for the subject to do what is re- quired of him. 5. Basis of School Government. The control of the school is based upon the principles of good government. The teacher cannot secure the good of the pupil except he gov- erns. The necessity of school government is found in the fact that the pupils have not acquired the full power of self- control. The end of school government is to train the pupil to self-control and self-direction. This end is accomplished by securing conformity and obedience to righteous authority. §111. How Obedience is Best Secured. 1. By Arrangement of School Exercises. The first means to securing conformity and obedience is the proper arrange- ment of the school exercises. This arrangement is simple, easily understood, and followed; definite, leaving no uncer- tainty, providing a time and place for everything; practical, adapted to the needs of the school. Such an arrangement of exercises is pleasing to the pupils and makes the school seem to move on of itself; this motive power is silent but effective. 2. By Good Management. The second means to secur- ing conformity and obedience is good management. This re- quires first good judgment, so that the teacher will decide wisely what is best to be done. Good judgment implies "knowledge of children, careful observation of the individual pupil, keen insight, much sympathy, large patience, and ex- perience." These things the teacher must think about and strive to attain. PRINCIPLES OF GOVERNMENT. 233 * Second, good management requires decision, to secure prompt action by teacher and pupil. Directions, requests, and commands should be given in a clear, firm tone, with a decided ring, leaving no doubt as to what is meant. Require- ments should be reasonable and then the teacher should insist upon having what he has asked for. Thii'd, good management requires self-control. The teacher should keep a quiet command of himself, especially of his tongue; because he is exposed to frequent annoyance and is inclined to speak as he feels. He should govern by the eye rather than the tongue. If the teacher stands before the school where he can have direct intercourse with every pupil this can be done effectively. There is great power of restraint and of inspiration in the eye. The dull, backward, restless pupils, who need special attention, should be near the teacher. The teacher should never scold; the effect of speaking in an unkind spirit in loud, harsh tones is to irritate and antagonize the Dupil, and to diminish his respect for the teacher. For the same reason the teacher should never threaten. If he threatens he is in danger of finding himself embarrassed when he comes to execute the threat. " Evenness of control not only wins confidence, but it also establishes right habits." Fourth, good management requires tact, — the ability promptly to adapt one's self to his circumstances. It implies quick seeing and hearing, the quick transfer of attention from one thing to another, and the prompt execution of what is quickly discerned. Tact is of great value in enabling the teacher to discern and to check wrong tendencies before they reach actual misconduct. A wise superintendent said to his teachers, ' ' Do not let things come to an issue with your pupils." 3. Use of Natural Rewards. The third means to secur- ing conformity and obedience is the use of natural rewards, those rewards which follow naturally from the actions with which they are associated, as for example, knowledge follows naturally from study. First, among natural rewards is the pleasure of well 234 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. directed activity in the acquisition and use of knowledge. There is great satisfaction in the skilful exertion of our powers. By arranging the pupil's studies so as to keep body and mind properly employed, we gratify his love of activity, excite his desire of knowledge, and induce in him a liking for work. We are to furnish occasions which say to the pupil, " Do your best, your very best. And do it every day. " Second, we note the pleasure arising from merited ap- probation. Every person has the desire for approbation, it is always active, it restrains from doing that which displeases those whose esteem is desired, and impels to do that which will please them. Praise is one of the strong motives. Its value depends upon the character of the one who gives it. The degree of pleasure in the one who receives it is proportional to his esteem for those who bestow it. The approval of one's superiors, as of parents or teachers, is more pleasing than the approval of one's equals, as brothers, or sisters, or class- mates. Praise should be given for extra effort in well doing; for example, when the pupil has made great effort to avoid tardi- ness or absence, and when he has been faithful in his work against strong allurements to neglect it. Praise should be genuine, not given to secure favor, nor to flatter. It may be given directly, by word, or look, or manner; or indirectly, by giving the pupil things to do which show confidence in him; or by commending him to his parents or friends; he thereby knows that he has the approbation of both teacher and parent, which is doubly satisfactory. The approbation of schoolmates is a strong influence either for help or hindrance in the movement of the school. If the public opinion in the school in relation to any matter is not good, the teacher may correct it by quietly gaining a per- sonal influence over the leading pupils. This he can do by his skill in teaching, by the spirit in which he exercises authority, and by personal intercourse with the leaders. PRINCIPLES OF GOVERNMENT. 235 " We are all excited by the love of praise, and it is the noblest spirit that feels it most." — Cicero. Third, we notice the pleasure arising from progress. We were made to move on continually to higher levels of self- activity. The ideals which once we were striving for we have reached — we have been that and have passed on. The feeling that one is making progress stimulates to greater effort. Every difficulty mastered gives a pleasure, and a consciousness of strength which makes one eager to attack new difficulties. This is especially true of the young. The business of the school is to furnish occasions for continual progress. ' ' Progress is the law of life, — man is not man as yet." He is in the making. Fourth, we consider the pleasure of generous emulation which is the ardent desire for superiority, which impels one to imitate, equal, or excel others who are running the same course. This emulation will surely come where children are trained together. Generous emulation is the desire to excel in well-doing without disparaging others. It admires and strives to imitate merit. It is a noble passion. Rivalry, or selfish emulation, is the desire to excel by repressing others. Emulation is a strong, natural incentive. It needs direction and control rather than stimulation. Fifth, is the pleasure arising from the approval of con- science. This is the best natural reward. The pupil at first does what he ought because he is required to do it. Then gradually he does it by judging for himself that he ought to do it. There is no pleasure equal to the pleasure of doing our duty. The teacher should strongly appeal to the pupil to choose and act according to his feeling of obligation. 4. Keeping a Record of Conduct, Scholarship and Effort. The teacher should keep a record of the conduct, scholarship and effort of each pupil, for use as occasion requires with the pupil and with the parent. Monthly reports of this record to the parent are helpful to both parent and child. The group record. The record may be kept by the use of the letters A, B, C, D, E. A representing the upper grade of standing, B the middle grade, and C the lower grade, D repre- 236 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. senting a failure, and E a bad failure. A, B and C thus repre- sent trhee grades of attainment and the record shows to which grade the pupil has attained. The record does not attempt to give the fine relative distinctions of the percent- age system of ranking. The purpose of the record is to show to the individual pupil (not to the class) and to his parents the pupil's standing in the judgment of his teachers and to enable them to decide whether the people is doing his best or not. Oftentimes the pupil thinks he is doing all right when he has the power to do much better, if he had the needed stimulus. He does not know how others rate him, by what standard he must be judged in the outside world, until he gets the outside judgment of himself. 5. Certificates and Diplomas are expressions of the ap- probation of the school authorities after the good work has been done. They are within the reach of all deserving pupils; are useful to those who receive them; and should be given; they should be truthful, that they may help the one who re- ceives them. §IV. Obedience is Secured by Assertion of Au- thority. 1. Assertion of Authority by the Teacher. The fact, known to the pupils, that the teacher has the right to control them gives power to all his requirements. When the pupil persists in wrong doing, the teacher has to assert his author- ity by saying to the pupil: "You must conform to what is required." 2. Manner of Exercising Authority. The teacher, in the exercise of his authority, should be kind, firm, and prudent. The kindly spirit, the unyielding demand, the wise forecast of the teacher — all say to the pupil, " conformity is the wise thing for you. " The teacher thereby shows his pupil that he acts from principle, not from impulse; that he is acting un- der the law which he requires his pupil to obey. 3. Fear of Punishment is a Proper Motive to Obedience. Whenever one is conscious of wrong doing he feels guilty; this is the natural penalty for the violation of authority. Punishment by another is the infliction of pain upon the body PRINCIPLES OF GOVERNMENT. 237 or mind of a person, by the authority to which he is subject, and because he has violated that authority. The fear of punishment is a proper and necessary motive. It is implanted in our nature to restrain us from w^rong doing. Without the fear of the penalty which comes from following our natural impulse to excess we should ruin ourselves by self-indul- gence. 4. The Purpose of Punishment is to prevent wrong doing first, by reforming the wrong doer. Second, punishment prevents wrong doing by restraining others — who are dis- posed to do the same wrong, — through the fear of punish- ment. Third, punishment prevents wrong doing by con- demning it. It shows that the act for which punishment is inflicted is condemned by rightful authority, and shows the pain and loss which follow from wrong doing. It is a great thing to make wrong doing unpopular. 5. The Teacher Should be Free to Deal V^ith Each Pupil as Seems Wise, When the Offence is Committed. Punishment to be efl'ective must be certain to follow the wrong doing. Nature's penalties are always certain, hence, effective. The child learns not to put his hand in the fire be- cause he knows it will be burned. The punishment should be just. The recognition of its justice renders it effective. The pupil should be led to feel that he deserves the punishment before it is inflicted. The punishment inflicted should, like nature's penalties, be the natural sequence of the act, so far as possible. The abuse of a right or privilege should be followed by its forfeit- ure. The punishment for any damage to the property of another is at least the making good the loss or damage. The punishment should be suited to the character of the pupil, a punishment which would be effective with one pupil may have little or no effect upon another. It should be effectively administered so that its repetition will not be necessary. 6. Proper Punishments. One of the proper punishments is reproof. Its effect is proportional to the offender's desire of approbation. Its value depends much upon the character of one who gives it. It should be given kindly, and usually 238 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. in private, to save the feelings of the pupil, because it is more helpful when so given. Public reproof is proper for a public offence. Loss of privilege is proper, v^hen the privilege has been abused. Exclusion from companionship of schoolmates may be properly used for such offences as the use of bad language, outbreaks of temper, and disregard for the rights of others. Corporal punishment is any punishment inflicted upon the body. It is a proper punishment in case of rebellion, when the pupil dehberately says, "I will not obey," then the issue is, shall the teacher's authority end? Then he is justified in forcing the pupil to submit by the use of corporal punishment. It should not be used upon girls, a woman should never be strnck, nor upon pupils weak in body, they are not able to bear the shock. It should be inflicted when the teacher is calm and in such a way as not to injure the body. The best form of corporal punishment, when it must be used, is to inflict light tingling blows with a rattan, upon the fleshy parts of the fingers, or upon the palm of the hand. Such tingling blows change the pupil's circulation and give him a new point of view. Corporal punishment should be avoided, if possible. Most schools can be better conducted without its use. The teacher should not be forbidden to use it. It has to be used sometimes in family government, in civil government, and it comes in the violation of physical laws. 7, Improper Punishments, Blows upon the head, violent shaking, pulling the hair, twisting the ear, and the like; re- proachful and contemptuous epithets, as dunce, dolt, block- head; ridicule and sarcasm; the practice of keeping after school to get lessons, are improper punishments; a good teacher will not use them, §V. Use of Artificial Rewards. 1. Definition. An artificial reward is a reward given by the teacher, or others, which does not follow naturally from the action with which it is associated, 2, Ranking Pupils. The artificial reward most commonly PRINCIPLES OF GOVERNMENT. 