Book COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT Copyright, 1900, by George W. Bertron. BRITISH CELEBRITIES OF THE CENTURY GRANDEST CENTURY IN THE WORLD'S HISTORY CONTAINING A FULL AND GRAPHIC ACCOUNT OF THE MARVELOUS ACHIEVE- MENTS OF ONE HUNDRED YEARS INCLUDING GREAT BATTLES AND CONQUESTS; THE RISE AND FALL OF NATIONS; WONDERFUL GROWTH AND PROGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES; FAMOUS EXPLORATIONS, DISCOVERIES, ETC., ETC. SUBLIME TRIUMPHS OF ELECTRICITY REMARKABLE INVENTIONS; PROGRESS OF SCIENCE, LITERATURE, ART AND AGRICULTURE; CELEBRATED MEN AND WOMEN OF THE CENTURY, Etc., ETC. • • ' By Henry Davenport Northrop Author of "Gem Cyclopedia of Universal Knowledge," " Queen of Republics," Etc., Etc. Profusely Embellished with a large number of Phototype and Wood Engravings NATIONAL PUBLISHING CO. PHILADELPHIA, PA. THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, Two Copiei Reoeivsd APR 8 1903 cIaSS p>^ »». No. 1 ^ ^ ENTERED ACCORDING TO ACT OF CONGRESS, IN THE YEAR 1900, BY J. R. J0NH8 IN THE OFFICE OF THE LIBRARIAN OF CONGRESS, AT WASHINGTON, D. C. n .^&fe PREFACE. vD, f 5 volume contains a full and glowing account of the world's -wonder- *i| il progress in the Nineteenth Century. It vividly depicts the grand c-imax of all the centuries, and describes the great events that have niide the history of mankind sublime and glorious. It is a marvellous record of Brillirait Achievements, such as the TriumpJis of Electricity ; Great Explor- ations and Discoveries ; the Application of Steam to Navigation ; the growth of the World's Navies, and the amazing advances in Education, Religion, Iviter- ature. Art and Science. Such a Century Plant, unfolding its wonderful blossoms, has not been seen before in the history of man. The last Hundred Years have witnessed the Growth of the United States from five and a half million people to more than seventy million; amazing strides in Agriculture ; the development of Immense Natural Resources, and the victories of Invention, Heroism and Statesmanship. The swift march of events in other parts of the globe includes the down« fall of Napoleon I. and Napoleon III.; the rapid changing of the map of Europe, the conflict between Russia and the Allied Powers of England and France ; the expulsion of Spain from the Western Continent ; and the bloody war in South Africa. The last third of the Century witnessed a spirited struggle among the European Powers for supremacy in Africa, which a few years before was an unknown Continent, This masterly work contains a vivid account of the- desperate conflict between the . British and the Boers, states the Causes of the War, and furnishes graphic descriptions of Battles, Sieges, and Heroic Achieve- ments, which tested the courage, endurance and patriotism of the sturdy com- batants. It is a peerless volume, unrolling a grand panorama of historic events and the world's progress in every field of human activity. Part I.— Great Events of American History in the Nineteenth Century. From the purchase of Louisiana in 1803 down to the War with Spain and the FHipino Insurgents, all the events are depicted that make the history of that ui t^ PREFACE. Country in the last hundred years read like a miracle. Ho nation has made greater progress in all that pertains to the highest civilization than our owtn, and the record of it is in this attractive volume. Part II. — European and other Countries in the Nineteenth Century. The downfall of the French Empire, the growth of Great Britain, the seething forces breaking 'out into tragedies of war and the overthrow of Thrones and Empires, are described by a masterly hand. This part of the work affords i> i^omprehensive survey of the nations of the earth. Part III. — Famous Explorations and Discoveries of the Nineteenth Century. The mysteries of the Dark Continent have been brought to light and the frigid Polar World has been made to reveal its icy secrets. The reader tra- verses the jungles and plains of Africa and the frozen realms of -the North with daring explorers, whose adventures, exploits and achievements have given them a world-wide fame. Part IV. — Great Wars and 3attles of the Nineteenth Century. From the plains of Austerlitz and Waterloo down to the famous victories of Manila, San- tiago and the hard-fought Battles in South Africa, the reader views the bloody drama of war and hears the booming of gnus that pronounce the fall of Emperors and Nations. The century closes amid the smoke and din of conflict ; we may well indulge the hope that all this is the terrible birth- pang of better things. Part V. — Marvellous Inventions and Scientific Discoveries of the Nineteenth Century. This is a whole world by itself, opening to the reader's wondering view the marvels of Mechanical Invention, man's triumphs over the forces of nature, making them his willing servants, and the myriad discoveries that are almost too wonderful to be believed. Part VI. — Religion, Literature and Art in the Nineteenth Century. These subjects are fully treated and are of great interest throughout. Part VII. — Famous Men and Women of the Nineteenth Century. This Part comprises all the great celebrities whose achievements give lustre to re- cent decades, and whose names stand high on the scroll of immortal fame. CONTENTS. Moa PART I. GREAT EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. CHAPTER I. THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE. i*URCHASE OF LOUISIANA— NaPOLEON THREATENING GrEAT BRITAIN — PIRATICAL STATES OF Barbary— Jefferson Re-elected— Treason of Aaron Burr — Blow to Ameri- can Commerce— Trouble with Great Britain— Arbitrary Decree of Napoleon — Importation of Slaves Forbidden— Robert Fulton's First Steamboat — Thp "Clermont" Makes a Voyage from New York to Albany— ^Sailing Vessels Superceded by Steam — Fulton the First Great Inventor of the Century . 17 CHAPTER II. OUR SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN. James Madison in the White House— England's Big Fleet— Gen. Hull Fortifies Detroit — Base Surrender of the Detroit Garrison — Sharp Battle at Queens- town ON the Canada Border — Brilliant Exploits of Our Navy — Invasion op Canada — Important Events Connected with the War — Some op the Indian Tribes Take up Arms — The Peace Commission of 1813 — Great American Vic- tory ON Lake Champlain— The British Repulsed in Many Engagements— Orig- inal Text of the ''Star Spangled Banner" — Hartford Convention — ^War Ended — Indiana Brought into the Union 2d CHAPTER III. ORIGIN AND GROWTH OF THE MORMONS. Joseph Smith, Founder of the Sect — The Book of Mormon— Prominent Mormons Swear Falsely — The Book a Historical Romance — Smith Tarred and Feath^ ERED — Removal to Nauvoo— Smith Shot Dead by a Mob — Mormon Temple Db. stroyed by Fire— Mormons Move Again and Found Salt Lake City — Outrages BY Armed Mormons— Mountain Meadows Massacre —Federal Troops Sent to Utah— John D. Lee Convicted and Executed for the Mountain Valle\ Mas- sacre—Death OF Brigham Young— Polygamy Suppressed by the Government . 4> CHAPTER IV. WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO. "*EOPLE FROM CONNECTICUT SETTLE IN TeXAS — MoSES AuSTIN OBTAINS A GrANT FROW the Spanish Government — Large Immigration Pours into Texas— Austin Ar- rested and Imprisoned— Santa Anna in Power — His Troops Driven Out of Texas— Davy Crockett— Mexican Army Routed — Texas a Republic in 1S37 — Movement in Congress for the Annexation of Texas — Proposition Resisted by Mexico — Bloody Battles Between the Mexican and American Armies — Achievements of General Taylor — General Scott's Expedition— Our Arms Evervvvherk Victorious— Rftitrn of Peace on the 4th of July, 1848 51 v vi CONTENTa CHAPTER V. THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. / A.GITATION UPON THE QUESTION OF SLAVERY — ThE MISSOURI COMPROMISE — STRUGGLE IN Kansas in 1854 — Democratic Party Divided— Election of Abraham Lincoln TO the Presidency— The South Asserts State Sovereignty— Appalling State of Affairs— Many Southern States Secede from the Union— Outbreak op THE War— Major Anderson Attacked at Fort Sumter— Confederate Plan to Destroy Commerce— First Great Battle — Slaves Declared "Contraband of W/'ar" — Federal Expeditions to Recapture Southern Harbors— Confederates Seek Recognition Abroad— War of Vast Magnitude— General Grant in the West — Terrible Battles and Many Federal Defeats — Fight Between the Merrimac and the Cumberland—'* Stonewall Jackson " — General McClellan's Advance— The Capital Threatened • CHAPTER VI. END OF THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. Hard Fighting in Tennessee— Capture of Fort Pulaski — Slavery Question ai THE Front— Lincoln Threatens to Free the Slaves— Battles of Chancel- LORSViLLE— Grant's Victory at Vicksburg — Federals Victorious in Great Bat- tle AT Gettysburg — Riots in New York— Generals Thomas and Bragg— Gen- eral LONGSTREET WoUNDED— GrANT MADE CoMMANDER-IN-ChIEF— TeRRIBLE FIGHT- ING IN THE Wilderness— General Sherman's Great March to the Sea — Lincoln Elected to a Second Term— Lee's Situation Desperate— End of the Great Struggle — Assassination of President Lincoln — Death of the Assassins . CHAPTER VII. FROM THE RESTORATION OF THE UNION TO OUR WAR WITH SPAIN. Opening of the Union Pacific Railway — Our Government Insists upon Great Britain Allowing Damages for Captures by Confederate Cruisers— Court of Arbitration— Great Fire in Chicago — Loss Amounts to 1196,000,000— Discon- tent IN Cuba — Seizure of the Virginius and Execution of Her Crew— Demands OF Our Government upon Spain — Peace Commissioners Murdered by Modoc Indians — Assassins Followed and Shot or Hanged — Centennial Exhibition op 1876 — Imposing Ceremonies at Its Opening — Garfield Inaugurated President- President Garfield Shot by an Assassin — General Arthur Becomes President — Discovery op Gold in Alaska— Prosperity in 1898 and Following Years . CHAPTER VIII. THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR. Cuba's Struggle for Freedom — Destruction of the Battleship Maine — Message to Congress from the President — Outbreak of War with Spain — Admiral Dewey's Great Victory at Manila — Young Heroes of the War — United States Army Landed in Cuba — Exploits of the " Rough Riders " — Battles of San Juan and El Caney — Admiral Cervera's Fleet Destroyed by American Squadron Under Command of Commodore Schley— United States Army Landed in Porto Rico- Capture OF the City of Manila — Peace Commissioners Appointed by the United States and Spain— Negotiations for Peace — Peace Treaty Signed by . THE Two Governments — Bloody Conflicts with the Insurgents in the Philip- pines—Great Naval Spectacle in New York Harbor — Sword for Admiral Dgwby — Magnificent Reception to Dewey on His Return CONTENTS. im PART II. EUROPEAN AND OTHER COUNTRIES IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY, CHAPTER IX. GREAT EVENTS IN ENGLISH HISTORY. p&eB "rench Defeated in Egypt — British Naval Victory at Copenhagen— William Pitt IN Power, 1804— Napoleon Determines to Invade England— Great Naval Vic- tory OF the English Fleet at Trafalgar— Napoleon's Brilliant Successes- Battles OF Austerlitz and Jena — The "Iron Duke" — Alliance Against Napo- leon — Ireland Independent— George IV. Comes to the Throne — O'Connell in Parliament— William IV. on the Throne— Victoria Inaugurated Queen in 1838 — Anti-Ccrn-Law League— War Between Russia and Allied Armies of England AND France — Desperate Struggle in the Crimea — Franchise Extended in England— Public School System — Mutiny in India — Punishment of Traitors^ Struggle of the Irish for Home Rule — The Queen's Jubilee in 1897 127 CHAPTER X. FRANCE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. Splendid Triumphs of Napoleon — His Arbitrary Power — Empire Practically In- cluding Half of Europe — Defeat of French Navy by Lord Nelson — Emperor Retires to Elba — Reappearance in France and Defeat at Waterloo— Charles X. ON THE Throne — Trouble in Algiers — Troops Driven from Paris — Eng- land's Bold Move— Death of Heir Apparent in 1842 — The King Abdicates — France a Republic— President Napoleon III. Afterward Becomes Emperor- Political Agitation and Troubles— French and English Alliance Against Russia— Fall of Sebastopol — France Sends an Expedition to Mexico— Maxi- milian Captured and Shot — Scheme to Annex Belgium — Outbreak of War with Prussia — French Armies Defeated and Downfall of Napoleon III. — Escape of Empress Eugenie from Paris — End of the War— Famous Dreyfus Trial. . . . 143 CHAPTER XI. THE NEW GERMAN EMPIRE. Germany Agitated by Napoleon's Schemes at the Beginning op the Century- German Confederation— New Government Organized— Insurrection Suppressed — Austria and Prussia — War with Austria and Great German Victory — The Treaty of Prague — New Territory Incorporated— Union of German States- France Proclaims War Against Prussia — Battles of Gravelotte and Sedan- Empire OF Prussia Under William I. — Laws for the Working Classes — Prussia and the Papacy — National Army — Death of Emperor William I. — Death of Emperor Frederick — William II. Comes to the Throne — Prince Bismarck • . 16? CHAPTER XII. GREAT EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA. Emperor Paul Murdered in 1801— Russian Loss in the Battle of Austerlitz— Coa- lition with France — War with Persia — Powerful Alliance — Cabinet Officer Charged with Treason— Russia Victorious over Persia— Russia Signs the Treaty of London in 1827— Polish Insurrection in 183 i— War against Eng- land AND France in 185-?— Hi oopv Battles in the Crimea— Emancipation np na CONTENTS. THE Serfs in i86i — Russia Assists Slavonic Christians against the Turks- Dismemberment OF Bulgaria — Attempts on the Life of the Emperor— Czar Alexander Crowned in 1S83 — Emperor of Germany Visits the Czar in 1888 — Peace Conference at The Hague in 1899 Called by the Czar of Russia. . . 173 CHAPTER XIII. i^AflONS OF NORTHERN EUROPE— DENMARK, SWEDEN AND NORWAY. Denmark's Wise Ruler— Ascendency of Napoleon— Danish Fleet Surrenders to THE British — Norway Ceded to Sweden — Monarchy in Danger — Danish Posses- sions Defined — Popular Discontent — Conflict with Prussia — Danish Victory Followed by Peace with Prussia — Demands made upon Denmark — Heroic Courage of the Danes — Sweden in the Nineteenth Century — Norway At- tacked BY GusTAVus — Finland Ceded to RfjssiA— Sweden and Norway United. 18J CHAPTER XIV. NATIONS OF SOUTHERN EUROPE— ITALY, GREECE, TURKEY AND SPAIN. Revolution and Conspiracies in Italy— Massacre in Milan — Mazzini's Attempt to Establish a Republic in Rome— Revolution a Failure — Garibaldi and His Volunteers— Rome Emancipated by the Liberator — United Italy a Great Continental Power — Greece in the Nineteenth Century— War for Independ- ence IN 1821 — Turks Defeated by the Greeks— Civil War — Turkish Fleet An- MIHILATED IN 1827 — PRESIDENT ASSASSINATED liv 183I — ItALY UnDER PROTECTION OF Three Great Powers— War Between Greece and Turkey in 1897 — Turkey in THE Nineteenth Century — Conflicts with the Greeks — Crete and Syria — Turke\ Bankrupt — Massacre of Christians— Demands of the United States upon Turkey — Spain in the Nineteenth Century — Revolution in 1820 — Royal Marriages— Uprising of the Carlists — Spain a Republic — Spain again a Mon- archy—War with the United States in 1898 JW CHAPTER XV. CANADA, MEXICO AND SOUTH AMERICA. Upper and Lower Canada — Internal Dissension in the Early Part of the Century — Canadian Rebellion — Defective System of Government — Invasion of Canada BY the Fenians— Confederation of 1867— Dominion of Canada — Purchase op Territory — Vast Wealth of Mines in British Columbia and Elsewhere— Mexico IN THE Nineteenth Century — Popular Discontent — Regency Established in 1822 — President Overthrown — Disorder and Violence — Succession of Revolu- tions—The French in Mexico— Execution of Maximilian — South America in the Nineteenth Century — History of Peru— History of Chili— United States OF Colombia — British Guiana — Bolivia and Argentine Republic 214 CHAPTER XVI. ASIA AND AFRICA IN THE] NINETEENTH CENTURY. China and Japan— Privileges Granted by Chtna to British East India Company — Famous Opium War — China's Disregard of Treaties— Great Rebellion— Cold Blooded Massacre of Europeans — War Between China and Japan— Great Battle of Yalu— -Japan in the Nineteenth Century — The Yankees of the !3ast — Admission of Foreign Vessels to Japanese Ports — Radical Changes in the Government— Feudal System Destroyed— Adopting New Ideas — Republics IN South Africa — President Kruger and the Transvaal~War Between the British anu the Boers . . . c , , . , 23? 'HE X- iY )N :h •1- K- A IT >F X- .N ;r 24'.' 265 27 ti CONTENTS. iX PART III. FAMOUS EXPLORATIONS AND DISCOVERIES OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. CHAPTER XVII. VOYAGES IN THE POLAR WORLD. PAQB Captain Johw Ross— Doctor Rae's Discoveries — Story of Sir John Franklin — Ex- pedition Sent for His Relief— Death of Franklin and His Party — Discovery of Northwest Passage — Many Expeditions Sent to the Polar World — Doctor Kanb and Lieutenant DeLong in the North — Captain Nare's Expedition- Voyage ^OF Lieutenant Greely — Doctor Nanson in Greenland — Expedition BY Lieutenant Peary of the United States Navy — Futile Attempt to Reach the Pole in a Balloon by Andree 24'.' CHAPTER XVIII. LIVINGSTONE AND STANLEY IN CENTRAL AFRICA. Brave Old Missionary — His Start for Zanzibar — Plunges into Wild and Inhospi- table Regions — Picturesque African Scenery — An Unbounded Forest — Remark- able Travels by Stanley — Adventure with an Elephant — In Danger of a Massacre — A Frightened Negro — Great Freshet in the River — Arrival at Bagamoyo 265 CHAPTER XIX. STANLEY'S GREAT JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA. How Stanley Found Livingstone — Determines to Explore Africa — First Stage op His Journey — Many Adventures — Hostile Natives — Invitation from a King — Fantastic Parade — Big War-Boat — Famous Tipo-tipo — The Terrible Dwarfs- Passing the Rapids — Mutiny in Camp— Deserted by the Guides— Stanley's Ex- pedition IN Terrible Straits— His Successful Journey Across Africa — Return to England and the United States — Public Honors for the Great Explorer — Feted in England and America — Remarkable Success of One of the Greatest Expeditions on Record 27t> CHAPTER XX. TRAVELS AND ADVENTURES OF VAMBERY IN CENTRAL ASIA. The Modern Capital of Persia — Shrines of Moslem Saints — Groves of Orange and Lemon Trees — Verdant Plains on Every Side — Caravan in Great Peril— The Route Lost — Warm Reception for Vambery — Travelling in a Fertile Country — Scarcity of Water — City of Bokhara — A Strange Traveller — Car- avan Shut Out of the City — Dazzling Eastern Splendor — The Emirs Parade — "Mother of Cities" — The Traveller's Means Exhausted — Welcome from a Prince 298 PART IV. GREAT WARS AND BATTLES OE THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. CHAPTER XXI. DOWNFALL OF NAPOLEON AT WATERLOO. Extraordinary Military Genius — Immense Array of Forces for a Great Battle --Chain of Fortresses on the Belgian Frontier — Wellington in Command of 1 CDNTENta THE Allfed Army^ — Blucher with 80,000 Men — Bluchkr Attacked and Defeated BY Napoleon — The Emperor Decides to Give Battle — Choosing Position for THE Great Struggle — Disposition op Troops on Each Side — Armies Face to Face — ^Terrific Cannonade — Disgraceful Panic — Heroic Defense— Charge on British Centre — The " Iron Duke " at the Front — Ney's Superb Bravery — Veterans Hurled Back — Magnificent Charge of the Old Guard — "Nine Deadly Hours" — Waterloo Compared with Gettysburg .«.....«».•• 310 CHAPTER XXII. DECISIVE BATTLES OF AUSTERLITZ AND JENA. Striking Figure of Napoleon — French Host Crosses the Rhine — Guard Driven Back — Daring Strategy — An Impregnable Fortress — Setting a Trap— Match- less Marshal Murat — Napoleon s Strategy— Dashing Cavalry Charge — Rus- sians Hurled Back — A Bloody Struggle — Valor was in Vain — Fierce Battle OF Jena — Napoleon in the Ranks— Terrific Combat — Two Gallant Charges- Scene OF Carnage — Thousands of Bloody Swords— Napoleon at Jena — The Emperor Caring for the Wounded on the Field 328 CHAPTER XXIII. BRILLIANT VICTORIES OF COMMODORE PERRY AND GENERAL JACKSON Famous Battle of Lake Erie — Strong Array of English Ships— Brisk Firing — Hand to Hand Combat— Rousing Cheers— Perry Leaving His Ship and Cross« iNG TO Another in an Open Boat — British Vessels Trying to Escape — Heavy Casualties— Glory for the American Navy — Battle of New Orleans — Formid- able British Fleet — American Forces Commanded by "Old Hickory" — Bril- liant Fighting on Both Sides — British Valor and Fortitude — British Advance Slow and Wearisome — Americans Behind Cotton Bales — British Infantry Hurled Back— Fatal Errors — A Withering Fire — Desperate Assault by the British — Death of the British Commander and Victory for the Americans — Battle Fought Before News of Peace Reached the Combatants— Jackson the Hero of the Hour 352 CHAPTER XXIV. GREAT BATTLE OF GETTYSBURG. Three Days Fight that Turned the Tide of War— General Lee's Successes m the South— Bold Attempt to Invade the North — Two Gallant Commanders — General Meade's Plan of Battle— How the Fight Began — Death of the Gal- lant Reynolds— Thunder of Artillery— Mad Rush of Federals— Heavy Cav- alry Battle — Lee's Hopes Fatally Shattered — Brilliant Repulse of Pickett's Brigade — Crisis Battle of the Great Civil War — Lee and the Confederates IN Retreat — Union Successes all Along the Line 378 CHAPTER XXV. BATTLE OF INKERMAN AND CAPTURE OF THE MALAKOFF. British Pluck and Courage — A Slow Siege — Great Russian Host — Daring Bravery OF the French Army — Russian Prince on the Field of Conflict— Russian Col- umn Shattered — Reserves Brought into Action — Fierce Fighting on Both Sides— Critical Moment of the Battle— Invincible Strength of the Allied Forces— Heavy Russian Losses — Awaiting the Final Attack— Outpost Taken i^ND Retaken — Fall of the Citadel— One of the Longest Sieges in History JCnded — Results of the Long-Continued Struggle 390 CONTENTS. S CHAPTER XXVI. OVERTHROW OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE AT SEDAN. Three Armies on the Field— German Host of More Than a Million Men — Emperor William and Napoleon III. — Von Moltke's Trap for the Mouse — Women in the Fight — French Scattered — Fierce Assaults by the Germans — A Field of Slaughter — Grand Cavalry Charge — French Hurled Back — Brave Marshal McMahon Wounded — White Flag Goes Up — Furious Artillery Fire — Meeting of the Two Emperors— A Sealed Letter— William to Napoleon — The Frenchman's Reply — Loud Huzzas Greet the King — Terms of Surrender — Downfall of the French Empire 40S CHAPTER XXVII. AMERICAN VICTORIES IN THE WAR WITH SPAIN. Colonel Roosevelt, Assistant Secretary of the Navy — Admiral Dewey Sent to Asiatic Waters — American Fleet Sails from Hong Kong — Harbor of Manila THE Scene of the Great Naval Battle — Relative Strength of the Combat- ants — The Battle Opens at Daybreak — Terrible Fire of the American Guns — Deadly Aim of Skilled Artillerymen— Destruction of Admiral Montojo's Flagship— Great American Naval Victory — War in Cuba — Military Operations Around' Santiago — Rough Riders in Battle— Exploits of the Regulars— Brav- ery of the Volunteers — Spaniards Driven Back upon Santiago— Admiral Cer- vera Attempts to Escape from the Harbor of Santiago — His Vessels De- stroyed — Another Great American Victory 426 CHAPTER XXVIII. WAR BETWEEN THE BRITISH AND THE BOERS. Difficulties of Long Standing Between Engi-and and the South African Repub« Lie — War Threatened— Ultimatum of the Boers to Great Britain — Outbreak of Hostilities — Capture of 800 British and ii Guns — Repulse of General Buller at Colenso — Operations of Lord Methuen on the Western Border — Battle of Modder River — Lord Roberts in Command — General Cronje's Flight into the Orange Free State — Battles in Northern Natal — Long Siege of Ladysmith — British Suffer Losses at Many Points — Death of a British Gen- eral — General White, Defender of Ladysmith — General French, Commander of British Cavalry — Capture of General Cronje and His Force — British Army AT Bloemfontein — A Costly Struggle ■ 435 PART V. MARVELLOUS INVENTIONS AND SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERIES IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. CHAPTER XXIX. TRIUMPHS OF ELECTRICITY. Professor Morse and the Electric Telegraph — Discouragements of the Inven ior — Morse's M/^chine and Alphabet — First Message Over the Wires — Submarine Cables — Laying the First Atlantic Cable — No Such Word as "Fail" — The Bell Telephone — The Phonograph — ^Wonderful Achievements of Edison — Ed'- son's Kinetoscope — Electric Light — Distribution of Current — Rifles Fired BY Electricity — Wireless Telegraphy — Invention of Marconi — How the Mes- sages ARE Sent — Hard Problems Solved — Automobiles and Automatic Vehicles — Motor on Wheels — Keeping Up Heat — Wonders of the Electrical World — Telegraphing 100,000 Words an Hour— Plants Grown by Electricity 449 xii CONTENTS. CHAPTER XXX. STEAM NAVIGATION AND GROWTH OF THE AMERICAN NAVY. PACB Early Attempts to Invent a Steamboat — Advent of Robert Fulton — Difficulties He Encountered — Ridiculed by the Incredulous — Failure of His First At- tempt — People Assembled on the Banks of the Hudson to see the Boat Start — Surprise at Fulton's Success — Loud Cheers by the Crowd — From New York to Albany and Back — People Along the River Terrified at the Strange Vessel — Floating Batteries — Ocean Steamers and Battleships — Largest Steamship— Our Early Navy— Grand " Old Ironsides '' — Admiral Dewey's Flagship— Famous Oregon— The Swift Columbia 473 CHAPTER XXXI. ELIAS HOWE'S SEWING MACHINE. A Poor Inventor— How He Came to Invent the Sewing Machine — Hopeless Pov- erty for Many Years — Curious Needle and Shuttle — How Obstacles were Over- come — Public has no Faith in His Invention — Repulsed by Many to Whom He Applied for Assistance — Finds a Friend at Last — Tries His Fortune in Eng- land — Affliction in His Family — Death of His Courageous Wife — Manufac- tures Machines to Order — Success of the Invention Which Brings a Fortune — Gold Medal from the Paris Exposition in 1867 and the Cross of the Legion OF Honor — Colonel in the Union Army During the Civil War — Lavish with Money for the Benefit of His Soldiers — Howe's Rank Among the most Dis- tinguished Inventors 485 CHAPTER XXXII. HOE'S LIGHTNING PRINTING PRESS. Invention that Revolutionized the World of Letters — History of the Hoe Family — Arrival of one in New York from England — Energetic Young Man — First Printing That was Done by Steam — Urgent Demand for Rapid News- paper Presses — Problem Long Baffled Solution — Solved at Length in a Single Night — Immense Fortune for the Inventor — London Times and Other Presses — Successful Rotary Printing 491 CHAPTER XXXIII. MISCELLANEOUS DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS. Discovery of the Famous X-Rays — Wonderful Experiments and Results — Dis- covery OF Liquid Air — Coldest Substance Known — Its Practical Uses — Good- year's Process for Utilizing India Rubber — Discoveries in the Art of Heal- ing—Germs OF Disease — Finsen Light Cure — Pasteur's Discovery — A Remedy FOR Hydrophobia — Anti-Toxine — Skin and Bone Grafting — Discovery of Anes- thetics — Explorations at the Bottom of the Sea — Submarine Boats — Death- Dealing Machines of War — Powerful Explosives and Projectiles — Smokeless Powder — Nitro-Glycerine — Dumdum Bullet — Marvellous Searchlights— Tor- pedoes and Submarine Mines— Machine Guns — Invention of the Bicycle — Old Styles Compared with the New — Travelling in the Air — Inventions for Aerial Navigation 496 CHAPTER XXXIV. INVENTIONS APPLIED TO RAILWAYS AND CANALS, SlowI'Progress in Railroad Building — Vast Growth in the Last Half of thk Century — Immense Engines — Fastest Trains in the World — Electricity as a CONTENTS. xih PAGB Motive Power — ^Trans-Siberian and Chinese Eastern Railway — Longest Road IN the World — Marvellous Bridges — Projected Road from Cape Town to Cairo — Cecil Rhodes and His Great Scheme — Ninety Miles an Hour — Great Canals of the World — The Panama Route — Nicaragua Canal — Chicago Drain- age — Outlet to the Mississippi — The Keil Ship Canal — Dimensions and Cost. 51? CHAPTER XXXV. PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE DURING THE CENTURY. Great Improvement in this Deparment of Labor — Chemistry Applied to Agricul- ture — Sir Humphry Davy and His Discoveries — Liebig and His Experiments — Chemical Elements of the Soil — Nourishment of the Plants — Farm Liter- ature — New Methods of Teaching Farming — Success of Experiment Stations — Growth of Agricultural Societies — Governments Become Interested — Thorough Education for the Farm — Great Number of Farmers Compared with Remainder of Population— Old Farm Implements Compared with the New— Great Improvement in Utensils — Agriculture in Europe — Machinery for Everything — Variety of Grasses — Famous Cattle and Sheep — Farmers a Ruling Power .... • 624 CHAPTER XXXVI. REVIEW OF THE WORLD'S SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. Few Great Inventions Prior to the Nineteenth Century — Catalogue of Inven- tions During the Last Hurdred Years — Spectrum Analysis — Use of Antisep- tics in Surgical Operations — Only Remarkable Invention of the Seventeenth Century that of the Telescope--Barometer and Thermometer — No Invention of the First Rank in the Sixteenth Century — Mariner's Compass — Measuring THE Velocity of Light — Nature of Meteors and Comets — Antiquity of Man — Theory of Organic Evolution — Embryology — Astronomy in the Nineteenth Century — Photography as an Aid to the Telescope— Phenomena of our Solar System — The Earth's Satellite— Eclipses of the Sun Remarkable Corona — Discovery of- a Vast Number of Asteroids — Amazing Growth of Human Knowledge in Every Direction 533^ PART VI. RELIGION, LITERATURE AND ART IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. CHAPTER XXXVII. CHRISTIANITY IN THE LAST HUNDRED YEARS. Wonderful Progress in Industrial Science — French Infidels in the Beginning of the Century— Revival of Spiritual Religion— Great Missionary Zeal —Moravians and Their Remarkable Work— Scotch and English Churches and Missionary Societies — American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions — Vast Sums of Money Contributed to the Cause — What is Shown by the Figures ? — Necessity for Medical Missions — Missionary Zeal of the Papal Church — Wonderful Advance of Christianity During the Century — Church Statistics — Church Property — Humanity a Brotherhood — The Russian Em- peror's Peace Conference at the Hague — Formation of Permanent Board ok Arbitration — Settlement c:^ International Disputes without the Sword . . 638 «iv CONTENTS. CHAPTER XXXVIII. THE CENTURY'S PROGRESS IN EDUCATION AND LITERATURE. tAVM Education as Affecting Women— Old-Fashioned Ideas of Woman and Her Sphere — Money Value of Women's Labor — Many Avenues of Activity Open to the Female Sex — The Woman of the Twentieth Century — A Flood of Books — Enormous Masses of Literature — Short-Lived Works — Admirable Histories — Many Writers of Great Repute — Sir Walter Scott and the Waverly Novels — Wholesome Humor of Thackeray — Wonderful Creations of Charles Dickens — George Eliot and Her Famous Works — Novelists and Essay Writers — Important Educational Events in the Nineteenth Century — Chautauqua Sys- tem OF Education — Agricultural Education — Instruction on the Farm . . . 544 CHAPTER XXXIX. A HUNDRED YEARS OF ART. Centres of Art in Europe — Great Facility for Art Study in Paris — Vast Im- provement and Growth in American Art — Pictorial Art and its Rapid De- velopment — Immense Number of Illustrated Books and Magazines — Old-Time Pictures — Rival Schools of Art in France — England's Renowned Paintings — Native Art Productions in the United States — South Kensington School —Royal Academy in London — Rising Talent in Scotland Encouraged— Schools at Munich and Antwerp — Great American Promise of Art .... 554 PART VII. FAMOUS MEN AND WOMEN OF THE CENTURY. CHAPTER XL. CELEBRATED AUTHORS. Hans Christian Andersen — Matthew Arnold — George Bancroft — George H. Bo- ker — Horatius Bonar — Emily Bronte— Elizabeth Barrett Browning — Robert Browning— William Cullen Bryant— Lord Byron — Will Carleton — Thomas Carlisle — Alice and Phcebe Cary— James Fenimore Cooper — Charles Dickens — Ralph Waldo Emerson — Eugene Field — Horace Greeley — Nathaniel Haw- thorne — J. G. Holland — Oliver Wendell Holmes — Tom Hood — Victor Hugo — Rudyard Kipling — H. W. Longfellow — ^J. R. Lowell — Lord Macaulay — Edgar Allen Poe — ^John G. Saxe — Sir Walter Scott — Harriet Beecher Stowe — Alfred Tennyson — W. M. Thackeray — Mark Twain— J. G. Whittier 558 CHAPTER XLI. DISTINGUISHED ORATORS AND STATESMEN. Beecher — Blaine — Bright— Choate— Clay — Depew — Douglass— Everett — Garfield — Gibbons— Gladstone — Gough — Brady — Harrison — Lincoln— McKinley — Moody — Reed— Sherman — Spurgeon — Talmage— Victoria — Webster — Willard ..... 582 CHAPTER XLII. VARIOUS CELEBRITIES AND THEIR ACHIEVEMENTS. Armour — Bartholdi — Bell — Booth — Carnegie — Cleveland — Dewey — Edison — Grant Jackson — Lee — Marconi — Melba — Patti — Wanamaker 596 Appendix A— Latest Events in the History of the Nineteenth Century. . . 609 Appendix B — Canada in the Nineteenth Century 623 MacQuarie U. -^ Emerald Id. .N Antarctic Circle R C i Clar Ca2>e ^oasensiQK j c o,.,,. ,, , , SatUukli J-ami /*;. ' Lau-riclsl. ^JolnvHU lal. o ■4 KLfiijt LamI E MAP OF THE WORLD __L^ n Lonijltudo from Wa!ihiii;:Iun \1 PPing ' * W'^>=;r'^^»Sl / r=!^a Russa\ Vis^"''^ K„\i'^, V ist*y ^ -K/ ^pbtcbUj-B,'^ ^ -sAoscov? •jjvu'" -EoWl^'o Aiooa Vf bO^ noi^osi. ^W^ ^"'■l; cVwV^' '!^..oXn>- 7 "^^"c;;^°^^^^ '";b«^-»c/4'^'*'^- Tijarnopol Y BosiislaV ''^J^ — K yV , Brod."" ._ . _ „ _ ., „^ _ -'^"'>^*' £5o»->*'"'*%6»o^"' C> w HOUSE IN WHICH DECLARATrON WAS ORAREO. Copyright, 1900, by George W. Bertron. DISTINGUISHED AMERICANS OF THE CENTURY PART I. Great Events of American History IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. CHAPTER I. The Louisiana Purchase. ^ HE Revolution, whicli resulted in the independence of the United States, was ended by the sur- render of Lord Cornwallis and his army of 7,000 men at Yorktown, Va., on Oc- tober 19th, 1 78 1. The patriots who had won the great struggle then united their efforts in the formation of a new gov- ernment and a Constitution in line with the principles so boldly asserted in the Declaration of Independence. In 1787 the new Constitution was signed by a convention of the States and was ratified during the following year. The new government was organized by the election of George Washington as President. As we glance back at that stormy period in our history his majestic figure stands out as the chief of the illustrious founders of our Re- public. After twice administering the affairs of the government he died De- cember 14th, 1799. His honored name, embalmed in the hearts of his country- men, is destined to be venerated so long as our nation endures. One of his distin- guished compatriots, Benjamin Frank- lin, whose important services form some of the brightest pages of our early his- tory, ended his illustrious career on April 17th, 1790. 2 The administration of John Adams, second President, closed on March 4th, 1 80 1, and on the same date he was suc- ceeded by Thomas Jefferson, author of the "Immortal Declaration." Aaron Burr, regarded by many af» only a clever adventurer, was inducted into the office of Vice-President- The new administration made Wasbmgton the seat of government, the capitol having been removed to that city during the preceding year. The Purchase of Louisiana. The new chief magistrate was soon involved in a transaction of very great importance. Intelligence was received that Napoleon had extorted from Spain the cession of Louisiana, granting in compensation the succession of the Duke of Parma, a Spanish prince, to the grand-duchy of Tuscany. That court had, however, yielded with much reluctance, and only from being over- awed by the superior power of France. This intelligence excited great alarm in the American cabinet. The possession of this territory by Spain, a weak and sluggish power, had been sufficiently harassing; what then might be expected on its transference 17 li ADMINISTRATION OF PRESIDENT JEFFERSON. to the most stirring and active nation in Europe ? Jefferson, knowing the French government to be embarrassed as to funds, conceived the hope, that, for a large sum, they might be induced to part with the territory; and, viewing , the object as of the deepest importance, ^he was disposed not to be sparing in the amount. A Great Possession. Livingston, Pinckney, and Monroe were appointed a commission for carry- ing on this delicate negotiation. On arriving at Paris, they found their re- publican profession in bad odor with Napoleon, who, having determined to establish absolute power, regarded them with dislike as demagogues and anar- chists. They did not scruple to obviate this by declaring that they considered the present system the most desirable for France after her severe recent agi- tations. They found the acquisition of lyouisiana disapproved in the political circles, yet a favorite object with Na- poleon himself He looked to it as a great colonial possession, which might rival those of England ; as a new Egypt — a place of reward for meritorious officers, and of exile for those he sus- pected. Mr. King, the ambassador to Eng- land, endeavored to stir that court against it ; but though dissatisfaction was expressed, no right was there felt to interfere. An expedition of five to seven thousand men was prepared, and Bernadotte appointed to command it. As, however, Napoleon began to con- template hostile relations with Britain, ./is mind opened to the American pro- posals. He could not hope to maintain this transatlantic possession against her superior navy ; while a large sum of money would be extremely convenient. King, indeed, was warned by Mr. Add- ington, that the British goverment would, in that event, take possession of the country. This was a new ground of alarm ; but he gave assurance, that they sought only to keep it from France, and would be quite satisfied with its acquisition by the United States. As hostilities be- came certain, Napoleon began seriously to negotiate on the subject. The treaty had been opened only with respect to New Orleans, and the territory west of the Mississippi ; but he intended that the eastern must also be included, which, indeed, by itself could be of lit- tle value to him. This proposal being unexpected, the envoys were impro- vided with any instructions ; yet, rightly appreciating the great advantage of possessing both banks, they readily con- sented — a conduct highly approved by the President. Worth Much More than the Cost. After a good deal of discussion, the price was fixed at sixty millions of francs, 1 2, 500,000 dollars, and the States were besides to pay twenty millions of francs, 4,000,000 dollars, of indemnity for injurious captures ; making in all 16,500,000 dollars. The sum, though considerable, bore little proportion to the vast advantages which have since been reaped from the acquisition. Jefferson, although gratified by this arrangement, felt a good deal embar- rassed in laying it before Congress. No power to conclude such a treaty was con- veyed by the Constitution, and he was one who specially deprecated the gen- eral government going a step beyond its ADMINISTRATION OF PRESIDENT JEFFERSON. 19 assigned functions. Congress, however, with the ex'^eption of a small minority, showed too much satisfaction at the event to be at all disposed to criticise its legality. Spain only, who still held possession of the country, and had cer- tainly been treated with very little cer- emony, made a strong remonstrance, that she had ceded it under the engage- ment of its never being alienated, and that the terms even had not been strictly fulfilled. She gave in afterwards a sol- emn protest to the same effect. The American government turned a deaf ear to such representations, and even prepared to assert the claim by arms. Napoleon, on hearing of this dispute, intimated, that unless the Spanish government yielded, he would join America in compulsory measures. This was enough for that court, who, on the loth of February, 1804, intima- ted, through her minister, Don Pedro Cevallos, that her opposition was with- drawn. American Prisoners at Tripoli. Public attention was now called to another subject, which had long caused uneasiness and irritation. The piratical states of Barbary, whose career had hitherto encountered no serious check, had been committing extensive depre- dations on American commerce. They had even intimated an intention not to discontinue them without a tribute, to which the nation was little inclined. As Tripoli had been particularly active. Commodore Preble, in 1803, was sent against it with a fleet of seven sail. On his arrival. Captain Bainbridge, with the frigate Philadelphia, was em- ployed to reconnoitre the harbor ; but proceeding too far, his vessel grounded. and fell into the hands of the enemy. He and his crew were made prisoners, and treated with the usual barbarity. The expedition was thus at a full stand, when Captain Eaton, consul at Tunis, intimated that the throne of Tripoli was disputed by Hamet Cara- malli, a brother of the bashaw who had found refuge and been well received in Egypt. He proposed and was permit- ted to join this prince, commanding the co-operation of the fleet. Eaton soon obtained Hamet's concurrence, and, early in 1805, was invested with the command of a body of troops which the latter had succeeded in raising. "My Head or Yours." He marched across the desert of Mar- morica, summoned the frontier fortress of Derne, and, though the commander made the defying reply, " My head or yours," overpowered him after a few hours of desperate fighting. On May 8th, the reigning bashaw came up with a strong force, and attempted to recover the place, but was repulsed ; and on June loth he sustained another defeat. Immediately after, the American fleet was reinforced by the frigate Constitu- tion. While aflfairs thus wore a trium- phant aspect, and the capital was in alarm of immediate attack, Colonel Lear, the consul, thought it most pru- dent to listen to overtures from the enemy and conclude a peace. It com- prehended the delivery of the prisoners on both sides ; there being a balance of two hundred in favor of the bashaw, for which sixty thousand dollars were to be paid. All co-operation was to be with- drawn from Hamet, in whose favor it was only stipulated, that his wife and children should be released. 20 ADMINISTRATION OF PRESIDENT JEFFERSON That prince made loud complaints, under whicli Jefferson evidently felt considerable uneasiness. He urged, in- deed, that no pledge had been given for his restoration to power ; and that his force, though so far successful, was not adequate to that achievement. Con- certed movements may take place against a common enemy without any mutual guarantee of each other's ob- jects ; yet, where both have effectively co-operated, each seemingly may claim a share of the advantage ; and that of Hamet, on the present occasion, ap- peared exceedingly slender. Jefferson Re-elected. In the end of 1804, Jefferson's first term of office expired. His conduct having been altogether approved, and the democratic spirit being still pre- dominant, he was re-elected by one hundred and sixty-two votes out of one hundred and seventy-six. Burr, who had disgusted the ruling party by his conduct at the last election, was thrown out, and Clinton of New York, a Dem- ocrat so decided that he had even op- posed the formation of the Union, was elected in his place. Burr, disappointed in this quarter, sought compensation by standing as can- didate for governor of New York. He was supported by a large body of the Federals ; but Hamilton, a man of high and honorable mind, despising him as a reckless adventurer, opposed and de- feated his election. The disappointed candidate, taking advantage of some violent language said to have been used by his opponent, sent him a challenge. The parties met, and at the first fire Hamilton fell. No event ever excited a more general feeling of regret through- out the States, where, in the party most adverse to him, his high bearing, splen- did talents, and political consistency, commanded general respect. Burr, however, restlessly sought some means of attaining distinction and power. In September and October, 1806, Jefferson learned that mysterious operations were proceeding along the Ohio ; boats preparing, stores of provis- ions collecting, and a number of suspi- cious characters in movement. A con- fidential agent sent to the spot warned the President that Burr was the prime mover ; and General Wilkinson, who commanded near New Orleans, intima- ted that propositions of a daring and dangerous import had been transmitted to him by that personage. Burr's Treasonable Plot. The ostensible pretext was, the set- tlement of a tract of country said to have been purchased on the Washita, a tributary of the Mississippi ; but the various preparations, the engagement for six months only, the provision of muskets and bayonets, pointed to some- thing altogether distinct. It was either the formation of the western territory into a separate government, or an ex- pedition against Mexico, sought to be justified by a boundary difference that had arisen with Spain, whose troops had actually crossed the Sabine. The former project, if entertained, was given up, no encouragement bein^ found in the disposition of the peo- ple ; and Burr's views were then con- fined to the seizure of New Orleans, and collecting there as large a force as pos- sible for his ulterior design. His par- tisans abstained from all violence, and made their designs known only by -if* ^ Mj?^'-r -'^ ^^-•V' O 5 ^ Li. H => CD en < < CO . 00 tn IJ^ UJ < 'J- CO ^ O U. CO ^ °2 ^ CO ul ADMINISTRATION OF PRESIDENT JEFFERSON. 21 mysterious conversations ; so that, on being appreliended and brought to trial in Kentucky, he obtained a verdict of acquittal. The goveruor of Ohio, how- ever, seized a quantity of boats and stores ; and strict watch was kept along the whole line. Burr was only able, on the 25th of December, to assemble at the mouth of the Cumberland river, from sixty to a hundred men, with whom he sailed down the Mississippi. General Wilkin- son had been instructed to settle the Spanish difference as soon as possible, and direct all his attention to securing New Orleans, and suppressing this en.- terprise. Burr, therefore, finding no support in the country, was unable to resist the force prepared against him ; his followers dispersed, and he him- self, endeavoring to escape, was arrest- ed on his way to Mobile. He was tried on a charge of treason ; but the chief justice was of opinion that, though Blanerhasset, his coadjutor, had openly announced the project of at- tempting the separation of the States, there was not sufficient proof that Burr himself contemplated more than the Mexican expedition, which amount- ed only to the levying of war against a power with whom the country was at peace. Believed to be Guilty. He was thus acquitted of the main charge ; yet Jefferson expressed himself as much dissatisfied with the sentence, declaring his conviction of Burr's guilt in every particular. The acquittal ap- peared to him to have been prompted by that ultra-federal spirit with which he always charged the Supreme Court. Burr went to Europe, and never again appeared on the political theatre of the States. About this time arose discussions that led to a long series of troubles. The contest which had arisen between France and England spread over the Continent, and was attended, on the part of Napoleon, with such signal tri- umphs, as rendered him virtually its master. But, while all Europe bent beneath his sway, he was goaded to madness by seeing Britain stand erect and defiant, while not a vessel could leave one of his own ports withou* almost a certainty of capture. A struggle now ensued, very different from that hitherto waged between Euro- pean kingdoms, when some exterior provinces or appendages- only w^^re dis puted. It was a question of empire oy one side and existence on the other ; and each party thought itself entitled to employ extreme means, and to pass the limits hitherto sanctioned by the practice and public law of Europe. Struggle Between Giants. Napoleon, viewing his mighty rival as resting solely upon commerce, imag. ined, that if he could exclude her mer- chandise entirely from the Continent, the root of her power would wither, and she would fall an easy victim. His adversary, on the other hand, conceived the hope, that by depriving the couu" tries under his sway of all the benefits of trade, a spirit of discontent would be roused that might prove fatal to his dominion. Both parties inflicted on themselves and on each other severe sufferings ; and the hopes of both proved finally abortive. Britain remained mis- tress of the seas, and Europe still lay at the feet of Napoleon. Yet each perse- 22 ADMINISTRATION OF PRESIDENT JEFFERSON. vered, in the hope that the desired result was in silent operation, and that by a continuance of effective means it xnight at last arrive. America had at first derived extraor- Jinary advantages from this warlike attitude of Europe. The most active, and finally almost the only maritime neutral power, she had reaped a rich harvest by engaging in the commerce between the ports of the belligerent states, and kept an extensive shipping employed in this carrying trade. Blow at American Commerce. But a severe reverse was felt under these new measures, when her vessels could not appear in any of the seas of Europe without being liable to capture by one nation or the other. The proc- lamations of both wereequally rigorous ; but Britain possessed so much more means of carrying hers into execution, that they were the most severely felt. Another grievance was endured from the same quarter. The great extension of the American shipping interest of- fered ample employment to British sea- men, who, by entering this service, obtained higher wages and escaped the hardship of serving by impressment in ships of war. Britain therefore claimed and exercised the right of searching American vessels for these deserters, and, whenever grounds of suspicion ap- peared, of calling upon them for proofs of American origin. She contended that the desertion, if unchecked, would proceed on so vast a scale, that the navy, her grand means of defence, would be entirely crippled. The other party complained, that not only was the national flag thus violated, but American citizens were, under this pretext, seized and carried to distant ports, where they could not procure proofs of their origin, and those ac tually produced were not duly regarded. In a report to Congress, it is stated, that the number impressed since the beginning of the war had been four thousand two hundred and twenty- eight, of whom nine hundred and thirty-six had been discharged. It was alleged, that by far the greater propor- tion of these were native Americans, and that in six hundred and ninety- seven recent cases, only twenty-three were British and one hundred and five doubtful ; but to these statements it seems impossible not to demur. The first encroachment on the liberty of commerce was directed against the transportation of the produce of the French West Indies to the mother country. Trouble with Great Britain. It was maintained by Britain, that the Americans, having been formerly excluded from this employment, and admitted to it only in consequence of the war, could not complain of losing a branch which they had never eujoyed ; while they urged, that the war had conferred on Britain no new right to interpose. They entertained hopes of gaining their object in consequence of Mr. Fox's accession to power, in 1806. That statesman even told Monroe, then ambassador, that he had ordered^ the practice of impressment to be sus- pended, but was not prepared to yield up the right. Jefferson, encouraged by this intelli- gence, added Piuckney to the embassy, with the view of concluding a final arrangement. On his arrival, however, Administration of president jefferson. 23 Fox had been siezed with that illness which terminated in his death. The commission were received by Lord Grenville, to whom the subject was new, and who was pressed by the duties of other departments. Soon however, Lords Holland and Auckland, being named commissioners to carry on the negotiations, expressed the most conciliatory disposition, but stated, that as all the law officers were in favor of the right of impressment, it could not be formally conceded, but would be exercised with greatest caution. Agreed to Sign the Treaty. The ilmericans finding more was unattainable, while terms that appeared satisfactory could be secured on other subjects, at length agreed to sign the treaty. On its being transmitted to Jef- ferson, however, he at once determined on refusing to ratify it, without even the usual course of submitting it to the Senate. This, he conceived, when his own mind was completely made up, would have been an empty form. He, therefore, sent it back, with instructions that an attempt should be made to ob- tain at least a partial abolition, and also stating modifications which he consid- ered necessary in several of the other ar- ticles. He continued the same negoti- ators, and did everything in his power to soothe Monroe, hitherto his favorite diplomatist, who could but feel deeply wounded on this occasion. The estrangement caused by this step was aggravated by a tragical incident. Admiral Berkeley, then commanding British vessels on our coast, having learned that several men belonging to his squadron were on board the United States frigate Chesapeake, gave direc- I tions for their seizure by Captain Humphreys, of the Leopard. That officer came up to the American vessel soon after it had sailed from Hampton Roads, Virginia, and sent a boat's crew on board, asking permission to search for the British deserters ; Barron, the commander, replied, that he could not. allow his men to be mustered by any other than himself The boat returned, when a fire was opened from the Leop- ard, which the American, being totally unprepared for, was unable to return. In the course of twenty or thirty min- utes, he endeavored to fit his vessel for action, but not having succeeded, and three of his men being killed and eighteen wounded, he struck his flag. Offered to Give up his Ship. To a British officer, who came on board, he offered his vessel as a prize ; but the other disclaimed any such view, and delived a letter from Humphreys, dej^loring a loss which might have been avoided by amicable adjustment. He then took out four men, three of whom were alleged to be Americans, and de- parted. Berkeley had committed a gross error in authorizing such a proceeding against a government armed vessel, re- specting which the right of search had never been claimed. A loud and o-eneral o clamor, in which all parties joined, was raised throughout the country ; and Jefferson i.ssued a proclamation, exclud- ing British ships of war from all the waters of the United States. The English foreign secretary disa- vowed the action of Captain Humphreys offered reparation, and recalled Admiral Berkeley. England, however, would not give up the right of search, but instructed her officers to use no unnec- 24 ADMINISTRATION OF PRESIDENT JEFFERSON. essary violence in enforcing it. The reparation promised was never made. Affairs in Europe, meantime, were assuming a still more serious aspect. Napoleon, after his victory at Jena, and entry into Berlin, which placed him in a most triumphant position on the con- tinent, became still more eager to crush ,the only power that still defied him. In November, 1 806, he issued a decree, declaring the British isles in a state of blockade ; this was retalliated by an order in council on January 2, 1807, prohibiting the trade by neutrals from any port under his sway to another. Napoleon Enraged. On the nth of November, a fresh order declared, that all these countries were to be considered in a state of block- ade ; but some mitigations were after- wards admitted in regard to vessels willing to trade through the British ports, after paying a certain duty. These terms, however, were repelled by America, as a levying of tribute, and as altogether inconsistent with the inde- pendence of her flag. Enraged at this farther measure. Napoleon, on Decem- ber 17, 1807, issued at Milan, another decree, subjecting to confiscation every vessel which should have submitted to the conditions imposed by England. America was thus placed certainly in a hard situation, being unable to send out a vessel to sea, which was not liable to capture by either belligerent. She might have been fully justified in im- posing severe restrictions on the ship- ping and commerce of the ofiending parties ; but instead of this, Jefferson proposed and was supported by his part}' in carrying the measure of an em- bargo, to be laid for an indefinite period on all our vessels within the ports of America, by which they were prohib-v ited from departing for any foreign port. This step was marked by the singular fact that it was carried by the interior and agricultural States, against the most violent opposition from the northern and commercial ones, though the latter were almost the exclusive sufferers. They were told, indeed, that the object was to procure for them redress, and that their vessels, thus detained in port, would be saved from capture and con- fiscation. They thought, however, that they might have been consulted as to their own interests, and not have had a remedy imposed which was deemed by them ten times worse than the evil. The embargo was repealed in 1809, but commercial intercourse was forbidden with England and France. Slave Trade Abolished. Besides the acquisition of the great Louisiana territory, Mr. Jefferson's ad- ministration is memorable for the ex- tinction of the African slave trade, the importation of slaves having been for- bidden by law in 1808. The policy was then first introduced of purchasing from, the diminishing Indian tribes the lands which they claimed, and removing the Indians to special districts, or " reserva- tions," set apart for them. In this way large tracts of territory were gained from the scattered tribes both north and south of the Ohio. Thus it will be seen that within a period of twenty-five years from the close of the Revolutionary War our country was again agitated and dis- turbed, and there were ominous mutter- ings of war both England and with ADMINISTRATION OF PRESIDENT JEFFERSON. 25 France, Mr. Jefferson, who was not without suspicion of sometimes favoring measures for political effect, resisted with all the powerful resources of his mind and with his commanding influ- ence the aggressions of Great Britain. From the succeeding pages the reader will learn that the statements already made are but preliminary to the second present. Never did a flag have more enthusiastic or ardent defenders than the Stars and Stripes. In the year 1807 a great change was made in the system of navigation by Robert Fulton, a native of Pennsylva- nia, who built and successfully naviga- ted the first steamboat. He named it the " Clermont," and made the voyage ROBERT FUIvTON'S conflict between the United States and Great Britain. A people who at such sac- rifice and cost of blood had gained their independence were not in a mood to tol- erate any violation of their lawful rights, it should be noted that in the early period of our history the true American spirit was born — born in conflict and the shock of battle — and has character- ized our nation from that time to the FiRvST STEAMBOAT. from New York to Albany, a distance of about one hundred and fifty miles, in thirty-six hours. From this time steam navigation rapidly superseded the old system of sailing vessels in the waters of the United States and exercised a powerful influence in the development of the wealth and prosperity of the country. Fulton's was the first great invention of the century. CHAPTER II. Our Second War with Great Britain. HE most important events in our country's history during the early part of the century were connected with what is commonly called the war of 1812. James Madison, hav- ing served one term as President, was inaugurated for a second term on the 4th of March, 1813. War against Great Britain had been declared on the i8th of June before, and was then going on. At the time the war was declared, the prevailing idea was that England was to be brought to terms by the seizure of her neighboring provinces on the northern boundary of the United States- This was the only vital point at which it was expected that the United States could deal* telling blows. Uittle or nothing was expected from any contest on the ocean. The United States navy, of less than thirty frigates and sloops-of-war in commission, even with the new ad- ditions ordered, could not, it was sup- posed, cope with England's fleets of a thousand sail. All that was expected of these was to aid the gun-boats in coast defence, and in preventing a land invasion; while they might, also, in conjunction with privateers put in com- mission, cripple the enemy to some ex- tent by the destruction of their com- merce on the high seas. ^ But the capture of the Canadas was looked upon as an easy prize. It was with this view that the army was organ- ized, and active preparations made. The chief command of all the forces was assigned to General Henry Dear- born, of Massachusetts. His position was to be on the eastern end of the line ; 2(5 the forces on the west end were assigned to General William Hull, then Gover- nor of Michigan ; those in the centre, or middle, of the line, were assigned to General Stephen Van Renssalaer. They were all to co-operate in their move- ments, with a view to Montreal a£, an ultimate objective point. Detroit Fortified. On this line of policy. General Hull had, early in July, 1812, concentrated an army of about 2,500 at Detroit. On the 1 2th of that month he crossed over and took possession of the village of Sandwich. Here he issued a very famous proclamation, and remained un- til the 8th of August, when upon hear- ing that Fort Mackinaw, on the river above Detroit, had been taken by the British and Indians, he recrossed the river and again took position at Detroit. A few days after this, General Brock, Governor of Upper Canada, who had called out a force, took his position at Maiden. On the 15th of August he erected batteries on the opposite side of the river, but in such position as to bring the town of Detroit within the range of his guns, and demanded of Hull a surrender of the place. Colonel McArthur and Colonel Lewis Cass had been sent off on detached ser^ vice, with a small force, on the river Raisin, a few days before, by Genera] Hull. Captain Bush, of the Ohio vol- unteers, had also, with a small force, been sent off on similar detached ser- vice. These detachments were recalled by (General Hull on the 15th. On the OUR SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN 27 i6tli General Brock commenced cross- ing the river with his forces, three miles below the position occupied by General Hull. When the British had advanced with- - in about five hundred yards of Hull's 3. line, to their surprise they saw the dis- "play of a white flag. An officer rode ' up to inquire the cause. It was a sig- ' nal for a parley. A correspondence was opened between the commanding gen- - erals, which speedily terminated in a - capitulation on the part of Hull. The : fortress of Detroit, with the garrisons I and munitions of war, were surren- dered. The forces under Cass and Mc- Arthur, and other troops at the river Raisin, were included in the surrender. Captain Bush, however, not consider- ing himself bound by Hull's engage- ment, broke up his camp and retreated towards Ohio. A Base Surrender. The army surrendered by General Hull amounted to 2,500 men. General Brock's entire command consisted of about 700 British and Canadians, with 600 Indians. This unaccountable con- duct of Hull filled the whole country with indignation. As soon as he was exchanged, he was brought to trial by court-martial. He was charged with treason, cowardice, and neglect of duty, but found guilty only of the two latter charges. He was sentenced to be shot, but his life was spared in consideration of gallant services in his younger days. By the surrender of Hull, the whole Northwestern frontier was exposed, not only to British invasion, but Indian depredations of the most savage char- acter. Great alarm spread throughout *U the neighboring States. Not less than ten thousand volunteers tendered their services to the government for defence. These were accepted and placed under command of General Wil- liam Henry Harrison, who had suc- ceeded Hull. Battle of Queenstown. After Hull's disaster. General Van Rensselaer, who had command, accord- ing to the original plan, of the centre of the invading line, made a movement over the Canada border. His forces consisted of regulars and militia, and were assembled at Lewistown, on the Niagara river. On the opposite side was Queenstown, a fortified British post. This was the first object of his attack. On the 13th of October, he sent a de- tachment of a thousand men over the river, who succeeded in landing under a heavy fire from the British. The troops were led to the assault of the fortress by Colonels Christie and Scott. They succeeded in capturing it. Gen- eral Brock came up with a reinforcement of six hundred men, and made a desper- ate effort to regain the fort, but was de- feated, and lost his life in the engage- ment. General Van Rensselaer was now at Queenstown, and returned to carry over reinforcements, but his troops re- fused to obey the order. Soon after, another British reinforcement was ral- lied, which recaptured the fort after a bloody engagement, in which the greater part of the thousand men who had first taken it were killed. General Van Rensselaer immediately resigned. The command of the army of the centre was then assigned to General Alexander Smyth. He was soon at the head of an army of four thousand five hundred men. On the 28th of No- 28 OUR SECOND WAR WITH GR^AT BRITAIN. vember he was ready to move. That was the day fixed for crossing the river. The troops were embarked, but the enemy appearing on the opposite side in considerable force and battle array, a council of war was held, which resulted in a recall of the troops in motion, and a postponement of the enterprise till the ist of December. On that day another council of war was held, at which the invasion from that quarter was indefi- nitely postponed. General Smyth in turn immediately resigned. So ended the third and last attempt at an inva- sion of Canada, during the fall and winter of 1812. Exploits of the Navy. While the military operations on land, from which so much had been expected, bore so gloomy an aspect, quite as much to the surprise as to the joy of the coun- try, the exploits of the gallant little navy, in its operations on sea, from which very little had been looked for or hoped for, were sending in the most cheering tidings. These may be thus stated : First. — On the 19th of August, 18 12, three days after the disastrous surrender of Detroit by General William Hull, of the army, a most brilliant victory was achieved off the Gulf of St. Lawrence, by Captain Isaac Hull, of the Unikted States frigate Constitution, and coming up with the British man-of-war Guerriere, under the command of Captain Dacres, at the time and place stated, an engagement imme- diately ensued. The fight was a des- perate one, and lasted for some time. But the result was the triumph of Hull and his gallant men. Dacres surren- dered ; but the Guerriere was too much disabled to be brought into port, and was blown up at sea. The loss of the Constitution in men was seven killed and seven wounded ; the loss of the Guerriere was fifty killed and sixty-four wounded ; among the latter was Cap- tain Dacres himself. About the same time. Captain Porter^j in command of the United States fri- gate Essex, met and captured the Brit- ish sloop-of-war Alert, after an action of only eight minutes. Second. On the iStli of October, Captain Jones, in command of the Uni- ted States sloop-of-war Wasp, of eigh- teen guns, met and captured the British sloop-of-war Frolic, of twenty-two guns, after a hard-fought battle of forty-five minutes, losing but eight men, while the loss of his enemy, in a vessel one- third his superior, was eighty men. Capture of a British Frigate. Third. On the 25th of October, Cap- tain Decatur, in command of the frigate United States, of forty-four guns, met and captured the British frigate Mace- donian, mounting forty-nine guns and manned by three hundred men. The action continued an hour and a half. The loss of the Macedonian was thirty- six killed and sixty-eight wounded; while the loss on the United States was only seven killed and five wounded. The Macedonian was brought into New York, and the gallant Decatur, who, when lieutenant, had so signally dis- tinguished himself at Tripoli, was wel- comed with the applause and honors which he had so nobly won. Foitrth. On the 29th of December the Constitution, familiarly called by the sailors Old Ironsides, then in com- mand of Commodore Bainbridge, had another encounter at sea. This was M m\2£^} D£AfffcrfiAKBMffAMArJf£ttr0filEANS-rSf5 3ATi^or//^/C£/iMAN-/^S^ 29 30 OUR SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN. with the British frigate Java, of thirty- eight guns. The action was fought off San Salvador, and lasted three hours. The Java was dismasted and reduced to a wreck, losing one hundred and sixty- one killed and wounded, while the loss of the Constitution in killed and wounded was but thirty-four. Fifth. In addition to these victories of the public vessels. United States privateers, fitted out under letters of to the time of Mr. Madison's inaugu- ration for a second Presidential term. Soon after this, on the 8th of March, 1813, the Russian Minister at Washing- ton, Mr. Daschcoff, communicated to the President of the United States an offer from the Emperor Alexander os' his mediation between the United States and Great Britain, with a view to bring about peace between them. Mr. Madison promptly and formally THE WASP SOARDING THE FROLIC. marque, succeeded in severely distress- ing the enemy's commerce, capturing about five hundred of their merchant- men and taking three thousand prison- ers during the first seven months of the war. England, as Napoleon had pre- dicted, had found an enemy which was ably contesting her supremacy as mis- tress of the sea. Such was the aspect of affairs on land and sea in the progress of war up accepted the Russian mediation, and appointed Mr. Gallatin, John Quincy Adams and James A. Bayard, commis- sioners to negotiate a treaty of peace with Great Britain, under the auspices of the tendered mediation. Messrs. Gallatin and Bayard soon set out on the mission to join Mr. Adams at St Petersburg, where he was then resident Minister of the United States. The British Government declined the medi- OUR SHCOND WAR WiTH GREAT BRITAIN. 31 ation, and nothing came of this com- mission. The first session of the Thirteenth Congress met on the 24th of May, 18 13. The principal business of this Congress was to provide means to carry on the war and sustain the public credit. Direct taxes and excises were again re- sorted to. The expenditures of the v/ar had greatly exceeded the estimates. New loans had to be made and pro- vided for. The public finances were in a state of much embarrassment; treasury notes issued according to act of Congress were at a great discount; the loans authorized by the Govern- ment were paid in depreciated currency; all the banks in the Union had sus- pended specie payments, except some in the New England States. Proper arms and clothing for the militia when called into the field were both wantinof. Already the war spirit was beginning to abate in several quarters, especially in New England. Canada Invaded. Still the invasion of Canada was the leading object of the administration. The campaign planned for this purpose in 1813 was similar to that of 18 12. The operations extended along the whole northern frontier of the United States. The army of the West, under General Harrison, was stationed at the head of Lake Erie; that at the east end of the line, under the command of General Hampton, on the shore of Lake Champlain; while that of the centre, under Dearborn, the commander-in- chief, was placed between the Lakes Ontario and Erie. The result of this campaign, in view of its main object, the conquest of Canada, was very little more successful than that of the year before. There were many movements and counter- movements of forces, advances, retreats and sieges, with some pitched battles, in which great valor was displayed, but no one of them was attended with any decisive results. Noted Events. The most noted events of this cam- paign may be thus briefly stated : First. The slaughter of the United States prisoners at Frenchtown, in Canada, on the 22nd of January, 18 13. Colonel Proctor, the British officer to whom General Winchester had surrendered a force of several hundred men, in viola- tion of his pledge, turned the prisoners over to the vengeance of the Indians; or at least did not restrain his allies, the savages, in their most atrocious acts of barbarity upou their unarmed victims. Second. The battle of York, or To- ronto, in Upper Canada, on the 27th of April, in which the young and gallant United States officer, General Zebulon M. Pike, was killed. He expired in the hour of victory. TJiird. The siege of Fort Meigs by Proctor, and its suc- cessful defence by Harrison in the month of May. Fourth. The subse- quent siege of Fort Sandusky by Proctor in the same month, and its like gallant defence by Major Croghan. Fifth. The battle of Sackett's Harbor on the 29th of May, in which the British General Prevost was signally repulsed. Sixth. The capture on the same day of the British Fort George by the United States troops. Seventh. The battle of Lake Erie, fought on the loth of Sep- tember. This was a naval engage- 32 OUR SBCOlSTD WAR WITH GREAT BRlTAiK. ment, planned and executed by Com- modore Perry. Its results stand briefly chronicled in his report of it to General Harrison in these words : "We have met the enemy, and they are ours ! — two ships, two brigs, one schooner and one sloop." Eighth. The battle of the Thames, as it is called, fought by Harrison on the 5 th of October, and in which he gained a complete victory. It was in this battle that the famous Indian war- rior Tecumseh was killed by the hands of Colonel R. M. Johnson, of Ken- tucky. Soon after this General Harri- son resigned his commission and re- tired from the service. General Dear- born had previously resigned, when the chief command had been conferred upon General James Wilkinson. Indians in Arms. Meanwhile the Creek Indians in Geor- gia and Alabama had taken up arms. On the 30th of August they had sur- prised Fort Mims on the Chattahoochee river, and massacred nearly three hun- dred persons, men, women and children. The militia of Georgia and Tennessee were called out. Those of Georgia were under the command of General John Floyd ; the whole were under the direc- tion of Andrew Jackson, of Tennessee, with the commission of Major-General. Floyd had two engagements with the enemy ; one at Callabee, the other at Autossee. Both were successful. The Indian town of Autossee was burned by him on the 29th of November. A de- tachment of the Tennessee forces, under General Coffee, had an engagement at Tallusahatchee on the 3d of November, in which two hundred Indians were killed. His success was complete. On the 8th of November the battle of Tal- ladega was fought under the immediate direction of Jackson himself. This was another complete victory. Completely Defeated. Soon after, another fight was had at Emuckfau, with a like result. The Indians rallied again, and made their last stand at a place known as " The Horseshoe Bend," or, as they called it, "Tohopeka," on the Tallapoosa river. Here they were completely crushed by Jackson in his great victory of the 27th of March following. A treaty of peace with them was soon after made. The speech of their chief warrior and prophet Witherford, on the occasion of his sur- render to General Jackson, and as re- ported by him at the time, dej-'irves perpetuation. "I am,'' said he, "in your power. Do with me as you please. I am a soh dier. I have done the white people all the harm I could. I have fought them, and fought them bravely. If I had an army, I would yet fight, and contend to the last. But I have none. My people are all gone. I can now do no more than weep over the misfortunes of my nation. Once I could animate my warriors to battle ; but I cannot animate the dead. My warriors can no longer hear my voice. Their bones are at Talladega, Tallusahatchee, Emuckfau, and Toho- peka. I have not surrendered myself thoughtlessly. Whilst there were any chances for success, I never left my post, nor supplicated peace. But my people are gone ; and I now ask it for my na- tion and for myself. ' ' The operations on the sea in 1813 continued, upon the whole, to add lustre to the infant navy of the United States. u Our second war with great britain. The most noted of these, the successful as well as the adverse, were as follows : FirsL Captain Lawrence, of the United States sloop-of-war Hornet, on the 24th of February, met and cap- tured the British brig Peacock, in a conflict that lasted only fifteen minutes. The Peacock, in striking her colors, displayed, at the same time, a signal of distress. Captain Lawrence made the greatest exertions to save her crew, but she went down before all of them could be gotten off, carrying with her three brave and generous United States sea- men, who were extending their aid. A Famous Victory. Second. On the ist of June, the British frigate Shannon captured the United States frigate Chesapeake. The Chesapeake at this time was in the command of Lawrence. Every officer on board of her was either killed or wounded. Lawrence, as he was carried below, weltering in blood, and just before expiring, issued his last heroic order — " Don"^ t give up the ship !' ' But the fortunes of battle decided otherwise. Third. The British met another like success on the 14th of August, in the capture of the United States brig Argus, by the Pelican. The Argus had carried Mr. Crawford, United States Minister, to France, in the month of May ; after which she made a orilliant cruise, capturing more than twenty of the enemy's ships, wlien she was in turn captured, as stated. Her colors, however, were not struck in her last engagement, until Captain Allen, in command, had fallen mortally wounded. Fourth. In September the United States brig Enterprise met the British brig Boxer, on the coast of Maine, and after an engagement of forty minutes the Boxer surrendered. The commanders of both vessels fell in the action, and were buried beside each other in Portland, with military honors. Fifth. During the summer Commo- dore Porter, of the frigate Essex after making many captures of British merchantmen in the Atlantic, visited the Pacific ocean, where he was no less signally successful. Sixth. During the same summer, British fleets entered the waters of the Delaw^are and Chesapeake bays, under the command of Admiral George Cock- burn. All small merchant ships within their reach were destroyed, and much damage done to many of the towns on the coast. Frenchtown, Georgetown, Havre de Grace and Fredericktown were burned. An attack was made upon Norfolk, which was repulsed with heavy loss. After committing many barbarities at Hampton, Cock burn, with his command, sailed south All the ports north, to the limits of the New England coast, were kept in close blockade. Peace Comniission During the session of the Congress, which convened in December, 18 13, a communication was received from the British government, of the purport that, although they had declined to treat under the mediation of Russia, yet they were willing to enter into direct nego- tiations either in London or Gotten- burg. The offer was immediately ac- ceded to, and the latter place appointed for the meeting. Henry Clay and Jona- than Russell were added to the Com- missioners who had already been sent OUR SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN. 35 to Europe. The place of meeting was afterwards changed from Gottenburg to Ghent. The country at this time was feeling sorely the ills of war everywhere. New loans had to be made; increased taxes had to be levied ; more troops had to be raised. The conquest of Canada was still the chief object of the admin- istration. Events of the Campaign. The plan of the campaign of 1814 was projected by General Armstrong, the Secretary of War. The Depart- ment of War was temporarily removed to the frontier, and established at the headquarters of the army on the Canada line. The operations in this quarter during this year, as those of 181 3, were attended with many marches and coun- ter-marches, and much gallant fighting on both sides, but without any decisive results on either. The most noted events connected "dth them may be thus summed uf First. The advance of Wilkinson into Canada commenced in March, and ended with the affair at La Cole Mill, on the 31st of that month, in which he was defeated with heavy loss. Soon after this he was superseded, and the chief command given to General Izard. Second. The battle of Chippewa, which was fought on the 5th of July by General Brown, and in which the United States forces won the day. Third. The battle of Bridgewater, or Lundy's Lane, which was fought on the 25th of July. It was here that Colonel Winfield Scott, in command of a brigade, so signally distinguished himself Two horses were shot under him and he himself was severely wounded, but was more than compen- sated by the victory achieved. Con- gress voted him a gold medal, and he was soon promoted to a major-general- ship. Fourth. The battle of Fort Erie, fought on the 15th of August, in which the British General Drummond was repulsed with great loss. Fifth. The battle of Plattsburg, which was fought on the nth of Sep- tember. This was a joint land and naval action. General Macomb com- manded the United States land forces at this place ; General Prevost com- manded those of the British. The United States naval forces were com- manded by Commodore MacDonough ; the British fleet was commanded by Commodore Downie. The assault was commenced by Prevost with his land forces. As Commodore Downie moved up to assist with his fleet, he was met and engaged by MacDonough with his small flotilla. Capture of the British Fleet. The chief interest of both armies was now diverted from the action on land to that on water, while the conflict be- tween the fleet and flotilla lasted. It continued for upwards of two hours, and was fierce as well as bloody. It ended in the surrender of the British fleet to Commodore MacDonough. Commodore Downie was killed in the fight, and when his flagship struck her colors, the results of the day were decided on land as well as on the water. Prevost immediately retreated. This victory ended all active operations in that quar- ter. Meantime, during the summer of 1 8 14 a fleet of fifty or sixty vessels ar- 36 OUR SECOND WAR WITH GRKAT BRITAIN. rived in the Chesapeake bay under Ad- mirals Cockburn and Cochrane, bring- ing a large land force under General Ross. The design was the capture of the city of Washington. Ross landed five thousand men on the 19th of Au- gust, at the head of the Patuxent, and commenced his march overland. There were at the time no forces for defence near the capital. The raw militia were hastily collected and put under General Winder, who met the enemy at Bladens- burg. The President and cabinet left the city. Winder with his militia was barely able to retard the advance of Ross. He entered Washington the 24th of August, and burned most of the pub- lic buildings, including the President's house and the capitol. Repulse of the Enemy. The troops then returned to their shipping, and proceeded up the Chesa- peake. Landing at North Point, they advanced on Baltimore. This place was defended by General Striker, with a force consisting mostly of raw militia and volunteers. In an action which took place on the 12th of September, Ross was killed, and his forces retired. After an unsuccessful attack of the British fle^t under Cockburn, upon Fort Mc- Henrj;, which commanded the entrance to the city, the whole army re-embarked and left the bay. During this bombardment of Fort Mc- Henry by Cockburn, which lasted anight and a whole day, Francis Scott Key, of Baltimore, then detained on board one of the British vessels, whither he had gone on some public mission, as he gazed most anxiously upon the flag of his country, still floating triumphantly on the ramparts in the midst of the heavy cannonading, composed his soul- stirring song, the " Star Spangled Ban- ner." The reader will be interested in the accompanying fac-simile of the original song, one of the most famous ever composed, the popularity of which only increases with ^he lapse of time. The New England States suffered much in the same way during the sum- mer. Stonington was bombarded, and attempts were made to land an invading force at several places, which were re- pulsed by the militia. Grains and Losses. The operations of the respective navies on the ocean during the year 1 8 14 resulted about as they did in 181 3. The United States lost two war-ships and captured five of like character, be- sides many British merchantmen. Mr. Gerry, the Vice-President, died suddenly in Washington on the 23d of November of this year. John Gaillard, of South Carolina, succeeded him as President of the Senate pro tempore. While these events were occurring on land and water, during the summer of 1 8 14, the hostility in the New England States to the Federal administration had ripened into a determination to take de- cisive steps for the maintenance of their own rights in their owTi. way. A ma- jority of the people of these States were strongly opposed to the conquest of Canada. Massachusetts and Connecti- cut, throwing themselves upon their re- served rights under the Constitution, refused to .•.llow their militia to be sent out of their States, in what they deemed a war of aggression against others, especially when they were needed for their own defence in repelling an inva- sion. tu < ? I- Q < UJ z ^ OUR SECOxND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN. 37 C^. /^^^ W^>^, iW-t!^ y««o^ y^^^ jjC '25i:^ '^x^ucTS'^'^ *^-y^ FAC-SIMILE OF THE ORIGINAL COPY OF THE STAR-SPANGLED BANNEK 38 OUR SECONu WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN. For this course they were very severely censured by most of their sister States, and the more so from the fact that the war had been entered upon for the joint maintenance of the rights of their seamen and commerce. Moreover, it was insisted upon by the friends of the administration, that the mode of warfare adopted was the surest for the attainment of tlie objects aimed at. But what increased the opposition of the New England States at this time was the refusal of the administration to pay the expenses of their militia, called out by the governors of their respective States for their own local defence. The Hartford Convention. This refusal was based upon the ground that these States had refused to send their militia out of their limits upon a Federal call. To this may be added the new scheme of the adminis- tration for forcing the militia of the respective States outside of their limits, not by a call on the governors of the States for them, but by a general act of Federal conscription, which was con- sidered by many able statesmen and jurists as clearly unconstitutional. It was in this condition of things that the IvCgislature of Massachusetts in- vited the neighboring States to meet in convention for mutual consultation. Accordingly, a convention of delegates from Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New Hampshire, Vermont and Connecticut, met at Hartford, in the latter State, on the 15 th day of December, 18 14. The deliberations of this famous body were held within closed doors. What the real ultimate designs of the leading members of it were, have never been fully dis- closed. Some mystery has ever hung over it. But the resolutions adopted by it, and the public address put forth by it at the time, very clearly indicate that the purpose was, either to effect a change of policy on the part of the Federal ad- ministration in the conduct of the war, or for these States, in the exercise of their sovereign rights, to provide for their own well-being, as they thought best, by withdrawing from the Union. The only positive results of the con- vention were, the appointment of a dep- utation of the body to wait upon the Federal authorities at Washington, co whom in person their views were to be presented, and the call of another con- vention, to which this deputation was to report, before any further decisive action should be taken. British Force Landed. In the meantime, it became known that a large British force — of at least twelve thousand men — had been landed at or near the mouth of the Mississippi river, under Sir Edward Pakenham. The country everywhere was in tlie greatest alarm for the safety of New Orleans. The command of this depart- ment was now in charge of General Jackson, with such forces as he could collect, consisting mostly of volunteers and militia, amounting in all to not more than one half the numbers of the approaching foe. He went vigorously to work to repel this most formidable invasion. With such means of resist- ance as the genius of a "born general " only can improvise, he was soon in an attitude of defence. The result was the ever-memorable charge of the British, and their bloody repulse by Jackson, on the 8th of January, 18 15. This was the most brilliant victory 40 OUR SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN. achieved by the arms of the United States during the war. Two thousand British soldiers, led in a charge on Jackson's breastworks, were left dead or wounded upon the field. Pakenham himself was killed. Major-Generals Gibbs and Keane, the two officers next in command, were both wounded, the former mortally ; while Jackson's loss was only seven killed and six wounded. The War Ended. Upon the heels of the news of this splendid achievement, which electrified the country with joy, came the still more gratifying intelligence of a treaty of peace, which the commissioners had effected at Ghent on the 24th of Decem- ber, 1 8 14, fifteen days before this great battle was fought. All discontents ceased, and in the general joy at this close of the bloody scenes of two years and over, it seemed to be entirely for- gotten or overlooked that not one word was said in the treaty about the right of search or impressment by Great Britain, which was the main point in issue at the commencement of the war. The treaty of peace with England was promptly ratified, and all necessary steps for a disbandment of the army were immediately taken by Congress. But further work was in store for the navy. The Dey of Algiers — in viola- tion of the treaty of 1795 — had recently been committing outrages upon Amer- » ican commerce within his waters. Another war against him was soon afterwards declared. The gallant De- catur was sent with a fleet to the Medi- terranean for the chastisement of this piratical power. He in a short time captured two Algerine ships and brought the Dey to terms. A treaty of peace was made on the 30th of June, by which the United States obtained, not only se- curity for the future, but indemnity for the past. William H. Crawford, on his return from Paris, where he had been resident United States Minister for some time, was appointed Secretary of War, ist of August, 181 5. The charter of the first bank of the United States having expired in 181 1, and an act for its renewal having failed to pass, several attempts afterwards were made to obtain a charter for a similar institution, which likewise failed. A bill for this purpose, which had passed both houses of Congress, was vetoed by Mr. Madison, in January, 18 14. But on the lotli of April, 18 16, another bill, of like character, received his approval, by which a new bank of the United States was incorporated for twenty years, with a capital of thirty-five mil- lion dollars. Indiana in the Union. On the 19th day of April, 1816, an act was passed for the admission of Indiana into the Union as a State. During the fall of 18 16 another Pres- idential election took place. There was at this time considerable division among the Republicans as to who the succes- sor should be. Mr. Madison had posi- tively declined standing for re-election. The choice of candidates finally made by the Democratic members of Congress in cau(;us was : Mr. Monroe for Presi- dent; and Governor Daniel D. Tomp- kins, of New York, for Vice-President. The Federal party, still so-called, nomi- nated Rufus King of New York, for President ; and John Eager Howard, of Maryland, for Vice-President. OUR SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN. 41 The result of the vote of the Elec- toral Colleges was 183 for Mr. Monroe, and 34 for Mr. King ; 183 for Governor Tompkins, and 22 for Mr. Howard. The vote by States between the Demo- cratic and Federal tickets at this elec tion stood : 16 for the Democratic and three for the Federal. The sixteen States that voted for Mr. Monroe and Mr. Tompkins were : New Hamp- shire, Rhode Island, Vermont, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Mary- land, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Kentucky, Tennes- see, Ohio, lyouisiana, and Indiana. The three that voted for Mr. King were : Massachusetts, Connecticut and Delaware. After the 4th of March, 1817, Mr. Madison retired from office, leaving the country at peace with the world, and rapidly recovering from the injurious effects of the late war. He returned to his home at Montpelier, Virginia, where he enjoyed the society of his friends and the general esteem of his country- men. The most distinguishing feature of his administration was the war with Great Britain. Whatever may be thought of the wisdom or policy of that war, or of its general conduct, the re- sult unquestionably added greatly to the public character of the United States in the estimation of fereign powers. The price at which this had been purchased was, in round numbers, about one hundred million dollars in public expenditures, and the loss of about thirty thousand men, including those who fell in battle as well as those who died of disease contracted in the service. Of the amount of private or individ- ual losses no approximate estimate can be made ; and though in the treaty of peace nothing was said about the main cause for which the war was prosecuted, yet Great Britain afterwards refrained from giving any offence in the practical assertion of her theoretic right of search and impressment. Whether the same ends could have been attained by any other course which would not have involved a like sacrifice of treasure and blood, is a problem that can never be satisfactorily solved by human specu- lation. CHAPTER III. Drigin and Growth of the Mormons. MONG the important events in the United States occurring during the century must be mentioned the rise and growth of the new and strange sect known as the Mormons, or the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints. It was founded by Joseph Smith, at Man- chester, New York, in 1830, and after many vicissitudes finally settled in Salt lyake City in Utah. Smith was born December 23rd, 1805, at Sharon, Wind- sor County, Vermont, from which place ten years later his parents, a poor, ignor- ant, thriftless and not too honest couple, removed to New York, where they set- tled on a small farm near Palmyra, Wayne County (then Ontario). Four years later, in 1809, they re- moved to Manchester, some six miles distant, and it was at the latter place when fifteen years old that Smith began to have his alleged visions, in one of which on the night of 21st of Septem- ber, 1823, the angel Moroni appeared to him three times and told him that the Bible of the Western Continent, the supplement to the New Testament, was buried in a certain spot near Man- chester. Thither, four years later and after due disciplinary probation, Smith went and had delivered into his charge by an angel of the Lord a stone box, in which was a volume six inches thick, made of thin gold plates eight inches by seven, and fastened together by three gold rings. The plates were covered with small writing in the "Reformed Egyptian" tongue, and were accompanied by a 42 pair of supernatural spectacles, consist- ing of two crystals set in a silver bow, and called " Urim and Thummim ; " by aid of these the mystic characters could be read. Being himself unable to read or wnte fluently. Smith employed as amanuensis, one Oliver Cowdery, to whom, from behind a curtain, he dictated a transla- tion, which, with the aid of a farmer, Martin Harris, who had more money chan wit, was printed and published in 1830 under the title of T/ic Book of Mormoti^ and accompanied by the sworn statement of Oliver Cowdery, David Whitmer, and Martin Harris that an angel of God had shown them the plates of which the book was a translation. They Swore Falsely. This testimony all three, on renounc- ing Mormonism some years later, de- nounced as false ; but meanwhile it helped Smith to impose on the credu- lous, particularly in the absence of the gold plates themselves, which suddenly and mysteriously disappeared. The Book oj Mormon^ in which Jos- eph Smith was declared to be God's "prophet," with all power and entitled to all obedience, professes to give the history of America from its first settle- ment by a colony of refugees from among the crowd dispersed by the con- fusion of tongues at the Tower of Babel down to the year 5 A. D. These settlers having in course of time destroyed one another, nothing of importance occurred until 600 B. c, when Lehi, his wife and four sons, with ten friends, all from ORIGIN AND GROWTH UF THE MORMONS. 43 Jerusalem, landed on the coast Chili, and eflfected a settlement. r SI CI i All went Lehi, when well until the death ot the divine ap^^ointment to the leadership of Nephi, the youngest son, roused the resentment of his elder brothers, who were in consequence con- demned to have dark skins and to be an idle mischievous race— hence the North American Indians. Between the Ne- phites and the bad Hebrews a fierct^ war was maintained for centuries, until finally, in spite of divine intervention in the person of the crucified Christ, the Nephites fell away from the true faith, and in 384 a. d. were nearly annihilated by their dark-skinned foes in a battle at the hill of Cumorah in Ontario county, New York. Among the handful that escaped were Mormon and his son Moroni, the for- mer of whom collected the sixteen books of records, kept by successive kings and priests, into one volume, which on his death was supplemented by his son with some personal remi- niscences and by him buried in the hill ' of Cumorah — he being divinely assured that tlie book would one day be discov- ered by God's chosen prophet. A Historical Romance. This is Smith's account of the book, but in reality it was written in 18 12 as an histoncal romance by one Solomon Spalding, a crack-brained preacher; and the MS. falling into the hands of an unscrupulous compositor, Sidney Rig- don, was copied by him, and subse- quently given to Joseph Smith. Armed with this book and with self-assumed divine authority, the latter soon began to attract followers. On 6th of April, 1830, the first con- ference of the new sect, called by their neighbors Mormons, but by themse]\es subsequently Latter-Day Saints of Jesu'^ Christ, was held at Fayette, Sen'.ca 44 ORIGIN AND GROWTH OF THE MORMONS. county, New York, and in the same year another revelation was received by Smith, proclaiming him "seer, trans- lator, prophet, apostle of Jesus Christ, and elder of the church." Smith now began to baptize; but, his character, ^ wliich was none of the best, being too well known in Fayette, he found it convenient to remove with his follow- ers, now thirty in number, to Kirtland, Ohio, which was to be the seat c ^ the New Jerusalem. Tarred and Feathered Here he had another revelation, di- recting the saints to consecrate all their property to God and to start a bank. This being done, and Smith appointed president of the bank, the country was soon flooded with worthless notes, which fact, added to other grievances, so en- raged the neighboring Christian settlers, that on the night of 22nd of May, 1832, a number of them dragged Smith and Rigdon from their beds and tarred and feathered them. One year later, the church was fairly organized, with three presidents, Smith, Rigdon, and Freder- ick G. Williams, who were styled the first presidency, and entrusted with the keys of the last kingdom. About this time the licentiousness of Smith might have led to the dissolution of the church but for the accession of Brigham Young, a Vermont painter and glazier, thirty years old, who turned up in Kirtland in 1832, and was immedi- ately ordained elder. Young's indomi- table will, persuasive eloquence, execu- tive ability, shrewdness, and zeal, soon made their influence felt, and, when a further step was taken in 1835 towards the organization of a hierarchy by the institution of the quorum of the "twelve apostles," who were sent out as prosely- tizing missionaries among the "gen- tiles," Young was ordained one of the "twelve," and despatched to preach throughout the eastern States. In 1836 a large temple was consecra- ted in Kirtland, and in the following year Orson Hyde and Heber C. Kimbali were sent off as missionaries to England, where, among the laboring masses in Manchester, Liverpool, Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, and the mining dis- tricts of South Wales they achieved a remarkable success. Early in 1838 the Kirtland bank failed, and Smith and Rigdon fled to Caldwell county, Mis- souri, where a large body of the saints, after having been driven successively from Jackson and Clay counties, had taken refuge and flourished. A Profligate Impostor. Smith's troubles, however, continued to increase. His gross profligacy had re- pelled many of his leading supporters and bred internal dissensions, while from the outside the brethren were harassed and threatened by the steadily growing hostility of the native Missourians. To counteract the efforts of his enemies, a secret society was organized in Smith's favor in October, 1838, called the Dan- ites, with the avowed purpose of sup- porting Smith at all hazards, of up- holding the authority of his revelation and decrees as superior to the laws of the land, and of helping him to get possession, first of the State, then of the United States, and ultimately of the world. To such a height did the inner dis- sensions and the conflicts with the " gen- tiles" grow that they assumed the pro- portions of a civil war, and necessitated ,ov^j£!Lf^ lOPYRI&HT, 1894, BY K U R t i ALLISON ORIGIN AND GROWTH OF THE MORMONS. 45 the calling- out of the State militia. Defying;- the legal officers, Smith forti- fied the town and armed the saints, but finally had to succumb to superior num- bers. Smith and Rigdon were arrested shortly afterwards rejoined by Smith, who succeeded in escaping from prison, and, having- obtained a charter, ther founded the city of Nauvoo. Such were the powers granted them NEW MORMON TEMPLE IN SALT LAKE CITY. and imprisoned on a charge of treason, murder and felony, and their followers to the number of 15,000 crossed over into Illinois and settled near Commerce, Hancock county. Here they were by this charter as to render the city practically independent of the State Government, and to give Smith all but unlimited evil power. He organized a military body called the Nauvoo legion, 46 ORIGIN AND GROWTH OF THE MORINIONS. of which he constituted himself com- mander with the title of lieutenant-gen- eral, while he was also president of the church and mayor of the city. On April 6th, 1 84 1, the foundations of the new temple were laid, and the city continued to grow rapidly in prosperity and size. But Smith's vices were beginning to bear fruit. Some years previously he had prevailed on several women to co- habit with him, and in order to pacify his lawful wife and silence the objec- tions of the saints he had a revelation on July 1 2th, 1843, expressly establishing and approving polygamy. The procla- mation of the new doctrine excited widespread indignation, which found special expression in the pages of the Expositor^ a newspaper published by an old friend of Smith, one Dr. Foster. Shot Dead by a Mob. Smith at once caused the Expositor printing-office to be razed and Foster expelled, on which the latter procured a warrant for the arrest of Smith, his brother Hyrum, and sixteen others. Smith resisted ; the militia was called out ; the Mormons armed themselves ; and a civil war seemed imminent, when the governor of the State persuaded Smith to surrender and stand his trial. Accordingly, on June 27, 1844, he and Hyrum were imprisoned in Carthage jail ; but that same night a mob broke into the prison, dragged out Smith and his brother and shot them dead. This shooting was the most fortunate thing that had ever happened to the Mormon cause, investing the murdered president with the halo of martyrdom, and effacing public recollection of his vices in the lustre of a glorious death. Of the confusion that followed Smith's " taking off," Brigham Young profited by procuring his own election to the presidency by the council of the "twelve apostles," — a position for which his splendid executive abilities well fitted him, as subsequent events abundantly proved. The following year witnessed what appeared to be the culmination of their misfortunes. The legislature of Illinois repealed the charter of Nauvoo, and so critical did the situation become that the leaders resolved to emigrate imme- diately, and preparations were' begun for a general exodus westward. Barly in 1846 a large number of the body met at Council Bluffs, Iowa, and those who had stayed behind soon found cause to re- gret that they too had not left Nauvoo, as in the September of the same year that city was cannonaded, and the Mor- mons were driven out. Shrewd Speculation. The sujsequent history of Nauvoo is interesting. The new citizens sent abroad highly colored circulars about the great water-power and natural site, and a great speculation followed, which ended in a collapse, and the city shrank to a little hamlet of perhaps 700 people. Then came the Icarians, French Com- munists, under the lead of M. Cabet. These proposed to fit up the temple for a social hall and school-room. But at 2 A. M. of November 10, 1848, it was found to be on fire, and before daylight every particle of woodwork was destroyed. It was set on fire in the third story of the steeple, one hundred and forty feet from the ground. Tlie dry pine burned like tinder. There was no mode of reaching the fire, and in twenty minutes the whole wooden in- ORiniN AND GROWTH OF THE MORMONS. 47 terior was a mass of flames. In two hours nothing remained but hot walls enclosing a bed of embers. Afterwards a man residing fourteen miles distant confessed that he set it on fire. He had suffered at the hands of the Mor- mons and swore no trace of them should cumber the soil of Illinois. Meanwhile pio- neers had been de- spatched to the Great Salt Lake valley, Utah, and, their report prov- ing favorable, a large body of emi- grants was marched with military disci- pline across the wil- derness to the val- ley, where they im- mediately proceed- ed to found Salt Lake City, and where on Jtily 24, 1847, they were joined by their chief, Brigham Young. In the May following the main body of the saints set out to rejoin their breth- ren, and in the au- tumn of that year a barren wilderness into a fertile and blooming garden. An emigration fund was organize^, missionaries were sent out, and soon reached Salt Lake City. Large tracts of land were at once put under cultiva- tion, a great city sprang up as by magic, and the untiring industry, en- ergy, and z-^al of the emig'"?nts turned JOE SMITH KILLED BY A MOB OF INDIGNANT CITIZENS, settlers began to pour in from all quar- ters of the globe, particularly from Great Britain, Sweden and Norway, and in less numbers from Germany, Swit- zerland and France. Strangely enough. 48 ORIGIN AND GROWTH OF THE MOR^TONS. and the fact deserves emphasis, Ireland has furnished few if any recruits to the cause of Mormonisni, In March, 1849, a convention was held at Salt Lake City, and a State was organized under the name of Deseret, meaning "the land of the honey-bee." A legislature was also elected, and a constitution framed, which was sent on to Washington. This Congress refused 10 recognize, and by way of compromise for declining to admit the proposed new State into the Union, President Fill- more in 1850 organized the country oc- cupied by the Mormons into the Terri- tory of Utah, with Brigham Young as governor. District judges were also ap- pointed by the Federal Government; but in 185 1, a few months after their appointment, they were forced to leave by the aggressive tactics of Young. Such bold defiance of the Federal Gov- ernment could not be ignored; Brigham was suspended from the governorship, and Colonel Steptoe of the United States army appointed in his stead. Daring Outrages. The new governor, backed by a bat- talion of soldiers, arrived in Utah in August, 1854; but so strong was the op- position which he met with that he dared not assume office, and was forced to content himself with merely winter- ing in Salt Lake City, after which he withdrew his troops to California. Nor did the other civil officers appointed by the United States Government at the same time show any bolder front. In February, 1856, a band of armed Mor- mons broke into the court-room of the United States district judge, and forced Judge Drummond to adjourn his court sine die. His surrender precipitated the flight of the other civil officers, and with the sole exception of the United States Indian agent they withdrew from Salt Lake City. These facts led President Buchanan to appoint a new governor in the person of Alfred Cumming, the superintendent of Indian affiiirs on tlie upper Missouri, who, in 1857, went to Utah, accom- panied by Judge Eckels of Indiana as chief justice, and by a force of 2500 soldiers. Enraged by the aggressive ac- tion, Brigham Young boldly called the saints to arms. In September the Uni- ted States army reached Utah, but on the 5 th and 6th of October, a band of mounted Mormons destroyed a number of its supply trains, and a few days later cut off 800 oxen from its rear and drove them into Salt Lake City. Mountain Meadows Massacre. The result was that the United States army, now commanded by Colonel A. S. Johnson, was compelled — it being now mid-November — to go into winter quarters at Black's Forks, near Fort Bridger. In the same year a party of Mormons and Indians, instigated and led by a Mormon bishop named John D. Lee, attacked a train of 150 non-Mor- mon emigrants at Mountain Meadows, near Utah, and massacred every soul. Governor Cumming at once declared the Territory in a state of rebellion ; but in the spring of 1858, through the intervention of Thomas L. Kane, of Pennsylvania, armed with letters of au- thority from President Buchanan, the Mormons were induced to submit to the Federal authority, and accepted a free offer of pardon made to them by the United States Government as the con- dition of their submission. ORIGIN AND GROWTH 01- THE MORMONS. 49 Matters being thus settled, the Federal troops encamped on the western shore of Lake Utah, some forty miles from Salt Lake City, where they remained until withdrawn from the Territory in i860. On the close of our Civil War a Federal Governor was again appointed, and, in 1871, polygamy was declared to be a criminal offence, and Brigham Young was arrested. This action, however, on the part of The year 1877 was otherwise signal- ized in Mormon history by the trial, conviction, and execution of John D. Lee, for the Mountain Valley massacre of 1857. Of l^te years the question of Mormonism has occupied public atten- tion. In 1873 Mr. Frelinghuysen intro- duced a bill severely censuring polyg- amy, and declaring that the wives of polygamists could claim relief by action for divorce. In 1874 the committee of MASSACRE OF THE MORRISITES. tlie United States Government was merely spasmodic, and the Mormons continued to practice polygamy, and to increase in wealth and numbers until August 29, 1877, when Brigham Young died, leaving a fortune of $2,000,000 to seventeen wives and fifty-six childrun. He was succeeded in office by John Taylor, an Englishman, although the actual leadership fell to George Q. Can- non, "first counsellor" to the president, and one of the ablest men in the sect. 4 the House of Representatives reported a bill which reduced Utah to the posi- tion of a province, placing the control of affairs in the hands of Federal officials, and practically abolishing polygamy. In the same year George Q. Cannon was elected a delegate from Utah, and though his election was contested it was confirmed by the House of Representa- tives. This decision, however, was ac- companied by the passing of a resolu- tion by a vote of 127 to 51, appointing .50 ORIGIN AND GROWTH OF THE MORMONS. a committee of investigation into Dele- gate Cannon's alleged polygamy — he having, it was asserted, fonr wives. Later in the same year the Utah Judici- ary Bill, attacking the very foundation of Mormonism, passed the House in spite of the opposition of Cannon. Other steps in the same direction have since been taken, and bills passed, having for their object the extirpation of polygamy. The secession, chiefly because of his opposition to the prac- tice, of Brigham Young's son, a Chris- tian preacher, and of a large body of other anti-po\ygamists who claim to be the true Latter-Day Saints, represents not an individual opinion, but the deep-rooted conviction of a great party. Already there are not wanting signs of approaching dissolution, of which per- haps the most significant is the confer- ence of the "Re-organized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints," held on April 6, 1883, at Kirtland, Lake County, Ohio. Origin of the New Sect. This sect originated in 185 1, seven years after the death of Joseph Smith, when several officers of the church met and claimed to have received a revela tion from God, directing them to repu- diate Brigham Young, as not being the divinely-appointed and legitimate suc- cessor of Joseph Smith, and as being the promulgator of such false doctrines as polygamy, Adam-God worship, and the right to shed the blood of apostates. Nothing of special importance oc- curred, however, till 1 860, when Joseph Smith, Jr., the eldest son of the founder of the faith, became identified with the Re-organized Church as its president. Since then the seceders have prosecuted missionary work throughout the United States, Great Britain, Canada, Scandi- navia, Switzerland, Australia, and the Society Islands, until their communi- cants are sai.l to number over 27,000. Bill to Suppress Polygamy. On January 12, 1887, the House of Representatives passed without division a bill for the suppression of polygamy in the territory of Utah. Its chief pro- visions are: (i) Polygamy is declared to be a felony ; (2) the chief financial corporations of the Mormons are dis- solved, and the attorney-general is di- rected to wind them up by process of the courts ; (3) polygamists are made ineligible to vote; (4) all voters in Utah are to b? required to take an oath to obey the laws of the United States, and especially the laws against polygamy ; (5) woman suffrage in Utah is abolished, and (6) lawful wives and husbands are made competent witnesses against per- sons accused of polygamy. It was reported in September, 1890, that polygamy had been declared to be no longer a feature of Mormon teach- ing, and that it was the intention of the sect to submit to the ordinary laws binding on x\mericans. In the first part of April, 1893, oc- curred the dedication of the great tem- ple at Salt Lake City, built in forty years, at a cost stated to be ;$5,ooo,ooo. In September, 1894, our government by proclamation granted pardon to polygamists, and it was reported that among the Mormons there was a gen- eral disposition to observe the laws of the United States enacted against their favorite institution. In January-, 1897, ten coloni'^.s in New Mexico were re- ported to be prosperous. CHAPTER IV. War Between the United States and Mexico. ARLY in the century, pioneers from the United States began to find their way to Texas, which ' was then a wild country, inhabited only by roving Indians and the garrisons of the few Spanish forts within its limits. One of these emigrants, Moses Austin, of Durham, Connecticut, conceived the plan of colonizing settlers from the United States. For this purpose he obtained from the Spanish Government, in 1820, the grant of an extensive tract of land; but before he could put his plans in execution he died. His son, Stephen F. Austin, in- herited the rights of his father under this grant, and went to Texas with a number of emigrants from this country, and explored that region for the pur- pose of locating his grant. He selected as the most desirable site for his colony the country between the Brazos and Colorado rivers, and founded a city, which he named Austin, in honor of the originator of the colony, to whom Texas owes its existence as an Ameri- can commonwealth. Havinof seen the settlers established in their new homes, Mr. Austin returned to the United States to collect other emigrants for his colony. During his absence Mexico and the oiner Spanish provinces rose in revolt against Spain, and succeeded in estab- lishing their independence. Texas, being regarded as a part of the Mexican territory, shared the fortunes of that country. Upon his return to Texas, Austin, in consideration of the altered state of affairs, went to the city of Mex- ico, and obtained from the Mexican government a confirmation of the grant made to his father. Such a confirma- tion was necessary in order to enable him to give the settlers valid titles to the lands of his colony. Mexico at first exercised but a nomi- nal authority over the new settlements, and the colonists were allowed to live under their own laws, subject to the rules drawn up by Austin. In order to encourage settlements in Texas, the Mexican Congress, on the second of May, 1824, enacted the following law, declaring, "That Texas is to be an- nexed to the Mexican province of Coha- huila, until it is of suflficient importance to form a separate State, when it is to become an independent State of the Mexican republic, equal to the other States of which the same is composed, free, sovereign, and independent in whatever exclusively relates to its internal government and administra- tion." Flood of Immigration. Encouraged by this decree, large numbers of Americans emigrated to Texas, and to these were added emi- grants from all the countries of Europe. The population grew rapidly, new towns sprang up, and Austin's colony prospered in a marked degree, until 1830, when Bustamente having made himself, by violence and intrigue, pres- ident of the so-called Mexican republic, prohibited the emigration of foreigners to the Mexican territory, and issued a number of decrees ver>^ oppressive to 61 52 WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO. tlie people, and in violation of the con- stitution of 1824. In order to enforce these measures in Texas, he occupied that province with his troops, and placed Texas under mil- itary rule. The Texans resented this interference with their rights, and finally compelled the Mexican troops to with- draw from the province. In 1832, an- other revolution in Mexico drove Bus- tamente from power, and placed Santa Anna at the head of affairs as presi- dent or dictator Arrested and Imprisoned. Texas took no part in the disturb- ances of Mexico, but after the accession of Santa Anna to power, formed a con- stitution, and applied for admission into the Mexican republic as a State, in ac- cordance with the constitution of 1824, and the act of the Mexican Congress which we have quoted. Stephen F. Austin was sent to the city of IMexico to present the petition of Texas for this purpose. He was refused an answer to this petition for over a year, and at last wrote to the authorities of Tescas, advis- ing them to organize a State govern- ment without waiting for the action of the Mexican Congress. For this recommendation, which the Mexican government regarded as trea- sonable, Santa Anna caused the arrest of Austin, and kept him in prison for over a year. Texas now began to manifest the most determined opposi- tion to the usurpation of Santa Anna, and measures were taken to maintain the rights of the province under the con- stitution of 1824. Troops were organ- ized, and preparations made to resist the force which it was certain Mexico would send against them. Santa Anna did not allow them to re- main long in suspense, but at once dis- patched a force under General Cos, to disarm the Texans. On the second of October, 1835, Cos attacked the town of Gonzalez, which was held by a Texan force, but was repulsed with heavy loss. A week later, on the ninth of October, the Texans captured the town of Goliad, and a little later gained possession of the mission house of the Alamo. Both places were garrisoned, and the Texan army, which was under the command of Austin, in the course of a few months succeeded in driving the Mexi- cans out of Texas. State Government. On the twelfth of November, 1835, a convention of the people of Texas met at the city of Austin, and organized a regular State government. Prominent among the members was General Sam Houston, a settler from the United States. Soon after the meeting of the convention General Austin resigned the command of the army, and was sent to the United States as the commissioner of that State to this government, and was succeeded as commander-in-chief by General Sam Houston. Henry Smith was elected governor of Texas by the people. As soon as Santa Anna learned that his troops had been driven out of Texas, and that the Texans had set up a State government, he set out for that country with an army of seventy-five hundred men. He issued orders to his troops to shoot every prisoner taken, and intended to make the struggle a war of extermina- tion. He arrived before the Alamo late in February, 1836. This fort was very strong, and was held by a force of one SCENES IN MEXICO. 