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 COPYRIGHT DEPOSni 
 
PROFITABLE 
 DAIRYING 
 
 BY 
 
 Kirk Lester Hatch, B. S. in Agriculture, 
 professor, agricultural education, 
 
 university of WISCONSIN 
 
 Gustav Henry Benkendorf, B. S. in Agriculture, 
 ]\ 
 
 assistant PROFESSOR, DAIRY HUSBANDRY, 
 UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 
 
 CHICAGO NEW YORK 
 
 EOW, PETERSON AND COMPANY 
 

 Copyright, 1918 
 ROW, PETERSON 
 AND COMPANY 
 
 JUN 10 1918 
 
 ©CLA497682 
 
 
PREFACE 
 
 There is no branch of agriculture which yields 
 so handsome and so satisfactory returns to the 
 farmer as the dairy industry, if properly pur- 
 sued. To be sure, there are other branches 
 which give larger returns, but these large profits 
 are more than offset by the loss to the soil and 
 the uncertainty of a crop each year. Tobacco 
 may be grown successfully for a number of years 
 on the same piece of ground, but the soil must be 
 diligently worked and extensively fertilized. In 
 the end the overtaxed soil refuses to respond and 
 finally lies exhausted. So it is with grain farm- 
 ing. One cannot draw continually on a bank 
 account without renewing his deposits there. 
 Neither can the farmer draw continually from 
 the storehouse of plant food which he possesses; 
 that is, from the soil of his farm, without put- 
 ting back the same amount of fertility that he 
 takes off with his crop, unless he wishes to wear 
 out and ruin his farm. 
 
 Now, in dairy farming the larger portion of 
 all that is raised on the farm is fed there and 
 ultimately finds its way back to the soil in the 
 
 3 
 
4 PREFACE 
 
 form of barnyard manure. The butter and cheese 
 which are sold from the farm contain so small a 
 portion of soil matter that this loss is scarcely 
 perceptible. This is the chief reason why dairy 
 farming is proving so profitable and is coming 
 so rapidly into popular favor. 
 
 Recent investigation has shown that the dairy 
 cow will convert grain and roughage into human 
 food more economically than can be obtained 
 from any other animal. Under favorable condi- 
 tions 30 per cent of the digestible nutrients 
 fed to a dairy cow are recovered again in the 
 milk, while only about 5 per cent of them are 
 retained in the body of a steer. In other words, 
 a dairy cow makes use of six times as much of 
 the raw material fed as does the steer. This is 
 a most surprising revelation. 
 
 But this is not all. Dairy farming promotes 
 crop rotation and encourages the production of 
 clover, alfalfa, and other leguminous crops which, 
 if fed on the farm, do not wear out the soil, 
 but may positively add to its fertility. The pro- 
 gressive dairy farmer not only finds himself 
 placed, through liis industry, in a position of 
 competence and ease, but under wise manage- 
 ment he finds the soil of his farm growing richer 
 and more productive. All of these somewhat 
 surprising assertions admit of absolute proof and 
 
PREFACE 5 
 
 will be fully discussed in the chapters which 
 follow. 
 
 But the one who reads this must not think 
 it an overdrawn case for dairy farming on the 
 one hand, nor imagine on the other hand that all 
 he has to do is get a few cows and that they 
 will take care of him for the rest of his days. 
 Both views are equally erroneous. No man 
 can permanently succeed in any undertaking 
 without putting intelligent thought and energy 
 into his work. Neither can the dairy farmer. 
 
 The ability to secure profits from dairying lies 
 in a thorough knowledge of its fundamental 
 principles. This book endeavors to set these 
 principles forth in a simple and practical way. 
 The authors have avoided the use of scientific 
 terms so far as it is possible for them to do so, 
 and have tried to use language and illustrations 
 easily within the grasp of those not trained for 
 scientific work. "Wherever it has been necessary 
 to resort to unusual terms, these terms are fully 
 explained in ordinary every-day language. It is 
 hoped that this little book will be of real service 
 to the dairy farmer by assisting him in improv- 
 ing his methods and increasing his profits. 
 
 AVe desire to thank the many breeders, supply 
 houses, and manufacturing concerns, for their 
 generosity in furnishing photographs and cuts., 
 We especially desire to thank the Wisconsin 
 
g PREFACE 
 
 Experiment Station, Madison, Wisconsin, and 
 the Indiana Experiment Station, La Fayette, 
 Indiana, for illustrations from bulletins pub- 
 lished. 
 
 The Authoks. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 I Development of the Industry.... 9 
 
 II Composition of Milk 15 
 
 III Milk Secretion 24 
 
 IV The Babcqck Test 31 
 
 V The Dairy Cow 42 
 
 VI Testing the Farm Herd 61 
 
 VII Cream Separation 72 
 
 VIII The Farm Separator 78 
 
 IX Value of Skim-Milk 86 
 
 X Care of Utensils 94 
 
 XI Care of Milk and Cream 100 
 
 XII Disposing of Milk and Cream .... 109 
 
 XIII Butter Making and Cheese Making 118 
 
 XIV The Barn 129 
 
 XV The Silo 136 
 
 XVI Feed for the Cow 141 
 
 XVII Care of the Cow . 155 
 
 XVIII Tuberculosis 162 
 
 XIX Eelation of Dairying to the Soil 171 
 

CHAPTER I 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE INDUSTRY 
 
 Dairying as an agricultural industry is very 
 old, but as a ^ ^ commercial " industry placed on a 
 firm and sure scientific basis, it is very new — 
 just about a quarter of a century of age. Its 
 success is largely due to the invention of two 
 machines which have completely revolutionized 
 the Avhole industry. These two machines are 
 the Babcock tester and the centrifugal separator. 
 
 The centrifugal separator. Previous to 1879 
 the only method in common use for the separa- 
 tion of fat from the milk was by setting the milk 
 either in pans or cans and allowing the cream to 
 rise naturally; but in that year two machines 
 were invented, one in Denmark and the other 
 in Sweden, which made use of the principle of 
 centrifugal force for this separation, and were so 
 constructed that the process was continuous. 
 Since that time other inventors have placed 
 modifications of these machines on the market, 
 until today tlierQ are a dozen or more styles of 
 
 9 
 
10 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 thoroughly reliable centrifugal separators in 
 every-day use, but the principle employed by all 
 of them is the same. 
 
 The influence of the separator. The centri- 
 fugal method of separation effected so large a 
 saving of butter fat to the farmers that cream- 
 eries sprang up rapidly, particularly in the 
 north central states, only to be defeated of their 
 mission by dissatisfaction and fraud, because 
 there was no quick and satisfactory method for 
 determining the richness of the milk delivered 
 by the patrons, nor any practical way by which 
 a factoryman could determine the losses in skim- 
 milk, etc. In these early creameries and cheese 
 factories an unprincipled patron could water 
 his milk in order to get the lion's share of the 
 profits, as it was then the custom to pay for 
 milk by the hundred weight. Of course such 
 fraud was certain to cause dissatisfaction, besides 
 being manifestly unjust. 
 
 Milk formerly sold by the pound. Another 
 thing, well known even in those days, is that 
 all cows are not equally good fat producers; 
 that is, all cows do not give milk equally rich 
 in fat, and the ^'pooling system,'' as it is called, 
 where all farmers are paid the same price per 
 hundred pounds of milk without regard to its 
 fat content, is plainly not equitable. 
 
DEVELOPMENT OF THE INDUSTRY H 
 
 The butter fat test. These two facts, viz.: 
 that a patron could adulterate his milk and 
 thereby increase his profits, and that a patron, 
 although not adulterating his milk, could deliver 
 milk from herds testing low in fat and receive 
 the same amount of money per hundred pounds 
 of milk at the factory, led Dr. Babcock of Wis- 
 consin in an effort to solve the vexed problem 
 of providing the dairy world with a quick and 
 easy method for determining the fat content of 
 milk. His labors resulted in the invention of 
 what is now known as the Babcock test in the 
 year 1890, which date marks the beginning of 
 active progress in the dairy industry. This 
 invention is such a simple and practical method 
 for the determination of fat in milk, cream, 
 butter and cheese that it has never been im- 
 proved upon, and it is doubtful if a better 
 method will ever be discovered. Dr. Babcock 's 
 name is known the world over, and it is certain 
 that no other man has ever contributed such a 
 rich legacy to agriculture as has Dr. Babcock 
 by the invention of this test. He did not patent 
 it, but gave it free to a great agricultural pop- 
 ulation, where it found immediate adoption and 
 widespread use. 
 
 Rapid development since 1890. As an illus- 
 tration of the rapid development of the dairy 
 
12 
 
 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 industry, it is only necessary to call attention 
 to the census reports of the United States, which 
 show but five creameries and cheese factories 
 within its domains in the year 1860. This num- 
 ber increased very slowly for twenty or thirty 
 
 years, but very rapidly 
 after 1890, until we now 
 have, according to the 
 census of 1910, the lat- 
 est data available, 6,235 
 creameries and 3,846 
 cheese factories scattered 
 throughout the United 
 States. 
 
 It may be argued from 
 this that the dairy indus- 
 try will soon be overdone. 
 The following table will 
 be of interest to those 
 studying this question: 
 
 Fig-. 1. Dr. Babcock oper- 
 ating the original Babcock 
 tester. 
 
 Population of the U. S. (Census 1890)— 62,622,256. 
 Population of the U. S. (Census 1910)— 91,972,266. 
 
 Increase in Population 46.7% 
 
 Production of Butter in the U. S. (Census 
 
 1890) 1,205,508,384 lbs. 
 
 Production of Butter in the U. S. (Census 
 
 1910) 1,619,415,263 " 
 
 Increase in Amount of Butter Produced. . . 34.3% 
 
 Production of Cheese in the U. S. (Census 
 
 1890) 256,761,888 lbs. 
 
 Production of Cheese in the U. S. (Census 
 
 1910) 320,532,181 " 
 
 Increase in Amount of Cheese Produced. . . 24.8% 
 
DEVELOPMENT OF THE INDUSTRY 13 
 
 Comparing the increase in the butter and 
 cheese produced with the increase in popula- 
 tion, it is seen that the population is increasing 
 much more rapidly than is the supply of dairy 
 products. Dairymen need not be alarmed, there- 
 fore, about an over-production. 
 
 Milk an economical food. Notwithstanding the 
 high prices paid for milk, butter and cheese, 
 milk and its products are among the very cheap- 
 est, most wholesome and most nutritious articles 
 of human food. People are rapidly learning the 
 economy of using dairy products. It has been 
 estimated that one-sixth of the food consumed by 
 the people of the United States is some form of 
 dairy product. There are more digestible nutri- 
 ents contained in milk than can be obtained 
 from the same amount of money expended for 
 meat, fish, or fruit at ordinary retail market 
 prices. The cow is the most economical food 
 producer extant. This fact will always oper- 
 ate to keep up the prices of dairy products. 
 Whatever may have been the ups and downs of 
 the past, certain it is that the future of the 
 dairy industry looks exceedingly bright. 
 
 The following • table is based on a report 
 recently published by the State Food Commis- 
 sion of Illinois. Each food in this list contains 
 approximately the same amount of nutritive 
 material as one quart of milk. 
 
14 
 
 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 Milk, Whole. 
 
 Cheese, Full Cream, 
 Condensed Milk, 
 
 Sweetened 
 
 Eggs 
 
 Beef, Round 
 
 Codfish, Salt 
 
 Oysters 
 
 Tomatoes 
 
 Bananas 
 
 Apples 
 
 Weight 
 
 Pounds 1 Ounces 
 
 2.36 
 5.6 
 
 7.37 
 .62 
 
 11.85 
 .48 
 
 14.21 
 
 8.6 
 7.5 
 
 Approxi- 
 mate 
 Weight 
 Grams 
 
 975 
 160 
 
 210 
 
 470 
 
 335 
 
 920 
 
 2,217 
 
 3,175 
 
 1,150 
 
 1,575 
 
 Cost per 
 
 Pounds 
 
 Cents 
 
 22 
 
 15 
 35(doz.) 
 20 
 
 7 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 1.5 
 
 Total 
 
 Cost 
 
 Cents 
 
 8 
 7.7 
 
 6.9 
 22.3 
 14.8 
 14.3 
 72.6 
 35 
 15 
 
 5.2 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. What is meant by the statement : ' ' The cow is the 
 most economical food producer ? ' ' 
 
 2. If the above be true, will consumption of dairy 
 products probably increase or decline ? 
 
 3. "Will consumption of meat in the United States 
 increase or decline as population increases? 
 
 4. How does America compare with Europe in the 
 consumption of meat ? 
 
 5. Is there any other animal that may possibly be 
 used to produce dairy products more cheaply than the 
 cow? 
 
CHAPTER II 
 COMPOSITION OF MILK 
 
 Appearance. Milk as secreted is opaque and 
 white in appearance. Normally it usually has a 
 slightly yellowish tinge, due to the fat globules 
 it contains. The white color is due to suspended 
 particles interfering with the passage of the 
 light. Skim-milk, or milk from which the fat 
 has been removed, has a bluish tinge. Milk has 
 a sweet taste when first drawn owing to the pres- 
 ence of the milk sugar. 
 
 Specific gravity. Milk is heavier than water, 
 having a specific gravity of about 1.029 to 1.033. 
 This means that if a vessel held exactly 1.000 
 pound of water, this same vessel would hold from 
 1.029 to 1.033 pounds of milk. 
 
 The two parts of milk. Milk may be consid- 
 ered as consisting of two parts, viz.: the fat and 
 the serum. One hundred pounds of milk ordi- 
 narily contains about 3.7 pounds of fat. The 
 serum in this amount, consisting of all the con- 
 stituents of the milk except the fat, would 
 therefore weigh 96.3 pounds. 
 
 There is no chemical union between the fat and 
 
 15 
 
IQ PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 the serum, but the fat floats in the serum in the 
 form of very small particles varying in size and 
 number in different kinds of milk. The number 
 of fat globules in a cubic millimeter, which is 
 about the size of a pinhead, is from one to five 
 million, depending, of course, upon the kind of 
 milk. Ordinary milk contains about two million 
 fat globules to the drop, and it has been esti- 
 mated that it would take a man ten years to 
 count the number in a cubic centimeter of milk, 
 counting at the rate of one hundred per minute, 
 for ten hours per day. 
 
 Fat globules. When first drawn the fat glob- 
 ules are uniformly distributed, but after standing 
 a few minutes these globules gather into groups 
 of ten to one hundred, although we find through- 
 out the milk small, isolated, individual globules. 
 Their average diameter is about one ten-thou- 
 sandth of an inch. Some are so small, however, 
 that they appear under a microscope as very tiny 
 specks, too small to be measured. 
 
 Size and number of fat globules. The number 
 of fat globules increases as the period of lacta- 
 tion advances, there being from two to three 
 times as many in the same volume at the end as 
 at the beginning. The size, however, greatly 
 diminishes. The fat globules in milk of different 
 breeds vary in size, the largest ones being found 
 in Jersey milk. The Ayrshire and Holstein- 
 
COMPOSITION OF MILK 17 
 
 Friesian cows have the smallest; the Shorthorn 
 ranking between the Jersey and Ayrshire, 
 although certain strains of Shorthorn cows pro- 
 duce milk with very large fat globules. It may 
 be interesting to note that the largest fat globules 
 on record were found in Shorthorn milk. 
 
 Milk serum. The serum is composed of water 
 and solids (usually designated as solids not fat). 
 These embrace such solids as casein, albumen, 
 sugar and ash, varying in amounts with different 
 individual cows. With the fat these comprise 
 what are known as total solids. Below is a table 
 showing the average composition of milk: 
 
 Water 87.4 per cent. 
 
 Fat 3.7 per cent. 
 
 Albumen .5 per cent. 
 
 Casein 2,7 per cent. 
 
 Milk Sugar 5.0 per cent. 
 
 Ash 7 per cent. 
 
 100.0 
 
 Fat varies with the breeds. The most variable 
 of these constituents is the fat; the casein also 
 varies but not quite so much as the fat; albumen, 
 sugar, and ash being quite constant. The fat con- 
 tent varies a great deal according to the breed. 
 It is well known that the milks of Jersey and 
 Guernsey breeds are rich in fat. To show these 
 breed variations we append the following table 
 compiled by the agricultural experiment stations 
 of America: 
 
18 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 Solids Fat 
 
 Jersey 14.70 per cent, 5.35 per cent. 
 
 Guernsey 14.71 per cent. 5.16 per cent. 
 
 Shorthorn 13.38 per cent. 4.5 per cent. 
 
 Ayrshire 12.61 per cent. 3.66 per cent. 
 
 Holstein-Friesian ...11.85 per cent. 3.42 per cent. 
 
 It must not be inferred from this that all Jer- 
 sey cows produce milk of the same richness given 
 in this table. As a matter of fact there is a great 
 difference between the individuals of each breed. 
 Certain Holstein-Friesian cows have been known 
 to produce milk testing as low as 2.8 per cent fat, 
 and even lower, while other individual Holstein- 
 Friesian cows may produce milk containing 4.0 
 per cent fat and over. This table shows the 
 average test from a large number of cows. 
 
 Fig. 2. Finderne Mutual Fayne. 
 A fine type of Holstein breed which produces a large quantity 
 of milk of relatively low fat content. - 
 
COMPOSITION OF MILK 19 
 
 Fat content increases as lactation advances. 
 
 The per cent of fat in milk changes somewhat 
 with the period of lactation. Professor Van 
 Slyke of the Geneva Station, New York, gives a 
 table showing a gradual increase as the period of 
 lactation advances. It will be noticed that for 
 the first five months the milk did not increase in 
 richness, but remained practically the same; after 
 that the fat of the milk gradually became richer 
 as the period advanced. 
 
 Month of Per Cent of 
 
 Lactation Fat in Milk 
 
 1 4.54 
 
 2 4.33 
 
 3 4.28 
 
 4 4.39 
 
 5 4.38 
 
 6 4.53 
 
 7 4.56 
 
 8 4.66 
 
 9 4.79 
 
 10 5.00 
 
 Influence of time of milking. The time be- 
 tween milkings has a great influence on the fat 
 content of the milk. It is quite generally known 
 that morning milk is richer than evening milk. 
 This is not always true, but in general we find 
 that when a cow is milked three or four times 
 a day she will produce richer milk than when 
 she is milked twice only. As a rule the richer 
 milk follows the shorter period between milkings. 
 This is an important fact to bear in mind when 
 the milk of a cow is tested for its fat content. 
 
20 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 Daily variations. Milk will vary a great deal 
 in richness from day to day. The health of the 
 animal also has an influence on the variation of 
 the percentage of fat. Excitement may very ma- 
 terially reduce the quantity of milk as well as 
 the quality. It is therefore poor policy for a 
 dairyman to abuse his cows by beating them or 
 by allowing them to be chased by dogs. 
 
 Composition of colostrum. The first milk after 
 a cow freshens is termed colostrum milk. Instead 
 of having a solid not fat content of 9.0 per cent, 
 it seldom falls below 18.0 per cent. The great 
 increase in the solids not fat is due to the increase 
 in those substances which are very essential as 
 a food for the calf during the first three or four 
 days after birth, viz.: casein and albumen. The 
 following table gives the composition of this milk, 
 showing that the fat content is quite normal but 
 that the solids not fat differ greatly from the 
 solids not fat in normal milk: 
 
 Water 74.6 per cent. 
 
 Fat 3.6 per cent. 
 
 Casein 4.0 per cent. 
 
 Albumen 13. G per cent. 
 
 Milk Sugar 2.6 per cent. 
 
 Ash 1.6 per cent. 
 
 100.0 
 
 However, these solids not fat constituents in 
 the colostrum milk decrease very rapidly, so that 
 the milk becomes **normaP' at the seventh or 
 
COMPOSITION OF MILK 21 
 
 eighth milking. This colostrum milk, although it 
 is not in any way poisonous as human food, is 
 very undesirable for purposes other than food 
 for the calf, and should not be delivered to 
 a creamery or cheese factory until it is fit for 
 human use. 
 
 Casein. The casein in milk varies with dif- 
 ferent animals from 1.8 per cent to 3.0 per cent, 
 but in the individual it is quite constant. This 
 casein, with the albumen, comprises what is 
 known as proteids of milk. These proteids are 
 very valuable as food and furnish the muscle 
 producing elements so essential. The casein and 
 the fat constitute what are known as the cheese 
 solids of milk. These two components determine 
 the value of the milk for cheese production. 
 
 Milk sugar. The sugar in the milk is an impor- 
 tant constituent, but should not be confused with 
 commercial cane sugar. Milk sugar is only about 
 one-fourth to one-fifth as sweet as ordinary cane 
 sugar. It is manufactured from the whey at a 
 few cheese factories in this country, located 
 where large quantities of whey are available, 
 but has very little commercial value, being used 
 only in the preparation of modified milk. 
 
 Kind treatment necessary. A great deal has 
 been written in regard to the quality of milk as 
 affected by varying conditions, such as slow and 
 fast milking, sudden changes in the feed, and the 
 
22 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 nervous condition of the cow. A good dairy- 
 man will always treat his cows kindly, will not 
 be boisterous while handling them, or will not 
 excite them in any other way, will feed them 
 regularly and provide shelter for them. He 
 will remember that besides being one of his best 
 friends, the cow represents so much capital 
 invested, and that abusing her will very mate- 
 rially affect the dividends that she will be able 
 to pay him. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 /' 
 
 1. How many pounds of milk solids in a hundred 
 pounds of milk? How much water? 
 
 2. Which breed probably produces the greatest 
 amount of solids per hundred pounds of milk? 
 
 3. How many pounds of solid food are produced by 
 a cow giving 25 pounds of milk daily? This is equal 
 in dry matter to how many pounds of beefsteak ? 
 
 4. About hoAV much solid food matter is produced by 
 a cow giving 10,000 pounds of milk in a year? 
 
 5. This is equal in total food matter to how much 
 beef? How many yearling steers would be necessary 
 to equal in beef the food products of such a cow? 
 
 6. Do you weigh the milk of the home herd? 
 
 7. Do you know how much food material each of 
 your cows produces in a year ? 
 
 LABORATORY PROBLEMS 
 I. To Determine the Per Cent of Solids in Milk 
 
 1. Carefully weigh 100 grams of whole milk into a 
 weighed dish. 
 
COMPOSITION OF MUK 23 
 
 2. Evaporate to dryness over a water bath or dry 
 sand bath. 
 
 3. When the contents are thoroughly dried, re weigh 
 and subtract the original weight of the dish. The weight 
 in grams will be the per cent of total solids in the milk. 
 
 4. The loss in weight represents the water in the milk. 
 
 Note: To make sure that the sample was thoroughly dried 
 it should be again placed on the bath and heated for some time. 
 If there is no further decrease in weight it may be taken for 
 granted that the sample was dry. 
 
 The solids of skim-milk, cream, and whey can be deter- 
 mined in the same manner. 
 
 LABORATORY PROBLEMS 
 
 II. To Determine the Casein in Milk 
 
 The casein in milk can be precipitated by very dilute 
 acid. Albumen cannot be so precipitated. 
 
 1. To 100 grams of carefully separated skim-milk 
 add a few cubic centimeters of dilute acetic acid to cur- 
 dle it. If it does not curdle readily add a few cubic 
 centimeters more. The temperature of the skim-milk 
 should be from 80 to 100 degrees F. Care should be 
 taken not to add too much acid, as it Avill have a tendency 
 to dissolve the curd. If acetic acid is not available, 
 dilute sulfuric acid may be used, but it does not answer 
 the purpose so well as acetic acid. A few drops of rennet 
 may also be used. 
 
 2. "When coagulated break up the coagulum and 
 filter. The filtration process can be hastened by allow- 
 ing the curd to settle to the bottom of the beaker after 
 heating up the curd about 10 degrees. Dry the curd on 
 a water bath after filtration. It will be nearly pure 
 casein. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 MILK SECRETION 
 
 It is very essential that the dairyman should 
 •understand the fundamental principles connected 
 with his work. Not the least of these is the secre- 
 tion of milk. In this brief work we can discuss 
 only in a general way the various theories and 
 opinions advanced in regard to the secretion of 
 milk. 
 
 Milk a secretion of the mammary glands. Milk 
 may be briefly defined as a characteristic secre- 
 tion of the mammary glands. Its primary func- 
 tion, naturally, is for the nutrition of the young. 
 As a food for young animals it cannot be excelled, 
 for it contains the elements that are necessary for 
 the building up of the tissues of the body, and 
 it contains these elements in the proper propor- 
 tion. The class of animals that suckle their 
 young are termed ^^ mammals'' and are nearly 
 all four-footed animals. To this order, however, 
 belong some animals that live in the sea, such 
 as porpoises and whales, which secrete a fluid 
 very similar to that of the milk of land animals; 
 with but a few exceptions, however, all mammals 
 are land animals. We shall confine our discussion 
 
 24 
 
MILK SECRETION 25 
 
 of milk in this work to that produced by cows, 
 although the milk of other animals, such as sheep 
 and goats, is used as food in different parts of 
 the world, especially in various parts of Euro- 
 pean countries. 
 
 Milk glands. The glands which secrete the 
 milk are only two in number. There may be 
 one lobe to each gland, or, as in the case of the 
 dog or swine, several. In cows these lobes are 
 termed '' quarters, '^ and there are two to each 
 gland. These four quarters form what is termed 
 the udder. 
 
 The udder. These glands are separated from 
 each other by a membrane. There is, therefore, 
 no connection between the right and left sides 
 of the udder. Each teat has practically its own 
 system of cisterns, channels and cells. But there 
 is more or less connection between the smaller 
 ducts in the upper parts of the lobes on the same 
 side. It is therefore possible to get more than 
 half as much milk from one teat, if milked by 
 itself, as can be obtained when both teats are 
 milked at the same time. 
 
 Milk cisterns. Just above each teat we find a 
 small cavity from which there lead many small 
 channels; these in turn lead to other but smaller 
 cavities. All these cavities are termed ^'cis- 
 terns. ' ' These small channels, with their cisterns, 
 ramify the udder, becoming smaller and smaller. 
 
26 
 
 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 finally terminating in cells. These are the alveoli 
 cells. These cells are about one-thirtieth of an 
 inch in diameter and are arranged in groups of 
 three to ^ve, having a common outlet. The inner 
 walls of alveoli cells are made up of a layer of 
 very minute epithelial cells; sometimes there are 
 two or three layers of these cells. These small 
 cells are filled with protoplasm, and when this 
 protoplasm is discharged it is termed milk. 
 
