•■>•- .0^ .'^IC^'% %.•>* > ^' °(?;vj^»^ ^^" k.J" :mMr, ^<^^f ^^- A **'% <'. *v^ .V V '<^<^ ■v-^^- \nc, 1.^ -i^ o-.. > '•^ V ^"^ ' e " " a 'V c Q-'> ^ '^ BENJAMIN FRANKLIN. After the engraving by the Baron Desnoyers, made by him when Franklin acted as OUR Ambassador at the court of Versailles. 738) THE YOUTHS' History of the United States FROM THE DISCOVERY OF THE AMERICAN ... CONTINENT TO THE PRESENT TIME ... ... CONTAINING THE ... Mound Builders; The Indians; Explorations of the Norsemen, Spaniards, English and French ; the Settlement of the New World ; The French and Indian Wars ; The Struggle of the Revolution ; The Second War with England ; The Mexican War ; The Great Civil W;u- ; The War with Spain ; Admiral Dewey's Great Victor}/ at Manila ; the Destruction of the Spanish Fleet and Military Operations at Santiago, and all Important Events down to the present time. Dy BENJAMIN R. DAVENPORT, Master of ibe ^--Ut of Critic j1 Coiuleiisation. Illustrated with Hundreds of Fine Engravings. W. H. Ferguson Company, PUBLISHERS 230 and 232 East Fifth Street, CINCINNATI, O. it has^„aij raithcntic piciuneof tKf '.llustrious navigator, it possesses the further importance of being the work of the pa'nter Del Pioiiibo. It was qofsiflerrd as an heirloom of the family, e-xtinct to-day. of the Olovios, and was in the posi,eiisiftH jf Paul Gloyio, vho refers' tc it in his works, in one of which it is engr.ived. After the ex- tinction of the male line ol the Clbvio family, tne picture passed two generations ago to the family of De Orchi, and is now in the possession of Dr. De Orchi of Como. THE VISION OF COLUMBUS WHILE BEGGING HIS WAY FROM COURT TO COURT. PAINTING BY 0. MANUEL PICOLO. {"7) COLUMBUS ON THE NIGHT OF OCT. 11th, 1492, f8"l (149) V; : f } ; -m mT;^^ Int ohiro ui- COLUMBUS; THE SANTA : , AND PINTA. RESTORED FROM 1HL MOtLi-b IN THL MAiilNL , MJliUSi COLUMBUS (N CHAINS ABOARD THE CiOHDA. PAINTING BY MARECHAL, PARIS SALON, 1667. THE SHIPS OF COLUMBUS THREATENED WITH ENTIRE DESTRUCTION BY WATER SPOUTS. ^354) (175) Complete History of the United States. VIKING BOAT, OH DFAGON. rOUND IN THE MOOR IN JUTLAND. F the aboriginal inhabitants of North America — the races who built the mounds of the Ohio and Mississippi val- leys, and the ancient pueblos and cave dwellings of Ari- zona and New Mexico — we have no knowledge save that derived from their scattered and moldering monuments. Almost equally shadowy is the Norse legend that tells how Ivcif, son of Erik, a Viking rover from Iceland, about looo A. D., discovered, to the west of Greenland, a forest clad shore to which he gave the name of Vin- land. The authentic annals of Amer- ica begin with the famous vo3'age of Christopher Columbus, "the most memo- rable maritime enterprise in the history of the world." "^ On October 12, 1492, Columbus, who had been dis- patched by Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain to discover a westward route from Europe to Asia, reached one of the Bahamas — probably Watling Island. Thence he sailed on to Cuba and Hayti, which he believed to be outlying islands of southern Asia, and whose native inhabitants he called Indians. Wherever he landed he raised the flag of Spain. The great discovery of Columbus was followed up by other navigators. In 1497 John and Sebastian Cabot, under the patron- age of Henry VII. of England, found the continent of North Amer- ica, " probably in the latitude of about fifty-six degrees, along the dismal cliffs of Labrador." f They took possession of the newly discovered land in the name of the English king. Spain took the leading part in the exploration of the New World. Under her flag the northern coast of South America was * Bancroft's History of the United States. f Ibid. (741) 742 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. discovered by Amerigo Vespucci, from whom the continent took its name. In 15 13 Balboa reached the Pacific Ocean, and Ponce de Leon found a land which he called Florida, because he sighted it "on Easter Sunday, which the Spaniards call Pascua Florida." * Ferdinand de Soto, also in the Spanish service, discovered the Mis- BURIAL OF DE SOTO IN THE VELLOW FLOODS OF THE MISSISSIPPI. sissippi River in 1542, in the waters of which he found his last resting place. France, too, was active in sending out expeditions. In 1524 Verrazani coasted from the Carolinas to New England, and ten years later Jacques Cartier entered the St. Lawrence. In 1603 Champlain followed Cartier, and penetrated what is now north- ern New York. In 1609 Hcur}' Hudson, sailing under the flag of Holland, discovered the Hudson River. On these discoveries Spain, England, France, and Holland based conflicting claims to the territory of the New World, which * Bancroft's History of the United States. CLIFF HOUSES-RIO HAHCOS CASOH. CLIFF-TOWX. RIO HAHCOS. PAIHTED PUEBLO POTTERY. CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 747 THE OLD GATE AT ST. AUGUSTINE, FLORIDA. were only finally settled after nearly two hundred years, and mncli fighting. "The United States were sever- ally colonized by men in origin, re- ligious faith, and purposes as various as their climes." * The earliest per- manent settlement in North America was that of St. Augustine, Florida, founded in 1565 by a Spanish expedition under Pedro Melendez. The first English colony was Virginia, whose earliest settlement was on Roanoke Island, to which Sir Walter Raleigh took a body of emigrants in 1584. Raleigh's enterprise proved a failure, but in 1607 an expedition sent out by the London Company built James- town, on the James River. This plantation prospered under the government of Captain John Smith, Lord De La Ware, and their successors. At Jamestown, in 1 619, the first African slaves brought to Amei ica were purchased from a Dutch vessel. New York, which "united the richest lands with the highest adaptation to for- eign and domestic commerce," f was founded by the Dutch, wdio shortly after Hudson's voyage planted the settlement of New Amsterdam on Manhattan Island, and Fort Or- ange, now Albany. In 1664 these were surrendered to the British, • and the name of New Amsterdam was changed to New York. Massachusetts was colonized by a company of Puritans, whose * Bancroft's Hist. United States. f Ibid. SIR WALTER RALEIGH. 74^ HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. emigration was "the result of implacable differences between Prot- estant dissenters in England and the established Anglican church."* Driven from England by religious persecution, they crossed the At- lantic in the little ship Mayflower, and landed at Ptymouth. They were followed by an- other bod}^, which founded Salem and Charlestown. These settlements formed the Massachusetts Bay colony, origi- nally distinct from the Plymouth colo- ny. The former also made a settlement at Boston in 1630. Hartford and Windsor, the first settlements of Con- necticut, were found- ed by pioneers from Massachusetts in 1633. A few years later the infant colo- ny passed through a severe struggle wdth the Indians, known historically as the Pequod War. In 1636 Roger Williams, a preach- er of Salem, was ban- ished from M a s s a- chusetts for his independence of religious belief. He found refuge with the Narragansett Indians, and bought from them a tract of land on which he founded the plantation of Providence. Two years later another company founded Rhode Island, and in 1644 the two settlements were united. CHARLES II. OF ENGLAND. PAINTING BY PETER LELY. ENGRAVED BY G. VEHTUE, 1738. * Bancroft's History of the United States. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 749 In 1623 ^ P^^t was established near what is now Portsmouth, New Hampshire. This was united with the Massachusetts colony, together with a few outlying settlements in Maine, until New Hampshire was, fifty years later, created a separate province. Maryland was founded by Leonard Calvert, brother of Lord Baltimore, as a Roman Catholic colony. The first settlement was planted in 1634 at St. Mary's, near the mouth of the Potomac. A dispute at once arose with Virginia, which, according to its charter, "ex- tended two hundred miles north of Old Point Comfort, and therefore in- cluded the soil which forms the State of Maryland." * William Clayborne, who asserted the claim of Virginia, seized the government of the new colou}^, but was ultimately expelled. Delaware was first settled by Swedish emigrants, who established themselves on the Delaware River, below Philadelphia, and named their territory New Sweden. Their settle- ments were captured b}^ the Dutch- men of New Amsterdam, under Peter Stuyvesant, shortl}^ before New Am- sterdam was itself conquered by the British. In 1663 Charles II. granted the land between Florida and Virginia to Lord Clarendon, who named it Caro- lina. Settlers from Virginia had al- ready planted, at the mouth of the Chowan River, the Albemarle colony, which was the nucleus of North Carolina. South Carolina was first opened up by the Carteret colony, which founded Charles- ton in 1670. Its members were Englishmen and French Hugue- nots. New Jersey was claimed by the Dutch as a part of the territor}^ of New Amsterdam. They had built a log fort at Camden, on the Delaware, in 1623, ^^^ the settlement of the country began when * Bancroft's History of the United States. WILLIAM PENN. AFTER THE PAINTING BY GODFREY KNELLER (16 -50 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATEvS. Charles II. granted the land between the Hudson and Delaware rivers to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret, in 1664. The colonization of Pennsylvania also dates from a grant of Charles II., given to William Penn in 1681, in pa3^ment of a debt due to his father. Admiral Penn. Penn laid out Philadelphia, buy- ing the land from the Indians, and bringing to it two thousand Quakers from England. Dela- ware was united to his territory, but was finally separated from it |'->^''^\ The last of the thir- ^?^§^Sx:" teen colonies was Geor- gia. In 1732 George 11. empowered James Ogle- thorpe to found, on the tract between the Savan- nah and Altamaha rivers, a colony for those who had been imprisoned for debt. Other immigrants gathered there, coming from Scotland and Ger- many ; and in 1736 John and Charles Wesley, the founders of Methodism, went there to preach. The colony was not established nthout hostilities with the , Spaniards at St. Augustine. But the northern colonies '•^ became involved in more serious w^ars. The settlers of New Eng- land were constantly harassed by the Indians. In King Philip's War, fought in 1675, the power of the Wampanoags and Narragansetts was broken. In King Will- iam's War, which lasted from 1689 to 1697, the aborigines were assisted by the French. A WAMPANOAG INDIAN IN FULL WAR PAINT. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 751 French colonists had founded Quebec in 1608, and their fur traders and missionaries had pushed up the St. Lawrence to the Great Lakes and the Mississippi valley. Two Jesuits, Pere Mar- quette and Pere Joliet, discovered the upper course of the Missis- sippi. In 1682 Lasalle sailed down the Ohio and the Mississippi to the Gulf of Mexico. The vast region through which he passed he claimed for France, and named it Louisiana, in honor of King Louis XIV. New Orleans and Mobile were founded by French settlers a few years later. The uncertainty of intercolonial boundaries, and the frequent wars be- tween the parent countries, led to the long conflict that forms most of the En- glish colonies' annals for nearly a hun- dred years. " The history of the colo- nies, except for the great and romantic struggle with New France, would have been almost destitute of striking inci- dents." * Queen Anne's War (1702 to 1703) and King George's War (1744 to 1748), in both of which the French were assisted by the Indians, produced no im- portant results. The decisive struggle began in 1754, arising from a dispute between the Ohio Company and the French, into whose territory the Company had entered to trade in furs. The military career of George Washington began at this time, he being dispatched by Governor Din- widdle of Virginia with a letter to the French commander on the Ohio. The latter's reply was defiant, and two expeditions were sent against him — the first a regiment of Virginians, the second a British force under Braddock. Both were driven back from Fort Duquesne (on the present site of Pittsburgh), but in 1759 the war was decided by the capture of Quebec by Wolfe, at the head of a British expedition. Peace was signed in 1763, France abandoning all her territory in America, except the two islets of St. Pierre and LOUIS XIV, OF FRANCE. * Fiske's American Revolution, chapter I. 752 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. yfir.ffi BHAODOCK MORTALLY WOUNDED AT FORT DUQUESNE. (SEE PHECEDI^G PAGE.) ]\Iiquelon, off Xewfoundland, which she retains to-da}'. Her set- tlements east of the Mississippi were ceded to England, and the land west of the Mississippi to Spain, in return for the surrender of Florida to England. The next great event in American histor}^ was the Revolution HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 753 ol the thirteen colonies against England. Discontent against the mother country had been growing gradually, arising mainly from the unjust fiscal policy enforced by the British Parliament. The colonies were prohibited from exporting goods to any country but England. Duties were exacted upon the goods they imported, and their efforts to establish their own manufactures were crushed. In 1765 the passage of the Stamp Act brought matters near to a crisis. This law required all documents needed in the colonies to be written upon stamped paper, which was to be bought from of&cers of the British revenue service. The measure aroused great public indignation in America. Six colonies united in a memorial of protest, wherein they " took their stand on the principle that as free-born Englishmen they could not rightfully be taxed by the House of Commons unless they were represented in that body." * In 1766 the Stamp Act was repealed, but a few months later Parliament imposed a duty on all glass, paper, paints, and tea brought into America. Great opposition being manifested against these taxes, a body of British troops, under General Gage, was quartered in Boston. As the excitement in the colonies continued, the duties were ultimately removed wdth the exception of that on tea, which was retained as an assertion of the principle that Parlia- ment's power over America was supreme. For the same reason the tea tax was violentl}^ denounced in the colonies. "When our liberty is gone," said Samuel Adams, a leading citizen of Boston, " history and experience will teach us that an increase of inhabitants will be but an increase of slaves." f This feeling led to the Boston Tea Party — "an event so great that even American historians have generally failed to do it justice." X On Dec. 16, 1773, a party of men, disguised as Indians, boarded some ships that lay in Boston harbor, and threw their cargoes of tea overboard. Parliament retaliated by closing the port of Boston. The custom house was removed to Salem, and General Gage was ap- pointed military governor of Massachusetts. The other colonies loyally supported the Bostonians, and Virginia proclaimed a fast upon the day when their port was closed. On the 5th of September, 1774, fifty-three delegates, sent by all * Fiske's American Revolution, Chapter i. f Bancroft's History of the United States. J Fiske's American Revolution, Chapter 2. 42 754 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. ^$^ ^^^'■M '•~«^ the colonies except Georgia, met in the first Continental Congress, held in Philadelphia, to discuss schemes for mutual assistance. Throughout the colonies companies of "minute men " were formed, to be ready for service in sudden emergency. The first shots of the Revolution were fired at Lexington, IMassachu- setts, where General Gage, on his way some military stores col- lected by the patriots at Concord, met armed resist- ance from the minute men, on the 19th of April, 1775. The colonial forces gath |lif| ered at Cam- ^k I bridge, oppo- s i te Boston, and occupied Bunker Hill, whence they were driven by the Brit- ish in the first serious fight of the war, fought on the 17th of June, 1775 — a bat- tle "charac- terized, on both the British and the American sides, by heroism rather than by military skill or prudence." * Meanwhile, Ethan Allen had captured the British forts at Ticonderoga and Crown * Fiske's American Revolution, Chapter 2. COLONEL GEORGE WASHINGTON, t'ing been appointed commander-in-chief of the w army by the Continental Congress in session Philadelphia, takes command of the patriot sol- rs under the elm tree at Cambridge, July 3, 1775. [Drawing by H. A. Ogden) (755) 75^ HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES, Point, on Lake Champlain ; and the Second Continental Congress had met and appointed George Washington commander-in-chief of the colonial troops. In March, 1776, the British evacuated Boston, and in June, their at- tack, under Gen e r a 1 Clinton, on Charleston, S. Carolina, p r o \' e d a failure. On the 4th of July, the Contincnt'l Con gress, still in ses- sion atPhil- a d e 1 p h i a , finally sev- ered its al- legiance to England by adopting the Decla- ration of Independ- ence, drawn up by Thos. Jefferson, a delegate from Vir- ginia. King George's government now realized that the rebellion of the Colonies was a serious affair. An army of twenty-five thou- sand men, under Lord Howe, landed on Staten Island, defeated General Putnam in the Battle of Long Island, and drove Washing- in^ton out of New York. With only three thousand men, the American commodore retreated through New Jersey, pursued by *:he British under Cornwallis. MI HETHtAT Of TH£ oOtlT.MtM M FORCES f HUM LONG ISLAND AFTER THEIR DEFEAT ON THE 27TM OF AUGUST. (DRAWING BV H. A. OGOEN.) HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 757 During the winter of 1776-77 Washington twice crossed the Delaware, and made successful attacks upon the British at Trenton and at Princeton. But he was in need of men, money, and muni- tions of war, and when, in September, the British, landing in Ches- WASHINGTON CROSSING THE DELAWARE. (PAINTING BY LEUT2E.) apeake Bay, marched upon Philadelphia, he was unable to prevent the capture of the colonial capital. The winter of 1777-78, during which Washington was in winter quarters at Valley Forge, on the Schuylkill, was the darkest period of the Revolution. "Well might Thomas Paine declare, 'These are the times that try men's souls!'"* Meanwhile, however, the patriots had gained an important success in the north. General Burgoyne, invading New York by way of Loke Champlain, with a force of British troops, Hessians, and Indians, captured Ticonderoga, but was defeated by General Starke and General Gates, and on October 17 capitulated to the * Fiske's American Revolution, Chapter 5. /.« hLi^lUKY ur 1 nrv \j i\ 1. 1. jz, lj o i jt. a xz^o. latter his surrender being called a convention, " a soothing phrase well remembered by British historians."* Early in 177S the British evacuated Philadelphia and retreated to New York, followed by Washington. The indecisive battle of Monmouth was .ought during their retreat across New Jersey. WASHINGTON AT VALLEY FORGE. "These are the times that try men's souls," declared the patriot Thomas Paine. (Drawing- by H. A. Ogden.) In February, 1778, Benjamin Franklin, sent to Europe to rep- resent the colonies, signed a treaty of alliance with France. In ac- cordance with this treat}', which was a very important addition to the strength of the patriots, a French fleet arrived in July, and sailed to attacK the British force at Newport. It was driven back by a storm. In December a British expedition captured Savannah, Georgia. The year 1779 witnessed much desultory fighting at various * Fiske's American Revolution, Chapter 7. aiSTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 759 points, but was chiefly distinguished by the exploits of Paul Jones, who commanding the privateer Bon Homme Richard, harried the coast of England, and captured the British frigate Serapis, after ''one of the most obstinate and murderous struggles recorded in naval history." * In 1780 Benedict Arnold, in command of the important American post at West '^ Point, entered into a traitorous agreement to ^ surrender it to the British. His design £ was detected through the arrest of Andre, a British spy; but Ar- nold escaped and joined the en- emy. Charleston was also cap- tured by the British under Clin- ton. A series of battles in the Carolinas and Virginia ensued, between the invaders, commanded by Cornwallis, and the Americans under Generals Gates, Morgan, and Greene. In October, Corn- wallis, intrenched at Yorktown, was surrounded by an army com- posed of Americans under Wash- ington and a French force under Rochambeau, ' together with a French fleet of which De Grasse was admiral. On the 19th of October Cornwallis surrendered with eight thousand men. After this disaster the British government made no further attempt to reconquer the colonies. A treaty of peace was negoti- ated, and finally signed on the 3rd of September, 1783, by which Bngland recognized their independence, their boundaries being the Great Lakes on the north, the Mississippi on the west, and on the south Florida. Florida was re-ceded to Spain — " an event which was accounted by our forefathers a great gain to the new republic." f The colonies had now established their independence, but their political, social, and financial affairs were in great disorder. The Continental Congress had incurred a vast debt which it had no MARQUIS MARIE JOSEPH PAUL DE LA FAYETTE, WHO CAME OVER IN THE FRENCH FLEET, TO OFFER HIS SWORD IN DEFENSE OF LIBERTY. * Fiske's American Revolution, Chapter 2, V^ol. I, Chap. I. f Blaine's Twenty Years of Congress.. 76o HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. means of paying. Its paper currency was terribly depreciated. " To say that a thing was ' not worth a continental ' became the strongest possible expression of contempt." * At one time during SURRENDER OF CORNWALLIS TO GENERAL WASHINGTON As Cornwallis disdained to personally surrender his sword to the American commander-in-chief, he ordered his adju- tant to hand the same to Washington, who, quick to see the intended insult, pointed to his adjutant, to whom the sword was turned over. (See page 747.) the war " it took ten paper dollars to make a cent." f There were serious dissensions between the colonies, and great popular distress and discontent, which in Massachusetts broke out into Shay's Re- bellion. Under such discouraging circumstances took place "the most cheering act in the political history of mankind, when thir- teen republics, of which at least three reached from the sea to the Mississippi, formed themselves into one federal commonwealth." J * Fiske's American Revolution, Chapter 19. f Bancroft's History of the United States. X Bancroft's History of the United States. " HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 761 The last British troops sailed from New York on the 25th of November, and ''the same day that witnessed the departure of Sir Guy Carleton from New York also witnessed the entry into that city of the army of the States."* Thereupon Washington took a WASHINGTON BIDS FAREWELL TO HIS OFFICERS AFTER RESIGNING HIS COMMAND OF THE ARMY. formal leave of his troops and retired to his home at Mount Ver- non, Virginia. He and other leading patriots continued to urge the reconstitution of the government, and the union of the colonies in a strong and stable confederation. In September, 1786, a con- vention of delegates was summoned at Annapolis, Maryland, to frame a plan for a more perfect union ; but as only five states sent representatives the convention was adjourned until the following May. * McMaster's History of the People of the United States, Chapter 2. 762 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. In that month (May, 1787) delegates from all of the thirteen colonies except Rhode Island met in Philadelphia. The conven- tion sat for fonr months, choosing Washington as its president, and finally drafted and agreed upon a federal constitution. This instrument, which became the Constitution of the United States, provided for a legislative body, entitled Congress, and consisting of two chambers, a Senate and a House of Representatives; an executive department, with a President at its head ; and the federal judiciary of the Supreme Court. While the constitutional convention was in session at Phila- delphia, the Continental Congress held its last sitting in New York — a sitting signalized by the organization of a government for the Northwestern Territory — the vast tract of land, hitherto claimed by Virginia, between the Ohio river, the upper Alissis- sippi, and the Great Lakes, which now forms the States of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin. General Arthur St. Clair was appointed the first governor of the Territory, with his headquarters at the settlement of Marietta, on the Ohio. The constitution framed at Philadelphia r.iet with a by no means read}' acceptance. In some of the colonies it "called forth the fiercest resistance that selfish interests could organize."* New York, unwilling to surrender to a central government the great revenues that might be raised at her port, " of the thirteen States was the most stubborn in opposition." f The constitution was to become operative when accepted by nine States. Delaware, Penn- sylvania, and New Jersey ratified it in December, 1787; Georgia and Connecticut in January, 1788; Massachusetts in February, Maryland in April, South Carolina in May, and New Hampshire; the ninth State, on the 21st of June. Virginia and New York fol- lowed, but North Carolina held aloof until November, 1789, and Rhode Island to the 29tli of May, 1790. The United States was now fully established as a Nation. " It is estimated that at the opening of the Revolutionary War there were in the country, both white and black, 2,750,000 souls." J The total population had now increased to about three and a quarter millions. The area of the Union was eight hundred thousand square miles. * Bancroft's History of the United States. f Ibid. X McMaster's History of the People of the United States, Chapter I. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 7(^3 New York had. been designated as the seat of the federal gov- ernment. The first election for President was held on ti:e 6th of April, 1789, when the electors chosen by the several States named George Washington as President, and John Adams of ]\Iassachu- setts as Vice President. General Washington, who was novv in his fifty-eighth vear, journeyed from I'Jount \^ernon to New York for his inauo^urarion, bein^r received .^ with a great, popular ovation along his ..^' route. On the 30th of April he took the /-. oath of office on the portico of the old <.^ r City Hall, which stood at the corner of Wall and Broad streets. The leading members of Washing- ton's first cabinet were Thomas Jeffer- J son, Secretary of State; Alexander f Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury ; K~ Edmund Randolph, x\ttorney-General, | and General Henry Knox, Secretary of * War. Able men were needed for the *~ guidance of the government. The treas- ury was empty. Spain was excluding American ships from the mouth of the Mississippi. England had retained some forts in the West that should have been sur- rendered, and the Indians were waging war on the pioneers of the Northwestern Territor}^ and had defeated Governor St. Clair. The outbreak of the French Revolution had caused friction with the new repub- lican government of France, whose ambassador in America, AI. Genet, had fitted out vessels of war in American ports, to be used against England, and had defied Washington's command to respect the neutrality of the United States. All these international difficulties were removed by diplomacy. The offending French minister was withdrawn. In 1795 a treaty was concluded with Spain, and in the same year John Jay negoti- ated another with England. The Indian troubles in the West were ended by an expedition commanded by General Anthony Wa^me, who conquered the savages in a battle on the Maumee river. ALEXANDER HAMILTON. 704 rtioi'-'K.y KJt' inn uiMiniJ caiAiiio. The regulation of the Federal finances was the work of Alex- ander Hamilton. He funded the debt of the United States, and in 1 791 established a mint and the United States Bank in Phila- delphia, which was then the largest city and chief financial centre of the country, and had recently been created the capital — for in 1790 the government was removed to it from New York. To de- fray the charges of the national debt, duties were levied upon im- ported goods, and an internal revenue tax imposed upon the dis- tillation of whisky. These taxes .were not entirely popular. Western Pennsylvania rose against the taxation of spirits, and the Whisky Rebellion, as.it was called, was onl}^ suppressed by calling out a large force of militia. When Washington's term of four years in the Presidency expired, he was elected for a second time, John Adams being also re-elected Vice-President. Washington's second inauguration took place at Philadelphia on the 4th of March, 1793. On the approach of the expiration of his second term he issued a Farewell Address and refused to be a candidate for a third, thereby setting a precedent that has never since been broken. During Washington's administration three new States were added to the original thirteen — Vermont (1791), Kentucky (1792), and Tennessee (1796). '°"'* *'*"' The political sentiment of the nation was divided into two schools or parties. The Republicans, of whom the Democrats are the modern successors, supported the rights of the individual States as against those of the general government. The Federalists, who somewhat faintly correspond to the Re- publicans of to-day, held that the Federal power should be further extended. The Federalists had a majority of the electors who chose Washington's successor, and they named John Adams, of Massa- chusetts. Thomas Jefferson, of Virginia, who was the author of ■^.Y ^ '* GEORGE WASHINGTON. THIS SPLENDID PORTHA.T OK " PaTER PaTH,^," .. COPIED NOW FOR THE F.KST TIME AFTER THE ^-J^^^^^'^^ ■ BY THE French artist Henrv Lefokt. The etcher took as his model the THREE-QUARrER face, HEAD and EPAULETTED CONTINENTAL-UNIFORMED BUST OF THE PORTRAIT BY GILBERT Stuart, of which Washington Allston wrote: "A nobler personifica- tion OF WISDOM AND GOODNESS, REPOSING IN THE MAJESTY OF A SERENE CONSCIENCE, IS NOT TO BE FOUND ON CANVASS." < > o X o w < l—H H C/5 W ^D a w 2; o H O mmnt] VfHiimJiiiiTiJtVii ' mi !iHi'ffl»tW ,0d , NAPOLEON I. AS EMPEROR. niZiiKJi^Y Kjr X niz, \j im ± ± ci, i-/ o x /^ i xvo. /^/ the Declaration of Independence, and had served as Washington's Secretary of State, was the candidate of the Republicans, and as he received the second highest number of votes he became Vice-Presi- dent, according to the rule then prevailing. Adams and Jefferson were inaugurated in Philadelphia on the 4th of March, 1797. The chief incident of John Adams' uneventful Presidency was a brief war with France. The friction with the unstable government of that country had continued. War was finally precipitated by a demand from the Directory, then in power at Paris, that the United States should pay the sum of two hundred and fifty thousand dollars, before the questions at issue should be considered. Congress declared war, and organized an army, of which Washington was ap- pointed commander-in-chief. The only actual hostilities that took place, however, w^ere two fights at sea between French and American frigates, the latter being victorious on each occasion. In 1800, the Di- rectory having been overthrown by Napoleon Bonaparte, who estab- lished himself as First Consul of the French republic, the war was ended b}' a treaty of peace that left the Corsi- can dictator free to pursue his plans conquest on the continent of Europe. Shortly before the conclusion peace George Washington died at Mount Vernon, on the 14th of December, 1799. Toward the close of his administration President Adams in- curred much unpopularit}^ through the passage, at his instance, of the Alien and Sedition laws, which gave the government power to expel disloyal foreigners and punish all disaffected persons. These of NAPOLEON AS CONSUL .."^ acts were deuoiiuced as unconstitutional by the Republicans, who were victorious in the Presidential election of 1800. Their leading candidates, Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr, recei-ved an equal number of votes in the electoral college. The matter being re- ferred to the House of Representatives, Jefferson was elected. In this year (1800) the seat of the Federal government was re- moved from Philadelphia to a new city established on territory ceded by Virginia and Maryland, and named Washington. In 1802, Ohio, the seventeenth State, was admitted to the Union. The great event of Jefferson's administration was the purchase of Louisiana, which then included all the land west of the Missis- BIRDSEYE VIEW OF THE UNITED STATES AND CANADA, SHOWING THE GREAT MISSISSIPPI VALLEV. sippi, stretching indefinitely westward. This vast territory, ceded by France to Spain in 1763, passed back to the French in 1800. In 1803, Jefferson, anxious to secure control of the mouth of the Mississippi, instructed Livingston, the American minister at Paris, to make a proposal for the purchase of New Orleans. Napoleon, needing money for his war against Austria and Prussia, offered to sell the whole of Louisiana to the United States. The offer, though unexpected, was accepted, the price agreed on being " sixty millions of francs, or, as was calculated, $11,250,000," * besides the payment of certain claims which brought the total to nearly $15,000,000, * McMaster's History of the People of the United States, Chapter 13. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. ^69 There was some short-sighted criticism of this heavy outlay, but "the mass of the people pronounced the purchase a bargain. "* In 1 801 an effort was made to punish the pirates of the north African coast, who had inflicted great damage upon American ship- ping in the Mediterranean. Commodore Preble attacked Tangiers in 1803, but the frigate Philadelphia, blockading Tripoli, was cap- tured by the pirates, and her crew was held in slaver}^ until rescued by Decatur six months later. In 1804 Tripoli w^as bombarded and the Bey forced to sue for peace. In that same year the bitter political ani-^ mosity between Vice-President Burr and Alex-^ ander Hamilton culminated in a duel. "In the early sunlight of a July morning the two were rowed across the Hudson river" from New York, "and met under the rocky heights of Weehawken." f Ham- ilton was shot and killed — an event that caused great public sorrow, and ruined Burr's career. In the ensuing election, while Jefferson was re-elected President, Burr was succeeded by George Clinton of New York. Before this election a constitutional amendment had been passed, whereby the electors voted separately for President and Vice- President. Two years later Burr was arrested on a charge of treason, and accused of a design of founding an empire west of the Alleghanies. He was not convicted. In 1807 Robert Fulton's first steamer, the Clermont, made its famous voyage from New York to Albany, marking the invention of steam navigation. The Napoleonic wars, which at this time were making Europe a great battle-field, seriously affected the United States. England, whose navy under Nelson had become mistress of the seas, claimed the so-called Right of Search over American vessels. Her men-of- war constantly stopped and boarded them, and impressed men from their crews, claiming that the men she took were British citizens. *McMaster's History of the People of the United States, Chapter 13. f Ibid. THOMAS JEFFERSON. //' The American frigate Chesapeake was fired upon, in 1807, by the British man-of-war Leopard, and four of her seamen forcibly cap- tured as deserters. Americans also suffered from the blockades proclaimed by France and England. By the Orders in Council of 1807 the latter prohibited all trade with France and her allies. Napoleon retaliated with the Milan Decree, declaring an embargo against England and her colonies. American merchant vessels attempting to trade with either of the combatants were liable to seizure by the cruisers of the other. Congress did not mend matters by passing a law to prevent American ships from leaving the ports of the United States. The shipping industry, then very extensive, was seriously injured. Amid this political confusion Jefferson's presidency ended. Following the example of Washington, he declined a third term, and in the election of 1808 James Madison of Vir- ginia, was chosen to succeed him, while Clin- ton was re-elected Vice President. Madison was one of the most distinguished leaders of the Republican part}^, and had been Jeffer- son's Secretary of State throughout the lat- ter's Presidenc}^ The relations of the United States to- ward France, and especially toward Eng- land, continued to be strained. In 18 10 Napoleon issued a special decree against American trade, and though this was shortly afterward revoked, both French and English men-of-war repeatedly seized American vessels. English ships even entered American ports to do so, and in 1811 shots were exchanged between the British cruiser Little Belt and the American frigate President. Altogether, between 1803 and 181 2, nine hundred American ships were seized or searched by the British, and six thousand American sailors impressed into the British service In 181 1 there was a ereat rising; of the Indians in the North- western Territory, under the Shawnee chief Tecumseh, whose headquarters were at the confluence of the Tippecanoe and Wa- bash rivers, in Indiana. General William Henry Harrison was sent JAMES MADISON. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 11.^ t^ attack him, and met liis messengers, who promised that on the next day Tecumseh would come to sign a treaty. That night the Indians assaulted General Harrison's camp, but in the fight that followed, called the Battle of the Tippecanoe, they were defeated and crushed. In June, 1812, Louisiana was admitted into the Union as a new State. In the same month war was declared against Eng- land. The first fighting took place on the Northwestern frontier General Hull, governor of Michigan Territory, moved into Canada. His troops were defeated at Brownstown, and he was driven back across the St. Clair River to the fort at Detroit. He was pursued by a British force under General Brock, who had been joined by Tecumseh and his Shawnees. At Brock's first attack upon Detroit, Hull ran up a white flag, surrendering the fort with its garrison and its stores. For this cowardly act, which occurred on the i6th of August, 181 2, Hull was afterward court-martialed and sentenced to be shot, but was pardoned by President Madison. The British had also captured Fort Mackinaw, and were now in possession of the whole of Michigan. Almost equally disastrous was an attempted invasion of Canada 43 GOVERNOR HULL, AFTER HIS DEFEAT AT BROWNSTOWN, WITHDRAWS HIS TROOPS TO FORT DETROIT. 772 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. at Oueenstown, on the Niagara River. A body of New York militia, under General Van Rensselaer, was stationed at Lewiston, on the American side. A detachment crossed the river, attacked the British force at Queenstown, and drove them back ; but reinforcements coming up, and the rest of the New York men refusing to go to their comrades' assistance, the invaders were killed or captured al- most to a man. But while the American flag met with disasters on land, at sea it achieved creditable successes. No important naval battles were fought, but the British frigate Guerriere was captured and burned by the United States frigate Constitution in the Gulf of St. Law- rence. Later in the year the Constitution took a second British frigate, the Java, off the coast of Brazil. Captain Decatur, of the frigate United States, captured a third, the Macedonian, near the Azores. The sloop Wasp met and took the British brig Frolic, off North Carolina, but was in turn captured by an English man-of- war. American privateers were commissioned in great numbers, and did great damage to British commerce, seizing three hundnid vessels within a year. The successes over a nation whose boast it was that for iifify years she had never met defeat on the ocean gave great satisfaction in the United States. Popular approval of President Madison's policy was testified by his re-election in the fall of 1812. In 1813 General Harrison, the victor of Tippecanoe, was placed in command of the army in the Northwest. His campaign opened disastrously. General Winchester, the leader of his advanced guard, was surrounded on the Maumee River and captured, with a thou- sand men, by the British and Indians under General Proctor. Proc- tor then besieged Harrison at Fort Meigs, but was driven off b\^ the arrival of twelve hundred Kentuckians. In July Proctor renewed his attack, but was again unsuccessful, and was also repulsed from Fort Stevenson, at Lower Sandusk3^ In September a fleet of nine small vessels, hastily equipped by the Americans, encountered the six British ships that had hitherto had control of Lake Erie. The latter were defeated and captured, and Perry, the American commander, sent to General Harrison the message, "We have met the enemy and they are ours!" Harrison's arnn' was now carried across the lake to invade Canada. Proctor hurried back to the defense of the British settle- PQ W O 2 H <: w fa w p w ^^ DEATH OF CHIEF SHABBONA. CO < < < < HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 773 ments. The two forces met on the Thames River, where, on the 5th of October, Proctor was defeated, and his Shawnee ally, Te- cumseh, was killed. This success restored Michigan to the United States, and relieved the Northwestern Territory from fear of in- vasion. Meanwhile General Dearborn, in April, had crossed Lake Ontario and captured York (now Toronto), the capital of Upper Canada. Not attempting to retain the town, he next attacked Fort George, the British post on the Niagara River. The com- mander of the fort blew up his magazines and retreated, but in the ensuing battle, at Burlington Heights, the Americans were taken by surprise and forced to withdraw. A detachment of six hun- dred of Dearborn's men was surrounded and captured at Fort George. After this disaster Dearborn was recalled, and was succeeded by General Wilkinson, who planned an expedition against Mon- treal. In the battle of Chrysler's Farm, fought near the rapids of the St. Lawrence, he was successful, but he was unable to reach Montreal, going into winter quarters near St. Regis. There were also hostilities against the Indians in the South- west in 1813. In August the Creeks captured Fort Mims, on the Alabama River, and massacred its inhabitants. Other settlements were attacked, and, though troops from Tennessee and Georgia were called out, the Creek War was not ended until General Jack- son inflicted a crushing defeat on the Indians at the Horseshoe Bend of the Tallapoosa River, in March, 1814. The chief naval actions of 1813 were the sinking of the British brig Peacock by the American sloop Hornet, and the capture of another British brig, the Boxer, b\' the Enterprise. On the other hand, the Chesapeake, commanded by Captain Lawrence, met the British frigate Shannon, off Boston, and was taken after a short fight, in which Lawrence was killed. His last words were " Don't give up the ship ! " The battles of 18 14 were the most important of the war. In June General Brown crossed the Niagara River with five thousand men, took Fort Erie, and on the 14th of July met and defeated a British force under General Riall, at Chippewa. On the 25th the two armies met again in the hard fought battle of Lundy's Lane. The Americans captured a hill on which the British had planted 774 HISTORY OF the; UNITED STATES. a battery, and held it against repeated assaults ; but tbough suc- cessful, their loss was so great that on the following day they were forced to retreat. In the battle the commander of the Amer- ican advance guard, Winfield Scott, " was seriously wounded in the shoulder." * During the summer the British, under General Drummond, besieged Fort Erie, which the Americans held until November, when its commandant. General Izard, blew it up and withdrew from Canada. In September a British expedition of twelve thousand men, under General Prevost, invaded the United States by way of Lake Champlain, and attacked Plattsburg, which was defended by Gen- eral Alacomb, with three thousand men, and a squadron of vessels under Commodore McDonough. On the nth of September, Pre- vost, attempting to cross the Saranac River, was driven back with heavy loss. A British expedition against Baltimore and Washington was more successful. A fleet, under Admiral Cochrane, entered Chesa- peake Bay in August, and landed a force of 4,500 men on the Patuxent River, fifty miles from Washington. The capital was defended only by a body of militia under General Winder, and Commodore Barney's few small vessels; and "the British com- mander. General Robert Ross, boasted that he would wipe out Barne3^'s fleet and dine in Washington the next Sunday." f March- ing upon the capital, Ross defeated its defenders at Bladensburg on the 24th of August, entered the city, burned the Capitol and the White House, and returned to the British fleet. Admiral Cochrane then moved toward Baltimore. He bom- barded Fort McHenry, and there was a skirmish on land at North Point, in which General Ross was killed. The fleet then withdrew. Another British ex- pedition in August occupied Pensacola, in *Lossing's Cyclopaedia of U. S. History (Scott), f Ibid (Bladensburg). THE WHITE HOUSE AT WASHINGTON BATTLE BETWEEN THE ESSEX, UNDER CAPTAIN PORTER, AND TWO ENGLISH !■" I- ■"■■ l-i- AT VALPARAISO, MARCH, 1813. (.75. -776 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Florida (at this time Spanish territory), and moved thence against Fort Bowyer, at the mouth of Mobile Bay. Major Lawrence, in command of the post, repelled the attack with heavy loss. General Jackson, who was at the head of military operations in the South, pursued the invaders to Pensacola and drove them out. New Orleans was the next point of attack. In December the British ships entered Lake Borgne and threatened New Orleans. They captured a flotilla of American vessels, and landed an army of twelve thousand men on the banks of the Mississippi, below rCcw Orleans. Among these soldiers were "some of the best of Wellington's troops that fought on the Spanish peninsula," * and their commander was General Pakenham, who was known as the Hero of Vittoria, from the important part he had played in that battle, fought in Spain the year before. General Jackson had but half as many men, mostly hastily levied and untrained militia. He intrenched himself in a strong position four miles below the city, where, to attack him, the en- emy must move along a narrow and exposed space. Pakenham, who regarded Jackson's forces as nothing better than "a handful of backwoodsmen," ordered his men to assault. They did this in the face of a terrible fire, which mowed down their ranks and finally routed them. In this battle of New Orleans "the British lost 2,600 men, killed, wounded, and made prisoners; while the Americans, shel- tered by their breastworks, lost only eight killed and thirteen wounded. The history of human warfare presents no parallel to this disparitv in loss."f Pakenham himself was among the slain. General Lambert, who succeeded him, at once retreated to his ships. The only notable sea fight of 1814 was that in which the American frigate Essex was captured by two British vessels off Valparaiso. On the 14th of December, 1814, a treaty of peace was signed at Ghent, in Belgium, by British and American commissioners. In those days news traveled slowly, and it was three weeks after the signature of the treaty that the battle of New Orleans was fought. Intelligence of the conclusion of peace reached America * Lossing's Cyclopaedia of U. S. History (New Orleans). f Ibid. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 777 on the nth of February, 1S15, and was thereupon proclaimed by the President. At sea, fighting went on much later. In February the frigate Constitution captured two British sloops off Lisbon. In March the Hornet sank the British brig Penguin near the Cape of Good Hope. In June, four months after the proclamation of peace, the Peacock took the British vessel Nautilus in the Straits of Sunda. The end of the war was hailed with great J03' in America. The Federalist party had all along opposed a war policy, and it had been especially unpopular in New England. Just before the peace, a convention of New England Federalists met to protest against the continuance of hostilities and to set forth their griev- ances. The delegates were charged by their political opponents with intending to desert the Union and make a separate peace with England. The commerce of the country had been greatly injured. The paper currency was much depreciated, and little gold was in circulation. But the New England States had suffered most heav- ily. Their coasts had been blockaded and devastated, their fisher- ies suppressed, and their coasting vessels swept from off the sea. Sd completely was their ocean trade destroj-ed that the lighthouses along their shores had been ordered to extinguish their signals, be- cause they were of service to none but British ships. The land operations of the American forces during the " war "^ of 181 2," as the second war against Great Britain is generally termed, were directed mainly toward repelling British invasions, and to attacking Canada. The commanders who won the greatest distinction were Generals Jackson and Harrison, both of whom be- came Presidents ; Brown and Winfield Scott, afterwards commander- in-chief of the army ; and Alacomb, the victor of Plattsburg. The sea-fights of the war, though fewer and less important, were more signally creditable to the flag than were the land battles. The American navy performed aiiother notable achievement in June, 1815, when Decatur, with nine ships, occupied the harbor of Algiers, and compelled the piratical Dey to release all the Ameri- cans among the slaves captured by his cruisers. The last important event of Madison's administration was the admission to the Union of Indiana, the nineteenth State, in Decem- ber, 1816. In the following March he retired from office, having gained the reputation of one who "had done much in the establish- 77^ HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. ment of the nation on a firm foundation," * and went into private life. " Before the close of Madison's administration, the Federal party had so much declined in strength that a nomination for of&ce b}' the Republican party was equivalent to an election." f In the preceding year the Presidential nomination had fallen upon James Monroe, of Virginia, who was elected, with Daniel D. Tompkins, of New York, as Vice-President. Monroe had performed high public service as an ofi&cer in the Revolutionary War, a Congressman, and as Secretary of War under ]\Iadison. His eight years' administra- tion was marked by peaceful relations with foreign powers. Its most important domestic event was the beginning of the agitation of the Slavery question. In December, 1817, the western half of the Mississippi Territory was created into a State, the eastern being formed into Alabama Territory. In this latter there was immediately afterward an Indian rising, the Creeks renewing their attacks on white settlers, and being assisted b}^ the Semi- noles of Florida. General Gaines, in command of the troops in Alabama, could not suppress the outbreak, and General Jackson called out the Tennessee militia. He attacked and took the Indian villages, and then, finding that the rising had been instigated from bej^ond the frontier of Spanish territory, he " did not hesitate to march across the line, capture Pensacola, and seize the Barrancas," % a neighboring fort. This invasion of Florida created great indignation in Spain. Her government had for some time been more or less unfriendly to America, for she " had always been dissatisfied with Bonaparte's transfer of Louisiana to the United States." J In the following 3^ear, however, the matter was adjusted, and all occasion for future difi&culties at this point removed, by a treaty " which, with many gains, entailed some signal losses on the United States." || Spain agreed to sell Florida for five million dollars — " an acquisition which proved of great value to us from ever}^ point of view."^ JAMES MONROE * Lossing's Cyclopsedia of U. S. History (Madison). f Ibid. (Monroe). t Blaine's Twenty Years of Congress, Vol. I, Chap. i. ? Ibid. || Ibid. 1[ Ibid. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 779 On the other hand, although " the whole of Texas was fairly in- cluded in the Louisiana purchase," * the United States now agreed to consider the Sabine River as its southwestern boundary, thus ceding Texas to Mexico. . In December, 1818, Illinois, the twenty-first State, was admitted to the Union. At the same session of Congress a bill was intro- duced to constitute the Territory of Missouri into a State. The House of Representatives inserted a clause providing that there should be no slavery in the State. The Senate struck it out, and there ensued a long struggle on " the Missouri question, as it was popularly termed." f In 1820 this was settled by the adoption of a compromise, which provided that Missouri should be allowed to come in as a slave State, but that no slavery should be permitted in any State thereafter to be formed north of the latitude of thirty- six and a half degrees, the southern boundary of Missouri. The question had been discussed with great bitterness, the representatives of the North antagonizing slavery, in opposition to those of the South, where slave labor was believed to be necessary for the great agricultural industries of cotton, tobacco, and rice. But the compromise having been adopted, both parties " accepted the result, and for the next twenty years no agitation of the slav- ery question appeared in any political convention, or affected any considerable body of the people." J Meanwhile Alabama (1819) and Maine (1820) had been ad- mitted as States. The tariff question had also risen into prom- inence. In 1816 a bill levying moderate duties on imports had been passed by the influence of the South, and against the wishes of the Northern representatives. The opinions prevalent in the two sections had since become reversed. The Northern States favored an increase of duties, but the Southerners prevented it. In 1822 there were revolts throughout Mexico and South America against the dominion of Spain, to whom almost all South and Central America, with the exception of Brazil, had hitherto been subject. The United States Government recognized the in- dependence of the newly-formed states, and in 1823 President Monroe formulated what "has since been recognized as a part of the settled policy of the Republic,"^ when he declared in his * Blaine's Twenty Years of Congress. Vol. I, Chap. i. f Ibid. | Ibid. I Lossing's Cyclopaedia of U. S. History (Monroe Doctrine). /OO HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. message to Congress that " the American continents are not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European powers." This sentence has become historic as " the Monroe doctrine." President Monroe and Vice President Tompkins were re- elected in 1S20. As their second term drew to a close four candi- dates were nominated for the Presidency — General Andrew Jack- son of Tennessee, Henry Clay of Kentucky, and William H. Crawford of Georgia, by the Republicans ; John Quincy Adams, of Massachusetts, by the opposition. None of im. obtained a majority of the electoral vote. The House of Representatives thereupon elected John Quincy Adams, who was the son of President John Adams, and " a ripe scholar, an able diplomatist, a life- long opponent of human slaver}^, and m eloquent orator." * He had served as a foreign minister, as a senator, and as Secretary of State under Monroe. His Vice-President was John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina. The administration of John Q. Adams was uneventful. The chief ques- tion in domestic politics was that of the tariff, which was debated with great vehe- mence. The Northern and Middle States sought to increase the duties on imports, and .lie representatives of the South opposed them strongly. The great champion of a higher tariff was Daniel Webster, of Massachusetts, who " was the leader of the friends of the administration." f Ulti- mately, in 1828, a bill was passed which imposed high protective duties. In February, 1826, the government purchased from the Creeks their lands in Georgia, and removed the Indians to a tract west of the Mississippi. This was the beginning of the formation of the Indian Territor}-. In the same year, on the 4th of July, exactly fifty years from * Lossing's Cyclopaedia of U. S. History (John Q. Adams). f Ibid. (Webster). JOHN QUINCY ADAWS. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 781 the da}^ when they had signed the Declaration of Independence, two Bx-Presidents, John Adams and Thomas Jefferson, died. In 1828 President John Q. Adams was re-nominated by the Whigs, but was defeated by General Andrew Jackson, the candi- date of the Democrats, as the old Republican party was now termed. John C. Calhoun was re-elected Vice-President. General Jackson, the victor of New Orleans, had had a long and distinguished military career. He " possessed great firmness and decision of character; was honest and true; not always cor- rect in judgment ; often rash in expressions and actions; a patriot of purest stamp."* He took up the administration of the govern- ment with fearless energy. In his first annual message he attacked the Bank of the United States, a powerful, but as he believed, an unconstitutional institu- tion. The bank's charter was about to expire, and President Jackson urged that it should not be renewed. Con- gress passed a bill to re-charter the bank, but the President defeated it by a veto. In 1832 a further increase of the tariff caused great indignation in the South. The State of South Carolina went so far as to declare that the tariff laws were unconstitutional, and therefore null and void ; that the collection of the duties in the port of Charleston would not be per- mitted ; and threatened that South Carolina would leave the Union. " The doctrine of State sovereignty and supremacy, and that the Union was a compact of States that might be dissolved by the secession of any one of them, independent of all action on the part of the others, was honestly held by Mr. Cal- houn," f who was the leader of the movement. President Jackson issued a proclamation against the " nullifi- ers," and promptly sent troops to Charleston, under General Scott. The question was settled without bloodshed. In 1833 Henry Clay f * Lossing's Cyclopaedia of U. S. History (Jackson). f Ibid. (Calhoun). ANDREW JACKS-r. 782 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. introduced a bill for the gradual lowering of the tariff, and the dis- content in South Carolina was allayed. In 1832 the Sac and Fox tribes of Indians, in what is now the State of Wisconsin, broke out into rebellion, led by the chief Black Hawk. There was some fighting before the hostiles were sup- pressed and deported to the newly formed Indian Territory. ^.jf term at t a In the fall of that year President Jack- son was re-elected, with Martin Van Buren, of New York, as his Vice-Presi- dent. His second began with another ck upon the Uniter," The attack upon fort K.NG by the INDIAN FORCES OF OSCEOLA. RUNNING THE GAUNTLET. ARRIVAL OF THE RANGERS. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 783 States Bank, from which he ordered all public moneys to be re- moved. In 1834 there arose a dispute with the French government, which had agreed to pay five million dollars as an indemnity for the damage done to American vessels during the wars of Napo- leon, but had withheld payment. Jackson's urgent demand pre- vented further delay. In 1835 the Seminole Indians of Florida began a war which lasted for seven years, and cost the government forty million dol- lars. Major Dade, marching with 117 men to reinforce the garri- son of Fort Drane, was surrounded by the Indians, and only four of his soldiers escaped. On the same day Fort King was attacked, and its commander. General Thomson, killed, by the crafty Seminole chief, Osceola. The Indians were defeated by Gen- eral Gaines and by Governor Call of Florida in 1836, but they refused to submit, and re- treated into the Everglades, where pursuit was impossible. After fifteen years had passed since the admission of a State, Arkansas w^as allowed to enter the Union in June, 1836, and Michigan in January, 1837. This was in accordance with the recognized custom by which, to pre- serve the balance of the sections, a Northern and a Southern State w^ere created at or near the same time. " Kentucky and Vermont, Tennessee and Ohio, Mississippi and Indiana, Alabama and Illinois, Missouri and Maine, Arkansas and Michigan, Florida and Iowa, came into the Union in pairs."* In March, 1837, Jackson retired from the Presidency. "Never were the affairs of the republic in its domestic and foreign relations more prosperous than at the close of his term of office." f At the election of the preceding fall Martin Van Buren, the Vice-President, had been elected to succeed Jackson. The opposi- tion party, which now was called the Whig Party, had divided its * Blaine's Twenty Years of Congress, Vol. I, Chap. 3. f Lossing's Cyclopcedia of U. S. History Qackson). MARTIN VAN BUREN. 784 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. ILLIAM HENRY HARRISON. ^m vote between four candidates, of whom General William H. Harrison of Ohio, received the most support. Van Buren's administration began with a financial panic, following a period of excessive speculation. Industries were stopped, and bank- ruptcy was epidemic. An extra session of Con- gress was called, but could do little to remedy matters. The sub-treasury system was an ex- pedient proposed at this time by the President. In the same year (1837) ^ rebellion in Canada excited much sympathy in the United States, and might have led to a war with England had not the President taken prompt measures to prevent the sending of any assistance to the rebels. Osceola, the leader of the hostile Seminoles, was captured by General Jessup in October, 1837. This, however, did not end the war ; nor did Colonel Zachary Tay- lor's victory over the Indians at Lake Okeechobee, on Christmas " ' "^ Day, 1838. The struggle was not finally enderd until 1842. The general depression of business during Van Buren's Presidency, and the discontent thus caused, contributed largely to his defeat when renominated by the Democrats in 1840. The successful candidate was General William H. Harrison of Ohio, the nominee of the Whigs, celebrated as the victor of Tippecanoe and for his services in the war of 181 2. He died just a month after his inauguration, and was succeeded by the Vice-President, John Tyler, of Virginia. Congress again met in special session to deal with the disturbed finances of the country. Among other measures, it passed a bill to re- establish a national bank. President Tyler vetoed the bill, a step that aroused great indignation among the Whigs, who accused him of breaking his pledges. " Mr. Clay led the attack upon him openly and savagely, and pursuing him so violently that in September, five months after Tyler's JOHN TYLER HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 785 accession, every member of his cabinet resigned except Mr. Web- ster "* who remained in office to complete the negotiation of the Ashburton treaty, defining the boundary between Maine and Canada. This question at one time threatened to cause a war with England, but was finally settled in 1842, the frontier being fixed as it now exists. In 1843 and 1844 there were local dis turbances in Rhode Island and in Illinois The constitution of Rhode Island was still the old charter of the colony, granted nearly two hundred years before. Ac- cording to its provisions, the right of suffrage was restricted by a property qualification. This brought about a bitter controversy between the " suf- frage party," who demanded a free vote, and the "law and order party," which defended the existing constitu- tion. In 1843 each party elected a gov- ernor, and the suffragists, under Thomas W. Dorr, attacked the State arsenal. Uni- ted States troops were called upon to sup press the brief civil war. Dorr was arrested and convicted of treason, but was shortly released, and the State constitution was amended to remove ««« Houston the property qualification. The disturbance in Illinois was less serious. The polygamous Mormon sect had established itself at Nauvoo, in that State. In 1844 its leader, Joseph Smith, was lynched by a mob, and in the following year his followers were forcibly expelled from Illinois. They marched westward into the Rocky Mountains, and settled in the Salt Lake Valley. Texas, which by the treaty with Spain in 1819 had been ceded to Mexico, had seceded from that country in 1835. A Mexican army under Santa Anna captured the Alamo, a fort in San Antonio, and massacred its defenders, but was defeated at San Jacinto by the Texans, com- * Blaine's Twenty Years of Congress, Vol. I, Chap. 2. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. manded bj^ Sam Houston. Texas was then organized as a republic, with Houston as its President, and though its " independence had never been conceded by Mexico," * it had been recognized by the United States and other powers. " The Americans who, in a spirit of adventure, migrated to Texas after that province had revolted from Mexico, became the controlling power in the young repub- lic," t and in April, 1844, it applied for admission into the Union. The question of the admission of Texas caused great excite- ment in the United States. It was generally opposed in the North likely to lead to war with Mexico. On the other d, Calhoun, the great Southern leader, urged the scheme of annexation with in- tense earnestness," J and the Democratic party favored it. In July the Senate re- jected a treaty admitting Texas, but the question became the principal issue in the ensuing Presidential campaign. Popular excitement was increased by a dispute with England for the posses- sion of the Territory of Oregon. The Democrats nominated James K. Polk of Tennessee, "chiefly because he was strongly in favor of the annexa- tion of Texas;" ^ the Whigs selected Henry Clay of Kentucky. In spite of the great personal popularity of Mr. Clay, rhose followers " had the profound personal attachment which is only looked for in heredi- :y governments, where loyalty becomes a pas- sion," II Air. Polk was successful. There was also an Abolitionist candidate in the field, James G. Birney of New York, who polled about sixty thousand votes, " largely at the ex- pense of the Whig party." ^ Regarding the election of Polk as "an unquestionable verdict from the people in favor of the annexation,"** Congress, just before the expiration of President Tyler's term, passed the necessary act. JOHN C. CALHOUN. * Blaine's Twenty Years of Congress, Vol. I., Chap. 3, 2 Lossing's Cyclopaedia of U. S. History (Polk). II Blaine's Twenty Years of Congress, Vol. I, Chap. 2. f Ibid., Chap. 2. ^ Ibid. ** Ibid. t Ibid. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 787 Florida and Iowa were admitted as States two days later (Marcii 3, 1845)- The year 1S44 is also memorable for the construction, between Washington and Baltimore, of the earliest electric telegraph, the invention of S. F. B. Morse. President Polk's administration began with two international difiiculties. That with England, on the Oregon question, was set- tled by a treaty fixing the northwestern boundary at latitude 49°. The Democratic cimpaign cry had been "54° 40' or fight," but it had become clear " that the English government would have gone to war rather than surrender the territory north of the forty- ninth parallel." '* f^ The annexation of Texas led to the Alexican War. " According to the persistent claim of the Mexican government, the Nueces river was the 'western boundary' of Texas," f while the Texans asserted that their territory extended to the Rio Grande. Early in 1S46 General Zachary Taylor, who had entered the disputed tract, came into col- lision with Mexican troops, and on the 24th of April "the first blood was shed in that contest between the two republics which was destined to work such important results in the future and fortunes of both." % The first serious conflict occurred on the 8th of May, 1846, at Palo Alto, where "General Tay- lor, marching with less than 2,300 men towards Fort Brown, encountered about 6,000 ^Mexicans under General Arista," '^S and defeated them. The forces met again on the following day at Resaca de la Palma, with the same result. On the nth of May Congress declared war and called for 50,000 volunteers. General Winfield Scott was commander-in-chief of the United States army; but "the plans submitted by him for a campaign in Mexico were disapproved by the administration " || as being unnec- essarily hazardous. "Taylor was therefore left in command," *[[ and * Blaine's Twenty Years of Congress, Vol. I, Chap. 3. j Ibid, Chap. 4. X Ibid, Chap. 4. | Lossing's CyclopEedia of U. 8. History (Palo Alto). II Grant's Memoirs, Chap. 9. ^ Ibid, Chap. 9. ZACHARY TAYLOR. 