53 54 WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO. hundred and forty Texans under Colonel Travis. It was besieged by the whole Mexican army, and was subjected to a bombardment of eleven days. Davy Crockett. At last, on the sixth of March, the garrison being worn out with fatigue, the fort was carried by assault, and the whole garrison was put to the sword. Among the heroes who fell at the Texan Thermopylae was the eccentric but chiv- alrous Colonel Davy Crockett, of Ten- nessee, who had generously come to aid the Texans in their struggle for liberty. The capture of the Alamo cost the Mexi- cans a loss of sixteen hundred men, or over eleven men for every one of its defenders. On the 17th of March, 1836, the con- vention adopted a constitution for an independent republic, and formally pro- claimed the independence of Texas. David G. Burnett was elected president of the republic. The fort at Goliad was held by a force of three hundred and thirty Texans, under Colonel Fanning, a native of Georgia. On the twenty-seventh of March it was attacked by the Mexican army. The garrison maintained a gal- lant defence, but their resources being exhausted, and the Mexicans being re- inforced during the night. Fanning de- cided to surrender his force, if he could obtain honorable terms. He proposed ;:o Santa Anna to lay down his arms and surrender the post on condition that he and his men should be allowed and as- sisted to return to the United States. The proposition was accepted by Santa Anna, and the terms of the surrender were formally drawn up and were signed by each commander. As soon as the surrender was made, however, and the arms of the Texans were delivered, Santa Anna, in base violation of his pledge, caused Fanning and the survi- vors of the garrison, to the number of three hundred men, to be put to death The massacres of the Alamo and Go- liad, and the steady advance of the Mex- ican army under Santa Anna caused a feeling of profound alarm throughout the new republic. The government was removed temporarily to Galveston, and General Houston retreated behind the San Jacinto. Santa Anna pursued the Texan forces, and at length came up with them on the banks of that stream. Houston had but seven hundred and fifty men with him, and these were im- perfectly armed and without discipline. Mexican Army Routed. With this force he surprised the Mexi- can camp, on the 21st of April, and routed the Mexican army, inflicting upon it a loss of over six hundred killed, and taking more than eight hundred priso- ners. Santa Anna himself was among the prisoners. Houston at once entered into negotiations with him for the with- drawal of the Mexican forces from Texas. This was done at once, and the independence of Texas was achieved. Santa Anna also recognized the inde- pendence of the new republic, but the Mexican Congress refused to confirrL this act. Houston was now the idol of the Texan people as the deliverer of their country from the hated Mexicans. At the next general election he was chosen President as the republic, and was inau- gurated on the twenty-second of Octo- ber, 1836. General Mirabeau B. Lamar was the third President of the republic WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO. 55 of Texas, and entered upon his office in 1838. He was succeeded in 1844 by Anson Jones, the fourth President. The territory of the republic was suffi- ciently large to make five States the size of New York, and its climate and soil were among the most delightful and fertile in the world. It contained a popu- lation of about two hundred thousand, and was increasing rapidly in inhabi- tants and in prosperity. Texas a Republic. On the third of March, 1837, the in- dependence of the republic of Texas was acknowledged by the United States, and in 1839 by France and England. Being young and feeble, and being set- tled almost entirely by Americans, the people of Texas at an early day came to the conclusion that their best interests required them to seek a union with the United States, and as early as August, 1837, a proposition was submitted to Mr. Van Buren looking to such a union. It was declined by him, but the question was taken up by the press and people of the Union, and was discussed with the greatest interest and activity. The South was imanimously in favor of the annexation of Texas, as it was a region in wdiich slave labor would be particularly profitable ; and a strong party in the North opposed the annexa- tion for the reason that it would inevi- tably extend the area of slavery. An additional argument against annexation was that it would involve a war with Mexico, which had never acknowledged the independence of Texas. In April, 1844, Texas formally ap- plied for admission into the United States, and a treaty for that purpose was negotiated with her by the government of this country. It was rejected by the Senate. In the fall of 1844 the Presidential election took place. The leading po- litical qnestion of the day was the an- nexation of Texas. It was advocated by the administration of President Tyler and by the Democratic party. This party also made the claim of the United States to Oregon one of the leading issues of the campaign. Its candidates were James K. Polk, of Tennessee, and George M. Dallas, of Pennsylvania. The Whig party supported Henry Clay, of Kentucky, and Theodore Freling- huysen, of New Jersey, and opposed the annexation of Texas. During this campaign, which was one of unusual excitement, the Anti-slaveiy party made its appearance for the first time as a distinct political organization, and nominated James G. Birney as its candidate for the Presidency. Democrats in Power. The result of the campaign was a de- cisive victory for the Democrats. This success was generally regarded as an em- phatic expression of the popular will representing the Texas and Oregon questions. Mr. Birney did not receive a single electoral vote, and of the popu- lar vote only sixty-four thousand six hundred and fifty-three ballots were cast for him. When Congress met in December, 1844, the efforts for the annexation of Texas were renewed. A proposition was made to receive Texas into the Union by a joint resolution of Congress. A bill for this purpose passed the House of Representatives, but the Senate ad- ded an amendment appointing commis- sioners to negotiate with Mexico foi 66 WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO. the annexation of Texas, which she still claimed as a part of her territory. The President was authorized by a clause in these resolutions to adopt either the House or the Senate plan of annexa- tion, and on the second of March, 1845, the resolutions were adopted. ^ Senator Benton, of Missouri, the au- thor of the Senate plan, was of the opin- ion that the matter would be left to Mr. Polk, the President-elect, to be con- ducted by him; and that gentleman had expressed his intention to carry out the Senate plan, as he hoped an amicable arrangement could be made with Mex- ico. Mr. Tyler, however, determined not to leave the annexation of Texas to his successor, and at once adopted the plan proposed in the House resolutions, and on the night of Sunday, March 3d, a messenger was despatched with all speed to Texas to lay the proposition before the authorities of that State. It was accepted by them, and on the fourth of July, 1845, Texas became one of the United States. Large Territory Added. The area thus added to the territory of the Union comprised two hundred and thirty-seven thousand five hundred and four square miles. It was provided by the act of admission that four additional States might be formed out of the terri- tory of Texas, when the population should increase to an extent which should make such a step desirable. ,Those States lying north of the Mis- •souri Compromise line — 36° 30' north latitude — were to be free States, those south of that line were to be free or slave-holding "as the people of each State asking admission may desire." To Texas was reserved the right to re- fuse to allow the division of her terri- tory. Mexico had never acknowledged the independence of Texas, and since the defeat at San Jacinto had repeatedly threatened to restore her authority over the Texans by force of arms. She warmly resented the annexation of Texas by the United States, and a few days after that event was completed. General Almonte, the Mexican minis- ter at Washington, entered a formal protest against the course of the United States, demanded his passports, and left the country. Redress for Outrages. Some years before this, a number of American ships trading with Mexican ports had been seized and plundered by the Mexican authorities, who also con- fiscated the property of a number of American residents in that country. The suflferers by these outrages appealed for redress to the government of the United States, which had repeatedly tried to negotiate with Mexico for the collection of these claims, which amounted to six millions of dollars. Mexico made several promises of settle- ment, but failed to comply with them. In 1840, however, a new treaty was made between that country and the United States, and Mexico pledged her- self to pay the American claims in twenty annual instalments of three hundred thousand dollars each. Three of these instalments had Been paid at the time of the annexation of Texas; but Mexico now refused to make any further payment. Mexico claimed that the limits of Texas properly ended at the Neuces river, while the Texans insisted that WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO. 57 their boundary was the Rio Grande. Thus the region between these two rivers became a debatable land, claimed by bolh parties, and a source of great and innnediate danger. It was evident that Mexico was about to occupy this region with her troops, and the legisla- ture of Texas, alarmed by the threaten- ing attitude of that country, called upon the United States government to pro- tect its territory. The President at once sent General Zachary Taylor with a force of fifteen hundred regular troops, called the "army of occupation," to "take position in the country between the Neuces and the Rio Grande, and to repel any invasion of the Texan territory." In Battle Array. General Taylor accordingly took po- sition at Corpus Christi, at the mouth of the Neuces, in September, 1845, and remained there until the spring of 1 846. At the same time a squadon of war ves- sels under Commodore Connor was des- patched to the Gulf to co-operate with General Taylor. Both of these officers " were ordered to commit no act of hos- tility against Mexico unless she declared war, or was herself the aggressor by striking the first blow.' ' At the commencement of the dispute between the two countries, Herrera was President of Mexico. Although diplo- matic communications had ceased be- tween the United States and Mexico, he was anxious to settle the quarrel by negotiation, but at the Presidential elec- tion held about this time Herrera was defeated, and Paredes, who was bitterly hostile to the United States, was cho- sen President of tlie Mexican republic. Paredes openly avowed his determina- tion to drive the Americans beyond the Neuces. In February, 1846, General Taylor was ordered by President Polk to ad- vance from the Neuces to a point on the Rio Grande, opposite the Mexican town of Matamoras, and establish there a for- tified post, in order to check the Mexi- can forces which were assembling there in large numbers for the purpose of invading Taxas. Taylor at once set out, and leaving the greater part of his stores at Point Isabel, on the Gulf, ad- vanced to the Rio Grande, and built a fort and established a camp opposite and within cannon shot of Matamoras. General Ampudia, commanding the Mexican forces at Matamoras, imme- diately notified General Taylor that this was an act of war upon Mexican soil, and demanded that he should "break up his camp and retire beyond the Neuces" within twenty-four hours. First Blood Shed. Taylor replied that he was acting in accordance with the orders of his gov- ernment, which was alone responsible 3r his conduct, and that he should maintain the position he had chosen. He pushed forward the work on his fortifications with energy, and kept a close watch upon the Mexicans. Neithei commander was willing to take the re- sponsibility of beginning the war, and Ampudia, notwithstanding his threat, remained inactive. His course did not satify his government, and he was re- moved and General Arista appointed in his place. Arista at once began hostili- ties by interposing detachments of his army between Taylor's force and his depot of supplies at Point Isabel. On the twenty-sixth of April Taylor sent 58 WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO. a party of sixty dragoons under Captain Thornton to reconnoitre the Mexican lines. The dragoons were surprised with a loss of sixteen killed. The re- mainder were made prisoners, and Thornton alone escaped. This was the first blood shed in the war with Mexico, the beginning of the struggle. A day or two later, being informed by Captain Walker, who, with his Texan Rangers, was guarding the line of com- munication with Point Isabel, that the Mexicans were threatening the latter place in heavy force. General Taylor left Major Brown with three hundred men to hold the fort, and marched to Point Isabel to relieve that place. He agreed with Major Brown that if the fort should be attacked or hard pressed, the latter should notify him of his dan- ger by firing heaving signal guns at certain intervals. He reached Point Isabel, twenty miles distant, on the second of May without meeting any opposition on the march. Signal Guns Fired. General Arista, attributing Taylor's withdrawal to fear, determined to cap- ture the fortification on the opposite side of the river. On the third of May he opened fire upon it from a heavy battery at Matamoras, and sent a large force across the Rio Grande, which took position in the rear of the fort and in- trenched themselves there. In the face of this double attack the little garrions defended themselves bravely, but at length Major Brown fell mortally wounded. The command devolved upon Captain Hawkins, who now felt himself justified in warning Taylor of his danger, and began to fire the signal guns agreed upon, Taylor was joined at Point Isabel by a small detachment, and his force was increased to twent}-three hundred men. He listened anxiously for the booming of the signal guns from the fort on the Rio Grande, and at length they were heard. He knew that the need of assistance must be great, as the little band in the fort had held out so long without calling for help, and he at once set out to join them. He left Point Isabel on the seventh of May, tak- ing with him a heavy supply train. The steady firing of the signal guns from Fort Brown (for so the work was after- wards named in honor of its gallant commander) urged the army to its greatest exertions. Battle of Palo Alto. On the 8th of May the Mexican army, six thousand strong, was discovered holding a strong position in front of a chaparral, near the small stream called the Palo Alto, intending to dispute the advance of the Americans. Taylor promptly made his dispositions to attack them. His troops were ordered to drink from the little stream and to fill their canteens. The train was closed up, and the line was formed with Major Ring- gold's light battery on the right, Dun- can's battery on the left, and a battery of eighteen-pounders in the center. The artillery was thrown well in front of the infantry, and the order was given to advance. The Mexicans at once opened fire with their batteries, but the distance was too great to ac- complish anything. The American bat- teries did not reply until they had gotten within easy range, when they opened a fire the accuracy and rapidity of which astonished the Mexicans. WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO. 59 Their lines were broken and they fell back, and the Americans advanced steadily through the chaparral, which had been set on fire by the discharge of cannon, until a new position within close range was reached. Paying no attention to the Mexican artillery, the American guns directed their fire upon the enemy's infantry and cavalry, and broke them again and again. The battle lasted five hours and ceased at nightfall. It was fought entirely by the artillery of the two armies, and was won by the superior handling and precis'' : of the American guns. Flying Artillery. The I0.SS of the Mexicans was four hundred killed and wounded ; that of the Americans nine killed and forty- four wounded. Early in the battle Major Ringgold was mortally wounded and died a little later. He was regarded as one of the most gifted officers of the army, and to him was chiefly due the precision and rapidity of movement ac- quired by the " flying artillery " of the American army, which were so success- fully tested during this war. The American army encamped on the battle-field, and the next morning. May 9th, as the Mexicans had retreated, leav- ing their dead unburied, resumed its advance. In the afternoon the Mexi- cans were discovered occupying a much stronger position than they had held at Palo Alto. Their line was formed* be- hind a ravine, called Resaca de la Palma, or the Dry River of Palms. Their flanks were protected by the thick cha- parral, and their artillery was thrown forward beyond the ravine and protected by an intrenchment, and swept the road b\' which the Americans must advance. During the night fresh troops had joined the Mexican army, and had in- creased their force to seven thousand men. Taylor formed his line with the artil- lery in the center. The artillery was ordered to advance along the road com- manded by the Mexican battery, and the infantry were directed to move as rapidly as possible through the chapar- ral, and drive out the Mexican sharp- shooters. The infantry executed this order in handsome style, but the chapar- ral was so dense that each man was obliged to act for himself as he forced his way through it. The Mexican bat- tery was handled with great skill and coolness, and held the center in check until some time after the infantry had forced their way close to the edge of the ravine. Charge of the Gallant May. At this juncture Captain May was ordered to charge the Mexican guns, and started down the road at a trot. As he reached the position of the American artillery, Lieutenant Ridgely suggested that May should halt and allow him to draw the Mexican fire. Ridgely opened a rapid fire on the Mexican guns, which was answered immediately. At the same moment May dashed at the Mexican battery with his dragoons, and reached it before the cannoneers could reload their pieces. They were sabred at their guns, and the battery was carried. Cap- tain ]\Iay himself made a prisoner of General LaVega, as the latter was in the act of discharging one of the guns. Leaving the battery to the American infantry which now hurried forward to secure it, the dragoons charged the Mexicau centre and broke it. The whole 60 WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO. American Hue then advanced rapidly ; the Mexicans gave way, and were soon flying in utter confusion towards the Rio Grande, which they crossed in such haste that many of them were drowned in the attempt to reach the Mexican shore. General Arista, the Mexican com- mander, fled alone from the field, leav- ing all his private and official papers behind him. The Americans lost one Imndre'd and twenty-two men killed and wounded; the Mexicans twelve hun- dred. All the Mexican artillery, two thousand stand of arms, and six hun- dred mules were captured by the Amer- icans. Americans Advance. General Taylor advanced from the battlefield to Fort Brown, the garrison of which had heard the distant roar of the battle, and had seen the flight of the Mexican across the Rio Grande. General Taylor was delayed at Mata- moras for three months by the weak- ness of his force ; but, as soon as rein- forcements reached him, he prepared to advance into the interior. His first movement was directed against the city of Monterey, the capital of the State of New Leon, where the Mexicans had collected an army. His army numbered about nine thousand men of all arms, and of these a little over twenty-three hun- dred men were detached for garrisons, leaving an active force of six thousand six hundred and seventy men. On the twentieth of August General Worth's division marched from Matamoras, and a fortnight later General Taylor set out from the Rio Grande with the main army. On the ninth of September the American forces encamped within three miles of Monterey, Every means of defence had been ex- hausted by the Mexicans. Forty-two heavy cannon were mounted on the city walls, the streets were barricaded, and the flat roofs and stone walls of the houses were arranged lor infantry. Each house was a separate fortress. A strongly fortified building of heavy stone, calleG the Bishop's palace, stood on the side of a hill without the city walls, and on the opposite side of the city were re- doubts held by infantry and artillery. On the morning of the twenty-first of September the American artillery opened fire on Monterey, and the in- fantry advanced to carry the Mexican works. The brigade of General Quit- man carried a strong work in the lower part of the town, and at the same time General Butler, with a part of his division, forced his way into the town on the right. At the Citadel. During the night of the twenty-first the Mexicans evacuated the lower part of the city, but kept their hold upon the citadel and the upper town, from which they maintained a vigorous fire upon the American positions. At day- break, on the twenty-second, Worth's division, advancing in the midst of a fog and rain, carried the crest com- manding the Bishop's palace, and by noon had captured the palace itself. The guns of the captured works were now directed upon the enemy in the city below. The enemy had fortified the city so thoroughly that the Americans were not only forced to carry the various barricades in succession, but were com- pelled to break through the walls of the fortified houses, and advance from house WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO. 61 to house in this way. One or two field pieces were drawn up to the flat roofs, and the Mexicans were driven from point to point during the twenty- second and twenty-third, until they were confined to the citaded and plaza. On the night of the twenty-third General Ampudia opened negotiations, and on the morning of the twenty-fourth surren- dered the town and garrison to General fierce charge than in volunteering to make a dangerous ride under fire, in search of ammunition. The next important engagement oc- curred at Buena Vista, a village of Mexico, seven miles south of Saltillo, whereon February 226. and 23d, 1847, five thousand United States troops un- der General Taylor defeated twenty thousand Mexicans under Santa Anna. LIEUT. ULYSSES S. GRANT GOING FOR AMMUNITION AT MONTEREY. Taylor. The Americans lost four hun- dred and eighty-eight men, killed and wounded, in the storming of Monterey. The Mexican loss was much greater. General Grant, then an unknown young lieutenant, was in the battle of Monterey, and distinguished himself on account of "gallant and meritorious services." Several times during the battle he demonstrated his superior judgment and courage, not more in the The American loss in this battle was two hundred and sixty -seven killed and four hundred and fifty-six wounded. That of the Mexicans was over two thousand killed and wounded, includ- ing many officers of high rank. Taylor followed the Mexican army on the twenty- fourth, as far as Agua Nueva, and collecting their wounded, removed them to Saltillo, where they were at- tended by the American surgeons. 62 WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO. The victory of Buena Vista was de- cisive of the war. It saved the valley of the Rio Grande from invasion by a victorious Mexican army, and enabled the expedition of General Scott against Vera Cruz to proceed without delay to the accomplishment of its objects. It also greatly disheartened the Mexican people, and during the remainder of the year Taylor's army had nothing to do but to hold the country it occupied. Scott's Expedition. The expedition under General Scott sailed from New Orleans late in No- vember, 1846, and rendezvoused at the island of lyobos, about one hundred and twenty-five miles north of Vera Cruz. The plan of operations for this army was very simple — to capture Vera Cruz and march to the city of Mexico by the most direct route. At length everything being in readiness, the ex- pedition sailed from Lobos Island, and on the morning of the ninth of March, 1 847, the army, thirteen thousand strong, landed without opposition at a point selected by General Scott and Commo- dore Connor a few days before. The city and vicinity had been thoroughly reconnoitered, and the troops were at once marched to the positions assigned them by the commander-in-chief. Vera Cruz is the principal seaport of Mexico, and contained at the time of the siege about fifteen thousand inhabi- tants. It was strongly fortified on the land side, and towards the Gulf was de- ^fended by the Castle of San Juan de Ulloa, the strongest fortress in America, with the exception of Quebec. On the tentb of March the invest- ment of the city was begun by General Worth, and the American lines were definitely established around the city for a distance of six miles. During the day, and for several days thereafter, bodies of Mexicans attempted to harass the besiegers, and a steady fire was maintained upon them by the guns of the castle and the city as they worked at their batteries. The American works being completed, and their guns in position. General Scctt summoned the city of Vera Cruz to surrender, stipula- ting that no batteries should be placed in the city to attack the castle unless the city should be fired upon by that work. The demand was refused by General Morales, who commanded both the city and the castle, and at 4 o'clock on the afternoon of the twenty-second of March, the American batteries opened fire upon the town. The bombardment was continued for five days, and the fleet joined in the attack upon the cas- tle. The city suffered terribly ; a num- ber of the inhabitants were killed, and many buildings were set on fire by the shells. A Decisive Victory. On the twenty-seventh the cit)' and castle surrendered, and were promptly occupied by the Americans. Over five thousand prisoners and five hundred pieces of artillery fell into the hands of the victors. The garrison were required to march out, lay down their arms, and were then dismissed upon their parole. The inhabitants were protected in their civil and religious rights. The sur- render was completed on the morning of the twenty-ninth. Having secured the city and the cas- tle, General Scott placed a strong gar- rison in each, and appointed General WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO. G.3 Worth governor of Vera Cruz. He then prepared to march upon the city of IMexico, and on the eighth of x\pril the advance division, under General Twiggs, set out from Vera Cruz towards Jalapa. Deducting the force left to garrison Vera Cruz, Scott's whole army amounted to but eighty-five hundred men. Makes a Stand at Oerro Gordo. Santa Anna had not found the conse- quences to himself of the battle of Buena Vista as bad as he had expected. He had succeeded in pursuading his coun- trymen that he had not been defeated in that battle, but had simply retreated for want of provisions, and they had agreed to give him another trial. He had pledged himself to prevent the advance of the Americans to the capital, in the event of the fall of Vera Cruz, and with the aid of those of his countrymen who were willing to sitpport him had quelled an insurrection at the capital, and had strengthened his power to a greater de- gree than ever. With a force of twelve thousand men he had taken position at Cerro Gordo, a mountain pass at the eastern edge of the Cordilleras, to hold the American army in check, and had fortified his position with great skill and care. General Twiggs halted before the Mexican position to await the arrival of General Scott, who soon joined him with the main army. The Mexican lines were carefully reconnoitered, and on the eighteenth of April General Scott, avoiding a direct attack, turned the enemy's left, seized the heights com- manding their position, and drove them from their works with a loss of three thousand prisoners and forty-three pieces of artillery. Santa Anna mounted a mule, taken from his carriage, and fled leaving the carriage and his private pa- pers in the hands of the Americans. Besides their prisoners, the Mexicans lost over one thousand men in killed and wounded. Scott's loss was four hundred and thirty-one killed and wounded. The passes on the direct road to the city had been well fortified and garri- soned by the Mexicans, but the country upon the flanks had been left unpro- tected, because Santa Anna deemed it utterly impossible for any troops to pass over it, and turn his position. El Penon the most formidable of these defences, was reconnoitered by the engineers, who reported that it would cost at least three thousand lives to carry it. Scott thereupon determined to turn Bl Penon, instead of attacking it. The city and its defences were carefully rec- onnoitered, and it was discovered that the works on the south and west were weaker than those at any other points, Americans Push Forward. General Scott now moved to the left, passed El Penon on the south, and by the aid of a corps of skillful engineers moved his army across ravines and chasms which the Mexican commander had pronouiiced impassable, and had left unguarded. General Twiggs led the advance, and halted and encamped at Chalco, on the lake of the same name. Worth followed, and passing Twiggs, encamped at the town of San Augustin, eight miles from the capital. As soon as Santa Anna found that the Americans had turned El Penon, and had advanced to the south side of the city, he left that fortress and took 64 WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO. position in the strong fort of San An- tonio, which lay directly in front of Worth's new position. Northwest of San Antonio, and four miles from the city, lay the little village of Churubusco, which had been strongly fortified by the Mexicans. A little to the west of San Augustin was the fortified camp of Contreras, with a garrison of about six thousand men. In the rear, between the camp and the city, was a reserve force of twelve thousand men. The whole number of Mexicans manning these defences was about thirty-five thousand, with at least one hundred pieces of artillery of va- rious sizes. Desperate Struggle. General Scott lost no time in moving against the enemy's works. General Persifer F. Smith was ordered to attack the entrenched camp at Contreras, while Shields and Pierce should move between the Camp and Santa Anna at San An- tonio, and prevent him from going to the assistance of the force at Contreras. At three o'clock on the morning of August 20th, in the midst of a cold rain, Smith began his march, his men hold- ing on to each other, to avoid being- separated in the darkness. He made his attack at sunrise, and in fifteen min- utes had possession of the camp. He took three thousand prisoners and thir- ty-three pieces of cannon. The camp at Contreras having fallen, General Scott attacked the fortified vil- lage of Churubusco an hour or two later, and carried it after a desperate struggle of several hours. General Worth's division stormed and carried the strong fort of San Antonio, and General Twiggs captured another im- portant work. The Mexicans outnum- bered their assailants three to one, and fought bravely. Their efforts were in vain, however, and late in the after- noon they were driven from their de- fences, and pursued by the American cavalry to the gates of the city. How the Victories Were Won. These two victories had been won over a force of thirty thousand Mex- icans by less than ten thousand Amer- icans, and a loss of four thousand killed and wounded and three thousand prison- ers had been inflicted upon the Mexican army. The American loss was eleven hundred men. Santa Anna retreated within the city, and on the twenty-first of August the American army advanced to within three miles of the city of Mexico. On the same day Santa Anna sent a flag of truce to General Scott, asking for a sus- pension of hostilities, in order to ar- range the terms of peace. The request was granted, and Mr. Trist was de- spatched to the city, and began nego- tiations with the Mexican commission- ers. After protracted delays, designed to gain time, the Mexican commissioners declined the American conditions, and proposed others which they knew would not be accepted. Thoroughly disgusted, Mr. Trist returned to the American camp, and brought with him the intelli- gence that Santa Anna had violated the armistice by using the time accorded him by it in strengthening his defences. Indignant at such treachery. General Scott at once resumed his advance upon the city. The Mexican capital was still de- fended by two powerful works. One of Copyright, 1900. by George W. Bertron. FAMOUS INVENTORS OF THE CENTURY WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO. 65 wounded — nearly one-fourth the whole American force engaged. these was Molinodel Rey, " The King's Mill," a foundry, where it was said the church bells were being cast into cannon; the other was the strong castle of Chapultepec. General Scott resolved to make his first attack upon Molino del Rey, which was held by fourteen thousand Mexi- cans, It was stormed and car- ried on the 8th of September, after a severe con- test by Worth's division, four thousand strong. This was regard- ed as the hardest- won victory of the war. The Mexicans were nearly four times as numerous as the Americans, and their position was one of very great strength. The Americans fought principal- ly with their ri- fles and muskets, their artillery be- ing of but little use to them, ow- ing to the nature general SCOTT ENTERING THE CITY OF MEXICO, of their position. Their loss was seven [ The castle of Chapultepec stood on a hundred and eighty-seven killed and | steep and lofty hill, and could not be 5 66 WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO. turned. If won at all, it must be by a direct assault. On the twelfth of Sep tember the American artillery opened fire upon it, and reduced it almost to ruins. On the morning of the thirteenth a determined assault was made by the Americans, and the castle was carried after a sharp struggle. Santa Anna's Retreat. During the night of the thirteenth Santa Anna, with the remains of his army, retreated from the city, leaving the authorities to make the best terms they could with the conquerors. The city officials presented themselves be- fore General Scott before daybreak, and proposed terms of capitulation. The general replied that the city was already in his power, and that he would enter it on his own terms. The next day, September 14, 1847, the American army entered the city of Mexico, occupied the grand square, and hoisted the stars and stripes over the government build- ings. Santa Anna retreated with four or five thousand men from the capital to the vicinity of Puebla, which was besieged by a Mexican force. The city contained eighteen hundred sick Amer- icans, and was held by a garrison of five hundred men under Colonel Childs. This little force held out bravely until the arrival of a brigade from Vera Cruz, under General I,ane, on its way to re- inforce General Scott. Lane drove off Santa Anna's army, and relieved Puebla on the eighth of October. Ten days later Santa Anna was reported to be collecting another force at Alixo. Lane set out immediately for that place, reached it by a forced march, and dis- persed the Mexicans beyond all hope of reunion. Immediately after the capture of the city of Mexico Santa Anna resigned the presidency of the republic in favor of Senor Peiia y Pena, president of the Supreme Court of Justice, but retained his position as commander-in-chief of the army. The fall of the city was fol- lowed by the inauguration of a new government, one of the first acts of which was to dismiss Santa Anna from the command of the army. He at once left the country, and fled to the West Indies. Return of Peace. On the Fourth of July, 1848, Presi- Polk issued a proclamation announcing the return of peace. By the terms of the treaty the Rio Crande wd*s accepted by Mexico as the v/estern boundary of the United States and of Texas, and that republic ceded to the United States the provinces of New Mexico and Upper California. For this immense territory the government of the United States agreed to pay to Mexico the sum of fif- teen millions of dollars, and to assume the debts due by Mexico to citizens of the United States, amounting to the sum of three and a half millions of dollars. The treaty having been rati- fied, the American forces were promptly withdrawn from Mexico, and the two countries resumed friendly relations. CHAPTER V. The Great Civil War. (f) I HE agitation upon the question of * I slavery began about the year 1830, when William lyloyd Gar- rison, of Boston, commenced the publi- cation of a paper entitled " The Liber- ator.'' The great object of this publica- tion was to secure the immediate aboli- tion of slavery throughout the United States. It should be said that there were advocates of this measure at the beginning of the century, including especially the Quakers. As the anti-slavery sentiment grew in the North the people of the South more and more became alarmed, and pre- pared to defend the institution which they considered essential to their own well-being. The result was that the two great sections of our country be- came in a large measure estranged, and the statesmen of both North and South, fearing that the disruption of the Union would finally follow, exerted them- selves to the utmost to prevent such a calamity. In 1 82 1 Missouri was admitted into the Union, but the present limits of the State were not established till 1836. Its admission was preceded by a long and bitter political controversy between the representatives of the North and South, the former resisting its entrance as a slave State. The discussion resulted in the famous "Missouri Compromise," a mea- sure strongly advocated by Henry Clay, under which compact it was agreed that slavery should be forever excluded from all that part of Louisiana north of 36° 30' latitude, except Missouri. It was not foreseen at the time that this measure would have an important bear- ing upon the territory of Nebraska, in- cluding what is now the State of Kan- sas, but such was the case. In 1850 California, to which the dis- covery of gold had attracted a rush of immigrants, was admitted as a non-slave State. To pacify the South, the Fugi- tive Slave Law was passed, which di- rected the Federal authorities to return slaves who had escaped to the North, and also required citizens wherever the slaves were found to aid in their cap- ture. The North took great umbrage at the enactment of this law, and the anti-slavery sentiment grew rapidly. Struggle in Kansas. In 1854, in defiance of the Missouri Compromise, the principle of " squatter sovereignty" was applied to the two great territories lying north of 36 de- grees and as far as 30 degrees — Kansas and Nebraska. The spirit of the North was fully aroused, and anti-slavery men poured into Kansas with the intention of making it a free State, as Congress had already decided that the question of slavery should be left to the inhabitants to settle by themselves. The State gov- ernment was organized on a non-slave basis, though it was not admitted as a State until 1861. This struggle led to the formation of a new party in the North opposed to slavery, although such opposition had already shaped the policy to a large ex- tent of the Whig party. The new party adopted as its name that of Jefferson's old party — Republican — and grew with 67 68 THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. marvellous rapidity. In 1856 a Presi- dential election was held ; the Demo- cratic candidate, Buchanan, was elected by a majority of the electoral vote, but Fremont, the Republican candidate, had a large popular vote. About this time du incident occurred that greatly inflamed the anti-slavery sentiment of the North. In his opinion on what was known as the Dred-Scott Case, Chief Justice Taney stated, among other things, that a slave, or the de- scendant of a slave, could not be a citizen of the United States, and the Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional. Party Divided. In i860, the Democratic party was split in two sections, the southern or ultra-slavery Democrats and the north- ern or conservative Democrats. The southerners demanded recognition by the party of the duty of Congress to protect slavery ; the northern Demo- crats could not possibly agree to this. In the face of a divided party, the Re- publicans elected their candidate, Abra- ham Lincoln, President. The North was now much stronger in population and wealtli and growing stronger every day. If the South remained in the Union it would soon be at the mercy of the North. The extreme southern States determined to secede, hoping no doubt that the northwest and California would either join them or remain neu- tral. But the newer States had been largely settled by foreigners, to whom the United States had been a star of hope for many years, until frugality en- abled them to emigrate thither. They had no state pride, but were intensely loyal to the country which was their adopted home. The northwest, California, and after a struggle, Missouri, Kentucky and Maryland, cast in their lot with the North and East. About eight or nine millions in the South stood against twenty or twenty-two millions in the North, with the resources of wealth and increased production on the side of the latter. Mr. Lincoln was inaugurated March 4, 1 86 1. In his address he declared that he had neither the right nor the desire to interfere with slavery where it already existed ; that no State could lawfully go out of the Union ; and that he should maintain the laws and constitution of the United States to the best of his ability. The new administration was beset with difficulties on every side, and the condition of affairs seemed almost desperate. Many of those who for years had guided the "ship of state," and who understood its workings, were now foremost in advocating secession. Appalling State of Affairs. Mr. Lincoln's officers were new to the business of the Federal government. The treasury, by defalcation, was nearly bankrupt. Few troops were within call ; and the army had been almost broken up by the surrender of detached forces in the Confederate States, and the cap- ture of munitions of war. The vessels of the navy were sailing or at anchor in distant waters, and numerous officers of both the army and the navy were re- signing their commissions on the ground that they owed allegiance first to the States from which they came. Seven States had already revolted, and others were ready to swell the num- ber upon the first attempt to enforce the Federal authority. The public offi- THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. 69 ces were largely occupied by persons in sympathy with the secession move- ment, and every step taken by the new government was known at once to the leaders of the Confederacy, and to crown all, Mr. Lincoln was beset by a vast horde of office-seekers eager to take ad- Vantage of the change of administration. The President waited a month and then notified Governor Pickens, of South Carolina, that he should send supplies to Fort Sumter at all hazards. This announcement precipitated an attack upon the fort. Major Anderson was first summoned to surrender, but he re- fused. At daybreak on the morning of April 12, 1 86 1, the Confederacy began its open conflict with the United States. All the batteries around the fort opened fire upon it; the fort replied, and the bombardment continued for thirty-six hours without loss of life on either side. The ammunition of the fort was then exhausted, and the works inside were on fire. The Old Flag Lowered. Thereupon the United States flag, for the first time in its history, was lowered to insurgent citizens, and the garrison capitulated. This event aroused the North as if from a trance. Until now, the mass of the people had refused to believe in real danger ; but the first shock of arms thoroughly convinced them that the South was ready to fight, and could not be curbed without war. It did more than this. In tjie Northern States party distinctions were for a (time swept aside ; there was but one party worth the name — the party for the Union. The Southern States were no longer " erring sisters" to be coaxed by concessions. The whole North called loudly for the full exercise of the Fed- eral power to compel the South to obe- dience at the point of the bayonet. The day after the evacuation of Fort Sumter, President Lincoln called for 75,ooo volunteers for three months, April 1 5. The response was so promptly made that the first Massachusetts troops began their march on the same day, and in a surprisingly short time the quota was full ; nay, ic could have been filled three or four times over, and the many who were refused felt a keen dis- appointment at not being allowed to bear arms in defense of the Union. State Sovereignty. ^ the South, also, the effect of the first conflict was correspondingly great. To the ignorant masses it did not seem possible that any other power could be superior to that of their own State; while the more intelligent classes had, from their childhood, imbibed the doc- trine that State sovereignty was tht foundation of civil liberty. Hence all felt bound to follow the lead of their State; and when the President of the new Confederacy issued his call for men it was answered, as in the North, b}i overflowing numbers. Those southern States which had wavered were now compelled to make their choice. When Mr. Lincoln called for troops the Governors of Arkansas, Virginia, North Carolina and Tennes- see refused to obey. North Carolina and Arkansas then seceded, and joined the Confederacy. In Tennessee and Virginia "military leagues" were formed with the Confederate States, by which Confederate troops were allowed to take possession of their territory, and by their aid the question of secession 70 THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. was submitted to popular vote. Thus the secession of these two States was ac- complished in part, but not wholly. The people of the Alleghany moun- tains were loyal to the Union ; in east- ern Tennessee they aided the Federals as much as possible ; the opposition to secession was so strong in the western counties of Virginia that the inhabitants refused to obey the convention which passed the ordinance ; they chose a leg- islature which claimed to be the true government, and at last formed a new State which was admitted to the Union in 1863, under the name of West Vir- ginia. Even thus curtailed, Virginia was a most important accession to the Confederacy ; it increased its military strength greatly, and at once became the chief battle-ground of the war. The Theatre of Conflict. The Confederate government was moved from Montgomery to Richmond; and since Washington was separated only by the Potomac from the Confed- eracy, it was clear that the great con- test would be fought in the country which lay between the two capitals. Moreover, Virginia was the richest and greatest of the slave States, and fur- nished the Southern army with its ablest leaders, many of whom — such as I,ee, Jackson, Johnson, and Ewell — were opposed to secession, but thought it right to shape their own course by that of their State. There was a strong anti-union element in Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, and Delaware, and the most momentous re- sults — involving, doubtless, the success of the Union cause — were involved in the action they would now take. Aside from Virginia, Missouri was the most powerful slave State, and her geograph- ical position, with that of Kentucky and Maryland, was of incalcuable mili- tary importance. Had these three States united with the Confederacy it might have won the prize for which it was contending — independence. Missouri, however, did not break away, though the issue was for some time doubtful with her. Delaware cast her lot with the Union. In Maryland and Kentucky efforts were made to maintain neutrality, but they were soon induced to declare in favor of the Fed- eral government. Kentucky, however, had some of her sons in the Southern ranks, among whom was John C. Breck- inridofc, a former Vice-President of the United States, who became an officer in the Confederate army. The Federal government was in no want of men, but the action of Secre- tary Floyd had almost stripped it of arms to equip them. Agents were sent abroad to purchase guns, private manu- factories were worked day and night to produce them, and in a short time the administration was able to call more men into the field. Not a Warlike People. The Northern people were unmilitary in their habits and thoughts. They had a militia, but it was poorly organ- ized. The Mexican war had drawn few volunteers from this section, and the United States army was very small and imperfectly equipped. The early action of the Confederates also had weakened it. There was, however, a greater population to draw from than at the South. There was also a wider range of industry to supply the neces- sary funds to carry on the war. THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. 71 South Carolina had, on the 14th of January, 1861, declared in her legisla- ture that any attempt to reinforce Fort Sumter would be regarded as a declara- tion of war. April nth Governor Pick- ens, in a note to Major Robert Ander- son, commanding Fort Sumter, ordered him to deliver up the fort. Anderson answered that he had no power to com- ply, and, as already stated, refused. The navy-yards of Brooklyn received orders to have vessels in rea- diness to send supplies to the beleaguered Fort Sumter, in Charleston harbor. Sup- plies were sent by the Star of the West, but did not arrive in season, the vessel having retreated from the harbor af- ter being fired upon. These were, in real- ity, the first FORT SUMTER hostile shots from the South on the National flag, though the attack on Fort Sumter is regarded as the begin- ning of the war. The attack was conducted by General G. T. Beauregard, favorably known in connection with the Mexican War, now appointed to the chief command of the Confederate forces. The assault was opened at four o'clock of April 12th, when was fired the first gun of the ter- rible Civil War which ensued. The fort was surrendered ou the afternoon of the 13th, after Anderson and his brave band of seventy men had fought for thirty-six hours, exposed to death by shot, shell and conflagration. Major Anderson reported that he " marched out on the 14th with colors flying and drums beating, bringing away company and private property, and saluting our flag with fifty guns." The men carried away the flag they had defended. The same day and hour. IN THE BEGINNING OE THE WAR. four years afterwards, that memorable flag was restored, and again waved over the shattered remains of Fort Sumter. The first blood of the war was shed in the streets of Baltimore. Massachu- setts and Pennsylvania troops on their way to Washington were attacked by a Baltimore mob, April 19, 1861, and some of the soldiers killed. The popu- lace, which sympathized with the South, declared that no Northern troops should pass through the city. The railroad was blocked up, bridges were burned, 72 THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. telegraph wires were cut, and all direct communication with the North was stopped, until the President sent a mili- tary force from Annapolis to occupy Baltimore and keep the road open. In a short time the active hostility of the people was overcome, and the national (Capital made secure. By July 4th the Confederates had pushed their forces as far as Manassas Junction, about thirty miles from Wash- ington. Their line of defence was al- ready marked out, and its length has been estimated at eleven thousand miles, including the Atlantic and gulf coasts. It comprised the left bank of the Poto- mac from Fortress Monroe nearly to Washington ; from thence it extended to Harper's* Ferry, on through the mountains of western Virginia and the southern part of Kentucky, crossing the Mississippi a short distance below Cairo. From this point its direction was through southern Missouri to the east- ern border of Kansas ; then southwest, through the Indian territory, and along the northern boundary of Texas to the Rio Grande. Reliance on Cotton. The area contained within this in- terior line and the sea-coast was about 800,000 square miles, with a popula- tion of over 9,000,000. It comprised, also, the territory devoted to the raising of cotton, an article necessary to the manufacturing interests of the world. It was upon this production that the South relied largely for aid ; all the , munitions of war could be procured in exchange for it ; and she believed it would be a powerful factor in prevent- ing the blockading of her ports. In consideration of this fact, and also that the Confederate line of sea-coast was over three thousand miles in length, with but one port of refuge for a block- ading fleet about the middle of the line, it scarcely seemed possible that a block- ade could be maintained with any marked degree of success. Neverthe- less, the President issued a proclama- tion, April 19, 1 861, declaring a block- ade of all the southern parts, and the Federal government proceeded to pur- chase and arm a large number of mer- chant vessels. But it could not at once bring together a navy powerful enough to keep vessels from entering or leaving the blockaded ports. The South not only sent out vessels laden with cotton to the West Indies and to Europe, but received in return military supplies of all kinds. To Destroy Commerce. Upon the appearance of Mr. Lincoln's blockade proclamation, Mr. Davis issued one also, granting letters of marque and reprisal to private vessels, against the commerce of the United States. The governments of Great Britain and France now issued proclamations of neutrality, thus making the contest be- tween the North and the South a civil war, according to subsequent decisions of the Supreme Court. At the meeting of Congress, July 4, 1 86 1, the Republicans had a majority in both branches, the free States and border States only being represented. The House voted to devote its time solely to the business connected with the war. It supported the President's proclamation closing the Southern ports against commerce. Bills were passed to define and punish conspiracy against the United States, and to confiscate all THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. 73 private property, including slaves, em- ployed against the Federal government; to authorize a loan; to call out 500,000 volunteers, and to appropriate money for the army and navy. During this session occurred the first battle of Bull Run, July 21, 1861. Gen- eral Scott had been appointed com- mander-in-chief of the Union forces. The first military movements were in the mountains of western Virginia, and the success of the Union army there led many people to suppose that in a short time the rebellious States would be compelled to obedience. Mr. Seward, who was Secretary of State, was espec- ially cheerful, and promised that the war should be over in ninety days. The newspapers and people generally urged an immediate movement upon Richmond. First Great Battle. Very few had any knowledge of the difficulties before them, and General Scott, pressed by public opinion, gave the order to advance. This resulted in the first serious battle of the war. The Union forces were defeated, and re- treated in a panic upon Washington. Both armies were yet so new in military training that the Confederates gained nothing from their success. This disaster opened the eyes of the North, and the country settled down into a more serious temper. Congress was, more than ever, stimulated to in- creased energy, and pledged itself to vote any amount of money and any number of men necessary to maintain the Union. Propositions to consider negotiations! for peace were constantly offered by extreme Democrats, and as constantly rejected by large majorities. on the ground that negotiation with armed rebellion was unconstitutional. General Scott, having resigned the command of the Northern armies on account of his age and infirmity, was succeeded by General George B, Mc- Clellan, whose successful campaign in western Virginia had given him a high reputation throughout the army. He had a genius for organization, and pos- sessed the unbounded confidence of the people. He immediately set about forming the first great army of the war — the Army of the Potomac — at Alex- andria, in preparation for a second ad- vance. Impatience of the North. But the advance was delayed much too long to suit the impatience of the people and the administration ; and as the winter 1861-62 passed away with- out any forward movement, the expres- sions of dissatisfaction became louder and more general. The Confederacy also spent the summer and autumn of 1 86 1 in organizing its northern Army of Virginia, under General Beauregard. In the autumn of 1861 a portion of General Stone's command on the Upper Potomac was sent on a reconnoissance into Virginia, under Colonel Baker, and, being attacked by the Confederate general, Evans, at Ball's Bluff, was dis- astrously defeated. Colonel Baker was among the killed. Although Missouri had not seceded, a strong party, with which the governor was acting, wished to carry it over to the Confederacy. A Confederate camp near St. Louis was broken up by Captain Lyon, of the regulars, and the St. Louis arsenal was saved to the government. The State was afterward invaded by Confederates 74 THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. from Arkansas, who were defeated by Lyon (now a general) at Booneville, June 17th, and by Sigel at Carthage, July 5th. A large force of Confederates under McCuUough and Price attacked Lyon at Wilson's Creek, August loth. Lyon was killed, and his command fell back toward the center of the State. Price with 20,000 men then attacked Lex- ington, which was garrisoned by 2,000 Federal troops under Colonel Mulligan. After an heroic defense of three days the little garrison was compelled to surren- der, September 20th, after their water supply had been cut off for forty-eight hours. General Fremont was now ap- pointed to the command of the western department. He drove Price into the southwest corner of the State, and waS about to give battle when he was super- seded by General Kunter, November 2d. Hunter retreated to St. Louis, with Price in pursuit ; but in a fort- night Hunter was replaced by Halleck, and Price was driven into Arkansas. Families Divided. "Kentucky, like Missouri, was dis- tracted by dissensions among its own people, and by armies on both sides. General Polk of the Confederate army occupied Hickman and Columbus, towns on the Mississippi. There was also a Confederate force at Belmont, Missouri, opposite Columbus. Ulysses S. Grant, recently appointed a brigadier- general of volunteers, now first came into notice. He drove the Confederates out of Belmont November 7th, but was unable to hold the town because it was commanded by the fortifications of Columbus. From the beginning of the war, the Federal government was embarrassed by the question of fugitive slaves. Con- gress had passed the act confiscating slaves employed in service hostile to the United States. While General Fre- mont was in command of the forces of the West, he had issued a proclamation declaring the slaves of Missouri Con-* federates free men, but this was counter- manded by President Lincoln, who did not wish to estrange those slave-holders, especially in Kentucky, who were still loyal to the Union. How Slaves Were Treated. In Virginia, General Benjamin F. Butler had declared that slaves were "contraband of war," and, therefore, liable to confiscation by military law. But as yet the disposition of the North was to subdue the South without inter- fering with slavery ; and some Union commanders restored to their masters the slaves who had escaped into the Federal lines. Formidable expeditions were fitted out to recapture Southern harbors. A combined land and naval force, under General Butler and Commodore String- ham reduced and occupied two forts at Hatteras Inlet, North Carolina, at the entrance to Albemarle and Pamlico Sounds, August 29th, and Port Royal harbor, near Beaufort, South Carolina, was secured through the reduction of Forts Walker and Beauregard by the fleet under Commodore Dupont, No- vember 7, and a land force under Gen- eral Thomas W. Sherman. These suc- cesses were of great value to the Federal government. They not only closed im- portant Southern ports, but they furn- ished convenient stations for the block- ading fleet. THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. 75 The "paper blockade," as it had been called, was soon made a very effective one along the whole length of the Southern coasit from the Potomac to the Rio Grande, an achievement which by many had been deemed im- possible. Still, in spite of the watch- fulness of the Federal navy, several Confederate men-of-war and privateers sailed out of port, and did much dam- age to merchant ships. The practice of " running the blockade " became a very profitable business ; and notwithstand- ing the danger of capture, which was the case in many instances, the profits on a single successful voyage were so great that adventurers found they could afford to take the risk. Seeking Recognition Abroad. As has been stated, the South de- pended largely upon assistance from abroad, and the southern leaders still clung to the hope that they could pre- vail upon Great Britain and France to recognize the independence of the Con- federacy. Two commissioners, there- fore, Messrs. Mason and Slidell, were sent by the Confederate government to London and Paris. They ran the block- ade, made their way to Havana, and then embarked for England in the British mail-steamer Trent. Some distance out, the Trent was overhauled by an American man-of-war under Captain Wilkes, the two commis- sioners were taken off, November, 1861, and carried to Boston harbor, where they were imprisoned in Fort Warren. This action, which was illegal and un- authorized, caused great excitement in England, and came very near causing a collision between the two countries. Lord Palmerston made a peremptory demand for the surrender of the prison- ers. The American government had already disavowed the act of Captain Wilkes, which, though it was justified by the British claim of the "right of search," was contrary to American principles. The Confederate envoys were therefore promptly released and sent to England. jast before this occurrence President Lincoln requested two confidential agents to visit France and England in order to help the Federal cause and avert the danger of foreign war by their influence with the governments and with persons of distinction. The per- sons selected for this delicate and im- portant trust were Archbishop Hughes, of New York, and Mr. Thurlow Weed. They sailed in November, and rendered very valuable service, Mr. Weed in Eng- land, and the Archbishop in France. War of Vast Magnitude. At the beginning of 1862 the war had assumed vast proportions. The num- ber of men under arms on both sides was nearly a million. The Confederates held possession of the Mississippi river from the Gulf of Mexico to the southern boundary of Kentucky, and occupied a chain of strong positions extending thence through Tennessee and Ken- tucky to the southwestern corner of Virginia. Between the Alleghanies and the Blue Ridge was the fertile Shenan- doah Valley, often disputed by both armies. At the east the Confederates were posted in great force between the Poto- mac and the Rappahannock. Now that Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky and Missouri had been saved to the Union, it was certain that the battle v.'^ould be ARREST OF MASON AND ^TJDELI. ON THE BRITISH STEAMER "TRENT" 76 THE GREAT CIVIIv WAR. 77 fought out in the territory to the south of them. The plan of the Federal au- thorities was to open the Mississippi and penetrate the Confederate line at the west, while at the same time McClellan attacked Richmond, and a land and naval force continued the pro- cess of capturing the southern ports on the Atlantic coast. Simon Cameron, who had been Secre- tary of War, resigned January 20, 1862, and was succeeded by Edwin M. Stan- ton. All the Federal armies were to move simultaneously on the 22d of Feb- ruary, Washington's birthday, but this order could not be strictly carried out. Grant in the West. The first advance was made in the West. General Grant had entered Ken- tucky from Illinois, and succeeded in securing the mouths of the Tennessee and Cumberland rivers, two streams which were to serve as military high- ways by which the Federal armies were to penetrate into the heart of the Con- federacy. The chief Confederate posi- tions between the Mississippi river and the Alleghany mountains were Fort * Henry on the Tennessee, Fort Donel- son on the Cumberland (both in Ten- nessee), and Bowling Green and Mill Spring in Southern Kentucky. This iine of defence was in command of General Sydney Johnston, with head- quarters at Bowling Green, Here he was confronted by General Buell's army, the middle one of the three great Federal armies, which came to be known as the Army of the Cumberland. Forts Henry and Donelson formed the centre of the Confederate line, and was confronted by Grant, whose troops after- wards formed the army of the Tennes- see. In January, 1862, General Thomas with the left of Buell's force thoroughly defeated the Confederate right at Mill Spring. General Grant, aided by the river fleet under Commodore Foote, now assailed the centre. Fort Henry was first attacked and reduced by the gunboats before Grant had time to in- vest it. The combined forces then as- saulted Fort Donelson, which, after a brave resistance, was captured Febru- ary i6th with 15,000 prisoners. The centre of the Confederate line was now pierced, and Johnston and Polk were compelled to retreat for fear of being cut off. Columbus, Bowling Green and Nashville were evacuated, and the whole of Kentucky and most of Tennessee were in the hands of the Federals. General Buell occupied Nash- ville ; a strong Union party showed it- self in Tennessee, and Senator Andrew Johnson was appointed Military Gov- ernor of the Slate. A Terrible Battle. The Confederates formed their second line of defense along the railroad from Memphis to Chattanooga, and began massing their forces at Corinth. The armies of Grant and Buell were to unite and attack the enemy in his new posi- tion. Grant moved up the Tennessee river and halted at Pittsburg Ivanding, or Shiloh, about twenty miles from Corinth, there to await the arrival of Buell. Here Johnston made a brilliant attack upon him with the intention of crushing him before Buell could come up. A terrible battle was fought April 6th and 7tli, in which the Confederate leader, who was one of the slain, came very near effecting his purpose. But 78 THK GREAT CIVIL WAR. the Federal forces, though driven back at nearly every point, stubbornly re- sisted, and at the close of the first day Buell's advance guard came upon the scene. The next morning Grant, now reinforced, assumed the offensive ; and after a fight of several hours, the Con- federates were driven back to Corinth, While these operations were taking captured for several weeks afterwards on account of the slow advances of General Halleck, who had assuined command of the Federal forces at that point. Meanwhile a fleet under Farragut and Porter, with a land force under Butler, had been sent to attack New Orleans. Farragut ran past the batteries and forts at the entrance of the river, attacked IRON-CLAD place in Tennessee, Commodore Foote with his gunboats entered the Missis- sippi with a small army under Pope, and captured Island Number Ten on the day of Grant's victory at Shiloh. Two months later Fort Pillow was abandoned by the Confederates, and Memphis at once fell into the hands of the Union army. The victory at Shiloh decided the fate of Corinth, an import- ant railroad center, though it was not / GUNBOAT. and destroyed the ironclads which met him, and captured New Orleans, which was occupied by the army under But- ler. Farragut with a part of his fleet then pushed up the river, clearing away all obstacles, passed the batteries at Vicksburg, and met the Federal gun- boats under Captain Davis above. Thus the war in the West had been, so far, marked by an almost unbroken series of victories for the Federal armies. THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. 79 At the northern boundary of the State of Mississippi the Union advance stopped for a time; but all was held that had been won. To gain control of the great riA^er, it was necessary to take Vicksburg, with its outpost, Port Hud- son, which, between them, commanded the entrance to the Red river, and thus kept open the communications of the eastern part of the Confederacy with its States of Texas, Louisiana and Arkansas. Moving on Vicksburg. To capture Vicksburg would cut off these States, and greatly cripple the fighting power of the Confederate gov- ernment. The occupation of Chatta- nooga was also necessary to the success of the Union arms. It would open the way into Georgia, and prevent the Con- federates from recovering any of the lost ground in Tennessee. While the South had met with de- feat in the West, it was encouraged by a success in Hampton Roads. The Confederates had taken the " Merri- mac," a former frigate of the United States navy, and transformed her into an iron-clad ram, with sloping sides and huge iron beak. On March 8, 1862, this strange-looking craft entered Hampton Roads and attacked the Feb- eral fleet lying there, w^hich consisted of five wooden ships of war. The Mer- rimac destroyed the Cumberland, and also compelled the frigate Congress to surrender. At night she went back to Norfolk. . The next morning she was seen com- ing out again to complete the work of destruction. Suddenly the Monitor, a turreted iron-clad vessel, advanced to meet her, and after an obstinate engage- ment of several hours the Merrimac was compelled to retire. These encoun- ters were remarkable as the first engage- ments between iron-clads and wooden vessels, and between two iron-clads. The result caused a revolution in the navies of the world ; the day of wooden war-vessels was seen to be over, and all the great powers began at once the con- struction of iron and steel vessels. The military operations in Virginia during the year 1862 offered a strong contrast to the course of events in the West. This was owing partly, no doubt, to the superior ability of the Confeder- ate commanders, as compared with their antagonists, partly, because on the Union side military affairs were too much intermingled with politics. Jackson Repulsed. While General McClellan was organ- izing a splendid army of 200,000 men near Washington, General Banks was ordered to occupy the Shenandoah val- ley. He began his advance in Febru- ary, and having, as he supposed, cleared the valley of the enemy, set out with his own corps proper to join McClellan. As soon as he was gone, General Jack- son, popularly known as "Stonewall Jackson," hastened to attack the divi- sion of Shields which remained in the valley. After a desperate battle at Kearnstown, March 23d, Jackson was compelled to retire. Banks returned to the valley, and Shields was sent to join McDowell at Fredericksburg. General Fremont now approached from the West, in order to unite with Banks near Stanton. To prevent this Jackson formed the plan of attacking the Federal forces in detail. He nearly succeeded in getting into the rear of the main body with a much largej army 80 THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. than Banks could muster. By a hur- ried retreat Banks reached and crossed the Potomac, with the Confederate cav- alry in close pursuit. Sliields hastened back to the valley, but his advance guard was defeated at Port Republic, June 8th, by Jackson, who, the same day, had checked Fremont at Cross Keys. Having thus saved the valley to the Confederates, and obliged the govern- ment at Washington to detain for the defense of the capital a large body of troops which McClellan greatly needed for other duty, Jackson joined the Con- federate army in front of Richmond. McOlellan's Advance. General McClellan con'"::ntrated the Army of the Potomac between Wash- ington and Manassas, as if intending to advance against Richmond by that route. He then witlidrew his forces and went by water to Fortress Monroe in order to advance up the peninsula between the James and York rivers. Here he was held in check for a month by Johnston at Yorktown, and when McClellan was ready to take the place, the Confederates retreated toward Rich- mond. The Union forces followed, and both armies concentrated around Rich- mond. McClellan gained the battles of Wil- j liamsburg, May 5th, and West Point, May 9th, and advanced within seven miles of the city. A panic broke out in the Southern capital, and the Con- federate Congress adjourned in haste. It was just at ^his time that Stonewall Jackson, by his brilliant and daring exploits in the Shenandoah Valley, obliged the Federal government to keep in front of Washington a corps under McDowell which was about to co-operate with McClellan by way of Frederi cksbu rg. The movements of McClellan in- volved the separation of the two wings of his army by the little river Chicka- hominy, which by a sudden rise was changed into a wide stream. The Con- federates under Johnston at once at- tacked the Union left wing at Fair Oaks and Seven Pines. A fierce battle ensued, lasting two days; the result, however, was a Union victory. John- ston was wounded, and was succeeded by Robert E. Lee, who retained com- mand of the army of Virginia during the rest of the war. Plan Had to be Changed. The absence of McDowell, who was expected to support McClellan's right, compelled a change ii> \he whole plan of operations. Although Lee had been repulsed in an attack on the Federal lines at Mechanicsville, June 26th, he fell upon them again at Gainer "Mill the day following, in overwhelming force, and drove them across the Chicka- hominy with severe loss. Jackson had now reinforced Lee, and McClellan was cut off from his base of supplies on York river. Unable to re-unite his wings and regain his base, the Union general decided upon the difficult ma- noeuvre of establishing another base on the James river. While effecting this change, the Union troops were hard pressed by Lee and Jackson, who, during the period from June 26th to July ist, attacked them at Golding's Farm, Savage's Sta- tion, White Oak Swamp, Glendale, etc., and finally at Malvern Hill, where the Confederates were signally repulsed, THE GREAT Civil. WAR. 81 This was the last of a series of engage- ments known as the "Seven Days' Bat- tles," in the course of which McClellan lost over 15,000 men. Lee suffered al- most as much. The Union army had now reached the James river, and estab- lished itself in a position from which it could not be driven. Designs on Washington. Lee and Jackson then turned their attention toward Washington, which was defended by an army under General Pope. Pope's forces stretched along the Rappahannock and Rapidan to the Shenandoah Valley. General Banks held a position at the western end of the line, and was attacked by Jackson at Cedar Mountain. Lee followed close behind, and the two generals forced Banks back and then attacked Pope. McClellan received orders from Wash- ington to join Pope, and a portion of his forces came up in time to take part in the second battle of Bull Run, Au- gust 29th. Pope's army was put to rout, Washington was threatened and the whole country was wild with ex- citement. Lee now led his victorious army across the upper Potomac and entered Mary- land. McClellan, gathering up the remnants of the two defeated armies, followed and confronted the Confeder- ates at Antietam creek. A desperate struggle took place, September 17th. It left each army exhausted, but the victory remained with the Union forces. The Confederates recrossed the Poto- mac and retired up the Shenandoah Valley. The administration was dissatisfied with McClelld.n's course, and his com- mand was given to General Burnside. The new commander at once moved toward Richmond, proposing to cross the Rappahannock at Fredericksburg. Here he found Lee posted upon the hills behind the town. Burnside crossed the river, and, forming his army in three divisions, attempted to storm the heights, December 13th. It was a day of terrible slaughter for the Federal troops. They were repulsed with the loss of twelve thousand men, the army was demoralized, and retreated to the north side of the river. Burnside was then superseded by General Hooker. The North Discouraged. The close of 1862 thus found the op- posing armies in nearly the same posi- tions as at the beginning of the war. At the North gloom and discourage- ment prevailed. At the State elections held in the autumn there was a majority against the administration in several of the Northern States, and the result of the campaigns on the Potomac gave great strength to the peace party, which believed that the attempt to subjugate the South ought to be abandonod. CHAPTER VI. End of the Great Civil War. IN June, 1862, the great Union force at Corinth was divided, Buell's marching eastward to seize Chat- tanooga, while Grant's remained at Cor- inth till it should be ready to start for Vicksburg. The campaign was so badly managed by Halleck that the Confederates, under Bragg, seized Chat- tanooga before Buell's arrival. They were thus enabled to press him so vigor- orusly that he had to be largely rein- forced from Grant's army. Thus weakened, Grant was unable to advance for several mou'dis. During the summer of 1862 the Confederates made a great effort to repair the disas- ters they had suffered on the Tennessee and Mississippi rivers by an invasion of Kentucky. An army under Kirby Smith moved from Knoxville, East Tennessee, while another, under Bragg, marched from Chattanooga. The Con- federate general. Smith, defeated Gen- eral Nelson near Richmond, Kentucky, August 30th, and advanced toward the Ohio, threatening Cincinnati. General Lew Wallace, however, compelled him to fall back to Frankfort. Bragg in the meantime hastened toward the city of Louisville. Buell, leaving Nashville, by forced marches reached the place one day ahead of Bragg. Being reinforced, he slowly pushed the Confederates back. Bragg formed a junction with Smith at Frank- fort, and four days later a severe but indecisive battle was fought at Perry- ville, October 8th, The Confederates then retreated through Cumberland Gap. During Bragg's campaign, the Con- 82 federate army in Mississippi unde*- Gen- eral Van Dorn made an attempt to turn Grant's left wing at Corinth, and thus force him back down the Tennessee River. This wing was commanded by General Rosecrans, who defeated Price at luka, a few miles from Corinth, Sep- tember 19th. On October 4th Van Dorn and Price together attacked Cor- inth, but were repulsed by Rosecrans with a loss of five thousand men, and pursued forty miles. Hard Fighting in Tennessee. Soon after this Rosecrans superseded Buell in command of the army of the Cumberland. Bragg had advanced to Murfreesborough, in Central Tenne>=see. There Rosecrans attacked him, Decem- ber 3 1st, and a bloody battle was fought, in which 40,000 men were engaged on each side, and each lost more than 10,000. This engagement is generally known as the battle of Stone River. It was indecisive. On January 2, 1863, Bragg renewed the attack with great vigor, but this time he was signally de- feated, and compelled to retire to Chat- tanooga. While these battles were being fought Grant had begun his first movement against the strong and important post of Vicksburg, on the Mississippi. His plan was to march from Jackson, Missis- sippi, while Sherman, with his 40,000 men, and Porter, with a fleet of gun- boats, descended the river from Mem- phis. The movements were made ac- cording to this arrangement, but Van Doru's cavalry succeeded in getting in END OF THE GREAT ClVIt WAR. 83 Grant's rear and cutting off his sup- plies. This compelled Grant to abandon his march to Jackson. Sherman and Porter attacked the bluffs north of Vicksburg, but were repulsed with tieavy loss on December 29th. Hearing / Grant's misfortune, they returned to Memphis. After Hatteras Inlet to Pamlico Sound had been captured, it was next resolved to attack the Confederate position on Roanoke Island, which commands the passage between Pamlico and Albe- tnarle Sounds. A land and naval expe- dition under General Burnsideand Com- modore Goldsborough took the forts and batteries of the island February 8, 1862, captured a Confederate flotilla, occupied Newberne, North Carolina, March 14th, and reduced Fort Macon, at Beaufort, April 25 th. Capture of Fort Pulaski. Expeditions from Port Royal under Commodore Dupont took possession of Darien and Brunswick, Georgia, and of Jacksonville, Fernandina, and St. Au- gustine, Florida. April 11, 1862, Gen- eral Gilmore captured Fort Pulaski, on the Savannah River. Thus the port of Savannah was completely closed, al- though no effort was made for some time to occupy the city. During the movement of the armies in 1862, Congress had not been idle. It was chiefly occupied in measures con- nected with the prosecution of the war. Its most far-reaching action was in the provision for a uniform national cur- rency. At the beginning of the war the government had borrowed large sums of money to defray expenses, and it continued to borrow as new demands arose. The result was similar to that which occurred in the Revolutionary War. The promises to pay became less valuable as compared with gold, which was the standard of value throughout the civilized world. The banks in the several States could no longer obtain gold without paying a high price for it: and at the end of 186 1 they suspended specie payments. In order to provide a currency for the peo- ple, a bill was passed by Congress early in 1863 authorizing the issue of notes by the United States Treasury. These notes received the popular name of "greenbacks," from the color of the paper on which they were printed ; and to insure their success they were de- clared by Congress to be " legal tender," February 25, 1862. Early in 1863 Con- gress passed an act establishing national banks. Heretofore the States had in- corporated all banks, and the bills of each bank were seldom current except in its own neighborhood. By the na- tional banking system, the banks were to be organized, and the United States bonds deposited in Washington. Special Legislation. The banks were then permitted to issue notes up to ninety per cent, of the value of the bonds deposited, and the notes, being thus secured, became cur- rent in every part of the country. A homestead bill was passed, which as- signed public lands to actual settlers at reduced rates. Congress also prohibited slavery in the District of Columbia; slaves of insurgents were ordered to be confiscated ; and the army was forbid- den to surrender fugitive slaves to their masters. It provided for the construc- tion of a Pacific railroad and telegraph, and began a further development of the 84 END OF THE GREAT CIVIt WAR. system of granting public lands to rail- way corporations. The abolition sentiment had spread very rapidly in the North, and it had now become supported by the military needs of the hour. At the beginning of the conflict the Union headers and people generally had not favored any interference with slavery, but circum- stances had proved their position to be untenable. President Lincoln, who watched anxiously every movement, was convinced that the time had come when the Federal government could no longer attempt to carry on the war successfully and spare the system of slavery. Vexed Question of Slavery. He therefore announced, September, 1862, that unless the revolting States should return to their allegiance by Jan- uary I, 1 863, he should declare the slaves in these States to be free. It was a formal notice given out of respect to law ; no one seriously expected that it would be regarded by the Confederate States. And it was not. They only grew more firm in consequence of the action taken. On the 1st day of January, 1863, in ac- cordance with his notice, the President issued his celebrated Proclamation of Emancipation. This act caused much discussion. Mr. Lincoln could not, legally, issue such a declaration, for the Constitution gave him no authority to abolish slavery. But he acted on the principle of military necessity, advocated by John Quincy Adams in his speech of April 14, 1842, in which he said : "Whether the war be civil, servile, or foreign, I lay this down as the law of nations : I say that the military authority takes for the time the place of all municipal institutions, slavery among the rest. Under that state of things, so far from its being true that the States where slavery exists have the exclusive management of the sub- ject, not only the President of the United States, but the commander of the army has power to order the universal eman- cipation of slaves." The events of the preceding summer had shown that the war was far from being at an end. The cutting off of the cotton supply had been a general calam- ity, and the distress produced in conse- quence created a fear lest England and France should unite in an attempt to put an end to the contest. But the proclamation changed all this. By it the struggle was converted into a cru- sade against slavery, and in this light foreign intervention was now simply impossible, owing to Great Britain's attitude towards slavery. Negro Regiments. Moreover, should the Federal govern- ment be successful, the question of slavery would practically be settled for- ever, for its abolition would be certain when the Union was re-established. One of the first results of the act was the formation of regiments of negro sol- diers. An attack made by one of these regiments, under Colonel Shaw, upon Fort Wagner, in Charleston harbor, though unsuccessful, showed so much bravery that the prejudice against negro soldiers disappeared, and great numbers were enrolled. General Hooker spent three months in reorganizing and strengthening the Army of the Potomac. At the end of April, 1863, he began his march toward Richmond with 120,000 men. Sending NAPOLEON AND THE QUEEN OF PRUSSIA AT TILSIT AT THI= DLACE, IN EASTERN PRUSSIA, THE TREATY OF PEACE BETWEEN FRANCE AND RUSSIA, A^" ALSO BETWEEN FRANCE AND PRUSSIA WAS SIG £D, JULY 7th 1807 < cc C3 "5 UJ > ° ll. "5 Z o = < LU I H < < z CO *^ battle; of CHANCEIvI UJ LLl CO U < o CD q: HI o > o o < OD CQ QC H LU < n UJ cc O X I H o % n O 1- T en C3 M. GUIGLIELMO MARCONI DISCOVERER AND INVENTOR OF THE WIRELES"^ TELEGRAPH TKE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR. iir waiting transports the Spaniards went wild with joy. They thought that in spite of out- ward appearances the American fleet was crippled, and that as it would be una- ble tc escape from the harbor it would fall into their hands. This was tele- graphed up to Manila, and soon to Madrid, where it filled the Ministry with momentary delight; but before the Ministers at Madrid had read the false news, the American fleet, with decks again cleared and with fresh sup- plies of ammunition was steaming back toward Cavite. Dewey Made Admiral. This second engagement was short. The last Spanish ship was soon grounded or sunk. The American guns were now trained on Cavite, and one ship after another steamed along pouring in a deadly fire. At 11.30 the batteries at Cavite ceased to answer, and the Ameri- can fleet with ringing cheers from its ex- hausted, but triumphant crews steamed jubilantly back to the transport ships. And to the long list of splendid naval victories beginning with the Revolu- tion was added the glorious victory of Manila. In honor of his distinguished service Commodore Dewey was raised to the rank of Admiral, and Congress passed a series of resolutions thanking him and his men for services rendered their country, and voted a medal to every man of the fleet. Dewey's victory was gained without the loss of a single life. On May nth Ensign Bagley, of the torpedo boat Winslow, and five men were killed, and five others were wounded in Cardenas harbor, on the northern coast of Cuba, in an engagement with Spanish gunboats. The Americans dis- played great bravery in the face of dan- ger, the action of the United States gunboat Hudson being especially nota- ble in going to the rescue of the Win- slow, and towing her out of range of the enemy's fire. Ensign Bagley was the first to lose his life in the war. It was known that Spain had sent a formidable fleet under Admiral Cervera to operate in the waters around Cuba, but for several weeks the officers of our North Atlantic Squadron were unable to locate the Spanish ships, or tell their exact destination. On' May 19th the long suspense occasioned by the diffi- culty of ascertaining what Admiral Cervera intended to do with his fleet was over, and it was definitely known that his vessels were entraped in the harbor of Santiago. Hurrying Troops Forward. The Government resolved to send troops at once to that point to aid the fleet in capturing the town. While it was known that the Spanish vessels were inside the harbor of Santiago it was considered impossible for our bat- tleships to enter the harbor on account of mines which had been planted, and the formidable attack sure to be made by batteries on shore. The entrance to the harbor of San- tiago is very narrow, and vessels are compelled at one point to go through a channel not much over three hundred feet wide. Here occurred on the morn- ing of June 3d one of the most gallant acts recorded in the annals of naval warfare. Lieutenant Hobson, naval constructor, on the flagship of Admiral Sampson, conceived the plan of block- ing this narrow entrance by sinking the 118 THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR. collier Merrimac, thus "bottling up" Cervera and his fleet. When it became known that he was about to enter upon this daring under- taking and would need a few brave spirits to aid him, every man apparently of the whole fleet was anxious to form one of the party. Only six, however, were chosen and these were men as brave and adventurous as Hobson him- self. The collier was prepared for sinking, and early in the morning about daylight she started on her mission, accompanied by a launch mainned by Ensign Powell and six other men, who were to rescue the crew of the Merrimac when she went down. Thousands of eyes from our ships were strained to watch the progress of the undertaking. Suddenly the Spanish batteries on shore opened fire on the daring craft. Fate of the Gallant Crew. Lying closer in than the warships, Powell had seen the firing when the Merrimac and her crew, then well in- side Morro Castle, were probably first discovered by the Spaniards. He also heard an explosion, which may have been caused by Hobson' s torpedoes. The Ensign was not sure. He waited vainly, hoping to rescue the heroes of the Merrimac, until he was shelled out by the forts. The work, however, was done. The big vessel had been swung across the narrow entrance to the harbor, the tor- pedoes had been fired, the explosion had come, the great collier was sinking at jv.st the right point ; and her gallant crew, having jumped into the water to save their lives, were taken on board the flagship of the Spanish Admiral, who praised their bravery, and sent an officer under flag of truce to assure Ad- miral Sampson that the heroic band was safe and would be well cared for. Spanish chivalry was forced to admira- tion. By the end of June the army that oui j Government had ordered to Cuba had arrived, General Shaffer being in com- mand. The number of troops was about 16,000, including officers, and sailed from Tampa, Florida, June 1 3th, arriv- ing at Santiago on the 20th. Rough Riders in Battle. It was not long after General Shaffer's army landed before the United States troops were engaged in active service and had a sharp conflict with the enemy. The initial fight of Colonel Wood's famous regiment, known as the Rough Riders, and the troopers of the First and Tenth regular cavalry was at La Quasi na. That it did not end in the complete slaughter of the Americans was not due to any miscalculation in the plan of the Spaniards, for all the advantages of position were in their favor. For an hour and a half our troops held their ground under a perfect storm of bullets from the front and sides, and then Colonel Wood, at the right, and Lieutenant-Colonel Roosevelt at the left, led a charge which turned the tide of battle and sent the enemy flying over the hills toward Santiago. The American officers showed the ut- most energy in preparing for the attack on Santiago; by July ist everything wa:^ in readiness, and General Shaffer or- dered a forward movement with a view of investing and capturing the town. The advance was made in two divisions, the left storming the works at San Juan. THB SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR. 119 Our torces in this assault were composed of the Rough Riders and the First, Third, Sixth, Ninth and Tenth dis- mounted cavalry. Catching the enthu- siasm and boldness of the Rough Riders, these men rushed against the San Juan defences with a fury that was irresistible. Their fierce assault was met by the Spaniards with a stubbornness born of desperation. Hour after hour tlie troops on both sides fought fiercely. In the early morning the Rough Riders met with a similar, though less costly, expe- rience to the one they had at La Quasina just a week before. They found them- selves a target for a terrific Spanish fire, to resist which for a time was the work of madmen. But the Rough Riders did not flinch. Fighting like demons, they held their ground tenaciously, now pressing forward a few feet, then falling back, under the enemy's fire, to the po- sition they held a few moments before. Cowboys and "Dandies." The Spaniards were no match for the Roosevelt fighters, however, and, as had been the case at La Quasina, the West- ern cowboys and Eastern "dandies" hammered the enemy from their path. Straight ahead they advanced, until by noon they were well along toward San Juan, the capture of which was their immediate object. There was terrible fighting about the heights during the next two hours. While the Rough Riders were playing such havoc in the enemy's lines, the First, Third, Sixth, Ninth and Tenth cavalry gallantly pressed forward to right and left. Before the afternoon was far gone these organizations made one grand rush all along the line, cap- turing- the San Juan fortifications, and sending the enemy in mad haste off toward Santiago. It was but three o'clock when these troops were able to send word to General Shaffer that they had taken possession of the position he had given them a day to capture. Carried by Storm. On the right General Lawton's divi- sion, supported by Van Home's brigade, under command temporarily of Colonel Ludlow, of the Engineers, drove the enemy from in front of Caney, forcing them back into the village. There the Spaniards for a time were able to hold tlieir own, but early in the afternoon the American troops stormed the vil- lage defences, driving the enemy out and taking possession of the place. Gaining the direct road into Santiago, they established their lines within three- quarters of a mile of the city at sunset. General Shaffer's advance against the city of Santiago was resumed soon after daybreak on the morning of July 2d, The American troops renewed the at- tack on the Spanish defences with im- petuous enthusiasm. They were not daunted by the heavy losses sustained in the first day's fighting. Inspired by the great advantages they had gained on the preceding day, the American troops were eager to make the final assault on the city itself. Their ad- vance had been an uninterrupted series of successes, they having forced the Spaniards to retreat from each new posi- tion as fast as it had been taken. Ad- miral Sampson, with his entire fleet, joined in the attack. The battles before the intrenchments around Santiago resulted in advantage to General Shaffer's army. Gradually he approached tW citv, holdino^ every 120 THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR. foot of ground gained. In the fighting of July 2d, the Spanish were forced back into the town, their commanding general was wounded, and the day closed with the certainty that soon our flag would float over Santiago. The fleet of Admiral Cerverahad long been shut up in the harbor, and during the two days' fighting gave effective aid INTERNATIONAL SIGNAL CODE. to the Spanish infantry by throwing shells into the ranks of the Americans. On the morning of July 3d, another great naval victory was added to the 'successes of the American arms, a vic- tory no less complete and memorable than that achieved by Dewey at Manila. Admiral Cervera's fleet, consisting of the armored cruisers Cristobal Colon, Almirante Oquendo, Infanta Maria Te- resa, and Vizcaya, and two torpedo-boat destroyers, the Furor and the Pluton, which had been held in the harbor of Santiago de Cuba for six weeks by the combined squadrons of Rear-Admirals Sampson and Schley, was sent to the bottom of the Caribbean Sea off" the southern coast of Cuba. Tlie Spanish admiral was made a prisoner of war on the auxiliary gun- boat Gloucester, and 1,000 to 1,500 other Spanish officers and sailors, all who escaped the frightful carnage caused by the shells from the American warships, were also made prisoners oC war by the United States navy. The American victory was complete, and the American vessels were practically untouched, and only one man was killed, though the ships were subjected to the heavy fire of the Spaniards all the time the battle lasted. The Admiral's Bravery. Admiral Cervera made as gallant a dash for liberty and for the preservation of the ships as has ever occurred in the history of naval warfare. In the face of overwhelming odds, with nothing before him but inevitable destruction or surrender if he remained any longer in the trap in which the American fleet held him, he made a bold dash from the harbor at the time the Americans least expected him to do so, and, fight- ing every inch of his way, even when his ship was ablaze and sinking, he tried to escape the doom which was written on the muzzle of every Ameri- can gun trained upon his vessels. One after another of the Spanish ships became the victims of the awful rain of shells which the American bat- tleships, cruisers and gun-boats poured THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR. 121 upon them, and two hours after the first of the fleet had started out of Santiago harbor three cruisers and two torpedo- boat destroyers were lying on the shore ten to fifteen miles west of Morro Cas- tle, pounding to pieces, smoke and flame pouring from every part of them and covering the entire coast line with a mist which could be seen for miles. Heavy explosions of ammunition oc- curred every few minutes, sending curls of dense white smoke a hundred feet in the air, and causing a shower of broken iron and steel to fall in the water on every side. The bluffs on the coast line echoed with the roar of every ex- plosion, and the Spanish vessels sank deeper and deeper into the sand, or else the rocks ground their hulls to pieces as they rolled or pitched forward or sideways with every wave that washed upon them from the open sea. Total Destruction. Admiral Cervera escaped to the shore m a boat sent by the Gloucester to the assistance of the Infanta Maria Teresa, and as soon as he touched the beach he surrendered himself and his command to Lieutenant Morton, and asked to be taken on board the Gloucester, which was the only American vessel near him at the time, with several of his officers, including the captain of the flagship. The Spanish admiral, who was wounded in the arm, was taken to the Gloucester, and was received at her gangway by her commander, Lieutenant Richard Wain- wright, who grasped the hand of the gray-bearded admiral and said to him : " I congratulate you, sir, upon hav- ing made as gallant a fight as was ever witnessed on the sea." The only casualties in the American fleet were one man killed and two wounded on the Brooklyn. A large number of the Spanish wounded were removed to the American ships. General Toral, commander of the Spanish forces at Santiago, was sum- moned to surrender, and after much parleying yielded to General Shaffer's demands on July 14th. The formal surrender took place on the 17th, and the American flag was hoisted over the city. By this victory 25,000 Spanish troops and officers in the province of Santiago became prisoners of war, and through the generosity of our govern- ment were afterwards sent back to Spain. It was understood that our Govern- ment would begin military operations for the purpose of capturing the island of Porto Rico immediately after the fall of Santiago, and on July 21st an expe- dition under General Miles, Comman- der-in-chief of the American army, ac- companied by transports and a naval convoy, sailed from Siboney on the southern coast of Cuba. Our Army in Porto Rico. General Miles landed his forces on July 25th at Guanica, Porto Rico. He encountered but little opposition, al- though there were several sharp skir- mishes with the Spanish troops who were occupying various points as garri- sons. On July 27th Ponce surrendered to General Miles, and on the 28th the capitulation was formally effected. Our troops advanced northward across the island and soon occupied the im- portant town of San Juan. Thus the island was peacefully subdued, and with but little bloodshed. A military gov- ernment was afterwards established, 122 THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR. which was intended to pave the way for a civil government that should promote the peace and welfare of the inhabitants. The Department of State at Washing- ton, on the afternoon of August 2d, is- sued a statement announcing officially the President's terms of peace, which were handed to the French Ambassador Canibon, acting representative of the Spanish government at Washington. They were that Spanish sovereignty must be forever relinquished in the Western Indies ; that the United States should have a coaling station in the Ivadrones, and that this country would occupy Manila's bay and harbor, as well as the city, pending the determination of the control, disposition and govern- ment of the Philippines, The announcement on August 7th, from Madrid, that the Spanish Ministry had formally decided to accept the pro- position of the United States for a peace convention relieved the anxiety that was felt for a definite decision. Attack on Manila. Messages were immediately sent to all army and navy commanders announcing that the war was ended and ordering them to cease hostilities. Before the message reached Manila Admiral Dewey and General Merritt resolved to capture the city. The warships bombarded the forts on August 13th, and the land forces at the same time made an attack. After a spirited resistance by the - Spaniards they surrendered, knowing it was use- less to longer resist. The fortifications and shore defences and part of the city itself were destroyed by American shot and shell during a terrific bombardment of two hours by the eight ghips of Admiral Dewey's fleet. The Americans killed lost their lives in storming the Spanish trenches, when they swept everything before them like a whirlwind. At 9.30 o'clock the signal to open fire fluttered from the signal lines of the Olympia. The flags were scarcely set when there was a roar from the big guns of the flagship herself. Instantly all the other vessels opened and a shower of steel missiles sped toward the doomed city. At the same time along the line of the American intrenchments the field guns opened on the Spanish position, and the American infantry were massed in the intrenchments ready for the final assault. Enemy Swept Like Chaff. With a cheer the Americans sprang from their trenches and dashed for the Spanish earthworks. The First Colo- rado Volunteers were in the van. A deadly fire was poured in from the heights occupied by the Spaniards, and it was this that caused the American losses. But the men never hesitated. They swept the enemy from the outer line of intrenchments to the second line of defence. This was at once attacked, and from there the Spaniards were driven into the walled city. Then the Spanish commander saw that further resistance was useless, and he sent up a white flag. The bombardment was at once stopped, and soon afterward the American forces entered the city. Gen- eral Merritt assumed command and tem- porarily restored the civil laws. On August 24th it was announced that the following American Peace Commis- sioners to settle the future of the PhilijD- pine Islands had been selected by Pres- ident McKiniey : William R. Day, of i 1 THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR. 123 Canton, Ohio, Secretary of State ; Cusli- man K. Davis, United States Senator from Minnesota, Chairman of the For- eign Relations Committee ; William P. Frye, United States Senator from Maine, member of the Foreign Relations Com- mittee ; Whitelaw Reid, of New York, for several years American Ambassador to the French Republic, and George Gray, United States Sen- ator from Delaware, The sessions of the Peace Commission were to be held in Paris, commencing not later than October ist, and continuing until an agreement was reached. The Commissioners met in Paris at the appointed time, and at once began their labors. Reports from time to time indicated that serious disagree- ments had developed, and it was even rumored that it would be impossible to reach an agreement that would satisfy both parties. The result, however, proved the contrary, and on the 28th of November, 1898, they reached an agreement respect- ing the terms for establishing peace between the two na- tions. The Spanish Commissioners were compelled to yield to the force of cir- cumstances, to realize the hopelessness of further opposition and to accept the inevitable. In other words, the title of the United States to the possession of a vast colonial territory was confirmed and ratified at the meeting of the Joint Commission in Paris on the above date. This territory includes Porto Rico, the Island of Guam, and the Philippine archipelago, considered in its broadest geographical sense — that is, comprising the Sulu Islands. At the same time the Spanish sovereignty over Cuba was also relinquished. The treaty of peace was signed at 8.45 on the evening of December 10, 1898. The treaty consisted of seventeen arti- cles, it having been found advisable to subdivide some of the articles in the draft agreed upon at the last meeting. The EUGENIC MONTERO RIOS. B, DE ABARAZUZA. J. DE GARNICA. V^. R. DE VILLI-URRUTIA. RAFAEL CERERO. signatures of the American Commis- sioners and the names of the Commis- sioners acting for Spain were appended. The treaty of peace was ratified in the executive session of the United States Senate, February 6th, by a vote of 57 to 27, the supporters of the treaty muster- ing but a single vote more than the necessary two-thirds. There was no 124 THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR. doubt whatever that the Spanish Cortes would ratify the treaty, and the war with Spain was therefore concluded. The long agitation in Congress and throughout the country concerning the peace treaty was over, and the way was prepared for Congress to adopt such measures as it might see fit for the future government of the Philippine Islands. The debate in the Senate had been very able, and for some time the result was in doubt. Efforts were made to pass a resolution declaring that it was not the policy of the United States to acquire possession of the Islands and make them a part of the territory of the United States. The insurgent army of Aguinaldo, which had resolutely maintained its position near Manila after the town was surrendered by the Spaniards to the American soldiers and sailors, made a fierce attack on the American lines on the evening of February 4, 1 899. Insurgents Driven Back. Defeated in a desperate effort to break through the American lines and enter the city of Manila, the insurgent forces, after fourteen hours of continuous fight- ing, were driven from the villages of Santa Anna, Paco and Santa Mesa. They were compelled to retreat to a position quite a distance further out in the suburbs than the one they held be- fore attacking the city. The losses of the insurgents were heavy, the American troops having gone into the engagement with great enthusiasm and determination. They made the streets of the city ring with their cheers when they were notified of the attack and were ordered to advance. Several of the vessels in Admiral Dew- ey's squadron participated in the fight, firing on the natives in ' Malate and Caloocan, and driving them inland from both of these places and inflicting heavy losses. Aguinaldo' s forces were completely routed and driven from six to ten miles beyond the positions they occupied when the battle began. On February loth a force of 6,000 insurgents that had gathered at Caloocan was attacked by the Americans and defeated with heavy loss. On February i itli Iloilo was cap- tured by General Miller and the force under his command, aided by the war- ships Petrel and Baltimore. No casu- alties resulted to our troops. Peace Treaty Signed. During February Negros and Cebu, two important islands of the Philippine group, announced that they were ready to submit to the authority of the United States. On Friday, March 17th, the Queen Regent of Spain signed the treaty of peace, which was forwarded to the French Ambassador at Washington, M. Jules Cambon, for exchange with the one signed by President McKinley. Malolos, the insurgent capital, was captured on the morning of March 31st by the American troops, after a hot fight. The most brilliant exploit and the winning of the greatest American victory in the battles around Manila occurred on the 27th. The taking of the bridge over the Rio Grande at Cal- umpit was a deed of astonishing daring. It was the most strongly defended posi- tion held by the insurgents. Located on the north shore of the Rio Grande, opposite Calumpit, it is the most valu- able strategic point in Luzon. The fact THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR. 125 that it was guarded by the most trust- worthy and best disciplined regiments of General Aguinaldo made the feat more noteworthy. Army officers said the daring displayed by the American troops was almost unparalleled in the annals of modern warfare. It was a notable day for the Twentieth Regiment of Kansas Volunteers, com- manded by Colonel Funston. One hun- dred and twenty men belonging to that regiment crossed the river in the face of a deadly fire from 3,000 insurgent Mausers. This torrent of bullets was augmented by a fusillade of a Maxim gun, of which the insurgents had ob- tained possession. It was in this battle that Colonel Funston made himself famous by dashing forward with only nine men and charging the trenches which were manned by hundreds of in- surgents. They were thrown into a panic by this daring feat and put to rout. Desperate Resistance. General Lawton's forces had an all- day battle with the insurgents at Las Pinas on June 13th. He called out his whole force of 3,000, and at 5 o'clock was only able to push the insurgents back 500 yards to the Zapote River, where they were intrenched. The in- surgents resisted desperately and aggres- sively. They attempted to turn the left flank of the American troops, but failed. By this desperate battle the insurgents lost a district which they superstitiously believed to be invulnerable against any attack of their enemies, it having been the scene of many former victories over the Spaniards. The greatest public demonstration in honor of any individual in the his- tory of our country took place in New York upon the return of Admiral Dewey from his great victory in the harbor of Manila. The Admiral arrived on the 26th of September, 1899, and was warmly greeted by city and state officials. As his flagship, the Olympia, came int' the harbor, she was received with nois> demonstrations, and a multitude of peo- ple, on land and water, testified in every possible way, their admiration for Ad- miral Dewey. Grand Naval Spectacle. On the 29th, there was a naval pa- rade that was participated in by the North Atlantic squadron, and a vast number of vessels all gaily decked. It was the most imposing naval spectacle ever witnessed on this continent. Hun- dreds of thousands of interested specta- tors lined the shores, from the Battery to Grant's tomb on the Hudson, and cheered our battleships and other naval vessels. On the 30th there was a land parade in which 30,000 soldiers and civilians par- ticipated. Admiral Dewey was escorted first to the City Hall where he was pre- sented by the Municipal Government with a loving cup in the presence of a vast throng of people. Thence he was escorted to Riverside Drive, and from there made his way through a vast con- course of applauding people to the arch erected in his honor at Twenty-fourth Street and Fifth Avenue, where he re- viewed the parade. Many state gover- nors, their escorts and a large number of city and state officials were in the parade, and all attempts to describe the enthusiasm of the populace would fail. It was a memorable day in the his- tory of the United States, as it showed the patriotic feeling of the people and 126 THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR. their admiration tor the famous hero of the Spanish war. From New York the Admiral made his way to Washington, where he again met with a most cordial reception, and on the 3d of October was presented with a sword that had been voted in his honor by Congress. An immense con- course of people surrounded the Capitol, on the steps of which the Admiral took his stand and was welcomed in an elo- quent speech by Hon. John D. Long, Secretary of the Navy. A Sword for the Admiral. President McKinley then presented the Admiral with the diamond sword He made a brief and graceful reply, thanking Congress and the American people for the distinguished considera- tion that had been shown him. Other receptions to the Admiral followed, all of which showed the appreciation of the public and gave evidence of the very high esteem in which he was held for his bravery, his adherence to duty and his gallant exploit at Manila. From Washington the Admiral went to his native town of Montpelier, Ver- mont, receiving on the way a continu- ous ovation. The celebration lasted two days and drew people from all parts of the Green Mountain State. On Oc- tober 13th Dewey laid the corner-stone of a new building to be named Dewey Hall in connection with the military school which he attended in early life. On the same day he arrived in Boston, •where the town was gayly decorated and great preparations were made for his reception. The demonstration here was no less cordial and unanimous than elsewhere. The following day 25,000 school chil- dren welcomed the Admiral on the Com- mon with the waving of flags and the singing of patriotic songs. The enthu- siasm which greeted him upon his ar- rival at the City Hall equaled that which he received on the Common. His car- riage drew up at the entrance to the City Hall, and the Admiral at once as- cended the stand erected in front of the building, which was decorated in bunt- ing and evergreens. Boston's Hearty Welcome. By the stand at City Hall 280 trained singers from the Handel and Haydn So- ciety were seated. As the Admiral and his party appeared upon the stand the society sang, "See the Conquering Hero Comes," to which the Admiral listened, chapeau in hand, and at the close of which he stepped forward and acknowledged the reception with re- peated bows. The action called forth a great wave of cheers, which Mayor Quincy, arising, checked with uplifted hand. The Mayor then delivered the address of presentation to the distin- guished guest, who remained seated, at the Mayor's suggestion. In his address Mayor Quincy characterized the battle of Manila Bay as "the greatest since Trafalgar." At the State House the Admiral and Governor Wolcott and staff left the line and took up a position on the State House steps, where they remained while the parade passed in review on its way to the Common, where the colors carried by those regiments which were in the Spanish War, were formally surren- dered to the State with impressive cerc' monies. The exercises were viewed by Admiral Dewey, with Governor Wolcott and staff. PART II. European and Other Countries IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. CHAPTER IX. Great Events in English History. N the beginning of the cen- tury Europe was in a state of turmoil and great up- heaval. The star of Napo- leon was in the ascendant and tremen- dous forces were gather- ing by which the destiny of nations was to be decided. The return of Na- poleon from Eg}pt to France enabled England to finish the work of expell- ing the French from the East. On the 21st of March, 1801, Sir Ralph Abercrombie inflicted a crush- ing defeat upon the French before Alex- andria, and compelled them to evacuate Egypt. By this success England se- cured her possessions in India, and prevented Turkey from becoming a dependency of France. Malta had al- ready been wrested from the French, and England was now supreme in the Mediterranean. Her danger was very great, however. The treaty of IvUne- ville had left her alone in the struggle with France, and a league of the north- ern powers, with Russia at its head, was determined to compel her to aban- don her claim to the right to seize neu. tral vessels carrying contraband of war. Great Naval Victory. In April, 1801, England struck a ter- rible blow at this coalition. A British fleet attacked Copenhagen, and after a desperate struggle silenced the Danish forts and captured the larger part of the Danish fleet. Denmark was forced to withdraw from the northern coali- tion, and the league was soon broken up by the death of the Czar of Russia. All parties were now anxious for a ces- sation of hostilities, and in March, 1802, the peace of Amiens was concluded. By this treaty France agreed to with- draw from Italy and leave the newly- established republics of that country to work out their own destiny. England, on her part, agreed to give up all her conquests except Ceylon, and to restore Malta to the Knights of St John. This treaty was not satisfactory to England. 