239 used is the the ranking of pupils. This is usually done by keeping a record in per cent, of recitations and deport- ment, and giving the pupil his rank according to his record. This ranking is a strong incentive to some, but it takes too much time and hinders class work, and it is not possible to make a just ranking in definite per cent, consequently some pupils will be dissatisfied. In a graduating class in a high school the rank of four pupils was respectively as follows: 96.2 per cent., 95.9 per cent., 95.3 per cent., and 95 per cent. Here was a distinction without a difference. " Ranking is neither necessary nor desirable. 3. Prizes. A prize is an artificial reward offered to many which only one can obtain. A prize rewards brilliancy rather than industry, is limited to a very few in its action, and is extremely difficult to award justly. These objections, which cannot be overcome, are sufficient to exclude prizes from school incentives. 4. Pecuniary Rewards. The offering of pecuniary ar- tificial rewards has in it too much of the element of hiring pupils to do their work, which ought to be done from higher motives. It is putting school on a commercial basis instead of using it for perfecting of character. 5. Natural Rewards Sufficient. Natural rewards are sufficient to secure good school work, are helpful in their effect upon the character of the pupil, therefore they should always be used rather than artificial rewards. §VI. Co-ordinate Control. 1. Concurrent Jurisdiction. The teacher has full author- ity over bis pupils in the schoolroom and on the school prem- ises. The teacher and the parent have concurrent jurisdic- tion over the pupil from the time he leaves home until he reaches school, and from the time he leaves school until he reaches home. The teacher should exert himself to secure the good behavior of the pupil while he is on the way to and from school, and should co-operate with the parents and the public authorities in this matter. He should be careful how he administers punishment for offences on the way, because 240 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. his authority may be called in question. When the pupil vio- late one of the by-laws of the town, or the city ordinances, on their way to and from school, as in snow-balling in the street, the teacher should show the pupils the nature of their offence, and what they ought to do; and if they persist in this wrong-doing, he may call in the aid of the officers of the law for correction. 2. Correction of Offences. The correction of offences calls for wisdom and discretion. Communication is not an offence in itself, but is so when it is done out of time and place. It must be corrected because it is contrary to good discipline, is a bad habit showing want of self-control, and it disturbs the school. The teacher should make these facts apparent to the pupil, and insist upon his refraining from improper communication. Coming late to any duty is a bad habit. In school it is a loss of time, of discipline, knowledge, and school order. It should not be allowed unless it is absolutely necessary. The cause of tardiness by the pupil may be in the school. The teacher may be dilatory in the conduct of the school. The remedy for this is obvious. The cause may be in the pupil; if so, the teacher must work with him for its correction. The cause may be in the parent; if it is, the teacher must seek the co-operation of the parent. We should seek for its removal, by showing the evil of the practice and by using motives to induce punctuality. Regular attendance by every pupil is necessary to the accomplishment of the purpose of the school. The teacher should know why his pupil is absent, and use every means in his power to secure regular attendance. These means are his own personal effort with pupils and parents, to show them the evils of absence and to secure their co-operation in preventing it. , and, if need be. the co-operation of the school committee and truant officer. 3. Responsibility and Regularity. It has been said that obedience and truthfulness are twin virtues. There is a pair of twin virtues, the other one of the pair is responsibility and regularity. A sense of responsibility for the right use of PRINCIPLES OF GOVERNMENT. 241 health, strength, means, time, opportunity, and all our pow- ers is essential to the building of a strong character. This feeling finds expression in having a time for everything and everything in its time in the daily routine of life. Regular- ity in eating, in sleeping, in physical exercise, in all our work, in all our recreation is conducive to the greatest economy of health, strength, and power, and to the efficient life. Irreg- ularity produces the opposite effects. The sense of respon- sibihty is essential, regularity is extremely important. It is not a light thing to break in upon regularity. Home and school should heartily co-operate in cultivating the feeling of responsibihty and the habit of regularity in every pupil. CHAPTER XXIV. OBSERVATION OF PARENTAL TEACHING. Home is the chief source of human virtue. — Charming. Men are what their mothers made them. — Emerson. §1. In the Home of Educated Parents. 1. Ideals of Life and Teaching, It is essential that teachers should observe teaching in the best homes and schools, wherein the aim, the motive, the method and the product of teaching are exemplified. We get our ideals of life and teaching from life in the concrete as we have known it in our own experience. Our ideals must come from the best homes, the best schools, and the best human beings. 2. The Mother. (1) The mother is the first and the most influential teacher of the child, with the father by her side wisely co-operating. She lives in her child, her one little pupil who is her companion from the time he wakes in the morning until he goes to sleep with her good-night kiss. Her first care is to see that his physical needs are all properly met, that he is suitably clothed," is supplied with pure air, kept clean, has his food at regular intervals, and has all the exercise and sleep he needs. (2) She watches with intense interest every manifesta- tion of the unfolding soul while he is struggling to get the use of his hands, eyes, and ears; to hold up his head, to stand alone, and to walk; to recognize and imitate the action of the different members of the family. She patiently directs his activity as he begins to talk, to think about things, and to investigate everything within his reach. She surrounds him with an atmosphere that makes him happy. OBSERVATION OF PARENTAL TEACHING. 243 (3) She supplies him with objects of interest, directs his efforts in dealing with the objects, watches the trend of his mind, lets him alone when he is well employed, answers his numerous questions, aids him in extending his vocabulary as he discovers ideas, and kindles his imagination by whole- some stories. She is mindful of his emotional activity, soothes him when he is troubled, rejoices with him in his expressions of joy, and calmly controls him in his out-bursts of passion. (4) She cultivates his will by putting upon him the re- sponsibility of choosing, shows him the two boys within who contend for the mastery of him, helps him to choose the higher good instead of the lower, to do the right and to re- frain from doing the wrong, to be obedient, courteous, and reverent. (5) By this living process, she leads him steadily on in the unfolding of his young life. The maternal teaching is the golden thread running through the web of the child's life. " A little child today sits on my knee, And questions me of many things that be. A question and its answer makes for him A something definite of what was dim. " This little child, long slipped from off my knee, In life's tomorrow, facing things that be — Will his ideals be clear or sadly dim — Because of how, today, I answer him ? " This little child here sitting on my knee Is greatest and most real of things that be ; My faith in truth and goodness is not dim — I'll give my best and truest unto him." — Juniata Stafford. 3. The Home. (1) The home is made attractive to the children. Each one has his place as an individual in the fam- ily. The nursery is one of the sunny rooms of the house, decorated with artistic pictures and beautiful flowers. The mother at her work table here, is the companion and teacher of her children. She talks with them, joins in their play. 244 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. teaches them many simple lessons from the objects and pictures about them, and, by her own example, trains them to use and not abuse their property, to put their things in order when not in use, and to be mindful of each other. (2) The sitting room is the place for social intercourse of the family. The mother plays and sings to the children, and teaches them to sing and play. The father joins in the singing and in the social games. Visitors are received and the children learn how to meet them in the proper way. (3) In the library, each child has his own books and his desk at which he studies and writes. A case is provided in which the children arrange the minerals, coins, seeds, and rare products which they are encouraged to select. (4) The chambers of the children are made bright and cheery by attractive furniture and pictures. The children are required to have a place for everything and everything in its place. Here, at bed-time, the mother quietly talks with the children, and reads to them; they offer their prayer to their Heavenly Father, and lie down to peaceful sleep. (5) Out-of-doors they have the sand-bed, in which the younger children mold and build after their own original de- signs; they have a garden, in which each has his plot of ground, where he plants seeds and follows the growth of the plant from seed to seed again. They have pet animals whose habits they study, which they play with and care for, thus making them thoughtful and humane. § II. In the Natural Environment. 1. Sympathy With Nature. The child is brought into sympathy with nature. The mother takes him to the fields and shows him nature at work, dotting the green grass with the golden blossoms of the dandelion, changing these to the fluffy spheres, and sending their winged seeds everywhere. She leads him to listen to the busy hum of the bees in the blossoming trees, and to the laughing melody of the bobolink. 2. Out-of-Door Life. The little fellow makes a fruitless chase for the bright colored butterfly. Then the mother takes him to a flower, where he sees the butterfly unfolding OBSERVATION OF PARENTAL TEACHING. 245 his long proboscis and running it into the flower cup to sip the honey. Again, the boy spies a caterpillar crawling upon the ground, which he fearlessly picks up and drops into his mother's hand. She leads him to observe its beautiful colors and graceful movements, finds the food upon which the caterpillar feeds, and takes him home. The child watches him eat and go into his cocoon, and after patient waiting sees a perfect butterfly come forth. He remembers these lessons, and his eyes and ears are open to what nature has to say to him. 3. "Wind and Weather. The father joins in this teach- ing. He goes forth with the child from time to time, and shows him nature at work in the air, the water, and the earth. He leads him to observe how the wind makes the trees sway, the leaves and dust fly about, and the clouds scud across the sky; to observe from which direction the warm winds and the cold winds come, which wind brings the storm, and which the fair weather. He leads him to observe that the sunshine makes the plants grow, and the cool evening gives them the dew to drink; that the cool morning forms the fog over the water and moist lands, and the warm sun sends it up into the cooler air above to make the clouds, which are borne along by the winds, and come down in the raindrops to water the dry earth. He teaches him that the cold of winter freezes the vapor in the air, and trims the brown grass, the trees, and the buildings with the sparkling frost; that the cold air above the earth freezes the clouds into the crystal snow flakes, which come sailing down so gracefully to carpet the earth and keep it warm. 4. Mineral Substances. He shows him that the freezing water in the cracks of the rocks breaks them in pieces and they are crumbled into fine bits, which the streams of water carry into the lower places, to make the soil in which the plants grow. He teaches him to distinguish the quartz, feld- spar, mica, jasper, and other minerals, and to gather them for his collection. He teaches him the qualities of the min- erals and their uses, and that they form the granite, gneiss, sandstone, and other rocks, which are used for constructing 246 ^RE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. walls, buildings, bridges, and monuments. 5. Plant Life. The father teaches the child the action of plant life. They go to the cherry-tree and while they eat the luscious cherries • under the tree, the father directs the attention of the child to the large tree laden with fruit, and then to the little cherry-tree on the ground just coming from the cherry-stone, sending its rootlets downward, and its tiny stem upward, with two little leaves at the top. The father asks, Where do we get the cherries? The child answers, From the cherry-tree. Where does the cherry-tree come from? From the cherry-stone. Then the child is silent for a little, but soon he asks eagerly. Where did the first cherry- tree come from? God made it. He makes all cherry-trees grow. Then comes quickly the question. Does God make all kinds of trees grow? Children think behind the words. 6. Animal Life. Lessons in the action of animal life are taught. The father goes with the child to the pond in the park, and points out to him the rope of slime on the water's edge, holding the little black eggs of the toad, and shows him the tiny tadpoles just from the egg, wriggling in the water. The child watches the tadpole, with his round body and long tail, swimming in the water, and breathing by gills. Then he sees him with his legs growing from his body, and the tail much shortened. Later the child finds that the tad- pole has become a bright little toad, hopping along the bank in the air, and breathing by lungs; a curious little creature, with bright eyes, a big throat and no tail. The child remem- bers these lessons and is on the alert to question nature along the various lines of her activity. §in. The Human Environment. 