44 ySS HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. advanced across the Rio Grande. In September he captured Mon- terey, capital of the province of Nuevo Leon, and agreed to an eight weeks' armistice to discuss terms of peace. Meanwhile Colonel Fremont, who had been at the head of an exploring expedition in the Rocky Mountains, had driven the Mex- icans from most of California. Monterey,' Los Angeles, and other posts on the coast, were captured by Commodores Sloat and Stock- ton in July and August, 1846. In December General Kearny ar- rived in California as commander of the Army of the West, having marched overland from Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. On the way he occupied Santa Fe, and detached Colonel Doniphan to strike southward into Mexico. On Christmas Day Doniphan defeated 4,000 Mexicans under General de Leon at Bracito, and in the spring of 1S47 ^^ joined Tajdor's army. In 1847, negotiations for peace having failed, it was decided to try General Scott's plan for an invasion of Mexico, by landing at Vera Cruz and marching upon the capital. With this in view Scott withdrew from Taylor the best portion of his troops. There- upon Santa Anna moved up with nearl}^ 20,000 Mexicans to at- tack Taylor's remaining force of 5,000 men, which was " composed almost entirely of volunteers who had not been in battle before." * The armies met at Buena Vista, where Taylor won a brilliant victory, forcing Santa Anna to withdraw (February 23 and 24, 1847)- General Scott landed at Vera Cruz in March with 12,000 men — " a very small army with which to penetrate two hundred and sixty miles into an enemy's country and to besiege the cap- ital." t Events showed the wisdom of his plans, however, for "in a campaign of about six months he became the conqueror of Mex- ico." J After capturing Vera Cruz, with its fort of San Juan de Uloa, " as soon as transportation enough could be got together to move a division, the advance was commenced." ^S A Mexican force was drawn up to meet Scott at Cerro Gordo, at the foot of the mountains. "Santa Anna had selected this point as the easiest to defend against an invading army," || but Scott outflanked him and signally defeated him (April 18, 1847). ^^^ May the Americans * Grant's Memoirs, Chapter 9. f Ibid, Chapter 10. X Lossing's Cyclopaedia of U. S. History (Scott). g Grant's Memoirs, Chapter 10. || Ibid, Chapter 10. A THRILLING ESCAPE. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 789 entered Puebla, where they halted to rest and await reinforce- ments. Leaving Puebla on the 7th of August, Scott's army crossed the mountains and saw before it the valley and city of Alexico. This was defended by extensive fortifications and about 32,000 Mexican soldiers. To avoid the strongest of the enemy's works, Scott ordered a detour to the south, and approached the city from that direction. The fortified camp at Contreras and the fortress of San Antonio were captured on August 20th by the divisions of General Smith and General Worth. On the same da}^ the heights of Cherubusco, occupied by the Mexicans, were attacked and carried after a sharp struggle. In these operations " the strategy and tactics displayed by General Scott were faultless." * His loss was eleven hundred, while the enemy lost four thousand killed and wounded and three thousand prisoners. General Scott was now within three miles of the city of Mexico. Santa Anna applied for an armistice, which was granted, and negotiations for peace were again attempted. j\Ir. Trist, who was with Scott as commissioner for the government, demanded that " Texas was to be given up absolutely by Mexico, and New Mexico and California ceded to the United States for a stipulated sum to be afterward determined." f Santa Anna rejected the proposal, and fighting was resumed. On September 8th General Worth captured the Mexican post at Molino del Re}^, and on the 13th the strong fortress of Chapultepec was attacked and stormed, leaving the Americans in command of the city of Mexico. "Dur- ing the night Santa Anna with his army left the city," J after "liberating all the convicts confined in the town," (J) anc; on the following day Scott's army entered it and raised the American flag over the government buildings. Santa Anna moved upon Puebla, where General vScott had left Major Childs, in charge of eighteen hundred sick and wounded. Childs held the town against Santa Anna until General Lane ar- rived with reinforcements and drove him off. Meanwhile negotia- tions had been opened with a " temporary government established at Queretaro, 1| which resulted in the conclusion of a treaty of peace, signed at Guadalupe Hidalgo, on the 2d of February, 1848. * Grant's Memoirs, Chap. 11. f Ibid., Chap. 11. J Ibid., Chap. 11. gibid.. Chap. 11. || Ibid., Chap. 12. 790 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. By its terms Mexico accepted the demands previously made by the | United States, recognizing the Rio Grande as the boundary of Texas, and receiving fifteen millions of dollars for New Mexico and California. On the 4th of July, 1848, President Polk pro- claimed the end of the war, which had been a brilliant one for the American army. Our soldiers had repeatedly vanquished thrice and four times their numbers of the enemy. It should be remem- bered, however, that " the Mexican army of that day was hardly an organization." * At the beginning of 1848 there were not more than fifteen thousand settlers in the territory of California. In February of that year gold was discovered there, the first nugget being found by one Marshall, at Captain Sutter's mill, on a branch of the Sacramento River, in Coloma County. The discovery created world-wide excitement, and there was a rush of immigration to the gold fields. The Forty-niners, as the gold seekers of 1849 were called, had to reach California by Cape Horn, by the Isthmus of Panama, or by a difi&cult and dangerous jour- ney across the great plains and the Rocky Mount- ains ; but they flocked to California in such num- bers that its population increased to 100,000, and it sought admission as a State. Wisconsin, the thirtieth State, had just secured admission (May, 1848), but the application of California led to a serious political conflict. For the Presidential election of 1848 the Democrats nominated Lewis Cass, of Michigan, and William Butler, of Kentucky. The Whigs named General Zachary Taylor, of Louisiana, one of the heroes of the Mexican war, for President, and for Vice-President Millard Fillmore, who had served as a Congress- man and as Controller of his State, New York, " with rare ability and fidelity." t Ex-President Martin Van Buren was the candidate of the Free Soilers, whose platform demanded the prohibition of slavery in all the Territories of the United States The canvass resulted in the election of Taylor and Fillmore. * Grant's Memoirs, Chap. 12. f Lossing's Cyclopaedia of U. S. History (Fillmore). JAMES K. POLK HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 791 President Taylor had a " blunt, honest, and stern character, that endeared him to the masses of the people," * His brief ad- ministration was mainly occupied by the dispute over the admis- sion of California. The constitution provisionally adopted had a clause forbidding slavery, and this was opposed by the representa- tives of the Southern States in Congress. The question was de- bated with a vehemence that foreshadowed the civil war, until in May, 1850, the Senate appointed a committee to devise a plan of compromise. Henry Clay, the great Whig statesman, was chair- man of the committee, and the chief author of the bill it drew up, which was nicknamed the Omnibus Bill, on account of the varied nature of its provisions. It admitted California with a free constitution. On the other hand, it provided for the arrest and re- turn to their masters of all slaves who might escape to a free State. At the same time, it abolished slavery in the District of Columbia, and created the Territories of Utah and New Mexico. slavery being prohibi:ed in the form^er but not in the latter. The bill was ac- cepted by Congress, and became a law in September, 1850. On the 9th of July President Taylor died after a brief illness, and was succeeded in office by ]\Ir. Fillmore, the Vice-President. President Fillmore conscientiously enforced the provisions of the Omnibus Bill ; but it became evident that the compromise was only partially successful, and that the views of the extremists on both sides were irreconcilable. In 1 85 1 our relations with Spain were imperiled by a filibus- tering invasion of Cuba, organized by one Lopez, who enlisted five hundred men in the South and Southwest. On landing in Cuba, Lopez's expedition was captured by the Spaniards, and some of its members were shot. Another difficulty with England arose in the following year. * Sherman's Memoirs, Chap. 2. HENRY CLAY. 792 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. MILLARD FILLMORE It had been agreed in 1818 that American vessels should not fish within three miles of the Cana- dian shore. The Canadians claimed that by the treaty the Americans had no right to enter the gulfs and bays of the coast. Our fishermen held that they might do so, providing they kept three miles from land. In 1852 the dispute became so serious that British and American war-ships were ordered to the Canadian coast. The diffi- culty was arranged, however, without hostilities, although the question was not finally settled. In the Presidential campaign of that year the Democratic candidates were Franklin Pierce of New Hampshire, and William R. King of Alabama. The Whigs nominated General Win- field Scott of New Jersey, the . conqueror of Mexico, and William A. Graham of North Caro- lina. Both of these leading political parties indorsed the Omnibus Bill, though it was thoroughly popular with neither. It was openly opposed by the Free-Soilers, whose candidate for the Presidency was John P. Hale of New Hamp- shire. Mr. Pierce, who had served with distinc- tion in the Mexican war and in the United States Senate, was successful, receiving a large majority of the electoral vote. Two great statesmen died in 1852 — Henry Clay, the Whig leader, and Daniel Webster, the Massachusetts Senator. Webster's fame was as an orator and jurist. The speech he delivered in the Senate, in reply to Hayne of South Caro- lina, is " considered the most correct and com- plete exposition ever given of the true powers and functions of the national government." * In March, 1853, President Fillmore retired from office, "leaving the country in a state of peace within and without, and every department of industry flourishing," f although the bitterness of political par- tisanship was very great. The earliest acts of his successor's ad- * Lossin^'s Cyclopaedia of U. S. History (Webster). f Ibid. (Fillmore). FRANKLIN PIERCE. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. •93 ministration were the creation of the Territory of Arizona, and the sending out of expeditions to surve}^ a route for a railroad to the Pacific coast. Commodore Perry, who had been despatcHed to Japan b}' Presi- dent Fillmore to endeavor to open that country to American com- merce, reached Jeddo with his squadron in the summer of 1853. He succeeded in negotiating a treaty witb the emperor, by which Amer- ica was the first western nation to be admitted to Japanese ports. The conflict of parties in and out of Congress was renewed by the Kansas-Nebraska bill, brought forward in 1853 b}- Senator Stephen Af Douglas, of Illinois. It created the Territories of Kansas and Ne- braska, and left the question of slaver}^ to be decided b}- their inhabitants, or by *' Squatter Sovereignt}-," as it was gener- ally termed. This was contrary- to the Missouri Compromise of 1820, which prohibited slavery in all territories north of latitude 36° 30'. Neverthe- less, in spite of strenuous opposition, the bill passed through Congress and became a law in Alay, 1S54. A violent struggle ensued in Kan- sas between the advocates and the op- ponents of slavery in the Territor}-. So much blood was shed in the contest that the Territory was termed " Bleeding Kansas," and the civil war of its hostile parties created great excitement throughout the countr}-. The conflict in Kansas was still in progress w'hen the time came for the election of 1856. In the summer the Democrats nominated James Buchanan, of Pennsylvania, for Presi- dent, and John C. Breckinridge, of Kentuck}-, for Vice-President, and indorsed the Kansas-Nebraska act. The Whig party had become disintegrated, the great majority of its members having joined the new Republican party. This had sprung into existence on the issue of slaver^-, and declared that all the Territories should be free — the doctrine of the old Free-Soilers. The Republican candidates were John C. Fremont, of California, whose successful DANIEL WEBSTER. 794 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. explorations in the far West had won him the sobriquet of the "Path-finder," and William L. Dayton, of New Jersey. The small American, or " Know-Nothing" party, which advocated the restric- tion of foreign immigration, nominated ex-President Fillmore. At the polls Buchanan and Breckinridge were victorious. President Buchanan's term of office was marked chiefly by the alarming increase of sectional animosities. The Fugitive Slave Law — that part of the Omnibus Bill compromise which provided for the arrest of escaped slaves — was extremely unpopular in the North. The opponents of slavery maintained a system known as the " Un- derground Railroad," by which slaves were, secretly aided to escape. Several Northern legislatures met the Federal law with Personal Liberty Bills, securing a trial to fugitive negroes. These bills, in turn, aroused much indignation in the South, where they were regarded as being in violation of the Constitution. In 1857 the Mormons of Salt Lake City, led by Brigham Young, expelled a United States judge from Utah, and openly defied the Federal author- ities. Troops were sent to suppress the rebellion, which subsided upon their arrival. Minnesota was admitted as a State in May, 1858, and Oregon in the following February. This finally destroyed the balance in the number of free and slave States, long maintained by the admission of States in pairs, a Northern and a Southern State being created at about the same time. There were now eighteen Northern and fifteen Southern States, giving the former a majority of six in the Senate. In the House of Representatives its majority was sixty, owing to the rapid expansion of population in the North, whither immigrants were flocking in rapidly increasing numbers. In October, 1859, occurred an incident that greatly embittered the feeling between North and South. John Brown, a Free-Soil ex- tremist in Kansas, organized a raiding party of twenty-one men and seized the United States arsenal at Harper's Ferry, Virginia, with the avowed object of causing a rising of the slaves. In this he was unsuccessful. After holding the arsenal for two days, he was attacked by a body of State and National troops, and his men," JAMES BUCHANAN HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 795 except two, who escaped, were killed or captured. Brown was tried by the State of Virginia, convicted, and hanged. The one great issue of the Presidential campaign of i860 was the slavery question. The foreign relations of the country were at this time uniformly peaceful. "The long series of irritating and dangerous questions which had disturbed the relations of the United States and Great Britain, from the time of the Declara- tion of Independence, had reached final and friendly solution." * But while foreign affairs were on so satisfactory a footing, the political prospect at home was a troubled one. In April, the Democratic nominating convention met at Charleston, S. C. The delegates of extreme Southern views, finding themselves unable to control the convention, left it in a body, and nominated John C. Breckinridge, of Kentucky. The delegates who remained in the convention named Stephen A. Douglas, of Illinois, while a third section, which termed itself the Union party, put forward John Bell, of Tennessee. While the Democrats were thus hopelessly split, the Republicans were united for Abraham Lincoln, of Illinois, for President, and Hannibal Hamlin, of Maine, for Vice-President. The result was the election of Lincoln in No- vember. Throughout the canvass Southern extremists had threatened that if Lincoln should be elected the South would leave the Union, and declared that they would not tolerate the administration of a President who was avowedly opposed to slavery. When the re- sult of the election was known they proceeded to prove that they meant what they said. On the 17th of December a convention met at Charleston, which, on the 20th, declared that South Caro- lina was no longer one of the United States. Six others — Missis- sippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Loiiisiana, and Texas, — took similar steps before the end of January, and on the 4th of Febru- ary a convention met at Montgomery, Alabama, and formed a new government under the name of the Confederate States of America. ' It elected Jefferson Davis, up to that time United States Senator from Mississippi, President, and Alexander H. Stephens, of Geor- gia, Vice-President. Almost all the United States forts and posts throughout the Southern States had fallen into the hands of the secessionists, with * Blaine's Twenty Years of Congress, Vol. I, Chapter 26. 796 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. a vast quantity of arms and stores, valued in all at nearly twenty millions of dollars. The government at Washington did nothing. The President's cabinet was largely composed of Southern sympa- thizers. General Cass, the Secretary of State, who favored an ac- tive policy, was forced to resign by the President's apathy. Neither section understood the other. The general opinion in the North was that the South would not take up arms when it had four millions of slaves in its population. The South believed that the North would not fight for the maintenance of the Union. But meanwhile the country was drifting into civil war. On the 9th of January, 1861, the steamer Star of the West, despatched to relieve Fort Sumter, in Charleston Harbor — one of the few Southern forts still held by the Federal government — was fired upon and driven off, Bven after this overt act of hostility. President Buchanan adopted no decided plan of action. He declared that he had "no authority to decide what shall be the relations between the Federal government and South Carolina." * In January, 1861, Kansas, where the anti-slavery party had finally been victorious, was admitted into the Union as a State. Abraham Lincoln, of Illinois, the President elect, and one of the most remarkable figures of American history, was a man of humble origin. Born in Kentucky in 1809, he grew to manhood in what was then the backwoods of Indiana. At twenty-one, mov- ing to Illinois, he became the keeper of a store. Then, a self- taught law3^er, he was elected to the State Legislature and to Con- gress. He was brought into national prominence by his unsuccess- ful contest against Stephen A. Douglas for a seat in the Senate. Since his election to the Presidency, so bitter had been the speeches of his extreme opponents, that fears were entertained for his personal safety on his journey to Washington. But after mak- ing "a quick and secret night journey through Baltimore to the Federal capital," f he was inaugurated without disturbance on the 4th of March, 1861. For his cabinet, "Mr. Lincoln chose his ablest friends," J the most noted members being William H. Seward, Secretary of State; Edwin M. Stanton, Secretary of War; and Sal- mon P. Chase, Secretary of the Treasury. Expecting that Fort Sumter would be reinforced by the Fed- *Nicolay & Hay's Lincoln, Vol. Ill, Chapter 5. t Ibid, Vol. Ill, Chapter 20. J Ibid, Vol. Ill, Chapter 22. s//cuA>iycir^ FROM A PHOTOGRAPH TAKEN BEFORE HIS ELECTION IN 1860. 798 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. eral government, the Confederate forces at Charleston decided to attack it. On the 12th of April, "at about half-past four, as the dim outline of Fort Sumter began to define itself in the morning twilight," * the bombardment began, and on the 13th Major Ander- son, commanding the fort, surrendered it. The news that the Con- federates had thus made "active, aggressive war upon the United States " t caused great excitement throughout the country. Presi- dent Lincoln at once issued a call for 75,000 volunteers, to serve three months, and the summons met with a ready response in the North. The fall of Sumter heightened the enthusiasm of the South. On the 17th of April Virginia passed a secession ordinance. Bodies of State militia were immediately despatched to seize the United States arsenal at Harper's Ferry, and the great navy yard at Nor- folk. The commander of the arsenal abandoned it, after firing the buildings and destroying a part of the stores. The same course was taken by the Federal officers at the Norfolk navy yard, the war ships there being sunk or burned, and the cannon spiked. The Confederates, however, captured an immense amount of guns and stores, and afterwards raised some of the sunken vessels. Three more States followed their Southern sisters out of the Union — Arkansas, May 6 ; North Carolina, May 20 ; and Tennes- see, June 6. This raised the number of the Confederate States to eleven. The first volunteer regiment to arrive in Washington was the Sixth Massachusetts. While passing through Baltimore on its way to the capital, on the 19th of April, it was attacked by a mob, and "lost four men killed and thirty-six wounded." J Other reg- iments rapidly followed, and on the 3rd of May the President is- sued a call for eighty thousand additional troops, to serve for three years, "swelling the entire military establishment of the nation to an army of 156,861, and a navy of 25,600." § At this time "Lieutenant-General Scott commanded the army in chief." || The conqueror of Mexico, although a Virginian, and though he personally "deprecated war,"^ had adhered to the Fed- eral cause. So quickly had the Northern States answered President *Nicolay and Hay's Lincoln, Vol. IV, Chapter 3. f Ibid, Vol. IV, Chapter 3. X Ibid, Vol. IV. Chapter 6. ^ Ibid, Vol. IV, Chapter 14. II Sherman's Memoirs, Chapter 8. If Nicolay and Hay's Lincoln, Vol. IV., Chapter 5. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 799 Lincoln's call that " all fears for the safety of the capital had ceased, and quite a large force of regulars and volunteers had been col- lected in and about Washington." * On the 23rd of May, a brigade commanded by General Irwin McDowell crossed the Potomac and occupied Alexandria. After two months of drilling and organizing the recruits, " the cry of * On to Richmond ! ' forced General Scott to hasten his preparations and order a general advance about the middle of July."f As yet the Federal troops were " far from being soldiers." J General Sherman, who was under McDowell, asserts that on the march, " with all his personal efforts, he could not prevent the men from straggling for water, blackberries, or any thing on the way they fancied." ^ Richmond had been selected as the capital of the seceded States, whose government was to assemble there on the 20th of July. At the beginning of the month the Confederates "had two armies in front of Washington ; the one at Manassas Junction, commanded by General Beauregard ; the other, commanded by General Joseph H. Johnston, w^as at Winchester." || On the 21st of July McDowell attacked Beauregard. The ensuing battle of Bull Run was ''one of the best planned battles of the war, but one of the worst fought." ^ Johnston arriving to reinforce Beauregard, Mc- Dowell's troops became panic-stricken and fled in disorder. Had the Confederate army pursued them, it might have entered the Federal capital. Indeed, Johnston's " failure to capture W^ashing- ton received strong and general condemnation in the South." ** Meanwhile hostilities had begun at other points. General George B. McClellan, who after serving in the Mexican war had retired, and had become "president of the Ohio and IMississippi railroad, "ff was placed in command of a Union force in western Vir- ginia. He defeated the Confederates at Philippi on June 3, and at Rich Mountain on July 11. He was then called to Washington to take command of the army there. General Rosecrans, who succeeded him in Western Virginia, won the battles of Carnifex Ferry and Cheat Mountain, and drove the Confederates from that part of the State west of the Alleghany Mountains. * Sherman's Memoirs, Chapter S. f Ibid, Chapter 8. J Ibid, Chapter 8. § Ibid, Chapter 8. 1| Ibid, Chapter 8. ^ Ibid, Chapter 8. ** Johnston's Narrative of Military Operations, Chapter 2. ft Nicolay and Hay's Lincolh, Vol. IV, Chapter 16. 800 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Kentucky and Missouri, although slave holding States, had not joined the Confederacy. The sympathies of their citizens were di- vided. General Polk, ordered by the Richmond government to occupy Kentucky, blocked the Mississippi by fortifying Columbus. In Missouri, the secession party made a great effort to carry the State out of the Union. " Governor Jackson, having decided on revolution, formed at St. Louis a nominal camp of instruction under the State Militia laws," * where he designed to assemble a Confederate army. But the camp was broken up by General Lyon, who defeated Jackson's forces at Booneville on June 17, 1861. Jack- son was again defeated by Colonel Siegel at Carthage on July 5th. General Lyon was killed at Wilson's Creek on the loth of August, and the Confederate General Price on September 20th captured 2,600 Union troops at Lexington. In November, General Halleck, a man "not only practically accomplished in his profession as a soldier, but also distinguished as a writer on military art and science," f was appointed to command the Federal army of the West, and drove Price southward toward Arkansas. A brigade of Halleck's army was stationed at Cairo, " the mili- tary key of the Mississippi Valley." J From this point 3,000 men under General Ulysses S. Grant were sent to attack the Confederate camp at Belmont, on the Mississippi opposite Columbus, but re- treated after fighting ''a drawn battle," >J) November 7, 1861. On taking command at Washington, General IMcClellan busied himself during the fall and winter in drilling and organizing his army of recruits. The only battle fought during the remainder of the year was that of Ball's Bluff, on the Potomac, in which 1,900 Union troops under Colonel Baker were defeated with heavy loss by General Evans, October 21. At sea, the Federal government had in April proclaimed a blockade of all the Southern ports. Almost all the forts and de- fenses on the coast had been seized by the Confederates at the out- break of the war. Fort Pickens, at Pensacola, had been held by its commander. The fortifications at Hatteras Inlet were captured by Commodore Stringham and General Butler in August, and in No- vember the important harbor of Port Royal, South Carolina, was taken. *Nicolay and Hay's Lincoln, Vol. IV. Chapter ii. f Ibid, Vol. V, Chapter 5. X Ibid, Vol. IV, Chapter 10. g Ibid, Vol. V, Chapter 7. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 8oi In October the Richmond government despatched two com- missioners, Mason and Slidell, to treat with the French and British governments. After running the blockade from Charleston, they reached Cuba, and took passage for England on the British ship Trent. Captain Wilkes, in the United States steamer San Ja- cinto, stopped the Trent, seized Mason and Slidell, and carried them to Boston. His action, of doubtful legality, caused great excitement in England, and " seriously threatened to embroil the nation in a war with Great Britain." * Mr. Seward, Secretary of State, at once declared that Captain Wilkes had acted without authority, and the two commissioners were allowed to sail for England from Boston. Their missions proved entirely fruitless. The year 1862 '' brought stirring events to the armies in the West." t The fighting opened in Kentucky. General Sherman, ordered to Louisville in the preceding fall, had complained that his "force was out of all proportion to the importance of the posi- tion." J A large army had now been stationed in that section, under General Buell. Two of Buell's subordinates. Colonel Gar- field and General Thomas, won the battles of the Big Sandy and Mill Spring, respectively, in January, 1862. General Grant, in command of a brigade of Halleck's army, had suggested to that of&cer that, "if permitted, he could take , and hold Fort Henry, on the Tennessee," (J an important Confed- ^ erate position. He was ordered to advance on the fort, while a fleet of gunboats, under Commodore Foote, was ordered to attack it from the river. Before Grant reached the fort it had surrendered to the gunboatS; February 6. Most of its garrison had escaped to Fort Donelson, on the Cumberland River, twelve miles away. General Grant, " knowing the importance of the place," || pushed on to attack it. He was obliged to wait until February 14 before the gunboats could steam down the Tennessee to Cairo, and up the Cumberland to Fort Don- elson. The fort was a strong post. To reduce it Grant had " 15,000 men, including eight batteries," ^ while it was "probable that the Confederate force was 21,000."** On the 15th the defend- ers attempted to break Grant's lines, but were repulsed, and their * Nicolay and Hay's Lincoln, Vol. V, Chapter 2. f Ibid., Vol. V, Chapter 7. J Sherman's Memoirs, Chapter 8. § Grant's Memoirs, Chapter 21. II Ibid., Chapter 21. ![ Ibid., Chapter 21. **Ibid., Chapter 22. 8o2 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Generals, Floyd and Pillow, fled with a part of the garrison. Next day General Buckner, on whom the command had devolved, offered to treat with Grant, who returned the famous message, " No terms except an unconditional and immediate surrender can be accepted. I propose to move immediately upon your works." * Buckner thereupon surrendered the fort, with 12,000 men — the greatest success yet achieved by the Federal forces. Owing to a misunderstanding with Halleck, Grant was for a time, after the capture of Fort Donelson, ''virtually under arrest and without a command," f although he "had done so much that General Halleck should have been patient." J He was, however, speedily reinstated, and moved his forces southward toward Cor- inth, " the great stragetic position being the Tennessee and Missis- sippi Rivers, and between Nashville and Vicksburg." § At this time " all the Confederate troops west of the Alle- ghany Mountains, with the exception of those in the extreme South," II were commanded by General Albert Sidney Johnston, " a man of high character and ability, but vacillating and undecided in his actions." % After the fall of Fort Donelson, General John- ston "abandoned Nashville and fell back into northern Missis- sippi." ** On April 6, 1862, he suddenly attacked Grant's army, which was at Shiloh Church, near Pittsburg Landing, on the Tennessee. The ensuing battle of Shiloh "was the severest bat- tle fought in the West during the war," f f and one that has been the subject of a great deal of controversy." ^^J The Union forces, whose " effective strength was 33,000," •J'J were during the first day driven back, after some desperate fighting in which General John- ston was killed. On the 7th Grant was reinforced by General Lewis Wallace, who ''did not arrive in time to take part in the first day's fight." || || The Federal troops recovered their lost ground and drove the Confederates from the field — a success which " gave the men that achieved it great confidence." %^ Meanwhile " the Army of the Mississippi, commanded by Major-General John M. Pope, was moving directly down the Mis- sissippi River, against that portion of the Confederate line which, * Grant's Memoirs, Chap. 22. f Ibid., Chap. 23. X Sherman's Memoirs, Chap. 9. ^ Grant's Memoirs, Chap. 24. || Ibid., Chap. 23. % Ibid., Chap. 25. ** Ibid.. Chap. 23. ff Grant's Memoirs, Chap. 25. JJ Sherman's Memoirs, Chap. 9. 2? Grant's Memoirs, Chap. 25. |||| Ibid., Chap. 24. TfTf Ibid., Chap. 25. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 803 under Generals Polk and Pillow, had fallen back from Columbus, Kentucky, to Island No. 10 and New Madrid." * Pope, who, " though still a j'-oung man, was a veteran soldier," and " had served with great distinction in the Mexican war," f captured Isl- and No. 10, with 5000 prisoners, on the 7th of April, 1862. The Union gunboats captured Fort Pillow on June 4, and two days later Memphis surrendered to them. In August the Confederates made another attempt to conquer Kentucky. " Two Confederate armies, under General Kirb}^ Smith and General Braxton Bragg, penetrated "J into that State from eastern Tennessee. Smith defeated a Union force at Richmond) Kentucky (August 30), and Bragg captured a body of 4500 men at Mumfordsville (September 17). After threatening Cincinnati and Louisville, the two Confederate armies united at Frankfort, and on the 8th of October met Buell's forces in the severe battle of Perry- ville. Buell had the best of the fight, but Bragg's troops " retired in good order," § and took a vast quantity of captured stores into Tennessee. After the battle of Shiloh General Halleck " reorganized and rearranged the whole army" || on the Tennessee, reinforcing Grant's troops with those of General Pope. Corinth, evacuated by the Con- federates, was occupied on the 30th of May. Halleck was then sum- moned to Washington to become general in chief, and was succeeded by Grant, who prepared to move against the Confederate stronghold at Vicksburg, Mississippi. He sent Sherman down the Mississippi with 40,000 men and Admiral Porter's gunboats, while he himself pushed forward by land. But the Confederate General Van Dorn got into Grant's rear, cut off his supplies at Holly Springs, and forced him to retreat. Sherman embarked at Memphis, landed north of Vicksburg, and attacked the works at Chickasaw Bayou, where he was decisively repulsed (December 29, 1862). Meanwhile General Rosecrans, in command at Corinth, had been attacked (October 4) by Generals Price and Van Dorn, but had driven them off with heavy loss. He then marched against Bragg, who had just retreated from Kentucky. They met in the bloody battle of Stone River, near Murfreesboro (December 31, 1862, to January 2, 1863), which although ''a negative victor}^ so far as con- * Sherman's Memoirs, Chap. 10. f Nicolay and Hay's Lincoln, Vol. VI, Chap. i. X Sheridan's Memoirs, Vol. I, Chap. 11. § Ibid. || Sherman's Memoirs, Chap. 10. 