 The udder not a reser- 
 voir. At one time it was 
 the general belief that the 
 udder was a reservoir, 
 and it may be that many 
 of us still have the impres- 
 sion that this is the case. 
 That this is not true is 
 easily shown by the fact 
 that the total capacity of 
 all the reservoirs or cis- 
 terns is not one-fourth the 
 yield of the milk. 
 
 The glands secrete milk 
 all the time, but princi- 
 pally at the time of milk- 
 ing. We can compare this 
 to the secreting of tears by the tear glands 
 of the eye. These glands secrete tears all the 
 time, but especially when an animal experiences 
 
 Fig-. 3. Cross-section of a 
 cow's udder, showing cavities 
 and milk cisterns. 
 
MILK SECRETION 27 
 
 great joy or grief. Similarly the nervous condi- 
 tion of the cow at the time of milking will greatly 
 influence the secretion of milk. 
 
 As previously stated, there are many theories 
 advanced as to the formation of milk. It was 
 formerly claimed by some that milk is filtered 
 out of the blood; the udder being well supplied 
 with arteries and veins probably giving rise to 
 this idea. 
 
 We find, however, that there is very little if 
 any milk sugar in the blood, while there is a 
 great deal in milk. No casein is found in the 
 blood. It is also a fact that the albumen in milk 
 coagulates differently from the albumen of the 
 blood. Further, it is known that the ash in milk 
 is not the same as the ash in the blood. It is 
 believed that somehow in the process of secretion 
 certain parts of the blood enter the cavity of the 
 alveoli cells and that there certain changes take 
 place, which result in the secretion of milk. 
 While the process of secretion is going on, new 
 epithelial cells are constantly being formed, but 
 just how is not known at the present time. 
 
 Composition cannot be changed by feeding. 
 The attention of the reader is now called to a 
 very important point, viz.: that the tendency of 
 the cell is always to produce milk of its own par- 
 ticular composition. This tendency is very con- 
 stant, and therefore the composition of milk can- 
 
28 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 not be permanently changed by any particular 
 change of feed. It is well understood that the 
 quantity of milk which a cow produces may be 
 considerably increased, but the quality will re- 
 main practically the same. To make this plain, 
 we may use this illustration: A tree will always 
 produce the same kind of fruit; by giving the 
 tree good food it is possible to increase its yield, 
 but a winesap tree will always produce winesap 
 apples. So it is with the cow. It is the nature 
 of the cells to secrete a particular grade of milk, 
 and therefore no system of feeding will perma- 
 nently increase or decrease its fat content. The 
 idea prevalent among many farmers that a cow 
 can be made to give rich or poor milk, depending 
 on what she is fed, is entirely erroneous. 
 
 Danish experiments. The Danes did a great 
 deal of work, experimenting to ascertain whether 
 or not feed influenced the richness of the milk, 
 and in conducting their experiments used over a 
 thousand animals. The average variation was 
 only about one one-hundredth of one per cent. 
 Such a slight variation cannot be attributed to 
 the method of feeding. Experiments have been 
 conducted by taking a poor herd of cows and test- 
 ing each individual carefully and then feeding 
 judiciously. The quantity of milk produced was 
 easily increased, but the quality always remained 
 normal. 
 
MILK SECRETION 29 
 
 The fact that ^^fat cannot be fed into a cow'' 
 is very important. A farmer can test the milk of 
 a heifer, and if she does not produce milk of a 
 satisfactory quality he need not keep her, for he 
 may rest assured that the quality of her milk will 
 not materially change later on in her life. In 
 this way, therefore, it is possible for a farmer 
 to build up a good herd by selecting his cows. 
 This topic will be discussed more at length in a 
 later chapter. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Why are large ''milk veins" necessary to high 
 milk production? 
 
 2. How do we know that the udder is not a reser- 
 voir in which milk is stored to be drawn at milking time? 
 
 3. On the other hand, how do we know that milk is 
 being secreted all the time but principally at milking 
 time? 
 
 4. Why do cows sometimes "leak" milk? Does this 
 ever happen with light milkers f Hard milkers ? 
 
 5. Can fat be fed into milk? 
 
 6. What influence does feed have on milk, if any ? 
 
 7. Do you know which cows of your herd give the 
 richest milk? Which the poorest? 
 
 LABORATORY PROBLEMS 
 III. To Determine the Albumen in Milk 
 
 1. Heat the filtrate obtained in Problem II to a 
 boiling point for five minutes and filter ; boil for another 
 five minutes and filter again. The filtrate should then 
 be clear and will contain the sugar, ash, and some potash. 
 
 2. Dry the residue on the filter paper. It is albumen. 
 
30 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 IV. To Determine the Ash and Sugar Content of Mn.K 
 
 The filtrate obtained from Problem III will contain 
 both the ash and the sugar, 
 
 1. Evaporate to dryness over a water bath. The gray 
 residue will be both the sugar and the ash. 
 
 2. The residue can be burned over a free flame until 
 the sugar is burned up. Ash Avill remain. 
 
 The per cent of milk sugar can be approximately 
 determined by carefully obtaining the per cent of the 
 other constituents in milk, such as water, fat, casein, 
 albumen, and ash, adding them all together and sub- 
 tracting the sum from 100. 
 
 Note: A qualitative test to show the presence of sugar can 
 be made by using some of the filtrate. Add about 20 to 25 
 drops of tiie filtrate slowly to about 5 c.c. of hot Fehling's 
 solution. After boiling a red precipitate will appear. This 
 indicates the presence of sugar. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 THE BABCOCK TEST 
 
 As has already been stated, the Babcock test 
 is responsible for much of the progress in dairy- 
 ing during the past twenty-five years. Its opera- 
 tion is so simple, the principles upon which it 
 is based are so easily understood, and its intelli- 
 gent use by dairymen is of such great importance 
 that it is deemed quite proper to give consider- 
 able space in this book to this test. 
 
 How fat was formerly estimated. It will be 
 remembered that milk is composed of water, fat, 
 curd, sugar, and ash in varying proportions, and 
 that the fat globules are simply floating or sus- 
 pended in the milk serum. When these globules 
 rise to the top naturally they drag the curd and 
 other solids along with them and form a layer 
 at the top, rich in fat, which we call cream. 
 Before the invention of the Babcock test it was 
 the practice in some places to collect samples of 
 milk or cream, churn them, and melt the lumps 
 of butter in graduated tubes, from which the 
 amount of fat could be estimated. The purpose 
 of melting the churned butter was to collect the 
 
 31 
 
32 
 
 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 fat into a clear layer of oil. Sometimes several 
 churnings and consequent recliurnings were nec- 
 essary to make a clear test. This test, known 
 as the churn test, was a slow, laborious, and 
 somewhat unreliable process. 
 
 Fig. 4. The two principal types of hand testers. 
 
 The test measures the fat. In the Babcock 
 test the separation of butter fat from the other 
 constituents is accomplished in a few minutes. 
 The curd is dissolved by a strong acid which 
 will not act upon the fat. The fat globules are 
 brought to the surface by whirling in a machine 
 called a centrifuge. This layer of fat is brought 
 up into the neck of the test bottles into which 
 the samples of milk were placed at the begin- 
 ning of the test, and the percentage of fat read 
 directly from the neck of the test bottle. The 
 entire test takes about ten or fifteen minutes of 
 time, is thoroughly reliable, and can be made by 
 anyone possessing ordinary intelligence. 
 
MILK SECRETION 
 
 33 
 
 DETAILS OF THE TEST 
 
 1. Preparation of the 
 sample. Great care is 
 necessary in the prepa- 
 ration of the sample. If 
 a herd is to be tested, 
 the entire milk of the 
 whole herd must be 
 thoroughly mixed be- 
 fore a portion is taken 
 for testing. This mix- 
 ing is accomplished by 
 pouring from one vessel 
 
 Acid measure. Pipette. Test bottle. 
 
 Fig. 5. Tlie necessary glassware for making- Babcock test. 
 
 to another, and the sample taken immediately be- 
 fore any of the fat globules have had time to rise. 
 
34 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 If the milk stands for even a minute after being 
 mixed, the sample will not be accurate, so rap- 
 idly do the fat globules tend to come to the 
 surface. 
 
 If a single cow is to be tested, she must first 
 be milked perfectly dry, then all of her milk 
 must be thoroughly mixed and a portion of this 
 taken for testing. It is important to have all 
 the cow's milk, as the fat content tends to in- 
 crease during the process of milking, the strip- 
 pings being much richer than the foremilk; often 
 the foremilk will test less than one per cent, 
 and the strippings over ten per cent fat. For 
 this reason the sample can never be milked into 
 a separate vessel if accurate results are desired, 
 but must be taken from the whole amount of 
 milk, and then only after a thorough stirring. 
 
 If a small sample is to be tested, this too must 
 be thoroughly mixed before the final sample is 
 taken in the pipette. If more than one test is to 
 be made from the same sample, the sample should 
 be mixed each time before being drawn into the 
 pipette. Thorough mixing i^ the most important 
 part of sampling, and good sampling is one of the 
 most important points to be observed in making 
 a correct test. 
 
 2. Filling the test bottle. When the sample 
 has been thoroughly mixed, the milk should be 
 drawn into the pipette by suction with the mouth 
 
THE BABCOCK TEST 
 
 35 
 
 Fig. 6. By slowly releas- 
 ing tlie pressure of the finger 
 at the top of the pipette, the 
 milk i-uns without loss into 
 the test bottle. 
 
 until it rises above the mark on the stem. The 
 forefinger of the hand in which the pipette is hekl 
 is then quickly placed on 
 top of the pipette and the 
 milk is allowed to run 
 down to the mark, where 
 it is checked and held by 
 the forefinger. The test 
 bottle is taken in the other 
 hand, slightly inclined, 
 the filled pipette intro- 
 duced into the neck, the 
 finger removed and the 
 milk allowed to run down 
 the side of the' neck into the test bottle. Great 
 care should bo used not to lose any of the sample; 
 if only a few drops are spilled the test is spoiled 
 and another sample should be taken. 
 
 3. Adding the acid. Ordinary commercial sul- 
 phuric acid at a specific gravity of 1.82 to 1.83 
 should be used. It may be purchased at any drug 
 store for three or four cents per pound. A better 
 place, however, to obtain the acid is from some 
 creamery or cheese factory. These factories use 
 large quantities of it and usually are glad to 
 supply parties wanting small quantities. It is 
 poisonous and must not be allowed to come in 
 contact with the skin, hands, clothing or tin or 
 iron vessels. If by accident any should be spilled, 
 
36 
 
 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 it should be washed off immediately, using plenty 
 of water. An application of diluted ammonia is 
 very beneficial in neutralizing acid. 
 
 •m 
 
 Two types of double-necked 
 skim-milk bottles. 
 
 Whole milk Cream test 
 
 bottle. bottle. 
 
 Fig. 7. Every dairy laboratory should be equipped with a supply 
 of these test bottles. 
 
 In making the test the acid measure is filled 
 to the mark with this acid, and the acid is poured 
 down the inside of the neck of the test bottle in 
 the same way in which the milk was introduced. 
 It is important to let the acid run down the side 
 of the bottle, and not drop it straight down 
 through the milk, as this will burn the curd and 
 cause black particles of burned curd to rise 
 into the fat and spoil the test. 
 
THE BABCOCK TEST 37 
 
 4. Mixing milk and acid. The milk and acid 
 having been placed in the test bottle, are now 
 mixed by taking the bottle by the neck and 
 giving it a rotary motion. The acid immediately 
 dissolves the curd, the bottle becomes hot and the 
 contents turn black. 
 
 5. Whirling and filling bottles. The bottles 
 are now placed in the machine and whirled for 
 five minutes. They are then filled up to the 
 bottom of the neck with hot water, using either 
 the acid measure or the pipette for this purpose. 
 If hard water is used the carbonates in it must 
 be broken up by adding to it a few drops of 
 acid before filling the bottles, otherwise the car- 
 bonates in the water may cause a foam to appear 
 on the fat and spoil the reading. Only a few 
 drops of acid should be used, and to prevent 
 accident these should be dropped from the acid 
 measure and not from the bottle. Great care is 
 necessary in handling this acid. 
 
 The bottles are whirled a second time for one 
 or two minutes, the fat is then brought up into 
 the neck by adding a few more drops of hot 
 water, the bottles returned to the tester and 
 whirled a third time for a minute or two, when 
 they are taken out and placed in a water bath 
 having a temperature of 120-140 degrees F., 
 where the fat column should be submerged for 
 four or fiYQ minutes. 
 
38 
 
 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 6. Reading the fat. The fat column is read 
 from its highest point to its lowest point while 
 yet hot (130-145 degrees F.) and before it has 
 had time to contract. If the fat should get cold 
 it may be melted by placing the bottles in hot 
 water well up to the neck. 
 
 If both ends of the fat column are above the 
 zero point, note the reading of these two points 
 
 n 
 
 Reading- the test by use of dividers. 
 The dividers in the first posi- The dividers in the second po- 
 
 tion for reading the test. sition. 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 and take their difference. For example: If the 
 lowest point of the fat is 1.8 per cent and the 
 highest is 5.6 per cent, then the per cent of fat 
 is 5.6 — 1.8 or 3.8 per cent. A quicker way is 
 to place a pair of dividers against the neck of 
 
THE BABCOCK TEST ' 39 
 
 the test bottle with the legs so spread that one 
 of them rests on the highest point and the other 
 on the lowest point of the fat, and then move 
 it down so that the lower leg rests at the zero 
 point; the upper will rest at the correct reading 
 of the fat. 
 
 7. Emptying the waste. The waste in the bot- 
 tles should never be emptied into anything but 
 earthen jars. This waste contains much strong 
 acid, and should be thrown where it cannot do 
 injury to plants or animals. It is customary 
 to place a board cover over an ordinary jar, 
 and then bore holes about an inch in diameter 
 through this cover. Through these holes the 
 necks of the inverted test bottles are thrust and 
 their contents allowed to drain into the waste 
 jar. The jar is then emptied where its con- 
 tents are not likely to cause injury, and washed 
 out with hot water to remove the grease unde- 
 stroyed by the acid. 
 
 The importance of every dairyman owning a 
 pair of scales and a Babcock tester is discussed 
 in a later chapter of this work. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Why are the milk bottles whirled at high speed 
 in making a Babcock test? 
 
 2. What is the strong acid used for ? 
 
 3. Why should the milk be thoroughly mixed imme- 
 diately before taking the sample? 
 
40 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 4. Do you know the 'Hest" of each of your cows? 
 
 5. If not, take samples of the milk of each and 
 test according to directions given. Great care should 
 be exercised in taking the sample. Follow directions 
 very carefully. If you do not happen to have a tester, 
 ask your butter or cheese maker to test the samples 
 for you or allow you to use his tester. 
 
 6. Can you give four reasons why the fat column 
 in the neck of the milk test bottle may be light in color 
 or have curd underneath the fat column? 
 
 7. Why do you read the extremes" of the fat column 
 from the bottom of the fat column to the bottom of 
 the upper meniscus? 
 
 LABORATORY PROBLEMS 
 V. To Test Sample of Milk by the Babcock Test 
 Obtain samples of milk and proceed as follows : 
 
 a. Pour sample from one container to another sev- 
 eral times in order to thoroughly mix the milk. 
 
 b. Immediately fill a 17.6 c.c. pipette to the mark 
 on the stem and transfer to a milk test bottle. 
 
 c. Add 17.5 c.c. sulphuric acid and mix the same 
 by holding the bottle in an inclined position and whirl- 
 ing it horizontally. Whirl until all the acid is mixed 
 with the milk. 
 
 d. Place in tester and whirl for five minutes. Be 
 sure that the tester is balanced. In case of an odd 
 number of bottles, fill one with water and balance 
 the tester wdth it. 
 
 e. Fill the bottle to the neck with hot water to 
 which has been added a few drops of sulphuric acid; 
 whirl two minutes more. 
 
THE BABCOCK TEST 41 
 
 f. Add hot acidulated water, so as to bring the fat 
 up to the 8 per cent mark. Give it a final whirling 
 for tAvo minutes. 
 
 g. Take bottles out of tester and place in water 
 bath for four or five minutes. 
 
 Precautions 
 
 a. Never open the tester while the bottles are in 
 motion. 
 
 b. Both milk and acid should be about room tem- 
 perature. Do not use hot acid or hot milk. 
 
 c. Always have a bottle of ammonia Avater handy 
 to use in case of an accident. If acid comes in con- 
 tact with clothing, immediately use cold water and 
 then ammonia water. 
 
 d. In case acid is accidentally spilled on the hands 
 or the face, wash off at once with plenty of cold water. 
 In case of a serious burn, consult a physician. 
 
 LABORATORY PROBLEMS 
 
 VI. To Determine the Importance of Thoroughly Mixing 
 THE Sample Just Before Taking Sample with a Pipette 
 
 a. Mix well a sample of milk. Test it at once. 
 
 b. Allow the sample to stand for ten minutes. 
 
 c. Take a sample with a pipette from the top of 
 the milk. Test. 
 
 d. Take another sample from the bottom of the 
 milk. Test. Compare results. Can you account for 
 the difference in the tests obtained? 
 
CHAPTER V 
 THE DAIRY COW 
 
 Generally speaking, cattle may be classified as 
 belonging* to one of three types, viz. : beef, clual- 
 pnrpose, and dairy. 
 
 The beef-type. To the beef-type belong those 
 which are kept on farms solely for their value 
 as beef producers. They are as a rule compact 
 in form, having a broad back and a deep, wide 
 body. They are not adapted for dairying inas- 
 much as they usually do not secrete more milk 
 than is necessary to raise the calf. They have 
 small udders and are not persistent in their flow 
 of milk. There are, however, individual excep- 
 tions among most of these breeds that produce 
 a fair amount of milk, but the tendency of the 
 members of this type is to convert their food 
 into beef rather than into milk. To this type 
 belong the Shorthorns, Hereford, Aberdeen An- 
 gus, Galloway, and Sussex cattle. 
 
 The dual-purpose-type. To the dual-purpose- 
 type belong those cattle that produce more 
 milk than those of the beef-type, and at the 
 same time flesh up reasonably well. They are 
 
 42 
 
THE DAIRY COW 43 
 
 usually less in width than the beef-type and have 
 larger udders. They are presumed to milk well 
 and when ^'dry'^ to convert their food rapidly 
 into beef. There are many arguments produced 
 both in favor of such a type and against it. 
 
 Fig-. 9. Beef-type. 
 Note the blocky form of the animal's body. 
 
 It is argued by some that such breeds are really 
 necessary in certain sections of this country. 
 This type is many a farmer's ideal; but it is still 
 a question whether or not such an ideal will 
 ever be profitably realized. The Red Polled, 
 Devon, and Brown Swiss cattle are the prom- 
 inent breeds classed as dual-purpose animals, 
 though strictly speaking as individuals they 
 tend either to produce milk or beef rather than 
 both. Certain families of the Shorthorns are 
 also included because they give a good quantity 
 
44 
 
 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 of high-testing milk and at the same time are 
 fair producers of beef. 
 
 The dairy-type. The dairy-type inckides such 
 breeds as are not inclined to produce beef. They 
 
 Fig-. 10, Dairy-type. 
 The difference between beef- and dairy-types. The beef ani- 
 mal lias straight top and bottom lines, while the dairy cow is 
 wedge shaped. 
 
 necessarily have less breadth of back, and, unlike 
 the beef breeds, fleshiness is not desired. Cows 
 belonging to this type should have a tendency 
 to produce milk and not to convert their food 
 into beef. It is difficult to describe briefly the 
 many desirable points which indicate a good 
 dairy cow. "Authorities usually agree that the 
 ideal cow should have what is termed a ^^ triple 
 wedge ^' form. It must be noted, however, 
 
THE DAIRY COW 
 
 45 
 
 that occasionally there 
 are individuals that do 
 not conform to the ideal, 
 yet are good dairy cows. 
 However, these are only 
 exceptions. It is of the 
 utmost importance that 
 the dairy cow have ample 
 room in her body for 
 such organs as the lungs, 
 heart, digestive, and ma- 
 ternal organs. This indi- 
 cates a vigorous constitu- 
 tion, which is necessary 
 in order that she may be 
 able to Avithstand the 
 strain of continually pro- 
 
 ng. 11. Look for the wedges. 
 The body should be wedge-shaped when viewed from the front 
 and top of the withers, wider at the hip bones and at the floor of 
 the chest than at the point of the withers. 
 
46 
 
 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 Fig-. 12. Great digestive capacity is essential. 
 Fullness of flanks and good depth from the hips to the lower line 
 of the rear flank and of the udder, together with well-sprung- ribs, 
 far apart, indicate a large digestive capacity. 
 
 Fig. 13. A shallow body lacks capacity. 
 A narrow head, small eyes, nostrils and mouth, usually accom- 
 pany a narrow, shallow body. A cow with these characteristics 
 proves a disappointment as a milk producer. 
 
THE DAIRY COW 47 
 
 ducing large quantities of milk. This widening 
 of the body towards the rear gives to her the 
 
 Fig-. 14. Four types of undesirable udders. 
 Udders deficient in the forequarters, irregular in the size of quar- 
 ters, pendulous in form or funnel shaped make milking hard and 
 reduce the capacity for milk production. 
 
 "wedge form.'' Inasmuch as she is usually 
 compared to a machine which converts food into 
 milk, it is very essential that she have a large 
 "barrel/' which is an indication that she can 
 
48 
 
 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 consume a large supply of food for tlie manu- 
 facture of lier milk. 
 
 The ideal udder. The udder should be ample 
 in size; it should have good form with four well- 
 shaped teats; it should be soft after milking 
 and materially smaller than before milking. 
 
 Fig. 15. The location of the milk wells. 
 Several milk wells of good size through which the mammary- 
 veins pass into the body are the best indications of the amount 
 of blood that cii'culates through the udder and supplies the milk 
 secreting glands. 
 
 Meaty udders are very undesirable, as they indi- 
 cate a lack of capacity. Since the udder must 
 be well supplied with arteries and veins in 
 order to furnish the milk-secreting cells with the 
 food material from which they are to secrete 
 
THE DAIRY COW 49 
 
 milk, a good cow usually has large milk veins 
 underneath her belly. 
 
 Production the best quality of a dairy cow. 
 Though a good dairy cow usually possesses most 
 of the desirable characteristics shown on the 
 score card at the end of this chapter, it is suffi- 
 cient to say here that the real test of her value 
 as a dairy cow is her butter fat producing 
 ability. This can only be learned by using a 
 pair of scales to ascertain the amount of milk 
 she produces, and a fat test to determine the 
 richness of her milk. There are many cows 
 that give a good flow of milk, reasonably rich 
 in fat, during the fore part of their period of 
 lactation, yet cows of this kind may be very 
 undesirable animals to keep, owing to the fact 
 that they may not be persistent milkers. The 
 value of the methods employed in determining 
 the productive qualities of an individual cow are 
 discussed in detail in a separate chapter in this 
 book. 
 
 Pure dairy breeds best. It is unfortunate for 
 the dairy industry that we do not find more pure- 
 bred stock in this country. The farmer should 
 raise pure-bred stock because it is usually more 
 profitable for him to do so rather than to raise 
 *^ scrubs.'' It may cost a trifle more to begin 
 with, but it will be money well invested if he 
 intends to make dairying a paying business. In 
 
50 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 case lie cannot begin with pure-bred stock, it 
 will be well for liim to grade up liis cattle as 
 rapidly as possible by the use of a pure-bred 
 sire. Brief discussion of a few of the distinctive 
 dairy breeds, representatives of which are found 
 in almost every community, follow. 
 
 Jersey. As the name indicates, this breed 
 originally came from the Isle of Jersey, which 
 is one of the small islands in the English 
 Channel. Here the people bred their cattle along 
 distinctive lines, with the result that they estab- 
 lished a breed that has many able and enthu- 
 siastic supporters. The Jerseys are usually 
 small cows, weighing from 650 to 1,000 pounds, 
 averaging about 900 pounds each. They pro- 
 duce milk rich in fat, testing 4 per cent and 
 over. As a rule they are persistent milkers, 
 but usually do not produce large quantities of 
 milk. This latter statement is sometimes used 
 as an argument against them. These animals 
 have some good records to sustain their claim 
 as a worthy dairy breed. At the World's 
 Columbian Exposition, held in Chicago in 1893, 
 a ninety-day test was conducted in which twenty- 
 five Jerseys took part. Several of these animals 
 were sick, but in spite of this the milk produced 
 amounted to thirty-three pounds a day for each 
 cow. At the St. Louis Exposition in 1904, 
 twenty-five cows produced milk averaging forty- 
 
THE DAIRY COW 
 
 51 
 
 one and one-half pounds daily for ninety days. 
 These are remarkable showings and speak well 
 for this breed. Although at present the mem- 
 bers of this breed are small in stature, the time 
 will doubtless come when breeders will be able 
 to develop certain families of a larger frame and 
 more vigorous constitution than the Jersey of 
 
 Fig. 16. Old Double Time. 
 A prize Jersey in the University of Wisconsin herd. 
 
 the present time, and at the same time pre- 
 serve in the families the desirable qualities pos- 
 sessed by the Jersey cow today. 
 
 Holstein-Friesian. It is not known just where 
 the ancestors of this famous breed originated, 
 but it is well known that Holstein-Friesians have 
 been in Holland for hundreds of years, and that 
 
52 
 
 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 the breed is one of the oldest, if not the oldest, 
 in existence. The individuals have a large frame 
 and weigh from 1,000 to 1,400 pounds. They 
 are good feeders of roughage, and on account 
 of this stand in favor with many farmers. The 
 milk is not so rich as that of some other breeds, 
 but what it lacks in quality is usually made 
 up in quantity. 
 
 Fig. 17. Maplecrest Pontiac Daisy DeKol. 
 A high-testing Holstein cow, testing on official record 4.13 per cent. 
 