127 128 GREAT EVENTS IN ENGLISH HISTORY. and would not have been made under the Pitt cabinet ; but that great minis- ter had withdrawn from the govern- ment in February, 1801, and had been succeeded by Mr. Addington, the Speak- er of the House of Commons, a very dull man. No one believed it possible for *"Jie peace to be of long continuance, and, as a matter of fact, war broke out again in May, 1803. Napoleon seized Hanover, and col- lected a large army and a fleet of trans- ports and boats at Boulogne for the invasion of England. The British gov- ernment prepared to meet the threat- ened invasion, and at the same time sought to organize a new coalition against France on the continent. Near- ly 400,000 volunteers enrolled them- selves for the defence of England. Pitt Again in Power. In 1804 the Addington ministry re- signed, and the peril of the country forced the king to recall William Pitt to power. He was greatly broken in health, and the obstinacy of the king prevented him from receiving the co- operation of Fox, Lord Grenville,Wynd- ham or Dundas, whom he was more anxious to include in his cabinet. Still he addressed himself to the task before him with his old courage. In 1805 Napoleon, who had in the meantime become Emperor of the French, determined to begin the inva- sion of England, and conceived a skill- ful plan for dividing the British fleet and concentrating the entire French navy in the Channel. By his alliance with Spain he had obtained the ser- vices of the Spanish fleet, and with this powerful armament he felt sure of pro- tecting the passage of the Channel by his army. The French fleet, under Admiral Villeneuve, sailed from Tou- lon, and effected a junction with the Spanish fleet at Corunna. Villeneuve then sailed to the westward, as if going to the West Indies, followed by the English fleet under Lord Nelson. Then suddenly putting about, he eluded the English and sailed for Brest, intending to unite with the French squadron at that port and crush the English Chan- nel fleet. Nelson, upon the disappearance of the French, returned to the coast of Spain and encountered the combined French and Spanish fleets off" Cape Tra- falgar, on the 2 1 st of October, 1 805. He at once attacked them, signaling to the fleet his memorable order of the day, " England expects every man to do his duty." At the moment of victory he was shot down by a rifleman, and died soon after. The sacrifice of England's greatest sailor was not in vain ; the French and Spanish fleets were annihi- lated. Napoleon's Brilliant Successes. Before this great victory had rendered the execution of his attempt upon Eng- land impossible. Napoleon had been forced to abandon his plan of invasion by the formation of the coalition of Austria, Russia, and England, and the gathering of the Austro-Russian army in the East. Breaking up his camp at Boulogne, he moved his army swiftly across France into Germany, and en- tered upon his memorable campaign of Ulm and Austerlitz. The shock of Napoleon's victory at Austerlitz was fatal to Pitt, who had long been failing in health. He died on the 23d of Jan- uary, 1806, at the early a.^*^ of forty- GREAT EVENTS IN ENGLISH HISTORY. 129 seven, a victim to his extraordinary labors. His loss was felt to be irre- parable. The policy of Pitt, to save Europe from the ambition of France, was vigor- ously carried out by Mr. Fox, his suc- cessor. All internal questions were subordinated to this great end, and for a while all parties united in supporting which was to draw upon her the con- demnation of the world. The Gren- ville ministry, which succeeded the cabinet of Fox, declared the whole coast of Europe occupied by France and her allies, from Dantzic to Trieste, to be in a state of blockade. It was not possible for even " the mistress of the seas " to maintain such a gigantic blockade. BATTLE OF CAPE TRAFALGAR. the government in its efforts to accom- plish it. In September, 1806, Fox fol- lowed Pitt to the grave, and on the 14th of October the decisive victory of Jena laid Prussia and all north Germany at Napoleon's feet. This might have been prevented had England been prompt to assist Prussia in her unequal struggle with France. England now ventured upon a step Napoleon retaliated by an act equally indefensible. He issued decrees ex- cluding all British commerce from the continent of Europe, hoping that this exclusion would involve British man- ufactures in ruin, and so end the war. These decrees, dated from Berlin and Milan, ordered that all British exports should be seized wherever found, and ♦•^«»t this seizure and confiscation should 130 GREAT EVENTS IN ENGLISH HISTORY. extend to all neutral vessels that had touched at British ports. In this way he hoped to strip England of her carry sels bound for any port of Europe sub- ject to the blockade to touch first at some British port, under penalty of BATTLE OF AUSTERLITZ. ing trade, which would then pass into the hands of neutrals. To prevent this, orders In council were issued bv the English government in January, 1807, requiring neutral ves- - long in a new war. seizure. These decrees and orders in council were simply so many outrages upon the rights of neutral nations, and were destined to involve England ere GREAT EVENTS IN ENGLISH HISTORY. 131 In February, 1807, the Grenville min- istry procured the abolition of the slave trade by act of parliament, and England ceased to take part in that infamous traffic. This great work was accom- plished in the face of a fierce opposition from the Tory party and the merchants of Liverpool, the latter of whom were unwilling to give up the profits con- nected with the trade in human flesh and blood. Encouraged by this suc- cess, the ministers endeavored to re- move the civil disabilities of Roman Catholic citizens, but upon the first in- timation of their scheme were dismissed by the king. English Alliance Prevented. A new ministry was formed under the Duke of Portland. Its leading spirit was the young foreign secretary, George Canning, an able and devoted disciple of Pitt. He came into office at a crit- ical time. Napoleon, after the con- quest of Prussia, had marched into Poland, and though checked by his re- verse at Eyleau, had won the decisive victory of Friedland, by which Russia was forced to consent to the treaty of Tilsit. The Emperor Alexander now began to court the friendship of Napo- leon in the hope of obtaining the assist- ance of France in the conquest of Tur- key. Russia closed her ports to British commerce, and compelled Sweden to do likewise, and to renounce the English alliance. Russia and Sweden hoped to add Den- mark to their league, and so obtain the services of the Danish fleet in their ef- fort to destroy the maritime supremacy of England. Canning prevented the success of this scheme by secretly equip- ping a fleet in the summer of 1807 and despatching it to Copenhagen with a demand for the surrender of the Danish fleet into the hands of England, which power guaranteed its safe return at the close of the war. Denmark returned a spirited refusal to this demand, and Copenhagen was subjected to a terrible bombardment and forced to surrender. The whole Danish fleet, with an immense quantity of naval stores, was carried into Eng- lish ports. In spite of England's success at sea, however. Napoleon was supreme on the land, and carried out his designs on the continent without hindrance. He held Prussia down by force; changed Hol- land into a monarchy, and bestowed its crown upon his brother Louis ; erected the electorates of Hanover and Hesse Cassel into the kingdom of Westphalia, which he gave to his brother Jerome ; made his brother Joseph King of Na- ples, and annexed the remainder of Italy, even including Rome, to the French empire. The "Iron Duke." Emboldened by this success, he now sought to make himself master of the Spanish peninsula, and in his attempt to execute this design met his first great check. Spain was soon overrun, and Portugal would have shared its fate had not Great Britain come to her assistance with a small but excellent army under Sir Arthur Wellesley and Sir John Moore. After the death of Sir John Moore the chief command of the British forces in the peninsula passed to Sir Arthur Wellesley, whose able conduct of the war soon showed him to be one of the first soldiers of modern times. The French were driven out of Portu- 132 GREAT EVENTS IN ENGLISH HISTORY. gal, but Moore's unhappy fate gave them an additional advantage in Spain. While Napoleon was occupied with his struggle against Austria, Wellesley successfully held his own against the French in Spain, and won for himself a peerage as Lord Wellington. Disastrous Defeat. In July, 1809, a force of 40,000 Eng- lish soldiers was sent to capture Ant- werp, but the expedition failed, fully half of the English troops perishing in the marshes of Walcheren, This dis- aster brought about the fall of the Port- land ministry. It was succeeded by a new cabinet under the guidance of Spencer Perceval, a man of no ability, but who, with his colleagues, was re- solved to continue the war. The strug- gle in the peninsula was prosecuted with vigor, and if the English won their way slowly, they advanced steadily to- ward the French frontier. The neces- sities and disasters of the Russian cam- paign greatly weakened the French army in Spain, and simplified the task of Lord Wellington accordingly. Dur- ing the greater part of 181 1 Wellington remained comparatively inactive, as the unsettled state of affairs at home pre- vented him from receiving the vigorous support he needed. In 18 13 he drove the French out of Spain, and crossed the Pyrenees after them. On the loth of April, 1 8 14, he fought the battle of Toulouse with Marshal Soult, and brought the war to a close. In the mean time George III. had been seized with a return of his insanity in the early part of 181 1, and the Prince of Wales had been declared regent by act of Parliament. The prince regent was strongly inclined to the Whig party, and was anxious to replace the Perceval cabinet with a ministry of that party. In March, 18 12, Mr. Perceval was assassinated by a lunatic, and the prince regent sought to recall the Whigs to power. He was defeated in this attempt, and the old ministry, with Lord Liverpool at its head, was restored to office. During the latter part of the Euro- pean war England had been drawn into another struggle. The decrees of Na- poleon and the orders in council of Great Britain had nearly ruined the commerce of America, and, after vainly endeavoring to obtain a revocation of them, the United States, on the 3d of June, 181 2, declared war against Great Britain. We have related the events of this war in the American history of this century. It was closed in December, 1814. Alliance Against Napoleon. The return of Napoleon from Elba induced the allies to make extraordi- nary efforts for his destruction. An English army was sent to the frontier of the Netherlands to unite with the Prussian army under Marshal Blucher, which was advancing on the lower Rliine, and England furnished a sub- sidy of eleven millions of pounds to defray the cost of the war. The decisive blow was struck by the English under the Duke of Wellington, to whose ex- ertions and skill the overthrow of Na- poleon at Waterloo was due. In the final settlement of the affairs of Europe England played a prominent part — an influence to which the great sacrifices and tremendous efforts she had made to defeat Napoleon fully en- titled her. The conquests which she CAPTAIN DREYFUS BEFORE THE COURT-MARTIAL AT RENNES, FRANCE IN DECEMBER, 1894, HE WAS TRIED BY COURT-MARTIAL AND CONVICTED OF TREASON IN JUNE, 1899, HE WAS RETURNED FROM EXILE FOR A NEW TRIAL, WHICH RESULTED AGAIN IN CONVICTION, WITH A RECOMMENDATION TO MERCY. HE WAS IMMEDIATELY PARDONED BY PRESIDENT LOUBET CHARLES TRIPLER PROF. HE IS TO LIQUID AIR WHAT EDISON IS TO ELECTRICITY. THIS NEW AND GREAT DISCOVERY IS DESTINED TO REVOLUTIONIZE EVERYTHING PERTAINING TO THE SUPPLY OF MOTIVE POWER FOR TRANSPORTATION, MACHINERY, REFRIGERATION, MANUFACTURE OF POWERFUL EXPLOS- IVES Etc. the ABOVE ILLUSTRATION $HOWS A HAMMER OF FROZEN MERCURY. GREAT EVENTS IN ENGLISH HISTORY. 133 retained at the end of the war were the Cape of Good Hope, the Dutch posses- sions in Ceylon, Berbice and the other Dutch settlement in Guiana, the islands of Mauritius and the Seychelles, which were captured from the French ; the islands of Malta and Heligoland, the latter of which had been wrested from Denmark, and some West India islands which had been taken from France and Spain. The peace of 1815 left Great Britain feverish and exhausted. The national debt had increased to about $4,000,000,- 000, and the heavy taxation to which the country had been subjected had produced general distress. The long years of strife that had ensued since the accession of Napoleon to power had impoverished the continent also, and had destroyed the market for English manufactures. An excess of produc- tion in the last years of the war had crowded the English manufactories with unsalable goods, and had put a stop to the demand for skilled labor. Discontent in England. A series of bad harvests produced great scarcity, and this. evil was greatly increased by the selfish legislation of the land-owners in Parliament, who procured the passage of an act prohibit- ing the importation of foreign corn until wheat had reached famine prices. The sudden return of the large body of men employed in the army and navy to the pursuits of peace added greatly to the existing troubles, which in 18 16 reached their highest point. The "Lud- dites," a society of workingmen organ- ized in 18 1 2 to resist the introduction of machinery into the mills, now broke out into a series of outrages and riots which gave the government great trouble. In the midst of these dissen- sions George III., old, blind and insane, died at Windsor Castle on the 29th of January, 1820. Ireland Independent. One of the chief events of the reig-n George III. was the union of Ireland with Great Britain. In 1782 Irelau'l obtained the independence of its par- liament. It thus ceased to be depend- ent upon Great Britain, though re- maining subject to the same king. The administration of Irish affairs was con- trolled by a selfish clique, who oppressed the remainder of the people so griev- ously that the country sank rapidly into poverty. Pitt made vain endeavors to break down tliis clique and do jus- tice to Ireland, but was defeated. At length an association of " United Irish- men ' ' took up the wrongs of the country, opened a correspondence with France, and finally rose in insurrection in 1796 and 1797, being goaded to this step by the lawless cruelty of the Orange yeomanry and the English troops. Sev- eral expeditions were sent to their as- sistance from France, but were of little avail. They were finally defeated ; the insurrection was put down, and on the 1st of January, 1801, Ireland was for- mally united to Great Britain. From this time the Irish parliament was dis- continued, and the Irish representatives were sent to the British parliament. Upon the death of George III., his son, the prince regent, ascended the throne as George IV. He was exceed- ingly unpopular, and, as he had been at the head of the government for the last ten years, his accession to the crown gave no hope of a change of affairs. 134 GREAT EVENTS IN ENGLISH HISTORY. Within a month after his accession a plot was discovered by the police, known as the Cato street conspiracy, which had been formed by a number of desperate men, with Arthur Thistlewood at their head, for the assassination of the whole ministry. Thistlewood and four of his accomplices were hanged. George IV., when still Prince of Wales, had been induced by his father to marry his cousin Caroline, Princess of Brunswick-Wolfenbiittel. The mar- riage took place in 1795. The prince soon separated from his wife, and charged her with infidelity to him. His first act after becoming king was to renew this charge in the most public manner, and to cau'^e a bill to be brought into parliament by the ministry to divorce and degrade Queen Caroline on charges of misconduct. The queen was as pop- ular with the people as her husbund was odious to them, and their bitter re- sentment of the attack upon her forced the house of Lords to abandon the bill. No Crown For the Queen. The king, less sensitive to public opinion, resolved to oppose her corona- tion as his wife, and in this step was supported by the privy council. The queen was equally determined to main- tain her rights, and on the morning of the. day appointed for the coronation presented herself at the doors of West- minster Abbey, but was refused admis- sion. This humiliation was fatal to her; she was taken ill, and died August 7, 1821. A new ministry, under the Duke of Wellington, in 1828, reaped the honor of inaugurating an important measure of reform which was the outgrowth of the work begun by Pitt and Canning. Until the reign of George III. the Roman Catholic subjects of Great Britain had remained liable to penal laws of such severity that the government was never willing to execute them. In that reign many of these restrictions were removed from such Romanists as would take aii^', oath prescribed for them, and finally all' grades of the military and naval service were thrown open to them. They were still exclued fromi both houses of parlia- ment and from certain civil offices and privileges by the oath of supremacy and the declaration required of them against the doctrine of transubstantiation, the sacrifice of the Mass, and the invoca- tion of the saints. O'Connell in Parliament. Pitt attempted to remove these dis- abilities, but the king firmly refused to allow the question to be opened. Can- ning attempted to secure the same ob- ject, but died too soon. The accession of the ministry of the Duke of Welling- ton greatly dampened the hopes of the Catholics ; but they were soon revived by the sudden display of strength hy the Irish Catholics, who elected Daniel O'Connell, a popular politician, to a seat in parliament. O'Connell was sus- tained by the entire Catholic population of Ireland, and demanded the removal of the disabilities of his co-religionistSf threatening civil war as the alternative. The danger was very great, and the Duke of Wellington brought in a bill which he declared was the only means of averting civil war, and which ad- mitted Romanists to parliament and to all civil and military offices under the crown, save those of regent, lord chan- cellor in England and Ireland, lord lieutenant of Ireland, and some others. 136 GREAT EVENTS IN ENGLISH HISTORY. The bill passed both houses of parlia- ment, and received the royal assent on the 13th of April, 1829. In 1828 another reform was accom- plished in favor of the Protestant dis- senters by the repeal of the laws requir- ing all persons taking office to receive the holy communion according to the forms of the established church. William IV. on the Throne. On the 26th of June, 1830, George IV., who had passed the last years of his life in seclusion at Windsor Castle, died. His only child, the Princess Charlotte, being dead, he was succeeded by his brother William Henry, Duke of Clarence, who became king as Wil- liam IV. The reformed parliament — the object of so many hopes and fears — met on the 29th of January, 1833. ^^ passed several important acts, but its violence — espec- ially that of the great Irish agitator, O' Council — went far to justify the fears of its enemies and produce a feeling of reaction in the country. Even the king went over to the Tories, dismissed the ministry, and placed Sir Robert Peel at the head of a new cabinet in November, 1834. The general election in the fol- lowing spring restored the Whigs to power, with Lord Melbourne as chief of the new ministry. Although the slave trade had been abolished by Great Britain, slavery ex- * isted in the colonies until 1833. In August of that year the "Act for the Abolition of Slavery" throughout the British dominions was passed. The gov- ernment paid to the owners of the slaves thus liberated the sum of 1 100,000,000 as compensation for the loss of their property. In the same year the com- mercial monopoly of the Bast India Company was abolished, and the trade of that country thrown open to the whole British nation. A new poor law was enacted in 1834 to check the grow- ing evils of pauperism. In the autumn of 1 830 the Liverpool and Manchester railway was opened by its projector, George Stephenson. This was the beginning of the great railway system of Great Britain. The new sys- tem of transportation, being found suc- cessful, was rapidly adopted in various parts of the kingdom, and proved a powerful aid in the development of the trarle and wealth of the kingdom. Queen Victoria. On the 20th of June, 1837, William IV. died at Windsor Castle. His only children, two daughters by his wife Adelaide, Princess of Saxe-Meiningen, had both died in infancy. His crown of Hanover passed to the next male heir, Ernest Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, the fifth son of George III., and thus became forever separated from that of England. William was succeeded on the throne of Great Britain and Ireland, in default of male heirs, by his niece, the Princess Alexandrina Victoria, the only child of his brother Edward, Duke of Kent, the present reigning sovereign. Queen Victoria was but eighteen years old at the time of her accession to the throne, but was popular with all classes of her subjects. On the loth of February, 1840, the queen married her cousin, Albert, Prince of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, a man of many virtues, and of ability and rare good sense, qualities which won him the affection and confidence of the English people, and enabled him to retain these feelings throughout his life. GREAT EVENTS IN ENGLISH HISTORY. 137 J 11 1839 an association known as the "Anti-Corn-Law League " was formed, and devoted itself to the task of spread- ing its principles by speeches and var- ious publications. The association suc- ceeded in gradually enlightening the English mind as to the effect of pro- tective laws. Sir Robert Peel, who had entered office pledged to continue the protective system, became convinced of its inexpediency. In 1846 the failure of the potato crop in Ireland threatened that country with a terrible famine ; and at the same time the harvest in England failed. Oobden and Free Trade. This emergency compelled the tri- umph of the free trade cause, and Sir Robert Peel was forced to introduce bills abolishing or reducing to a nomi- nal figure the duties on foreign corn, cattle and other articles of food. The bills were passed, but the resentment of the Conservatives was bitter, and drove Peel from office. He was succeeded by a Whig ministry, under Lord John Rus- sell, which continued in office until 1852. The complete operation of the free trade measures was not secured until 1849. The credit of the victory was due to Richard Cobden, the leader of the free trade party, and one of the wisest political economists England ever produced. In 1853 the designs of Russia upon Turkey induced England to take a de- cisive stand against the former power. An alliance was affected with France for this purpose in 1854, and was fol- lowed by the Crimean war. The suffer- ings of the English army through the neglect of the government in the winter of 1854-55 aroused a storm of indigna- tion at home, which drove the Aber- deen ministry from power early in 1855. A new ministry was formed under Lord Palmerston, and devoted itself with en- ergy to the ]3rosecution of the war. Sebastopol, a fortified town of the Crimea, underwent an eleven months' siege by the English and French. The allied army appeared before the town September 20th, 1854, and the grand attack and bombardment commenced, without success, on the 17th of Oc- tober following. For many months assaults were continued, pud after re- peated bombardments a grand attack was made September 8th, 1855, upon the Malakhoff Tower and the Redans, the most important fortifications to the south of the town. A Desperate Struggle. The French succeeded in capturing and retaining the Malakhoff. The at- tacks of the English on the great Redan and of the French upoxi^ the little Re- dan were successful, bur the assailants were compelled to retire, after a desper- ate struggle, with great loss of life. The French lost 1646 killed, of whom 5 were generals, 24 superior and 116 inferior officers, 4500 wounded and 1400 missing. The English lost 385 killed, 29 being commissioned and 42 non- commissioned officers, 1886 wounded and 176 missing. In the night the Russians abandoned the southern and principal part of the town and fortifications, after destroying as much as possible, and crossed to the northern ports. They also sank or burnt the remainder of the fleet. The allies found a very great amount of stores when they entered the town, Sep- tember 9th. The works were utterly 138 GREAT EVENTS IN ENGLISH HISTORY. destroyed in April, 1856, and the town was restored to the Russians in July, During the American civil war Eng- land proclaimed a policy of neutrality, which was not fairly adhered to, the re- sult being that a number of Confederate cruisers, built, armed and manned in British jiorts, were suffered to go to sea and nearly swept American com- merce out of existence. The United States were thus given a valid cause of irritation against Great Britain, and at a later period presented claims against that government, which were settled in a Court of Arbitration by awarding damages of 15,000,000 dollars to the government at Washington. The Franchise Extended. A bill passed Parliament in August, 1867, which extended the borough fran- chise to all rate-payers and lodgers oc- cupying rooms to the annual value of ^10 ($50). The county franchise was reduced to ^12 ($60). Thirty-three members were withdrawn from the English boroughs, and of these twenty- five were distributed among the English counties ; the rest were assigned to Scotland and Ireland. This measure added large numbers of workingmen to the voting class, and when the elections of 1868 were held, a lyiberal parliament was returned by overwhelming majori- ties. Mr. Disraeli, who had succeeded Lord Derby as premier, withdrew from office upon the announcement of the re- sult, and a liberal ministry, with Mr. Gladstone at its head, came into power. The new government addressed itself with vigor to some of the most difficult questions of the day. An effort was made to remove the chronic discontent of Ireland by the disestablishment and disendowment of the Protestant Church in 1869. This measure put an end to the compulsory payment by the Irish of taxes for the support of a church with which the vast majority of them had no sympa- thy. In 1 870 a land bill was passed, which established a sort of tenant-right in all parts of Ireland. In 1868 the non-conformists were relieved of the compulsory payment of church rates ; and in 1871 still further justice was done them by the abolition of all reli- gious tests for admission to T)ffices or degrees in the universities. Public School System. The army and navy were subjected to important reforms, and in the former the system of promotion by purchase was abolished. In 1871 a bill was passed by parliament establishing school-boards in every district, and levying local rates for their support. In 1871 a radical step towards parliamentary reform was taken in the passage of an act estab- lishing the practice of voting by the ballot. The magnitude and extent of Mr. Gladstone's reforms, however, alarmed the country, and in 1874 a bill introduced by him for the organization of university education in Ireland was defeated. The ministers appealed to the country, and v/ere answered by the election of a strongly Conservative par- liament. Mr. Gladstone and his col- leagues thereupon resigned their offices, and were succeeded by a Conservative ministry, with Mr. Disraeli as premier. The power of Great Britain in India continued to increase through the earh- part of the century, and was exercised through the notorious East India Com- pany. In 181 5 the whole of Ceylon was brought under English rule, and in GREAT IJX'ENTS IN ENGLISH HISTORY. 139 1 8 19 an English colony was founded at Singapore, near the southern extremity of the Malay peninsula, and became one of the principal markets of the India trade. In 1833 the charter of the East India Company expired. The company was given by the British Parliament the government of Hindustan for twenty years, but its monopoly of the Eastern trade was not renewed ; and the com- merce of India was made free to all the subjects of Great Britain. Opium in China. One of the principal results of the establishment of the colony at Singa- pore was the sudden development of the opium trade with China. The Chinese government had previously tolerated this traffic, but now, becoming alarmed by the fearful evils which the use of opium was fastening upon the Chinese nation, endeavored to put a stop to it. An imperial edict prohibited the impor- tation of opium, but the traffic was car- ried on by the English and Chinese merchants in defiance of the law. The trade was very profitable, and the con- nivance of the ofiicials could be pur- chased by large bribes. The imperial government then ordered the British merchants to be blockaded in their warehouses at Canton until they surren- dered all the opium in their possession, amounting in value, it is said, to ten millions of dollars. The British government resented this attempt of China to protect her people at the expense of English profits, and a war of two years ensued. Canton was taken by the English, but was ransomed for six millions of dollars, and several other places were bombarded. The Chi- nese were at length compelled to make peace, and a treaty was signed at Nan- kin in August, 1 842, by which the island of Hong Kong was ceded to the British, and the ports of Canton, Amoy, Foochoo, Ningpo and Shanghai were thrown open to the trade of the world, and were made the official residences of European con-^ suls. China was also compelled to pa) to Great Britain an indemnity of $21^- 000,000. In 1 838 Great Britain became involved in a war with the Afghans, for the pur- pose of restoring to his throne Shah Sujah, the ruler of Cabul, who had been deposed by his people. He proved him- self such an execrable tyrant that he was murdered by his subjects. Revolt Against the English. A general revolt of the Afghans fol- lowed in 1842, and the British army, forced to retreat from Cabul, was cut off almost to a man in the Khyber moun- tain pass. An expedition under General Pollock avenged this disaster, and cap- tured Cabul in 1842. The war, how- ever, greatly encouraged the natives in their efforts against the English, and in 1843 '^ war with the Ameers of Scinde broke out. It resulted in the conquest of that country by Sir Charles Napier, in 1843, who was apjDointed Governor of Scinde, and who ruled his province with firnniess and success. In 1845 and in 1848 there was war between the British and the Sikhs of the Punjaub. On the 21st of February, 1 849, Lord Gough won the decisive vic- tory of Goojerat, and this was followed by the close of the war, and the annex- ation of the Punjaub to the British dominions. A little later Sir Henry Lawrence was appointed to the govern- ment of the Punjaub, which, since the 140 GREAT EVENTS IN ENGUSH HISTORY. dn) s of Alexander the Great, had been the scene of constant rapine and strife. Liis rule was so just and kind that the Sikhs were completely won over to the English authority. , The dominion of Great Britain in In- < la extended over hundreds of millions received for them from England. The cartridges of these rifles were supposed to contain beef-tallow, and as the use of this article, which is sacred to the Hin- dus, is forbidden to any devout native, several regiments objected to using the cartridges, and their wishes were re THE STORMING OF DEI.HI BY THE ENGLISH. of people, and had been won and was maintained by a mere handful of British troops. The great mass of the troops employed by the English were natives, and were known as Sepoys. They were generally contented, and obeyed their English officers with r' QC u. I- O CO a: D O UJ LL O o ^ I CO Q. < LU CO CO S O - CO UJ a: O o u. Z CC < I GREAT EVENTS IN ENGLISH HISTORY. 141 they could lay hands on, sparing neither age nor sex. The middle and lower classes of the population joined the in- surgents, but the chiefs and large land- holders as a rule remained faithful to the government. The insurgents estab- lished their capital at Delhi, and pro- claimed its nominal king Emperor of Hindustan. Cawnpore was besieged by the Sepoys, and surrendered after a siege of two hundred days. The promise of safety made to the garrison was violated and tiiey were treacherously massacred. Traitors Punished. Delhi was taken by the English in September, 1857, and the insurgents severely punished. Its emperor was transported to Burmah, and his two sons were put to death. The English made heroic efforts to re-establish their author- ity, and defeated the greatly superior forces of the Sepoys over and over again. Cawnpore was taken by General Have- lock, who then united his small army with that of Sir James Outram, and to- gether they succeeded in relieving the besieged garrison of Lucknow, the capi- tal of Oude, which had held out hero- ically against an overwhelming force of Sepoys. In this siege Sir Henry Law- rence was killed. The insurgents did not abandon their attempt upon Lucknow after the arrival of Havelock and Outram, but held on until March, 1858, nearly five months after the first investment, when the arri- val of an English army under Sir Colin Campbell forced them to retreat after a severe defeat. The relief of Lucknow virtually ended the war. The fighting continued through the summer of 1858, but the insurrection was crushed, and its leaders were put to death, or pun- ished with great severity. The British power was firmly re-established through- out India, and no further outbreak has occurred since this triumph. In addition to her possessions in India, Great Britain during the nineteenth century has built up a flourishing empire in the southern Pacific. It is larger in extent, and may yet be of greater im- portance than India. The vast island of Australia, which really merits the title of a continent, is only a part of these vast possessions. In 1873 a quarrel broke out between the English and the King of Ashantee, in western Africa, with respect to a sti- pend formerly allowed by the Dutch to the king. England had been formally in possession of the. Gold Coast and the old Dutch colonies since 1 872, when she acquired them by treaty with the Dutch. The colonial authorities now demanded that the King of Ashantee should with- draw his warriors from their territory, but so far from complying with this demand, the sable potentate proceeded to levy war upon the English posses- sions. The Ashantee Expedition. Late in 1873 the British government despatched a force under Sir Garnett Wolseley to the Gold Coast. He arrived on the coast about the close of the year, and at once advanced into the Ashantee territory. He met with considerable resistance, and lost many of his men in consequence of the unhealthiness of the country, but steadily drove the natives before him. About the first of Febru- ary he defeated the Ashantee forces in a pitched battle in the neighborhood of Coomassie, their capital, and on the fifth entered Coomassie and received the sub- 142 GREAT EVENTS IN ENGLISH HISTORY. mission of the king, who agreed to enter into a treaty binding himself to respect the English possessions. This success broke the Ashantee power for the time, and gave peace and protection to the English settlements in western xA.frica, and prepared the way for civilization. On the 2d of May, 1876, Queen Vic- toria was formally proclaimed, in addi- tion to her other titles, "Empress of India." The struggle of the Irish people for ' ' Home Rule ' ' enters largely in the later history of Great Britain. Measures en- forced in the interest of the landlords have been bravely resisted by the Irish peasantry. Organized effort was adopted and a land league was formed, which became dominant in 1880. In 1881 Gladstone's Land Act was passed, yet legislation was powerless to appease the Irish sense of injustice and allay the excitement. Foul Murders. In 1882 Lord Cavendish and Mr. Burke were appointed secretary and under-secretary respectively for Ireland. Upon their arrival in Dublin they were murdered under circumstances of pecu- liar atrocity. The act created a pro- found sensation and served to render the strife more bitter. Disraeli (Lord Beaconsfield) having become prime minister, war broke out in Egypt and the Soudan. Dissatisfac- tion at home occasioned the downfall of Beaconsfield' s ministry, and he was succeeded by Gladstone, who, not being able to carry his "Home Rule" meas- ure, in turn yielded the government to Lord Salisbury. During 1887, and at the beginning of 1888, England, al- though at peace abroad, was agitated with domestic strife. On the 2 1st of June, 1887, the queen attended the jubilee services at West- minster Abbey in honor of the fiftieth anniversary of her accession to the throne. The agitation by the Home Rule party of Ireland continued through- out 1 890 and 1 89 1, Mr. Gladstone advo- cating eloquently the cause of the op- pressed Irish people. Mr. Parnell, who by his conspicuous services had greatly aided the Irish cause, died at Brighton October 6, 1891. The Queen's Jubilee. In June, 1897, Queen Victoria com- pleted the sixtieth 5' ear of her reign, the longest reign of any English sover- eign. This event was celebrated by a jubilee in which not only the peo'^le of England participated, but other nations through their representatives. The oc- casion was one of universal rejoicing. In October, 1899, war broke out be- tween the English and the Boers, a name given to the Dutch settlers in South Africa, since the sixteenth century, who still retain their national character. Dis- contented with the British rule in the Cape since 18 14, large bands of them in 1835-37 emigrated northward, and founded the Orange Free State, 1836, and the Transvaal Republic, 1848, after much fighting with the natives. In 1899 the English, being greatly dissatis- fied with the Boers for denying to the Outlanders, or foreigners, rights that belonged to them, interfered in behalf of the English-speaking part of the pop- ulation, and the result was a sharp con- test. The spirit of the Boers was shown by resisting so formidable a power. CHAPTER France in the Nineteenth Century. tRMlHS in grand array, victories but just won and destined ever- more to be famous, a brilliant conqueror whose word was magic and whose tread jarred nations, empires of the old world startled from the sleep of ages, mighty forces in con- flict and new ideas and princi|)les seeth- ing and mystifying all political phil- osophers as to what the future would bring forth — this was the condition of France when the bell tolled for the de- parture of the old century and the new one was ushered in. The triumphs of Napoleon had already astonished the world, and tremendous combinations were forming for his over- throw. The unsettled state of affairs in France gave him an opportunity that he eagerly grasped. His ambition was boundless and for a time his power seemed to be. The French Revolution was just p83t, and out of the chaos and confusioix a new national life was to come. A Directory was formed to adminis- ter the government, which was now conducted in a spirit of order and con- ciliation. In 1797 Bonaparte and his brother-commanders were omnipotent in Italy ; Austria was compelled to give up Belgium and recognize the Cisalpine Republic. The glory of the French arms was re-established abroad, but at home the nation was still suffer- ing from the shock of the Revolution. The Directory repudiated two-thirds of the national debt, and thus almost ruined the commerce anrl credit of France. Under the pretext of attacking Eng- land, a fleet of 400 ships and an army of 36,000 picked men were equipped ; their destination proved.^ however, to be Egypt, whither the Directory sent Bonaparte; but the young general, re- signing the command to Kleber, landed in France in 1799. The Directory fell on the famous "i8th Brumaire" (9th of November, 1799); under the constitu- tion of Siey^s the State was put under three consuls who, unlike those of Rome, weie three in number, with dif- ferent degrees of authority. Bonaparte's Supreme Power. Napoleon secured supreme power as First Consul. In 1800 a new constitu- tion was promulgated, vesting the sole executive power in Bonaparte, who showed consummate .skill in reorgani- zing the government, to which he im- parted a systematic efficiency and a spirit of centralization that secured a thoroughly practical administration. Having resumed his command, he marched an army over the Alps, at- tacked the Austrians unav/ares, and decided the fate of Italy by his victory at Marengo. In 1801 the peace of Lune- ville was concluded, and the boundaries of France were once more extended to the Rhine. England was the only country whicn refused to recognize the various Italian and German conquests of France ; and, with the exception of a brief period of peace, England remained the implaca- ble foe of Bonaparte from the days of the consulate to his defeat at Waterloo. 143 144 FRANCE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. Every period of respite from war was employed by the First Consul in foster- ing trade and industry, and in oblitera- ting both in private and public life the stains left by the Reign of Terror. In 1804, on an appeal by universal suffrage to the nation, Bonaparte was proclaimed Emperor. The Pope came hands. For a time Napoleon's influ- ence with the weakened powers of the Continent succeeded in maintaining an injurious system of blockade against England ; and, except in the Peninsula, his arms were everywhere victorious. His marriage, too, with the Archduchess Maria Louisa, a direct descendant of BONAPARTE DISSOLVING THE to Paris to crown him and his wife Jo- sephine. Napoleon took the crown from the hands of the Pope, placed it on his own head, and then crowned the Empress Josephine, who knelt before him. A new nobility was rapidly created, and the relatives and favorites of the emperor received vanquished kingdoms and principalities at his COUNCIL OF FIVE HUNDRED. the ancient House of Hapsburg, 18 10, seemed to give to his throne the pres- tige of birth, which alone it had lacked. He kept up the Democratic impulse of the Revolution as much as was wanted to drive his engine of war. His tactics would have availed him little against the successive European coalitions had he not adopted the principle of national ^^. , „ . Copyright. 1900, by George W. Bertron. RENOWNED RULERS OF THE CENTURY CORONATION OF NAPOLEON AI^D THE EMPRESS JOSEPHINE. le 145 146 FRANCE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. armies, general conscription, and forced requision introduced by Carnot, the "organizer" of revolutionary France's victorious resistance against foreign ag- gression. This principle has since be- come the outstanding feature of conti- nental warfare. It gave Napoleon an empire including practically the whole of Europe, except Russia, Turkey and Great Britain ; when it was quietly introduced by Prussia, it assisted effectually in bringing to a close the emperor's career, but not until he had made himself king of Italy, 1805, made of Holland and Naples vassal kingdoms, 1806, set up in Germany the Confederation of the Rhine, conquered Prussia, 1806-7, occupied Portugal, de- posed the Bourbons in Spain, 1808, reduced the Hapsburgs after four cam- paigns from their medieval title of Ro- man emperors to the status of emperors of Austria, made of Rome a French town, and carried off Pope Pius VII. to Fontainebleau. The Emperor's Downfall, In the long run, the evils attending his high-handed policy both in France and out of it undermined his position. The French navy was destroyed by Nelson at Trafalgar, 1805, and the sea- trade of France much injured. His despotism, the unceasing strain of war, the burden of conscription, the estrange- ment between emperor and pope threw the seed of disaffection ctmong the French people From 181 1 to his final defeat in 181 5 the emperor rapidly lost ground. The disastrous Russian campaign, in which his enormous army of 400,000 men was lost amid the rigors of a northern winter, was soon followed by the falli"q; away of his allies and feudatories. Napoleon himself was still victorious wherever he appeared in person, but his generals were beaten in numerous engagements; and the great defeat of Leipzig, 181 3, compelled the French to retreat beyond the Rhine. The Swedes brought rein- forcements to swell the ranks of his enemies on the east frontier, while the English pressed on from the south ; the senate and his ministry betrayed his cause, and the allies marched on Paris, which, in the absence of the emperor, capitulated after a short resistance, March 30. 18 14. Begins a New Struggle. Napoleon now abdicated in favor of his young son, and retired to the island of Elba, the sovereignty of which had been granted to him. His wife and son removed to Vienna ; his family were declared to have forfeited the throne ; France was reduced to her former limits, and the provinces she had acquired were restored to their national rulers. On the 3d of May Louis XVIII. (the brother of Louis XVI.) made his entry into Paris. The conduct of the Bour- bons did not conciliate the nation; they returned loaded with debts, and sur- rounded by the old nobility and clergy, who had not renounced their former privileges, and who looked upon the generation of Frenchmen that had arisen since the Revolution as their natural enemies. A narrow spirit influenced the weak policy of the king, which , led to the establishment of a strict censorship, the extension of the powers of the police, and the persecution of the adherents of the Empire ; while the lower classes and the army,' who alike resented the FRANCE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 147 humiliating reaction that had followed the former excitement of war and con- quest, were treated with an indifference, and even contempt, b}/ the returned officials, to which they were wholly un- accustomed. On the ist of March, 1815, Napoleon left Elba and landed in France. The soldiers flocked around his standard : the Bourbons fled, and he took posses- sion of their palaces. The news of his lauding spread terror through Europe ; and on the 25th of March a treaty of alliance was signed at Vienna between Austria, Russia, Prussia and England, and preparations were at once made to put down the movement in his favor and restore the Bourbon dynasty. At first the old prestige of success seemed to attend Napoleon ; but on the i8th of June he was defeated at Waterloo ; and, having placed himself under the Safe- guard of the English he was sent to the Island of St. Helena, in conformity with the generally acknowledged senti- ment that it was necessary to the peace of Europe to remove him finally and definitely from the scene of his former power. "A Martyr to Prance." On the 5th of May, 182 1, the de- throned Emperor died at St. Helena, after a captivity of nearly six years, in the fifty-second year of his age. His death was sincerely mourned by the mass of the French people, who re- garded him as a martyr to the cause of France. On the 1 6th of September, 1824, Louis XVIII. died. He was succeeded by his brother, the Count of Artois, who ascended the throne as Charles X. He was a true Bourbon ; ignorant, narrow- minded, a firm believer in absolute rule and thoroughly under the influence of the Jesuits. In his disposition he was frank and cordial, and his friends were warmly attached to him. He was crowned in the Cathedral of Rheims, on the 29th of May, 1825, and the ancient ceremonial of the Middle Ages was re- vived in all its details for this occasion. Charles had been the first to emigrate from France in 1790, at the outbreak of the Revolution. ' He returned to it in 18 14 with the same ideas and prejudices he had taken away with him. The world had moved far beyond him in the thirty-five years which had rolled by since he fled from his country. The Nation Enraged. The reactionary tendencies of the new government alarmed and angered the nation. The first evidence of this feel- ing was given at a review of the national guard in the spring of 1827, when the troops, upon passing the king, shouted, " Down with the ministers! Down with the Jesuits ! " The king at once dis- banded the national guard of Paris, but unfortunately for himself left them in pessession of their arms. In the elec- tions of 1827 an overwhelming majority against the government was returned to the chamber. The king was obliged to dismiss his ministers and to summon a more liberal cabinet. One of the first acts of the new min- istry was to remove the system of pub- lic education from the control of the Jesuits. This was a very popular meas- ure with the nation, but it gave great offence to the king, who, on the 8th of August, 1829, dismissed the ministers and appointed a new cabinet, with Prince Polignac at its head. The appointment 148 FRANCE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. of this ministry — every member of which was noted for his devotion to absohitism — was regarded by the people as a declaration of war on the part of the king against the charter and all the liberties of Frenchmen. The chamber of deputies plainly told the king that the new ministers did not enjoy the con- fidence of the country, and was dissolved by the angry sovereign. The deputies were re-elected by the people, and the new chamber was more than ever in the hands of the opposition. Trouble in Algiers. While this struggle had been going on in France, a foreign dispute had been engaging the attention of the govern- ment. The Dey of Algiers had robbed the French merchants residing in his dominions of large sums, and had in- sulted the French consul upon his de- manding redress. In the summer of 1829 an expedition under the command of General Bourmont, the minister of war, was despatched to Algiers to obtain redress by force of arms. It landed be- fore that city, carried its defences by assault and compelled the dey to sur- render. Algiers was at once occupied by the French troops, who were en- riched with the spoils of the city. As soon as he learned of the success of the liberals in the election of 1830, Charles X. determined to compel the triumph of his absolute power by em- ploying a strained interpretation of an article of the constitution which author- ized the sovereign ' ' to make regulations and decrees necessary for the execution of the laws and the safety of the state." By virtue of this clause he assumed the right to alter and abrogate some of the most essential provisions of the charter. On the 25th of July he issued five or- dinances, which appeared in the " Moni- teur" of the 26th. The first of these suspended the liberty of the press ; the second dissolved the newly elected cham- ber of deputies ; the third radically/ changed the system of election ; the fourth convoked the chambers for the 28th of September following, and the fifth appointed some ultra royalists to the council of state. The appearance of these ordinances threw Paris into a tumult. The national guard took uj) arms, with the veteran Lafayette at their head ; the streets were barricaded ; the tricolor was displayed in the place of the flag of the Bourbons, and the royal troops were attacked by the citizens. The garrison of Paris was commanded by Marshal Marmont, but was insufficient to put down the popu- lace,* though it obtained some import- ant successes. Troops Driven from Paris. At length the troops began to frater- nize with the people. The Louvre and Tuileries were carried by the populace and the troops were compelled to retreat from Paris. Charles X. fled from St. Cloud to Rambouillet, where, hopeless of regaining his throne, he abdicated it in favor of his grandson, the Duke of Bordeaux. He then quitted the king- dom and took refuge in England. In the meantime a number of leading citizens of Paris, anxious to keep the revolution within bounds, had prevailed on the Duke of Orleans, the cousin of Charles X., who was known to possess liberal opinions, to assume the control of the government as lieutenant-general of the kingdom. He convoked the two chambers for the 3d of August, and FRANCE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 149 those bodies upon assembling declared the throne vacant by the abdication of the elder branch of the house of Bour- bon, and elected Louis Philippe, Duke of Orleans, " King of the French." Louis Philippe accepted the crown, and declared his intention to reign as a constitutional sovereign. On the 9th of August he took an oath to maintain the charter as amended by the cham- bers in the interests of popular liberty, and ascended the throne in the presence of the great officers of the state. Ab- solutism was dead in France ; the will of the people was supreme. An Eye to the Main Chance. The new king was the son of the notorious " Philippe Egalite," Duke of Orleans, who was beheaded during the French Revolution, and was in his for- ty-seventh year. He was sincere in his professions of liberality so long as his principles did not conflict with his in- terests; but he thoroughly understood the art of accommodating himself to circumstances. He did not find his new position a pleasant one, for the legitim- ists, as the partisans of the elder branch of the Bourbon family, who supported the Duke of Bordeaux, were called, de- nounced him as a usurper and a traitor to his race ; while the Bonapartists de- clared that he had been made king by a clique in opposition to the will of the people. The leading principles of Louis Phil- ipj^e's reign were constitutional govern- m,.nt at home and peace with foreign powers. In the internal administration of the kingdom the king sought hon- estly to adhere to the charter. Two legislative chambers secured the rights of the people, and the elections were comparatively free. The press was nominally unshackled, but the govern- ment continued to exercise a mild cen- sorship over it. The friendship of foreign powers, especially of England, was cultivated, and France scrupulously refrained from engaging in the affairs of any European country, except where her own interests were directly con- cerned. The internal order of the king- dom was seriously disturbed by several popular outbreaks during the first years of the new reign. Popular Discontent. The revolution of 1830 affected the rest of Europe profoundly. In Italy, Germany, and Poland, there were out^ breaks of greater or less magnitude. Belgium had never been satisfied with its compulsory union with Holland in 18 1 5, and now rose in general insurrec- tion against the Dutch government. The Dutch troops were driven out of Brussels on the 23d of September, after a stubborn fight, and took refuge in the fortress of Antwerp. The Belgian prov inces organized a revolutionary con- gress, which now appealed to the five great powers of Europe to protect Bel- gium against Holland, and King Wil- liam at the same time made an appeal to the same powers to compel the Bel- gians to submit to his authority. On the 20th of September, 1830, the five powers signed a protocol recogniz- ing and guaranteeing the independence of Belgium as a separate kingdom, the crown of which was bestowed upon Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, the widowed husband of the Princess Char- lotte, of England. In June, 1831, Leo- pold was proclaimed king by the Bel- gian government, and in the course of 150 FRANCE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. tlie following year married the Princess Louisa, the eldest daughter of King Louis Philippe. The King of Holland refused to sub- mit to the decision of the great powers, and declined to evacuate Antwerp, which was held by a garison of 4,000 Dutch troops, under General Chasse. He also retained the forts on the Scheldt. A treaty was signed between France and England for the assistance of the Belgians. A French army of 50,000 men entered Belgium in November and laid siege to Antwerp, which, after a memorable defence, was forced to sur- render on the 23d of December. The Dutch king now withdrew his troops from Belgium, and the French army at once returned to its own country. Prominent Statesmen. The ministers of Louis Philippe were naturally chosen from the Orleanist party, which had made him king. Pro- minent among these were M. Thiers and M. Guizot, men of great abilities and widely different opinions. The former was regarded as the leader of the more liberal wing of the Orleans party ; the latter was the avowed cham- pion of the extreme monarchical wing. M. Thiers came into office in the min- istry of Marshal Soult in the spring of 1832, as minister of the interior. He betrayed a singular inconsistency throughout his whole political career. When out of office he was the cham- pion of the most liberal opinions ; when in office he was as conservative as his great rival, M. Guizot, himself. On the 22d of February, 1836, he became prime minister, ^pain was at this time torn by civil war, and M. Thiers was very anxious to intervene in her affairs. The king, however, refused to be guided by his advice, and the ministry resigned after an existence of six months. On the 13th of November, 1836, Prince Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, the son of Louis and Hortense, and tht- nephew of the Emperor Napoleon, made| an attempt to excite a revolt of the gai-' rison of Strasburg, for the avowed pur- pose of overthrowing the Orleans mon- archy and re-establishing the empire. The troops refused to join him, and he was arrested and sent by way of South America to New York. England's Bold Move. In 1839, Mehemet Ali, the Viceroy of Egypt, threw off his allegiance to the sultan and conquered Syria. France, under the guidance of M. Thiers, who was once more prime minister, de- manded that Mehemet Ali should be allowed to retain Syria and Egypt. England, on the other hand, insisted on the unconditional surrender of Syria to the sultan, and induced the other powers to sustain her. The result was that the other four great powers, with- out communicating their intentions to France, signed a treaty with Turkey, in virtue of which an English, Aus- trian and Turkish fleet reduced the Syrian ports and compelled Mehemet Ali to withdraw his forces from Syria into Egypt. The matter was settled b)'- assigning Egypt, in independent hered- itary possession, to Mehemet Ali, and restoring Syria to the porte. The "Quadruple Treaty" was re- garded by the French as an act of treachery on the part of England, and a general desire was expressed for war with that country. The principal i'^- sults of the excitement were the fortifi- FRANCE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 151 cation of Paris with an enciente and a system of detached forts; and the „ fall of M. Thiers' ministry, which was re- garded as responsible for the advantage that had been gained by England. A new ministry, under Marshal Soult, was installed in October, 1 840. The guid ing spirit of this ministry was M. Guizot. The qnarrel with England was settled, and as a peace-offering Great Britain agreed that the remains of the Emperor Napoleon should be removed from St. Helena to France. They were disin- terred and conveyed to France by a French squadron, commanded by Prince de Joinville, the son of the king. The squadron reached Cherbourg on the 8th of December, 1840, and the remains were transferred to a smaller vessel and conveyed up the Seine to Paris, where they were interred in the chapel of the Hotel des Invalides with the most im- posing ceremonies. Death of the Heir Apparent. On the 13th of July, 1842, the Duke of Orleans, the eldest son of Louis Philippe and the heir to the throne, died from the effects of an accident. He left two sons — the Count de Paris and the Duke de Chartres. The former, who thus became the heir to the throne, was born in 1838. The harvests of 1846 and 1847 were bad, and these failures were followed by an era of high prices and great dis- tress throughout the kingdom. Wages declined and work was scarce. The king had never been entirely popular with the people, who wished to be rid of the whole Bourbon family. The general discontent at home was in- creased by the frequent failures in the foreign policy of France. The Spanish marriages, the quadruple treaty, the loss of the English alliance, and other matters, greatly tended to increase the dislike which the masses felt for the Orleans monarchy. The republicans eagerly fomented this discontent, and the policy of the gov- ernment, which was growing more con- servative every year, greatly simplified their task. In the session of the cham- bers in 1847 the liberals demanded cer- tain reforms which would enforce more literally the terms of the charter, but the government, under the guidance of M. Guizot, firmly refused to grant their demands. Political Banquets. The liberal members of the chamber now proposed to give a series of ' ' re- form banquets" in Paris and the pro- vinces as a means of manifesting the strength of their party. A banquet was arranged to be given in Paris, but was prohibited by the government, and it was determined that it should take place in spite of this prohibition. The government again forbade the banquet. The king and his ministers fancied themselves secure, when in reality the popular discontent had reached such a pitch that it was ready to break out in revolution at any moment. The banquet was abandoned by its projectors, who had accomplished their plan of placing the government in an attitude of hostility to the liberties of the people ; but on the 2 2d of February, 1848, dense crowds filled the streets of Paris, shouting, "Vive la Reforme ! " An army of nearly 60,000 men had been collected by the government in the vicinity of Paris, under the vetern Mar- shal Bugeaud, but no troops were used that day. 152 FRANCE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. On the 23d the national guard was placed under arms, but showed unmis- takable sympath}' with the people, and prevented the regular troops from dis- persing the crowds in the street. The events of this day opened the king's eyes to the true state of affairs. M. Guizot at once resigned his office, and was succeeded by Count Mole, v;ho pro- ceeded to form a new ministry. It was too late, however, to put down the out- break by a change of ministry. That night a detachment of troops fired upon a body of rioters which had attacked them, killing a number of citizens. The bodies of the slain were paraded by torchlight through the streets of Paris, and the republicans and socialists at once rose in arms. The King Abdicates. Barricades were erected, and shouts of " Vive la Republique ! " rose from the throng — cries that had not been heard in France for forty years. Count Mole now declined the task of forming a new ministry, and M. Thiers was in- trusted with it. The first act of the new minister was to induce the king to order the troops to withdraw from Paris. Marshal Bugeaud, upon receiving this order, resigned his command in disgust. This was on the 24th of February. On the same day the troops of the line and the national guard joined the people and marched upon the Tuileries. Louis Philippe, feeling that all was lost, signed his abdication in favor of his grandson, the Count de Paris, and with- drew to St. Cloud. The insurgents, however, paid no at- tention to this abdication. The Duchess of Orleans, with her little son, appeared in the chamber of deputies and besought them to sustain the claim of her child to his grandfather's throne. The mob broke into the hall at this juncture, and she was compelled to seek safety in flight. The royal family fled to Eng- land, where they obtained an asylum. There Louis Philippe died on the 26th of August, 1850, at the age of seventy- seven years. France a Republic. On the 24th of February the republic was proclaimed, and a provisional gov- ernment, consisting of Lamartine, Du- pont de I'Eure, Arago, Ledru-Rollin, Marie, Garnier-Pages, and Cremieux, was installed. There was great danger that the revolution of 1848 would de- generate into a socialist insurrection, which would have plunged France into deeper misery and have drawn upon her the enmity of all Europe. The eloquence of Eamartine secured the adhesion of the populace to the re- public. The mob had already sacked the Tuileries, burned the throne, and raised the red flag. Moved by the ap- peals of Lamartine 100,000 national guards declared for the provisional gov- ernment. The socialists were com- pelled to submit, and the better class of citizens, who dreaded a triumph of that party, gave their hearty support to the republic, A new element now entered into the politics of the republic. Prince Louis Napoleon Bonaparte made a second at- tempt at revolution at Boulogne, in 1840. He was captured, and sentenced by the court of peers to imprisonment for life in the Castle of Ham. In May, 1846, he made his escape in the disguise of a workman, and sought refuge in Eng- land. He was now elected to the as- FRANCE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 163 sembly from the department of the Seine. The government declared its intention to prevent his return to France, and he resigned his seat. A new election was ordered, and he (vas returned by five different depart- ments. This decided manifestation of /the popular will induced the govern- ment to withdraw its opposition. L/Ouis Napoleon then crossed the channel, and on the 26th of September took his seat as a member for the department of the Seine. His name aroused the greatest enthusiasm among the French people, and without having done anything to deserve it, he found himself the most J popular man in France. The cause of his popularity lay in the fact that he Was the heir of the great emperor. President Napoleon in. Profiting by this popularity he an- nounced himself a candidate for the pre- sidency of the republic, and at the elec- tion on the loth of December, 1848, was chosen president by a vote of 5,500,- 000 out of a total vote of 7,326,000, re- ceiving a large majority over General Cavaignac and all his other competitors combined. On the 20th of December he entered upon the duties of his office, and took up his official reside'ice at the palace of the Elysee . The national assembly was divided into a number of parties. One of these supported the president ; another was devoted to the interests of the legiti- mists ; a third to those of the Orleans family ; and a fourth consisted of the socialist deputies. With the exception of the first all of these were hostile to the president. The legitimist and Or- leanist parties were plotting for the overthrow of the republic and the res- toration of the monarchy ; the socialists were busy working for the downfall of the republic and the inauguration of the reign of communism. These parties hated each other in- tensely, and were united only in their enmity to the president. They wished to overthrow him first, and then settle their quarrels among themselves. In this unhappy state of affairs the hopea of the nation rested upon the president. Seeing that the fall of the republic was inevitable, and knowing that neither of the contending parties possessed the confidence or represented the wishes of the French people, Louis Napoleon re- solved to overthrow them all, seize the entire government, and appeal to the people to sustain him. Kis plans were laid with skill and carried out with boldness and decision. Assembly Dissolved. On the night of December i, 185 1, the leading members of the assembly were arrested, and the government printing-office was occupied by troops. Decrees and proclamations were struck off during the night for use on the morrow. The army was devoted to the president and readily aided him in carrying out this Conp d^ Etat. On the morning of December second the Parisians were astonished by proc- lamations from the president announc- ing that the national assembly was dissolved; that universal suffrage was restored ; that a general election was ordered for the fourteenth of December; that Paris and the department of the Seine were placed under martial law. Another decree gave the names of the new ministry, stated that the president would submit to the suffrages of the 154 FRANCE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. people a new constitution containing the following provisions : A responsible chief magistrate was to be chosen for ten years ; the ministers were to be re- sponsible to the president alone ; a coun- cil of state was to originate laws, which were to be discussed and voted by a legislative cham^ber ; and a senate was to be created, whose duty it should be to watch over the constitution and pre- vent infractions of it. This constitution was submitted to the people on the twentieth of Decem- ber, and was ratified by the votes of 7,500,000 Frenchmen. With the in- auguration of the new government per- sonal rule was re-established, and the experiment of constitutional govern- ment in France came to an end. The majority of the French people were satisfied with the change. A Direful Panic. In the meantime, however, the Roy- alists and Republicans of Paris, recov- ering from their surprise, took up arms against the president. An army of 48,- 000 men was directed against them on the second and third of December, and their resistance was soon put down. On the fourth the troops, in a sudden and causeless panic, fired upon a crowd of unoffending citizens, killing large tiumbers of them. Many prisoners were taken by the troops from the insurgents. These were put to death in crowds in the prisons, and 20,500 persons were banished to Cayenne. It had been foreseen from the first that the president would not rest satis- fied wiih the extension of his term of office. He was following in the foot- steps of his uncle, the great emperor, whose heir he was, and the restoration of the empire was the end of his schemes- At a grand banquet given to him at Bordeaux on the 9th of October, 1852, the president foreshadowed his inten- tions in his memorable utterance, "The Empire is Peace." On the twenty-first of November the electors were called upon to vote upon' a plebiscite declaring L,ouis Napoleon Bonaparte hereditary Emperor of the French, with the right of regulating the order of succession co the throne in his family. It was accepted by 7,824,189 suffrages, to 253,145 against it. On the 2nd of December, 1852, the newly elected sovereign, who took the title of " Napoleon III., Emperor of the French," made his solemn entry into Paris. On the 29th of January, 1853, he married Eugenie Marie de Guzman, Countess of Teba, a lady of great beauty, and descended from one of the most illustrious families of Spain. By her he had one son, Napoleon Eugene Louis, born March 16, 1856. French and English Alliance. The first effort of the new emperor was to gain the moral support which would result from an alliance with Great Britain. In order to effect this alliance he adopted the English policy concerning the Eastern question. Early- in 1853 the Czar of Russia, believing that the Turkish empire in Europe was hastening to its fall, made secret over- tures to the British government to join him in a division of the dominions of the sultan. The proposals were rejected , and England gladly availed herself jf the proffered alliance of France. Matters were not long in coming to a crisis. The Emperor Nicholas col- lected a large fleet and army at Sebas- FRANCE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 155 topol, and sent Prince Mentschikoff to Constantinople to demand of the sultan larger powers of control over the holy places of Syria and Palestine, and a pro- tectorate over all the Greek Christians within the Turkish dominions. This would have made him the sovereign of the majority of the sultan's subjects. A few weeks later the Russian armies occupied the Turkish provinces of Mol- davia and Wallachia. The Turkish government was panic- Etricken, and but for the firmness of Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, the British ambassador, who assured the sultan of the support of his government, would have yielded to the Russian demand. He encouraged the sultan to resist the unreasonable demands of the czar, and in the meantime a congress of the pleni- potentiaries of Austria, Prussia, France and England met at Vienna, and en- deavored to settle the difficulty by negotiations. War with Russia. Their efforts failing, the sultan de- i-dared war against Russia in October, 1853. The Turkish army under Omar Pasha at once crossed the Danube, and defeated the Russians at Oltenitza. In January, 1854, the Russians were re- pulsed in a four days' assault upon the Turkish lines at Kalafat, and retreated. On the 30th of November, 1853, a Russian fleet from Sebastopol made a descent upon Sinope, destroyed a Turk- ish squadron in the harbor, and bom- barded the town, killing 4,000 people. The French and English govern- ments now demanded that the czar should withdraw his troops from the Turkish territorv. Nicholas refused to answer this note, which informed him that his failure to reply would be taken as a declaration of war. In March, 1854, France and England entered into a close alliance with each other and with Turkey, and declared war against Russia. The Russian army under Prince Paskiewitch laid siege to Silistria, in April, but the Turks defended the placr with such vigor that the siege was raised in about a month. A little later the Russians were defeated by the Turks at Giurgevo, and abandoned the Danu- bian provinces and retreated into their own country. Heights of Alma Stormed. By this retreat the cause of the inter- vention of France and England was removed. Tliey resolved, however, to break the power of Russia in the Black Sea by destroying the fortifications of the great stronghold of Sebastopol, the chief town of the Crimea. A com- bined expedition was despatched to the Crimea, and the troops were landed near the mouth of the river Alma. The next day, September 20, 1854, the Russian position on the heights above that stream was stormed and carried after a gallant resistance. The allies now advanced upon Sebas- topol, the fleet following along the coast and occupied the port of Balaklava. Sebastopol was immediately invested. The town was defended by the Russian General Todleben, and its resistance of nearly a year is one of the most memor- able events in history. The siege was in' reality a blockade, as the Russians were able during the whole time to maintain communication with their country north of the city. They made several vigor- ous attempts to break up the investment. On the 25th of October, 1854, the 156 FRANCE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY, battle of Balaklava was fought for this purpose. It was made memorable by a heroic but fruitless charge of the Eng- lish "Light Brigade" of cavalry upon the Russian artillery. On the 5th of November the Russians hurled a heavy i^rce upon the English lines at Inker- niann, but were held in check until the arrival of a reinforcement of French troops made the victory sure for the al- lies. Still later, on the i6th of August, 1855, the Russians made their last at- tempt in the stubbornly fought battle of the Tchernaya, to raise the siege, but were repulsed. Sardinia had by this time joined the alliance of France and England, as has been related, and the Piedmontese troops won great credit in this last battle. Fall of Sebastopoi. On the 8th of September, 1855, the French stormed and carried the Mala- koflf Tower, the key to the Russian de- duces, and the English at the same time carried the important work of the Great Redan. These successes cost the allies heavily, but resulted in the evac- uation of Sebastopoi by the Russians. The city was occupied by the allies, the Russians retiring to the forts north of the harbor. In the meantime the English and French fleets had entered the Baltic and Polar Seas, and had inflicted consider- able loss upon the Russians in those quarters. Previous to the fall of Sebas- topoi a British fleet entered the Sea of Azov and captured Kertch and Veni- kale. These disasters of Russia were partly atoned for by the success of her forces in the Trans-Caucasian provinces. Kars was taken by the Russian army after a heroic resistance and other conquests of im.portance were made. The Mexican republic was debtor to certain citizens of France, England, and Spain, and resisted every effort of those powers to collect their claims. The debt to these three powers was about $73,000,000, of which ;^263,49o were due to France. Finding it impossible to collect their claims by negotiation, the three governments in 1861 arranged a joint expedition to Mexico, to compel her to make provision for payment. France from the first determined to make this expedition the means of ac- quiring a footing in Mexico, which should lead to the conquest of that country, and the establishment of a Eatin empire in America. The scheme was in reality a revival in another form of the old French dream of a great American dominion. The French in Mexico. The expedition consisted of eighty- one vessels, carrying 1,611 guns and 27,911 sailors and troops. It reached Vera Cruz in December, 1861. The city and its defences were evacuated by the Mexicans, and were occupied by the Spanish troops. In the early part of the year 1862 England and Spain, having become convinced of the designs of France, arranged their difficulties with Mexico by the convention of Soli- dad, signed on the 15th of February, and in April withdrew their forces from the expedition. Left alone, France reinforced her army, and placed it under command of General Forey. During the remainder of the year 1862 the French were put to great exertions to hold their own against the Mexicans. In March, 1863, having FRANCE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 157 been reinforced from France, General Forey laid siege to Pnebla, which was defended with great gallantry by the Mexicans, and captnred it on the i8th of May, after a siege of two months. The Mexicans had based their hopes of saving the capital upon the defence of Pnebla, and made no eflfort to defend the city of Mexico, which was entered by the French army on the loth of June, 1863. The Emperor Napoleon now pro- ceeded to carry his designs respecting Mexico into execution. A council of notables was summoned, and under a controlling French influence declared in favor of the abolition of the repub- lic, and the establishment of a heredi- tary empire as the best form of govern- ment for the country. The notables subsequently chose the Archduke Max- imilian, the brother of the Emperor of Austria, to be Emperor of Mexico. These acts were submitted to the vote of the Mexican people, who, under the inti- midation of the French, ratified them.. Our Country Intervenes- In 1866, the Civil War in the United States being ended, the American gov- ernment, which had viewed the course of France in Mexico with avowed dis- pleasure, demanded of the Emperor Napoleon the withdrawal of his troops from Mexico. After some hesitation Napoleon consented to comply with this demand, and the withdrawal of the French troops was begun towards the close of 1866, the result being that rvlaximilian was betrayed by one of his Mexican generals, was captured and shot on June 19, 1867. Alarmed at the rapid increase tf the power of I russia, the Emperor Napo- leon, through M. Benedetti, his minis- ter at Berlin, demanded the transfer to France of the territory on the left bank of the Rhine as a compensation to France for the great growth of the Prussian power. Count Bismarck met the demand with firmness and imme- diately pronounced it "inadmissible." It was at once withdrawn. Scheme to Annex Belgium. France then proposed to Prussia a scheme for the annexation of Belgium to France, and declared that if Prussia would support her in it, she in her turn wonld support Prussia in the subjection of south Germany to the rule of that power. Bismarck gave no definite an- swer to this proposition, but laid Count Benedetti's draft of the proposed treaty among the Prussian archives. The Emperor Napoleon then attempted to purchase the duchy of Luxembourg from Holland. The Dutch king, who was greatly in need of money, was anx- ious to sell, but the scheme was foiled by Bismarck, who claimed Luxembourg as a part of the old German Confedera- tion, and garrisoned it with Prussian troops. The North German Confedera- tion protested against the sale, and the transaction was discontinued. These diplomatic defeats seriously damaged the prestige of France. A con- siderable party was anxious to go to war with Prussia, but the emperor wisely refused to comply with their demand. The French army was inferior to that of Prussia, and had not yet adopted the breech-loading gun, without which it would have been folly to attack a power as well equipped as Prussia. As it was believed that a struggle with Prussia was inevitable, the work of reorganiz- 158 FRANCE IN THB NINBTEENTH CENTURY. iiig the French army was pushed for- ward with vigor. Since the establishment of the empire, France had made a great gain in material prosperity. The eighteen years of Na- poleon's rule were the most prosperous period the nation had ever experienced. The administrative talents of the em- peror were second only to those of the great Napoleon, and under his liberal policy the French commerce was care- fully built up, the railroad system of the country was extended, and the manu- facturing and mining interests were ex- panded. The principal cities of the empire were enlarged, improved, and beautified, and Paris was made the most splendid capital of Europe. War with Prussia. In the spring of 1 870 the Spaniards en- deavored to secure a king, their throne having been left vacant by the revolu- tion of 1868. France was anxious that the young Prince of Asturias, the son of Queen Isabella, should be chosen ; but the choice of the Spaniards fell upon Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sig- maringen, a distant relative of the King of Prussia. This selection was opposed by France, and was made the pretext for a war with Prussia. The Emperor Napoleon was by no means anxious for war, but was forced to yield by the popular clamor and the importunities of the empress and his counsellors. At this juncture Count Bismarck published the draft of the secret treaty which M. Benedetti had proposed to him for the acquisition of Belgium by France. This publication aroused a great deal of indignation towards France in Europe, especially in Great Britain, which had constituted herself the special guardian of Belgian inde^ pendence. The British government de- manded of Napoleon ample guarantees for the observance by France of the neutrality of Belgium in the struggle at hand. Wat was at once declared against Prussia. The hope which tlie French government had entertained of separating south Germany from the northern federation was destroyed by the prompt action of the south German states in support of Prussia. Soon after the declaration of war the emperor appointed the Empress Eu- genie regent during his absence, and repaired with the prince imperial to Metz. There he found the French army but imperfectly prepared for the struggle before it, notwithstanding the assertion of his minister of war that every preparation was complete. French Armies Defeated- The news of the first French disasters plunged Paris into great despondency. The senate and corps legislatif were convened by the empress on the ninth of August, and the Ollivier ministry was forced to resign. A new ministry, under Count Palikao, succeeded it. General Trochu, who was regarded as an able soldier, was appointed governor of Paris, and measures were pushed for- ward for the defence of the city. The news of the surrender of the em- peror and MacMahon's army at Sedan aroused a storm of excitement at Paris. The streets were filled with a wild throng of citizens and national guards, who surrounded the palace of the corps legislatif, and demanded the overthrow of the Bonapartes. Jules Favre, in the legislative chamber, declared that the empire had ceased to exist, and accom- FRANCE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 159 panied by a number of republican depu- ties repaired to the Hotel de Ville, and organized a provisional government, consisting of MM. Arago, Cremieux, Favre, Ferry, Gambetta, and others. The mob attacked the Tuileries, but met with no resistance. The empress, deserted by all her attendants but one, and by every domestic, was saved by mand was refused by the French gov- ernment, which declared that it -A^ould not give up " an inch of its land oi a stone of its fortresses." M. Thiers, though seventy-three years old, made a joirrney to the courts of England, Rus- sia, Austria, and Italy, to ask the me- diation and moral support of those powers in behalf of France — but with- ESCAPB OF THE EMPRESS the timely arrival of a devoted friend. Dr. Evans, an American, who enabled her to escape to England, where she was joined by the prince imperial. The provisional government was anxious to make peace with Ger- many, but the King of Prussia demanded the cession of Alsace and Lorraine, which had been partly overrun by his armies, as the price of peace. The de- EUGENIE FROM FRANCE. out success. In the meantime the Ger- mans advanced to Paris, and invested the city. Communication between the capital and the provinces was main' tained by means of balloons. ]M. Gambetta, a member of the pro- visional government, escaped from Paris in a balloon, and reached Orleans in safety. He at once began to prepare the provinces for resistance, and in or 160 France: in the ninetebmth century. der to accomplish his ends assumed dic- tatorial powers. His efforts were lib- erally responded to by the nation, and several new armies were placed in the field, but the German troops steadily advanced from victory to victory. In January, 1871, the city and outly- ing forts of Paris were surrendered to the Germans. An armistice of three weeks was entered into in order to give the French people an opportunity to organize a government competent to conclude a general peace. The new government at once addressed itself to the task of concluding a treaty of peace with the victors, and on the 26th of February the preliminaries of peace were signed at Versailles. With the exception of a garrison of 40,000 men in Paris, all the French troops retired south of the Loire. On the ist of March a detachment of the German army en- tered Paris, but withdrew from the city on the 3d. Anarchy Triumphant. In the confusion which followed the surrender of Paris, the national guards were masters of the city. They seized a large number of cannon, and carried them to the heights of Montmartre, where they entrenched themselves. General Vinoy, commanding the garri- son of the city, attempted to dislodge them, but without success. Vinoy then withdrew his troops to Versailles for the protection of the assembly, and the insurgents occupied the Hotel de Ville, and organized a government which took the name of the " Commune." It declared itself the champion of municipal freedom, and might have ac- complished much for the cause, but unhappily the " commune " now passed out of the hands of its moderate mek.- bers into those of the revolutionary or socialist element which had given such trouble in 1848, and had been held down by the empire. The worst ele- ments of the city came into power withir the walls, robbed the banks, arrested imprisoned, or put to death the good men who sought to control them, and declared that Paris should be destroyed if they could not hold it. Paris Again Besieged. A reign of terror ensued, and the forces of the government, under the command of Marshal MacMahon, which held possession of the majority of the outer forts, invested the city, and sub- jected it to a second siege. Several severe battles were fought between the troops of the government and those of the commune, and though the latter were routed with great loss, they held the city with such obstinacy that the government was forced to ask leave of Germany, to increase its army north of the Loire. Paris suffeied in this siege more than it had during the German bombardment. The government forces made steady progress, and at length the outer forts were entirely in their possession. As their final defeat became apparent the communists avenged themselves by overturning the Napoleon column in the Place Vendome. On the 2ist of May the government troops forced their way into the city, and during the night the communists pre- pared for their last resistance. For the next eight days a desperate struggle was waged for the possession of the city. The communists contested every foot of ground, and as they were beaten back PRANCI^ IN "tun NiNfiTfiENtH CENTttRV. 161 murdered the venerable Archbishop of Paris and a number of other hostages, and set fire to the Louvre, the Tuileries, (he Hotel de Ville, and a number of other public buildings. An effort was made to burn the city, but was defeated by the government troops. At length, on the twenty-eighth ■ nd twenty-ninth, the last j^ositions of he communists were stormed and the nisin'rection was at an end. Innnense numbers of the insurgents of both se.ces were shot down by the troops during the fighting, and thousands of prisoners were taken. Multitudes of these were shot by order of the court-martial at Versailles for participation in the insur- rection. These military executions con- tinued until the world was sick of them. On the lothof May, i87i,the definite treaty of peace was signed at Frankfort oetween France and Germany. The Immense Debt Paid. The revolt of the commune being over, the government devoted itself en- ergetically to the task of restoring the prosperity of the country and putting an end to the occupation of the provinces by the Germans. By the terms of the treaty of Frankfort, the sum of 5,000,- 000,000 francs, or ;^ 1,000,000, 000, was to be paid to Germany as an indemnity. This immense sum was to be paid by instalments ranging over three years. As security for the debt, the German army was to occupy, at the expense of France, the greater part of the territory which it had overrun ; but the depart- ments were to be successively evacuated, in a specified order, as the instalments were paid. The first eflfort of the gov- trnment was to raise a loan of $400,- Joo.ooo. which enabled it to pay during 11 the month of June three instalments of the German debt, and thus to secure the evacuation of the Paris forts and a considerable portion of the territory held by the Germans. This gained for the government of President Thiers the hearty support of the nation, and the co-operation of the assembly. After the adjournment of the assembly in September, M. Thiers , made satisfactory arrangements for the payment of the fourth half milliard of the German debt in the ensuing spring, and so restricted the German occupation to six of the eastern departments. Germans Sent Home. M. Thiers also succeeded in perfect- ing arrangements by which the whole of the German debt was discharged, and the country entirely evacuated bv the foreign army, in the early part of Sep- tember, 1873, a year and a half in ad- vance of the time fixed by the treaty of Frankfort The money for this purpose was raised by means of popular loans which were readily taken by the French people, who cordially sustained the president's efforts to rid the country of the presence of the conquerors. During the latter part of the summer of 1 87 1 the title of M. Thiers was changed from "Chief of the Executive Power" to that of "President of the French Republic." On the 9th of January, 1873, the ex- Emperor Napoleon III. died at Chisel- hurst, in England, where he had resided since his release from captivity. His death was sincerely regretted by the French people, to whom, in spite of his many faults, he had been a wise and generous friend. By the death of the ex-emperor the plans of the imperialist 162 FRANCE IN THK NINETEENTH CENTURY. party in France were for the time en- tirely overthrown. The government now felt itself strong enongh to proceed with the trial of Marshal Bazaine for the loss of Metz during the war with Germany. He was charged with treason in surrendering liis army and the fortress of Metz with- out sufficient cause; and on the loth of December was found guilty by the court-martial, and was sentenced to death. His sentence was commuted by President MacMahon to degradation from his rank and twenty years impris- onment. He was confined in the fort- ress of the island of St. Marguerite, but succeeded in escaping from it during the summer of 1874. Brilliant Statesman Dead. In 1879 M. Jules Grevy was elected president of the republic by the assem- bly. The choice for president of the assembly fell on Gambetta, who, after an almost unexampled career of pop- ularity, died December 31, 1882, and thereby was removed the most brilliant statesman and strongest personal force in the councils of the nation. Owing to the scandals connected with the sale and purchase of decorations. President Grevy resigned in November, 1887, ^nd M. Carnot was chosen as his successor. At Lyons, on June 24, 1894, Presi- dent Carnot was assassinated by an Italian anarchist. Great excitement pre- vailed throughout the country. The Senate and House of Representatives at Washington adjourned in honor of the French president. On June 27th the National Assembly elected M. Casimir- Perier to be the successor of President Carnot. The new president retained his office but a short time. On January 15, 1895, he resigned, and on the seven- teenth of the same month, M. Francois Felix Fan re was elected to be his suc- cessor. On account of the sudden death of President Faure, whose adminis- tration of affairs was successful, the distinguished Loubet was appointed president by the National Assembly. Famous Dreyfus Trial. In 1897 Captain Dreyfus, an officer in the French army, was accused and tried for treason, and was convicted. The specific charge was the sale of govern- ment secrets to German officials con- cerning the equipments and movements of the French army. Dreyfus was sent- enced to imprisonment for life. It was believed by many distinguished persons that he was not the real culprit, and that the fact of his being a Jew would account for the charge being laid upon him that should properly have been attached to others. Emile Zola, the celebrated author, espoused his cause with great ardor and was himself tried for charges made against the French military authorities, and convicted and sentenced to pay a fine. The injustice done to Dreyfus would not slumber. The case was reopiened and after a most exciting trial in the summer of 1899, he was again convicted by a military tribunal, but with a recom- mendation to mercy. By this verdici the military power shielded itself, and, by a swift pardon from President Lou- bet, Dreyfus was restored to his position in the army and was relieved of the charp-es brought against him. CHAPTER XI. The New German Empire. IN common with all the rest of Eu- rope Germany was disturbed and deeply agitated by the ambitious schemes of Napoleon at the begin- ning of the nineteenth century. Francis II. came to the throne in 1792, and after a series of defeats by the armies of the French Republic, and the adhesion, in 1805, of many of the German princes to the alliance of France, which led to the subsequent formation of the Rhenish Confederation under the protectorate of Napoleon, resigned the German crown, and assumed the title of Emperor of Austria. From this period till the Congress of Vienna, 1814-15, Gei..iany was almost entirely at the mercy of Napoleon, who deposed the established sovereigns, and dismembered their states in favor of his partisans and dependants, while he crip, pled the trade of the country, and ex- hausted its resources by the extortion of subsidies or contributions. The second peace of Paris, in 18 14, restored to Germany all that had be- longed to her in 1792, and as a recon- struction of the old empire was no longer possible, those states which still main- tained their sovereignty combined, in 1 8 1 5, to form a German Confederation. Of the three hundred states into which the empire had once been divided there now remained only thirty-nine, a num- ber which was afterwards reduced to 'hirty-five by the extinction of several petty dynasties. The diet was now reorganized, and appointed to hold its meetings at Frank- fort-on-the-Main, after having been for- mally recognized by all the allied states as the legislative and executive organ of the confederation ; but it failed to satisfy the expectations of the nation, and soon became a mere political tool in the hands of the princes, who simply made its decrees subservient .:> their own efforts for the suppression O- sver)^ progressive movement. New Government Organized. The festival of the Wartburg, and the assassination of Kotzebue, were seized as additional excuses for reaction; and though the French Revolution of 1830 so influenced some few of the Ger- man States as to compel their rulers to grant written constitutions to their sub- jects, the effect was transient, and it was not till 1848 that the German nation gave expression, by open insurrectionary movements, to the discontent and the sense of oppression which had long pos- sessed the minds of the people. The princes endeavored by hasty concession-s to arrest the progress of republican prin- ciples, and, fully recognizing the in- efficiency of the diet, they gave their sanction to the convocation, by a pro- visional self-constituted assembly, of a national congress of representatives o*^" the people. Archduke John of Austria was elected Vicar of the newly-organized national government; but he soon disappointed the hopes of the assembly by his evident attempts to frustrate an energetic action on the side of the parliament, while the speedy success of the anti-republican partv in Austria and Prussia damped 163 164 THE NEW GERMAN EMPIRE. the hopes of the progressionists. The refusal of the king of Prussia to accept the imperial crown which the parlia- ment offered him in 1 849, was followed by the election of a provisional regency of the empire; but as nearly half the members had declined taking part in ;hese proceedings, or in a previous meas- ure, by which Austria had been ex- cluded, by a single vote, from the Ger- man Confederation, the assembly soon lapsed into a state of anarchy and im- potence, which terminated in its dis- solution. Insurrections Suppressed. The sanguinary manner in which in- surrectionary movements had in the neanwhilebeen suppressed by Prussian troops both in Prussia and Saxony put an effectual end to republican demon- strations; and in 1850 Austria and Prus- sia, after exhibiting mutual jealousy and ill-will which more than once seemed likely to end in war, combined to restore the diet, whose first acts were the inter- vention in Sleswick-Holstein in favor of Denmark, and the abolition of the free constitutions of several of the lesser states. From that period the diet became the srena in which Austria and Prussia strove to secure the supremacy and championship of Germany ; every meas- ure of public interest was made subser- vient to the views of one or other of these rival powers ; and the Sleswick- Holstein difficulties were the principal questions under discussion in the federal parliament, down to the rupture between Prussia and Austria, and the dissolution of the Bund in 1866. The immediate occasion of the war of J'866 was the difference that arose between Prussia and Austria, after the convention of Gastein, 1865, as to the occupation and disposal of the territory taken from Denmark in the short war of 1864. But the real grounds lay in that rivalry between the two states fc the leadership of Germany which ha shown itself at many epochs of thei^ history. There can be little doubt that the feeling of the German people, as distinguished from the princes and bu- reaucracy, had, in recent times at least been in favor of the purely German Prussia as their leader, rather than Austria. And when the parliament of Frank- fort, in 1849, offered the imperial crown to the king of Prussia, the unity of Ger- many might have been secured without bloodshed, had the monarch been less scrupulous, or had he had a Bismarc'' for his adviser. But that opportunit'- being let slip, and the incubus of tht "Bund" being restored, it became ap- parent that the knot must be cut by the sword. Austria and Prussia. By the treaty of Gastein Austria and Prussia agreed to a joint occupation of the Elbe duchies; but to prevent colli- sion it was judged prudent that Austria should occupy Holstein, and Prussia Sleswick. Already a difference of pol- icy had begun to show itself: Prussia was believed to have the intention of annexing the duchies ; while Austria began to favor the claims of Prince Frederick of Augustenburg. In the meantime, both nations were making ready for the struggle ; and Italy, look- ing upon the quarrel as a precious op- portunity to strike a blow for the liber- ation of Venetia, had secretly entered into an alliance with Prussia. THE NEW GERMAN EMPIRE. 16« xn the sitting of the German diet, June I, 1866, Austria, disregarding the convention of Gastein, placed the whole matter at the disposal of the Bund, and then proceeded to convoke the states of Holstein "to assist in the settlement of the future destiny of the duchy." Prus- sia protested against this as an insult and a violation of treaty ; demanded the re-establishment of the joint occupation ; and, while inviting Austria to send troops into Sleswick, marched troops of her own into Holstein. "Act of Violence." Instead of responding to this invita- tion, Austria withdrew her forces alto- gether from Holstein, under protest; and then, calling attention to this "act of violence ' ' on the part of Prussia, pro- posed that the diet should decree " fed- eral execution" against the enemy of the empire This eventful resolution was carried by a great majority on the 14th of June, 1866; Hanover, Saxony, Hesse-Cassel and Hesse Darmstadt vot- ing for it. The resolution having pa^ssed, the Prussian plenipotentiary, in the name of his government, declared [he German Confederation dissolved for ever, and immediately withdrev/. Thereupon identical notes were sent by Prussia to the courts of Saxony, Hanover and Hesse-Cassel. The terms were not accepted, and the Prussian troops at once took military possession of the three kingdoms without resist- ance. War was now declared against Austria ; the Prussian host, numbering in all 225,400 men, with 774 guns, in- vaded Boheiuia at three several points. The Austrians, who had been surprised in a state of ill-organized unreadiness, had assembled an army of 262,400 men and 716 guns; and the greater portion of these were stationed, under General Benedek, behind the Riesengebirge, expecting the attack from Silesia. The Prussian armies in the meantime crossed the Erzgebirge without opposi- tion, drove the Aiistrian army steadily and quickly back with heavy losses, and after effecting a junction moved steadily forward to meet the Austrian army, now concentrated between Sadowa and Ko- niggratz. Here, on July 3d, was fought the decisive battle. The Austrian cav- alry made heroic efforts to turn the tide of victory; but the stern, trained valor of the Prussians, armed with the till then little known breech-loadinof "nee- die-gun," was invincible, and the Aus- trian army was broken and dissolved in precipitate flight. Disabtrous Defeat. The Prussians lost upwards of 9000 killed and wounded ; the Austrian loss was 16,235 killed and wounded, and 22,684 prisoners. After this decisive defeat, which is known as the battle ol Koniggratz or Sadowa, all hope of stay- ing the advance of the Prussians with the army of Benedek was at an end ; a truce was asked for, but refused ; and not till the victorious Prussians had pushed forward towards Vienna, whither Benedek had drawn his beaten forces, was a truce obtained through the agency of the emperor of the French. Italy, though more than half-inclined to stand out for the cession by Austria of the Trentino, as well as Venetia, reluctantly agreed to the armistice, August 12th. A brief campaign sufficed for the de- feat of the minor states of Germany that had joined Austria — viz., Bavaria, Wurtemberg, Baden and Hesse-Darm- 166 THE NEW GERMAN EMPIRE. stadt ; and after peace had at last been arranged, some of them were forced to submit to a certain loss of territory. Saxony only escaped incorporation with Prussia through the resolute opposition of Austria supported by France : but the little kingdom, like all the other states that had taken arms against Prus- burg ; and the other states north of the Main were united with Prussia in a con- federacy of a more intimate nature than before existed, called the North German Confederation. Austria, by the treaty of Prague, August 20, 1866, was completely ex- cluded from participation in the new ^ %/«? ^^ K \ ux (r t < I I 1 1 BATTLE OF KONIGGRATZ, OR SADOWA. sia, was forced to pay a heavy war in- demnity. Even the little principality of Reuss had to pay 100,000 thalers into the fund for Prussian invalids. The states north of the Main which had taken up arms against Prussia were completely incorporated — viz., Hanover, Hesse- C^assel, Nassau, Frankfort and a small portion of Hesse-Darmstadt, as veil as Sleswick-Holstein and lyauen- organization of the German states, and formally agreed to the surrender of Venetia to Italy, to the incorporation of Sleswick-Holstein with Prussia, and to the new arrangements made by Prus- sia in Germany. A portion of the fifth article of this treaty secured that, if the "inhabitants of the northern districts of Sleswick declare, by a free vote, their desire to be united to Denmark, they THE NEW GEEMAN EMPIRE. 16? (shall be restored accordingly;" but this was withdrawn in 1878 by secret treaty between Austria and Germany. Though losing no territory to Prussia, Austria had to pay forty millions of thalers for the expenses of the war. The North German Confederation, as thus constituted, possessed a common parliament, elected by universal suff- rage, in which each state was represented according to its population. The first or constituent parliament met early in 1867, and adopted, with a few modifica- tions, the constitution proposed by Count Bismarck. The new elections then took place, and the first regular North German parliament met in Sep- tember, 1867. Union of German States. According to this constitution, there was to be a common army and fleet, under the sole command of Prussia ; a common ' diplomatic representation abroad, of necessity little else than Prus- sian ; and to Prussia also was entrusted the management of the posts and tele- graphs in the Confederation. The southern German states which up to this point had not joined the Bund were Bavaria, Baden, Wurtemberg, Hesse-Darmstadt and Liechtenstein, with a joint area of 43,990 square miles, and a total population of 8,524,460. But, though these states were not form- ally members of the Bund, they were so practically, for they were bound to Prussia by treaties of alliance offensive and defensive, so that in the event of a war the king of Prussia would have at his disposal an armed force of upwards of 1, 100,000 men. During the next few years the North Crernian Confederatiou was employed in consolidating and strengthening itself, and in trying to induce the southern states to join the league. The commer- cial union was remodeled and extended, until by the year 1868 every part of Germany was a member of it, with the exception of the cities of Hamburg and Bremen, and a small part of Baden. This paved the way for the formal en- trance of the southern states into the confederation ; but they still hung back, though the ideal of a united Germany was gradually growing in force and favor. Impending War. In the spring of 1 867 a war between Prussia and France seemed imminent, from difficulties arising out of the occu- pation of Luxemburg by the former ; but by the good offices of the British government a congress of the great powers, Italy included, was assembled in London, at which an arrangement satisfactory to both nations was amica- bly agreed upon, Luxemburg remaining in the possession of the king of Hol- land. It was evident, however, that hostilities had only been postponed, and on both sides extensive military prepa- rations were carried on. In 1870 the long-threatened war be- tween Prussia and France broke out. On July 4th of that year the provisional government of Spain elected Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern, a relative of King William of Prussia, to fill their vacant throne. This step gave the greatest umbrage to the French govern- ment ; and though, by the advice of William I. of Prussia, Prince Leopold resigned his candidature, it was not sat- isfied, but demanded an assurance that Prussia would at no future period sanc- tion his claims. 16S THE NEW GERMAN EMPIRE. This assurance the king refused to give; and on the 19th of July the em- peror of the French proclaimed war against Prussia. Contrary to the expec- tation of France, the southern German states at once decided to support Prus- sia and the northern states, and placed their armies, which were eventually Germans were splendidly organized, and much superior in number. The result was that the French, instead of march- ing to Berlin as they anticipated, never crossed the Rhine, and had to fight at a disadvantage in Alsace and Lorraine. On August 2d the French obtained some triflin<^ success at Saarbruck, but THE BATTLE OF commanded by the Crown-prince of Prussia, at the disposal of King Wil- liam. By the end of July the forces of both countries were congregated on the fron- tier Napoleon, however, lost a fort- night in delays after the -leclaration of war, and it was discovered that the French army was by no means in a state of satisfactory preparation, while the GRAVELOTTE. the rapidly following battles of Weis- senburg, August 4th, Worth and Spic- heren, both August 6tli, were important German victories. The German ad- vance was hardly checked for a moment, though the losses on both sides were very heavy. The battle of Gravelotte, in which King William commanded in person, was fought on the i8tli ; and though the Germans suffered immense THE NEW GERMAN EMPIRE. 161 loss, they were again victorious, and forced Bazaine to shut himself up in Metz. The Emperor Napoleon and Marshal MacMahon in vain attempted to proceed to the relief of Bazaine. They were surrounded at Sedan, and completely defeated with heavy loss. The emperor suriendered on the 2d of September, . with his whole army, about 90,000 men, and was sent as a prisoner into Ger- many. By the 19th of September the Prussians had reached Paris, and com- menced a vigorous siege. Strasburg capitulated on the 27th after a severe bombardment ; and on October 28th Bazaine surrendered Metz with an army of 6000 officers and 173,000 men, 400 pieces of artillery, 100 mitrailleuses and 53 eagles. Verdun capitulated on the 8th of November ; Thionville followed on the 24th ; after which there were several capitulations of lesser import- ance. Succession of Defeats. The French made extraordinary ef- ibrts to raise armies and relieve Paris, but with the exception of a momentary gleam of success on the Ivoire, they met with nothing but severe defeats. Of these may be mentioned the battle of December 3d in the Forest of Orleans, and that of Le Mans, January 12th, in which contests Prince Frederick-Charles look altogether 30,000 prisoners. After numerous unsuccessful sorties, and enduring great sufferings from fam- ine, Paris surrendered on the 29th of [anuary, and the war was virtually at an end. The French army of the East, 80,000 strong, under Bourbaki, was compelled to retire to Switzerland on the 3 1 St. By the peace of Fratjkfort, May 10, 1 87 1, France was condemned to pay a heavy war indemnity, and the province of Alsace, along with the German part of Lorraine, was ceded to Germany. A very important result of the wal was to complete the fusion of the nortili- ern and southern states of Germany. The southern states joined at once in the war against France ; in November of 1870, Baden and Hesse leading the way, they all became members of the German Confederation; and next month the re-establishment of the German em- pire was almost unanimously resolved, with the king of Prussia as hereditary emperor. It was at Versailles, on the 1 8th of January, 1871, that the king was proclaimed emperor of Germany. Empire of Prussia. The new German empire set vigor- ously to work to organize itself as a united federation, under the skillful leadership of Prince Bismarck, who was appointed Reichskanzler or Imperial Chancellor. Almost at once it found itself involved in the ecclesiastical con- test with the Church of Rome, known as the " Kulturkampf," which had pre- viously begun in Prussia. The origin of the struggle was an effort to vindi- cate the right of the state to interfere, somewhat intimately, with the behavior, appointments, and even educational affairs of all religious societies in the country. The Jesuits were expelled in 1872, and Pope Pius IX. retorted by declining to receive the German ambassador. The famous Falk or May Laws were passed in Prussia in 1873-4-5, and some of their provisions were extended to the empire. Several German prelates, re- 170 THE NEW GERMAN EMPIRE. fusing obedience, were expelled from Germany ; and the disorganization in ecclesiastical affairs became so serious that the Reichstag passed a law in 1874 making marriage a civil rite. The Pope issued an encyclical declaring the Falk laws invalid, and matters seemed for a time to be at a deadlock. Prussia and the Papacy. On the election of a new pope, Leo XIII. , in 1878, attempts were made to arrange a compromise between the em- pire and the papal see. Falk, the Prus- sian " Kultus "-minister, resigned in 1879, and certain modifications were made in the obnoxious laws in 1881 and 1883. Bismarck took a further step to- wards Canossa in 1885, when he pro- posed the pope as arbiter between Ger- many and Spain in the dispute as to the possession of the Caroline Islands ; and he practically owned himself beaten in the concession which he granted in revisions of the politico-ecclesiastical legislation in 1886 and 1887. Another semi-religious difiiculty which deman- ded government interference was the social persecution of the Jews, which reached a climax in 1880-81. In more strictly political affairs the rapid spread of socialism excited the alarm of the government. Two at- tempts on the life of the emperor, in May and June, 1878, were attributed more or less directly to the Social Demo- crat organization, and gave the signal for legislative measures, conferring very extensive powers upon the administra- tion to be used in suppressing the influ- ence of socialism. These socialist laws., though limited in duration, have in- variably been renewed (sometimes with added stringency) before their validity expired ; in 1889 several of the most important towns of the empire were in what is called "the minor state of siege" for police purposes, and a new per- manent socialist law was proposed by the government in October of that year. A plot, happily futile, to blow up the emperor and other German rulers at the inauguration of the National Monument in the Niederwald in 1883 was consid- ered by the government to justify its repressive measures. Prince Bismarck, however, was not content with repressive measures ; he endeavored by improving the condition of the working-classes to cut tlie ground from beneath the feet of the socialistic propagandists. Laws for the Working-Olasses. The acknowledgment in the empe- ror's message to the Reichstag, in 1881, that the working- classes have a right to be considered by the state, was followed by laws compelling employers to insr: - their workmen in case of sickness and of accident, and by the introduction, 1 888, of compulsory insurance for work- men against death and old age — meas- ures that have been by some cal^^d "state-socialism." The energetic commercial policy of government also, which since 1879 has been strongly protectionist, had its springs in similar considerations; and the colonial policy, which began in 1884 with the acquisition of Angra Pe- quena, may be considered to be stimu- lated partly by the desire to gratify the national self-respect, and partly to pro- vide new outlets under the German flag for the surplus population, and new markets for the home manufactures. None of the German colonies as yet. however, either in Africa or the Pacjfic THE NEW GERMAN EMPIRE. 