45 8o4 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. cerned the result on the battle-field," * was on the whole a Federal success, and "West Tennessee and Kentucky were never again seri- ously threatened by the armies of the Confederacy." f In Missouri there was fighting during the early part of 1862 between the Confederates under Price, McCullough, and Van Dorn, and a Union force under General Curtis, whose "strength through- out the campaign was about fifteen thousand men." J The latter was victorious in the important battle of Pea Ridge, fought in Arkansas, March 7. Early in the year a Federal fleet and army assembled at Ship Island, off the mouth of the Mississippi, to operate against the southern coast of the Confederacy. "New Orleaus, being the most important prize, both military and political, became the principal objective point," \S and in April the attack was begun. The fleet was commanded by Admiral Farragut, a man " sixty years of age, forty-eight of which had been spent in the naval service." || On the 24th of April he ran past Forts St. Philip and Jackson, which de- fended the entrance to the Mississippi, attacked and destro^^ed a Confederate squadron, and on the following day reached New Or- leans, of which the troops under General Butler at once took pos- session. Farragut went on to Baton Rouge, and, passing Vicksburg, joined the squadron of the upper Mississippi at Memphis. In January, 1862, an expedition under General Burnside sailed to attack Roanoke Island, on the North Carolina coast. It was completely successful, capturing the island, destroying the Con- federate fleet in Albemarle Sound, and taking Fort Macon and Newbern. In March another expedition, from Port Royal, took Jacksonville, Florida, Brunswick, Georgia, and other towns on the coast. On the 8th of March the Federal fleet that lay in Hampton Roads, off Fortress Monroe, was attacked by the Merrimac. This was one of the ships sunk at the surrender of the Norfolk navy yard. The Confederates had raised her, covered her deck with railroad iron, fitted her with a ram, and named her the Virginia. She now rammed and sank the Union ship Cumberland, and drove * Sheridan's Memoirs, Vol. I, Chap. 13. f Nicolay and Hay's Lincoln, Vol. VI, Chap. 13. X Sheridan's Memoirs, Vol. I, Chap. 13. § Nicolay and Hay's Lincoln, Vol. V, Chap. 15. || Ibid. (8o5) r 806 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. the Congress ashore. At sunset she returned to Norfolk. On the following day, returning to complete the destruction of the Federal fleet, she was met by the Monitor, an iron turret ship of novel con- struction, which had just arrived from the North. In the duel that followed, the Merrimac was disabled and driven back to Norfolk. In April, the capture of Fort Pulaski by the Federals, under General Hunter, closed the port of Savannah. Of all the campaigns of 1862 the most important was fought ENCOUNTER BETWEEN THE MONITOR AND MERRIMAC IN HAMPTON ROADS ON MARCH 8, 1862. in northern and eastern Virginia. On the loth of March ]\Ic- Clellan crossed the Potomab, but after advancing a short distance he decided "that operations would best be undertaken from Old Point Comfort, between the York and James rivers." * The bulk of his army was transported thither by April 2, and he moved up the peninsula between the rivers, toward Richmond. At Yorktown Magruder, with 10,000 Confederate troops, held him at bay for a month, but evacuated the place on May 4. McClellan then advanced rapidl}^, winning the battles of Williamsburg (May 5) and West *Nicolay and Hay's Lincoln, Vol. \', Chapter lo. HISTORY' OF THE UNITED STATES. 807 Poiut (May 9). At the end of the month his advance guard was only seven miles from Richmond. Confederate forces were hastily collected from all quarters for the defense of their capital. The navy yard at Norfolk was de- stroyed and abandoned, the Virginia, or ]\Ierriniac, being blown up. With all the troops he could gather General Joseph K. John- ston attacked McClellan at Seven Pines and Fair Oaks (^lay 31 and June i), but was defeated and severely wounded. ^ Notwithstanding his success, McClellan delayed moving upon Richmond. He overrated his opponent's strength, " as was gener- ally done by the opposing commanders during the war,"* and "kept up a continual cry for reinforcements." f His inactivity gave the Confederates time their army "stronger in numbers than it been before." J General Robert B. Lee, succeeded Johnston, attacked him on the June in the first of the " seven days' battles." Though he repelled Lee's as- saults on the first two days, McClellan fell back toward the James River. On the 27th, at Gaines' Mill, he w^as heavily defeated. After two more inde- cisive battles he reached Malvern Hill, on the James, where Lee was driven back by the fire of the Union gun- boats. McClellan's Peninsula campaign had proved a failure. The stubborn " re- sistance of the Confederates compelled the Federal general to abandon his plan of operations," {) and his army was withdrawn down the James. At the same time General "Stonewall" Jackson, with 20,000 Confederate troops, had successfully defied the Union forces in the Shenandoah Valley. In May he captured a Union force at Front Royal, and chased General Banks out of the Valley. Banks only * Johnston's Narrative of Military Operations, Chapter i. f Nicolay and Hay's Lincoln, Vol. V, Chapter 23. X Johnston's Narrative of Military Operations, Chapter 4. § Ibid, Chapter 5. ROBERT E. LEE. 8o8 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. saved his command by a hasty retreat across the Potomac. Gen- erals Shields and Fremont were sent against Jackson, who fell back before them and then defeated them separately at Cross Keys and Port Republic, June 8 and 9, 1862. He then moved to Richmond to join Lee. At the beginning of August Lee marched northward toward Washington. On the 9th he met and defeated General Banks at Cedar Mountain. An army of 40,000 men under General Pope still lay between Lee and the Potomac, but fell back before the Con- federates' advance. On August 26, Lee attacked the Federal force at Manassas Junction, and captured a great quantity of stores. The rest of the month was spent in severe but indecisive fighting at Centreville, Gainesville, and Chantilly, nearly opposite Wash- ington. After losing 30,000 men in the campaign, Pope retreated across the Potomac. The President had ordered a fresh levy of 300,000 troops (July I, 1862) and the Federal forces at Washington were reorganized and greatly strengthened, McClellan succeeding Pope in the com- mand. The time "for training and drilling was brief; for wn thin a few days the news came that Lee had crossed the Potomac into Maryland." *_ The Confederate commander detached Jackson to attack Harper's Ferry, which was held by Colonel Miles with 13,000 men. Miles surrendered to Jackson, after a weak resistance, Sep- tember 15. On the previous day McClellan had marched between the armies of Lee and Jackson and defeated the former at South Mountain. Lee, whose situation was perilous, retreated towards the Poto- mac, halting near Sharpsburgh, Maryland, to await Jackson, who was hurrying back from Harper's Ferry. The Confederate forces had had time to reunite when McClellan attacked them at Antietam Creek. The battle, one of the bloodiest of the war, was indecisive, but on the next day Lee withdrew across the Potomac. McClellan did not pursue him, and after six weeks of in- activity President Lincoln removed him from command, replacing him with General Burnside. Burnside moved forward, crossed the Rappahannock, and attacked Lee at Fredericksburg, where he was repulsed with great slaughter. In September, 1862, President Lincoln had warned the se- Nicolay and Hay's Lincoln, Vol. V'l, Chapter 7. rTff*™'TTr!TWfiPllPi (809) 8lO HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. ceded States that unless they returned to their allegiance he would issue a proclamation declaring all slaves within their borders free. The proclamation was indeed " published in full by the leading newspapers of the country on the morning of September 23d."* On the ist of January, 1863, it was formally issued. After his defeat at Fredericksburg, General Burnside was succeeded in command of the Arm}^ of the Potomac by General Joseph Hooker. In April, 1863, the Federal forces made another attempt to reach Richmond, and again they met with- disaster. After crossing the Rappahannock they were attacked by the Con- federates at Chancellorsville, on the 2d and 3d of May, and de- feated. "The losses were large on both sides," f Hooker's being 17,000 men killed, wounded, and missing. The Confederates lost 12,000, among whom was General Jackson, mortally wounded through mistake by his own men. Hooker retreated across the Rappahannock, while Lee moved forward and threatened Washington. Hooker marched rapidly to the defense of the capital, and the Confederates, instead of attack- ing it, advanced northward across Maryland into Pennsylvania. The invasion of Pennsylvania caused great alarm in the North, and great efforts were made to strengthen the forces around Washington. Hooker was superseded by General George G. Meade, an officer who "had served with distinction on almost every battle-field of the Army of the Potomac." J Meade took up a strong position at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, with eighty thou- sand men, and on the ist of July Lee attacked him with about the same number. The battle, the most decisive in the war, was fiercely fought for three days, and ended in the Confederates' de- feat, with the loss of nearl}^ half their army. On the 4th of July Lee withdrew his crippled force across the Potomac, and retreated beyond the Rapidan. After his repulse from Chickasaw Bayou, in front of Vicks- burg (December 29, 1862), Sherman, who thought that " Louisiana, Mississippi, and Arkansas were the key to the whole interior," § speedily resumed the offensive. On January 10, 1863, he captured Arkansas Post, on the Arkansas River. A few days later "Admiral * Nicolay and Hay's Lincoln, Vol. VII, Chap. 8. t Ibid., Vol. VII, Chap. 8. t Ibid., Vol. VII, Chap. 4. g Sherman's Memoirs, Chap. 12. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 8ll Porter was equally busy on the Yazoo River," * and Grant, who had now reached the scene of action, made several successive at- tempts upon the defenses of Vicksburg from the same side. But the Mississippi and its branches were "very high and rising," f and for three months Grant could not get near enough to strike. He then moved his army to. the western bank of the river, and went down it to New Carthage, below Vicksburg, running his gun- boats and transports past the Confederate batteries. IMeanwhile he had despatched Grierson, with 1,700 cavalry, on a raid through Mis- sissippi, to the rear of Vicksburg, which was successfully executed, and caused great damage to the communications of the Confederates. On the 29th of April Grant attacked Grand Gulf, on the Mississippi, but was repulsed. The next day, however, he crossed at Bruinsburg, lower down, and defeated the Confederate com- mander, Pemberton, at Port Gibson. General Joseph E. Johnston was advancing toward Vicksburg with a second force, and Grant "prepared with his usual energy to prevent the two Confederate generals from effecting their junction." J He met and defeated Johnston at Jackson (May 14), pushed in between him and Pem- berton, and drove the latter into Vicksburg. Twice Grant attempted to carry the works of Vicksburg by assault. He was twice repulsed, and settled down to a siege of the place. His position was so strong that Johnston made no attempt at relief, and "on the 3d of July, about 10 o'clock A. M., white flags appeared on a portion of the works." § On the 4th, the surrender of Pemberton and his army, which numbered about 30,000, was completed. Four days later Port Hudson surrendered to the Federal troops under General Banks. "The Mississippi River was now wholly in the possession of the Union forces," || an achievement that aroused "new hopes for the final success of the Union cause." ^ Johnston's army at once " fell back to Jackson." ** A few days later the " evac- uation of Jackson was decided on, and was accomplished before day- break "ff of July 17, but Grant did not pursue. * Sherman's Memoirs, Chap. ii. f Ibid., Chap. 12. X Nicolay and Hay's Lincoln, Vol. VII, Chap. 5. ^Grant's Memoirs, Chap. 38. || Sherman's Memoirs, Chap. 13. T[ Grant's Memoirs, Chap. 39. ** Johnston's Narrative of Military Operations, Chap. 7. ff Ibid., Chap. 8. GENERAL ULYSSES S. GRANT. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 813 After the battle of Stone River, at the beginning of January, 1863, Rosecrans' Ariiiy of the Cumberland lay inactive until June, facing that of Bragg. Rosecrans then advanced through Tennessee and occupied Chattanooga, Bragg falling back before him. On Sep- tember 9 Rosecrans telegraphed to Washington that he expected no resistance from Bragg, but "it took but one day's marching to disconcert these confident expectations." * Bragg had been rein- forced, and was prepared to resist Rosecrans' advance. On Sep- tember 19, when the Union army had just entered Georgia, Bragg attacked it at Chickamauga Creek. It was defeated after a two days' battle, and would have been routed had it not been for the gallant stand made by General George H. Thomas. Bragg's report of the fight declared that he "had driven the enemy from the State of Georgia, and was still pursuing him."t General Sheridan states that it "left in the Cofederates' possession not much more than the barren results arising from the simple holding of the ground on which the engagement was fought." 4! Rosecrans, who had lost 16,000 men, fell back to Chattanooga. Bragg occupied the heights above the town, and Rosecrans' situa- tion became perilous. In this emergency " the Secretary of War directed General Grant to proceed immediately to the front " *^^ and take command of the ami}- at Chattanooga. Arriving in Novem- ber, and being reinforced b}^ Sherman and Hooker, Grant prepared to attack the Confederates, who " were looking upon the garrison of Chattanooga as prisoners of war." || On the 24th Lookout Mountain was stormed by Hooker's division, and the following day Grant assaulted Missionary Ridge, and carried it, driving Bragg back into Georgia. In these battles Grant had "in round numbers about 60,000 men. Bragg had about half this number, but his posi- tion was supposed to be impregnable." ^ On the ist of Januar}-, 1863, the Confederate General Alagru- der captured the port of Galveston, Texas, together with a United States steamer and a great quantity of stores. Elsewhere in the Southwest the Federal forces were successful. The Confederates * Nicolay and Hay's Lincoln, Vol. VIII, Chap. 4. f Johnston's Narrative of Mihtary Operations, Chap. 8. X Sheridan's Memoirs, Vol. I, Chap. 15. § Nicolay and Hay's Lincoln, Vol. VIII, Chap. 4. II Grant's Memoirs, Chap. 41. ^ Ibid., Chap. 45. 8l4 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. were driven from Helena and Little Rock, Arkansas, by Generals Prentiss and Steele, and forced to retreat beyond the Red River. Throughout the summer there was guerilla warfare in the Indian Territory. Quantrell, who was little more than a bandit, raided the town of Lawrence, Kansas, and murdered 140 of its citizens. Another raid was that of General Morgan, who with 3000 Con- federate cavalry passed through Kentucky in June, and invaded Indi- ana and Ohio. His retreat was cut off by a Union force and by the gunboats on the Ohio, and on the 27th of July he was captured at New Lisbon, Ohio. Charleston was attacked by two Federal expeditions in 1863. The first, under Admiral Dupont, was repulsed with heavy loss on the 7th of April. The second, under General Gillmore, effected a landing on Morris Island, demolished Fort Sumter, and captured Fort Wagner, thus closing the harbor (September 6). In June, 1863, Congress passed an act admitting West Vir- ginia, whose citizens had opposed secession, into the Union as a separate State. The great armies called for by the Federal government were, throughout the war, readily furnished by the North, except in one instance. In July, 1863, during Lee's invasion of Pennsyl- vania, the drafting of troops in New York was resisted by rioters, who killed several negroes and destroyed much property. Gover- nor Seymour, of New York, though he was himself " convinced of the illegality and impolicy of the draft," * took measures to suppress the riot, which ended after considerable loss of life. The last fighting of the year 1863 took place around Knox- ville, Tennessee, where in November a Federal force, under General Burnside, was closely beleaguered by General Longstreet. On November 29th Longstreet made a fierce attack on the defenses of the city, but was repulsed. Four days later, hearing that Grant had detached Sherman to relieve Burnside, he raised the siege and withdrew into Virginia. "The winter of 1863-64 was unusually cold," f and military operations, except in the extreme South, were suspended. In February Sherman, who was stationed at Vicksburg, planned an expedition through northern Mississippi, in order '' to prevent further molestation of boats navigating the Mississippi, and there- *Nicolay and Hay's Lincoln, Vol. VH, Chap. 2. f Ibid., Vol. VIII, Chap. 13. (8l5) 8i6 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. by to widen the gap in the Confederacy." * In spite of a defeat inflicted upon a part of his forces at Meridian by General Forrest, he returned to Vicksburg, after doing great damage to the Con- federate communications. Forrest pushed on into Tennessee, cap- tured Union City (March 24), fruitlessly assaulted Paducah, and on the 1 2th of April took Fort Pillow, near Memphis. Some negroes among its garrison were shot after the surrender. In March another expedition from Vicksburg moved up the Red River, in Louisiana, with 10,000 troops under General Smith, and a gunboat squadron under Admiral Porter. After the capture of Natchitoches (March 21), General Banks joined the expedition with a force from New Orleans, and took command. Advancing toward Shreveport, he was attacked and severely defeated at Sabine Cross Roads (x\pril 8), and fell back to Alexandria. The gunboats were caught above the rapids at Alexandria by the fall of the river, and must have been abandoned had not Colonel Bailey, a Wisconsin lumberman, constructed a great dam, that so deepened the water as to allow the fleet to pass. Meanwhile Gen- eral Steele had moved from Arkansas to join Banks, at Shreve- port Hearing of the latter's defeat, he fell back, severely pressed by the Confederates. The Red River expedition had ended in failure, and General Banks was superseded by General Canby. At the beginning of March, Grant was summoned to Wash- ing-ton from the West, to take command of all the Federal forces. Sherman "accompanied him as far as Cincinnati on his way"t to the capital, to arrange plans for concerted action. Grant's inten- tion was " to employ the full strength of the army in a simulta- neous movement all along the line." J He himself designed to advance on Richmond with the Army of the Potomac, while Sher- man struck at Atlanta with a force composed of the three Western armies — those of the Ohio, the Cumberland, and the Tennessee. The main forces of the Confederac}^ were grouped before Rich- mond, under Lee, and in northern Georgia, under Johnston. On the 7th of May, 1864, Sherman moved out of Chattanooga with 100,000 men. Johnston confronted him with 70,000 men^ and a series of battles followed, Sherman gradually pushing for- ward. After two days of desperate fighting at Resaca, ]\Iay 14 '■'Sherman's Memoirs, Chapter 14. f Ibid., Chapter 15. X Nicolay and Hay's Lincoln, Vol.VIII, Chapter 14. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 817 and 15, Johnston fell back to Dallas, where Sherman defeated him and turned AUatoona Pass (May 25 to 28). At the end of May Sherman "had advanced over nearly a hundred miles of as dif&- cult country as was ever fought over by civilized armies." * The wooded hills of Georgia were so defensible that Sherman reported that "the whole country was one vast fort."t There was heavy fighting at Lost Mountain on June 15, 16, and 17, and again on the 22d at Kenesaw Mountain, where Johnston had taken up a strong position. On the morning of June 27 Sherman ordered an attack. " By half-past eleven the assault was over and had failed," J the Federal troops having been repelled by Johnston's " intrenched infantry, unsurpassed by that of Napoleon's Old Guard." 5> Sherman still pressed forward, however, and on the loth of July he forced Johnston to retire within the fortifications of Atlanta. The Richmond government, dissatisfied with Johnston's fail- ure to arrest Sherman's advance, now removed him from his com- mand, substituting General Hood. For some time the siege of Atlanta made "slow and steady progress," || Sherman being "held in check by the stubborn defense " % of the garrison. Near the end of July Hood three times attacked the Federal lines, but was three times driven back, and in the last of these battles (July 28) his forces were divided and he was compelled to abandon the city, retreating northward. On the 2nd of September Sherman entered Atlanta, where he rested to prepare for his intended march through Georgia to Savannah. " While Sherman was planning his march to the sea. General Hood was devising a counter-scheme of invasion." ** He moved into Tennessee, where he was confronted by a Union force under General Thomas. On the 30th of November he defeated a part of Thomas' army, under General Schofield, at Franklin. Thomas withdrew to Nashville, and the Confederates were preparing to assault the city when he suddenly moved against Hood, defeated him and almost destroyed his army (December 15 and 16, 1864). * Sherman's Memoirs, Chap. 25. ■j- Ibid., Chap. 16. J Ibid., Chap. 16. ^Johnston's Narrative of Military Operations, Chapter 11. II Sherman's Memoirs, Chap. 18. ][ Ibid., Chap. 18. ^* Nicolay and Hay's Lincoln, Vol. 10, Chap, i. 8i8 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. On the i2tli of November Sherman's railroad and telegraph communications with the rear were broken, and the army stood dependent on its own resources and supplies." * With 60,000 men he marched through Georgia, meeting little resistance, and reaching Savannah a month after leaving Atlanta. On the 13th of Decem- j.!,u I jji^m ber he stormed Fort Mc- Allister, and on the 21st entered the city, which had been evacuated by the Confederates. Here he remained for a month. Meanwhile Grant had '^ started upon the cam- paign destined to result in the capture of the Confederate capital and the army defending it."f Crossing the Rapidan, '' on the 4th of May the army of the Potomac moved against Lee," J who, on the 5th, attacked Gra»t in a tract called the Wilderness. ^* More desperate fighting has not been witnessed on this Continent " § than the three days' battle that ensued. The slaughter in both armies was great. On the Confederate side General Longstreet was wounded, and '' his loss was a severe one to Ivce." |1 From the Wilderness Lee fell back to Spottsylvania Court House, where the fighting was renewed, Grant telegraphing to * Sherman's Memoirs, Chap. 20. f Grant's Memoirs, Chap. 50. X Sheridan's Memoirs, Vol. I, Chap. 18. g Grant's Memoirs, Chap. 50. || Ibid., Chap. 50. GENERAL W. T. SHERMAN. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 819 Washington that he ''proposed to fight it out on this line if it took all summer." At the same time Sheridan was despatched *'to proceed against the enemy's cavalry,"* and to break Lee's railroad communications. Grant then moved to the left, to out- flank Lee, and on the ist of June attacked the Confederate army at Cold Harbor. He was driven back from their intrenchments, and by a second assault, made two days later, " no advantage what- ever was gained to compensate for the heavy loss." f He had, however, no dif&culty in securing reinforcements, while the Con- federates, whose resources were rapidly becoming exhausted, could no longer strengthen their forces. Crossing the James River, on the iSth of June he attacked Petersburg, but after four days' fight- ing was repulsed with heavy loss. He then intrenched himself before Petersburg and Richmond, w^here he remained during the rest of the year 1864. Sheridan's raid on the railroads in the rear of Richmond was effectively carried out. Two other subsidiary movements of the Federal forces were less successful. General Butler, advancing to- ward Richmond from Fortress Monroe, was defeated at Bermuda Hundred (May 7), and an expedition sent to the Shenandoah Val- ley, under Generals Sigel and Hunter, after a defeat at Newmarket (May 15) and a victory at Piedmont (June 5), was forced to retreat into West Virginia. This left Washington unprotected, and Lee despatched 20,000 men under General Jubal Early to strike at the national capital. Crossing the Potomac into Alaryland, Early defeated General Wallace at Monocacy (July 9) and advanced within gunshot of Washington. If he "had been but one day earlier he might have entered the capital before the arrival of reinforcements.";];: Find- ing Washington well defended, he retired into the Shenandoah Valley, pursued by General Wright. At Winchester Early turned on Wright, defeated him, and advanced through Maryland into Pennsylvania. After burning the town of Chambersburg (July 30) he retreated into Virginia. In September Grant ordered Sheridan to the Shenandoah Val- ley, to drive off Early and "to destroy all the forage and subsist- ence the country afforded," ^ so as to prevent the possibility of * Sheridan's Memoirs, Vol. I. Chap. 18. f Grant's Memoirs, Chap. 55. J Ibid., Chap. 57. § Sheridan's Memoirs, Vol. I, Chap. 24. 46 820 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Confederate raids from that quarter. On the 19th of Septembei Sheridan routed the Confederates in " the battle of the Opequon, or Winchester, as it has been unofficially called,"* and "sent Barly's army whirling up the Shenandoah Valley." f On the 19th of October, Sheridan, having been temporarily called to Washing- ton, Barly attacked the Federal Forces at Cedar Creek, and drove them back. Sheridan, hurrying back to his post, was met by "the appalling spectacle of a panic-stricken army." J He rallied his men, led them forward, and turned defeat into a complete victory, Early's troops being routed and scattered. One of the lesser military movements of 1864 was General Seymour's expedition to the coast of Florida, which ended disastrously at the battle of Olustee (February 20), where the Federal force was defeated. In July, Mobile, one of the most strongly fortified places of the Confeder- acy, was attacked by a fleet under Ad- miral Farragut and a land force com- manded b}' General Granger. On the 5 th of August, Farragut ran into Mobile Bay, passing Forts Morgan and Gaines at its entrance, and capturing the Con- federate ram Tennessee. The forts soon afterward surrendered to General Gran- ger. One of the few Confederate ports that still remained open was that of Wil- mington, North Carolina, which was defended by Fort Fisher. In December, 1864, ^^ expedition under Admiral Porter and General Butler was despatched to reduce the fort, but after bombarding it they found it too strong to be carried by assault, and withdrew. In April, 1864, the Confederates had captured Plymouth, North Carolina, with the formidable iron ram Albemarle. On the night of October 27 the Albemarle was sunk by a torpedo attached to it by Lieutenant Gushing, who crept up in a small steamer manned * Sheridan's Memoirs, Vol. II, Chap. i. tibid., Vol. II. Chap. i. J Ibid., Vol. II, Chap. 3. .-.Al. FARRAGUT. n SHERIDAN'S FAMOUS RIDE FROM WINCHESTER TO CEDAR CREEK, OCTOBER 19, 1864, WHERE HE RALLIED HIS PANIC-STRICKEN TROOPS AND TURNED DEFEAT INTO COMPLETE VICTORY. "And there, through the flush of the morning light, A steed as black as the steeds of night Was seen to pass, as with eagle flight, As if he knew the terrible need ; He stretched away with his utmost speed" — — Thomas Buchanan Read. (821) 822 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. by a volunteer crew, only two members of which escaped. Ply- mouth surrendered four days later. In 1864 the depredations of Confederate privateers were brought to a close, after the infliction of great damage upon American ocean commerce during the four years of the war. In May, 1861, the Sum- ter, commanded by Captain Semmes, sailed from New Orleans, and captured and burned a number of merchantmen before being block- aded at Cadiz by the United States ship Tuscarora. Semmes then discharged his crew and sold his vessel. The Nashville left Charles- ton in October, 1861, and returned, running the blockade, with a valuable cargo of stores from England. She was destroj^ed in the Savannah River b}' the Federal ironclads, in March, 1863. Several of the Confederate cruisers were built in British ports. Such was the Florida, which sailed into Mobile Bay under British colors in August, 1862. In January, 1863, she ran through the block- ade, and cruised in the Atlantic for three months, taking fifteen American ships. She was then captured in .the harbor of Bahia, Brazil. The Georgia, built at Glasgow, was also captured in 1863. Most notorious and destructive of all was the Alabama, which sailed from Liverpool in 1862. Her builders had "made no special effort to dissemble her object and purpose," * and the American minister in England had protested against her being allowed to put to sea. She cruised for two years, capturing sixt3'-five merchant ships, and destroying property valued at ten millions of dollars. Her captain was Semmes, who had commanded the Sumter. She never entered a Confederate port, and was finalh' blockaded by the Kearsarge in the harbor of Cherbourg, France. Being ordered by the French government to leave Cherbourg, the Kearsarge attacked and sank her (June 19, 1864). In the summer of 1864 nominations were made for the Presi- dential election. During the first two years of the war the serious disasters suffered by the Union cause had created much dissatisfac- tion with the policy of the President ; but the later successes of the Federal armies had made it clear that ''nothing could prevent Lin- coln's renomination." f The Republican convention coupled to his name that of Andrew Johnson, of Tennessee, as their candidate for Vice-President. The Democrats nominated General George B. * Nicolay and Hay's Lincoln, Vol. VI, Chap. 3. t Ibid., Vol. IX, Chap. 2, HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 823 McClellan, of New Jersey, and George H. Pendleton, of Ohio. At the polls Lincoln and Johnson received a large majority. In October, 1864, Nevada, the thirty-sixth State, was admitted to the Union. The year 1865 opened with the capture of Fort Fisher by a second expedition, commanded by Admiral Porter and General Terry. The fort was bombarded and taken by storm on the 15th of January, and on the 22nd of February the Union forces occupied Wilmington — a port that had been "of immense importance to the Confederates, because it formed their principal inlet for blockade runners." * By this time "the Southern cause appeared hopeless to all intelligent and dispassionate Southern men."t The situation of Lee's army at Petersburg and Richmond was growing desperate under the pressure of Grant's superior strength. To oppose Sher- man's northward march from Savannah there were only "scattered and inconsiderable forces." J The Carolinas and Virginia were the only States that still remained to the Confederacy. It was in the Shenandoah Valle\' "that the first gleams of the final victory shone upon the Union arms." »^S Sheridan was again ordered there by Grant in February, 1865, to strike at Lee's com- munications. At Waynesboro he met a Confederate force under Early, which he attacked and routed — a defeat that "finished Early as a military leader." || After a successful raid Sheridan rejoined Grant before Petersburg in March. Sherman moved from Savannah at the end of January, and marched through South Carolina to Columbia, the State capital, which he entered on the 17th of February. General Joseph E. Johnston w^as ordered by the Confederate government to collect the forces scattered through North and South Carolina, and to endeavor to arrest Sherman's progress. This, however, he was unable to do. The Federal army entered Goldsboro, North Caro- lina, on the 2ist of March, after a severe engagement. Generals Schofield and Terry were bringing up reinforcements from the * Grant's Memoirs, Chap. 61. f Johnston's Narrative of Military Operations, Chap. 12. J Sherman's Memoirs, Chap. 22. ^ Nicolay and Hay's Lincoln, Vol. IX, Chap. 7. II Lossing's Cyclopaedia of U. S. History (Sheridan's Raid). 824 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. coast, and their forces and those of Sherman "effected a junction in and about Goldsboro during the 22nd and 23rd of March." * Johnston had withdrawn his troops to Raleigh. On the 25th of Alarch, Lee attacked Grant's lines at Fort Steadman, but was repulsed, and a week later his position at Five Forks was assaulted and carried by Sheridan, Grant followed up' this success by an attack all along Lee's front, and the Confederate defenses were pierced at several points. Lee's situation was now hopeless, and he evacuated Petersburg and Richmond, which were at once occupied by the Federal army (April 3, 1865). Lee's retreating forces were closely pursued by Grant and Sheridan. "Let the thing be pressed," f the President telegraphed to Grant on the 6th of April, and on the same day, at Sailor's Creek, Sheridan gained "a victory which led to the annihilation- of one corps of Lee's army.";]^ The end of the war was evidently at hand, although it was generally expected that either Sherman or Grant "would have to fight one more bloody battle."