 The flow is, as a rule, exceedingly large and 
 certain families of this breed produce milk test- 
 ing 4 per cent and over. The greatest record of 
 any cow for the amount of milk produced was 
 that of a Holstein-Friesian, viz., Pieterje Second. 
 This remarkable animal produced 30,3151/0 
 
THE DAIRY COW 53 
 
 pounds of milk in one year. Cows of this breed 
 have been reported as producing as much as 
 I22Y2 pounds of milk per day. At the St. Louis 
 Fair in 1904, fifteen Holstein-Friesian cows were 
 entered in competition with Jerseys and other 
 breeds. They were milked for 120 days and 
 averaged 53.4 pounds each day. Any good 
 Holstein-Friesian cow will produce six or seven 
 thousand pounds of milk each year if she is 
 given proper care and treatment. 
 
 Guernsey. This breed has become exceed- 
 ingly popular within the last few years. Like 
 the Jersey, it derives its name from the island 
 on which the breed originated, which is another 
 of the islands in the British Channel. Mem- 
 bers of this breed have larger frames than the 
 Jerseys. They also have more vigorous con- 
 stitutions and average 1,050 pounds in weight. 
 They are good milkers and their milk is of a 
 superior quality which tests well. This breed 
 produces a butter fat which is distinctively 
 yellow. In fact, some of the butter produced 
 from the milk of Guernsey cows and exhibited 
 at a dairy convention was so yellow that it was 
 believed by the judges to contain coloring mat- 
 ter. The butter was accordingly analyzed and 
 found • to be entirely free from such artificial 
 ingredients. The milk from this breed is splen- 
 didly adapted for city milk trade on account of 
 
54 
 
 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 this rich yellow tinge so attractive to the cus- 
 tomer. The milk of the Guernsey is not usually 
 quite so rich in fat as that of the Jersey, but 
 the quantity given is somewhat greater. At the 
 Pan-American Exposition the Jersey milk tested 
 4.82 per cent, while the Guernsey milk tested 
 4.68 per cent. 
 
 Fig. 18. Dolly Dimple. 
 
 A typical Guernsey cow. Note the well-shaped udder with its 
 
 high attachments. 
 
 It was at this exposition held at Buffalo that 
 the ten-year-old Guernsey cow, Mary Marshall, 
 produced 5,611 pounds of milk, yielding 301.13 
 pounds of butter fat in a test covering a period 
 of six months. A statement of the records of 
 
THE DAIRY COW 
 
 55 
 
 Yeksa Sunbeam, May Rilma and Murne Cowan, 
 Guernsey cows, is given on page 99. 
 
 Ayrshire. These cows are found principally 
 in New England, the Eastern States and Can- 
 ada. They came originally from Scotland and 
 possess a great deal of merit. Like the Holstein- 
 Friesian they are as a rule persistent milkers. 
 
 Fig. 19. Lilly. 
 A splendid type of Ayrshire dairy cow. 
 
 They are medium-sized animals, weighing about 
 1,000 pounds. The milk of this breed of cows 
 is particularly adapted for cheese making, owing 
 to the small size of its fat globules and its rel- 
 atively large casein content. The milk usually 
 tests from 3.5 to 4 per cent fat. At the Pan- 
 
56 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 American Exposition the five Ayrshire cows 
 ranked second in milk production, yielding 55 
 pounds per cow for each day of the test. 
 
 Dual-purpose breeds. In addition to the above 
 leading" dairy herds, there have been developed 
 milking strains of the so-called dual-purpose 
 breeds that give promise in the dairy world. 
 Chief among these are the Brown Swiss, the Red 
 Polled, and the Milking Shorthorns. It is argued 
 in support of these breeds that their calves will 
 help to supply the market for ^'baby-beef and 
 that their carcasses are much more valuable to 
 the butcher than those of the strictly dairy 
 breeds. It is quite probable, however, that when 
 these breeds have developed striking dairy qual- 
 ities, their forms will also change so as to 
 render them less valuable for meat production. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Why should a dairy cow have a ''big middle ?" 
 
 2. Why cannot an animal be a good beef and a 
 good dairy cow at the same time? 
 
 3. Does a ''heavy milker" often lay on flesh? 
 Why? 
 
 4. Why is it necessary to "dry off " a cow in order 
 to fatten her ? 
 
 5. To what breed do your cows belong? 
 
 6. Of what type are they ? 
 
 7. For your own satisfaction select the three cows 
 in your own herd which are of the best dairy-type by 
 
THE DAIRY COW 57 
 
 comparison with the description and pictures in this 
 book and by use of the score card and the comparison 
 card above. 
 
 LABORATORY PROBLEMS 
 
 VII. To Determine the Variation in the Fat Content from 
 
 THE Same Cow During the Process of Milking 
 
 a. Obtain samples of milk at the beginning of the 
 milking. 
 
 b. Obtain sample of milk at about the middle of the 
 milking. 
 
 c. Obtain sample of milk at the end of milking. 
 Samples a, b and c can best be obtained by milking 
 directly into small bottles. 
 
 d. Pour all the milk obtained (except samples a, 
 b and c) back and forth several times. Sample. 
 
 Test all four samples and compare results. Why 
 does the milk increase in richness during the milking 
 process? 
 
 VIII. To Determine the Variation of the Fat Content of 
 
 Milk from One Milking to Another 
 
 Sample and weigh each milking from an individual 
 cow for a period of four days. 
 
 Tabulate the data and if possible plot a curve show- 
 ing ; 
 
 a. Variation in the test of the milk. 
 
 b. Variation in the quantity of the milk produced. 
 
 c. Variation in the amount of fat obtained at each 
 milking. 
 
58 THE DAIRY COW 
 
 DAIRY CATTLE COMPARISON CARD 
 
 Student. 
 Date 
 
 
 1st 
 place 
 
 2nd 
 place 
 
 3rd 
 place 
 
 4th 
 place 
 
 5th 
 place 
 
 Dairy temperament 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Capacity 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sl5:in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Constitution 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Top line 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Head 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Neck 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Shoulder 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Body 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rump 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Veining 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fore — udder 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rear — udder 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Teats 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Udder 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Breed Characteristics 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Placing 
 
 
 
 
 
 
PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 59 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS 
 
 Indication of Capacity for 
 Feed — 25 Points 
 
 Face, broad between the eyes 
 and long; muzzle clean cut; 
 mouth large; lips strong; 
 lower jaws lean and sinewy 
 
 Bod!/, wedge shape as viewed 
 from front, side and top; 
 ribs, long, far apart and 
 well sprung; breast full and 
 wide; flanks, deep and full 
 
 Back, straight; chine, broad 
 and open; loin, broad and 
 roomy 
 
 Hips and thurls, wide apart 
 and high 
 
 Indication of Dairy Temper- 
 ament — 25 Points 
 
 Head, clean cut and fine in 
 contour; eyes, prominent, 
 full and bright 
 
 Neck, thin, long, neatly joined 
 to head and shoulders and 
 free from throatiness and 
 dewlap 
 
 Brisket, lean and light 
 
 Shoulders, lean, sloping, nice- 
 ly laid up to body; points 
 prominent; withers sharp. 
 
 Back, strong, prominent to 
 tail head and open jointed . 
 
 Hips, prominent, sharp and 
 level with back 
 
 Thighs, thin and incurving. . 
 
 Tail, fine and tapering 
 
 Legs, straight ; shank fine . . . 
 
 Indication of Well Devel- 
 oped Milk Organs — 25 
 Points 
 Rump, long, wide and level; 
 
 pelvis roomy 
 
 Thighs, wide apart; twist, 
 high and open 
 
 Per- 
 fect 
 
 10 
 
 Points 
 Deficient 
 
 Stu- 
 dent's 
 score 
 
 Cor- 
 rected 
 
 Points 
 Deficient 
 
 Stu 
 dent's 
 score 
 
 Cor- 
 rected 
 
60 
 
 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 
 Per- 
 fect 
 
 Points 
 Deficient 
 
 Points 
 Deficient 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS 
 
 Stu- 
 dent's 
 score 
 
 Cor- 
 rected 
 
 Stu- 
 dent's 
 score 
 
 Cor- 
 rected 
 
 Udder, large, pliable, extend- 
 ing well forward and high 
 up behind; quarters, full, 
 symmetrical, evenly joined 
 and well held up to body. . 
 
 15 
 4 
 
 2 
 3 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 Teats, plumb, good size, sym- 
 metrical and well placed . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 Indications of Strong Circu- 
 latory System, Health, 
 Vigor and Milk Flow— 
 25 Points 
 
 Eyes, bright and placid 
 
 Nostrils, large and open 
 
 Chest, roomy 
 
 Skin, pliable; hair, fine and 
 straight; secretions, abun- 
 dant in ear, on body and at 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Veins, prominent on face and 
 udder; mammary veins, 
 large, long, crooked and 
 branching; milk wells large 
 and numerous 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Escutcfieon, wide and extend- 
 ing high up 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 TESTING THE FARM HERD 
 
 No dairyman should keep a cow that produces 
 less than 250 pounds of butter fat annually, and 
 an average of a pound a day for 300 days of the 
 year is not too high a standard. Whole herds 
 have frequently been found which produce much 
 more than that. 
 
 The three-hundred-pound standard. In a single 
 month Colantha 4th 's Johanna produced 110.83 
 pounds of butter fat, a larger amount than is 
 produced in a whole year by so-called *^ dairy 
 cows" in many herds. In all the numerous 
 ^' official" tests that have been made in Wis- 
 consin during the past few years, very few of 
 the cows have been found to fall below the 
 300-pound mark, and the majority of them exceed 
 400 pounds of butter fat annually. 
 
 Profit on 350 pounds butter production per 
 cow. Adopting 300 pounds of butter fat as a 
 standard which the dairyman may reasonably 
 expect his cows to attain, let us see what such 
 a cow is worth to him. It is well known that 
 the amount of butter made from a given quan« 
 tity of butter fat exceeds the weight of fat by 
 
 61 
 
62 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 about one-sixth. This is because the water, 
 curd, and salt, which are normal constituents 
 of butter, added to the fat, increase its weight. 
 Three hundred pounds of fat, then, will make 
 one-sixth more butter, or 350 pounds of butter. 
 During the past lave years good creamery but- 
 ter has averaged about twenty-seven cents per 
 pound the year round.* The cow that has returned 
 to the farmer 350 pounds of good butter has 
 brought him $95, a pretty neat sum. And here, 
 too, many let the calculation stop. Herein lies 
 the error. Though the cow has returned to the 
 farmer this amount, he must not forget that she 
 has cost him something in feed and care. Dur- 
 ing this same period this cost has not been far 
 from $50 per year in the north central states. 
 Deducting this from the amount received for 
 the butter leaves a profit of $45. Neither must 
 it be forgotten that in addition to this there is 
 tJie skim-milk which has been fed to the pigs 
 and calves, from which additional profit has 
 been secured. Nor should we forget that she 
 has eaten hay and grain raised on the farm, 
 and the fertility in the manure has probably 
 found its way back to the soil. 
 
 Profit in 200 pounds of butter production per 
 cow. Let us suppose another case. Instead of 
 producing fat for 350 pounds of butter, let us 
 
 *The five years preceding the world war. 
 
TESTING THE FARM HERD 63 
 
 see what would have been the result had she 
 produced sufficient fat for 200 pounds of butter 
 only. This butter at the same rate would have 
 brought $54, and the farmer's profit would have 
 been but $4, or less than one-eleventh as much 
 as that of the first cow. In other words, the 
 first cow is worth more to the dairyman than 
 eleven of the second. 
 
 Loss on 150 pounds of butter production per 
 cow. Looking at it from still another point of 
 view, suppose another cow can produce but 150 
 pounds of butter annually, what is she worth? 
 Let us see. At twenty-seven cents per pound 
 this amount of butter is worth $40.50, or $9.50 
 less than it costs to keep the cow that pro- 
 duced it. 
 
 Where dairying has been tried and abandoned 
 as improfitable, in nine cases out of ten it has 
 been because the farmer kept just this kind of 
 cow. How necessary then that he should know 
 just what each member of his herd is worth to 
 him. He can know this if he is willing to spend 
 the time and effort necessary to weigh and test 
 the milk of each cow in his herd. 
 
 How individual tests are made. The test is 
 made in the following manner: A bottle holding 
 about a pint is labeled, showing the name and 
 number of the cow, and into this bottle is placed 
 a piece of bichromate of potassium the size of 
 
64 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 a pea. This chemical is a cheap preservative 
 which can be purchased at any drug store and 
 is used to keep the sample from souring. 
 
 Before the milk is sampled it is thoroughly 
 mixed, as stated under directions for sampling 
 already given in the chapter on the Babcock 
 test, and a few tablespoonfuls of this milk is 
 placed in the bottle. This sampling is repeated 
 at each successive milking and the sample for 
 testing is taken from this composite sample. In 
 this way a single test will answer for each cow. 
 If the cream in the sample gets thick or churns, 
 it may be easily mixed up again with the milk 
 if the sample bottle is first placed in warm 
 water. In making a composite test, the same 
 care should be exercised in mixing the sample 
 as is necessary in all testing with the Babcock 
 test. 
 
 How to get reliable records. By taking com- 
 posite samples of the milk from each cow in the 
 herd, testing them weekly and keeping an accu- 
 rate record of these tests and of the weight of 
 milk given by each cow every day of her milking 
 period, the dairyman may ascertain for himself 
 exactly what each cow is worth to him. This 
 is the best and only reliable method, and the one 
 followed at most well-regulated dairies. Of 
 course it takes time, but it pays in the long run. 
 
 A shorter method. Fairly accurate results may 
 
TESTING THE FARM HERD 65 
 
 be obtained, however, by weighing and testing 
 one day in each week during the whole period of 
 lactation, multiplying the weight by • 7 to get 
 the amount given by each cow. Another prac- 
 tical method is to take weights and composite 
 samples for six consecutive days each month 
 during the whole period of lactation, and to 
 multiply these weights by 5 to get the weight of 
 milk given by each cow during each particular 
 month of her milking period. 
 
 A test of little value. Too many farmers make 
 a single weight and test of the milk of their 
 several cows and then let the matter drop. This 
 is a serious mistake, as it teaches next to noth- 
 ing, and the only w^ay that the dairyman may 
 know exactly what each of his cows is worth to 
 him is by testing frequently, weighing every day 
 in the year and multiplying the total weight 
 by the average test to get the weight of butter 
 fat. There are shorter methods requiring less 
 time, but they are all open to one objection — 
 inaccuracy — and are not recommended. 
 
 Simpler but less accurate methods. The 
 simplest and easiest of these methods is to weigh 
 and test the milk of each cow for six days dur- 
 ing the fifth month of her milking period. It 
 has been shown by experiment that the fat pro- 
 duction for the fifth month represents to a con- 
 siderable degree the average production for the 
 
66 
 
 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 ten months that a cow is in milk. If this be 
 true, then this weight multiplied by five wdll 
 give the average weight produced monthly, and 
 this monthly average multiplied by ten will give 
 
 Fig-. 20. Colleg-e Bravura 2nd. 
 A fine old Brown Swiss cow of marked dairy-type. 
 
 the total amount of milk produced in ten months, 
 the number of months every good dairy cow 
 should give milk during the year. This total 
 amount of milk multiplied by the test will give 
 the yield of fat, to which one-sixth is added to 
 find the butter yield. This method is rapid and 
 fairly accurate. One example to illustrate: Sup- 
 pose a cow is found to give 100 pounds of milk 
 in six days during the fifth month of lactation. 
 Then 100 X 5 X 10 -= 5,000 pounds of milk an- 
 
TESTING THE FARM HERD Q7 
 
 nually. The test is 4.2 per cent. Then 5,000 X 4.2 
 per cent = 210 pounds butter fat; 1/6 of 210 is 
 35 ; then 210 + 35 = 245, or this cow produces 
 approximately 245 pounds of butter annually. 
 
 How to apply the results of the test. Every 
 good dairyman should know about what each 
 cow in his herd is producing and send to the 
 slaughter house all cows that are not yielding 
 him a profit. The only way for him to learn 
 this is by weighing and testing the milk from 
 each cow in some such manner as has been out- 
 lined herein, preferably for every day of the 
 time that the cow is in milk during the year. 
 It should also be added that he should take into 
 account the amount of feed consumed by each 
 cow. It is not always the largest fat producers 
 that are the most profitable cows, but the ones 
 that produce the largest amount of fat at the 
 least cost. 
 
 A single cow's record. In order to stimulate 
 an interest in the production end of dairying, it 
 is usually an easy matter for a high-school 
 teacher to make arrangements with some party 
 owning a cow whereby students are allowed to 
 keep records of the production of some particular 
 cow or cows. On the next page is given the 
 record of a single cow in a herd belonging to a 
 cow-testing association organized and conducted 
 by schoolboys: 
 
68 
 
 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 RECORD OF COW NO. 5 
 
 Milk Pounds Value 
 
 B. F. B. F. 
 
 December 954 38.1 $ 13.18 
 
 January 784 31.3 14.06 
 
 February 638 26.8 11.39 
 
 March 725 29.7 11.88 
 
 April 766 34.5 13.45 
 
 Mav 623 28 9.24 
 
 June 762 40.4 12.52 
 
 July 254 19 5.13 
 
 August Dry 
 
 September 834 31.7 13.63 
 
 October 834 31.7 13.63 
 
 November .... 858 28.3 13.58 
 
 Cost of 
 
 1912-13 
 
 Feed 
 
 Net Returns 
 
 $ 6.06 
 
 $ 7.12 
 
 6.06 
 
 8.00 
 
 5.47 
 
 5.92 
 
 6.99 
 
 4.89 
 
 6.76 
 
 6.69 
 
 3.78 
 
 5.46 
 
 2.00 
 
 10.52 
 
 2.00 
 
 3.13 
 
 2.00 
 
 —2.00 
 
 2.00 
 
 11.63 
 
 2.00 
 
 11.63 
 
 4.08 
 
 9.50 
 
 8,032 339.5 $131.69 $49.20 $82.49 
 
 Herd records. The following shows the rec- 
 ord of all the herds belonging to an association: 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF HERDS 
 
 
 
 Butter Fat Basis— 1913 
 
 
 
 
 Number 
 
 Av. Lbs. 
 
 Av. 
 
 Av. Lbs. 
 
 Highest 
 
 Lowest 
 
 Rank 
 
 : Cows 
 
 Milk 
 
 Test 
 
 Butter Fat Producer Producer 
 
 1... 
 
 ... 12 
 
 7,901 
 
 3.86% 
 
 305 
 
 376.3 
 
 229.7 
 
 2. . . 
 
 ... 18 
 
 8,376 
 
 3.53 
 
 296 
 
 332.9 
 
 183 
 
 3... 
 
 ... 13 
 
 8,041 
 
 3.65 
 
 293.3 
 
 344.1 
 
 214.7 
 
 4... 
 
 ... 15 
 
 6,561 
 
 4.38 
 
 287.7 
 
 393.5 
 
 124.7 
 
 5... 
 
 ... 28 
 
 7,753 
 
 3.62 
 
 280.7 
 
 426.8 
 
 110.6 
 
 6... 
 
 ... 16 
 
 5,815 
 
 4.68 
 
 280.5 
 
 446.3 
 
 188.7 
 
 7... 
 
 8 
 
 8,317 
 
 3.28 
 
 273.4 
 
 367.9 
 
 229.7 
 
 8... 
 
 ... 18 
 
 7,627 
 
 3.53 
 
 272.6 
 
 371.2 
 
 204.8 
 
 9... 
 
 6 
 
 6,452 
 
 3.87 
 
 261.5 
 
 339.5 
 
 197.5 
 
 10... 
 
 ... 13 
 
 6,213 
 
 4.20 
 
 261.1 
 
 294.3 
 
 114 
 
 11... 
 
 ... 17 
 
 6,772 
 
 3.6 
 
 243.9 
 
 312 
 
 105.3 
 
 12... 
 
 ... 11 
 
 5,881 
 
 3.96 
 
 233.3 
 
 281.7 
 
 177.5 
 
 13... 
 
 ... 8 
 
 4,964 
 
 4.60 
 
 228.4 
 
 344.9 
 
 158.5 
 
 14... 
 
 7 
 
 6,339 
 
 3.55 
 
 226.4 
 
 274.5 
 
 184.5 
 
 15 . . . 
 
 ... 22 
 
 6,288 
 
 3.53 
 
 222.1 
 
 366.8 
 
 166.6 
 
 16... 
 
 . .. 18 
 
 5,405 
 
 3.83 
 
 206 
 
 289.8 
 
 146.3 
 
 17... 
 
 ... 24 
 
 5,007 
 
 3.64 
 
 182.3 
 
 238.6 
 
 120.9 
 
 18... 
 
 ... 10 
 
 4,337 
 
 3.68 
 
 160 
 
 280.4 
 
 44 
 
 Total. 264 
 Average of Ass'n. 6,924 
 Av. cost of feed.. $48. 79 
 Average profit. . . 52.14 
 
 3.78 
 
 261.7 
 
TESTING THE FARM HERD 
 
 69 
 
 A study of the table below will show the 
 reasons for good herds. 
 
 cows PRODUCING 
 
 Rank 
 
 Less 
 
 100 to 
 
 200 to 
 
 250 to 
 
 300 to 
 
 350 to 
 
 400 to 
 
 
 150 lbs. 
 
 250 lbs. 
 
 250 lbs. 
 
 300 lbs. 
 
 350 lbs. 
 
 400 lbs. 
 
 450 lbs. 
 
 Tota 
 
 1... 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 
 12 
 
 2... 
 
 
 i 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 3... 
 
 
 . . 
 
 4 
 
 . . 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 4... 
 
 *i 
 
 . . 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 '2 
 
 
 15 
 
 5... 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 28 
 
 6... 
 
 . . 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 16 
 
 7... 
 
 . . 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 8 
 
 8... 
 
 . . 
 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 9... 
 
 . . 
 
 2 
 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 10... 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 • '5 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 11... 
 
 o 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 '2 
 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 12... 
 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 13... 
 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 14... 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 15... 
 
 
 '9 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 16... 
 
 i 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 17... 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 18... 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 '2 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 Totals 15 55 78 63 36 13 4 264 
 RECORD OP HERD NO. 8 
 
 Pounds Returns 
 
 Cow Milk Butter Fat Value B. F. Cost Feed B F.— C. F. 
 
 3 5,787 265.4 $104.38 $49.20 $55.18 
 
 4 7,489 270.2 107.49 49.20 58.29 
 
 5 8,032 339.5 131.69 49.20 82.49 
 
 6 4,997 198.4 72.94 47.52 25.42 
 
 8 7,837 298.7 116.74 49.20 67.54 
 
 9 4,572 197.5 76.60 36.06 40.54 
 
 Av 6,452 261.6 101.64 46.73 54.91 
 
 Without 
 
 No.9.6,828 274.4 106.65 48.86 57.79 
 
 Increase 376 12.8 5.01 2.13 2.88 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. From the data given in the record of cow No. 5 
 calculate the fat test for each month. 
 
 2. Using same data determine the price allowed for 
 each pound of butter fat for each month. 
 
70 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 3. Using the price per pound of butter fat just 
 obtained calculate the total returns from each herd in 
 the association. 
 
 4. At the average cost of feed Dcr cow given at the 
 bottom of the table what is the net profit made by each 
 herd? 
 
 5. The average net profit per cow in each herd? 
 
 6. Do you know the profit over cost of feed of your 
 own herd? 
 
 7. By use of one of the methods described in the 
 last chapter determine this for the home herd. 
 
 LABORATORY PROBLEMS 
 IX. To Test Samples of Milk Which Are Partially Churned 
 
 It frequently happens that milk which has been put 
 in bottles and carried some distance becomes partially 
 churned. The difficulty in testing such samples arises 
 from the fact the milk cannot be accurately sampled. 
 The following method will give accurate results if 
 carefully performed. 
 
 a. Take a small quantity of milk (200 to 300 c.c.) 
 and test to determine the true percentage of fat it 
 contains. 
 
 b. Shake the remainder of the sample in a tightly 
 sealed bottle until butter granules appear on the sides 
 of the bottle. 
 
 c. Add about 10 c.c. of ether to the sample to dis- 
 solve all the churned butter granules. If 10 c.c.'s are 
 not sufficient, add a few more. It is necessary to keep 
 an exact account of the amount used. 
 
 d. When all the butter granules have been dis- 
 solved, sample as in the case of milk. Add only one 
 
TESTING THE FARM HERD 7I 
 
 or two c.c. of acid at first and gently shake. Do not 
 hurry the process, but give the ether plenty of time 
 to evaporate. The acid should be added in small por- 
 tions until the required amount has been added. 
 
 e. The reading must be corrected to allow for the 
 ether added. Compare the result with the test of the 
 original milk. 
 
 Note: This exercise requires extreme care and skill in its 
 manipulation if accurate results are to be obtained. 
 
 X. To Determine the Calibration of Glassware Used in 
 Connection with Babcock Test 
 
 a. Fill a 10 per cent milk test bottle to the zero 
 mark with water. With a strip of blotting paper, 
 carefully absorb the water adhering to the sides of 
 the neck of the bottle. Observe particularly that the 
 height of the water is exactly at the zero mark. 
 
 b. With a graduated burette, drop 2 c.c. of water 
 into the bottle. Observe the height to which it fills 
 the bottle. Test bottles are so made that it takes 2 c.c. 
 to fill 10 per cent on the neck of the bottle, i. e., 
 2 c.c. of water or alcohol should exactly fill the space 
 from to the 10 per cent mark. 
 
 c. Prepare another bottle as under '*a." Insert 
 a Trowbridge plunger and observe the height to which 
 it raises the water. 
 
 d. Cream bottles can likewise be tested. 
 
 e. Into a beaker place the contents of a 17.6 c.c. 
 pipette of milk. If the pipette is accurate the amount 
 of milk delivered will weigh 18 grams. 
 