171 Ocean, have proved of any great com- mercial value. The assembling of the Congo Congress at Berlin, in 1885, fitly marked Germany's admission to the list of colonial powers. On the mainten- ance and improvement of the army and navy the German government has be- stowed the most unremitting care, urged especially by the attitude of the "Re- vanche" party in France, though hith- erto the imperial policy has been en- tirely pacific. The National Army. Considerable parliamentary friction has been caused more than once by tne unwillingness of the Reichstag to vote military supplies to the amount and in the manner demanded. The national parliament seeks to exercise a constitu- tional control over the army. A com- promise was effected in 1874, in virtue of which the military strength was fixed and the supplies granted for periods of seven years at a time. In 1886 the gov- ernment proposed to terminate the cur- rent Septennate in 1887 instead of 1888, and to immediately add largely to the peace strength of the army. On the rejection of the bill the Reich- stag was dissolved January, 1887, by the emperor, and an appeal made to the country. The Iron Chancellor, Bis- marck, still possessed the confidence and the gratitude of the people, and the new elections in February, 1887, re- sulted in a crushing defeat for the op- ponents of the government, notably the Freisinnige and the Social Democrats. One of the most remarkable features of thi? election was a letter written by the Pope in favor of the army bill, for which he subsequently received a quid pro quo in a further modification of the May laws. The Military Septennate Bill was immediately passed, and was followed in 1888 by a Military Organization Bill which made several changes in the con- ditions of service in the landwehr. The subsequent budgets showed au his name was associated with German statesmanship, and to him, more than to all the other statesmen combined, was due the unity of the German Em- pire. He was the leading spirit in all the latest events affecting the nation, and was one of the gieat commanding figures in European diplomacy, A man of giant intellect, wide and varied at- tainments and indomitable will, he was possessed of all the elements for suc- cessful leadership, and the impress of his strong hand remains upon the Ger- man Empire. Difficulties having arisen in 1899 with England and the United States respecting the Samoan Islands in the South Pacific, commissioners were ap- pointed by the three powers to investi- gate the rights of each, and present a report for the purpose of obtaining a basis for a permanent settlement of the claims of the respective powers. It was understood that a proposition to parti- tion the islands was the one most likely to be adopted. CHAPTER XII. Great Events in the History of Russia. ^CONSIDERING the repeated at- f V^ tempts on the lives of Russian ^^9 ^ emperors in the latter part of the nineteenth century, it is worthy of note that its beginning was marked by a royal assassination. The Emperor Paul was nnirdered March 24, 1 80 1, and was succeeded by his eldest son, Alexander I. One of the first acts of the new emperor was to make peace with England and France. He, how- ever, soon changed his policy, and in 1S05 joined the third coalition against France, to which Austria and England were parties. Events which belong to general European history, and are well known, need only to be described briefly here. On December 2nd of that year took placethe battle of Austerlitz, in which the Russians lost more than 20,000 men and many guns and flags. They accused their Austrian allies of treachery. The war was soon ended by the treaty of Pressburg. Then occurred the fourth coalition against France. In 1807 Napoleon en- gaged the Russian general Benningsen at Eylau. The battle was protracted and sanguinary, but not decisive. Both parties abandoned the field and retired into winter quarters. Next followed the memorable peace of Tilsit. By this treaty the Prussian king, Fred- '^rick William III., lost half his domin- Nearly all his Polish possessions ions. were to go to the King of Saxony under the name of the Grand Duchy of War- saw. By a secret treaty, it seemed as if Alexander and Napoleon almost aspired to divide the world, or at least Europe, between them. The terms, howevei; were received by a large party in Rus sia with disgust. The next important event in the reign of Alexander was the conquest of Finland. By a treaty in September, 1809, Sweden surrendered Finland, v/ith the whole of East Both- nia, and a part of West Bothnia, lying eastward of the river Tornea. The Fins were allowed a kind of autonomy which they have preserved to this day. The annexation of Georgia to Russia was consolidated at the beginning ot this reign, having been long in prepar- ation. It led to a war with Persia, which resulted in the incorporation of the Province of Shirvan witl) the Rus- sian empire in 1806. The Coming Struggle. In 1809 commenced the fifth coalition against Napoleon. Alexander^ who was obliged by treaty to furnish assistance to the French emperor, did all that he could to prevent the war. A quarrel with Turkey led to its invasion by a Russian army. This war was termi- nated in 1 8 12. Russia gave up Molda- via and Wallachia, which she had occu- pied, but kept Bessarabia, with the fortress of Khotin and Bender. Gradually an estrangement took place between Alexander and Napoleon, not only on account of the creation of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, but because Russia was suffering greatly from the Continental blockade, to which Alex- ander had been forced to s'ive his adhe- 17.3 174 GREAT EVENTS IN RUSSIA. sion. This led to the great invasion of Russia by Napoleon in 1 8 12. On May 9, 1812, Napoleon left Paris for Dresden, and the Russian and French the Niemen and advanced by forced marches to Smolensk. Here he db feated the Russians, and again at the terrible battle of Borodino, and then THE RUSSIAN Ambassadors received their passports. The grand army comprised 678,000 men, 356,000 of them being French; and. to oppose them, the Russians as- sembled 372,000 men. Napoleon crossed ""U^nr.R FULL SAIL, entered IMoscow, which had been aban doned by most of the inhabitants ; soor. afterwards a fire broke out (probably caused by the order of Rostopchin, the governor), which raged six days and GRHAT EVENTS IN RUSSIA. ivn which destrojed the greater part of the city. Notwithstanding this disaster, Napo- leon lingered five weeks among the ruins, endeavoring to negotiate a peace, which he seemed to think Alexander would be sure to grant ; but he had mistaken the spirit of the Emperor and his people. On the i8th of October Napoleon reluctantly commenced his backward march. The weather was unusually severe, and the country all round had been devastated by the French on their march. With their ranks continually thinned by cold, hunger, and the skirmishes of the Cos- sacks who hung upon their rear, the French reached the Beresina, which they crossed near Studianka on the 26th-29th of November with great loss. The struggle on the banks of this river forms one of the most terrible pictures in history. At Smorgoni, be- tween Vilna and Minsk, Napoleon left the army and hurried to Paris. Finally the wreck of the grand armee under Ney crossed the Niemen. Not more than 80,000 of the whole army are said o have returned. A Powerful Alliance. Frederick William III. of Prussia now issued a manifesto, and concluded an alliance with Russia for the re- establishment of the Prussian mon- archy. In 18 1 3 took place the battle of Dresden, and the so-called Battle of the Nations at Leipsic on October t6 and the two following days. In 18 14 the Russians invaded France with the allies, and lost many men in the as- sault upon Paris. After the battle of Waterloo, and the conveyance of Napo- leon to the island of St. Helena, it fell to the Russian forces to occupy Chain pagne and Lorraine. In the same year Poland was rt- established in a mutilated form, with a constitution which Alexander, who was crowned king, swore to observe. In 1825 the emperor died suddenly at Taganrog at the mouth of the Don, while visiting the southern provinces of his empire. He had added to the Russian dominions Finland, Poland, Bessarabia, and that part of the Cau- casus which includes Daghestan, Shir- van, Mingrelia, and Imeretia. Much was done in this reign to improve the condition of the serfs. The Raskolniks were better treated ; many efforts were made to improve public education, and the universities of Kazan, Kharkoff, and St. Petersburg were founded. Charged with Treason. One of the chief agents of these re- forms was the minister Speranski, who for some time enjoyed the favor of the emperor, but he attacked so many in- terests by his measures that a coalition was formed against him. He was de- nounced as a traitor, and his enemies succeeded in getting him removed and sent as governor to Nijni-Novgorod. In 1 8 19, when the storm raised against him had somewhat abated, he was ap- pointed to the important post of gov- ernor of Siberia. In 1821 he returned to St. Petersburg, but he never regained his former power. To the mild influence of Speranski ^succeeded that of ShishkojEf, Novosilt- zeflf, and Arakcheeflf The last of these men made himself universally detested in Russia. He rose to great influence in the time of Paul, and nianaged to continue in favor under his son. Be- 176 GREAT EVENTS IN RUSSIA. sides many other pernicious measures, it was to him that Russia owed the military colonies which were so un- popular and led to serious riots. The censorship of the press became nnich stricter, and many professors of liberal tendencies were dismissed from their chairs in the universities. The country was now filled with secret societies, and the emperer be- came gloomy and suspicious. In this condition of mind he died, a man thoroughly disenchanted and weary of life. He has been judged harshly by some authors ; readers will remember that Napoleon said of him that he was false as a Byzantine Greek. To us he appears as a well-intentioned man, ut- terly unable to cope with the discord- ant elements around him. He had discovered that his life was a failure. A New Conspiracy. The heir to the throne according to the principles of succession recognized in Russia was Constantine, the second son of the emperor Paul, since Alexan- der left no children. But he had of his own free will secretly renounced his claim in 1822, having espoused a Roman Catholic, the Polish princess Julia Grudzinska. In consequence of this change in the sovereign's authority, the conspiracy of the Dekabists broke out at the end of the year, their object being to take advantage of the con- fusion caused by the alteration of the succession to get constitutional govern- ment in Russia. Their efforts failed, but the rebellion was not put down without great bloodshed. Five of the conspirators were exe- cuted, and a great many sent to Siberia. Some of ^-iie men implicated were among the most remarkable of theit time in Russia, but the whole country had been long I'.oneycombed with secret societies, and many of the Russian officers had learned liberal ideas while engaged in the campaign against Napo- leon. So ignorant, however, were the common people of the most ordinary political terms that when told to shout for Constantine and the constitution they naively asked if the latter was Constantine' s wife. Victorious Over Persia. The new emperor, Nicholas, the next brother in succession, showed through- out his reign reactionary tendencies ; all liberalism was sternly repressed. In 1830 appeared the "Complete Collec- tion of the Laws of the Russian Em- pire," which Nicholas had caused to be codified. He partly restored the right of primogeniture which had been taken away by the empress Anna as contrary to Russian usages, allowing a father to make his eldest son his sole heir. In spite of the increased severity of the censorship of the press, literature made great progress in his reign. From 1826 to 1828 Nicholas was engaged in a war with Persia, in which the Russians were completely victorious, having beaten the enemy at Elizabetpol, and again under Paskewitch at Javan Bulak. The war was terminated by the peace of Turkmantchai, February 22, 1828, by which Persia ceded to Russia the provinces of Erivan and Nakhitchevan. and paid twenty millions of roubles aL> an indemnity. The next foreign enemy was Turkey. Nicholas had sympathized with the Greeks in their struggle for independ- ence, in oppositiop to the policy oi GREAT EVENTS IN RUSSIA. 177 Alexander ; he had also a part to play as protector of the Orthodox Christians, who ' formed a large number of the sultan's subjects. In consequence of the sanguinary war which the Turks were carrying on against the Greeks and the utter collapse of the latter, Kngland, France, and Russia signed tha treaty of London in 1827, by which they forced themselves upon the bel- ligerents as mediators. Turkish Fleet Destroyed. From this union resulted the battle of Navarino, October 20, 1827, in which the Turkish fleet was annihilated by that of the allies. Nicholas now pur- sued the war with Turkey on his own account ; in Asia Paskewitch defeated two Turkish armies, and conquered Erzeroum, and in Europe Diebitsch de- feated the grand vizier. The Russians crossed the Balkans and advanced to Adrianople, where a treaty was signed in 1829 very disadvantageous to Tur- key. In 1 83 1 broke out the Polish insur- rection. Paskewitch took Warsaw in 1 83 1. The cholera which was then raging had already carried off Diebitsch and the Grand Duke Constantine. Po- land was now entirely at the mercy of Nicholas. The constitution which had been granted by Alexander was an- i:i ailed; there were to be no more diets; and for th^; ancient palatinates, familiar to the historical student, were substi- tuted the governments of Warsaw, Radom, Lublin, Plock, and Modlin. The university of Vilna, rendered cele- brated by Mickiewicz and Lelewel, was suppressed. By another treaty with Turkey, that of Unkiar-Skelessi, 1833, Russia ac- 12 quired additional rights to meddle with the internal politics of that country. Soon after the revolution of 1848, the Emperor Nicholas, who became even more reactionary in consequence of the disturbed state of Europe, answered the appeal of the Emperor Francis Joseph, and sent an army under Paskewitch to suppress the Hungarian revolt. After the capitulation of Gorgei in 1849, the war was at an end, and the Magyars cruelly expiated their attempts to pro- cure constitutional government. In 1853 broke out the Crimean War. The emperor was anxious to distribute the possessions of the " sick man," but found enemies instead of allies in Eng- land and France. The chief events of this memorable struggle were the bat- tles of the Alma, Balaklava, Inker- mann, and Tchernaya, and the siege of Sebastopol; this had been skillfully fcr- tified by Todleben, who appears to have been the only man of genius who came to the front on either side during the war. In 1855 the Russians destroyed the southern side of the city, and re- treated to the northern. The War Ended. In the same year, on March 14th, died the emperor Nicholas, after a short ill- ness. Finding all his plans frustrated he had grown weary of life, and rashly exposed himself to the severe tempera- ture of the northern spring. He was succeeded by his son Alexander II., 1 85 5- 1 88 1, at the age of thirty-seven. One of the first objects of the new czai was to put an end to the war, and the treaty of Paris was signed in 1856, by which Russia consented to keep no vessels of war in the Black Sea, and to give up her protectorate of the Eastern I?8 GK£.Ai JiViiiNi^ iXN isUoalA. Christians; the former, it must be added, she has afterward recovered. A portion of Russian Bessarabia was also cut off and added to the Danubian princii)alities, which were shortly to be united under the name of Roumania. This was afterwards given back to Russia by the treaty of Berlin. Sebas- out by his son. The landlords, on re- ceiving an indemnity, now released tlic serfs from their seigniorial rights, and the village commune became the actual property of the serf. This great revo- lution was not, however, carried out without great difficulty. The Polish insurrection of 1 863 was SEBASTOPOL DURING topol also has been rebuilt, so that it is difficult to see what the practical re- sults of the Crimean War were, in spite of the vast bloodshed and expenditure of treasure which attended it. The next important measure was the emancipation of the serfs in 1861. This great reform had long been meditated by Nicholas, but he was unable to ac- » complish it, and left it to be earned I THE BOMBARDMENT. a great misfortune to that part of Poland which had been incorporated with Rus- sia. On the other hand Finland had seen her privileges confirmed. Among important foreign events of this reign must be mentioned the cap- ture of Schamyl in 1859 by Prince Bariatinski, and the pacification of the Caucasus ; many of the Circassians, un- able to endure the peaceful life of cul- GREAT EVENTS IN RUSSIA. 179 tivators ui tlic soil under the new regime, migrated to Turkey, where they hcwc formed one of the most turbulent elements of the population. Turkestan also has been gradually sub- jugated. In 1865 the city of Tashkend was taken, and in 1867 Alexander II. created the government of Turkestan. In 1858 General Muravieif signed a treaty with the Chinese, by which Russia acquired all the left bank of the river Amur. A new port has been created in Eastern Asia (Vladivostok), which promises to be a great centre of trade. A Terrible Siege. In 1 877 Russia came to the assistance of the Slavonic Christians against the Turks. After the terrible siege of Plevna, nothing stood between them and the gates of Constantinople. In 1878 the treaty of San Stefano was signed, by which Roumania became independent, Servia was enlarged, and a free Bulgaria, but under Turkish suzerainty, was created. But these arrangements were subsequently modi- fied by the treaty of Berlin. Russia got back the portion of Bessarabia which she had lost, and advanced her Caucasian frontier. The new province of Bulgaria was cut into two, the southern portion being entitled Eastern Roumelia, with a Christian governor, to be appointed by the Porte, and self-government. Austria "acquired a protectorate over Bosnia and Herzegovina. The latter part of the reign of Alexander II. was a period of great internal commotion, on account of the spread of Nihilism, and the at- tempts upon the emperor's life, which unfortunately were at last successf'il. In the cities in which his despotic father had walked about fearless, with- out a single attendant, the mild and amiable Alexander was in daily peril of his li/e. On April 16, 1866, Karakozofif shot at the emperor in St. Petersburg ; in the following year another attempt was made by a Pole, Berezowski, while Alexander was at Paris on a visit to Napoleon III. ; on April 14, 1879, Solo- vioff shot at him. The same year saw the attempt to blow up the Winter Palace and to wreck the train by which the czar was traveling from Moscow tc St. Petersburg. A similar conspiracy in 1 88 1, March 13, was successful. Five of the conspirators, including a womai., Sophia Perovskaia, were publicly exe- cuted. Plots and Murders Thus terminated the reign of Alex- der II., which had lasted nearly twenty- six years. He died leaving Russia exhausted by foreign wars and honey- combed by plots. His wife and eldest son Nicholas had died before him, th latter at Nice. He was succeeded b his second son Alexander, born in 1845, whose reign has been characterized by conspiracies and constant deportations of suspected persons. It was long be- fore he ventured to be crowned in his ancient capital of Moscow, in 1883, and the chief event since then has been the disturbed relations with England, which for a time threatened war. An incident of peaceful significance was the visit of the emperor of Ger- many to the czar at Peterhof, July 19- 23, 1888. On the 27th of the same month the ninth centenary of the in- troduction of Christianity was cele 180 GREAT EVENTS IN RUSSIA. brated at Kiefif. The government being embarrassed on account of the low state of its treasury, signed an agreement for a loan of $100,000,000 in November of this year ; the loan was immediately taken, chiefly by French capitalists. Shortly afterward a loan of 700,000,000 francs was concluded with the Roths- childs and other bankers. The autumn of 1891 was a period of great distress throughout a considerable part of Russia on account of the failure of the harvests. In some localities the entire population were reduced to the verge of starvation, and many persons actually perished from hunger. Meas- ures of relief were organized by the government, and large importations of grain from the United States mitigated in some degree the severity of the calamity. Very unfavorable comment by other nations was made upon the action of the Russian government, resulting in oppressive measures against the Jews. The effect of this proscription was severely felt, and was the cause of great hardship and suffering. Those of the Jewish population who were able to emigrate sought refuge elsewhere. The year 1899 was characterized by an important conference in Holland of commissioners appointed by the great powers of Europe and by the United States, for the purpose of acting upon a proposition by the Czar of Russia for disarming the nations and ending wai. Great interest attended the Emperor's efforts to secure perpetual peace, and it was generally conceded that an import- ant step had been taken in that direction. The deliberations of the conference were long and earnest, and one of the results was the formulation of articles of arbitration which pointed out the methods of procedure between the na- tions in the settlement of disputes. It was considered a sarcastic commentary upon this well-meant attempt to abolish war that the struggle between the Eng- lish and the South African Republic? should have followed so quickly. It wa;^ evident that the time was not yet ripi for fully inaugurating the principle Oi arbitration. A moral result, however, was gained by the great nations assembling in con- vention to discuss the question of dis- armament and to promote a general peace. This is the highest point gained in the efforts ox the world's philanthro- pists, statesmen and rulers, to disband their armies and silence the thunder-roar of war. So much at least was gained, and perhaps more, that will be manifest in the near future. o < z UJ UJ a UJ I I- ^2 Li. O u« OUEEN VICTORIA LISTENING TO A DISPATCH FROM THE SEAT OF WAR IN SOUTH AFRICA CHAPTER XIII. Nations of Northern Europe — Denmark, Sweden and Norway. N account of the mental de- rangement of his father, Prince Frederick VI. was declared re- gent of Denmark in 1784, and at the beginning of the century was the acting ruler, the sovereign in every thing except the name. He soon proved his capacity to govern by pass- ing several judicious enactments. The peasants living on the crown lands were gradually emancipated — an example followed by a number of the nobility on their respective estates. In the abolition of the African slave trade Denmark had the honor of taking the lead among the governments of Europe. The crown prince, guided by the counsels of Count Bernstorff, long re- mained neutral in the political convul- sion engendered by the French Revolu- tion. He continued to adhere stead- fastly to this plan until in 1 801 the Emperor Paul of Russia having, as in the case of the Armed Neutrality, formed a compact of the northern powers hostile to England, a British fleet was sent into the Baltic under the orders of Sir Hyde Parker, with Ivord Nelson as his second in command. It was this fleet which taught the Danes that their capital was not im- pregnable, and that the long line of men-of-war moored in front of the har- bor was an insufficient defence against such enterprising opponents. The at- tack took place on the 2d of April, 1801 ; and the resistance of the Danes was spirited, but fruitless. The loss of the English in killed and wounded exceeded icxx) men, but that of their opponents was much greater, and most of their shipping was destroyed. Happily little injury was done to the capital. A cessa- tion of hostilities took place forthwith, and was followed by a treaty of peace. The death of Paul, which occurred soon afterwards, dissolved the compact between the northern courts. But no treaty of peace could be re- garded as permanent during the ascend- ancy of Napoleon. After defeating first Austria and then Prussia, that extra- ordinary man found means to obtain the confidence of the Emperor Alexan der of Russia, and in the autumn of I Be/ threatened to make Denmark take part in the war against England. Al- though the Danish Government dis- covered no intention to violate its neutrality, the English Ministers, eager to please the public by acting on a sys- tem of vigor, despatched to the Bakic both a fleet and an army, in order to compel the surrender of the Danish navy, upon condition of its being re- L ored in the event of peace. The Fleet Surrenders. To such a demand the crown prince gave an immediate negative, declaring that he was both able and willifig to maintain his neutrality, and that his fleet could not be given up on any such condition. On this the English army landed near Copenhagen, laid siege to that city, and soon obliged the govern- ment to purchase its safef / by surren- dering the whole of its na\al force. This act, the most questionable ii; point of justice of any committed by 181 182 DENMARK, SWEDEN AND NORWAY. the British Government during the war, can hardly be defended on the score of policy. The resentment felt on the occasion by the Emperor of Russia was so great as to deprive Eng- land during four arduous years of the benefit of his alliance ; and the seizure of the Danish fleet so exasperated the crown prince and the nation at large, that they forthwith declared war against England, throwing themselves com- pletely into the arms of France. The hostilities between England and Denmark were carried on by sea, partly at the entrance of the Baltic, and partly on the coast of Norway. These con- sisted of a series of actions between single vessels or small detachments, in which the Danes fought always with spirit, and not infrequently with suc- cess. In regard to trade, both nations suffered severely — the British merchant- nen in th e Baltic being much annoyed by Danish cruisers, whilst the foreign trade of Denmark was in a manner suspended, through the naval superior- ity of England. Norway Ceded to Sweden. The situation of the two countries jontinued on the same footing during ive years, when at last the overthrow of Bonaparte in Russia opened a hope of deliverance to those who were in- voluntarily his allies. The Danish Government would now gladly have made peace with England ; but the lat- ter, in order to secure the cordial co- operation of Russia and Sweden, had gone so far as to guarantee to these powers the cession of Norway on the part of Denmark. The Danes, ill prepared for so great a sacrifice, continued their connection with France during the eventful year 1813 ; but at the close of that campaign a superior force was directed by the allied sovereigns against Holstein, and the result was. first an armistice, and eventually a treaiy of peace in January. 1 8 14. The terms of the peace were, that Denmark should cede Norway tc Sweden, and that Sweden, in return should give up Pomerania to Denmark. But Pomerania, being too distant to form a suitable appendage to the Danish territory, was exchanged for a sum of money and a small district in Lauen- burg adjoining Holstein. On the part of England, the conquests made from Denmark in the East and West Indies were restored — all, in short, that had been occupied by British troops, ex- cepting Heligoland. The Monarchy in Danger. After the Congress of Vienna, by which the extent of the Danish mon- archy was considerably reduced, the court of Copenhagen was from time to time disquieted by a spirit of discontent manifesting itself in the duchies, and especially in that of Holstein, the out- break of which in 1848 threatened the monarchy with complete dissolution. A short recapitulation of the relation of the different parts of the kingdom to each other will furnish a key to the better comprehension of these internal troubles. When Christian I. of the house of Oldenburg ascended the throne of Den- mark in 1448, he was at the same time elected Duke of Schleswig and Hol- stein, while his younger brother re- ceived Oldenburg and Delmenh(5rst. In 1544 the older branch was again divided into two lines, that of the royal 183 184 DENMARK, SWEDEN AND NORWAY. house of Denmark, and that of the dukes of Holstein-Gottorp. Several collateral branches arose afterwards, of which those that survived were — the Augustenburg and Glucksburg branches belong to the royal line, and the ducal Holstein-Gottorp branch, the head of which was Peter III. of Russia. The Danish Possessions. In 1762 Peter threatened Denmark with a war, the avowed object of which was the recovery of Schleswig, which had been expressly guaranteed to the Danish Crown by England and France at the Peace of Stockholm, 1720. His sudden dethronement, however, pre- vented him from putting this design into execution. The Empress Cath- arine agreed to an accommodation, which was signed at Copenhagen in 1764, and subsequently confirmed by the Emperor Paul, 1773, by which the ducal part of Schleswig was ceded to the Crown of Denmark. The czar abandoned also his part of Holstein in exchange for Oldenburg and Delmon- horst, which he transferred to the younger branch of the Gottorp family. According to the scheme of Germanic organization adopted by the Congress of Vienna, the king of Denmark was declared member of the Germanic body on account of Holstein and Lauenburg, invested with three votes in the Gen- eral Assembly, and had a place, the tenth in rank, in the ordinary diet. After the restoration of peace in 1815, the States of the Duchy of Hol- stein, never so cordially blended with Denmark as those of Schleswig, began to show their discontent at the con- tinued non-convocation of their own assemblies despite the assurances of Frederick VI. The preparation of a new constitution for the whole king- dom was the main pretext by which the court evaded the claims of the petition- ers, who met, however, with no better success from the German diet before which they brought their complaints in 1822. After the stirring year of 1830, the movement in the duchies, soon to de- generate into a mutual animosity be- tween the Danish and German popula- tion, became more general. The scheme of the court to meet their demands by the establishment of separate delibera- tive assemblies for each of the provinces failed to satisfy the Holsteiners, who contmually urged the revival of their long-neglected local laws and privileges. Nor were matters changed at the acces- sion in 1838 of Christian VIII., a prince noted for his popular sympathies and liberal principles. Wide-Spread Rebellion. The feeling of national animosity was greatly increased by the issue of certain orders for Schleswig, which tended to encourage the culture of the Danish language to the prejudice of the Ger- man. The elements of a revolution being thus in readiness waited only for some impulse to break forth into ac- tion. Christian died in the very begin- ning of 1848, before the outbreak of the French Revolution in February, and left his throne to his son Frederick VII., who had scarcely received the royal unction when half of his subjects rose in rebellion against him. In March, 1848, Prince Frederick o^ Augustenburg, having gained over the garrison of Rendsburg, put himself ai the head of a provincial government DENMARK, SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 186 proclaimed at Kiel. A Danish army, marching into Schleswig, easily re- duced the duchy as far as the banks of the Eider; but, in the meantime, the new national assembly of Germany resolved upon the incorporation of Schleswig; and the king of Prussia followed up their resolution by sending an army into the duchies under the command of General Wrangel. The Prussian general, after driving the Danes from Schleswig, marched into Jutland ; but on the 26th of Au- gust an armistice was signed at Mal- moe, and an agreement come to by which the government of the duchies was entrusted to a commission of five members — two nominated by Prussia, two by Denmark, and the fifth by the common consent of the four, Denmark being also promised an indemnification for the requisitions made in Jr^land. War Goes On. After the expiration of the armistice, ;he war was renewed with the aid of Prussian troops and other troops of the confederacy, from March to July, 1849, when Prussia signed a second armistice for six months. The duchies now con- tinued to increase their own troops, be- ing determined to carry on the war at their own charge without the aid of Prussia, whose policy they stigmatized as inconsistent and treacherous. The chief command of the Schleswig-Hol- stein army was intrusted to General Willisen, a scientific and able soldier; but henceforth the Danes had little to fear, especially as the cry of German unity brought but an insignificant num- ber of volunteers to the camp of the Holsteiners. The last victory of the Danes, under Generals Krogh and Schlepegrell, was at the battle of Idsted, July 23rd. Near this small village, protected by lakes and bogs, Willisen lay encamped with his centre, his right wing at Wed- elspung, extending along the I,ake Langso, his left spreading along the Arnholtz lake. The Danes approach ing on the high road from Flensburg to Schleswig, attacked the enemy on all sides; and, after having been repeatedly repulsed, they succeeded in driving the Schleswig-Holsteiners from all their positions. The forces engaged on each side were about 30,000; the number of killed and wounded on both sides was upwards of 7,000. Peace with Prussia. After the victory of Idsted, the Danes could hardly expect to meet with any serious resistance, and the confidence o*^ the court of Copenhagen was further increased by the peace which was con- cluded with Prussia, July, 1850, by which the latter abandoned the duchies to their own fate, and soon afterwards aided in their subjection. The sole question of importance which now awaited its solution was the order of succession, which the European powers thought to be of such importance as to delay its final settlement till 1852. The extinction of the male line in King Frederick was an event foreseen by the king, the people and the foreign powers. After protracted negotiations between the different courts, the repre- sentatives of England, France, Austria, Russia, Prussia and Sweden, a treaty relative to the succession was signed in London, May 8, 1852. According to this protocol, in case of default of male issue in the direct line of Frederick VI., 186 DENMARK, SWEDEN AND NORWAY. the crown wa? to pass to Prince Chris- tian of Ghicksburg, and his wife, the Princess Lonisa, of Hesse, who, through her mother, Princess Charlotte of Den- mark, was the niece of King Christian VIII. The treaty of London did not fulfill the expectations of the signitaries as to a settlement of the agitation in the duchies. The duke of Augustenburg had accepted the pardon held out to him on condition that his family resigned all claim to the sovereignty. of the duchies, but he continued to stir up foreign na- tions about his rights, and when he died his son Frederick maintained the family pretensions. At last, in the autumn of 1863, Frederick VII. died very suddenly at the castle of Glucksburg, in Schles- wig, the seat of his appointed successor. As soon as the ministry in Copenhagen received news of his death. Prince Christian of Glucksburg was proclaimed king as Christian IX., and the young duke of Augustenburg appeared in Schleswig, assuming the title of Fred- erick VIII Demands Upon Denmark. The claims of the pretender were supported by Prussia, Austria and other German states, and before the year was out Generals Gablenz and Wrangel oc- cupied the duchies in command of Aus- trian and Prussian troops. The attitude of Germany was in the highest degree peremptor}', and Denmark was called upon to gi\e up Schleswig-Holstein to military occupation by Prussia and Aus- tria until the claims of the duke of Augustenburg were settled. In its dilemma the Danish Govern- ment applied to England and to France, and receiving from these powers what it rightly or wrongly considered as en- couragement, it declared war with Ger- many in the early part of 1864. The Danes sent their general, De Meza, with 40,000 men to defend the Dannewerk, the ancient line of defences stretc!iing right across the peninsula frorc the* North Sea to the Baltic. The move- ments of General De Meza were not however, successful ; the Dannewerk, popularly supposed to be impregnable was first outflanked and tiien stormec^., and the Danish army fell back on the heights of Dybbol, near Flensborg, which was strongly fortified, and took up a position behind it, across the Little Belt, in the island of Alsen. Heroic Courage. This defeat caused almost a panic in the country, and, finding that England and France had no intention of aiding them, the Danes Lit the danger of anni- hilation close upon them. The courage of the little nation, however, was heroic, ciud they made a splendid stand against their countless opponents. General Ger- lach was sent to replace the unlucky De Meza ; the heights of Dybbol were harder to take than the Germans had supposed, but they fell at last, and with them the strong position of Sonderburg, in the island of Alsen- The Germans pushed northwards un- til they overran every part of the main- land, as far as the extreme north of Jut- land. It seemed as though Denmark must cease to exist among the nations of Europe; but the Danes at last gave way, and were content to accept the terms of the Peace of Vienna, in Octo- ber, 1864, by which Christian IX. re- nounced all claim to Lauenbiirg, Hol- stein and Schleswig, and agreed to have DENMARK, SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 187 no voice in the final disposal of those provinces. For the next two years Europe waited to see Prussia restore North Sclileswig and Alsen, in which Danish is the popu- lar language, and which Austria had demanded should be restored to Den- mark in case the inhabitants should ex- press that as their wish by a plebiscite. When the war broke out between Aus- tria and Prussia in 1866, and resulted in the humiliation of Austria, the chances of restoration passed away, and the duchies have remained an integral part of Prussia. Notwithstanding her dismemberment, Denmark has pros- pered to an astonishing degree, and her material fortunes have been constantly in the ascendant. Denmark has been very fortunate in forming marriage alliances with the most powerful royal houses of Europe. On the loth of March, 1863, Princess Alexandra, of Denmark, was marred to the Prince of Wales at Windsor. Her sister, the Princess Dagmar, was mar- ried to Prince Alexander, of Russia, on November 9, 1866. In the great Franco-Prussian \^ar of 1870 Denmark remained neutral, and it may be said that of late yea.;; she has sought to maintain a peace policy with other nations. She has, however^ bee:, distracted by internal dissensions, hut not to such an extent as to threaten her constitution or lier unity. King Christian's seventieth birthday occurred on April 8, 1888, and the 15th of November of the same year was the twenty fifth anniversary of his accession to the throne. Both events were cele- brated with great enthusiasm through- out the country, and with renewed pledges of loyalty to the throne. SWEDEN IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. /STtTSTAVUS IV. was not luite V ^ I fourteen years old when his father was murdered, and dur- ing his minority the government was carried on by his uncle, the duke of Sodermanland. Gustavus began to ex- ercise royal authority in 1796. His reign was remarkable chiefly ^or the obstinacy with which he clung to his own ideas, no matter how far they might conflict with the obvious interests of his coun- try. He had a bitter detestation of Bonaparte, and in 1803 went to Carls- ruhe in the hope that he might induce the emperor and some of the German princes to act with him in support of the Bourbons. His enmity led to an open rupture with France, and even after the peace of Tilsit, when Russia and Prussia of- fered to mediate between him and the French emperor, he refused to come to terms. The consequence was that he lost Stralsund and the island of Riigen. He displayed so much friendship for England that Russia and Denmark, act- ing under the influence of France, de- clared war against him; and the whole of Finland was soon held by Russian troops. Gustavus attacked Norway, but hi^ army was driven back by the Danes and Norwegians. He still declined to make peace, and he even alienated England when she attempted to influence him by moderate counsels. The Swedish peo- ple were so enraged by the consequences of his policy that in 1809 he was de- 188 DENMARK, SWEDEN AND NORWAY. throned, and the claims of his descend- ants to the crown were also repudiated. He was succeeded by the duke of Soder- manland, who reigned as Charles XIII. Charles XIII., 1 809-181 8, concluded peace with Russia, Denmark and France, ceding to Russia by the treaty of Fred- erikshamm, 1809, the whole of Finland. The loss of this territory, which had been so long associated with the Swed- ish monarchy, was bitterly deplored by the Swedes, but it was universally ad- mitted that under the circumstances the sacrifice was unavoidable. Charles as- sented to important changes in the con- stitution^ which were intended to bring to an end the struggle between the crown and the aristocracy and to pro- vide some security for the maintenance of popular rights. The king was still to be at the head of the executive, but it was arranged that legislative functions and control over taxation should belong to the diet, which was to consist of four orders — nobles, clergymen, burghers, and peasants. Sweden Surprises Europe. As Charles XIII. was childless, the diet elected as his successor Prince Christian Augustus of Holstein-Sonderburg-Au- gustenburg. In 18 10, soon after his ar- rival in Stockholm, this prince suddenly died ; and Sweden astonished Europe by asking Marshal Bernadotte to become heir to the throne. Bernadotte, who took the name of Charles John, was a ^ man of great vigor and resource, and soon made himself the real ruler of v'^weden. Napoleon treated Sweden as almost a conquered country, and com- pelled her to declare war with England. Bernadotte, associating himself heartily with his adopted land, resolved to secure its independence, and entered into an alliance with Russia. In 1813 he started with an army of 20,000 Swedes to co-operate with the powers which were striving finally to crush the French emperor. The pro- ceedings of the Swedish crown prince were watched with some suspicion bv the allies, as he was evidently unwilling to strike a decisive blow at France; but after the battle of Leipsic he displayed much activity. He blockaded Hamburg, and by the peace of Kiel, concluded in January, 1 8 1 4, he forced Denmark to giv( up Norway. He then entered France, but soon returned and devoted his ener- gies to the conquest of Norway, which was very unwilling to be united with Sweden. Between the months of July and November, 18 14, the country was completely subdued, and Charles XIII. was proclaimed king. The Countries United. The union of Sweden and Norway^ which has ever since been maintained, was recognized by the Congress of Vi- enna ; and it was placed on a sound basis by the frank adoption of the princi- ple that, while the two countries should be subject to the same crown and act together in matters of common interest each should have complete control ove. its internal aflfairs. The new relation of their country to Norway gave much satisfaction to the Swedes, whom it con- soled in some measure for the loss of Finland. It also made it easy foi them to transfer to Prussia in 18 15 what re- mained of their Pomeranian territories. In 181 8 Bernadotte ascended the throne as Charles XIV., and he reigned until he died in 1844. Great material improvements were effected during his THE BALLOON USED IN MODERN WARFARE ^_^__ t)B:NMARK, SWEDEN AND NORWAY. im reign. He caused new roads and canals to be constructed; he encouraged the cultivation of districts which had for- merly been barren ; and he founded good industrial and naval schools. He was not, however, much liked by his sub- jects. He never mastered the Swedish ^.anguage, and he was so jealous of any interference with his authority that he ternly punished the expression of opin- iv^ns which he disliked. To the majority of educated Swedes the constitution seemed to be ill-adapted to the wants of the nation, and there was a general demand for a political system which should make the Government more directly responsible to the people. In 1840 a scheme of reform was submit- ted to the diet by a committee which Jiad been appointed for the purpose, but the negotiations and discussions to which it gave rise led to no definite result. King Oscar, Charles XIV. was succeeded by his son Oscar I., 1844- 18 59. Oscar had al- ways expressed sympathy with liberal opinions, and it was anticipated that the constitutional question would be settled during his reign without much diffi- . ilty. These expectations were disap- pointed. The diet met soon after his accession, and was asked to accept the scheme which had been drawn up in 1840. The measure received the cordial approval of the burghers and peasants, but was rejected by the nobles and the clergy. In 1846 a committee was ap- pointed to prepare a new set of proposals, and late in the following year the dis- cussion of its plans began. While the debates on the subject were proceeding some excitement was pro- duced by the revolutionary movement ol 1848, and a new ministry, pledged to the cause of reform, came into office. The scheme devised by this ministry was accepted by the committee to which it was referred, but the provisious of the existing constitution rendered it neces- sary that the final settlement should depend upon the vote of the next diet. When the diet met in 1850 it was found that the difficulties in the way were for the time insuperable. The proposals of the Government were approved by a majority of the burghers, but they were opposed by the nobles, the clergy and the peasantry. The solution of the prob- lem had, therefore, to be indefinitely postponed. Valuable Reforms. Although the constitution was not reformed, much was done in other ways during the reign of Oscar I. to promote the national welfare. The criminal law was brought into accordance with mod- ern ideas, and the law of inheritance was made the same for both sexes and for all classes of the community. In- creased freedom was secured for indus- try and trade ; the methods of adminis- tration were improved ; and the state took great pains to provide the country v>^ith an efficient railway system. The result of the wise legislation of this period was that a new spirit of enter- prise was displayed by the commercial classes, and that in material prosperity the people made sure and rapid progress. In 1848, when the difficulty abou<' Schleswig-Holstein led to war betweeii Denmark and Germany, the Swedes sympathized cordially with the Danes, of whom they had for a long time ceased to be in the slightest degree jealous. 190 DENMARK, SWKDEN ANJD NORWAY. Swedish tn jps were landed in Fiinen, and through the influence of the Swed- ish government an armistice was con- cluded at Malmo. The excitement in favor cf Denmark soon died out, and when the war was resumed in 1849 Sweden resolutely declined to take part in it. The outbreak of the Crimean War greatly alarmed the Swedes, who feared that they might in some way be dragged into the conflict. In 1855, having some reason to com- plain of Russian acts of aggression on his northern frontiers, the king of Sweden and Norway concluded a treaty with England and France, pledging himself not to cede territory to Russia, and re- ceiving from the Western powers a promise of help in the event of his be- inof attacked. The demands based on this treaty were readily granted by Russia in the peace of Paris in 1856, A Popular Sovereign. ;harles XV., 1 859-1 872, came to the throne after his father's death. Nearly two years before his accession he had been made regent in consequence of Oscar I.'s ill-health. Charles was a man of considerable intellectual ability and of decidedly ])opular sympathies and during his reign the Swedish people became enthu'^iastically loyal to his dy- nasty. In i860 two estates of the realm —the peasants and the burghers — pre- sented petitions, begging him to submit to the diet a scheme for the reform of the constitution. The main provisions of the plan of- fered in his name were that the diet should consist of two chambers, — the first chamber to be elected for a term of nine years by the provincial assemblies and by the municipal corporations of towns not represented in these assem- blies, the second chamber to be elected for a teim of three years by all natives of Sweden possessing a specified prop- erty qualification. The executive power was to belong to the king, who was to act under the advice of a council (.t state responsible to the national repre- sentatives. This plan, which was re- ceived with general satisfaction, wa.'-- finally adopted by the diet in 1866, ana is still in force. Norway Free aud Independent. Early in the reign of Charles XV. there were serious disputes between Sweden and Norway, and the union of the two countries could scarcely have been maintained but foi the tact and good sense of the king. Charles XV. died in 1 872, and was suc- ceeded by his brother Oscar II. Under him Sweden has maintained good re- lations with all foreign powers, and political disputes in the diet have never been serious enough to interrupt the material progress of the nation. The history of Norway since i8i4has been practically that of Sweden. In that year Charles XIII. of Sweden was proclaimed king by the national diet assembled at Christiania, and accepted the constitution which declared Norway to be a free, independent, indivisible and inalienable state, united to Sweden. In 1893 the eightieth anniversary of the union of Norway and Sweden was cele- brated ; King Oscar, at a banquet spoke strongly in support of the union, spec ially in foreign affairs. The fisheries have always been a source of profit to Norway, and an international exhibition was opened at Bergen in May, 1898, which was largely attended. CHAPTER XIV. Nations of Southern Europe— Italy, Greece, Turkey and Spain, N the 1st of January, 1806, Aus- tria lost her Italian possessions by the treaty of Pressburg. The kingdom ceased on the over- throw of Napoleon, 18 14, and the lyom- bardo- Venetian kingdom was estab- lished for Austria April 7, 1815. The legions of Austria were at the service of all the petty despots in the other jjarts of Italy, while a yet larger army of spies was at work in every corner of the unhappy country. The general misery provoked con- spiracy, and revolutionary societies sprang up everywhere. But the move- ment had as yet no directing head. There were risings in Southern Italy in 1820, but they were suppressed the fol- lowing year and the leaders executed, and numerous less important insurrec- tions there, in the period preceding 1846, were easily put down. Other abortive attempts were made in Piedmont, in Lonibardy, in Modena and the Romagna, the only result of which was to make the ruler's hand yet heavier on the people. Nor was there thorough unanimity or common action among Italian liberals. The extreme Republicans, represented by the paity of Young Italy, were headed by Mazzini, whose fiery eloquence and enthusiasm transformed the vague desires of his countrymen into a passionate hope ; but liis policy sanctioned methods from which more sober patriots shrank. From Geneva he led a band of refugees to the invasion of Savoy, in 1833, because the new king, Charles Albert, would not enter on a war with Aus- tria ; but this wild raid proved an utter failure. Already the wise minds in Italy looked to Sardinia for deliverance; but the dream of a confederacy, with perhaps the Pope as president, was not yet dis- pelled. Nay, it seemed about to bo realized when, in 1846, Pius IX. as- sumed the tiara, and initiated a series of liberal reforms. Constitutions were granted in 1847 by all the rulers save Austria and Ferdinand II. of Naples; and from the latter a constitution was wrung in the following year. Massacre in Milan. The year of revolutions, 1848, opened with a street massacre by the Austrians in Milan, on January 2nd. In February the French Republic was declared, and then in Italy the party of Mazzini was for a moment supreme. Sicily revolted from Ferdinand, and in March Charles Albert declared war on the Austrians, who had been driven out of Milan and Venice. He passed the Ticino, and de- feated Radetsky at Goito ; but on July 25th the Austrians won the decisive battle of Custozza, re-entered Milan, and placed the country under martial law. In Naples there had been a massacre in May, and on August 30th Messina was bombarded. Meanwhile the Pope's heart had failed him. His troops had gone to the help of the Sardinians, but before their surrender he had declared their advance to have been without his leave. The Republicans, who had re- garded his liberal measures with suspi- 19J 1 02 ITALY, GREEClv, TURKEY AND SPAIN. VIEW OF NAPLES WITH MOUNT cion and jealousy, now denounced him as a traitor to the cause of Italian freedom. On November 1 5th his wisest minister, Count Rossi, was assassinated, and Pius fled to Gaeta in disguise. In the hope of obtaining some advan- tage in the struggle, the Pope had en- deavored to establish diplomatic rela- ■^^ons with Great Britain. These were accepted and authorized by Parliament, and undoubtedly had some moral effect in strengthening the position of the Vatican. The revolution, however, went forward with unabated vigor, and there was a political upheaval that astonished VESUVIUS IN THE DISTANCE. the thrones of Europe. All the con servative elements that st^nd' for sta- bility, law and order were called to action. A republic was set up in Rome on February 9, 1849, under Mazzini and two other triumvirs. The Grand Duke Leopold had fled from Florence, but Tuscany refused to join herself to the republic ; yet when the sovereign she had invited back returned, his first act, supported by the presence of Austrian troops, was to suppress the constitution. In Piedmont the ultra-radicals, headed by Rattazzi, were now in power, and a ItAtY, GRKECS, TURKEY AND SPAIN. 193 fresli campaign against Austria was be- gun — this time lasting less than four days. On March 23, Radetsky defeated the Piedmontese at Novara. Charles Albert gave up his throne to his sou, Victor Emanuel II., and died, broken- hearted, at Oporto four months later. Efforts were now made to reduce Rome and Venice. In vain did Gari- baldi, who had been called to the de- fense of Rome, defeat the Neapolitans at Palestrina and Velletri. A French army, under General Oudinot, took the city, after a four weeks' siege, on July 2nd. Venice, under the heroic Daniel Manin, bravely kept her enemies at bay until August 22nd. The petty sover- eigns now came back — the Pope last, in April, 1850. Rome, occupied by a French garrison, was kept in a state of siege for seven years, and the city never quite recovered its freedom until 187c. Revolution a Failure. Italy's first general effort for freedom had ended in failure : 1 848 was a year of unfulfilled visions. But one important gain was affected : the dream of federa- tion was ended, and all men looked now to the House of Savoy, save the few idealists, like Mazzini, who afterwards stood sternly apart from the triumphs of compromise. Victor Emmanuel was faithful to the Italian cause, and persevered in the path of reform on which his family had en- tered. Sardinia was relieved, by the law which gave the government power to abolish monasteries, from the incu- bus of an army of idle and ignorant ecclesiastics ; a liberal cotistitution was in lorce, the press was free, education was spreading, and a measure of religious liberty was enjoyed. In 1853 the Sar- 13 dinian prime ministry passed into the hands of Cavour, the brain, as Gari^ baldi was the arm, of the coming strug- gle. Henceforth he inspired and guided the national movement, until his death in the moment of victory. Another War. The Sardinian troops, reorganized by La Marmora, were sent under that gen- eral to the Crimea, where they won for themselves honor, and for their country allies amongst the great powers. Cavour made terms with Louis Napoleon, and in 1859 war was declared once more against Austria. The French and Ital- ians won the battles of Magenta and Solferino in June, and then the French emperor, acting independently, agreed to a treaty which left the Austrians in possession of Venetia, from the Mincio eastward. The indignation of the Pied- montese, whose sovereign had, under Cavour's agreement with Louis Napo- leon, to give up Savoy and Nice in re- turn for this assistance, was intense ; but the states of Central Italy voted their union to the kingdom of Victor Em- manuel, and were annexed in March, i860; and a few days after Southern Italy revolted from Francis II., the son of Ferdinand, the detested Bomba. Garibaldi and his volunteers, their expedition secretly favored by Cavour, went to the support of the insurrection in May, and in September entered Na- ples. Cavour, with the consent of Louis Napoleon (who, however, maintained the Pope in Rome, because his own position in France was strengthened by his championing the head of the Cath- olic church), now sent an army into the papal states, which defeated the Pope's troops at Castelfidardo, joined Garibaldi, 194 ITALY, GREECE, TURKEY AND SPAIN. and helped him to defeat the Neapolitan generals on the Volturno. In October Victor Emmanuel entered the Abruzzi, and Garibaldi resigned his dictatorship and retired to his island- farm. In February, 1 86 1 , the first Italian parliament met at Turin, and Victor Em- manuel was proclaimed king of Italy. But Rome and Venice were not yet freed, and Cavour died in June of this year. In 1862 Garibaldi raised a body of volunteers to liberate Rome, and, having crossed to the mainland, was de- feated at Aspromonte ; the blame, how- ever, fell chiefly on Rattazzi, who was then minister, and who had sought to follow Cavour' s policy, and to reap the advantage of Garibaldi's expedition, but had neglected to first come to an under- standing with France. Garibaldi at the Front. The expressed sympathy of Europe brought about the September conven- tion of 1864, by which Louis Napoleon agreed gradually to withdraw the French troops on Italy's stipulation not to allow an attack on the Pope's territory. By the last article of the convention, the capital was removed a step nearer Rome — from Turin to Florence. In 1866 the Austro- Prussian war, in which Italy took but an inglorious part as the ally of Prussia, added to the king- dom the coveted territory of Venice. In the same year the French garrison was withdrawn from Rome, and Mazzini demanded that the city should be cap- tured. In 1 867 Garibaldi and his vol- unteers gaine a victory near Rome, and the French returned ; the volunteers surrendered in November, and the gen- eral was arrested. But after the fall of the empire, in 1870, the new foreign minister of France, Jules Favre, de- clared the September Convention at an end, and the king, who had only pre- vented the democrats from moving by arresting Mazzini, was at length free to act as he desired. Free Italy. On September 20th he entered Rome, and the emancipation of Italy was com- pleted. The Pope retained the Vatican, the church of Sta Maria Maggiore, the Lateran palace, the villa of Castel Gan- dolfo, with their precincts, and was voted an income of iJ" 150,000 out of the revenues of the state ; yet the spiritual sovereign bore but impatiently the loss of his temporal power, and frequent complaints and denunciations were di- rected from the Vatican against the palace on the Quirinal. Meanwhile Italy, at last free and united, has become one of the great continental powers, as has been shown in the preceding sections of this article. It will be the hope of all who have fol- lowed the story of her long degradation and gallant recovery of freedom that this rapid growth may not, like her earlier precocious development in arts and commerce, be bought at the after cost of premature decay. The later history of Italy has been uneventful. Brigandage, rife under the tyrannical rule of the Bourbons, and afterwards encouraged by their emis- saries, has been gradually suppressed, education and public works have stead- ily advanced, and in the south the people have become more reconciled — at least, less inveterately hostile — to the laws. In January, 1878, Victor Emmanue' died, and was succeeded by his eldest son, Humbert I.'(born 1844); and one 195 month later Pius IX. died also, and Leo XIII. became pope. The most important internal measure since then has been the ITALY, GREECE, TURKEY AND SPAIN. tions so far is not great ; but the govern- ment has been from time to time em- barrassed by the agitation conducted by WORLD RENOWNED CATHEDRAL OF MILAN wide extension of the franchise, and in 1883 the resumption of specie payment. The popular interest in political ques- the Irredentists, whose aim is to add tc the kingdom all those districts of Eu- rope where the Italian speech prevails. 196 ITALY, GREECE, TURKEY AND SPAIN, In 1883 the ministry denounced the scheme of the association, as aiming in- directly at the downfall of the monarchy and at the same time extolled the triple alliance (of Italy, Germany and Aus- tria), into which Italy, exasperated at the extension of French influence in Tunis, had entered. To this same jeal ousy of French encroachments on the southern Mediterranean shore may be attributed the erection into an Italian colony, in 1882, of a coaling station founded the year before at Assab, on the Red Sea. In 1885 Massowah was occu- pied, and in 1889 the Italian colonial territory was amalgamated under the name of Eritrea. In January, 1887, a disaster to the Italian troops brought on a desultory war with Abyssinia, which ended in an arrangement, in 1889, that placed the latter country under Italian protection. In 1888 Signor Depretis, who had headed eight ministries, was succeeded as premier by Signor CrisiDi. Since then the main interest of Italian affairs has centered in the finances, and in the struggle to meet, out of the resources of the country, the expenses of the heavy armament. On the nth of October, 1897, much excitement was caused in Rome by a popular demonstration against the scheme of taxation on incomes and personal property. The populace came into conflict with the troops, who at length suppressed the uprising. The fiftieth anniversary of the Italian consti- tution of 1848 was celebrated at Rome in March, 1 898, but during May follow- ing there were bread riots in various parts of the kingdom on account of the high prices of food, and quiet was re- stored only by the strong arm of the military power, by which the turbulent uprisings were suppressed. If? GREECE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. HEN the century began Greece was under the sway of Tur- key, but the French Revolu- tion had roused the minds of the Greek people into activity, and they were ashamed that a nation which had played such a grand part in the early civilization of mankind should be the slaves of an illiterate and bar- barous horde of aliens. The country was ripe for revolt, and a secret society was formed to make ready for a rising of the people. Accordingly m 1821 the war for in- dependence broke out. The insurrec- tioQ was begun by Prince Alexander Hypsilantes, an oflScial in the service of Russia, who had been elected head of the chief secret society. He crossed the Pruth, March 6, 1821, with a few followers, and was soon joined by sev- eral men of great bravery at the head of considerable troops. But the expe- dition was badly managed, and in June, Hypsilantes fled to Austria, having en- tirely failed in his object. And in all the efforts to overthrow the power of the Turks in the northern provinces the Greeks failed, though some men fought very bravely. In the Peloponnesus the insurrection broke out also in March in several places, and most prominent among the first movers was Germanos, archbishop ITALY, GREECE, TURKEY AND SPAIN. 197 of Patras. Everywhere the Greeks drove the Turks before them ; they were so successful that in January, 1822, the independence of Greece was proclaimed. But they soon began to quarrel among themselves. The aspirants for honors and rewards were numberless, and they could not agree. Accordingly a civil war raged in 1823 and 1824, inspired by Colocotronis, a chief who attained great influence, and in 1824 another civil war of short dura- tion, called the War of the Primates. During this period the Greek fleet was very active, and did good service. It was ably led by Miaonlis, a man of firm character and great skill. And he was well seconded by the intrepid Canaris, whose fire ships did immense damage to the Turkish fleet, and filled the Turkish sailors with indescribable terror. For the ravages of the Greek fleet the Turks wreaked fearful vengeance on the innocent inhabitants of the lovely island of Chios, April, 1822, butchering in cold blood multitudes of its peaceful inhabitants, and carrying off others to the slave market. The savage atroci- ties then perpetrated caused a thrill of horror throughout the civilized world. Successive Defeats. Two years after they perpetrated simi- lar outrages on the islands of Kasos and Psara, The sultan now invoked the aid of Mehemet Ali, pasha of Egypt, ^nd his stepson, Ibrahim, landed on the Peloponnesus with a band of well-dis- ciplined Arabs in 1824. Ibrahim carried everything before him, and the Greeks lost nearly every place that they had acquired. Some towns oSered a strong resistance, and especially famous is the siege of Mesolonghi, which lasted from 27th of April, 1825 to April 22d, 1826. Nothing could exceed the firmness and bravery displayed by Greek men and women during that siege; and their glorious deeds and sad fate attracted the attention of all Europe. The interest in the Greeks, which had been to some extent aroused by lyord Byron and other English sympa- thizers in 1823, now became intense, and volunteers appeared from France and Germany as well as from England and America. Lord Cochrane was ap- pointed admiral of the Greek fleet, and Sir Richard Church, generalissimo of the land forces, but they did not pre- vent the capture of Athens by the Turks, June 2d, 1827. Most of the European Governments had remained indifferent, or had actually discouraged the outbreak of the Greeks. Russia had disowned Hypsilantes. Good Fortune for Greece. The monarchs of Europe were afraid that the rising of the Greeks was only another eruption of democratic feeling fostered by the French Revolution, and thought that it ought to be suppressed. But the vast masses of the people were now interested, and demanded from their pfovernments a more liberal treat- ment of Greece. Canning inaugurated in 1823, and now carried out this new policy in England. An accident came to the aid of the Greeks. The fleets of England, France, and Russia were crui- sing about the coasts of the Pelopon- nesus, to prevent the Turkish fleet ravaging the Greek islands or main land. Winter coming on, the admirals thought it more prudent to anchor in the Bay of Navarino, where the Turk- 198 ITALY, GRBKCB, TURKEY AND SPAIN. ish fleet lay. The Turks regarded their approach as prompted by hostile feel- ings and commenced firing on them, whereupon a general engagement en- sued, in which the Turkish fleet was annihilated, October 20th, 1827. Short- ly afterward, January 1 8th, 1828, Capo- distrias, who had been in the service of Russia, was appointed president of Greece for seven years, the French cleared the Morea of hostile Turks, and Greece was practically independent. President Assassinated. But several years had to elapse ere affairs reached a settled condition. Ca- podistrias was Russian in his ideas of jovernment, and, ruling with a high hand, gave great ofience to the masses of the people; and his rule came to an untimely end by his assassination on Oc- tober 9th, 1 83 1. Anarchy followed, but at length Otho of Bavaria was made king, and the protecting powers signed a convention by which the present limits were definitely assigned to the new kingdom. Henceforth Greece has existed as a recognized independent kingdom. Throughout the whole of the war of independence in Greece, the people be- haved with great bravery and self-sacri- fice. They showed a steady adherence to the idea of liberty. They were some- times savage in their conduct to the Turks, and barbarities occurred which stain their history. Yet on the whole the historian has nmch to praise and little to blame in the great mass, espe- cially of the agricultural population. But no single man arose during the period capable of being in all respects a worthy leader. Nor can this be wondered at. All the men who took a prominent part in the movements had received theii train- ing in schools where constitutionalism was the last doctrine that was likely to be impressed on them. Several of them had been in the service of Russia, and had full faith only in arbitrary power. Many of them were accustomed to double dealing, ambitious and avari- cious. Some of them had been brought up at the court of Ali Pasha of Jannina, and had become familiar with savage acts of reckless despotism. Others had been and indeed remained during the continuance of the war, chiefs, having but little respect for human life, and habituated to scenes of cruelty and plunder. Some of them also came from the Mainotes, who owed their independ- ence to the habitual use of arms, and who were not troubled by many scru- ples. Free Only in Name. It could not be expected that such men v/ould act with great mercy or prudence in dealing with Turks who had butch- ered or enslaved their kinsmen and kinswomen for generations. Even amongst the foreigners who volunteered to aid the Greeks, few if any were found of supreme ability, and after the king- dom was established the Greeks were unfortunate in the strangers who came to direct them. Otho had been brought up in a despotic court, and knew no other method of ruling. He brought along with him Bavarians, to whom he entrusted the entire power, and the Greeks had the mortification of know- ing that, though their kingdom was independent, no Greek had a chance of being elevated to any ministerial office of importance. Accordingly a revolution broke out ITALY, GREECE, TURKEY AND SPAIN. 199 in 1843; the Bavarians were dismissed, and Otlio agreed to rule through re- sponsible ministers and a representa- tive assembly. But he failed to fulfill his promise. Discontent reached its height in 1862, when another revolu- tion broke out and Otho had to leave Greece. The great mass of the people longed for a constitutional monarchy, and gave a striking proof of this by electing Prince Alfred king of Greece. This choice was determined by univer- sal suffrage, and out of 241,202 Greek citizens who voted 230,016 recorded their votes in favor of the English prince. The vote meant simply that the Greek people were tired of uncon- stitutional princes, and hoped that they would end their troubles if they had a prince accustomed to see parliamentary government respected and enforced. Threefold Alliance. The three protecting powers, — Eng- land, France, and Russia, — had how- ever bound themselves to allow no one related tc their own ruling families to become king of Greece. When the Greek people received this news, they begged England to name a king, and after several refusals England found one in Prince William of Schleswig-Hol- stein, son of the king of Denmark. The Greek people accepted him, and in 1863 he became king with the name of George I. Britain added the Ionian islands to his kingdom. In 1875 the ministry gave great of- fence to the Greek people by its uncon- stitutional procedure, but the king per- sisted in standing by it. The people, however, persevered in the use of legi- timate means to oust the ministry ; the king at last prudently yielded; and thus a revolution was prevented. The effort of the Greeks to extend their boundaries is the last phase of their history, and is still in progress. In 1853 when the Crimean war broke out, the Greeks sided with the Russians, and in 1854 they made inroads into Thessaly and Epirus, but English and French troops landed at the Piraeus, and forcibly put an end to the Russian alliance and to Greek ideas of acquiring additional ter- ritory. In 1866 to 1869 the Cretans struggled bravely but unsuccessfully to throw off the Turkish yoke and become a part of the Greek kingdom. Desperate Battles. The most important events of recent date in Greek history are connected with the war between Greece and Tur- key of 1897, which was declared by Turkey on April 17th. It was claimed by Turkey that the Greeks were violat- ing agreements respecting the bounda- ries of territory, and also concerning liberties guaranteed to the inhabitants of Crete. Desperate battles occurred during April of 1897, in most of which the Turkish arms were victorious. In May the mediation of the European Powers was accepted and an armistice was pro- posed. Cretan autonomy was agreed to by Greece, but the Turkish conditions for ending the war were $50,000,000 in- demnity, the annexation of Thessaly, and several other oppressive demands.) Meanwhile a desperate battle at Domoko resulted in the slaughter of nearly 3,000 Turks, but the Greek army was finally forced to retreat, the result being an- other attempt to end the war. A collective note of the Powers was sent to Turkey proposing conditions of 200 ITALY, GREECE. TURKEY AND SPAIN. peace. Negotiations were carried on at Constantinople, and the Powers resisted the demands of the Porte as to the an- nexation of Thessaly and the war in- demnity. After much sparring on both sides, Turkey was compelled to submit to the principal demands of the Powers and the war was terminated. The treaty of peace was signed at Constantinople in December, 1897. The final payment of the war indemnity was made July 10, 1898, by the Powers interested. TURKEY IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. (b I HE Turkish power was at a very ^j low ebb at the opening of the nineteenth century, and many of the subject nations, both Christian and Mohammedan, sought to throw off the yoke of the sultan and establish their independence. In 1806 Servia revolted under the leadership of Czerni George. It was conquered in 18 13, but again revolted in 18 15, under Milosh Obrenowitz. Montenegro also rebelled, and until the Crimean war these pro- vinces enjoyed a state of quasi inde- pendence. Egypt was also strongly dis- affected. In 1809 3- war broke out with Russia, which resulted in a further loss of Turkish territory. It was closed by the treaty of Bucharest, by which the sultan ceded to Russia Bessarabia, Ismail and Kilia, one-third of Moldavia, and fortresses of Chotzim and Bender. In 1807 Selim III. died, and was suc- ceeded by Mahmoud II., under whom the Turkish power continued to decline. The population of the Turkish empire in Europe was about 14,000,000, of whom scarcely 2,000,000 were Turks. The remainder were Christians, consist- ing principally of the four distinct races inhabiting European Turkey, viz. : the Sclavonians, occupying Bulgaria, Servia, Bosnia, Herzegovina and Montenegro ; the Roumanians, occupying Moldavia and Wallachia; the Albanians, dwelling iu ancient Epirus, and the Greeks. The Greeks had never willingly ac- cepted the rule of Turkey, and some portions of them had never submitted to the porte, but had maintained a wild. brigandish existence in their moun-. tains. Though the Greeks were at- tached to Russia by the strong ties of a common religion, that power refused to do anything for their freedom, and Alexander I. met their appeal for aid against their Turkish oppressors with the cold command : " Let the Greek rebels obey their lawful sovereign." In spite of this discouragement the Greeks determined to throw off the Turkish yoke, and in March, 1821, the first blow was struck. The people of the peninsula and the islands rose in a general revolt. When the news of the revolution was received at Constancino- ple a general massacre of the Greek in- habitants of the capital ensued. The war went on through the year 1821, the patriot forces winning several important successes, among which was the capture of the Turkish capital of the Morea. In January, 1822, a national congress met at Epidaurus, proclaimed the independ- ence of Greece, and adopted a no vis- ional constitution. In the spring of the same year the Turks made a descent upon Scio, mas- sacred 40,000 of the inhabitants, and carried away thousands to the slave '^narkets of Smyrna and Constantinople. ITALY, GREECE. TURKEY AND SPAIN. 201 In 1823 the admiration and sympathy of all Europe was aroused by the heroic death of Marco Bozzaris, who, with a small band of Suliote patriots, attacked the Turkish camp and fell in the arms of victory. The Euiopean governments looked fore he could accomplish much for the cause he had adopted. Unable to conquer Greece, the sultan summoned Mehemet Ali, the Viceroy of Egypt, whc- enjoyed a state of actual independence, to complete the task. This vigorous leader spread terror and GREAT NAVAL BATTLE OF NAVARINO. coldly upon the gallant struggle, but the people remembered the glories of ancient Greece, and supplies of money, arm.s, and men were sent to the patriots. Foremost among those who devoted their fortunes and talents to the free- dom of Greece was Lord Byron. He died at Missolon^hi in April, 1824, be- desolation throughout Hellas. Misso- longhi was taken after a heioic defence, and Athens was captured in 1825. The Egyptian forces had orders to make a desolation of Greece, and to carry off the people into slavery. Alexander I. of Russia fortunately died at this juncture, and the Czai 202 ITALY, GREECE, TURKEY AND SPAIN. Nicholas, his successor, adopted a dif- ferent policy. Moved either by his sympathy with his co-religionists or by his anxiety to weaken Turkey, he re- solved to intervene in behalf of the Greeks, and was joined by France and England, who were anxious to impose a check upon the Egyptian viceroy. These powers sent a strong combined leet to the Mediterranean. On the 20th of October, 1827, this fleet, under the command of the English Admiral Cod- rington, accidentally encountered the Turkish and Egyptian fleet in the Bay of Navarino. A battle ensued, which resulted in the destruction of the Mo- hammedan fleet. Crete and Syria. This success revived the hopes of the Greeks, and the next year Russia de- clared war against Turkey ; and the sultan, in order to save his Danubian provinces, was obliged to sign the treaty of Adrianople, by which he acknowl- edged the independence of Greece. Mehemet Ali was given the sover- eignty of Crete by the sultan for his services in the Greek revolution. Not satisfied with this acquisition, he sent his son Ibrahim Pasha, an able com- mander, in 1 83 1, to conquer Syria. That country was overrun by the Egyptian forces, who also advanced to- wards Asia Minor. Their progress was at length stayed by the intervention of Russia, England, and France, whose forces defeated Ibrahim at Nisibis on the Euphrates. A few days after this battle Sultan Mahmoud died. France was anxious that Mehemet Ali should succeed him, but England and Rus- sia drove him out of Acre and Syria, and secured the Turkish throne for Abdul Medjid, the young son of Mah- moud. In 1840 the treaty of London was signed. Crete and Syria were restored to the Porte, and Mehemet Ali was limited to Egypt. For many years after this Sir Stratford Canning, afterwards Ivord Stratford de Redcliffe, the Eng- lish Ambassador at Constantinople, controlled the counsels of the Porte. By the treaty of London, Egypt be- came to a certain extent an indepen- dent State, though owning a nominal allegiance to the sultan The Crimean War. In 1 85 1 began the troubles which re- sulted in the Crimean War, which wc have related elsewhere. The treaty of Paris, in 1856, which brought this war to a close, admitted Turkey to the Eu- ropean system of states, and guaranteed the integrity of her dominions. Servia was given a native prince, and was placed under the protection of the great powers, though she retained a nominal allegiance to the sultan. Moldavia and Wallachia, a few years later, were erec- ted into a similarly independent state under the name of Rou mania. In 1 86 1 Abdul Medjid died, and was succeeded by Abdul Aziz. In 1868 a formidable insurrection broke out in the island of Crete or Candia. It aroused great sympathy among the European people, and came near producing a war between Greece and Turkey, but was quelled during the following year by the Turks. /* Mehemet Ali was succeeded as Vice- roy of Egypt by his son Ibrahim Pasha, under whose vigorous rule Egypt made great progress. He died in 1848, and Abbas Pasha became viceroy, and was ITALl?. GREECE, TURKEY AND SPAIN. 203 in his turn succeeded by Ismail Pasha, the reigning khedive. In 1867 the Sultan Abdul Aziz visited Paris and London and the principal cities of Europe." This was the first time a Turkish sovereign ever made a peaceful journey beyond the limits of his own empire. The result of the war between France and Germany, in 1870-71, affected Tur- key in a most important respect. The treaty of Paris, which closed the Cri- mean War, placed a restriction upon the aggressive power of Russia by neu- tralizing the Black Sea. The reverses of France in her contest with Germany so weakened her that she was unable to sustain England in upholding the treaty of Paris. Russia promptly took advan- tage of this to demand of the powers a modification of those articles of the treaty which prevented her from forti- fying her ports or maintaining an armed fleet in the Black Sea. A New Treaty. England warmly opposed the demand, but France was in no condition to do so, and Germany and the Austro-Hun- garian monarchy gave their moral sup- port to the Russian demand, and avowed their intention not to co-oj)erate with England in any armed resistance to it. The result was that a conference of the representatives of the powers was held in London, and on the 1 3th of February, 1 87 1, a treaty was signed by them abro- gating the articles of the treaty of Paris as to the navigation of the Black Sea and the right of Russia to fortify her ports. The protection afforded to Tur- key by the great powers was thus taken from her. In 1873 the sultan's authority over Egypt was further weakened by the concessions which made the khedive almost an independent sovereign, and which we have related in the history of Egypt. In the summer of 1875 an insurrec- tion broke out in Herzegovina. The misrule and oppression of the Turkish government had come to be insupport- able, and the inhabitants rose in rcbeL lion and repulsed the attacks of the Tur- kish troops. Servia, Bosnia, Montene- gro and Bulgaria, were profoundly ex^ cited by these events, and were open in their sympathy with their struggling Christian brethren in Herzegovina. Substantial aid was also rendered by the people of those countries, the gov- ernments of which for a time remained neutral. Turkey Bankrupt. In October, 1875, Turkey failed to meet the interest on her national debt, the principal of which amounted to over $900,000,000. A decree was issued by the porte promising speedy payment of half the interest and making provision for the payment of the other half The promise was not fulfilled, and in July, 1876, the porte was compelled to declare its insolvency by stating that all pay- ments on account of the national debt, must cease until the close of the war with its revolted provinces. As nearly every dollar of this debt was due to citizens of Western Europe, principally English subjects, the failure of the Turks to meet their obligations greatly weakened the friendship which, up to this time, the English people had felt for them. On the 30th of May, 1876, the Sultan Abdul Aziz, to whose mismanagemient many of the troubles of the country 204 ITAI^Y, GREECE, TURKEY AND SPAIN. were due, was forcibly deposed, and placed in confinement in one of the palaces at Constantinople. On the 4th of June he was found dead in his cham- ber, having committed suicide. Murad (or Amurath) V., the son of Abdul Medjid, was proclaimed sultan in the place of his uncle. His reign was a brief one. He proved so hope- lessly imbecile that, on the 3Tst of Au- gust, 1876, he was in his turn deposed, and was succeeded by his brother Abdul Hamid U. Massacre of Christians. In the meantime the war with Herze- govina had been carried on. In Octo- ber, 1875, the sultan declared that the taxes which had been one cause of the revolt, should be lowered from their ex- cessive rate to ten per cent., that arrears of taxes should be abandoned, and that the Christians should be granted a rep- resentation in the state councils. The Christians had learned from long expe- rience to distrust these promises, and the war went on. In October, 1875, some Christians who had come back to their homes from Dalmatia were massa- cred by the Turks, and the struggle became more bitter in consequence of this act. Servia and Montenegro se- cretly gave aid to the rebels, and the Prince of Servia declared in a speech to the national assembly that it was impos- sible for Servia to be indiflferent to the fate of the Herzegovines. It was feared by the European powers that thf: troubles in Turkey might be the means of embroiling other coun- tries in the war, and near the close of the year 1875, Germany, Austria, and Russia made a combined effort to secure peace. Austria^ whose territory ad- joined the Turkish dominions, was especially fearful that the revolt would extend across her border and involve her Sclavonic possessions. A joint note was drawn up ifi the name of the three powers by Count Andrassy, the Austrian Prime Minister. This note proposed to the sultan to grant certain reforms to his Christain subjects. These were the establishment of complete re- ligious liberty ; the abolition of the system of farming out the taxes ; the application of the revenue arising from indirect taxation in Bosnia and Herze- govina to the general purposes of the Ottoman government, and the employ- ment of the results of the direct taxa- tion in the improvement and govern- ment of those provinces. Turkey Makes Promises. The Porte accepted all the reforms but the disposition of the taxes, at the same time promising to set aside a cer- tain sum from the national treasury for the local wants of Bosnia and Herze- govina. The insurgents were not will- ing to trust the pledges of the Porte, however, and the war went on. On the 30th of March, 1876, an armistice was concluded, and an effort was made by an agent of the Austrian government to effect a settlement. The terms de- manded by the insurgents were so ex- travagant, however, that Austria re- fused to consider them. The Andrassy note having failed, a note was drawn up at Berlin on the I ith of May, 1876, by the Prime Min- isters of Germany, Austria, and Russia, and forwarded to Constantinople. It stated peremptorily that as the sultan had given the powers a pledge to exe- cute the reforms proposed by them, he ITALY, GRBECK. TURKEY AND SPAIN. 205 had also given them a moral right to insist that he should fulfill his promise. The note then demanded an armistice of two months, and closed with a threat that if the sultan failed to comply with the demands of the powers, they might find it necessary to compel him to do so. The note substantially supported the demands of the Christians of Herze- govina with respect to taxation and the restoration of their property, etc. France and Italy agreed to support the note, but England declined to do so. The war had gone on in the mean- time, and Bulgaria had become to some extent involved in it. Early in May the Turkish officials in Bulgaria deter- mined to put a stop to the troubles in that province by the wholesale exter- mination of the Bulgarian Christians. A systematic plan was arranged for this purpose, and at the appointed time the Christians were attacked in their vil- lages by the Turks. Many hundreds were massacred in cold blood, including people of all ages and both sexes; women were outraged, property carried oflf or destroyed, and villages burned. Great Indignation. The news of the massacre sent a thrill of horror and indignation throughout Europe, and the Turks were denounced in unmeasured terms. In England, which country had until now given its moral support to Turkey, the outburst of indignation was intense, and the popular feeling was so outspoken that the government was compelled to pause in its support of the sultan and act more in sympathy with the other European powers. An immediate result of the massacres was the active participation of Servia I in the war. In July, 1876, both Servia ( and Montenegro declared war against Turkey. The Servian army attempted to invade Bulgaria, but was so unsuc- cessful in its efibrts that on the 24th of August Prince Milan accepted the offer of England to mediate between him and the sultan. Montenegro had been generally successful in her efforts, but, in view of the action of Servia, con- sented to treat for peace. On the ist of September England proposed an ar- mistice of a month between the bellige- rents. War Resumed. The sultan refused to grant this, but declared himself willing to make peace on condition that Prince Milan should come to Constantinople and do homage to him, that Turkish garrisons should be placed in four of the Servian for- tresses, that Servia should pay an in- demnity, and that the porte should be allowed to construct and work a rail- road through Servian territory. The powers refused to allow these terms to be discussed. Great Britain now pro- posed as a basis of negotiation that Bos- nia and Bulgaria should be given local self-government without being freed from the dependence upon the porte. Prince Milan refused to accept this pro- posal , and the war was resumed. The Turkish armies now prepared to invade the territory of Servia, but were checked by the interposition of Russia. Up to this time the action of ^h.e Rus- sian government had been entirely con- servative, being confined to its partici- pation in the preparation of the diplo- matic notes addressed to Turkey. Now large numbers of Russian officers and soldiers entered the Servian army with 206 ITAI.Y, GRKECE. TURKEY AND SPAIN. the consent and approval of the czar. They enabled the Servians to hold out against the Turks until the 31st of Oc- tober, when the fortified city of Alex- inatz was captured by the latter. This success placed Servia practically at the mercy of Turkey. In the meantime orders had been sent to the Russian am- bassador at I/ondon to inform the British government that it was the opinion of the czar that force should be used to stop the war and put an end to Turkish misrule. Plan of Reform. Lord Derby stated that England was prepared to unite with Russia in bring- ing about an armistice of not less than a month, but would not support an armed intervention in Turkish affairs. At this juncture Turkey, to the surprise of all the powers, suddenly offered an armis- tice for six months, and announced a scheme of reform for the whole empire. England, Austria and France favored the armistice, but Russia declared that she could not ask Servia to accept so long a truce since the principality could not keep its army on a war footing for so long a time ; and this view of the case was supported by Italy. Russia demanded a truce of four or six weeks. The Turkish forces were pressing the siege of Alexinatz with en- ergy, and it was apparent that that place could not hold out much longer. Gen- ■^«i\ IgnatiejGf, the Russian ambassador at Constantinople, was therefore ordered to demand of the porte an acceptance within forty-eight hours of the armistice proposed by Russia. The demand was made on the 31st of October, and on the same day Alexinatz was captured by the Turks. The Russian demand was granted by the porte, and the armistice was proclaimed. Although determined to support Ser- via against Turkey, Russia was anxious to maintain friendly relations with the other European powers. On the 2d of November Lord Adolphus Loftus, the English ambassador, had an interview with the czar at Livadia. The czar "pledged his sacred word and honor " that he had no intention of acquiring Constantinople, and that if necessity compelled him to occupy a portion of Bulgaria it would only be provisionally, and until the safety of the Christian population was assured. A British Threat. These assurances gave great satisfac- tion to the English government, which now assumed the initiative in proposing a general conference of the representa- tives of the great powers of Europe to meet at Constantinople. On the 4th of November the Marquis of Salisbury was appointed the English representative. The proposal was accepted, but all the powers did not send special representa- tives. Germany, Russia and Italy con- sidered their ambassadors at Constanti- nople sufficient ; but Austria and France followed the example of England, and sent special representatives to assist their resident ambassadors. Before the conference assembled the Earl of Beaconsfield (Disraeli), the English premier, delivered a speech sharply criticising the Russian attitude, and closed it with significant words : "While the policy of England is peace, no country is so well prepared for war." The next day, November 9th, the czar, in an address to the nobles and com- munal council of Moscow, said: "I ITAI.Y, GREECE, TURKEY AND SPAIN. 207 hope this conference will bring peace ; should this, however, not be achieved, and should I see that we cannot attain such guarantees as are necessary for carrying out what we have a right to demand of the Porte, I am firmly deter- mined to act independently." These .words were generally regarded as a re- ply to Lord Beaconsfield's threat, and caused considerable excitement in Eu- rope, as they implied a possibility of war between Russia and England. Lord Salisbury reached Constantino- ple on the 5th of December. On his journey from London he had visited Paris, Berlin, Vienna, and Rome, and had ascertained the views of those gov- ernments with respect to the Eastern question. Immediately upon reaching Constantinople he entered into commu- nication with the porte and with the foreign ambassadors and representa- tives. He was encouraged by this in- tercourse to believe that the conference would result in a satisfactory settle- ment of the troubles. Turkey seemed willing to accept a fair proposition of settlement, and the Russian ambassador was especially cordial in co-operating with Lord Salisbury. Government Revolutionized. Before the conference assembled, a very decided change took place in the policy of Turkey. On the 22d of December Midhat Pasha was made igrand vizier. The true meaning of this appointment was that Turkey had resolved to take her affairs into her own hands and to refuse to submit to the dictation of the European powers. On the 23d the Porte proclaimed the new constitution of the Turkish em- pire which had been prepared by Mid- hat Pasha. This constitution entirely revolutionized the Turkish government. It provided for a parliament elected by the people, and made the sultan a con- stitutional instead of an arbitrary sov- ereign. The government was to be administered by Ministers responsible to Parliament, which body was to enact the laws necessary for the pacification and government of the empire. Failure of Conference. The conference met on the 23d of December, the very day of the promul- gation of the constitution. On the 28th of December it was resolved to extend the armistice to March i, 1877. The proclamation of the constitution seemed to cut the entire ground from under the feet of the conference. The representa- tive of the porte maintained that further deliberation was unnecessary, since the constitution was a sufficient answer to the powers. Nevertheless the ses- sions were continued, but without ac- complishing anything. The confer- enre demanded that the reforms in the Turkish empire should be executed by an international commission, having at it3 command a special military force, composed partly of Europeans and partly of Turks, but Turkey refused to accept the demand, and it was abandoned. Though Turkey was willing to pledge herself for the execution of the reforms, she steadily refused every material guar- antee for the execution of this pledge suggested to her. The conference then reduced its demands to insisting that the Governors of Bosnia and Bulgaria should be appointed with the consent of the powers, and that the powers should be allowed to form an international commission, which should, however, SOS ITALY, GRBECB, tURKKY AND Sl'AlN. have no military means of executing its decrees. On the i8th of January, 1877, the porte firmly rejected these demands, and the conference came to an inglori- ous end. During the sessions of the conference Roumania became alarmed at the terms of the constitution, the first article of which declared that the Ottoman em- pire, includingthe privileged provinces, forms an indivisible unity from which no portion can ever, on any ground, be detached, while the seventh article gives to the sultan the right of investiture of the rulers of the privileged provinces. On the 5th of January, 1877, the Rou- manian senate passed a resolution de- claring that the rights of the princi- pality should remain intact, and calling upon the government to maintain them in a manner worthy of the state. The excitement in Roumania was so great that in a few days the porte officially declared that the constitution was purely internal, and did not affect the rights of a principality which were guaranteed by international treaties. A Nation Without Friends. The obstinacy of Turkey in refusing the demands of the powers lost her the few friends she had left in Europe. The cause of this obstinacy was the Vizier Midhat Pasha, who, losing sight of the fact that the Turkish empire owed its existence in Europe entirely to the mutual jealousy of the great powers, haughtily refused to allow any interference with its affairs. His impe- rious will soon rendered him obnox- ious to the sultan, who grew restless under the control of the man who had already deposed two sultans within a year, and who would not hesitate to depose another should it suit his put- pose. Accordingly on the 5 th of February, 1877, Midhat Pasha was removed from his office of vizier and ordered to quit Constantinople. He was succeeded by Edhem Pasha, who had served as one of the members of the conference, and who had distinguished himself by his bitter opposition to all the proposals of the foreign representatives. Efforts for Peace. Edhem Pasha at once devoted himself to the task of making peace with the rebellious principalities. He opened negotiations with Servia, and by the last of February concluded a treaty of peace with that principality. By the terms of the treaty the Servians were to retain their fortresses, were to salute the Turkish flag, and were to prevent armed bands from crossing the frontier. The Turkish troops, on their part, were to evacuate the positions held on Ser- vian territory. The treaty was ratified on the 3d of March, and a week later the Turkish forces withdrew from Ser- via, relinquishing Alexinatz and Saits- char to the Servians. Negotiations had been opened with Montenegro at the same time that those with Servia were begun, but they proved more protracted and troublesome. Prince Nicholas at first demanded that the negotiations should be conducted at Vienna ; but the Porte refused this, and the prince sent a delegation to Constan- tinople. The armistice was extended to the 13th of April. The Montenegrin demands were, briefly, the cession of Nicsics, which had been besieged by their forces for several months, the ces- sion of a seaport, and such a rectifica- ITALY, GRKKCE, TURKEY AND SPAIN. 209 tiou of their frontier as would increase their territory al>out one-half its present extent. As the Montenegrins held actual possession of most of the territory demanded by them, they had the ad- vantage of the Porte. The latter refused to grant any extension of territory, and towards the close of March Prince Nicholas instructed his representatives to abate their demands somewhat, but to insist upon the cession of Nicsics. On the loth of April the Turkish par- liament, to which the matter was re- ferred, rejected the demands of Monte- negro, and the next day the representa- tives of that principality were informed of this decision, and were told that the armistice would not be renewed. Two days later the Montenegrin delegates set out for home, going by way cf Odessa., in order to have an interview with the czar and the Russian com- mander. Trying to Gain Time. Russia had by this time fully deter- mined to take part in the war, but being as yet unprepared, endeavored by skillful diplomacy to gain time. On the 31st of January Prince Gortschakofif addressed to the Russian representatives at the courts of the powers concerned in the treaty of Paris a circular, in which he related the diplomatic efforts that had been made to secure the pacification of Turkey, and stated that the czar, before determining upon a course for the future, wished to know what course would be determined upon by the other powers. On the 9th of March Turkey met this circular by one of her own addressed to the guaranteeing powers, stating that ''the reform e government forces after some serious conflicts with the insurgents. For some weeks the insurgents had possession of Navy Island, situated in the Niagara river, just above the falls. Considerable sympathy was manifested for them by the people of the State of New York, and substantial aid was rendered them in spite of the efforts of the President of the United States and the governor of New York to prevent moored at her dock. The boat was cap- tured after a short struggle, in which one American was killed, and was car- ried out into the stream and set on fire She drifted down to the falls, and plunged over them in a blaze. The British Minister at Washington at once declared the responsibility of his gov- ernment for the capture of the boat, and justified it on the ground of self-defence. In the meantime the President had sent General Wool with a strong force to PARLIAMENT HOUSE, OTTAWA. it. Navy Island forms a part of Canada, and lies near the shore of that country. The insurgents in possession of the island employed the steamboat Caro- line to convey men and provisions from the town of Schlosser, on the American shore, to the island. The British authorities in Canada determined to destroy the boat. One dark night in December, 1837, a de- tachment from Canada was sent to Navy Island for this purpose. Not finding the Caroline there, they went over to Schlosser, where she was the Canadian border with orders to pre- vent any expedition from leaving this country to aid the Canadians. He com- pelled the force on Navy Island to sur- render, but the border war continued un- til the close of 1838, when it was ended. These outbreaks drew the attention of the British government more closely to the defective system of government in operation in Canada. The people of Canada addressed petitions to the crown,' praying for a union of the provinces. This prayer was granted, and in 1841 the two provinces were united under 216 CANADA, MEXICO AND SOUTH AMERICA. one government, which was modeled upon the British system, and was in every respect a vast improvement upon -, and Morales became president, for one year. In No- vember Melgarejo was assassinated in Lima, by his son-in-law. Morales survived him a little more 234 CANADA, MEXICO AND SOUTH AMERICA. than a year, and was murdered by his son-in-law on the 27th of November, 1872. In May, 1873, Don Adolfo Bal- livian became president of the republic. Ill health soon compelled him to with- draw from public life, and Dr. Tomas Frias was appointed to succeed him, in February, 1874. On the 14th of the same month General Ballivian died. His death was followed by a series of revolutionary disturbances, which were not finally crushed until April, 1875. Bolivia is naturally one of the richest countries of South America, but its great mountain chains cut it off from all communication with the sea or the rest of the continent on the western side, except by the tedious and expen- sive process of mule transport across the mountains. On the eastern side this obstacle to the progress of the re- public does not exist. The Madeira river drains a large portion of the re- public, receives the waters of the greater number of its streams, and finally empties into the Amazon. For about 1 50 miles it is obstructed by rapids. Below the rapids it is navigable to the Amazon, whicl river gives ready access to the sea. In 1872 it was resolved to build a railway around these rapids, and to bring Bolivia into direct communica- tion with the rest of the world. In 1876 Bolivia joined Peru in a war against Chili. In 1879 Bolivia was swept by a revolution ; Diaz, at that time president, was deposed and com- pelled to flee, and Campero was elected to be his successor. Peace was estab- lished with Chili, and the conditions were finally settled in December, 1883. In August, 1888, Aniceto Arce, presi- dent, suppressed a revolution and re- stored peace. In 1892 an insurrection by General Camacho was suppressed and Baptista was declared president. An ultimatum was addressed to Peru demanding satis- faction within twenty-four hours for in- vasion of territory. The Bolivian Min- ister was recalled, and finally the dis- pute was referred to arbitration. On the 20th of August, 1896, Alonso as- sumed the presidency. ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. IN 1776 the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres was created. It embraced the countries now known as the Argentine republic, Bolivia, Uru- guay, and Paraguay. In 1806, Spain being at war with Great Britain, a small British force captured Buenos Ayres and Montevideo, but was soon driven out by the inhabitants. Another effort was made by a stronger British force to capture Buenos Ayres in 1807, but was repulsed. In 1 8 10 Buenos Ayres threw off the Spanish yoke, and proclaimed its inde- pendence. The war was decided m 1 812 by the surrender of the Spanish forces at Montevideo. In January, 181 3, a " sovereign assembly " was convened at Tucuman, then the capital of Buenos Ayres, and the administration of the government was confided to it. The independence of the republic being established, an army was sent into Chili, under General San Martin, and aided the Chilians in driving the Span- iards from that province. Peru next assisted, and the independence of that country was secured in 1821. CANADA, MEXICO AND SOUTH AMERICA. 23& In 1816 the new republic took the name of "The United Provinces of La Plata," and in 1817 General Puyerredon was made supreme dictator. Somewhat later the city of Buenos Ayres was made the capital of the republic. In 1820 the dictatorship was abolished, and a democratic form of government was instituted, with General Rodigruez at its head. Peace was made with Brazil in 1828, through the mediation of England, and the independence of the republic of Uruguay was recognized by La Plata. In 1 83 1 the Argentine re^^ublic was formed by the confederation of the prov- inces of Buenos Ayres, Corrientes, En- tre-Rios, and Santa Fe. A little later some of the other provinces joined the union. This was followed by efforts of some of the leading officers of the army to overthrow the republic and seize the supreme power. Made Dictator. This unsettled state of affairs con- tinued until 1835, when Rosas, who had been chosen president in 1833, was made dictator. He held office until 1 85 2, and during this period governed the republic with firmness and sternness. He made repeated efforts to force Paraguay and Uruguay to join the Argentine con- federation. These efforts involved him in a quarrel with Brazil, which was also seeking to get possession of Uruguay. In September, 1852, a levolution Droke out in the province of Buenos Ayres, which withdrew from the con- federation and established a government of its own. This act led to repeated quarrels and conflicts between the Ar- gentine confederation and Buenos Ayres. On the 17th of December, 1871, the Argentine troops were defeated by the forces of Buenos Ayres under General Mitre. The Argentine confederation was now remodeled, with Buenos Ayres as the leading state. The city of Buenos Ayres was made the capital of the re- public, a constitution was adopted, and General Mitre was chosen president. In 1865 the Argentine republic de- clared war against Paraguay, and en- tered into an offensive and defensive alli- ance with Brazil and Uruguay. The struggle resulted in the utter over- throw of Paraguay, the aggressions of which state provoked the war in the year 1870. Numerous Outbreaks. The alliance of the Argentine con- federation with Brazil and Uruguay gave great offence to certain parties in the republic, and led to several out- breaks. These were suppressed. The peace of 1870 was followed by a formi- dable rebellion in Entre-Rios, which lasted a year, and was put down only at the cost of an immense number of lives. The revolt was renewed in 1873, but was suppressed in the course of a few months. In 1874 the contest over the presi- dential election plunged the country into a new civil war, which lasted several months and caused much suffer- ing. It was settled by the acknow- ledgment of the president elected by the people. On June 13th, 1886, Juarez Celman was elected president. Since then the great material progress of the country has been accompanied by an equally remarkable movement in favor of stability of government. The policy of the government toward agricultural immigrants is highly liberal. CHAPTER XVI. Asia and Africa in the Nineteenth Century. T^^HINA and Japan have occupied I V^ a large share of public attention ^ ^^ ^ during the century, and both have undergone important changes. This is all the more remark- able from the fact that they have re- mained in a stereotyped state for ages, and gave no signs of progress until within a comparatively recent period. Towards the end of the seventeenth century the Chinese government, while refusing to Great Britain, as a Euro- pean power, permission to trade with the empire, granted that privilege to the British Bast India Company. This company conducted the trade with China until 1834, when its charter ex- pired. The British government then sent Lord Napier to superintend the trade with China, but he was refused permission to communicate with the imperial viceroy at Canton on terms of equality. He endeavored to force his way to Canton with two frigates, but after a spirited engagement with the forts at the Bogue, September nth, 1834, withdrew to Macao, where he died about a month later. After this the trade between the British merchants and the Chinese was carried on for several years without the superintend- ence of the British officials. One of the principal articles of this traffic was opium, of which large quantities were sold yearly in China by British mer- chants. The imperial government at first tol- erated this trade, but, at length, becom- ing alarmed by the fearful evils which the use of opium was fastening upon the 236 people of China, endeavored to put %, stop to it. In the autumn of 1837 Cap- tain Elliot, the English representative at Canton, was ordered by an imperial decree to send away the opium ships and discontinue the trade in that article. This command was disregarded and the trade went on. In the early part of 1839 the imperial Viceroy Lin, acting under the orders of his government, seized and destroyed all the opium on hand at Canton, to the value of |io,- 000,000. An illicit trade in opium at once sprang up, and was resented by the Chinese Government, which de- clared all commercial relations with Great Britain at an end. Famous Opium War. This led to the opium war, which is the most prominent event of the century in the history of China. The result was that China was forced to surrender her exclusiveness, and enter into more inti- mate commercial relations with Europe. The war was brought to an end by the treaty of Nankin, in August, 1842. The island of Hong Kong was ceded to the British, and the ports of Canton, Amoy, Foochoo, Ningpo and Shanghai were thrown open to the trade of the world, and made the official residences of Eu- ropean consuls. China was also com- pelled to pay to Great Britain an indem- nity of $21,000,000. In 1842 Caleb Cushing, who had been sent out by the United States to China, arrived in that country and readily negotiated a com- mercial treaty between the two coun- tries, July 3, 1844. This was followed ASIA AND AFRICA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 237 by a treaty with France, signed October 23, 1844. The Chinese government never meant to observe these treaties in good faith, and its treatment of the foreigners with- in its dominions was at all times marked by deceit and an ill-concealed hostility. This feeling led to constant disputes be- France had experienced similar wrongs at the hands of the Chinese, and made common cause with England. The two powers now resolved to force China to a settlement, and in 1S57 sent a joint expedition to that country. Canton was bombarded by the Anglo- French fleet on the 28th of December, and the next VIEW OF VICTORIA— HONG KONG. tween the imperial authorities and the foreign consuls and merchants. In Oc- tober, 1856, matters were brought to a crisis by the seizure of the Arrow, a British vessel built in China, by the Chinese officials. This act led to a de- sultory war between China and Great Britain, which lasted several years, and in which the Chinese were. PS a ru^e, the winners. day was occupied by the English and French land forces, which numbered less than 6,000 men. The viceroy Yeh was captured, but the Chinese Govern- ment endeavored to offset this reverse by degrading Yeh and appointing his suc- cessor. Russia and the United States now joined England and France in endea- voring to force China to negotiate more liberal treaties with the western powers. 238 ASIA AND AFRICA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. The action of the Chinese Govern- ment was unsatisfactory, and the allied forces attacked and captured the forts at the mouth of the Pei-ho, and pushed on to Tien-tsin, fifty miles above the mouth of the river. The Chinese Gov- ernment now yielded, and entered into treaties with Great Britain, France, Russia and the United States, which stipulated for the residence of foreign ministers at Pekin, for the opening of several ports in addition to those named in the treaty of Nankin, for travel and trade under certain conditions in the whole empire, for the free navigation of the Yangste-kiang river, and the settle- ment of the transit-dues question. Great Britain was paid an indemnity of five and-a-half million dollars, and France a smaller sum. British Navy Defeated. China endeavored as usual to evade this treaty, and the imperial authori- ties exerted themselves by prescribing a most unusual route for them, and im- posing various and vexatious delays upon them, to prevent the foreign min- isters from reaching Pekin. The Bri- tish minister thereupon ordered Ad- miral Hope to force the passage of the Pei-ho. That officer attempted to ex- ecute his orders, but was driven back with great loss by the forts at the mouth of the river. The British and French ministers then withdrew to Shanghai to await the instructions of their re- spective governments. The American minister, Mr. Ward, concluded to ac- cept the Chinese programme, and sub- mitting to many inconveniences and indignities, at length reached Pekin. He was denied an interview with the emperor, except upon conditions de- grading to himself and his country, and returned in disgust to Shanghai, where he joined his European col- leagues. England and France resented the bad faith of China by renewing the war with that country. A joint expedition was sent against the Chinese capital. The Pei-torts were taken August 21st, i860, and Tien-tsin was occupied Au- gust 24th. The Chinese officials endea- vored to stay the progress of the allies by negotiation, but their design being un- derstood, the Anglo-French forces pushed on, and on the 6th of October arrived before Pekin. The operations against the city were conducted with vigor; the emperor's "summer palace," a magnificent structure, was plundered and burned, and on the 13th of October one of the gates of the city was surren- dered to the allies. The imperial government was now forced to yield, and the treaties with France and England were renewed and ratified. The allies then withdrew to the coast. Since that time the policy of China has been to keep faith with the western powers. Great Rebellion. During all this time China had been torn by a rebellion of unusual magni- ture. This was the Taiping rebellion, which broke out in the southern pro- vinces of the empire in 1850. At first the rebels were successful, and overran a large part of southern China. The war lasted until 1 864, when the last body of rebels was dispersed and the impe-> rial authority restored. In 1857 the Mohammedans of Yunnan rose in rebel- lion, and were for a time victorious. This revolt extended over a period of fifteen ASIA AND AFRICA IN THK NINETEENTH CENTURY. 