^ In order "to shift from himself the responsibility of any further effusion of blood," II Grant sent a message to Lee, pointing out "the hopeless- ness of further resistance on the part of the Army of Northern Vir- ginia," 1[ and suggesting a surrender. Lee, in reply, inquired what terms Grant would offer, and several notes passed between the com- manders. ]\Ieanwhile Sheridan had moved around Lee's army, and on the morning of April 9 attacked it from the rear, near Appomat- tox Court House. A white flag was displayed by the Confederate general, who requested a suspension of hostilities that he might have an interview with Grant. At that interview, which took place in the house of a Mr. McLean, it was arranged that Lee's soldiers " should lay down their arms, not to take them up again unless ex- changed,"** and that they should " be allowed to return to their homes." ft Grant then telegraphed to the Secretary of War, at Washington, " General Lee surrendered the Army of Northern Virginia this afternoon on terms proposed by myself." JJ The surrender of Lee's army practically closed the war. John- * Sherman's Memoirs, Chap. 23. t Sheridan's Memoirs, Vol. II, Chap. 8. X Ibid., Vol. II, Chap. 7. ^ Sherman's Memoirs, Chap. 23. II Grant's Memoirs, Chap. 66. ^ Ibid., Chap. 66. ** Ibid., Chap. 67. ft Ibid., Chap. 67. H Ibid.. Chap. 6/. (825) 826 HISTORY OK THE UNITED STATES. ston had just evacuated Raleigh, and was retteating before Sherman, when he heard the news of Appomattox. He thereupon sent a message to Sherman proposing "to make a suspension of active operations." * Before the negotiations were concluded the country was shocked by the assassination of President Lincoln. The 14th of April "was a day of deep and tranquil happiness throughout the United States." f The President, relieved of the terrible burden of the war, that evening attended Ford's theater in Washington. While there he was shot by Wilkes Booth, an actor, and "at twenty-two minutes after seven o'clock on the morning of April 15 "J he expired. On the same morning Mr. Seward was wounded by aiiother assassin who broke into his house. A few days later Booth was shot in a barn in Maryland where he had been hiding. Johnston's surrender was signed on the 26th of April, and no Confederate army remained in the field except inconsiderable forces beyond the Mississippi. Jefferson Davis, endeavoring to escape in that direction, was captured at Irwins- ville, Georgia, on the loth of May, and sent as a prisoner to Fortress Monroe. On the 26th of May the last of the Confederate forces in the southwest surrendered, and the civil war was over. Three hours after the death of Lincoln " the oath of office as President of the United States was administered to Andrew Johnson by Chief Justice Chase." »^ Born in North Carolina of humble parentage, and unable to read and write until after his marriage, Johnson had risen to be United States Senator from Tennessee (i860) and military governor of the State (1862) before his election to the Vice-Presidency in 1S64. His administration was at once confronted with several important questions. On the 7th of April, 1865, Mr. Adams, the American minister at London, presented to the British government a claim for repara- * Johnston's Narrative of Military Operations, Chap. 12. f Nicolay and Hay's Lincoln, Vol. X, Chap. 14. J Blaine's Twenty Years of Congress, Vol. II, Chap. i. gibid., Vol. II, Chap. I, ANDHEV/ JOHNSON, HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 827 tion for the "damages done to the commerce of the United States by the Alabama and other Confederate cruisers equipped in En- gland. The diplomatic dispute that ensued was not settled for some years. On the I St of February Congress framed an amendment to the Constitution declaring that slavery should not exist within the United States. During 1865 this, the thirteenth amendment to the Constitution, was ratified by all the States then in the Union. The war had left a debt of almost two and three-quarter billions of dollars. To meet the interest heavy import duties and internal revenue taxes had been imposed. The country proved its ability to sustain the burden without difficulty, and, to increase confidence. Congress, in December, 1865, formally resolved that *' the public debt ought and must be paid, principal and interest." On the question of reconstruction, or the reorganization of the seceded States, serious differences arose between President John- son and Congress. The former maintained, in opposition to the views of Congress, that no State could of its own act leave the Union, and that therefore the Confederate States need not and could not be readmitted. An international question with France arose out of that coun- try's attempt, during the civil war, to establish an empire in Mex- ico under the Archduke Maximilian of Austria. President Lincoln had protested against this European interference, and " no one will question the wisdom of the attitude assumed and consistently maintained " * by him and Secretary Seward. It was impossible to do more than protest while the country's entire energies were oc- cupied in the prosecution of the war. On its conclusion the gov- ernment demanded of Napoleon III. that his troops, which had placed Maximilian on the throne, should be withdrawn from Mex- ico. The French emperor acceded to the demand, with the result that Maximilian was dethroned b}^ the Mexican republicans and shot (June 19, 1867). In July, 1866, repeated attempts to lay a telegraph cable from Europe to America reached a successful conclusion. The enterprise was undertaken in 1857, niainly through the efforts of Cyrus W. Field, of New York, who persevered with his project in spite of four failures, which cost about six millions of dollars. The cable *Nicolay and Hay's Lincoln, Vol. VH, Chap. 14. 828 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. THE GREAT EASTERN LANDING IN TRINITY BAY, NEWFOUNDLAND, WITH THE END OF THE FIRST OCEAN CABLE. ran from Valencia, in Ireland, to Trinity Bay, Newfoundland, a distance of 1,700 miles. In March, 1867, Secretary Seward negotiated a treaty with Russia, whereby the latter agreed to sell Alaska to the United States for the sum of seven million dollars. This great northern territory, with an area of 577,000 square miles, was then almost unknown and thought to be of very little value, and '' it required all Seward's skill and influence to accomplish the ratification of the Alaska purchase." * The Senate accepted it, however, on the 9th of April, 1867. The disagreement between President Johnson and Congress was becoming more and more marked. He vetoed a bill establish- ing a military government in some of the Southern States, a bill admitting Nebraska to the Union, and the Reconstruction Bill, providing for the reorganization of the seceded States. All of these measures, however, were passed over his veto by a two-thirds vote, and in January, 1868, the House of Representatives ordered his impeachment. On being tried before the Senate, the President was acquitted, though only one vote was lacking of the two-thirds vote necessary for his conviction (May 23, 1868). The settlement of affairs in the South made steady progress. *Nicolay and Hay's Lincoln, Vol. I, Chap. 13. Imaging the Atlantic Cable. Come, listen to my song, it is no silly fable, 'Tis all about the mighty cord they call the Atlantic Cable. Bold Cyrus Field, said he, " I have a pretty notion That I could run a telegraph across the Atlantic Ocean." And all the people laughed and said they'd like to see him do it ; He might get "half seas over," but never would go through it. To carry out his foolish jDlan he never would be able ; He might as well go hang himself with his Atlantic Cable. But Cyrus was a valiant man, a fellow of decision, And heeded not their careless words, their laughter and derision. Twice did his bravest efforts fail, yet his mind was stable ; He wasn't the man to break his heart because he broke his cable. " Once more, my gallant boys," said he ; " three times " — you know the fable. '' I'll make it thirty," muttered he, " but what I'll lay the cable." Hurrah ! hurrah ! again hurrah ! what means this great commotion ? Hurrah ! hurrah ! The cable's laid across the Atlantic Ocean. Loud ring the bells, for flashing through ten thousand leagues of Avater, Old Mother England's benison salutes her eldest daughter. O'er all the land the tidings spread, and soon, in every nation. They'll hear about the cable with profoundest admiration. Long liv^e the gallant souls who helped our noble Cyrus; And may their courage, faith, and zeal with emulation tire us. And may we honor evermore the manly, bold, and stable, And tell our sons, to make them brave, how Cvrus laid the cable. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 829 In May, 1867, Jefferson Davis, who had been imprisoned at Fortress Monroe for two years, was released on bail. He was never brought to trial. In September the President issued a proclamation of " amnesty to all engaged in the Rebellion," with a few exceptions. In June, 1868, the States of Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Louisiana, and North and South Carolina were readmitted to the Union. An Indian war, that had lasted for four years in Colorado and the Indian Territory, was terminated in the fall of 1868 by the battle of the Wacheta, in which the chief Black Kettle was de- feated and killed by General Custer's cavalry. As the Presidential election of 1868 approached, the Republi- can party placed in nomination General Ulysses S. Grant, the hero of the civil war, with Schuyler Colfax, of Indiana, as their candidate for Vice- President. The Democrats selected Horatio Seymour, who, as Governor of New York during the war, " had been a great favorite of the peace party,"* and Frank P. Blair, of Missouri. At the election in November Grant was successful by a large majority, Seymour carrying New York and only five other States. General Grant, who thus became the eigh- teenth President of the United States, was born at Point Pleasant, Ohio, in 1822. He was edu- cated at West Point, entered the army, and served with credit as a subordinate officer under General Scott in Mexico. After the Mexican war he retired into civil life, but on President Lincoln's call for troops he at once volunteered for service. Two months after Grant's inauguration the first transconti- nental railroad was completed. This great enterprise, which had been six years in progress, was undertaken partly as a government work, in order to cement the distant Pacific coast to the rest of the Union. The line from the Missouri to San Francisco, nearly eighteen hundred miles in length, w^as built by two companies, the Union Pacific working westward, the Central Pacific eastward. The two met near Salt Lake, Utah, where the last spike was driven on the loth of May, 1869. * Blaine's Twenty Years of Cong;ress, Vol. II, Chap. i6. PRESIDENT ULYSSES S. GRANT. 830 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. To insure the civil status of the emancipated negroes, the fifteenth amendment to the Constitution was framed by Congress in February, 1869, and was ratified by the States during the fol- lowing twelve months. It provided that the suffrage should not be restricted "on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude." In May, 1871, was signed the treaty of Washington, whereby the British government agreedv to refer the claims arising from the Alabama affair to a tribunal of arbitration, whose settlement should be accepted as final. The tribunal was to consist of five members, named respectively by the President of the United States, the Queen of England, the President of Switzerland, the King of Italy, and the Emperor of Brazil. The court thus con- stituted met at Geneva in December, 187 1, and after sitting for nine months it decided that Great Britain should pay to the United States $15,500,000 in gold. That sum was thereupon paid by the British government. Another international question with England was settled by arbitration in 1872. The island of San Juan, lying between Van- couver's Island and the mainland, was claimed both by Great Britain and by the United States. On being referred by mutual agreement to the Emperor of Germany, the dispute was decided in favor of the United States. In the summer of 1872 President Grant was renominated by the Republicans, with Henry Wilson, of Massachusetts, as a can- didate for the Vice-Presidency. A small section of the party, dis- satisfied with Grant's administration, took the name of Liberal Republicans, and placed in nomination Horace Greeley, the cele- brated founder of the New York Tribune, and Gratz Brown, of Missouri. The Democratic convention indorsed the Liberal can- didates, but at the election in November Grant and Wilson were successful by a considerable majority. Shortly before the election the city of Chicago was swept by a terrible conflagration, which destroyed property valued at $200,000,000, and left 100,000 people homeless (October 4 to 6, 1872). A little more than a year later there was a fire in Boston, second only to that of Chicago in its destructiveness. It burned over sixty acres of buildings, and caused a loss of $80,000,000, November 9 and 10, 1873. fm v^rm mmmm MASSACRE OF GENERAL CUSTER AND COMMAND ON THE LITTLE BIG HORN RIVER, JUNE 25, 1876 BV THE SIOUX INDIANS UNDER SITTING RULL. (See Next Page.) 832 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. The commercial expansion that followed the civil war culmi- nated in a period of over-speculation, and this, in the fall of 1873, led to a disastrous financial panic. Business throughout the country was prostrated by widespread bankruptcy, and great in- dustrial distress resulted. Four years passed before the effects of the crash disappeared. Throughout Grant's second term there were more or less seri- ous Indian troubles in the West. In 1872, the Modocs, occupying a reservation in California, went on the warpath, and murdered General Canby and Dr. Thomas, the government commissioners sent to confer with them. iVfter a tedious campaign the rising was put down by United States troops, and the chief, Captain Jack, was hanged for the murder of the commissioners. The next out- break was among the Sioux, in the Black Hills, on the border of Dakota and Wyoming. Gold had been discovered in their reser- vation, and the government had not been able to keep out the rush of gold-seekers. The Sioux, indignant at the invasion, rose in rebellion, and on June 25, 1876, they surrounded a body of 261 troopers, under General Custer, on the Little Big Horn River, and killed them. After this success Sitting Bull, the leader of the hostiles, fled into Canadian territor3^ On the loth of May, 1876, the Centennial Exposition in Fair- mount Park, Philadelphia, w^as opened by President Grant. For six 3'ears preparations had been in progress, the exhibition being designed to commemorate the centennial of American Independ- ence, and illustrate the Nation's progress during the first hundred years of existence. It was the largest display of the kind that had been held up to that time, the covered space being sixty acres, and the cost of the buildings more than $4,000,000. It remained open for four months, the number of visitors being over ten millions, and the receipts for admission nearly $4,000,000. There were more than thirty thousand exhibitors, and thirt3^-three for- eign countries were represented. Colorado, the thirty-eighth State, was admitted to the Union on the ist of August, 1876. In the Presidential conventions of that year, the Republicans nominated Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio, and William A. Wheeler, of New York ; the Democrats, Samuel J. Tilden, of New York, and Thomas A. Hendricks, of Indiana. The contest was very HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. S33 close, and when Congress came to count the vote it was found that several States had sent conflicting certificates. To settle the dispute, which for a time caused great excitement, Congress ap- pointed an Electoral Commission of fifteen members — five Sena- tors, five Representatives, and five Judges of the Supreme Court. By a strict party vote, the Com.mission declared that Rutherford B. Hayes was elected to the Presidency. The administration of President Hayes opened with the with- drawal from Louisiana and South Carolina of the Federal troops stationed there since the conclusion of the war, the President hav- ing declared in his inaugural address that the self-government of the Southern States should be completely re- stored. The greatest strikes ever known in America occurred in the summer of 1877. They were caused by a general reduction in the wages of railroad employees, and began on the Baltimore and Ohio lines, whence they spread to the men on other railroad systems and to the coal miners of Pennsylvania. There were serious riots at several points, and the running of trains was temporarily stopped throughout a great part of the country. The rioters were finally overpowered by State and Federal troops, after the destruction of much property and the loss of many lives. Two notable financial events took place during Mr. Hayes' Presidency. Congress having passed a bill to make the silver dollar a legal tender for all debts, unless otherwise stipulated by contract, the President vetoed the measure, February 28, 1878. On the same day it was passed over his veto by a two-thirds majority ot both houses. Specie payments were resumed by the government, after seven- teen years' suspension, on the first day of 1879. During the war it was forced to make payments in currency, which became so much depreciated that in 1864 a dollar in gold was worth $2.85 in paper. The premium on gold became small at the end of the war, and was now entirely extinguished. The immigration of Chinese laborers to the Pacific coast had •SUTHEHFORD B. HAYES 834 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. become so serious a grievance to the American labor of that sec- tion, that a treaty was negotiated with the Pekin government, whereby restrictions were placed upon the importation of China- men to this country. The treaty, secured through the diplomacy of Mr. Burlingame, the American minister to China, was ratified by the Senate on the i6th of July, 1878. In that summer there was a destructive outbreak of yellow fever in the cities and villages along the lower Mississippi. The total number of deaths caused by the epidemic was nearly fourteen thousand, New Orleans and Memphis suffering most severely. Lib- eral money contributions and other assistances were received from all parts of the country and distributed by the Howard Association. The treaty of Washington, negotiated in 1871 for the settle- ment of the Alabama question, also provided for a Fishery Com- mission, to adjust the disputes that had arisen between the British and American governments with reference to the Canadian fisher- ies. The commission met at Halifax, Nova Scotia, and on the 23rd of November, 1878, decided that the United States should pay Great Britain $5,500,000 for infringements of the latter's rights. As the time approached for the selection of candidates for the Presidential election of 1880, the Republicans were mainly divided between Ex-President Grant, who had just returned from a tour around the world, and Senator Blaine of Maine. The proposal to nominate Grant was in contravention of the tradition against third terms in the Presidency, and after his eight years in office *' Grant himself had discountenanced the movement." * In the convention it was narrowly defeated by a combination of the opposition forces, which nominated James A. Garfield, of Ohio, and Chester A. Ar- thur, of New York. The Democratic candidates were General Win- field S. Hancock, of Pennsylvania, and William H. English, of Indiana. The popular vote was very close, but the Republicans secured a majority of fifty-nine in the electoral college. General Garfield, who thus became the twentieth President of the United States, was born in Ohio in 1831, and brought up in very humble circumstances. He worked his way through college, served with distinction in the war, and was a member of Congress from 1863 up to the time of his election to the Presidency. His tenancy of that office was brief. Scarcely four months after his * Blaine's Twenty Years of Congress, Vol. II., Chap. 29. INAUGU RATION OF PRESIDENT GARFIELD ON THE EAST PORTICO OF THE WHITE HOUSE, MARCH 4, 1881. 47 (83?) 836 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. JAMES A. GARFIELD. inauguration lie was shot by a worthless char- acter named Charles J. Guiteau, in the Balti- more and Ohio railroad station at Washing- ton, July 2, 1881. He lingered for eleven weeks before his death, which occurred at Klberon, near Long Branch, New Jersey, on the 19th of Sep- tember. On the following day Vice-President Arthur took the oath of office. He had been a well- known lawyer and politician in New York, where he had served as Collector of the Port. His char- acter and . abilities were but little known to the nation before his unexpected elevation to the chief magistracy. President Arthur's administration was an uneventful one. It was marked by a continued expansion of the country's material prosperity, and by some notable triumphs of the American inventive faculty. The telephone was perfected by Professor Alexander Graham Bell, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and a similar instrument on a different principle was produced by Thomas A. Edison, who also in- vented the phonograph. On the 24th of May, 1883, the great bridge spanning the Hast River, and connecting the cities of New York and Brooklyn, was opened. The largest structure of its kind in the world, it was designed by John A. Roebling, and had been thirteen years in building, at a cost of fifteen million dollars. Two notable centenaries of Revolutionary events were celebrated during Arthur's Presi- dency. One was that of the surrender of Corn- wallis at Yorktown, which was attended by a great gathering of officials, soldiers, citizens and foreigners (October 19, 1881). The other celebra- tion was in New York, and commemorated the evacuation of the city by King George III.'s troops (November 26, 1883). A bronze statue of Washington was unveiled in Wall Street on that occasion. CHESTER A. ARTHUR. I GARFIELD MONUMENT. INTERIOR GARFIELD MONUMENT. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. ^37 The Revolutionary centennials also led to the completion of the great Washington Monument at the national capital, which, commenced fifty years before, had been allowed to languish for lack of funds. It was completed and dedicated on the 21st of February, 1885. To succeed President Arthur the Republicans placed in nom- ination, in the summer of 1884, James G. Blaine, of ]\Iaine, who had been Secretary of State under Garfield, with John A. Logan, of Illinois, as their candidate for Vice-President. The Democrats nominated Grover Cleveland, of New York, and Thomas A. Hen- dricks, of Indiana, and for the first time since the election of Buchanan in 1856 they were successful at the polls. Mr. Cleveland's political rise had been re- markably rapid. Born at Caldwell, New Jerse}-, in 1837, ^^ practiced law at Buffalo until elected sheriff of Brie County. In 1881 he became mayor of Buffalo, and a year later was elected Governor of New York by a phenomenally large majority, which led to his nomination for the Presidency, President Cleveland's administration, like that of his predecessor, was a period of compara- tively uneventful prosperit}'. The Democrats had carried the country upon a platform which demanded the reform and reduction of the tariff upon imports. The chief legislative event of the administration was the effort of the Demo- crats in Congress to effect this reduction of duties by a measure known as the Mills bill, from the name of its chief author. Congressman Mills, of Texas. The bill was passed by the House of Representatives (July 21, 1888), but failed in the Senate, where there was a Republican majority. An attempt was made to bring to an end the still unsettled questions of the Canadian fisheries by a treaty with Great Britain, negotiated at Washington in February, 1888. The treaty was, however, rejected by the Senate. A bill to effect the more complete exclusion of Chinese immigrants was passed in the same year. During Cleveland's Presidency two of the great Federal gener- als of the civil war passed away — Grant and Sheridan. Ex- GROVER CLEVELAND. 838 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. President Grant died at Mount McGregor, New York, after a long and painful struggle with a cancerous disease, July 23d, 1885. Gen- eral Sheridan, who was commander-in-chief of the United States Army, died at Nonquit, Massachusetts, August 5, 1888. Another death was that of Vice-President Hendricks, on the 25th of Novem- ber, 1885, which left the Vice-Presidential office vacant. In the summer of 1888 Mr. Cleveland was renominated by the Democrats, who named Allen G. Thurman, of Ohio, for the Vice- Presidenc3^ The Republican candidates were General Benjamin Harrison, of Indiana, and Levi P. Morton, of New York. An un- pleasant incident of the canvass was the disclosure, just before the election, of the fact that Lord Sackville, the British minister at Washington, had been en- trapped into an expression of partisanship. For this breach of diplomatic rules his recall was demanded (October 30, 1888). The election resulted in the victory of the Repub- lican candidates. Benjamin Harrison, the twenty-third President of the United States, was a grand- son of William Henry Harrison, the ninth President. Born at North Bend, Ohio, in 1833, he distinguished himself as one of Sherman's officers in Georgia, became a suc- cessful lawyer in Indianapolis, and represent- ed Indiana in the United States Senate from 1881 to 1887. The iirst year of President Harrison's administration was rendered remarkable by the admission to the Union of six new States — North and South Dakota, Montana and AVashington (November, 1889), and Idaho and Wyoming (July, 1890). The total area of these commonwealths was more than 600,000 square miles — half as large again as that of the thirteen original colonies, and completing an unbroken line of States from the Atlantic to the Pacific. The tariff question again occupied the attention of Congress during 1890. The Republicans having a majority in both branches, a bill, known as the McKinley bill, was passed by the House of Representatives (May 21) and by the Senate (September 30), and BENJAMIN HARRISON. J ■xi :l T Si ■■ 9m iiii I III 1 Iff iiiiiiiiiiiil (839\ 840 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. signed by the President (October i), to increase tbe duties on a large number of manufactured articles, including especially tin plate, woolen goods, and articles of apparel. The duty on sugar was at the same time removed. The Fifty-first Congress was also notable for the strong resistance offered by the minority to the rulings of the Speaker, Thomas B. Reed, of Maine, who, his oppo-' nents claimed, violated parliamentary law and traditions by count- ing a quorum from members who declined to vote. The State Department, to which President Harrison called Mr. Blaine as Secretary, has had three troublesome international questions to deal with during the past two years. One, the long standing question of the Behring Sea seal fisheries, the American and British governments have now agreed to refer to arbitrators, meanwhile continuing a moihis Vivendi that restricts poaching. A second arose from the lynching (March 14, 1891) of eleven Italians, who had been thrown into jail at New Orleans on a charge of murdering a police ofi&cial. As some of the victims were Italian citizens, the government of that country demanded reparation. The Federal authorities being, under the Constitution, unable to interfere in a matter that was within the sole jurisdiction of the State of Louisiana, the Italian minister was hastily withdrawn from Washing'ton (March 31). The matter was recently settled by the voting of an imdemnity of $25,000 by Congress. The last and most serious complication was with Chili. A civil war broke out in that republic in January, 1891, between the dicta- tor Balmaceda, and the Congressional party, in which the latter was ultimately successful. The United States men-of-war, sent to the Chilian coast to protect American property, became very un- popular with the victorious party, on account of their supposed friendliness to Balmaceda, and because the Itata, a Congressional transport, had been pursued and captured on a charge of infringing the neutrality of the United States. This resentment culminated in the mobbing, on the streets of Valparaiso, of some seamen be- longing to the steamer Baltimore, of whom two were killed and sev- eral wounded. The government demanded an apology and repara- tion (October 26, 1891). Unsatisfactory and dilatory replies were received until on the 23rd of January, 1892, an ultimatum was pre- sented to the Chilian government, demanding that it should im- niediately apologize for the outrage and withdraw an insulting cir- Q CQ H D O 1 — ( o HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. 841 cular that had been issued by Senor Matta, its foreign secretary. The apparent imminence of war created considerable excitement, but the Chilian government acceded to the ultimatum, and on Jan- uary 28 the President informed Congress that a satisfactory reply had been received, thus terminating the difficulty. The Presidential election of 1892 was approaching. The Re- publicans renominated Benjamin Harrison, naming Whitelaw Reid for the Vice-Presidency. The Democrats once more placed in nomi- nation Grover Cleveland, with Adlai Stevenson, of Illinois, for Vice- President. The Democratic ticket was successful, and Grover Cleveland has the unique distinction of having served two terms as Democratic President, with, however, one intervening term between the two. Among the principal events of President Cleveland's second term we must note the World's Fair at Chicago to celebrate the four hundredth anniversary of the discovery of America by Col- umbus, the grounds being dedicated October 12, 1892, but the exposition proper occurring in 1893, Congress having liberally assisted in the movement and all the prominent nations of the world contributing, by erecting buildings and sending exhibits. The exposition was a very great success, and served to make known to the nations of the world the vast resources of our country. It also had a great educational value to Americans, since we could compare our products, our machines, our methods of doing business with those of other countries. In internal affairs, Mr. Cleveland's second administration opened in a season of financial distress and gloom. The panic of 1893 will long live in history as one of the worst that the United States has ever experienced. In August, 1893, a special session of Congress was called to take some action in regard to financial matters. As a result, the Sherman Purchase Act of 1890, which was itself in the nature of a compromise between the free coinage of silver and its disuse, was repealed, and the United States took the position so long maintained by Kngland, France and Germany, and refused to longer coin silver, except for subsidiary purposes. As the tariff was one of the issues in 1892, we are not surprised that as soon as the Democratic party found itself in power it proceeded to enact a new tariff 842 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. measure. This was known as the Wilson Bill. It was introduced in December, 1893, but it did not become a law until August 25, 1894. In external affairs, we have to notice the sudden and, for the time being-, really alarming crisis between our country and Great Britain in the fall of 1895, over the dispute between Kngland and Venezuela as to the boundary between that country and the British possessions. As that involved the Monroe Doctrine, to the main- tenance of which our country is thoroughly committed, we were in imminent danger of war with Great Britain. Fortunately, the danger was realized, and Great Britain receded from her extreme claims. We have also to notice the breaking out of the Cuban insurrection in 1895, which was destined to involve our country in war. Owing to financial legislation, the great issue between the two parties in 1896 was the free and unlimited coinage of silver. The Democrats, choosing for their standard bearers W. J. Bryan, of Nebraska, and Arthur P. Sewall, of Maine, took their stand on a platform demanding such coinage. The Republicans put in nomi- nation William McKinley, of Ohio, and Garrett A. Hobart, of New Jersey, and affirmed that gold must be the sole standard of value. The campaign was waged with great earnestness along these lines, and resulted in the return of the Republican nominees. The events of President McKinley 's administration were so important and far-reaching in their results, marking apparently the beginning of a new era in our history, and advanced the United States so materially in the estimation of the w^orld at large, that we reserve them for a separate chapter. CHAPTER II. THE WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND SPAIN. HE victories of peace far outweigh those of war, though many of the forward move- ments of nations and races look back to some war as the time when they took '^form, attracted public attention, and from which they are said to date. But causes pre- {" M i | Bd j[.[ i.'