 Note: In calibrating glassware many prefer to use colored 
 denatured alcohol. The liquid should be at room temperature. 
 It is not advisable to hold the bottles in the hand, as the 
 heat of the hand may change the temperature and make the 
 results inaccurate. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 CREAM SEPARATION 
 
 Three methods of cream separation. There are 
 three methods of cream separation in common 
 use, viz., gravity, dilution, and centrifugal. Of 
 these three, gravity is the oldest and until very 
 recent years the most widely used method. It 
 consists simply in setting the milk in cans or 
 pans and allowing the fat to rise to the top, 
 it being forced up by gravity because it is so 
 mu<ih lighter than the milk serum. In the dilu- 
 tion process cold or warm water is poured 
 directly into the milk on the theory that it will 
 make the milk thinner and allow the fat glob- 
 ules to rise to the top more easily. In the cen- 
 trifugal process the fat is separated from the 
 milk by centrifugal force, that force which 
 causes the mud to fly from a rapidly revolving 
 wagon wheel or the water from a grindstone. In 
 this process the milk is run into a rapidly revolv- 
 ing bowl and the heavier part of the milk, which 
 is the skim-milk, is crowded to the outside and 
 the lighter portion, which is the cream, is forced 
 toward the center. Each portion is crowded 
 
 72 
 
CREAM SEPARATION 
 
 73 
 
 out through little holes into spouts provided for 
 the purpose of carrying them into their respec- 
 tive vessels. Of these three methods centrifugal 
 separation is by far the most efficient. 
 
 Fig. 21. A cow with marked dairy temperament. 
 Clean cut features about the head and face, the fine clean neck, 
 the prominence and sharpness of the back bone, hip pomts and pin 
 bones the thin, incurving thighs and the clean, fine shanks in this 
 cow are indications of extreme dairy temperament. 
 
 Fat losses in skim-milk make dairying un- 
 profitable. One of the reasons why dairying, 
 before the invention of the Babcock test and the 
 centrifugal separator, was unprofitable was be- 
 cause of the large losses of butter fat in the skim- 
 milk when separated by the gravity process. 
 No matter how careful the dairyman may be to 
 
74 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 secure a proper temperature — the one most favor- 
 able to good separation by the gravity process — 
 the skim-milk losses are very heavy. 
 
 Losses by gravity method. With the shallow 
 pan method the losses vary with the conditions 
 to which the milk is subjected. However, the 
 skim-milk with this method of separation will 
 rarely test less than five-tenths of one per cent. 
 The deep setting method of cream separation 
 was the best devised up to the time of the intro- 
 duction of the centrifugal separator. In this 
 method the milk after milking was immediately 
 placed into long cylindrical cans, commonly 
 called ^^ shot-gun^' cans. These were placed in 
 cold water, preferably ice water. With this 
 method the losses in the skim-milk were reduced 
 to about two-tenths of one per cent. However, 
 if the setting of the milk was delayed or the 
 water was not cold, the increase in the loss of 
 fat in the skim-milk was much greater. 
 
 Dilution causes large losses. Dilution methods 
 of separation are likewise to be condemned as 
 extravagant and wasteful. 
 
 A few years ago dilution methods and appli- 
 ances were on the ^^boom," but fortunately this 
 *^boom*' was of short duration. Cornell and 
 many of the other experiment stations investi- 
 gated the dilution methods and compared them 
 with the old-fashioned gravity methods. The 
 
CREAM SEPARATION 75 
 
 average fat content of the skim-milk by the dilu- 
 tion process was found to be from six-tenths to 
 one and two-tenths per cent fat. This is from 
 one-fifth to one-third of the entire fat content 
 of the whole milk. At the Kansas station still 
 greater losses were found to exist. 
 
 A comparison of losses by various methods. 
 The Indiana Experiment Station, after exhaust- 
 ive experiments, published in a recent bulletin 
 a summary of their findings showing the losses 
 in the skim-milk under the most favorable con- 
 ditions by the various methods to be as follows: 
 
 Hand separator method 02 per cent 
 
 Deep setting method 17 per cent 
 
 Shallow pan method 44 per cent 
 
 Water dilution method 68 per cent 
 
 The following table shows the amount of fat 
 lost in the skim-milk under average conditions: 
 
 
 
 Water 
 
 Shallow 
 
 Deep 
 
 Hand 
 
 
 
 Dilution 
 
 Pan 
 
 Setting 
 
 Separator 
 
 . Cows 
 
 Lbs. Milk 
 
 Lbs. Fat 
 
 Lbs. Fat 
 
 Lbs. Fat 
 
 Lbs. Fat 
 
 1 
 
 6,000 
 
 29.07 
 
 25.5 
 
 17.34 
 
 2.75 
 
 5 
 
 30,000 
 
 145.35 
 
 127.5 
 
 86.70 
 
 13.75 
 
 10 
 
 60,000 
 
 290.70 
 
 255 
 
 173.40 
 
 27.50 
 
 15 
 
 90,000 
 
 436.05 
 
 382.5 
 
 260.10 
 
 41.25 
 
 20 
 
 120,000 
 
 581.40 
 
 510 
 
 346.80 
 
 55 
 
 Compute the loss at the low rate of 25 cents 
 per pound of fat. 
 
 The bulletin referred to uses the following 
 graphic illustration to show the butter lost in 
 
76 
 
 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 the skim-milk from one cow in one year by the 
 various methods of separation. 
 
 Hand 
 Sepa- 
 rator. 
 Loss of 
 Butter 
 1.2 lbs. 
 
 Deep Setting-. 
 
 Loss of butter 
 
 10.1 lbs. 
 
 Shallow Pan. 
 
 Loss of butter 
 
 26.2 lbs. 
 
 Fig. 22. 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 r^ 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 1 i i 
 
 
 ^L_i._i j:\.li j ..._ 
 
 
 
 
 
 pi ^ 1 1 1 ■■ 
 
 HpHHHHppi^^ ' 
 
 
 
 --JL 
 
 
 
 
 
 "'.':?::>:.::H 
 
 ^^^^P . Jiiiii^M m 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ *i'H 
 
 ^^m iifiiiii^-' 
 
 
 
 ■ss 
 
 
 
 
 
 : „i^ 
 
 P^« { M«:t 
 
 , 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 :1^BI 
 
 
 Water Dilution. 
 
 Loss of butter 
 
 40.5 lbs. 
 
 •Comparison of fat losses by various methods of separation. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. What effect on the feeding value of the skim- 
 milk will the dilution method of cream separation 
 have? 
 
 2. "Will Jersey milk separate by the gravity method 
 better than Holstein milk? Why? 
 
 3. Will the milk of one breed separate better with 
 a centrifugal separator than the milk of another breed ? 
 
 4. What would be the loss in the fat of the skim- 
 milk from a herd of ten cows by each of the methods 
 described in this chapter, assuming butter to be worth 
 thirty cents a pound? 
 
 5. What method of separation is used on your 
 farm? 
 
 6. Do you test your whole milk? Your skim-milk? 
 
 7. Do you know whether you are losing fat in your 
 skim-milk or not and how much? 
 
CREAM SEPARATION 77 
 
 LABORATORY PROBLEMS 
 
 XL To Determine the Per Cent of Fat in Cream 
 
 a. Carefully weigh 18 grams of cream into a 30 
 per cent cream test bottle. 
 
 b. Add about the normal amount of sulphuric acid 
 (17.5 c.c). 
 
 c. Test as in the case of whole milk; that is, whirl 
 three times and fill twice. 
 
 d. Place in a water bath having a temperature of 
 120 to 140 degrees. 
 
 e. Before reading add a few drops of white min- 
 eral oil or colored denatured alcohol. Care must be 
 exercised to prevent the oil from mixing with the fat 
 column. This can best be accomplished by allowing 
 the oil to run slowly down the side of the neck. 
 
 LABORATORY PROBLEMS 
 
 XII. To Determine the Richness of Cream by Use of 50 Per 
 Cent 9-Gram Bottle 
 
 In many states the 50 per cent 9-gram bottle is 
 used instead of the 18-gram 30 per cent bottle. This 
 means that 9 grams are used as a charge. 
 
 a. Weigh out 9 grams of cream into bottle. 
 
 b. Add about 9 c.c. of clear water. Mix. 
 
 c. Add normal amount of sulphuric acid (17.5 c.c). 
 
 d. Test as in the case of milk. Place in water bath 
 and then read, using white mineral oil or colored 
 denatured alcohol to level the meniscus. 
 
 e. In case a 9-gram bottle is used the reading is 
 direct, as the bottle is calibrated to read direct. In 
 case an 18-gram bottle is used, then the reading must 
 be multiplied by 2, because 9 grams is only half a 
 charge. 
 
CHAPTER VITI 
 
 THE FARM SEPAEATOR 
 
 Use of farm separators widespread. When sep- 
 arators were first introduced they were built for 
 factory purposes. They were large machines 
 capable of separating the cream from two or 
 three thousand pounds of milk per hour. The 
 
 cost and the incon- 
 venience of gather- 
 ing the milk at the 
 ** whole milk*' 
 creameries were in 
 very many cases so 
 great that most of 
 them have been 
 forced to abandon 
 their power sepa- 
 rators. At the pres- 
 ent time we find 
 very few creameries 
 still receiving whole 
 milk. Instead, small 
 separators have 
 such decided advan- 
 
 Pig. 23. A farm separator. 
 
 78 
 
THE FARM SEPARATOR 
 
 79 
 
 tages that, in sections of the country where dairy- 
 ing is carried on extensively, they are found on 
 practically every farm, even though the farmer 
 may have only a very few cows. Hence a word 
 about the principles upon which their operation is 
 based and some general directions for their care 
 and use may not be out of place here. 
 
 SKIM MILK OUTCET 
 
 CREAM OUTLET 
 
 SKIM-MILK Outlet 
 
 Fig. 24. Vertical section view showing interior of cream separator. 
 
 The principle of centrifugal separation. As 
 
 was stated in the preceding chapter, their oper- 
 ation depends on centrifugal force. The old- 
 fashioned ^^ sling-shot'' serves to illustrate this 
 
80 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 principle. In tliis plaything a stone is placed in 
 a little hole cut in a piece of leather to which 
 are attached two strings. The ^'sliof is then 
 whirled rapidly around the head and one of the 
 strings suddenly loosened, when the stone flies otf 
 in a straight line. The boy who is able to whirl 
 his sling-shot with the greatest speed succeeds 
 in throwing the farthest; that is, he gives it the 
 greatest force. Now, in the cream separator the 
 builders have figured out just how rapidly the 
 bowls must rotate in order to throw all the skim- 
 milk to the outside and force the fat globules 
 to the center. The separator must, therefore, be 
 kept up to this calculated speed if the separation 
 is to be complete. This speed is usually plainly 
 marked on the machine and the operator should 
 see to it that the indicated speed is maintained. 
 The effect of temperature in separation. An- 
 other condition which affects the completeness 
 of the separation is temperature. The best 
 machines will not do close work on cold milk. 
 The most favorable temperature for the farmer 
 to use is from 90 degrees F to 100 degrees F., or 
 the temperature of milk when it is first drawn 
 from the cow. In no case should the milk be 
 allowed to cool or the cream to rise before sep- 
 aration. If the milk is cold the fat losses are 
 large and the machine is easily clogged. If the 
 cream has risen it may be churned in the machine 
 
THE FARM SEPARATOR 
 
 81 
 
 and the small granules of butter will be lost. It 
 is a good practice to run a quart of warm water 
 through the machine or warm it up before the 
 milk is put into it. 
 
 Milk must be fed into bowl at a 
 uniform rate. A third point that 
 should be observed if satisfactory 
 results are to be obtained is the 
 uniformity with which the milk is 
 introduced into the bowl. An even 
 feed will do much to ensure an even 
 cream test, all other conditions re- 
 maining the same. 
 
 Machine must be kept clean. To 
 secure the best results and the 
 cleanest and most nearly perfect 
 cream, it is best to wash the sepa- 
 rator each time after it is used. 
 The slime should be removed, and 
 the parts thoroughly scalded to de- 
 stroy the germs which are certain 
 to be present. These germs are 
 found in large quantities in the 
 bowl and if not destroyed by heat 
 may cause serious damage to the 
 cream. The separator should be 
 washed twice daily, and it should 
 be thoroughly scalded and dried in the sun. Heat 
 and sunlight are death to germ life. 
 
 Fig. 25. A 
 thermometer. A 
 valuable piece 
 of apparatus for 
 the farm dairy. 
 
82 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 Necessity for oiling. All bearings should be 
 kept thoroughly piled with the best separator 
 oil. It is poor economy indeed to spoil a good 
 machine by using poor oil. Some separators 
 that are still doing work are known to have 
 been in constant use for fifteen years. This is 
 because the machines have been well cared for. 
 
 Vibration. The machine must be placed in a 
 vertical position on a solid foundation and 
 securely fastened, so as to prevent all vibration. 
 Heavy losses are occasioned by an unbalanced 
 bowl or any other source of vibration. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Why can milk be separated at a temperature of 
 80° to 90° P. with less loss in the skim-milk than when 
 it is separated at 60° to 70° FJ 
 
 2. Why wash the dishes in the home after each meal 
 and wash a farm separator only once a day? 
 
 3. Why should the separator parts be left to air 
 in the sun? 
 
 4. Why is it important to maintain the proper 
 speed Avhen separating milk ? 
 
 5. What is the difference in composition between 
 milk and cream? 
 
 6. What is the legal standard in your state for 
 cream, milk, skim-milk? 
 
THE FARM SEPARATOR 83 
 
 LABORATORY PROBLEMS 
 
 XIII. To Study the Principles of the Centrifugal Cream 
 Separator 
 
 1. Study the various parts of the separator and 
 learn how to assemble them. Care must be exercised 
 to see that the various parts are not damaged by drop- 
 ping them or by jamming the parts together. 
 
 2. Oil the bearings well with good hand separator 
 oil. 
 
 3. Determine the speed of the separator bowl per 
 minute. This can easily be done by counting the revo- 
 lutions of the bowl while the operator slowly turns the 
 handle one complete revolution. Then multiply the 
 number obtained by the number of revolutions made 
 by the handle per minute. 
 
 4. Slowly bring the separator up to the proper 
 speed, which is usually indicated on the handle. When 
 .at about one-fourth speed fill the bowl with lukewarm 
 water. The object of this is to see if the bowl leaks. 
 If it does, stop at once and locate the trouble. 
 
 5. If the milk to be used for this experiment is 
 cold, warm it to a temperature of about 85 degrees. 
 Stir well, weigh and place in milk container on the 
 separator. 
 
 6. When all the foregoing observations have been 
 made and precautions have been taken, carefully bring 
 the separator bowl to full speed and slowly open the 
 feed valve so that the rate of inflow is normal. There 
 is usually a float to regulate this important matter. 
 The exact time of starting the flow of milk should 
 be observed and recorded. 
 
 7. Continue to separate the milk, being very care- 
 ful to see that the correct speed is maintained. This 
 
84 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 must not be a matter of *^ guess work," but should be 
 observed carefully by means of a watch. When the 
 milk has all been separated, the exact time should be 
 again observed and recorded. Knowing the weight of 
 the milk and the length of time taken to separate it, 
 it is a matter of easy computation to determine the 
 capacity of the separator per hour. 
 
 8. When all the milk has been separated, and while 
 the bowl is still in motion, it is well to flush the bowl 
 at once with either warm skim-milk or with a quart or 
 two of lukewarm water. This is necessary, as other- 
 wise there will be a large quantity of valuable cream 
 remaining in the separator. In flushing the bowl the 
 skim-milk or water should be poured into it as fast as 
 the bowl will take it. 
 
 9. The separator bowl and tinware should be 
 washed soon after they are used. The bowl should be 
 taken apart and each part carefully cleaned, using 
 lukewarm water. The different parts (except the rub- 
 ber ring) should be scalded with hot water and allowed 
 to dry in a clean, dry place, preferably in the sun- 
 shine. The bowl should not be put together until 
 time to be used again. 
 
 10. The following observations should be made by 
 the students : 
 
 Name of student Date 
 
 Name of separator Number . . 
 
 Rev. of handle per min Speed of bowl per min 
 
 Lbs. of milk separated Time required 
 
 Capacity of machine per hour 
 
 Pounds of milk separated 
 
 Test of milk 
 
 Pounds of fat in milk 
 
TllE FARM SEPARATOR 85 
 
 Pounds of cream 
 
 Test of cream 
 
 Pounds of fat in cream 
 
 Pounds of skim-milk 
 
 Test of skim-milk 
 
 Pounds of fat lost in skim-milk 
 
 Pounds of cream per 100 pounds of milk 
 
 Note: Other exercises may be developed by the instructor 
 to show the losses of fat in the skim-niilk and the richness of 
 the cream. 
 
 (a) When cold milk is separated instead of warm milk. 
 
 (b) When the speed of the separator is below normal.* 
 
 (c) When the separator is operated at only one-half capac- 
 
 ity, or when "crowded to overcapacity."* 
 
 (d) When the cream screw is adjusted to get a richer or 
 
 a thinner cream. 
 
 *No separator should be run faster than recommended by 
 the manufacturer. 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 VALUE OF SKIM-MILK 
 
 One lias only to consider the composition of 
 milk to know that there are over nine pounds of 
 the very best food solids, all easily digestible, 
 left in every hundred pounds of milk after the 
 fat has been removed. 
 
 Skim-milk an excellent feed. When the milk 
 is separated from the cream, either at the farm 
 or at the factory, the farmer has, as a by-product 
 of dairying, a quantity of skim-milk which is one 
 of the very best of feeds for calves, pigs, and 
 even chickens, ducks, and geese. In some local- 
 ities there is a strong prejudice against the intro- 
 duction of the centrifugal separator on the 
 ground that the skim-milk is spoiled for feed. 
 This prejudice is wholly unfounded and clearly 
 disproven by the experience of both dairymen 
 and investigators. None of the food substances 
 are removed from the milk except the fat, and 
 this fat can easily be supplied by a much cheaper 
 substitute. 
 
 How skim-milk may be improved for feeding. 
 Butter fat is worth, say, 30 cents per pound. 
 
 86 
 
CARE OP MILK AND CREAM 87 
 
 Two or three cents' worth of oil meal will fur- 
 nish as much food matter as a pound of butter 
 fat. Then all that the dairyman has to do is to 
 add a few pounds of oil meal to each one hun- 
 dred pounds of skim-milk and its feeding value 
 is just as great as new or whole milk. "When 
 the milk is separated on the farm this skim- 
 milk may be fed warm and sweet soon after 
 it is drawn from the cow, and if oil meal, bran, 
 middlings, gluten feed, or some other cheap 
 feed rich in oil and protein is added to it in 
 proper proportions, it is fully the equal of whole 
 milk as a feeding stuff. Experiments with hand- 
 fed calves carried on at the Kansas Experiment 
 Station have conclusively demonstrated this fact. 
 Good ^^baby beef was made with separator 
 skim-milk as a foundation feed, and the calves 
 so fed made greater gains at a less cost than 
 those fed on whole milk. The same results were 
 obtained at the Iowa station. 
 
 Skim-milk necessary for pork production. 
 Skim-milk is especially valuable in hog raising, 
 and it should form the basis of food for these 
 animals on every dairy farm. Some farmers 
 believe that the best and cheapest pork is made 
 from corn alone with nothing but water to drink. 
 Here again experimenters have proven that this 
 is not the case. On the contary, pork produced 
 from this diet is much more expensive than that 
 
88 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 produced from any kind of mixed feeds. But 
 the largest profit in hog raising comes from 
 young pork six or seven months old. The first 
 one hundred pounds of pork is always the cheap- 
 est to produce, the second hundred pounds is a 
 little more costly, and so on until after the hog 
 is a year old and has been well fed up to this 
 time, the feed necessary to produce a pound of 
 pork is actually worth more than the pork pro- 
 duced. The farmer, then, makes the most money 
 on pig-pork, and pig-pork cannot be produced 
 to advantage without milk. Skim-milk mixed 
 with ground corn, ground oats, bran, oil meal, 
 middlings, or gluten feed, and supplemented 
 during the fattening period with a liberal allow- 
 ance of corn, makes the very best and cheap- 
 est pork. 
 
 A great dairyman's experience in feeding 
 skim-milk. Former Governor Hoard, one of the 
 great pioneers in dairying, once said: 
 
 ''Put this statement to the fore: That for 
 the past ten years no milk shipper or condensory 
 has paid for milk what the cream is worth at 
 the creamery for butter making, and the skim- 
 milk is worth on the farm in the raising of good 
 live stock. That any farmer if he will be intel- 
 ligent can in a ten-year trial make more clean 
 money by keeping the skim-milk on the farm, 
 raising well-bred heifers and cows for sale, than 
 
CARE OF MILK AND CREAM §9 
 
 in any other form of dairying. If the creamery 
 does not see what it has to do with this prob- 
 lem, then it is not big enough for its place. 
 Stop fighting the farm separator and go to work 
 to teach the farmer better how to deal with the 
 milk and cream at the farm end. Eemember 
 that the farm separator and calf and pig raising 
 is the main defense of the creamery against the 
 competition of milk shipping and condensing. 
 
 *^Now a word, if you please, as to the real 
 money value of good skim-milk for calf and 
 pig raising. Of course, much depends on the 
 kind of calves and pigs one raises and so does 
 the price you get for butter depend on the kind 
 of butter you make and sell." 
 
 An experiment in calf raising. ^'Here is an 
 experiment of my own calf raising. I took ten 
 grade Guernsey heifer calves, such as any ordi- 
 nary farmer can produce, part of them bought 
 right after birth of neighbors. I kept them till 
 they were ten months old and sold them for $25 
 apiece. That is not a big price for fine heifer 
 calves of desirable blood. I fed each of those 
 calves a dollar's worth of oats; alfalfa hay to 
 the amount of $1.50, and 50 cents worth of blood 
 meal. That made $3.00. I allowed $3.00 for 
 tlie carcass. That made a total of $6.00, leav- 
 ing $19.00 to be credited to the 3,000 pounds 
 of skim-milk each consumed. Understand, I 
 
90 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 charged the calf with the market value of the 
 other food it consumed; the balance went to the 
 skim-milk because it was the skim-milk that 
 made all the rest available. Figuring that way, 
 the skim-milk returned 63 cents a hundred. The 
 butter fat in the milk averaged at that time, if 
 I remember correctly, $1.50 per 100 pounds of 
 milk. That made the whole milk worth in cash 
 to me $2.13 per hundred pounds. Do you won- 
 der that I say no milk shipper or condensory 
 would pay me what my milk is worth even in 
 raising nothing better than grade heifer calves! 
 The skim-milk is worth over $3.00 a hundred 
 when fed to pure-bred calves.'' 
 
 Skim-milk for pig feeding. ''It is well estab- 
 lished that 100 pounds of skim-milk will make 
 five pounds of growth when fed alone to pigs 
 weighing from 75 to 150 pounds. Multiply this 
 growth by the price of pork and you have the 
 minimum value of the skim-milk. Feed it in 
 conjunction with corn meal and you add 20 per 
 cent to its value or cash return, all as a result 
 of the combination. These are well settled 
 principles of feeding. Yet, how few farmers 
 really and truly know and practice them."* 
 
 EXERCISES 
 1. According to the standards given, what is the 
 value of skim-milk in your vicinity? 
 
 *These values increase with advance in prices. 
 
CARE OF MILK AND CREAM 91 
 
 2. Can you feed sour milk to calves "? 
 
 3. What causes milk to sour? 
 
 4. What is *'baby beef"?'* What do wc mean by 
 the term *' milk-fed" chickens? 
 
 5. Do farmers as a rule raise their own cows in a 
 * ' condensary ' ' community ? 
 
 LABORATORY PROBLEMS 
 XIV. To Make Cottage Cheese from Skim-Milk 
 
 An excellent food may be easily made from skim- 
 milk as follows : 
 
 1. Obtain a quantity of clean, well-flavored, sweet 
 skim-milk and add about a pint of good, clean-smell- 
 ing, sour milk. 
 
 2. Heat to about 90 to 95 degrees and allow it to 
 sour and thicken but not whey off; this will take 
 about twenty-four hours. 
 
 3. Break up gently with a large spoon. Keep the 
 curd in large, coarse pieces. 
 
 4. Heat to 110 degrees by hanging the bucket in 
 warm water; stir gently w^hile heating. 
 
 5. After half an hour or more, depending on how 
 finely the curd was broken up, it settles rapidly and 
 will be quite firm. Without stirring, tip the pail and 
 draw as much w^hey as possible. Fill the pail up with 
 clean, cold water and stir the curd until cooled. 
 
 6. Put the curd in a cold vat to drain for about 
 half an hour. 
 
 7. When dry stir in one ounce of salt to five pounds 
 of curd. 
 
 Note: Some prefer to add a small amount of cream to the 
 finished cheese. This, of course, adds to the cost. As a rule 
 people who care for it add a small amount of cream to the 
 cottage cheese just before serving. 
 
92 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 LABORATORY PROBLEMS 
 XV. To Determine the Acidity of Milk 
 
 Prepare a standard tablet solution by dissolving 5 
 Farrington alkali tablets in 97 c.c. of clean, soft water. 
 The water may be condensed steam or pure rain water. 
 The tablets can be purchased in boxes containing 1,000 
 each from any dairy supply house. If kept dry and 
 away from the air, they will not lose strength. The 
 solution as prepared above is so standardized that one 
 cubic centimeter will neutralize one one-hundredths 
 per cent acidity if a 17.6 c.c. of milk is used as a sample. 
 The solution should be prepared several hours in 
 advance to allow the tablets to dissolve. The small 
 residue which does not dissolve is inert matter and 
 does not interfere with the test. After the tablets 
 have been dissolved the solution will not lose its 
 strength for several weeks. It is well, however, not to 
 mix up too much at a time and to keep the bottle well 
 corked. No indicator is necessary, because an indi- 
 cator has been incorporated in the tablets. For prac- 
 tical purposes a 100 c.c. graduated cylinder, a 17.6 c.c. 
 pipette and a white china cup comprise the apparatus 
 necessary to determine the acidity of milk and cream. 
 
 Determine the acidity of milk, cream, etc., by the 
 following method : 
 
 1. Using a 17.6 c.c. pipette, transfer a pipetteful of 
 the sample to be tested for acidity to a white china cup. 
 
 2. From a graduated cylinder add sufficient tablet 
 solution to color the mixture a faintly permanent pink. 
 It is well to give the cup a rotary motion while adding 
 the solution. Some prefer to use a glass stirring rod 
 to mix the solution with the sample. 
 
CARE OF MILK AND CREAM 93 
 
 3. The number of cubic centimeters of solution re- 
 quired to give a permanent pink color will indicate 
 the number of hundredths per cent acidity. For 
 example, if it requires 18 cubic centimeters of the 
 solution to color the mixture a faint pink, then the 
 sample tested has an acidity of eighteen-hundredths 
 of 1 per cent. 
 