235 years, but was suppressed in 1872. A second Mohammedan rebellion broke out in the north-western part of the em- pire in 1862. It was suppressed in 1873. In 1 87 1 China became involved in a quarrel with Russia, and was obliged to cede to that power the district of Kulja and the whole of the basin of the Hi, a the various European powers and to the United States. At its head was Anson Burlingame, formerly minister from the United States to China. "It had its origin in the desire of the government to demonstrp.te to western powers its friendliness, and to forestall demands of an extreme character which it antici- INTERIOR OF A CHINESE TEMPLE, SHOWING THEIR IDOLS, region embracing an area of about 600,- 000 square miles, and containing a pop- ulation of 2,000,000 people." In 1861 the Emperor Hieng-fun. who had suc- ceeded the Emperor Tau-Kwang, in 1856, died, and his son T'oung-che came to the throne. He was but five years old at the time. In 1873 he was declared of age and assumed the government. In the autumn of 1867 an embassy was sent by the Chinese government to pated would be made during the revision of the treaties of 1858 then about to take place. Its chief seized the oppor- tunity to place before the world the in- dications of a marked change of policy on the part of the government, an4 to demonstrate that the old system of re- course to local authorities for the redress of grievances should be abandoned in favor of representatioM to the imperial authorities at Pekin. The facts of his 240 ASIA AND AFRICA IN THE NINEJTKENTH CENTURY. (Burlingame's) appointment to repre- sent China, and of his being accredited to western states on terms of equality, afforded an indication of the marvelous change which had ensued since the war, and a more complete justification of the wisdom of the allies in insisting upon residence at the capital." Cold-Blooded Massacre. In 1870 the Chinese attacked the French consulate at Tien-tsin and mas- sacred the consul, vice-consul, the inter- preter of the French legation at Pekin and his wife, a Catholic priest, nine sis- ters of charity, and some others. The Frence consulate, the cathedral and the missionary hospital were destroyed. The outbreak was severely punished by the Chinese government, and an apology was made to France. In 1875 the Emperor Kwang-liu, the leignihg sovereign (1878), succeeded to the throne. On the 30th of June, 1876, the first line of railway in China, from Shanghai to Woosung, a distance of eleven miles, was opened. It was built by an English company. Several outbreaks occurred during 1 89 1, and riotous demonstrations against missionaries and mission stations aroused the indignation of Christian nations. A combined protest against these perse- cutions were made to the Chinese gov- ernment by the ministers of foreign countries resident in China. Thereupon the government greatly increased the severitiy of its measures against crimi- nals who had been abusing foreigners, and determined to use all its power for the protection of the foreign residents of the empire. This had the inten/"ed effect. In 1 894 war broke out between China and Japan. Japan claimed the right to protect her subjects in Corea. Corea, although an independent kingdom hav- ing its own emperor, was to all intents and purposes a part of China, and all attempts on the part of Japan to extend her influence in Corea were strenuously resisted. On the 30th of June, 1894, the King of Corea renounced all subjection to China, and called on the Japanese for help. The demands of Japan, for ex- tensive reforms, and for the observance of a treaty made in 1885, were opposed by China, and hostilities immediately began. A British despatch boat, con- veying Chinese troops, was attacked by Japanese warships, sunk off Asan, and many were killed. In July, the Japan- ese, under Gen. Oshima, gained impor- tant victories. In August, the Chinese made a formal declaration of war. Great Battle of Yalu. In September, the Chinese Emperor transmitted a circular to the great powers justifying the position of China in the pending struggle. A great naval battle at the mouth of Yalu river on September 17th resulted in terrible slaughter, and the destruction of eight Chinese vessels. This was the turning point of the conflict, and Japanese suc- cesses followed in quick succession both on land and sea. In short, the wonderful vigor and military prowess of Japan sur- prised the world, and, in the contest with China, she was completely successful. On the 17th of April, 1895, a peace treaty was signed, which assured the in- dependence of Corea, the retention by Japan of conquered places, and a heavy indemnity for the expenses of the war. But later, the ministers of Russia, Ger- ASIA AND AFRICA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURV. 241 many and France protested against tne annexation of Chinese territory to the Japanese Empire, and Japan was cheated out of a large part of what her victories liad gained. Since this war with Japan the pro- gress of events in China has been com- paratively uneventful, the latest inter- national transs^ctions being concessions made to Russia and Great Britain, both of which powers' are anxious to extend their dominions in the East. JAPAN IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. l^fOR ages Japan maintained a policy P of utter seclusion from the rest of the world, and the vessels of for- eign nations were not allowed to enter ner ports. It is marvelous that an em- pire, so long isolated and dead to both hemispheres, should have been so com- pletely transformed, showing as great eagerness to gain the front ranks of civ- ilized and enlightened nations, as before sl:e exhibited in secluding herself from their touch and influence. Towards the middle of the nineteenth century European and American ves- sels began to frequent the Japanese waters, and after the settlement of Cali- fornia American whalers pursued their trade regularly in the home waters of the empire. Many of these were wrecked on the coast of Japan, and their crews were treated with great harshness by the native authorities. In order to put I a stop to this, and to establisli friendly relations with the empire, the United States government, in 1852, despatched an expedition under the command of Commodore Mattliew C. Perry. The American commander was in structed to demand protection for Amer- ican seamen wrecked on the Japanese coast, and to effect a treaty of commerce and good will with the imperial gov- ernment In July, 1853, he entered the bay of \ edo with four ships of war, and delivered to the Japanese authorities a 16 letter from the President of the United States, setting forth the demands and wishes of his government. He then sailed for China. In February, 1854, he returned -wdth seven ships of war, and anchored within a few miles of Yedo. He managed by his skillful and judicious efforts to induce the shogun, in other word? the military governor of the Eastern provinces, sometimes styled tycoon, to enter into the desired treaty^ which was signed at Kauagawa on the 31st of March, 1854, and which opened the ports of vShimoda and Plakodate or Hokodadi to foreign commerce, and made them ploces of consular residence. In September a British squadron, un- der Sir James Stirling, entered the har- bor of Nagasaki and concluded a treaty with the shogun, by which Hakodate and Nagasaki were thrown open to for- eign commerce. The Russians and Dutch then made similar treaties with the shogun. On the 17th of June, 1857, Mr. Harris, the United States consul to Japan, made a still more advantageous treaty with the shogun, by which the harbor of Nagasaki was also opened to American commerce. In 1858, in spite of the opposition of the Japanese, Mr. Harris proceeded to Yedo, and concluded a third treaty still more advantageous to the United States. During the same year Ivord Elgin, es- corted by a British squadron, reached 242 ASIA AND AFRICA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. Yedo and negotiated a treaty between Great Britain and Ja])an, by which it was agreed that the pcrts of Hakodate, Kanagawa and Nagasaki, should be opened to British subjects after July i, 1859. ^^^ arrival of Commodore Perry the mikado as the spiritual ruler of th( empire who did not concern himsell with its temporal affairs. The shogun on his part encouraged this belief, and signed the treaties without referring them to the mikado or asking his con- INTERIOR OF A JAPANESE THEATRE. was the beginning of the intercourse of Japan with the nations of America and Europe, an intercourse which has en- tirely changed the destiny of the em- pire. All the foreigners made ',xie mistake of regarding the shogun as the rightful Emperor of Japan. They looked upon sent to their signature. Ihis act wa? looked upon by the Japanese as a fresh usurpation of power on the part of the shogun, and aroused a strong reaction in favor of the mikado. The nation was opposed to the violation by the sho gun of the traditional policy of non intercourse with foreigners, and the ASIA AND AFRICA IN THE) NINETEENTH CENTURY. 243 country resounded with the cry, " Honor the mikado and expel the barbarian." The shogun was regarded as a traitor, and the cause of the mikado was greatly strengthened. In 1858 the shogun died, and the prime minister li, a man of great ability and unscrupulous character, became re- gent. He set aside the true successor, and bestowed the shogunate upon the infant Prince of Kii, but kept the power in his own hands. This arbitrary act aroused a strong opposition to him, which he suppressed by imprisoning and executing the leaders of the movement. In 1859 1^^ despatched an embassy to the United States without consulting the mikado, and so increased the hatred of the people for him. On the 23d oi March, 1 860, he was assassinated in open daylight in the streets of Yedo. Firing on Ships. The party of the mikado now grew with wonderful rapidity, and the shogun' s followers, seeing the steady drift of popular sentiment, sought to regain their lost ground by trying" to ■oersnade the foreigners to close the ports and leave Japan, but without success. About this time the forces of the Prince of Choshin (Nogato), acting under orders of the mikado, fired upon the ships of the United States, France, Great Britain and the Netherlands. This act was pun- ished by the treaty powers shortly after, by sending a combined squadron to Shi- monosek, and capturing that port after a severe bombardment. Japan was com- pelled to pay an indemnity of ^3,000,- 000. This victory opened the eyes of the Japanese to the power of the for- eigners, and made them more cautious in their conduct towards them. Though the Prince of Choshin had obeyed the mikado in firing upon the foreign vessels, he had disobeyed the shogun, and the latter, in 1866, marched to punish him for his disobedience. The forces of the shogun were armed and disciplined in the old Japanese style ; those of the Prince of Choshin were armed with European rifles and artillery, and had been disciplined by Dutch officers. A campaign of three months ensued, and resulted in the overwhelming defeat of the shogun, who, worn out with mortification at his failure, and with disease, died on the 19th of September, 1866. He was suc- ceeded by Keiki, the last of the shoguns. The mikado's party now proceeded to bolder acts, and in October, 1867, urged the mikado to abolish the sho- gunate and resume the government of the empire. This proposal received so much support among the most power- ful princes and nobles of Japan, that on the 9th of November, 1867, Keiki re- signed the shogunate. Radical Changes. This was a great gain, but it was not all the mikado's party desired. They determined to go further and restore the government to the basis on which it had existed prior to a. d. 1200. On the 3d of January, 1868, they seized the palace, drove out the nobles, and created a government under which the highest offices were filled by the kuge^ or court nobles of the imperial family, those of the next order by the daimios or cour. tiers, and those of the third order by men selected from the samurai. This arrangement threw the whole power of the state into the hands of the Satsump Choshin, Tosa, and Hizen clans. 244 ASIA AND AFRICA IN THK NINETEENTH CENTURY. The ex-shogun was greatly displeased with this arrangement, and took up arms to regain his lost power. He was defeated in a three days' battle, and fled to Yedo in an American steamer. See- ing that further resistance was hopeless, he surrendered to the imperial forces, declared his resolution never again to oppose the will of the mikado, and re- tired to private life. This submission completely re-established the authority of the mikado throughout the empire, and gave peace to the country. Adopting New Ideas. Up to this time the party of the mi- kado had been the bitterest opponents of the treaties negotiated by the shogim with the foreign powers. There were a few among them who had profoundly studied the question, and liad seen the folly of their country in holding i.tself aloof from the rest of the world. These now set to work to promote the inter- course of Japan with the treaty powers, and found this no difficult task, as the leaders of the imperial party had by this time become convinced of the im- mense superiority of the foreign over the native systeui of war. They also feared that the foreign powers would compel the empire by force to observe the treaties made with the shogun, and knew that Japan was :n no condition to offer a successful resistance. They accordingly invited the repre- sentatives of the foreign powers to a 'conference at Kioto. Many of the court nobles had never seen a foreigner, and upon beholding them at the conference at once abandoned the prejudices they had cherished againstthem. Thetreaties were cordially renewed, the foreign powers recognized the mikado as the only rightful sovereign of Japan, and the foundations were laid upon which have been built up the. intimate and cordial relations which now exist be- tween Japan and the states of Europe and America. Foreign ideas and cus- toms from this time made their way steadily into the empire, and were rap- idly adopted by the Japanese. Since 1868 the character of Japanese civiliza- tion has undergone a profound change. The government, the army and navy, and the finances are administered upon a European basis; the European dress is driving out the old native costume ; and large numbers of young men des- tined for the public service are sent to the schools of Europe and the United States to be trained in the learning and civilization of the western world. In all these measures the young Emperor Mutsuhito (the reigning mikado), who came to the throne in 1867, has taken an active part, and has constantly en- deavored to promote the civili-zation of his country and to render more inti- mate its intercourse with the v -^stern nations. Feudal System Destroyed. The changes which took place in the internal government of the empire after the revolution of 1868 were very rapid. In 1 87 1 the emporer abolished the titles of kiige and daimio (court and territorial noble), and replaced them by that of kuazokit (noble families). This decree deprived the great nobles of their terri- torial fiefs, which were reclaimed by the crown, and at one blow destroyed the feudal system of Japan. In the same year, in order to place himself more di- rectly at the head of the new state of affairs, the emperor removed his capital BARTHOLDI ^TKTUE OF LIBERTY ERFTTFO ON BEDLOE'S ISLAND, NEW YORK HARBOR. HEIGHT FROM GROUND, 220 FEET; STONE PEDESTAL 82 FEET HIGH ; FOREFINGER 8 FEET LONG ; HEAD 14 FEET HIGH AND 40 PERSONS CAN STAND IN IT ASIA AND AFRICA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 245 from the old sacred city of Kioto to the great city of Yedo, the name of which was changed to Tokio (western capital). The government granted to the deposed daimios one-tenth of their former in- comes on condition of residing perma- nently at Tokio. In December, 1871, an embassy was sent to the nations of Europe and America. Each was visited in succession, and new treaties of com- merce and friendship were negotiated. lu 1876 the empire took part in the International Centennial Exhibition, held at Philadelphia, in the limited States, and gave unmistakable evidence in its superb display of its success in the new career upon which it has en- tered. The completion of the translation of the Bible into Japanese was celebrated February 3, 1888. On February 11, 1889, a new constitution for the empire was promulgated by the Mikado at Tokio. Houses of lords and commons were established, and religious liberty and general freedom were granted to all persons, one of the many evidences of the enlightened policy which of late has distinguished the government of the country. New commercial treaties were desired with the European powers, who hesitated to grant the request ; one with the United States was promptly signed. No Oriental realm has made more rapid strides in the last quarter of a century than Japan. The most important events in Japan during the century were connected with her war against China in 1894, a full account of which appears in the history of that empire and need not be repeated here. * REPUBLICS IN 50LTH AFRICA. NE of the earliest settlements in South Africa was that of the Dutch at the Cape of Good Hope. In 1806 Great Britain acquired their domain, following which the Dutch emigrated in large numbers, moving north and east. They acquired by force of arms from the Zulus the country known as Natal, where they settled. The number of the Boer-^^, as they were called, who left the British colonies was about 10,000. They or- ganized a government, and 'n 1854 the British guaranteed them c jnij^lete in- dependence. The Boers also established a republic known as the Transvaal, the independ- ence of which was acknowledged in 1852. Here they have remained until the present time. They have had the name of being very exclusive and re- fusing rights to foreigners who wished to enter their country. In 1887 the British attempted to take the country, and for a while occupied it. In 1880 the Transvaal Boers threw off the Bri- tish yoke and re-established the repub- lic, after a conflict with the British, in which the latter were defeated with great loss. Early in 1896, a British company, with possessions bordering on the Transvaal, attempted to conquer the Boers. In this attempt they were led by Dr. Jameson, but his forces were signally defeated. This disaster caused excitement through- out Eugland, especially as Germany ex- pressed its sympathy with the Boers. The state has immense latent wealth in its minerals, for, in addition to the \ 246 ASIA AND AFRICA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. numerous gold-fields, the deposits of sil- ver, copper, and lead, iron, coal, cobalt, and other metals and minerals, are suf- ficent to show that nature has favored the Transvaal beyond all African states. The country is rich in corn and pasture land. The climate is, as a rule, healthy, and in some parts exceptionally bracing. The number of English-speaking resi- dents is fast increasing on account of immigration. In October, 1899, war broke out be- tween the Transvaal and Great Britain, the latter nation claiming that rights guaranteed by treaty to the subjects of other nations had been denied, and foreigners were the victims of high- handed oppression. Several bloody bat- tles were fought between the Boers and the English troops. Republic of Liberia. Liberia is a small republican state of West Africa, and occupies a part of the coast of North Guinea. Length, 600 miles ; breadth interiorward, 50 miles. Monrovia is its capital, at the mouth of St. Paul's River. The prin- cipal exports are coffee, sugar, palm-oil. camphor, indigo, ivory, and gold-dust. The first settlement was formed by free negro colonists from the United States, at Cape Mesurado, in 1820. The colony became an independent republic in 1847. The constitution and government are based upon the model of those of the United States. Tlie Congo Free State has sprung out of the discoveries of Stanley and the explorations of the International Asso- ciation, founded at Brussels for the opening up to civilization of the Congo and its tributaries. Its autonomy was recognized during 1884 and 1885 by the leading powers of Europe, and by the United States, conditioned upon its maintaining the principles of free trade. There are twelve territorial divisions, the capital being Boma. The central government is at Brussels, and consists of the king of the Bel- gians as sovereign, and three depart- mental chiefs. On the Congo there is an Administrator-General and several European administrators of stations and districts. The rest of West Africa is variously "protected" by England, France, Germany, and Portugal. PART III. Famous Explorations and Discoveries OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. CHAPTER XVII. Voyages in the Polar "World. IN the year 1829 Captain John Ross, with his nephew James, having been furnished with sufficient funds by a wealthy distiller named Felix Booth, of London, undertook a private expedition of discovery in a small vessel called the Victory. Ross proceeded down Prince Regent's Inlet to the Gulf of Boothia, and wintered on the eastern side of a land named by him Boothia Felix. In the course of exploring excursions during the sum- mer months James Ross crossed the land and discovered the position of the north magnetic pole on the western side of it, on June i, 1831. He also discov- ered a land to the westward of Boothia which he named King William Land, and the northern shore of which he examined. The most northern point, opposite the magnetic pole, was called Cape Felix, and thence the coast trended south-west to Victory Point. James Ross was at Cape Felix on May 29, 1830. The Rosses never could get their little vessel out of its winter quarters. They passed three winters there, and then fell back on the stores; at Fury Beach, where they passed their fourth winter of 1832- 33. Eventually they were picked up by a whaler in Barrow Strait, and brought home. Great anxiety was naturally felt at their prolonged absence, and in 1833, Sir George Back, with Dr. Richard King as a companion, set out by land in search of the missing explorers. Win- tering at the Great Slave Lake, he left Fort Reliance on June 7, 1834, and de- scended the Great Fish River, which is obstructed by many falls in the course of a rapid and tortuous course of 530 miles. The mouth was reached, when the want of supplies obliged them to return. In 1836 Sir George Back was sent, at the suggestion of the Royal Geographical Society, to proceed to Re- pulse Bay in his ship, the Terror, and then to cross an assumed isthmus and examine the coast-line thence to the mouth of the Great Fish River ; but the ship was obliged to winter in the drift- ing pack, and was brought back across the Atlantic in a sinking condition on account of damage caused by the ice. The tracing of the polar shores of America was completed by the Hud- son's Bay Company's servants. In June 1837 Messrs. Simpson and Dease left Chippewyan, reached the mouth of the Mackenzie, and connected that position 247 248 VOYAGES IN THE POLAR WORLD. with point Barrow, which had been discovered by the Blossom in 1826. In 1839 Simpson passed Cape Turn- again of Franklin, tracing the coast eastward so as to connect with Back's work at the mouth of the Great Fish River. He landed at Montreal Island in the mouth of that river, and then advanced eastward as far as Castor and Pollux river, his farthest eastern point. On his return he travelled along the north side of the channel, which is in fact the south shore of the King Wil- liam Island discovered by James Ross. The south-western point of this Island was named Cape Herschel, and there Jimpson built a cairn on August 26, 1839- Dr. Rae's Discoveries. Very little more remained to be done in order to complete the delineation of the northern shores of the American continent. This was entrusted to Dr. John Rae, a Hudson's Bay factor, in 1846. He went in boats to Repulse Bay, where he wintered in a stone hut nearly on the Arctic Circle ; and he and six Orkney men maintained themselves on the deer they shot. During the spring of 1 847 Dr. Rae explored on foot the shores of a great gulf having 700 miles of coast-line. He thus connected the work of Parry, at the mouth of Fury and Hecla Strait, with the work of Ross on the coast of Boothia, proving that Boothia was part of the American con- tinent. While the English were thus working hard to solve some of the geographical problems relating to Arctic America, the Russians were similarly engaged in Siberia. In 1821 lyieutenant Anjou made a complete survey of the New Siberia Islands, and came to the con- clusion that it was not possible to ad- vance far from them in a northerly direction, owing to the thinness of the ice and to open water within 20 or 30 miles. Baron Wrangell prosecuted similar investigations from the mouth of the Kolyma between 1820 and 1823, He made four journeys with dog sledges, exploring the coast between Cape Tchel- agskoi and the Kolyma, and making attempts to extend his journeys to some distance from the land. He was always stopped by thin ice, and he received tidings from a native chief of the exis- tence of land at a distance of several leagues to the northward. In 1843 Middendorf was sent to ex- plore the region which terminates in Cape Tchelyuskin. He reached the cape in the height of the short summer, whence he saw open water and no ice blink in any direction. The whole arctic shore of Siberia had now been explored and delineated, but no vessel had yet rounded the extreme northern point, by sailing from the mouth of the Yenisei to that of the Lena. When that feat was achieved the problem of the north-east passage would be solved. Story of Franklin. The success of Sir James Ross's Ant- arctic expedition and the completion of the northern coast-line of America by the Hudson's Bay Company's servants gave rise in 1845 to a fresh attempt to make the passage from Lancaster Sound to Behring Strait. The story of this unhappy expedition of Sir John Frank- lin, in the Erebus and Terror, is one of the most thrilling in Arctic exploration. To understand clearly the nature of the obstacle which finally stopped Sir VOYAGES IN THE POLAR WORLD. 249 John Franklin, and which also stopped Sir Edward Parry in his first voyage, it is necessary to note that westward of Melville and Baring Islands, northward of the western part of the American coast, and northward of the channel leading from Smith Sonnd, there is a vast unknown space, the ice which en- cumbers it never having been traversed by any ship. All navigators who have skirted along its edge describe the stu- pendous thickness and massive propor- ions of the vast flows with which it is packed. This accumulation of ice of enormous thickness, to which Sir George Nares has given the name of a " Palaeocrystic Sea," arises from the absence of direct communication between this portion of the north polar region and the warm waters of the Atlantic and Pacific. Behring Strait is the only vent in a south-westerly direction, and that chan- nel is so shallow that the heavy ice grounds outside it. In other direc- tions the channels leading to Baffin's Bay are narrow and tortuous. In one place only is there a wide and straight lead. The heavy polar ice flows south- east between Melville and Baring Is- lands, down what is now called M'Clin- tock Channel, and impinges on the north-west coast of the King William Land discovered by James Ross. The Expedition Halted. It was this branch from the palaeo- crystic sea which finally stopped the progress of Franklin's expedition. On leaving the winter-quarters at Beechey Island in 1846, Franklin found a chan- nel leading south, along the western shore of the land of North Somerset discovered by Parry in 18 19. If he could reach the channel on the Ameri- can coast, he knew that he would be able to make his way along to Behring Strait. This channel leading south, now called Peel Sound, pointed directly to the south. He sailed down it towards King William Island, with land on both sides. But directly they passed the southern point of the western land, and were no longer shielded by it, the great palceo- crystic stream from Melville Island was fallen in with, pressing on King William Island. It was impassable. The only possibility of progress would have been by rounding the eastern side of King William Island, but its insularity was then unknown. Anxiety for Franklin. It was not until 1848 that anxiety began to be felt about the Franklin ex- pedition. In the spring of that year Sir James Ross was sent with two ships, the Enterprise and Investigator, by way of Lancaster Sound. He wintered at Leo- pold Harbor, near the north-east point of North Devon. In the spring he made a long sledge journey with Lieutenant M'Clintock along the northern and west- ern coasts of North Somerset. On the return of the Ross expedition without any tidings, the country became thoroughly alarmed. An extensive plan of search was organized — the Enterprise and Investigator under Collison and M'Clure proceeding by Behring Strait while the Assistance and Resolute with two steam tenders, the Pioneer and In- trepid, sailed May 3, 1850, to renew the search by Barrow Strait, under Captain Austin. Two brigs, the Lady Franklin and Sophia, under Captain Penny, a very energetic and able whaling captain, 250 VOYAGES IN THE POLAR WORLD. were sent by the same route. He had with him Dr. Sutherland, a naturalist, who did much valuable scientific work. Found His Winter Quarters. Austin and Penny entered Barrow Strait, and Franklin's winter quarters of 1845-46 was discovered at Beechey Island ; but there was no record of any kind indicating the direction taken by the ships. Stopped by the ice, Austin's expedition wintered (1850-51) in the pack off Griffith Island, and Penny found refuge in a harbor on the south coast of Cornwallis Island. Austin, who had been with Parry during his third voyage, was an admirable organizer. His ar- rangements for passing tlie winter were carefully thought out and answered per- fectly. In concert with Penny he planned a thorough and extensivesystem of search by means of sledge travelling in the spring ; and Lieutenant M' Clin- tock superintended every minute de- tail of this part of the work with un- failing forethought and consummate skill. Penny undertook the search by Wel- lington Channel. M'Clintock advanced to Melville Island, marching over 770 miles in eighty-one days ; Captain Om- mantiey and Sherard Osborn passed southward and discovered Prince of Wales Island. Lieutenant Brown exam- ined the western shore of Peel Sound. The search was exhaustive ; but, except the winter quarters at Beechey Island, no record, no sign was discovered. The absence of any record made Cap- tain Austin doubt whether Franklin had ever gone beyond Beechey Island. So he also examined the entrance of Jones Sound, the next inlet from Baffin's Bay north of Lancaster Sound, on his way home, and returned to England in the autumn of 185 1. This was a thoroughly well-conducted expedition — '■ especially as regards the sledge travelling, which M'Clintock brought to great perfection. So far as the search for Franklin *vas concerned, nothing remained to be done west or north of Barrow Strait. In 1851 the Prince Albert schooner; was sent out by Lady Franklin, unde Captain Kennedy, with Lieutenant Bel- lot of the French navy as second. They wintered on the east coast of North Somerset, and in the spring of 1852 the gallant Frenchman, in the course of a long sledging journey, discovered Bellot Strait separating North Somerset from Boothia — this proving that the Boothia coast facing the strait was the northern extremity of the continent of America. Three Traveling Parties. The Enterprise and Investigator sailed from England in January, 1850, but ac- cidentally parted company before they reached Behring Strait. On May 6, 1 85 1, the Enterprise passed the strait, and rounded Point Barrow on the 25th. Collinson then made his way up the narrow Prince of Wales Strait, between Baring and Prince Albert Island, and reached Princess Royal Islands, where M'Clure had been the previous year. Returning southwards, the Enterprise wintered in a sound in Prince Albert Island. Three travelling parties were dispatched in the spring of 1852 — one to trace Prince Albert Island in a south- erly direction, while the others explored Prince of Wales Strait, one of them reaching Melville Island. In September, 1852, the ship was free, and Collinson pressed eastward along the coast of North America, reaching Cam- VOYAGES IN THE POLAR WORLD. 251 bridge Bay September 26th, where the second winter was passed. In the spring he examined the shores of Vic- toria Land. He was within a few miles of Point Victory, where the fate of Franklin would have been ascertained. The Enterprise again put to sea on August 5, 1853, and returned westward along the American coast, until she was stopped by ice and obliged to pass a third winter at Camden Bay. In 1854 this most remarkable voyage was com- pleted, and Captain Collinson brought the Enterprise back to England. Discovered North- West Passage. Meanwhile M'Clure, in the Investi- gator, had passed the winter of 1850-51 at the Princess Royal Islands, only thirty miles from Barrow Strait. In October M'Clure ascended a hill whence he could see the frozen surface of Barrow Strait, which was navigated by Parry in 1819-20. Thus, like the survivors of Franklin's crews when they reached Cape Herschel, M'Clure discovered a north-west passage. It was impossible to reach it, for the branch of the palseo- crystic ice which stopped Franklin off King William Land was athwart their northwara course. So as soon as he was free in 185 1, M'Clure turned southwards, round the southern extreme of Baring Island, and commenced to force a passage to the northward between the western shore of that land and the enormous fields of ice which pressed upon it. The cliflfs rose up like walls on one side, while on the other the stupendous ice of the palaeo- crystic sea rose from the water to a level with the Investigator's lower yards. After many hair-breath escapes Mc- Clure took refuge in a bay on the northern shore of Bank's Land, which he named "The Bay of God's Mercy." Here the Investigator remained, never to move again. After the winter of 1851-52 M'Clure made a journey across the ice to Melville Island, and left a record at Parry's winter harbor. Abund- ant supplies of musk ox were fortun- ately obtained, but a third winter had to be faced. In the spring of 1853 M'Clure was preparing to abandon the ship with all hands, and attempt, like Franklin's crews, to reach the American coast. But succor providentially ar- rived in time. The Hudson's Bay Company assisted in the search for Franklin. In 1848 Sir John Richardson and Dr. Rae examined the American coast from the mouth of the Mackenzie to that of the Copper- mine. In 1849 and 1850 Rae continued the search ; and by a long sledge journey in the spring of 185 1, and a boat voyage in the summer, he examined the shores of Wollaston and Victoria Lands, which were afterwards explored by Captain Collinson in the Enterprise. New Expedition. In 1852 the British Government re- solved to dispatch another expedition by Lancaster Sound. Austin's four vessels were recommissioned, and the North Star was sent out as a depot ship to Beechey Island. Sir Edward Belcher commanded the Assistance, with the Pioneer under Sherard Osborn as steam tender. He went up Wellington Chan- nel to Northumberland Bay, where he wintered, passing a second winter lower down in Wellington Channel, and then abandoning his ships and coming home in 1854. But Sherard Osborn and Com- mander Richards did good work. They 252 VOYAGES IN THE POLAR WORLD. made sledge journeys to Melville Island and thus discovered the northern side of the Parry group. Captain Kellett received command of the Resolute, with M'Clintock in the steam tender In- trepid. Among Kellett's officers were the best of Austin's sledge travellers, M'Clin- tock, Mechani, and Vesey Hamilton, so that good work was sure to be done. George Nares, the future leader of the expedition of 1 874-75, was also on board the Resolute. Kellett passed onwards to the westward and passed the winter of 1852-53 at Melville Island. Dur- ing the autumn Mecham discovered M'Clure's record, and the safety of her crew was consequently assured, for it was only necessary to send a message across the strait between two fixed posi- tions. This service was performed by Lieutenaut Pini early in the following spring. The officers and crew of the Investi- gator, led by M'Clure, arrived safely on board the Resolute on June 17, 1853, and they reached England in the fol- lowing year. They not only discovered but traversed a north-west passage, though not in the same ship, and partly by travelling over ice. For this great feat M'Clure received the honor of knighthood — -a reward of fifty thousand dollars beiug voted to himself, the other officers, and the crew, by a vote of the House of Commons. Long Sledge Journey. The travelling parties of Kellett's ex- pedition, led by M'Clintock, Mecham and Vesey Hamilton, completed the discovery of the northern and western sides of INIelville Island, and the whole outline of the large Island of Prince Patrick, still further to the westward. M'Clintock was away from the ship with his sledge party for one hundred and five days and travelled over 1,328 miles. Mecham was away ninety-four days and travelled over 1,163 miles. Sherard Osborn, in 1853, was away ninety-seven days and travelled over 935 miles. The Resolute was obliged to winter in the pack in 1853-54, and in the spring of 1854 Mecham made a most remarkable journey in the hope of obtaining news of Captain Col- linson at the Princess Royal Islands. Leaving the ship on April 3d, he was absent seventy days, out of which there were sixty-one and a half days travel- ling. The distance gone over was 1,336 statute miles. The average rate of tlie homeward journey was tw^enty-tliree and a half miles a day, the average time of travelling each da)' nine hours tweu' ty-five minutes. This journey is with out parallel in arctic records. Ships Abandoned. Fearing detention for another winter, Sir Edward Belcher ordered all the ships to be abandoued in the ice, the officers and crews being taken home in the North Star, and in the Phoenix and Talbot which had come out from Eng- land to comurunicate. They reached home in October, 1854. In 1852 Captain Inglefield, R.N., had made a voyage up Baffin's Bay in the Isabel as far as the entrance of Smith Sound. In 1853 and 1854 he came out in the Phcenix to communicate with the North Star at Beechey Island. The drift of the Resolute was a re- markable proof of the direction of the current out of Barrow Strait. She was abandoned on May 14, 1854. On Sep- VOYAGKS IN THE POLAR WORLD. 253 tember lOj 1855, an American whaler sij^hted the Resohite in 6']^ North latitude, about twenty miles from Cape Mercy, in Davis Strait. She was brought into an American port, and eventually presented to the British Gov- ernment. She had drifted nearly a thousand miles. In 1853 ^'^^ ^^^ was employed to con- in April and May. He succeeded in connecting- the discoveries of Simpson with those of James Ross, and thus established the fact that King William Land was an island. Rae also brought home tidings and relics of Franklin's expedition gathered from the Eskimo; and this led to the expedition of M'Clintock in the Fox in RELICS OF franklin' aect a few points which would quite complete the examination of the coast of America, and establish the insularity of King William Land. He went up Chesterfield Inlet and the River Quoich for a considerable distance, wintering with eight men at Repulse Bay in a snow house.' Venison and fish were abundant. In 1854 he set out on a journey which occupied fifty-six days S POLAR FXPFDITION. search of Franklin. While M'Clintock was prosecuting his exhausting search over part of the west coast of Boothia, the whole of the shores of King Wil- liam Island, the mouth of the Great Fish River, and Montreal Island, Allen Young completed the discovery of the southern side of Prince of Wales Island. The Fox returned to England in the autumn of 1S59. 254 VOYAGES IN THE POLAR WORLD. The catastrophe of Sir John Frank- lin's expedition led to 7,000 miles of coast line being discovered, and to a vast extent of unknown country being explored, securing very considerable additions to geographical knowledge. Much attention was also given to the collection of information, and the scien- tific results of the various search expe- ditions were considerable. The catastrophe also afforded a warn- ing which would render any similar dis- aster quite inexcusable. If arrange- ments are always carefully made for a retreat beforehand, if a depot ship is always left within reach of the advanc- ing expedition as well as of the outer world, and if there is annual communi- cation, with positive rules for depositing records, no such catastrophe can ever happen again. The Search for Franklin. The American nation was first led to take an interest in polar research through a very noble and generous feel- ing of sympathy for Franklin and his brave companions. Mr. Grinnell, of New York, gave practical expression to this feeling. In 1850 he equipped two vessels, the Advance and Rescue, to aid in the search, commanded by Lieuten- ants De Haven and Griffith, and accom- panied by Dr. Kane. They reached Beechey Island on August 27, 1850, and assisted in the examination of Frank- lin's winter quarters, but returned with- out wintering. In 1853 Dr. Kane, in the little brig Advance of 12O tons, undertook to lead an American expedition up Smith Sound, the most northern outlet from Baffin's Bay. The Advance reached Smith Sound on August 7, 1853, but was stopped by ice only seventeen miles from the entrance. He described the coast as consisting of precipitous cliffs, 800 to 1200 feet high, and at their base there was a belt of ice about eighteen feet thick, resting on the beach. Dr. Kane adopted tlie Danish name of " ice- foot" {is fod) for this permanent frozen ridge. He named the place of his winter-quarters Van Rensselaer Harbor. Immense Glacier. In the spring some interesting work was done. A great glacier was dis- covered and named the Humboldt glacier, with a sea face forty-five miles long. Dr. Kane's steward, Morton, crossed the foot of this glacier with a team of dogs, and reached a point of land beyond named Cape Constitution. But sickness and want of means pre- vented much from being done by travel- ling parties. Scurvy attacked the whole party during the second winter, al- though the Eskimo supplied them with fresh meat and were true friends in need. On May 17, 1855, Dr. Kane abandoned the brig, and reached the Dani.sh settlement of Upernivik on Au- gust 6th. Lieutenant Hartstene, who was sent out to search for Kane, reached Van Rensselaer Harbor after he had eone, but took the retreating crew on board on his return voyage. On July 10, i860. Dr. Hayes, who had served with Kane, sailed from Bos- ton for Smith Sound, in the schooner United States, of 130 tons and a crew of fifteen men. His object was to follow up the line of research opened by Dr. Kane. He wintered at Point Foulke, about ten miles from Cape Alexander, which forms the eastern portal of Smith Sound. Dr. Hayes crossed Smith Sound VOYAGES IN THE POLAR WORLD. 255 in the spring witli dog-sledges, but his observations are not to be depended on, and it is very uncertain liow far he ad- vanced northward on the other side. He returned to Boston on October 23, 1861. Charles Hall, of Cincinnati, was led to become an arctic explorer through his deep interest in the search for King William Island. He heard the story of the retreat and of the wreck of one of the ships from the Eskimo ; he was told that seven bodies were buried at Todd Island ; and he brought home some bones wliich are believed to be those of Lieutenant Le Vescomte of the Erebus. KANK AND HIS COMPANIONS BRAVING THE COI.D. Franklin, In his first journey, 1860-62, he discovered the interesting remains of a stone house which Sir Martin Fro- bisher built on the Countess of Warwick Island in 1578. In his second expedi- tion, 1864-69, Hall, by dint of the most unwearied perseverance at length reached the line of the retreat of the Franklin survivors, at Todd's Island and Peflfer river, on the south coast of Finally, in 1871, he took the Polaris for 250 miles up the channel which leads northwards from Smith Sound. The various parts of this long channel are called Smith Sound, Kane Basin, Kennedy Channel, and Robeson Chan- nel. The Polaris was beset on 30th August ; and her winter quarters were in 81° 38' N., called Thank God Bay, The death of Hall followed and the 256 VOYAGES IN The polar WORLD. subsequent fortunes of the expedition were of the most perilous description. Between 1858 and 1872 the Swedes sent seven expeditions to Spitzbergen and two to Greenland. All returned with valuable scientific results. That of 1864 under Nordenskiold and Duner made observations at eighty different places on the Spitzbergen shores, and fixed the heights of numerous moun- tains. In 1868, in an iron steamer, the Sophia, the Swedes attained a latitude of 81° 42' N. on the meridain of 18° E., during the month of September. In 1872 an expedition consisting of the Polhem steamer and brigGladen, com- manded by Professor Nordenskiold and Lieutenant Palander, wintered in Mus- sel Bay, on the northern shore of Spitz- bergen. In the spring an important sledging journey of sixty days' dura- tion was made over ^orth-East Land. The expedition was in some distress as regards provisions owing to two vessels, which were to have returned, having been forced to winter. But in the sum- mer of 1873 they were visited by Mr. Leigh vSmith, in his yacht Diana, who supplied them with fresh provisions. Pressing Northward. Dr. Petermann of Gotha urged his countrymen to take their share in the noble work of polar discovery, and at his own risk he fitted out a small vessel called the Germania, which sailed from Bergen in May, 1868, under the com- mand of Captain Koldewey. His cruise extended to Hinlopen Strait in Spitz- bergen, but was merely tentative ; and in 1870 Baron von Heuglin with Count Zeil explored the Stor Fjord in a Nor- wegian schooner, and also examined Walter Thy men's Strait. After the re- turn of the Germania in 1 868 a regular expedition was organized under the command of Captain Koldewey, provi- sioned for two years. It consisted of the Germania, a screw steamer of 140 tons, and the brig Hansa commanded by Captain Hegemann. Crushed in the Ice. Lieutenant Payer, the future discov- erer of Franz Josef Land, gained his first arctic experience on board the Germania. The expedition sailed from Bremen on the 15th June, 1869, its des- tination being the east coast of Green- land. But the Hansa got separated from her consort and crushed in the ice. The crew built a house of patent fuel on the floe, and in this strange abode they passed their Christmas. In two months the current had carried them south for 400 miles. By May they had drifted iioo miles on their ice-raft, and finally, on June 14, 1870, they arrived at the Moravian mission station of Fried- riksthal, to the west of Cape Farewell. Fairer fortune attended the Germania. She sailed up the east coast of Green- land, and eventually wintered at the Pendulum Islands of Clavering. In March, 1870, a travelling party set out, under Koldewey and Payer, and reached a distance of 100 miles from the ship to the northward, when want of provisions compelled them to return. A grim cape, named after Prince Bismarck, marked the northern limit of their dis- coveries. As soon as the vessel was free, a deep branching inlet was discovered stretching for a long distance into the interior of Greenland. Along its shore are peaks 7,000 and 14,000 feet high. The expedition returned to Bremen on September 11, 1870. VOYAGES IN THE POI,AR WORLD. 257 Lieutenant Payer was resolved to con- tinue in the path of polar discovery. He and a naval officer named Weyprecht freighted a Norwegian schooner called the Isbjorn, and examined the edge of the ice between Spitzbergen and Nova Zembla, in the summer of 1871. Their observations led them to select the ' route by the north end of Nova Zembla with a view to making the north-east passage. It was to be an Austria-Hun- garian expedition, and the idea was seized with enthusiasm by the whole empire. Weyprecht was to command the ship, while Julius Payer conducted the sledge parties. A Winter of Adventures. The steamer Tegethoff, of 300 tons, was fitted out in the Elbe, and left Tromso on July 14, 1872. The season was exceptionally severe, and the vessel was closely beset near Cape Nassau, at the northern end of Nova Zembla, in the end of August. The summer of 1 873 found her still a close prisoner drifting, not with a current, but in the direction of the prevailing wind. At length, on the 3 ist August, a mountainous country was sighted about 14 miles to the north. In October the vessel was drifted within three miles of an island lying off the main mass of land. Payer landed on it. It was named after Count Wilczek, one of the warmest friends of the expedi- tion. Here the second winter was passed. Bears were very numerous and as many as sixty-seven were killed, their meat proving to be a most efficient remedy against scurvy. In March, 1874, Payer made a preliminary sledge journey in intense cold. On 24th March he started for a more prolonged journey of thirty 17 days. Payer found that the newly dis- covered country equalled Spitzbergen in extent, and consisted of two or more large masses — Wilzcek Land to the east, Zichy Land to the west, intersected by numerous fords and skirted by a large number of islands. A wide channel, named Austria Sound, separates the two main masses of land, where Rawlinson Sound forks oflf to the north-east. Perilous Voyage. The mountains attain a height of 2000 to 3000 feet, the depressions be- tween them being covered with gla- ciers ; and all the islands even are cov- ered with a glacial cap. The whole country was named Franz-Josef Land. Payer returned to the Tegethoff on 24th April ; and a third journey was under- taken to explore a large island named after McClintock. It then became ne- cessary to abandon the ship and attempt a retreat in boats. This perilous voy- age was commenced on 20th May. Three boats stored with provisions were placed on sledges. It was not until 14th August that they reached the edge of the pack and launched the boats. Eventually they were picked up by a Russian schooner and arrived at Vardo on September 3, 1874. This great achievement is one of the most impor- tant connected with the north polar re- gion that has been made in the nine- teenth century, and will probably lead in due time to still further discoveries in the same direction. One of the most interesting problems connected with the physical geography of the polar regions is the history and actual condition of the vast interior of . Greenland, which is generally believed to be one enormous glacier. In 1867 ^58 VOYAGES IN THE POLAR WORLD. Mr. Edward Whymper carefully plan- ned an expedition to solve the question, and went to Greenland, accompanied by Dr. Robert Brown ; but the season was too late and progress was stopped, after going a short distance, by the breaking down of the dog-sledges. But Dr. Brown made most valuable geological and natural history collections, chiefly in the neighborhood of Disco, and still more valuable observations, the publi- cation of which has added considerably to our knowledge. Dr. Rink, for many years royal inspector of South Green- land and the most distinguished author- ity on all Greenlandic questions, has also visited the inland ice, and has given his stores of information to the world. Captain Nare's Expedition. The gallant enterprises of other coun- tries rekindled the zeal of England for arctic discovery ; and in October, 1874, the prime minister announced that an expedition would be despatched in the following year. The route by Smith Sound was selected because it gave the certainty of exploring a previously un- known area of considerable extent, be- cause it yielded the best prospect of valuable scientific results, and because it offered, with proper precautions, rea- sonable security for a safe retreat in case of disaster. Two powerful screw steamers, the Alert and Discovery, were selected for the service, and Captain Nares was se- lected as leader. Commander Mark- ham who had made a cruise up Baffin's Bay and Barrow Strait in a whaler dur- ing the previous year, lyieutenant Aldrich, an accomplished surveyor, and Captain Feilden, as naturalist, were also in the Alert. The Discovery was commanded by Captain Stephenson, with Lieutenant Beaumont as first lieutenant. The expedition left Ports- mouth on the 29th May, 1875, and en- tered Smith Sound in the last days of July. After much difficulty with the drift- ing ice Lady Franklin Bay was reached, where the Discovery was established in winter-quarters. The Alert passed on- wards, and reached the edge of the palseocrystic sea, the ice-floes being from 80 to 100 feet in thickness. Leaving Robeson Channel, the vessel made pro- gress between the land and the ground- ed floe pieces, and passed the winter off the open coast and facing the great polar pack. Autumn travelling parties were despatched in September and Octo- ber to lay out depots ; and during the winter a complete scheme was matured for the examination of as much of the unknown area as possible, by the com- bined efforts of sledging parties from the two ships, in the ensuing sprini^. The parties started on April 3, 1876 Valuable Discoveries. Captain Markham with Lieutenant Parr advanced, in the face of almost in- surmountable difficulties, over the polar pack to the high latitude of 83° 20' 26" N. Lieutenant Aldrich explored the coast-line to the westward, facing the frozen polar ocean, for a distance of 220 miles. Lieutenant Beaumont made discoveries of great interest along the northern coast of Greenland. The par- ties were attacked by scurvy, which, while increasing the difficulty and hardships of the work a hundredfold, also enhanced the devoted heroism of these gallant explorers. Captain Feilden was indefatigable in making collections, VOYAGES IN THE POLAR WORLD. 259 and was zealously assisted by all the officers. The expedition returned to England in October, 1876. The Alert reached the highest northern latitude ever at- tained by any ship, and wintered further north than any ship had ever wintered before. The results of the expedition were the discovery of 300 miles of new coast-line , the examina- tion of this part of the frozen polar ocean, a series of meteorological, mag- netic, and tidal observations at two points farther north than any such ob- servations had ever been taken before, and large geological and natural history collections. Compelled to Return. In the same year, 1875, Sir Allen Young undertook a voyage in his steam yacht, the Pandora, to attempt to force his way down Peel Sound to the mag- netic pole, and if possible to make the north-west passage by rounding the eastern shore of King William Island. The Pandora entered Peel Sound on August 29, 1875, and proceeded down it much farther than any vessel had gone before since it was passed by Franklin's two ships in 1846. Sir Allen sighted Cape Bird, at the northern side of the western entrance of Bellot Strait. But here an ice-barrier right across the channel barred his progress, and he was obliged to retrace his steps, returning to England on October 16, 1875. In the following year Sir Allen Young made another voyage in the Pandora to the entrance of Smith Sound. In 1 879 an enterprise was undertaken in the United States, with the object of throwing further light on the sad his- tory of the retreat of the officers and men of Sir John Franklin's expedition, by examining the west coast of King William Island in the summer, when the snow is oflf the ground. The party consisted of lyieutenant Schwatka of the United States army and three others. Wintering near the entrance of Chesterfield Inlet in Hudson's Bay, they set out overland for the estuary of the Great Fish River, assisted by Eski- mo and dogs, on April i, 1879. Great Herd of Reindeer. They only took one month's provi- sions, their main reliance being upon the game affiarded by the region to be traversed. The party obtained, during the journeys out and home, no less than five hundred and twenty-two reindeer. After collecting various stories from the Eskimo at Montreal Island and at an inlet west of Cape Richardson, Schwatka crossed over to Cape Her- schel on King William Island in June. He examined the western shore of the island with the greatest care for relics of Sir John Franklin's parties, as far as Cape Felix, the northern extremity. The return journey was commenced in November by ascending the Great Fish River for some distance and then marching over the intervening region to Hudson's Bay. The cold of the winter months in this country is oftentimes intense, the thermometer falling as low as 70° below zero — so that the return journey was most re- markable, and reflects the highest credit on Ivieutenant Schwatka and his com- panions. As regards the search little was left to be done after M'Clintock, but some graves were found, as well as a medal belonging to Ivieutenant Irving of H. M. S. Terror, and some bones 260 VOYAGES IN THE POLAR WORLD. believed to have been his, which were brought home and interred at Edin- burgh. Mr. Gordon Bennett, the proprietor of the New York Herald^ having re- solved to despatch an expedition of discovery at his own expense by way of Behring Strait, the Pandora was purchased from Sir Allen Young, and rechristened the Jeannette. Lieutenant De Long of the United States navy was appointed to command, and it was made a national undertaking by special Act of Congress, the vessel being placed under martial law and oflScered from the navy. The Jeannette sailed from San Fran- cisco on July 8, 1879, and was last seen steaming towards Wrangell Land on the 3d of September. This land had been seen by Captain Kellett, in H. M. S. Herald on August 17, 1879, but no one had landed on it, and it was shown on the charts by a long dotted line. Searching Party. The Jeannette was provisioned for three years, but as no tidings had been received of her up to 1881, two steam- ers were sent up Behring Strait in search. One of these, the Rodgers, under Lieutenant Berry, anchored in a good harbor on the south coast of Wran- gell Land on the 26th August 1881. The land was explored by the officers of the Rodgers and found to be an island about 70 miles long by 28, with a ridge of hills traversing it east and west, the 71st parallel running along its southern shore. Lieutenant Berry then proceeded to examine the ice to the northward, and attained a higher latitude by 21 miles than had ever been reached before on the Behring Strait meridian.. No news was obtained of the Jeannette, but soon afterwards melancholy tidings arrived from Siberia. After having been beset in heavy pack ice for twenty-two months, the Jeannette was crushed and sunk on the 12th June 1881. Separated in a Gale. The officers and men dragged their boats over the ice to an island which was named Bennett Island, where they landed on the 29th July. They reached one of the New Siberia Islands on the loth September, and on the 12th they set out for the mouth of the Lena. But in the same evening the three boats were separated in a gale of wind. A boat's crew with Mr, Melville, the en- gineer, reached Irkutsk, and Mr. Mel- ville set out in search of Lieutenant De Long and his party, who had also landed. The other boat was lost. Event- ually Melville discovered the dead bodies of De Long and two of his crew on March 23, 1883. They had perished from exhaustion and want of food. The Rodgers was burnt in its winter quarters, and one of the officers, Mr. Gilder, made a hazardous journey home- wards through north-east Siberia. On September 18, 1875, Lieutenant Weyprecht, one of the discoverers of Franz-Joseph Land, read a thoughtful and carefully prepared paper before a large meeting of German naturalists at Gratz on the scientific results to be obtained from polar research and the best means of securing them. He urged the importance of establishing a num- ber of stations within or near the Arctic Circle, in order to record complete series of synchronous meteorological and magnetic observations. VOYAGES IN THE POLAR WORLD. 261 Lieutenant Weyprecht did not live to see his suggestions carried into exe- eution, but they bore fruit in due time. at another at St. Petersburg in 1882, and it was decided that each nation should establish one or more stations \is*here BRILLIANT AURORA IN THE; POLAR SEA. The various nations of Europe were represented at an international polar conference at Hamburg in 1879, and synchronous observations should be taken from August 1882. This useful project was matured and executed. 262 VOYAGES IN THE POLAR WORLD. The American stations commenced work in 1882. Lieutenant Greely's party consisted of two other lieutenants, of twenty sergeants and privates of the United States army, and Dr. Pavy, an enthusiastic explorer who had been ■educated in France, and had passed the previous winter among the Eskimo of Greenland. On August 11, 1881, the steamer Proteus conveyed Lieutenant Greely and his party to Lady Franklin Bay during an exceptionally favorable season ; a house was built at the Dis- cover's winter-quarters, and they were left with two years' provisions. The regular series of observations was at once commenced, and two winters were passed without accident. Travelling parties were also sent out in the sum- mer, dogs having been obtained nt Disco. Lieutenant Lockwood made a jour- ney along the north coast of Greenland, and reached a small island. Dr. Pavy and another went a short distance be- yond the winter-quarters of the Alert, and a trip was made into the interior of Grinnell Land. But all this region had already been explored and exhaus- tively examined by the English expe- dition in 1875-76. Greely Makes a Start. As no successor arrived in the sum- mer of 1883 — though relieving vessels were despatched both in 1882 and 1883 — Lieutenant Greely started from Lady Franklin Bay with his men on the 9th of August, expecting to find a vessel in Smith Sound. On the 2 1st of October they were obliged to encamp at Cape Sabine, on the western shore of Smith Sound, and build a, hut for wintering. A few depots were found, which had been left by Sir George Nares and Lieutenant Beebe, but all was exhausted before the spring. Then came a time of inde- scribable misery and acute suffering. The poor fellows began to die of actual starvation ; and when the relieving steamers Thetis and Bear reached Cape Sabine, Lieutenant Greely and six siifiering companions were found just alive. If the simple and necessary precau- tion had been taken of stationing a depot ship in a good harbor at the entrance of Smith Sound, in annual communication with Greely on one side and with America on the other, there would have been no disaster. Dr. Nansen in Greenland. The attention of explorers and scien- tific men was turned towards Green- land, as the knowledge of the interior of that country was very meagre. In 1886 Lieutenant Robert E. Peary vis- ited that island in quest of scientific information. The southern part of the island was crossed on snow shoes from east to west by Dr. Nansen, the famous Norwegian explorer. Peary returned to Greenland in 1891, with a few at- tendants, and making McCormick Bay a base of operations, set out the follow- ing spring, accompanied by only a single companion, on a journey with sledges through the northern part of the island. His journey of 650 miles was a re- markable feat considering the great difficulties he encountered. He reached the north-east coast of Greenland, but further progress was cut off by an area of broken stones impassable to his sledges. Peary made another journey VOYAGES IN THE POLAR WORLD. 263 in the same direction in 1895, but failed to advance beyond the point gained by his previous expedition. Dr. Nansen, already mentioned, con- ceived the idea of reaching the pole by the strong ocean current that is sup- posed to cross the polar sea. For his expedition he had a ship constructed, so strong as to be able to offer forni id- able resistance to the ice, and so built that •^reat pressure would lift it to the top of the ice-floe. Tl ^ intrepid ex- plorer set out in this vessel, the Fram, in June, 1893, and proceeded to New Siberia Islands. Here he anchored his ship to an ice-floe, and waited to see if the current would drift the vessel across the polar sea. It is needless to state that his expectations were not realized. Great Explorer's Return. For three years no tidings came from Nansen and his intrepid crew. They appeared to have gone out in the mys- terious darkness that veils the polar world, with little prospect of ever re- turning or leaving any tidings of their fate. But suddenly the world was stirred by the information that the great explorer had returned from his perilous voyage. Although Dr. Nansen did not accom- plish his object, his vessel floated into a higher latitude than had ever been reached before by 200 miles ; he was then 300 miles from the point farthest north. Here his vessel turned southward and drifted in the opposite direction. In March, 1895, he left the Fram because of the slow progress made, and began a journey north with one companion. After struggling for a long time against many obstacles he was compelled to relinquish his effort and return. With his companion, Jobansen, he finally arrived at Franz Joseph Land, where they spent the winter of 1895-96, living on the flesh of walruses and bears which they succeeded in captur- ing. Meanwhile, in 1894, an English' explorer, Frederick G. Jackson, visited Franz Joseph Land, where he remained three years, carefully exploring it dur- ing this time. In the spring Dr. Jack- son met Nansen and his friend, and it was through him that the great Nor- wegian explorer was rescued and suc- ceeded in returning to his native land. His exploit was considered one of the most remarkable in the history of polar explorations. He visited England, Scotland and the United States, and was everywhere received with the honor due to his achievements, and wherever he lectured great interest was awakened by his story of the Polar world. No one desti- tute of great courage, intrepidity and perseverance could have braved the rigors of the Arctic clime and accom- plished what Nansen did. A Balloon Voyage. In the summer of 1897 an explorer of Swedish birth, S. A. Andree, conceived the idea of reaching the pole by mean? of a balloon voyage. Although the attempt was considered by most persons as visionary he succeeded in making a start with two companions, holding out expectations of his return in a few months after having accomplished his object. The party was never heard of afterward, and undoubtedly met the fate that was anticipated by all scientific men, who looked upon the undertaking as a piece of the utmost folly. Mention has been made of Lieutenant 264 VOYAGES IN THE POLAR WORLD. Peary, of the United States Navy, who has distinguished himself in Arctic ex- plorations, especially in Greenland. In 1898 he returned to Greenland to pursue his discoveries. Thus the century has witnessed a great advance in our knowl- edge of the Polar region, which, by these various voyages and the heroic achievements of those who have under- taken them, has been brought near to the rest of the world and is no longer such an unknown realm as it was a hundred years before and has been for thousands of years. Life in the Arctics. Human life in these far regions is even more wonderful than that of the lower animals. It is hardly credible that in these bleak territories of endless snow and winter people should be found who prefer their snowy surroundings to all the glories of more tropical climes, and would not exchange their snow- villages for the splendor of any metro- polis in either hemisphere. There is not a more singular people on the earth than those living within the Arctic belt ; nomadic, and yet all their resources are taxed to procure a living ; always pressed for food, and yet wonderfully hospitable; true barba- rians, but none the less peaceable and clever. Away in the chilly North nature withholds her gifts of food and warmth, and then with hard and piti- less niggardness, she drives such chilly blasts as if life within her sphere had angered her. Under a glinting sky of frost, within an unbroken landscape of inexpressibly lonesome desolation, the Esquimau makes his home and lives, despite the rigor and barren waste of his nameless country. These wonderful children of eccentric creation are controlled by no law, either written or traditional, and acknow- ledge accountability only to their own conscience, and yet they are orderlv and given little to crime. They have patriarchs in their tribes who give ad- vice, but never assert authority. Es- quimau children render singular obe- dience to their parents, even after reaching maturity, which proceeds from a remarkable fraternal devotion, for there is no such thing as punishment of a male child by its parents. The value of the scientific discoveries made during the century by explorers in the Polar world cannot be overesti- mated. The frigid blanks of the North have been brought near ; a new world has been revealed, although buried in snow and ice; adventure has dazzled the nations with its feats, and much has been added to the sum of human knowledge. CHAPTER XVIII. Livingstone and Stanley in Central Africa. fHE greatest names in the history of Central African exploration in the Nineteenth Century are those of Livingstone and Stanley. The brave old missionary whose name stands first had passed more than tvi^enty years of his life in Africa when he set out upon his last and most important journey in 1866. Sailing from Zanzibar with a party of thirty men — Arabs, Hindoos, and negroes — he landed at the mouth of the Rovuma, and proceeded in a south- westerly direction, along a most difficult route. It was a mere footpath, which had been made by the natives through the dense jungle by the easiest way, without any regard to its course being in the right direction. In pursuing this devious track, Livingstone and his party had to cut their way through with axes to enable the camels to pass under the branches of trees, and avoid the im- pediments presented by the rope-like climbing and trailing plants that fes- tooned them. In September he was within view of Lake Nyassa. Crossing the mountains, he descended into the valley of the Cham.bezi, which at that time, misled by Portuguese writers and the similarity of name, he believed to be the head water of the Zambesi. Continuing his journey westward, he entered the king- dom of Lunda, the ruler of which, the famous Cazembe, was a man of consid- erable intelligence. This potentate, a tall, stalwart negro, clad in crimson cotton, received the traveller very hospi- tably, and gave orders that he should be allowed to go where he would in his country unmolested. During their interview, the Queen ol Cazembe was brought up to the house on a litter, surrounded by her body- guard. Being a fine, tall young woman, of attractive exterior, she had calcu- lated, it would seem, upon making a powerful impression upon the white man, and had dressed herself for the in- terview in the choicest articles of attire her wardrobe aSbrded. But something in her appearance caused the doctor to laugh ; her majesty laughed also, per- haps at the appearance of the doctor, who was the first tvhite man she had ever seen. The laugh was echoed by the whole band of bearers, which so disconcerted her that, instead of staying to make a conquest of the doctor, she beat an undignified retreat, followed by her body-guard. On leaving Cazembe's capital, Liv- ingstone proceeded in a north-easterly direction until he reached a lake, which the natives called Liemba, but which he found, by tracing it northward, to be Tanganika. In November, 1867, he reached the shores of Lake Moero, which is about sixty miles in length, and, rounding its southern extremity, discovered a river, called the Luapula, flowing into it. Following it south- ward, he found that it proceeded from the great lake of Bangweolo, which is as large as Tanganika ; and in explor- ing the shores of the lake he found the Chambezi flowing into it, and thus dis- 265 266 LIVINGSTONE AND STANLEY IN AFRICA. covered that it was not the Zambesi, as he had at first supposed. He then returned to lyunda, and rested some time with the hospitable monarch of that country. Again re- suming his wanderings, he was deserted by all his followers, except two. They repented, however, and returned to his lyualaba. Its course was winding, but with great perseverance he traced it into the long narrow lake of Kamo- londo. Then he turned southward, and traced the river up to the foot of Lake Moero. Turning northward again, he followed the river through all its numerous DR. LIVINGSTONE THE CELEBRATED AFRICAN EXPLORER. service ; and in March, 1 869, he reached Ujiji. After resting there three months, he crossed over to Uguhra, on the wes- tern shore of Tanganika, and thence accompanied a trading party to Bam- barre, where he was detained six months with ulcerated feet. As soon as he was able to travel again, he set off in a northerly direction, and after several days reached a broad river called the bends to within four degrees of the equator. He heard of another lake farther north, in which it was said to run ; and was led by this northward course to the conclusion that he had discovered the headwaters of the Nile in the Chambezi and the Lualaba. He was destitute of means for further ex- plorations, however, and retraced his steps to Ujiji. So long a time had now elapsed since LIVINGSTONE AND STANLEY IN AFRICA. 267 any news of the gallant old man had been received in England that much anxiety was felt as to his fate, not only in that country, but throughout the civilized world. Mr. Bennett, proprie- tor of the "New York Herald," seized the opportunity that thus presented itself, and commissioned one of its most trusty correspondents, the now famous Stanley, to lead an expedition into the wilds of Central Africa in search of lyivingstone. Preparing for the Journey. Stanley reached Zanzibar in the first week of 1871, and a month later left that place, accompanied by Farquhar and Shaw, who had held the rank of mates in the mercantile marine, an Arab named Selim, who was to serve ^ interpreter, six natives who had travelled with Captain Speke, and eighteen other negroes. Landing at Bagamoyo, twenty-five miles south of Zanzibar, he was there detained several weeks by the usual difficulty of procuring porters ; but at length a start was made for the interior, all engaged in the expedition in the highest spirits. The route pursued had never been trodden by white men before, and for several days presented alternate tracts of jungle and swamp. Then the party entered upon a ver- dant plain, backed by distant moun- tains. But the prospect soon changed; the grassy plain was succeeded by ex- ' tensive reedy swamps, intersected by numerous shallow streams. His follow- ers, too, European as well as native, gave Stanley considerable trouble, of which an instance may be quoted. Stanley was waiting for Shaw, who was leading a caravan with supplies. Food being scarce in the camp, and Shaw not arriving, he sent a message to him, requiring him to come on with all the speed he could ; but time passed, and the caravan arrived not. Stanley then set out to meet it, and thus describes Shaw's order of march : "Stout burly Chowereh carried the cart on his head, having found that carrying it was easier than drawing it. The sight was such a damper to my regard for it as an experiment, that the cart was wheeled into the reeds and there left. The central figure was Shaw himself, riding at a gait which rendered it doubtful whether he or his animal felt most sleepy. Upon expos- tulating with him for keeping the cara- van so long waiting when there was a march on hand, he said he had done the best he could ; but as I had seen the solemn pace at which he rode, I felt dubious about his best endeavors, and requested him, if he could not mend his pace, to dismount and permit the donkey to proceed to camp, that it might be loaded for the march." AfricaL' Scenery. Wooded valleys succeeded, and in the first week of June the expedition en- tered the region of Uyanzi, where, says Stanley, "the scenery was much more picturesque than any we had yet seen since leaving Bagamoyo. The ground rose into grander waves, hills cropped out here and there, great castles of syenite appeared, giving a strange and weird appearance to the forest. " Unyanyembe was reached a few days afterwards, but then came many trou- bles ; many of the men were prostrated by sickness, many more deserted, and the invasion of the country by the re- 268 LIVINGSTONE AND STANLEY IN AFRICA. doubtable Mirambo added to the diffi- culties by which Stanley was beset. Farquhar first, and then Shaw were left behind, in the care of friendly chiefs, weary and sick, and it was not until September that Stanley was able to leave Unyanyembe for Ujiji. An Unbounded Forest. "We ascended," says Stanley, "a ridge bristling with syenite boulders of massive size, appearing above the forest — an illimitable forest, stretching in grand waves far beyond the ken of vision ; ridges, forest-clad, rising gently one above another until they receded in the dim purple distance, with a warm haze floating above them, which, though clear enough in our neighborhood, be- came impenetrably blue in the far dis- tance. "Woods, woods, woods, one above another, rising, falling and receding — a very leafy ocean. The horizon at all points presents the same view. There may be an indistinct outline of a hill far away, or a taller tree than the rest conspicuous in its outlines against the translucent sky ; with this exception, it is the same — the same clear sky drop- ping into the depths of the forest, the same outlines, the same forest, the same horizon, day after day, week after week. Early in October the expedition." entered upon what Stanley calls "a grand, noble expanse of park-land, whose glorious magnificence and vastness of prospect, with a far-stretching carpet of verdure, darkly flecked here and there by miniature clumps of jungle, was one of the finest scenes in Africa." Large game was plentiful, herds of zebras, buffaloes, giraffes and antelopes roam- ing in every direction over the grassy plain, so that the travelers were now abundantly supplied with food. Farther on, where the undulations swelled into hills and valleys, and the rivers rendered the latter swampy, ele- phants and rhinoceri were seen for the first time. Leopards were occasionally seen, and lions roared at night around the camp. Ravines and Naked Rocks. Winding along the base of the Kasera mountains, they crossed the lofty ridge which bounds the depression of Imrera on the west and north, and on the 29th "were in view of the sublimest but ruggedest scene we had yet beheld in Africa. The country was cut up in all directions by deep, narrow ravines, trending generally toward the north- west, while on either side rose enormous square masses of naked rock (sandstone), with but little vegetation anywhere visible, except it obtained a precarious tenure in the fissured crown of some hill top, or at the base of the scarps whicii everywhere lifted their fronts to our view." The Malagarazi was crossed on the 2nd of November, and on the following day news that Livingston was at Ujiji was received from a negro caravan com- ing from that direction, and Stanley immediately pushed on with renewed vigor. On the loth, a silvery gleam seen be- tween the trees afforded the first glimpse of Lake Tanganika ; but several hours elapsed before they looked down upon Ujiji, embowered among graceful palms. Then the American flag was unfurled, guns were fired, and as the expedition marched into the village the inhabi- tlVINGSTONB AND STANLEY IN AFRICA. 269 tants, Arabs and negroes of many tribes, swarmed out to meet them. "Good morning, sir," said a voice from the black crowd, and Stanley, look- ing round in surprise, saw a joyous- ' ' Is Dr. Livingstone here ? ' ' asked Mr. Stanley. "Yes, sir." "Are you sure?" " Sure, sir ; I leave him just now." HENRY M. STA.NLEY, FAMOUS FOR HIS EXPT.ORA'TIONS IN AFRICA. looking negro, wetiring a white turban and a long white shirt. "Who the mischief are you?" the astonished traveller asked. "I am Susi, the servant of Dr. Liv- ingstone," was the reply. "Good morning, sir," said another voice. "Hallo!" said Stanley. "Is this another one?" " Yes, sir,' ' said another ebony figure. "Well, what is your name ?" 270 LIVINGSTONE AND STANLEY IN AFRICA. ''My name is Chumah, sir." "And is the doctor well?" " Not very well, sir." " Now, you Susi, run and tell the doc- tor I am coming.' ' "Yes, sir." And off rushed Susi. Proceeding through a momently in- creasing crowd, Stanley met Susi again, breathless with running. He had told the doctor that a white man was coming, but when Livingstone, too much surprised to conceive such a visit possible, asked the traveller's name, Susi had no answer to give him. The news had spread, how- ever, and the Arab iragnates of the place gathered under the verandah. Stanley Meets Dr. Livingstone. "I pushed back the crowd," says Stanley, "and walked down a living avenue of people, until I came in front of the semi-circle of Arabs, in front of which stood the white man. As I ad- vanced I noticed he was pale, looked wearied, had a gray beard, wore a blue cap with a faded gold band round it, had on a red-sleeved waistcoat, and a pair of grey tweed trousers. "I would have run to him, only I was a coward in the presence of such a mob — would have embraced him, only he being an Englishman I did not know how he would receive me ; so I walked deliberately to him, took off my hat and said, ' Dr. Livingstone, I presume ? ' * Yes, ' said he, with a smile, lifting his cap slightly. I replaced my hat on my head, and he puts on his cap, and we grasp hands, and I say, 'I thank God, doctor, I have been permitted to see you.' He answered, ' I feel thankful that I am here to welcome you." I turned to the Arabs, took off my hat to them in respon je to the saluting chorus oiyambos I received, and the doctor in- troduced them to me by name." The Arabs, with the delicacy of true politeness, soon left the two Europeans together, and then Stanley handed to Livingstone a bag of letters which had been lying for months at Unyanyembe, and the doctor had many questions to ask, which passed the afternoon and evening,, One morning they embarked in a large canoe, lent by one of the Arab gentlemen of the place, and steered iiorthward, keeping close to the shore, ' ' with a range of hills, beautifully wooded and clothed with green grass, sloping abruptly, almost precipitously, into the depths of the fresh-water sea, towering immediately above us, and as we rounded the several capes or points, roused expectations of some new won- der, or some exquisite picture. Nor were we disappointed. Gardens and Palmy Forests. "From Bagamoyo to Ujiji I had seen nothing to compare to them — these fishing settlements under the shade of palms and plantains, banians, and mi- mosa, with cassava gardens to the right and left of palmy forests, and patches of luxuriant grain looking down upon the quiet bay." The northern shores of the lake were flat, with many reed-beds, and croco- diles were numerous, though on the southern portion they were seldom seen. Skirting these marshy shores, the explorers reached the western side of the lake, which rose much more loftily and precipitously than the east- ern. On the 1 2th of December they regained Ujiji, from which they had been absent twenty-eight days. Liv- LIVINGSTONE AND STANLEY IN AFRICA. 271 ingstone then commenced writing let- ters, and copying memoranda of his explorations and discoveries into his journ^al, which, with the letters, Stanley was to take to England on his return. "I sketched him," says the latter, "while sitting in his shirt-sleeves in the verandah, with his diary on his knee, as he pondered on what he had witnessed during his long marches." Livingstone and Stanley left Ujiji in company on the 27th of November with the British and American flags waving at the prows of the two large canoes lent them by the friendly Arabs. Skirting the eastern shore in a south- ward direction, the travellers landed at Urimba, and, after waiting to be joined by those of their followers who had gone by land, started up the valley of the Loajeri for Unyanyembe. It was soon found that the guide knew nothing about the road, notwithstanding his voluble assurances that Jie was well acquainted with the topography of all of the surrounding country. Stanley therefore put himself at the head of the caravan, and led a due easterly course, as indicated by the compass. Stanley and the Elephant. One day, about a fortnight after their departure from Ujiji, and when food was becoming scarce, Stanley took his rifle and strolled up a picturesque ra- vine in quest of game. Advancing through thick forests, he suddenly found himself confronted with a huge ele- phant. "Methought," says the travel- ler, "when I saw his trunk stretched forward, like a warning finger, that I heard a voice say, ' Siste^ vena tor P But whether it did not proceed from my imagination — no, I believe it pro- ceeded from one of my party, who nnist have shouted ' Lo, an elephant ! an elephant, my master ! ' for the young rascal had fled as soon as he witnessed the awful colossus in such close vicin- age. Recovering from my astonish- ment, I thought it prudent to retire also. As I looked behind, I saw him waving his trunk, which I understood to mean, ' Good bye, young fellow ! It is lucky for you you went in time, for I was going to pound you to a jelly.' " Had to Live on Mushrooms. Tracks of animals were frequently observed, but, it being the rainy season, the game was scattered, and none could be procured. Persistently holding an easterly course, Stanley led the way over ridge after ridge, seeing rivers foaming and brawling through narrow beds that in summer were dry, and on the ninth day of the march saw Mag- dala Mount, bearing north-east, and knew that they were approaching Im- rera. Rain had fallen every day, and a veil of grey haze hung over the forest. Mushrooms were abundant, and for the last day or two constituted the travel- lers' only food. Arrived at Imrera, the natives crowded around them with sup- plies and congratulations ; but they halted only a day there, and on the 19th two zebras fell to Stanley's rifle, and the caravan was again joyous. On the 31st they met a caravan on its way from Unyanyembe to Ujiji, and learned the death of Shaw at the former place, the result of fever, rendered fatal by intemperance. The Gombe was reached on the 7th of February, and they camped near one of its largest lakes, which is several miles in length, 272 UVINGSTONE AND STANLEY IN AFRICA. and swarms with hippopotami and croc- odiles. Here numerous imprints of lions' feet were observed, besides those of elephants, rhinoceri, hogs, and ante- lopes ; and on the following day, while looking for game, Stanley was startled by the roaring of three lions, apparently close at hand. Bounded into the Forest. Instinctively cocking his rifle, he glanced keenly around, and detected, not the lions, but a large antelope, which stood trembling, as if it dreaded the fatal spring of the forest lords- Stanley fired, and the antelope gave a tremendous bound, and rushed into the forest, where, though wounded, as shown by its bloody trail, it disappeared. The report seemed to have scared the lions, for they were not seen or heard again. Unyanyembe was reached on the i8th of February, and the valley of Khiwhara entered with flags flying and guns firing. Stanley's first act was to raise a monu- ment over the grave of Shaw. Fifty men were engaged for two days in bringing rocks to the spot, with which a cairn eight feet long and five broad was constructed, which lyivingstone said would ever afterwards be known as the grave of the first white man who had died in Unyamwezi. Stanley remained in his old quarters, with Livingstone as his guest, until the 14th of March, when they separated; the latter resolved not to leave Africa until the mystery of the Nile sources was finally cleared up, and the former resumed his return journey to Zanzibar. On the 27th, when the expedition was encamped in the shade of a group of colossal baobabs, they were startled by the bellowing of war-horns, and at first thought that an attack was about to be made on the camp. It soon be- came known, however, that the alarm was on account of the rumored incursion of an unfriendly tribe. Stanley thus describes the scene which this alarm preluded : — " The men rushed to their villages, and in a short time we saw them arrayed in full fighting costume. Feathers of the ostrich and the eagle waved over their fronts, or the mane of the zebra surrounded their heads ; their knees and ankles were hung with little bells ; joho robes floated behind, from their necks; spears, asse- gais, knob-sticks, and bows were flour- ished over their heads, or held in their right hands, as if ready for hurling. A Mimic War. ' ' On each flank of a large body which issued from the principal village, and which came at a uniform swinging double-quick, the ankle and knee bells all chiming in admirable unison, were a cloud of skirmishers, consisting of the most enthusiastic, who exercised them- selves in mimic war as they sped along. Column after column, companies from every village, hurried past our camp, until, probably, there were nearly a thousand soldiers gone to the war." At nig^htfall these warriors returned from the forest. There had been no fighting, the alarm having been without founda- tion. On the 30th the expedition arrived at Khonze, and halted near the village, while some friendly Wagogo travellers who had joined them, settled the cus- toms duties, or tribute, with the chief. The Wagogos ran back to the halting- place, breathless, shouting, "Why do tlVlNGSTONE AND STANLEY IN AFRICA. 273 you lialt here? Do you wish to die? These pagans will not take the tribute, but they boast they will eat up all your cloth." Close upon their heels came the chief and his fighting men, all armed. Stanley ordered his men to load, and then strode up to the chief, and asked whether he had come to take the cloth by force, or would accept quietly what was given him. A Wanyamwezi, who had instigated the chief to make an ex- orbitant demand, was about to speak, but Stanley pushed him aside, and threat- ened to shoot him first if he was forced to fight. The chief laughed at the man's discomfiture, and in a short time he and Stanley settled the matter to their mutual satisfaction. Danger of a Massacre. Two days afterwards, whilst halting- near the village of Mapanga, they were surprised by a rush of forty or fifty armed men from the jungle, all whoop- ing and yelling, and brandishing their spears, in a manner unmistakably hos- tile. The moment was critical. One spear thrown, one musket fired, would have been the signal for an onslaught, the prelude, perhaps, of a massacre. The opposing forces were numeric- ally equal ; but Stanley knew that the whole of his men could not be relied upon for a fight, and prudence united with humanity in suggesting an effort to settle the cause of quarrel peacefully. Without arising from thebaic on which he was seated, he desired his flag-bearer to inquire whether the chief of the Khonze came to rob them. "No," replied the chiefi "We don't want to rob you, or to stop the road ; but we want the tribute." 18 " Don't you see us halted, and a bale opened to send it?" said Stanley, direct- ing his attention to a bale of goods which had just been opened. "We have halted so far from your village that, when the tribute is settled, we may proceed on our way, as the day is yet young." The chief laughed, and explained in his turn that, as he and his men were cutting wood for a new fence for the vil- lage, a lad brought the news that a cara- van was about passing through the coun- try without stopping. The tribute was then settled amicably, and the chief begged Stanley to make rain for him, as none had fallen for months, and his crops were suffering. Our traveller told him that, though white men were very clever, much superior to the Arabs, they could not make rain ; and, though disappointed, the chief was satisfied, and accompanied the expedition some distance to show them the road. Memorial to Farquhar. On the 7th of April the village was reached at which Farquhar had been left, and had died a few days afterwards. The chief showed Stanley the spot on which the corpse had been deposited, but not a vestige of the remains could be discovered. A mound of stones was raised upon the spot, however, as a memorial. Continuing their journey, they found the river Mukondokwa so swelled by the rains that it swept through the val- ley like a torrent, while the fields were flooded, and every nullah was a stream. Three times the foaming flood was crossed at the fords by the help of ropes fastened to the trees on either bank. Rain descended heavily every day, and 2r4 WVINGSTONE AND STANLEY IN AFRICA. the drenched travellers had to wade through the floods or tramp through dripping jungles. On the 13th they reached a river which, though narrow, was too deep to be fordable. They had to halt, there- fore, and fell a tree, which they con- trived should fall across the stream, and along this Stanley led the way, the rest following by bestriding the tree and pushing their bales and boxes before them. One young fellow, who was carrying on his head the box containing Ivivingstone's letters and journals, im- pelled by excess of zeal or reckless bravado, plunged into the stream. Stanley watched him in an agony of fear. Suddenly the man, stepping into a hole, was immersed up to his chin. A Frightened Negro. "lyook out!" exclaimed Stanley, pointing a revolver at him; "Drop that box and I'll shoot you !" All the men stood still, or motionless bestrode their primitive bridge, to gaze at their imperiled companion. The frightened negro was grey with fear, but making a desperate effort, he got the precious box across in safety. An hour afterwards they came to the river of which this stream was a branch, and found it a broad flood of brown and foaming water. They constructed a raft, by cutting down four trees and lashing them together, but it sank as soon as it was launched. All their ropes were then tied together, making a line 180 feet long, one end of which was tied round a strong swimmer, who undertook to lash it to a tree on the other side. The negro, strong swimmer as he was, was carried far down the stream. but he succeeded in gaining the opposite bank, and securing the rope to a tree. By means of the rope both men and baggage were dragged through the water, the more valuable boxes being conveyed upon a sort of light hand-barrow resting upon men's shoulders. The River Rising. A superficial knowledge of the phy- sical geography of Africa scarcely pre- pares us for such scenes as meet the eye of the traveller in the rainy season. "Within twenty feet of our camp," says Stanley, "was a rising river, with flat, low banks ; above us was a gloomy, weeping sky ; surrounding us on three sides was an immense forest, on whose branches we heard the constant patter- ing rain ; beneath our feet was a great depth of mud, black and loathsome. Add to these the thought that the river might overflow and sweep us to utter destruction." The strong current of the Makata, fifty yards wide, was crossed by swimming, and on the 29th the ex- pedition was at Simbimwenni, where the flooded Ungerengeri had swept away the whole of the river wall and about fifty houses. Many of the inhabitants had been drowned, and the rest had abandoned the place, of which a hurri- cane had made a wreck. The rain had now ceased, but the jungle was a pestiferous swamp, where huge snakes hung upon the branches of trees, and land-crabs, scorpions, and innumerable creeping things, swarmed upon the black mud beneath. On the 4tli of May the expedition was within four miles of Bagamoyo, but that space was covered with flood- water, and they had to camp on its western margin UVINGSTONE AND STANLEY IN AFRICA. 275 until canoes could be brought to ferry them over. Bagamoyo was entered at sunset on the 6th, the arrival being signalized by the firing of guns and much shouting and gesticulating, after the manner of the country. Arabs and Hindoos, Be- loochees and negroes, thronged about the men who had performed such a wonderful march, and when they had reached the centre of the town, Stanley was greeted and congratulated by Lieu- tenant Henn, of the Livingstone Relief Expedition, which was to have done what had already been accomplished by Stanley ; by Mr. Oswald Livingstone, the doctor's son; and the Rev. Charles New, the missionary. The long march was ended, and on the day after his arrival at Bagamoyo the Arab dhow which conveyed the ex- pedition back to Zanzibar, anchored in the harbor. Soon afterward Stanley returned to relate his wonderful ad- ventures and discoveries in Central Africa. CHAPTER XIX. Stanley's Great Journeys Across Africa. B have now to describe one of the most extraordinary, if not actually the greatest feat ever performed in the annals of modern exploration. This expedition under- talien by Henry M. Stanley from Zan- zibar right across the African continent to the Congo, was so full of perilous adventure, so remarkable for pluck and resolution, that it stands out boldly upon the canvas of history as the greatest achievement of our times. Stanley's own account of what pre- ceded his great undertaking is full of interest : " While returning to England in April, 1874, from the Ashantee War the news reached me that I^ivingstone was dead — that his body was on its way to England ! lyivingstone had then fallen ! He was dead ! He had died by the shores of I^ake Bemba, on the threshold of the dark region he wished to explore ! The work he had promised to perform was only begun when death overtook him ! " The effect which this news had upon me, after the first shock passed away, was to fire me with a resolution to complete his work, to be, if God willed it, the next martyr to geograph- ical science, or, if my life was to be spared, to clear up not only the secrets of the Great River throughout its course, but also all that remained still problematic and incomplete of the dis- coveries of Burton and Speke, and Speke and Grant. *'The solemn day of the burial of 276 the body of my great friend arrived. I was one of the pall-bearers in West- minster Abbey, and when I had seen the cofiin lowered into the grave, and had heard the first handful of earth thrown over it, I walked away sorrow- ing over the fate of David lyiving- stone." Soon the resolve was formed to com- plete, if possible, the work Livingstone had been compelled to leave undone. In this memorable expedition the " Daily Telegraph," of London, and the "New York Herald" newspapers were associated. Mr. Stanley was com- missioned to complete the discoveries of Speke, Burton, and Livingstone. His party from England consisted of Francis and Edward Pocock and Frederick Barker. A barge, named the Lady Alice, was taken in sections, besides two other boats, with a perfect equip- ment. When all preparations had been completed, and the farewell dinners eaten, Stanley left England, to begin his perilous journey, on the 15 th of August, 1874. He reached Zanzibar September 21st, 1874, and there found many former associates of his search for Doctor Liv- ingstone. He engaged quite a little army of followers to go with him and carry the outfit. This outfit, which consisted of a most miscellaneous col- lection of articles, weighed 18,000 pounds, and was, with the party, car- ried across to the continent from Zanzi- bar island in six Arab vessels. On the r ^ z < UJ ^ Q. I- s < D O or ^ o < ^ STANLEY'S JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA. 277 morning of the 17th of November the start was made into the interior. The first stage of this journey was to the Victoria Nyanza, which Stanley desired to explore. The imperfect de- scription and explanations of previous travellers had left much to be decided concerning this great inland sea. "Was it the source of the Nile or of the Congo?" "Was it part of a lake system, or a lake by itself?" These questions Stanley had deteimined to answer once for all. Many Adventures. The advance to the great Lake Vic- toria was full of adventurous interest. Travelling in the "Dark Continent^' means being at times in the wilderness without a guide, or with traitors acting as guides, which is a worse alternative. This was Stanley's fate, and he was deserted in the waste with a small stock of food. Through the terrible ' 'jungle' ' the men had to crawl, cutting their way, guided solely by the compass, overcome by hunger and thirst, deser- tions frequent, sickness stalking along- side. This was indeed ' ' famine-stricken Ugogo." While on this disastrous march he lost five of his people, who " wandered on helplessly, fell down, and died." The country produced no food, or even game, unless lions could be so called. Two young lions were found in a den, and were quickly killed and eaten. This was the only food for the whole expedition ! Stanley tells us how he returned to camp, and was so struck by the pinched jaws of his followers that he nearly wept. He decided to utilize his precious medical stores, and wisely, for the people were famishing ; medicinal comforts for the dead had no meaning. So he made a quantity of gruel, which kept the expedition alive for eight and forty hours, and then the men he had despatched to Suma for provisions re- turned with food. Refreshed they all marched on, so that they might reach Suma next morning. Hostile Natives. After proceeding twenty miles, they came to the cultivated districts and en- camped. But the natives of Suma were hostile, and the increasing sick list made a four days' halt necessary. There were thirty men ailing from vari- ous diseases. Edward Pocock was taken ill here, and on the fourth day he be- came delirious ; but the increasing sus- picions of the natives — who are repre- sented as a very fine race — made depart- ure necessary, and so a start was made on the i/tli of January, in very hostile company. The famine in Ugogo had severely tried every man's constitution, and all felt weak in spirit if not ill in body. " Weary, harassed, feeble creatures,*-" they reached Chiwyu, four hundre*! miles from the sea, and camped nea_ the crest of a hill 5,400 feet high. Here Edward Pocock breathed his last. He was laid under an acacia, and upon the trunk of this fine old tree a cross was cut deeply, in memory of a faith- ful follower. Hence two rivulets run, gradually converging, and finally uniting into a stream which trends toward Lake Vic- toria. So here the extreme southern sources of the Nile were discovered ; but up to this point the explorer had, as he said, "child's play," to what he after- wards encountered. We have already 278 STANLEY'S JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA. seen what this child's play was like. Stanley proceeded gently to Vinyata, where the expedition arrived on the 2ist of January, 1875. Here a magic doctor paid Stanley a visit, and cast longing eyes at the stores. Next day, after the departure of the magic doctor, who came for another present, the natives showed hostile cowardice the wish for peace. There were so many tempting articles too — stores dear to the native mind, which the inhabitants coveted. No peace would be made at any price, and the savages attacked the camp in force. Stanley disposed his men behind hastily-erected earthworks and other shelter, and used the sections of the FIERCE ATTACK BY NATIVES UPON THE EXPLORERS. symptoms. One hundred ,_^k savages, armed and in warlike costume, came around, shouting and brandishing their weapons. At this juncture Stanley, fol- lowing Livingstone's practice, decided to make no counter demonstration ; but to remain quiet in camp, and provoke no hostility. This plan did not answer, however. The natives mistook for L-ady Alice barge as a citadel for final occupation. There were only sev- enty effective men to defend the camp but these were divided into detachments and subdivided. One sub-detachment was quickly destroyed, and in the day^s fight twenty-one soldiers and one mes- senger were killed — three wounded. Stanley's men, however, pursued the STANLEY S JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA. 279 retreatingf enemy, and burned many vil- lages, the men bringing in cattle and grain as spoils. Next day the natives came on again, but they were quickly routed, and the expedition continued its way through the now desolate valley unmolested. So the Iturnians were punished, after three days of battle. Losses of the Expedition, The victory, however, had not been mtich to boast of. After only three months' march, the expedition had lost 1 20 Africans and one European, from the effects of sickness and battle. There were now only 194 men left of 356 who had set out with the expedition. They passed on, however, toward the Victoria Nyanza, and after escaping the warlike Mirambo, who fought everybody on principle, Stanley reached Kagehyi on the 27th of February. He was now close to the Lake, having marched 720 miles ; average daily march, ten miles. On the 8th of March Stanley, leaving F. Pocock to command the camp, set forth with eleven men in the Lady Alice, to explore the Lake and ascer- tain whether it is one of a series, as Dr. Livingstone said it was. The explorer began by coasting Speke Gulf. Many interesting observations were made. He penetrated into each little bay and creek, finding indications that convinced him that the slave trade is carried on there. But the explorer had to battle for his information. Near Chaga the natives came down, and, after inducing him to land, attacked him; but Stanley "dropped" one man, and the natives subsided. On another occasion the natives tried to entrap him, but he es- caped by firing on the savages, killing three men, and sinking their canoes with bullets from an elephant rifle. Continuing his course now unop- posed, Stanley coasted along the Uganda shore. Just as he was about to depart, on the following morning, he perceived six beautiful canoes, crowded with men, all dressed in white, approaching ; they were the king's people conveying a messenger from the King of Uganda to Stanley, begging a visit from him. This messenger was gorgeously arrayed for the important occasion ; he wore a bead-worked head-dress, above which long white cock's feathers waved, and a snowy white and long-haired goat- skin, intertwined with a crimson robe, depending from his shoulders, com- pleted his costume. Approaching Stan- ley, he delivered his message thus : Invitation from a King. " The Kabaka (King) sends me with many salaams to you. He is in great hopes that you will visit him, and has en- camped at Usavara, that he may be near the lake when you come. He does not know from what land you have come, but I have a swift messenger with a canoe who will not stop until he gives all the news to the Kabaka. His mother dreamed a dream a few nights asfo, and in her dream she saw a white man on this lake in a boat coming this way, and the next morning she told the Kabaka, and lo ! you have come. Give me your answer, that I may send the messenger. Twiyanzi-yanzi-yanzi !" (Thanks, thanks, thanks.) Thus delivering himself, the messen- ger, whose name was Magassa, implored Stanley to remain one day longer, that he might show him the hospitalities of his country, and prepare him for a grand 280 STANLEY'S JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA. reception by the king, to which Stanley consented. Magassa was in his glory now. His 7oice became imperious to his escort of 182 men; even the feathers of his cur- ious head-dress waved prouder, and his rcbe had a sweeping dignity worthy of a Roman emperor's. Upon landing, Ma- gassa's stick was employed frequently. The sub-chief of Kadzi was compelled to yield implicit obedience to his vice- regal behests. " Bring out bullocks, sheep, and goats, milk, and the mellowest of your choice bananas, and great jars of maramba, and let the white man and his boatmen eat, and taste the hospitalities of Uganda. Shall a white man enter the Kabaka's presence with an empty belly? See how sallow and pinched his cheeks are. We want to see whether we can show him a kindness superior to what the pagans have shown him." The Explorer Feted. Five canoes escorted the travellers to Usavara, the capital of King Mtesa. The explorer was most kindly received, and closely questioned upon subjects of so diverse a character as to remind Stanley of a college examination for a degree. King Mtesa appeared quite a civil- ized monarch, quite a different being from what he had been when Speke and Grant had visited him as a young man. He had become an adherent of Mahomet, wore Arab dress, and con- ducted himself well. He entertained Stanley with reviews of canoes, a naval "demonstration" of 84 "ships" and 2,500 men ! Shooting matches, parades, and many other civilized modes of enter- tainment were practiced for the amuse- ment of the white man. In Uganda the traveller is welcomed, and perfectly safe. King Mtesa's country is situated on the equator, and is a much more pleas- ant land than might be supposed from its geographical position, being fertile, and covered with vegetation. It is a peculiarly pleasant land for a traveller, as it is covered with roads, which are not only broad and firm, but are cut almost in a straight line from one point to another. Good Roads. Uganda seems to be unique in the matter of roads, the like of which are not to be found in any part of Africa, except those districts which are held by Europeans. The roads are wide enough for carriages, but far too steep in places for any wheeled conveyance; but as the Waganda (the name given to the inhabitants of Uganda) do not use car- riages of any kind, the roads are amply sufficient for their purposes. The Wa- ganda have even built bridges across swamps and rivers, but their knowl- edge of engineering has not enabled them to build a bridge that would not decay in a few years. Like many other tribes which bear, but do not deserve, the name of sav- ages, the Waganda possess a curiously strict code of etiquette, which is so stringent on some points that an offen- der against it is likely to lose his life, and is sure to incur a severe penalty. If, for example, a man appears before the king with his dress tied carelessly, or if he makes a mistake in the mode of saluting, or if, in squatting before his sovereign, he allows the least por- tion of his limbs to be visible, he is led off to instant execution. STANLEY'S JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA. 281 As the fatal sign is given, the victim is seized by the royal pages, who wear a rope turban around their heads, aud at the same moment all the drums and other instruments strike up, to drown his cries for mercy. He is rapidly bound with the ropes snatched hastily from the heads of the pages, dragged off, and put to death, no one daring to take the least notice while the tragedy is being enacted. Token of Royal Birth. They have also a code of sumptuary laws which is enforced with the greatest severity. The skin of the serval, a kind of leopard cat, for example, may only be worn by those of royal descent. Once Captain Speke was visited by a very agreeable young man, who evi- dently intended to strike awe into the white man, and wore round his neck the serval-skin emblem of royal birth. The attempted deception, however, re- coiled upon its author, who suffered the fate of the daw with the borrowed plumes. An officer of rank detected the imposture, had the young man seized, and challenged him to show proofs of his right to wear the emblem of royalty. As he failed to do so, he was threatened with being brought before the king, and so compounded with the chief for a fine of a hundred cows. Mtesa was a complete African Blue- beard, continually marrying and kill- ing, the brides, however, exceeding the victims in number. Royal marriage is a very simple business in Uganda. Parents who have offended their king and want to pacify him, or who desire to be looked on favorably by him, bring their daughters and offer them as he sits at the door of his house. As is the case with all his female attendants, they are totally unclothed, and stand before the king in ignorance of their future. If he accepts them, he makes them sit down, seats himself on their knees, and embraces them. This is the whole of the ceremony, and as each girl is thus accepted, the happy parents per- form the curious salutation called "n'yanzigging," that is, prostrating themselves on the ground, floundering about, clapping their hands, and ejacu- lating the word "n'yans," or thanks, as fast as they can say it. Brides by the Wholesale. Twenty or thirty brides will some- times be presented to him in a single morning, and he will accept more than half of them, some of them being after- ward raised to the rank of wives, while the others are relegated to the position of attendants. Now and then the king held a review, in which the valiant and the cowards obtained their fitting rewards. These reviews offered most picturesque scenes. " Before us was a large open sward, with the huts of the queen's Kamra- viono or commander-in-chief beyond. The battalion, consisting of what might be termed three companies, each con- taining two hundred men, being drawn up on the left extremity of the parade ground, received orders to march past in single file from the right of com- panies at a long trot, and re-form again at the end of the square. " Nothing conceivable could be more wild or fantastic than the sight which ensued; the men were all nearly naked, with goat or cat skins depending from their girdles, and smeared with war 282 STANLEY'S JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA. colors, according to the taste of the individual ; one-half of the body red or black, the other blue, not in regular order; as, for instance, one stocking would be red, and the other black, whilst the breeches above would be the opposite colors, and so with the sleeves and waistcoat. "Every man carried the same arms, two spears and one shield, held as if approaching an enemy, and they thus moved in three lines of single rank and file, at fifteen or twenty paces asunder, with the same high action and elongated step, the ground leg only being bent, to give their strides the greater force. Fantastic Parade. "After the men had all started, the captains of companies followed; even more fantastically dressed ; and last of all came the great Colonel Congow, a perfect Robinson Crusoe, with his long white-haired goat-skins, a fiddle-shaped leather shield, tufted with hair at all six extremities, bands of long hair tied below the knees, and a magnificent helmet covered with rich beads of every color in excellent taste, surmounted with a plume of crimson feathers, in the centre of which rose a bent stem tufted with goat's hair. Next, they charged in companies to and fro, and finally the senior officers came charg- ing at their king, making violent pro- fessions of faith and honesty, for which they were applauded. The parade then broke up, and all went home." Stanley, after remaining some time with Mtesa, departed in October to ex- plore the country lying between Albert Nyanza and the Victoria Nyanza. This time he had with him an escort of Mtesa's men, under a " general " named Sambusi. The expedition, after a pleas- ant march, came within a few miles of the Albert Nyanza, but then the native warriors wished to return, and Stanley yielded perforce. He returned, but the faint-hearted ' ' general ' ' was put in irons by Mtesa, whom he had shamed. Imposing Ceremonies. The expedition reached Mtesa's on the 23d of August, and the king re- ceived Stanley in his council chamber with great ceremony and many evi- dences of friendship. Stanley took this occasion to inform him of the object of his visit, which was to procure guides and an escort to conduct him to Albert Lake. Mtesa replied that he was now en- gaged in a war with the rebellious people of Uvuma, who refused to pay their tribute, harassed the coast of Chagwe and abducted his people, "sell- ing them afterward for a few bunches of bananas," and it was not customary in Uganda to permit strangers to pro- ceed on their journeys while the king was engaged in war; but as soon as peace should be obtained he would send a chief with an army to give him safe conduct by the shortest route to- the lake. Being assured that the war would not last long, Stanley resolved to stay and witness it as a novelty, and take advantage of the time to acquire information about the country and its people. On the 27th of August Mtesa struck his camp, and began the march to Na- karanga, a point of land lying within seven hundred yards of the island of Ingira, which had been chosen by the Wavuma as their depot and stronghold. He had collected an army numbering STANLEY'S JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA. 183 150,000 warriors, as it was expected that he would have to fight the rebel- lious Wasoga as well as the Wavuma. Besides this great army must be reck- oned nearly 50,000 women, and about as many children and slaves of both sexes, so that at a rough guess, after looking at all the camps and vari- ous tributary nations which, at Mte- sa's command, had contributed their quotas, the number of souls in Mte- sa's camp must have been about 250,- 000! Stanley had the pleasure of review- ing this immense army as it was put in motion towards the battle-ground. He describes the officers and troops in the following graphic style : "The advance-guard had departed too early for me to see them, but, cur- ious to see the main body of this great army pass, I stationed myself at an early hour at the extreme limit of the camp. "Brave as a Lion." "First with his legion, came Mkwe- nda, who guards the frontier between the Katonga valley and Willimiesi against the Wanyoro. He is a stout, burly young man, brave as a lion, hav- ing much experience of wars, and cun- ning and adroit in his conduct, accom- plished with the spear, and possessing, besides, other excellent fighting qual- ities. I noticed that the Waganda chiefs, though Muslimized, clung to their war-paint and national charms, for each warrior, as he passed by on the trot, was most villainously bedaubed with ochre and pipe-clay. The force under the command of Mkwenda might be roughly numbered at 30,000 warriors and camp-followers, and though the path was a mere goat-track, the rush of this legion on the half-trot soon crushed out a broad avenue. "The old general Kangau, who de- fends the country between Willimiesi and the Victoria Nile, came next with his following, their banners flying, drums beating, and pipes playing, he and his warriors stripped for action, their bodies and faces daubed with white, black, and ochreous war-paint. Splendid Warriors. "Next came a rush of about 2,000 chosen warriors, all tall men, expert with spear and shield, lithe of body and nimble of foot, shouting as they trotted past their war-cry of ' Kavya, kavya ' (the two last syllables of Mtesa's title when young — Mukavya, 'king'), and rattling their spears. Behind them, at a quick march, came the musket-armed body-guard of the emperor, about two hundred in front, a hundred on either side of the road, enclosing Mtesa and his Katekiro, and two hundred bring- ing up the rear, with their drums beat- ing, pipes playing, and standards flying, and forming quite an imposing and war- like procession. " Mtesa marched on foot, bare-headed, and clad in a dress of blue check cloth, with a black belt of Bnglish make round his waist, and — like the Roman emperors, who, when returning in tri- umph, painted their faces a deep Ver- million — his face dyed a bright red. The Katekiro preceded him, and wore a dark-grey cashmere coat I think this arrangement was made to deceive any assassin who might be lurking in the bushes. If this was the case the precaution seemed wholly unnecessary, as the march was so quick that nothing but a gun would have been efiective. 