^MMMil cede effects, and every advance won in the life of a nation has been preceded by a long train of events; as the century plant bursts into a profusion of blossoms only after years of slow growth. In national affairs it is as if developments went forward silently, slowly, but none the less surely under the sweet influence of peace until the fullness of time had arrived, and then the tension between the new, though unrecognized, state of affairs and the old official order of things became too strong to be endured, and the storm of w^ar bursts, and the clash comes, and on the issues of the resulting conflict depends much of weal or woe to the people directly involved, and to mankind in general. The truth of this observation is apparent when we consider any of the great wars of the past. The Revolution was but the outcome of a long train of causes. There was involved in it not simply the welfare of the nation then springing into existence, but the deeper question of Anglo-Saxon liberty. It is not too much to say that had the Colonies failed in their efforts, constitutional liberty, the rights of the people as against the divine rights of kings and privileged classes, the w^retched inheritance of the past, under which many people otherwise well advanced still labor, would have received a great check. It is well to bear these observations in mind when we reflect on the war between our country and Spain. What were the causes (843) 844 HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. leading to it? What are the national traits of character that have rendered Spain's colonial policy a byword and a reproach among the nations of the earth, and finally justified the United States, in the eyes of the world at large, in interfering in the case of her colony lying at our Southern door; and what are to be the results of that war, not simply to Spain and our country, but to mankind in general ? To rightly answer these questions we must glance at the history of Spain, see what elements have mingled to form the Spanish people, what influences have molded Spanish character. All, of course, are familiar with the geographical position and outline of the Spanish Peninsula. It may not be so well-known that in area it is almost exactly two-thirds that of our State of Texas. Long before the certain light of history, falls upon the Mediterranean Basin, the fame of Spain as a country rich in commerce had penetrated into Western Asia. The Tarshish of the Bible was probably a Spanish town. The Phoenicians, the daring merchant explorers of antiquity, sailed along its coasts, and established their trading depots that became centers of enlightenment to the Celt-iberian tribes that thronged the peninsula. When Carthage w^as the commercial metropolis of the ancient world, she sent her troops and her ships to more completely subjugate the country. Two centuries before the Star of Bethlehem shone, the larger part of what is now Spain was under her control. There the great Hannibal laid the secure foundation of his fame and departed thence to Rome and final defeat. Then came the Roman Conquest. For two centuries, the fighting and amalgamating process of Rome went forward. At the end of that extended period of time Spain was a Roman province. The Celt-iberians and Phoenicians were fused into one mass; all were alike subjects of Rome. The centuries of Roman possession are amongst the most prosperous and peaceful periods in the troubled history of Spain. Its population is estimated to have been nearly twice what it is at present. It was one of the richest provinces of that world-embracing empire. There were mines of precious metals in the mountains. The country was dotted with cities and WILLIAM MCKINLEY, HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 845 towns. The wines, silk, and olives of the south, the flocks and herds of the center, the grains of the north contributed to the necessities, comforts and business of Rome. But the time finally came w^hen Rome entered on its decline. Very early in the fifth century of our era there poured through the rocky passes of the Pyrenees a blighting host of barbarian invad ers. They were but partially civilized Teutonic tribes, known in history as the Vandals, Suevi, etc. Cut off from assistance from Rome, the inhabitants could offer no effectual resistance, and, almost unopposed, the invaders swept the country with the besom of destruction from the mountain barrier on the north to the Pillars of" Hercules on the south. A few years later a still more mighty host of still more redoubtable warriors came through the self-same passes in the Pyrenees, and after some years of conquest, built up the Gothic kingdom of Spain, that for three centuries held sway in the peninsula. Thus was introduced another and most important ethnical element, the possession of which has given rise to the Spaniard of to-day, with his contradictory traits of character. Thus was introduced also one of the religious elements which has resulted in making Spain noted for religious bigotry. One of the most furious conflicts of early Christianity was the Arian controversy, and the Goths were all followers of Arius. „ It was some centuries before this heresy w^as rooted out, and in the meantime, the fires of persecution burned, and thus it came to pass that the Spaniards were early trained in the necessity of being orthodox. And now w^e turn to the introduction of still another people into the peninsula, the records of whose conquest and rule read like an extract from a work of fiction. This refers to the Moham- medan or Moorish conquest of Spain. After some years of longing waiting the Moorish hosts suddenly crossed the narrow strait of Gibraltar, and in a surprisingly short space of time overrun the larger portion of what is now Spain. Subsequently, the Gothic kings reclaimed the northern portion, but for eight long centuries the fairest part of the peninsula formed the Mohammedan Khalifat of Cordova. Many pages would be required to properly speak of this conquest. We can only remark that Arabian Spain was the most enlightened and liberal country in Kurope. Beneath the banner of the prophet, a genial toleration was accorded to all 846 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. religions. Arts and sciences flourished. To this day the mournful ruins of the Alhambra delight the eye and inform the mind of the traveller. Their pieces of silver money called dirhems, found scattered all over Kurope, attest the extensive sweep of their com- merce. They were the patrons of literature, and, as early as the tenth century of our era, persons having a taste for learning and the pleasing amenities of life found their way into Spain. Such a people during the long centuries of their sojourn in Spain, left a lasting impression on the country. Though they were subse- quently expelled, yet the inevitable result of a long intermixture of races was achieved, and Moorish blood still flows in the veins of the inhabitants of Leon, Aragon, and especially Granada. We have now passed in review the principal ethnical elements which compose the Spanish nation. We must note they were drawn from widely separated parts of the earth. Kach stock was master in the peninsula for some centuries of time. There was a long period of intermixture. Though the noble families of Spain may pride themselves on the purity of their descent, and while all Spain pre- sents a people possessing substantial unity, yet different provinces show differeuv^es in type and speech, presenting the characteristics of the different stocks that met in conflict. These ethnical elements should have given rise to a powerful, enterprising and conquering people; and in fact, such was the characteristics of the Spanish people three and four centuries ago. The Moorish conquest occurred in the eighth century. The next eight centuries was a long drawn out contest between the Moors and descendants of the old Gothic power. Amongst the mountains of Northern Spain, the Goths retained a foothold, and from thenee they waged a war of reconquest. Century by century slow advance was made. But it was not a united people that contended against the Moors. There were several small kingdoms, such as Castile, Leon, Navarre, and Aragon. These petty states were at war with each other quite as often as with the Moors. The origin of some traits of Spanish character may now be discovered. During the long centuries of conflict, the Gothic Spaniards, deprived of the best portion of Spain, longed for the wealth and comforts abounding in the Moorish dommions. The easiest, the only way to secure possession of the same, was by means of the sword. And so all Spain became thoroughly imbued (lOo) HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 847 with the idea that the way to wealth was to find some one who had wealth and take it from him by force. Consequently, as a recent writer observes: ' ' In every conquest and in every colony for centuries, this spirit of spoliation has been the dominant impulse of the Spanish race. They are unable to conceive of any advan- tage to be gained from territorial acquisition, except the riches that could be actually seized and carried away by the strong hand from a conquered or subject race. Spain has gone into every land on which she has set foot as her barons of olden times issued from their mountain fastnesses into the domain of the Saracen to ravage, plunder, and despoil." Other results are discernible. While not very extensive in area, still the provinces of Spain are filled by people differing widely in ethnical character. The territory along the Pyrenees has ever been the home of the Basques, probably descendants of the Iber- ians. But the interests of the Basque provinces are not in all respects identical with those of the rest of Spain. They enjoy certain privileges not given to other provinces. The eastern and soq^jtherri provinces of Spain are settled with people — Spaniards all — of a different temperament from that of the people of the center provinces. Hence what policy suits Madrid may be quite distaste- ''•il to Barcelona or Cadiz. This spirit seems to have permeated all classes in Spa^^JJ hence the difficulty of agreeing on a united policy. Any one acquainted with the history of Spain since the restoration of the Bourbons in 1814; the numerous plots and coun- terplots; spasmodic attempts at reform and constitutional govern- ment, to be promptly followed by absolutism; riots in the cities; rebellion in the provinces; Carlists rising — all keeping the country in a continual uproar — will admit that a partial explanation of this state of affairs is to be found in the diverse ethnical elements of the various provinces. The Carlist uprisings would be quite harmless were not the people of the Basque provinces firm believers in exploded ideas as to the legitimate rights of kings. It is necessary for the historian to glance at another result flowing from the long centuries of conflict with the Moors, since it tends to explain the peculiar influence religion has ever had in Spanish policy, which made the Inquisition such a hideous success, and which, as we see in the case of the Phillipines, is now bringing ruin to Spain. We must reflect that in contending with the Moor 848 HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. they were fighting not only an alien race, but an alien religion. For nearly eight centuries then it was " Christian against infidel, native against foreigner, European against Asiatic, inhabitant against invader. " It is not at all singular, then, that Catholic and Christian came to be, in popular thought, the same as countryman and patriot. For one not to be a firm believer in the national faith was the next thing to being a traitor. To doubt a man's orthodoxy was near to doubting his patriotism. To make men firm believers in the national faith was the first step to take in making them loyal subjects of Spain, and so the power given to the church in colonial affairs. Such a people as we have now described, in whose veins min- gled the blood of various races, brave, ambitious, able and filled with pride of ancestry, but who possessed at the same time wrong conceptions as to the rights of subject people, who held divergent views of policy, who were already fixed in the groves of religious intolerance, after being united in one people by the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella, were given the control of the larger por- tion of the New World, with its interesting but helpless popula- tion. The story has been told of the conquest of Mexico and Peru. Spain suddenly leaped to the very pinnacle of power. Wealth poured in upon her. Under Charles V. and Phillip II. , she was the most powerful nation in Europe. Outside of Spain, the sway of Phillip II. embraced large portions of Europe, all West India Islands, what is now Central America and Mexico, and the latter term included the larger part of what is now the United States, not to mention the Floridian Peninsula, and a large portion of South America, while, across the Pacific, the Phillipine Islands became a part of his extensive domain. And now we pause to ask why it was that a nation so circum- stanced, but lately united in one people whose sudden rise to wealth and power startled the world, whose flag was now floating over sixty degrees of latitude in the New World, into whose lap poured the gold and silver of America, and who had assumed a command- ing position in the Spice Islands, should now have fallen to a position one of the feeblest in Europe? The great mass of the people of Spain labor under the fond delusion that no decline has taken place, that they are still the most enlightened, progressive and powerful nation. But as a matter of fact, only three generations elapsed HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 849 from the death of Phillip II. until Spain had fallen to an extremely low ebb. The povert}^ ignorance and destitution, as portrayed by the pen of Buckel, were terrible. A slight change for the better occurred during the eighteenth century, but still Spain has remained in her fallen state, and no bright prospects of recovery are in store for her. Thoughtful writers generally attribute the sudden decline of Spain to three principal causes, and in order to understand the Spain of to-day we must glance at them. The first in order of importance is the Inquisition. We have no desire to paint the horrors of that system, no wish to reproach the church. Let us say they were honestly mistaken in a question of policy. We will point out the inevitable and disastrous consequences. Springing into life and vigor in the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, for more than three centuries the Inquisition overspread Spain like a pall. Intellectual advance was most effectually prevented. There was no such a thing as free speech or free opinion. While the rest of Kurope was wakening to new life during the Reformation, there was no such result in Spain. Ten short years suf&ced to effectually throttle all efforts in that direction. Reflect that in Spain alone more than three hundred thousand individuals were condemned to suffer various penalties, more than thirty thousand being burned alive. Condemned and tortured and put to death, impoverished and imprisoned, for what? For being traitors to their country? For crimes and misdemeanors? Not at all, but for holding or being suspected of holding either personally or harboring in their family some member who held or was suspected of holding some opinion not agreeing in all points with those of the church. Neither age, sex nor condition was a palliative. Kven graves were violated, that the bodies might be burned, and the property long since descended to the heirs might be confiscated to enrich the church and the king. The result of such a procedure was instant and far-reaching. The crassest ignorance speedily became the rule. It could not be otherwise where all inquiry was effectually stifled. We are told that late in the seventeenth century, the upper classes in Spain were unacquainted with science or literature, and scarcely knew anything of the commonest events which occurred outside of their own country. We read the statement of an observer in Madrid in 850 HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. 1679, that "men even in the highest position never thought it neces- sary that their sons should study; and that those who were destined for the army could not learn mathematics, if they desired to do so, as there were neither schools nor masters to teach them." We observe that it was only by chance that a student after attending the University of Salamanca for some years discovered that there was such a branch of science as mathematics. This same Uni- versity in 1 77 1 refused to allow the discoveries of Newton to be taught because they were not as consonant with revealed religion as the system of Aristotle! The Spanish mind has never recovered from that terrible blio-ht. We all know what ridiculously childish views all classes in Spain have expressed, as to the wealth and power of our country. Making all allowances for national egotism, what a strange exhibi- tion of ignorance she has given! To this day their minds are absorbed in distorted reflections on their past glory. They do not want to learn the true condition of affairs. As Buckel observes, "Spain sleeps on, untroubled, unheeding, impassive, receiving no impression from the rest of the world, and making no impression upon it. ' ' She is to-day paying for the awful mistake she made some centuries ago, and we shall see that the results were not con- fined to Spain alone, but extended to her colonies as well. Spain inflicted a severe blow to her own prosperity by the short- sighted, cruel policy she pursued in respect to two elements of her population. The Jews from an early date evidenced a great partiality for Spain. Since the time of Hadrian, that country was full of their colonies. When the Goths became Catholics the Jews were made the subjects of a most cruel persecution. But during the long centuries of the Moorish conquest, Arabian Spain was one European country, where the Israelite was afforded pro- tection. It is not singular, then, that they not only accumulated wealth "but gradually rose to the highest civil dignities, and made great advances in the various departments of letters. " We read of their schools in Cordova, Toledo, Barcelona, and Granada, crowded with scholars, which contributed to make Spain the one country in Kurope where learning made progress during the Dark Ages. The Jews were celebrated in mathematics, astronomy and medicine. But as the Moors lost their hold over the country, the Jews again felt the rigors of persecution. Without prolonging HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. 85 1 a dreary recital, suffice to say that in the very 3^ear Columbus made his memorable voyage, the Jews were expelled from Spain. Four months w^ere given them to wind up their business affairs. They were not allowed to take gold or silver w4th them, but could take personal property or bills of exchange. Let us not dwell on the unnecessary cruelty of their expulsion. By this act Spain lost a population estimated from one hundred and sixty thousand to eight hundred thousand of her most industrious, cultured and learned citizens. The moral consequences could not but be dis- astrous. The people of Spain had seen a most heinous crime committed. An act of national robbery had been consummated. Amidst great suffering and wrong, a whole people had been driven into exile. Such acts as these inevitably react on the mind and conscience of a nation. The economic results were equally deplor- able. " Do they call this Ferdinand a politic prince, who can thus impoverish his own kingdom and enrich ours!" was the surprised exclamation of a barbarian king to whom some of the poor exiles went for protection. And what shall we say to the expulsion of the Moriscoes or descendants of the Moors, in the opening years of the seventeenth century? It is not intended to dwell on the wrong, the cruelty, the bigotry, which produced and accompanied this act, but consider the lamentable results on Spain herself. ' ' About one million of the most industrious inhabitants of Spain were hunted out like wild beasts." The results were instant and lastingf. Savs Buckel, " The best systems of husbandry then known were practiced by the Moriscoes, who toiled and irrigated with indefatigable labor. The cultivation of rice, cotton, and sugar, and the manufacture of silk and paper w^ere almost confined to them. By their expulsion, all this was destroyed at a blow, and most of it was destroyed forever Arts and manufactures either degenerated or were entirely lost, and immense regions of arable land were left uncultivated. Some of the richest parts of Valencia and Granada were so neglected that means were wanting to feed even the scanty population which remained there. Whole districts were suddenly deserted, and down to the present day have never been repeopled. These solitudes gave refuge to smugglers and brigands, who suc- ceeded the industrious inhabitants formerly occupying them, and it is said that from the expulsion of the Moriscoes is to be dated 48 852 HISTORY OP THK UNITED STATES. the existence of those organized bands of robbers which after this period became the scourge of Spain, and which no subsequent government has been able entirely to extirpate." We will not speak further of the history of Spain, or the character of her people. We have now seen the diverse ethnical elements, the fusion of which has given us the Spain of to-day. It has been in no captious spirit that we have pointed out some of her traits of character. It helps us to understand the people with whom we suddenly found ourselves at war in the spring of 1898. It tends to make clear why Spain has made such wretched business in the management of colonies. She looks on them much as her Gothic rulers of a thousand years ago regarded the land of the Moors — lawful prey from whom she was to extort all she could. It explains the curious mixture of bigotry and cruelty observable in her treatment of the natives brought under her dominion. It partially explains why the Spanish people are so very proud of their history, why they are apparently unconscious that the rest of the world has advanced far beyond them, and why the masses of the people are in such depths of ignorance. But now leaving this part of our subject, let us consider her colonies, and why it was that our country felt justified in rescuing them from her grasp. The story of the conquest of Mexico and Peru has been told with a vast wealth of detail in the earlier pages of this book. It suf&ces to remark that in the short space of about fifty years from the time the Spanish admiral dropped anchor off San Salvador, the immense possessions of Charles V. and Phillip II. had been won by the sword. Already the hapless natives, groaning in slavery, were on the road to conversion and extermination. The extensive territory in the New World had been divided into two vice-royal- ties. One, at Lima, was the seat of government for South America, the various sections now composing the troubled republics of that continent being under the government of captain-generals directly under the supervision of the viceroy at Lima. Subsequently in the eighteenth century this extensive territory was divided, and independent vice-royalties established at Bogota and Buenos Ayres. The viceroy of Mexico exercised supervision over the Phillipines. And now let us see how the elements, as we have traced them, that go to make up Spain began to play havoc with their extensive possessions. Spain, we have seen, is composed of diverse ethnical HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. 853 elements. Colonies from different sections of Spain must display different characteristics. This accounts, in some measure, for the ceaseless wrangles displayed in the history of the South American Republics, and which were none the less active during the long period they were governed by viceroys, and prevented the proper growth of the country. Take for illustration Chili and Peru. The former is Biscayan, the latter Andalusian, in its origin; the one retains the hardihood of the north, the other the gayety and grace of the south of Spain. Nor do Kngland and Italy differ, more widel}^ in their habits and springs of action than do these neighboring colonies from opposite sections of the mother country. But this diversity of characteristics was one of the least of evils. It could have been overcome had an enlightened policy pre- vailed as to government. But first as to the treatment of the natives. A people who clamored for the expulsion of a hundred thousand and more of their best citizens, attending that expulsion with unnecessary acts of cruelty, and forbidding any assistance to the poor wretches in their forced migration; a people who could applaud the treachery of their sovereigns in condemning upwards of fifteen thousand of the inhabitants of Malaga to slaver}^ could not be expected to show mercy to the aborigines of the New World. The relatively small amount of gold that the natives had gathered in the course of their history did not go far in satisfying the wants of the conquestadores, let alone the urgent demands of Spain. To work the mines and the estates labor was needed, and accordingly the natives were simply enslaved, — divided up among the conquerors. Probabl}^ a more cruel form of slavery never existed. We are told that before twelve years had elapsed after the discover}^ of Cuba, several hundred thousands of its native inhabitants had perished, miserable victims to the grasping avarice of the white man. Markham tells us that in the vice-royalty of Peru in less than two centuries nine-tenths of the Indians had been destroyed from the face of the earth, and the survivors were ground down by pitiless slavery and oppression. How did Spain regard this? With favor, because, in the first place, it brought tribute to Spain; and, in the second place, the aborigines were thus given the inestim- able privilege of learning the true faith! Las Casas, Bishop of Chiapas, the life-long friend of the Indians, went to Spain in his endeavor to succor them. He had an interview with the Bishop 854 HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. of Burgos, who had the chief management of Indian affairs, and acquainted him with a few facts. Amongst other items of infor- mation he told him how seven thousand children had perished in three months. "Look you, what a droll fool!" interrupted the bishop. "What is that to me, and what is it to the king? " The men who did this were the "heroic ancestors '' to whom General Blanco appealed in one of his bombastic proclamations. Truly; and in starving reconcentrados they showed themselves worthy descendants of this ' ' heroic ancestry. ' ' Let us see how Spain treated her American possessions, and we shall see how utterly impossible it was for colonies so situated to thrive. The colonies were the personal property of the king of Spain, being given directly to Ferdinand and Isabella by the famous bull of Alexander VI. To assist the king in the adminis- tration of his property, two councils were formed, one to stand for the king in political matters, the other to attend to economic affairs. Passing by the political government, with its vice-royal- ties, governor-generals, etc., as not calling for anything especial, let us see how it was in the internal affairs of the colonies. In the first place, trade and commerce was made a strict monopoly. It was prohibited between the several provinces, and not at all allovt^ed with the outside world, except through Spain. The end in view was to derive all revenue possible for the govern- ment of Spain, quite regardless of the welfare of the colonies themselves. Prom only one port in Spain were ships allowed to set sail for the New AVorld. Down to 1718, that port was Seville, after that Cadiz. The ships were not allowed to leave Spain at their pleasure, but twice a year a fleet was made up, and after a tedious round of red tape and the collection of all sorts of charges departed under convoy. The ships could not stop at any port they pleased, but all goods for Mexico went to Vera Cruz, all for South America to Porto Bello on the Isthmus. From this point goods were dis- tributed all over South America. To illustrate how the system worked. Buenos Ayres is a port with a fine harbor, yet for decades goods for that place went first to Porto Bello, thence down the coast to Lima and thence overland to their destination. There could be no trade between the colonies. Quicksilver is needed in mining. The mines in Almaden could not supply the demand for Mexico. Peru had plenty, so a little trade sprang HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. 855 Up between Peru and Mexico for that commodity, to the benefit of both provinces. With her usual short-sightedness, Spain stopped this traffic and supplied Mexico with quick-silver from Germany through Spain. Late in the seventeenth century, one of the most able viceroys of Peru carelessly allowed a slight trade with Mexico, and a few objects of Chinese manufacture came thence into Mexico. Immediately the Spanish merchants sounded the alarm. The vice- roy was summarily deposed from office. The obnoxious articles in question were destroyed. A similar spirit ruled in agriculture. As late as 1803, orders were received in Spanish America to root up all vines in certain provinces, because it was hurting the wine trade of Cadiz. At one time, the cultivation of tobacco, flax, hemp, saffron, and olives was prohibited. Migration to the colonies was surrounded with all sorts of difficulties. In short, in all sorts of ways the industrial freedom of the colonies was interfered with, and the result was disastrous both to Spain and to the colonies. What chance was there for colonial prosperity? Trade hampered in every way, prohibited between the colonies, prohibited with the outside world. Movements of the citizens to the colonies, from the colonies, within the colonies, prohibited without a special license. But in one direction, all w^as energy: raising tribute for Spain. It is necessary to speak frankly about the interference of the church in the government of the colonies, since, from what we have learned of the state of the Spanish mind in regard to religion, and the practical results as shown in the Phillipines. It is a melancholy truth, abundantly attested by history, that it will not do to entrust religion, however pure it may be, with the political interests of a nation. Religious leaders, inspired with what they regard as the eternal interests of the people, loose sight of the blessings of temporal libert}^ Spain has ever erred in this matter. In 1522, it was decreed that no one with the slightest suspicion of heresy should be allowed to set foot on Spain's American soil. Later, it was provided that the authorities should make vigorous search for any such so minded, and to "punish them severely." In 1569, the Inquisition, that most dangerous weapon against popular liberty, was set up. This meant the crushing of all freedom of thought. It were vain to think of advance in any direction, so long as it was in power. As a whole, the well-organ- 856 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. ized hierarchy of the church in all the colonies was independent of the civil authorities, and in some respects claimed to be superior to it. Time after time the whole civil administration was thrown into disorder by wranglings with ecclesiastical authorities. Many illustrations of this disastrous state of affairs could be given. Then again there was the same spirit of greed that is so exemplified in the Phillipines. When in 1767 the Jesuits were expelled, they left such vast wealth in Lima, that a special department of government had to be provided to attend to it. It were utterly hopeless, judging from this brief sketch of Spanish policy, to expect the state of the colonists to be happy and prosperous. In 1736, the viceroy of Peru describes a most gloomy state of affairs. The Spanish population was mostly con- centrated in Lima. The noble and wealthy oppresssed the poor, and all classes oppressed the Indians. Only one industry seems to have been flourishing. In Lima alone there were thirty-six con- vents, each one, on an average, equal to four in Spain. In 1772, the governor of New Granada makes a most despondent report. The local officials everywhere were indifferent and careless as to their duty; the people were steeped in poverty. Trade was almost extinct; capital was lacking, and there were no opportunities for its investment. Kvery one sought to subsist on the government by procuring some little office. Commerce with Spain only employed two ships a year. If it were only allowable to export tobacco, cocoa and precious woods, the colony could hope for prosperity. It is then no wonder that in the opening years of the present century, when the Napoleonic wars gave a chance to the colonies in the New World, they gained with comparative ease their inde- pendence. Neither is it any wonder considering their past history, their centuries of misrule, the state of general ignorance, the pride of race, that from that day to this they have constituted so many disorderly republics, and only now and in but few instances does a stable government, standing for liberty and progress, make its appearance. However, the future is before them. Some of our clearest thinkers hold that, having finally severed the last political tie with the mother country, the real influence of Spain, as shown in language and customs, and to be shown in commerce, will com- mence; in short, that Spanish life, crushed in the Old, will become a world power and influence in the New World. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 857 Let US now turn our attention to Cuba, * ' La siempre fiel Isla de Cuba/' as the Spanish writers so fondly termed it before the war of 1868. We have all read the glowing description of the island left by Columbus. He supposed that at last he had found the shores of Cipango, the country of the Great Khan. These golden dreams were soon dissipated. However, this lovely island — with its fine climate, though situated in the tropics; its fertile soil; its forests of valuable woods, tropical birds, and flowers, and fruits; with its aboriginal population, mild and gentle in disposition, num- bering well in the hundreds of thousands — formed a most attractive combination for the conquestadores. We have already quoted Las Casas' observation as to the fearful results of Spanish policy with the aborigines. Spanish writers labor to show that the enthusiast Las Casas was mistaken in his figures. How^ever true that may be, Gomara, writing in 1553, aSvSerts that the Indians had even then "entirely disappeared." The name of an important city near Havana, Matanzas, meaning "massacre," still commemorates the last great slaughter of the Indians. To take the place of the fast disappearing natives, negro slaves were imported as early as 1523, and thus the curse of negro slavery was fastened on Cuba. Little did the Spanish settlers dream that in enslaving the Africans they were forging the chains which three centuries later were to bind their own descend- ants in political slavery to Spain. The earliest settlements in Cuba were in the southeastern portion, attracted thence by the nearness to the Spanish colonists in Jamaica. Santiago was one of the earliest settlements, and was long the capital of Cuba, and has remained the capital of the eastern division of the island. In time Havana was settled, and owing to its location it became the port of call for the trading fleet to and from Vera Cruz, and so steadily rose in importance. From about the middle of the sixteenth century the captain-general resided in Havana, having a lieutenant in Santiago. Por two centuries nothing of importance is to be noted in regard to Cuba. The same restrictive policy as to trade and commerce held sway, consequently population increased slowly. In 1660, it was not above 40,000, only a tithe of that on the island at the time of its discovery. During this extended period of time the Spanish West Indies, known as the Spanish Main, was the theater of operation 858 HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. for pirates, cut-throats and freebooters that often threatened the coast cities of Cuba. During our French and Indian war the English made an attack on Havana, in which, as we were all good British subjects then, troops from New York, Connecticut and New Jersey participated. The result was the surrender of Havana to the Knglish. But in the treaty of Paris the city and with it the island were handed back to Spain. It is hard to understand how Kngland came to depart from her usual course in giving up her conquest, but it was extremely fortunate for our country that she did so, for with Cuba in her possession, commanding as she would the Gulf of Mexico, there would have been no Louisiana Purchase, and our histor}" would have been vastly different. With the restoration of Cuba to Spain began a new era in the history of the island. The restrictive policy of Spain with reference to the trade of her colonies began to break down late in the eighteenth century. In 1793, the coasts of Cuba were blockaded by the French, and the inhabitants were in great distress, to relieve which Spain passed a decree throwing open the ports to neutral vessels. The result was instantly felt, the United States at once opening up a nourishing trade, dispatching more than one hun- dred cargoes of grain and provisions. An improve- ment set in. The white population, which in two centuries had only grown to 90,000, received an acces- sion of 37,000 in a few years after the ports were opened. It was during the first quarter of the present century that Cuba gained the name of the ' ' ever faithful Island ' ' by remaining loyal to Spain while the colonies on the main land were throwing off the yoke. It happened from 1799 to 181 2, Cuba was blessed with an exceptionally good governor-general, the Marquis de Someruelos. Although they were not supposed to be retained in office more than five years, yet he held his position more than twice that period. The greatly increased trade facilities, the new era of prosperity, and the prudence and sagacity of Someruelos prevented any expres- sion of discontent in Cuba. In 181 2, after Napoleon had overrun Spain, and had placed his MARIA CHRISTINA. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. S.59 brother, Joseph, on the throne, only to have him retire in disgust, the Cortes at Cadiz adopted a Constitution for Spain, which held out a fascinating- prospect for liberty to the colonies, — they were to have a share in the government and such extensive privileges that, if they had only been honestl}^ extended, the island would have speedly attained a wonderful prosperity. But Ferdinand VII., great-grandfather of the present boy king, a man lacking almost every trait of character fitting him to rule, came to the throne in 1814, and at once set the Constitution aside, and "at once took a plunge back as far towards the Dark Ages as was possible in a world that had just witnessed the French Revolution." The hopes of Cuba as well as those of the liberal element in Spain, were dashed to the ground, and once more the repressive system prevailed. In 1820 occurred a turn of the kaleidoscope in Spanish affairs. The golden stream from America had dwindled to nothing. The colonies on the main land w^ere throwing off the yoke. Spain was powerless to prevent. Cuba, how- ever, remained loyal, though there was talk of armed intervention from Columbia and Mexico to force Cuba into a rebellion. Bolivar had his agents in Cuba to work up a revolution, which was prevented largely by the influence of the United States. The rising tide of dissatisfaction in Spain was so great that at length Ferdinand as a measure of safety decreed the adoption of the Constitution; and again Cuba began to dream of prosperitv, and a share in the government. This time the arms of France, and the moral support of the Holy Alliance interfered in distracted Spain. Ferdinand again found himself in absolute power and again tore up the Constitution, and once again Cuba's dreams were blasted. To show how despotically Cuba was governed, we might remark that in view of the threat- ened uprising on account of the work of the agents of Bolivar, the captain-general was given in 1825 all the powers of a dictator. He v/as directly given all the powers of a commander of besieged cities. He could deport from the island without any further pro- cess of law "any person, whatever be their rank, class or condi- tion, whose continuance therein " be deemed inadvisable. He could 86o HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. "suspend the exercise of any order whatsoever, or any general provision made concerning any branch of the administration," at his personal pleasure. The captain-general retained from that day to this such powers, and freely exercised them. The weak and vacillating Ferdinand died in 1833, bequeath- ing to Spain the Carlist troubles, which have twice since that date plunged the country in civil war, and are once more causing the most ominous gathering of clouds in the political sky. To gain popular support, Christina, regent during the minority of Isabella II., decreed in 1836 the adoption of the Constitution. But now we are to see how the fair promises of Spain were to be broken. As we have seen, the captain-general had power to *' suspend any ordinance whatsoever." September, 1836, a sailing vessel brought to Santiago de Cuba the intelligence that the Con- stitution had again been proclaimed in Spain. General Lorenzo, the military governor of Santiago, in the midst of great rejoicing, visions of a happy, prosperous future, proclaimed the Constitution in his province. He apparently did not know what a helpless official he was. The captain-general at Havana was Tacon. He knew exactly what he was expected to do. He promptly "sus- pended" the operation of the Constitution in Cuba, and sent word to Santiago that ' ' not the slightest change in the order of things should be made unless by his express and final order." Neverthe- less, an effort to obtain their rights was made, and three deputies from Santiago went to Spain and vainly endeavored to be heard. They were coldly shown the door, and the Cortes decided that the "provinces of America and Asia, these shall be ruled and adminis- tered by special laws appropriate to their respective situation and circumstances, and proper to cause their happiness." Kver since that fatal da}^ affairs have gone from bad to worse in Cuba. As this was a crucial point in Cuban histor}^ let us see Spain's probable line of reasoning. In area Cuba was about one-fourth that of Spain. It was a country richly endowed by nature. It occupied a most commanding position in the Gulf of Mexico. Its long coast line was dotted with numerous deep, spacious, land- locked harbors, in which the navies of the world could find anchor- age. It possessed a wonderfully fertile soil, vast forests of most valuable woods, and mines of copper, iron and other minerals. It had prospered under what little liberty it enjoyed. Spain evidently 3 o O VO 111 IH o TJ a o rt o . < TJ a; h T3 7 a < f3 v> (J IS u. Tl O a « h ■T-l (861) 862 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. feared that should she relax her authority over the island the colony would make such rapid strides in wealth and prosperity, and would so develop its unrivaled resources that it would speedily surpass Spain herself in importance and power, and soon ceasing to be content with half-way liberties, would demand and obtain independence. That they were correct in regard to the commerce of Cuba is shown by the fact that as early as 1 847 the imports and exports of Cuba exceeded those of Spain by five million dollars. In view of her power, Spain reasoned that it was the better policy to hold, by force, her last possession of importance in the Western Hemisphere. So she fell back on that fatal line of policy, so congenial to Spanish taste, and regarded Cuba as a subject country, out of which she was to derive all the revenue possible, but the welfare of the colony, the good of the people was not to be considered. Smarting under the loss of the gold and the silver from the main land, Spain must contrive, as far as possible, to force Cuba alone to make good the loss. The crown needed revenue. There were generals, impoverished grandees, politicians, and favorites of a dissolute queen, that must be provided with lucrative offices, and so an army of officials was saddled on the island, with an army of soldiers to enforce its demands. Taxes were multiplied beyond all reason. In all conceivable ways revenue was wrung from the ' ' ever faithful Isle," and Cuba, which had formerly drawn money from Spain, became instead a sort of reserve treasury for that impov- erished country. About fifty years ago this system had come to full bloom in Cuba. The captain-general was an irresponsible despot. It was said at that time that ' ' individuals, for the slightest possible cause of offense — often indeed without any cause whatever — are [written in 1850] seized and banished from the island; or, what is still worse, are incarcerated in loathsome prisons. ' ' At the same time, speaking of the Cubans, "there is but one way of avoiding persecution, but one way of escape when persecuted, but one way to obtain justice when seeking ordinary redress. It is by bribery. Gold will open prison doors, procure dispensation for falsely imputed crimes, obtain a tardy decree of long sought justice. " In 1844, about S2 5, 000, 000 yearly was being squeezed out of the inhabitants. It was shown that only a very small per cent, of this vast amount was being applied to the legitimate purposes of taxation, and, continues our HISTORY OP THE UNITKD STATES. 863 author, "when it ivS considered that for variety and extent, for amount and oppressiveness, they exceed any taxation imposed by any government in any country upon the earth; when the enormity of the whole subject matter is regarded in all its features, no one can repress a feeling of abhorrence at such acts of tyrann}^ and of wonder that they have been so long endured in silence." This was written in 1850, so that Cuba suffered from these wrongs for nearly half a century more. What did the Cubans receive in exchange for all this revenue wrung from them? As for the officials: "In the whole island a most brutal spirit of despotism is strikingly prevalent in all officials of the government from the captain-general down to the most abject of his hirelings, not excepting the municipal and other local authorities." As for the Cubans themselves: "They are excluded from the army, the judiciary, the treasury and customs, and from all influential and lucrative positions — all good and enlightened patriots are forced into obscurity or persecuted or expatriated." As for other abuses: "The press under the most infamous and servile censorship is a weapon only wielded against their rights — a petition signed by more than two is condemned as a seditious act." The vast amount of taxes was being spent in -pRymg large salaries to the army officials, not one of whom was a native Cuban, also, ' ' To support an army of twent}' thousand men to intimidate and oppress the peaceful inhabitants of Cuba, and likewise the entire navy of Spain, unnecessaril}^ stationed in the ports of the island for the same purpose, in the paying of a vast number of officers residing either on the island or in Spain, and in remittances to the court." In spite of the enormous amount collected ' ' it was only by subscription that the inhabitants can secure to themselves temples for their worship, or cemeteries for their dead, and for a baptism, or a burial, or to obtain any of the consolations of religion, it requires a large additional sum to be paid." Kducation was badly neglected. In 1S50, only one free child in sixty-three attended school. Out of a total school population of about one hundred thousand less than ten thousand were receiving an education, and by far the larger portion of them were educated at private expense. To illustrate, a populous district of over thirty thousand inhabi- tants had one school of forty boys within its borders, a town of 864 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. ten thousand had one school of thirty boys. General O'Donnell, afterwards one of the numerous favorites of Isabella II., perhaps fearing that the children would imbibe liberal ideas, suppressed primary schools. Did the w^ealthier classes desire to send their children abroad for education? They w^ere forbidden by law to do such a thing. One thing the Cubans could get, provided, of course, they had money to pay the fees. They could purchase a title. If they had from twenty to fifty thousand dollars to pay for the luxury they could become Count this or Marquis de la some other place. Many of the prosperous sugar planters availed themselves of this privi- lege, and so collectively the "nobility" were often called the "sugar noblemen." We can scarcely blame them for buying a title since it saved them from petty annoyances at the hands of officials. A nobleman could only be tried by a high tribunal, and could not be arrested for debt. In levying tribute the Spaniard's only care was to get all possible. In the matter of flour, for instance, wheat was not raised in Cuba, and Spain could not supply the demand. Under these cir- cumstances, being one of the necessities of life, we would naturally expect only a moderate duty to be placed on it. But in 1834, a duty of ten dollars a barrel was imposed. This almost destroyed the trade with the United States, annihilated the mercantile marine which the island had been creating, put an end to ship building which had been flourishing, caused distress in Cuba; but to offset all this, produced revenue for Spain. In short, the native Cubans were taxed every turn they made, on what they raised, on what they sold, on what they bought, on what they manufactured, exported or imported. ^very religious consolation sought, — baptism, marriage, death, burial — all taxed. Their business move- ments interfered with in every wa}", education neglected, the press turned against them; and all that revenue might be gained for Spain, that an army of ofiicials might be enriched, and that politi- cal chains might be bound more strongly around the ' ' ever faithful Island," while the sons of Cuba were "persecuted, imprisoned, buried in dungeons, banished, vsentenced to fortresses and con- demned to death for calumnies, for imaginary crimes of disloyalty, on no better foundation than flimsy suspicion or false denunciation by infamous spies. ' ' We have in the last pages presented a very HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 865 conservative picture of the conditions in Cuba for the fifty years preceding 1898. We must now consider the question of slavery in Cuba, which for many years, recognized as a great evil by the Cubans themselves, was forced on the island by an unscrupulous ring, to share in the ill-gotten gains of which the royal family itself participated. At first it was supposed that owing to the climate, slave labor w^as the only kind that could be employed on the island, hence the deputies to the Cortes of 181 2 and iSaodefended the slave trade. In 1817, Spain joined with the other nations in declaring the slave trade illegal. This step was considered almost as a calamity in Cuba. But the danger lay in quite another direction. The profits that could be cleared in this infamous trade, the hush-money that could be extorted by officials, were far too great to be relinquished. Spain had no intention of giving up the trade, though in opposition to her treaty with Kngland. It is stated that the ex-regent Christiana was at the head of a slave importing company. The captain- general received, as his share of the hush-money, from thirty to fifty dollars for each slave imported. We are told that in the first three months of the year 1850, captain-general Alcoy cleared about $200,000 in this way. But now the native Cubans, the Creoles, soon awoke to a very real and pressing danger. They were constantly oppressed with a fear of a repetition of the insurrectionary scenes of Hayti and San Domingo. The proportion of the colored population to the white was constantly increasing. 'In 1775 it was only forty-four per cent.^ but in 1844 it was more than sixty per cent., and at that date the slave trade was steadily increasing. In that year it was pointed out in a warning way that ' ' insurrections have become frequent and have assumed a more alarming character. Instead of being prompted as they formerly were by the accidental severity of some overseer, they are now the result of a settled conviction in the slaves of their own rights and those of their race. ' ' In 1 841 the Royal Association for Improvement, the Chamber of Commerce and the Municipality of Havana, and the principal cor- porations of Cuba, memoralized Madrid against the trade. But all in vain. The importation of slaves continued. And now, observe the weapon Spain held over Cuba. As long as slaverv continued, the Cuban population knew very well that in event they rose in 866 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. rebellion the military authorities could by arming the blacks, let loose an insurrection that would shock the whole civilized world. Thus the Heraldo of Madrid in 1853 asserts: "It is well for all to know, whether native or foreign, that the island of Cuba can only be Spanish or African. When the day comes when the Spaniards should be found to abandon her, they will do so by bequeathing their sway to the blacks." Thus is seen the truth of our assertion, that in enslaving the negroes the Spaniards enslaved their own descendants. We have now learned that the Spaniards carrying out their policy of forcing all revenue possible out of Cuba held the white population in political and economical slavery, not only laying on them burdens such as no other people had to endure, but held the fear of a successful insurrection on the part of the slaves should they (the whites) rise in rebellion, refusing at the same time to permit the emancipation of the slaves, and con- tinuing the slave trade with all its horrors, on account of the great profit to all concerned in it. While the slave trade was finally abolished, yet on the whole, matters went from bad to worse in unhappy Cuba, until finally we come to the ten years' war. It would have been passing strange had Cuba remained sub- missive and tranquil all the years preceding the outbreak of 1868. As a matter of fact, there were a number of conspiracies and small insurrections, some of which were on the part of the whites to break the political bondage, and some on the part of the slaves and free colored people to gain their freedom and rights. In 1823, there was a conspiracy known as the Soles de Bolivar, which had reference to the rising under Bolivar, but this did not amount to much. Another conspiracy in 1829, known as the Black Kagle, is attributable to emissaries sent from Mexico to work up the revolu- tion. In 1842-44 there was a verv serious insurrection among the blacks. It is claimed that the British Consul, Mr. Turnbull, was one of the prime movers in the matter, in the secret hopes that in the terribly chaotic condition necessarily attending a successful slave revolt, Kngland would seize the island. However that may have been, the insurrection is principally remembered for the sicken- ing scenes of cruelty with which the authorities suppressed it. It is something terrible to read the accounts. It made no difference whether an unfortunate suspect was innocent or guilty, he was tortured until he confessed something and then shot. The streets HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 867 of Matanzas (the scene of Indian butchery centuries before) at times actually ran with blood. Between three and four thousand negroes were thus put to death. The filibustering expeditions 01 Lopez in 1850-51 attracted much attention in this country. Lopez himself was a native of Venezuela. Kntering the Spanish army he rose to the rank of major-general. Retiring to private life in Cuba he was detected in conspiracy against Spanish rule, and fled to the United States for safety. Finding many congenial spirits he was soon busy organizing expeditions to Cuba, where he was under the impression he would be joined by the Cubans in great numbers. The first expedition in 1850 captured and held Cardenas for a few hours, but they had to precipitately retreat, and barely escaped capture at the hands of a Spanish man-of-war. Amongst the four hundred and fifty men comprising this expedition were some well known in America. There were such men as Pickett, O'Hara and Gonzales. The next year, undeterred by his first failure, Lopez made a landing at Bahia Honda. His second in command was Colonel Crittenden, a graduate of West Point, and an officer of distinction in the Mexican War. Lopez had miscalculated the feelings of his countrymen. There was no rising. The expedition met with disaster. Lopez was himself garroted, Crittenden shot, and with the leaders per- ished about one hundred of their followers; another hundred endured imprisonment in Spain. The years of abuse had been leading up to, these suppressed insurrections had been prophetic of, a coming struggle which should test to the utmost the ability of Cuba, the power of Spain. In 1868, Queen Isabella II. finally exhausted the patience of even Spain, and found it necessary for her comfort to vSeek refuge in France. Marshal Serrano and his liberal associates came in power, and a constitutional form of government was adopted. Looking backward, it is singular that Serrano, who had himself advocated emancipation of the slaves in Cuba, Sagasta and Dulce, who were ready to risk all for constitutional government in Spain, should not have been ready to extend some of this liberty to Cuba. But they clung to the traditions of the past, and determined to hold the island in the old way; this, in spite of appeals from distinguished citizens from Havana, in spite of most eloquent protests from Kmilio Castelar, who vainly pointed to the condition of Canada, 49 868 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. and urged that somewhat similar liberties should be granted their colonies. Lersundi, the captain-general who had but recently arrived on the island, and consequently had not acquired his fortune, but, judging from the frantic efforts made in that direc- tion, did not propose to be long about it, refused the respectful petition of the Havanese, and hastily organized the volunteer army to subdue the insurrection which had begun. All the preceding incipient insurrections and conspiracies which Spain had so easily crushed were but ebulitions of a deeper undercurrent, which was v^orking unseen. Secret societies, akin to our Masonic lodges, were formed here and there, at Havana, Santiago and other places, preparing for a more concerted move- ment. The Spanish government, impressed with the necessity of doing something, and impelled to action by a petition of twenty thousand Cubans, called for a commission to meet in Madrid in 1865 to consider the state of the colon3\ This commission accomplished nothing. The Cubans assert that it levied even harder terms of taxation. The commissioners returned to Cuba, and then it was that plans began to be laid for war. This action was hastened by knowledge of the coming revolution in Spain. The movement was rather precipitantly inaugu- rated by Cespedes, in the village of Yara, not far from Bayamo, in the province of Santiago, October 10, 1868. This was the beginning of thd famous ten years' war. It is poetic justice that the province where the banner of the Republic was first flung to the breeze, where most of the hostilities were confined, was the one which witnessed the signal success of the United States army thirty years later which liberated Cuba from the grasp of Spain. It is not our intention to give any detailed account of this It was after all only introductory to the war of 1895. The war. years between, while nominally those of peace, were filled with angry complaints and ominous mutterings of a people, chafing under the broken promises which had put an end to the first war. We want to point first to the organization of the volunteers in Cuba; that force which has gained such an unenviable notoriety HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 869 for ferocious cruelty, of which Lersundi boasted, as he was leav- ing Cuba, that his successor would find difficulty in controlling, which speedily proved the truth of that boast by shooting down innocent people in the Villanueva theater, in the Louvre and on the Public Square, which shot eight young medical students at Havana and caused thirty-two others to be condemned to the chain-gang for a trifling offense, and which compelled the retirement of the new governor -general Dulce. The volunteers were the Spanish inhabitants of the island, men who had come to Cuba to seek their fortunes, the army of blood-suckers, in short, whose ranks were recruited from Spain, as those who had won their fortunes returned to the Peninsula to enjoy it. In them, the Spanish national character came promptly to the front and their spirit speedily animated the whole army. The war was marked by signal and repeated acts of cruelty. What shall we say to a decree ' ' to shoot all insurgents captured with arms in their hands, "or to that later decree that all insurgent prisoners should be shot, all insurgents who surrendered sentenced to the chain- gang? What comment shall we make on the proclamation of Count Valmaceda, "IDvery man from the age of fifteen years upwards, found away from his habitation, who does not prove a justifiable motive therefor shall be shot. Kvery habitation unoccu- pied will be burned. Kvery habitation from which does not float a white flag will be reduced to ashes"? From a Spanish paper pub- lished in New York, we read that it was the deliberate intention to exterminate the Cuban population if other means failed. We see in this the spirit which inflicted the reconcentrado horrors of the last war. For the present we pass by the Virgins affair, taking it up in order later on. The insurgents did the very best that they could with the limited means at their command, but they were not pre- pared. During this war, we hear of Gomez, Maceo, Garcia and others. A government was organized, and a Declaration of Inde- pendence was issued which set forth the groimds of complaint. This unequal contest waged for ten 3'ears. It is estimated that Spain lost upwards of two hundred thousand men, mainlv by disease, and expended seven hundred million dollars. Whole provinces were desolated. A published record of Spanish barbarities show that 2,672 political prisoners were executed, 4,672 insurgents were cap- 8/0 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES, tured whose fate was never known, 13,000 estates were confiscated. The war was finally terminated by the treaty or compact of Kl Zanjon entered into on behalf of Spain by General Martinez Campos, who had been sent by Spain to pacify the island. By the terms of this compact Spain was to make certain concessions, and reform certain abuses, and it is of importance to know whether these promises were kept, since on that point depends the question whether the last w^ar was justifiable or not. Spain agreed to g-rant a general amnesty for political offences dating from 1868 to 1878. The records show that this promise was only partially kept. Brigadier-general Vidal was assassinated by the direct order of the Spanish General Polavieja, who further admits that in 1880 he sent many Cubans without trial to the African Island of Fernand Po. Spain calls attention to the fact that slavery was completely abolished, though the treaty of ^anjon only called for the liberty of those who had fought in the insurgent ranks. In reply, it is pointed out that slavery was killed in the war any way, and that Spain simply recognized the fact officially. Spain says that the Spanish Constitution of 1876 was extended to Cuba in 1 88 1, since which time the island has been fullv represented in the Cortes. In reply, it is said that means were found to divest this concession of all value by manipulating the electoral law in such a manner, by making the right of suffrage depend on the payment of a poll-tax, that only three per cent, of the Cubans could vote. But at the same time means were found to make nearly every Spaniard a voter. The simple declaration of the head of a commer- cial house put every employee on the list of voters, so that miserable little firms v/ere represented for voting purposes at the polls by thirty or forty partners. To illustrate the results, in the muni- cipal district of Guines, out of 12,500 Cubans, thirty-two had the right to vote, but out of 500 Spanirads 400 were voting. It w^as the same in other cases, coUvSequently of the Cuban representation in the Cortes there were never more than six native Cubans, and generally only three. The rest of the members returned from Cuba were Spaniards temporarily residing in Cuba and notorioush^ the GENERAL GOMEZ. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 871 tools of the Spanish official classes. In proof of this statement we refer to the fact that Sagasta made a sharp protest against the Cuban members of the Cortes of 1897, since thej were simply- returned at the dictation of Generals Weyler and Canovas. It is evident a representation made up in this way was not a very valuable concession. But had they all been native Cubans, all anxious for reform measures, their efforts would have been quite fruitless, since all Spanish parties, no matter how sharp their con- tention in other directions, agreed thoroughly on one point: the situation in Cuba should not be changed. Whenever Cuban affairs were to be discussed, the members of the Cortes attended to other business. The delegates spoke to empty benches. We should also reflect that the Spanish Cortes, unlike the Knglish Parliament or our Congress, possesses but little real power, and so Spain could not grant to the island what she did not enjoy herself, political liberty. The electoral law rendered quite empty of value the system of municipal government which was paraded w4th a flourish by Colonial Secre- tary Guilermo, viz., that the towns \vere to elect their municipal boards and have local self-govern- ment. How did it work? "In 1891, the Span- iards predominated in 31 out of 37 town councils in the Province of Havana. In Guines, not a single Cuban was to be found among its town councillors. At the same epoch there were three Cuban deputies in the Provincial Deputation of Havana, two in that of Matanzas and three in that of Santa Clara. Finally out of twenty governors of the province of Matanzas only two have been Cubans. One of these was a professional bureaucrat and the other was an army officer who had fought against his country. During the same period there has been onl}" one native Cuban permitted to act as governor in the province of Havana, and he had spent almost his whole life in Spain. In the other provinces there has never been a governor who w^as born on the island. " Add to this the further fact that the governor-general had the power of appointing the president of the council and to suspend its sessions, and we see of how little real value was this reform. GENERAL GARCIA. 872 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. As far as taxes were concerned the whole matter remained in its former deplorable condition. The native Cubans continued to be robbed right and left for the benefit of the same classes as in the days before the war. They could not help themselves, since all the machinery of government in spite of the reforms remained as it was. To show what great burdens were laid on Cuba, consider a few facts. The governor-general, besides being furn- ished a palace in Havana, a country house, servants, coaches, etc., drew a salary of $50,000 yearly. Tlie director-general of the treasury drew a salary of $18,500. The Archbishop of Santiago and Bishop of Havana were paid $18,000 each. Even govern- ment clerks of the third and fourth class were paid four and five thousand dollars a year. In 1895, out of a budget of ,000,000 all but three-quarters of a million went to pay the interest on the debt and cost of government. Less than three per cent, was applied to purposes of benefit to Cuba, for remember that the vast debt of Cuba, amounting in 1895 to nearly $300,- 000,000, not a cent represented outlays for improvements on the island, it contained many items that had nothing to do with Cuba, and, finally, it included the debt incurred by Spain in subjugating Cuba in the ten years' war. To show how shamelessly Cuba was robbed many facts might be quoted. In 1892 Minister Romero Robledo took one million dollars belonging to the Cuban treasury and loaned it to the Trans- Atlantic Company, of which he was treasurer. Threatened with prosecution, he replied that if prosecuted all his predecessors from every political party would have to sit beside him in the dock. In January, 1890, it was shown in the Cortes that $6,500,000 of Cuban funds had been stolen, though the safe was locked with three keys, each in the possession of a different official. In the same debate it was shown that during the ten years' war, $22,811,000 had been stolen from the Cuban treasury by false returns for supplies purchased. In March, 1890, General Pando asserted that $12,- 000,000 had been stolen in Cuba bv the issue of false warrants. In 1887 the frauds in the Havana Custom-house were so notorious GENERAL WEYLBR. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 8; 3 that General Marin (who must have been an honest man) entered at the head of a military force and discharged every employee. Por all these offences not one person was ever punished. In 1891 three hundred and fifty officials were indicted in Cuba for fraud, but not one was punished. It is not singular, considering all these facts, that the fact of ^anjon never gave satisfaction and consequently there were several abortive attempts to renew the war, and that many portents in the political sky foretold the oncoming of the last w^ar, involving in its course the United States. General Maceo, at first, refused to recog- nize the treaty, and continued a guerilla war for eleven months. There was a small uprising in 1879. Generals Garcia and Jose Marti tried to start an insurrection in 1880. Generals Gomez and Maceo tried to fan the embers of discontent into flame in 1884. But Cuba was not ready. Besides, a very considerable body of Cubans began to dream of autonomy under the rule of Spain. Jose Marti, one of the most gifted sons of Cuba, poet, author, statesman and leader, devoted the time from i88c to 1895 in organizing and getting supplies for the conflict which he foresaw was coming. He organized Revolutionary societies, every member of which con- tributed the wages of one day each week to a fund which was used in buying guns and ammunition which were then smuggled into Cuba so that their forces ^vould have something more than clubs and machetes to fight with when the time had come. It is not too much to say that the early successes of the late war were due to the preparatory work of Marti. In 1892 the autonomist party in Cuba issued a manifesto pointing out the numerous grounds of complaint, and venturing to express a fear that in time the countr}" would resort to extreme measures. This manifesto attracted some attention in Spain and led to what Minister Taylor assures us was the only honest attempt ever made in Spain to give Cuba something like self-government. The then colonial minister drafted a reform bill along honest lines, but it never came to a vote. In 1894, the Agricultural Society of Cuba, the wealthiest corporation in the island, ventured to protest against the whole system of commercial laws, insisting that " economically, they aim at the destruction of public wealth, and, politically, they are the cause of inextinguishable discontent and contain the germs of grave dissensions." Then Spain made a 874 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. play for effect. Cuba was at last to be given great concessions. Minister Abarzuza brought forward Maura's reform law, but won- derfully changed under his gifted pen. This law unanimously passed both houses of Cortes with such suspicious promptness, that it occasions no surprise to learn that it was a characteristically- Spanish reform, conceding absolutely nothing new. It would take too long to present its features, but in effect everything was still left in the control of the official classes and the governor-general. When we reflect on the broken promises with which the peace of ^anjon was purchased, that no real reform had been effected, that the terrible burdens of Cuba had been in no wise removed or lessened; when we consider the robbery of the whole island by the Spanish officials; when we call to mind the years of preparation and organization, the growing discontent of the people, the final disappointment when the heralded reforms of Abarzuza were made known, we need not wonder that the struggle v\^as renewed. Those who inaugurated the movement did not realize that they were opening a new chapter in the history of the world. They dreamed of independence; they could not have foreseen that the Republic of the North was to bring them that boon; was to drive the Spanish flag from the Western Hemisphere, and was to loosen the power of Spain over distant islands across the broad Pacific. It is not necessary to give a detailed accoimt of the war for its first three years or from its inception down to the spring of 1898. The storm broke in February, 1895, though the uprising was not at all serious before April, by which time Gomez and Maceo were in the field organizing their scantily equipped forces. Calleja, the governor-general, was hastily replaced by Marshal Campos, who was instrumental in bringing the former contest to a close. The movement of the Cubans for three years may be summed up as follows: Their forces were far too feeble to come to regular engagements with the Spanish forces. They had no commissary department, they were lacking in arms and ammunition, they could not capture or hold any important town, least of all any sea-port cities, since they had no navy. Their only hope was in wearing out the Spaniards, keeping them constantly guessing where they were, falling on small detachments here, capturing supply trains there, dynamiting railroads elsewhere, preventing Spain from realizing any revenue by destroying crops, and trusting to the HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. 