CHAPTER X 
 CAEE OF UTENSILS 
 
 What kind of utensils to use. Tinware is un- 
 doubtedly the most satisfactory material for 
 dairy utensils. "Wooden vessels are very objec- 
 tionable, because the pores of the wood absorb 
 the milk and soon become clogged with impur- 
 ities. In purchasing vessels only those that are 
 durable and well covered with tin should be 
 selected. The corners should be flushed with 
 solder so that the milk will not find hiding places, 
 thus affording an opportunity for the growth of 
 germs. All utensils should be washed with a 
 brush, as a brush is far more sanitary than a 
 dish cloth, which will soon become insanitary in 
 spite of the efforts made to keep it clean. Greasy 
 soap powders should be avoided. There are 
 many kinds of soap powder on the market that 
 will dissolve dirt and grease and still remain 
 sanitary. If nothing better can be obtained 
 either sal soda or borax may be used. One of 
 the best purifying agencies that the dairyman 
 has is the sunlight. After the vessels are washed 
 they should be exposed to the sunshine and air, 
 
 94 
 
CARE OF UTENSILS 95 
 
 away from the dust, and so placed that they will 
 drain well. 
 
 How to wash utensils. In washing utensils 
 they should first be rinsed with cold water to 
 remove the milk; then washed with lukewarm 
 
 Hand brush for tinware. Bottle brush. 
 
 Fig. 26. 
 For properly cleaning milk utensils good brushes are essential. 
 
 water, and finally scalded or steamed. If this 
 method is followed it is very easy to wash the 
 separator. Many dairymen make the mistake 
 of flushing the separator with scalding hot water. 
 This will have a tendency to cook on the im- 
 purities, and about the only way that they can 
 then be removed is to scrape them off with a 
 knife. If the separator is flushed, however, with 
 lukewarm water, and then taken apart and 
 cleaned at once, it is not a difficult task. It is 
 needless to add that the separator should be 
 washed each time it is used. 
 
 Wash separator twice daily. If the separator 
 is allowed to stand without being washed, the 
 impurities will dry on so that it will take con- 
 siderable time and labor to wash it thoroughly. 
 It is labor actually saved to wash the separator 
 
96 
 
 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 twice a day, and only the separator that receives 
 
 such care is in sanitary condition for future use. 
 
 It is time and money saved to wash all tinware 
 
 carefully each time it is used. If this is not 
 
 Fig. 27. Be thorough in cleaning separator. 
 To produce clean cream, the parts of a separator should be care- 
 fully washed with warm water each time, use a brush and cleans- 
 ing powder, then scald with boiling water and spread tinware to 
 dry in the sun. 
 
 done with the separator the interior of the bowl 
 soon becomes rusty and small particles of curd 
 will dry on certain parts of it, throwing it out 
 of perfect balance, and the result will be large 
 losses in the skim-milk. There is no reason why 
 good tinware properly cared for should not last 
 
CARE OF UTENSILS 
 
 97 
 
 for many years. Neglect and misuse are the 
 chief causes for dairy utensils getting out of 
 proper condition. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Why should a dish rag not be tol- 
 erated in a dairy? 
 
 2. How can you prove that sunlight 
 will prevent bacterial growth? 
 
 8. Why not use wooden pails in pref- 
 erence to tin pails? 
 
 4. Would you like to use the cream 
 from a separator washed only once a 
 day? 
 
 LABORATORY PROBLEMS 
 
 XVI. To Determine the Per Cent of Solids 
 
 AND Solids Not Fat in Milk by Means 
 
 of a Quevenne Lactometer 
 
 It is very essential when testing for 
 fat, or when making any lactometer 
 determination, to have the sample thor- 
 oughly mixed. The lactometer is stand- 
 ardized at a temperature of 60° F., and 
 therefore the milk should be near that 
 temperature. The milk should be poured 
 into a tin cylinder, so that it will over- 
 flow when the lactometer is inserted. To 
 prevent waste, the cylinder can be placed 
 in a small dish before inserting the lac- 
 tometer. Allow the lactometer to be- 
 come stationary and read at once. 
 Observe the temperature and correct the 
 lactometer, reading by adding one-tenth 
 
 Fig-. 28. Que- 
 venne lactomet- 
 er. The "dairy 
 detective." I t 
 will show 
 whether milk 
 has been wat- 
 ered or skimmed, 
 if nsed in con- 
 nection with 
 the fat test. 
 
98 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 lactometer degree for each degree F. that the milk is 
 above 60 degrees, and subtract one-tenth for each degree 
 it is below 60 degrees. Having taken your lactometer 
 reading and having made the proper corrections of tem- 
 perature, determine the solids not fat and the total solids 
 by aid of the following formula: (It will be seen that 
 it is necessary that the per cent of fat in the milk be 
 known. ) 
 
 Solids not fat = i/4 I^ac. R. + .2 fat 
 Total solids z= i^ Lac. R. -f- 1-2 fat 
 
 To illustrate : If the lactometer reading is 32.0 at 
 56° F., and the milk tests 4.0 per cent fat, we deter- 
 mine the solids not fat as follows : 
 
 32.0 — .4 — 31.6 
 i/t of 31.6 = 7.9 
 .2 of 4.00 z=r .8 
 7.9 + .8 = 8.7 =z S. N. F. in sample. 
 
 Having carefully studied the above, get several 
 samples of normal milk and determine the per cents 
 of solids and solids not fat in the same. 
 
 Normal milk will have a lactometer reading vary- 
 ing from 29.0 to 33.0. 
 
 XVII. To Determine the Effect of Skimming Milk on the 
 Lactometer Reading and on the Fat Content 
 
 1. Determine the lactometer reading and the fat 
 content of a quantity of milk. 
 
 2. Set aside two pint jars full of milk. 
 
 3. Skim the cream from one of the jars after it has 
 stood for an hour. Take the lactometer reading and 
 the fat content of the milk. 
 
CARE OP UTENSILS 
 
 99 
 
 4. Skim the cream from the other jar after it has 
 stood for about two hours. Also take the lactometer 
 reading and the fat content. 
 
 5. Determine the fat content and the lactometer 
 reading of the skim-milk after all the fat has been 
 removed. 
 
 6. Compare results obtained and note if there is 
 any relatio-n between the fat content and the lacto- 
 meter reading. 
 
 Since 1905 the world's yearly records for fat 
 production have been held successively by the 
 following cows: 
 
 Lbs. Lbs. 
 
 Year Name State Breed Milk Fat 
 
 1905 Teksa Sunbeam Wis. Guernsey 14,920.8 857.15 
 
 1907 Colantha 4th's Johanna Wis. Holstein 27,432.5 998.26 
 
 1911 PontiacClothildeDeKolII N. Y. Holstein 25,318.0 1,017.28 
 
 1912 Banostine Belle De Kol Ohio Holstein 27,404.4 1,058.34 
 
 1914 May Rilma Pa. Guernsey 19,673.0 1,073.41 
 
 1915 Murne Cowan Ohio Guernsey 24,008.0 1,098.18 
 1915 Finderne Holingen Fayne N.J. Holstein 24,612.8 1,116.05 
 1915 Finderne Pride Johanna Rue N. J. Holstein 28,403.7 1,176.47 
 1915 Duchess Skylark Ormsby Minn. Holstein 27,361.7 1,205.09 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 CAEE OF MILK AND CREAM 
 
 Pure milk germ free. Milk, as it is secreted 
 in the cells of the udder, is germ free. If it were 
 possible to get the im\k in this condition into 
 germ-free receptacles, and if it could then be kept 
 free from contamination, it would keep indefi- 
 nitely. But this is impossible. A few germs 
 always work their way up into the cavities of 
 the cistern above the teat, and, owing to the 
 favorable conditions existing there, multiply enor- 
 mously. If this first milk, or foremilk, as it is 
 called, is milked into the bucket, the practice 
 of a good many milkers, we can see at once that 
 contamxination is introduced at the very begin- 
 ning of the milking process. It is advisable to 
 draw this foremilk on the ground; there is really 
 very little loss, as it is not very rich in fat. 
 
 Some sanitary precautions. The problem of 
 the dairyman is to keep the milk from being 
 contaminated either by dirt entering into it or 
 by its absorbing undesirable odors. It should be 
 unnecessary to state that the stables should be 
 clean, dry and well-ventilated; the health of the 
 
 100 
 
CARE OF MILK AND CREAM 
 
 101 
 
 animals demands it. In Denmark it is customary 
 to whitewash the stables four times each year; 
 experience having shown this to be a very profit- 
 able practice. Whitewash is odorless and very 
 cheap, and it is to be regretted that dairymen in 
 general do not use it more freely. There should 
 be no cesspools about the stables, and the ground 
 under the barn should be well drained. Poor 
 drainage causes objectionable odors about the 
 barn. 
 
 Fig. 29. Sediment test for determining cleanliness of milk. 
 
 Feeding after milking. One of the practices 
 a good dairyman will observe is to do his feed- 
 ing after milking, so that the atmosphere will 
 not be filled with dust. He will also feed his 
 cows such feeds as ensilage after milking rather 
 
102 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 than before or during milking time, because the 
 odor of these foods taints the milk. 
 
 Keeping cows and udders clean. The udder 
 and flanks should be wiped with a damp cloth 
 immediately before milking, so that dust and 
 dirt will not be constantly falling into the milk 
 pail. It has been demonstrated that twenty 
 times as much dirt falls into the bucket when 
 the udder is in a soiled condition as when it is 
 wiped with a damp cloth, and one hundred times 
 as much when the udder is dirty as when it has 
 been kept clean. 
 
 Milk a food product. Cows should have ample 
 bedding, but this bedding should not be dis- 
 turbed immediately before milking, since such a 
 practice will cause the air to be filled with small 
 particles of dust, a large number of which will 
 find their way into the milk pail. 
 
 The dairyman should always bear in mind that 
 in handling milk he is dealing with a food 
 product. Therefore, if any of his cows are 
 diseased or in ill health, or give gargety milk 
 or bloody milk, this milk should not be used 
 for human consumption. Colostrum milk, or the 
 milk which a cow secretes immediately after 
 calving, should not, of course, be used for four 
 or five days, or until the milk has become nor- 
 mal; nor should cow's milk be used for the 
 thirty days immediately before calving. 
 
CARE OF MILK AND CREAM 103 
 
 The use of covered pails. Taking everything 
 in consideration, probably the best form of pail 
 that a dairyman can use is the covered one, as 
 such a pail excludes practically all dirt. It has 
 already been mentioned that a dairyman is deal- 
 ing with a food product; hence the advisability 
 of providing a clean place in the barn where the 
 milk may be kept during the time of milking. 
 
 Fig. 30. 
 
 A cow that has been well groomed — one of the essentials in 
 
 the production of clean milk. 
 
 Straining and aerating. The milk should be 
 strained as soon as possible through several 
 thicknesses of cheesecloth. It is advised by some 
 that milk be aerated to remove animal heat and 
 
104 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 the odors absorbed from certain feeds. Altliougli 
 much may be said in favor of this practice, 
 great care must be exerc^ised in aerating milk. 
 If a farmer is in doubt whether to aerate his 
 milk or to cool it, cooling is advised for the 
 reason that simply aerating milk will not reduce 
 its temperature sufficiently. Aerating must be 
 done in a very cleanly, sweet-smelling place, 
 otherwise, during this process, the milk will 
 absorb undesirable odors. In case the milk is 
 not separated it should be cooled down at once, 
 and this can only be done by placing the cans 
 in cold water and stirring the milk frequently 
 until cold. It is not advisable, of course, to 
 cover the cans tightly, because milk will have a 
 better flavor if some of its natural odors are 
 allowed to escape. It is poor practice to pour 
 warm and cold milk together for the purpose 
 of cooling the warm milk. This should never 
 be done. In case a hand separator is used it is 
 not necessary to cool at once, because the sep- 
 arator will do better work when the milk is at 
 the temperature it has when drawn from the cow. 
 The farm separator. The farm separator is 
 becoming very popular. The advantages in using 
 one of these machines, such as the increased 
 value of the fresh skim-milk and the amount of 
 labor saved in hauling to the factory, are well 
 known. However, many farmers neglect to take 
 
CARE OF MILK AND CREAM 105 
 
 proper care of this cream and in this way bring 
 the farm separator into disrepute. 
 
 The separator should not be j^hiced in the 
 barn. A suitable milk house will prove as profit- 
 able to a farmer as a suitable granary. 
 
 Caring for cream. Cream should be cooled 
 down at once to prevent its souring. It should 
 
 Fig. 31. Cream cooling tank. 
 
 be placed where the air is pure and where it 
 will not absorb undesirable odors. It should 
 be delivered to the factory at least every other 
 day, and during the time that it is under the 
 farmer's care it should be stirred occasionally. 
 
106 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 Many believe that it is uiiiiecessary to cool the 
 cream, inasmuch as the butter maker will have 
 to sour it anyway. It must be remembered that 
 he should have control of the ripening process 
 in order to make a uniform product from day 
 to day. Even if the cream does not become 
 sour, it ought not to stand longer than forty- 
 eight hours, for the reason that many organisms 
 develop in cream held at a low temperature and, 
 unfortunately, such organisms have the property 
 of imparting a very bitter flavor to the cream, 
 which in turn is transmitted to the butter. 
 Cream should be delivered to the factory sweet 
 and clean if we expect the butter maker to pro- 
 duce and place on the market an article that will 
 bring the highest market price. 
 
 Other sources of contamination. There are 
 other sources of contamination that should be 
 guarded against. One of these is uncleanly 
 habits on the part of the milker. It is desirable 
 that he be attired in clean overalls and jacket; 
 these need not be expensive and can be slipped 
 on just before milking. The hands of the milker 
 should be washed clean and thoroughly dried 
 before he begins his work. It is understood by 
 all practical dairymen that a cow should be 
 milked with ^^dry" and not with wet hands. 
 Many have acquired the habit of milking ^'wet,^' 
 as it is usually termed, and it may be hard for 
 
CARE OF MILK AND CREAM 107 
 
 them to reform, but if they will observe the 
 filthiness of this practice they will recognize 
 it as a great source of contamination. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. How many bacteria are there in a cubic centi- 
 meter of ordinary milk twenty-four hours old? 
 
 2. Are these bacteria larger or smaller than the 
 fat globules? 
 
 3. How do bacteria get into the milk? 
 
 4. Why not keep the bacteria out by straining the 
 milk through very fine absorbent cotton? 
 
 5. Will milk sour if kept at a temperature of 45° F. ? 
 
 6. What causes some milk to be ''ropey"? 
 
 7. Is colostrum milk poisonous ? 
 
 8. Why do we have more bitter milk in the winter 
 time than in the summer time? 
 
 LABORATORY PROBLEMS 
 
 XVIII. To Determine the Influence of Adding Water to 
 Milk on the Lactometer Reading and Fat Content 
 
 1. Take a quart of milk and determine the lacto- 
 meter reading and fat content of the same. 
 
 2. Add varying quantities of water, for example, 
 10 c.c, 20 c.c, 40 c.c, per 100 c.c. of milk and mix 
 well. Determine the lactometer reading and fat con- 
 tent in each case. 
 
 3. Compare results obtained with those obtained 
 under 1. 
 
 LABORATORY PROBLEMS 
 
 XIX. To Determine the Purity of Milk by Means of the 
 
 Fermentation Test 
 
 1. Carefully wash with cleaning powder and hot 
 
108 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 water six test tubes and rinse them thoroughly with 
 boiling hot water. 
 
 2. Stopper with clean absorbent cotton. 
 
 3. Place the stoppered test tubes in a hot oven for 
 some time to sterilize them. 
 
 4. Fill two test tubes two-thirds full with samples 
 of milk known to have been milked in a cleanly way. 
 Likewise fill two tubes with milk milked in the ordi- 
 nary way. Fill two others with milk into whicii,: hairs, 
 dirt, etc., were allowed to enter. 
 
 5. Place these samples in a water bath at a tem- 
 perature of 98 to 100 degrees F., and make notation 
 at the end of each four-hour period. Note particularly 
 whether the curd is firm and solid, or broken up, 
 wheyed off and gassy. 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 
 DISPOSING OF MILK AND CREAM 
 
 City milk supply. Assuming that a dairyman 
 has a herd producing a good flow of milk, the 
 question naturally arises, what shall he do with 
 this milk in order to have it yield him the larg- 
 est net returns? The answer can only be given 
 by the dairyman himself after careful study of 
 the local situation. In certain localities it may 
 be advisable to handle milk in a way different 
 from that in other localities. Local conditions 
 necessarily govern the methods of the disposal 
 of milk. If a dairyman is situated in close prox- 
 imity to a city where the consumption of whole 
 milk is very large, it may be advisable for him 
 either to wholesale his product directly to a 
 milk dealer, or to have a private trade of his 
 own to which he can deliver the same. In the 
 latter case the necessary additional investment 
 in horses, wagons, and other equipment, must be 
 considered. In selling whole milk it must be 
 remembered that nothing is left on the farm in 
 the shape of skim-milk. While the returns from 
 selling milk in this way may appear large, 
 
 109 
 
110 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 two things must be borne in mind, viz., the 
 cost of delivery and the loss of the skim-milk. 
 The reader is referred to a later chapter, entitled 
 The Eelation of Dairying to the Soil, which 
 calls attention to the loss to the soil by removal 
 of fertility when selling whole milk off the farm. 
 
 Selling to a cheese factory. Of course, if the 
 farmer is located eight or ten miles from a city, 
 such a method will be out of the question. He 
 may then be compelled to sell his milk to a cheese 
 factory, and in this case return to the farm 
 about ninety pounds of whey for every one hun- 
 dred pounds of milk delivered. The quality of 
 whey varies greatly, depending upon the care 
 it receives at the factory. Its food value is 
 only about half as much as that of skim-milk, 
 because all of the casein has been removed from 
 the milk in the process of cheese making. 
 
 Hauling to a creamery. Or the dairy farmer 
 may have an opportunity to sell his milk to a 
 whole milk creamery, where practically eighty 
 pounds of skim-milk are returned to him for 
 every one hundred pounds of milk delivered. 
 Whether to sell to a creamery rather than to a 
 cheese factory, or vice versa, depends entirely 
 upon local conditions. However, he must not 
 lose sight of the fact that the skim-milk returned 
 is of more value to him than the whey, if he 
 can make use of either for feeding purposes. 
 
DISPOSING OF MILK AND CREAM m 
 
 Selling cream. One of the most profitable 
 methods in many localities is the sale of milk 
 in the shape of cream. Many objections have 
 been raised by creamery men against the intro- 
 duction of farm separators, but there is no ques- 
 tion but that in many localities this is the only 
 practical method that can be employed. The 
 distances that the farmers live away from the 
 creamery make long hauls necessary. This ex- 
 pense can be greatly reduced by delivering 
 cream. Even in the important dairy regions 
 of this country the farm separator has proven 
 its worth. There is no longer a question but that 
 the farm separator is bound to have a place on 
 most dairy farms. The fact that the dairyman, 
 owning one of these machines, has better skim- 
 milk to feed his young stock is an important 
 item. Then again, we hear very much about 
 the spread of tuberculosis. There is no ques- 
 tion but that this disease can be spread through 
 factory skim-milk and whey. If the farmer 
 wishes to keep his herd free from this dread 
 disease he should be very careful in the feed- 
 ing of these factory by-products. The farm sep- 
 arator insures safety in this respect. 
 
 Another important point is the fact that by 
 the use of the hand separator the bulk that 
 must be cooled is very materially lessened. Those 
 
112 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 who make an effort to deliver milk or cream in 
 good condition appreciate the value of cooling. 
 
 Selling cream to city trade. Instead of selling 
 cream to a butter factory, it may be sold for 
 direct consumption. This is probably the most 
 profitable method and yields the largest returns. 
 The demand for good cream is rapidly increas- 
 ing. In every city patrons may be found who 
 want good cream and are willing to pay for it. 
 They may be hotel managers, boarding house 
 keepers, candy makers, ice cream manufacturers, 
 or other people who are ready to contract for 
 cream of a certain richness at a definite price per 
 gallon. 
 
 To illustrate that it pays to cater to this sort 
 of trade, let it be assumed that a dairyman can 
 sell a gallon of twenty-five per cent cream for 
 seventy cents. This may be more than a farmer 
 can obtain in certain sections, but in many parts 
 of the country even a higher price than this 
 can be obtained. 
 
 A gallon of cream weighs from 8.2 to 8.4 
 pounds, depending upon its richness. Koughly 
 speaking, a gallon of cream testing 25 per 
 cent contains about 2.1 pounds of fat. This 
 2.1 pounds of fat will make about 2.5 pounds of 
 butter. If 70 cents is received for a gallon of 
 25 per cent cream, it is practically equivalent 
 to 28 cents a pound for butter. Besides this the 
 
DISPOSING OF MILK AND CREAM 113 
 
 extra labor and expense of ripening the cream, 
 churning and washing the butter, salting and 
 packing it, are avoided. 
 
 Variations in the richness of cream. There is 
 no separator manufactured that will deliver 
 cream uniform in richness from day to day. 
 Variations in tests, as has been previously ex- 
 plained, may be due to the rate at which the milk 
 is fed into the bowl, the speed at which the 
 separator is turned, the richness of the milk, and 
 the temperature of the milk. For the above 
 reasons, occasional testing of the cream to deter- 
 mine its richness cannot be depended upon. 
 On this account a farmer may be delivering 
 a richer cream than is contracted for, thus los- 
 ing money thereby. He cannot expect to offset 
 this by delivering a poorer cream at times, be- 
 cause this will arouse dissatisfaction and make 
 him liable to breach of contract. The only safe 
 way is to test the cream each time it is to be 
 delivered and add sufficient milk to dilute it to 
 the required per cent of fat. This is called 
 ^^ standardizing'^ and is not so difficult as might 
 be imagined. How this may be done is best 
 illustrated by the use of the diagrams following: 
 
 How cream is standardized. Assuming that 
 the dairyman has tested his cream and tinds that 
 it contains 30 per cent fat, he will place the 
 30 in the upper left-hand corner of the square. 
 
114 
 
 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 It would be easiest for liim to dilute the cream 
 with skim-milk, which we will assume tests 0, 
 although it may test .1 of 1.0 per cent fat; for 
 practical work, however, it may be said to test 
 nothing; 0, therefore, is placed in the lower left- 
 hand corner. His contract calls for a 25 per cent 
 cream, and 25 is placed where the diagonal lines 
 
 IG4 
 
 standardiZLnp cream. 
 
 cross in the center of the square. Subtracting 25 
 from 30 and following the diagonal line we place 
 the difference, 5, in the lower right-hand corner. 
 The difference between and 25 is 25, and we put 
 that in the upper right-hand corner on the other 
 diagonal. We now have figures in each of the 
 four corners. The diagram may now be explained 
 as follows, reading from left to right in the usual 
 way: Of the 30 per cent cream we take 25 pounds, 
 and of the skim-milk 5 pounds ; pouring these two 
 together we have 30 pounds of 25 per cent cream. 
 In other words, for every 25 pounds of 30 per 
 cent cream, 5 pounds of skim-milk must be added 
 
DISPOSING OF MILK AND CREAM 115 
 
 to dilute the cream so tliat it has a richness of 
 25 per cent fat, the quality of the cream con- 
 tracted for. 
 
 Another method. Again, let us assume that 
 a dairyman has contracted to sell a 20 per cent 
 cream. He places the 20 in the center of the 
 diagram as before. By testing his cream he finds 
 that it contains 32 per cent fat. He has no skim- 
 milk with which to dilute this cream and must 
 use whole milk. Upon testing the same he finds 
 it to read 3.6 per cent fat. As before, he puts 
 the cream test in the upper left-hand corner 
 and the milk test in the lower left-hand corner. 
 The difference between 20 and 32 is 12; this is 
 placed in the lower right-hand corner. The 
 difference between 20 and 3.6 is 16.4, which is 
 placed in the upper right-hand corner. Now, 
 for every 16.4 pounds of 32 per cent cream he 
 must add 12 pounds of milk testing 3.6 per cent, 
 and when he pours these two together he will 
 have 28.4 pounds of 20 per cent cream. 
 
 The chief objection to the standardizing of 
 cream is that it necessitates making a test of 
 the cream each time it is to be delivered. This, 
 however, is not a valid objection, inasmuch as 
 the returns usually more than pay for the cost 
 of the test. 
 
 An easier way. Another method of standard- 
 izing cream which may prove satisfactory,' but 
 
116 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 which is not quite so accurate, is as follows: 
 Find out how much the milk from the herd tests 
 by testing at intervals for a few days. There 
 naturally will be some variation, but a test of 
 the milk every few days will give the dairyman 
 a fair average. It will then only be necessary 
 to weigh the milk and cream. We will assume 
 that a milkman made a contract to deliver 18 
 per cent cream to an ice cream factory, that he 
 had 280 pounds of milk and that it tested approx- 
 imately 4.20 per cent. Multiplying 280 by 4.20 
 will give 11.7 pounds of fat; dividing the 11.7 
 by the test of the cream, 18, we get 65, or the 
 number of pounds of cream testing 18 per cent 
 which we should have that day. All that it is 
 necessary for him to do now is to weigh the 
 cream and add enough skim-milk to bring the 
 weight up to 65 pounds. While this method is 
 not quite so accurate, it is in most cases fairly 
 satisfactory. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. What is the most profitable way of disposing 
 of the milk in your vicinity ? 
 
 2. What returns do yon get per cow per year? 
 
 3. What is the cost of keeping a cow in your 
 vicinity ? 
 
 4. What is the weight of a gallon of milk? Of 
 20 per cent cream? 
 
 5. How many gallons of 20 per cent cream will 
 you get from 100 pounds of 4 per cent milk? 
 
DISPOSING OF MILK AND CREAM 
 
 117 
 
 LABORATORY PROBLEMS 
 
 XX. To Determixe the Rate of In- 
 crease OF Acidity at Varying 
 Temperatures 
 
 1. Divide a lot of milk into two 
 parts. Allow one sample to sour 
 at a relatively warm temperature 
 (75 to 80 degrees F.). Keep the 
 other sample cool with well water 
 at a temperature of 50 to 55 de- 
 grees. 
 
 2. Determine the acidity of 
 each lot at intervals of about four 
 hours; continue until the samples 
 do not increase in acidity. 
 
 3. Plot a curve to show the rate 
 of the increase in the acidity of the 
 milk. 
 
 Graduated 
 cylinder. Burette. 
 Fig. 33. 
 The essential 
 pieces of apparatus 
 for making acidity- 
 tests of milk and 
 cream. 
 