284 STANLEY'S JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA-. and the Wavuma and Wasoga have no such weapons. "After Mtesa's body-guard had passed by, chief after chief, legion after legion, followed, each distinguished to the na- tive ear by its dififerent and peculiar •ilrum-beat. They came on at an ex- traordinary pace, more like warriors hurrying up into action than on the march, and it is their custom, I am told, to move always at a trot when on an enterprise of a warlike nature." A Big War-Boat. In the ensuing conflict King Mtesa's army was repulsed. Stanley finally asked of him 2,000 men, telling him that with this number he would con- struct a monster war-boat that would drive the enemy from their stronghold. This proposition gave Mtesa intense delight, for he had begun to entertain grave doubts of being able to subjugate the brave rebels. The 2,000 men being furnished, Stanley set them to cutting trees and poles, which were peeled and the bark used for ropes. He lashed three canoes, of seventy feet length and six-and-a-half feet breadth, four feet from each other. Around the edge of these he caused a stockade to be made of strong poles, set in upright and then intertwined with smaller poles and rope bark. This made the floating stockade sev- enty feet long and twenty-seven feet wide, and so strong that spears could not penetrate it. This novel craft floated with much grace, and as the men paddled in the spaces between the boats they could not be perceived by the enemy, who thought it must be pro- pelled by some supernatural agency. It was manned by two hundred and fourteen persons, and moved across the channel like a thing of life. As this terrible monster of the deep approached the enemy, Stanley caused a proclamation to be made to them, in deep and awful tones, that if they did not surrender at once their whole island would be blown to pieces. This strata- gem had the desired effect ; the Wavu- ma were terror-stricken and surrendered unconditionally. Two hours later they sent a canoe and fifty men with the tribute demanded. Thus ended the war and preparations were at once made to advance. Stanley turned toward Lake Tangan- yika, and camped at Ujiji, where he had met David Livingstone. Thence he journeyed to Nyangwe, the farthest northern place attained by Cameron. Cameron had gone south to Benguela. Famous Tipo-tipo. While in the vicinity of Nyangwe, Stanley chanced to meet the famous trader, Tipo-tipo, who had befriended Cameron while on his journey, having conducted him as far as Kasongo's country. From him he learned that Cameron had been unable to explore the Lualaba, and thus the work which Livingstone had not been able to com- plete was as yet unfinished. Not believing, as Livingstone did, that the Lualaba was the remote south- ern branch of the Nile, but having the same conviction as Cameron, that it was connected with the Congo, and was the eastern part of that river, and hav- ing, what I/ivingstone and Cameron had not, an ample force and sufficient sup- plies, he determined to follow the Lu- alaba, and ascertain whither it led. He met with the same difficulty that THOMAS A. EDISON IN HIS IvABORATORY STANI^EY'S JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA. 285 Livingstone and Cameron encountered in the unwillingness of the people to supply canoes. They informed him, as they had the two previous explorers, that the tribes dwelling to the north on the lyualaba were fierce and warlike cannibals, who would suffer no one to enter their terri- tories, as the Arab traders had fre- quently found to their cost. That be- tween Nyangwe and the cannibal region the natives were treacherous, and that the river ran through dreadful forests, through which he would have to make his way — information which afterwards proved to be true. The Terrible Dwarfs. He nevertheless resolved to go ; but it was not easily accomplished, as the people of Nyangwe filled his followers with terror by the accounts they gave of the ferocious cannibals, the dwarfs with poisoned arrows who dwelt near the river, and the terrible character of the country through which they would have to pass ; which had such a dis- heartening effect upon them that difii- culties arose which would have been insurmountable to any one but a man of Stanley's indomitable perseverance, sagacity and tact. He overcame all obstacles ; succeeded in getting canoes, and in engaging an Arab chief and his followers to accompany him a certain distance ; an increase of his force which gave confidence to his own people. Of course there was a good deal of palavering before the Arab, Tipo-tipo, could be induced to join the expedition and brave the inevitable perils that would attend it. Tipo-tipo listened respectfully to Stanley's proposition, and then called in one of his officers who had been to the far north along the river, requesting him to impart such information as he possessed in regard to the people inhab- iting that country. This man told a marvelous tale, almost rivaling the wonderful creations of the Arabian Nights ; and Stanley subsequently learned by his own experience that much of the story was true. Remarkable Story. " The great river," said Tipo-tipo' s officer, " goes always towards the north, until it empties into the sea. We first reached Uregga, a forest land, where there is nothing but woods, and woods, and woods, for days and weeks and months. There was no end to the woods. In a month we reached Usongora Meno, and here we fought day after day. They are fearful fellows and desperate. We lost many men, and all who were slain were eaten. But we were brave and pushed on. " When we came to Kima-Kima we heard of the land of the little men, where a tusk of ivory could be pur- chased for a single cowrie (bead). No- thinof now could hold us back. We crossed the Lumami, and came to the land of the Wakuma. The Wakuma are big men themselves, but among them we saw some of the dwarfs, the queerest little creatures alive, just a yard high, with long beards and large heads. " The dwarfs seemed to be plucky little devils, and asked us many ques- tions about where we were going and what we wanted. They told us that in their country was so much ivory we had not enough men to carry it ; ' but what do you want with it, do you eat 286 STANLEYS JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA. it ?' said they. ' No, we make charms of it, and will give you beads to show us the way.' 'Good, come along.' Must See Their King. "We followed the little devils six days, when we came to theii country, and they stopped and said we could go no further until they had seen their king. Then they left us, and after three days they came back and took us to their village, and gave us a house to live in. Then the dwarfs came from all parts. Oh ! it is a big country 1 and everybody brought ivory, until we had about four hundred tusks, big and little, as much as we could carry. We bought it with copper, beads, and cowries. No cloths, for the dwarfs were all naked, king and all. We did not starve in the dwarf land the first ten days. Bananas AS long as my arm, and plantains as long as the dwarfs were tall. One plan- tain was sufficient for a man ^or one day. " When we had sufficient ivory and wanted to go, the little king said no ; ' this is my country, and you shall not go until I say. You must buy all I have got; I want more cowries;' and he ground his teeth and looked just like a wild monkey. We laughed at him, for he was very funny, but he would not let us go. Presently we heard a woman scream, and rushing out of our house, we saw a woman running with a dwarf's arrow in her bosom. "Some of our men shouted, 'The dwarfs are coming from all the villages in great numbers ; it is war — ^prepare ! ' We had scarcely got our guns before the little wretches were upon us, shooting their arrows in clouds. They screamed and yelled like monkeys. Their arrows were poisoned, and many of our men who were hit, died. " Our captain brandished his two- handed sword, and cleaved them as you would cleave a banana. The arrows passed through his shirt in many places. We had many good fellows, and they fought well ; but it was of no use. The dwarfs were firing from the tops of the trees ; they crept through the tall grass close up to us, and shot their arrows in our faces. Then some hundred of us cut down banana-trees, tore doors out, and houses down, and formed a boma at each end ot the street, and then we were a little better off", for it was not such rapid, random shooting ; we fired more deliberately, and after several hours drove them off". Caught the King. ' ' But they soon came back and fought us all that night, so that we could get no water, until our captain — oh ! he was a brave man, he was a lion ! — held up a shield before him, and looking around, he just ran straight where the crowd was thickest ; and he seized two of the dwarfs, and we who followed him caught several more, for they would not run away until they saw what our design was, and then they left the water clear. We filled our pots and carried the little Shaitans (devils) into the boma ; and there we found that we had caught the king. We wanted to kill him, but our captain said no, kill the others and toss their heads over the wall ; but the king was not touched. " Then the dwarfs wanted to make peace, but they were on us again in the middle of the night, and their arrows sounded ' twit,' ' twit ' in all directions. At last we ran away, throwing down STANLEY'S JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA. 287 everything but our guns and swords. But many of our men were so weak by hunger and thirst that they burst their hearts running, and died. Others lying down to rest found the little devils close to them when too late, and were killed. Out of our great number of people only thirty returned alive, and I am one of them." Stanley listened with rapt attention to the recital of this wonderful story, and at its conclusion he said: "Ah! good. Did you see anything else very wonderful on your journey?" Huge Serpents. ' ' Oh yes ! There are monstrous boa- constrictors in the forest of Uregga, suspended by their tails to the branches, waiting for the passerby or for a stray antelope. The ants in that forest are not to be despised. You cannot travel without your body being covered with them, when they sting you like wasps. The leopards are so numerous that you cannot go very far without seeing one. Every native wears a leopardskin cap. " The sokos (gorillas) are in the woods, and woe befall the man or woman met alone by them ; for they run to you and seize your hands, and bite the fin- gers off one by one, and as fast as they bite one off, they spit it out. The Wasongora Meno and Waregga are can- nibals, and unless the force is very strong, they never let strangers pass. It is nothing but constant fighting. Only two years ago a party armed with three hundred guns started north of Uson- gora Meno ; they only brought sixty guns back, and no ivory. If one tries to go by the river, there are falls after falls, which carry the people over and drown them." It required no little heroism on the part of Stanley to face the dangers which he knew must lie between him and that point one thousand eight hun- dred miles distant, where the Congo, ten miles wide, rolls into the broad bosom of the Atlantic. Notwithstand- ing all the dangers which lay before them, Tipo-tipo agreed to accompany Stanley with his soldiers, the distance of sixty marches, for $5,000. One would naturally suppose that he, of all others, would shrink from such a task, seeing that in his last eflfort to reach the unex- plored territory beyond, he had lost five hundred men. Exacting Conditions. The conditions under which he agreed to escort Stanley were, that the sixty marches should not consume more than three months' time, and if, when they had gone that distance, he should come to the conclusion that he could not reach the mouth of the Congo, then he would return to Nyangwe ; or, if he chanced to fall in with any Portuguese traders, and desired to accompany them to the coast, he should give him (Tipo- tipo) two-thirds of his force, as a guard to protect him while on his return to Nyangwe. But Stanley did not propose to have all the conditions on the side of the chief, and after refusing to grant the chief two-thirds of his force to protect him on his return, he made the follow- ing condition : Should Tipo-tipo fail to perform faithfully his part, and should he through fear return before the sixty marches had been made, he should for- feit the 1 5, 000, and not be allowed a single man of Stanley's force to accom- pany him on his return. After some 288 STANLEY'S JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA. delay the chief assented to the contract as written by Stanley, and both men signed it. Before it had been signed, however, Stanley went to Pocock and told him just how matters stood, and showed him the dangers which must attend any attempt to proceed, but could they do so, it would draw upon the expedition the comments of the entire world. It was a fearful risk to run, but Pocock resolved to stand by him, and before he had finished, the latter replied, "Go on." Ah, they little knew when they made that agreement, what fate awaited them in the near future. The men were next informed of the determination to push on to the coast, and were told that if at the end of sixty marches they fell in with traders going eastward, and they wished to return to Nyangwe they could do so. The men promised to remain with him, and he hastened to complete his arrangements. Journey Begun. On November 5th Tipo-tipo, with seven hundred men joined Stanley, and they set out on their journey. Stanley now carried the Lady Alice across the 350 miles which intervened between Ujiji and Nyangwe, which is situated on the Lualaba (of Livingstone), which Stanley as well as Cameron believed was a branch of the Congo. We shall now follow Stanley briefly in his dis- covery along that river, which he had determined to explore. On the 5th of November he set out. He reinforced his following, and took supplies for six months. He had with him 140 rifles and seventy spearmen and could defy the warlike tribes of which he had heard so much, and he made up his mind to "stick to the Lualaba fair or foul ! ' ' For three weeks he pushed his way along the banks, meeting with tremendous diffi- culties, till all became disheartened. Stanley said he would try tlie river. The Lady Alice was put together and launched, and then the leader declared he would never quit it until he reached the sea. "All I ask," said he to his men, "is that you follow me in the name of God." "In the name of God, master, we will follow you," they replied. They did, bravely. Pai^sing the Rapids, A skirmish occurred at the outset, by the Ruiki river, and then the Ukassa rapids were reached. These were passed in safety, one portion of the expedition on the bank, the remainder in canoes. So the journey continued, but under very depressing circumstances, for the natives, when not hostile, openly left their villages, and would hold no com- munication with the strangers. Sick- ness was universal. Small-pox, dysen- tery, and other diseases raged, and every day a body or two was tossed into the river. A canoe was found, repaired, and constituted the hospital, and so was towed down stream. On the 8th of December a skirm- ish occurred, but speedily ended in the defeat of the savages, who had used poisoned arrows. At Vinya-Njara again, another serious fight ensued, the savages rushing against the stock- ades which surrounded the camp, and displaying great determination. The attack was resumed at night. At daybreak, a part of the native town STANLEY'S JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA. 289 was occupied, and there again the figlir- ing was continued. The village was held, but the natives were still deter- mined and again attacked ; the arrows fell in clusters, and it was a very critical time for the voyagers. Mutiny in Camp. Fortunately the land division arrived and settled the matter ; the savages disappeared, and the marching detach- ment united with Stanley's crews. That night Pocock was sent out to cut away the enemy's canoes and that danger was over. But now the Arab escort which had joined Stanley at Nyangwe became rebellious, and infected the rest. Stan- ley feared that all his people would mutiny, but he managed them with a firm and friendly hand. So that danger passed. All this time the people had been dying of fever, small -pox, and poisoned arrows, and the constant at- tacks of the enemy prevented burial of the dead or attendance on the sick and wounded. On the 26th of December, after a merry Christmas, considering the cir- cumstances, the expedition embarked, 149 in all, and not one deserted. To- morrow would echo the cry "Victory or Death." The explorers passed into the portals of the Unknown, and on 4th January they reached a series of cataracts, now named Stanley Falls. This was a cannibal country, and the man-eaters hunted the voyagers " like game." For four and twenty days the conflict continued, fighting, foot by foot, the forty miles or so which were cov- ered by the cataracts, and which the expedition had to follow by land, forag- ing, fighting, encamping, dragging the fleet of. canoes, all the time with their ^9 lives in their hands, cutting their way through the forest and their deadly enemies. Yet as soon as he had avoided the cannibals on land, they came after him on the water. A flotilla of fifty-four canoes, some enormous vessels, with a total of nearly two thousand warriors, were formidable obstacles in the way. But gun-powder won the day, and the natives were dispersed with great loss, the village plundered of its ivory, which was very plentiful, and the expedition in all this lost only one man, making the sixteenth since the expedition had left Nyangwe. Grand Cataracts. Some of the cataracts Stanley de- scribes as magnificent, the current boil- ing and leaping in brown waves six feet high. The width in places is 2,000 and 1,300 feet narrowing at the falls. After the great naval battle, Stanley found friendly tribes who informed him the river, the Lualaba, which he had named the Livingstone, was surely the Congo, or the River of Congo. Here was a great geographical secret now disclosed, and success seemed certain. It was attained, but at a great price, as we shall see. More battles followed the peaceful days ; then the friendly tribes were again met with, and so on, until the warfare with man ceased, and the struggle with the Congo began in earnest. There are fifty-seven cataracts and rapids in the course of the river from Nyangwe to the ocean, a distance of eighteen hundred miles. One portion of one hundred and eighty miles took the explorers five months. The high cliSs and the dangerous banks required 290 STANLEY'S JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA. the greatest caution to pass, and had Stanley not determined to cling to the river ; had he led his men by land past the cataract region, he would have done better, as the events prove. During that terrible passage he lost precious lives, including the brave Pocock and Kalulu — the black boy, Stanley's favorite who proved to be of great service. Livingstone Falls. March I2tli found them in a wide reach of the river, named Stanley Pool, and below that they " for the first time heard the low and sullen thunder of I/ivingstone Falls." From this date the river was the chief enemy, and at the cataracts the stream flows "at the rate of thirty miles an hour!" The canoes suffered or were lost in the "cauldron," and portages became nec- essary. The men were hurt also ; even Stanley had a fall, and was half stunned. There were sundry workers, and seven- teen canoes remaining on the 27th of March. The descent was made along the shore below Rocky Island Falls, and in gaining the camping-place Kalulu, in the "Crocodile" canoe, was lost. This boat got into mid-stream, and went glid- ing over the smooth, swift river to de- struction. Nothing could save it or its occupants. It whirled round three or four times, plunged into the depths, and Kalulu and his canoe-mates were no more. Nine men, including others in other canoes, were lost that day. Says Stanley: *^ I led the way down the river, and in five minutes was in a new camp in a charming cove, with the cataract roaring loudly about 500 yards below us. A canoe came in soon after with a gleeful crew, and a second one also arrived safe, and I was about con- gratulating myself for having done a good day's work, when the long canoe which Kalulu had ventured in was seen in mid-river, rushing with the speed of a flying spear towards destruction. A groan of horror burst from us as we rushed to the rocky point which shut the cove from view of the river. "When we had reached the point, the canoe was half-way over the first break of the cataract, and was then just beginning that fatal circling in the whirlpool below. We saw them signal- ing to us for help ; but alas! what could we do there, with a cataract between us ? We never saw them more. A pad- dle was picked up about forty miles below, which we identified as belong- ing to the unfortunate coxswain, and that was all." An Untimely Death. Stanley felt this loss keenly, for he loved Kalulu almost like a younger brother. The boy had been presented to him by the Arabs of Unyanyembe on the occasion of his first visit there in search of lyivingstone. He was then a mere child, but very bright and quick for one of his race and age. Stanley took him to the United States, where he attended school eighteen months, and rapidly developed into an intelli- gent and quick-witted youth. When Stanley was preparing for his second expedition Kalulu begged to be allowed to accompany him, and he cheerfully granted the request. His untimely death made so deep an impression upon Stanley that he named the fatal cataract Kalulu Falls in honor of his memory. Three out of the four men contained in the boat were special favorites of STANLEY'S JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA. 291 Stanley. They bad been deceived by the smooth, glassy appearance of the river, and had pulled out boldly into the middle of it, only to meet a dreadful fate. Even while they gazed upon the spot where the frail craft was last seen upon the edge of the brink, another canoe came into sight, and was hurried on by the swift current towards the yawning abyss. As good fortune woiild have it, they struck the falls at a point less dangerous than that struck by the unfortunate Kalulu, and passed them in safety. Then they worked the canoe closer to the shore, and springing over- board, swam to the land. If those yet to come were to be deceived by the ap- pearance of the river, Stanley saw that he was destined to lose the greater part of his men. "I Am Lost, Master." In order to prevent so sad a calamity, he sent messengers up the river to tell those yet to come down to keep close to the shore. Before they had time to reach those above, another canoe shot into sight and was hurried on to the edge of the precipice. It contained but one person — the lad Soudi, who, as he shot by them, cried out : " There is but one God — I am lost, master." The next instant he passed over the falls. The canoe, after having pas.sed the falls, did not sink, but was whirled round and round by the swift current, and was at last swept out of sight behind a neigh- boring island. The remainder of the canoes succeeded in reaching the camp in safety. The natives at this point proved very friendly, and exchanged provisions for beads and wire. Having obtained all the provisions that they could conveniently carry, they prepared to start, and on the first of April succeeded in passing round the dangerous falls, when they again went int^o camp. A great sur- prise awaited them here. They had scarcely pitched their tents, when to their great surprise Soudi suddenly walked into tlie camp. It was as though one had indeed risen from the dead, and for a few minutes they could scarcely realize that it was the real Soudi that they beheld, and not his ghost. Great was their joy when the lad assured theui that it was himself and not his spirit that they saw. Swam Ashore. Seated around their camp they list- ened to the strange tale that the boy had to tell him. He had been carried over the falls, and when he reached the bottom he was somewhat stunned by the shock, and did not fully recover his senses until the boat struck against a large rock ; he then jumped out and swam ashore. He had hardl)' placed his foot upon the land before he was seized by two men, who bonnd him hand and foot, and carried him to the top of a large mountain near by. They then stripped him, and examined him with great curiosity. On the day fol- lowing, a large number of the tribe who dwelt upon the mountain came to see him, and among them was one who had previously visited Stanley's camp, and knew that Soudi was attached to his force. He told them great stories about Stanley, how terrible he was, and what strange arms he carried, which were so arranged that they could be fired all day without stopping, and ended by telling them that if they wished to es- 292 STANLEY'S JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA. cape his fury, they had better return the boy to the place from which they had taken him. Terrified by such tales, these men at once carried Soudi to the place where they had found him, and after having told him to speak a good word for them to his master, departed. He at once swam across the stream, stopping occasionally upon the rocks to rest, and succeeded at last in reach- ing the camp soon after it had been established. His captors, however, did not return to their people as he had supposed, but crossing the river at a point lower down, they soon after ar- rived at the camp and attached them- selves to Stanley's force. Singular Mishap. The dangers attending Stanley con- stantly in this great journey from sea to sea are strikingly illustrated by a mishap which befell one of his men in that part of the tour we are now de- scribing. At one point there were many islands in the river, which often afforded Stan- ley refuge when attacked by the mur- derous natives. They appeared very beautiful, but the travellers could not enjoy their beauty, so frequent were the attacks made upon them. Stanley visited several villages, in which he says he found human bones scattered about, just as we would throw away oyster shells after we had removed the bivalves. Such sights as this did not tend to place the men in the most agree- able state of mind, for it seemed to them just as if they were doomed to a similar fate. On the following day they began to make preparations for passing the rapids which lay below them. In order to do this, he must first drive back the savages which lined the shore. Land- ing with thirty-six men, he succeeded in doing so, after which he was able to cut a passage three miles long around the falls. Stations were established at different points along the route, and before daylight the canoes were safely carried to the first of these. Hard Travelling. The savages then made an attack upon them, but were beaten off. At night the boats were carried to the next station, and the one following to the next, and so on, until at the end of seventy-eight hours of constant labor, and almost unceasing fighting, they reached the river. But they had gone but a short distance, when they found that just before them were a series of rapids extending two miles. These being much smaller than those they had passed before, an attempt was made to float the boats down them. Six canoes passed the falls in safety, but the seventh was upset. One of the persons in it was a negro named Zaidi, who, instead of swimming to the shore as the others did, clung to the boat and was hurried on to the cataract below him. The canoe did not, however, pass immediately over, but striking a rock which stood upon the very edge of the falls, it was split, one part passing over, while the other was jammed against the rock. To this Zaidi clung in terror, while the waves dashed angrily around him. Instead of attempting to render assist- ance to the endangered man, the natives stood upon the shore and howled most unmercifully, and at last sent for Stan- ley. The latter at once set them at STANLEY'S JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA. 298 work making a rattan rope, by which he proposed to let a boat down to the man, into which he could get and be pulled ashore. But the rope proved too weak, and was soon snapped in twain and the boat carried over the falls. Other and stouter ropes were then laid up, three pieces of which were fastened to a canoe. But it was useless to send the boat out with- out some one to guide it to the place where Zaidi was, and Stanley looked about for volunteers. No one seemed inclined to undertake the dangerous job, until the brave Uledi quietly said, " I will go. ' ' And he did. Two of the cables attached to the boat were held by men on the shore, while the third was to be used to enable the poor wretch upon the rock to reach the boat. Sev- eral efforts were made to place it within his reach, but each in turn failed. Over the Falls. At last, however, he grasped it, and orders were given for the boat to be pulled ashore. No sooner were the cables tightened than they snapped like small cords, and Zaidi was carried over the falls ; but holding on to the rope, he pulled the boat against the rock, in which position it became wedged. Uledi pulled him up and assisted him into the boat, when they both scrambled upon the rock. A rope was thrown to them, but failed to reached the spot where they were. This was repeated several times, until at last they succeeded in catching it. A heavy rope was then tied to it, which the men drew towards them and fas- tened to the rock, and thus communi- cation was established between those upon the rock and those upon the shore. By this time darkness shut in upon them, and they were forced to leave the men upon their wild perch, and wait for another day before attempting to get them off. The next day they succeeded in drawing them both to the shore. Lost in the Whirlpool. On June 3d another accident occurred at Masassa whirlpool, which was more deplorable than all the others. Frank Pocock, who had been Stanley's main- stay and next in command to himself, attempted to shoot the rapids against the advice of his experienced boatman, Uledi, who was the bravest native con- nected with the expedition, though a Zanzibar freedman. Pocock was warned of the danger of such an undertaking, but with a rash- ness quite unlike himself he ordered the canoe pushed out into the stream. As they approached nearer and nearei the mad breakers Frank realized his peril, but it was too late. They were soon caught in the dreadful whirl of waters and sucked under with a mighty force sufficient to swallow up a ship. Pocock was an expert swimmer, but his art did not now avail him, for he was swept away to his death, though his eight companions saved themselves. The dreadful news was borne to Stanley by the brave Uledi. This last and greatest calamity, coming in the midst of his already heavy weight of woe, so overcame the great explorer that he wept bitter tears of anguish. " My brave, honest, kindly-natured Frank," he exclaimed, "have you left me so ? Oh, my long-tried friend, what fatal rashness ! Ah, Uledi, had you but saved him, I should have made you a rich man." 294 STANLEY'S JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA. Of the three brave boys who sailed away from England with Stanley to win the laurels of discovery in the un- known wilds of Africa, not one was left, but all were now slumbering for eternity, in that strange land, where the tears of sorrowing friends and relatives could never moisten their rude beds of earth. The descent by river had cost Stan- ley Pocock, many of the natives, i8,- ooo dollars worth of ivory, twelve canoes, and a mutiny, not to mention grave anxiety and incessant cares and conflicts. After a weary time, nearly starved, the remainder of the expedi- tion, reduced to 1 1 5 persons, sent on to Embomma a message for help and food. The letter was as follows : "Village Nsanda, August 4th, 1877, " To any gentleynan who speaks English at Embonma^ " Dear Sir : — I have arrived at this place from Zanzibar with one hundred and fifteen souls, men, women and chil- dren. We are now in a state of immi- nent starvation. We can buy nothing from the natives, for they laugh at our kinds of cloth, beads and wire. There are no provisions in the country that may be purchased except on market- days, and starving people cannot afford to wait for chese markets. I have therefore made bold to despatch three of my young men, natives of Zanzibar, with a boy named Robert Fergui, of the English mission at Zanzibar, with this letter, craving relief from you. "I do not know you, but I am told there is an Englishman at Embomma, and as you are a Christian and a gen- tleman, I beg of you not to disregard my request. The boy Robert will be better able to describe jur condition than I can tell you in a letter. We are in a state of great distress, but, if your supplies arrive in time, I may be able to reach Embomma in four days. I want three hundred cloths, each four yards long, of such quality as you trade with, which is very different from that we have ; but better than all would be ten or fifteen man-loads of rice or grain to fill their pinched bellies immediately, as even with the cloths it would require time to purchase food, and starving men cannot wait. Must Have Supplies. "The supplies must arrive within two days, or I may have a fearful time of it among the dying. Of course I hold myself responsible for any expense you may incur in this business. What is wanted is immediate relief, and I pray you to use your utmost energies to forward it at once. For myself, if you have such little luxuries as tea, coffee, sugar and biscuit by you, such as one man can easily carry, I beg you, on my own behalf, that you will send a small supply, and add to the great debt of gratitude due to you upon the the timely arrival of supplies for my people. Until that time, I beg you to believe me " Yours sincerely, " H. M. Stanley, " Commanding Anglo-American Expe^ '■^ ditionfor Exploration of Africa. " P. S. — You may not know my name ; I therefore add, I am the person that discovered lyivingstone. "H. M.S.." STANLEY'S JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA. 295 When the letter was finished, Stanley gathered his men around him, and told them that he intended to send to Em- bomma for food, and desired to know who among them would go with the guides and carry the letter. No sooner had he asked the question, than Uledi sprang forward, exclaiming, " O, mas- ter, I am ready!" Other men also volunteered, and on the next day they set out with the guides. Deserted by the Guides. Before they had got half way, the guides left them, and they had to find their way as best they could. Passing along the banks of the Congo, they reached the village soon after sunset, and delivered the letter into the hands of a kindly disposed person. For thirty hours the messengers had not tasted food, but they were now abundantly supplied. On the following morning — it was the 6th of August — they started to return, accompanied by car- riers who bore provisions for the half- starving men, women, and children, with Stanley. Meanwhile, he and his weary party were pushing on as fast as their tired and wasted forms would let them. At nine o'clock in the morning they stopped to rest. While in this situation, an Arab boy suddenly sprang from his seat upon the grass, and shouted : " I see Uledi coming down the hill!" Such was indeed the fact, and as the jaded men wearily turned their eyes to the hill, half expecting to be deceived, they beheld Uledi and Kacheche run- ning down the hill, followed by carriers loaded with provisions. It was a glad sight to them, and with one accord they shouted: ''La il Allah, il Allah!'' ("We are saved, thank God ! " ) Uledi was the first to reach the camp, and at once delivered a letter to his master. Thanks for Supplies. By the time Stanley had finished reading it, the carriers arrived with the provisions, and need we say that those half-starved people did them justice? Deeply grateful for the substantial ans- wer to his letter, he immediately penned another, acknowledging their safe ar- rival. The letter ran as follows : "Dear Sirs: — Though strangers I feel we shall be great friends, and it will be the study of my lifetime to re- member my feelings of gratefulness when I first caught sight of your sup- plies, and my poor faithful and brave people cried out, ' Master, we are saved — food is coming!' The old and the young men, the women and the child- ren lifted their wearied and worn-out frames and began lustily to chant an extemporaneous song in honor of the white people by the great salt sea (the Atlantic), who had listened to their prayers. I had to rush to my tent to hide the tears that would come, despite all my attempts at composure. " Gentlemen, that the blessing of God may attend your footsteps, whitherso- ever you go, is the very earnest prayer of " Yours faithfully, " Henry M. Stanley." It was a daring undertaking — that of marching from one ocean to the other through the wilds of Africa — but it was done. The great feat was accomplished. The magnificent miracle was performed. Heroism and self-sacrifice had their sub- lime triumph. Perils and hardships be- set the expedition from first to last. 296 STANLEY'S JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA. Mr. Stanley's own words can best de- scribe them. " On all sides," he says, "death stared us in the face; cruel eyes watched us by day and by night, and a thousand bloody hands were ready to take ad- vantage of the least opportunity. We defended ourselves like men who knew that pusillanimity would be our ruin among savages to whom mercy is a thing unknown. I wished, naturally, that it might have been otherwise, and looked anxiously and keenly for any sign of forbearance or peace. My anx- iety throughout was so constant, and the effects of it, physically and other- wise, have been such, that I now find myself an old man at thirty- five." Had Seen Hard Service. As if to give force to this last state- ment, the President of the American Geographical Society said : " It will be remembered that when we saw Mr. Stanley here in the Society, his hair was black ; it is now said to be nearly white. Of the 350 men with whom he left Zanzibar in 1874, but 115 reached the Atlantic coast, and 60 of those, when at the journey's end, were suffer- ing from dysentery, scurvy and dropsy. He was on the Congo from November I, 1876, to August 1 1, 1877 — a period of over nine months ; so that his promise to the native followers was fulfilled that he would reach the sea before the close of the year." The historic Nile gave up the mys- tery of its source, and the Congo was no longer a puzzle, baffling the exploits of modern exploration. Stanley showed that the lyualaba is .the Congo, and opened up a splendid water-way into the interior of the Dark Continent, which the International Association had already fixed upon, and which rival explorers discussed with more or less acrimony. Stanley put together the puzzle of which Burton, Speke, Livingstone, Baker, Du Chaillu, and Cameron provided pieces, and made the greatest geographical discovery of the century — and of many centuries. We cannot limit the results which will accrue from this feat of Henry M. Stan- ley in crossing the Dark Continent, over which he shed the light of civilization. Public Honors. Stanley was received with great cere- mony in England, and almost every nation hastened to bestow its honors upon him. But among them all he singled out one, concerning which he said: " For another honor I have to ex- press my thanks — one which I may be pardoned for regarding as more precious than all the rest. The Government of the United States has crowned my suc- cess with its official approval, and the unanimous vote of thanks passed in both houses of Congress, has made me proud for the life of the expedition and its success." Towards the end of 1886 Stanley was summoned from America to take com- mand of the expedition for the relief of Emin Pasha, the great German ex- plorer, who was lost in the wilds of Africa. On February 22, 1887, he ar- rived at Zanzibar ; on the 25th he, his officers and the Zanzibar porters, Soma- lis and Soudanese soldiers sailed for the mouth of the Congo, where they landed on the 1 8th of March. On June 15th the expedition had reached the village of Yambuya, 1300 miles from the sea, STANLEY'S JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA. 29T on the left bank of the Aruwimi, 96 miles above its confluence with the Congo. Here Stanley divided his forces. He left at Yambuya camp a large number of loads, which were to be brought on as soon as porters were provided by the Arab traveller and merchantman, Tipo- tipo. The entire force which left Zan- zibar numbered, all told, 706 men. Between Zanzibar,and Yambuya it was reduced to 649. Of this number 389, including Stanley and five Europeans, made up the advance force, the garri- son at Yambuya numbered 129, and a contingent 131 strong was shortly to join the Yambuyan camp from Bo- lobo. Major Barttelot was left in command of the rear column, and on June 28th Stanley set out on his forced march through the forest. It is impossible to follow here in detail the story of Stan- ley's indomitable struggle with almost insurmountable ^obstacles. Disaster overtook the rear column ; its leader. Major Barttelot, was assassinated ; Jame- son, the next in command, died of fever, and Bonny alone remained at the camp. For many months no news of Stanley reached Europe ; then came rumors of disaster ; and finally the news that Emin and Stanley had joined hands on the shores of the Albert Nyanza. The return journey was made by an overland route to the east coast, and Bagamoyo was reached on December 4) 1889. Apart from the main object: of Stanley's journey this expedition established the existence of avast tropi- cal forest to the west of the lake coun- try, and occupying the northern portion of the Congo basin. In 1890 Stanley, after recruiting his health in Egypt and the South of France, returned to London and met with a reception almost royal in its splendor. He was everywhere feasted and feted. The Royal Geographical Society bestowed on him a special gold medal, and replicas were also presented to his ofHcers on the Emin Relief Ex- pedition ; and Oxford, Cambridge, Ed- inburg and Durham conferred on him honorary degrees. This is one of the most celebrated expeditions on record. We now have on the map of Africa what is known as the Congo Free State, a name that did not exist before the discoveries of Stan- ley. His achievements in the dark continent form one of the most inter- esting, romantic and heroic chapter's in the annals of exploration. CHAPTER XX. Travels and Adventures of Vambery in Central Asia. (b I HIS distinguished traveller is a * I native of Hungary. Impelled by the desire of ascertaining the relation of his native language to the TurcG-Tartarian tongues, he went first to Constantinople, whence, after sev- eral years' residence, he set out for Samarcand, the capital of the famous conqueror, Timour. Teheran, the modern capital of Per- sia, was reached in the middle of July, 1862, but, owing to the war having commenced between Dost Mohammed and Ahmed Khan, the ruler of Herat, he did not leave that city until the end of the following March. As a means of more readily accomplishing the ob- jects of his journey, he assumed the character of a dervish, or mendicant pilgrim, on his way to the shrines of Moslem saints. This character his ac- quaintance with Oriental languages, and with Mahomedan manners and customs, qualified him to assume with- out much fear of detection ; and thus it was that he left Teheran in company with more than a score of Tartar pil- grims, a motly group of merchants, artisans, soldiers, and beggars, some mounted on asses, others trudging on foot, and mostly attired in the ragged garb of mendicancy. Taking a north-easterly course, up the slopes of the Elburz mountains, the travellers entered the great defile of Mazendran, from which they looked down upon the primaeval forests of the brightest verdure 298 From this defile they entered upon the causeway made by Shah Abbas, but now fast decaying, resting at night in the midst of a beautiful forest of box. Next day they reached Sari, the chief town of Mazendran, and surrounded by groves of orange and lemon trees, the brightly-tinted fruit of which pre- sented a charming contrast to their dark green foliage. Here they had to hire horses for a day's journey through the marshes between the woods and the shores of the Caspian Sea, on which they were to voyage in a small coasting vessel to Gomushtepe, a Turcoman vil- lage at the western extremity of Alex- ander's wall, which, according to the dwellers in that region, was built by genii at the Macedonian conqueror's command. The pilgrims lingered three weeks in this place, much against the inclina- tion of Vambery, and then continued their journey in a north-easterly direc- tion, all now riding camels or mules. Their way lay at first over grassy plains and through marshes, covered with tall reeds, which swarmed with wild hogs. The Persian mountains had now dis- appeared, and all around them, as far as they could see, stretched verdant plains, dotted here and there with a few tents, near which camels were grazing. The verdure ceased, and they found themselves entering upon the salt- marsh through which the Etrek pursues its sluggish course to the Caspian. To avoid other marshes, formed by TRAVELS AND ADVENTURES IN ASIA. 299 the overflowing of the river, they had to follow a zigzag course, for the most part over a sandy tract, on which very few tents were visible. Crossing the Etrek with some difficulty, owing to the softness of the bottom and its flooded banks, they held a northward them in ruins. Some other ruins were seen on the northern summit of Koren- taghi, but were passed in the night. On the night of the 19th the caravaA was for a time in a position of great peril. They were approaching the Lit- tle Balkan ridge, at the foot of which VIEW OF TEHERAN — CAPITAL OF PERSIA. course over a trackless waste, guided during the day by the sun and at night by the pole-star. On the i6th of May the mountainous ridge called the Korentaghi was dis- cernible in a north-easterly direction, and they passed the ruins known as the Mesheni Misryan, which Vambery vis- ited on the following day, and found to be an ancient fortress, consisting of a square keep, and four towers, two of are many dangerous salt-marshes, which are not distinguishable from the firm ground in their vicinity, owing to a layer of salt which everywhere covers the surface. Warned by the stopping of the camels, all sprang down, and found the ground quaking and yielding beneath them. Fear rendered every one motionless until daybreak, whew they slowly and carefully effected a retrograde movement, reaching the foot 300 TRAVELS AND ADVENTURES IN ASIA. of the hills about ten o'clock next inorning. Along the foot of these hills they journeyed until the evening of the 21st, when they reached the Great Balkan. "The spot where we encamped," says Vambery, "was not without its charms ; for, as the setting sun projected its rays upon the lovely valleys of the Little Balkan, one could almost fancy oneself actually in a mountainous district. The view might even be characterized as beautiful ; but there is the idea of a fearful desolation, the immense aban- donment which covers the whole, as it were, with a veil of mourning." The Route Lost. On the following night about twelve o'clock, just as they came upon a steep declivity, the guide gave the word for all to dismount, as they were entering the ancient bed of Oxus,and the storms and rains of the preceding winter had washed away all traces of the route, which had been tolerably well defined during the summer. Crossing the old course of the river in a crooked line, in order to find a way out on the oppo- site side, they succeeded by daybreak in clambering out upon the plateau beyond. The pilgrims were at this time suf- fering much from thirst, the springs which they found having dwindled to little pools of turbid and brackish water. On the morning of the 24tli they had reached the extremity of the sandy waste over which they had been toiling, and had their hopes of soon meeting with drinkable water encouraged by coming upon numerous footprints of gazelles and wild asses. Some little pools of rain-water were presently reached, and from this spot all the way to Khiva the water-skins of the pil- grims were always full. They were now at the foot of the plateau of Kaflankir, which rises like an island out of a sea of sand, the deep trench at its base, which the Tur- comans told Vambery was the ancient channel of the Oxus, forming the bound- ary on that side of the Khanate of Khiva. On this plateau the travellers observed gazelles and wild asses grazing in large herds. About noon on the second day they were on it, a great cloud of dust was seen towards the north, and the Turcoman escort stood to their arms, apprehensive of an attack. Nearer and nearer came the dust- cloud, as if raised by a charging squad- ron of cavalry. Hundreds of hoofs were clattering over the plateau. Presently the sound ceased suddenly, as if the troop had halted ; the cloud rolled away, and an immense herd of wild asses was seen drawn up in line. For a few moments they gazed intently at the cavalcade, and then galloped away. Warm Reception. Ozbeg villages now succeeded to the brown tents of the wandering tribe of the desert, and on the 2d of June the domes and minarets of Khiva were before them, rising above gardens, and cultivated fields, and groves of poplars. Vambery entered this town with his nerves strung to their extremest ten- sion, for he had heard that the Khan condemned to slavery all suspected strangers. He relied much, however, on his knowledge of all the Khivites of distinction who had been in Con- stantinople, and especially of one, Shu- krnllah Bey, whom he had geen several TRAVELS AND ADVENTURES IN ASIA. 301 times at the house of All Pacha, some- time Minister of Foreign Affairs. To ShukruUah Bey he accordingly at once proceeded, introducing himself as an Effendi who had made the Bey's acquaintance in Constantinople, and desired to offer respects in passing. The Bey, though surprised, made eager inquiries concerning his numerous friends in the Ottoman capital, and the events which had occurred since he had left that city, Vambery answered all his questions with the utmost readi- ness, and, as he had anticipated, re- ceived next day a present and invita- tion from the Khan. He found that potenate sitting on a dais in the hall of audience, with his right hand holding a golden sceptre and his left resting on a velvet cushion. The interview was satisfactory to both, and at its termination the Khan wished Vambery to accept a purse of twenty ducats and an ass for his further jour- ney ; and on the money being declined, on the ground that dervishes are vowed to poverty, his highness insisted upon his visitor becoming his guest during his brief stay in his capital. A Fertile Country. Our traveller did not linger long in Khiva, for the heat was growing op- pressive, and he wished to push on to Bokhara before it became intolerable. He now rode the ass presented to him by the Khan, and employed the camel to carry provisions, with which he was now well supplied. The route pursued by the caravan until the Oxus was reached was through a fertile and well-cultivated country, with mulberry trees bordering the road, and their berries within reach of the traveller who rode in their shade. Flood-water rendered the Oxus so wide that the farther bank was almost indistinguishable. Owing to this ex- tent of water, the passage occupied from ten in the morning until sunset, though the river proper was crossed in half an hour. After passing over a few miles of tolerably well cultivated land^ they entered upon a sandy tract, througk which they pursued a south-easterly course along the right bank of the river. Here and there they came upon a few Khirgis tents, at which they were always sure of a draught of water or milk, which the dust and the intense heat must have rendered very acceptable. Pleasant News. On the fifth day of their journey along the banks of the Oxus, which are almost everywhere overgrown with wil- lows, rushes, and tall sedges, they met five horsemen, merchants returning from Bokhara to Khiva, and learned from them the pleasing intelligence that the route was quite safe. This communication set their minds at ease, for they had heard on leaving Khiva that the Tekke Turcomans, taking ad- vantage of the absence of the Emir and his army from Bokhara, were infesting the approaches to that city. Their agreeable reflections on this; score were disturbed soon after daybreat: next day, however, by meeting two men, who informed them that they had been robbed of their boots, their provisions, and most of their clothing, by a band of Tekke Turcomans, numbering about a hundred and fifty. Their Afghan guide, who had been twice robbed, and narrowly escaped with his life, im- mediately gave the word to retreat, which was done with as much speed 302 TRAVELS AND ADVENTURES IN ASIA. as was possible with heavily-laden camels. Having reached their last resting- place — the ruins of an ancient fortress on a green hill overlooking the Oxus — they allowed the camels three hours' rest and pasture, while filling their water-skins, and then struck into the desert, which seemed their only chance of evading the plundering Tekke. It was sunset when they left the ruins, and a few stars were visible when they reached the desert ; but the moon had not yet risen to betray them to the keen sight of the robber horde, and they pursued their way in silence, the feet of the camels treading almost noiselessly upon the fine sand, A Suggestive Name. The night passed without an alarm. " Our morning station," says Vambery, "bore the charming appellation of Adamkyrylgan (which means ' the place where men perish'), and one needed only to cast a look at the horizon to convince himself how appropriate is that name. Let the reader picture to himself a sea of sand, extending as far as eye can reach, on one side formed into hills, like waves, lashed into that position by the furious storm, on the other side, again, like the smooth waters of a still lake, merely rippled by the west wind. Not a bird visible in the air, not a worm or beetle upon the earth ; traces of nothing but departed life, in the bleaching bones of man or beast that has perished, collected by every passer-by in a heap, to guide the march of future travellers." They were now obliged, notwith- standing the heat and dust, to use their water sparingly, and they began to suf- fer the tortures of thirst. Two of the camels died, two of the pilgrims be- came exhausted, and had to be bound at length upon their camels, and on the fourth day one of the sufferers died. So slow was their progress that they were not beyond the desert. And now, with the mountains in sight, the hot wind and the sand-cloud came, and they had to dismount in haste, and lie prostrate behind the camels, which fell on their knees, and strove to bury their heads in the sand. The dust-storm passed over them, and left them covered with a thick crust of hot sand. Scarcity of Water. Towards evening they reached a spring, but its water was undrinkable, and at midnight they started again, fevered and feeble, and scarcely able to move. Vambery slept from exhaustion, and found himself in the morning in a hut, surrounded by men, whom he found to be Persian slaves, sent from Bokhara by their masters to tend sheep. By them, poor as they were, he and his companions were hospitably and kindly treated. " I was much touched," he relates, " to see amongst them a child five years old, also a slave, of great intelligence. He had been, two years before, cap- tured and sold with his father. When I questioned him about the latter, he answered me confidingly, ' Yes ; my father has bought himself (meaning paid his own ransom) ; at longest I shall only be a slave two years, for by that time my father will have spared the necessary money.' The poor child had on him hardly anything but a few rags, to cover his weak little body ; his skin was of the hardness and color of -TRAVEIvS AND ADVENTURES IN ASIA. 305 leatTier. I gave him one of my own articles of attire, and he promised to have a dress made out of it for himself." Leaving these unhappy slaves with mingled feelings of compassion for fear of robbers, hot winds, and empty water-skins." Their next station was a village called Khakemir, in the midst of a tolerably well-cultivated country, the whole dis- DERVISHES their condition and thankfulness for their kindness, our travellers started with the intention of making their next station, at Khodja Oban, a place to which pilgrims resort to visit the grave of a Moslem saint; but they lost their way at night among the sand hills, and found themselves at daybreak on the margin of a lake. They were now on the borders of Bokhara, and free from AT PRAYKR. trict being watered by canals connected with the river Zereshan. This was crossed next day at a ford, though the remains of a stone bridge were visible on the farther side, near the ruins of a palace said to have been built by the renowned Abdullah Khan Sheibani. The city of Bokhara was now before them, its walls broken in many places, and its buildings presenting no traces 304 TRAVELS AND ADVENTURES IN ASIA. of its fcnrmer grandeur, though it is still vaunted by Bokhariots as the capital of Central Asia. Vambery says the wretchedness of the streets and houses far exceed that of the meanest in Persian cities, and the dust, 4 foot deep, give a poor idea of " noble Bokhara," as the inhabitants call it ; the only thing which impressed him being the strange and diversified mix ture of races and costumes, which pre- sent a striking spectacle to the eyes of a stranger. Vambery was well lodged here, and had access to the best society ; but the task of maintaining his assumed char- actei was a difficult one, and it is probable that only the sanctity supposed to attach to that character guarded his secret. He believed that he was suspected, and that many devices were resorted to with the view of causing him to betray himself. Strange Traveller. "One day," he says, "a servant of the Vizier brought to me a little shriv- elled individual, that I might examine ■'aim, to see whether he was, as he pre- tended, really an Arab from Damascus. When he first entered, his features struck me much — they appeared to me European. When he opened his mouth, my astonishment and perplexity in- creased, for I found his pronunciation anything rather than that of an Arab. He told me that he had undertaken a pilgrimage to the tomb of Djafen Ben Sadik, at Khoten, in China, and wanted to proceed on his journey that very day. His features during our conversation betrayed visible embarrassment, and it was a subject of great regret to me that I had not an occasion to see him a second time, for I am strongly disposed to think that he was playing a part similar to my own." Some of the pilgrims being left in Bokhara, the caravan was reduced on leaving that city to the occupants of a couple of carts of very primitive con- struction, in which they were jolted in a most unpleasant manner, as the wheels — far from perfect circles — rolled through the deep sand or mud. Shut Out of the City. Night was chosen for starting, and as the driver was not familiar with the road he mistook the way, and it was morning when the little town of Mezar was reached. The journey was resumed, therefore, after a brief halt, through a fertile and well-cultivated country, more refreshing to the eye than anything the travellers had seen since they had left the Pontos mountains behind them. Next morning they reached Kette Kurgan, where there is a fortress de- fended by a strong wall and a deep trench, and, the sun having set, the gates were closed, and they had to lodge at a caravanserai outside the walls. Samarcand was reached on the sixth day, and the first impression made by its domes and minarets, brightened by the sunbeams, and brought into relief by a background of groves and gardens, was very pleasing. Of this ancient city to which so much historical interest at- taches, Vambery says that " although it equals Teheran in circumference, its houses do not lie so close together ; still, the prominent buildings and ruins offer a far more magnificent prospect. The eye is most struck by four lofty edifices, in the form of half-domes, the fronts of the Medresses (colleges). TRAVELS AND ADVENTURES IN ASIA. ao5 " As we advance, we perceive first a small neat dome, and further to the south a larger and more imposing one ; the former is the tomb, the latter the mosque, of Timour. Quite facing us, on the south-westerly limit of the city, on a hill, rises the citadel, round which other mosques and tombs are grouped. If we suppose the whole intermixed with closely-planted gardens, we have a faint idea of Samarcand." Dazzling Splendor. Like all eastern cities, this "focus of the whole globe," as a Persian poet calls it, shows best at a distance ; but many of its antiquities are interesting even to Europeans. The summer pal- ace of Timour retains much of its ancient splendor, being approached by an ascent of forty broad marble steps, and containing apartments with mosaic floors, the colors of which are as bril- liant as if they had been executed by the present generation of workmen. Three flags, a breastplate, and an old sword, doubtful relics of the great Emir, were shown to our traveller by the custodian. The mosque of Timour has a melon- shaped dome, and is rich in decorations of colored bricks and inscriptions from the Koran in gold letters. The mosque of Shah Zindel exhibits similar mural decorations, but they are defaced in many places, and the arched gateway shows the ravages of time in its broken brickwork. The citadel contains the reception-hall of Timour, with the cel- ebrated green stone upon which the conquering Emir had his throne placed. The tomb of Timour consists of a neat chapel, surmounted by a splendid central dome and two smaller ones, and 20 surrounded by a wall, in which is a high arched gate. The tomb is under the central dome, and is covered with a flat dark-green stone. The walls of the chapel are covered internally with alabaster, decorated with arabesque de- signs in blue and gold. The Emir's Parade. Vambery was preparing for his de- parture from Samarcand, where he stayed only eight days, when the Emir, returning from his victorious campaign in Khokand, made his triumphal entry into the city. There was a great crowd, but no particular pomp was displayed. Two hundred horsemen rode first, and were followed by infantry, with flags and drums. "The Emir and all his escort," says our traveller, "looked, with their snow- white turbans and wide silk garments of all the colors of the rainbow, more like the chorus of women in the opera of ' Nebuchadnezzar ' than a troop of Tartar warriors. So also it may be said with respect to other officers of the Court, of whom some bore white staves and others halbreds, that there was in the whole procession nothing to remind one of Turkestan, except in the fol- lowers, of whom many were Kiptchaks, and attracted attention by their Mongol features and the arms which they bore consisting of bows, arrows, and shields." The Emir held a public audience on the following day, and Vambery pre- sented himself, sustaining his well- assumed character of a Mohamedan pilgrim with his usual address, and again with success. He was advised by his friends, however, to quit Samar- cand with all speed, and gain as quickly S06 TRAV:etS AND ADVENTURES IN ASIA. as possible the farther bank of the Oxus. He left the city by night, but travelled slowly, on account of the heat, passing through a well-cultivated country, in a south-westerly direc- tion; Herat, of which so much has been heard of late in connection with events in Afghanistan, being the next goal. Karshi, a town of considerable size and commercial importance, was reach- ed on the third day, and our traveller was surprised to find there a public garden, with flower-beds and tea-stalls, on a scale which he had not found in Bokhara or Samarcand, or even in Persia. He remained there three days, and at sunrise on the second day of the resumed journey reached the Oxus, on the nearer bank of which stands a small fort, and on the opposite side, on a steep hill, the citadel, around which is spread tlie frontier town of Kevki. "Mother of Cities." Having to wait here the arrival of the caravan for Herat, he availed him- self of the delay to visit the ruins of ancient Balkh, styled by Oriental writ- ers "the mother of cities." Only a few heaps of earth are pointed out as remains of the ancient Bactra, and of the more modern ruins there is no- thing more remarkable than a half- demolished mosque, built by the Seld- joukian Sultan Sandjar in the days when Balkh was the centre of Moslem civilization. The caravan in which our traveller turned his back upon the Khanate of Bokhara consisted of four hundred camels, nearly as many asses, and a few horses. Some of the men were pilgrims, others emancipated slaves re- turi'mg to their native countries. The country traversed was for some distance a barren plain, then, as the north-west- ern frontier of Afghanistan was ap- proached, it became hilly. A broad valley was threaded, and then a steep mountain pass was trav- ersed, so narrow that the caravan had to wind through it in single file. Thence they descended into a long valley, through which the river Murgab ran swiftly, in crossing which Vambery's ass fell, and precipitated him into the water, amidst the laughter of his com- panions. The river was not deep, however, and he escaped with no greater mishap than a wetting. Slow Travelling. From this ford to Herat is reckoned four days' journey for horses, but camels require double that time, the country being mountainous. It became wilder and more picturesque as the travellers advanced, the ruins of old castles crowning the precipices between which the Murgab pours its foaming stream. Beyond the second pass they left the river, and proceeded in a westerly di- rection, reaching next day the ruins of the town and fortress of Kale No, the site of which was occupied by a few tents of the Hezare, a tribe of mixed Tartar and Persian descent. Thence to Herat is twenty miles, but the way lies over lofty mountains, and requires four days for its accomplish- ment. The highest summit was passed on the second day, and was covered with snow, so that the travellers suf- fered severely from cold, in spite of the great fires which they made when they halted. Thence they descended a path only a foot wide, along a ledge from TRAVELS AND ADVENTURES IN ASIA. 307 whicli a precipice rose above a deep ravine. Rounding the shoulder of a mountain, they looked down upon the broad and fertile plains in which Herat stands, dotted with villages, and intersected by numerous canals. Trees only are wanted to complete the charm of the ^ndscape. The city, having been re- cently besieged by Dost Mahomed, presented a ruinous appearance. ' ' The houses which we passed, the advanced works, the very gate," says Vambery, " looked like a heap of rub- bish. Near the latter is the citadel, which, from its elevation, served as a mark for the Afghan artillery ; it lies there blasted and half-demolished. The doors and windows have been stripped of their woodwork, for during the siege the inhabitants suffered most from the scarcity of fuel . Each step we advance we see greater indications of devasta- tion. Entire quarters of the town re- main solitary and abandoned." Means Exhausted. Our traveller's resources were by this time exhausted, and he was compelled to sell his ass. He waited upon an en- voy sent by the Governor of Khorassan to the young Sirdar of Herat, Yakoub Khan, in the hope of obtaining employ- ment, but without success. His fellow- travellers had dispersed, only one re- maining with him — a young man who had become attached to him, and event- ually accompanied him to Pesth. To leave no stone unturned, he waited upon Yakoub Khan — then a lad of fif- teen — who seemed to penetrate his secret immediately; for, regarding him for a moment with a look of surprise and perplexity, he raised a finger, and smil- ingly' exclaimed, " I swear you are an Englishman ! ' ' Before Vambery could reply, he sprang from his chair, and, clapping his hands, exclaimed, *' Pardon me ; but you are an Englishman, are you not?" The traveller assumed a grave look, and reminded the young prince of the proverb attributed by tra^ dition to the prophet of Mecca, "He who takes the believer for an unbelievei is himself an unbeliever." Welcome from the Prince. This rejoinder disconcerted Yakoub, who resumed his seat, observing in an apologetic tone that he had never before seen a hadji from Bokhara with such a physiognomy. Vambery replied that he was not a Bokhariot, but a Stram- bouli; and, producing his Turkish pass- port, mentioned Yakoub's cousin, the son of Akbar Khan, who was in Con- stantinople in i860. The prince then spoke very graciously to him, and in- vited him to repeat his visit as often as he could. Two days before he left Herat our traveller made an excursion to the vil- lage of Gazerghiah, situated on an emi- nence a league from the city, and con- taining many memorials of antiquity, dating from the time of Shah Rookh Mirza, a son of Timour. Near the vil- lage are the ruins of Mosalla, which were also visited. The remains of the mosque and sepulchre of Sultan Hoosein Mirza, erected 891, displayed a large amount of elaborate carving, many of the stones being covered with inscrip- tions from the Koran. On the 15th of November, 1863, Vam- bery quitted Herat with the great car- avan bound for Meshed, and consisting of 2,000 persons, about half of whom 308 TRAVELS AND ADVENTURES IN ASIA. were Hezare pilgrims from Cabul, and a large proportion of the remainder Afghan merchants from that city and A PERSIAN OFFICIAL. from Candahar. He obtained permis- sion to ride upon a lightly-loaded camel by representing that he should be able to pay when the caravan reached Me- shed ; but by this statement he raised doubts of the genuineness of the char- acter which he had assumed, so far with success. " The dubious light in which I stood, afforded," he says, "a fund of interest- ing surmises to those by whom I was surrounded ; for whilst some of them took me for a genuine Turk, others were disposed to think me an English- man ; the different parties even quar- relled on the subject, and it was very droll to observe how the latter began to triumph over the former when it was observed that, in proportion as we drew near to Meshed, the bent posture of humility of the dervish began more and more to give way to the upright and in- dependent deportment of the Euro- pean." Meshed was reached on the twelfth day after the departure of the caravan from Herat, and there our traveller was hospitably received by Colonel Dol- mage, who filled several important offices under Murad Mirza, uncle of the reigning Shah, and governor of the city. The disguise was now thrown off, and, reflecting that the truth concern- ing him would become known at Herat on the return of the Afghans who had travelled with him from that city, he wrote to Yakoub Khan, avowing that though not an Englishman, he was a European, and complimenting the young prince on the acuteness which had penetrated his disguise. For a month he was the honored guest of Colonel Dolmage, and then he set out for Teheran. That city was reached on the 20th of January, 1864, and he proceeded immediately to the Turkish embassy, whence he had started ten months before on his adventurous journey, A suite of apartments was TRAVELS AND ADVENTURES IN ASIA. 309 immediately set apart for him, the British and French ambassadors vied with each other in showing hirh kind- ness, and the Shah accorded him a gracious reception. He remained in the Persian capital more than two months, and then set out for Constanti- nople, via Tabreez and Trebizond. Vambery's adventurous journey was the most remarkable of any in Central Asia during the century, bringing the outside world into touch with a part of the globe that has remained for ages an almost impenetrable mystery to othei countries, and at the same time settling many doubtful quesUcns- PART IV. Great Wars and Battles OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. CHAPTER XXI. Downfall of Napoleon at Waterloo. (5 HE great battle which ended the twenty-three years' war of the first French Revokition, and which quelled the extraordinary man whose genius and ambition had so long dominated the world, is justly regarded as one of those remarkable events that appear at long intervals and determine the fate of nations. Europe, long tossed by wars and con- vulsions, at length breathed peacefully. Suddenly Napoleon Bonaparte escaped from Elba and the whole scene was changed as if by the magic of an evil spirit. The exertions which the allied powers made at this crisis to grapple promptly with the French Emperor have truly been termed gigantic, and never were Napoleon's genius and ac- tivity more signally displayed than in the celerity and skill by which he brought forward all the military re- sources of France, which the reverses of the three preceding years, and the pacific policy of the Bourbons during the months of their first restoration, had greatly diminished and disorganized. He re-entered Paris on the 20th of March, 1815, aad by the end of May, 310 besides sending a force into La Vendee to put down the armed risings of the Royalists in that province, and besides providing troops under Massena and Suchet for the defense of the southern frontiers of France, Napoleon had an army assembled in the northeast for active operations under his own com- mand, which amounted to between 120 and 1 30,000 men, with a superb park of artillery, and in the highest possible state of equipment, discipline and efficiency. The approach of the many Russians, Austrians, Bavarians and other foes of the French Emperor to the Rhine was necessarily slow ; but the two most active of the allied powers had occupied Belgium with their troops while Na- poleon was organizing his forces. Mar- shal Blucher was there with 116,000 Prussians, and the Duke of Wellington was there also with about 106,000 troops, either British or in British pay. Napoleon determined to attack these enemies in Belgium. The disparity of numbers was indeed great, but delay was sure to increase the number of his enemies much faster than reinforce- ments could join his own ranks. He con- ail 312 DOWNFALL OF NAPOLEON AT WATERLOO. sidered also that "the enemy's troops were cantoned under the command of two generals, and composed of nations differing both in interest and in feel- ings. His own army was under his own sole command. It was composed ex- clusively of French soldiers, mostly veterans, well acquainted with their officers and with each other, and full of enthusiastic confidence in their com- mander. If he could separate the Prus- sians from the British, so as to attack each in detail, he felt sanguine of suc- cess, not only against these, the most resolute of his many adversaries, but also against the other masses that were slowly laboring up against his south- tastern frontiers. The French Concealed. The triple chain of strong fortresses which the French possessed on the Bel- gian frontier formed a curtain, behind which Napoleon was able to concen- trate his army, and to conceal till the very last moment the precise line of attack which he intended to take. On the other hand, Blucher and Welling- ton were obliged to canton their troops along a line of open country of con- siderable length, so as to watch for the outbreak of Napoleon from whichever point of his chain of strongholds he should please to make it. Blucher, with his army, occupied the banks of the Sambre and the Meuse, from Liege on his left, to Charleroi on his right ; and the Duke of Wellington covered Brussels, his cantonments being partly in front of that city, and be- tween it and the French frontier, and partly on its west ; their extreme right being at Courtray and Tournay, while their left approached Charleroi and communicated with the Prussian right. It was upon Charleroi that Napoleon resolved to level his attack, in hopes of severing the two allied armies from each other, and then pursuing his favorite tactic of assailing each separately with a superior force on the battle-field, though the aggregate of their numbers considerably exceeded his own. Over the Frontier. On the 15th of June the French army was suddenly in motion, and crossed the frontier in three columns, which were pointed upon Charleroi and its vicinity. The French line of advance upon Brussels, which city Napoleon re- solved to occupy, thus lay right through the centre of the line of the canton- ments of the allies. The Prussian gen- eral rapidly concentrated his forces, calling them in from the left, and the English general concentrated his, call- ing them in from the right toward the menaced centre of the combined posi- tion. On the morning of the i6th, Blucher was in position at lyigny, to the north- east of Charleroi, with 80,000 men. Wellington's troops were concentrating at Quatre Bras, which lies due north of Charleroi, and is about nine miles from Ligny. On the i6th. Napoleon in per- son attacked Blucher, and, after a long and obstinate battle, defeated him, and compelled the Prussian army to retire northward toward Wavre. On the same day. Marshal Ney, with a large part of the French army, attacked the English troops at Ouatre Bras, and a very severe engagement took place, in which Ney failed in defeating the British, but sue ceeded in preventing their sending any DOWNFALL OF NAPOLEON AT WA/ERLOO. 815 help to Blucher, who was being beaten by the Emperor at Ligny. On the news of Bhicher's defeat at Ligny reaching Wellington, he foresaw that the Emperor's army would now be directed upon him, and he accordingly retreated in order to restore his com- munications with his ally, which would have been dislocated by the Prussians falling back from Ligny to Wavre if the English had remained in advance at Quatre Bras. During the 17th, therefore, Wellington retreated, being pursued, but little molested by the main French army, over about half the space between Quatre Bras and Brussels. Decides to Give Battle. This brought him again parallel, on a line running from west to east, witli Blucher, who was at Wavre. Having ascertained that the Prussian army, though beaten on the i6th, was not broken, and having received a promise from its general to march to his assist- ance, Wellington determined to halt, \ and to give battle to the French Em- peror in the position, which, from a village in its neighborhood, has re- ceived the ever-memorable name of the field of Waterloo. When, after a very hard-fought and long-doubtful day. Napoleon had suc- ceeded in driving back the Prussian army from Ligny, and had resolved on marching himself to assail the English, he sent, on the 17th, Marshal Grouchy with 30,000 men to pursue the defeated Prussians, and to prevent their march- ing to aid the Duke of Wellington. Great recriminations passed afterwards between the marshal and the Emperor as to how this duty was attempted to be performed, and the reasons why Grouchy failed on the i8th to arrest the lateral movement of the Prussian troops from Wavre toward Waterloo. It may be sufficient to remark here that Grouchy was not sent in pursuit of Blucher till late on the 17th, and that the force given to him was insuffi- cient to make head against the whole Prussian army ; for Blucher' s men, though they were beaten back, and suf- fered severe loss at Ligny, were neither routed nor disheartened ; and they were joined at Wavre by a large division of their comrades under General Bulow, who had taken no part in the battle of the 1 6th, and who were fresh for the march to Waterloo against the French on the 1 8th. But the failure of Grouchy was in truth mainly owing to the indomitable heroism of Blucher himself, who, though severely injured in the battle at Ligny, was as energetic and as active as ever in bringing his men into action again, and who had the resolution to expose a part of his army, under Thielman, to be overwhelmed by Grouchy at Wavre on the 1 8th, while he urged the march of the mass of his troops upon Water- loo. "It is not at Wavre, but at Water- loo," said the old field-marshal, "that the campaign is to be decided ;" and he risked a detachment, and won the campaign accordingly. In Perfect Agreement. Wellington and Blucher trusted each other as cordially, and co-operated as zealously, as formerly had been the case with Marlborough and Eugene. It was in full reliance on Blncher's promise to join him that the duke stood his ground and fought at Waterloo-, and those who have ventured to impugn 314 DOWNFALL OF NAPOLEON AT WATERLOO. the duke's capacity as a general ought '.o have had common sense enough to perceive that to charge the duke with having won the battle of Waterloo by the belp of the Prussians is really to say that he won it by the very means on which he relied, and without the expectation of which the battle would not have been fought. Wellington Criticized. Napoleon himself found fault with Wellington for not having retreated beyond Waterloo. The short answer may be, that the duke had reason to expect that his army could singly resist the French at Waterloo until the Prus- sians came up, and that, on the Prus- sians joining, there would be a suffi- cient force, united under himself and Blucher, for completely overwhelming the enemy. And while Napoleon thus censures his great adversary, he involuntarily bears the highest possible testimony to the military character of the English, and proves decisively of what para- mount importance was the battle to which he challenged his fearless oppo- nent. Napoleon asks, "If the English army had been beaten at Waterloo, what would have been the use of those numerous bodies of troops, of Prussians, Austrians, Germans, and Spaniards, which were advancing by forced march- es to the Rhine, the Alps, and Py- renees?" The reader may gain a generally ac- curate idea of the localities of the great battle by picturing a valley between two and three miles long, of various breadths at different points, but gener- ally not exceeding half a mile. On each side of the valley there is a wind- ing chain of low hills, running some- what parallel with each other. The declivity from each of these ranges of hills to the intervening valley is gentle but not uniforrh, the undulations of the ground being frequent and considera- ble. The English army was posted on the northern, and the French army oc- cupied the southern ridge. The artillery of each side thundered at the other from their respective heights throughout the day, and the charges of horse and foot were made across the valley that has been described. The village of Mont St. Jean is situated a little behind the centre of the northern chain of hills, and the village of La Belle Alliance is close behind the centre of the southern ridge. The high road from Charleroi to Brussels runs through both these villages, and bisects, there- fore, both the English and the French positions. The line of this road was the line of Napoleon's intended advance on Brussels. Advantages of Position. There are some other local particu- lars connected with the situation of each army which it is necessary to bear in mind. The strength of the British position did not consist merely in the occupation of a ridge of high ground. A village and ravine, called Merk Braine, on the Duke of Wellington's extreme right, secured him from nis flank being turned on that side ; and on his extreme left, two little hamlets, called La Haye and Papillote, gave a similar though, a slighter protection. It was, however, less necessary to pro- vide for this extremity of the position, as it was on this (the eastern) side that the Prussians were coming up. DOWNFALL OF NAPOLEON AT WATERLOO. 315 Behind the whole British position important to see what posts there were was the great and extensive forest of in front of the British line of hills of THK DUKE OF WELLINGTON — COMMANDER OF THE ALLIED ARMIES. Soignies, As no attempt was made by the French to turn either of the Eng- lish flanks, and the battle was a day of straightforward fighting ; it is chiefly which advantage could be taken either to repel or facilitate an attack ; and it will be seen that there were two, and that each was of very great importance. 316 DOWNFALL OF NAPOLEON AT WATERLOO. In front of the British right, that is to say, on the northern slope of the val- ley toward its western end, there stood an old-fashioned Flemish farm-house called Goumont or Hougoumont, with out-buildings and a garden, and with a copse of beech trees of about two acres in extent round it. This was strongly garrisoned by the allied troops ; and while it was in their possession, it was difficult for the enemy to press on and force the British right wing. Enemy Under Cover. On the other hand, if the enemy could occupy it, it would be difficult for that wing to keep its ground on the heights, with a strong post held adversely in its immediate front, being one that would give much shelter to the enemy's marks- men, and great facilities for the sudden concentration of attacking columns. Almost immediately in front of the British centre, and not so far down the slope as Hougoumont, there was another farmhouse, of a smaller size, called La Haye Sainte, which was also held by the British troops, and the occupation of which was found to be of very seri- ous consequence. With respect to the French position, the principal feature to be noticed is the village of Planchenoit, which lay a little in the rear of their right (that is, on the eastern side), and which proved to be of great importance in aiding them to check the advance of the Prus- sians. As has been already mentioned, the Prussians, on the morning of the i8th, were at Wavre, about twelve miles to the east of the field of battle at Water- loo. The junction of Bulow's division had more than made up for the loss sus- tained at Ligny ; and leaving Thielman, with about 17,000 men, to hold his ground as he best could against the attack which Grouchy was about to make on Wavre, Bulow and Bluchcr movvid with the rest of the Prussians upon Waterloo. It was calculated that they would be there by three o'clock ; but the extremely difficult nature of the ground which they had to traverse, ren- dered worse by the torrents of rain that had just fallen, delayed them long ov their twelve miles' march. The night of the 17th was wet and stormy; and when the dawn of the memorable i8th of June broke, the rain was still descending heavily. The French and British armies rose from their dreary bivouacs and began to form, each on the high ground which it oc- cupied. Toward nine the weather grew clearer, and each army was able to watch the position and arrangements of the other on the opposite side of the valley. Line of Battle. The Duke of Wellington drew up his infantry in two lines, the second line being composed principally of Dutch and Belgian troops, whose fidelity was doubtful, and of those regiments of other nations which had suffered most severely at Quartre Bras on the i6th. This second line was posted on the northern declivity of the hills, so as to be sheltered from the French cannonade. The cavalry v/as stationed at intervals along the line in the rear, the largest force of horse being collected on the left of the centre, to the east of the Charleroi road. On the opposite heights the French army was drawn up in two general lines, with the entire force of DOWNt^ALt OP NAl>OtfiOisr At WAf EktOO. m ihe Imperial Guards, cavalry as well as infantry, in the rear of the centre, as a ."eserve. English military critics highly eulo- gized the admirable arrangement which Napoleon made of his forces of each arm, so as to give him the most ample means of sustaining, by an immediate and sufficient support, any attack, from whatever point he might direct it, and of drawing promptly together a strong force, to resist any attack that might be made on himself in any part of the field. When his troops were all arrayed, he rode along the lines, receiving every- where the most enthusiastic cheers from his men, of whose entire devotitni to him his assurance was now doubly sure. On the southern side of the valley the duke's army was also arrayed, and ready to meet the menaced attack. Armies Face to Face. The two armies were now fairly in presence of each other, and their mutual observation was governed by the most intense interest and the most scrutiniz- ing anxiety. In a still greater degree did these feelings actuate their com- manders, while watching each other's preparatory movements, and minutely scanning the surface of the arena on which tactical skill, habitual prowess, physical strength, and moral courage were to decide, not alone their own, but, in all probability, the fate of Europe. Apart from national interests and considerations, and viewed solely in connection with the opposite characters of the two illustrious chiefs, the ap- proaching contest was contemplated with anxious solicitude by the whole military world. Need this create sur- prise when we reflect that the struggle was one for mastery between the far- famed conqueror of Italy and the vic- torious liberator of the Peninsula ; be- tween the triumphant vanquisher of Eastern Europe, and the bold and suc- cessful invader of the south of France i Never was the issue of a single battle looked forward to as involving conse- quences of such vast importance — of such universal influence. The Struggle Begins. It was approaching noon before the action commenced. Napoleon, in his memoirs, gives as the reason for this delay, the miry state of the ground through the heavy rain of the preced- ing night and day, which rendered it impossible for cavalry or artillery to manceuver on it until a few hours of dry weather had given it its natural consistency. It has been supposed, also, that he trusted to the eflfect which the sight of the imposing array of his own forces was likely to produce on the part of the allied army. The Belgian regiments had been tampered with ; and Napoleon had well founded hopes of seeing them quit the Duke of Wellington in a body, and range themselves under his own eagles. The duke, however, who knew and did not trust them, had guarded against the risk of this by breaking up the corps of Belgians, and distributing them in separate regiments among troops on whom he could rely. At last, at about half past eleven o'clock. Napoleon began the battle by directing a powerful force from his left wing under his brother. Prince Jerome, to attack Hougoumont. Column after colunm of the French now descended 318 DOWNFALL OF NAPOLEON AT WATERLOO. from the west to the southern heights, and assailed that post with fiery valor, which was encountered with the most determined bravery. The French won the copse round the house, but a party of the British Guards held the house itself throughout the day. Terrific Cannonade. Amid shell and shot, and the blazing fragments of part of the buildings, this obstinate contest was continued. But still the English held Hougoumont, though the French occasionally moved forward in such numbers as enabled them to surround and mask this post with part of their troops from their left wing, while others pressed onward up the slope, and assailed the British right. The cannonade, which commenced at first between the British right and the French left, in consequence of the attack on Hougoumont, soon became general along both lines ; and about one o'clock Napoleon directed a grand attack to be made under Marshal Ney upon the centre and left wing of the allied army. For this purpose four columns of infantry, amounting to about 18,000 men were collected, supported by a strong division of cavalry under the celebrated Kellerman, and seventy- four guns were brought forward ready to be posted on the ridge of a little undulation of the ground in the inter- val between the two main ranges of heights, so as to bring their fire to bear on the duke's line at a range of about seven hundred yards. By the combined assault of these formidable forces, led on by Ney, " the bravest of the brave," Napoleon hoped to force the left centre of the British position, to take La Haye Sainte, and then, pressing forward, to occupy also the farm of Mont St. Jean. He then could cut the mass of Wellington's troops off from their line of retreat upon Brussels, and from their own left, and also completely sever them from any Prussian troops that might be ap- proaching. The columns destined for this great and decisive operation descended ma- jestically from the French range of hills, and gained the ridge of the inter- vening eminence, on which the batteries that supported them were now ranged. As the columns descended again from this eminence, the seventy-four guns opened over their heads with terrible effect upon the troops of the allies that were stationed on the heights to the left of Charleroi road. One of the French columns kept to the east, and attacked the extreme left of the allies ; the other three continued to move rap- idly forward upon the left centre of the allied position. Disgraceful Panic. The front line of the allies here was composed of Bylant's brigade of Dutch and Belgians. As the French columns moved up the southward slope of the height on which the Dutch and Belgi- ans stood, and the skirmishers in ad- vance began to open their fire, Bylant's entire brigade turned and fled in dis- graceful and disorderly panic ; but there were men more worthy of the name behind. The second line of the allies here consisted of two brigades of the Eng- lish infantry, which had suffered se- verely at Quatre Bras. But they were under Picton, and not even Ney himself surpassed in resolute bravery that stern DOWNFALL OF NAPOIvEON AT WATERLOO. 319 and fiery spirit, Picton brought his two brigades forward, side by side, in a against the three victorious French columns, upward of four times tha^ HEROIC CHARGE OF THE ENGLISH CAVALRY AT WATERLOO. thin two-deep line. Thus joined to- gether, they were not 3000 strong. With these Picton had to make head strength, and who, encouraged uy the easy rout of the Dutch and Belgians, now came confidently over the ridge. ^20 DOWNFALL OF NAPOLEON AT WATERLOO. The British infantry stood firm ; and as the French halted and began to deploy into line, Picton seized the critical moment : a close and deadly volley was thrown in upon them, and then with a fierce hurrah the British dashed in with the bayonet. The French reeled back in confusion ; and as they staggard down the hill, a brig- ade of the English cavalry rode in on them, cutting them down by whole battalions, and taking ?ooc> prisoners. The British cavalry gailopei forward and sabred the artillery-m s/j. of Ney's seventy-four advanced guns ■, and then cutting the traces and the throats of the horses, rendered these guns totally useless to the French throughout the remainder of the day. In the excite- ment of success, the English cavalry continued to press on, but were charged in their turn, and driven back with severe loss by Milhaud's cuirassiers. Failure of Great Attack. This great attack (in repelling which the brave Picton had fallen) had now completely failed ; and, at the same time, a powerful body of French cuir- assiers, who were advancing along the right of the Charleroi road, had been fairly beaten after a close hand-to-hand fight by the heavy cavalry of the Eng- lish household brigade. Hougoumont was still being assailed, and was suc- cessfully resisting. Troops were now beginning to ap- pear at the edge of the horizon on Napoleon's right, which he too well knew to be Prussian, though he en- deavored to persuade his followers that they were Grouchy's men coming to aid them. It was now about half-past three o'clock ; and though Wellington's army had suffered severely by the unre- mitting cannonade and in the late des- perate encounter, no part of the British position had been forced. Napoleon next determined to try what effect he could produce on the British centre and right by charges of his splendid cavalry, brought on in such force that the duke's cavalry could not check them. Stood Like a Wall. Fresh troops were at the same time sent to assail L " I have seen not a few cavalry charges, but I never saw a finer one, whether from a spectator's or an adju- tant's point of view, than this one of the Chasseurs d'Afrique. It was des- tined to a sudden arrestment, and that without the ceremony of the trumpets sounding the 'Halt.' The horsemen and the footmen might have seen the color of each others' moustaches (to use Havelock's favorite phrase), when along the line of the latter there flashed out a sudden, simultaneous streak of fire. " Like thunder-claps sounding over the din of a hurricane, rose the mea- sured crash of the battery guns, and ihe cloud of white smoke drifted away towards the Chasseurs, enveloping them for the moment from one's sight. When it blew away, there was visible a line of bright uniforms and grey horses struggling prostrate among the potato drills, or lying still in death. Only a handful of all the gallant show of five minutes before were galloping back- ward up the slope, le^.ving tokens at intervals of their prepress as they re- treated. So thorough j. destruction by what may be called a single volley pro-^ bably the oldest soldier now alive never witnessed." The French Hurled Back. The French had played their last card. They had endeavored to give the tide of battle a favorable turn by sacrificing their cavalry, but in vain. The Germans now stormed and captured the heights of Floing and Cazal, and from this time the battle became little more than a mere farce. The French were thoroughly disheartened, and ra^ pidly becoming an undisciplined rabble. Hundreds and thousands of them al- lowed themselves to be taken prisoners; ammunition-wagons were exploding in their midst, while the German artillery were ever contracting their murderous fire, and walls of bayonets closed every issue. The fugitive troopers, rushing about in search of cover, increased the frightful confusion which began to pre- vail throughout the circumscribed space in which the French army had been cooped up. Still, from the German point of view, a decisive blow was imperative, so that the results of the mighty battle might be secured without a doubt. With this in view, the Prussian Guards and the Saxons from Givonne quarter were launched against the Bois de laGarenne, which had become the last refuge of the battered and broken French; and these were soon driven back from every point, with the loss of many guns and prisoners — back on the fortress of Se- dan in wild turmoil and disorganized flight. ^16 OVERTHROW OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE, It is to the inside of this fortress that the scene must now change, in order that we may pick up and follow what may be called the personal thread of the great battle-drama, of which we have but given the leading episodes. For it is only at this point that the bat- tle-drama began to enter its most inter- esting, because most surprising phase. Brave Marshal Wounded. Marshal MacMahon, the French com- mander-in-chief, had been in the saddle as early as 5 a. m. When riding along the high ground above La Moncelle he was severely wounded in the thigh by the fragment of a shell, and then he nominated Ducrot his successor in com- mand. By 8 o'clock the latter was ex- ercising this command, in virtue of which he had ordered a retreat west- ward to Mezieres ; but presently he was superseded by General de Wimpffen, who had but just arrived from Algeria, and who hastened to countermand the retreat on Mezieres in favor of an at- tempt to break out in the opposite di- rection towards Carignan, This chaos of commanders and confusion of plans proved fatal to the distracted French, who now began to see that there was no hope for them. When riding out in the direction of the hardest fighting, Napoleon had met the wounded Marshal being brought in on a stretcher. The unfortunate Emperor mooned about the field for hours under fire, but he had no influ- ence whatever on the conduct of the battle. He had already almost ceased to be Emperor in the eyes of his gen- erals, and even of his soldiers. De Wimpffen sent a letter begging his im- perial master *' to place himself in the midst of his troops, who could be relied on to force a passage through the Ger- man lines;" but to this exhortation his Majesty vouchsafed no reply. White Flag Goes Up. Eventually he returned into the town and, already showing the white feather, gave orders for the hoisting of the white flag. Up flew this white flag as a re- quest to the Germans to suspend their infernal fire ; but this signal of distress had not long fluttered aloft when it was indignantly cut down by General Faure, chief-of-staflf to the wounded MacMa- hon, acting on his own responsibility alone. For some time longer the use- less slaughter went on, and then Na- poleon made another attempt to sue for mercy. " Why does this useless struggle go on?" he said to Lebrun, who entered the presence of his Majesty shortly be- fore 3 P. M. "An hour ago or more I bade the white flag be displaved in order to sue for an armistice '* Lebrun explained that, in addition to the flying of the white flag, there were other formalities to be observed in such a case — the signing of a letter by the commander-in-chief, and the sending of it by an officer accompanied by a trum- peter and a flag of truce. These things being seen to, Lebrun now repaired to where Wimpffen was rallying some troops for an assault on the Germans in Balan, near Bazeilles; and on seeing Lebrun approach with all his paraphernalia for a parley, the angry commander-in-chief shouted: "No ca- pitulation ! Drop that rag ! I mean to fight on !" and forthwith he started for Balan, carrying Lebruu with him into the fray. ., -. - -- ^ . ^ OVERTHROW OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 417 Meanwhile Ducrot, who had been fighting hard about the Bois de la Ga- renne, in the desperate attempt to retard the contraction of the German circle of fire and steel, resolved about this time to pass through Se- dan and join in Wim- piSfen's proposed at- tempt to cut a way out towards Carig- nan. .What he saw in the interior of the town may be de- scribed almost in his own words. The streets, the open places, the gates were blocked up by wagons, guns, and the luggage and de- bris of a routed army. Bands of soldiers without arms, with- out packs, were rush- ing about, throwing themselves into the churches or breaking into private houses. Many unfortunate men were trampled under foot. The few soldiers who still pre- served a remnant of energy seemed to be expending it in ac- cusations and curses. "We have been be- trayed," they cried ; sold by traitors and cowards." Nothing could be done with such men, and Ducrot, desisting from his in- tention to join De Wimpffen, hastened to seek out the Emperor. The air was all on fire; shells fell on roofs, andstruck masses of masonry, which crushed down on the pavements. " I cannot under- stand," said the Emperor, "why the enemy continues his fire. I have or- dered the white flag to be hoisted. I MARSHAL MACMAHON— FRENCH COMMANDER AT THE BATTLE OF SEDAN. we have been hope to obtain an interview with the King of Prussia, and may succeed in ofettinsf advantageous terms for the army." While the Emperor and Ducrot were thus conversing, the German cannon- ad'" increased in deadly violence. Fires 418 OVERTHROW OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. burst out ; women, children and wound- ed were destroyed, and the air was filled with shrieks, curses and groans. "It is absolutely necessary to stop this firing," at last exclaimed the Em- peror, in a state of pallid perturbation. " Here, write this: 'The flag of truce having been displayed, negotiations are about to be opened with the enemy. The firing must cease all along the line.' Now sign it!" " Oh, no, sire," replied Ducrot ; " I cannot sign. By what right could I do so ? General Wimpfien is in chief com- mand." ''Yes," rejoined the Emperor; but I know not where General Wimp- ffen is to be found. Someone must sign !" "Let his chief-of-staff do so," sug- gested Ducrot ; " or General Douay." "Yes," said the Emperor; "let the chief-of-staff sign the order." Disgraceful Altercation. But what became of this order is noi exactly known. All that is known is, that the brave Wimpffen scorned even to open the Emperor's letter, calling upon his Majesty instead to come and help in cutting a way out ; that the Emperor did not respond to this appeal ; that Wimpffen, failing in his gallant attempt on Balan for want of proper support, then retired to Sedan, and indignantly sent in his resignation to the Emperor ; that then, in the presence of his Majesty, there was a scene of violent altercation between Wimpffen and Ducrot, in the course of which it was believed that blows were actually exchanged ; and that finally Napoleon brought Wim- pffen to understand that, having com- manded during the battle it was his duty not to desert his post in circum- stances so critical. Furious Artillery Fire. Let the scene now again shift to the hill-top of Fresnois, where King Wil- liam and his suite were viewing, as from the dress-circle of a theatre, the course of the awful battle-drama in the town and valley below. The first white flag run up by order of Napoleon had not been noticed by the Germans, and thinking thus that the French meant to fight it out to the bitter end, the King, between 4 and 5 p. M., ordered the whole available artillery to concen- trate a crushing fire on Sedan, crowded as it was with fugitives and troops, so as to bring the enemy to their senses as soon as possible, no matter by what amount of carnage, while at the same time, under cover of this cannonade, a Bavarian force prepared to storm the Torcy Gate. The batteries opened fire with fearful effect, and in a short time Sedan seemed to be in flames. This was the cannon- ade which had burst out during the Emperor's conversation with Ducrot, making his Majesty once more give orders for the hoisting of the white flag ; and no sooner was it at length seen flying from the citadel than the German fire at once ceased, when the King despatched Colonel Bronsart von Schellendorff, of his staff, to ride down into Sedan under a flag of truce and summon the garrison to surrender. Penetrating into the town, and ask- ing for the commander-in-chief, this ofiicer, to his utter astonishment, was led into the presence of Napoleon ! For the Germans had not yet the faintest idea that the Emperor was in OVERTHROW OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 419 Sedan. Just as Colonel Bronsart was starting off, General Sheridan, of the United States Army, who was attached to the royal headquarters, remarked to Bismarck that Napoleon himself would likely be one of the prizes. "Oh, no," replied the Iron Chancellor, "the old fox is too cunning to be caught in such a trap ; he has doubtless slipped off to Paris." What, then, was the sur- prise of all when Colonel Bronsart galloped back to the hill-slope of Fresnois with the astounding news that the Emperor himself was in the fortress, and would himself at once com- municate direct with the King ! This Colonel Bronsart was a man of French ex- traction, being descended (like so many in Prussia) from one of those Hugue- not families who had been driven into exile by the cruel despotism of Louis XIV. And now — strange Nemesis of his- tory — to the lineal representative of a victim of this tyranny was given the satisfaction of demanding, on behalf of his royal Prussian master, the sword of the historical successor in French despotism to Louis XIV. The effect on the field of battle, as the fact of a surrender became obvious to the troops, was most extraordinary. The opening of one of the gates of Sedan to permit the exit of the officer bearing the flag of truce gave the first tion. This gradually gained strength until it acquired all the force of actual knowledge, and ringing cheers ran along the whole German line of battle. Shakoes, helmets, bayonets, and sa- -mpression of an approaching capitula COUNT VON MOLTKB— COMMANDER OP THB GER- MAN ARMY AT SEDAN. bres were raised high in the air, an a funnel into which the opera- tor speaks. To obtain reprodiictions of the rounds as inscribed on the wax cylinder, it {c replaced in its original position. An- other pen of different constructiou than the first is put into play, and in a most exact and delicate manner transfers to the wax of another cylinder the tracings on the first. The funnel is replaced by a rubber tube having two, four or six branches, according to the number of the auditors, and the tubes a.r^ ^p' wish ; by placing them again in a me- chanism as above described, the origi- nal sounds may be reproduced. In this manner are made the piiono- graphs found in many hotels and pub- lic plaices. The first cylinder is care- fully made as above described, and du* plicated as many times as required. Each cylinder is then placed in a case, and the phonograph may be put in use when required. The new and perfected Edison plion- ograph has already gone into very gen^ MARVEIyLOUS INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES. 459 eral use, and many thousands are dis- tributed in American business offices, where they facilitate correspondence in a variety of ways. They are employed peated into the machine by the reporter as quickly as they were uttered by the various speakers. A large number of machines are in use by actors, clergy- iud. Messa- ges are not lost by the curvature of the earth, which is about i,ood feet in eighty miles, and they work all right from a wire 130 feet high. Weather conditions cannot- interfere, nor can the messages be stolen, for the reason that the transmitters and receivers must be in "tune," — that is, they must work in harmony. This makes it almost im- possible for the receiver to take a mes- sage not intended for him. The electric waves do not seem to be impeded by buildings or hills in the intervening space, for experiments have shown that messages sent to given destinations, between which and the sender were high hills, buildings, etc., have been accurately received. Whe- ther the Hertzian waves go through or around the intercepting object has not yet been ascertained. Quite Inexpensive. The principal cost of installing a wireless telegraph plant is that of the poles, the receivers costing only about $60. The expense of maintaining the electrical current is nominal. Each station has both a sending and a re- ceiving instrument, one being turned oflf when the other is in operation. Mes- sages can now be sent at the rate of twenty-five words a minute, so it may readily be seen that when the system is still more perfect, it may threaten the established telegraph lines. Imagine another Eiffel tower on this side of the Atlantic, with sending and receiving stations here and at Paris. The ex- pense of laying and operating the great submarine cables would be entirely done away with. Already the system is in use on light- ships, connecting them with the life- saving stations on shore, and many lives and much property have been saved by its use. What, then, if every ship or train had these instruments ? Accidents might be avoided, news im- parted without stopping, directions given for war vessels' manoeuvres, and MARVELLOJS INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES. 461 countless ether similar uses. Marconi predicted that some of the greatest im- provements in this line were yet to come. He devised a sort of reflector that concentrates the waves; and shoots them in one direction, like a search- light, so that they may be directed at will, and only to certain spots. He also planned an arrangement that will tell from what direction a message comes. He thought it possible to ar- range a set of senders and receivers and so manipulating them for subscribers that the news of the day can be tele- graphed all over the country, thus doing away with newspapers. AUTOMOBILES, MOTO-CARS AND OTHER AUTOMATIC VEHICLES. Though the manufacture and use of self-propelling vehicles are yet in their infancy, the industry is growing to such an enormous size that it is taking in half the carriage and wagon factories in this country. For many years at- tempts have been made to solve the problem of propelling wagous, car- riages and other vehicles along the highways without the use of rails to run upon, and by some sucli motive power as steam, compressed air or elec- tricity. By 1895 a few verv expensive loco- motive-like aflfairs had been 'nirned out that operated with great fuss and fea- ther, but were successful to the extent that large manufacturers eanployed skilled inventors to work our new ideas. In the last year of the centuiy we had the industry growing to greaL size, and self-moving cars, wagons, trucks and carriages being used universc.lly in the large cities, with the prospect of their invading the realm of the horse in the country before many years„ France took the lead in the use of these contrivances, and formed a fash- ionable automobile club numbering 1 , 700. An exposition was held in which 1,100 vehicles were shown, represent- ing every sort and kind from a fashion- able brougham to a milk-peddler's cart. The motive power in most of these ma- chines is gasoline or naphtha, while those England has been putting out run mostly by steam. It has been left to America, as in most other things, to bring forth the perfect electric carriage. And this latter kind seems to give bet- ter satisfaction than any other, by rea- son of its safety, endurance and speed, extensive orders from Europe being proo/ of acceptance of the Am.erican models abroad. Tc- be woithy of consideration, the modciii inoior vehicle, no matter what its method of propulsion, should be odorless, almost noiseless, and free from jolting. Methods that are likely to re- sult Hi explosions are being cast aside, and the weight of the motor, which is at present rather great, is being re- duced as much as possible. Most of the carriages look odd to one seeing them for the first time, for, having no shafts or poles, they appear "bobbed " off in front. They are also too high for self-pro^ pelled vehicles, but soon they will have more graceful outlines and by having smaller wheels and less gearing the body of the vehicle will be nearer the giound. Of course, when a horse was altached to draw the wagon, it was n-cessary . that the wheels be high 468 MARVELLOUS INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES. enough so that the rider could see over the horse's back. And when these new methods for travel were first at- tempted, the carriage as it had been was made use of without much change in appearance. In America, altogether there are six motive powers employed : electricity, steam, gasoline, compressed air, car- bonic-acid gas and alcohol. The first three have been applied with success ; the others are in their infancy, while the new power generator, liquid air, is expected to bring forth great power ere long, in a compact and very light form. Motor on WheelSo The electric mobile is the one in most common use in this country, and pos- sibly has the combined qualities of being more rapid, cleaner, and more nearly "fool-proof" than any other. The method employed for its construc- tion is similar to that used on any elec- trically-driven apparatus ; namely, a strong motor attached to the wheels, and propelled by electricity from stor- age batteries carried on the vehicle. Such a motor is odorless, almost with- out vibration, and is practically noise- less. It can run with great speed, and climb almost any hill road so long as it is smooth. Of course, it is very heavy, owing to the use of storage bat- teries, and it can run only a certain dis- tance without being recharged with electricity. .