1. Plays and Companions. The thoughtful parent con- stantly takes care to see that the plays, games, and places of resort of his child are wholesome in their effects, and that his associates, companions, playmates, and the persons with whom he mingles shall be those whose character, habits, manners, language, and conduct are such as to exert a help- ful influence upon the life of the child, who is so quick to re- OBSERVATION OF PARENTAL TEACHING. 247 spond and to imitate without reflection the bad as well as the good. The true parent is watchful of the effects of all these influences that he may lead the child to choose the true and the good and to shun the false and evil. The child needs con- stant help in this discrimination and choice until he is able to judge wisely for himself. 2. Human Industries. The child goes out into the world of human industry. The parents encourage him to use every opportunity to become acquainted with the occupations of men. (1) He observes the different kinds of manual labor in the home, the gardens, and the fields. (2) He learns about mechanical pursuits by watching the workers upon stone, wood, and metals — the stone cutter and mason; the carpenter, cabinet worker, and carriage builder; the blacksmith, tinsmith, the coppersmith, the pipers, and electricians. (3) He learns about the making of the numerous arti- cles used in the home, on the person and in the various occu- pations, by observing the process of their manufacture. (4) He learns about the construction of buildings, mon- uments, roads, bridges, and vessels by observing the builders as they construct them. (5) He learns about trade and commerce by observing the movements of those engaged in these pursuits. (6) The child is provided with tools and materials, and learns to use them in the construction of various articles within his power to produce. (7) This observation of the various lines of industry gives the child a wholesome respect for labor, and for the artisan ; gives him ideas of things and processes, which are the basis for thought and expression. (8) The habit of observation thus formed in early Hfe is an invaluable element in all subsequent living; and more val- able even than this habit are the emotions of pleasure awak- ened by such observation, which kindle the inspiration to better living. 3. The Realm of Reading. The child is led into the 248 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. realm of literature and history. Great pains is taken by the parents to incite in the children a love of poetry, biography, history, and other good reading. They read to them myths, stories, poems, interesting biographies, and histories. As soon as the children can read, they are kept well supplied with wholesome and interesting reading. Thus they acquire the taste for good reading. 4. The Realm of Fine Art. The children are taught to read pictures, and are supplied with pictures illustrating the life of the world; with those illustrating fine art in painting, sculpture, and architecture, and with photographs of the pic- tures of the masters, which illustrate the history of art. They are thus led to observe the works of art, and love for the fine arts is awakened. These studies make home attrac- tive, and the children spend their evenings in the home, rather than roaming the streets. The child must be wedded to the home. The habit of work must be formed early and be continually strengthened. §IV. In the Spiritual Environment. 1. The Loving Father of All is Remembered. (1) His creative and sustaining power is recognized in nature and in the human life of every day of the week, but especially on Sundays, " the day devoted to home, rest, and God." It is made the happiest day of the week for the children. The best playthings, best books, and best clothes are kept for Sunday. (2) Prominent among the objects of thought for the day is the life of Jesus— the greatest life in the history of the world. The mother tells the children the story of his birth, of how he lived, and grew in favor with God and man. She reads with them the pictures of the babe and his mother, of the shepherds, of the wise men, and of the boy questioning with the doctors at Jerusalem. They learn what he did and said when he became a man. Other bible stories are read and their illustrations. (3) The father talks and reads with the children, the family sing together, attend public worship, and go out to OBSERVATION OF PARENTAL TEACHING. ■ 249 observe God in nature together. The day is restful, and attractive, and its teaching is not to be forgotten. "It is given up to loving thoughts of God, to a loving rest from one's own work and pleasure, and to a loving part in the worship of God." A living faith in the Father of nature and man is awakened, which ever after strengthens the spiritual life of the man. 2. The Vital Element of Home Teaching, Love is the vital element of home teaching. A real home is pervaded by a correct view of human life and its relations, and by an at- mosphere of love. Every true home, however humble, is dominated by this spirit. When parents really live with their children, and make home the most attractive place in the world, they hold the confidence and love of the children, teach them how to live, how to make a true home when they shall reach maturity, and thus they perpetuate rational liv- ing. An atmosphere of love is as essential to the child as sunshine is to the plant. ' ' Now God be thanked for years enwrought with love, that softens yet. " — F. B. Broiuning. 3, Fruit of Parental Teaching. As an illustration of the fruit of parental teaching, I quote the following from Suc- cess: Rev. Dr. Lorimer of Boston tells this story of a distin- guished man who was introduced to a great pubHc meeting as a "self-made man." Instead of being gratified by the tribute, it seemed to throw him for a few moments into a brown study. Afterwards they asked him the reason for the way in which he received the announcement. " Well," said he, "it set me to thinking that I was not a self-made man." "Why," they replied, " did you not begin to work in a store when you were ten or twelve?" ' * Yes, " said he, ' ' but it was because my mother thought I ought early to have the educating touch of business." " But then, " they urged, " you were always such a great reader, devouring books when a boy." "Yes," he repHed, "but it was because my mother led 250 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. me to do it, and at her knee she had me give an account of the book after I had read it. I don't know about being a self-made man. I think my mother had a great deal to do with it." "But then," they urged again, "your integrity was your own." "Well, I don't know about that. One day a barrel of apples had come to me to sell out by the peck; and after the manner of some storekeepers, I put the speckled ones at the bottom and the best ones at the top. My mother called and asked what I was doing; I told her, and she said, 'Tom, if you do that you will be a cheat. ' And I did not do it. I think my mother had to do with my integrity. And, on the whole, I doubt whether I am a self-made man. I think my mother had something to do with making me anything I am of character or usefulness." " Happy," said Dr. Lorimer, " the boy who had such a mother; happy the mother who had a boy so appreciative of his mother's formative influence." ' * There is more of his mother in a man than anybody thinks. ' ' — Anonymous. CHAPTER XXV. OBSERVATION IN THE KINDERGARTEN. " Blessed be the hand that prepares a pleasure for a child." — Douglas Jerold. § I. The Kindergarten the Portal of School Life. 1. The Motherly Spirit. The well qualified kindergar- tener teaches her pupils in the motherly spirit. She makes the children's garden an annex of the home. She meets the children with a cordial sympathy, is kind but firm, and guides them wisely in all the outburst, or shyness of their young life. The kindergartener takes special care to make the schoolroom attractive to the little ones, by the skilful dis- position of natural objects, pictures, and the children's work about the room, and by making everything in the room con- tribute to their happiness. 2. A Loving Welcome. The children have a loving wel- come as Jthey come to the schoolroom in the morning. The teacher reverently directs their thought to the loving care of our heavenly Father, as they begin the day together. They offer their morning prayer and sing their songs with a sweet sincerity. Then come the morning talks about objects which are interesting to the children. The purpose of these talks is to teach the children to see and hear definitely, to think of what they see and hear, and to make simple and direct ex- pression of their thought. The teacher is guided by the underlying principle of every form of education, to teach the children first to observe, then to think, then to make good verbal expression. In the "mother talks" the children are led to think of mother, and home, and family. 3. Children Led to See Nature. The teacher leads the 252 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. children to see nature working in the plants in the window garden, in the flowers, in the field, in the seeds and fruits of the season, in the birds, the squirrels, the rabbits, and the domestic animals; to express clearly what they perceive, to appreciate these beautiful objects, to think of their life, to think of the goodness of our heavenly Father in giving us all these things. 4. Trades and Occupations. The children are led by talks and pictures to think of the various trades and occupa- tions carried on in the community around them, and to tell what they have seen and heard about these occupations. They are thus brought into sympathy with the industrial life about them, and to think of what is being done for them in supplying their food, clothing, homes, and the privileges of the social life which they enjoy. The sand garden is one of the most attractive occupations for the children in which they are free to work out their own ideals in the most attrac- tive way, giving ample scope to their imagination and to the skilful use of their hands. 5. Use of the Gifts. Through the right use of the gifts, the children are led to acquire useful ideas of forms, number, color, size, and movement, derived from these simple definite objects. The teacher calls into exercise the constructive ability and taste of the children in having them build various forms with the geometric blocks, in stick laying, in paper work, in embroidery weaving, and in modelling in clay. In all these, the children find application of the primary ideas they have acquired from natural objects and geometric forms, become conscious of their power to use things for the realiza- tion of their ideals, and to learn to direct their own activity to some definite end. 6. Plays and Games. The teacher conducts the plays and games of the children in which they " ascend from the world of things to the world of self-activity, from the mate- rial and the earthly to the spiritual." Each one finds that he is a part of a larger social whole, and that he must respect the rights, feelings, and individuality of his fellows; and he OBSERVATION IN THE KINDERGARTEN. 253 finds delight in the enlargement of himself in this wider field of spiritual activity. 7. Imagination Cultivated. The imagination of the chil- dren is cultivated by telling them v^holesome and interesting stories; by having them study beautiful pictures; by reading to them stories of the imagination, and by having them tell imaginative stories. The teacher is careful to adapt these lessons to their needs, to stimulate the slow imagination, and to control that which is too active. 8. The Children's Garden. The conversations, occupations, plays, games, and studies are so mingled, and the activities of the children are directed with such sympathetic skill, that they feel they are at play with their companions. It is the children's garden, in which they are developed by their own exertion; their interest comes from their own self-expression, and they are acting with their fellows with good will towards every one. They are taught to see, to hear, to talk, to use their power to construct, to obey, to be courteous, and to control self. The objects of thought in all exercises are pre- sented in such a way as to stimulate the thought, the heart, and the conscience to healthful activity. 9. Supplements the Home. The wisely conducted kin- dergarten fitly supplements the home, and is "the gate beautiful " to the child's entrance upon school life. The kin- dergarten is the most important grade in the school. Its pupils are tender and susceptible as plants in the greenhouse. They are starting the habits of a lifetime. This school calls for the wisest and most skilful teacher. CHAPTER XXVI. OBSERVATION IN THE FOUR PRIMARY GRADES. "Childhood shows the man, as morning shows the day." — Milton. §1. The Spirit of the Teaching. 