 Fig. 32. Cream scales.* 
 
 *In most states the law requires cream samples to be 
 weighed for testing. 
 
CHAPTER XIV 
 BUTTER MAKING AND CHEESE MAKING 
 
 Should the dairyman make butter? Whether 
 or not it will be profitable for a farmer to invest 
 in equipment so that he can make butter properly 
 is another question that he alone can answer. 
 The question resolves itself into this: Can he 
 get an increased price for his product sufficient 
 to warrant incurring the additional expenditure 
 of money and labor necessary to produce a 
 marketable product? 
 
 In most sections of this country, especially 
 where the creameries are numerous, dairymen 
 prefer to sell their cream to butter factories, 
 and thus save the labor and expense incident to 
 the manufacture of butter on a small scale. 
 There are some so fortunately situated that they 
 can get a higher price for their cream by sell- 
 ing it for direct consumption, and they do sell it 
 that way. There are others who, for sentimental 
 reasons, prefer to make their own butter, and 
 therefore the extra expense and labor is not 
 looked upon as a serious obstacle. 
 
 Sweet cream butter. In certain sections of 
 
 118 
 
BUTTER AND CHEESE MAKING 119 
 
 Europe butter is made of very sweet cream, 
 which finds a ready sale. Such butter, however, 
 has a peculiarly flat, insipid flavor, objectionable 
 to most people at first, but a taste for which 
 can easily be acquired. This kind of butter does 
 not keep well and therefore must be delivered 
 fresh from the churn. 
 
 Ripened cream butter. In America people gen- 
 erally want what is known as ripened cream 
 butter. Such butter has better keeping qualities. 
 Cream for this kind of butter must undergo a 
 ** souring'' process which is usually termed 
 ** ripening. ' ' One of the objects of ripening 
 cream is to produce flavor, and as flavor is a 
 most important point to be considered, it is 
 evident that the ripening must be done properly. 
 To hasten this process, and at the same time 
 to aid it, it is often advisable to add what 
 is termed a ** starter.'' A good starter is a 
 quantity of good, sour milk or skim-milk in 
 which the desirable organisms producing good 
 flavors in butter have gained the ascendency, 
 and which when added to the cream have a ten- 
 dency to check the development of the less 
 desirable organisms. In this way the butter 
 maker may in a measure control the flavor of 
 butter. 
 
 The ripening of cream. The matter of tem- 
 perature is an important point. As a rule cream 
 
120 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 is ripened at a temperature of from 65 to 70 
 degrees F., and when it reaches an acidity of 
 four-tenths to five-tenths of one per cent (which 
 may easily be determined by any one of the 
 many acidity tests available), the cream is cooled 
 to about 54 degrees and held at this temper- 
 ature for at least two hours before churning, 
 with an occasional stirring. When cream is held 
 for three or four days before churning, it should 
 be well stirred at least twice each day. It is not 
 desirable to hold cream at a low temperature 
 longer than necessary, because, as has been pre- 
 viously stated, at these low temperatures organ- 
 isms develop that produce bitter flavors. The 
 ripening process should be started as soon as 
 possible after separation, because the develop- 
 ment of the lactic acid germs has a tendency 
 to check the growth of these bitter flavor organ- 
 isms. Great care must also be exercised to 
 check the acidity, as the keeping quality of the 
 butter may be seriously impaired by over 
 ripening. 
 
 Churning. The best kind of a churn is one 
 that has no internal parts. A barrel churn is 
 about as satisfactory as any on the market. The 
 cream, being at a low temperature, should not 
 begin to gather in much less than thirty minutes, 
 otherwise the butter is likely to have a soft 
 body. When the butter is gathered into granules 
 
BUTTER AND CHEESE MAKING 
 
 121 
 
 about the size of wheat grains the buttermilk 
 should be drained off and some clean, cold water 
 added and the butter washed. Care should be 
 exercised to prevent overchuming, for when but- 
 ter is gathered into large lumps it cannot be 
 washed properly. Since the purpose of washing 
 butter is to remove the curd, it is very essential 
 that the granules be left small so that the 
 curd can be easily re- 
 moved. The amount of 
 salt is governed by tlie 
 demands of the market. 
 
 Salting. Probably the 
 best way to add the salt, 
 when small quantities of 
 butter are made, is to 
 practice what is termed 
 *^wet salting.'' By this 
 method a small quantity 
 of water is added to the 
 salt to partly dissolve it, 
 and then this brine and undissolved salt are added 
 to the butter in the churn after the butter has 
 been washed. 
 
 Working and packing. During the working 
 process the salt should be given time to dissolve, 
 so that when the butter has been worked enough 
 there will be no grittiness. It is very essential 
 that the salt be uniformly distributed through- 
 
 Fig-. 34. The barrel churn. 
 A modern tool for making 
 home-made butter. 
 
122 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 out the butter, otherwise we obtain what is 
 known as mottles. Mottles are quite character- 
 istic of dairy butter, and are very undesirable. 
 They can easily be avoided by exercising care 
 in the method of manufacturing the butter. The 
 style of package is regulated by the demands 
 of the consumer, and of late years the one- 
 pound prints and two-pound rolls have become 
 very popular. Any other size or style of pack- 
 age may be used, but in every case the pack- 
 age should be neat and attractive. In fact, the 
 two ends to be achieved in the making of butter 
 are to produce an article that will be attractive 
 to the eye and ** tickle the palate.'' 
 
 The overrun. A hundred pounds of butter 
 fat in the milk will make approximately 116 
 pounds of butter. This is due to the fact that 
 butter contains curd, salt, and water in addition 
 to the butter fat. 
 
 The composition of butter is approximately 
 as follows: 
 
 Fat 82.5% 
 
 Water 14.5% 
 
 Salt 2.0% 
 
 Curd 1.0% 
 
 100.0% 
 
 The difference between the amount of fat and 
 the amount of butter made from the same, ex- 
 pressed in percentage, is termed the ** overrun.'' 
 
BUTTER AND CHEESE MAKING 123 
 
 This overrun will vary as the composition of 
 butter varies. The overrun is also greatly influ- 
 enced by the losses of fat in the skim-milk and 
 the buttermilk. When the amount of fat in the 
 cream is used as a basis of computation the over- 
 run will amount approximately to from 20.0 to 
 21.0 per cent. This serves to explain why the 
 butter made from a definite amount of cream will 
 not correspond with the fat in the cream. For 
 instance, 100 pounds of cream testing 33.00 per 
 cent will contain 33 pounds of butter fat, but 
 the butter made from this cream (if the overrun 
 is 20.0 per cent) will amount to 39.6 pounds. 
 
 Cheese making in the United States. The man- 
 ufacture of cheese from milk is carried on quite 
 extensively in two sections of this country, cen- 
 tering in the states of New York and Wisconsin. 
 Fifty years ago about one hundred million 
 pounds of cheese were made annually on the 
 farms of the United States, but owing to the 
 superiority of factory cheese the amount made 
 has steadily decreased until at the present time 
 only about eight million pounds are made. 
 
 Making cheese on the farm. Farm cheese- 
 making has almost become a lost art. This is 
 because the labor and expense of making cheese 
 in this manner are much greater than when it is 
 made at the factory. Then, too, the factory men 
 as a class are better trained, so that the quality 
 
124 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 of their cheese is better, and they have the advan- 
 tage of being able to market their product more 
 profitably. It is evident, therefore, that the man- 
 ufacture of cheese on the farm is soon to be a 
 thing of the past. This does not mean, however, 
 that many types of *^fancy^' cheese can not be 
 made to good advantage on a dairy farm. Where 
 market facilities are good, such types of cheese, 
 made by trained men, can often be profitably 
 manufactured and marketed. 
 
 Kinds of cheese. The most common type of 
 cheese made in the United States is termed 
 ** Cheddar'' or ** American'' cheese. It is the 
 cheese commonly sold at the grocery store. In 
 Wisconsin there is a locality where a fine grade 
 of Swiss cheese is made. This particular section 
 was thickly settled by people from Switzerland, 
 and naturally they introduced the art of making 
 Swiss cheese. 
 
 In other sections of Wisconsin are also manu- 
 factured what are termed ^' Brick" and ^^Lim- 
 burger" cheese — these are soft cheeses, very 
 popular with some people. 
 
 Good milk necessary. Successful cheese mak- 
 ing depends upon the growth and development 
 of favorable bacteria. It is very essential to have 
 good milk, much more so than is the case where 
 the fat in the milk is manufactured into butter. 
 Hence, it follows, that while everything should 
 
BUTTER AND CHEESE MAKING 125 
 
 be done to produce good cream for butter 
 making, it is all the more necessary to produce 
 excellent milk for cheese making if a high grade 
 product is desired. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Will the cream from stripper cows churn as 
 readily as the cream from fresh cows? Why? 
 
 2. Is ** Jersey" cream butter better than *'Hol- 
 stein" cream butter? 
 
 3. How many pounds of butter can be made from 
 380 pounds of 4 per cent milk? 
 
 4. Thirty years ago dairymen talked about * ' cheese ' * 
 and ** butter" cows. Why the distmction? 
 
 5. What states in the Union produce the most 
 cheese? The most butter? 
 
 LABORATORY PROBLEMS 
 XXI. Churning 
 
 An interestmg churning exercise can be given before 
 the whole class if the facilities are available for mak- 
 ing churning observations. The time required for such 
 an exercise is usually two hours, provided everything 
 is in readiness when the class meets. 
 
 It is rather difficult to give an outline that will 
 serve all purposes during different seasons and under 
 varying conditions, but the following suggestions may 
 be of help to the instructor who desires to give such 
 a demonstration. 
 
 1. The churn, ladles, worker, etc. should first be 
 washed Avith scalding hot water and then thoroughly 
 chilled with an ample supply of cold water. 
 
X26 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 2. Fill the churn about one-half full of cream. Add 
 the butter color at the rate of from 40 to 50 c.c. of 
 color per 100 pounds of fat. The amount of fat can 
 be closely estimated by knowing the weight of the 
 cream and its approximate test. It is not necessary 
 to use butter color, but many prefer butter that is 
 colored. 
 
 3. After giving the churn a few revolutions, open 
 it to allow the "gas" to escape. It is necessary to do 
 this but once or twice at the beginning of the churning. 
 
 4. Revolve the churn so that there will be a good 
 "concussion." (About 50 revolutions per minute is 
 usually sufficient.) 
 
 5. Observe the temperature of the cream. This, of 
 course, will vary, depending upon such factors as 
 richness of the cream, acidity of the cream, etc. Under 
 summer conditions usually 52 to 54 degrees F. are 
 the best temperatures; in winter, or when the cows 
 are on dry feed, or when most of them are strippers, 
 it may be necessary to use temperatures ranging from 
 58 to 60 degrees. It is not advisable, however, to 
 employ temperatures much warmer than these. 
 
 6. While the churning is going on, some one can 
 make a fat test of the cream. As a general rule the 
 cream for churning should test from 25 to 35 per cent 
 fat. 
 
 7. An acidity test should be made as a matter of 
 information. Generally a slightly sour cream will 
 make the kind of butter that the average consumer 
 prefers. An acidity from .4 to .5 per cent is sat- 
 isfactory. 
 
 8. The time required to churn varies, depending 
 upon the temperature employed, acidity of the creaDi, 
 etc. It should take from 30 to 45 minutes for the 
 
BUTTER AND CHEESE MAKING 127 
 
 butter to "gather." If it takes longer than this, then 
 the cream should have been a trifle warmer. If it is 
 finished sooner, however, a lower temperature should 
 have been employed. It is very important that the 
 cream should be kept at a temperature of from 52 to 
 54 degrees for at least two hours before putting it into 
 the churn. 
 
 9. When the granules are as large as wheat ker- 
 nels the churning should be stopped. This must be 
 watched very closely, as a few revolutions too many 
 at this time will result in overehurning the butter. 
 
 10. Draw off all the buttermilk and determine its 
 temperature. 
 
 11. Wash the butter by adding about as much 
 water as there is buttermilk draAvn from the churn. 
 The water should be clean and should have about the 
 same temperature as the buttermilk. During the sum- 
 
 Fig. 35. A hand butter worker used in farm dairies. 
 
 mer it is advisable to use water a few degrees colder 
 than the buttermilk. Revolve the churn slowly for a 
 few revolutions and then draw off the wash water. 
 
 12. Salt to suit the taste. About a pound of salt 
 added to a pint of water will be sufficient to salt about 
 
128 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 10 pounds of butter. Scatter the salt and brine over 
 the butter and revolve the churn once or twice. 
 
 13. The butter can be worked by means of ladles 
 while it is still in the churn. If a worker is available, 
 the butter can be taken out of the churn and the 
 working finished. It should be worked only enough 
 to thoroughly knead the butter granules together and 
 to get the salt uniformly distributed. It may be nec- 
 essary occasionally to allow the salt to dissolve. Where 
 *Svet" salting is practiced the working can be fin- 
 ished at once. Butter sliould not he worked too long, 
 as overivorking will cause it to become greasy. 
 
 14. The butter should be weighed and the ** over- 
 run" computed. The following observations should be 
 made by the students : 
 
 Name Date 
 
 Kind of churn Capacity 
 
 Amount of cream Temperature 
 
 Test of cream Acidity 
 
 Pounds of fat in cream. . . Amt. of butter color used. . 
 Time required to churn. . .Temperature buttermilk... 
 
 Size of granules Acidity of buttermilk 
 
 Temperature wash water. .Fat test of buttermilk 
 
 Amount of salt used Wet or dry 
 
 Pounds butter made Per cent overrun 
 
CHAPTER XIV 
 THE BARN 
 
 There are two buildings that the dairy farmer 
 cannot well get along without: A good, clean, 
 well-ventilated barn in which to house his herd 
 and dry fodder, and one or more silos in which 
 to store a supply of palatable green food for the 
 winter months. 
 
 The barn adapted to the needs of the farm. 
 But little need be said about the construction 
 of the barn. The careful farmer will adapt the 
 barn to the size of the farm, the number of cows 
 kept thereon, the kind of grain and roughage 
 stored for food, and other local conditions. He 
 will undoubtedly be able to draw his own plans, 
 or to secure some one to design a barn for him that 
 will suit his own special needs better than any 
 plan which can be suggested here. But there 
 is one feature of barn construction so greatly neg- 
 lected that it deserves to be mentioned in every 
 treatise on dairy farming. This important feature 
 is ventilation. 
 
 Ventilation often neglected. In our efforts to 
 provide warm and comfortable quarters for our 
 
 129 
 
130 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 stock we have overlooked, in many cases, tlie most 
 important matter of all — proper ventilation. As 
 we enter some stables on a winter's morning, 
 after the barn has been closed all night, we are 
 
 
 
 
 ..^^ __^^M 
 
 WLS* 
 
 Fig. 36. A well-ventilated dairy barn with "twin" stave silos. 
 
 almost stifled by the odors and impurities which 
 fill the air. These must necessarily be very 
 harmful to the animals that are forced to breathe 
 them over and over again. In such stables no 
 provision is made for admitting fresh air or for 
 withdrawing that which has become charged 
 with impurities and robbed of its life-giving 
 oxygen. Oxygen is the one air element abso- 
 lutely necessary to all animal life. We ourselves 
 know only too well the debilitating effect of 
 breathing bad air. The respiratory organs of 
 
THE BARN 131 
 
 animals are very similar to our own and they 
 too must suffer from the bad effects of breath- 
 ing impure air. Without doubt the alarming 
 prevalence of tuberculosis among dairy cattle 
 IS largely due to this cause. Hence this neg- 
 lected feature of barn construction is deemed 
 worthy of detailed mention in this book. 
 
 The King system best for barns. In a well- 
 ventilated barn the air is almost as pure and 
 fresh and free from bad odors as it is in the 
 most sanitary home. The most successful and 
 most widely used method of ventilation in this 
 country is known as the King system. It is so 
 perfect in its operation, so inexpensive, and so 
 easy to install that no up-to-date dairy barn 
 should be built without this or a similar system 
 of ventilation. 
 
 The ventilating flues — ^how installed. In this 
 system air is taken in on the outside of the barn 
 near the ground, passes up through an air space 
 in the walls made in the form of a wooden box, 
 and is admitted into the barn near the ceiling. 
 This method of admitting the air prevents 
 draughts and forces the bad air to the floor, 
 where it is drawn out through ventilating flues 
 that extend from one foot of the floor to above 
 the roof of the barn. It is important that these 
 flues reach nearly to the floor, otherwise the 
 warm air of the bani, which is found near the 
 
132 
 
 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 ceiling, and not the had air, which is to be found 
 near the floor, will be drawn off. These venti- 
 lating flues may be made from wood or from 
 
 n 
 
 I 
 
 CED 
 
 n 
 
 ^^t^^^^E 
 
 II. 
 
 Fig, 37. King- system of ventilation. 
 I. Arranged for cows facing outward. 
 II. Arranged for cows facing center aisle. 
 
 galvanized iron, tin, or sheet iron pipe. A single 
 flue 2x2 feet, inside measure, is said to be suffi- 
 cient for twenty cows. The intake flues should 
 be of the same capacity. In stone walls these 
 are usually made of tile. If two or more smaller 
 flues are used, which in the judgment of the 
 
THE BARN 
 
 133 
 
 writer are to be preferred, their combined capac- 
 ity should be the same as that of the larger flue. 
 If more than twenty cows are to be stabled, the 
 size of the ventilating flues should be increased 
 proportionately. 
 
 This system w^as designed by the late Pro- 
 fessor King (hence its name) and has found 
 widespread adoption. 
 
 Fig, 38. Interior of modern dairy barn, showing sanitary 
 construction and equipment. 
 
 Pure air and sunlight essential to high-class 
 dairying. Fresh air is necessary to the health 
 of the stock. So, too, is light. It is well known 
 that sunlight will destroy germ life. The dairy- 
 man, while providing proper ventilation, should 
 also provide for admitting an abundance of sun- 
 light into his barn. Fresh air and plenty of 
 
134 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 sunlight are the surest means of preventing germ 
 diseases in the dairy herd. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Why is fresh air admitted into a barn near the 
 ceiHng ? Why not open a window ? 
 
 2. Why does the outlet flue extend to within one 
 foot of the floor? 
 
 3. Why not admit fresh air under the door and 
 draw off bad air from the ceiling? 
 
 4. Why not use the hay chutes for ventilating flues ? 
 Should hay chutes be open or closed while cattle are in 
 the barn? 
 
 5. What provision do you have for ventilation in 
 the home barn ? 
 
 6. Would it be possible to install a ventilating sys- 
 tem in your barn ? If so, how ? 
 
 LABORATORY PROBLEMS 
 XXII. To Determine the Per Cent of Water in Butter 
 
 According to a rule made by the Department of Agri- 
 culture at Washington, creamery butter containing 16 
 per cent or more of water is considered adulterated and 
 is subject to a tax. It is therefore very important that 
 butter should be made that will contain less than this 
 amount of water. It is an easy matter to determine 
 the water content of butter, but great care must be exer- 
 cised to have the samples representative. 
 
 1. By means of a trier small lots of butter should 
 be taken from different parts of the tub. These lots 
 should be placed in a small, wide-mouthed, stoppered 
 bottle. This butter should then be heated so as to 
 
THE BARN I35 
 
 give it a creamery texture, hut it should not he melted. 
 It should then be thoroughly mixed while cooling under 
 a water faucet. 
 
 2. Carefully weigh a small aluminum cup, which 
 can be obtained at any ''ten-cent store" for 10 cents. 
 The cup should be thoroughly cleaned and dried over 
 a flame. Cool before weighing. 
 
 3. Quickly weigh a small quantity of butter into a 
 cup ; 10 to 20 grams are sufficient. 
 
 4. Gently heat over a small alcohol lamp, keeping 
 the cup in constant rotary motion. Care must be exer- 
 cised to prevent spattering. 
 
 5. When the contents of the cup become a uniform 
 brown color, it is an indication that the moisture has 
 all been driven off. 
 
 6. Cool and weigh. The difference in weight repre- 
 sents the amount of water driven off. 
 
 7. Dividing the weight of water driven off by the 
 weight of the original sample will give the per cent 
 of moisture in the butter. 
 
CHAPTER Xy 
 THE SILO 
 
 The use of the silo. The silo is the one farm 
 
 building that needs the most careful construc- 
 tion. The importance of silage as a feeding stuff 
 is growing more apparent as dairying advances. 
 Nature has provided in summer proper food for 
 most farm animals, and the nearer summer con- 
 ditions can be maintained throughout the year, 
 the greater will be the farmer's success. Hence 
 the importance of silage as a feeding stuff. It 
 is a green feed preserved in its natural condi- 
 tion, or nearly so, for winter feeding. As soon 
 as the pasture gets short in the fall the silo 
 may be opened and feeding of ensilage begun. 
 In this way there need be little if any dimin- 
 ution in the flow of milk. 
 
 The four essentials of a good silo. But the 
 silage will not keep well in a poorly constructed 
 silo. Whatever the type of silo the farmer 
 chooses to build, four things must be observed: 
 It must be strong, as nearly air tight as possible, 
 perfectly smooth on the inside, and placed on a 
 strong, solid foundation. 
 
 136 
 
THE SILO 
 
 137 
 
 The silo must be almost air tight because the 
 air contains germs that will set to work upon 
 the silage and cause it to spoil and decay if 
 the air is not excluded. Silage is something 
 
 Fig. 39. An artistic tile silo with double air 
 space in walls to keep out the cold. 
 
 like canned fruit in this respect. The silo must 
 be strong because the green feed with which it 
 is filled is very heavy and packs down very 
 solidly. This exerts a tremendous pressure which 
 will spring or burst the walls of a poorly con- 
 structed silo and admit the air, causing the silage 
 to spoil. It should be perfectly smooth on the 
 inside because the silage should settle evenly. 
 
138 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 Projections or rough places on the inner walls 
 of a silo will prevent the even settling and cause 
 dead air spaces which will spoil the silage. It 
 must rest on a strong, solid foundation because 
 the side pressure and weight at the bottom are 
 very great. This pressure may be so great as 
 to burst a heavy stone wall, and the great weight 
 will cause a silo placed on a poor foundation to 
 settle out of shape and crack the walls. 
 
 Silage a satisfactory feed. If this building is 
 so constructed as to provide for sufficient venti- 
 lation and to prevent freezing, and if proper care 
 is used in filling the silo, the silage will be found 
 to be one of the most satisfactory feeds for dairy 
 cows, especially when winter dairying is car- 
 ried on. 
 
 The five types of silos. There are five types of 
 silos in common use; wood, brick, tile, stone, and 
 cement, but they are all built on the same general 
 plan. A hole four or five feet deep is dug in the 
 ground. The bottom of this hole is covered with 
 a layer of concrete and cement and the sides 
 walled up for a foot or two above the top with 
 a heavy stone wall, at least two feet thick. On 
 top of this wall the silo is usually built of two 
 thicknesses of whatever material is used, with a 
 dead air space between. The filling doors open 
 to the outside, and the feeding doors open into 
 the barn. A ventilator is placed on top, and the 
 
THE SILO 139 
 
 walls are strengthened with hoops, rods or iron 
 bands. In warmer climates where there is slight 
 danger from frost, another type known as the 
 stave silo is used. This is very much like a 
 large barrel, and the cost of building such a silo 
 is considerably less than the double wall type. 
 The solid concrete silo is also rapidly coming 
 into popular favor. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. "Why should the hoops or reinforcing rods be 
 closer together near the bottom of the silo than near 
 the top? 
 
 2. Can silage be stored in a ' ' square ' ' silo ? 
 
 3. "Why not build a ''square" instead of a ''round" 
 silo. 
 
 5. "Why is a hollow wall silo to be preferred to one 
 of solid concrete? 
 
 6. "What kind of silo do you have on the home farm ? 
 
 7. "What kind of silo would be best for you to build? 
 Give rea::ons for your choice. 
 
 8. IIow many silos are there within five miles of 
 your home? 
 
 LABORATORY PROBLEMS 
 
 XXIII. To Determine the Fat Context of Skim-Milk, But- 
 termilk AND Whey 
 
 Owing to the small amount of fat in skim-milk, it is 
 necessary to use a specially constructed bottle for this 
 work. The "double neck" bottle is generally used to 
 determine the fat content of skim-milk, buttermilk and 
 whey. 
 
140 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 , a. To determine the fat content of skim-milk. Trans- 
 fer 17.6 c.c. pipetteful of skim-milk to a double neck 
 bottle. Add about 20 c.c. of sulphuric acid. Mix well 
 and test as in the case of milk, except that only one 
 filling with water is necessary. The points to be observed 
 in testing skim-milk are : 
 
 1. Use excess amount (or over 17.5 c.c.) of sul- 
 phuric acid. 
 
 2. Whirl a minute or two longer than in the case 
 of whole milk test. 
 
 3. Do not allow mixture to cool. 
 
 b. To determine tlie fat content of buttermilk. Use 
 double neck bottle, as in the case of testing skim-milk; 
 also u e excess amount of sulphuric acid. 
 
 c. To determine tlie fat content of ivJiey. Because 
 there is very little casein in whey, it is evident that it is 
 not necessary to use so much acid as in the case of skim- 
 milk or buttermilk; 12 to 14 c.c. are usually sufficient. 
 
 Note: It is very essential that the neck of the double neck 
 bottle be perfectly clean and dry in order that the air may 
 have free access. 
 
CHAPTER XVI 
 FEED FOR THE COW 
 
 The cow a milk-making machine. The cow 
 may be compared to a machine. When we stop 
 to consider that the real purpose of the cow 
 from the dairyman's standpoint is to produce 
 milk, in the same way that the purpose of a 
 machine is to produce some given article, we 
 are justified in making the comparison. We 
 give the cow a certain quantity of food and from 
 this we expect her to maintain herself and at 
 the same time convert a good share of the 
 food into milk. Good dairymen realize that the 
 profit comes from the excess of food that she 
 consumes over and above that required for her 
 bodily maintenance. 
 
 A maintenance ration necessary. Investigators 
 have found that the daily maintenance ration of 
 a cow weighing about 1,000 pounds is: .7 pounds 
 digestible protein, 8.0 pounds digestible carbo- 
 hydrates, and 0.1 pound ether extract. 
 