^ These batteries weigh from 500 to 1,500 pounds each, the vehicle weighing from 900 to 4,000 pounds. An ordinary lady's phaeton weighs about a ton, and carries a battery of 900 pounds. When the battery is empty it may be re- charged again at electrical stations maintained for the purpose, after which the carriage is ready for its journey once more. The current not only operates the motor at the wheels, but also lights the lamps, rings the alarm gong, and, in cabs, actuates a push-button bell for communication between the passenger and driver. Levers and Switches. Aside from the device for supplying power to the wheels, there are numerous others for guiding and controlling the machine when it is under way. Near the seat of the driver are a number of switches and levers, which to one just learning how they operate are rather bewildering. In fact, schools are main- tained where persons are taught how to manage these roadsters. In France a special highway is prepared with dummy figures in the path where the beginner is learning, the object being to become so proficient that none will be knocked down by the carriage running away. The driver must keep his eyes wide open and both his feet and hands busy. With his left hand he grasps the power lever which controls the speed, while with the right he manages the steering lever. He has one heel all the time on an emergency switch that cuts off the current, and at the same time must ring a gong to warn people of the approach of his pneumatic-tired conveyance. With the other foot he manages a reversing-switch that will back the, car- riage, while with his toes he applies a quick brake. When he wishes to- turn on the lights he presses a button under the seat. So it may be seen that he is rather busy, and can never go to sleep and let the old horse carry him home. MARVELLOUS INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES. 469 In all the large cities lines of these electric cabs have been established. Most of them run from twenty to thirty miles without new current. It is a sim- ple matter to recharge the storage bat- teries. All that is necessary is to put in a plug connecting it with the gener- ator, somewhat after the fashion of a bicycle pump. This may be done at almost any electrical plant, and in some places, Belgium for instance, regular posting stations are established, while coin-in-the-slot "pumps" will soon be arranged on the corners of city streets where a broken-down battery may be refilled. Successful Motor. The gasoline motors are in some ways inferior to those run by electricity ; though all the long-distance races in Europe have been made in vehicles thus propelled. This motor is lighter than the other kind and needs no recharging station, gasoline being pro- curable at any crossroads at a small price. On the other hand, these en- gines are not self-starting, a push on the piston rod being necessary, and then the carriaofe throbs under the motion of the machinery. The ins and outs of all the machinery must be thoroughly learned, and one really becomes an experienced engineer before he masters the art of guiding this sort of automobile. When one has learned, however, he is master of the situation, for he may travel up to fifty miles an hour on smooth roads, and through mud and other difficulties at less speed, with the aid only of a can of gasoline. The process of power generation by gasoline is very simple. It is known that this liquid mixed with certain quantities of air and confined will, when ignited, explode with violence. A cyl- inder is devised which admits this com- bination at one end, the gas is exploded at the proper time and drives out the piston rod, w^hich in turn causes the fly- wheel to revolve, drawing the piston back to its old place once more, after which the operation is repeated. Pour Impulses. Most of these engines operate undei four cycles or impulses. During tlie first the vapor is drawn into the cylin- der ; during the second it is compressed by the return piston ; during the third it is exploded, and in the fourth the products of the explosion are driven out, and the cylinder is ready for the new charge. In most engines the explosion is caused by an electric spark, there being no fire on the vehicle. Owing to the heat generated by the explosions going on all the time, the machinery must be kept cool by being cased in water jack- ets. In some cases the spark is done away with by having the compression of the gasoline so great that it explodes of its own heat. Different devices are made for mixing the proper quantities of gasoline and air, and many improve- ments are going on in general to do away with odors, vibrations and the like. The cost of owning and operating automobiles for a period of several years is really considerably less than that of horses and carriage, and especially is this true of the gasoline kind. Many of the gasoline vehicles will run lOO miles on a half-dollar's worth of liquid. Steam engines have been used to some extent for both trucks and pleas- ure vehicles with success. For the lat- 470 MARVELLOUS INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES. ter, however, they are not as yet in the stage where they are desirable, there being a great deal of complicated ma- chinery to run which requires a regu- larly licensed engineer ; and th-en there is generally a puffing sound and escap- ing steam at the exhaust pipe. How'- ever, for traction engines, trucks, fie- engines and omnibuses, they have proved eminently successful, becauro of the ease with which fuel and water nvjy be had. As yet, compressed air is rather cum- bersome to handle. One truck has been constructed which has a set of cylind'^rs operated by this method somewhr/r after the style of steam. The compressed air is held in huge steel storage botrles or tubes, which are carried under the wagon. Difficulty has been hac- liom the freezing of the valves when vlic air is turned on and escapes rapidly. ""J^his is because of the great reduction ';i the temperature about the pipes when the air expands and sucks up latent hca t. Keeping Up Hear. To avoid this a system of hot-wa'cr pipes heated by a gasoline flame is r r- ranged, that keeps the valves from cool- ing too much. Because ot the great weight of these trucks they have not been extensively used. However, im- provements are being made daily. One inventor arranged a small gasoline en- gine that generates electricity in the front of a truck and stores it in batteries at the back. From these storage bat- teries the current is drawn which runs an electrical motor. This truck weighs, however, over 9,000 pounds, and when loaded about 25,000 pounds, making it a seiious question for good pavements. The uses to which automobiles are put are rumerous and varied. All sorts o^ pleasu re vehicles are in use, together v-ith cob and omnibus lines in competi- tion with street car lines. A railway hand-car has been put in use, of the gasoline velocipede type, capable of carrying three persons at the rate of thirty-two miles an hour. Fire Automobile. The Parisian fire department uses an electric automobile the battery of which is only one-fifth the weight of the whole apparatus including the crew. It is capable of traveling four or five hours at the rate of twelve miles an hour. In other fire departments many of the light buggies of the chiefs and marshals are driven by electricity, and run from forty to fifty miles per day. The post offices of several of the larger cities employ autowagons for deliver- ing and picking up mail, while nearly all the great department stores use elec- tric wagons exclusively in their delivery business. The War Department at Washington took official cognizance of the automobile by ordering several wag- ons for the Signal Corps, and ambulance and ammunition wagons complete the list. It may readily be imagined what will be the outcome of these marvellous strides in perfecting self-propelling ve- hicles. It means better pavements and roads all over the country, and in the city, the noises from the harsh rumb* lingf of wheels and the crash of horses' hoof will be replaced by the rapid swish of the pneumatic tires. In the last year of the century capital to the amount of $400,000,000 has been invested in the manufacture of these vehicles in New York, Chicago, Boston MARVELLOUS INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES. 471 and Philadelphia. Laws became neces- sary for their regulation. In France they mnst be licensed, and the driver must have a certificate of proficiency. Speed must not exceed i8}4 miles an hour in open country, or 12% miles in passing houses, while in narrow thor- oughfares it must be reduced to walking pace. All sorts of names have been l^roposed for this style of vehicle, from "horseless wagon" to "self-propeller" and "autocar." It seems, however, that the French "automobile" has come to stay. ^A/'ONDERS OF THE ELECTRICAL WORLD. Aside from such marvellous discover- ies as the wireless telegraph, the X-rays and the uses to which electricity has been put as a motive power, many minor experiments have been made which are rapidly bringing this weird fluid nearer and nearer to our daily life, both for comfort and for money-making. The United States, as in most other things, is taking the lead in this important work. Daily we are shipping to Europe and the Orient motors and electrical storage outfits in great numbers. While in many instances the Ameri- can trolley system of street cars was fruitful of dangerous accidents, never- theless it has been rapidly taken up in Europe. Electrical plows are installed on the larger farms, and lighting by electricity is almost universal. The success of nsing water power at Niagara and elsewhere for generating this force is remarkable, and the use of the tides about Manhattan Island, upon which New York City is situated, for this purpose has been advanced as tenable. Telegraphing 100,000 Words an Hour. In telegraphing many improvements have been made, among others being one system whereby the wires are at- tached to a sort of electrical typewriter, which, upon being operated, sets in motion a similar machine at the other end. The benefit of this system is that the operator does not need to be ac- quainted with any particular method, any one who is able to spell being com- petent to work the machine. Another invention in this line is a method of perforating strips of paper with a machine similar to a typewriter, and then placing these strips in the sending device, which transmits the messages at the rate of 100,000 words an hour. This is a marvellous speed, and where the time is saved is that a number of men can be set to work at one time perforating the strips before using the wire for sending. The bene- fit to be derived from such a system is that there would be a great saving in laying additional lines, for once the strips are prepared the sending occu- pies the line but a few moments. Picture Telegraphy. Sending pictures by wire has at last come so near to perfection that it is being nsed to some extent in detective work. The method used is called tele- pantography. By it an engraving or artist's sketch may be sent over almost any distance by common telegraph com- munication. If a picture is to be trans- mitted it must be first treated to a pro- cess similar to that for a half-tone en- graving. A metal plate is made, very thin so that it may be bent round like 472 MARVELLOUS INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES. the cylinder of a phonograph. The plate is slipped on the transmitting machine, and a tiny needle on this de- vice traces over all the lines in the metal plate, in this way sending im- pressions to a cylinder at the other end of the line, about which is wrapped a coil of paper. An inked needle at the receiving end traces the lines as they are telegraphed, and a complete repro- duction of the original picture is the result. Plants Grown by Electricity. The qualities of electricity, though, when in the form of lightning and strong direct currents readily take life, are such that in other forms as readily give life. Experiments have been made on seeds, and in one-half the time it takes Nature to turn out her work by ordinary processes, the application of electricity has brought out mature plants. The first experiment was made on an egg that was being hatched. An elec- tric current strong enough to kill a fowl did not destroy the germ of vitality, but the chicken when hatched was of most abnormal size and monstrous in shape. This proved, however, what might be done with this marvellous agent. In plant stimulation the apparatus consists of two glass cylinders, a larger one about two inches in diameter for the larger seeds, and one about three- fourths of an inch for those of less size. Within these receptacles the seeds are placed, thoroughly moistened, and the openings closed with copper disks hav- ing wires attached. By these wires the disks are connected with the poles of an induction coil, and then the current is passed through the moist seeds, which are good conductors. Quickest Method. After this treatment the seeds are placed in germinating pans. These consist of two plates one within the other, the inner being of porous clay. The seeds are sown between two sheets of filter paper, and water passing through the porous plate is absorbed by the paper, thus keeping the seeds moist at all times. The temperature is kept at about 48 degrees all the time by aid of electrical devices, and the growth of the plants is 30 per cent quicker by this method than otherwise, while, at the same time, many seeds not perfect enough to grow under ordinary climatic conditions are saved by this electrical treatment CHAPTER XXX. Steam Navigation and Growth of the American Navy. OATS propelled by steam — at first small and insignificant craft, but growing larger, swifter, more costly, more in- dispensable to the commerce of the world, finally culminating in the magni- ficent "ocean greyhound" that cleaves the waters with the speed of a locomo- tive, and the battleship, that grim de- fender of nations — such is the marvel- ous story of the application of steam to river and ocean navigation in the nine- teenth century. One of the great inventions of the early part of the century was the steam- boat, with which is associated the name of that inventive genius, acute, reso- lute, undaunted in the face of defeat and never losing his sublime faith in his own discovery — Robert Fulton. Ful- ton's steamboat was the forerunner of the steamship Oceanic and the ocean liners that fly like shuttles, weaving continents together. Several eminent and ingenious men, previous to this, had proposed to propel vessels by steam power, among whom were Dr. Papin, of France, Savery, the Marquis of Worcester, and Dr. John Allen, of London, in 1726. In 1786, Oliver Evans, of Philadelphia, and about the same time Dr. Franklin, proposed to accomplish this result by forcing a quantity of water, by means of steam power, through an opening made for that purpose in the stern of the hull of the boat. In 1737; Jonathan Hulls issued a pamphlet proposing to construct a boat to be moved by steam power, for the purpose of towing vessels out of harbors against tide and winds. In his plan the paddle-wheel was used, and was secured to a frame placed far out over the stern of the boat. It was given this position by the inventor because water fowls propelled themselves by pushing their feet behind them. In 1787, Mr. James Rumsey, of Shep- herdstown, Virginia, constructed and navigated the first steamboat in actual use. His boat was eighty feet in length, and was propelled by means of a vertical pump in the middle of the vessel, by which the water was drawn in at the bow and expelled at the stern through a horizontal trough in her hull. The engine weighed about one- third of a ton, and the boat had a capa- city of about three tons burthen. Whet thus laden, a speed of about four miles an hour could be attained. The boiler held only five gallons of water, and needed but a pint at a time. Rumsey went to England to exhibit his plan on the Thames, and died there in 1793. About the same time the Marquis de Joffrey launched a steamer one hundred feet long on the Loire, at Lyons, using paddles revolving on an endless chain, but only to find his experiment a failure. In December, 1786, John Fitch pub- lished an account of a steamer with which he had made several experiments on the Delaware, at Philadelphia, and which came nearer to success than any thing that had at that time been in- vented. 473 474 GROWTH OF THE AMERICAN NAVY. Fitch was unfortunate in his affairs, and became so disheartened that he ceased to attempt to improve his inven- tion, and finally committed suicide by drowning himself in the Alleghany River at Pittsburgh. Advent of Fulton. In 1787, Mr. Patrick Miller, of Dal- winston, Scotland, designed a double vessel, propelled by a wheel placed in the stern between the two keels. This boat is said to have been very success- ful, but it was very small, the cylinder being only four inches in diameter. In 1789, Mr. Miller produced a larger ves- sel on the same plan, which made seven miles per hour in the still water of the Forth and Clyde Canal, but it proved too weak for its machinery, which had to be taken out. It was in the face of these failures that Fulton applied himself to the task of designing a successful steamboat. During his residence in Paris he had made the acquaintance of Mr. Robert R. L/ivingston, then the American min- ister in France, who had previously been connected with some unsuccessful steam- boat experiments at home. Mr. Living- ston was delighted to find a man of Ful- ton's mechanical genius so well satisfied of the practicability of steam naviga- tion, and joined heartily with him in his efforts to prove his theories by experiments. Several small working models made by Fulton convinced Mr. Livingston that the former had discovered and had overcome the cause of the failure of the experiments of other inventors, and it was finally agreed between them to build a large boat for trial on the Seine. This experimental steamer was fur- nished with paddle wheels, and was completed and launched early in the spring of 1803. On the very morning appointed for the trial, Fulton was aroused from his sleep by a messenger from the boat, who rushed into his chamber, pale and breathless, exclaiming, "Oh, sir, the boat has broken in pieces and gone to the bottom !" Hastily dressing and hurrying to the spot, he found that the weight of the machinery had broken the boat in half and carried the whole structure to the bottom of the river. Triumphant Success. He at once set to work to raise the machinery, devoting twenty-four hours, without resting or eating, to the under- taking, and succeeded in doing so, but inflicted upon his constitution a strain from which he never entirely recovered. The machinery was very slightly dam- aged, but it was necessary to rebuild the boat entirely. This was accomplished by July of the same year, and the boat was tried in August with triumphant success, in the presence of the French National Institute and a vast crowd of the citizens of Paris. This steamer was very defective, but still so great an improvement upon all that had preceded it, that Messrs. Fulton and Livingston determined to build one on a larger scale in the waters of New York, the right of navigating which by steam vessels had been secured by the latter as far back as 1798. The law which granted this right had been con- tinued from time to time through Mr. Livingston's influence, and was finally amended so as to include Fulton within its provisions. Having resolved to return home, Ful- GROWTH OF THE AMERICAN NAVY. 475 ton set out as soon as possible, stopping in England on his return, to order an engine for his boat from Watt and Boulton. He gave an exact description of the engine, which was built in strict accordance with his plan, but declined to state the use to which he intended putting it. Inventors Ridiculed. Very soon after his arrival in New York, he commenced building his first American boat, and finding that her cost would greatly exceed his estimate, he offered for sale a third interest in the monopoly of the navigation of the waters of New York, held by Livingston and himself, in order to raise money to build the boat, and thus lighten the burdens of himself and his partner, but he could find no one willing to risk money in such a scheme. Indeed, steam navigation was universally regarded in America as a mere chimera, and Fulton and Livingston were ridiculed for their faith in it. The bill granting the monopoly held by Livingston was regarded as so ut- terly absurd by the Legislature of New York, that that wise body could with difficulty be induced to consider it se- riously. Even among scientific men the project was considered impractica- ble. All agreed In pronouncing Fulton's scheme impracticable ; but he went on with his work, his boat attracting no less attention and exciting no less ri- dicule than the ark had received from the scoffers in the days of Noah. The steam-engine ordered from Boul- ton and Watt was received in the latter part of 1806; and in the following ■spring the boat was launched from the ship-yard of Charles Brown on the East River. Fulton named her the Cler- mont, after the country-seat of his friend and partner, Chancellor Living- ston. She was one hundred and sixty tons burthren, one hundred and thirty feet long, eighteen feet wide, and seven feet deep. Her engine was made with a single cylinder, two feet in diameter, and of four feet stroke ; and her boiler was twenty feet long, seven feet deep, and eight feet broad. The diameter of the paddle-wheels was fifteen feet, the boards four feet long, and dipping two feet in the water. The boat was com- pleted about the last of August, and she was moved by her machinery from the East River into the Hudson, and over to the Jersey shore. Expected Another Failure. This trial, brief as it was, satisfied Fulton of its success, and he announced that in a few days the steamer would sail from New York for Albany. A few friends, including several scientific men and mechanics, were invited to take passage in the boat, to witness hei performance ; and they accepted the in- vitation with a general conviction that they were to do but little more than witness another failure. Monday, September 10, 1807, came at lensfth, and a vast crowd assembled alonof the shore of the North River to witness the starting. As the hour for sailing drew near, the crowd increased, and jokes were passed on all sides at the expense of the inventor, who paid little attention to them, however, but busied himself in making a final and close inspection of the machinery. Says Fulton, "The morning I left 476 GROWTH OF THE AMERICAN NAVY. New York, there were not, perhaps, thirty persons in the city who believed that the boat would ever move one mile per hour, or be of the least utility; and while we were putting off from the wharf, which was crowded with spectators, I heard a number of sar- castic remarks." Ready to Start. One o'clock, the hour for sailing, came, and expectation was at its high- est. The friends of the inventor were in a state of feverish anxiety lest the enterprise should come to grief, and the scoffers on the wharf were all ready to give vent to their shouts of derision. Precisely as the hour struck, the moor- ings were thrown off, and the " Cler- mont" moved slowly out into the stream. Volumes of smoke and sparks from her furnaces, which were fed with pine wood, rushed forth from her chim- ney, and her wheels, which were un- covered, scattered the spray far behind her. The spectacle she presented as she moved out gradually from her dock was certainly novel to the people of those days, and the crowd on the wharf broke into shouts of ridicule. Soon, however, the jeers grew silent, for it was seen that the steamer was by degrees increasing her speed. In a lit- tle while she was fairly under weigh, and making a steady progress up the stream at the rate of five miles per hour. The incredulity of the spectators had been succeeded by astonishment, and now this feeling gave way to undis- guised delight, and cheer after cheer went up from the vast throng. Many people followed the boat for some dis- tance up the river shore. In a little while, however, the boat was observed to stop, and the enthusiasm of the peo- ple on the shore at once subsided. The scoffers were again in their glory, and unhesitatingly pronounced the boat a failure. Their chagrin may be imagined when, after a short delay, the steamer once more proceeded on her way, and this time even more rapidly than before. Fulton had discovered that the paddles were too long, and took too deep a hold on the water, and had stopped the boat for the purpose of shortening them. To Albany and Back. Having remedied this defect, the Clermont continued her voyage during the rest of the day and all night, with- out stopping, and at one o'clock the next day ran alongside the landing at Clermont, the seat of Chancellor Iviv- ingston. She lay there until nine the next morning, when she continued her voyage toward Albany, reaching that city at five in the afternoon, having made the entire distance between New York and Albany (one hundred and fifty miles) in thirty-two hours of actual running time, an average speed of nearly five miles per hour. On her re- turn trip, she reached New York in thirty hours running time — exactly five miles per hour. Fulton states that during both trips he encountered a head wind. The river was at this time navigated entirely with sailing vessels, and large numbers of these were encountered by the Clermont during her up and down trips. The surprise and dismay ex- cited among the crews of these vessels by the appearance of the steamer was extreme. These simple people, the majority of whom had heard nothing of Fulton's experiments, beheld what GROWTH OF THE AMERICAN NAVV. 477 they supposed to be a huge monster, vomiting fire and smoke from its throat, ^ashing the water with its fins, and shaking the river with its roar, approach- ing rapidly in the very face of both wind and tide. Amusing Terror. Some threw themselves flat on the decks of their vessels, where they re- mained in an agony of terror until the monster had passed, while others took to their boats and made for the shore in dismay, leaving their vessels to drift helplessly down the stream. Nor was this terror confined to the sailors. The people dwelling along the shore crowded the banks to gaze upon the steamer as she passed by. A former resident of the neighborhood of Poughkeepsie thus describes the scene at that place, which will serve as a specimen of the conduct of the people along the entire river below Albany : " It was in the early autumn of the year 1807 that a knot of villagers was gathered on a high bluff just opposite Poughkeepsie, on the west bank of the Hudson, attracted by the appearance of a strange, dark-looking craft, which was slowly making its way up the river. Some imagined it to be a sea-monster, while others did not hesitate to express their belief that it was a sign of the approaching judgment. " What seemed strange in the vessel was the substitution of lofty and straight black smoke-pipes, rising from the deck, instead of the gracefully tapered masts that commonly stood on the vessels navigating the stream, and, in place of the spars and rigging, the curious play of the working- beam and pistons, and the slow turning and splashing of the huge and naked paddle-wheels, met the astonished gaze. The dense clouds of smoke, as they rose wave upon wave, added still more to the wonderment of the rustics. " This strange-looking craft was the Clermont on her trial trip to Albany ; and of the little knot of villagers men- tioned above, the writer, then a boy in his eighth year, with his parents, formed a part. I well remember the scene, one so well fitted to impress a lasting pic- ture upon the mind of a child accus- tomed to watch the vessels that passed up and down the river. Intense Curiosity. " The forms of four persons were dis- tinctly visible on the deck as she passed the bluff — one of whom, doubtless, was Robert Fulton, who had on board with him all the cherished hopes of years, the most precious cargo the wonderful boat could carry. "On her return trip, the curiosity she excited was scarcely less intense. The whole country talked of nothing but the sea-monster, belching forth fire and smoke. The fishermen became terrified, and rowed homewards, and they saw nothing but destruction de- vastating their fishing-grounds ; while the wreaths of black vapor, and rush- ing noise of the paddle-wheels, foam- ing with the stirred-up waters, pro- duced great excitement among the boat- men, which continued without abate- ment, until the character of that curi- ous boat, and the nature of the enter- prise which she was pioneering, had been understood." The alarm of the sailors and dwellers on the river shore disappeared as the character of the steamer became better 478 GROWTH OF THE AMERICAN NAVY. known ; but when it was found that the Clermont was to run regularly between New York and Albany, as a packet- boat, she became the object of the most intense hatred on the part of the boat- men on the river, who feared that she would entirely destroy their business. In many quarters Fulton and his inven- tion were denounced as baneful to so- ciety, and frequent attempts were made by captains of sailing vessels to sink the Clermont by running into her. She was several times damaged in this way, and the hostility of the boatmen became so great that it was necessary for the lyCgislature of New York to pass a law declaring combinations to destroy her, or willful attempts to injure her, public offenses punishable by fine and impri- sonment. Made Regular Trips. It had been supposed that Fulton's object was to produce a steamer capa- ble of navigating the Mississippi River, and much surprise was occasioned by the announcement that the Clermont was to be permanently employed upon the Hudson. She continued to ply regu- larly between New York and Albany until the close of navigation for that season, always carrying a full comple- ment of passengers, and more or less freight. During the winter she was overhauled and enlarged, and her speed improved. In the spring of 1808 she resumed her regular trips, and since then steam navi- gation on the Hudson has not ceased for a single day, except during the clos- ing of the river by ice. In 181 1 and 1812, Fulton built two steam ferry-boats for the North River, and soon after added a third for the East River. These boats were the beginning of the magnificent steam ferry system which is to-day one of the chief wonders of New York. They were what are called twin-boats, each of them con- sisting of two complete hulls, united by a deck or bridge. They were sharp at both ends, and moved equally well with eitlier end foremost, so that they could cross and recross without being turned around. Floating Dock. These boats were given engines of sufficient power to enable them to over- come the force of strong ebb tides ; and in order to facilitate their landing, Ful- ton contrived a species of floating dock, and a means of decreasing the shock caused by the striking of the boat against the dock. These boats could accommo- date eight four-wheel carriages, twenty* nine horses, and four hundred passen- gers. Their average time across the Ncrth River, a mile and a half wide, was twenty minutes. The introduction of the steamboat gave a powerful impetus to the internal commerce of the Union. It opened to navigation many important rivers (whose swift currents had closed them to sailing craft), and made rapid and easy communication between the most distant parts of the country practicable. The public soon began to appreciate this, and orders came in rapidly for steamboats for various parts of the country. Fulton executed these as fast as possible, and among the number several for boats for the Ohio and Mis- sissippi Rivers. Early in 18 14, the city of New York was seriously menaced with an attack from the British fleet, and Fulton was GROWTH OF THB AMERICAN NAVY. 479 called on by a committee of citizens to furiiisli a plan for a means of defending the harbor. He exhibited to the com- mittee his plans for a vessel of war to be propelled by steam, capable of carry- ing a strong battery, with furnaces for red-hot shot, and which, he represented, would move at the rate of four miles an jhour. These plans were also submitted to a number of naval officials, among whom were Commodore Decatur, Cap- tain Jones, Captain Evans, Captain Biddle, Commodore Perry, Captain War- rington, and Captain Lewis, all of whom warmly united in urging the Govern- ment to undertake the construction of the proposed steamer. Floating Batteries. The citizens of New York offered, if the Government would employ and pay for her after she was built, to advance the sum (^320,000) necessary for her construction. The subject was vigor- ously pressed, and in March, 18 14, Congress authorized the building of one or more floating batteries after the plan presented by Fulton. Her keel was laid on the 20th of June, 18 14, and on the 31st of October, of the same year, she was launched, amid great rejoicings, from the ship-yard of Adam and Noah Brown. In May, 1815, her engines were put on board, and on the 4th of July of that year she made a trial trip to Sandy Hook and back, accomplishing the round trip — a distance of fifty-three miles — in eight hours and twenty min- utes, under steam alone. Before this, however, peace had been proclaimed, and Fulton had gone to rest from his labors. The ship was a complete success, and was the first steam vessel of war ever built. She was called the Fulton the First, and was for many years used as the receiving ship at the Brooklyn Navy Yard. She was an awkward and un- wieldy mass, but was regarded as the most formidable vessel afloat ; and as the pioneer of the splendid war steam- ers of to-day was an object of great in- terest. The English regarded her with especial uneasiness, and put in circula- tion the most marvellous stories con- cerning her. One of these is taken from a treatise on steam navigation published in Scotland at this period, the author of which assures his readers that he has taken the utmost pains to obtain full and accurate information respecting the American war steamer. His descrip- tion is as follows : A Huge Monster. "lycngth on deck three hundred feet, breadth two hundred feet, thickness of her sides, thirteen feet, of alternate oak plank and corkwood; carries forty-four guns, four of which are lOO-pounders, quarter-deck and forecastle guns, 44- pounders ; and further, to annoy an enemy attempting to board, can dis- charge one hundred gallons of boiling water in a minute, and by mechanism brandishes three hundred cutlasses, with the utmost regularity, over her gun- wales; works almost an equal numbef of heavy iron pikes of great length, darting them from her sides with pro- digious force, and withdrawing them every quarter of a minute !" Fulton followed up the Clermont, in 1807, with a larger boat, called the Car of Neptune, which was placed on the Albany route as soon as completed. The Legislature of New York had en- 480 GROWTH OP TUB AMERICAN NAVY. acted a law, immediately upon liis first success, giving to Livingston and him- self the exclusive right to navigate the waters of the State by steam, for five years for every additional boat they should build in the State, provided the term should not exceed thirty years. In the following year the Legislature passed another act, confirmatory of the prior grants, and giving new remedies to the grantees for any invasion of them, and subjecting to forfeiture any vessel propelled by steam which should enter the waters of the State without their license. In 1809 Fulton obtained his first patent from the United States; and in 181 1 he took out a second patent for some improvement in his boats and machinery. His patents were limited to the simple means of adapting paddle wheels to the axle of the crank of Watt's engine. Robert Fulton was born in Little Britain, Lancaster County, Pennsyl- vania, in 1765. Though others had pre- viously conceived the idea of steam navigation, he is admitted to have been the first who successfully realized it. All the brilliant successes attending human mastery of the seas can be traced directly to his practical inventions and mechanical genius. In the days of my- thology he would have been denomi- nated Neptune, tbe ruler of the deep. Fulton's invention gave a powerful impulse to the internal commerce of the United States and aided greatly in opening up the vast regions adjacent to the Mississippi River and our other great waterways. Its value cannot be estimated and it is impossible to con- ceive of any invention that could have been fraught with greater practical ben- efits. Capitalists were very quick to see the vast opportunities thus thrown in their way and it was not long before untold millions of dollars were invested in various enterprises that we should never have heard of except for Fulton's discovery. OCEAN STEAMERS AND BATTLESHIPS. After Fulton's steamboats began to navigate the Hudson it was not to be expected that shipbuilders would be sat- isfied until they had constructed vessels that could cross the ocean by the aid of steam power. In 18 19, the first vessel to do this sailed from the city of Savan- nah, Ga., and reached Liverpool in 28 days by the combined aid of wind and 'steam. The ship bore the name of the city from which she sailed. The first vessel to cross by steam power alone was the Royal William, built in Canada ; this voyage was ac- complished in 1833. The first ocean steamer built of iron was the Great Britain, 322 feet in length by 31 feet in the beam. It required fifteen days for this ship to cross the ocean, and this, in 1835, was considered remarkably fast time. Every year improvements have been made in the size, speed and superb appointments of ocean steamers, until in the last part of the century it required but little over five days for a first-class steamship to make the voyage between New York and Liverpool. The difference between the first steam vessels that carried passengers across the ocean and the floating palaces on which the myriads of travellers now make the GROWTH OF THE AMERICAN NAVY. 481 trip across the sea, is almost inconceiva- ble. All the comforts and luxuries of a first-class hotel are with you on the water, and the great rivalry between the various lines of steamships is constantly giving rise to new conveniences and better facilities. For many years the Great Eastern was the largest steamship that had been floated. It was considered a marvel in its day, but as it failed to pay expenses when engaged in passenger traffic, it found its mission in laying cables between this country and Europe. Hav- ing done this, it was broken up and passed into the limbo of old iron. Largest Steamship. All things considered, the largest steamship ever built is the great Ocean- ica. The length of this monarch of the seas is 704 feet, and her displacement is 28,000 tons. She made her first voyage in 1899, and is capable of steaming around the woi^d at the rate of twelve knots an hour without recoaling. It would be impossible to give any de- scription of her powerful engines and vast carrying capacity that would con- vey to the mind any adequate idea of this marvel of naval construction. Place the Oceanica beside the crude little Clermont, built by Fulton, and you see what the century has accomplished in steam navigation. A marvel of naval construction is the modern battleship. Paul Jones fought his famous battle with old, bulky, unwieldy sailing vessels. Commodore Perry had ships almost as incapable in his great battle on Lake Erie. At the end of the century, steam war-ships that were nothing less than floating bat- teries, equipped with the most ingeni- 31 ous and the most terrible appliances for destruction, made the navies of the world so many monsters of death. Man's ingenuity was scarcely more con- spicuous in any department of invention during the century than in the engines ' constructed for destroying human life. Our Early Navy. The navy of the United States has always held a warm place in the hearts of our countrymen. In the early rev- olutionary days Captain Jeremiah O'Brien, in a lightly manned and name- less sloop, chased and captured off" the coast of Maine the British war-schooner Margaretta, armed with four light guns and fourteen swivel pieces. Cooper called this engagement the Lexington of the sea, for, like that celebrated skir- mish, fought a scant three weeks be- fore, it was a rising of the people against a regular force, and was charac- terized by a long struggle and a tri- umph. Soon after General Washington as- sumed command of the army before Boston he issued commissions to differ- ent vessels, and gave their commanders instructions to cruise about Massachu- setts Bay, and to intercept British trans- ports and storeships. Captain John Manly of Marblehead was the first to get away, in the schooner Lee. Al- though it may not be strictly true to term the Lee and other small cruisers similarly employed, the first vessels that ever belonged to the general govern- ment, they may be deemed the first that ever actually sailed with authority to cruise in behalf of the entire republic. On the 1 3th of October, 1775, the nu- cleus of our national fleet was estab- lished bv an act of Congress for the 482 GROWTH OF THE AMERICAN NAVY. equipment of several vessels. The reign of law had come. From this little beginning has our navy of to-day grown; and from its first conmiodore; Esek Hopkins, a long line of heroes, brave men and true, have made the navy of the United States the wonder and admiration of the world. John Paul Jones, Hull, Decatur, Mc- Donough, Perry, Bainbridge, Preble, Lawrence, Farragut, Porter, and others who have gone to their rest, carried " Old Glory ' ' to victory after victory to make this country and its people free; and then our Dewey, our Sampson, and Schley added further lustre to the flag while driving the Spaniard from this American continent forever. Grand "Old Ironsides." The first of the glorious victories which revealed to the eyes of the world American prowess on the high seas was the capture of the frigate Guerriere, thirty-eight guns, Captain Dacre, by the Constitution ("Old Ironsides"), forty-four guns, Captain Hull. The action was begun at 5 p. m. on August 19th by the Guerriere, which surren- dered at 7 p. M. after a gallant fight and the loss of seventy-nine killed and dis- abled. The American loss was seven killed and seven wounded. Americans were greatly elated by the victory, and public enthusiasm for the navy was ex- cited to the highest pitch. During the war of 18 12, when the Constitution was being chased by eleven vessels of the enemy, she managed, by the vigilant seamanship of Com- mander Hull, to escape in a steady and man-of-war-like style. In this af- fair the ship, no less than those who worked her, gained a high reputation. The glories of this occasion are de- scribed in the quotation of one stanza from an old rhyme. It is a fair sample of the maritime ballads of the day. " 'Neath Hull's command, with a tough band And nought beside to back her, Before a day, as log-books say, A fleet bore down to thwack her. A fleet, you know, is odds or so Against a single ship, sirs ; Soi 'cross the tide, her legs she tried,' And gave the rogues the slip, sirs." Splendid Line Ships. The most picturesque vessels in his- tory were the noble shi]3s of the line. They give an idea of force, beyond any other type which preceded them, and presented a superb spectacle at anchor or when striving before a general ac- tion for that weathergage which was deemed the key of battle. The Constitution, which was the finest of her time, was built in 1797. To-day she owns and deserves of all ships the warmest corner in the heart of the American people. The steam sloop of war Kearsage, a type of war vessel that came out in 1859, had conferred upon her an undy- ing reputation by her memorable vic- tory over the Alabama. The Kearsarge was wrecked in 1894 in the West In- dies. In 1854, when the superiority of the screw was recognized. Congress au- thorized the construction of the famous class of which the Hartford was a type. The Hartford was the celebrated flag- ship of Admiral Farragut, and she is dear to all who appreciate the battle work of our ships and sailors. By special provision of Congress, the Hart- ford was put in a thorough state of repair, and will be kept on the navy GROWTH OF THE AMERICAN NAVY. 483 list as a cruiser for many years to come. The necessities of the Civil War forced the United States into new naval construction. The fortunes of war in the famous fight with the Merrimac made the Monitor, a new type of war vessel designed by Ericsson and com- manded by Captain John L-. Worden, the best known. It revolutionized the naval architecture of the world and be- gan the era of iron battleships. The Monitor was lost off Hatteras in a storm, .'Soon after her splendid victory. Admiral Dewey's Flagship. The Olympia, the flagship of Admiral Dewey, has a much greater military value than any other vessel of the pro- tected cruiser class that preceded her. This was fully demonstrated at the most remarkable naval fight the world has ever seen — the battle of Manila. Among the notable fast cruisers of the modern type is the steel-armored ship New York, the flag-ship of Admiral Sampson, in Cuban waters. The New York is a twin ship to the Brooklyn, but of slightly less tonnage ; her speed, battery, and cost are the same. She had her baptism of blood at the bom- bardment of San Juan. Her qualities as a fighter are undisputed. The two Brooklyns are examples of the variant types developed during the last third of the century. The new Brooklyn was Commodore Schley's flag- ship of the Flying Squadron at the naval battle of Santiago. The old Brook- lyn was a steam frigate of twenty-five guns, and did good service in the Civil War. The new Brooklyn is a twin screw cruiser of 9,271 tons; speed, 21 kno<^«: battery, eight 8-inch breech-loaders, twelve 6-pounders, four i -pounder rapid- fire, and four Gatling guns. Cost, $2,- 986,000, 40 officers, 501 men. The reader will be surprised at the immense cost of our great battleships, which runs up into millions of dollars. The cost of one of our giant floating batteries would have provided a for- midable fleet of the style of warships in use in the early part of the century. The Famous Oregon. The Oregon which made without mishap the memorable and unrivalled voyage of 14,000 miles from San Fran- cisco to join Admiral Sampson's fleet, is known as a sea-going coast-line bat- tleship. The Massachusetts and Indi- ana are of the same type. The Oregon's armament consists of four 13-inch, eight 8-inch, and four 6- inch breech-loading steel rifles ; and a secondary battery of twenty rapid-fire guns, four machine guns, and seven tor- pedo tubes. She has 34 officers, 434 men and cost $3,180,000. The second-class battleship Maine went into commission in 1895, and two and a half years later, while under the command of Captain Sigsbee, entered Havana harbor on a friendly visit. She was destroyed while there by an explos- ion, February 15, 1898, and 264 of her officers and men lost their lives. The Maine was a fine ship of seventeen and a half knots speed, and cost $2, 500,000. The Raleigh, a second-class protected cruiser, participated in the famous bat- tle of Manila under Admiral Dewey, and distinguished herself in that glori- ous contest. The Concord is a type of the torpedo- ^?^nboat class. Twin screw ; 1,700 tons; 484 GROWTH OF THE AMERICAN NAVY. and i6 knots speed. Her battery, six 6-incli breecli-loading rifles ; two 6- pounder, two 3-pounder, and one i- pounder rapid-fire guns; two Hotchkiss, and two Catling guns ; 14 officers, 178 men ; cost ^490,000. The Concord had the good fortune to be one of Dewey's fleet at Manila bay fight, May i, 1898, and distinguished herself as a fine repre- sentative of her class. The Swift Columbia. It is pertinent to ask if the United States Government turned out in the protected cruiser Columbia only a racing machine. When the Columbia finished her memorable run from Southampton to New York in 6 days, 23 hours, 49 minutes, the great expectations of her speed and endurance were realized, and the triumph of the pirate, or com- merce destroyer, as she was sometimes named, was made an occasion of national rejoicing. Her length is 412 feet; horse, power, 21,000; tonnage, at 8,000. Her armament consists of one 8-inch and two 6-inch breech-loading, eight 4-inch rapid-fire rifles, twelve 6 pounder and four i-pounder rapid-fire guns, and four Gatlings. She cost 12,725,000. The Minneapolis is, as nearly as pos- sible, a sister ship of the Columbia ; the main difference being that the latter has four funnels. The Minneapolis, as well as the Columbia, is a triple screw, pro- tected cruiser, and was designated to be a commerce destroyer. During the war with Spain she was used as a scout to Sfuard our coast from attack bv hostile vessels, and to keep the commanders of our fleets informed as to the movements of the enemy. It would be impossible within the limits of this work to describe all the vessels of our formidable American Navy. The foregoing are representa- tives of their various classes, and show the amazing evolution in our fighting sea-craft during the Nineteenth Century. These ships are conspicuous triumphs of the inventive genius of the century in the application of steam to ocean navigation and the naval defense of nations. CHAPTER XXXI. Elias Howe's Sewing Machine. 'OR a long time there stood in a window at the junction of Broad- way and Fourth street, in New York City, a curious machine which attracted the gaze of thousands who passed by. This machine, clumsy and odd-looking as it was, nevertheless had a history which made it one of the most interesting of all the sights of the great city. It was the first sewing machine that was ever made. Elias Howe, its maker, was born in the town of Spencer, Massachusetts, in 1 8 19. He was one of eight children, and it was no small undertaking on the part of his fatiier to provide a mainte- nance for such a household. Mr. Howe, Sr., was a farmer and a miller, and, as was the custom at that time in the country towns of New England, carried on in his family some of those minor branches of industry suited to the ca- pacity of children, with which New England abounds. When Elias was six years old, he was set, with his brothers and sisters, to sticking wire teeth through the leather straps used for making cotton cards. When he became old enough he as- sisted his father in his saw-mill and grist-mill, andduring thewinter months picked up a meager education at the district school. He said that it was the rude and imperfect mills of his father that first turned his attention to machin- ery. He was not fit for hard work, however, as he was frail in constitution and incapable of bearing much fatigue. Moreover, he inherited a species of lameness which proved a great obstacle to any undertaking on his part, and gave him no little trouble all through life. At the age of eleven he went to live out on the form of a neighbor, but the labor proving too severe for him, he returned home, where he remained until he was sixteen years old. Seeking His Fortune. When at this age, he conceived an ardent desire to go to Lowell to seek his fortune. One of his friends had just returned from that place, and had given him such a wonderful description of the city and its huge mills, that he was eager to go there and see the marvel for himself. Obtaining his father's con- sent, he went to Lowell, and found em- ployment as a learner in one of the large cotton mills of the city. He remained there two years, when the great finan- cial disaster of 1837 threw him out of employment. He obtained a place at Cambridge, in a machine shop, and was put to work upon the new hemp-carding machinery of Professor Treadwell. His cousin, Nathaniel P. Banks, afterward governor of Massachusetts, member of Congress, and major-general, worked in the same shop with him and boarded at the sam.e house. Howe remained in Cambridge o only a few months, however, and was then given a place in the machine shop of Ari Davis, of Boston. At the age of twenty-one he married. 485 486 ELI AS HOWE'S SEWING MACHINE. This was a rash step for him, as his health was very delicate, and his earn- ings were but nine dollars per week. Three children were born to him in quick succession, and he found it no easy task to provide food, shelter, and clothing for his little family. The li^ht-heartedness for which he had formerly been noted entirely deserted him and he became sad and melancholy. Hopeless Poverty. His health did not improve, and it ;vas with difficulty that he could per- form his daily task. His strength was so slight that he would frequently re- turn home from his day's work too much exhausted to eat. He could only go to bed, and in his agony he wished " to lie in bed forever and ever." Still lie worked faithfully and conscienti- ously, for his wife and children were very dear to him ; but he did so with a hopelessness which only those who have tasted the depths of poverty can under- stand. About this time he heard it said that the great necessity of the age was a machine for doing sewing. The im- mense amount of fatigue incurred and the delay in hand-sewing were obvious, and it was conceded by all who thought of the matter at all that the man who could invent a machine which would remove these difficulties would make a fortune. Howe's poverty inclined him to listen to these remarks with great interest. No man needed money more than he, and he was confident that his mechanical skill was of an order which made him as competent as any one else to achieve the task proposed. He set to work to accomplish it, and, as he knew well the dangers which sur- round an inventor, kept his own coun- sel. At his daily labor, in all his waking hours, and even in his dreams, he brooded over this invention. He spent many a wakeful night in these medita- tions, and his health was far from being benefited by this severe mental applica- tion. Success is not easily won in any great undertaking, and Elias Howe found that he had entered upon a task which required the greatest patience, perseverance, energy, and hopefulness. He watched his wife as she sewed, and his first effort was to devise a machine which should do what she was doing. Success at Last. He made a needle pointed at both ends, with the eye in the middle, that should work up and down through the cloth, and carry the thread through at each thrust; but his elaboration of this conception would not work satis- factorily. It was not until 1844, fully a year after he began the attempt to in- vent the machine, that he came to the conclusion that the movement of a machine need not of necessity be an imitation of the performance of the hand. It was plain to him that there must be another stitch, and that if he could discover it his difficulties would all be ended. A little later he conceived the idea of using two threads, and forming a stitch by the aid of a shuttle and a curved needle with the eye near the point. This was the triumph of his skill. He had now invented a perfect sewing- machine, and had discovered the essen- tial principles of every subsequent modi- fication of his conception. Satisfied that he had at length solved the problem, he constructed a rough model of his ELIAS HOWE'S SEWING MACHINE. 487 machine of wood and wire, in October, 1844, and operated to liis perfect satis- faction. His invention is thus de- scribed : Curious Needle. "He used a needle and a shuttle of novel construction, and combined them with holding surfaces, feed mechanism and other devices, as they had never before been brought together in one machine. One of the principal features of Mr. Howe's invention is the combi- nation of a grooved needle, having an eye near its point, and vibrating in the direction of its length, with a side- pointed shuttle for effecting a locked stitch, and forming, with the threads, one on each side of the cloth, a firm and lasting seam not easily ripped. The main action of the machine consists in the interlocking of the loop, made by the thread carried in the point of the needle through the cloth, with another thread passed through this loop by means of a shuttle entering and leaving it at every stitch. " The thread attached to this shuttle remains in the loop and secures the stitch as the needle is withdrawn to be ready to make the next one. At the same time the cloth, held by little pro- jecting pins to the baster plate, is car- ried along with this by what is called the ' feed motion ' just the length of a stitch, the distance being readily ad- justed for finer or coarser work. The cloth is held in a vertical position in the machine, and the part to be sewed is pressed against the side of the shuttle- race by a presser plate hinged on its upper edge, and capable of exerting any required pressure on the cloth, according as the adjusting screw that regulates it is turned. " A slot, or perforation through this plate, also extended through the side of the shuttle-race near the bottom, ad- mits the passage of the needle ; and when this is pushed in the shuttle can still pass freely over it. The shuttle is pushed one way and then the other through its race or trough by picker staves. The thread for the needle is supplied by a bobbin, the movement of which is checked by a friction band, thus securing the proper tension, and the slack of the thread is duly taken up by a suitable contrivance for the purpose. Thus, all the essential features of the most approved sewing- machine were first found in that of Mr. Howe ; and the machines of later date are, in fact, but modifications of it." Poor, but Persevering, At this time, he had abandoned his work as a journeyman mechanic, and had removed to his father's house. Mr. Howe, Sen., had established in Cam- bridge a machine-shop for the cutting of strips of palm-leaf used in the manu- facture of hats. Blias and his family lived under his father's roof, and in the garret of the house the half-sick in- ventor put up a lathe, where he did a little work on his own account, and labored on his sewing-machine. He was miserably poor, and could scarcely earn enough to provide food for his family ; and, to make matters worse, his father, who was disposed to help him, lost his shop and its contents by fire. Poor Elias was in a most deplorable condition. He had his model in his head, and was fully satisfied of its excel- leiice, but: h§ h^d not the money to buy 488 ELI AS HOWE'S SEWING MACHINE. the materials needed in making a per- fect machine, which would have to be constructed of steel and iron, and with- out which he could not hope to con- vince others of its value. His great invention was useless to him without the five hundred dollars which he needed in the construction of a working model. Finds a Friend- In this dilemma, he applied to a friend, Mr. George Fisher, a coal and wood merchant of Cambridge, who was a man of some means. He explained his invention to him, and succeeded in forming a partnership with him. Fisher agreed to take Howe and his family to board with him while the latter was making the machine, to allow his garret to be used as a workshop, and to advance the five hundred dollars neces- sary for the purchase of tools and the construction of a model. In return for this he was to receive one-half of the patent, if Howe succeeded in patenting his machine. About the first of December, 1844, Howe and his family accordingly moved into Fisher's house, and the little work- shop was set up in the garret. All that winter he worked on his model. There was little to delay him in its construc- tion, as the conception was perfectly clear in his mind. He worked all day, and sometimes nearly all night, and in April, 1845, had his machine so far ad- vanced that he sewed a seam with it. By the middle of May the machine was completed, and in July he sewed with it the seams of two woolen suits, one for himself and the other for Mr. Fisher. The sewing was so well done that it outlasted the cloth. It has been stated by Professor Ren- wick and other scientific men that Elias Howe "carried the invention of the sewing-machine further on toward its complete and final utility than any other inventor has ever brought a first- rate invention at the first trial. In truth, the curious machine at the corner of Broadway and Fourth street had in it all the essentials of the best sewing- machine ever constructed. All Rejected It. Having patented his machine, Howe endeavored to bring it into use. He was full of hope, and had no doubt that it would be adopted at once by those who were so much interested in the saving of labor. He first ojffered it to the tailors of Boston ; but they, while admitting its usefulness, told him it would never be adopted by their trade, as it would ruin them. Consideringc the number of machines now used by the tailoring interest throughout the world, this assertion seems ridicu- lous. Other efforts were equally unsuccess- ful. Bvery one admitted and praised the ingenuity of the machine, but no oue would invest a dollar in it. Fisher became disgusted, and withdrew from his partnership, and Howe and his fa- mily moved back to his father's house. Thoroughly disheartened, he abandoned his machine. He then obtained a place as engineer on a railroad, and drove a locomotive until his health entirely broke down. With the loss of his health his hopes revived, and he determined to seek in England the victory which he had failed to win here. Unable to go him- self, he sent his machine by his brother Aniasa, in October, 1846. Upon reach- ELIAS HOWE'S SEWING MACHINE. 489 ing lyondon, Amasa sought out Mr. William Thomas, of Cheapside, and explained to him his brother's inven- tion. He found Mr. Thomas willing to use the machine in his business, but upon terms more favorable to himself than to the inventor. He offered the sum of twelve hun- dred and fifty dollars for the machine which Amasa Howe had brought with him, and agreed to pay Elias fifteen dollars per week if he would enter his service, and adapt the machine to his business of umbrella and corset making. As this was his only hope of earning a livelihood, Elias accepted the offer, and, upon his brother's return to the United States, sailed for England. He remained in Mr. Thomas's employ for about eight months, and at the end of that time left him, having found him hard, exacting, and unreasonable. In Desperate Straits. Meanwhile his sick wife and three children had joined him in London, and he had found it hard to provide for them on the wages given him by Mr. Thomas ; but after being thrown out of employment his condition was desper- ate indeed. He was in a strange coun- try, without friends or money, and often he and his little family went whole days without food. Their suffer- ings were very great, but at length Howe was able (probably by assistance from home) to send his family back to his father's house. He himself remained in London, sliU hoping to bring his machine into use. It was in vain, however, and so, col- lecting what few household goods he had acquired in England, he shipped them to America, and followed them thither himself in another vessel, pawn- ing his model and patent papers to pay his passage. When he landed in New York he had half a crown in his pocket, and there came to him on the same day a letter telling him that his wife was dying with consumption in Cambridge. In Time to See Her Die. He could not go to her at once, as he had no money, and was too feeble to undertake the distance on foot. He was compelled to wait several days mi- til he could obtain the money for his fare to Cambridge, but at length succeeded in reaching that place just in time to see his wife die. In the midst of his grief he received the announcement that the vessel containing the few house- hold goods which he had shipped from England had been lost at sea. It seemed to him that Fate was bent upon destroy- ing him, so rapid and stunning were the blows she dealt him. But a great success was now in store for him, and he was to rise out of his troubles to the realization of his bright- est hopes. Soon after his return home he obtained profitable employment, and, better still, discovered that his machine had become famous during his absence. Fac-similes of it had been constructed by unscrupulous mechanics, who paid no attention to the patents of the inven- tor, and these copies had been exhibited in many places as " wonders," and had even been adopted in many important branches of manufacture. Howe at once set to work to defend his rights. He found friends to aid him, and in August, 1850, began those fa- mous suits which continued for four years, and were at length decided in his favor. His adversaries made a bold 490 ELIAS HOWE'S SEWING MACIIIXE. resistance, but the decision of Judge Sprague, in 1S54, settled the matter, and triumphantly established the rights of the inventor. In 1S50, Howe removed to New York, and began in a small way to manufac- ture machines to order. He wms in partnership with a Mr. Bliss, but for several years the business was so unim- portant that upon the death of his part- ner, in 1 85 5, he was enabled to buy out that gentleman's interest, and thus be- came the sole proprietor of his patent. Soon after this his business began to increase, and continued until his own proper profits and the royalty which the courts compelled other manufacturers to pay him for the use of his invention grew from $300 to $200,000 per annum. In 1867, when the extension of his patent expired, it is stated that he had earned a total of two millions of dollars by it. It cost him large sums to de- fend his rights, however, and he w^as very far from being as wealthy as was commonly supposed, although a very rich man. In the Paris Exposition of 1867, he exhibited his machines, and received the gold medal of the Exposition, and the Cross of the Legion of Honor, in addition, as a compliment to him as a manufacturer and inventor. He contributed money liberally to the aid of the Union in the Civil war, and enlisted as a private soldier in the Seventeenth Regiment of Connecticut Volunteers, with which command he went to the field, performing all the duties of his position until failing health compelled him to leave the service. Upon one occasion the Government was so much embarrassed that it could not pay the regiment of which he was a member. ;Mr. Howe promptly ad- vanced the money, and his comrades were saved from the annoyances which would have attended the delay in paying them. He died at Brooklyn, Long Island, on the 3rd of October, 1867. Mr. Howe will always rank among the most distinguished of American inventors ; not only because of the un- usual degree of completeness showm in his first conception of the sewdng- machine, but because of the great bene- fits which have sprung from it. It has revolutionized the industry of the world, opened new sources of wealth to enter- prise, and lightened the labor of hun- dreds of thousands of working people. Many a pale-faced, hollow-eyed woman, who formerly sat sewing her life away for a mere pittance, blesses the name of Elias Howe, and there is scarcely a community in the civilized world but contains the evidence of his genius, and honors him as the benefactors of the human race. CHAPTER XXXII. Hoe's Lightning Printing Press. fO write the complete histor}- of the printing press would require years of patient labor and re- search, and a much larger space than the limits of this present work will per- mit There are few subjects more at- tractive or more worthy of consideration than the history of this wonderful in- vention, which seems more like a romance than a narration of facts. The historian who should essay the task would be required to carry his reader back to the darkest ages of the world, and, beginning with the stamps used for affixing hieroglyphical charac- ters to the now crumbling ruins of Bg>'pt and Nineveh, trace the gradual development of the beneficent concep- tion from the si^ets of the Israelites, and the stamps used by the Romans for marking certain kinds of merchandise, through the rude process of the Chinese, Japanese and Tartars, to the invention of Johannes Guttenberg, and, finally, to the wonderful lightning steam-presses of to-day. In these pages it is not proposed to ofier to the reader any such narrative. On the contrary, the stor\' of the print- ing press will betaken up just as it was on the point of reaching its greatest perfection, since our subject concerns only the man and his invention where- by it was brought to that state. This man, Richard March Hoe by name, was born in the city of New York, on the 12th of September, 18 12. His father, Robert Hoe, was a native of the village of Hose, Leicester, England, and the son of a wealthy farmer. Dis^ liking his father's pursuit, he appren- ticed himself to a carpenter. When only sixteen years old, the elder Hoe purchased his indentures from his mas- ter and he sailed for the United States. Energetic Young Man. Robert Hoe was almost penniless when he reached New York, and in this condition entered the store of Mr. Grant Thorburn one day in search of employ- m.ent. Mr. Thorburn manifested a sud- den and strong likiug to the youth, took him to his own house, and when he was prostrated with the yellow fever, during the epidemic of 1804, nursed him tenderly throughout. Setting to work immediately upon his arrival in New York, he made friends rapidly, and prospered in his trade so well that when but twenty years old he was able to marry. His bride was a daughter of Matthew Smith, of Westchester, and a sister of Peter Smith, the inventor of a hand printing press. With this gentleman and Matthew Smith, Jr., his brother, Robert Hoe en- tered into partnership. Their business was that of carpentering and printers' joineiy- ; but after Peter Smith had completed the invention of his hand press, it gradually grew into the manu- facture of presses and printers' mater- ials. Both brothers died in 1823 and Robert Hoe succeeded to the business. The manufactory- of Robert Hoe & 491 492 HOE'S LIGHTNING PRINTING PRESS. Co. was originally located in the centre of the old block between Pearl and Wil- liam Streets, and Pine Street and Maiden Lane. Soon after their establishment there, the city authorities ran Cedar Street right through their building, and they removed to Gold Street, near John, They were twice burned out here, but continued to occupy these premises with their counting-room and lower shop. Steam Presses. Printing by steam had long attracted the attention of persons engaged in the art, and many essays had been made in this direction by different inventors, both in this country and in Kurope. The most successful results were the Adams press, the invention of Mr. Isaac Adams, of Boston, Mass., and the Na- pier press, that of a British artisan. It was the latter which was the means of identifying Mr. Hoe with the steam press. The Napier press was introduced into this country in 1830, by the proprietors of the National Intellige7icer^ but when it arrived these gentlemen were not able to release it from the Custom-house. Major Noah, himself the proprietor of a newspaper, was at that time collector of the port of New York, and he, being- anxious to see the press in operation, requested Mr. Hoe to put it together. Ml. Hoe performed this task success- fully, although the press was a novelty to him, and was permitted to take mod- els of its various parts before it was re- shipped to England. It was found to be a better press than any that had ever been seen in this country, and the Com- mercial Advertiser^ of New York, and the Chronicle^ of Philadelphia, at once ordered duplicates of it from England. Mr. Hoe was very much pleased with this press, but believed that he could construct a much better one. To this end he despatched his new partner, Mr. Sereno Newton, to England to examine all the improvements in machinery there, and bring home samples of such as he thought might be advantageously adopted in this country. Mr. Newton, besides being an ingenious mechanic, was well-read in books, and was con- sidered one of the first mathematicians in New York. Returning from his mission, he constructed a new two- cylinder press, which soon superseded all others then in use. Mr. Hoe's health failed, compelling him, in 1832, to re- tire from the business. Successful Inventor. Young Richard M. Hoe had been brought up in his father's business, after receiving a fair education. He inherited his father's inventive genius, combined with a rare business capacity, and from the first was regarded as the future hope of the establishment. Upon the withdrawal of his father, a partner- ship was established between himself, his brother Robert, Mr. Newton, and his cousin, Matthew Smith, but the style of the firm remained unchanged. Richard Hoe's first invention was conceived in 1837, and consisted of a valuable improvement in the manufac- ture of grinding saws. Having obtained a patent for it in the United States, he visited England in that year for the same purpose. By his process circulai saws may be ground with accuracy to any desired thickness. He readily ob- tained a patent in England, as the ex- cellence of his invention commended it to every one. While there he gave HOE'S LIGHTNING PRINTING PRESS. 493 especial attention to the improvements which had been made in the printing press, in the manufacture of which his firm was largely engaged. Returning to New York, he devoted himself entirely to this branch of his business, and soon produced the ma- chine known as Hoe's Double-Cylinder Press, which was capable of making about six thousands impressions per hour. The first press of this kind ever made was ordered by the New York Sun^ and was the admiration of all the printers of the city. This style of press is now used extensively for printing country newspapers. Demand for Speed. As long as the newspaper interest of the country stood still, Hoe's Double- Cylinder Press was amply sufficient for its wants, but as the circulation of the journals of the large cities began to in- crease, the " double-cylinder " was often taxed far beyond its powers. A print- ing press capable of striking off papers with much greater rapidity was felt to be an imperative and still-increasing need. It was often necessary to hold the forms back until nearly daylight for the purpose of issuing the latest news, and in the hurry which ensued to get out the morning edition, the press very frequently met with accidents. Mr. Hoe was fully alive to the im- portance of improving his press, and, iu 1842, he began to experiment with it for the purpose of obtaining greater speed. It was a serious undertaking, however, and at every step fresh diffi- culties arose. He spent four years in experimenting, and at the end of that time was almost ready to confess that the obstacles were too great to be overcome. One night, in 1846, while in this mood, he resumed his experiments. The more he pondered over the subject the more difficult it seemed. In despair, he was about to relinquish the effort for the night, when suddenly there flashed across his mind a plan for securing the , type on a horizontal cylinder. Solved in a Night. This had been his great difficulty, and he now felt that he had mastered it. He sat up all night, working out his design, and making a note of every idea that occurred to him, in order that nothing should escape him. By morn- ing the problem which had baffied him so long had been solved, and the mag- nificent " lyightning Press" already had a being in the inventor's fertile brain. He carried his model rapidly to per- fection, and, proceeding with it to Wash- ington, obtained a patent. On his re- turn home he met Mr. Swain, the pro- prietor of the Baltimore Sini and Phil- adelphia Ledger, and explained his in- vention to him. Mr. Swain was so much pleased with it that he at once ordered a four- cylinder press, which was completed and ready for use on the 31st of December, 1848. This press was capable of making ten thousand impressions per hour, and did its work with entire satisfaction in every respect. This was a success absolutely unpre- cedented — so marked, in fact, that some persons were inclined to doubt it. The news flew rapidly from city to city, and across the ocean to foreign lands, and soon wherever a newspaper was printed men were talking of Hoe's wonderful invention. Orders came pouring in upon the inventor with such rapidity 494 HOE'S LIGHTNING PRINTING PRESS. that he soon had as many on hand as he could fill in several years. In a comparatively brief period the Herald^ Tribtme^ and Stm^ of New York, were boasting of their "Lightning Presses," and soon the Traveller and Daily Jour- nal^ in Boston, followed their, example. Immense Fortune. Mr. Hoe was now not only a famous man, but possessed of an assured busi- ness for the future, which was certain to result in a large fortune. By the year i860, besides supplying the princi- pal cities of the Union (fifteen lightning presses being used in the city of New York alone), he had shipped eighteen presses to Great Britain, four to France, and one to Australia. Two of the pres- ses sent to England were ordered for the I^ondon Times. Mr. Hoe continued to improve his invention, adding additional cylinders as increased speed was desired, and at length brought it to the degree of per- fection exhibited in the splendid ten- cylinder press that was used in the offices of leading journals, and struck off twenty-five thousand sheets per hour. In 1858, Mr. Hoe purchased the pat- ent rights and manufactory of Isaac Adams, in Boston, and carried on the manufacture of the Adams press from that place. He also established a man- ufactory in England, where he con- ducted a profitable business in both the Adams and the Hoe press* Over a mil- lion and a half of dollars were invested in these establishments in New York, Boston, and London, in land, buildings, and stock. The firm manufacture pres- ses of all kinds, and all materials used by printers except type and ink. The ten-cylinder press was sold at fifty thousand dollars, and was regarded as cheap at that immense sum. It is one of the most interesting inventions ever made. Those who have seen it working in the subterranean press- rooms of great journals will not soon forget the wonderful sight. The ear is deafened with the incessant clashing of the machinery ; the printed sheets issue from the sides of the huge engine in an unceasing stream ; the eye is bewildered with the mass of lines and bands ; and it seems hard to realize that one single mind could ever have adjusted all the various parts to work harmoniously. Rotary Printing. Mr. Walter of the London Times is entitled to the honor of being instru- mental in introducing the system of rotary printing for news-work, just as his father deserves that of having intro- duced steam machine-printing. The Walter press was soon adopted as the pattern of a number of machines con- structed in Great Britain and abroad. Some of these machines much developed the idea of the Walter, and embodied fresh and important improvements. In 1870, Messrs. George Duncan and Alexander Wilson, of Liverpool, brought out their "Victory" machine, which included the folding arrangement since added to the Walter press. By this apparatus, newspapers of various sizes are printed, folded, delivered and count- ed into quires or any portion required, at the rate of 200 per minute. Since about 1870 the rotary system of printing has been gradually adopted in the ofiices of all newspapers having even moderately large circulations. Fac- tories for producing rotary machines HOB'S LIGHTNING PRINTING PRESS. 495 have been established in various parts of England, while many such machines have been built in France, Germany and America. The most improved and the fastest machines at the end of the century were those of Messrs. Hoe & Co., of New York and London. The most improved of these machines print four or six page papers at the extraordinary speed of 48,000 per hour or 800 per minute. Papers of eight, ten or twelve pages may be printed at a speed of 24,000 per hour* and a sixteen page paper at 12,000 per hour. The papers can be pasted down the centre margins if required, and counted as delivered in quires of any number fixed upon. The «nachine de- livers the papers, inset, pa^k of fiction. Much that is Good It is too early to say how o^r century will rank with the other centuries in the world of letters. We have not made so very much real progress. Whenever we -read Plato it seems as if it might have been written in our own time. It will be ^ l.i>ng time before we get be- yond Job and Homer. The standards of literatuie "^re fixed and have been fixed for ages, just as have those of painting and sculpture. We have given the world a great deal that is good, but there is an enormous amount of trash for which we will have to be blamed. The trend of the end of the century is to put literature upon a commercial basis. Publishers order books of cer- tain lengths, to be produced within a certain time. Literature cannot be pro- duced in this manner. Genius works in its own way and not according to the orders of publishers. Whether this so- much-a-line method will produce good results is extremely doubtful. The in- crease of education will enormously in- crease the demand for reading. Whether this demand will in the main be largely supplied by the old writers cr whether the new authors will rise to it is a ques- tion for the future to settle. It is evident that from year to year American authors are forcing them- selves to the front, and by their admira- ble productions are taking higher rank in the world of letters. The reading public judges for itself, and it no longer requires the stamp of foreign approval before forming an opinion of any work. EDUCATION AND LITERATURE. 549 IMPORTANT EDUCATIONAL EVENTS OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 1803 — Land grant by the United States Government for Ohio public schools. 1805 — New York the second State in the Union to establish common school fund. 1806 — First evening school, Bristol, England. 1809— Ohio State University founded. 1809— University of Berlin founded, with freedom of teaching. 1814 — Norwegian Storthing first inter- ests itself in education. 1815 — Compulsory education in Prus- sia. 1817 — First institution for deaf-mute instruction in the United States, at Hartford, Conn. 1820 — School books furnished free in Philadelphia schools. 1824 — Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in Troy, first in United States. 1825 — Braille system of printing for the blind. 1826— Frobel's "Education of Man" appeared. 1833 — Universal education law, France. 1833— First aid to schools by British Parliament. 1834 — Common schools established in Pennsylvania. 1835 — Sewing taught in Boston schools. 1836— Mount Holyoke Female Semi- nary founded. 1837 — Horace Mann becomes secretary of Massachusetts Board of Ed- ucation. 1837— First School of Design in Eng- land. 1838— First Normal School in United States, Lexington, Mass. 1840 — First kindergarten, near Rudol' stadt. 1840 — Textbook reforms in the United States. 1842 — Universal free education in Swe- den. 1848 — Entire Bible printed for the blind, 1849 — First woman to receive medical degree. 1853 — Antioch college ; co-education. 1857 — National Teachers' Association organized ; afterwards became National Educational Associa- tion. 1861 — Vassar College founded. 1863 — First cooking school founded in London. 1867 — Department of Education estab- lished in United States. 1868 — First laboratory instruction in mechanics. Imperial Technical School, Russia. 1870 — Union College of Law, first wo- man graduate. 1870 — Elementary educational act, Eng- land. 1872 — University extension, Cambridge, England. 1873 — Kindergartens in United States, at St. Louis. 1874 — First Chautauqua Assembly. 1876 — Manual training schools estab- lished, Sweden. 1878 — University of London admits women. 1879 — Manual training in St. Louis schools. 1880 — Cooking taught in Boston public schools. 1881 — First trades schools in United States, at New York. 550 EDUCATION AND LITERATURE. 1882 — Compulsory education in France. 1893 — Summer meeting for University Extension held in Philadelphia. UNIVERSITY The purpose of the University Exten- sion movement, which was originated by the University of Cambridge, in England, and subsequently spread to the United States, is to provide the means of higher education for persons of all classes and of both sexes engaged in the regular occupations of life. It is intended for all who are willing to give some of their time to study and in- struction under the guidance of men who liave had university training. It offers : Advantages Offered. First — Education by means of sys- tematic courses of lectures and classes in the subjects usually taught at high schools and universities. Second — Illustrated lectures and clas- ses in literature, art, and science, with the purpose of teaching the appreciation of the beautiful, and rendering life more interesting and enjoyable. Third — L/Cctures and --jasses in his- tory, civics, and economics, designed to aid the citizen in studying the problems of free government and modern life and to encourage a sense of responsibility, habits of sound thinking, and right conduct. The American Society for the Exten- sion of University Teaching was founded at Philadelphia in June, 1890. Its objects are : First — To organize groups of people into centres, and to bring together these centres and competent lecturers, chosen from the list of instructors, whose qual- 1900 — Kindergarten schools in opera- tion throughout the United States. EXTENSION. ifications to teach have been passed upon by the Society. Second — To. cooperate as far as possi- ble with institutions of learning and other bodies with the purpose of bring- ing to the many the best thoughts of the few, to keep the University Extension idea before the country by the Society's agents and publications. In the first year of work twenty-three centres were organized, at which some three hundred lectures were given to an estimated attendance of ten or twelve thousand people. The second season witnessed a satisfactory increase in the number of centres, with a correspond- ing increase in the number of lectures and students. In the academic year 1893-94 there were given under the auspices of the American Society one hundred and fourteen regular lecture courses, thirty-one class courses, and fifty Summer Meeting courses, or one hundred and ninety-five coiirses in all, averaging a little over six lectures each. Rapid Growth. In the year 1894-95 one hundred and twenty-six regular courses were given, nine class courses, and forty-one Sum- mer Meeting courses, or one hundred and seventy-six courses in all, aver- aging about six lectures each. Through the "circuit" or union of five or six towns which join to engage the same lecturer, towns distant from University centres have enjoyed the advantages of the system, and even villages of a few EDUCATION AND LITERATURE. 551 hundred inhabitants have been able to secure courses. In addition to tlie winter lectures at the centres, the Society has entered upon two other lines of educational ac- tivity. The first is the formation of classes of from twenty to seventy-five members, which, under the direction of its lecturers, engage in the study of history, literature, or civics, through consecutive periods from three to six months. The classes are intended to supplement the work of the " Local Centres" proper, and in places where conditions do not admit of the forma- tion of a centre, to supply, as far as possible, its place. The second is the Summer Meeting, which was started in Philadelphia in 1893, where courses were given during four weeks by some of the most eminent professors of Har- vard, Johns Hopkins, Cornell, and the University of Pennsylvania. The Chautauqua System of Educa- tion. The Chautauqua plan of summer education was inaugurated in 1874. Its originators were Lewis Miller of Akron, Ohio, and Rev. Dr. John H. Vincent, a bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Cliurch. These gentlemen, in August, 1873, selected a site for a summer school on the northern shore of Chautauqua Lake. Here an attrac- tive city of more than five hundred ar- tistic and attractive cottages has been built. There is a well-equipped hotel and various buildings for public exer- cises, lectures and recitations. The first assembly began oh the first Tuesday in August, 1874, and lasted three weeks. Since then an assembly has been held every year. The Chau- tauqua Literary and scientific Circle was organized in 1878, and comprises a system of home reading circles, whose members pursue courses of reading laid out by the ofiicers in books and maga- zine articles approved by the board of counselors. The Circle aims to promote habits of reading and study in history, literature, science, and art, in connection with the routine of daily life. The course seeks to give "the college outlook" on the world and life. The essentials of the plan are : A definite course covering four years, each year's course complete in itself; specified volumes approved by the counselors, allotment of time by the week and month, a monthly maga- zine with additional readings and notes, a membership book with review out- lines, and other aid. Individual read- ers may have all the privileges, and local circles may be formed by three or four members. The time required is about one hour daily for nine months. Certificates are granted to all who com- plete the course. Seals are affixed to the certificates which are granted for collateral and advanced reading. Agricultural Education. As an evidence of the interest felt in agricultural education in the closing years of the century, let it be noted that the State of New York places in the hands of the Agricultural College of Cornell University $25,000 a year to be used in imparting agricultural instruc- tion to the people on their farms and to children in the schools. This has no- thing to do with the system of farmers' institutes, of which some hundreds are held each year in the State of New York and for which the State appro- 552 EDUCATION AND I.ITERATURE. priation is very much larger. The movement under the direction of Cor- nell University is designed to reach the farmers without compelling them to go anywhere or to take any trouble ex- cept to absorb what is to be put before them. There is no other such instance, we presume, anywhere in the world, of pa- ternal care of the State for the farmer. An interesting fact is that this move- ment did not originate with the State authorities or with the college. It was begun by the farmers themselves in one or two of the counties of the State, who caused the bill to be drafted and sent some of their own number to Albany to promote the passage of the law. For the first year or two the appropriation was ^15,000, to be expended in that portion of the State which had asked for it. I/ater it was increased and the work made to cover the entire State so far as the money would go. Instruction on the Farm. The work has been mainly experi- mental, as it could not be foretold what methods would produce the best results, or any results which would justify the cost. It is evident that instruction given in this way is very expensive. Mainly the instruction has been carried on upon two lines ; first, regular Vv'ork in the schools, carried on by traveling instructors in connection with the re- gular teachers, and secondly, by cul- ture experiments carried on by the farmers themselves, also with the assist- ance of traveling instructors. In the latter case it must not be supposed that young men are sent out to show farm- ers how to plant seeds, or hoe weeds, or distribute fertilizers. That would be silly, and great universities do not do silly tilings. The work of the instructors in such cases is to show farmers handy ways of so managing their experiments that de- finite and useful information may be obtained from them. To do this is a profession by itself, which is taught in universities, and which farmers, and other persons not specially trained, do not usually understand, or at all events seldom practice. An important part of the work of such instructors is to col- lect and preserve the results of these ex- periments, to be published for the bene- fit of those who have helped pay for the instruction, but have not directly re- ceived it. The university authorities consider these experiments made on actual farms by actual farmers, but under such su- pervision that they can be vouched for as accurate, as more valuable to the public than the same experiments made on the college grounds by the college staff. Agriculture in Schools. The work in the rural schools has for its object the imparting of elementary instruction to the pupils. If any of our readers are in doubt as to the possi- bility of really useful agricultural in- struction in the common schools, let him who is presumably a graduate of those schools attempt to answer offhand, as he reads this, the simple question: " How do plants grown ? ' ' The chances are ten to one that he cannot do it. We see the plants grow bigger day by day, with no V thought as to tbe sources of the additional particles of matter which have become incorporated in the planr, or the operation of the power which re- EDUCATION AND UTERATURE. 555 moves them from their original seats, lifts them into the air, and perhaps entirely changes their nature. We may easily find a redwood limb cut lOO feet from the ground, which five men can- not lift ; how did it get there ? It was no small power that raised it. It cer- tainly was not redwood when it went up ; how came it to become redwood ? The object of agricultural instruc- tion in common schools is to enable small children to answer such simple questions as these, which their fathers and mothers for the most part cannot answer. The reason why they should be able to answer them is that they may know exactly what helps and hin- ders growth, and how to cure disease growth. Thus we find immense progress in education. The school-house forms the great mile-post on the highway of pro- gress. It is everywhere in evidence. Free schools extend throughout the civilized world, and reach upward to a plane far beyond the highest level of public education a century ago, linking the common school with the colleg^e, and forming a direct stepping stone to university education, which has widened out with similar activity. In methods of education a marked advance has been made, while the text-books of to-day are almost infinitely superior to those of the earlier period. And education is turning its attention in a highly en- couraging degree towards practical sub- jects and away from that incubus of the dead languages which was so strenu- ously insisted upon in the past. Man is going back to nature in education, observation is supplementing book knowledge, and experiment taking the place of authority. In short, educa- tion, with its handmaids, the book and the newspaper, is making its way into the humblest homes, and man is every- where fitting himself for an intelligent discharge of his social, industrial and political duties. CHAPTER XXXIX. A Hundred Years of Art. fHERE are great centres of art in Europe, the chief of which, at the close of the century, is Paris, where the schools and facilities for in- struction attract students from all parts of the world. Each century adds a superb accumulation to the masterpieces of painting and sculpture which are the subjects of universal admiration, and the long roll of famous artists is con- stantly increasing. Our own country has been consider- ately excused hitherto for its deficien- cies in celebrated art productions on account of its comparative youth and the extraordinary opportunities for ac- quiring wealth, whereby the energies of intelligent people have been diverted from other pursuits. As the country grows older it is but reasonable to sup- pose that in art, as in other things, we s.hall make rapid advances and will not be a reproach to the older nations. Indeed within the last half of the past century we have shown our ability in this direction, and American artists have made enviable names for them- selves in European schools and exhibi- tions. Pictorial art has had a sudden and rapid development. All classes of books, magazines, and even daily news- papers, are now illustrated. It is found that the public taste demands the object lesson, and the periodical that can fur- nish it in the most artistic and attrac- tive style is the one that will outstrip all competitors. The discovery of a 554 process by which photographs can be reproduced in what are called "half- tones" has added greatly to the effec- tiveness of pictorial illustration. Old-Time Pictures. In the early part of the century all book illustrations were exceedingly crude, and in many instances little bet- ter than caricatures. One would think that a skillful Yankee with a block of pine wood and a jackknife could carve out as good pictures as were to be found in many of the school-books of the day. All along there has been a constant endeavor to perfect the art of illustra- tion, and the success attending this effort has been surprising. Rapid pro- gress has been made, until at the present time no one expects to take up even a penny newspaper without finding a pro fusion of pictures. And along with this growth of pic- torial art the processes by which it is produced have become so cheap as to bring the productions within reach of the universal public. The poorest cot- tage can have engravings and pictorial works such as were formerly within reach only of the wealthier classes. In reviewing art in the nineteenth century one is impressed with the steady transition toward the new world of artis- tic development. History shows us how different countries have their beginning, their growth, and their decline. This has been particularly characteristic in the past century, as in the early cen- A HUNDRED YEARS OF ART. 555 turies, when art in Egypt, Greece and Italy had its rise and fall. When we look back at iSoi and 1802 we find the most important art figure that of David, who was the first person- ality whom we recall in modern French art. He was closely followed by Ingres, who was of more marked individuality. The influence of new and original thought was evinced in his work. Acad- emic, but less so than David, he had an infusion of original personality charac- teristic of much of the thought of his period. The turbulence of government condi- tions of France at the opening of the century encouraged an originality of thought that we do not find in the other countries. England was noted at the beginning of the century for its able portraiture, but a strong trace of the eighteenth century was obvious in French art. We therefore watch with deeper interest the gradual develop- ment in France. Rival Schools. Following closely upon Ingres comes the romantic school, a departure from English opposition to classicism and severity which had replaced the more emotional work at the end of the eigh- teenth century. We begin to feel another movement in French art as early as 1820, and a great ethical contest followed between classicism and romanticism. At this time the most distinguished English landscapist. Constable, drank the inde- pendent thought that was declaring it- self in France. We now enter upon the greatest period of French art, a period which will be re- called as the most brilliant of artistic productions during the century. The schools of fine art started by Napoleon, which were under governmental pro- tection, were gradually increasing and enlarging, and home patronage became declared. As in this country to-day, so in England and France at the begin- ning of the century most of the art patronage was spent on foreign artists. Home Talent. Both England and France were for many years in the beginning of the century lavish patrons of Italian art, oftener Italian imitation. But in the early 50' s we find the eyes of both the French and English people turned upon their home producers. English por- traiture is distinctly an exception to this, as royalty had placed its stamp of approval on portraiture from the six- teenth century. From 1850 on we watch in France, England and Germany the steady and wholesale development in art. The in- creased wealth and power of these countries led the cultured people to en- large their taste and add to their collec- tions, it having been proven that finan- cial investments in artistic productions, in painting and sculpture, were wise and remunerative. We also notice in the 50' s and 6o's the first evidence of native art produc- tion in the United States. The school of landscape and figure painters of considerable strength and originality had been gradually forming, and prior to and during the war the American artist was generously patron- ized. The works of many of these men are highly prized by their owners and are gradually becoming the property of local museums. 556 A HUNDRED YEARS OF ART. As we approach the end of the century we feel a distinct decadence in French art, with the exception of its sculpture, which still remains the most remark- able since the Renaissance. The break- ing into two factions of the Salon in 1889, the immense and illy-considered patronage of the French painters led to over-confidence and a tendency to sen- sationalism which has not been for the best in their progress. Under the wise management of Sir Frederick Leighton, the Royal Academy in England has attained an importance which has made it one of the most powerful art bodies in the world. Epoch in Art. The establishment of the South Ken- sington Department of Science and Art marks an important epoch in the history of art instruction in England. It may be said to have arisen out of the report of a select committee of the House of Commons appointed in 1835 "to inquire into the best means of extending a knowledge of the arts and principles of design among the people (especially the manufacturing population) of the coun- try." On the recommendation of this committee a sum of ^7,500 was devoted to the establishment of a Normal School of Design, with a museum and lectures. The school was opened in 1837, and by 1851-52 the government grant for this school and its various branches throughout the country had attained the amount of ^75,000. In 1852, in accord- ance with a report of a select commit- tee, the scheme was reconstructed, and a "Department of Practical Art" cre- ated, with Sir Henry Cole as superin- tendent ; and a Science Department was added in 1853. It was under the management of the Board of Trade till 1856, when it passed under the control of the lyord President and the Vice-president of Council on Education. The South Kensington Museum, founded in 185 1, has played an important part in the art education of the country. Grenerous Bequest. In 1869 a great stimulus to art educa- tion was given by the foundation, through the bequest of $225,000 by Felix Slade, of the "Slade Art Profes- sorships" in the Universities of Oxford, Cambridge, and London. These chairs have been held by Mr. Ruskin and other persons of the highest eminence, and it is impossible to overestimate the good which has resulted from this effort to improve the taste and knowledge of the wealthier classes, in whose hands the patronage and direction of art in England mainly rests. In Scotland, a remarkable effort in the direction of art instruction was made by Robert Foulis, the well-known printer. In 1751 he visited the Conti- nent, engaged drawing- masters, and pur- chased pictures, casts, and engravings; and on his return to Glasgow in 1753 he started a school of art. The classes were continued till about 1776, and were far from a pecuniary success ; but they afforded training to such excellent art- ists as David Allan and James Tassie, and exercised a most important and beneficial influence upon Scottish art. In 1760 the Board of Manufactures in Scotland founded a school of art in Edinburgh which is still in active ope- ration, and which, under the name of ' ' The Trustees' Academy, ' ' has afforded instruction to almost every Scottish A HUNDRED YEARS OF ART. 55T painter of distinction for more than a century and a quarter. In 1858 this school was affiliated with the South Kensington Science and Art Depart- ment, and it serves not only for the instruction of art-craftsmen in design, but also as a school for painters and sculptors preparatory to the life-class of the Royal Scottish Academy. In 1880 art instruction was brought within the scope of the Scottish univer- sity curriculum by the establishment of the Watson-Gordon chair of Fine Art in the University of Edinburgh, in mem- ory of Sir John Watson-Gordon, through the bequest of a sum of about ^60,000 by his brother and sister. In Ireland there are classes in connec- tion with the Royal Hibernian Academy for study from the antique and the life ; and the Dublin Metropolitan School of Art is under the South Kensington Department. Various continental schools, especially those of Munich and Antwerp, have attained celebrity ; but Paris is now the great centre of art instruction, in which many British and American students have been trained. Since the time of J. L,. David — who, when in exile, also influenced the school of Belgium — the French have been celebrated for their command over form ; and, in recent years, their power as colorists has greatly increased. The Parisian method of study is admirably adapted for giving its pupils a certain technical dex- terity. At the opening of the twentieth cen- tury we realize that the great promise of the future lies in America. Our art- ists to-day have been educated in all of the best known schools. They have taken honors in the capitals of all the countries of the world and have returned to their native land bearing the fruits of their labor, possessed of great natural ability and unexampled training ; that their productions should be essentially American is now being borne in upon them. And under the clear skies and with the wholesome surroundings and untrammeled means for future develop- ment, we are convinced that the great school of art in the twentieth century will be in America. PART VII. Famous Men and Women OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. CHAPTER XL. Celebrated Authors. /I2) REAT intellectual development has characterized the century. This is \mT' ^^^^ ^°^ ^'^^y ^^^ ^^^^ amazing achievements of mechanical invention and scientific discovery, but also in authorship, in great reforms, and in the brilliant triumphs of oratory and statesmanship. In every department of human activity there have been distinguished workers whose names are written hio^h on the scroll of fame. Our aim is to present a concise biography of the distinguished men and women of the century, describing, in condensed form, their renowned achieve- ments and narrating the im.portant events connected with their bright careers. For convenience in reference the names are arranged alphabetically. ALLEN, ELIZABETH ACKERS. This American poet was born at Strong, Maine, October 9, 1832. She became a contributor to various maga- zines and under the pseudonym of "Florence Percy" became widely known as an author. A volume of poems published in 1867 was favorably received. In i860 she became the wife of Paul Ackers, the sculptor, but sur- vived her husband, and some time after his death was married to Mr. B. M. Al- len of New York. Her painstaking work has been wide- ly appreciated, and while her produc- *?x)ns are not so abundant as those of many others, she has gained an enviable dis- tinction as a graceful writer, with fine poetic taste. Her beautiful poem en- 658 titled, "Rock me to Sleep, Mother," has become a household treasure. It exalts and ennobles motherhood, and its tender pathos is universally admitted. ALLSTON, WASHINGTON. This eminent American artist and man of letters was born at Waccamaw in South Carolina, November 5, 1779. Being of delicate health he was sent to Newport, R. I., where he remained in school ten years. Having graduated at Harvard College in 1796, he soon af- terward went abroad for the purpose of studying, and perfecting himself as a painter. xSoon his productions attracted wide attention. At length he returned to his native land and was eng iged on a large painting of " Belshazzar" J Feast' * when he died July 9, 1843, CELEBRATED AUTHORS. 559 In addition to his genius as a painter, Allston possessed poetic talent of a high order. He was the author of "The Sylphs of the Season and Other Poems," published in 1813. Washington Irving says of him: " There was something to me inexpressibly engaging in the ap- pearance and manners of Allston. He was of a light, graceful form, with large blue eyes, and black silken hair waving and curling around the pale expressive countenance. Everything about him bespoke the man of intellect and refinement." ANDERSEN, HANS CHRISTIAN. A well-known magazine, the " Quar- terly Review," says concerning this au- thor, " For vividness and reality of de- tail, for breadth and boldness in the description of scenery, and for skill in conveying the impression made on a fine mind and earnest heart by all that is beautiful in nature and true in art, he stands without a rival among recent writers of romance." This is high commendation, yet it accords with the judgment of multi- tudes who have been charmed by his writings. Not only have his works been widely circulated in his own coun- try, but they have been translated into many foreign languages. The young, especially, have found instruction and entertainment in his delightful stories and fairy tales, published in several volumes, and which are characterized J by vivid imagination, quaint humor and not infrequently profound pathos. Andersen was born at Odense, in the island of Funen, April 2, 1805. His father's family was one of some note and at one time had been rich, but when Hans was born had fallen into poverty. He was fortunate enough in early life to meet several influential friends who enabled him to obtain an education at the expense of the State. At an early age he wrote several poems, among which "The Dying Child" was par- ticularly admired. From this time he entered upon an upward career and sur- prised and delighted the public by his tales and romances. Some of his vol- umes of travels have had a wide circu- lation. He died in August, 1875. On his seventieth birthday he was presented with a book containing one of his tales in fifteen languages. ARNOLD, MATTHEW. This English poet, a son of Dr. Thomas Arnold, of Rugby, was born near Staines in Middlesex, December 24, 1822, and was educated at Rugby and Oxford. He gained prominence ds an educator and inspector of schools. His first volume of poems appeared in 1848, and in 1857 he was elected pro- fessor of poetry at Oxford. " For com- bined culture and fine natural feeling in the matter of versification," says the Edinburgh Review, "Mr. Arnold has no living superior." His writings em- brace prose as well as poetry, and his views upon religious subjects have at- tracted wide attention. He received the degree of LL. D. from the universi- ties of Edinburgh and Oxford. Died April 15, 1888. ARNOLD, EDWIN. Mr. Arnold has visited America sev- eral times and is well known among the literary circles of this country. He was born June 10, 1832, was educated at King's College, London, and Uni- versity College, Oxford, where he gra- 560 CELEBRATED AUTHORS. dilated in 1854. For a time he held a government position in India as an educator. The work by which he is best known is entitled, " The Light of Asia," jDublished in 1879. This poem was widely read in America and was considered to possess many claims for admiration. Mr. Arnold is a prolific author, and his works have secured a wide circle of readers. His scholarly and finished style entitles him to high rank among the authors of the day. BANCROFT, GEORGE. He is principally distinguished as the author of the history of our country, but not without note as a diplomatist and statesman ; he was born in Worces- ter, Massachusetts, October 3d, 1800. At the age of thirteen he entered Har- vard College, graduated with high hon- ors in 1817, and spent two years in study at Gottingen, Germany, where in 1820 he received the degree of Doc- tor of Philosophy. Returning to Ame- rica in 1822, he served a year as a Greek tutor in Harvard College when he and Dr. Cogswell, a fellow-tutor, established the Round Hill School at Northamp- ton, Massachusetts, with which Ban- croft was associated until 1830. In 1823 he published a volume of poems, and subsequently made translations from the German of the minor poems of Goethe, Schiller, etc., and of some of the historico-political works of Heeren. In 1834 appeared the first volume of his " History of the United States from the Discovery of the Continent;" fol- lowed by the second and third volumes in 1837 and 1840 respectively — the whole embracing " The History of the Colonization of the United States." These were succeeded in the interval from 1852 to i860 by five volumes nar- rating the history of the colonial period to the Declaration of Independence, and in 1866 and 1874 respectively by the two concluding volumes, bringing the history to the treaty of peace with the mother-country in 1782. Bancroft sub- sequently published " The History of the Formation of the Constitution of the United States" (2 vols., 1882,) which afterwards formed a constituent part of the revised edition of the com- plete "History of the United States-" embraced in six volumes (1882-84). Bancroft served as collector of the port of Boston (1838-41), under Presi- dent Van Buren, and was an unsuccess- ful candidate for the governorship of Massachusetts in 1844. He accepted a seat in the cabinet of President Polk as secretary of the Navy in 1845, and the following year was appointed minister to the court of St. James, a position which he filled until 1849, with honor to his country. A period of retirement from public life followed his return to America. In the civil war he was heartily in accord with the national government, and in 1867 he was ap- pointed by President Johnson, minister to Berlin, serving with distinguished ability until recalled at his own request in 1874. The American press con- tained highly appreciative notices of Mr. Bancroft's character and work on the occasion of his death, January 17, 1891. BEERS, ETHEL LYNN ELLIOT. This American poetess, who is well known for several popular lyrics, was born at Goshen, N. J., in 1827. Her maiden name was Ethelinda Elliott. Her patriotic poem entitled,. "The Picket-guard," or " 'All quiet along the CELEBRATED AUTHORS. 561 Potomac,' they say," first published in "Harper's Weekly" in 1861, became instantly popular, and its authorship was contested. Although her poetry is remarkable for simplicity of style and ftsisy versification, it is yet full of life and spirit. A volume of her poems ap- peared in 1878, and in the following year she died. Few authors have be- come so widely known by reasons of productions so few in number. BOKER, GEORGE H. Mr. Boker is known especially for his "War lyyrics," published in 1864, ii^ some of which the scenes of the civil war are depicted with graphic force. His first volume was entitled, "The Lesson of Life and Other Poems," and appeared in 1847. Several other vol- umes followed in rapid succession, all of which were well received by the reading public. That he is entitled to a conspicuous place among American poets, is generally conceded. Born in Philadelphia, October 6, 1823, he graduated at Princeton in 1842, and studied law, but never practiced. He was a man of some prominence in public afiairs and in 1871 was appointed minis- ter to Constantinople, and in 1874 n^in- ister to St. Petersburg. He was the editor of "Lippincott's Magazine" sev- eral years. His death occurred in Phila- delphia, January 2, 1890. BONAR, HORATIUS. The author of many beautiful hymns, the fame of which is world-wide, was a native of Scotland, and was born in Edinburgh in 1808. In 1856 he published "Hymns of Faith and Hope," and a second series of the same in 1861. He was for many years a minister of the 36 Free Church, and published several re- ligious works which have had an enor- mous circulation. He participated act- ively in all evangelistic work, and, in addition to his pastoral labors, was heard frequently in religious conven- tions. Died in 1879. BRONTE, EMILY. Was born in Yorkshire, England, about 1819. She was one of the authors of a volume entitled, " Poems by Currer, Ellis and Acton Bell," published in 1846. She was also the author of a novel entitled, "Wuthering Heights," issued in 1847, the merit of which has been variously estimated. Died in De- cember, 1848. It is universally con- ceded that she had talent of a high order, as is evidenced by the fact that fifty years after her death her works were still in demand and had a wide circle of readers. BROWNING, ELIZABETH BARRETT. Mrs. Browning must be considered one of the most gifted poets of our time, her works appealing especially to people of intellectual refinement and cultivated taste. In person she was slight, with dark hair and complexion ; an easy modest manner and cordiality drew to her many friends. She was born at Durham, March 6, 1809. Her father, Mr. Barrett, was a wealthy merchant of London, who gave his daughter in early life the best opportunities for education. At ten years of age she exhibited fine poetical talent, which was diligently cultivated. In 1 846 she was married to the poet, Robert Browning, with whom she re- sided in Italy for many years. She produced in 1851 "Casa Guidi Win- 562 CELEBRATED AUTHORS. dows," a poem which treats of the political condition of Italy. "This," says the "North British Review," "is the happiest of Mrs. Brownings per- formances, because it makes no preten- sions to high artistic character, and is ^really a simple story of personal impres- sions," Her largest, and withal her greatest work, is "Aurora Leigh," a poem, or novel in verse, which is greatly admired. This was published in 1856, and in the same year a new edition of her poem.s was issued in three volumes. She died at Florence, Italy, in June, 1861. BROWNING, ROBERT. This most subtle and intellectual of contemporary English poets, was born at Camberwell, May 7, 18 12. His father, a man of parts, was engaged in the city of London. The future poet, after re- ceiving local education, attended lec- tures at University College, and then travelled abroad. From his earliest years he had been accustomed to write verse, and while still a youth, acquired the triple reputation of poet, musician and modeller. "Pauline," a dramatic poem, written at the age of nineteen, was published in 1833. Two years later appeared his " Paracelsus," which revealed a greater force. Its energy, its boldness of thought, its lofty aspirations, and its grip of human passion, stamped the author as one of the most promising of the younger poets. In his later poems the poet pressed into his service in a masterly degree, humor, pathos, passion and tenderness; while the whole were distinguished for their ringing and melodious versifica- tion. Browning married in 1846 Eliza- beth Barrett, herself a poetess of high and noble gifts, and with her he weni to Florence, where they lived in per- fect and happy union. In 1850 Brown- ing published " Christmas Eve and Easter Day," poems which defended catholicity in religion, the good to be discovered in the varying forms of Christianity. The " Browning Society " was estab- lished in 1 88 1 for the purpose of pro- moting the study and influence of the poet's works, and the example of Lon- don has been followed by many other large centres in Great Britain, the colo- nies and the United States. As a poet, Browning is distinguished for his ca- pacity in creating real men and women, and also for the depths of his spiritual insight. His lyrical faculty, dramatic energy, and power of psychological analysis have rarely been equalled. Be- sides being one of the most erudite of poets, he has intense human sympathy and high imaginative gifts, and a pro- found vigorous faith. His style is too frequently obscure and difficult, his ver- sification hard and rugged, and his rhymes forced. Mr. Browning died in December, 1889. BRYANT, WILLIAM CULLEN. Mr. Bryant easily ranks among the first American poets, and in some re- spects excels all others. A profound love of nature, fine poetic fancy, love of home and country and easy versifica- tion characterize his works, which have struck the popular heart and have been widely read. It is perhaps not a little singular that his most famous poem, " Thanatopsis," was written while yet he was a young man at Williams Col- lege. Mr. Bryant was horn in Hampshire CELEBRATED AUTHORS. 