1. Principles and Method Continuous. There is no break between the kindergarten and the primary grades which fol- low it. The principles and the method of the teaching employed in the kindergarten are continued in these grades. The course in the grades is continuous, adapted to the needs of the children as they move forward. Each child goes on as fast and as far as he is able to go. 2. The Schoolroom is Made Attractive. The teacher beautifies the room by a few choice pictures tastefully hung upon the walls, and by " a selection of potted plants having a variety of leaf and flower, as well as different habits of growth, showing nature's manifold ways in doing her beauti- ful work. ' ' She encourages the children to bring collections of both wild and cultivated flowers and foliage, throughout the season, which she arranges in artistic ways about the room. The pupils assist in the care of the bouquets and re- gard them as part of the regular furnishings of the room. 3. Sympathy for Nature Cultivated. (1) Lists of the flowers collected are placed on the board to make their names familiar. They may be written with different colored crayons, to suggest the colors of the flowers, as the eye runs over the names. (2) In the morning talks, the pupils tell where they found the flowers growing, as a means to calling their atten- tion to their natural surroundings, and as a stimulus to the search for flowers at their homes. OBSERVATION IN THE FOUR PRIMARY GRADES. 255 (3) Attention is called to the value of flowers in beauti- fying the roadways, the fields, and the parks, so that the eyes will notice such things with a new interest, and new feeling will stir the heart. The teacher knows that these beautiful surroundings directly lead to that sympathy for natural objects, which is the foundation for all true nature study; that all these things keep the eyes on the watch, and the thought busy on plant life. §11. The Lines of Activity. Self- Activity Cultivated. The children are led on in: (1) seeing, hearing, talking; (2) in reading, writing, numbering; (3) in forming, drawing, coloring; (4) in singing, physical training, and good behavior — as so many modes of self-ac- tivity in daily life. All these lines of activity involve the active use of the sense organs, especially of the eyes, the ears, and the hands. Each mode is emphasized according to the needs of the pupil's development. 2. Nature and Human Life Studied. The teacher gives nature and human life the first place in the thoughts of her pupils as the source of primary ideas and of rational enjoy- ment. She teaches the elements of climate and the working of nature in minerals, plants, and animals. 3. "Stepping Stones" to Literature. She reads to her pupils the simple story, the myth, the beautiful poem, the interesting biography, the graphic history, and in this way excites their desire to read. She supplies them with whole- some and interesting reading along these lines, and thus strengthens the love for good reading, and makes these les- sons " stepping stones " to literature. 4. "Stepping Stones" to Pictorial Art. She teaches the children to read pictures in their reading books, and photo- graphs of the masters, which are interesting to them, and, grading the pictures to their capacity, forms a series of studies which become " stepping stones " to the study of pictorial art. 5. Self-Expression Cultivated. The constant aim of the teacher is to make each mode of activity the occasion of self- 256 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. expression by the pupil, thus awakening a genuine interest in his work. All these modes of self-activity in the pupil are in the concrete form, so as to call both mind and body into action. §111. Illustration of Teaching. 1. Teaching How to Study Birds. (1) Observation of birds and a record. The children make a list of the birds as they are seen, learn where they come from, notice their color, and what they do in their movements in getting their food and building their nests. (2) A stuffed bird is used for the more careful examin- ation of the parts, and the teacher directs the pupil's thought by questions. What is the color of the feathers on the head, breast, back, wings, and tail? Which parts are not covered with feathers? Why are the feathers not needed on these parts? What kind of feathers on the wings and tail? How do they help the bird to fly? Sketch a quill feather. How many toes in front? behind? What kind of claws? For what does he use them? What kind of a bill? How does he use it? Why is it so hard and pointed? Has he any ears? How many teeth has he? Sketch the head and bill. Of what use is the bird? What should we do if there were no birds? How should we treat the birds? (3) Narration and description and reading. Another day the lesson is reviewed orally. The children sketch the bird and its parts. They write simple sentences, narrative, and descriptive, about the bird. The narrative tells about the coming of the bird, what he does and where he lives. The description tells of the bird, as he is at any time. The children learn songs and poems, and read about birds. (4) The order of the teaching in these lessons is, the observation of the life of the bird; the study of the parts of the bird and their uses; the thought of the value of the bird; the oral expression of the thoughts; the pictorial representa- tion of the object and its parts; the written expression of the knowledge, narrative, and descriptive; and acquiring infor- mation by reading. OBSERVATION IN THE FOUR PRIMARY GRADES. 257 (5) The educational value of the teaching is apparent. Intellectually, the pupil is led to accurate, systematic obser- vation of birds, which not only gives definite knowledge of the birds studied, but, what is of far greater value, the ten- dency to further observation and knowledge. He sees birds as he never saw them before. He knows how to study them. Emotionally, this study has awakened in the pupil a feeling of great pleasure. He has an interest in birds that he never felt before, and he will continue to study them. Volitionally, this study has given the pupil an appreciation of the life of a bird, which moves him to treat birds humanely. §IV. Secret of Holding Attention. 1. Tactful Adaptation. The primary teacher has the power of easily holding her pupils to the doing of the work she would have them perform. She is systematic, energetic, tactful, patient, and does not allow herself to be irritated by the waywardness of her pupils. As soon as their interest begins to wane, she quietly turns them into another line of activity for a minute or two, — to the singing of a stanza, the repetition of a beautiful bit of poetry, relation of a pertinent incident, a little physical exercise, or to some other device; — ■ and then as promptly resumes the work again. By this skil- ful insertion of brief intervals of relief, she pleasantly holds attention to the work to its close, and avoids the irritation which comes from frequent calls to attention. 2. Sympathetic, Flexible Method. Her sympathetic skill, and the flexibility of her method in adapting her require- ments to the varying needs of the pupils, both in the class exercise and in the general management of the school, make the school move easily, reduce to a minimum the wear of spirit in both teacher and pupil, make the work effective, and the remembrance of it satisfactory. She is able to say, with Dickens: 258 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. " My frown is sufficient correction My love is the law of the school. "The twig is so easily bended I have banished the rule and the rod. " I have taught them the goodness of knowledge, They have taught me the goodness of God. " I know now how Jesus could liken The kingdom of God to a child. ' ' §V. Sympathetic Teaching. 1. Distinctive Features. We notice the distinctive feat- ures of this teaching thus far considered. The mother, the kindergartener, and the primary teacher are the sympathetic guides of children through infancy and childhood. These teachers are in hearty sympathy with their pupils. The self- activity of the pupils is stimulated by their relation to the natural object and the loving teacher. The thought of the pupils is directed along lines which awaken and appreciate in- terest in the object, that moves the teacher and the pupil naturally to work happily together. The result is that the pupils are acquiring useful elementary knowledge; increasing their power to perceive, think, and express; learning self- control; and how to treat others rightly. They are obeying three great laws of self-activity, harmony, and benevolence. CHAPTER XXVII. OBSERVATION IN THE FIVE GRAMMAR GRADES. "Unless a tree has borne blossoms in the spring, you will vainly look for fruit on it in the autumn." — Hare. §1. The Teacher In Touch with His Pupils. 1. Special Study of Pupils. As the pupil advances in age, each year brings him into different bodily and mental condition, with different likes and dislikes, and different notions of his life. The teacher needs to make a special study of the pupil in each stage of his development, that he may adapt his teaching and training to the needs of the pupil. This study is the first thing for the teacher to do, for to be out of touch with his pupils is to fail in all his work. 2. Teacher's Manner. If the teacher meets his pupils with a cheerful, animated, self-possessed, enthusiastic, de- cided manner and a sincere sympathy, he will draw them to himself, and hold their respect and confidence. §11. Lines of Activity. 1. Self-activity Widened and Deepened. All the Hnes of activity in the preceding grades are continued and widened and deepened as the power of the pupil increases. Nature and human life are kept at the front in all the teaching, as a means to more extended observation, thought, and expres- sion, and to lead the pupil into a larger life as his years move on. Increasing attention is given to the relations of objects; to the action of forces; to manual arts; to constructive geom- etry and mensuration; to plant culture; to why and how things are as they are; to the arrangement of the thoughts of the lessons; to the formal expression of thought; to prin- 260 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. ciples, processes, definition, division, and to language; art; history; and literature. There is a gradual advance along all these lines as the pupil's mind unfolds. §111. Illustrations of Teaching. 1. Changes in the Form of Water and Their Effects: (1) Evaporation. "Illustrations. Water standing over night or during the day in a saucer. A wet cloth hanging in the sun. What change is observed? What becomes of the v^ater? Think of other similar illustrations. The invisible water in the air is called vapor, and the change is evapora- tion. What becomes of water after a shower? (It runs off, soaks in, evaporates.) Of water in ponds? in the ocean? of dew? of frost? Illustrations. Water on the slate in direct sunlight and out of it; a wet cloth in the wind and out of it. Which dries the sooner in each case? Why should it? (Heat and wind increase evaporation.) Apply to dew and frost, snow and ice, wet ground, and other illustrations. Why does evaporating ice cool a room or ice chest? "Illustrations. Fresh leaves standing under a tumbler during the day or night. What collects on the inside of the tumbler? Think whence it comes, and the value to the plant. Why do we water plants? Illustrations. Water boiling in a tin cup. What appearance just above the water? a little further above the water? some distance above? What changes in the water are taking place? Illustrations. Per- spiration. What is going on? of what value to man? Breathe on a cool, glass surface. Whence comes the moisture? Com- bine, and think of all places from which vapor gets into the air. Written work is given from a series of topics. (2) Condensation. "Illustrations. Tumbler with ice in it standing in a warm room. What collects on the outside? Where does the moisture come from? Where do the moisture and frost on the window, the dew and frost on the grass come from? Think of the small particles of vapor collecting into drops, (condensing). Does dew or frost collect on stones? on iron? "Illustrations, The water boiling in the tin cup, trace OBSERVATION IN THE FIVE GRAMMAR GRADES. 261 the changes; (vapor next the water is 'steam,' condenses in the cooler air into 'steam fog,' soon changes to vapor again.) Observe the fog some morning; why is it over low places? What is the effect of the sun or wind? Observe the cloud in the upper air; how does the water get there? What con- denses it? when more condenses than the air will hold what does it do? In what condition is the ground in the winter for receiving rain? Where does the water appear again? Observe frost or snow as crystals of water; notice the temperature, (32° or lower) of water condensed into a solid; watch for the first snow to find the shape of the crystals, and sketch them. Observe ice crystals packed together in a mass. Ice is lighter than water, rises to the top; of what benefit is this fact? "Illustrations Fill a bottle with water, cork it and place in a mixture of salt and ice in a tin can; the bottle breaks. Ice crystals take more room than the same amount of water. Call for other illustrations: e. g. bursting of a water pipe, ice splitting open cracks in the rocks. What is the difference between hail and snow? (Drops of water frozen or hail, fine drops of mist frozen or snow. ) Think of the value of snow in winter." Written work follows. 3. Application. " As an application of these exercises, the daily weather chart is kept for forenoon and afternoon of the school day. The pupils make blank forms for each week, and an enlarged record is placed on the blackboard. This work is done for a month at a time, that the deductions may be general. Observations are assigned to different children from day to day, and also for the days of the week when the school is not in session. The children are interested in the weather predictions for the day, and comparisons are made with their records. Many simple devices are used to increase the interest in the subject, such as the use of color, weather signals, and newspaper clippings. The same hours each day are selected for observations." (4) The order of the teaching in these lessons is the definite observation of the phenomena; thinking how the changes are produced ; tliinking of the effects and value of the changes; expressing the facts in proper terms; having 262 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. written exercises upon the topics, and making a systematic record of observations. The purpose of the teaching is to acquire knowledge of the facts observed and their cause; to interest the pupils in the study of natural phenomena; to teach them to observe definitely the changes going on about them; to inquire for the cause of these changes, and to con- sider how they affect the life of the world. 