 Granting that the above is true, we can easily 
 see that a dairyman, in order to get a supply 
 of milk from his herd, must give each cow more 
 
 141 
 
142 
 
 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 than tlie above maintenance ration before he 
 can expect her to yield a satisfactory return. 
 It would be a foolish engineer that would only 
 turn on steam sufficient to keep his engine mov- 
 
 Fig-. 40. Maplecrest Pontiac Flora Hartog. 
 The photograph shows how she appeared at the close of her 
 great year's work — 25,106.3 pounds milk; 3.92 per cent fat. 
 
 ing when it is in his power to give it all the 
 steam necessary to work it to its full capacity. 
 The engineer, therefore, must take into consider- 
 ation the size of the engine, the particular type 
 of engine, and the work to be performed. So, 
 too, must the dairyman take into consideration 
 the size of the cow, her individuality, and also the 
 particular type of cow. A three-year-old heifer 
 cannot be expected to be as productive as a cow 
 several years older. A good type of cow will do 
 
FEED FOR THE COW 143 
 
 better work than a poor type, in the same way 
 that a Corliss engine will produce more power 
 from a given amount of steam than a common 
 slide valve engine. 
 
 Uniform feeding impossible. Inasmuch as the 
 individual requirements of the animal must be 
 given consideration by a good dairyman, it is 
 readily seen that feeding all animals the same 
 amount of feed is neither advisable nor profit- 
 able. It would be unwise for a dairyman, if he 
 expects to get the best results from his cows, 
 to feed all the cows in the herd the same amount, 
 regardless of whether they are giving 15, 20, or 
 30 pounds of milk per day. This may be best 
 emphasized by calling attention to the standard 
 rations used in this connection by scientific dairy- 
 men all over the world. These were suggested 
 by the eminent German authorities, Wolff-Leh- 
 mann, as the result of their investigations. 
 
 WOLFF-LEHMANN MODIFIED STANDARDS FOR A ONE- 
 THOUSAND-POUND COW 
 
 Digestible Nutrients 
 Dry Carbohy- Ether Nutri- 
 
 Matter Protein drates Extract tive 
 Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Ratio 
 
 1. When giving 11 lbs. of 
 
 milk daily 25 L6 10 .3 1: 6.7 
 
 2. When giving 16i/> lbs. of 
 
 milk daily 27 2.0 11 .4 1: 6.0 
 
 3. When giving 22 lbs. of 
 
 milk daily 29 2.5 13 .5 1: 5.7 
 
 4. When giving 27 V. lbs. of 
 
 milk daily 32 3.3 13 .8 1: 4.5 
 
 Standard maintenance ra- 
 tion daily 18 .7 8 .1 1:11.8 
 
144 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 Protein more important than carbohydrates. 
 
 In looking over this table the reader will at 
 once notice that the cow receives more feed 
 when she is giving a larger quantity of milk; 
 especially is the proportional increase greater in 
 protein than in carbohydrates. The reason for 
 this is very evident; protein is a very essential 
 part of all foods. In fact, the percentage of 
 protein in a food determines its value for build- 
 ing the muscles of the body and supplying the 
 casein of milk. It is also argued by some that it 
 is one of the sources of fat in milk. Such feeds 
 as clover, alfalfa, bran and gluten contain a great 
 deal of protein, and for this reason they are very 
 desirable feeds. Carbohydrates are found in 
 more or less abundance in all feed and are easier 
 to obtain than protein. Their chief property is 
 the maintaining of the heat of the body. Starches 
 and sugars are good examples of this class of 
 feeds. 
 
 The value of fat. Ether extract, so called be- 
 cause this element is extracted by ether when 
 an examination of food is made by chemical 
 analysis, is, in homely language, the fat of the 
 feed. The principal function of this part of 
 the food is similar to that of carbohydrates; that 
 is, to maintain temperature. However, a pound 
 of ether extract has within it the power to pro- 
 duce more heat than a pound of carbohydrates. 
 
FEED FOR THE COW 145 
 
 It is customary to say that one pound of ether 
 extract has from 2.2 to 2.5 times the heat energy 
 of a pound of carbohydrates. 
 
 How rations are compounded. In compound- 
 ing a ration we tirst estimate the amount of dry 
 matter in the feed; that is, the amount that the 
 feed would weigh if all the water it contained 
 were driven off by heat. Similarly it is neces- 
 sary to estimate the amounts of protein, carbo- 
 hydrates and ether extract. There are several 
 things, however, that must be taken into con- 
 sideration. A considerable portion of the pro- 
 tein is not digestible and therefore the animal 
 may be charged with receiving protein which 
 she cannot use, as a comparison of the following 
 tables will show. 
 
 (From Henry's ''Feeds and Feeding"): 
 
 TABLE I 
 
 Water and total nutrients per 100 pounds feed 
 
 Crude Nitrogen Ether 
 
 Feeding Stuffs Water Protein Fiber Free Extract 
 
 Roughage: Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Extract Lbs. 
 
 Corn stover, field cured. 40.5 3.8 19.7 31.5 1.1 
 
 Red clover hay 15.3 12.3 24.8 38.1 3.3 
 
 Timothv hay 13.2 5.9 29.0 45.0 2.5 
 
 Oat straw 9.2 4.0 37.0 42.4 2.3 
 
 Concentrates: 
 
 Corn, dent 10.6 10.3 2.2 70.4 5.0 
 
 Oats 11.0 11.8 9.5 59.7 5.0 
 
 Wheat bran 11.9 15.4 9.0 53.9 4.0 
 
 Linseed meal, O. P 9.2 32.9 8.9 35.4 7.9 
 
146 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 TABLE II 
 
 Total digestible substances in 100 pounds 
 
 Total 
 
 Feeding Stuffs Dry Carbohy- Ether Nutritive 
 
 Roughage: Matter Protein drates Extract Ratio 
 
 Corn stover 59.5 1.7 32.4 0.7 1:20.0 
 
 Red clover hay 84.7 6.8 35.8 1.7 1: 5.8 
 
 Timothy hay 86.8 2.8 43.4 1.4 1:16.7 
 
 Oat straw 90.8 1.2 38.6 0.8 1:33.7 
 
 Concentrates: 
 
 Corn or corn meal 89.4 7.8 66.7 4.3 1: 9.8 
 
 Oats 89.0 9.2 47.3 4.2 1:6.2 
 
 Wheat bran 88.1 12.2 39.2 2.7 1:3.7 
 
 Oil meal, O. P 90.8 29.3 32.7 7.0 1:1.7 
 
 The value of a feed is dependent upon digest- 
 ible nutrients it contains. In the above, attention 
 is called to the total protein content of wheat 
 bran, which is 15.4 pounds per 100 pounds of the 
 feed. In the second table it will be learned that 
 of this only 12.2 pounds are digestible, the 
 amount of protein available for the animal. 
 
 Oat straw contains, as is shown in the first 
 table, 4 per cent of protein. In the second table 
 100 pounds of oat straw contains only 1.2 pounds 
 of digestible protein. The value of knowing the 
 amount of digestible nutrients the feed contains 
 cannot be overestimated. 
 
 It should be noted that certain feeds, such as 
 oat straw, are so deficient in nourishment that it 
 would be necessary for a cow to eat two or 
 three hundred pounds of these feeds in order 
 to furnish her sufficient nourishment to enable 
 her to secrete twenty to twenty-four pounds of 
 
FEED FOR THE COW 147 
 
 milk in a day. This, of course, is an impos- 
 sibility. It is mentioned only to show that a 
 cow cannot be turned out to a straw stack with 
 the expectation that her flow of milk will be 
 maintained. 
 
 June pasture ideal. On the other hand, it is 
 well known that pasture is about as good a ration 
 as we ordinarily find, and for this reason cows 
 usually give a large flow of milk during June 
 and July, because all the elements necessary to 
 maintain the body and manufacture the milk are 
 found in succulent pasture grass. 
 
 What is a balanced ration? When we speak 
 of a balanced ration we mean a ration in which 
 protein, carbohydrates, and ether extracts are 
 combined in about the right proportion. Wolff 
 and Lehmann adopted a standard by which every 
 cow yielding 22 pounds of milk daily should 
 receive a ration containing 29 pounds of dry 
 matter, of which 2.5 pounds should be digestible 
 protein, 13 pounds digestible carbohydrates, and 
 .5 pound digestible ether extract. The nutritive 
 ratio which they adopted was 1:5.7. 
 
 How the nutritive ratio is found. The method 
 of computing the nutritive ratio may be briefly 
 explained as follows: Multiply the digestible 
 ether extract by 2.4 (inasmuch as it is presumed 
 that each pound of ether extract furnishes 2.4 
 times the heat units that are found in one pound 
 
148 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 of carbohydrates), add to tUis tlie digestible 
 carbohydrates, and divide the sum by the digest- 
 ible protein in the food. In the above, multiply- 
 ing .5 by 2.4 we get 1.2; adding 1.2 to 13 we 
 get the sum 14.2; dividing this by 2.5 we get 5.7. 
 The ratio of the protein, therefore, to the other 
 constituents is 1:5.7, or 1 part of protein to 
 every 5.7 parts of carbohydrates or their equiv- 
 alent. 
 
 The Haecker standard. The Wolff-Lehmann 
 standard lias been largely superseded by Amer- 
 ican standards. The best one of these was given 
 to us by Professor T. L. Haecker of Minnesota 
 as a result of his investigation and varies with 
 the amount and quality of milk a cow produces. 
 He first establishes a maintenance ration (the 
 amount of feed required to keep a dry cow at a 
 constant weight), and to this he adds an addi- 
 tional ration necessary to produce the amount 
 of milk which the cow is capable of producing, 
 as will be observed from a study of the following 
 table : 
 
 TABLE III 
 Showing maintenance rations for cows of different weights 
 
 Weight 
 
 Protein 
 
 Carbohydrates 
 
 Ether Extract 
 
 800 
 
 .56 
 
 5.6 
 
 .08 
 
 900 
 
 .63 
 
 6.3 
 
 .09 
 
 1,000 
 
 .70 
 
 7.0 
 
 .10 
 
 1,100 
 
 .77 
 
 7.7 
 
 .11 
 
 1,200 
 
 .84 
 
 8.4 
 
 .12 
 
 1,400 
 
 .98 
 
 9.8 
 
 .14 
 
 1,600 
 
 1.12 
 
 11.2 
 
 .16 
 
FEED FOR THE COW ^49 
 
 How to use the Haecker standard. In prac- 
 tical feeding an allowance of .7 pounds digestible 
 protein, 7 pounds digestible carbohydrates, and .1 
 pound ether extract per 1,000 pounds of live 
 weight will suffice. 
 
 To the maintenance ration there should be 
 added an amount of feed sufficient to produce 
 the amount of milk which the cow is capable 
 of yielding. Haecker has shown that this varies 
 with the richness of the milk as well as with its 
 quantity. An examination of the following table 
 makes this apparent. 
 
 TABLE IV 
 
 Showing feed required for the production of 10 pounds of 
 milk of varying richness 
 
 Per Cent Fat in Milk Protein Carbohydrates Ether Extract 
 
 3.00 
 
 .47 
 
 2.00 
 
 .17 
 
 3.50 
 
 .49 
 
 2.21 
 
 .19 
 
 4.00 
 
 .54 
 
 2.42 
 
 .21 
 
 4.50 
 
 .57 
 
 2.64 
 
 .23 
 
 5.00 
 
 .60 
 
 2.84 
 
 .24 
 
 5.50 
 
 .64 
 
 3.00 
 
 .26 
 
 From the above table it is easily possible to 
 calculate the amount of feed required by a cow 
 of any given size to produce a given quantity of 
 milk of any richness. 
 
 Feeding rules. Haecker 's standards have been 
 still further simplified for practical use by put- 
 ting them in the form of the following rules for 
 feeding grain and roughage: 
 
150 
 
 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 Rule I. Feed as many pounds of grain daily 
 as the cow produces pounds of fat per week with 
 all the hay and silage she will eat. 
 
 Rule II. Feed one pound of grain daily for 
 each three to four pounds of milk which the cow 
 gives daily and all the roughage the cow will 
 eat. 
 
 It must be understood that both of these 
 depend upon the kind of grain 
 and roughage to be fed, which 
 must in themselves constitute a 
 good dairy ration and must con- 
 tain the right amounts of protein, 
 carbohydrates, and fat in the right 
 proportions. With oat straw as 
 roughage and corn meal as grain 
 the rules would be valueless, since 
 neither is sufficiently rich in pro- 
 tein. On the other hand, alfalfa 
 hay and bran fed according to 
 the above rules would prove very 
 expensive feeds. To apply the 
 rules successfully the ration must 
 be first compounded and balanced 
 before being fed as directed in the 
 rules. 
 
 A dairyman can easily compute the amount of 
 feed that each cow should receive per day; and 
 also compute the cost of this feed. By formu- 
 
 Fig. 41. Spring 
 balance. The 
 best scales for 
 use in keeping 
 milk and feed 
 records of indi- 
 vidual cows. 
 
FEED FOR THE COW 151 
 
 lating several rations lie can easily calculate the 
 rations that will cost him the least. In this way 
 he is able to save in the cost of feed, and 
 thus produce milk most economically. 
 
 A study of feeds and feeding essential. There 
 is no subject connected with dairying which the 
 interested farmer can study with more profit 
 to himself than that of feeding the dairy cow. 
 It is impossible in so brief a work as this to 
 more than mention what can be done. Some 
 reliable text on feeds and feeding should be in 
 the possession of those in any way connected 
 with the feeding of dairy cows. 
 
 Herewith is appended a list of the common 
 feeds found in America, with analysis of each. 
 The table shows the dry matter and the digest- 
 ible nutrients per 100 pounds feeding stuff. The 
 data for the same is taken from Henry's ''Feeds 
 and Feeding": 
 
 Concentrates : 
 Corn all analysis. . . 
 
 TABLE ^ 
 
 Dry 
 
 Matter 
 Lbs. 
 89.1 
 
 ^11 
 
 Protein 
 Lbs. 
 
 7.9 
 25.8 
 10.2 
 12.2 
 12.2 
 
 9.9 
 11.5 
 11.9 
 
 8.7 
 18.6 
 
 Carbo- 
 hydrates 
 Lbs. 
 66.7 
 43.3 
 69.2 
 39.2 
 50.0 
 67.6 
 50.3 
 45.1 
 65.6 
 37.1 
 
 Fat 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 4.3 
 
 
 91.8 
 
 11.0 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Wheat bran 
 
 Wheat shorts 
 
 89.5 
 
 88.1 
 
 88.2 
 
 1.7 
 2.7 
 3.6 
 
 Rye 
 
 Rye bran 
 
 Rye shorts 
 
 Barley 
 
 Malt sprouts 
 
 88.4 
 
 88.4 
 
 90.7 
 
 89.1 
 
 89.8 
 
 1.1 
 2.0 
 1.6 
 1.6 
 L7 
 
152 
 
 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 TABLE VII— Continued 
 
 Dry 
 Matter 
 Concentrates: Lbs. 
 
 Brewers' grains, dried 91.8 
 
 Oats 89.0 
 
 Sorghum seed 87.2 
 
 Kaffir corn 84.8 
 
 Millet 86.0 
 
 Flax seed 90.8 
 
 Linseed meal, old process. . 90.8 
 Linseed meal, new process. 89.9 
 
 Cotton-seed meal 91.8 
 
 Peas 89.5 
 
 Soy bean 89.2 
 
 Cow peas 85.2 
 
 Roughage : 
 Fodder corn, field cured... 57.8 
 Corn stover, husked shock 
 
 corn, field cured 59.5 
 
 Pasture grasses (mixed) . . 20.0 
 
 Hay: 
 
 Timothy 86.8 
 
 Orchard grass 90.1 
 
 Redtop 91.1 
 
 Kentucky blue grass 78.8 
 
 Oat hay 91.1 
 
 Straw: 
 
 Wheat 90.4 
 
 Oat 90.8 
 
 Legume hay and Straw: 
 
 Red clover, medium 84.7 
 
 Red clover, mammoth 78.8 
 
 Alsike clover 90.3 
 
 Crimson clover 90.4 
 
 Alfalfa 91.6 
 
 Cow peas 89.3 
 
 Pea vine straw 86.4 
 
 Silage: 
 
 Corn 20.9 
 
 Clover 28.0 
 
 Alfalfa 27.5 
 
 Roots and Tubers: 
 
 Potato 21.1 
 
 Beet, common 13.0 
 
 Beet, sugar 13.5 
 
 
 Carbo- 
 
 
 Protein 
 
 hydrates 
 
 Fat 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 15.7 
 
 36.3 
 
 5.1 
 
 9.2 
 
 47.3 
 
 4.2 
 
 7.0 
 
 52.1 
 
 8.1 
 
 7.8 
 
 57.1 
 
 2.7 
 
 8.9 
 
 45.0 
 
 3.2 
 
 20.6 
 
 17.1 
 
 29.0 
 
 29.3 
 
 32.7 
 
 7.0 
 
 28.2 
 
 40.1 
 
 2.8 
 
 37.2 
 
 16.9 
 
 12.2 
 
 16.8 
 
 51.8 
 
 0.7 
 
 29.6 
 
 22.3 
 
 14.4 
 
 18.3 
 
 54.2 
 
 1.1 
 
 2.5 
 
 34.6 
 
 1.2 
 
 1.7 
 
 32.4 
 
 0.7 
 
 2.5 
 
 10.2 
 
 0.5 
 
 2.8 
 
 43.4 
 
 1.4 
 
 4.9 
 
 42.3 
 
 1.4 
 
 4.8 
 
 46.9 
 
 1.0 
 
 4.8 
 
 37.3 
 
 2.0 
 
 4.3 
 
 46.4 
 
 1.5 
 
 0.4 
 
 36.3 
 
 0.4 
 
 1.2 
 
 38.6 
 
 0.8 
 
 6.8 
 
 35.8 
 
 1.7 
 
 5.7 
 
 32.0 
 
 1.9 
 
 8.4 
 
 42.5 
 
 1.5 
 
 10.5 
 
 34.9 
 
 L2 
 
 11.0 
 
 39.6 
 
 L2 
 
 10.8 
 
 38.6 
 
 1.1 
 
 4.3 
 
 32.3 
 
 0.8 
 
 0.9 
 
 11.3 
 
 0.7 
 
 2.0 
 
 13.5 
 
 1.0 
 
 3.0 
 
 8.5 
 
 1.9 
 
 0.9 
 
 16.3 
 
 0.1 
 
 1.2 
 
 8.8 
 
 0.1 
 
 LI 
 
 10.2 
 
 0.1 
 
FEED FOR THE COW 153 
 
 TABLE VII— Contirued 
 
 Carbo- 
 
 
 lydrates 
 
 Fat 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 5.4 
 
 0.1 
 
 8.1 
 
 0.2 
 
 8.2 
 
 0.4 
 
 7.3 
 
 
 4.9 
 
 3.7 
 
 2.7 
 
 3.6 
 
 4.7 
 
 0.8 
 
 5.2 
 
 0.3 
 
 4.0 
 
 1.3 
 
 4.7 
 
 0.1 
 
 Dry 
 
 Matter Protein 
 
 Concentrates: Lbs. Lbs. 
 
 Beet, mangel 9.1 1.1 
 
 Rutabaga 11.4 1.0 
 
 Miscellaneous: 
 
 Cabbage 15.3 1.8 
 
 Beet pulp 10.2 0.6 
 
 Cows' milk 12.8 3.6 
 
 Cows' milk, colostrum 25.4 17.6 
 
 Skim-milk, gravity 9.6 3.1 
 
 Skim-milk, centrifugal 9.4 3.9 
 
 Buttermilk 9.9 3.9 
 
 Whey 6.6 0.8 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Calculate a ration for a dairy cow giving 22 
 pounds milk daily, using corn, clover hay, and wheat 
 bran as feeds by the Wolff-Lehmann Standard. 
 
 2. Suppose the cow Aveighs 1,000 pounds, calculate 
 the ration, using the Haecker standard. 
 
 3. Make a ration from the same feeds by using the 
 two rules given above. 
 
 4. Now compare all these rations. How do they 
 differ? Is this difference great or slight? 
 
 5. What rations do you feed on the home farm ? 
 
 6. Can you calculate a better ration from the same 
 feeds? 
 
 LABORATORY PROBLEMS 
 XXIV. To Determine the Per Cent of Fat in Cheese 
 
 a. Weigh about 5 or 6 grams of cheese into an 18- 
 gram 30 per cent or 9-gram 50 per cent cream test 
 bottle. 
 
 b. Add about 12 c.e. of boiling water. 
 
154 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 c. Place the bottle in hot water for several hours 
 to thoroughly emulsify the mixture. This can be has- 
 tened somewhat by adding four or five cubic centimeters 
 of sulphuric acid. This is a slow process, as it takes 
 considerable time for all the lumps to dissolve. 
 
 d. When thoroughly emulsified cool to room temper- 
 ature before adding sufficient acid to dissolve all the 
 solids not fat. 
 
 e. Test as in the case of milk. 
 
 f. Calculate the per cent of fat obtained by the fol- 
 lowing formula if an 18-gram bottle was used : 
 
 Reading X 18 X 100 
 
 — 7q z = per cent of fat in cheese. 
 
 Grams used 
 
 In case a 9-gram bottlq was used, substitute the figure 
 9 for the figure 18. 
 
 Note: Care must be exercised to prevent the evaporation 
 of water from the cheese before and during the weighing 
 process. 
 
CHAPTER XVII 
 CARE OF THE COW 
 
 Regularity the first essential to profitable 
 dairying. One of the cardinal points that a good 
 dairyman will observe in handling his cows is 
 regularity in all his work. He will feed them 
 at definite hours, and milk them at stated inter- 
 vals; that is, if a cow is milked at six in the 
 morning she should be milked about six o'clock 
 at night, the best results being obtained when the 
 time between milkings is the same. It may be 
 interesting to add that the records show that 
 large cities receive their i)oorest milk on Mon- 
 day. This is accounted for by the fact that 
 the farmers are not so regular in their work 
 on Sunday as they are during the rest of the 
 Aveek. 
 
 Changes of feed should be made gradually. If 
 for any reason it is advisable to change the feed 
 of a herd it should be done gradually, so that the 
 cows will become accustomed to the change and 
 not be affected in any way. For example: When 
 it becomes necessary to begin the feeding of 
 ensilage; a very small portion should be fed at 
 
 155 
 
156 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 the first feeding, followed by a gradual increase 
 in the amount. In this way cows will not get 
 ^'off feed'' so readily. Many dairymen are so 
 skillful that they can keep changing feeds from 
 time to time without the cows showing any ill 
 effects. This is due to their judicious method 
 of feeding. 
 
 Kindness necessary. The real purpose of keep- 
 ing cows is to make a profit, and he is indeed 
 an unwise dairyman who will furnish his cows 
 with the best of feed and shelter and then spoil 
 it all by abusing them. If he is at all observing 
 he will note within a very short time that it 
 does not pay to abuse or ill-treat milk cows. 
 He must remember that the cow is a brute and 
 he is a man, and if she ill-behaves in any way 
 it is because she is following the laws of nature 
 and is trying to protect herself. A cow will 
 hold up her milk because she is disturbed in 
 some way; perhaps she is afraid of punishment. 
 Some milker may have clubbed her with a milk 
 stool or otherwise ill-treated her. Scolding or 
 loud and excited talking also makes her nervous. 
 It is needless to add that chasing cows with dogs 
 is not going to improve either the flow of milk 
 or its quality. The practice of petting cows is 
 to be commended, as they respond to kind and 
 gentle treatment in a way that is profitable for 
 the owner. 
 
CARE OF THE COW 157 
 
 The wise dairyman will provide his cows with 
 clean, palatable food which they will eat with 
 relish rather than with stale food. He will pro- 
 vide them with warm water to drink in winter, 
 rather than ice-cold water, because he feels he 
 would not like to drink such water himself. He 
 will soon learn that it is profitable for him to 
 
 Fig-. 42. Daisy Grace DeKol. 
 Good care enabled this cow to become one of the world's record 
 
 cows. 
 
 warm the water rather than to send them to the 
 pond where he has chopped a hole in the ice. 
 Experiment stations have proven that the shrink- 
 age in the milk flow is considerable when warm 
 water is not supplied. 
 
 Dehorning. When cows were still in their 
 wild state, nature provided them with horns to 
 protect themselves and their offspring. How- 
 
158 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 ever, as the dairyman now protects his herd 
 against the ravages of wolves and other wild 
 beasts, these appendages are no longer neces- 
 sary and should be removed. This can be done 
 in a humane way when they are calves and 
 the effect is hardly noticeable. In case a horned 
 cow is purchased, she should be dehorned as 
 soon as possible, both as a protection for her 
 owner and also for the other members of the 
 herd. She may lose flesh at first, the flow of milk 
 may be decreased, and the test will be likely to 
 drop, but these results are only temporary; she 
 will recover from this shrinkage within a week 
 or two and is likely to gain more than she lost. 
 Cattle that are dehorned become more docile 
 and are not in constant dread of being hooked 
 by other members of the herd. They can be 
 sheltered more conveniently; in fact there are so 
 many advantages in dehorning that it should 
 be generally practiced. 
 
 Shelter essential. In a previous chapter atten- 
 tion was called to the fact that a considerable 
 portion of the food is used to provide heat and 
 the maintenance for the body. It is therefore 
 evident that if the body is not properly protected, 
 more feed will be required to maintain a cow 
 and, for this reason if for no other, she should 
 be well sheltered. It must be remembered that a 
 good dairy cow does not have so thick a skin as 
 
CARE OF THE COW I59 
 
 the steer and not so much fat on her body to 
 protect her from the cold. That it is profitable 
 to protect her from the weather has been proven 
 over and over again by experiment. The Indiana 
 Experiment Station conducted a series of trials 
 and found that cows required less feed when 
 well housed, and that they gave more milk as 
 a result of this care. In fact, sheltering three 
 cows for forty-eight days gave an increased 
 profit of $12.75, or $4.25 for each cow. This is 
 a large item when a herd of twenty or thirty 
 animals is considered. Just how cows should be 
 sheltered depends a great deal on the location 
 of the dairy farm. In another chapter the 
 importance of a good barn is discussed, and also 
 the necessity for providing sufficient fresh air 
 and plenty of sunlight. 
 