563 county, Mass., on the 3rd of November, 1794. In college he distinguished him- self in the languages, became a student of law in 18 12, and afterward practiced law for several years. He removed to New York City in 1825, and soon after became one of the editors of the " Even- ing Post," which he continued to edit with great ability until his death. A collection of his poems was pub- lished in 1832, Soon after he visited Europe and travelled in Egypt and Syria, writing letters home, which were afterward collected into a volume enti- tled, "Letters of a Traveller." Mr. Bryant was always a warm advocate of political reforms, opposed the extension of slavery, and ardently supported the Union during the civil war. ' ' No poet, ' ' says Griswold, "has described with more fidelity the beauties of the crea- tion, or sung in nobler song the great- ness of the Creator. He is the trans- lator of the silent language of the uni- verse to the world." His translations from foreign languages are graceful and accurate reproductions of the originals, rivalling those of Longfellow. Died June 12, 1878. BYRON, LORD. Byron's genius flashed out like a bril- liant meteor, compelling attention, and for the most part admiration. He was born in London, January 22, 1788. In early life he exhibited strong passions, an almost ungovernable will, and, at times, a rashness which occasionally appeared even in his later years. Among his mates he was courageous, quick to take an insult, and was never satisfied 'Until it had been resented. In 1805 he went to Trinity College, Cambridge, which he lef<" two vears after without a degree. During his stay at the University, he published a volume of poems entitled, "Hours of Idleness," which was very severely criticised in the " Edinburgh Review." The poet wrote by way of retaliation, his " English Bards and Scotch Reviewers,' ' a caustic and scath- ing satire, which at the time caused a great sensation and convinced the crit- ics that Byron's genius was not to be terror-stricken or reduced to silence by "paper bullets of the brain." In 1809 he travelled throughout Eu- rope, and while in Greece, surrounded by the classic associations of that coun- try, he warmly espoused the cause of Greek independence, a theme which inspired some of his loftiest strains. On his return to England, he published the first two cantos of "Childe Harold's Pilerimaofe," the success of which was so sudden and extraordinary that, as he tells us, "he awoke one morning and found himself famous." Soon after he took his seat in the House of Lords, to which by birth he was entitled. Byron wrote easily and rapidly. His various works followed one another in rapid succession. Some of his most pathetic verses were inspired by the infelicities of his domestic relations. That he had great faults has been universally admitted ; nor can it be denied that his genius was of the high- est order. Macaulay's critical pen places him in the front rank of modern poets and declares he has never been excelled in the expression of scorn, misanthropy and despair, and that there is not a sin- gle note of human anguish of which he was not master. He died on the 19th of April, 1824, at the early age of 3C, yet had already achieved undyius fame. 564 CELEBRATED AUTHORS. CAMPBELL, THOMAS, Author of " The Pleasures of Hope," and many other poems marked by true poetic genius, was a native of Scotland, aud was born at Glasgow in 1777. After a brilliant literary career, he died at Boulogne in 1844, and was buried in Westminster Abbey, Lord Macaulay, Dean Milman, and other celebrities act- ing as pall-bearers. Few poems of any author have become more generally known, or have been received with greater favor. His poems entitled " Ho- henlinden," "Lochiel" and "Gertrude of Wyoming," have been universally popular and were known to all the school-children of our own country a generation ago. CARLETON, WILL M. This popular American poet was born at Hudson, Michigan, October 21st, 1845. He graduated at Hillsdale Col- lege in 1869, His principal works are "Farm Ballads" (1873), "Farm Leg- ends" (1875), "Young Folks' Centen- nial Rhymes" (1876), and "Farm Fes- tivals" (1883). Mr. Carleton's tastes and style qualify him to portray in a very effective man- ner domestic scenes and the experiences incident to country life, an example of which is found in his well-known poems entitled " Over the Hills to the Poorhouse," and "Betsy and I Are Out." CARLYLE. THOMAS. This distinguished, and withal, ec- centric author gained by his writings a wide celebrity for originality, graphic description and vigorous English. Bold in thought, a hater of shams, rugged in matter and manner, his striking essays forced themselves upon the atten- tion of the public. Mr. Carlyle must be considered as one of the most bril- liant authors of his day. The work that gave him the greatest reputation was his " History of the French Revo- lution,'' which depicted with remark- able force the bloody scenes of that social and political convulsion. Born at Ecclefechan, Scotland, in 179S. Died February 5, 1881. GARY, ALICE. This well-known American authoress first came into notice by her contribu- tion to the "National Era," for which she wrote under the 7io}n de plume of " Patty Lee." Her " Clovernook," com- prising sketches of western life, was popular both in America and England. Several works of fiction, and various poems, have also met with marked favor. Born near Cincinnati, Ohio, 1820, died in New York, where she resided during the latter part of her life, in 1871. She was also gifted in the portrayal of domes- tic scenes and the charms of country life. The writings of the Cary sisters have long been familiar to the American people, their moral tone, felicitous ex- pression and elevated sentiment hav- ing given them wide popularity. From their gifted pens have come several hymns that have gained a high degree of favor. It is rarely that two members of the same family exhibit so high an order of genius. CARY, PHOBBE. She was the younger sister of Alice and equally gifted. Her birthplace was the Miami Valley, where she was born in 1824; her death occurred in 1 87 1. She published independently several volumes of buoyant pleasant CELEBRATED AUTHORS. 565 verse and contributed a third of the "Poems of Alice and Phcebe Gary," published in 1850. During the later years of their life the Gary sisters re- sided in New York, were actively en- gaged in religious work, and were fereatly beloved by a large circle of friends. COOPER, JAMES FENIMORE. The popular author of the " Iveather- Stocking Tales " was born at Burling- ton, N. J., in September, 1789. His father was Judge Gooper, a well-known public man, and his mother's maiden name was Fenimore. About 1790 the family moved to the shore of Otsego Lake in New York where they founded Cooperstown, having taken up a large tract of land which was then on the outskirts of civilization and the resi- dence of Indian tribes. Young Gooper entered Yale Gollege in 1802, remained there about three years and then entered the navy as a midshipman. In 181 1 he retired from the navy and was mar- ried the same year. His first literary work was a novel, entitled "Precaution," which was pub- lished in 1 8 19 and was a failure. Being a man of great energy and conscious that there was something in him more than he had shown, he continued his literary work and published " The Spy," founded on incidents connected with the Revolutionary war. It was very successful and was re-published in Eng- land. It was translated into several languages, and marked the beginning of that long literary career which placed Mr. Gooper's name among the most dis- tinguished American authors. " He has the high praise," says the " North American Review," " and will have the future glory of having struck into a new path, of having opened a mine of ex- haustless wealth. In a word he has laid the foundation of American romance." Other tales from the pen of Gooper followed, many of which were a vivid portrayal of Indian life, with which he was made familiar by personal contact with the Red Men. His works are numerous and some of them have been immensely popular, such as " The Pioneers," " The Last of the Mohicans," "The Deerslayers, " "Story of the American Navy," etc., etc. He died in Gooperstown in September, 185 1. "He wrote for mankind at large," saysW. G. Bryant, "hence it is that he has earned a fame wider than any Ameri- can author of modern times. The crea- tion of his genius shall survive through centuries to come, and only perish with our language." "His writings," says William H. Prescott, " are instinct with the spirit of nationality. In his produc- tions every American must take an honest pride. For surely no one has succeeded like Gooper in the portraiture of American character, or has given such glowing and eminently truthful pictures of American scenery. ' ' CRAIK, DINAH MARIA MULOCH. She was born at Stoke-upon-Trent in 1826. She early took the burden of supporting an ailing mother and two younger brothers, and wrote stories for fashion-books, as well as for graver publications. Her first serious appear- ance as a novelist was in 1849, with her story "The Ogilvies," which was fol- lowed by "Olive, the Head of the Family," "Agatha's Husband." But she never surpassed or even equalled her domestic novel "John Halifax" 566 CELEBRATED AUTHORS. (1857), which has had, and still con- tinues to have, an extraordinary popu- larity, and has been translated into French, German, Italian, Greek, and Russian. The scene is laid at Tewkes- bury, where a marble medallion has been placed to her memory in the abbey. CROSS, MARIAN EVANS LEWIS (GEORGE ELIOT). An English writer of remarkable power, the daughter of Robert Evans, a surveyor. She was born November 22, 1 8 19, and subsequently became one of the most distinguished writers of the century. In 1858 appeared her "Adam Bede," followed by "The Mill on the Floss"(i859), " Silas Marner " (1861), etc., etc., " Middlemarch " appeared in 1872, "Daniel Deronda" in 1876. She was married in the spring of 1880 to a Mr. Cross, and died December 22 of the same year. DICKENS, CHARLES. The name of Gladstone, or Napoleon, or Lincoln, or McKinley, is not better known than that of Pickwick, or Ma- cawber, or Pecksniff, or Uriah Heap, or MarkTapley, or Barkis, or Sairy Gamp, or Little Nell, or many others that might be mentioned, all of which, although fictitious, seem quite as real as any his- toric character from Julius Caesar to General Grant. What amazing genius could create these characters and endow them with an endless life? There has never been but one man who could make fictitious characters so life-like and so universally known, causing them to become, as it were, household names. The great novelist, whose works of fiction are known and read throughout the civilized world, and who gained a renown unequaled by that of any author of recent times, was born at Portsmouth, England, February 7, 18 12. His father wished him to enter the profession of law, but soon becoming disgusted with it, because he was conscious that it was not his proper sphere, he gave up the study of it, removed to London, and. became a reporter for the "Morning Chronicle." For this paper he began to write sketches that at once attracted attention and showed their author to be possessed of an uncommon faculty for depicting common life both in its tragic and humorous phases. Dickens was only 24 years old when he published " Pickwick Papers." He immediately sprang into popularity, and became the favorite writer of both Eng- land and America. His subsequent works, such as "Oliver Twist," "Ni- cholas Nickelby," "David Copper- field," "A Tale of Two Cities," "The Old Curiosity Shop," and many others all served to increase his reputation, although it was predicted that he would soon "write himself out." He main- tained his reputation by his wonderful creations in the realm of fiction and the charm of his transcendent genius. Many of his works show intense sym- pathy with the lower classes and the struggling poor, the hard worked sons and daughters of toil, and those who are the victims of greed and oppression. It is not too much to say that some of ' the most important reforms in England which benefitted the laboring classes, could be traced directly to the influence of his magic pen. Mr. Dickens came to this country on two occasions. On the first he angered many of his ad- mirers by his caustic comments on American society and customs. On the second occasion he appeared as a public CELEBRATED AUTHORS. 56V reader of his own works and was wel- comed by thousands in all our larger cities. Work was his element, in fact, over-work, from which he undoubtedly died, June 9, 1870, and was buried in ''Poet's Corner," Westminster Abbey. EMERSON, RALPH WALDO. Few names in American literature represent so much of that kind of thought which sets others thinking and influences them as does the name of Ralph Waldo Emerson. He was born in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1803, and died in Concord, Mass., April, 1882. His father was a respected minister, and his mother was a woman of more than ordinary mind and education. Emerson graduated at Harvard in 1821, yet did not take high rank in his class. He was successful, however, in obtaining a prize for an English essay. After grad- uating he became a teacher, and at the same time studied theology under the direction of Dr. Channing. As a young man he is described as grave, gentle and never punishing his pupils except by words. Having be- come a contributor to several magazines and having written a work on "Eng- lish Traits," he became somewhat known as an author, yet the product of his mind came slowly as did the appre- ciation of the reading public. A vein of philosophy runs through his writings, which appeal especially to those of scholarly tendencies. His published works comprise "Na- ture; Addresses and Lectures;" "Es- says," first and second series; "Repre- sentative Men;" "The Conduct of Life;" "Society and Solitude ;" "Let- ters and Social Aims;" "Poems;" "Lectures and Biographical Sketches ;" "Miscellanies." Emerson wrote occa- sionally in verse from his schooldays, yet the charm of his poetry is more that of profound thought than of imagina- tion or vivid description. Obtaining the title of " The Concord Philosopher," he freqently appeared in public as a lecturer, but in his later years with- drew from the public gaze and passed his last days in that philosophic repose which might be expected from one of his temperament and peculiar menta? characteristics. FIELD, EUGENE. A popular American poet, whose pro- ductions, of a pathetic as well as humor- ous character, have made him widely known. He was educated in Massa- chusetts, thence going to Wisconsin and entering journalism, and finally be- coming connected with a leading daily of Chicago. Many of his pieces were written for children, and are highly ap- preciated by the little folks. Died in 1896. GREELEY, HORACE. Our greatest American journalist was born at Amherst, N. H., in February, 181 1, and was the son of a poor farmer, who removed to Vermont in 1821. Having learned the art of printing, young Greeley finally made his way to the city of New York. After being connected with several journals, he founded the "Daily Tribune" in 1841, and continued as its editor up to the time of his death, in 1872. Mr. Greeley was a man of very pronounced opinions, and great ability in advocating and de- fending them. No journalist was ever better known to the people at large, and none in this countryt ever exerted so vast an influence. In 1872 he was 568 CELEBRATED AUTHORS. the Liberal candidate for President of the United States, but failed of election, the vote of the country being largely given to Grant. The result was a great disappointment to Mr. Greeley whose friends led him to believe he was sure of election. He died November 29, 1872. HALLECK, FITZ=QREENE. This American poet was born at Guilford, Connecticut, July 8, 1790. By his mother he was descended from John Eliot, " the apostle of the Indians." He became a clerk in a bank in New York in 181 1, and in 1832 the private secretary of John Jacob Astor ; 1849 he retired, on an annuity of $200 left him by Astor, to his native town, where he spent the remainder of his days, and died November 19, 1867. From his boyhood Halleck wrote verses, and in 18 19 he contributed, with Joseph Rodman Drake, a series of hu- morous satirical papers in verse to the New York "Evening Post." In the same year he published his longest poem, " Fanny," a satire on the litera- ture, fashions, and politics of the time, in the measure of "Don Juan." He visited Europe in 1822, and in 1827 published anonymously an edition of his poems. In 1 865 he published " Young America," a poem of three hundred lines. His complete "Poetical Writings" have been edited by his biographer (1869). Halleck is a fair poet. His style is spirited, flowing, graceful and harmonious. His poems display much geniality and tender feeling. Their humor is quaint and pungent, and if not rich is always refined. The poem by which he is better known than by any other is entitled, " Marco Bozar- ris," beginning with the well known line, " At midnight in his guarded tent." HARTE, FRANCIS BRET. Mr. Harte has achieved distinction by his poems in dialect and by his prose works which make a point of delineat- ing western life and manners. He was first brought to notice by his jingle en- titled " The Heathen Chinee." He was born at Albany, New York, August 25, 1839, went to California in 1854, learned the art of printing, and in 1857 became connected with a newspaper, first as printer and finally as editor. For six years, beginning with 1864, he was secretary of the United vStates Mint ar San Francisco. He then connected himself with a magazine called the " Overland Monthly," and afterward held a professorship of recent literature in the University of California. Since that time he has been United States Consul at several foreign ports, at the same time carrying on his literary pur- suits. Many of his books are collections of short tales skilfully written and possess- ing undoubted merit. Among his well- known works are " The Luck of Roar- ing Camp," "East and West Poems," ' ' Tales of the Argonauts, ' ' etc. HAWTHORNE, NATHANIEL. The well-known author of the cele- brated " Scarlet Letter" and "House of Seven Gables," together with other works which have placed hira in the first rank of modern authors, was born at Salem, Massachusetts, on the 4th of July, 1804. He graduated at Bowdoin College, Maine, in 1825, Longfellow the poet being one of his classmates. His nature was extremely sensitive, his dis- position retiring, his acquaintances few CELEBRATED AUTHORS. 569 and his manner gentle and winning. In person he was tall, broad-shonldered and possessed what might be called a majestic presence. Both in mind and body he was constructed to be a com- manding figure and made a powerful impression upon all who met him. Hawthorne made the acquaintance of Franklin Pierce, afterward President of the United States, who did much to cheer him in his fits of despondency, and when he became President ap- pointed him as our consul at Iviverpool, which was the most lucrative office at his disposal. Previous to this, Haw- thorne, under Mr. Polk's administration, was appointed surveyor of the port of Salem, Massachusetts, which he held for three years. In 1850 he published his celebrated "Scarlet Ivetter," a ro- mance of extraordinary power, and by some considered his masterpiece, al- though for this distinction it has to compete with his " House of Seven Gables " and his " Marble Faun." It is generally conceded that in ele- gance of style, felicity of expression, use of pure English simplicity, clear- ness and force, he is unrivalled among American authors. The criticism has been made that there is a morbid ele- ment in Mr. Hawthorne's writings, a fiery glow of suppressed excitement which renders them unwholesome read- ing. This judgment, however, is not likely to be accepted by the average reader as strictly correct. Died suddenly at Plymouth, Mass., 1864. HEMANS, FELICIA DOROTHEA. This poetess was born at Liverpool, September 25, 1793. Her father, George Browne, was a Liverpool merchant, of Irish extraction ; her mother, whose maiden name was Wagner, was of mixed Italian and German descent. Felicia was distinguished for her beauty and precocity, and at an early age she mani- fested a taste for poetry, in which she was encouraged by her mother. Family reverses led to the removal of the Brownes to Wales, where the young poetess imbibed a strong passion for nature, read books of chronicle and romance, and gained a working know- ledge of the German, Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese languages. She also cultivated her excellent musical taste. Her first volume was published in 1808, when she was only fifteen years of age, and contained a few pieces written about four years earlier. Her second entitled " The Do- mestic Affections," appeared in 18 12. In the same year she married Captain Hemansof the Fourth Regiment, whose health had suffered in the retreat on Corunna, and afterward in the Wal- cheren expedition, and who settled in Italy in 18 18. After this time they never met again : their marriage was understood not to have been happy. Mrs, Hemans, though in poor health, now devoted herself to the education of her children, to reading and writing, and spent the rest of her life in North Wales, Lancashire, and later at Dublin, where she died. May 16, 1835. Mrs. Hemans, without great original- ity or force, is yet sweet, natural and pleas- ing. But she was too, fluent and wrote much and hastily ; her lyrics are her best productions; her more ambitious poems, especially her tragedies, being, in fact, quite insipid. Still, she was a woman of,true,genius, though her range was circumscribed, and some of. her little lyrics, "The Voice of Spring,'* 670 CEI^EBRATED AUTH0R8. " The Better Land," " The Graves of a Household," "The Treasures of the Deep," and " The Homes of England," are perfect in pathos and sentiment, and will live as long as the English lan- guage. These are found in almost every school collection, and this early familiar- ity with her sweet and simple lyrics has helped to keep her memory green. HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT. Dr. Holland is a fine example of an author whose works are pure in senti- ment, contain practical every-day helps for the conduct of life, and are admira- bly suited to the average reader. He was born in Belchertown, Massachu- setts, July 24, 1 8 19, and graduated at the Berkshire medical college at Pitts- field, in 1844. He soon abandoned his profession, however, and after fifteen months as a school superintendent at Richmond, Va., became assistant editor of the Springfield "Republican," of which he was part proprietor also from 185 1 to 1866. In 1870, with Roswell Smith and the Scribners, he founded "Scribner's Monthly," which he conducted success- fully till his death, October 12, 1881. In this magazine appeared his novels, "Arthur Bonnicastle" (1873), "The Story of Seven Oaks" (1875), and "Nicholas Minturn" (1876). His "Timothy Titcomb's Letters" (1858) went through nine editions in a few months; and this sale was succeeded by his "Life of Lincoln" and his most popular poems " Bitter Sweet " (1858), "Kathrina" (1867), and "The Mistress of the Manse" (1874). Most of Hol- land's works have been republished in Britain. The works of Dr. Holland have been widely read by the American people. His letters to young people have passed through many editions, and are well worthy of a place in everv household. They abound in a certain practical sense and homely wisdom which stand in striking contrast to the cheap litera- ture of the day, the influence of which cannot be considered the most healthful. HOLMES, OLIVER WENDELL. For many years Dr. Holmes was the most conspicuous figure in the literary circles of Boston. His ripe culture, his poetic genius, his inexhaustable fund of humor and his genial disposition dis- played in all his productions, made him one of the best known writers of his time. He was born in Cambridge, Massachusetts, August 29, 1809, and at the age of twenty graduated at Harvard College. His father was a Congrega- tional minister and a writer of some note in his day. After leaving college Dr. Holmes studied law, but soon changed his profession to that of medi- cine. Having pursued his medical studies in Europe he returned to this country, and in 1838 was elected pro- fessor of anatomy and physiology in Dartmouth College, subsequently filling the same chair at Harvard. While a young man, and before leav- ing college, he had distinguished him self as a poet and a writer of great ori ginality. One of his first literary suc- cesses consisted of contributions to the " Atlantic Monthly " under the title of " The Autocrat of the Breakfast-Table," which were followed later by another series of papers called "The Professor of the Breakfast-Table," and "The Poet at the Breakfast-Table." These papers were widely read and enjoyed by celebrate;d authors. 571 reason of their subtle thought, quaint humor and deep insight into human nature. He wrote two works of fiction, "Elsie Venner," and "The Guardian Angel." Numerous other productions followed, including poems on various occasions, all of which stamped him as a man of decided genius. He published a biography of his friend Emerson which showed a just appreciation of the "Concord Philosopher." Dr. Holmes was especially happy in his verses written for public occasions. His death occurred October 7th, 1894, at the ripe age of 85 years. Few American authors have left so distinct an impression upon our literature. His attractive qualities as a neighbor, friend and companion, are worthy of especial mention. HOOD, THOMAS. The genius, the poet, whose unri- valled productions by their pathos and humor awaken alternate tears and laughter, most of whose life was a sad struggle with adversity, was born in London in 1798. His name is associated with the periodical literature of his time, both as manager and author. His best known pathetic pieces are "The Song of the Shirt," and "The Bridge of Sighs;" while "Faithless Nellie Gray," and "Faithless Sallie Brown" are happy specimens of his rollicking humor. Hood died in 1845. HUGO, VICTOR. This French celebrity, whose writings are among the most remarkable of any age or country, was born at Besancon in 1802. In early life he exhibited a passion for politics and first employed his pen upon political themes. In 18 18 he received prizes for several royalist odes. Through his long and brilliant career he displayed great activity, be- came a voluminous author of prose and verse, received the highest distinctions that could be conferred upon him by his-countrymen, and was recognized as a distinct power in the politics and literature of France. His rich imagi- nation, wonderful descriptive power and deep sympathy with the suffering poor and unfortunate, serve to render him not only the best known author of France, but by a large majority of his countrymen, the best beloved and the most admired. Among his most successful and pow- erful works are " Notre Dame de Paris," a romance (1831), " Le Roi s'amuse," a drama (1832), " Les Miserables," a novel (1862), "The Toilers of the Sea," (1865), and poems entitled " The Leaves of Autumn,' ' which, says a French critic, "contain beauties of the first order." He was admitted into the French Aca- demy in 1 84 1, and raised to the rank of peer in 1845. He gave his cordial ad- hesion to the republic of 1848, and was elected to the Constituent Assembly by the voters of Paris. He opposed Cava- ignac, and in 1849 joined ^^^ party of advanced Democrats of whom he be- came a leader and distinguished orator. For his opposition to the " coup d'etat" of December 2d, 185 1, he was ban- ished. He retired to the island of Guernsey, where he resided until the fall of the empire, when he returned to Paris. In 1 87 1 he was elected to the National Assembly, but soon resigned his seat and went to Brussels. He was expelled for his sympathy with the Communists there, and again returned to Paris. Died May 22, 1885. 572 CEIyEBRATED AUTHORS. IRVING, WASHINGTON. The first American who obtained a European reputation merely as a man of letters, was born at New York, April 3, 1783. Both l^is parents were immi- grants from Great Britain. Irving was intended for the legal profession, but his studies were interrupted by an ill- ness necessitating a voyage to Europe, in the course of which he proceeded as far as Rome, and made the acquaintance of Washington Allstou. He was called to the bar upon his return, but made little effort' to practice, preferring to amuse himself with literary ventures. The first of these of any importance, a satirical miscellany entitled "Sal- magundi," which was written in con- junction with his brother William and J. K. Paulding, gave ample proof of his talents as a humorist. These were still more conspicuously displayed in his next attempt, " Knickerbocker's His- tory of New York," (1809). The satire of "Salmagundi" had been principally local, and the original design of "Knickerbocker's History" was only to burlesque a pretentious dis- quisition on the history of the city in a guide book by Dr. Samuel Mit- chell. The idea expanded as Irving proceeded, and he ended by not merely satirizing the pedantry of local anti- quaries, but by creating a distinct liter- ary type out of the solid Dutch burgher whose phlegm had long been an object of ridicule to the mercurial Americans. Though far frdm the most finished of Irving's productions, " Knickerbocker " manifests the most original power, and is the most genuinely national in its quaintness and drollery. In 1820 Irving brought out "Geoffrey Crayon's Sketch Book," which contains an interesting description of an English Christmas, displaying the most delicate humor. Some stories and sketches on American themes gave it variety ; of these " Rip Van Winkle " was the most remarkable. It speedily obtained the greatest success on both sides of the Atlantic. Other works followed, among which were "Tales of a Traveller,'* " The Conquest of Grenada" and " The Alhambra." In execution Irving's works are almost faultless ; the narrative is easy, the style pellucid, and the writer's judgment nearly always in accordance with the general verdict of history. They will not, therefore, be easily super- ceded, and indeed Irving's productions are in general impressed with that sig- net of classical finish which guarantees the permanency of literary work more surely than direct utility or even intel- lectual power. Died in 1839. KEAT5, JOHN. Youngest to rise and earliest to set in that brilliant constellation of poets who ennobled England during the first half of the nineteenth century, John Keats, both in himself and in his work, is one of the most profoundly interesting and attractive figures in literature. In char- acter, true, magnanimous, modest and tender ; much tried and rarely failing, throughout training himself sedulously for the highest achievements in poetry — his life as a man and as an artist was one of persistent growth onward and upward. Keats was born in Finsbury, London, son of a respectable livery stable keeper ; sent early to school at Enfield where an elder boy, Cowden Clarke, turned his boyish energies at thirteen toward CELEBRATED AUTHORS. 5TS literature. Henceforth Keats read much and widely. Quitting school in 1810, Keats was first apprenticed to a surgeon, then, till 18 17, practised diligently in London, and (for his age), with success. But poetry had now become paramount, and his high sense of duty withdrew him from a profession demanding imperi- ously a man's entire devotion. lycigh Hunt welcomed Keats as a contributor to the " Examiner," and he soon gained celebrity. Unfortunately he developed a tendency to consumption which interfered with his literary labors. In 18 1 7 he published " Endymion." In addition to this we may mention as arwong the most important of his works, "Hyperion," "Lamia," and "Isabella." Speaking of his works Lord Jeffrey said, ' ' We have been exceedingly struck with the genius displayed and the spirit of poetry which breathes through all their extravagance." Keats was born October, 1795, and died in February, 1 82 1, at the early age of 24. KIPLING, RUDYARD. Among the most recent authors of fiction and poetry the name of Kipling has become prominent. He was born in Calcutta in 1865, was sent to school in England, and having returned to India, became a journalist. He early showed a taste for poetry, and also be- came a writer of stories, the scenes of which were laid in .^ndia. Among the titles of his volumes are, " Plain Tales from the Hills," " Soldiers , Three," "TheGadsbys," "In Black and White," "Under the Deodars," "The Phantom Rickshaw," and " Wee Willie Winkie." His "Jubilee Hymn," written on the occasion of the sixtieth anniversary of Queen Victoria's coronation, is consid- ered the best of all his attempts in the line of poetry. Mr. Kipling came to this country and resided two years, where he became well known in literary circles and where he has found many appreciative readers of his works. His stories are 'mostly colored with the spirit of adventure, such as might be expected from a lover of the chase. LONGFELLOW, HENRY WADSWORTH. Our gifted poet whose works lend an unrivalled charm to American litera- ture, gained a world-wide distinction, and is equally honored at home and abroad. Wherever the English lan- guage is the common tongue Long- fellow is read and admired. Surpassed only by Moore in ease and elegance of rhythm, some of his productions have so touched the popular heart that they have become familiar in almost every household. His style is pure and sim- ple, his thought is clear and transparent, while there is an elevation of sentiment which captivates the most cultivated readers. The career of Longfellow began in early life, and was well sustained for a long period of time. He was born in Maine in 1807, was educated in Bowdoin College, was made Professor of Languages in that institution when he was but nineteen years old, and, leaving Bowdoin, accepted a professor- ship at Harvard. In 1839 appeared his romance o "Hyperion," and a collection of his poems, entitled "Voices of the Night," which attracted great attention and raised him at once to the first rank among American poets. In 1841 he published " Ballads and Other Poems ;" his charming drama of "The Spanish 3tudent" appeared in 1843. 'I^his was 574 CELEBRATED AUTHORS. followed by his "Poets and Poetry of Europe," (1S45). "The Belfry of Bruges, and Other Poems" (1846), and "Evangeline," (1847) one of the most admired of all his productions. It has been pronounced (and we think justly) "the most perfect specimen ex- tant of the rhythm and melody of the English hexameter." It was followed by "The Golden Legend" (1851), "The Song of Hiawatha" (1855), per- haps the most popular of all his works, "The Courtship of Miles Standish " (1858), " Flower de Luce" (1866), "New England Tragedies" (1868), "The Divine Tragedy" (1872) "Three Books of Song" (1873), "Aftermath" (1874), "The Hanging of the Crane" and "The Masque of Pandora" (1875). Longfellow resigned his chair at Harvard in 1854, and was succeeded by Lowell. In 1868-69 he traveled in Europe, and was everywhere received with marked attention, the degree of D.CL. being conferred on him by the Universities of both Oxford and Cam- bridge, England. Mr. Longfellow died at Cambridge, Massachusetts, March 24, 1882. LOWELL, JAMES RUSSELL. Mr. Lowell's position as an author of both prose and poetry is too well known to need any comment. He has long been ranked with Longfellow, Holmes, Emerson and others, whose achieve- ments have given fame to American literature. While his versification is not so graceful or cultured as that of Longfellow, it exhibits a remarkable strength and force. A vein of humor runs through some of his prose writings as well as some of his poems, and this has added much to their popularity. Mr. Lowell came from a distinguished family, his father being a minister of the West Church in Boston. He was born in Cambridge, Massachusetts, February 22, 18 19, and in his sixteenth year graduated at Harvard College. He studied law, but never had any serious intention of making that his life pursuit. Perhaps no American writer has exhibited more versatility or has touched upon a wider range of sub- jects, adorning each with his graceful pen. In 1844 ^^ published a volume of poems which was followed by a second collection in 1848, and a small volume, separately, entitled, "The Vision of Sir Launfal." In the same year he also published his famous "Biglow Papers," a very witty and caustic satire in the Yankee dialect on the events of the Mexican War. Having spent a summer in Europe, he returned, and in the winter of 1854- 55 delivered in Boston a very popular course of lectures on the British poets. About this time Mr. Longfellow re- signed the chair of modern languages at Harvard, and Mr. Lowell was at once appointed his successor. He be- came the editor of the "Atlantic Monthly" in 1857 and held this posi- tion for five years. Several volumes of poems were issued subsequent to this time and he also published several volumes of his prose writings, entitled, ' ' Among My Books" and " My Study Windows.' ' In 1 877 he was appointed United States Minister to Spain, and from 1879 until his re- moval by President Cleveland, in 1885, he was minister to England. In 1883 he was chosen lord rector of St. An- drew's University, and while in Eng- land he received the degree of LL-D CELEBRATED AUTHORS. 575 from tile Universities of Oxford, Cam- bridge and Edinburgh. Died August 12, 1891. LYTTON, ROBERT BULWER. This English poet was the son of Lord L-ytton, the well known novelist. He was born in 1831, and was educated in England and Germany. Under the pseudonym of "Owen Meredith " he published a number of volumes of verse and prose works, in- cluding the "Life and Letters" of his father. The work by which he is best known is "Lucile, " a romance in verse, which, since its publication in i860, has passed through many editions and has had a multitude of readers. He found time during his public duties to engage in literary work for which he had a decided preference. His poems are graceful and abound in fine descrip- tive passages. His death occurred in 1895. MACAULAY, LORD. A great name in modern English literature, and one that is likely to sur- vive for generations to come. In com- manding ability, in keen historic in- sight, in poetical talent, and in the skillful use of the English language, he has few, if any, superiors. His works are classics, and have secured the atten- tion of the most scholarly readers. He distinguished himself in Parliament by his brilliant orations, and also became widely known by his contributions to the "Edinburgh Review," which placed him head and shoulders above all other contributors to that famous journal. Lord Macaulay was born in Leices- tershire, October 25, 1800, and was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he won a medal for English verse, obtained a prize for Latin decla- mation, gained a scholarship and in 1824 was elected to a Fellowship. In 1826 he was called to the bar, but made no attempt to secure a practice, his tastes inclining him to politics and literary pursuits. His poems, most of which commemorate historic events, exhibit in a high degree the art of word paint- ing, and are full ot virile energy. His best known work is his "History of England," which shows great re- search and is written in the most at- tractive style. He was devoted to his family who were in humble circum- stances, and was a most affectionate son and brother. He died in 1859 ^^^ was buried in Westminster Abbey. MOORE, THOyWAS. "The Bard of Erin" was born in Dublin, May 28, 1779, and was the son of a Catholic grocer. He was sent to the same school where Sheridan was educated and where he himself became "a determined rhymer." After study- ing at Trinity College, he went to Lon- don and in 1800 published a transla- tion of "Anacreon.^" which he dedi- cated to the Prince of Wales, his patron then, but the butt of his satire after- ward. It proved a great hit, and, with his musical talent, opened his way into the best society. He published "Odes and Epistles" in 1806, and from 1807 to 1834 produced his popular "Irish Melodies," which have given him a place among the first English poets and superior to any other in his native land. His most elaborate work is "Lalla Rookli," for which he received $15,000. This poem has been one of the most popular written by any modern author. Various other works 576 C^L^BRATED AUTHORS. in prose and poetry were well received. His best |)roductions, however, are his lyrics, love songs breathing the most ardent passion, many of which are familiar to the general public. As a graceful versifier and writer of poetry which has the ring of perpetual music in it, Moore is unexcelled. He was a great social favorite, enjoying the friend- ship of Byron and other celebrities. His death occurred in 1832. PAYNE, JOHN HOWARD. Author of "Home, Sweet Home," which was written while he was United States Consul at Tunis, where he died in 1852. He was born in New York in 1792, and in early life was an actor in American cities and in London. His remains now repose at Washington, D. C, where a splendid monument, the gift of Mr. Corcoran, the banker, has been erected to the memory of the author of our sweetest American song. POE, EDGAR ALLEN. An American poet whose most cele- brated poem, " The Raven," holds first rank in our poetical literature. Poe's genius is universally acknowledged. His writings bear in every line the stamp of originality ; his conceptions are unique, and his style of versification is peculiarly his own. He was of nerv- ous temperament, unfortunate in some of his habits, the victim of adversity, and his life has been the subject of much criticism, while his works have been universally admired. He graduated at the University of Virginia in 1826, and in the next fe\v years was editor of several magazines that were popular in their day. Among his prose works, "The Gold Bug" is well known, but his poems have gained the wider circle of readers and admirers. "The Raven," already men- tioned, and "The Bells" have made their author noted. Born in Boston, Mass., in 181 1, and died in Baltimore, Md., in 1849, of delirium tremens. PULITZER, JOSEPH. This very successful journalist was born in Hungary in the latter part of 1847. Coming to this country during the Civil War, he enlisted in a German Cavalry regiment served until peace was declared and was honorably mus- tered out of service. He turned his attention to journalism, showed con- spicuous ability as a writer, and also obtained an interest successively in several newspapers. In 1883 he bought the "New York World," and gave it a phenomenal suc- cess. From a circulation of a few thousand copies daily, the circulation went wp toward half a million. The energy and ability displayed by the proprietor and manager paused much comment, and marked him as one of the greatest journalists of the age. He was elected as a Democrat to the Forty- ninth Congress to represent the North District of New York, but resigned his seat on account of private business and professional duties. READ, THOMAS BUCHANAN. He distinguished himself as a poet and artist, and his productions have always been regarded as among the best in the art and literature of America. The lyric entitled "Sheridan's Ride," commemorating one of the exploits of the great cavalry General, has had a more general reading than anything of the kind ever published in this coun- CELEBRATED AUTH0113. 577 try. The author excelled in this style of poetry. His genius is unquestioned. The poem entitled " The Closing Scene/ is said by the "Westminster Review" to be the finest written in the present generation. His best known work as an artist is hfs group of " Longfellow's Children." Mr. Read always had the happy faculty of treating subjects of immediate in- terest in such a way as to gain wide attention from the reading public. Mr. Read was born at Chester, Pennsylvania, in 1822, and died in 1872. RILEY, JAMES WHITCOMB. " The Hoosier Poet of America," was born in Greenfield, Indiana, in 1852. Over an assumed name he began to contribute verses in the Hoosier dialect to the Indianapolis papers in about 1875, which attracted considerable attention. Since then his productions have been widely read. They are characterized by a rich vein of humor, as well as pathos, and their setting in dialect gives them additional charm and in- terest. RUSKIN, JOHN. The distinguished prose author and critic, whose masterly works have made a place for themselves in the literature of our day, was born in London, Eng- land, in 1 8 19. His writings on art, in- cluding "Modern Painters," "The Seven Lamps of Architecture," and "Stones of Venice," are brilliant in thought and exceedingly forcible in style. Ruskin in his writings compels attention. There is something striking in every paragraph. His thought is of the highest order, his words ring like blows on an anvil, and his marshalled 37 sentences are like battalions charging in battle. He publis'ned nearly thirty works, mainly on art and architecture, and maintained his supremacy in this field of literature to the last. He also con- tributed largely to contemporaneous literature. He was elected Professor of Fine Arts at Oxford, 1869, and received the degree of LL. D. from the University of Cambridge in 1871. Died in 1899- SAXE, JOHN GODFREY. He excelled especially as a humor- ous poet, and many of his pieces have become familiar to the reading public. When he began to write he struck out into a new field and his venture was most successful. Mr. Saxe was born in Franklin County, Vermont, in 18 16. He graduated from Middlebury College, Vermont, in 1839, and subsequently became editor of the " Burlington Sen- tinel." He was elected State's attor- ney in 185 I. A collection of his poems appeared in 1849. They rank among the most successful productions of their kind, and have obtained extensive popu- larity. A new edition of his collected poems was published in 1864. He pro- duced in 1866 " The Masquerade, and Other Poems," and "Leisure Day Rhymes" in 1875. Died March 31, 1887. SCOTT, SIR WALTER. The very name of Sir Walter Scott strikes a responsive chord in almost every breast, for few are the persons who have not been charmed and de- lighted with the "Waverly Novels" and his sprightly, spirited poems. His name is the chief ornament of Scottish literature, and such is the character of his works that they can perish only 578 CELEBRATED AUTHORS. with the languagfcr. in accuracy of his- toric description, in throwing over his writings an air of charming romance, in skillful weaving of the plot, and in photographing the various characters so that the reader almost imagines he ;ees them before his eyes, Scott may be said to be without a rival. His works have had a phenomenal popularity. He was born in Edinburgh, 1771. Of delicate health in early life, he slowly advanced to a sturdy manhood, and be- came distinguished as an author at a period comparatively late. Perhaps no other author wrote so much when past the age of fifty-five. It is honorable to the memory of Scott that a large amount of his literary work was undertaken and carried forward for the purpose of meet- ing a pecuniary obligation. " Waverly " took the world by storm, and Scott who did not acknowledge the authorship, might well suppose he had found the pot of gold at the end of the rainbow. As a writer it is a truism to say that, since Shakespeare, whom he resembled in many ways, there has never been a genius so human and so creative, so rich in humor, sympathy, poetry, so fertile in the production of new and real characters, as the genius of Walter Scott. "The Lay of the Last Min- strel," and "The Lady of the Lake," hold high rank in the realm of poetry and are full of life and spirit. They are colored by the romance of Scottish history and Scottish scenery. For a long time Scott resided at Abbotsford, a few miles from Edinburgh, which was one of the famous places to visit by all tourists in Scotland. He died in 1832. SHELLEY, PERCY BYSSHE. Shelley was a brilliant light in the literary firmament, and although des- tined soon to set, the beam? of his glow- ing genius still linger and e> cite admi- ration akin to wonder. Leigh Hunt says concerning his "Ode to a Sky- lark," "a little song yet it fills all heaven." Few men ever possessed the poetic gift in a higher degree. Shelley was born in Sussex county, England, in August, 1792, and lost his life by drowning at Leghorn, Italy, in July, 1822 ; yet this youth whose career was cut off at the early age of thirty left an imperishable name in the world of letters. His poetry was inspired by an ardent passion for truth and an ardent love of humanity. Shelley's most celebrated productions are "Queen Mab," "The Revolt of Islam," "Rosalind and Helen," "Pro- metheus Unbound," and " Adonais." Of Shelley it might have been said, as of his own skylark : " And sing still dost soar, And soaring ever singeth. STEVENSON, ROBERT LOUIS. This Scotch author was born in Edin- burgh in 1850. He was bred an engi- neer, but studied law. In 1879 became to the United States and married, after- ward going to reside for a time in France. His contributions to periodicals began to attract attention, and soon he became widely known as a writer of more than ordinary ability. Among his works are "An Inland Voyage," "Travels with a Donkey," " Familiar Studies on Men and Books," "New Arabian Nights," "The Dyn- amiter," etc. Mr. Stevenson's best known work is "Dr. Jekyl and Mr. Hyde," which has been dramatized and has met with popular favor. The gifted CELEBRATED AUTHORS. 579 author weut to California in pursuit of health, being addicted to pulmonary complaint, and died in the Island of Samoa in 1896. STOWE, HARRIET BEECHER. This distinguished American author was born at Litchfield, Conn., on the 14th of June, 18 12. She was the third daughter and sixth child of the cele- brated Dr. Lyman Beecher. In early life she exhibited literary taste and gained distinction as a graceful writer. In 1836, she was married to Professor Calvin E. Stowe. In 1850 she went to Brunswick, Maine, where her husband had been appointed professor of Bow- doin College. While here she wrote her novel, " Uncle Tom's Cabin," and furnished it to the "National Era'' (published at Washington) in weekly contributions. The success of this work has been without a parallel in the history of literature, its sale having gone up into the millions here and in Europe, where it has been translated into a number of difierent languages. When this remarkable story appeared the public mind in America was much agitated, and there can be no doubt that Mrs. Stowe's work hastened the great crisis that resulted in the Civil War and the destruction of the institu- tion of slavery. Mrs. Stowe was the author of other works that had great popularity, in- cluding " Sunny Memories of Foreign Lands," " Dred, a Tale of the Dismal Swamp," "The Minister's Wooing," " Oldtown Folks," etc. She wrote the "True Story of Lord Byron's Life," published in this country and in Eng- land. This work was severely criticised and brought down upon the devoted head of the authoress a storm of indig- nation. Mrs. Stowe has written other works of great merit, and it may safely be said that no authoress of modern times in any country has achieved a greater success. She died July ist, 1896. SWINBURNE, ALGERNON CHARLES. This English poet was born in 1837, and studied at Oxford, which he quitted without a degree. He burst upon the reading public with several poetical dramas, which, between 1861 and 1865, established his reputation as a poet of extraordinary brilliancy and even auda- city. Subsequently he published "Poems and Ballads," together with other works which fully sustained his reputation. He delights in the weird, the mystical, the very suggestive, and has sometimes been criticised for the latitude of his opinions. His genius, however, is un- disputed. TAYLOR, BAYARD. The works of this author have adorned our American literature and have been most favorably received by the reading public. Both as a poet and a traveller narrating his experiences in the differ- ent parts of the globe, he gained dis- tinction. He was at one time an editor on the " New York Tribune," to.which he contributed a series of letters' descrip- tive of his European travels. A num- ber of volumes issued from his pen, 'and subsequently he was appointed Ameri- can Minister to Germany. He died at Berlin in December, 1878. TENNYSON, ALFRED. For many years Lord Tennyson was without a living peer as a poet. It has been even said that no writer since the days of Shakespeare has exhibited such 580 CELEBRATED AUTHORS. wonderful power of clothing poetic thought in captivating language. His poems are nothing less than creations, many of them sublime beyond compari- son, and exhibiting the severest culture and most painstaking effort. Tennyson was born in 1809 and was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, where, in 1829, he obtained a prize medal for a poem in blank verse on " Timbuctoo." Soon after he published "The Lady of Shalott," "The May Queen," "The Lotus-Eaters,'' "ADream of Fair Women," etc., etc. In 1849 he issued anonymously "In Memoriam," which many persons consider the finest of all his productions. Many of its remarkable couplets and stanzas have passed into the common speech of our time, and have become favorites of thoughtful persons and even of those religiously inclined. Tennyson's fame grew through all his long life, and it is noteworthy that each new production appeared to increase his reputation and give him a stronger hold upon the affections of the reading pub- lic. More abrupt, more vigorous in thought, more rugged and massive as a poet than Longfellow, his versification was yet easy and graceful, although inferior in this respect to that of our own great poet, just mentioned, whose name is a household word everywhere. Ten- nyson died October 6th, 1892. THACKERAY, WILLIAM MAKEPEACE. A popular English novelist nnd hum- orist, born in Calcutta, in 181 1. He was educated at the University of Cam- bridge, which he left without taking a degree. Having inherited from his father a considerable fortune, and not being compelled to labor for his own livelihood, he chose the profession of an artist, but soon turned his attention to literature. For many years he was a contributoi to " Punch," and other periodicals, and gained great popularity. His works of fiction rivalled those of Dickens in popular favor, which is praise enough to be bestowed on any writer. One of his best and most popular works is "Vanity Fair, a Novel Without a Hero" ; another is entitled " Penden- nis." He visited the United States in 1852 and was very popular as a lecturer in all parts of the Union. Returning to England, he wrote the "Virginians," which is considered one of his best works of fiction. He died in Decem- ber, 1863, leaving several daughters, some of whom have inherited theii father's literary tastes and abilities. MARK TWAIN (S. L. Clemens). Under the noni de phime of Mark Twain an author appeared about 1867, whose quaint humor attracted immedi- ate attention and soon gained a large circle of readers. There was a flavor of the western prairies about his pro- ductions and such odd conceits as marked him at once as a humorist of the first order. Probably his best known work is " Innocents Abroad," which gave him considerable reputation. This was fol- lowed by "Roughing It," "Tom Saw- yer," "Huckleberry F'inn," and othei volumes, all of which have been well received by all classes of readers. His ability in his chosen field is unsurpassed. He was a member of the firm that pub- lished the Personal Memoirs of Presi- dent Grant. Mr. Clemens was born in Missouri in 1835. CELEBRATED AUTHORS. 581 WARNER, CHARLES DUDLEY. One of our most popular American authors, born in Massachusetts in 1829, and educated at Hamilton College, New York. He studied law, and in 1857 was admitted to the Philadelphia Bar, but afterwards became a journalist at Hart- ford, Conn. "My Summer in a Gar- den," "Back-Log Studies," " My Win- ter on the Nile," and " Being a Boy," are among his best known works. In connection with Mark Twain he pro- duced "The Gilded Age," a novel and play. He also compiled a valuable library of English literature, published in upward of forty volumes. His writ- ings have a genuine humor and abound in graphic descriptions. WHITTIER, JOHN QREENLEAF. "The Quaker Poet." His writings are models of spiritual, benevolent, and patriotic sentiment. Having a warm sympathy with the poor and oppressed, he has employed his graceful pen with fine effect in the cause of humanity, and no author of our time is more beloved. Born at Haverhill, Mass., 1 807; died 1 892. WILLIS, NATHANIEL PARKER. A poet of distinction, whose "Sacred Poems" especially, have had a large circle of admirers. His versification is easy, and his descriptions abound in word painting of a high order. Willis was also successful as a journalist, and a favorite in general society. Born in Portland, Maine, 1807 ; died in 1867. CHAPTER XLI. (3The Distinguished Orators and Statesmen. HB Nineteenth Century has produced many of the most eifective and cele- * I brated orators known to history. While the preceding century was adorned by great English orators and statesmen, of whom Pitt and Burke are examples, it must be admitted by every impartial observer that a marvellous galaxy of brilliant men shine out in the last hundred years in peerless splendor. BEECHER, HENRY WARD. Few public men during the century achieved greater distinction than this gifted writer and pulpit orator, of whom it has been said "he was a grand out- growth of American institutions." He was a son of Dr. Lyman Beeclier and was born in lyitchfield. Conn., on the 4th of June, 18 13. He appears to have given in childhood but little pro- mise of distinction. But even while a boy he proved that he inherited some- thing of the controversial ability of his father. A forward schoolboy among the elder scholars had got hold of Paine's " Age of Reason," and was flourishing largely among the boys with objections to the Bible. Henry privately looked up Watson's "Apology," studied up the subject, and challenged a debate with the big boy, m which he came off victorious by the acclamation of his schoolfellows. This occurred when he was about eleven years old. He manifested at this period little inclination for severe study, but had conceived a passionate desire to go to sea. His father adroitly used this de- sire to induce him to commence a course of mathematics with a view to qualify himself to become a naval officer. He applied himself energetically to his new 582 studies, "with his face to the navy, and Nelson as his beau ideal.'" But not long afterwards there occurred in that section of the country a religious "revival," and young Beeclier, with many others, was powerfully impressed. The result was that the naval scheme was abandoned, and his thoughts were directed to the pulpit as his natural and proper sphere. After going through the preparatory studies, he entered Amherst College, where he graduated in 1834 ; and soon after he commenced the study of theology at Lane Seminary, under the direction of his father. He began his ministerial course at Lawrenceburg, Indiana, but removed soon after to Indianapolis. In 1847 he became pas- tor of Plymouth Church (Congrega- tional) in Brooklyn, where he gathered around him an immense congregation. He was also one of the most popular writers and most successful lecturers in America. His success as a public speaker was due not so much to what is popularly termed eloquence as to a flow of racy and original thought, which, though often enlivened with flashes of quaint humor, was not with- out an undercurrent of deep moral and spiritual earnestness. ORATORS AND STATESMEN. 58S BLAINE» JAMES GILLESPIE. Mr. Blaine was born of Scotch-Irish parentage at West Brownsville, Pa., January 31, 1830. As a boy at school he excelled in literature and mathe- matics, and at the early age of thirteen entered Washington College in his native county, graduating in 1 847. Sub- sequently he became a teacher in the military institute at Blue Lick Springs, Ky., where he married Miss Harriet Stanhope, a teacher in a neighboring seminary. Soon after his marriage he removed to Pennsylvania, and after studying law for a short time became a teacher in the Institution for the Blind at Philadelphia. In 1854 he removed to Augusta, Me., entering the journal- istic ranks, first as editor of the " Ken- nebec Journal," and later as editor of the "Portland Advertiser." In 1862 the Republicans elected him to the House of Representatives, and for 20 years he served in one or the other of the two Houses of Congress. During the war he favored all judicious and practical resolutions for its vigor- ous prosecution, and at its close he bore an active part in the reconstruction measures of the country. The 14th Constitutional Amendment was called the "Blaine Amendment," as it was for- mulated and earnestly advocated by him. He was largely instrumental in the ne- gotiation of a treaty with England, in which the doctrine of perpetual alle- giance was abandoned, and Great Bri- tain accepted the American principle of equal rights and protection for adopted as weV as for native citizens. From 1869 to 1875 Mr. Blaine was speaker of the House of Representatives, and his record in this capacity is gener- ally conceded to have been a brilliant one. In 1876 Mr. Blaine was elected to the United States Senate, and at once be- came a most prominent and efficient member of that body. In the Republi- can national convention of that year he was a prominent candidate for nomina- tion to the presidency of the United States, and lacked only 28 votes out of a total of 754 of receiving the nomina- tion. At the Republican national con- vention in 1880 his friends again pre- sented his name for nomination, and on the first ballot the vote stood : Grant, 304 ; Blaine, 284 ; Sherman, 93 ; Ed- munds, 34; Washburn, 30; Windom, 10; Garfield, i. On the election of Mr. Garfield, Mr. Blaine accepted the appointment of Secretary of State, fill- ing the office with rare ability and suc- cess, until the death of the president, when he retired from active public work, and began to write his famous historical work, entitled, "Twenty Years of Congress." In 1884 Mr. Blaine received the Re- publican nomination for President, but after a vigorous contest, failing to secure the electoral vote of the State of New York by the narrow margin of 1,047 votes out of a total of over 1,200,000, he was defeated in the general election. He spent the ensuing four years at work on his book and in foreign travel. At the time of the nominating con- vention in 1888, Mr. Blaine was in Europe, and by formal letter declined to permit his friends to present his name as a candidate for the presidency. He returned, however, in time to aid effi- ciently in the canvass for Mr. Harrison, and on the election of the latter again accepted the appointment as Secretary of State. Among the important ser- vices rendered in this office he took a 584 ORATORS AND STATESMEN. leading part in settling the Samoan difficulties in the treaty between Ger- many, England and the United States, and successfully invited and most effi- ciently presided over the Pan-American j Congress held in Washington. In June, 1892, Mr. Blaine resigned his office to become a candidate for the Republican Presidential nomination, but failed to receive it. He died in 1893. BRIGHT, JOHN. For many years Mr. Bright was ac- corded the great honor in England of being " the tribune of the people," de- fending them by his peerless eloquence, his untiring efforts and commanding abilities, from unlawful oppression, and advocating just and equal rights for all citizens. He was a power in Parliament and the nation. , He was born in 181 1, and was edu- cated at a FrienJls* school, his family being members of that sect. He early enlisted in the Anti-Corn-Law League, and was elected to Parliament for the city of Durham in 1843. He remained in Parliament many years, exercising great influence by his sturdy honesty, his liberal opinions and impassioned eloquence. As a consistent friend of liberty and equal rights, he testified his sympathy for the Federal Government during our Civil War by a number of public speeches that attracted much attention. Mr. Bright was an ardent advocate of the Reform bill, granting the right of suffrage to every householder in a bor- ough, which was signed by Queen Vic- toria on the 15 th of August, 1867. In March, 1868, he made a powerful ad- dress on Ireland, of which the lyondon "Spectator" said : "Mr. Bnght's grand speech did more to draw the noblest men of all parties nearer to each other than long years of discussion had ef- fected before." He declined the office of Secretary for India, which was offered him, but entered the cabinet of Mr. Gladstone as President of the Board of Trade in 1 868, from which he was compelled by ill health to retire in 1870. Died March 27, 1889. BROOKS, PHILLIPS. This eminent American clergyman was born in Boston, December 13, 1835. He graduated at Harvard College in 1855, and studied at the divinity school near Alexandria, Virginia, and was or- dained in 1859. From this year until 1869 he held Episcopal rectorships in Philadelphia. Mr. Brooks was a man of most impos- ing presence, possessed of rare scholar- ship and eloquence, and attracted marked attention from the beginning of his public ministry. His discourses were profound in thought, elevated in spirit- ual sentiment, abounded in gems of rare beauty, and deeply impressed the cultivated audience that listened to them. Having been called to a rector- ship in Boston, his fame increased, and a short time before his death, which occurred in January, 1893, he was ele- vated to the house of Episcopal Bishops. CHOATE, RUFUS. A scholarly American lawyer, born in Essex, Massachusetts, October ist, 1799, graduated at Dartmouth in 18 19, and was admitted to the bar in 1823. He sat in Congress from 1830 to 1834, when he settled in Boston. Here his singular eloquence rapidly advanced h'.w to the place gf leader gf the Massa- ORATORS AND STATESMAN. 585 chusetts bar ; indeed, it has been claimed for him that he was the most eminent advocate New England, or even Amer- ica, has produced. After a term in the United States Senate, 1841-45, he re- turned to his profession ; in 1859, his health giving way, he sailed for Europe, but stopped at Halifax, Nova Scotia, where he died July 13. His writings, with a memoir, were published at Boston in 1862. CLAY, HENRY, When reference is made to America's greatest orators it is customary to men- tion the name of Henry Clay among the very first. He was frequently called, "The Mill Boy of the Slashes," from the fact that he was a poor boy and was born in a district in Virginia called " the Slashes." The date of his birth was April 12th, 1777, and he died at Washington, June, 1852. He served successively in the Ken- tucky Legislature, State Senate, United States House of Representatives and Senate ; and was one of four candidates for president in 1824, and also a candi- date in 1844, being defeated both times. In person, Mr. Clay was tall and slender, had a voice of wonderful range and sympathy, was remarkably easy and graceful in manner, and few orators who ever lived possessed such persua- ive power. " Take him for all in all," says Parton, "we must regard him as the first of American orators ; but pos- terity will not assign him that rank, because posterity will not hear that matchless voice, will not see those large gestures, those striking attitudes, that grand manner, which gave to second- rate composition first-rate effect. His 'T^eeches will long be interesting as the relics of a magnificent and dazzling personality, and for the light they cast upon the history of parties. ' ' DEPEW, CHAUNCEY M. This distinguished citizen, prominent in railroad affairs and politics, was born in Peekskill, N. Y., in 1834, and grad- uated from Yale College in 1856. Asa young man Mr. Depew came into notice as an effective stump-speaker and an orator who could adapt himself to al- most any public occasion. Genial in disposition, with an unlimited fund of anecdote and remarkable fluency of speech, he has become widely known and universally popular. In 1 86 1 he was a member of the Legis- lature of New York, and two years later was elected Secretary of State, sub- sequently holding the position of Presi- dent of the " Vanderbilt Roads." His writings consist of addresses and ora- tions delivered on various occasions all of which are finished productions and place their author among the foremost orators of America. Mr. Depew has al- ways taken an active interest in poli- tics. His services are sought in every Presidential campaign and what he has to say commands wide attention. He was elected to the United States Senate from New York in 1899, and took his seat on December 4th of that year. DOUGLASS, FREDERICK. This American orator was born in Maryland in 18 17, his father being a white man and his mother a negro slave. Permitted to work in a ship- yard in Baltimore, he escaped in 1838 to New York and thence to New Bed- ford, Massachusetts, where his negro employer, who had just read Scott's 586 ORAT€RS AND STATESMEN. " I/ady of the Lake," induced him to substitute Douglass for the name of Bailey, conferred on him by his mother. In 1 84 1 he attended an Anti-slavery Convention at Nantucket, and spoke so eloquently on the subject of slavery that he was employed as agent of the Massa- chusetts Anti-slavery Society, and lec- tured for four years with great success. In 1845 he commenced a lecturing tour in Great Britain, where a contribution of seven hundred and fifty dollars was made to buy his freedom. Returning to America he established in 1847, at Rochester, New York, "Frederick Douglass' Paper," a weekly abolition newspaper. Mr. Douglass was appointed to a number of Federal offices at Washing- ton, which he filled with credit to him- self and satisfaction to the several ad- ministrations that selected him for the various positions in which he was placed. In person he was tall, well proportioned, had a rich, mellow voice, good command of language, and at times in his public efforts rose to the highest order of eloquence. EVERETT, EDWARD. He was born at Dorchester, Massa- chusetts, April nth, 1764, and gradu- 992 53,040,982 Loans 15,041,858 111,293,689 Total assets 16,229,407 145,378,910 Value of real estate undermortgage . . 35,357.682 219,979,917 Insurance Business. In nothing is the growth of the busi- ness of a country better shown than in the volume of insurance issued. Canada shows up well in this respect. For fire insurance the premiums re- ceived have increased as follows in 30 years : Fire insurance premiums . 1869 j? 1,785, 5 39 Fire insurance premiums . 1898 7,349,669 The amount of property insured was : Property insured .... 1869 $188,359,809 Property insured .... 1898 895,382,846 In life insurance the growth is still more striking : TS69. 1698, Life insurance effected $12,854,132 $54,764,673 Life insurance in force 35,680,082 368,545,98s In 1869, only one-seventh of the total business done was transacted with Ca- nadian companies. In 1898, nearly two- thirds was placed with Canadian com- panies. Railways, The problems which faced the early railway builders in Canada were very serious. Population was sparse, money was scarce, the distances to be traversed were very great and the engineering difficulties were formidable and of a new class. Before railway building was commenced in Canada, there had been no such rivers as the St. Lawrence at Montreal met with, and the spanning of that immense stream by a tubular iron bridge — the first of its kind — was justly regarded as one of the modern wonders of the world. To show the advance of modern science, it is only necessary to say that a few months ago this bridge was wholly rebuilt as to its superstructure, and the world outside of engineering circles scarcely heard of it. So, also, with the railway suspension bridge at Niagara Falls. It has recently been completely rebuilt, the largest steel arch in the world having been substi- tuted for it, and the change creates only a ripple of notice. Canada possesses three large railway svstems. The Grand Trunk system. The Canadian Pacific system. The Intercolonial system. The first was constructed by private companies which received some govern- mental aid ; the second was built with CANADA IN THE NINETEENTPI CENTURY. a23 ninds and on credit of subsidies given by the government. The third was constructed by and is still operated by the government. The railway mileage is as follows ; MILES. Canadian Pacific 6,301 Grand Trunk 3,162 Intercolonial i,355 Other railways 5j933 Electric roads 1 14 Bridges and tunnels . . , . 5 Total 16,870 There has been given per mile by the public to these railways in the fol- lowing proportions : By Dominion government . $8,981 By provincial governments 1,867 By municipalities .... 928 Total 111,776 In addition there has been put into them Ordinary share capital $266,669, ^57 Preference 111,481,933 Bonds 354,946,866 and witli the government and the total cost of the Canadian railways has been close on ;^ 1,000, 000, 000. The train mileage in 1898 was 50,- 688,283 miles. Number of passengers, 18,444,049. Tons of freight, 28,785,903. Earnings, $59)7i5;i05. Working expenses, $39,137,549- The mileage in each province is MILES. Ontario 6,674 Quebec . 3,3i5 New Brunswick i,447 Nova Scotia 933 Prince Edward Island ... 210 Manitoba 1,621 Territories ^^77^ British Columbia 892 Total 16,870 Compared with the United States the railways of Canada show this : UNITED STATES. CANADA. Cost per mile. .$61,409 $55,797 Receipts per mile 7,050 3,572 Passengers killed per million car- ried 0.35 a27 Passengers injured per million car- ried 5.61 3.96 In 1 869 the Canadian railways carried 1.34 passengers and 1.46 tons of freight per head of the population ; in 1898, 3.51 and 5.48 respectively; showing that the business done per head of the population had nearly trebled in the time. Canadian Canal System. The beginning of the gigantic Cana- dian canal system dates back more than 150 years. As long ago, the Hudson Bay Company constructed of timber a lock at Sault Ste. Marie for the pur- pose of passing their small vessels to the northwest. This lock was 40x10 feet. It had been almost forgotten when its remains were uncovered dur- ing the progress of some improvements in the year 1900. Alongside it is the new Canadian lock nearly one thousand feet long and on the United States side are locks still larger in area though not in length. Soon after Upper Canada was consti- tuted, the legislature began appropriat- ing money for improvement of the waterways. In 1841, when the popula- tion of the Province was only 450,000, 24a CANADA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. the Legislature voted ^2,500,000 for the construction of canals to overcome the St. Lawrence rapids. Soon afterwards the Welland Canal, overcoming Niag-' ara, was entered upon. A lock 150 feet long was built. This, by 1875, had become totally inadequate, as well as had the St. Lawrence system, and an enlargement was entered upon which was not completed until 1900, when the last link, the Sonlanges canal was finished, giving a depth of fourteen feet from tidewater to the head of Lake Superior. The following table shows the dimen- sions of the existing canals, commenc- ing at tidewater : Lacline . . Sonlanges . Cornwall . . Farran's Point Rapide Flat Galops . . . Welland . . . 26^ 326^ 26 *' Sault Ste Marie i^ 18 i 900x60 The Rideau Canal system, which gives an internal connection between the St. Lawrence and Ottawa, consists of six canals, in all 29^ miles long, with 44 locks. The total expenditure on the canals has been $92,000,000, of which $20,- 000,000 was spent before confederation. The revenue averages $2^77 A77' Telegraphs and Telephones. As is natural with a highly intelligent and enterprising but scattered people, the Canadians lead the world in the extent of their possessions in the way of telegraphs. There are in the coun- try 30,084 miles of telegraph line, over which, in 1899, 4,786,101 mes- I sages were sent, and 2677 telegraph offices. Canada compares as follows with the Length Miles. Rise Feet. No. Of Locks. Dimensions of Locks Feet. 8>^ 18 5 . . . 14 82>^ 4 270x45 II 48 6 U t I lV2 I 800x45 3^ 1I>^ 2 27oq45 . 7% 1$% 3 (( leading countries: Miles of Line. Offices. Persons to each Office. 1,991 3,410 3,750 3,273 2,842 22,970 Canada .... 40,084 2,667 United States 189,856 22,285 Great Britain 43,803 10,816 France. . . . 64,622 11,769 Germany.. . 87,513 22,150 Russia .... 78,396 4,623 Of telephones, Canada has 43,902 ; 82,219 miles of wire, over which 114,- 953,381 messages were sent. Mineral Production of Canada. There has been of late great activity in mineral development. Some millions have been spent in exploratory and de- velopment work, and it has become evident that Canada needs only popula- tion and a market to take her place among the leading mineral producing nations. This table shows the extent of the production and its rapid in- crease. Copper . . Gold. . . Iron Ore . Lead . . . Nickel . . Silver . . Asbestos . Coal . . . Graphite . Gypsum . Mica. . . Petroleum Minerals Produced. 1887. $ 366,798 1,237,804 146,917 9,126 none 341,645 226,976 4,388,206 2,400 157,277 29,816 556,708 1899. $2,655,319 21,049,730 248,372 977,250 2,067,840 1,834,371 483,299 9,040,058 16,179 257,329 163,000 1, 202,020 The total value of the minerals pro- duced in 1899 was $48,438,247. CANADA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. A 25 INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT OF CANADA. (^jY country jjX fancy, whi y^tV^ of Cana COUNTRY in its political in- licli was the position Canada until nearly the middle of the 19th Century, could hardly be expected to have put forth a distinctively national literature. Even now, when the throbbings of the new Canadian nationality are strong and healthful, there are certain pecu- liarities in the position of the country which tend to hinder the attainment of a full national literary life. Canada is a well-educated, sparsely populated, comparatively poor country — however rich in undeveloped resources — lying alongside of the richest country in the world, and only a week distant from the great Mother Land. The Canadian reader has a wide field. The writings of British and American authors are equal- ly acceptable to him, with those of his own country. Canada is by far the best foreign market that American book- sellers possess, taking nearly one-half of the total exportation of American books ; while the import of British, French and German books into Canada is very large. A Great Consuming Market. Such an inflow of outside literature operates to the development of the national intellect along very broad lines ; but it is a distinct detriment to the fortunes of the native author. Then there have been in the way serious copy- right difficulties perhaps not wholly overcome. The effect of the state of affairs which has governed during the last few years is seen in the fact that while Canada has given birth to several authors of great and growing renown, the best work of many of them has been done abroad. Then the early days of Canada were not favorable to literary activity. The life of the pio- neers was too strenuous and communi- cation too difficult to allow much devo- tion to letters. The first generation of their chil- dren received only a modest education, because of isolation and because of the urgent need by the parents of the chil- dren's help. The same things which tended to keep back literary develop- ment, bred a sturdy self-reliance and independence of character, and as soon as population increased so that schools became possible a new era set in and intellectual progress became rapid in spite of the many and great disadvan- tages. The Work of the Press. Perhaps the fierce political discus- sions of the early days of Canada were the greatest stimulus to mental activity. The Canadians have always had fine Parliamentary speakers. The fine old British precedents as to propriety of de- bate have been closely followed, and there has always been a great respect for constitutional argument. The speeches in Parliament and on the stump were well reported and diligently read in thousands of homes. The average Canadian farmer is a remarkably sound politician. He is as a rule far better in- formed on political affairs than is the dweller in cities. The press that supplied 'him his poH- 26 a CANADA IN THE NINKTBBNTH CENTURY. tics was, as long as sixty years ago, quite as good as anything else in the world when the poverty of the field is taken into account. It is true that the press was, as it is to day, intensely par- itisan, but to that may be ascribed a great deal of the activity and alertness that characterizes the people. If the people were fed on a partisan diet, the dielt itself was rich and stimulating and bred a certain positiveness, the marks of which may endure for generations to come. The Literary Future. While it may readily be admitted that Canada has made more progress in cul- tivating her fields than in developing her mind, it must also be admitted that this was inevitable under the circum- stances. But nothing is more certain than that with wealth and leisure will come the literary graces. Canada really intends to be a power in the world, not only in the tables of imports and ex- ports, but in the swaying of the minds of men. In the order of nature physi- cal development must precede mental. Muscle and bone go before brain, and bread and butter must be considered before the muses. The Canadian people is still too young and too busy to have much of a record of intellectual achievement. But be it remembered that there is in them the blood of the most intellectual races in the world. Their ancestry is all right and their climate is such as to enforce mental activity. They are not the people to be satisfied with purely material greatness. Such progress as they have already made in the arts must be taken with all allowances for the circumstances. And when all these allowances are made it must be admit- ted that the achievement has been wholly creditable. Having regard for what has been done, it may confidently be predicted that the time will come when Canadian books will be as much sought after as is Canadian bacon ; when Canadian thought will be as widespread as are Canadian ships ; and Canadian litera- ture as stately a growth as the Canadian forest. The World of Letters. Let us see what Canada has done in the world of letters. Let us take the more serious studies first. Historians. The most important historical work produced in Canada has been Dr. Kings- ford's "History of Canada," in ten vol- umes. It is a thoroughly exhaustive work, bringing down the history to the time of the Union in 1841. Dr. Kings- ford died just as his last volume issued from the press, leaving a fine field for some equally painstaking successor to continue his work. The only history at all comparable with Kingsford's is Gar- neau's, which French and British critics pronounced a masterpiece, and Dr. R Christie's six volume history of Lower Canada. John M. McMullen's " History of Can- ada" is another very careful work, as is also H. H. Miles' " History of Canada Under the French Regime." There is also, edited by J. Castell Hopkins, a five-volume " Cyclopedia of Canadian History and Politics," which needs only enlargement to become a future standard work on Canadian history. Dr. W. H. Withrow, G. Mer- CANADA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. A 27 cer Adam and G. C. R. Tuttle have done some important historical work ; so has Prof. Bryce, whose " History of the Canadian People," ?nd " History of the Hudson Bay Company," are of very great value. Among other historical writers are ij^lexander Begg, J. B. Calkin, Duncan Campbell, Dr. CannifF, Abbe Casgrain, W. H. P. Clement, Lady J. D. Edgar, Abbe Faillon, Donald Gunn, J. Hannay, Gerald Hart, R. B. Hill, Prof. Hind, Dr. J. G. Hodgins, Thomas Hodgins, Q. C., H. Larue, W. Leggo, Sir James Lemoine, B. Murdoch, D. B. Read, Q. C, E. Reveillaud, E. Richard, Major Richardson, C. G. D. Roberts, C. Roger, Rev. E. Ryerson, H. B. Small, G. Auchinlech, W. Smith, W. H. Smith, Geo. Stewart, Rev. E. R. Stimson, Benjamin Suite, David Thompson, the Misses Lizars and L. R. Turcotte. Sir John Bourinot, Clerk of the House of Commons, has produced some good historical work. J. C. Dent's two books on "The Upper Canadian Rebel- lion and Canada Since the Union," are remarkable exhibitions of pains- taking research and luminous exposi- tion. Last among the historical works may be mentioned the " University of To- ronto Studies in History," edited by Prof Wrong and H. H. Langton. These are very able publications de- voted principally to reviewing works on Canadian History. British and Foreign Authors in Canada. First among the living historical and political writers in Canada must be placed Dr. Gold win Smith who, having passed in Canada more than half of the productive part of his life, may be claimed as a Canadian, at least to the same extent that Agassiz and some other foreign-born writers are claimed as Americans. Dr. Goldwin Smith has been a most prolific author. His writ- ings have been largely devoted to showing the extreme desirability from a material point of view of the closest possible union between the United States and Canada. In the meantime, all the public acts of the United States toward Canada have shown a deep- seated hostility and have tended to sep- arate the two nations instead of to join them, and the countries have indubit- ably been growing farther apart during the last quarter century. Pohtical History. As well as his writings on Canadian questions and much purely literary work. Dr. Goldwin Smith has written a " Political History of the United States," in which he sometimes takes the position of a very candid friend ; and a " Political History of the United Kingdom," which will probably be held to be his greatest work, as it embodies the results of a long life-time of keen study and is an entertaining as well as a deeply instructive work. Another eminent English-born writer who resided a long time in Canada and produced some of her work here was Mrs- Anna Jameson, author of "Sacred and Legendary Art." Her book, "Winter Studies and Summer Rambles in Canada," is one of the most pleasing works on Canadian home life. Then there was the talented Strick- land family. Out of six daughters, five , attained literary eminence. Two of j them, Susannah Moodie and and Cath- 28 a CANADA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. erine Parr Traill, came to Canada when the century was quite young and the latter died only a year or two ago, hav- ing nearly rounded out her hundred years of life. As long ago as 1825 these two ladies had made their mark in literature, and one of Mrs. Traill's best works, " Pearls and Pebbles," was pub- lished as lately as 1895, when she was considerably over 90 years old. She also wrote "Backwoods of Canada," and "Forest Trees and Wild Flowers." Her sister's most famous works are '• Roughing It in the Bush' ' and ' ' Flora Lyndsay." Colonel Strickland another member of the same family also settled in Canada and did much excellent liter- ary work. Any pronouncement on the progress of Canadian historical literature during the century would be very incomplete if it omitted to acknowledge the splen- did work done by Francis Parkman and by other careful American historians as John Gilmary Shea, W. L. Stone and Justin Winsor. Especially, it may be said of Parkman that he has linked his name forever with that of Canada in his imperishable volumes. Constitutional Writers. Canada has done some exceedingly good work in this field. Alpheus Todd's two works on Parliamentary government are valued wherever there are deliberative bodies. Sir John Bouri- not's books on Parliamentary procedure areaccepted as authoritative everywhere. A. H. Lefroy's book on " Legislative Power in Canada," is a most able trea- tise on the constitution. Other consti- tutional writers are Clement, Houston, Travis, O' Sullivan, Hon. David Mills, etc. Scientific Writers. Canada has made many valuable con- tributions to the literature of science. Among them may be mentioned Sir Daniel Wilson's works on Anthropol- ogy; Dr. McCaul's on Arckseology; Sir W. E. Logan's on Geology, and Prof. McCurdy's on Biblical Archaeology. Sir W. E. Logan was the first Director of the Canadian Geological Survey. He made some epoch-marking discoveries — some that lie at the foundation of modern geological science. He was ac- companied in the same field by Dr. Sterry Hunt, Messrs. Billings, Murray, Richardson, Vennor and others, and his work was continued by Dr. Selwyn, Robert Bell, J. F. Whiteaves, J. W. Spencer, B.J. Harrington, G. C. Hoff"- man and many others whose names are familiar to the readers of scientific pa- pers. The present director of the Sur- vey is Dr. G. M. Dawson, C. M. G., who has made many valuable additions to geological science. Prominent among the scientific writ- ers of the time was Sir J. W. Dawson who, thirty years ago, was very much alone in combatting the then rampant materialistic tone which the discussion on Evolution was taking. He wrote many very able books on the line of what has been called Christian Evolu- tion. He endeavored to deliver his favorite science, geology, from the bald materialistic speculations of the time and it is in no small degree owing to his efforts that there may be said to be to-day no school of science which be- lieves in the non-existence of a First Cause. In the field of botany Prof. Macoun has done much able and lasting work, and as an explorer Mr. J. B. Tyrrell is CANADA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. A 29 doing work in the Far North of Canada no less important than that achieved by Sir Alexander Mackenzie in the last years of the Eighteenth Century, and by Sir Geo. Simpson in the early part of the 19th. Mr. Warburton Pike also has done some intrepid exploring work and about it has written some very en- tertaining and modest books. The late J. G. Romanes, an eminent scientific writer who, while accepting modern science, kept his hold on his faith, was a Canadian, as are also Prof. Simon Newcomb, the eminent astronomer, and Dr. }. G. Schurman, President of Cor- nell University. The first, and some folk are still bold enough to say the best, of the distinct- ively American humorists was a thor- oughbred Nova Scotian. " Sam Slick " — or as he was known in the flesh. Judge Haliburton, of Halifax, is still excellent reading, full of racy humor and keen satire. Haliburton wrote many other books which exercised influ- ence in their day, but he will live as the author of the Yankee Clockmaker. Hundreds of humorists have come and gone, and will come and go, but Sam Slick is still to the fore. It is to be noted too that several other humorists who have achieved vogue in the United States were Canadians, for instance, Robert Barr (Luke Sharp) ; Bobert Bur- dette ; Mayor Lewis (M. Quad) ; G. T. I^anigan and many smaller lights. Poets and Poetry. The later years of the century in Canada have been brightened by the presence of a singularly able coterie of young lyricists. Chief among them were V/. W. Campbell, Bliss Carman. C. G. D. Roberts and Arch. Lampman, now dead. The works of all these young poets show delicacy of feeling, keen inspiration and wonderful facility of expression. Among Campbell's works are "Lake Lyrics," "The Dread Voyage," "Mordred and Hildebrand" and "Beyond the Hills of Dream." Carman's principal works are "Low Tide on Grand Pre," "By theAurelian Wall" and "Ballads of Lost Haven." Roberts' are, "New York Nocturnes," "Songs of the Common Day," "In Divers Tones" and "The Work of the Native." The works of Lampman have been gathered into a sumptuous memorial volume. An entirely new field has been opened by Mr. W. H. Drummond, who in his " Habitant" poems gives us an insight into the life of the French Canadian peasantry — a charming book, racy of the soil, sympathetic and strong. Among a long list of Canadian poet?, the following are worthy of note: Jean Blewett, Rev. E. H. Dewart, Sir. J. D. Edgar, C. E. Jakeway, Wm. James, Pauline Johnson, Marie Jonssaye, R. H. Kernighan, Evan MacColl, Miss Ma- char, Alex. MacLachlan, Charles Mair, J. R, Ramsay, Carroll Ryan, Charles Sangster, Charles Heavysege, F. G. Scott, Mrs. Harrison, Rev. W. W. Smith, R. G. Starke, J. S. Thomson, A. Weir, Ethel wyn Wetherald, G. W. Wicksteed. General Literature. Among the writers of solider ma- terial there is Principal Grant of Queen's University, by birth a Nova Scotian, a fine example of the scholar who keeps abreast of his times, and in touch with living issues. His book "Ocean to Ocean" is a graphic description of a 30 a CANADA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. trans-continental journey in ante-Cana- dian Pacific days. Along with him may be mentioned Dr. Ryerson, first Superintendent of Education in Upper Canada, who wrote a splendid book on "The United Empire Loyalists" and an autobiography. Let it not be forgotten that if the cheapness of literature is one of the greatest blessings of the age, that cheap- ness is due to two Canadians more than to any other two persons ; for it was George Munro, with his " Seaside Library," and J. W. Lovell with his "Lovell's Library" — both Canadians — who broke down antiquated bookselling arrangements which hampered alike author and public. Fiction— Historical and Other. The fiction writers of Canada have turned to historical subjects as naturally as they turned to their mother's milk. It was inevitable that they should do so. Canadian history is essentially at- tractive, inspiring and fruitful, and when we compare the work of our later writers with that of their American and British contemporaries it will be seen at a glance what a stride Canadian literature is making. Sixty or seventy years ago, some nota- ble contributions to historical fiction were made by Major Richardson, who is now principally known as the author of a very good history of the War of 1812, but whose "Wacousta," "The Two Brothers" and "The Guardsman" were extremely popular in their day. In more recent fiction Canada has made a mark with Wm. Kirby's "Le Chien D'Or," published in 1877. This book may almost be said to have re- vived the fashion for novels dealing with the picturesque features of his- tory. Had it been published twenty years later and pitched in a little more sensational strain it would easily have distanced some of "the most popular novels" which now run into the hun- dreds of thousands of copies. Mrs. Mary Hartwell Catherwood has lecalled some striking pages of Cana- dian history in her " Romance of Bol- lard," and her stories of Mackinac. She is an industrious scholar and has ad- mirable skill, together with strong enthusiasm for Canadian subjects. Stories of Western Life. Mr. Gilbert Parker has done much for the good repute of the literature of his native land. Not only has he convinced Canadians that there are mines of liter- ary wealth in their history, but he has opened the eyes of all the world to the richness of those mines. His first sprightly stories of Northwestern life had prepared the way for the more sei- ious works, such as " The Seats of the Mighty" and "The Battle of the Strong," which fairly took the critics by storm, and were by many adjudged to be the best novels of their respective years. As well as the two books above men- tioned, Mr. Parker has written " The Trail of the Sword," "An Adventurer of the North," "The Trespasser," "Translation of a Savage," " Mrs. Fal- chion," and some others, as well as several volumes of bright and artistic short stories. He ranges over a wide field. Though intensely Canadian in fee ing, he is a thorough cosmopolitan i.v writing, and whether his scene is laid OD the breezy prairies, on the glaving CANADA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. A 31 Nile, or in a lyondon drawing room, he is equally at home. He is well-equipped meutallyand physically for many years to come. We may fairly hope that ex- cellent as has been his work there is better yet to come. Charles G. D. Roberts is another Canadian who has broken into the world's charmed circle. He has done much serious as well as some light work. His " History of Canada " will take its place among the standard works. A series of novels illustrating Acadia, "The Forge in the Forest," "A Sister to Evangeline," and several volumes of short stories are his principal contribu- tions to fiction. As a poet he has made a shining name. Robert Barr is an expatriated Cana- dian for whom, though, misunderstand- ing his native country, he has lately said some very spiteful things of her, no Canadian feels anything but respect and affection. His pen is facile — per- haps too facile, but for that his early newspaper training is to be blamed — but his matter is strong and its tendency is healthful. His best work is on a Canadian subject, "In the Midst of Alarms," and he has lately struck a vein of mediseval romance — "Tekla" and "The Strong Arm" which seems to suit him very well. Anglo-Indian Author. Sara Jeannette Duncan (Mrs. Cotes) is a Canadian bred Anglo-Indian author who has made a deep mark in light literature. She has keen perceptions, her style is vivacious and occasionally she uses the knife in so deft a way that even her victim must enjoy the insinu- ating stab. "The Adventures of an American Girl in London," with its sequel, "A Voyage of Consolation," are exceedingly bright books. "A Daugh- ter of To-day, " " Adventures of a Mem- Sahib " and "His Honor and a Lady " are more ambitious works and show her at her best. Grant Allen was born and educated in Canada and never ceased to consider himself a Canadian, though his literary work was done in London. He was a simple phenomenon in his faculty of mastering abstruse problems of science and presenting them in such a form that the ordinary unlearned reader could en- joy and profit by them. His scientific writings are immensely popular. As a fiction writer, while he temporar- ily went off after sensation and wrote some sex-novels which had a great run, he executed much other work that was of a wholesome tendency. He will prin- cipally be remembered, however, by his solider works, such as "The Colour Sense," "Evolutionist at Large," "Flowers and Their Pedigrees," "Science in Arcady," etc. Ideal Fiction. Among the newer Canadian writers is Rev. W. C. Gordon, who under the pseudonym of Ralph Connor has put forth "Black Rock" and "The Sky Pilot." If any one can imagine Bret Harte's stories purged of every thing objectionable and infused with a thor- oughly Christian spirit, he would come pretty near to comprehending Ralph Connor. The earnestness of Mr. Gordon's stories is unmistakable. He never has tc point his moral — the story itself does that irresistibly. He is probably achiev- ing more good than any other contempo- rary fictionist. His writings, though thoroughly imbued with the religious 32 a CANADA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. spirit, never descend to the mawkish, and though they touch the innermost feelings of the heart, are never repel- lantly sentimental. He is one of the best living types of a thoroughly manly Christian, and the more work that can be got out of him the better for the world at large. Juvenile Literature. In the field of juvenile literature Can- ada has J. Macdonald Oxley who has written much. His work is somewhat in Henty's preserves and it loses nothing in comparison with that prolific Irish- man's books. Miss Lily Dougall, of Montreal, is a writer of serious fiction well known outside of the Dominion. Her princi- pal works are "Beggars All," "What Necessity Knows," "The Zeitgeist," and "The Mormon Prophet." William McLennan, of Montreal, has written several historical novels which have attained wide circulation. Among other Canadian writers of whom space forbids to give more than a brief mention are Mrs. "Seranus" Harrison, whose "Forest of Bourg- Marie" is a delightful tale of French- Canadian life. Mr. T. G. Marquis' "Marguerite de Roberval " turns on a very sad incident and converts it into a delightful book. Mrs. Joanna E. Wood, who has been described as the Miss Wilkins of Ontario, has written sev- eral excellent books describing Ontario life. In the same vein is a recent notable book, "House of Glass," by Wallace Lloyd (Dr. Alger, M.D.). Mr. W. A. Fraser, who has been an intimate friend of Kipling, has imbibed enough of his spirit to enable him to write very attractively of the Canadian animal world. Mrs. Henshaw and Clive Phil- lips-Wolley of British Columbia, Mr- Walsh of Montreal, and Miss Marshall Saunders of Halifax are a few out of many who ought to be written of in terms of highest commendation, but this list has to be brought to a ©lose. It would be most unjust though were there no reference made to a group of short story writers who have done splendid work. Mr. E. W. Thomson, now of the " Youth's Companion," has published three volumes of short stories that will compare favorably with anything else of the same class. He is a brilliant writer, full of infor- mation and fancy and abounding in nervous strength. He is fully equal to more sustained work, and ought to essay it. Works on Animals. Another brilliant young Canadian is Ernest Seton Thompson whose "Wild Animals I Have Known," "Wahb," and "The Trail of the Sandhill Stag" have struck a sympathetic chord in th( heart of every animal-lover. Mr. Thomp- son' s insight into animal nature is pro- found. As well as a writer, he ^^ an extraordinarily good artist and ih lustrates his own works which deserve to be on the shelf with Burroughs. Thoreau, White of Selborne and the fev — very few, others to whom this prft- cious gift of knowledge of animals is confined. Out of a great number of successful short story writers may be named Stin- son Jarvis, Miss MacMurchy, Duncan Scott, F. G. Scott, Maud Ogilvy, Stuart Livingstone, etc. MIWW^^MWMi^AMMW^MMMfiMMMIMi m0 POPULATION OF CITIES, TOWNS AND VILLAGES Having 5000 or more Inhabitants in 1900, Compared with the Enumeration of 1890 «i^%MMiMM«MW>*mMMMW>*WWMM«MMWWn«MMM*4 ALABAMA. 1900. 1S90. Annlston 9,695 9,998 Bessemer 6.358 4,544 Birmingham 38,415 26.178 Moreuce 6,478 6,012 Huntsville 8,068 7,995 .Mobile 38,469 31,076 Montgomery 30,346 21,883 Helina. 8,713 7,622 Tuscaloosa 5,094 4,215 ALASKA. Nome City 12,486 AKIZJNA. Fhopnis 5.544 ■ 3,152 Tucson 7,531 5,150 ARKANSAS. Fort Smitti 11,587 11.311 Helena 5,550 5,189 Hot Springs 9,973 8,08b Little Knck 38 3^(7 25 874 Fine BluEfs 11,496 9,952 CALIFORNIA. Alameda 16,464 11, 16?-. Beriieley 13.214 5.101 Etna 7,327 4,858 i-'resno 12.470 10,81S' Los Angeles.... 102, 479 50,395 Oakland 66,960 48,682 Fasadeua 9.117 4.8^? Pomona 5,526 3,634 Biverside 7,973 4,683 .Sacramento .... 29,282 26.386 San Bernardino. 6,150 4,012 San Diego 11, 'iw 16,l,.'j San Francisco.. 342.7S2 298. go-? San Jose 21. 500 18.0<".0 Santa Barbara.. 6.5.s7 5,864 Santa Cruz 5.6!^/.) 5.59i Santa Rosa 6,673 5,220 Stockton 17,506 14, 42-) Vallejo 7,965 6.n!3 Boulder C,150 3.3:!0 COLORADO. IDOO. 1S90. Colorado Spr'gs. 21,085 11,140 Cripple Creek... 10,147 Denver 133,859 106.713 Pueblo 28,157 24,558 Trinidad 5,345 5,523 CONNECTICUT. Ansonia 12,681 10,342 Branford 5,706 4,460 Bridgeport 70,996 48.886 liristoi 6,286 (•) Uanbury 16,537 16,552 Derby 7,930 5,969 East Hartford.. 6,406 4,455 Greenwich 12,172 10,131 Groton 5,962 5,539 Hartlord 79,850 63,230 Ivillingly 6,835 7,027 Manchester 10,601 8,222 Meriden 24.296 21.G52 -Middlctown 9,589 9.013 Naugatuck 10,541 6,218 New Britaiu.... 25,998 16,519 New Haven 108.027 81.298 New London. 17,548 13,757 Norwalk 6,125 (')• Orance 6,995 4.537 Putnam 6,667 C) Bockvillo 7,287 7,772 Southington 5.890 5.501 South Nortvalk.. 6,591 (') Stamford 15 997 15,700 Stoninstnn 8,540 7,184 Torrinjrton 8,360 4,283 Wallingford .... 9,001 6,584 W'aterbnry ^5,859 28,646 West Haven.... 5,247 2,697 Willimantic 8.937 8.648 Wipsted 6,?01 4,846 'Not separately reported. DELAWARE. Wilmington .... 76,508 61,431 FLORIDA. 1900. Jacksonville .... 28,429 Key West 17,114 Pensacola 17.747 Tampa 15,839 GEORGIA Americas ,, 7,674 Athens ..., 10,245 Atlanta 89,872 Augusta 39,441 Brunswick 9,081 Columbus 17.614 Griffin 6,857 Macon 23,272 Rome 7,291 Savannah 54.244 Thomasville .... 5.322 Valdosta 5,613 Waycross 5,919 HAWAII. Honolulu 39,306 IDAHO. Boise 5,957 ILLINOIS. Alton ■ 14,210 Aurora 24,147 Belleville 17,484 Belvidere 6,937 P.loomington 23,286 Blue Island 6,114 Cairo 12.566 Canton 6,564 Centralia 6.721 Chamoaign 9.098 Cnarleston 5i4S8 Chicago 1698.575 Chicago Heiffbts 5,100 Danville 16,354 Decatur 20,754 DeKalb 5.904 1890. 17.201 18,080 11,760 5,532 6,398 8,639 65,533 33,300 8,459 17,303 4,503 22,746 6.957 43,189 5.514 2,854 3,364 22.907 2,3U 10,294 19,(88 15.361 3,867 20,484 3,329 10.324 5,604 4,763 5,839 4.135 1099850 ii*4'9i 16,841 2,579 STATISTICS OF POPULATION. 1900. iiS90. Dixon 7,9ir 5.1(i] East St. Louis.. 29,65& 15,169" Elgin 22,433 17»82S EvanstOD 19,259 FreeiJOit 13.258 Ijalena ..v. ... 5,005 Oaxesburg . 18, tU? Harvey 5,395 Jacksoaville .... 15,078 Juliet 29,353- fciankakee 13.595 Kewauee 8,382 LaSalle 10,446 Lincoln 8,962 LUchtield ....... 5,918 Macomb 5,375 Mattoon 9,622 Mollue 17,248 JMonmouth 7,460 Mouut Vernon... 5,216 Murphysboro ... 6,463 Ottawa 10,588 Pana 5,530 Paris 6,105 PeUin 8,420 Peoria 56.100 Peru 6,863 Ouiney .. 36,252 Rockford 31,051 Rock Island .... 19,493 SpringUeld 34.159 Spring Valley .. 6,214 Sterling 6,309 Streator 14,079 Urbana 5,728 Waukegan 9,426 INDIANA. Alexandria 7,221 Anderson 20,178 Bedford 6,115 Bloomington ... 6,'460 Brazil 7,786 Columbus 8,120 Orawfordsville . 6,649 Elkhart ,.; 15,184 Elwood 12,950 Evansvllle 59,007 Fort Wayne 45,115 Frankfort 7.100 Gosben ... 7 810 Greensburg 5,034 Hammond 12.376 Hartford ....T... 5,912 Huntington .... 9.491 Indianapolis 169,164 105. '•3'' Jeffersonville ... 10.774 10 6-f Kokomo 10,609 Lafayette 18,116 Larorte ... 7,113 Log.nnsport 16.204 Madison 7.835 Mniion 17.337 Michigan City .. 14.850 Mlshnwaka 5.560 Mount Vernon... 5.132 Muncie 20.942 Now Albany 20,^28 Peru 8,463 Princeton 6,041 richmond 18.226 Scvmour 6.445 Sbclhyvllle 7.169 Sfuith Bend 35.999 Terre Haute 36,6''3 Vnlparaiso 6,280 Tincennes .. 10.249 V'nhash 8.R18 Washington — 8,551 INDIAN TERRITORY. Ardmore , 5.681 IOWA- Atlantic City.... 5,046 4.351 Boone'. 8.880 -6.620 lO.lStt 5,63.^ i2,'935 23,264 9,02i 4,56; 9,85E 6,725 5,811 4,052 6,833 12,00f 5,93( 3,23 3,880 9,98f 5,07"; 4,99i 6,347 41,024 5.520 31.49 23,584 IS.eSJ 24.96 3.83- 5,824 11,414 3,511 4,915 715 10,741 3.351 4,018 5,905 6,719 6,087 11,360 2,28' 50,756 35,39.'' S.giP 6,033 5,428 2,>8 7,32 87261 16,243 7.12P 13.32" 8.9.V 8,769 10.776 3.371 4.705 11 345 21-0"° 7,02'^ 3.0''*' 16.60? 5.3''7 5.451 21,819 30.217 5,090 8.SS3 5,11?; 6,064 I'JUO. Isw. Burlington 23^201 22,565 Cedar Falls 5,319 3,459 (Jedar Kapids... 25,656 18,020 Centerville 5,256 3,668 Clinton 22,683 13,61b Council Bluffs... 25,802 21,474 Creston 7,752 7,20(. Davenport 35,254 26,872 Des Moines.. 62,139 50,093 Dubuque 36,297 30,311 Fort Dodge....;. 12.1c2 4,8 1 Fort Madison... 9.278 7,901 Iowa City 7,987 7,016 Keokuk 14,641 14,101 Marshalltown .. 11,544 8,911 Mason City f.,746 4,007 Muscatine 14,073 11,454 Oelwein 5,142 830 OskaiOOSa 9,212 6,558 Ottumwa 18.197 14,001 Sioux. City 33,111 37,80t Waterloo 12,580 6,674 KANSAS. Argentine 5,878 4,732 Argonia 6,140 8,347 /Vtchison 15.722 13,963 Emporia 8,223 7,551 Fort Scott 10,322 11,946 Galena 10,155 2,496 Hutchinson 9,379 8,6 Jola 5,791 1,706 Kansas City 51,418 38.316 Lawrence 10,862 9,997 Leavenworth ... 20,735 19,76? Newton 6,208 5,605 Ottawa 6,934 6,248 Parsons 7,682 6,736 Pittsburg 10,112 6,697 Topeka , .. 33.608 31,007 Wichita 24 671 23.853 Winfield 5,554 5,184 KENTUCKY. Ashland 6,800 4,195 Bellevue 6,332 3,163 Bowling Green.. 8,226 7,803 Covington 42,938 37.371 Dayton 6,104 4,264 Frankfort 9,487 7.89" Henderson 10.272 8,835 Ilopkinsville ... 7,280 5,833 Louisville 204,731161,129 MaysvUle 6,423 5,358 Newport 28,301 24.91" Owensboro 13.189 9.837 Paducah ........ 19.446 12.79- Wlnchester 5,964 4,519 LOUISIANA. Alexandria 5,648 2,861 Baton Ronce .. 11.2''9 in.47« Lake Charles... 6.680 3.442 Monroe 5.428 3.25H New Iberia.. . .6,815 3 44" New Orleans ,. .287,104 242,04' MAINE. Auburn . 12.951 l-'.2«o Augusta ll.fiss 10,527 Bangor 21850 19. 10.^ Bath 10.477 8.723 Bffldeford 16. i-^^ \i.*'" Brunswick 6.806 6.0i*> Calais 7:655 7.2<»'^ (Jacdiner : ."5.501 5.4'^i Lewiston .... 23.761 21.701 Old town ... -5,763 5,312 Portl.nnd .. .c 50 14!> Z''.''>' Rockland .... 8.150 8,174 Saco 6.122 6.07 South Portland.. 6.287 Waterville .-. ... 9.477 7,107 Westbrook 7.283 6,63? MARYLAND. Annapolis 8,402 7,604 IQVO. 1690. E08,b57 434,439 4,192 12,729 Baltimore . Cambridge B,l~i Cumberland 17,123 Frederick 0,2S'J S,193 l<'rostburg 5,274 3,804 Bagerstowa 13,591 10,118 MA.^iSACHUSETTS. Adams 11,134 9,213 Amesbury 9,4<3 9,798 Amuerst — 5,u28 4,512 Audover 6,813 6,142 Aji-iiugton . 8,b03 5,629 Atnoi ... 7,061 6,319 Attleboro 11,335 7,577 Beverly 13,884 i0,821 Blackscone 6,721 6,138 Boston 560,892 448,4 ?7 Braintree- 5,981 4,848 Brockton .. 40,063 27,294 Brookline 19,935 12,103 Cambiidge 91,&86 70,028 Chelsea 34,072 27,909 Chicopee 19,167 14,050 Clinton ..13,667 10,424 Concord 5,652 4,427 Dana 13,cb7 10,424 Danvers 8,542 7.454 Dedham 7,457 7,123 Easthamptou ... 5,603 4,395 Everett 24,336 11,068 Fall River 104,863 74,398 Kitohburg 31,531 22,037 Framingham ....11,302 9,239 Franklin 5,0i7 4,831 Gardner 10,813 8,424 Gloucester 26,121 24,651 Gr't Barrlngton. 5,854 4,612 Greenfield 7,927 5,252 Haverhill 37,175 27,412 Holyoke 45.712 35,637 Hyde Park 13,244 10,193 Lawrence 62.559 44,654 Leomlster 12,392 7,269 Lowell 94.969 '77,696 Lynn 68,513 55,727 Maiden 33,664 23,031 Marlboro 13,609 13,805 Medford 18,244 11,079 Melrose 12,962 8,519 Milford 11,376 8,780 Milton 6,578 4.278 Montague 6,150 6,296 Natick 9,488 9.118 New Bedford ... 62,442 40.733 Newburyport ... 14,478 13.947 Newton 33,587 24,397 North Adams.... 24,200 16,074 Nort'iampton ... 18.613 14 990 North Attleboro. 7.253 6,727 Nortbbridge .... 7,036 4,603 Norwood 5.480 3.733 Oinnge 5.520 4.568 Palmer 7,801 6;520 Ponbodv n.5"3 'O.l^^S Pittsfieid -21.766 17.281 Plvmoutb 9.592 7,314 Oiiiricy 23.899 16.723 Revere 10.395 5.668 i>nokland 5,327 5,213 Snl(>m ... ... ... 35 p-0 30.^11 Sancus 5.184 3 673 .^nni'prville 61 613 40.152 Sniincrficld 62.0-0 44 179 Stoneham 6 107 6 155 Taunton 31.i3i3 25.448 \\;i'1ii:im 23.4S1 1S,707 Wntertown 9.706 7.073 X^'phster 8.R04 7.031 Westfield 12.310 9.805 West Snringfleld 7.105 5.077 Winchendon 5,001 4,390 Whitman 6. 1=^5 4.441 Winchester 7,248 4.861 STATISTICS OF FOPULAiiON. 1900. lyjii. Woburn 14,254 13,499 Woicester 118,421 84,655 MICHIGAN. Adrian y,654 8,75o Alptua 11.SU2 11.283 Auii Aibor 14,5U9 9,431 Battle Ci-eek.... 18,5t)3 13, ly- Bay cay 2..,-s 2(.bj BeiitOQ Harbor.. 6,562 3,C92 Cadillac 5,997 4,-)6l Chcbuygau 6,4S9 6,23. Coidwater G,21G 5,24', l>etioit 285,704 205, «7r) Escaiiaba 9,549 G,80S Flint 13,1U3 9,803 Claud Kapids... 87,505 6u,27S Holiaud 7,790 3,945 louia , 5,209 4,482 Iron Mountain... 9,242 8,59;' Irouuood 9,705 7,7^. IsliiJeming 13,255 11,19. Jacksou 25,180 20,795- Kalamazoo 24,404 17,853 Lansing lb, 485 13,10; Ludiuglon 7,166 7,517 Mauislee 14,260 12,812 Marquette 10 058 9,093 Menominee 12,818 10,630 Monroe 5,043 5,25s Mount Clemens. 6,576 4JAi Muskegon 20,818 22,702 Negauaee 6,935 6.078 Owosso 8,696 6,561 Petoskey 5,285 2,872 Poniiac 9,769 6,20^ Port Huron 19,158 ISB-lS Saginaw 42,345 40,322 St. Joseph 5,155 3,733 Sault Ste. Marie 10,538 5,760 Traverse ..>...... 9,407 4.833 West Bay City.. 13,ii9 12,981 Wyandotte 5.1S3 3.817 Ypsilauti 7,378 6,129 MINNESOTA. Austin 5,474 3,901 Brainerd 7,524 5,7u3 Crook,ston 5,359 3,157 Duliith 52,9C9 33.115 Faribault .- 7.8C8 6,520 Fergus, lalls 6,072 3,772 Little Falls 5.774 2.354 Mankato ' 10,599 8,S3S Minneapolis 202,718 164.73 New Ulm 5,403 3,7 11 Owatonna 5.561 3,841' Red Wing 7,525 , 0,291 Kocbester 6,843 5,32i St. Paul 163.005 133.156 Stillwater 12,318 11,200 Winona 19.714 18.20b MISSI.SSIPPI. Biloxi 5,407 3,234 Columbus C,ti4 4,559 Greenville 7,624 6,658 Jackson 7.S16 5,9' Meridi.iD 14.050 10,624 NatLlu'z 12,210 10,101 Vlck«burg 14,834 13.373 MISSOURI. Aurora 6,191 3.482 Brookliold ...... 5,484 4.5-17 C&rtbuRe 9,416 7,981 Cbiliieoihe 6,905 5,717 Clinton 5,061 4.737 Columbia 5.651 4,000 D,964 321,616 50,145 90,426 175,.597 78,961 85.050 162.608 133,896 53,531 5;i321 342.782 54,244 102.026 80,671 62 059 102.979 575.238 163.065 108,3'r4 131,822 73,307 60,651 56.383 278,718 61,721 76.508 118,421 238,617 36,425 46,385 132,146 68,t»l 81,.388 44,843 37,637 298,997 43.189 75,215 42.83'^ 44,179 5J.324 451,770 13:1156 88.143 81,434 67,458 60,936 44,007 230.3i)2 37.718 61,431 84,655 160.146 51,617 38.678 35.629 22.408 116..340 3.483 27,737 29.280 48,961 ;52.016 16.507 30,762* 42,015 75.056 120.722 3,200 55 785 39,151 11,183 123.758 69,475 38.274 33,&92 115,58? 46,887 43.350 13(i,508 62.882 216.0it0 9J.829 31,274 30,473 4.759 12 035 79.577 3.131 19,616 21,830 11.484 26.766 23.104 37,180 48.244 82.546 U06.299 942, 2<<2,813, < «J9 5 15, 547 34.555 30,518 51,031 29,259 &47, 170 674, 022 156..38'.> 33.810 17.577 104,857 43.278 63.600 98,;i66 20,768 20.550 2;«.9.i9 30,709 45.850 3..533 R3,340 32.431 350,518 41,473 61.792 60,137 29,910 66,747 33,914 177.621 23,339 42,478 58.291 32.260 28,921 5,728 100,753 40 928 28.233 40,226 71,440 13,066 25,865 105,059 50,8.0 191,418 43,417 18.564 20.081 4,749 3,965 45,619 9,419 14.026 8,058 13,405 29,1.52 18,611 29,226 4.418 17,f;39 4,385 68.033 36,827 19.083 22.623 45,246 2,584 16,988 71.941 39,267 42,261 15,215 9.479 42.985 29,963 115,435 17X)34 17.882 10,977 502 21,019 5,858 3,235 11.524 2,686 7.834 17,966 8,091 6,856 8,282 1,610 43,194 33,:^83 14.257 8,841 20,0ol 3,294 13.312 8,409 3,371 29.261 4.470 46.338 6.071 6,048 6,067 9,102 3,412 6,738 80,620 61,392 2.800 8,668 6,072 30,289 24!83i 1,076 2,4.35 2,950] 12,630 62,738 43,298 1,.500 2.095 3,295 24,780 'f;;6i2 606 10,762 46,566 6,349 26,614 33,25024,737 1,089 2,323 f;,222 :l.,465 6.980 9.468 2,692 3,072 21.210[ 20,796 9,367 1,712 10,165, 38.894 20,345 168.675116,375 10..500 16,083 33,579 22,849 86,076 31.413 8,293 68.904 33,930 61,038 6J,.386 12.854 12,256 149,473 28 2:35 3.5,092 1,107 26,703 19,556 310,864 20,030 43,051 31,584 22,874 46,465 28.804 131,700 10,174 30,841 41.105 1,513 1,883 19.586 14,045 565,529 49,21 26.341 2,674 50,666 23,162 37.9)0 48.204 8,236 8,2.35 66,89; 22,292 9,223 263 15,199 8,922 160,773 10.101 28,119 13,768 17.228 39.235 22.529 75,080 4,235 21.258 21.960 11.344 5,095 121,:376 46.601 20.815 821 41,613 15.743 27,570 36,403 3,488 34.776 15,312 11,766 77".866 1.112 22.271 3,829 6,461 28,785 17,.565 51.687 2.723 13.979 17.049 6.929 17.290 12,9d0 102, 193 312,710 4.158 4,312 7,074 10,341 6,471 6,133 5,566 10,953 10,180 29,73 1,000 1,422 635 1,594 2.990 4,726 4,012 4.515 24,711 2.546 383 2.463 18,924 3,498. 13,503 18.038 2,115 394 1,296 2,28 3,9rj5 1,357 4,087 7,596 1,467 93,665 21.115 15,218 23471 8,410 20,153 20,191 500 11,214 10,985 16,469 11,014 1,222 4,o;s5 19,3:34 12.782 33,745 1.718 8,367 7,497 202. 589a23, 706 96, 373160. 515 80.462 12 568 12,598 16.833 6,856 16.060 9.-207 7,776 6.7S4 iV,i25 6,507 7,147 27,176 6,772 17,224 81 16,359 1,472 5,347 359 2,837 4.019 200 2,29f 63.802 7,218 8.581 53,722 4,763 6,921 11,767 4,:3,32 12,067 2,063 7,523 6,929 3.925 11.556 8,323 30,261 2,232 ' 4'.i:37 3,914 io'.twy 1,814 3,942 5.264 2.972 23.336 2.y62 10.071 3.4(i2 9,7:j6 33.131 41,22028,522 1.565'. 3,704 7,614 2..386 5,737 5.215 2,767 3,895 15,"47i 1,225 2",577 5,16o 2,312 4,926 835 2.4ii 2,233 6,380 3,761 1,574 2,095 ♦The . the census Hi' ISOO 6*>6 .i.^, i-^vru ^ 1,-r.,./, ..^.v,. -,.. ,-, , . -,-- . . . tPrlor to census of 1880 St Louis city was an undivided part of St. Louis county and its pppu^ lation was not separately reported. Previous to that year the population gi^ven is that of the city and county of St. Louis combined. Unofficial flgures give St. Louis proper 1,400 populft* tl9n in 1810; 4,5!18 in 1S20 and 6,694 in 1830