2. The Process of Addition. (1) Direction and instruc- tive questioning. The pupils have had practice in adding single columns, and in writing numbers of four places. The class is at the board, and the teacher directs their work in taking the steps of the process. Write 473, directly under this write 579, 367, 745, 984, 613, and draw a line under the last number expressed. The pupils are led by questioning to notice the different orders of units, then to take, to state, to write, each step of the process. The steps are as follows: Write the number of units of the same order in the same column, and draw a line beneath. Add the units of the lowest order from the foot of the col- umn upward, and from the top downward, and repeat until the results agree. Write the units of the sum under the col- umn added, and hold the tens of the sum for the next addition. Add the tens of the preceding sum with the units of the next order, verify the adding, and write the units of the sum under the column added. Add the tens of the preceding sum with the units of the highest order, verify, write the units of the sum under the column added, and the tens of the sum at the left. The pupils state the whole process. They repeat and state the process upon examples, until it can be performed and stated accurately without hes- itation. (2) Training in consecutive thinking. In this teaching the pupil is trained to think the series of thoughts in a pro- cess, to verifying his thinking, to state his thoughts accurately, orally, and in writing, and to repeat the process until it becomes a permanent tendency of his mind. Under the definite direction and interest of the teacher, there is no waste of time or energy; there is the pleasure of well-directed OBSERVATION IN THE FIVE GRAMMAR GRADES. 263 activity, and the stimulus to continuity and exactness of thought and statement, and to self-rehance and truthful dealing. 3. The Structure of Sentences. (1) Training in construc- tive thinking. The object of thought in the lesson is the structure of the sentence and its parts. The pupils have learned what a sentence is and its essential parts. They are at the board, and the teacher directs their thinking. They write the illustrations, and the definitions which they derive from them by their own thinking. A simple sentence. The kinds of sentence according to structure. Write, "The boy has gone." How many sub- jects and predicates in the sentence? Write other sentences like this one. Such sentences are simple. State the defin- ition. A simple sentence is -a sentence that has only one subject and one predicate. A complex sentence. Write, " The boy who told me has gone. The boy went when the bell rang." What do you find in the subject of the first sentence? In the predicate of the second? A sentence. Write other sentences like these two. Such sentences are complex. State the definition. A complex sentence is a sentence that has a sentence for a part of its subject or predicate. A compound sentence. Write, ' ' One comes and another goes." How many sentences in this sentence? Note that each sentence has an assertive force independent of the other. Write other sentences like this one. Such sentences are compound. State the definition. A compound sentence is a sentence composed of two or more independent sen- tences. Compound and complex sentence. Write, "The man who is sick is here, but his son has gone." What kind of a sentence is this? What do you find in the subject of this sentence? Write other sentences having the same construc- tion. What do you learn from these illustrations? I learn that a sentence may be both compound and complex. Compound and simple sentences. Write, " The boys and girls have gone. They went and returned.," What kind of 264 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. a subject and predicate do you find in the first sentence? In the second? Write other sentences like these two. What do you learn from these illustrations? That a sentence may have one part compound and the other simple. A clause. In the preceding illustrations in which were sentences used as parts of other sentences? In all except the simple sentence. Such sentences are called clauses. State the definition of a clause. A clause is a sentence used as a part of another sentence. A phrase. Write, "Uncle Tom's Cabin" is a strong book. To give is better than to receive. They finished with ease. The book of poems had a cover of white paper. Notice the collection of words in italics in each sentence. Each has the force of what part of speech? Does the collection form a sentence? Such a collection of words is a phrase. State the definition. A phrase is a collection of words, which has the use of one part of speech, but does not form a sentence. (2) This is introductory teaching. After this teaching the pupils study the lesson, then present it to their class- mates and teacher. They have sufficient exercise in the application of the subject to make it a part of their mental possessions. Teaching the construction of sentences has a direct bearing upon the pupil's daily mental activity. It re- quires him to consider the relations of his ideas and thought, and how he shall make the simple, direct, and logical ex- pression of them. It gives him principles of construction by which he can test the correctness of his own constructions and those of others. It helps him to speak and write with greater facility and effectiveness. It interests him in the study of language. (3) A definite aim. The teacher has a definite aim in every lesson. He knows what steps the pupil needs to take. The pupil is led by simple statements and pertinent questions to discover and express ideas. He assimilates them by his own study, after the introductory teaching. He is examined upon what he has studied. His knowledge and power are tested by exercises in the application of what he has been taught. OBSERVATION IN THE FIVE GRAMMAR GRADES. 265 (4) Hour for study. The pupil is given time to think his thought into definite expression. Great emphasis is placed upon the hour for study. The pupil does not think definitely until he thinks in words. The teacher does not know that the pupil thinks until he expresses his thought in definite statements. (5) Thought and expression inseparable. Accurate thought and statement must keep step. If the pupil thinks definitely, willing words will follow. Every lesson in definite thinking is a lesson in language. Accurate observation, thought, and expression are the basic elements of our intel- lectual life. They cultivate truthfulness. (6) Aim of this teaching. The aim of the teacher in these grades is to lead the pupils to be seekers of truth ; to find joy in a life of thought; to be lovers of the beautiful and good; to be self-reliant; and to be obedient to an enlightened conscience. Obedience is the first virtue to be taught with its twin brother, truthfulness. §IV. Direction of the Emotional Nature. The pupil is stimulated to activity by the spirit and skill of the teacher. This skill implies the wise direction of the emotional nature of the pupil. Egoistic emotions are strong in boys and girls, especially as they approach the transition to youth. They are often very sensitive and restive. Wild notions often hold sway; low and sensual ideals sometimes prevail. Boys are often thought to be especially annoying at this age. The teacher must not be irritated by these mani- festations. Knowing they will come, he is to be prepared to deal with them complacently. He must be especially careful not to nag the pupils by impertinent and sarcastic remarks. Just at this point many teachers lose self-control, and with it lose the respect of their pupils, and their power to help them to higher living. "A boy is inclined to be what everybody expects him to be, and knows what that is whether others think he does or not." This tumultuous state of feeling in pupils calls for sympathetic control, patience, courage, hope- fulness, and inspiration, rather than repression encourage- 266 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. ment rather than censure. The teacher must keep worthy ideals before the pupils; cultivate most carefully their self- respect and self-control. §V. Observation in the Rural School. * ' I consider it the best part of an education to have been born and brought up in the country." — Alcott.. 1. Teaching in the Rural School requires special con- sideration because the country boy and girl have such a dif- ferent environment from that of the city child. "The life of the country child is quiet, the best is not alv^ays made of it, his intelligence is not awakened to his possibilities, his surroundings are unambitious, his incentives are less, the means to better his conditions are often withheld from him. But he has a more robust physique, more wholesome food, more varied and interesting occupations, less vicious tempta- tions, can form more valuable and enduring friendships." 2. The Country Child. In his dealing with men, the country child is not so keen of sight, so prompt in judgment, so quick to act, so free in expression as the city child. But he knows more of the action of natural forces, and of plants and animals in their habits and uses. He knows better the mean- ing of work, the value of time, money, and school privileges. 3. Variety of Work. He has a greater variety of em- ployment, especially if hves upon a farm, — in "doing chores," in taking care of animals, in planting, cultivating, and harvesting, in solving the many mechanical problems which come to him in these various employments, in which he learns the use of many tools, the qualities of many mate- rials, and the action of physical forces. 4. Self-development. The country child observes the varying phenomena of the earth and the heavens, he takes note of wind and weather, of the constantly varying physical conditions under which he lives, and the many modes of plant and animal life, which meet him on every side. He develops his physique, cultivates observation and thought- fulness, and the love of the beautiful in nature. He forms thrifty habits, has to be up and at work in the morning, to OBSERVATION IN THE FIVE GRAMMAR GRADES. 267 be out of doors, to use his physical energy, to be prompt, dili- gent, energetic, resourceful, and self-reliant. All these con- ditions are conducive to self-development and strength of character. 5. School Conditions. The condition of the pupils in the rural schoolroom is quite different from that of the pupils in the city school. The rural school usually has a fev^ pupils of every grade in the same room instead of having all the pupils in the same room of one grade. The younger pupils learn much from listening to the teaching of the older, and they are much influened by the conduct of their elders. The older pupils are constantly reviewing their former work by listen- ing to the teaching of the younger, and are kept in sympathy with the younger by their daily intercourse with them and their care for them. These stimuli are wanting in the school of one grade. The pupils in the rural school have less per- sonal attention from the teacher; they must rely more upon their own study for what they get, and they do this more readily from their habit of working at home. 6. Opportunities of the Teacher. : The teacher of the rural school must be able to adapt himself to pupils of all ages. He has a more extended daily program of work, con- sequently must be prepared on a wider range of subjects, and he has to turn quickly from one grade of work to another. Usually, he has a better acquaintance with his pupils outside of school, knows more of their home life, and is in closer touch with their parents. These conditions give the teacher of the rural school a wider range of experience, and more rapid development of his power to teach, than he would get in any other school. fThe principles of teaching are the same for all schools, but the influences of home life and the natural environment of the pupils in the country are mingled in such different proportions, and are often so differ- ent in quality, that the application of the principles of teach- ing must vary quite sensibly. The teacher must be quick to take in all the conditions which influence his work, and to adapt his teaching to the needs of his pupils. Many a boy and girl has been started upon a career of great usefulness 268 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. through the encouragement and inspiration of his or her teacher in the rural school. 7. Development of Character. If the country boy and^ girl develop stronger characters and are more successful in the struggle of life, it is not alone due to the fact that they were trained in the rural school. This is not the ideal school, but it has its advantages. The development of character in the country is due as well to the quality and proportion of the influences outside of school life; to the more quiet life which favors thoughtfulness; to the teaching of nature, in the manifold beauties of the earth and sky, in the glories of the sunrise and sunset and the starry firmament; in the fore- thought of seedtime; in the patient cultivation of the summer time; in the rewards of the harvest time; and in the enjoy- ments of the fruits of labor in the winter time; and to the habits of industry, economy and thrift which a life in the country cultivates. There is no home like the good country home in which to rear children. CHAPTER XXVIII. OBSERVATION IN THE HIGH SCHOOL. " That man lives twice that lives the first life well." — Herrick. §1. Conditions of Work in the High School. 