 Dairy cows need exercise. When sheltered 
 during the winter season, it is very essential 
 that cows be given sufficient exercise so that 
 they are kept in a healthy condition. Some 
 dairymen follow this rule: They allow their 
 cows to go out of doors on days when it is com- 
 fortable for a man to walk about the yard for a 
 short time in his shirt sleeves. On a cold, rainy, 
 drizzling day there would not be much comfort 
 in walking about the yard without a coat and 
 therefore it would not be advisable to turn cows 
 out at such times. If the cow is not protected 
 
160 
 
 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 from rain, it has been shown that the shrinkage 
 of milk may be as much as ten per cent, and 
 in case of a storm to which the cow is exposed, 
 the shrinkage has been known to reach forty 
 per cent. This, as every dairyman knows, is an 
 enormous loss and goes to show that it pays to 
 protect cows from inclement weather. 
 
 Fig. 43. Three types of bad rumps. 
 
 Cleanliness of the liind quarters is absolutely necessary for the 
 
 production of pure milk. 
 
 Cows should be provided with shade in sum- 
 mer. In summer time cows should be provided 
 with a shady place where they can rest during 
 the heat of the day. In fly time it may be 
 profitable for the farmer to keep his cows in the 
 barn during the day. He can do this by soiling 
 
CARE OP THE COW 161 
 
 them. In case they are put in the barn, it is well 
 to darken the windows to keep out the flies. 
 All dairymen know that when flies appear there 
 is a great loss of flesh and also a serious decrease 
 in the flow of milk. For this reason it is well for 
 the farmer to consider keeping his cows in the 
 bam altogether during the fly season. It may 
 cause extra work, but in the long run he will 
 be amply repaid for the trouble. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. What do you understand by the term ' ' off feed ? ' ' 
 
 2. How can cows be changed from one feed to an- 
 other without showing any ill effects? 
 
 3. Do you keep the cows or do the cows keep you? 
 
 4. "What is the best way to ''break" in a cow to 
 milk. 
 
 5. Can a cow ''hold up" her milk? 
 
 6. In Europe they take better care of their cows 
 than they do in America. Why ? 
 
CHAPTER XVIII 
 TUBERCULOSIS 
 
 No treatise on the subject of dairying is com- 
 plete unless some mention is made of tubercu- 
 losis, that dreaded disease which has already 
 carried off thousands of cattle, and whose rav- 
 ages continue almost unabated. 
 
 Tuberculosis the dangerous scourge. It is said 
 that one out of every seven people who die fall 
 victims of tuberculosis, or consumption, as it is 
 commonly called. It is now pretty generally 
 believed that tuberculosis in cattle and consump- 
 tion in the human family are practically one and 
 the same disease, and that this disease can be 
 transmitted from one species to the other. Young 
 children fed on the milk of tuberculous cows 
 are likely to contract the disease, and calves 
 and pigs consuming infected milk are almost 
 certain to be affected. 
 
 How tuberculosis spreads. Tuberculosis is a 
 germ disease; that is, it is caused by the growth 
 and multiplication of very minute organisms 
 within the animal body. The disease cannot be 
 contracted without the entrance of these germs. 
 
 162 
 
TUBERCULOSIS 
 
 163 
 
 The introduction of a single infected animal 
 into the herd is likely to inoculate the whole 
 herd, as the tubercle germs are thrown off with 
 the saliva and other excretions. These germs 
 when dry will live in the dark for months and, 
 settling upon the hay and other feed, are trans- 
 mitted from animal to animal. Skim-milk from 
 
 
 
 P^ 
 
 
 y^^ 
 
 r- ^ 
 
 
 :«■/ j-^.l 
 
 ^» '^f n^ 
 
 
 'W 
 
 •^'k 
 
 t» 
 
 "'^^'^ tt, "'% 1 
 
 r ' 
 
 w 
 
 1 "T. *a :■£ --^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 pp 
 
 il? 
 
 
 
 Fig. 44. Tubercular nodules from the abdominal cavity of a cow. 
 
 creameries and whey from cheese factories are 
 other sources of infection. Here the milk from 
 infected cows is mixed in a common tank with 
 other milk and the whole supply thus becomes 
 contaminated. In this way the disease is often 
 spread throughout an entire neighborhood. 
 
254 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 How the germs are destroyed. Tubercle bacilli 
 cannot live at a temijerature of 160 degrees F., 
 and in direct sunlight they die in less than two 
 hours. Pasteurizing whey and skim-milk, that 
 is, heating it to 160 degrees F., will kill these 
 germs and prevent the spread of disease from 
 factory centers. Plenty of sunlight, fresh air, 
 and the use of whitewash in stables are effective 
 means of preventing the rapid spreading of the 
 disease in herds. 
 
 However, the disease cannot be communicated 
 from one vicinity to another except through the 
 introduction of diseased animals into the neigh- 
 borhood, and some states have required that all 
 animals imported within their borders should 
 pass the tuberculin test.' Now what is this test? 
 
 The tuberculin test. The United States De- 
 partment of Agriculture and some of the state 
 experiment stations are engaged in preparing 
 and distributing tuberculin, a coffee-colored 
 liquid, which if injected under the skin of 
 infected animals will cause a rise in the ani- 
 maPs temperature. No change is produced, how- 
 ever, by injecting this substance under the skin 
 of a healthy animal. During the test the animals 
 must be kept in as nearly a normal condition 
 as possible. Before injection four temperatures 
 are taken with a clinical thermometer, two hours 
 apart. These temperatures are taken by insert- 
 
TUBERCULOSIS 
 
 165 
 
 ing the thermometer in the rectum and allowing 
 it to. remain there for three or four minutes 
 before reading. About half a teaspoonful (2 c.c.) 
 of the tuberculin is then injected underneath the 
 
 Fig. 45. This picture shows how tuberculin is injected under 
 the skin in making the tuberculin test. 
 
 skin, usually at the shoulder, with an ordinary 
 hypodermic syringe. Eight to ten hours after 
 injection five more temperatures are taken in 
 the same manner, two hours apart. A rise in 
 temperature of two degrees is considered a ^'pos- 
 itive reaction;^' that is, the animal is said to be 
 diseased. 
 
166 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 Diseased animals should be removed from the 
 rest of the herd and disposed of according to 
 the law in force in the state. 
 
 Factors influencing the accuracy of the test. 
 Since there are so many conditions which may 
 affect the temperature of an animal during the 
 progress of the test, it should never be under- 
 taken except by an experienced tester or under 
 supervision of a competent veterinarian if re- 
 liable results are to be expected. 
 
 Some of the factors that may cause a change 
 in temperature are as follows: 
 
 1. Drinking a large amount of cold water 
 will cause a fall in temperature. 
 
 2. Turning out in cold, raw weather will cause 
 fall in temperature. 
 
 3. Confinement in a close, hot stable to which 
 the animals are unaccustomed will cause a rise 
 in temperature. 
 
 4. Nervous animals are likely to show a rise 
 in temperature, especially if annoyed. 
 
 5. Annoyance by strangers or dogs may cause 
 a rise in temperature. 
 
 6. Any slight sickness will cause a change 
 in temperature. 
 
 How to prevent the spread of tuberculosis. The 
 
 use of hand separators will prevent the intro- 
 duction of the disease from factory skim-milk, 
 
TUBERCULOSIS 
 
 167 
 
 and if no animals are purchased but those that 
 have been tested, the herd may be kept fre6 from 
 the disease. One of the greatest authorities on 
 this subject in this country says in a recent 
 bulletin: 
 
 Figr. 46. A tubercular spleen, showing nodules. 
 
 **If dairy farmers will do three things they 
 may keep their herds free from the scourge: 
 
 ''First. Find out the actual conditions of their 
 herds by applying the tuberculin test. 
 
 ''Second. If found free, buy in the future 
 only tested stock or test them before admitting 
 same to herd. 
 
 "Third. For young stock and hogs use skim- 
 milk separated at home, or pasteurized properly 
 at creamery or factory. 
 
 "If disease is found, reacting animals should 
 be separated and disposed of properly, and the 
 barns adequately disinfected. In the case of 
 valuable animals, healthy calves may generally 
 be secured from reacting cows, if calves are sep- 
 arated at birth and fed on boiled milk of mother 
 or milk from non-reacting animals. Eemember 
 
168 
 
 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 the danger from tuberculosis lies in its hidden 
 course of development, and for the sake of the 
 herd itself, as well as for human beings con- 
 suming the products of the herd, one cannot 
 afford to neglect taking such steps as are neces- 
 
 Fig. 47. — A chicken liver badly affected with tuberculosis. 
 
 sary to find out positively the condition of his 
 herd. If a stock owner is in the habit of buying 
 and selling cattle, especially dairy stock, it is 
 almost impossible to escape the disease. Even 
 in some of the best beef breeds the disease has 
 been widely prevalent. * * * If only tested 
 dairy stock could be transferred from one owner 
 to another, the rapid spread of the disease would 
 be checked, and it would not require much time 
 to eradicate the herds already involved." 
 
TUBERCULOSIS 169 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Why take several temperatures of an animal be- 
 fore injecting tuberculin? 
 
 2. "Why are several temperatures taken after the 
 injection is made? 
 
 3. What would be the effect of allowing a cow being 
 tested for tuberculosis to have all the ice cold water she 
 could drink? 
 
 4. Why not buy cattle that have not been tested for 
 tuberculosis ? 
 
 5. Did you ever test the home herd for tuberculosis ? 
 
 6. Is there any possibility that you may have tuber- 
 culosis in your home herd ? 
 
 LABORATORY PROBLEMS 
 XXV. To Test Milk Which Has Become Curdled 
 
 The difficulty in testing milk which has become 
 curdled lies in the fact that it is very hard to sample 
 such milk accurately. 
 
 a. Make a test of a well-mixed quantity of sweet milk 
 and record the results in a notebook. 
 
 b. Set aside a small quantity of the same milk and 
 allow it to curdle. Care must be exercised to prevent 
 evaporation. 
 
 c. After it has curdled, add 10 c.c. of ammonia per 
 100 c.c. of sample to dissolve the curd. If this quantity 
 of ammonia will not dissolve all the lumps, add a few 
 more c.c. of ammonia. 
 
 d. Test as in the case of sweet milk. Great care 
 must be exercised while adding the sulphuric acid. For 
 this reason it is best to add only a cubic centimeter or 
 two at first and then gently shake the mixture. After 
 
170 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 the alkali has been neutralized there is no more danger 
 than in adding acid to any milk sample. 
 
 e. On account of diluting the milk with ammonia, 
 the reading will be too low. It is necessary, therefore, 
 to make proper correction. In order to do this it is 
 very essential to note the quantity of milk in the sample 
 and the number of cubic centimeters of ammonia added. 
 
 Note: In order to obtain accurate results great care must 
 be employed in the working out of this experiment. 
 
CHAPTER XIX 
 
 RELATION OF DAIRYING TO THE SOIL 
 
 Why dairying is better for the soil than grain 
 farming. Progressive farmers have learned that 
 exclusive grain farming does not pay in the long 
 run, and they have gone into dairying and pros- 
 pered. Now, why is dairy farming so much 
 better? Because the grain and hay raised on 
 the farm are fed there and find their way back 
 to the soil in the form of barnyard manure. Very 
 little soil matter is sold from the farm in dairy 
 farming. Professor W. H. Dexter says: ^^The 
 maintenance of soil fertility constitutes one of 
 the greatest opportunities for dairying. A ton 
 of wheat, worth $22, removes from the farm 
 $7.50 worth of plant food. A ton of butter, 
 worth $500, removes less than 50 cents worth of 
 plant food from the farm.'' Since the price of 
 fertilizers has advanced considerably since this 
 statement was made, the figures now are much 
 higher. A little calculation will show that the 
 amount of fertilizer contained in the manure 
 produced annually by a dairy cow is worth nearly 
 
 171 
 
172 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 $20, if it is carefully saved and returned again 
 to the land. 
 
 How dairying enridies the soil. Again, the 
 wise farmer raises much clover, alfalfa, cowpeas 
 or soy beans for forage plants. These plants are 
 legumes and have associated with them micro- 
 scopic germs called bacteria, which live in little 
 nodules on the roots of these plants. To con- 
 vince yourself of this fact, pull up any one of 
 the above-mentioned plants and examine its roots 
 for these nodules. They are not always to be 
 found, but usually can be. Now, what is the use 
 of these germs? The soil contains but small 
 quantities of nitrogen, a substance without which 
 no plant can grow, no animal thrive, indeed, no 
 life exist. This small quantity of nitrogen is 
 combined in the soil with other elements in a 
 form readily soluble in water, and in this dis- 
 solved condition finds its way into the plant 
 through the roots. It is then built into the body 
 of the plant. Animals get all their nitrogen 
 from the plants on w^hich they feed, and the 
 plants get theirs from this small store of nitrogen 
 in the soil. 
 
 The work of bacteria in the legumes. The air 
 is four-fifths nitrogen, but, strangely enough, 
 neither plants nor animals can make use of this 
 abundant supply of ^'free'' nitrogen, as it is 
 called. But the little germs living in the nodules 
 
RELATION OF DAIRYING TO SOIL 173 
 
 on the roots of the clover and other legumes, 
 can and do make use of this ^^free" nitrogen of 
 the air. They take it and combine it with other 
 substances and store it up in these nodules in 
 much the same manner as the honey-bee stores up 
 his supply of honey for the time of need. The 
 clover plant then robs the nodules of their stored- 
 np nitrogen and incorporates it into its own 
 tissues. From the clover it is passed on to the 
 dairy cow, finds its way into the milk pail, serves 
 as food for pigs and calves, and is ultimately 
 returned again to the soil in the form of barn- 
 yard manure. Thus it will be seen that the 
 use of clover, alfalfa and other legumes actually 
 adds to the store of nitrogen in the soil, and the 
 dairy farmer, instead of exhausting the nitrogen 
 in his soil finds it, under his intelligent manage- 
 ment, continually improving. 
 
 Other fertilizers necessary, however. It should 
 be mentioned in this connection, however, that 
 legumes do not add potash or phosphoric acid 
 to the soil, but like every other plant, remove 
 these substances. But since nitrogen is the sub- 
 stance soonest exhausted from almost every soil, 
 and since the legumes raised on the farm are 
 usually fed there, these plants may be said to 
 maintain the fertility of the soil. 
 
 What system of dairying to follow. In deter- 
 mining upon the kind of dairying to be pursued, 
 
174 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 the farmer must be governed by conditions. 
 Whether to sell his milk or to make it into 
 butter or cheese will depend upon his nearness 
 to factories and markets, the relative price of 
 milk, butter and cheese, and other local condi- 
 tions. One fact must be constantly kept in mind. 
 All kinds of dairying are not equally light on 
 the soil. The farmer who sells his milk to con- 
 sumers takes from his farm all the soil elements 
 found in the whole milk. The sale of cheese 
 returns a portion of these soil elements in the 
 whey, while the sale of butter removes from the 
 farm practically nothing of a soil nature. The 
 milk required to produce a ton of butter con- 
 tains 450 pounds of fertilizing substances, worth 
 about $45. The cheese made from the same 
 amount of milk removes about half as much 
 of these substances, while the total amount of 
 soil matter in a ton of butter has already been 
 stated to be w^orth less than fifty cents. All 
 else being equal, it is better to make butter 
 than cheese for the market, as it makes so little 
 demand on the soil. Again, the skim-milk is 
 available to feed on the farm, while whey has 
 a much less feeding value. 
 
 The draft of dairying on the soil. In order to 
 compare the effect of dairying on the soil with 
 the other kinds of farming, let us suppose that 
 forty acres of land will support ten cows. This 
 
176 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 is easily possible, and there are those who look 
 forward to the time when there will be a cow to 
 the acre on the best dairy farms. Should each 
 cow produce 5,000 pounds of milk annually, we 
 would have 50,000 pounds of milk. This amount 
 will make on the average 5,000 pounds of cheese, 
 or 2,000 pounds of butter. It has already been 
 shown that this amount of milk, if sold from 
 the farm to city consumers, removes about $45 
 worth of fertility, while the 5,000 pounds of 
 cheese contains about $25 worth, and the ton 
 of butter less than 50 cents' w^orth. If clover 
 or any of the other legumes has been raised for 
 feed it has probably turned this value in air 
 nitrogen back into the soil, so that very little if 
 any of the fertility has been lost. 
 
 The demands of other types of fanning on the 
 soil. Now, what would be the result of raising 
 grain, tobacco, potatoes or beets for the market 
 on the same plat of ground? Let us see. The 
 average production of oats, corn, wheat, rye, 
 barley, and potatoes for the United States, 
 according to the year book of the Department of 
 Agriculture, is as follows: 
 
 Oats 30 bu. per acre 
 
 Wheat 14 bu. per acre 
 
 Rye 15 bu. per acre 
 
 Corn 25 bu. per acre 
 
 Barley 25 bu. per acre 
 
 Potatoes 90 bu. per acre 
 
RELATION OF DAIRYING TO SOIL 177 
 
 These averages are low and much less than can 
 ordinarily be raised per acre with intelligent 
 farming. But accepting these averages for our 
 forty-acre farm, we have the following: 
 
 1,200 bushels of oats containing worth of soil fertility $150 
 
 560 bushels of wheat containing worth of soil fertility. . . 145 
 
 600 bushels of rye containing worth of soil fertility 130 
 
 1,000 bushels of corn containing worth of soil fertility 165 
 
 1^000 bushels of barley containing worth of soil fertility. . 153 
 3,600 bushels of potatoes containing worth of soil fertility. 75 
 
 If tobacco is grown instead of these, with 1,000 
 pounds of this crop per acre, $300 worth of soil 
 fertility is sold, and with ten tons of sugar 
 beets per acre, a low estimate, $275 worth of 
 soil fertility is removed annually. 
 
 Prices used in these calculations. These calcu- 
 lations are based on the average analysis of the 
 above products, average yield for the United 
 States, and the present price of commercial fer* 
 tilizers, viz., nitrogen, 19 cents per pound, phos- 
 phoric acid, 5 cents per pound, and potash, 
 5 cents per pound.* It requires only a careful 
 comparison of the above figures to convince the 
 thoughtful farmer of the great advantage of 
 dairy farming over other lines of agriculture. 
 If it is impossible for the farmer to go into dairy 
 farming exclusively, he can do the next best 
 
 *At the time that this goes to press the price of potash 
 has become almost prohibitive on account of the war in 
 Europe. 
 
178 PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 thing; keep a few cows, raise legumes for feed, 
 engage in diversified farming, practice rotation 
 of crops, sell less off the farm and feed more 
 on it. In this way he will preserve for himself 
 more of his most valuable asset, the fertility of 
 the land. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. What is meant by a three-year rotation? 
 
 2. Outline a five-year rotation. 
 
 3. Which removes the greatest amount of fertility 
 value from the soil, oats or tobacco? 
 
 4. How do you dispose of your milk at home ? 
 
 5. What is done with the barnyard manure ? 
 
 C. What is done with the crop grown on the land ? 
 7. Can you suggest a better way to keep up the 
 fertility on the home farm? 
 
 LABORATORY PROBLEMS 
 
 XXVI. To Determine Whether "Souring" Has Any Effect 
 ON THE Fat Content of Milk ok Cream 
 
 Mix well a quantity of milk and sample into from 
 6 to 10 milk test bottles. Test two of the milk samples 
 at once. Allow the other samples to ''sour" for a 
 week or two. Test them in duplicate at intervals of two 
 weeks. Before adding the acid break up the curd by 
 shaking the bottle. If the sample is very dry, add a 
 few cubic centimeters of water. Add sulphuric acid 
 in small quantities of five to six centimeters at a time. 
 
 Compare results obtained with those obtained when 
 the fresh milk was tested. 
 
RELATION OF DAIRYING TO SOIL 179 
 
 LABORATORY PROBLEMS 
 
 XXVII. To Determi-ve the Specific Gravity of the Sulphuric 
 Acid Used 
 
 The specific gravity of sulphuric acid should be 1.82 
 to 1.83. It can be determined as follows: 
 
 a. Carefully weigh a perfectly dry, clean, 10 per 
 cent milk bottle. 
 
 b. Fill the bottle with clean water up to the zero 
 mark and w^eigh carefully. 
 
 c. Subtracting "a" from *'b" will give the weight 
 of the water. 
 
 d. After drying fill the same bottle with sulphuric 
 acid to the zero mark and weigh. 
 
 e. Subtracting ''a" from ''d" will give the weight 
 of the sulphuric acid. 
 
 f. Dividing the weight of the acid by the weight of 
 the water will give the specific gravity of the sulphuric 
 acid. 
 
 Note: If distilled water is available, it should be used in 
 these determinations. If such water is not available, then 
 good, clean v^^ater can be employed. Sensitive scales and accu- 
 rate weights are very essential to obtain accurate results. 
 
IgO PROFITABLE DAIRYING 
 
 LABORATORY PROBLEMS 
 
 XXIV. To Determine the Lactometer Readings and Fat 
 Content of Milk That Has Been Watered and Skimmed 
 
 1. Take samples that have been partially skimmed 
 and add small quantities of water until the lactometer 
 readings are approximately the same as those of the 
 original sample. 
 
 2. Determine the fat content of these three lots of 
 milk after they have been watered. 
 
 3. Judging from the results obtained, is it sufficient 
 to take the lactometer reading only in order to deter- 
 mine whether or not a certain milk has been either 
 watered or skimmed? 
 
 Note: The following may assist the student: 
 
 a. Normal per cent of fat (3.00 to 5.00 per cent) and a 
 normal reading (29.0 to 33.0) indicate normal milk. 
 
 b. Below normal in fat and high in lactometer reading 
 (above 33.0) indicate skimming. 
 
 c. Below normal in fat and low lactometer reading (below 
 29.0) indicate watering. 
 
 d. Below normal In fat and normal lactometer reading 
 (29.0 to 33.0) indicate both skimming and watering. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Babcock, Dr., 11. 
 Babcock Test, 11; 31-38. 
 Bacteria, 172. 
 Barn, The, 129-134. 
 Brown Swiss Cows, 43, 57. 
 Butter, Losses in, 63. 
 
 Profit in, 61, 62. 
 
 Ripened Cream, 119. 
 
 Sweet Cream, 118. 
 Butter Fat Test, 11. 
 
 Carbohydrates, 144, 145, 146. 
 
 Casein, 21. 
 
 Cheese, Making, 123-124. 
 
 Kinds of, 124. 
 Churning, 120. 
 Colantha 4th's Johanna, 61. 
 Colostrum, 20, 21. 
 Cows, Aberdeen Angus, 42. 
 
 Ayrshire, 16, 17, 55. 
 
 Beef type, 42. 
 
 Care of, 155-161. 
 
 Dairy type, 44. 
 
 Devon, 45. 
 
 Dual purpose type, 42, 57. 
 
 Galloway, 42. 
 
 Guernsey, 17, 53, 54. 
 
 Herefords, 42. 
 
 Holstein-Friesian, 17, 18, 51, 
 52, 53. 
 
 Jersey, 16, 17, 18, 50, 51. 
 
 Pure breeds, 49. 
 
 Red Polled, 43, 57. 
 
 Shorthorn, 17, 42, 43. 
 
 Sussex, 42. 
 
 Treatment of, 21, 156. 
 Cream, 31. 
 
 Care of, 105-107. 
 
 Disposing of, 111-113. 
 
 Separation of, 72-76; 78-82. 
 
 Standardizing, 113-116. 
 
 Variation in, 113. 
 
 Danish Experiments, 28. 
 
 Dehorning, 157. 
 
 Dexter, W. H., Professor, 171. 
 
 Ether Extract, 144, 145. 
 
 Fat, 17, 81. 
 
 Fat Globules, 16, 31, 32. 
 
 Losses of in Skim-milk, 73, 
 74, 75. 
 
 Variation of, 17, 19, 20. 
 Feed, 141-153. 
 
 Changing, 155. 
 
 Protein in, 144, 
 
 Rations, 141, 145, 147, 148. 
 
 Value of Fat in, 144. 
 Feeding after milking, 101. 
 
 Galloway Cows, 42. 
 
 Haecker Standard of Feeding, 
 
 148, 149, 150. 
 Hoard, Governor, 88. 
 Holstein-Friesian Cows, 17, 
 
 18, 51, 52, 53. 
 
 Jersey Cows, 16, 17, 18, 50, 51. 
 
 King System of Ventilation, 
 131-133. 
 
 Mammary Glands, 24. 
 Milk, A Food Product, 102. 
 
 An Economical Food, 13. 
 
 Care of, 100-107. 
 
 Cisterns, 25. 
 
 Composition of, 15-21; 27, 
 28 
 
 Disposing of, 109, 110. 
 
 Glands, 25. 
 
 Secretion of, 24-27. 
 
 Serum, 17. 
 
 181 
 
182 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Specific Gravity of, 15. 
 Sugar in, 21. 
 Milking, Time of, 19, 20. 
 Dry, 106. 
 Wet, 106. 
 
 Pooling System, 10. 
 Protein, 144, 145, 146. 
 
 Separation, 
 
 Centrifugal, 9, 72, 79, 80. 
 
 Dilution, 72, 74. 
 
 Gravity, 72, 73, 74. 
 Separator, Care of, 81, 82, 95, 
 96. 
 
 Farm, 78-82, 104. 
 Serum, 17. 
 
 Silage, As a Feed, 138. 
 Silo, 136-139. 
 
 Five Types of, 138. 
 Skim-milk, An Excellent 
 Food, 86. 
 
 For Feeding, 86-90. 
 
 Losses in, 73-75. 
 
 Value of, 86-90. 
 
 Soil, Relation of Dairying to, 
 171-178. 
 
 Temperature in Separation, 
 
 80. 
 Tests, Butter Fat, 11. 
 
 Babcock, 11. 
 
 Farm Herd, 61-67. 
 Tuberculosis, 162-168. 
 
 Prevention of, 164-168. 
 
 Spreading of, 162, 163. 
 
 Test for, 164-166. 
 
 Udder, 25, 26, 48, 102. 
 Utensils, Care of, 94-97. 
 Kind to use, 94. 
 
 Van Slyke, Professor, 19. 
 Ventilation, 129-134. 
 
 King System of, 131-133. 
 Vibration of Separator, 82. 
 
 Wedge Form of Cows, 44, 47. 
 Wolff-Lehmann Standardized 
 Rations, 143. 
 
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