875 deadly climate to kill off the Spanish forces. It was a saying among the Cubans that fever was their best general. As for the results achieved: Generals Gomez, Garcia and Maceo did all that could be expected from the very limited means at their command, and it is not for Americans who recall the exploits of Marion, during our War for Independence, to criticise their actions. With the exception of the towns, and the western province of Cuba, Pinar Del Rio — save for the campaign of Maceo — they did about as they pleased. Marched where they wanted to, fought when they wanted to, devStroyed such property as they deemed best, kept Havana itself in fear of attack, utterly wore out the Spanish forces that were vainly trying to pen them up, and were making rapid progress in bankrupting Spain. In the meantime their ' ' best general ' ' was actively engaged. The raw, unaccli- mated levies of Spain were poured into the island only to meet death in a combat with an unseen foe. The Americans know by experience at Santiago what hardship and exposure during the sickly season in Cuba signify. We can only imagine the terrible results in the Spanish army. On the Spanish side of the w^ar a darker chapter is to be read. The enfeebled nation clung to Cuba as though her very life depended on it. "The last dollar and the last man, " declared Canovas, was " the only response to be made to those who challenged the sov- ereignty of Spain, and with remorseless vigor he proceeded to make that declaration good. He transported two hundred thousand men over three thousand miles of ocean; and Spain, with bankruptcy staring her in the face, poured out money like water. Much of this energy was misdirected. It is asserted that fifty thousand drilled troops, honestly officered, properly armed and equipped, including hospital stores, could have speedily crushed the rebellion. But, alas for Spain! her deadliest foes were not in the Cuban ranks. Don Carlos gave expression to a melancholy truth when he spoke of "generously voted millions diverted from the fulfillment of their patriotic purposes to the pockets of fraudulent contractors and dishonest state employees, and disorder, peculation, and men- dacity in every department of the public service. ' ' Unless all accounts we have are wrong, the entire military class in Cuba looked on this war as their harvest time. We have only to recall the thirty-four million dollars admitted in public debates in the 8/6 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Cortes to have been stolen in the preceding war to understand the alacrity with which the military ring proceeded to gather in the spoils. Officers got double pay for services in the Cuban war. In April, 1897, there were in Cuba forty-seven generals, and about eleven thousand field and company officers, all drawing double pay while the war continued. The generals were stationed in the larger towns and ruled their departments as if they were conquer- ing heroes. They supplied, for a money consideration, of course, the guards for sugar planters and private property generally. An American sugar planter demurred at paying the contribution of some three thousand dollars demanded for guarding his prop- erty. "You make a crop every year," rejoined the colonel. "We only get a chance once in ten 3"ears. This is our harvest. ' ' This incident describes the general spirit. It was remarked during the war that the official reports of the number of sick and wounded were generally above the true num- ber, because that explained the large bills ren- dered for medicine and hospital supplies; but the number reported dead was way below the truth, l)ecause if the truth were told the men's names would come off the pa}^ rolls and the officers could no longer draw and pocket their pay, as they were doing. Most shameful stories could be told of peculation on all sides. The war was their larvest time, and they were making the most of it. And what shall we say as to the Spanish method of conducting the war from a humane standpoint? It is one of the saddest chapters in history. We do not refer so much ■;:o the fact that no mercy was shown to the unfortunate prisoners taken in skirmishes, — it is well known, they were promptly shot, — but to the treatment of non-combatants. It was the deliberate impression of the Spaniards in Cuba, that the only way to end the war was to exterminate the entire Cuban population. Mr. Bonsai, in his book on Cuba, quotes conversations he had with influential Spaniards on that point. In 1896, a lieutenant-colonel of volun- teers, who passed for an honorable man, detailed 'to him and to Mr. Akers, correspondent of the London Times, the growing convic- GENERAL BLANCO. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 877 tion of the Spaniards that the oniy way to save the island for Spain was ' ' a sudden rising en masse of the Spaniards in the towns and cities and the murder of all Cubans, something in the style of St. Bartholomew." But they explained that they had not yet gained the consent of the captain- general; however, they hoped to do that soon, and, in the meantime, they were preparing lists of Cubans. "We shall make very short work of them," he remarked, and coolly added, ' ' To do our w^ork properly and thoroughly, we will have to kill their wives and children. " Mr. Akers assured Mr. Bon- sal that he had long known such a plan was under consideration. But since such an act as this would not only cover Spain with eternal infamy, but would arouse such a storm of indignation that their existence as a nation would be threatened, it could not be allowed in the manner wished. The same result might be attained in another way; and this leads us to the crowning act of infamy on the part of the Spanish officials, the reconcentrado system of General Weyler. When General Campos was informed that General Weyler was to succeed him, he is said to have remarked, "Why, even the dead will rise from their graves to protest." We learn from Minister Taylor that the sole reason Weyler was appointed was because of his brutal method of warfare. "If Spaniards them- selves can be believed, " he remarks, "no more ruthless soldier than Weyler ever rode at the head of Spanish battalions since the dark days when Alva with his bloody hand strove to crush the life out of the Low Countries. ' ' The plan that General Weyler proceeded to put in execution was nothing more nor less than the extermination of the non-com- batants by starvation. In the fall of 1896 orders were issued to the military commanders of the four western provinces of Cuba to gather the non-combatants into certain specified stations of con- centration. !E)ight days were given the Pacificos in which to com- ply, after which the soldiers burned their houses, confiscated their horses and cattle, and took all that was worth taking. The trembling droves of old men, women and children were driven to the stations assigned them, generally situated in low-lying, swampy and malarial places. We must understand that no provision was made for their comfort; they had no supplies of any kind. By December, 1896, 400,000 had thus been concentrated in a series of starvation camps. No one, not even the most callous, can read SjS HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. the accounts of the awful scenes of misery that then ensued, un- moved. We shall make no attempt to recount them, but let each reader imagine the scene. Four hundred thousand people were being starved to death! In the year 1897, three hundred thousand are supposed to have died. These were not men taken in the act of rebellion, but old men unable to fight, innocent children, helpless women. It will be observed that this process, while it did not attract so much attention, bid fair to be quite as effective, and far more replete with long drawn out suffering, as the mas- sacre plan advocated by the volunteers, yet Canovas declared that " Weyler perfectl}^ represented the policy of the home govern- ment." After the death of Canovas, Weyler was recalled, but Blanco made no change in policy. In the beginning of 1898, the situation in Cuba was deplorable in the extreme. An astonishing number of small forts had been built by the Spaniards all over Cuba. Kvery little village was provided with several. They were literally strung along the rail- roads, and two great lines of them stretched across the country, constituting the trochas. It is stated that it required about 150,- 000 soldiers to garrison these multitudinous forts. The rest of the Spanish army was aimlessly marched about from one fortified place to another; on rare occasions they had little brushes with the insurgents, but in general they busied themselves in murdering what few pacificos they met and destroyed what little property they came across, that had in some unaccountable way thus far escaped. The non-combatants gathered in starvation camps were being rapidly exterminated. The bands of insurgents pursued their usual course. The entire country was fast becoming a desert waste. Agricultural interests were ruined. Trade and commerce, except for necessities, were at a standstill. The terrible exertions Spain had put forth were fast telling on her. But on the other hand, the insurgents seemed to have about done their work. It is quite prob- able with the dying groan of the last reconcentrado it would have been found that for the time being the fire of war had burned itself out, and ruined Spain would have remained in possession of the ruined island; but then suddenly there was an explosion in Havana harbor, w^hich not only wrecked the battle ship Maine, but blew the Spanish flag from the Western Hemisphere. It is necessary to inquire as to the interests of America in ^ ^v •ii m *s^J^'' M W -:::^^mr ¥ ' ^n u^^ (879) 88o HISTORY OP THK UNITED STATES. Cuba. John Quincy Adams, when Secretary of State in 1823, l^^d occasion to express himself as follows: "Its commanding position with reference to the Gulf of Mexico and the West India Seas; its situation midway between our Southern Coast and the Island of St. Domingo; its safe and capacious harbor of Havana, fronting a long line of our shores, destitute of the same advantage; the nature of its production and of its wants, furnishing the supplies and needing the returns of a commerce immensely profitable and mutuall}^ beneficial, give it an importance in the sum of our national interests with which that of no other foreign territory can be compared, and little inferior to that which binds the different members of this Union together. Such indeed are, between the interest of that island and this countr3% the geographical, commercial, moral and political relations formed, gathering in the process of time, and even now verging to maturity, that, in looking forward to the probable course of events for the short period of half a century, it is scarcely possible to resist the conviction that the annexation of Cuba to our Federal Republic will be indispensable to the continuance and integrity of the Union itself. ' ' This expresses what had been the almost general feeling in the United States ever since Spain began to have trouble with her American possession. We had, however, been willing that Spain should retain her sovereignty over Cuba, but had warned her and Kurope generally that we would not consent to her resigning the island to any other Kuropean power. Still it seems to have been generally expected in E^urope that sooner or later w^e would attempt to acquire Cuba. The political writers of fifty and sixty years ago were quite sure that Cuba would be a bone of contention. English writers, in the old days before we learned each other's good points, never tired of asserting that we had avaricious designs on Cuba. A celebrated pamphlet in 1819 warned Great Britain of the danger to their commerce should the United States be allowed to acquire Florida and Cuba. The remedy urged was for Great Britain to seize the island herself! In 1852, France and England desired the United States to join with them in guaran- teeing the possession of Cuba to Spain. In reply, they were told that while this country did not court the acquisition of Cuba, still we could not for one moment admit that their interests in Cuba were identical with ours. HISTORY OF THK UNITKD STATES. 88 1 In slave -holding- days there were constant discussions as to the desirability of getting- control of Cuba by purchavse or other- wise. President Polk offered Spain one hundred million dollars for Cuba, only to have his offer promptly declined. The simple fact is, a party in the United States desired the acquisition of Cuba since it would increase the importance of the slave-holding states. It was this influence which furthered the filibustering expeditions of Lopez. So important for their purposes was deemed the acquisition of Cuba, that, in 1S54, President Pierce directed our Ministers at Madrid, London and Paris to deliberate together over the matter. The result was the Ostend Manifesto, in which they advised the purchase of Cuba, accompan34ng our offer with the distinct threat that if it were not accepted we should take other measures. They declared that, "the Union can never enjoy repose, nor possess reliable security as long as Cuba is not embraced within its boundaries." This manifesto excited as much disturbance within the United States as anywhere else. Slavery, however, was soon eliminated as a factor in the case, and we hear nothing particularly about Cuba until the ten years' war. In 1873 occurred the Virginius affair, which came very near involving the United States and Spain. The facts are, the Vir- ginius, on a filibustering expedition, was captured by the Spanish, taken into Santiago de Cuba, and in accordance with Spain's usual bloodthirsty methods, the captain and crew were promptly con- demned to be shot. In accordance with this, the captain and fifty- two men were executed. Ninety-three more were under sen- tence of death, when the British war ship, Niobe, summoned from Jamaica by the British Consul, steamed at full speed into the har- bor, and threatened to bombard the city if the massacre were allowed to continue. War seemed inevitable, but the Virginius was on an unlawful expedition, diplomacy got to work, the vessel and surviving crew were surrendered, a small indemnity was allowed; and, in the cemetery of Santiago, these fifty- three mur- dered Americans rested for twenty-five years, and then American cannons, raining shot and shell into Santiago, thundered the long delayed military salute over their graves, and the prophecy of the British Consul came true, "Some day Spain will bitterly regret what she is doing." Near the close of the ten years' war, there was further talk 882 HISTORY OF THE U:NITED STATES. about buying Cuba, or at any rate guaranteeing the debt of the island if Spain would grant her independence; but language of a more ominous import for the further rule of Spain began to be heard: the word ' ' intervention ' ' was used. Owing to the nature of events, our location, our resources, the character of our population, it was evident to European statesmen, from the very moment we achieved independence, that we Avere to assume a position of supreme influence in the affairs of the New World. The Old World nations have long put forth a doctrine known as the Balance of Power, by which is recognized the right to interfere on the part of all nations, in affairs directly, and for the time being, concerning only two, to the end that the rights of all may be safeguarded. Thus, to illustrate, the Berlin Congress at the close of the Russo-Turkish war, when other powers interfered in the settlement of difficulties directl}^ concerning Russia and Turkey. They were justified in so doing since, if Russia could have worked her will and pleasure on Turkey, she might have placed herself in position to do injury to the rights of others. Similarly, at the close of the war between Japan and China, and, more recently, between Turkey and Greece. The United States analogue of the li^uropean Balance of Power is the Monroe Doctrine, in which we, as flowing from our peculiar position and influence, took upon ourselves the formidable burden of safeguarding the rights and liberties of the turbulent republics of the New World, for, in so doing, we conserved our own rights, bearing in mind the Kuropean international maxim, "Look well to the independence of your neighbors, even the most remote, if 3'ou wish to preserve your own. ' ' Thus the Monroe Doctrine is the evolution of the Balance of Power theory of Kurope, made necessary by the peculiar state of affairs in the New World, promulgated by President Monroe. This doctrine was respected by France and the Holy Alliance of Russia, Austria and Prussia in 1823, ^vhen we warned them not to interfere in the case of the revolted provinces of Spain. It was this doctrine which rudely dissipated the dreams of the Third Napoleon of a Latin Kmpire in Mexico. To this doctrine President Cleveland resorted in the Venezuela boundary dispute with Great Britain. It was this doctrine finally which forbade Spain to dispose of Cuba to any other power, and equally forbade any other power to interfere between Cuba and Spain. But this commanding atti- HISTORY OF THK UNITED STATES. S83 tude on our part devolved on us a corresponding duty. In forbid- ding others to interfere we must hold ourselves ready to perform that duty, should occasion arise. President Cleveland recognized this in the following language: "When the inability of Spain to deal successfully with the insurrection has become manifest, and it is demonstrated that her sovereignty is extinct in Cuba for all purposes of its rightful existence; and when a hopeless struggle for its re-establishment has degenerated into a strife which means nothing more than the useless sacrifice of human life and the utter destruction of the very subject matter of the conflict, a situation will be presented in which our obligations to the sovereignty of Spain will be superseded by higher obligations which we can hardly hesitate to recognize and discharge." In 1827, Gi-reat Britain, France and Russia interfered between Turkey and Greece. The preamble to the agreement of the three powers only needs a change of name to fit the case of this country and Spain in the spring of 1898. "Penetrated with the necessity of putting an end to the sanguinary contest which by delivering up the Greek Provinces and the isles of the Archipelago produces daily fresh impediment to the commerce of the Kuropean States and gives occasion to piracies which not onh^ expose the subjects of the high contracting powers to considerable loSvSes but besides renders necessary burdensome measures of protection and repres- sion. " In view of these facts the powers intervened. It was evident to the niOvSt casual observer, at the dawnino- of 1898, that all the portents in the political sky were most ominous. In Cuba, Spain's long years of misrule were drawing to a fright- ful close. A nation was being starved to death. Cuba was being converted into an island of ruins. The vast commercial interests of the United States in Cuba were prostrated. The future of Cuba seemed nowhere lit up with hope, the ruin of Spain politically and financially seemed certain. The "inability of Spain to deal suc- cessfully with the insurrection ' ' seemed demonstrated. It seemed clear that ' ' her sovereignty was extinct for all purposes of its rightful existence. ' ' It was abundantly manifest that the strife had degenerated into a "useless sacrifice of human life." The "utter destruction of the very subject matter of the conflict" (Cuba) was imminent. A situation had arisen in which our obli- gations to Spain were superseded by ' ' higher obligations, ' ' and we 50 884 HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. could no longer "hesitate to recognize and discharge them." As President McKinley informed the assembled ambassadors of Kurope, ' ' the situation had become insufferable. ' ' .With all signs pointing to the coming trouble with Spain, few believed we were to have war until it was actually upon us. President Cleveland, in his annual message of 1896, announced that "it could not be expected that the hitherto expectant attitude of the United States would be indefinitely maintained," but on the contrary ' ' a time may arrive when a correct policy and care for our interests as well as regard for the interests of other nations " would compel our government to action. President McKinley attempted to carry out the same lines of policy. Canovas, the prime minister of Spain, a most able man, but typically a Spaniard in ideas of government, who had upheld Weyler, was assassinated in August, 1897, and after a brief ad interUn ministry, Sagasta came into power. He recalled Weyler and appointed General Blanco. The hope was speedily expressed that arrangements would be made to relieve much of the misery in Cuba, possibly to pacify the island. This hope was heightened when, later in the fall, a scheme of autonomy was announced for Cuba, to take effect with the new year. Then it became evident that the * ' Manana ' ' policy of Spain had ruined the island. She had waited too long. The insurgents, distrustful of Spanish promises, and believing they would soon achieve independence, did not care for the late-extended offer of autonomy. A large party in Spain, and the whole Spanish party in Cuba, were bitterly opposed to the concessions. As General Weyler styled it, it ' ' was a cowar.dly concession to Yankee demands." A stronger objec- tion was that, if effective, it would largely put an end to the robbery in Cuba on which the whole official class thrived. In the United States, public opinion as expressed in Congress regarded this offer as an evasion of the real issue on the part of Spain. Influential leaders in Congress were constantly agitating for some form of intervention; and only with difficulty could the administra- tive prevent such action by Congress as would make the trial of autonomy impossible. GENERAL FITZHUGH LEE. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 885 The year 1898 opened in Cuba with autonomy nominally put in effect, though not recognized by the insurgents, and to the growing discontent of the volunteers, whose capacity for mischief, as we have seen, was very great. In January, this discontent led to rioting in Havana. Partly occasioned by these riots, and partly under the impression that the presence of a war ship in the harbor might cool the fever of the volunteers, and since it could not be regarded as a hostile act, the United States battle ship ]\Iaine was ordered to visit Havana, and on the morning of Januar}- 25, dropped anchor in the harbor, amidst the booming of salutes, accompanied by official visits and all outward marks of respect. It was noticed, however, that the Spanish element in Havana was ' ' sullen. ' ' Yet, as time passed, it seemed as if good effects were flowing from the visit. Havana was quiet. Karly in February, the cruiser Mont- gomery visited Matanzas. February 9th came the De Lome incident. The Spanish Minister, De Lome, in a private letter, took occasion to slur President McKinley, and seemed to imply in his letter that Spain was not acting in good faith. Unfortunately for De Lome, this letter was stolen from the mail and published. This unsettled everything for a while, and rendered necessary the resignation of De Lome. Considerinof the difficulties confrontinjjr in Spain, the proud, sensitive spirit of the Spanish peopk the impatience of Congress, the sufferings in Cuba, the officially pronounced statement that if war was not ended soon the United States must interfere, it is not singular that the rela- tions between the two countries were rapidlv coming to be, as diplomatically expressed, strained. Then like a bolt from the clear sky came the destruction of the Maine. Shortlv after nine o'clock the evening of February 15th, when all was quiet in the harbor, there was a terrible explosion which shook the entire cit}^, and sent the fire engines scurrying in various directions; however, the glare of fire soon dispelled all doubts; the Maine had been destroved, more than two hundred and fifty marines had lost their lives. This disaster shocked the whole world. Messages of sympathy poured in on the nation. The effect on the United States was marked. Sag GENERAL MULES. 886 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Intense excitement for the moment and then a most ominous calm- ness. The whole countr}" accepted the advice of Captain Sigsbee, of the Maine. It was a time to know and not to think; we wanted facts. The six weeks following the explosion were amongst the most memorable in our history. A Board of Inquiry was at once appointed, at the head of which was Captain Sampson, afterwards acting rear-admiral. The spectacle was to be seen of two nations, each officially proclaiming that peace would continue, that nothing had happened to shake their friendship, openly making prepara- tions for war. Instant preparations were begun by the United States. It was noticed that our navy was gathering at one place. Our ships were coming home from Kurope, from South America, across the continent, the Oregon suddenly started south at full speed, while at Hong Kong our Pacific Squadron was gathering. Powder mills and ordnance factories commenced running nights, army officers found their vacations cut short, navy yards were crowded with work- men not only days and nights but Sunday as well. After the explosion, scarcely two weeks elapsed before our country, and E)urope as well, was elec- trified by the unanimous passage through both houses of Congress of a bill placing in President McKinle3^'s hands, to dispose of as he saw fit, $50,000,000 for defense. Messengers were dis- patched to Kurope to purchase naval vessels if any could be found, and two were thus secured from Brazil. Guns and war material of all kinds were secured, and this country w^as a scene of feverish activity. Harbors were mined; coast defenses strengthened. While the Board of Inquiry was leisurely taking testimony, having drawings made, and journeying back and forth from Havana to Key West, coal and ammunition were being hurried southward. Our war ships, which formerly had scarcely enough powder for saluting purposes, saw their magazines hurriedly filled. Across the continent went a freight train at express speed convey- ing ammunition to San Francisco to be sent across the Pacific to our Asiatic Squadron. Kach passing hour saw our country better prepared. CAPTAIN SIGSBEE. HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. 887 Weeks passed, and still no report from the Board, to the sur- prise of many who did not understand the condition confronting the country. President McKinley needed time, not only to prepare the country for war, but, if possible, to preserve the peace. The problem confronting the administration was a complex one. It was recognized that decisive action on the part of Congress could not be long delayed, and yet unless the explosion could be brought home to Spain, it, in itself, was no cause for war. The condition of the insurrection was such that we could neither recognize their independence nor grant them belligerent rights. There remained only intervention on general principles, for w^hich the whole world recognized we had sufficient ground. President McKinley, anxious to preserve peace, determined to exhaust every means at his disposal in holding back Congress on the one hand, and in endeavoring to induce Spain to peacefully acquiesce in the independence of Cuba on the other. March 28th, the report of the Board was received, showing, what had come to be an open secret in the United States, that the Maine was destroyed by an external explosion, but the Board was unable to determine the responsibility there- for. Arrangements were made before this report was sent to Congress — accompanied by a message from the President — to have it at once referred to the appropriate committees, in the hopes that in the meantime Spain would see the necessity of yielding to our wishes. Two weeks passed, during which time it would have occasioned no surprise any day to have learned that war had been declared. At length, after exhausting every means at his command, on the nth of April, President McKinley sent a message to Congress, in which he set forth all the facts of the case, and left to the judgment of Congress the plan to be pursued. For eight days the world waited while the two houses of Congress were coming to an agreement. Finally, April 19, 1898, the two houses united in a joint resolution directing the President to employ the land and naval forces of the United States in procuring peace in Cuba. This resolution was communicated to Spain, accompanied by what amounted to an ultimatum from the United States, that ADMIRAL WM. T. SAMPSON. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. the Spanish forces forthwith evacuate Cuba. This led to the prompt suspension of diplomatic relations, and for the first time in fifty years the United States was at war with a foreign power. When Admiral Sampson's powerful squadron steamed away in the early morning of April 22, 1898; and when, the following day, the President called for 125,000 volunteers, all eyes were fixed on Havana as the place around which the war would center. Almost unnoticed, however, events were shaping in the Orient, and the Bay of Manilla was destined to be the scene of one of the most remarkable naval victories ever achieved, which caused an instant widening of our martial horizon, and which marked the entrance of the United States into the area of world-wide politics. For the present, then, let us turn our attention to the Phillipines. The Phillipines is the name of an extensive archipelago, consisting of possibly twelve hundred islands, only a very few of which are of any size, the largest being in area about the size of Ohio, known as the Island of Luzon. They are situated about six hundred miles in a south-easterly direction from Hong Kong, in about the same latitude as Central America. They have remained a Spanish possession ever since their discovery, the seat of govern- ment being the city of Manilla, on the west coast of the Island of Luzon. It has a population of about 250,000, and has great importance from a commercial standpoint. The Bay of Manilla is a beautiful land-locked harbor some twenty-five miles in width. The population of the group of islands is variously estimated at from seven to fifteen millions, composed principally of tribes of the Makiy stock. A great man}^ Chinese have been attracted to the island, and there is a large population of mixed blood. The white population is mostly Spanish. Tobacco and hemp are the princi- pal products of Luzon and the larger islands, but sugar and coffee abound. Little that is reliable is known as to the natural resources of the islands. Like all Spanish possessions, the Phillipines have been most wretchedly governed. The}^ have also suffered from the short-sighted restrictive polic}^ of Spain, which was such a drawback to the development of the American colonies. They also groaned under most oppressive taxation. It is necessary to remark that the church holds its power in the Phillipines to this day. The church literally owns the islands, and is enormously wealthy. In many respects, the civil power is actually subject to % i ^# ^' -^i o 1' (889) 890 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. the religious order. We are not surprised to learn that there have been insurrections in the Phillipines against Spain, the same as in Cuba, and for the same reason. One, under the lead of Aguinaldo, was in progress in 1897. The insurgent chiefs were bought off by Spain in the fall of 1897, by the payment to them of $400,000 in money and the promise of reforms in government, which promises, they claim, have been broken. When hostilities broke out our Asiatic squadron was gathered at Hong Kong. It consisted of four protected cruisers, the Bos- ton, Olympia, Baltimore, Raleigh, and two gun-boats, the Concord and Petrel, one dispatch boat and two supply ships, all under the command of Commodore George Dewey. The Spanish squadron, under command of Admiral Montojo, consisting of seven cruisers, only two, however, approaching in effectiveness the Ameri- can cruisers, two small gun-boats and a dispatch boat, was stationed at Manilla. It was most essential for the safety of our Asiatic commerce, to Honolulu, then to all intents and purposes a part of the United States, and to our Pacific Coast cities, that this fl.eet be put out of the fight. Instructions w^ere sent to Commodore Dewey to "destroy or capture" the Spanish fleet. It was therefore soon known at Manilla that the Ameri- can squadron would soon sail for that point. In quite the usual spirit of Spanish brag- gadocio, the officials at Manilla speedily brought themselves to believe they would annihilate the Americans. The British consul was invited by the Spanish admiral to be his guest on his flag-ship so as to secure a good view of the perform- ance. Quarters were prepared for the prisoners they were so sure of taking; and extra crews were secured to man the vessels they were to take. Governor-general Augusti issued a ridiculously bombastic proclamation asserting that "The North American people, constituted of all social excrescences, have exhausted our patience and have provoked war by their perfidious machinations, their acts of treachery, their outrages against the laws of nations and international conventions. The struggle will be short and decisive. The God of victories will give us one as brilliant and ADMIRAL GEORGE OEWEY, m C t3 o V rt O c o ,ia - a c e- o S j^ [;i I en c ~-(-. |>C f4 (U o ■ -<