1. The Status of the Pupil. The position of the pupil in the high school is different in many ways from that which he occupied in the lower grades. (1) He mingles with pupils from all sections of the town or city; he has wider social relations and different lines of amusement; he has to do more of his studying out of school, has to depend more upon his own resources and has to take greater responsibility. (2) The great changes in his physical development at this age give a new aspect to life in all its relations. Life seems to be not only a new thing, but a strange thing in many ways, with not a little of mystery hovering over some of its phases. The youth often does not know what he thinks, his feelings are tumultuous, and his choosing is fickle. At times, a feeling of lassitude controls him, and he falls into a dreamy state of mind. He is sensitive about his rela- tion to his elders, he desires to be noticed by them, and to take his place among them; his feeling about his dress and personal appearance and his regard for the other sex have greatly changed. (3) These changes in his physical development and the consequent change in his thinking, feeling, and willing call for wisdom and skill in directing the unfolding of the youth- ful hfe into young manhood and womanhood. The teacher needs to study his pupils closely and to adapt his teaching with great care to their needs, especially in relation to refine- ment of feeling, moral integrity, and spiritual uplifting. 270 the teacher in modern life. §11. Quality and Product of the Teaching. 1. The Teacher. The well qualified teachers in the high school are in hearty sympathy with pupils. They have the aptitude, character, knowledge, and skill requisite to direct their development. They know what has been done in the previous grades, they discover where on the way of life their pupils are, and they lead them on in a continuous advance in true living. 2. Lines of Teaching. Good teaching in the high school leads the pupil to a wider observation in the realms of nature and human activity; to broader and deeper thinking; to per- spicuous expression of thought; to a growing appreciation of truth by extending the elementary knowledge of the pupil and adding the scientific knowledge of the subjects studied. It leads the pupil to a keener perception and finer appre- ciation of beauty along all the lines of study. It leads the pupil to a stronger love for goodness; to in- creasing self-respect, self-reliance, and self-control; to a fuller consideration of his relations to his fellowmen and to God; to the rights and duties that arise from these relations; and to a clearer conception of the perfection of human char- acter 3. Range of Work. The pupils should be led to consider what they are studying, the method of their study, and its relation to their life. Their work should be both scientific and practical, and should include manual, industrial, and vo- cational work, in the laboratory and out of doors with nature. §111. Teaching English. 1. The Aim. The aim of the study is " the mastery of Enghsh as a tool." 2. Language Defined. (1) We have the power to asso- ciate our ideas and feelings with looks, smiles, laughter, tears, sighs, gesticulations, motions, and tones of the voice, so that similar ideas and feelings may be awakened in other minds. (2) We have the power to associate our ideas with cer- tain sounds, called spoken words. OBSERVATION IN THE HIGH SCHOOL.. 271 (3) We have the power to associate our ideas with certain characters, called written words. ' First. Language, primarily, is the power by which we associate our ideas with their proper signs, that we may give them effective expression. Second. Language, secondarily, is the system of signs by which we express our thoughts, feelings, and vohtions. 3. Language of Action and Its Cultivation. The first language used by man is the language of action in which we use the natural signs of facial expressions, intonations of the voice, and gestures, signs which every human being uses and understands. Through these natural signs men of every clime can communicate with each other; the youngest child can understand those who approach him, even the lower animals are controlled by man through the use of these signs. Everyone knows the power of a look, a smile, of laughter, tears, the cry of distress, and of gesture. The whole soul finds expression in the eye, the voice, the carriage of the body; but without careful study of these powers we do not appreciate their full meaning. The first condition for the effective use of natural signs is to appreciate the power of this language in the expression of thought, feeling, and volition. The power of the language of action is seen in the power of tones, looks, gestures, and attitudes, in oratory, in dramatic performance, in pantomime, and in deaf mutes. Training in the language of action gives one command of himself in the use of the face, the voice, and in the carriage of the body. It makes the difference between the boor and the gentleman in manner and bearing. We acquire facility in the use of this power by keeping the body in good health; by cultivating a cheerful countenance, in a word " by being wealthy in cheerfulness;" by intelligent training in facial expression, vocal expression, and gesture; and by close ob- servation of persons who have cultivated these powers. 4. Articulate Language and Its Cultivation. The lan- guage of action is not sufficient to meet all the needs of social life. Each people has it own system of spoken words, which 272 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. one of another people must learn before he can talk with the former. (1) Spoken words are conventional signs. The power of speech is given to every man. The form of the signs used is determined by the people who live together. The spoken words of our language are composed of fourteen open sounds, called vowels, which are formed by holding the upper vocal organs open and vocalizing the breath as it is forced through the larynx; and twenty-eight articulate sounds, called conso- nants, which l^are formed in the mouth by the movement of the upper vocal organs upon the breath as it is forced through them. Since articulate sounds predominate in spoken words, speech is called articulate language. The first pro- duct of any people is a spoken language, for the interchange of ideas in their daily life. (2) Learning spoken words. A person learns spoken words, by listening to the speaker to hear accurately what is spoken, and by thinking of what is said until it is definitely understood. There is great value in learning to hear. A good listener gets what is spoken; he becomes a thinker, and accurate thinking leads to definite performance. Hearing accurately lis the difference between failure and success in the ordinary intercourse of life. (3) Facility in speaking. Every one gains facility in speaking, by being a good listener, that he may profit by the example of others; by careful observation and wide reading, that he may have something worth saying; by much practice in speaking upon topics definitely thought out. The power to speak effectively is a great achievement. Prof. G. H. Palmer says: "He who can explain himself may command what he wants. Men do what we desire only when per- suaded. The persuasive and explanatory tongue is, there- fore, one of the chief levers of life. Its leverage is felt with- in us, as well as without, for expression and thought are integrally bound together." (4) Marcel says: "In the act of speech one being seems to be divided into two distinct individuals in intimate communication with each other the one speaking, the other OBSERVATION IN THE HIGH SCHOOL. 273 listening; the one executing, the other judging the perfor- mance. No other vehicle of thought so effectually elicits this double action of the mind; none so intimately communicates with the brain. The numberless intonations and inflections of the voice can manifest the slightest or deepest emotions, and can exhibit the minutest shades of ideas." (5) Speech and climate. "It is interesting to notice that spoken language varies very much w^ith the climate in which a people live. Warm climates occasion the relaxation of the muscles called into use in speaking, which softens the vocal action, and increases the melody of the voice; while cold climates contract these muscles, increase the energy, produce close and short utterance, and make articulate sounds predominant in speech. This difference in the eu- phony of spoken language, ' made Charles V wittily observe, that English should be used in speaking to birds; German to horses; Italian to women; French to men; and Spanish to God. ' Spoken words directly represent ideas, and they are always accompanied by the natural signs of the language of action. The union of speech and the language of action gives the perfection of language. ' ' 5. Written Language and Its Cultivation. People living together have learned to associate their ideas with perma- nent signs, that they may communicate with those who are distant from them either in space or time. These are com- posed of letters which represent the elementary sounds of the spoken words and form the alphabet of written language. (1) Written words represent ideas and spoken words. To have a perfect system of signs we should have as many letters in our alphabet as we have elementary sounds in the spoken words. The fact that we have only twenty-six letters to represent forty-two elementary sounds makes many irreg- ularities in our written words. It greatly increases the difficulty of the correct writing and pronunciation of words. Besides these irregularities we have superfluous letters in some words, the rehcs of former ways of spelling. The ele- mentary sounds and the names of the letters are different. We must be careful to distinguish the name of the letter 274 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. from the elementary sound which the letter represents. (2) Written language is indispensable to every one who wishes to record and extend his knowledge, and to avail himself of the knowledge of those with whom he cannot speak. We use language of action, articulate language, and written language. To which we may add pictorial language. The picture of an object is a sign of the object. (3) Two things are necessary to facility in the use of written language. First, we must learn to read, that is, to get the thought expressed by the written language and to express it orally. Second, we must learn to write, that is, to use written words effectively in the expression of thought. Written words are purely arbitrary signs. There is nothing in them to awaken the desire to know them. The desire to read has to be excited by the teacher. (4) Teaching to read. The first thing is to teach the be ginner to associate ideas with written words. The second thing is to teach the pupil to think the thought at sight of the sentence. That is, teach him to read silently. The third thing is to teach the pupil to speak the sentence so as to ex- press the thought. Speech is the key to reading. (5) Auxiliary exercises. We can read orally only as we know at sight the meaning and pronunciation of every word. We can know the meaning of the word only as we know the object for which the word stands. We can pronounce the word only as we know the powers of the letters, the syllabi- cation of the words, and the meaning and the accent. Aux- iliary exercises to learn the meaning and pronunication of words, and physical and vocal exercises to develop the power of the voice, are essential aids in learning to read. (6) Facility in reading. The reader can get the thought of the writer only as far as he has had experience similar to that of the writer. Facility in silent reading is conditioned upon accurate observation, careful study, and extended infor- tion. Expressive oral reading requires the observance of the conditions noticed for effective speaking. (7) Value of reading. The power to read may bring us into communication with the greatest and best minds of both OBSERVATION IN THE HIGH SCHOOL. 275 the past and the present, increase our information, and stim- ulate our thought and action. (8) Learning to write. We learn to write effectively, first, by learning to speak simply and directly; second, by frequent practice in writing, with close attention to the choice of words, construction, spelling, punctuation, the unity of the sentence and paragraph, and to the relation of the parts to each other and to the whole; third, by aiming to express our thought in the way that will be most easily un- derstood by those for whom we write. Facility in writing comes only by persistent, careful practice, with much revision, if need be. seeking the best thought and the best expression we can command. Prof. George H. Palmer, in his Essay on Self Cultivation of English, gives excellent directions for writing. He says : First, ' ' Look well to your speech. We speak a hundred times for every once we write. Consequently through speech it is usually decided whether a man is to have command of his language or not." Second, "Welcome every opportunity for writing." ' ' There is no work known to man more difficult than writing. Only practice breeds ease. ' ' Third, " Remember the other person." "Every utter- ance really concerns two. Its aim is social. I must write with pains, that he may read with ease. How can I tell all I long to tell, and still be sure the telling will be for him as lucid and dehghtful as for me?" Fourth, "Lean upon your subject." "Those who in their utterance fix their thought upon themselves, or on other selves, never reach power." Fifth, " We should do the work and not think about it; do it day after day and not grow w^eary in bad doing. Early and often we must be busy, and be satisfied to have a great deal of labor produce but a small result." Sixth, " This teaching by itself is not true. It needs the supplementation of others. Let him who would speak or write well seek out good speakers and writers. Let him live in their society, for the society of the greatest writers is open 276 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. to the most secluded — let him feel the ease of their excel- lence, the ingenuity, grace, and scope of their diction, and he will soon find in himself capacities whose development may be aided by the precepts I have given. Most of us catch better than we learn." §IV. The Opportunity of the High School. 1. Speaker and Hearer. The cultivation of the power of language is of signal importance to every person. Hearing, speaking, reading, and writing are the great highways of human intercourse and progress. Good speaking implies ap- preciative hearers. The good speaker gives the best of himself to the sympathetic hearer, quickens his thought, moves him to high purpose and vigorous exertion. In return the good listener stimulates the speaker to his best effort. 2. Writer and Reader. Good writing implies the intel- ligent reader. The good writer gives the best of his life to the cultivated reader, elevates his thought, deepens his emotion, incites him to higher living. Great emphasis should be placed upon the cultivation of the power of language, the growth of our life depends directly upon the increase of this power. 3. Maxim of English Teaching. Teachers often say: "It seems quite impossible to establish a pupil in the use of good English who never hears the language spoken properly in his own home, and who hears it constantly misused by his asso- ciates outside." Dr. Nicolas Murray Butler says: "The one ruling maxim of English teaching ought to be: The child will speak and write the sort of English that he hears and reads." There is much complaint of the schools, from the common schools to the university, that they do not train the pupil to speak and write good English. 4. Necessity of Home Teaching. The school can do, and does do, much to improve the language of its pupils, but good English will never be fully secured until " the fathers and mothers understand that it is in the home that proper facil- ities for reading must be supplied them." There is no language so influential upon the child as * 'the mother tongue. " OBSERVATION IN THE HIGH SCHOOL. 277 5. Teacher Should Do His Best. If the home and his associates give the pupil only corrupt English, it is the strongest reason why the wise, sympathetic teacher, who understands his pupil and knows how to appeal to the best that is in him, should do everything he can do to make his pupil familiar with good spoken English and the best written English. Everything which the school does in this direction re-acts upon the home and upon society. 6. The Dignity of Language. The language of our social environment is what the individual members of society make it. To make it what it ought to be, we, as a people, must be raised to the level on which we shall seek to live the higher life. We must be led to a larger conception of the dignity of language so that we shall give no countenance to illiteracy. Every person must help in this uplifting of the pupil. 7. Unconscious Influence of the Teacher. The teacher of the high school has a grand opportunity to unfold the esthetic and moral life of the youth who come under his teaching. If the juices of his nature are not dried up, if he is " pleasant and honest, appreciates a joke as well as other people, " is refined in his taste, is whole souled, has strong spirituality, and sound common sense, his unconscious in- fluence will flow into the life of his pupils, as the atmosphere comes into the blood, to vivify and strengthen their whole being. 8. Conscious Influence of the Teacher. If he is scholarly, loves nature, and has an eye for her beauties, an ear for her melodies, a thought for her truths; if he keeps himself human, loves men of all conditions, has a passionate desire to do them all the good he can, his conscious influence upon the lives of his pupils will be great. 9. Constant Opportunity. He has constant opportunity in the different subjects he studies with his pupils to teach the beauties of nature and human life so as to elevate their taste, to teach moral action so as to quicken their consciences, to teach the relation of nature and man to God, in such a way as to lead them to loving reverence for Him. 10. The Teacher's Privilege. If the teacher keeps him- 278 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. self in sympathy with his pupil, studies his emotional nature, meets him so that the pupil feels that he has a personal re- gard for him, it is his privilege to do him great good in guid- ing him through the critical period of youth when * ' the feel- ings become passions, and, like floods when uncontrolled, sweep on to ruin; " when he thinks so much about himself; when life seems to him so different from what it ever did be- fore; and when he thinks he knows his own need better than any one can tell him, then he needs sympathetic help, and the sober counsel of one in whom he has confidence, who can lead him when he will not be driven. 11. The Atmosphere of the School. The pupil needs to consider the outcome or life, to seek the perfection of his own life. The teacher may lead him to do this by quickening his desire for the knowledge of truth and beauty; by turning his thought to the lives of noble and successful men and women that he may be stimulated to do what they have done, to be what they have become; and by strengthening his sense of duty to the Author of his life. The atmosphere of the school should be saturated with integrity, uprightness, earnestness, and perseverance. There should be no subterfuges, no sham, no deception. Truthfulness, justice, and purity should be the law of the school. CHAPTER XXIX. PRELIMINARY PRACTICE IN TEACHING. 1. After Ample Observation of Teaching in good homes, as far as possible, and in all the grades of a good public school, with a first class teacher at work in charge of each room; when the student-teacher has some just conception of the nature and method of true teaching, when he has become acquainted with the pupils, he should have ample preliminary practice in teaching under such supervision as he needs. To put the student to teaching before this preparation is a wrong to him, and a much greater wrong to the children. We have no right to waste the children's birthright by ignorant attempts at teaching them. 2. The Practice of the Art of Teaching calls for an artist who has the greatest natural aptitude, the noblest character, the fullest knowledge, the ripest experience, and the most delicate skill. Hence, the art is never fully mastered. The best teacher may improve. The young teacher has not all this power, but he should strive for it with all his might. 3. A Period of Preliminary Effort is just as necessary for the teacher as the period of hospital practice is for the physician; as the period of office practice is for the lawyer; as the period of licensed exhortation is for the preacher; as the period of apprenticeship in every trade and in every business is for everyone before assuming the full responsibility of the trade or business. 4. Teaching Must Be Regarded and Conducted As a Pro- fession. There is no art more important than the art of teach- ing, none in which failure is more disastrous. The school is to be conducted for the unfolding and perfecting of the pupil. Hence, the necessity for the best possible preliminary prep- aration before the teacher assumes the responsibilities of the art. CHAPTER XXX. THE PERSONALITY OF THE TEACHER. The personal influence of the true teacher flowing into the life of his pupil through the impressionable years of childhood and youth is of priceless value. §1. Personality and Its Expression. 1. Personality Described. Personality is that peculiar combination of qualities in the person which distinguishes him from all other persons. It is the odor of the soul, which makes its atmosphere fragrant or noxious. It is the flavor of the soul, which makes it sweet or bitter to the taste. It is the vibrations of the soul, which make its sound melodious or harsh. It is the color of the soul, which makes it bright or dull. It is the human touch, warm, vital, close; or cold, limp, and loose. It is the personal charm which magnetizes, or that lack of charm which repulses. It is the spirit of love, or the spirit of selfishness. It is that inexpressible something which warms or chills the soul. 2. Expression of Personality. 1. The soul has two gates through which it goes out to other souls. The first is the gate of unconscious influence, which is always open. (1) The temper reveals the real stuff of which the per- son is made; "it pervades all his behavior by its sweetness or its sourness. " The temper we have suffered to grow up in all the years of our past must flnd expression in the daily Hfe. The temper of the teacher unconsciously affects the life of the pupil for bane or blessing. Sweetness of temper is a great treasure. (2) The face is a perpetual picture of the state of the soul. "The face is the open dial of muscle and fibre, of form THE PERSONALITY OF THE TEACHER. 281 and color, eye and mouth, which mocks all schemes of con- cealment. " It is the playground of the feelings. The soul must shine through it. Pupils study the teacher's face as unconsciously as he exhibits it. The teacher who keeps a good face is sunshine to his pupils. (3) The voice, by its quality and volume, by its tone, modulation, and cadence, discloses the feeling of the heart. Some voices are full of sweetness and melody. Others have a tone of sadness and monotony. "The moral coloring of the soul finds expression in these unpremeditated tones of the teacher's voice." (4) The manner of the person — "the combination of bearing, attitude, gait, and gestures, by which spirit is acted into form" — is an unconscious revelation of personality. Manners cannot be taken on and put off. ' *A noble and at- tractive every-day bearing comes of goodness, of sincerity, of refinement; and these are bred in years, not moments. " Fine manners in the teacher quicken the pupil's thought and start the springs of feeling. Pupils unconsciously imitate the manners of the teacher. "Children are not educated till they catch the charm that makes a gentleman or a gentle- woman. " This is the language of action by which the teacher reveals to his pupils constantly the temper, taste, and motives of his heart. (5) Example. The strongest manifestation of uncon- scious influence is in the transcendent power of example. "Every good man and every bad man has a power in his person and action which is more potent than his words, which takes hold on the hearts of others whether he will have it so or not. " One's life gives power to his words. To do good we must be good. Our life can shine only as our char- acter is luminous. The power of one's personality is primarily in the uncon- scious influences he exerts, which almost invariably agree with the real character; "they follow the character as a shadow follows the sun." The power of unconscious influ- ence is seen in the readiness with which children imitate those about them. ' ' The child looks and listens and the tone 282 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. of feeling and manner of conduct of those about him sink into his soul to mold his life." 2. The second gate through which the soul goes out is the gate of speech, which we open and shut at will as we purpose to do good or evil to others. Jeremy Taylor says, "In the use of the tongue God hath distinguished us from beasts, and by the well or ill using of it we are distinguished from one another." "A word fitly spoken is like apples of gold in pictures of silver." " There are words whose sting remains through a whole life," §11. Cultivation of Personality. 1. Personality is Cultivated by cultivating physical health, strength, beauty, and grace, which condition all men- tal expression. 2. Personality is Cultivated by cultivating one's personal habits. (1) The habit of neatness, always presenting in person and surroundings an agreeable appearance. (2) The habits of order and punctuality in everything and everywhere, which show the sanity of the mind and command respect universally. (3) The habit of accuracy in observation, thought, ex- pression, and work, which is essential to truthfulness. (4) The habit of industry, " the filling of the day with a round of work well done," which strengthens mental and moral fiber. (5) The habit of controlling the tongue, wisely deciding when to speak, when not to speak; what to say, what not to say, which gives self-control and self-determination. (6) The habit of genial conversation, seeking good so- ciety for recreation and improvement, which makes life cheerful. (7) The habit of appreciating the beautiful in nature and in art, which refines the soul. (8) The habit of appreciating the truth, beauty, and goodness in our fellowmen, which awakens sympathy and love for them. THE PERSONALITY OF THE TEACHER. 283 (9) The habit of taking the initiative, which opens the gate of progress. (10) The habit of doing one's best in everything he un- dertakes, which gives him constantly increasing power. 3, Thoughtfulness is the Primary Condition for Cultivat- ing Personality. (1) Paul says, "Whatsoever things are true, whatsoever things are honest, whatsoever things are just, whatsover things are pare, whatsoever things are lovely, whatsoever things are of good report, think on these things." (2) It is in the still hour of thought that we learn what to speak, what not to speak; what to do, what not to do; how to express our thought clearly, forcibly, persuasively; how to marshall our forces for effective action. Thinking makes the man, thinking makes the teacher. We should think be- fore we act, we should think after we have acted; " we learn nothing from our experience except we muse upon it." The still hour of preparation and of musing is the measure of the teacher's progress. (3) In the still hour of thought we cultivate personality by seeking the companionship of books. "Of all inanimate objects a good book is surely the most like a person; it comes the nearest to being alive, with a human soul." (4) Again, in the still hour of thought we cultivate personality by making friends with nature. "We should think of nature as something wonderful, something alive with a spirit that can sympathize with our spirit. The eye one needs to look at nature with, is the eye of imagination. That is about the only eye that ever sees anything clearly and sees it whole." (5) Finally, in the still hour of thought we cultivate personality by seeking the companionship of God. The con- scious sense of God in all our life is the culmination of our power. " Every time we look upon the light, or the beauty of a lily, or hear a tree rustle, or a brook murmur, or a bird sing; yea, every time we feel our hand move, or our head turn we have sufficient evidence that He is not far." ^84 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. "The sun, the moon, the stars, the seas, the hills, and the plains — Are not these, O soul, the Vision of Him who reigns? " Speak to Him then, for He hears, and Spirit with Spirit can meet — Closer is He than breathing, and nearer than hands and feet. "And the ear of man cannot hear, and the eye of man cannot see; But if we could see and hear, this Vision — were it not He?" Henry Ward Beecher voices the truth when he says, ' ' It is God that makes the stillness of the air so sweet. It is God that makes the tumult of the storm so enjoyable. It is God that makes the night better than the bed to our weary thought. It is God that makes the daylight full of splendor and full of glory. It is God that rules the year. Nature would be scarcely worth a puff of the empty wind if it were not that all nature is a temple of which God is the brightness and the glory. Not the Bible alone, but the earth teaches of God." CHAPTER XXXI. IN CONCLUSION. "They only have lived long who have lived virtuously." — Sheridan. 1. The Synthetic View of the Whole Subject of This Volume. Man is a self -active, physical, rational being made in the image of God, and is given the place of dominion over this world. The Earth in its beauty and grandeur is the home of man in the life which he is now living, the laboratory in which man is to work out the problems of his life. This life is the great world school in which the genera- tions of men are being educated. Modern life is the stage of physical and spiritual evolu- tion through which the men of today are passing. The function of the modern teacher is to stimulate and direct the pupil to the conscious exertion and control of all his powers, up to the full measure of his ability, under the laws of his being. These laws are the conditions for the un- folding and perfecting of his life. The human being starts in life with his inheritance of the vital forces, the natural aptitudes, and personal traits which have flowed into his life from the generations of his ancestors. He is ignorant of the life into which he has come with a long period of infancy before him in which he is to make good the unfolding of his powers for an endless career. In his six story life, the nutritive, the animal, the intel- lectual, the emotional, the moral, the spiritual life, he is to live every day in the upper stories of moral and spiritual 286 THE TEACHER IN MODERN LIFE. principles that he may have the fullest, most harmonious life in the whole range of his being. He is to seek the five great goods of true living— health, truth, beauty, goodness, and God, who is "all in all." In his six-fold environment, of nature: the home; the school; the church; the larger community of the state, the nation, the race; and God; he is to keep his mind wide open to the inspiration of all the helpful influences of this environ- ment, that he may grow to the full stature of true manhood with the conscious sense of God in all his life. 2. The Living Teacher must have insight into himself and his pupil and into the environment in which he and his pupil five. He must have largeness of view to comprehend life in the fulness of its meaning. He must have inspiration "for nothing great and lasting can be done except by inspiration." He must have the light of Infinite wisdom, the aid of Infinite power, and the spirit of Infinite love. He must have the teaching of the Great Teacher by whose life his own life is quickened to the full appreciation of the teacher's mission. The conclusion of the whole matter is:— 3. Know Thyself, to the full extent of thy personahty; Know human nature in its full comprehension, in its highest worthiness; Know your pupil at his best; Know the environment of yourself and your pupil to the full measure of your ability; Know thoroughly the subjects you are to use in teaching; Know skilfully the art of teaching; Know wisely the organization of your school; Know spiritually the principles of government; Cultivate assiduously your own personality. 4. Love Your Work. Be willing to do whatever is necessary to secure the highest well-being of your pupils. The quality of the teaching, the instruction, the education in your school depends upon your fidehty. Do your work in the IN CONCLUSION. 287 spirit of Him " who came not to be ministered unto but to minister." Do not overwork, and thereby diminish your power to work, 5. Love Your Pupils. Be courteous to them, and be thoroughly honest with them, so that by the example of your own life, and personal interest in them, you may inspire them with an ardent desire to lead a true, noble life. " This above all — to thine ownself be true; And it must follow, as the night the day. Thou canst not then be false to any man." And then shall be fulfilled the promise of the Great Teacher, "the friend of all children, the teacher of all teachers," thou and thy pupils " shall have life, and shall have it more abundantly." INDEX. Page. Page* Abstraction, defined, . 109, 120 Kinds of. . 181 Action, principles of, . 179, 180 Choice, moral choice, . 49 Appetites, 65 How made. . 180 Desires . 165 Generic choice. . 181 Affections, . 167 Concept, defined. . 121 Affections, defined, . . 167 Comprehension of . 122 Benevolent, 167 Extension of . . 122 Defensive, 168 Relations of, . . 123 Primitive, 168 Series of, . 125 Art, defined. 35-37 Logical definition oi r, . . 127 Artist, defined, . 38 Logical division of, . 130 Qualifications of, 38 Conscience, defined, . 177 Assimilation, 63 Two elements of . . 177 Association of ideas, defined, 99 Enlightened conscie nee, . 177 Principle of, defined, 100 Consciousness, definec 1, . .71 Primary principles, Inferences, 71 Time, .... 100 Consciousness and att ention, . 73 Place, . . ' . 100 Definition, logical, de fined, . 127 Resemblance, 101 Rules of. . 128 Contrast, 101 Desires, defined, . 165 Cause and effect. 101 Specific desires. Secondary principles. Of life. . 166 Interest, 102 Of property. . 166 Attention, 102 Of knowledge. . 166 Repetition, 102 Of power. . 166 Lapse of time. 102 Of esteem, . . 166 Bodily vigor, . 102 General desires. Attention, defined. 72 Of good. . 166 Objects of, . 72 Of liberty, . . 166 Of the child 73 Of society, . . 166 Body, defined, .... 51 Development, defined . 71 Plan of, 52 Stages of. . 17 Ends to be sought, 66 Complete, 30-33 Book, defined, .... 76 Disposition, defined, . . 69 Calorification, .... 63 Division, logical, defir led . 130 Certainty, defined, . 145 Rules of. . 132 Character, defined, . 179 Education, defined, . . 22 How formed, . 181 As a means, . . 22 INDEX. Page. As an end, . 22 Of governor. In widest meaning, . 23 Of subject, . Educational study, Habit, defined, . Of man indispensable, . 40 Heredity, .... Object of, . . . . 41 Hearing, Method of. . 41 Knowledge derived. Difficulties of. . 42 Qualities of matter. Requisites of. . 42 Uses of, . Of subjects, . . 189 Home teaching. Elaboration of thought, . 155 Hope, defined, . Modes of . 155 Human industries. Conditions of . . 155 Idea, defined. Products of . 155 First ideas. Elements of knowledge. . 96 Imagination, Elements of thought. . 120 Reproductive, Comparison, . . 120 Productive, Abstraction, . . 120 Products of, . Analysis, . 120 Uses of, . Synthesis, . 120 Cultivation of. Emotions, defined. . 165 Inference, defined, Pleasure, . 165 Information, defined, Pain, . 165 Inner sense, defined. Environment, six-fold, . 16 Condition of, . Natural, . . 28 Inner world, Human, . . 29 Instinct, defined. Divine, . . 30 Play instinct, . Evolution of the earth, . 12 Instinct of imitatio ti> Of mechanical power, . 19 Instruction, defined. Examination, modes of, . 211-215 Intellect, defined, Fear, defined. . 168 Joy, defined. Forces active in man. . 48 Judgment, defined. Rational life, True and false. Animal life, Division of. Nutritive life. Value of. Chemical affinity. Kindergarten, . Cohesion, Knowledge, defined. Gravitation, Elementary, . Generalization, unconsciou s, . 119 Scientific, Reflective, . 121 Object of Basis of . . 121 Degrees of Products of, . . 121 Language a power. . 9 Government, defined. . 231 System of signs. Right to govern. . 231 Cultivation of What government requi res, . 232 Of action, . INDEX. Page. Speech, . 272, 273 Natures of man. 49 Articulate. . 271 Natural rewards, . . 233-235 Written, . 275 Obedience, defined, . 232 Law, defined, . 70 How secured. 236 Law of things, . 70 Assertion of authority, . 236, 238 Law of persons. . 70 Objects of thought. Law of conduct. . 183 Real object, . 202 Laws of life. 13, 18 Model, . 202 Leadership, . 26 Picture, . 202 Life, . . 11 Diagram, 202 Human, . . 11 Experiment, 202 Modern, . . 11 The drawing. 203 Higher, . . 12 Language, 203 Nutritive, . 15 Illustration and definition. 203 Animal, . . 16 Illustration and division. 203 Intellectual, . 16 The book. 204 Emotional, . 16 Object, knowledge of. 94 Moral, . 16 Observation, exact, . 94 Spiritual, .' 16 Order, Aim of, . . 20 Natural, 200 Lines of activity . 225, 259, 270 Logical 200 Living, defined, . 15, 173 Organization, defined. 220 Man's home. . 50 Advantages of. 220 Man's place in w orld, . . 48 Opening school. 222 Memory, defined . 103 Classification of. 225 Kinds of. Order of exercises. 226 Circumstant al, . . . 104 Keeping order. 228 Philosophica 1, . . . 104 Perception, defined, . 80 Cultivation of. . 105 Immediate, 89 Memorizing ve rbatim, . . 105 Mediate, 90 Mental current. 98, 99 Acquired perceptions, . 92 Mental states, . 67 Cultivation of 94 Method, defined, . 154 Percept, defined, 90 Method of study . 155 Personality of teacher. The one metho d, Described, 280 Of developm ent, . . 195 Expression of, . . 28 0, 281 Of teaching. . 196 Cultivation of, . . 21 ^2-284 Mind, defined. . 67 Phenomena, defined. 68 Moral choice. . 175 Material, Moral nature. . 49 Mental, Moral training. . 230, 231 Preliminary practice. 279 Motive, defined, . 169 Preparation, Motives to exert ion, . . .210 Special daily, . . 216 Nature, defined, . 49 General daily, . 2] 16-218 iv INDEX. Of lessons, . . . . Pagg. 218 From experience, Pag.j. 189 Of class work, 219 From induction, . . .140 Presentative power, defined, 96 From analogy, . . . 141 Conditions of, . . . 96 Reasoning, probable, . . 141 Products of 96 Reasoning, demonstrative, . 143 Principle, defined, 71 Recapitulation, Proof, defined, . . . , 145 Of mind's activity, . 185, 186 Psychology, defined, . 68 Reviews, . 214 Purpose of teacher, . 15 Rule, defined. 71 Quality of body, defined, '. 90 Rural school, 266 Classification of, . 81 School home. 33 Questions, School grounds. 34 The primary, . . . . 12 Science, defined. 152 Primal, 43 Sensation, defined, 79 Questioning, Sense perception, 80 To question, . . . . 204 Four conditions of, 80 Preliminary, ... 20 4, 205 Senses, Instructive, . . . . 206 Touch, . 79 Examination, . . 21 2, 213 Sight, 79 Rational intuitions. Hearing, 79 Of intellect, . . . . 76 Taste, 79 Being, . . . . 77 Smell, . 79 Space, . . . . 77 Sensibility, defined. 157 Time, . . . . 77 Modes of. 162-168 Personal identity. 77 Cultivation of. . 168 Number, 78 Sensorium, defined. 62, 79 Difference, 78 Sight, Resemblance, 78 Knowledge derived. 84, 85 Of sensibility. Qualities of matter. . 86 A good. 159 Noblest sense. . 86 Beauty, ]60 Skill, defined, . . 26 The ludicrous. 161 Sorrow, defined . 168 Of the will. Soul, defined. 15, 49 Personality, 173 Smell, Causation, . 173 Knowledge derived. . 89 Freedom, 174 Quality of matter, . 89 Right and obligation, 174 Use of, . . 89 Right over others, 174 Spirit, defined, . 15, 49 Merit and demerit. . 175 Study, defined, . . 154 Responsibility, . 175 Educational study of man, . 40 Punishment, 175 Of subjects 189 Rational activity, . 68 Synthetic view of this volume, . 285 Three modes of. . 69 Systems, Reasoning, defined, . . 139 Nutritive, INDEX. y Page, Page. ' Digestive, . . . 62 Growth of, . . . 27 Absorbent, . . 53 Practical idealist, . . 35 Circulatory, . 54 Function of, . . 39 Respiratory, . 54 Theory, defined, . 37 Secretory, . . 54 The father 245, 248 Excretory, . . 54 The home, . . 242 Animal, The mother, . 242 Osseous, . 55 The living teacher, . 286 Muscular, . . 56 Thinking, defined. . 74 Nervous, . 57 Thought, Tegumentary, . 63 Stages of , . . . 118, 119 Reproductive, . 64 Elements of, . . 120 Summary, Thoughtfulness, 153, 283 Of mind thinking, . . 156 Topical arrangement, . 200 Of sensibility, . 169 Rules for, . 200 Of will, . . 184 Advantages of, . 200 Of principles of edu ca- Touch, tion, . . 187, 188 Knowledge derived. 80, 81 Systemization, define d, . . 152 Qualities of matter. . 83 Tact, defined, . 26 Use of the hands, . . 83 Taste, Truth, defined, . . 144 Knowledge derived, . 88 Real, . 145 Quality of matter, . 88 Moral, . 145 Use of, . . 89 Physical, . 145 Teaching English, . 270^275 Probable, . 145 Teaching, defined, . 20, 195 Necessary, . 145 Aim of, . . 21 Intuitive, . 78 School teaching. . 21 Will, defined, . 171 A fine art, . 39 Rational willing, . 170 Generic aim of, . 195 Conditions for choice, . 171 Soul of, . . 195 Something to choose. . 171 Means to, . 195 Reason for choosing. . 171 Motives to, . 208, 210 Choice itself. . 171 One method. Power of choice. . 172 Of development, . 195 Fundamental, . 172 Of teaching. . 196 Voluntary, . . 172 Four parties to. . 197 Moral, . 172 Four stages of. . 198 Power of volition, . . 172 Teacher, Position of the will, 172, 173 Relation to pupils. . 24 Cultivation of will, . 178 Qualifications of. . 24, 25, 26 Word, defined. . . 74 ■i^ •^, .\^ ^:- .V s'^'^. xV . : -A V ^^ ''■:i'^ 4' '^^^'' ^^ ^ .\ ^^. '" , ^ '- ", ^ - " .^ -^^ ■^^ , "^^^ ,-\" V ^^^• '^^ ":;■ ,xV .•-iV ^^' "^^ ^' ''•^J / % ■T ■^'^^'